>) 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 GS074 
 
 should have some knowledge or those tongues besides what books alone could furnish. He 
 accordingly spent nearly two years in the East in studying the rudiments of several Asiatic 
 languages, (with particular reference to their pronunciation,) including the Arabic, Persian, 
 Sanscrit, and Hindostanee. The time and labour thus bestowed, he feels persuaded, have not 
 been spent in vain. He has, in consequence of this preparation, not only been enabled to 
 proceed with a surer step in representing the pronunciation of Asiatic and African names, 
 but he has also in many instances, by referring to the name as written in Arabic or Sanscrit, 
 been enabled to correct errors of greater or less importance in the prevalent European spell- 
 ings of Oriental names. 
 
 Respecting the bibliographical references, it may be proper to remark that they are in 
 tended not so much to indicate the materials from which the preceding notice has bee ■ pie- 
 pared, as to point out to the reader the sources whence he can obtain fuller information. 
 The works referred to will be found generally, but not always, to contain all the materials 
 used in the composition of the article to which the references are appended. Occasionally 
 an isolated fact or circumstance of minor importance, but yet of sufficient interest to make it 
 worth stating, may have been obtained from some source deemed good authority, to which, 
 nevertheless, our plan, requiring the utmost condensation, would not admit of a special refer- 
 ence. Many of our facts, moreover, have been taken from the " Biographie Universelle," the 
 "N.ouvelle Biographie Gen^rale," Brockhaus's " Conversations-Lexikon," or other similar 
 works, when the article from which it is taken was too brief to make it worth while to 
 refer to it particularly. As a general rule, it has not been deemed expedient to make a 
 special reference to works like the above, unless the notice referred to extended to a pace 
 or more. This rule would, of course, preclude a reference in nearly all cases in which the 
 subject of our notice is of minor importance. It would, however, be an error to infer that 
 the omission of all references is intended as any indication of mediocrity in the subjects of 
 our articles, more especially in regard to living characters, since, as has been already inti- 
 mated, the materials for the biographies of living persons, however distinguished, are often 
 extremely meagre and defective. Nor would it be just to conclude that in all cases the 
 length of the different notices is designed to be a measure of the relative importance of the 
 individuals noticed, since he who has written many passable works may perhaps require a 
 longer notice than he who has produced a single work of superior merit. Other things 
 being equal, the man of action will almost of necessity occupy much more space than the 
 man of thought, although the latter may have perhaps far juster claims upon the esteem 
 and gratitude of mankind, and his glory may be as much more permanent as it is less daz- 
 zling, and less fitted to win the admiration of the unthinking and fickle multitude. 
 
 It may be observed also that considerably less space, relatively speaking, has generally 
 been allotted to living persons than to those who are deceased ; not merely because it is 
 often much more difficult to obtain the necessary information in regard to the living, but 
 more especially because it behooves us to speak with great circumspection, whether in the 
 way of praise or censure, of those whose earthly career is still unfinished, and whose future 
 conduct may possibly redeem the errors or throw discredit on the virtues of their past life.* 
 
 The subjects of the Hindoo and Norse Mythologies have been treated somewhat more fully 
 in proportion to their relative importance than those of Classic Mythology, for the simple 
 reason that while one can find almost everywhere excellent works relating to the last, there 
 exists scarcely any book of convenient reference to which the ordinary reader can have re- 
 course in order to satisfy his curiosity respecting the two former. 
 
 With respect to the relative length of the various articles there will of course be con- 
 siderable diversity of opinion among different readers, according to their respective pursuits 
 and habits of thought. We are not, however, without hopes that the majority of candid 
 
 * Voltaire has well remarked : " On doit des e^ards aux vivants ; on ne doit aux morts que la veVite'" — (" We owe 
 consideration to the living ; to the dead we owe only truth.") This consideration for the living was, indeed, formerly 
 deemed so important that, until the last half century, all works of reference of this kind systematically excluded the 
 biographies of living persons, however illustrious ; thus rejecting the very class in which perhaps a large majority 
 of readers feel the deepest interest. 
 
 i ix 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 critics will admit that on the whole the space allotted to each notice has been apportioned 
 with a fair measure of justice and impartiality. Those who are familiar with works of this 
 kind cannot fail to have remarked that certain principles of perspective, so to speak, prevail 
 in history and biography as well as in the arts of design. No French historian or biographer 
 would treat the events or the actors of English history with the same fulness or minuteness 
 that an English writer would naturally employ in describing the same occurrences or per- 
 sons. The same general remark, mutatis mutandis, will apply with equal truth to English, 
 German, or Italian writers of history and biography. As events are magnified in importance 
 by nearness of place, they are in like manner modified by nearness of time. Although the 
 author of the present work has felt himself justified in following principles so universally 
 recognized, and has accordingly given a greater prominence to the distinguished men of his 
 own country, and to those of recent times, than to individuals equally eminent among other 
 nations or living in a remote age, it has been his earnest aim not to allow this libertv to 
 degenerate into license. In regard to this and all similar questions respecting which there 
 are no clearly defined rules or authoritative precedents by which his course could be surely 
 guided, he feels that he may safely rely on the candour and intelligence of his critics, since 
 those whose opinion is most to be valued or feared will be most capable of appreciating the 
 inherent difficulties as well as the extraordinary labour involved in the preparation of such 
 a work. 
 
 To the following works on general biography we have been under especial obligations in 
 the preparation of this Dictionary : 
 
 i. Miciiaud's "Biographie Universelle," of which the first edition, (the publication of 
 which was begun in Paris in 1S10,) with the supplement, has extended to nearly ninety vol 
 times Svo, and has included among its contributors many of the most distinguished names in 
 French literature and science ; e.g., those of Biot, Cuvier, De Sacy, Guizot, Sismondi, 
 Madame de Stael, Vii.lemain, etc. 
 
 2. The " Nouvelle Biographie Generale," edited by Dr. J. C. F. Hoefer, and published 
 at Paris by Messrs. F. Didot Freres in forty-six volumes Svo, (1857-1866.) This is one of 
 the most valuable works on general biography to be found in any language. That portion 
 embracing the first twelve letters of the alphabet {i.e., from A to M, inclusive) exceeds in 
 completeness every other publication of the kind of which we have any knowledge. If 
 inferior to the " Biographie Universelle " in the length and fulness of many of the memoirs, 
 it greatly surpasses that work in the number of its biographical notices ; and it possesses 
 two important additional recommendations — first, of including the living as well as the dead, 
 and, secondly, of giving the reader valuable bibliographic information under almost every 
 article. 
 
 3. Brockhaus's "Conversations-Lexikon," in 16 volumes large Svo, (Leipsic, 1S51-1S55,) 
 which is especially full in regard to the distinguished men of the present century, and par- 
 ticularly those of Germany ; also the annual continuation of that work, entitled " Jahrbuch 
 Bum Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 4. Pierer's "Universal-Lexikon," in 19 volumes, fourth (last) edition, greatly enlarged, 
 (Altenburg, 1S57-1S65.) 
 
 5. Vapsreau's " Dictionnaire des Contemporains," (185S et se#.,) important for the 
 information it gives respecting living persons. 
 
 6. Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyclopadie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste," 
 [45 vols. 410, (Leipsic, 181S-1S69.) This great work has numbered among its contributors 
 several of the most eminent literary and scientific men of Germany. 
 
 Nor must we omit to notice, among the important works of general reference, the " Critical 
 Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors," by S. Austin 
 Allibone, to be completed in three volumes imperial Svo, of which two volumes 
 (1S58-1870, pp. 2326) have already appeared ; and the " Dictionary of the United States Con- 
 gress and the General Government, compiled as a Book of Reference for the American 
 People," by Charles Lanman, (6th edition, 1869.'' 
 
 X 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 We have already in our Preface spoken in general terms of the system of pronunciation and 
 orthography adopted in the present work. It is proposed in this introductory portion to oner, 
 in support of the plan that we have thought proper to pursue, some additional arguments and 
 observations, which will be followed by an explanation of the general principles of pronunciation 
 of each of the more important European and Asiatic languages. 
 
 True, Scott says " Panama ;" but, at the time when he 
 wrote, very few persons, even in the United States, were 
 acquainted with the correct accentuation of that name. 
 Some of our old poets also mispronounced Niagara, 
 Goldsmith says, 
 
 It is interesting to observe that the practice of nearly 
 all our distinguished poets, but more particularly of those 
 of the present century, goes to support the system of 
 pronunciation which we have adopted ; that is, they 
 almost invariably follow the native accentuation of proper 
 names,— even where this is very irregular, — except in 
 the case of those few well-known names which have 
 acquired an established English pronunciation, as Cal- 
 vin, Cortez, Kosciusko, etc. As the principles of 
 geographical pronunciation are precisely the same as 
 those of the names of persons, and as geographical names 
 very often form a part either of the surnames or titles 
 of distinguished men, we may without impropriety cite, 
 in order to prove our position, either the names of places 
 or of persons occurring in the works of the poets. It is 
 indeed the more necessary that we should be allowed the 
 liberty of doing so, since names of irregular accentuation 
 are, comparatively speaking, of rare occurrence. We 
 have spoken particularly of accentuation, because, in a 
 large majority of cases, that is all that can be determined 
 from the usage of the poets. It is scarcely necessary 
 to remind the classical reader that the misaccentuation 
 of Latin or Greek names is justly considered an inex- 
 cusable fault in an educated poet. We will endeavour 
 to show that our best poets are not less punctilious in 
 the pronunciation of modem names. That they should 
 accentuate correctly such names as Granada, Bologna, 
 Ravenna, etc. is nothing .surprising, since the easiest 
 and most natural accentuation is also the correct one ; 
 but that they should be scrupulously exact in the pro- 
 nunciation of names in which the accent is placed irregu- 
 lar;-, is more remarkable. It may be affirmed without 
 fear of contradiction that in all the poetry of Byron, 
 Moore, Rogers, Southey, Scott — and, we may per- 
 haps add, of any other distinguished poet of the present 
 century — scarcely a solitary instance can be pointed out 
 of the misaccentuation of a name of which the poet had 
 any opportunity of knowing the correct pronunciation.* 
 
 * The only exception to this rule, if we mistake not, occurs in 
 French names, which, as the accent rests equally (or nearly so) on 
 all the syllables, cannot readily be adjusted to the metre of English 
 verse, in which case the poet usually places the accent according 
 to the general rule of English pronunciation, — that is, on the penul- 
 tima or antepenultima, very rarely on the last syllable. In the pro- 
 nunciation of foreign names that have become thoroughly anglicized, 
 It is interesting to observe the tendency of our language to throw the 
 •ccent as far as possible from the termination: e.g. Mil'an, (It. 
 
 M Where wild Oswego spreads her swamps around, 
 And Niagara sfuns with thundering sound, "t 
 
 The Traveller. 
 
 But this is to be explained simply by the fact that he had 
 no means of learning the true pronunciation, and therefore 
 he accentuated the name in the manner which appeared 
 to him the most easy or most natural. It is worthy of 
 remark that the only English poet of note who had an 
 opportunity of ascertaining the true pronunciation of the 
 name of the great cataract is the only one (so far as we 
 are aware) who has pronounced that name correctly. 
 We have heard it asserted that MooRE also-, using a 
 " poet's license," has placed the accent on the penultima ; 
 but any one, we feel sure, who will read his Terse atten- 
 tively, willsee that he always gives the correct pronuncia- 
 tion. The name occurs several times in his poems, but 
 the following passage shows his accentuation sav dearly 
 as to leave no room for doubt or equivocation : 
 
 ' " I could fancy almost he and I were a pair 
 
 Of unhappy young lovers, who thus, side by side, 
 Were taking, instead of rope, pistol, or dagger, a 
 Desperate dash down the falls of Niagara." 
 
 Fudge Family in Paris, Letter V. 
 
 The following are a few examples illustrating the usage 
 of eminent English poets respecting foreign names of 
 irregular accentuation : 
 
 "Lerma *the generous,' Av'ila ' the proud.' " 
 
 Rogkrs: Voyage of Columbus. 
 "So acted to the life, as Maurice might 
 And SpInola have blushed at the sight." 
 
 Ben Jonson: Underwoods, 
 (vol. viii. p. 417 of Gifford's edition, London, 1S16.) 
 
 MilAno or Milan,) Tyr'ol, (Ger. Tyr6l,) etc. Hanover, which 
 might be pronounced with the native accentuation (Han6ver) without 
 the slightest offence to the genius of our tongue, (for we have a 
 multitude of words similar in accent, as devotion, promoter, etc.,) 
 has become irrecoverably Han'over. Thus, also, we pronounce 
 Andalu'sia, (in Spanish, Andalucia,) Ar'agon, (in Spanish, Ara- 
 gon',) etc 
 
 t Many persons suppose that Niagara corresponds in accentuation 
 with the old Indian name : but this, we have reason to believe, is an 
 error: the Indians pronounce the name very much as the French 
 pronounce it, — Ne'a'ga'ra'. 
 
 s 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 "And strangers were received by thee, 
 Of C6kdova the chivalry." 
 
 Byron : Translation of a Spanish Ballad 
 on the Conquest o/Alhama. 
 
 " The regal seat 
 Of Abdalazis, ancient C6kdoba." 
 
 "Till they saw 
 The temples and the towers of C6rdoba 
 Shining majestic in the light of eve." 
 
 Southey : Roderick, book v. 
 
 " How quick they carved their victims, and how well. 
 Let Saxony, let injured Genoa tell." 
 
 Moose. 
 
 " Remember the moment when Prevesa fell. 
 The shrieks of the conquered, the conquerors' yell." 
 
 Byron : Childe Harold, canto ii. 
 
 "Unseen is YAnina, though not remote." 
 
 Childe Harold, canto ii. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no class of names whose accentua- 
 tion seems more foreign to an English ear than those 
 ending in ia with the accent on the penultima. Yet 
 even in such cases the poets conform to the native pro- 
 nunciation : 
 
 " Sustained by thoughts like these, from morn till eve 
 He journeyed, and drew near LeyrU's walls." 
 
 Southey: Roderick, book iii. 
 
 " And now appear, as on a phosphor sea, 
 Numberless barks from Mil'an, from Pav(a." 
 
 Rogers : Italy, Part i., yu. 
 
 Among the principal languages of continental Europe, 
 
 the German, in its accent and in the metre of its verse, 
 has perhaps the nearest affinity to the English ; and it 
 is worthy of remark that precisely the same general 
 usage prevails with respect to foreign names in German 
 poetry as in that of our own tongue. Any one may 
 satisfy himself of the correctness of this statement if 
 he will consult the poems of Schiller, who seems to have 
 had occasion to use foreign names far more frequently 
 than almost any other German poet. In his drama of 
 " Don Carlos," Madrid occurs nearly twenty times, and 
 always with the accent on the last syllable. This one 
 fact (even were there no other) may show how sparingly 
 the "poetical license," so often alluded to, is used by 
 perhaps the most careless in versification of all the great 
 poets of Germany. MlRANDOLA (a town in Italy) occurs 
 twice, and in both instances has the accent on the ante- 
 penultima : 
 
 "Zwei edle Hauser in MirAndola." 
 "Eilt nach MirXndola der Trunkene." 
 
 Act i. Scene 3. 
 
 This is the more remarkable because Mirandoi.a is an 
 exception to the general rule of Italian pronunciation, 
 which places the accent on the penultima of words end- 
 ing in a vowel. 
 
 The name of the famous Princess of Ebot.1 occurs a 
 great number of times, and invariably with the correct 
 accentuation, — that is, with the accent on the antepenul- 
 tima, although this is contrary to the general rule both 
 of Spanish and Italian pronunciation. The following 
 lines will suffice to show Schiller's accentuation : 
 " Ich hoffe meine Eb'ou denkt anders." 
 " Prinzessin Eb'ou, sie haben uns 
 
 Noch nicht gesagt ob Gomez hoffen darf." 
 "Wir wollen wissen, ob er lieben kann, 
 TJnd Liebe kann verdienen, — Eb'oli? 
 
 Don Carlos, Act i. Scene 3. 
 "Der Furstin Eb'oli die Hand zu reichen." 
 
 Act ii. Scene 8. 
 
 6 
 
 " Das lang' entbehrte Gliick verscliafft, der Fiirstin 
 Von Eb'oli mich wiederum zu nahern." 
 
 Act ii. Scene 11. 
 
 If our poet is not equally correct in regard to AL- 
 calA, (a small town of Spain,) it was owing, doubtless, 
 either to the difficulty of making such a name " lie 
 smooth in rhyme," or to his being ignorant of its true 
 accentuation. The latter is by no means improbable, 
 inasmuch as the Spanish language is far less studied by 
 the generality of European scholars than the Italian. 
 That it was not the result of carelessness is shown by 
 the fact that Alcala is always pronounced in the poem 
 in the same manner, and according to the general rule of 
 Spanish accentuation ; that is, with the accent on the 
 penultima. It may be remarked, however, that Schiller 
 places the accent on the last syllable of Paris, Saint- 
 Denis, and Saini Ql'i.nitn,* — in all of which he differs 
 from the English and conforms to the French accentua- 
 tion. (See " Remarks on the French Accent," page 13.) 
 But perhaps the most remarkable illustration of this 
 tendency to adopt the native pronunciation of foreign 
 names is found in his drama of " Mary Stuart ;" where 
 the poet, with the obvious intention of obliging his 
 countrymen to pronounce the English names correctly, 
 invariably in his verse spells Leicester " Lester," 
 although in the explanatory (prose) parts of the play he 
 as invariably writes it " Leicester," as we do in English. 
 For the same reason, doubtless, he writes Boi.eyn 
 " Boui.en," that his countrymen might pronounce the 
 name Boo'len, nearly as it is spoken in England. Had 
 he written it Boleyn, the Germans might have placed 
 the accent on the last syllable, as we often hear it pro- 
 nounced in the United States. 
 
 The accentuation of names occurring in poetry, as 
 already intimated, can readily be determined by the 
 metre ; but the manner in which the poets pronounced 
 the letters of a foreign name cannot be so easily ascer- 
 tained, since it can be known only when the name ends 
 aline in rhyme ; and even then it is often extremely un- 
 certain, as they appear to consider themselves entitled, 
 in such cases, to much greater license than in the ac- 
 centuation of words. Thus, we often see associated, in 
 rhyme, words which correspond very imperfectly in 
 sound, as enemy and /;'.', mourn and burn, etc. Never- 
 theless, by comparing a number of passages, especially 
 of those poets who are mosl remarkable for the cor- 
 rectness of their rhymes, we shall often be enabled to 
 ascertain the true pronunciation of a word or name. 
 
 Now, it will be found that the system which we have 
 adopted is supported by the practice of the poets in this 
 respect also. In other words, it will be found that, while 
 foreign names that are very commonly used in our lan- 
 guage have an English pronunciation, those not very well 
 knovm are generally pronounced with the foreign sound of 
 the letters, as will be seen from the following passages : 
 
 " ' 'Tis Jacqueline ! 'tis Jacqueline f 
 Her little brother laughing cried : 
 ' I know her by her kirtle green. 
 
 She comes along the mountain side.' " 
 " Not now to while an hour away. 
 Gone to the falls in Valombri." 
 " De Courcy, lord of A rgentiere ! 
 
 Thy thirst for vengeance sought the snare." — Rogers. 
 
 •The two former names occur in "The Maid of Orleans," ("Dit 
 Jnngfrau von Orleans,") the last in " Don Carlos." 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " Winding between Alpine trees, 
 Spiry and dark around their house of prayer, 
 Below the icy bed of bright Argentiire." — Wordsworth. 
 
 " This circumstance may serve to give a notion 
 Of the high talents of this new Vauban ;* 
 But the town-ditch below was deep as ocean, 
 The rampart higher than you'd wish to hang." — Byron. 
 
 " For many an age remember'd long 
 Shall live the towers of Hougomont* 
 
 And fields of Waterloo." — Scott. 
 
 Un the other hand, we shall find the poets pronounce 
 foreign names of some celebrity with the English sound 
 of the letters, as may be seen from these and similar 
 examples : 
 
 " Oh, never talk again to me 
 
 Of northern climes and British ladies ; 
 1 1 has not been your lot to see, 
 Like me, the lovely girl of Cadiz" — Byron. 
 M And Courtenay's pride and Percy's fame 
 Blazed broader yet in nher-years, 
 At Cressy red and fell Poiiiers." — Scott. 
 
 "So the shaft 
 Of victory mounts high, and blood is quafTd 
 In fields that rival Cressy and Poictiers, — 
 Pride to be wash'd away by bitter tears." — Wordsworth. 
 
 Not unfrequently the poets will be found to give the 
 correct pronunciation of names even when this differs 
 essentially from the popular usage. Thus, Halleck says, 
 
 " Bom in a camp, its watchfires bright 
 
 Alone illumed my cradle-bed, 
 
 And I had borne witJi wild delight 
 
 My banner where Boli'var led." — Magdalen. 
 
 The pronunciation of the name of Coke, the celebrated 
 lawyer and statesman, is almost always given correctly 
 (kook) by the poets, although this does not correspond 
 with the usual spelling.t In proof of this we may, out 
 of a multitude of examples, cite the following: 
 
 "May he 
 Be by his father in his study look 
 At Shakespeare's plays instead of my Lord Coke" 
 
 See "A Poetical Revenge," in Cowley's Miscellanies. 
 
 " And said she must consult her books. 
 The lover's Fletas, Bractons, Cokes." 
 
 Swift: Cadenus and Vanessa. 
 
 "Also observe that, like the great Lord Coke, 
 (See Littleton,) whene'er I have expressed 
 Opinions two which at first sight may look 
 Twin opposites, the second is the best." 
 
 Byron: Don yuan, canto xv. stanza IxxxviL 
 
 The name of Bolingbroke is almost always pronounced 
 correctly (BolingbrSok) by the poets. The following 
 example, out of several occurring in the same poem, 
 may serve as an illustration : 
 
 "What hope have you that ever Bolingbroke 
 Will live a subject that hath tried his fate? 
 Or what good reconcilement can you look. 
 
 When he must always fear and you must hate ?" 
 
 T>aniei. : History of the Civil War, book ii. stanza xxxv. 
 
 * In these names the letter n is similar in sound to ng. The 
 rhymes, however, are not perfect : the o in the last syllable of Hougo- 
 mont should be sounded like o in won't, but the final / is silent. 
 The final syllable of Vauban sounds almost like b&ng. 
 
 t We say usual spelling, because in Coke's own time it was not 
 unfrequently written Cook. " In the reigns of Elizabeth and James 
 I., Sir Edward's name was frequently spelt Cook. Lady Hatton, his 
 second wife, who would not assume it, adopted this spelling in writing 
 to him, and according to this spelling it has invariably been pro- 
 nounced." (See Lord Campbell's " Lives of the Chief Justices," 
 vol. i. chap, vii.) 
 
 There is one difficulty in carrying out the system of 
 foreign pronunciation adoj ted by us, which it may be 
 proper to notice here, viz., that of drawing the lines be- 
 tween foreign names which are, and those which are not, 
 well known. With respect to the more obvious in each 
 division there cannot be the slightest hesitation ; but the 
 two classes meet and pass into each other by impercepti- 
 ble gradations, so that sometimes the question whether 
 they should be pronounced according to the foreign ot 
 the English mode can be settled only by arbitrary decis- 
 ion. In these doubtful instances we have spared no pains 
 to ascertain the prevailing^ practice of the best speakers, 
 as well as the usage of the poets: when these have been 
 found unsatisfactory, nothing has remained for us but to 
 decide according to the best of our ability. We have in 
 these cases usually given both pronunciations, placing 
 that first which, in our judgment, is to be preferred. 
 
 In those cases where it is impossible to express accu- 
 rately the sounds of other languages by English letters, 
 we have endeavoured to employ a mode of indicating 
 those sounds which, if it does not afford any effectual 
 assistance to the mere English scholar, may at least be 
 in no danger of embarrassing or leading him astray. 
 Thus, we have represented the sound of the German ch 
 by K, distinguished by being a small capital. Perhaps 
 a strongly aspirated h — which might be indicated by hh 
 — would convey a nearer idea of the German sound ; 
 but it seems less eligible than the other mode, both be- 
 cause persons might differ in the pronunciation of it or 
 perhaps be at a loss to pronounce it at all, and because 
 the established mode of anglicizing the German ch seems 
 to be to change its sound to that of i, as in the instances 
 Blucher,! Blumenbach, Metteknich, etc. The 
 Scottish and Dutch sounds of ch, so similar to the Ger- 
 man, when anglicized, assume invariably, if we mistake 
 not, the sound of k. The ordinary mode of pronouncing 
 the Greek x tends to the same result. We have not, 
 however, represented the sound of the German g, at the 
 end of a syllable, in the same manner as the ch, though it 
 has nearly the same sound, because it is not customary to 
 anglicize it by the sound of k, except in a few instances. § 
 Were the pronunciation of such a word as berg repre- 
 sented by berK, the effect would be to lead the Eng- 
 lish scholar to pronounce it differently from the ordinary 
 mode, while he would be in no respect nearer the 
 German than those who pronounce the word according 
 to the English sound of the letters. Another considera- 
 tion may, perhaps, be allowed to have some weight, 
 viz., that though the more approved mode of German 
 pronunciation requires that^, when it does not begin a 
 word, should be pronounced nearly like eh, yet in some 
 parts of Germany it is pronounced in every case \ike g 
 hard in English. In a similar manner, and for similar 
 reasons, we have usually represented the German w by a 
 
 t Although in America we very frequently hear this name pro- 
 nounced Blu'tcherby intelligent speakers, the ch should unquestior. 
 ably be hard, as is indicated by the following passage from Moore's 
 " Fudce Family in Paris :" 
 
 "A fine sahow sublime sort of Werter-faced man. 
 With mustachios that gave (wSat we read of so oft) 
 The dear Corsair expression, half savage, half soft; 
 As hyenas in love may be fancied to look, or 
 A something between Abelard and old Blucher." 
 § Dantzic or Dantzick, (German, Danzig.) Leipsic or Leip- 
 sick, (German, Leipzig,) Si.eswick, (German, Schleswig; Danish. 
 Slesi/ig,) are the only examples that we now recollect. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 w, and not by a v, though this is nearer the sound of the 
 German letter. 
 
 With regard to French names, however, a different 
 plan has been pursued, both because it is less easy, so 
 to speak, to anglicize the French letters, and because, 
 from the circumstance of this being far more studied 
 than any other foreign language, it is much more usual 
 for English or American speakers to adopt all the pecu- 
 liar sounds in pronouncing French words or names. 
 
 ARABIC. 
 I. 
 
 The Arabic belongs to what is called the Semitic* 
 family of languages, and is nearly related to the Hebrew, 
 which it resembles not only in its general grammatical 
 structure, but also in the form of many of its individual 
 words. Of all the Semitic family it is by far the richest 
 in its literature and the most copious in its vocabulary. 
 Like the Hebrew, it is written from right to left. It 
 belongs to the class referred to in the Preface (p. vi.) as 
 " neither written in Roman letters nor in characters 
 which can be converted into corresponding Roman let- 
 ters ;" it is therefore customary for Europeans in giving 
 Arabic words or names to spell them according to the 
 sound, the writers of the different nations seeking to 
 indicate the pronunciation in the manner which to them 
 seems most proper. In order to be able to point out 
 more clearly the causes of the diversity which prevails 
 among European writers respecting the manner of rep- 
 resenting the sounds of the Arabic tongue, and for other 
 reasons, we have deemed it proper to present to the 
 reader a table of the Arabic characters, accompanied by 
 such explanations as seemed necessary for our purpose. 
 
 The Arabic alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, 
 as follows : 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 S £ 
 
 i i i m 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 4- 
 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 7- 
 8. 
 9- 
 
 Z 
 
 Cv 
 
 LA. 
 
 1 
 J 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 ba, 
 tl 
 tha. 
 
 jeem or jim. 
 Hi 
 
 kha. 
 dal. 
 dhal. 
 
 Power. 
 
 b. 
 t 
 th. 
 
 J- 
 
 H. 
 
 kh. 
 
 d. 
 
 dh. 
 
 io. jt J 
 
 3 ) ra. r. 
 
 J j it z. 
 
 12. \j» \j^ *>■ *" seen or stn, s. 
 
 '3- <J" U**- *^ """ sheen or shin, sh. 
 
 14. ^JO i>i *a *3 sSd, s or ss. 
 
 15. tjc t<o. *ia Xs dsad, ds or dh. 
 
 16. J; jj L J: * * 
 
 17. Jb Ji h b dza * dzordh. 
 
 * I.e. Shemitic, — a term derived from Shem, the son of Noah. 
 t The letters thus marked ought never, according to the rules of 
 Arabic orthography, to be connected with those that follow them. 
 
 8 
 
 
 PG 
 
 •r -> 
 
 i « 
 
 < 
 
 5 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 s* 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 
 18. 
 
 t 
 
 p 
 
 Jt 
 
 £ 
 
 19- 
 
 t 
 
 £ 
 
 A 
 
 £ 
 
 20. 
 
 
 
 ^A 
 
 & 
 
 4 
 
 II. 
 
 vJJ 
 
 o>. 
 
 ft 
 
 s 
 
 22. 
 
 m5 
 
 oX 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 23- 
 
 J 
 
 J. 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 24. 
 
 * 
 
 y 
 
 <*> 
 
 <* 
 
 *5- 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 A 
 
 J 
 
 26. 
 
 *i 
 
 y 
 
 J- 
 
 5 
 
 27. 
 
 S 
 
 it, 
 
 « 
 
 S> 
 
 28. 
 
 1 5 
 
 t* 
 
 A 
 
 a 
 
 Name. 
 
 Power. 
 
 ain, (3'in or in,) J 
 ghain,(gi'morcin,)} 
 fa, f. 
 
 kaf, k. 
 
 kaf, k. 
 
 lam, 1. 
 
 meem or mim, m. 
 
 noon or nun, n. 
 
 waw, w. 
 
 ha, h. 
 
 A y- 
 
 In the Persian, (and Hindostanee,) besides the fore, 
 going, the following four additional characters are used 1 
 Unconnected. Final Connected. Medial. Initial. Power. 
 St* ^ * t P- 
 
 
 ^ 
 ? 
 
 ch. 
 zh. 
 g- 
 
 j 5 
 
 .£» ^ 
 
 (See Section XIV.) 
 
 1. \ at the beginning of a word is sounded variously, 
 according to the vowel-points placed upon it, (see 31 of 
 this section ;) in the middle of a word it is sounded as a 
 long a, as in v-jLj (tdi,) a gate. 
 
 2. i_J sounds like * in English. 
 
 3. o has the sound of the Spanish /. (See XIX. 17.) 
 
 4. cy sounds like our th in thin, or the Spanish ». 
 J[^"In Persian and Hindostanee it has the sound of /. 
 
 5. _ is usually pronounced like the English/ though 
 in some dialects it has the sound of g hard. 
 
 6. T sounds nearly like the Spanish / or *, (see 
 XIX. 9,) but it is formed lower in the throat. 
 
 7 -z 
 
 sounds like the German ch in ach, doch, etc. 
 
 It is commonly represented in the French and English 
 languages by kh, and in the German by ch. 
 
 8. 3 nearly resembles the English d in sound, but, 
 in pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue is placed against 
 the teeth. It bears the same relation to our (/that the 
 Spanish / does to our /. 
 
 9. O has no exact equivalent in any European lan- 
 guage, though it nearly resembles the sound of our th in 
 thy. It is often represented by dh, and sometimes by ds, 
 dhs, or simple d. jry In Persian and Hindostanee it 
 takes the sound of z. 
 
 10. , sounds like the French or Italian r, or like rr in 
 the English word terror. 
 
 11.; has the sound of our z. 
 
 12. (j* sounds like our s in this. 
 
 13. iji is like the English sh. 
 
 14. (jo sounds nearly like the English sharp s; but, 
 
 X These letters have in sound nothing like them in English. (Se« 
 18 and 19 of this section.) 
 
 § Written, also, £=3. I Written, also, iiO 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 in pronouncing it, the teeth are not brought so nearly 
 into contact. It is often represented by It, or by c. 
 
 15. ijP has no equivalent in any European language. 
 It is variously represented by dz, dh, dd, and ds. JC^™" This 
 letter, in Persian and Hindostanee, takes the sound ofz. 
 
 16. _b is in sound nearly like the English /, but is 
 pronounced somewhat harder. It is variously repre- 
 sented by /, tt, and th.* 
 
 17. Ja has a sound somewhat similar to (j». It can- 
 not be indicated by any English letter or combination of 
 letters ; it is, however, usually represented by dh or dth. 
 2®"" It is pronounced like 2 in Persian and Hindostanee. 
 
 18. £ has no exact equivalent in any European tongue. 
 It nearly corresponds to the Hebrew J?- In the hiatus pro- 
 duced in uttering a — a in quick succession, we make a 
 sound very similar to the Arabic ain, but the latter is 
 formed lower in the throat. 
 
 19. t has no equivalent in English. It bears nearly 
 the same relation to hard g that kh (K) does to k. It is 
 sometimes represented by^-, but more frequently by gh, 
 at least by French and English Orientalists. 
 
 20. ^_J has the sound of ourf 
 
 21. ^j5 is similar to our h, but is formed lower in the 
 throat. There seems to be a sort of aspirate mixed with 
 the sound of k. It is sometimes represented by i, (with 
 a dot under it,) and sometimes by q. 
 
 22. u> in sound is exactly like our k. 
 
 23. J is like the English /. 
 
 24. f> is pronounced like our m. 
 
 25. q is in sound like the English «. 
 
 26. j, as a vowel, is equivalent to 66 or u ; as a con- 
 sonant, it sounds like the English w or v. 
 
 27. s sounds like our h; when final, it is nearly silent. 
 
 28. ^s, as a vowel, sounds like ee or t, in which case 
 a kasra is implied or expressed ; as a consonant, like y. 
 In the middle of a word the sound of ^5 may be doubled 
 by means of the tashdeed, which, in writing, is often 
 omitted. Preceded by fatha, (see below,) this letter as- 
 sumes the sound of our long 1, and is represented by ai. 
 
 29. All the foregoing characters are regarded by Arab 
 grammarians as consonants. I has been compared to 
 the soft breathing (spiritus lenis) of the Greeks ; c is 
 a similar breathing, though the place of its formation is 
 lower in the throat. 
 
 30. The true vowels are three. They are called — 1. 
 Fat' ha, (a ;t) 2. Kas'ra, (/', sometimes <?;) and 3. Dham- 
 ma,\ (00 or «.§) Fatha is written thus— over the con- 
 sonant to which it belongs; kasra is placed beneath its 
 consonant, thus-^; dhamma (which is in fact a minute 5) 
 is written over its consonant, thus,—. These vowels 
 are always joined to the consonant which in pronuncia- 
 tion precedes them : thus, in .Ji, (kalam,) a " reed" or 
 " pen," the first fatha is considered to belong to the kdf 
 over which it is placed, the second to the /dm, (not to 
 
 • In such cases th is not intended to indicate a sound like that 
 of the English th or the Greek 6, but rather a sound similar to that 
 of the Hindoo th. (See XVIII. 6.) 
 
 t Often represented by e, and sometimes (in English) by u short. 
 (See IX. 3, and XIII. 3.) 
 
 X Pronounced by the Persians zam'ma. 
 
 § Often represented by o, as iu the case of Mohammed, (see 32 of 
 this section.) 
 
 the meem which comes after it;) and so in all similar 
 cases: itfollowsthatnovowelcanstandbyitself.il Hence, 
 if we wish to write an initial short fatha, it must be as- 
 sociated either with a/if or ain, as «A>i, (ahad,) a 
 "unit,"_^ic, (am,) "forgiveness." If we would write 
 a short initial kasra or dhamma, we must begin the word 
 in the same manner: e.g. .»jj, (Tb'n,) a "son," ^l-^> 
 (ibad,) " servants," v_«\ (uf 0/ oof,) "fie!" .^jc, (ubQr 
 or ooboor,) a "passage" or "crossing." 
 
 31. As a general rule, if any one of the simple vowels 
 is joined to an ordinary consonant, or to an initial alif 
 or ain, it is short, as will be seen from the previous 
 examples ; but if in any syllable not initial they are 
 joined with any of the (so-called) consonants (a/if, ain, 
 waw, etc.) to which they naturally correspond, they 'be- 
 come long: for example, fatha with a/if or ain gives us 
 the sound of d, as *_Aj, (bab,) a "gate," >A*J, (bid or 
 ba-ad,) " after :" so kasra with yd gives the sound of /, 
 (or ee,) as o*.~, (seen or sin,) the name of the letter . »»; 
 so also dhamma with waw gives the sound of & or 
 66, as ^y, (nun or noon,) the name of the letter .... It 
 should be observed that the fatha or dhamma is not 
 written on the a/if or waw, nor the kasra under the yd, 
 but is joined to the previous consonant, the semi-con- 
 sonants coming after, for the sole purpose, it would seem, 
 of prolonging the vowel.T In order to indicate the sound 
 of d at the beginning of a word, it is usual to place a 
 circumflex over the a/if — thus, \. The initial long i (lor 
 ee) is represented by jj, and long u (u or 00) by y. 
 
 32. The vowels are not usually written in Arabic 
 manuscripts, and they are scarcely needed by the native 
 Arabs who already know the language ; but they are 
 of great utility to foreigners in learning Arabic. The 
 same may be said of the jazm or jezm, («,) a mark placed 
 upon a consonant to show that it has no vowel following 
 it, as Oijj'. (azrak, " blue," which without the jazm might 
 be pronounced azarak,) and the tashdeed or tashdid, (-,) 
 placed on a consonant to show that it must be doubled 
 in pronunciation ; as l\»^Oo, (Mohammed.) 
 
 33. It is proper to observe that when the Arabic 
 article a/ or el is followed by certain letters it changes 
 its sound to that of the letter following : thus, el-Deen 
 becomes ed-Deen; el-Dowlah, ed-Do7v/ah; a/Rahman 
 or e/-Rahman, ar-Rahman or er-Rahman ; a/- Temeemee, 
 at-Temeemee ; and so on. (See XIII. 4.) 
 
 REMARKS ON ARABIC PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 When any of the long vowels (see 31 of this section) 
 occur in the final syllable of a word or name ending in 
 a consonant, that syllable always takes the accent accord- 
 ing to the common European signification of this term. 
 
 Some eminent grammarians lay it down as a rule that 
 the accent in Arabic never falls on the last syllable ; but 
 this rule proceeds on the supposition that the final syl- 
 lable is short. Or, if it be meant to apply to all syllables, 
 long as well as short, the term " accent" cannot be under- 
 stood in the sense in which it is used by most European 
 
 II It may be remarked as an apparent exception to this rule that 
 Ibn, "son," is often written simply ..J (in ;) but this is usually to 
 be considered as an abbreviation for ,. ji', though ben or bin is 
 not unfrequently used instead of the longer form ibn. 
 
 H The long vowels in Arabic are to be pronounced very full and 
 long,~particularIy the long a, which is not only longer but sensibly 
 broader than our a m/ar. (See XIV. 4.) 
 
 ^ 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 nations. In support of our position, we may cite, as a 
 pracljcal argument of great force, the fact that when an 
 Arabic word ending in a consonant, preceded by a long 
 . vowel, is adopted into any European language, it takes 
 the accent on the final syllable: thus, Wady-al- Kebir be- 
 comes in Spanish Guadalquivir, Al- Mansoor becomes Al- 
 mansor, and so on. Nor can it be said that this ultimate 
 accent is due to the tendency of the Spanish language 
 to throw the accent on the last syllable ; for Almodovar, 
 derived from the Arabic Al-Mod/w/cr, (which, like Al- 
 Mansoor, signifies " the Victorious,") is in its Spanish 
 form accentuated precisely as in the Arabic, — that is, 
 on the penultima. If an Englishman who should hear 
 a native Arab pronounce the word kebir, "great," or 
 ketliir, " much," should be told, by one who had any 
 knowledge of the subject, that the first and not the last 
 syllable was accentuated, he could come to no other 
 conclusion than that in the mind of the speaker accent 
 had a totally different meaning from what it has in Eng- 
 lish and in most other European tongues. In Hammer- 
 Purgstall's great work on the literature of the Arabs, 
 he translates into German verse many thousand lines 
 from the Arabian poets, and he invariably, if we are not 
 mistaken, places the accent on a long final syllable end- 
 ing in a consonant. In illustration and support of this 
 statement, we may select, from a multitude of the same 
 general character, the following passage. A witty Ara- 
 bian poet had been found half drunk by one of the 
 caliph's police-officers in a tippling-house. The officer 
 questioned the offender, as he had been instructed to 
 do, — "Who art thou, and what is thy religion?" The 
 poet's answer, rendered into German, is as follows : 
 
 " Ich glaube was glauben die Beni Abbas 
 Und was ist besiegelt mit Thon auf Papier ; 
 Wenn ich getninken ein froliches Glas, 
 Und wenn es im Kopfe ruraiSret bei mir, 
 So sei die geringste der Sorgen dir das." # 
 See " Litcraturgeschichte der Araber," vol. iii. p. 46a. 
 
 If there were any Arabic words, ending in a long final 
 syllable, that might be considered doubtful, it would be 
 those which, like Abbas, have a double consonant in the 
 penultima ; and yet nothing can be clearer than that the 
 accent is placed on the final syllable only, in the foregoing 
 verse. Mansur, (Mansoor,) though having also two 
 consonants after the penultimate vowel, is pronounced 
 by Hammer-Purgslall in the same manner. The reader, 
 by referring to the above work, will find a multitude of 
 similar examples, among others Bagdad, with the accent 
 on the last syllable, (see vol. iii. p. 440,) to which testi- 
 mony we may add that of one of the most learned and 
 accurate of our English poets. Southey in his "Thalaba" 
 says, 
 
 "The old man answered, To Bagdad I go." 
 
 "Stands not Bagdad 
 Near to the site of ancient Babylon?" , 
 
 "At length Bagdad appeared, 
 The city of his search." 
 
 • The following is a nearly literal translation : " I believe what- 
 ever the Beni AbbSs [then.the reigning family of caliphs] believe, and 
 whatever is sealed with wax upon paper, [that is, whatever is gen- 
 erally recognized and established.) If I have drunk a cheerful glass, 
 and if it causes some confusion in my head, let that be the least of 
 thy cares." 
 
 IO 
 
 CHINESE. 
 II. 
 
 As it would be out of the question in a work like the 
 present to attempt to give a minute and systematic ex- 
 position of the principles of Chinese pronunciation, vary- 
 ing greatly as they do in different provinces and among 
 different classes of the community, we shall content 
 ourselves with merely offering a few brief observations, 
 for the purpose of explaining the more obvious differ- 
 ences in the mode of representing Chinese names among 
 the nations of lie West. 
 
 1. One of the remarkable peculiarities of the Chinese 
 tongue is the perpetual occurrence of nasal sounds. It 
 was through the Portuguese, who, among all the nations 
 of Europe, were the first to become intimately acquainted 
 with China and the Chinese, that the forms of celebrated 
 Chinese names first became familiar to Europeans. It 
 so happened that the Portuguese language abounded in 
 the same class of nasal sounds ; and in representing these 
 sounds in Chinese names according to the principles gf 
 their own language the Portuguese missionaries adopted 
 a spelling which would necessarily convey an erroneous 
 idea of the pronunciation to the great majority of 
 Europeans. Thus, they wrote for the name of the great 
 northern capital of China, Pequim or Pcquin, and for 
 that of the southern capital, Nanquim or Nanquin, the 
 Portuguese pronunciation of which would be nearly 
 pi'keeN' or pi'keeng', and niN'keeN' or nang'keeng'. 
 The Spaniards, then the leading nation in the world, 
 having conquered Macao and the other Portuguese pos- 
 sessions in the far East, adopted, with little or no change, 
 the Portuguese spellings, giving to them their own pro- 
 nunciation, which they introduced among the other na- 
 tions of Europe. The result was that, until very recently, 
 Picking was often written Pekin, and was generally pro- 
 nounced in Europe pa-keen' or pe-kin'; and Nanking, 
 commonly written Nankin, was called nan'keen'.t Ton- 
 quin (pronounced almost tong'king' by the Chinese) still 
 retains its Spanish pronunciation, ton-keen'; and Canton 
 (in Chinese Quantong) has in English and in most other 
 European tongues completely dropped the nasal termi- 
 nation and taken the sound of « pure. In like manner 
 we are to explain the fact that the names Confucius 
 and Mkncius, by which the two great Chinese philoso- 
 phers (Kong-foo-tse and Menc-tse) are generally 
 known in Europe, have no trace of that nasal sound which 
 is so distinct an element in those names as spoken by 
 the Chinese. 
 
 2. Several consonant sounds which are found in all, or 
 nearly all, European tongues, are wanting in most of the 
 Chinese dialects, viz., b, d,g, (hard,) r, v, and s. It being 
 a principle or law of this language that every individual 
 word must be a monosyllable, ending either in a pure 
 vowel or a nasal, it often causes strange transformations 
 when an attempt is made to introduce words or names 
 from other nations : thus, the Hindoo Booddha is changed 
 into Fo, the initial B being necessarily replaced by a 
 Chinese consonant, and the monosyllable which is sub- 
 stituted for the original dissyllable drops the terminal 
 consonant, according to the usage of the language. 
 
 On account of the difficulty and uncertainty attending 
 the pronunciation of Chinese names, resulting from the 
 
 t As is shown by the common English name of a kind of clolb 
 manufactured there. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 great diversity of dialects in that country, to attempt 
 any great exactness or nicety in representing that pro- 
 nunciation would clearly be a work of supererogation. 
 We have deemed it sufficient to give the names accord- 
 ing to the usage of the best European writers, taking 
 care only, when there is occasion to do so, to render 
 the French, Portuguese, or German spellings into their 
 nearest English equivalents. S^" Respecting the diver- 
 sity of forms caused by writing Oriental names in dif- 
 ferent languages, see Preface, (pp. vi.-viii.,) and Section 
 XII I., on the Oriental Languages, in this Introduction. 
 
 DANISH. 
 
 III. 
 
 1. A usually has a sound between that in the English 
 word far and that in fat. It may be represented by i. 
 When it ends a syllable it is usually longer than when 
 followed by a vowel in the same syllable: thus, fader 
 (" father") is pronounced fa'Der, nearly like the English 
 father. Aa is commonly pronounced nearly like our aw, 
 (or au.) 
 
 2. E, at the end of an accented syllable, usually has a 
 sound like that of tin pin, (see XX., 3 ;) in other cases it 
 is sometimes like fin met, and sometimes like em battery. 
 
 3. / is like ee, or like 1 in pin. Ji is like our ee. 
 
 4. is like the English 0. 
 
 5. £/is like 00. 
 
 6. Kis equivalent to the French u or it. 
 
 7. Ae sounds like a in fate. 
 
 8. Ie sounds like ee in English. 
 
 9. Oe or is the same as in German. 
 
 10. The consonants b, c, f A, k, 1, m, n, p, q, s, t, x, t 
 are like the English. 
 
 1 1. D, at the beginning of a word, is like the English 
 d; between two vowels, or at the end of a syllable in 
 which it follows a vowel, it sounds nearly like t/i in this, 
 (th.) When preceded by /, n, or r, more particularly 
 when it occurs at the end of a word, it is almost or quite 
 silent, as in Abil</gar</. 
 
 12. G is always hard; at the end of a word it is 
 sounded very slightly, so as to resemble A: e.g. Aalborg 
 is pronounced nearly ol'bor'A. 
 
 13. yis like the English y, (consonant.) 
 
 14. R is similar to the German. 
 
 15. Kis usually like the English ; but av sounds like 
 fiv, (or ou in our:) plov (a "plough") is pronounced 
 plow. 
 
 16. Whas a sound similar to that of our v or the Ger- 
 man w. It is sometimes interchangeable with v. 
 
 DUTCH. 
 IV. 
 
 1. The vowels a, e, i, 0, and u are similar to the 
 French. 
 
 2. Kis like long i'm English, as in nigh. 
 
 Obs. Ij is often made use of instead of y : thus, Overyssel (the 
 old spelling) is now commonly written OverijiseL 
 
 3. Aa is a long, (5.) 
 
 4. Ae is equivalent to 31 or L 
 
 5. Ee (equivalent to e long) sounds like our a in fate. 
 
 6. Ei or ey is like the German ei, or our long /', (I.) 
 
 7. Ie sounds like ee in English. 
 
 8. Oe sounds like 00. 
 
 9. Oo is always pronounced like long in English, 
 Or like 00 in door. 
 
 10. Ui or uy is similar to oi in English, or eu in Ger- 
 man. It appears, however, that formerly the Dutch ui 
 had a different sound, somewhat resembling a lengthened 
 ii. (See H. Fkijlink, " Woordenboek voor vreemde 
 Eigennamen," p. 31, Amsterdam, 1858.) 
 
 11. The consonants b, e,f, A, k, 1, m, u,p, q, r, s, t, x, 
 and s are similar to the English. 
 
 12. D, at the end of a word, is like t; in other cases 
 it is the same as in English. 
 
 13. G resembles in sound a strongly aspirated A, or 
 the German eh. 
 
 14. J is equivalent to the English y, (consonant.) 
 
 15. V, at the beginning of a word or name, usually 
 sounds nearly like // or, to speak more exactly, it has a 
 sound intermediate between that of the German v (f) and 
 our f. 
 
 16. IV is somewhat like the German, but softer ; in 
 other words, it has a sound between that of our 10 and 
 the German 10. In the word Nieuw, (" new,") followed 
 by a consonant, as Nieuwpoort, (written also Nieu- 
 poort,) it is silent. 
 
 17. CA is similar to the German cA. 
 
 18. ScA, however, has not, as in German, the sound 
 of the English sA, but the pure sound of s, followed by 
 the guttural cA, resembling sk in English. 
 
 53f The Flemish is so closely allied to the Dutch that it may 
 be regarded as essentially the same language. It differs, however, 
 somewhat in the spelling of words. According to the modern Dutch 
 orthography, aa is generally substituted for ae, and ij for y. In 
 Flemish both of these old forms are still retained. 
 
 FRENCH, 
 v. 
 
 1. A, in French, has two sounds : the short, as in ami, 
 la bal, etc., is intermediate between a (as in the English 
 word far) and a, (as in fat:) this sound in the present 
 work is represented by S. The second or long sound is 
 like that in our vtoxdfar; it occurs in the a circumflexed 
 (a) and a followed by a silent s, as in pas, which should 
 be pronounced as if written pi. This sound is repre- 
 sented by 5. 
 
 2. E has four sounds: (i)£7<w,likeain the English word 
 fate, e.g. in ill, (represented in this work by & ;) (2 and 3) 
 open,* the second e, nearly as in met, but more pro- 
 longed, e.g. in prods, (represented by h or & ;) the third 
 e (e circumflexed) is like the preceding, but still more 
 open and more prolonged, e.g. in tete; it is represented 
 by i ; (4) obscure, as in battery, e.g. in retour, devraitA 
 
 3. / has two sounds : the first nearly as in the Eng- 
 lish word fig, e.g. in //, ami; the second like ie in field, 
 or ee, e.g. in git, pie, etc 
 
 4. has three sounds: (1) nearly as in robe, e.g. in 
 trine, (represented by 6 ;) (2) as in rob, e.g. in parole; 
 (3) as in lord, e.g, in corps. The second and third are 
 both represented by without any mark. 
 
 5. The sound of the French w has no equivalent in 
 English. It may be said to be intermediate between u 
 
 • In pronouncing this sound the mouth must be freely opened, 
 — whence the name. 
 
 t The e in these and similar cases is often scarcely sounded at all, 
 and appears to pass imperceptibly into * mute : rettmr and devrait 
 may be pronounced r'tooR and d'vuA. It should, however, be ob- 
 served that in reading poetry, as well as in the graver style of public 
 speaking, the unaccented e, even when it forms the terminal letter of 
 such words as tite, parte, etc., nearly always makes a distinct and 
 separate syllable. (See 18 of this section.) 
 
 M 
 
 .> 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and oo. This is one of the most difficult sounds in the 
 language, but may readily be produced if the speaker 
 after placing his lips in the position proper for sounding 
 our oo, attempts, without moving his lips, to utter the 
 sound of ee. In t+ie present work it is represented by 
 the German ii. 
 
 Obs. U, before « nasal, has its second English sound nearly, un 
 being pronounced almost like UN. 
 
 6. Fis similar to the French i. In the middle of a 
 word j» is usually equivalent to ii, as m/uyard, fu-e'ySR', 
 ^pronounced in French, fui-iar.) 
 
 7. Ai and ay are like 2, (represented by 4.) 
 
 Obs. When ai forms the termination of verbs, as in fat, (" I 
 have,")/* parlai, (" I spoke,")/* fiarlerai, ^" I shall speak,") it has 
 the sound of i, or a in fate. Some authorities say that while ate, ais, 
 and aye are to be sounded as e, ai, ay, ei, and ey terminal (that is, 
 when not followed by e or s mute) should be pronounced as e, (A ;) 
 but to this general rule there appear to be many exceptions.* 
 
 8. An is like 0. 
 
 9. Ei and ey are like i, (see 7 of this Section ; Ob- 
 servation.) 
 
 10. hit is nearly similar to the English u in tub, but the 
 sound is somewhat closer and more prolonged, nearly 
 resembling that of u m/ur. It is similar to the German 
 c, but is rather more open. 
 
 Obs. Eu, in the different parts of the verb avoir, "to have," 
 always has the sound of simple u. 
 
 11. It is like ee in English, or {. 
 
 12. Oi usually sounds like wi: e.g. mot is pronounced 
 mwi or mwSh. 
 
 Obs. Oi was formerly used in the termination of the French verbs, 
 e.g. avois, avoit, avoient ; also in the final syllabic of many adjectives, 
 
 * There is not only considerable divetsity among the different 
 French authorities in regard to the pronunciation of words or names 
 with these terminations, but scarcely any one writer appears to be 
 consistent with himself in this respect. In Boyer's " French Dic- 
 tionary," with the pronunciation according to the Abbi Tardy, (Bos- 
 Ion, 1822.) Bey (a Turkish governor) is pronounced hi, (or W :) but 
 all words ending in ai, as balai, dllai, essai, gai, geai, lai, Mai, ouai, 
 vrai, are pronounced with the open sound of e, (e or A ;) the ai of 
 balai, gai, geai, lai, Mai, and quai\% sounded like the English e in 
 met, but in dllai, essai, and vrai, like e in there. In the Dictionary 
 of Fleming and Tibbins, (American edition, Philadelphia, iSa3,)rti in 
 gai, Mai, atrfi ouai has the sound of e, close A, (or £,) but balai, 
 dllai, essai, lai, and vrai are pronounced in precisely the same 
 manner as in the preceding work. In Spiers and Surenne's Dic- 
 tionary (American edition, 1852) gai has the sound of e close, (A or 
 e* ;) but balai, Mai, and all other words (not verbs) of this termi- 
 nation are pronounced with the sound of open t. Bey, as in Boyer 
 and Fleming and Tibbins, is pronounced bA, (or be* ;) but dey, a word 
 similar in its origin and general character, has the open sound of e, 
 (di.) Ay and ey. when forming the termination of proper names, are 
 in Spiers and Surenne's Dictionary invariably represented in pro- 
 nunciation by e. with the single exception of Solway. See, also, 
 *' Surenne's French Pronouncing Dictionary,"( American edition, from 
 the Edinburgh edition of 1840,) in which is given the pronunciation 
 of a great many proper names ending in ay and ey, and never with 
 the sound of e close, (<£,) except in the solitary instance of Solway, 
 just noticed. Mr. Bescherelle, perhaps the highest modem authority 
 in regard to the pronunciation as well as the definition of French words, 
 does not speak very definitely in regard to the sound of ai or ay 
 terminal ; but, under the letter £, he says ey has its middle sound 
 {"sort moyen ou demioitvert") in bey, dey, Hervey, Ney, Volney, etc., 
 (see " Dictionnaire National," vol. i., pp. 1049 and 1050.) In con- 
 sideration of the general tendency of the preceding writers, and sup- 
 ported by the high authority last named, we have adopted the general 
 rule to make the e open in the final syllables of all names of this class. 
 At the same time, those who are anxious to be accurate in their pro- 
 nunciation should take care to make the sound of ai, ay, and ey, 
 terminal, less open and less full than in the final syllables aie, aye, 
 nil, eys, etc. 
 12 
 
 as Polonois, •' Polish," and Lyonnois, "belonging to Lyons " The 
 oi in these words — which are now usually written avals, avaii. 
 avaient, Polonais, Lyonnais — sounds like ai, (or e.) 
 
 13. Ou sounds like 00 in English. 
 
 14. B, <-,t d, f, k, p, t, v, and z are the same as in 
 English. 
 
 15. G, before a, 0, and u, is hard, as in the English 
 word gap ; before e, i, and y it is soft, having the sound 
 of zh, or of s in the English word pleasure. Gti sound* 
 like g hard : thus, gui, guide, are pronounced gi, ged or 
 geed. 
 
 16. H\% never pronounced in French so forcibly as in 
 English. Some of the best French authorities, indeed, 
 say that the h should never be sounded at all in French 
 words or names ; the only difference they would make 
 between the (so-called) aspirated and unaspirated initial 
 // is, that before the latter the a or unaccented e in such 
 particles as la, le, etc. is dropped, as I'herie, (pronounced 
 l&nb,) "the grass;" Phomme, (lorn,) "the man j" while 
 before the former it is retained, as la halle, (pronounced 
 IS 31,) "the market;" le hamac, (l?h 3'm3k',) "the ham- 
 mock," etc. 
 
 17. y sounds like soft g in French, or zh in English. 
 
 18. L has usually the same sound as in English ; but 
 when it ends a word, being preceded by i, or when 11 
 follows 1 in any situation, it usually has what is called 
 its liquid sound. This may be said to answer nearly to 
 the sound of ///' in million, the sound of / in such cases 
 being blended with that of_y, (consonant:) e.g. papillon 
 is pronounced p3'pel'y6N'; Chantilly, shoN'tel'ye', etc. 
 It should, however, be observed that at present, accord- 
 ing to the general practice of the more polite French 
 speakers, the sound of / in such words is in ordinary 
 conversation scarcely heard at all, so that their pronun- 
 ciation may rather be indicated thus, — pS'pe'yoN', shdN'- 
 te'ye'; but in the higher style of speaking, and in 
 public discourses, the / in such cases is, according to 
 the best usage, distinctly pronounced. 
 
 19. At and », when followed by a vowel, or when 
 double, have the same sound as in English ; but when 
 at the end of a word, (not immediately followed by 
 another word beginning with a vowel,) or when followed 
 by another consonant in the middle of a word, they have 
 what is termed the nasal sound, which somewhat re- 
 sembles that of ng in long, pang, etc., but is softer :\ 
 thus, m and « are nasal in such words as comparer, cofi- 
 leNte, but have their natural sound in such as commune, 
 coniiit. Bon, ("good,") before a consonant or standing 
 by itself, would be pronounced bdN ; but if followed im- 
 mediately by a vowel, as in the phrase Son ami, ("good 
 friend,") the final » is sounded distinctly, as tin would 
 l>e in the same position. The pronoun sien, when not 
 followed by a vowel, is pronounced nearly se^.N' ; but 
 when it takes the feminine termination the «, being 
 doubled, has the same sound as in English, so that sienne 
 is pronounced se-hn'. 
 
 20. M or n nasal, when preceded by e, causes this 
 vowel to assume the broad sound of a: thus, dents, tens, 
 are pronounced like the French words dans and sans, 
 almost as if written in English doN and s6n. 
 
 t C with a cedilla, (c) before a, o, and «, sounds like s: thus, ca, 
 co, cu are pronounced like sa, so, su. 
 
 t In uttering this sound, care should be taken not to press the 
 back part of the tongue against the palate, as is dot.e in pronouncing 
 the EngKsh ng. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 21. In, im, ain, aim, cin, oin, and en, preceded imme- 
 diately by i, when nasal, have a sound nearly resembling 
 that of ang in the English word pang. In such cases, in, 
 im, ain, aim, ein, and en are pronounced alike &N ; the o 
 in oin has the sound of our w, so that loin and soin are 
 pronounced almost IwaN, swaN. 
 
 22. In om and <?» nasal, the o has nearly the sound 
 of 6 as in won't. 
 
 Obs. The French nasal sound is represented in the present work 
 by N or M, distinguished as a small capital: e.g. Chaumont, sho'- 
 m6N'. 
 
 23. Q or an, in French, always sounds like k: e.g. quel 
 is pronounced khl ; qui, ke. 
 
 Obs. Q, in French words, (except when terminal, as in cog and 
 cinq,) is always followed by «, though it is often employed without 
 this letter in writing certain foreign names. 
 
 24. K is like the English, but is trilled more strongly, 
 especially when it precedes another consonant, or stands 
 at the end of a word, as in veRtu, punis. : in similar cases 
 the English r is but very slightly sounded. This sound 
 is represented by a small capital R. 
 
 25. S, when single and between two vowels, sounds 
 like z: in other cases it is the same as in English. 
 
 26. X generally has the same sound as in English, but 
 is sometimes sounded like s, — e.g. in six, pronounced sess, 
 and Bruxelles, (Brussels,) pronounced brii'sSl', — and oc- 
 casionally like z, as in dixieme, de'ze-|m'. 
 
 27. Cli is like sh in English ; th is always like /. 
 
 28. Gn (the same as in Italian) has a sound which 
 blends that of n and y, (consonant,) or, in other words, 
 is equivalent to the sound of ni in minion. Thus, Avi- 
 gnon is pronounced i'ven'yiN'. 
 
 Obs. This sound is represented in Spanish by ft, and bears the 
 lame relation to n that the liquid / (T) does to the ordinary /. In 
 Hungarian it is expressed by ny, and in Portuguese by nh. 
 
 When it occurs in the middle of a word, we have represented it 
 by n and y, as in the example above given ; but when it stands at 
 the end of a word, as it cannot then be expressed by any letter 
 or combination of letters in English, it has been indicated by the 
 Spanish ft : accordingly, the French pronunciation of such names 
 as Cologne and Boulogne is thus given: — ko'lon', boolofi'. 
 
 SILENT LETTERS. 
 
 29. The vowel e at the end of a word, when not marked 
 with an accent, is invariably mute : e.g. in park, contente,* 
 etc. 
 
 30. The French consonants, when occurring at the 
 end of a word, are generally not pronounced, unless they 
 are immediately followed by a word beginning with a 
 vowel : e.g. in content, (pronounced c6N't&N',) and dents, 
 (d6N.) If, however, they are followed by a mute e or any 
 other vowel, they muat always be articulated : e.g. in con- 
 tente, dettxi, etc. 
 
 Obs. i. The letters c, f, I, and rare, when final, very often pro- 
 nounced, (the two former almost always:) e.g. in avec, neuf, it, and 
 punir. 
 
 Ob« a The French articulate the final consonants in almost all 
 foreign and classical names: e.g. in Amsterdam, (w not. nasal,) 
 Venus, etc. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE FRENCH ACCENT. 
 
 It may be observed that the French language has no 
 accent, in the sense in which we employ this term. The 
 
 • The particles It, rj>, and the pronouns ft, me, te, etc., are per- 
 haps, strictly speaking exceptions; but though the e in these words 
 is not always absolutelj jnute, it is very often so : thus, the sentence 
 voui me trouverez le mime is pronounced in rapid conversation voom 
 troov At mem, the vowel in me and ne being entirely suppressed, 
 and the consonants attached tc the preceding words. 
 
 marks, called accents, that are placed over the different 
 vowels, serve only to indicate some particular sound 01 
 these letters, and not that peculiar impulse of the voice 
 which characterizes an accented syllable in the English 
 and most other European tongues. Thus, the accent 
 over the e in parte serves to show that this vowel has its 
 first French sound, and at the same time distinguishes 
 it from parle, another form of the same verb, in which 
 the e is mute. The circumflex imparts to the vowel 
 over which it is placed a longer and deeper sound than 
 ordinary : e.g. in hdte, tempite, gite, and apStre. 
 
 It is commonly said that the French pronounce all the 
 syllables of a word with an equal stress of voice, but that 
 they seem to an English ear to accentuate the last, be- 
 cause in our language the universal tendency is to throw 
 the accent towards the beginning of the word. Others, 
 on the contrary, maintain that in pronouncing words of 
 a number of syllables the voice of a native French 
 speaker almost invariably rises and dwells on the last, 
 and that this peculiar terminal intonation is very analo- 
 gous, and nearly equivalent, to our accent. This last 
 opinion appears to us to be not without a real founda- 
 tion. But, however the question may be settled, the 
 fact that the English who have learned the pronun- 
 ciation of names from hearing them spoken by the 
 French themselves, almost invariably throw the accent 
 on the final syllable, furnishes, in our judgment, sufficient 
 grounds for establishing a general rule on this subject. 
 Accordingly, in the present work we have, with very 
 few exceptions, placed the principal accent on the last 
 syllable of French names ; at the same time, it has 
 been thought proper to mark the others with sec- 
 ondary accents, in order to prevent them from being 
 pronounced too slightly or .indistinctly, as' is usually 
 the case with unaccented syllables in English. The 
 pronunciation of Orleans, for example, has been thus 
 given : — oR'la'oN'. 
 
 Obs. Particular care, however, should be taken not to break such 
 names into as many isolated sounds as there are different syllables, 
 but, while pronouncing these syllables with a stress of voice nearly 
 equal, to let each glide smoothly into that which follows it. It may 
 be observed that the French, in uttering short sentences, usually 
 make the different words run into each other, as if they were part* 
 of the same word. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 VI. 
 
 1. A, in German, usually sounds as in the English 
 word far, though sometimes approximating the a in fat. 
 
 2. E, when long, sounds like a in fate ; when short, 
 like e in met; frequently, however, it has an obscure 
 sound, like e in bitter, paper, etc. It should have this 
 obscure sound whenever it ends an unaccented syllable, 
 (as in Goethe,) or when it precedes /, n, or r in an un- 
 accented syllabic, (as in Schlegel, Bunsen, Schiller.) 
 
 3. / long sounds like «' in marine, (or ee in English ,) 
 i short, like i in pit. 
 
 4. long sounds like in no; short, nearly like t 
 in on. 
 
 5. U long is like 00 in moon; u short, like 00 in good. 
 
 6. Y sounds like the German 1. 
 
 7. Ae, or a, is similar to the German e, or to the Eng- 
 lish a in fate or e in met. 
 
 8. Ie is equivalent to * long, (or ee in English.) 
 
 9. Oe, or 0, nearly resembles the eu in French, but 
 has no parallel sound in English : the sound in our Ian 
 
 «3 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 guage nearest to it is that of e in her, or u in fur : the 
 German poets often rhyme it with with e, (i or a.) 
 
 10. Ue, or it, is like the French u. 
 
 11. Ai is similar in sound to ei, but somewhat broader. 
 (See 14 of this section.) 
 
 12. Au is equivalent to the English ou in our. 
 
 13. a« and eu resemble in sound the English oi, as in 
 oil. 
 
 14. Ei and ty have the sound of our i in mine, as pro- 
 nounced by the Americans, (the English draw the corners 
 of the mouth farther back.) 
 
 Obs. It may be observed that ai and au, in German, as well as in 
 several other languages, are proper diphthongs, the vowels preserving 
 their distinct and proper sound : thus, ai is equivalent to i'e, and au 
 to d'oo, in English. 
 
 15. The consonants/, k, I, m, h, p, q, t, and * are pro- 
 nounced as in English. 
 
 16. B and d, at the beginning of a word, have the 
 same sound as in English ; at the end of a word, b is 
 pronounced like p, and d like /. 
 
 17. C, before a, o, and u, sounds like tj before e, i, 
 and y, like Is. 
 
 18. Ch has a sound unknown to our language, which 
 can be learned from an oral instructor only. It some- 
 what resembles that of our h, with a strong aspiration : 
 after a, 0, and u, it is guttural ; for example, in the word 
 aeh.* When it follows e, i, a, 0, ii, au, or eu, it seems to 
 be sounded more in the palate or roof of the mouth, 
 as in ich, euch, etc. We have represented this sound in 
 the present work by K, distinguished as a small capital. 
 
 Obs. Ch. before s radical, (i.e. forming a part of the root of the 
 word,) has the sound of *: e.g. Ocks is pronounced okt ; Sortie*, 
 saVsen, etc. 
 
 19. G, at the beginning of a word, sounds as in the 
 English word get. In other situations it is usually pro- 
 nounced nearly like the German ch, in which cases it is 
 represented by G small capital. In some German dia- 
 lects, however, it is sounded in all cases nearly like g 
 hard in English : gg is usually sounded nearly like t. 
 
 20. H is pronounced only when it begins a word. 
 
 Obs. 1. When g and k occur in the. middle of a compound word, 
 they have the same sound as when they are initial, provided they 
 begin any part which is a complete word in itself: thus, in the parti- 
 ciple gegebcn, ("given,") the latter g has the same sound as the 
 former, because it begins the verb gebeit, (to "give,") from which 
 that participle is derived. It is sounded in like manner in aufgeben, 
 (to "give up,") vergeben, (to "forgive,") etc. H, in similar in- 
 stances, is pronounced : e.g. in gehabt. au/hatten, etc. 
 
 Obs. a. G and k, occurring after a vowel, lengthen its sound : e.g. 
 in Tag-, Zakl, Floh, pronounce!! tl3c tsiil, flo, etc. A silent k has 
 the same effect though occurring before a vowel, as Tkal, (pro- 
 nounced ddl,) Tltat, (uUt,) and so on. (See Remarks on the German 
 Pronunciation, at the end of this section.) 
 
 21. J has the sound of the English y, (consonant.) 
 
 22. Q is only used before u, and sounds as in the Eng- 
 lish word quit. 
 
 23. R is pronounced like rr in the English word terror, 
 but somewhat more strongly. (See V., 24.) 
 
 Obs. Care should be taken to pronounce the r in German dis- 
 tinctly and forcibly. In such words as Berg and Wertk, the learner 
 should be particularly on his guard against allowing the e to become 
 like short «, as in similar words in English. The e, in such cases, 
 should have the same sound as in our word merit, so that Berg 
 
 * Those who have no opportunity of acquiring this sound from a 
 German might perhaps learn it from a Scotchman, as the Scottish ck 
 is essentially the same with the German, though pronounced some- 
 what more strongly. 
 U 
 
 should be pronounced almost as if written bairc, (not bSrg ;) Wertk 
 as viairt, (not wrlrt,) but somewhat shorter. 
 
 24. S, at the beginning of a word, or between two 
 vowels, is like x ; in other cases it is sharp, as in this. Ss 
 is always sharp. 
 
 25. Sch sounds like the English sh ; sz, like ss. 
 
 26. Th is pronounced like /, as in most other lan- 
 guages. 
 
 27. P" sounds like f in English, except when between 
 two vowels ; it is then pronounced somewhat softer, ap- 
 proximating in sound our v. 
 
 28. W resembles our v, but in pronouncing it the 
 upper teeth should not be allowed to touch the lower 
 lip, as is done in uttering the English v. This sound is 
 indicated by a w marked thus, <v. 
 
 29. Z and tz sound like ts. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE GERMAN ACCENT AND PRO- 
 NUNCIATION. 
 
 No general rule can be given for the accent of German 
 words or names: it may be remarked, however, that the 
 penultimate accent occurs much less frequently than in 
 the Spanish or the Italian language. The German accent 
 is in all respects very similar to the English, differing 
 widely from the Spanish and entirely from the French. 
 It is proper to observe, however, that the secondary 
 accent on compound German words or names is more 
 distinctly marked than it would be in English in the 
 same situation : thus, the English say Pe'ters-burg, with 
 scarcely any appreciable accent on the last syllable, 
 while the Germans say Pe'ters-burg', (pa'ters-booRG',) 
 the last accent being distinctly marked, though decidedly 
 less than the first. 
 
 It is a rule in German that an accented vowel ending 
 a syllable is long, as in a'ber, (a'ber,) "but," ge'bcn, 
 (ga'ben,) to "give," Va'ter, (fa'ter,) " father," Id' ben, (to 
 " praise.") The vowel is considered to end the syllable 
 when followed by a single consonant in the middle of a 
 word, in which case the consonant always goes to the 
 following vowel, as in the instances above cited ; but, if 
 the vowel is followed by a consonant in the same syllable, 
 it is generally short, as in fal'len, (to " fall,") Mut'/er, 
 (" mother,") etc. But to this last remark there are 
 several exceptions. In declinable words ending in a 
 single consonant, whether monosyllables or dissyllables, 
 with the accent on the ultima, the syllable on which the 
 stress of the voice is laid is long, as Bliit, (" blood,") gut, 
 ("good,") Graf, ("count,") Eugen, ("Eugene,") and so 
 on. This exception may be said to follow almost as a 
 matter of course from the first part of the foregoing rule ; 
 for if the vowel in such words as Graf was short, then in 
 the genitive and dative ( Grafes, Grafe) it must also be 
 short, thus violating the rule referred to, or else be the 
 cause of a very objectionable and inconvenient irregu- 
 larity, by making in the same word the nominative and 
 accusative short and the genitive and dative long. The 
 letters £• and h have the effect of making long the vowel 
 which precedes them. (See 20 of this section, Observa- 
 tion 2.) 
 
 GREEK, (MODERN.) 
 VII. 
 
 1. A a (alpha) is like a in far. 
 
 2. E e (epsllon) is like a in fate. 
 
 3. H ri (eta) is like ee in English, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 4. I 1 (iota) is like 1 in me or i in pin. 
 
 5. O (omicron) is like in English. 
 
 6. T « (upsllon) is nearly like the French u, (or it.) 
 •j. Q, u (omega) is like in English, there being no 
 
 difference between this and omicron in prose ; in poetry 
 u is longer. 
 
 8. At is like a in fate. 
 
 9. E< and 01 sound like ee in English. 
 
 10. On is like our 00. 
 
 11. B 6 (beta) is like v in English.* 
 
 12. r y (gamma) is like g hard, as in.frf'. 
 
 13. A <i (delta) is like th in *4w, (th.) 
 
 14. Z f (zeta) is like the English z. 
 
 15. 9 e (theta) is like th in flln* 
 
 16. K k (kappa) is like k. 
 
 17. A X (lambda) is like /. 
 
 18. M ft (mu) is like m. 
 
 19. N v (nu) is like «. 
 
 20. H f (xi) is like jr. 
 
 21. II jr (pi) is usually like the English /; but after ft 
 (m) it is like i: e.g. ifmopoc is pronounced em'bo-ros. m 
 
 22. P p (rho) is similar to the German r. 
 
 23. lac (sigma) is like the English s. 
 
 24. T t (tail) is usually like the English /; after v, (n,) 
 however, it is sounded like d: e.g. hrdc is pronounced 
 en-do/. 
 
 25. T u, (consonant,) when before a vowel or the liquids 
 /, m, n, r, is like our v: e.g. aiepvu is pronounced Sv-a- 
 rii'o, ailiic, av-los', aipiov, Jv're-on ; in other cases it is 
 like f: e.g. AevnaUa (Leucadia) is pronounced lef-ka- 
 thee'a. 
 
 26. * <j> (phi) is equivalent to our f. 
 
 27. X % (chi) is similar to ch in German. 
 
 28. i: ip (psi) is like ps in English. 
 
 HEBREW. 
 VIII. 
 As in the case of classical names we have not at- 
 tempted to give the ancient Latin orGreek pronunciation, 
 so we have never aimed to give the ancient Hebrew pro- 
 nunciation of Scripture names. Nevertheless, that such 
 of our readers as may happen to be ignorant of Hebrew 
 may be furnished with a key to the Hebrew forms of 
 these names, as well as for purposes of comparison with 
 other languages, we have thought it necessary to present 
 the following table, exhibiting the form and power of the 
 Hebrew letters : 
 
 ANCIENT HEBREW ALPHABET. 
 
 I. 
 
 N 
 
 Name, 
 a'lef 
 
 Power. 
 a 
 
 2. 
 
 3 
 
 beth or bath 
 
 v,b 
 
 3- 
 
 1 
 
 gimel or gee'mel 
 
 g 
 
 4- 
 
 1 
 
 da'leth 
 
 d or dh 
 
 5- 
 
 n 
 
 h6 or ha " 
 
 h 
 
 6. 
 
 i 
 
 vav or vauv 
 
 V 
 
 7- 
 
 1 
 
 zl'yin 
 
 z 
 
 8. 
 
 n 
 
 Heth or Hath 
 
 H (like the Arabic £) 
 
 <)■ 
 
 a 
 
 t^t or tat 
 
 t 
 
 10. 
 
 * 
 
 yodh 
 
 y 
 
 • As the modem Greeks have no letter corresponding to our b, 
 in order to represent this letter in words or names from other lan- 
 guiges they employ jitri as Mir4<rp*, Basra or Bassoka, Mrrapmu, 
 Babo, etc 
 
 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 II. 
 
 3 oi 
 
 f 
 
 kaf 
 
 12. 
 
 b 
 
 
 la'medh 
 
 '3- 
 
 
 
 
 mem or mam 
 
 14. 
 
 3 or 
 
 V 
 
 nun or noon 
 
 «S- 
 
 
 
 
 sa'mek 
 
 16. 
 
 ? 
 
 
 a'yin 
 
 17. 
 
 B 
 
 
 p? or pa 
 
 18. 
 
 V 
 
 
 tsi'da 
 
 19- 
 
 P 
 
 
 kof 
 
 20. 
 
 1 
 
 
 resh or rash 
 
 21. 
 
 17 
 
 
 shin or sheen 
 
 22. 
 
 n 
 
 
 tSv 
 
 Power. 
 kh, k 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 s 
 
 a (like the Arabic £) 
 
 ph, p (nearly equivalent 
 to the Arabic ^j) 
 
 ts 
 k (like the Arabic *Jj) 
 
 r 
 
 sh, s 
 th, t (nearly equivalent 
 to the Arabic £,) 
 
 HINDOSTANEE. 
 IX. 
 
 1. Hindostanee is the name given to the language formed 
 by the interfusion of the native Hindoo dialects with the 
 Persian, which was introduced into India chiefly by the 
 conquering Mongols under Mber and his successors. It 
 was called Hindostanee or Hindustani (hin-dus-tAn'ee) 
 because it originated in Hindostan,} which is still its 
 principal seat, although the language is extensively spoken 
 not only throughout the whole of India proper, but also 
 in Afghanistan and Beloochistan. It is also frequently 
 called Oordoo or Urdu, (d"6r'doo',) or [the " language of 
 the] camp," because it was in the camp or army that the 
 intermixture 6f the Persian with the Hindoo languages 
 first took place. In writing Hindostanee, the Persian 
 alphabet, with some slight modifications, is commonly 
 employed, though the" Nagaree (Nagari) is not ttnfre- 
 quently made use of. (See Sections XIII. and XVIII.) 
 
 2. The pronunciation of the Hindostanee nearly corre- 
 sponds in all essential points with the Persian ; perhaps 
 the only differences of any importance are in the sound 
 of the short & Nagaree, which, following the Sanscrit 
 pronunciation of that vowel, is usually like our short », 
 as in but, the nasal n, (seldom found in Persian,) in the 
 sounds of kh, gh, th, dh, etc., and in those of the lingual 
 (or cerebral) d, t, and >. (See Section XVIII. for the 
 mode of distinguishing, as well as for the pronunciation 
 of, these letters.) 
 
 3. Care should be taken not to apply the pronunciation 
 of India to Persian and Arabic names of persons who 
 have never had anything to'doVith India. While it may 
 not be improper to pronounce the name of the great 
 Akbar— lik'ber,— for, though an Arabic name, it was 
 doubtless so called by a large majority of his subjects, — 
 it would be inexcusable for an Englishman (except 
 when talking with Hindoos) to pronounce the name of 
 the Arabian prophet Mo-hum'mud or M66 hiim'mud, 
 as it is nearly always called by the natives of India. 
 (See Table on page 18.) 
 
 Obs. There is a remarkable general anaTogy, both in their history 
 and in their composition, between the Hindostanee and the English 
 
 t These characters are called terminal, being used only at the end 
 of a word or name. 
 
 X It may be remarked that Hindostan or Hindoostan, (the 
 "country of the Hindoos,") in its strict and original signification, 
 was applied only to India mirth of the Vindhya Mountains. The ap- 
 plication of the name to the entire peninsula is comparatively recent. 
 
 15 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 languages. In both tongues the staple (if we may use the term) 
 was furnished by the native dialects of the country, while the higher 
 style of speech, and particularly the language of the court, was for a 
 long time that of the conquerors, — Norman-French or Persian; and, 
 even after the amalgamation of the language of the conquerors and 
 that of the conquered had taken place to a great extent, it was in both 
 countries regarded as a mark of rank and high breeding to introduce 
 into conversation and into written composition as large an admixture 
 of the former as possible. The analogy may be extended still further : 
 as the Norman-French was not the original language of the Normans, 
 so the Persian was not the original language of the M ongol conquerors 
 of India, but derived from one of the countries which they had sub- 
 dued and in which they had established themselves. 
 
 HUNGARIAN. 
 X. 
 
 1. A unaccented, is like o in not ; with an accent, (d,) it 
 sounds as a m/ar, and is always long : thus, Aba Uj-vdr, 
 the name of a town, is pronounced ob'oh oo'e-viR. 
 
 2. E, unaccented, is like e in met ; with an accent, (/,) 
 it has a sound intermediate between e in met and i in pit, 
 but more prolonged. 
 
 3. /, and y when a vowel, sound like e in me, or i'm/ig. 
 
 4. O, without an accent, is the same as in English ; 
 when accented, (J,) it has a longer and deeper sound. 
 
 5. U, without an accent, is like 00 in English ; with 
 the accent, (//,) its sound is fuller and deeper. 
 
 6. Oe or 0, and ue or it, are the same as in German. 
 
 7. The consonants b, d,f, h, k, I, m, n,p, t, v, z, are like 
 the English. 
 
 8. C is not used without being joined with some 
 other consonant ; cs is sounded like ch in English ; 
 cz, like ts. 
 
 9. G, except when followed byjory, is always hard, 
 as in the English word^rf. Gh sounds like a simple^. 
 
 10. yis usually like e in English; uj is pronounced 
 oo-e. Dj and gjare equivalent to dy and gy, and tj to ty. 
 (See 16, 17, and 20 of this Section.) 
 
 11. j? is like the German ; in other words, it is to be 
 trilled more strongly than the English. 
 
 12. Sis like the English sh. 
 
 13. Sz is like s sharp, or ss. 
 
 14. Ts is equivalent to cs, (or ch in English.) 
 
 15. Tz is like ez, (or ts in English.) 
 
 16. Y, in Hungarian, is nearly always a consonant. 
 When it follows d, g, I, «, and /, it seems to be blended 
 with these letters, so as to form but one consonant sound. 
 
 17. Dy an dgy are alike. Magyar is pronounced m6d'- 
 y5r. 
 
 18. Ly is like I in Spanish, or Hi in the English word 
 million. Vdsdrhely is pronounced in three syllables, — 
 vl'shiR-hel. 
 
 19. Ny is like the Spanish n, or ni in minion. Mdrtony 
 is pronounced in two syllables, — mlR'tofi. 
 
 20. Ty approximates the sound of our ch, bearing the 
 same relation to / that dy does to d. 
 
 21. Zs is sounded like the French/, or th in English. 
 Obs. In Hungarian, the accent usually falls on the first syllable. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 XI. 
 
 I. A, in Italian, is like the English a m/ar, though its 
 sound varies somewhat in different situations.* 
 
 • There are a number of niceties in Italian pronunciation, which, 
 however interesting to a thorough linguist, cannot properly be noticed 
 in a work like the present The difficulty of giving a brief and at the 
 lame time a satisfactory exposition of the principles of this language 
 
 lb 
 
 2. E has two sounds : (1.) close, like a in/ale; (2.) open. 
 like e in met. 
 
 3. / is like e in me, or i mfig. 
 
 4. O has two sounds: (1.) close, as in note; (2.) open, 
 similar to in not, but rather broader. 
 
 5. £7 is like 00 in English. 
 
 6. At and au, in Italian, are proper diphthongs. (See 
 VI. 14, Observation.) Accordingly, Cairo is to be pro- 
 nounced ki'ro, Ausa, ow'si, etc. 
 
 7. The consonants b, d, / I, m, n, p, a, s, t, and v are 
 similar to the English. 
 
 Obs. K, w, x, and .y are not used by the Italians, except in spelling 
 foreign names. 
 
 8. C and cc, before a, 0, and «, are sounded like k ; be- 
 fore e, i, and y, like ch or tsh. 
 
 Obs. Cc should be pronounced more strongly than a single c. This 
 remark will apply to all double letters in Italian, as well as in most 
 other languages. 
 
 9. As c, when immediately before a, 0, or u, i« nevor 
 pronounced like ch, in order to express this sound in 
 such cases, the vowel i is inserted : thus, da, cio, ciu, 
 are pronounced chi, cho, choo. (See table at the end of 
 this Section.) 
 
 10. Ch is employed to express the sound of k before t 
 and i. 
 
 11. G, before a, 0, and «, is hard, as in the English word 
 get ; before e, i, and.?, it sounds like the English/. - gia, 
 gio,giu, are pronounced/a, jo,joo. (See table at the end 
 of this Section.) 
 
 12. Gh is used to express the sound of hara^, before 
 e and /. 
 
 13. Gli has the sound of the liquid /, (I,) or of tit in 
 million: thus, Boglio is pronounced bol'yo. 
 
 14. Gn has the same sound as in French ; in othet 
 words, it is like the Spanish it: e.g. Bologna is Dro 
 nounced bo-ldn'yi. 
 
 15. ff\s never sounded in Italian. 
 
 16. J, at the beginning of a syllable, is like the Eng- 
 lish y, (consonant ;) at the end of a word it is equivalent 
 to it', (in Italian.) 
 
 17. R resembles the French, but is trilled somewhat 
 more strongly. (See V. 24.) 
 
 18. Sc, before e and i, is like the English sh : e.g. Scio 
 is pronounced shee'o. 
 
 19. Z commonly has the sound of dz in English ; zt 
 is generally pronounced like ts. But to both these rules 
 there are a number of exceptions. (See Monti's Italian 
 Grammar, p. 4 and pp. 206-208.) 
 
 The following table will perhaps enable the reader 
 more readily to understand the mode in which c and ch, 
 g and gh, are employed by the Italians : 
 
 ca is pronounced 
 
 che 
 
 chi 
 
 CIO 
 
 ciu 
 
 ki. 
 
 ki. 
 
 ke. 
 
 ko. 
 
 koo. 
 
 chi. 
 
 chi 
 
 che. 
 
 cho. 
 
 choo. 
 
 ga 
 
 ghe 
 
 ghi 
 
 go 
 
 go 
 
 g'» 
 
 ge 
 
 g< 
 
 gio 
 
 giu 
 
 is pronounced 
 
 g*- 
 ge- 
 
 go- 
 goo. 
 
 j*. 
 
 ji. 
 
 j*. 
 jo. 
 joo. 
 
 Obs. In Italian, the accent of words ending In a vowel is usually 
 on the penullima; but to this general rule there are many exceptions. 
 
 is increased by the existence of different dialects indifferent parts of 
 Italy. It has been deemed sufficient, in this synopsis, merely to ex- 
 plain those principles of pronunciation which appear to be recognized 
 by the Italians generally. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 NORWEGIAN. 
 XII. 
 
 As a written language, the Norwegian may be said to 
 be identical with the Danish, since not only the gram- 
 mar, but, with very few exceptions, the words, of both, 
 are precisely the same. In pronunciation, however, the 
 Norwegians differ widely from the Danes, while these, 
 again, differ considerably among themselves. Under 
 Section III. we have given the elements of Danish 
 pronunciation as the language is spoken by the educated 
 classes in Copenhagen. The principal points of differ- 
 ence between this and the Norwegian appear to be the 
 following: (i.) d in the latter tongue always has its 
 proper sound, while in the Danish it is often pronounced 
 like the English th ; (2.) g at the end of a word, in Nor- 
 wegian, is usually sounded distinctly as^hard in English ; 
 (3.) e at the end of a word always retains its distinct 
 sound ; (4.) ou is like the Dutch and English on, (fau.) 
 
 ORIENTAL LANGUAGES. 
 XIII. 
 
 1. Under this general term we include all those lan- 
 guages which are neither written in Roman letters nor 
 in characters that can readily be converted into corre- 
 sponding Roman letters. (See Preface, p. vi.) In this 
 sense it would embrace not merely the Asiatic languages, 
 to which the term "Oriental" is commonly limited, but 
 also the Russian, which may in one sense be said to 
 form the connecting link between the Asiatic and Eu- 
 ropean tongues. It is proposed under this head to offer 
 some remarks and explanations respecting the causes 
 of the perplexity and confusion in which the whole 
 subject of Oriental orthography seems at first sight so 
 hopelessly involved. By a reference to what has been 
 said on the different sounds of the Arabic tongue, (see 
 Section I.,) it will readily be seen that, from the different 
 modes employed to represent with Roman letters the 
 sounds of many of the Arabic characters, an almost 
 endless diversity may, or rather must, result in regard 
 to the spelling of names in which those characters occur. 
 The confusion is not a little increased by the fact that 
 the same character has a different power according as 
 it is employed by Arabian, Persian, or Indian writers. 
 
 2. As an illustration of the foregoing remarks, we may 
 take viULki, an Oriental surname, signifying a " redresser 
 of wrongs." In this name each of the four letters may be 
 represented in two or more different ways : t. the £ may 
 be represented either hygor gh ; 2. the (jr may be repre- 
 sented by y, /, or (supposing it to be doubled) by iy, and 
 (in English) by ey or e ; 3. the ' by d, d, and (in English) 
 ?»; 4. the o may be represented by th or s, (or ss.) 
 The name may then be written (without impropriety) by 
 European writers in the following modes : First, as an 
 Arabic name, in which the \L) retains its proper sound : 
 Ghiyath, Giyath, Gheath, Geath, Ghiyauth, Giyauth, 
 Gheauth, and Geauth. Secondly, as a Persian or Hin- 
 dostanee name, in which the ii) is represented by a sharp 
 s or ss: Ghiyas, GiySs, Gheas, GeSs, Ghiaus, Giaus, Ghe- 
 aus,* and Geaus. These sixteen spellings are not all the 
 modes which might legitimately be used to represent the 
 above name of four Arabic letters, but they are, perhaps, 
 amply sufficient to illustrate what has been said above. 
 
 3. Another source of perplexity in regard to names of 
 
 * So written by Sir John Malcolm. 
 
 Arabic origin is the difference which obtains in the pro- 
 nunciation of the fatha, (short a.) In Western Asia it 
 often approaches very nearly the sound of e in met, (as in 
 t^j+j Yemen, (yjm'en,) the name of Arabia Felix,) while 
 in some of the eastern parts of Persia the fatha is pro- 
 nounced nearly like 4, and in India it is sounded like 
 our short u, (as in tab.) Accordingly, in Eastern Persia 
 they say yam'Sn, and in India yum'ttn, for Arabia Felix. 
 
 4. The pronunciation of the Arabic article is of itself 
 otten the cause of much perplexity, — first, by the frequent 
 change of the / to correspond with the sound of the 
 initial letter of the following word, (see I. 33,) and, 
 secondly, by the change of the vowel, which is variously 
 sounded, commonly as al or el, often as ool, and some- 
 times as til. Hence we have Abd-el-Malek, Abd-al-Malek, 
 Abd-ool-MaleX, (written also Abd-ul-Afalek or Abd-oul- 
 Malik;) Abd-al- Rahman, Abd-el- Rahman, Abdar-Rah- 
 man, Abderrahman, Abdurrahman, or Abdourrahman. 
 
 As it would be wholly out of the question for us in 
 every instance to give all the different spellings of Ori- 
 ental names, — and we have not attempted to do so, except 
 in the case of a very few of great celebrity, (such as Tengis 
 Khan,) — we have thought it might be useful to give the 
 following table, by glancing at which the reader will 
 perhaps acquire a greater practical facility in identifying 
 names which at first sight may appear wholly different 
 from each other, than he could by a more elaborate or 
 more scientific explanation of the causes of such diver- 
 sity. At the same time, that he may, if he desires to do 
 so, clearly understand the principles which lie at the 
 bottom of all this apparent confusion, we shall refer by 
 numbers (indicated by figures included in a parenthesis) 
 to the explanations and remarks made when speaking of 
 the Arabic alphabet, (see Section I.,) where also we have 
 pointed out the chief differences between the power of the 
 letters in that tongue and in the Persian and Hindostanee. 
 
 TABLE OF CELEBRATED ORIENTAL NAMES 
 WRITTEN VARIOUSLY. 
 
 Aboo-Bekr,' Abu-Beer, Aboubecre, Abu-Bakr, (30,)t 
 Abou- (or Abu-) Beker (or -Bekr,) Ebubekr, Uboo- 
 Bekr or Ub'oo-Bukr,J (or -Buk'ker.) 
 
 Aboo- (Abou- or Abu) Talib, (or -Taleb,) Ebu-Thalib, 
 Ub'oo-Ta'leb.§ 
 
 Adhad-ed-Daulah,' Adadoddaulah, Azad-ed-Daulah, 
 (or -Dowlah,) (15,) Uz'ud-ud-Dow'lah.§ 
 
 Adherbijan, Aderbijan, Azerbaijan, (t).)t 
 
 * The "father of the virgin," (ie. of Ayeshah.) 
 
 • The "arm (or defender) of the state." 
 
 t The use of the numerals in parenthesis will be clearly seen from 
 the following examples. Under Aboo-Bekr we find 30. By a reference 
 to this number in Section I., (note t,) we find that fatha is sounded 
 sometimes like a, sometimes like 1, and sometimes like H; hence the 
 variations of Bakr, Bekr, and Bukr or Bnkker. Under Adherbijan 
 we are referred to g in Section I., where we find that while the J>, 
 as an Arabic letter, is commonly represented by dh or d, it has in Per- 
 sian the sound of z : and so on. 
 
 X Major Price, in his "Mahommedan History," (London, 18:1,) 
 writes the name Abu-Bukker, — somewhat inconsis<ently, since the 
 first part of the name (AbQ) is written with the Italian or German 
 vowels, while the second (Bukker) is written in the English mode, — 
 a mode, moreover, which no Englishman would be likely to use who 
 had not acquired his pronunciation of the name in India. A worse 
 inconsistency is found in Major Stewart's spelling of the name of 
 Hoomayoon, (Houmaioon,) in which the first and second parts of 
 the name are French, and the third English. He should cither h»v« 
 written it Houmaioun or Houmayoun, or else Hoomayoon. 
 § So generally pronounced in India. 
 
 17 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Adh-Dhahabee,' (or -Dhahabi,) (9,) Al-Dzahabi, Uz- 
 Zii'hubee,* (30.) 
 
 Akbar,' Akber, Ekber, Uk'bur,* (sometimes improp- 
 erly written Akhbar and Ackbar.) 
 
 Alee, 5 All, Aly, (or Ally,) Ul'ee* 
 
 Al-kahir-Billah,' Al-Qahir-t (or Qaher-) Billah, (21.) 
 
 BSber, Babar, or Baubur. 
 
 Bayazeed, Bayezeed, Bayazid; Bajasid, (German;) 
 tometimes corrupted into Bajazet. 
 
 Fereedoon, Feridoun, Feriddn, Fureedoon ; written 
 also Pheridun or Pheridoun. 
 
 Firdousee, Firdausi, Ferdoucy, Firdousi, Firdusi, 
 Ferdosi. (For the signification of this name, see Fir- 
 dousee, in the body of the work.) 
 
 Hassan, 1 Hacan, (14,) Hussun.J 
 
 Hoolikoo, Houlakou, Hulaku or Hoolagoo, Iloula- 
 gou, Hiilagu. 
 
 Hoomayoon,' Houmayoun, Humayfln or Humayoon, 
 Houmaioon. 
 
 Isfendiyar, Asfandiyar, Isfundear.J 
 
 Jehin- (or Jahan-) Geer, 1 Djehan-Ghyr, Djahan-Guire, 
 Pschehan- (or Dschahan-) Gir. 
 
 Kai-Kioos, Kai-Kaous, Kai-Kaus, Key-Kawuss. 
 
 Kereem,* (or Kareem,) Kerim, Karfm, Carim, Kur- 
 reem.J 
 
 Khadijah, (or Khadeejah,) Chadidsha or Khadid- 
 schah, Khadidjah or Khadidja, Kadijah. 
 
 Khaled, Chaled, Caled. 
 
 Khaleel, Chalil, Khulleel.J 
 
 Lokman, Locman, Loqman, (21,) Lockmaun. 
 
 Mahmood-Abool-K4sim- (or Kasem-) Yemeen-ed- 
 Dow - lah,' Mahmoud - Abul - Kacem -Yemin - eddaulah, 
 Mahmud-Abul-Kassim-Jemin-eddaulah. 
 
 M.insoor,' (Al,) Mansour or Mancour, (14,) Mansflr, 
 Munsoor.J 
 
 Meerzi," Mirza, Mirsa, (German.) 
 
 Moaweeyah, Moawiah, Moawiyah, Moawije and Mua- 
 wijjah, (German,) Mo&veah, Mauweiah, (in Latin, 
 Moawias.) 
 
 Modhafar," Modhofar, Mozaffer, MozufTur, Muzuffer, 
 Moozuffur.t (I7-) 
 
 Mohammed, 13 Mahomed, Mahomet, Muhammed, Me- 
 hemet, Moohuinmud,* (moo-hum'miid.) 
 
 Nadir Shah," Nadir (or Nader) Chah, Nadir Schah, 
 Nauder Shah. 
 
 N&sir-ed-Deen," Nassireddyn, N&cireddin, (14,) Nas- 
 ser-u-deen, Nausser-ud-deen. 
 
 Nizamee, Nizami, Nisami, Nidhami, (17.) 
 
 Noor-ed-Deen'* or Nour-ed-Din, Nour-u-deen, Nour- 
 eddyn, Nureddin. 
 
 1 " The golden." • The " great," or " greatest." 
 
 • " High," "eminent," " noble." * "Victorious through God." 
 ■ "Beautiful," "handsome," "good." 
 
 • "Fortunate," "blessed." ' "Conqueror of the world." 
 
 • "Bountiful," "generous," "merciful." 
 
 • Yemeen-ed-Dowlah signifies "right hand of the state (or empire.") 
 
 10 "The victorious." 
 
 11 I.e. Mecr-Z&d, or Ameer-Z&d, "son of a prince." 
 ""Victorious." ""Praised." 
 
 •« " Wonderful king. " '• " Defender of the faith." 
 
 " " Light of the faith." 
 
 * Sometimes so written and so pronounced by the English in 
 India. (See Section IX. 3.) 
 
 t Sir G. Wilkinson writes the name of the celebrated capital of 
 Egypt (Cairo) Qakera. 
 
 X So written by Sir John Malcolm, and so pronounced in India. 
 18 
 
 Nousheerwan, NoushirwSn, Nauschirwan or Naoo- 
 chirwan, Nuschirwan. (See Khosroo, in the body of 
 this work.) 
 
 Omeyyah, Ommeyah, Ommaiah, Umeyyah, Omiee; 
 (in German,) Omajjah, Omijjah, or Umaijjah. 
 
 Othman, Osman, Otman, (or Ottoman.) 
 
 Rdostam, Roostum, Roustam, Roustem, Rustam, Rus- 
 tem. 
 
 Shah-Alam" (or -Aulum,) Chah-Alam (or -Alem,) 
 Schah-Alam. 
 
 Shah-Jehan" ( or -Jahan, ) Chah - Djehan, Schah- 
 Dschehan or Schah-Dschahan. 
 
 Sooleymin, Suleiman, Solyman, Soliman, Souleyman. 
 
 Soovorof, Souvorof, Suworow, Suwarow, Suwarrow, 
 Souvarof, Suvaroff, Suvorow. 
 
 Taimoor or Teemoor, Timour, Tai'mour, Taimur or 
 Timur, Tamerlane." 
 
 Yakoob, Yacoob, Yakoub, Yacoub, Yakub; Jakub, 
 (German.) 
 
 Yazeed or Yezeed, Yazid or Yezid ; Jezid, (Dutch ;) 
 Jasid or Jesid, (German.) 
 
 Yoozuf, Yoosoof, Youzouf or Youzef, Iouzef; Jusufor 
 Jusef, (German.) 
 
 The following table of names of a certain kind, classi- 
 fied according to their spelling in the four principal 
 European languages, will, it is believed, furnish a key 
 to many of the difficulties which the reader is likely to 
 meet with in works on Oriental history or biography : 
 
 English. 
 
 French. 
 
 German. 
 
 Italian 
 
 Chengir, 
 
 Tchenguiz, 
 
 Tschengis, 
 
 Cenghis. 
 
 Chenghiz, 
 
 Tchenghis, 
 
 Tschingis, 
 
 Cinghis. 
 
 Chenghts, 
 
 Tchenguis, 
 
 
 
 Chingiz, 
 
 Tchtnguit. 
 
 
 
 Chingis, 
 
 Tchinguis. 
 
 
 
 Chinghis, 
 
 Tchinghis. 
 
 
 
 Jengis,§ 
 
 Djenguiz, 
 
 Dschengis, 
 
 Genghis. 
 
 Jengiz, 
 
 Djenguyz. 
 
 
 
 Jenghis, 
 
 Djenguis. 
 
 
 
 The first of the above spellings are based on the sup- 
 position that the initial consonant in the Mongol name 
 had the sound of our eh ; while those below (Jengis, etc.) 
 rest on the supposition that the initial letter had the 
 sound ofy. On this question the best Oriental authori- 
 ties are not agreed. It very probably had a sound 
 somewhat differing from either. 
 
 English. 
 
 French. 
 
 German. 
 
 Italtah. 
 
 Jaafar, 
 
 Djafar, 
 
 Dschafar, 
 
 Giafar. 
 
 Jafar, 
 
 Djafer, 
 
 Dschafer, 
 
 Giaftar. 
 
 Jafer, 
 
 Djaafar, 
 
 Dschaafar, 
 
 Giaafar, eta 
 
 Jamsheed 
 
 Djamcliid, 
 
 Dschamschid, 
 
 Giamscid, 
 
 or 
 
 Djamchyd, 
 
 Dschemschid. 
 
 
 Jemsheed, 
 
 Djemchid, 
 Djemchyd, 
 Djamschid, etc.| 
 
 . 
 
 
 11 4I King of the world," or * king of the universe." 
 « "King of the world." 
 
 '• A corruption of Taimoor-Ung or Timur-Unk, — i.e. "Taimool 
 the lame." 
 
 § Gibbon, the historian, writes the name Zingis. 
 
 H It is extremely common for French writers, in spelling Oriental or 
 Russian names, to use sck instead of ck, which is more strictly French. 
 It has not been deemed necessary to present in the table every pos- 
 sible form, such as Djamschyd, Djemschyd, Dgemchid, Dgemchyd, 
 etc, although these would be perfectly legitimate Freuch spellings. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 German. Italian. 
 
 Dschahangir,* Giahanghir. 
 
 Dschehangir, Gehanghir. 
 
 Cadigia. 
 
 English. French. 
 
 Jahan Geer,* Djahanguir,' 
 
 Jehan Geer Djahanguyr, 
 
 or Djehanguir, 
 
 Jehangeer, Djehanguyr, 
 
 Djahanguire, etc: 
 Khadijah, Khadidja, Chadidscha, 
 
 Khadeejah. 
 
 Meerza, Mirza, Mirsa or Mirza, Mtrsa or Mirza. 
 
 Nizamee, Nizami, Nisami, Nisami. 
 
 Noor-ed-Deen,* Noureddin,* Nureddin,* Nureddin. 
 
 Noor-ud-deen, Nnureddyn. 
 
 Shah-Jahan, Chah-Djahan, Schah-Dschahan,Sciah Giahan. 
 Shah-Jehan, Chah-Djehan, Schah-Dschehan, Sciach Giacan. 
 Shah-Jehaun. 
 
 Yazeed Yazid, Jasid, Jasid. 
 
 or Yasid, Jesid, Jesid. 
 
 Yezeed, Iazid, 
 
 Yez!d, 
 
 Iesid. 
 Yoosnf Yonzouf, Jussuf (or Jusut 
 
 or Youzef, Jusuf,) Jusef, 
 
 Yoozoof, Youseph, Jusef, 
 
 Yoozef, Iouzef, etc., Juseph. 
 
 Zeid or Zeyd, Zeid, Seid or Seyd. 
 
 Zhookofski Joukofski, Schukowski, 
 
 or Joukovski, Schukovski, Sciucofschi. 
 
 Zhookofskee, Joucofski, Schukofski, Sciucovschi. 
 
 Zhoukofski.t Shukowski. 
 
 Any number of instances might be cited in which re- 
 spectable English writers use in the same work, and, it 
 may be, in the same sentence, the English, French, and 
 German orthography indiscriminately, as Aboo, Aboii, 
 or Abu, Abool-Kausim, Aboul-K&ssim, Abul-Kissim, 
 Arghoun, Feridoon, etc. etc. This is unquestionably a 
 serious defect in any work, as in most cases the reader 
 must be wholly at a loss to determine what sound the 
 writer intends to convey ; yet the universal prevalence 
 of this practice, and the absence of any settled orthog- 
 raphy in regard to Oriental names, may be justly urged 
 as some extenuation. But there is another very common 
 fault, which in our view is far more objectionable, — that 
 of combining French and English or English and Ger- 
 man orthography in the same name : as, Abou-Yusoof, 
 (in which the second syllable is French, the third Ger- 
 man, and the fourth English,) Abou-Aly-Sumjoovee, (in 
 which the first part is French, and the second and third 
 English,) Aboushirwan, Aboul-Kausim, (in both of which 
 the second syllable is French, and the third English,) 
 Abulfiradge, (Aboolfaraj,) (in which the second syllable 
 is German, and the fourth French,) Nour-u-deen-Mah- 
 mood, (in which the first syllable is French, and all the 
 rest English.) 
 
 All the examples last cited, and most of the others, 
 are taken from Sir John Malcolm's " History of Persia," 
 
 * It may be proper to observe that compound names, like the 
 above, (as Jahangeer or Djahanguir, Noureddin or Nureddin, etc., 
 may be written as one word or divided into their separate parts, 
 according to the option of the writer. Thus, we may write Jahangeer 
 or Jahan-Geer, Djahanguir or Djahan-Guir; Nooreddeen, Noor-ed- 
 Deen, Noureddin, (or Noureddyn,) Nour-ed-Din, Nour-Eddin, 
 or Nour- Eddyn ; etc. etc. We have, however, in giving the Eng- 
 lish spellings, generally preferred to divide the names into their 
 separate parts, which appears to accord with the general usage of 
 our language in regard to compound words of modern origin. 
 
 t It may be remarked that French writers sometimes, though 
 rarely, use zk instead of / in order to represent the sound of the 
 Russian >K. The Germans often employ sh (r in German being 
 usually equivalent to our z) for the same purpose. 
 
 a work of decided merit, whose author was not wanting 
 either in the learning or judgment required to produce 
 a work essentially free from the above defects, had his 
 attention been directed to the great importance of con- 
 sistency and uniformity in writings of this kind. 
 
 PERSIAN. 
 XIV. 
 
 1. The modern Persian is a mixed product formed by 
 the union of words derived from the different Aryan 
 dialects of ancient Persia with the Arabic, which was 
 introduced into the language by the Mohammedan con- 
 querors of the country. The mixture of these hetero- 
 geneous elements may be aptly compared to that of oil 
 and water. As in such a mixture we see portions or 
 masses of each ingredient in contact, but not combined 
 or assimilated with each other, so in modern Persian 
 w6 often find the Aryan and Semitic elements thrown 
 together side by side, without the slightest attempt to 
 assimilate or combine them into a harmonious whole. 
 We constantly meet with scraps of pure Arabic — not 
 merely phrases, but even whole sentences — introduced 
 bodily into a passage of which all the rest is Persian, 
 both in etymology and grammatical construction.); 
 
 2. The Persian alphabet includes, along with the 
 twenty-eight Arabic letters, these four additional ones: 
 S-», (p,) •;, (zh,) g; (ch,) and *S, (g.) The following 
 characters have, in Persian, a totally different power 
 from that given them in the Arabic alphabet, viz. : 
 i, [Jc, and Jo, which are pronounced like z, and O, 
 which takes the sound of s. This diversity of sound, as 
 might naturally be expected, often causes much confu- 
 sion, because European writers are apt to spell the name 
 according to the language with which they happen to be 
 most familiar : thus, one who is familiar with Arabic and 
 but little acquainted with Persian, as pronounced by the 
 natives of that country, will write Adherbijan, Modhafet 
 or Modhofar, while those who have learned the pronun- 
 ciation of these names in Persia or India will write 
 Azerbijan, Mozafer or Moznffer. 
 
 3. The Persian has also two vowel-sounds unknown to 
 the Arabic, — namely, I and 6. These sounds of yd and 
 waw are usually distinguished from the common Arabic 
 sounds of the same letters (namely, i or ee and 6 or 00) 
 by the Arabic epithet Alajhool or Majh&l, (signifying 
 " unknown,") or Ajemee, ( Ajemt,) (i*. " Persian,") while 
 the ordinary sound is designated by the term Ma'roof, 
 (Ma'rtif,) that is, "known" or " familiar." 
 
 4. It may be observed that the long a (&) in Persian 
 is considerably broader than the long a in Arabic or in 
 Sanscrit, though the pronunciation varies somewhat in 
 different provinces. In the city of Shiraz (where it is 
 claimed that the best Persian is spoken) the sound of A 
 is scarcely, if at all, less broad than in the English words 
 awe, fall, etc. 
 
 J Sir William Jones, in the Preface to his " Persian Grammar," 
 gives a very striking illustration of the difference between the crude 
 mixture of different ingredients composing the modern Persian, and 
 the more thoroughly assimilated elements of our own tongue, by the 
 following parallel sentences. The first, exhibiting the structure of 
 the English language, is from Middleton's " Life of Cicero," (vol. iii. 
 p. 351:) "The true law is right reason conformable to the nature of 
 things : which calls us to duty by commanding, deters us from sin by 
 forbidding." The composition of the Persian is similar to the follow- 
 ing: "The true lex is recta ratio conformable naturee, which by 
 commanding vocei ad officium, by forbidding a/raude deterreat." 
 
 '9 
 
 ^ 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 POLISH. 
 
 XV. 
 
 1. A sounds as a in the English y/ord/ar. 
 
 2. E, without an accent, like* in met ; with an accent, 
 (/,) like a in /ate. 
 
 3. /as in marine. 
 
 4. O, unaccented, as in note ; with an accent, like 00 in 
 food, or d"6. 
 
 5. £7 is like 00 in «««. 
 
 6. K resembles e in »«-, but is more guttural, being 
 simi.'ar to i in pin. 
 
 7. yi sounds nearly like on in French, (6n ;) 1 is in in 
 French, (or An.) 
 
 8. The consonants b, d,/,g, (always hard,) h, k, m, n, 
 p, s, (always sharp,) / and z, are essentially the same as 
 in English. 
 
 9. C in all cases, even before a or 0, sounds like ts in 
 English ; cz is equivalent to our ch ; ch is like the Ger- 
 man ch. 
 
 10. yis like the German, being equivalent \oy con- 
 sonant. 
 
 11. L (without any mark) is similar to our /, but 
 softer ; \ is very hard, somewhat resembling the // of the 
 Welsh. 
 
 12. R is like the German. 
 
 13. Wis similar to the German, resembling our v. 
 
 14. N, with an accent over it, (//,) sounds like the 
 Spanish it. 
 
 15. S, marked in a similar manner, (',) has a sound 
 blending that of s and y consonant. Sc has a sound 
 which cannot be given in English : its nearest approxi- 
 mation in our language is sts. 
 
 16. Sz is equivalent to sh in English. 
 
 17. Z, with a point over it, (i,) is like the French _/', or 
 th in English. 
 
 18. Z, with an accent, (»',) is somewhat similar to the 
 above, but has no equivalent in our language. 
 
 Obs. i. The accent in Polish words or names of more than one 
 syllable is nearly always on the penultima. 
 
 Obs. 2. The sounds of the letters in Slavonian, Bohemian, and 
 Illyrian correspond, with slight exceptions, to those of the Polish 
 language. 
 
 PORTUGUESE. 
 XVI. 
 
 1. The vowels a, e, i, o, », and y, and the diphthongs 
 ai, ay, ait,* are essentially the same as in Spanish. 
 
 2. Ao and ant are pronounced almost thva. 
 
 3. The consonants b, d,f, /, m, n,p, s, t, v, and z are 
 similar to the English. 
 
 4. C is the same as in French, differing from the Eng- 
 lish only by sometimes having the cedilla. 
 
 5. Ch is the same as in French, or, in other words, is 
 like our sh. 
 
 6. G and j are the same as in French. (See V. 15 
 and 17.) 
 
 7. H, in Portuguese, is always silent. When, how- 
 ever, it follows / or », it renders these letters liquid: 
 thus, filho (" son") is pronounced feel'yoo or fel'yo ; 
 senhora, ("lady,") sAn-yo'ri, etc. 
 
 8. M frequently, and « sometimes, has a nasal sound. 
 Sam, like s'w, is pronounced almost soun ; alem or alen 
 sounds like A-14n'. 
 
 * Ei and ty are almost the same as in Spanish, but have a sound 
 sometimes approaching that of the English long it 
 20 
 
 9. Qu is pronounced as in French, the it in this case 
 not being sounded. 
 
 10. R is like the French. (See V. 24.) 
 
 11. X is sounded like ch in Portuguese, or sh in English. 
 Obs. In Portuguese the general rules of accentuation are similar 
 
 to those in the Spanish language. (See XIX. Obs. 1.) 
 
 RUSSIAN. 
 XVII. 
 
 The Russian is the most important of all the Slavic 
 family of languages, not merely on account of its being 
 the tongue of one of the most powerful and most popu- 
 lous empires in the world, but it is probably not inferior, 
 viewed simply as a vehicle of expression, to any other 
 member of that family, if we take into consideration all 
 the qualities which go to form a good language, such as 
 softness, flexibility, variety, richness, and force. Al- 
 though some of its consonants — H4, for example — seem 
 sufficiently harsh to an English ear, it is much softer 
 than the Polish, and is mostly free from that concourse 
 of consonantst which makes the latter tongue so formi- 
 dable to foreigners. 
 
 The power of the greater number of the Russian letters 
 is perhaps sufficiently explained in the table on the 
 opposite page. The following, however, require some 
 additional explanation : 
 
 1. T sounds usually nearly like our hard g, but is some- 
 what more guttural, as if an aspirate were mingled with 
 the other sound. Occasionally it is pronounced like k, 
 and not unfrequently, when at the end of words, like 
 the German ch. It also has sometimes nearly the sound 
 of our h ; and, as the Russians have no other letter to 
 represent h in foreign names, they use T for this purpose. 
 Thus, they would write Kopengagen for Copenhagen. 
 
 2. E, though generally possessing the pronunciation 
 indicated in the table, (a or yA,) in some cases takes the 
 sound of yo or e^ ; it is then usual to mark it thus, e, 
 as Hecere, "you carry," (pronounced neVyo'te 1 or 
 nes-e_Kj't<!.) 
 
 Obs. i. The omission of this mark sometimes leads to important 
 errors: thus, Feodor, ("Theodore,") always in three syllables, is 
 not unfrequently written and pronounced by foreigners Fedor. 
 
 Obs. 2. The varying sound of e (A or ya) will explain why certain 
 names beginning with this vowel are written sometimes with an 
 initial E and sometimes with Y, as EkattrinoslaJ 'or Yekaierinoslaf, 
 Elisavetgrad or Yclisavetgrad. etc. 
 
 3. K is usually sounded as in English, but in certain 
 positions it takes the sound of kh, (or the German ch.) 
 
 4. A has usually the same sound as the English /, but 
 when followed by the hard semi-vowel t, or by the 
 vowels a, 0, y, (00,) it is similar to the Polish i. 
 
 5. The hard semi-vowel % imparts to the preceding 
 consonant a strong harsh sound, as if it were doubled. 
 When preceded by B (v) it changes the sound of this 
 consonant into that oi/orff; as, op^dB'B, pronounced 
 or-loff. Following >K, it changes the sound of this letter 
 intojvi; as, hcwkt., pronounced — nosh. In like manner, 
 when it follows /\,it changes its sound to t ; and so on. 
 
 6. The soft semi-vowel h usually imparts a soft or 
 liquid sound to the preceding consonant. Thus, craHb 
 is pronounced almost stafi; cto;»,, stol, etc. 
 
 7. The semi-vowel His placed after vowels with which 
 it coalesces,' forming but one syllable ; as, /Saft pro- 
 nounced di-i or di ; nett, pi-e or pa, eta 
 
 t As occurs, for example, in such Polish names as the followuiK 
 Brzetc, Pnemysl, Skrzenb$ki. etc. etc 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 
 
 The Russian alphabet consists of thirty-six letters, as follows : 
 
 
 
 Power. 
 
 
 Name as pronounced 
 in English. 
 
 
 
 p_„,„_ Name as pronounced 
 rowKt in English. 
 
 1. A a 
 
 i 
 
 
 a 
 
 19- 
 
 Ttih 
 
 t 
 
 ti 
 
 2. B d 
 
 b 
 
 
 bi' 
 
 2a 
 
 yy 
 
 OO 
 
 00 
 
 3. B B 
 
 T 
 
 
 vi 
 
 21. 
 
 $ $ 
 
 f 
 
 «f 
 
 4. Tr 
 
 got 
 
 J* 
 
 ghi 
 
 22. 
 
 Xx 
 
 K (like the German ck) 
 
 Ki 
 
 5. A A 
 
 a 
 
 
 da 
 
 «3- 
 
 IU 
 
 ts 
 
 tsi 
 
 6. £ e 
 
 a or 
 
 yi 
 
 yi 
 
 24- 
 
 *I? 
 
 ch or tch (equivalent to the 
 Persian jr) 
 
 sh 
 
 chi 
 
 7. Htw 
 
 zh 
 
 
 zhi 
 
 »5- 
 
 mm 
 
 shi 
 
 8. 3 3 
 
 z 
 
 
 tk 
 
 26. 
 
 mm 
 
 sh-tsh 
 
 sh'tchi 
 
 9- H H 
 
 M, 
 
 ye 
 
 yi 
 
 *7- 
 
 T.I 
 
 e mute (making the preceding 
 consonant hard) 
 
 ySR 
 
 10. I i 
 
 e or 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 28. Hh 
 
 e or we 
 
 yir-we 
 
 II. K K 
 
 k 
 
 
 ka 
 
 29. 
 
 b h 
 
 y, nearly mute 
 
 ya'ri 
 
 12. A A 
 
 1 
 
 
 ei 
 
 30. 
 
 "b u 
 
 yi or i 
 
 yi'tj or yi'tl 
 
 13- M M 
 
 m 
 
 
 em 
 
 3'- 
 
 3 3 
 
 e 
 
 « 
 
 14- H H 
 
 n 
 
 
 tn 
 
 3*- 
 
 10 H) 
 
 u (yoo) or u 
 
 yoo 
 
 is- 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 33- 
 
 flu 
 
 yi or yS 
 
 yi 
 
 16. II n 
 
 P 
 
 
 pi 
 
 34- 
 
 06 
 
 f 
 
 ft-tr 
 
 17. P p 
 
 r 
 
 
 e R 
 
 35- 
 
 V Y 
 
 M 
 
 ee'zhet-si 
 
 18. C c 
 
 s 
 
 
 Sss 
 
 36. 
 
 ft ft 
 
 y, nearly mute,0» k * 
 a half-uttered I.) 
 
 tor I 
 
 SANSCRIT. 
 XVIII. 
 I. The Sanscrit* {i.e. the "elaborate" or "perfect" 
 language) was the language used by the more highly 
 cultivated portion of the ancient Aryan inhabitants 
 of India, (see Arya in the body of this work,) and is 
 still the learned language of their descendants, the 
 modern Hindoos.t It is regarded as the oldest of the 
 Indo-European tongues. The character in which it is 
 written is called NagariJ or Devanagari, (pronounced 
 da'va na'ga-ree',) and, like most other alphabets of the 
 Indo-European family, it is written from left to right. 
 The Nagari, (or Nagaree,) considered simply as a phonetic 
 system, is perhaps the most perfect of human alphabets. 
 It not only has a separate letter for every one of its 
 elementary sounds, but it is also remarkable for its ad- 
 
 • Written also Sanskrit and Sungskrit. The term is derived 
 from the Sanscrit particle sdm, nearly equivalent to the Latin con, 
 "together," (acd, like it, often used as an intensive,) and kritH, 
 "made" or "done." It signifies " made or done thoroughly," and, 
 hence, "elaborate," "complete," "perfect." 
 
 t It may be said to bear nearly the same relation to the modern 
 Hindoo dialects that the Latin bears to the dialects of modern Italy. 
 
 t Nagari [from Nagara, a "city"] signifies "of the city, "and, hence, 
 "refined" or "cultivated." Deva, (nearly related to the Latin Dens 
 and Divits,) a Sanscrit word, denoting a " god" or " deity," was often 
 applied as a term of honour to the Brahmans. (See " Institutes of 
 Manu," ix. 317, 319 ) Devanagari would appear, then, to signify the 
 'cultivated (written) language of the gods, (or Brahmans,") the use 
 of it having originally been for the most part, if not exclusively, con- 
 fined to the priestly caste. 
 
 mirable classification of these sounds. It consists of 
 fifty letters, of which fourteen are vowels and thirty-six 
 consonants, besides various compound characters, which 
 may be said to be merely abbreviated modes of writing 
 two or three consonants together. 
 2. The vowels are 
 
 3; ^ u (or 60) rr "* 6 
 
 * 5§ 
 
 ST or T a jR rl rj or * ai (i.e. i'e) 
 
 ■^ f I *£ ri (or ree) 5TT T 6 
 
 ^ *T i (or ee) 3T II OT *T au (or 6u) 
 
 3 ^ u (or So) 51 ]i (or lee) 
 
 Obs. It will be seen that most of the Sanscrit vowels have two 
 forms: the first is used at the beginning of a clause or sentence, the 
 other occurs in other positions, particularly in the middle of a word. 
 
 3. The consonants are as follows : 
 
 9i k 
 
 W kh 
 
 Tg 
 
 ST gh 
 
 3 ng 
 
 ^ ch 
 
 gy chh 
 
 * J 
 
 <rT )h 
 
 or R 
 
 Z \ 
 
 5 th 
 
 Jd 
 
 C dh 
 
 TJT n 
 
 FT t 
 
 «T th 
 
 s;d 
 
 y dh 
 
 :T n 
 
 Tp 
 
 <T7 ph 
 
 51 b 
 
 U bh 
 
 T m 
 
 rr y 
 
 t« 
 
 c?T 1 
 
 £7 v 
 
 • m 
 
 ST sh 
 
 ff sh 
 
 ST s 
 
 ctK 
 
 i 1?|| 
 
 § The pronunciation of $r, in modern India, is like that of our 
 short » in hit. It should be observed that !R and c?T do not involve 
 any sound of i, but are similar to our r and /. 
 
 I To these may be added jg, , (1,) occurring only in the Vedas. 
 
 21 
 
 ^ 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 4. The vowels are divided into 
 
 Short, * 7 3 ^ *3J 
 
 r 
 Long, 5ETT J 3 =f£ 5| 
 
 5. The Sanscrit letters may be classified as follows : 
 
 VOWELS. SEMI- NASALS. 
 VOWELS. 
 
 ASPIRA- 
 MUTES. SIBI- TION, 
 
 LANTS. ETC. 
 
 Gutturals, 1J m 5 aniar ITS! «| 
 
 Palatals, J^ \ U oT <cT $ iT qT ST 
 Unguals, M ^ ^ IT Z Z Z TS tT 
 Dentals, 5<T tr| c?T =T FT «T 3; if ' 
 Labials, 33: o( JT q-qT 5Ttf 
 
 6. The only Sanscrit sounds of frequent occurrence 
 which present any serious difficulty to the European 
 learner are the combinations of the mutes k, g, ch,j, t, 
 d, t, d,p, and b with h, making kh, (T3,)gh, (ET.) th, (jj,) and 
 so on. It is important to observe that W has a totally 
 different sound from the Arabic or Persian .l, (equivalent 
 to the German ch ;) and Z or ?T is pronounced quite dif- 
 ferently from the Arabic vi>, or our th. The sound of 
 kh, gh, th, dh, ph, and bh, in Sanscrit as well as in the 
 modern Hindoo dialects, may be said to resemble that 
 produced in such English phrases as "bake-house," 
 "stag-horn," "hot-house," "bid him," "stop him," etc., 
 when these words are pronounced quickly and yet very 
 distinctly; with this important difference, however, that the 
 Indian mute and h are to be uttered with a single impulse 
 of the voice, and never divided into separate syllables. 
 
 7. The dental / (fT) and d, (5;,) in Sanscrit, have 
 essentially the same sound as the Arabic O and ^>, (see 
 Section I. 4 and 8;) but the lingual (cerebral) / (£) 
 and d (Z) have no equivalent either in Arabic or Persian. 
 They somewhat resemble the English / and d, but are 
 formed by reverting the end of the tongue far back into 
 the dome of the mouth : hence the name of cerebrals 
 sometimes given to them.* The Hindostanee r (~.\ is 
 pronounced in a similar manner. (See 8 of this Section.) 
 
 8. It may be observed that in the modern dialects 
 of India, including Hindostanee, we have, in addition 
 to the lingual and dental sounds of / and d, a lingual 
 (or cerebral) r, (not found in Sanscrit.) The Sanscrit WTZ 
 (ghota,) a "horse," becomes in Hindostanee ghora; 
 JTJiT, (Garuda,) the vahan of Vishnu, takes the modern 
 form of garur, (pronounced gur'oor.) In writing Hindo- 
 stanee with the Nagari alphabet, this lingual r is repre- 
 sented by Z with a dot beneath, thus, 7, while in the 
 ordinary (Persian) alphabet it is indicated thus, y or y. 
 The lingual / and d in the modern Nigari are written 
 precisely as in Sanscrit ; but in the common alphabet 
 they are distinguished from o and 3 either by having 
 four dots, as ci), 3, or by a stroke placed above, ©, t>. 
 
 9. In writing Sanscrit, 1J (d) is never expressed 
 after a consonant, but it is implied after every consonant 
 unless this be followed by another vowel or by the rest- 
 sign : thus, ihHvl, (kml,) "lotus," is to be read kamalS; 
 but if the final consonant has the rest sign, it does not 
 take the it after it, as Al^rJ, (marut,) "wind." 
 
 (For a fuller and more systematic exposition of the 
 elements, etc. of the Sanscrit language, the reader is re- 
 ferred to the very able article, entitled "Sanscrit," by 
 Professor Whitney, in the " New American Cyclopaedia.") 
 
 * They are called in Sanscrit "murdhanya," (from murdhan, the 
 "head,") because they seem to be pronounced more nearly in the 
 centre of the head than any other class of letters. 
 22 
 
 SPANISH. 
 XIX. 
 
 1. The Spanish a sounds as in the English fiorAfar ; 
 e, like a in ale ; i, like e in mete ; 0, as in English ; «, liks 
 00 ; and_y, (when a vowel,) like the Spanish i. 
 
 2. At and ay are like long i in English. Au sounds 
 like au in our. (See VI, 14, Obs.) £i and ey are 
 pronounced a'e. 
 
 3. The consonants f, I, (single,) m, n, p, s, t, and v are 
 pronounced nearly as in English. 
 
 4. D, at the beginning of a word, sounds as in English ; 
 but when between two vowels its sound somewhat re- 
 sembles that of v, with this difference, — v is pronounced 
 with the upper teeth placed against the under lip, while 
 the sound of the Spanish b is formed by bringing the 
 lips loosely or feebly into contact. This sound seems to 
 be between that of b and the English w. It is repre- 
 sented by B or v. 
 
 5. C, before a, 0, and «, is pronounced as in English ; 
 before e and »', it has the sound of th in the word thin. 
 In the Catalan dialect it is the same as in English. 
 
 6. Ch has the same sound as in English, except in the 
 dialect of Catalonia, where it is pronounced like k. 
 
 7. D, at the beginning of a word, is sounded nearly 
 as in English, but is pronounced with the tip of the 
 tongue against the upper teeth, while in pronouncing 
 the English d the tongue is made to touch the roof of 
 the mouth. At the end of a syllable, or between two 
 vowels, d, in Spanish, sounds like the English /// in 
 this, but is somewhat softer. This sound is usually 
 represented in the present work by a small capital D. 
 
 8. G, before a, o, and a, is hard, as in English. 
 
 9. G before e and », and j before every vowel, are 
 pronounced like a strong guttural h, similar to the Ger- 
 man ch in ach. This sound is indicated by H, distinguished 
 as a small capital. 
 
 10. Gua and guo sound somewhat like gu>&, gwo, but 
 thesis so soft that it is scarcely perceived; so that in 
 these cases the sound of gu seems to approximate very 
 nearly to that of the English w. Gu, before e and i, is 
 usually sounded like^-hard : thus, Guiana is pronounced 
 ge-a'ni. When, however, the u is marked with a diaer- 
 esis, thus, ^wV, these two letters have the same sound as 
 when before a or o, and consequently giii is pronounced 
 give or we. (See table at the end of this Section.) 
 
 11. H, in Spanish, is never pronounced, except in 
 words beginning with hue, and then very slightly. 
 
 12. jt: for this letter, see 9 and 18 of this Section. 
 
 13. LI (now sometimes written I) has a sound which 
 combines that of / and y consonant, and is similar to 
 the liquid / in French : e.g. villa or Vila is pronounced 
 veel'ya ; Llerena, Ii-ra'nl or lyi-ra'na. 
 
 14. N, in similar manner, unites the sounds of n and 
 y, and is like gn in French: thus, pena is pronounced 
 peVya or pan'yi. 
 
 15. Q, in Spanish, is always followed by «. Qu, before 
 a and 0, is sounded as in English, or, in other words, is 
 equivalent to kw ; before e and i, it is pronounced like k, 
 unless the it be marked with a diasresis, in which case it 
 is like kto. (See table at the end of this Section.) 
 
 16. R is similar to the French, but is trilled more 
 strongly. (See V. 24.) 
 
 17. 7* is to be pronounced by putting the tip of the 
 tongue against the upper teeth. 
 
EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 18. X is usually sounded like the Spanish j, which 
 letter, according to the present mode of spelling, has 
 been generally substituted for it : thus, instead of the 
 old spelling Ximknes, Xucar, etc., we now often see in 
 Spanish works Jimenes, Jucar, etc. X, before a con- 
 sonant, or before a vowel marked with this sign, *. , is 
 sounded as in English : Examples, — Exterior, Ex&minar. 
 
 19. y, at the beginning of Spanish words, is usually a 
 semi-consonant, as ink' al y is for the most part in English 
 words. 
 
 20. Z is to be pronounced like th in thin. 
 
 The following table may serve to show more clearly the 
 manner in which c, g, j, q, x, and z are used in Spanish. 
 
 a. 
 
 ki 
 
 ke. 
 
 kp. 
 
 " koo. 
 
 is pronounced gA. 
 
 gA. 
 
 ge. 
 
 go. 
 
 goo. 
 
 is pronounced h3. 
 
 hA. 
 
 He. 
 
 HO. 
 
 HOO. 
 
 ca is pronounced 
 
 que " " 
 
 qui '* " 
 
 co " " 
 
 cu " " 
 
 ga 
 
 gue 
 
 gui 
 
 go 
 
 g« ' 
 
 ja or xa 
 
 cua or qua is pronounced qui. 
 cue or que " " qui. 
 
 cui or qui '* " que. 
 
 cuo or quo " " quo. 
 
 gua is pronounced gwS or wA. 
 gile " " gwA or wA. 
 
 gtii " " gwe or we. 
 
 guo " " gwo or wo. 
 
 za is pronounced Md. 
 
 ze or ce " " MA. 
 
 zi or ci " " Me. 
 
 zo " " tho. 
 
 zu " " Moo. 
 
 je, xe, orge 
 
 ji, xi, or gi " 
 
 jo or xo " 
 
 ju or xu '* 
 
 Obs. 1. Spanish words or names ending in a consonant have the 
 accent almost always on the last syllable ; those ending in a vowel 
 are generally accentuated on the penultima. If a word or name be 
 an exception to either of these rules, in correctly-printed Spanish 
 works the accent is usually marked; as, C6rdova, AlcalA, JtScAR, 
 Cachkes. It should be observed that the s in the plural does not 
 change the accent: hence casas," houses," though ending in a con- 
 sonant, has the penultimate accent as well as the singular casa, a 
 "house." 
 
 Obs. 2. The Spanish accent, though resembling the German and 
 Italian, is much less distinctly marked than the accent of those lan- 
 guages, — so much so, that it is sometimes difficult for an English 
 ear to determine positively which is the accentuated syllable. In this 
 respect it may be said to approximate very nearly to the French. 
 
 Obs. 3. The Spanish language as spoken in Mexico and South 
 America diners in some points materially from the true Spanish. 
 
 Thus, *, and c before e and i, instead of having the sound of th, are 
 generally pronounced like s. Among the uneducated classes It is 
 universally sounded like y: thus, gallo is pronounced almost g£'y°- 
 
 SWEDISH. 
 XX. 
 
 J. The vowels a and /', and the diphthongs a and 0, are 
 similar to the German. 
 
 2. A sounds like the English 0. Lulei is pronounced 
 loo'll-o; Tornea, tor'm-o, etc. 
 
 3. E, when accentuated, has almost the sound of our 
 short i prolonged, represented in this work by {{. 
 
 4. O, at the end of a syllable, is like our 00 ; in other 
 cases, like o in not. 
 
 5. U, in Swedish, is a very difficult sound for foreigners 
 to acquire ; it seems remotely to resemble the French », 
 and to blend (very obscurely) the sounds of the English 
 i ox I and 00. It has been represented in the present 
 work by 00, this sound being the nearest to it of any in 
 our language. 
 
 6. Y is the same as in Danish, or, in other words, is 
 similar to the French u. 
 
 7. The Swedish consonants are, for the most part, pro- 
 nounced like the English, with the exception of/and^-, 
 (before e, i, a, 0, and «,) which are nearly equivalent to y 
 consonant, (g, before a, 0, and «, is hard, as in English,) 
 and of z, which commonly sounds like s, or else like the 
 English z. 
 
 8. CA initial (except when immediately followed by 
 r) is sounded like the English cA in cAild; in the middle 
 or at the end of a word it takes the sound of k. Kj sosnds 
 like the English cA in child: thus, Kjbping (written, also, 
 simply Hoping) is pronounced cAb'ping. C, (as in Eng- 
 lish,) before a, 0, and u, is like A ; before e, i, and_y, like s. 
 Qv or qu is like qu in English. 
 
 9. St, followed by/, has the sound of our sA: hence 
 Stjerna is pronounced sheR'na. K before e sometimes 
 takes the sound of our cA: thus, Kellgren is pronounced 
 cAel'gren. 
 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 SIGNS, ETC. RELATING TO ORTHOEPY. 
 
 1. a sounds as a in fate. 
 
 2. & denotes the sound of a in fare or e in tAere. It 
 
 is used to indicate the sound of the long open e 
 before r in cases where it would be objectionable 
 to employ at. It has not been deemed proper to 
 use exactly the same letters (without any distinctive 
 mark) in the pronunciation as in the spelling of a 
 name ; because if the same letters were used for 
 both, and the reader should happen to miscall the 
 name as ordinarily written, he would perhaps be 
 equally liable to miscall the pronunciation. While, 
 therefore, the pronunciation of Moi.iere may very 
 properly be represented by mo'Ie-aiR', it would, 
 for the reason just given, be improper to repre- 
 sent that of Beaucaire by bo'kaiR', instead of 
 which we write bo'kSR'. 
 
 3. 4 is essentially the same as a, but less prolonged.* 
 
 * The vowels A, e, and 6, though very similar to a, 5, (or ee,) o, have 
 
 4. & is nearly like the preceding, but more open. It is 
 
 used to represent a sound very similar to that of 
 e in met, (§,) but somewhat longer. (See Intro- 
 duction, V. 7, note.) 
 
 5. a sounds like a \x\far or fatAer. 
 
 6. f (the short sound of a) has a sound between a and 
 
 a ; it is shorter than the former, and somewhat 
 more open than the latter. 
 
 7. S (the long sound of a) indicates a sound longer than 
 
 a; in the pronunciation of Oriental names it ap- 
 proximates a very nearly. 
 
 been deemed preferable in certain cases, particularly in the pronun- 
 ciation of French names, in order to guard against a drawling sound. 
 
 For a similar reason, e, in marking French pronunciation, has been 
 preferred to ee, even when under the full accent. 
 
 It may be remarked that long a, (a,) as pronounced in English, 
 is a sort of diphthong, almost A-e. In pronouncing foreign languages, 
 this diphthongal sound should be carefully avoided ; the sound of A 
 should be pure, without any, even the slightest, sound of e after it 
 
EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 S. i has the sound of a mfall. 
 
 9. a (or a) sounds as a mfat, pang, etc 
 
 10. a denotes the long a in Oriental names; it is also 
 
 sometimes used in English names to indicate the 
 sound of a mfall, halt, etc. : e.g. Dal'ton. 
 
 11. a is obscure, as in the first and last syllables of 
 
 America. 
 
 12. e is like ee; the latter (ee) is mostly used in this work. 
 
 13. e is like the preceding, but less prolonged.* 
 
 14. 8 (or e) sounds as e in met, pen, etc. 
 
 15. I has essentially the same sound as the preceding, 
 
 but is more open and more prolonged. (See V. 2.) 
 
 16. e is obscure, as in berth, her, rider. 
 
 17. I indicates the long sound of i in English, as in pine, 
 
 triangle, etc. 
 
 18. 1 or ! sounds as i in pin, pit, etc 
 
 19. i is obscure, as mfir. 
 
 20. o sounds as in note, home, etc 
 
 21. 6 is like the preceding, but less prolonged.* 
 
 22. d (or 6) sounds as in not. 
 
 23. 06 (or u) has the sound of u in bull, pull, etc., or of 
 
 00 in good. 
 
 24. 60 sounds as a in rule, or 00 in moon, noon, etc 
 
 25. 6 has a sound similar to the French eu. It has no 
 
 equivalent in English. (VI. 9.t) 
 l6. o is obscure, as in Boston, terror, etc. 
 77. u indicates the sound of the French u. It has no 
 
 equivalent in our language. (V. 5, VI. io.t) 
 
 28. S is the short sound of the preceding. 
 
 29. u (small capital) indicates the sound of the French 
 / eu, almost like that of our w in fur ; it resembles 
 
 the sound of the German 0. (V. 10, VI. 9.t) 
 
 30. u denotes the Sound of do, (very short.) 
 
 31. B (small capital) approximates v in sound. 
 
 32. I) (small capital) indicates a sound nearly like th, (as 
 
 in this.) (XIX. 7-t) 
 
 * See note * on preceding page. 
 
 t These refer to the principles of pronunciation, as explained in 
 
 |y~ When a name occurs several times, it has not been deemed 
 necessary to pronounce it more than once ; in which case the reader 
 should look for the very first occurrence of the name, where the pro- 
 nunciation will be given. If a name having the same spelling occurs 
 in several different languages, it will be pronounced but once for each 
 of the different languages ; that is, the first time that it occurs in that 
 particular language. 
 
 Itf^"" It may be observed, in regard to the arrangement of the 
 names in the present work, that if the ordinary names are spelled 
 differently they are given in strict alphabetical order, without the 
 slightest reference to the Christian or first names, (which are always 
 placed in a parenthesis and in a different kind of type ;) but if a num- 
 ber of names occur spelled in precisely the same manner, they follow 
 the order of the Christian names. Thus, Smith, (Charles,) is 
 given before Smith, (John, Robert, or William.) If it should 
 happen that both the ordinary name and Christian name of two or 
 more different persons are exactly alike, then the precedence is de- 
 termined by the priority of date: e.g. Smith, (William,) of the 
 seventeenth century is given before Smith, (William,) of the 
 eighteenth century ; and so on. 
 
 S3f"" When the same name belongs to a great number of princes 
 or sovereigns, those of antiquity are given first ; among modern rulers, 
 emperors are placed before kings, and these before inferior person- 
 ages, princes or dukes. Emperors or kings having the same name 
 are usually given in the alphabetical order of the names of the coun- 
 tries which they rule: thus, the emperois of Austria precede the 
 
 33. G and K (small capitals) indicate the sound of the 
 
 German ch, or one similar to it. 
 
 34. H (small capital) has a sound nearly like the pre- 
 
 ceding. It resembles a guttural and strongly- 
 aspirated h. (I. 6, and XIX. 9-t) 
 
 35. h Italic is used to represent the undetermined sound 
 
 of the so-called aspirated h. (See V. 16.) 
 
 36. I (/liquid) is pronounced like Hi in million ; it blends 
 
 the sounds of / znA y consonant. (XIX. 13. t) 
 
 37. fi in like manner blends the sounds of n and y con- 
 
 sonant. (XIX. I4.t) 
 
 38. M and N (small capitals) denote the nasal sound in 
 
 French. (V. ig.t) 
 
 39. R (small capital) is to be strongly trilled ; it resembles 
 
 the sound of rr in terror. 
 
 40. s is used to denote the sound of a very soft t. 
 
 41. w indicates a sound similar to our v. (VI. 28.t) 
 
 42. ai or ay (unless otherwise marked) is to be sounded 
 
 like a in fate. 
 
 43. au and aw have the sound of a infill. 
 
 44. ey at the end of an unaccented syllable (in English 
 
 names) is to be sounded like e or short »'. 
 
 45. Si has the same sound as ee hi been or i in the first 
 
 syllable of spirit. 
 
 46. IT indicates a sound similar to the preceding, but 
 
 longer ; it is, in fact, the sound of short i (as inpin) 
 prolonged. (XX.3.t) 
 
 47. tw or ou sounds as in now or our. 
 
 J3T--G, (capital,) like g, denotes the sound of g hard, as 
 
 in get, give, etc. 
 E^ - G, (capital,) like g, denotes the sound of/ or soft g, 
 
 as in gentle. 
 E^=*This mark ^- indicates that the vowels joined by it 
 
 are to be pronounced almost in one syllable, as 
 
 Berthier, beR'te-V. 
 
 the Introduction. The Roman numerals have reference to the sec- 
 tion, the figures to the sound of the particular letter. 
 
 emperors of Russia, and the kings of England are given before those 
 of France, Italy, or Spain. 
 
 G3r*~~ VVhen a date in parenthesis is placed immediately after the 
 title of a work, it always has reference to the time of publication, 
 which may be, and not unfrequently is, long after the death of the 
 author. 
 
 fiGST" In marking the pronunciation in the present work, our aim 
 has been not to embarrass the reader with unnecessary marks or signs. 
 Thus, in giving the pronunciation of the Italian name Ciarpi, we 
 have simply written chaR'pee, which gives the pronunciation of this 
 name as perfectly as chaR'pe could do; because, in English, a, im- 
 mediately followed by r and another consonant, always takes its 
 second, or Italian sound, and ee usually represents the sound of the 
 Italian i quite as well as 6 or e could do. For a similar reason, in 
 such names as Antonei.li, pronounced ^n-to-nellee, we have not 
 thought it necessary to place any marks on the e in the penultimate 
 syllable, as the English reader would be sure to pronounce the e with 
 its short sound in this position when followed by two consonants of 
 the same kind In all cases, however, when it seemed possible that 
 the omission of the diacritical mark might give rise to doubt or error, 
 such sign has been added, since practical utility has been deemed of 
 more importance than the mere appearance of consistency. Thus, es 
 in modern names, even when under the full accent, has been marked 
 short, — for example, in Valdes, val-deV, — because, in accordance 
 with the usual Latin pronunciation, the e in such positions is com- 
 monly made long, as in Socrates. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 Fr., French. 
 Ger., German. 
 Gr., Greek. 
 
 *4 
 
 It., Italian. 
 Lat., Latin. 
 •Myth., Mythology. 
 
 Port., Portuguese. 
 Pron., Pronunciation. 
 Russ., Russian. 
 
 Sp., Spanish. 
 Sw., Swedish. 
 Turk., Turkish. 
 
JITIVEXi ITT 
 
 m 
 
 Pronouncing Dictionary 
 
 OF 
 
 Biography and Mythology. 
 
 A. 
 
 Aa, van der, vin der i, (Christian Karel Hen- 
 drik,) a Dutch scholar, divine, and writer on natural 
 science, born at Zwolle in 1718; died in 1793. 
 
 Aa, van der, (Christian Pieter Rohide,) a poet, 
 born at Amsterdam in 1791, was a grandson of the pre- 
 ceding. Died in 1851. 
 
 Aa, van der, (Diederik,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 the Hague in 1731. His works are commended for grace 
 and other merits. Died in 1809. 
 
 Aa, van der, (Jan,) a Dutch biographer of the 
 present age. He published an excellent " Biographical 
 Dictionary of the Netherlands," (" Biographisch Woor- 
 denboek der Nederlanden." 
 
 Aa, van der, (Pieter,) a Dutch lawyer and writer on 
 jurisprudence, born at Louvain. The date of his birth 
 is unknown. He published a "Commentary on the 
 Rights of Creditors," (" De Privilegiis Creditorum Com- 
 mentarium," 1560.) Died in 1594. 
 
 Aa, van der, (Pieter,) a learned bookseller of Ley- 
 den, flourished in the latter half of the seventeenth and 
 the beginning of the eighteenth century. Died about 
 
 1 73°- 
 
 Aacs. See Acs. 
 
 Aagaard, au'goRd, (Christian,) written also Aa- 
 gard, a Danish writer of Latin poetry, born at Viborg 
 in 1616. Died in 1664. 
 
 See Rostgaard, " Deliciae Poetarum Danorum ;" Moller, 
 " Gmbria Hterata." 
 
 Aagaard or Aagard, (Niels, neels,) a Danish poet, 
 born at Viborg in 1612, was probably a brother of the 
 preceding. He was professor of eloquence at Soroe. 
 He wrote several Latin poems and critical essays, among 
 which is " Prolusions on Tacitus." Died in 1657. 
 
 Aagesen, (Svend,) svend au'geh-sen, [in Latin, Sue'- 
 no Aggo'nis Fil'ius,] regarded as the earliest Danish 
 historian, flourished in the latter part of the twelfth cen- 
 tury. He wrote a history of Denmark, extending from 
 about a.d. 300 to 1 187. 
 
 See " Nouvetle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Aali See Alee. 
 
 Aalst. See Aelst. 
 
 Aare, van der, v3n der a'reh, (Diederik or Dirck,) 
 Bishop of Utrecht, and also a powerful temporal lord, 
 flourished in the latter part of the twelfth century. 
 Died in 1212. 
 
 See Wagenaar's " Vaderlandsche Historie." 
 
 Aaron, a'ron, [Heb. |1"tnX;,Gr. 'Aapuv,] the first of 
 the high-priests of the Israelites, was the eldest son of 
 Amram, who was the grandson of Levi. He is supposed 
 to have been born about 1600 B.C.; but on this point the 
 different authorities are not agreed. When Moses was 
 called by Heaven to deliver his countrymen from the 
 tyranny of Egypt, Aaron was commissioned to assist 
 him as his spokesman. He died at the age of one hun- 
 dred and twenty-three, and was succeeded in the priest- 
 hood by his son Eleazar. (See Exodus iv. 14 et seq. ; 
 also Numbers, particularly chap. xx. 23-29.) 
 
 Aaron, (Harischon, ha're-shon, or Ariscon,) a 
 
 rabbi of the Caraites, practised medicine at Constantino- 
 ple in the thirteenth century, and wrote a commentary 
 on the Pentateuch. 
 
 Aaron, [It. Aronne, a-ron'ni,] (Pietro,) a monk, 
 born at Florence about 1480, was a canon of Rimini. 
 He published several treatises on music, (1516-45.) 
 
 Aaron of Alexandria, a physician who lived in the 
 first half of the seventh century. He wrote a medical 
 work, In which the small-pox is first mentioned. 
 
 Aa'rpn-Ben-Ash'er, a Jewish rabbi of the eleventh 
 century, wrote a "Treatise on Hebrew Accents," (1517.) 
 
 Aaron-Ben-Jo'seph-Sa'son, a Jewish rabbi and 
 writer, lived at Thessalonica about 1600. 
 
 Aaron-Ben-Sam'uel, a Jewish writer of the seven- 
 teenth century. His chief work is "The House of Aa- 
 ron," (Frankfort, 1690,) which is said to be a very useful 
 book for biblical students. 
 
 Aaron-Margalitha, (-maR-ga-lee'ta,) a Polish pro- 
 fessor and rabbi, born in 1665. He was converted to 
 the Protestant faith at Leyden, and wrote a number of 
 theological treatises. Died about 1725. 
 
 Aaron-Raschid. See Haroun-al-Raschid. 
 
 Aarschot or Aerschot, iR'sKot, (Philippe de 
 Croi — deh kRwa,) Duke of, a Flemish general who 
 served under Charles V., and afterwards, when the 
 troubles broke out in the Low Countries, zealously sup- 
 ported the cause of Philip II. of Spain. Died in 1595. 
 
 See Motley, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," vols. i. and iii. 
 
 Aarsens, van, vSn iR'sens, (Cornelis,) Lord of 
 Spyck, (splk,) a statesman of Holland, born at Antwerp 
 in 1543. He was many years griffier ("recorder" or 
 "registrar") to the States-General, and died at an ad- 
 vanced age. 
 
 Aarsens. van, (Frans or Franciscus,) a distin- 
 guished Dutch diplomatist, son of the preceding, was 
 born at the Hague in 1572. His talents, address, and 
 unscrupulousness won the admiration of Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu, who ranked him with the most consummate politi- 
 cians of the age. The unjust death of Barneveldt is 
 ascribed partly to his intrigues. Died in 1641. 
 
 See Aubery, " Me'moires pour servir a l'Histoire de Hollande;" 
 Motley, " History of the United Netherlands," vol. iii. 
 
 Aarsens, van, (Frans,) a grandson of the preceding, 
 wrote a work called " Vovage en Espagne," (1666.) He 
 was drowned at sea in 1659. 
 
 Aartgens, iRt'cens, or Aertgen, iRt'cen, a Dutch 
 painter, called also Arthus Claessoon, (ar'tus klis- 
 son',) born at Leyden in 1498. He worked with suc- 
 cess in his native city. Died in 1564. 
 
 Aartsbergen, iRts'beVcen, (Alexander van der 
 Capellen, — v9n der ka-pel'len,) an eminent Dutch 
 statesman, who was born about 1600, and died in 1656. 
 According to G. Vossius, he was a man of rare talents 
 and incredible industry. 
 
 Aartsen, (Pieter.) See Af.rtsf.n. 
 
 Aascov, au'skov, (Urban Bruun,) a Danish physi- 
 cian, who served in the navv about 1770. 
 
 Aba, ob'oh, called also Samuel, of a noble Magyar 
 
 i, e, 7, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, y\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; m<55n; 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2[g~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 2? 
 
ABACCO 
 
 26 
 
 ABBADIE 
 
 Jaraily, became King of Hungary in ic.il. as successor 
 to Peter, whom a revolution had compelled to fly the 
 country. His injustice and cruelty at length irritated 
 the Hungarians, who entreated the assistance of the 
 emperor Henry III. In 1044 a battle was fought on the 
 Raab, in which Aba was defeated and .slain, and Peter 
 was restored to the throne of Hungary. 
 
 Abacco, 1-blk'ko, (ANTONIO,) an Italian architect of 
 the sixteenth century, a pupil of San Gallo. He pub- 
 lished a work on architecture in 15S8. 
 
 Abacco, (or Abaco,) dall', dal-ia-bak'ko, (Paolo,) a 
 Florentine mathematician and poet, who flourished about 
 the middle of the fourteenth century. 
 
 Abad. See Abbad. 
 
 Abad I., II, and III, (Sultans of Seville.) See 
 
 A B BAD. 
 
 Abadia, a-na-Dee'a, (Francisco Xavier — Ha-ve- 
 aiR',) a Spanish general, born at Valencia in 1774. Died 
 about 1830. 
 
 Abad y Queypeo, a-blD' e ki-pa'o, (Manuel,) a 
 Spanish bishop, born in Asturias about 1775. He was 
 imprisoned about 1815 for hostility to the Inquisition, 
 and was released in 1820. Died after 1824. 
 
 Abaelardua. See Abelard. 
 
 Abailard. See Abelard. 
 
 Abaka Khan, i-bd'ka Kin, son of Hoolakoo, (Hu- 
 lakii,) and grandson of Jengis Khan, succeeded his 
 father on the Persian throne a.d. 1264. He was a just 
 and enlightened ruler. He curbed the soldiery, who had 
 been so licentious under his father, and established order 
 and justice throughout his dominions. Died about 1280. 
 
 Abamoati, a-bi-mon'tee, or Abbamoute, ab-ba- 
 mon'ta, (Giuseppe,) a Neapolitan statesman, born about 
 1759. He became secretary-general of the Cisalpine 
 Republic in 1798, and a member of the executive com- 
 mission at Naples. After the king was restored in 1799, 
 he removed to Milan, and acted as secretary-general until 
 1805. Died in 1818. 
 
 Abancourt, d', dt'bSN'kooR', (Charles Xavier 
 JOSEPH Frauqueville — frd.Nk'vel',) one of the minis- 
 ters of Louis XVI., and nephew of Calonne. He was 
 massacred at Versailles on the 9th of September, 1 792. 
 
 Abancourt, d', (Francois Te\n Villemain — ver- 
 mis',) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1745. Died 
 in 1 So j. 
 
 Abauo, di, de a-bl'no, or Apo'no, (PlETRO,) [in 
 Latin, Pe'trus Apo'nus or Pe'trus de Apo'no,] a 
 learned physician and astrologer, born at Abano, near 
 Padua, in 1250. He was appointed professor of medicine 
 in the University of Padua about 1303, and died about 
 1316. He wrote a work entitled "Conciliator Differen- 
 tiarutn Philosophorum et praecipue Medicorum," the ob- 
 ject of which was to reconcile the various opinions held 
 by the different philosophical and medical schools ; from 
 which he has been surnamed Conciliator, " Reconciler." 
 Another of his works, entitled " On Poisons and their 
 Treatment," ("De Venenis eorumque Remediis,") though 
 much celebrated, shows him to have possessed more 
 learning than originality or cautious observation. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Raccolta d'Opuscoli Scientific! e Filologici," 
 1741 ; e'loy, " Dxtionnaire de la Medecine," article Apono. 
 
 A-ban'ti-da3, [' ASaPTitac,] a tyrant of Sicyon, (one of 
 the small states of Greece,) who obtained the supreme 
 power about 264 B.C. He was afterwards assassinated. 
 
 Abarbanel. See Abrabanel. 
 
 Abarca, i-baR'ka, (Joaquin,) a Spanish prelate, born 
 i.i Aragon in 1780, became Bishop of Leon. He was a 
 chief of the Carlist party in the civil war which began 
 about 1833. Died in 1S44. 
 
 Abarca, de, di a-baR'ka, (Dona Maria,) a Spanish 
 amateur portrait-painter. She died about 1060. 
 
 Abarca, de, da i-baR'ki, (Pedro,) a Spanish his- 
 torian, born in 1619. He belonged to the society of 
 Jesuits, and was for many years professor of theology 
 in the University of Salamanca. Died about 1690. His 
 chief work, "The Kings of Aragon," ("Los Reyes de 
 Aragon,") appeared in 1684. 
 
 Abascal, i-Bas-kal', (Jose Fernando,) a Spanish 
 commander, born at Oviedo in 1743. At 19 he entered 
 the army, and in 1804 was appointed Viceroy of Peru. 
 Through his abilities and indefatigable exertions, not 
 
 only were the Peruvians preserved in a state of subjec- 
 tion to Spain while other parts of South America were 
 in open insurrection, but the Spanish arms gained many 
 advantages over the insurgents of Buenos Ayres and 
 Chili. In 1816 he was superseded in the government 
 by General Pezuela, and returned to Spain, where he 
 died in 1821. 
 
 See W. B. Stevenson, "Twenty Years' Residence in So.itb 
 America." 
 
 Abati, a-bl'tee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Gubbio in 1614. He was governor of several cities in 
 the papal dominions. Died in 1667. 
 
 Abati, degli, dal'yee a-ba'tee, a Florentine family 
 known in history chiefly through the treachery of one of 
 its members, Bocco degli Abati. During a battle be- 
 tween the Guelphs (the party of the Florentines) and 
 the Ghibelines, (1260,) he cut off the hand of Jacopo del 
 Vacca, who carried the Florentine standard, which con- 
 sequently fell, and caused the defeat of his countrymen. 
 For this crime Dante assigns him a place in the ninth 
 or lowest circle of hell. See " Inferno," canto xxxii. 
 
 Abatiui, a-ba-tee'nee, (Guido Ubaldo,) an Italian 
 fresco-painter, born about 1600, worked in Rome, and 
 died in 1656. 
 
 Abauzit, i'bo'ze', (Firmin,) a justly celebrated phi- 
 losopher and mathematician, born at Uzes, in France, 
 in 1679. When he was two years old his father died, 
 and on the revocation of the edict of Nantes his mo- 
 ther, being a Protestant, was obliged to seek a refuge in 
 some foreign country. Her two sons were sent to Gen- 
 eva, where Firmin soon distinguished himself by his rapid 
 progress in almost every branch of learning and science. 
 The fame of Abauzit does not rest so much on his pub- 
 lications as on the opinion entertained of him by his 
 contemporaries. He not only enjoyed the respect of the 
 greatest writers and philosophers of France, but received 
 the most flattering testimonials of regard from other 
 countries. Sir Isaac Newton esteemed him highly, and, 
 after having once made his acquaintance, kept up a con- 
 stant correspondence with him. Died at Geneva in 1 767. 
 
 See Sabatier de Castres, " Les Trois Siecles de la LUteVatura 
 Francaise ;" J. J. Rousseau, "CEuvres;" Sknebiek, " Histoire Ht- 
 teraire de Geneve," tome iii.; Bekenger, " £*loge d* Abauzit." 
 
 Abba Arica, ab'ba a-ree'ka, [Heb. KJ'T* SOX,] 
 commonly known by the name of Rav, (31,) a learned, 
 Jewish rabbi, native of Babylon, flourished in the early 
 part of the third century. He died 243 a.d. 
 
 Abbad, (or Abad,) ab'bad', I., (called also_Aisoo-i.- 
 Kasim (or Aboul-cacem) Mohammed, a'bool ka'sjm 
 mo-ham'med,) the founder of the Abbadite (or Abadite) 
 dynasty of Seville, became sovereign of that city about 
 1023, and died 1042 a.d. 
 
 Abbad (or Abad) II., Aboo-Amroo, (Abu-Am- 
 ru,) ab'bld' a'boo am'rdo, the second sultan of Seville, 
 succeeded his father,Aboo-l-Kasim, (Abu'l-Kasim,) about 
 1042, aged 26 years. He was an able and successful 
 general, and was well versed in the learning and science 
 of the times. In splendour and luxury he rivalled the 
 most powerful sovereigns of the East ; but all his glory 
 was stained by his sanguinary cruelty. He used to 
 keep, it is said, in a private apartment, the skulls of all 
 the chiefs and princes who had fallen into his hands, 
 and paved the alleys of his gardens with those of infe- 
 rior rank. He died in 1069. 
 
 Abbad (or Abad) III, Moorish King of Seville, born 
 in 1039, was a son of Abbad II. He was a brave and 
 prudent ruler, and patronized arts and learning. He was 
 deposed by Yoosuf, (Yusuf,) King of Morocco, in ioyi, 
 and died in 1095. 
 
 Abbadie, i'bi'de', (Jacques,) a distinguished Prot- 
 estant divine, born in Beam, in the south of France, in 
 1658. His "Treatise on the Truth of the Christian Reli- 
 gion" ("Traite de la Verite de la Religion Chretienne," 
 2 vols., 1684) was received with great favour both by 
 Catholics and Protestants, and still enjoys a high repu- 
 tation. He was the author of several other works of less 
 note. He preached for some time in London, and after- 
 wards became Dean of Killaloe, Ireland. Died in London 
 in 1727. 
 
 See Niceron, " M^moires," and " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Abbadie, d', di'bS'de', (Antoine and Arnould 
 
 a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, d, same, less prolonged ; a, £, T, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nftt; g5Sd, moon; 
 
ABBAMONTE 
 
 27 
 
 ABBOT 
 
 Michel,) two brothers of Irish origin, but citizens of 
 France. They made some scientific researches in Abys- 
 sinia, where they passed about five years, — 1840-45. 
 
 Abbamonte. See Abamonti. 
 
 Abbas I., or Shah Abba3, shah ab'bas', {It. " King 
 Abbas,") surnamed the Great, King of Persia, was born in 
 1557. His father, Mohammed Meerza, whose want of capa- 
 city rendered him unpopular, was deposed by the discon- 
 tented nobles, and Shah Abbas succeeded to the throne 
 at. the age of twenty-five. He exhibited an energy and wis- 
 dom which commanded the respect alike of his subjects 
 and of his enemies. After having healed the dissensions 
 and curbed the lawlessness which had prevailed among 
 his nobles, he marched against the Turks, who, with an 
 army of 100,000 men, were then ravaging the Persian 
 provinces on the north. The army of Abbas consisted 
 of scarcely more than 60,000 men ; but it had been dis- 
 ciplined under the direction of two English gentlemen, 
 Sir Anthony and Sir Robert Shirley, and was provided 
 with an efficient artillery. In August, 1605, a battle was 
 fought, in which the Turks suffered a total defeat. The 
 Persian king recovered all his lost provinces, and was 
 not molested by the Turks during the remainder of his 
 reign. He died in 1627. 
 
 Sec Malcolm, " History of Persia," 1S29; " Travels of the Broth- 
 ers Shirley," 1825. 
 
 Abbas II., Shah of Persia, born about 163 1, succeeded 
 his father Sufi, or Sophy, in 1641. He possessed some 
 good qualities, and was noted for his liberal treatment 
 of the Christians and other foreigners in his dominions. 
 Died in 1666. 
 
 Abbas III., King of Persia, born in 1731, was the last 
 king of the dynasty of Sophvs. He was a son of Shah 
 Tamasp, who was dethroned by Nadir Shah. Died in 
 childhood in 1736. 
 
 Abbas, or more fully Abbas-Ibn-Abd-il-Moot- 
 talib, (or -Mottalib,) ab'bis' Tb'n abd-il-moot'tit-lib, 
 written also Abbas-Ben-Abdel-Mottalib, a paternal 
 uncle of Mohammed, born at Mecca about 566 A.D., 
 was the ancestor of the dynasty of Abbassides. lie 
 fought against Mohammed at the battle of Bedr, but 
 afterwards was converted to the cause of that prophet, 
 to whom he rendered important services. (See Moham- 
 med.) Died in 652 a.d. 
 
 See Caussin de Perceval, " Essai sur PHistoire des Arabes." 
 
 Abbas, ab'bjts', (Pasha,) Viceroy of Egypt; born at 
 Yedda, Arabia, in 1813, was a grandson of Mehemet 
 Ali. He succeeded his uncle Ibraheem in November, 
 1848. Died in 1854. 
 
 Abbas-Meerza, (-Mirza,) ab'bas' meeR'zi', son of 
 Fatah Alee Shah, King of Persia, was born about 1 785. 
 He was distinguished for his zealous and enlightened 
 efforts to introduce into his own country the arts, sci- 
 ences, and military tactics of Europe. He died in 1 833. 
 
 Abbassah, db-ba'sa, a pasha of Erzeroom, distin- 
 guished first for his successful rebellion against the sul- 
 tan Amurath (Murad) IV., and afterwards for his great 
 favour and influence with that monarch. At last, how- 
 ever, he fell a victim to the suspicions of his sovereign, 
 and was executed in 1634. 
 
 Abbassides or Abbasides, ab-bas'sTdz, singular, 
 Abbasside, ab-bas'sld, [Fr. pron. t'btstd'; Ger. Ali- 
 Bassiden, ab-bas-see'den ; Lat. Abbas'TD/E ; called by 
 the Arabs Benee(Beni) Abbas, i.e. "sons or descend- 
 ants of Abbas,"] the name of the most illustrious dynas- 
 ty of caliphs. They traced their genealogy to Abbas the 
 uncle of Mohammed, and reigned at Damascus and after- 
 wards at Bagdad from 749 to 1258 a.d. See Aboo-l- 
 Abbas-Abdallah. 
 
 Abbate, ab-ba'ta, or Abate, S-ba'ta, (Andrea,) a 
 Neapolitan painter of natural history and inanimate ob- 
 jects. Died in 1732. 
 
 Abbate, ab-ba'ta, Abbati or Abati, a-ba'tee, (Nich- 
 olas, or Niccolo,) a celebrated Italian painter, born at 
 Modena about 1512. Although his productions rank 
 him with the greatest Italian masters, very little is known 
 of the circumstances of his life. He died in Paris in 
 1571. Among his works were frescos at Fontainebleau. 
 His oil pictures are very scarce. 
 
 See Vedriani, " Vile dei Pittori Modenesi." 
 
 Abbate or Abati, (Pietro Paolo,) a brother of 
 f as*; 
 
 Niccolo, noticed above, was a skilful painter of battles 
 and horses, at Modena. Died about 1580. 
 
 Abbate, dell', del-lab-ba'ta, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 painter and modeller, worked at Modena. Died in 1557. 
 
 Abba-Thulle, ab'ba t'hul'lee, a king of the Pelew 
 Islands, who hospitably entertained the crew of the Eng- 
 lish ship Antelope, wrecked on an island of that group 
 in 1783. Struck with admiration on witnessing for the 
 first time the effect of fire-arms, he prevailed on Captain 
 Wilson, commander of the Antelope, to assist him in 
 his contests with the neighbouring islanders. The allied 
 forces, armed with " thunder and lightning," easily sub- 
 dued their enemies, destitute of these novel and terrific 
 implements of war. When his English friends were 
 about to return to their native country, the king intrusted 
 to their care his son Lee Boo, that he might visit Europe. 
 
 See Keate's ''Account of the Pelew Islands, from the Journal of 
 Captain Wilson." 
 
 Abbati, ab-bi'tee, or Abbatio, ab-ba'te-o, (Baldi 
 Angelo,) commonly called Abba'tius, a physician and 
 naturalist, who flourished about the middle of the six- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Abbatini, ab-ba-tee'nee, (Antonio Maria,) an Ital- 
 ian composer of music, who flourished in the first half 
 of the seventeenth century. Died about 1675. 
 
 Abbatucci, ab-ba-toot'ehee, (Carlo, or Charles,) 
 a Corsican general, born in 1771, was a son of Giacomo 
 Pietro. He gained the rank of general of division .by 
 his conduct at the passage of the Lech in 1796. He was 
 killed at Huningue in 1796. 
 
 Abbatucci, (Jacques Pierre, or Giacomo Pietro,) 
 a Corsican, who was a lieutenant under General Paoli, 
 and after various changes of fortune was raised to the 
 rank of a general of division in the French army. Born 
 1726, died 1812. 
 
 See Jacobi, " Histoire de la Corse ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge*ntS- 
 rale." 
 
 Abbatucci, (Jacques Pierre Charles,) a French 
 lawyer, born in Corsica in 1791, was a grandson of 
 Carlo A., noticed above. He was elected to the Con- 
 stituent Assembly in 1848, and became a partisan of 
 Louis Napoleon, who appointed him minister of justice 
 about 1852. Died in 1857. 
 
 Abbeville, d', dtb'vel', (Pere (paiR) Claude,) a 
 Capuchin, who wrote a history of the French mission to 
 the island of Maranham, on the coast of Brazil, entitled 
 " Histoire de la Mission des Peres Capucins en 1'Isle de 
 Maragnan." He gives an interesting account of the 
 character and customs of the natives of that island and 
 the neighbouring continent. The mission alluded to was 
 undertaken in 1612. 
 
 Abbiati, ab-be-a'tee, (Filippo,) an excellent Italian 
 painter, born at Milan in 1640. He painted both in oil 
 and fresco with great facility. Among his best works 
 is a fresco of "John the Baptist preaching in the wilder- 
 ness." Died at Milan in 1715. 
 
 Abbiati, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter and engraver, 
 flourished at Milan about 1700. 
 
 Abbon, i'boN', [in Latin, Ab'bo Cer'nuus, "Abbon 
 the bent or bowed down,"] a learned French monk, who 
 flourished about 900. He wrote a Latin poem on the 
 siege of Paris by the Northmen, (a.d. 885-6.) 
 
 Abbon of Pleury, [in Latin, Ab'bo Floriacen'sis,] 
 an eminent ecclesiastic of the tenth century, born near 
 Orleans in France. He was one of the most learned 
 men of his age, and after he was elected Abbot of Fleury 
 showed himself a patron of learning. He died in 1004. 
 
 Abbcndanti, ab-bon-dSn'tee, (Antonio,) sometimes 
 called Aiundan'tius of Imola, (ee'mo-lS,) an Italian 
 historian and poet, lived about 1 62 J. He wrote an ac- 
 count of the war in the Low Countries, 1559-1609. 
 
 Ab'bot, (Abiel,) an American divine, born at An- 
 dover, Massachusetts, in 1770. He died in 1828, on his 
 return from Cuba, which he had visited on account of 
 his health. A posthumous volume of letters written 
 while in that island, evinces strong powers of observation 
 and considerable talent for description. 
 
 Abbot, (Benjamin,) LL.D., an American teacher, 
 born about 1763, was for half a century the principal of 
 Phillips Academy, at Exeter, New Hampshire. He 
 numbered among his pupils Daniel Webster, Edward 
 
 {as s; g/iard; gas/; G,U,K.,gittttiral; a, nasal; v., trilled; sasz; th as in this. (J^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ABBOT 
 
 28 
 
 ABDALLAH 
 
 Everett, Jared Sparks, George Bancroft, and John G. 
 Palfrey. Died in 1849. 
 
 Ab'bot, (Charles,) Lord Colchester, a British 
 statesman, born at Abingdon in 1757, was educated at 
 Oxford, and was called to the bar about 1 784. He was 
 elected to Parliament in 1795, showed himself a warm 
 supporter of Pitt, and distinguished himself by his talents 
 for business and his public spirit. He was the mover of 
 the bill which in 1800 authorized the first census of 
 the population of Great Britain ever taken. In 1801 
 he became chief secretary for Ireland. He was speaker 
 of the House of Commons from February, 1S02, until 
 May, 1817, when he resigned on account of ill health, 
 and was raised to the peerage as Baron Colchester. He 
 had pe formed his duties as speaker to the general satis- 
 faction. He died in 1829, leaving two sons. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1829; "Annual Obituary," 
 1830. 
 
 Abbot, (George,) an English prelate, born at Guild- 
 ford, Surrey, in 1562. He studied at Oxford, took orders 
 in 1583, became a very popular preacher, and was em- 
 ployed in the translation of the Bible authorized by King 
 James in 1604. He was one of eight divines who trans- 
 lated the Four Gospels and the book of Acts. In 1609 
 he obtained the see of Lichfield, from which he was 
 translated to the see of London in 1610. He was ap- 
 pointed Archbishop of Canterbury in January, 1611. He 
 was a zealous Calvinist, both before and after his high 
 promotion. In the latter part of his life he favoured the 
 popular party, but his influence in the church and state 
 was ruined by the ascendency of Laud, who had long been 
 his rival and adversary. Among his works is a "Brief 
 Description of the Whole World," (1634.) Died in 1633. 
 
 See William Russell, "Life of George Abbot," 1777; Gardi- 
 ner, " History of England from 1603 to 1616." 
 
 Abbot, (George,) a nephew of Archbishop Abbot, 
 was born about 1602. He fought against the royalists 
 in the civil war. He published "The Book of Job Para- 
 phrased," (1640.) Died in 1648. 
 
 Abbot, (Lemuel,) an English portrait-painter, born 
 about 1760, worked in London, and was well patronized. 
 Most of his portraits are considered to be excellent like- 
 nesses. Among his works are portraits of the poet 
 Cowper and Lord Nelson. Died in 1803. 
 
 Abbot, (Sir Maurice or Morris,) a distinguished 
 merchant of London, was the youngest brother of Arch- 
 bishop Abbot. He was appointed one of the council for 
 settling the colony of Virginia in 1624, and became gov- 
 ernor or chairman of the East India Company in 1633. 
 Died in 1640. 
 
 Abbot, (Robert,) a learned divine, born at Guildford 
 in 1560, was a brother of Archbishop Abbot He was 
 a popular preacher, a chaplain to James I., and King's 
 professor of divinity at Oxford. In 1615 he became 
 Bishop of Salisbury. He was a strenuous opponent of 
 Laud's opinions and church policy. Among his works 
 «s a " Defence of the Royal Supremacy," in Latin, (1619.) 
 He was esteemed a man of more profound learning than 
 the archbishop. Died in 161 7. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica;" Wood, "Athena Oxonienses." 
 
 Abbot, (Robert,) an English Puritan divine, became 
 vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, and minister of Southwick in 
 Hampshire. He published, besides other works, " The 
 Trial ofourChurch-Forsakers," (1639.) Died about 1655. 
 
 Abbot, (Samuel,) born at Wilton, New Hampshire, 
 in 1786; died in 1839. He invented a process of ex- 
 tracting starch from the potato. 
 
 Ab'bptt, (Charles,) Lord Tenterden, an emi- 
 nent English judge, was born at Canterbury in 1762, 
 and studied at Oxford. He was admitted to the bar in 
 1705, and in 1802 published a "Treatise on the Law of 
 Merchant Ships and Seamen," which has since been re- 
 garded in England and the United States as the stand- 
 ard work on maritime law. He became a judge in the 
 Court of Common Pleas in 1816. Lord Ellenborough 
 having resigned his position as Lord Chief Justice of the 
 King's Bench in 1818, Mr. Abbott succeeded him, and 
 in 1827 was raised to the peerage, with the title of Lord 
 Tenterden. He died in November, 1832. He was a firm 
 adherent of the Tory party. His judicial merits were 
 of a very high order. According to some, he excelled 
 
 Lord Mansfield in industry and learning, and equalled 
 him in acuteness of perception and power of reasoning. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. iii. ; 
 Foss, " The Judges of England," vol. ix. ; also a criticism on Lord 
 Tenterden's professional character, by Brougham, in the " Edinburgli 
 Review," vol. lxix. p. 14. 
 
 Abbott, (Rev. Jacob,) a popular American author, 
 borri at Hallowell, Maine, in 1803. He graduated at 
 Bowdoin College in 1820. Few writers have given to 
 the public a greater number of volumes. Among them 
 may be mentioned "The Young Christian;" "The 
 Corner-Stone ;" "A Series of Histories of Celebrated 
 Sovereigns;" "The Rollo Books," 28 vols.; "Harper's 
 Story-Books," 36 vols., etc. etc. Mr. Abbott has ad- 
 dressed himself principally to the young, with whom his 
 works have been exceedingly popular. Nearly all his 
 books have been republished in England, And some, it 
 is said, have been translated into various European and 
 Asiatic languages. 
 
 Abbott, (John S. C.,) an American author, brother 
 of the Rev. Jacob Abbott, was born at Brunswick, Maine, 
 in 1805. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1S25, 
 studied divinity at the Theological Seminary in Andover, 
 Mass., and was subsequently minister in Worcester and 
 Roxbury. Among his principal works may be named 
 the "Mother at Home," (1833;) "Histories of Marie 
 Antoinette, Josephine, Madame Roland, Cortez," etc., 
 forming a series in six vols. ; " History of Napoleon 
 Bonaparte," 2 vols. 8vo; "History of the French Revo- 
 lution," and " History of the Civil War in America," 2 
 vols. 8vo, 1863-66. Most of his books have obtained 
 an extensive circulation. He is a pleasing and animated 
 writer, but as a historian he is scarcely to be relied on. 
 His " History" of Napoleon, in particular, is perhaps the 
 most remarkable example of indiscriminate and extrava- 
 gant eulogy ever given to the world under the august name 
 of History. He has recently published a " History of Na- 
 poleon III., Emperor of the French," (1 868,) which is said 
 to possess the merits and demerits of the preceding work. 
 
 Abbt, apt, (Thomas,) an eminent German writer, 
 born at Ulm in 1738. He studied at the University of 
 Halle, and in 1761 was appointed professor of mathe- 
 matics in the University of Rinteln. Here he wrote his 
 two most celebrated works, " On Merit," (" Vom Ver- 
 dienste," 1765,) and "On Dying for one's Native Coun- 
 try," (" Ueber den Tod fur's Vaterland," 1761.) He was 
 afterwards invited by Count William of Lippe-Schauen- 
 burg to his court at Buckeburg, where he died in 1766. 
 Like Lessing, he exerted himself to improve ^nd refine 
 the German language, and had he lived longer his name 
 would undoubtedly have become one of the most distin- 
 guished in his country's literature. 
 
 See Nicola 1. " Ehrengedachtniss des Herm Thomas Abbt," 1767; 
 Wolf. " Encyklopaedie der Deutschen National-Literatur ;" MRU- 
 sel, " Dictionnaire des Litterateurs d'Allemagne." 
 
 ABD, an Arabic word signifying "servant," and form 
 ing the prefix in many names; as Abd-Allah, (Abdal 
 LAH,) the "servant of God." 
 
 Abd-al-Kadir. See Abd-el-Kader. 
 
 Abdallah, ab-dal'lah, (almost ab-dtil'lah.) or Abdul- 
 lah, ab-do"61'lah, the last shereef (sherif ) or prince of the 
 Wahabites, was born about 1740. Having been captured 
 by Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Pasha, he was executed in 1818. 
 
 Abdallah, (or Abd-Allah,) AbfA-1-Abbas. See 
 Aboo-l- Abbas- Abdallah. 
 
 Abdallah- (or Abdullah-) Ibn-Abd-il-Moottalib, 
 (-Ib'n ab'dil mdot'ta-Iib,) the father of the prophet Mo- 
 hammed, is said to have been distinguished for his virtue 
 and personal beauty. Died about 570 A.D. 
 
 See Abdallah-Bbn-Abdelmottalib, in the "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G6n(5rale." 
 
 Abdallah-Ibn-Al-Aftas, (-il-aftas,) the founder A 
 the dynasty of Benee Al-Aftas, was born at Mequinez 
 in Africa about 1004. He possessed eminent military 
 talents, and was surnamed Al-Mansoor, or "the vic- 
 torious." He died about 1060. 
 
 Abdallah-Ibn-Balkeen, (or -Balkln, -bal-keen',) 
 the fourth and last sultan of Granada; dethroned (A.D. 
 1090) by Yoosuf, whom he had invited from Africa to as- 
 sist him against Alphonso I. of Castile. He was a brave 
 and enlightened monarch. He was a patron of science. 
 
 a, e. T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; g56d, moon; 
 
ABDALLAH 
 
 29 
 
 ABD-EL-MALEK 
 
 and wrote a learned and valuable commentary on the 
 Koran. 
 Abdallah-Ibn-Koteyba, (-Coteyba.) See Ibn- 
 
 KoTEYBA. 
 
 Abdallah-Ibn-Mohammed, (-Ib'n mo-ham'med,) 
 the seventh sultan of Cordova of the dynasty of Omeyyah, 
 ascended the throne in 888, and died in 912. He was a 
 poet and a patron of literature. 
 
 Abdallah- (or Abdullah-) Ibnool-Fara-dhee, 
 (-Ib-nul-Faradbi, ib'ndol fd'ra-dhee,) a Mohammedan 
 historian, born at C6rdova in 962. He was killed at the 
 taking of his native city by Suleyman, 1013. 
 
 Abdallah- (or Abdullah-) Ibnool-Hijaree, (-Ib- 
 nul-Hijari, ib'nool he-ja'ree,)a celebrated Mohammedan 
 historian, born in the territory of Guadalajara in 1105. 
 lie was the author of a valuable and voluminous historv 
 of Spain, lrJist of which is lost. He died about 1 195. 
 
 Abdallah-Ibn-Sa'd (-sad or -sS'd) was one of the 
 earliest converts to the Mohammedan faith, and was em- 
 ployed by the prophet to write down his pretended reve- 
 lations. He was afterwards appointed governor of Egypt, 
 under the caliph Othman, about the year 646. On the 
 death of the caliph, in 656, he was deposed ; but the year 
 of his death is unknown. 
 
 Abdallah-Ibn-Yaseen, (or -Yasin,) -ya'seen', the 
 founder of the dynasty of the Almoravides, was born at 
 Nafees, a little town in North Africa. He began his 
 career as a zealous teacher of religion, about the year 
 1041. His followers were called Almorahitoon, "men 
 devoted to the service of God," (whence the European 
 name Almoravides.) At first he contented himself with 
 forcibly converting the pagan tribes of the Berbers to Mo- 
 hammedanism, but finally aspired to the entire subjuga- 
 tion of Africa and the overthrow of the ruling dynasty 
 of Zenatah. After entire success had crowned his under- 
 taking, although he exercised all the functions of royalty, 
 he never assumed the titles, but contented himself with 
 the name of Fakih, (fa-keeh',) or "Theologian." He 
 died in 1059. His successors ruled over the greater 
 part of North Africa and Spain for nearly a century. 
 
 Abdallah-Ibn- (or Ben-) Zobeyr, (or -Zobair,) -zo- 
 bau', surnamed Aboo-Beker or Abu-Bekr, a'boo 
 bek'er, Caliph of Mecca, was born in 622. He maintained 
 his independence against the Omeyyah dynasty from 680 
 till 692, when he was conquered and slain by Abdel- 
 Malek-Ibn-Merwan. 
 
 See Abdallah-Ben-Zobair, in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Abdallatif or Abdallatiphus. See Abd-el-Lateef. 
 
 Abdalmalek or Abd-al-Malik. See Abd-el- 
 Mai.ek. 
 
 Ab-da-lon'jf-mus or Ab-do-lonl-mus, a Sidonian, 
 raised by Alexander the Great from the occupation of a 
 
 fardener to the throne. He was descended from the 
 ings of Sidon. 
 
 Abdalrahman. See Abd-er-Rahman. 
 
 Abdal-Wahab. See Abd-el-Wahab. 
 
 Ab'das, [Gr. "AiMac,] Bishop of Susa, in Persia, offend- 
 ed the Guebers, or fire-worshippers, by burning one of 
 their temples, for which he was put to death in 430 a.d. 
 
 Abdelaziz, ab'del-a-zeez', or Abdu-1-aziz, ab'ddo- 
 Ia-zeez', (Anglicized pron. ab-da-la'ziz,*) written also Ab- 
 dalaziu and Abdelasis, the son of Moosa, (Mftsa,) 
 was the third governor of Spain after its conquest by the 
 Arabs. He was assassinated in 716, at the instigation 
 of the caliph, against whom ne had revolted. 
 
 Abdelaziz or Abdulaziz, (Abul-Hassan, a'bool 
 has'san,) the first sultan of Valencia, was grandson of 
 the famous Al-Mansoor. He adorned his capital with 
 magnificent gardens and buildings. Died about 1060. 
 
 Abd-el-Baki, (or -Backi.) See Bakee. 
 ' Abd el-Hakk,abd el halt, (Ibn-Ghaleeb or -Gha- 
 lib, Ib'n oa-leeb',) a Mohammedan divine and poet, born 
 in the province of Grarwida in 1088. He wrote a volumin- 
 ous commentary on the Koran, which was highly es- 
 teemed bv the Spanish Moslems. Died 1 152. 
 
 Abd-el-Kader, abd "el-ka'der, (Ibn-Mehi-ed-Deen, 
 
 • "The regal seat 
 Of Abdalazis, ancient Cordova." 
 
 Southey's Roderick. 
 
 Ib'n meVhi-ed-deen',) (see remarks on Oriental names, in 
 the Introduction,) one of the most remarkable men of 
 whom history makes mention, was born near Mascara, 
 Algeria, about 1807. His father, Mehi-ed-Deen, was a 
 Maraboot (Marabout) or religious noble of great influ- 
 ence. Having become distinguished for his piety and 
 talents, Abd-el-Kader was chosen emir of the Arab 
 tribes in Algeria soon after that region was invaded by 
 the French in 1830. He attacked Oran in 1832, but, 
 after the most determined and repeated assaults, was 
 repulsed by the French artillery, and in 1834 concluded 
 a treaty with the French general, who recognized him as 
 Emir of Mascara and Oran. In 1835 he defeated a 
 French army at Macta. After the victory of General 
 Bugeaud at Sikka, 1836, the war was suspended by a 
 treaty, (1837.) Hostilities were renewed in 1839 by the 
 Arabs, who were stimulated against the infidel in- 
 vaders by fanaticism as well as patriotism. In the long 
 contest which ensued against a power immeasurably 
 superior to his own, Abd-el-Kader displayed remark'- 
 able energy, skill, presence of mind, and fertility of re- 
 sources, combined with administrative talents of the 
 highest order ; but he was finally compelled to surrender, 
 in December, 1847, which he did on condition that he 
 should be sent to Alexandria or St. Jean-d'Acre. By a 
 flagrant violation of public faith, he was sent to France, 
 and detained as a captive until about the end of 1852, 
 when he was released by the order of Louis Napoleon. 
 He has since resided chiefly at Brussa and Damascus. 
 
 While Abd-el-Kader was imprisoned in France, Gen- 
 eral Daumas, who had charge of him, wrote to one of 
 his friends, " You are going to see the illustrious pris- 
 oner of the chateau of Pau. . . . You have known 
 Abd-el-Kader in his prosperity, at a time when, so 10 
 speak, all Algeria acknowledged his rule. Well, you 
 will find him greater and more extraordinary in his ad- 
 versity than he was in his prosperity." In i860, whe.i 
 all the Christian population of Syria was threatened 
 with massacre, Abd-el-Kader protected, with sleepless 
 vigilance and at the imminent peril of his own life, many 
 thousands of both sexes until the danger was past. 
 
 Abd-el-Kader excelled in all martial exercises. As 
 an equestrian he was unrivalled, even among a people 
 whose warriors may be said to live on horseback. His 
 quickness of intellect and his memory were extraor- 
 dinary. At the age of fourteen he already knew the 
 Koran by heart. His literary attainments would have 
 conferred distinction even upon one who had devoted 
 his whole life to peaceful and uninterrupted study. In 
 addition to his other accomplishments, he was endowed 
 with a graceful and spirit-stirring eloquence. 
 
 See " Life of Abd-el-Kader," written from his own dictation, and 
 compiled from other authentic sources, by Colonel Churchill, 
 London, 1SA7 ; also the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Abd-el-Kader-Ghilanee, (-Ghilani,) abd'el-ka'der 
 ge-la'nee or ce-la'nce, an eminent Persian doctor of trie 
 Soofee (Sfifi) sect, flourished about the middle of the 
 twelfth century. Like the orthodox Mohammedans, the 
 Scofees believe in one eternal God ; but their views of 
 a future state are more spiritual than those taught by the 
 Koran. Abd-el-Kader wrote various works on the doc- 
 trines of the Soofees, some of which are still extant. 
 Died at Bagdad in 1 165. 
 
 Abd-el-Kadir. See Abd-el-Kader. 
 
 Abd-el-Lateef or AbdeUatJf, ab'del-la-teef', 01 
 Abdullattif, ab'd<551-la-teef , an eminent Arabian his- 
 torian and physician, born at Bagdad in 1 162. He wrote 
 an important work on the history, antiquities, and geog- 
 raphy of Egypt, of which De Sacy published a French 
 version entitled "Relation de l'Egypte," (1810.) 
 
 See WOstenphld, "Geschichte der Arabischen Aerate ;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Abd-el-Malek or -Malik* ab'del-mi'lek or-mal'ek, 
 (Ibn-Habeeb or -Habib, Ib'n ha-beeb',) a famous 
 Mohammedan historian and divine, born at C6rdova in 
 801; died 853. 
 
 Abd-el-Malek * (Ibn-Koreyb — ko-rab',) generally 
 
 • It should be observed that the Arabic words Malek (m^l'ek) (writ 
 ten also Melek, mel'ek) and Malek (mslek) differ in signification aa 
 well as pronunciation : the former signifies "king," the latter " mas- 
 ter" or "possessor." 
 
 e as k; <; as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *y th as in this. 
 
 See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 "\ 
 
ABD-EL-MALEK 
 
 3° 
 
 ABDIAS 
 
 called Ai.asmaee, (Alasma'J,) al-is'mi-ee', a celebrated 
 Mohammedan doctor, born at ISassora about 740. He 
 possessed an extraordinary memory, and is said to have 
 known by heart above 16,000 poems. Haroun-al-Raschid, 
 hearing of the fame of Alasmaee, invited him to his court 
 and chose him as his own instructor. He died at Bag- 
 dad about 821. The famous romance of Antar has been 
 ascribed to him. 
 
 Abd-el-Malek or Abd-ul-Malik,* abd'ool-m^lik, 
 a suitan of Western Africa, was born at Fez about 1500. 
 When his dominions were invaded by Sebastian, King 
 of I'ortugal, he made vigorous preparations for defence, 
 and, though labouring under severe disease, accompanied 
 his army, in a litter, to the field of battle, (August, 1578.) 
 The Moors were victorious, and Sebastian was taken and 
 put to death ; but Abd-el-Malik died of exhaustion dur- 
 ing the contest, and Mohammed, his nephew, whom he 
 had dethroned, and at whose instigation the Portuguese 
 king had begun the war, was drowned in his flight. This 
 battle has been called "the battle of the three kings." 
 
 Abd-el-Malek,* (Ibn-Merwan — mer'win',) the 
 fifth caliph of the house of Omeyyah, ascended the throne 
 in 685. He distinguished himself as a warrior while 
 quelling several formidable rebellions in his dominions ; 
 he was brave, just, and strict in the observance of all the 
 duties of his religion, and was moreover a patron of learn- 
 ing and the useful arts. Died in 705, aged sixty years. 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap, ix, 
 
 Abd-el-Malek. See Aiuj-el-Malek. 
 
 Abd-el-Moomen, (-Moumen or -Mfimen,) ibd'el- 
 moo'men, written also Abdul-Mumen, the second 
 prince or sultan of the line of Almohades, in Africa, was 
 born in the province of Tlemsen, about 1 100. On the 
 death of Al-Mahdee, (Al-Mahdi,) founder of the new 
 dynasty, he managed to get himself elected successor to 
 the throne, in 1130. His reign was constantly occupied 
 with wars, in which he was for the most part eminently 
 successful. Having subdued all his enemies in Western 
 Africa, he was preparing to cross into Spain, that he 
 might put a stop to the victorious career of Alphonso 
 VIII., when he was attacked by the disease of which he 
 died, in 1163. He assumed the title of caliph, which his 
 successors retained. 
 
 See Abd-el-Moumen, in the "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Abd-el-Moottalib, (or -Muttalib,) abd'el-moot'- 
 ti-lib.t written also Abd-el-Mottalib and Abdol- 
 Motalleb, a rich citizen of Mecca, born in 497 A.D., was 
 the son of Hashem and grandfather of the prophet Mo- 
 hammed. He is said to have dug at Mecca, in obedience 
 to a command given him in a vision, the famous well 
 of Zemzem, which was destined to supply pilgrims with 
 water through all succeeding ages. Died in 579. 
 
 See Abd-el-Mottalib. in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gendrale ;" 
 
 Spkengek, " Life of Muhammad." 
 
 Abdel-Mumen. See Abd-f.l-Moomkn. 
 
 Abd-el-Wahab,abd'el-wi-Hab',orAbdul-Wahab, 
 ib'doot wa-hib', the founder of the sect of the Wahab- 
 ites, (Wahabees or Wahabys,) was born in the Arabian 
 province of Nejd in 1691. He did not, as has been as- 
 serted, promulgate the doctrines of a new religion. He 
 saw, as he believed, that the primitive Mohammedan 
 faith had become totally corrupted, and his efforts were 
 directed towards introducing a thorough reformation. 
 He acknowledged the Koran and the traditionary law, 
 the "Soonnah," (or "Sunnah,") to be the foundation of 
 religion ; but the opinions even of the greatest com- 
 mentators were not, he maintained, to be received im- 
 plicitly. He complained that many of the Mohammedan 
 professors bestowed upon the prophet and the saints 
 honours which were equivalent to adoration. He held 
 and proclaimed that before God all men were equal, and 
 
 » See note on last column of preceding page. 
 
 t There is some discrepancy m regard to the accentuation of this 
 name : some writers give A bd-el-MulAlib. (or -MotSllib :) but the best 
 authorities make the penultima short. Hammek-Pukgstali. (Litera- 
 turgeschichte der Araber, vol. i. p. 3S4) spells it A bdol-Moththalib, 
 {i.e. -Moththalib, for he uniformly places an accent on the long sylla- 
 bles:) it should also be observed that he emplovs Ik (in German) for 
 t hard. Pocock. in his Latin version of Abulpharagius, writes the 
 name with //. Abdol-Motallab or -Motalleb ; but in the Arabic text 
 the penultima is short. (See " Historia Dynastiarum," Oxford, 1663.) 
 
 that it was a sin to pray to departed saints or to honour 
 their relics more than those of ordinary persons. The 
 Wahabites, wherever they had the power to do so, de- 
 stroyed the domes and ornamental tombs : even the 
 cupola over the birthplace of Mohammed, at Mecca, 
 and his tomb at Medina, were demolished. Abd-el-Wa- 
 hab died in 1787. 
 
 See Burckhardt, " Materials for a History of the Wahabys," 
 London, 1830; "Voyages d'Ali-Bey," Paris, 1S14; Niebu'hr, 
 " Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien," etc. 
 
 Abd-er-Rahman, abd'eR-RaH'man,* (or Abd-ur- 
 Rahman, ab'dooR-Ran'man,) I_, written also Abdar- 
 rahman, (the "servant of the Merciful," that is, of God,) 
 the founder of the Omeyyah dynasty of sultans in Spain, 
 in opposition to the caliphs ot the new line, (the Abbas- 
 sides.) He wrested Moslem Spain from the govern- 
 ment of the caliph in 756, and died in 788 aj>. 
 
 See Al-Makkari, "History of the Mohammedan Dynasties 
 Spain." 
 
 A'od-ei -Rahman II., the fourth sultan of Cordova of 
 the Omeyyah dynasty, ascended the throne in 822 a.d. 
 He was an able warrior, was eminent for his modera- 
 tion, justice, and humanity, and was a distinguished 
 patron of learning. Died in 852 A.D. 
 
 Abd-er-Rahman IIL,surnamed An-Nasir-Lidii.n- 
 Illah or -LidInillah, an-na'sjr-le-dee'nil'lah, (i.e. "the 
 defender of the religion of God,") the eighth sultan and 
 first caliph of Cordova, began to reign in 912, and by 
 his talents and energy raised the Mohammedan empire 
 in Spain to the highest pinnacle of glory. He was dis- 
 tinguished both as a warrior and as a patron of learning 
 and the arts. One of his palaces near Cordova was 
 decorated with unequalled magnificence ; the audience- 
 room, in particular, was adorned with golden images of 
 the most exquisite workmanship, and the roof was cov- 
 ered with pure gold. After a reign of nearly fifty years, 
 An-Nasir died in 961, at the age of 73. An-Nasir-Li- 
 deen-Illah was also the name of one of the caliphs of 
 the Abbasside dynasty, as well as of several other Mo- 
 hammedan princes. 
 
 See Al-Makkari, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in 
 Spain," translated into English, by Gayangos. London, 1S40-43; 
 Condi-:. " Histoire de la Domination des Arabes ;" Casiki, " Bibli- 
 otheca Arabico-Hispana." 
 
 Abd-er-Rahman, Sultan or Emperor of Morocco, 
 born in 1778, succeeded his uncle Muley Soliman in 
 1823. He became the ally of Abd-cl-Kacfer in the war 
 against the French, who defeated his army at Isly in 
 1844. 
 
 Abd-er-Rahman-Alghafekee, (or -Alghafeki,) 
 al-Gi'fS-kee', a Moslem governor of Spain, invaded Gaul 
 at the head of eighty thousand men, and, having ravaged 
 Aquitaine, encountered the French army under Charles 
 Martel near Tours, in October, 732 a.d. After a se- 
 vere and prolonged contest, the Christians gained a 
 complete victory, which saved Europe from the Moham- 
 medan yoke and put an effectual check to .the conquests 
 of the Saracens of Spain. Abd-er-Rahman himself was 
 left dead on the field of battle. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge*ni*rale." 
 
 Abd-er-Rahman, (Ibn-Khaldoon or -Khaldun.) 
 See Ibn-Khaldoon. 
 
 Abd-er-Razzak, abd'eR-Raz-zak'. or Abdurrazzak, 
 ab'dooR-Raz-zik', the founder of a small empire in East- 
 ern Persia, about 1336, which lasted only till the con- 
 quest of Tamerlane in 1381. 
 
 Abd-er-Razzak, or Abd-er-Rezzak, (Kamal-ed 
 Deen or Kemal-ed-Din, ka-mll' ed-deen',) a Persian 
 traveller and historian, born at Merit in 1413 ; died 
 about 1475- He wrote an interesting history of the de- 
 scendants of Tamerlane. 
 
 Abdias, ab-dee'as, (Ben-Shalom— sha'lom,) a Jew- 
 ish rabbi of the seventh century, went to Arabia to dis- 
 pute with Mohammed, who is said to have converted him. 
 
 * Most European writers accentuate this name on the last syllable, 
 Abd-er-Rahman ; but we have preferred to follow Hammer- Purgstall, 
 who invariably gives it with the ultima short — Abderrahman, (ab- 
 der-r.lh'man.) So far as we have had an opportunity of consulting 
 the Arabic texts of the Mohammedan writers, they have nearly 
 always confirmed the practice 01 that eminent Orientalist. Both 
 forms are undoubtedly correct ; but that given above is sanctioned 
 by the best Arabic usage. 
 
 i. e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 5, S, f, short: a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; NldftKl 
 
ABDOL-MALIK 
 
 3 1 
 
 ABELa 
 
 Abdol-Malik. See Abd-el-Malek. 
 
 Abdol-Moththalib. See Aud-el-Moottalib. 
 
 Abdolonimus. See AbDALONYMUS. 
 
 Abd-ool- (Abdul- ov Abdoul-) Hamid, (or -Ha- 
 met,) ab'dool- ha'mid,(or ha'met,) Sultan of Turkey, born 
 in 1725, was a son of Ahmed III. He succeeded his 
 brother Mustapha III. in 1774. Having been defeated 
 by the Russians, he obtained a short peace by the treaty 
 of Kootchook-Kainarji in July, 1774. He was again 
 involved in war against Russia, and lost a battle at Oc- 
 zakow, in 1788. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Von Hammer, " Histoire de l'Empire Ottoman." 
 
 Abd-ool-Mejeed, Abdoul-Medjid, or Abdul- 
 Mejid, ab'do61-me-jeed', an eminent Mohammedan 
 poet, vizier to Aboo-Mohammed, the last king of Bada- 
 joz. He died about 1125. 
 
 Abd-oof-Mejeed, Abdul-Mejid, or Abdoul- 
 Medjid, ab'do61-m£-jeed', [Ger. spelling, Abdul Mi IV- 
 semi),] Sultan of Turkey, born in 1823, was the eldest 
 son of Mahmood II., whom he succeeded July 1, 1839. 
 He found Turkey at war against Mehemet Ali of Egypt, 
 whose victorious army was marching towards his capital. 
 From this danger he was saved by the intervention of 
 the great European powers in 1840. He pursued the 
 course of reform commenced by his father, which was 
 resisted by a fanatical party among his subjects, and ex- 
 hibited a spirit of tolerance towards Christians. About 
 the end of 1853 he was involved in a war with Russia, 
 in which France and England were the allies of Abd-ool- 
 Mejeed. (See Nicholas I.) He died in June, 1861, and 
 was succeeded by his brother Abd-661-Azeez, (Abdul- 
 Aziz.) 
 
 See Abdoul Medjid, in the " Nouvelle Biographie G&ieVaJe." 
 
 Abdor-Rahman. See Abd-er-Rahman. 
 
 Abdoul-Melek. See Abd-el-Malek. 
 
 Abdulaziz. See Abdelaziz. 
 
 Abdul-Kadir. See Abd-el-Kader. 
 
 Abdul-Malik. See Abd-el-Malek. 
 
 Abdul-Mumen. See Abd-el-Moomen. 
 
 Abdurrahman. See Abd-er-Rahman. 
 
 Ab'dy,(Mi'RA Smith,) an English authoress, born in 
 London about 1818, was a niece of Horace and James 
 Smith. She married a Rev. Mr. Abdy, of London. 
 She has written agreeable verses and tales, some of 
 which appeared in various annuals. Perhaps her most 
 important work is her "Appeal on Behalf of Govern- 
 esses." Died in July, 1867. 
 
 ABec'ket, (Gilbert Abbot,) a witty and humorous 
 English writer, born in London in 1810 or 181 1. He 
 was admitted to the bar in 1841. He contributed to 
 the London " Times" and " Punch." Among his works 
 are "The Comic Blackstone," (1844-46,) and "The 
 Comic History of England," (1848.) Died in 1856. 
 
 A Becket, (Thomas.) See Becket. 
 
 A-bed'ne-go', called also Az-a-ri'ah, one of the 
 three Hebrew captives whom Nebuchadnezzar, King of 
 Babylon, ordered to be thrown into his fiery furnace. 
 (See Daniel i. 7 ; ii. 49; iii. 10, etc.) 
 
 A-beel', (David,) an American missionary, born at 
 New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1804. He published 
 "A Journal of a Residence in China, 1829-33." Died 
 in 1846. 
 
 Abegg, a'bek, (Bruno Erhard — cR'haRt,) a Ger- 
 man lawyer, born at Elbing in 1803. Died in Berlin in 
 1848. 
 
 Abegg, (Julius Friedrich Heinrich,) a German 
 jurist, born at Erlangen in 1796. He became professor 
 of law at Breslau in 1826, and published many legal 
 works. 
 
 Abeille, a^b&l', [Fr. pron. _i'b&I' or t'b&'ye,] (Gas- 
 pard,) a mediocre French lyric and tragic poet, born in 
 Provence in 1648. He was educated for the church, and 
 received the title of "Abbe." In 1704 he was elected 
 a member of the French Academy. Died in 1718. 
 
 Abeille, a'bjl', (Louis,) a German pianist and com- 
 poser, born at Baireuth about 1765. He produced 
 several successful operas, etc. Died in 1832. 
 See Fetis, " Bjographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 Abeille, (Louis Paul,) a French writer and agricul- 
 turist, born at Toulon in 1719. He was for several 
 
 years inspector-general of the manufactures of France. 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Abeille, (Scipion,) a French surgeon and poet, was 
 a brother of Gaspard, noticed above. He wrote in verse 
 a " Description of the Bones," (" Histoire des Os," 1685.) 
 Died in 1697. 
 
 Abeken, ab'eh-ken, (Bernhard Rudolph,) a Ger- 
 man writer, born at Osnabrvick in 1780. He was em- 
 ployed by Schiller as tutor, to his children, and was after- 
 wards professor in the College of Osnabriick. Among 
 his works are "Studies on the Divina Commedia of 
 Dante," (1826,) and a valuable contribution to the 1 ..':gra- 
 phy of Cicero, "Cicero in seinen Briefen," (1835,) of 
 which an English version was published in 1854. 
 
 A'bel, [in Hebrew ^n>] the second son of Adam and 
 Eve. He is regarded as the first martyr, and the first 
 of mankind who suffered physical death, having been 
 murdered by Cain, his brother. (See Genesis iv., and 
 Hebrews xi. 4 ; also Matthew xxiii. 35.) 
 
 Abel, [Dan. pron. a'bel,] a king of Denmark, second 
 son of Waldemar II. He secretly instigated the mur- 
 der of his brother, Erik VI., and was elected king in 
 his stead in 1250. He was killed, while endeavouring to 
 suppress a rebellion of the Frisians, in 1252. 
 
 Abel, a'bel, (Caspar,) a German writer and anti- 
 quary, born in 1676; died 1763. 
 
 Abel, a'bel, (Clarke,) an English surgeon and natu- 
 ralist, born about 1780. He accompanied Lord Am- 
 herst to China in 1816 as naturalist of the expedition, 
 and published a " Narrative of a Journey in the Interior 
 of China," (1818,) which has been highly commended. 
 He was afterwards surgeon-in-chief to the governor- 
 general of India, and died in 1826. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine," Dec. 1827. 
 
 Abel, (Friedrich Gottfried,) a German physician, 
 born in 17 14, was a son of Caspar, noticed above. Died 
 in 1794. 
 
 Abel, (Joseph,) a distinguished historical painter, 
 born near Linz, on the Danube, in 1 768. He passed 
 six years, 1802-8, in Rome, where he painted "Pro- 
 metheus Bound" and designs from the Iliad. He after- 
 wards worked in Vienna, and produced, besides many 
 portraits, some historical pictures, among which is a 
 " Flight into Egypt." Died in Vienna in 1818. 
 
 Abel, (Karl Friedrich,) a German musician, born 
 at Kothen in 1725. In 1763 he removed to London, 
 where for many years he enjoyed the highest popularity ; 
 but, owing to the fickleness of the public taste, his con- 
 certs ceased at last to attract any attention. He died in 
 1787. He is noted as having been the teacher of Cra- 
 mer. 
 
 Abel, a'bll, (Niels Henrik,) a distinguished mathe- 
 matician, born at Findo, in Norway, in 1802. He 
 studied at the University of Christiania ; and afterwards, 
 by the aid of a pension from the government, travelled 
 through Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and France. He 
 returned to his native country in 1827, and died in 1829. 
 The special object of Abel's scientific labours was the 
 theory of elliptic functions. The celebrated Legendre 
 spoke with astonishment of his discoveries, and evidently 
 regarded his mathematical talents as of the most orig- 
 inal and highest order. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Bicgra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Abel, von, fon a'bel, (Jakob Friedrich,) a German 
 philosopher, born in Wurtemberg in 1751, was professor 
 of philosophy at Tubingen. He wrote, besides other 
 works, "Collection and Explanation of the Remarkable 
 Phenomena of Human Life," (" Sammlung und Er- 
 klarung merkwiirdiger Erscheinungen aus dem mensch- 
 lichen Leben," 3 vols., 1790.) Died in 1829. 
 
 Abel, von, (Karl,) a Bavarian statesman, born at 
 Wetzlar in 1788. He became minister of the interior in 
 1838, and the chief of the absolutist or ultramontane 
 party. By the influence of Lola Montes he was driven 
 from power in February, 1847. 
 
 Abel-Pe-PujoL See Pujol. 
 
 Abel Remusat. See Remusat. 
 
 Abela, a-ba'la, (Giovanni Francesco,) a Maltese, of 
 noble family, who in the early part of the seventeenth 
 
 € as i: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.' 
 
ABELARD 
 
 3 2 
 
 ABERCROMBT 
 
 :entury wrote a valuable work entitled " Malta Illus- 
 trated, with its Antiquities, and other Information," 
 (" Malta iilustrata con le sue Antichitaed altre Notizie.") 
 Born in 1582 ; died in 1655. 
 
 Ab'e-lard' (Pierre) or Abailard, [Fr. pron. i'bj'- 
 liii.'; in Latin, Pe'trus Ah/ELAr'dus,] a celebrated 
 French philosopher andiogician, was born near Nantes 
 in 1079. After having studied Latin, Greek, and He- 
 brew, he visited Paris, where he became the pupil of 
 William de Champeaux, the most skilful dialectician of 
 the age. But the pupil soon surpassed his master, and 
 often challenged him to public disputations, so com- 
 mon in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. He is said 
 to have been so elated by his frequent triumphs that not 
 only his master but his fellow-students were disgusted 
 with his vanity. About 1 toi he retired from Paris and set 
 up a school at Melun, whither crowds of pupils repaired 
 to hear his instructions. Not long after, he returned to 
 Paris, where, both as teacher and disputant, he was soon 
 without a rival. When he was about thirty-four years 
 old, Abelard turned his attention to divinity, and went 
 to Laon to study under Anselme. His brilliant repu- 
 tation, joined to his vanity and arrogance, raised up 
 against him bitter enemies, whose persecution compelled 
 him to leave the town. He then reopened a school in 
 Paris, and his fame became greater than ever before. 
 His well-known and unfortunate amour with his pupil 
 Heloise need not be related here. Suffice it to say that 
 it left him defenceless against the malice of those ene- 
 mies whom his former triumphs and arrogance had pro- 
 voked. The remainder of his life was little else than a 
 succession of persecutions. His errors and his afflic- 
 tions appear to have at last taught him simplicity and 
 humility. He died in 1142, at the priory of St. Marcel, 
 near Chalons, whither he had gone for his health. His 
 remains were, at her request, given up to Heloise, and 
 buried at the oratory of the ' Paraclete, which he had 
 founded, and where she was then prioress. Twenty 
 years afterwards, she was interred in the same tomb. 
 
 Abelard left many writings, nearly all dialectical or 
 theological, except his " Letters to Heloise," (" Epistolae 
 Petri Abaelardi et Heloisa:,") and the " History of [his] 
 Misfortunes," (" Historia Calamitatum.") 
 
 "Abelard's reputation," says the " Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" for January, 1846, " was higher than that of any 
 living man. ... It is from his connection with Heloise 
 that Abelard has descended to posterity ; his own claims 
 are slight, and have been greatly overrated. . . . He 
 discovers nothing ; he improves nothing. He can only 
 dazzle and confuse." 
 
 "Abelard," observes Hallam, " was almost the first who 
 awakened mankind, in the age of darkness, to a sympa- 
 thy with intellectual excellence. His bold theories, not 
 the less attractive, perhaps, for treading upon the bounds 
 of heresy, his imprudent vanity that scorned the regu- 
 larly acquired reputation of older men, allured a multi- 
 tude of disciples who would never have listened to an 
 ordinary teacher. . . . But the whole of Abelard's 
 life was the shipwreck of genius ; and of genius both 
 the source of his own calamities and unserviceable to 
 posterity." (" Middle Ages." vol. iv. p. 377.) 
 
 See Cousin's " Introduction to the Works of Abelard," 1836 ; Ber- 
 WOTON, " History of Abelard and Heloise," 1787 , J. Hughes, " Life 
 cf Abelard," 1751 ; Berington, " History of the Middle Ages," 1814; 
 Brucker, "History of Philosophy," 1766; Dom Gervajse, "Vie 
 d'Abelard," 1720: Fessler, "Abalard und Heloise," 2 vols., 1806; 
 Schlosser, " Abalard und Dulcin," 1807 ; Feuerbach, "Abalard 
 und Heloise," 1834: O. Guizot, " Essai sur la Vie et les E*crits 
 d'Abailard et de HeMoIae," 1839; Ch. PR Remusat, "Abelard," 2 
 vols., 1845: Fleury, " Histoire de l'EV.ise," 1751; Bernardus, 
 (Saint,) Epistolx ;"also articles in the " Westminster Review," vol. 
 xxxii., and the " Foreitrn Quarterly," vol. xxxvi. 
 
 Abelin, i'beh'IaN', or Abeling, a'beh-ling, (Johann 
 Piiilipp,) a German historian, born at Strasbourg, as- 
 sumed in some of his works the name of Johann Lud- 
 wig Gottfried, (Gothofredus.) He published many 
 works, among which are the first and second volumes of 
 the "Th-atrum Europaeum," a valuable record of con- 
 temporary history, which was continued to the twenty- 
 first volume, and a description of the West Indies, (" His- 
 toria Antipodum," 1655.) Died about 1646. 
 
 See Jocher. "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Abell, a'bel or a-beY, (John,) an English singer and 
 
 ! performer on the lute, was attached to the chapel of 
 Charles II. He was banished as a papist in 1688. 
 Died after 1700. 
 
 Abelli or Abelly, S'bi'le', (Antoine,) an eminent 
 French ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1527. He was con- 
 fessor to Catherine de Medicis. He is supposed to have 
 died about 1600. 
 
 Abelli or Abelly, (Louis,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 born in Paris in 1603. He was made Bishop of Rodez 
 in 1664, and died in 1691. He wrote numerous theo- 
 logical works. 
 
 Aben- (or Ebn-1 Beitar, i'bcn-bi-e-taR' or -Hta?.', 
 (Abdal'lah-Ibn- Ub'n) Ah'med,) an Arabian botan- 
 ist, born near Malaga; died in 1248. 
 
 Abencerage, a-beVse-raj', [Sp. pron. a-r:8n-thi-ra'- 
 Ha,] plural, Abencerages or Abencei rages, (a Span- 
 ish corruption of the Arabic BiCNf Serraj, />. the " Sons 
 of Serraj,") the name of a noble Moorish family in the 
 kingdom of Granada, originally from Cordova. Several 
 members of this family acted prominent parts in the pe- 
 riod which preceded the conquest of Granada by the 
 Spaniards. There was a deadly feud between the Aben- 
 cerages and the Zegris. 
 
 Abendana, a-bJn-dl'na, (Jacob,) a Spanish Jew, 
 who lived in London, and wrote commentaries on the 
 Scriptures. Died in 1685. 
 
 Abendroth, a'b?nt-rot', (Amadeus August,) a Ger- 
 man lawyer, born at Hamburg in 1767. He became 
 mayor of that city in 1810, and burgomaster in 1831. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Aben- (i'bSn) Ez'ra, a Spanish Jew, born at Toledo 
 in 1 1 19. As a commentator on the Scriptures he stands 
 in the foremost rank. He excelled in almost every 
 branch of science ; he was an eminent astronomer, math- 
 ematician, physician, linguist, and poet. He is supposed 
 to have died in 1 194. 
 
 Aben-Humeya, a'ben-hoo-ma'ya, the last king of 
 Granada, born about 1520. He was of Spanish origin, 
 and was chosen king by the Moors who had revolted 
 against Philip II. He was captured and strangled in 1568. 
 
 Abenpace. See Avenpace. 
 
 Abercrombie, ab'er-krum-l>e, (James,) D.D , an elo- 
 quent and learned clergyman of the Episcopal Church 
 in Philadelphia, born in 1758; died in 1841. 
 
 Abercrombie, (James,) a major-general in the Brit- 
 ish army in America, where he arrived and took com- 
 mand of the troops at Albany in 1756. The French 
 having obtained possession of the lakes, Abercrombie in 
 1 758 was intrusted by Pitt with a force of 50,000 men to 
 recover the places which had been lost. On the 8th 01 
 July he attacked Ticonderoga at the head of 15,000 
 troops, but was repulsed by Montcalm with great loss. 
 He was shortly after superseded by Lord Amherst. 
 
 Abercrombie, ( John,) an eminent Scottish physician, 
 born at Aberdeen in 1781. Having graduated as an 
 M.D. in 1803, he settled in Edinburgh, and rose to the 
 highest rank in his profession. His reputation was 
 widely extended by his writings, among which are 
 " Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases of 
 the Brain and Spinal Cord," (1S28,) " Inquiries concern- 
 ing the Intellectual Powers of Man, and the Investiga- 
 tion of Truth," (1830,) and "The Philosophy of the Moral 
 Feelings," (1833.) Referringto his work on the intellect- 
 ual powers, the "Quarterly Review" observes, "His de- 
 scriptions of the mental phenomena are clear and pre- 
 cise, and his reasonings perspicuous and sound. . . . 
 The style of the work merits equal praise. It is sim- 
 ple ancf unambitious, without being devoid of ornament 
 or power." (" London Quarterly " for July, 1831.) He 
 was chosen lord rector of Marischal College, Aber- 
 deen, in 1835. Died in November, 1844. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 vol. V. 
 
 Abercromby, ab'er-krum-be, (Alexander,) a Scot 
 tish judge, the youngest brother of Sir Ralph Abercromby, 
 was born in 1745. In 1792 (on the death of Lord Hailes) 
 he became a judge in the court of justiciary. Died in 
 1795. He wrote several interesting papers for "The 
 Mirror" and "The Lounger," two literary periodicals 
 edited by Mackenzie. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 *, S, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, i, T, 5, ii, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; gcSM; m65n; 
 
ABERCROMBY 
 
 33 
 
 ABGAR US 
 
 Abercromby, (David,) a Scottish physician, who 
 flourished in the latter half of the seventeenth century. 
 Besides four short treatises on medicine, he wrote several 
 works on other subjects. His " Fur Academicus" ("Aca- 
 demical Thief") shows him to have been a man of wit 
 and learning. The time of his birth and that of his 
 death are unknown. 
 
 Abercromby, (James,) Baron Dunfermline, a 
 British peer, a son of Sir Ralph, noticed below, was 
 born in 1776. He errtered Parliament about 1812, voted 
 with the Whigs, and acquired distinction as a debater. 
 He was speaker of the House of Commons from 1835 
 to 1839, in which year he resigned and passed into the 
 House of Lords as Baron Dunfermline. Died in 1858. 
 Abercromby, (John,) a horticultural writer, born 
 near Edinburgh in 1726. His first work, entitled "Every 
 Man his own Gardener," had a great sale; and he after- 
 wards published a number of others, among which may 
 be mentioned "The British Fruit Gardener" and "The 
 Gardener's Daily Assistant." Died in 1806. 
 
 Abercromby, (Sir John,) the second son of Sir 
 Ralph, served under him in Egypt, and obtained the 
 rank of general. Having been appointed governor of 
 Madras, he took Mauritius from the French in 1810. 
 He died, it is supposed, in 1817. 
 
 Abercromby, (Patrick,) M.D., the author of a work 
 entitled " Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation," 
 (2 vols., 1711-15,) was born at Forfar in 1656, and is 
 supposed to have died about the year 1720. Although 
 his work has enjoyed a considerable reputation, it pos- 
 sesses little merit. 
 
 Abercromby, (Sir Ralph,) a distinguished military 
 commander, was born in Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 
 in 1734. He entered the University of Edinburgh in 
 1752, and in 1754 was sent by his father to Leipsic 
 to study civil law. But, as he manifested a decided pref- 
 erence for the military profession, his father yielded to 
 his wishes and permitted him to join the army. In 
 1773 he was elected member of Parliament. He does 
 not, however, appear to have particularly distinguished 
 himself in any way till the breaking out of the war with 
 France in 1793. In 1795 he was created Knight of the 
 Bath. In the unfortunate campaigns in Holland under 
 the Duke of York in 1793-5, anc ' especially in that of 
 1799, he did everything that a subordinate officer could 
 do. The bravery and military skill which he evinced 
 won for him universal respect, and every one was satis- 
 fied that had he commanded in chief the results would 
 have been very different. Abercromby was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the expedition against Egypt, 
 which set out in 1800 and reached its destination in 
 1S01. A few days after the landing of the troops near 
 Alexandria, the British camp was suddenly attacked by 
 all the French troops in that country. The assailants 
 were bravely repulsed, but during the action the British 
 commander received a wound in the thigh, of which he 
 died a few days after. As an officer, Sir Ralph Aber- 
 cromby was distinguished by talents of a high order, 
 and still more by a humane and generous regard for 
 the welfare of his soldiers. Though perfectly reckless 
 in exposing himself, he was extremely careful never to 
 expose those under his command to any unnecessary- 
 danger. As a man, he was distinguished for benevolence, 
 superiority to prejudice, and a high sense of honour. Sir 
 Ralph Abercromby had four sons: the first Lord Aber- 
 cromby ; Sir John Abercromby, who served with credit 
 under his father in Egypt, and afterwards rose to the 
 rank of a general ; Lord Dunfermline ; and Alexander, a 
 lieutenant-colonel in the army. 
 
 See " Memoir of Sir Ralph Abercromby," by Lord Dunferm- 
 line ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Wilson, " History of the British Expedition to Egypt." 
 
 Abercromby, (Sir Rorert,) a British general, was 
 a younger brother of Sir Ralph. He became governor 
 of Bombay in 1789, and commander-in-chief in India in 
 1792. After a successful campaign against the Rohillas, 
 he returned to England in 1797, and was elected to Par- 
 liament. Died about 1827. 
 
 Ab-er-deen', (George Ham'ii.ton Gor'oon.1 Earl 
 OF, a British statesman, born in 1784, inherited the earl- 
 dom (in the Scottish peerage) from his grandfather, who 
 
 died in 1802. He was elected one of the Scottish repre- 
 sentative peers about 1807, identified himself with the 
 Tory party, and was sent on a diplomatic mission to Vi- 
 enna in 1813. In 1814 he became Viscount Gordon in 
 the peerage of the United Kingdom. He was secretary 
 of state for foreign affairs, in the cabinet of Wellington, 
 from 1828 until November, 1830, when his party went 
 out of power. In September, 1841, Sir Robert Peel 
 appointed him to the same office, which he retained 
 until the triumph of the Whig party, in July, 1846. His 
 foreign policy was pacific. 
 
 After the death of Peel, (1850,) the Earl of Aberdeen 
 was regarded as the head of the Peelite party. On the 
 defeat of Lord Derby, in December, 1852, he became 
 prime minister, and formed his cabinet by a coalition of 
 Conservatives and Whigs or Liberals. In spite of his ef- 
 forts to maintain peace, Great Britain "drifted into war" 
 against Russia, in 1854. He lost popularity by his mod- 
 eration towards Russia, and was censured for remissness 
 in the prosecution of the war. Having been defeated 
 in the House of Commons about February 1, 1855, he re- 
 signed his office, and was succeeded by Lord Palmerston. 
 Died in December, i860. He had been twice married, 
 and left a son, who was styled Lord Haddo. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine" for February, 1861. 
 
 Aberli, i'b^R-lee, (Johann Ludwig,) a Swiss land 
 scape-painter and engraver, born at Winterthur in 1723. 
 His landscapes of Swiss scenery, engraved and coloured, 
 were much admired, and found many imitators. Died at 
 Berne in 1786. 
 
 Abemethy, ab'er-ne-///e, (John,) an eminent dis- 
 senting divine, born at Coleraine, in Ireland, in 1680. 
 He took the degree of M.A. at the College of Glasgow, 
 and afterwards studied divinity in Edinburgh. Upon 
 finishing his course he returned to Ireland, and at length 
 became the pastor of a Presbyterian congregation at 
 Antrim. Some new views which he subsequently 
 adopted, on the right of private judgment in matters of 
 faith, together with the spirit of independence which he 
 manifested with respect to the authority of the synod, 
 caused at last a schism in the church. In 1730 he be- 
 came the pastor of an independent congregation, in ad- 
 dressing whom he carefully avoided all appeals to the 
 affections, maintaining that nothing else was requisite 
 than merely to convince the reason. Hence his follow- 
 ers were termed Rational Dissenters. Abemethy died 
 in 1740. 
 
 See Duchal, "Life of Abemethy," prefixed to his Sermons; 
 "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Abemethy, (John,) a celebrated English surgeon 
 and physiologist, born in London in 1 764, was a pupil 
 of John Hunter. He was a grandson of John Aber- 
 nethy, noticed above. In 17S6 he became assistant-sur- 
 geon of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, and on 
 the death of Sir C. Blick he succeeded him'as chief sur- 
 geon in that institution. He lectured on anatomy and 
 surgery, and acquired immense popularity as a teacher. 
 He published, in 1809, an able work "On the Consti- 
 tutional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases," in 
 which he propounded doctrines which have made a 
 great change in the science of surgery. He is said to 
 have been the first surgeon who performed the ligature 
 of the carotid artery and the external iliac artery. 
 Many amusing anecdotes are related of him, exhibiting 
 that singular mixture of shrewd sense, wit, and eccen- 
 tricity for which he was so remarkable. A .gouty rich 
 man having consulted him received for answer, " Live 
 on sixpence a day, and earn it." In domestic relations 
 he is said to have been amiable. He married Ann 
 Threlfall in 1800. Died at Enfield in April, 1831. 
 
 See George^ MacIlwain. "Memoirs of J. Abemethy," 1853 
 Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Abert, a'bert, (John J.,) an American engineer, born 
 in Maryland in 1790. He was appointed major of topo- 
 graphical engineers in 1814, and colonel of the same in 
 1838. He was at the head of the corps of topographical 
 engineers for about thirty years. Died in January, 1863. 
 
 Abesch, a.'besh, (Anna Barbara,) a famous Swiss 
 painter on glass. Died about 1750. 
 
 Ab'gar-us, [Gr. *A ( 3yopof,] written also Abagarus, 
 
 e as k, c as s; g hard; g as/; o, 11, k, guttural; N, nasai; R, trilhd: s as z; th as in this. (Ji^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 3 
 
ABIATHAR 
 
 34 
 
 ABOO-BEKR 
 
 Agbarus, and Augarus, a name common to several 
 kings of Edessa in Mesopotamia. 
 
 Ab-I'a-thar, [in Hebrew, Witt,] a high-priest of the 
 Jews, and one of the chief counsellors of King David. 
 (See I. Samuel xxii., xxiii., and xxx. ; II. Samuel viii. 
 and xx.; I. Kings ii. and iv.) 
 
 Abicht, a'biKt, (Johann Georg,) a German author 
 and divine, born in Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt in 1672. 
 He wrote several works on the Hebrew language and 
 antiquities, and also on theology. Died in 1740. 
 
 Abicot See Hakicot. 
 
 Abidenus. See Abydenus. 
 
 Ab'I-gaiL [Heb. Vj'^x,] a Hebrew matron, who was 
 married first to Nabal, and secondly to King David. 
 (See I. Samuel xxv.) 
 
 A-bi'jah or A-bi'a, [in Hebrew, iTSN,] a name com- 
 mon to several Israelites, among whom may be named 
 a son of Jeroboam and a son of the prophet Samuel. 
 
 Ab-i'jam[Heb. D'2X] or Abijah, King of Judah, was 
 a son of Rehoboam, whom he succeeded on the throne. 
 After a reign of three years, he died about 955 B.C. (I. 
 Kings xv. 1-8; II. Chronicles xiii.) 
 
 Abildgaard, a'bTld-goRd',( N iciioi.as,) a distinguished 
 Danish historical painter, born in Copenhagen in 1744. 
 In 1772 he visited Italy, where he spent five years. He 
 was afterwards appointed professor of painting in the 
 Academy of Copenhagen. Died about 1806. He is 
 considered by many as the best painter that Denmark has 
 produced. Among his works are a " Socrates," and the 
 "Creation of the World, after Orpheus." 
 
 See Ersch und Grubsb. "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Nagler, 
 " Neues Allgetneines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Abildgaard, (Peter Christian,) an able Danish 
 physician and naturalist, born at Copenhagen about 1 740, 
 was, according to Malte-Brun, a brother of the preced- 
 ing. He wrote many treatises on medicine, zoology, 
 etc., and gave a description of the Megatherium at the 
 same time as Cuvier, (1796.) He was secretary of the 
 Academy of Sciences, and founder of the Veterinary 
 School of Copenhagen. Died about 1808. 
 
 See *' Biographie Universelle ; " " Historia brevis Regii Instituti 
 Veterinarii," etc., Copenhagen, 1788 ; Cuvier, " Snr les Ossements 
 Fossiles." 
 
 Abildgaard, (So'ren,) a Danish naturalist, born be- 
 tween 1720 and 1730. He wrote two works on topo- 
 rraphical mineralogy, one of which is entitled " Physico- 
 Mineralogical Description of the Promontory of Moen," 
 (" Physik-mineralogisk Beskrivelse over Moens Klint," 
 1781.) Died in 1791. 
 
 See Ekscu, " Handbuch der Dsntschen Literatur," 
 
 Abilfedae. See Ahoolfeda. 
 
 A-bim'e-lech, [Heb. -i^o'^s,] an illegitimate son 
 of Gideon, chosen king by the men of Shechem after 
 he had slain all his brothers except Jotham. Afterwards, 
 while attempting to take Thebez, he was mortally wound- 
 ed with a stone thrown from the top of the citadel by a 
 woman ; upon which his armour-bearer, at his request, 
 ran him through the body with a sword, lest it should 
 be said that he had been slain by a woman. (See Judges 
 ix.) Two kings of Gerar, named Abimelech, are men- 
 tioned in the book of Genesis, (chaps, xx. and xxvi.) 
 
 Ab'in-ger, (Lord,) an English lawyer, whose proper 
 name was James Scarlett, was born in Jamaica about 
 1 769. Having been educated in England, he was called to 
 the bar in 1791, and obtained great success as a pleader. 
 He was appointed attorney-general in 1827, and became 
 an adherent of the Tory party. In [834 he was appointed 
 chief baron of the exchequer, and raised to the peerage 
 as Baron Abinger. He is said to have been almost unri- 
 valled in the tact and address with which he operated on 
 the minds of juries. Died in 1844, leaving several sons. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine" for June, 1S44 ; Foss, " The Judges 
 of England, vol. ix. 
 
 Ab'ing-ton, (Frances,) a celebrated English actress, 
 born about the year 1731. She excelled in every de- 
 partment of comedy, and was for a long time without a 
 rival. Her taste in dress was greatly admired. Her 
 talents and elegant manners procured her admittance 
 into society of the highest rank ; but, as a woman, her 
 character was marred with those moral blemishes so 
 common in persons of her profession. She died in 1815. 
 
 Abington, (Thomas and William.) See Habing- 
 ton. 
 
 Abisbal, a-Bes-bal', (Henry O'Donnell,) Count, 
 a Spanish general of Irish descent, who greatly dis- 
 tinguished himself in resisting the French invasion in 
 1809-10. He afterwards acted a conspicuous part in 
 the political as well as military affairs of Spain until his 
 death, in 1834. 
 
 A-bish'a-i, [Heb. "B^N,] one of the three sons of 
 Zeruiah, sister of King David, in "whose army he was a 
 leader. See II. Samuel xxiii. 18; also I. Samuel xxvi. 
 
 6-9. 
 
 Ablancourt, d', dS'bloN'kooR', (Nicolas Perrot — 
 p&'ro',) an eminent French translator, born at Chiilons- 
 sur-Marne in 1606. He produced translations of Taci- 
 tus, Thucydides, Cassar, and Lucian, which were received 
 with favour ; but they are not faithful, and are now neg- 
 lected. He was admitted into the French Academy 
 in 1637. Colbert proposed him as historiographer in 
 1662, but Louis XIV. rejected him because he was a 
 Protestant. Died in 1664. 
 
 Ab-la'vi-us, a Roman historian, cited by Jornandes in 
 his History of the Goths. The age in which he lived is 
 unknown. 
 
 Ableitner, ab'llt-ner, (Johann,) a Bavarian sculptor, 
 who flourished in the early part of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Ablesimof or Ablecimof, a-bles'e-mof ', (Alexan- 
 der,) an officer in the Russian army, who became dis- 
 tinguished as a dramatist. Among his works is a suc- 
 cessful national comic opera entitled "The Miller," 
 (1779,) which is considered a faithful picture of Russian 
 manners. Died at Moscow in 1784. 
 
 Ab'ner or Abiner, [Heb. _ U3X or "U'2X,] the son of 
 Ner, was captain of the host of Saul, King of Israel. 
 After the death of Saul, in consequence of an affront 
 offered him by Ishbosheth, Abner sought to transfer the 
 whole kingdom to David. But Joab, exasperated be- 
 cause Abner had killed his brother Asahel in battle, 
 and perhaps jealous of the influence which he might ac 
 quirt with David, called him aside under pretence of 
 speaking with him privately, and treacherously slew 
 him. 
 
 Ab'ney, (Sir Thomas,) M.P., Lord Mayor of Lon- 
 don, born in 1639. He rendered important services to 
 William HI. Died in 1722. 
 
 Abondio, a-bon'de-o, (Alessandro,) a Florentine 
 painter, was a pupil of Michael Angelo. He worked in 
 Germany, and died at Prague. He had a son of the 
 same name, who lived at Munich and was no less dis- 
 tinguished as a painter than his father. 
 
 AB'OO, ABOU, or ABU, an Arabic word signifying 
 " father," forming a prefix to many Oriental names, as 
 Aboo-Bekr, (which see,) the "father of the virgin." 
 
 Aboo- (Abfi- or Abou-) Abdillah, a'boo ab-dil'- 
 lah, the Sheeite, the chief actor in the revolution which 
 established the dynasty of the Fatimites on the throne 
 of Egypt He was born at Sanaa about 865. By his 
 preaching and by his arms he induced a great part of 
 the Mohammedans in Africa to join the new sect and to 
 recognize the claims of Obeydallah, the first sultan of 
 the Fatimite line. But having afterwards been detected 
 in a conspiracy against his sovereign, whom he had 
 raised to the throne, he was put to death in 911. 
 
 Aboo- (Abfi- or Abou-) Abdillah-Mohammed, 
 sumamed Al-maiidee or Al-mahdi, (i.e. "director" or 
 "ruler,") founder of the sect and dynasty of the Almo- 
 hades, (Almowahedun,) was born in the province of Soos, 
 in Morocco, about tire year 1087. Like many other 
 leaders of Mohammedan sects, he began with preaching 
 and ended with the sword. He died in 1130, leaving to 
 Abd-el-Moomen the prosecution of his plans of reform 
 and conquest. 
 
 Aboo-Amroo-Al-Owzaee, (Abu-Amru-Alau- 
 zai,) a'boo am'roo al-6w-za'ee, a famous Mohammedan 
 doctor, who was born at Baalbek about 706 and died 
 about 774 a.d. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Bahr-Sefwan, a'boo'- 
 ball'r sef win', a distinguished Moslem poet an - ! histo- 
 
 , e, I, o, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mi t; not; good; moon; 
 
ABOO-BEKR 
 
 35 
 
 JBOOLFEDA 
 
 run, born at Murcia, in Spain, about the year 1106. 
 Brides many other valuable works, he wrote a biograph- 
 ical dictionary of eminent contemporary authors. He 
 died about 1 182. 
 
 Aboo-Bekr, (Abu-Beker, Abu-Bekr, or Abou- 
 Bekr,) a'boo bek'er, or a-boo'bek-er, written also Abu- 
 Bakr, Abu-Bacr, and Aboubecre, the first of Mo- 
 hammed's successors, was born in 571 a.d. He be- 
 longed to the celebrated tribe of Koreish, and was one 
 of the first and most zealous of the converts to Islam. 
 His original name was Abd-ei.-Kaaba, (abd-el-kS'ba;) 
 but after the prophet Mohammed had married his virgin 
 daughter Ayeshah, he was called Aboo-Bekr, the " Fa- 
 ther of the Virgin." He was elected to the throne in 
 632, and died in 634, after a reign of two years and three 
 months. Aboo-Bekr is admitted by all to have been a 
 
 {vious and humble man, and a mild, generous, and excel- 
 ent prince. He was succeeded by Omar. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. 1. ; Ir- 
 ving, *' Mahomet and his Successors ;" Weil, " Geschichte der Cha- 
 lifen," vol. i. chap. i. For a notice of the character of Aboo-Bekr, see 
 Sprenger's " Life of Mohammad," p. 1 70 et seq. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Bekr-al-Mahree, (Al- 
 mahri,) a'boo bek'er al-maii'ree', the vizier of Almu- 
 tamed, Sultan of Seville, was born about 1030. He ap- 
 pears to have been an able minister, but, having incurred 
 the suspicion of his sovereign, he was put to death in 
 1084. He was regarded as one of the first poets of his age. 
 
 Aboo-Bekr (Abu-Beker) -Ibn-Tofail, (Ib'n to- 
 fil',) an eminent Arabian philosopher, born at Guadix, in 
 Spain. He wrote a philosophical romance entitled " Hai- 
 Ibn-Yokdhan," (or "Hayyi-Ibn-Yokttan,") which was 
 translated into Latin by Pocock and published in 167 1, 
 and into English by Simon Ockley, (London, 1708.) 
 Died at Morocco in 1186. 
 
 See Al-Makkari, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in 
 Spain," translated by Gayangos, vol. i. pp. 335-6. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Faras, 3'b6o fa-rSs', a dis- 
 tinguished Arabian poet, born in 932. He was cousin 
 to Seyf-ed-Dowlah, (Seyfu-d-daulah,) Sultan of Aleppo, 
 at whose court he lived. A Mohammedan writer calls 
 him " the pearl of his time, and the sun of his age, in 
 learning, talent, generosity, glory, eloquence, horseman- 
 ship, and bravery." He was killed in a skirmish in 968. 
 
 Aboo- (or Abou-) Hamid-Alghazalee, (Abu-Ha- 
 mid-Al-ghazali or Alghazzali,) a'boo ha'mid al-Ga- 
 za'lee, a distinguished doctor, born at Toos, (Tiis,) in 
 Khorassan, about 1058. He spent a part of his time in 
 travelling ; but much the greater portion appears to 
 have been passed in seclusion and wholly devoted to 
 philosophy and divinity. He is said to have been a man 
 of sound judgment and immense learning. From his rare 
 attainments as a divine, he was called Zeyn-ed-Deen, 
 "the ornament of religion." Died at Bagdad in 11 11. 
 
 Aboo-Haneefah. See Haneefah. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Hayyan, a'boo hT'yln', 
 surnamed Atheer-ed-Deen, (AthiR-ud-DiN,) "the 
 glory of religion," a distinguished Arabian author, born 
 in the province of Jaen, in Spain, in 1256. When verv 
 young, he visited several towns in Andalusia, where he 
 supported himself by transcribing books and lecturing on 
 the Koran. He afterwards went to Egypt, and was ap- 
 pointed a professor and lecturer on the Kcfran in one of 
 the colleges of that country. He died in Cairo in 1344. 
 He was called " the prince of his age in the science of 
 
 frammar." Besides numerous other important works, 
 e wrote a " History of the Turkish Race," and a volu- 
 minous commentary on the Koran. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Ishak, (-is-hak',) an Ara- 
 bian geographer, who lived about the beginning of the 
 tenth century. The place of his birth is unknown. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Ishak-Al-Hos'ree', (or 
 Al-Hosri,) a noted poet, born near Kairwan in Africa ; 
 died in 1061. 
 
 Aboo-Jaafar, (or -Jafar.) See Mansoor, Al. 
 
 Aboo-1- (Abu-1-) Abbas- AbdaUah, a'bool' ab'bas' 
 ab-dal'lah, surnamed As-Seffah (as-seTfah',) i.e. "the 
 shedder of blood," the twenty-second caliph of the East, 
 and the first of the dynasty of the Abbassides, was born 
 at Damascus about 720 A.D. He was a descendant 
 of Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed. His family had 
 
 always, during the usurpation of the house of Omey- 
 yah, considered themselves the rightful heirs to the 
 caliphate ; at length, during the reign of Merwan II., 
 the standard of revolt was raised in Khorassan. Upon 
 hearing this, Merwan caused Ibraheem, the brother 
 of Aboo-1-Abbas-Abdallah, the representative of the 
 line of Abbas, to be seized and put to death. His broth- 
 ers, Aboo-1-Abbas and Aboo-Jaafar, being then absent 
 from Damascus, fled to Koofah, (Kufah,) where the former 
 was proclaimed caliph by the people, (A.D. 749.) Mer- 
 wan, having advanced against the rebels with an army, 
 was defeated, and fled to Damascus, and thence to Egypt, 
 where he was overtaken and slain. It is estimated that 
 more than one hundred of the Omeyyah family fell vic- 
 tims to the vengeance of the new caliph. As-Seffah died 
 in 754. Notwithstanding his severity against the ene- 
 mies of his family, he is represented by some historians 
 as a liberal, benevolent, and able prince. He was 
 esteemed the handsomest man of his time. 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. ii. chap, i.; D'Her- 
 belot, " Bibliotheque Orientale." 
 
 Aboo-1-ala, (Abu-l-'ala,) a'bool' a'la, a famous Ara- 
 bian poet, born in Syria about 970. When only four 
 years old, he lost his sight from the small-pox. He used 
 to call himself "the doubly-imprisoned captive," allud- 
 ing to his blindness and the voluntary seclusion in which 
 he devoted himself to study. He soon won so great a 
 reputation that his house was filled with students, who 
 same to him from different countries. Died in 1057. 
 
 Abool-Cacem. See Aboo-l-Kasim. 
 
 Aboolfaraj, (Abu-1-faraj,) a'bool' fdr'aj, (or -fdr'aj,) 
 an eminent Arabian author and compiler, a descendant 
 of Merwan II., born at Ispahan in 897. His works are 
 numerous and very valuable. Died at Bagdad in 967. 
 
 Aboolfaraj, (Abu-1- (or Aboul-) faraj,) [written in 
 French Aboulfaradge, a'bool' fS'rdj ; Latin, Abul- 
 fara'gius or Abulphara'gius; called aiso Barhe- 
 br/e'us,] Gregorius, an eminent historical writer, 
 born in Armenia in 1226. At the age of twenty he was 
 ordained Bishop of Guba by Ignatius, the patriarch of 
 the Jacobite Christians. About 1266 he was chosen 
 Primate of the Jacobites, which position he held till his 
 death in 1286. His entire life was devoted to literature, 
 —principally history, in which he left works of great 
 value. He wrote in Arabic and Syriac. His' talents 
 and virtues gained for him the esteem of Mohammedans 
 as well as Christians. 
 
 See Aboulfaradge, in the " Nouvelle Biographie G&ie'rale." 
 
 Aboolfaraj (Abu- (or Abou-) 1-faraj) of Ron ah, 
 a distinguished Persian poet, born in the first half of the 
 eleventh century. He lived at the court of Ibraheem 
 of Ghiznee, (Gazna.) He died, it is supposed, about 1090. 
 Aboolfazl, (Abu-1-fazlor Aboul-Fazl,) a'bool'faz'l, 
 (commonly pronounced in India ub'obl-fiiz'l,) the en- 
 lightened minister and historiographer of Akbar, the 
 greatest of the Mogul emperors. The date of his birth 
 is unknown. In 1572 he was raised to the office of prime 
 minister, which he held for about twenty-eight years. 
 He was waylaid and assassinated about the year 1600, 
 leaving behind him the justly-won reputation of an ex- 
 cellent historian, and of a wise, virtuous, and truly great 
 man. His works are numerous and extremely valuable. 
 Among them we may mention the "Akbar Namah," a 
 minute history of the times of Akbar; "Ayeen Akbari," 
 (or " Ayin-i-Akbari,") " Institutes of Akbar ;" and a post- 
 humous work entitled " Muktoobat," (or " Maktfibat,") 
 the " writings," or " letters," including Aboolfazl's own 
 correspondence. 
 
 See Aboulfazl, in the "Nouvelle Biographie G^ne"rale." 
 Aboolfeda, (Abu-1-feda* or Aboulfeda,) a'bool 
 f?d'S or a-bool'fj-da', a prince and warrior, and one of 
 the most celebrated of the Arabian authors, was born at 
 Damascus about 1273. He was a direct descendant 
 from Aiyoob, ( Aiyub,) the founder of the Aiyoobite dynas- 
 ty in Egypt. His family had possessed the throne of Ha- 
 
 * It may be proper to observe that the Latin name Abulfeda 
 forms the genitive very irregularly — Abilfed.e. This peculiarity is 
 owinjj to the fact that the Abu in the first part of the name has in 
 Arabic Abl for its genitive. In like manner, we say (in the nomi- 
 native) Abd Tilib ; but Ibn Abi Talib, the " son of Abu Talib," the 
 change of Q (00) to 1 (ee) being necessary to mark the genitive case. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J[^"See Explanations, p. 23.' 
 
ABOO-L-HASSAN 
 
 36 
 
 ABOO-SAEED 
 
 mah, but the fief which they held having been declared 
 extinct by Nasir, (or An-Nasir-Ibn-Kalaun,) Sultan of 
 Syria and Egypt, Aboolfedawas deprived of his inherit- 
 ance. Upon this he entered the service of the sultan, 
 and was with him in all his wars against the Tartars. 
 Afterwards, as an acknowledgment of his eminent ser- 
 vices, the sultan conferred upon him the title of Prince 
 of Hamah. He remained in undisturbed possession 
 of his newly-acquired dignity until his death in 1331. 
 All the Moslem writers agree in representing Aboolfeda 
 as a man of the greatest talents ; he was as much dis- 
 tinguished for skill and courage in the field as for wis- 
 dom and prudence in the divan. In spite of the cares 
 of his government, he devoted much of his attention to 
 the cultivation of literature. He has left valuable works 
 on history, geography, and medicine. His work enti- 
 tled "The Description of the Countries" is considered 
 to be the best and most complete Arabic geography 
 which exists. His great history, called "An Abridgment 
 of the History of Mankind," is a work of vast erudition. 
 Resides containing a history of the Mohammedans from 
 the birth of the prophet down to the date of the work 
 itself, (1328,) it furnishes much information respecting 
 Arabia before the time of Mohammed, the ancient Per- 
 sian dynasties, the Copts, the Hindoos, etc. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Ersch nnd Gruber, 
 emeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Aboo-1- Hassan or Abu-1- (Aboul-) hassan, 
 
 a'bool' hds'san, an Arabian astronomer, who flourished 
 in Morocco in the beginning of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Aboo-1-Hassan, (or Abu-1- (Aboul-) hassan,) writ- 
 ten also Aboul-Hacan, a Samaritan, who embraced 
 the Mohammedan religion and repaired to the court of 
 the King of Damascus, by whom he was appointed vizier 
 about the year 1 231. Accompanying an expedition into 
 Egypt, he was taken prisoner and put to death in 1251. 
 
 Aboo-1-Hassan or Aboul-Hacan, (Alee (or Ali) 
 Ibn Omar, a'lee Ib'n o'mar,) an Arabian astronomer 
 nl Morocco, lived about the year 1200. He wrote a valu- 
 able treatise on philosophical instruments, which was 
 translated into French by Sedillot. 
 
 Aboo-1-Kasim, Abu-1-kasirn, or Aboul-cacem, 
 a'bool' ka'sjm, [in Latin, Albuca'sis or Abulca'sis,] the 
 most celebrated of all the Arabian writers on surgery. 
 Scarcely anything is known of his life ; he is supposed 
 to have practised medicine in Cordova in the latter 
 part of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth 
 century, and to have died about 1 1 10. His principal 
 work, which treats of anatomy, physiology, the practice 
 of medicine, and surgery, is one of extraordinary value. 
 That portion which is devoted to surgery has been pro- 
 nounced the best treatise on this subject that has come 
 clown to us from antiquity. It is especially interesting 
 and valuable to those who desire to trace the gradual 
 progress of the surgical art in its various departments. 
 
 See Wustknfkf.o. "Geschichte der Arabischen Aerzte;" Spren- 
 gel, " History nl Median-." 
 
 Aboo-1-Kasim, ( Abu-1-kasim or Abou-1-cacem,) 
 
 a distinguished Mohammedan theologian and poet, born 
 in the province of Valencia, Spain, about 1 143. He 
 visited several foreign countries, and finally settled in 
 Cairo, where he was appointed to a professorship. He 
 died in 1 194. He wrote several works on the Koran, 
 which are highly esteemed. 
 
 Aboo-l-Kasim or Aboul-Cacem, a Turkish gen- 
 oral, lived about 1050. He took Nic.ea, and advanced 
 towards Constantinople, but was repulsed by Taticius, 
 and put to death by the Shah of Persia. 
 
 Aboo-1-Kasim-Mansoor. See Firdousi.f.. 
 
 Aboo-1-Khatar or Abul- (Aboul-) Khattar, a'bool' 
 Kat'taR', a governor of Spain under the caliphs. He 
 was a native of Arabia, and was sent by the Viceroy 
 of Africa to quiet the contending factions by which 
 Spain was at that time distracted. He arrived in Cor- 
 dova in 743 a.d. At first he was entirely successful, but 
 at length a rebellion broke out, which he was unable to 
 quell ; and he was finally slain bv the conquering party. 
 
 Aboo-1-Maalee or Abul- (Aboul-) Maali a'boo'i' 
 ml'a-lee, a learned Persian who flourished in the reign 
 of Bahrain Shah, of Ghiznee, between 1 1 18 and 1152. 
 
 Aboo-1-Mahanee or Abul- (Aboul-) mahani, 
 
 a'bool' ma-ha'nee, an Arabian astronomer, who lived at 
 the court of Al-Mamoon, the seventh caliph of the Ab- 
 bassides, between 813 and 833. 
 
 Aboo-1-Wafa or Abul- (Aboul-) Wafa, a'bool' 
 wa'f a', a distinguished mathematician and astronomer, 
 born in Khorassan about 940; died in 998. He was 
 employed at Bagdad, with other eminent astronomers, 
 to correct the astronomical tables of Aboo-1-Mahanee. 
 
 Aboo-1-Waleed or Abul- (Aboul-) Walid, 
 a'bool' wa-leed', a famous Mohammedan divine, born at 
 Beja, in Portugal, about 1012. His talents and learning 
 attracted the notice of Al-Mdotamed, King of Seville, by 
 whom he was appointed chief justice, which position he 
 held till his death, in 1081. 
 
 Aboo-1-Waleed or Abul- (Aboul-) Walld, a dis- 
 tinguished Moslem divine and historian, born at Alep- 
 po about the year 1400 ; died 1478. 
 
 Aboo-1- Waleed- (or Abul- (Aboul-) Walid-) Ibn- 
 Jehwar — Ib'n-je'h'wdR or -jeh'war, the second sul- 
 tan of Cordova of the Jehwar dynasty, whose capita* 
 was treacherously wrested from him by Al-Mdotamed 
 King of Seville, about the year 1045; the latter having 
 with a large army entered Aboo-1- Waleed's kingdom 
 with the professed object of assisting him against Al 
 Mamoon, King of Toledo. Aboo-1-Waleed died, or was 
 killed, soon after. 
 
 Abool-Waleed-Mohammed-Ibn-Roshd. See 
 
 AVERROES. 
 
 Aboo-Mansoor, (Abu-Mansur or Abou-Man- 
 sour,) a'boo mdn'sooR', a distinguished astronomer, 
 born at Mecca in 855. He lived at the court of the 
 caliph Al-Mamoon, who appointed him president of an 
 academy of astronomers at Bagdad, and committed to 
 his superintendence the building of two observatories. 
 The time of his death is unknown. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Merwan or Merouan, 
 i'boo men' win', a distinguished Mohammedan divine, 
 born at Seville about 1 170. He. was for several years 
 chief justice of his native city. Having made a pil- 
 grimage to Mecca, he died at Cairo, on his return, in 1257. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Mos'lem, (or -Muslim ,) a 
 general, who contributed greatly to the overthrow of the 
 Omeyyah dynasty and the establishment of that of the 
 Abbassides, was born about 720 A.D. Neither his fidelity 
 nor the greatness of his merits availed him against the 
 jealous cruelty of a sovereign whom he had raised to 
 the throne. Aboo-Jaafar had employed him in quelling 
 some formidable rebellions which threatened to dismem- 
 ber the empire. But, when his services were no longer 
 needed, the caliph, having invited him, with every mark 
 of friendship, to visit him in his palace at Roomeeyeh, 
 (Kumiyyah,) caused Aboo-Moslem to be basely assas- 
 sinated, in 755. Although Aboo-Moslem's character 
 was undoubtedly stained with many crimes, he appears 
 to have been always faithful to his sovereign. 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap, xvii., and vol. 
 ii. chaps, i. and ii. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Nowas — no-wSss', an Ara- 
 bian poet, born about 744, and died about 810 a.d. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Obeyd — o'bad' or -0 bid', 
 a noted Mohammedan geographer and historian, born 
 in Spain about 1040. He was vizier to Mohammed, 
 King of Almeria. Died about 1095. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Obeydah — o-ba'dah, a 
 celebrated Mohammedan general, who commanded un- 
 der the caliphs Aboo-Bekr and Omar. He died of the 
 plague, at Damascus, in 639. 
 
 Aboo-Reehan or Abu- (Abou-) Rihan, written 
 also Abou-Ryhan, a'boo ree'hSn', a distinguished 
 Arabian astronomer, born about 970 ; died in 1038. 
 He was employed on several embassies by Al-Mamoon, 
 (Mamiin,) Sultan of Kharasm. 
 
 Aboo-Saeed or Abu- (Abou-) Said, a'boo sa-eed', 
 the ninth of the Persian kings of the race of Jengis 
 Khan, ascended the throne in 13 1 7. He was a weak- 
 prince, being ruled first by his favourite, the emir Choo- 
 ban, and afterwards by his wife, the daughter of that 
 nobleman. He died in 1335, at the age of thirty. 
 
 Aboo-Saeed-Meerza, ( Abu-Said-Mirza or Abou 
 Said Mirza,) a'boo sa-eed' meer'zi, a prince of the 
 Moguls, bom about 1427, was a descendant of Tamei lane. 
 
 t, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 6, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure: far, fall, fat; mit; n3t; good; moon; 
 
ABOO-SAHL-ISA 
 
 37 
 
 ABRAHAM 
 
 Having invaded Irak and Azerbaijan, he was taken 
 prisoner and put to death in 1469. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Sahl-Isa, a'boo saH'l is'a, 
 (or ee'sa,) an eminent Christian physician of Khorassan, 
 tutor to the famous Avicenna, (Ibn-Seena.) He lived in 
 the early part of the eleventh century. 
 
 Aboo-Salat or Abu- (Abou-)s-Salat, a'boo sal'at, 
 (or sal'at,) a Spanish physician, astronomer, and poet, 
 born in 1068; died in 1134. 
 
 Aboo- (Abou- or Abu-) Sofian, (Sophian or So- 
 phyan,) a'brJo so-fe-in', a chief among the Koreish, who 
 distinguished himself by his obstinate hostility to the 
 claims of Mohammed. After all resistance was vain, 
 he reluctantly acknowledged the divine mission of the 
 prophet. Aboo-Sofian was the father of the caliph 
 Moaweeyeh, the founder of the Omeyyah dynasty at 
 Damascus. (See Mohammed.) 
 
 Aboo-Tahir or Abu- (Abou-) Tahir, a'boo ta'hjr, 
 the chief of a sect called Karmatians, who, with a com- 
 paratively small number of followers, took and plun- 
 dered Koofah, (Kufah,) Mecca, and several other cities of 
 Asia, and at length, in 931, was bold enough to advance, 
 with only 500 horse, to within a short distance of Bagdad. 
 He suddenly attacked, defeated, and took prisoner 
 Abissaj, (a'be-sSj',) whom, at the head of 30,000 men, 
 the caliph had sent against him. Died in 943. Bahrein, 
 on the Persian Gulf, was the capital of his dominions. 
 
 Aboo-Talib, (or -Taleb,) Abu-Talib, or Abou- 
 Talib, (or -Thaleb,) a'boo ta'lib, written also Ebu- 
 Thalib, an uncle of Mohammed, and the father of Alee, 
 (All,) who married the prophet's onlv daughter, Fatimah. 
 He belonged to the illustrious tribe of Koreish, and 
 flourished in the latter half of the sixth and beginning 
 of the seventh century. Died about 620 A. D. (See Mo- 
 hammed.) 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Talib, (pronounced by the 
 Hindoos fib'oo ta'lib,) a native of India, born at Luck- 
 now in 1752. For a number of years he was em- 
 ployed by the East India Company in various offices, 
 civfl and military. At length, in 1800, he visited Eng- 
 land, where he was received with the most flattering at- 
 tentions by the royal family and many of the nobility. 
 He returned to India through France, Italy, Turkey, 
 and Persia. He wrote a very interesting journal of his 
 travels, a translation of which into English has been 
 published. Died in 1806. 
 
 Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) Temam — te-mlm', a 
 famous Arabian poet, born in Syria about 805 a.d. 
 He spent the first years of his life in Damascus in the 
 service of a tailor. He afterwards repaired to Bagdad, 
 where he was munificently patronized by the caliph and 
 the officers of his court. Died in 845. 
 
 Aboo-Yakoob-Yoosuf, Abu-Ya'kub-Yftsuf, or 
 Abou-Yakoub-Yousouf, (or -Yousef,) a'boo ya'- 
 koob' yoo'soof, (oryoo'suf,) the third sultan of Africa and 
 Spain of the Almohade dynasty, succeeded his father, 
 Abd-el-Moomen, in 1163. In 1184 he was mortally 
 wounded before the walls of Santarem, a fortress of Por- 
 tugal, in the possession of the Christians, which he had 
 besieged with a large army. Aboo-Yakoob was a mild 
 and enlightened sovereign, and a patron of learning. 
 
 Aboo-Yoosuf, Abu-Yusuf, or Abou- Yousef, an 
 eminent Moslem divine, born at Koofah (Kufah) about 
 731 a.d. In consequence of his great talents and legal 
 knowledge, he was appointed chief judge of Bagdad, an 
 office which he held till his death, in 798. In the latter 
 part of his life he was the subject of the famous Haroun 
 al-Raschid. 
 
 Aboo-Yoosuf- Yakoob, Abu-Yusuf-Ya'kub, or 
 Abou-Yousouf-Yakoub, a'boo yoo'soof ya'koob', 
 surnamedAl.MANSOOR, (Ai.-Mansur,)" The Victorious,' - 
 the fourth sultan of Africa and Spain of the Almohade 
 dynasty, was born at Morocco in 1160. He succeeded 
 his father Aboo-Yakoob-Yoosuf, who fell at the siege 
 of Santarem, in 1184. Having established himself on 
 his throne, and put down several rebellions in his Afri- 
 can dominions, he determined to cross the Straits of 
 Gibraltar and avenge the death of his father. He made, 
 in all, three expeditions into the Spanish peninsula : in 
 the first (1 189) he took captive, of both sexes, 40,000 
 persons, whom he led into Africa and settled at Rabatt, 
 
 near Sale ; in the second (1190) he reduced the fortress 
 of Torres and the town of Silves in Portugal ; in the 
 third (1195) he defeated the Christians under Alphonso 
 III., in a great battle near Valencia ; after which he tool. 
 Calatrava, Guadalajara, Madrid, Alcala, and Salamanca 
 He died at Morocco in 1 198, leaving behind him the char- 
 acter of an able and enlightened prince. Pie has been pro- 
 nounced the greatest and best of the Almohade sultans. 
 
 Aboubecre. See Aboo-Bekr. 
 
 Abou-Bekr. See Aboo-Bekr. 
 
 Abou-1-Cacem, (or Kasim.) See Aboo-l-Kasim. 
 
 Abou-1-Casim-Mansour. See Firdousee. 
 
 Aboulfaradge. See Aboolfaraj. 
 
 Aboul-Hagan. See Aboo-l-Hassan. 
 
 About, i'boo', (Edmond Francois Valentin,) a 
 successful and pithy French writer, born at Dieuze (in 
 Meurthe) in 1828. Having passed some time at Athens, 
 he published, in 1855, a work on modern Greece, "La 
 Grece contemporaine," which is said to be remarkable 
 for the best qualities of a truly French style. His ro- 
 mance entitled "Tolla" (1855) is also much admired. 
 He has written several novels, among which are " The 
 King of the Mountains," (1856,) and "Germaine," (1857,) 
 and a remarkable political work on the " Roman Ques- 
 tion," (about i860,) which shows a decided sympathy for 
 the liberal cause. 
 
 Abou-Tahir. See Aboo-Tahir. 
 
 Abou-Taleb, (or-Thaleb.) See Aboo-Talib. 
 
 Abou-Yousouf. See Aboo-Yoosuf. 
 
 Aboville, d', dt'bo'vel', (Francois Marie,) Comte, 
 a French general, born at Brest in 1730. He served with 
 distinction as colonel at Yorktown, Virginia, where he 
 directed the artillery, (1781,) became a general about 
 1790, and opposed Dumouriez at the time of his defec- 
 tion, 1793. Under the regime of Bonaparte he was in- 
 spector-general of artillery, and senator. Died in 181 7. 
 
 Abrabanel, a-BRa'na-neT, [Span. pron. almost av-Ka'- 
 va-nrjl',] written also Abarbanel and Abrabauiel, 
 (Isaac,) the most illustrious of all the Spanish rabbis, 
 was born in Lisbon in 1437. . His family, which was sup- 
 posed to be descended from King David, had dwelt in 
 Spain from a very early period. The parents of Abra- 
 banel were rich, and no expense was spared in his edu- 
 cation. Endowed with extraordinary quickness of in- 
 tellect and great powers of application, he soon made 
 himself master of all the learning of that time, and was 
 particularly distinguished for his thorough acquaintance 
 with the Holy Scriptures and the writings of the rabbis. 
 His great abilities attracted the attention of Alphonso 
 V. of Portugal, who frequently consulted him on the 
 most important affairs. On the death of this king, in 
 1481, his son, John II., yielding to the bigoted spirit of 
 that age, banished Abrabanel from his presence and 
 forced him to seek refuge in Spain. Here he was at 
 first received with great favour by Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella ; but in 1492 a decree was promulgated by which 
 all the Jews were banished from the Spanish dominions 
 and their property confiscated. Abrabanel fled at first 
 to Naples ; he afterwards resided for a short time in 
 several of the Italian cities, and at last died in Venice 
 in 1508. His works consist of commentaries on various 
 parts of the Scriptures. They are considered by the 
 best judges to display not only the greatest learning, but 
 powers almost unrivalled in this species of writing. 
 
 See Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana ;" Le Long, " Bibliotheca 
 Sacra;" J. H. Mai, "Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptis Abrabanielis," 
 1708. 
 
 Ab-ra-da'tas, a king of Susa, who at first fought on 
 the side of the Assyrians, but afterwards attached him- 
 self to Cyrus the Great, King of Persia. He fell in the 
 war which Cyrus waged against Crcesus. 
 
 See Xenophon's " Cyrupaidia," book v. 
 
 Abraham, a'bra-ham, [Heb. DrPDS,] or Abiam 
 a'bram, one of the most eminent of the Hebrew patri- 
 archs, was born at Ur, a city of Chaldea, about 2000 years 
 (it is supposed) before the Christian era. " Abraham" 
 signifies the " father of a numerous people," and 
 "Abram" " exalted father." In consequence of his ex- 
 emplary obedience and trust in God, he has been hon- 
 oured with the title of " father of the faithful." He died 
 at or near Hebron, aged 175 years. (See Genesis xi.-xxv.) 
 
 > as k; 5 as s; g hard; g s/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (£jp=.Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ABRAHAM 
 
 38 
 
 ABSTRTUS 
 
 Abraham-a-Sancta-Clara — a-sank'ta kla'ra, an 
 Augustine friar, regarded as the greatest popular preach- 
 er of Germany during the seventeenth century, was born 
 in Suabia, in 1642. His proper name was Ulric Me- 
 gerle, (ma'ger-la). He studied philosophy and theo- 
 logy in the Augustine convent at Vienna. In 1662 he 
 entered holy orders, and took the degree of doctor of 
 divinity ; in 1669 the emperor Leopold appointed him 
 preacher to the imperial court at Vienna, which office 
 he continued to hold for many years. He died in 1709, 
 leaving many religious works. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Oester- 
 reichisches Biographisches Lexikon," Vienna, 1851. 
 
 Abraham-Bar-Chasdai-Hallevi — baR-Has'dT'hal'- 
 leh-vee', a Jewish rabbi, born at Barcelona, Spain, lived 
 in the last half of the twelfth century. He wrote " The 
 Book of the Soul," and other works. 
 
 Abraham-Ben-Chanaiiia-Jagel (or -Jaghel) — 
 ki-na-nee'd yd'gel, an Italian rabbi, was born near the 
 close of the sixteenth century. He wrote a work en- 
 titled " The Book of Good Doctrine," a catechism on 
 the articles of the Jewish faith, which is much cele- 
 brated. He embraced Christianity about the beginning 
 of the seventeenth century, and was baptized by the 
 name of Camillus Jaghel. The exact time of his death 
 is unknown. 
 
 Abraham-Ben-Dior — de'oR', (The Levite,) a famous 
 rabbi, born at Toledo, in Spain, in the early part of the 
 twelfth century. He is said to have been a personal 
 friend of Maimonides, who speaks of him with great 
 respect. He is supposed to have suffered death on ac- 
 count of his religion about the year 1180. 
 
 Abraham-Ben-Haja (-ha'ya) or -Chaja, (Ka'ya,) 
 a Spanish rabbi, wrote a treatise " On Nativities," and 
 one entitled the " Globe of the World," (" Sphaera Mun- 
 di," 1546.) Died in 1105. 
 
 Abraham-Ben-Isaac-Zahalon — zd-ha-lon', a dis- 
 tinguished Spanish rabbi, who lived in the sixteenth 
 century. He was an excellent lawyer, an eminent astron- 
 omer, and also a poet. He was banished from Spain 
 with the other Jews, and took refuge in Italy. 
 
 Abraham cti- (or de-) Balmis — de bal'mis, a cele- 
 brated Italian rabbi and physician, born at Lecce in the 
 latter part of the fifteenth century. Died about 1522. 
 
 Abi aham-Zacuth, (or -Zacut, -za-koot') or -Zacu- 
 tho — za-koo'to, [Span. pron. tha-koot' or tha-koo'to,] a 
 Spanish rabbi and astronomer, born at Salamanca near 
 the middle of the fifteenth century. He was one of the 
 Jews banished from Spain in 1492. On leaving his na- 
 tive country he went to Portugal, where he was kindly 
 received by King Emmanuel and appointed astronomer 
 and chronographer royal. The date of his death is un- 
 known. 
 
 Abram, S'bR&N', (Nicholas,) a learned French Je- 
 suit, born near Charmes, in 1589. In 1636 he became 
 professor of theology in the University of Pont-a-Mous- 
 son. Died in 1655. 
 
 Abranches, de, da a-bRan'shes, (Alvaro,) a Por- 
 tuguese noble, who took a prominent part in the revo- 
 lution which occurred in 1640, and which resulted in the 
 expulsion of the Spaniards from Portugal. 
 
 Abrantes, a-bRan'tes, fourth Maro_uis of, a Portu- 
 guese nobleman, born in 1784. He occupies a promi- 
 nent place in the political history of his country from 
 1807 to 1824, when, in consequence of the part which he 
 took in the murder of the Marquis of Louie, he was ban- 
 ished from Portugal. He went first to Italy, and thence 
 Jo England, where he died in 1827. 
 
 Abrantes, Duke of. See Junot. 
 
 Abresch, a'bR^sh, (Friedrich Ludwig,) a learned 
 German author, born at Hesse-Homburg in 1699. He 
 studied at the University of Utrecht. His parents had 
 designed him for the Church, but his own inclinations 
 led him to devote himself wholly to classical literature. 
 Among his works are " Notes on yEschylus and Thucy- 
 dides." He was rector of the College of Middelburg, 
 1725-41. Died in 1782. 
 
 Abreu, d", da'brl-oo, (Alexis,) a distinguished Por- 
 tuguese physician, born about 1570. In 1606 he was ap- 
 pointed consulting physician to Philip III. of Spain. 
 Died in 1630. 
 
 Abreu y Bertodano, de, da d'bR? -00 e b?R-to-Dd'no, 
 (Felix Jose,) a Spanish knight, (caballero,) son of the 
 Marquis de Regalia, born about 1 720. He devoted him- 
 self to the study of international law, and published, 
 in 1746, a "Treatise on Maritime Prizes," (Tratado ju- 
 ridico-politico sobre Presas de Mar,") which attracted 
 considerable attention. From 1755 to 1760 he was 
 envoy extraordinary to the court of St. James. The 
 year of his death is unknown. 
 
 Abreu y Bertodano, de, (Jose Antonio,) a Span- 
 ish writer on international law, was brother to the pre- 
 ceding. Died in 1775. 
 
 Abrial, i'bRe'il', (Joseph Andre,) a French advo- 
 cate, born in 1750, at Annonay, was educated in the 
 College of Louis-le-Grand, at Paris. He was sent in 
 1800 to Naples, in order to organize a republican gov- 
 ernment, in which work he manifested great ability. 
 During the whole of his administration, his mildness 
 and moderation won for him the affection of the Nea- 
 politans. He was made senator, and received the title of 
 count, under Napoleon, but was nevertheless one of 
 the first to vote for his dethronement in 1S14. He was 
 afterwards created a peer by Louis XVIII. Died in 
 1828. 
 
 Abriani, a-bRe-a'nee, (Paolo,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Vicenza in 1607. He was employed as professor 
 or teacher in Genoa, Verona, and Padua. Among his 
 works are a volume of sonnets, " Canzoni," etc., and a 
 poetical version of Horace's "Art of Poetry," (1663.) 
 Died at Venice in 1699. 
 
 Abril, a-BReel', almost a-vReel', [in Latin, Apri'lis,] 
 (Pedro Simon,) a Spanish grammarian, who is supposed 
 to have died near the close of the sixteenth century. 
 He was the author of a number of books, some of which 
 are in Spanish, and some in Latin 
 
 Abruzzi, a-bRoot'see, a landscape-painter, who lived 
 in Rome towards the close of the last century. 
 
 Abruzzo, a-bRoot'so, (Baldassare,) a Sicilian philos- 
 opher and civilian, born about 1600; died in 1665. 
 
 Ab'sa-lom, [Heb. OlSeON,] the third son of Da- 
 vid, was born in Hebron after his father ascended the 
 throne. Possessed of winning manners and an ex- 
 ceedingly handsome person, he became very popular 
 throughout the land of Israel, and at length sought 
 openly to dethrone his father. In the battle which was 
 subsequently fought, Absalom was slain by Joab, al- 
 though King David had expressly commanded that the 
 life of his son should be spared. The rebellion of Ab- 
 salom is supposed to have occurred in 1036 B.C. (See 
 II. Samuel xiii.-xviii.) 
 
 Absalon, ab'sa-lon', called also Axel, a descendant 
 of Slagus, was born in Iceland in 1 128. He studied in 
 Paris, and in 1 1 78 was appointed to the archbishopric of 
 Lund, in Scania, which office he held till his death in 
 1201. Absalon was undoubtedly one of the greatest 
 men of his age ; he was a wise counsellor to his king, a 
 brave general, and a generous patron of learning. 
 
 See Estrup, "Absalon conside're' comme heVos, homme d'E*tat et 
 e'veque," 1856. 
 
 Abschatz, ap'shats, (Hans Assmann — ass'man,) 
 Baron of, a poet and statesman, born in Silesia in 1646. 
 He studied jurisprudence at the Universities of Stras- 
 burg and Leyden. In 1675 he was appointed governor 
 of the principality of Liegnitz, and afterwards was Sile- 
 sian ambassador at the court of Vienna. Died in 1699. 
 He is ranked among the principal German poets of the 
 seventeenth century. Many hymns of his composition 
 are still sung in the Protestant churches. 
 
 Abshoven. See Apshoven. 
 
 Abste-nio, ab-sta'me-o, or Astemio, [Lat. Aiiste'- 
 Mius,] (Giampietro,) an eminent teacher, who lived in 
 Friuli about the middle of the sixteenth century. His 
 school was attended by young men of the first Italian 
 families. 
 
 Ab-ste'ml-us Lau-ren'tl-us, (lau-reVshe-us,) [It, 
 Astemio, as-ta'me-o,] an Italian writer, who was born 
 at Macerata in the latter half of the fifteenth century. 
 Besides several works on grammar and criticism, and 
 one on geography, he wrote, in Latin, a book of Fables, 
 which at one time enjoyed considerable popularity. 
 
 Ab-syr'tua or Apsyr'tua, [Gr. "Ai/»vproc; Fr. Ab 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 0. obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
ABU-BAKR 
 
 39 
 
 ACCOLT1 
 
 SYRTE, ib'seRt',] a son of /Eetes, King of Colchis, was 
 a brother of Medea, who took him with her when she 
 fled with Jason. When she was pursued by her father, 
 she killed her brother and scattered his severed limbs 
 along the road, in order to retard the pursuit. 
 
 ABU, ABU, or ABO, a prefix to many Arabian 
 names. See Aboo. 
 Abu-Bakr, (or -Bacr.) See Aboo-Bkkr. 
 Abubeker or Abube'kr. See Aboo-Bekr. 
 A-bu'ca-ra, [Gr. ' Afjovnapu,] (Theodorus,) a Chris- 
 tian theological writer, who lived in the eighth century. 
 Of the circumstances of his life little or nothing is known. 
 He wrote a great number of works, mostly in Greek, 
 though a few are in Arabic. 
 
 Ab-u-dac'nus, (Joseph,) a native of Cairo, who, about 
 the year 1600, was a teacher of Arabic at Oxford. Be- 
 sides some grammatical treatises on Hebrew, he wrote 
 a " History of the Copts," (" Historia Jacobitarum seu 
 Coptorum in ^gypto Libya," etc.) 
 See Wood, "Athena? Oxonienses." 
 Abulfaragius. See Aboolfaraj. 
 Abul-Faraj, (or Parage.) See Aboolfaraj. 
 Abulfeda. See Aboolfeda. 
 Abul-KasimorAbu-1-Kasim. See Aboo- l-Kasim. 
 Abu-1-Kasim-Mansur. See Firdousee. 
 Abulola. See Aboo-l-ala. 
 Abulpharagius. See Aboolfaraj. 
 Abul-Walid-Ibn-Roshd See Averroe's. 
 Abundance, d', dS'buN'doNss', (Jean,) a French 
 poet and satirist, who flourished in the early part of the 
 sixteenth century. Nothing is known of his life ; the 
 name is supposed by some to be fictitious. One of his 
 works is entitled "The Great and Marvellous Acts of 
 Nobody," (" Les Grands et Merveilleux Faits de Nemo.") 
 Ab-jf-de'nus, ['A SvSqvui;] a Greek historian, who 
 wrote a work on Assyria, very valuable, so far as can be 
 judged from the few fragments which remain. Of his life 
 nothing is known. 
 Acace. The French spelling of Acacius, which see. 
 Acacius, a-ka'she-us, [Gr. 'Akwuoc; Fr. Acace, 
 
 f kiss',] a bishop of Ca:sare'a, who succeeded Eusebius 
 in 339 a.d. Died about 366. 
 
 Acacius, a philosopher and rhetorician of Cassarea, 
 contemporary with the preceding. 
 
 Acacius, a bishop of Beroe, who lived in the fourth 
 and fifth centuries. 
 
 Acacius, a bishop of Amida, in Mesopotamia, who 
 ransomed 7000 Persians that had been taken prisoners 
 by the Romans, about the beginning of the fifth centurv. 
 
 Acacius, a patriarch of Constantinople, to which 
 dignity he was appointed in 471 a.d. He was ambi- 
 tious and crafty, and aimed to raise the church of Con- 
 stantinople above all other Eastern churches. Died in 
 489. . 
 
 Ac-a-de'mus ['Aicao^of] or Hec-a-de'mus, an 
 Athenian, who disclosed, it is said, to Castor and Pollux 
 the place where their sister Helen was secreted. The 
 garden or grove called Academia, in which Plato found- 
 ed his school of philosophy, is supposed to have been 
 named in honour of Academus. 
 
 Acamapichtli, a-ka-ma-petch'tlee, the first king of 
 Tenochtitlan or Mexico, was elected to the throne, 
 according to the Mexican annalists, in the year 1352. 
 His authority extended only to the Aztecs inhabiting 
 the island on which Tenochtitlan was built. Under his 
 reign the Aztecs increased in fame, stone edifices were 
 built, and canals were constructed. Died in 1389. 
 
 Ac'a-mas, ['Axo/ioc,] a son of Theseus and Phaedra, 
 is said to have been sent with Diomede to Troy to 
 demand the surrender of Helen. According to Virgil, 
 he was one of the band enclosed in the wooden horse. 
 
 Acarq, d', dit'sikk', a French critic and grammarian, 
 who was born in 1720 and died in 1795. 
 
 A-cas'tus, [Gr. 'KaaaTor; Fr. Acastk, S'kfct',) a son 
 of Pelias, King of [olcug, was one of the Argonautae. He 
 married Astydaini'a, who, by false accusations, produced 
 an enmity between Acastus and Peleus. 
 
 Ac'ca, a learned bishop of Hexham, a contemporary 
 and friend of the celebrated Bede. Died in 740 A.D. 
 
 Ac'ca Lauren'tia (lau-r<5n'she-a) or Larentia, la- 
 
 ren'she-a, the wife of the shepherd Faustulus, is said 
 to have been the nurse of Romulus and Remus. Ac- 
 cording to one tradition, she was a courtesan who was 
 renowned for her beauty, and who bequeathed a large 
 sum of money to the Roman people in the time of An- 
 cus Martius. 
 
 Accama, ak'ka-ma, (Bernard,) a Dutch historical 
 and portrait painter, born in Friesland. Died in 1756. 
 
 Accarigi, ak-ka-ree'jee, or Accarisi, ak-ka-ree'see, 
 [Lat. Accaris'ius,] (Francesco,) a distinguished pro- 
 fessor of civil law, born at Ancona about 1550. He 
 taught successively in the Universities of Sienna, Parma, 
 and Pisa. Died at Pisa in 1622, 
 
 Accarrigi, (Jacopo,) a native of Bologna, who was 
 professor of rhetoric in the University of Mantua. Died 
 in 1654. 
 
 Accarisio,ak-ka-ree'se-o,(ALBERTO,) an Italian, born 
 at Cento, near Ferrara, in the early part of the sixteenth 
 century, was the author of an Italian grammar of some 
 celebrity. 
 
 Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, at-cha-yo'lee, (Donato,) 
 a distinguished Italian scholar, born at Florence in 1428, 
 wrote commentaries on the ethics and politics of Aris- 
 totle. Died in 1478. 
 
 Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (Filippo,) a dramatic writer 
 and composer, born at Rome in 1637; died in 1700. 
 
 Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (Niccol6 or Nicholas,) 
 an eminent statesman, born at Florence about 13 10. 
 He was for many years the chief adviser of Joanna, Queen 
 of Naples, to whom he was recommended by his talents, 
 eloquence, and fine personal appearance. Died in 1366. 
 Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (Renier,) a Florentine, 
 who obtained possession of Athens and Corinth about 
 1364, and was styled Duke of Athens. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 Acciajuoli or Acciaioli, (Zenobio,) a classical 
 scholar, born at Florence in 1461, became librarian of 
 the Vatican and a friend of Politian. He translated 
 Eusebius and Theodoret into Latin, and wrote Latin 
 verses, which were praised by Giraldi and other critics. 
 Died in 1 5 19. 
 
 Acciajuoli-Salvetti, at-cha-yo'lee sal-vet'tee, (M ad- 
 dalena,) an Italian poetess of Florence, wrote " Rime 
 Toscane," and other works. Died in 1610. 
 
 Accioli, at-cho'lee, (Juan de Cerqueira y Silva— 
 daseR-ka'e-ra e seel'va,) a Brazilian historian, born about 
 the end of the eighteenth century. Among his works is 
 " Historical and Political Memoirs of the Province of 
 Bahia," (6 vols., 1835 and the years following.) 
 
 Accius, ak'she-us, or Attiiis, at'she-us, (Lucius,) a 
 celebrated Roman tragic poet, born ^about 170 B.C. 
 None of his dramas has come down to us entire ; but 
 the numerous fragments which remain justify the ad- 
 miration with which the ancients regarded him. The 
 date of his death is unknown. 
 
 See Sellars, "Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. v. 
 Accius, (Titus,) a Roman orator, born at Pisaurum, 
 (now Pesaro,) in Umbria. He lived about 70 years B.C. 
 Accolti, ak-kol'tee, (Benedetto, or Benedict,) an 
 Italian writer, born at Arezzo in 141 5. He was doctor 
 and professor of law at Florence ; in 1459 he was made 
 chancellor of the republic, which office he held till his 
 death in 1466. He wrote a Latin history of the conquest 
 of Palestine by Godfrey of Bouillon, from which Tasso 
 derived the materials of his great poem. 
 
 Accolti, ak-kol'tee, (Benedetto,) an Italian cardinal, 
 born at Florence in 1497, was a grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, and a son of Michele Accolti. He became a 
 cardinal in 1527, after which he was sometimes called 
 Cardinal de Ravenna. He was an elegant Latin poet, 
 in the opinion of such judges as Vida and Sadoleto, and 
 was also a patron of learning. Died in 1549. 
 See Aubeky, " Histoire des Cardinaux." 
 
 Accolti, (Bernardo,) a noted Italian poet and im- 
 provisatore, who lived at the court of Leo X., was a son 
 of the historian Benedetto, and uncle of the preceding. 
 Whenever he recited his verses in public, great crowds 
 flocked to hear him. Died about 1535. 
 
 Accolti, (Francesco,) a distinguished Italian lawyer, 
 (better known as Areti'nus or Aretino, a-ra-tee'no,) a 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AC COLT I 
 
 40 
 
 AC HARD 
 
 name assumed by several members of his family,) born 
 at Aiezzo about 1418, was a brother of Benedetto the his- 
 torian. In 1440 he was made professor of law at Bo- 
 logna, and in 1479 was appointed senior professor of 
 law at Pisa, which position he held till his death, about 
 1485. Besides a number of works of a strictly profes- 
 sional character, he wrote several essays in general lit- 
 erature, including translations from the ancient authors. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Accolti, (Pietro,) Cardinal, son of Benedetto the 
 historian, was born at Florence in 1455. He held for 
 some time the professorship of law in the University of 
 Pisa; afterwards, in 1511, he was made Cardinal of St. 
 Eusebius. He has generally been called, though incor- 
 rectly, Cardinal of Ancona : it is under this title that he 
 is said to have had the principal share in preparing the 
 bull against Luther, in 1520. It is certain that he pos- 
 sessed great influence at the court of Leo X. Died in 
 1549- 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Accolti, (Pietro, the younger,) grandson of Cardinal 
 Benedetto, lived in the early part of the seventeenth 
 century. He lectured on canon law at Pisa. 
 
 Accoramboni, ak-ko-ram-bo'nee, (Fabio,) an Ital- 
 ian lawyer, born in 1502. In 1523, or soon after, he was 
 appointed professor of civil law in the University of Pisa, 
 and afterwards, about 1527, became professor of canon 
 law at Rome. Died in 1559. 
 
 Accoramboni, (Felix,) an Italian philosopher and 
 physician, a grandson of Gero'nimo, noticed below, lived 
 abaut 1600. He wrote commentaries on Aristotle and 
 Galen. 
 
 Accoramboni, (Girolamo,) an eminent Italian phy- 
 sician, born about 1467, at Gubbio, in the duchy of Ur- 
 bino. He was professor of medicine at Perugia, and 
 afterwards at Rome. Leo X. chose him as his own phy- 
 sician. Died in 1537. 
 
 Accoramboni, (Virginia,) an Italian poetess,'was 
 the wife of Francesco Peretti, a nephew of Pope Sixtus 
 V. She was murdered by Luigi Orsini in 1585. 
 
 See Adrv, " Vie de V. Accoramboni," 1S07. 
 
 Accorso, Ik-koR'so, [Fr. Accurse, i'ku'Rss',] (Buo- 
 No, boo-o'no,) written also Buonaccorso, [Lat. Bo'n us 
 Accur'sius, | a celebrated classical scholar and rhetori- 
 cian, native of Pisa, lived in the latter half of the fifteenth 
 century, lie wrote commentaries on the writings of 
 Caesar and other Latin classics. 
 
 Accorso, (or Accursio, dk-kooR'se-o,) (Marian- 
 GELO,) an Italian writer and critic, who lived at Rome 
 in the time of Leo X. 
 
 Accum, ak'kiim or ak'kiim, (Friedrich,) a German 
 chemist, born at Biickeburg in 1769. He emigrated to 
 London in 1793, and became professor of chemistry 
 there about 1802. He published an excellent " Practical 
 Treatise on Gas Light," (1815,) which contributed greatly 
 to promote the use of gas for illumination of cities. 
 Among his other works are, "On the Adulteration of 
 F'ood," ( 1822,) and " Essay on Chemical Reagents," (Lon- 
 don, 1816.) Died in Berlin in 1838. 
 
 Accurse. See Accorso and Accursius. 
 
 Accursii, ak-kiu'she-I, (Cervot'tus,) second son of 
 Accursius, noticed below, born about 1240; died in 1287. 
 
 Accursii, ak-kur'she-I, or Accursius, ak-kur'she-us, 
 (Franciscus,) or Accorso, (Francesco,) the sorTof 
 Accursius mentioned below, was born at Bologna in 
 1225. He was for several years a counsellor to Edward 
 I. of England, and afterwards a professor of law at Bo- 
 logna, where he died in 1293. 
 
 Accursii, (Wilhelmus,) a third son of Accursius, 
 mentioned below, born in 1246, obtained several eccle- 
 siastical preferments, and was for some time in the service 
 of the pope. Died about 13 10. 
 
 Accursius, ak-kur'she-u.s, (the Latinized form of Ac- 
 corso,) [Fr. ACCURSE, fFkujtss',1 an Italian lawyer, 
 whose Christian name is supposed to have been Fran- 
 cesco, was born in or near Florence about 11 82. He 
 was for many years a teacher of law in Bologna. His 
 " Glossa," i.e. a collection of glossa, or notes, made by 
 different commentators on Justinian, is very celebrated. 
 Died in 1260. 
 
 Acebedo, d-thi-Ba'Do, (Don Manuel,) a Spanish 
 historical painter, born at Madrid in 1744, and died in 
 1800. 
 
 A-jeSr'bas, or Sichaeus, si-kee'us, a Tyrian priest, 
 who married Dido and was murdered by her brother 
 Pygmalion. Servius gives Sicharbas or Sicharbes for 
 Sichaeus. 
 
 Acerbi, a-cheVbee, (Enrico,) an Italian surgeon, 
 born at Castano, near Milan, in 1785. Died in 1827. 
 
 Acerbi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian traveller, born near 
 Mantua in 1773. He performed, in 1799, a journey 
 through Lapland to Cape North, and published a narra- 
 tive of that journey in English, (1S02.) In 1S16 he 
 founded, at Milan, the "Biblioteca Italiana," a period- 
 ical of some merit. Died in 1846. 
 
 Acernus. See Klonowicz. 
 
 Ac'e-sas [Gr. 'Ancau;] or Aceseus, as'e-sus, ['.W- 
 oti'f,] a celebrated embroiderer or weaver of remote an- 
 tiquity, was born in Cyprus: The time in which he 
 lived is unknown. 
 
 Acesius, a-see'she-ijs, [' Akeotoc,] a bishop of Constan- 
 tinople, who flourished in the early part of the fourth 
 century. 
 
 A-cSs'tor, [' Ajcearup,] a sculptor of Gnossus,or Cnosus, 
 in Crete, lived about 430 B.C. 
 
 Acevedo or Azavedo, a-thi-va'Do, (Felix Al- 
 varez,) a brave Spanish officer, born in the province 
 of Leon, was one of the chiefs of the popular party in 
 the revolution of 1820. Having gained a victory near 
 the Minho, he was shot in March, 1820, by some roy- 
 alists whom he had approached with friendly overtures. 
 The Junta ordered that his name should be retained on 
 the army list as if he were alive. 
 
 Acevedo, de, da a-thi-va'Do, (Alonzo Maria,) an 
 advocate in the royal council at Madrid, and doctor of 
 canon law in the University of Salamanca, flourished 
 from about 1760 to 1770. Died about 1775. 
 
 Acevedo, de, (Cristobal,) an eminent Spanish 
 historical painter, born at Murcia. He studied with B. 
 Carducci, at Madrid, about 1590, after which he worked 
 in Murcia. He excelled in design and in grandeur of 
 expression. 
 
 See Cean-Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Ach, (Johann van.) See Achen. 
 
 Achaemenes, a-kem'e-nez, [Gr. 'Axaifzevr/;,] the fa- 
 ther of a line of Persian kings, named from him 
 Ach.-emenid/E, (ak-e-men'I-de.) He is supposed to have 
 been the great-grandfather of Cyrus the Great. 
 
 Achaemeuidas. See Ach/emenes. 
 
 Achaeus, a-kee'us, [Gr. 'A^owc ; Fr. Achee, S'sha',] 
 the mythical ancestor of the Achaeans, was said to be a 
 son of Xuthus, a grandson of Helen, and a brother of Ion. 
 
 Achaeus, a Greek dramatic writer, born at Eretria, 
 484 B.C. He wrote several tragedies, but succeeded 
 best in the satiric drama. Only a few fragments of his 
 works remain. 
 
 Achaeus, a cousin of Antiochus III., by whom he 
 was appointed governor of Asia Minor. Having re- 
 belled against his sovereign, he was taken and put to 
 death, 214 B.C. 
 
 Achaintre, S'shaNtR', (Nicolas Louis,) a French 
 philologer, born in Paris in 1771, became a school- 
 teacher. He was patronized by Firmin Didot, and pro- 
 duced good editions, with notes, of Horace, (1806,) Juve- 
 nal, (1810,) and Persius, (1812.) Died about 1830. 
 
 Achard, t'shtR', (Antoine,) a Swiss Protestant min- 
 ister, born at Geneva in 1696, was an eloquent preacher. 
 He settled in Berlin in 1724, received the title of privy 
 counsellor, and was admitted into the Royal Academy 
 of Berlin in 1743. Two volumes of his sermons were 
 published, (1774.) Died in 1772. 
 
 Achard, t shift.', (Claude Franqois,) a French 
 writer, born at Marseilles in 1758. Among his works 
 are a " Description of Provence," (1787,) and " Elements 
 of Bibliography." (3 vols.. 1807.) Died in 1809. 
 
 Achard, (Franz Karl,) a distinguished German 
 chemist, son of Antoine Achard, born at Berlin in 1753. 
 He was elected, in 1776, a member of the Royal Acad- 
 emy of Sciences at Berlin. The extraction of sugar 
 from the beet-root appears to have engaged his especial 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, T, o, u, % short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good, moon; 
 
ACHARD 
 
 4i 
 
 ACINELLI 
 
 attention ; and his essays on the subject contributed 
 much towards the introduction of this manufacture into 
 France. Among his works is " Lectures on Experi- 
 mental Philosophy," (4 vols., 1792.) Died in 1821. 
 
 Achard, (Louis Amedee Eugene,) a French writer 
 of fiction, born at Marseilles in 1814. He removed to 
 Paris about 1838, and wrote for several journals, among 
 which was the "Charivari." His romance "La Belle 
 Kose" (5 vols., 1847) obtained success. 
 
 Achards, de la Baume des, d'lt bom di-zi'shf r', 
 (Eleazar Francois,) a French bishop, born at Avi- 
 gnon in 1679. He is commended for acts of charity 
 during the prevalence of the plague at Marseilles in 
 1721. Died in Cochin in 1741. 
 
 Acharius, a-ka're-us, (Erik,) a distinguished botan- 
 ist and physician, born at Gefle, in Sweden, in 1757. 
 He studied at Upsal, under the celebrated Linnasus. 
 As a botanist, his attention seems to have been chiefly 
 directed to cryptogamous plants, and especially to lichens. 
 He published " Lichenographia Universalis," (1810.) 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 See " Biographiskt Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man," 
 TJpsa'.a and Oerebro, 1835-1856. 
 
 A-eha'tes, [Fr. Achate, i'shit',]* a friend of ^Eneas, 
 whose fidelity was so exemplary that " Fidus Achates" 
 became a proverb. (See Virgil, "^Eneid," lib. i. 188 
 and 312.) 
 
 Achates, a-Ka'tas, (Leonardus,) one of the early 
 printers, who carried the art from Germany into Italy. 
 He flourished in the latter half of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Achelom. See Antiquus. 
 
 Ach-e-lo'us, [' 'A^f/lwoc,] a river-god of Greek mythol- 
 ogy, was a son of Oce'anus. The poets relate that he 
 had the assurance to compete with Hercules as a suitor 
 of Dejanira, and was defeated by that hero in a combat. 
 
 Achen or Aachen, van, van a'Ken, (Johann,) writ- 
 ten also Acken, Fanachen, and Janachen, an emi- 
 nent German painter of history and portraits, born at 
 Cologne in 1552. He was employed at Munich by the 
 Elector of Bavaria, and afterwards at Prague by the em- 
 perors Rudolph and Matthias. Died at Prague about 
 1620. He was reputed the richest artist of his time. 
 
 See Descamps," Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Achenbach, a'Ken-baK', (Andreas,) a German 
 painter, of the Dusseldorf school, born at Cassel in 
 1815. He excels in landscapes and marine views. He 
 obtained a medal of the first class at Paris in 1855, 
 when he exhibited " High Tide at Ostend ;" a " Moon- 
 light Scene," etc. 
 
 Achenbach, (Oswald,) a brother of the preceding, 
 and like him distinguished as a painter of landscapes, 
 was born at Dusseldorf in 1827. 
 
 Achenwall, a'Ken-ftal, (Gottfried,) an eminent 
 writer. on statistics, born at Elbing, in Prussia, in 1719. 
 He may almost be said to have created, the science of 
 statistics, called by him, in German, Staatswissenschaft, 
 (in Latin, "Scientia Statistica,") i.e. "the science or m- 
 formation relating to States." He appears to have in- 
 cluded in the terms above cited all those facts of which 
 a knowledge is necessary to thorough statesmanship. 
 Accordingly, in his lectures he treated of the laws of 
 Rations and history, as well as of statistics in the present 
 acceptation of the word. He first taught in the Uni- 
 versity of Marburg; but in 1748 he was employed at 
 Gottingen, where he continued till his death, in 1772. 
 
 Acherley, ak'er-le, (Roger,) an English lawyer and 
 political writer, who lived in the early part of the eigh- 
 teenth century. He wrote a work on the Britannic Con- 
 stitution, and another on Free Parliaments. 
 
 Acheron. See Pluto. , 
 
 Achery, d\ di'sha're', (Jean Luc,) a learned French 
 Benedictine monk, born at St. Quentin in 1609. His 
 most important work is a collection of rare documents, 
 entitled a " Gleaning [Spicilegiuml of certain old Wri- 
 ters who have been buried in the Libraries of France," 
 (13 vols., 1653-77.) Died in 1685. 
 
 A-ehil'las, [Gr. 'AxMStc,] an Egyptian general, who, 
 on the death of Ptolemy Auletes, was appointed regent 
 
 • Chaucer writes the name A chati. (See the " House of Fame. ") 
 
 of Egypt and guardian to Ptolemy XIII. and his sister 
 Cleopatra. He was afterwards put to death by Arsinoe, 
 sister of Ptolemy. 
 
 Achilles, a-kil'lez.tGr.'A^AAt-ic; Fr. Achille, S'shel', 
 It. Achille, a-kel'la,] a celebrated Grecian warrior, the 
 hero of Homer's Iliad, was the son of Peleus, King of 
 Thessaly, and the sea-nymph Thetis : hence he is often 
 called Peli'des. The poets feigned that his mother 
 dipped him into the river Styx to render him invulnera- 
 ble, and that he was vulnerable only in the heel by 
 which she held him. He led to the siege of Troy a 
 band of Myrmidones in fifty ships, and performed great 
 exploits ; but he quarrelled with Agamemnon before the 
 end of the war, and withdrew from the contest. To 
 avenge the death of Patroclus, he again took arms, and 
 slew Hector. He was at last killed by Paris, (or, as some 
 say, by Apollo,) who shot him in the heel. 
 
 See " Iliad," passim, and " Odyssey," xxiv. 36. 
 
 Achilles, [Ger. pron. a-Kil'les,] (Alexander,) a Prus- 
 sian nobleman, whom Ladislaus, King of Poland, sent 
 on an embassy to Persia. Born in 1584; died in 1675. 
 
 Achilles Tatius, a-kil'lez ta'she-ijs,) ['AxtXtevs Ta- 
 ™c,] a Greek poet and romance-writer, who is sup- 
 posed to have lived in the fourth or fifth century. This 
 writer, or another of the same name, is the author of an 
 astronomical work called the "Sphere." 
 
 Achillini, a-kel-lee'nee, [Lat. Achilli'nus,] (Ales- 
 sandro,) a celebrated physician and philosopher, born at 
 Bologna in 1463. He studied at Paris, and in 1485 be- 
 gan to teach in his native town. In 1506 he was ap- 
 pointed professor of philosophy and medicine at Padua ; 
 but three years after, in consequence of a war, he re- 
 turned to Bologna, where he died in 15 12. He left sev- 
 eral works on anatomy, and some philosophical treatises. 
 
 Achillini, (Claudio,) [Lat. Clau'dius Achilli'- 
 nus,] born at Bologna in 1574, was professor of law 
 successively in the Universities of Bologna, Ferrara, and 
 Parma He wrote poems in the inflated style which 
 was prevalent in his time. He was a grandson of Gio- 
 vanni Filoteo. Died in 1640. 
 
 Achillini, (Giovanni Filoteo,) a poet and anti- 
 quary, brother of Alexander the physician, was born 
 at Bologna in 1466, and died in 1538. 
 
 Achish, a'kish, a king of Gath, to whom David fled 
 from Saul. (See I. Samuel xxi. 10.) 
 
 Achitophel, (a-kit'o-fel.) See Ahithophel. 
 
 Achmet. See Ahmed. 
 
 Achmet Geduc. See Ahmed Keduk. 
 
 Achrelius, s a-kree'le-ns, (Daniel,) a professor at the 
 University of Abo, wrote a book against the Copernican 
 system, in the latter part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 See " Biographiskt Lexicon bfvernamnkunnige Svenska Man," Up- 
 sala, 1835. 
 
 Achterveldt, aK'ter-velt', (Jacob,) a Dutch painter, 
 who died in 1704. 
 
 Achtschelling, aKt'sKjl-ling, (Lucas,) a skilful land- 
 scape-painter, who lived at Brussels towards the close 
 of the seventeenth century. He was a close imitator of 
 nature. 
 
 Acidalius, as-se-da'le-us or at-se-da'le-us, ( Va'lens,) 
 a German classical scholar, born at Wittstock, in Bran- 
 denburg, in 1567; died in 1595. His commentaries on 
 Velleius Paterculus, Quintus Curtius, and other Latin 
 authors, exhibit much critical acumen. 
 
 See Leuschner, "De V. Acidalii Vita, Moribus et Scriptis," 
 '757- 
 
 Acier, t'se-i', (Michel Victor,) a French sculptor, 
 born at Versailles in 1736; died in 1799. 
 
 A-cilT-us Gla'brI-6, (Manius,) a Roman general, 
 who became consul in 191 B.C., and commanded the army 
 sent against Antiochus of Syria, whom he defeated at 
 Thermopylae. He also subdued the Boeotians and ALto- 
 lians. A golden statue of Acilius Glabrio was the first 
 of that material seen in Italy. 
 
 Ag-in-dy'nus, ['A/awWor,] (Gregorius,) a Greek 
 monk and polemical writer, who lived at Constantinople 
 during the fourteenth century. 
 
 Acinelli, 4-che-nel'lee, a Genoese historian, who 
 flourished about the middle of the eighteenth century. 
 He wrote a "History of Genoa," (1745-47.) 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. ( JJ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ACK 
 
 42 
 
 ACROTATUS 
 
 Ack, 5k, (John,) a distinguished painter on glass, 
 who flourished at Brussels about 1550. 
 
 Acken, (Jan van.) See Achen. 
 
 Ac'ker-mann, [Ger. pron. ak'ker-man',] (Conrad,) 
 a celebrated German comedian, born in 17 10; died in 
 1771. 
 
 Ackei maun, (Jacob,) an eminent German physiolo- 
 gist, born near Mentz in 1765. He was professor of 
 botany and afterwards of anatomy in the University of 
 Meat/!. In 1804 he was appointed to the chair of anat- 
 omy at Jena, and in 1805 to the same position in Hei- 
 delberg, which he held till his death, in 1813. 
 
 Ackermami, (Johann Christian Gottlieb,) a 
 physician and distinguished classical scholar and critic, 
 was born in Upper Saxony in 1756. He studied at Jena 
 in 1771, and subsequently at Gbttingen, under the cele- 
 brated Heyne. Some years after, he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of pathology and therapeutics in the University 
 of Altorf, where he died in 1801. Among his various 
 works the lives of Hippocrates, Galen, and other Greek 
 physicians deserve particular mention. 
 
 Ackermami, (Rudolph,) a German artist and dealer 
 in prints, was born in Saxony in 1764. He settled in 
 London, where he prospered as a print-seller, and estab- 
 lished an extensive repository of arts, which had a 
 European reputation. He published coloured engrav- 
 ings and lithographs, and an annual or series of annuals 
 entitled " The Forget-me-not." He is said to have been 
 the first who introduced lithography as a fine art into 
 England. According to Jerdan, he published the first 
 annual in England. Died in 1834. 
 
 See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. xiii. 
 
 AcTand, (Henry Wkntworth,) M.D., F.R.S., a 
 distinguishe I English physician, born in 1815, graduated 
 as M.I), at Oxford in 1848. In i860 he accompanied the 
 Prince of Wales to America as his medical attendant. 
 
 Ac. and, (Lady HARRIET.) wife of Major Acland, who 
 served with distinction in the British army under Bur- 
 goyne. She acc om pa nie d her husband in the cam'paigns 
 of 1776-7, of which she wrote a narrative. Her husband 
 was seriously wounded and taken prisoner in October, 
 1777. She died in 1815. 
 
 Ag6ka. See AshoKA. 
 
 Acoluth, i'ko-loot', [Lat. Acolu'thus,] (Andreas,) 
 a distinguished Oriental scholar, born in Silesia in 1654, 
 was a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. 
 Died in 1704. 
 
 Acoluth, (Johann,) a German theologian, born in 
 Silesia in 1628. Died in 1689. 
 
 Acominatus. See Nicetas. 
 
 Aconce. See Aconzio. 
 
 Aconz Kover, a'konts ko'ver, (Stephen,) a distin- 
 guished Armenian writer, born in Transylvania in 1740. 
 His ancestors had removed from Armenia, in Asia, in 
 1330. He was chosen, in 1800, abbot of the convent of 
 St. Lazarus at Venice, regarded as the great centre of 
 Armenian learning. Died in 1824. 
 
 Aconzio, a-kon'ze-o, (Giacomo, or James,) [Lat. 
 Jaco'bus Acon'tius, (a-kon'she-us;) Fr. Aconce, 
 a'k6Nss',] a distinguished writer, born at Trent about 
 1500. Having relinquished the Catholic and embraced 
 the Protestant faith, he left his native country about 
 1557, and, passing through Switzerland, went to Eng- 
 land, where it is supposed that he died about 1565. He 
 wrote a book entitled "Stratagems of Satan," (1565,) 
 which has enjoyed great celebrity. His work on the 
 Best Method of Acquiring Knowledge, evinces an acute 
 understanding ; and all his writings show him to have 
 been a man of learning and literary taste. 
 
 Ac'o-ris, [Gr. 'A/coptc,] a king of Egypt, who flou- 
 rished about 380 B.C. He made war, though with little 
 success, against Artaxerxes Mnemon, King of Persia. 
 
 Acosta, a-kos'ta, (ChristovXo, or Christopher,) a 
 Portuguese naturalist, who visited India to procure 
 drugs, and afterwards practised medicine at Burgos. 
 He wrote a " Treatise on the Drugs and Plants of the 
 East Indies," (1578.) Died about 1580. 
 
 Acosta, (Garriel,) a professor of theology at Coim- 
 bra, Portugal, wrote commentaries on the Scriptures. 
 Died in 1616. 
 
 Acosta, (Joaquin,) a native of South America, a 
 
 colonel of engineers in the service of New Granada, 
 published a "Historical Compendium of the Discovery 
 and Settlement of New Granada," (1848,) with a good 
 map of that country. 
 
 Acosta, a-kos'ta, or dAcosta, da-kos'ti, (Jose,) 
 a Spanish Jesuit and writer, born at Medina del Campo 
 about 1539. He went to South America as a missionary 
 in 1571, returned in 1588, and published a work entitled 
 "Natural and Moral History of the Indies," ("Historia 
 Natural y Moral de las Indias," 1590,) which was much 
 esteemed, and translated into several languages. He 
 became rector of the University at Salamanca, where he 
 died in 1600. 
 
 Acosta, (Uriel,) a Portuguese, who was educated as 
 a Christian, converted to Judaism, and afterwards ex- 
 communicated by the Jews in consequence of his having 
 written against the Mosaic Scriptures and the immor- 
 tality of the soul. He killed himself in 1640, or, accord- 
 ing to some accounts, in 1647. 
 
 See his Autobiography, Leipsic, 1847; Jellinek, "Acostas Le- 
 ber.," 1847. 
 
 Acquapendente. See Fabricius or Fabrizio, 
 Geronimo. 
 
 Acquaviva, ak-kwl-vee'vi, a noble family of Naples 
 that has produced a number of distinguished command- 
 ers, statesmen, and men of learning. Its representa- 
 tive has for several generations borne the title of Duke 
 of Atri. 
 
 Acquaviva, (Andrea Matteo,) Duke of Atri, a'tree, 
 a Neapolitan, born about 1460, was a munificent patron 
 of learning. Died in 1528. 
 
 Acquino, ak-kwee'no, a Piedmontese chronicler, who 
 lived about the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Acquisti, ak-kwes'tee or ak-kwis'tee, (Luigi,) an 
 Italian sculptor, born at Fori! in 1744; died in 1824, 
 He worked at Rome and Milan. A group of " Venus 
 pacifying Mars" is considered his master-piece. 
 
 Ac'ra-gas, [Gr. 'A/cpuyar,] a celebrated engraver or 
 chaser in silver, supposed to have lived in the fifth cen- 
 tury B.C. 
 
 Acrel, a'kKel, (Olof,) an eminent Swedish surgeon, 
 born near Stockholm in 1717. Having spent some 
 time in Paris in-observing the practice of the most dis- 
 tinguished surgeons of that city, he entered the French 
 army in 1 743 ; but, after serving in two campaigns, he re- 
 tired on account of ill health. He died at Stockholm in 
 1807, leaving several surgical works. 
 
 See " Biographiskt Lexicon ofvernamnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Acrisius, a-krish'(?-us, [Gr. 'A/cpioioc,] a son of Abas, 
 King of Argos, and the father of Danae, whom he con- 
 fined, it is said, in a brazen tower or other prison, be- 
 cause an oracle had declared that she would bear a son 
 who should kill her father. He was killed accidentally 
 by Perseus, the son of Danae by Jupiter. (See Danae.) 
 
 A'cron, [Gr. 'Xxpuv,] a celebrated physician of Agri- 
 gentum, (now Girgenti,) in Sicily, who lived in the fifth 
 cejitury B.C. 
 
 A'cron Hel-e'nl-us, a Roman grammarian, who 
 wrote a commentary on Horace. The age in which he 
 lived is unknown. 
 
 A-cro'nI-us or Acron, a-kron', (Jan, or John,) a 
 Dutch physician, born in 1520. Died at Bale in 1563. 
 
 A-crop-o-li'ta, [Gr. 'AKpo7ro/U'Ti?c,] (Constantine,) a 
 Byzantine writer, lived between 1250 and 1300. He was 
 a son of George, below noticed. 
 
 Acropolita, (George,) a celebrated Byzantine his- 
 torian, born at Constantinople in 1220. He was highly 
 esteemed by the emperors Ducas (to whom he was re- 
 lated) and Michael Palsologus, and held the office of 
 chancellor (logotheta) at the Byzantine court. He was, 
 moreover, employed on several important embassies. 
 His greatest work is a history of the Byzantine Empire 
 from the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 
 1204 down to 1260, when Michael Palaeologus again took 
 possession of the city. Died in 1282. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- 
 pire," chap. lxii. 
 
 A-crot'a-tus, [' A/cp6YaToc,] King of Sparta, was the 
 son of Areus, whom he succeeded about 265 B.C. Be- 
 fore his accession he distinguished himself by the de- 
 fence of Sparta against Pyrrhus in 272. After a reign of 
 
 , 6, 1, o, 5, y, long; a, e,6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 5, fi, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; gd"6d; moonj 
 
ACS 
 
 43 
 
 AD ALO ALDUS 
 
 one year, he was killed in battle against Aristodemus of 
 Megalopolis. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Pyrrhus." 
 
 Acs or Aacs, atch, (Mic.HA.isl,) a Hungarian philos- 
 opher, born at St. Martin in 1631. Died in 1708. 
 
 Acs or Aacs, (Michael,) a theologian, born at Raab 
 in 1672. was a son of the preceding. Died in 171 1. 
 
 Actaeon, ak-tee'on, [Gr. 'Aktoujv ; Fr. Acteon, 
 tk'ta'6N',] in the Greek mythology, a hunter, who was a 
 son of Aristaeus and Autonoe, a daughter of Cadmus. 
 He was changed into a stag by Diana and torn to pieces 
 by his own hounds, because he had seen that goddess 
 bathing. 
 
 Ac-tis'a-nes, [Gr. *A/ct«juvj;c,] an ancient king of 
 Ethiopia, who is said to have conquered Egypt before 
 the time of the Trojan war. 
 
 Ac'ton, [Fr. pron. ik't6N',] (Joseph,) an officer of 
 Iiish descent, born at Besancon, F'rance, in 1737. He 
 entered the navy of Tuscany, became a captain, and af- 
 teiwards passed into the service of the King of Naples. 
 The favour of the queen, and his own intrigues, procured 
 his promotion to the office of minister of the marine. 
 He was prime minister from 1784 to 1798. His policy 
 was implacably hostile to the French. Died about 
 1810. 
 
 See Colletta, " Storia del Regno di Napoli." 
 
 Ac'tor, [Gr. "A/trap,] a son of Deion, (or, as some say, 
 of Myrmidon,) was the husband of /Egina, and grand- 
 father of Patroclus, who was called Actor'ides. 
 
 Ac-tu-a'rI-us, [' AKTovupwr,] (John,) a Greek physi- 
 cian and medical writer, who flourished about the end 
 of the thirteenth century. 
 
 A-cu'le-o, (Caius,) a Roman knight and distin- 
 guished lawyer, who married an aunt of Cicero the 
 orator. 
 
 A-cu'me-nus, ['Anov/ievor,] an Athenian physician, 
 and friend of Socrates, lived in the fifth century B.C. 
 
 Acuna, de, di a-koon'ya, (Antonio,) Bishop of Za- 
 mora, Spain, distinguished for his martial exploits in the 
 insurrection of Castile in 1520. He was strangled in 
 prison in 1526. 
 
 Acuna, de, (Cristoval,) a Spanish Jesuit, born at 
 Burgos in 1597, wrote an interesting narrative of the 
 vovage of exploration of the river Amazon in 1639-41. 
 His work is entitled " New Discovery of the Great River 
 of the Amazons," (" Nuevo Descubrimiento del gran 
 Rio de las Amazonas.") Died about 1680. 
 
 Acuna, de, (Hernando,) a distinguished Spanish 
 soldier and poet, born about 1 500, was a friend of Gar- 
 cilasso de la Vega. His sonnets and eclogues were 
 much admired. Died in 1580. 
 
 Acuna, de, (Don Pedro Bravo,) a Spanish gov- 
 ernor of the Philippine Islands, distinguished as a war- 
 rior and naval commander. His principal exploit was 
 the reconquest of the Moluccas from the Dutch in 1606. 
 He died the same year, at Manilla. 
 
 • A-cu-sI-la'us, [' Anovoifaioc,] a Greek historian, sup- 
 posed to have flourished about 530 B.C. 
 
 A'da, a Carian princess, who succeeded her husband 
 on the throne of Caria in 344 B.C. When Alexander 
 conquered Asia Minor, he appointed her to the satrapy 
 of Caria. 
 
 Ada, a'da, a countess of Holland, deprived of her 
 patrimonial estate by William of Friesland. She is sup- 
 posed to have died about the year 121 8. 
 
 A'da, (Bar-Ahaba or -Ahavah,) a celebrated rabbi, 
 regarded as the greatest of all the Jewish astronomers, 
 was born at Babylon, a.d. 183. He is said to have lived 
 to the age of 170 years. 
 
 Adadurof, a-da-doo'rof, (Basil,) a Russian savant, 
 born at St. Petersburg in 1709, was preceptor to Cathe- 
 rine II. He wrote some scientific works. Died in 1780. 
 
 Adseus ['Adaioc] or Addseus, [' AiViatac,] ad-dee'us, 
 a Greek poet, native of Macedonia, flourished, it is sup- 
 posed, about 320 B.C. 
 
 A-dair', (James,) a trader and resident among the 
 Chickasaw and other neighbouring tribes of Indians, pub- 
 lished in 1775 a "History of the American Indians," in 
 which he endeavours to establish their descent from the 
 Israelites. 
 
 A-dair', (James,) an eminent English lawyer, and 
 
 member of Parliament. He was recorder of London 
 about 1780, or after that date. Died in 1798. 
 
 A-dair', (James Makit'trick,) a Scottish physician, 
 born in 1728, died in 1802. He spent many years of his 
 life in the West Indies. Besides a number of medical 
 essays, he wrote a pamphlet against the abolition of the 
 slave-trade. 
 
 A-dair', (John,) an American general and senator, 
 born in South Carolina in 1757. He served in the wars 
 against the frontier Indians in 1791-2-3, was a senator 
 in Congress from Kentucky, 1805-6, and in 1814 distin- 
 guished himself in command of the Kentucky troops at 
 the battle of New Orleans. From 1820 to 1824 he was 
 Governor of Kentucky, and from 1831 to 1833 a repre- 
 sentative in Congress. Died in 1840. 
 
 Adair, (John,) F.R.S., a noted Scottish hydrog- 
 rapher, who lived in the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries. He is the author of a work entitled " De- 
 scription of the Sea-coast and Islands of Scotland, with, 
 Large and Exact Maps for the Use of Seamen." 
 
 Adair, (Sir Robert,) an able English diplomatist, 
 born in London in 1 763. He entered Parliament about 
 1802 as a friend of Fox, and was sent on an embassy to 
 Vienna in 1806. In 1808, although not identified in 
 politics with the ministry, he was appointed on a special 
 mission to the Ottoman Porte. He was ambassador at 
 that court from 1809 until 1811. In 1831 he was sent 
 by Earl Grey on a special mission to the court of Bel- 
 gium, and in 1835 retired from public service with the 
 rank of privy counsellor. Died in 1855, aged about 92. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for Nov. 1855. 
 
 Adalard. See Adalhard. 
 
 Adalbero, a-dal-ba'ro, or Adalberon, i'dil'beh- 
 t6s', Archbishop of Rheims, flourished in the latter 
 half of the tenth century. He officiated at the corona- 
 tion of Hugh Capet in 987, and died in 988. 
 
 Adalbero, a bishop of Laon in the time of Louis the 
 last of the Carlovingians, and Hugh Capet. 
 
 Ad'al-bert, [Fr. pron. S'diTbaiR'; Lat. Adalber'- 
 tus,] written also Al'debert or Aldeber'tus, a French 
 bishop of great popularity, who lived about the middle 
 of the eighth century. He pretended, it is said, to work 
 miracles, and to be possessed of all knowledge. He was 
 deposed from his bishopric for. heresy, and imprisoned, 
 about 775 a. d. 
 
 Ad'al-bert, [Ger. pron. a'dal-MRt',] an archbishop 
 of Bremen, born, it is supposed, about 1000 a.d. He 
 was descended from the emperor Otho II., and became 
 a favourite of Henry IV. Died in 1072. 
 
 Ad'al-bert (Adalberto, a-dal-ber'to) I., son of 
 Boniface, Count of Lucca, assumed the title of Marquis 
 of Tuscany. His son Adalbert (or Adalberto) II. suc- 
 ceeded him, with the titles of duke and marquis. Died 
 about 888. 
 
 Ad'al-bert or Adalber'tus, Bishop of Prague, called 
 the " Apostle of the Prussians," commonly known as 
 Saint Adalbert, was born in 939. He was killed in 997, 
 
 Ad'al-bert, an eminent prelate who lived in the time 
 of Henry V., Emperor of Germany, by whom he was 
 made Archbishop of Mentz. When Henry was excom- 
 municated by the pope, in II 12, Adalbert was one of the 
 first to turn against him, and became at length his irre- 
 concilable enemy ; and on his death, in 1 1 25, had sufficient 
 influence to prevent his nephew, Frederick of Suabia, 
 from being elected emperor. He died in 1137. 
 
 Adalbert, a'dal-bSRt', (Heinrich Wilhelm,) a 
 Prussian prince, cousin-german of Frederick William 
 IV., born in Berlin in 181 1. He entered the army in 
 his youth, and made a voyage to Brazil, of which he 
 wrote a narrative : " Passages from my Travelling Diary," 
 ("Aus meinem Reisetagbuch," 1842.) He obtained com- 
 mand of the Prussian navy about 1850. 
 
 Adalbertus. See Adalbert. 
 
 Adalhard, ad'a-lard', [Lat. Adalar'dus,] an abbot 
 and eminent preacher, allied to the family of Charles 
 Martel, born about 753. He stood in high favour at the 
 court of Charlemagne, who employed him on several 
 important missions. Died in 826. 
 
 A-da'lo-al'dus, a king of the Lombards, son of Agi- 
 lulfus and Theudelinda, was born at Mu'tina (Mod'ena) 
 about 602 a. d. He is said to have been poisoned by 
 
 « as /■; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ADAM 
 
 44 
 
 ADAMI 
 
 some of his subjects whom his tyranny had exasper- 
 ated. 
 
 Ad'am, [Heb. WMi, i.e. " man,"] the first man, (see 
 Genesis i., ii., and iii.,) is commonly supposed to have 
 been created a little more than 4000 years before the 
 Christian era ; though according to the computation of 
 some writers, his date should be placed much earlier. 
 
 Adam, S'diN', (Adolphe Charles,) a popular com- 
 poser, born in Paris in 1803, was a son of Jean Louis, 
 noticed below. He composed with extreme facility. In 
 1844 he was chosen a member of the Institute. Among 
 his works are operas entitled " Le Chalet," (1834,) and 
 " Le Postilion de Lonjumeau," (1836.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Adam, a'dam, (Albrecht,) a German painter,of bat- 
 tles, was born at Nordlingen in 1786. He entered the 
 service of Eugene, Viceroy of Italy, whom he accom- 
 panied in the Russian campaign of 1812. Among his 
 works is "The Battle of the Moskwa," (1835.) Died in 
 1862. 
 
 Ad'am, (Alexander,) an eminent teacher and gram- 
 marian, born in 1741 in Murrayshire, Scotland. In 1768 
 he became rector of the Edinburgh high school, which, 
 under his able management, acquired a reputation al- 
 most unequalled among institutions of its kind. He 
 published his " Principles of Latin and English Gram- 
 mar" in 1772, and in 1791 his "Roman Antiquities." 
 Both of these works, until within a few years, have been 
 extensively used in many schools in the United States 
 as well as in Great Britain. His " Roman Antiquities," 
 (1 79 1,) considered the most creditable of all his works, 
 immediately established his reputation as a sound and 
 thorough scholar. In 1794 appeared his "Summary 
 of Geography and History, both Ancient and Modern," 
 which afterwards passed through several editions. Be- 
 sides the foregoing, and a little book entitled " Classical 
 Biography," he published a compendious Latin dictionary, 
 (" Lexicon Linguae Latinae Compendiarium,") abridged 
 from a much larger work, of the same kind, which was 
 never finished. He died in 1809. 
 
 See Alexander Henderson, " Life of A. Adam," 1810; Cham- 
 bers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" and Sir Wal- 
 ter Scott's Autobiography," which contains some interesting par- 
 ticulars illustrating Dr. Adam's character, both as a teacher and as 
 a man. 
 
 Adam, (Daniel,) a German historian, born at Prague 
 in 1546. Died in 1599. 
 
 Adam, i'dd.N', (Francois Gaspard,) a French sculp- 
 tor, born at Nancy in 1710, was a brother of Lambert 
 Sigisbert, noticed below. He worked in Paris and Ber- 
 lin. Died in 1759. 
 
 Adam, a'dam, (Georg-,) a German landscape-painter, 
 of Nuremberg, born about 1783 ; died in 1823. 
 
 Adam, (Jacob,) a German engraver, lived in Vienna 
 about 1800. He engraved plates for the " Bilder-Bibel" 
 of Vienna. 
 
 Adam, (Jacques,) a French writer, born at Vendome 
 in 1663 ; died in 1735. He was one of the translators 
 of De Thou's Universal History, (16 vols., 1734,) and 
 was a member of the French Academy. 
 
 Ad'am, (James,) an architect, was a brother and part- 
 ner of Robert, noticed below. Died in 1794. 
 
 Adam, (Jean Louis,) a French composer and pianist, 
 born in the department of the Lower Rhine about 1 760. 
 He had great success as professor of music in Paris, and 
 published a " Methode de Piano," (1802,) which was very 
 popular. Died in 1848. 
 
 Adam, (Jean VICTOR,) a French painter and lithog- 
 rapher, born at Paris in 1801. He painted several bat- 
 tle-pieces for the gallery of Versailles, and produced 
 many lithographs, among which are the "Promenades 
 and Environs of Paris." 
 
 Adam, (Lambert Sigisbert,) a distinguished French 
 sculptor, born at Nancy in 1 700. When only twenty-three 
 years of age, he obtained the first prize in the Academy 
 at Paris. He executed several ■ groups for the royal 
 gardens at Versailles and Choisy. In 1744 he was ap- 
 pointed professor in the Royal Academy of Paris. His 
 works were less remarkable for their conception than 
 for their finished execution, and are deficient in the sim- 
 plicity of antique art. Died in 1759. 
 
 Adam, a'dam, (Melchior,) an eminent German 
 biographer, born in Silesia in the latter part of the six- 
 
 teenth century, and died in 1622. He wrote the lives of 
 many eminent men, both Germans and foreigners, who 
 lived between 1500 and 1618. He was rector of the 
 College of Heidelberg. One of his works is entitled 
 "Lives of German Philosophers," (" Vitae Germanorum 
 Philosophorum," 4 vols., 1615-20.) 
 
 Adam, (Nicolas,) a French grammarian and trans- 
 lator, born in Paris in 17 16. Died in 1792. 
 
 Adam, (Nicolas S£bastien,) a younger brother of 
 Lambert Adam the sculptor, whom he surpassed in all 
 the higher qualities of the art, was born at Nancy in 
 1705. His two greatest works are his "Prometheus 
 Chained," and his " Monument of the Queen of Poland." 
 He was professor of sculpture in the Academy of Paris. 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 Adam, (Robert,) an architect, b»rn at Edinburgh in 
 1728, and died in 1792. He and his brother James 
 erected a number of mansions for the nobility, and 
 public edifices in different parts of England. His style, 
 though strikingly novel at the time of its introduction, has 
 the great defect of excessive and minute decoration ; and 
 his works generally are deficient in unity of composition. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Adam, (Rev. Robert,) a Scottish writer, born at 
 Udney about 1770, published "The Religious World 
 Displayed." Died in 1826. 
 
 Adam, (Rev. Thomas,) born at Leeds in 1701, and 
 died in 1784. He wrote numerous works of a religious 
 character, of which his " Private Thoughts on Religion" 
 (published in 1786) is probably the best-known. 
 
 Adam, (Right Hon. William,) a British lawyer, 
 born in Scotland in 1751, was a nephew of Robert Adam 
 the architect. He was chosen a member of Parliament 
 in 1774, fought a duel with Charles James Fox in 1779, 
 and was one of the managers appointed by the Commons 
 to conduct the impeachment of Warren Hastings in 
 1788. He was sworn of the privy council in 1815, and pre- 
 sided over the Scottish jury court for the trial of civil 
 causes from 1816 until his death in 1839. His son John 
 became Governor-General of India, and died in 1820. 
 Another son, Charles, obtained the rank of admiral. 
 
 See Lockhart, " Life of Scott." 
 
 Adam-Billaut, S'dftN' be'yo', commonly styled Mai- 
 tre Adam, meVR S'dS.N', (i.e. " Master Adam,") a French 
 poet, and a joiner by trade, sometimes called the 
 Joiner of Nevers. He was patronized by the great 
 Conde, and pensioned by Richelieu. Died in 1662. 
 
 Adam of Brem'en, [Lat. Ada'mus Bremen'sis,] an 
 ecclesiastical author, who flourished in the latter part of 
 the eleventh century. He wrote a history of the efforts 
 to extend Christianity from the time of Charlemagne to 
 that of Henry IV. 
 
 Adam de la Halle — deh'li-hil', surnamed Le Bossu 
 d'Arras, leh bo'sii' dt'rass', (i.e. "The Hunchback of 
 Arras,") a French poet of the thirteenth century. He 
 wrote a piece called " The Play of the Shepherd and 
 Shepherdess," (" Le Jeu du Berger et de la Bergere,")" 
 which is regarded as the earliest specimen of the modern 
 drama. » 
 
 Adam de Marisco. See Adamus Mariscus. 
 
 Aaamannus or Adamanus. See Adomnan. 
 
 Adamanteo, a-da-man-ta'o, an Italian mathemati- 
 cian and Orientalist. Died in 1581. 
 
 Adamautius, ad-a-man'she-us, [' Adaiiavnot;,] the au- 
 thor of a treatise in Greek on physiognomy, is sup- 
 posed to have lived about the beginning of the fifth cen- 
 tury after Christ. 
 
 Adami, a-di'mee, (Adam,) a German ecclesiastic 
 statesman, and historian, born at Muhlheim about 1600. 
 He was chosen by the prelates of Wiirtemberg to repre- 
 sent them in the congress which met in 1643 to nego- 
 tiate the peace of Westphalia ; and afterwards wrote an 
 excellent and impartial history of those negotiations, 
 "Arcana Pacis Westphalicae," (published in 1698.) Died 
 in 1663. 
 
 Adami, a-da'mee, (Antonio Filippo,) an Italian 
 poet and prose-writer, born at Florence about 1720. 
 Died in 1761. 
 
 Adami, (Lionardo,) an Italian author and excellent 
 classical scholar, born in Tuscany in 1690. He wrote a 
 history of ancient Arcadia, ( 1 7 1 6. ) Died in 1719. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i. e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ti, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n&t; g<56d; m5on; 
 
ADAMI 
 
 45 
 
 ADAMS 
 
 Adami, a-da'mee, (Tobias,) a writer born in Saxony 
 in 1581, first introduced the works of Campanella to the 
 notice of the philosophers of Germany. Died In 1643. 
 
 Adami-da-Bolsena, a-da'mee da bol-sa'na, (An- 
 drea,) an Italian musician, born at Rome in 1663, pub- 
 lished a work called " Observations for the Regulation 
 of the Choir of Singers in the Pontifical Chapel," ("Os- 
 servazioni per ben regolare il Coro dei Cantori della Ca- 
 pella Pontificia," 171 1.) Died in 1742. 
 
 Adamino, a-da-mee'iio, an Italian sculptor, who lived 
 in the eleventh century. 
 
 Adaninan or Adamnanus. See Adomnan. 
 
 Ad'ams, (Abigail,) the daughter of the Rev. William 
 Smith, was born at Weymouth, Massachusetts, in 1 744. 
 She was married in 1764 to John Adams, afterwards 
 President of the United States, and died in 1818. Her 
 " Letters" are interesting and valuable for the hints 
 which they furnish ot the manners of her country at 
 the period in which she lived, and for her original and 
 graphic notices of European society. 
 
 Adams, (Amos,) an American divine, born in 1727. 
 He published several sermons, two of which, giving a 
 "Concise Historical View, etc., of New England," were 
 republished in London. Died in 1775. 
 
 Adams, (Charles Baker,) an American naturalist, 
 born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1814. He grad- 
 uated at Amherst College, became, in 1838, professor of 
 chemistry and natural history in Middlebury College, 
 Vermont, and afterwards of chemistry and zoology at 
 Amherst. He assisted Professor Hitchcock in his geo- 
 logical survey of New York, and as State geologist was 
 engaged for several years in a survey of Vermont. He 
 published "Contributions to Conchology," and other 
 works. Died in 1853. 
 
 Adams, (Charles Francis,) an American diplomat- 
 ist, the son of John Quincy Adams, was born in Boston 
 on the iSth of August, 1807. He passed his childhood 
 mostly in St. Petersburg and London, graduated at 
 Harvard College in 1825, studied law, and was admitted 
 to the bar in 1828. He served for five years in the 
 legislature of Massachusetts. He was nominated at 
 Buffalo, in August, 1848, for theoffice of Vice-President 
 by the convention of Free-Soilers which nominated Mar- 
 tin Van Buren for the Presidency. 
 
 He published the " Life and Works of John Adams," 
 (10 vols., 1850-56.) In 1858 he was elected to Congress 
 as a Republican by the voters of the third district of 
 Massachusetts. He was re-elected in i860, and was ap- 
 pointed minister to England in the spring of 1861. He 
 encountered the most bitter social hostility in England, 
 but he maintained the rights of his country, and acquit- 
 ted himself with credit in the difficult and important 
 controversies that arose during the great rebellion. 
 Among the principal subjects of his negotiations was 
 the damage inflicted on the American mercantile marine 
 by piratical war-steamers built in England and depend- 
 ing for success on British aid and sympathy. 
 
 "No ambassador in recent times," says the "London 
 Spectator" of Feb. 8, 1868, " has ever had to fill a posi- 
 tion, not merely so delicate and difficult, but so trying 
 to the equanimity of him who held it through the rapid 
 and extreme changes of fortune in the State of which he 
 has been the mouth-piece. . . . Mr. Adams must 
 have entered on his diplomatic task with a just sense of 
 soreness, which, but for his great self-command and even 
 self-forgetfulness, might have resulted after the most 
 lamentable fashion." He resigned about February, 1868. 
 " It has been the good fortune of Mr. Adams," says the 
 "London Illustrated News" of February 15, 1S68, "to 
 have exercised the grandest qualities of true statesman- 
 ship just where and when they were of priceless value, 
 and to have exercised them with complete success." 
 
 Adams, (George,) an English optician and scientific 
 writer, distinguished as a maker of mathematical instru- 
 ments and globes. Among his works are a " Treatise on 
 the Construction and Use of Globes," (1766,) and an "Es- 
 say on the Microscope," ( r 77 1.) Died in London, 1786. 
 
 His son George, born about 1750, was also an op- 
 tician. He published an " Essay on Vision," (1789,) and 
 "Astronomical and Geometrical Essays," (1789, often 
 reprinted.) Died in 1795. 
 
 Adams, (Hannah,) one of the earliest female writers 
 of America, born at Medfield, Massachusetts, in 1755. 
 She was the author of a "View of Religious Opinions," 
 (1784,) " History of New England," (1799,) "Evidences 
 of Christianity," (1801,) " History of the Jews," (1812,) 
 and of several other works. She numbered among her 
 friends the Abbe Gregoire and other distinguished per- 
 sons. Died in 1832. 
 
 Adams, (Isaac,) of Boston, inventor of the Adams 
 printing-press, was born near the commencement of the 
 present century. His printing-presses are now ; n general 
 use in all parts of the United States, and in the principal 
 cities have nearly or quite superseded every other. 
 
 Adams, (Jasper,) D.D., an American divine, born at 
 Mcdway, Massachusetts, in 1793. He graduated at Brown 
 University in 1815, and soon after became professor of 
 mathematics in that institution. He was subsequently 
 president of Charleston College, South Carolina. Died 
 in 1841. 
 
 Adams, (John,) an Englishman, who lived in the 
 seventeenth century. He published " Index Villaris ; or, 
 An Alphabetical Table of all the Cities, Market Towns, 
 Parishes, etc., in England and Wales," (1680,) which has 
 been pronounced the best work of its kind. 
 
 See Gough, " British Topography." 
 
 Adams, (John,) an eminent preacher, born in Lon- 
 don in 1662, was chaplain to William III. and to Queen 
 Anne. He obtained a prebend at Canterbury, which he 
 exchanged in 1708 for a stall in the royal chapel at 
 Windsor. He left a treatise on suicide, and several ser- 
 mons. Died in 1 719 or 1720. 
 
 Adams, (John,) an American divine and poet, born 
 in 1704. Died at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1740. 
 
 Adams, (John,) an eminent American statesman, the 
 second president of the United States, was born in 
 Braintree, Massachusetts, about ten miles from Boston, 
 on the 19th of October, 1735, O. S. He was the eldest 
 son of John Adams, a farmer, and Susanna Boylston. 
 He graduated at Harvard College in 1755, and, while he 
 was preparing himself for the profession of the law, 
 taught school at Worcester for two years or more. In 
 choosing a profession he was at first inclined to be a 
 minister of the gospel ; but he found he could not assent 
 to the orthodox creed in the doctrine of election and 
 reprobation. " His disgust at the doctrines of Calvin- 
 ism," says John Quincy Adams, "was perhaps riveted 
 by the opinions which he found disseminated in the so- 
 cial circle into which he had been introduced." He 
 studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1758, and 
 afterwards resided with his father at Braintree for sev- 
 eral years. 
 
 " For the profession of the law," says his grandson, 
 "John Adams had been pre-eminently gifted with the 
 endowments of nature ; a sound constitution of body, a 
 clear and sonorous voice, a quick conception, a discrim- 
 inating judgment, and a ready elocution." 
 
 Among the intimate friends of his youth was Jonathan 
 Sewall, an eloquent lawyer. In 1761 his patriotic zeal 
 was inflamed by the argument of James Otis (which he 
 heard) on the subject of writs of assistance. Alluding 
 to the time and place of that plea, John Adams said, 
 "American independence was then and there born." 
 He married, in 1764, Abigail Smith, (a grand-daughter 
 of Colonel John Quincy,) a woman of excellent char 
 acter and superior talents. The passage of the stamp act 
 in 1765 was the occasion of his first active participation 
 in political affairs. At a meeting of the citizens of Brain 
 tree he offered resolutions or instructions addressed tc 
 the legislature, which were approved, and were adopted 
 by forty other towns in Massachusetts. He published, 
 in 1765,311 "Essay on Canon and Feudal Law." 
 
 The same year, Jeremiah Gridlcy, James Otis, and John 
 Adams were employed by the people of Boston as their 
 counsel to support an important memorial, addressed to 
 the governor and council, praying that the courts of law, 
 which had been closed, might be reopened. In order to 
 induce him to join the Tory party, he was offered in 1763 
 the place of advocate-general, which he declined. He 
 removed from Braintree to Boston in 1768, and soon 
 obtained an extensive practice. 
 
 € as i; 5 as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (£3^"See Explanation* p. 23.) 
 
ADAMS 
 
 46 
 
 ADAMS 
 
 He had now become distinguished as one of the most 
 prominent and intrepid advocates of the popular cause; 
 yet he was also disposed to act the part of a moderator 
 and to counteract the violent excesses of the patriots. 
 He acted as counsel for the defence in the trial of the 
 soldiers who, when attacked by a mob in Boston in 
 March, 1770, had fired and killed several persons. In 
 this case he firmly resisted the storm of popular excite- 
 ment and the violence of party spirit. He was elected 
 a member of the general court {i.e. the legislature) in 
 1770. " It was not as a politician," says Charles Francis 
 Adams, " but as a lawyer, that John Adams was first 
 drawn into public life." He became the chief legal ad- 
 viser of the patriots. The destruction of the tea in the 
 harbour of Boston, December, 1773, opened the active 
 drama of the Revolution by a resort to physical force. 
 
 Mr. Adams was one of the five delegates sent by Mas- 
 sachusetts to the first continental Congress, which met at 
 Philadelphia in September, 1774. To his friend Sewall, 
 who urged him not to engage in the perilous enterprise 
 of revolution, he replied, " The die is now cast ; I have 
 passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, survive 
 or perish with my country, is my unalterable determina- 
 tion." In Congress he found a fitting arena for the ex- 
 ercise of those great talents, both for business and de- 
 bate, whioh ultimately raised him to the leadership of 
 that body. His diary and letters give a graphic account 
 of the proceedings of that assembly. 
 
 During the winter of 1774-75 he wrote, under the sig- 
 nature of Novanglus, a series of able essays in defence of 
 the rights of the colonists. These first appeared in a 
 journal of Boston, and may be found in the fourth vol- 
 ume of his collected works. After the battle of Lexing- 
 ton, (April, 1775,) which made many converts to the 
 cause of independence, he returned to Congress. The 
 majority of the members, however, were still,, disposed 
 to temporize, and adopted another petition to the 
 king, which Mr. Adams opposed.- He was more suc- 
 cessful in his efforts to induce the Congress to provide 
 for the defence of the colonies. It appears that he 
 was the first to propose George Washington as com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army. He was again elected to 
 the Federal Congress for one year, and went to Philadel- 
 phia in February, 1776. In a letter dated March 23, 
 
 1776, he wrote, "All our misfortunes arise from the re- 
 luctance of the southern colonies to republican govern- 
 ment." He procured, in May, the passage in Congress 
 of a resolution that the colonies should assume the duty 
 of self-government. On the 7th of June a resolution 
 was moved by Richard Henry Lee, and seconded by Mr. 
 Adams, that these colonies " are and of right ought to 
 be free and independent States." On the 1 ith of June, 
 Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, 
 Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston were ap- 
 pointed a committee to prepare a declaration of inde- 
 pendence. This measure was opposed by a strong party, 
 of which John Dickinson was the leader and spokes- 
 man. In reply to him, Mr. Adams made, about July 2, a 
 memorable speech, in reference to which Jefferson said, 
 " John Adams was the ablest advocate and champion of 
 independence on the floor of the house." " He was the 
 colossus of that Congress. Not graceful, not eloquent, 
 not always fluent in his public addresses, he yet came out 
 with a power of thought and expression which moved 
 his hearers from their seats." 
 
 On the 3d af July he wrote to his wife, "The second 
 day of July,* 1776, will be the most memorable epoch 
 in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it 
 will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great 
 anniversary festival." 
 
 Mr. Adams was the president, or chairman, of the 
 board of war appointed in June, 1776. He was also 
 chairman of twenty-five committees in Congress. He 
 was appointed commissioner to France in November, 
 
 1777, and arrived in Paris in April, 1778, to learn that a 
 treatv between France and the United States had al- 
 
 * The day on which the resolution in favour of independence was 
 passed: the Declaration of Independence, with its various amend- 
 ments, was not agreed to until the 4th, and then only after a long and 
 vehement debate. 
 
 ready been concluded. He returned to the United 
 States in July, 1779, and in the ensuing autumn served 
 in the convention which formed a new constitution for 
 Massachusetts. Before this business was finished, Mr. 
 Adams was appointed minister to negotiate a treaty of 
 peace and commerce with Great Britain. He embarked 
 in November, 1779, but did not reach Paris until Feb- 
 ruary, 1780. Having changed his base of operations to 
 Amsterdam, in July, he was authorized in January. 1 781, 
 to act as minister to Holland. The difficulty of his po- 
 sition was increased by the intrigues and duplicity of 
 the French minister, De Vergennes, who induced Con- 
 gress to revoke Mr. Adams's powers to negotiate a treaty 
 of commerce. Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens, 
 who had been appointed joint commissioners, negotiated 
 with Great Britain a treaty, the preliminary articles uf 
 which were signed November 30, 1782. He was minis- 
 ter at London from May, 1785, until the spring of 1788, 
 during which period he published a "Defence of the 
 American Constitutions." When, in 1789, Washington 
 was inaugurated as President of the United States, 
 Adams became Vice-President. As an advocate of the 
 Federal constitution he was identified with the Federal- 
 ist party, by which he was again elected Vice-President 
 in 1792. In the first Congress he gave no less than 
 twenty casting votes, all on points of importance in the 
 organic laws, and thus rendered an efficient support to 
 the policy of Washington. When the French Revolu- 
 tion divided the Americans into two parties, Mr. Adams 
 joined the Anti-Gallican party. 
 
 In 1796, John Adams and Thomas Pinckney were 
 nominated by the Federalists for the offices of President 
 and Vice-President. The Republican candidate for the 
 Presidency was Thomas Jefferson. Mr. Adams wrote 
 to his wife, under date of January 20, 1796, " I am heir-ap- 
 parent, you know, and a succession is soon to take place." 
 His friends assert that General Hamilton, who was the 
 favourite leader of the Federal party, used his influence 
 to elect Pinckney to the Presidency. The result of the 
 canvass was that Adams received seventy-one electoral 
 votes and became President, while Jefferson received 
 sixty-eight votes and became Vice-President. As Pres- 
 ident, Adams retained the cabinet ministers appointed by 
 Washington, viz., Timothy Pickering, Oliver Wolcott, 
 James McIIenry, Joseph Habersham, and Charles Lee. 
 With the first two of these secretaries, however, he had 
 no cordial relations. In the war between France and Eng- 
 land he maintained neutrality; but the French Directory 
 provoked the enmity of the Americans by the violation of 
 their maritime rights, and by the expulsion of the envoys, 
 Marshall and Pinckney, from France. In 1798 the gov- 
 ernment of the United States organized a new army, of 
 which General Washington was appointed commander- 
 in-chief. For the post of second in command Wash- 
 ington preferred Hamilton, whom the President regard- 
 ed with ill will or distrust ; but the general-in-chief pro- 
 cured the appointment of Hamilton by a " menace of 
 resignation." In February, 1799, without consulting his 
 cabinet, Adams nominated a Mr. Murray as minister to 
 the French Republic. This act, which Charles Francis 
 Adams says was " the most noted event of Mr. Adams's 
 administration," gave great offence to many of his own 
 party, although the result, by averting a war with France, 
 was probably advantageous to the country. His unpop- 
 ularity was increased by the alien and sedition laws, the 
 latter of which made the mere expression of opinions or 
 public men and measures a penal offence. In May, 1S00, 
 he removed Mr.Pickeringfrom the office of secretary of 
 state, and appointed John Marshall in his stead. 
 
 In the presidential election of 1800 he was again the 
 Federal candidate, and received sixty-five electoral votes, 
 but was defeated by Thomas Jefferson, who received 
 seventy-three votes. In March, 1801, he retired from 
 public life, and sank into neglect, covered with obloquy 
 by both of the great political parties. A reaction of 
 public sentiment, however, gradually took place in his 
 favour, and his faults — which, indeed, were of a kind to 
 impair his popularity rather than his usefulness — were 
 almost lost sight of, after he had withdrawn from political 
 life, in the remembrance of his many and inestimable 
 public services. 
 
 a, e, 1, o u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, <), obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moTin; 
 
ADAMS 
 
 47 
 
 AD IMS 
 
 He began to write an Autobiography, which he never 
 finished. Having lived to see his son, John Quincy, 
 elected President of the United States, he died at Quin- 
 cy on the 4th of July, 1826. By a remarkable coinci- 
 dence, Thomas Jefferson died on the same day. The 
 character of John Adams as drawn by Jefferson before 
 these distinguished men had become rivals for the suf- 
 frages of the American people, is probably very near the 
 truth. He says, writing from Paris, "A seven months' 
 intimacy with him here, and as many weeks in London, 
 have given me opportunities of studying him closely. 
 He is vain, irritable, and a bad calculator of the force 
 and probable effect of the motives which govern men. 
 This is all the ill which can possibly be said of him. He 
 is profound in his views and accurate in his judgment, 
 except where knowledge of the world is necessary to 
 form a judgment." — Letter to Madison, dated January 30, 
 1787. 
 
 Sie "The Life and Works of John Adams," edited by his grand- 
 son, Charles Francis Adams, 10 vols. 8vo, 1850-56 ; Bancroft, 
 "History of the United States;" Hildreth, "History of the 
 United States;" "Quarterly Review" for December, 1S41 ; "New 
 Vork Review" for January, 1842; "North American Review" for 
 October, 1S50; Tared Sparks, Diplomatic Correspondence of the 
 American Revolution." 
 
 Adams, (John,) a British sailor, was one of the mu- 
 tinous crew of the " Bounty," who, in 1789, sent their 
 commander, Bligh, adrift in a boat, and established them- 
 selves in Pitcairn's Island. After some of his comrades 
 had been killed by the natives, he became religious, 
 trained his children in habits of strict morality, and was 
 regarded as the patriarch of the colony. His proper 
 name is said to have been Alexander Smith. Died in 
 1829. An account of this colony was published in a 
 " Voyage to the Pacific," etc., by Captain Beechey, who 
 visited it in 1825 ; also by Rev. E. Murray, (1853.) Lord 
 Byron has made the history of this colony the subject 
 of a poem in four cantos, entitled " The Island." 
 
 See, also, Sir John Barrow, "History of the Mutiny of the 
 Bounty." 
 
 Adams, (John Couch,) an eminent English astron- 
 omer, born in Cornwall about 1817, was educated at 
 Cambridge. He shares with Levcrrier the honour of the 
 discovery of the planet Neptune, although he was anti- 
 cipated by that astronomer in the publication of the dis- 
 covery. He began his researches into the causes of the 
 irregularities in the motion of Uranus as early as 1843, 
 and communicated the results to Professor Airy in 1845. 
 In November, 1846, he made public his "Explanation 
 of the Observed Irregularities in the Motion of Uranus." 
 He received the Copley medal in 1848, was chosen a 
 fellow of the Royal Society in 1849, and President of the 
 Astronomical Society in 185 1. He was appointed pro- 
 fessor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1858. 
 
 Adams, (John Quincy,) an American statesman, 
 orator, and diplomatist, the sixth President of the United 
 States, was born in Braintree, Massachusetts, on the I ith 
 of July, 1767. He was the eldest son of President John 
 Adams, above noticed. He enjoyed peculiar and rare 
 advantages for education. In childhood he was instruct- 
 ed by his mother, a grand-daughter of Colonel John 
 Quincy, and a woman of superior talents. In 1778, 
 when only eleven years old, he accompanied his father 
 to France, attended a school in Paris, and returned 
 home in August, 1779. Having been taken again to 
 Europe by his father in 1780, he pursued his studies at 
 the University of Leyden, where he learned Latin and 
 Greek. In July, 1 781, at the age of fourteen, he was ap- 
 pointed private secretary to Francis Dana, minister to 
 Russia. He remained at St. Petersburg until October, 
 1782, after which he resumed his studies at the Hague, 
 and was present at the signing of the definitive treaty of 
 peace in Paris, September 3, 1783. Having passed some 
 months with his father in London, he returned to the 
 United States to complete his education, entered Har- 
 vard College in 1786, and graduated in 1788. 
 
 He studied law with the celebrated Theophilus Par- 
 sons, of Newburyport, was admitted to the bar in 1 791, 
 and began to practise in Boston. In 1 791 he published 
 in the " Boston Centinel," under the signature of Pufrli- 
 cola, a series of able essays, in which he exposed the fal- 
 lacies and vagaries of the French political reformers, 
 
 These papers attracted much attention in Europe as 
 well as in the United States. 
 
 Under the signature of Marcellus he wrote, in 1793, 
 several articles, in which he argued that the United 
 States should observe strict neutrality in the war between 
 the French and the British. "To him," says Mr. Sew- 
 ard, " it is believed, belongs the honour of first publicly 
 advocating this line of policy, which afterwards became 
 a settled principle of the American government." These 
 writings having commended him to the favour of Gen- 
 eral Washington, he was appointed minister to Holland 
 in May, 1794. He married, in July, 1797, Louisa Cath- 
 erine Johnson, a daughter of Joshua Johnson, of Mary- 
 land, who was then American consul at London. In a 
 letter dated February 20, 1797, Washington wrote (o the 
 elder Adams, " I give it as my decided opinion that 
 Mr. Adams is the most valuable public character we 
 have abroad," and he advised the President-elect not to 
 withhold promotion from him because he was his son. 
 John Quincy Adams was accordingly appointed minister 
 to Berlin, in 1797. He translated Wieland's " Oberon" 
 into English, and published an account of his travels in 
 Silesia, which he visited in 1800. He succeeded in ne- 
 gotiating a treaty of amity and commerce with the Prus- 
 sian government, and was recalled about February, 1801. 
 
 He was elected a senator of the United States by the 
 Federalists of Massachusetts, for the term beginning 
 March, 1803. In 1805 he was appointed professor of 
 rhetoric and belles-lettres at Harvard College, and ac- 
 cepted that office on condition that he should be permit- 
 ted to attend to his senatorial duties while Congress was 
 in session. His lectures at Harvard were much ad- 
 mired, and were published in 1810. In 1805 he endeav- 
 oured to procure the passage of a law to levy a duty on 
 the importation of slaves. He offended his political 
 friends, the Federalists, by supporting Jefferson's em- 
 bargo act, which was passed in December, 1807, and 
 thus became connected with the Democratic party. The 
 legislature of Massachusetts elected another person to 
 take the place of Mr. Adams, who resigned his seat in 
 March, 1808, declining to serve for the remainder of the 
 term, rather than obey the instructions of the Federalists, 
 who were then the dominant party in his State. He sub- 
 sequently gave far deeper offence by charging some of the 
 Federal leaders with a plot to dissolve the Union and 
 tetablish an independent northern confederacy. This 
 accusation was doubtless one of the principal causes of 
 the hostility and distrust which were long felt towards 
 New England, not only in the Southern, but also in the 
 Middle and Western States. 
 
 While a member of the Senate, Mr. Adams had dis- 
 tinguished himself as an able and eloquent public speak- 
 er, as well as an accomplished scholar. In March, 1809, 
 he was appointed by President Madison minister to 
 Russia. During his residence in that country he was 
 nominated an associate justice of the supreme court of 
 the United States, and confirmed February, 181 1 ; but 
 he declined the appointment. His influence and diplo- 
 matic services at St. Petersburg laid the foundation of 
 those amicable relations which have ever since been 
 maintained between Russia and the United States. In 
 1813, Adams, Clay, Gallatin, and Russell were appointed 
 commissioners to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great 
 Britain. They met the British diplomatists at Ghent, 
 and, after a protracted negotiation of six months, signed 
 a treaty of peace on the 24th of December, 1814. 
 
 In the spring of 1S15, Adams was appointed minister to 
 the court of St. James, where he remained until he was 
 selected by Mr. Monroe for the office of secretary of state 
 in 1817. In his long and successful career as a diplomat- 
 ist he had justified the confidence of Washington, who, 
 in 1797, had predicted that Mr. Adams would "prove 
 himself to be the ablest of all our diplomatic corps." 
 He entered upon his duties as secretary of state in Sep- 
 tember, (817, and performed them with a fidelity and 
 success which obtained the approbation of the country. 
 He defended General Jackson's conduct in Florida, when 
 the other members of the cabinet censured him for tran- 
 scending his orders. 
 
 According to Mr. Seward, " Mr. Adams deserved 
 and received a high share of credit" for negotiating, in 
 
 e as k, c as s; g hard; g asj; o, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ADAMS 
 
 48 
 
 ADAMS 
 
 ft 
 
 1819, with Spain, a treaty which was very advantageous 
 to the United States. 
 
 In 1824, Adams, Jackson, Crawford, and Clay were 
 candidates for the Presidency ; all Democrats, and pro- 
 fessing substantially the same political creed. Mr. 
 Adams, who was supported by the Eastern States and 
 New York, received eighty-four electoral votes ; General 
 Jackson, ninety-nine ; Mr. Crawford, forty-one ; and Mr. 
 Clay, thirty-seven. Neither of the candidates having 
 received a majority in the electoral colleges, the election 
 devolved on the House of Representatives. Aided by the 
 influence of Henry Clay, Mr. Adams received the votes 
 of thirteen States, and was elected. 
 
 He appointed Mr. Clay secretary of state, Richard 
 Rush secretary of the treasury, James Barbour secretary 
 of war, Samuel L. Southard secretary of the navy, and 
 William Wirt attorney-general. The friends of Jack- 
 son were indignant, and accused Adams and Clay of 
 obtaining their success by "bargain and corruption." 
 Athough Mr. Crawford wrote to Mr. Clay, after the elec- 
 tion, " I approved of your vote when it was given, and 
 should have voted as you did between Jackson and 
 Adams," yet the friends of Crawford formed a coalition 
 with the Jacksonians to oppose the new administration. 
 Mr. Adams favoured internal improvements, and the 
 protection of domestic manufactures. It ought to be 
 remembered to his honour that he refused to remove 
 competent men from office merely because they were 
 his political opponents. In the latter part of his Pres- 
 idential term the opposition had a majority in both 
 houses of Congress, and assailed the President with un- 
 scrupulous and bitter hostility. At the election of 1828 
 he received eighty-three electoral votes, and was defeated 
 by General Jackson, who received one hundred and 
 seventy-eight votes. His defeat was probably promoted 
 by the charge of corrupt collusion with Mr. Clay in 1825, 
 although that charge appears to have been wholly des- 
 titute of foundation. On the 4th of March, 1829, he 
 retired to his estate at Quincy. 
 
 In 1830 the public were greatly surprised by the elec- 
 tion of Mr. Adams to Congress, in which he took his 
 seat in December, 1S31. He continued to represent his. 
 native district in that body for seventeen years, during 
 which he was constantly at his post, and surpassed 
 nearly all the members in close application to business 
 and in the power of endurance. " In every respect^' 
 says Seward, " he was a model legislator." He usually 
 acted with the Whigs, but kept himself free from the 
 trammels of party. His most memorable service in Con- 
 gress was his defence of the right of petition, and his 
 inflexible resistance to the encroachments of the slave 
 power. In 1836 the opponents of slavery began to send 
 to Congress petitions for the abolition of slavery, which 
 were presented by Mr. Adams. The House of Repre- 
 sentatives adopted a rule that no petition relating to 
 slavery should be read, printed, or debated. " With un- 
 wavering firmness," says Seward, " against a bitter and 
 unscrupulous opposition, exasperated to the highest 
 pitch by his pertinacity — amidst a perfect tempest of 
 vituperation and abuse — he persevered in presenting 
 these petitions, one by one, to the amount sometimes 
 of two hundred in a clay — demanding the action of the 
 house on each separate petition." His opponents once 
 made a motion to punish him by a vote of censure for 
 presenting a petition from slaves ; but they were baffled 
 in their object when the fact was announced that the 
 said petitioners prayed that slavery should NOT be abol- 
 ished. 
 
 On the 21st of February, 1848, while in his seat in 
 the Capitol, he was struck with paralysis. He died on 
 the 23d of that month ; his last words were, " This is 
 the last of earth ! I am content I" 
 
 In the latter part of his career he was popularly known 
 by the title of "the Old Man Eloquent." He kept a 
 copious diary of his public life, and was a voluminous 
 writer of prose and verse. Many of his orations, poems, 
 and discourses have been published. In religion he 
 was, like his father, a Unitarian. ' 
 
 See William H. Siiward, " Life of John Quincy Adams," 1849 ; 
 CH1AH Quincy, "Memoir of the Life of John Q.iincy Adams," iSpS; 
 IlLORSTH. "History of the United States," vol. vi. (or vol. lii.,' 
 Second Series.) 
 
 a. e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short ; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; n5t; g5od; moon j 
 
 Adams, (Joseph,) a physician and medical writer, 
 born in 1756. He practised in London from 1805 till 
 his death in 1818. His principal work is entitled 
 "Observations on Morbid Poisons," (1796.) He was an 
 enthusiastic admirer of Hunter, and appears to have 
 adopted, too implicitly, most of the views of that emi- 
 nent physiologist. 
 
 Adams, (Nehemiah,) D.D.,an American divine, born 
 at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1806. He graduated at 
 Harvard University in 1826. For many years he has been 
 pastor of the Essex Street Congregational Church, Bos- 
 ton. Among his various publications may be men- 
 tioned " Remarks on the Unitarian Belief; " " Friends of 
 Christ in the New Testament ;" " Life of John Eliot;" and 
 "South Side View of Slavery," (1854,) which has been 
 severely criticised by the free-soil press of the country. 
 
 Adams, (Richard,) an English non-conformist minis- 
 ter, born in Cheshire, graduated in 1644. He was eject- 
 ed from a living in Bread street, London, in 1662. Died 
 near the close of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Adams, (Samuel,) an eminent American patriot and 
 orator, born in Boston on the 27th of September, 1722, 
 was a second-cousin of President John Adams. He 
 graduated at Harvard College in 1740. A few years nf- 
 terwards, on taking the degree of master of arts, he choss 
 for his thesis the question, " Whether it be lawful to re- 
 sist the supreme magistrate if the commonwealth can- 
 not otherwise be preserved ?" of which he maintained 
 the affirmative. In early life he applied himself to mer- 
 cantile business, in which he was not successful. He af- 
 terwards served as collector of taxes in Boston. Having 
 gained distinction as a political writer, he was elected a 
 member of the general assembly of Massachusetts in 
 1765. He continued to represent Boston in that assem- 
 bly for nine years, and by his courage, talents, and energy 
 acquired great influence. Before the Revolution he was 
 a zealous opponent of the policy of the British ministers, 
 and an advocate of independence. John Adams, in his 
 diary, written in 1765, after some notice of James Otis 
 and others, says, "Adams, I believe, has the most thor- 
 ough understanding of liberty and her resources in the 
 temper and character of. the people, though not in the 
 law and constitution, as well as the most habitual radi- 
 cal love of it, of any of them." 
 
 He was elected a member of the continental Congress 
 in 1774, and was one of the two popular leaders excepted 
 from the general pardon offered by the British govern- 
 ment in June, 1775. As a member of Congress, in which 
 he continued about eight years, he rendered important 
 services, and signed the Declaration of Independence. 
 Mr. Adams took part in the formation of the constitution 
 of Massachusetts, adopted in 1780, served afterwards as 
 a senator of that State, and was a member of the con- 
 vention which ratified the Federal constitution in 17S8. 
 In national politics he favoured the Republican or Jef- 
 fersonian party. He was lieutenant-governor from 17S9 
 to 1794, and in 1795 succeeded John Hancock as Gov- 
 ernor of Massachusetts. Having been several times re- 
 elected, he served as Governor until 1797, and then re- 
 tired from public life. He had married young, and had 
 an only son, whom he survived. In religion he was 1 
 strict Calvinist. An oration on the independence of his 
 country, which he delivered in Philadelphia in August, 
 1776, has been published. He died in Boston, on the 
 2d of October, 1S03. Respecting his merits as a speaker 
 and writer, John Adams remarks that in his works may 
 be found "specimens of a nervous simplicity of reasoning 
 and eloquence that have never been rivalled in America." 
 
 See " Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams," bv Win iaM 
 V. Wells, 3 vols. 8vo, Boston, 1S65; see also the "Encyclopaedia 
 Americana; ' Goodrich, "Lives of I he Signers to the Declaration 
 of Independence :" Sanderson "Biography of the Stgnerfi to the 
 Declaration of Independence ;" Bancroft, " History of the United 
 Stales" vol. v. chaps, x. and xix.; Hildreth, "History of the 
 United States," vol. li. 
 
 Adam3, (Sir Thomas,) an English royalist, noted for 
 munificence, born in Shropshire in 1586. He was lord 
 mayor of London in 1645. Died in 1667. 
 
 Adams, (Thomas,) an English dissenting minister, 
 who was rejected for non-conformity about 1662. He 
 wrote a work called " Protestant Union." Died in 1670. 
 
 Adams, (William), an English navigator, born in 
 
ADAMS 
 
 49 
 
 ADDISON 
 
 Kent about 1575. He entered the Dutch navy as pilot, 
 and passed some time in Japan, where he is said to have 
 rendered important services to the commerce of the 
 Dutch and English. Died in 1621. 
 
 Adams, (Rev. William,) distinguished as the friend 
 of Dr. Johnson, was born in 1707, and died in 1789. 
 Besides some smaller pieces, he published "An Answer 
 to Mr. Hume's Essay on Miracles," (1752,) which at- 
 tracted considerable attention. 
 
 Adams, (William,) an English divine and writer, 
 born in 1814. He held the position of vicar of St. Peters, 
 Oxford. Among his works are " The Shadow of the 
 Cross," (1842, 8th edition, 1849,) and "Distant Hills," 
 (4th edition, 1847.) Died in 1848. 
 
 Ad'am-son, (HENRY,) a Scottish poet, who lived in 
 the early part ot the seventeenth century. He was a 
 nephew of Archbishop Adamson. Died in 1639. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men." 
 
 Adamson, (John,) an English author, born in 1787. 
 He published a "Memoir of Camoens," (1820,) and 
 " History, Antiquities, and Literature of Portugal," (2 
 vols., 1842-46.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Adamson, (Patrick,) an eminent Scottish prelate 
 and writer, born at Perth in 1536. He embraced the 
 cause of the Reformation on its gaining the ascendency, 
 and in 1564 published a poem "On the Superstitious 
 Follies of the Papists," (" De Papistarum Superstitiosis 
 Ineptiis.") In 1576, through the influence of Morton, 
 the regent, he was raised to the archbishopric of St. An- 
 drews. From this time to the end of his life he was en- 
 gaged in an almost incessant struggle with the Presby- 
 terian party, who were growing every day more powerful, 
 and who at last succeeded in deposing him, not only 
 from the primacy, but from all his functions as a minis- 
 ter. He died in 1592, in great indigence. Besides the 
 poem already mentioned, he wrote translations of the 
 book of Job, of the Apocalypse, and other parts of the 
 Bible, in Latin verse. 
 
 See Calderwood, " History of the Church of Scotland ;" Cham- 
 bers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Spotts- 
 wood, " History of the Church of Scotland." 
 
 A-da'mus Ma-ris'cus or Ad'am de Maris'co, a 
 learned monk, and teacher of theology at Oxford, born 
 about the end of the twelfth century. Roger Bacon, 
 who was his contemporary, speaks of him as an eminent 
 mathematician. He died about 1260. 
 
 A-da'mus Mu-re-mu-then'sis (or Murimuthen- 
 sist or Adam de Murimutb, Murimouth, or Mu- 
 rymouth, an English chronicler, who wrote a "Chron- 
 icle or History of his Own Time," extending from 1303 
 to 1337. He appears to have been employed on several 
 important missions ; in 1323 he was ambassador from Ed- 
 ward II. (of England) to the pope and the King of Sicily. 
 
 Ada'mus Sco'tus, (i.e. "Adam the Scotchman,") a 
 learned bishop, who lived in the twelfth century, chiefly 
 remarkable as the author of a curious dialogue between 
 the Soul and Reason. Of the events of his life little or 
 nothing is known. 
 
 Adanson, i'doN'soN', (Michel,) an eminent French 
 naturalist, born at Aix in 1727. His family were of 
 Scottish extraction, and had been exiled from their 
 country on account of their devotion to the house of 
 Stuart.' He was distinguished at school for his great 
 application, and won many of the prizes while at the 
 College of Pie-sis. In 1748 he visited Senegal, in Africa, 
 where he remained five years, and in spite of burning 
 suns and drenching rains he collected, by unremitting 
 labour, an immense number of new plants and animals, 
 as well as objects of commerce, clothes, utensils, and 
 im >lements of war peculiar to the inhabitants ; made 
 exjet maps of the countries through which he travelled ; 
 prepared grammars and vocabularies of the different 
 nations of that region, and kept an exact register of me- 
 teorological observations. After his return to France, 
 he published, in 1757, his " Natural History of Senegal," 
 ("Histoire Naturelle du Sefnegal,") and, in 1763, his 
 " Families of Plants," (" Families des Plantes.") In 
 these, and all his other works, he strenuously opposed 
 the artificial system of Linnaeus ; but the influence and 
 popularity of the Swedish naturalist were so great as 
 
 not only to resist uninjured all the efforts of his talented 
 and powerful assailant, but to throw for a time even 
 Adanson 's extraordinary merits into the shade. Though 
 on the publication of the "Natural History of Senegal" he 
 was elected member of the Royal Academy of Sciences 
 of Paris, and fellow of the Royal Society of London, yet 
 he passed a considerable portion of his after-life in ob- 
 scurity and extreme indigence ; but he was finally main- 
 tained by a pension from the French government. He 
 died in 1806. In addition to the works already men- 
 tioned, Adanson contributed many valuable papers to 
 the Memoires of the Royal Academy of Sciences ; and 
 also prepared an immense work entitled " Universal Or- 
 der of Nature," ("Ordre Universel de la Nature,") — a 
 sort of encyclopaedia of natural science, — which has never 
 been published. He read, in 1761, before the Academy 
 of Sciences, a very interesting notice (accompanied by 
 an accurate botanical description) of the baobab-tree, 
 which was afterwards named, in honour of the illustrious 
 botanist, Adiuisoiiia. As a naturalist, Adanson is not 
 unworthy to be the rival of Linnaeus ; in the estimation 
 of Cuvier, indeed, he ought to rank far above the illus- 
 trious Swede. His eulogy was composed by Cuvier, 
 who represents his character as noble, but eccentric. 
 
 See Cuvier, " £loge d'Adanson," 1S19 ; Lejoyand, " Notice sut 
 la Vie et les Travaux de M. Adanson," 8vo, 1808 ; " Observations sur 
 feu M. Adanson," by his nephew, M. Adanson ; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GeneVale." 
 
 Adashef, a-da-sheT', or Adashev, written also Ada- 
 schew, (Alexis,) an eminent Russian statesman, who 
 was the minister and favourite of Ivan IV. from 1547 to 
 1560. His administration was distinguished for its jus- 
 tice, humanity, and enlightened policy. Having incurred 
 the displeasure of his sovereign, he died, in prison, at 
 Dorpat, in 1561. 
 
 See Karamzin, "History of the Russian Empire." 
 
 Adashef or Adashev,(DANiEL,) a brother of the 
 preceding, greatly distinguished himself by a successful 
 expedition which he commanded against the dim Tar- 
 tars in 1559. Two years after, he was beheaded by the 
 order of his capricious and ungrateful sovereign. 
 
 Addemeeree or Addemiri, ad-deh-mee'ree, writ- 
 ten also Al-Damiri, surnamed Kemal-ed-Deen, (or 
 -Eii-DiN,) kS-maU' ed-deen', (" Perfection of the Faith,") 
 a distinguished Arabian naturalist, born in Egypt about 
 1350. He wrote on history and biography as well as 
 natural science. The best-known of his works is " The 
 Lives of Living Creatures." Died about 1405. 
 
 Ad'ding-ton, (Anthony,) an English physician, who 
 was the confidential friend and adviser of Lord Chat- 
 ham, was educated at Oxford, where he took the degree 
 of master of arts in 1740, and that of doctor of medicine 
 in 1744. He practised at Reading, and died in 1790. 
 
 Addington, (Henry,) afterwards Lord Sidmouth, 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1756, and educated 
 with Pitt, the son ot Lord Chatham. He soon distin- 
 guished himself in the political world; in 1789 he was 
 chosen speaker of the House of Commons, and in 1801, 
 on the resignation of Pitt, to whom he had ever shown 
 himself an unfaltering friend, he succeeded that great 
 statesman as chancellor of the exchequer and first lord 
 of the treasury. The opposition of his enemies obliged 
 him to leave his station in May, 1804: the king then 
 conferred upon him the title of Lord Viscount Sidmouth. 
 He became home secretary in 1812, and retired from 
 public life in 1822. Died in 1844. 
 
 See " Life and Correspondence of the Hon. Henry Addington," 
 by Pku.hw, 1847. 
 
 Addington, (Stephen,) D.D., a dissenting minister, 
 born at Northampton, England, about 1730, and died in 
 1796. He wrote, besides other religious works, a life of 
 the Apostle Paul. 
 
 See Wilson's " Dissenting Churches." 
 
 Ad'dl-son, (Alexander,) an American lawyer and 
 judge, distinguished for his learning and eloquence, was 
 born in 1759. Died at Pittsburg in 1807. 
 
 Ad'dison, (O. II.,) an Englishman, born in 1793; was 
 a youth of high promise when he died, in India, in 1815, 
 leaving a work called "Indian Reminiscences," (1837.) 
 
 Addison, (Joseph,) an English author, pre-eminent 
 as an essayist, humorist, and moralist, was born at Mil- 
 
 % as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; ci H, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trillcJ; s as s; th as in this. (jJ^*"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 4 
 
ADDISON 
 
 5° 
 
 ADDISON 
 
 ston, r>tar Amesbury, in Wiltshire, on the 1st of May, 
 1672 He was a son of the Rev. Lancelot Addison. 
 He attended school at the Charter House, from which, 
 about the age of fifteen, he passed to Queen's College, 
 Oxford, with a stock of classical learning that would have 
 done honour to a master of arts. In 1689 he removed 
 to Magdalen College, where he remained about ten years. 
 He acquired at college a high reputation as a writer of 
 Latin verse, in which he probably excelled all his con- 
 temporaries. His first English composition was a piece 
 of complimentary verse addressed, in 1694, to Dryden, 
 who appears to have been pleased with this tribute, and 
 became a friend of the author. Addison wrote the crit- 
 ical preface which Dryden prefixed to his version of the 
 " Georgics," (1697.) 
 
 His friends destined him for the church, to which his 
 opinions and nabits of thought were well adapted. Be- 
 fore he had decided in relation to the choice of a profes- 
 sion, he formed an acquaintance with Charles Montagu, 
 the eminent Whig financier, to whom he dedicated an 
 elegant Latin poem on the peace of Ryswick, (1697.) He 
 was persuaded by Montagu to decline the clerical pro- 
 fession and to devote himself to the service of the state. 
 The course of his life was determined in 1699, when he 
 received an annual pension of .£300, and set out on a 
 tour to France and Italy, partly with the design to qualify 
 himself for diplomacy by the study of the French lan- 
 guage. At Paris he met with Boileau, who complimented 
 him highly on his Latin poetry. He passed many months 
 in the chief cities of Italy, and addressed to his friend 
 Montagu, now Lord Halifax, a " Letter from Italy," in 
 verse, (1701,) which was greatly admired. In conse- 
 quence of the death of King William and the removal of 
 his Whig friends from office, Addison was deprived of 
 his pension in 1702. He returned to England about the 
 end of 1703. 
 
 One morning he was surprised to receive, in the garret 
 which he occupied in the Haymarket, a visit from Mr. 
 Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer, who, on behalf of 
 the chief minister, Godolphin, requested him to write a 
 poem on the battle of Blenheim, (1704.) The result of 
 this visit was "The Campaign," which was received 
 with immense applause by the public, and procured for 
 the author a commissionership as an earnest of greater 
 favours. He published an interesting " Narrative of his 
 Travels in Italy," which, before it was reprinted, sold 
 for five times the original price. His next work was the 
 opera " Rosamond ;" which failed on the stage through 
 the fault of the music, but was completely successful as 
 a publication. 
 
 In 1705 Addison was appointed under-secretary of 
 state, through the influence of Halifax and Somers, who 
 had formed a coalition with Godolphin and Marlborough. 
 He was elected to Parliament in 1708, and on one occa- 
 sion rose to speak, but could not overcome his diffidence, 
 and made no further effort to become a debater. His 
 literary talents and character, however, rendered him 
 one of the main pillars of the Whig party, for at that time 
 public opinion was influenced more by the pen than by the 
 tongue. " When these things are duly considered," says 
 Macaulay, "it will not be thought strange that Addison 
 should have climbed higher in the state than any other 
 Englishman has ever, by means merely of literary talents, 
 been able to climb." 
 
 He was chief secretary to Lord Wharton, Lord-Lieuten- 
 ant of Ireland, in 1709, with a salary of about ,£2000. In 
 this year his friend Steele began to issue " The Tatler," 
 which afforded to Addison an opportunity to display his 
 genius in a new department of literature. His graceful 
 style, his genial spirit, his excellent invention and inimi- 
 table humour rendered The Tatler, and its successor 
 " The Spectator," extremely popular. The Spectator 
 was issued daily from March 1, 171 1, until December 6, 
 1 712, and was revived in 1714 as a tri-weekly paper. 
 Addison wrote about three-sevenths of The Spectator, 
 the success of which was such as no similar work has 
 ever obtained. The circulation of it amounted to nearly 
 four thousand copies. For some particular papers, it is 
 said, the demand was so great that not less than twenty 
 thousand copies were required. These essays exerted 
 a great and salutary influence on society. " Pie not only 
 
 made the proper use of wit himself," says Dr. Johnson, 
 " but taught it to others. . . . He has dissipated the 
 prejudice that had long connected gaiety with vice, and 
 easiness of manners with laxity of principles. He has 
 restored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence not 
 to be ashamed. This is an elevation of literary charac- 
 ter, ' above all Greek, above all Roman fame,' " Although 
 the Whigs were defeated in the general election of 1710, 
 Addison was so popular that he was returned to Parlia- 
 ment without a contest. On this occasion Swift writes, 
 " I believe if he had a mind to be king, he would hardly 
 be refused." 
 
 In 1713 he produced his tragedy of "Cato," which 
 was greeted with "thunders of unanimous applause," 
 and obtained more celebrity among his contemporaries 
 than any other of his works ; but this favourable esti- 
 mate has not been confirmed by the suffrages of a later 
 age. On the death of Queen Anne, August, 1714, he 
 was appointed secretary to the regency or lords justices. 
 Soon after that date he again became chief secretary to 
 the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. He exchanged this office 
 for a seat at the board of trade in 1 7 1 5, and began to pub 
 lish "The Freeholder," his best political work. After a 
 long courtship, he married, in 1716, the Countess-dow- 
 ager of Warwick, who, according to Johnson, " thought 
 herself entitled to treat with very little ceremony the 
 tutor of her son." He became one of the two principal 
 secretaries of state in the new ministry formed in the 
 spring of 1 7 1 7, but remained in office only eleven months. 
 His retirement is attributed to ill health and inefficiencj 
 as a public speaker. 
 
 He died on the 17th of June, 1719, leaving no child 
 but a daughter, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 Shortly before his death he said to his step-son, Lord 
 Warwick, " I have sent for you in order that you might 
 see in what peace a Christian can die !" 
 
 The two gravest faults charged against him are his 
 habit of drinking wine, and his insidious enmity to Pope. 
 The former has, in all probability, been much exagger- 
 ated, and the latter is said to have been fully and dis- 
 tinctly disproved. It appears, indeed, to have never had 
 any better foundation than Pope's morbid suspicion. 
 (See Pope, Alexander.) 
 
 Addison's colloquial powers are extolled by several 
 authors. Lady Mary Montagu said that "she had known 
 all the wits, and that Addison was the best company in 
 the world." " Addison's conversation," says Pope, " had 
 something in it more charming than I have found in any 
 other man. But this was only when familiar : before 
 strangers, or perhaps a single stranger, he preserved his 
 dignity by a stiff silence." " His humanity," says Mac- 
 aulay, "is without a parallel in literary history. The 
 highest proof of human virtue is to possess boundless 
 power without abusing it. No kind of power is more 
 formidable than the power of making men ridiculous ; 
 and that power Addison possessed in boundless meas- 
 ure. But it would be difficult, if not impossible, to find, 
 in all the volumes which he has left us, a single taunt 
 which can be called ungenerous or unkind. . . . The 
 numerous fictions, generally original, often wild and 
 grotesque, but always graceful and happy, which are 
 found in his essays, fully entitle him to the rank of a 
 great poet, — a rank to which his metrical compositions 
 give him no claim. As an observer of life, of manners, 
 of all the shades of human character, he stands in the 
 first class." 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets;" Macaulay, 
 " Essays," article Addison ; Steele, Memoirs of the Life and 
 Writings of J. Addison," 1724: Des Maizeaux, "Viede J. Addi- 
 son;" LucyAikin, " Life of Joseph Addison." 1843; Elwin, "Life 
 of Addison," 1857; " Biographia Britannica;" Villemain, "Coursde 
 LitteVature." 
 
 Addison, (Rev. Lancelot,) father of the preceding, 
 was born in Westmoreland in 1632, and educated at 
 Queen's College, Oxford. He passed seven years at Tan- 
 gier as chaplain to the garrison, and, after his return, 
 published " West Barbary, or a Short Narrative of the 
 Revolutions of the Kingdoms of Fez and Morocco," 
 (1671,) which attracted considerable attention both i. 
 England and foreign countries. He became a royal 
 chaplain about 1670, Dean of Lichfield in 1683, and Arch- 
 deacon of Coventry in 1684. Among his writings are 
 
 a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ti, y 1 , short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
AD EL 
 
 Si 
 
 ADENEZ 
 
 several religious treatises, and a work on "The Present 
 State of the Jews, (more particularly relating to those in 
 Barbary,") (1675.) He died in 1703, leaving three sons : — 
 Joseph ; Gulston, who died Governor of Madras ; and 
 Lancelot, who was eminent as a classical scholar. 
 
 See Wood, "Athene Oxonienses." 
 
 Adel, a'del, or Adils, a'dils, one of the early kings 
 of Sweden, whose history is lost in fable. He is sup- 
 posed to have lived in the fifth or sixth century. 
 
 Adelaar. See Adeler. 
 
 Adelaide, ad'cl-ad, [Ger. Adelheid, a'del-hit',] an 
 empress of Germany, daughter of Rudolph II., and wife 
 of Otho I., (surnamed the Great,) was born in 931. After 
 the death of the emperor, her husband, she governed the 
 empire with great ability during the early part of the 
 reign of her son, Otho II. She was afterwards regent 
 during a part of the minority of Otho HI. She died in 
 999, universally beloved, and is regarded as a saint, 
 though her name does not appear in the Roman cal- 
 endar. 
 
 Adelaide, ad'e-lad, [Fr. Adelaide, a'da'lS'ed',] (Ma- 
 dame,) the eldest daughter of Louis XV., was born, in 
 1732, at Versailles. On the breaking out of the revolu- 
 tion, she, with her sister, Madame Victoire, left their 
 native country for Italy. She died at Trieste in 1800. 
 
 Adelaide, ad'e-lad, Queen of England, born in 1792, 
 ■was a daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, and was 
 married, in 1818, to the Duke of Clarence, who became 
 William IV. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Doran, " Life of Queen Adelaide." 
 
 Adelaide, t'da'li'ed', (Eugene Louise,) a French 
 princess, born in Paris in 1777, was a sister of King Louis 
 Philippe. She was an exile from 1792 until 1814. In 
 1830 she urged Louis Philippe, with whom she had 
 much influence, to accept the crown. Died in 1847. 
 
 Adelais (Sd'li'or t'deh-li') of Louvain, the daugh- 
 ter of Godfrey, Duke of Brabant, and the second queen 
 of Henry I. of England, was born about 1 103, and mar- 
 ried in 1 121. Her beauty was celebrated under the des- 
 ignation of " The Fair Maid of Brabant." After the 
 death of Henry I. she married William de Albini, an 
 English nobleman, and died in 1 151. 
 
 Ad'el-ard or Athelard, a king of the West Saxons, 
 who ascended the throne in 727, and died in 740. 
 
 Adelard of Bath, [Lat. Adelar'dus Bathonif.n'- 
 sis,] a student of natural science, who lived in England 
 in the early part of the twelfth century. He wrote a book 
 entitled " Concerning the Natures of Things," (" De Na- 
 turis Rerum,") and made a translation of Euclid from the 
 Arabic into Latin, at a time when this work was almost 
 unknown in Western Europe. 
 
 Adelbert See Adalbert. 
 
 Ad'el-bold, [Lat. Adelbol'dus, Adelbai.'dus, or 
 Athf.i.bal'dus,] a bishop of Utrecht, who flourished in 
 the early part of the eleventh century. He was distin- 
 guished for his piety, and was a great patron of learning 
 and the arts. Died in 1027. 
 
 Adelburner, a'del-booR'ner, or Adelbulner, a'del- 
 bool'ner, (Michael,) a German mathematician, born at 
 Nuremberg in 1702, became professor at Altdorf in 1743. 
 He published an astronomical journal, called " Commer- 
 Cium Astronomicum," (1735-40,) which had great suc- 
 cess. Died in 1 779. 
 
 See Montucla, " Histoire des Mathematiques." 
 
 Adelcrantz or Adelkrantz, a'del-kRants',the name 
 of two Swedish architects, father and son. The latter, 
 CHARLES Frederick, who was the more eminent, was 
 born at Stockholm in 1716, and died in 1796. 
 
 Adeler, a'dcl-er, also written Adelaar, (Cord or 
 Conrad Sivertsen,) a famous admiral, born in Nor- 
 way in 1622. He entered the service of Venice in his 
 . and obtained command of a fleet. In 1654 he 
 gained a signal victory over the Turkish fleet, and killed 
 with his own hand the admiral Ibraheem Pasha. The 
 King of Denmark recalled him in 1663, and gave him the 
 unci pf his navy. Adeler was appointed grand ad- 
 nrral in 1675, and died the same year. 
 
 Ad'el-frid, a Saxon king, was slain in battle in 617. 
 Ad-el-gi'sus, called also A'del-ehis, the only son 
 of Desidci ins, King of the Longobards. Though a brave 
 
 prince, he was defeated, with his father, by Charlemagne, 
 in 773 ; after which he fled to Constantinople. Little 
 else is known respecting him. 
 
 Adelgisus, a prince of Bencventum, (now Benevento,) 
 who lived in the ninth century. He was murdered by 
 his own relations in 878. 
 
 Adelgreiff, a'del-gRif, (Johann Albrecht,) a noto- 
 rious fanatic of the seventeenth century. He claimed to 
 represent God on earth. He was beheaded at KonigS- 
 berg in 1636. 
 
 Ad'el-man, (or i'del-man',) an ecclesiastical writer, 
 who lived about the middle of the eleventh century, 
 was Bishop of Brescia. 
 
 Adelon, Sd'los', (Nicolas Philibert,) a French 
 physician and writer, born at Dijon about 1780. He was 
 a favourite pupil of Chaussier, with whom he co-operated 
 in the first volumes of the " Biographie Universelle." 
 In 1823-24 he published a "Treatise on the Physiology 
 of Man," (4 vols.) He obtained the chair of legal medi- 
 cine in Paris in 1826, and continued to occupy it so late 
 as 1858. Died in July, 1862. 
 
 Adelstan. See Athelstan. 
 
 Adelung, a'deh-loong, (Friedrich,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born at Stettin in 1768, was a nephew of Johann 
 Christoph, noticed below. He removed to St. Peters- 
 burg, where he became preceptor to the grand duke 
 Nicholas, (afterwards emperor,) and a counsellor of state. 
 Among his works are "The Relations between the San- 
 scrit and Russian Languages," (1815,) and an "Essay on 
 the Sanscrit Literature and Language," (1830.) Died at 
 St. Petersburg in 1843. 
 
 See Gretsch, " Histoire de la Litte>ature Russe." 
 
 Adelung or Adlung, ad'loong, (Jacob,) an organist 
 and writer on music, born near Erfurt, in Germany, in 
 1699 ; died in 1762. 
 
 Adelung, (Johann Christoph,) a distinguished phi- 
 lologist and lexicographer, born near Anklam, in Pome- 
 rania, in 1732. He commenced the study of theology at 
 the University of Halle, but his tastes led him to general 
 literature and philology, to which, from about the year 
 1 761, he appears to have devoted all his time and thoughts. 
 He wrote several historical works, which, however, have 
 attracted but little attention. That on which his fame 
 principally rests is his "Attempt at a Complete Gram- 
 matico-Critical Dictionary of the German Language," 
 ("Versuch eines vollstandigen Grammatisch-Kritischen 
 Wbrterbuches der Hochdeutschen Mundart.") This 
 great German work has been compared to the great Eng- 
 lish dictionary of Dr. Johnson ; but Adelung's is supe- 
 rior to Johnson's in its definitions, and in all that relates 
 to etymology. His dictionary attracted great attention 
 in Germany ; and, as a reward for the important service 
 he had rendered to German literature, he was appointed, 
 by the Elector of Saxony, chief librarian of the public 
 library of Dresden, with the title of Hofrath, ("court- 
 counsellor,") an office which he held until his death. 
 Among the defects, however, of Adelung's dictionary 
 may be named : 1st, an excessive partiality for the dialect 
 of Upper Saxony, which caused him to reject words used 
 in other parts of Germany ; 2dly, his fastidious rejection 
 of all new words not sanctioned by what he considered 
 good authority. Besides writing a German grammar, 
 and several other books illustrating his own tongue, he 
 commenced a great work, entitled "Mithridates,. oder 
 Allgemeine Sprachen-Kunde," a general treatise on lan- 
 guage, which was finished, after his death, by J. S. Vater. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 See Ersch und Orubkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" " Nonvelle 
 Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Adelwalch, ad'el-wftlk, a king of Sussex, who was 
 slain in battle in 686. 
 
 Ad'e-mar' [Lat. Adema'rus] or Aymar, J'mSu', a 
 French historical writer, who flourished in the early part 
 of the eleventh century. 
 
 Ad-e-ma'rus, a courtier of Otho III., Emperor of 
 Germany, by whom he was appointed Duke of Spoletum 
 (Spoleto) and Marquis of Camerino, about the end of the 
 tenth century. 
 
 Adenez or Adenes, Sd'na' or t'deh-n.V, sometimes 
 written Adans, surnamed Le RoI, (leh Rwa,) a cele- 
 brated minstrel, born in Brabant about 1240. He was 
 
 eas£; 9 as s; %hard;'gasj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled Vsasz; th as in this. (jrySee Explanations, p. 23. > 
 
ADEODAT 
 
 Sz 
 
 ADLERFELD 
 
 first patronized by Henry III., Duke of Brabant, and 
 afterwards by Philip the Bold, King of France. The 
 time of his death is unknown. 
 
 Adeodat. See Dieudonne. 
 
 Adeodato, a-da-o-di'to, an Italian sculptor, who lived 
 in the twelfth century. 
 
 Ader, JMaiR', (Gjillaume,) a physician and medical 
 writer, who lived at Toulouse, in France, about the be- 
 ginning of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Adet, i'di', (Pierre Augusts,) a French politician 
 and chemist, born at Nevers in 1763. He was sent, in 
 1795, as minister to the United States, but resigned or 
 suspended his office in 1797, on account of an alleged vio- 
 lation of neutrality. Having returned to France, he 
 became, in 1809, a member of the legislative body. He 
 published "Elements of Chemistry," (1S04.) Died in 
 1832. 
 
 Adgillui (ad-jil'lus) L and H., two dukes of Fries- 
 land, who lived in the latter part of the seventh and the 
 beginning of the eighth century. 
 
 Adhad-ed-Dauiah, (or -Eddoulat) See Azad-ud- 
 DOWLAH. 
 
 Adh-dhahebee or Adh-dhahebi, aD-Da'heh-bee', 
 (almost ath-tha'heh-bee',) written also Al-Dzahabi, sur- 
 named Shems-ed-Deen, (i.e. the " Sun of Religion,") 
 an eminent Arabian writer and lawyer, born at Damas- 
 cus about 1274. He was raised to the high office of 
 Mufti of Damascus. Died about 1347. His principal 
 work is a chronological history of all the Moslem nations 
 from the creation down to his own time. 
 
 Adh-dhobbee (Adh-dhobbi) or Ad-dobbee, aD- 
 Dob'bee' or ath-ihob'bee', a native of Cordova, who wrote 
 a valuable history of the Spanish Arabs. He flourished 
 about the beginning of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Adhemar, a'deh-maK', written also Azemars, (Wil- 
 liam,) a Provencal poet of the twelfth century, who is 
 said to have loved the Countess of Die so passionately 
 that, on hearing she was about to be married to the Count 
 of Embrun, he fell desperately ill, and, having sent for 
 her, expired in her presence. This so affected her that 
 she abandoned all thoughts of marriage, and died of 
 grief a few years afterwards. 
 
 Adhemar de Monteil, ad'eh-mar' deh mon-tal', 
 [Fr. pron. Sd'mf R'deh m6N't&I' or mAN'ti'ye,] an eccle- 
 siastic, statesman, and warrior, who lived in the four- 
 teenth century. He was appointed Bishop of Metz in 
 1327, and died in 1361. He had the reputation of a 
 spirited and magnificent prince. 
 
 Ad-her'bal, [Gr. 'Aruppac,] a Carthaginian command- 
 er during the first Punic war, who gained a great victory 
 over the Roman fleet 249 B.C. 
 
 Adherbal, the son of Micipsa, King of Numidia. On 
 the death of his father (n.c. u8) he shared the kingdom 
 with his brother Hiempsal and his cousin Jugurtha, by 
 whom he was slain, 112 n.c. (See Jugurtha.) 
 
 Adi-Buddha, (or -Booddha.) See Booddiia. 
 
 Adil-Shah-Yoosuf, (or -Yusuf,) a'dil-shah yoo'sSof, 
 a son of the Turkish sultan Amurath II., whom, on the 
 death of this monarch in 145 1, his mother contrived to 
 secrete from the executioners sent by his brother, Mo- 
 hammed II., for the purpose of destroying him, and 
 caused him to be privately conveyed to Persia, whence 
 he afterwards fled to Hindostan. Here he entered the 
 service of Mohammed Shah, (II.,) King cf the Dekkan, 
 and gradually rose to the highest military offices in the 
 state. On the death of Mohammed Shah, an attempt 
 was made by a corrupt faction at court to destroy Yoosuf ; 
 but he withdrew to Bejapoor, (of which province he had 
 been appointed governor,) where his military fame and 
 his high character for liberality and justice soon drew to 
 his standard multitudes of the best and bravest of the 
 land. Though at first he acted uniformly on -the de- 
 fensive, he at length (about 1500) established an empire 
 on the ruin of his enemies. He had previously, in 1489, 
 assumed the title of royalty. He died about 1510. His 
 posterity continued to reign at Bejapoor till 1680, when 
 their capital was taken by Aurungzebe, and Sikandar, 
 the last of the Adil-Shah dynasty, was made prisoner by 
 the conqueror. 
 
 Ad-I-man'tus, ['Aisiuavroc,] the commander of the 
 Corinthian ships during the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, 
 
 480 B.C. He appears to have been destitute alike of skill 
 and bravery. 
 
 Adimantus is also the name of an Athenian gen- 
 eral who was defeated and taken prisoner by Lysander 
 at /Egospotami, 405 B.C. 
 
 Adimantus, a Manichaean writer, who is supposed 
 to have lived in the fourth century. 
 
 Adimari, a-de-ma'ree, a noted, though not noble, 
 Florentine family, who hold a considerable place in the 
 history of Italy in the middle ages. 
 
 Adimari, (Alessandro,) a classical scholar and poet, 
 born at Florence about 1580, made a translation of Pindar 
 into Italian verse. Died in 1649. 
 
 Adimari, (Ludovico,) born at Naples in 1644; 
 died at Florence in 1 708. He was professor of Tuscan 
 in the Academy of Florence, and wrote, in Italian, satiric 
 poetry which is much admired by some. 
 
 Aditi, ad'I-tl, [common Hindoo pron. iid'I-tT,] the wife 
 of Kasyapa, and the mother of the gods. She is sometimes 
 styled, for greater distinction, the "mother of Indra." 
 She is supposed to personify the earth. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Adltya, a'dlt-ya, [in the English plural, Adityas,] 
 the name given to twelve Hindoo deities, sons of Aditi. 
 They are said to represent the sun in each of the differ- 
 ent months o'f the year. Among the Adityas the prin- 
 cipal are Varuna, Surya, Indra, Yama, and Vishnu, who, in 
 his fifth Avatar, was born as the son of Kasyapa and Aditi. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Adler, (Caspar.) See Aquila. 
 
 Adler, ad'ler, (Georg Christian,) a theological 
 writer and eminent teacher, born in Silesia in 1674. 
 He founded a school at Konigsberg, which afterwards 
 became a gymnasium, being now called the " Collegium 
 Fredericianum." Died in 1741. 
 
 Adler, (Georg Christian,) son of the preceding, 
 was born in 1734. He was chief pastor of a Lutheran 
 congregation at Altona, and died in 1804. Besides other 
 works of the same kind, he wrote one on the topography 
 of the city of Rome, (17S1.) 
 
 Adler, (Georg J.,) a philologist, born at Leipsic, in 
 Germany, in 1821. He came to the United States in 
 1833, graduated at the University of New York in 1844, 
 and from 1846 to 1854 was professor of the German lan- 
 guage in that institution. He is the author of several 
 German and Latin school manuals, and of an excellent 
 German and English dictionary. Died in New York in 
 August, 1868. 
 
 Adler, ad'ler, (Jacob Georg,) a Danish Orientalist, 
 born at Amis, in Sleswick, in 1755, became professor 
 of theology at Copenhagen in 178S. Among his works 
 is one on the Cufic writings or inscriptions, (" Musantm 
 Cuficum Borgianum," 2 vols., 1782-92.) Died in 1805. 
 
 Adler, (Philipp,) the first who carried the art of etch- 
 ing to any degree of excellence, was born in Nuremberg 
 in 14S4. The date of his death is unknown. He en- 
 graved many of the works of Albert Diirer. 
 
 Adlerbeth, ad'Ier-bet', (Gudmund Goran,) a trans- 
 lator and Swedish poet, born at Jonkoping in 175 1. In 
 1778 he was appointed antiquary and private secretary 
 to Gustavus III., whom he accompanied on a tour to 
 Rome. He was afterwards made councillor of the state, 
 and baron, besides receiving numerous other honours. 
 Died in 1818. He was a voluminous writer ; among his 
 works are many operas and tragedies, constructed on the 
 plan of the French school. He translated the works of 
 Virgil, Horace, and the Metamorphoses of Ovid. 
 
 Adlerfeld or Adlerfelt, ad'ler-felt', (Gustaf,) a 
 Swedish historical writer, born near Stockholm in 1671. 
 He was appointed by Charles XII. hof-junkare, or gen- 
 tleman of the court, and afterwards accompanied the 
 king on several of his campaigns, of which he wrote a 
 regular journal until his death. He was killed by a can- 
 non-ball in the famous battle of Pultowa, (or Poltava,) 
 July 8, 1709. 
 
 Adlerfeld, (Pf.hr, or Peter,) a brother of the preced- 
 ing, born at Stockholm in 16S0. He was made a colonel 
 in the Swedish army in 1712, and in 1720 was raised tc 
 the rank of a baron, and made a member of the Riks- 
 rdd, "Council of the Kingdom." He was killed, in 
 
 S, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, 3, J, sliort; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; gdod; n oon. 
 
ADLERSCREUTZ 
 
 53 
 
 ADO M NAN 
 
 1743, while defending his native city against the insurgent 
 Dalecarlians. 
 
 Adlerscreutz, ad'U?Rs-kRoits', (Baron,) a Swedish 
 general, was the leader of the party which dethroned 
 Gustavus IV. in 1809. 
 
 Adlersparre, ad'ler-spar'ra, (Georg,) Count of, a 
 Swedish general and writer, born in 1760. He acted a 
 prominent part in the conspiracy or revolt which de- 
 throned Gustavus IV. in 1809. Died in 1837. 
 
 Adlung. See Adelung. 
 
 Adlzreiter, ad'elts-ri'ter or ad'lts'ri'ter, (Johann,) a 
 lawyer and statesman, born at Rosenheim, in Bavaria, in 
 1596. He became vice-chancellor and privy counsellor 
 to Maximilian, Elector of Bavaria. Died in 1662. He 
 furnished important materials to the history of Bavaria, 
 by Fervaux, which was published under his name. 
 
 Ad-me'tus, [Gr. "AfyWroc ; Fr. Admete, Sd'mit',] a 
 son of Pheres, King of Pherae in Thessaly, succeeded his 
 father on the throne. Apollo, who had been banished 
 from Olympus for one year, tended the herds of Admetus 
 during that period. Admetus became a suitor for Al- 
 cestis, the daughter of Pelias, who promised her to him 
 on condition that he would come in a chariot drawn 
 by a lion and a wild boar. With the help of Apollo 
 he fulfilled that condition, and married Alcestis. (See 
 Alcf.stis.) 
 
 Admiral, L', lSd'me'ril', (Jean,) a French portrait- 
 painter in miniature, born in Normandy in 1698. Died 
 
 >n 1773- 
 
 Ado, a'do, Saint, born about 800, in the territory 
 of Gatinois, in the north of Gaul, became Archbishop of 
 Vienne in 860, and died in 875. He wrote a work pur- 
 porting to be a chronicle of events from the creation to 
 the year 874. 
 
 Adoaldus. See Adaloaldus. 
 
 Adolf, a'dolf, a German sculptor, who lived in the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Adolf, (Joseph Franz,) a German painter, who died 
 about 1750. He excelled in painting horses. 
 
 Adolfi, a-dol'fee, (Ciro,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Bergamo in 1683; died in 1758. As an artist he was 
 much superior to his brother Giacomo. 
 
 Adolfi, (Giacomo,) a brother of the preceding, also 
 a painter, was born in 1682 ; died in 1741. 
 
 Adolphe, (of Cleves, Guelders, etc.) See Adoi.phus. 
 
 Adolphi, a-dol'fee, (Christian Michael,) a German 
 physician, professor of medicine at Leipsic, born in 1676; 
 died in 1753. 
 
 Adolphi, (Ciro.) See Adolfi. 
 
 A-dol'phus, [Fr. Adolphe, i'dolf,] son of Arnold, 
 the sixth Duke of Guelderland, born in 1438. He was 
 in constant disputes with his father from his earliest 
 years, and at length, in 1465, suddenly seized and im- 
 prisoned him, and then extorted from him a formal act 
 of abdication. But he was afterwards compelled by 
 John I., Duke of Cleves, and Charles the Bold, of Bur- 
 gundy, to release him and restore to him all his posses- 
 sions. Adolphus, in turn, was seized and kept in con- 
 finement for several years, during which time his father 
 died. Having at length, on the death of Charles the 
 Bold, been released, he was soon after killed, while be- 
 sieging Tournay, in 1477. 
 
 Adolphus (or Adolph) X, Duke of Holstein and 
 Sleswick, son of Frederick I., King of Denmark, was 
 born in 1526. He was distinguished as a soldier, and 
 was the founder of several hospitals and flourishing pub- 
 lic schools. Died in 1586, after a rule of forty-two years. 
 
 Adolphus (or Adolph) I., Count of Holstein, one of 
 the most remarkable men of his time, flourished in the 
 early part of the twelfth century. Little is known re- 
 specting him, except that he was distinguished both as a 
 statesman and a warrior, and contributed greatly to the 
 diffusion of Christianity among thc'Wendi, a neighbour- 
 ing nation of Slavonian origin. Died in 1131. 
 
 Adolphus (Adolph) II., a son of the preceding, 
 succeeded his father while still very young. Though 
 at first unsuccessful in his campaign against Magnus, 
 Duke of Sleswick, and in his war with Henry the Proud, 
 Duke of Saxony, he soon recovered himself, and after- 
 wards eclipsed even the glory of his father. He com- 
 pletely subdued the Wendi, and, by planting colonies in 
 
 the territories which they had occupied, thoroughly Ge.- 
 manized the country. To those colonies the towns o. 
 Lubeck and Eutin owe their origin. He gained several 
 victories over Canute, Prince of the Danes. In 1 164. 
 however, while engaged in the siege of Demmin, in 
 Pomerania, he was, through treachery, suddenly attacked 
 and slain, after an administration of thirty-tl»ree years. 
 
 Adolphus (Adolph) III., Count of Holstein, was a 
 son of Adolphus II., whom he succeeded. Although a 
 valiant soldier, he appears to have been far inferior to 
 his father in justice and wisdom. Having sided with 
 Waldemar, Bishop of Sleswick, in his contest with Can- 
 ute, King of Denmark, in 1200, Adolphus lost nearly all 
 his possessions, and died soon after. 
 
 Adolphus (Adolph) IV., son of the preceding, re- 
 covered Holstein from Waldemar, King of Denmark, 
 whom he defeated in a great battle near Eutin. In 1238 
 he entered a monastery, where he passed the remaining 
 fourteen years of his life as an humble friar. 
 
 Adolphus [Fr. Adolphe, a^dolf] II., Duke of Cleves, 
 was born in 1371. He was almost constantly engaged 
 in wars, chiefly with his brother Gerard, Duke of Mark. 
 He died in 1448, leaving behind him a high reputation 
 for piety and justice, as well as for bravery and enterprise 
 as a soldier. 
 
 Adolphus (Adolph) VIII., Duke of Sleswick, was 
 the son of Gerard, Count of Holstein. His father hav- 
 ing died when he was but three years old, he received 
 his education at the court of the emperor Sigismund. 
 In 1440 Christopher, King of Denmark, conferred Sles- 
 wick upon Adolphus as a fief. When Christopher died, 
 in 1448, the crown of Denmark was offered him, but he 
 declined it. He died in 1459, leaving a high character 
 for wisdom and justice. 
 
 Adolphus, (Frederick,) a king of Sweden, born in 
 1710, was descended from the royal line of Vasa. He was 
 elected to the Swedish throne in 1743. The royal au- 
 thority, however, was at this period almost entirely over- 
 borne by the council of the states ; and, after having been 
 continually thwarted in his wishes by that body, Fred- 
 erick Adolphus at length, in 1769, tendered the resigna- 
 tion of his crown. Upon this the council made some 
 trifling concessions, and he remained a nominal king till 
 his death, in 1771. 
 
 Adolphus (or Adolph) II., (John, or Johann,) Duke 
 of Saxe-Weissenfels, sprung from a collateral branch of 
 the electoral (now royal) line of Saxony, was born in 
 1685. He early distinguished himself by his bravery 
 and military skill. In 1 704 he was made a lieutenant- 
 general in the Hessian service, and in 17 10, Augustus, 
 Elector of Saxony, appointed him one of the generals of 
 his forces then engaged against Charles XII. of Sweden. 
 His two older brothers having died, Adolphus became 
 Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels in 1736. In 1744 he took an 
 active part against Frederick II. of Prussia ; but, ex- 
 hausted by the fatigues and hardships through which 
 he had passed, he soon after retired to his duchy, where 
 he died in 1746. 
 
 Adolphus (Adolph) of Nassau [in Latin, Adol'- 
 thus Nassovifn'sls] was elected, in 1292, successor to 
 Rudolph, Emperor of Germany. Though possessed of 
 considerable military talents, by his falsehood and bru- 
 tality he soon became very unpopular, and in 1298 was 
 deposed by an assembly of the electors. He refused; 
 however, to relinquish his power. But in a battle fought 
 soon after (in 1298) between him and Albert his succes- 
 sor, Adolphus was slain, fighting desperately. 
 
 See J. P. Wagner, "Vita Adolphi Nassoviensis," 1775-80: J. G 
 Leuchs, "Adolph der Nassauer, Kaiser und Kbnig der Deutschen,' 
 1798. 
 
 A-dol'phus, (John,) an English lawyer and historian, 
 born about 1770. He practised in the criminal courts cf 
 London, and had a high reputation as an eloquent ad- 
 vocate. His chief work is a " History of England, from 
 the Accession of George III.," (7 vols., 1805-45,) which 
 displays considerable research and learning. Among 
 his other works we mav name "Biographical Memoirs 
 of the French Revolution," (4 vols., 1799.) He gained 
 great credit by his able defence of Thistlewood, charged 
 with treason, in 1820. Died in 1845. 
 
 Ad'om-nan' or Ad'am-nan', "[Lat. Adomna'nus 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( JJ^*See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
ADONIJAH 
 
 54 
 
 ADRIAN 
 
 or Adamna'nus,] also written Adaman'nus, an abbot 
 of the monastery of Iona, born about 624. According 
 to some writers, he was a native of Ireland ; according to 
 others, of Scotland. He was a contemporary and friend 
 of King Alfred of Northumbria. He is the author of a 
 "Life of St. Columba," a curious work, which throws 
 interesting light upon the political and social condition 
 of that period. 
 
 Ad-o-nx'jah, [Heb. rrjtN,] a son of King David and 
 Haggith, who, near the close of his father's reign, aspired 
 to the succession in opposition to the claims of Solomon. 
 He was afterwards put to death by the order of Solomon, 
 1030 B.C., it is supposed. (See I. Kings i. 5 ; ii. 13.) 
 
 A-do'nis, [Gr. 'Ariuwc,] a son of Cin'yras, King of 
 Cyprus, represented by the poets as a youth of exquisite 
 beauty. He was passionately fond of hunting, and, not- 
 withstanding the anxious admonitions of Venus, by 
 whom he was greatly beloved, he exposed himself daily 
 in the chase, and at last was killed by a boar which he 
 had wounded. ■ From his blood sprang the anemone, a 
 beautiful flower, Venus was inconsolable at his loss; 
 but she obtained at last from Proserpine that Adonis 
 should spend six months of every year with her on earth, 
 and the other six in Hades. Adonis or Adonai {i.e. 
 " Lord") was an Oriental title sometimes given to the 
 sun, as the " lord of day :" the preceding fable, therefore, 
 is supposed to allude to the periodical return of summer 
 and winter. Hence the expressions " Beautiful as Ado- 
 nis" and " Beautiful as day"* (in French, " Beau comme 
 le jour") may be considered as equivalent to each other. 
 
 Adorni, i-doR'nee, (Caterina or Catherina 
 Fieschi— fe-es'kee,) an Italian poetess, born at Genoa 
 in 1447, wrote on religious subjects. Died in 1510. 
 
 See Cattaneo Marbatto, "Vita de Catherina Adorni." 
 
 Adorno, a-doR'no, (in the plural, Adorni, a-doR'nee,) 
 an influential Genoese family, from which, between 1360 
 and 1530, no fewer than six doges of Genoa were chosen. 
 They held, however, a precarious authority, being ever 
 and anon driven from the city according as the opposing 
 faction (the Fregosi) chanced for the moment to prevail. 
 
 Adorno, (Antonio,) a doge of Genoa, elected in 
 1384, is said to have been an enlightened and liberal 
 statesman. Died in 1397. 
 
 Adorno, (Francesco,) an eminent Italian Jesuit, born 
 about 1530, was the author of several theological works. 
 Died in 1586. 
 
 Adorno, (Prosper or Pros'pero,) was elected Doge 
 of Genoa in 1461, but was soon expelled from the city 
 by Paul Fregoso. He was restored to power in 1477, 
 and defeated the Duke of Milan in battle in 1478, soon 
 after which he was driven out by a sedition. Died at 
 Naples in i486. 
 
 See Varese, " Storia della Republica di Genova." 
 
 A-drain', (Robert,) LL.D., a distinguished mathema- 
 tician, born in Ireland in 1775. Having emigrated to 
 America, he became successively professor of mathema- 
 tics and natural philosophy in Rutgers College, New 
 Brunswick, and Columbia College, New York, and sub- 
 sequently professor of mathematics in the University of 
 Pennsylvania. He edited Hutton's Mathematics. Died 
 at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1843. 
 
 A-dras'tu3, [Gr. 'ASpaaror; Ft. Adraste, fdRist',] a 
 king of Argos, contemporary with Theseus. He was 
 the leader of a celebrated expedition against Thebes, the 
 object of which was to restore Polynices to the throne 
 of that state. This expedition, which was called the war 
 of the " Seven against Thebes," was not successful. All 
 of the Seven, except Adrastus, were killed at Thebes. 
 The war of :he Seven against Thebes was a favourite 
 subject of ancient epic and tragic pbets. 
 
 Adrastus, ["ArJpar/roc,] a Greek, who wrote a com- 
 mentary on the works of Aristotle, and a treatise on 
 music, which is extant. Nothing is known of his life ; it 
 is supposed that he lived in the first or second century. 
 
 Adrets, des, d.Vzt'dRi', (Franqois Beaumont — 
 ■jo'it^n',) Baron, usually called simply Des Adrets, 
 
 ' For he was beautiful as day 
 When day was beautiful to me 
 As to young eagles being free." 
 
 Byron's Prisoner 0/ Ckillon. 
 
 a celebrated French nobleman, born in 1513, became a 
 leader of the Huguenots in 1562, out of resentment to 
 the Duke of Guise. He was distinguished for great mili- 
 tary talents, the boldness and celerity of his movements, 
 and for the most atrocious cruelty. In 1567 he joined 
 the Catholic party ; but soon after, incurring their sus- 
 picions, he was thrown into prison. Though released ii. 
 1571, he never regained his influence, but, distrusted and 
 abhorred by all, died in 1587. 
 
 See Gui-Allard, "Vie du Baron Des Adrets," 1675. 
 
 Adria, a'dRe-a, (Giovanni Giacomo,) an eminent 
 Italian physician, born at Mazara, in Sicily, about the 
 beginning of the fifteenth century. The emperor Charles 
 V. made him his own physician, ennobled him, and ap- 
 pointed him proto-medicus of Sicily. Died in 1560. 
 
 Adriaens, a'dRe-ins', (Lucas,) a Flemish painter, 
 who lived in the latter half of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Adriaensen, a'dRe-Sn'sen, (Alexander,) a Flemish 
 painter, born at Antwerp about 1620. He painted flow- 
 ers, fruit, vases, etc., with exquisite skill. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands." 
 
 Adriaensen, (Cornelis,) a popular Catholic preach- 
 er and Franciscan friar, born at Dordrecht (Dort) about 
 1520. The Protestants, to whom he was extremely ob- 
 noxious, charged him with the most scandalous conduct. 
 — whether justly or not cannot now be determined. Died 
 in 1 581. 
 
 See Voet, " Historia von Bruder Cornells, etc.," 1613. 
 
 Adrian, a'dre-an, [Gr. 'Aipiavor ; Lat. Adria'nus,] a 
 Greek writer of the fifth century, who wrote an intro- 
 duction to the Scriptures. 
 
 A'drian [' kSpiavo{\ or Ha'drian of Tyre, a Greek 
 sophist of the second century, studied eloquence at Athens 
 under Herodes Atticus, whom he succeeded in his school. 
 His reputation was so high that he was invited to Rome 
 by Marcus Aurelius. He died at Rome during the reign 
 of Commodus, whom he served as secretary. 
 
 Adrian or Adrianus, (Emperor.) See Hadrian, 
 
 A'drl-an or Ha'drI-an,[Lat. Adria'nus or Hadria'- 
 nus,] a native of Africa, who was made abbot of the 
 monastery of St. Peter, at Canterbury, about 670. Ac- 
 cording to Bede, he was a man of great learning, both 
 theological and secular. 
 
 Adrian [Lat. Adria'nus; It. Adriano, a-dRe-a'no; 
 Fr. Adrien, 4'dRe'aN'] I., son of Theodore, of a dis- 
 tinguished Roman family, was elected pope in 772. 
 When Desiderius, King of the Longobards, had taken 
 several towns belonging to the papal see, and was pro- 
 ceeding to Rome, Adrian threatened him with excom- 
 munication, — the first instance on record of such a threat 
 to a sovereign prince. He was, however, indebted to 
 Charlemagne for protection against the Longobard king. 
 In the reign of this pontiff (a. d. 787) was held at Nicaea, 
 (Nice,) in Bithynia, the seventh oecumenic council, which 
 recognized and restored the worship of images. In 794 
 Charlemagne assembled at Frankfort-on-the-Main a 
 general council of the West, which justified the use of 
 images in churches, but condemned their worship, — a 
 limitation disapproved by the pope, though countenanced 
 by the King of the Franks. Adrian appears to have 
 been an able and liberal prince. During his pontificate 
 Rome enjoyed a degree of peace and prosperity to which 
 she had long been a stranger. He built, or repaired, at 
 his own expense, several public edifices ; he was also 
 very liberal towards the poor. Died in 795. 
 
 See Panvinio, " Vite dei Pontefici." 
 
 Adrian II., a native of Rome, succeeded Nicholas I. 
 in the popedom in 867, and died in 872. 
 
 Adrian HI., a native of Rome, succeeded Marinus 
 as pope in 884, and died in 885. 
 
 Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspere) was born 
 about the end of the eleventh century, near Saint Albans, 
 in England. Having gone to France to seek his fortune, 
 he was made abbot of a monastery near Avignon in 1137. 
 But the canons, displeased with his strict discipline, 
 brought charges against his character, which obliged him 
 to repair to Rome. The pope, Eugenius III., having 
 examined the matter, not only acquitted Nicholas entirely, 
 but was so pleased with him that he kept him about his 
 person, and in 1 146 appointed him Cardinal-Bishop of 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m?t; not; good; moon- 
 
ADRIAN 
 
 55 
 
 jEGISTHUS 
 
 Albano. After the death of Anastasius IV., in 1154, he 
 was raised to the holy see by the name of Adrian IV. 
 He was a man of acknowledged talents, but his exalted 
 views of papal supremacy involved him in serious dif- 
 ferences with the emperor Frederick, (of Suabia,) which, 
 still unsettled at his death, led to an open rupture dur- 
 ing the pontificate of his successor, Alexander III. 
 Adrian IV. died in 1 159. He was the only Englishman 
 ever raised to the papal chair. 
 
 Adrian V., a native of Genoa, was elected to the 
 Roman see in 1276, and died the same year. 
 
 Adrian VI., a native of Utrecht, was raised to the 
 papal see on the death of Leo X., in 1521. He had 
 formerly been preceptor to the emperor Charles V., by 
 whom he was greatly esteemed. He was a sincere and 
 upright man, and saw with profound sorrow the scandal- 
 ous abuses which then prevailed in the Catholic churches. 
 He justly attributed the formidable progress of Protest- 
 antism to the sins of the Catholics, particularly to those 
 of the higher clergy. He undertook and accomplished 
 several important reforms ; which, however, rendered 
 . him extremely unpopular. When he died, (a.d. 1523,) 
 the people ot Rome, especially those about the court, 
 expressed the most indecent joy. 
 
 See Moring, "Life of Adrian VI.," 1536; Caspar Burmann, 
 "Ana Ycm Histories de Hadriano VI.," 1727; L. E. Rosen, "Jets 
 over Paus Adriaau VI.," 1836. 
 
 A'drian de Cas-tello or Adriano di Castello, 
 1-dRe-a'no de kas-tel'lo, a native of Tuscany, who was 
 agent for English affairs at the court of Rome, and was 
 afterwards appointed Bishop of Hereford, whence he 
 was translated to the bishopric of Bath and Wells. He 
 was made cardinal by Pope Alexander VI. Wolsey suc- 
 ceeded him as Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1518. He 
 wrote Latin poems, and " On True Philosophy," (" De 
 Vera Philosophia,") which was frequently printed. Died 
 about 1520. 
 
 A'drl-an, [Russ. pron. a-dre-an',] the last primate or 
 patriarch of Russia, died in 1702, after which the office 
 of patriarch was suppressed by Peter the Great. 
 
 Adrian, a'dRe-dn, (Johann Valentin,) a German 
 litterateur, born at Khngenberg, on the Main, in 1793. 
 He became professor of modern languages at Giessen 
 in 1823. Among his works is one called " Pictures of 
 England," (" Bilder aus England," 2 vols., 1828.) 
 
 Adriani, a-dRe-a'nee, (John Baptist, or Giovanni 
 Battista,) an Italian historian, born at Florence in 1 5 13. 
 He was appointed, in 1549, professor of eloquence in 
 the University of Florence, which office he held till his 
 death in 1579. He wrote a " History of his own Times," 
 ("Istoria de' suoi Tempi," 1583,) which is much es- 
 ' teemed. 
 
 Adriani, (Marcello,) a son of John Baptist Adriani, 
 whom he succeeded as professor of eloquence. Died in 
 1604, aged about 70. 
 
 Adriani, (Marcki.lo Virc.iuo,) the father of John 
 Baptist Adriani. He was born at Florence in 1464, and 
 became professor of belles-lettres ; in 1498 he was 
 made chancellor of the republic. He made a good 
 Latin version of Dioscorides' "De Materia Medica." 
 Died in 1 52 1. 
 
 Adriano, (Pope.) See Adrian. 
 
 Adriano (S-duc-a'no) the Friar, a Spanish histori- 
 cal painter, who was born at Cordova, and died there in 
 1630. Ik was a pupil of Cespedes, and painted a Mag- 
 dalen, which Palomino pronounced equal to Titian in 
 style. 
 
 Adriansen, i-dRe-an'sen, (Alexander,) a Flemish 
 painter of fish, born about 1625. 
 
 Adrichomia, a-dre-ko'me-i, (Cornelia,) a nun of 
 the order of St. Augustine, in the sixteenth century, who 
 versified the Psalms of David, and composed other sa- 
 cred poems. 
 
 Ad-rl «ho'mI-us, (Christianus,) a writer, born at 
 Delft, in Holland, in 1533. Being a Catholic priest, he 
 was driven from his native country on the overthrow of 
 the authority of Spain, and died at Cologne in 1585. 
 He left a work on the geography of the Holy I.and, en- 
 itlcd "Thcatrum Terra: Saiictae," (1593.) He also 
 *rote, under the name of Christianus Cruclus, a "Life 
 of Christ." 
 
 Adrien, the French of Adrian, which see. 
 
 Adry, iiiRe', (Jean F.,) a French writer, born near 
 Auxerre in 1749. He was professor of rhetoric at 
 Troyes, and afterwards received a pension from the gov- 
 ernment. He wrote several biographical works, besides 
 miking various compilations, translations, etc. Died in 
 1818. 
 
 Adryan, 5-drT-an', (Albin,) a Polish poet, born about 
 1490. Died at Cracow about 1540. 
 
 Ad'so, Az'o, or As'so,[Fr. Adson, IM'sAn',] a French 
 monk, born about 910 A.D. He wrote the lives of sev- 
 eral saints. 
 
 Aduarte, a-Doo-aR'ta, almost ad-waR'ti, (Diego,) 
 a Spanish historian, born at Saragossa about 1570. He 
 was a missionary to the Philippine Islands, and in 1632 
 was made Prior' of Manilla, where he died in 1637. He 
 has left a very interesting account of his missionary 
 labours, and of the dangers and sufferings which he and 
 the other Spanish missionaries encountered in conse- 
 quence of their efforts to introduce Christianity into 
 Cambodia; he also wrote a history of the martyrdom of 
 the Christian converts in Japan, and several other works. 
 
 Advenier-Fontenille, ad'veh-ne-i ' foNt'nel' or fo.\ t'- 
 ne'ye, a French captain of engineers, who wrote an opera 
 and other works. Born at Paris in 1773 ; died in 1827. 
 
 Adventius, ad-ven'she-us, a bishop of Metz, who 
 flourished in the latter halfof the ninth century. 
 
 -ffiacides, e-ass'e-dez, [Gr. A(W&?c,] the father of 
 Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, was killed in battle 313 B.C. 
 
 iEacus, ee'a-kus, [Gr. AIukoc ; Fr. Eaque, a'Sk',1 
 (Myth.,) a son of Jupiter and /Egina, reigned in the island 
 of /Egina. He was the father of Telamon and Peleus. 
 He was renowned for justice and piety, and after his 
 death became one of the judges of Hades. 
 
 .ffian tides, e-an'te-dez, [Aiavridijr,] 3. Greek poet, 
 lived at Alexandria about 300 B.C. 
 
 JEdesius, e-dee'shejois, [Gr. Aidtaof,] a New-Plato- 
 nist, native of Cappadocia, lived in the time of Constan- 
 tine the Great. He was a disciple of the celebrated 
 Iamblichus. Some of the most distinguished men of the 
 subsequent age were taught by him ; among others, the 
 emperor Julian. 
 
 JEetes, e-ee'tez, or JEeta, e-ee'ta, [Gr. AH/ttk; Fr. 
 Ei: 1 1-, i'et' or a'4t',] a fabulous king of Colchis, regarded 
 as a son of Helios and Perseis, and the father of Medea 
 and Absyrtus. He was renowned as the possessor of 
 the golden fleece, the object of the Argonautic expedition. 
 
 JEgaeoil, e-jee'on, [Gr. Ai; aim-; Fr. Egeon, 4'zha'oN',] 
 a monster said to have a hundred arms. (See Briareus.) 
 
 .ffigeus, ee'jus, [Gr. Ai'jrfc; Fr. Egee, a'zha',] a king 
 of Athens, was a son or adopted son of Pandi'on, and 
 was the father of Theseus. According to tradition, he 
 drowned himself in the ^Egean Sea. 
 
 .aDgidius-a-Columna. See Colonna, Egidio. 
 
 .ffigidius, e-jid'e-us, (Petrus,) of Antwerp, born 
 in 1490, travelled in Asia and Africa, and wrote a "De- 
 scription of Thrace," etc. Died in 1555. 
 
 iEgid'ius Corbolien'sis, a medical writer, and physi- 
 cian to Philip Augustus, King of France, lived about the 
 end of the twelfth century. He wrote several medical 
 treatises in Latin verse, which show him to have been a 
 man of information and considerable poetical skill. 
 
 iEgid'ius Leodien'sis, or Giles of Liege, a monk 
 and historical writer, lived between 1200 and 1250. 
 
 .iEgidius Romanus. See Colonna, Egidio. 
 
 .Sgidius ok V 1 1 krbo [Lat. /Egid'ius Viterbien'sis] 
 was born near Viterbo in 1470. He was nude cardinal 
 in 1 51 7, and died in 1532. He was regarded as one of 
 the most eminent scholars and the best pulpit-orator of 
 that age. 
 
 JEgimus, cj'I-mus, or ./Egimius, c-jim'e-us, [Aiyi/wc 
 or Alyiuioc,] a Greek physician, who is supposed to have 
 lived before the time of Hippocrates. Ik- is said to have 
 been the first who wrote particularly on the pulse. 
 
 JEgineta. See Paui.us /Eg in eta. 
 
 JEginhard. See Eciniiakd. 
 
 JEgisthus, e-jis'thus, [Gr. A'yiofloc; Fr. Egistiie, &'- 
 /Ih'i',1 in classic mythology was regarded as a son of 
 Thycstes and IVlopea. The latter was a daughter of 
 Tliycstcs. He was adopted as a son by Atreus, and in 
 the absence of Agamemnon seduced Clytemnestra. He 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; <;, 11, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. (JT^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
jEGrPTUS 
 
 56 
 
 AEROPE 
 
 was »n accomplice in the murder of Agamemnon, and 
 was killed by Orestes. 
 
 .Sigyptus, e-jip'tus, [Gr. Aiyraroc; Fr. Egyptus, 
 I'zhep'tiis',] a son of Belus, and a brother of Danaus. 
 He inherited Arabia from his father, and obtained by 
 conquest the country which derived from him the name 
 of Egypt. The poets feigned that he had fifty sons, who 
 were about to marry the fifty daughters of Danaus, but 
 were murdered by them. (See Danaides.) 
 
 Alfred. See Alfred. 
 
 JEiixic or iElfricus. See Alfric. 
 
 JElian, ee'le-an, [Lat. vElianus, e-le-a'nus ; Gr. 
 Ai'Mavos; Fr. Elien, a'le'aN',] (Claudius,) a native of 
 Praeneste in Italy, lived in the early part of the third 
 century. Although an Italian by birth, he ranks among 
 the purest Greek writers. He is the author Of a work 
 entitled " Various History," made up chiefly of extracts 
 from other authors, and of a history of animals, which, 
 though written in a clear and agreeable style, is full of 
 absurd stories. 
 
 .ffilian or iE-11-a'nus Tac'tl-cus, [Ai/mioc TaKTOtoc,] 
 a Greek writer, who flourished about the middle of the 
 second century. He wrote a work on the military tactics 
 of the Greeks, whence his surname " Tacticus." 
 
 .ffilianus Meccius — mek'she-us, a Roman physi- 
 cian, who lwed in the second century. He is mentioned 
 by Galen with high commendation. 
 ' jElius, ee'le-us, (Sextus P.-etus Catus,) an emi- 
 nent Roman jurist, became consul in 536 A.u.c. A 
 portion of the Roman law was named after him the 
 /Elian law. 
 
 .ffilius Donatus. See Donatus. 
 
 iEUus Gallus. See Gallus. 
 
 iElius Marcianus. See Marcianus. 
 
 -23'lius Pro-mo'tus, [Gr. A!/Uoc ITpo^uroc,] a physi- 
 cian of Alexandria, who wrote several medical works in 
 the Greek language. His date is uncertain. Most critics 
 suppose that he lived before the Christian era. 
 
 -ffilnoth, el'noth, a monk, who was born in England 
 in the eleventh century, and removed to Denmark about 
 1085. He wrote a life of Saint Canute the Martyr. 
 
 Aelst or Aalst, van, vin 51st, (Evert), a distin- 
 guished Dutch painter, born at Delft in 1602. He 
 painted principally inanimate objects, as dead game, ves- 
 sels of gold and silver, etc. Died in 1658. 
 
 Aelst, van, (YVillem,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 by whom he was instructed, was born at Delft in 1620. 
 He excelled in the same department of art as his uncle. 
 He also represented fruits and flowers with exquisite 
 skill. Died in 1679. 
 
 JEmilia, e-mil'e-a, (Juliana,) [Ger. pron. yoo-le-a'na 
 a-mee'le-a,] a countess of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, born 
 in 1637. She married Count Albert Anton in 1665, and 
 died in 1706. She was eminent for her benevolence and 
 piety, and wrote a number of religious poems and hymns. 
 
 Shnilia Tertia, e-mil'e-a ter'she-a, a daughter of 
 Paulus ^Emilius, and wife of Scipio Africanus the elder, 
 a Roman matron, distinguished for her prudence and 
 conjugal affection. Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, 
 was her daughter. 
 
 iEmilianus, e-mil-e-a'nus, [Fr. Emilien, a'me'le'- 
 Ln',] a Roman prefect of Egypt, put to death for rebel- 
 lion, by order of the emperor Gallienus. 
 
 .ZEmilianus, (Marcus Julius /Emilius,) a native 
 of Mauritania, born about 208 a.d. He was governor 
 of Pannonia and Mcesia under the emperor Gallus. 
 His soldiers having proclaimed him emperor, Gallus 
 marched against him, but was murdered by his own 
 men, who went over to /Emilianus. The reign of the 
 latter, however, lasted but four months. He, in his 
 turn, was killed by his own soldiers, at Spoletum, in 254 
 A.D. 
 
 .ffimilius, e-mil'e-us, or .ffimiliaiius, e-mil-e-a'nus, 
 a Christian martyr, put to death by Huneric, King of the 
 Vandals, in 484 A.D. 
 
 JErnilius, (Antonius,) a professor of history and a 
 friend of Descartes, was born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1589. 
 He wrote Latin verses. Died in 1660. 
 
 .ffimilius Macer. See Macf.r. 
 
 ./Emuius, (Mamer'cus,) a Roman, who was three 
 times dictator. His first dictatorship was in 437 B.C. 
 
 JEmilius (Paulus or Paullus) X, a Roman consu, 
 and able general, who fell bravely at the battle of Can- 
 nae, 216 B.C. 
 
 ./Emilias (Paulus or Paullus) II. See Paulus. 
 
 iEmilius, (Paulus,) an Italian historian. See Emilio. 
 
 iEneae, i-na'a, (Henricus,) a Dutch mathematician 
 and physicist, born in Friesland in 1743, became a mem- 
 ber of the committee of the marine. He wrote a 
 " Treatise on Hydrostatics," and other works. Died in 
 1810. 
 
 JEneas, e-nee'as, [Gr. klvdax; ; Fr. Enee, a'na',] the 
 hero of Virgil's great poem, (the "/Eneid,") was, accord- 
 ing to tradition, the son of Anchises, a Trojan prince, 
 and the goddess Venus. In the various accounts given 
 of his life it is impossible to distinguish the fabulous 
 from the historical. Some writers relate that he went 
 to Thrace, and died there ; but, according to the more 
 popular tradition, which is followed by Virgil, /Eneas, 
 after the destruction of Troy, came to Italy, married 
 Lavinia the daughter of Latinus, King of Latium, and 
 prepared the foundation of the Roman empire. He had 
 a son, Ascanius or lulus, to whom the Julian family of 
 Rome traced their origin. 
 
 JEneas Gazaeus — ga-zee'us, (so named from Gaza, 
 where he was born,) a Platonic philosopher, who em- 
 braced Christianity in the latter half of the fifth century. 
 He wrote a book called "Theophrastus," in which the 
 Platonic and Christian doctrines are strangely blended. 
 
 .SJneas Sylvius. See Pius II. 
 
 iEaeas Tacticus, [A Tanruco^,] a Greek writer on 
 military tactics, lived, it is supposed, 350 B.C. 
 
 iEiiesidemus, e-neVe-dee'nius, [Gr. A«7/o»i;;/ioc,| a 
 skeptical philosopher, native ofGnossus, (orCnossus,} in 
 Crete, is supposed to have lived in the first century. 
 
 iEuobarbus. See Ahenohakbus. 
 
 JEolus, ee'o-lus, [Gr. AtoAoc; Fr. Eole, a'ol',] in 
 the Greek mythology, the god or ruler of the winds. He 
 is said to have reigned in the ^Eolian Islands, and to 
 have enjoyed the favour of Juno. For a vivid descrip- 
 tion of the country of the winds, and their prison, con- 
 structed of high mountains, whence they could issue 
 only on the permission of ^Eolus, see Virgil's /Eneid, 
 book i. 51-63. 
 
 JEolus, a mythical personage, said to have been a 
 son of Helen, a brother of Dorus, and the father of 
 Cretheus, Athamas, and Sisyphus. He was supposed 
 to be the founder of the ^Eolic branch of the Greek 
 nation. 
 
 JEpinus, e-pl'nus, (Franz Maria Ulric Theo- 
 dor,) a German natural philosopher and eminent elec- 
 trician, born at Rostock in 1724. His proper name was 
 HocH. Having settled in Saint Petersburg in 1757, he 
 became a member of the Academy of Sciences of that city, 
 and professor of physics. He possessed great sagacity 
 as an experimenter, discovered the electric properties 
 of tourmaline, and is justly regarded, says Biot, as the 
 inventor of the electrical condenser and electrophonts. 
 His principal work is an attempt to establish a new 
 theory of electricity, etc., entitled " Tentamen Theoriae 
 Electricitatis et Magnetismi," (1759.) In this he en- 
 deavoured to subject the phenomena of electricity to 
 mathematical analysis. He contributed many memoirs 
 to the academy above named. Died at Dorpat in 1S02. 
 
 See " Memoires de l'Acad^mie de Berlin," 1756. 
 
 .Hj-pi'iius, (John,) [in German, Huch or Hoeck,] an 
 eminent Protestant divine, born at Brandenburg in 1499, 
 was a disciple of Luther. He became minister of a 
 church in Hamburg in 1529, and was the most influen- 
 tial theologian in the North of Germany. In 1538 he 
 signed the Articles of Schmalkalden. He wrote several 
 polemical works. Died in 1553. 
 
 See Arnold Grevius, " Memoria ^Epini," 1736. 
 
 A-e'ri-us, [Gr. 'At'ptoft] a native of Pontus, who lived 
 in the fourth century. He was the founder of a heretical 
 sect called Aerians. He opposed offering prayers for 
 the dead, the keeping of Easter, and some other prevail- 
 ing customs of the church. 
 
 Aerope, a-Sr'o-pe, [Gr. 'Aepoin;; Fr. Eropf, a'rop', 
 or Aerope, i'&'rop',] a daughter of Crateus, King of 
 Crete, was married to Plisthenes, and afterwards to 
 
 i,e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m4t; nflt; good; moon; 
 
AERSCHOT 
 
 57 
 
 JE SOP US 
 
 Atreus. She was the mother of Agamemnon and Mene- 
 laus. 
 
 Aerschot, Duke of. See Aarschot. 
 
 Aersens. See Aarsens. 
 
 Aertsen, aRt'sen, (Peter,) surnamed Lungo, 
 (" long,") an eminent historical painter, born at Am- 
 sterdam in 1 519 ; died in 1573. 
 
 Aertsz, SRts, (Richard,) a Dutch historical painter, 
 born at Wyck, in North Holland, in 1482, worked at 
 Antwerp, and died in 1577. 
 
 JEschines, es'ke-nez, [Gr. Aloxivt/c; Fr. Eschine, eV- 
 shen',] a celebrated orator, and rival of Demosthenes, 
 born at Athens about 389 B.C. He first became distin- 
 guished as a soldier in the battle of Mantinea, (362 B.C.,) 
 and won the approbation of his general, Phocion, in 
 that of Tamynse, (350 B.C.) He began his political ca- 
 reer as a violent opposer of Philip of Macedon ; but, after 
 his embassy to the Macedonian court, a change took 
 place, and he afterwards opposed a war with the king 
 as zealously as he had urged it before. This was either 
 the cause or the pretext of a quarrel between him and 
 Demosthenes, who charged jEschines with preferring 
 Macedonian gold to the interests of his country. The 
 contest which followed between the rival orators is one 
 of the most remarkable in history, and it gave birth to 
 perhaps the finest specimens of rhetorical genius and 
 skill that are to be found in the literature of any nation. 
 At length Demosthenes triumphed : Alschines went 
 into exile, (330 B.C.,) and afterwards opened a school of 
 rhetoric at Rhodes, where he taught with great applause. 
 Died 314 B.C. 
 
 See Lidanius, "Vita ^Eschinis ;" Norberg, " Programmata ii. 
 de JEschine Oratore," 1792 ; Stechow, " De -^Eschinis Oratoris Vita," 
 1S41 ; Grote, " History of Greece," vol. xii. chap. xcv. ; Hieron. 
 Wolf, " Vita Demosthenis et jEschinis," 1572; W. F. Palmblad, 
 "/Escliines Atheniensium ad Philippuin Regem Legatus," 1836; 
 article ".'Eschines," by Passow, in Ersch und Gruber's "Allge- 
 meine Encyklopaedie ;" Plutarch, "Demosthenes," also " Vitse 
 Decern Oratorum." 
 
 Eschines surnamed Socrat'icus, a disciple of 
 Socrates, by whom he was highly esteemed. He lived 
 about 360 B.C. 
 
 .Slschrion, eVkre-on, [Gr. Aloxpiuv,] a physician, 
 native of Pergamus, and preceptor of Galen. He lived 
 in the early part of the second century. 
 
 .(Eschylus, fe'ke-lus, [Gr. Mcxva<k ; Fr. Eschyle, 
 Ss'shel',] the first of the three great tragic poets of Greece, 
 was born at Eleusis, in Attica, 525 B. c He distin- 
 guished himself at the battle of Marathon, 490 B.C., and 
 ever after regarded this as the most glorious event of 
 his life. He gained his first prize in tragedy 484 B.C. 
 Having in 468 B.C. been defeated by Sophocles in the 
 first trial of this young poet, he left his native country 
 and went to Syracuse, in Sicily, where he was held in 
 great regard by King Hiero. He afterwards returned to 
 Athens. The manner of his death, which took place 
 456 B.C., was extraordinary. An eagle soaring above 
 him dropped a tortoise on the bald head of the poet, and 
 killed him. Aeschylus is said to have written seventy 
 tragedies, besides a number of satiric dramas, and to 
 have gained thirteen prizes. Seven of his tragedies are 
 extant, viz., "Prometheus Bound;" "The Seven against 
 Thebes ;" "The Persians ;" "The Female Suppliants ;" 
 "Agamemnon ;" "Choephorae;" and "Eumenides." 
 
 According to Macaulay, Aeschylus was a great lyric 
 poet, rather than a great dramatist. "Considered as 
 plays," he remarks, " his works are absurd ; considered 
 as choruses, they are above all praise. . . . But if we 
 forget the characters and think only of the poetry, we 
 shall admit that it has never been surpassed in energy 
 and magnificence." (See article on Milton in the "Edin- 
 burgh Review," 1825.) 
 
 Speaking of the spirit of Aeschylus' poetry, another 
 critic remarks, " If ever there was a rSoet filled with a 
 deep sense of the sacred nature of his calling as the 
 teacher of religion, and of all virtue as therewith con- 
 nected, Aeschylus was he. And this it is which — to all 
 such as have studied him earnestly — gives a character to 
 his poetry nothing less than awful." (Sec article en- 
 titled "Modern Criticism on yEschylus," in the "Quar- 
 terly Review" of October, 1839.) 
 
 See Petersen, " De vEschyli Vita et Fabulis," 1814; Ahrens, 
 
 sur Eschyle," 1847 ; K. O. Muller, " History of the Literature of 
 Ancient Greece;" Edward R. Lance, " Programma de ^Eschylo 
 Poeta," 1832. 
 
 JEsculapius, Ss-ku-la'pe-us, [Gr. 'KoKknmoq, (As- 
 klepios); Fr. Esculape, es'kii'lip',] (Myth.,) the god of 
 medicine, supposed to have been the son of Apollo and 
 Coronis. He is said to have raised men from the dead, 
 so that Jupiter, fearing lest the realms of Pluto should 
 become depopulated, struck him with thunder. After 
 his death he was translated to heaven. He is usually 
 represented as a venerable old man with a flowing beard 
 Hygieia [i.e. " Health")' is said to have been a daughter 
 of Aesculapius. 
 
 ^Elsir, a'sir, [Icelandic pron. I'sir,] sometimes incor- 
 rectly written Asir, Asar, or Aser, [the Norse plural 
 of As, as, or Asa, a'sa, a word of doubtful etymology, 
 but not improbably related to the Sanscrit as, to " be," 
 and applied to the gods as " beings" far excellence. 
 jT^^The German plural of As is Asen, a'zen ; the Eng- 
 lish plural Asas or Ases is sometimes used,] the name 
 of the principal or ruling gods in the Norse mythology. 
 They may be said to be the representatives of life, order, 
 and progress, in contrast to the Jotuns, who typify, under 
 various forms, confusion, desolation, and death. (See 
 Jotuns, and Vanir.) Among the Aisir are generally 
 reckoned twelve gods, viz., Odin, Thor, Balder, Niord, 
 (or Njbrd,) Frey, (or Freyr,) Tyr, Bragi, Heimdall.Vidar, 
 Vali, Ullur, and Forseti ; and the same number of god- 
 desses, Frigga, Freyia,(called also Van'adis,) Iduna, Eira, 
 Saga, Fulla, Sibfn, (or Siona,) Lofn, (or Lovna,) Vara, (or 
 V6r,) Hlin, Gefione, and Syn, (or Synia.) 
 
 The dwelling-place of the Alsir is called Asgard, (i.e. 
 the " Asa court, ward, or garden.") It is represented as 
 a vast fortress, sufficiently capacious to contain the man- 
 sions of all the gods and goddesses, as well as the field 
 or plain of Ida, the assembling-place of the gods. It is 
 Heimdall's special office to keep watch that the giants 
 (Jotuns) do not approach Asgard unperceived. Odin also 
 is said to have a lofty throne in Asgard, whence his eye 
 surveys all the regions of the world. (See Odin.) 
 
 For a more particular account of the j£sir, see separate articles in 
 this work ; also, Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i., Mallet's 
 " Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., and Petersen's " Nordisk My- 
 thologi." 
 
 JEson, ee'son, [Gr. AXauv; Fr. EsON, i'zdN',] (Myth.,) 
 a son 6f Cretheus, king of Iolchos in Thessaly, and the 
 father of Jason. He was deprived of the kingdom by 
 his half-brother Pelias. 
 
 -33sop, ee'sop, [Gr. AlauTrog ; Lat. Aiso'pus; Fr. 
 Esope, a'zop',] the celebrated fabulist, was born about 
 619, died 564 B.C. He is supposed to have been a 
 Phrygian. He was the slave of Iadmon the Sainian, 
 who set him free as a reward for his wit and pleasantry. 
 The Athenians erected a statue in honour of him. The 
 fables of Aisop are among the very earliest compositions 
 of this kind, and probably have never been surpassed 
 for point and brevity, as well as for the practical good 
 sense which they display. It should, however, be re- 
 membered that in most of the popular collections of 
 fables which go under Aisop's name a large proportion 
 are spurious, and perhaps all have been more or less 
 modified by the translator or compiler. Phaedrus says, 
 "jEsopo ingentem statuam posuere Attici, 
 Servumque collocarunt aeterna in bad 
 Patere honoris scirent ut cunctis viam."* 
 
 See Suidas, 'VEsopus;" Bachet de M£ziriac, "Vie d'Esope," 
 1632; Manoel Mendes, "Vida y Fabulas de Esopo," 1603; Beni- 
 ley, "Disserlatin in >Esopi Fabulas;" A Westek.mann, "Vita 
 .-Esopi." 1845; ".^Esopi Leben und auserlesene Fabein," Nuremberg, 
 1747; M. Pi.anudes, "Vita yEsopi," 1505; Clinton, "Fasti Hel- 
 lenici," vol. i. 
 
 JEsopus, e-so'pus, (Clodius,) the most eminent 
 tragic actor of Rome, was a friend of Cicero, who speaks 
 of him as an old man in 55 B.C. At this date he made 
 his last appearance on the stage. He was grave, digni- 
 fied, and impassioned, but less versatile and graceful 
 than Roscius, his contemporary. He is styled gravis 
 Aisopus by Horace. 
 
 * " The Athenians erected a great statue to ^Esop, and placed (him 
 who was) a slave on an eternal pedestal, that [men] might know that 
 the road to glory was open to all." 
 
 € as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
jETHELRED 
 
 & 
 
 JFZELIUS 
 
 .ffithelred. See Ethelred. 
 
 .ZEtherius, e-Mee're-us, [Ai'ffcpioc,] a Greek architect, 
 who flourished about 500 A.D., and built an edifice, called 
 "Calchis," at Constantinople. 
 
 iEthicus or Ethicus, eth'e-kus, the supposed au- 
 thor of an ancient " Cosmography" of uncertain date, 
 written in barbarous Latin, consisting of three treatises 
 on Geography, one of which is by some ascribed to Ju- 
 lius Honorius, and another is found in Orosius, forming 
 the second chapter of his history. In some MSS. he is 
 surnamed Jsier, a native of Istna. 
 
 iEthra, ee'thra, [Gr. AiOpa; Fr. Ethra, a'tRt',] 
 (Myth.,) a daughter of Pittheus, was a wife of /Egeus, 
 and the mother of Theseus. She was taken as a cap- 
 tive to Sparta by Castor and Pollux, and became a ser- 
 vant of Helen. 
 
 Aetion, a-ee'te-on, ['Aeriov,] an eminent Greek 
 painter of antiquity, who is supposed to have lived in 
 the early part of the second century. His most cele- 
 brated work was a paintingof the marriage of Alexander 
 the Great and Roxana, which, it is said, exhibited the 
 most exquisite skill. 
 
 Aetius, a-ee'she-us, sometimes improperly written 
 .ffitius, a Roman general, born near the end of the 
 fourth century. For many years he successfully de- 
 fended Gaul against the encroachments of the barba- 
 rians. In 451, when Attila the Hun had besieged and 
 was on the point of taking Orleans, the approach of the 
 combined armies of Aetius and Theodoric obliged him 
 to raise the siege ; and, these generals having followed 
 the Huns in their retreat to the plains of Chalons, a 
 great but indecisive battle was fought, in which 300,000 
 men are said to have been slain. Soon after, Attila 
 retreated beyond the Rhine, But the emperor Valen- 
 tinian, having become jealous of the fame and influence 
 of Aetius, slew him with his own hand in 454. The 
 emperor, it is said, asked a Roman if he had done well 
 in killing Aetius. He replied, " I do not know ; but 
 I think you have cut off your right hand with your left." 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Jor- 
 KANDes, " De Rebus Geticis." 
 
 Aetius, a-ee'she-us, written also, but incorrectly, 
 .33 tins, ['Aetioc,] a Greek physician, who is supposed to 
 have lived at Amida about the end of the fifth century. 
 He wrote a work on medicine, divided into sixteen 
 books, which is extant, and possesses great merit. 
 
 Aetius surnamed the Atheist, a heresiarchof the 
 fourth century, who favoured the doctrine of the Arians, 
 and taught fatalism. He wrote a work in defence of 
 his doctrines, and had a number of followers, called 
 Aetians. 
 
 Aettenkover or Attenkover, et'ten-ko'ver, (Jo- 
 seph Anton,) a German historian, wrote a " History of 
 the Dukes of Bavaria." Died at Munich in 1775. 
 
 Afer, a'fer, (Domitius,) a distinguished Roman orator, 
 who flourished in the reigns of the emperors Tiberius 
 and Caligula. He was born at Nimes, (Nemausus,) in 
 Gaul, 15 B.C., and died 60 a.d. He was the preceptor 
 of Quintilian, (by whom his oratory was highly extolled,) 
 and was made consul by Caligula. 
 
 Afesa, a-fa'si, (Pietro,) an eminent Italian painter, 
 who flourished about the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 turv. He was born in Basilicata, a province of Naples. 
 
 Aflaitati, af-fi-ta'tee, (Fortunio,) an Italian of the 
 sixteenth century, who wrote a work on astronomy and 
 natural philosophy, (1549.) He was drowned in the 
 Thames, England, about 1550. 
 
 Affelman, af'fel-man, (Johann,) a German theolo- 
 gian, barn at Soest in 1588, was professor at Rostock, 
 where he died in 1624. 
 
 Affichard, 1', lft'fe'shtR', (Thomas,) a French dram- 
 atist and romance-writer, born in 1698; died in 1753. 
 
 Afiiitto, af-flet'to, (Giovanni Maria,) a Neapolitan 
 monk, who wrote a "Treatise on Fortifications." Died 
 in 1673. 
 
 Afiiitto, d', daf-flet'to, (Eustachio,) an Italian Do- 
 minican, wrote " Memoirs of the Writers of the King- 
 dom of Naples," (" Memorie degli Scrittori del Regno di 
 Napoli,") 2 vols., 1792, (unfinished.) Died in 1790. 
 
 Afiiitto, d', (Matteo,) [in Latin, Matth/E'us de 
 Afflic'tis,] an eminent Italian lawyer, was born in 
 
 Naples in 1448. He became professor of civil and canon 
 law in the University of Naples in 1469. He wrote a 
 number of works, all on the subject of law. Died in 1524. 
 
 Affo, af'fo, (Ireneo,) an Italian historian, philologist, 
 and antiquary, born at Busseto, in the duchy of Parma, 
 in 1 74 1 ; died about 1800. His works are very numer- 
 ous : they relate chiefly to the antiquities and history, 
 both literary and political, of his native country, Parma. 
 He is regarded as one of the most eminent Italian critics 
 and philologists that the last century produced. 
 
 Affonso. See Alfonso. 
 
 Affre, ffR, (Denis Auguste,) Archbishop of Paris, 
 born at Saint-Rome-de-Tarn in 1793. He was appointed 
 canon titular and vicar-general at Paris in 1834. Hav- 
 ing become Archbishop of Paris in 1840, he distinguished 
 himself by his virtues. During the insurrection of June, 
 1848, he made a noble effort to arrest the carnage. The 
 troops having at his request suspended their fire, he ad- 
 vanced towards the insurgents, preceded by M. Albert, 
 who wore the dress of a workman and carried a green 
 branch. He began to address the insurgents, who, 
 hearing the report of a gun, and suspecting treachery, 
 opened afire on the Garde Mobile, and he was mortally 
 wounded. He left, besides several religious works, an 
 "Essay on the Egyptian Hieroglyphics," (1834.) 
 
 See Abbe Cruice, "Vie de Denis Auguste Afire," 1S49; Denis 
 E. Affre, " Biographie de D. A. Afire," 1848 ; E. Gourdon, *' Bio- 
 graphie authentique de PArcheveque de Paris, D. A. Afire," 1848. 
 
 Affrikan, af-fre-kan', (a corruption of Africanus,) the 
 name by which Chaucer designates Scipio Africanus 
 the elder. (See the " Assembly of Foules.") 
 
 Afiry, f'fRe', (Louis,) of a Swiss family, was born at 
 Versailles in 1713. In 1755 he was sent as French min- 
 ister to the Hague. He afterwards became colonel of 
 the Swiss guards under Louis XVI. In 1792 he was 
 imprisoned by the revolutionists ; on being released, he 
 retired to Switzerland. Died in 1798. 
 
 Affry, (Louis Auguste Philippe,) Count, a son of 
 the preceding, was born at Frihurg in 1 743. He was a 
 lieutenant-general in the French army; but after the mas- 
 sacre of 1792, in which he lost a brother, he retired to 
 Friburg. He afterwards became Landamann or chief 
 of the Helvetic Confederacy, as established in 1803. 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 Afhacker, afhak'er, (Giles,) a Dutch theologian, 
 born at Vreeswyk, lived about 1600. 
 
 A-fra'nl-us, (Lucius,) a Roman comic poet and 
 orator, who flourished about 100 B.C. Scarcely anything 
 of his writings has been preserved. 
 
 A-fra'nl-us or Afra'nius Ne'pos, (Lucius,) an ad- 
 herent of Cneius Pompey, was killed in Africa by the 
 soldiers of Ca:sar, 46 B.C. 
 
 Afrasiab, a-fra-se-Sb', a semi-fabulous king of ancient 
 Persia, who, though born in Tartary, (Turin,) claimed to 
 be a direct descendant of the famous Fereedoon, (Feri- 
 dun.) He is said, with an army of Tartars, to have in- 
 vaded Persia, which he conquered after an obstinate 
 resistance and for many years ruled with a rod of iron. 
 The people, exasperated by his tyranny, rose in rebel- 
 lion, and, headed by Zal, (the father of Rd"6stum,) drove 
 out Afrasiab and restored the lawful line of Persian 
 kings to the throne. Afrasiab is supposed to have lived 
 about 1000 years before the Christian era. 
 
 Africanus. See Scipio Africanus. 
 
 Africanus, Leo. See Leo, (John.) 
 
 Af-rl-ca'nus, (Sextus C/ecii.ius,) a Roman jurist, 
 who is supposed to have lived in the second century. 
 
 Africanus, (Skxtus Julius,) [Fr. Sexte Jules 
 Africain, s£xt zhiil t'fue'kaN',] a Christian writer, who 
 lived in the early part of the third century. He was a 
 man of extensive learning, and wrote a history of the 
 world from the creation to the year 221 A.D. He fixes 
 the date of the .creation 5499 years B.C., and the birth 
 of Christ three years earlier than the ordinary computa- 
 tion. The era thus fixed is known as the historical era, 
 or that of the Alexandrian historians. He is supposed 
 to have died in 232 A.D. 
 
 Af-ze'If-us, [Sw. pron. af-tsTT'le-us,] (Adam,) a Swed- 
 ish botanist, born in 1750. He was a pupil of Linnaeus, 
 Having visited England in 1789, he was appointed 
 botanist to the Sierra Leone Company. In 1792 he left 
 
 J, e, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mft; not; gdtid; rocSon; 
 
AFZELIUS 
 
 59 
 
 AGASSIZ 
 
 London for Africa, and returned in 1794 with collections 
 of plants from the regions which he visited. In 1812 he 
 became professor of dietetics and materia medica in the 
 University of Upsal, an oftice which he held till his death 
 in 1836. Most of the writings of Afzelius are in the form 
 of papers contributed to ditferent scientific periodicals, 
 
 Afzelius, (Arvid August,) a Swedish historical 
 writer, born in 1785. Among his works is "Legendary 
 Hi tory <>( the Swedish People," ("Svenska Folkets 
 Sagohafder," 1839-43.) Died in 1871. 
 
 Afzelius, (Jon an,) a Swedish chemist, born in 1753, 
 was a brother of Adam, noticed above. He. became pro- 
 ic ■-■ >i of chemistry at Upsal. Died in 1837.' 
 
 Ag'a-bus, a Christian prophet in the time of the 
 apostles. (See Acta xi. 28, and xxi. 10.) 
 
 Ag-a-me'deS ['Aya/ir/Aric] and Trophonius, two 
 ancient architects of Greece, who are supposed to have 
 lived in the time of Homer. See Trophonius. 
 
 Ag-a-mem'non, ['Ayaue/ivuv,] the son of Atreus, King 
 of Mycenae, and brother of Menelaus, was appointed 
 generalissimo of the Greek forces during the Trojan 
 war. On his return to his native country, Argolis, after 
 the destruction of Troy, he was murdered by his wife 
 Clytemnestra and her paramour yEgisthus, who had 
 possessed the kingdom in his absence. He was the 
 father of Orestes, Electra, and Iphigeni'a. He and his 
 brother Menelaus were often called Atri'D/E. 
 
 See Homer's "Iliad;" yEscuvLUS, "Agamemnon." 
 
 Aga- (or Agha-) Mohammed, i'ga mo-ham'med, 
 the founder of the present dynasty of Persia, was born 
 in 1734. He was an artful as well as a warlike prince. 
 Commencing his career about 1780, he overran in a few 
 years a large part of Persia, also Georgia and Khoras- 
 san. He was assassinated in 1797. 
 
 Aganduru, a-gin-doo'roo, or Aganduro, J-gSn- 
 doo'ro, (Kodrigo Mauricio,) a Spanish missionary, 
 who laboured in Japan about 1640. He wrote a "His- 
 tory of the Moluccas and Philippine Islands." 
 
 Ag-a-pe'tus, [Gr. 'Kyaxrrk / Fr. Agapet, t'gi'pi',1 
 a deacon of the principal church of Constantinople, lived 
 in the sixth century. He is the author of a work ad- 
 dressed to the emperor Justinian in 527, containing 
 many excellent precepts, religious, moral, and political. 
 
 Agapetus I, an archdeacon of Rome, who was ele- 
 vated to the Roman see in 535. Died at Constanti- 
 nople in 536. 
 
 Agapetus II. was raised to the Roman see in 946. 
 He is supposed to have died about 955. 
 
 Agar. See Hagar. 
 
 Agar, t'gSr', or d'Agar, di'glR', (Jacques,) a native 
 of Paris, born in 1640. He became court painter and 
 chamberlain to Christian V., King of Denmark, and died 
 at Copenhagen in 1716. 
 
 Agar, S'giR', (Jean Antoine Michel,) Count of 
 Mosbourg, a French administrator, born near Cahors in 
 1771. He was chosen a member of the legislative body 
 in 1804, and became minister of finances to Murat, Duke 
 of Berg, in 1806. Murat having ascended the throne of 
 Naples, Agar administered the finances of that kingdom 
 with success from 1809 to 1815. He was elected to the 
 French Chamber of Deputies in 1830, and became a 
 peer of France in 1837. Died in 1844. 
 
 Agar, a-gaR', (Pkdro,) a Spanish officer, born in 
 America, was one of the three members of the regency 
 chosen in 1808 by the Cortes after the abdication of 
 Charles IV. His conduct was prudent and moderate. 
 He was banished by the absolutists in 1814. On the 
 revolution of 1820 he became president of the Junta of 
 Galicia. He resigned in July of that year. Died about 
 1840. 
 
 Agarde or Agard, a-gard', (Arthur,) an eminent 
 English archivist and antiquary, born at Foston about 
 1540, became one of the deputy chamberlains in the 
 Exchequer in 1570. He contributed several treatises to 
 the Society of Antiquaries, which were published by 
 Hearne. Died in 1615. 
 
 See Hfarne, "Curious Discourses." 
 
 Agardh, a'gaKd, (Karl Arx>i.PH,)a Swedish natural- 
 ist, was born at Bastad, or Bostad, in Scania, in 1785. 
 He became professor of botany and rural economy at 
 Lund about 181 2, and was ordained a priest in 1816. 
 
 Besides several works on theology and economy, he 
 published many remarkable treatises on botany, among 
 which we notice "Species of Sea-weeds," ("Species Al- 
 gal urn," 1820-28,) "Systematic Arrangement of Sea- 
 weeds," (" Systems Algarum," 1824,) and a " Manual of 
 Botany," (2 vols., 1830-31.) He was appointed Bishop 
 of Karlstad in 1834. Died in October, 1862. 
 See " Biographiskt Lexicon bfvernamnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 A-ga'sI-as, [Gr. 'Ayaoroc,] a sculptor of Ephesus, who 
 is supposed to have lived about 400 B.C. He was the 
 author of a statue called the Fighting Gladiator, a fine 
 specimen of ancient art, discovered at Antium (where 
 the Apollo Belvidere was also found) in the beginning 
 of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Agassiz, t'gi'see' or a-gas'slz, (Louis,) a Swiss natur- 
 alist of great eminence, was born in the parish of Mot- 
 tier, near the lake of Neufch atel, in 1807. His father was 
 a Protestant divine. Young Agassiz studied the medical 
 sciences at Zurich, Heidelberg, and Munich, where he 
 graduated about 1830. In 1827 he was selected by Martius 
 to describe the species of fishes which Spix had brought 
 from Brazil, and on which he produced an able work in 
 Latin, (1829-31.) He had previously, during the college 
 vacations, visited many parts of Europe to study the fossil 
 and fresh-water fishes. In 1832 or '33 he was appointed 
 professor of natural history or zoology at Neufchatel. 
 He published a "Natural History of the Fresh-Water 
 Fishes of Central Europe," (1839,) and "Researches on 
 Fossil Fishes,V (14 livraisons, or 5 vols., with 311 plates, 
 1832-42,) a work of high order, in which he made im- 
 portant changes in classification. 
 
 The Transactions of the British Association, the " An- 
 nates des Sciences Naturelles," and other journals, con- 
 tain many contributions from Agassiz on fossil fishes and 
 on geology. He propounded some new and remarkable 
 ideas on geology and the agency of glaciers, in his capital 
 work entitled "Etudes sur les Glaciers," (1840,) and in 
 his "Systeme Glaciere," (1847.) 
 
 In 1846 he visited the United States on a scientific 
 mission, and about the end of 1847 was induced to ac- 
 cept the professorship of zoology and geology at Har- 
 vard University, Cambridge. About 1854 he declined 
 the offer of a chair of natural history in the University 
 of Edinburgh. He has delivered several courses of lec- 
 tures in Boston, and has given a decided impulse to the 
 study of his favourite sciences in the New World. M. 
 Agassiz favours the theory that the human race is not 
 descended from a single pair, and discredits that of or- 
 ganic development, or metamorphosis, which was main- 
 tained by Lamarck and others. In 1865 he went to 
 Brazil with a corps of assistants, and explored the Lower 
 Amazon and its tributaries with reference to natural his- 
 tory, geology, etc. It i§ stated that he discovered more 
 than 1800 new species of fishes in that region. 
 
 Among his other works are a " Monography of Living 
 and Fossil Echinodermata,"( 1838-42,) "Outlines of Com- 
 parative Physiology," (1848,) "Principles of Zoology," 
 in conjunction with Dr. A. A. Gould, (2d edition, 1S51,) 
 "Contributions to the Natural History of the United 
 States," to be completed in ten volumes, quarto, of 
 which the first two were published in 1857 ; and a " Jour- 
 ney in Brazil," (1868.) Mr. Agassiz became in 1868 a 
 non-resident professor at the Cornell University at Ith- 
 aca, New York. 
 
 "In the operation of his [Agassiz's] mind," says cne 
 of the ablest of American critics, "there is no predomi- 
 nance of any single power, but the intellectual action of 
 what we feel to be a powerful nature. When he ob- 
 serves, his whole mind enters into the act of observation ; 
 just as, when he reasons, his whole mind enters into the 
 act of reasoning. . . . He is not merely a scientific 
 thinker ; he is a scientific force ; and no small portion of 
 the immense influence he exerts is due to the energy, 
 intensity, and geniality which distinguish the nature of 
 the man. In personal intercourse he inspires as well as 
 informs, communicates not only knowledge, but the love 
 of knowledge. . . . He is at once one of the most domi- 
 nating and one of the most sympathetic of men, having 
 the qualities of leader and companion combined in singu- 
 lar harmony." (See Whipple's "Character and Charac- 
 teristic Men," Boston, 1866.) 
 
 « as k : 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (!J3^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AGATHA 
 
 60 
 
 AGES1LAUS 
 
 Ag'a-tha, Saint, [Fr. Sainte-Agathe, si.N'ti'gtt',] 
 a virgin martyr of Sicily in the middle of the third cen- 
 tury. She was put to death by Quintianus, Proconsul 
 of Sicily, in 251. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, "Sacred and Legendary Art;" Tillemont, 
 "Memoires ecc.es antiques," etc. 
 
 Ag-a-than'ge-lu3, an Armenian histotian, lived about 
 320 A.D., and was secretary to King Tiridates. 
 
 Ag-a-thar/ehi-des ['Ajatop^A/c] or Ag-a-thar'- 
 •ehus, a Greek writer and grammarian, born at Cnidos, 
 lived about 130 B.C. He was guardian to the young 
 king of Egypt, probably Ptolemy Soter II., who became 
 king 117 B.C. 
 
 Ag-a-thar'-chus, [Gr. A.yudapxoc; Fr. Agatharque, 
 S'gi'tSRk',] a Greek painter, who lived about 480 B.C., 
 is considered as the first artist who applied the laws of 
 perspective in painting. Vitruvius says that he made a 
 scene for /Eschylus at Athens. From the context it is 
 inferred that a painted perspective scene is signified. 
 
 Agatharchus, a Greek painter, born at Samos, lived 
 about 420 B.C. He was patronized by Alcibiades, who 
 once confined him in his house until he had painted cer- 
 . tain pictures which he had ordered. Plutarch states 
 that he boasted of his facility and rapidity in the pres- 
 ence of Zeuxis, who reproved him by a simple remark 
 that he (Zeuxis) painted slowly. 
 Agatharque. See Agatharchus. 
 Agathe. See Agatha. . 
 
 Ag-a-them'e-rus, [Gr.'Aya0%ifpoc; Fr. Agathemere, 
 S'gi'ti'inaiR',] the author of a small work on geography 
 in Greek, is supposed to have lived about 200 a.d. 
 
 A-ga'ttu-as, ['Aja&'ac,] surnamed Asianus, a-she-a'- 
 nus, a Greek historian and poet, born at Myrina, in Asia 
 Minor, in the early part of the sixth century. He studied 
 at Alexandria, and afterwards settled at Constantinople, 
 where he died about 580. He commenced a history of 
 his own time, but left it unfinished. His history and 
 some of his epigrams are extant ; his other poems are 
 lost. 
 
 Ag-a-thi'nus, ['A;atoof,] an eminent Greek physician, 
 born at Sparta, lived in the latter half of the first cen- 
 tury. He was a pupil of Athenaeus, from whose doc- 
 trines, however, he dissented in many points, and founded 
 a school or sect of his own. 
 Agatho. See Agathon. 
 Agathocle. See Agathoci.es. 
 A-gath-o-cle'a, [Gr. 'Ayadi/KAeia; Fr. Agathoclee, 
 S'gt'to'kla',] a mistress of Ptolemy Philopator, who, with 
 her brother Agathocles, obtained an absolute ascend- 
 ency over that king. After his death, which for a time 
 was kept secret, Agathocles ruled in the name of the 
 young prince ; but his tyranny became so intolerable that 
 the people rose in revolt, and killed him, his sister, and 
 also his mother (Enanthe, who had been the first, if not 
 the principal, instigator of his crimes. 
 
 A-gath'o-cles, [Gr. 'Aya0o/fA;)c ; Fr. Agathocle, 
 f'gi'tok'l',] a tyrant of Syracuse, who reigned from 317 
 to 2S9' B.C. Born at Thermi, in Sicily, he learned the 
 trade of a potter. Being distinguished, however, for 
 bodily strength and beauty, he was raised to the military 
 rank of chiliarch. He afterwards married a rich widow, 
 and became in consequence one of the wealthiest of the 
 Syracusans. As an officer he was not only brave and 
 fertile in resources, but he was distinguished for readi- 
 ness and boldness as an orator. In 317 B.C. he caused 
 all the men of note opposed to him in Syracuse to be 
 massacred, and became tyrant of the city. The subse- 
 quent career of Agathocles is marked with a variety of 
 fortune, in which the boldness, cruelty, and treachery of 
 his character are conspicuous. His death, as related by 
 Diodorus Siculus, is remarkable. His grandson Archag- 
 athus, aspiring to the succession, corrupted a favourite 
 of his grandfather, named Ma;non, who gave him a pois- 
 oned toothpick, by which his mouth became incurably 
 gangrened. Being speechless, he was placed on a funeral 
 pile and burnt while still alive, (289 B.C.,) in his seventy- 
 second year. 
 
 See R. Perrinchief, "The Sicilian Tyrant ; or, The Life of Agath- 
 ocles," London, 8vo, 1661 ; Diodorus Siculus, "History." 
 
 Agath'oclea of Cyz'icus, a Greek historian, lived 
 
 probably about 100 or 150 B.C. He wrote a "History 
 of Cyzicus," which is lost. 
 
 Agathocles of Egypt. See Agathoclea. 
 
 Agathodaemon, ag'a-tho-dee'mon, [Gr. 'AyaSoooi- 
 jiuv,] of Alexandria, an ancient geographer and map- 
 maker of an uncertain date. He probably lived after 
 200 A.D. 
 
 Ag'a-thon or Ag'a-tho, ['Ayofluv,] an eminent Greek 
 tragic poet, born at Athens about 450 B.C., was a con- 
 temporary and friend of Plato and Euripides. He gained 
 the prize in tragedy at a public festival in 417 B.C. His 
 works are praised by Plato and Aristotle. He was rather 
 fond of antithesis and sophistical subtleties. Only a few 
 fragments of his works remain. Died about 400 B.C. 
 
 See Bentley, "Dissertation on the Epistles of Euripides." 
 
 Agathon, a monk, native of Sicily, was raised to 
 the Roman see in 679, and died in 681 A.D. 
 
 Agay,d',dl'gi', (Francois MARiEBruno — bRii'no',) 
 Count, a French jurist, born at Besancon in 1722. Died 
 in 1805. 
 
 Agazzari, a-gat-sa'ree, (Agostino,) an Italian musi- 
 cian, native of Sienna. Died about 1640. 
 
 A-gel'a-das, ['AyeAaoac,] a Grecian sculptor, who lived 
 at Argos about 500 B.C. lie was the master of Phidias. 
 
 Agelet, tzh'li', or dAgelet, dizh'l.V, (Josei'H Le 
 Paute — leh pot,) a French astronomer, born in 1751. 
 He became professor of mathematics in the Ecole Mili- 
 taire in 1777. He accompanied La Perouse on his voy- 
 age of discovery in 1785, and perished with him in 17SS. 
 (See La Perouse.) 
 
 Agelli, a-jel'lee, [Lat. Agel'lius,] (Antonio,) a dis- 
 tinguished Italian commentator, born at Sorrento in 
 1532. He was made Bishop of Acerno in 1593, and died 
 in 1608. He wrote a commentary on the Psalms, the 
 Lamentations of Jeremiah, and many other parts of 
 Scripture. 
 
 Agellio, a-jel'le-o, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Sorrento. He worked at Rome in the early part 
 of the seventeenth century, and excelled in landscapes. 
 He assisted Roncalli and other artists in the figures and 
 the landscapes of their paintings. 
 
 Agellius. See Genius, Aulus. 
 
 Ag'el-noth, [Lat. Agelno'thus,] also called Eth'- 
 el-noth, an archbishop of Canterbury, who lived in the 
 early part of the eleventh century, and died in 1038. 
 He was one of the principal advisers of the Danish king 
 Canute. 
 
 See Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. iii. 
 chap. iii. 
 
 A-ge'nor, [Gr. 'Ayi/vup; Fr. Agenor, i'zha'noR',] a 
 fabulous king of Phoenicia, regarded as a son of Nep- 
 tune, a brother of Belus, and the father of Cadmus, 
 Phoenix, Phineus, and Europa. 
 
 Agenor, a brave Trojan warrior, was a son of An- 
 tenor. According to Homer, he wounded Achilles, and 
 was rescued from him by Apollo. 
 
 Ager, S'zha', [in Latin, Age'rius,] (Nicolas,) a 
 French botanist, born in Alsace in 1568, wrote a treatise 
 "On Vegetable Life," ('.' De Anima Vegetiva," 1629.) 
 Died in 1634. 
 
 Ag-e-san'der, [Gr. 'A;i?o-<i«5f>oc; Fr. Ag^sandre, 
 t'zha'z6NdR',] a sculptor of Rhodes, mentioned by Pliny 
 as one of the three artists who executed a group of La- 
 ocoon and his sons, which was in the palace of Titus at 
 Rome. This same group, there is reason to believe, is 
 now in the Vatican. It was accidentally discovered in 
 1506. The time of Agesander is unknown ; some sup- 
 pose him to have been contemporary with the earlier 
 Roman emperors. 
 
 Agesias. See Hegesias. 
 
 A-ges'i-cles, a king of Sparta, who lived about 600 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A-ges-I-la'us [Gr. 'Ayr/m'/laoc; Fr. Agesilas, f'zha'- 
 ze'las'] I., a king of Sparta, who lived in the ninth 
 century B.C. He was contemporary with Lycurgus. 
 
 Agesilaus IX, one of the most distinguished of the 
 Spartan kings, was a son of Archidamus. He ascended 
 the throne at the death of his brother Agis in 398 B.C., 
 and reigned thirty-seven years in the most eventful pe- 
 riod in the history of Sparta. In the second year of his 
 reign he commanded an expedition into Persia, in which, 
 
 t, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, t, o, same, less prolonged ; a, e, 1, 6, u, y\ short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
AGESIPOLIS 
 
 61 
 
 JGNESI 
 
 by his generosity and courtesy, as well as by his success 
 as a general, he won over to his cause many of the sub- 
 jects of Artaxerxes. He even contemplated the con- 
 quest of the Persian empire ; but the accomplishment of 
 this great scheme was prevented by a hostile confederacy 
 of the Greeks at home. He was summoned home by 
 the Kphori about 394 B.C. In the subsequent contest 
 between the Spartans on the one side, and the Argives, 
 Thebans, Athenians, and Corinthians on the other, Agesi- 
 laus, if not always successful, at least fully justified the 
 high opinion which his countrymen entertained of his 
 statesmanship and military skill. His vigilance and 
 energy saved the city of Sparta, which was menaced by 
 Epaminondas in 362. He was not present at the battle 
 of Leuctra, where the Spartans were defeated in 371. 
 He died about 361 B.C., being more than eighty years old. 
 See " Life of Agesilaus," by Plutarch, who compares him with 
 Porapcy; Xsnophon, "Agesilaus" and "Hellenics ;" Cornelius 
 Nhpos, " Agesilaus ;" Grote, " History of Greece," vol. ix. chaps. 
 Ixxiii.-lxxiv. ; Thirlwall, " History ot Greece;" Cauer, "Ques- 
 tioiium de Fontibus ad Agesilai Historiam pertinentibus," Pars I., 
 Breslau, 1847. 
 
 Ag-e-sip'o-lis, ['Ay»7o-MroA<r,] a Spartan king, who 
 ascended the throne as colleague of Agesilaus m 394. 
 Died in 380 B.C. 
 
 There were several other kings of this name. 
 
 Agezio or Agesio, a-ga'ze-o, (Thaddeus,) a Bohe- 
 mian, born at Prague in 1525, wrote on physiognomy. 
 
 Ag'gas or Au'gus, (Robert,) an English landscape- 
 painter, who lived in the reign of Charles I. Died in 
 1679, aged about 60. 
 
 Aggee. See Haggai. 
 
 Aggenus TJrbicus, ad-jee'nus ur'be-kus, a Latin 
 writer on agriculture, who probably lived in the time of 
 the emperor Vespasian. 
 
 Aglia-Mohammed. See Aga-Mohammed. 
 
 Agier, a'zhe-a', (Pierre Jean,) a French judge, born 
 in Paris in 1748. He was president of the revolutionary 
 tribunal in 1795, when Fouquier-Tinville and his accom- 
 plices were condemned to death, and became vice-pres- 
 ident of the tribunal of appeal in Paris in 1802. He 
 published, besides several legal works, a new version 
 of the Hebrew Prophets, (11 vols., 1820-23.) Died in 
 1823. 
 
 Agila, aj'e-la, or Agilan, aj-e-lan', a Gothic king of 
 Spain, who began to reign in 549, and was murdered in 
 554 a.d. 
 
 Agiles, d', di'zhel' or di'zhe'leV, (Raymond,) Canon 
 of Puy, followed the Count of Toulouse to Palestine, and 
 wrote a " History of the CrusadS of 1095." 
 
 Ag-I-lul'fus or Agilul'phus, [Fr. Agilulphe, ifzhe'- 
 liilf',] a Longobard duke of Turin, who became King of 
 the Longobards, in 590, by marrying Theudelinda, the 
 widow of King Autaris or Autarich. Through her influ- 
 ence he embraced the Catholic faith, and induced many 
 of his nobles to do the same. He died in 616 A.D. From 
 the reign of Agilulfus may be dated the commencement 
 of civilization among the Longobards. 
 
 Agincourt. See D'Agincourt. 
 
 Agis, S'jis, ["Aj(c.] There were four kings of Sparta of 
 this name. The first began to reign about 1060 B.C. 
 The second became king 427 B.C., and reigned twenty- 
 eight years, during a great part of the Peloponnesian war. 
 He defeated the Athenians and their allies in a great 
 battle at Mantinea, about 414 B.C. He died in 399 B.C. 
 Agis HI. ascended the throne in 338 and died 331 B.C., 
 being contemporary with Alexander the Great. Agis 
 IV. began to reign 244 B.C. He attempted to restore 
 the ancient Spartan discipline, and the simplicity of 
 manners which had prevailed under the earlier Spartan 
 kings ; but the nation was too deeply sunk in effeminacy 
 and corruption. Agis became a martyr to his virtuous 
 ambition. He was condemned by the Fphori for an at- 
 tempt to subvert the laws of his country, and was stran- 
 gled 240 B.C. He met his death with a heroism worthy 
 of the glorious cause in which he had been engaged. 
 
 See P1.UTARCH, "Life of Agis;" Thirlwall, "History of 
 ' vol. viii, chap. Ixii. ; Barrau, " Hutoire d'Agis IV, R01 
 de Lace'demone," 8vo, 1817. 
 
 A'gl-us (or Agio, a'jo) de Solda'nis, da sol-da'- 
 ness, (PiKTRO,)an Italian antiquary, born in the isle of 
 Gouo. Died in 1760. 
 
 Aglaia. See C ha rites. 
 
 Ag-la'o-phon, ['A-faofuv,] a painter, native of Tha- 
 sos, (a Grecian island,) supposed to have lived about 500 
 B.C. He was the father of Polygnotus the painter. 
 
 Aglaophon, a Greek painter, supposed to have been 
 a descendant of the preceding, lived about 416 B.C. He 
 painted a picture of Alcibiades. 
 
 Agliata, al-ya'ta, (Giovanni,) a distinguished Sicilian 
 lawyer, born at Palermo, held several high offices under 
 the government. Died in 1675. 
 
 Aglietti, il-yet'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian physician, 
 born in 1757. Died in 1S36. 
 
 See Zannini, " Biografia di F. Aglietti," Padua, 1836. 
 
 Ag'11-on-by, (John,) an English divine, born in Cum- 
 berland about 1568. He was chaplain to Queen Eliza- 
 beth, and one of the translators of the New Testament 
 for the English Bible authorized by James I. Died in 
 1610. 
 
 Agnani, di, de an-ya'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 jurist, born about 1390, was professor of law at Bologna. 
 Died in 1457. 
 
 Agneaux. See Aigneaux. 
 
 Agnelli, an-yel'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian Jesuit, who 
 wrote several theological works. Bom in 1621 ; died 
 in 1706. 
 
 Agnelli,( Jacob, or Jacopo,) an eminent Italian Jesuit, 
 born at Ferrara in 1 701. He was professor of eloquence, 
 and afterwards of medicine, in the University of Ferrara. 
 He wrote a number of poems, some of which possess 
 great merit. He died in 1798, aged more than ninety- 
 six years. 
 
 Agnello, an-yel'lo, (Andrea,) or Ag-nel'lus, (An- 
 dreas,) an abbot of Ravenna in the latter half of the 
 ninth century, wrote a history or chronicle of Ravenna. 
 I lis work is valuable as illustrating an important portion 
 of ecclesiastical and civil history. 
 
 Agnen, Sn'yON', (Jerome,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 Bois-le-Duc about the middle of the fifteenth century. 
 He worked in Spain. Died in 1530. 
 
 Agnes, ag'nez, [Ger. pron. ag'nes,] a German em- 
 press, who, after the death of her husband, Henry III., 
 was regent during the minority of her son, Henry IV. 
 She died in 1057. 
 
 Agnes of Austria, the daughter of Albert I., Duke of 
 Austria, (afterwards King of Germany,) was remarkable 
 for the atrocious cruelty with which she revenged the 
 death of her father, murdered in 1308. Many persons 
 were put to a death of torture on mere suspicion, and a 
 multitude of persons, innocent in all probability, were 
 beheaded by her order. She died in 1364. 
 
 Agnes, ag'nez, Saint, a Roman virgin of noble 
 family, who, according to the legend, suffered martyrdom 
 under Diocletian in 303 A.D., when only thirteen years of 
 age. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, " Sacred and Legendary Art ;" Baillet, 
 "Vies des Saints;" J. A. Martigny, "Notice Historique, etc. sur 
 le Culte de Sainte Agnes." 
 
 Agnes (ag'nez or fn'yes') de Meranie, deh mi'- 
 ri'ne', Queen of France, was married to Philippe Au- 
 guste in 1 196. The censure of the church, because he 
 had divorced Ingelburge to marry Agnes, induced the 
 king to discard the latter. Died in 1201. 
 
 Agnes Sorel. See Sorel. 
 
 Agnesi, an-ya'see, (Maria Gaetana — ga-i-ta'na,) 
 an Italian lady of wonderful intellectual powers and ac- 
 quirements, born at Milan in 1718. When she was only 
 twenty years of age, she was able to discourse in a great 
 number of different languages on abstruse questions of 
 mathematics and philosophy. Her Latin is said to have 
 been remarkably pure and correct. She published, in 
 1748, her " Instituzioni Analitiche," ("Analytical Institu- 
 tions,") a treatise on algebra, including the differential 
 and integral calculus,and displaying wonderful knowledge 
 as well as judgment. " We cannot," says a recent 
 critic, " take leave of a work which does so much honour 
 to female genius, without earnestly recommending the 
 
 Cerusal of it to those who believe that great talents are 
 estowed by nature exclusively on men." (See review 
 of Maria G. Agnesi's "Analytical Institutions" in the 
 "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1804.) In 1750, 
 during the illness of her father, (who was professor in 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; c, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.; 
 
AGNESI 
 
 62 
 
 AGRICOLA 
 
 the University of Bologna,) she supplied his place. 
 Shortly after this she retired to a nunnery, where she 
 spent the remainder of her life, and died in 1799. 
 
 See Paolo Frisi, " E'ogio Storico di M. Agnesi ;" Bianca 
 Milesi-Mojon, " V.ta di Mara Gaetana Agnesi," 1836. 
 
 Agnesi, (Maria Theresa,) a composer of operas, 
 born at Milan about 1724, was a sister of the preceding. 
 
 Ag'new, (Sir Andkew,) M.R, a noted Scottish Sab- 
 batarian, born in Wigtonshire in 1793; died in 1849. 
 
 See Dr. McCrie's " Life of Sir Andrew Agnew." 
 
 Agnew, (James,) a brigadier-general in the British 
 army in the American Revolution, was killed at the battle 
 of Germantown in October, 1777. 
 
 Agnl, ag'ni, or Ag'nis,[comnion Hindoo pron. iig'n! or 
 iig'nis ; etymologically allied to the Latin ignis,} the name 
 ofthe Hindoo god of .fire. He is sometimes represented 
 in picture:, with two faces, three legs, and seven arms, and 
 is usually painted of a deep-red colour. His two laces are 
 supposed to symbolize fire in its two characters — benefi- 
 cent (or creative) and destructive. His seven arms have 
 been conjectured to indicate the seven prismatic colours. 
 Agni lias been called the Hindoo Vulcan ; but he does not 
 appear anywhere as an artificer, like the Vulcan of classic 
 mythology, his most prominent characters being those of 
 a purifier and of a bearer of incense to heaven, becoming 
 thus a mediator between men on earth and the gods above. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon ;" Koppen, " Religion des Buddha." 
 p. 5 ; Sir VV. Jones on "The Gods of Greece, Italy, and India," in 
 "Asiatic Researches," vol. i. p. 264. 
 
 Ag-nod'I-ce ['\;voXkti,] an Athenian woman, who, 
 disguised in the dress of a man, studied medicine under 
 Herophilus, and practised with success, in the third cen- 
 tury 11. c. She devoted herself chiefly to midwifery. 
 
 Agnolo, d', dan'yo-lo, (Baccio, bat'cho,) an eminent 
 Italian architect and sculptor in wood, was born at Flor- 
 ence in 1460. He was the first who adorned the windows 
 of mansions and palaces with frontons, or frontispieces. 
 Among his chief works are the Palazzo Bartolini, (Flor- 
 ence,) and the Villa Borgherini, near Florence. Died in 
 
 1543- 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives ofthe Painters and Sculptors." 
 
 Agnolo, d', (Gabriele,) a Neapolitan architect, who 
 designed the Gravina Palace, and the church of Santa 
 Maria, at Naples. Died in 1510. 
 
 Agnolo, d\ (Giuliano,) a son of the preceding, who 
 followed the profession of his father, both as sculptor 
 and architect. Died in 1555. 
 
 Ag-non'I-des, [Gr. 'Xyi'uviSrjc; Fr. Agnonide, f n'yo'- 
 ned',] an Athenian orator, who induced the Athenians 
 to put Phocion to death. For this he was afterwards, in 
 his turn, condemned to die. 
 
 Ag'o-bard', Saint, [Fr. pron. sax'tt'go'biR',) an 
 archbishop of Lyons in the ninth century, took part with 
 the sons of Louis le Debonnaire against their father, for 
 which he was deposed in 835. He was, however, re- 
 stored to his see about 838, on the reconciliation of Louis 
 and his sons. He died in 840. 
 
 See C. B. Hundeshagen, "De Vita et Scriptis Agobardi," 1831. 
 
 Agocchi, a-gok'kee, or Agucchio, a-gook'ke-o, 
 (Giovanni BatHSTA,) a learned Italian ecclesiastic, 
 born at Bologna in 1570. About 1624, Pope Urban VIII. 
 appointed him his nuncio to Venice, with the title of 
 Archbishop of Amasia. Died in 1632. 
 
 Ag-o-rac'rl-tus, [Or. ' kynpunpiTos ; Fr. Agoracritr, 
 i'go'rS'kliet',] a famous sculptor, native of Paros, lived 
 in the fifth century B.C. He was a pupil of Phidias. 
 
 Ag03ti, a-gos'tee, (Giulio,) an Italian dramatic poet, 
 born at Reggio in the latter part of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. . Died young in 1704. 
 
 Agostini, a-gos-tee'nee, (LlONARDO,) an Italian an- 
 tiquary, born at Sienna, went to Rome about 1623, and 
 was appointed by Alexander VII. pontifical antiquary. 
 He published an enlarged edition of Filippo Paruta's 
 work on the medals of Sicily, (1649,) and another work, 
 of great merit, on antique gems, "Antique Gems Deline- 
 ated," ("Le Gemme antiche figurate," 1636 and 1657.) 
 
 Agostini, (Miguel.) See Agustl 
 
 Agostini, degli, dil'yee a-gos-tee'nee, (Giovanni,) 
 a learned Italian monk, born at Venice about 1700. He 
 wrote " Historical and Critical Notices of the Lives and 
 
 Works of Venetian Authors," 2 vols., 1754, which is said 
 to be a valuable work. Died about 1755. 
 
 Agostini, degli, (Niccolo,) a mediocre Italian poet, 
 born at Venice, nourished in the first half of the six- 
 teenth century. He translated Ovid's " Metamorphoses," 
 (1522,) and wrote a continuation of Bojardo's "Orlando 
 Innamorato," (1538.) 
 
 Agostino (a-gos-tee'no) and Agnolo, an'yo-lo, of 
 Sienna, sculptors and architects, born about 1265, were 
 brothers, and always worked together. Among their 
 works were the Palazzo de' Novi, the church of St. Fran- 
 cesco at Sienna, and the tomb of Bishop Guido at 
 Arezzo, which was designed by Giotto. Died about 135a 
 See Vasari, " Lives ofthe Painters," etc 
 Agostino surnamed Veneztano, va-nSt-se-a'no, or 
 the " Venetian," a celebrated Italian engraver, also called 
 Augusti'nus de Mu'sis, and in French Augustin, 
 (o'gus'ta.N',) was born about 1490. He was a pupil of 
 Marcantonio Raimondi, for whom he worked in Rome. 
 He engraved several works after Raphael and Giulio 
 Romano. Some of his works are dated 1536. 
 See Vasari, "Lives ofthe Painters," etc. 
 Agostino, sometimes called Agostino dalle Pro- 
 spettive — dil'la pRo-spJt-tee'vk, (which may be trans- 
 lated " Perspective Agostino,") an Italian painter, who 
 flourished in the first half of the sixteenth century. He 
 was distinguished for his skill in perspective. 
 
 Agostino, (Paolo,) an eminent Italian musician of 
 the seventeenth century, was chapel-master of St. Peter's, 
 Rome. Died about 1600. 
 
 Agoub, a'goob', (Joseph,) a native of Cairo, in Egypt, 
 born in 1795. His parents removed to France when he 
 was about seven years old. In 1820, or soon after, he 
 was appointed professor of Arabic at Paris, but, having 
 been deprived of this situation in 1 831, he died the next 
 year, it is said, of a broken heart. 
 
 Agoult, i'goo', (Charles Constance Cesar Loup 
 Joseph,) born at Grenoble in 1747, became Bishop of 
 Pamiers in 1787. He took part in political affairs, and 
 was one of the friends of Louis XVI. whom that king 
 consulted just before his flight to Varennes. He pub- 
 lished several works on finance. Died in Paris in 1824. 
 Agoult, (William,) a French poet of the twelfth 
 century. He was a gentleman of the household of Al- 
 fonso X., King of Castile, and has been styled the chief 
 and father of troubadours. Died in 1 181. 
 
 Agoult, d', dfgoo', (Marie de Flavigny — deh 
 fli'ven'ye',) Countess, a French authoress, who assumed 
 the name of Daniel Stern, was born at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Main about 1800. She was married to Count d'Agoult 
 in 1827. She has written several successful novels, 
 among which is " Nelida," (1845 ;) and a " History of the 
 Revolution of 184S," (2 vols., 1851.) 
 
 Agrain, d', dS'gRaN', (Eustachf.,) a French warrior, 
 who went to Palestine in the first crusade with Raymond 
 of Toulouse, and became Viceroy of Jerusalem. He was 
 called "The Sword and Shield of Palestine." 
 
 Agrate, a-gRa'ti, (Marco Ferrerio — f?r-ra're-o,) an 
 Italian sculptor, lived about the year 1500. 
 
 Agreda, de, di i-gRa'Da, (Maria,) a Spanish abbess, 
 born in 1602. She wrote a " Life of the Virgin Mary," 
 which Bossuet censured as indecent. Died in 1665. 
 
 Agresti, a-gRes'tee, (Livio,) an eminent Italian 
 painter, who died about 1580. He was a native of Forll. 
 He painted frescos at Rome and Forli. Vasari extols 
 the grandeur of his style. 
 
 Agricola, a-gRik'o-la, (Christoph Ludwig,) an emi- 
 nent German landscape-painter, born at Augsburg (or, 
 according to some authorities, at Ratisbon) in 1667. He 
 worked for a long time in Naples, and painted several 
 views of Southern Italy. Died at Augsburg in 1719. 
 
 A-gric'o-la, (Cn.eus Julius,) a distinguished Ro 
 man general, born at Forum Julii, (Frejus,) a Roman 
 colony in Gaul, A.D. 37. In 62 he married at Rome a 
 ladv of high rank, and the next year went as quaestor to 
 Asia, under the proconsul Salvius Titianus, where he 
 distinguished himself by his strict integrity. In 73, Ves- 
 pasian (whose cause Agricola had early espoused) made 
 him a patrician, and appointed him governor of Aqui- 
 tania, which position he held for nearly three years. In 
 77 he was chosen consul, and not long after was made 
 
 L e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, i, same, less prolonged: a, e, T, o, ii, y\ short: a, e. j, 9. obscure: far, fall, fat; met; not; good; m<55n: 
 
AG R 1 COL A 
 
 63 
 
 AG RIP PIN A 
 
 Governor of Britain, where he subdued the Ordovices in 
 North Wales, and conquered the island of Mona, (An- 
 glesea.) He adopted a wise and generous policy towards 
 the Britons, encouraging them to embrace the Roman 
 customs and dress and to instruct their children in the 
 Latin language. He afterwards crossed the Tweed, and 
 carried' his arms (80 A.D.) as far as the Frith of Tay, and 
 erected a chain of fortresses from the Clyde to the' Frith 
 of Forth. He was soon after recalled by the emperor 
 1 >omitian, and retired into private life, whither, however, 
 the admiration of the people followed him. He died in 
 93, not without a general suspicion of his having been 
 poisoned through the jealousy of Domitian. Agricola 
 was the father-in-law of the historian Tacitus. (See 
 Tacitus.) 
 
 See Tacitus, "I. Agricola Vita ;" Dion Cassius, " History of 
 Rome;" Held, "Commentatio de C. J. Agricola Vita qua vulgo 
 Cornelio Tacito assignatur," Schweidnitz, 1845. 
 
 A-gric'o-Ia, (Francis,) a German theologian, born at 
 Lunen, wrote against the Reformation. Died in 1621. 
 
 Agricola, (Gf.org,) an eminent mineralogist and 
 physician, whose proper name was Bauer, was born 
 at Glauchau, in Saxony, about 1490. He became well 
 versed in metallurgy and the art of mining. " He was 
 the first mineralogist," says Cuvier, "who appeared 
 after the renaissance of the sciences in Europe. He was 
 to mineralogy what Conrad Gesner was to zoology." 
 His principal works are, " Concerning Ores, (or Mines,)'" 
 ("De Re Metallica," 1546,) and "On the Origin and 
 Causes of Subterranean Things," (" De Ortu et Causis 
 Subterrancorum,") both written in elegant Latin. Died 
 in '555- 
 
 See A. D. Riciiter, "Vita Georgii Agricola," 1755; M. Adam, 
 "Vita MedicDramGermaaonan;" Bayle, "Historical and Critical 
 Dictionary;" Ersch und Gruuer, "Allgemeine Encyklopadie." 
 
 Agricola, (Georg Andreas,) a German physician, 
 born at Ratisbon in 1672. He pretended to have dis- 
 covered a method by which the growth of plants might 
 be greatly accelerated, and published in 171 7 a useful 
 work on the culture and propagation of plants. Died 
 about 1738. 
 
 Agricola, (Johan'nes Ammo'nius,) a German phy- 
 sician, who was one of the best commentators on Hip- 
 pocrates and Galen. He became professor of Greek at 
 Ingolstadt, where he died about 1570. 
 
 Agricola, (Johann Friedrich,) a German musician 
 and composer, born in Altenburg in 1720. He com- 
 posed "Achilles," an opera. Died at Berlin in 1774. 
 
 Agricola, (John, or Johann,) was originally called 
 John Schneider (shnl'der) or Schnif ter ; but, ac- 
 cording to the usage of that time, he changed his name 
 into Agricola. Born at Eisleben, in Prussian Saxonv, 
 in 1492, he studied at Wittenberg, where he formed a'n 
 intimate friendship with Luther. But from being one of 
 that great reformer's most active supporters, he after- 
 wards became a bitter opponent. Agricola asserted 
 that obedience to the Mosaic law was not necessary for 
 a Christian, — that nothing was required but penitence 
 and faith ; while Luther maintained the necessity of obey- 
 ing the Ten Commandments. The followers of Agricola 
 were styled Antinomians, ("opposers of the law.") He 
 died in 1566. Besides writing a great number of theo- 
 logical works, he made a valuable collection of German 
 proverbs, to which he added a commentary, with numer- 
 ous illustrations. 
 
 See Uxger, " Dissertatio de Johanne Agricola." 1732: B. Kordes, 
 "J. Agricob aus Kisleben," 1817; De Thou, " Histoire," book v. j 
 
 ■ ■ "Allgemeine Encyklopaerlie." 
 
 Agricola, (Martin,) an eminent musician, born in 
 Silesia about i486; died in 1556. 
 
 Agricola, a-gkik'o-Ia, (Michael), an early Swedish 
 reformer of the sixteenth century, who translated the 
 Xew Testament into the Finnish tongue. Died in 1577. 
 
 Agricola, (RUDOLPH,) an eminent Dutch scholar, 
 born near Groningen, in Friesland, in 1443. In 1476 he 
 went to Italy, where he studied Greek, and afterwards 
 excited the admiration of the Italians (who had previously 
 regarded the Germans as barbarians) by his various ac- 
 complishments. In 1482 he became professor at Heidel- 
 berg, where he died in 1485. He was highly eulogized 
 ismus. His influence contributed greatlv to dif- 
 fuse a taste for Grecian literature among the Germans. 
 
 "He was," says Guizot, (" Biographie Universale,") "a 
 good painter, a good writer, a good poet, and a learned 
 philologer." His greatest work is " De Inventione Dia- 
 lectica." 
 
 See Philip Mei.anchthon, " Orationes II., prior de Vita Rud. 
 Agricola," etc., 1539; T. F. Tresling, " Vita et Merita Rud. Agric- 
 ola," 1830; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ; " 
 Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 A-grip'pa, an ancient skeptical philosopher, men- 
 tioned by Diogenes Laertius as author of a treatise called 
 " Five Reasons for Doubt." 
 
 Agrippa, King. See Herod Agrippa. 
 
 Agrippa, a-gRep'pa, (Camillo,) an Italian architect, 
 born at Milan, nourished in the latter half of the six- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Agrippa, ft-grip'pa, (Henry Cornelius,) a German 
 physician, theologian, and astrologer, who acquired 
 celebrity by his varied learning, superior talents, and 
 supposed skill in alchemy and occult philosophy, was 
 born at Cologne in i486. He was extolled by some as 
 an ornament of his age, and denounced by others as an 
 impostor and a heretic. In his youth he served several 
 campaigns in the Imperial army with distinction. His 
 success in the various pursuits which he followed in many 
 countries of Europe was hindered by his quarrelsome or 
 satirical temper. After he had lectured on theology at 
 Cologne, Pisa, Turin, and Pavia, and practised medicine 
 in France, he received, in 1529, invitations from Henry 
 VIII. of England, and from other sovereigns. He ac- 
 cepted that of Margaret of Austria, regent of the Low 
 Countries; but she died in 1530. He died poor, at Gren- 
 oble, in 1535, leaving, besides other works, one " On the 
 Vanity of the Sciences," in Latin, (1527,) which has 
 been translated into English and several other languages. 
 Hallam calls him "a meteor of philosophy." 
 
 See H. Mori.f.v, "Life of Agrippa," 1856; "Agrippaana odei 
 H. C. Agrippas Leben," 1722; "Retrospective Review," vol. xiv. 
 (1826.) *■ 
 
 A-grip'pa, (Mar'cus Vipsa'nius,) a distinguished 
 Roman commander and statesman, born 63 B.C. His 
 family was obscure, but a friendship was early formed 
 between him and Octavius, (afterwards Augustus Caesar,) 
 and his fortunes became inseparably associated with 
 those of the future emperor. To the skill and wisdom 
 of Agrippa, Augustus owed much of his continued suc- 
 cess ; especially his victory at Actium, which gave him 
 the empire of the world. After the death of Marcellus, 
 in 23 B.C., Agrippa married his widow, Julia, the daugh- 
 ter of the emperor, by whom he had three sons, two of 
 whom were adopted by Augustus, (see Caius C/ESar,) 
 and two daughters. He died 12 B.C., in the fifty-first 
 year of his age. Agrippa and Maecenas were the chief 
 ministers or advisers of Augustus, and the former was 
 for some time regarded as his destined successor. 
 
 See G C. Gebauer, "Dissertatio de M. V. Agrippa," 1717; P. 
 Fhamiskn, "Marc. Vipsanius Agrippa: historische Untersuchung 
 iiber dessen Leben und Wirken," 1836 ; Livy, " Epitome ;" Tacitus, 
 " Annales 
 
 Agrippa, (Mene'nius,) a Roman consul, who gained 
 a victory over the Sabines in 503 B.C., and afterwards 
 quelled a sedition of the plebeians by relating to them 
 the well-known fable of the belly and the members. 
 
 Agrip'pa Post'umus, a posthumous son of M. Vip- 
 sanius Agrippa, put to death by Tiberius, 14 A.D. 
 
 Ag-rip-pi'na [Fr. Agrippine, i'gRe'pen'] I., a 
 daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, was mar- 
 ried to Caesar Germanicus, the nephew of the emperor 
 Tiberius. . She was the mother of the emperor Caligula. 
 She died, it is supposed, about 31 A.D. 
 
 See Elizabeth Hamilton, " Memoirs of the Life of Agrippina," 
 1800; C. Burkhard, " Agrippina des M. V. Agrippa Tochter," 1846. 
 
 Agrippina II., or Agrippina Augusta, a daugh- 
 ter of the preceding, and'mother of the emperor Nero 
 by her first husband, Domitius. She was a woman of 
 abandoned principles and remorseless cruelty. She 
 married her father's brother, the emperor Claudius, and 
 afterwards poisoned him. After a life of almost unin- 
 terrupted crime, she was put to death (a.d. 60) by the 
 order of her son Nero. 
 
 Sec C. H. Oraun, " Dissertatio de Agrippina Neronis Matre," 
 l«8l ; f. F. Walbrat, "Agrippina Gemahlin des Claudius Stifterin 
 von Coin," 1800; Tacitus, "Annales." 
 
 £ as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; s, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in //lis. (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AGUADO 
 
 64 
 
 AHLE 
 
 Aguado, a-gwa'i)o, (A. Maria,) a financier and mil- 
 lionaire, bora at Seville, Spain, in 1784. He became a 
 banker of Paris. Died in 1842. 
 
 Aguado, de, da a-gwa'Do, (Francisco,) a learned 
 and pious Spanish Jesuit, born near Madrid in 1572; 
 died in 1654, leaving many religious works. 
 
 Agucchio. See Agocchi. 
 
 Agiiero, de, da a-gwa'ro, (Benedicto Manuel,) a dis- 
 tinguished Spanish painter, born at Madrid in 1626 ; died 
 in 1670. He excelled in landscapes and battle-pieces. 
 
 Aguesseau, d', di'gi'so', (Henri Francois,) (writ- 
 ten by himself Daguesseau,) a celebrated French chan- 
 cellor, orator, and legislator, was born at Limoges, No- 
 vember 27, 1668. He passes for the most learned law- 
 yer that France ever produced, and is called the father 
 of French forensic eloquence. In 1691 he was appointed 
 by Louis XIV. one of the advocates-royal. He be- 
 came procureur-general to the Parliament in 1700, and 
 chancellor of France in 171 7. Before the latter date 
 he had resolutely defended the liberties of the Gallican 
 Church against the aggressions of the papal power in 
 the case of the bull Unigenitus, (1713.) He was ban- 
 ished from court in 17 18 lor his opposition to the finan- 
 cial system of Law, but was restored to his high func- 
 tions in 1720, after the ruinous collapse of that system. 
 A contest for precedency between D'Aguesseau and Car- 
 dinal Dubois resulted in the removal of the former from 
 office in 1722. He was again appointed chancellor in 
 1737, and kept the seals until 1750, when he resigned on 
 account of his great age. Died in Paris in February, 
 1 75 1. His works, consisting chiefly of forensic argu- 
 ments, official papers, and treatises on law, were pub- 
 lished in thirteen volumes, (1759-89.) His legislative 
 reforms constitute perhaps his greatest claim to the re- 
 membrance of posterity. 
 
 See St. Simon's "Memoirs;" Antoine Thomas, " FJoge de 
 H. F. d'Agucsseau," 1760; " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de 
 D'Aguesseau," 2 vols., 1S35 ; " Discours sur la Vie et la Mnrt de M. 
 D'Aguesseau," by his son: Bourlet de Vauxcelles, " FJoge de 
 D'Aguesseau," 1760; Morlhon, " FJoge du Chancelier D'Agues- 
 seau," 1760; Boinvilliers, "FJoge du Chancelier D'Aguesseau," 
 184S ; Boullee, " Histoire de la Vie du Chancelier D'Aguesseau," 
 1849. 
 
 Aguesseau, d', (Henri C. Jean Baptiste,) Count,, 
 born at Fresnes in 1746, was a grandson of the chancel- 
 lor. He became a member of the French Academy in 
 1789, and a senator in 1805. Died in 1826. 
 
 Aguiar, a-ge-aR', (Tomas,) a Spanish portrait-painter 
 of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Aguila,d',da'ge-la, (C.F.E.H.,) an officer of engineers, 
 who travelled extensively between 1770 and 1774. He 
 appears to have been a native of Spain. He wrote, in 
 French, a " History of the Reign of Gustavus III. of 
 Sweden," (1803.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Aguila, del, del S'ge-la, (Miguel,) a Spanish painter, 
 whose works are said to be in the style of Murillo. 
 Died at Seville in 1736. 
 
 Aguilar, a-ge-laR', (Grace,) a Jewish authoress, of 
 Spanish extraction, bom at Hackney, near London, in 
 1,816. She wrote "The Magic Wreath," in verse, and a 
 number of prose works, among which are " Women of 
 Israel," " Home Scenes and Heart Studies," and " Home 
 Influence : a Tale." Died at Frankfort in 1847. 
 
 Aguilera, de, da a-ge-la'ra, (Diego,) a Spanish his- 
 torical painter, who was born at Toledo, and lived in the 
 latter part of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Aguillon, a'ge'y6N', (Francois,) a learned Jesuit, 
 born at Brussels in 1566; died in 1617. He wrote a 
 work on optics, (1613.) 
 
 Aguirre, de, da a-ger'ra, (Jose Saenz— sa-Snth',) a 
 learned Spanish ecclesiastic, born in 1630, was made 
 cardinal in 1686 by Pope Innocent XI. Died in 1699. 
 He wrote several works on theology. 
 
 Agujari, a-goo-ya'ree, (Lucretia,) a popular singer 
 and performer, who flourished in the latter half of the 
 eighteenth century. Died at Parma in 1783. 
 
 Agusti, a-goos'tee, written also Agustin, a-goos-teen', 
 or Agostini, a-gos-tee'nee, (Miguel,) a Spanish agri- 
 culturist, born at 'Banolas, in the sixteenth century, was 
 prior of the order of St. John at Perpignan. He wrote 
 a useful and popular work called " The Book of the 
 Secrets of Agriculture," (1617.) 
 
 Agylaeus, aj-e-lee'us or a-ge-la'us, [Fr. Agylee, 
 i'zhe'la',] (Hendrik,) a Dutch jurist, born at Bois-le- 
 Duc about 1533, was noted as a Greek scholar. Died 
 in 1595- 
 
 Ahab, a'hab, [Heb.^XflN,] an idolatrous king of Israel, 
 who reigned from 931 to 909 B.C. He was slain in bat- 
 tle in a war against Benhaclad, King of Syria. {See I. 
 Kings xvi.-xxii.) 
 
 A-has-u-e'rus, or, more correctly, Ahhasverosh or 
 Akhasverosh, [Heb. IffniBTItf,] a Hebrew name ap- 
 plied in the Scriptures to various Persian and Median 
 kings. It is in, all probability derived from the ancient 
 Persian word Khshvershe, (the Xerxes of the Greeks, 
 and corresponding to the Sanscrit Kshatra,) which sig- 
 nifies "king" or "lion-king." 
 
 The Ahasuerus mentioned in the book of Esther is 
 generally believed to be Artaxerxes Longimanus, (in 
 modern Persian, Ardashir DarSz-dast,) who reigned 
 from 464 to 425 B.C. (See Artaxerxes.) 
 
 Ahaz, a'haz, or Achaz, a'kaz, [Heb. inN,] a son of 
 Jotham, King of Judah, succeeded his father about 
 741 and died 725 B.C. He distinguished himself abovr 
 all his predecessors by his abominable idolatry, even 
 sacrificing his own children to Moloch. (See II. Kings 
 xvi., and II. Chronicles xxviii.) 
 
 Ahaziah, a-ha-zi'a, [Heb. H'THS,] King of Israel, 
 the son and successor of Ahab. He reigned two years, 
 from 909 to 907 B.C. (See I. Kings xxii! ; II. Kings i.) 
 Also, a son of Jehoram, King of Judah. He succeeded 
 his father about 896 B.C., and after a reign of one year 
 was slain by Jehu. (See II. Chronicles xxii. 1-10 ; II. 
 Kings viii. 25-29.) 
 
 A-hen'o-bar'bus, in the plural A-hen'o-bar'bi, a 
 name given to a branch or division of the Domitian 
 family of Rome. It signifies " having red or copper- 
 coloured beard," and is said to have originated as fol- 
 lows. When Castor and Pollux, on their return from 
 the battle of Lake Regillus, announced to Lucius Domi- 
 tius the victory of his countrymen, he did not believe 
 them ; whereupon they stroked his hair and beard, which 
 were instantly changed from black to red. The most 
 distinguished of this name are the following : 
 
 Ahenobarbus, (Cneius Domitius,) a consul, 122 
 B.C., who gained a victory over the Allobroges and Ar- 
 verni, nations in the south of Gaul. 
 
 Ahenobarbus, (Cneius Domitius,) a son of Lucius 
 Domitius, noticed below. In the civil wars he joined 
 the party of Brutus and Cassius, but after the battle of 
 Philippi he attached himself first to Antony and after- 
 wards to Octavius. He died a few days after the battle 
 of Actium, 31 B.C. 
 
 Ahenobarbus, (Cneius Domitius,) a grandson of 
 the preceding, distinguished for his profligacy and fero- 
 city. He married Agrippina, by whom he became the 
 father of the emperor Nero. 
 
 Ahenobarbus, (Lucius Domitius,) a Roman gen- 
 eral, who married a sister of Cato Uticensis. He be- 
 came praetor in 58 and consul in 54 B.C. He opposed 
 Caesar and Pompey during their coalition. In the civil 
 war that ensued, he was appointed by the Senate to suc- 
 ceed Caesar in Farther Gaul in the year 49. He was, it 
 is said, the only leader of the senatorial party who 
 showed energy when Caesar invaded Italy. He was, 
 however, on account of the defection of his army, com- 
 pelled to surrender at Corfinium. He was killed in 48 
 B.C., at Pharsalia, where he commanded a wing of Pom- 
 pey's army. 
 
 See Cesar, "De Bello Civil! ;" Suetonius, "Life of Casar;" 
 Dion Cassius, "History of Rome." 
 
 A-hi'jah, [Heb. rmx.l a prophet who lived in the 
 reigns of Solomon and Rehoboam. (See I. Kings xi., xii. ; 
 
 I. Chronicles xxvi. 20 ; II. Chronicles ix. 29.) 
 Ahimelech, a-him'e-lek, a priest, the son of Ahitub, 
 
 slain by the command of Saul. (See I. Samuel xxi., xxii.) 
 
 A-hith'o-phel or A~ehit'o-phel, a Hebrew courtier, 
 
 a counsellor of King David, whose cause he deserted and 
 
 became an adherent of Absalom in his rebellion. (See 
 
 II. Samuel xv. 12, xvi. and xvii.) 
 
 Ahle, a'leh, (Johann Gf.org,) a German musician 
 and composer, born at Miihlhausen in 1650; died in 
 1 701. 
 
 i, e, I, o. u. y, long; a, 6, A, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e,'j, 0, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
AHLE 
 
 65 
 
 AIDAN 
 
 Able, (Johann Rudolph,) a German organist, born 
 at Muhlhausen in 1625 ; died in 1673. He was the father 
 of the preceding. 
 
 Ahlee or Ahli, au'le', surnamed ShirAzee or 
 <hkkk a/i 1 . (SuiRAzf,) she-ra'zee, from the place of his 
 birth, a celebrated Persian poet, born at Shiraz about 
 •he middle of the fifteenth century ; died about 1535. 
 
 Ahlwardt, il'wakt, (Christian Wilhelm,) an emi- 
 nent German linguist, born at Greifswalde in 1 76a In 
 1S1S he was appointed professor of ancient literature in 
 the university of his native town, where he died in 1830. 
 He translated into German portions of many of the most 
 celebrated poems in the ancient as well as in the differ- 
 ent modern languages. He made, moreover, a com- 
 plete translation of the poems of Ossian. 
 
 Ahlwardt, (Peter,) born at Greifswalde in 17 10. 
 Though the son of a shoemaker, by diligence he made 
 great progress in learning, and in 1752 was appointed 
 professor of logic and metaphysics in the University of 
 Greifswalde. Died in 1791. 
 
 Ahmed (aH'med) or Achmet (aK'met) L, a son of 
 Mahomet III., born in 1590. He succeeded his father 
 on the Ottoman throne in 1603, and died in 1617. 
 
 Ahmed or Achmet H, born in 1643, was the son 
 of Sultan Ibraheem, (Ibrahim.) He began to reign in 
 1691. His army was defeated with great loss by the 
 Austrians, at Slankament, in the same year. He was a 
 teeble ruler, and his reign was disastrous in various 
 respects. He died in 1695, and was succeeded by Mus- 
 tafa II. 
 
 Ahmed or Achmet HI., son of Mahomet IV., 
 born in 1673, was raised to the Ottoman throne in con- 
 sequence of a revolt of the Janissaries in 1 703. Though 
 unfortunate in his war with Austria and Venice, his 
 reign was, on the whole, not inglorious. The Turkish 
 name was respected abroad, while learning and the arts 
 of peace flourished at home. Vet Ahmed was deposed 
 by the rebellious Janissaries in 1730, and died in 1739. 
 
 Ahmed or Achmet IV., or Abd-ool- (Abdul-) 
 Hamid, al/dool-ha'mid, was born in 1725, and succeeded 
 die sultan Mustafa III. in 1773. H ' s r «'gn is memora- 
 ble for two disastrous wars with Russia, in which Turkey 
 lost the Crimea, a considerable portion of Circassia, and 
 some other territories, besides a number of important 
 fortresses. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Ahmed Pasha, surnamed THE Traitor, a Turkish 
 commander, who, in the reign of Solyman I., captured the 
 island of Rhodes, defended by the Knights of St. John. 
 Afterwards offended because the sultan did not make 
 him grand vizier, he raised the standard of revolt in 
 Egypt, and caused himself to be proclaimed sultan in 
 1 524 ; but, though successful at first, he was soon after 
 taken and put to death. 
 
 Ahmed the Renegade, grand vizier to the sultan 
 Solyman the Great, was a native of Gratz, in Styria. 
 He was educated a Christian, but, having been taken 
 prisoner by the Turks, he embraced the Mohammedan 
 faith, rose to distinction at the Ottoman court, and mar- 
 ried the grand-daughter of the sultan. Died in 1580. 
 
 Ahmed-al-Kastalee, (al-Kastali,) -al-kas-ta'lee, a 
 distinguished Arabian poet, born in Spain in 958 ; died 
 about 1030. 
 
 Ahmed-al-Makkari, (or Mekkari) See Mak- 
 karee. 
 
 Ahmed An-Nahhas — an-nah-nas', a distinguished 
 Arabian grammarian and philologist, who was drowned 
 in the Nile about 950. He was a native of Egypt. 
 
 Ahmed-ar-Razt See Ahmkd-er-Razee. 
 
 Aluned-er-Razee, (el-Razi,) -er-ra'zee, a native of 
 Cordova, lived in the tenth century. He was the author 
 of a w luminous work on the geography and history of 
 Spain. Another Ahmed-er-Razee, distinguished as 
 Ibn- ( :r Ben-) Faris, (fi'ris,) i.e. "son of Fan's," 
 wrote aT Arabic dictionary and a work on biography. 
 Died in 985. 
 
 Ahmed-Ibn (or -Ben) -Arab-Shah» (Ib'n i'rab- 
 «hSh',) an Arabian historian of the fifteenth century, was 
 
 •This name is incorrectly given Ahmed-lbn-Arabshtim in the 
 ' Ncuvellc Biographic Grfne'rale." 
 
 the author of a "History of Tamerlane," which was 
 translated into Latin by Manger and into French by 
 Vattier. Died in 1450. 
 
 Ahmed-Ibn-Faraj— far'aj, a distinguished Arabian 
 poet and historian, native of Spain, died about 970. 
 
 Ahmed-Ibn-HanbaL See Ibn-Hanbal. 
 
 Ahmed-Ibn-Tooloon. See Tooloon. 
 
 Ah'med-Keduk — ke-duk', written also Achmet- 
 Geduc, a celebrated Turkish commander, who was grand 
 vizier of Mahomet II. from 1473 t0 '477- During this 
 period he conquered the Crimea, and took the towns of 
 Kaffa and Azof, (or Tana.) Under Bayazeed (Bajazet) 
 II., the son and successor of Mahomet II., Ahmed-Kediik 
 greatly distinguished himself. He quelled a formidable 
 rebellion headed by Prince Jem, a brother of the sultan, 
 and conquered Kazim Bey, the last of the Caramaniaii 
 princes. But, having by his arrogance deeply offended 
 Bayazeed, he was put to death in 1482. 
 
 Ahmed Khan Abdalee (Abdali) or Abdallee— 
 Kin ab-da'lee, a celebrated conqueror, the founder of the 
 Doorranee (or Durrani) dynasty in Afghanistan. He 
 commenced his military career in the service of the fa 
 mous Nadir Shah, by whom when a child he had been 
 taken prisoner. After the death of that monarch, he 
 succeeded in getting possession of a large convoy of 
 treasure on its way from India to Nadir's camp, and by 
 this means laid the foundation of a powerful kingdom. 
 He was crowned at Candahar in 1747, and died in 1773. 
 In the intermediate period he had extended his sway 
 over the eastern part of Persia, the whole of Afghanistan, 
 and a large portion of India. 
 
 See Elphinstone's "Caubul;" Malcolm's "History of Persia." 
 
 Ahmed- (or Achmet-) Resmi-Effendi, an'med 
 reVmec ef-feVdee, a Turkish historian and diplomatist, 
 who signed the treaty of Kainarji. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of the War between the Turks and Russians," 
 (1768-74) Died about 1788. 
 
 Ahmed (or Ahmad) Shah, (of Afghanistan.) See 
 Ahmed Khan Abdalee. 
 
 Ahmed Shah — shlh, succeeded his grandfather,Muz- 
 zaffar Shah, on the throne of Guzerat, in 141 1. He 
 founded Ahmedabad, (i.e. "city of Ahmed,") and made 
 it his capital. Died in 1443. 
 
 Ahmed Shah Walee Bahmanee* (Bahmani,) 
 — wa'lee bih'ma-nee', the ninth king of the Bahmanee 
 dynasty in the Dekkan. He succeeded his brother Firoz 
 in 1422, and died in 1435. 
 
 Alliens, a'rJns, (Heinrich,) a German jurist, born 
 in Hanover in 1808. He was professor of philosophy at 
 Brussels from 1839 to 1848, after which he obtained a 
 chair at Gratz. His "Course of Natural Law" (Paris, 
 1838) has been often reprinted, and translated into sev- 
 eral languages. 
 
 Ahriman. See Ormuzd. 
 
 Ahroon, (Ahrun,) ah'roon', or Aaron, a Christian 
 priest of Alexandria, lived in the early part of the seventh 
 century. He composed a voluminous medical work, of 
 which some extracts only are extant. 
 
 Aibek-Azad-ed-Deen, (-ed-Din,) i'e-bek (or I'bek) 
 a'/.ad ed-decn', the first Egyptian sultan of the dynasty 
 of Mamelukes. He l>egan to reign in 1254, and was as- 
 sassinated, through the jealousy of his wife, in 1257. 
 
 Aicardo, I-kaR'do, (Giovanni,) an Italian architect, 
 born in Piedmont, worked in Genoa. Among his works 
 is the aqueduct which supplies Genoa with water. Died 
 in 1650. 
 
 Aicher, I'Ker, (Otto,) a German antiquary and his- 
 torian, born in 1628, lived at Salzburg, and died in 1705. 
 lie wrote a work on epitaphs, entitled "Theatrum Fu- 
 ncbrc," (1675,) and many treatises on points of ancient 
 history. 
 
 Aichspalt, iK'spalt, (Peter,) an archbishop of Mentz, 
 born about 1250. Died in 1320. 
 
 Aidan or JEdan, a'dan, Saint, a pious monk of 
 
 lona, who was empJoyed about 635 a.d. by Oswald, King 
 
 of Northumbria, to instruct his subjects in the Christian 
 
 n. He is considered as the first of the line of 
 
 bishops now styled Bishops of Durham. 
 
 See Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. i. chap, ii 
 
 * Pronounced in India, uh'mud sMh wflTee b3h'mfln-ee. 
 
 ' as k 
 
 ; 9 as j g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as %; th as in this. ($3p— S*e Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AIDAN 
 
 66 
 
 J INS LIE 
 
 Aidan, a'dan, King of Scotland, began to reign about 
 578 a.d. Died in 606. 
 
 Aidoneus. See Pluto. 
 
 Aignan, in'ydfj', (Eiienne,) an able French trans- 
 la or and political writer, born at Beaugency-sur-Loire 
 in 1773. He produced a translation of the Iliad in verse, 
 which is one of the best in the French language. In 
 1814 he was chosen a member of the French Academy 
 in place of Bernardin de Saint Pierre. After the restora- 
 tion of 1815, he entered the ranks of the liberal opposi- 
 tion as a publicist. His work entitled "The Condition 
 (£ttit) of the Protestants in France" (1818) is highly 
 commended for the sentiments and style. Died in 
 1824. 
 
 Aigneaux or Aignaux, in'yo', (Robert and An- 
 toinf.,) two brothers, born at Vire, in Normandy, in 
 the sixteenth century, translated Virgil into French 
 verse. Their work appeared in 1582, and in that age 
 enjoyed a high reputation. 
 
 Aiguani, I-gwa'nee, a Carmelite friar of the fourteenth 
 century, was a respectable sculptor, and afterwards be- 
 came Cardinal of Bologna. Died in 1400. 
 
 Aiguebere, Ag'baiR', (John Dumas— dii'ma',) a 
 French dramatic writer, born at Toulouse in 1692. He 
 studied at Paris, where he formed a friendship with Vol- 
 taire which lasted through life. He was a counsellor of 
 the Parliament of Toulouse, the duties of which office 
 he performed with equal zeal and integrity. Died in 
 
 1755- 
 
 Aiguillon, d', di'ge'yoN' or d&'gel'y6N', (Armand 
 
 VlGNEROT (or VlGNEROD) DUPLESSIS RICHELIEU,) }r'- 
 m5.N' ven'yeh-ro' du'pli'se, resh'le-uh',) Due, born in 
 1720, is said to have been a great -grand-nephew of Cardi- 
 nal Richelieu. He was prime minister of France during 
 the last three years of the reign of Louis XV. He was 
 chiefly indebted for his promotion at court to the favour 
 of Madame du Barry, mistress of the king. His admin- 
 istration was highly disgraceful to France ; for, though an 
 accomplished courtier, he was destitute of all the great 
 and solid qualities necessary to form a statesman. Dur- 
 ing his ministry the partition of Poland took place ; yet 
 he knew nothing of this nefarious project till it was already 
 accomplished. On the accession of Louis XVI., Aiguillon 
 was removed from office, and died in 1788. 
 
 See " M6noires du Due d' Aiguillon ; " Lacretelle, " Histoire 
 du Dix-huitieme Siecle." 
 
 Aiguillon, d', (Armand de Vignerot Duplessis 
 Richelieu,) Due, a son of the preceding. He warmly 
 supported the popular cause in the States-General of 
 1789, and was the second of the noblesse to renounce his 
 privileges in the session of August 4. He superseded 
 Custine in the command of one of the armies, early in 
 1792, but was proscribed by the dominant party in Au- 
 gust of that year. He escaped by flight, and died in 1800. 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Aiguillon, d', (Marie Madeleine de Vignerot or 
 Vignerod,) Duchesse, a niece of Cardinal Richelieu, 
 born about 1610. She founded several charitable institu- 
 tions. Died in 1675. 
 
 Aiken, a'ken, (William,) born in Charleston, South 
 Carolina, in 1806, graduated at the College of South 
 Carolina in 1825, served several sessions in the State 
 Legislature, and was chosen Governor of his native State 
 in 1S44. In 1850 the Democratic party elected him a 
 representative to Congress, of which he continued a 
 member till 1857. In the memorable contest for the 
 speakership, 1855-6, he came within one vote of being 
 elected to that office. Among Southern statesmen he 
 has distinguished himself by his moderation and good 
 sense. 
 
 Aikin, (Anna L^titia.) See Barbauld. 
 
 Aikin, a'kjn, (Arthur,) a son of Dr. John Aikin, 
 noticed below, was born about 1780, and gained dis- 
 tinction as a scientific writer. He was editor of the 
 "Annual Review," (1803-08,) and was for many years 
 secretary of the Society of Arts. His principal works 
 are a "Manual of Mineralogy," (1814,) and a "Dictionary 
 of Chemistry and Mineralogy." Died in 1854. 
 
 Aikin, (Edmund,) an English architect, born at War- 
 rington in 1780, was a brother of the preceding. Died 
 in 1820. 
 
 Aikin, (John,) M.D., an eminent miscellaneous 
 writer, born in Leicestershire, England, in 1747. Besides 
 a number of essays and papers, scientific and literary, 
 he published an instructive and popular work, entitled 
 "Evenings at Home," (1792-95,) in which he was a& 
 sisted by his sister, Mrs. Barbauld. His greatest wori 
 was his "General Biography," a biographical dictionary 
 extending to ten closely-printed quarto volumes : it wal 
 completed in 1815. In 1816 he published his "Annals 
 of the Reign of George III.," in 2 vols. 8vo; and in 
 1820, his "Select Works of the British Poets," with bio- 
 graphical and critical prefaces. He died in 1822. 
 
 Aikin, (Lucy,) a daughter of the preceding, born in 
 1 781. She published, among other works, a "Memoir" 
 of her father, in 2 vols. 8vo, (1823,) and a "Life of 
 Joseph Addison," (1843.) Died in 1864. 
 
 Aikman, ak'man, (William,) a Scottish portrait- 
 painter, born in Aberdeenshire in 1682. He studied in 
 Rome, returned to Scotland in 1712, and settled in Lon- 
 don in 1723, after which he painted portraits of many 
 eminent persons. He was a friend and patron of the 
 poet Thomson, who was introduced by him to Sir 
 Robert Walpole, and who wrote verses to the memory 
 of Aikman. Died in 173 1. 
 
 See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting," etc 
 
 Aillaud, t'yo', (Pierre Toussaint — too'saN',) a 
 French poet, born at Montpellier in 1759, became an 
 abbe and a professor at Montauban. Among his works 
 are " L'figyptiade," a heroic poem, (1802); and "Le 
 Nouveau Lutrin," (1815,) an imitation of Boileau's "Lu- 
 trin." Died in 1826. 
 
 Ailly or Ailli, il'ye' or i'ye', (Peter of,) an eminent 
 French ecclesiastic, born at Compiegne, in Picardy, in 
 1350. In 1389 he was made chancellor of the Univer- 
 sity of Paris ; in 1395, Archbishop of Cambray ; and in 
 141 1 he was elevated to the dignity of cardinal. He 
 presided at one of the sessions of the famous Council of 
 Constance, in which John Huss was condemned to the 
 stake. Yet he was a reformer, and confessed and boldly 
 denounced the abuses and impurities of the church. He 
 died about 1420. 
 
 See Dimaux, " Notice historique sur P. D'Ailly," 1824. 
 
 Ailred, al'red, a religious and historical writer of the 
 twelfth century, and abbot of the monastery of Rievaulx, 
 in Yorkshire. 
 
 Aimar Rivault. See Rivault. 
 
 Aime (i'mi') de Varenne. See Aimon de Va- 
 renne. 
 
 Aimeric, a'mer-ik or Sm'rek', written also Haimeric, 
 a native of France, chosen Patriarch of Antioch in 1 142 ; 
 died in 1187. 
 
 Aimeric de Pegulha — d4 pi-gool'ya, or Aimeri de 
 Peguilain, i'meh-re' deh peh-ge'laN , a troubadour of 
 the thirteenth century, wrote a number of popular poems 
 and songs. Died about 1260. 
 
 Aimeric of Jerusalem. See Amaury. 
 
 Aimerich, I-ma-rek', (Mateo,) a Spanish Jesuit of 
 great learning, born in Catalonia in 1 715, became pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and divinity. He was noted for the 
 elegance of his Latin style. Among his works is " Novum 
 Lexicon Historicum et Criticum Antique Romanae 
 Literaturae," (" A New Historical and Critical Lexicon of 
 Ancient Roman Literature," 1787.) Died at Ferrara in 
 1799. 
 
 Aimery. See Amaury. 
 
 Aimoin, i'moin', [Fr. pron. &m'waN' ; Lat. Aimoi'- 
 nus,] a French monk and writer, who flourished in the 
 latter part of the tenth century. Died in 100S. 
 
 Aimon. See Aymon. 
 
 Aimon ue Varenne, i'mAN' deh vi'ren', a French 
 poet, who lived in the thirteenth century. 
 
 Ainmuller, In'nv&Tler, (Maximilian Emanuel,) a 
 German painter, born at Munich in 1807, is called the 
 restorer of the art of painting on glass in Germany. 
 Among his works are the glass windows of Notre Dame 
 de Bon Secours, Munich. He has also a fair reputation 
 as an oil-painter. 
 
 Ainslie, anz'le, (George Robert,) born at Edinburgh 
 in 1766, was appointed Governor of Dominica in 1813, 
 but soon after retired, having obtained the rank of lieu- 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, ii, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
AINSLIE 
 
 67 
 
 A J AX 
 
 tenant-general. Died in 1839. He was a distinguished 
 numismatologist, and published " Illustrations of the 
 Anglo-French Coinage," (1830.) 
 
 Ainslie, (Hew,) a poet, born in Scotland in 1792, 
 emigrated to America in 1822. He is author of "Pil- 
 grimage to the Land of Burns ;" and of " Scottish Songs, 
 Ballads, and Poems," (1855.) 
 
 Ainslie, (Sir Robert,) born in Scotland about 1730, 
 was knighted and sent as English ambassador to the 
 Ottoman Porte in 1755. While in Constantinople, he 
 made an extensive collection of coins and other curiosi- 
 ties. Died in 1812. 
 
 Ainsworth, anz'worth, (Henry,) one of the leaders 
 ot the English Independents in the sixteenth century, and 
 a distinguished controversial writer. He was banished 
 from England, with others of his sect, in 1593, and settled 
 in Amsterdam, where he became the pastor of a church. 
 Died about 1622. His "Annotations " on the five books 
 of Moses, the Psalms, and the Song of Solomon, is a 
 work of great merit 
 
 See Neal's "History of the Puritans;" Brook's "Lives of the 
 Puritans." 
 
 Ainsworth, (Robert,) a writer, teacher, and eminent 
 classical scholar, born near Manchester, England, in 
 1660; died in 1743. He is principally known as the 
 author of an excellent Latin Dictionary, (1736,) which 
 is still extensively used. 
 
 Ainsworth, (William Francis,) an English geolo- 
 gist, physician, and traveller, born at Exeter in 1807. He 
 went with the expedition of Colonel Chesney to the Eu- 
 phrates in 1835, and afterwards, as agent of the Bible 
 Society and Geographical Society, was sent to explore 
 the river Halys and visit the Christians of Koordistan. 
 He has published " Researches in Assyria," and " Travels 
 and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, 
 etc.," (2 vols., 1842.) 
 
 Ainsworth, (William Harrison,) a cousin of the 
 preceding, an English novelist, born at Manchester in 
 1805. He produced in 1834 "Rookwood," which had 
 great success. His popularity with a certain class was 
 maintained by his "Jack Sheppard," (1839.) He has 
 been censured for choosing robbers as the heroes of 
 these novels. Among his other works are " The Tower 
 of London," and "The Admirable Crichton." He is, or 
 was recently, proprietor of the "New Monthly Maga- 
 zine." "With a great regard for Ainsworth," says an 
 English critic, "and a full sense of the talent and re- 
 search which he brings to bear upon every subject which 
 he touches, we must say, we like not this gallows school 
 of literature." (See article on "Ainsworth and Tack 
 Sheppard" in "Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1840.) 
 
 Airault. See Ayrault. 
 
 Array, J're, (Christopher,) an English clergyman, 
 born in Westmoreland about the beginning of the seven- 
 teenth century. He wrote on logic. Died in 1670. 
 
 Airay, (Henry,) an English Puritan, born in West- 
 moreland in 1560, became provost of Queen's College, 
 Oxford, and vice-chancellor of the university, about 1606. 
 He wrote "A Treatise against Bowing at the Name of 
 Jesus," and several other works. Died in 1616. 
 
 Aird, 3rd, (Thomas,) a Scottish poet, for some time 
 editor of the "Dumfries Herald," born in Roxburgh- 
 shire about 1802. He published in 1846 a volume of 
 poems, which are commended. He has also written 
 some prose works, among which is " Religious Charac- 
 teristics." 
 
 Airey, S're, (Sir Richard,) a British officer, born in 
 1803, served in the Crimean war, 1854-55, as quarter- 
 master-general. He became lieutenant-general in 1862. 
 
 Airy, a're, (George Bid'df.li.,) an English astrono- 
 mer, born at Alnwick, Northumberland, in 1801, was 
 educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he was 
 elected a Fellow in 1824. He became Lucasian profes- 
 sor of mathematics at Cambridge in 1826, and Plumian 
 professor of astronomy in 1828. In 1835 he was ap- 
 pointed astronomer royal and director of the Observa- 
 tory at Greenwich, the efficiency of which he increased 
 bv improved methods and new instruments. He was 
 efected in 1836 a Fellow of the Royal Society, from which 
 he lias received the Copley and Royal medals. He pub- 
 lished in 1846 an important "Abridgment of the Planet- 
 
 ary and Lunar Observations from 1750 to 1830." Among 
 his works are the articles " Figure of the Earth," ana 
 " Tides and Waves," in the " Encyclopaedia Metropoli 
 tana," and the article " Gravitation," in the " Penny Cy- 
 clopaedia." 
 
 Aischah. See Ayeshah. 
 
 Aisse, <i'sa', (Mademoiselle,) a fair Circassian, born 
 about 1694, was brought to France by Count de Ferriol 
 in 1698. She was educated by Madame de Tencin. Her 
 letters were published, with notes by Voltaire, (1787.) 
 Died in 1733. 
 
 Aitken, at'ken, (John,) M.D., a Scottish physician 
 and medical writer, who died in 1790. 
 
 Ait'kin, (Robert,) for many years a printer and pub- 
 lisher in Philadelphia, was born in Great Britain in 
 1 734, and came to America in 1769. He died in 18C2. 
 To him is generally attributed the authorship of an " In- 
 quiry into the Principles of a Commercial System for 
 the United States." 
 
 Aiton, a'ton, (John,) D.D., a British writer of the 
 present era, was minister of Dolphinton, county of Lan- 
 ark, Scotland. He published " The Lands of the Mes- 
 siah, Mohammed, and the Pope, as visited in 185 1," 
 (1852.) 
 
 Aiton, (William,) an eminent Scottish botanist, 
 born near Hamilton in 1731. He was selected in 1759 
 by George III. to establish and arrange a botanic gar- 
 den at Kew. In 1783 he became superintendent of the 
 pleasure- and kitchen-gardens of the king. He published 
 a descriptive catalogue of the plants cultivated in the 
 botanic garden, entitled " Hortus Kewensis," (3 vols., 
 1789,) which Lowndes calls an excellent work. Died in 
 
 1793- 
 
 Ai'ton, (William Townsend,) a landscape-gardener, 
 born in 1766, was a son of the preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded as superintendent at Kew. Died in 1849. 
 
 Aitsingerus or Aytsingerus, It-sin'jer-us, (Mi- 
 chael,) otherwise called Michael von Eytzing — 
 fon it'sing, an Austrian chronologist and historian, born 
 about 1535 ; died about 1600. 
 
 Aitzema, van, vin It-za'ma, (Foppe, fop'peh,) a 
 Dutch diplomatist, born in Friesland in 1586. Died at 
 Vienna in 1637. 
 
 Aitzema, van, (Leo,) a Dutch historian, born at 
 Doccum in 1600 ; died in 1669. He wrote a valuable 
 history of Holland, extending from 1621 to 1668, (15 
 vols., 1657-71.) 
 
 Aiyoob. Aiyub, or Aiyoub. See Job. 
 
 Aiyoob- (Aiyub- or Ayyub-) (Ibn-Shadi or 
 -Shadhi,) I'yoob' Ib'n sha'dee, [written in French Aioub 
 (or Ayoub) Ebn (or Ben) Schadi, and EiouB Ben 
 ChAdy,] surnamed Nejm-ed-Deen or Nedjm-ed-DIn, 
 nejm-ed-deen', (the "star of religion,") was born in Ar- 
 menia, or Western Persia, in the early part of the twelfth 
 century. His son, the famous Salah-ed-Din or Saladin, 
 having become the vizier of the Egyptian caliph AI-Ad- 
 hed, invited his father to Egypt. Aiyoob was received 
 with the highest honour by the caliph, as well as by Sal- 
 adin, who offered to resign his position in favour of his 
 father. But the latter refused to accept it, and died in 
 retirement in 11 73. The dynasty founded by Saladin is 
 called, from the name of his father, that of the Aiyoobites. 
 
 See D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheqne Orientale;" Quatrem&re, 
 " Histoire ties Sultans Mamelouks d'£gypte ;" also, the " Biographical 
 Dictionary" of Ibn-Khallikan. 
 
 Aiyoobites or Aiyubites, TVoob'Tts, written also 
 Ayyubites, Aioubites, and Eioubites, [called in 
 Arabic Aiyoo'bia and Benee (or Beni) Aiyoob, hh n'ee' 
 I'yoob', i.e. the " sons of Aiyoob,"] a name applied to the 
 successors of Saladin, who founded the Aiyoobite dynas- 
 ties of Egypt, Damascus, etc. (See preceding article.) 
 
 Ajala or Axala, de, di a-Ha'la, (Martin Perez,) a 
 Spanish prelate, born in 1504, became Archbishop of 
 Valencia. He wrote "Apostolic Traditions," (1562.) 
 Died in 1566. 
 
 Ajax, g'jax, [Gr. Amf,] the name of two Grecian 
 heroes who fought in the Trojan war. 
 
 Ajax,the son of Telamon, [in Latin, A'jax Telamo'- 
 nius,] was King of Salamis. He was often called "the 
 Great," on account of his great stature, in which he 
 exceeded all the other Greeks. He was also distin- 
 
 <• as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JEJ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 ^ 
 
AJAX 
 
 68 
 
 AKERBLAD 
 
 guished for his valour and beauty. He contended with 
 Ulysses for the armour of Achilles without success, be- 
 came ina<-; in consequence of this defeat, and killed 
 himself 
 
 See the "Iliad;" Sophocles, "Ajax;" Hycinus, "Fabulae." 
 
 Ajax, son of Oileus, was King of Locris, and was 
 called the " Lesser Ajax," to distinguish him from the 
 son of Telamon. Next to Achilles, he was the swiftest- 
 footed of the Greeks. He perished while returning from 
 Troy, through the wrath of Minerva and Neptune, whom 
 he Had offended by his impiety. 
 
 Ajello, a-yel'lo, (Sebastiano,) a Neapolitan medical 
 writer, who nourished about 1575. 
 
 Ajescha. See Ayeshah. 
 
 Akakia, S'kS'ke'i', written also Acacia, (Martin,) 
 an eminent French physician of the sixteenth century ; 
 died in 1551. His real name was Sans-Malice, ("with- 
 out malice,") which, according to the usage of those 
 times, he changed into the Greek Akakia, having the 
 same signification. He translated portions of Galen's 
 works, to which he added commentaries that show him 
 to have been a man of judgment and a close observer 
 of facts. He left a son of the same name, who became a 
 professor of surgery, and second physician to Henry III. 
 Died in 1588. 
 
 Akbar or Akber, tk'ber,* [usually pronounced by 
 the Hindoos uk'ber,] (written also Acbar, Ackbar, 
 Bkber,) Mohammed, surnamed Jalal-ed-Deen, (or 
 Djei.al-ed-Din,) ja-lSl' ed-deen', the " glory of the faith," 
 the greatest and best of all the Mogul emperors, was born 
 at Amerkote, in the valley of the Indus, the 14th of Oc- 
 tober, 1542. He appears to have been, like Alfred the 
 Great, one of those thoroughly accomplished sovereigns 
 of whom history presents us with so few examples. 
 His father Humayoon had been driven from his capital 
 by his rebellious subjects : so that Akbar was born in 
 exile. The young prince grew up amid privations and 
 dangers. He early distinguished himself by his courage 
 and magnanimity. The victory which restored Huma- 
 yoon to the throne of his father, after his long banish- 
 ment, was due in a great measure to the heroic example 
 of young Akbar, then only about fourteen years of age. 
 But, although he displayed on various occasions the 
 most splendid abilities as a general, his military achieve- 
 ments form the least part of the glory of his reign. He 
 was not only a brave and able commander, but a far- 
 seeing statesman and a humane, magnanimous, and 
 enlightened ruler. He treated all his subjects, whether 
 Mohammedans, Christians, Jews, or Hindoos, with strict 
 and impartial justice, so that he received and deserved 
 the title of Jiig'at Gooroo, the " protector or guardian 
 of mankind ;" and he furnishes perhaps the only exam- 
 ple in which an Oriental sovereign has really merited 
 such an appellation. If he had any fault as a ruler, it 
 was, perhaps, too great a lenity towards his enemies. 
 It is related that in the early part of his reign, when he 
 had not yet completed his sixteenth year, he had de- 
 feated and taken prisoner a brave but most troublesome 
 leader of a rebellious faction. The captive, covered 
 with wounds, was brought into the presence of the young 
 emperor. Akbar's vizier, who also held the office of 
 tutor or governor, exhorted him to take away with his 
 own hands the life of his dangerous foe. But, though 
 on the field of battle he had no superior, he had not the 
 nerve to kill in cold blood a defenceless captive. He 
 drew his sword, but, scarcely touching with it his victim, 
 he burst into tears. The vizier regarded the young 
 prince with a look of stern disapprobation, and then 
 with his own sabre struck off the head of his prisoner. 
 
 Akbar earnestly sought to lighten as far as practi- 
 cable the taxes and imposts of his subjects. With a 
 view to regulate the imposts according to a just scale, 
 
 * This is sometimes erroneously accentuated on the last syllable — 
 Akbar ; but the name is nothing more than the comparative and su- 
 perlative degree of the Arabic adjective Kebeerox Kebir, ("great,") and 
 should l>e pronounced, as every Arabic scholar knows, ak'bar. It sig- 
 nifies " greater" or " superior ;" also "greatest ;" hence as a surname 
 it nearly corresponds to the Latin Maximus, which was given as a 
 surname to the greatest of the Fabii. "Allah Akbar," the battle-cry 
 of the Moslems, is often incorrectly rendered "God is great:" it prop- 
 erly signifies " God is greatest," or superior to every other power: 
 hence Gibbou translates it "God is victorious." 
 
 he caused to be taken a complete survey or census 
 of his whole empire, with minute statistical details in 
 regard to the extent or area of the different provinces 
 and their various productions. The book treating of 
 these particulars, called Ayeen Akbery, ("Institutes of 
 Akbar,") enjoys a great celebrity, and is probably with- 
 out a parallel in Oriental history. Among his other 
 regulations, Akbar established throughout his vast do- 
 minions posts, (called by the Hindoos Dak Chowkee,) 
 to convey either ordinary letters or the expresses of the 
 government. According to Ferishtah, he never during 
 his reign had less than five thousand elephants, (proba- 
 bly the greatest number ever possessed by any Indian 
 sovereign ;) he had also twelve thousand stable-horses, 
 and nearly one thousand hunting leopards. Akbar died 
 in 1605, after a reign of fifty-one years, during which he 
 had enlarged his dominions by the conquest of Bengal 
 and the greater part of the Dekkan. With him died, it 
 would seem, all the magnanimity which had hitherto 
 distinguished the race of Baber. He was succeeded by 
 his son Selim, better known by the proud title of Je- 
 hangeer, or the "Conqueror of the World." 
 
 See Ferishta, " History of the Mahomedan Power in India," 
 translated by Briggs, vol. 11. : Elphinstone, " History of India ;" 
 Mill, " History of British India," 1841 ; Abool-Fazl, "Akbar 
 Namah;" "Memoirs of Humayoon," translated into English by 
 Stewart; Rickards, "India," 2 vols., 1821. 
 
 Akemoff. See Akimoff. 
 
 Aken, van, vin a'ken, (Jan or Jean,) a Dutch or 
 Flemish artist, distinguished as a painter and still more 
 as an engraver, lived in the first half of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 Aken, van, (Joseph,) a painter of Antwerp, born 
 about 1 7 10, excelled in his representations of draperies 
 and embroidery. He came to England, where he died 
 about 1750. 
 
 Akenside, a'ken-sld, (Mark,) an eminent English 
 didactic poet, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1721, was the 
 son of a butcher. His parents were dissenters. His mo- 
 ther's name was Mary Lumsden. He studied at the Uni. 
 versify of Edinburgh, devoting his chief attention to med- 
 ical sciences, and took his degree of M.D. at Leyden in 
 1744. On this occasion he wrote an able Latin thesis 
 on the origin and growth of the human foetus, and at. 
 tacked some prevalent theories on that subject which 
 have since been supplanted. He had begun to write 
 verse at an early age. His principal poem, " The Pleas- 
 ures of the Imagination," in blank verse, appeared in 
 1 744, and had a great success. 
 
 " It has undoubtedly a just claim to very particular 
 notice," says Dr. Johnson, " as an example of great feli- 
 city of genius and uncommon amplitude of acquisitions, 
 of a young mind stored with images and much exercised 
 in combining and comparing them. ... In the 
 general fabrication of his lines he is perhaps superior to 
 any other writer of blank verse ; his flow is smooth and 
 his pauses are musical, but the concatenation of his 
 verses is commonly too long continued, and the full close 
 does not recur with sufficient frequency." Addison's 
 essays on the Pleasures of the Imagination formed the 
 groundwork of this poem. 
 
 Akenside published a volume of odes in 1745. In 
 1748 he became a resident of London, where he prac- 
 tised medicine with moderate success until his death. 
 He was appointed a physician to St. Thomas's Hospital, 
 and one of the physicians to the queen about 1760. 
 Besides the works above named, he wrote several short 
 poems and medical treatises, including a treatise on 
 Dysentery, (1764,) in elegant Latin, which, says Johnson, 
 " entitled him to the same height of place among the 
 scholars as he possessed before among the wits." Died 
 in 1770. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the Poets ;" Bucke, " Life, Writings, 
 and Genius of Akenside," 1832; Kippis, " Biographia Britannica ;" 
 Campbell, " Specimens of the English Poets." 
 
 Akerblad,a'ker-blad, (Johan David,) a distinguished 
 Orientalist and antiquary, born in Sweden in 1760. 
 Having been attached to the Swedish embassy at Con- 
 stantinople, he visited Jerusalem in 1792, and the Tread 
 {i.e. the plain on which ancient Troy was situated) in 
 1797. He was the first who attempted with any success 
 
 a J, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, J, short ; a,e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t;g<5i>d;mf'i&n; 
 
AKEREL 
 
 69 
 
 ALARCON 
 
 to decipher the cursive or demotic writing of the ancient 
 Egyptians. His chief work is a " Letter on the Egyptian 
 Inscription of Rosetta," (1802.) Died in 1819. 
 
 See Chamfollion, " Grammaire Egyptienne ; " " Biographie Uni- 
 verselle," (Supplement.) 
 
 Akerel, a'ker-el, (Frkdrick,) a Swedish engraver, 
 born at Soderm'annjand in 1748. Died in 1804. 
 
 Akerhielm, o'ker-hyelm', (Anna,) a learned Swedish 
 lady, born in 1642. Died in 1698. 
 
 Akermaim, a'ker-man, (Anders,) a Swedish en- 
 graver, born at Upsal in 1718. Died in 1778. 
 
 Akers, a'kerz, (Benjamin Paul,) an American sculp- 
 tor, born at Saccarappa, in Maine, in 1825. He passed 
 several years at Rome, whither he went in 1855. Among 
 his works are busts of Edward Everett and Henry W. 
 Longfellow, and a head of Milton. Died in Philadelphia 
 in Hay, 1861. 
 
 See Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists," New York, 1867. 
 
 Akersbot, a'kers-bot, (Willem,) a Dutch painter 
 and engraver, lived at Haarlem in the first half of the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 Akiba, a-kee'bd, (Ben Joseph,) a famous Jewish 
 rabbi, born in thefirst year of the Christian era. Hav- 
 ing joined the false Messiah Bar-Cokeba, (a.d. 120,) he 
 was taken prisoner and put to a cruel death by the Ro- 
 mans, after a life of one hundred and twenty years. 
 
 Akimoff, Akimov, or Akimow, a-ke-mof , written 
 also Akemov, (Ivan,) an eminent Russian painter, 
 born in 1754 ; died in 1 8 14. 
 
 Akoui. See Akwei. 
 
 Ak-Shems-ed-Deen, (or -ed-Din,) Sk-shems-ed- 
 deen', [i.e. the " White (or bright) Sun of the Faith,") a 
 Turkish sheikh, famous for his prophecies, born in Syria 
 in 1389; died about 1472. When the troops of Ma- 
 homet II., after having besieged Constantinople, had 
 become discouraged with the obstinate resistance of the 
 Greeks, Ak-Shems-ed-Deen is said to have predicted 
 truly the day and hour in which the city would be taken. 
 
 Akwei, a-kwa'e, (or Akoui, a-kwee',) a distinguished 
 Chinese general and prime minister during the reign of 
 Keen-Loong, (or-Loung,) which lasted from 1736 to 1796. 
 
 AL, al or al, the Arabic definite article, forming a 
 prefix to a multitude of Oriental names : as, Al-Adel, a 
 surname signifying "the Just;" Al-Ameen (-Amin,) 
 " the Trustworthy ;"Ai.-M ansoor, " the Victorious," etc. 
 It should be observed that the / in this particle is often 
 changed so as to correspond to the initial consonant of 
 the following word: as, Ad-Demeeree for Al-Demeeree, 
 (-Demir?,) An-Nasir for Al-Nasir, Ar-Rasheed for 
 Al-Rasheed, (-Rasch?d,) As-Seffah for Al-Sf.ffah, 
 (or -Saffah.) The a in al has an obscure sound, and is 
 sometimes pronounced nearly like 661, at other times like 
 ul or el, varying according to the different dialects. (See re- 
 marks on Oriental names in the Introduction to this work.) 
 
 Al-a-bas'ter, (William,) an English writer, born in 
 Suffolk in 1567 ; died in 1640. He was chaplain to the 
 Earl of Essex in his expedition to Cadiz in 1596. He 
 is chiefly known as the author of a Latin tragedy entitled 
 " Roxana," said to be to a great extent a mere transla- 
 tion from an Italian drama by Groto. The poet Spenser 
 expressed great admiration for his poetry. 
 
 See Fuller. " Worthies of England ;" Wood, " Fasti Oxonien- 
 ses," in "Athena? Oxonienses:" Addison. "Spectator," No. 221. 
 
 Alacoque.i'li'kok', (Marguerite,) a French nun, 
 born in 1647 ; died in 1690. As a reward for her emi- 
 nent piety, she was, it is said, gifted with prophecy, and 
 foretold correctly the time of her own death. 
 
 Ala-ed-Deeri,(or Ala-ed-Din,) a-la'ed-deen', written 
 also Aladdin, a yotmger son of Osman the founder of 
 the Ottoman Empire, Was a distinguished statesman of the 
 fourteenth century, and first organized the band called 
 Janissaries, (i.e. \ eni-Sheri, va'nee-sha'ree, or the "new 
 troops.") In 1370, Ala-ed-Deen, at the head of his new 
 soldiers, gained a great victory over the emperor An- 
 dronicus, and took Nicaea, the bulwark of the Greek 
 Empire in Asia. 
 
 See Von Hammer, " Geschichte den Osmanischen Reichs;" 
 Marsigli, "Stato militare dell' ImperioOttomano.' 
 
 m A KMULI, OHIO iMllllitlc ucn iiii^iiw t/iiiiiuauu. 
 
 c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, 
 
 Alagon, d', di'lt'goN', (Louis,) a French nobleman 
 put to death in 1005 for having entered into a plot for 
 delivering Marseilles into the hands of the Spaniards. 
 
 Alahmar, a-laH'mar, (Ibn (Ib'n) Moham'med,) the 
 first king of Granada, built the Alhambra. Died in 1237. 
 
 Alaimo. See Alaymo. 
 
 Alaimo, a-li'mo, a Sicilian nobleman, who took a 
 part in the famous conspiracy called the Sicilian Ves- 
 pers in 1282. Afterwards, in 1287, he was drowned by 
 the order of the King of Sicily. 
 
 Alain, S'U.n', or Alan, i'l&N', [Lat. Ala'nus,] a 
 bishop of Auxerre (France) in the twelfth century, who 
 wrote a life of Saint Bernard. Died about 1 185. 
 
 Alain, (John.) See Alan. 
 
 Alain Chartier. See Chartier. 
 
 Alain de Lille, a'laN' deh lei, [in Latin, Ala'nus de 
 In'sulis,] a French ecclesiastic, surnamed the Univer- 
 sal Doctor, was reputed one of the most learned men 
 of the twelfth century. He died about the year 1200, 
 leaving numerous works, some of which are in verse. 
 
 Alaleoua,* a-la-la-o'na, (Giuseppe,) an Italian law- 
 yer and litterateur, born at Macerata in 1670; died in 
 
 1749- 
 
 Alaman, a-la-man', (Lucas,) a Mexican politician, 
 born in the eighteenth century. He was appointed min- 
 ister of foreign affairs (1853) by Santa Anna. His policy 
 was reactionary and despotic. Died in 1855. 
 
 Alaman, d', di'li'm&N', (Sicard,) the chief minister 
 and favourite of Raymond VII. of Toulouse. Died in 
 1275. 
 
 Alamanni. See Alemanni. 
 
 Alamanno. See Alemanni. 
 
 Alameen, (Alamin,) a-la-meen', (Mohammed,) a 
 son of Haroon-ar-Rasheed, (Haroun-al-Raschid,) whom 
 he succeeded in the caliphate in 809. Having disre- 
 garded his father's injunctions that he should give the 
 command of the army to his brother Al-Mamoon and 
 continue him in the government of Khorassan, he was, 
 after a short and troubled reign, besieged in his own 
 capital, and slain while on his way to surrender himself 
 to his victorious brother, in 813. 
 
 Al- Ameer' or Al-Amir, al-a-meeR', a Saracen, who 
 assumed the title of caliph in the ninth century, and 
 ravaged some parts of the Greek Empire. 
 
 Alamos, <rla-m6s, (Baltazar,) a Spanish writer, 
 who lived in the latter part of the sixteenth and begin- 
 ning of the seventeenth century, was born at Medina del 
 Campo. He is the author of an accurate Spanish trans- 
 lation of Tacitus, (1614.) 
 
 Alamundar,al-a-moon-dar',(?) a Saracen prince, who 
 invaded Palestine in 509 A.D., and, it is said, was con- 
 verted by the anchorites. 
 
 Alan, Cardinal. See Allen, (William.) 
 
 Alan (al'an) of Lynn, an English theologian and 
 monk, born at Lynn. Died about 1420. 
 
 Alan of Ti'WKK.sm'KV, an English monk of the 
 twelfth century, wrote a Life of Thomas a Becket. Died 
 in 1201. 
 
 Alan, a'lan, or Alanus, a-li'nus, (Johann,) a Danish 
 writer and professor of philosophy, was born at Ala 
 about 1565. Died in 1631. 
 
 Aland. See FORTESCUE, (Sir John.) 
 
 Al'an-son, (Edward,) an English surgeon, born in 
 Lancashire in 1747. He practised in Liverpool, made 
 improvemcrts in the method of amputation, and wrote 
 " Practical Observations upon Amputation," (1779.) 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 Alarcon, a-laR-kon', (Ff.rnan Martinez de Ce- 
 vallos — da tha-val'yos,) the founder of the noble house 
 of Alarcon, fought against the Moors in Spain in the 
 twelfth century. 
 
 Alarcon, de, da a-lau-kon', (Don Antonio Suarez 
 — swi'reth,) a Spanish historian, born about 1636, was a 
 son of the Marquis of Trocifal. Died about 1663. 
 
 Alarcon, de, (Don Fernando,) called El Senor 
 Alarcon, a famous Spanish general, born about 1406, 
 to whose custody Francis I. was committed after the 
 
 * The " Nouvelle Biographie Ge*neVale" spells this name Alalcona^ 
 but this is doubtless a misprint. Compare Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori 
 d'ltalia." 
 
 trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jjy"See Explanations, p. 23.J 
 
 ^ 
 
ALAR CON 
 
 70 
 
 ALAWT 
 
 battle of Pavia, 1525. He had a high reputation for 
 honour and bravery. To him was intrusted the custody 
 of the captive pope Clement VII. in 1527. Died in 1540. 
 
 See Antonio Suarez de Alarcon, " Comentarios de los hechos 
 del Seiior Alarcon," 1665. 
 
 Alarcon, de, (Hernando,) a Spanish navigator, of 
 whom little is known. He was sent in 1540 to explore 
 the coast of California, of which he made an accurate 
 survey. He was the first who ascertained that Lower 
 California was not an island, but a peninsula. 
 
 See D. de Mofras, " Explorations des Territoires de l'Oregon, 
 des Califomies, etc." 
 
 Alarcon y Mendoza, de, da a-laR-kon' e men-do'- 
 tha, (Don Juan Ruiz — roo-eeth',) an excellent Spanish 
 lramatic poet, born in the province of Mexico about the 
 end of the sixteenth century. He removed to Spain 
 about 1622, and attained eminence as a lawyer. A vol- 
 ume of his dramas was published in 1628, and another in 
 1634. Among his works are "Las Paredes oyen," 
 (" Walls have Ears ;") " El Examen de Maridos," (" Trial 
 of Husbands ;") and " LaVerdad sospechosa," ("Suspi- 
 cious Truth,") which was the original of Corneille's 
 " Menteur." His moral tone is highly commended ; his 
 versification is easy and harmonious. His other princi- 
 pal merits are a faithful delineation of Spanish manners, 
 and a nervous expression of noble sentiments. 
 
 See A. de Puibusqije, " Histoire compare'e des LitteYatures Es- 
 pagnoles et Francaises;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana." 
 
 Alard, a'laRt or I'IIr', written also Adelard, a Dutch 
 ecclesiastic, born at Amsterdam in 1490, was the author 
 of several controversial works. 
 
 Alard, (Francis,) a theologian, born at Brussels in 
 the sixteenth century. He was converted to Protestant- 
 ism by reading a work by Luther. Having been de- 
 nounced to the Inquisition by his own mother, it was 
 determined to poison him, in order to save his relatives 
 from the shame of a public execution. The poison did 
 not take effect ; and he afterwards escaped from prison, 
 and died in Holstein in 1578. 
 
 See a Life of F. Alard, by his grandson Lambert, in " Danische 
 Bibliotbek," vi. ; and Nicholas Alard, "Decas Alardorum Scriptis 
 Clarornm." 
 
 Alard, 4'laRt, (Lambert,) a German writer, a son of 
 Wilhelm, noticed below, born in Holstein in 1602, was 
 the author of a treatise " On the Music of the An- 
 cients," in Latin, and a history of Holstein, entitled 
 " Nordalbingia," etc., (1628.) Died in 1672. 
 
 Alard, 4'ISr', (Marie Joseph Louis,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Toulouse in 1779. Died in Paris 
 in 1850. 
 
 Alard a'laRt, (Nicholas,) a German biographer, 
 born at Tonningen in 1683, wrote "Decas Alardorum 
 Scriptis Clarorum," (1721.) Died in 1756. 
 
 Alard, (Wilhelm, or William,) a son of Francis, 
 above named, was born in 1572, and became pastor at 
 Crempe, in Holstein. He wrote many religious works, 
 and Latin poetry which was much admired. Died in 
 1645. 
 
 A-lar'dus, (surnamed Almstelreda'mus, from the 
 p'ace of his birth,) a distinguished scholar and rhetori- 
 cian, born in Amsterdam towards the end of the fifteenth 
 century; died about 1541. 
 
 Al'ar-ic, [Lat. Alari'cus,] a famous conqueror, King 
 of the Visigoths, was born about 350 A.D. He served for 
 some time in the army of the emperor Theodosius, who 
 died in 393. Having been offended by Arcadius, he in- 
 vaded the Eastern Empire with a large army in 396. He 
 captured Corinth and other cities, and ravaged the coun- 
 try, but was checked by Stilicho, (or Stilicon,) and con- 
 cluded a treaty with the ministers of Arcadius, who 
 admitted him again into his service, with the rank of 
 general. In 402 he invaded Italy, where he was de- 
 feated by Stilicho at Pollentia, and was compelled to 
 withdraw from Italy. After the death of Stilicho, Alaric 
 renewed, in 408, the invasion of Italy, where the feeble 
 Honorius offered little resistance. He advanced to the 
 gates of Rome, then the most magnificent city of the 
 world, the citizens of which induced him to spare it by 
 the payment of five thousand pounds of gold and thirty 
 thousand pounds of silver. He soon after withdrew his 
 army into Tuscany. Negotiations ensued between Ala- 
 
 ric and Honorius ; but the latter foolishly rejected the 
 reasonable terms offered by the victorious Goth, who 
 captured Rome in 410 and delivered it up to pillage for 
 six days. The churches and public buildings, however, 
 were spared. Alaric marched southward, with a design 
 to conquer Sicily, and died at Cosenza in 410. 
 
 See Jornandes, "De Rebus Geticis;" .Sozomen, "Hisloria;" 
 Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Claudian, 
 "De Bello Getico." 
 
 Alaric II., a king of the Visigoths, who succeeded 
 his father Euric in 484 a.d. He was killed in battle 
 by the hand of Clovis, King of the Franks, in 507. The 
 reign of Alaric II. was distinguished by the formation of 
 a body of laws known as the " Breviarium Alaricianum," 
 i.e. "Compilation or Abridgment of Alaric." 
 
 Alary, S'li're', (George,) a French missionary, born 
 in 1731 ; died in 1817. He preached in the Burmese 
 Empire, and afterwards in China, making many converts. 
 He returned to his native country about 1772. 
 
 Alary, (Jean,) a French poet, born at Toulouse in 
 the sixteenth century. He wrote, besides other poems, 
 " Virtue Triumphant over Fortune," (1622,) and a prose 
 work called "Abrege des longues Etudes," ("Abridg- 
 ment of Long Studies.") 
 
 Alary, (Pierre Joseph,) a French academician, born 
 in Paris in 1689. He was sub-preceptor to Louis XV., 
 and was admitted into the French Academy in 1723. 
 His Letters to Bolingbroke were published. Died in 1 770. 
 
 See Bolingbroke's "Letters." 
 
 A Lasco, Alasco, or Alasko, a-las'ko, (John,) a 
 
 Polish Protestant theologian, born in 1499. He avowed 
 
 his conversion to the doctrines of the Reformation after 
 
 he had become Bishop of Vesprim in 1529. He preached 
 
 some years at Emden, and in the reign of Edward VI. 
 
 went to London, where he had charge of a congregation, 
 
 On the accession of Mary (1553) he was compelled to 
 
 leave England, and returned to Germany. He wrote 
 
 several works on theology. Died in Poland in 1560. 
 
 See J. F. Bertram, " Griindlicher Bericht von Johann Alasco," 
 3 vols., 1733. 
 
 Al-Asharee, (Al-Ashart,) al-ash'a-ree', an Arabian 
 doctor, born at Basrah about 860 a.d. He was the foundei 
 of a Mohammedan sect called Asharites. Died about 940. 
 
 Alasko. See Alasco. 
 
 Alasmai. See Ahdel-Malek-Ibn-Koreyp,. 
 
 Alatino, a-la-tee'no, (Moses,) a Jewish physician, 
 born at Spoleto, Italy; lived about 1600. He translated 
 into Latin Galen's treatise on Hippocrates' work en- 
 titled "De Acre Locis et Aquis." (See Hippocrates.) 
 
 Alaudanus. See Allouette. 
 
 Alaux, S'lo', (Jean,) a French historical painter, born 
 at Bordeaux in 1786. He was patronized by Louis 
 Philippe, and became a member of the Institute. 
 
 Alava, d', da'la-va, (Miguel Ricardo,) a Spanish 
 general, born at Vittoria in 1771. He fought against the 
 French in the Peninsular war, became aide-de-camp to 
 Wellington, and obtained the rank of general of brigade 
 about 1813. In May, 1822, he was chosen President of 
 the Cortes, and in the next month fought for the Consti- 
 tution and the Cortes against the insurgents. His party 
 having been subdued by French intervention, he went 
 into exile in 1823. He returned to Spain after the death 
 of Ferdinand, and was sent as ambassador to London in 
 1834. Died in 1843. 
 
 Alava Esquivel, d', da'la-va es-ke-vel', (Diego,) a 
 Spanish prelate, born at Vittoria. He was successively 
 Bishop of Astorga, of Avila, and of Cordova, and wrote 
 a work on Councils, "DeConsiliis Universalibus," (pub- 
 lished in 1582.) Died in 1562. 
 
 Alava y Navarete, de, da a'ld-va e na-va-ra'ta, 
 (Don Ignacio Maria,) a Spanish admiral, born at Vit- 
 toria. He entered the navy in 1766, and became rear- 
 admiral in 1787. In 1794 he set out on a voyage of cir- 
 cumnavigation, during which he rectified many errors 
 in the charts of the South Sea. He was second in com- 
 mand of the Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, (1805,) where he 
 was wounded. In 1817 he was raised to the rank of high- 
 admiral. Died the same year. 
 
 See Clark's "Life of Nelson." 
 
 Alawy, a-la'wee, a Persian physician, bo*m at Shiraz 
 in 1669, was patronized by Aurungzebe. Pied in 1749. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; n6t; good; radon; 
 
ALATMO 
 
 7« 
 
 ALBERICUS 
 
 Alaymo, Alaimo, pronounced alike d-ll'mo, or Al- 
 caimo, al-ki'mo, (Mauco Antonio,) an Italian physi- 
 cian, born in Sicily in 1590. He practised at Palermo, 
 and was regarded as the first physician of his time in 
 Sicily. Among his works is one called " Diadecticon," 
 giving an account of different medicinal substances, 
 (1637.) Died in 1662. 
 
 Alba. See Alva. 
 
 Alba, d', (Machino.) See Machino d'Alba. 
 
 Albacini, al-ba-chee'nee, (Carlo,) a Roman sculp- 
 tor who flourished in the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century. He was much employed in the restoration of 
 antique statues. He was living in 1S07. 
 
 Alban, aul'ban, Saint, the first person put to death 
 in England for embracing the Christian faith. He suf- 
 fered martyrdom in the time of Diocletian, about 285 
 A.D. The monastery of Saint Albans was founded, in 
 honour of him, in the eighth century. 
 
 Albane. See Albani, (Francksco.) 
 
 Albaneze, aTbi'naz', or Albanese, al-ba-na'sa, a 
 noted Italian singer, who lived in Paris. He died in 
 1800. 
 
 Albani, al-M'nee, (Alessandro,) [Lat. Alexan'- 
 der Alba'nus,] a nephew of Pope Clement XI., born 
 at Urbino in 1692, was made cardinal in 1731. He was 
 a liberal patron of learning and the arts. He made a 
 very valuable collection of statues and other works of 
 art Died in 1779. 
 
 See Strocchi, "De Vita Alex. Albani Cardinalis," 1790. 
 
 Albani, (Annibale,) Cardinal, born at Urbino in 
 1682, wrote "Memoirs of the City of Urbino," (1724.) 
 Died about 1750. 
 
 Albani, (Francesco,) [in French, L'Albane, ltl'- 
 bin',] a distinguished Italian painter, born at Bologna 
 in 1578, was a pupil of Denis Calvart and of Ludovico 
 Caracci. He painted mostly in Bologna and Rome ; 
 in the latter city he executed some large frescos. His 
 best works are small oil-pictures, treating of subjects 
 from ancient poetry and mythology, and are highly fin- 
 ished. In the opinion of Mengs, his studies of women 
 surpass those of all other painters. He excelled also in 
 rural prospects. He reproduced in many of his works 
 " Venus Sleeping," " Diana Bathing," and similar sub- 
 jects. Among his master-pieces are " The Four Ele- 
 ments," " The Toilet of Venus," a " Noli-me-Tangere," 
 and an Annunciation. He had a family of twelve chil- 
 dren, who, as well as his wife, were remarkable for their 
 beauty, and served him as models for his angels, Ve- 
 nuses, and Cupids. The sculptors Algardi and Fiam- 
 mingo, it is said, likewise studied Albani's children as 
 models. Died at Bologna in 1660. 
 
 See Malvasia, " Felsina Pittrice ;" Passer!, "Vite de' Pittori;" 
 Heinecken, " Dictionnaire ties Artistes." 
 
 Albani, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian landscape- 
 painter, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1668. 
 
 Albani, (Giovanni Francesco.) See Clement XI. 
 
 Albani, (Giovanni Francesco,) a nephew of the 
 cardinal Alessandro Albani, born at Urbino in 1720, and 
 made cardinal in 1747. Died in 1809. 
 
 Albani, (Giuseppe,) an Italian nobleman, born at 
 Rome in 1750, became cardinal in 1801, and died in 1834. 
 
 Albano. See Alhani, (Francesco.) 
 
 Albano, al-bt'no, (Giovanni Girolamo,) [Lat. Jo- 
 han'nes Mii-.ron'vmus ALBA'NUS,] an eminent Italian 
 lawyer, burn at Bergamo in 1504, made cardinal in 1570, 
 and died in 1591. 
 
 Albans, Saint, sent aul'banz, (John of,) a physi- 
 cian, philosopher, and theologian, bom near Saint Al- 
 bans, in England. In 1198 he became chief physician 
 to Philip II. of France; in 1228 he joined the Domi- 
 nican order, and died about the middle of the thirteenth 
 century. 
 
 Albans, Saint, (Duchess of,) an English actress, 
 whose maiden name was Mellon, was married first to 
 the rich banker Coutts, and again to the Duke of Saint 
 Albans. Died in 1837. 
 
 Albany, Al'ba-ne, (Louisa,) Countess of, a daughter 
 of Prince Stolbcrg-Gcdern, was born in 1753. She was 
 married in 1772 to the Pretender Charles Stuart, a grand- 
 son of James II., from whom she was separated in 1780. 
 Soon after the death of her husband (1788) she was 
 
 privately married to the poet Alfieri, and settled at 
 ■ Florence. (See Alfieri.) He ascribed to her influence 
 much of his success as an author. Died in 1824. 
 
 Albarelli, al-ba-rel'lee,(jACOPo,) a Venetian sculptor, 
 born about 1570; died in 1620. 
 
 Albaspinus. See Aubespine. 
 
 Al-ba-teg'nI-us, the Latin name of Albatenee, ( Al- 
 bateni) al-ba-ta'nee, or Albatini, al-ba-tee'nee, a cele- 
 brated Arabian astronomer, who died at Bagdad in 
 929. He made an abridgment of the Almagest of Ptol- 
 emy, with a commentary, and wrote other valuable works. 
 
 Albe, d', Due. See Alva, Duke of. 
 
 Al-Beidawi, (or -Beidhawi.) See Beidawee. 
 
 Albeladory or Al-Beladori, (an Arabian historian.) 
 See Beladori. 
 
 Al'be-marle, (Arnold van Kep'pel,) Earl of, a 
 Dutch gentleman, born in Guelderland in 1669. He 
 became a favourite courtier and attendant of William, 
 Prince of Orange, whom he accompanied to England in 
 168S. "Courage, loyalty, and secrecy were common 
 between him and Portland," says Macaulay. He was 
 created Earl of Albemarle and Master of the Robes by 
 William III., and was a rival of the Duke of Portland. 
 He served as general in the war against Louis XIV., 
 (1702-12.) Died in 1718. 
 
 See Macaulav's "History of England," vol. v. 
 
 Albemarle, Duke of. See Monk. 
 
 Albenas, d, dtlb'na', or daTbeh-na', (Jean Joseph,) 
 Vicomte, a French military officer and writer, born near 
 Nimes in 1760; died in 1824. 
 
 Albenas, d', (Jean Poldo — pol'do',) a French anti- 
 quary, born at Nimes in 1512, was a Protestant. He 
 wrote a work on the antiquities of Nimes, (1560.) Died 
 in 1565. 
 
 Alber, Sl'ber, [Lat. Al'iierus,] (Erasmus,) a learned 
 German poet and witty satirist, who was an intimate 
 friend of Luther, and a zealous Protestant. He was 
 born at Sprendlingen, a village of Hesse-Darmstadt, but 
 the date of his birth is unknown. He was employed as 
 teacher or preacher at Stade, Magdeburg, and other 
 places. He wrote, besides satires against the Roman 
 Catholics, many sacred songs or hymns, abounding in 
 original ideas. Died in 1553. 
 
 See J. J. Korber, " Beitrag zu der Lebensbeschreibung Erasini 
 Alberi." 
 
 Albergati, al-MR-ga'tee, (Fabio,) an Italian political 
 writer, born at Bologna. Died about 1605. 
 
 Albergati, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian, born at Bologna in 
 1375, was made cardinal in 1426, and died in 1443. 
 
 Albergati-Capacelli, d', dal-b?R-ga'tee ka-pa-chel'- 
 lee, (Francesco,) an Italian marquis, senator of Bo- 
 logna, born in 1728, devoted himself to theatrical rep- 
 resentations and became a consummate actor. He also 
 composed several comedies and farces. Died in 1804. 
 
 Albergoni, Sl-bdR-go'nee, an Italian preacher and 
 learned theologian, born at Milan in the latter part of 
 the sixteenth century ; died in 1636. 
 
 Albergotti, al-beR-got'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 lawyer, born at Arezzo in 1304 ; died in 1376. 
 
 Albert, al'ba-icc, (EUGENIO,) an Italian writer, born 
 at Padua in 181 7. He published a Life of Catherine de 
 Medicis, (1838,) and a work, " De' Lavori di G. Galilei," 
 (I843-) 
 
 Alberto I. and IX See Ai.bericus I. and II. 
 
 Alberic, il'b&'rck', a Benedictine monk, afterwards a 
 bishop, born at lieauvais in 1080. In 1140 he con- 
 voked at Antioch a council which deposed the patriarch 
 Rodolphus, (or Rudolphus.) Died in 1 147. 
 
 Alberic (aTba'rek') of Trois FONTAINES, (tRwa 
 fo.N'tAn',) a French chronicler of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Alberici, al-ba-rcc'chce, or Albrizzi, IU-bRet'see, 
 (Enrico,) an Italian painter of Bergamo, born in 1714; 
 died in 1775. 
 
 Alberico de Rosciate, al-ba-ree'ko da ro-sha'ta, 
 an eminent Italian lawyer, born near Bergamo about 
 the beginning of the fourteenth century. Died in 1354. 
 
 Al-be-ri'cus or Alberico (51-bi-ree'ko) [Fr. Al- 
 beric, Sl'ba'rek'l I, a count of Tusculum, and con- 
 sul of Rome in the tenth century. 
 
 Albericus H., a son of the preceding, married the 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard: g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. ( UySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ALBERO 
 
 72 
 
 ALBERT 
 
 daughter of Hugo, King of Italy, and governed Rome 
 with full authority from 936 till his death in 954. 
 
 Al'be-ro I. and II., the name of two bishop-princes 
 of Liege in the twelfth century. 
 
 Alberoni, al-ba-ro'nee, (Giulio,) an Italian, born 
 near Piacenza in 1664. Having been appointed agent 
 of the Duke of Parma at the court of Madrid, he won 
 the favour of Philip V., obtained a cardinal's hat, and 
 was made prime minister of Spain about 17 16. Aiming 
 to restore to that country the power she had possessed 
 under Philip II., Alberoni, as little restrained by sound 
 judgment as by principle or the laws of nations, without 
 any declaration of war, surprised and captured Cagliari 
 and other towns of Sardinia then belonging to the Em- 
 peror of Germany. All Europe cried out against this 
 violation of the rights of nations, and the ambitious car- 
 dinal was, in consequence, deprived of his office, in 
 1719, and banished from Spain. He retired to Italy, 
 where he died in 1792. 
 
 See Rousset dk Mlssy, "Vie d' Alberoni," 1719; G. Moore, 
 "Life of Cardinal Alberoni," 1806. 
 
 Albers, al'bers, (Heinrich Philipp,) a German phy- 
 sician, born at Hameln in 1768; died in 1830. 
 
 Albers, (Johann Abraham,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man physician, born at Bremen in 1772. He first in- 
 troduced among his countrymen a knowledge of the doc- 
 trines of Broussais and the discoveries of Laennec. Died 
 in 1821. 
 
 Albers, (Johann Friedrich Hermann,) a German 
 
 Ehysician, born at Dorsten, near Wesel, in 1805. He 
 ecame professor of medicine at Bonn in 183 1. Among 
 his works is a " Manual of General Pathology," (2 vols., 
 1842-44.) 
 
 Albert, al'bert, [Ger. Albrecht, al'bRCKt,] I., Duke 
 of Austria, son of Rudolph of Habsburg, was born in 
 1248, and elected Emperor of Germany in 1298, in the 
 place of Adolphus of Nassau, who had been deposed. 
 He was distinguished for his avarice, cruelty, and for an 
 all-grasping and unprincipled ambition. In 1308 a con- 
 spiracy of the nobles was formed against him, and he 
 was kdled by his own nephew, John surnamed the Par- 
 ricide. 
 
 See Pezzl, " Oesterreichische Biographie ;" J. C. Pfister, " Ge- 
 schichte der Teutschen." 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) II, (or the Lame,) Duke of 
 Austria, was a younger son of the preceding. He was 
 born in 1298, began to reign in 1330, and died in 1358. 
 
 Albert III., Duke of Austria, a son of Albert the 
 Lame, born in 1348, died in 1395. He was a distin- 
 guished patron of the arts and sciences. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Luden, 
 " Histoire de l'Allemagne." 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) IV., Duke of Austria, born in 
 1377, succeeded his father, Albert III., in 1395. He 
 was a nephew of Sigismund, King of Hungary, and of 
 Wenceslaus of Bohemia, each of whom appointed Albert 
 his successor. Died in 1404. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) V., Duke of Austria, son of Al- 
 bert IV., was born in 1397, and succeeded his father in 
 1404. He distinguished himself by his activity against 
 the Hussites, over whom he gained several victories. 
 In 1435 he drove the Turks from Hungary; and on 
 the death of Sigismund, his father-in-law, the Hunga- 
 rians chose Albert for their king. In 1438 he was 
 elected Emperor, and thus became Albert II. of Ger- 
 many. He died in 1439. 
 
 See Wenk, " Historia Alberti II.," 1740; Hormayr, " Oester- 
 reicliischer Plutarch;" Ersch und Gruber, " Ailgemeine Eucykic- 
 paedie." 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) VI., Duke of Austria, surnamed 
 the Prodigal, born in 1418, was a son of Ernest. 
 The dominions of Ernest were divided, in 1438, between 
 Albert and his brother Frederick III., Emperor of Ger- 
 many. Died in 1463. 
 
 Albert, (Albrecht,) Archduke of Austria, a son of 
 the emperor Maximilian II., was born in 1559. He was 
 appointed Governor of the Low Countries by Philip II. 
 in 1596, and married Isabella, (Elizabeth,) a daughter 
 of that king. In an attempt to conquer the Dutch, he 
 
 was defeated by Maurice of Nassau at Nieuport, in 
 1 600. He took Ostend, after a memorable siege of three 
 years, in 1604. The war was suspended in 1609 by a 
 truce of twelve years. Died in 1621. 
 
 See Le Mire, "Vita Albeiti Pii," 1622; Charles Dubois, 
 " Histoire d'Albert et d'Isabelle," 1847 ; De Thou, " Histoire." 
 
 Albert or Albrecht, (Friedrich Rudolph,) Arch- 
 duke, an Austrian prince and general, son of the Arch- 
 duke Charles, the famous commander against Napoleon, 
 was born in Vienna in 1817. I le fought under Radetzky 
 at Novara in 1849, and was appointed Governor of Hun- 
 gary in 1851. Having obtained command of the south- 
 ern army, he defeated the Italians at Custozza, about 
 the 1st of July, 1S66, soon after which he succeeded 
 Benedek as commander-in-chief. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) of Baireuth, surnamed Al- 
 ciisiadks, born in 1522, was a son of Casimir, Margrave 
 of Brandenburg. He was a man of dissolute habits. 
 He was defeated in 1553 by the Elector Moritz of Sax- 
 ony, and his allies. Died in 1555. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) I. of Bavaria, son of the em- 
 peror Lewis (Ludwig) V., succeeded to the territory of 
 Lower Bavaria in 1349 ; died in 1404. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) IV of Bavaria, surnamed the 
 Wise, succeeded to the government in 1463, and, turn- 
 ing all his attention to the consolidation and organiza- 
 tion of his estates, contributed greatly to the rank and 
 influence which Bavaria has since attained among the 
 powers of Europe. Died in 1508. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) V. of Bavaria, surnamed the 
 Magnanimous, succeeded his father, William IV., in 
 1550. He was a distinguished patron of learning and 
 the arts. Died in 1579, aged about fifty. 
 
 Albert I., Margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed THE 
 Bear, was born about 1 106. He is called the founder 
 of the house of Brandenburg. Died about 1 1 70. 
 
 Albert II., Margrave of Brandenburg, succeeded his 
 brother, Otho II., in 1206. Died in 132 1, 
 
 Albert III., Margrave of Brandenburg, surnamed 
 Achili.es, and Ulysses, on account of his bravery and 
 wisdom, born in 1414, was renowned for martial ex- 
 ploits. He was a son of Frederick I. He commanded 
 the army of the emperor, in 1471, against the Duke of 
 Bavaria. Died in i486. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) of Brandenburg, a grandson of 
 the preceding, and first Duke of Prussia, was born in 
 1490. In 1511 he was elected Grand Master of the 
 Teutonic Order, who held Prussia proper as a fief of 
 the King of Poland. In 1525 he abandoned the vows 
 of his order, became a Protestant, and received Prussia 
 as a hereditary fief of the crown of Poland. Thus the 
 dominion of the Teutonic Knights was brought to an 
 end. Died in 1568. 
 
 Albert, (Albrecht,) Duke of Brunswick, called the 
 Great, born in 1236, was a son of Duke Otho. He was 
 an energetic and warlike prince. Died in 1279. 
 
 Albert, (Albrecht,) Archbishop of Magdeburg, 
 waged war against the emperor Otho, and promoted 
 the election of Frederick II. in 1212. Died about 1232. 
 
 Albert, (Albrecht,) an archbishop of Magdeburg 
 and Mentz, the son of John Cicero, Elector of Bran- 
 denburg, was born in 1489. He was elected Archbishop 
 nt Magdeburg in 1513, Archbishop and Prince Elector 01 
 Mentz in 15 14, and raised to the dignity of cardinal ir. 
 1518, Died in 1545. He was a patron of literature, 
 and possessed popular manners, but was unfitted by hi; 
 want of energy and courage to contend with the storm? 
 which prevailed in Germany at the time of the Reformation. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) of Mecklenburg, a son of Al- 
 brecht, Duke of Mecklenburg, was chosen King of Swe- 
 den in 1363. He waged war against Margaret, Queen 
 of Denmark, who gained a decisive victory in 1388 and 
 deprived him of the crown. Died in 1412. 
 
 Albert, (Albrecht,) Archbishop of Mentz in the 
 twelfth century, was a turbulent politician, and an 
 enemy of the emperor Henry V. Died in 1 137. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) I., Duke and Elector of Saxony, 
 began to reign in 1212. He accompanied the emperor 
 Frederick II. in a crusade against the Saracens in 1228. 
 Died in 1260. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) IL of Saxony, was a son of tne 
 
 &, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, j, 9, oiscure;(lr, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon* 
 
ALBERT 
 
 73 
 
 ALBERTI 
 
 preceding. He contributed to the election of three em- 
 perors, Rudolph I., Adolph, and Albert I. Died about 
 1300. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) HI. succeeded his brother Ru- 
 dolph as Elector of Saxony in 1418. Died in 1422. 
 
 Albert, il'baiR', a French revolutionist, whose proper 
 name is Alexandria Martin, was born in Oise about 
 1815, and became a mechanic. In 1840 he founded a 
 journal called " L'Atelier," ("The Workshop.") He 
 was a member of the provisional government formed in 
 February, 1848, and of the Constituent Assembly 
 which met in May of that year. For his alleged com- 
 plicity in a sedition of May 15, 1848, he was sentenced 
 to deportation. 
 
 Albert the Blessed, Patriarch of Jerusalem, born in 
 the diocese of Parma about 1 150, was the legislator of 
 the order of the Carmelites, (or White Friars.) He was 
 chosen Patriarch of Jerusalem in 1204, and assassinated 
 at Acre in 12 14. 
 
 Albert, (Charles.) See Charles Albert. 
 
 Albert of Cologne. See Albertus Magnus. 
 
 Albert, (Erasmus.) See Alber. 
 
 Albert le Grand. See Albertus Magnus. 
 
 Albert the Great. See Albertus Magnus. 
 
 Albert (Albrecht) von Hu.BERSTADT,(fon hal'ber- 
 stat',) a German poet or minnesinger, wrote about 1 2 10-20. 
 
 Albert, al'beRt, (Heinrich,) a German lyric poet and 
 musician, born at Lobenstein, Saxony, in 1604. He pro- 
 duced sacred and secular airs and songs which are highly 
 esteemed. He was organist of the cathedral of Konigs- 
 berg from 1631 till his death. Died in 1668. 
 
 Albert, (Michael and Salomon.) See Alberti. 
 
 Albert,( Prince,) or, more fully, Albert Francis Au- 
 gustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince of Saxe-Coburg- 
 Gotha and Consort of Queen Victoria of Great Britain, 
 was born near Coburg in August, 1819. He was the 
 second son of Duke Ernest I. He visited England in 
 1S38, and was married to Victoria in February, 1840. 
 
 In 1842 he was elected Chancellor of the University 
 of Cambridge. He obtained the rank of field-marshal 
 in the British army and colonel of the Grenadier 
 Guards. While maintaining a proper reserve and neu- 
 trality with respect to political parties, he acquired a 
 great influence in the public councils, and merited the 
 confidence of the queen by his discretion and other 
 qualifications which rendered him her best adviser. He 
 was the efficient chairman of the Council of the Great 
 Exhibition of 1S51, and in 1 859 was chosen president 
 of the British Association for the Advancement of Sci- 
 ence. Prince Albert was interested in the promotion of 
 the fine arts, of agriculture, and, we may add, of every 
 benevolent enterprise. By the manner in which he 
 passed through ^he somewhat peculiar trials of his ex- 
 ceptional position, in which there were no safe prece- 
 dents to guide him, he won the general approbation of 
 the British people. Died on the 14th of December, 
 1861. His death was regarded as an irreparable loss, 
 not merely to the queen, but to the nation of which he 
 had been king in all but the name. 
 
 See " Early Years of His Royal Highness the Prince Consort," 
 1867. 
 
 Albert of Stade. See Albertus Stadensis. 
 
 Albert 01 Sweden. See Albrecht of Mecklen- 
 burg. 
 
 Albert, d', (Charles.) See Luynes, Due de. 
 
 Albert, d', dSl'lxuR', (Ixiuis Joseph,) Princeof Griin- 
 berghen or Grimbergen, born in 1672, was a grandson of 
 Constable de Luynes. He entered the service of the em- 
 peror Charles VII. He published " The Dream of Alci- 
 biades," (1735.) Died in 1758. 
 
 Albert, d', cISTIxur', (Paul,) born in 1703, was made 
 Archbishop of Sens in 1753, and Cardinal of Luynes in 
 1756. Died in 1788. He was distinguished for his libe- 
 rality of mind and for his high moral character. 
 
 Albert dAilly. See Chaui.nes, Dec de. 
 
 Albert Diirer. See DitRF.R. 
 
 Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of 
 Prince Albert, noticed above, and Queen Victoria, and 
 heir apparent to the British crown, was horn Ml the Qth 
 of November, 1841. Besides being Prince of Wales, he 
 
 is Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Duke of Cornwall and 
 Rothesay, and Baron Renfrew. In i860 he visited the 
 United States, where he was received with flattering de- 
 monstrations of popular favour. In the winter of 1861-2 
 he set out on a tour to Syria, Palestine, Egypt, etc. He 
 married, in March, 1863, the Princess Alexandra of Den- 
 mark, and has a son, Albert Edward, born in January, 1864. 
 
 Albertano da Brescia, al-beR-ta'no da bResh'ya, an 
 Italian writer, who was magistrate of Brescia in the early 
 part of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Albertazzo, Marquis of Este. See Este. 
 
 Alberti, al-beVtee, (ARlsTOTiLE,)called alsoRidolfo 
 Fioravanti, re-dol'fo fe-o-ra-van'tee, an architect and 
 engineer, born at Bologna, was one of the greatest me- 
 chanicians of the fifteenth, century. 
 
 Alberti, (Benedetto,) a Florentine chief of the popu- 
 lar party in the revolution which occurred at Florence in 
 1379-80. He was exiled in 1387. 
 
 Alberti, (Cherubino,) a brother of Giovanni, noticed 
 below, a painter and noted engraver, was born in 1552. 
 Died in 1615. 
 
 Alberti, (Durante,) an Italian painter, born atBorgo 
 San Sepolcro in 1538. He worked in Rome, where he 
 painted in fresco and oil. Died in 1613. 
 
 Alberti, (Filifpo,) an Italian poet, born at Perugia in 
 1548, was a friend of Tasso. Died in 161 2. 
 
 Alberti, al-beR'tee, (Georg Wilhelm,) a German 
 Protestant minister, born at Thundern, in Hanover, in 
 1723. He published "Letters on the State of Religion 
 and Science in Great Britain," (1752-54,) which are 
 commended by Guizot in the "Biographie Universelle." 
 Died in 1758. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkuber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Alberti, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born at Borgo 
 San Sepolcro in 1558, was a brother of Cherubino. He 
 was unrivalled in his age for foreshortenings of the fig- 
 ure, and excelled in perspective and landscape. He 
 painted frescos in the Vatican for Clement VIII. Died 
 in 1601. 
 
 Alberti, (Johann,) a German jurist and Orientalist of 
 the sixteenth century, born at Widmannstadt. He was 
 appointed Chancellor of Austria by Ferdinand I., and 
 published an "Epitome of the Koran," with critical 
 notes, (1543.) Died in 1559. 
 
 Alberti, (Johann,) a Dutch theologian and profound 
 scholar, was bom at Assen in 1698. He became profes- 
 sor of theology at Leyden in 1740. He was well versed 
 in Greek literature, and had a high reputation as a critic. 
 His greatest merit consists in his labours to perfect the 
 Lexicon of Hesychius, of which he published an excel- 
 lent edition, 2 vols., 1746-66. Died in 1762. 
 
 Alberti, (Johann Gustav Wilhelm,) a German 
 manufacturer, born at Hamburg in 1757. He invented, 
 about 1817, a machine for spinning linen. Died in 1837, 
 
 Alberti, (Lf:andro,) a learned Italian friar, born at 
 Bologna in 1479. He wrote, besides other works, a 
 " History of Bologna," (1541-43,) and a "Description of 
 all Italy," (1550.) Died in 1552. 
 
 Alberti, (Leon Battista,) an eminent Italian archi- 
 tect and philosopher, born of a noble family, at Genoa, 
 (or, as some writers say, at Florence,) in 1404. He was 
 also a poet and a painter, and highly distinguished by his 
 general learning and personal character. He succeeded 
 to the direction of several works which Brunelleschi left 
 unfinished at Florence, where he completed the Pitti 
 Palace and was one of the restorers of the classic style. 
 The church of St. Francis at Rimini is called his mas- 
 ter-piece. He also gained a high reputation as a writer 
 on art, by his "Treatise on Architecture " (" De Re /Edi- 
 ficatoria," 1485) and treatises on painting (1540) and 
 sculpture. Died in 1472. 
 
 See G. B. Niccolivi, " Etoglo di L. B. Alberti," 1819 ; Mn.iriA., 
 "Vite degli Architetti ;" Tirahosihi, "Storia della I.etteratuni 
 Ilaiiana;" Quatremere DE Quincv, " Histoire des plus celebres 
 Archilectes. " 
 
 Alberti (al-beR'tee) or Albert, (Michael,) a learned 
 German physician and medical writer, born at Nu- 
 remberg in 1682. In 1716 he was appointed professor 
 of medicine, and in 1719 professor of philosophy, in the 
 University of Halle. Died in 1757. 
 
 s It; c as s; g hard; g as/,- *, 11, K, ^WftWUlfj N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jiy~Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ALBERTI 
 
 74 
 
 JLBINI 
 
 Alberti, (Romano,) an Italian painter and writer on 
 art, born at Borgo San Sepolcro, lived about 1600. 
 
 Alberti, (Salomon,) an eminent German physician 
 and anatomist, born at Naumburg in 1 540, was appointed 
 professor of anatomy and philosophy in the University 
 of Wittenberg in 1576, and died in 1600. His writings 
 and discoveries entitle him to a high rank among mod- 
 ern anatomists. 
 
 Alberti, (Valentin,) a German theologian, born in 
 Silesia in 1635, became professor of theology at Leipsic. 
 He wrote many polemical works on questions of theology. 
 His "Compendium of the Law of Nature" ("Compen- 
 dium Juris Naturae," 1673) was written in opposition to 
 a work of Puffendorf ; it has often been reprinted. Died 
 in 1697. 
 
 Alberti di Villanova, al-beVtee de vel-la-no'va, 
 (Francesco,) an Italian, born at Nice in 1731, known 
 as the author of several popular dictionaries. His 'Dic- 
 tionnaire Italien-Francais et Francais-Italien" had a high 
 reputation, and has passed through a number of editions. 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 Albertinelli, al-MR-te-nel'lee, (Mariotto,) an emi- 
 nent Florentine painter, born about 1475, imitated and 
 equalled Fra Bartolommeo. He painted religious sub- 
 jects at Florence and Rome. " The Visitation of Eliza- 
 beth to the Virgin " is his master-piece. Innocenzio da 
 Imola was his pupil. Died about 1520. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Albertini, al-bSR-tee'nee, or Alberti, al-beVtee, 
 (Annibale,) an Italian medical writer, lived about 1600, 
 and wrote " On Diseases of the Heart," (" De Affec- 
 tionibus Cordis," 1618.) 
 
 Albertini, [Lat. Alberti'nus,] (Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian priest and antiquary, born at Florence in the fifteenth 
 century. His chief work is one on the Antiquities of 
 Rome, entitled " On the Wonders of Ancient and 
 Modern Rome," (" De Mitabilibus novae et veteris Urbis 
 Romas," 1505.) 
 
 Albertini, (Giorgio Francesco,) an Italian theologi- 
 cal writer, born in Istria in 1732. He became professor 
 of theology in the University of Padua. Died in 1810. 
 
 Albertini, (Ippolito Francesco,) an eminent Italian 
 physician, born at Crevalcore in 1662. He studied under 
 Malpighi, whom he succeeded as professor of medicine 
 in the University of Bologna. Died in 1738, leaving a 
 valuable essay on diseases of the heart. 
 
 Albertini, (Paolo,) an Italian priest, writer, and po- 
 litical agent, born at Venice about 1430. Died in 1475. 
 
 Albertini, von, fon al-MR-tee'nee, (Johann Bap- 
 tist,) an eminent Moravian minister, born at Neuwied, 
 on the Rhine, in Germany, in 1769. He wrote hymns 
 which display much poetical talent. He was a man of 
 extensive acquirements and most estimable character. 
 His sermons are remarkable for beautiful simplicity of 
 style. He was made a bishop in 1814. Died near Herrn- 
 hut in 1831. 
 
 Al-ber-ti'nus, (/Egid'ius,) a German satirist, born 
 at Deventer, in Holland, in 1560; died in 1620. He is 
 remarkable for having written in the German tongue at 
 a time when Latin was almost universally employed by 
 the learned men of Germany. His works were very 
 popular in his time. 
 
 Albertolli, al-beR-tol'lee, (Ferdinando,) an Italian 
 architect, was a nephew of Giocondo, whom he suc- 
 ceeded at the Academy of Milan. Died in 1846. 
 
 Albertolli, (Giacomo,) an Italian architect, born in 
 1761, became professor of civil architecture in the Uni- 
 versity of Padua. Died in 1805. 
 
 Albertolli, (Giocondo,) a distinguished Italian archi- 
 tect, born in 1742, was appointed professor of decorative 
 architecture at Milan about 1775. Died in 1840. 
 
 Albertrandy, al-bSR-tRan'de, (John Christian,) an 
 eminent Polish historian, linguist, and numismatist, born 
 at Warsaw in 1731. He became librarian to King Stan- 
 islaus, who appointed him Bishop of Zenopolis. Among 
 his works arc " Roman Antiquities explained by Medals," 
 (3 vols., 1805-08,) and a " History of Poland during the 
 Last Three Centuries." Died in 1808. 
 
 Albertsen, al'b?Rt-sen, (Hamilton Hendrik,) a 
 Danish writer of Latin poetry, born at Copenhagen in 
 1592. Died in Egypt about 1630. 
 
 Albertucci de' Borselli, al-bSR-toot'chee di boR- 
 sel'lee, (Girolamo,) an Italian preacher and chronicler, 
 born at Bologna about 1432. Died in 1497. 
 
 Albertus, al-beR'tiis, a German painter and engraver, 
 born in Saxony. Died about 1680. 
 
 Alber'tus Mag'nus, [Fr. Albert le GRAND.il'baiR' 
 leh gRON,] (i.e. "Albert tne Great,") a celebrated school- 
 man and philosopher, born at Lauingen, in Bavaria, 
 about 1200, was sometimes called Albert de Boll- 
 stadt (bol'stat) and Alber'tus Gro'tus. He occupies 
 the first rank among the philosophers and theologians of 
 the middle ages. He became a Dominican friar in his 
 youth, and, after lecturing on theology for three years at 
 Paris, was chosen provincial of his order in 1254. During 
 a long period he gave public lectures at Cologne. He 
 was appointed Bishop of Ratisbon in 1260, but about 
 1263 he resigned that office, which he had never soli- 
 cited. He died in 1280. As a man, he was remarkable 
 for an enthusiastic love of knowledge, for modesty, and 
 for a noble and disinterested spirit. He left a great num- 
 ber of works, which treat of logic, theology, physics, and 
 metaphysics. Thomas Aquinas was his disciple. 
 
 See Rudolphus Noviomagensis, "De Vita Alberti Magni," 
 1499 ; Raffaele TJadi, " Ristretto della prodigiosa Vita del Alberto 
 Magno," 1680-88; Petrus de Prussia, "Vita Alberti Magni;" 
 Echaru, " Scriptores Ordinis Prsdicatorum ;" Gauslinus, " Synop- 
 sis Vitae Alberti Magni," 1630; Ludwig Choulant, "Albertus 
 Magnus." 
 
 Al-ber'tus Sta-den'sis, an abbot of Stade, Hanover, 
 in the thirteenth century, known as the author of the 
 "Chronicon Alberti," (i.e. "Chronicle of Albertus,") 
 containing an account of many events which occurred in 
 the north of Germany in the middle ages down to 1256. 
 
 Alberus. See Alber. 
 
 Albi, fl'be', (Henri,) a French Jesuit, born in Prov- 
 ence in 1590. He wrote biographical notices of several 
 religious persons. Died in 1659. 
 
 Albicante, al-be-kan'ti, (Giovanni Alberto,) a 
 mediocre Milanese poet, who flourished about the middle 
 of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Al-bi'cus, (Sigismundus,) or Albicus of Prague, 
 called also Al'bic or Albik and Albicius, al-bish'e-us, 
 a distinguished physician, born in Moravia in the latter 
 part of the fourteenth century. He taught medicine at 
 Prague for many years, and was physician to Wences- 
 laus IV., King of Bohemia, by whom in 1409 he was 
 made Archbishop of Prague. He held this office only 
 about four years. Died in 1427. 
 
 Albignac, d', dil'ben'yik', (Louis Alexandre,) 
 Baron, a French military officer, born in Gascony in 
 1739. He served in Hindostan previous to the peace 
 of 1783, and afterwards commanded the tenth division 
 under the French Directory. He retired from service 
 in 1798, and died in 1820. 
 
 Albignac, d', (Philippe Francois Maurice,) 
 Count, a French royalist general, born at Milhaud in 
 1775 ; died in 1824. 
 
 Albin, aul'bin, (Eleazar,) an English artist and 
 painter in water-colours, published in 1731 a "Natural 
 History of Birds," with 205 fine coloured plates ; also 
 a work on English Insects, in Latin, (1731,) and the 
 same in English in 1749, with 100 copper-plates, coloured. 
 The figures were correctly drawn from the life by him- 
 self. 
 
 Albina, al-bee'na, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, 
 sculptor, and architect, lived at Palermo, and died in 
 1611. 
 
 Albini, al-bee'nee, (Alessandro,) a distinguished 
 Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1568, was a pupil 
 and coadjutor of the Caracci. Among his works is a 
 " Prometheus bringing Fire from Heaven." Died in 1646. 
 
 Albini, al-bee'nee, (Franz Joseph,) a distinguished 
 German lawyer and statesman, born at Saint Goar, in 
 Rhenish Prussia, in 1748. His great fame as a jurist 
 introduced him to the notice of the emperor Joseph II., 
 who conceived a warm affection for him and gave him a 
 place in the imperial cabinet. After the death of the 
 emperor, in 1790, Albini was invited to the court of the 
 Elector of Mentz, (Mayence,) and soon after was placed 
 at the head of the government. From 1792 to the death 
 of the elector in 1S02, his prince allowed him to manage 
 everything ; and he proved himself worthy of the trust 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ALBINI 
 
 75 
 
 ALBONI 
 
 He not only showed distinguished ability in the manage- 
 ment of all civil affairs, but also on a number of occasions 
 evinced military talents of a high order. Died in 1816. 
 
 Albini, de, di al-bce'nee, (William,) Earl of Arun- 
 del, the son of a Norman baron who followed William 
 the Conqueror to England. He married Adelais, queen- 
 dowager of Henry I., by whom he obtained the castle of 
 Arundel and other estates. He took an active part in 
 those troublous times, and died in II 76, during the reign 
 of Henry II. 
 
 Albino, il-bee'no, (Giovanni,) [Lat. Joan'nes Al- 
 BI'nus,] a Neapolitan statesman and historian, who lived 
 towards the close of the fifteenth century. He was a 
 counsellor to Ferdinand of Aragon, who appears to have 
 consulted him in military as well as in civil affairs. He 
 wrote a history of the events of his own time. 
 
 Al-bi-no-va'nus, (Caius Pedo,) a Latin poet of the 
 Augustan age, was a friend of Ovid, who addressed to 
 him one of his " Epistolae ex Ponto," (" Letters from 
 Pontus.") He is said to have excelled in epic poetry, 
 and is supposed to have written an epic poem on the 
 exploits of Germanicus, which is lost. There is extant 
 a beautiful elegy on the death of Drusus, which is as- 
 cribed to Albinovanus. 
 
 Al-bi'nus; [Gr. 'A/6jvoc,] a Platonic philosopher, who 
 lived at Smyrna about 150 A.D., was one of the teachers 
 of Galen. He wrote an " Introduction to the Dialogues 
 of Plato," which is extant. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grjeca." 
 
 Albi'nus, a Roman procurator of Judea in the time 
 of Nero. He succeeded Portius Festus. 
 
 Al-bi'nus, [Ger. pron. al-bee'nus,] (Adrian,) a Ger- 
 man professor of law, born at Lauban in 1513, was a 
 friend of Luther. Died in 1590. 
 
 Albinus, (Bernard,) a German physician, born at 
 Dessau in 1653, was appointed professor of medicine in 
 the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1681, and 
 in 1702 to the chair of anatomy at Leyden. Died in 1721. 
 
 Albinus, (Bernard Siegfried,) an eminent Ger- 
 man anatomist and physician, son of the preceding, was 
 born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1696 or 1697. He was 
 educated at Leyden, and on the death of his father in 
 1 72 1 was unanimously chosen professor of anatomy and 
 surgery in the university. In 1745 he became professor 
 of therapeutics, and held this office till his death in 1770. 
 As an anatomist he was distinguished for the accuracy 
 of his observations and the clearness and fulness of his 
 descriptions. Almost all his works are on anatomy. His 
 excellent " History of the Muscles of Man" (" Historia 
 Musculorum Hominis," 1 734) is highly praised by Haller. 
 
 See Boerhaave, "Oratio de Vita et Obitu B. Albini," 1721: 
 Haller, "Bibliotheca Anatomica." 
 
 Albinus, (Christian Bernard,) a brother of the 
 preceding, was born near the close of the seventeenth 
 century. He became professor of anatomy at Utrecht, 
 where he died in 1752. 
 
 Al-bi'nus, (Clodius,) a native of Adrumetum, in 
 Africa, became Roman governor of Gaul about 180 
 A.D., and defeated the Frisian tribes beyond the Rhine. 
 Prompted by jealousy, the emperor Severus endeavoured 
 to remove him by assassination ; but, this proving unsuc- 
 cessful, the two leaders met in battle near Lyons. Al- 
 binus was defeated and slain in 197. He appears to have 
 been at one time associated with Severus in the empire ; 
 at all events, he reigned three years in Gaul and Britain, 
 with the title of Caesar. 
 
 Albinus Flaccus. See Alcuin. 
 
 Albinus, (Friedrich Bernard,) born at Leyden in 
 1 71 5, was a brother of Bernard Siegfried, whom he suc- 
 ceeded as professor of anatomy in 1745. His chief work 
 is a physiological treatise "On the Nature of Man," 
 ("De Natura Hominis," 1775.) Died in 1778. 
 
 Albinus, (Johann Georc,) a German poet, born at 
 Naumburg, was a son of ah inferior poet of the same 
 name, (1624-79.) 1' ne son wrote in German a number 
 of popular idyls and hymns, a volume of which was pub- 
 lished in 1686. He was living in 1714. 
 
 See J. B. Liebler, " Nacbrichten von J. G. Albinus Leben," 
 1728. 
 
 Albinus, (or Weiss, wlss,) (Petrus, or Peter,) a 
 learned German writer and historian, who was born in 
 
 Saxony and lived in the latter half of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. Died at Dresden in 1598. 
 
 Al'bl-on, [Gr. 'AXSiuv or 'A.h:6iuv,] a fabulous giant, 
 regarded as a son of Neptune. He and his brother 
 Bergion attacked Hercules near the Rhone, and were 
 killed by that hero. 
 
 Albisson, il'be's6N', (Jean,) a French lawyer and 
 politician, born at Montpellier in 1732, was made tribune 
 in 1802. He assisted in the preparation of several por- 
 tions of Napoleon's celebrated Code. Died in 1810. 
 
 Albitte, il'bet', (Antoine Louis,) a French Jacobin, 
 member of the Legislative Assembly in 1791, distin- 
 guished for his violence and cruelty. He was a leader 
 of the desperate revolt of May 20, 1795, against the 
 Convention. For this he was condemned to death, but 
 succeeded in concealing himself till the danger was over. 
 He perished in the retreat from Russia in 1812, after 
 he had served some years as sub-inspector of reviews. 
 
 Albizzi, al-bit'see or al-bet'see, a Florentine family 
 which occupies a considerable place in the history of 
 Florence during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 
 The most worthy of notice are Pietro, Rinaldo, and 
 Tommaso Albizzi, noticed below. 
 
 Albizzi, [Lat. Albicius, al-bish'e^us,] (Bartolom- 
 meo,) an Italian friar, born in Tuscany, was the author 
 of a work called "Conformities of the Life of Saint 
 Francis with that of Jesus Christ." Erasmus Alber pub- 
 lished in 1542 a refutation of this work, entitled "The 
 Barefooted Monk's Jester and Alcoran," with a preface 
 by Luther. Died in 1401. 
 
 Albizzi, (Pietro,) the leader of the Guelph party at 
 Florence, was put to death in 1379 by the Ghibelines. 
 
 Albizzi, (Rinaldo,) a son of Tommaso, noticed be- 
 low, born towards the close of the fourteenth century. 
 He became involved in an unsuccessful contest with the 
 family of the Medici, and died in exile at Ancona in 1452. 
 
 Albizzi, (Tommaso,) born in 1347, was a nephew of 
 Pietro and father of Rinaldo. He was chief magistrate 
 of the republic from 138210 141 7, which is accounted 
 the most glorious period in the history of Florence. 
 Died in 14 17. 
 
 Albo, iil'bo, (Joseph, or Jose,) an eminent Spanish 
 rabbi, born at Soria in the latter part of the fourteenth 
 century. He wrote a very able work in defence of his 
 religion, entitled " The Foundations of the Jewish 
 Faith." Died in 1428. 
 
 Al'boiu, [Lat. Alboi'nus,] the son of Alduin, be- 
 came King of the Longobards on the death of his father, 
 about 553. Alduin had defeated the Gepidae, who occu- 
 pied the countries corresponding with the modern prov- 
 inces of Slavonia and Servia. Alboin nearly extermin- 
 ated that nation, killed Cunimund, their king, and com- 
 pelled his daughter Rosamund to become his wife. He 
 next (about 570) turned his arms against the northern 
 provinces of Italy, and, conquering everything in his 
 course, excepting Mantua and Padua, advanced as far as 
 Spoletum, (or Spoleto.) In 573, Alboin, after drinking 
 deeply at a banquet at Verona, ordered a cup, which he 
 had made out of the skull of Cunimund, to be brought, 
 and invited his wife Rosamund to drink out of it. This 
 outrage roused her to deadly vengeance. She conspired 
 with two of his officers, and they killed the king when 
 he was sunk in his afternoon sleep. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- 
 pire," chap. xlv. ; Muratori, " Annali d'ltalia." 
 
 Albon, (Jacques.) See Saint-Andr£. 
 
 Albon, d', dil'boN', (Claude Camille Franqois,) 
 a French litterateur, born at Lyons in 1753. He wrote 
 a discourse on the " History, Government, Arts, etc. of 
 some Nations of Europe," (4 vols.) Died in 1788. 
 
 Alboni, al-bo'nee, (Marietta,) a celebrated Italian 
 singer, born at Cesena in 1824, was a pupil of Rossini. 
 She made her dibut at Milan in 1841, with a success 
 which was repeated, or surpassed, at Vienna and Saint 
 Petersburg. In 1847 her performances excited great 
 enthusiasm in I.ondon and Paris, and a few years later 
 she visited the United States. Her voice is a contralto 
 of great purity, compass, and flexibility. " There never 
 existed a voice more bewitching," says M. Bousquet, 
 " whose tone was more limpid and sweet, whose sonoi 
 
 € as *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (J[^** See Explanations, p. 23. 
 
J LB ONI 
 
 76 
 
 ALBUTIUS 
 
 rousnes s was more homogeneous in its different regis- 
 ters." She was married to the Marquis de Pepoli. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeVirale." 
 
 Alboni, (Paolo,) a distinguished landscape-painter 
 of Bologna. He worked in Vienna from 1710 to 1722, 
 and afterwards at Bologna. Died in 1 730. 
 
 Al-Borak or Al-Burak. See Borak. 
 
 Alboresi, al-bo-ra'see, (Giacomo,) an Italian painter 
 of architecture, born at Bologna in 1632. He painted 
 (with M. Pasio) the west facade of the cathedral ol 
 Florence. Died in 1677. 
 
 Albornotius. See Albornoz, (Gil Alvarez Ca- 
 
 RILLO DE.) 
 
 Albornoz, al-boR-noth', (Diego Felipe,) a Spanish 
 historian, lived about 1650, and published "Castilla Po- 
 litica y Cristiana," 1666.) 
 
 Albornoz, de, di al-boR-n6th', [Lat. Alborno'tius,] 
 (Gil Alvarez Carillo,) or simply .ZBgidius de Al- 
 bornoz a noble Spaniard, born at Cuenca about the be- 
 ginning of the fourteenth century. He was chaplain and 
 counsellor to Alfonso XI. of Castile, who raised him to 
 the archbishopric of Toledo. After the accession of 
 Pedro the Cruel tothe throne, Albornoz, having incurred 
 his displeasure, fled to Avignon to Pope Clement VI., 
 by whom he was made cardinal. Innocent VI., Clem- 
 ent's successor, subsequently appointed him his legate, 
 in which capacity Albornoz showed great wisdom as 
 well as military skill, and in a few years recovered a 
 multitude of Italian towns which had become disaffected 
 or openly rebellious to the Papal see. He died in 1367. 
 
 See Muratori, "Annali d'ltalia;" Stephano, " Vita del Cardi- 
 nal Albornoz;" Sepulveda, "DeVitaet Rebus gestis G. Albor- 
 notii." 
 
 Albosiua, al-bo'she-us, or Aillebout, il'boo' or 
 f ye-boo', (Jean,) a French physician, born at Autun, 
 published in 1587 a description of a remarkable mon- 
 strosity, (a petrified embryo,) entitled " Portentosum 
 Lithopaedium sive Embryon petrifactum." 
 
 Albrand, Sl'bRdN', (Fortune,) a French Orientalist, 
 born about 1795, planted a colony in Madagascar. Died 
 in 1827. 
 
 Albrecht of Austria. See Albert. 
 
 Albrecht of Bavaria. See Albert. 
 
 Albrecht of Mecklenburg. See Albert. 
 
 Albrecht, (Achilles.) See Albert. 
 
 Albrecht, al'bRSKt, (Balthasar Augustin,) a Ger- 
 man painter, born at Berg, near Munich, in 1687. Died 
 at Munich in 1765. 
 
 Albrecht, (Johann Lorf.nz,) a German musician 
 and composer, born near Miihlhausen in 1732. Died in 
 1773- 
 
 Albrecht, (Johann Sebastian,) a German naturalist 
 and writer, born in 1695, lived at Coburg. 
 
 Albrecht, (Johann Wilhelm,) a German physician, 
 born at Erfurt in 1703, became professor of medicine in 
 his native town in 1729, and professor of anatomy, sur- 
 
 fery, and botany in the University of Gottingen in 1734. 
 )ied in 1736. 
 
 Albrecht, (Sophie,) a German poetess, born in 1757 
 at Erfurt, where her father, J. P. Baumer, was professor 
 of medicine and philosophy. She was married at the 
 age of fourteen, and died in 1837. Her poems are lyric 
 and dramatic ; they display deep feeling and considera- 
 ble poetic power. 
 
 Albrecht, (Wilhelm,) a German agriculturist, born 
 in 1786, was a pupil of Thaer. In 1820 he was ap- 
 pointed director of an experimental school of agriculture 
 founded at Idstein in Nassau, and afterwards removed to 
 Geisberg near Wiesbaden. lie wrote, or edited, "The 
 Annals of the Agricultural Society of Nassau," (15 vols.,) 
 and had a high'reputation as a teacher. Died in 1848. 
 
 Albrecht, (Wilhelm Eduard,) a German legist, 
 born at Elbing in 1800, was professor of German law at 
 Gottingen from 1829 to 1837. He became professor of 
 law at Leipsic in 1840. 
 
 Albrechtsberger, al'bR?Kts-b?Ro'er, (Johann 
 Georg,) a distinguished German musician, born near 
 Vienna in 1736; died in 1809. The celebrated Bee- 
 thoven was one of his pupils. 
 
 Albret, al'bRi', (Charles of,) [Fr. Charles d'Al- 
 BRET, shiRl dSl'bRi',1 a cousin-german of Charles VI., 
 
 appointed Constable of France in 1402. He commanded 
 the French army at the disastrous battle of Agincourt 
 in which he was defeated and slain, in 1415. 
 
 Albret, (Henry of.) See Henry II. of Na- 
 varre. 
 
 Albret, (Jeanne of.) See Jeanne of Navarre. 
 
 Albrici, al-bRee'chee, (Vincenzo,) an Italian com- 
 poser and organist, who flourished in the latter part of 
 the seventeenth century. He spent some time at the 
 court of Christina, Queen of Sweden. 
 
 Albrion, de, da ai-bRe-6n', (Domingo,) a Spanish 
 sculptor, lived between 1550 and 1600. His works are 
 praised by Ponz. 
 
 Albrizzi. See Alberici. 
 
 Albrizzi, al-bRet'see or al-bRit'see, (Isabella Teo- 
 toki— ta-o-to'kee,) a daughter of Count Teotoki, was 
 born at Corfu about 1770. She was married to a Vene- 
 tian nobleman ; and her house in Venice became a place 
 of resort for persons of distinction, both natives and 
 foreigners. She was distinguished for her learning, wit, 
 and taste, and not less for her domestic virtues. She 
 wrote several works of merit. Died in 1835. 
 
 Albucasis. See Aboo-l-Kasim. 
 
 Albufera, Duke of. See Suchet. 
 
 Albumazar, al-boo-ma'zar, (a corruption of Aboo- 
 Mashar,) a celebrated Arabian astronomer, born at 
 Bulkh (or Balkh) about 780 A.D. He died in 885, aged 
 above one hundred years. 
 
 Albuquerque, de, da al-boo-keR'ki or al'boo-keRk', 
 (Alfonso,) [Port. Affonso d'Alboquerque, af-fon'so 
 dal-bo-keVki,] surnamed the Great, and Tin-. Portu- 
 guese Mars, a famous Portuguese commander, was 
 born of a branch of the royal family, near Alhandra, in 
 .'453- He commanded a squadron in the fleet which 
 in 1506 was sent to India under Tristan da Cunha, and 
 carried a secret commission by virtue of which he should 
 supersede Francisco de Almeida as governor or viceroy 
 of the Indies. On his way he took Ormuz, then a great 
 emporium ; but he was soon forced to evacuate that 
 place, in consequence of the defection or insubordination 
 of some officers of his squadron. He arrived in Iv.dia 
 in 1508. In 1510 he captured the rich city of Goa, avid 
 in 151 1 performed a brilliant exploit in the conquest of 
 Malacca. He entered the Red Sea in 1513 with the 
 first European fleet that ever navigated its waters, and 
 afterwards obtained permanent possession of Ormuz. 
 lie raised the affairs of the Portuguese in India to the 
 highest state of prosperity. Having, however, been su- 
 perseded in the government of India, he died near Goa 
 in 1515. (See Almeida.) His son wrote a history of 
 his campaigns, entitled " Comentarios do grande Affonso 
 d'Alboquerque," Lisbon, 1557. 
 
 See, also, A. Thevet, "Vie des Homines illustres;" Lafitau, 
 "Histnire des Descouvertes, elc. des Portugais ;" Barros, "De- 
 cide Segunda;" Faria v Souza, "Asia Portugueza;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GdneVale." 
 
 Albuquerque, de, (Bras Affonso,) a son of the 
 preceding, was born at Alhandra in 1500. He obtained 
 command of a ship of war, and was afterwards " Veedor" 
 or manager of the royal patrimony. He was noted for his 
 integrity. He wrote a narrative of his father's exploits, 
 (1557.) ' Died in 1580. 
 
 Albuquerque, de, (Duarte Coelho, doo-aR ta ko- 
 Sl'yo,) Marquis of Basto, served as a general in the 
 war against the Dutch in Brazil, 1620-39, and wrote an 
 account of that war, (1654.) Died at Madrid in 1658. 
 
 Albuquer que.de, da al-boo-keVki, (Juan Alfonso,) 
 the tutor, and afterwards minister and favourite, of Pedro 
 the Cruel, of Castile, was the unprincipled agent of that 
 monarch's perfidy and cruelty ; but, having at last in- 
 curred his displeasure, he was banished from court. 
 Died in 1354. 
 
 Albuquerque, de, (Mateo,) a Portuguese general, 
 who was appointed, in 1628, governor of the province 
 of Pernambuco, which he defended against the Dutch. 
 He was recalled to Portugal in 1635, after which he 
 commanded a division in the war against the Spaniards, 
 and gained an important victory at Campo Mayor in 
 1644. Died in 1646. 
 
 See Southev's " History of Brazil." 
 
 Albutius, al-bu'she-us, (Catus Silas,) a Roman ora- 
 
 5, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, 6, y", short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; mot; good; moon; 
 
ALBUT1US 
 
 77 
 
 ALCIBIADES 
 
 tor, born in Cisalpine Gaul. He lived in the time of the 
 emperor Augustus. 
 
 Albutius or Albucius, (Thus,) a Roman, who lived 
 about ioo B.C., distinguished by his devotion to the doc- 
 trines of Epicurus. 
 
 Alcacoba, al-kj-so'ba, or Alcazova, a Portuguese 
 navigator in the service of Charles V. of Germany. He 
 was murdered in a mutiny in 1535. 
 
 Al-ca-di'nus or Alcadino, a'.-ka-dee'no, a Syra- 
 cusan physician, who attended the emperors Henry VI. 
 and Frederick II. He lived about the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century. 
 
 Alcaeus, al-see'us, [Gr. 'AUaios; Fr. Alcee, il'sa',1 a 
 celebrated Greek lyric poet, a native of Mitvlene, in Les- 
 bos, flourished about 600 B.C. He wrote in the /Folic 
 dialect, and is said to have invented the metre called Al- 
 caic. His odes were characterized by strong passion and 
 enthusiasm ; they were admired and imitated by Horace. 
 Among the nine lyric poets of the Alexandrian canon, 
 Alcaeus occupied the second* or, according to some wri- 
 ters, the first place. Quintilian expressed the opinion that 
 he was often equal to Homer. Nothing remains of his 
 productions except a number of small fragments. Some 
 of his poems were addressed to Sappho, his contempo- 
 rary. In the contest between the nobles and the people 
 of Lesbos, he fought and wrote for the former. 
 
 See Bode, " Geschichte der lyrischen Dichtkunst der Hellenen," and 
 "Alkaios," in Ersch und Gruber's "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Alcasus, a comic poet, a native of Mitvlene, contended 
 in 388 B.C. with Aristophanes for the prize which the lat- 
 ter gained by his " I'lutus." 
 
 AlcaeusoF Messenk, author of a number of epigrams 
 in the Greek Anthology, lived about 210 B.C. He wrote 
 epigrams against Philip III. of Macedonia. 
 
 Alcaforada,al-ka-fo-ra'da. (Maki ANN a,) a Portuguese 
 nun, who, about 1662, conceived a passion for a French 
 marquis (De Chamilly) who is noticed in this work. Her 
 letters to him were published in a French version, ("Let- 
 tres Portugaises," 1669,) and were much admired. He 
 did not return her affection, and appears to have published 
 them to gratify his vanity. 
 
 Alcaforado, al-kS-fo-ra'do, (Francisco,) a Portu- 
 guese who took part in the expedition which discovered 
 Madeira in 1420 and wrote a narrative of the discovery 
 Alcala, al-ka-la', (Don Parafan de Rivera— pa- 
 ri-fan' da re-va'ra,) Duke of, born in 1508, was Viceroy 
 of Naples under Philip II. Died in 1571. 
 
 Alcala y Herrera, de, da al-ka-la' e er-ra'ra, (Al- 
 fonso,) a Spanish poet and novelist, who lived in the 
 early part of the sixteenth century. He wrote a novel 
 called "The Two Suns of Toledo, ' (1641,) in which the 
 letter a was not used. 
 
 Al-cam'e-nes, [Gr. 'ATma/ii-vw ; Fr. Alcamene, £T- 
 ki'man',] one of the most distinguished sculptors of 
 antiquity, was a native of Athens, and flourished in the 
 fifth century B.C. According to Pausanias, he was living 
 in 400 B.C. He was a pupil of Phidias. His most cele- 
 brated work was a statue of Venus, (now lost,) known as 
 " Venus of the Gardens." He is considered to have been 
 second to no Greek sculptor of his 1 age except Phidias. 
 
 Alcamo, d', dal'ka-mo, (Ciullo,) a Sicilian, who lived 
 near the close of the twelfth century ; supposed to be the 
 earliest writer of Italian poetry. 
 
 Alcantara, de, da al-kan'ta-ra, (Diego,) a Spanish 
 architect, employed by Philip II. Died in 1587. 
 
 Alcantara, de, (San Pedro,) a Spanish zealot, who 
 founded a monastic order in the sixteenth century. He 
 was born at Alcantara in 1499. Died in 1562. His peni- 
 tential austerities were almost incredible. For nearly 
 forty years, it is said, his daily allowance of sleep was 
 less than two hours. 
 
 Al-oath'o-ua, a son of Pelops, married the daughter 
 of the King of Megara, and afterwards became himself 
 king of that city. 
 
 Alcazar or Alcacar, al-ka'tHaR or ai-k3'sar, (An- 
 dres,) an eminent Spanish surgeon, who lived in the 
 latter part of the sixteenth century. He was professor 
 of surgery in the University of Salamanca. His most 
 important work was a treatise on syphilis. 
 
 —4 — 
 
 • The FissT place being accorded to Alcman, (which see.) 
 
 Alcazar, de, da al-ka'thaR, (Baltazar,) a Spanish 
 poet, who lived at Seville about 1600. He composed 
 many " redondillas," and was highly commended by Cer- 
 vantes in his " Canto de Caliope." 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 Alcazar, de, written also Alcasar, (Luis,) a Span- 
 ish Jesuit, born at Seville in 1554. He wrote on the 
 Apocalypse. Died in 1613. 
 
 Alcazova. See Alcacoba. 
 __ Alcedo, de, da al-sa'uo, (Antonio,) a native of 
 Spanish America, published at Madrid in 17S6 a valu- 
 able work on the geography of America, " Diccionario 
 Geografico-historico de las Jndias Occidentales 6 Ame- 
 rica, ' (5 vols.) Scarcely anything is known of his life. 
 Alcee. See Ai.ceus. 
 
 Al-cgs'tis, [Gr. 'Ahcr/artc or 'Ahcccmi; Fr. Alceste, 
 Sl'sJst'J the daughter of Pelias and wife of Admetus, 
 King ot Thessaly, is fabled to have prevented the death 
 of her htisband by offering to die for him. Tradition 
 acids that she was rescued from the realms of death by 
 Hercules. The story of her heroic devotion forms the 
 subject of one of the best tragedies of Euripides. 
 
 Al'ce-tas [Gr. 'Ametoc] 1, King of Epirus, was an 
 ally of the Athenians. He reigned about 375 B.C. 
 
 Al'cetas II., King of Epirus, was a grandson of Al- 
 cetas I. He was killed by his own subjects, and was 
 succeeded by Pyrrhus. 
 
 Al'cetas, a brother of Perdiccas, the favourite of 
 Alexander the Great. After the death of his brother, 
 321 B.C., he killed himself, to avoid falling into the hands 
 ot Antigonus. (See Perdiccas.) 
 
 Alchabitius, al-ka-bish'e-us, [Arab. Abdalazeez 
 or AiUMl.Aziz, I an Arabian astrologer, who lived at 
 Aleppo about the middle of the tenth century. 
 Alchfred. See Alfred. 
 
 Al-ehin'dus or Al-kin'dus, [Arab. Al-Kin'dee or 
 Alkindi,] a noted Arabian astrologer, physician, and 
 writer, torn about the end of the eighth century. He 
 lived at the court of Al-Mamoon, Caliph of Bagdad. He 
 wrote many works, in one of which he pretended to 
 explain the action of medicines by the principles of 
 mathematics and music. 
 
 Alciati, al-cha'tee, [Fr. Alciat, STse-i",] (Andrea,) 
 a celebrated lawyer of Milan, born in 1492. He became 
 professor of law in the University of Avignon in 15 18, 
 and afterwards filled the same chair in Bourges, (1528 
 to 1532,) and subsequently in Bologna, Pavia, and Fer- 
 rara. He died at Pavia in 1550. Though possessed of 
 popular and brilliant talents, he was far from being a 
 profound jurist. He left "Commentaries on the Digest^" 
 and many other legal works. 
 
 "Alciati," says Hallam, "was the first who taught the 
 lawyers to write with purity and elegance. Erasmus has 
 applied to him the eulogy of Cicero on Scasvola, that he 
 was the most jurisprudent of orators and the most elo- 
 quent of lawyers." (See "Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe.") 
 
 See "Vita Alciati," prefixed to his " Etnblemata," published by 
 Claude Mignault in 1581 ; Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Alciati, (Francesco,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 and tutor to the celebrated Saint Carlo Borromeo, born 
 in 1522, was made cardinal in 1565. Died in 1580. 
 
 Alciati, (Giovanni Paolo,) an Italian Protestant of 
 the sixteenth century, who was accused, or at least 
 strongly suspected, of heresy by Calvin and other re- 
 formers, in consequence of which he retired to Dantzic, 
 where he died about 1570. 
 
 Alciati, (Terenzio,) a learned Jesuit, born at Rome 
 in 1570. He taught divinity for seventeen years in the 
 Jesuits' College at Rome, and wrote several works on 
 theology. Died in 1651. 
 
 Alcibiades, al-se-bl'a-dcz, written also Alkibi'ades, 
 [Gr. 'AhdSiu&iK; Fr. Alcibiade, aTse'be'Sd'; Ger. Ai- 
 CIBIADM, alt-sc-bce'a-dcs,] a celebrated Athenian, son 
 of Cleinias, was born about 450 B.C. He seemed to 
 combine all the gifts of nature and of fortune. He was 
 descended from the noblest families and inherited one 
 of the largest estates of Athens. He possessed remark- 
 able personal beauty, and an intellect of wonderful 
 strength and versatility. The ward of Pericles, and the 
 
 «u 
 
 i;<tass;%hard;gAsj;c,,H,K,guttural;ti,nasal;R,trillcJ;S as z; thasin/,*«. (%g- See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
A LC ID A MAS 
 
 78 
 
 ALCTONE 
 
 favourite pupil and companion of Socrates, he enjoyed 
 unequalled opportunities for cultivating his talents to 
 the highest degree. Yet all these advantages were ren- 
 dered futile or pernicious by his fickleness and want of 
 virtue. He was elected one of the board of generals in 
 419 B.C., and became the leader of the democratic party. 
 Through his intrigues and counsels, the Athenians were 
 involved in a war with Sparta and Syracuse, 414 B.C. 
 About the time he was to sail for Sicily with the fleet, 
 (in the command of which Nicias was associated with 
 him,) he was accused of an act of sacrilege which had 
 been recently committed, and was afterwards condemned 
 in his absence. Upon this he joined the enemies of his 
 country, and by his counsels contributed powerfully, 
 though indirectly, to the destruction of the Athenian 
 army in Sicily in 413. (See Nicias.) Having quarrelled 
 with the Spartans, he was recalled by the tickle popu- 
 lace of Athens in 411, and was again intrusted with the 
 command of the fleet. Under his conduct the Athe- 
 nians gained several signal victories, at Cynossema and 
 Abydos in 41 1 B.C., at Cyzicus in 410 ; and in the two 
 following years they acquired Chalcedon and Byzan- 
 tium. But subsequently he made an unsuccessful at- 
 tempt on the island of Andros, and soon after his lieu- 
 tenant in his absence was defeated at Notium, near 
 Ephesus. He was superseded in the command of the 
 fleet, and retired into Thrace, for he thought it unsafe to 
 .return to Athens. After the fall of Athens and the es- 
 tablishment of the rule of the thirty tyrants, he with- 
 drew into Asia, where he was honourably received by the 
 satrap Pharnabazos. Not long after, the house in which 
 he slept was attacked at night by a body of men, who 
 set it on fire, and when he rushed out, sword in hand, 
 dispatched him with darts and arrows, 404 B.C. It is 
 not known whether this deed was done at the instigation 
 of his public or his private enemies. 
 
 See his life in Plutarch ; Grote, " History of Greece," vol. viii. 
 :haps. lxii. to Ixiv., also lxvi. ; Thirlwall, " History of Greece ;" 
 A. G. Meissner, "Alcibiades,"4vols., 1785-88; J. H. Joanin, " His- 
 toire d'Alcibiades," 1819; Hertzbkrg, " Alkibiades der Staatsmann 
 und Feldherr," Halle, 1853; W. Vischer, " Alcibiades und Lysan- 
 dros," 1845 ; Xenophon, " Hellenica;" Thucydides, "History." 
 
 Al-cdd'a-mas, ['A/WtSu/jac,] a Greek rhetorician, who 
 lived about 400 B.C. He was a native of Elaea, in Asia 
 Minor. 
 Alcides. See Hercules. 
 
 Al-91'des, [Gr. 'khcddqc; Fr. Alcide, fl'sed',] a 
 name of Hercules, supposed to have been derived from 
 the Greek uA/o?, (alke,) "strength." 
 
 Al-c,im'a~ehus, [' Pi.hiijui.xoc,} a Greek painter, sup- 
 posed to have lived in the time of Alexander the Great. 
 * Alcime. See Alcimus. 
 
 Al-9im'e-nea, ['XfaifuvrK,] a Greek comic poet, who 
 is supposed to have lived at Athens about 500 B.C. 
 
 Al'cl-mus, [Gr. 'AXki/wc ; Fr. Alcime, il'sem',] (called 
 also Ja-91'mus [Gr. 'laxa/ioc] or Jo'a-ehim,) a Jewish 
 high-priest, contemporary with Judas Maccabaeus. He 
 apostatized and joined Demetrius. 
 See I. Maccabees vii., ix. 
 
 Al'51-mus A-le'thl-us, a Latin writer and rhetori- 
 cian of the fourth century. He lived in Burdigala, (Bor- 
 deaux.) 
 
 Al-9m'o-us, [Gr. 'Ahcivooc,] a king of the Phaeacians, 
 whose beautiful gardens, described by Homer in the 
 Odyssey, have afforded a favourite theme for other poets. 
 He reigned in the island of Scheria, (now Corfu.) 
 
 Alcinous, a Greek philosopher, who wrote an intro- 
 duction to the philosophy of Plato. He is supposed to 
 have flourished in the time of the early Roman em- 
 perors. 
 
 Alcionio, (Pietro.) See Ai.cyonius. 
 Al'91-phrpn, ['AAk%kjv,] a Greek epistolary writer, 
 supposed to have lived about 200 A.D. His works are 
 interesting as exhibiting a picture of the domestic life of 
 that period. The number of his letters is above seventy. 
 His language is elegant and purely Attic. 
 
 Alcmaeon, alk-mee'on, [Gr. 'kfo/iaiuv; Fr. Alc- 
 meon, flk'ma'6N',] a son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle, 
 renowned as the leader of the Epigoni in their successful 
 expedition against Thebes. 
 
 Alcmae'ou, [Gr. 'k'/Ji/iaiuv,] a natural philosopher, 
 native of Crotona, lived in the sixth century B.C., and 
 
 was a pupil of Pythagoras. He is said to have been the 
 first who dissected animals in order to study anatomy. 
 
 Alcmaeon, (the lyric poet.) See Alcman. 
 
 Alcmseonidae, alk-me-on'I-de, [Gr. ' Ahc/iaujvidiu,] 
 one of the most distinguished of the noble families of 
 Athens. 
 
 Alcman, alk'man, [Gr. 'Aljcfiav,] called Alcmse'on 
 ['A'Axfiaiuv] by the later Greek writers, the chief lyric 
 poet of Sparta, flourished about 650 B.C. He was origin- 
 ally a Lydian slave, born at Sardis, and was emanci- 
 pated in his youth and nationalized by the Spartans. He 
 wrote Parthenia, paeans, bridal hymns, and other poems, 
 which were highly prized by the ancients. Some beau- 
 tiful fragments of his works are extant. He was con- 
 sidered by some ancient writers the inventor of erotic 
 poetry. To Alcman was assigned the first place in the 
 canon of lyric poets, by the Alexandrian grammarians. 
 
 See Schoell, "Histoire de la Litterature Grecque." 
 
 Alcmene, alk-mee'ne, or Alc-me'na, [Gr. 'A?.k- 
 [ir/i'V ; Fr. Alcmene, ilk'mkn',] the daughter of Elec- 
 tryon, King of Mycenae, and wife of Amphitryon. She 
 bore Hercules to Jupiter, who, it is said, in the absence 
 of her husband, deceived her by assuming the form of 
 Amphitryon. 
 
 Alcock or Alcok, aul'kok, (John,) a native of York- 
 shire, England, was sent as ambassador by Edward IV. 
 to John II. of Castile, and afterwards became success- 
 ively Bishop of Rochester, of Worcester, and of Ely. He 
 was also tutor to Prince Edward of Wales, and president 
 of his council. He held the chancellorship a short time 
 under both Edward IV. and Henry VIII. Died in 1500. 
 He was a patron of learning, and founded Jesus College, 
 Cambridge. 
 
 Alcock, (John,) an English musical composer, born 
 in London in 171 5. Died in 1806. 
 
 Alcock, (Thomas,) an English surgeon, bom in 1 784 ; 
 died in 1833. 
 
 Al'con ["Aakwv] or Al'co, a Greek statuary of un- 
 known epoch, noted for having made an iron statue of 
 Hercules. 
 
 Alcott, aul'kpt, (Amos Bronson,) an American 
 writer on education, born in Wolcott, Connecticut, in 
 
 1799- 
 
 Alcott, (William A.,) M.D., an American reformer 
 and educational writer, born in Wolcott, Connecticut, in 
 1798. He studied medicine at New Haven, but, after 
 following the profession for a few years, united with Wil- 
 liam C. Woodbridge in the preparation of his school 
 geographies and atlases, and in editing the "Annals of 
 Education," etc. He has since laboured zealously in the 
 cause of educational reforms, and lectured extensively on 
 the best modes of instruction, hygiene, physiology, etc. 
 Besides editing and contributing to various journals, he 
 has published many volumes on educational and kindred 
 subjects. Some of his works have enjoyed a great popu- 
 larity, especially "The House I Live in ;" "The Young 
 Man's Guide; "The Young Woman's Guide;" "The 
 Young Mother;" "The Young Housekeeper," etc. 
 
 Alcuin, al'kwin, or Al'cwin, an English prelate, who 
 passes for the most learned man of his age, and whose full 
 name was Flac'cus Albi'nus Alcui'nus, was born 
 at York about 735 A.D. About 780 he accepted an in- 
 vitation to the court of Charlemagne, with whom he lived 
 thenceforth on terms of intimate friendship. The court 
 of that monarch, it is said, became a school of which 
 Alcuin was the head. According to some writers, he 
 founded schools at Aix-la-Chapelle and Paris. He was 
 appointed in 796 abbot of St. Martin at Tours, where he 
 died in 804. He left many epistles, poems, and theo- 
 logical works, which are among the best specimens of 
 mediaeval Latinity. A life of Alcuin, by Professor F. 
 Lorenz, of Halle, has been translated into English, 
 
 (1837.) 
 
 See also Bahr, " Geschichte der Romischen Literatur;" *'Bio- 
 graphia Britannica Literari'a," 1842. 
 
 Alcyone (Al-sT'o-ne) or Hal-9y'o-ne, [Gr. 'kl- 
 kvovt),] (Myth.,) a daughter of /Eolus, who became the wife 
 of Ceyx. They were remarkable for their mutual and de- 
 voted love. Ceyx having perished in a storm at sea, 
 Alcyone, overcome by grief and despair, threw herself 
 into the waves. To reward their conjugal devotion, the 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, 8, y, long; a, c, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 5, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
JLCrONIUS 
 
 79 
 
 ALDRICH 
 
 gods transformed them into kingfishers. The sea, as 
 ancient writers tell us, is always calm and the weather 
 delightful during the period in which these birds build 
 their nests and hatch their young: hence the origin of 
 the expression " halcyon days," signifying those of peace 
 and happiness. 
 
 Al-cjf-o'nl-ua or Al-cl-o'nl-ua, (Petrus,) [It. Al- 
 ClONlo, al-cho'ne-o, Pietro,] a distinguished Italian 
 scholar, was born at Venice about 1490. He translated 
 into elegant Latin several works of Aristotle, and be- 
 came professor of Greek at Florence about 1521. His 
 most celebrated work is " Medices Legatus de Exsilio," 
 (1522,) a dissertation on Exile. He was erroneously 
 suspected of having taken the finest passages of this 
 work from Cicero's lost treatise on Glory. He died in 
 Rome in 1527. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia;" Paolo Giovio, " Elogia 
 Viroruni illustrium," BSle, 1677. 
 
 Al-Damiri. See Addemeeree. 
 
 Alday, 'aul'de, (John,) an English translator, of 
 whom little is known. He translated a popular French 
 work by Boaistuau, (or Boistuau,) entitled " The Theatre 
 of the World," ("Theatrum Mundi," 1581.) 
 
 Aide, van, vin al'deh, (Hendrik,) a Dutch painter 
 and engraver, lived at Amsterdam about 1650. 
 
 Aldebert. See Adalbert. 
 
 Aldegati, al-da-ga'tee, (Marco or Marcantonio,) 
 an Italian poet, born at Mantua, lived in the latter part 
 of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Aldegonde, Saint. See Marnix, (Philip van.) 
 
 Aldegrever, Sl'deh-gRa'ver, or Aldegraef, al'deh- 
 gRef, (Heinrich,) an eminent German painter and en- 
 graver, born at Soest, Westphalia, in 1502, was a pupil 
 of Albert Durer, whose style he closely imitated. He 
 left a great number of engravings, mostly from his own 
 designs. They are finely executed in the Gothic style. 
 Among his plates are "Susanna and the Elders ;" "The 
 Labours of Hercules ;" and portraits of Luther and Me- 
 lanchthon. His paintings are not numerous. Died about 
 1562. 
 
 Aldeguela, de, da al-di-ga'la, (Josef or Jose Mar- 
 tin,) a Spanish architect, born in 1730; died in 1802. 
 
 Al-Demiri. See Addemeeree. 
 
 Alden, aul'den, (John,) one of the first settlers of 
 Plymouth, Massachusetts, came over in the Mayflower 
 in 1620. He was a magistrate in that colony for more 
 than fifty years. He forms one of the principal charac- 
 ters in Longfellow's poem on " Miles Standish's Court- 
 ship." Died in 1687, aged about eighty-nine. 
 
 Alden, (Timothy,) an American clergyman, born in 
 Massachusetts in 1771, was the founder and first presi- 
 dent of Alleghany College, Meadville, Pennsylvania. 
 He published a collection of epitaphs and inscriptions, 
 in 5 vols. Died in 1839. 
 
 Alderete, de, da al-da-ra'ti, or Aldrete, al-dRa'ta, 
 (Bernardo,) a learned Spanish writer and priest, born 
 at Malaga about 1550. He was distinguished for his 
 knowledge of Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek, and was re- 
 puted one of the best Spanish writers of his time. 
 Among his works is "The Origin and Principles of the 
 Castilian Language," (1606,) which, says Gayangos, is 
 the best on that subject. The date of his death is un- 
 known. 
 
 Alderete, de, (Diego Gracian,) a Spanish Hellenist 
 of the sixteenth century, was employed as private secre- 
 tary by Charles V. and by Philip II., at whose court he 
 enjoyed great favour. He made good Spanish versions 
 of Xenophon, (1552,) Thucydides, (1554,) and other 
 Greek writers. He died at an advanced age about 1590. 
 
 Alderete, de, ( Josf.,) a younger brother of Bernardo, 
 noticed above, was rector of the College of Granada, and 
 author of a treatise " De Religiosa Disciplina tuenda," 
 (1615.) Died in 1616, aged about fifty six. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Alderoti, il-da-ro'tee, (Taddeo,) a celebrated phy- 
 sician, and a friend of Dante, was born at Florence in 
 1215, Died in 1295. 
 
 See Villani, " Vie d'Alderoti." 
 
 Alderson, aul'der-son, (John,) M.D., a distinguished 
 English physician, born in Suffolk in 1758, practised in 
 Hull. Died in 1829. 
 
 Aldhelm, ald'hflm, Saint, a distinguished Saxon 
 ecclesiastic, born about the middle of the seventh cen- 
 tury. He was made Bishop of Sherborn in 705, and 
 died in 709. 
 
 Aldigieri. See Alticherio. 
 
 Aldini, al-dee'nee, (Antonio,) Count, an Italian 
 statesman, born at Bologna in 1756, was a nephew of 
 Galvani. Having become a political friend of Bonaparte, 
 he was chosen president of the Council of State of the 
 Cisalpine Republic, and in 1805 secretary of state in 
 the kingdom of Italy. He continued to live at Milan 
 after it passed into the power of Austria. Died in 1826. 
 
 Aldini, (Giovanni,) a distinguished natural philoso- 
 pher, nephew of the celebrated Galvani, and brother ot 
 the preceding, was born at Bologna in 1762. In 1798 
 he was appointed professor of physics in the university 
 of his native city. In 1807 he became a member of the 
 council of state at Milan, and Knight of the Iron Crown. 
 Died in 1834. He has left essays on galvanism, steam, 
 the hydraulic lever, and other subjects. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Aldini, (Tobja,) an Italian botanist of Cesena, wrote 
 a " Description of the Garden of Cardinal Farnese at 
 Rome," (1625.) 
 
 Aldobrandini, 41-do-bRan-dee'nee, (Cinzio,) a 
 nephew of Pope Clement VIII., born at Sinigaglia, be- 
 came cardinal in 1593. He was a friend of Tasso, who 
 dedicated to him his "Jerusalem Delivered," ("Gerusa- 
 lemme Liberata.") 
 
 Aldobrandini, (Silvestro,) a learned Italian jurist, 
 born in 1499. He was for some years professor of law 
 at Pisa. Died in 1558. His son Ippolito became pope 
 in 1592. (See Clement VIII. ) He had a son, Gio- 
 vanni, and two grandsons, Pietro and Cinzio, (noticed 
 above,) who became cardinals. 
 
 Aldobrandini, (Tommaso,) a son of Silvestro, born 
 at Rome about 1540, was a brother of Clement VIII. 
 He produced a translation of Diogenes Laertius, (1594.) 
 He died in the prime of life. 
 
 Aldobrandino, al-do-bRan-dee'no, (called Fioren- 
 TINO, or the " Florentine,") an Italian physician, prac- 
 tised at Sienna, and died at Florence in 1327. 
 
 Aldo Manuzio. See Manutius. 
 
 Aldred, al'dred or al'dred, surnamed the Glosser, 
 [Lat. Glossa'tor,] an Anglo-Saxon writer, author of 
 the " Book of Durham," lived about 800 A.D. 
 
 Aldred, al'dred, [Lat. Aldre'dus, called also Al- 
 kk'dus and Ealre'dus,] an archbishop of York in the 
 eleventh century. He enjoyed high favour with Ed- 
 ward the Confessor. In 1066 William the Conqueror 
 was crowned by him. Died in 1069. 
 
 Aldrete. See Alderete. 
 
 Aldric, al'drik, [Lat. Aldri'cus,] Saint, was born in 
 France about 800. He was elected to the bishopric of 
 Le Mans in 832, in which office he acquired the highest 
 character for wisdom and sanctity. Died about 856. 
 
 Aldrich, auld'ritch or auld'rij, (Henry,) D.D., an 
 eminent English scholar and divine, born at Westmin- 
 ster in 1647, was educated at Oxford. He became a tutor 
 of the college of Christ Church, and edited several 
 Greek classics. In the reign of James II. he was one 
 of the most able defenders of the Protestant cause. He 
 was appointed dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1689. 
 He possessed great skill in music, and composed numer- 
 ous services and anthems which are used in the English 
 cathedrals. His "Compendium of the Art of Logic" 
 ("Artis Logics Compendium") was extensively used in 
 England until the publication of Whately's "Elements 
 of Logic" in 1826. 
 
 See Macaulav's "History of England," vol. iii. ch. xiv.; 
 Hawkins's " History of Music." 
 
 Aldrich, auld'ritch, (James,) an American poet and 
 journalist, born in Suffolk county, New York, in 1810. 
 He at first engaged in mercantile pursuits, but subse- 
 quently devoted himself entirely to literature. Died in 
 1856. He edited several popular periodicals, and was 
 author of numerous poems. 
 
 See Griswold's " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 Aldrich or Aldridge, auld'rij, (Rohert,) born in 
 Buckinghamshire, England, became Bishop of Carlisle 
 in 1537, and died in 1555. 
 
 * a» *; 5 as s; g hard; g asj; o, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; v., trilled; sass; th as in //;<>. (jjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ALDRICH 
 
 80 
 
 ALEE BET 
 
 Aldrich, (Thomas Bailey,) an American poet, and 
 assistant editor of the "New York Home Journal," 
 was born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1836. He 
 is author of "Miscellaneous Poems," "The Course of 
 True Love Never Did Run Smooth," etc. 
 
 Aldridge, auld'rlj, (Ira,) a negro tragedian, born 
 near Baltimore, in Maryland, about 1810. He early ex- 
 hibited uncommon powers of mind, acquiring knowledge 
 with great facility, and learning, among other things, to 
 speak the German language. Having attracted the 
 notice of Kean, the eminent tragedian, he accompanied 
 him, as an attendant, to Europe, and at Belfast appeared 
 on the stage in the character of Othello to Keatvs Iago. 
 He subsequently rose to distinction as an actor, person- 
 ating with great success a wide range of characters, 
 both in Great Britain and on the continent. Particular 
 honours were conferred on him by the King of Prussia 
 and the Emperor of Austria, and in 1857 the King of 
 Sweden invited him to visit Stockholm. Died in 1867. 
 
 See " Leben und Kunstlerlaufbahn des Negers I. Aldrige," Ber- 
 lin, 1852. 
 
 Aldrighetti, al-dRe-get'tee, an Italian physician and 
 medical writer, born at Padua in 1573; died in 1631. 
 
 Aldringer, alt'ring-er, or Altriuger, (Johann,) an 
 officer in the Thirty Years' War, was born in the duchy 
 of Luxemburg, of an obscure family. From a common 
 soldier in the Imperial (Austrian) army, he rose gradu- 
 ally to the highest rank, and after the death of Tilly, in 
 1632, was made field-marshal. He was killed while de- 
 fending the bridge of Landshut against the Swedes in 
 
 1634- 
 
 Aldrovande. See Aldrovandus. 
 
 Aldrovandi. See Aldrovandus. 
 
 Aldrovandini, al-dRO-van-dee'nee, a family of artists 
 who lived in Bologna in the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries. The most celebrated were the following : 
 
 Aldrovandini, (Pompeo Agostino,) born in 1677, 
 died in 1739. Like the others of his family, he was dis- 
 tinguished as an architectural and decorative painter. 
 He painted in oil and fresco, in Vienna, Dresden, and 
 Italy. 
 
 Aldrovandini, (Tommaso,) a painter of Bologna, 
 born in 1653, was a cousin of the preceding. Died in 
 1736. 
 
 Al-dro-van'dus, [Fr. Aldrovande, Sl'dRo'v&Nd'; 
 It. Aldrovandi, al-dRo-van'dee,] (Ulysses,) a great 
 Italian naturalist, born of a noble family, at Bologna, 
 about 1 524. Having studied botany, medicine, and other 
 sciences, he graduated in medicine in 1553, and obtained 
 the chair of natural history at Bologna in 1560. He pur- 
 sued his favourite studies with unremitting zeal, and spent 
 his fortune in collecting specimens and procuring en- 
 gravings by the best artists. The result of his labours is 
 a "Natural History," in 13 volumes, of which four ap- 
 peared during his life. He published three volumes on 
 Birds, 1599-1603, and one volume on Insects, 1602. The 
 other volumes were edited by various persons. His 
 works are praised for their completeness, but are defi- 
 cient in scientific arrangement and condensation. "The 
 book of Aldrovandus," says Cuvier, " can only be re- 
 garded as an enormous compilation, without taste or ge- 
 nius : the plan and materials of it are in a great measure 
 borrowed from Gesner." Died at Bologna in 1607. 
 Buffon praises the method of Aldrovandus and his 
 fidelity of description. 
 
 See Fantuzzi, " Memorie della Vita d'Ulisse Aldrovandi," 1774; 
 Haller, " Bibiiutheca Botanica ;" Jocher, " Allgemeines Galehrten- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Alduin, ald'win, [Lat. Aldui'nus or Aldovi'nus,] 
 written also Aud'win, Aud'oin, and sometimes 
 Hieldui'nus, the first king of the second dynasty of 
 Longobards or Lombards, reigned about the middle of 
 the sixth century. The emperor Justinian made an alli- 
 ance with him, and gave him Pannonia, (now the south- 
 western part of Hungary,) and the Longobard king sent 
 him in return 5000 mercenaries to fight in the imperial 
 army. (See Alhoin.) 
 
 Alduinus. See Alduin. 
 
 Aldus Manutius. See Manutius. 
 
 Ale, a'leh, (Egidius,) a Flemish painter, who was 
 born at Liege, and worked at Rome. Died in 1689. 
 
 Aleander and Aleandre. See Alf.andro. 
 
 Aleandro, a-li-an'dRo, [Lat. Alean'der; Fr. Al4. 
 andre, i'la'oNtlR',] (Girolamo,) a distinguished Italian 
 scholar, born near Friuli in 1480, was reputed one of the 
 most learned men of his time. He became professor of 
 belles-lettres in the University of Paris in 1508, and libra- 
 rian of the Vatican in 1519. In 1520 he was sent by Pope 
 Leo X. as nuncio to Germany, to oppose the doctrines 
 of Luther, against whom he showed a violent hostility. 
 He was the redacteur of the edict against Luther which 
 the emperor and diet adopted. In 1525 he was taken 
 prisoner at Pavia with Francis I., whom he had accom- 
 panied as nuncio. He was made a cardinal in 1538, and 
 died in 1542, leaving an unfinished work on holding coun- 
 cils, ("De Concilio habendo.") 
 
 See D'Aubigne. " History of the Reformation ;" MAzzucHELLr, 
 "Scrittori d' Italia;" A. Victorelli, " Vie d'AMandre," in a collec- 
 tion of lives of Pontiffs, published at Rome in 1630, 2 vols. 
 
 Aleandro, (Girolamo the younger,) a very learned 
 Italian poet and antiquary, born in Friuli in 1574, was a 
 grand-nephew of the preceding. He was remarkable for 
 the precocity of his intellect, and composed, at the age of 
 sixteen, seven beautiful odes, called "The Tears of Peni- 
 tence," (" Le Lagrime di Penitenza.") He was for about 
 twenty years secretary to Cardinal Bandini, at Rome. 
 He was also for some time secretary to Pope Urban 
 VIII. Among his works are " Penitential Psalms," (in 
 Latin. 1593,) and an antiquarian treatise entitled " An- 
 tiquae Tabulae Marmoreal," etc., (1616.) Died in 1629. 
 
 See Mazzucheli.i, "Scrittori d'ltalia;" Gasparo de Simeont, 
 '" In mnite di G Aleandro orazione," 1636. 
 
 Aleaume, S'la'om', (Louis,) a French litlinxteur, 
 born in 1525, died in 1596. He wrote Latin verses. 
 
 Alecto. See Eumenides. 
 
 Alee or All, a'lee, or Ali-Ibn-Abi-Talib, a'lee Ib'n 
 a'bee ta'lib, (/./. " Alee the son of Aboo-Talib :" see note 
 to Aboolfeda, on page 35,) surnamed THE Lion OF 
 God, an Arabian caliph, born at Mecca about 600 A.D., 
 was a cousin-german of the prophet Mohammed. He 
 was one of the first to embrace the new faith, which he 
 afterwards defended with unequalled zeal and valour. 
 He married FStimah, a daughter of Mohammed. Upon 
 the death of the prophet in 632, Alee and Aboo-Bekr 
 were .rival candidates for the succession, which the latter 
 obtained. This contest was the origin of the great 
 schism between the Soonnites (orthodox) and Sheeites, 
 the latter of whom were partisans of Alee. On the 
 death of Othman in 655, Alee became caliph ; but he was 
 obliged to maintain his cause in battle against Moa- 
 weeyeh, a powerful rival. Three fanatics conspired to 
 assassinate both of these rivals in order to end the war, 
 and Alee was killed by one of them in 660 A.D. He left 
 a son, Hassan, who became caliph. Alee is a popular 
 hero, especially with the Persians, who belong to the 
 sect of Sheeites. He is also celebrated as an author of 
 maxims and sentences. 
 
 See Irving, "Mahomet and his Successors," vol. ii. ; Weil, 
 " G-'ichiclue der Chalifen," vol. i. chap, iv. ; Ocklev, " History of 
 the Saracens;" Elmacin, " Historia Saracenica ;" D'Herbelot, 
 " Bibliotheque Orientale ;" Noei. des Vergers, " Histoire de 1' Ara- 
 bic" 1S46. ' 
 
 Alee or A1J, ( Abool-Hassan, a'bool' has'san,) King 
 of Granada, ascended the throne in 1466. He renewed 
 the war against Ferdinand and Isabella in I48i,and was 
 defeated at Alhama. In 1482 his subjects revolted, and 
 proclaimed his son Boabdil, or Aboo-Abdillah, king. 
 Alee died soon after that date. 
 
 Alee, AH, or Aali, a'lee, a Turkish historian, who 
 ■wrote a history of the Ottoman Empire. Died in 1597. 
 
 Alee- (or All-) ar-Ridha, a'lee ar-rld'i, a descendant 
 of Alee the son-in-law of Mohammed, born in 758 A.D., 
 was considered one of the legitimate successors of the 
 prophet. He married a daughter of the caliph Al-Ma- 
 moon. Died in 819. 
 
 Alee Beg, (of Poland.) See An Beg. 
 
 Alee-Bestamee or Ali-Bestami, a'lee bes-tl'mee, 
 a famous sheikh and learned Mohammedan writer, born 
 at Herat in 1400. He came to Turkey in 1443, and re- 
 sided at the court of the sultan Mahomet II. He wrote 
 on ethics, grammar, philosophy, etc. Died in 1470. 
 
 Alee (or Ali) Bey, a'lee ba, or Alee Beg, a Mam- 
 
 a, 5, 1, o, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
JLEE-CHORLEELEE 
 
 JLEMAND 
 
 eluke chief, was born in i728,onor near Mount Caucasus. 
 Having been taken to Cairo when a child, he was sold to 
 an officer of the Janissaries, who adopted and educated 
 him. He soon distinguished himself by his courage and 
 ability. Having at length got possession of the chief 
 power in Egypt in 1768, he aimed to make it an inde- 
 pendent kingdom. In 1770 he attempted to conquer 
 Palestine and Syria from the Turks, which led to a long 
 contest, in which Alee was at length slain in 1776. 
 
 Alee-Chor-lee'lee, (or Ali-Chorlili,) sometimes 
 written -Chourlouli, a vizier of Sultan Ahmed III. 
 during the time that Charles XII. of Sweden was in 
 Turkey in 1709-10. He was an enemy of Charles XII. 
 Died in 171 1, aged about forty. 
 
 Alee-Ibn-Hammood, or Ali-Ibn-Hammoud, (or 
 -Hammud,) a'lee Ib'n ham-mood', the founder of the 
 dynasty of Hammood'ites in Spain. He defeated in bat- 
 tle ancf killed Suleiman, an aspirant to the throne. Died 
 in 1017. 
 
 Alee-Ibnool-Abbas, or Ali-Ibnu-1-Abbas, a'lee 
 ib'nool ab'bis', (often called Haly Abbas,) a cele- 
 brated Arabian physician, who was probably a native of 
 l'ersia, and died about 994. Little is known of the 
 events of his life. His work, commonly known as 
 " Royal Book," (" Liber Regius,") is considered by some 
 as the best or most complete treatise on medicine which 
 has come down to us from ancient times. 
 
 Alee- (or Ali-) Ibn-Rodhwan, a'lee Ib'n rod'wSn', 
 (often called Haly Rodoan,) a noted Arabian physician, 
 born near Cairo in Egypt, flourished in the early part of 
 the eleventh century. 
 
 Alee-Ibn-Saeed, (or Ali-Ibn-Said,) a'lee Ib'n 
 sa'eed', a distinguished Mohammedan geographer and 
 historian, born at Granada in 1214; died about 1286. 
 
 Alee- (or Ali-) Ibn-Yoonas, (-Yunas or-Younis,) 
 a'lee Ib'n yoo'nas, surnamed Ab'ool Has'san, an emi- 
 nent Arabian astronomer, born at Cairo. He was author 
 of astronomical tables, which were considered the best 
 in the language. Died in 1008. 
 
 Alee- (or Ali-) Ibn- (Ben-) Yoosuf, (or -Yusuf,) 
 a'lee Ib'n yoo'soof, a sultan of Africa and Spain of the 
 Almoravide dynasty, began to reign in 1 107. He waged 
 war against the Christian princes of Spai'i, who captured 
 a number of his cities. Died in 1 142-3. 
 
 ATee-Koo'jee, [Ger. spelling, Ali Kudschi,] an 
 Ottoman astronomer, who lived at Constantinople. Died 
 in 1474. 
 
 Alee-Koolee- (or Ali-Kuli-) Khan, a'lee koo'lee 
 kSii, a nephew of the famous Nadir Shah of Persia, 
 succeeded that monarch in 1747. He was dethroned 
 and deprived of sight in 1748. 
 
 A'lee-Mo-ez-zeen', (Ali-Moezzin or -Muezzin,) 
 Kapudan Pasha under Sultan Selim I., was defeated 
 and killed in the great naval battle of Lepanto, (1571,) 
 where he commanded the Turkish fleet. 
 
 Alee- (Ali-) Mustafa-Ben- Ahmed, a'lee moos'ta-fa 
 ben ail'med, an excellent Turkish historian and indif- 
 ferent poet, born at Gallipoli in 1542. His chief work 
 is a universal history, called "Mine of Information." 
 Died in 1599. 
 
 Alee-Sheer- Ameer, or Ali-Shir- Amir, a'lee' sheer, 
 a-meer', a Persian poet and statesman, born about 1440. 
 He became vizier or prime minister of Sultan Husain 
 of Persia about 1470. He has been styled the Mae- 
 cenas of his age and country, and had a high reputation 
 as a poet. Died about 1500. 
 
 Alee-Welee-Zade, or Ali-Weli-Zade, a'lee wel'ee 
 za'deh, sm named Arslan, aRS-lln', (i.e. the "Lion,") and 
 commonly called Alee (or Ali) Pasha, was born at Tep- 
 aleen, or Tepalen, in Albania, about 1 750. He began his 
 career as a robber. At one time, when he was in a state of 
 extreme destitution, after having sold his sword to avoid 
 starvation, he accidentally discovered, partially buried 
 in the earth, a large iron box filled with gold. With this 
 he levied two thousand Albanian soldiers. From this 
 time forward fortune seemed to smile upon almost all 
 his enterprises. He possessed extraordinary courage, 
 shrewdness, and strength of mind, and well knew how 
 to take advantage of the weakness of the Porte, and of 
 the troubles in which it was involved with the surround- 
 ing nations. In return for his services in the war against 
 
 Austria and Russia, the sultan appointed him Pasha of 
 Trikala in 1787. Soon after, by intrigue, bribery, and 
 force, he caused himself to be declared Pasha of Yanina, 
 (Janina,) by which title he is generally known. He sub- 
 sequently rose, step by step, to be the most powerful 
 subordinate prince (subject he could scarcely be called) 
 in the Ottoman Empire. In the wars which convulsed 
 Europe after the breaking out of the French Revolution, 
 Alee Pasha took part now with this power and now with 
 that, as it suited his interest. Though the Porte had 
 abundant reason to distrust and fear him, its weakness 
 obliged it to temporize. At length, in 1820, the Sultan 
 Mahmood II., who had too much pride and energy to 
 endure any longer the greatness and independent spirit 
 ot Alee, sent against him a powerful army ; and, though 
 the Pasha of Yanina strove to avail himself of the aid of 
 the Greeks, who were then beginning to assert their in- 
 dependence, he lost one fortress after another, and was 
 at last entrapped by the craft of Khurshid Pasha, the 
 commander of the sultan's forces. Hassan Pasha was 
 dispatched for Alee's head. No sooner had he announced 
 his errand than Alee, seizing his pistols, rose with the 
 fury of a lion, broke with one shot the thigh of his op- 
 ponent, and with two others killed two of Hassan's lieu- 
 tenants, but was shot dead himself the same moment. 
 This occurred in February, 1822. 
 
 See Mai.tk-Brun, "Tableau historique et politique de la Vie 
 d'Ali Pacha;" Beauchamp, " Histoire du fameux Ali Pacha," 
 1822 ; Davenport, " Lite of Ali Pasha," 1837 : article on Ali Pacha 
 in the "North American Review," January, 1824; Pouqueville, 
 " M^moire sur la Vie et la Puissance d'Ali Pacha ; " Vaudoncourt, 
 " Memoirs on the Ionian Islai.ds, including the Life of Ali Pacha." 
 
 Alefeld, d'leh-fglt', (Georg Ludwk;,) a German 
 physician and writer, born at Giessen in 1732, became 
 professor of medicine and physics at that place in 1758, 
 and died in 1774. 
 
 Alegambe, a'leh-gfiMb' or a'leh-gam'beh, (Philip,) 
 a learned Flemish Jesuit, born at Brussels in 1592. He 
 became superior of the house of the Jesuits at Rome, 
 where he died in 1652. He was the principal author of 
 an excellent work entitled " Library ot the Writers of the 
 Society of Jesus," (" Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis 
 Jesu," 1643,) devoted to the biography and bibliography 
 of Jesuit writers. 
 
 Alegre, d, dt'ligR', (Yves or Ives, ev,) Baron, a cele- 
 brated French captain, who served in Italy in the time 
 of Charles VIII. and Louis XII., from 1495 to 1512, 
 when he fell at the head of his victorious troops in the 
 battle of Ravenna. 
 
 Alegre, d', (Yves,) Marquis, a distinguished French 
 general in the time of Louis XIV. He became marshal 
 of France in 1724. Died in 1733, aged about eighty. 
 
 Alejandro, the Spanish for Alexander, which see. 
 
 Alekseief or Alexejev, a-le\x-a'-yef, (Feodor Ya- 
 KOVI.evitch,) a Russian architectural painter, born in 
 1755. ^ e excelled in perspective, and in a skilful selec- 
 tion of the point of view from which his pictures were 
 drawn. Died in 1821. 
 
 Alemagna, di, de a-la-man'ya, (Giusto,) [Lat. Jus'- 
 TUS DE Alema'nia,! an eminent artist, probably of Ger- 
 man origin, painted at Genoa about 1450. 
 
 Al'e-man, [Fr. pron. il'moN',] (Louis,) a distin- 
 guished French ecclesiastic, born in 1390, was made car- 
 dinal in 1426. For his resolute defence of the authority 
 of the councils in opposition to the despotism of the 
 Papal see, Eugenius IV. issued a bull depriving him of 
 all his ecclesiastical dignities ; but these were restored 
 by Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius. Aleman died 
 in 1452. 
 
 Aleman, a-la-man', (Mateo,) a Spanish writer of the 
 time of Philip II., born at Seville about the middle of 
 the sixteenth century. He was the author of a celebrated 
 novel, "Guzman de Alfarache," (gooth-man' da al-fa- 
 ra'chi,) (1599,) which was translated into many lan- 
 guages ; and of a few other works of less importance. 
 Aleman is said to have been a man of sterling integrity 
 as well as of great wit and judgment. He was employed 
 twenty years by the king in the department of finances. 
 
 Alemand, Sl'mftN', (Louis Augustin,) a French 
 writer, born at Grenoble in 1653. He practised law and 
 medicine at Grenoble, and displayed both judgment and 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (U^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 6 
 
ALEMANN 
 
 82 
 
 ALENCON 
 
 erudition in his Works, among which is a collection of 
 critical remarks on the history of words, called " New 
 Observations, or Civil War of the French respecting 
 Language," ("Nouvelles Observations, ou Guerre Civile 
 des Francais sur la Langue," 1688.) Died in 1728. 
 
 Alemann, a'leh-man', (Conrad,) a German writer, 
 born at Magdeburg in 1309. Died in 1398. . 
 
 Alemanni, a-la-man'nee, sometimes written Ala- 
 manno, a-la-man'no, (Antonio,) a Florentine poet, 
 who flourished about 1500. He is cited for the purity 
 of his style in the " Vocabolario della Crusca." 
 
 Alemanni, (Giovanni Battista,) a son of Luigi, the 
 celebrated poet noticed below, born in 15 19, became a 
 privy counsellor of Francis I., and, in 1558, .Bishop of 
 Mascon, (Macon.) He wrote several sonnets and let- 
 ters. Died in 1581. 
 
 Alemanni, written also Alamanni, a-la-man'nee, 
 (Luigi,) an eminent Italian poet, born at Florence in 
 1495. He removed to Paris about 1530, and passed 
 many years at the court of Francis I., in whom he found 
 a liberal patron, and by whom he was sent as ambassador 
 to Charles V. in 1544, He was also patronized by 
 Henry II. His chief work is an excellent didactic poem 
 on agriculture, "La Coltivazione," (1546,) which, says 
 Ginguene, "abounds in elegant imitations of Virgil's 
 Georgics, and in true and poetical descriptions of the 
 rural beauties of Italy and France." He was author of 
 numerous sonnets, epigrams, elegies, satires, etc. Died 
 at Amboise in 1556. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia;" Tiraboschi, " Storia 
 della Letteratura Itaiiana;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of 
 Europe." 
 
 Alemanni, (Luigi,) a grand-nephew of the poet of 
 that name, was born at Flo r e nce m 1558. He was a good 
 classical scholar, and author of several short Latin poems. 
 Died in 1603. 
 
 Alemanni, (Niccol6,) an antiquary of Greek origin, 
 born at Ancona in 1583. He became a priest, and was 
 for some time professor of Greek in Rome. In 1614 
 he was appointed librarian of the Vatican. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, the ninth book of the his- 
 tory of Procopius, with a Latin version and notes. Died 
 in 1626. 
 
 Alemans, il'm&N', a miniature-painter of rare merit, 
 resided at Brussels in the early part of the eighteenth 
 century. His works were in great demand, and com- 
 manded very high prices. 
 
 Alembek, a'lem-bek', (Louis Valerian,) a Polish 
 poet, born at Leopol about 1620. Died about 1690. 
 
 Alembert, d', dS'l&N'baiR', (Jean le Rond — leh 
 r6.N,) an eminent French geometer and philosopher, 
 born in Paris on the 16th of November, 1717, was an 
 illegitimate son of M. Destouches-Canon, a commissary 
 of artillery, and Madame de Tencin, an authoress. 
 Having been found exposed in the street, he was placed 
 by the police in the care of a glazier's wife, named Rous- 
 seau, by whom he was brought up. A few days after his 
 birth his parents settled upon him an annuity of 1200 
 livres. It is said that after his remarkable talents be- 
 came known his mother discovered herself to him, but 
 he replied, " Je ne connais qu'une mere, c'est la vitriere," 
 (" I know but one mother — the glazier's wife.") He was 
 educated in the College Mazarin, which he entered in 
 J 730. After he left college he studied mathematics and 
 law, and continued to reside with his foster-mother for 
 many years. 
 
 Having written a "Memoir on the Integral Calculus," 
 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1741. He 
 published, in 1743, a celebrated " Treatise on Dynamics," 
 containing an important principle which Will always be 
 known by the name of D'Alembert, and which initiated a 
 revolution in physico-mathematical sciences. The prin- 
 ciple in question amounts simply to this, that every force 
 applied to a system must produce its entire effect some- 
 where, if not at the point of application, then somewhere 
 else. In other words, there is an absolute equality at 
 all times between the entire amount of force applied and 
 the sum total of the effects produced: thus, one portion 
 of the force may be spent in neutralizing an antagonistic 
 force, — for example, in overcoming the momentum which 
 a body may have already acquired ; another portion, 
 
 in overcoming the resistance caused by friction ; a 
 third, in imparting motion in a new direction. D'Alem- 
 bert's work " Oil the General Theory of the Winds " 
 gained a prize of the Academy of Berlin in 1746. He 
 declined, in 1752, the invitation of Frederick II. of 
 Prussia, who offered him the presidency of the Royal 
 Academy with a liberal pension, but he accepted an un' 
 conditional pension of 1200 francs from that monarch 
 in 1754. From this time until his death a constant epis' 
 tolary correspondence was maintained between him and 
 Frederick. 
 
 D'Alembert was elected to the French Academy in 
 1754, and received a pension of 1200 francs from Louis 
 XV. in 1756. He declined, in 1762, an urgent invitation 
 from Catherine II. of Russia to come to her court and 
 direct the education of her son for a salary of 100,000 
 francs. 
 
 About 1764 he became attached to the accomplished 
 Mademoiselle de l'Espinasse, who lived with him twelve 
 years, but rendered him unhappy by her growing indif- 
 ference to him and her partiality to another. (See Esi'l* 
 nasse.) D'Alembert was for a time joint editor with 
 Diderot of the famous "Encyclopedie,'' (commenced 
 about 1750,) for which he wrote many mathematical 
 articles, and an introductory discourse that was highly 
 commended as a model of accurate thinking and elegant 
 composition. (See Diderot.) For many years he was 
 on terms of great intimacy with Voltaire, to whom he 
 was as superior in justness of thought as he was in> 
 ferior in wit and brilliancy. D'Alembert was a skeptie 
 in the true sense of the word, (i.e. a "doubter" or "in- 
 quirer,") but not a scoffer or blasphemer, as he has been 
 commonly represented. We find in his published works 
 no attacks on the Christian religion; although he did not 
 conceal his hostility to Roman Catholicism. 
 
 In 1772 he was chosen secretary of the French Acad- 
 emy. He wrote " Eloges" of the members of that insti- 
 tution who died between 1700 and 1772. Among his 
 numerous works are " Researches on Various Important 
 Points of the System of the Universe," (3 vols., 1754- 
 56;) "Melanges of Literature and Philosophy," (5 
 vols. ;) and " Elements of Philosophy," (1759.) He was 
 a member of all the prominent learned societies of Eu* 
 rope. Died in Paris on the 29th of October, 1 783. 
 
 Lacroix, in the "Biotgraphie Universelle," expresses 
 the opinion that D'Alembert should be ranked as high 
 as any contemporary geometer, when we consider the 
 difficulties he overcame, the intrinsic value of the methods 
 which he invented, and the ingenuity (finesse) of his 
 ideas. 
 
 "His literary works," says Lacroix, "constantly di- 
 rected to the perfection of reason and the propagation 
 of correct ideas, were highly appreciated by all men of 
 sense, (bons esprits.) All of them are remarkable for a 
 pure diction, a neat style, and strong or pithy thought." 
 His character presents many amiable traits, among which 
 are candour, modesty, and beneficence. 
 
 See " filoge de D'Alembert," par Condorcet: a notice in the 
 first volume of the edition of his literary and philosophical works 
 published by J. B. Bastien, Paris, 18 vols., 1805 ; and the notice pre- 
 fixed to an edition of his works bv Bossange, 5 vols., 1821 ; N. Ro- 
 sen von Rosenstein, " Lefnadsbeskrlfning bfver J. L. d' Alembert," 
 Stockholm, 8vo, 17S7; " Biogfaphie Universelle." 
 
 Alen, van, v3n a'len, (or van O'len,) (Torts, or Jan,) 
 a Dutch painter, born in 1631, imitated Melchioi Hon- 
 dekoeter. Died at Amsterdam in 1698. 
 
 Alence, d', dS'16N's4', (Joachim,) a French astron- 
 omer and physicist, born in Paris. Died in 1 707. 
 
 Alencjon, a-len'sQn or I'ISn'sAn', Counts, and after- 
 wards Dukes of, a distinguiihed line of French nobles 
 in the middle ages. 
 
 Alencjon, (Charles de Valois — vtl'wa',) Count 
 of, a brother of Philippe de Valois, King of France. 
 He was killed at the battle of Crecy in 1346. 
 
 Alenc^on, (Charles,) Duke of, a grandson of Jean, 
 who died in 1476, was born in 1489. He married a sister 
 of Francis I. The loss of the battle of Pavia was at- 
 tributed to him. He is said to have died of shame for 
 his misconduct in that action. Died in 1525. 
 
 Alenrjon, (Francois,) Duke of, afterwards Duke of 
 Anjou, the youngest son of Henry II. of France and 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n8t; good ; 
 
 moon; 
 
ALENCON 
 
 83 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 Catherine de Medicis, born ir 1554; died in 1584. He 
 was awkwardly made, was disfigured by the small-pox, 
 and, to crown all, was of a cowardly and malignant dis- 
 position. Although he acted a conspicuous part in the 
 wars and intrigues of his time, he accomplished nothing 
 useful or great. He paid court to Queen Elizabeth of 
 England, and his proposals were very favourably re- 
 ceived by her, but the marriage was broken off on ac- 
 count of his being a Catholic. 
 
 See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" Simonde de Sismon-di, 
 " Histoire des Francais;" Sully, "Memoires ;" Motley, "Rise of 
 the Dutch Republic," vol. iii. ; Froude, "Reign of Elizabeth." 
 
 Alencon, (Jean,) first Duke of, a French nobleman, 
 born in 1385. He was killed at the battle of Agincourt 
 in 1415. 
 
 Alencon, (Jean,) fourth Duke of, a French noble- 
 man in the reigns of Charles VII. and I-ouis XI., noted 
 for his turbulent ambition. Died in prison about 1474. 
 
 Aleni, a-la'nee, or Alenio, a-la'ne-o, (Giui.io,) a 
 learned Italian Jesuit and missionary, born at Brescia. 
 He visited China in 1610, and preached with great suc- 
 cess ; he caused several churches to be erected, and 
 made many converts. Died in China in 1649. He wrote 
 a number of works in the Chinese language. 
 
 Aleni, (Tommaso,) an Italian historical painter, born 
 at Cremona in 1500. Died about 1560. 
 
 Aleotti, i-Ia-ot'tee, (Giambattista,) an Italian en- 
 gineer and architect, born near Ferrara in 1546 ; died in 
 1636. His chief work is the theatre of Parma. 
 
 Aler, a'ler, (Paul,) a German Jesuit, born in Lux- 
 emburg in 1656, passed many years as a teacher at Co- 
 logne. He wrote several Latin dramas, and published 
 a popular school-book called " Gradus ad Parnassum," 
 of which it is said he was not the author. Died in 1727. 
 
 Ales, Aless, or Alesse, i-less', [Lat. Ai.f.sius, a-lee'- 
 she-us,] (Alexander,) an eminent Scottish divine, born 
 in Edinburgh in 1500. His family name was Alane. 
 He was driven into exile about 1530 by persecution for 
 religion, and became a pupil of Melanchthon, with whom 
 he formed an intimate and lasting friendship. He was 
 professor of theology at Leipsic from 1543 until 1565. 
 He wrote commentaries on several books of Scripture, 
 and some polemical works. Died at Leipsic in 1565. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Mackenzie. " Lives of Scotch Writers." 
 
 Ales, i'leV, (Pierre Alexandre,) Vicomte de 
 Corbet, a French writer, born in Touraine in 1715. 
 His chief work is " On the Origin of Evil," (2 vols., 1 758.) 
 Died about 1770. 
 
 Alesio, a-la'se-o, (Matteo Pietro; more properly 
 Matteo Lecce — let'cha,) a painter and engraver, born 
 at Rome, was a pupil of Michael Angelo. He worked 
 at Seville. His fresco of Saint Christopher in that city is 
 highly praised. He returned to Italy, and died in 1600. 
 
 Alesius. See Ales, (Alexander.) 
 
 Alessandri, a-les-san'dRee, (Alessandro,) [in Latin, 
 Alexan'dER ab Alexan'dro,] an Italian writer and 
 jurist, born at Naples about 1460; died in 1523. He left 
 a work on philology, called "Dies Geniales," (1522,) 
 often reprinted. It is on the model of the " Attic 
 Nights" of Aulus Gellius. 
 
 Alessandri, a-12s-san'dRee, (Felice,) an Italian 
 composer of operas, born at Rome in 1742. Died about 
 1810. 
 
 Alessandri, (Innocente,) an Italian engraver of 
 Venice, born about 1742. 
 
 Alessandrini, 1-les-san-dRee'nee, (Giulio,) an Ital- 
 ian medical writer, born at Trent in 1506. Died in 
 1590. 
 
 Alessandro, the Italian for Alexander, which see. 
 
 Alessandro, a-Us-san'dRo, and Ju'll-o, (or Giuglio, 
 jool'yo,) two Italian fresco-painters, who are supposed 
 to have been pupils of Raphael, (or, according to some 
 writers, of Giovanni da Udine,) and appear to have been 
 partners. They worked for Charles V. in Spain, and 
 decorated the Alhambra. Died about 1530. 
 
 Alessi, a-les'sec, (Galeazzo, ga-la-at'so,) an eminent 
 Italian architect, born at Perugia in 1500, was an inti- 
 mate friend of Michael Angelo. Having adorned his 
 native city with several palazzi, (palaces,) he was called 
 to Genoa in 1552, to design the Carignano Church. He 
 
 was architect of the Grimaldi Palace, and of other grant* 
 palaces of Genoa. Died in 1572. 
 
 See Q. de Quincv, "Histoire des plus ce'lebres Architectes ; 
 Milizia, "Vitede' piu celebri Architetti." 
 
 Alessio Piemontese, a-les'se-o pe-a-mon-ta'sa. 
 [Lat. Alex'is Pedemonta'nus,] a physician of the six 
 teenth century, who dealt in secret remedies. Stung bv 
 remorse at the death of a person who, as he supposed 
 might have been saved if he had communicated his know- 
 ledge to the attending surgeon, he resolved to make 
 known to the world all his remedies, and published a 
 curious book called " The Secrets of Alexis of Pied- 
 mont." 
 
 Al'e-vas or Aleu'as, ['AXeiaf,J an ancient Greek 
 statuary, who worked in bronze. He is mentioned by 
 Pliny. 
 
 Al-ex-am'e-nus, [' \Xt!-aftiv6c,] a native of Teas, was, 
 according to Aristotle, the first Greek who wrote dia- 
 logues in the Socratic style. 
 
 Al-ex-an'der ['A/U'iavfyoc] I., King of Macedonia, 
 a son of Amyntas I., began to reign about 500 B.C. He 
 was obliged to join his forces with the army of Persian 
 invaders in 480. 
 
 Alexander II., King of Macedonia, was a son of 
 Amyntas II., whom he succeeded about 370 B.C. He 
 was assassinated in 367. 
 
 Alexander [Gr. 'A/i|awipoo ; Lat. Alexan'der ; Fr. 
 Alexandre, a'lek's&NdR';* It. Alessandro, a-les-san'- 
 dRo; Sp. Alejandro, a-la-Han'dRo ; Persian and Turk- 
 ish, Iskan'der and Sikan'der] surnamed the Great, 
 the first in order of time of the four most celebrated com- 
 manders of whom history makes mention, t and the third 
 Macedonian king of his name, was born at Pella, 356 B.C. 
 He was the son of Philip and Olympias, being descended 
 on his father's side from the ancient royal line of Mace- 
 donia, and on his mother's from the kings of Epirus. 
 who boasted their descent from Achilles. When Alex- 
 ander was about fourteen years of age, his father sent 
 for Aristotle, that he might become the tutor of the 
 young prince. Under this illustrious master, the greatest 
 intellect of that or, perhaps, of any age, Alexander 
 rapidly advanced in knowledge of every kind, and devel- 
 oped mental powers of the highest order. Unhappily, 
 his descent from Achilles, and the flattery of the cour- 
 tiers around him, gave his mind an early bias towards 
 war, and the ambition to be a great conqueror became 
 the ruling passion of his soul. The Iliad was his favour- 
 ite book ; and it is said that he had a copy of that poem 
 which he regularly placed under his pillow at night along 
 with his sword. He seemed fitted to excel in every de- 
 partment of knowledge, as well as in every manly and 
 martial exercise. In horsemanship he was unequalled ; 
 and when the famous steed Bucephalus was brought to 
 Pella, the Macedonian capital, as none of the grooms or 
 nobles could manage him, Philip, displeased, ordered the 
 animal to be sent back whence he came ; but the young 
 prince begged to be allowed to try his skill. His wish 
 was at first regarded as the thoughtless expression of 
 youthful folly ; but, when he earnestly insisted, the king 
 asked what forfeit he would be willing to pay in case he 
 failed. "The price of the horse," said Alexander.} He 
 had observed that Bucephalus was excited by his own 
 shadow. He therefore turned the horse's head towards 
 the sun, and, at the same time using every means to 
 soothe him, he soon succeeded in bringing him under 
 complete control. The king was so delighted with his 
 son's success that he is said to have wept for joy, telling 
 him he must seek for another kingdom, for Macedonia 
 was too small for him. He had such confidence in Alex- 
 ander's abilities, that when he set out on an expedition 
 against Byzantium he left the young prince, then only 
 sixteen years old, as regent of the kingdom during his 
 absence. According to Plutarch, Philip was delighted to 
 hear the Macedonians call his son "king," while he him- 
 
 * Chaucer has Alexandre and Alisaimder, the latter being evi- 
 dently derived from the Italian, but not improbably through an old 
 French form. 
 
 t Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, and Napoleon. 
 
 I The price of Hm cph;ihts, says Pliny, in his "Natural History," 
 was sixteen talents, — probably more than twenty thousand dollars ot 
 our money. 
 
 <: as i: c as s; g hard; g 3sj; 0, 11, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. ( jjy-'See Explanations, p. 23. 1 
 
ALEXANDER 
 
 84 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 self received the title of "general" only. When but 
 eighteen years of age, Alexander greatly distinguished 
 himself in the battle of Chaerone'a, and the victory which 
 Philip won on that memorable field was due in a great 
 measure to his son's courage and valour. On the death 
 of his father, (336 B.C.,) Alexander, who was not yet. 
 twenty years old, succeeded to the throne. Several of 
 the Grecian states which had been subjugated by Philip, 
 deemed this a favourable opportunity for regaining their 
 independence. Alexander's energy and promptitude, 
 however, disconcerted all their measures, and even 
 those who had been most active submitted to his power 
 without a struggle. But soon after, while he was en- 
 gaged in subduing the Triballi and other barbarous na- 
 tions in the east of Europe, a report having been circu- 
 lated that he was dead, the Thebans revolted a second 
 time. But the young king advanced into Bceotia by rapid 
 strides, and was soon at their gates. The city was taken 
 by storm, the houses levelled to the ground, and all the 
 citizens who had escaped massacre in the assault were 
 sold into slavery — the posterity of the poet Pindar, 
 and the families of those who had opposed the revolt, 
 alone excepted. The other states of Greece, intimi- 
 dated by this terrible example, were fain to accept Alex- 
 ander as their ruler. In a general assembly held not 
 long after, at Corinth, he was chosen generalissimo of 
 all the Grecian forces destined for the expedition against 
 Persia. In the spring of 334 B.C. he passed over into 
 Asia Minor with an army of not more than 35,000 men, 
 including the cavalry, which scarcely amounted to 5000. 
 He first engaged the Persians at the river Grani'cus, 
 where they endeavoured to prevent his passage. Al- 
 though the Macedonians fought at a great disadvantage, 
 being attacked by the Persians while they were still in 
 the river, they soon put their enemies to flight. He af- 
 terwards advanced to Gordium, where was the famous 
 Gordian knot. He had been told that the fates had de- 
 creed the empire of the world to him who should untie 
 the knot. He tried therefore for some time ; but, finding 
 all his efforts to be vain, he at last drew his sword and 
 cut the knot, declaring that this was the only way to 
 untie it. In 333 B.C., having received reinforcements 
 from Macedonia, he advanced to meet Darius, who had 
 assembled an army of about 600,000 men. The opposing 
 forces met at Issus. The Persians were defeated with 
 terrible slaughter. Darius himself escaped from the 
 battle, but his mother, his wife, and two daughters were 
 taken by the conqueror, who treated them with the 
 greatest kindness and consideration. The booty which 
 fell into the hands of the Macedonians after their victory 
 at Issus was immense. Before proceeding farther, Alex- 
 ander deemed it wisest to reduce the maritime states. 
 Most of the other towns and cities submitted at once to 
 his power; but Tyre offered a most determined resist- 
 ance. After a siege of seven months, during which the 
 Tyrians defended the place with equal skill and obsti- 
 nacy, the city was taken, 332 B.C. The glory of this 
 achievement, however, was stained by the cruelty of the 
 conqueror towards the inhabitants, of whom several 
 thousands were mercilessly slaughtered, and the remain- 
 der, amounting to thirty thousand, sold into slavery. 
 As he proceeded southward, all the towns opened their 
 gates except Gaza, which experienced a fate similar to 
 that of Tyre. Alexander then marched into Egypt, 
 where he was received by the people, who were weary 
 of the Persian domination, as a liberator. Here he 
 founded a city called, after his own name, Alexandria. 
 He afterwards visited the temple of Jupiter Amnion on 
 an oasis in the desert of Libya, in the hope, as some 
 say, that the god would acknowledge him as his son. 
 This acknowledgment having been made through the 
 priest of the temple, Alexander returned to Egypt, and, 
 not long after, marched against Darius, who had col- 
 lected another army of more than a million men, with 
 40,000 cavalry. The Macedonians had only about 40,000 
 foot-soldiers and 7000 horsemen. The armies met at 
 Gaugamela, near Arbela, 331 B.C. The Persians were 
 routed with immense slaughter. Soon after Babylon and 
 Susa opened their gates to the conqueror. Persepolis, 
 the capital of the empire, defended by Ariobarzanes, 
 was taken after a slight resistance. Alexander was now 
 
 the undisputed master of Persia; but his successes 
 appear to have turned his brain. Having persuaded 
 himself that he was a god, he thought that he owed no 
 obedience to laws which were made for mortals only. 
 While at Persepolis, he is said, in a drunken revel, at the 
 instigation of the courtesan Thais, to have set fire, with 
 his own hand, to the magnificent residence of the Per- 
 sian kings, then one of the wonders of the world. In 
 330 B.C., having learned that Darius was collecting 
 another army in Media, Alexander set out in pursuit of 
 him. The Persian king fled towards Bactria; but be- 
 fore he reached its confines he was murdered by Bessus, 
 the satrap of that country, who aspired to the throne of 
 Persia. The conqueror came up just as Darius was 
 breathing his last. The dying king, covered with wounds, 
 lay extended on a chariot. At this sad spectacle Alex- 
 ander could not restrain his tears. He caused the body 
 of Darius to be conveyed to Persepolis and interred in 
 the tombs of the Persian kings. He then marched in 
 pursuit of Bessus, who, having at last fallen into his 
 hands, was put to death, as Plutarch informs us, in the 
 following manner. He was attached by his limbs to two 
 trees, which had been bent towards each other for this 
 purpose, and, on their being allowed to recoil, his body 
 was torn asunder. Alexander had carried his victorious 
 arms to the northward beyond the Jaxartes. He after- 
 wards subdued Sogdiana. Oxyartes, a Bactrian prince, 
 had, for the sake of security, placed his wife and daugh- 
 ters in a fortress built upon a lofty rock. Alexander 
 took it, and was so deeply smitten with the beauty of 
 Roxana, one of the daughters, that he married her. 
 After his conquest of Persia there were formed against 
 his life two conspiracies, in the first of which Philotas, 
 the son of Parmenio, was implicated, and which led to 
 the death both of son and father, (see Parmenio;) the 
 second, of which Hermolaus was the chief instigator, in- 
 volved Callisthenes, the pupil, and, according to some, 
 the nephew, according to others the coinin, of Aristotle, 
 and several of the royal pages. All the conspirators 
 were put to death, except Callisthenes who was muti- 
 lated and afterwards killed ; though some say he de- 
 stroyed himself by poison. 
 
 In 327 B. c Alexander invaded India, a country of which 
 until that time even the name was scarcely known to the 
 Greeks. Having crossed the Indus, he formed an alli- 
 ance with Taxiles, one of the kings of that region, who 
 is said to have brought him, in addition to a large body 
 of troops, one hundred and thirty eleph-uits. He ap- 
 pears to have met with little opposition until he arrived 
 at the banks of the Hydaspes, (Jhylum.) Here his ad- 
 vance was resisted by a king named Ponr, at the head 
 of a great army, with a large number of elephants. After 
 a hard-fought and bloody battle, Alexander was victo- 
 rious. He took Porus prisoner, but afterwards he re- 
 stored him to his kingdom and treated him with the 
 highest consideration. His favourite horse Bucephalus 
 had been severely wounded in the battle, so that he died 
 soon after. On the spot where he was buried Alexander 
 founded a town, which he called, in honour of him, Buce- 
 phala. He afterwards advanced, subduing many cities 
 in his course, as far as the Hyphasis, (Gharra,) wher ms 
 soldiers refused to go any farther. His commands ind 
 entreaties were equally unavailing, and he was u"der the 
 necessity of returning. Having previously giver orders 
 that a fleet should be built on the Hydaspes, they imme- 
 diately embarked upon that river, continuing their ourse 
 down the Indus to the sea. Committing his fleet to 
 Nearchus, he proceeded by land to Susa. In his march 
 he encountered incredible hardships, and a large number 
 of his men perished from hunger and thirst. At Susa, 
 where he rested for some time, he married, as his second 
 wife, the daughter of Darius ; and to all those Mace- 
 donians (amounting, it is said, to gcoo or 10,000) who 
 married Persian women he gave presents. His object 
 was to unite the two nations as intimately as possible. 
 Soon after, his friend Hephsestion died, for .whose loss 
 he was for a long time inconsolable. As he was forming 
 vast projects for the improvement of his empire, and for 
 the subjugation of the surrounding nations, he died at" 
 Babylon, 323 B.C., in his thirty-third year. 
 
 In the extent of his conquests, and in the splendour 
 
 a, e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; \ 5t gdod; moon; 
 
ALEXANDER 
 
 «5 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 of his exploits, Alexander may be said to have surpassed 
 all other militaiy heroes. He overran and subdued the 
 greater part of the world known to the ancients, almost 
 as quickly as the same could have been explored by an 
 active and enterprising traveller. Even now, after the 
 lapse of twenty-two hundred years, his name is still 
 " familiar as household words" in most of the countries 
 
 that he conquered. It may not be irrelevant to state 
 
 in order to show what a deep impression the arms and 
 policy of Alexander had made upon the mind of the 
 Persian nation— that Firdousee, (Firdausi,) in his great 
 historic poem, the "Shah Nameh," written about the 
 year 1000 A.D., speaks of Alexander (Iskander) as the 
 greatest of heroes; but, following probably the tradi- 
 tions of his country, the poet represents him as the son 
 of a Persian king who had married a Macedonian prin- 
 cess, and, while she was on a visit to her father in Mace- 
 don, Alexander was born. This is equivalent to an 
 acknowledgment, on the part of the Persians, that they 
 considered his glory too great not to be appropriated at 
 least in part by themselves. Although it must be ad- 
 mitted that Alexander owed more to fortune than any 
 other of the great conquerors mentioned in history, it 
 can scarcely be questioned that his military talents were 
 of the very highest order. Many of his views of public 
 policy were liberal and enlightened ; and his ideas re- 
 specting the greatness and dignity that became a king 
 were very different from those of an ordinary or vulgar 
 sovereign. Undoubtedly, much of what was greatest and 
 noblest in his character was due to the instructions of 
 his illustrious teacher Aristotle; but it is certainly no 
 small praise that the royal pupil was, at least in the 
 early part of his career, before his brain had been turned 
 by his unparalleled successes, every way worthy of such 
 a teacher. He appears to have regarded him with an 
 affectionate reverence such as he felt for no other human 
 being, not even his father. And if these sentiments were 
 afterwards somewhat changed by the folly or crime of 
 Aristotle's relative Callisthenes, they were never wholly 
 extinguished. There was in Alexander's nature a gene- 
 rosity and magnanimity rare even among men most 
 distinguished for greatness of soul. His treatment of 
 the family of Darius, and his generous conduct towards 
 Poms, have already been spoken of. We may cite 
 another example of his magnanimity, related by Plutarch 
 and some other writers. A letter from Parmenio, one 
 of his ablest and most trusted officers, informed Alex- 
 ander, when he was once lying very ill, that his physi- 
 cian Philip had been bribed by Darius, with presents of 
 immense value and the promise of his daughter in mar- 
 riage, to take him off by poison. As Philip entered the 
 chamber with a cup of medicine for his royal patient, 
 Alexander drew the letter from under his pillow and 
 gave it to him to read, while he himself, without the 
 slightest hesitation, drank off the medicine prepared for 
 him. The result fully justified the trust with which 
 Philip's character had inspired him, and which his coun- 
 tenance 'then confirmed. Although the strength of his 
 intellect and of his will was most extraordinary, unhap- 
 pily that of his passions was still greater. Accordingly, 
 we behold him, after the conquest of Persia, so elated 
 as eagerly to accept the adoration which his flatterers 
 offered to him as to a god, and yet surrendering him- 
 self up at one time to the most insane paroxysms of 
 anger, at another to the most passionate and uncontrol- 
 lable grief. In a fit of rage he slew his friend and foster- 
 brother Clitus, who had once saved his life, after which 
 he became a prey to sorrow and remorse no less violent 
 than his anger had been, so that had he not been re- 
 strained by his friends he w.wld probably have killed 
 himself. Pope, in his " Temple of Fame," appropriately 
 calls him 
 
 "The youth who all things but himself subdued." 
 See Plutarch's "Lives;" Arrian's "History of Alexander's 
 Expedition; "Life of Alexander," by Quintus Curtius 
 Jiotheca" of Diodorus Si< fits." books xvii.-xx. ; Saint, 
 
 Exarnen critique des anciens Histnricns d'AIexandre le Grand,' 
 1775; Drovsen, " Geschichte Alexanders des Grosssen," 18.13: Wll 
 liams, "Life and Actions of Alexander the Gnat," iSag; Thiri 
 wall, "History of Greece :" Valerius, " Historia Alexandri Mafni," 
 ■'■ S i?i V E " MANN - "Historia Magni Alexandri," 1^,7; K 
 
 L F.roismo ponderato nella Vita di Alessa^dro il Grarde," 2 vols.' 
 1716 ; Fonseca-Rbbelo, " Historia abreviada de Alcxandro Magro," 
 
 1753: Linguet, "Histoire du Siecie d'AIexandre le Grand," 1762 
 De Bury, "Vie d'AIexandre le Grand," 1700; G. Schlegel, " Eiri- 
 leitung zu emer AlexandropSdie oder iiber die Jugendjahre Alexander. 
 desGrossen," 1775; Gustav Pfizer, "Geschichte Alexanders det 
 Grossen, 1845: Ignaz A. Fessler, "Alexander der Eroberer,* 
 1797; C. Matthias, "Historia Alexandri Magni," 1645; F. Aw 
 gusti, "Ritiessionicritichesopra il Carattere e le Gesta d' Alessandro 
 etc., 1764. 
 
 Alexander IV., a son of Alexander the Great ana 
 Roxana, was born in 323 B.C., after his father's death. He 
 was saluted as king by the army at Babylon, and was 
 under the guardianship of successive regents, Perdiccas. 
 Antipater, and Polysperchon. About 316 he fell intc 
 the power of Cassander, who put him and Roxana to 
 death in 310 B.C. 
 
 Alexander V. of Macedonia, was the third son of 
 Cassander. He disputed with his brother Antipater for 
 the royal power, and was put to death by Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes in 294 B.C. 
 
 Alexander L, King of Epirus, was a son of Neop- 
 tolemus, and brother of Olympias, who was the mother 
 of Alexander the Great. He was killed in a war against 
 the Lucanians about 330 B.C. 
 
 Alexander IX of Epirus. succeeded his father Pyr- 
 rhus in 272 B.C. He waged war against Demetrius of 
 Macedon. Died about 242 B.C. 
 
 Alexander, tyrant of Pheras in Thessaly, usurped 
 the throne in 369 B.C., and was notorious for cruelty. 
 He was compelled by Epaminondas to give up Pelopidas, 
 whom he had taken prisoner in 367. In 364 he was 
 defeated by the Thebans under Pelopidas, who fell in 
 the action. He was killed by conspirators in 359 i;.c. 
 
 Alexander I. of Egypt, was a son of Ptolemy Ever- 
 getes II. He reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra 
 eighteen years, from 107 to 89 B.C. He was dethroned 
 and killed in battle soon after the latter date: His son 
 Alexander reigned a few -weeks in 81 B.C., and was 
 killed by his own subjects in the same year. 
 
 Alexander I., surnamed Ba'las, King of Syria, pre- 
 tended to be the son of Antiochus Epiphanes. He began 
 to reign in 150 B.C., after he had defeated Demetrius 
 Soter in battle, and after the Roman Senate had issued 
 a decree in hisTavour. The kingdom was invaded in 148 
 by an army raised by Demetrius II., and by another under 
 Ptolemy of Egypt, who gained a decisive victory over 
 Alexander in 147. He fled into Arabia, where he was 
 killed in 146 B.C. His surname of Balas is supposed to 
 signify "Lord." 
 
 See Josephus, " History of the Jews." 
 
 Alexander II., otherwise called Alexander Za- 
 bi'nas, (or Zebina, i.e. " a purchased slave,") was a 
 pretender, who, being favoured or instigated by Ptolemy 
 Physcon of Egypt, obtained the throne of Syria in 128 
 B.C., after he had defeated Demetrius II. Refusing to 
 pay tribute, he provoked the hostility of Ptolemy, by 
 whom he was defeated and put to death in 122 B.C. 
 
 Alexander, a grandson of Alexander Jannaeus, and 
 a son of Aristobu'lus II. He raised an army in 57 B.C. 
 and entered Judea, then occupied by the Romans. He 
 made himself master of that country in 56, but was de- 
 feated by Gabinius about the end of that year. He 
 was pot to death by Q. M. Scipio in 49 B.C. 
 
 Alexander of .Eg^, (ee'je,) a Peripatetic philoso- 
 pher, instructor of the Roman emperor Nero. 
 Alexander of Aphrodisias. . See Alexander 
 
 EXEGETES. 
 
 Alexander surnamed jEtolus, (e-to'lus,) from 
 his birthplace, vEtolia, a Greek poet, who lived in the 
 third century B.C. He was regarded as one of the Pleias 
 of tragic poets. 
 
 Alexander surnamed Exege'tes, (i.e. the "Ex- 
 pounder,") a celebrated philosopher and commentator 
 on Aristotle, flourished in the early part of the third 
 century. He was a native of Aphrodisias, in Caria, 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 Alexander Jannvvvs, (jan-nee'us,) a son of John 
 Hyp anus, succeeded his brother Aristobu'lus as King 
 of Judca in 105 B.C. The enmity of the Pharisees against 
 him caused a rebellion, which raged several years, and 
 was suppressed with great cruelty in 86 B.C. Died in 
 78 B.C. 
 
 See article by Gesenius in Ersch und Gruber's " Allgemeine Eh- 
 cyklopaedie. • 
 
 .« as k; c as r; g hard; g as>; G, 11, n,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as t; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ALEXANDER 
 
 86 
 
 AI EXANDER 
 
 Alexan'der Myn'dius, a Greek writer and natural- 
 ist, lived probably in the second century B.C. 
 
 Alexan'der Nume'nius. a Greek rhetorician of the 
 second century, wrote a book on the " Figures of Rhet- 
 oric," which is extant. 
 
 Alexan'der Pelop'laton, a Greek orator, who 
 was secretary to Antoninus Pius about 150 a.d. 
 
 Alexan'der Philale'thes, [*i/,cOi?(tyc,] a Greek 
 physician, who was the ' head of a celebrated medical 
 school in Phrygia. He is mentioned by Strabo as his 
 contemporary, and by Galen. His works are not extant. 
 
 Alexan'der Trallia'nus, [Gr.oTpc^Woc; Fr. Al- 
 exandre deTralles, i'lek's6NdR'deh tRSl',1 a Greek 
 medical writer of great merit, was born at Tralles, in 
 Lydia, and lived in the sixth century. He settled in 
 Rome, and attained great distinction in his profession. 
 It is supposed that he was a Christian. His great work 
 is entitled " Twelve Books on Medicine," (BiS'Ma 'larpiKu 
 iuonaiieKO.) He is considered one of the best Greek 
 physicians after Hippocrates. His style is clear and 
 elegant. His works have often been printed. 
 
 See E. Milward, "Tralliaims Revivescens," 1734; Freind, 
 " History of Physic." 
 
 Alexander, a bishop of Jerusalem, who was perse- 
 cuted under the emperor Septimius Severus. He was 
 translated from the see of Cappadocia to that of Jeru- 
 salem, where he founded a library. Died in prison about 
 250 A.D. 
 
 Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria from 312 to 325 
 A.D., is noted as the first orthodox theologian who took 
 a prominent part in the Arian controversy. He wrote 
 many epistles against Arianism. He attended the Coun- 
 cil of Nice in 325, and died in 326 a.d. (See Atha- 
 nasius.) ' 
 
 Alexander, Emperor of Constantinople, born about 
 870 A.D., was a son of Basilius. He succeeded his 
 brother Leo the Philosopher in 911, and disgraced him- 
 self by his debaucheries. Died in 912. 
 
 Alexander I., Pope, became Bishop of Rome in 108 
 A.d. j died in 117. He is said to have, been the first 
 to introduce the use of holy water in the service of the 
 church. 
 
 Alexander II., named originally Anselmo Bada- 
 gio, (ba-da'jo,) was elected pope in 1061; died in 1073, 
 and was succeeded by Gregory VII. 
 
 Alexander III. (previously Cardinal Rolando 
 Ranuccio Bandinelli — ra-noo'cho ban-de-nel'lee) 
 was raised to the papal chair in 1 159 ; died in 1 181, and 
 was succeeded by Lucius III. He was distinguished 
 for his learning and great abilities. 
 
 See "Vita Alexandri III.." by the Cardinal of Aragon; Mo- 
 ratoki, " Annali d' Italia ;" G. F. Loredano, "Vita di AJessandro 
 III.." 1672. 
 
 Alexander IV. (Rinaldo di Anagni — de a-nan'- 
 yee) became pope in 1254; died in 1261, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Urban IV. 
 
 Alexander V. (Pietro Filargo — fe-laR'go) became 
 pope in 1409 ; died in 1410. His successor was John 
 XXIII. 
 
 Alexander VT (Rodrigo Lenzuoli Borgia — len- 
 zoo-o'lee boR'ja) was born at Valencia, Spain, about 
 1430. He first studied law, and distinguished himself as 
 an advocate, but afterwards embraced the military pro- 
 fc-sion. When he was only twenty-five, his uncle, Ca- 
 lixtus III., was raised to the papal see. This circum- 
 stance directed his ambition towards the church. He 
 was made cardinal through the influence of his uncle in 
 1456, and at length, in 1492, was elected pope as suc- 
 cessor to Innocent VIII. He was distinguished, both 
 while he was a cardinal and after he became pontiff, for 
 . his profligacy, inhumanity, and unscrupulous ambition. 
 Alexander's illegitimate son, the infamous Cesare Bor- 
 gia, was made cardinal soon after his father's accession 
 to the papal throne. (See Borgia.) He died in August, 
 1503, and was succeeded by Pius III. It has been as- 
 serted by several historians that Alexander VI. died from 
 the effects of a poison which he and his son Borgia had 
 designed for certain of their guests at a banquet, but 
 which, by mistake, was taken by the pope himself. The 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale," in an elaborate article, 
 
 endorses this accusation. It has, however, been dis- 
 credited by several historical critics, on the ground that 
 the evidence is insufficient. But, whatever judgment 
 we may form on this question, it can scarcely be denied 
 that the reign of Alexander VI. constitutes the blackest 
 and most infamous page in the history of modern times. 
 See Gordon, " Lives of Alexander VI. and Caesar Borgia," 1719 ; 
 MuRCHARD, " Specimen Historic Arcana; seu Anecdota de Vita Akx- 
 andiiVI.," i6c,7;Panvinio, " Vite dei Pontefici ;" Etienne Michel 
 Masse, " Histoire du Pape Alexandre VI," 1830 ; F. de la Fon- 
 taine, "Le P.ipe Alexandre VI," 1844; Tomasi, " Vita di Cesare 
 Borgia." 
 
 Alexander VII. (Fabio Chigi — kee'jee) was born 
 at Sienna in 1599, and chosen pope in 1655, on the death 
 of Innocent X. He is noted for his zealous and successful 
 efforts to improve and embellish the city of Rome. He 
 died in May, 1667, and was succeeded by Clement IX. 
 
 See Bagatta, "Vitadi Alessandro VII.;" Botta, " Storiad'Ita- 
 lia;" N. N. Sforza Pallavicino, "Delia Vita di Alessandro VII.," 
 2 vols., 1840. 
 
 Alexander VIII. (named originally Pietro Otto- 
 boni — ot-to-bo'nee) was born at Venice in 1610. He 
 succeeded Innocent XI. in 1689. He aided the Vene- 
 tians in war against the Turks. Died in 1691. His suc- 
 cessor was Innocent XII. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, "Vies des souverains Pontifes." 
 
 Alexander L, King of Scotland,- was a younger son 
 of Malcolm Canmore. He succeeded his brother Edgar 
 in 1 107, and married a natural daughter of Henry I. ol 
 England. He died in 1124, and left the throne to his 
 brother, David I. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol i. chap. xi. and vol. ii. 
 chap. xii. 
 
 Alexander 11 of Scotland, born- in 119S, succeeded 
 his father William the Lion in 1214. He fought against 
 King John of England, as an ally of the revolted barons, 
 and after the end of the war married a sister of Henry 
 III. He is represented as a wise and able ruler. Died 
 in 1249, and was succeeded by his son. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. ii. chap. xiv. 
 
 Alexander III of Scotland, a son of the preceding, 
 was born in 1241, and began to reign in 1249. His nup- 
 tials were celebrated with Margaret, the daughter of 
 Henry III. of England, in 1251. His long reign was 
 prosperous and peaceful, with the exception of an un- 
 successful invasion of Scotland by Haco, King of Nor- 
 way, with a large army, in 1263. Alexander fell with his 
 Horse over a precipice, and was killed by the fall, in 1286. 
 He left no surviving children, and was succeeded by his 
 infant grand-daughter Margaret. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. ii. chap. xv. ; Tvtlbr, 
 " History of Scotland;" \Vyntu\vn, " Chronicle of Scotland." 
 
 Alexander Jagellon — ya-gel'lon, King of Poland 
 and Grand Duke of Lithuania, born in 1461, was a son 
 of Casimir IV. of Poland. He became king at the death 
 of his brother John Albert in 1 501. He waged war 
 with little success against the Grand Duke Ivan of Rus- 
 sia. In his reign the laws of Poland were reduced to a 
 code by John Laski. Died in 1506. 
 
 Alexander-NEVSKY — nev'ske, (i.e. "of the Neva,") 
 sometimes written -Nevskoi and -Newskoj, a brave 
 Russian prince, born in 1219, was a son of Yaroslav 
 (Jaroslaw) II. He is said to have gained, in 1240, a 
 great victory over the Swedes on the river Neva, whence 
 his .surname. He succeeded his father as grand duke 
 in 1245. Died in 1263. He is venerated as a saint by 
 the Russians. 
 
 Alexander 1, (or, more fully, Alexander-Pavlo- 
 vitch — pav'lo-vitch', i.e. "Alexander the son of Paul,") 
 Emperor of Russia, the son of Paul and Maria Feodo- 
 rovna, daughter of Prince Eugene of Wurtemberg, was 
 born at Saint Petersburg in 1777. The care of his 
 education was taken from his father by Catherine II., 
 his grandmother, who herself wrote tales for the amuse- 
 ment and instruction of the young prince. Catherine 
 died in 1796, having named, it is said, Alexander as 
 her successor in a will which was destroyed by Paul. 
 In 1801 Paul was assassinated ; but there is no sufficient 
 ground for believing that Alexander in any way, directly 
 or indirectly, sanctioned this crime, altiough he appears 
 
 a,i,\,o,\\,y,long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, j% short ; a,e, j,9,<jAj-<r«/-e';far ) fall,fat;met,n5t;go : 6d; moon; 
 
ALEXANDER 
 
 87 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 to have consented to the dethronement of his father. 
 The chief defect of his character in the early part of his 
 life was the yielding too passively to the advice of the 
 corrupt courtiers about him, and the want of reliance 
 on his own judgment and on the dictates of his own 
 noble nature. This may perhaps account for the in- 
 consistencies which appear in his conduct in different 
 parts of his life. He does not seem to have exhibited 
 any striking indications of that greatness of mind 
 which was afterwards so conspicuous, till about the 
 time of the French invasion in 1812. Our limits neces- 
 sarily compel us to pass over the military movements 
 and those other acts of his reign which are found in 
 every history of that eventful period. Suffice it to say 
 that as his firmness and wisdom had led to the over- 
 throw of Napoleon in 1813, so, after that event, his 
 magnanimity preserved the city of Paris from the fury 
 of the Russian soldiers, liberated one hundred and fifty 
 thousand Trench prisoners of war confined in Russia, 
 and sought to obtain for his fallen foe the most liberal 
 terms compatible with what he deemed the safety of 
 Europe. It was, in fact, through his influence that Bo- 
 naparte was allowed an independent sovereignty in Elba 
 »nd the command of a portion of his former guard. On 
 Alexander's return to Russia he granted an absolute 
 pardon to all his subjects who had taken part against 
 him in the late war. When it was proposed to erect a 
 monument to commemorate his exploits, he peremptorily 
 declined the honour, adding, " May a monument be 
 erected to me in your hearts, as it is to you in mine." 
 He gave unremitting attention to the internal improve- 
 ment of his empire. Reform was introduced into every 
 department, military and civil. In the army, the soldier 
 was subjected to the restraints not merely of discipline, 
 but also of humanity. Persecution on account of reli- 
 gion was first abolished in Russia under his reign. He 
 entered Paris with the army of the Allies in July, 1815, and 
 in September of that year he concluded with the Em- 
 peror of Austria and the King of Prussia a treaty called 
 the Holy Alliance, which, although ostensibly formed to 
 promote religion, peace, and justice, proved to be a bul- 
 wark against the progress of liberal principles. He died 
 without issue, at Taganrog, on the 1st of December, 1825, 
 and was succeeded by his brother Nicholas. 
 
 In reviewing the life and character of Alexander I. 
 of Russia, we are obliged to confess that although his 
 nature was on the whole kind and generous, and most 
 of the acts of his reign were prompted by the spirit of 
 justice and humanity, the cause of freedom owes little or 
 nothing to his influence. It may be that he, like so 
 many others, received such an impression from the ex- 
 cesses of the French Revolution that he came to believe 
 that the people could not safely be trusted with any por- 
 tion of liberty. In the latter part of his life especially, 
 his mind sharing, perhaps, in his bodily infirmities, he re- 
 garded with morbid apprehension every public manifes- 
 tation which looked towards the slightest enlargement 
 of the privileges and powers of the people, and his at- 
 tention was chiefly devoted to suppressing liberal move- 
 ments not only in Poland, but also in Italy, Spain, Por- 
 tugal, and Germany. 
 
 See Henry Evans Lloyp, "Alexander I., Emperor of Russia," 
 1826 ; Sir Walter Scott, " Life of Napoleon Bonaparte , ' Ali- 
 son, "History of Europe;" Heinrich Storch, "Russland unter 
 Alexander I. ," 8 vols., 1803-06; I. D. F. Rumpp, " Alexander I. 
 Kaiser von Russland," 1814; Cousin d'Avallon, "Vie privee, 
 oolitigue et milttaire d' Alexandre I," 1826; Carl F. Leidenprost, 
 "Abriss einer Lebens Alexanders I.," 1826; Adrien Egron, "Vie 
 d' Alexandre I dt Russie," 1826; Alphonse Rabp-e, " Histoire d'Al- 
 exandre I," etc., 1826; Carl Morgenstekn, "Zum Gedaeclitnisse 
 Alexanders I.," 1827 ; E. W. C. VolGT, " Alexander I.," 1830. 
 
 Alexander IJ-,surnamed NlcoLAEViTCH,ne-ko-la'e- 
 vitch, (i.e. "son of Nicholas,") Emperor of Russia, the 
 eldest son of Nicholas I., was born on the 29th of April, 
 1818. His mother, Alexandra Feodorovna, was a sister 
 of Frederick William IV. of Prussia. He married, in 
 1 84 1, a daughter of Louis II., Grand Duke of I 
 Darmstadt, who, on joining the Greek Church, adopted 
 the name of Marie Alexandrovna. On the death of 
 Nicholas, March 2, 1855, he ascended the throne, in the 
 midst of a war between Russia on one side, and France, 
 England, Turkey, and Sardinia o« the other. He re- 
 'ained in office the ministers of his father, and pro- 
 
 claimed his intention to pursue the policy of his predet 
 cessor. The war was prosecuted with vigour even aftei 
 the capture of Sevastopol, September, 1855. Conferences 
 for the negotiation of peace, opened in Paris in March, 
 1856, resulted in a treaty by which neither party gained 
 any important advantages. 
 
 . Since the restoration of peace he has ordered several 
 reforms in the administration, and has accprired the 
 reputation of being more moderate and liberal than his 
 father. Among the important measures of his reign is 
 the gradual emancipation of more than twenty millions 
 of sen's, which was decreed in March, i86j, 
 
 A letter which he addressed to the government of the 
 United States in t86l, on the subject of the great rebel- 
 lion, was received as an indication of a most friendly 
 feeling on the part of Russia towards this country, which 
 was doubly welcome on account of the doubtful or hostile 
 attitude assumed by some of the other leading European 
 powers. 
 
 Alexan'der Alen'sis, (i.e, "of Hales,") a renowned 
 English theologian, styled the " Irrefragable Doctor." 
 His chief work is a "System of Theology," (" Summa 
 Theologia:,") written by order of Pope Innocent IV. 
 Died in 1245. 
 
 Alexander [Fr. Alexandre, t'lgk'sfiNds'] ok Ber'» 
 nay', afterwards Alexander of Paris, a French poet 
 of the twelfth century, born at the village of Beriiay, in 
 Normandy. He was the author (or one of the authors) 
 of a poem on the exploits of Alexander the Great, in 
 verses of twelve syllables, a measure which has ever 
 since been termed "Alexandrine." 
 
 Alexander ok Canterbury, an English abbot and 
 writer, who was noted for his assertion of the rights or 
 interests of King John against the pope. Died about 
 1220. 
 
 Alexan'der Essebien'sis, {i.e. "of Ashby,") an 
 English monk, who wrote historical and theological 
 works in the first part of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Alexan'der Insula'nus, a monk and chronicler of 
 Westphalia, flourished about 12 10. 
 
 Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, born at Blois, wa» 
 surnamed THE Magnificent. He rebuilt Lincoln Ca- 
 thedral. Died in 1147. 
 
 Alexan'der of Ville Dieu, (vel de-uh',) a gramma- 
 rian of the thirteenth century. He taugnt in Paris, and 
 composed a book of grammar in verse, which was long 
 in general use as a school-book. 
 
 Alexan'der, (Archibald,) D.D., an eminent Ameri- 
 can divine, born in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 
 1772. His grandfather, of Scottish descent, came from 
 Ireland to Pennsylvania in 1736, and, after a residence 
 of about two years, removed to Virginia. His father 
 was a farmer. Archibald received his classical education 
 at the academy of the Rev. William Graham, with whom 
 he also studied theology. He was licensed to preach in 
 1791, and for several years devoted himself to itinerant 
 labours, in which he acquired great fluency as a speaker, 
 In 1796 he succeeded the Rev. Dr. John Blair Smith as 
 president of Hampden-Sidney College, Virginia. He 
 became pastor of the Pine Street Presbyterian Church of 
 Philadelphia in 1807. On the organization of the Theo- 
 logical Seminary at Princeton in 1812, Dr. Alexander was 
 unanimously chosen the first professor, with the sole 
 charge of the several branches of a theological educa- 
 tion. As the number of students increased, other pro- 
 fessors were called to his assistance, which enabled him 
 to direct his attention more particularly to the depart- 
 ment of pastoral and polemic theology, in promoting 
 which and the general interests of the institution he coiir 
 tinned to labour with great zeal and success till his death 
 in 1851. Dr. Alexander's powers, both for pulpit oratory 
 and polemic disquisition, were extraordinary; and in all 
 the relations of life he possessed rare excellencies, Few 
 persons who have commenced authorship at so late a 
 period in life have written so much. With the exception 
 of some occasional sermons and contributions to peri/ 
 odicals, he had published nothing till the appearance of 
 
 his "Outlines of the Evidences of Christianity," in his 
 fifty-second vear, — a work which has been translated, 
 into various foreign languages and is a text-book of high 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as_/'; c, 11, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. ( $3f~$ce Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
ALEXANDER 
 
 88 
 
 ALEXANDER 
 
 authority in several colleges. This was followed by his 
 "Treatise on the Canon of the Scriptures ;" "Christian 
 Experience ;" " History of African Colonization ;" " His- 
 tory of the Israelites ;" " Bible Dictionary ;" "Counsels 
 fr jm the Aged to the Young ;" besides many other works 
 which our limits will not permit us to mention. His 
 "Outlines of Moral Science," published in 1852, (after 
 his decease,) says the " Westminster Review," " is a calm, 
 clear stream of abstract reasoning flowing from a thought- 
 ful, well-instructed mind, without any parade of logic, 
 but with an intuitive simplicity and directness which 
 give an almost axiomatic force." Dr. Alexander mar- 
 ried in 1802 Janetta Waddell, daughter of the celebrated 
 blind preacher mentioned by Wirt in his "British Spy." 
 He left five sons and one daughter. Of the former, three 
 were ministers. 
 
 See " Life of Dr. Archibald Alexander," by his son, James W. 
 Alexander, New York, 1852; Sprague's "Annals of the American 
 Pulpit," vol. iii. 
 
 Alexander, (Caleb,) D.D., an American clergyman, 
 was born at Northfield, Massachusetts, and graduated 
 at Yale College in 1777. He afterwards settled at Onon- 
 daga Hollow, New York, where he died in 1828. He 
 was the author of a Latin Grammar, (1794,) an English 
 Grammar, and an Essay on the Deity of Jesus Christ, 
 (1796.) 
 
 Alexander, (Sir James Edward,) a British officer 
 and writer, born in Scotland in 1803. He was employed 
 about 1835 in an exploration of Africa, and commanded 
 a regiment at Sebastopol in 1855. Among his works 
 are "An Expedition into Southern Africa," "Travels 
 through Russia and the Crimea," and a "Life of the 
 Duke of Wellington." 
 
 Alexander, (James Waddell,) D.D., an American 
 divine, eldest son of Dr. Archibald Alexander, was born 
 in Louisa county, Virginia, in 1804. He graduated at 
 Princeton in 1820, and, after studying theology, was for 
 some time tutor in that institution. He commenced his 
 labours as a minister in Charlotte county, Virginia, about 
 1826; subsecpjently removed to Trenton, New Jersey; 
 and, from 1830 to 1833, edited "The Presbyterian," pub- 
 lished in Philadelphia. He filled the chair of rhetoric 
 and belles-lettres in the College of New Jersey (Prince- 
 ton) until 1844, when he became pastor of the Duane 
 Street Presbyterian Church, New York. From 1849 to 
 1 85 1 he was professor of ecclesiastical history and church 
 government in the Princeton Theological Seminary, and, 
 for the remainder of his life, minister of the Presbyterian 
 church in Fifth Avenue, New York. Dr. Alexander was 
 a ripe scholar and vigorous writer. Among his works 
 maybe mentioned above thirty juvenile books written 
 for the American Sunday-School Union; "Life of Dr. 
 Archibald Alexander," 8vo, pp. 700 ; " American Me- 
 chanic's and Working-Man's Companion," 2 vols. ; 
 " Gift to the Afflicted ;" besides numerous sermons, 
 essays, etc. For many years he was one of the principal 
 contributors to the " Princeton Review." Died at Vir- 
 ginia Springs, July, 1859. 
 
 See " Forty Years' Familiar Letters of James W. Alexander," by 
 John Hall, D.D. 
 
 Alexander, (Joseph Addison,) D.D., a distinguished 
 theologian and Oriental scholar, third son of Dr. Ar- 
 chibald Alexander, was born in Philadelphia in 1809. 
 At the age of twelve he commenced the study of Arabic, 
 and before entering college had made considerable pro- 
 
 fress in the Persian and Hebrew. After graduating at 
 'rinceton in 1826, he continued his studies under pri- 
 vate tutors, and from 1830 to 1833 was adjunct pro- 
 fessor of ancient languages and literature in the Col- 
 lege of New Jersey. In 1838 he became professor of 
 biblical criticism and ecclesiastical history in the 
 Princeton Theological Seminary, and in 1852 was trans- 
 ferred to the chair of biblical and ecclesiastical history. 
 This position he occupied till his death, (1859.) In the 
 extent and accuracy of his learning Dr. Alexander had 
 few superiors in America ; and several of his works 
 have had a great success. His " Commentary on the 
 Prophecies of Isaiah," (8vo, pp. 968,) republished in 
 Scotland, Dr. Eadie, of Glasgow, pronounces " among 
 the best commentaries on Isaiah of any age or lan- 
 guage." His " Psalms Translated and Explained," in 
 
 three volt mes, which appeared in 1850, reached a sale 
 of ten thousand copies in four years. In 185 1 he gave 
 to the public his " Essays on the Primitive Church Of- 
 fices." He was one of the principal contributors to the 
 " Princeton Review." At the time of his decease he was 
 engaged, with Dr. Hodge, in the preparation of a com- 
 mentary 011 the New Testament. . 
 
 See "Life of J. A. Alexander," by the Rev. Henrv C. Alex- 
 ander, New York, 1S70. 
 
 Alexander, (Nathaniel,) born in 1756, was elected 
 Governor of North Carolina in 1806; died in 1808. 
 
 Alexander, (Noel.) See Alexandre. 
 
 Alexander, (Stephen,) LL.D., an American as- 
 tronomer, was born at Schenectady, New York, in ifrVi. 
 He graduated at Union College in 1824, entered Prince- 
 ton Theological Seminary in 1832, and in 1834 was 
 appointed adjunct professor of mathematics in the Col- 
 lege of New Jersey. In 1840 the professorship of as- 
 tronomy was created and assigned to him, and on the 
 death of Dr. Albert D. Dod, in 1845, he succeeded him 
 as professor of mathematics. Since 1854 he has filled 
 the chairs of mechanics and astronomy. He has pub- 
 lished numerous papers on astronomy, mathematics, 
 etc., some of which have attracted the attention of emi- 
 nent astronomers both at home and abroad. Among 
 these may be mentioned one on the " Physical Phenom- 
 ena attendant upon Solar Eclipses ;" " Fundamental 
 Principles of Mathematics ;" " On the Origin of the 
 Forms and the Present Condition of some of the Clus- 
 ters of Stars," etc. In 1S60 he conducted an astronom- 
 ical expedition sent out to the coast of Labrador by the 
 United States government for the purpose of making 
 observations on the solar eclipse of July 18 of that year. 
 
 Alexander, (Thomas,) Earl of Selkirk, a British 
 writer on politics, etc., planted a colony in Canada. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 Alexander, (William,) Earl of Stirling, a Scot- 
 tish poet and courtier, born, it is supposed, about 
 1580. He produced in 1604 tragedies entitled "Julius 
 Ca;sar " and " Croesus ;" and " Parasnesis to the Prince," 
 a didactic poem. His long didactic poem of " Doomes- 
 day" appeared in 1614. These works were greatly ad- 
 mired by his contemporaries, but are now obsolete. 
 He received from James I., by charter, in 162 1, the ter- 
 ritory of Nova Scotia, which he afterwards sold to the 
 French. He was appointed secretary of state for Scot- 
 land in 1626, and received the title oi Earl of Stirling in 
 1633. Died in 1640. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Alexander, (William,) (generally known in Ameri- 
 can history as Lord Stirling,) a major-general in the 
 American army of the Revolution, was born in 1726 in 
 New York, of which his father, a Scotchman, was for 
 many years the provincial secretary. He served as an 
 officer in the war with the French and Indians, and at 
 its close went to Scotland, where he spent a large por- 
 tion of his fortune in an unsuccessful attempt to estab- 
 lish his claim to the estates and earldom of Stirling, of 
 which many believed him the rightful heir. He earlv 
 and warmly espoused the patriotic cause in the war of 
 the Revolution, and, before the arrival of Washington 
 from Boston, captured with a small fleet of boats -a 
 British transport in the harbour of New York. He led 
 the attack in the battle of Long Island, in which he dis- 
 played the most determined courage, but was final)} 
 compelled to surrender, after securing the safe retreat of 
 a large part of his detachment. On being exchanged, 
 he at once resumed his command under Washington, 
 fought with him at Brandywine, and especially distin- 
 guished himself at Germantown and Monmouth. In 
 the last of these engagements he commanded the left 
 wing of the American army. Through his fidelity, Wash- 
 ington was made acquainted with the intrigues and 
 cabals of General Conway in 1777. Besides his military 
 achievements, General Alexander won an honourable 
 distinction as a mathematician and astronomer. Died 
 at Albany in 1783. 
 
 See William A. Duer, "Life of William Alexander, Earl of 
 Stirling," New York, 1847. 
 
 Alexander, (William,) an English artist, born at 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ALEXANDER 
 
 89 
 
 ALFANI 
 
 Maidstone in 1768. He accompanied Lord Macartney 
 as draughtsman on his embassy to China in 1792, and 
 published "Views of Chinese Scenery," etc. Died in 1816. 
 
 Alexander, (William,) a British medical writer, 
 practised in London. Died in 1783. 
 
 Alexander, (William Lindsay,) D.D., a Scottish 
 writer on theology, born at Leith in 1808. He became 
 pastor of a church in Edinburgh. He is author of nu- 
 merous works, among which are "The Connection and 
 Harmony of the Old and New Testaments," (1841,) and 
 "Memoirs of Ralph Wardlaw," (1856.) 
 
 Alexander ab Alexandre See Alessandri. 
 
 Alexander, (Ben-Moses-Ethu'san or -Ethuzan— 
 et-hoo'zan.) a German rabbi, born at Fulda, lived about 
 1710, and wrote a History of the Jews, (1719.) 
 
 Alexander Farnese. See Farnese. 
 
 Alexander de Medici. See Medici. 
 
 Alexander Polyhistor. See Polyhistor. 
 
 Alexander Severus. See Severus. 
 
 Al-ex-an'dra, a daughter of Hyrcanus, was the 
 mother of Mariamne, the wife of Herod the Great. She 
 conspired against Herod, and was put to death in 28 B.C. 
 
 Alexandre, the French of Alexander, which see. 
 
 Alexandre, flek'so.NdR', (Charles,) a philologist, 
 born in Paris in 1797. Among his works is a "Greek-and- 
 French Dictionary," ("Dictionnaire Grec-Franfais.") 
 
 Alexandre, (Dom Jacques,) a French Benedictine, 
 born at Orleans in 1653. He wrote a "Treatise on 
 Tides," (1726,) and a valuable "General Treatise on 
 Clocks," (1734.) Died in 1734. 
 
 Alexandre, (Nicolas,) a French monk and medical 
 writer, born in Paris in 1654, published a "Botanical 
 Dictionary," (1716.) Died in 1728. 
 
 Alexandre, (Noel,) a French Jansenist theologian, 
 born at Rouen in 1639. He published, besides other 
 works, "Dogmatic and Moral Theology," ("Theologia 
 Dogmatica et Moralis," 10 vols., 1694.) Died in 1724. 
 
 See NiciRON, " Me"moires." 
 
 Alexandre-Severe. See Severus. 
 
 Al-ex-an-dri'nus or Alexandrini, a-lek-san-dRee'- 
 nee, (Julius,) a medical writer, physician to the empe- 
 rors Frederick II., Maximilian, and Rudolph II., was 
 born at Trent in 1506 ; died in 1590. He translated and 
 commented on several of Galen's works. 
 
 Al-ex-i'nus [Gr. 'A/U#voc] of Elis, a disciple of Eu- 
 bulides, lived about 350 B.C., and distinguished himself as 
 a logician. He attacked Aristotle and Zeno the Stoic, 
 and was nicknamed Elenxi'nus, ("the fault-finder.") 
 
 Al-ex'is, ["Afofic,] a Greek comic poet, an uncle of 
 the poet Menander, was born at Thurium, and nourished 
 between 350 and 290 B.C. He removed to Attica in his 
 youth. He excelled in the delineation of the characters 
 of Parasites, belonged to the middle school of the Attic 
 comedy, and was a very prolific writer. Only small frag- 
 ments of his works are extant. 
 
 See A. Mkinkkk, " Historia Critica Comicorum Grsecomm." 
 
 Alexis, a Greek sculptor, who is mentioned by Pliny 
 as a pupil of Polyclctus, and of whom nothing more is 
 known. 1 1c is supposed by some to have been identical 
 with the Alexis whom Pausanias mentions as the father 
 of Cantharus. 
 
 Alexis, i'lek'se', (Guillaume,) a French Benedictine, 
 who lived in the latter part of the fifteenth century. He 
 wrote in verse and prose several works, among which is 
 "Lc Grand Blason de Faulces Amours," ("The Great 
 Blazon of False Loves," 1493.) 
 
 Al-ex'is or Al-exT-us I, (Com-ne'nus.) [Gr. 'A^ic 
 or 'AA«fs)C Ko/w/voc,] an emperor of Constantinople, born 
 about 1048. He was of high birth, and became general 
 of the Byzantian armies, in which capacitv he showed 
 considerable military skill. About 1080 'he was pro- 
 claimed emperor by his soldiers, in opposition to Nice- 
 phorus, who, on the approach of the troops of Alexis, 
 left his throne for a monastery. It was during the reign 
 of Alexis that the first crusade to Jerusalem took place. 
 He died in 11 18, and was succeeded by his son John. 
 As a ruler he was more distinguished for craft and in- 
 trigue than for any higher qualities. 
 
 See Anna Comnena, "Alexias;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of 
 the Konian Empire," chaps, xlviil, lvi, lviii., lix.; Mill, "His- 
 tory of the Crusades." 
 
 Alexis or Alexius IL, (Comne'nus,) Emperor of 
 Constantinople, a son of Manuel, was born about 1 168, 
 and became emperor in n8o. He was deposed and 
 strangled by Androni'cus in 1 1 83. 
 
 Alexis or Alexius III., (An'ge-lus,) was a 
 brother of Isaac Angelus, Emperor of Constantinople, 
 whose throne he usurped in 1 195. An army of crusa- 
 ders, whose destination was Palestine, besieged Constan- 
 tinople in 1203, ostensibly to restore Alexis, son of Isaac, 
 to the throne. (See Dandolo.) Alexis III. fled on 
 the capture of the city, and died in exile in 1210. 
 
 Alexis or Alexius IV., (Angelus,) a son of Isaac 
 Angelus, reigned a few months. He was put to death 
 in 1204 by Alexis Ducas. 
 
 Alexis or Alexius V., (Du'cas,) surnamed Mur- 
 zu'phlus, usurped the throne in 1204. The Latin chiefs 
 who commanded the crusaders, having resolved to par- 
 tition the Empire of the East, took Constantinople by 
 assault in 1204. Alexis escaped, but was arrested in 
 the Morea, was tried for the murder of Alexis IV., and 
 was executed in the same year. He was succeeded by 
 Baldwin I. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire." 
 
 Alex'is or Alex'ius Comne'nus is also the name 
 of several emperors who reigned at Trebizond (Trape- 
 zus) in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. 
 They were of the same family as the Alexis Comnenus 
 noticed above. 
 
 Al-ex'is or Alexei (a-lek-sa'e) Michaelovitch or 
 Mikhaylovitch — me-Kl'lo-vitch, Czar of Muscovy, 
 born in 1629 or 1630, succeeded his father Michael in 
 1645. He introduced many improvements, particularly 
 with respect to the administration of the laws. He also 
 succeeded in transferring from Poland to Russia the alle- 
 giance of the Cossacks who were attached to the Gteek 
 Church. He may, indeed, be said to have prepared the 
 way for the great undertakings of his son Peter. (See 
 Peter I. of Russia.) Died in 1676, and was succeeded 
 by his son Feodor. 
 
 Alexis, a monk, who became Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople in 1025. In 1042 he crowned the emperor Con- 
 stantine Monomachus. Died in 1043. 
 
 Alexis of Santos, a Greek historian, the author of a 
 " History of Samos," which is mentioned by Athenaeus. 
 The period in which he lived is not known. 
 
 Alexis Pedemontanus. See Alessio Piemontese. 
 
 Alexis Petrovitch or Petrowitsch, (pi-tRo'vitch,) 
 written also Petrowitz, a Russian prince, born in 1690, 
 was a son of Peter the Great and his first wife Eudokia. 
 He is said to have been a studious youth, averse to mar- 
 tial pursuits and hostile to the innovations of his father. 
 While Peter was absent on one of his long European 
 tours in 1716, Alexis retired furtively to Vienna and 
 Naples, for refuge from the dreaded ire of the Czar. 
 This strange proceeding, which perhaps was as wise as 
 any course that was open to him in the circumstances, 
 was treated as a crime by his father. Having been in- 
 duced to return, Alexis was compelled to renounce his 
 claim to the throne, and was condemned to death on a 
 charge of meditated rebellion, in 1718. He was found 
 dead in prison a few days after his sentence was pro- 
 nounced. There are very strong reasons for believing 
 that he was poisoned by order of the Czar. He left 
 a son, Peter, who became Czar in 1727. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Histoire de Russie;" Levesque, " Histoire de 
 Russie;" Sir John Barrow, "Life of Peter the Great," in the " Fam- 
 ily Library ;" Von Halem, " Lcben Peters des Grossen ;" Ersch 
 und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopa?die." 
 
 Alexis del Arco. See Arco, (Alonso del.) 
 Aleyn, al'en, (Charles,) an English poet, who once 
 had considerable reputation, born, it is supposed, about 
 1590, was educated at Cambridge, and became tutor to 
 Sir Edward Sherburne. His principal poems are "The 
 Battles of Cressy and Poitiers," (1632,) and a "History 
 of Henry VII., etc.," (1638.) Died about 1640. 
 See Winstani-EY, " Lives of the Poets," 1687. 
 
 Alfani, al-fa'nee, (Domenico di Paris,) an eminent 
 Italian painter, born at Perugia about 1483, was a pupil 
 of Pietro Perugino. Among his works are a "Virgin 
 Mary" and a "Saint John." Died about 1540. 
 
 •e as k, 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttitral; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (jjy="See Explanations, p. 23.J 
 
JLFANI 
 
 JLFONSO 
 
 Alfani, (Orazio di Paris,) an able artist, a son of 
 the preceding, born at Perugia about 1510. He imi- 
 tated the manner of Raphael with success, and painted 
 both in oil and fresco. Among his chief works are 
 jeveral Madonnas. Died in 1583. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy.'' 
 
 Alfar. See Elves. 
 
 Al-fa-ra'bl-us, [Arab. Alfarabee or Alfarabi, 
 ll-fa-ra'bee,] the Latin name of a distinguished Ara- 
 bian philosopher who lived at Damascus in the tenth 
 century. He is said to have understood seventy dif- 
 ferent languages. Besides other works on various 
 sciences, he wrote several treatises on the philosophy of 
 Aristotle. 
 
 Alfarazdak, al-fi'raz-dik', an eminent Arabian poet 
 of the seventh century. 
 
 Alfaro, al-fa'ro, (Francisco,) a Spanish silversmith 
 and artist, who nourished at Seville towards the close 
 of the sixteenth century. His representations on silver 
 were designed and executed with great taste. 
 
 Alfaro y Gomez, de, da al-fa'ro e go'meth, (Juan,) 
 a Spanish painter of high reputation, born at Cordova 
 in 1640, was a pupil of Castillo and Velasquez. He 
 worked at Madrid, and excelled in portraits, in which 
 he imitated the style of Velasquez. Among his best 
 works is an " Incarnation," at Cordova, and a portrait 
 of Calderon the poet. He was a brilliant colorist. Died 
 in 1680. 
 
 See Bermudez, " Diccionario Historico," etc. 
 
 Alfath, al-fit', or Alfatah, al-B'ta, a, distinguished 
 Arabian philologist, born at Seville, in Spain, near the 
 close of the eleventh century. He was put to death 
 at Morocco in 1 135. He wrote a book containing bio- 
 graphical notices of various Arabian poets, with speci- 
 mens of their poetry. 
 
 Alfen, il'fen, (Johan Eusebius,) a Danish miniature- 
 painter, worked in Vienna. Died in 1770. 
 
 Al-fe'nus Va'rus, an eminent Roman jurist, and a 
 pupil of Servius Sulpicius, lived in the last half of the 
 first century B.C. He wrote forty books of Digesta, 
 extracts from which are to be found in the Digest of 
 Justinian. He is often quoted by other jurists. A pas- 
 sage in Horace Sat. i. 3, v. 130 is supposed to refer to 
 this Alfenus. 
 
 Alferghanee, (Alferghanl,) 51-fer-oa'nee, written 
 also Alferganee, Alfergany, and Alferganus, some- 
 times called Al-fra-gan', an Arabian astronomer of 
 the ninth century, was born in Sogdiana. He wrote a 
 work entitled " Elements of Astronomy," which has 
 been translated into Latin. 
 
 Alfez, al-fez', or Alphesi, al-fez'ee or al-fa'zee, 
 {Isaac Berabbi — be-rab'be,) a rabbi and eminent Jew- 
 ish writer, born near Fez, in Africa, about 1013. Died 
 in Spain in 1 103. His chief work is an abridgment of 
 the Talmud, called the " Lesser Talmud." 
 
 Alfheim. See Elves. 
 
 Alfieri, al-fe-a'ree, (Benedetto,) Count, an Italian 
 architect, born in Rome in 1700, was an uncle of the 
 great poet Alfieri, who, in his own memoirs, speaks of 
 him as a very worthy man. He designed the Royal 
 Opera-House of Turin, one of the noblest structures of 
 the kind in Italy, and was patronized by the king, Charles 
 Emmanuel. Among his other works are the facade of 
 Saint Peter's Church at Geneva, and the church at 
 Carignano. Died at Turin in 1767. 
 
 Alfieri, (Vittorio,) the most celebrated Italian poet 
 of his age, was born of a noble family at Asti, in Pied- 
 mont, on the 17th of January, 1 749. He inherited an 
 ample fortune from his father, who died while Vittorio 
 was an infant, and was sent to the Accademia or College 
 of Turin, in which he received such an education as those 
 wholly incompetent to teach could impart. He left 
 school about the age of fifteen, and indulged his passion 
 for travel and reckless dissipation. He visited Paris, 
 passed over to England, and sojourned in Holland. 
 From a second tour through Germany, Sweden, Russia, 
 etc., he returned to Turin in 1772. He once went to 
 England on purpose to purchase horses, of which he 
 was very fond. The success of his first drama, " Cleo- 
 patra," which was performed at Turin in 1775, appears 
 to have produced a change in his mode of life, which 
 
 was thenceforth devoted to study and to dramatic coin, 
 position. 
 
 In the course of the seven ensuing years he composed, 
 fourteen tragedies, among which are "Filippo II.," 
 " Virginia," " Orestes," " Mary Stuart," " Octavia," 
 "Merope," and ''Saul," (1782.) The first and the last 
 of these are considered his master-pieces. His dramas 
 are simple in design, noble in sentiment, sententious in 
 style, and pervaded by intense passion. About 1778 
 Alfieri became acquainted with the Countess of Albany, 
 (wife of the Pretender, Charles Edward Stuart,) who in- 
 spired his wayward heart with a lasting passion. (See 
 Albany, Countess of.) It is supposed that he was 
 privately married to her after the death of her husband 
 in 1788. He resided some years in Prance, and invested 
 a large sum of money in French stocks, which he lost 
 when he fled from the outrages of the Revolution in 1792. 
 He then became a resident of Florence, and about the 
 age of forty-six commenced the study of Greek, in which 
 he made good progress. He translated some of the 
 plays of /Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. 
 
 Among the other works of Alfieri are an " Essay on 
 Tyranny," a translation of Sallust, a number of sonnets 
 and epigrams, and five odes on the American Revolu- 
 tion. . lie died at Florence on the 8th of October, 1803, 
 Notwithstanding his faults, he was a man of public spirit, 
 a sincere patriot, and an ardent lover of liberty. A 
 monument, designed by Canova, was erected to him by 
 the Countess of Albany in Santa Croce, Florence, be- 
 tween the tombs of Michael Angelo and Machiavel, 
 " He rarely speaks to the heart," says Ginguene, " but 
 he is eloquent and nervous in intense passions ; he pos- 
 sesses grandeur, and in his ideas, as well as in his style, 
 aspires always to the sublime, , , , His dialogue is often 
 a model of precision and dramatic argumentation,'' 
 " The aim of his works," says Madame de Stael, " is so 
 noble, the sentiments which the author expresses accord 
 so well with his personal conduct, that his tragedies 
 ought always to be praised as actions, even when they 
 may be criticised as literary works." (Corinne.) "A par- 
 allel between Alfieri and Cowper," says Macaulay, (in 
 his article on Byron, in the " Edinburgh Review, 1 ' 1831,) 
 " may at first sight seem as unpromising as that which 
 a loyal Presbyterian minister is said to have drawn iq 
 1745 between George the Second and Enoch. . . . But 
 though the private lives of these remarkable men pre. 
 sent scarcely any points of resemblance, their literary 
 lives bear a close analogy to each other. They both 
 found poetry in its lowest state of degradation, feeble, 
 artificial, and altogether nerveless. They both possessed 
 precisely the talents which fitted them for the task of 
 raising it from that deep abasement. . . . They had not 
 in a very high degree the creative power, but they had 
 great vigour of thought, great warmth of feeling, and, 
 what was above all things important, a manliness of 
 taste which approached to roughness." 
 
 See his Autobiography entitled " Vita di Vittorio Alfieri scritta da 
 Esso," translated into English by C. E. Lester ; " Vita di Vittorio 
 Alfieri," Milan, 1823 ; Serafico Grassi, '' Dissertazione in lode di 
 Vittorio Alfieri," 1S19 ; Antonio Zezon, " Biografia di Vittorio Al- 
 fieri," 1S35; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Ville- 
 main, " Cours de Literature ;" A. Bucceluni, " Elogio de Vittorio 
 Alfieri," 1811; R. Southey, article on the Life and Writings of 
 Alfieri, in the " Quarterly Review" for January, 1816. 
 
 Alfon, al-fdn', (Juan,) a Spanish painter, born Rt 
 Toledo, lived about 1418. 
 
 Alfonse, iTf6Ns', (Jean,) a French navigator of the 
 sixteenth century, was a native of Saintonge, whence his 
 surname Le Saintongeois, (leh saN'tAN'zhwa'.) He 
 made several voyages of discovery in the South Seas, 
 an account of which was published in 1559, entitled 
 "Voyages Adventureux du Capitaine Jean Alfonse." 
 
 Al-fon'so I., surnamed El Batallador, el ba-tal- 
 ya-doR', (i.e. the "battler" or "warrior,") King of Ara- 
 gon and Navarre, ascended the throne in 1104. He 
 fell in battle in 1 134. He had, it is said, previously de- 
 feated the Mohammedans in thirtv-nine successive con. 
 flicts, and taken from them a much greater extent of 
 territory than he had inherited from his ancestors. He 
 was succeeded by his brother, Ramiro II. 
 
 Alfonso II. of Aragon, a grandson of Ramiro II,, 
 born in 1 152, became king in 1163. He inherited Bar. 
 
 a, i, 1, 5, 5, y, long; 1, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, vi, j?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, ftt; met; nftt; good; inoon; 
 
ALFONSO 
 
 9' 
 
 ALFONSO 
 
 cclona from bis father, Raymond V., and extended his 
 dominions at the expense of the Mussulmans. Died in 
 1 196, leaving the throne to his son, Pedro II. 
 
 Alfonso HI. of Aragon, born about 1265, was a son 
 of Pedro III., whom he succeeded in 1285. The Cortes 
 asserted their privileges with success in this reign, and 
 set bounds to the royal prerogative. He died in 1291, 
 and was succeeded by his brother, Jaime II. 
 
 Alfonso IV. of Aragon, a son of Jaime II., began 
 to reign in 1327. He waged a war against the Genoese, 
 who invaded his kingdom, but were repulsed. Died in 
 1336, and was succeeded by his son, Pedro IV. 
 • See Zukita, " Annates de Aragon." 
 
 Alfonso V. of Aragon. See Alfonso I. of Na- 
 ples. 
 
 Alfonso L, King of Asturias, ascended the throne 
 in 739 a.d. He gained many victories over the Mos- 
 lems, and took from them a multitude of towns and for- 
 tresses. From his zeal for religion, evinced in building 
 churches and founding monasteries, etc., he received the 
 surname of El Catolico, ("the Catholic") Died in 756. 
 
 Alfonso H. of Asturias, surnamed El Casto, 
 ("the Chaste,") succeeded to the throne in 791 a.d. He 
 was distinguished for his successful wars against the 
 Mohammedans. He died in 842, after a prosperous 
 reign of more than fifty years. 
 
 Alfonso HI. of Asturias and Leon, surnamed El 
 Magno, ("the Great,") succeeded his father Ordono 
 in 866 a.d. He greatly extended his dominions by con- 
 quests from the Mohammedans. Died in 910, leaving 
 the throne to his son Garcia. 
 
 Alfonso X of Castile, (or Alfonso VL of Leon,) 
 surnamed El Bravo, 21 bri'vo, ("the Brave,") a son of 
 Fernando I., ascended the throne of Leon in 1065. On 
 the death of his brother, Sancho II. of Castile, in 1073, 
 Galicia, Asturias, Castile, etc. were added to his sway. 
 He acquired great renown in his wars against the 
 Moors. His reign may be considered as the dawn of 
 Christian prosperity in modern Spain. Died in 1109, 
 aged seventy-nine. 
 
 Alfonso II. of Castile, (called Alfonso VH. of 
 Leon by some historians, who count Alfonso I. of 
 Castile as VI. of Leon,) named also Alfonso Ray- 
 mond, a grandson of the preceding, ascended the throne 
 in 1 1 26. He was very successful in his wars with the 
 Mohammedans, and removed the frontiers of Castile 
 from the Tagus to the Sierra Morena Mountains. In 
 1 135 he assumed the imperial title, and is accordingly 
 sometimes styled "the Emperor." Died in 1157, leav- 
 ing Castile to his son Sancho, and Leon to his son Fer- 
 nando. The written language of Spain is supposed to 
 date from about the beginning of the reign of Alfonso 
 VII., and the oldest Spanish document of which the 
 date is known is one given by Alfonso VII. to the city 
 of Aviles, in Asturias, in confirmation of certain privi- 
 leges previously granted. 
 
 See Ticknor's "Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. ii. 
 
 Alfonso VXH. of Castile, called by some Alfonso 
 III., surnamed El Noble, el no'lili, ("the Noble,") 
 Succeeded to the throne in 1 158, when he was only three 
 years old. After he became of age he was almost con- 
 stantly engaged in war with the Mohammedans. In 
 1 195 he sustained a severe defeat from the arms of Aboo- 
 Voosuf-Yakoob ; but in 1212, with the kings of Aragon 
 and Navarre, he gained a great victory over the Almo- 
 hade sultan Mohammed An-Nasir, at the head of 600,000 
 men. The loss of the Mohammedans, as estimated by 
 their own writers, was not less than 160,000. Alfonso 
 died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son, Enrique I. 
 
 Alfonso XI. of Castile, a son of Fernando IV., 
 succeeded to the throne in 1312, when he was only a year 
 old. In 1333, aided by Alfonso IV. of Portugal, whose 
 daughter he had married, he turned his arms against 
 the Moors, and in 1340 gained a great victory over the 
 sultan Abool-Hassan (or Alboacen) under the walls of 
 Tarifa, then besieged by the Mohammedan forces. He 
 died in 1350, respected even by his enemies. The 
 Moorish king of Granada is said 'to have exclaimed, 
 when he heard of Alfonso's death, " We have lost the 
 best king in the world,— one who knew how to honour 
 
 the worthy, whether friend or foe." He was succeeded 
 by his son, Pedro the Cruel. 
 
 See Maeiana, " Historia general de Espana." 
 
 Alfonso I, IX, and IIL of Leon. See Alfonso of 
 Asturias. 
 
 Alfonso IV. of Leon and Asturias, surnamed the 
 Monk, succeeded his uncle Fruela in 924. He abdi- 
 cated in favour of his brother Ramiro about 930, and 
 became a monk. Died about 932. 
 
 Alfonso V., King of Leon, born in 994, succeeded 
 his father, Bermudo II., in 999. His reign was pros- 
 perous, and his armies gained several victories over the 
 Moors. He was killed at the siege of Viseu in 1028, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Bermudo III. 
 
 Alfonso VI. of Leon. See Alfonso I. of Castilf. 
 
 Alfonso VII. of Leon. See Alfonso II. of Cas- 
 tile. 
 
 Alfonso IX., King of Leon, succeeded his father 
 Fernando II. in 11G8. He waged war against Alfonso 
 of Castile, and afterwards married his daughter. Died 
 in 1230, leaving a son Fernando, who was King of Cas- 
 tile and Leon. 
 
 Alfonso X, King of Leon and Castile, surnamed 
 El Sabio, 61 sa'Be-o, ("the Wise,") born in 1226, was a 
 son of Fernando III., whom he succeeded in 1252. He 
 had a high reputation for learning and eloquence, and 
 was distinguished for the patronage he extended to 
 science and literature; but he was not a successful or 
 popular ruler. His reign was disturbed by civil wars, 
 one of which was instigated by his second son, Sancho, 
 about 1281. The situation of Alfonso was so desperate 
 that he solicited aid from the Moors. Spain owes to him 
 an excellent code of laws, a translation of the Bible 
 into Castilian, the restoration of the University of Sala- 
 manca, and the first use of the Castilian language in 
 public affairs. Europe is indebted to him for the valu- 
 able astronomical tables called Alphonsine Tables, 
 Died in 1284. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature," vol. i. chSp. iii.; 
 Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Conde, " Historia 
 de la Domination de los Arabes en Espana ;" Mariana, "Historia 
 general de Espana ;" Marquis de Mondejar, " Memorias historicas 
 del Rey Don Alfonso el Sabio." 
 
 Alfonso L of Naples, Sicily, and Aragon, born in 
 1385, succeeded his father Fernando I. on the throne of 
 Aragon in 1416. He had been adopted as the heir of 
 Queen Joanna of Naples, and in 1442, seven years after 
 the death of that princess, and after encountering much 
 opposition, he obtained possession of the whole Neapoli- 
 tan kingdom. Died in 1458. He was a man of learning, 
 and a liberal patron of literature and science. His son 
 Ferdinand became King of Naples. 
 
 See Facio, " Fatti d' Alfonso d'Aragona." 
 
 Alfonso II., King of Naples, born in 1448, was a 
 son of Ferdinand I. He defeated the Florentines at 
 Poggio in 1479, and the Turks at Otranto in 1481. He 
 ascended the throne in January, 1494, and rendered him- 
 self odious by his cruelty and avarice. Alarmed at the 
 approach of Charles VIII. of France with an army, he 
 abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand in January, 
 1495, an d died about the end of that year. 
 
 SeeGiANNONE, "Storia del Regno di Napoli." 
 
 Alfonso I., I Port. Affonso,] or, more fully, Dom Af- 
 fonso Enriques, doN af-fbn'so en-ree'kes, the founder 
 of the Portuguese monarchy, son of Henry of Besancon, 
 Count of Toulouse, was born in 1094. He inherited 
 the title of Count of Portugal from his father, who had 
 received it from Alfonso I. of Castile, his father-in-law. 
 Knriques was yet a child when his father died, and Por- 
 tugal was for a long time under the rule, or rather mis- 
 rule, of his mother Theresa ; but in 1 128 he took the su- 
 preme authority into his own hands. Alfonso VIII. (or 
 more properly III.) of Castile, having supported the 
 claims of Theresa, Enriques met him in the field, de- 
 feated him, and established the entire independence of 
 Portugal. He did not, however, take the title of king 
 till 1 139, when, at the head of about 13,000 Portuguese, 
 he completely routed, at Ourique, the combined army 
 of the Mohammedans, amounting, it is said, to 200,000 
 men, and made prisoners the five kings by whom t His 
 mighty host was led. In 1146 he took Santarem fro» 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; w , nasal; r, trillid; s as *; th as in this. (BJfSee Explanations, p. 2 \) 
 
ALFONSO 
 
 92 
 
 ALFRED 
 
 the Moors by assault, and in the same year, or early in 
 the next, reduced Lisbon, after a siege of more than five 
 months. He turned his arms successively against the 
 other towns and fortresses in possession of the Moham- 
 medans, and in 1 158 became undisputed possessor of his 
 kingdom. Died in 1 185, aged ninety. He left a son, 
 who became King Sancho I. 
 
 See Mariana, "Historia de Espafia;" Schaeffer, "Histoire 
 du Portugal." 
 
 Alfonso (or Affonso) II. of Portugal, a son of San- 
 cho I., was born in 1 185, and began to reign in 1211. 
 His kingdom was placed under an interdict by the pope 
 because he taxed the property of the clergy. Alfonso 
 was thus reduced to submission. He died in 1223, leav- 
 ing the throne to his son, Sancho II. 
 
 Alfonso (Affonso) III., a son of the preceding, born 
 in 1210, succeeded his brother Sancho II. in 1248. His 
 reign was rather prosperous, though he was once excom- 
 municated by the pope. He died in 1279, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Denis, (Diniz.) 
 
 Alfonso (Affonso) IV. of Portugal, surnamed- the 
 Brave, a son of Denis, was born in 1290, and began 
 to reign in 1325. Among the remarkable events of his 
 reign was the rebellion of his son Dom Pedro, whose 
 motive was revenge for the murder of Ines de Castro, 
 to which the king had consented. He died in 1357, 
 leaving the throne to his son, Pedro I. 
 
 Alfonso (Affonso) V. of Portugal, a son of Duarte, 
 was born in 1432, and became king in 1438, under the 
 regency of his mother. He conducted a large armament 
 against Africa in 1458, and captured Tangier. Having 
 invaded Castile, he was defeated by Ferdinand of Ara- 
 gon in 1476. He died in 1481, and was succeeded by his 
 son Joao II. 
 
 See Mariana, " Historia de Espana." 
 
 Alfonso (Affonso) VI. of Portugal, a son of John 
 IV., was born in 1643, and became king in 1656. His 
 imbecility or vices having rendered him unpopular, he 
 was forced to abdicate in 1667 in favour of his brother 
 Dom Pedro, and was banished to Terceira. He was con- 
 fined in the castle of Cintra in 1675, and died in 1683. 
 
 Alfonso I. of Este, Duke of Ferrara, born in 1476, 
 began to reign in 1505. He commanded the Papal 
 troops in the war of the League of Cambrai, 1509. In 
 1512 he fought against the Pope, Julius II., at Ravenna. 
 He married the famous Lucretia Borgia. Died in 1534. 
 
 Alfonso, (the Navigator.) See Alphonse. 
 
 Alfonso, al-fon'so, (Pedro,) a Spanish Jew, who was 
 born in Aragon in 1062, and was converted to Chris- 
 tianity. He wrote after his conversion, besides other 
 works, one called "Clerical Discipline," ("Disciplina 
 Clericalis,") which was much esteemed. Died about 
 1 140. 
 
 Alfonso of Carthagena, (or de Cartagena, da 
 kaR-ta-Ha'na,) [Lat. Alphon'sus a Sanc'ta-Mari'a,] 
 a celebrated Spanish historian, born at Carthagena (or 
 Cartagena) in 1396, became Bishop of Burgos. He 
 wrote a " History of Spain," from the earliest ages down 
 to his own time, and other works. Died in 1456. 
 
 Alfonso de Cartagena. See Alfonso of Car- 
 thagena. 
 
 Alfonso Lopez de Corella, (lo'pSth da ko-rSl'ya,) 
 a Spanish physician, born in Navarre, wrote numerous 
 medical works, dated 1546-82. 
 
 Alfonso de Palencia, (de pa-lSn'she-a,) [Sp. pron. 
 al-fon'so da pa-lSn'Me-a ; Lat. Alphon'sus Palenti'- 
 nus,] a distinguished Spanish historian, born at Palen- 
 cia, in Old Castile, in 1423. He was royal historiogra- 
 pher to Queen Isabella of Castile. The precise time 
 of his death is unknown. He was alive in 1492. He 
 wrote in Latin a history of the reign of Isabella, and a 
 chronicle of Henry IV. 
 
 See Prescott, " Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i. 
 
 Alfonso Tostado. See Alphonsus Abulensis. 
 
 Alford, awl'fprd, (Henry,) D.D., commonly known 
 as Dean Alford, an English poet and divine, born 
 in London in 1810, was educated at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge. He became vicar of Wymeswold, Leices- 
 tershire, in 1835, Hulsean Lecturer at Cambridge in 
 1841, incumbent of Quebec Street Chapel, London, in 
 1853, and Dean of Canterbury about 1856. He pub 
 
 lished in 1835 "The School of the Heart, and other 
 Poems," (2 vols.,) which are commended. " The present 
 volumes," says the " Edinburgh Review," " appear to us 
 to be a beginning of great promise. . . . Extracts so 
 much longer than we are in the habit of making, are a 
 sufficient proof of our sense of the talent displayed in 
 these poems." (Critique on "The School of the Heart, 
 and other Poems," January, 1836.) His reputation as 
 a divine is founded on an excellent edition of the Greek 
 New Testament in four or more volumes, 1841-61. lie 
 also published a small volume entitled " The Queen's 
 English," (2d edition, 1864,) which attracted much atten- 
 tion. Died in 1871. 
 
 Alford, (Michael,) an English Jesuit and writer, 
 born in London in 1 587 ; died at Saint Omer, in France, 
 in 1651. He wrote "Britannia Illustrata," (1641,) treat- 
 ing of the ecclesiastical history of Britain. 
 
 Alfragan. See Alferghanee. 
 
 Alfrago, al-fRa'go, (Andrea,) an Italian physician, 
 wrote a history of Arabian physicians, etc. Died at 
 Padua in 1520. 
 
 Alfred, al'fred, written also -Sil'fred, El'fred, and 
 Alured, i.e. Alvred, [Lat. ^Elfre'dus,] surnamed 
 the Great, King of the West Saxons in England, was 
 born in 848 or 849. He was the son of King /Ethel- 
 wulf and Osburga, (or Osberga,) the daughter of a Gothic 
 nobleman. On the death of his brother yEthelred, in 
 871, Alfred became king. At this period the country 
 was in the most deplorable condition. The Danes had 
 overrun a great portion of England, and many of the 
 bravest Saxons had fallen in vain attempts to resist their 
 pagan invaders. King Ethelred himself had died of a 
 wound received in this unequal conflict. Alfred was 
 fain to procure peace on almost any terms, and at last 
 agreed to pay the Danes a sum of money on condition 
 that they would leave his dominions. But they broke 
 their oaths, and, attacking him by night, destroyed all his 
 cavalry. All the means of resistance being lost, Alfred 
 for a time laid aside the ensigns of royalty and concealed 
 himself in the family of a poor herdsman. Having at 
 length been discovered by some of his nobles, he grad- 
 ually, but secretly, collected a considerable force, with 
 which he occasionally made inroads into the territory 
 occupied by the Danes, and thus procured the means of 
 subsisting himself and his army. About this time Odun, 
 Earl of Devon, sallied from his castle, defeated the be- 
 siegers, slew (Jbbo, one of the principal leaders, and 
 took the Danish standard. Upon this, Alfred resolved 
 to attack the main army of his enemies, which he routed 
 with great slaughter at Eddington in 878, and soon after 
 obliged the survivors to surrender at discretion. The 
 Danish king, Godrun, (or Guthrun,) embraced the Chris- 
 tian religion, Alfred standing as his godfather ; and a 
 considerable tract of country was allotted to the con- 
 verted Danes. Alfred now directed his earnest efforts 
 towards the fortifying and internal improvement of his 
 kingdom. He caused a number of ships to be built, and 
 may be said to have laid the foundation of the British 
 navy. He repaired the old dilapidated fortresses, and 
 erected new ones wherever they were needed. He ex- 
 erted himself, moreover, to establish an efficient police 
 and a thorough administration of justice within his 
 dominions. He was not, however, as has frequently been 
 stated, the author of the trial by jury. It was his highest 
 glory that he did so much for his country's literature and 
 the intellectual improvement of his people. He not 
 only established schools in all the principal towns, but 
 he began himself, it is said, to learn Latin at the age of 
 thirty-nine, and afterwards translated a number of works 
 from that language into his native tongue. In 894 the 
 Northmen again invaded England, with a fleet of three 
 hundred ships ; but they were defeated by Alfred, and 
 those who escaped the sword were either taken captive 
 and executed as pirates or chased from the kingdom. 
 Alfred died in 901. 
 
 Alfred the Great presents to us one of the most per- 
 fect characters to be found on the page of history. He 
 was, to use the language of a recent author, "a saint with- 
 out superstition, a scholar without ostentation, a warrior 
 all whose wars were fought in defence of his country, a 
 conqueror whose hands were never stained by cruelty, a 
 
 a, e, T, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
ALFRED 
 
 93 
 
 AL-HOMAYDEE 
 
 prince never cast down by adversity, never lifted up to 
 insolence in the clay of triumph." (See Freeman's " Nor- 
 man Conquest," vol. i. chap, ii.; also, Hume's character 
 of Alfred in his " History of England," vol. i. chap, ii.) 
 
 See J. A. Giles, " Life and Times of Alfred the Great," 1854; 
 Spelman, " Life of Alfred," 1709; A. Bicknell, " Life of Alfred," 
 1777; Stolberc, " Leben Alfreds des Grossen," 1815; Asser, 
 "Life of Alfred," ("De Aelfredi Rebus gestis," 1571;) Richard 
 Paum.i, " Konig Alfred und seine Stelle in der Geschichte Englands," 
 London, 1851, translated into English by Thomas Wright, 1852. 
 
 Alfred, a son of the Saxon king Ethelred II., and 
 Emma. He attempted to obtain the throne in 1042, but 
 failed; and lost his life. 
 
 Alfred, surnamed An'glicus (or the " Englishman") 
 and the Philosopher, wrote some scientific works, — 
 one, "On the Motion of the Heart," ("De Cordis Motu.") 
 A part of his life was passed in England ; but the place 
 of his nativity is unknown. Died about 1270. 
 
 Alfred or Alured of Beverley, an English historian, 
 born about 1 100, became a priest. He left a Latin His- 
 tory of Britain, which is supposed to be an abridgment 
 of the work of Geoffrey of Monmouth. 
 
 Alfred of Mai.mesbury, an English monk and 
 writer, became Bishop of Crediton about 990. 
 
 Alfred, (Ernest Albert,) Duke of Edinburgh, the 
 second son of Victoria, Queen of England, was born in 
 1844. He entered the navy in 1858, and made voyages 
 to various countries. In 1862 he declined the throne of 
 Greece, which had been offered to him. He was shot at 
 and wounded by an assassin in Australia in 1868. 
 
 Alfred and A-bi'ram, two German architects, born 
 in Bavaria, lived in the ninth century. They built the 
 imperial palace of Ratisbon. 
 
 Alfric, al'frik, written also .ffilfric and Elfric, [Lat. 
 Alfri'cus, iELFRi'cus,orELFRl'cus,] surnamed Abbas, 
 (the " Abbot,") and Grammaticus, (the " Grammarian,") 
 a celebrated Anglo-Saxon writer, who flourished in the 
 latter half of the tenth century. Of his life nothing cer- 
 tain is known. It is supposed that he became Archbishop 
 of Canterbury in 995. Among his works are numerous 
 homilies. 
 
 Alfric or iElfric, Archbishop of York, an Angl-j- 
 Saxon writer, who is by some identified with the famous 
 writer Alfric surnamed Grammaticus, above noticed. 
 Died in 1051. 
 
 Algardi, al-gaR'dee, (Alessandro,) a celebrated 
 Italian sculptor and architect, born at Bologna about 
 1600. His birth is variously dated at 1588, 1593, and 
 1602. He studied design with the Caracci, became a 
 pupil of Cesare Conventi, and went to Rome about 1625. 
 He was architect of the Villa Panfili or Pamphili, and 
 of the facade of the church of St. Ignatius, Rome. His 
 master-piece in sculpture is a colossal bas-relief* in the 
 church of Saint Peter's, representing Saint Leo forbid- 
 ding Attila to enter Rome, (1640.) This is said to be the 
 largest bas-relief in the world. Among his works are 
 statues of Saint Philip de Neri and Innocent X. He is 
 regarded by some critics as the greatest sculptor of his 
 age. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Passeri, " Vitede' Pittori,"etc: Milizia, " Vite degli Archi- 
 tetti." 
 
 Algarotti, al-gl-rot'tee, (Francesco,) Count, a dis- 
 tinguished Italian writer and connoisseur, born at Venice 
 in 1712. He was not only well versed in many languages 
 and sciences, but possessed decided skill in the art of 
 design, and wrote verses with facility. In 1733 he pro- 
 duced popular dialogues on Optics, entitled " Optics for 
 Ladies," ("Neutonianismo per le Dame,") which were 
 translated into several languages. Invited by Frederick 
 the Great, he went to Berlin about 1740, and passed 
 many years at that court as a friend of the king, who 
 gave him the title of count. This friendship continued 
 until the death of Algarotti. He corresponded with Vol- 
 taire and many other eminent authors. Besides essays 
 on various subjects, he wrote "Letters on Painting," 
 which display good taste and judgment. He died at 
 Pisa in March, 1 764. 
 
 See D. Michelessi, "Memorie intorno alia vita del Conte F. Al- 
 garotti," 1770, and French version of the same, 1772; Fabroni, 
 
 • Some authorities call Algardi's great work an alto-relievo ; we 
 have fu.lowed the " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. " 
 
 "Vita: Italoruni doctrina excellentium ;" and Voltaire, "Correspon- 
 dance Generale." 
 
 Algazi, al-ga'zee, (Solomon Ben Abraham,) a 
 
 voluminous Jewish writer, born in the Levant. Died in 
 1683. 
 
 Algazzali, Algazali, or Alghazzali See Aboo- 
 Hamid-Alghazalee. 
 
 Alger, al'jer, [Fr. pron. fl'zhaiR'; Lat. Al'gerus,] 
 an ecclesiastical writer, who died about the middle of the 
 twelfth century. He was a native of Liege. 
 
 Alger, al'jer, (William Rounseville,) an Ameri- 
 can writer, born in Freetown, Massachusetts, in 1823. 
 He is author of "Symbolic History of the Cross of 
 Christ;" "Oriental Poetry;" "History of the Doctrine 
 of a Future Life, as it has Prevailed in all Nations and 
 Ages," (1862,) to which was contributed a very complete 
 bibliography of the subject, by Ezra Abbot, assistant 
 librarian at Harvard University; and various other works. 
 Mr. Alger has furnished numerous contributions to the 
 " Christian Examiner" and other periodicals. 
 
 Alghafikee or Alghafiki, al-ca'fe-kee', an eminent 
 physician, who lived in Mohammedan Spain in the 
 twelfth century. Died about 1 164. 
 
 Alghisi, al-gee'see, sometimes written Algisi, (Fran- 
 cesco,) an Italian musical composer, born at Brescia in 
 1666. He composed two operas, one of which, called 
 "II Trionfo della Continenza," ("The Triumph of Con- 
 tinence,") had a great success. * Died in 1733. 
 
 Alghisi, (Galasso,) an Italian architect of the six- 
 teenth century, born at Carpi. He published a splendid 
 work on fortifications, ("Della Fortificazione," 1570.) 
 
 Alghisi, (Tommaso,) a distinguished Italian surgeon, 
 born at Florence in 1669. He particularly excelled in 
 lithotomy, on which he wrote an able treatise, (1707.) 
 Died in "1 7 13. 
 
 Algrin, aTgRaN', (Jean,) a French theologian, who 
 became Archbishop of Besancon. Died in 1237. 
 
 Alhakem or Al-Hakem (al-hak'em) I., Sultan of 
 C6rdova, began to reign in 796 a.d. He waged war 
 against Alfonso of Asturias and the Franks, and sup- 
 pressed with great cruelty a rebellion in Cordova. Died 
 in 822. 
 
 Alhakem H., Sultan and Caliph of Cordova, suc- 
 ceeded his father Abd-er-Rahman III. in 961. He was a 
 pacific and enlightened sovereign, and was celebrated as 
 a patron of literature and science. His reign has been 
 called the golden age of Arabian literature. He col- 
 lected a great library, and expended vast sums in the 
 erection of colleges, mosques, hospitals, etc. He died 
 in 976, aged sixty-three, and was succeeded by his son 
 Hisham (or Hescham) II. 
 
 Al-Hakem-Ibn-Atta, al-ha'kem Ib'n St'ta', com- 
 monly called Al-Mo-ken'na, ( -Mo-can'na or -Mu- 
 kanna, m6"6-kan'na,) or " the veiled one," a famous 
 impostor, who arose in the time of Aboo-Jaafar Al-Man- 
 soor, the second caliph of the Abbasside dynasty. He 
 first made his appearance as a legislator and prophet at 
 Merv or Meru, the capital of Khorassan, in 774 a.d. 
 About 780 the caliph Mahdee (Mahdi) sent an army 
 that besieged the impostor in his principal fortress. 
 When Al-Hakem found that there was no chance of 
 escape, he administered, it is said, a mortal poison to 
 those about his person, and afterwards burned their 
 bodies to ashes, so that no vestige might be left ; and, 
 the better to impress posterity with the idea of his divine 
 character, he plunged into a large caldron filled with a 
 liquid so powerful and penetrating that no part of his 
 body remained unconsumed. The truth appears to have 
 been, that he burned himself in the castle in which he 
 was, so that no trace of him remained except ashes. 
 This story forms the basis of Moore's poem entitled 
 " Mokanna, or the Veiled Prophet of Khorassan." 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. ii. chap, in.; D'Her- 
 belot, " Bibliothcque Orientale ;" Abulpharagius, " Historia Dy- 
 nastiarum;" Abulfeda, " Annates Moslemici." 
 
 Alhazan or Alhazen, written also Alhacen and 
 Alhasan, al-haz'an, an Arabian philosopher and mathe- 
 matician, native of Bassora, celebrated as the author of 
 a treatise on optics, of great merit. Died at Cairo about 
 1038. 
 
 Al-HomaydeeorAl-Homaydlal-ho-mi'dee', adis- 
 
 € a& k; f as s; g hard; g as j; G,H, K,guttural; N nasal; R, trilled; § as z; ih as in this. (ftySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ALHOT 
 
 94 
 
 ALIX 
 
 tingttished Arabian writer, born at Majorca in 1029. 
 \mong his works is a valuable biography of the distin- 
 guished Moslems of Spain. Died at Bagdad about 1095. 
 
 Alhoy, f'lwa', (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Angers in 1755, succeeded Abbe Sicard as Director of 
 the Institution for Deaf-Mutes in 1797. He wrote "Les 
 Hospices," a poem. Died in 1826. 
 
 Ali. See Ai.ee. 
 
 Ali, (Pacha.) See AleE-Welee-Zade. 
 
 Aliamet, t'le-t'm.i' or tl'yS'mA', (Francois Ger- 
 main,) a French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1734, 
 was a brother of Jacques, noticed below, to whom he was 
 inferior in skill. He worked some years in London, 
 and engraved historical works after the Italian masters. 
 
 Aliamet, (Jacques,) a skilful French engraver, born 
 at Abbeville in 1727; died in Paris in 1788. He ex- 
 celled in landscapes and sea-pieces. His engravings, 
 after Vernet, are much admired. 
 
 Alibaud, i'le'bo', (Louis,) a French fanatic, born at 
 Nimes in 1810. He attempted to assassinate Louis 
 Philippe with a pistol in June, 1836, and was guillotined 
 in July of the same year. 
 
 Ali Beg, a'lee big, a native of Poland, was captured 
 in childhood by Tartars, who sold him to a Turk. He 
 became dragoman to the sultan, and translated the Bible 
 into the Turkish language. Died in 1675. 
 
 Alibert, i'le'baiR', (j£AN Louis,) an eminent French 
 physician, born in Aveyron in 1766. He became one of 
 the chief physicians of the Hospital Saint Louis, Paris, 
 in 1S01, and professor of medicine in 1802. In 1814 he 
 was appointed consulting physician to Louis XVIII., and 
 a few years later was made first physician-in-ordinary. 
 He gave special attention to diseases of the skin, on which 
 he wrote a work of much merit, called " Description of 
 Diseases of the Skin," (" Description des Maladies de 
 la Peau," 1806-25.) He was author of other medical 
 works, written in an elegant style. Died in 1837. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Aliberti, a-Ie-beVtee, (Giancarlo,) an Italian fresco- 
 painter, born at Asti, in Piedmont, in 1680 ; died about 
 1740. His chief works were executed at his native city. 
 
 Ali Bey, a'lee ba, the assumed name of Domingo 
 Badia y Leblich, do-ming'go ba-dee'a e la-blek', a 
 Spanish traveller and projector, born in Biscay in 1766. 
 He travelled in the disguise of a Mussulman, and pub- 
 lished " Travels in Asia and Africa, 1803-1807," (3 vols., 
 1814.) Died in 1818. 
 
 See the "Quarterly Review" for July, 1816. 
 
 Alibrandi, a-le-bRan'dee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 Jesuit and casuist, born at Messina. Died in 171 1. 
 
 Alibrandi, (Girolamo,) a distinguished painter, 
 called " the Raphael of Messina," where he was born in 
 1470. His manner resembled that of Leonardo da 
 Vinci, with whom he studied. Died of the plague in 
 1524. His master-piece is a " Purification of the Virgin." 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Alidosi, a-le-do'see, (Giovanni Niccol6 Pasquale,) 
 an antiquary of Bologna. Died about 1630. 
 
 Alighieri. See Dante. 
 
 Alignan, i'len'yON', Benedict of, [Fr. B£noit 
 d'Alignan, beh-nwa' di'len'y6N',] a French Benedict- 
 ine monk, who was elected Bishop of Marseilles in 1229. 
 Died in 1268. 
 
 Aligre.I'legR', (Etienne Francois,) born about 1726, 
 became president of the Parliament of Paris in 1 768, which 
 office he held for twenty years. Died in exile in 1798. 
 
 Ali, Hyder. See Hyder Alee. 
 
 Al-I-men'tus, (Lucius Cincius,) a Roman histo- 
 rian of merit, became tribune of the people in 214 B.C., 
 and praetor in 210. He received with the province of 
 Sicily the command of two legions which had been de- 
 feated at Cannae and were afterwards condemned to 
 serve in Sicily. Some time after 208 he was taken pris- 
 oner by Hannibal, who appears to have treated him with 
 great respect. He wrote, in Greek, a history of Rome 
 from the foundation of the city to his own time, and 
 other works, on law, grammar, etc. His diligence and 
 erudition are commended by Livy. Only fragments of 
 his works are extant. 
 
 See Niebuhr, "History of Rome ;" Aulus Ghllius, xvi. ; Voss, 
 " De Historicis Latinis." 
 
 Alinard, al'e-nard' or t'le'ntR', written also Hali- 
 nard, a learned French prelate, born in Burgundy about 
 990, became Archbishop of Lyons in 1046. Died in 1052. 
 
 A-lip'i-us, a friend of Saint Augustine, was an emi- 
 nent lawyer. Having been baptized by Saint Ambrose 
 in 387 A.D., he became Bishop of Tagaste. Died about 
 428. 
 
 Aliprandi, a-le-pRan'dee, (Buonamente,) an Italian 
 poet, native of Mantua. He wrote a history of Mantua 
 and other cities of Italy, a work of little merit. Died 
 in 1414. 
 
 Aiisaunder, one of the modes in which Chaucer 
 writes the name of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Al'i-son, (Alexander,) a British writer, born in Scot- 
 land about 1812. He published, besides other works, 
 "The Philosophy and History of Civilization," (1S60,) 
 and is about to publish, it is said, "The Church and the 
 World Reconciled." 
 
 Alison, (Rev. Archibald,) a Scottish writer, born 
 in Edinburgh in 1 757. He took orders in the Anglican 
 Church in 1784, and married the same year a daughter 
 of the well-known Dr. John Gregory of Edinburgh. 
 He became curate of Kenley, Shropshire, in 1790, and 
 vicar of Frcall in 1794. In 1790 he published " Essays 
 on the Nature and Principles of Taste," a popular work, 
 which Lord Jeffrey made the subject of a laudatory article 
 in the "Edinburgh Review" in 181 1. He became senior 
 minister of the Episcopal Chapel, Cowgate, Edinburgh, 
 in 1800. Two volumes of his sermons were published. 
 
 " We do not know any sermons," says the " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for September, 1814, "so pleasing, or so 
 likely both to be popular and to do good to those who 
 are pleased with them. All the feelings are generous 
 and gentle — all the sentiments liberal — and all the gen- 
 eral views just and ennobling." Died in 1839. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 Supplement, vol. v. ; "Gentleman's Magazine," September, 1839. 
 
 Alison, (Sir Archibald,) a historian, a son of the 
 preceding, was born at Kenley, Shropshire, in Decem- 
 ber, 1792. He was educated in Edinburgh, studied law, 
 and was called to the Scottish bar in 1814. In 1828 he 
 was chosen sheriff of Lanarkshire. He gained distinc- 
 tion by his "Principles of Criminal Law," (1832.) His 
 most important work is a " History of Europe from the 
 Commencement of the French Revolution to the Resto- 
 ration of the Bourbons, 1815," (1st vol., 1839,) which has 
 been eminently successful. The ninth edition was pub- 
 lished in 1853-55, 12 vols. "It is upon the whole," 
 says the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1842, "a 
 valuable addition to European literature, evidently com- 
 piled with the utmost care : its narration, so far as we 
 can judge, is not perverted by the slightest partiality. 
 . . . Its merits are minuteness and honesty — qualities 
 which may well excuse a faulty style, gross political 
 prejudices, and a fondness for exaggerated and frothy 
 declamation." He published in 1847 "The Life of 
 John, Duke of Marlborough," (3d edition, 1855,) and in 
 1852-57 a continuation of his "History of Europe" to 
 the year 1852, (6 vols.) The latter work is not so able 
 nor so popular as his first history. He was created a 
 baronet in 1852. His political sympathies were ultra- 
 conservative. He was the author of several other 
 works, among which are "Essays, Political, Historical, 
 etc.," (3 vols., 1850,) originally published in " Blackwood's 
 Magazine." Died near Glasgow in May, 1867. 
 
 See a review of his History in "Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 July, 1840. 
 
 Alison, (William Pulteney,) an eminent physician 
 and physiologist, son of the Rev. Archibald Alison, 
 born in Edinburgh in 1790. He became professor of 
 medical jurisprudence at Edinburgh in 1820, and was 
 appointed professor of the institutes of medicine in 1828. 
 In 1830 he published "First Lines of Physiology." He 
 became professor of the practice of medicine in the 
 University of Edinburgh in 1832, and published "Out- 
 lines of Physiology and Pathology" in 1833. He re- 
 ceived the title of "First Physician to the Queen for 
 Scotland." Died in Edinburgh in 1859. 
 
 Alix, i'less', or Alice, al'iss, (called by the older 
 writers Adela, Ada, and Ala,) a daughter of Theobald, 
 (Thibaud le Grand,) Count of Champagne, was married 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, B, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ALIX 
 
 95 
 
 ALLAT1US 
 
 to Louis VII., King of France, in 1160 ; died in 1306. 
 Her son became King Philippe Auguste. 
 
 Alix, t'less', (MatthIeu Francois,) a French phy- 
 sician, born in Paris in 173S. He was professor of anat- 
 omy at Fulda, and wrote a work of merit, entitled " Sur- 
 gical Observations," ("ObservataChirurgica," 1774-78.) 
 DiL-u at liruckenau in 1 782. 
 
 Alix, (Pierre,) a French priest, born at Dole in 1600, 
 became a canon at Besancon. He defended against the 
 pope, in several tracts, the rights of his chapter in regard 
 to the election of archbishops. Died in 1676. 
 
 Alix, ( P, M.,) a French engraver, born 1752 ; died 1809. 
 
 Al-Jannabi or Al-Jannabius. See Iannabke. 
 
 Al-Kader-Billan, il-ka'dir bil'la, (i.e. "mighty by the 
 grace of God,") a caliph of the house of Abbas, "born at 
 Bagdad about 947, succeeded to the throne in 991; died 
 in 103 1 or 1032. He received and protected at his court 
 Firdousee, (Firdausi,) the celebrated Persian poet, who 
 fled from the anger of Mahmood of Gazna. 
 
 Al-Kahir-Billah, al-ka'hir bil'la, [i.e. "victorious 
 by the grace of God,") a caliph of the house of Abbas, 
 who ascended the throne in 929. His tyranny and 
 cruelty rendered him an object of execration, and caused 
 his dethronement after a reign of rather more than a year. 
 
 Alkaios. See Alc.^eus. 
 
 Al-Kasim-Ibn-Hammood, (-Hammfid,) al-ka'- 
 sim lb'n ham'mood', a sultan of Cordova, dethroned by 
 his nephew Yahya in 1024. 
 
 Al-Kayim, a'l-ka'yim or al-kl'yim, a caliph of the 
 house of Abbas, succeeded his father Al-Kader-Billah 
 about 1 03 1. Died in 1073. 
 
 Alkemade, van, vfn al-keh-ma'deh,(KoRN£Lis,) 
 a Dutch antiquary, born in 1654. He was first commis- 
 sioner of import and export duties at Rotterdam. He 
 published, besides other works, a curious treatise on old 
 Dutch customs in civil life, entitled "Nederlandsche 
 Displechtigheden," (3 vols., 1732.) Died in 1737. 
 
 Al-Khazrejee or Al-Khazreji, al-Kaz'reh-jee', an 
 excellent historian of Mohammedan Spain, supposed to 
 have lived about the end of the twelfth century. 
 
 Alkhowarezmi, al-kow-a-rez'mee, an Arabian math- 
 ematician, lived about 810-830 A.D. He was librarian 
 to Al-Mamoon at Bagdad. 
 
 Alkibiades. See Ai.cim auks. 
 
 Alkindi, Alkindus, or Alkendi. See Alchindus. 
 
 Alkman. See Alcman. 
 
 Alkmar or Alkmaar, van, vSn alk-mSR', (Henry, 
 or Hinkek,) a Low-German poet, who lived in the latter 
 half of the fifteenth century, was the author or first trans- 
 lator of a celebrated poem and satire, " Reynard the 
 Fox," which he published in Low German at Liibeck in 
 1498. In the preface he states that he translated it from 
 the Walsch (supposed to be the Walloon) and the 
 French, and that he was a schoolmaster and teacher of 
 virtue in the service of the Duke of Lorraine. The 
 Original is lost, if it ever existed. The poem of Alk- 
 mar is one of the most popular in the language, and has 
 been translated into several other languages. Goethe 
 produced a modern German version of it in hexameters, 
 Which has been splendidly illustrated by Kaulbach. 
 
 See J. Grimm, "Die Sage von Reinhart Vos," 1834. 
 
 Allacci. See Allatius. 
 
 Allainval, i'laVvil', (Leonor Jean Christine 
 Soulas — soo'las') a French dramatic poet, born at Char- 
 tres about 1700; died in 1753. Although he assumed 
 the title of abbe, he never entered holy orders. Among 
 his best works is "L'Ecole des Bourgeois," (1728,) a 
 comedy which is praised by La Harpe. 
 
 Allais, i"l&', (Df.nys Vairasse — va'riss',) a French 
 writer of the seventeenth century, born in Languedoc, 
 was known as the author of a political romance called 
 the " History of the Sevarambians," (" Histoire des 
 Sevarambes," 1677.) 
 
 Al'lam, (Andrew,) a learned English antiquary, born 
 near Oxford in 1655. He entered holy orders in 1680. 
 He assisted Wood in the "Athenae Oxonienses," and 
 began a "History of English Cathedrals," the comple- 
 tion of which was prevented by his death in 1685. 
 
 Allamand, S'lS'mdN', (Jean Nicolas Sebastien,) 
 a philosopher and naturalist, born at Lausanne, in Swit- 
 zerland, in 1713. In 1749 he became professor of phi- 
 
 losophy, and afterwards of natural history, in the Uni- 
 versity of -Leyden, both of which chairs he held with 
 credit till his death in 1787. He was the first to explain 
 the phenomena of the Leyden jar, and rendered an im- 
 portant service to the public by the publication of the 
 Historical Dictionary of his friend Prosper Marchand, 
 (175S-9,) which the latter left in manuscript. The writ- 
 ing was so minute that he was obliged to use a powerful 
 microscope to decipher it. 
 
 Allan, al'lan, (David,) a Scottish historical painter, 
 sometimes called "the Scotch Hogarth," was born at 
 Alloa in 1744. He went to Rome in 1764, and gained 
 there a gold medal for his picture of a Corinthian maiden 
 drawing her lover's profile on the wall by the shadow, 
 which is esteemed his master-piece. He settled in Edin- 
 burgh about 1780, and increased his reputation by illus- 
 trations of Allan Ramsay's "Gentle Shepherd." He 
 owes the name of the Scotch Hogarth to his humorous 
 designs of the Roman Carnival. Died in 1796. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Cunningham, "Lives ol Painters, Sculptors," etc. 
 
 Allan, al'lan, (George,) an English attorney and 
 antiquary, who resided at Darlington, was a zealous 
 student of national antiquities. He contributed to 
 Hutchinson's " History and Antiquities of Durham," 
 and published, besides' other works, a " Life of Bishop 
 Trevor," (1776.) Died in 1800. 
 
 See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes," etc. 
 
 Allan, (Robert,) a Scottish lyric poet, born at Kil- 
 barchan in 1774, was a weaver. He produced a volume 
 of poems in 1836. Having emigrated to the United 
 States, he died at New York in 1841. 
 
 Allan, (Thomas.) See Allen. 
 
 Allan, (Thomas,) F.R.S., a Scottish mineralogist, 
 bom in Edinburgh in 1777. He formed a collection of 
 about seven thousand specimens of minerals, said to be 
 the finest collection _ in Scotland. His knowledge of 
 mineralogy was extensive and accurate. He wrote the 
 article Diamond for the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," and 
 a work on Mineralogical Nomenclature. Died in 1833. 
 
 Allan, (Sir William,) an eminent British historical 
 painter, born in Edinburgh in 1782. He studied in the 
 Royal Academy of London, worked some years in Saint 
 Petersburg, visited Circassia and Turkey, and returned 
 to Scotland in 1814. His large picture of the " Circassian 
 Captives" was purchased for 1000 guineas by Sir Walter 
 Scott and ninety-nine other subscribers. He afterwards 
 painted subjects of Scottish history, among which are 
 the "Parting of Charles Stuart and Flora Macdonald," 
 and "The Murder of Regent Murray." He was elected 
 academician of the Royal Academy, London, in 1835, 
 and succeeded Wilkie in 1840 as her Majesty's limner 
 for Scotland. From 1838 until his death he was presi- 
 dent of the Scottish Royal Academy. Among his chief 
 works are two pictures of the "Battle of Waterloo." 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 See Chambers. " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 vol. v. ; "Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Allard, S'IIr', (Gui,) a French writer, noted for his 
 works on the history and genealogy of Dauphine. Born 
 at Grenoble about 1645; died m 1 715. 
 
 Allard, (Jean Francois,) a French general, born in 
 Var in 1785. He left France after the restoration of 
 1815, and went to Hindostan. He entered the service 
 of Runjeet Singh at Lahore, organized his army after 
 the French system, and became general-in-chief. ' Died 
 in India in 1839. 
 
 Allarde, d', di'ISRd', (Pierre Gilbert Leroi — leh- 
 Rwa',) Baron, a French political economist, born at 
 Montlucon in 1749; died in 1809. 
 
 Allart, S'ISr', (Mary Gay,) a novelist, born at Lyons, 
 in France, in 1750. She lived a long time in Paris, and 
 wrote a successful novel called "Albertine de Saint- 
 Albc," (1818.) She also made an elegant French trans- 
 lation of the "Family Secrets" of Miss Pratt. Died in 
 Paris in 1821. 
 
 Allatius, al-la'shg-us, (Leo,) [It. Leone Allacci, 
 la-o'na al-lat'chee,] an eminent scholar and physician, 
 born at Chios (Scio) in 1586, embraced the Catholic 
 religion, taught Greek in a college of Rome, and was 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as// G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R,7ril/ed; § ass,- th as in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ALLE 
 
 90 
 
 ALLEN 
 
 appointed librarian of the Vatican by Pope Alexander 
 VII. He edited and translated into Latin several old 
 Greek works, and wrote some original productions. 
 Died in 1669. 
 
 Alle, 31'ii, (Girolamo,) an Italian writer and eccle- 
 siastic, born at Bologna probably about 1580. He was 
 an admired orator, and author of many works in prose 
 and verse on religious and moral subjects, (1613-54.) 
 
 Al-lec'tus, an officer of Carausius, King of Britain. 
 Having murdered Carausius, in 293, he usurped the 
 throne. He was defeated and killed by the Roman army 
 o£ Constant jud Chlorus about 296 a.d. 
 
 Allegrain, Sl'gRa.N', (Christophe Gabriel,) a dis- 
 tinguished French sculptor, born in Paris about 1710. 
 He excelled in nude figures. Died in 1795. 
 
 Allegrain, (Etienne,) the father of the preceding, 
 was a skilful landscape-painter, who died in 1736", aged 
 eighty. 
 
 Allegretti, al-la-gRet'tee, (Antonio,) a Florentine 
 poet, who lived (mostly at Rome) about the middle of 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 Allegretti, (Carlo,) an Italian painter, born at Monte 
 Prandone, lived between 1600 and 1650. 
 
 Allegretti, (Jacopo,) an Italian physician and as- 
 trologer, born at Forli in the early part of the fourteenth 
 century, had an extensive reputation as a Latin poet. 
 
 Allegri. See Correggio. 
 
 Allegri, al-la'gRee, (Alessandro,) a satirical poet of 
 the sixteenth century. He was a native of Florence, 
 and excelled in burlesque poetry. The purity of his 
 language was recognized by the Academy Delia Crusca. 
 Died about 1596. 
 
 Allegri, (Gregorio,) an eminent musician and com- 
 poser, born at Rome about 1580, was a singer in the 
 pontifical chapel. He is said to have been a relative of 
 the painter Correggio. His most remarkable work is 
 the "Miserere," which is still performed annually in the 
 pope's chapel during the holy week. Died in 1652. 
 
 See Burney's " Musical Tour in Italy." 
 
 Allegrini, al-1a-gRee'nee, (Francesco,) a distin- 
 guished Italian painter, born at Gubbio in 1587. He 
 worked at Rome and Genoa in oil and fresco. Died in 
 1663. 
 
 Allegrini, (Francesco,) a designer and engraver, 
 born at Florence in 1729. Died about 1785. 
 
 Allein or Alleine, al'len, (Joseph,) an English non- 
 conformist divine, born at Devizes in 1633, was educated 
 at Oxford. He became curate to Mr. Newton at Taun- 
 ton in 1655, and was ejected for nonconformity in 1662. 
 Continuing to preach frequently, he was committed to 
 Ilchester jail in 1663, fined one hundred marks, and im- 
 prisoned one year. He again suffered similar persecu- 
 tion in 1665, in consequence of which he died prema- 
 turely in 1668, leaving several religious works, one of 
 which, "An Alarm to the Unconverted," (1672,) is 
 highly esteemed and has been often reprinted. 
 
 See A. Duff's " Life and Death of the Rev. J. Alleine ;" August 
 Rische, " Leben J. Alleins weiland Predigers zu Taunton," Biele- 
 feld, (?) 1850 ; " Life and Death of J. AUeine," London, 1672. 
 
 Allein or Alleine, (Richard,) an English noncon- 
 formist minister, born about 1 6 10, was rector of Batcom be, 
 in Somersetshire. He published, besides other works, 
 a "Vindication of Godliness," (" Vindicias Pietatis," 
 1663,) which was highly esteemed. Di9d in 1681. 
 
 Allemand. See Lallemand. 
 
 Allemand, Sl'moN', (Georges,) a French historical 
 painter, born at Nancy, lived in Paris about 1650. 
 
 Allemand, (Jean Baptists,) a French painter, was 
 a pupil of J. Vernet. He lived at Rome, and painted 
 some fine landscapes in the Corsini palace in 1750. 
 
 Allemand, Sl'moN', (Zacharie Jacques Theodore,) 
 a French admiral, born at Port Louis, in Mauritius, in 
 1762. He commenced his career as a cabin-boy. In 
 1792 he was made captain, and captured many British 
 merchant-vessels between 1793 and 1800. He rose 
 gradually by his activity and skill to the station of vice- 
 admiral in 1809. He commanded the fleet which Coch- 
 rane attempted to destroy with fire-ships at the Isle of 
 Aix in 1809. Died in 1826. 
 
 Allemanni, al-la-man'nee, (Pietro,) of Ascoli, an 
 Italian painter, who flourished between 1470 and 1490. 
 
 Allemant. See Lallemant and Lalamant. 
 
 Allen, al'len, (Alexander,) an English philologist, 
 a son of John Allen (1771-1839) noticed below, born at 
 Hackney, near London, in 1814. He was a good classical 
 scholar, and an excellent teacher. He wrote articles for 
 the " Penny Cyclopaedia" and for Smith's " Dictionary 
 of Greek and Roman Biography," and published seve- 
 ral works for the use of students of the Greek and Latin 
 languages. Died in 1842. 
 
 Al'len, (David Oliver,) an American missionary, 
 born at Barre, Massachusetts, in 1800. He laboured 
 many years in India, whither he went about 1827, and 
 published " India, Ancient and Modern," (2d edition, 
 1858.) Died in 1863. 
 
 Al'len or Al'en, (Edmond,) an English theologian, 
 born in Norfolk. He wrote a number of works. Died 
 
 i» 1559- 
 
 Allen, (Ephraim W.,) born about 1780, was for more 
 than thirty years editor of the "Newburyport Herald." 
 In his office William Lloyd Garrison learned the art of 
 printing. (See Garrison.) Died in 1846. 
 
 Allen, (E'than,) an officer of the Revolutionary 
 war, born at Litchfield, in Connecticut, about 1742. He 
 settled, when young, in Vermont, and became the leader 
 of the famous "Green Mountain Boys." On the 10th 
 of May, 1775, at ' ne head of only eighty-three men, he 
 took the forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point In Sep- 
 tember of the same year, while on an expedition to take 
 Montreal, he fell in with a much larger force of British 
 troops, and was made prisoner. He remained in cap- 
 tivity above two years and a half, when he was exchanged 
 for Colonel Campbell, an English officer. After his re- 
 lease he was appointed general of the state militia. He 
 died suddenly, February 13, 1789. Besides a narrative 
 of his captivity, and some writings of a political char- 
 acter, he wrote a work entitled " Reason the only Oracle 
 of Man," in which he advocated pure Deism. 
 
 See " Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Heroes of '76, "by H. 
 W. De Puy; Life of Ethan Allen, in Sparks's " American Biogra- 
 phy ;" Hugh Moore, " Memoir of Colonel E. Allen," Plattsburg, 1834. 
 
 Allen, (Henry,) a religious enthusiast, born at New- 
 port, Rhode Island, in 1748. He was the founder of a 
 sect in Nova Scotia who taught that Adam and Eve, in 
 their state of innocence, had a spiritual existence with- 
 out bodies, and that all human beings are emanations 
 from the same great Spirit, and were present with our 
 first parents in the Garden of Eden before the fall, and 
 participated in the original transgression. He published 
 a collection of hymns, and several religious treatises and 
 sermons. Died in 1784. 
 
 Allen, (John,) an Irish prelate, born at Dublin in 
 1476, became Archbishop of Dublin in 1528. He was 
 killed in 1534 by Thomas Fitzgerald, a son of the Earl 
 of Kildare, during a rebellion. 
 
 Allen, (John,) a Puritan divine, born in England in 
 1596, emigrated to America, and settled as first minister 
 in Dedham, Massachusetts. Died in 1671. 
 
 Allen, (John,) M.D., an English physician, who lived 
 in the early part of the eighteenth century and wrote a 
 valuable work in Latin entitled a " Synopsis of Universal 
 Practical Medicine," (" Synopsis Universal Medicinae 
 Practical,") which aims to give in a succinct form the 
 opinions of the most eminent physicians in all ages re- 
 specting the cause and cure of diseases. He was elected 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1730. Died in 1 741. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Allen, (John,) a dissenting layman, born at Truro, 
 England, in 1771. He was the master of an academy at 
 Hackney. Besides other writings of a religious charac- 
 ter, he was the author of a valuable and learned work 
 entitled " Modern Judaism, or a Brief Account of the 
 Opinions, Rites, and Ceremonies of the Jews," (1816,) 
 said to be the best work on the subject in the language. 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 Allen, (John,) M.D., a British writer on constitu- 
 tional history, metaphysics, etc., was born at Redford, 
 near Edinburgh, in 1770. He studied medicine and 
 metaphysics at Edinburgh, and " was eminent in that fa- 
 mous school of metaphysics," says Brougham, " for his ex- 
 tensive learning and unrivalled power of subtle reason- 
 ing." In 1 795 he published " Illustrations of Hume's Es- 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; g56d; moons 
 
ALLEN 
 
 97 
 
 ALLEN 
 
 say concerning Liberty and Necessity." He contributed 
 many political and historical articles to the " Edinburgh 
 Review," and published, besides other works, a learned 
 and luminous "Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the 
 Royal Prerogative in England," (1830.) His intimacy 
 with Lord Holland was such, says Lord Brougham, that 
 "in the latter part of his life [Mr. Allen] shared all his 
 thoughts, and was never a day apart from him." He 
 was master of. Dulwich College for many years. Died 
 in 1843. 
 
 See Brougham, "Statesmen of the Times of George III.," 
 Second Series: Svdney Smith, "Memoirs." 
 
 Allen, (Joseph W.,) an English landscape-painter, 
 born at Lambeth, Surrey, in 1803. He was reduced in 
 his youth to the necessity of painting scenes for the 
 theatre, and became principal scene-painter at the Olym- 
 pic Theatre, the success of which was greatly promoted 
 by his skill. He acquired considerable reputation as a 
 painter of pastoral, landscape, and simple, quiet, rural 
 scenery. The style of his later works was vitiated by 
 "brilliant effects" obtained at the expense of fidelity to 
 nature. Died in 1852. 
 
 Allen, (Moses,) an American patriot, a brother of the 
 Rev. Thomas Allen, was born at Northampton in 1748. 
 He served as chaplain in the army, was taken prisoner 
 at Savannah, and was drowned in 1 779 in an attempt to 
 escape from a prison-ship. 
 
 Allen, (Paul,) an American poet and journalist, born 
 at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1775. He was for seve- 
 ral years editor of the "Morning Chronicle," published 
 at Baltimore, where he died in 1826. His principal 
 works are a volume of " Original Poems, Serious and 
 Entertaining," and a large poem in five cantos, entitled 
 "Noah." 
 
 Allen, (Richard,) an English Baptist minister of 
 London, published " Ecclesiastical Biography,'' (" Bio- 
 graphia Ecclesiastica," 2 vols., 1690.) Died in London 
 in 1 717. 
 
 Allen, (Samuel,) a London merchant, who came to 
 New England about 1690, and was subsequently Gov- 
 ernor of New Hampshire. Died in 1 705. 
 
 Allen, (Solomon,) an American divine and patriot, 
 brother of the Rev. Thomas Allen, was born in North- 
 ampton, Massachusetts, in 1751. He rose to the rank 
 of major in the war of the Revolution. While in the 
 army, he was ordered by Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson to 
 carry from Andre to Arnold the letter which informed 
 the latter of Andre's capture and enabled Arnold to 
 make his escape. Died in 1821. 
 
 Allen, (Stephen,) a distinguished citizen of New 
 York, born in that city in July, 1767. He was elected 
 mayor of New York in 1821. While commissioner for 
 visiting prisons, he proposed the erection of a State 
 prison at Sing Sing. He was one of the principal 
 originators of the project for supplying New York with 
 water from Croton River, and was chairman of the Board. 
 He perished in the steamer Henry Clay, which was 
 burned in July, 1852. 
 
 See Hunt's " Lives of American Merchants," vol. ii. 
 
 Allen, (Stephen M.,) an American merchant and 
 banker, born at Burton, New Hampshire, in 1819. He 
 distinguished himself by his liberal donations to various 
 literary institutions. 
 
 Sec Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans," NewYork, 
 ■ 35-t- 
 
 Allen, Alleyn, or Allan, pronounced alike al'len, 
 (Thomas,) an English mathematician of high reputation, 
 born at L'ttoxeter in 1542. He refused a bishopric from 
 the Earl of Leicester, with whom he was intimate, and 
 lived much in the family of the Earl of Northumber- 
 land. He was a great collector of manuscripts, historical 
 and antiquarian. Among his few publications is a copy 
 (made with his own hand) of Ptolemy's work on As- 
 trology, (" De Astrorum Judiciis,") to which he added 
 some explanatory notes. Died in 1632. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Allen, (Thomas,) an English divine, born in 1572 or 
 1573, was a Fellow of Merton College. Died in 1636. 
 
 Allen, (Sir Thomas,) an English naval commander, 
 :;orn in Suffolk. He was appointed in 1664 commodore 
 and commander-in-chief of the fleet sent to punish the 
 
 Algerine pirates, and in the same year he gained a vic- 
 tory over the Dutch near Gibraltar. He became a rear- 
 admiral in 1665, and was vice-admiral of the fleet which 
 under the Duke of Albemarle defeated the Dutch near 
 the southeast coast of England in 1666. Died about 
 1680. 
 
 See Charnock, " Biographia Navalis." 
 
 Allen or Allein, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, 
 born at Oxford in 1682, became rector of Kettering in 
 1715. Among his works is "The Practice of a Holy 
 Life," (1716.) Died in 1755. 
 
 Allen, (Rev. Thomas,) an American divine, born at 
 Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1743, was the first min- 
 ister of Pittsfield. He graduated at Harvard in 1762, 
 and was ordained at Pittsfield in 1764. In the Revolu- 
 tionary war he warmly supported the popular cause, 
 and served as chaplain at White Plains, Ticonderoga, 
 etc. Four of his brothers were soldiers in the army. 
 He was the author of several published sermons, letters, 
 etc Died in 1810. He was the father of William 
 Allen, president of Bowdoin College. 
 
 Allen, (Thomas,) an English topographical writer 
 and engraver, born about 1803. He published, among 
 other works illustrated by his own hand, " The History 
 and Antiquities of London, Westminster, and Parts ad- 
 jacent," (4 vols., 1827-8.) Died in 1833. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine," July, 1833. 
 
 Allen, Alan, or Alleyn, (William,) Cardinal, born 
 in Lancashire in 1532, took the degree of D.D. in the 
 University of Douay in 1 571, and was made cardinal by 
 Pope Sixtus V. in 1587, in order that he might superin- 
 tend the Catholic interests in England after Philip II. 
 of Spain should have conquered that country. He left 
 a number of works in defence of the Catholic Church. 
 Died in Rome in 1594. 
 
 See Fitzherbert, "Epitome Vitae Cardinalis Alani," 1608; a 
 " Life of Allen " in the folio Brussels edition of Dodd's "Church 
 History;" Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Allen, (William,) a chief justice of Pennsylvania, who 
 assisted Dr. Franklin in establishing the College of 
 Philadelphia; but in the Revolution he took sides with 
 the royalists. Died in 1780. His son, Andrew Allen, 
 also became chief justice of Pennsylvania, and, like his 
 father, sided in the Revolution with the British. 
 
 Allen, (William,) an English chemist and philan- 
 thropist, born in London in August, 1770, was a member 
 of the Society of Friends. He became a pupil and as- 
 sistant of Joseph Gurney Bevan, chemist, of Plough 
 Court, and acquired distinction as a pharmaceutical 
 chemist. In 1802 he was appointed a lecturer on chem- 
 istry at Guy's Hospital, and in 1804 gave a course of 
 lectures on natural philosophy at the Royal Institution, 
 at the request of his friend, H. Davy. He was elected 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1807, and was associated 
 with W. H. Pepys in researches on respiration and car- 
 bonic acid. (See Pepys.) William Allen was an active 
 promoter of various benevolent and reformatory en- 
 terprises, and devoted much time to the cause of the 
 education of the poor. He began to preach in the meet- 
 ings of his Society in 1818, and accompanied Stephen 
 Grellet, a noted minister of the Society of Friends, in a 
 religious visit to the continent, from which they returned 
 in 1S20, after they had traversed Russia from north to 
 south and visited various cities in Turkey and Italy. 
 
 In 1S22 he went to Vienna to see Alexander, Emperor 
 of Russia, with whom he had a long and satisfactory 
 interview in relation to schools, the slave-trade, and the 
 Greeks. In 1825 he founded two manual -labour schools, 
 one for boys and one for girls, at Lindfield, Sussex. 
 He visited Germany, France, and Spain on religious 
 and philanthropic missions in 1832 and 1833. He con- 
 tributed several papers on chemistry to the Philosoph- 
 ical Transactions. Died at Lindfield in 1843. 
 
 See " Life of William Allen, with Selections from his Correspond- 
 ence," 2 vols., 1847. 
 
 Allen, (William,) D.D., an American biographer, 
 born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in 1784. He graduated 
 at Harvard College in 1802, and was president of Bow- 
 doin College from 1820 to 1839. He succeeded Dr. 
 Channing as regent in Harvard College. In 1809 he 
 published " The American Biographical Dictionary," (3d 
 
 ; as k; c as s; g hard; g as// 0, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z ; th as in this. 
 
 (22/"* See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
jiLLEN 
 
 98 
 
 JLLIONI 
 
 edition, enlarged, 1857.) Among his works are "Wun- 
 nissoo," a poem, (1856;) and "Psalms and Hymns, with 
 many Original Hymns," (1835.) Died in July, 1868. 
 
 Allen, (William Henry,) an American naval officer, 
 born ^it Providence, Rhode Island, in 1784. He dis- 
 tinguished himself as lieutenant under Captain Decatur 
 in the battle which resulted in the capture of the Mace- 
 donian, October 25, 1812. Having been raised to the 
 rank of captain, he sailed in the Argus, and took many 
 prizes. In August, 1813, he was killed in a fight between 
 the Argus and the Pelican, and his vessel was captured. 
 
 Allen, (William Howard,) an American naval 
 officer, born at Hudson, New York, in 1792. He took 
 command of the Argus' when Captain William Henry 
 Allen was disabled by a mortal wound in August, 1813. 
 He was killed in a fight with pirates near Matanzas in 
 November, 1822. 
 
 Allende, al-yen'da, (J.,) a Mexican officer, who in 
 1810 joined Hidalgo in the revolt against Spain and 
 lendered efficient service to the cause. He was cap- 
 tured and shot in July, 181 1. 
 
 Allent,i'16.N',( Pierre Alexandre Joseph,) a French 
 general, born at Saint Omer in 1772. After the resto- 
 ration he became chief of the staff of the national guard, 
 and counsellor of state. He wrote a " History of the 
 Imperial Corps of Engineers, and of the Sieges it has 
 directed," (1805,) and a few other works. Died in 1837. 
 
 Alleon-du-Lac, t'la'6N' dii lSk, (Jean Louis,) a 
 French naturalist, born at Saint Etienne in 1723, was 
 postmaster at that place. He published "Memoirs on the 
 Natural History of Lyonnois, Forez, and Beaujolois," (2 
 vols., 1765,) and " Melanges of Natural History," (2 vols., 
 1762,) both works of merit. He died, it is supposed, 
 about 1770. 
 
 AUerstein, Allerstain, al'ler-stin', or Hallerstein, 
 a German Jesuit, born about 1700, went as a missionary 
 to China. He stated the population of China in 1760 at 
 196,837,977. Died at Pekin about 1777. 
 
 Allestree or Allestry, auls'tre, (Richard,) an emi- 
 nent English divine, born in Shropshire in 1619. He 
 served in the royalist army in the civil war, and at the 
 restoration became one of the chaplains of Charles II. 
 In 1663 he was appointed regius professor of divinity at 
 Oxford. His lectures, which were continued about 
 twenty years, are commended by Bishop Fell. A volume 
 of his sermons was published in 1669 and 1684. Died 
 in 1681. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena Oxonienses." 
 
 Allestry, auls'tre, (Jacob,) an English poet, born 
 about 1653 ; died in 1686. 
 
 AUetz,S'lis',(PiERRE Edouard,) a French litterateur, 
 born in Paris in 1798. He wrote " Walpole," a dra- 
 matic poem, (1825,) an "Essay on Man, or the Accord- 
 ance of Philosophy with Religion," (2 vols., 1835,) and 
 "Sketches of Moral Suffering," ("Esquisses de la Souf- 
 france morale," 2 vols., 1836,) which is his principal 
 work. He was consul at Barcelona when he died in 1850. 
 
 AUetz, (Pons-Augustin — pAN'zo'giis'taN',) a French 
 litterateur, born at Montpellier in 1703. He worked for 
 the booksellers of Paris, and compiled a number of suc- 
 cessful works, some of which were popular school-books. 
 Among his works are a "History of the Popes," (1776;) 
 " L'Agronome," a treatise on farming, (1760;) an " Epi- 
 tome of Grecian History," (1764;) and a Synopsis of the 
 Evidences of Christianity, called " Catechism for Adults," 
 ("Catechisme de Page mur.") Died at Paris in 1785. 
 
 See Qubrard, " La France LitttSraire." 
 
 Alley, al'le, (Rev. Jerome,) a theologian, born proba- 
 bly in Ireland in 1760, was educated at Trinity College, 
 Dublin. He became rector of Beaulieu and Drumcarr. 
 Among his works is "Vindiciae Christiana;, or a Com- 
 parative Estimate of the Genius and Temper of the 
 Greek, the Roman, the Hindu, the Mahometan, and the 
 Christian Religions," (1826.) 
 
 Alley or Alleigh, 41'le, (William,) an English 
 bishop, born at Great Wycombe about 15 12. He became 
 a zealous Protestant minister, and in the reign of Mary- 
 resigned his cure. On the accession of Elizabeth he was 
 appointed reader of the divinity lecture in Saint Paul's, 
 London. He was consecrated Bishop of Exeter in 1560. 
 
 He translated the Pentateuch for the Bishops' Bible, and 
 left several religious works. Died in 1571. 
 
 Alleyn or Allen, al'len, (Edward,) a celebrated 
 English actor, born in London in 1566, was a friend or 
 companion of Shakspeare. He was one of the two 
 owners and managers of the Fortune Theatre, London, 
 and amassed a large fortune, which he spent in acts of 
 munificence. He founded, for the benefit of the poor, 
 Dulwich College, finished about 1618, and by his last 
 will endowed twenty almshouses. The college wis 
 founded for the support of one master, (whose family 
 name must always be the same as that of the founder,) 
 one warden, four fellows, six poor men, six poor women, 
 and for the education and support of twelve boys. Died 
 in 1626. 
 
 See J. P. Collier, " Memoirs of Edward Alleyn," etc. 
 
 Al'H-bond, (John,) an English divine, born in Buck- 
 inghamshire, was rector of Bradwell. He wrote a 
 satirical poem, " Rustic Description of the Oxford Acad- 
 emy lately reformed," (" Rustica Academiae Oxoniensis 
 nuper reformats Descriptio," 1648,) and is called by 
 Anthony Wood an excellent Latin poet. Died in 165S. 
 
 Al'li-bone, (Samuel Austin,) an American writer, 
 born in Philadelphia in 1816. He is the author of an 
 excellent work entitled "A Critical Dictionary of Eng- 
 lish Literature and British and American Authors," 
 of which the first volume (royal 8vo, pp. 1005) was is- 
 sued in 1858; the second is said to be now (1868) in 
 press. The plan, which is as happy as it is novel, is to 
 give a succinct biography of each author, accompanied 
 by copious extracts from the opinions of the most cele- 
 brated critics, or some periodical of acknowledged repu- 
 tation, by means of which the reader is at once enabled 
 to - determine the literary standing of the author con- 
 cerning whom he may desire information ; and this plan 
 has been so fully and thoroughly carried out. as to leave 
 little or nothing to be desired. 
 
 Allier, t'le-i', (Achille,) a French artist and anti- 
 quary, born in the Bourbonnais in 1807 or 1808. He 
 described some antiquities of his native province in 
 "Esquisses Bourbonnaises," (1832,) and began, in 1833, 
 to issue, in numbers, " L'Ancien Bourbonnais," a splen- 
 did work on the history and antiquities of the Bourbon- 
 nais, with plates designed by himself. He died in 1S36, 
 leaving it unfinished. 
 
 Allier, (Antoine,) a French sculptor, born at Em- 
 brun in 1793. Among his works are statues of Philopce- 
 men and Eloquence, and busts of Sully and Arago. 
 
 Allier, (Louis,) called also Hauteroche, hot'rosh', 
 a French antiquary and numismatist, born at Lyons in 
 1766. He visited the Troad and Asia Minor, collected 
 many Greek medals, and wrote several antiquarian 
 treatises; died in 1827. 
 
 Allies, al'lez, (Jaisez,) an English antiquary, born in 
 Worcestershire in 1787; died in 1856. 
 
 Al'ling-ham, (John Till,) a popular English dra- 
 matic writer, flourished about the end of the eighteenth 
 century. He was a native of London, and belonged to 
 the legal profession. He wrote comedies and farces, 
 among which are " The Weathercock," and " Fortune's 
 Frolic," (1799.) 
 
 Allingham, ( Wi lliam,) a poet, born at Ballyshannon, 
 Ireland, about 1828. He published a volume of poems 
 in 1850, and "Day and Night Songs" in 1854. His 
 poem entitled "Laurence Bloomfield in Ireland" (in 12 
 chapters, 1864) was very favourably received. He has 
 received an appointment in the Customs in England, and 
 a literary pension was granted him in 1864. 
 
 Allio, al'le-o, (Matteo,) an Italian sculptor, worked 
 at Milan about 1750. His brother Tommaso was also 
 a sculptor at Milan. 
 
 Allioli, al-le-o'lee, (Joseph Franz,) a German theo- 
 logian, born at Siilzbach in 1793. He became professor 
 of theology at Munich in 1826, and provost of the cathe- 
 dral of Augsburg about 1838. He made a translation 
 of the Bible from the Vulgate into German, (1830, 6th 
 edition, 1839-45,) which was approved by the pope, and 
 wrote several religious works. 
 
 Allioni, al-le-o'nee, (Carlo,) an Italian physician 
 and eminent botanist, born at Turin in 1725. He was 
 professor of botany in the University of Turin, and Fel- 
 
 i, e, i, 0, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ALLIOT 
 
 99 
 
 ALMAGRO 
 
 low of the Royal Societies of London, Madrid, and Got- 
 tingen. Like his friend Haller, he was opposed to the 
 artificial system of Linnaeus. His principal work is a 
 " Flora of Piedmont," (" Flora Pedemontana, etc.," 3 
 vols., 1785,) by which he acquired a durable reputation. 
 He WTOte an able medical work, entitled " Synopsis 
 of the Present Condition of Diseases," ("Conspectus 
 Prxsentaneae Morborum Conditiom\" 1793.) Died in 
 1804. 
 
 See M. F. Buniva, " Reflexions sur toutes les ouvrages publics et 
 intfdils du Dr. C. Allioni, avec des notices historiques concemant sa 
 Vie," Turin; Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Alliot, t'le'o', (Pierre,) a French physician of the 
 seventeenth century, born at Bar-le-Duc, had the repu- 
 tation of great skill in the treatment of cancerous and 
 other malignant ulcers. 
 
 Allison. See Alison. 
 
 Al'U-son, (Francis,) a Presbyterian minister, born in 
 Ireland in 1705. He became a professor and vice-pro- 
 vost of the Philadelphia College about 1755. Died in 1777. 
 
 Allix, S'leks', (Jacques Alexandre Francois,) a 
 French general, born at Percy (Manche) in 1776, served 
 as colonel at Marengo, 1800. Died in 1836. 
 
 Allix, (Pierre,) a French Protestant theologian, born 
 at Alenconin 1641, was eminent as a scholar and preacher. 
 He was deeply versed in Hebrew and classical literature. 
 The sermons he preached at Charenton in opposition to 
 Bossuet were much admired. On the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes in 16S5 he took refuge in England, 
 learned the English language, and was appointed treas- 
 urer of the cathedral church of Salisbury, (1690.) He 
 was greatly distinguished as a controversial writer. His 
 principal work, " Reflexions on the Books of the Holy- 
 Scripture," (1688,) is highly esteemed, and has been often 
 reprinted. Died in 171 7. 
 
 See Wood, " Fasti Oxonienses." 
 
 Allix. See Alix, 
 
 Alloisi. See Galanino. 
 
 Allori, al-Io'ree, [It. pron. al-16'ree,] (Alf.ssandro,) 
 an eminent Italian painter, born at Florence in 1535, was 
 a pupil of Angelo Bronzino, his uncle, and an imitator of 
 Michael Angelo. He was skilful in drawing, and in the 
 science of anatomy, of which he made an excessive dis- 
 play in his works. He adorned the churches and palaces 
 of Florence with paintings in fresco and oil. His mas- 
 ter-pieces are "The Last Judgment," "Christ Disputing 
 with the Doctors," and "The Sacrifice of Abraham." 
 Died in 1607. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Allori, (Angelo.) See Bronzino, (Angelo.) 
 
 Allori, (Cristofano,) a celebrated painter, a son of 
 Alessandro, noticed above, was born at Florence in 1577. 
 He studied with Gregorio Pagani, and adopted a style 
 very different from that of his father. He excelled in 
 richness and delicacy of colouring, and was a superior 
 portrait-painter. His works are scarce, and exquisitely 
 finished. Among his master-pieces are a Magdalen, 
 and the "Miracle of San Giuliano," in the Pitti gallery. 
 Died about 1620. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Al'lot, (Robert,) is believed to have been the com- 
 piler of a valuable collection of early poetry, entitled 
 "England's Parnassus," (London, 1600,) in the compila- 
 tion of which he showed good taste and judgment. 
 
 Allou, i'loo', (Charles Nicolas,) a French arch- 
 aeologist, born in Paris in 1787. He wrote an "Essay 
 on the Universality of the French Language," (1828.) 
 
 Allouette, de 1', deh lS'Ioo'et', |Lat. Ai.auda'nus,] 
 (Francois,) a French antiquary, born at Vertus about 
 1530, was president of the court of Sedan, and master 
 of requests. He wrote many works on genealogy, civil 
 law, the history of the Gauls, etc. Died about 1608. 
 
 Allston, aul'stpn, (Joseph,) an American, born in 
 1778, was Governor of South Carolina in 1812. His 
 wife was Theodosia, the only daughter of Aaron Burr. 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 Allston, (Robert Francis Withers,) an American 
 planter, born in South Carolina in 1801. He was elected 
 Governor of his native State in 1856. He distinguished 
 
 himself as an agriculturist, and made improvements it 
 the cultivation of rice. 
 
 Allston, (Washington,) one of the most eminent 
 of American artists, born at Waccamaw, in South Caro- 
 lina, November 5, 1779. Owing to his delicate health 
 in early childhood, he was sent to Newport, Rhode Is- 
 land, where he remained at school ten years. He en- 
 tered Harvard College in 1796, and took' the degree of 
 A.B. in 1800. He returned soon after to Charleston, 
 and in 1801 embarked for England, accompanied by 
 Malbone, the painter, whom he had previously known 
 at Newport, and with whom he formed a warm and 
 lasting friendship. The following year he exhibited in 
 London several pictures, one of which, a " French Sol- 
 dier telling a Story," attracted very favourable notice. 
 He visited Paris in 1804, and subsequently repaired to 
 Italy, where he remained four years. While at Rome 
 he formed an intimacy with Coleridge, of whose extra- 
 ordinary genius he speaks in enthusiastic terms. In 
 1809 he returned to America, and soon after married a 
 sister of William E. Channing, the eminent Unitarian 
 divine. He again sailed for England in 181 1, and es- 
 tablished himself in London, where lie had resided but 
 a short time when he met with a severe affliction in the 
 death of his wife. In 1818 he was elected associate of 
 the Royal Academy. The same year, in consequence 
 of failing health, he returned to his home in America. 
 He had previously finished his great historical painting 
 of "The Dead Man revived by Elisha's Bones," for 
 which he obtained the first prize at the British Institu- 
 tion. Among Mr. Allston's most celebrated pictures 
 are "Jacob's Dream;" "Elijah in the Desert;" "The 
 Angel Uriel in the Surf*;" and "Spalatro's Vision of the 
 Bloody Hand." He was engaged on a large painting of 
 " Belshazzar's Feast," when he died, July 9, 1843. In 
 addition to his genius as a painter, Allston possessed 
 poetic talent of a high order. He was the author of 
 "The Sylphs of the Seasons, and other Poems," pub- 
 lished in 1813. 
 
 During his residence at Rome, Allston became ac- 
 quainted with Washington Irving, who thus describes 
 him: "There was something to me inexpressibly en- 
 gaging in the appearance and manners of Allston. I do 
 not think I have ever been more completely captivated 
 on a first acquaintance. He was of a light, graceful 
 form, with large blue eyes, and black silken hair waving 
 and curling round a pale, expressive countenance. Every- 
 thing about him bespoke the man of intellect and refine- 
 ment. His conversation was copious, animated, and 
 highly graphic, warmed by a genial sensibility and be- 
 nevolence, and enlivened at times by a chaste and gentle 
 humour. . . . His memory I hold in reverence and 
 affection, as one of the purest, noblest, and most intel- 
 lectual beings that ever honoured me with his friend- 
 ship." 
 
 See Dunlap, " Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in Amer- 
 ica," vn!. i. ; Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists;" also, article by 
 Dr. O. W. Holmes, in "North American Review," vol. 1. p. 358. 
 
 Allut, 3'lii', (Antoine,) born at Montpellier, in France, 
 in 1743, was educated at Paris, and became, while very 
 young, a contributor to the "Encyclopedic" He was 
 executed by the Jacobins in 1794. • 
 
 Ally, (All) See Alee. 
 
 Almada, de, da al-ma'na, (Al'varo Vas,) a famous 
 Portuguese warrior, was created Count of Avranches by 
 Charles VI. of France. He was a loyal adherent of 
 I idiii Pedro, regent of Portugal, and was killed in battle 
 in 1449. 
 
 Almagro, de, da al-ma'gRo, (Diego,) a bold and 
 enterprising Spanish officer, who was the principal asso- 
 ciate of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru. He was a found- 
 ling, born about 1464, and went to America to seek his 
 fortune. About 1525, Pizarro, Almagro, and I.uque 
 agreed to co-operate in an effort to conquer Peru. This 
 object they effected with a very small force about 1533. 
 (See Pizarro, Francisco.) In 1534 Almagro was ap- 
 pointed adelantado (governor) of the region which lies 
 southward from Peru. He extended the Conquest* of 
 the Spanish power into Chili in 1535, after which he cap- 
 tured Cuzco from the army of Pizarro, who had become 
 his perfidious enemy. In a decisive battle, fought near 
 
 c as k; 9 as t; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural '; N, natal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.I 
 
ALMAGRO 
 
 100 
 
 ALMICI 
 
 Cuzco in 1538, Almagro was defeated and taken pris- 
 oner by Pizarro, who caused him to be put to death. 
 
 See Robertson, "History of America;" Prescott, "Conquest 
 of Peru," vol. i.; Herrera, "Historia." 
 
 Almagro, de, (Diego,) a son of the preceding, born 
 about 1520, assisted to revenge his father's death by the 
 assassination of Pizarro. After the defeat of his asso- 
 ciates by De Castro, he was betrayed and put to death 
 in 1542. 
 
 Al-Mahdee or Al-Mabdi, (founder of the sect of 
 Almohades.) See Aboo-Abdillah-Mohammed. 
 
 Almahdee or Almahdi, al-mah'dee', or, more fully, 
 Almahdi Billah, (i.e. "the director by the grace of 
 God,") the third caliph of the house of Abbas, succeeded 
 to the throne in 776 A.D. Died in 785. 
 
 Almain, Sl'maN', (Jacques,) a French theological 
 writer, who was a native of Sens. Died in 1 5 15. 
 
 Al-Makhzoomee or Al-Makhzumi, al-maK-zoo'- 
 mee, a distinguished historian and poet of Mohammedan 
 Spain, born in 1190. He passed the latter part of his 
 life at the court of the Sultan of Tunis. Died in 1256. 
 
 Al-Makkari. See Makkaree. 
 
 Al-Makin. See Elmacin. 
 
 Al-Makreezee or -Makrizi. See Makreezee. 
 
 Al-Malek or Al-Melik. See Malik. 
 
 Al-Mamoon. Sec Mamoon. 
 
 Al-Mansoor, Al-Mausur, Al-Mansour, or Al- 
 Mancour, al-man'sooi', written also Almanzor and 
 Almansor, ("the Victorious,") the surname by which 
 Aboo-Amir (a'boo a'mir) -Mohammed, the minister 
 of Hisham II., Sultan of Cordova, is generally known. 
 Born near Algeziras in 939 A.D.,he began his career as 
 a bookseller and scribe ; but Ire soon found means to 
 recommend himself to the notice of the sultan, and at 
 length, by his talents and address, succeeded in possess- 
 ing himself of all the real power in the state, Hisham 
 retaining only the name of sovereign. He exercised the 
 power thus obtained with an ability and success which 
 have scarcely a parallel in the history of Mohammedan 
 Spain. He not only overran the greater part of the 
 Peninsula, but also extended his sway over a considerable 
 portion of Western Africa. His internal administration 
 is said to have been no less distinguished for wisdom and 
 justice, than was his military career for brilliant success. 
 Died in 1002. 
 
 See Al-Makkari, " H'story of the Mohammedan Dynasties in 
 Spain," translated by Gayangos, 2 vols. 4I0, London, 1840-43 ; Conde, 
 " Historia de la Domination de los Arabes enEspaiia;" Mariana, 
 " Historia general de Espana." 
 
 Al-Mansoor, (Aboo-Jaafar,) Caliph of Bagdad. 
 See Mansoor. 
 
 Almanzor. See Al-Mansoor. 
 
 Almeida, al-maVda, (Manoel,) a Portuguese Jesuit, 
 born at Viseu in 1580. He passed ten years in Abys- 
 sinia, (1622-32,) and collected materials for a "History 
 of Ethiopia," which was published by B. Tellez in 1660 ; 
 it is said to be a work of decided merit. Died at Goa 
 in 1646. 
 
 Almeida, de, da al-maVda, (Antonio,) a Portu- 
 guese surgeon, born in Beira about 1760. He published 
 "Surgical Works," ("Obras Cirurgicas," 4 vols., 1814.) 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 Almeida, de, (Britf.s, bRee'tJs,) a heroine who has 
 been called "the Portuguese Joan of Arc," was born 
 about the middle of the fourteenth century, and followed 
 the business of a baker. When her native village (Al- 
 jubarotta) was attacked by the Spaniards in 1386, 6he is 
 said to have killed several soldiers with a baker's shovel, 
 which was religiously preserved as a memorial by the in- 
 habitants of Aljubarotta through several generations. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Almeida, de, (Dom Francisco,) the first Portuguese 
 Viceroy of India, a son of the Count of Abrantes, was 
 born at Lisbon about the middle of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. Having distinguished himself in the Moorish 
 wars, he was appointed Viceroy of India in 1505, and 
 fixed the seat of his government at Cochin. By his 
 courage and prudence he greatly extended the dominion 
 of Portugal. When Albuquerque arrived in 1508 with 
 a commission to supersede the viceroy, Almeida refused 
 at first to resign the office, and arrested the admiral. 
 
 About the end of 1508, Almeida gained a great victory 
 over the Egyptian fleet near the coast of India. Soon 
 after this victory he gave up the command to his rhal, 
 and embarked for Portugal in November, 1509; but 
 before the end of the voyage he was killed in an af- 
 fray with a band of Caffres, near the Cape of Good 
 Hope, in 15 10. Thus obscurely perished, by the hands 
 of savages, a man who had humbled the potentates of 
 India and rendered his country's flag triumphant on the 
 Eastern seas. 
 
 See Barros, " Decadas da Asia;" Faria v Souza, "Asia Por- 
 tugueza," 
 
 Almeida, de, (Lorenzo,) a son of the preceding, 
 distinguished for the many noble qualities of his heart, 
 as well as for bravery and military talents, fell in a sea- 
 fight with the Egyptians near Choul, in 1508. 
 
 See J0A0 de Barros, "Decada quarta;" Faria y Souza, "Asia 
 Portugueza." 
 
 Almeida, de, (Nicolao Tolentino — to-lSn-tee'no,) 
 a Portuguese satirical poet, born at Lisbon in 1745. He 
 published a volume of poems in 1802. It is stated that 
 his superiority in satire was such that he had neither 
 rivals nor imitators. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Almeida, de, (Theodoro.) See Almeyda. 
 
 Almeida-Garrett, al-ma'e-dagar-r8t',(or gar'ret,) (J. 
 B. LeitAo de,) a YoxiugutstTfitterateur, and the author of 
 a metrical romance entitled " Adozinda," (London, 1828.) 
 He also wrote a " Historical Sketch of Portuguese Lite- 
 rature." 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe," and" an articlt 
 "On the Poets of Portugal," in the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 1832, (vol. x.) 
 
 Almela, de, da al-ma'la, (Diego Rodriguez,) a 
 Spanish historical writer of the fifteenth century, was 
 born in the city of Murcia. 
 
 Almeloveen, van, vfn al'meh-lo-van', (Theodorus 
 Jansson — yans'son,) an eminent Dutch physician and 
 scholar, born at Mydrecht in 1657, was professor of 
 Greek and of medicine at Harderwyk. He published 
 good editions of the "Aphorisms" of Hippocrates, and 
 "Celsus de Medicina," (1687,) and wrote several works, 
 among which is "Theological and Philological Ame- 
 nities," (" Amcenitates Theologico-Philologicas," 1694.) 
 Died in 1712. 
 
 Almeloven, al'meh-lo'ven, (Jan,) a Dutch painter 
 and engraver, born in Holland about 1620. He left a 
 number of spirited etchings of landscapes, some of 
 which are after his own designs. 
 
 Almenar, al-ma-naR', (Juan,) a Spanish physician, 
 lived about 1500, and wrote "De MorboGallico," (1502.) 
 
 Almendingen, von, fon al'men-ding'en, (Ludvvig 
 Harscher,) a jurist, born of German parents in Paris 
 in 1766. He was a judge or counsellor in the duchy 
 of Nassau. He wrote several legal treatises, and co- 
 operated with Feuerbach in his " Bibliothek," a periodi- 
 cal devoted to criminal law. Died in 1827. 
 
 Aimer, .il'mrr, (Johann Christian,) a Danish 
 painter, born at Copenhagen in 1742 ; died in 1792. 
 
 Almeras, Sl'ma'ras', (Louis,) an able French gene- 
 ral, born at Vienne in 1768. He served on the staff of 
 Kleber in Egypt, and distinguished himself at Heliopo- 
 lis. Having obtained the rank of general, he joined the 
 grand army in 1809, and was wounded at Wagram. 
 For his conduct at the battle of the Moskwa, in 1812, 
 he was made lieutenant-general. He was taken prisoner 
 in the retreat from Russia. He was appointed com- 
 mandant of Bordeaux in 1813. Died in 1823. 
 
 Almeyda, (Francisco.) See Almeida. 
 
 Almeyda, de, da al-maVda, (Fernando,) a Portu- 
 guese sacred poet, born at Alberca in 1459. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Almeyda, de, (Francisco,) a Portuguese theologian, 
 born at Lisbon in 1701; died after 1750. 
 
 Almeyda or Almeida, de, da al-ma'e-da, (Thko- 
 DORO,) a Portuguese priest and writer, borrfat Lisbon in 
 1722. He promoted the study of philosophy- on rational 
 principles in Portugal, and wrote many woiks, of which 
 the most remarkable is " Philosophical Recreation," 
 (" Recreacao Filosofica," 5 vols., 1751.) Died in 1804. 
 
 Almici, al-mee'chee, (Camili.o,) a learned Italian 
 priest and writer, born at Brescia in 1714 ; died in 1779. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; it, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, ^, short; a, e, \,<),o/'scure; far, fall, fit; met; not: gdod; moon; 
 
ALMODOVAR 
 
 101 
 
 ALOMPRA 
 
 Almodovar, al-mo-do'vaR, (Don Ildefonso Dias 
 de Ribera — de'as da re-Ba'rS,) Count of, a Spanish 
 diplomatist and writer of considerable merit. He was 
 successively ambassador to Russia and England, and 
 returned to Spain in 1779. His chief work is a free 
 translation of Raynal's " History of the East and West 
 Indies," (1784-90,) in which he made such changes as 
 enabled it to pass the Spanish censorship. Died in 
 1794- 
 
 See Coxe," "Memoirs of the Kings of Spain." 
 
 Almohades, al'mo-hadz ; singular, Almohade, al'- 
 mo-hid, [Fr. pron. aTmo'aa' ; Ger. AlmoHaden, al- 
 mo-hi'den ; Lat. Almo'had/E — from the Arabic Al- 
 UOWAHIDOON, (AlmuwahidOn,) signifying "worship- 
 pers of one God,"] the name of a celebrated Moham- 
 medan dynasty which succeeded in Northern Africa and 
 Spain to the power of the Almoravides. Its founder was 
 Aboo-Abdillah-Mohammed, (which see,) a religious 
 reformer, who took the surname of Al-Mahdee, (Al- 
 M ahd!,) " the director." His followers called themselves 
 Al-Mowahidoon, that is, "worshippers of the One true 
 God" as revealed by Mohammed, and accused the Almo- 
 ravides of having departed from the original purity of 
 the Moslem faith and of having relapsed into a condi- 
 tion little better than polytheism or paganism. The power 
 of the Almohades lasted from about 1 145 until 1269, when 
 it was subverted by the Benee Mereen, (Beni Merin.) 
 The Almohade dynasty is sometimes called that of 
 Abd-el-Moomen, (or Abd-ul-Mumen,) because he was 
 the first of the Al-Mowahidoon who took the name of 
 sultan. 
 
 See Al-Makkari's "Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain," trans- 
 ted by Gay. 
 of the Berbers 
 
 lated by GayanGOS, London, 1840-43 ; Ibn-Khaldoon, History 
 ' ! B( ' 
 
 Almon, al'mon, (John,) an English political writer, 
 born at Liverpool about 1738, was a political friend of 
 John Wilkes. He became a prominent publisher of 
 pamphlets for the opposition party about 1763. Some 
 ot these pamphlets were of his own composition. He 
 also published "Anecdotes of Lord Chatham, with his 
 Speeches from 1736 to 1778," (1792,) and " Biographical, 
 Literary, and Political Anecdotes," (3 vols., 1797.) Died 
 in 1805. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," December, 1805. 
 
 Almonacid, de, di al-mo-na-theD', (Sebastian,) a 
 Spanish sculptor, who flourished in the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 Almonde, van, vin al-m6n'deh, (Philippus,) writ- 
 ten also AUemonda, a Dutch admiral, born at Briel in 
 1646. He distinguished himself as captain in the battle 
 ■gainst the English in Solebay, 1672. On the death of 
 De Kuyter, 1676, he obtained command of the fleet, and 
 in the following year shared in Tromp's victory over the 
 Swedes. He accompanied William of Orange in his 
 expedition to England in 1688, and commanded the 
 Dutch fleet at La Hogue, (1692,) where the French were 
 signally defeated. Almonde and Sir George Rooke 
 commanded the allies at the destruction of a Spanish 
 fleet in the Bay of Vigo in 1702. Died in 1711. 
 
 See Van der Aa, " Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden." 
 
 Almonte, al-mon'ta, (Juan N.,) a Mexican general, 
 born about the beginning of the nineteenth century, 
 served under Santa Anna in Texas in 1836, and was 
 Bent as ambassador to the United States soon after 1840. 
 He took part in the battles of Buena Vista and Cerro 
 Gordo in 1847. I" 'S6 2 ne was appointed dictator by a 
 party of Mexicans opposed to Juarez, but he was de- 
 prived of power by the French general Forey in Sep- 
 tember of that year. Died in 1869. 
 
 Al-Moohtadee or Al-Muhtadi Biilah, al-mdoh'- 
 ti-dee' bil'lah, a caliph of the house of Abbas. Born in 
 838 A.D., he ascended the throne in 869, and was killed, 
 after a reign of eleven months, by the rebellious Turkish 
 soldiers. 
 
 Al-Mooktadee or Al-Muktadi, al-mook'ta-dee', 
 a caliph of the house of Abbas, began to reign at Bagdad 
 in 1075, and died in 1094. 
 
 Al-Mooktader, (-Muktader,) al-mook'ta-der, or 
 Almdbk'tader Bil'lah, a caliph of the house of 
 Abbas, ascended the throne in 908, and, after a troubled 
 
 and inglorious reign, was killed in battle by his rebel 
 lious subjects in 931 A.D. 
 
 Al-Mooktafee or Al-Muktafi, ai-mdok'ta-fee', k 
 caliph of the house of Abbas, who began to reign in 
 902 a.d., at the age of twenty years, and died in 908. 
 
 Al-Mooktafee or Al-Muktafi was also the name 
 of another Abbasside caliph, who ascended the throne u. 
 1 136. Died in 1 160. 
 
 Al-Moontaser, Al-Muntaser, or AI-Muntasir, 
 al-mdon'tas-ser, the eleventh caliph of the line of Abbas, 
 succeeded to the throne by parricide in 862 a.d., and 
 died after a reign of six months. 
 
 Al-Mootassem. See Motassem. 
 
 Al-Mootenabbee or Al-Mutenabbi, al-moo'tch- 
 nab'bee, or El-Motenebbi, el-mo'teh-neb'bee, one of 
 the most distinguished of the Arabian poets, born at 
 Koofah (Kflfah) in the early part of the tenth century. 
 He was killed, while on a journey, by a party of hostile 
 Arabs, in 965 A.D. 
 
 Almoravides, al-mo'ra-vidz; singular, Almoravide, 
 il-mo'ra-vid, [Fr. pron. il'mo'ri'ved' ; Ger. Almora- 
 viden, al-mo-ra-vee'den ; Lat. Almorav'id>e — a Eu- 
 ropean corruption of the Arabic term Almorabitoon, (or 
 Almorabitfln,) — in the oblique cases Almorabiteen, (Al- 
 morabitin,) an Arabic term signifying "those bound " or 
 " devoted" to the service of God,] the name of a Moslem 
 dynasty which arose in Northern Africa about the mid- 
 dle of the eleventh century. It was founded by Abdal- 
 lah-Ibn-Yaseen, (which see,) a religious leader, one 
 of whose generals, Yoosuf-Ibn-T&shefeen, conquered a 
 large part of Spain and established a dynasty which 
 lasted about one hundred years. The last sultan of this 
 line, Tashefeen-Ibn-Alee, was deprived of his throne and 
 life by the victorious Almohades in 1 145. 
 
 See Ibn-Khaldoon, " History of the Berbers," (in manuscript,) 
 and Al-Makkari, "History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in 
 Spain," translated by Gayangos, London, 1840-43. 
 
 Almosnino, al-mos-nee'no, (Moses,) a learned Jew- 
 ish rabbi and writer, born at Saloniki in 1523 ; died near 
 the close of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Al-Motassem. See Motassem. 
 
 Al-Motenebbi. See Al-Mootenabbee. 
 
 Almquist, alm'kwist, (Karl Jonas Ludwig,) a 
 Swedish poet and novelist of the romantic school, was 
 born in 1793. He published several novels, one of which 
 is entitled "Amorina," a number of elementary works 
 on history, mathematics, etc., and a collection of poems 
 entitled "Book of Thorn-Roses," (i.e. "sweet-briers;" 
 in Swedish, "Tornroscns Bok.") Died in 1844. 
 
 See Fahlkrantz, "C. J. L. Almquist sasom Forfattare i Allmanhet 
 och sasom Theolog i synnerhet skarskadad," 2 vols., 1845. 
 
 Al-Muhtadi. See Al-Moohtadee. 
 
 Al-Muktader. See Al-Mooktader. 
 
 Al-Muktadi See Ai.-Mooktadee. 
 
 Al-Muktafi. See Al-Mooktafee. 
 
 Al-Muntaser. See Al-Moontaser. 
 
 Al-Mutassem. See Motassem. 
 
 Al-Mutenabbi. See Al-Mootenabbee. 
 
 Almy, al'me, (William,) an American philanthro- 
 pist, member of the Society of Friends, born in 1761. 
 He amassed a large fortune, which he employed in pro- 
 moting objects of benevolence. Among other things, 
 he liberally endowed the Friends' Boarding-School at 
 Providence, Rhode Island. Died in 1836. 
 
 Alnander, al-nan'der, (Olaf Joiian,) a Swedish an- 
 tiquary, born at Norrkjoping, lived about 1510. 
 
 Al-Nassir or Al-Nasir, ( An-Nasir.) See Ahd-er- 
 Raiiman III. 
 
 Aloisi or Alloisi, (Baldassare.) See Galanino. 
 
 Aloisio, a-lo-ee'se-o, (Gian-Fkancesco,) an Italian 
 poet, born near Naples, was accused of heresy, for which 
 he was put to death in 1564. 
 
 Aloja, a-lo'ya, (Giuseppe,) a Neapolitan engraver, 
 lived about 1750. 
 
 Alompra, S-lom'pra, the founder of the present dy- 
 nasty of Batman, was born about 1710. lie was the 
 chief of the town of Monchaboo, when the King of Pegu 
 conquered Durmah, in 1752. Having raised the standard 
 of revolt, in 1 753, lie defeated the Peguans in several 
 battles, and made himself master of all Burmah. Me 
 took the King of Pegu prisoner in his own capital in 
 
 c as /.■ 9 as s; g hard; g as/V G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^J^Sec Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ALONSO 
 
 102 
 
 AL-SAFFAH 
 
 1757. Alompra was faithless and cruel, but possessed 
 superior civil and military talents. Died in 1760. 
 
 See Dalrymple, "Oriental Repertory;" Crawfurd, " Journal 
 of an Embassy to Siam," etc. ; Symes, "Account of an Embassy to 
 the Kingdom of Ava in the year 1795." 
 
 Alonso or Alonzo, (of Spain.) See Alfonso. 
 
 Alonso de los Rios, a-lon'so da 16s ree'6s, (Pedro,) 
 a Spanish sculptor, born at Valladolid in 1650, worked 
 at Madrid. Died in 1700. His father, Francisco, was 
 also an able sculptor. 
 
 Alonzo. See Alfonso. 
 
 Alopa, d', da-lo'pa, (Lorenzo,) a learned printer, 
 born at Venice, published at Florence, about 1475-1500, 
 accurate editions of several Greek works, in elegant 
 typography. 
 
 Alopseus, a-lo-pa'us, (David,) brother of Maxim, 
 noticed below, born at Viborg in 1769, was sent by the 
 emperor Alexander I. as minister to Sweden in 1809. 
 After the peace of 1815 he was minister from Russia to 
 the court of Berlin, where he died in 1831. 
 
 Alopaeus, (Maxim Maximovitch,) a Russian diplo- 
 matist, born, at Viborg, in Finland, in 1748. He was 
 appointed by Catherine II., in 1790, minister plenipo- 
 tentiary to the court of Prussia. Died in 1822. 
 
 Alos, a'16s, (Juan,) a Spanish medical writer, be- 
 came professor of anatomy at Barcelona in 1664. 
 
 Aloysius, a-lo-ish'ejis, an architect who flourished 
 at Rome in the time of Theodoric the Great. 
 
 Alpago, al-pa'go, [Lat. Alpa'gus,] (Andrea,) an 
 Italian physician, native of Belluno, lived about the 
 close of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Alp-Arslan, alp-ars-lSn', (the "strong lion,") written 
 also Alp-Arselan, a celebrated Seljook sultan, born 
 in Toorkistan in 1030, succeeded to the throne in 1063. 
 In 107 1 he defeated and took prisoner Romanus Dioge- 
 nes, the Byzantian emperor, who is said to have com- 
 manded, in this battle, three hundred thousand men. 
 He treated his imperial captive with great generosity 
 and kindness. Alp-Arslan was assassinated in 1072. 
 His person was remarkable for beauty, grace, and 
 strength, and his character appears to have been almost 
 without a stain. His minister, Nizam-ul-Mulk, (ne- 
 zam-o61-m66Ik,) shared the glory of his sovereign. 
 " Under his wise direction," says Sir John Malcolm, 
 " the territories of Alp-Arslan attained the highest pros- 
 perity. Justice was well administered ; colleges and 
 mosques were erected in every city ; learning was en- 
 couraged ; the poor were protected ; and the inhabitants 
 of Persia confessed that the conquest of their country 
 by the savage Tartars, which they had dreaded as the 
 worst of evils, had proved the greatest of blessings." 
 
 See Malcolm, " History of Persia," vol. i. chap. viii. ; Von 
 Hammer, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs;" D'Herbelot, 
 " Bibliotheque Orientale ;" Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire." 
 
 Al-pha'nus or Alfani, al-fa'nee, (Francesco,) an 
 Italian medical writer of Salerno, lived between 1550 
 and 1600. 
 
 Alphee. See Alpheus. 
 
 Alphege. See Elphege. 
 
 Alphen, van, vSn Jl'fen, (Daniel,) a Dutch jurist, 
 born in 1713, was professor of law at Leyden. Died in 
 
 1797- 
 
 Alphen, van, (Hieronymus,) a popular Dutch poet, 
 born at Gouda in 1746, became procurator-general at 
 the court of Utrecht, and treasurer-general of the Union. 
 He published " Poems and Meditations," (1777,) " Dutch 
 Songs," ("Gezangen," 1779,) and "Short Poems for 
 Children," (1781,) which are remarkable for simple 
 grace and beauty. His imaginative poem of "The 
 Starry Heavens" ("De Starrenhemel," 1783) is one of 
 his finest productions. Died at the Hague in 1803. 
 
 See Kami'RN, " Geschiedenis der Letteren en Wetenschappen in 
 de Nederlanden ;" Jorissen, " Erinnerung an H. van Alphen," 1804. 
 
 Alphen, van, (Hieronymus Simon,) a distin- 
 guished theologian, an ancestor of the preceding, was 
 born at New Hanau in 1665. He became professor of 
 theology at Utrecht in 1715, and acquired a high repu- 
 tation as a teacher. He wrote commentaries on the 
 epistles of Paul (1742) and on other books of Scripture. 
 Died in 1742. 
 
 Hieronymus Van Alphen, (1700-58,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, was professor of theology at Utrecht, and grand- 
 father of the poet Van Alphen. 
 
 Alphery, al'fi-re, (Nicephorus,) a Russian, who 
 emigrated to England and became a parson of the An- 
 glican Church. He died at an advanced age in the latter 
 part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Al-phe'us or Al-phei'us, [Gr. 'AAiproc or 'AMmoc; 
 Fr. Alphee, tl'fi',] a river-god of classic mythology, 
 was a son of Oceanus. The poets fabled that he loved 
 the nymph Arethusa, who fled from him to the island 
 of Ortygia and was metamorphosed into a fountain, 
 and that Alpheus followed her through the sea and was 
 thus united to that fountain. 
 
 Alpheus, a Greek poet, native of Mitylene, supposed 
 to have lived in the time of Augustus Cxsar. He was 
 distinguished as a writer of epigrams. 
 
 Alpheus, a Greek engraver of gems, lived in the first 
 century of our era. 
 
 Alphonse. See Alfonso. 
 
 Alphonso. See Alfonso. 
 
 Alphonso (or Alfonso) Tostado. See ALrHON- 
 sus Abulensis. 
 
 Al-phon'sus Ab-u-len'sis, (i.e. "Alphonso of 
 Avila,") or Alfonso Tostado, al-fon'so tos-ta'Do, an 
 eminent Spanish theologian, born in New Castile about 
 1400, became Bishop of Avila. Died in 1445, leaving 
 many works, among which are "Commentaries on the 
 Scriptures," (13 vols., 1508.) 
 
 Alphonsus a Sancta Maria. See Alfonso of 
 Carthagena. 
 
 Alphonsus Palentinus. See Alfonso de Palen- 
 cia. 
 
 Alpin. See Alpinus. 
 
 Al-pi'nus, written also Alpin, (Prosper,) [It. Pros- 
 pero Alpini, pRos'pa-ro al-pee'nee,] an eminent Italian 
 botanist and physician, born at Marostica, in the re- 
 public of Venice, in 1553. He passed some years in 
 Egypt, and after his return published, in Latin, a work 
 "On the Plants of Egypt," (1591.) He also published 
 a treatise " On the Egyptian Practice of Medicine," 
 (" De Medicina /Egyptiorum," 1 591.) In 1593 he became 
 professor of botany at Padua. He was the first Euro- 
 pean who published an account of the coffee-plant, and 
 he enriched the science of botany with many new facts. 
 He died in 161 7, leaving in manuscript a valuable work 
 "On Exotic Plants," ("De Plantis Exoticis," 1628.) 
 
 See Tomasini, " Elogia Virorum Illustrium;" Haller, "Biblio- 
 theca Botanica." 
 
 Alptageen or Alpteghin, alp'ta-geen', a Turkish 
 slave, regarded as the founder of the Gaznevide dynasty 
 in Eastern Persia, (in what is now called Afghanistan.) 
 Died in 976 A.D. Hisson-in-law Sabuktageen (or Sebek- 
 tagin) was the father of the famous Mahmood of Gazna. 
 
 Alquie.d', dSl'ke-A', (Franqois Savin ien,) a French 
 author of the seventeenth century, wrote, besides other 
 works, "The Delights of France," ("Les Delices de la 
 France," 1670.) 
 
 Alquier, Sl'ke-a', (Charles Jean Marie,) a French 
 diplomatist, noted for his tact and amenity, born in La 
 Vendee in 1752. From 1798 to 1813 he was appointed 
 successively ambassador to Bavaria, Madrid, Florence, 
 Naples, Rome, Stockholm, and Copenhagen. In 1S16 
 he was banished from France, on ^he ground of his 
 having, when in the National Convention, voted for 
 the death of Louis XVI. He was, however, recalled in 
 1818, and died in 1826. 
 
 Als, Sis or ilss, (Peter, or Peder,) a Danish painter 
 of history and portraits, born at Copenhagen in 1725; 
 died in 1775. 
 
 Alsace, d\ dtl'sls', (Thomas Louis,) Cardinal, 
 called also Alsace de Bossu, il'sis' deh bo'sii', 
 (Thomas Philippe de Hennin or Henin — ha'naN'J 
 was born at Brussels in 1680. He was descended from 
 the counts of Flanders and from the counts of Bossu. 
 In 1 714 he was appointed by the Emperor of Germany 
 Archbishop of Malines (Mechlin) and Primate of the 
 Austrian Netherlands. In 1719 he was raised to tne 
 dignity of cardinal. Died in 1759. 
 
 Al-Saffah or As-Seffah. See Aboo-l-Abbas-Ab- 
 
 DALLAH. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, xi, y, short; a, e, !, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ALSARIO DELL A CROCE 
 
 i°3 
 
 ALTHAEA 
 
 Alsario della Croce, Jl-si're-o del'la kRo'cha, [Lat. 
 Alsa'rils,] a learned physician and writer, born at 
 Genoa about 1576. He gave lectures on medicine in 
 Rome for twenty years or more, and was physician to 
 Pope Gregory XV. Died after 1631. 
 
 Al-Sheik, al-shak' or al-sha'ik, (Moses,) a Jewish 
 rabbi, born at Sapheth, in Galilee, was celebrated as an 
 interpreter of the Scriptures, on which he wrote many 
 commentaries. Died about 1595. 
 
 Alsloot, van, van als-lot', (Daniel,) a Flemish land- 
 scape-painter, who was born at Brussels about 1550, and 
 died in the early part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Alsop, aul'sop, (Antony,) an English divine and 
 eminent classical scholar, who graduated at Cambridge 
 in 1696, and became a prebendary of Winchester. He 
 published a "Selection of the Fables of /Esop," in Latin 
 .<isc, (" .Esopicarum Fabularum Delectus," 1698.) He 
 also wrote Latin odes with facility. Died in 1727. 
 
 Alsop, aul'sop, (Richard,) an American poet and 
 journalist, born at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1761. 
 With Theodore Dwight, Hopkins, Trumbull, and others, 
 called the "Hartford Wits," he issued, in 1791, the first 
 number of the "Echo," a satirical journal, directed chiefly 
 against the Democratic party. In 1800 he published a 
 Monody on the Death of Washington. He translated 
 "The Enchanted Lake of the Fairy Morgana," from 
 Menu's " Orlando Innamorato ;" and Molina's "Geo- 
 graphical, Natural, and Civil History of Chili." Died 
 in 181 5. 
 
 See Gmswot.n, " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Alsop, (Rev. Vincent,) an English nonconformist 
 divine, who became minister of a Presbyterian congre- 
 gation in Westminster. He gained distinction by his 
 strictures on Sherlock's work "On the Knowledge of 
 Christ," and his reply to a sermon by Stillingfieet against 
 nonconformists. Died at an advanced age in 1703. 
 
 See N1CHOL8, "Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Alsted, 51'stet, [Lat. Ai.ste'dius,] (Johann Hein- 
 rich,) a voluminous German writer on theology and 
 history, born near Herborn, in Nassau, in 1588. His 
 works, which were all written in Latin, were once highly 
 esteemed. Died in 1638. 
 
 Alston, auls'tpn, (Charles,) an eminent Scottish 
 botanist and physician, born at Eddlewood in 1683. He 
 began to read lectures on botany and materia medica at 
 Edinburgh soon after 1720, and was appointed professor 
 of the same in the university of that city about 1740. 
 His principal work is a manual of botany, entitled "Tiro- 
 cinium Botanicon Edinburgense," (1753,) in which he 
 defended the system of Tournefort and wrote against 
 that of Linnaeus. Died in 1760. His lectures on Ma- 
 teria Medica (2 vols., 1770) are highly commended. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Alston, (Washington.) See Allston. 
 
 Alston, auls'tgn, (Willis,) a native of Halifax county, 
 North Carolina, was a representative in Congress from 
 that State from 1799 to 1815, and from 1825 to 1831. 
 During the war of 1812 he was chairman of the Com- 
 mittee of Ways and Means, the most honourable and at 
 the same time the most arduous and responsible posi- 
 tion, after the speakership, in the National House of 
 Representatives. , Died in 1837. 
 
 Alstorph, ils'torf, (Jan,) a Dutch antiquary, born at 
 Groningen about 1680; died in 1719. 
 
 Alstromer or Alstroemer, al'stRo-mer, (almost a!'- 
 stRiim-er,) (Jonas,) a distinguished Swede, born at Al- 
 ingsas, in 1685, of poor and obscure parents. He went 
 to seek his fortune, first to Stockholm and afterwards to 
 London, where he set up as ship-broker, in which busi- 
 ness he appears to have been very successful. Although 
 he became an English citizen, he still retained the warm- 
 est attachment to his native country, to which he returned 
 about 1724. His earnest and untiring efforts were sub- 
 sequently directed towards the improvement of Swedish 
 commerce and manufactures, by which he merited and 
 obtained the esteem and gratitude »f his countrymen, 
 who conferred upon him many honours. He was made, 
 n 1739, a member of the Council of Commerce, and was 
 afterwards ennobled. Died in 1761. 
 
 See Kryger, "Aminnelse-Tal ftfver J. Alstrftmer." 
 
 Alstromer or Alstroemer, (Klaudius or Klas,) a 
 Swedish naturalist, born at Alingsas in 1736, was a son 
 of Jonas Alstromer, mentioned above. He studied 
 natural history under Linnaeus, and travelled in Spain 
 to obtain information respecting sheep and other sub- 
 jects. A journal which he wrote during this tour was 
 accidentally destroyed by fire. He published a "Dis- 
 course on the Breeding of Fine-Woolled Sheep," (1770,) 
 which is highly praised. Died in 1796. 
 
 SeeDuBB, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver Clas Alstromer," 1706. 
 
 Alt, alt, (Franz Joseph Nicolaus,) a Swiss historian, 
 born at Freiburg in 1689, bore the title of baron. He 
 wrote in French (of which he was not a perfect master) 
 a "History of Switzerland," (10 vols., 1749-52,) a work 
 of much research, but defective in style and criticism. 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 Altani, al-ta'nee, (Antonio,) Bishop of Urbino, an 
 eminent Italian ecclesiastic of the fifteenth century. Died 
 in 1450. 
 
 Altani, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, born in Friuli 
 about 1510, was of the same family as the preceding, 
 lie left in manuscript a great number of sonnets, can- 
 zoni, and epigrams, the most of which are lost. Died* 
 about 1570. 
 
 Altani, (Enrico,) an Italian dramatic poet, who 
 flourished in the first half of the seventeenth century. 
 Among his productions is "L'Americo," a tragedy. His 
 works are commended by several Italian critics. Died at 
 an advanced age in 1648. 
 
 Altaroche, aTti'rosh', (Marie Michel,) a success- 
 ful and witty French writer and journalist, born at Is- 
 soire (l'uy-de-Dome) in 1811. He was chief editor of 
 the "Charivari" from 183410 1848, and sustained during 
 that period an exuberant flow of ready wit, raillery, and 
 satire. He published a volume of political songs, (1835,) 
 two historical studies entitled the "Reformation," and 
 the "Revolution," (1841,) and other works, which favour 
 democracy. He was elected to the Constituent Assem- 
 bly in 1848. 
 
 Altdorfer, alt'doR'fer, written also Altorfer, (Al- 
 BRECHT,) a celebrated German painter and engraver, 
 born at Altdorf, in Bavaria, in 148S. There is a doubt- 
 ful tradition that he was a pupil of Albert Diirer. He 
 worked chiefly in Regensburg, (or Ratisbon,) and is called 
 by the French "Le Petit Albert," either in contradistinc- 
 tion to Albert Diirer or because he seldom painted other 
 than small figures. Among his works is a remarkable 
 picture of the victory of Alexander at Arbela, which 
 contains a great number of figures. The details of cos- 
 tume and accessories are very minutely represented. His 
 engravings on copper and wood are more numerous than 
 his paintings. Died in 1538. 
 
 See Strutt, "Dictionary o f Engravers." 
 
 Alten, al'ten, (Karl,) the youngest son of Baron Al- 
 len, was born in Hanover in 1764. He entered the Eng- 
 lish army in 1803, became a major-general in 1812, and 
 commanded with great credit the third division of Wel- 
 lington's army at the battle of Waterloo,- in which he 
 was wounded. He was soon after created a count. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Altensteig or Altenstaig, al'ten -stTc.', (Johann or 
 Johannes,) a Roman Catholic theologian, a native of 
 Germany, flourished in the first half of the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 Altenstein, il'ten-stin, (Karl,) Baron, a Prussian 
 minister of public instruction, born at Anspach in 1770. 
 In 1815 he undertook the recovery of the works of art 
 and literary treasures which the French had removed 
 from Germany to Paris. For the successful accomplish- 
 ment of this arduous task, all Germany owes him a debt 
 of gratitude. He became minister of public instruc- 
 tion and worship in 181 7, and made important changes 
 during the long period of his administration. Died in 
 1840. 
 
 Alter, al'ter, (Franz Carl,) a German Jesuit and 
 eminent classical scholar, born in Silesia in 1749; died 
 in 1804. He published editions of Homer's "Iliad," 
 Lucretius, and other Greek and Latin works. 
 
 Althaea, al-thee'a, [Gr. 'AMaia ; Fr. Ai.thee, Sl'tl',] 
 in the Greek mythology, was the wife of CEneus, King 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, h, K,guttiiral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ALTHAMMER 
 
 104 
 
 ALTON 
 
 of Calydon, and the mother of Meleager. (See Melea- 
 ger ) 
 
 Althamnier, alt'ham'mer, or Althamer, (Andreas,) 
 a distinguished German divine, born at Brenz, in Sua- 
 bia, in 1498. He embraced the principles of Luther in 
 1520, and became, by his learning, energy, and wisdom, 
 one of the chief pillars of the Reformation. Died in 
 1564. His best-known work is his "Diallage," (i.e. 
 "Reconciliation," 1528,) in which he attempts to explain 
 and reconcile those passages of Scripture which at first 
 sight appear to be contradictory. 
 
 Althen, aTt6N', (Khan, S-han', or Jean,) a native of 
 Persia, who became a benefactor to France by the in- 
 troduction of madder, was born in 171 1. His father was 
 the governor of a province. He was made captive in his 
 youth by some Arabs, and sold as a slave at Smyrna, 
 whence he escaped to Marseilles. He carried thither 
 some seeds of the madder, the exportation of which was 
 forbidden under penalty of death. Having the advan- 
 tage of a handsome person, he married a rich heiress of 
 Marseilles, and was thus placed in a situation to pursue 
 at leisure his plans for the culture of madder in France. 
 ,He had observed that the soil and climate of the Comptat- 
 Venaissin were similar to those of Smyrna and Anatolia, 
 which were most favourable to the cultivation of madder. 
 His experiments in this part of France were crowned 
 with complete success, and the culture of madder has 
 since become extensive and very profitable. Died in 1 774. 
 
 See A. Rastoul, "Viede J. Althen," in " Portraits et Histoire des 
 Homines utiles." 
 
 Althof, alt'hof, (Ludwig Christoph,) a German 
 physician and medical writer, born at Detmold in 1758; 
 died in 1832. 
 
 Althorp, al'thorp, (Lord John Chari.es Spencer,) 
 Earl Spencer, a liberal English statesman, the son of 
 George John, Earl Spencer, was born in May, 1782. He 
 was elected to Parliament for Oakhampton in 1804, and 
 was a junior lord of the treasury under the ministry of 
 Fox and Grenville, 1806-7. He represented Northamp- 
 tonshire in the House of Commons from 1806 until 1834. 
 By his good sense, prudence, probity, and other moral 
 qualities, he acquired great influence, and was commonly 
 called "honest Lord Althorp." In 1830 he became 
 chancellor of the exchequer in the Whig ministry. He 
 inherited the title of Earl Spencer at the death of his 
 father in 1834, and resigned office in the same year. His 
 favourite pursuit was agriculture, to the improvement 
 of which he probably contributed more than any other 
 English nobleman of his time. Died in 1845. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for November, 184s. 
 
 Althusen, alt'hii'sen, [Lat. Althu'sius,] (Johann,) 
 a Dutch jurist, born probably at Emden about 1556, 
 became professor of law at Herborn in 1 590, and syndic 
 at Bremen. He was an enlightened friend of liberty, 
 and advocated the doctrine that supreme power is the 
 right of the people. He published a " System of Roman 
 Law," (1586,) and other works. Died about 1638. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Alticherio, al-te-ka're-o, or Aldigieri, al-de-ja'ree, 
 (Da Zevio — dad-za've-o,) a distinguished Veronese 
 painter, who flourished in the latter half of the four- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Alticozzi, al-te-kot'see, (Lorenzo,) an Italian Jesuit 
 and theological writer, born at Cortona in 1689. His 
 chief work is " Summa Augustiniana," (6 vols., 1744-61.) 
 Died in 1777. 
 
 Altieri. See Clement X. 
 
 Altilio, al-tee'le-o, [Lat. ALTil/rus,] (Gabriello,) an 
 Italian poet and ecclesiastic, born about 1440. He lived 
 mostly at Naples. He is known as the author of some 
 short Latin poems of great merit, among which is an 
 Epithalamium on the marriage of Galeazzo Sforza, Duke 
 of Milan. Died about 1500. 
 
 Alting, al'ting, [Lat. Altin'gius,] (Heinrich,) a 
 Calvinistic theological writer and professor, born at 
 Emden in 1583. He was preceptor of Frederick, King 
 of Bohemia, professor of theology at Heidelberg, and 
 subsequently at Groningen, 1627-44. Died in 1644. 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Britannica," and Bayle, " Historical and Crit- 
 ical Dictionary." 
 
 Alting, (Jacob,) a distinguished biblical scholar, son 
 of the preceding, was born at Heidelberg in 1618. In 
 1642 he was appointed professor of Hebrew and the 
 Oriental languages at Groningen. He wrote several 
 valuable exegetical and philological works, among which 
 was a Syro-Chaldaic grammar. Died in 1679. 
 
 See B. Becker, " Vita J. Altingii," prefixed to his "Opera Om- 
 nia." 
 
 Alting, (Menso,) a zealous Calvinistic preacher and 
 controversialist, born in Drenthe, a district of Holland, 
 in 1541, was the father of Heinrich, above noticed. He 
 was minister at Emden, and leader of his party in a con- 
 test against the Lutherans. Died in 1612. 
 
 Alting, (Menso,) a grandson of the preceding, was 
 born in 1636. He became burgomaster of Groningen, 
 and published a valuable work, entitled a "Description 
 of Lower Germany," ("Notitia Germanise Inferioris," 
 1697.) Died in 1712. 
 
 See Ubbo Emmius, " M. Altingii Vita," 1717. 
 
 Altissimo, al-tis'se-mo, (i.e. "most sublime,") the 
 surname of a famous Italian poet and improvisatore 
 who lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century. His 
 true name is believed to have been Cristoforo Fio- 
 renti.no, (kris-tof o-ro fe-o'rSn-tee'no.) His best work 
 is an Italian metrical version of the first book of the 
 prose romance entitled " Reali di Francia." 
 
 Altissimo, dell', dJl-lal-tes'se-mo, (Cristofano,) an 
 eminent Florentine portrait-painter of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Altmann, alt'man, (Johann Georg,) a Swiss theo- 
 logian, born at Zofingen in 1697, was professor of moral 
 philosophy and Greek at Berne. He published, be- 
 sides other works, " Critical Observations on the New 
 Testament," (3 vols., 1737,) and was one of the two 
 editors of the "Tempe Helvetica," (6 vols., 1735-43.) 
 Died in 1758. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Altmish, Slt'mish, surnamed Shems (or Shums) 
 ood-Deen — shems or shums ood-deen', (the "sun of re- 
 ligion,") a young man of Tartar descent, who, from the 
 condition of a slave, became Sultan of Delhi in 1210 A.D. 
 He died in 1236. He was an able ruler, and was the 
 father of Ruzeea Begum and Mahmood Nasir dod-Deen. 
 
 See Ferishta's "History of the Mahomedan Power in India," 
 translated by Briggs, vol. i. 
 
 Altobello, al-to-bel'lo, (Francesco Antonio,) a 
 Neapolitan historical painter of the seventeenth century, 
 was born at Bitonto. He worked at Naples, and ex- 
 celled in invention and composition. 
 
 Altomare, al-to-ma'ri, (Donato Antonio,) [often 
 called in Latin Dona'tus ab Altoma'ri,] an eminent 
 Neapolitan physician and medical writer. Having been 
 driven from Naples by persecution, he was restored by 
 the mediation of Pope Paul IV. His chief work, "Ars Me- 
 dica," (1553,) has been often reprinted. Died about 1566. 
 
 Altomonte, al-to-mon'ti, (Martino,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Naples in 1657. He worked many 
 years in Vienna with success, and painted portraits of 
 the Austrian emperors. Died in 1745. 
 
 Alton, al'ton, (Richard,) Count of, a general in 
 the Austrian service, born in Ireland in 1732, command- 
 ed in the Low Countries at the beginning of the insur- 
 rection in 1789. He was forced to evacuate Brussels, 
 and died during his retreat towards Vienna in 1790. 
 
 I lis younger brother, Edward, Count of Alton, served 
 with distinction against the Turks and French. He Ml 
 at the siege of Dunkirk in August, 1793. 
 
 Alton, d', dal'ton, (Johann Samuel Eduard,) a 
 physician, born at Saint Goar in 1803. He became pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Halle in 1834, and published a 
 "Manual of Comparative Anatomy of Man," (1850.) 
 
 Alton, d', (Joseph Wilhelm Eduard,) a German 
 naturalist and antiquary, the father of the preceding, 
 was born at Aquileja in 1772. He studied natural his- 
 tory and the fine arts, and travelled in France, England, 
 Spain, etc. He published a "Natural History of the 
 Horse," (1810,) and a " Comparative Osteology,'" (1821- 
 28.) About 1 82 1 he was appointed professor of archae- 
 ology and the history of art in the University of Bonn, 
 where he remained until his death in 1840. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ALTON-SHE E 
 
 105 
 
 ALVAREZ 
 
 A'.ton-Shee, d', dil'toN' sha', (Edmond,) Comte, a 
 French democrat, born in 1810. He was an active pro- 
 moter of the revolution of February, 1848, advocated a 
 socialist regime, and acted with Ledru-Rollin. 
 
 A.torfer. See Altdorfer. 
 
 Aitoviti, al-to-vee'tee, (Antonio,) born in 1521, at 
 Florence, was made archbishop of that city in 1548; 
 died in 1573. 
 
 Altovitia, aTto've'tess', orAltouvitis, il'too've'tess', 
 Mademoiselle, a poetess, born at Marseilles in 1550. 
 Died in 1606. 
 
 Altriiiger. See Aldringer. 
 
 Altschul, alt'shool, (Elias,) a German homoeopathic 
 physician, born at Prague in 1812. He published a 
 "Dictionary of Ocular Medicine," (2 vols., 1836.) 
 
 Altzenbach, alt'sen-baK', (Wilhelm,) the name of 
 two German engravers (father and son) of the sev- 
 enteenth century. They worked in Paris and Stras- 
 burg. 
 
 Alunno, a-loon'no, (Francesco,) an Italian gram- 
 marian and calligraphist of the sixteenth century, was 
 born at Ferrara. He is known as the author of two 
 works on the Italian language, which were often re- 
 printed, viz.: "Riches of the Italian Language," (1543,) 
 and a Vocabulary containing the words in Dante, Pe- 
 trarch, Boccaccio, and others, (1548.) Died in 1556. 
 
 Alunno, (Niccol6,) an Italian painter of F'oligno, 
 flourished from 1450 to 1500, painted in water-colours, 
 and was an artist of great merit for his time. He was 
 one of those who contributed to the progress of art by 
 the freedom of his style. Among his works is a " Na- 
 tivity of Christ" 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Alured. See Alfred. 
 
 Alva, al'va, or Al'ba, [Sp. pron. al'va,] (Fernando 
 Alvarez de Toledo,) [Sp. pron. feR-nan'do al'va- 
 r?th da to-la'Do,] Duke of, [Fr. Due d'Albe, duk 
 dSlb,] a celebrated Spanish general under the emperor 
 Charles V. and Philip II., King of Spain, was born in 
 1508, of a noble and ancient Castilian family. At an 
 early age he entered the army of Charles V., whom he 
 afterwards accompanied in most of his campaigns. In 
 1556—7 he successfully defended Naples against the 
 allied French and Papal armies, and acquired a high 
 reputation as a prudent and able general. He was sent 
 by Philip II., in 1567, to quell the insurrection which 
 had broken out among the Protestants of the Low 
 Countries. But, although in this war he displayed great 
 abilities as a general, the rigour of his administration, 
 and the extreme cruelty with which he treated the avowed 
 or suspected heretics who fell into his hands, doubtless 
 contributed more than any other cause towards the final 
 separation of those provinces from the Spanish crown. 
 Alva was recalled to Madrid in 1573. He boasted that 
 in the space of four years he had brought no fewer than 
 eighteen thousand persons to the scaffold! In 1580 he 
 invaded Portugal, and, after defeating the Portuguese 
 forces at the mouth of the Tagus, annexed that kingdom 
 to the dominions of Spain. Alva died in 1582. 
 
 See Watson, "Philip II. j" Prescott, "Philip II," vol. ii. ; 
 Motley, " History of the Dutch Republic ;" J. Antonio he Vera 
 v I' 11,1/KROA, " Resultas de la Vida de Fern. Alvarez de Toledo," 
 1643 : " Vie du Due d'Albe," Paris, 1608 ; I. V. DE Rustaut, " His- 
 toriadeFem. Alvarez de Toledo Duque de Alva," 1750 ; J. Mitchki.l, 
 "Biographies of Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries," 1865. 
 
 Alvarado, de, da al-va-ra'Do, (Alonzo,) a Spanish 
 officer, who served under Cortez in Mexico, after the 
 conquest of which he went to Peru and obtained a high 
 command in the army of Pizarro. Having been sent 
 with five hundred men to reinforce the brothers of Pi- 
 zarro at Cu7.co, he was defeated and made prisoner by 
 Almagro in 1537. After the death of Pizarro he took 
 arms against Almagro the younger, and joined his troops 
 to those of De Castro, (1542.) He was lieutenant-gene- 
 ral of the army which suppressed the rebellion of Gon- 
 ralo Pizarro in 1 548. 
 
 See Prescott, "Conquest of Peru." 
 
 Alvarado, de, (Pedro,) a Spanish officer, born at 
 Badajos at the close of the fifteenth century, was one of 
 the principal companions of Cortez in the conquest of 
 Mexico. He distinguished himself at the battles of Ta- 
 
 basco and Otutnba, and gained tne full confidence of 
 Cortez. He was left in command of the city of Mexicc 
 when Cortez marched to encounter Narvaez. In 1523 
 he led a successful expedition against Zacatula, Tehuan- 
 tepee, and Guatemala, and received from the King of 
 Spain the title of Governor of Guatemala. He per- 
 formed an arduous march over the Andes with a design 
 to seize Quito j but, having met the troops of Pizarro, who 
 claimed the command in that place, he retired peaceably 
 after receiving a large indemnity for his expenses. He 
 was killed in a fight with some natives in 1 541. Some 
 writers say his death was caused by a horse falling on 
 him down a steep bank. 
 
 See Prescott, " Conquest of Mexico," vols. ii. and iii. 
 
 Alvares. See Alvarez. 
 
 Alvarez, al'va-rfith, (Diego,) a Spanish theologian, 
 born in Old Castile about 1550, became Archbishop ol 
 Trani, in Italy, in 1606. His chief work is "On the 
 Aids of Divine Grace," ("De Auxiliis Divinae Gratia:,' 
 1610.) Died about 1633. 
 
 Al'va-rez, [Port. pron. al'va-r8z,] (Emanuel,) a 
 Portuguese Jesuit, born in the island of Madeira in 1526; 
 died in 1582. Among other works, he was the author of 
 an excellent Latin grammar. 
 
 Alvarez, (Francisco,) a Portuguese priest, born at 
 Coimbra, became chaplain to King Manoel some time 
 before 1 515. Soon after this date he accompanied 
 Duarte Galvam on a mission to the King of Abyssinia, 
 who was then called Prester John. He passed about 
 six years in that strange country, and returned home in 
 1527. A long and valuable account of this mission was 
 published in 1540, with the title "Prester John of the 
 Indias : a True Account of the Country of Prester 
 John," ("Ho Preste Joam das Indias: verdadera Infor- 
 macam das Terras do Preste Joam.") He is regarded as a 
 candid and veracious writer. Died probably about 1540. 
 
 See F. Denis, "Le Monde enchant^," etc.; Ramusio, " Viaggi 
 e Navigazioni." 
 
 Alvarez, (Gomez,) a Spanish poet, born in 1488; 
 died in 1538. 
 
 Alvarez, (Don Jose,) one of the most eminent Span- 
 ish sculptors, was born at Priego, in the province of 
 Cordova, in 1768. He became a student in the Acad- 
 emy of Madrid in 1794, gained there a prize of the first 
 class, and received from the king a pension of twelve 
 thousand reals (fifteen hundred dollars) in 1799, after 
 which he pursued his studies in Paris. His reputation 
 was increased by a statue of Ganymede, (1804.). He 
 worked chiefly in Rome, and became a member of the 
 Acadcniv of Saint Luke. Among his master-pieces are 
 "Orpheus Sleeping," a "Venus and Cupid," and a 
 group of "Antilochus and Memnon." He received the 
 title of court-sculptor to Ferdinand VII. about 1818. 
 Died at Madrid in November, 1827. His son, a prom- 
 ising sculptor, died in 1830, aged about twenty-five. 
 
 See Ukrmudez, " Diccionario Historico ;" Naoi.er, "Allgemeines 
 Kiinstlei-I.exikon." 
 
 Alvarez, (Juan,) a Mexican general, born in 1790, 
 was distinguished for his energy and boldness. He took 
 a prominent part in the insurrection which l>egan in 
 1854 and which deprived Santa Anna of power in 1855. 
 Alvarez became President of Mexico about September, 
 1855, and abolished the old privilege {fuero) of the clergy 
 and the army. He resigned in December, 1855. 
 
 Alvarez, (Don Manuf.l,) a distinguished Spanish 
 sculptor, born at Salamanca in 1727, was a pupil of Fe- 
 lipe de Castro. He gained the first prize at Madrid in 
 1754, and became sculptor to the king in 1794. The 
 purity and vigour of his design procured for him the sur- 
 name of "El Griego," ("the Greek.") Died in 1797. 
 
 Alvarez, (Don Martin,) Count of Colomera, a Span- 
 ish general, born in Andalusia about 1714 Me obtained 
 in 1779 the command of the army which besieged Gib- 
 raltar without success for several years, and was super- 
 seded by the Due de Crillon in 1782. Having been raised 
 to the rank of captain-general, he commanded in 1794 
 against the French, whose progress he failed to arrtst. 
 He was removed in February, 1795. Died in 1819. 
 
 Alvarez, (Tomas,) a Spanish physician of Seville, 
 published a treatise on the plague in 1569. 
 
 C as i; s ass;% hard '; g -is>; G, H, K, guttural ' ; a , tmsal ; ^trilled; sasz; th as in ////.r. (5^~See Explanations, p. 23. 
 
ALVAREZ 
 
 1 06 
 
 AMADESI 
 
 Alvarez, de, da al'va-rSth, (Bernardo,) a Spanish 
 adventurer, born at Seville in 1514, founded several hos- 
 pitals in Mexico. Died in 1584. 
 
 Alvarez de Cabral. See Cabral. 
 
 Alvarez de Castro, al'va-reth di kas'tRo, (Mari- 
 ano,) a Spanish officer, born at Granada, was distin- 
 guished for his resolute defence of Gerona against the 
 French, by whom it was taken in 1809, after a siege 
 of seven months. He died in prison about the end of 
 1809. 
 
 See Southey, " History of the Peninsular War." 
 
 Alvarez de Coimenar. See Colmenar. 
 
 Alvarez de Luna. See Luna. 
 
 Alvarez do Oriente, al'va-rez do o-re-Sn'ta, {i.e. 
 "Alvarez of the East,") (Fernao,) a Portuguese poet of 
 great merit, born at Goa, in India, about 1540. Scarcely 
 anything is known of his life, except that he was bred to 
 the sea and at one time was himself the captain of a 
 vessel. His chief work is entitled " Portugal Trans- 
 formed," (" A Lusitania transformada," 1607,) a pastoral 
 partly in verse and partly in prose. 
 
 Alvarez y Baena, al'va-reth e ba-a'na, (Jose An- 
 tonio,) a Spanish biographer, born at Madrid, wrote 
 the " Illustrious Sons of Madrid," (" Hijos de Madrid 
 illustres," 4 vols., 1789-91.) Died about 1803. 
 
 Alvaro, al'va-ro, (Giovanni,) a Neapolitan painter, 
 who flourished in the first half of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Alvarotto, al-va-rot'to, (Jacopo,) a distinguished 
 feudal lawyer, born at Padua in 1385 ; died in 1453. 
 
 Alvar Paez, al'vaR pa'es, or Alvar Pajo, al'vaR 
 pa'zho, [Lat. Al'varus Pela'gius,] a theologian, born 
 probably in Portugal, became Bishop of Silves in Al- 
 garve about 1334. His chief work is "On the Com- 
 plaint of the Church," ("De Planctu Ecclesias,") com- 
 pleted in 1332. He maintains in this the supremacy of 
 the pope. Died about 1350. 
 
 Al'va-rus, (Paulus,) often called Al'varus Cordu- 
 ben'sis, (i.e. " Alvarus of Cordova,") from the place 
 of his birth, a Christian writer of the ninth century. 
 
 Alvarus. See Alvarez. 
 
 Alveuslebea, von, fon al'vens-la'ben, (Albrecht,) 
 Count, a Prussian minister of state, born in 1794. He 
 was minister of finances from 1836 to 1842. 
 
 Alvensleben, von, (Karl Gebhard,) a Prussian 
 general, born in 1778. He fought at Jena in 1806, com- 
 manded a regiment at Lutzen in 1813, and rendered im- 
 portant service at Bautzen. He became a general in 
 1817. Died in 1831. 
 
 Alvensleben, von, (Philip Charles,) Count, a 
 diplomatist in the service of Prussia, born at Hanover 
 in 1745, was made a count in 1801, and died in 1802. 
 
 Alves, al'ves, (Robert,) a Scottish poet, born at 
 Elgin in 1745, wrote "The Weeping Bard," and "The 
 Banks of the Esk," (published in 1801.) Died in 1794. 
 
 Alviano, al-ve-a'no, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian gen- 
 eral who was famous for his courage, audacity, and skill 
 in the wars that preceded and followed the League of 
 Cambrai, was born about 1455. Having entered the 
 service of Venice, he routed the Imperialists near Ca- 
 dore in 1508, and was promoted to the position of gen- 
 eral-in-chief. He was defeated and taken prisoner by 
 Louis XII. of France at Ghiera dAdda in 1509. The 
 Venetians and the French having become allies, he was 
 released in 1513. The victory of the French at Mari- 
 gnano, in 15 1 5, is ascribed in great measure to him. He 
 was a lover of literature, and a generous patron of lite- 
 rary men. Died of fever in 1515. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Re"publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Alvinczy, Alvinzi, or Alvinzy, von, pronounced 
 alike — fon al-vTnt'se, (Joseph,) Baron, an Austrian gen- 
 eral, was born at Vincz, (Vints,) in Transylvania, in 1735, 
 (or, as some authorities say, in 1726.) He became a lieu- 
 tenant-field-marshal in 1789, and greatly distinguished 
 himself as commander of a division in the campaigns of 
 1792 and 1793 against the French. After the defeat of 
 Wurmser in Italy in the summer of 1796, Marshal Al- 
 vinczy was appointed to the command of a new army of 
 about fifty or sixty thousand men, sent against Bona- 
 parte. He entered Italy from Carinthia, and fought an 
 indecisive action at Bassano on the 6th of November, 
 
 1796. In the same month he was defeated by Bona- 
 parte at Areola, after a battle of three days' duration. 
 "The ruinous fetters of the Aulic Council," says Alison, 
 "paralyzed all the movements of Alvinzi, who in this 
 strife evinced neither the capacity nor spirit of a general 
 worthy to combat Napoleon." Having been again de- 
 feated at Rivoli in January, 1797, he resigned his com- 
 mand. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Botta, "Storia d' Italia;" Alison, "Historyrf Europe." 
 
 Alvintzi or Alvinczi, al-vint'se, (Peter,) a Protest- 
 ant divine and writer, who lived at Waradin and Ka- 
 schau, in Hungary, in the early part of the seventeenth 
 century. Two volumes of his sermons were published 
 in 1632 and 1634. 
 
 Al-Waleed or Al-Walid (al-wa'leed') L, the sixth 
 caliph of the race of Omeyyah, ascended the throne of 
 Damascus in 705. During his reign, Toorkistan in the 
 Fast, and Spain 111 the West, were added to the Arabian 
 Empire, and the Omeyyah dynasty attained the acme of 
 its power. Died in 715 A.D. 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen." 
 
 Alxinger, alk'sing-er, (Johann Baptist,) a German 
 scholar and poet, born at Vienna in 1755. He wrote 
 lyric, dramatic, and epic poems. Among his most popu- 
 lar works is "Doolin von Mainz," an epic poem, (1787.) 
 He was well acquainted with the best works in the an- 
 cient as well as the modern languages, and is said to have 
 known the whole of the /Eneid by heart. As a man he 
 was distinguished by a noble and unostentatious gene- 
 rosity towards all who needed his sympathy or aid. He 
 died in 1797. 
 
 Aly. See Alee. 
 
 A-ly-at'tes, [Gr. 'AAvarnzc ; Fr. Alyatte, f 'le-it',] a 
 celebrated king of Lydia, the father of Croesus, began to 
 reign about 618 B.C. He waged war for five years against 
 Cyaxares, King of Media. A battle between them was 
 interrupted by an eclipse of the sun, in consequence of 
 which they made a treaty of peace. This eclipse, pre- 
 dicted by Thales, is supposed to have occurred in 610 
 B.C. Alyattes reigned fifty-seven years. 
 
 See Herodotus, book i. ; Rollin, "Ancient History;" Hamil- 
 ton, " Researches in Asia Minor." 
 
 Alyon, f'le-dN', (Pierre Philippe,) a French phar- 
 macist, naturalist, and writer, born at Ajvergne in 1758; 
 died about 1820. 
 
 A-ljfp'I-us, [Gr. 'klvmoc,] an architect of Antioch, 
 lived in the fourth century. He was charged by Julian 
 the Apostate to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. But 
 this design was frustrated, if we may credit the statement 
 of an excellent pagan historian, (Ammianus Marcellinus,) 
 by eruptions of fire from the earth. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, "chap, xxiii. 
 
 Alypius, ['AUkioc,] an ancient Greek musician and 
 writer on music. Fragments of his work are extant. 
 
 Alypius, a distinguished Greek sophist of the fourth 
 century, born at Alexandria, in Egypt, excelled in dia- 
 lectics. 
 
 Aly Shir. See Alee-Sheer-Ameer. 
 
 Alyy. See Alee. 
 
 Alzate y Ramirez, al-sa'ta e ra-mee'r?s, (Jos6 
 Antonio,) a distinguished astronomer and geographer 
 who lived at Mexico in the early part of the eighteenth 
 century. His numerous works are written in Spanish. 
 
 Araac, (a Persian poet.) See Amak. 
 
 Amadei, a-ma-da'ee, (Girolamo,) an Italian priest, 
 born about 1483, preached and wrote against Luther. 
 Died in 1543. 
 
 Amadei, (Stefano,) an Italian painter of history and 
 portraits, born at Perugia in 1589. He excelled in the 
 use of the crayon, and worked in Rome. Died in 1644. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Amadeo, a-ma-da'o, or Amadei, a-ma-da'ee, (Gio- 
 vanni Antonio,) a distinguished Italian sculptor, born 
 at Pavi'a about 1400. Among his principal works are 
 the monuments of the Venetian general Colleoni and his 
 daughter, at Bergamo. Died in 1474. 
 
 Amadesi, a-ma-da'see, (Domenico,) a popular Italian 
 poet, born at Bologna in 1657, was a rich merchant, rfis 
 first poems appeared under the anagram " Simonide de 
 Meaco," (1709.) Died in 1730. 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, fi, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mft; n6t; g<55d; moon; 
 
AMADESI 
 
 107 
 
 AMALTEO 
 
 Aniadesi, (Giuseppe Luigi,) a distinguished anti- 
 quary and scholar, born at Leghorn, of Bolognese 
 parents, in 1701. He contributed to Calogera's "Rac- 
 colta di Opuscoli," and published "DeComitatu Argen- 
 tato," (1763.) Died in 1773. 
 
 Am-a-de'us, [It. Amedeo, a-ma-da'o, or Amadeo, 
 a-ma-da'o; Fr. Amedee, t'ma'da',] the name of several 
 counts and dukes of Savoy from about 1100 to 1472. 
 
 Amadeus X of Savoy, a son of Humbert, Count of 
 Maurienne, lived in the first half of the eleventh century. 
 
 Amadeus IL was a nephew of the preceding, and a 
 son of Oddo by his wife Adelaide of Susa. Died in the 
 eleventh century. He was succeeded by his son, Hum- 
 bert II. 
 
 Amadeus HI, Count of Maurienne, succeeded his 
 father, Humbert II., in 1 103. He went to Palestine on 
 a crusade with his nephew, Louis VII. of France, in 
 1 147, and died in Cyprus in 1 148. His successor was his 
 son, Humbert III. 
 
 Amadeus IV. succeeded his father, Thomas I., 
 Count of Savoy, in 1233. He made some additions to 
 his dominions. Died in 1253. 
 
 Amadeus V., born in 1249, was a son of Thomas II. 
 of Savoy, Count of Flanders. He succeeded his uncle 
 Philip as Count of Savoy in 1285. He died in 1323, 
 leaving the crown to his son Edward. 
 
 Amadeus VI., born in 1334, was a son of Aymon, 
 Count of Savoy, whom he succeeded in 1343. He was 
 one of the most able and successful princes of the house 
 of Savoy. He defeated the French at Arbrette in 1354, 
 and, having joined a crusade against the Turks, took 
 Gallipoli in 1366 and released the captive emperor 
 John. He acquired large accessions of territory in Pied- 
 mont. Died in 1383. 
 
 Amadeus VII., born about 1360, succeeded his 
 father, Amadeus VI., at the age of twenty-three. He 
 was styled the " Red Count," from the colour of his ar- 
 mour. He annexed Nice to his dominions. Died in 
 1391- 
 
 Amadeus VIII, son of Amadeus VII., succeeded 
 his father in 1391, being then only eight years old. In 
 1416 he was created by the emperor Sigismund first 
 Duke of Savoy. He enjoyed a great reputation for wis- 
 dom, and was called the Solomon of his age. In 1434 
 he made his son Louis lieutenant-general of his domin- 
 ions, and retired to the monastery of Ripaille, which he 
 had founded. Having remained here five years, he was 
 elected pope b.y the Council of Bale, in the place of 
 Eugenius IV., whom they had deposed. Amadeus ac- 
 cepted the office, though with great reluctance, taking 
 the name of Felix V. Afterwards, wishing to put an 
 end to the schism in the Church, he publicly renounced 
 his claims to the papacy in favour of Nicholas V., who 
 on the death of Eugenius had been elected at Rome. 
 Died in 145 1. 
 
 Amadeus IX., a son of Louis, Duke of Savoy, and 
 a grandson of the preceding, was born at Thonon in 
 1435, and began to reign in 1465. He married Yolande, 
 a daughter of Charles VII. of France. Died in 1472, 
 and was succeeded by his son Philibert. 
 
 Am'a-dis de Gaul or Gau'la, the hero of a famous 
 romance of chivalry written in the thirteenth century by 
 Vasco de Lobcira, a Portuguese. (See LoitElRA.) "The 
 Amadis," says Ticknor, "is admitted by general consent 
 to be the best of all the old romances of chivalry." 
 
 See Ticknor, "Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. xi. p. zzietseq. 
 
 Amador Rebello, a-ma-duk' ra-bel'lo, a Portuguese 
 Jesuit and writer, born in 1539 ; died at Lisbon in lf>22. 
 
 Amaduzzi, a-ma-doot'see, [in Latin, Amadu'tius,] 
 (Giovanni Cristoforo,) a learned Italian writer, born 
 near Rimini in 1740, was professor of Greek in Rome. 
 He published " Anecdota Literaria," (3 vols., 1774,) and 
 other works. Died in 1792. 
 
 Amaia. See A may A. 
 
 Amak Bokharee, (or Bokhart,) am'ak bo-Ka'ree, 
 (i.e. " Amak the Bokharian,") written also Amac and 
 Amik, a Persian poet, whose life was nearly coexten- 
 sive with the eleventh century. 
 
 A-mal'ar-ic, [Lat. Amalari'cus,] the last kinc of 
 the Visigoths that reigned in Spain, was a son of Alaric 
 II., who died in 507 A.D. He married Clotilde, a 
 
 daughter of Clo\is, King of the Franks. He was killed 
 during a war against the Franks, in 531 A.I). 
 
 Am-a-la'rI-us For-tu-na'tus, an archbishop of 
 Treves, who was sent by Charlemagne, in 811 A.D., to 
 diffuse Christianity among the Saxons. He established 
 the first church at Hamburg. In 813 he went as ambas- 
 sador to Constantinople. Died in 814 A.D. 
 
 Am'a-lek, [Heb. D*ni'»] a king of the Amalek- 
 ites, who opposed the' Israelites on their flight from 
 Egypt. He was defeated at the battle of Rephidim. (See 
 Exodus xvii. 8-14; Deuteronomy xxv. 17.) 
 
 Amalfi. See Avalos, (Costanza.) 
 
 Amalie, a-ma'le-eh, or Ame'lia, (Anna,) Princess 
 of Prussia, and sister of Frederick the Great, was born 
 in 1723. She had a remarkable talent for music, to 
 which she devoted her life. Her musical library was 
 the finest and most complete ever collected. Died in 
 1787. 
 
 Amalie, or Amelia, (Anna,) Duchess of Saxe- 
 Weimar and Eisenach, a daughter of the Duke of Bruns- 
 wick -Wolfenbiittel, born in 1739, was distinguished as 
 a patron of genius and learning. She assembled at her 
 court the brightest ornaments of German literature, 
 among others Wieland, Herder, Goethe, etc. She was 
 mother of the duke Karl August. Died in 1807. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Amalie, (Catherine,) a German poetess, born in 
 1640, married the Count George Lewis (Georg Ludwig) 
 ofErbach. Died in 1696. 
 
 Amalie or Amelia, (Elisabeth,) a grand-daughter 
 of William I., Prince of Orange, was born in 1602, and 
 in 1619 married William V., Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 
 After his death, in 1637, she was made regent, in which 
 capacity she displayed extraordinary energy, wisdom, 
 and virtue. Died in 1651. 
 
 See K. W. Justi, "Amalie Elisabeth Landgrafin von Hessen." 
 
 Amalie or Amelia. (Marie Friederike Auguste,) 
 Duchess of Saxony, born in 1794, was a sister of Fred- 
 erick Augustus II. She cultivated poetry and music, 
 and wrote in German successful dramas, among which 
 are " Falsehood and Truth," " The Marriage-Ring," 
 " Cousin Henry," and " The Young Lady from the 
 Country." 
 
 See article by Professor Felton, in the " North American Review," 
 vol. lii., and " Social Life in Germany, illustrated in the acted Dramas 
 of the Princess Amelia," etc., translated front the German by Mrs. 
 Jameson. 
 
 Amalric of Jerusalem. See Amaury. 
 
 Amalric, S'maTRek', (Arnaud,) a French ecclesiastic 
 of the thirteenth century, distinguished by the energy 
 and sanguinary cruelty which he displayed against the 
 heretics of Languedoc, commonly known as the Albi- 
 genses. He was made Archbishop of Narbonne in 1212, 
 and soon after assumed the title of Duke of Narbonne. 
 Died in 1225. 
 
 Amalricus. See Amalric and Amaury. 
 
 Am-al-a-son'tha, written also Amalasonte, [Lat. 
 Amalasuen'ta,] Queen of the Goths in Italy, distin- 
 guished for her wisdom, was a daughter of Theodoric I. 
 She began to reign in 526 A.D., as guardian of her son, 
 who was a minor. The famous Cassiodorus was her 
 prime minister. She was assassinated in 535. 
 
 See J. D. Ritteh, " Dissertatio de Amalasuenta," 1735. 
 
 Amalteo, a-mSl-ta'o, [Lat. Amaltiif/us ; Fr. Amal- 
 tiief, S'mSl'ta',1 (Cornelio,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Oderzo about 1530. His profession was medicine. He 
 wrote Latin poems, the best of which is entitled " Pro- 
 teus," (1572.) Died in 1603. 
 
 Amalteo, (Francesco,) the father of the preceding, 
 was born towards the close of the fifteenth centurv. He 
 taught literature in several cities of Italy, and had some 
 reputation as a writer of Latin verse. He had three 
 sons, who were poets. 
 
 Amalteo, (Giovanni Battista ) an excellent Latin 
 poet, a son of Francesco, noticed above, born at Odcrzo 
 m 1525, became secretary to the republic of Ragtisa. 
 He wrote Latin eclogues, elegies, and epigrams, and 
 verses in Greek and Italian. His Latin poems are con- 
 sidered equal in elegance to those of any poet of his 
 time. Died in Rome in 1573, soon after he had become 
 
 € as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; #h as in this. (JH^*"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AMALTEO 
 
 108 
 
 AMAT 
 
 secretary to Pope Pius VII. He is regarded as the 
 most eminent poet of all his family. 
 
 Amalteo, (Girolamo,) a brother of the preceding, 
 bo.n at Oderzo in 1505, was a physician, philosopher, 
 and celebrated Latin poet. He practised medicine with 
 great success at several places. His reputation is founded 
 on two Latin epigrams, entitled " De Gemellis Luscis," 
 ("On the One Eyed Twins,") and " Horologium Pul- 
 vereum," ("Hour-Glass,") the former of which has been 
 translated into many languages. Died in 1574. 
 
 Amalteo, (Girolamo,) a brother and pupil of Pom- 
 ponio, noticed below, was a historical painter of distin- 
 
 fuished ability. His chief works are small pictures, 
 ighly finished. He died at an early age. 
 See Altan, "Memorie intorno alia Vita di Pomponio Amalteo;" 
 Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Amalteo, [Lat. Amaltheus,] (Paolo, or Paul,) an 
 Italian poet, born at Pordenone in 1460, was a brother 
 of Francesco, noticed above. Died in 15 17. 
 
 Amalteo, (Pomponio,) an eminent painter of the 
 Venetian school, was born in Friuli in 1505. He was a 
 pupil of Pordenone, whose style he imitated, though with 
 less grandeur of invention. His colouring is brilliant, 
 and his drawing correct. Among his master-pieces are 
 " The Judgment of Solomon," and " The Judgment of 
 Daniel." 
 
 Am-al-the'a or Am-al-thei'a, [Gr. 'A/iuXdna; Fr. 
 Amalthee, i'mitl'ta',] in Greek mythology, the name 
 of the nurse of Jupiter. According to one tradition, she 
 was a goat, whose horn Jupiter broke off and filled with 
 herbs, fruits, flowers, etc., and endowed it with the prop- 
 erty of supplying whatever its possessor might desire. 
 This was the origin of the fable of the Cornucopia;, or 
 "horn of plenty." 
 
 Amalthee, the French of Amalteo, which see. 
 
 Amaltheus. See Amalteo. 
 
 Amama, i-ml'ml, (Sixti'nus,) a Dutch Protestant 
 and biblical philologist, born at Franeker in 1593. He 
 was professor of Oriental languages at that city from 
 1618 until his death, and declined the chair vacated by 
 Erpenius at Leyden. He was the author of a critical 
 work on the historical books of the Old Testament, and 
 a number of Latin treatises. Died in 1629. 
 
 Aman, a'man, (Johann,) a German architect, born 
 in Baden in 1765. He designed several public buildings 
 in Austria and other countries. Died about 1834. 
 
 Amand, S'm&N', Saint, [Lat. Sanc'tus Aman'- 
 DUS,] a bishop of Bordeaux in the fifth century, eminent 
 for his piety and purity of life. 
 
 Amand or Amandus, Saint, a French ecclesi- 
 astic, born about 590. He was a man of eminent vir- 
 tues. Died in 679 A.D. 
 
 Amand, (Jacques,) a French engraver, born near 
 Blois in 1730; died in Paris in 1769. 
 
 Amand, (Pierre,) a French surgeon and writer on 
 obstetrics, born at Riez about 1650; died in 1720. 
 
 Amanieu de3 Eicas, i'ml'ne-uh' di'zes'ka', a 
 troubadour, who flourished in the latter half of the thir- 
 teenth century. He passed a part of his life at the court 
 of James II. of Aragon. 
 
 Amanton or Amanthon, f'm&N'tAN', (Claude 
 Nicolas,) a judge at Dijon, in France, and a writer on 
 biography and local history, born in 1760; died in 1835. 
 
 Amir, S'itiSr', (Andre,) (or Amar, J. P., according 
 to the " Biographie Universelle,") a French demagogue, 
 born at Grenoble in 1750, was notorious for his cruelty 
 in the reign of terror. He was elected to the Conven- 
 tion in 1792, voted for the death of the king, and became 
 chairman of the committee of surete gentrale in Septem- 
 ber, 1793. In October he wrote and presented to the 
 Convention a report which condemned the twenty-two 
 Girondins arrested in June and ordered the arrest of 
 seventy-three other deputies. He acted with the enemies 
 of Robespierre on the 9th of Thermidor, 1794, and de- 
 fended Barrere, Collot d'Herbois, and Billaud-Varennes 
 in 1795. Died in Paris in 1816. 
 
 Amar (or Amare) du Rivier, S'lnSV dii re've-4', 
 (Jean Augustin,) often called simply Amar or Amare, 
 an able French critic and miscellaneous writer, born in 
 Paris in 1765. He became conservator of the Mazarin 
 Library in 1809. He made translations of many of the 
 
 ancient classics, published several school-books, and 
 wrote many articles for the "Biographie Universelle." 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Amarai, d-ma-ril', (Andres do,) a Portuguese, who 
 became chancellor of the order of Saint John of Jerusa- > 
 lem while that order had possession of the island of 
 Rhodes. He was defeated as a candidate for the office 
 of grand master in 1521. During the siege of Rhodes 
 by the Turks in 1522 he was put to death on a charge 
 of giving intelligence to the enemy. 
 
 See Vertot, " Histoire des Chevaliers Hospitallers de St. Jean ;' 
 Fontanus, "De Bello Rhodico," 1524. 
 
 Amarai, (Antonio Caetano (ka-a-ta'no) do,) a Por- 
 tuguese writer, born at Lisbon in 1747. He wrote a 
 very valuable work on the early history of Portugal, 
 entitled "Memorias sobre a Forma do Governo e Cos- 
 tumes," etc. Died in 1819. 
 
 Am'a-ra Singha or Siiiha, am'a-ra sing'ha, | mod- 
 ern Hindoo pron. lim'ur-a sing'ha,] a celebrated Hindoo 
 poet and grammarian, who is supposed to have flourished 
 in the first century B.C. He belonged to the Booddhist 
 sect. His works were all destroyed by the Brahmans, 
 except a vocabulary of the Sanscrit language, entitled 
 "Amara Kosha," which is esteemed a standard work. 
 
 Amari, i-ma'ree, (Emerico.) an Italian political 
 economist, born at Palermo in 1810. He became pro- 
 fessor of law at Palermo in 1841. 
 
 Amari, (MlCHELE,) an Italian historian, born at 
 Palermo in 1806. His father was condemned to an im- 
 prisonment of thirty years for a conspiracy against the 
 government. He published in 1842 his principal work, 
 " The War of the Sicilian Vespers," (" La Guerra del 
 Vespro Siciliano," 2 vols.,) which had great success, but 
 was prohibited by the government. The author was 
 summoned to trial, but escaped to France. He took an 
 active part in the revolution of Sicily in 1848, and was 
 appointed minister of finances in the new government. 
 He resigned office before the end of the year. He has 
 since resided in Paris, and published the first volume of 
 a "History of the Mussulmans in Sicily." 
 
 Amariton, t'mS're'tiN', (Jean,) a French jurist, born 
 in Auvergne ; died in 1590. 
 
 Am'a-sa, [iW31',] a Hebrew warrior, who was ap- 
 pointed by Absalom, when he rebelled, captain of the 
 host instead of Joab. After the suppression of this re- 
 bellion he became commander of the army of David, 
 and was treacherously slain by Joab. (See II. Samuel 
 xvii. 25 ; xx. 4-10.) 
 
 Amaseo, a-ma-sa'o, [Lat. Amas.*'us,] (Pompilio,) 
 an Italian scholar, was a son of Romolo, noticed below. 
 Died about 1584. 
 
 Amaseo, (Romolo,) a celebrated Italian scholar and 
 orator, born at Udine in 1489; died about 1552. He 
 was professor of belles-lettres (literae humaniores) at 
 Padua, Bologna, and Rome. Among his works may be 
 mentioned a Latin version of Pausanias, (1547,) and a 
 Latin version of Xenophon's "Anabasis," (1533.) 
 
 A-ma'sis, [Gr. "Auaoic,] a celebrated king of Egypt, 
 succeeded Apries about 570 B.C. He is said to have 
 been a man of liberal and independent spirit, and free 
 from the prejudices against foreigners which were com- 
 mon among the Egyptians. His reign was prosperous 
 and peaceful. He built the grand temple of Isis at 
 Memphis, and adorned Egypt with many magnificent 
 monuments. Died about 525 B.C., leaving the throne to 
 his son Psammenitus, (or Psammetichus.) 
 
 A-mas'tris, a Persian lady of superior talents, and 
 a niece of Darius Codomannus. She was married suc- 
 cessively to Craterus, to Dionysius, tyrant of Heraclea, 
 and to Lysimachus, King of Thrace. 
 
 Amat, i-mat', (Felix,) an eminent Spanish eccle- 
 siastic and writer, born at Sabadell, near Barcelona, in 
 1750. He became Archbishop of Palmyra in partibus 
 injuUlium in 1803, and confessor to Charles IV. in 1806. 
 He was supposed to be favourable to the French 
 during the war which began in 1808. His great work is 
 an ecclesiastical history, entitled " Treatise on the Church 
 of Jesus Christ," (" Tratado de la Iglesia de Jesu Cristo," 
 12 vols., 1793-1803.) Died in 1824. 
 
 See Felix Torres Amat, " Vida de Amat Arzobispo de Pal- 
 myra," 1835. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m? t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
AM AT I 
 
 109 
 
 AMBOISE 
 
 Amati, a-mA'tee, (Andrea,) a celebrated maker of 
 violins, worked at Cremona in partnership with his bro- 
 ther Niccolo about 1550. Their instruments are highly 
 prized at the present time. 
 
 Amati. ,An ionio,) a son of the preceding, born at 
 ' Cremona about 1565, followed the same business with 
 success. He made lor Henry IV. of France, in 1595, a 
 violin, which is said to be now in good order. 
 
 Amati, (Carlo,) an eminent Italian architect, born 
 at Milan about 1786. Among his chief works is the 
 Rotunda of San Carlo, at Milan. 
 
 Amati, (Girolamo,) a distinguished Italian scholar 
 and antiquary, born at Savignano in 1768. He was an 
 assistant librarian in the Vatican, and was regarded as 
 an oracle among antiquaries. He wrote papers on the 
 antiquities oi philology and art for the " Giornale Arca- 
 dico," and furnished materials for the works of other 
 authors. His sagacity in palaeographical science was 
 remarkable. Died in 1834. 
 
 Amati, (Pasquale,) an Italian antiquary, born at 
 Savignano in 1716; died in 1796. 
 
 Amatius, a-ma'shc-us, (Caius,) a famous impostor, 
 who made his appearance at Rome about 45 B.C., claim- 
 ing to be the grandson of Marius. He was strangled by 
 order of Antony about 43 or 44 B.C. 
 
 Amato. See Amatls. 
 
 Amato, d', da-ma'to, or Amati, a-ma'tee, [Lat. 
 Ama'tus,] (Elia,) a literary Italian monk, born at Mon- 
 talto in 1666. He wrote on various subjects, and dis- 
 played a talent for dry humour. Died in 1 747. 
 
 Amato, d', (Giovanni Antonio,) a celebrated his- 
 torical painter, called " II Vecchio," (" The Elder,") was 
 born at Naples in 1475. His style resembles that of 
 Perugino in simplicity. He painted religious subjects 
 exclusively, and was also noted as a theologian. Among 
 his master-pieces are a " Dispute on the Sacrament," at 
 Naples, and a " Madonna and Child." He painted in 
 oil and fresco. Died in 1555. 
 
 Amato, d', (Giovanni Antonio,) a nephew and 
 pupil of the preceding, surnamed II Giovane, (i.e. 
 "the younger,") born at Naples in 1535, was a skilful 
 painter. He excelled in colouring, and painted some 
 works which are said to be as finely coloured as those 
 of Titian. His chief work is an altar-piece of the infant 
 Christ, in a church of Naples. Died in 1598. 
 
 See Dominici, " Vite de' Pittori Napolitani." 
 
 Amato, d', (Michele,) an Italian theologian, born 
 at Naples in 1682; died in 1729. 
 
 Amato or A-ma'tus, (Scipio,) an Italian jurist and 
 lingjiist, flourished between 1600 and 1650. 
 
 Amato or Amati, [Lat. Ama'tus,] (Vincfnzo,) a 
 Sicilian musician and composer, born in 1629; died in 
 1670. 
 
 Amatrioe, dell', del la-ma-tRee'cha, (Co'la,) a Nea- 
 politan architect and painter, who flourished in the early 
 part of the sixteenth century. He worked at Ascoh. 
 His master-piece is a picture of the "Last Supper." 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Am-a'tus Lu-sl-ta'nus, [Port. Joao Rodriguez 
 Am \ti >, zho-owN' ro-dRee'gSz a-ma'to; Lat. Joan'nes 
 RODEKl'CUS Ama'tus,] an eminent Portuguese physi- 
 cian and anatomist, born at Castel-Iiranco in 151 1. lie 
 lectured in Venice, and practised at Ancona. In 1555 
 the fear of the Inquisition, which persecuted him as a 
 Jew, induced him to retire to Saloniki, where he joined 
 a synagogue. Died in 1568. He is said to have been 
 the second author who has described the valves in 
 veins. He left, besides other works, one giving an ac- 
 count of seven hundred remarkable cases in medicine 
 and surgery, (1551-66,) which was highly esteemed. 
 
 See SrftENGEL, " Biographie Me'dicafe." 
 
 Amaury. See Amai.ric. 
 
 A-mau'ry\ | Fr. pron. i'mo're',] Aimery, a'meh-re, 
 IFr. pron. em re',] or Am-al'ric, |(Jcr. Amai.kkh, 
 a'mal-riK'; Lat. AMALRl'cus,] I., King of Jerusalem, 
 in 1 135, was a son of Baldwin II. He succeeded 
 Ms brother I'aldwin III. in 1162. He invaded Egvpt in 
 1168, and marched victoriously to Cairo, but was driven 
 out by an army of Turks under Saladin, who invaded 
 the kingdom of Amaury in 11 70. The latter defended 
 
 his dominions with ability and courage, but with ill suc- 
 cess, until his death in 1 1 73, and left the throne to his 
 son, Baldwin IV. 
 
 Amaury II. of Jerusalem (otherwise called 
 Amaury de Lusignan — deh lu'zin'yfiN') innerited 
 Cyprus from his brother Guy, and received the title of 
 King of Jerusalem in 1 194. He was unable to defend 
 the kingdom against the Saracens, and died at Ptole- 
 mais in 1205. 
 
 Amaury, Amalric, or Aimeric, [Lat. Amalri'- 
 cus,] Patriarch of Jerusalem, succeeded Fulcher in 1 159. 
 He contributed much to the election of Amaury I. as 
 King of Jerusalem. Died in 1 180. 
 
 Amaury, S'mo're', [Lat. Amalri'cus,] of Char- 
 tres, a French theologian of the twelfth century. He 
 advanced heterodox opinions on the Divine nature (which 
 he identified with the primary matter of Aristotle) in a 
 work called "Physion," now lost. Died about 1205. 
 
 Amaury-Duval. See Duval. 
 
 Amaya, a-ml'a, a Spanish painter, a pupil of Vin- 
 cenzo Carducci, lived about 1682. 
 
 Amaya or Amaia, (Francisco,) a noted Spanish 
 jurisconsult of the seventeenth century, born at Ante- 
 quera. He published "Observationes Juris," (1625,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Am-a-zi'ah, [Heb. n'i"3N>] a king of Judah, who as- 
 cended the throne 849 B.C. He was killed by a con- 
 spiracy, 820 B.C. (See II. Kings xiv. ; II. Chronicles xxv.) 
 
 Am'a-zons, [Gr. 'A/ta&vcc- ; Lat. Amaz'ones,] the 
 name of a semi-fabulous race of female warriors, sup- 
 posed to have lived originally on the Thermodon in 
 Pontus, and to have made conquests in Asia Minor and 
 Thrace. During the Trojan war, led by their queen, Pcn- 
 thisile'a, they fought against the Greeks. The battles 
 of the Amazons were favourite subjects of the ancient 
 Greek artists. 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Amberger, am'b?RG'er, (Christoph,) a celebrated 
 German painter, born at Nuremberg about 1490, is sup- 
 posed to have been a pupil of Hans Holbein. He 
 worked in oil, fresco, and distemper, excelled in per- 
 spective, and designed well. The history of Joseph, in 
 twelve pictures, is called his best work. He was patron- 
 ized by Charles V., of whom he painted a good portrait 
 at Augsburg in 1530. Died at Augsburg about 1570. 
 
 Am-bl-ga'tuB, [Fr. Ambigat, dN'be'gS',] an an- 
 cient and powerful king of Gaul, supposed to have reigned 
 about 600 or 650 B.C. 
 
 Ambillon. Sec Bouchet, (Rene.) 
 
 Am'bl-o-rix or Am-bi'o-rix, written also Abrio- 
 rix and Ambriorix, a king of the Eburones, a Belgic 
 nation, in the time of Julius Caisar. By stratagem or 
 treachery he succeeded in destroying the army com 
 manded by Ca;sar's legates Sabinus and Cotta, 54 B.C. 
 
 See C.F.SAR, "De Bello Gallico," lib. v. 
 
 Ambiveri, im-be-va'ree, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Bergamo about 1592; died in 1627. 
 
 Am-biv'i-u8, (Lucius Turpio, - ) a famous Roman 
 actor, lived about 175 B.C. 
 
 Amblimont, d', ddN'ble'm6N', (Fuschemberg, fu'- 
 shoN'baiR',) Count, a French r.aval officer, and writer on 
 naval tactics, was killed in battle in 1796. 
 
 Ambly, d', doN'ble', (Claude Jean Antoine,) a 
 French marquis and field-marshal, born in Champagne 
 in 1711. He emigrated in 1792, and served in the army 
 of the Prince of Conde, after he had been a royalist 
 member of the States-General. Died at Hamburg in 
 
 1797- 
 
 Ambodik, am'bo-dik, (Nestor Maximovitch,) an 
 eminent Russian physician and accoucheur, born in the 
 province of l'ulfava in 1 740. Died in 1812. He is said 
 to have been the first who wrote on medical subjects in 
 the Russian language. He practised in Saint Peters- 
 burg, and published many translations and compilations. 
 
 Amboise, (Bussy d'.) See Bussy d'Amboise. 
 
 Amboiae, d\ ddN'bwaz', (Francois,) a French ad- 
 vocate and scholar, born in Paris about 1 550 ; died in 
 1620. He is chiefly known as the editor of the works of 
 Abelard, (1616.) 
 
 Amboise, d', (George,) commonly known as Car- 
 
 •eas*; cas.r,g hard; gas j; v., 11, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; Sas*; th as in f/;;>. df^"" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AM BOISE 
 
 no 
 
 AMEILHON 
 
 dinal d'Amboise, a French statesman, born of a noble 
 family at Chaumjnt-sur-Loire in 1460. He became 
 Archbishop of Rouen in 1493, and prime minister of 
 Louis XII. of France at his accession in 1498, before 
 which he had been his faithful partisan or friend. He 
 displayed great talents for administration, made reforms 
 in legislation and finance, and left the reputation of a 
 wise and virtuous minister. He remained in power 
 until his death in 15 10. He was surnamed the "Father 
 of the People." 
 
 See Legendre, "Vie du Cardinal D'Amboise," 1726. 
 
 Amboise, d', (Jacques,) [Lat. Jaco'bus Ambosia'- 
 NUS,] a French surgeon, brother of Francois, noticed 
 above, born near the middle of the sixteenth century. 
 His father Jean was surgeon to Henry II., Charles IX., 
 and Henry III. Jacques became in 1594 rector of the 
 university, which he restored to a flourishing condition. 
 Died in 1606. 
 
 Ambra, d', dam'bRa, (Francesco,) a' distinguished 
 Italian comic poet, born at Florence in the early part of 
 the sixteenth century; died in 1558. His chief works 
 are three comedies, "II Furto," in prose, (1560,) "La 
 Cofanaria," inverse, (1561,) and "J. Bernardi," in verse, 
 (I563-) 
 
 See Ginguene, "Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie;" Mazzuchelli, 
 " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Ambrogi, am-bRo'jee, (Anton Maria,) an Italian 
 Jesuit, born at Florence in 17 13. He was professor of 
 rhetoric and poetry at the Collegio Romano, and en- 
 joyed a great reputation as teacher. Died in 1788. His 
 principal work is a translation of Virgil's works into 
 Italian verse, (4 vols., 1758-62.) 
 
 Ambrogi, degli, dal'yee am-bRo'jee, (Domenico,) a 
 skilful Italian painter of the seventeenth century, born 
 at Bologna, was a pupil of Denis Calvart and of Fran- 
 cesco Brizio. He painted landscapes and other works, 
 in oil and fresco, at Bologna. He is said to have had 
 great facility in composition. 
 
 Ambrogio, am-bRo'jo, (Giovanni,) a Florentine 
 painter and sculptor, who flourished in the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 Ambrogio or Ambrosio, am-bRo'se-o, (Teseo,) a 
 distinguished Italian Oriental scholar, born at Pavi'a in 
 1469, became a regular canon of San Giovanni di Late- 
 rano at Rome. He was professor of Syriac and Chal- 
 dee at Bologna. His principal work is an " Introduc- 
 tion to the Chaldee, Syriac, Armenian, and ten other 
 Languages," (1539.) Died in 1540. 
 
 See TiRABOSCHl, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Ambroise de Lombez, SN'bRwaz' deh 16N'ba', or 
 de La Peirie, (deh li pk're',) a French devotional 
 writer, born at Lombez in 1708; died in 1778. 
 
 Ambrose, Saint, sent am'broz, [Lat. Sanc'tus Am- 
 bro'sius ; Fr. Saint-Ambroise, saN'tflN'bRwaz',] one of 
 the Latin Fathers, was born in Gaul, at Treves, it is 
 supposed, about 340 A.D. His father, a Roman noble, 
 was then praetorian prefect of Gaul. Ambrose was Gov- 
 ernor of Liguria (a province of which Milan was the 
 capital) in 374, when Auxentius, the Arian archbishop 
 of Milan, died. In the attempt to elect a successor, the 
 contest between the Catholics and the Arians was very 
 fierce, and the presence of the governor was necessary 
 to appease the tumult. He addressed them with such 
 eloquence and power that the assembled people declared, 
 with one voice, "Ambrose shall be bishop." He accepted 
 the office with great reluctance, but afterwards fulfilled 
 its duties with unequalled ability, zeal, and disinterested- 
 ness, He sided with the Catholics, and used all his ef- 
 forts and influence for the suppression of Arianism. In 
 390 the emperor Theodosius, incensed at the insolent 
 disobedience of some of the people of Thessalonica, or- 
 dered an indiscriminate massacre of all the inhabitants. 
 Ambrose was greatly shocked at this crime ; and when, 
 shortly after, the emperor was about to enter the church 
 at Milan, the archbishop sternly forbade him. Theodosius 
 submitted, and, besides undergoing various other humili- 
 ations, was at last obliged to perform public penance. 
 Ambrose died in 397. He left, besides other works, a 
 treatise " De Officiis," on the duties of Christian minis- 
 ters, which was highly esteemed, and expositions of 
 
 Scripture. He was the author of a method of singing 
 known as the "Ambrosian Chant." 
 
 "His Letters," says Villemain, "evince a man who, 
 amidst the turbulence and instability of the empire, 
 never had a foible nor stain on his character, whose mag- 
 nanimity was adequate to all trials, and who in a more 
 auspicious period would have placed himself by his 
 writings in the rank of the first orators and the most 
 noble geniuses." 
 
 See Paulwus, "Vita Ambrosii ;" Godefroi Hermant, "Vie 
 de Saint-Ambroise," 1678; J. P. Silbert, " Leben des heiligen Am 
 brosius," 1841 ; Bakonius, "Annales;" "Saint-Ambroise; sa Vie el 
 extraits de ses Merits," Lille, 1852 ; " Nouvelie Biographie Genera. e ;" 
 "Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" Villemain, "Saint-Ambroise," Paris, 
 8vo, 1852. 
 
 Am'brose, (Isaac,) an English nonconformist min- 
 ister and writer, who died in 1664. 
 
 Ambrosini, am-bRo-see'nee, (Bartoi.ommeo,) a Bo- 
 lognese physician and writer on botany, born in 158S. 
 He wrote several botanical and medical treatises, and 
 edited four volumes of the works of Aldrovandus on 
 reptiles, quadrupeds, etc. Died in 1657. 
 
 Ambrosini, (Giacinto,) a botanist, born in 1605, 
 was a brother of the preceding, whom he succeeded as 
 professor of botany at Bologna in 1657. He published 
 the first volume of a botanical dictionary, entitled " Phy- 
 tologia," etc., (1666.) Died in 1672. 
 
 Ambrosius, am-bro'sh^-us, (Aurelia'nus,) a British 
 chieftain, who lived in the fifth century, was a rival and 
 the successor of Prince Vortigern, whom he defeated 
 about 466. According to tradition, he fought with suc- 
 cess against the Saxon invaders under Hengist about 
 485 A.D. 
 
 See Palsgrave, "Rise and Progress of the English Common- 
 wealth;" Beda, " Chronicon." 
 
 Ambrosius of Camaldoli, (ka-mal-do'lee,) [Fr. 
 Ambroise le Camaldule, ftN'bRwaz' leh kt'maTdiil' ; 
 Lat. Ambro'sius Camaldulen'sis,] an Italian monk, 
 born in the Rom'agna in 1378, became general of his 
 order in 143 1. Among his -works is an account of an 
 official visitation of nunneries and monasteries, entitled 
 "Hodceporicon." Died in 1439. 
 
 Ambrosius or Ambrose, Archbishop of Moscow, 
 distinguished for his learning, was born in 1708. Having 
 removed an image of the Virgin, to which the people 
 had resorted for protection from the plague, he was 
 charged with sacrilege, and massacred byamob,in 1771. 
 
 Ambrozy, am-bRo'ze, (Wenzel Bernhard,) [Ger. 
 pron. -went'sel beRn'haRt am-bRot'se,] a Bohemian his- 
 torical painter, born in 1723 ; died in 1806. 
 
 Ambiihl or Ambuehl, am'biil, (Johann Ludwtg,) 
 a German school-teacher and poet, born in Switzerland, 
 in the canton of Saint Gall, in 1750. He wrote novels 
 and historical dramas, which were once popular, and 
 among which was one entitled "Wilhelm Tell." Died 
 in 1800. 
 
 Amedee. See Amadeus. 
 
 Ameen- (Aniiri- or Amyn-) Ahmed-er-Razee, 
 a-meen' aH'med-er-ra'zee, written also -Ahmed-el- 
 Razy, (or -al-Razi) a Persian geographer, who lived 
 about the close of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Ameil, S'mil' or i'm&'ye, ( Auguste,) Baron, a French 
 general, born in Paris in 1775. He distinguished him- 
 self at the capture of Munich in 1804, and was wounded 
 at Jena in 1806. In 1812 he served in Russia, and ob- 
 tained the rank of general of brigade. He entered the 
 service of Louis XVIII. in 1814, changed sides twice 
 or oftener during the Hundred Days, and led a corps 
 of Napoleon's cavalry at Waterloo in 1815. Died in 
 exile in 1822. 
 
 Ameilhon, a"m&'16N', (Hubert Pascal,) a distin- 
 guished French scholar, born in Paris in 1730. He 
 wrote a " History of the Commerce and Navigation of 
 the Ancient. Egyptians," (1766,) which caused him to 
 be chosen a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. 
 Having become a partisan of the Revolution, he was 
 elected a member of the Commission of Monuments in 
 1793. He is said to have preserved from destruction 
 800,000 volumes which belonged to various libraries and 
 had been confiscated. Ameilhon was librarian of the 
 Arsenal from 1797 until 1811. He contributed manv ar- 
 ticles to the "Journal des Savants" and the " Journal de 
 
 i, ft, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, san e, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
JMEINOCLES 
 
 1 11 
 
 AMES 
 
 Verdun," and some valuable antiquarian treatises to the 
 Memoirs of the Institute. Died in Paris in 1811. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Lilteraire;" Dacier, "Notice sur la 
 Vie et les Uuvragcs d'Ameiihon." 
 
 A-mei'no-cles, ['.V/mim/.;);,] a Corinthian ship- 
 builder, who lived about 700 B.C. 
 
 A-meip'si-as, or A-mip'sI-as, ['A/ieal>iac ,] a comic 
 poet of Athens in the time of Aristophanes, over whom 
 he won the first prize in a dramatic contest, with his 
 
 KuuuGTui, 414 B.C. 
 
 Amel, 4'mel, (Hans,) an architect who lived in the 
 first naif of the fifteenth century. He designed the 
 facade and steeple of Antwerp Cathedral. 
 
 Am'el-gard', [Lat Amklgar'dus,] a Flemish histo- 
 rian, who lived in the fifteenth century. He wrote Latin 
 histories of the reigns of Charles VII. and Louis XI. 
 
 Amelia or Ameiie ok GERMANY. See Amalie. 
 
 A-me'iI-a, (or a-meel'ya,) an English princess, daugh- 
 ter of George III., was born in 1783. Her character is 
 highly commended. Died in 1810. 
 
 Amelia, d', dam'la.N', (Jean,) the earliest translator 
 of Livy into the French language, was an officer in the 
 army, and lived in the time of Henry II. He published 
 a version of the "Third Decade" in 1559. 
 
 Ameliue, im'len', (Claude,) a French priest, born 
 in Paris in 1624, wrote on the Will,(i6S4.) Died in 1708. 
 
 A-me'U-us or A-me'rI-us, an Eclectic philosopher, 
 who was born in Italy and flourished in the last half of 
 the third century. He was a disciple of Plotinus. His 
 works have not come down to us. 
 
 A-me'U-us, (Martin,) a distinguished professor of 
 jurisprudence in the University of Freyburg, in Baden, 
 was born in 1526. He contributed greatly to the in- 
 troduction of the Protestant religion into Baden about 
 1556, and was chancellor of Baden for about thirty years. 
 Died about 1 590. 
 
 Amelot de la Houssaye, im'lo' deh IS hoo'si', 
 (Abraham Nicolas,) a French historical writer and 
 translator, born at Orleans in 1634. He was secretary 
 of embassy at Venice about 1670, and published a " His- 
 tory of the Government of Venice," (3 vols., 1705,) 
 which had a high reputation. Among his other works 
 are "Historical, Political, Critical, and Literary Me- 
 moirs," (2 vols., 1722.) He translated the "Prince" of 
 Macchiavelli, (1683,) and the first six books of the "An- 
 nals" of Tacitus, (10 vols., 1690,) to which he added 
 notes, historical and political. The last six volumes 
 were translated by Bruys. " His translations with politi- 
 cal notes," says Voltaire, "and his histories are very good ; 
 his memoirs, very faulty. He is the first writer who has 
 made the government of Venice known." Died in Paris 
 in 1706. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire historidue;" Querard, "La France 
 Litteraire." 
 
 Amelotte or Amelote, Jm'lot', (Denys,) a French 
 priest and ecclesiastical writer, born at Saintes in 1606 ; 
 died in 1678. He made a version of the New Testa- 
 ment which was circulated by Louis XIV. and often re- 
 printed. 
 
 Amelunghi, a-ma-loon'gee, (Girolamo,) a burlesque 
 poet of Pisa in the sixteenth century. He wrote a poem 
 called " The War of the Giants," (" La Gigantea," 1566,) 
 one of the first productions of a kind in which the Italians 
 have excelled. 
 
 Ameudola, 5-men'do-la, (Ferrante,) a historical 
 painter of Naples, born in 1664 ; died in 1724. His chief 
 merit was in colouring. He failed in his effort to imitate 
 Luca Giordano. , 
 
 Am-e-no'phis or Am-me-no'phis, [Gr. 'kfievCxfitc,] 
 the name of several of the early kings of Egypt. 
 
 Amenophis I., a powerful king of Egypt of the 
 eighteenth dynasty, ascended the throne about 1778 B.C. 
 
 Amenopnis II. of Egypt, is reckoned as the seventh 
 Pharaoh of the eighteenth dynasty. He is identified by 
 some authorities with the Memnon of the Greeks, whose 
 statue was one of the seven wonders of the world. 
 
 Amenophis HI., a famous king of Egypt, a grand- 
 son of the preceding, is supposed to have built the pa- 
 lace or temple of Luxor. His conquests are recorded on 
 the obelisk which now stands near the Louvre in Paris. 
 
 Amenta, a-men'tj, (Niccol6,) an Italian poet, law- 
 
 yer, and philologist, born at Naples in 1659. He com- 
 posed popular comedies, among which are " Con- 
 stanza," " 11 Forca," " La Fante," and " La Carlotta." 
 His observations on the Italian language, " Delia Lin- 
 gua nobile d'ltalia," (1723,) are commended. He wrote 
 the Tuscan language with purity. Died in 1719. 
 
 See TlPALDO, " liiografta degli Italian) Qlustri." 
 
 Amerbach, a'mer-baK', (Basil,) a jurist, born at Bale 
 in 1534, was a son of Boniface, noticed below, whom he 
 succeeded as professor. He left some manuscript works 
 on law. Died in 1591. 
 
 Amerbach, (Boniface,) an eminent scholar, born at 
 Bale in 1495, was a son of Johann, noticed below. He 
 taught civil law at the University of Bale for twenty 
 years, and was an intimate friend of Erasmus, who ap- 
 pointed him his residuary legatee. He wrote but little. 
 With the aid of his brothers Basil and Bruno, he cor- 
 rected an edition of Saint Jerome, (1516-26.) Died in 
 1562. His Latin style was remarkably good. 
 
 See Melchior Adam, "Vitse Germanorum Jurisconsultorum." 
 
 Amerbach, a'mer-baK', (Johann,) an eminent Ger- 
 man printer, born in Suabia. He settled at Bale about 
 1480. His principal publications are editions of Saint 
 Ambrose, and of Saint Augustine, (1506,) which was 
 printed in a new kind of type, called Saint Augustin. 
 Died about 1520. 
 
 Amerbach, (Vitus.) See Amerpach. 
 
 Ameiighi. See Caravagoio. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci or Americus Vespucius. 
 See Vespucci. 
 
 Amerling, a'mer-ling', (Friedrich,) a German 
 painter of high reputation, born in Vienna in 1803. He 
 studied with Horace Vernet in Paris, and visited Italy. 
 He is considered to be eminently successful in portraits. 
 Among his works are " Dido deserted by /Eneas," 
 " Moses in the Desert," and a portrait of the emperor 
 Francis I. 
 
 Amerpach, a'mer-paK', (Vitus or Veit,) [Lat. Vi'- 
 tus Ami.ri'a'chius,] a distinguished German scholar, 
 born at Wendingen, in Bavaria, about the close of the 
 fifteenth century, studied at Wittenberg, and was for 
 several years professor of philosophy at Ingolstadt. He 
 wrote, besides other Latin works, one " On the Soul," 
 ("De Anima," 1542,) and "Six Books of Natural Phi- 
 losophy," (1548.) He also translated some of the 
 speeches of Demosthenes and Isocrates, and wrote com- 
 mentaries on Cicero and on Horace's "Art of Poetry." 
 Died in 1 557. 
 
 Amersfoordt, a'mers-foRt', or Amersvoordt, (Ja- 
 con.) an eminent Oriental scholar, born at Amsterdam 
 in 1786; died in 1824. He left "A Discourse on the 
 Popularity of the Christian Religion, or its Adaptation 
 to the Popular Mind," ("Oratiode Religionis Christiana? 
 Popularitate," 1818.) 
 
 See J. W. de Crane, "Vie d'Amersvoordt," 1824. 
 
 Amersfoort, van, vin a'mers-foRt', (Evert,) a Dutch 
 painter, lived in the first part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Ames, amz, (Edward,) a bishop of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, born at Athens, in Ohio, in 1806. 
 He was educated at the Ohio University, licensed to 
 preach in 1830, and made a bishop in 1852. Since 1861 
 he has resided at Baltimore. 
 
 Ames, (Fisher,) a celebrated American orator and 
 statesman, born in Dedham, Massachusetts, on the 9th 
 of April, 1758. His father and grandfather were physi- 
 cians. The former died when Fisher was only six years 
 old. His mother, perceiving the promise of her son, re- 
 solved to give him a classical education, and at the age 
 of twelve he was sent to Harvard College. At the pre- 
 liminary examination he was pronounced a boy of un- 
 common attainments. He graduated in 1774,' but, in 
 consequence of his extreme youth and the straitened 
 circumstances of his family,' it was several years before 
 he entered upon his professional studies, the meantime 
 being devoted to teaching and reading the ancient and 
 modern classics. He became a student at law in the 
 office of William Tudor of Boston, and commenced 
 practice in his native town in 1781. Although too young 
 to take an active part in the Revolutionary contest, he 
 watched its progress with deep interest. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K. guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (Jt3f=See Explanations, p. 23.' 
 
AMES 
 
 112 
 
 AMICO 
 
 He acquired distinction by several political essays 
 which were published in the newspapers under the sig- 
 nature of Brutus and Camillus, and which gave proof of 
 practical wisdom, as well as literary merit, of a high <>r- 
 der. They procured his election to the convention which 
 met in Massachusetts in 1788 to ratify the Federal Con- 
 stitution. In this convention he made, on the subject of 
 biennial elections, a speech characterized by extraordi- 
 nary eloquence and power. As a member of the legisla- 
 ture of Massachusetts, he was the principal promoter of 
 a law which placed the common-school system of that 
 State upon an improved basis. Having joined the Fed- 
 eral party, he was elected a member of Congress in 1789 
 by the voters of his native district, which included Bos- 
 ton. He continued to serve in Congress for eight years, 
 during which he constantly supported the administration 
 of Washington and took a prominent part in the de- 
 bates on all important questions. 
 
 " He was," says Griswold, " the leader of the Federal 
 party in the House of Representatives during the ad- 
 ministration of Washington, and was applauded for his 
 eloquence and learning, the solidity of his judgment, and 
 the unsullied purity of his public and private conduct." 
 
 On the 2Sth of April, 1796, he supported Jay's treaty 
 with Great Britain in an eloquent and powerful speech, 
 which has been preserved. At the close of this speech, 
 a member of the opposition moved to postpone the sub- 
 ject, on the ground that the House was in a state of too 
 great excitement to come to a just decision. The health 
 of Ames had been for some time very delicate and de- 
 clining, and on the retirement of Washington, about the 
 end of 1 796, he returned to his farm in Dedham. He had 
 married in 1792 Frances Worthington, of Springfield. 
 In 1 798 he wrote " Laocoon " and other essays, to arouse 
 the Federalists to a more vigorous opposition to the 
 aggressions of France. On the death of Washington, 
 December, 1799, he pronounced his eulogy before the 
 legislature of Massachusetts. He was elected president 
 of Harvard College in 1804, but he declined the honour, 
 chiefly on account of ill health. He died on the 4th of 
 July, 1808, leaving several sons, of whom one, Nathan- 
 iel, acquired some reputation as an author. 
 
 In the preparation of his speeches, Fisher Ames did 
 little more, it is said, than draw the outlines, depending 
 for the language, illustrations, and modes of appeal, upon 
 his mental resources at the time of speaking. He was 
 equally distinguished for his delicate wit and brilliant 
 imagination ; and his colloquial gifts were considered by 
 his acquaintances not less remarkable than his powers 
 as an orator. His disposition was amiable, and his 
 character without reproach. In person he was of me- 
 dium height and well proportioned. His letters and 
 other writings were published by his son, Seth Ames, 
 in 2 vols., 1854. 
 
 See Dr. J. T. Kirkland's "Memoir of F. Ames," prefixed to 
 his Works, 1854; Griswold's "Prose Writers of America;" also, 
 Parker's "Golden Age of American Oratory," Boston, 1857. 
 
 Ames, amz, (Joseph,) a British naval officer, born in 
 1619, distinguished himself in a battle against the Dutch 
 in July, 1653. Died in 1695. 
 
 Ames, (Joseph,) F.R.S., an English antiquary, born 
 at Yarmouth in 1689. In 1749 he published "Typo- 
 graphical Antiquities : being an Historical Account of 
 Printing in England, with some Memoirs of our Ancient 
 Printers, and a Register of the Books printed by them." 
 An improved edition was published by W. Herbert in 
 3 vols., 1785-90 j and another by Dr. T. F. Dibdin in 
 1810-19. Died in 1759. 
 
 See Gough, " Memoirs of Joseph Ames," prefixed to the "Typo- 
 graphical Antiquities." 
 
 Ames, (Nathan P.,) an American machinist and 
 manufacturer of fire-arms, ordnance, and cutlery, born 
 in 1803. He owned extensive works at Chicopee Falls 
 and Cabotville, Massachusetts, and was distinguished as 
 an inventor. Died in 1847. 
 
 Ames, (Nathaniel,) a son of Fisher Ames, was the 
 author of several sea-sketches. Died in 1835. 
 
 Ames, (William,) D.D.,a learned English Puritan 
 divine, born in Norfolk county in 1576. He emigrated 
 to Holland about 1612, and was professor of theology at 
 Franeker for twelve years. He attended the Synod of 
 
 Dort in 161 8. Among his works are "Marrow of Theo- 
 logy," ("Medulla Theologian," 1623,) and a book on 
 practical theology, entitled "On the Conscience and its 
 Authority,'.' ("De Conscientia et ejus Jure vel Casi- 
 bus," 1630,) which had a high reputation even in foreign 
 countries. Died at Rotterdam in 1633. 
 See Brook's "Lives of the Puritans." 
 Amestris. See Amastris. 
 
 Amfreviile, d', doN'f r-vel', Marquis, a brave French 
 naval officer, commanded the vanguard at the battle of 
 La Hogue in 1692. He obtained the rank of lieutenant- 
 general of the naval armies, and died at an advanced 
 age. Two of his brothers were also distinguished naval 
 captains. 
 
 See Quincv, " Histoire militaire de Louis le Grand." 
 Amherst, am'erst, (Jeffery or Jeffrey,) usually 
 called Lord Amherst, an English general, born at River- 
 head, in Kent, in January, 1717. "He entered the army 
 in 1 73 1, was aide-de-camp to Lord Ligonier at Fontenoy 
 in 1 741, and became a colonel in 1756. Having ob- 
 tained the rank of major-general in 1758, he commanded 
 at the capture of Cape Breton, and took Ticonderoga 
 from the French in 1759. He performed an important 
 part in the conquest of Canada in 1760, (see Wolfe, 
 General,) after which he was commander-in-chief of 
 the armies in America until 1763, when he .was ap- 
 pointed Governor of Virginia. He was made lieutenant- 
 general of the ordnance in 1772, received the title of 
 Baron Amherst in 1776, and became commander-in-chief 
 of the English army in 1778. This command was taken 
 from him in 1782, and restored in 1793. He was super- 
 seded as commander-in-chief by the Duke of York 
 in 1795, and wag made a field-marshal in 1796. Died in 
 1797. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," September, 1797. 
 Amherst, (William Pitt,) Lord, an English diplo- 
 matist, born in 1773, was a nephew and heir of the pre. 
 ceding. He was sent as ambassador extraordinary to 
 China in 1816, and arrived at Pekin, but, as he refused 
 to submit to the degrading ceremonies which were the 
 necessary conditions of admission to the Chinese court, 
 his mission was so far a failure. An account of his 
 journey to China was published by Clarke Abel. He 
 was appointed Governor-General of India in 1823, re- 
 ceived the title of earl in 1826, and was recalled to Eng- 
 land the same year. Died in 1857. 
 
 Amhurst, am'first, (Nicholas,) an English political 
 and satirical writer, born at Marclen, Kent, about 1702. 
 Having been expelled from a college of Oxford in 17 19, 
 he published, in 1 721, a witty satire against that univer- 
 sity, in a periodical entitled "Terrs Filius." He after- 
 wards gained distinction as editor of " The Craftsman," 
 a weekly political paper, (commenced about 1730,) which 
 had a very large circulation, (ten or twelve thousand 
 copies,) and in which Lord Bolingbroke and Pulteney 
 were his coadjutors. He was neglected by his political 
 friends when they obtained power in 1742, and died in 
 the same year. 
 
 See Gibber, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Amici, a-mee'ehee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 optician, astronomer, and natural philosopher, born at 
 Modena in 1784. He acquired skill in the construction 
 of optical instruments, especially of mirrors for tele- 
 scopes and lenses for microscopes. About 1827 he pro- 
 duced a dioptric or achromatic microscope which bears 
 his name and is highly esteemed. At the death of L. 
 Pons, (1835,) Amici was appointed director of the Obser- 
 vatory of Florence, where he gained a high reputation 
 as an observer. He wrote memoirs on double stars, on 
 the diameter of the sun, etc. Died in 1863. 
 
 Amici, (Tommaso,) an Italian sculptor of the fifteenth 
 century, was living in 1495. 
 
 Amico, a-mee'ko, (Antonino,) a Sicilian priest, 
 historiographer to Philip IV. of Spain. Died in 1641. 
 He wrote several works on the history and antiquities 
 of Sicily. 
 
 Amico, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian Jesuit, born in 
 Lucania in 1562, was professor of philosophy at Naples. 
 He wrote a "Commentary on Aristotle," (7 vols., 1623- 
 48.) Died in 1649. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, ii, J, short; a, $, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
AM1C0 
 
 113 
 
 AMMEN 
 
 Amico, (Bernardino,) an Italian monk, born at 
 Gallipoli, near Taranto, passed several years at Jerusa- 
 lem from 1596 to about 1600. He published at Rome, 
 in 1609, descriptions and designs of sacred buildings in 
 the Holy Land, entitled " Trattato delle Piante ed im- 
 magini dei sacri Edifici," etc. The designs were en- 
 graved by Callot 
 
 Amicb or A-mi'cus, (Djomf.de,) an Italian medical 
 writer, born at Piacenza, lived about 1600. 
 
 Amico, (Faustino,) an Italian poet, born at Bassano 
 in 1524. He gave promise of extraordinary talents, but 
 died prematurely in 1558. Among his works is a beau- 
 tiful Latin epistle to his friend Alessandro Campesano, 
 (1564.) He wrote also Italian verses. 
 
 Amico, (Francesco,) an Italian Jesuit and writer on 
 theology, born at Cosenza in 1578; died in 1651. 
 
 Amico, (Lorenzo,) an Italian monk and writer on 
 philology and other subjects, born at Milazzo in 1633. 
 
 Amico, (Luigi,) an Italian diplomatist, born at Asti 
 in 1757; died in 1832. 
 
 Amico, (Vrro Maria,) a learned Sicilian historian 
 and antiquary, born at Catania in 1693. He was for 
 some time professor of philosophy at Catania. He pub- 
 lished ".Sicilia Sacra," (1733,) and "Catana Illustrata," 
 (4 vols., 1 741.) Died in 1762. 
 
 Amiconi, a-me-ko'nee, or Amigoni, a-me-go'nee, 
 (OttaviO,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia in 1605; 
 died in 1661. 
 
 Amidano,a-me-da'no,(PoMPONiO,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Parma in the sixteenth century, was one of the 
 most eminent pupils of Parmegiano. His chief work is 
 an altar-piece in the church of the Madonna del Quar- 
 tiere at Parma, which is highly praised by Lanzi. Died, 
 it is supposed, about 1600. 
 
 Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Amigoni, a-me-go'nee, or Amiconi, a-me-ko'nee, 
 (JaCOPO,) an Italian historical painter, whose success 
 appears to have been greater than his merit, was born 
 in Venice in 1675. He worked in London about ten 
 years, ( 1 729-39,) during which he painted many portraits. 
 His style was admired by the purchasers of pictures 
 more than by the critics. Among his works is the His- 
 tory of Judith. He was court painter at Madrid when 
 he died in 1752. 
 
 See Lanzi, ''History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Amik, a'mik or a'meek', (of BokhAra,) a Persian 
 poet of the twelfth century. 
 
 Amilcar. See Hamilcar. 
 
 Amin- Ahmed-el-Razy, (or -al-Razi.) See Ameen- 
 Aiimkd-i.k-Ka/ki:. 
 
 Amiot or Amyot, S'me-o', (Joseph,) a French 
 Jesuit and missionary, born at Toulon in 1718. He 
 went to China in 1750, and was invited by the emperor 
 to Pekin, where he remained forty-three years and 
 made great proficiency in the Chinese language. No 
 other writer of the eighteenth century has thrown so 
 much light on the manners and history of tlie Chinese. 
 He translated several Chinese works, wrote a "Letter 
 on the Genius of the Chinese Language," (1773,) and 
 compiled a Manchoo-Tartar- French Dictionary, (3 vols., 
 Paris, 1789-90,) the first ever published. He was author 
 of a large part of the collection entitled " Memoirs con- 
 cerning the History, Sciences, Arts, and Customs of the 
 Chinese," (16 vols., 1776-1814.) A life of Confucius by 
 Amiot is included in these Memoirs. Died at Pekin 
 in 1794. 
 
 See " I -litres eMif>antesetcurieuses,"xxviii. 15S ; Staunton, " Mis- 
 cellaneous Notices relating to China:" A. Rbmusat, " Recherches 
 nes Tartares;" Ersch und (Jkuhkk, "Allgemeine En- 
 :yklopa' 
 
 Amipsias. Sec Amfipsias. 
 
 Ani'lotli or Ham'leth, an ancient and perhaps fabu- 
 
 . .• prince of Jutland, whose story, as recorded by Saxo 
 
 Urammaticus, is the foundation of Shakspeare's tragedy 
 
 of " Hamlet." He is supposed to have lived before the 
 
 Christian era. 
 
 Amling, tailing, (Karl Gltstav,) a celebrated Ger- 
 man designer and engraver, born at Nuremberg about 
 •650. lie worked at Munich, was patronized by the 
 elector Maximilian II., and excelled in portraits. • He 
 4J80 engraved historical paintings, but with less success. 
 
 He was reputed the best German engraver of his time, 
 Died in 1 701. 
 
 Ammseus, am-ma'us, or Van Amm, vSn am, (Domi 
 NIC,) a Dutch jurist, born at Leeuwarden in 1579, became 
 professor of law at Jena in 1602. He wrote an import- 
 ant work on public or constitutional law, " Discursus de 
 Jure publico," (1617-23.) Died in 1637. 
 
 Amman, written also Ammann, am'man, (Johann,) 
 a German botanist and physician, born at Schaffhausen 
 in 1707, graduated in medicine at Leyden in 1729. In 
 1733 he became professor of botany at Saint Petersburg, 
 where he died in 1741 or 1742, leaving the first volume 
 of an unfinished work on the plants of Russia, (1739.) 
 
 See Sprengel, "Geschichte des Botanik." 
 
 Amman, (Johann Conrad,) a physician, native ot 
 Schaffhausen, who settled in Holland, where he gained 
 a great and deserved reputation for teaching the deaf 
 and dumb to speak. He wrote " Surdus Loquens," 
 (1692.) Died probably about 1725. 
 
 Amman, (Johann Jacois,) a German surgeon, born 
 At a little village on Lake Zurich in 1586. He published 
 a book of Travels in the Levant, (3 vols., 1618.) Died 
 at Zurich in 1658. 
 
 Amman or Ammon, am'mon, (Jost, or Justus,) a 
 famous Swiss engraver and designer, born at Zurich 
 about 1535. He became a citizen of Nuremberg about 
 1560, and probably passed there the rest of his life, of 
 which little is known. He illustrated many books with 
 his designs, which are exceedingly numerous. He en 
 graved on wood and copper, and excelled in the art of 
 grouping figures. His " Portraits of the Kings of France 
 from Pharamond to Henry III." appeared in 1576. His 
 wood-cuts are better than his copper-plates. Died in 
 1591. 
 
 See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes ;" Strutt, " Dic- 
 tionary of Engravers." 
 
 Amman or Ammann, (Paul,) an eminent German 
 botanist and physician, born at Breslau in 1634. He 
 obtained a chair of botany at Leipsic in 1674, and a chaii 
 of physiology in 1682. He was addicted to paradox, and 
 was a severe critic. Among his works may be mentioned 
 his "Treatment of Deadly Wounds," (" Praxis Vulnerum 
 lethalium," 1690 ;) and "Natural Character of Plants," 
 ("Character naturalis Plantarum," 1676.) Died in 1691. 
 
 See Haller, "Bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 Ammanati, am-ma-na'tee, written also Ammanato 
 andAmmanate, (Bartolommeo,) a distinguished Ital- 
 ian sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 151 1, 
 was a pupil of Bandinelli and Sansovino. He imitated 
 Michael Angelo in sculpture. He worked in Rome for 
 Pope Julius III., adorned the Capitol with sculptures, 
 and designed the court and facade of the Roman College. 
 At Florence he constructed the noble bridge called 
 Ponte della Trinita, (which is still standing,) finished the 
 Pitti Palace, and erected several monuments. Among 
 his chief works are three statues which adorn the tomb 
 of Sannazar at Naples, and a colossal statue of Neptune 
 at Florence. Died about 1590. He left a valuable work 
 on public buildings, etc., entitled "The City," ("La 
 Citta.") His wife, Laura Battiferri, was celebrated 
 as a poetess. 
 
 See Vasari, " Uomini illustri d'ltalia;" C1C0GNARA, " Storia di 
 Scultura." 
 
 Ammanati, Cardinal. See Piccolomini. 
 
 Ammanati, (Giovanni,) an able Italian sculptor, 
 worked at Orvieto from 1331 to 1355. 
 
 Ammanati, (Laura Battiferri — bat-te-feVrce,) a 
 distinguished Italian poetess, born at Urbino about 
 1520. She was married in 1550 to B. Ammanati, above 
 noticed. Died in 1589. 
 
 Ammann. Sec Amman. 
 
 Ammar-Ibn-Yasir, am-maR' Ib'n yi'sjr, a famous 
 Arab and companion of Mohammed. He took part in 
 the battle of the Camel, 658 A.D., and was killed at the 
 battle of Sefayn, where he commanded the cavalry for 
 Alee. 
 
 Am'men, (Jacob,) an American general, born in Vir- 
 ginia, graduated at West Point in 183 1. He was after- 
 wards professor of mathematics in several colleges in 
 different parts of the United States. He was appointed 
 brigadier-general of volunteers about July, 1862. 
 
 «as4; 93s s; gAard; gas/, - o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal: v.,trillai: sas z: th as in this. 
 
 8 
 
 (jry*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AM MI ANUS 
 
 114 
 
 JMONTOKS 
 
 Am-mi-a nus, ['Au/uavoc,] a Greek poet, lived abjut 
 100-130 A.D.. and wrote epigrams, many of which are 
 found in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Am-ml-a'nus Mar-cel-ii'nus, [Fr. Ammien Mar- 
 CELLIN, S'me'aN' mSR'si'laN',] a Roman historian of 
 great merit, born of a Greek family at Antioch in the 
 early part of the fourth century. He entered the army 
 in his youth, took part in a campaign in the East in 350 
 A.D., and afterwards accompanied Julian in an expedition 
 against Persia. Having retired from the army, he be- 
 came a resident of Rome, where he wrote his history 
 of the Roman Empire, in thirty-one books, of which 
 the first thirteen are lost. The whole work comprised 
 the period from 96 A.D. to 378 A.D. His fidelity and 
 impartiality are highly commended by Gibbon and 
 other critics. His style, however, is much inferior to 
 the classic models of Roman prose. He died, it is sup- 
 posed, about 395 A.D. It has been disputed whether he 
 was a Christian or a heathen ; but there would seem to 
 be little ground for doubting that he was a pagan. 
 
 See Claude Chifflet, " De Ammiani Marcellini Vita ;" GtBBON, 
 "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap, xxiii. 
 
 Ammien Marcellin. See Ammianos Marcelli- 
 nus. 
 
 Ammirato, am-me-ra'to, (Scipione,) an Italian his- 
 torian, born at Lecce, in Naples, in 1531. After various 
 adventures in Venice, Rome, and Naples, he settled at 
 Florence in 1569, and found a patron in the Grand 
 Duke Cosmo, who commissioned him to write the his- 
 tory of Florence. He became a canon in the cathedral 
 of Florence in 1595, and wrote a large number of works, 
 among which is a " Discourse on Cornelius Tacitus," 
 (1594.) His most important work is a "History of 
 Florence," (" Istorie Florentine," 1st vol., 1600 ; 2d 
 vol., 1641,) which is the most accurate and complete 
 that has been written on that subject. The Academy 
 Delia Crusca styled him "the modern Livy." Died at 
 Florence in 1601. 
 
 S te DoMENtco de Angelis, "Vita di Scipione Ammirato," 1706 ; 
 Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratnra Italiana." • 
 
 Ani'mon [Gr. "Auttuv] or Ham'mon, an ancient hea- 
 tlic.i deity, worshipped in Libya, Egypt, Greece, etc., was 
 called Ze'us Amnion by the Greeks, and Jupiter Ammon 
 by the Rom "ins. There was a Fam jus temple of Ammon 
 at Thebes in E;y;>t, and another in the oasis of Siwah, 
 in the L/byan Djs»rt. He was represented in the form 
 of a run, or as a human being with a ram's head. 
 
 Amnion, ftm'mon, (Ci.i-.mknt,) a German engraver, 
 born at Frankfort, lived about the middle of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Ammon, (Karl Wilhf.lm,) a Prussian writer on 
 horses, born at Trakehnen, Prussian Lithuania, in 1777. 
 He published a "Natural History of the Horse," (1815,) 
 and a "Complete Manual of Practical Veterinary Medi- 
 cine," (" Vollst'andiges Handbuch der praktischen Pfer- 
 dearzeneikunst," 2 vols., 1804-7.) 
 
 Ammon, von, fonam'mon, (Christoph Friedrich,) 
 a German Protestant theologian and popular pulpit ora- 
 tor of wide reputation, was born at Baireuth in 1766. 
 He was professor of theology at Gottingen from 1794 to 
 1804, in which year he obtained a chair at Erlangen. He 
 removed to Dresden in 1813, and became court preacher 
 to the King of Saxony. He was one of the first apos- 
 tles of what is called Rationalism in German theology. 
 His principal work is " Development of Christianity into 
 the Universal Religion," (" Fortbildung des Christen- 
 thums zur Weltreligion," 4 vols., 1833-40.) Among his 
 numerous works is a " Plan (Entwurf) of a pure Biblical 
 Theology," (3 vols., 1802.) Died in 1820. 
 
 See Julius Pabst, " Lebens- und Charakterumrisse C. F. von 
 Amnions," Dresden, 1S50; Brockhaus. "Conversations-Lexikon;" 
 and "Ch. F. Ammon nach Leben, Ansichten nnd Wlrken," Leipzig, 
 1850. 
 
 Ammon or Ammen, von, (Friedrich August,) 
 a German physician, son of the preceding, was born at 
 Gottingen in 1799. He became professor in the medical 
 academy of Dresden in 1829, and royal physician, (Leib- 
 arzt.) He published, besides other works, "Observa- 
 tions on Diseases of the Eye," (3 vols., 1838-41.) Died 
 in 1861. 
 
 Am-mo'nas or Amoun, a-moon', [Gr. 'A/i/iavac of 
 
 'Auoiv,] the founder of a celebrated monastic order in 
 Egypt. Died about 320 a.d. 
 
 Ammonio, am-mo'ne-o, written also Ammon, (An- 
 drea,) [Lat. An'dreas Ammo'nius.] a distinguished 
 Italian scholar, born at Lucca in 1477, was an intimate 
 friend of Erasmus. He became about 15 13 Latin sec- 
 retary to Henry VIII. of England, whose victory at 
 Guinegate he celebrated in a Latin poem called " Pane- 
 gyricus," which was praised by Erasmus. He afterwards 
 served Pope Leo X. as nuncio to the court of Henry VIII., 
 and died in London in 1 5 17. All his Latin poems are 
 lost, except one eclogue. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Am-mo'nl-us, [Gr. ' A/ifiuvtos.] There were among 
 the ancients a number of eminent persons of this name : 
 the following are perhaps most worthy of notice : 
 
 Ammonius, a Greek grammarian, who lived at Alex- 
 andria about 50 B.C., and wrote commentaries on Homer 
 and Aristophanes. 
 
 Ammonius, a Peripatetic philosopher who taught at 
 Athens or Delphi in the latter half of the first century. 
 He was a preceptor of Plutarch, and endeavoured to 
 reconcile the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle. Plutarch 
 wrote a life of him, which is not extant. 
 
 Ammonius, a Christian philosopher, who has been 
 confounded with Ammonius Saccas, lived at Alexandria 
 in the third century of our era. He is the reputed author 
 of a Harmony of the Gospels. 
 
 Ammonius, a Greek grammarian, was priest of a 
 temple in Alexandria about 380 A.D. He wrote a Dic- 
 tionary of Greek Synonyms, which has been often printed. 
 
 Ammonius surnamed Lithot'omus, a celebrated 
 surgeon of Alexandria, supposed to have lived in the 
 third century H.c. He was the first who contrived a 
 method of breaking the calculus in the bladder when it 
 was too large to be extracted through the opening made 
 by incision ; from which improvement in lithotomy he 
 received his surname. 
 
 Ammonius surnamed Sac'cas, (because in early 
 life he was a porter, and earned a livelihood by carrying 
 sacks,) the founder of that school of Eclectic philosophy 
 commonly known as New Platonism, was a native of 
 Alexandria, in Egypt, where he died 241 A.D. He was 
 the son of Christian parents, but preferred the heathen 
 religion. Among his numerous disciples were Origen, 
 Li nginus, and Plotinus. He left no writings, and ex- 
 acted from his disciples a promise not to divulge the 
 mysteries which he taught. 
 
 See Ritter. " History of Philosophy ;" Dehaut, " Essai hts- 
 torique sur la Vie d' Ammonius Saccas," 1836. 
 
 Ammonius, son of Hermias, a Greek philosopher, 
 born at Alexandria, lived at Athens in the last half of 
 the fifth century after Christ. He wrote valuable com- 
 mentaries on Aristotle and Porphyry, and belonged to 
 the school of New Platonists. 
 
 Am'non, a son of David, King of the Jews, was slain 
 by Absalom. (See II. Samuel xiii.) 
 
 Amo, a'mo, (Antony William,) a learned negro, 
 born in Guinea about 1702. He studied at Halle, be- 
 came a classical scholar, and published a work " On the 
 Law of the Moors," ("De Jure Maurorum," 1720.) He 
 was afterwards a councillor of state at the court of Ber- 
 lin. On the death of his patron, the Duke of Brunswick, 
 he returned to Africa. He was seen by H. Gallaudct 
 at Axoom, (Axum,) in Abyssinia, in 1753. 
 
 See Gregoire, "De la Literature des Negres." 
 
 Amolon, i'mo'16N', or Amnion, S'iiiu'Ion', a French 
 ecclesiastic, who became Archbishop of Lyons in 841 
 a.d. He wrote a treatise against the Jews. Died in 
 852. 
 
 Am-o-me'tus, ['A/zw/«7roc,] an ancient Greek author, 
 wrote an account of a voyage on the Nile, of which some 
 fragments are extant. 
 
 Amon, a'mon, a son of Manasseh, King :>f Judah, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne of his father, and was killed by 
 his own servants, who conspired against him. (See II. 
 Kings xxi. 19-23; also II. Chronicles xxxiii. 21-24.) 
 
 Amontons, 3'moN't6N', (Guillaume,) an ingenious 
 French natural philosopher and mechanician, born in 
 Paris in 1663. He learned architecture, and was em- 
 
 J, e, T, 6, u, v, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far fall, fat; m?t; not; g6*od; moon; 
 
AMOR 
 
 "5 
 
 AMPH1ARAUS 
 
 ployed on several public works. He laboured with suc- 
 cess to improve tlie barometer, thermometer, and hy- 
 grometer, and wrote a treatise on those instruments, 
 (1695.) "He was the real inventor of the telegraphic 
 art," says Biot, "as it is practised at the present day," 
 [i.e. 1S11.) He proposed that signals should be trans- 
 mitted from station to station by operators whose vision 
 was aided by the telescope ; but his plan was not executed 
 until fifty years later. Died in 1705. 
 
 Amor, the Roman god of love. See Cupid. 
 
 Amoretti, a-mo-ret'tee, (Carlo,) a meritorious Ital- 
 ian naturalist, writer, and translator, born at Oneglia, 
 near Genoa, in 1740 or 1741. He translated Winckel- 
 mann's "History of Ancient Art" into Italian, (1779,) 
 wrote an excellent biography of Leonardo da Vinci, 
 ( 1 7S4,) and became one of the keepers of the Ambrosian 
 Library, at Milan, in 1797. He was a member of the 
 Italian Institute. Amoretti is author of an important 
 work on the geography and natural history of Lakes 
 Como, Maggiore, and Lugano, and the adjacent districts, 
 entitled "Journey from Milan to the Three Lakes," 
 ("Yiaggio da Milano ai tre Laghi," 1794.) He trans- 
 lated into French the voyages of Pigafetta and Maldo- 
 nado. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Lombard!, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Amoretti, (Maria Peregrina,) a learned Italian 
 lady, born at Oneglia in 1756. She wrote a work "On 
 the Right of Dowry among the Romans," ("De Jure 
 Dotium apud Romanos.") Died in 1787. 
 
 Amoreux, i'mo'ruh', (Pierre Joseph,) a French 
 physician and miscellaneous writer, born at Beaucaire 
 about 1740. He wrote several works on natural history 
 and rural economy, which were received with favour. 
 Died in 1824. 
 
 Amoros, a-mo'rds, (Francisco,) a Spanish colonel, 
 born at Valencia in 1769, was the first who introduced 
 gymnastic education into France. During the reign of 
 Joseph Bonaparte he was councillor of state, minister of 
 police, etc. He afterwards became an exile in France, 
 and established a gymnasium with success. In 1831 he 
 was appointed director of a normal gymnasium in Paris. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Amorosi, 3-mo-ro'see, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, 
 born near Ascoli, lived in the first half of the eighteenth 
 century. He painted humorous subjects, which the 
 Italians call Bambocciate, and displayed much talent for 
 satire. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Amort, a'moRt, (Eusebius,) a German theologian 
 and monk, born near Tolz, in Bavaria, in 1692. He 
 wrote a "History of Indulgences," (1735,) and attacked 
 prevailing superstitions in a work "On Revelations, 
 Visions, and Apparitions," (1744.) Died in 1775. 
 
 See Savioli-Corbelli, " Ehrendenkmal E. Amorts," 1777. 
 
 Am'o-ry, (Thomas,) an eccentric English writer, a 
 zealous Unitarian, was born about 1690. He published 
 memoirs of several ladies of Great Britain, (1755,) and 
 is supposed to have represented his own character and 
 experience in "The Life of John Kuncle, Esq. ; contain- 
 ing V arious Observations and Reflections made in Va- 
 rious Parts of the World," (2 vols., 1756-66.) Died in 
 1788. 
 
 Amory, (Thomas,) a distinguished Presbyterian di- 
 vine, born at Taunton, England, in 1700. He was or- 
 dained in 1 730, and became principal tutor of a dissent- 
 ing academy at Taunton in 1738. In 1759 he removed 
 to London, and in 1766 became sole pastor of the chapel 
 at Old Jewry, where he had preached seven years as 
 colleague of Dr. Chandler. He published, besides other 
 works, two volumes of sermons, (1758, 1766,) and 
 "Grove's System of Moral Philosophy, revised, cor- 
 rected, and improved," (1749.) Died in 1774. 
 
 Amos, a'mos, [Heb. DIOJ.',] one of the minor He- 
 brew prophets, lived about 800 B.C. He was a herdsman 
 and gatherer of sycamore-fruit. His book is the third 
 in order of position among the minor prophets, and 
 contains several eloquent and admirable passages. 
 
 Amoudrou, t'moo'dRoo', (Antoinf.,) a French 
 architect, born at Dole in 1739 ; died in 181 2. He built 
 some oalaces in Warsaw. 
 
 Amour, (Saint.) See Saint-Amour. 
 
 Ampach auf Oriinfelden, (or Gruenfelden,) von 
 fon am'paK 6\vf gRun'fel'den, (Johann Georg,) a Ger- 
 man physician, born in 1784, wrote several veterinary 
 treatises. Died in 1832. 
 
 Am-pe'11-us, (Lucius,) a Roman, known only as the 
 author of a work called " Book of Memory," (" Liber 
 Memorialis,") which was edited by Salmasius. It is a 
 compendium of history, geography, etc. 
 
 Ampere, SN'paiR', (Andre Marie,) a celebrated 
 French mathematician and natural philosopher, born at 
 Lyons on the 20th of January, 1775, was the son of a mer- 
 chant. He learned mathematics in early youth at home 
 without a teacher, and eagerly read the poems of Virgil 
 and Horace in the original. He married Julie Carron 
 in 1799. In 1802 he attracted the public attention by a 
 curious work " On the MathematicalTheory of Gaming.'" 
 In 1805 he obtained by the favour of Delambre the 
 place of ripititeur of analysis in the Polytechnic School, 
 Paris. He became inspector-general of the university 
 in 1S08, professor of analysis in the Polytechnic School 
 in 1809, and a member of the Institute in 1814. 
 
 In 1820 he announced the remarkable discoveries in 
 electro-magnetism which constitute, perhaps, his chief 
 title to celebrity. He demonstrated the influence of a 
 spiral wire conducting a galvanic current, in magnet- 
 izing a needle, proved that two voltaic conductors at- 
 tract each other when the currents have the same direc- 
 tion and repel each other when the currents flow in 
 opposite directions, and inferred from his experiments 
 that the phenomena of natural magnetism depend on 
 electrical currents which constantly pass around the 
 earth from east to west. These results, which he ob 
 tained by the application of the most difficult parts ol 
 mathematical analysis, were communicated to the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences, in several papers, in the autumn of 
 1820. "The vast field of physical science," says Arago, 
 " perhaps never presented so brilliant a discovery con- 
 ceived, verified, and completed with such rapidity." 
 
 Ampere gave the name of Electro-Dynamics to this 
 new science. In 1822 he published a '" Collection of 
 Observations on Electro-Dynamics." His theory and 
 discoveries in this science were more amply developed 
 in his work entitled " Theory of Electro- Dynamic Phe- 
 nomena deduced from Experiments only, (" Theorie 
 des Phenomenes electro-dynamiques uniquement deduite 
 de l'Experience," 1826.) 
 
 Among his later works is a treatise on the undulatory 
 theory of light, (" Memoire sur la Determination de la 
 Surface courbe des Ondes lumineuses, etc.," 1828 ;) also, 
 an " Essay on the Philosophy of the Sciences, or Ana- 
 lytic Exposition of a Natural Classification of all Human 
 Knowledge," ("Essai sur la Philosophic des Sciences, ou 
 Exposition analytique d'une Classification naturelle de 
 toutes les Connaissances humaines," 1834.) 
 
 He wrote numerous treatises on optics, natural his- 
 tory, etc., which were printed in the " Memoires" of the 
 Institute, and in other journals. He was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society of London. Died in Paris in 1836. He 
 is said to have resembled La Fontaine in good nature, 
 (bonhomie,) simplicity, and absence of mind. 
 
 See Arago, " filoge d'Ampere ;" Sainte-Hecve et M. I.ittre, 
 notice in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," February, 1S37 ; Quete- 
 let, "Notice sur M. Ampere," 1836; Louis de Lomekie, " Gale- 
 rie des Contetnporains illustres." 
 
 Ampere, (Jean Jacques,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Lyons in August, 1800. He devoted him- 
 self to literary pursuits, and obtained access to the select 
 society which met at the salon of Madame Kecarnier. 
 In 1830 he became an assistant or substitute of Vine- 
 main as professor at the Sorbonne, and in 1833 suc- 
 ceeded Andricux as professor of French literature at 
 the College of France. He was admitted into the Acad- 
 emy of Inscriptions in 1842, and into the French Acad- 
 emy in 1847. Among rik work* are "The Literary 
 History of France before the Twelfth Century," (" His- 
 toire htterajre de la France avant le douzieme Siecle," 
 3 vols., 1839,) and a collection of charming articles called 
 " Litterature et Voyages," (1833.) Died in 1864. 
 
 See Querard, " Iji France Litteraire." 
 
 Am-phl-a-ra'us, \Or.'A/t<<>iupaor,] a famous soothsayer 
 
 € as k; 9 a* s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. (JGlf-Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AMPHICRATES 
 
 no 
 
 AMU RATH 
 
 and hero of Argos. He took part in the Argonautic 
 expedition, and married Eriphyle, who, bribed by the 
 fatal necklace of Harmonia, persuaded him against his 
 will to join in the expedition of the Seven against Thebes. 
 Tradition adds that the earth opened and swallowed 
 him, and that he was afterwards worshipped as a hero. 
 
 Am-phic'ra-tes, [Gr. 'A/npiKpur/jc] an Athenian ora- 
 tor, who flourished about 70 B.C. For some unknown 
 cause he was banished from Athens, and went to Asia, 
 where he died. 
 
 Am-phic'ty-on, [Gr. 'A^Vatduv,] a fabulous king of 
 Attica, was a son of Deucalion, (or, as some say, an 
 autochthon.) He was expelled from his kingdom and 
 succeeded by Erichthonius. He is supposed to have 
 lived about 1490 B.C. 
 
 Ani-phi-lo'-ehi-us, [Gr. 'A/i^Ao^ioc; Fr. Amphiloque, 
 ds'le'lok',] a bishop of Iconium, and a zealous opponent 
 of Arimism, was born in Cappadocia. About 383 A.D. 
 he went to the court of the emperor Theodosius, and 
 instigated him to issue a decree prohibiting the public 
 assemblies of the Arians. Died about 395 A.D. His 
 works are nearly all lost. 
 
 Am-phi'on, [Gr. 'Au<j>!uv,] a Theban prince, who re- 
 ceived a golden lyre from Mercury, and cultivated music 
 with such success that he built the walls of Thebes by 
 the sounds which he drew from that instrument, the 
 stones arranging themselves obsequiously at his will. 
 The meaning of this fable appears to be that by his elo- 
 quence and persuasive hianners he prevailed upon his 
 rude and hitherto intractable subjects to build the walls 
 of their city. He married the famous Niobe. 
 
 Amphi'on ['Auptwv] of Cnos'sus, a Greek statuary, 
 who lived about 420 B.C. 
 
 Am'phis, ['A/itpic,] an Athenian comic poet, who was 
 \ contemporary of Plato. His works are not extant. 
 
 Am-phis'tra-tos, ['A^Mrrparoc,] a Greek sculptor, 
 mentioned by Pliny as the author of a good statue of 
 Callisthenes. He lived about 320 B.C. 
 
 Atn-phl-trl'te, ['A/^trptrj/,] a Nereid of the Greek 
 mythology, represented as the wife of Neptune, and 
 mother of Triton. She was sometimes styled by the 
 poets the goddess of the sea. 
 
 Am'pl-us, (Titus Flavianus,) a Roman general, 
 who fought for Vespasian against Vitellius about 70 a.d. 
 
 Ampsing, amp'sing, or Amp'zing, (John Assue- 
 rus,) a Dutch medical writer, born in 1559 ; died in 1642. 
 
 Ampsing, (.Samuel,) a Dutch poet, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, lived in the early part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Ampudia, am-poo'de-a, (Pedro de,) a Mexican gen- 
 eral, who obtained that rank in 1840. He commanded 
 an army which besieged Campeachy in 1842-43. In 
 1846 he was in command at Monterey, which was be- 
 sieged by General Taylor, and was taken prisoner in 
 September of that year. 
 
 Amreeta. See Amrita. 
 
 Am'rl-ta, [Hindoo pron. um'rT-ta, from a, priva- 
 tive, and mrlta, "dead," also "death,"] sometimes 
 written, but less correctly, Amreeta, the name given 
 by the Hindoos to the water of immortality which was 
 produced by the churning of the ocean. (See KOrma- 
 Vatara.) The term Amrita or Amrit is also applied to 
 the food as well as to the drink of the gods, and hence 
 to any delicious drink. 
 
 Amroo, Amru, or Amrou, am'roo,* or, more fully, 
 Amroo-Ibn-Al-Aas, (or -Ass,) — Tb'n al Sss, (i.e. " Am- 
 roo the son of Al-Aas,") a famous Arabian general, who 
 conquered Egypt in the reign of the caliph Omar, about 
 640 a.d. He was afterwards governor of Egypt until 
 Omar's death. In the civil war which followed the death 
 of Othman he fought against Alee. Died in 663 a.d. 
 
 See Irving, "Mahomet and his Successors," vol. ii.; AbuuBda, 
 "Annales Moslemici;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire," chap li.; Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. 
 
 Amrool-kays, Amrulkais, or Amroulcays, am'- 
 rool-kls', written also Amrolkais, a distinguished 
 Arabian poet, who lived about 600 a.d. He was author 
 of one of the Mo'allakat, poems suspended an the Kaaba 
 at Mecca. 
 
 Amrou or Amru. See Amroo. 
 
 * See remarks on Oriental names, in the Introduction. 
 
 Amr-Seebawayh or Amr-Sibawayh, am'r see'- 
 ba win', the greatest of the Arabian grammarians, lived 
 at Bagdad in the reign of Haroun-al-Raschid. 
 
 Amsdorf, von, fon ams'doRf, (Nikolaus,) a Ger- 
 man Reformer, born near Wurzen, in Saxony, in 1483. 
 He became professor of divinity at Wittenberg in 1511, 
 and a zealous adherent of Luther, whom he accompa- 
 nied to the Diet of Worms in 1521. He was appointed 
 superintendent and minister at Saint Ulrich in Magde- 
 burg in 1524, and Bishop of Naumburg in 1542. Ams- 
 dorf took part in Luther's translation of the Bible, and 
 wrote numerous polemical treatises on theology. Died 
 in 1565. 
 
 See Melchior Adam, "Vitas Theologorum Germanorum." 
 
 Amsler, ams'ler, (Samuel,) an excellent German 
 engraver, born in Switzerland in 1791. He was profes- 
 sor at the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich, and en- 
 graved many pieces after Michael Angelo, Raphael, aid 
 Thorwaldsen. Among his works is a " Holy Family" 
 of the second, and "The Triumph of Alexander" of the 
 last-named artist. Died at Munich in 1849. 
 
 Amstel, (Cornelis Ploos van.) See Ploos. 
 
 Am3tel, Gijsbrecht or Gysbrecht van, gis'brSKt 
 or His'bueKT vtn am'stel, a Dutch nobleman of the 
 thirteenth century, infamous as the betrayer of Floris 
 V., Count of Holland, in 1296. (See Floris V.) The 
 odium of this crime contributed much to the ruin of the 
 power of the Dutch aristocracy. 
 
 Amthor, am'toR, (Christoph Heinrich,) a German 
 jurist, born at Stollberg in 1678. He entered the service 
 of Denmark, and was made a counsellor of justice at 
 Copenhagen about 1718. He wrote some successful 
 political tracts and works on law. Died in 1721. 
 
 Amulio, a-moo'le-o, or Da Mula, da moo'la, (Marc- 
 Antonio,) Cardinal, an Italian scholar, born at Venice 
 in 1505. He gained the confidence of Pope Pius IV., 
 who employed him in important commissions, and made 
 him a cardinal in 1561. He wrote Latin poems and 
 orations, and other works of some merit, nearly all of 
 which remain in manuscript. Died in 1570. 
 
 A-mu'lI-us, King of Alba, was a younger brother of 
 Numitor, whom he dethroned about 714 B.C. (See 
 Romulus.) 
 
 Amurath, a-moo-rSt', or Moorad, (Mourad or 
 Murad,) moo'rid', (written also Amurat, Amurad, 
 and Murad,) I, the first of the Ottoman sultans who 
 made conquests in Europe, succeeded his father Or- 
 khan in 1360. He took Adrianople in 1362, and made it 
 the capital of his European dominions. During a reign 
 of twenty-nine years his arms were everywhere crowned 
 with success. A formidable insurrection having at length 
 broken out in Servia, he hastened to meet this new 
 danger, accompanied by his son, the famous Bayazeed, 
 (Bajazet,) surnamed Ilderim, or "the lightning." His 
 army was inferior in numbers to that of the insurgents ; 
 but, yielding to the ardour of Bayazeed, he resolved at 
 once to give battle. After a long and terrible conflict 
 on the plain of Kossovo, the forces of Amurath gained a 
 complete victory. The sultan rejoiced all the moreover 
 this success because, as the Moslem historians inform 
 us, he had dreamed the night before that he met his 
 death from the weapon of an assassin. While he lingered 
 on the field of battle, one of the bodies on which he 
 chanced to tread suddenly started up and plunged a 
 dagger into the heart of Amurath, who died a few 
 moments afterwards, (June 15, 1389,) aged sixty-three 
 years. Amurath I. has the distinction of having formed 
 the Janissaries (who had been first levied by his father 
 Orkhan) into a thoroughly organized and disciplined 
 body of troops. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Riographie G^neVale;" Von Hammer, " Histoire 
 de 1' Empire Ottoman." 
 
 Amurath or Moorad (Murad) II., born about 
 
 1405, succeeded his father Mahomet I. in 1422. His 
 
 j reign was marked by various vicissitudes of fortune. 
 
 1 At one time (1422) he threatened Constantinople with 
 
 I a formidable army. In 1429 he took Thessalonic.t from 
 
 the Venetians, and in 1433 took possession of Yartirta 
 
 ;>n(' razed its fortifications to the ground. In 1442 the 
 
 famous Huniades defeated the troops of Amurath in two 
 
 successive battles, in the latter of which the Tu'fcs lost 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, J, short: a, e, i, q, oi:c::r-; tir fill, fat; met; n6t; good; mo?n, 
 
AMURATH 
 
 i«7 
 
 AN ACH ARSIS 
 
 two hundred banners and five thousand prisoners, in- 
 cluding their general-in-chief. In the following year 
 Huniades gained in rapid succession several victories 
 over the Ottoman forces. In one engagement in which 
 the sultan himself was present, Amurath lost six thou- 
 sand men, so that he was compelled to sue for peace. 
 A treaty of peace for ten years was signed between the 
 sultan and the King of Hungary, but it was soon after 
 broken by the latter at the instigation of the papal legate 
 Julian. This want of good faith on the part of the 
 Christians was signally avenged the same year by the 
 defeat of the Hungarians near Varna, and the death of 
 Vladislaus, their king, who was unhorsed by Amurath 
 himself and slain by a janissary. Again in 1448 the 
 Hungarians under Huniades suffered a total defeat in 
 the battle of Kossovo, (October, 1448.) This engage- 
 ment lasted three days ; at last Huniades fled, and his 
 troops were almost annihilated. Twice during his reign 
 Amurath II. abdicated the supreme power and sought 
 in retirement that peace of mind which he could not 
 find on the throne ; but in both instances he was speed- 
 ily recalled by the wishes of his people to the post which 
 he had so lately left. He died in 1451, leaving behind 
 him the reputation of an able, just, and humane ruler, 
 lie was succeeded by his son, Mahomet II., the con- 
 queror of Constantinople. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" Von Hammer, " Histoire 
 de FEmpire Ottoman. 
 
 Amurath or Moorad (Murad) m., born in 1545, 
 succeeded his father, Selim II., in 1574. On the first dav 
 of his reign he caused his five brothers to be strangled. 
 He was weak and sensual as well as cruel ; but his mind 
 was not altogether without taste and cultivation. Died 
 in 1595. 
 
 St:e "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale ;" Von Hammer, "Histoire 
 ie F Empire Ottoman. 
 
 Amurath or Moorad (Murad) IV., born about 
 1610, succeeded his uncle Mustafa in 1623. In 1638 he 
 took Bagdad, which was thenceforward incorporated with 
 the Ottoman Empire : this was the only important event 
 of his reign. He had a vigorous, athletic frame, but a 
 feeble, passionate, and tyrannical disposition ; and these 
 evil traits in his character seemed to increase with his 
 years. He was almost continually intoxicated ; in a fit 
 of drunken rage he would sometimes rush from his 
 palace into the street, sword in hand, killing all whom 
 he met ; at other times he would amuse himself by 
 shooting with his bow from the palace-windows those 
 who happened to be passing beneath. Happily for his 
 people, he died (1640) before he had completed his thir- 
 tieth year. He has been styled "the Turkish Nero." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ierale ;" Von Hammer, " Histoire 
 de FEmpire Ottoman." 
 
 Amussat, t'mii'si', (Jean Zulema — zii'la'mi',) a 
 French surgeon, born in Deux-Sevres in 1796. He in- 
 vented several instruments, among which is a probe 
 used in lithotrity, and published a number of treatises. 
 His memoir on "The Torsion of Arteries" (1829) ob- 
 tained a prize of the Institute. Died in 1856. 
 
 Amy, i'me', a French advocate of Aix, wrote some 
 interesting works on rivers and fountains, among which 
 is " ( lljservations experimentales sur Its eaux des rivieres 
 de Seine, de Marne, etc.," (1749) Died in 1760. 
 
 Amyn or Arnin. See Ai.ameen. 
 
 A-myn'tas, [Gr. ' Afthrraf , | the name of three kings 
 of Macedonia between 510 and 330 B.C Also, a Mace- 
 donian general in the service of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Amyntas L, King of Macedonia, began to reign 
 about 510 B.C. He presented earth and water to the 
 an ambassadors in token of submission to the su- 
 premacy of Darius. 
 
 Amyntas II. of Macedonia, ascended the throne in 
 394 H.c. He was defeated in battle by the Illyrians, and 
 recovered his kingdom by the aid of the Thessalians. 
 He afterwards strengthened himself by an alliance with 
 Sparta. Died in 370 B.C., leaving three sons, Alexander, 
 Perdiccas, and Philip called the Great. 
 
 Amyntas III. was a grandson of the preceding, and 
 a son of Perdiccas. I Ie was an infant at the death of 
 his father in 359 B.C., and was the lawful heir to the 
 throne which was usurped by his uncle Philip. He was 
 
 put to death on the charge of a conspiracy agaii.st Alex 
 ander a short time before the latter invaded Asia. 
 
 Amyntas, one of the generals of Alexander the 
 Great. During the campaign in Asia he conducted re- 
 inforcements from Macedonia to the army at Babylon 
 About 330 B.C. he was tried on a charge of complicity 
 in a plot alleged to have been formed by his friend Phi- 
 lotas, and acquitted. 
 
 Amyntas, son of Antiochus, a Macedonian officer 
 who was in the service of Persia when Alexander in- 
 vaded that country. He commanded some Greek auxil- 
 iaries that fought for Darius at Issus, 333 B.C., after 
 which he led an expedition against Egypt, then in the pos- 
 session of the Persians. After he had gained a victory 
 near Memphis, he was surprised by the Persians and 
 killed, about 330 B.C. 
 
 Amyntas, a king of Galatia, fought for Antony at 
 l'hilippi, and against him at the battle of Actium, 31 
 B.C. Died about 30 B.C. 
 
 Amyntianus, a-min-she-a'nus, ['Afiwriavoc,] a Greek 
 author, lived about 170 A.D., and wrote a " Life of Alex- 
 ander the Great," which is lost. 
 
 Amyot, i'me-o', (Jacques,) a French writer and 
 translator of great merit, born at Melun in 15 13. He 
 became professor of Greek and Latin at Bourges about 
 1540, and was appointed tutor to the sons of Henry II. 
 in 1558. He was made grand almoner of France on 
 the accession of Charles IX. in 1560, and Bishop of 
 Auxerre in 1570. In 1559 he published an excellent 
 translation of Plutarch's " Lives," which is especially 
 celebrated as a model of French style. He also trans- 
 lated from the Greek seven books of Diodorus Siculus, 
 (1554,) Longus's romance of "Daphnis and Chloe," 
 (1559,) and the " Moral Treatises of Plutarch." Died at 
 Auxerre in 1593. Amyot is ranked among the prose 
 writers who have contributed most to the perfection of 
 the French language. 
 
 See De Thou, "Histoire," book viii. ; Niceron, "Memoires;" 
 "Eloge d'Amyot," in the "Mdmoires de FAcademie Francaise ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale;" Bayle, "Historical and Critical 
 Dictionary." 
 
 Amyot, (Joseph.) See Amiot. 
 
 Am'yot, (Thomas,) an English antiquary, born at 
 Norwich about 1775. He embraced the legal profes- 
 sion, and became private secretary to Mr. Windham 
 while the latter was secretary at war in 1806. In 1812 
 he published the speeches of Windham, with a short 
 notice of his life. He contributed several treatises to 
 the " Archaeologia," and was for many years secretary 
 to the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1850. 
 
 Amyraut, i'me'ro', [Lat. Amyral'dus,] (Moses,) a 
 distinguished French Protestant divine and writer, born 
 at Bourgueil, in Anjou, in 1596. He became professor of 
 divinity at Saumur in 1633. In order to promote union 
 among the Protestant churches, he wrote a Latin " Treat- 
 ise on Secession from the Roman Church, and on Peace 
 among the Evangelical Churches," and was, in conse- 
 quence, involved in a controversy with certain Calvin- 
 istic divines by his attempt to explain Calvin's views 
 on predestination, which he wished to reconcile with the 
 doctrine of universal grace. He was author of many 
 works in French and Latin, among which is "Christian 
 Morality," (6 vols.,) a work of much merit. He was 
 esteemed for his talents and worth by both Catholics and 
 Protestants, Died in 1664. 
 
 See Chari.es E. Saioey, " M. Amvraut, sa Vie et ses ficriti," 
 1849; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Amyrtaeus, am-ir-tee'us, [Gr. 'Afmpraio^; Fr. Amyr- 
 tee, i'mCK'ta', j King of Egypt, obtained the throne about 
 450 B.C. by a revolt against the Kin;.; of I'ersia. 
 
 Anacabna, a-ni-ka-o'na,surnani< (1 GOLDBN FI.OWES, 
 was the wife of Caonabo, a cacique of Hayti when Co- 
 lumbus discovered that island in 1492. She was put to 
 death by Ovando, the Spanish governor. 
 
 See Irvino's " Life of Columbus." 
 
 An-a-€har'sis, [Gr. 'Awzvnpcic,] a Scythian philoso- 
 pher, contemporary and friend of Solon. He was, ii is 
 said, the only barbarian admitted to the citizenship ot 
 Athens. He was reckoned by some writers among the 
 Seven Wise Men of Greece. On his return to his native 
 country he was shot dead with an arrow by the Scythian 
 
 1 k; s as s; g hard; g as// c, n, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (£3^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ANACLETUS 
 
 1 1 8 
 
 ANAXAGORAS 
 
 king for performing the Greek rites to the goddess Cy- 
 bele. Some of his witty sayings have been preserved by 
 Diogenes Laertius, Plutarch, and Lucian. 
 
 An-a-cle'tus, [Fr. Anaclet, i'nt'elj',] sometimes 
 called Cletus, the second or third bishop of Rome, was 
 a native of Athens. He is variously represented as the 
 successor or predecessor of Clement. Died, it is sup- 
 posed, about ioo a.d. 
 
 Anacletus the Antipope, was elected by a part of 
 the cardinals in 1130, and disputed the claim of Innocent 
 II. to the popedom. Supported by the populace of 
 Rome, he maintained possession of that city until his 
 death in 113S, though his rival was recognized by nearly 
 all the European powers. 
 
 See Aktaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 
 A-nac're-on, [Gr. 'Avanpiuv,] a celebrated Greek 
 amatory lyric poet, born at Teos, in Ionia, about 560 B.C. 
 He passed many years in the prime of his life at the 
 coui t of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, to which it is sup- 
 posed he was invited about 540. After the death of 
 Polycrates, whose bounty he had largely enjoyed, he re- 
 moved to Athens, which he left probably about 514 B.C. 
 According to some accounts, he attained the age of 
 eighty-five. His death is said to have been caused by a 
 grape-stone or dried grape, by which he was choked. 
 He left odes and songs on love and wine, which are re- 
 garded as models of that species of poetry named from 
 him Anacreontic ; also elegies, epigrams, etc. Numer- 
 ous fragments of his poems are extant. 
 
 See Mullek, "Histoire de la Literature de rancienne Grece ;" 
 Bode, "Geschichte der lyrischen Dichtkutist der Hellenen;" Vos- 
 Slus, "De Poetis Gnecis." 
 
 An-a-dy-om'e-ne, [Gr. ' Ava6vu/ievii,] (i.e. the god- 
 dess " rising up out " of the sea,) a surname given to 
 Venus, in allusion to the story of her origin. 
 
 An-a-fes'tus or Anafesto, a-na-fes'to, (Paoluccio, 
 pow-loot'cho,) the first Doge of Venice. Died in 717 A.D. 
 
 A-na-i'tis or Anahid, [Gr. 'Aramc,] a goddess wor- 
 shipped in Armenia and Asia Minor, was supposed to be 
 identical with the Greek Aphrodite or the Persian god- 
 dess of nature. 
 
 A'nan, (Ben David,) a Jewish rabbi of the eighth 
 century, is represented as the restorer of the Karaite 
 doctrines and defender of the pure law. 
 
 Anania, a-na'ne-5, (Giovanni Lorenzo,) a learned 
 Italian of the sixteenth century, born at Taverna, in Ca- 
 labria. Among other works, he wrote a treatise on the 
 nature of demons, (1581 ; 5th edition, 1669.) 
 
 Anania, d', da-na'ne-a, or Anagny, d', da-nan'yee, 
 written also Agnany, (Joannes,) an Italian jurist and 
 canonist. Died in 1458. 
 
 An-a-ni'as or Hananiah, called Sha'drach, one 
 of three Hebrew captives whom the King of Babylon 
 ordered to be thrown into a fiery furnace. (See Daniel i. 
 and iii.) 
 
 Auanias, a Jewish general, was a son of Onias who 
 erected a Hebrew temple at Heliopolis, in Egypt. He 
 and his brother Chelcias commanded an army which 
 Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, sent into Judea against her 
 son, Ptolemy Lathyrus, in 103 B.C. 
 
 Ananias, a Jew, who was appointed high-priest at 
 Jerusalem about 45 or 50 A.D. He was a party to the 
 persecution of the Apostle Paul, and appeared as his 
 accuser before Felix. (See Acts xxiii. 2 ; xxiv. 1 ; xxv. 2.) 
 He was killed by robbers, or, according to some ac- 
 counts, by the seditious Jews, about 66 A.D. 
 
 See Josefhus, "Jewish Antiquities." 
 
 Ananias, one of the primitive Christians, was a resi- 
 dent of Damascus, and eminently devout. He was sent 
 by the Lord, who appeared to him in a vision, to restore 
 sight to Saul of Tarsus, who had just been converted. 
 (See Acts ix. 10-18.) 
 
 A-nan'ta, [Hindoo pron. un-un'ta — from an, priva- 
 tive, and anta, "end,"] a name signifying "without end," 
 sometimes applied to the great serpent Sesha, the sym- 
 bol of eternity. (See Sesha.) 
 
 A-na'pI-us and Am-phin'o-mus, two brothers, who 
 lived at Catania before the Christian era and acquired 
 celebrity by saving their parents from an eruption of 
 Mount Etna. 
 
 Anar. See Norvi. 
 
 Afiasco, de, di an-yas'ko, (Juan,) a Sevillian officer, 
 who served under Hernando de Soto in his expedition 
 into Florida in 1539-43. 
 
 Anassagora. See Anaxagoras. 
 
 Anastase. See Anastasius. 
 
 Anastasia, an-as-ta'she-a, [Fr. Anaspasie, i'nis'- 
 ti'ze',] Saint, the wife of Publius, a pagan. After his 
 death, having made a public profession of Christianity, 
 she suffered martyrdom in 303 A.D., during the reign of 
 Diocletian. 
 
 Anastasius, an-as-ta'she-us, [Gr. ' Kvo.otuoio<; ; Fr. 
 Anastase, i'nas'tiz',] I., a Byzantine emperor, born at 
 Dyrrachium (now Durazzo) about 430 A.D. On the death 
 of the emperor Zeno, in 491, his widow, the empress 
 Ariadne, gave her hand in marriage to Anastasius, and 
 raised him to the throne. He persecuted or differed 
 with the orthodox, who rose in arms, and, under the 
 command of Vitalianus, defeated his army in 514. Died 
 in 51S a.d., and was succeeded by Justin I. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," 
 
 Anastasius II., Emperor, of the East, succeeded 
 Philippicus by election in 713 A.D. The army which he 
 sent against the Arabs revolted, proclaimed Theodosius 
 emperor, and captured Constantinople. Anastasius was 
 deposed in 716, and put to death by order of Leo III. 
 about 720 a.d. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Anastasius, Patriarch of Constantinople, was raised 
 to that dignity by Leo about 730 A.D. He favoured the 
 Iconoclasts. The Catholic writers represent him as a 
 disgrace to his profession. Died in 753 a.d. 
 
 Anastasius, an-as-ta'she_-us, [Fr. Anastase, i'nis'- 
 tiz',[ I., Pope, a Roman by birth, succeeded Siricius 
 about 398 A.D. He was strongly opposed to the doc- 
 trines of Origen. Died in 402, and was succeeded by 
 Innocent I. 
 
 Anastasius II., a native of Rome, was elected pope 
 in 496, in place of Gelasius I. He wrote a letter to 
 Clovis, King of the Franks, on his conversion to Chris- 
 tianity. Died in 498 A.D. 
 
 Anastasius III. became pope after the death of 
 Sergius III. in 911. Died in 913, and was succeeded by 
 Lando. 
 
 Anastasius IV., a native of Rome, was elected pope 
 in 1 153, as successor to Eugenius III. He is repre- 
 sented as wise and virtuous. He died at an advanced 
 age in 1154, and was succeeded by Adrian IV. 
 
 Anastasius surnamed Bihliotheca'rius, (i.e. "Li- 
 brarian,") a Roman priest of the ninth century, trans- 
 lated from Greek into Latin several works, among which 
 is "Historia Ecclesiastica," composed chiefly of extracts 
 from Nicephorus and Syncellus. Died probably about 
 890 A.D. 
 
 Anastasius, surnamed Sinaita (sl-na-I'ta) from 
 having been a monk on Mount Sinai, became Bishop or 
 Patriarch of Antioch in 561 A.D. He was a zealous de- 
 fender of the orthodox Catholic faith, for which he was 
 expelled from his see by Justin II. in 570; but he was 
 restored by the emperor Maurice in 593. Died in 599 A.D. 
 
 Anastasius, Saint, called "the Apostle of Hun- 
 gary," was born in 954 A.D., and died in 1044. 
 
 An-a-to'll-us, [Fr. Anatole, f'ni'tol',] an eminent 
 philosopher of Alexandria, lived in the latter part of the 
 third century. He opened a school in Alexandria, and 
 was the first Christian who taught the philosophy of 
 Aristotle. He became Bishop of Laodicea about 270 A.D. 
 
 Anatolius, a Platonic philosopher, contemporary with 
 the preceding, was a master of Iamblichtis and fliend of 
 Porphyry. A fragment of work, entitled " Sympathies 
 and Antipathies," is ascribed to him. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca." • 
 
 Anatolius, a Greek jurist, born at Berytus, was em- 
 ployed by Justinian in the compilation of the Digest, 
 about 530 A.D. 
 
 An-ax-ag'o-ras, [Gr. ' Avai-ayopac ; Fr. Anaxagorf., 
 S'nSk'sS'goR' ; It. Anassagora, a-nas-sag'o-ra,l a cele- 
 brated Greek philosopher, born at Clazomenae, near 
 Smyrna, 500 B.C. He came to Athens about 460 B.C., 
 or, according to some writers, twenty years earlier, anj 
 remained there about thirty years. Socrates and Eu- 
 
 i, e, I, 0, u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, 6, ii, y\ short; a, e, j, 0, obscure; fir, All, fit; met; n6t; grjod; moon; 
 
ANAXAGORAS 
 
 "9 
 
 AN CHI ETA 
 
 ripides are said to have been among his disciples. In 
 432 B.C. he was prosecuted on a charge of impiety. 
 Pericles, who had been his pupil, assisted in his defence. 
 To escape from death he fled from Athens, and died at 
 Lampsacus. in Asia Minor, 428 B.C. Anaxagoras wrote 
 a tieatise on Nature, of which some fragments have been 
 preserved. He maintained the eternity of matter, the 
 elements of which were, he held, in a state of confusion, 
 till another distinct principle, self-existent, infinitely sub- 
 tile and powerful, which he termed Nous, (or Mind,) re- 
 duced them to order : generation and destruction were 
 only the union and separation of elemental particles 
 which could neither be created nor annihilated ; there 
 was no such thing as chance or accident, these being 
 nothing more than names for unknown causes. 
 
 Anaxagoras may be regarded as the father of modern 
 s:icnce. Of all the ancient philosophers he appears to 
 have been the first to combine, in the investigation of 
 Nature and her laws, close reasoning with careful obser- 
 vation and experiment. He demonstrated that air was 
 a substance, and not mere vacuity according to the popu- 
 lar notion, by showing that when it was confined, as in 
 bladders, it offered a positive resistance and displaced 
 other bodies. His observation that there is no such thing 
 as chance, but that " chance" is merely the name for a 
 "cause unperceived by the human intellect," (ryv rvxr/v, 
 tifojfav airiav uvdfKjTriiy Ajoytafu^,) evinced rare sagacity, 
 as well as subtlety of thought ; and in teaching that the 
 destruction and production of material bodies are nothing 
 more than the separation and reunion of the elemental 
 particles, he anticipated one of the most important dis- 
 coveries of modern chemistry. 
 
 See Ritter, " History of Philosophy," 3 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1838: 
 ('.. H, LEWIS, "Biographical History of Philosophy ;" De Ramsay, 
 "AoaxagorM, the Hague, 1778; J. T. Hemsen, "Anaxagoras Cla- 
 zoiuenins sive de Vita ejus atque Philosophia," 8vo, 1S21 ; Schau- 
 bach, " De Anaxagora ; Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 Anaxagoras, a Greek statuary, born at /Egina, lived 
 about 480 n.c. He executed a statue of Jupiter placed 
 at Elis after the battle of Plataea. 
 
 Anaxagore. See Anaxagoras. 
 
 An-ax-aii'drl-des, [Gr. 'Avafavdpt'cfyc,] a king of 
 Sparta, reigned from about 560 to 520 B.C. He was the 
 father of Cleomenes and Leonidas. 
 
 Anaxaiidrides, a Greek comic poet, lived in the 
 fourth century B.C. He wrote many successful dramas. 
 
 An-ax-ar'chus, [Gr. 'Ava$upx<K; Fr. Anaxarque, 
 3'nik'sf Rk', ] a Greek philosopher, a native of Abdera, was 
 intimate with Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied 
 on his expedition into Asia in 334 B.C. He appears to 
 have been a man of respectable character. After the 
 death of Alexander, Anaxarchus is said to have been put 
 to death by the tyrant Nicocreon, by being pounded in a 
 large mortar ; he bore the torment with stoical fortitude. 
 
 See Arrian, "Anabasis." 
 
 A-nax'I-las, ['Ava£tAar,] an Athenian comic poet, 
 contemporary with Plato, lived about 340 B.C. 
 
 A-nax-I-la'us [Gr. 'Av<z£aooc] or An-axl-las, a 
 tyrant or prince of Rhegium, (now Reggio,) in the south 
 of Italy, in the fifth century B.C. 
 
 Anaxilaus, [Gr. 'Avaitkao^,'] a Pythagorean philoso- 
 pher, born in I.arissa, lived at Rome in the reign of 
 Augustus, and was banished from Italy on a charge of 
 magic. 
 
 A-nax-I-man'der, [Gr/Avafi'/zavdnnc; Fr. Anaximan- 
 DRE, i'nik'se'mo.NdR',] an eminent Greek philosopher, 
 : )om at Miletus, in Asia Minor, about 610 B.C., is said 
 to have been a disciple or friend of Thales. The inven- 
 tion of the sun-dial is attributed to him, and Pliny states 
 that he discovered the obliquity of the ecliptic. He 
 taught that the earth is a sphere, that the sun is a globe 
 of fire as large as the earth, and that there is an infinite 
 number of worlds. The statement of his opinions given 
 by Plutarch differs from the above. A book which he 
 wrote is the oldest prose work on philosophy mentioned 
 among the Greeks. Died about 546 u.c. 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Philosophy:" G. H. Lewes, "Bio- 
 graphical History of Philosophy ;" Diogenes Laektius. 
 
 An-ax-im'e-nel, [Gr. ' 'AvafyuevrK ; Fr. Anaximenk, 
 t'nik'se'mjn',] a Grecian philosopher, born at Miletus, 
 flourished probably about 500 B.C. Little is known of 
 
 his life. His opinions were recorded by Theophrastus. 
 lie maintained that Aer (air) is the original principle of 
 which all things are formed and into which all things 
 are resolved, and that this aer is in eternal motion. 
 
 Sri- Kittkk. "History ot Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, " Bio- 
 <1 History of Philosophy;" J. H. Schmidt, "De Auaximenis 
 Vita et Physiologia," 16S9 ; Diogenes Laektius. 
 
 Anaxim'enes of Lamp'sacus, a historian who lived 
 about 350 B.C. He wrote a history of Philip of Macedon 
 and of his son Alexander, which is lost. According to 
 Suidas, he was one of the instructors of Alexander the 
 Great. Pausanias relates that he once saved his native 
 city by his ready wit. When he came as an intercessor 
 to Alexander, (who was greatly exasperated against the 
 citizens of Lampsacus for siding with the Persians,) 
 the conqueror, anticipating his intention, exclaimed, " I 
 swear I will not grant your request !" " I implore you, 
 then," said Anaximenes, "to destroy Lampsacus and 
 reduce its citizens to slavery." Alexander had the mag- 
 nanimity to keep his word. 
 
 Anay a y Maldonado, a-nl'a e mal-do-na' Do, ( D I kgo,) 
 born at Salamanca about 1350, was made Archbishop of 
 Seville in 141 7 ; died in 1437. 
 
 Ancaeus, an-see'us, [Gr. 'Ay/ccuo?; Fr. Ancee, dx'sa',] 
 a fabulous son of Neptune, and King of Samos, was the 
 pilot of the ship Argo in the Argonautic expedition. He 
 planted a vineyard, but was warned by a seer that he 
 would never drink any wine of his own production. He 
 made some wine, and was raising a cup of it to his mouth, 
 when he was told that a wild boar was in his vineyard. 
 He left the wine untasted, and attacked the boar, by 
 which he was killed. This event is said to have given 
 rise to the proverb, " There is many a slip between the 
 cup and the lip." 
 
 Au-can'ther-us, (Claudius,) a physician and histor- 
 ical writer, lived at Vienna between 1550 and 1600. 
 
 Ancaraiio, an-ka-ra'no, (Gasparo,) an Italian priest 
 and poet of Bassano, lived between 1550 and 1600. 
 
 Aiicarano, d', dan-ka-ra'no, (Pietro Giovanni,) an 
 Italian jurist and poet, born at Reggio, in Lombardy, 
 lived about 1550. 
 
 Ancee. See Anceus. 
 
 Ancelot, Snss'Io', (Jacques Arsene Francois Po- 
 LYCARi'E,) a French dramatic author, born at Havre in 
 1794. He was in his youth a clerk in the bureau of the 
 navy department. In 1819 he produced " Lo is IX.," a 
 tragedy inverse, which had a great success, and obtained 
 from the king a pension of two thousand francs. His 
 tragedy of " Fiesco" (1824) was also favourably received. 
 He afterwards composed many dramas, comedies, and 
 vaudevilles, and succeeded De Bonald in the French 
 Academy in 1841. Died in 1850. 
 
 His wife, originally Marguerite Virginif. Chardon, 
 a painter and authoress, was born at Dijon in 1792. 
 She wrote several plays, and a volume of tales called 
 " Emprunts aux Salons de Paris," of considerable merit. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic G^neVale;" QuBrard, "La Prance 
 LitteVaire." 
 
 Ancharano, d', dan-ki-ra'no, (Pietro,) an Italian 
 jurist, born about 1350 ; died probably about 1420. 
 
 Ancheres, oN'shaiR', (Daniel,) a French poet, born 
 near Verdun in 1586, was patronized by James I. of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Anchersen, ing'ker-sen, (Joiian Peder,) a Danish 
 antiquary, born at or near Ribe about 1700, was professor 
 of elocution at Copenhagen. He wrcte "Origines Dan- 
 ica:," (1747,) and other works on Danish antiquities. 
 Died in 1765. 
 
 See Eksch und Gkuber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Anchersen, |Lat. Ansga'rius or Ansga'rii,| (Mat- 
 TH\*us,) a Danish Oriental scholar, born at Cokling in 
 1682, was made Bishop of Ribe in 1731, and died in 1741. 
 
 Ancheta, an-cha'tj, (Miguel,) a Spanish sculptor of 
 the sixteenth century, was born at Pamplona. He was 
 reputed one of the best sculptors* of his time. 
 
 See IlKKMUnKZ, "Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Anchieta, de, da an-she-a'ta, (Jose,) a distinguished 
 Portuguese Jesuit and missionary, commonly called " the 
 Apostle of Brazil," was born at Laguna, in Teneriffe, in 
 1533. He went to Brazil in 1553, and the same year 
 founded a college for the Creoles and natives. After a 
 
 € Mi; 9 as s; giard;gasj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; th as in this, (£fr"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JNCHILUS 
 
 1 20 
 
 ANDERSEN 
 
 life of peril and unceasing toil, he died, near Espinitu 
 Santo, in 1597. 
 
 See Vasconcellos, " Vida do Padre Joseph de Anchieta," 1672; 
 " Vi<;a del Padre J. de Anchieta," by Rodriguez, 1618. 
 
 Aiichilus, ang'Ke-lus, [Fr. pron. ON'she'liis',] (N.,) 
 a Flemish painter, an imitator of Terriers, born at Ant- 
 werp in 1688, and worked in London. Died in 1733. 
 
 An-ehi'ses, [Gr. 'KyxiotR; Fr. Anchise, 6N'shez',] a 
 Trojan prince, who was said to have been the father of 
 ./Eneas by Venus. On the destruction of Troy he escaped 
 w.tii bis son, and afterwards died in Sicily. 
 
 Ancillon, 6.N'se'y6N', (Charles,) a French writer, 
 son of David, noticed below, was born at Metz in 1659. 
 He accompanied his father to Berlin, where, under the 
 Elector of Brandenburg, (afterwards King of Prussia,) 
 he enjoyed various honourable offices. He left several 
 mediocre works. Died in 1715. 
 
 Ancillon, (David,) a learned French Protestant di- 
 vine, born at Metz in 161 7. He was pastor of a church 
 at Metz from 1653 to 1685. After the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes in the latter year, he went to Berlin, 
 where he died in 1692. He wrote an "Apology for Lu- 
 ther," and a few other works. 
 
 See "Discours sur la Vie de M. Ancillon," by Charles Ancil- 
 lon, 1698. 
 
 Ancillon, (Johann Peter Friedrich,) an eminent 
 German writer and statesman, of French extraction, 
 born at Berlin in 1766. He was a Protestant minister 
 in early life. In 1806 he was appointed instructor to 
 the crown prince, and received the title of councillor of 
 state, and afterwards held other important offices. He 
 was minister of foreign affairs from 183 1 until his death. 
 He belonged to the French family of Ancillons, and 
 wrote in the language of his ancestors with as much 
 facility as in the German. Among his works are " Me- 
 langes of Literature and Philosophy," in French, (1S01,) 
 and "On the Spirit of Constitutions, and its Influence 
 upon Legislation," in German, (1825.) His " View of the 
 Revolutions of the Political System of Europe since 
 the Fifteenth Century" (in French, 4 vols., 1803) was very 
 popular. Died in 1837. 
 
 See F. A. A. Mignet, " Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de M. 
 Ancillon," 1847. 
 
 Ancillon, (Joseph,) an eminent lawyer, born at Metz 
 in 1626, was a brother of David, noticed above. He 
 emigrated to Berlin about 1685, and became a counsellor 
 of the Elector of Brandenburg. He published a " Treat- 
 ise on the Difference between Personal Property and 
 Real Estate," (1698.) Died at Berlin in 1719. 
 
 Ancillon, (Ludwig Friedrich,) the father of Johann 
 Peter Friedrich, noticed above, was born in 1744. He 
 was a man of superior talents, and wrote some works on 
 religious philosopny and sacred literature, among which 
 is one on the Cartesian argument for the existence of 
 God, (Berlin, 1792.) Died in 1814. 
 
 Ancina, an-chee'na, (Giovanni Giovenai.e,) an 
 Italian ecclesiastic, born at Fossano in 1545, became 
 Bishop of Saluzzo in 1602 : died in 1604. He wrote 
 several short Latin poems. 
 
 Anckarstrom. See Ankarstrom. 
 
 Ancona, d', dan-ko'na, (Ciriaco,) an Italian traveller, 
 writer, and antiquary, born at Ancona about 1390. He 
 travelled much in the Levant, where he copied inscrip- 
 tions and collected manuscripts. He left, besides other 
 works, an "Itinerarium." Died about i4<;o. 
 
 Ancora, d', daN'ko-ra, (Gaetano,) an Italian miscel- 
 laneous writer and antiquary, born at Naples in 1757, 
 was professor of Greek in the university of that city. 
 Died in 1816. Among his works are a " Memoir on 
 the Observance of Silence by the Ancients," (1782,) and 
 " Researches on some Metallic Fossils of Calabria," 
 
 (I79I-) 
 
 Ancourt See Dancourt. 
 
 Ancre, d', doxkn, fit D'Ancora, dan'ko-ra,] (Con- 
 cino Concini, kon-cfiee'no kon-chee'nee,) Le Mare- 
 chai., an Italian courtier, born at Florence, went to 
 France in 1600 in the retinue of Maria de Medici, queen 
 of Henry IV. He married Eleonora Galigai, who was 
 the favourite attendant of the queen and had great in- 
 fluence at court. After the death of Henry, in 1610, he 
 became first gentleman of the chamber, Marquis d' Ancre, 
 
 and marshal of France. He even assumed the powei 
 of prime minister, and made many enemies by his inso- 
 lence and rapacity. He was assassinated in 161 7 by De 
 Luines, De Vitry, and others, who appear to have per- 
 formed the will of the king in this action. His wife was 
 tried, convicted of sorcery and lise-tnajeste, and executed, 
 in the same year. It is said that when asked by what 
 magic art she gained an ascendency over the queen, she 
 replied, " By that power which strong minds exercise 
 over the weak." 
 
 See Bazin, " Histoire de France sons le Rejrnc de Louis XIII ;" 
 G. Salei, " Cenni storico-crilichi su la Vita di C. Concini," 1S39; 
 Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais;" I). Sandellius, "De D. Con- 
 cini Vita," 1767. 
 
 An'cus Martius or Marcius, (mar'she-us,) the 
 fourth king of Rome, a grandson of Numa Pompilius, 
 succeeded Tullus Hostilius about 634 B.C. He is con- 
 sidered the lawgiver or founder of the plebeian order, 
 which seems to have received in his reign a distinct po- 
 litical existence. He waged war with success against 
 the Latins, founded Ostia, and built the Pons Sublicius, 
 (Bridge of Piles.) He died about 610, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Tatquinius Priscus. 
 
 See Niebuhr, "Roman History." 
 
 Ancwitz. See Ankwitz. 
 
 Andala, an'da-la, (Ruard,) a learned professor of the 
 Cartesian philosophy, and afterwards of theology, in the 
 University of Franeker, was born in Friesland in 1665. 
 He wrote "Descartes in reality the Overturner of Spi- 
 nosism and the Architect of Experimental Philosophy," 
 (1719.) Died in 1727. 
 
 Andelot. See Dandelot. 
 
 Anderloni, an-deR-lo'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian en- 
 graver, born near Brescia in 1784. He became director 
 of the School of Engraving at Milan in 1831, and en- 
 graved several works of Raphael and Titian. Died in 
 1849. 
 
 Aii'der-sen, (Hans Christian,) one of the most 
 gifted writers of the present age, was born at Odense, in 
 the island of Fiinen, April 2, 1805. His father was a 
 shoemaker in very indigent circumstances, although he 
 belonged to a family that had once been rich. He used 
 to seek relief from the bitterness of his lot by relating to 
 his children and friends stories of the wealth and splen- 
 dour of his ancestors. Hans was only nine years old 
 when his father died. His mother wished to apprentice 
 him to a tailor, but was prevailed on by a fortune-teller 
 to send him to Copenhagen. Here he tried to obtain 
 a situation at the theatre ; but he was refused because he 
 was so meagre and thin. Having a fine voice, he found 
 employment for a time as a singer. But after six months 
 he lost his voice, and was again thrown upon the world. 
 He was, however, so fortunate as to meet with gen* 
 erous and enlightened patrons. Councillor Collin, who 
 had the sagacity to perceive Andersen's uncommon 
 powers, obtained permission of the king to send the boy 
 to a free academy, to be educated at the expense of the 
 stale. 
 
 At an early age Andersen had written several short 
 poems, among which "The Dying Child" was particu- 
 larly admired. Having obtained pecuniary aid from the 
 King of Denmark, he travelled through Germany, France, 
 and Italy. After his return he produced a successful 
 romance, entitled "The Improvisatore," (1834.) Tie 
 delineations in this work of the scenery and manners )f 
 Southern Europe have never been surpassed by any 
 writer. Another, called "O. Z.," appeared in 1835, con- 
 taining descriptions of life in the North. "Only a Fid- 
 dler" presents some striking pictures from the stoiy of 
 his own early life. 
 
 The "Poet's Bazaar" (1842) was the result of a visit 
 to the Levant. His original genius is most conspicuous 
 in his fairy-tales, of which he has published several vol- 
 umes. They are characterized by quaint humour, rich 
 imagination, and sometimes by deep pathos. His numer- 
 ous works have been translated into most of the Euro- 
 pean languages. 
 
 "For vividness and reality of detail, for breadth and 
 boldness, too, in the description of scenery, and for skill 
 in conveying the impression made on a fine mind and 
 earnest heart by all that is beautiful in nature and true 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a,e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, \,(),obscnre; far, fall, fit: met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ANDERSON 
 
 121 
 
 ANDERSON 
 
 in art, he stands without a rival among recent writers of 
 romance." ("Quarterly Review," March, 1845.) 
 
 See Howitt's "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," 
 London, 1852; also, "Blackwood's Magazine," vol. lxii. p. 387. 
 
 An'der-son, (Adam,) a Scottish political economist, 
 born about 1690, was a clerk in the South Sea House for 
 forty years. He was author of a well-known History of 
 Commerce, entitled an " Historical and Chronological 
 Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, etc.," (2 vols., 
 1762,) a work of great research. Died in 1765. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Anderson, (Alexander,) an eminent Scottish mathe- 
 matician, born at Aberdeen about 1580, became professor 
 of mathematics at Paris, and died in the early part of the 
 seventeenth century. He published, besides other works, 
 "Supplementum Apollonii Redivivi," (1612.) 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Anderson, (Alexander,) M.D., a British botanist, 
 who passed many years in the West Indies, and was super- 
 intendent of the botanic garden of Saint Vincent. He 
 wrote an "Account of a Bituminous Lake or Plain in the 
 Island of Trinidad," (1789;) a" Description of the Bread- 
 Fruit Tree," (1798;) and an "Essay on the Cultivation 
 of the Clove," (1802.) Died about 1813. 
 
 Anderson, (Arthur,) M.P., a Scottish gentleman 
 noted for his public spirit and enterprise, was born in 
 Shetland in 1792. He was the principal founder, and 
 for many years the director, of the Peninsular and Orien- 
 tal Steam Navigation Company. 
 
 Anderson, (Christopher,) a British Baptist min- 
 ister, born in Edinburgh in 1782. He founded the Edin- 
 burgh Bible Society. His chief works are the " Domestic 
 Constitution," (1826,) and "Annals of the English 
 Bible," (2 vols., 1845.) Died in 1852. 
 
 See " Life and Letters of Christopher Anderson," by his nephew, 
 1854; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 An'der-son, (Sir Edmond,) an English judge, noted 
 for his learning, born at Broughton about 1530. He was 
 chief justice of the court of common pleas from 1582 
 until his death, and was one of the commissioners who 
 tried Mary, Queen of Scots, and Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 He treated the Puritans with rigour, but his judicial con- 
 duct is said to have been generally moderate and correct. 
 His " Reports of Cases argued and adjudged in the Com- 
 mon Bench" are esteemed good authority. Died in 1605. 
 
 See Foss, " Judges of England ;" Lloyd, " State Worthies." 
 
 An'der-son, (George,) a traveller, born in Sleswick. 
 lie traversed Persia, India, China, and other countries, 
 between 1644 and 1650, and published a narrative of his 
 travels, in German, (1669.) 
 
 Anderson, (George,) an English writer and mathe- 
 matician, born at Weston in 1760; died in 1796. 
 
 Anderson, (George B.,) an American general, born 
 at Wilmington, North Carolina, about 1834, graduated 
 at West Point in 1852. He commanded a brigade of 
 Lee's army at the battle of Antietam, and received there 
 a wound of which he died in October, 1862. 
 
 Anderson, (Henry J.,) professor of mathematics, 
 etc. in Columbia College, New York, from 1825 to 1843. 
 He was associated with Lieutenant Lynch in the explo- 
 ration of the Dead Sea, and published "Geology of 
 Lieutenant Lynch's Expedition, (1848.) 
 
 Anderson, (Isaac,) an American Presbyterian min- 
 ister, born in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 1780. 
 He was distinguished as a pioneer preacher or mission- 
 ary in the Western States, and as the founder of a theo- 
 logical seminary at Maryville, Tennessee. Died in 1857. 
 
 Anderson, (James,) a Scottish antiquary and histori- 
 cal writer, born at Edinburgh in 1662. He became a 
 resident of London soon after the union of England and 
 Scotland. He wrote an " Essay showing that the Crown 
 of Scotland is Independent," (1705,) and spent many 
 years in making a collection of ancient Scottish charters, 
 etc., which was published under the title of " Choice 
 Treasury (or Collection) of the Charters and Coins df 
 Scotland," (" Selectus Diplomatum et Numismatum 
 Scotia; Thesaurus," 1739.) He also published "Collec- 
 tions relating to the History of Mary, Queen of Scotland," 
 (4 vols., 1724-2S.) Died in 1728. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Anderson, (James,) an ingenious writer on agricul 
 ture and political economy, bom near Edinburgh in 1739 
 was a practical farmer. He published valuable " Essays 
 relating to Agriculture and Rural Affairs," (3 vols., 1 777,) 
 and edited a weekly periodical called "The Bee," (1790- 
 94,) which is highly commended. In 1797 he removed 
 to the vicinity of London, where he issued a monthly 
 periodical called "Recreations in Agriculture, Natural 
 History, Arts, and Literature," (1799-1802,) in which he 
 developed a new theory on rent, that was afterwards 
 adopted by Malthus and others. His scientific informa- 
 tion was extensive and accurate. Besides his other wri- 
 tings, he has contributed several articles to the " Ency- 
 clopaedia Britannica." Died in 1808. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Anderson, (James,) was physician-general of the 
 East India Company's army at Madras, in the last quar- 
 ter of the eighteenth century. He was noted for long and 
 diligent efforts to introduce the cochineal, mulberry- 
 tree, silkworm, and other productions, into Hindostan. 
 He published letters to Sir Joseph Banks and others on 
 these subjects. Died about 1810. 
 
 Anderson, (James,) M.D., an American physician, 
 born in 1752 ; died in Maryland in 1820. 
 
 See Thacher, "Medical Biography." 
 
 Anderson, (James Stuart Murray,) an English 
 writer, born about 1798, graduated as B.A. at Oxford in 
 1820. He became rector of Tormarton about 1850, and 
 published "The History of the Church of England in 
 the Colonies and Foreign Dependencies of the British 
 Empire," (3 vols., 185 1.) 
 
 Anderson, an'der-son, (Johann,) an accomplished 
 publicist, was born at Hamburg in 1674, and took the 
 degree of doctor of laws at Leyden in 1697. He was 
 afterwards employed by the citizens of Hamburg in va- 
 rious negotiations at different European courts. He 
 became successively syndic, burgomaster, and senior 
 burgomaster of his native city. Died in 1743. He left 
 an "Account of Greenland, Iceland, and Davis' Straits," 
 (1746.) 
 
 Anderson, (John,) born in Dumbartonshire, Scot- 
 land, in 1726, was appointed professor of natural phi- 
 losophy in the University of Glasgow in 1760. Died in 
 
 1796. He deserves honourable and grateful remem- 
 brance for having founded in Glasgow an institution, 
 called the Andersonian Institution, for the purpose of 
 imparting by popular lectures a knowledge of the useful 
 sciences to mechanics and others not able to go through 
 a full collegiate course. He published a popular work, 
 entitled "Institutes of Physics," (1786.) 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Anderson, (John,) a Scottish surgeon, born in Mid- 
 Lothian in 1789, wrote " Memoirs of the House of Ham- 
 ilton," (1825.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Anderson, (Rev. John,) a Scottish Presbyterian di- 
 vine, born about 1671. He became minister of Dum- 
 barton in 1704, and removed to Glasgow in 1720. His 
 chief work is a " Defence of the Church Government, 
 Faith, Worship, and Spirit of the Presbyterians,'' (1714.) 
 Died about 1722. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Anderson, (Joseph,) United States Senator, born 
 near Philadelphia in 1757. He was appointed by Wash- 
 ington, in 1 791, judge of the territory south of the Ohio. 
 Upon its organization into the State of Tennessee, in 
 
 1797, he was elected to the United States Senate, of 
 which he continued an influential member for nineteen 
 years, being twice chosen president pro iimpt >r,: From 
 1815 to 1836 he was First Comptroller of the United 
 States Treasury. Died in 1837. 
 
 Anderson, (Lars.) See Andre.*, (Laurf.ntiis.) 
 Anderson, (Richard C.,) an American diplomatist, 
 born in Kentucky about 1750. He was a representative 
 in Congress from Kentucky from 1817 to 1821, United 
 States Minister to the Republic of Colombia in 1823, 
 and in 1826 Envoy Extraordinary to the Assembly of 
 American Nations at Panama. Died at Panama in 1826. 
 Anderson, (Richard Henry,) an American general, 
 born in South Carolina about 1822, graduated at West 
 Point in 1842. He became a captain in 1855, resigned 
 
 € as i; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (£^r~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ANDERSON 
 
 122 
 
 ANDRAL 
 
 his commission in 1861, and was made a brigadier-gene- 
 ral in the confederate army. He commanded a division 
 at Gettysburg, July, 1863. 
 
 Anderson, (Robert,) M.D., a Scottish critic and 
 biographer, born in Lanarkshire in 1750. He resided 
 in Edinburgh from 1790 until his death, and had an ex- 
 tensive correspondence with literary men. He is best 
 known as editor of a good edition of " The Works of 
 the British Poets; with Prefaces Biographical and Crit- 
 ical," (14 vols., 1 792-1 807.) He also published "The 
 Life of Ur. Johnson," (1795,) and "The Life of Dr. Smol- 
 lett," (1803.) Died in 1830. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Anderson, (Robert,) a British poet, born at Carlisle 
 in 1770; died in 1833. Many of his ballads and other 
 poems are in the Cumberland dialect. His works are 
 chiefly of a humorous cast. 
 
 See "Autobiography of Robert Anderson." 
 
 Anderson, (Robert,) an American general, born 
 near Louisville, Kentucky, in 1805, graduated at West 
 Point in 1825. He served as captain in the Mexican 
 war, 1S46-47, and became a major of artillery in 1857. 
 In the autumn of i860 he took command of the forts of 
 Charleston harbour. He removed his garrison, Decem- 
 ber 26, from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter, which he 
 refused to surrender on the demand of Governor Pickens. 
 The insurgents besieged Fort Sumter, and began to bom- 
 bard it on the 12th of April, 1861. The bombardment 
 was kept up with red-hot shot and with unremitting 
 fury for many hours. Major Anderson's position having 
 at length been rendered untenable by want of provisions 
 and by the combustion of part of the fort, he surrendered 
 on the 13th of April. He was promoted to be a briga- 
 dier-general in the regular army in May, 1861. In con- 
 sequence of ill health, or some other reason, he took 
 no further part in the civil war. Died at Nice in 1871. 
 
 See Greeley's "American Conflict." 
 
 Anderson, (Walter,) a historical and critical writer, 
 who was minister of Chirnside, Scotland, for about fifty 
 years. Among his works are "The History of Croesus, 
 King of Lydia," (1755,) and "The Philosophy of Ancient 
 Greece investigated in its Origin and Progress, etc.," 
 (1791,) which has some merit, but was superseded by 
 Enfield's "Abridgment of Brucker." Died in 1800. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Anderson, (William,) a British naturalist who was 
 surgeon on the Resolution in Cook's second voyage 
 round the world, 1772-75. He wrote several short 
 treatises. 
 
 Anderson, (William,) a British horticulturist, born 
 about 1766, was for many years curator of the botanic 
 garden at Chelsea. Died in 1S46. 
 
 Andersson, an'der-son, (Charles John,) a trav- 
 eller, born in Sweden in the nineteenth century. Be- 
 tween 1850 and 1855 he passed several years in the ex- 
 ploration of Southern Africa, and made contributions to 
 the natural history and geography of that region. He 
 published a narrative of his adventures. While on a 
 hunting expedition in Southern Africa, he was attacked 
 and killed by a wounded elephant in 1856. 
 
 An'der-ton, (Henry,) an English painter of history 
 and portraits ; died about 1665. 
 
 Auderton, (James,) an English Roman Catholic con- 
 troveisial writer, who died in 1643. 
 
 Andhrimnir or Andrimner, an-drim'ner, in the 
 Norse mythology, the name of the cook who boils every 
 day, in the kettle Eldhrimnir, the flesh of the boar 
 Saehrimnir, for the table of the gods and heroes. 
 
 See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Mallet, " North- 
 ern Antiquities," vol. ii., Fable xx. 
 
 Audio (and'lo) or Andlau, Snd'low, written also An- 
 delo, an'deh-lo, (Peter Herman of,) [Lat. Pe'trus 
 de And'lo or And'elo,] a German jurist, of Italian de- 
 scent, lived in the fifteenth century, and wrote in Latin 
 on the Germanic Empire a work which is remarkable 
 as the first attempt in Germany to compile a system of 
 public law. 
 
 An-doc'I-des, ['AvdoxM^c,] an Athenian orator, born 
 about 467 B.C., was called one of the "Ten Orators." 
 He was appointed with Glaucon to command a fleet in 
 
 432, and acted a prominent part in political affairs. 
 When the thirty tyrants obtained power in 404 B.C., he 
 went into exile, from which he soon returned. He died 
 about 390 B.C. A few of his orations are extant. 
 
 Andoque, oN'dok', a French writer of the seven 
 teenth century, author of a History of Languedoc, (1648.) 
 
 Andrada, an-dka'da, (Francisco,) a Portuguese poet, 
 flourished about 1600. 
 
 Andrada, de, da an-dRa'Da, or Andrade, de, di 
 an-dRa'oa, (Alfonso,) a Spanish Jesuit, born at Toledo 
 in 1590, wrote many works on theology. Died in 1658. 
 
 Andrada, de, da an-dRa'da, or Andrade, de, da an- 
 dRa'da, (Antonio,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born in Alentejo 
 about 1580. He went as a missionary to India and 
 Thibet, and published a " New Discovery of the Grand 
 Cathay, or Kingdom of Thibet," (1627.) Died at Goa 
 in 1633. 
 
 Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (Diogo Lopez,) a 
 Portuguese preacher, born in Santarem in 1569; died 
 in 1635. 
 
 Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (Fernan Perez,) a 
 Spaniard, surnamed (in the Galician dialect) O Bo, 
 (" the Good,") was a friend of Henri de Trastamara. He 
 built, about 1388, a noble bridge across the Eume. 
 
 Andrada, de, (Fernao Perez,) a Portuguese naval 
 officer, commandt'l a ship in the fleet of Albuquerque, 
 who in 1 51 1 appointed him admiral of a fleet of ten 
 ships at Malacca. He defeated the Sultan of Java in a 
 sea-fight in 1513, and commanded the first European 
 fleet that appeared on the coast of China, (1518.) He 
 was successful in opening commercial intercourse with 
 the Chinese. 
 
 Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (Francisco Rades,) 
 a Spanish writer of great merit, born at Toledo, was 
 author of a " History of the Three Spanish Orders of 
 Chivalry," (1572.) He lived in the latter half of the six- 
 teenth century, and was chaplain to Philip II. 
 
 Andrada, de, or Andrade, de, (Jacinto,) an excel- 
 lent Portuguese writer, born at Beja in 1597. He was 
 abbot of the monastery of Santa Maria das Chas. Died 
 in 1657. His principal work is the Life of Dom Joao 
 de Castro, Viceroy of India, (1651,) which is a model of 
 fine writing. 
 
 Andrada, de, (Paolo Gonzalez,) a Portuguese 
 lyric poet of the early part of the seventeenth century. 
 He wrote a volume of Spanish poems, (published at 
 Lisbon in 1629.) 
 
 Andrada e Sylva, (or Silva,) an-dRa'da a sel'va, 
 (Jose Bonifacio,) a distinguished Brazilian, born at 
 Santos in 1765. He studied at the University of Coim- 
 bra in Portugal, and returned to Brazil in 1819. He was 
 a man of great courage, ability, and eloquence, and took 
 the lead in those measures which in 1822 severed Brazil 
 from Portugal and created it an independent empire. 
 He was prime minister of Brazil for a short time in 
 1822-23, and was appointed guardian of the emperor's 
 minor children in 183 1. He died in 1838, leaving sev- 
 eral scientific treatises. 
 
 His brothers, Antonio Carlos and Martin Fran- 
 cisco de Andrada, born towards the close of the eigh- 
 teenth century, were both distinguished for their talents 
 and eloquence, and both held high positions under the 
 Brazilian government. Antonio Carlos died in 1845. 
 
 See J. M. Pereira da Sylva, " Plutarco Brasileiro," 1847; E. 
 Joaquim da Sylva Maia, "Jose" Bonifacio de Andrada e Sylva, 
 Elogio historico," 1838 ; Fletcher and Kidder, " Brazil and the 
 Brazilians," 1868. 
 
 Andrade or Andrada, (Diogo de Payva — da pl'- 
 va,) a learned Jesuit, born at Coimbra, in Portugal, in 
 1528. He distinguished himself by his talents and elo- 
 quence at the famous Council of Trent, and afterwards 
 wrote an elaborate defence of its doctrines against Chem- 
 nitz, a Protestant controversialist. Died about 1575. 
 
 Andral, SN'dRil', (Gabriel,) an eminent French 
 physician, born in Paris in 1797, was a son of Guillaume, 
 noticed below. He published " Clinique Medicale," (4 
 vols., 1824-27,) and a "Summary of Pathological An- 
 atomy," (3 vols., 1829,) which had a great success. He 
 wrote also various other medical works. In 1830 he 
 became professor of pathology, and in 1839 succeeded 
 Broussais in the chair of pathology and therapeul.es, in 
 
 a, e, I, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mJt; not; good; rroon- 
 
ANDRAL 
 
 123 
 
 ANDREA 
 
 Paris. lie was admitted into the Institute in 1842. The 
 wife of Dr. Andral was a daughter of Royer-Collard. 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 See Qubkakd, "La France Litteraire." 
 Andral, (Guillaume,) a distinguished physician, the 
 father of the preceding, was born in Lot in 1769. He 
 became a physician to the army of Italy, and obtained a 
 high position under Murat at NaDles about 1808. 
 Audray. See Andre. 
 Andre. See Andrew. 
 Andre. See ANDREAS. 
 
 Andre, oN'dRa', called Syl'vius, [in French, Du Hois, 
 dii bwa',] a French chronicler of the twelfth century. 
 
 Andre, an'dita, (Christian Karl,) a German teacher 
 and writer, born at Hildburghausen in 1763. He taught 
 near Gotha and at Briinn, and was editor of a popular 
 magazine called "Hesperus," (1809-31.) Among his 
 numerous works are "Useful Walks for Every Day in 
 the Year," (1790,) and a valuable " Geographico-Statis- 
 tical Description of the Austrian Empire," (1813.) Died 
 at Stuttgart in 1831. 
 
 Andre, (Emu.,) a German writer on the culture and 
 management of forests, was born at Schnepfenthal in 
 1 790. 
 
 Andre, ft.N'dRa', or Saint-Andre, saN'tfiN'dRa', 
 (Francois,) a French medical writer, lived about the 
 close of the seventeenth century. 
 
 AndreS, sometimes written Andray, dN'dRa', (Jean,) 
 a French historical painter, born at Paris in 1662 ; died 
 in «753- 
 
 Andre., (Johann,) a celebrated German composer, 
 kapellmeister to the Prince of Prussia, was born at Offen- 
 bach in 1741. He composed many operas and songs. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 Andre, (Johann Anton,) a musical composer, son 
 of the preceding, was born at Offenbach in 1775. He 
 composed masses, concertos, symphonies, etc., and pub- 
 lished some works which Mozart left in manuscript. 
 Died about 1845. 
 
 Andre, an'dra or an'dre, (John,) an adjutant-general 
 in the British army of the American Revolution, cele- 
 brated for his complicity in the treason of Arnold, was 
 bom in London in 1751. His parents were from Geneva, 
 in Switzerland, where he was educated with a view to 
 becoming a merchant. But, being crossed in love, he 
 abandoned the counting-house for the camp, and received 
 his first commission in the British army in 177 1. In 
 1774 he came to America as a lieutenant in the Royal 
 Fusiliers, and was among the officers captured at Saint 
 John's early in the war by Montgomery. His varied and 
 graceful talents and his engaging manners appear to 
 nave obtained for him the appointment of adjutant-gen- 
 eral with the rank of major, without his performing any 
 distinguished military services. He held, moreover, a 
 facile and at times satirical pen, and occasionally amused 
 himself with caricaturing in rhyme the appearance and 
 exploits of the "rebel" officers. After the evacuation 
 of Philadelphia by the British he was employed to carry 
 on a correspondence with a body of loyalists near the 
 Chesapeake, who were conspiring to restore the royal 
 government He first introduced himself to the notice 
 of Arnold by means of a letter, written August 16, 1779, 
 to Mrs. Arnold, whose acquaintance he had formed in 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Major Andre was employed by Sir Henry Clinton to 
 conduct the secret negotiations with Benedict Arnold for 
 the surrender of West Point ; and for rhis purpose he 
 assumed the name of John Anderson. On the 21st of 
 September, 1780, Major Andre and Arnold had an inter* 
 .hua H. Smith. Arnold furnished 
 
 er, 1 780, Major 
 
 he house of Josh 
 
 number of pat 
 
 view at the 
 
 Andre a number of papers relating to West Point, in- 
 cluding maps and plans and memoranda of the weakest 
 points where an attack might be made with the best 
 advantage. He also gave him a passport through the 
 American lines. After he' parted from Arnold, Smith 
 accompanied him beyond the American outposts, and 
 Andre proceeded towards New York City by land. 
 Andre now pursued his journey in confident security 
 until he had crossed a small stream near Tarrytown, 
 when three men, armed with muskets, emerged from a 
 thicket and brought him to a stand. Losing all caution, 
 
 he exclaimed, "Gentlemen, I hope you belong tc out 
 party i" " What party ?'" asked the leader. " The lower 
 party," said Andre. " We do," was the reply. Andre 
 then declared himself a British officer on important 
 business, who must not be detained a moment. To his 
 consternation, the party now declared themselves Ameri- 
 cans, and told Andre he was their prisoner. Recovering 
 himself, he attempted to pass off his former declaration 
 as a subterfuge, saying he was a Continental officer 
 procuring information from below, and showed a pass 
 from Genera! Arnold. The suspicions of his captors, 
 however, were fully aroused, and, on searching his per- 
 son, the papers furnished him by Arnold were found 
 between his stockings and the soles of his feet. As a 
 last resort, Andre offered them his horse and watch, 
 or any reward they might name, if they would let him 
 go. But the sturdy republicans were not to be bribed. 
 They conducted him ten or twelve miles to North Castle, 
 and delivered him to Lieutenant-Colonel Jameson. Rec- 
 ognizing the handwriting of Arnold in the papers found, 
 and perceiving that they were of a dangerous nature, 
 Colonel Jameson forwarded them by express to Wash- 
 ington at Hartford, and then, with an obtuseness almost 
 incredible, was about to send Andre to Arnold with a let- 
 ter stating the circumstances of his arrest and the char- 
 acter of the papers found on him. Major Talmadge, ar- 
 riving soon after, immediately suspected Arnold, and, by 
 earnest entreaty, prevailed on Jameson to detain Andre ; 
 but the letter was suffered to go on and furnish Arnold 
 timely warning to make his escape. Andre was tried by 
 a court-martial and condemned to be hung as a spy. He 
 admitted freely who he was, and for what purpose he 
 came within the American lines, but declined disclosing 
 anything implicating any other person. Sir Henry Clin- 
 ton made great efforts to secure his release. It was 
 intimated to him that Andre would be given up on the 
 surrender of Arnold ; but this was not to be thought of. 
 Andre requested that his sentence might be commuted 
 to being shot; but the magnitude of the plot in which he 
 was implicated forbade any indulgence being shown him. 
 He was executed at Tarrytown on the morning of Oc 
 tober 2, 1780, conducting himself with great fortitude to 
 the last. The day before his execution he sketched, 
 with pen and ink, a miniature likeness of himself, which 
 is now in the Trumbull Gallery of Yale College. In 
 1821 his remains were transferred to England and in. 
 terred in Westminster Abbey. The names of his captors 
 were John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van 
 Wart. They were liberally rewarded by Congress, and 
 in 1853 a monument was erected to their memory on 
 the site of Andre's arrest. Joshua H. Smith was tried 
 for treason, but acquitted on the plea of his ignorance 
 of Arnold's traitorous designs. 
 
 See Life of Benedict Arnold, in Sparks's "American Biography ;" 
 Winthrop Sargent, "Life and Career of Major John AndreV' 1S61 ; 
 "Atlantic Monthly" for December, i860. 
 
 Andre, 5N'dRa', L'AIjbe, a French writer, born at 
 Marseilles, lived between 1750 and 1800. He published 
 an edition of the works of D'Aguesseau, (13 vols., 
 1759-90.) 
 
 Andre, (Rudolph,) a German writer on rural econ- 
 omy, born at Gotha in 1792, was a brother of Emil, 
 above noticed, and was a practical cultivator. It is 
 stated that he first described the art of improving races 
 of animals. Died in 1825. 
 
 Andre, (Marshal Saint.) See Saint-Andre. 
 
 Andre, (Vai.ere.) See Andreas, (Valerius.) 
 
 Andre, (Yves Marie,) a French Jesuit writer, and 
 professor of mathematics at Caen, born in 1675 in Brit- 
 tany ; diedin 1764. He is known as the author of an " Es- 
 say on the Beautiful," (i74i,)awork of considerable merit 
 
 Andrea, an-dRa'a, (Alessandro,) an Italian histori- 
 cal writer, born at Barletta in 1519. 
 
 Andrea, (Giovanni,) an Italian scholar, born at 
 Vigevano in 141 7, became Bishop of Aleria in Corsica. 
 He is chiefly remembered as the editor of several clas- 
 sical works published at Rome, among which are " Ca;- 
 sar's Works," (1469 ;) " The Decades of Livy," (1470 ;) 
 "The Works of Virgil," (about 1470;) "P'iny's Natural 
 History," (1470,) and "Cicero's Orations,' ,1471.) Died 
 in 1475. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as t; th as in this. ( Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ANDREA 
 
 124 
 
 ANDREI 
 
 Andrea, written also Andreas, (Onukrio,) a< Nea- 
 politan poet, wrote, besides other works, a heroic poem, 
 called " Italia Liberata," (1646.) He was ranked among 
 the best Italian poets of his time by Crescimbeni. Died 
 about 1650. 
 
 Andrea Pisano, (pe-sa'no,) a celebrated Italian 
 sculptor and architect, born at Pisa about 1270, was a 
 pupil of Nicola and Giovanni Pisani. He was one of 
 the first who abandoned the Gothic style for the antique 
 models of Greece. He was invited to Florence to exe- 
 cute the sculptures of the facade of Santa Maria del 
 Fiore. At the death of Arnolfo di Lapo, Andrea was 
 appointed superintendent of the public works of Flor- 
 ence. He designed the Castello di Scarperia and the 
 church of San Giovanni at Pistoja. His master-piece 
 of sculpture is the bronze rilievi of the gates of the 
 baptistery of San Giovanni at Florence, (1339.) Died 
 at Florence in 1345. 
 
 His son Nino was an able sculptor, and finished some 
 of his father's works. 
 
 See Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura." 
 Andrea, (Zoan or Giovanni,) a skilful Italian en- 
 graver, who lived in the early part of the sixteenth 
 century. He copied and imitated the prints of Man- 
 tegna. His works are rare, and command high prices. 
 See Ottley, " Early History of Engraving.*' 
 Andrea, d', dan-dRa'a, (Francesco,) an eminent 
 jurist of Naples, born near Amalfi in 1625 ; died in 
 1698. 
 Andrea del Caatagno. See Castagno. 
 Andrea del Sarto or Vannucchi See Sarto. 
 Andrea di Luigi. See Luigi. 
 Andreas, in-dRa'a, (Abraham,) a Swedish prelate, 
 born in Angermannland. He was elected Archbishop 
 of Upsal in 1593, before which date he had opposed the 
 attempt of King John to restore the Roman Catholic 
 religion in Sweden. He died in prison in 1607. 
 
 Andreas or Andrea, an-dRa'i, (or Andreas, an- 
 dRa'as,) (Jacob or James,) an eminent German Protest- 
 ant theologian, born at Waiblingen, in Wiirtemberg, in 
 1528. He was ordained deacon at Stuttgart in 1546, 
 alter which he became professor at Tubingen. He 
 performed many long journeys in Germany to organ- 
 ize the Lutheran worship, and acquired great influ- 
 ence by his learning, energy, and eloquence. He was 
 president of a board of five who, in 1580, produced the 
 " Formula Concordia;," a summary and symbol of faith 
 then adopted, and still recognized, by the Lutheran 
 Church. He wrote many polemical works against the 
 Calvinists and Papists. Died in 1590. 
 
 See Meixhior Adam, " Vitae Germanorum 'Fheologorum ;" J. V. 
 Andrew, " Kama Andreana reflorescens," etc., 1630; Lebket, 
 " Programmaia III. de J. Andrea; Vita," 1799. 
 
 Andreae, an'dre-e or an-dua'a, [Fr. Andre, ON'- 
 dRa',] (Johannes or Giovanni,) an eminent professor 
 of canon law, was born near Florence about 1275. He 
 was professor at Bologna for many years. Died in 1348. 
 He was reputed the most celebrated canonist of the 
 fourteenth century. His " Commentaries on the Decre- 
 tals" were highly esteemed. 
 
 See Fantuzzi, " Scrittori Bolognesi ;" Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori 
 d'ltalia." 
 
 Andreas, (Johann Georg Reinhardt,) a German 
 apothecary, bom at Hanover in 1724. He wrote treat- 
 ises on chemistry, botany, etc., which appeared in the 
 " Hanover Magazine," and " Letters from Switzerland," 
 (2d edition, 1776.) Died in 1793. 
 
 Andreae or Andrea, (Fr. Andre, oN'dRa',] (Jo- 
 hann Valentin,) a German satirical writer of great 
 merit, born at Herrenberg, in Wiirtemberg, in August, 
 1586, was a grandson of Jacob Andreae, (1528-90.) He 
 became deacon at Vaihingen in 1614, town-pastor at 
 Calw in 1620, court preacher at Stuttgart in 1639, and 
 ecclesiastic counsellor to the Duke of Brunswick-Wol- 
 fenbiittel in 1642. The institution of the order of Rosi- 
 crucians is ascribed to him by some writers ; but the 
 disputes on this question have not dispelled its obscurity. 
 His principal work is a " Hundred Satirical Dialogues," 
 (" Menippus, sive Dialogorum Satiricorum Centuria," 
 161 7.) He showed a liberal philosophical spirit in his 
 Latin work entitled " The Images of the Virtues and 
 
 Vices of Human Life," (1619.) He also published 
 poems in German, which are praised by Herder. Died 
 in 1654. " Andreae," says Hallam, " was a man above 
 his age, and a singular contrast to the narrow and pe- 
 dantic herd of German scholars and theologians." 
 
 See Seybold, " Selbstbiographien berubmter Manner," 1799; W. 
 Hossbach, "J. V. Andrea; und seiner Zeitalter dargestellt," 1819; 
 Flogel, "Geschichte der Komischen Literatur." 
 
 Andreas, (Laurentius,) [Sw. Lars An'derson,] 
 one of the principal agents in the introduction of the 
 Reformation into Sweden. He was converted to the 
 Protestant faith in 1520, and appears to have become 
 soon after the principal adviser of Gustavus Vasa, who 
 appointed him chancellor. In 1526 he published a 
 translation of the New Testament into Swedish. 1 le 
 afterwards incurred the suspicion and displeasure of his 
 sovereign, and died in obscurity in 1552. 
 
 See Gezelius, "Biographiskt-Lexicon." 
 
 Andreas, (Tobias,) a German Cartesian philosopher, 
 born at Braunfels in 1604, was professor of Greek at 
 Groningen. Died in 1676. 
 
 Andreas, (Tobias,) a German physician and profes- 
 sor of philosophy, was born at Bremen in 1633 ; died 
 at Franeker in 1685. 
 
 Andreani, an-dRa-a'nee, (Andrea,) a noted Italian 
 engraver, surnamed Mantuano, (i.e. the "Mantuan,") 
 born at Mantua about 1540 ; died in 1623. He carried 
 to great perfection the art of engraving on wood in 
 chiaroscuro. His master-piece is "The Triumph of 
 Caesar." 
 
 Au'dre-as, [Gr. 'kv&peac,] the name of several an- 
 cient physicians, none of whom is of sufficient note to 
 deserve a place here. 
 
 An'dreas, an archbishop of Csesarea in Cappadocia, 
 supposed to have lived about the close of the fifth cen- 
 tury. He wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse. 
 
 An'dreas surnamed Creten'sis, ("of Crete,") a 
 native of Damascus, who became Archbishop of Crete 
 near the end of the seventh century. 
 
 Andreas, (Italian.) See Andrea. 
 
 Andreas, an-dRa'as, Archbishop of Lund, in Sweden, 
 wrote " Hexaemeron," a Latin poem on the Creation, 
 and was author or compiler of the "Laws of Zealand." 
 Died in 1228. 
 
 An-dre'as or An'drew, (of Naples,) called also 
 Andreasso, an-dKa-as'so, born about 1324, was the 
 second son of Carobert, King of Hungary. His marriage 
 with Joanna, heiress of the throne of Naples, was cele- 
 brated in 1331, and she became queen regnant in 1334. 
 A conspiracy having been formed against him by sev- 
 eral princes and barons of Naples, he was assassinated 
 in 1345- 
 
 Andreas, an-dRa'as, a liberal German prelate, Arch- 
 bishop of Crain, (Carniola,) attempted to reform the 
 Romish Church, the corruptions of which he boldly ex- 
 posed. He was committed to prison and strangled in 
 1484. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Andreas or Andrew, (John,) surnamed Ratisbo- 
 nen'sis, (i.e. "of Ratisbon,") sometimes called Andreas 
 Magister, (i.e. "Andrew the Master,") a learned Ger- 
 man chronicler who lived about the year 1400. 
 
 Andreas, (Onuphrius.) See Andrea, (Onufr;o.) 
 
 Andreas, an-dRa'as, or Andre, ON'dRa', (Valerius,) 
 a Flemish bibliographer, born in Brabant in 1588. lit 
 became professor of Hebrew and of law at Louvain. 
 His reputation is founded chiefly on his " Bibliotheca 
 Belgica," (1623,) a work of some value on the life and 
 writings of eminent Belgians. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Felix Neve, "V. Andri professeurd'rWbreu, etc.," 1846; E. 
 Vandkki.inden, "V. Andrea; Prajconium," 1850. 
 
 Andreasi or Andreassi, an-dRa-as'see, (Ippoi.ito,) 
 an Italian painter, born at Mantua, was a pupil of Giulio 
 Romano, and lived about 1600. 
 
 Andre-Bardon. See Dandre. 
 
 Andre du Bois. See Andre Sylvius. 
 
 Andreevsky, an-dRi-ev'ske, (Stepan,) a Russian 
 physician, who became minister of finances in 1807 ; died 
 in 1818. 
 
 Andrei, an-dRa'e or an-dRa', or An'drew, (Yaro- 
 slavitch, ya-ro-slFvitch,) a younger brother of Alexan- 
 
 S, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; mows 
 
ANDREI 
 
 I2C 
 
 ANDREW 
 
 der-Xcvsky, waged war against Batoo- (or Batou-) Khan 
 the Mogul. Died in 1264. 
 
 Andrei or Andrew, surnamed Yoorevitch or You- 
 rkvuc H, yoo'rf-vitch, Grand Duke of Russia, born in 
 1 1 to, was a warlike prince, and extended his dominions 
 by conque*st. He was assassinated in 1174. 
 
 'Andreini, an-dRa-ee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 actor and writer of comedies, born at Pistoja, lived 
 about the close of the sixteenth century. He is supposed 
 to have died about 1620. 
 
 Andreini, (Giovanni Battista,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, also an actor and writer, was born at Florence 
 about 1578; died about 1650. Besides other successful 
 works, he wrote a sacred drama entitled " L'Adamo," 
 (la-dd'mo,) (or "Adam," 1613,) from which Milton is by 
 some supposed to have derived the idea of " Paradise 
 
 Andreini, (Isabella,) a native of Padua, the wife of 
 Francesco, noticed above, was both an accomplished 
 actress and a poetess. Though greatly admired for her 
 personal attractions, she maintained an irreproachable 
 character. Died in 1604, aged forty-two. Among her 
 poems is "Mirtilla, a Pastoral Fable," (1588.) 
 
 Andreini, (Pietro Andrea,) a learned Italian an- 
 tiquary, born at Florence about 1650; died in 1720. 
 
 Andrelini, an-dRa-lee'nee, (Public. Fausto,) [in 
 Latin, Puu'lius Faus'tus Andreli'nus,] an Italian 
 writer cf Latin poetry, was born at Fori! about 1450. 
 In 1489 he was appointed by Charles VIII. professor 
 of classical literature in the University of Paris, where 
 he died in 1518. His pretensions as a poet were ridi- 
 culed by Erasmus, who said his verses lacked only one 
 syllable, i.e. sense. 
 
 ' Andreoli, an-dRa-o'lee, (Giorgio da Gubbio — da 
 goob'be-o,) an Italian sculptor and worker in terra-cotta, 
 lived about 1 500. 
 
 Andreossi or Andreossy, ftN'dRa'o'se', (Antoine 
 Francois,) Count of, a distinguished French military 
 officer and engineer, born at Castelnaudary, in Langue- 
 doc, in 1761. He served with distinction in Italy, 
 (1796,) became general of brigade about 1797, and went 
 to Egypt in 1798. He contributed, as a member of the 
 Institute of Cairo, to the labours of the " Commission of 
 Egypt," and wrote excellent memoirs on Lake Menza- 
 len and the natron lakes. He officiated as chief of the 
 staff of Bonaparte on the 18th Brumaire, 1799, and 
 was made general of division, and appointed succes- 
 sively ambassador to London, Vienna, and Constan- 
 tinople. On the restoration of the Bourbons (1814) 
 he was recalled from the Ottoman Porte, and remained 
 in private life till the revolution of March, 1815, when 
 he again accepted office under Napoleon as the head of 
 the war department. After the defeat of Napoleon at 
 Waterloo, he was one of the five commissioners sent to 
 negotiate an armistice with the allied powers, on which 
 occasion he gave his ready consent to the recall of the 
 Bourbons. He became a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1826, was elected to the Chamber of Deputies 
 in 1827, and died in 1828. He left, besides otherworks, 
 a "Journey to the Mouth of the Black Sea, or Essay on 
 the Bosphorus and Delta of Thrace," (1818.) 
 
 See Marion, "Notice necrologique sur le Conite Andreossi," 
 1843; " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 Andreossy or Andreossi, (Francois,) an ancestor 
 of the preceding, born in Paris in 1633. He was an 
 eminent mathematician and engineer, and deserves es- 
 pecial notice as the projector of the Canal of Langue- 
 doc. Died in 1688. 
 
 Andreozzi, in-dRa-ot'see, (Gaetano,) an Italian dra- 
 matic composer, born at Naples in 1763 ; died in 1826. 
 
 Andres, Sn'dRcs, (Bonavfni ura JoHann,) a learned 
 Jesuit, born at Nuremberg in 1744; died in 1822. 
 
 Andres, an-dR?s', (Carlos,) a Spanish lawyer, born 
 near Valencia in 1753. He translated into Spanish several 
 >vorks of his brother Juan Andres. Died in 1820. 
 
 Andres, (Juan,) a most learned Spanish author, born 
 at Planes, in the province of Valencia, in 1740, joined 
 the Society of Jesuits in 1754. When the Jesuits were 
 expelled from Spain in 1767, he went first to Corsica 
 and afterwards to Italy. The most important and best- 
 known of his numerous works is that entitled "On the 
 
 Origin, Progress, and Present State of all Literatuie," 
 (" Dell' Origine, de' Progressi, e dello Stato attuale d'ogni 
 I.etteratura," 7 vols., 1782-99.) He was appointed by 
 Joseph Bonaparte prefect or keeper of the royal library 
 at Naples in tSo6. His best works are in Italian, al- 
 though he sometimes wrote in Latin, and occasionally in 
 Spanish. His "Essay on the Philosophy of Galileo" 
 (1776) is particularly commended. Died in 1817. 
 
 Sea Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Andres de Gusseme, an-dReV da goos'sa-ma, 
 (Tomas,) a Spanish numismatist of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Andres de TJztarroz, 3n-dReV da ooth-tar-rAth', 
 (Juan Francisco,) an eminent Spanish historian and 
 antiquary, born at Saragossa about 1606. He obtained 
 the title of chronicler of the kingdom. Among his numer- 
 ous works is one called " Annals of the Crown and 
 Kingdom of Aragon," (1663.) Died in 1653. 
 
 An'drew, [Gr. Avopeafj Fr. Andre, d.N'dRa'; Lat. 
 An'DRKAS,] Saint, one of the twelve apostles, was a 
 brother of Saint Peter, and a fisherman of Galilee. He 
 appears to have found the Messiah and become his dis- 
 ciple before any other of the twelve, with perhaps one 
 exception. (See John i. 40.) He is supposed to have 
 preached the gospel in Greece, Thrace, and the coun- 
 tries north of the Danube. Tradition adds that he suf- 
 fered martyrdom at Patrae, (now Patras,) in Achaia. (See 
 Matthew iv. 18, x. 2; Mark i. 16, xiii. 3; Luke vi. 14; 
 John vi. 8, xii. 22.) 
 
 An'drew or Andras, Sn'drSs, the name of three 
 Hungarian kings of the line of Arpad, between 1046 and 
 1301. Andrew I. ascended the throne about 1046; died 
 about 1060. 
 
 Andrew H. of Hungary, born about 1 176, began to 
 reign in 1205. In 1222, seven years after King John of 
 England had granted the Magna Charta to his barons, 
 Andrew II., scarcely less weak than his English con- 
 temporary, promulgated the Golden Bull, or Magna 
 Charta of Hungary, in which the following remarkable 
 clause occurs : " If we, or any of our successors, ever at 
 any time wish to act contrary to this our ordinance, then 
 let our bishops and the other barons and nobles of our 
 kingdom, all and sundry, present and to come, have the 
 free power of resisting and contradicting us and our suc- 
 cessors, as a perpetual privilege, without the reproach 
 of any want of fidelity." This provision was confirmed 
 and sworn to by every successive king of Hungary for 
 more than four hundred years. In 1687 it was modified 
 with the consent of the states. Andrew died in 1235, 
 and was succeeded by his son Bela. 
 
 Andrew III., King of Hungary, a grandson of An- 
 drew II., was born at Venice. He began to reign in 
 1290. The pope claimed Hungary as a fief of the pope- 
 dom, and made a donation of it to Charles Martel, son 
 of the King of Naples, whose army was defeated by An- 
 drew (1291) at Agram. He died in 1301, and was the 
 last king of the line of Arpad. 
 
 Andrew of Crete. See Andreas. 
 
 Andrew, Prince of Russia. See Andrei. 
 
 Andrew of Pisa. See Andrea Pisano. 
 
 An'drew, (James,) a Scottish mathematician and 
 grammarian, born in 1774; died in Edinburgh in 1833. 
 
 An'drew, (John Alkion,) an American statesman, 
 born at Windham, Maine, in May, 1818. He graduated 
 at Bowdoin College about 1857, studied law, and was 
 admitted to the bar in Boston in 1840. He gained dis- 
 tinction by his opposition to slavery, and was elected a 
 member of the legislature by the Republicans of Boston 
 in 1858. In i860 he was elected Governor of Massa- 
 chusetts for one year. Within a week after President 
 Lincoln's call for seventy-five thousand men, April 15, 
 1861, he dispatched five regiments in answer to that 
 summons. He was elected Governor the second time, 
 in 1861, and afterwards re-elected at three successive 
 elections. In his message of January, 1862, he said, 
 "The great rebellion must be put down, and its pro- 
 moters crushed beneath the ruins of their own ambition. 
 The greatest crime of history must receive a doom so 
 swift and sure that the enemies of popular government 
 shall stand in awe while they contemplate the elastic 
 energy and conccntrative power of democratic institu- 
 
 € as t; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N. nasal: R. trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ANDREWS 
 
 126 
 
 ANDRIEUX 
 
 tions and a free people." Governor Andrew acquired 
 great and well-deserved popularity by his assiduous at- 
 tention to the wants of the soldiers 111 the field, by the 
 fervid eloquence with which he animated the people 
 during the civil war, and by his persistent efforts for the 
 arming and liberation of the negroes. He died, deeply 
 lamented, in October, 1867. A meeting of members of 
 the legislature of Massachusetts passed a resolution — 
 "'fhat in his decease the commonwealth and the nation 
 alike have suffered an irreparable loss ; that his reputa- 
 tion had become national, and we might well have hoped 
 for him the highest national offices and honours." 
 
 "Among the many heroic men," says Mrs. Stowe, 
 "who have sacrificed their lives in the great battle of 
 liberty in our country, there is no one who deserves a 
 more honoured memory than John A. Andrew of Mas- 
 sachusetts." 
 
 See Harriet Beecher Stowe, "Men of Our Times," 1868; P. 
 C. HeadleVj "Massachusetts in the Rebellion," p. 18; "Notice of 
 the Official Life of Governor Andrew," (anonymous,) 1868. 
 
 An'drews, (Annie M.,) an American lady, born 
 about 1835. She devoted herself to the relief of the 
 sick as a nurse during the prevalence of the yellow fever 
 at Norfolk, Virginia, in 1855. 
 
 Andrews, (Ebenezer S.,) an American publisher, 
 born in Boston in 1766. As a partner of Isaiah Thomas, 
 he established a publishing house at Baltimore in 1794, 
 and another at Albany in 1796. Died in 1851. 
 
 Andrews, (Ethan Allen,) LL.D., an American 
 scholar and writer, born at New Britain, in Connecticut, 
 in 1787, graduated at Yale College in 1810. He was for 
 several years professor of the ancient languages in the 
 University of North Carolina. He was the author of a 
 number of school-books, chiefly designed for those com- 
 mencing the study of the Latin language. Andrews and 
 Stoddard's " Latin Grammar" in particular has had an 
 extensive circulation. His most important work is an 
 excellent Latin-English Lexicon, (1850,) on the basis of 
 Freund's " Worterbuch der Lateinischen Sprache." Died 
 in 1858. 
 
 An'drews, (Henry,) an English artist and botanist, 
 who resided in London. He published a series of col- 
 oured engravings with descriptions of rare plants, en- 
 titled "The Botanist's Repository," (10 vols., 1797-1814.) 
 Among his other works is a " Monograph of the Genus 
 Rosa," with coloured figures. 
 
 Andrews, (James Petit,) an English historical wri- 
 ter, born near Newbury, in Berks, in 1737. He pub- 
 lished a " History of Great Britain connected with the 
 Chronology of Europe," (vol. i., part i., 1794, part ii., 
 1795,) a work of some merit, which was never finished. 
 It is composed on a new plan, and comprises the period 
 from Caesar's invasion to the accession of Edward IV. 
 Among his other works is a curious and amusing collec- 
 tion of "Anecdotes, etc., Ancient and Modern," (1789,) 
 and a " Continuation of Henry's History of Great Brit- 
 ain" (1 vol., 1796) to the accession of James I. Died 
 in 1797. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine," September, 1797. 
 
 Andrews, (John,) LL.D., an English historian, for 
 whose biography we find scanty materials. His princi- 
 pal works are a " History of the Revolutions of Den- 
 mark," (2 vols., 1774,) and a " History of the War with 
 America, France, Spain, and Holland," (4 vols., 1785-86). 
 He died in his seventy-third year, in 1809. " By his 
 death," says the " Gentleman's Magazine," " the nation is 
 deprived of an able historian and a profound scholar." 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine," February, 1809. 
 
 Andrews, (John,) D.D., an Episcopal clergyman, 
 born in Cecil county, Maryland, in 1746. In 1789 he 
 was appointed professor of moral philosophy in the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania, and in 1810 became provost of 
 that institution. He published " Elements of Logic." 
 Died in 1813. 
 
 Andrews or Andrewes, an'druz, (Lancelot,) an 
 English divine of great learning, was born in London in 
 1555, and educated at Cambridge. Having attained 
 distinction as a preacher, he became one of the chaplains 
 of Queen Elizabeth, who appointed him Dean of West- 
 minster in 1601. He was one of *he ten divines selected 
 to translate the Pentateuch in tht reign of James I., and 
 
 was chosen Bishop of Chichester in 1605. At the re- 
 quest of the king, he wrote a work called " Torture of 
 Tortus," ("Tortura Torti," 1609,) in which he de- 
 fended the authority of kings in ecclesiastical affairs, in 
 answer to Matthew Tortus. He was translated to the 
 see of Ely in 1609 and made a privy councillor. In 
 1618 he was promoted to the see of Winchester, and 
 became dean of the royal chapel. He died in 1626, 
 leaving a high reputation for piety, moderation, and 
 charity. Among his most popular works we may name 
 his " Manual of Private Devotions and Meditations for 
 every Day in the Week," and a " Manual of Directions 
 for the Visitation of the Sick." He was probably more 
 learned in canon law and ecclesiastical antiquities than 
 any of his English contemporaries. His style was once 
 greatly admired, but is too affected and pedantic to please 
 the critics of the present age. His death was deplored 
 by Milton in a Latin elegy. 
 
 See Cassak, "Lives of the Bishops of Winchester;" Fuller, 
 " Worthies of England," and his " Church History ;" Isaacson, 
 " Life of Bishop Andrews," 1650. 
 
 Andrews, (Miles Peter,) M.P., an English drama- 
 tist, but more noted as a man of fashion than as an au- 
 thor, was a son of a merchant of London, and inherited a 
 fortune. He wrote several comedies, one of which is 
 called "Better Late than Never," (1790.) He repre- 
 sented Bewdley in Parliament from about 1790 till his 
 death. His dinners and entertainments were celebrated. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 See " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 An'drews, (Thomas,) M.D., F.R.S., a chemist, born 
 in Belfast, graduated at Edinburgh in 1835. He re- 
 ceived from the Royal Society, in 1845, a medal for his 
 researches into the heat produced by chemical combina- 
 tion. He became professorof chemistryat Belfastin 1849. 
 
 Andri. See Andry. 
 
 Andria, an'dRe-a, (Nicola or Niccol6,) an able 
 Italian scientific writer, born in Otranto in 1748. He 
 became successively professor of natural history, ( 1 775>) 
 physiology, (1801,) and the theory of medicine, (1808,) 
 at the University of Naples. Among his works are 
 " Elements of Chemical Philosophy," in Latin, (1786,) 
 " Institutes of the Practice of Medicine," (" Institu- 
 tiones Medicinae Practical," 1790,) and "General Ob- 
 servations on the Theory of Life," (1804.) Died in 
 1814. His Latin works have been translated into Italian, 
 and the last of the above-named into French. 
 
 See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 
 
 Andrian- Warburg, von, fon an'dRe-an waR'booRG, 
 (Victor,) Baron, an Austrian writer on politics and 
 government, born near Goritz in 1813. 
 
 Andriessens, an'dRes'slns, (Anton,) a skilful Dutch 
 landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam in 1746. He 
 was a member of the Academy of that city. Died in 
 
 1813. 
 
 Andriessens, (J.,) a brother of the preceding, born 
 at Amsterdam in 1742, was a painter of history and land- 
 scape, and a distinguished teacher of art. Several emi- 
 nent artists were pupils of his school at Amsterdam. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 See Descamps, "Viesdes Peintres Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Andrieu or Andrieux, oN'dRe'uh', (Bertrand,) 
 a celebrated French medallist and mint engraver, born 
 at Bordeaux about 1760. He worked in Paris, and ex- 
 celled in minuteness and correctness of execution. He 
 engraved medals for the most important events of the 
 reign of Napoleon. Among his master-pieces are " Na- 
 poleon crossing the Alps," " The Battle of Marengo," 
 and "The Peace of Vienna." Died in 1822. 
 
 Andrieu, 6N'dRe'uh', (Marie Martin Antoine,) 
 a French military officer, born in 1768, became adjutant- 
 general in 1797. Died in Saint Domingo in 1802. 
 
 Andrieux, 6N'dRe'uh', (Franqois Guillaume Jean 
 Stanislas,) a popular French dramatist and poet, born 
 at Strasburg in 1759. He studied law, which he prac- 
 tised for some years. In 1787 he produced a successful 
 comedy, "The Giddy-Heads," (" Les fitourdis.") He 
 hailed the Revolution with joy ; he was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the Council of Five Hundred in 1798, and of the 
 Tribunat in 1800. Having been removed from this 
 office, on account of his independence, in 1802, be re 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ANDRI0L1 
 
 127 
 
 ANDR OS 
 
 nounced politics. In 1804 he became professor of gram- 
 mar and belles-lettres in the Ecole Polytechnique, and 
 librarian of the Senate. He was chosen, at the unani- 
 mous desire of the members of the French Academy, 
 professor of literature in the College of France in 1814, 
 which position he held nearly twenty years. As a lec- 
 turer he was very popular. In 1829 he was elected per- 
 petual secretary of the French Academy. Among his 
 numerous works are several comedies in verse, one of 
 which is called "La Comedienne," (1816,) occasional 
 poems, and " Lectures on the Philosophy of the Belles- 
 Lettres." Died in Paris in 1833. 
 
 See A. H. Taillandier, '* Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages 
 d'Andrieux," 1850; M.Thiers, ll Discours sur Andricux," in the 
 " Recueil de 1'Acad^mie Francaise," 1830-39 ; also article by A. H. 
 Taillandier, in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Andrioli,an-dRe-o'lee,(GiROLAMO,) an Italian painter 
 of Verona, lived about 1610. 
 
 Andriolli, an-dRe-ol'lee, (Michel Angelo,) a phy- 
 sician and medical writer of Verona, lived about the end 
 of the seventeenth century. He wrote a " Manual of 
 Practical Medicine," (1700,) and other medical works of 
 some merit. 
 
 An-dris'cus, [Gr. 'Avdpt'ovcoc,] a native of Adramyt- 
 tium, in Asia Minor, declared himself, about 150 B.C., the 
 son of Perseus, King of Macedon, assumed the name 
 of Philip, (whence he was called Pseudo-Philippus, i.e. 
 the "false Philip,") and made himself master of all 
 Macedonia. He defeated one Roman army, but was at 
 length defeated himself and taken prisoner by Caecilius 
 Metellus, 148 B.C. 
 
 Androcle. See Androcles. 
 
 An'dro-cles, ['Avo/joavI^c,] an Athenian demagogue, 
 enemy of Alcibiades, after whose exile, 415 B.C., he be- 
 came the chief of the democratic party at Athens. He 
 was assassinated in 41 1 B.C. 
 
 Androcles or An'dro-clus, [Fr. Androcle, 6n'- 
 dRok'l',] a slave who lived at Rome about the beginning 
 of the Christian era, was the subject of a well-known 
 story, which is briefly as follows. He ran away from 
 his master, and hid himself in a wild region of Africa, 
 where he extracted a thorn from the foot of a lion that 
 he met in a cave. The grateful animal, in return, 
 shared with Androcles the products of the chase for 
 several years. Having been caught by his master, An- 
 drocles was condemned to fight in the circus with a lion, 
 which proved to be his former friend, and received him 
 with caresses. Androcles was then pardoned and set 
 free. This remarkable narrative is related by Aulus 
 Gellius on the authority of one who affirmed that he 
 had witnessed the scene at the amphitheatre. 
 
 See "The Guardian," No. 139, by Addison; Dion Cassius; 
 Aulus Gellius. 
 
 An'dro-clus, a son of Codrus, King of Athens, led 
 a colony to Asia Minor, and became King of Ephesus, 
 probably about 1050 B.C. 
 
 An-dro-cy'des, ['AviponidrK,] a Greek painter, a na- 
 tive of Cyzicus, was a rival of Zeuxis, and lived about 
 400 or 375 B.C. 
 
 Androcydes, a Greek physician who lived about 
 330 B.C. 
 
 An-dro'ge-us, [Gr. 'Avopoyeoc; Fr. Androgen, Sn'- 
 dRo'zha',] a son of Minos, King of Crete, vanquished 
 all the Greek athletes at the games of the Panathenaea. 
 It was fabled that ^Egeus, moved by envy, caused him 
 to be assassinated, and that Minos waged war against 
 Athens to avenge his death. 
 
 An-drom'a-ehe, [Gr. ' Avipo/iu^r/ ; Fr. Andromaque, 
 ox'dRo'mik',] a Trojan lady, the wife of Hector, cele- 
 brated for her beauty and virtue. On the fall of Troy 
 she became the captive of Pyrrhus. She was afterwards 
 the wife of Helenus, a son of Priam. 
 
 An-drom'a-ehus, [Gr.'Awlpcyzaror/,] an ancient phy- 
 sician, native of Crete, who became "Archiatros" (i.e. 
 "chief physician") to the Roman emperor Nero. He 
 invented or improved a famous medical compound called 
 " Theri'aca Androm'achi." 
 
 Andromaque. See Andromache. 
 
 An-drom'e-da, [Gr. 'AvApo/ieii) ; Fr. Andromede, 
 ON'dRo'mJd',] a daughter of Cepheus, King of Ethiopia, 
 and of Cassiopeia. According to the Greek poets, she 
 
 was rescued from a sea-monsten, by Perseus, and was 
 transformed into a constellation of the celestial sphere. 
 
 Andronic, the French of Andronicos, which see. 
 
 An-dro-ni'cus [Gr. ' XvSpovtKoc] of Olyn'thus, a 
 general of Alexander the Great. In 314 B.C. he fought 
 for Demetrius against Ptolemy. 
 
 Andronicus, an Egyptian Jew, who lived in the reign 
 of Ptolemy Philometor.'in the second century B.C. In a 
 judicial contest between the Jews and Samaritans, re- 
 specting the authority of the temples at Jerusalem and 
 Gerizim in Samaria, Andronicus pleaded the cause of the 
 Jews with success before the king. 
 
 Andronicus, a Greek poet of high reputation, born 
 in Egypt, lived about 360 A.D. His works are not ex- 
 tant. 
 
 Androni'cus, (Joan'nes Callis'tus,) a Greek 
 teacher, born at Thessalonica, (Saloniki,) was learned in 
 grammar and philosophy. After the capture of Con- 
 stantinople in 1453, he fled to Italy, and taught the Greek 
 language at Rome and Florence. He was afterwards a 
 professor in the University of Paris. Died about 1478. 
 
 Andronicus, (Marcus Livius.) See Livius An- 
 dronicus. 
 
 Andronicus, (Marcus Pompilius,) an Epicurean 
 philosopher of Syria, taught at Rome about 60 B.C. 
 
 Androni'cus Rho'dius, (i.e. "of Rhodes,") a 
 Peripatetic philosopher, who collected, revised, and ar- 
 ranged the works of Aristotle about 80 B.C. He is said 
 to have invented the term Metaphysics. His works are 
 lost. 
 
 Andronicus An'ge-lus, a nephew of Alexis Com 
 nenus, was a general in the reign of Manuel, 1143-80 
 His sons Isaac and Alexis became emperors. 
 
 Androni'cus I., Com-ne'nus, [Gr. 'AixSpovucoc K0/1 
 vrjvoc; Fr. Andronic, SN'dRo'nek',] a Byzantine em 
 peror, remarkable for his talents, personal beauty, 
 strength, profligacy, and cruelty. He was born about 
 1 1 15, and was a grandson of Alexis I. Comnenus. He 
 succeeded in getting himself appointed regent during the 
 minority of Alexis II. ; but, abusing the powers thus con- 
 ferred, he put that prince and his mother the empress 
 Maria to death, and usurped the throne, in 1183. Some 
 of the nobles having formed a conspiracy against him, 
 he determined to exterminate the whole body of the 
 aristocracy. When multitudes had already perished, and 
 his cruel purpose seemed on the point of being com- 
 pletely fulfilled, the people of Constantinople rose in 
 insurrection, seized Andronicus, and, after inflicting on 
 him every species of indignity, put him to death, in 1 1 85. 
 
 See Nicetas, "Andronicus Comnenus;" Gibbon, "Decline and 
 Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Androni'cus Cyrrhes'tes, (slr-r?s'tez,) [Kv^cttk,] 
 a Greek architect, who is supposed to have designed the 
 Tower of the Winds at Athens, which was intended to 
 show the direction of the wind. 
 
 Andronicus II., Palaeologus, (pa-le-ol'o-gus,) [Gr. 
 Ua?,ai6fa>yoc,] a son of the emperor Michael, was born 
 about 1260, and began to reign in 1283. He manifested 
 a decided hostility to the Roman Pontiff, by whom he 
 was excommunicated in 1307. He waged war with va- 
 rious success against the Turks. In 1328 he was de- 
 posed by his grandson Andronicus, and died about 1332. 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 Andronicus III., Palaeologus, grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, was born about 1296. The emperor his grand- 
 father resolved, on account of his djssolute habits, to 
 deprive him of his right to the succession. After a civil 
 war of several years between the young prince and his 
 grandfather, the latter abdicated in 1328. Andronicus 
 III. whs defeated by the Turks in 1330, and was, from the 
 time of his accession, involved in almost continual wars. 
 Died in 1341, aged forty-five, and was succeeded by his 
 son John. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 An'dros, (Edmund,) an English gentleman, born in 
 London in 1637, was in 1672 major in Prince Rupert's 
 regiment of dragoons. In 1674 he was appointed Gov- 
 ernor of New York. He was recalled in 1681, and re- 
 ceived the honour of knighthood. In 1686, James II., 
 having resolved to unite the whole of New England 
 under one government, appointed Sir Edmund Andros 
 
 t as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; 0, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jgp-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ANDROS 
 
 128 
 
 ANGELIS 
 
 Governor of the same, and subsequently, in 1688, of 
 New York. In consequence of his arbitrary proceedings, 
 his administration became very unpopular. On the news 
 of the landing of the Prince of Orange in England, the 
 inhabitants of Boston rose in insurrection, (April, 1689,) 
 imprisoned Andros, and restored Bradstreet, the former 
 Governor. In the following July, orders came from 
 King William to send Andros to England ; but, the 
 charges against him having been withdrawn, he escaped 
 unpunished, and afterwards, in 1692, was appointed 
 Governor of Virginia. He was removed in 1698, and 
 died in England in 1 7 13 or 1 7 14. 
 
 See Belknap, " History of New Hampshire :" Neal, "History 
 of New England:" Bancroft, " History of the United States," 
 vols. ii. and ni. ; Hildreth, " History of the United States." 
 
 An'droa, (Thomas,) an American divine and patriot, 
 born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1759. He fought at 
 the battles of Long Island and White Plains, was after- 
 wards taken prisoner, and confined in a prison-ship, 
 from which he escaped. He preached more than forty 
 years at Berkeley, Massachusetts. Died in 1845. 
 
 An-dros'the-nes, [Gr.'Av<Sp6o-0CTJ7c,l a Greek sculptor 
 of Athens, lived about 420 B.C., and adorned the temple 
 of Apollo at Delphos. 
 
 Andro3thenes of Thasos, a general of Alexander 
 the Great, accompanied Nearchus in the expedition to 
 explore the Persian Gulf. 
 
 An-dro'ti-011, ['Awiporiuv,] an Athenian orator and 
 demagogue, a pupil of Isocrates, lived about 350 B.C. 
 We have an oration of Demosthenes against a political 
 measure which Androtion advocated. 
 
 Androuet du Cerceau, oN'dRoo'.i' dii sSr'so', 
 (Jacques,) a skilful French architect, born at Paris, (or, 
 as some writers state, at Orleans,) was a Protestant. He 
 was appointed royal architect about 1578, and designed 
 the Pont Neuf, at Paris. He was employed by Henry 
 IV. in the extension of the Tuileries, and is supposed to 
 have commenced the gallery of the Louvre. He pub- 
 lished several architectural works, one of which is called 
 "The Most Excellent Buildings (Bdtiments) of France," 
 (1576.) Died about 1592, in exile for his religion. 
 
 See Dezai.lier d'Argenville, "Vies des famenx Architectes." 
 
 Andry, 6N'dRe', (Charles Lours Francois,) a 
 French physician, born in Paris in 1741. He wrote an 
 able "Treatise on the Induration of Cellular Tissue 
 in New-born Infants," (1788.) He was one of the con- 
 sulting physicians of Napoleon I. Died in 1829. 
 
 Andry, (Nicolas,) surnamed Boisregard, (bwaV- 
 gSlt',) a French physician and medical writer, born at 
 Lyons in 1658, became dean of the faculty of medicine 
 in the University of Paris in 1724. He lost this position 
 after the lapse of two years. His " Treatise on the Gen- 
 eration of Worms in the Human Body" (1700) was 
 reprinted and translated into English, German, Italian, 
 and Dutch. Died in 1742. 
 
 Aueau or Amieau, f no', (Barthei.emy,) a French 
 poet and historian, born at Bourges, was favourable to 
 the Protestant faith. He was killed by a mob in 1561. 
 
 Anel, fuel', (Dominique,) a distinguished French 
 surgeon, born at Toulouse in 1678. He introduced 
 important improvements in the operations for aneurism 
 and fistula lachrymalis. His method for the former was 
 further improved by John Hunter. He practised in 
 Paris with high reputation, chiefly as an oculist, and 
 wrote several surgical works. Died probably about 1 725. 
 
 See " Biographie Me'dicale." 
 
 Aneley. See Annesley. 
 
 Anelli, a-nel'lee, (Angelo,) an Italian poet and pro- 
 fessor, born near Brescia in 1761. He became professor 
 of history and eloquence at Brescia in 1802, and of fo- 
 rensic eloquence at Milan in 1809. Among his works 
 are odes, elegies, comedies, and a humorous satirical 
 poem called " The Chronicles of Pindus," (" Le Cronache 
 di Pindo," 181 1,) which is commended. Died in 1820. 
 
 Anerio, a-na're-o, (Felice,) a celebrated Italian 
 composer, was born at Rome about 1560. He composed 
 both sacred and secular music, and succeeded Pales- 
 trina as composer to the chapel of the pope. Died 
 about 1630. 
 
 See Fhtis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Anerio, (Giovanni Francesco,) a composer and 
 musician, a brother of the preceding, was born at Rome 
 about 1567 ; died after 1603. 
 
 Anesi, a-na'see, (Paolo,) a painter, born at Florence, 
 lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. 
 
 An'eu-rin, a Welsh poet of the sixth century. Among 
 his works is a poem of nine hundred lines, called the 
 " Gododin," which is still extant 
 
 See E. Jones, " Relicks of the Welsh Bards." 
 
 Anfossi, an-fos'see, (Pasquale,) a successful Italian 
 dramatic composer, born at Naples about 1733. He 
 lived in Paris, London, and Rome, and composed many 
 operas, oratorios, masses, and motets. Among his best 
 operas are "Antigone" and " L'Avaro." He died at 
 Rome about 1795. 
 
 Anfosso, an-fos'so, (Jacopo,) an able Italian en- 
 graver, worked at Pavia in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Ange de Saint-Joseph, oNzh deh siN'zho'ze'f', or 
 Joseph Labrosse, (U'bRoss',) a French missionary, 
 born at Toulouse in 1636, laboured in Persia. Died in 
 1697. 
 
 Ange de Sainte-Rosalie, oNzh deh saNt'ro'zi'le', 
 or Francois Raffard, (rS'faV,) a French monk, born 
 at Blois in 1655. He wrote a History of the House of 
 France. Died in 1726. 
 
 Angela of Brescia, or Angela Merici, an'ja-la 
 ma-ree'ehee, who founded the order of Ursuline nuns, 
 was born near Brescia in 151 1 ; died in 1540. 
 
 Angeli, (French and German.) See Angely. 
 
 An'ge-li, (singular, An'ge-lus,) the name of a By- 
 zantine family, several of whose members were empe- 
 rors of Constantinople ; viz., Isaac Angelus, who died 
 in 1204, Alexis III., (see Alexis.) and Alexis IV. 
 
 Angeli, ar/ji-lee, (Bonaventura,) an Italian writet 
 and jurist, born at Ferrara about 1525 ; died about 1592. 
 His most important work is a "History of Parma," 
 (159 1.) He also wrote several legal treatises. 
 
 Angeli, jin'ja-lee, (Fii.ippo,) an Italian painter of 
 landscapes and battles, born in Rome, was esteemed one 
 of the best landscape-painters of his time. He worked 
 at Florence, to which he removed in 1612, and was pa- 
 tronized by the Grand Duke Cosmo. In his works the 
 aerial perspective is well expressed, and he is said to 
 have been the first painter who applied the strict rules 
 of perspective to landscapes. He was sometimes called 
 Filippo Napolitano, because he lived at Naples in his 
 youth. Died about 1645. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Angeli, (Stefano,) an able Italian mathematician, 
 who lived about 1650, was a pupil of Cavalieri. He 
 taught mathematics at Padua, advocated the Copernican 
 system, and published, besides other works, " Proble- 
 mata Geometrica," (1658.) 
 
 Angelico, (Fra.) See Fiesole. 
 
 Angelico, an-jel'e-ko, (Michel Angelo,) an Italian 
 apothecary, born at Vicenza, lived about 1600. 
 
 Angelico, (Michel Angelo,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Vicenza. He entered the service of the emperor 
 Leopold in 1690 as imperial poet, and lived at Vienna. 
 Among his works is a volume of " Lyric Poems," 
 ("Poesie liriche," 1665.) Died at Vienna in 1697. 
 
 Angelio, £n-ja'le-o, or degli Angeli, dil'yee 3n'- 
 ja-lee, (Pietro,) [Lat. Pe'trus Ange'lius,] a distin- 
 guished Italian scholar and writer of Latin poetry, was 
 born at Barga, (whence he was called Barg>eus, bar- 
 je'us,) in Lucca, in 1517. He was professor of belles- 
 lettres, etc. at Pisa for about twenty-five years. Among 
 many other poems, he wrote a Latin epic on the con- 
 quest of Jerusalem by the crusaders, entitled " The 
 Syriad," (" Syriados Libri XII.," 1591,) a work which was 
 greatly admired by his contemporaries and was even 
 compared to Tasso s immortal poem. In the estimation, 
 however, of more recent critics, it possesses but little 
 merit. His poem on hunting, " Cynegeticon, vel de 
 Venatione," (1562,) is commended as his best work. 
 Died in 1596. 
 
 See Mazzuchelu, " Scrittort d'ltalia;" Ginguenb, " Histoire 
 Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Angelis, an'ja-les, or degli Angeli, dil'yee an'ja-!ee, 
 (Alessandro,) an Italian astronomer, born at Spoleto 
 in 1562 ; died in 1620. 
 
 i, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, it, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; tar, fall, fat; m£t; nftt; good; moon; 
 
ANGELIS 
 
 129 
 
 ANGLES ET 
 
 Angelis, (Filippo.) See Angei.i. 
 
 Angelis, fix'zlia'lcss', (Pierre,) a French painter of 
 landscapes and conversation-pieces, born at Dunkirk in 
 1685. He worked several years in England with suc- 
 cess, visited Rome in 1728, and afterwards settled at 
 Rennes, where he died in 1734. " His manner," says 
 Walpole, "was a mixture of Teniers and Watteau, with 
 more grace than the former, more nature than the latter." 
 
 See Walpole, " Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Angelis, de, daJn'ja-les, (Domenico,) a Neapolitan 
 biographer, born at Lecce in 1675 5 died in 1719. 
 
 Angelis, de, (Girolamo,) a devoted Jesuit mission- 
 ary, born in Sicily in 1567. He visited the Japanese 
 islands in 1602, and, after having made many thousand 
 converts, was burnt alive in 1623. 
 
 Angelis, de, (Paolo,) an Italian antiquary, born in 
 Syracuse ; died in 1647. 
 
 'Angelis, de, da ax'zha-les, (Pedro,) a Portuguese 
 publicist, born in Italy, resided at Buenos Ayres. He 
 published in Spanish a work on the history of the prov- 
 inces of Rio de la Plata (in seven volumes, the first of 
 which appeared in 1836.) It is entitled "Coleccion de 
 Obras y Documentos relativos a la Historia," etc. 
 
 Angell, an'jel, (Joseph K.,) a distinguished Ameri- 
 can writer on law 1 , born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 
 1794. He published, besides other works, a "Treatise 
 on the Right of Property in Tide-Waters," (1826.) in 
 conjunction with Samuel Ames, he wrote a "Treatise 
 on the Law of Private Corporations Aggregate," (2d 
 edition, 1843,) which, says Chancellor Kent, is a "very 
 learned, full, and finished treatise, and cannot be too 
 highly praised." Died in 1857. 
 
 Aiigelo, in'ji-lo, (F.,) an Italian poet of Florence, 
 wrote " I Lucidi," a comedy, and other poems. Died at 
 Rome in 1548. 
 
 Angelo di Buonarotti, (Michael.) See Michael 
 Angelo. 
 
 Angelo, (Policiano.) See Poi.iziano. 
 
 Angelo, di, de an'ja-lo, (Jacopo,) a Tuscan, who 
 lived in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and was 
 distinguished for his successful efforts to introduce into 
 Italy the study of Greek literature. 
 
 Angeloni, Sn-ja-lo'nce, (Francesco,) an Italian an- 
 tiquary, born at Terni, in the Roman States, was the 
 uncle and instructor of Bellori. He was secretary to 
 Cardinal Aldobrandini. Among his principal works is 
 " Istoria Augusta," and "The History of Rome from 
 Julius Caesar to Constantine the Great, illustrated by 
 Ancient Medals," (1641.) Died in Rome in 1652. 
 
 Angeloni, (Luigi,) an Italian politician, born in the 
 Roman Campagna about 1758. He became a tribune in 
 the Roman republic in 1798, and emigrated or fled to 
 Paris in 1799. He entered into a conspiracy against 
 Bonaparte, and was imprisoned for a number of months, 
 about 1810. In 1811 he published a work on the life 
 and writings ,of Guido d'Arezzo, who has been called 
 the restorer of music. He also wrote several political 
 treatises. Died in London in 1842. 
 
 Angelo Rocca. See Rocca. 
 
 Angelucci, an-ja-loot'chee, (Teodoro,) an Italian 
 poet and physician, born near Tolentino, in the march 
 of Ancona. He was an admirer of Aristotle's philosophy, 
 in behalf of which he wrote against Patrizzi. He left, 
 besides several medical works, a translation of Virgil's 
 /Lneid into blank verse, (1649,) which is praised by 
 some Italian critics. Died at Montagnana in 1600. 
 
 An'ge-lus, (Christopher,) a Greek scholar, who 
 came to England in 1608, and, after studying in Trinity 
 College, taught at Oxford, where he died in 1638. He- 
 left a few unimportant works written in Greek and 
 also in English, and some others written in Greek and 
 Latin. 
 
 An'ge-lus Sile'sius^se-lee'she^s,) [Ger. pron. Jng'- 
 gi-lus se-la'ze -is,] otherwise called Johann Schef fler, 
 a German poet, born at Breslau in 1624. He was author 
 of "The Angelic Book of Wonders," ("Cherubinisches 
 Wunderbuch," 1674.) Died in 1677. 
 
 Angely or Angeli, d.szh'le', or L'Angely, l&Nzh'le', 
 a witty court fool to Louis XIII. of France. His name 
 is preserved in Boileau's 1st Satire. 
 .Angely, 6Nzh'le', (Louis,) a popular German dra 
 
 matic writer and actor, born at Berlin about 1775, of a 
 family originally from France. He particularly excelled 
 as a ready and rapid translator of French comedies and 
 vaudevilles. His " Feast of the Craftsmen," and " Seven 
 Girls in Uniform," had great success. Died in 1835. 
 
 Angennes, d', d&N'zheV, (Charles,) a brother of 
 Claude, noticed below, was born in 1530, and made car- 
 dinal in 1570. Died in 1587. 
 
 Angennes, d', (Claude,) Bishop of Mans, an influ 
 ential ecclesiastic in the time of Henry III. and Henry 
 IV. of France. Born in 1538; died in 1601. 
 
 Angerbode or Angerboda. See Angurboda. 
 
 Angermayer, ang'er-ml'er, (Christoph,) a Bavarian 
 sculptor, born at Weilheim ; died in 1653. 
 
 Angerstein, ang'er-stfn, (John Julius,) a patron of 
 the fine arts, born at Saint Petersburg in 1735. He re- 
 moved to England, where he became an eminent mer- 
 chant. His rich collection of paintings forms part of the 
 National Gallery in London. Died in 1822. 
 
 Anghiera, de, di an-ge-a'rS, (Pietro Martire — 
 mak'te-ra,) [Lat. Pe'trus Mar'tyr Angi.e'rius,] an 
 Italian scholar, statesman, and historian, born at Arona, 
 on Lake Maggiore, of a noble Milanese family, in 1455, 
 went to Spain in 1488, and spent several years at the 
 court of Ferdinand and Isabella, whence he was sent 
 in 1501 on an embassy to Venice and Cairo. He was 
 afterwards appointed a member of the Council of the 
 Indies. Died at Granada in 1526. He left a valuable 
 historical work on the progress of American discovery, 
 entitled "Concerning the Things of the Ocean and the 
 New World," etc., (" De Rebus Oceanicis et Orbe Novo 
 Decades," 1530.) 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. part ii. 
 
 Angilbert, ang'gil-bert, or En'gil-bert, [Fr, pron. 
 ftN'zhel'baiR' ; Lat. Angilber'tus or Engilber'tus,] 
 Saint, a pupil of Alcuin, and confidential friend of 
 Charlemagne, became abbot of Saint-Riquier in 793, and 
 died in 814A.D. He was the author of some short Latin 
 poems. Bertha, a daughter of Charlemagne, was his 
 wife, or at least mother of his children. Angilbert was 
 called the Homef of his time. 
 
 See Mabillon, "Acta," etc, p. 101 et seq. ; " Histoire Litt^raire 
 de France." 
 
 Angiolello, an-jo-lel'lo, or Anzolello, an-zo-lel'le, 
 (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian, who was taken captive 
 in 1469, and became the slave of the sultan Mahomet 
 II. He accompanied the Turkish army in 1473 in its 
 invasion of the dominions of Uzun Cassim, King of 
 Persia, of which expedition he wrote a historical account. 
 Died about 1530. 
 
 Angiolini, an-jo-lee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 Jesuit and scholar, born at Piacenza in 1738. He trans- 
 lated Josephus into Italian, (1780,) also some dramas of 
 Sophocles and Euripides, hied at Polotsk in 1788. 
 
 Angiviller, d', doN'zhe've'va', (Charles Claude 
 Labillarderie — lit'be'yiRd'rc',) Count, a French pa- 
 tron of arts and sciences, a favourite of Louis XVI., be- 
 came director of the royal buildings, gardens, manufac- 
 tures, etc. Died in 1810. 
 
 Anglada, oN'gli'da", (JOSEPH,) a French physician, 
 born at Perpignan in 1775. He was professor of medi- 
 cine or chemistry at Montpellier,- and author of a " Treat- 
 ise on the Mineral Waters of the Pyrenees," (2 vols., 
 1833,) and a "Treatise on Toxicology," (1835.) Died 
 in 1S33. 
 
 Angleberme or Engleberme, d', dftN'g'l-biRm', 
 (Jean Pykrhus,) a French jurist, born at Orleans in 
 1470, was instructed in Latin and Greek by Erasmus. 
 Ik- became professor of law at Orleans, and published, 
 besides other works, a treatise " On the Salic Law," 
 (1613.) Died in 1521. 
 
 Anglesey, (Arthur.) See Annesley. 
 
 Anglesey, Karl ok. See Annesley. 
 
 Anglesey, ang'g'1-see, (Henry William Pag'et,) 
 MtRQUIS or, a British general and statesman, born in 
 1768, was the eldest son of the Earl of Uxbridge, and 
 was styled Lord Paget in his youth. He served in the 
 campaign of Flanders in 1794, and commanded the cav- 
 alry of the army of the Duke of York in Holland in 
 1799. Having obtained the rank of major-general in 
 1808, he distinguished himself as a cavalry officer in 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JtySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 9 
 
ANGLICUS 
 
 130 
 
 AN HALT 
 
 Spain under Sir John Moore. On the death of his fa- 
 ther in 1 81 2 he succeeded to the earldom, and entered 
 the House of Lords. He was appointed commander of 
 the cavalry of the British army in the spring of 1815, 
 and rendered important services at Waterloo, where he 
 lost a leg. A few days after this action he was rewarded 
 with the title of Marquis of Anglesey. In 1819 he was 
 promoted to the rank of general. He became master- 
 general of the ordnance on the formation of the minis- 
 try of Canning in 1827, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland 
 in 1828. Having declared in favour of Catholic eman- 
 cipation, he was recalled about the end of 1828, but was 
 appointed again to that office by Ear] Grey in 1830. 
 He resigned office in 1833, and was master of the ord- 
 nance from 1846 to 1852. Died in 1854, leaving several 
 sons. 
 
 See Lodge's " Portraits ;" " Gentleman's Magazine," June, 1854. 
 Anglicus. See Gilbertus. 
 Angliviel. See Beaumelle. 
 
 Anglure, d', doN'gliiR', (Oger, o'zhaiR',) a French 
 gentleman, who made a pilgrimage to Palestine in 1395 
 and wrote a narrative of his journey. 
 Anglus, (Thomas.) See White. 
 Ango or Angot (oN'go') of Dieppe, a rich French 
 ship-owner, who, in 1530, blockaded Lisbon on his pri- 
 vate account and obtained compensation for injuries 
 which his vessels had sustained from the Portuguese. 
 Died in 1551. 
 
 Ango, (Pierre,) a writer on optics, lived at Caen be- 
 tween 1650 and 1700. 
 Angosciola. See Anguisciola. 
 Angot, fiN'go', (Robert,) a French poet of moderate 
 talents, born at Caen in 1581. He published in 1603 a 
 collection of odes, sonnets, epigrams, etc., called " Le 
 Prelude poetique." 
 Angot des Rotours. See Desrotours. 
 Angouleme, d', d&N'goo'lim', Comte, was the title 
 of Francis I. before his accession. Charles IX. was 
 styled the Duke of Angouleme before he was king. 
 
 AngoulSme, d', (Charles de Valois — deh vi'lwa',) 
 Due, a natural son of Charles IX. of France, was born 
 in 1573. He distinguished himself at the battles of 
 Arques and Ivry, (1590,) where he fought for Henry IV. 
 He was condemned to imprisonment for life in 1604 for 
 a plot against that king, but was released in 1616. 
 He opened the famous siege of Rochelle in 1628, and 
 was commander-in-chief there until the arrival of the 
 king. He displayed address and talent in civil and 
 military affairs, but was destitute of principle. Died in 
 1650. 
 
 See Sismonui, " Histoire des Francais." 
 Angouleme, d', (Jacques,) an eminent French sculp- 
 tor, who worked at Rome about the middle of the six- 
 teenth century. Among his works (which were com- 
 pared to those of Michael Angelo) was a statue of Au- 
 tumn, at Meudon, near Paris. 
 
 Angouleme, d', (Louis Antoine de Bourbon — 
 deh booR'b6N',) Due, a son of Comte d'Artois, after- 
 wards Charles X. of France, was born in 1775. He 
 emigrated with his father in 1789, and resided some time 
 at Turin. In 1799 he married his cousin Marie Therese 
 Charlotte, a daughter of Louis XVI. Having been re- 
 fused the privilege of asylum by several powers of the 
 continent, they lived in England from 1806 to 1814. 
 He commanded the French army which invaded Spain 
 in 1823 and restored Ferdinand VII. to absolute power. 
 He assumed the title of dauphin when his father be- 
 came king in 1824. Died at Goritz in 1844. 
 
 Angouleriie, d', (Marie Therese Charlotte,) 
 Duchess, wife of the preceding, was a daughter of Louis 
 XVI. and Marie Antoinette. She was born at Versailles 
 in 1778, and imprisoned in the Temple in August of 1792, 
 with the king and queen. In 1795, by the mediation of 
 Austria, she was released and exchanged for Camus and 
 other members of the Convention. She returned to 
 France with her husband in 1814, and was at Bordeaux 
 when Bonaparte arrived from Elba. The duke, having 
 received a high command as lieutenant-general of the 
 kingdom, assembled an army to oppose the Bonapart- 
 ists. The duchess is said to have acted with more en- 
 
 ergy and spirit fn this crisis than the other Bourbons. 
 She again became an exile in 1830, and died in 185 1. 
 
 See Mrs. Romer, "Memoirs of the Duchess of Angouleme." 
 
 Angran dAlleray, 6N'gR&N' daTr&', (Denis Fran 
 (JOIS,) a benevolent French judge, born in Paris in 1 7 1 5. 
 He was executed in 1794 for sending money to his son- 
 in-law, who had emigrated. 
 
 Anguier, SN'geJk', (Francois,) an excellent French 
 sculptor, born at Eu, in Normandy, in 1604. He studied 
 at Rome, and after his return was appointed by Louis 
 XIII. keeper of his cabinet of antiques. Among his 
 best productions are a tomb of Cardinal de Berulle and 
 a mausoleum of the Duke of Montmorency at Moulins. 
 His works are remarkable for truth of expression. 
 Died in 1669. 
 
 See " Vies des fameux Sculpteurs." 
 
 Anguier, (Michel,) a celebrated sculptor, a brother 
 of the preceding, born at Eu in 161 2. He was a pupil of 
 Algardi at Rome, where lie studied and worked ten 
 years. In 165 1 he returned to Paris, where he became 
 rector of the Academy. His master-piece is 1 group of 
 the Nativity, in the church of Val de Grace. Died in 
 1686. 
 
 Anguillara, In-gwel-la'ra, (Luigi,) an eminent Italian 
 botanist, born at Anguillara, in the Papal States. He 
 became superintendent of the botanic garden at Padua 
 about 1546, and, according to Sprengel, was professor in 
 that city. In 1561 he resigned his office and retired to 
 Florence. Having travelled in Greece and other foreign 
 lands, and collected many plants, he endeavoured to iden- 
 tify them with those described by the ancient Greek and 
 Roman writers. He was author of a work on " Simples," 
 ("Semplici di Luigi Anguillara," 1561,) which had a high 
 reputation. Died about 1570. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia;" Hallhr, " Bibliotheca 
 Botanical" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. " 
 
 Anguillara, dell', del-lan-gwel-la'ra, (Giovanni An- 
 drea,) a popular Italian poet, born at Sutri, in the Papal 
 States, about 1517, is said to have ruined himself by de- 
 bauchery, gaming, and other vices. His principal work 
 is a translation, or rather a free imitation, of Ovid's 
 "Metamorphoses," (1554-61,) which has been extrava- 
 gantly praised by Italian critics, some of whom have 
 preferred it to the original. Died at Rome after 1565; 
 but the exact date of his death is not known. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia;" Tiraboschi, "Storia 
 della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Anguillesi, an-gwe-la'see, (Giovanni Domenico,) an 
 Italian writer and scholar, born at or near Pisa in 1 766. 
 Died in 1833. He translated Chateaubriand's " Genie 
 du Christianisme," and other French works, into Italian. 
 
 Anguisciola, an-gwe-sho'la, or Angussola, an- 
 goos'so-la, (Sofonisba,) a celebrated Italian painter, 
 born at Cremona about 1535, was a pupil of Bernardino 
 Gatti. She excelled in portraits. Having been invited IrJ 
 Philip II. of Spain, she went to Madrid and painted por- 
 traits of the king and queen. She afterwards worked in 
 Genoa, and was married to Don Fabrizzio de Moncada. 
 About the age of sixty-seven she became blind. It is 
 stated that Van Dyck said he had learned more from her 
 conversation on art than from the study of the best mas- 
 ters. Died about 1620. Her sisters Lucia, Europa, and 
 Anna Maria were skilful painters. 
 
 See Bermudez, " Diccionario Historico ;" Soprani, " Vite de' Pit- 
 tori Genovesi." 
 
 Angurboda or Angerboda, ang'ger-bo'da, (Angr- 
 boda,) i.e. "anguish-boding," written also An'gerbode, 
 (Norse Myth.,) a female Jotun, who by Loki became the 
 mother of the wolf Fenrir, the Midgards Serpent, 
 and Hela, (the goddess of death,) which see. 
 
 Angus, Earls of. See Douglas. 
 
 Angus, ang'gus, (Samuel,) a captain in the Ameri- 
 can navy, born in Philadelphia in 1784. In 1814 he 
 commanded the vessel which took Adams and Clay to 
 Ghent to conclude the treaty of peace with Great Britain. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Anhalt, an'halt, (Anton Gunther-goon'ter,) Prince 
 of, a general, born in 1653, fought for the allies against 
 Louis XIV. at Steenkerke and Neerwinden. He re- 
 ceived in 1703 the command of a Prussian army of 15,000 
 
 a, e,T, 6, i,y,long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e,I, 5,\x,%sAort; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; gc36d; moon; 
 
AN HAL TBER NBER G 
 
 1 3 ' 
 
 ANKWirZ 
 
 men in the service of Holland and England. Died in 
 1714. 
 
 Anhalt-Bernberg, an'halt beRn'beRG, (Christian,) 
 Prince of, born in 1568, was an ambitious man, of su- 
 perior talents. He was the master-spirit of the negotia- 
 tions which resulted in a union of the Protestant Ger- 
 man princes against the emperor about 1608, and was 
 appointed second commander of the army of that 
 ' Union." He was successively offered the chief com- 
 mand of the armies of Venice and of France ; but he 
 refused both positions. He commanded the army of 
 Frederick, Elector Palatine, which was defeated at Prague 
 in 1620. Died in 1630. 
 
 Anhalt-Coethen, (or -Kothen,) an'halt ko'ten, 
 (Ludwig,) Prince of, born at Dessau in 1 579, was a good 
 classical scholar. He fought for the Protestant party in 
 the Thirty Years' war. Died in 1650. 
 
 Anhalt-Dessau, an'halt des'sow, (Leopold,) Prince 
 OF, a distinguished Prussian general, born in 1676. He 
 displayed able generalship at the battle of Blenheim, 
 (1704,) and commanded the Prussian forces under 
 Prince Eugene in Italy and Flanders from 1706 to 1712. 
 About 1712 he was made a field-marshal. Hewas com- 
 mander-in-chief, next to the king, of the army which in 
 1 71 5 marched against Charles XII. of Sweden. In 1745 
 he gained a victory for Frederick the Great at Kesselsdorf. 
 Died in 1747. 
 
 See Varnhagen von Ense, " Biographische Denkmale." 
 
 Anhalt-Dessau, (Leopold Maximilian,) a son of 
 the preceding, born in 1700, served the King of Prussia 
 in the war against Austria, and became field-marshal- 
 general. Died in 1 75 1. 
 
 Anhalt-Zerbst-Dessau, an'halt tseRpst des'sow, 
 (George IV.,) Prince of, born in 1507, was eminent as 
 a scholar and Protestant divine. He was ordained a 
 priest in 1524, and became an eloquent preacher, both 
 in German and Latin. He was intimate with Luther 
 and Melanchthon. Died in 1553. Some of his sermons 
 were published in 1570. 
 
 See Melchior Adam, "Vitae Germanorum Theologorum." . 
 
 Anhalt-Zerbst-Dessau, (Rudolph,) Prince of, 
 born about 1460, was distinguished as a warrior. He 
 commanded the Imperial army in the war against the 
 Venetians from 1508 till his death in 1513. 
 
 Aniano. See Anianus. 
 
 A-nl-a'nus, a native of Campania, was a deacon and 
 a friend of Pelagius, whose doctrines he defended at 
 the Council of Diospolis in 415 a.d. He translated the 
 homilies of Chrysostom into Latin. His skill and fidel- 
 ity as a translator are praised by Huet, Simon, and 
 others. 
 
 Anianus, [It. Aniano, a-ne-a'no; Fr. Anien, 3'ne'- 
 ls',] secretary of Alaric II., King of the Visigoths. 
 His name is connected with a remarkable code of laws 
 promulgated by Alaric about 506 A.D. 
 
 Anianus, an astronomer and poet of the fifteenth 
 century, wrote in verse "Computus Manualis," (1488.) 
 
 Anibert, S'ne'baiR', (Louis Matthieu,) a French 
 poet and antiquary, born in 1742 ; died in 1782. 
 
 Anicet-Bourgeois. See Houkgf.ois. 
 
 A-nl-ce'tus, [Fr.ANiCET, fne's&',| SAiNT.was Bishop 
 of Rome about 155 a.d. The date of his death is uncer- 
 tain. 
 
 Anich, a'niK, (Peter,) a German peasant, born near 
 Innspruck in 1723, studied mathematics and astronomy, 
 and was employed, under the patronage of the empress 
 Maria Theresa, in making maps. Died in 1766. 
 
 Anichini, a-ne-kee'nee, (Luigi,) a noted Italian 
 cameo- and gem-engraver, born at Ferrara, worked at 
 Venice in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Anicii, a-nish'e-I, a patrician family of Rome, espe- 
 cially distinguished in the later periods of the empire. 
 
 Anicius, a-nish'e-us, (Lucius Gallus,) a Roman 
 praetor, who conquered Illyricum in 168 B.C. 
 
 Aniello, (Tommaso.) See Masanieli.o. 
 
 Anien. See Anianus. 
 
 Animuccia, a-ne-moot'cha, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 musician, born at Florence about 1500. He became 
 chapel-master of St. Peter's, at Rome. Died about 1570. 
 
 See FiTis, " Biographic des Musiciens. 
 
 Animuccia, (Paolo,) a musician and composer, a 
 brother of the preceding, lived at Rome; died in 1563. 
 
 Anisio, a-nee'se-o, (Giovanni,) a Latin poet, born 
 at Naples about 1472. . He sometimes wrote his name 
 Janus Anysius. He published a volume of Latin poemu 
 in 1 53 1, and had once a high reputation, which has since 
 declined. Died about 1540. 
 
 Anisson, S'h6's6n', the name of a noted family oi 
 printers at Lyons in the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries. 
 
 Anisson, (Jean,) a Frenchman, who edited the Greek 
 Lexicon of Du Cange. In 1690 he was appointed director 
 of the royal printing-office of the Louvre. Died after 
 
 I7I3- 
 
 Anisson-Duperron, i'ne's6N' du'pi'riN', (Alex- 
 andre Jacques Laurent,) a French economist, born 
 in 1776, was a son of Etienne Alexandre Jacques, no- 
 ticed below. He was appointed director of the imperial 
 printing-office at Paris in 1809, and master of requests. 
 From 1833 to 1842 he sat in the Chamber of Deputies, 
 and was made a peer in 1844. Among his works is a 
 treatise in favour of free trade, (1829.) 
 
 Anisson-Duperron, (Etienne Alexandre Jac- 
 ques,) born in Paris in 1748, was a grandson of Jean 
 Anisson. He was director of the royal printing-office, 
 1788-92. He was guillotined in 1794. 
 
 Anitchkov, a-nitch-kov', or Anitchkof, (Dmitri 
 S.,) a Russian philosopher and mathematician, born in 
 or before 1740. He published several works, one of 
 which was publicly burnt because a friend to whom he 
 had lent it added some heretical or skeptical opinions. 
 Died in 1788. * 
 
 Anjoo, Anju, or Andjou, an'joo, a Persian writer, 
 lived about 1600, was one of the chief compilers of the 
 great Persian Dictionary called "Ferhenkee Jehan- 
 geeree," ("Ferhenki Jeharfgiri,") in honour of Jehan- 
 geer, the Mogul emperor under whose auspices it was 
 completed. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Ailgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Anjou, an'joo, [Fr. pron. &N'zhoo',] Duke or Count 
 of, the title of an old and noble house of France which 
 was powerful in the middle ages. Fulke, Count of 
 Anjou, was a leader of one of the crusades, and became 
 King of Jerusalem in 1131. His son, Geoffroy le Plan- 
 tagenet, married Matilda, the daughter and heiress of 
 Henry I. of England, and founded the royal house of 
 Plantagenet, leaving a son, who became King of Eng- 
 land, (Henry II.) The second house of Anjou was a 
 branch of the royal family of Prance. (See Charles I. 
 of Naples.) Louis, a son of John, King of France, be- 
 came Duke of Anjou about 1360. He assumed the title 
 of King of Sicily, or Naples, in 1382, after which he at- 
 tempted to conquer Naples, (which Queen Joanna I. had 
 bequeathed to him,) but failed. Died in 1384. The title 
 of Duke of Anjou was also borne by several sons of 
 Henry II., by two sons of Louis XIV., and by a grand- 
 son of Louis XIV., who became Philip V. of Spain. 
 
 Anjou, (Charles of.) See Charles I. of Naples ; 
 also Charles of Anjou, Count of Maine. 
 
 Anjou, (Francois,) Due Dt, See Alencon. 
 
 Anjou, (Rene of.) See Ren£ of Anjou. 
 
 Ankarkrona, an'kaR-kRoo'na, (Theodor,) a Swed- 
 ish admiral, born at Carlscrona in 1687. He served in 
 the French and British navies in his youth, and returned 
 to the Swedish service in 1711. He conveyed Charles 
 XII. from Stralsund to Stockholm in 1 715, after which 
 he obtained the rank of admiral. Died in 1750. 
 
 See Gezeuus, " Biographiskt-Lexicon." 
 
 Ankarstrom or Anckarstroem, ang'kar-strom', 
 (Johan Jacop.,) a Swedish nobleman, born in 1759, as- 
 sassinated King Gustavus III. at a masked ball, March 
 1 6, 1792. He was condemned to be beaten with rods 
 on three successive days, and on the fourth to be be- 
 headed, his right hand being first cut off. 
 
 Anker, ing'ker, or Aiicher, (Pe'df.r Ko'fod,) a 
 Danish lawyer and writer on law, born in 17 10, on the 
 island of Bornholm, was appointed professor of law in 
 the University of Copenhagen in 1741, and died in 1788. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Ailgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ankwitz, ank'wits, or Ancwitz, Count, a Pole ot 
 
 e as k; 9 a s; g hard- g asy; G, h, k, guttural: N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this (23^~S< « Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ANNA 
 
 13Z 
 
 ANNE 
 
 noble family and great talents, born about 1750. He 
 in generally believed to have been a traitor to his coun- : 
 tiy, and to have assisted in the second iniquitous dis- ' 
 memberment of Poland in 1793. In an insurrection of 
 the people of Warsaw in 1794 he was taken and hung. 
 
 An'na, a Jewish prophetess, who died about the be- 
 ginning of the Christ' in era. (See Luke ii. 36.) 
 
 Anna, a sistci 01 Dido, Queen of Carthage. (See 
 Virgil, "^Eneid," book iv.) See also Anna Perenna. 
 
 An'na Com-ne'na, [Fr. Anne Comnene, Sn kom'- 
 rtja',] the daughter of Alexis I., Emperor of Constan- 
 tinople, a princess of distinguished beauty, talents, and 
 learning, was born in 1083. At her father's death, in 
 1 1 18, she conspired to place the crown on the head of 
 her husband, Nicephorus Bryennius, but without suc- 
 cess. Her "Alexiad," (or "Alexias,") a biography of her 
 father, (in Greek,) is a remarkable work, and one of great 
 historic value, although it is sometimes disfigured by pre- 
 judice, as well as by a pedantic and affected style. Died 
 in 1 148. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotiieca Gra?ca." 
 
 An'na Ivanovna, Iwanowna, (e-vS-nov'na,) or 
 Joanovna, (yo 5-nov'na,) Empress of Russia, born at 
 Moscow in 1694, was a daughter of Ivan, (or John,) who 
 was a brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 
 1710 to Frederick William, Duke of Courland, who died 
 the next year. She ascended the throne as successor to 
 Peter II. in 1730. Her army invaded Poland in 1733, 
 deposed Stanislaus, and placed his rival, Augustus III., 
 on the throne. The reign of Anna was disgraced by the 
 tyranny and cruelty of her favourite, Biren or Biron, who 
 had an entire ascendency over'her. She died in Octo- 
 ber, 1740, and was succeeded by her great-nephew, Ivan. 
 
 See J.bvesque, " Histoire de la Russie." 
 
 An'na Fe-ren'na, a goddess of the Roman mythol- 
 ogy, was, according to Virgtt and Ovid, a daughter of 
 Belus and a sister of Dido. After the death of Dido, 
 she went to Italy and was kindly received by tineas. 
 The Romans invoked her favour to obtain long life and 
 health. 
 
 An'na Pet-rov'na, the eldest daughter of Peter the 
 Great by his empress Catherine, born in 1708, was mar- 
 ried in 1725 to Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein. 
 She was the mother of Peter III. of Russia. Her beauty 
 and talents are spoken of in high terms. Died in 1727. 
 
 Au-Nadim, (or -Nadeem.) See Ibn-Abi-Yakoob. 
 
 Annaeus, (Lucius.) See Florus and Seneca. 
 
 Annaeus, (Marcus.) See Seneca. 
 
 An'nand, (William,) a Scottish minister of the An- 
 
 flican Church, born in 1633, became Dean of Edinburgh. 
 le wrote " Mysterium Pietatis," etc. Died in 1689. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen'* 
 
 An-Nasir, (of Cordova.) See Ahd-er-Rahman III. 
 
 An-Nasir (or Al-Nassir) Ledeenillah, (or Lidini- 
 1-lah,) an-na'sir ledeen-il'lah, {i.e. "the defender of the 
 religion of God,") one of the later caliphs of the house 
 of Abbas, began to reign in n 80. He attempted to re- 
 store the power and splendour of the caliphate, and was 
 successful in maintaining his dominions against the en- 
 croachments of the neighbouring powers. He died in 
 1225, leaving the character of a just and enlightened 
 prince and a liberal patron of literature and science. 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. iii. chap. xi. 
 
 Annat, S'nS', (Franqois,) a French Jesuit, born at 
 Rodez in 1590, (or, according to the "Biographie Uni- 
 verselle," in 1607.) His proper name was Canard. He 
 was confessor of Louis XIV. from 1654 until 1670, and 
 was a zealous opponent of the Janscnists. The seven- 
 teenth and eighteenth of Pascal's " Lettres Provinciales" 
 were addressed to Annat, who had written several works 
 against Jansenism. The "Biographie Universelle" calls 
 him " the soul of the party opposed to Port-Royal." 
 Died in 1670. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Port-Royal." 
 
 Annat, (Pierre,) a French theologian, born in 
 Rouergue in 1638, was a nephew of the preceding. 
 Died in Paris in 17 15. 
 
 Annaya, de, da a-na'ya, (Pedro,) a Portuguese ad- 
 miral, who conquered Sofala in IJ08. 
 
 Anne, in, [Ger. pron. an'neh,] of Austria, Queen of 
 
 France, was a daughter of Philip III. of Spain, and mo- 
 ther of Louis XIV. of France. She was born in 1601, 
 and was married in 1615 to Louis XIII., by whom she 
 was treated with neglect. Cardinal Richelieu became 
 her enemy, and artfully used his influence to alienate the 
 king from her. By the will of Louis XIII., who died in 
 1643, she was appointed, nominally, regent during the 
 minority of her son, but was required to act with the 
 concurrence of a council of five, of which Mazarin was 
 president. The Parliament, however, gave her the re- 
 gency without limitations, and she chose Mazarin as 
 prime minister. The civil war of the Fronde, which 
 began in 1648, ended in the triumph of the court over 
 the Parliament and a faction of discontented nobles. 
 (See Mazarin.) Died in 1666. 
 
 See Saint-Aulaire, " Histoire de la Fronde;" Aubery, "His- 
 toire dn Cardinal Mazarin;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Anne of Bohemia, called the "Good Queen Anne," 
 a daughter of the emperor Charles IV., was married to 
 Richard II. of England about 1380. She was a friend of 
 Wickliffe, and promoted the reformation of the church. 
 Died in 1394. 
 
 Anne of Brittany, (or Bretagne,) Queen-consort of 
 France, born at Nantes in 1476, was the heiress of the 
 Duke of Brittany, and an object of eager competition 
 among various princes. She was married in 1491 tc 
 Charles VIII. of France, and after his death (1499) to 
 his successor, Louis XII. Her character is represented 
 as excellent, and she had much influence in the affairs of 
 state. Died in 1514. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Anne, Duchess of Brittany," by Louisa S. Cos- 
 tello. 
 
 Anne of Cleves, the fourth queen of Henry VIII., 
 to whom she was married in January, 1540. She was 
 divorced in July of the same year. 
 
 See Froude, "History of England," vol. iii. chap, xvii.; Strick- 
 land, " Lives of the Queens of England " 
 
 Anne of Cyprus, a daughter of Janus, King of Cy- 
 prus, was married in 1431 to Louis, Duke of Savoy, 
 over whom she acquired great influence. Died in 1462. 
 
 Anne of Denmark, a daughter of Frederick II. of 
 Denmark, born in 1574, was married to James I. of 
 England in 1589. She was the mother of Charles I. 
 Died in 1619. 
 
 Anne, in, Queen of England, the last sovereign of 
 the house of Stuart, was born at Twickenham on the 
 6th of February, 1664. She was second daughter of 
 James II. and Anne Hyde, who was a daughter of Lord 
 Clarendon. She was educated in the Protestant religion, 
 and was married in 1683 to Prince George of Denmark, 
 a brother of Christian V. Before this event she had 
 formed an intimacy with Sarah Jennings, who became 
 her favourite adviser and for a time exerted an almost 
 unlimited influence over her. (See Marlborough, 
 Duchess of.) During the reign of James II. unsuccess- 
 ful attempts were made to convert Anne to the Roman 
 Catholic religion. A few days after William of Orange 
 entered England in 1688 to dethrone her father, she 
 wrote to the former and assured him of her warm wishes 
 for his success. She lost in 1699 or 1700 her son, the 
 Duke ot Gloucester, aged eleven, all her other children 
 having died in infancy. 
 
 Anne succeeded William III. on the 8th of March, 
 1702, and declared her purpose to pursue his foreign 
 policy, which involved England in the war of the Span- 
 ish succession, as the enemy of France and the ally ot 
 Austria and Holland. (See Marlborough, Duke of.) 
 In her domestic administration she favoured the Tory 
 party. Godolphin, who was considered a moderate 
 Tory, became lord of the treasury, or prime minister. 
 Eventually, Godolphin formed a coalition with the 
 Whigs, and, the Duchess of Marlborough having been 
 supplanted by a new favourite, Mrs. Masham, the Tories, 
 under Lords Oxford and Bolingbroke, (then known as 
 Harley and Saint John,) came into power in 1710. 
 " The great party which had long swayed the destinies 
 of Europe," says Macaulay, " was undermined by bed- 
 chamber women at Saint James." Marlborough was 
 deprived of command in 171 1, and the new ministry 
 opened with the French court negotiations which ended 
 the long war by the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713, 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, ail, fit; met; ndt; good; m<5E 11: 
 
ANNE 
 
 '33 
 
 ANSALDO 
 
 when the allies recognized Philip V., a Bourbon prince, 
 as King of Spain and the Indies. 
 
 In the last year of her reign Anne co-operated with 
 her ministers in secret designs and intrigues to secure 
 the succession to her half-brother the Pretender, whose 
 devoted partisan, Lord Bolingbroke, became lord treas- 
 urer on the 27th of July, 1714. Three days later the 
 queen was seized with an apoplectic fit, which termi- 
 nated fatally on the 1st of August, 1714. The plans of 
 the Jacobites were disconcerted by her sudden death, 
 and George I., of the house of Hanover, obtained peace- 
 able possession of the throne. Anne was a woman of 
 moderate or inferior abilities, and not distinguished for 
 generous moral qualities. The period in which she 
 reigned is sometimes called the Augustan age of Eng- 
 lish literature, which was then illustrated by the genius 
 of Addison, Pope, Bolingbroke, Arbuthnot, and Swift. 
 The victories of Marlborough, which are considered to 
 have reflected more lustre on the English arms than any 
 other since the time of Henry V., were achieved during 
 this reign. 
 
 See Coxe, " Memoirs, etc. of John Duke of Marlborough," and 
 Swift, "Works;" Burnet, " History of his Own Times;" "Me- 
 moires du Due de Saint-Simon ;" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XI V ;" 
 "Pictorial History of England;" "Account of the Conduct of the 
 Duchess of Marlborough," edited by Hookk, 1742; J. Oldmixon, 
 "Life of Queen Anne," 1716; Strickland, "Lives of the Queens 
 of England." 
 
 Anne of Hungary, born in 1503, was married to 
 Ferdinand of Austria. She was the heiress of the 
 crowns of Hungary and Bohemia. Died in 1547. 
 
 Anne de Beaujeu, in deh bo'zhuh', a daughter of 
 Louis XI. of France, was born about 1462.' She was 
 regent during the minority of her brother Charles V11I., 
 and suppressed with vigour a revolt of princes, of whom 
 the Duke of Orleans was chief. Died in 1522. 
 
 Annebaut or Annebaud, d', din'bo', (Claude,) a 
 French general, born about the end of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. He was taken prisoner with Francis I. at Pavia, 
 (1525,) after which he served with distinction in Italy 
 and Flanders, and was made marshal of France. Died 
 in 1552. 
 
 Annese, an-na'si, (Gennaro,) one of the prin- 
 cipal actors in the Neapolitan insurrection of July, 
 1647. (See Masaniellu.) After the restoration of the 
 Spanish authority in 1648, he was beheaded. 
 
 Annesley, anz'le, (Alexander,) an English writer 
 on law and political economy, published several works 
 between 1800 and 1808. Died in 1813. 
 
 Annesley, JnzTe, (Arthur,) Earl of Anglesey, 
 was born at Dublin in 1614. He was a member of the 
 Parliament called by Richard Cromwell in 1659. As 
 president of the new Council of State appointed in Feb- 
 ruary, 1660, he aided Monk in his efforts for the restora- 
 tion of Charles II. He was created Earl of Anglesey 
 in 1661, and became lord privy seal in 1673. He wrote 
 several political and theological works, among which 
 are "Truth Unveiled in behalf of the Church of Eng- 
 land," (1676,) and a "History of the Wars in Ireland," 
 which is lost. Died in 1686. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses;" Walpole, "Royal and Noble 
 Authors." 
 
 Annesley, originally written Aneley, (Rev. Sam- 
 uel,) an eminent English nonconformist minister, a 
 first-cousin of the preceding, was bom at Kenilworth 
 in 1620. He obtained the living of Cliffe in Kent about 
 1646, and was chosen minister by the parishioners of 
 Saint John, London, in 1652. In 1657 Cromwell ap- 
 pointed him preacher at Saint Paul's. After the resto- 
 ration he was pastor of a Presbyterian congregation in 
 London. He was the grandfather of John Wesley, the 
 founder of the Methodist Church. His sermons have 
 been published. Died in 1696. 
 
 See Wood, "Athens Oxoniense*." 
 
 An'nett or An'net, (Peter,) an English deistical 
 writer, published "Tracts of a Certain Free Enquirer," 
 (1766.) Died in 1778. 
 
 Annibal. See Hannidal. 
 
 Annibale, an-ne-ba'li, surnamed Padovano, pl-do- 
 vi'no, an Italian musician, born at Padua, was organist 
 of the church of Saint Mark, Venice. Died about 1655. 
 
 An-nl-bal-ll-a'nua, (Flavius Claudius,) a nephew 
 of Constantine the Great, was murdered at Constanti- 
 nople in 337 A.D. 
 
 An-nic'e-ris, ['Awtxepu;,] a Greek philosopher ol 
 Cyrene, supposed to have lived about 300 B.C. He was 
 a follower of Aristippus. 
 
 An'nl-us of Viterbo, [It. Annio da Viterbo, an'- 
 ne-o da ve-teR'bo,] an Italian Dominican monk, whose 
 proper name was Giovanni Nanni, was born at Viter- 
 bo about 1432. He was well versed in Greek and Latin, 
 and in some Oriental languages. He wrote a "Treatise 
 on the Empire of the Turks," (" De Imperio Turco- 
 rum," 1471,) and acquired notoriety by the publication 
 of "Seventeen Volumes of Antiquities with Commen- 
 taries," (" Antiquitatum Volumina XVII. cum Commcn- 
 tariis," 1498.) In this work he professed to give pas- 
 sages from the lost works of Berosus, Fabius Pictor, 
 and other ancient writers. It is generally admitted that 
 these are forgeries. Died in 1502. 
 
 See D. W. Moller, " Disputatio de J. Annio Viterbtensi," 1692. 
 
 Anno. See Hanno. 
 
 An'no or Han'no, Saint, an archbishop of Cologne 
 in the eleventh century. He was an able but overbear- 
 ing prelate, and for a time exercised great influence over 
 the youthful emperor Henry IV. Died in 1075. 
 
 Aunone, an-no'na, or Annoni, an-no'nee, (Johann 
 Jakob,) a Swiss naturalist and antiquary, born at Bale 
 m 1728, was professor of eloquence and law in that city. 
 He wrote scientific essays, and made rich collections in 
 natural history and antiquities. Died in 1804. 
 
 An-Noowairee or An-Nuwayri, an-noo-wl'ree' 
 called also simply Noowairee, an eminent Arabian 
 writer, born in Egypt about 1283 ; died in 1332. 
 
 Annot,i'no', (Pierre Nicolas,) a French writer, born 
 in 1762 ; died in 1823. 
 
 Anquetil, ftNk'tel', (Louis Pierre,) a French histo- 
 rian, a brother of Abraham Hyacinthe, noticed below, 
 was born in Paris in 1723. He became prior of the 
 abbey of Chateau-Renard before the Revolution, and a 
 member of the Institute, second class, in 1795. He 
 wrote numerous works, which show marks of haste and 
 carelessness, but which obtained success, especially a 
 "Compendium of Universal History," (9 vols., 1797,) 
 and a "History of the Civil Wars ol France in the Six- 
 teenth and Seventeenth Centuries," (3 vols., 1767.) Died 
 about 1808. 
 
 See Bon Joseph Dacier, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages do 
 M. Anquetil," 1810; QuiitARD, "La France Litte"raire." 
 
 Anquetil-Duperron, 6n k'tel' du'p£'r6N', (Abraham 
 Hyacinthe,) a celebrated Orientalist, born in Paris in 
 1 73 1. He visited India in 1755 for the purpose of dis- 
 covering the religious books of the Parsees. After en- 
 countering difficulties and toils exceeded only by his 
 zeal, he at last obtained the objects of his search. In 
 1 762 he returned to Europe, rich in Oriental manuscripts, 
 and in 1771 published his "Zend-Avesta," the first 
 translation of the original work of this name that had 
 appeared in any European language. He left other 
 works, among which is " India in Relation with Europe," 
 (2 vols., 1798.) Died in 1805. 
 
 See LANta.ois, "Notice sur Anquetil-Duperron ;" Von BoHLStf, 
 "Das Alte Iiulien;" BovJoiKPH Dacier, " Notice sur la Vie et le» 
 Ouvrages de M. Anquetil-Duperron," iSoS; L. P. Anquetil, "No- 
 tice sur la Vie de M. Anciuetii-Duperron." 
 
 Anraat, van, vSn in'rit, (Pieter,) a skilful Dutch 
 painter of conversation-pieces and portraits, flourished at 
 Amsterdam in the latter part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Ansaldi, in-sal'dee, (Casio Innocente,) a distin- 
 guished Italian antiquary and professor, born at Piacenza 
 in 1 7 10, became a Dominican monk. He was professor 
 of philosophy at Turin from 1760 to 1779, and author of 
 several works of merit, among which arc a treatise "On 
 the Recognition of a Future Slate by the Hebrews," 
 (" De fttturo Saeculo ab Ibln.iis nignitii," 174N,) "On 
 the Necessity of Natural and Revealed Religion," (1 755,) 
 and "Vindldae Maupcrtuisianx," (1756.) Died in 1779. 
 
 See Mazzuchhi 1 1, " S( liitori d'lt.ilia." 
 
 Ansaldi, (Innoi-en/.io,) a Tuscan painter, born in 
 1734; died in 1816. He wrote a poem named "The 
 Accomplished Painter," (" II Pittore istruito," 1820.) 
 
 Ansaldo, an-al'dn, (Andrea,) a celebrated Genoese 
 
 task; 9 as s; %Aard; gasy; c, H, K, guttural; a, nasal; R, trilled; §as»; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ANSALONI 
 
 »34 
 
 ANSON 
 
 painter, born at Voltri in 1584, was a pupil of Cambiaso. 
 He worked in fresco and oil at Genoa and other places. 
 Among the best of his numerous works are a " Last 
 Supper," an altar-piece of the martyrdom of Saint Se- 
 bastian, (at Cadiz,) and frescos in the Palazzo Spinola, 
 illustrating the exploits of General Spinola in Flanders. 
 Died at Genoa in 1638. 
 
 See Naglkr, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 Ansaloni, an-sa-lo'nee, (Giordano,) a Sicilian mis- 
 sionary, who in 1632 visited Japan, where he was put to 
 death in 1634. 
 
 Ansaloni, (Vincenzio,) an able Bolognese painter, 
 flourished about the beginning of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. His "Virgin seated on the Clouds" is highly 
 praised by Lanzi. 
 
 Ansaree or Ansari, an'sa-ree', (written also Un- 
 saree,) a celebrated Persian poet and scholar, who lived 
 at the court of Mahmood of Ghiznee, (or Gazna.) Died 
 in 1040. 
 
 Ansart, 6.N'stR', (Andre Joseph,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and historian, born in Artois in 1723; died in 
 1790. 
 
 Ansbert, ans'bert, [Ger. pron. ans'bSRt,] a German 
 chronicler of the twelfth century, accompanied Frederick 
 Barbarossa to Palestine, and wrote an account of that 
 crusade, which was first published in 1827. 
 
 Ans-ca'rI-us or Ans-ga'rI-us, [ Fr. Anschaire, 6n'- 
 shaV,] called " the Apostle of the North," the most 
 successful propagator of Christianity in Denmark and 
 Sweden, was born in Picardy about 800 A.n. About 
 831 he was created the first archbishop of Hamburg. 
 Died in 864 A.D. 
 
 Anseaume, Sn'soui', (N.,) a French dramatic poet, 
 born at Paris about 1720 ; died in 1784. 
 
 An-se-gi'sus or An-sl-gi'sus, [Fr. Ansegise, 3n'- 
 si'zhez',] a distinguished French ecclesiastic in the time 
 of Charlemagne and his son Louis. le Debonnaire. 
 
 Ansegis.us was also the name of an archbishop of 
 Sens in the ninth, and a bishop of Troyes in the tenth 
 century. 
 
 Anselin, SNs'laN', (Jean Louis,) a French engraver, 
 born in Paris in 1764; died in 1823. 
 
 Anselm, an'sglm, of Havelberg, a Saxon bishop, 
 wrote a work on the dogmatic disputes between the 
 Latin and Greek Churches, entitled ' Avruceifieva. Died 
 in 1 159. 
 
 An'selm, Saint, [Lat. Sanc'tus Ansel'mus; Fr. 
 Saint-Anselme, sainoN'selm',1 Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, was born at Aosta, in Piedmont, about 1034. He 
 became a pupil of Lanfranc at the abbey of Bee in 
 Normandy, where he assumed the monastic habit in 
 1060, and succeeded Lanfranc as prior in 1063. He was 
 chosen abbot of Bee in 1078, and Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury in 1093. He had a long contest with King Wil- 
 li am Kufus, who confiscated the revenues of the arch- 
 bishopric in 1097. Died in 1109. The intellect of 
 Anselm was of a high order, and his writings evince 
 a profound and original mind. He is considered as the 
 reviver of metaphysics after the decline of the Roman 
 Empire. Among his greatest works are "Cur Deus 
 Homo;" "Monulogium;" " Proslogium ;" and "The 
 Agreement (or Compatibility) of Predestination and the 
 Grace ot God with Free Will," ("Concordia Praidesti- 
 n.itionis necnon Gratiae Dei cum libero Arbitrio.") 
 
 See Eadmer, " Life of Saint Anselm," in Latin ; Mohler " Life 
 uf Saint Anselm," in German, translated by Cox; W F Hook 
 'Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. ii. chap li'i 1S60' 
 h k \nck, ' Anselme de CantorbeYv," 1842 ; Hasse, " Vie d' Anselme 
 ■ie ^antorbeVy," 1843; Raineri, "Historical Panegyric (Istorico 
 panegmco) 011 , Saint Anselm," 4 vols., 1603-1706; "Foreign Ouar- 
 teily Review, vol. xxx. . 
 
 Anselme, (Italian.) See Anselmo. 
 
 Anselme, an'selm or ftN'selm', [Lat. Ansel'mus 1 
 Count of Kibemont, (re'beh-moN',) was one of the nobles 
 who accompanied Godfrey of Bouillon to the Holy Land 
 where he was killed in 1099. He wrote a narrative of 
 the events of this crusade. 
 
 Anselme, an'selm, [Fr. pron. 5N's?Im',] or Ansel 
 On s£I', of Laon, [Lat. Ansel'mus Laudinen'sis 1 a 
 famous teacher of theology, born at Laon, France, about 
 1050, was one of the founders of the University of Paris 
 A school which he afterwards directed at Laon became 
 
 the most celebrated in Europe. His chief work is a 
 Gloss on the Bible. Died in U17. 
 
 Anselme of Liege, a Flemish historian, lived about 
 1050, and wrote a " History of the Bishops of Liege." 
 
 Anselme, dN'sglm', (Antoine,) an eminent French 
 preacher, born in the comte of Armagnac in 1652. He 
 was admired as an orator in the principal churches of 
 Paris, and became preacher-in-ordinary to the king. 
 Several volumes of his sermons were published. Died 
 in 1737. 
 
 See Madame de Sevigne^ " Lettres." 
 
 Anselme, d', ddN'selm', (Jacques Bernard Mo- 
 deste,) a French general, born at Apt in 1740, was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief of the army of Italy in 1792. 
 He was soon after suspended from his command, was 
 imprisoned in 1793, recovered his liberty after the revo- 
 lution of July, 1794, and lived in retirement till his death 
 in 1812. 
 
 Anselme de Sainte-Marie, fiN'selm' deh saNt'- 
 mi're', (Pierre,) a French genealogist, born iii Paris in 
 1625, published a " Genealogy of the House of France," 
 (2 vols., 1674.) Died in 1694. 
 
 Anselmi, an-sel'mee, (Michel Angelo,) an able 
 Italian painter, born at Lucca about 1490, studied at 
 Sienna, whence he is often surnamed Da Sienna, ("of 
 Sienna.") He is said to have worked with Correggio at 
 Parma. Died in 1554. 
 
 Anselmo, an-sel'mo, or An'selme, (Giorgio,) a 
 writer of Latin poetry, born at Parma, lived in the first 
 part of the sixteenth century. A volume of his poems 
 was printed in 1528. 
 
 Anselmo, an-sll'mo, (Giorgio,) an Italian astron- 
 omer, born at Parma, was a grandfather of the Latin 
 poet of the same name. Died in 1440. 
 
 Ansel'mo, [Lat. Ansel'mus; Fr. Anselme, SN'selm'; 
 It. Sant' Anselmo, sant an-sel'mo,] Saint, Bishop of 
 Lucca, an eminent Italian ecclesiastical writer, born 
 about 1036; died in 1086. Among his works is "Col- 
 lectio Canonum." 
 
 See Rota, "Notizie istoriche di Sant' Anselmo," 1733. 
 Ansgarius or Ansgarii. See Anchersen. 
 Ansiaux, &N'se'6', (Emmanuel Antoine Joseph,) 
 a Belgian jurist, born at Liege in 1761 ; died in 1800. 
 
 Ansiaux, (Jean Joseph Eleonore Antoine,) an 
 eminent painter of the modern French school, born at 
 Liege in 1764. He produced many good portraits and 
 historical works, among which are "The Assumption," 
 "The Conversion of St. Paul," and "The Return of the 
 Prodigal Son." Ansiaux was living in 1831. 
 
 Ansidei, an-se-da'ee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Perugia in 1642. He wrote sonnets and other 
 short poems, and a "Tract against the Long Continuance 
 of Private Enmities," (1691.) Died in 1707. 
 Ansigisus. See Ansegisus. 
 
 Anslay (anz'le) or Anneslay, (Brian,) an English 
 writer, known only as the translator of a curious work 
 called " The Citie of Dames," or " Cyte of Ladyes," 
 printed in 1521. 
 
 Anslo, an'slo, (Reinier,) a Dutch poet, born at Am- 
 sterdam about 1625. He emigrated to Italy about 1650, 
 and became a Roman Catholic. His principal works are 
 "The Martyr Crown of Stephen," (1646,) "The Placue 
 at Naples," and a drama on the Massacre of Saint Bar- 
 tholomew, entitled " Parijsche Bruiloft," (i.e. the " Paris 
 Wedding,") written before he became a Catholic. Died 
 at Perugia in 1669. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 An'son, (George,) Lord, a distinguished naval com- 
 mander, born in Staffordshire, England, in 1697. He 
 entered the navy early, and in 1724 was made post-cap- 
 tain. He was soon after ordered to the Carolina station, 
 where he purchased land and built a town, called, after his 
 own name, Ansonburg. He was subsequently appointed 
 to the command of the South Sea expedition which 
 sailed from England in 1740; and throughout the whole 
 of that voyage, which extended round the world, amid 
 dangers and difficulties of every kind, he displayed a 
 prudence, skill, fortitude, and courage that have seldom 
 if ever been surpassed. After his return, in 1 744, he 
 was successively created rear-admiral of the blue, com- 
 missioner of the admiralty, and vice-admiral. In 1 747 he 
 
 , e, i, 6, ii, y, leg; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good: moon: 
 
JNSON 
 
 «3S 
 
 ANTENOR 
 
 commanded the Channel fleet, and captured six French 
 ships of war. As a reward for this brilliant exploit he 
 was created a peer, with the title of Lord Anson, Baron 
 of Soberton. He was first commissioner of the admiralty 
 from 1 75 1 to 1756. In 1757 Anson was made admiral, 
 and in the same year placed at the head of the admiralty, 
 where he remained till his death in 1762. He left no 
 issue. A Narrative of his Voyage round the World was 
 published. 
 
 See ''Life of Lord Anson," by Sir John Barrow; Kirns, * Life 
 of Lord Anson," in " Biographia Britannica ;" J. Campuell, " Lives 
 ot* the British Admirals." 
 
 Anson, (George,) a British general, born in London 
 in 1797, was a younger son of Thomas, Viscount Anson, 
 and uncle of the Earl of LichfieM. He was a Whig 
 member of Parliament for many years, (1828-53,) al) 5 
 became a major-general about 1851. He was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the armies of India in 1855, and 
 died there in May, 1S57, soon after the breaking out of 
 the mutiny among the Sepoys. 
 
 Anson, on'son', (Pierre Hubert,) a French writer 
 and able financier, born in Paris in 1744. He became a 
 member of the Constituent Assembly, and afterwards 
 administrator-general of the posts of France. He trans- 
 lated into French the Odes of Anacreon, and the Letters 
 of Lady Montagu, (2 vols., 1795.) He also wrote several 
 short poems and prose works. Died in 1810. 
 
 Anspach, Ans'pak or ans'patf, (Christian Fried- 
 rich Karl Alexander,) Margrave of, was born in 
 1736. His mother was a sister of Frederick the Great. 
 He sold his principality to the King of Prussia in 1791 
 for an annuity .of four hundred thousand thalers, and 
 married Lady Craven, noticed below. Died in 1806. 
 
 Anspacbi (Elizabeth Berkeley,) Margravine of, 
 the daughter of Augustus, Earl of Berkeley, was born in 
 1750. In 1767 she was married to William, afterwards 
 Lord Craven, and on his death, in 1791, to the Margrave 
 of Anspach. Died at Naples in 1828. She possessed 
 great versatility of genius. She wrote a number of 
 dramas, was an accomplished musician and actress, and 
 had considerable skill in sculpture. Unhappily, little can 
 be said in favour of her moral character. Two years 
 before her death she published her " Memoirs," a work 
 full of egotism, but withal very entertaining. 
 
 See Collins's " Peerage." 
 
 Aus'prand, [Lat. Anspran'dus,] a Longobard whom 
 King Cunibert appointed tutor to his infant son Liut- 
 bert. After the chl-ath of this prince he became king in 
 712, and died the same year. 
 
 Ansae de Villoison. See Villoison. 
 
 An'sted, (David Thomas,) a distinguished English 
 geologist, born in London about*i8i2, was educated at 
 Cambridge, and was a pupil of Professor Sedgwick. 
 He succeeded John Phillips as professor of geology in 
 King's College, London, and became editor of the 
 journal and proceedings of the Geological Society. 
 He gained a high reputation by his well-written and 
 systematic work entitled " Geology, Introductory, De- 
 scriptive, and Practical, with numerous illustrations," 
 (2 vols., 1844.) In 1847 he published a popular treatise 
 called "The Ancient World, or Picturesque Sketches of 
 Great Britain." Among his other works are "The 
 Gold-Seeker's Manual," "The Great Stone Book of 
 Nature," (1863,) "Science of Physical Geography," and 
 "The World we live in," (1869.) He has travelled on 
 the Eastern Continent and in America, and has applied 
 his science to the exploration of mineral resources. 
 
 An'ster, (John,) an Irish poet, born at Charleville, 
 in Cork county, about 1796. He published in 1819 a 
 volume of "Poems and Translations from the German," 
 which procured for him the friendship of Coleridge. He 
 was called to the Irish bar in 1824, and was afterwards 
 regius professor of civil law in Trinity College, Dublin, 
 till near the time of his death. His " Faustus ; from the 
 German of Goethe," (1835,) is commended by the "Edin- 
 burgh Review," and by Coleridge. Anster contributed 
 many articles to " Blackwood's Magazine." His version 
 of Faust has been reprinted in Germany. Died in June, 
 1867. 
 
 Anstett, von, fon an'stet, (Johann Protasius — 
 pRo-ta'ze-us,) a diplomatist, born at Strasburg about 
 
 1755. He entered the service of Russia about 1790. In 
 conjunction with Nesselrode, he negotiated the treaty of 
 Reichenbach in 1813, after which he represented Russia 
 at the Congress of Prague. He was minister plenipo- 
 tentiary to the German Diet at Frankfort in the latter 
 years of his life. Died in 1835. 
 
 Anstey, an'ste, (Christopher,) an English satirical 
 poet, born in Cambridgeshire in 1724, was educated at 
 King's College, Cambridge. He published in 1766 
 "The New Bath Guide," a scandalous poem, which had 
 great popularity. His satire was directed chiefly against 
 physicians and Methodist;,. Among his other poems is 
 "The Election Ball." Died in 1805. 
 
 Anstey, (Thomas Chis'holm,) an English lawyer, 
 born in London in 1816. He represented Youghall in 
 Parliament from 1847 to 1852. He published a useful 
 "Guide to the Laws of England affecting Roman 
 Catholics," (1842.) 
 
 An'stis, (John,) an English antiquary, distinguished 
 for his knowledge of heraldry, was born at Saint Neots, 
 in Cornwall, in 1669. He became a member of Parlia- 
 ment in 1702, and Garter king-at-arms in 1718. He pub- 
 lished many accurate works, among which are "Curia 
 Militaris, or a Treatise of the Court of Chivalry," (1702,) 
 and " The Register of the Most Noble Order of the Gar- 
 ter," (1724.) Died in 1744. 
 
 See Nichols's "Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Anstruther, an'stru-ther or an'ster, (Sir John,) a 
 British judge, born in 1753, became chief justice of Ben- 
 gal in 1798. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Antasus, an-tee'us, [Gr. 'Avraioc; Fr. Ant£e, oN'ta',1 
 a Libyan giant, represented as a son of Neptune and 
 Terra, was a famous wrestler. He resisted Hercules 
 with success for a time, and was invincible so long as he 
 touched his mother Earth ; but at last the hero raised 
 Antaeus into the air and squeezed him to death. 
 
 An-tag'o-ras, ['Avraj-opac,] a Greek poet and noted 
 gourmand, a native of Rhodes, lived about 250 B.C. 
 
 An-tal'cl-das, [' AvraAKidac,] a Spartan ambassador, 
 notorious as the author of a disgraceful peace concluded 
 between the Grecian States and Persia, 387 B.C. One 
 condition of the "peace of Antalcidas" was that all the 
 Greek cities in Asia should be surrendered to Persia. 
 
 An'tar, (more properly Antarah-Ibn-Sheddad, 
 an'ta-ra Ib'n shed'dad',) a celebrated Arabian warrior, 
 supposed to have lived about the middle of the sixth 
 century. He was himself a poet, and his exploits fur- 
 nished a copious theme for Arabian song and romance. 
 He composed a poem which is numbered among the 
 Mo'allakat or seven famous poems suspended in the 
 temple of Mecca. He is the hero of an Arabian ro- 
 mance which was translated into English by T. Hamil- 
 ton and entitled "Antar, a Bedouin Romance," (1819.) 
 
 "Nothing can be more delightful," says "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for January, 1819, "than the feeling which 
 attends us in our first perusal of Antar. We are trans- 
 ported into a scene of which we have before seen nothing, 
 but in which we recognize at once, as if by intuition, the 
 glow, the wildness, the vastness — all the unchanged and 
 unchangeable features — of the eternal desert." 
 
 See De Sacv, "Notices des anciens Poemes Arabes, etc" 
 
 Antelami, degli, dal'yee an-ta-la'mce, (Benedetto,) 
 an Italian sculptor and architect of the twelfth century. 
 
 Antelmi or Anthelmi, fiN'tel'me', the name of 
 several ecclesiastics of the south of France in the seven- 
 teenth and eighteenth centuries. The most noted, per- 
 haps, was Joseph Antelmi. 
 
 Antelmi or Anthelmi, (Joseph,) a French ecclesi- 
 astic, born at Frejus in 1648. He became grand-vicar 
 and official of the Bishop of Pamiers in 1684. He 
 left a work "On the Dangers of the Life of Canons," 
 ("De Periculis Canonicorum,") and other writings. 
 Died in 1697. 
 
 Antelmi, (Pierre Thomas,) a French writer and 
 mathematician, born in Provence in 1730; died in 1783. 
 
 An-te'nor, |Gr. '\vrip<up; Fr. AntSnor, oN'ti'noR%| 
 a Trojan noted for his wisdom, was the father of Aca- 
 mas, Agenor, and many other sons. He advised the 
 Trojans to restore Helen to her husband. He has been 
 accused, by writers of little authority, of a design to be- 
 tray Troy to the Greeks. 
 
 « asi; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as t; th as in this. {$^~i ee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JNTENOR 
 
 136 
 
 ANTIGONUS 
 
 Anterior, a Grecian sculptor, who lived at Athens 
 About 500 B.C. He made bronze statues of Harmo'dius 
 and Aristogi'ton, which were carried away by Xerxes in 
 480 B.C. 
 
 An'te-ros, in the Greek mythology, was originally a 
 being opposed to Eros, (or the god of Love ;) but after- 
 wards the name was applied to the deity who avenges 
 unrequited love. 
 
 Antesignan, SN'ti'sen'ydN', (Pierre,) a French 
 grammarian, born at Rabastens, in Languedoc, lived 
 about 1550. 
 
 Anthelini. See Antelmi. 
 
 An-thel'mus or An-tel'mus, [Fr. Anthelme, &n'- 
 telm',J Saint, of Savoy, became in 1163 Bishop of Bel- 
 ley, (bel'li',) in the south of France, where he died in 1 178. 
 
 An-the'ml-us, an able and upright minister, who 
 was appointed by Arcadius Prefect of the East in 405 
 A.D., before which date he had been consul with Stilicho. 
 At the death of Arcadius, in 408, he became prime min- 
 ister, and guardian of the infant heir, Theodosius II. He 
 retired from office in 414 A.D. 
 
 Anthemius, (or Anthe'mius Proco'pius,) Roman 
 Emperor of the West, a grandson of the preceding. He 
 became a favourite general of Leo, Emperor of the East, 
 who, having been solicited by the Roman senate to give 
 a ruler to Italy, selected Anthemius for that position. 
 He began to reign in 467 A.D. His son-in-law, Ricimer, 
 raised an army and marched against the capital, near 
 which Anthemius was defeated in battle in 472 and put 
 to death. 
 
 Anthemius, [Gr. 'Avdefioog,] an eminent architect and 
 mathematician, surnamed Trallia'nus, from Tralles, 
 in Lydia, where he was born, was a brother of Alexander 
 Trallianus. He was employed at Constantinople by 
 Justinian, for whom he designed and commenced the 
 celebrated church of Saint Sophia, which, after his death, 
 was finished by Isidorus about 537 A.D., and is now a 
 Turkish mosque. Its dimensions are two hundred and 
 sixty-nine feet long by two hundred and forty-three 
 wide. It is surmounted by a large dome, and is con- 
 sidered the original type of the Byzantine style. Died 
 about 534 A.D. 
 
 An'ther-ic or An'thar-io, [Lat. Antheri'cus,] son 
 of Clefo, the successor of Alboin, was elected King of 
 the Longobards about 585, and died in 590 A.D. 
 
 Anthing, an'ting, (Friedrich,) a German painter, 
 born at Gotha about the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. He was for some time an aide-de-camp to the 
 Russian general Suwarrow. He painted portraits in 
 profile, at Vienna, Berlin, etc. Died in 1805. 
 
 Anthing, (Karl,) a German general, who became 
 Governor-General of the Dutch possessions in India. 
 Died at Gotha in 1823. 
 
 Anthoine, oN'twan', (Antoine Ignace,) a French 
 merchant, noted for public spirit, was born at Embrun 
 in 1749. He was the pioneer in opening an extensive 
 commerce with Russia by the Black Sea, and wrote a 
 " Historical Essay on the Commerce and Navigation of 
 the Black Sea," (1805.) He was mayor of Marseilles 
 from 1805 to 1813. His wife, whose maiden name was 
 Clary, was a sister-in-law of Joseph Bonaparte and Gen- 
 eral Bernadotte. Died in 1S26. 
 
 Anthoine, (Francois Paul Nicolas,) a French gen- 
 eral and politician, born in 1720. He was elected in 
 1789 to the States-General, in which body he was an 
 earnest advocate of the establishment of the trial by 
 jury. Died in 1793. 
 
 An'thon, (Charles,) LL.D., an American classical 
 scholar, born in the city of New York in 1797. He en- 
 tered Columbia College in 181 1, and graduated with dis- 
 tinguished honour in 1815. He studied law, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1819; but his strong predilection 
 for classical pursuits induced him in 1820 to accept the 
 position of adjunct professor of the ancient languages in 
 Columbia College ; and on the resignation of Professor 
 Moore in 1835 he became principal professor of the 
 classics in that institution. He published an edition of 
 Horace, (1830,) a "Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Antiquities," and a "Classical Dictionary," (1841.) He 
 also edited many Greek and Latin authors for the use 
 of schools. His works have been reprinted in England, 
 
 a distinction rarely if ever before accorded to American 
 classical school-books. Died in 1867. 
 
 For an interesting notice of some of the personal traits of Dr. An- 
 thon, see "The Galaxy," New York, September, 1867. 
 
 Anthon, (John,) an American jurist, a brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Detroit in 1784. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, "An Essay on the Study of 
 Law," an "Analysis of Blackstone," (2d edition, 1832,) 
 and "Nisi Prius Cases." He practised for many years 
 in tne city of New York, where he died in March, 1863. 
 
 Aiithonie or Anthony, an'to-ne, (Francis.) [Lat. 
 Franciscus Anto'nius,] an English physician and al- 
 chemist, born in London in 1550. He practised medi- 
 cine with success, and professed to cure all diseases with 
 a solution of gold calfed aurum potabile, (" potable gold,") 
 on which he published a treatise, entitled "Golden Pana- 
 cea," (" Panace'a Au'rea," 1619.) Died in 1623. 
 
 An'thony or An'tony, [Lat. Anto'nius; Fr. An- 
 toine, oN'twan',] SAint, surnamed Abbas, one of the 
 Christian Fathers, the reputed founder of monachism, 
 was born near Heracle'a, in Upper Egypt, in 251 A.D. 
 It is said that in his youth he obeyed in a literal sense 
 the scripture which says, " Sell that thou hast, and give 
 to the poor," and retired from the world to the desert, 
 where he lived as a hermit. Having acquired a wide 
 reputation by his austerities, he founded a monastery 
 near Faioom, (or Phaium,) about 305. Many years after- 
 wards he visited Alexandria, to testify against Arianism. 
 His life was written by Athanasius. Some of his letters 
 are extant. He died about 356 a.d. 
 
 Anthony. See Antonius, Antony, or Antoine. 
 
 Anthony de Bourbon. See Antony of Bourbon. 
 
 Antiboul, Sx'te'bool', (Charles Louis,) a French 
 Girondist and lawyer, born at Saint -Tropez about 1752. 
 He was elected in 1792 to the Convention, in which he 
 voted for the detention of the king. On his return from 
 a mission to Corsica he was executed as an accomplice 
 of the Girondists, in October, 1793. 
 
 An-tl-cli'des, [Gr. ' AvrixicuhjC ; Fr. Anticlide, 6n'- 
 te'kled',] a Greek historian, born at Athens, is supposed 
 to have lived about 300 B.C. His works are lost. 
 
 An-tid'o-tus, ['Avridoroc,] a Greek painter, who lived 
 about 350 B.C., was the master of Nicias, the great 
 Athenian painter. 
 
 An-tig e-nes, [Gr. 'Avrcyevric] one of the generals of 
 Alexander the Great. He distinguished himself at the 
 siege of Halicarnassus, 331 B.C., and in the battle against 
 Porus, 327. After the death of Alexander he was a faith- 
 ful officer of Eumenes, and fought against Antigonus, who 
 put him to death in 316 B.C. 
 
 Antigenes was also the name of several ancient Greek 
 physicians. • 
 
 Antigenes, ['AvnyevTK,] a Greek historian, wrote a 
 Life of Alexander the Great. 
 
 An-tl-geu'I-das, ['AvrtyepiSac,] a famous flute-player 
 of Thebes in the fourth century B.C. 
 
 Antigna, ftN'ten'yJ', (Jean Pierre Alexandre,) a 
 French painter of genre, born at Orleans in 1818. He 
 gained a first medal in 1851. 
 
 Antignac, &N'ten'yik% (Antoine,) a noted French 
 song-writer, born in Paris about 1770; died in 1823. 
 His works have some merit, but do not rank among the 
 best of their class. 
 
 Antigone, the French of Antigonus, which see. 
 
 An-tig'o-ne, [Gr. 'Avnyovij,] the heroine of one ol :ht 
 tragedies of Sophocles, was a daughter of CEdipus, King 
 of Thebes. She was immured aliye by Creon for having 
 performed the rites of burial to the body of her brother 
 Polynices. 
 
 Antigone, Queen of Egypt, was a daughter of Cassan- 
 der, and the wife of th • Egyptian king Ptolemy Lagus. 
 
 An-tig'o-nus, [Gr. 'AitJ)odoc,] a king of the Jews, 
 was a son of Aristobu'lus II., after whose death he was 
 driven from Judea by Antipater and his son Herod. 
 He recovered the throne by the aid of the Parthians 
 about 38 B.C., but was declared an enemy by the Roman 
 senate. The army of Antony, who favoured Herod, took 
 Jerusalem, and put Antigonus to death, about 36 B.C. 
 
 Antigonus, [Gr. 'Avriyovoc; Fr. Antigone, 6.\'te'- 
 gon',[ King of Asia, surnamed Cyclops, or " one-eyed," 
 an able general, and successor of Alexander the Great, 
 
 a. e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, y, short; a, e, [, g, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nfltj good; moon; 
 
J NT IG ON US 
 
 >37 
 
 ANTIOCHUS 
 
 was born in Macedonia about 382 B.C. He had a. high 
 command in the expedition against Persia, and was ap- 
 pointed Satrap of Phrygia in 333 B.C. In the partition 
 of the conquered provinces which was made at the death 
 01 Alexander in 323, Antigonus obtained Lycia, Pamphy- 
 lia, and Greater Phrygia. He was soon involved in a war 
 against Perdiccas, and formed an alliance with Antipater 
 and Ptolemy. After the death of Perdiccas, in 321, he 
 found a formidable adversary in Eumenes, who com- 
 manded a Macedonian army in Asia for the cause of the 
 royal family. In 316 Antigonus gained a victory over 
 Kumenes, and put him to death. He had made him- 
 self master of a large portion of Asia, when a coalition 
 was formed against him in 315 by Ptolemy, Lysimachus, 
 Cassander, and Seleucus. A long war ensued, in which 
 Antigonus professed to fight for Alexander, the minor 
 son of Alexander the Great by Roxana. Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes, a son of Antigonus, gained a naval victory 
 over Ptolemy, near Cyprus, in 306 B.C., soon after which 
 Antigonus assumed the title of king. A new coalition 
 having been formed against him in 302 by Cassander, 
 Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy, he was defeated and 
 killed at Ipsus, in Phrygia, in 301 B.C. 
 
 SceDiODORus Siculus; Thirlwall, "History of Greece; 1 ' Plu- 
 tarch, "Eumenes," and "Demetrius." 
 
 Antig'onus Ca-rjrs'ti-us, ['Avrjyowoc Kapvartoc,] a 
 Greek philosopher, who is supposed to have lived in the 
 reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 285-247 B.C. He was 
 the reputed author of an extant "Collection of Marvel- 
 lous Stories," and of some other works, which are lost. 
 
 Aiitig'oims Do'son, [Gr. 'Avriyovoc Auauv,] a great- 
 grandson of Antigonus the general of Alexander the 
 Great, was a son of Demetrius, and a nephew of Antig- 
 onus Gonatas. He became regent or king of Mace- 
 donia during the minority of his cousin Philip, 229 B.C. 
 As general-in-chief of the Achaean League, he gained 
 victories over Cleomenes of Sparta and liis allies in the 
 Peloponnesus. Died in 221 B.C., leaving the throne to 
 Philip above mentioned. 
 
 Antig'onus Gon'a-tas, [Gr. 'Avriyavoc FovaTur,] 
 a son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, was born in 319' B.C. 
 at Gona, or Gomii, in Thessalv, whence his surname 
 GoNATAS. He made himself master of Macedonia in 
 277, after he had defeated Antipater, a nephew of Cas- 
 sander, and also an army of Gauls. About 273 his king- 
 dom was invaded by Pyrrhus, the renowned King of 
 Epirus. Antigonus, being unable to resist "the fierce 
 Epirote," tied from the country, but afterwards recovered 
 his throne, on the death of Pyrrhus, in 271 or 272 B.C. 
 He annexed the Peloponnesus' to his kingdom, and cap- 
 tured Athens in 262. His death is variously dated 243, 
 240, or 239 B.C. He was succeeded by his son Deme- 
 trius II. 
 
 An tiles. See Antyllus. 
 
 Antillon, an-tel-y6n', (Isidore,) a Spanish savant, 
 born in Aragon about 1760, became professor of astrono- 
 my and geography at Madrid. He wrote, besides other 
 scientific works, " Elements of the Astronomical and 
 Natural Geography of Spain and Portugal," (2d edition, 
 1815,) which was highly esteemed. Died in 1820. 
 
 An-til'o-ehus, [Gr. ' Avri'A.ox<K ; Fr. Antii.oque, 6n'- 
 te'lok',] a son of Nestor, distinguished for courage and 
 persona] beauty, was one of the suitors of Helen, and a 
 friend of Achilles. He was killed at the siege of Troy 
 by Memnon, or, as others say, by Hector. 
 
 Antiloque. See Antilochus. 
 
 An-tim'a-ehus, [Gr. ' Avri/iaxoc ; Fr. Antimaque, 
 os'te'mik',] an eminent Greek epic poet, who flou- 
 rished about 400 B.C., was a native of Colophon or Cla- 
 ros. He enjoyed the friendship of Plato. He was the 
 author of an epic poem entitled "Thebais," which the 
 Alexandrian critics thought worthy to be compared to 
 Homer's Iliad. His works, among which was a cele- 
 brated elegy called " Lyde," are lost, except small frag- 
 ments. They are more remarkable for learning than 
 genius. 
 
 Antimachus, a Greek epic poet, born at Heliopolis, 
 in Egypt, lived before the Augustan age. He wrote a 
 poem on "The Creation of the World." 
 
 Antimaco, an-tim'a-ko or an-tee'mS-ko, (Marcan- 
 Tonio,) an Italian professor, writer, and critic, born at 
 
 Mantua about 1473. He taught Greek at Ferrara, and 
 translated part of the " Ars Rhetorica" of Dionysius o{ 
 Halicarnassus into Latin. Died about 1550. 
 
 Antimaque. See Antimachus. 
 
 Antine, d'. See D'Antwe, 
 
 Antiuori, an-te-no'ree, (Antonio Ludovico,) an 
 Italian antiquary and priest, born in Abruzzo in 1704; 
 died in 1788. He left " Historical Memoirs of the Prov- 
 inces of the Abruzzi," (4 vols., 1781-84.) 
 
 An-tin'o-us, [Gr. 'Avrivovi;] a beautiful youth, a fa- 
 vourite of the Roman emperor Hadrian, was born in 
 Bithynia. He accompanied Hadrian to Egypt, and was 
 drowned in the Nile in 132 A.D. A city, called Anti- 
 nobp'olis, was built by the emperor near the spot where 
 he perished, and countless statues were erected in honour 
 of him ; some of these, of remarkable beauty, still exist 
 A new impulse was given to the fine arts by the emulous 
 efforts of sculptors and painters to idealize his form as a 
 type of beauty. 
 
 An-ti'o-ehus, ['Am'ojoc,] a Greek historian, son of 
 Xenophanes, born at Syracuse, flourished about 440 B.C. 
 He wrote histories of Sicily and of Italy, which were 
 highly prized by the ancients, but are not extant. 
 
 Anti'ochusl., sumamed So'ter, [i.e. "Saviour,") the 
 son of Seleucus, King of Syria and Babylonia, was born 
 about 324 B.C., and succeeded his father in 280 B.C. A 
 victory gained by him over the Gauls, by means of his 
 elephants, won for him the name of Soter. He was 
 killed in battle against the Gauls in 261 B.C. 
 
 Antiochus II., The'os, a son Of the preceding, suc- 
 ceeded his father in 261 B.C. Having delivered the 
 Milesians from their tyrant Timarchus, he received from 
 them the impious title of Theos, (or "God.") Among the 
 important events of his reign was the successful revolt 
 of the Parthians (250 B.C.) under Arsaces, who became 
 the founder of the Parthian Empire. In fulfilment of a 
 treaty with Ptolemy of Egypt, (252 B.C.,) Antiochus rer 
 pudiated his queen Laodice, and married Berenice, a 
 daughter of Ptolemy. At the death of Ptolemy, he 
 again took Laodice into favour ; but she poisoned him 
 in 246, in order to secure the throne for her son Seleu- 
 cus Callini'cus. 
 
 See Appian, "Syriaca." 
 
 Antiochus III. surnamed the Great, was a grand- 
 son of the preceding, and son of Seleucus Callini cus. 
 He was only fifteen years old when he succeeded his 
 brother Seleucus Ceraunus, in 223 B.C. His kingdom, of 
 which Antioch was the capital, included, besides Syria 
 proper, Babylonia, Media, and a part of Asia Minor. 
 In a war with Ptolemy, King of Egypt, he at first gained 
 some advantages, but he was afterwards defeated by 
 Ptolemy in a hard-fought battle at Raphia, in Palestine, 
 in 217B.O1 About2i4he suppressed a revolt of Achaeus 
 in Asia Minor. While he was engaged in these wars, 
 Arsaces the Parthian had occupied Media. Antiochus 
 recovered Media in 212, and afterwards pursued Arsaces 
 into Parthia. He also made a successful expedition to 
 India, and formed alliances with several Indian princes. 
 His encroachment on the territory of Egypt, and his am- 
 bitious designs against Thrace, which he invaded in 196 
 B.C., involved him in a war with the Romans. His resolu- 
 tion to reject the ultimatum of the Romans was confirmed 
 by the advice of Hannibal, who took refuge at his court 
 in 195. Having invaded Greece in 191 B.C., he was de- 
 feated at Thermopylae by the Roman consul Aulius 
 Glabrio, and withdrew to Asia the same year. In 190 
 B.C., with an army of above 80,000 men, he encountered 
 the Romans under L. Cornelius Scipio, near Magnesia, 
 and was utterly defeated. It is stated that he left 50,000 
 dead on the field. Peace was granted to him on condi- 
 tion that he should give up all Asia to the west of Tau- 
 rus, and pay the expenses of the war, which were esti- 
 mated at fifteen thousand talents. Having attempted to 
 plunder the temple of Jupiter Belus in order to raise 
 money for the Romans, he provoked an insurrection, in 
 which he was killed, in 187 B.C. A prediction of his 
 death may be found in Daniel xi. 18, 19. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Seleucus Philopator. 
 
 See Plutarch, and EuMntn, "Clinmicon;'' Poi.ybius, "His- 
 tory:" Appian, "Roman History ;" Justin, "History." 
 
 Antiochus IV., inappropriately surnamed Epiph'- 
 
 < as k; c as s; g hird; g as/,- G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal- R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (SSf^Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ANTIOCHUS 
 
 138 
 
 ANTIPATER 
 
 anes, (or the " Illustrious,") was a younger son of the 
 preceding, by whom in 188 B.C. he was given as a hos- 
 tage to the Romans. After a captivity of twelve years, 
 he was released, and ascended the throne of Syria in 
 175 B.C., on the death of his brother Seleucus Philopa- 
 tor, whose son Demetrius was detained as a hostage at 
 Rome. He invaded Egypt in 170, subdued the greater 
 part of the country, and captured the king, Ptolemy 
 Philometor, but he retired from Egypt, in obedience to 
 the peremptory order of the Romans, in 168 B.C. He 
 plundered the temple of Jerusalem, and cruelly perse- 
 cuted the Jews, who, under Judas«Maccaba:us and his 
 brother, gained several victories over his armies. (See 
 I. Maccabees ii.) He died in 164 or 165 B.C., of a loath- 
 some disease, which was regarded both by Jews and 
 Greeks as a divine punishment for his impiety. 
 
 See Rollin, "Ancient History;" Josephus, "History of the 
 Jews." 
 
 Antiochus V., sumamed Eu'pator, was a son of 
 the preceding, whom he succeeded at the age of nine 
 years, about 164 B.C., under the regency of Lysias. He 
 was put to death in 162 by his cousin-german Deme- 
 trius Soter, who succeeded him on the throne. 
 
 Antiochus VI., a son of Alexander Balas, was a 
 minor at the death of his father in 146 B.C. Diodotus 
 Tryphon affected to support him as a rival to Demetrius 
 Nicator, who then possessed the throne. The latter 
 was defeated, and Antiochus reigned nominally until he 
 was put to death by Tryphon in 142 B.C. 
 
 Antiochus VII.; sumamed Sidetes, (sl-dee'tez,) 
 born about 164 B.C., was a younger son of Demetrius 
 Soter. Having driven the usurper Tryphon from the 
 throne, he began to reign in 138. He waged war against 
 the Jews, whom he reduced to the state of tributaries, 
 and afterwards against the Parthians, whom he defeated 
 in three battles. He was killed in a battle against the 
 same, in 129 or 128 B.C. 
 
 See Appian, "De Bello Syriaco;" Josephus, "History of the 
 Jews." 
 
 Antiochus VIII., sumamed Gry'pus, a son of De- 
 metrius Nicator and Cleopatra, was born about 140 B.C., 
 and was sometimes styled Epiphanes. Having expelled 
 the usurper Alexander Zabinas, he began to reign about 
 124 B.C. His reign was disturbed by a civil war caused 
 by his half-brother Antiochus Cyzicenus. He was assas- 
 sinated in 96 B.C. 
 
 Antiochus IX., sumamed Cyzice'nus, because he 
 was educated at Cyzicus, was a son of Antiochus Side- 
 tes and Cleopatra. He took arms against Antiochus 
 Grypus about 116 B.C., and compelled him, in 112, to 
 divide the kingdom. Antiochus IX. obtained for his 
 share Ccele-Syria and Palestine. In 95 B.C. he was 
 defeated and killed by Seleucus, a son of Grypus. 
 
 Antiochus X., sumamed Eu'sebes, (the " Pious,") 
 was a son of Antiochus IX. He took the title of king 
 in 95 B.C., but his claim was contested by Philip and 
 Demetrius, sons of Antiochus Grypus, who prevailed for 
 a time. Tigranes, having been invited by the Syrians, 
 ended the strife, by seizing the kingdom for himself, in 
 83 B.C. 
 
 Antiochus XL, sumamed Asiat'icus, a son of 
 Antiochus Eusebes, was the last king of Syria of the 
 dynasty of the Seleucidae. While Tigranes was occu- 
 pied with a war against the Romans, Antiochus made 
 himself master of part of Syria, about 69 B.C. He was 
 deposed by Pompey in 65 B.C., and Syria then became a 
 Roman province. 
 
 Antiochus, a physician, who is supposed to have 
 lived at Rome in the second century, and who attained 
 a great age. Galen gives a minute account of his way 
 of living. Another physician of this name was a native 
 of Mauritania, and is said to have suffered martyrdom 
 about 120 A.D. He is venerated as a saint by the Roman 
 Church. 
 
 Antiochus of ALgk, in Cilicia, a Greek sophist, lived 
 about 200 A.D. He served under Alexander Severus in 
 the war against the Parthians, and, to raise the courage 
 of the soldiers, rolled himself in the snow, for which he 
 was well rewarded by the emperor. He afterwards de- 
 serted to the Parthians. He had a high reputation as a 
 declaimer or forensic speaker. 
 
 Antiochus of Ascalon, an eminent Platonic philos- 
 opher, was a friend of Cicero and of L. Licinius Lucul- 
 lus. He was a pupil of Philo, whom he succeeded as 
 the head of the New Academy, and taught philosophy 
 at Athens, (where Cicero was his pupil about 80 B.C.,) 
 and afterwards at Alexandria. He laboured to confute 
 the skepticism of Philo and Carneades, and to effect a 
 union or compromise between the principles of the 
 Academy and those of the Stoics. He wrote several 
 works, which are lost ; but his doctrines are explained 
 in Cicero's "Academics." 
 
 Antiochus of Commagene was an ally of Tigranes 
 in the war against the Romans under Lucullus, about 69 
 B.C. He made peace with Pompey, who gave him Seleu- 
 cia, and he furnished troops to that general in the civil 
 war against Caesar. He was reigning in 36 B.C. 
 
 Anti'ochus sumamed Epiph'anes, a younger son 
 of Antiochus Grypus, assumed the title of King of Syria. 
 He was defeated by Antiochus X. in 93 B.C. 
 
 Antiochus sumamed Hi'erax, a son of Antiochus 
 II. of Syria, waged war against his brother Seleucus, 
 and was defeated. Died in 227 B.C., aged about thirty- 
 three. 
 
 Antiochus of Seba or Saba, lived about the com- 
 mencement of the seventh century. He wrote a treatise 
 on Christian morals, which is extant. 
 
 An-ti'o-pe, [Gr. 'Avtiottii,] a daughter of Nycteus, 
 King of Thebes, became the mother, by Jupiter, of Am- 
 phion and Zethus, (which see.) 
 
 Antipas, (Herod.) See Herod Antipas. 
 
 An-tip'a-ter, [Gr. 'AvriimTpoc.] a pupil of Aristotle, 
 who was made regent of Macedonia. He had been 
 employed as general and minister by Philip of Macedon, 
 by whom he was highly esteemed for his prudence and 
 fidelity. He was appointed regent by Alexander the Great 
 when the latter set out on his expedition against Persia 
 in 334 B.C. In 331 he gained a victory over the Spartans 
 near Megalopolis. He was superseded as regent by Cra- 
 terus, and ordered to conduct an army of recruits to Baby- 
 lon in 323. At the division of provinces after the death 
 of Alexander, the generals agreed that Antipater and 
 Craterus should jointly govern Macedonia and Greece. 
 He defeated the Athenians and their allies, who made an 
 effort to recover their independence, in 322 B.C. In the 
 treaty which ended this war, called the Lamian war, it 
 was stipulated that Demosthenes should be delivered to 
 Antipater. The latter joined Antigonus and Ptolemy 
 in a coalition against Perdiccas in 321, and was marching 
 through Syria on his way to Egypt, when Perdiccas was 
 killed by his own troops. Soon after this event he was 
 appointed regent of the empife in place of Perdiccas, 
 and guardian of the young king, Alexander IV., with 
 whom he returned to Macedonia. Died in 319 B.C., 
 leaving a son, Cassander. 
 
 See Thirlwall, "History of Greece;" Diodorus Siculus, 
 "History;" Plutarch, "Life of Phocion;" Justin, "History;" 
 Droysen, "Geschichte der Nachfolger Alexanders." 
 
 Antipater, a grandson of the preceding, was the 
 second son of Cassander. He succeeded his brother, 
 Philip IV. of Macedon, in 296 B.C., and, after a contest 
 with his brother Alexander, was deposed by Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes in 294. According to Justin, he was put to 
 death by Lysimachus of Thrace. 
 
 Antipater, a Greek epigrammatic poet of Macedonia, 
 lived in the reign of Philip V., 220-179 B.C. 
 
 Antipater, a son of Herod the Great and his first 
 wife Doris, was notorious for cruelty. He conspired 
 against his father, and was put to death in I B.C., or in 
 the last year of his father's reign. He is called by Jose- 
 phus a " mystery of iniquity." 
 
 Antipater of Hierapolis, a Greek rhetorician, who 
 was private secretary of Septimius Severus, who reigned 
 from 193 to 211 a.d. 
 
 Antipater (the Idume'an) was a son of Antipas, 
 Governor of Idumea, and the father of Herod the Great. 
 He ruled Judea by permission of the high-priest Hyr- 
 canus, who had been raised to the priesthood by the 
 aid and influence of Antipater. About 46 B.C. he was 
 appointed Procurator or Governor of Judea by Caesar, 
 to whom he had rendered some service in his war against 
 the Egyptians. Died in 43 B.C. 
 
 a, e, I, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mJt; n }t; good; moon; 
 
J NT I PATER. 
 
 '39 
 
 JNTON 
 
 Antipater of Sidon, a Greek poet, who probably 
 flourished about too B.C. Pliny relates that he had a 
 fever every year on his birthday. A number of his epi- 
 grams are extant. 
 
 Antipater of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, who lived 
 about 140 B.C., was a disciple and successor of Diogenes 
 the Babylonian. He wrote several works on philosophy, 
 divination, morality, etc., and seems to have been a man 
 of great merit. Cicero praises his subtlety or acuteness. 
 Antipater had a controversy with Carneades, whose skep- 
 ticism he combated. 
 
 Antipater of Tyre, a Stoic philosopher, died at 
 Athens about 44 B.C. He is favourably mentioned by 
 Cicero. 
 
 Antipater, (L. Coxius.) See Ccelius. 
 
 An-tiph'a-nes, ['Aw^aiiyfJ an Athenian comic poet 
 of considerable merit, flourished about 360 B.C. He 
 wrote, it is said, not less than two hundred and sixty 
 plays, of which many fragments are extant. He died, 
 says Suidas, in 330 n.c 
 
 Antiphanes, a Greek physician of Delos, of uncer- 
 tain date, mentioned by Galen. 
 
 Antiphanes of Argos, a Gieek sculptor, the master 
 of Cleon, lived about 400 B.C. 
 
 An-tiph'I-lus, [Gr. 'Avn'ptAoc; Fr. Antiphile, 8n'- 
 te'fil',] a celebrated Greek painter, born in Egypt, is 
 supposed by many to have flourished about 330 B.C. 
 But Lucian, in his treatise against Calumny, states that 
 he accused his rival Apelles of complicity in a conspi- 
 racy which was formed in the reign of Ptolemy Philop- 
 ator, about 218 B.C. Antiphilus excelled in facility of 
 execution, and is the reputed inventor of the grotesque 
 figures called grylli. Pliny notices several of his works, 
 among which are " Cadmus and Europa," and a " Boy 
 blowing a Fire." 
 
 Antiphilus, a Greek epigrammatic poet, lived proba- 
 bly between 10 and 70 A.D. 
 
 Antipho. See Antiphon. 
 
 An'ti-phon or An'tl-pho, [' Avrupaw,] one of the 
 Ten Attic Orators, a son of Sophilus, a sophist, was born 
 at Rhamnus, in Attica, about 479 B.C. He made im- 
 provements in the art of rhetoric, and was one of the 
 teachers of Thucydides, who expresses a favourable 
 opinion of his oratory. He is said to have been a suc- 
 cessful commander in the Peloponnesian war. He sel- 
 dom spoke in public, but composed speeches or orations 
 for accused persons or politicians. Fifteen of his ora- 
 tions are still extant. He acted a very prominent part 
 in the revolution by which the Council of Four Hundred 
 obtained power in 411 B.C. Before the end of that year 
 a counter-revolution occurred, and Alcibiades, the enemy 
 of Antiphon, was recalled. Antiphon was tried for trea- 
 son, and made an eloquent speech in his own defence, 
 but was punished with death. Thucydides represents 
 him as a man of superior virtue and wisdom. 
 
 See D. Ruhnken and P. Van Spaan, " Dissertatio de Anti- 
 phonte Oratore Attico," 1763; A. Dryander, "Commentatio de 
 Antiphontis Rhamnusii Vita," 1838. 
 
 Antiphon, a Greek epic poet and sophist, who was 
 contemporary with Socrates. He is supposed to be the 
 Antiphon who wrote a work on Truth, to which several 
 •ncient writers refer. 
 
 Antiphon, a younger brother of Plato, who has pre- 
 served the remembrance of his name in his dialogue 
 ' Parmenides." 
 
 Antiphon, a Greek tragic poet, who flourished about 
 400 B.C. He lived at the court of Dionysius the Elder, 
 by whom he was put to death. Several of his works 
 are cited by Aristotle. When the tyrant asked him what 
 was the best kind of brass or bronze, he answered, "That 
 of which the statues of Harmodius and Aristogi'ton are 
 made." 
 
 Antiquario, an-te-kwi're-o, (JacopO,) [Lat. Jaco'- 
 BUS Antiqua'rius,] a learned Italian writer, born at 
 Perugia about 1444. He was secretary to the Duke of 
 Milan. Died at Milan in 1512. A volume of his Latin 
 letters was published in 1519. 
 
 Antiquus, Sn-tee'kwus, (Joannes or Jan,) a distin- 
 guished Dutch painter, born at Groningen in 1702. He 
 went to Italy in his youth, and worked in Florence, Rome, 
 Naples, and Venice. After his return to Holland he 
 
 was patronized by the Prince of Orange. Among his 
 works are "The Fall of the Giants," a "Scipio Africa- 
 nus," and " Parnassus." Descamps calls him a good de- 
 signer and a good colorist. He painted many portraits. 
 Died in 1 750. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Hollandais." 
 
 An-tis'ta-tes, ['Avtiotutiic,] a Greek architect of the 
 sixth century B.C., laid the foundation of the temple of 
 Jupiter Olympius at Athens. 
 
 An-tis'the-nes, [Gr. ' AvTwisvyc ; Fr. Antisthene, 
 6N'tes't£n',] an eminent Greek Cynic philosopher, and 
 the reputed founder of the Cynic school, was born at 
 Athens, and flourished about 400 or 375 B.C. He was a 
 disciple and friend of Socrates, after whose death he 
 established a school in the gymnasium of Cynosarges. 
 He is said to have been an enemy of Plato. Among his 
 pupils was the witty and eccentric Diogenes. Antis- 
 thenes was very temperate and simple in his way of life, 
 and professed a contempt of riches. As he seemed to 
 make a display of his disregard for the ordinary usages 
 of life, Socrates once said to him, " I can see thy pride 
 (or vanity) through the holes in thy robe." Xenophon, 
 in his " Banquet," gives a favourable impression of his 
 character. Many of his sententious and pithy sayings 
 are recorded. He wrote works on various subjects, 
 which are lost, except perhaps two declamations which 
 are ascribed to him. His doctrines were chiefly moral 
 and practical. He taught that virtue is all-sufficient for 
 happiness, and approved those healthy pleasures that 
 are consequent on labour. In one of his works he says, 
 " There are many popular gods, but only one natural 
 God." He survived the battle of Leuctra, 371 B.C. 
 
 See Richter, " Dissertatio de Vita, Moribus et Placitis Antis- 
 thenis Cynici ;" Ritter, " History of Philosophy ;" G. H. Lewes, 
 "Biographical History of Philosophy ;" Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 Antoine, (of Germany.) See Anton. 
 
 Antoine, (of Italy.) See Antonio. 
 
 Antoine, dN'twan', (Jacques Denis,) an eminent 
 French artist, born in Paris in 1733. He built the stair- 
 case of the Palais de Justice, and the Mint, (Hotel des 
 Monnaies,) the unity and simplicity of which presented 
 a strong contrast with the then prevailing style in French 
 architecture. It was finished in 1776. Died in 1801. 
 
 See Quatremere de Quincy, "Histoire des Architectes." 
 
 Antoine, (Paul Gabriel,) a French Jesuit, born at 
 Luneville in 1679, was professor of philosophy in seve- 
 ral colleges. He published, besides other works, " Theo- 
 logia Moralis Universa," (3 vols., 1726 and 1731,) often 
 reprinted. Died at Pont-a-Mousson in 1743. 
 
 Antoine, (Sebastien,) a French engraver, born at 
 Nancy, flourished between 1720 and 1750. 
 
 Antoine de Bourbon. See Antony of Bourbon. 
 
 Antoine de Messine. See Antonki.i.o. 
 
 Antoinette, (Marie.) See Marie Antoinette. 
 
 Antolinez, an-to-lce'n8th, (Don Jose,) a Spanish 
 landscape-painter, who excelled in colouring, was born 
 at Seville in 1639. He painted some historical pictures. 
 Died at Madrid in 1676. 
 
 Antolinez y Sarabia, an-to-lee'neth e sa-ra-Bee'a, 
 (Francisco,) a nephew of the preceding, born at Seville 
 in 1644, was a skilful painter. He studied with Murillo, 
 whose colouring he imitated with success, and worked at 
 Madrid. Died in 1700. 
 
 Antolini, an-to-lee'nee, (Giovanni,) an architect of 
 Milan, born in 1755 : died in 1841. He published, among 
 other works, a treatise on civil architecture. 
 
 Antommarchi, an-tom-maR'kee, (Francesco,) an 
 Italian anatomist, born in Corsica. He became, in 1812, 
 anatomical dissector to a hospital of Florence, attached 
 to the University of Pisa, and was afterwards physician 
 or surgeon to Napoleon at Saint Helena, 1818-21. He 
 published "The Last Moments of Napoleon," (2 vols., 
 1823,) and "Anatomical Plates of the Human Body," 
 (1823-26.) Died in Cuba in 1838, or, according to some 
 authorities, about 1844. 
 
 See " M^moires du Docteur F. Antommarchi." 
 
 Anton, in'ton, or An'tony, [Fr. Antoine, on' 
 twin',] 1, (Clemens Thf.odor,) King of Saxony, oorr. 
 in 1755, was the second son of Frederick Christian, Elec- 
 tor of Saxony. He married Maria Theresa of Austria, 
 whose father became emperor Leopold I. In 1827 he 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ¥.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (jjy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ANTON 
 
 140 
 
 ANTONINUS 
 
 «uc:eeded his brother Frederick Augustus, but, on ac- 
 count of his age and lack of abilities, took little part in 
 the government. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Meynert, "Anton Konig von Sachsen." 
 
 Anton, (Conrad Gottlob,) a German philologist, 
 born at Lauban in 1745 ; died at Wittenberg in 1814. 
 
 Anton, (Gottfried,) [Lat. Gothokre'dus Anto'- 
 nius,] an eminent professor of feudal and Roman law, 
 born in Westphalia about 1570 ; died in 1618. 
 
 Anton or An-to'nI-Us, (Paul,) a German Protestant 
 theologian, born at Hirschfeld, in Lusatia, in 1661, be- 
 came professor of theology at Halle about 1695. His 
 work, called " The Doctrine of the Council of Trent," 
 (1697,) has been often reprinted. Died at Halle in 1730. 
 
 Anton, von, fon an'ton, (Karl Gottlob,) a German 
 historian and lawyer, born at Lauban in 1 75 1, was noted 
 for his critical sagacity. He wrote, besides other works, 
 a " History of Agriculture in Germany," (3 vols., 1 799- 
 1802,) and a "History of the German Nation," (unfin- 
 ished, 1793.) Died in 1818. 
 
 Antonelle, S.N'to'ne)', (Pierre Antoine,) a French 
 marquis, born at Aries in 1747, became a zealous revo- 
 lutionist, was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 
 1792, and took an active part against the Girondists. 
 Died in 1817. 
 
 Antonelli, an-to-nel'lee, (Giacomo,) an Italian car- 
 dinal and able politician, born near Terracina on the 2d 
 of April, 1806. He became second treasurer under the 
 papal government in 1844, and grand treasurer of the 
 two apostolic chambers in 1845. By the suppleness of 
 his character and the energy disguised under an affable 
 exterior, he acquired great influence with Pius IX., who 
 appointed him minister of finances. He opposed the 
 liberal movement which resulted in the formation of a 
 republic at Rome in 184S, and became the pope's secre- 
 tary of state for foreign affairs (or first minister) in April, 
 1850. He has shown himself an ultra-conservative, and 
 determinedly hostile to the cause of Italian unity. 
 
 Antonelli, (Giovanni Carlo,) an Italian bishop and 
 distinguished writer on canon law, who became Bishop 
 of Ferentino in 1677, was born at Velletri. Anions his 
 chief works is one " On the Government of the Episco- 
 pal Church," (or "of the church by bishops,") ("De Re- 
 gimine Ecclesiae Episcopalis," 1650.) Died in 1694. 
 
 Antonelli, (Leonardo,) an Italian cardinal, born at 
 Sinigaglia in 1730, distinguished himself as a friend of 
 the Jesuits, and as an advocate of the most extravagant 
 claims of the Roman Church. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Antonelli, (Niccol6 Maria,) Count, an eminent 
 Italian historian and theologian, born at Pergola in 1698, 
 was made cardinal in 1759. He wrote on "The Rights 
 of the Apostolic See to Parma and Piacenza," (4 vols., 
 1742,) and other works. Died in 1767. 
 
 Antonello, an-to-nel'lo, or Antonelli, an-to-nel'lec, 
 (Antonio,) surnamed da Messina, da mes-see'na, from 
 the place of his birth, [Fr. Antoine de Messine, 6n'- 
 twln' deh mi'sen',] a celebrated painter, born at Messina 
 about 1414, is generally supposed to be the first Italian 
 who painted in oil. His admiration of an oil-painting 
 by J. Van Eyck induced him to visit Bruges, where he 
 gained the friendship of Van Eyck, who imparted to him 
 his secret method of mixing his paints. He returned to 
 Italy about 1445, worked at Milan, and acquired a high 
 reputation by the brilliancy of his colouring. About 
 1470 he settled in Venice, where he lived twenty years, 
 and painted subjects from the Scriptures, among which 
 is a picture of the Virgin reading. Died about 1495. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy," and " Lives of the 
 Early Flemish Painters. 
 
 Antoni, d', dan -to'nee,(ALESSANDRo Vittorio Papa- 
 cino — pa-pa-chee'no,) a distinguished Piedmontese artil- 
 lery officer and writer on the military art, born at Villa 
 Franca in 1714. He entered the army at an early age, 
 and passed successively through the various grades until 
 he attained the rank of lieutenant-general in 17S4. 
 Among his works are a treatise on "Military Architec- 
 ture," (6 vols., 1778,) and one on "Gunpowder," (1765.) 
 Died in 1786. 
 
 Antoni, degli, dal'yee an-to'nee, (Vincenzo Berni,) 
 an Italian jurist, born at Bologna in I 747; died about 1810. 
 
 See Carlo Pepoli, "Vie d' Antoni." 
 
 An-to'nI-a, (Ma'jor, or " the Elder,") a daughter of 
 Mark Antony the Triumvir, and Octavia, a sister of Au- 
 gustus Cassar, was born in 39 B.C. She became the wife 
 of L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and mother of Cneius 
 Domitius, who was the father of the emperor Nero. 
 
 Anto'nia, (Mi'nor, or "the Younger,") a younger 
 daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia, was born about 
 36 B.C. She was married to Claudius Drusus Nero, 
 (who died in 9 B.C.,) and became mother of the celebrated 
 Germanicus, and of Claudius, who was afterwards em- 
 peror. She was admired for her beauty and esteemed 
 for her virtues. The emperor Caligula was her grand- 
 son. Died in 37 or 38 A.D. 
 
 Antoniano, an-to-ne-a'no, (Silvio,) a celebrated 
 Italian improvisatore and cardinal, born at Rome in 
 1540. He improvised verses on various subjects, and in 
 all the measures of Italian poetry. As professor of clas- 
 sical literature in the College of Sapienza at Rome, he 
 lectured with great reputation. He was made a cardinal 
 in 1598. He wrote a "Treatise on Education," (1584,) 
 and a volume of Latin Orations, (1610.) Died in 1603. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire LitteYaire d'ltahe." 
 
 Antoniasso, an-to-ne-is'so, an Italian painter, who 
 lived in the first part of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Autonides, an-to'ne-des,(THEODORUs,) a Dutch theo- 
 logian, lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Antonidea Nerdenus, an-to'ne-des neR-da'iius, 
 (Hendrik,) also called Hendrik Antonius van der 
 Linden, (van der lin'den,) a Dutch theologian, born at 
 Naerden in 1546. He wrote, in Latin, a "System of 
 Theology," (1613.) Died in 1604. 
 
 Antbnide3 van der Goes, an-to'ne-des vSn der 
 Hoos, (Johannes,) a popular Dutch poet, born at Goe9 
 in 1647. He practised medicine in his youth, and after- 
 wards obtained an office in the admiralty. His chief 
 work is a national poem descriptive of the Dutch river 
 Y or Ij, entitled "The Y Stream," ("Ijstroom," 1671,) 
 which was very popular. Died in 1684. 
 
 Antonides van der Linden, (Johannes.) See Lin- 
 den. 
 
 Antoniles, (Jose.) See Antolinez. 
 
 Antonilez. See Antolinez. 
 
 Antonin, the French for Antoninus, which see. 
 
 An-to-m'na, the wife of Belisarius, born in 499 a.d., 
 was eminent for her beauty, energy, and powers of fas- 
 cination. She had great influence in public affairs. She 
 was once imprisoned by Belisarius for her infidelity, but 
 he was afterwards reconciled to her. Died after 565. 
 
 See Gibbon. "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Antonini, an-to-nee'nee, (Annibale,) born near Sa- 
 lerno, in Naples, settled in Paris, where he was known 
 as the Abbe Antonini. He wrote an Italian-French Dic- 
 tionary, and other works. Died in 1755. 
 
 Antonini, (Filippo,) an Italian antiquary, born at 
 Sarsina in the sixteenth century. Died about 1630. 
 
 Antonini, (Giuseppe,) an Italian antiquary and 
 jurist, lived between 1700 and 1750. 
 
 An-to-nl'nus, [It. Antonio, an-to'ne-o, or Anto- 
 nino, an-to-nee'no; Fr. Antonin, oN'to'niN',] Saint, 
 a learned and pious archbishop of Florence, born in 
 1389 ; died in 1459. His numerous works are princi- 
 pally theological. His " Summa Theologica" (4 vols. 
 1478) has been often reprinted. 
 
 Antoninus, (Marcus Aurelius.) See Aurelius 
 Antoninus, 
 
 An-to-ni'nus Lib-er-a'lis, a Greek writer, who is 
 supposed to have lived about 150 a.d., but is not men- 
 tioned by any ancient author. There is extant a work 
 entitled a " Collection of Metamorphoses," which is 
 ascribed to him. 
 
 An-to-ni'nus Pi'us, or, more fully, Ti'tua Au-re'- 
 11-us Ful'vus Boi-o'nI-us Ar'rI-us An-to-ni'nus, 
 [Fr. Antonin, ON'to'niN',] an excellent Roman em- 
 peror, a son of Aurelius Fulvus, was born at Lamtvium 
 in 86 A.D. He became consul in 120 a.d., after which 
 he governed the province of Asia, as proconsul, with 
 wisdom and equity. He married Annia Galeria Faus- 
 tina, and was adopted by Hadrian in 138, on condition 
 that he should adopt Marcus Annius Verus. (See Aure- 
 lius, (Marcus,) and Lucius Verus.) Antoninus suc- 
 ceeded Hadrian in July, 138, and began under happy 
 
 i, 8, 1, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; flr, fall, fat; met; nflt; gSod; moon; 
 
ANTONIO 
 
 141 
 
 AN70NIUS 
 
 auspices his peaceful and prosperous reign. He ap- 
 pears to have treated the Christians with moderation, 
 if not clemency. It has been stated that he issued an 
 edict for the protection of Christians; but some writers 
 ascribe this edict to his successor. According to Capito- 
 linus, from whom we derive nearly all our knowledge of 
 Antoninus, he was temperate, humane, amiable, learned, 
 and eloquent. The name of Pater Patriae (" Father of 
 his Country") was conferred on him by the senate. He 
 died in 161 A.D., and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius. 
 His memory was so greatly venerated that five of his 
 successors assumed the name of Antoninus. 
 
 I. CapitounvS, "Vita Antonini;" Gautier de Sibert, 
 "Vie d" Antonio." 
 
 Antonio, in-to'ne-o, Pom an illegitimate son of 
 Dom Luis, son of King Emmanuel of Portugal, claimed 
 the throne in opposition to his uncle Henry, and on the 
 death of the latter, in 1580, was proclaimed king. He 
 was totallv defeated by the Duke of Alva the same year. 
 After various attempts to recover his kingdom, he died 
 in Paris in 1595. 
 
 Antonio of Florence. See Antoninus, (Saint.) 
 
 Antonio, (Marc.) See Raimondi. 
 
 Antonio, an-to'ne-o, (Nicolas,) [Lat. Nicolaus 
 Antonius,] a distinguished Spanish bibliographer and 
 critic, born at Seville in 161 7. He was appointed in 
 1659 by Philip IV. his general agent at the court of 
 Rome, where he remained eighteen years. During this 
 time he was employed on his great work, which is a com- 
 plete list of the Spanish authors and a catalogue of their 
 writings. In 1672 he published a part of this work, en- 
 titled '" N'ew Spanish Library," (" Bibliotheca Hispana 
 Nova," in 2 vols.) The "Old Library" (" Bibliotheca 
 Vetus," in 2 vols.) appeared in 1696. He became fiscal 
 of the royal council at Madrid about 1677. Died in 
 1684. His "Bibliotheca Hispana" is considered by 
 many critics the best work on Spanish literature. He 
 also wrote a "Critique on Fabulous Histories," ("Cen- 
 sura de Historias fabulosas," 1742.) 
 
 See Arana de Varplora, " Hijos de Sevilla ;" Mayans, "Vida 
 de N. Antonio," prefixed to his "Censura de Historias fabulosas;" 
 Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Antonio (in-to'ne-o) of Padua, a Franciscan monk 
 and celebrated preacher, born at Lisbon in 1195 ; died 
 at Padua in 1231. He is regarded by the Roman Cath- 
 olics of Italy and Portugal as one of the greatest of their 
 saints. 
 
 Antonio, ( Pedro,) a Spanish historical painter, born 
 at Cordova in 1614 ; died in 1675. 
 
 Anto'nio surnamed Venkziano, (vi-ned-ze-il'no,) or 
 the " Venetian," an eminent painter in fresco, born in 
 Venice, or, according to some authorities, in Florence, 
 about 1310. He worked chiefly in Florence and Pisa. 
 His design was correct and graceful. The truth and 
 harmony of his chiaroscuro are praised by Vasari. His 
 works are nearly all destroyed. Died in 1384 
 
 See Nagler, " Ajlgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Antonio da Messina. See Antonello. 
 
 Antonio da Vegu, an-to'ne-o da vi-gon', or da 
 Veggia, da ved'ji, an able Italian sculptor, lived about 
 1500 or 1550. He adorned the cathedral of Milan. 
 
 Antonio de Lebrixa. See Nf.mrissensis. 
 
 Antonio di Locate, An-to'ne-o de lo-kl'ti, an Italian 
 sculptor, who was employed on the facade of the Certosa 
 di Pavia about 1473. 
 
 Antonio Margarita, an-to'ne-o maR-g3-ree'ta, or 
 Margalitha, maR-ga-lee'ti, was converted from Juda- 
 ism to Christianity in 1522. He wrote an exposition of 
 the Jew ii h religion, (1530,) which was praised by Luther. 
 
 Antonio Morosini, rtn-to'ne-o mo-ro-see'nee, an 
 Italian pi<^, lived at Florence about 1650-1700. 
 
 Antonisze, An-to-nis'seh, (Kornf.lis,) a skilful 
 Dutch painter of cities, born at Amsterdam about 1500. 
 He was elected a member of the council of Amsterdam 
 in 1547. His name is sometimes written Tf.unissen. 
 
 An-to'nI-us, [Fr. Antoinf, os'tw.an',1 (Caius,) a 
 younger brother of Mark Antony the Triumvir, was 
 sent in 49 B.C., as Caesar's lieutenant, to Ulyricum, and 
 became praetor of the city, as a colleague of Brutus, in 
 44 B.C. In the same year he led a small army into 
 Macedonia, which he found occupied by a hostile force 
 
 under Brutus, to whom he surrendered in the spring of 
 43 B.C. He was put to death in retaliation for the death 
 of Cicero and D. Brutus. 
 
 Antonius, (Cai'us Hvb'rida,) an uncle of the pre- 
 ceding, and a son of M. Antonius the Orator, became 
 praetor in 66, and the colleague of Cicero in the con 
 sulship in 63 B.C. In the canvas for this office, Catiline 
 and Antonius worked together to defeat Cicero. Anto- 
 nius was a man of profligate habits, and did not cor- 
 dially co-operate with Cicero in the contest with Catiline, 
 He was banished for extortion or malversation in 59 B.C. 
 Died about 44 B.C. 
 
 Antonius, (Felix.) See Felix Antonius. 
 
 Antonius, (Ekanclscus.) See Anthonie. 
 
 Antonius, (Iulus,) a son of Mark Antony and Ful 
 via, married Marcella, a niece of Augustus. By the 
 favour of Augustus, he was chosen praetor in 13 B.C., 
 and consul in the year 10. He was condemned to death 
 in 2 B.C. for an intrigue with Julia, daughter of the em- 
 peror. Horace addressed the second ode of his fourth 
 book to I. Antonius, who was himself the author of a 
 poem called " Diomedeis." 
 
 Antonius, (Lucius,) a younger brother of Antony 
 the Triumvir, was elected tribune of the people for .\.\ 
 B.C., and, after the death of Caesar, promoted the designs 
 of his brother Marcus. In 41 he was consul with P. 
 Servilius Isauricus, and joined Fulvia in her efforts to 
 alienate Mark Antony from Octavius. He raised an 
 army against the latter, but was forced to surrender at 
 Perugia, (41 B.C.,) and was sent to Spain to take com- 
 mand in that country. 
 
 Antonius, (Marcus,) commonly called the Orator, 
 one of the most eloquent of Roman orators and law- 
 yers, was born in 142 B.C. He was grandfather of 
 Mark Antony the Triumvir. He obtained the govern- 
 ment of Cilicia, with the title of proconsul, in 103, and 
 became consul in 99. He favoured the aristocratic party, 
 and was an adherent of Sulla in the civil war against 
 Marius, by whose order he was assassinated in 87 B.C. 
 His great power as an orator is commemorated by 
 Cicero in his treatise " De Oratore," and in his " Bru- 
 tus." He left no written orations. In the judgment of 
 Cicero, Marcus Antonius and L. Crassus were the first 
 Roman orators who equalled the great orators of Greece. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Marius;" Drumann, "Geschichte Roms," 
 vol. i. 
 
 Antonius, (Marcus,) surnamed the Triumvir, called 
 in English Mark Antony, [Fr. Marc-Antoine, miRk'- 
 ON'twin',] a famous Roman general and politician, a son 
 of M. Antonius Creticus, was born about 83 B.C. His 
 mother was Julia, a daughter of L. Julius Caesar, who 
 was consul in 90 B.C. He distinguished himself in his 
 youth by his talents, extravagance, and audacious de- 
 fiance of the laws. He commanded the cavalry under 
 Gabinius in Syria and Egypt in 57-56 B.C., and was 
 elected quaestor in 53 or 52. In the latter year he 
 served in Gaul as lieutenant of Caesar, by whose influ- 
 ence he obtained the offices of augur ancf tribune in 50 
 B.C. Antony used his power as tribune to promote the 
 interest of Caesar in his contest with the senate. In 
 January, 49, he fled from the city to the camp of Caesar, 
 and in the civil war which ensued he became the lieu- 
 tenant of that chief, who, when he passed from Italy tc 
 Spain, intrusted to Antony the chief command in the 
 former country. He proved himself a brave and able 
 general, and commanded the left wing at the battle of 
 Pharsalia, 48 B.C. When Caesar became dictator, 47 
 B.C., Antony was appointed his master of the horse. 
 He married Fulvia, the widow of P. Clodius, in th». 
 year 46, and was the colleague of Caesar in the consul- 
 ship in 44. Many of the conspirators who killed the 
 dictator wished to involve Antony in the same fate; but 
 this design was overruled by Brutus. 
 
 Having obtained possession of the papers of Caesar 
 he aspired to supreme power, but opened insidious ne- 
 gotiations with Brutus and Cassius, consented to an am- 
 nesty, and procured from the senate a decree to ratify 
 the acts of the late dictator. By his artful and eloquent 
 funeral oration over the body of Caesar, he aroused the 
 fury of the populace against the conspirators, who were, 
 in consequence, driven out of Rome. He found a power- 
 
 1 k; c as /; g hard; g asj; 0, H, v.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as *; th as in this. (Jt^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ANTONIUS 
 
 142 
 
 APAMA 
 
 ful rival in young Octavius, (the adopted son and heir of 
 Caesar,) whom he at first treated with contempt. An- 
 tony's popularity was also damaged by the Philippics 
 of Cicero. The consuls Hirtius and Pansa raised an 
 army against Antony, who was defeated at Mu'tina (now 
 Modena) in 43 B.C. Before the end of this year, Octa- 
 vius deserted the cause of the senate, and united with 
 Antony and Lepidus to form a triumvirate. It was on 
 the demand of Antony that Cicero was included in the 
 fatal proscription-list of the triumvirs. The conduct of 
 the war against Brutus and Cassius devolved chiefly on 
 Antony, to whose skill the victory at Philippi, 42 B.C., 
 must be ascribed. 
 
 In the division of the provinces, Asia and the East 
 in general were allotted to Antony, who there indulged 
 without restraint his love of luxury and dissolute vices. 
 He was captivated by the charms of Cleopatra, Queen 
 of Egypt, and became so infatuated as almost wholly to 
 neglect his affairs. The intrigues of Fulvia caused a 
 rupture between Antony and Octavius in 41, but after 
 her death in 40 B.C. they were reconciled, and the former 
 married Octavia, the sister of Octavius. Antony's army, 
 under Ventidius, defeated the Parthians in the year 38. 
 About the end of that year the triumvirate was renewed 
 for a second period of five years. Antony soon renewed 
 his connection with Cleopatra, and divorced Octavia. 
 The rival triumvirs began to prepare for war in 32 B.C., 
 or earlier, and fought in 31 a decisive naval battle at 
 Actium, where Antony was defeated. (See Augustus.) 
 He retreated to Alexandria, and was deserted by his 
 rleet. Finding his case desperate, he killed himself, in 
 30 B.C. He had by Fulvia two sons, lulus and Antyl- 
 lus, who survived him. Antony is a conspicuous char- 
 acter in two of Shakspeare's dramas, — "Julius Caesar" 
 and "Antony and Cleopatra." 
 
 See "Antony," in Plutarch's "Lives;" Dion Cassius, " His- 
 tory of Rome ;" Drumann, " Geschichte Roms;" Appian, " Bellum 
 Civile." 
 
 Anto'nius surnamed Cket'icus, (Marcus,) a son of 
 M. Antonius the Orator. He became praetor in 75 B.C., 
 and in the next year received command of the whole 
 Roman fleet, with instructions to clear the Mediterra- 
 nean Sea of pirates. He disgraced himself by plunder- 
 ing Sicily. Having afterwards attacked Crete, Jie was 
 totally defeated. He died or was killed in Crete about 
 70 B.C. 
 
 Anto'nius, (Marcus Gnipho — nl'fo,) a learned rhe- 
 torician and grammarian, born in Gaul about 1 14 B.C. 
 He opened a school in Rome, and numbered among his 
 pupils Cicero and Caesar. His writings have not come 
 down to us. Died about 64 B.C. 
 
 Antonius, (Nicolaus.) See Antonio, (Nicolas.) 
 
 Antonius, Saint. See Anthony. 
 
 Antonius Castor. See Castor. 
 
 Antonius (Marcus) de Dominis. See Dominis. 
 
 Antonius Musa. See Musa. 
 
 Anto'nius Pol'e-mo, a sophist and orator of high 
 reputation, was born at Laodice'a, in the reign of Hadrian, 
 He lived mostly at Smyrna, where he taught rhetoric 
 with success. " I heard Polemo declaim thrice," says 
 Herodes Atticus ; " the first time as a critic ; the next as 
 a lover ; the last time with unmingled wonder at his 
 powers." He died in the reign of Antoninus Pius, 
 138-161 AD. 
 
 Anto'nius Pri'mus, (Marcus,) an able Roman 
 general, born at Tolosa (Toulouse) about 20 A.D. He 
 contributed to the elevation of Vespasian to the throne 
 by victories over the partisans of Vitellius, at Bedria- 
 cum, and near Rome, in 69 A.D. 
 
 Antonius Saturninus. See Saturninus. 
 
 Antony, (Mark.) See Antonius, (Marcus.) 
 
 An'to-ny of Bourbon, (boor'bon,) [Fr. Antoine 
 de Bourbon, oN'twan' deh booR'b6.N',l Duke of Ven- 
 d&me, and King of Navarre, born in Picardy in 1518, 
 was the first prince of the blood, (next to the king's sons.) 
 He was a brother of the Prince of Conde. He married 
 in 1548 Jeanne d'Albret, heiress of the King of Navarre. 
 At the accession of Charles IX. in 1560 he was ap- 
 pointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and entered 
 into a coalition or triumvirate with his enemy the Duke 
 de Guise, and Constable de Montmorency. About this 
 
 time he abandoned the Reformed communion and turned 
 Roman Catholic. In the civil war which began in 1562 
 he commanded the royal army until he was mortally 
 wounded at the siege of Rouen. He died in 1562, and 
 left a son, who became Henry IV. of France. 
 
 SeeDAViLA, "The Civil Wars in France;" De Thou, " Historia 
 sui Temporis;" Brantome, " Vies ties Hoinmes illustres," etc.; Sis- 
 mondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Antraigues. See Entraigues. 
 
 An-tyU'lus, the Greek name of Marcus, a son of 
 Mark Antony the Triumvir and Fulvia. He was born 
 about 45 B.C., was invested with the toga virilis at Alex- 
 andria in 30 B.C., and about the end of that year was 
 taken prisoner by Octavius and put to death. 
 
 Antyllus [Gr. "AiruA^oc] or An-til'lus, sometimes 
 incorrectly written Antiles, an eminent physician and 
 surgeon of antiquity, is supposed to have lived in the 
 third or fourth century after Christ. He wrote in Greek 
 several works, which are quoted by Oribasius, but ai e 
 not extant. 
 
 A-nu'bis, [Gr. "AvovSi?,] an Egyptian deity or idol, 
 represented as the offspring of Osiris, and worshipped 
 in the form of a dog. 
 
 Anund, a'nund, <Jakob,) King of Sweden, reigned 
 from 1024 to 1035. 
 
 Anvari. See Anwaree. 
 
 Anville, d', dSN'vel', (Jean Baptiste Bourguignon 
 — booR'gen'yd.N',) one of the greatest geographers that 
 ever lived, was born in Paris in 1697. He early devoted 
 himself to studies connected with his favourite science, 
 which he may be said to have almost created. In 1773 
 he was elected to the chair of geography in the Academy 
 of Sciences, and appointed first geographer to the king. 
 Our limits will not permit us to name more than a small 
 portion of the works of D'Anville. Suffice it to say that 
 his maps embrace almost every country in the world in 
 ancient as well as modern times. He is admitted to be 
 the first who raised geography to the dignity of an exact 
 science. " He was endowed," says Rossel, "with a sur- 
 prising fineness of tact, which enabled him nearly always 
 to distinguish truth from error." The accuracy of his 
 maps of Egypt was confirmed by the survey made by the 
 French about 1 799. Among his works are " Orbis Veteri- 
 bus notus ;" " Orbis Romanus ;" and a " Compendium 
 of Ancient Geography," (" Geographie Ancienne abre- 
 gee," 3 vols., 1768.) He died in 1782. 
 
 See Condorcet, " £loge de M. D'Anville," 1782; "Encyclopaedia 
 Brilannica ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Anwaree or Anwari, an'wa-ree', written also An- 
 vari, one of the most celebrated of the Persian lyric 
 poets, was born in Khorassan in the early part of the 
 twelfth century. He began his career in great poverty, 
 but was soon invited to the court of the sultan Sanjar, 
 and at length raised to the highest honours in the state. 
 About 1 148 his sovereign was defeated and taken prisoner 
 by a tribe of Toorkomans, and Anwaree's native country 
 presented a scene of universal outrage and desolation. 
 On this occasion he implored the aid of the Prince of 
 Samarcand, in one of the most beautiful and touching 
 poems in the Persian language, entitled the "Tears of 
 Khorassan." Anwaree lived to see his country delivered 
 from its oppressors, and died about 1200. 
 
 See D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheqne Orientale ;" Ferishta, "His- 
 tory." 
 
 An'jf-te ok Tegea, ['Avutj? TsyeilTric,] a Greek poetes: 
 of high reputation, is supposed to have lived about 30c 
 B.C. Some fragments of her works are extant. 
 
 An'jf-tus, ["Atotoc,! an Athenian demagogue, noto- 
 rious as an accuser of Socrates, after whose death h» 
 was banished from Athens, and is said to have beer, 
 stoned to death at Heracle'a in Pontus. 
 
 Aoust, d', doo, (Eustaohe,) a French general, born 
 at Douai in 1763, was executed in Paris in July, 1794. 
 
 Apaczai or Apatzai, 6p'St-sI, (Joannes,) a distin 
 guished Hungarian scholar, native of Apatza, in Transyl- 
 vania. He was the author of the first Hungarian Ency- 
 clopaedia, (" Magyar Entziklopedia.") Died in 1659. 
 
 Apafi, Sp'pof-ee, (Mihai.y — me'hST,] the name of two 
 Transylvanian princes, father and son, the first of whom 
 died in 1690, the second in 1713, leaving no issue. 
 
 Ap'a-ma [Gr. 'AiTufia] or Ap'a-me, I'Ar.u/n?,] a Per- 
 
 il, e, I, o, u, y, /one; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, snort; a, e, |, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
APARICIO 
 
 H3 
 
 APION 
 
 sian or Bactrian lady, who was married about 325 B.C. 
 to Seleucus Nicator. She was the mother of Antiochus 
 Soter. 
 
 Aparicio, i-pa-ree'the-o, (Jose,) a Spanish painter, 
 born in 17S0, was a pupil of the celebrated French 
 painter David. Among his works is a picture of "The 
 Plague in Spain." He was living in 1822. 
 
 Apchon, d', dip'sh6.N', (Claude Marc Antoine,) 
 a French prelate, noted for his beneficence, was born at 
 Montbrison about 1723. Died in 1783. 
 
 Apel, a'pel, (Johann,) [Lat. Johan'nes Apel'lus,] 
 a German professor of law, and a devoted follower of 
 Luther, born at Nuremberg in i486 ; died about 1536. 
 
 Apel, (JoHANN August,) a German writer, who was 
 once popular, was born at Leipsic in 1771. He composed 
 verses with facility, and wrote for several journals and 
 periodicals. Among his works are songs, elegies, trage- 
 dies, and a mediocre treatise on classical prosody called 
 " Metrik," (1816.) Died in 1816. 
 
 Apelchasem, (a Turkish general.) See Aboo-l-Ka- 
 sim. 
 
 A-pel'Ias, ['AneXXuc,] a Greek statuary, lived about 
 the fourth century B.C. According to Pliny, he made 
 statues of bronze. 
 
 Apellas or A-pol'las, ['AiroWuc,] a Greek geog- 
 rapher, born at Cyrene, is supposed to have lived about 
 zy*, \,v. 
 
 A-pelTes, [Gr. 'Awr/%; Fr. Apelle, S'pel',] the 
 most celebrated painter of antiquity, was born in the 
 island of Cos, according to Pliny and Ovid ; but others 
 state that he was a native of Colophon or Ephesus. He 
 attained the height of his celebrity about 330 B.C. He 
 studied first under Ephorus, and afterwards under Pam- 
 philus at Sicyon. His success was partly due to close 
 and long-continued application. Nulla dies sine lima is 
 a saying which originated in one of his maxims. He 
 obtained the special favour of Alexander the Great, of 
 whom he painted many portraits. It is said that he had 
 the exclusive privilege of painting this king. Apelles 
 surpassed other ancisnt painters in elegance and grace, 
 the cliaris [xuftf] of the Greeks, in respect to which Cor- 
 reggio is perhaps pre-eminent among the moderns. 
 Pliny maintained that Apelles contributed more towards 
 perfecting the art than all other painters, and painting 
 was called the "Apellean art" ("ars Apellea") by the 
 Roman poets Statius and Martial. Among his master- 
 pieces was a portrait in profile of King Antigonus on 
 horseback. His most celebrated work was the "Venus 
 Anadyomene, or Venus rising from the sea and wringing 
 her hair with her fingers," which was painted for the 
 people of Cos, and which, after the lapse of three hun- 
 dred years, was taken by Augustus Caesar as the equiva- 
 lent of one hundred talents (about 100,000 dollars) in 
 payment of tribute. It is said that Apelles was en- 
 amoured of Campaspe, (the model from which this 
 picture was painted,) a favourite of Alexander, who gave 
 her to the artist. Apelles appears to have survived 
 Alexander, who died in 323 B.C. He is praised for his 
 generous conduct to the painter Protogenes of Rhodes, 
 whose works were not appreciated until Apelles pur- 
 chased some of them at a high price and circulated a 
 report that he would sell them as his own. Ovid al- 
 ludes to the picture of Venus, above noticed, in these 
 elegant lines : 
 
 " Sic madidos siccat digitis Venus uda capillos 
 Et modo maternis tecta videtur aquis. "* 
 
 Many interesting anecdotes are recorded of this artist. 
 He is supposed by some writers to have followed Alex- 
 ander the Great in his expedition to Asia. 
 
 See Pliny, "Natural History:" Suidas, "Apelles:" Plutarch, 
 "Aratus," and "Alexander;" Carlo Dati, " Vite de' Pittori anti- 
 chi," 1667. 
 
 Apelles, [Gr. 'Awwttjc] a heretic, who lived about 
 150 A.D., was at first a disciple of Marcion, from whom 
 he afterwards differed. He is said to have rejected the 
 authority of the Old Testament, and to have taught 
 strange doctrines respecting the Divine nature. He 
 
 * The following is a nearly literal translation : "So Venus wrings 
 her dripping hair with her fingers, and appears covered (or clothed) 
 with the maternal waters," (&/• the waters from which she sprang.) 
 
 founded a sect called Apellists, and wrote a work en- 
 titled the " Gospel of Apelles." 
 
 See Eusebius, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Lardner, " History of 
 Heretics." 
 
 Apelles of Ephesus, a Greek painter, mentioned by 
 Lucian in his treatise on Calumny. He worked in 
 Egypt, and was patronized by Ptolemy Philopator, about 
 220 B.C. He was falsely accused by a rival painter, An- 
 tiphilus, of a conspiracy against the king ; but his inno- 
 cence was proved, and the accuser was condemned to be 
 the slave of Apelles. 
 
 A-pel'11-con of Teos, [Gr. 'AneMdKuv,] a rich Peri- 
 patetic philosopher, who was distinguished by his fond- 
 ness for collecting old and rare manuscripts. He be- 
 came a citizen of Athens, and commander of a force in 
 the island of Delos, where he was defeated by the Ro- 
 mans. It is said that the world is indebted to him for 
 the preservation of the works of Aristotle, and that h« 
 purchased the library collected by that philosopher, in- 
 cluding his autograph manuscripts. Died about 86 B.C 
 
 A'per, (Marcus,) a distinguished Roman orator of 
 the time of Vespasian. He was a Gaul by birth. None 
 of his works are extant. 
 
 Apezteguia, a-peth-tl-gee'a, (Don Juan Felipe,) 
 a Spanish sculptor, worked at Madrid. Died in 1785. 
 
 A-pha'reus, (or afa-rus,) [' A<j>apri>r,] an Athenian 
 poet and orator, who flourished about 350 B.C., was an 
 adopted son of Isocrates the orator. He composed 
 many tragedies, some of which were successful. None 
 of his works are extant. 
 
 Aph-ro-disl-us of Tralles, a sculptor, mentioned 
 by Pliny among the artists who adorned the palace of 
 the Caesars. He lived in the first century of our era. 
 
 Aph-ro-di'te, ['Atywdm?,] the Grecian name of the 
 goddess Venus, which see. 
 
 Apli-tho'111-us ['Aij>edv 10c] of Antioch, a noted Greek 
 rhetorician, supposed to have lived in the fourth century 
 of our era. He wrote a popular book of rhetorical 
 exercises, called " Progymnasmata," which was often 
 printed and used in schools in the sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth centuries. 
 
 Apian, a'pe-an, [Lat. Apia'nus,] or Appian, ap'- 
 pe-an, (Peter,) a noted German astronomer and mathe- 
 matician, born in Misnia in 1495. His real name was 
 P.lENEWrrz, (bee'neh-wits.) He taught mathematics at 
 Ingolstadt, and first suggested the method of ascer- 
 taining the longitude by the distance of the moon from 
 a fixed star. His work on Cosmography (1524) had a 
 wide reputation. He also published a treatise on as- 
 tronomy, entitled " Astronomicon Caesareum," (1540.) • 
 He was patronized and ennobled by Charles V. Died 
 in 1552. 
 
 Apian or Appian, (Philip,) a son of Peter Apian, 
 noticed above, born in 1531, succeeded him in the 
 chair of mathematics. He wrote " On the Utility of the 
 Cylinder," (" De Cylindri Utilitate,") and several other 
 small works. Died at Tubingen in 1589. 
 
 See Lipenius, " Bibliotheca realis Philosophica ;" Cellius, " Ora- 
 tio de Vita et Morte P. Apiani," 1591. 
 
 Apicius, a-pish'e_-us, (Marcus Gabius,) a celebrated 
 epicure, lived at Rome in the time of Augustus and Ti- 
 berius. It is related by Seneca that after spending on 
 rare culinary dainties one hundred million sesterces, 
 (about #3,600,000,) Apicius was obliged to look into his 
 accounts. He discovered that he had only ten million 
 sesterces ($360,000) remaining; upon which, unwilling 
 to starve on such a pittance, he poisoned himself! His 
 name has become proverbial for gluttony, both in ancient 
 and modern times. 
 
 Apin, S-peen', (Johann Ludwig,) a German physi- 
 cian, born at Hohenlohe in 1668 ; died in 1703. He was 
 author of several medical works. 
 
 Apin or Apinus, a-pee'nus, (Sigismund Jakob,) a 
 philologist, a son of the preceding, was bom near Nu- 
 remberg in 1693. He became rector of a school at 
 Urunswick. Among his works is a dissertation "On 
 Pure Intellect," (" De Intellect!] pure") Died in 1732. 
 
 A'pl-on [Gr. 'Airiuv] surnamed Plistoni'ces, a 
 learned Greek grammarian and historian, was born in 
 Oasis, Egypt, and lived in the reigns of Tiberius, Calig- 
 ula, and Claudius, (a.d. 15-54.) He became mastei of 
 
 « at k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
APIS 
 
 144 
 
 APOLLODORUS 
 
 a school in Rome about the year 45. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of Egypt," a lexicon to Homer, and other works, 
 among which were annotations on the poems of Homer, 
 and a book against the Jews, in reply to which Josephus 
 wrote his " Antiquities of the Jews." He was called 
 "Cymlxilum Mundi" ("Cymbal of the World") by Tibe- 
 rius, probably on account of his vanity and egotism. His 
 works are lost, except small fragments. 
 
 See Schoell, " Histoire de la Littiirature Grecque." 
 
 A'pis, [Gr. 'AiifJ a mythical king of Argos, and a 
 son of Phoroneus. He is said to have called Pelopon- 
 nesus Apia, and to have reigned also in Egypt. 
 
 Apis, the Bull of Memphis, the chief idol or object 
 of worship among the ancient Egyptians. According 
 to some accounts, he was sacred to Osiris, in whom the 
 sun was worshipped. The death of this animal caused 
 great mourning among the Egyptians. 
 
 See Guigniaut, " Religions de l'AntiquM," vol. i. 
 
 Ap'john, (James,) F.R.S., an Irish chemist, born at 
 Sunville, county of Limerick, in 1796. He became pro- 
 fessor of chemistry in the University of Dublin in 1850. 
 He wrote a number of treatises on chemistry. 
 
 A-po-cau'cus, [Gr. 'Airo/cav/coc ; Fr. Apocauque, 
 S'po'kok',] a powerful and corrupt favourite of the em- 
 peror Androni'cus, was assassinated in 1345. 
 
 Apolinarius. See Apolltnarius. 
 
 Apollinaire. See Apollinarius. 
 
 A-pol-H-na'ris, A-pol-I-na'rl-us, or A-pol-H-na'- 
 rl-us, the Elder, a grammarian, born at Alexandria, 
 lived about 330 A.D. He taught at Berytus and Laodi- 
 ce'a, and became a presbyter in the Christian Church. 
 He wrote a " Grammar for Christians," and other works. 
 
 Apollinaris or Apollinarius the Younger, a son 
 of the preceding, was Bishop of Laodicea, and author of 
 the Apollinarian heresy. He was distinguished as an 
 orator and philosopher, and was a man of great abilities 
 and learning. He obtained the bishopric as early as 
 362 A.D., and died in the reign of Theodosius the Great, 
 between 380 and 392 A.D. He was author of many vol- 
 umes of commentaries on the Bible, of " Thirty Books 
 against Porphyry," and of numerous other works, which 
 are nearly all lost. About 375 A.D. he was charged with 
 heresy in relation to the Incarnation. It appears that he 
 taught that Christ had not a rational or human soul, 
 but that it was replaced by the logos, or Divine Spirit. 
 
 See Sozomen, "Historia Ecclesiastica :" Wern.sdorff, "Disser- 
 tatio de Apollinare Laodiceno," 1094; Tillemont, "Memoires;" 
 " Vita? Apoilinaris Historia," Paris, 1571. 
 
 Apollinaris, (Sulpittus Caius,) a distinguished 
 • grammarian, said to have been a native of Carthage, 
 taught at Rome in the second century. 
 
 Apollina'ris Sl-do'ni-us, [Fr. Apollinaire Si- 
 doine, i'po'le'naV se'dwan',] (Caius Sol'lius,) Saint, 
 a bishop and Latin poet, born at Lugdunum (Lyons) in 
 430 a.d. He married a daughter of Avitus who became 
 Emperor of Rome in 455 and was deposed the next year. 
 He was appointed by Anthemius chief of the senate, 
 prefect of the city, and afterwards patrician. In 471 
 A.D. he was elected Bishop of Clermont, (Augustoneme- 
 tum.) He died about 488, leaving various works, some 
 of which are lost. His "Carmina" ("Poems," or 
 "Songs") and " Epistolas" are extant, and are prized 
 for the historical information they afford. 
 
 See Germain, " Essai sur Apollinaris Sidonius," 1S40 ; Fauriel, 
 "Histoire de la Gaule meridionale." 
 
 Apollinarius. See Apollinaris. 
 
 A-pol-11-na'rI-us or A-pol-I-na'rl-us, [Gr. 'Kirok- 
 Xivufuoc; Fr. Apollinaire, t'po'le'naR',] (Claudius,) 
 Saint, a bishop of Hierapolis, in Phrygia, lived in the 
 reign of Marcus Antoninus. He wrote, besides other 
 works, a defence of Christianity, which Saint Jerome 
 calls an excellent book. His works are not extant. 
 
 A-pol'lo, [Gr. 'KTToWki.iv; Fr. Apollon, i'po'ldN'; 
 It. Apollone, a-pol-lo'na,] the god of archery, music 
 and poetry, medicine, and prophecy, was the son of Ju- 
 piter and Latona. He was born on the island of Delos, 
 whence he is often called Delius, while Diana, his sister, 
 is named Delia. He is also styled Pythius, or the " Py- 
 thian," because his first great exploit was to slay with 
 his arrows the serpent Python. Apollo was likewise 
 regarded by the later poets of antiquity as the god of 
 
 the sun. Homer represents Apollo and the sun-god as 
 entirely distinct personages. Under the name of Pasan, 
 Apollo was invoked in the character both of a healer 01 
 protector and a destroyer — for his arrows were supposed 
 to produce the pestilence. Some of the poets represented 
 Pa;an as the healing god, but distinct from Apollo ; but 
 this was not the general opinion. Although Apollo was 
 regarded as the author of the healing art, the title of the 
 "god of medicine" is usually given to his son .-Escula- 
 pius. The "god of the unerring bow" (" Childe Harold," 
 canto iv.) was often called Phoebus, or Phoebus Apollo, 
 from the Greek 4><)i r Joc, "bright," or "shining." Apollo is 
 usually represented as abeautiful young man, crowned with 
 laurel, and having in his hand a harp or bow and arrows. 
 
 See Buttmann, " Mythologus :" G. Hermann, "Dissertatio de 
 Apolline et Diana;" Hartung, "Die Religion derRon-er;" Gui- 
 gniaut, " Religions de l'Antiquite," translated from the German of 
 Creuzer, vol. ii.; Keightley, "Mythology." 
 
 Apollodore. See Apollodorus. 
 
 Apollodoro, a-pol-lo-do'ro, (Francesco,) some- 
 times called II Porcia, el poR'cha, an Italian portrait- 
 painter, born in Friuli, lived in the first half of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 A-pol-lo-do'rus, [Gr. ' ' kTroXkoSupoc ; Fr. Apollodore, 
 S'po'lo'doR',] a celebrated Greek artist, the founder of 
 a new school of painting, was born at Athens about 440 
 B.C., and was surnamed the " Shadower." He was a 
 rival of Zeuxis, and is said to have been the first who 
 represented the effects of light and shade with success. 
 His works are highly praised by Pliny, who says he was 
 the first who painted men and things as they really ap- 
 peared, (Iiic primus species exprimere instituit.) Among 
 his works was a picture of " Ajax Wrecked." 
 
 See Puny, " Natural History." 
 
 Apollodorus, a Greek sculptor, born probably about 
 350 B.C. He bestowed great labour on his works, and 
 often destroyed them because they did not satisfy him. 
 
 Apollodorus, a Greek comic poet of high repute, a 
 native of Carystus in Eubcea, lived probably in the last 
 half of the fourth century B.C. 
 
 Apollodorus, an Epicurean philosopher, who became 
 head of the school of Epicurus. He was succeeded by 
 his pupil, Zeno of Sidon, about 84 B.C. According to 
 Diogenes Laertius, he wrote four hundred books, (jlipAia,) 
 one of which was a Life of Epicurus. 
 
 Apollodorus, the name of several ancient physicians, 
 one of whom wrote a treatise " On Venomous Animals." 
 
 Apollodorus, a jurist, employed by Theodosius the 
 Younger in the compilation of a system of laws known 
 as the Theodosian Code. He lived about 425 a.d. 
 
 Apollodorus of Athens, a celebrated grammarian 
 and historian, flourished about 150 B.C., and was a pupil 
 of Aristarchus. He wrote many valuable works, which 
 are all lost except a " Bibliotheca," a manual of Greek 
 mythology, which is incomplete and is regarded by some 
 critics as an abridgment of his original work. It is, 
 however, highly prized as the best work extant on that 
 subject. Some fragments remain of his versified chron- 
 icle of the History of Greece. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Schoell, "Histoire de la 
 
 Litterature Grecque." 
 
 Apollodorus of Damascus, an eminent architect, 
 born at Damascus in the first century. He was employed 
 at Rome by Trajan, for whom he erected many grand 
 edifices, among which were the Forum and Column of 
 Trajan, (which still exists,) a theatre, an odeum, and the 
 Basilica Ulpia. The Forum of Trajan was considereo 
 the most splendid in Rome. His greatest work was a 
 magnificent bridge over the Danube, near the confluence 
 of that river with the Aluta, (Alt,) built in 105 a.d. He 
 was put to death by Hadrian, whose motive is supposed 
 to have been envy or anger because Apollodorus had 
 ridiculed a temple built after the design of Hadrian. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, " History;" MELIUS Spartianus, " Hadrian." 
 
 Apollodorus of Gela, a Greek comic poet, who lived 
 probably about 320 B.C. His works are not extant 
 
 Apollodorus of Pergamus, a Greek rhetorician, born 
 about 100 B.C. He taught rhetoric at Rome, and was 
 one of the teachers of Octavius, (afterwards the emperor 
 Augustus.) He was the founder of a new school of 
 rhetoric ; but he wrote very little. Died about 22 B.C. 
 
 a, C, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, f, o, ti, f, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mjt; n5t; good; mrJ&n; 
 
APOLLODORUS 
 
 '45 
 
 APOLLOPHANES 
 
 Apollodorus of Phalcrum, (or Phaleron,) in Attica, 
 a disciple and friend of Socrates. He was a man of 
 eccentric character, and appears to have been deficient 
 in firmness and in intellectual power. 
 
 Apollodorus surnarned Eph'ilus, a Stoic, who 
 wrote on Ethics and Physics, before the Christian era. 
 
 Apolloii. See Apollo. 
 
 A-pol-lon'I-des or A-pol-lonl-das, ['AToAAut'tdor,] 
 a Greek poet of unknown date, supposed to have been 
 born at Smyrna. He left a number of admired epi- 
 grams, which are extant in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Apollonides, a Greek officer, appointed governor of 
 Argos by Cassander about 315 B.C. 
 
 Apoliouides of Cos, a Greek physician, who prac- 
 tised at the court of Artaxerxes Longimanus of Persia, 
 and is said to have seduced Anvytis/^sister of that king, 
 for which offence he was put to death. 
 
 Apollonides of Nicaea, a Greek grammarian, of 
 whom little is known. He is supposed to have lived in 
 the reign of Tiberius. His works are lost. 
 
 Apollonio, d-pol-lo'ne-o, (Jacopo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Bassano about 1585, was a grandson of Jacopo 
 da Ponte. Among his master-pieces are a Saint Sebas- 
 tian, a Saint Francis, and a Magdalen, in the churches 
 of Bassano. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 A-pol-lo'nis or A-pol-lo'nI-a, the wife of Attalus 
 I., King of Pergamus. She was the mother of four sons, 
 who were noted for filial piety, and who erected a temple 
 to her memory. 
 
 A-pol-lo'ril-us, [Gr. 'Atto/Iawvioc,] an eminent sculptor 
 of Rhodes, lived probably about 200 B.C. He and his 
 brother Tauriscus were the sculptors of a marble group 
 of Zethus and Amphi'on tying Dirce to the horns of a 
 bull, which Pliny says was brought to Rome by Asinius 
 Pollio. Many critics have identified this work with the 
 group called "Toro Farnese" which is at Naples. 
 
 Apollonius, a Greek physician, a pupil of Herophilus, 
 often quoted by Galen, lived about 180 B.C. 
 
 Apollonius, an excellent Athenian sculptor, a son of 
 Nestor, is supposed to have lived before the Christian 
 era. He is known only as the sculptor of a marble 
 statue of Hercules, of which a fragment, called the Torso 
 of the Belvedere, is preserved at Rome. It is one of the 
 most admirable extant specimens of ancient art. The 
 head, arms, and legs have been broken off. 
 
 Apollonius, a sophist and grammarian of Alexandria, 
 lived in the time of Augustus. He left a Homeric Lexi- 
 con to the Iliad and Odyssey, which is still extant and is 
 highly prized. It was published by Villoison in 1773. 
 
 Apollonius of Ai.abanda. See Apollonius Molon. 
 
 Apollonius of Athens, a rhetorician, who taught at 
 Athens about 200 A.D., and held several high offices. 
 He gained the victory in a rhetorical contest over Hera- 
 cli'des in the presence of the Roman emperor. 
 
 Apollonius of Chalcis, a Stoic philosopher, who had 
 so high a reputation that he was invited to Rome by An- 
 toninus Pius to direct the education of Marcus Aurelius, 
 by whom his merit as a teacher is commended. 
 
 Apollonius of Myndus, an astronomer, who lived in 
 the time of Alexander the Great. His works are all lost. 
 
 Apollonius of Pergamus, a Greek physician, who 
 lived in the first century B.C. 
 
 Apollo'nius Ciiiin'sis, a physician, born at Ci- 
 tium, in Cyprus, lived in the first century B.C. He wrote 
 a curious Greek treatise on Articulations, [Jlrpl uptt/w,) 
 which is called the most ancient commentary on Hip- 
 pocrates that has come down to us. 
 
 Apollo'nius surnarned Dys'colus, (the "morose,") 
 a celebrated Greek grammarian of Alexandria, lived in 
 the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus, (117-161 A.D.) He 
 was the father of /Elius Herodian. He wrote, besides 
 many works which are lost, an able treatise "On the 
 Syntax of the Parts of Speech," (Ilfp< owrufrus rob Myov 
 •irpuv,) which is extant. Priscian calls him the greatest 
 of grammarians. 
 
 See Suidas, "Apollonius;" Fabricios, "Bibliotheca Gneca." 
 
 Apollonius the Empiric, a Greek physician, who 
 ived probably about 200 B.C. 
 
 Apollonius, (LiEVi'NUs,) a geographer and historian 
 of the sixteenth century, was born near Bruges. He 
 
 died in one of the Canary Islands, while on a voyage to 
 Peru. He was author of two works of some merit, — an 
 "Account of the Discovery of Peru," (1567,) and "On 
 the Expedition of the French to Florida," (" De Naviga- 
 tione Gallorum in Terram Floridam," 1568.) 
 
 Apollo'nius Mu'lon, an eminent Greek rhetori- 
 cian, born at Alabanda, in Caria. He was sent by the 
 people of Rhodes as an envoy to Rome in 81 B.C. He 
 taught at Rhodes both before and after this date. Cicero 
 and Julius Caesar were among his pupils about 78 B.C. 
 His works are not extant. 
 
 Apollo'nius surnarned Pkrg/e'us, [Fr. Apollonius 
 le Pergeen, i'po'lo'ne'us' leh peVzha 6n',] one of the 
 most profound and original of all the ancient geometers, 
 was born at Perga, in Pamphylia, about the middle of 
 the third century B.C. He lived at Alexandria in the 
 reign of Ptolemy Philopator, (li.c. 222-205.) Little or 
 nothing is known of his life in addition to the facts 
 above stated. It is supposed that he survived Archi- 
 medes. His principal work is a "Treatise on Conic 
 Sections," (in Greek,) seven books of which have been 
 preserved. The eighth book is lost. He also wrote 
 another mathematical treatise, of which an Arabic ver- 
 sion is extant, and other works, which are lost. Apollo- 
 nius was also an astronomer, and is said to have been 
 the first who discovered the method of representing by 
 epicycles the phenomena of the stations and retrograda- 
 tions of the planets. 
 
 t See Montucla, " Histoire des Mathlmatiques ;" Schoell, " His- 
 toire de la Liuerature Grecque ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graca ;" 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Apollo'nius Rho'dius, [Gr. 'Atto/Uuvioc 'PoAoc,! 
 a celebrated Greek epic poet and rhetorician, born at 
 Alexandria (or, as some say, at Naucratis) about 235 li.c. 
 I lu was a son of Silleus or Illeus, and a pupil of the poet 
 Callimachus, with whom he quarrelled. He removed in 
 his youth to Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric for many 
 years with great success and obtained the honour of 
 citizenship. Having returned to Alexandria, he was an- 
 pointed keeper of the celebrated library of that place, as 
 successor to Eratosthenes, about 194 B.C. Only one of 
 his works is extant, namely, the " Argonautica," an ep ic 
 poem in four books en the expedition of the Argonauts, 
 which in general displays more erudition than poetic 
 inspiration. "It is," says Quintilian, "a respectable 
 work, but generally mediocre." Some modem critics, 
 however, think they find in this poem beauties of detail 
 of the first order. 
 
 See Weichert, " Ueber das Leben und Gedicht des Apollonius," 
 1821 ; Schoell, " Histoire de la Literature Grecque," 1813; E. Ger- 
 hard, " Lectiones Apolloniat.je." 
 
 Apollo'nius Tyan/F.us, (tl-a-nee'us,) (or "Apollo- 
 nius of Tyana,") fur. 'A-0//WWOC Tiravaioc; Fr. Apollo- 
 nius de Tyane, 9'po'lo'ne'Us' deh te'in',] a Pythagorean 
 philosopher who lived about the middle of the first century, 
 was born at Tyana, in Cappadocia. He is the subject 
 of marvellous stories, and is considered by some writers 
 to have been an impostor, by others a magician of won- 
 drous skill. It appears that he was venerated for his 
 wisdom by his contemporaries, who believed that he had 
 the gift of prophecy and the power of working miracles. 
 His life has been written by Flavius Philostratus, who 
 says he went to India, conversed with the Brahmins, and 
 after his return assumed the character of a moral re- 
 former in Greece and Rome. The only work of Apol- 
 lonius that has come down to us is his "Apology" in 
 reply to Euphrates. His miracles have been compared 
 to those of Christ by some ancient and modern infidels. 
 
 See Brucker, "History of Philosophy ;" Ritter, "History ol 
 Philosophy;" Philostratus, "Life of Apollonius," in English, 
 1809, translated by E. Berwick; John Hi nkv Newman, " Life ot 
 ApoHonilM Tyaiueus," 8vo, 1853; F. C. Baur, "Apollonius von 
 ml Clirisuis," 1832; Klose, " Disscrtationes III. de Apollo- 
 nio Thyanensi," 1724. 
 
 A pol-lo'nl-us, (Wii.lem,) a Dutch Reformed theolo- 
 gian, burn at Vcerc ; died in 1657. 
 
 Apollonius Collatius. See Coi.latius. 
 Apollonius de Tyane. See Apollonius Tya- 
 
 N^US. 
 
 A-pol-loph'a-nes, [Gr. 'AiroWo^ow/c.l an ancient 
 physician, born at Scleucia, lived 200 or 250 n.c. He 
 was physician to Antiochus the Great, (or, according to 
 
 « as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H. K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. 
 
 to 
 
 (2y*See Explanations, p. 23.; 
 
APOLLOS 
 
 ■ 46 
 
 APPLETON 
 
 some accounts, Antiochus Soter.) with whom he is said 
 to have had much influence. 
 
 A-pol'lps, a Jew who became an able and eloquent 
 preacher o!" Christianity. (See Acts xviii. 24; I. Corin- 
 thians i. 12 ; iii. 4; iv. 6.) 
 
 Aponus, (Petrus.) See Abano, (Pietro di.) 
 
 Apostoli, a-pos'to-lee, (Francesco,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Venice about 1750. He was once minister from 
 San Marino to Napoleon I. He published, at Milan, a 
 " View or Picture of the Eighteenth Century," ("Rap- 
 presentazione del Secolo XVIII.," 3 vols.,) " History of 
 the Gauls, Franks, and French," ("Storia dei Galli, 
 Franchi e Francesi," 1 vol.,) and other works. Died 
 poor at Venice in 1816. 
 
 Apostoli, (Giovanni Francesco,) a Latin poet, born 
 in Montferrat, lived in the latter half of the sixteenth 
 century. He published in 1580 a volume of satirical 
 Latin poems, entitled "Leisure Hours," ("Succisivae 
 Horre.") 
 
 Apostoli, degli, dal'yee a-pos'to-Iee, (Pietro Fran- 
 cesco,) an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Novara; died 
 about 1650. 
 
 A-pos-to'11-us, (Michael,) a learned Greek who was 
 born at Constantinople, and fled to Italy soon after the 
 capture of that city in 1453. He published or edited a 
 collection of Greek and Latin Proverbs, printed in 1538. 
 Lied about 1480, leaving a son, Arsenius, Bishop of Mal- 
 vasia. 
 
 Apostool, a-pos-tol', (Samuel,) a Dutch Mennonite 
 theologian, born in 1638. He became in 1662 one of 
 the ministers of the Baptist congregations at Amster- 
 dam. A doctrinal dispute between him and one of his 
 colleagues resulted in a division of the sect into two 
 parties, called Apostolians and Galenists. 
 
 Appel, ap'pel, (Jacob,) a Dutch painter, born at Am- 
 sterdam in 1680, excelled in landscapes, portraits, and 
 history. He worked at the Hague and at Amsterdam. 
 Hied in 1 75 1. His son, of the same name, was a success- 
 ful painter. 
 
 Appelius, ap-pa'le-iis, (Johan Hendrik,) a Dutch 
 financier, born at Middelburg about 1767, was minister 
 of finance for many years. Died in 1828. 
 
 Appelman, ap'pel-man', (Barend, or Bernard,) a 
 Dutch landscape-painter, born at the Hague in 1640. 
 He studied in Italy, and painted many admired land- 
 scapes of Roman scenery. Died in 1686. 
 
 Appending ap-pSn-dee'nee, (Francesco Maria,) an 
 Italian priest and Scholar, born near Turin in 1768; died 
 in 1837. He is the author of the best political and lite- 
 rary history of the little state of Ragusa, (2 vols., 1802,) 
 ana of a " Life and Examination of the Works of Pe- 
 trarch," (" La Vita e l'Esame delle Opere del Petrarca.") 
 
 See Co.snacich, " Memoria storica sulia Vita dei P. F. M. Ap- 
 pendini," 1838. 
 
 Ap'per-ley, (Charles James,) an English gentle- 
 man, noted as a fox-hunter and a writer on sporting sub- 
 jects under the pseudonym of "Nimrod," was born in 
 Denbighshire in 1777. Besides many articles for sporting 
 journals, he wrote " Remarks on the Condition of Hunt- 
 ers, the Choice of Horses, and their Management," 
 (1831,) "Nimrod's Hunting Tours," (1835,) and "The 
 Chase, the Turf, and the Road," (1837.) The last ap- 
 peared in the "Quarterly Review" in 1827. Died in 1843. 
 
 Appert, i'paiR', (Benjamin Nicolas Marie,) a 
 French philanthropist, born in Paris in 1797. He began 
 about 1816 to establish schools among the poor and 
 others, for mutual instruction, which were eminently 
 successful. Since 1822 he has devoted his time chiefly 
 to the improvement of the condition of prisons and 
 convicts. He has written a "Treatise on the Education 
 of Prisoners," (1822,) "Travels in Belgium," (1846,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Appert, (Fraxqois,) a brother of the preceding, has 
 given his name to a well-known process for preserving ali- 
 mentary substances in vessels of tin hermetically sealed. 
 
 Ap'pl-an, IGr. '\Kmav6c; Lat. Appia'nus; Fr. Ap- 
 pien, I'pe-aN ,1 an ancient historian, who was born at 
 Alexandria, and removed to Rome probably in the reign 
 01 Trajan. He became eminent as an advocate, and ob- 
 tained the high office of procurator. He is supposed to 
 have died in the reign of Antoninus Pius, (138-161 A.D.,) 
 
 or soon after the end of that reign. He is the author of 
 a valuable " Roman History" written in Greek, (Fu/iaiKjj 
 'loropia,) in which he treats of the different nations of the 
 Roman Empire separately. His style is clear and easy, 
 and his work appears to have. been carefully compiled; 
 but he is not ranked among historians of the first order. 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graica ;" Domenicus, "Programma 
 de indole Appiani Aiexandrini," 1844. 
 
 Appian, (Peter.) See Apian. 
 
 Appiani, ip-pc-a'nee, (Andrea,) a celebrated Italian 
 painter, born at or near Milan in 1754. He imitated the 
 style of Correggio, and painted both in oil and in fresco. 
 In fresco he was probably unrivalled by any painter of 
 his time. About 1805 he was appointed principal painter 
 of Napoleon, (in Italy,) and was made a knight of the 
 Iron Crown. Among his greatest works are the frescos 
 of the church Santa Maria Vergine, Milan, and the fres- 
 cos of the royal palace of Milan. He made good por- 
 traits of Napoleon and others of the Bonaparte family. 
 His works are admired for grace, purity of design, and 
 brilliancy and harmony of colour. Died in 1817 or 1818. 
 
 See NAGLER,"Nenes AllgemeinesKunstler-Lexikon ;" G. Longhi, 
 " Elogio storico di A. Appiani," 1826. 
 
 Appiani, (Andrea,) an able painter, worked at Milan 
 in the first half of the nineteenth century. He was a 
 grandson of the preceding. 
 
 Appiani, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Ancona in 1702. He worked at Rome and Perugia, and 
 acquired a fair reputation as a fresco-painter. Among 
 his best works is the " Death of San Domenico," at 
 Rome. He continued to paint until his ninetieth year. 
 Died in 1792. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Appiano, ap-pe-a'no, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian painter of 
 the fifteenth century, was a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 Appiano, (Paolo Antonio,) an Italian preacher and 
 biographer, bom at Ascoli in 1639 ; died at Rome in 1709. 
 
 Appiano, d', dap-pe-a'no, (Gherardo,) a son of Ja- 
 copo, noticed below, succeeded his father as lord or mas- 
 ter of Pisa in 1398. In 1399 he sold Pisa to the Duke 
 of Milan, reserving for himself the sovereignty of Piom- 
 bino and the island of Elba. His descendants ruled 
 these dominions, with the. title of Prince of Piombino, 
 for two centuries. Died in 1405. 
 
 Appiano, d', (Jacopo,) an Italian politician, who by 
 the assassination of Pietro Gambacorti (which Appiano 
 appears to have procured, or at least connived at) ob- 
 tained the chief power in Pisa in 1392, and assumed the 
 title of Lord, (Signore.) Died in 1398. 
 
 Appianus, (the historian.) See Appian. 
 
 Appien. See Appian. 
 
 Appion. See Apion. 
 
 Appius Claudius. See Claudius. 
 
 Applegath, ap'p'1-gath, (Augustus,) born near Lon- 
 don in 1790, invented improved machines for printing. 
 About 1846 he constructed a rotary vertical machine for 
 printing the London "Times." 
 
 Appleton, ap'p'1-ton, Commodore, an English naval 
 commander, fought in the harbour of Leghorn in 1652 
 against the Dutch, who, having a larger number of guns, 
 obtained a dearly-bought victory. 
 
 Appleton, ap'p'1-ton, (Daniel,) the founder of the 
 publishing-house of Appleton & Company, New York, 
 one of the largest establishments of the kind in the 
 United States, was born in Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 
 1785. He first opened a bookstore in Boston, but sub- 
 sequently removed to New York, where he died in 1849. 
 
 Appleton, (Jesse,) D.D., an American divine, born 
 at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, in 1772. He grad- 
 uated at Dartmouth in 1792, and in 1797 was ordained 
 pastor at Hampton, New Hampshire. He was chosen 
 president of Bowdoin College in 1807, and continued in 
 the office until his death, in 1819. 
 
 Appleton, (John,) an American politician and editor, 
 born in Beverley, Massachusetts, in 1815. He was for 
 some years editor of the " Eastern Argus," at Portland, 
 Maine. He was appointed Minister to Russia by Presi- 
 dent Buchanan in i860. 
 
 Appleton, (Nathan,) a Boston merchant, brother of 
 Samuel, noticed below, born in New Ipswich, New 
 Hampshire, October 6, 1779, was one of the three 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; g6"6d; moon; 
 
APPLETOS 
 
 H7 
 
 AQUAF/fA 
 
 original founders of Lowell. He was elected to Con- 
 gress in 1831, and re-elected in 1842. He was author of 
 various pamphlets on banking, the tariff, etc, and of a 
 memoir of the Honourable Abbott Lawrence in Hunt's 
 "Lives of American Merchants." Died in 1861. 
 
 Appleton, (Samuel,) an eminent American merchant 
 and philanthropist, was born at New Ipswich, New 
 Hampshire, in June, 1766. He established himself in 
 business in Boston about 1794 in partnership with his 
 brother Nathan. He was early distinguished for his 
 benevolence, making large donations — for many years 
 $25,000 annually — to worthy charitable objects. He 
 liberally endowed the academy of his native town, and 
 gave $ 10,000 to Dartmouth College. The needy and 
 suffering ever found in him a kind friend and benefactor. 
 He died without children in l853,worth nearly $1,000,000, 
 bequeathed to his widow $200,000, and placed in the 
 hands of his executors an equal amount to be applied to 
 " scientific, literary, religious, and charitable purposes." 
 Appony, von, fon ap'pon', (Anton Rodolph,) 
 Count, an Austrian diplomatist, born in 1782, was am- 
 bassador at Paris from 1828 to 1849. 
 Appuleius. See Apuleius. 
 
 Appuleius, ap-pu-lee'yus, (Marcus,) a Roman, who 
 became quaestor in 44 B.C., and supplied Brutus with 
 money and men in the civil war. 
 Appuleius Saturninus. See Saturninus. 
 Apraxin, a-pRak'sin, (Feodor Matveievitch, mat- 
 va'c-vitch,) a Russian admiral, the grandfather of the 
 following, was born in 1671. He obtained the favour of 
 Peter the Great, and was one of his principal coadjutors 
 in his projects of reform. Having been appointed Gov- 
 ernor of Azov in 1700, he built several vessels of war and 
 a haven at Taganrog. He became an admiral and presi- 
 dent of the admiralty in 1707, and captured Viborg from 
 the Swedes in 1710. In 1713 he commanded with suc- 
 cess against the Swedes on the coast of Finland. He 
 afterwards received the titles of admiral-general and 
 senator, and rendered important services in the war 
 which was ended by the treaty of Nystad in 1721. Died 
 in 1728. 
 
 See Halem, "Leben Peters des Grossen." 
 Apraxin, (Stepan Feodorovitch,) a Russian gen- 
 eral, born in 1702. He served in the war against the 
 Turks, and obtained in 1756 the rank of field-marshal. 
 In 1757 he was appointed commander-in-chief of a large 
 Russian army sent against Frederick the Great, and in 
 August of that year he defeated the Prussians at Gross- 
 Jagerndorf. In obedience to secret orders from Bes- 
 tuzhef, the chancellor, he omitted to improve the victory, 
 and was recalled in disgrace. Died in 1758 or 1760. 
 See Halem, " Leben Petets des Grossen." 
 Apres de Mannevillette, d', df'pRi' deh mtn've'- 
 leV, (Jean Baptiste Nicolas Denis,) often called sim- 
 ply D' Apres, a distinguished French hydrographer, born 
 at Havre in 1707. He produced a collection of charts 
 of the Eastern Seas, entitled "Le Neptune oriental," 
 (1743.) Died in 1780. 
 
 A'pri-es, [Gr. 'Knpivs, 'Arrpjaf.l a king of Egypt, was 
 a son of Psammuthis, (or Psammis,) whom he succeeded 
 about 595 B.C. He is probably the Pharaoh-h6phra of 
 
 Apsaras (or Apsarases) are described as possessing in- 
 comparable beauty, sweetness, and grace. It is common 
 among the Hindoo writers to say of a woman of extra 
 ordinary beauty and elegance, that she rivals the Apsa- 
 ras. These charming beings are unfortunately wanting 
 in one important attribute — virtue ; they are the dancing 
 girls of Swerga, (the heaven of Indra,) and seem to corre- 
 spond nearly to the Peris of the Persians. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon," pp. 96 and 97, also 259, etc. 
 
 Apshoveu, van, van aps'ho'v?n, (Theodorus,) a 
 Dutch painter of still life, of the seventeenth century. 
 He was a pupil or imitator of Teniers. 
 
 Ap'sl-nes, ['Ai/i(V7/c,] a Greek teacher of rhetoric, born 
 at Gadara, in Phoenicia, taught at Athens in the third 
 century. A work attributed to him, entitled " Art of 
 Rhetoric," is extant, but in a defective state. 
 
 Aps'ley, (Sir Allen,) an English officer, born about 
 1618, was a son of Sir Allen Apsley, Lieutenant of the 
 Tower of London, and a brother of Lucy Hutchinson 
 the authoress. He fought for the king in the civil wai 
 and was governor of the fort at Exeter when that place 
 was taken in 1646. After the restoration, he was treas- 
 urer of the household and receiver-general to the Duke 
 of York. He was the author of a poem entitled " Order 
 and Disorder, or the World Made and Undone," (1679.) 
 Died in 1683. 
 
 See Mrs. Hutchinson, "Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson." 
 
 Apsley, Lord. See Bathurst, (Henry.) 
 
 Ap-syr'tus, ["Ai/njproc,] written also Absyrtus, a 
 Greek veterinary surgeon, born at Prusa or Nicomedia, 
 in Bithynia, is supposed to have lived in the first half 
 of the fourth century. 
 
 Ap'thorp, (East,) an eminent divine, born in Boston, 
 Massachusetts, m 1733. He studied at the University 
 of Cambridge, in England. In 1778 he published four 
 letters in reply to Gibbon's attack on Christianity. This 
 work was very favourably received, and was even com- 
 mended by Gibbon himself. Shortly after, Apthorp re- 
 ceived the title of D.D. In 1793 he was appointed to 
 the prebend of Finsbury. Died in 1816. 
 
 Apulee, the French for Apuleius, which see. 
 
 Apuleius, a-pu-lee'yus, sometimes called Apule'ius 
 Platon'icus, and Lu'cius Apule'ius Bar'barus, 
 a naturalist, of whom little is known except that he was 
 author of an extant Latin work on plants, entitled " Her- 
 barium." It describes one hundred and twenty-eight 
 plants, and indicates their medicinal properties. He is 
 supposed to have lived in the fourth or fifth century. 
 
 Apuleius or Appuleius, ap-pu-lee'yus, [Fr.- Apu- 
 lee, t'pii'la',] a Latin writer and pagan philosopher of 
 the Platonic school, born at Madaura, in Africa, lived 
 about 150 a.d. He was highly distinguished for talents 
 and eloquence, and possessed a fertile imagination. 
 Having married a rich widow at CEa, (Tripoli,) he was 
 prosecuted by her relatives on a charge that he had in 
 his courtship made use of magical arts. He defended 
 himself on that occasion by an "Apology," which is still 
 extant, and has some literary merit. His most remark- 
 able work is a fable or romance called " Metamorphosis, 
 or the Golden Ass," which is supposed by some to be 
 designed as a satire on magicians, priests, and debauchees. 
 
 Scriptures, (Jeremiah xliv.) He sent against the Greeks ; Jt ' has been trans i at ed into several languages, and often 
 of Cyrene an army which was defeated andafterwards reprmte <i. He wrote a treatise "On the Doctrines of 
 
 Plato," which is extant, and several other works, that are 
 
 revolted. Apries was dethroned and put to death about 
 568 B.C., and was succeeded bv Amasis. 
 
 Ap-ro'nI-us, (Lucius,) a Roman general, flourished 
 between 8 and 28 A.D. 
 
 Aprosio, a-pRo'se-o, (Angelico,) a learned Italian 
 writer and Augustine monk, born at Ventimiglia in 
 1607, was a noted bibliographer. He acquired a high 
 reputation by his numerous works on literary criticism 
 and other subjects, among which are a moral essay 
 against luxury, entitled "The Shield of Rinaldo," (" Lo 
 Scudo di Rinaldo," 1642,) and "La Biblioteca Apro- 
 siana," (1673.) He founded in his native city a library 
 called "Aprosiana." Died in 1681. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Ap'sa-ra [Hindoo pron. iip'sa-ra'j or Ap'sa-ras, 
 English plural Ap'saras or Ap'sarases, in the Hindoo 
 mythology, a race of celestial nymphs, produced by 
 the churning of the ocean. (See KOrmavatara.) The 
 
 lost. 
 
 See Betoland, "Notice sur la Vie, etc. d' Apulee;" Fr. Hil- 
 debrano, " Commentarius de Vita et Scriptis Apuleii," 1835 ; D. W. 
 Moller. " Dissertatio de Lucio Apulejo," 1691 ; Bayle, "Histori- 
 cal and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Apuleius Celsus. See Celsus. 
 
 Aquapendente. See Fahrizio. 
 
 A-qua'rI-us, [It. Aquario, a-kwa're-o,] (Matthias,) 
 an Italian monk, who wrote on the philosophy of Aris- 
 totle. Died in 1591. 
 
 Aquaviva, (Andrea Matteo.) See Acquaviva. 
 
 Aquaviva, a'kwa-vee'va, (Claudio,) a general of the 
 Jesuits, born at Naples in 1543, was a son of the Duke 
 of Alri. He wrote a " Plan or Method of Studies," 
 ("Ratio Studiorum," 1586.) Died in 1615. 
 
 Aquaviva, (OCTAVIUS,) an Italian cardinal, abridged 
 the "Summa" of Thomas Aquinas. Died in 161 2. 
 
 € M t; v as s; g hard; g as>; ( , H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( jry-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AQUIBA 
 
 148 
 
 ARAGO 
 
 Aquiba. See Akiba-Ben-Joseph. 
 
 Aq'uX-la, a Jew, who was burn in Pontus, and, after 
 his conversion to Christianity, became 1 companion of 
 the Apostle Paul in a voyage from Corinth to Syria, 
 (See Acts xviii. 2, 18, 26.) 
 
 Aquila, a'kwe-la, (Caspar,) an eminent German Prot- 
 estant theologian, born at Augsburg in 1488. His name 
 was originally Adler, (signifying " Eagle,") which, ac- 
 cording to the usage of those times, he changed to its 
 Latin equivalent Aquila. He became professor of 
 Hebrew at Wittenberg about 1524. He was an intimate 
 ft iend of Luther, and assisted him in his translation of 
 the Old Testament. For his opposition to the " Interim," 
 in 1548, Charles V. declared him an outlaw and set a 
 price on his head. Aquila saved himself by flight. After 
 the treaty of Passau (1552) he returned to his pastorship 
 at Saalfeld, which Luther had procured him in 1527. He 
 published a number of works, mostly controversial. Died 
 at Saalfeld in 1560. 
 
 See Cur. Schlegel. "Bericht vom Leben undTode C. Aquila?," 
 l 7S7 > J- Avenarius, " Kur/.e Lebensbeschreibung Casparis Aquilae," 
 1718; F. W. Strieuer, " HessischeGelehrten-Gescbichte;" Hillin- 
 ger, "Memoria Aquilina oder Leben Casp. Aquilse," 1731; Gens- 
 ler, "Vita Mag. C. Aquila?, " 1S16. 
 
 Aq'uila, (Julius,) a Roman jurist of unknown date, 
 is called Gallus Aqui!a in the "Index Florentinus." 
 The Digest contains two excerpts from his " Book of 
 Answers." 
 
 Aquila, a'kwe-la, (Pietro,) a distinguished Italian 
 engraver, born at Palermo, was a priest in his youth, 
 and lived at Rome in the latter part of the seventeenth 
 century. His best work is the Farnese Gallery, etc., after 
 Annibale Carracci. He engraved also some works of 
 Raphael. 
 
 His brother, Francesco Faraone, (fa-ra-o'na,) was 
 also an engraver, but inferior to Pietro. He worked at 
 Rome, and engraved after Raphael, Correggio, and other 
 masters. 
 
 Aquila, (Pompeo.) See Aquilano. 
 
 Aq'uila surnamed Pon'ticus, the author of a cele- 
 brated Greek version of the Old Testament, lived about 
 100 or 120 A.D. According to Epiphanius, he was a 
 native of Sinope, in Asia Minor, and was employed by 
 Hadrian to superintend the building of the city /Elia 
 Capitolina on the site of Jerusalem. He was converted 
 by the Christians, but was afterwards excommunicated 
 for practising astrology, and became, it is said, a prose- 
 lyte to the Jewish faith. His version (of which some 
 fragments now remain) was adopted by the Jews in pre- 
 ference to that of the Septuagint, and was admitted by 
 Origen into his great work the "Hexapla." 
 
 Aquila, dell', di\ la'kwe-la, or Aquilano, dell', dSl 
 li-kwe-la'no, (Serafino,) a celebrated Italian poet and 
 improvisatore, born at Aquila, in Abruzzo, in 1466. He 
 composed many sonnets, epistles, and capitoli, which 
 were more admired by his contemporaries than by mod- 
 ern critics. He was patronized by Ferdinand II. of 
 Naples, and Caesar Borgia. Died prematurely at Rome 
 in 1500. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Aquilano, a-kwe-15'no, or Dell' Aquila, del la'kwe- 
 la, (Pompeo,) a good Italian fresco-painter, born in the 
 Abruzzo, lived about 1580. Among his works is a 
 " Deposition from the Cross," at Rome. 
 
 Aquilano, [Lat. AQ UILA ' NUS >] (Serastiano,) an 
 Italian physician, who flourished towards the close of 
 the fifteenth century. He was professor of medicine at 
 Ferrara in 1495, and wrote several medical works. Died 
 about 1513. 
 
 A-quiPl-us, (Henri,) a Belgian historical writer, 
 lived about 1550. 
 
 A-quil'I-us, (Sabinus,) a Roman jurist, surnamed 
 "the Cato of his age," was consul in 214 A.D. 
 
 Aquilius (or Aquillius) Gallus. See Gallus. 
 
 A-quil'11-us, (Manius,) a Roman general, became 
 consul in 101 B.C. He subdued the revolted slaves of 
 Sicily, in which war he received several wounds. The 
 display of these scars in court, and the eloquence of M. 
 Antonius, saved him from condemnation in a trial for 
 malversation in 98 B.C. In 88 B.C. he was sent as pro- 
 consular legate to Asia, where he was defeated and taken 
 
 prisoner by Mithridates, who put him to death by pour- 
 ing molten gold down his throat. 
 
 Aquin, d', di'kaN', (Louis Claude,) a French organ- 
 ist, born in Paris in 1698; died in 1772. 
 
 Aquin, d', (Pierre Louis,) a son of the preceding, 
 and a mediocre writer ; died in 1797. 
 
 Aquin, d', dS'kaN', or Aquino, d\ da-kwe'no, (Phi- 
 lippe,) a learned Jew, born at Carpentras, and converted 
 to Christianity in the early part of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. He was baptized at Aquino, in Naples, whence 
 he received his surname. Died about 1650. He pub- 
 lished a Hebrew, Chaldee, Talmudic, and Rabbinical 
 Dictionary, (1620,) and other works. 
 
 A-qui'nas, (Thomas,) [It. Tommaso d'Aquino, 
 tom-ma'so da"-kwee'no ; Fr. Thomas d'Aquin, to-ma' 
 dS'kaN',1 Saint, surnamed the Angelic Doctor, was 
 perhaps the most eminent scholastical teacher that ever 
 lived. He was born of a noble family, probably at 
 Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples, about 1225. His 
 father was a nephew of Frederick I., Barbarossa. He 
 joined the order of Saint Dominic about the age of 
 sixteen, and became a pupil of Albertus Magnus. His 
 extraordinary talents and attainments soon spread his 
 fame over Europe ; but he steadily refused all ecclesias- 
 tical preferment. He taught and preached for some 
 years at Paris and Rome. Died in 1274. He left nu- 
 merous works, chiefly theological, moral, and metaphys- 
 ical, among which the most important is his " Sum of 
 Theology," ("Summa Theologiae.") "The greatest of 
 the schoolmen," says Hallam, "were the Dominican 
 Thomas Aquinas, and the Franciscan Duns Scotus. 
 They were founders of rival sects, which wrangled with 
 each other for two or three centuries." Aquinas was 
 remarkable for modesty and exemplary obedience to his 
 superiors, as well as for purity of life ; but he was not 
 deficient in independence. When he once entered the 
 presence of Innocent IV., before whom a large sum of 
 money was spread out, the pope observed, " You see 
 that the Church is no longer in that age in which she 
 said, 'Silver and gold have I none.'" "True, holy 
 father," replied Aquinas ; " neither can she any longer 
 say to the lame, 'Rise up and walk.'" (See Acts iii. 
 2-8.) 
 
 See Renn Dickson Hampden, "Life of Thomas Aquinas." in 
 the " Encyclopaedia Metropolitana," and iSmo, 1848; AntoineTou- 
 ron, "Vie de S. Thomas dlAquin," 1737: Arkiaga, "Vida de S. 
 Tomas de Aquino," 1648; Maffei, " Vita di Tommaso d'Aquino," 
 1842 : Tholuck, " Dissertatio de Thorna Aquinate." etc., 1842 ; P. J. 
 Cari.e. " Histoire de la Vie et des Ecrits de Thomas d'Aquin," 1846 ; 
 C. Morelles, "Vita S. Thoma? Aquiuatis," Antwerp, 1612; But 
 ler, " Lives of the Saints." 
 
 Aquino, d', da-kwee'no, (Carlo,) an Italian writer 
 and Jesuit, born at Naples in 1654. He became pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric at the College of Rome, and obtained 
 a high reputation by his works in Latin and Italian, 
 among which are Latin poems, "Carmina," (3 vols., 
 1701-03,) "Lexicon Militare," (1724,) and a translation 
 into Latin verse of Dante's " Divina Commedia, "(1728,) 
 which is regarded as his greatest poetical production 
 Died at Rome in 1737. 
 
 Aquino, d', (Tommaso.) See Aquinas. 
 
 Arabella Stuart. See Stuart. 
 
 A-ra'bl-us S«ho-las'tI-cus, a Greek epigrammatic 
 poet, who lived probably about 550 A.D. Several of his 
 epigrams are found in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Arabshah or Arabschah. See Ahmed-Ibn-Arah- 
 Shah. 
 
 A-ra-eh'ne, [Gr. 'kpiixvri; Fr. Arachne, i'rSk'na',] 
 (Myth.,) a Lydian maiden, very skilful in the art of 
 weaving, in which she challenged Minerva to a trial of 
 skill. The offended goddess changed her into a spider. 
 
 Aradon, a"ra"d6N', (Jerome,) a French general, 
 fought for the League against Henry IV. about 1590. 
 
 Arago, Sr'a-go or t'rS'go', (Dominique Francois,) 
 a celebrated French astronomer and natural philoso- 
 pher, was born at Estagel, near l'erpignan, (Eastern 
 Pyrenees,) on the 26th of February, 17S6. He entered 
 the Polytechnic School in 1803, after a profound study 
 of the works of Euler and Laplace, and in 1S015 was 
 attached to the Observatory of Paris as secretary tie 
 Bureau of Longitudes. In 1806 Arago and Biol were 
 ordered by the emperor to continue the grand geocesical 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ARAGO 
 
 149 
 
 ARAGONA 
 
 operations of Delambre and Mechain, and extend the 
 measurement of the arc of the meridian from Barcelona 
 to the Balearic Isles. In the performance of this task 
 he was exposed to severe hardships among the moun- 
 tains of Spain, and in 1808 he escaped from the violence 
 of the Spaniards (who suspected that he was a spy) by 
 flight to Algiers. On his voyage from Algiers to France 
 he was taken by a Spanish privateer, and detained in the 
 hulks at Palamos until he was liberated on the demand 
 of the Dey of Algiers. After other dangers and dis- 
 asters, which he describes in his " History of my Youth," 
 he returned to France in the summer of 1809. To re- 
 ward him for these labours, he was admitted into the 
 Academy of Sciences in that year, although he had not 
 attained the age required by their rules. He succeeded 
 Monge as professor of analysis in the Polytechnic School 
 in 1809, and lectured there more than twenty years. 
 
 He was associated with Malus and Fresnel in their 
 optical discoveries, advocated the undulatory theory of 
 light, and made some discoveries in the science of electro- 
 magnetism. He showed that there is no substance which 
 is not capable, under certain conditions, of exhibiting 
 signs of the magnetic virtue, and he proved that the 
 best magnet is a bar of steel enclosed by a helix of cop- 
 per wire. For his discovery of magnetism developed by 
 rotation, he received the Copley medal of the Royal So- 
 ciety of London about 1829. In 1830 he was appointed 
 Director of the Observatory, and became perpetual sec- 
 retary of the Academy of Sciences. 
 
 The eulogies which he composed on Fourier, Con- 
 dorcet, Ampere, James Watt, Camot, and others, are 
 regarded as models in this species of composition. He 
 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1830 or 1831, 
 and became a leader of the extreme gauche, the advanced 
 republicans. 
 
 Arago was a prominent member of the provisional 
 government formed in February, 1848, in which crisis he 
 united with Lamartine in efforts to enforce order and 
 moderate measures. He acted for a few months as min- 
 ister of war and the marine, and was one of the execu- 
 tive commission of five chosen by the Assembly in May, 
 1848. He opposed the election of Louis Napoleon, and 
 refused to take the oath of allegiance after the coup d'etat 
 of December, 1851. In consideration of his eminent 
 merits, his compliance with the law in respect to this 
 oath was dispensed with. He died on the 2d of Octo- 
 ber, 1853, leaving a son Emmanuel, noticed below, and 
 a son Alfred, who is a historical painter. 
 
 Arago was a man of ardent temperament, and was 
 distinguished for his courage, generosity, and eloquence. 
 He rendered great services to science, less perhaps by 
 his discoveries than by the admirable talent with which 
 he popularized science, in his lectures on astronomy at 
 the Observatory, in his academical memoirs or reports, 
 and in his notices published in the "Annuaire du Bureau 
 des Longitudes." His articles on lightning, steam, and 
 astronomy gave to that journal an immense vogue. 
 " The popularity of M. Arago," says Lomenic, " the 
 European reputation which he enjoys, his marked posi- 
 tion in politics, have all combined to attach to his name 
 the idea of a species of intellectual royalty." The same 
 writer asks " Whether a marvellous faculty of illumining 
 with bright and unexpected radiance the most abstract 
 theories ; an obstinate ardour in the cultivation of what 
 the learned in x and y call the subaltern science, . . . 
 whether all this does not give genuine claims upon pub- 
 lic gratitude, and constitute one of the finest attributes 
 of genius." 
 
 Arago and Gay-Lussac founded, about 1816, a scien- 
 tific periodical entitled " Annales de Chimie et de Phy- 
 sique." He was a member of all the principal scien- 
 tific academies of Europe, and a friend of Humboldt, 
 Brougham, Brewster, and Faraday. It is said that he 
 was a favourite of Napoleon I., and that the latter, after 
 the battle of Waterloo, intended to select Arago as his 
 companion and retire with him to the United States, to 
 elevate himself to the study of science. Referring to his 
 powers of application, De Lomenie says, "Ask the young 
 astronomers attached to the Observatory; they will tell 
 you that never did a human brain encounter a more 
 enormous mass of labour ; that he deems every one an 
 
 idler who does not work fourteen hours a day. They 
 will tell you that this formidable man busies himself 
 with politics, chemistry, physics, mechanics, astronomy 
 philosophy . . . ; and that amid all his various and ab- 
 sorbing occupations he finds time to play the part of onr 
 of the most brilliant and delightful talkers of the saloons 
 of Paris." 
 
 See " History of my Youth," by D. F. Arago ; M. de Lomenie, 
 "Galerie ties Contemporains," tome ii. ; English version of the same, 
 by Robert Walsh, entitled "Sketches of Conspicuous Living Cha- 
 racters," Philadelphia, 1841 ; Charles Robin, " Biographie de D. 
 F. Arago," 1848; Querard. "La France Litteraire," Supplement; 
 J. A. Barral, "F. Arago," 8vo, 1853; D. F. Arago, ''Histoire 
 de ma Jeunesse," precedee d'une preface par Alexandre de Hum- 
 boldt, etc., 1854. 
 
 Arago, (Emmanuel,) a son of the preceding, born in 
 Paris in 1812. He studied law, and practised at the bar 
 with success, especially as counsel for the defence ir 
 political causes. In 1839 he was one of the defenders of 
 Martin-Bernard and Barbes. He was an active pro- 
 moter of the revolution of February, 1848, and was se- 
 lected on the 24th of that month, by a reunion of repub- 
 licans at the office of the " National," to oppose the 
 proclamation of the regency in the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties. A few days later he was sent by the new govern- 
 ment, as commissary-general, to Lyons, and his efforts 
 are said to have saved that city from a disastrous agita- 
 tion. He was elected in April to the Constituent Assem- 
 bly, and in May was sent as minister to Berlin. On the 
 election of Louis Napoleon, in December, 1848, he re- 
 signed his position and returned to FYance. He re- 
 nounced political life after the coup d'etat of December, 
 1851. 
 
 Arago, (Etie.nne,) a dramatic writer and politician, 
 a brother of the celebrated D. F. Arago, was born at 
 Estagel, near Perpignan, in 1803. He began about 1824 
 to produce a long series of comedies and vaudevilles, in 
 which he was assisted by various persons. Many of 
 these were performed with success. His works evince 
 a genius for satire, a talent for observation, and great 
 skill in producing dramatic effect. He is the sole author 
 of the "Aristocrats," (1847,) a successful comedy in verse. 
 In the revolution of 1830 he fought in Paris against the 
 soldiery of Charles X. He became a contributor of 
 political articles to the " Siecle" and "National," and in 
 1834 was one of the founders of the "Reforme," a daily 
 democratic journal. M. Arago was director-general of 
 the post-office department from the revolution of Febru- 
 ary, 1848, until the end of the administration of Cavai- 
 gnac, in December of the same year. In the Constituent 
 Assembly he voted with the gauche, and supported the 
 motion to impeach the President for sending an army to 
 Rome. He was exiled for his part in the insurrection 
 of June, 1849. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Arago, (Jacques Etienne Victor,) a litterateur and 
 traveller, brother of the preceding, was born at Estagel 
 in 1790. In 1817 he accompanied as draughtsman the 
 exploring expedition of Freycinet. After having been 
 wrecked on the Falkland Islands, he returned to France 
 in 1821, and published a "Tour round the World in the 
 Uranie," etc., ("Promenade autour du Monde sur les 
 Corvettes l'Uranie et la Physicienne," 2 vols., 1822.) 
 He produced several dramas, among which is the " Cadet 
 de Gascogne," (1836,) and a "Voyage round the World," 
 (with engravings, 5 vols., 1838-40,) which has been often 
 reprinted. Died in 1855. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Ar'a-gon, de, [Sp. pron. da J-rS-g6n',] (Fernando,) 
 a Spanish historian, became Archbishop of Saragossa 
 in 1539. His father was a natural son of King Ferdi- 
 nand V. Died in 1575. 
 
 Aragon.de, (Martin,) Duke of Hermola, a Spanish 
 numismatist of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Aragona, d', dS-rSgo'na, or Aragon, d', dS-rS-gin', 
 (Tui.i.ia,) a celebrated Italian poetess and musician, 
 born in the beginning of the sixteenth century. She was 
 the illegitimate daughter of Tagliavia, (afterwards cardi- 
 nal,) a descendant of the royal house of Aragon. She 
 lived at Rome, Venice, and Florence. She was distin- 
 guished for her beauty, as well as for her genius and 
 learning. Her chief works are a "Dialogue on the 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R. trilled: s as z; th as in this. 
 
 ■ee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AR AGONES E 
 
 150 
 
 ARATUS 
 
 Infinity of Love," ("Dialogo dell' Infinita d'Amore," 
 1547,) and a lomance in verse called "II Meschino o il 
 Guerino," (1560.) Died about 1560. 
 
 Aragonese, a-rago-na'sa, (Sebastiano,) an Italian 
 painter and designer of Brescia, lived in the latter part 
 of the sixteenth century. He worked chiefly with the pen, 
 and made drawings of sixteen hundred ancient medals. 
 
 Araja, a-ra'ya or a-rl'a, (Francesco,) a dramatic 
 composer, born at Naples in 1700. In 1735 ne visited 
 Saint Petersburg, where he produced "Cephalus and 
 Procris," (1755,) the first opera written in the Russian 
 language. He returned to Italy in 1759. 
 
 Araktcheief, a-rak-sha'yef, written also Arakcheev 
 and Arakcejeff, (Alexis Andreevitch,) a Russian 
 count and general, born in Novogorod in 1769. He be- 
 came Inspector-general of artillery in 1803, and minister 
 of wai about 1808. He made reforms in several depart- 
 ments of the army, especially in the artillery, and ren- 
 dered important services in the war of 1812, after which 
 he established the svstem of military colonies. Died in 
 
 I*J4. 
 
 Araldi, a-ral'dee, (Alessandro,) an Italian painter, 
 a pupil of Giovanni Bellini, was born at Parma, and 
 painted in what is called the Gothic style. He is praised 
 by Lanzi. Died about 1528. 
 
 Araldi, (Michele,) an eminent Italian physician and 
 physiologist, born at Modena in 1740. He became pro- 
 fessor of physiology and anatomy at Modena about 1770, 
 and was distinguished for his attainments in a variety of 
 studies. He was perpetual secretary of the National 
 Institute of Italy from 1804 until his death. His chief 
 work is " On the Use of Anastomoses in the Vessels of 
 Animal Machines," (1816.) Died at Milan in 1813. 
 
 See Rovida, " Elogio d'Araldi," 1817. 
 
 Aram, a'ram, (Eugene,) remarkable for his talents 
 and acquirements, as well as his untimely end, was born 
 in 1704 in Yorkshire, England. While acting as an 
 assistant to his father, who was a gardener, he studied 
 mathematics, and gave some attention to the languages. 
 On marrying, he became a school-master, and prosecuted 
 his studies with such diligence and success as to obtain 
 a good knowledge of the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chal- 
 dee, Arabic, Welsh, and Irish languages. In 1759 he 
 was tried for the murder of Daniel Clark, a shoemaker 
 of Knaresborough, and found guilty. At the trial he 
 made an elaborate and able defence, but after his con- 
 demnation he confessed his guilt. On the night before 
 his execution he made an attempt to commit suicide, by 
 opening the veins of his arms ; but he was discovered 
 before he had bled to death, and the sentence of the law 
 was carried into effect. The story of Eugene Aram 
 forms the subject of one of Bulwer's novels. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica ;" "Account of the Trial of Eugene 
 Aram," London, 1759; Scatcherd, "Memoirs of Eugene Aram," 
 1832. 
 
 Aramont or Aramon, d', di'riPmdN', (Gabriel 
 de Luetz — deh lii'a',) Baron, a French diplomatist, 
 born, it is supposed, about 1500. He was sent as am- 
 bassador to the Ottoman Porte in 1546, and induced the 
 sultan Solyman the Magnificent to send a fleet to ope- 
 rate against Charles V. He accompanied the sultan to 
 Persia. An account of his journeys, written by his sec- 
 retary, Chesnau, was afterwards published. Died in 1553. 
 
 Aranda, de, da a-ran'da, (Emanuel,) of Spanish 
 extraction, was born at Bruges about 1608. He was cap- 
 tu.ed at sea by Algerine pirates in 1640, and remained 
 in slavery at Algiers until March, 1642. After his re- 
 lease he published an entertaining narrative of his adven- 
 tures, with a description of Algiers, (1657.) 
 
 Aranda, (Francisco,) a Spanish sculptor, worked at 
 Toledo about 1 500. His brother Juan was also a sculptor. 
 
 Aranda, (Juan,) a Spanish writer, born at Jaen, lived 
 about 1550 or 1600. 
 
 Aranda, (Don Pedro Abarca y Bolea — a-baR'ka 
 e bo-la'a,) Count of, an able Spanish diplomatist and 
 statesman, born of a noble family at Saragossa in De- 
 cember, 1718. He served some years in the army, and 
 in 1759 obtained the chief command of the artillery. In 
 1763 he commanded an army which invaded Portugal 
 and took Almeida. He became prime minister, with the 
 title of President of the Council of Castile, in 1766, and 
 
 initiated various measures of reform. Among the im- 
 portant acts of his administration were the suppression 
 of the order of Jesuits in 1767, and the reduction of the 
 power of the Inquisition. The intrigues of the court of 
 Rome and the hostility of the clergy to Aranda induced 
 the king to dismiss him from power in 1773, but at the 
 same time he was appointed ambassador to France. It 
 is stated that, about the close of the American war, the 
 British ministry having offered to Spain the choice of 
 Gibraltar or Florida, Aranda chose the latter, and signed 
 the treaty of 1783. He was recalled about 1785, and 
 was prime minister for a few months in 1792, before 
 the end of which year he was supplanted by the royal 
 favourite Godoy. Died in 1799, or, according to some 
 authorities, in 1794. 
 
 See Masdeu, "Historiade Espaiia ;" R. Saint-Hilaire, "His- 
 toire d'Espagne;" Er>ch und Gruber, "AllgemeineEncyklopaedie;" 
 Coxe, "Memoirs of the Kings of Spain." 
 
 Aranda de Duero, a-ran'da di doo-a'ro, (Antonio,) 
 a Spanish monk, published a Description of Palestine, 
 (1545,) which he visited in 1530. Died in 1555. 
 
 Arantius, a-ran'she-us, or Aranzio, a-ran'ze-o, (Ju- 
 lius C/ESAR,) an eminent and accurate Italian anatomist, 
 born at Bologna about 1530, was professor in the uni- 
 versity of his native city for many years. Died in 1589. 
 He. left several works, among which is one " De humano 
 Fcetu," (1564.) 
 
 Arany, 6r'6n, (JAnos,) a popular Hungarian poet, 
 born at Nagy Szalonta in 1819. He produced in 1843 a 
 prize poem called "The Lost Constitution." His second 
 poem, "Toldi," (1847,) was also successful. He after- 
 wards wrote the "Conquest of Murany," (1848,) and 
 "Catharine," ("Katalin," 1850.) 
 
 Aranzio, (Giulio Cesark.) See Arantius. 
 
 A-ra'tor, [It. Aratore, a-ra-to'ra,] a poet, born at 
 Milan or Brescia about 490 a.d., was appointed "comes 
 privatorum" (count of the domestics) by Athalaric. Hav- 
 ing resigned this office, he entered the Church of Rome, 
 and became a subdeacon. He wrote, in Latin verse, 
 the " History of the Apostles," (" Historian Apostolicae,") 
 which is said to be superior to the poetry of his contem- 
 poraries. Died about 560 a.d. 
 
 A-ra'tus, ["A/jaroc,] a celebrated Greek poet and as- 
 tronomer, was born at Soli, in Cilicia, and lived between 
 300 and 250 B.C. He was invited by Antigonus Gonatas 
 to his courtj where he passed the latter part of his life. 
 He was the author of an astronomical Greek poem, en- 
 titled " Phenomena," which was greatly admired by the 
 ancients and is remarkable as being the oldest treatise 
 of the kind. It has often been printed. Cicero made 
 of this poem a Latin version, some fragments of which 
 have come down to us, and Hipparchus wrote a com- 
 mentary on it, which is extant.. Aratus is supposed to 
 be the poet quoted by Saint Paul in his address to the 
 Athenians in the twenty-eighth verse of the seventeenth 
 chapter of the Acts. He wrote a poem on the weather, 
 etc., called " Prognostica," which, however, is considered 
 as a division or portion of the " Phenomena." This 
 poijm was so much admired by Ovid that he said, 
 
 "Cum Sole et LunS semper Aratus erit."* — Amor, i. 15. 
 A good edition of Aratus was published by Buhle in 
 1793-1801. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graca ;" Dei.ambre, "Histoire de 
 1'Astronomie ancienne;" and a "Life of Aratus," published by P. 
 Vettori, Florence, 1567. 
 
 Aratus, a celebrated Greek statesman and general 
 born at Sicyon in 271 B.C. On the murder of his father 
 Clinias, Aratus, then seven years old, escaped to Argos. 
 He liberated his native city from the tyrant Nicocles in 
 251 B.C., and became the founder of the famous Achaean 
 League, of which he was chosen general (strat/ gos) in 
 245, and many times afterwards. He captured Corinth 
 from the Macedonian garrison in 243, obtained the ac- 
 cession of Argos to the league, and proved himself a 
 consummate politician by his successful efforts to coun- 
 teract Macedonian influence in Southern Greece. The 
 Achaeans were involved in war against Sparta in 226 
 B.C., after which Aratus was defeated in several cam- 
 
 * "Aratus will always be [associated] with the sun an1 moon ;" in 
 other words, his fame will last as long as the sun and moon endure. 
 
 , e, i, o, u, y, long: a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, c, 1, 6, ti, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good ; moon; 
 
ARATUS 
 
 «5' 
 
 ARBVTHNOT 
 
 paigns by Cleomenes of Sparta. The latter, however, 
 was totally defeated in 222 B.C. by Antigonus of Macedon, 
 with whom the Achx.ms had formed an alliance. Ara- 
 tus died in 213 B.C., leaving " Commentaries," or me- 
 moirs of his life, which were praised by Polybius, but 
 which, unhappily, have not come down to us. 
 
 See article "Aratus,"in Plutarch's "Lives;" Polybius, "His- 
 tory." 
 
 Aratus, an Achaean general, son of the preceding, 
 obtained command of the army in 219 B.C. He was 
 poisoned by Philip II. 
 
 Araujo,' a-row'zho, (Antonio,) a Portuguese mission- 
 ary, born in the Azores in 1566, laboured in Brazil. Died 
 in 1632. 
 
 Araujo or Arauxo, a-row'no, (Francisco,) a Span- 
 ish musician, who wrote on the Organ. Died in 1663. 
 
 Araujo, de, da a-row'zho, (Jose,) a Portuguese phi- 
 losopher, born in Lisbon in 1667; died in 1743. 
 
 Araujo, de, di i-row'no, (Pedro,) a Spanish sculp- 
 tor, received the title of sculptor to the king about 1700. 
 
 Araujo dAzevedo, a-row'zho da-za-va'do, (Anto- 
 nio,) Count da Barca, a Portuguese minister of state, 
 born at Ponte de Lima in 1754. He became a profi- 
 cient in the Greek, Latin, French, and English lan- 
 guages, and was distinguished for his literary and scien- 
 tific attainments. After he had resided some years as 
 minister at the Hague, he was sent to Paris in 1797 
 to negotiate a peace, and in the same year signed a 
 treaty. The cabinet of Lisbon delayed the ratification 
 of this treaty so long that the French Directory annulled 
 it A report having gained currency that Araujo ex- 
 pected to procure the assent of the Directors by bribery, 
 they resolved to prove their innocence byan act of rigour, 
 and confined him in prison several months. He became 
 secretary of state, or minister of foreign affairs, in 1804, 
 and was the principal minister after 1806, but showed 
 his incapacity to guide the state in critical times, A 
 French army entered Lisbon in November, 1807, the 
 house of Braganza ceased to reign, and Araujo retired 
 to Brazil, where he was made minister of marine in 1814. 
 He had been chief minister for a few months, when he 
 died at Rio Janeiro in 181 7. He translated the " Elegy" 
 and other poems of Gray into Portuguese verse. 
 
 See MendoTrigoso, " Vida do Araujo." and the article on Araujo, 
 by Ferdinand Denis, in the " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Arauxo, a-row'sho, (Salgado — sal-ga'do,) a Portu- 
 guese ecclesiastic and historian, lived about 1600. 
 
 Ar-ba'ces, [Gr. 'ApiiuKi/s,] a Median general under Sar- 
 danapa'lus, against whom he revolted, overthrew the 
 Assyrian monarchy, and established the kingdom of 
 Media, about 876 B.C. 
 
 Arbasia, aR-ba-see'i, (Cesare,) an excellent Italian 
 painter, born at Saluzzo. He was one of the founders 
 of the Academy of Saint Luke at Rome. He worked 
 at Cordova and Malaga, in Spain, about 1580. Among 
 his works are a picture of the Incarnation, at Malaga, 
 and some frescos in the town-hall of Saluzzo. He is 
 supposed to have died in 1614. 
 
 See Bermudez, " Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Arbaud de Porcheres, d', daVbo' deh poR'shaiR', 
 (Francois,) a French poet, born in Provence in the six- 
 teenth century, was a friend and imitator of Malherbe. 
 He wrote several odes, and a version or paraphrase of 
 the Psalms, (1633.) He was one of the first members 
 of the French Academy, and received a pension from 
 Richelieu. Died in 1640. 
 
 Ar-be'H-o (ar-bee'she-o) or Ar-be'tl-on, a Roman 
 general, noted for his ambitious intrigues, was consul in 
 355 A.D. In 361 he commanded the army of Constan- 
 ti us against the Parthians. Having sided with Valens, 
 he induced many of the troops of Procopiusto desert, so 
 that the rebellion of the latter came to naught, in 365 A.D. 
 
 Arbiter. See Petronius Arbiter. 
 
 Arblay. See D'Arblay. 
 
 Ar'bo-gast, [Gr. ' kpfayiumis ; Lat. Arbogas'teS; 
 Fr. Arbogaste, iR'bo'gSst',] a Frank who became an 
 able and distinguished general in the Roman service. 
 He commanded with success against the Germans in the 
 'eign of Gratian. Under Valentinian II. he was com- 
 mander in Gaul, and, having won the favour of his army, 
 defied the authority of the emperor, who was found dead 
 
 in his chamber in 392 A.D. It is supposed that he was 
 killed by order of Arbogast. The latter was defeated by 
 Theodosius near the river Frigidus (Wippach) in 394, 
 soon after which he killed himself. 
 
 Arbogast, Saint, a French ecclesiastic, who obtained 
 the favour of King Dagobert, and was made Bishop of 
 Strasburg about 669 A.D. Died in 678. 
 
 Arbogaste, aVbo'gSst', written also Arbogast, 
 (Louis Francois A.ntoine,) a distinguished French 
 mathematician, born in Alsace in 1759. He became 
 rector of the university at Strasburg, and afterwards 
 professor of mathematics in the Central School of that 
 place. He was a member of the National Convention 
 about 1793, but took no part in politics. His principal 
 work is entitled "Du Calcul des Derivations," (1800,) 
 in which is found the first use of symbols of operation 
 independently of symbols of quantity. Died in 1803. 
 
 Arborio di Gattinara, aR-bo're-o de gat-te-na'ra, 
 (Angelo Antonio,) Archbishop of Turin, born at Pavia 
 in 1658 ; died in 1743. 
 
 Arborio di Gattinara, (Giovanni Mercurino,) a 
 brother of Mercurino, noticed below, was born at Lucca 
 in 1685. He became Bishop of Alexandria. Died in 
 
 1743- 
 
 Arborio di Gattinara, (Luigi,) Abbe de Breme, 
 (or Brema,) an accomplished Italian scholar and writer, 
 born at Turin in 1781, was a son of the Marquis de 
 Breme. He became governor of the pages at the court 
 of Eugene, Viceroy of Italy, and a friend of Silvio Pel- 
 lico. He contributed literary articles to " II Concilia- 
 tore," a celebrated journal of Milan, and wrote a number 
 of occasional poems. Died in 1820. 
 
 Arborio di Gattinara, (Luigi Giuseppe,) the 
 father of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1754. He 
 served the King of Sardinia as ambassador to Vienna 
 about 1785, and was minister of the interior under Eu- 
 gene, Viceroy of Italy. Died in 1828. 
 
 Arborio di Gattinara, (MERCURiNO,meR-koo-ree'- 
 no,) Count, often called simply Count of Gattinara, 
 an eminent diplomatist and jurist, born at Vercelli, in 
 Piedmont, in 1465. He became president of the Parlia- 
 ment of Burgundy in 1507 ; after which he was employed 
 as negotiator by the emperor. In 1520 he was appointed 
 chancellor by Charles V., whose favour and confidence 
 he enjoyed until the end pf his life. .He was the princi- 
 pal negotiator of the treaty of Cambrai in 1529, and was 
 made a cardinal the same year. He was a friend of 
 Erasmus, and a constant advocate of moderate and libe- 
 ral measures for the reformation of the Church. Died 
 at Innspruck in 1530. 
 
 See Auberv, "Histoiredes Cardinaux;" Guicciardini, " History 
 of Italy;" Carlo Denina, " Elogio storico di M. di Gattinara, 
 1782; P. Ekrrman, " Dissertatio de M. Gattinara," 1761. 
 
 Ar-bo'ii-UB, (/Emilius Magnus,) a Roman advo- 
 cate, noted for eloquence, born in Gaul about 270 A.D., 
 was a son of the following, and an uncle of the poet 
 Ausonius. The emperor Constantine appointed him 
 preceptor of one of his children at Constantinople. 
 Died about 335 a.d. 
 
 Arborius, (C>ecil'ius Argic'ius — ar-jish'e-us,) a 
 learned citizen of Gaul, settled on the site of liayonne 
 in 264 A.D. His daughter was the mother of the poet 
 Ausonius. 
 
 Arbrissel or Arbrisselles, d\ daVbRe'sgl', (Rob- 
 ert,) the founder of trfe abbey of Fontevrault, was born 
 at Arbrissel, in Brittany, about 1047; died in 1 117. 
 
 Arbuckle, ar'buk-k'l, (James,) the author of a mock- 
 heroic poem entitled "Snuff," ( 1 7 1 9, ) born at Glasgow 
 in 1700; died in 1734. 
 
 See Campbell, "Introduction to the History of Poetry in Scot- 
 land," 
 
 Ar'buckle, (Matthew,) an American general, born 
 in Greenbrier county, Virginia, in 1776. He served in 
 the Mexican war, 1846-47. Died in 1851. 
 
 Ar-buth'not or Ar-buth'net, ( Alexander,) a Scot- 
 tish Protestant divine and poet, born about 1538. He 
 was appointed principal of the University of Aberdeen 
 in 1568, and was twice chosen moderator of the Assitn- 
 bly, 1573 and 1577. He is the reputed author of several 
 vernacular poems of some merit, one of which is entitled 
 "The Praises of Women." Died in 1583. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eininent Scotsmen." 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z: th as in this. (J[^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARBUTHNOT 
 
 152 
 
 JRCHJNGELUS 
 
 Arbuthnot, (Alexander,) a Scottish printer, who 
 printed the first Scotch Bible, in 1579. Died in 1585. 
 
 Ar'buth-not, [Scottish pron. ar-buth'npt,] (John,) a 
 British author, satirist, and physician, celebrated for his 
 wit, genius, and learning, was born at Arbuthnot, near 
 Montrose, in Scotland, in 1675. He was educated at 
 Aberdeen, where he took the degree of M.D., and be- 
 came a resident of London in his youth. His "Exami- 
 nation of Dr. Woodward's Account of the Deluge" 
 (1697) first brought him into notice. His "Tables of 
 the Grecian, Roman, and Jewish Measures, Weights, 
 and Coins" (1705) have a high reputation, and are re- 
 garded as a standard. In 1709 he was appointed phy- 
 sician-in-ordinary to Queen Anne. He became intimate 
 with Pope, Swift, and Bolingbroke, and was employed as 
 a political writer by the Tory ministry. He produced 
 in 1712 the humorous " History of John Bull," an excel- 
 lent political allegory, in which the belligerent powers 
 of Europe were personated by John Bull the Clothier, 
 Nick Frog the Linen-draper, Louis Baboon, (Bourbon,) 
 etc. Macaulay calls this work "the most ingenious 
 and humorous political satire extant in our language." 
 (" History of England," vol. v. chap, xxiv.) 
 
 About 1714 he united with Pope and Swift in the 
 formation of the famous "Scriblerus Club," the design 
 of which was to ridicule all false tastes in literature or 
 abuses of learning. His " First Book of the Memoirs 
 of Martinus Scriblerus" is regarded as a master-piece 
 of wit and irony. Among his other works is an " Essay 
 on the Effects of Air on Human Bodies," (1733.) 
 
 He died in 1735, leaving a son George and two daugh- 
 ters. In 1751 appeared "The Miscellaneous- Works of 
 Dr. Arbuthnot," (2 vols. ;) but the genuineness of some 
 of these works was denied by his son. Referring to 
 the writers of Queen Anne's reign, Dr. Johnson said, 
 " I think Dr. Arbuthnot the first man among them. He 
 was the most universal genius, being an excellent phy- 
 sician, a man of deep learning, and a man of much hu- 
 mour." (Boswell's "Life of Johnson.") His benevo- 
 lence and integrity are highly commended. " He has 
 more wit than we all have," said Swift, "and his hu- 
 manity is equal to his wit." 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Swift's " Letters." 
 
 Arbuthnot, (Mariot,) a British admiral, born in 
 171 1. He became a post-captain in 1747. Having been 
 raised to the rank of vice-admiral in 1779, he obtained 
 the chief command on the American station, and was 
 blockaded by Count D'Estaing in the harbour of New 
 York. He co-operated with Sir Henry Clinton in the 
 capture of Charleston, South Carolina, in 1780, and 
 became an admiral of the blue in 1793. Died in 1794. 
 
 Arc, Joan d". See Joan ok Arc. 
 
 Arc, d', or Arcq, d', diRk, (Philippe Auguste de 
 Sainte-Foix — deh saNt'fwa',) a French historical writer, 
 published a " History of Commerce and Navigation," 
 (1758,) and other works. Died at Tulle, in. 1 779. 
 
 Arcade. See Arcadius. 
 
 Arcadelt, aR'ka-delt', or Arcadet, tR'kS'di', (Jac- 
 ques,) an eminent Dutch or Flemish musician and com- 
 poser. He went to Rome in 1536, and was employed 
 in the pontifical chapel in 1540. He composed masses, 
 madrigals, etc. 
 
 Arcadio, aR-ka'de-o, (Alessandro,) an Italian medi- 
 cal writer, lived in Piedmont in the seventeenth ce.itury. 
 
 Arcadio, (Gian-Francesco,) an Italian medical 
 writer, born at Bistagno ; died about 1620. 
 
 Ar-ca'dl-us, ['ApK&rfcoc,] a Greek grammarian, born 
 at Antioch, lived about 200 A. n. He wrote an "Ono- 
 masticon," which is praised by Suidas, and a "Treatise 
 on Accents," which is extant. 
 
 Arcadius, |Gr. 'Apxi^toc; Fr. Arcade, iR'kSd',] 
 Emperor of the East, born in Spain in 383 A.D., was the 
 eldest son of Thcodosius the Great, who at his death, in 
 395, divided the empire, leaving the eastern part to Ar- 
 cadius, and the western part to his other son, Honorius. 
 Byzantium was the capital of the Eastern Empire, which 
 included Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, etc. Rufinus be- 
 came guardian or regent, in accordance with the will 
 of Theodosius, but was assassinated by Gainas before 
 the end of the year. (See Gainas.) Arcadius was a very 
 
 weak prince, and was controlled by his empress Eudoxia. 
 He was partial to the orthodox creed, and issued edicts 
 against the Arians. Died in 408 A.D., leaving the throne 
 to his son, Theodosius II. 
 
 See Socrates, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Sozomen, " Historia 
 Ecclesiastica;" Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire." 
 
 Arcaeus, ar-see'us, (Franciscus,) [Sp. Francisco 
 de Arce, fran-thes'ko da aR'sa,] a distinguished Span- 
 ish physician and surgeon, born at Fresno about 1494; 
 died probably about 1575. He left an able treatise "On 
 the Treatment of Wounds," (1574,) which was translated 
 into English, German, and Dutch. 
 
 Arcagna. See Orcagna. 
 
 Arcano, d', daR-ka'no, (Mauro, mow'ro,) commonly 
 called "II Mauro," a celebrated burlesque poet of Italy, 
 was born of a noble family of Fi iuli about 1490. He was 
 intimate with the poet Berni, and an enemy to Aretin 
 His works are similar, and, in the opinion of some critics, 
 almost equal, to those of Berni. They are generally 
 satirical, and are censured for indecency and levity. Died 
 in 1536. 
 
 Arcasio, aR-ka'se-o, (Giovanni Francesco,) an 
 Italian jurist, born at Bisagno, in Piedmont, in 1712, was 
 professor of law at Turin. Died in 1791. 
 
 Arce, de, diaR'tha, (Don Caledo.nio, ka-14-do'ne-o,) 
 a Spanish sculptor, patronized by Charles IV., born a* 
 Burgos in 1739; died in 1795. 
 
 Arce, de, (Francisco.) See Arceus. 
 
 Arce, de, (Jose,) a Spanish sculptor, who executed 
 in 1657 some statues for the cathedral of Seville. 
 
 Arcere, iR'saiR', (Louis Etienne,) a French eccle- 
 siastic, poet, and historian, born at Marseilles in 1698. 
 Among his works is a " History of Rochelle and of 
 Aunis," (" Histoire de la Rochelle et de l'Aunis," 2 
 vols., 1756-57.) Died in 1782. 
 
 Arcesilas, the French of Arcesilaus, which see. 
 
 Ar-ces-I-la'us, ['Ap/cscrtAaoc,] a Greek painter of Paros, 
 whom Pliny calls one of the first painters in encaustic. 
 He is supposed to have lived in the fifth century B.C. 
 
 Arcesilaus, a Greek sculptor, of whom little is known. 
 Among his works was a statue of Diana, on which 
 Simonides wrote some verses. 
 
 Arcesilaus IV., the last king of Cyrene, was extolled 
 by the poet Pindar. Died about 431 B.C. 
 
 Arcesilaus, [Gr. 'Apueo'tAaoc; Fr. Arcesilas, Sr'sa'ze'- 
 las',] a Greek skeptical philosopher, born at Pitane, or 
 Pitana, in /Eolia, in 316 B.C., was the founder of the New, 
 or, as it is sometimes called, the Middle Academy. He 
 studied philosophy under Theophrastus and Polemo, 
 and admired Plato, but modified his doctrines so much 
 that he was considered as the head of a new school. 
 He opposed the dogmatism of the Stoics, and main- 
 tained that man knows nothing with certainty, — that the 
 evidence of the senses is deceitful. His oratorical talents 
 and ingenuity in argument are highly commended. It 
 is not known that he left any written record of his prin- 
 ciples. He used the Socratic method of teaching, was 
 in the habit of maintaining alternately both sides of an 
 argument, and was noted for the keenness of his replies. 
 Died in 241 B.C. 
 
 See Ritter, " History of Philosophy :" G. H. Lewes, " Bio 
 graphical History of Philosophy ;" Diogenes Laertius; Sextu> 
 Emhiricus, "Adversus Mathematicos." 
 
 Arcesilaus, an eminent sculptor, who flourished W 
 Rome in the first century B.C. " His models," sa s 
 Varro, " were more highly prized than the finished works 
 of other artists." Among his productions was a "Venus 
 Genitrix." 
 
 Arcet. See Darcet. 
 
 Ar-ehag'a-thus, a Greek surgeon, who is said to 
 have introduced the practice of surgery into Rome. He 
 lived about 220 B.C. . 
 
 Archange de Clermont, iR'koNzh'deh kleR'mdN', 
 a French historian, lived in the first half of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Archange de Rouen, iR'koNzh' deh rw&N, rv French 
 theologian, lived about 1 690-1 700. 
 
 Ar-ehan'ge-lus or De Archangelo, da aR-karr*- 
 ji-lo, (Ottavio,) an Italian poet, born at Catania, lived 
 111 the first half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 i, e, i, 5, u, y. long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; £ood; moon; 
 
ARCHBOLD 
 
 1 53 
 
 AR CHI AS 
 
 Aroh'bold, (J. F.,) an eminent English writer on 
 law, of the present century, has published many legal 
 works, which have been often reprinted, and among 
 which are a "Digest of the Pleas of the Crown," (1S13 ;) 
 " The Practice of the Court of King's Bench in Per- 
 sonal Actions," (9th edition, 1855 ;) a " Summary of the 
 Law relative to Pleading and Evidence in Criminal 
 Cases," etc., (18th edition, 1856.) 
 
 Arch'dale, (John,) an Englishman, born in Buck- 
 inghamshire, was originally a member of the Society of 
 Friends. In 1694 he became Governor of Carolina, or 
 South Carolina, which enjoyed new prosperity under his 
 administration. He introduced the cultivation of rice, 
 and wrote a " Description of the Province of Carolina," 
 (»707-) 
 
 See Bancroft's "History of the United States," vol. iii. chap, 
 xix. 
 
 Arch'dall, (Rev. Mer'vyn,) an antiquary, born in 
 Dublin in 1723.- He published in 1786 " Monasticon 
 Hibernicum," or a "History of the Abbeys, Priories, 
 and other Religious Houses in Ireland." He was after- 
 wards rector of Slane, in the county of Meath, where he 
 died in 1791. 
 
 Arch-de'kin or Ars-de'kin, (Richard,) an Irish 
 Jesuit, born in the county of Kilkenny about 1619. He 
 published a system of theology, entitled " Controversies 
 concerning Faith reduced to an Easy Method," (" Con- 
 troversial Fidei ad facilem Methodum redactae," 1617,) 
 which was often reprinted. Died at Antwerp in 1693. 
 
 Ar-ehe-bu'lua, [Gr. 'XpxJtffovTux; Fr. Archebule, 
 tR'sha'bul',] a Greek poet, born at Thebes, flourished in 
 the second half of the third century before Christ. 
 
 Archedamus. See ArchideMUS. 
 
 Ar-ehed'I-cus, an Athenian comic poet, flourished 
 about 302 is.c. 
 
 Ar-ehe-la'us, ['Apxe?.ao<;,] a king of Sparta, of the 
 race of Agidae, began to reign about 884 B.C. 
 
 Archelaus, a son of Herod the Great and Malthace, 
 was appointed heir to the kingdom by the last will of 
 his father. His claim was disputed by his brother 
 Herod Antipas, who had many partisans. About I A.D. 
 Archelaus went to Rome to procure the recognition of 
 Augustus Caesar, who divided the kingdom and decided 
 that Archelaus should rule Judea Proper, Samaria, and 
 Idumea, with the title of Ethnarch, ("ruler of nations.") 
 He was banished by Augustus for cruelty in 7 A.D. 
 (See Matthew ii. 22.) 
 
 Archelaus, an Egyptian writer, of unknown date, 
 four of whose epigrams are found in the Greek, Anthol- 
 ogy. He is supposed to be the author of a work called 
 a " Description of Strange or Curious Animals," which 
 is not extant. 
 
 Archelaus, a Greek poet, who wrote a work on al- 
 chemy, lived probably in the fifth century after Christ. 
 / Archelaus, a native of Cappadocia, was general-in- 
 chief of the army of Mithridates VI. in his first war 
 against the Romans. In 87 B.C. he led a large army into 
 Greece, and occupied Athens, where he was attacked by 
 Sulla. He defended himself in the Piraeus in a long and 
 famous siege. In 86 he retired to Thessaly, and was 
 defeated by Sulla at Chaeronea and Orchomenus. By 
 order of his sovereign, he signed a treaty of peace with 
 Sulla in 85 B.C. He deserted to the Romans in 81. 
 
 Archelaus, a son of the preceding, obtained the 
 office of high-priest of Comana about 63 B.C. He won 
 the hand of Berenice, Queen of Egypt, by pretending to 
 be a son of King Mithridates. He was defeated by the 
 Romans and killed in 55 B.C., after a reign of several 
 months. His son Archelaus succeeded him as high- 
 priest, and was deposed by Caesar in 47 B.C. 
 
 Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, was a grand- 
 son of the preceding and Glaphyra. He obtained the 
 throne in 34 B.C. by the favour of Mark Antony, who is 
 said to have been captivated by the beauty of Glaphyra. 
 Having given offence to Tiberius, he was summoned to 
 Rome and detained until his death in 17 A.D. 
 
 Archelaus, Bishop of Carrha, in Mesopotamia, lived 
 
 tbout 276 A.D. He challenged Manes the heretic to a 
 
 oublic dispute, in which the latter was worsted. His 
 
 account of this disputation was highly esteemed. 
 
 Archelaus, King of Macedonia, was a son and suc- 
 
 cessor of Perdiccas II. He reigned from 413 to 399 B.C., 
 and encouraged Greek literature and arts by attracting 
 to his court several eminent poets and artists, among 
 whom were Euripides and Zeuxis. Socrates also was 
 invited by him, but declined the favour. Archelaus was 
 succeeded by his son Orestes. 
 
 Archelaus of Miletus, (or, according to some writers, 
 of Athens,) a Greek philosopher, who flourished about 
 450 B.C., was surnamed Physicus, because he directed 
 his attention to physical rather than moral science. He 
 was a pupil of Anaxagoras, and an instructor of Socrates 
 at Athens. His works, if he wrote any, are entirely lost, 
 and the merits of his system are not well understood. 
 He admitted two principles of generation — heat, which 
 moves, and cold, which remains at rest. 
 
 Archenholz. See Arckenholtz. 
 
 Archeuholz, au'Ken-holts', (Johann Wjlhelm,) a 
 popular German writer of history, etc., was born at Dant- 
 zic in 1 741. He served in the Seven Years' war, at- 
 tained the rank of captain, and after the peace of 1763 
 spent many years in travelling in England, France, and 
 Italy. He gave evidence that he was a shrewd observer 
 and agreeable writer, in his descriptive work called "Eng- 
 land and Italy," (2 vols., 1785,) often reprinted. He 
 edited for about twenty years the " Minerva," a success- 
 ful historical and literary journal of Hamburg, which was 
 first issued in 1792. His "History of the Seven Years' 
 War" (2 vols., 1793) was very popular, and was trans- 
 lated into many languages. He was author of other 
 histories. Died in 18 1 2. 
 
 See Ersch uud Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ar'cher, (John,) physician to Charles II. of England, 
 wrote a book called "Every Man his Own Doctor," 
 
 (1673.) 
 
 Archer, (John Wykeham,) an English painter, en- 
 graver, and antiquary, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne about 
 1806. He produced several hundred drawings or sketches 
 of the antiquities of London and its environs, and a book 
 entitled " Vestiges of Old London." Died in 1864. 
 
 Archer, (Sir Simon,) an English antiquary of War- 
 wickshire, born in 1581 ; died after 1654. 
 
 Archer, (Thomas,) an English architect, a disciple 
 or imitator of Vanbrugh, lived in the first half of the 
 eighteenth century. He designed, besides other works, 
 St. Philip's Church at Birmingham, (1719,) and St. John's 
 at Westminster, (finished about 1728,) a remarkable 
 structure of stone, which has been compared to "an 
 elephant lying on its back, with its legs sprawling in the 
 air." Died in 1743. 
 
 See Walfole, " Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Ar'cher, (William S.,) an American Senator, born 
 in Amelia county, Virginia, in 1789. He was a member 
 of Congress from 1820 to 1835, and took a leading part 
 in all matters of national importance. In 1841 he was 
 elected a Senator of the United States by the Whigs of 
 Virginia for six years, during which he was chairman of 
 the Committee on Foreign Relations. Died in 1855. 
 
 Ar-ehes'tra-tus, ['ApxearpaTof,] an Athenian general, 
 who succeeded Alcibiades as commander of the fleet in 
 407 B.C. 
 
 Archestratus, [Fr. Archestrate, iR'shes'tuSt',] a 
 Greek poet, born in Sicily, is supposed to have lived 
 about 350 B.C. He wrote a poem on Gastronomy, which 
 is lost. His descriptions of animals were accurate, and 
 were used by Aristotle in his "History of Animals." 
 
 Archevesque, iRsh'veV, (Hue, hii,) a French tn .1- 
 badour of the thirteenth century, born in Normandy. 
 
 Archiac, d', dtR'she-tk', (Etienne Ji'les Adolphe 
 Desmier de Saint-Simon — dez'me-i' deh saN'se'- 
 m6N',) Vicomte, a French geologist, born at Rheims in 
 1802. He published "Zizim, or the Chivalry of Rhodes," 
 a romance, (3 vols., 1828.) His most important work is 
 a "History of the Progress of Geology from 1834 to 
 1851," in French, in six or more vols., (1847-56,) pub- 
 lished under the auspices of the minister of public in- 
 struction. 
 
 Ar-ehi'a-das ['An^mdac] or Ar-ehi'a-des, ['Apxiu- 
 Ar/r,] a Greek philosopher of the fifth century after Christ, 
 was a friend of Proclus. 
 
 Ar'clii-as [Gr. 'Apx'tac] of Corinth, founded the city 
 of Syracuse about 733 B.C. 
 
 « as t; c as 1; g hard; g 33 j; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in this. ( Jl^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARCH IAS 
 
 '5+ 
 
 ARCHIMELUS 
 
 Arcbias surnamed the Hunter of Fugitives 
 gained im infamous notoriety by pursuing the Athenian 
 orators who were proscribed by Antipater about 322 B.C. 
 
 Archias, (Au'lus Ucin'ius,) an accomplished Greek 
 poet of Aaitioch, in Syria, became a resident of Rome in 
 102 B.c He enjoyed the friendship of Lucullus and 
 Cicero, and was admitted to the rights of citizenship. 
 Among his works were a poem on the Cimbric war of 
 Marius. and one on the Mithridatic war, both of which 
 are lost. His right of citizenship having been contested, 
 Cicero advocated his cause, about 60 H.C., in an ad- 
 mirable oration, ("Pro Archia,") and expressed himself 
 deeply indebted to his client for the direction of his 
 youthful studies and the development of his mental 
 powers. About thirty epigrams, of little merit, bearing 
 the name of Aichias, are preserved in the Greek An- 
 thology ; but it is doubtful whether they were actually 
 written by him. The oration of Cicero is the only source 
 of information respecting him. 
 
 See Wallenius, "Dissertatio de Aulo Licinio Archia," 1806; 
 Schokli., "Histoire de la Litterature Grecque;" Jacobs, "Antho- 
 logia Grjeca." 
 
 Ar-ehl-da'mus ['Apxida/ioe] I, King of Sparta, 
 reigned probably about 600 B.C. He was one of the 
 Proclid (or Eurypontid) line. 
 
 Archidamus II., King of Sparta, was a grandson of 
 Leotychides, and began to reign about 470 B.C. In the 
 Peloponnesian war he commanded an army which in- 
 vaded Attica in 431 B.C. ; but he could not provoke the 
 Athenians to risk a battle. He again invaded Attica in 
 428, and died in 427 B.C. 
 
 Archidamus III., King of Sparta, was a son of the 
 great Agesilaus. En 367 B.C. he defeated the Argives and 
 Arcadians in a battle which was called "the tearless," 
 because it was won without the loss of a man on the 
 Spartan side. He resisted with success the attack of 
 Epaminondas at Sparta in 362, and ascended the throne 
 in 361 B.C. Having passed over to Italy to aid the 
 Tarentines, he was killed in battle in 338 B.C. He was 
 succeeded by his son, Agis III. 
 
 Archidamus IV., King of Sparta, was a son of 
 Eudamidas. He was defeated near Mantinea by Deme- 
 trius Poliorcetes in 296 B.C. 
 
 Archidamus V., the last king of Sparta of the Pro- 
 clid line, was a brother and successor of Agis IV., who 
 died 240 B.C. According to Polybius, he was put to 
 death by Cleomenes not long after that date. 
 
 Archidamus, a Greek physician mentioned by Ga- 
 len, lived probably about 403 B.C. 
 
 Ar-ehl-de'mus, a Stoic philosopher of Tarsus, in 
 Cilicia, lived about 160 B.C. He was author of a Greek 
 work "On the Elementary Principles of Matter." 
 
 Ar--ehig'e-ne§, [Gr. 'kpxiyevm; Fr. Archigene, 1r'- 
 she'zh&n',] a celebrated Greek physician, born at Apamea, 
 Syria. He practised in Rome with great success in the 
 reigns of Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan, (81-1 17 a.d.,) and 
 wrote numerous works, of which some fragments are 
 extant. Many extracts from them have been preserved 
 by Galen, Oribasius, and others. 
 
 Ar-ehil'o-ehus, [Gr. 'Ap^ul^of; Fr. Archiloque, 
 fR'she'lok',] a celebrated Greek lyric poet and satirist, 
 born in the island of Paros, flourished about 680 or 700 
 B.C. He emigrated to Thasos in the prime of life, and 
 joined the Thasian army, but fled from the first battle, 
 and threw away his shield. He wrote odes, elegies, and 
 satires, and is regarded as the inventor of the Iambic 
 verse, or the first Greek who composed Iambic verses 
 according to fixed rules. 
 
 "Archilochum proprio rabies armavit Iambo."* 
 
 Horace, "Art of Poetry." 
 The invention of the Epodic, Trochaic Tetrameter, and 
 other forms of metre is also ascribed to him. Some frag- 
 ments of his works are extant. According to Quintilian, 
 he was a very vigorous, nervous, versatile, and elegant 
 
 * "Rage armed Archilochus with his own Iambics," {i.e. Iambics 
 of his own invention.) This line has allusion to a generally received 
 but doubtful story, that Lycam'bes, having promised his daughter 
 Neobu'ie to Archilochus, afterwards broke his word and gave her in 
 marriage to a more wealthy suitor. This exasperated the poet, who 
 wrote against the father and daughter an invective so scathing that 
 they hung themselves in despair. 
 
 writer. Samma in en vis; elegantes, vibrantesqirj senten- 
 ti<z ; plurinmm sanguinis et nervorum. He was espe- 
 cially distinguished by the severity of his sarcasm. Some 
 ancient critics placed him above all other poets except 
 Homer. There is a tradition that he was killed in a 
 battle between the Parians and the Naxians. 
 
 See Muller, "Literature of Ancient Greece;" Bentley, " Phal- 
 ans;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grasca;" Bodb, "Geschichte der 
 lynschen Dichtkunst;" Huschke, " Dissertatio de Fabulis Archilo- 
 chi," 1803. 
 
 Archiloque. See Archilochus. 
 Archimede. See Archimedes. 
 Ar-chl-me'des, [Gr. 'Apxiur/drig; It. Archimede, aR- 
 ke-ma'da; Fr. Archimede, SR'she'm^d',] the greatest 
 geometer of antiquity, was born in the state of Syracuse, 
 Sicily, about 287 B.C., and was of Greek extraction. He 
 is supposed to have been a pupil of Conon of Egypt, 
 and a relative of Hieron II., King of Syracuse. He 
 enjoyed the favour and patronage of Hieron and of his 
 son Gelon. Among the few recorded' incidents of his 
 life is the following. He was consulted by the king in 
 regard to a gold crown which the latter suspected to be 
 alloyed with silver by a fraudulent artificer. While he 
 was pondering the mode of detecting this fraud, he im- 
 mersed himself in a full bathing-tub, and, with the thought 
 that the water which overflowed must be equal in bulk 
 to his body, he discovered the mode of ascertaining the 
 bulk of the crown compared with an equally heavy mass 
 of pure gold. He was so transported with joy that he 
 ran home undressed, exclaiming, Eureka, (or, rather, 
 Heurika,) " I have found it !" 
 
 Archimedes was profoundly versed in mechanics and 
 hydrostatics, in which he made many discoveries, and 
 was the inventor of several powerful machines. Nearly 
 eighteen hundred years elapsed after his discoveries 
 before any progress was made in theoretical mechanics. 
 It was he who uttered that famous saying, Ado ttov otu 
 koI Tbv nbofiov /iivr/cu, " Give me where I may stand, and 
 I will move the world," (or "universe.") The long re- 
 sistance of Syracuse to the Romans under Marcellus is 
 ascribed to the warlike engines invented by Archimedes. 
 The story that he burned the Roman ships by means of 
 mirrors is discredited, as it is not confirmed by Polybius, 
 Livy, or Plutarch. He was killed at the capture of Syra- 
 cuse, 212 B.C. Of this event Plutarch gives several ver- 
 sions, one of which is as follows: A Roman soldier 
 entered his room and ordered him to follow him to Mar- 
 cellus, but the geometer refused to do so until he had 
 finished his problem, and the soldier, in a passion, drew 
 his sword and killed him. (See article "Marcellus," 
 in Plutarch's "Lives.") He left a number of works, 
 eight of which are extant, viz. : " On the Sphere and 
 Cylinder," (the proportions of which he discovered ;) 
 " The Measurement of the Circle," (in which he proves 
 that the circumference is to the diameter nearly as 
 3.1428 to I ;) "On the Equilibrium and Centre of Grav- 
 ity of Planes;" "On Conoids and Spheroids;" "On 
 Spirals;" "The Quadrature of the Parabola;" "The 
 Arenarius," {tafifiiTTjc;) and " On Floating Bodies." 
 
 "That his [Archimedes'] intellect was of the very 
 highest order," says Professor Donkin, of Oxford, "is 
 unquestionable. He possessed in a degree never ex- 
 ceeded, unless by Newton, the inventive genius which 
 discovers new provinces of inquiry and finds new points 
 of view for old and familiar objects; the clearness of 
 conception which is essential to the resolution of com- 
 plex phenomena into their constituent elements ; and 
 the power and habit of intense and persevering thought, 
 without which other intellectual gifts are comparatively 
 fruitless." (See article "Archimedes," in Smith's "Greek 
 and Roman Biography and Mythology.") 
 
 When Cicero was quaestor in Sicily, he found, over- 
 grown with briers, the tomb of Archimedes, marked by 
 the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder, in com- 
 memoration of his discovery. 
 
 See G. LibrIj "Histoire des Mathematiques en Italie;" Mazzu 
 cheli.i, " Notizie istoriche e critichi intorno alia Vita ed Invention'' 
 di Archimede," 1737; Hennert, "Dissertation sur la Vie d'Archi- 
 mede, 1766 ; J. A. Schmidt, " Dissertatio de Archimede," 1683 ; Do- 
 menico ScinA, "Discorso intorno ad Archimede," 1&2T. "Ouarterlv 
 Review," vol. iii. 
 
 1-523; "Quarterly 
 
 Ar-ehl-me'lus, ['Apxi/xritoc,] a Greek poet, flourished 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; A, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, All, fit; m«t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
ARCHINTO 
 
 •S5 
 
 ARC0NV1LLE 
 
 lbout 225 B.C. One of his epigrams is preserved by 
 Athenaeus. 
 
 Archinto, aR-ken'to, (Alessandro,) a theologian, 
 who received from Charles V. the title of count Died 
 at Milan in 1567. 
 
 Archiuto, (Alessandro,) a Jesuit and writer, born 
 at Milan in 1577 ; died in 1645. 
 
 Archiuto, (Carlo,) Count, a learned Italian noble- 
 man, born at Milan in 1669. He founded an academy 
 of cavalieri, (knights,) (1702,) and an association called 
 la Palatina, by which Muratori's great work was 
 printed. He wrote, besides other works, "Tables of 
 Sciences and Arts." Died in 1732. 
 
 Archinto, (Carlo Antonio,) an Italian ecclesiastic 
 and writer, lived in the first half of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Archinto, (Filippo,) Archbishop of Milan, an Italian 
 theologian, born in 1500; died in 1558. 
 
 Archinto, (Filippo,) Count, an Italian jurist, born 
 at Milan in 1649. He held several high offices. Died 
 about 1720. 
 
 Archinto, (Girolamo,) born at Milan about 1671, 
 became Archbishop of Tarsus. Died in 1721. 
 
 Archinto, (Giuseppe.,) an Italian prelate, born in 
 165 1. He became Archbishop of Milan and a cardinal 
 in 1699. Died in 1712. 
 
 Archinto, (Ottavio,) Count, an Italian antiquary, 
 born at Milan. He wrote several treatises on the anti- 
 quities of the Milanese. Died in 1656. 
 
 Ar-ehi'nus, ['Afijwoc,) an Athenian, who with Thra- 
 sybu'lus expelled the thirty tyrants in 403 B.C. and re- 
 stored the democracy. According to Demosthenes, he 
 acted the principal part in this revolution, and distin- 
 guished himself as a statesman on other occasions. 
 
 Ar-ehip'pus, an Athenian comic poet, of whom little 
 is known. He gained a victory with one of his comedies 
 in 416 B.C. His most celebrated play was entitled "The 
 Fishes." Only small fragments of his works remain. 
 
 See Vosstus, " De Poetis Gra:cis." 
 
 Archon, iR'shd.N', (Louis,) a French ecclesiastical 
 writer, born at Kiom in 1645 ; died in 1717. 
 
 Ar-«hy'tas, [Gr. 'Apgvraf,] an eminent Greek philos- 
 opher, mathematician, and general, born at Tarentum, 
 lived alxnit 350 B.C. He belonged to the Pythagorean 
 sect, and is said to have saved the life of Plato from the 
 anger of Dionysius the Tyrant. He commanded the 
 army of Tarentum for seven years, and perished in a 
 shipwreck on the coast of Apulia, leaving a high reputa- 
 tion for public and private virtue. Archytas passes for 
 one of the first who applied geometry to mechanics and 
 framed powerful machines on mathematical principles. 
 He left a number of works, which have not come down to 
 us. Fragments of a treatise " On Wisdom," ascribed to 
 him, are extant. Horace calls him 
 
 " maris et terra?, numeroque carentis arena;, 
 
 Mensorem,"* 
 
 in anode "Ad Archytam," Carm. i. 28. 
 
 See G. LlBRl, " Histoire des Mathematiques en Italie ;" G. Na- 
 vakra, "Tentamen de Archyta?Tarentini Vita," 1820; O. F. Gruppe, 
 "Ueber die Kragmente des Archytas, etc," 1840. 
 
 Archytas, a Greek epigrammatic poet, mentioned by 
 Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 Archytas of Mitylene, a writer on music, mentioned 
 by Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 Arcimboldi, aR-chem-bol'dee, (Antonello,) an 
 Italian Hellenist and priest, was a son of Giovanni An- 
 gelo, noticed below. He translated some works of the 
 Greek Fathers into Latin. Died in 1578. 
 
 Arcimboldi, (Giovanni,) an Italian cardinal and 
 writer, became Archbishop of Milan in 1484. Died in 
 1491. 
 
 Arcimboldi, (Giovanni Angelo,) Archbishop of 
 Milan, born in 14S5, published a "Catalogue of Heretics," 
 (1554.) Died in 1555. 
 
 Arcimboldi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Milan in 1533, excelled in portraits. He worked for the 
 emperor Ferdinand I., and his successor, at Prague. 
 Died in 1593. 
 
 * "The measurer of the sea and land, and of the innumerable 
 
 ■and*. ' 
 
 Arcimboldi, (Guido Antonio,) brother of Gio- 
 vanni the cardinal, became Archbishop of Milan in 1488. 
 Died in 1497. 
 
 Arcimboldi, (Ottavio,) a learned prelate, born at 
 Milan in 147 1, was versed in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. 
 Died about 1503. 
 
 Arcis, Sr se', (Marc,) a French sculptor, born at 
 Toulouse, became a member of the Royal Academy in 
 1684. Died about 1740. 
 
 Ai ciazewski, aKt-se-shev'ske, (Christopher,) a 
 Polish noble and general, born towards the close of the 
 sixteenth century. He entered the Dutch service about 
 1630, and fought with distinction in Brazil against the 
 Spaniards and Portuguese. He became second in com- 
 mand under Maurice of Nassau, in Brazil, in 1637. Some 
 authorities state that he was Governor of Brazil. Died 
 at Lissa in 1656, (or, as some writers state, in 1668.) 
 
 Arckenholtz or Arkenholz, aR'ken-holts', (Jo- 
 HANN,) a Swedish historical writer, born in Finland in 
 1695. He published, in French, " Memoirs of Christina, 
 Queen of Sweden," (4 vols., 1750-60,) valuable as a col- 
 lection of materials, but not well written, and assisted 
 Mauvillonin a " History of Gustavus Adolphus," (1764.) 
 Died in 1777. 
 
 See Porthan, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver J. Arckenholtz," 1781. 
 
 Arco, aR'ko, (Filippo,) an Italian general in the Im- 
 perial army, was beheaded for treason in 1704. 
 
 Arco, d', daR'ko, (Giambattista Gherardo,) an 
 Italian political economist, born at Arco in 1739. He 
 became a resident of Mantua, and wrote a number of 
 works, among which are " The Influence of Commerce 
 on Talents and Customs," ("Costumi,") and "On the 
 Political and Economical Relations between the City 
 and the Country belonging to it," (" Dell' Armonia poll- 
 tico-economica tra la Citta e il suo Territorio," (1771.) 
 He was appointed governor of the duchy of Mantua 
 by the emperor Joseph II. Died in 1791. 
 
 Arco, d', (Niccol6,) Count, a good Latin poet, born 
 at Arco, in the Tyrol, in 1479. He was learned in ancient 
 and modern languages, and was intimate with Annibal 
 Caro, Fracastor, and Paolo Giovio. A volume of his 
 poems was published in 1546. His "Dirge for the 
 Death of his Mother," (" Naenia de Morte Matris,") 
 which resembles Cowper's " Lines on his Mother's Pic- 
 ture," is greatly admired. Died in 1546. 
 
 Arco, del, del aR'ko, (AlOnso,) a Spanish painter, 
 who was a deaf-mute, called El Sordillo del Pereda, 
 el soR-del'yo del pa-ra'Dd, ("The Little Deaf Man of 
 Pereda,") was born at Madrid in 1625. He studied 
 under Pereda, was a good colorist, and excelled in por- 
 traits. His master-piece, in the opinion of some, is the 
 " Baptism of John the Baptist." Died in 1 700. 
 
 Arcoleo, aR-ko-la'o, (Antonio,) an Italian dramatic 
 poet, born in the island of Candia, lived in the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Arcon, d', diR'sAN', (Jean Claude £l£onore le 
 Michaud — leh me'sho',) a French military engineer, 
 born at Pontarlier in 1733, distinguished himself in the 
 Seven Years' war. He was the inventor of floating 
 batteries, which attracted much attention in 1782, al- 
 though they proved unsuccessful in the siege of Gib- 
 raltar. These vessels, the decks of which were covered 
 with a shell-proof blindage forming two inclined planes, 
 presented to the guns of the fort a thick layer (cuirasse) 
 of green wood, partly defended by an armour of cables. 
 He wrote, besides other works, " Political and Military 
 Considerations on Fortifications," (1795.) He was a 
 member of the Institute and of the Senate. Died in 
 1800. 
 
 See Drinkwater, "Account of the Siege of Gibraltar;" Girod- 
 Chantrans, " Notice sur la Vie du Ge'ne'ra] d'Arcon,"(i8oi.) 
 
 Ar-co-na'tus, (Jerome,) a German poet, born in Si- 
 lesia in 1553 ; died in 1599. 
 
 Arconi, d', dtR'ko'ne', (C6sar,) a French writer on 
 physical science and theology, was born at Viviers ; died 
 in 1 68 1 .' 
 
 Arconville, d', dtK'kdN'vel', (Marie,) a learned 
 French authoress, born in 1720. She published many 
 works, among which were romances, poems, biogra- 
 phies, and a " History of FVancis II. of France," (2 vols., 
 1783.) Died in 1805. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as «; th as in this. (fi^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARCOS 
 
 156 
 
 ARELLANO 
 
 Arcos, au'k6s, (Don Rodrigo P0112 de Leon — 
 
 ponth da la-6n',) Duke of, a Spaniard who was ap- 
 pointed Viceroy of Naples in 1646. His exactions pro- 
 voked a formidable insurrection in 1647, (see Masani- 
 ELLO,) and he was obliged to make concessions to the 
 people. Don Juan of Austria in the mean time was sent 
 with a fleet to enforce the royal authority, and the fight 
 was renewed between his troops and the Neapolitans, 
 who proclaimed a republic. The Duke of Arcos was 
 removed from office about the end of 1647, and returned 
 to Spain in disgrace. 
 
 See Leo and Butta, "Histoire d'ltalie." 
 
 Arc-ti'nus ['A-purivoc] of Miletus, an ancient Greek 
 epic poet, is supposed to have lived before 700 B.C. 
 Little or nothing is known of his life. His works, 
 among which was a poem called " .■Ethiopis," are all 
 lost. 
 
 Arcudi, aR-koo'dee, (Alessandro Tommaso,) an 
 Italian satirical writer, b.)rn at Galatina, in Naples, in 
 1655, wrote " The Anatomy of Hypocrites," (1699.) Died 
 in 1718. 
 
 Ar-cu'dl-us or Arcudio, aR-koo'de-o, (Peter,) a 
 Roman Catholic priest, born at Corfu about 1570. He 
 was sent by the pope to Poland and Muscovy, where he 
 laboured as a missionary about twenty years. He wrote 
 in Greek " On the Harmony of the Western and Eastern 
 Churches in the Use of the Seven Sacraments," (2d edi- 
 tion, 1619.) Died about 1635. 
 
 Ar-cul'phus, written also Arculf and Arculfe, a 
 French or Gallic priest who visited and explored the Holy 
 Land about 650 A.D. An account of his travels was writ- 
 ten by Adomnan. 
 
 Arcussia, d', daVku'se-a', (Charles,) a French 
 gentleman, born in Provence about 1548, was known as 
 the author of a work on Falconry, (1598,) which had 
 great success. Died in 1617. 
 
 Aicy, d'. See D'Arcy, (Patrick.) 
 
 Ar-da-bu'rI-us, [Gr. 'ApdapoOpioc,] a general of the 
 Eastern Empire, the father of Aspar, commanded an 
 Imperial army which invaded Persia in 422 A.D. and be- 
 sieged Nisibis without success. 
 
 Ardasheer. See Ardsheer. 
 
 Ardell, (James Mac.) See MacArdell. 
 
 Ardemans, iR-da-mins', (Teodoro,) a Spanish ar- 
 chitect and painter, born at Madrid in 1664. He was 
 appointed cabinet-painter to the king about 1704. He 
 designed the principal part of the palace and collegiate 
 church of San Ildefonso. Died in 1726. 
 
 Ar'den, (Edward,) an English gentleman and Ro- 
 man Catholic, a third-cousin to Mary Arden the mother 
 of Shakspeare, was born in 1531. In 1583 Arden was 
 executed on a charge of treason, with his son-in-law 
 Somerville. Many persons believed that Arden was in- 
 nocent, and that he was the victim of the enmity of the 
 Earl of Leicester, with whom he had quarrelled. He 
 left a son Robert, who was a lawyer. 
 
 Arden, (John.) See Ardern. 
 
 Arden, (Richard Pepper,) Lord Alvanley, an 
 English lawyer and judge, born at Bredbury, near 
 Stockport, in 1745. He became a personal and politi- 
 cal friend of William Pitt, and was appointed solicitor- 
 general In 1782. Having resigned when Fox and Lord 
 North came into power in 1783, he was reappointed to. 
 that office about the end of the same year by Pitt. He 
 Was attorney-general from 1784 to 1788, and was made 
 master of the rolls in the latter year. In 1801 he suc- 
 ceeded Lord Eldon as lord chief-justice of the court of 
 common pleas, and was created a peer, by the title of 
 Baron Alvanley. Died in 1804. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. viii. 
 
 Ardene, f R'dln', (Esprit Jean de Rome, eVpRe' 
 zhoN deh rom,) a French poet, born at Marseilles in 
 1684. He published a collection of Fables in verse, 
 (1747,) and wrote odes, epigrams, and other verses, (4 
 vols., 1767.) Died in 174S. 
 
 Ardene, (Jean Paul de Rome,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Marseilles in 1689, was a priest and hor- 
 ticulturist. He published treatises on " Tulips," (1760,) 
 "Carnations," (1767,) and other plants ; also a work on 
 gardening and rural economy, called the "Rural Year," 
 
 ("Annee champetre," 3 vols., 1769,) which was consid- 
 ered one of the best on those subjects. Died in 1 76.). 
 
 Ardenne, d', daVdeV, [Lat. Arduen'na,] (Re.ua- 
 CLE, reh-mikl',) a Latin poet, born near Maubeuge 
 about 1480. He was secretary of Margaret of Burgundy. 
 He wrote, besides other mediocre poems, " Palamedes," 
 a drama, (1512.) 
 
 Ardente, aR-deVta, (Alessandro,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Faenza, worked mostly at Turin. He painted 
 portraits and history with success. Among his works 
 are a "Conversion of Saint Paul" and a "Baptism of 
 Christ." Died in 1595. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy.' 
 
 Ar'dern, (John,) or Johannes de Arderue, an 
 eminent English surgeon, who practised at Newark from 
 1349 to 1370, when he removed to London. He made 
 some important improvements in surgery, and wrote 
 several works, one of which is a "Treatise on Fistula," 
 (1588.) 
 
 Ar'derne, (James,) an English clergyman, founded a 
 library at Chester. Died in 1691. 
 
 Ardeschir. See Ardsheer. 
 
 Ardha-Nari. See Siva. 
 
 Ar'dl-ces of Corinth, an ancient Greek painter, who, 
 according to Pliny, painted monochromatic pictures. 
 
 Ardingelli, aR-den-jel'lee, (Niccol6,) an Italian car- 
 dinal, whom Pope Paul III. sent to France to negotiate 
 a peace between Francis I. and Charles V. Died in 
 1547, aged about forty-five. 
 
 Ardizzon, aR-det-s6n', or Ardizzoni, aR-det-so'nee, 
 (Antonio,) an Italian writer, died at Naples in 1699. 
 
 Ardoin. See Arduin. 
 
 Ardoina, aR-do-ee'ni, (Anna Maria,) an Italian 
 poetess, born in 1672, was a daughter of the Prince of 
 Palizzo. Died in 1 700. 
 
 Ardsheer (Ardshir or Ardeschir) Babegan, ard- 
 sheer' b&'beh-gan', a famous king of Persia, the founder 
 of the dynasty of Sassanides, was a man of humble 
 origin. He rebelled against King Artabanus or Arda- 
 van, who was defeated and killed in battle. After he 
 had extended the limits of Persia by conquests, he 
 reigned many years in peace, and had a wide reputation 
 for virtue and wisdom. His maxims are still preserved 
 by the Persians. He died probably about 260 A.D., and 
 left the throne to his son, Shapur or Sapor. He was 
 called Artaxerxes by the Greeks. 
 
 See Malcolm, "History of Persia ;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall 
 of like Roman Empire." 
 
 Ardshir (or Ardsheer) Darazdast. See Artax- 
 krxes Longimanus. 
 
 Arduenna. See Ardenne. 
 
 Arduin, ard'win, Ardoin, or Ardoino,aR-do-ee'no, 
 sometimes written Ardouin and Ardwig, King of 
 Italy, was chosen by several Italian nobles as successor 
 to Otho III. in 1002. War ensued between him and 
 Henry, Emperor of Germany, who became master of 
 Milan and other cities of Lombardy. Died in 1015. 
 
 See Phovana, " Studj critichi sovra la Storia d' Italia a' tempi del 
 Re Ardoino," 1849; Muratori, " Annali d'ltalia." 
 
 Arduini, aR-doo-ee'nee, or Arduino, aR-doo-ee'no, 
 (Luigi,) an Italian agriculturist, born .at Padua about 
 1750. He became professor, at Padua, of rural economy, 
 and wrote several works on that science. Died in 1S33. 
 
 Arduini, (Pietro,) an Italian botanist, the father of 
 the preceding, was born at Verona. He published in 
 1766 a work on the culture and use of plants employed 
 in domestic and rural economy. 
 
 Arduino, aR-doo-ee'no, (Maestro,) a Venetian sculp- 
 tor and architect of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Ar'dys, [Gr. 'Apciuc,] King of Lydia, succeeded his 
 father Gyges about 680 B.C., and reigned about forty- 
 nine years. 
 
 Aregio, 5-ra'He-o, (Pablo,) a skilful Spanish painter, 
 born in the fifteenth century. He painted subjects from 
 the life of the Virgin, in the cathedral of Valencia, ibout 
 1506. 
 
 Areius, (the heresiarch.) See Arius. 
 
 A-rei'us, [Gr. "Apaof,] a Stoic philosopher of Alexan- 
 dria, was a friend and preceptor of Augustus Caesar. 
 
 Arellano, de, da 1-rel-ya'no, (Gil Ramirez,) a Span- 
 ish antiquary of the first part of the seventeenth cen- 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long ; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, i, 1, 6, fi, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; ndt; gdod; moon- 
 
ARELLANO 
 
 '57 
 
 A RET IN 
 
 tury. He wrote " Vindication of the Ancient Grandeur 
 of the Counts of Agmlar," ("Memorial en justiticacion 
 de.la Grandeza amigua de los Condes de Aguilar,") 
 which is a nodal in its kind. 
 
 Arellano, de, (J i an,) the best Spanish flower-painter 
 time, was born in 1014. Died at Madrid in 1676. 
 
 A-rel'11-us, a Roman painter, who lived in the Drat 
 century B.C. The senate ordered his pictures to be re- 
 moved from the temples because he took courtesans as 
 his models. 
 
 Aremberg, a'rem-hcK<;,(ArGUsTE Marie Raymond.) 
 Princi OF, .i son of Karl Leopold, noticed below, was 
 born at Brussels in 1753. He was elected to the French 
 States-General in 1709, and favoured the doctrines of 
 the Revolution. About 1792 he emigrated to Austria, 
 in the army of which he attained the rank of major- 
 general. 1 le wa> a friend of Mirabeau. Hied in 1833. 
 
 Aremberg, (John ok Eigne,) Count, a general 
 ol Philip II. of Spain, was probably born in Flanders. 
 He was appointed governor of F'riesland and Overyssel 
 by Philip If., and took sides against the Prince of Orange 
 about 1563. In 1567 he commanded a small army sent 
 by Aha against the French Huguenots. He was de- 
 feated and killed in a battle at Groningen in May, 1568. 
 Mol Un , " Rise 01" the Dutch Republic," vol. ii. chap. ii. 
 
 Aremberg, (Leopold Pmilipp Karl Joseph von 
 Eigne,) DUKE of, a general born at Mons in 1690, was 
 the lather of Karl Leopold, noticed below. He fought 
 for Austria at Malplaquet in 1709, and as major-general 
 contributed to Prince Eugene's victory at Belgrade in 
 1717. In 1737 he obtained the rank of field-marshal, ami 
 the chief command of the army in Flanders. He com- 
 manded an army ol Maria Theresa in the war which 
 began in 1 741. Hied in 1754. 
 
 Aremberg, von, ton a'rem-beRG, (Karl Leopold,) 
 a field-marshal in the Austrian service, son and suc- 
 cessor of the preceding, distinguished himself in the 
 Seven Vears' war. He led the right wing of the Aus- 
 trians at Hochkirchen in 1758, and was defeated by 
 Wunsch in 1759. 
 
 Arena, d-ra'na, (Bartoi.ommeo,) a politician, born in 
 Corsica about 1760. He was elected to the French 
 Legislative Assembly in 1792, and was a partisan of the 
 Revolution and an enemy of Paoli. As a member of the 
 Council of Five Hundred, he opposed Bonaparte in the 
 contest of the 18th Brumaire, 1799, after which he lived 
 in exile. Died at Leghorn aj>out 1830. 
 
 Arena, (Giuseppe,) a conspirator, born in Corsica, 
 was a brother of the preceding. He served as adjutant- 
 general at the siege of Toulon in 1793, and was elected 
 to the Council of Five Hundred in 1 796. In October 
 or November, 1801, he was arrested at the Opera as an 
 accomplice of Ceracchi and others in a conspiracy to 
 kill Napoleon, and was executed in 1802. 
 
 Arena, (Giuseppe,) an Italian musician and composer, 
 flourished Ixitween 1725 and 1750. 
 
 Arena, a-ra'na, or Harena, (Jacobus,) a Belgian or 
 Italian jurist, born in the thirteenth century, is said to 
 have taught civil law at Padua in 1300. He wro'.e several 
 legal works, which were printed in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Arena, d', di'ra'nS', (Antoinf,) the Latinized name 
 of La Sable, (ii sibl,) a French jurist and macaronic 
 poet, born at Soulier*, near Toulon. Died in 1544. 
 
 Arenales, a-ra-na'les, (Jose,) a South American ge- 
 ographer, was a lieutenant-colonel in the army of Buenos 
 Ayres in 1833. 
 
 'Arend, a'rent, or Arent3, a'rents, (Balthasar,) a 
 son of Caius, noticed below, born in Holstein about 
 1640, was a minister, and published several works, chiefly 
 sermons. Died in 1687. 
 
 Arend or Arents, (Caius or Kay,) a German or- 
 thodox divine, born in Holstein in 1614. He was min- 
 ister at Gliickstadt from 1661 to 1678, and afterwards at 
 Meldorf. lie published several sermons. Died in 1691. 
 
 Arends, a'rents, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at Dort 
 in 1738. He painted marine pieces and other subjects, 
 at his native place and Middclburg, with success. Died 
 in 1805. 
 
 Arends, written also Arents, (Thomas,) a Dutch 
 merchant and poet, born at Amsterdam in 1652. He 
 composed fugitive poems and dramas. Died in 1700. 
 
 Arendt, ri'ient, (Martin Frederik,) a Danish anti- 
 quary, born at Altona in 1769. He traversed many 
 countries of Europe on foot in order to investigate anti- 
 quities, copy runic inscriptions, etc., having no resources 
 but the bounty of strangers. He wrote several short 
 antiquarian treatises. Died near Venice in 1824. 
 
 Arensbeck, a'rdns-bek', (Peter Dietrich,) a Swe- 
 dish linguist) was minister of a church at Stockholm, 
 and teacher ol Oriental languages. D.ed in 1673. 
 
 Arents. See Akinii. 
 
 Ar'e-sas, ['A/* ok,] a Greek Pythagorean philosopher, 
 lived in Italy, and succeeded Tycfas as head of the school. 
 
 Aresi, a-ra'see, (Paolo,) an Italian ecclesiastic, emi- 
 nent as a preacher and writer, was born at Cremona in 
 1574. He became Bishop of Tortona in 1620. His prin- 
 cipal work is "Sacred Emblems," etc., ("Imprese sacie 
 con triplicati Discorsi illustrate," 1613.) He afterwards 
 enlarged it to seven volumes, (1621-35.) Died in 1644. 
 
 Areson, i'reh-son, (Jon,) a bishop and poet of Ice- 
 land, born in 1484. He became Bishop of Iceland in 
 1522, and resisted the efforts of the King of Denmark to 
 establish the Protestant religion in that island. Having 
 taken up arms against the king, he was defeated and put 
 to death in 1550. 
 
 Aresti, a-res'tee, (Floriano,) an Italian composer 
 of operas, born at Bologna, lived about 1700. 
 
 Aretaeus, ar-e-tee'us, [Gr. 'Aperaioc; F'r. Aretee, 
 3'ri'ta',] an eminent Greek medical writer, born prob- 
 ably in Cappadocia, is supposed to have lived in the first 
 or second century of the Christian era. Nothing is 
 known of his life. He wrote a work in eight books on 
 the Causes, Symptoms, and Cure of Acute and Chronic 
 Affections, which is still extant, and is highly prized for 
 its matter and the elegance of its style. His work has 
 often been printed in Greek and Latin since 1552. 
 
 See Sprengel, " Histoire de la M&Iecine ;" Suringar, "Disser- 
 tatio de Aretaeo medico," 1837. 
 
 Ar'e-tas, [Gr. 'Aperac,] the name of several kings of 
 Arabia, who reigned between 170 and 40 B.C. One 
 of these defeated Antiochus XII. about 90 B.C., and 
 afterwards gained a victory over Alexander Jannxus. 
 
 One king of this name was the father-in-law of Herod 
 Antipas. He appears to have been the Aretas who 
 reigned in Damascus when the Apostle Paul escaped from 
 that city. (See II. Corinthians xi. 32.) He waged war 
 against Herod Antipas, who, having been defeated, ap- 
 plied for aid to the emperor Tiberius. The latter ordered 
 Vitellius to march against Aretas ; but the death of Tibe- 
 rius, in 37 A.D., prevented the execution of this design. 
 
 A-re'te, [Gr. 'Apr/rj?,] a daughter of the celebrated 
 Aristippus, was versed in philosophy, which she learned 
 of her father. She had a son, Aristippus, who was sur- 
 named M;/Tpod7(Sa/crof, (i.e. " Mother-taught.") 
 
 Arete e. See Aretveus. 
 
 Ar-e-thu'sa, |Gr. ' A/xDovaa ; Fr. Arethuse, S'ri'- 
 tiiz',] a Nereid and an attendant of Diana, was, accord- 
 ing to a poetical legend, beloved and pursued by Alpheus, 
 and was changed into a fountain in Ortygia, near Syra- 
 cuse. (See Alpheus.) She was invoked by Virgil as a 
 source of poetical inspiration, (Eclogue x. 1.) 
 
 Aretin or Aretino, (Bernardo.) See Accolti. 
 
 Aretin, von, fon a'reh-teen', (Johann Adam Ciiris- 
 TOPH Joseph,) Baron, a Bavarian diplomatist, born at 
 Ingolstadt in 1769. He represented Bavaria in the 
 Germanic Diet at Frankfort from 181 7 until his death, 
 and published, licsides a few other works, a "Manual 
 of the Philosophy of Life," (1793.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Aretin, von, (Johann Christoph Anton Maria,) 
 Baron, a brother of the preceding, was born at Ingol- 
 stadt in 1772 or 1773. He became aulic counsellor at 
 Munich in 1793, and vice-president of the Munich Acad- 
 emy of Sciences in 1804. He published many and Va- 
 rious works, among which are a " History of the Jews in 
 Bavaria," (1803,) and an "Introduction to Mnemonics," 
 (1810.) Died]. 1824. 
 
 Aretin, von, (Johann Gf.org,) Baron, a German 
 writer on rural economy, born in I77i,was a brother of 
 the preceding. 
 
 Aretin, von, (Karl Maria,) Baron, a German his- 
 toiian, born at Munich in 1796, was a son of Johann 
 Christoph Anton Maria, noticed above. He was .q>- 
 
 eas-t; 5 as/; %hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttttrat; a, nasal; s.,trilUJ; 5 as:; th as in this. (2C^ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARETINO 
 
 158 
 
 ARGELLAT1 
 
 pointed keeper of the archives of Bavaria, and privy 
 counsellor. Among his works is a " History of the 
 Elector Maximilian I.," (1842.) 
 
 Aretino, i-ri-tee'no, [Lat. Areti'nus; Fr. Aretin, 
 i'ra'taN',] (Angelo,) an Italian jurisconsult of the fif- 
 teenth century, born at Arezzo. His family name was 
 Gamhiglioni. He was professor of law- at Ferrara and 
 Bologna, and wrote a "Treatise on Misdemeanours and 
 Crimes," ("Tractatus de Maleficiis," 1472,) and other 
 works, which were highly esteemed. He died after 1450. 
 
 Aretino, (Carlo.) See Marsuppini, (Carlo.) 
 
 Aretino, (Francesco.) See Accolti. 
 
 Aretino, (Leonardo.) See Bruni. 
 
 Aretino, [Lat. Areti'nus ; Fr. Aretin,] (Pietro,) 
 a satirical Italian writer, surnamed the Scourge ok 
 Princes, was born at Arezzo in 1492. He had superior 
 talents, but little learning. In 1527 he became a resi- 
 dent of Venice, and wrote a libel on Pope Clement VII., 
 then imprisoned or besieged by the Imperialists. He 
 associated with eminent authors and artists, and corre- 
 sponded with several monarchs of Europe, among whom 
 were Francis I. of France, and the emperor Charles V., 
 from whom he received a pension. His conduct was 
 extremely licentious and venal. He wrote numerous 
 works, among which were Dialogues, Comedies, Letters, 
 (6 vols., 1538-57,) Sonnets, and other poems. He died 
 at Venice (where the greater part of his mature life was 
 passed) in 1557. 
 
 See Berni, "Vita di P. Aretino," 1537; Dujardin, "Vie de 
 Pierre Aretin," 1750; Mazzuchelli, "Vita di Pietro Aretino," 1763 ; 
 Dubois-Fontanelle, " Vie de Pierre Aretin," 176S. 
 
 Aretino, (Spinello,) an eminent Italian painter, 
 born at Arezzo about 1315. He adorned the chapel of 
 Santa Maria Maggiore, and other churches of Florence, 
 with frescos. Those of San Miniato, in the same city, are 
 still preserved. The " History of Pope Alexander III.," 
 in the town-hall of Sienna, is called his principal work. 
 In the opinion of Vasari, he was a better painter than 
 Giotto. Died about 1400. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Aretius, a-ree'she-us, [Ger. pron. i-rSt'se-us,l (Bene- 
 dict,) a Swiss Calvinist theologian and botanist, born 
 at Berne. He became professor of languages and theo- 
 logy at that city about 1563. He published, besides 
 other works, "Theological Problems," ("Problemata 
 Theologica," 1574, often reprinted,) and a " Description 
 of the Mountains Stockhorn and Niesen, and the Plants 
 growing on the Same," (1561.) He was a friend of Con- 
 rad Gesner. Died in 1574. 
 
 Aretius, (Claudius Marius.) See Arezzo. 
 
 Aretusi, a-ra-too'see, (Cesare,) also called Cesare 
 Modenese, (mo-di-na'si,) a skilful portrait-painter, 
 born at Modena (or, as some say, at Bologna) about the 
 middle of the sixteenth century. He imitated with suc- 
 cess the style of various masters. His copy of Cor- 
 reggio's " Notte ' is highly commended. Died at Parma 
 about 1610. 
 
 Areus, a'rus or a're-us, [Gr. 'Apevc,] I., King of Sparta, 
 succeeded his grandfather Cleomenes II. in 309 B.C. He 
 repulsed Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who attacked Sparta 
 in 272 B.C. He was slain at Corinth in 265, in a battle 
 against the Macedonians, and was succeeded by his son 
 Acrotatus. 
 
 Areus II. of Sparta, a son of Acrotatus, died while 
 still a child, about 256 B.C. 
 
 Arevalo. See Cano de Arevalo. 
 
 Arezzo, a-reVso, (Claudio Mario,) [Lat. Are'tius, 
 Clau'dius Ma'rius,] a learned Italian, who was a native 
 of Syracuse and lived about 1550. He was imperial 
 historian to Charles V., whose armies he followed in 
 Italy and Germany. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "Chorographia sive de Situ Sicilian Libellus," (1537,) a 
 description of Sicily. 
 
 Arezzo, (Tommaso,) an Italian cardinal, born in Tus- 
 cany in 1756, was a grandson of the preceding. He 
 was sent to Saint Petersburg by the pope in 1801 to 
 negotiate for the reunion of the Greek and Roman 
 Churches. In 1808 he was appointed Vice-Governor of 
 Rome, and arrested by the French. He was imprisoned 
 in Corsica, whence he escaped in 1813, and was created 
 a cardinal in 1816. Died in 1833. 
 
 Arezzo, (F. M.) See Casini. 
 
 Arezzo, d', da-reVso, (Betrico, bi-tRee'ko,) an Ital- 
 ian poet of the fourteenth century. 
 
 Arezzo, d', (Francesco,) an Italian pulpit orator 
 and writer on theology, born in 1553 ; died in 1616. 
 
 Arezzo, d', (Guittone, gwet-to'ni,) a poet who is 
 called one of the founders of Italian poetry, and of 
 whose life little is known. He wrote thirty-eight son- ' 
 nets, several canzoni, and a number of letters in prose. 
 His sonnets are remarkable for regularity in rhythm and 
 rhyme. Petrarch ranked him with Dante and Cino da 
 Pistoja. Died in 1294. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie." 
 
 Arezzo, d', (Guy.) See Guy. 
 
 Arezzo, d', (Scipione Burali-boo-ra'Iee,) an Italian 
 cardinal, born near Gaeta in 151 1. He employed his 
 great influence with success against the introduction of 
 the Inquisition into Italy. Died about 1577. 
 
 Arfe, de, diaR'fi, written also Arphe or Darphe, 
 (Henrique,) a silversmith, born in Germany in the lat- 
 ter part of the fifteenth century, removed to Spain. He j 
 made silver tabernacles, designed with great taste, for 
 the cathedrals of Leon, Cordova, and Toledo. His son 
 Antonio was also a skilful artist and worker in silver. 
 
 Arfe, de, (Jose,) a Spanish sculptor, born at Seville 
 in 1603, made statues of silver for the cathedral of that 
 city. Died in 1666. 
 
 Arfe y Villafane, de, di aR'fi e vel-ya-fa'ni, (Juan,) 
 a son of Antonio, was born at Leon in 1 535. He de- 
 signed the tabernacles of Avila, (1571,) Seville, (1587,) I 
 and Osmas, which are among the most beautiful in Spain, 
 and was employed by Philip II. to adorn the Escurial. 
 He wrote " Assayer of Gold, Silver, and Stones," (" Qui- 1 
 latador de Oro, Plata y Piedras," 1572.) 
 
 See Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Arfian, de, di aR-fe-in', (Antonio,) an excellent 
 Spanish fresco-painter, a pupil of Luis de Vargas, . 
 flourished at Seville about 1550. His son Alonzo was 1 
 also an able painter. 
 
 Argaiz, de, di aR-glth', (Gregorio,) a Spanish monk 
 of the seventeenth centurv, wrote a History of the Span- 
 ish Church, (1667,) derived from spurious documents j 
 fabricated by himself. 
 
 Ar'gall, (Rev. John,) an English scholar, born in 
 London, graduated at Oxford about 1565. He wrote 
 " Introduction to the Art of Logic," (" Introductio ad j 
 Artem Dialecticam," 1605.) Died in 1606. 
 
 Argall, (Richard,) an English poet who wrote in the 
 reign of James I. Among his works is a poem called 
 "The Bride's Ornaments," (1621.) 
 
 Argall, (Samuel,) an English adventurer, born at 
 Bristol in 1572. He was deputy-governor of Virginia; 
 for two years, (1617-19) and was accused of many acts 
 of tyranny and rapacity. Died in 1639. 
 
 Argand, aVgfiV, (Aime, i'mi',) a Swiss chemist, 
 born at Geneva about the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, is known as the inventor of the Argand lamp. The 
 wick of this lamp is in the form of a hollow cylinder, 
 through which a current of air passes. He made the 
 first model of the lamp, in England, in 1782, and added 
 a glass chimney to it. A person named Quinquet de- 
 prived him of the profit of the invention. Died in 1803. 
 
 Argelander, aR'geh-lin'der, (Friedrich Wilhelm 
 August,) an eminent Prussian astronomer, born at Me- 
 mcl in 1799. He was a pupil of Bessel, and afterwaids 
 his assistant in the Observatory of Konigsberg. Ir 
 1823 he became director of the Observatory of Abo, 
 Finland, which was removed to Helsingfors about 1832. 
 He was appointed professor of astronomy at Bonn in 
 1837, and published a good celestial atlas, entitled 
 "Uranometria Nova," (1843.) Continuing the great 
 work of Bessel, he determined the position of 22,000 
 stars, which he made known in his " Observations at the 
 Observatory of Bonn," (1846.) 
 
 For many years he has been employed in observing 
 the variations in the luminosity and apparent magnitude 
 of certain fixed stars. He also demonstrated the theory 
 that the solar system has a progressive motion in abso- 
 lute space. 
 
 Argellati, aR-jSl-li'tee, (Filippo,) a learned and meri- 
 torious Italian writer, born at Bologna in 1685. He 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m£t; not; good; moon- 
 
ARGELLAT1 
 
 '59 
 
 ARGER 
 
 assisted Muratori in the publication of his " Rerum 
 Italic. iruni Scriptores," and edited or republished the 
 works of several Italian authors. He was the author 
 of " Library of Milanese Writers," (" Bibliotheca Scrip- 
 toruin Mcdiolanensium," 2 vols., 1745,) and of a few 
 other works. Died in 1755. 
 
 Argellati, (Francesco,) a son of the preceding, born 
 at Bologna in 1712. He studied law, and took his doc- 
 tor's degree in 1736. In 1740 he became a royal en- 
 gineer. He wrote, besides other works, " Practice at 
 the Venetian Bar," (" Pratica del Foro Veneto," 1737,) 
 and a " History of the Origin of Science and Literature," 
 (1st vol., 1743; the other volumes were never finished.) 
 Died in 1754. 
 
 Argeus, d', diR'zhoN', (Jean Baptiste de Boyer — 
 deh bwa'yi',) Marquis, a French litterateur, born at Aix, 
 in Provence, in 1704. He served in the army until a fall 
 from his horse, after the siege of Philipsburg, disabled 
 him. Having written his famous "Jewish Letters" 
 (" Lettres Juives," 6 vols., 1738-42) and. "Chinese Let- 
 ters," (6 vols., 1739-42,) he obtained the patronage of 
 Frederick the Great, who appointed him chamberlain 
 and director of belles-lettres in the Academy. D'Argens 
 was one of the intimate associates of that king. He 
 was also the author of " The Philosophy of Good Sense," 
 and "Cabalistic Letters." Died at Toulon in 1771. 
 
 Argens evinced great ardour in the pursuit of every 
 kind of knowledge. He took Bayle tor his model ; but 
 he was very far inferior to the author of the "Critical 
 Dictionary ' in wit and intellect as well as in style. 
 
 See Thiebault, "Mes Souvenirs de vingt Ans de Sejour a 
 Berlin;" Cxehard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Argensola, de, da aR-Hen-so'la, (Bartolom6 Leo- 
 nardo,) an excellent Spanish poet, born at Barbastro, 
 in Aragon, about 1565. He was appointed a canon of 
 Saragossa, and coronista or historiographer of Aragon, 
 about 1616. He published a " History of the Conquest 
 of the Moluccas," (1609,) and wrote a number of poems 
 ("Rimas,") which were printed with those of his brother 
 Lupercio. These brothers, whose genius and works were 
 similar, were called "the Horaces of Spain." Died in 163 1. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" Longfellow, 
 * Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Argensola, de, (Lupercio (loo-peVthe-o) Leo- 
 nardo,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Barbas- 
 tro about 1563. At an early age he became secretary to 
 the ex-empress Maria of Austria, at Madrid, and pro- 
 duced three successful tragedies, — " Fills," " Isabela," and 
 " Alejandra." In 1610 he was appointed secretary of state 
 by the Viceroy of Naples. He died at Naples in 1613. 
 His fame rests on his lyric poems. " An understanding 
 at once solid and ingenious," says Bouterwek, "subject 
 to no extravagant illusion, yet full of true poetic feeling, 
 and an imagination more plastic than creative, impart a 
 more perfect Horatian colouring to the odes and sonnets 
 of Lupercio." 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Bouterwek. "History of Ppetry 
 and Eloquence from the Close of the Thirteenth Centuiy ;" Sedano, 
 "Parnasu Kspano] ;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Argenson, d', daVzhdN'sc-N', (Marc Antoink Rene 
 de Faulmy — reh'na' deh po'me',) a son of Rene Louis 
 Voyer, noticed below, was a member of the French 
 Academy. He collected one of the richest libraries 
 ever owned by a private person, and sold it to the Count 
 d'Artois in 1785. It is now the " Bibliotheque de l'Ar- 
 senal." He published "Miscellanies from a Large 
 Library," ("Melanges tires d'une grande Bibliotheque," 
 65 vols.) Died in 1787. 
 
 Argenson, d', (Marc Pierre,) Count, a son of Marc 
 Rene de Voyer, (1652-1721,) noticed l>elow, was born 
 in 1696. He was secretary of war from 1742 to 1757, 
 and was an able administrator. The F)ncyclopedie of 
 D'Alembert and Diderot was dedicated to him as a lib- 
 eral patron of letters. He was a friend of Voltaire, to 
 whom he furnished materials for his " Siecle de Louis 
 XIV." Died in 1764. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Correspondance Generale ;" C. Lebeau, "£loge 
 de M. le Comte d Argenson," 1765. 
 
 Argenson, d', (Marc Rene,) Marquis de Voyer, 
 a French general, born in 1722; died in 1782. 
 
 Argenson, d', (Marc RKNEde Voyer — deh vwa'yi,',) 
 a French magistrate, born of a noble family in 1652. 
 He became president of the council of finance and 
 keeper of the seals in 1718. He was a member of the 
 French Academy. Died in 1721. 
 
 See Fontknhi.le, " filogede M. R. de Voyer d'Argenson," 1721. 
 
 Argenson, d', (Marc Rene de Voyer,) a grandson 
 of Count Marc Pierre, born in 1771. He married the 
 widow of Prince Victor de Broglie. He was prefect of 
 Deux-Nethes from 1809 to 1813, and, as a member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies during the Hundred Days, was 
 joined with La F'ayette in a deputation to the allies to 
 obtain the exclusion of the Bourbons. After the restora- 
 tion he was often elected as a deputy, and voted with the 
 opposition. Died in 1842. 
 
 See "Notice sur la Vie de Voyer d'Argenson," Paris, 1845. 
 
 Argenson, d', (Rene de Voyer,) Count, a diplo- 
 matist employed by Cardinal Richelieu and Mazarin ; 
 died about 1650. 
 
 Argenson, d', (Ren£ Louis Voyer,) Marquis, a 
 son of Marc Rene, (1652-1721,) noticed above, was 
 born in 1696. He was appointed minister of foreign 
 affairs in November, 1 744, and resigned office in January, 
 1747. He was a friend of Voltaire, and author of "Con- 
 siderations on the Government of France," (1764,) which 
 Rousseau commended. Died in 1757. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Correspondance Generale." 
 
 Argenta, aR-jen'ta, (Jacopo,) an Italian painter, born 
 at F'errara, flourished about 1500. 
 
 Argental, d', daVzhfiN'til', (Charles Augustin 
 Feriol — fa're'ol',) Count, a literary Frenchman, born 
 in Paris in 1700, was a nephew of Madame de Tencin, 
 the mother of D'Alembert. He corresponded with Vol- 
 taire, who treated him as a confidential friend. He wrote 
 some short verses, and was suspected of being the author 
 of "Anecdotes of the Court of Edward," which appeared 
 among the works of Madame de Tencin. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Correspondance Generate." 
 
 Argentelle, d', df R'zhoN'tel', (Louis Marc Antoine 
 Robillard — ro'be'yiR',) a French naturalist, born at 
 Pont-1'fiveque in 1777, was skilled in making wax models 
 of plants, fruits, etc. Died in 1828. 
 
 Argenterio, aR-jen-ta're-o, [Lat. Argente'rius ; 
 Fr. Argentier, tR'zhON'te-a',] (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 physician, born at or near Chieri, in Piedmont, in 1513. 
 He was professor of medicine successively at Naples, 
 Pisa, Rome, and Turin. He wrote many medical works, 
 in some of which he attacked the system of Galen and 
 displayed more learning than judgment. Died in 1572. 
 
 Argenti, ak-jen'tee, sometimes written Arienti, 
 (Agostino,) an Italian poet of Ferrara, wrote a pastoral 
 drama, called "The Unfortunate," ("Lo Sfortunato," 
 1568.) Died in 1576. 
 
 Argenti, (Giovanni,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, 
 born at Modena about 1564; died in 1629. 
 
 Argentier. See Argenterio. 
 
 Argento, aR-jeVto, (Gaetano,) an able Italian jurist, 
 born at Cosenza in 1662. He was appointed to a high 
 judicial office in 1709. In 1714 the emperor Charles 
 VI. raised him to the dignity of president of the royal 
 council, and gave him the title of duke. He died in 
 1730, leaving several legal works. 
 
 Argentre, d', diR'zh6N'tRa', (Bertrand,) a learned 
 French jurist, born at Vitre in 1519. He was one of 
 the commissioners appointed for the reformation of the 
 law of Brittany, but opposed the efforts of Dumoulin 
 to introduce general or equal laws and diminish the 
 power of feudal lords over their vassals. He wrote a 
 "History of Bretagne," (1582,) a work of little merit, 
 and several legal treatises. Died in 1590. 
 
 See M. db Kerdanht, "Vie d' Argentre 1 ," 1820. 
 
 Argentre, d', (Charles du Plessis — dli pl&'se',) 
 a French theologian, born near Vitre in 1673. He was 
 appointed Bishop of Tulle in 1725. Among his works 
 are " l^lementa Theologica," (1702,) and "Lexicon Phi- 
 losophicum," (1706.) Died in 1740. 
 
 Argenville. See De/.ai.i.if.r. 
 
 Arger, aVzhaiR' or aVzha', (Pierre,) a Flemish con- 
 spirator, who attempted to assassinate Henry IV. of 
 F'rance. He was detected and executed in 1589. 
 
 «as*;cas s; %hard; gas/;G, H, K, guttural; N, wtti; R, trilled; sass; thas in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JRGHOUN 
 
 1 60 
 
 JRIJDNE 
 
 Arghoun or Arglnm. See Argoon. 
 
 Arghun Kh&n. See Argoon. 
 
 Argillata, de, di aR-j&l-la'ta, or Argellata, de, di 
 aR-jSl-la'ta, (I'ietro,) called also Pietro della Cerlata 
 pe-a'tRo del-la cheR-la'ta, an eminent Italian physician 
 and anatomist, was professor of logic and medicine at 
 Bologna. He made improvements in surgery, on which 
 he wrote a work, "Chirurgia? Libri Sex," (1480.) Died 
 in 1423. 
 
 Argis, d', (Boucher.) See Boucher. 
 
 Argoli, aR-go'lee or aR'go-lee, (Andrea,) an Italian 
 mathematician, born in the kingdom of Naples about 
 1570. He was professor of mathematics at Padua, and 
 published, besides other works, " Ephemerides," extend- 
 ing to 1700. Died in or after 1650. 
 
 Argoli, (Giovanni,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 at Tagliacozzo about 1610. He published, in 1626, a 
 poem called "Endymion," which was successful. He 
 was author of several treatises on classical antiquities, 
 among which was a series of notes on Onuphrius Pan- 
 vinius "On the Games of the Circus" ("De Ludis Cir- 
 censibus") and "On Triumphs," (" De Triumphis,") 
 (1642.) Died about 1660. 
 
 Argonaut*, ar-go-nau'tee, [Gr. 'Apyovavrai; Eng. 
 Ar'gonauts, (i.e. the "sailors of the Argo,")] the he- 
 roes celebrated in the old Greek traditions as the com- 
 panions of Jason in a maritime expedition to Colchis, 
 on the Euxine, for the purpose of obtaining the golden 
 fleece. (See Jason.) They derived their name from 
 the ship Argo, in which they made the voyage. The 
 expedition of the Argonauts forms the subject of an epic 
 poem by Apollonius Rhodius. 
 
 Argonne, d', di"R'gon', (Noel, no'Sl',) a French Car- 
 thusian monk, born in Paris about 1635. He entered a 
 monastery at Rouen about 1668, and changed his name 
 from Noel to Bonaventure. He published a "Treatise 
 on the Right Method of Reading the Fathers," ("Traite 
 de la Lecture des Peres de l'Egli.se," 1668,) which is 
 highly praised by Mabillon and others, and " Melanges 
 of History and Literature," (3 vols., 1699-1701,) under 
 the name of Vigneul-Marville. Died in 1704. 
 
 Argoon, Argoun, or Argun, ar'goon', written also 
 Arghoun or Arghiin, a son of Abaka Khan, succeeded 
 his father as sovereign of Persia (or rather of Central 
 and Western Asia) in 1281. Through the influence of 
 his minister, Saad-ud-Dowlah, the Christians residing 
 in the dominions of Argoon were protected and treated 
 with great favour. And while the pope (Nicholas IV.) 
 was sending deputations to express his gratitude to Ar- 
 goon, the " true believers," if we may trust the statement 
 of some of the Moslem historians, "trembled lest the 
 sacred temple of Mecca should be converted into a 
 cathedral." Argoon Khan died in 1291. 
 
 See Malcolm, " History of Persia," vol. i. chap, x.; Price, " Ma- 
 liomedan History." 
 
 Argote, de, da aR-go'ta, (Jeronimo Contador — 
 kon-ta-d6k',) a Portuguese writer and monk, born at Col- 
 lares in 1676. Among his principal works are a " History 
 of the Archbishopric of Braga," ("Memorias para a 
 Historia ecclesiastica de Braga," 3 vols., 1732-44,) and 
 " Rules of the Portuguese Language, the Mirror of the 
 Latin Language," (" Regras da Lingua Portugucza, Es- 
 pelho da Lingua Latina," etc., 1721.) Died in 1749. 
 
 Argote de Molina, aR-go'ta da mo-lee'na, (Gon- 
 zai.vo or Goncalo,) a Spanish writer on history and 
 genealogy, born at Seville in 1549. He wrote, besides 
 other works, "Nobility of Andalusia," ("Nobleza del 
 Andaluzia," 15S8.) Died about 1590. 
 
 Argou, tR'goo', (Gabriel)) a French lawyer, born in 
 the Vivarais. He gained distinction by his work called 
 " Institutes of French Law," (" Institution au Droit fran- 
 cais," 1692,) often reprinted. Died about 1705. 
 
 Argoun. See Argoon. 
 
 Argout, d', daVgoo', (Antoine Maurice Apolli- 
 NAIRE,) Count, a French financier, born in Isere in 
 1782. He became auditor to the Council of State in 
 1810, and a peer of France in 1819. In July, 1830, he 
 acted as mediator between Charles X. and the popular 
 leaders, and obtained concessions from the former when 
 it was too late. He was appointed minister of the ma- 
 rine in November, 1830, minister of commerce in 1831, 
 
 i, i, T, o, u, y, lon> 
 
 minister of the interior in 1833, governor of the Bank ot 
 Fiance in 1834, and minister of finances in 1836. Be- 
 fore the end of that year he exchanged that office for 
 the post of governor of the Bank, which he continued to 
 hold under the republic of 1848. About 1852 he was 
 appointed president of the section of finances, by Louis 
 Napoleon. Died in 1858. 
 
 Argiielles, aR-gwel'yfe, (Augustin,) a Spanish min- 
 ister of state, born in the Asturias in 1775. He was a 
 member of the committee which formed the liberal con- 
 stitution of 1812, and rendered himself popular by his 
 talents and liberal principles. He was proscribed in 1814 
 and sentenced to an exile of ten years. He was minis- 
 ter of the interior for about one year, in 1820. In 1841 
 he was appointed tutor to the young queen Isabel. Died 
 in 1844. 
 
 See Labrador y Ortiz, " Biografia de A. Argiielles," Madrid, 
 1844 ; Kvaristo San Miguel, " Vida de D. A. Argiielles," 1850. 
 
 Arguelles, (Jose de Canga.) See Canga. 
 
 Argues. See Desargues. 
 
 Arguijo, de, di aR-gee'110, Arguiso, de, da aR-ge<_'- 
 so, or Arguizo, de, di aR-gee'tho, (Juan,) a Spanish 
 poet of high reputation, born at Seville in the latter 
 part of the sixteenth century, was a man of fortune. He 
 was eulogized by Lope de Vega and other poets who 
 had enjoyed his bounty. He wrote sonnets and other 
 short poems, the style of which is elegant and natural. 
 Died about 1625. 
 
 See Varflora, "Hijosde Sevilla." 
 
 Argun. See Argoon. 
 
 Ar'gus, [Gr. "Apvoc,|a fabulous personage, whom the 
 Greek poets imagined to have one hundred eyes, some 
 of which were always awake. Having been employed 
 by Juno as guardian of a cow into which Io was trans- 
 formed, he was killed by Hermes. Tradition adds that 
 Juno transferred his eyes to the tail of a peacock. 
 
 Argus, a mythical king of Argos, supposed to b» a 
 son of Jupiter and Niobe, and the successor of Apis. 
 
 Argyle or Argyll, Dukes, Marquises, and Earls 
 of. See Campbell. 
 
 Argyll, ar-gll', or Argyle, (George Douglas Camp- 
 bell,) Duke OK, a British statesman and author, born 
 in 1823. He was styled Marquis of Lorn before the 
 death of his father, which occurred in 1847. He pub- 
 lished, in 1848, " Presbytery Examined." In the Ho»<se 
 of Lords he has acted with the Liberal party. He was 
 appointed lord privy seal in 1852, and postmaster-gen- 
 eral in 1855; he again became lord privy seal in the 
 cabinet of Palmerston in 1859. In 1855 he was eletted 
 president of the British Association assembled at Glas- 
 gow. He is distinguished as a parliamentary debater 
 and popular lecturer. He resigned office about July, 
 1866, and was appointed secretary for India in Decem- 
 ber, 1868, in the new cabinet formed by Mr. Gladstone. 
 He published, towards the close of 1866, a philosopt ical 
 work, entitled "The Reign of Law," which has attracted 
 much attention. 
 
 Argyrammos, ar-ge-ram'mos, (Alexander,) a pub- 
 lic-spirited Greek patriot, who about 1810 established 
 a printing-office in order to publish a large Greek lexi- 
 con, called Kt'jwruc. 
 
 Ar-gy-rop'y-lus, Ar-gy-rop'u-lus, or Ar-gjf-rop'- 
 u-lo, (Joannes,) a learned Greek professor, born at 
 Constantinople, emigrated to Italy between 1434 and 
 1442. He taught Greek at Florence about fifteen years, 
 ending in 1471, after which he was professor of Greek 
 at Rome. He was a man of superior talents. His chief 
 works are Latin translations from Aristotle. He is sup- 
 posed to have died about 1490. 
 
 Ar'gjf-rus, [Gr. "Apyupoc; Fr. Argyre, SR'zVeR',] 
 (Isaac,) a Greek monk and astronomer, born a' Con- 
 stantinople about 1322. He wrote, besides other astro- 
 nomical works, " Paschal Canon," (" Kanon Pasch; lios.") 
 
 Ari, a're, or Ara, a'rl, Hin Prodi ( — fro'de,) a his- 
 torian of Iceland, was born in that island about 1068. 
 He wrote the first part of ". Landnamabok," a " History 
 of the Settlement of Iceland," which was continued by 
 other writers, and is extant. Died in 1148. 
 
 A-rl-ad'ne, [Gr. 'AptuSpj/j Fr. Ariane, i're'an',] a 
 daughter of Minos, King of Crete, was beloved by 
 Theseus. It is said that she gave Theseus a clew of 
 
 ; i, t, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, f, short; a, e, i, Q, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
ARIADNE 
 
 161 
 
 ARION 
 
 thread which enabled him to find his way through the 
 mazes of the Cretan labyrinth. (See Theseus.) 
 
 Ariadne, a daughter of Leo I., Emperor of the East, 
 was married to Zeno, who ascended the throne in 474 
 A.D. According to some authors, she caused him to be 
 buried alive while he was in a fit of epilepsy or apo- 
 plexy; but this statement is extremely improbable. After 
 the death of Zeno, (491,) she became the wife of his suc- 
 cessor, Anastasius I. Died in 515 a.d. 
 
 Ariaeus, a-rl-ee'us, or Aridseus, ar-e-dee'us, [Gr. 
 'A(j«uoc or 'Apukuor,] a general who fought for Cyrus the 
 younger, of Persia, at Cunaxa,.40i B.C. 
 
 A-rl-al'dus, an archdeacon of the Church of Milan, 
 •rhose zeal against simony and the marriage of the clergy 
 produced violent tumults and a schism in the church 
 about 1056. He was resisted by the majority of the 
 Milanese clergy, (who were opposed to celibacy,) and 
 \v.i> supported by the pope, and by the mob, who, under 
 his direction, plundered and pulled down the houses of 
 the priests. In 1066 the Archbishop of Milan, who had 
 been excommunicated by the pope, laid an interdict on 
 the diocese of Milan, to continue so long as Arialdus 
 remained in it. Arialdus was killed in the same year 
 by some partisans of the clergy. 
 
 See Bakonius, "Annales;" Muratori, "Annali d'ltalia." 
 
 Ariane._ See Ariadne. 
 
 A-rl-a-ra'thes [Gr. 'ApiapudK] L, King of Cappado- 
 cia, born about 400 B.C., succeeded his father Ariamnes. 
 In the partition that followed the death of Alexander the 
 Great, Cappadocia was allotted to Eumenes, and Perdic- 
 cas sent an army to occupy it. Ariarathes was defeated 
 in battle and put to death in 322 B.C. 
 
 Ariarathes II., a nephew of Ariarathes I. After the 
 death of Eumenes, 315 B.C., he received aid from the 
 King of Armenia, expelled the Macedonians, and recov- 
 ered the throne of Cappadocia, which he left to his son 
 Ariamnes II. 
 
 Ariarathes III., a son of Ariamnes II., reigned more 
 than twenty years, and died about 220 B.C. 
 
 Ariarathes IV., a son of the preceding, was a child 
 when his father died. He married a daughter of Anti- 
 ochus the Great, and was an ally of that king in his war 
 against the Romans about 190 B.C. Died about 164 B.C. 
 
 Ariarathes V., also called Mithridates, succeeded 
 hi.- father Ariarathes IV. He formed an alliance with 
 the Romans. In 158 B.C. he was driven from the throne 
 by Holofernes, a pretender, but was restored by the 
 Romans. While fighting for the Romans against Aris- 
 toni'cus of Pergamus, he was killed in battle in 130 B.C. 
 He left a minor son, Ariarathes VI., who was assassin- 
 ated by order of Mithridates, King of Pontus, in 96 B.C. 
 
 Ariarathes VII., a son of Ariarathes VI., was placed 
 on the throne by Mithridates, by whom he was assas- 
 sinated after a short reign. A son of Mithridates ob- 
 tained the throne ; but the people revolted, and crowned 
 Ariarathes VIII., who was a brother of Ariarathes VII. 
 He reigned but a short time. 
 
 Ariarathes IX. of Cappadocia began to reign about 
 42 B.C. He was deposed by Mark Antony in 36 B.C. 
 
 Arias, A're-as, (Fernandez Antonio,) a Spanish 
 painter of the seventeenth century, born at Madrid. 
 He excelled in colour and chiaroscuro, and was patron- 
 ized by the Duke of Olivarez. Died about 1684. 
 
 See Bermudez, " Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Arias, (Francisco,) a Spanish writer of devotional 
 works, born at Seville in 1533 ; died in 1605. 
 
 Arias, i're-as, (Francisco Gabino — ga-bee'no,) a 
 South American officer and traveller, who explored the 
 wild or desert region called the "Gran Chaco," and the 
 valley of the Vermejo, about 1780. Died about 1808. 
 
 A'rI-as Mon-ta'nus, (Benfdictus,) [Sp. Benito 
 Arias Montano — a're-as mon-ta'no,] an eminent 
 Spanish linguist and biblical scholar, was born at Frexe- 
 nal, in Estremadura, in 1527. He distinguished him- 
 self at the Council of Trent in 1562, and about 1568 was 
 selected by Philip II. to edit a polyglot Bible, wl ich was 
 published at Antwerp in 1572 and is a beautiful and 
 celebrated edition. Arias Montanus was accused of 
 heresy, and of corrupting the text of Scripture, by 1-con 
 de Castro, a professor of Salamanca, but was not con- 
 victed. He was an adversary of the Jesuits. His mud 
 
 esty and sincere piety are attested by various writers. 
 He wrote a number of works, among which is one en- 
 titled " Jewish Antiquities," (1593.) Died at Seville in 
 
 •598- 
 
 See Rosenmuli.er, " Handbuch fur die Litteratur der Biblischen 
 Kritik;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" Loumyer, 
 "Vie de B. A. Montano," 1842. 
 
 Arl-bert [Fr. pron. S're'baiR'] L, King of the Lon- 
 gobards or Lombards, was a native of Bavaria. He was 
 elected king in 653 A.I). He favoured the Catholic party, 
 and proscribed Arianism. Died in 661 A.D. 
 
 Aribert II., King of the Lombards, a descendant of 
 Aribert 1., began to reign in 701 A.D. He was defeated 
 in battle by Ansprand in 712, and died, or was killed, 
 soon after that event. 
 
 Arici, a-ree'ehee, (Cesare,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Brescia in 1782. He studied law, and was a judge under 
 the regime of Napoleon. In 1824 he became professor 
 of Latin at Brescia. His principal work is " La Pasto- 
 rizia," (1814,) a didactic poem on the breeding of sheep 
 which is praised by competent judges. Diea in 1630. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Aridaeus. See Arkuid/EUS. 
 
 Arienti. See Akgentt. 
 
 Arieuti, degli, dil'yee a-re-eVtee, (Cecco, chek'ko,) 
 an Italian physician, born about 1418; died in 1508. 
 
 Arier. See Arya. 
 
 Arif-al-Harwee- (or Al-Harwi-) Moulana, (Mau- 
 lana,) a'rif al-har'wee' mow-la'nii, a Persian poet, who 
 lived in the first half of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Ar-I-gi'sus [Fr. Arioise, S're'zhez'] I., Duke of 
 Beneventum, reigned from 591 to 641 A.D. 
 
 Arigisus II., Duke or Prince of Beneventum, began 
 to reign in 758 A.D. He contended for thirteen years 
 against Charlemagne, to whom he at last became tribu- 
 tary. Died in 787. 
 
 Ar-ig-no'te [Gr. ' Apiyvun/] of Samos, a daughter or 
 pupil of Pythagoras. According to Suidas, she wrote on 
 the Mysteries of Ceres and Bacchus. 
 
 Ari'goni, a-re-go'nee, (Giovanni Giacomo,) an Italian 
 musical composer, lived in the seventeenth century. 
 
 Arigoni or Arrigorii, ar-re-go'nee, (Onorio,) an 
 Italian numismatist, born at Venice in 1668. He had a 
 rich collection of medals, of which he published a de- 
 scription, (1 741.) 
 
 Arimanes or Arimanius. See Ormuzd. 
 
 Arimino, de, da a-ree'me-no, (Gregoiuus or Gre- 
 gorio da Rimini — daree'me-nee,) an Italian scholastic 
 philosopher and Augustin monk, born at Rimini. He 
 was remarkable for the subtlety of his intellect as well 
 as for his learning. Died in 1358. 
 
 Aringhi, a-ren'gee, (Paolo,) an Italian priest and 
 antiquary, born in Rome. He published a treatise on 
 the Catacombs of Rome, (" Roma Subterranea Novis- 
 sima," 1651.) Died in 1676. 
 
 Arioaid, a're-o-ald', was elected King of Lombardy 
 in 625 a.d. He was an Arian, and married Gundaberga. 
 Died about 636 A.D. 
 
 A-rl-o-bar-za'nes [Gr. 'AptofSapQ'iviK ; Fr. Ariobar- 
 zane, S're'o'bfR'zSn'] I, King of Cappadocia, began to 
 reign about 93 B.C. He was several times driven out 
 by Mithridates and restored by the Romans. 
 
 Ariobarzanes II. was a son of the preceding, whom 
 he succeeded about 63 B.C. 
 
 Ariobarzanes III., a son of the preceding, began to 
 reign about 50 B.C. He aided Pompey against Ca;sar in 
 the civil war, but was pardoned by the latter. He was 
 put to death by Cassius in 42 B.C. 
 
 Ariobarzanes, the name of three kings of Pontus, 
 descended from one of the seven Persian chiefs who 
 killed Smerdis the Magian in 521 B.C. 
 
 Ariobarzanes I. reigned in the fifth century B.C., 
 and was the father of Mithridates I. 
 
 Ariobarzanes II. was a son of Mithridates I., whom 
 he succeeded in 363 B.C. ; died in 33*7 B.C. 
 
 Ariobarzanes III., a son of Mithridates III., began 
 to reign about 266 B.C. ; died about 240. 
 
 A-ri'on, ['Apiuv,] an ancient Greek poet and musician, 
 who is supposed to have lived about 700 B.C. Herodotus 
 has preserved the following curious fable respecting him. 
 During a voyage at sea, the crew of the ship in which he 
 sailed resolved to kill him for his money, and ordered 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, mual; R, trilU,t; s as z; th as in this. (J®=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 II 
 
ARIOSTE 
 
 162 
 
 JRISTJENETUS 
 
 him to jump overboard. Arion, having obtained permis- 
 sion to sing one song to his cithara, threw himself into 
 the sea, and was received on the back of a dolphin, which 
 carried him safely to land. (See Herodotus, book i.) 
 See also Muller, " HistoiredelaLitterature de 1'ancienneGrece." 
 
 Arioate. See Ariosto, (Lodovico.) 
 
 Ari03ti, a-re-os'tee, (Attilio,) an Italian dramatic 
 composer, born at Bologna about 1660. At the invita- 
 tion of the Royal Academy of Music, he went to London 
 in 1720, and became a rival of Handel. He produced 
 in London several operas, which were performed with 
 success, and among which " Coriolano" was the most 
 popular. Having ceased to enjoy the public favour, he 
 left England about 1730. 
 
 See Burney, "History of Music." 
 
 Ariosto, a-re-os'to, (Alessandro,) an Italian monk, 
 born at Bologna, was sent about 1476 on a mission to 
 the Maronites of Lebanon. He wrote a " Description of 
 Palestine." 
 
 Ariosto, (Francesco,) a great-uncle of the famous 
 poet, was professor of philosophy and civil law at Fer- 
 rara. He wrote a treatise on a spring of petroleum at 
 Mont Gibbio, (1690.) Died in 1492. 
 
 Ariosto, (Gabrisxlo,) a brother of the great poet 
 Ariosto, had also some talent for poetry. He was a 
 cripple from infancy. His poetry is praised by Lilio 
 Giraldi. After his death a volume of his Latin poems 
 was published in 1582. 
 
 Ariosto, [Lat. Arios'tus ; Fr. Arioste, i're'ost',] 
 (Lodovico or Ludovico,) an eminent Italian poet, born 
 at Reggio, near Modena, September 8, 1474. In his boy- 
 hood he dramatized the story of Pyramus and Thisbe. 
 After he left the College of Ferrara he studied law for 
 several years, in compliance with the will of his father ; 
 but his strong love of poetry impelled him to renounce 
 that profession. By his early lyric poems, remarkable 
 for elegance and facility, he attracted the notice of Car- 
 dinal Ippolito d'Este, whose service he entered in 1503. 
 He was employed by the cardinal and his brother Al- 
 fonso, Duke of Ferrara, in missions to several Italian 
 courts. About 1505 he began to compose his celebrated 
 romantic and fantastic poem, "Orlando Furioso," the 
 subject of which are the fabulous and chivalrous adven- 
 tures of the paladins of the age of Charlemagne. It was 
 published in 1516. It is stated that Cardinal Ippolito, 
 when a copy of this poem was presented to him by 
 Ariosto, exclaimed, " Master Ludovico, where the devil 
 did you pick up so many absurdities ?" 
 
 The "Orlando Furioso" has been translated into 
 nearly all the languages of Europe. The best English 
 translations are those of Harrington and Rose. "No 
 poet has equalled him," says Ginguene, " in this kind 
 of epopee, where the imagination has another race to 
 run than in the purely heroic poem. No one has blended 
 with such skill the serious with the amusing, the grace- 
 ful with the terrible, the sublime with the familiar." 
 
 Ariosto offended Cardinal Ippolito in 1517 by his re- 
 fusal to accompany him to Hungary, although he pleaded 
 ill health as his excuse ; and about the end of that year 
 he entered the service of Duke Alfonso. In 1522 he 
 was appointed commissary or governor of the district 
 of Garfagnana, which was infested by brigands and in- 
 habited by rude and lawless people. He acquitted him- 
 self well in this office, which he resigned in 1524. He 
 married, late in life, a widow named Alessandra Be- 
 nucci, but the marriage was kept a secret until his death, 
 probably because he held some small ecclesiastical bene- 
 fices. About 1526 he built for himself in Ferrara a com- 
 modious but not very costly house, which is now, or 
 was recently, standing. He published in 1532 a new 
 and improved edition of his great poem. He died at 
 Ferrara on the 6th of June, 1533, leaving two natural 
 sons, Giovanni Battista and Virginio. 
 
 Among his works' are seven satires, which are com- 
 posed in the Horatian manner and are remarkable for 
 urbanity, and five comedies in verse, entitled " La Cas- 
 saria," "I Suppositi," "II Negromante," ("The Ma- 
 gician,") "La Lena," and "La Scolastica," which were 
 performed at Ferrara a few years before his death. He 
 also wrote Italian elegies, sonnets, canzoni, etc., and a 
 number of Latin poems, which were printed in 1553. 
 
 "Ariosto," says Hallam, "has been* after Homer, the 
 favourite poet of Europe. His grace and facility, his 
 clear and rapid stream of language, his variety and 
 beauty of invention, his very transitions of subject, so 
 frequently censured by critics, but artfully devised to 
 spare the tediousness that hangs on a protracfed story, 
 left him no rival in general popularity. Above sixty 
 editions of the 'Orlando Furioso' were published in the 
 sixteenth century. . . . Corniani observes of the style 
 of Ariosto, . . . that he is sparing in the use of meta- 
 phors, contenting himself generally with the plainest 
 expressions; by which, if he loses something in dignity, 
 he gains in perspicuity. . . . Doubtless this transpa- 
 rency of phrase, so eminent in Ariosto, is the cause that 
 he is read and delighted in by the multitude as well as 
 by the few. . . . His similes are conspicuous for their 
 elaborate beauty : imitated, as they usually are, from the 
 ancients, they maintain an equal strife with their models, 
 and occasionally surpass them. . . . The ' Orlando Fu- 
 rioso,' as a great single poem, has been very rarely sur- 
 passed in the living records of poetry. He must yield to 
 three, and only three, of his predecessors. He has not 
 the force, simplicity, and truth to nature of Homer, the 
 exquisite style and sustained majesty of Virgil, nor the 
 originality and boldness of Dante." (" Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Garofalo, "Vita di Ariosto;" Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori 
 d'ltalia:" Baruffauji Gutniore. " La Vita di Lodovico Ariosto," 
 1^07: Fabroni, " Elogj di Dante, di Poliziano, di Ariosto e di Tasso," 
 1800; Harrington, "Life of Ariosto." 1634; Pigna, "I Ro- 
 nianzi," 1554; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Cor- 
 niani, "I Secoli della Letteratura Italiana;" Barotti, "Vitadi L. 
 Ariosto," 4 vols., 1766 ; Carl L. Fernow, " Lebenslauf L. Ariosto's 
 des Gbttlichen," 1S09. 
 
 Ariosto, (Orazio,) a son of Gabriello, noticed above, 
 was born at Ferrara in 1555, and became a canon of the 
 cathedral of that city. He was a friend of Tasso, for 
 whom he wrote in verse the "Arguments" ("Argo- 
 menti") one of which is prefixed to each canto of the 
 "Jerusalem Delivered." He also wrote some comedies, 
 and left unfinished a poem entitled "L'Alfeo." Died 
 in 1593. 
 
 Ariostu3. See Ariosto, (Lodovico.) 
 
 Arioviste. See Ariovistus. 
 
 A-rl-o-vis'tus, [Ger. Ehrenvest, a'ren-v&t, and 
 Akiovist; Fr. Arioviste, S'reVvest',] a German chief 
 of the Suevi,who, after aiding the Sequani in war against 
 the .4Ldui, settled in Gaul and subjected both of those 
 tribes to his dominion. During the consulship of Julius 
 Caesar he obtained the alliance of the-Romans, who re- 
 cognized him as a king. In 58 B.C. he was defeated in 
 a great battle by Caesar, whom the Gauls had solicited to 
 liberate them. Ariovistus escaped across the Rhine in 
 a boat. 
 
 See P. L. Haus, "J. Caisars Krieg mit dem Germanier-K6nig 
 Ariovist," 1790; Cesar, "De Bello G.iilico." 
 
 Ar'I-phron, ['Api^puv,] a Greek poet of Sicyon, who 
 is supposed to have lived about 550 B.C. He composed 
 a beautiful ode or paean to Health, (Yyieia,) which has 
 been preserved by Athenaeus. 
 
 Arisi, a-ree'see, (Francesco,) an Italian litterateur 
 and eminent lawyer, born at Cremona in 1657. He pub- 
 lished many works in prose and verse, among which 
 were " Lyrical Poems," (" Poesie liriche," 1680,) and 
 "Cremona Litterata," (3 vols., 1702-41.) Died in 1743. 
 
 Arista, a-res'ta, (Mariano,) a Mexican general, born 
 about 1800. He served as an officer in various civil 
 wars, became general of brigade about 1833, and general 
 of division in 1841. He was defeated by the United 
 States army, under General Taylor, at Palo Alto, May 8, 
 1846. In 1848 he was appointed minister of war, and 
 in 1850 was elected President of Mexico. Santa Anna 
 having headed a successful insurrection, Arista was 
 banished in the early part of 1853. He died in Spain 
 in 1S55. 
 
 Aristaenetus, ar-is-ten'e-tus, [Gr. ' KpwTaiveToc ; Fr. 
 Aristenete, J'rts'ta'nit',1 a Greek rhetorician of Nicaea, 
 in Bithynia, was a friend of Libanius. He was appointed 
 governor of a district of Bithynia by the emperor Con- 
 stantius, and was killed by an earthquake at Nicomedia 
 in 358 A.D. There are extant about fifty fictitious erotic 
 letters, of little merit, under the name of Aristaenetus ; 
 
 5, e, 7, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fax, fill, fit; m8t; ndt; good; moop 
 
ARIST.ENUS 
 
 '63 
 
 AR 1ST IDES 
 
 but many critics think that the author of these is a differ- 
 ent person from the friend of Libanius. 
 
 See Schoell, " Histoire de la Litterature Grecque." 
 
 Aristaenus, ar-is-tee'nus, [Gr. 'kp'iaraivoq; Fr. Aris- 
 tene, i'les't^n',] of Megalopolis, was chosen general 
 (strate'gos) of the Achseans in 19S B.C., and persuaded 
 them to form an alliance with the Romans, rather than 
 with Philip of Macedon. He was a political opponent 
 of Philopcemen. He was re-elected strategos in 195 and 
 186 B.C. 
 
 Aristaeon, ar-is-tee'on, a Greek philosopher, of whom 
 little is known. He wrote a work on Harmony, a frag- 
 ment of which is preserved by Stobaeus. 
 
 Aristaeus, Ar-is-tee'us, [Gr. 'kpuyrwoc; Fr. Aristee, 
 i'res'ti',] a personage in the Greek mythology, supposed 
 to have been the son of Apollo and Cyrene. He was 
 worshipped as the god who presided over flocks and 
 herds and who taught men the art of managing bees. 
 
 See Virgil's "Georgics," book iv. 
 
 Aristaeus, an ancient Greek geometer, the reputed 
 author of two works, one of which was entitled Kuvuut, 
 ("Conies.") Euclid appears to have made use of these 
 works, which are not extant. This geometer is by some 
 writers identified with Aristaeus or Aristaeon of Croton, 
 a philosopher whom Iamblichus calls the successor of 
 Pythagoras. 
 
 Aristaeus or A-ris'te-as, a Greek sculptor, who 
 probably lived about 130 a.d. Among his works are 
 > two statues of centaurs, found at Tivoli in 1746. 
 
 Ar-is-tag'o-ras, [Gr. 'kpixnaydpag,] tyrant of Miletus, 
 revolted against the King of Persia about 500 B.C., and 
 made an alliance with the Athenians, who furnished him 
 twenty ships. The allies took Sardis and burned it, 
 but were defeated by the Persians. Aristagoras fled to 
 Thrace, where he was killed about 498 B.C. 
 
 Aristagoras, a Greek geographer, lived about 350 
 B.C., and wrote on the cities and antiquities of Egypt. 
 
 Ar-is-tan'der of Paros, a Greek sculptor, lived about 
 400 B.C. 
 
 Aristander, [Gr ■.' ' kpiaraviSpo^ ; Fr. Aristandre, i'res'- 
 tfiNdK',] a Greek soothsayer, was a skilful interpreter 
 of dreams, and was often consulted by Alexander the 
 Great, whom he accompanied in his expedition to Persia. 
 
 Ar-is-tar'ehus [Gr. 'kpioTapxoc; Fr. Aristarque, 
 rits'tibtk',] a Greek astronomer of Samos, flourished 
 probably about 260 B.C. Nothing is known of his life. 
 He is mentioned in the "Arenarius " of Archimedes, who 
 says, "Aristarchus of Samos supposes that the stars and 
 sun are immovable, and that the earth revolves around the 
 
 Aristarchus of Athens, a violent opponent of the 
 democracy, was one of the chiefs of the government in 
 41 1 B.C. He was executed for treason about 406. 
 
 Aristarchus of Tegea, a Greek tragic poet, who 
 lived about 450 B.C. He composed sixty tragedies, which 
 are all lost. One of them, entitled "Achilles," is said 
 to have been translated into Latin by Ennius. 
 
 Aristarchus, a disciple and companion of the Apos- 
 tle Paul, was a native of Thessalonica. (See Acts xx. 4 ; 
 Colossians iv. 10.) 
 
 Aristarque. See Aristarchus. 
 
 Aristeas. See Aristveus and Aristeus. 
 
 A-ris'te-as, ['Apioreac,] a Greek poet, who is supposed 
 to have lived six centuries or more B.C. According to 
 some writers, he was a contemporary of Homer. He 
 wrote an epic poem entitled "The Arimaspea," (Tu 
 ' kpijiuaiveta,) six verses of which are preserved by Lon- 
 ginus. 
 
 Aristeas, the supposed author of a Greek letter 
 entitled " The History of the Seventy Interpreters," 
 which is extant and gives an account of the translation 
 of the Pentateuch, or Old Testament, under the auspices 
 of Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt. Josephus calls 
 him a friend of that king, and quotes his letter. It is 
 now the prevalent opinion that this letter is a forgery. 
 The name is written Aristaeus by Josephus. 
 
 Aristee. See Aristveus and Aristeus. 
 
 Aristeides. See Aristides. 
 
 Aristene. See Aristcenus. 
 
 Aristenete. See Aristcenetus. 
 
 A-ris'teus (or a-ris'te-us) or A-ris'te-as, [Gr. 
 'Apwrevc or 'AptoTEac; Fr. Aristee, i'res'ta',] a Corin- 
 thian general, commanded the troops which were sent 
 by Corinth to aid Potidaea against the Athenians in 432 
 B.C. In 430 he was associated with some Spartans in 
 an embassy to the King of Persia, but on his way to 
 that country fell into the power of the Athenians, who 
 put him to death. 
 
 See Thirlwall's " History of Greece." 
 
 Aristide. See Aristides. 
 
 Ar-is-ti'des or Aristei'des, [Gr. 'kptoTeifiri; ; Fr. 
 Aristide, i'res'ted',] surnamed the Just, an Athenian 
 statesman and general of great eminence and merit, the 
 son of Lysimachus, was born in Alopeke, a demos of 
 Attica. He belonged to the aristocratic party, and be- 
 came a political rival of Themistocles. When Greece 
 was invaded by the Persians, in 490 B.C., he was one of 
 the ten generals who commanded alternately each for 
 one day. According to Plutarch, Aristides resigned his 
 
 sun in the circumference of a circle." The only extant ! ' Urn ° t f ! com , ma " d t0 M . lltlade , s > and thus procured for the 
 work of Aristarchus is a treatise " On the Magnitudes I ft" 1 * ' he advanta .S e ° f a * kl] ™ WW* ■* the battle of 
 and Distances of the Sun and Moon," in whichTe gave f Marathon ;. » avm « been se ' ec ' ed ° guard the spoils 
 an ingenious method of measuring the distances from the I l '-"u- h u t f" ^T * Marathon ' he "> a '"ta.ned 
 ^though the result, S he chained were far ; S^^^Sfffc &«£?££& 
 Staff T e e VC a n palsag 1 ptarch IrT whic^ i ^emistoCes and the envy excite J b'y the eminent virtue 
 it is inferred that Aristarchus ^conceived or maintain^ [ «£"£ ffig- K^S^S. S & 
 both the annual motion and the diurnal rotation of the v. - a u • 1 ',,■., 
 
 earth niuiiiai loiauuu ui me ( ms , n fl uence was becoming dangerous to public liberty. 
 
 c *r> ,.t,- • j .. . • . .. I It is related that during the process by which he was 
 
 See Delamrre, "Histoire de 1'Astronomie ancienne;" Fortia I n *trarl,r-A h* wac rnnnnetd lf„ ■, ,„>»», ...k 1 1 
 
 d'Urban. "Histoire d'Aristarque de Samos," .8.0; Ersch und : ostracized, he was requested by a voter, who could not 
 Gruber, " Allxemeine Encyklopaedie." j write, to write Aristides on a shell or tile used as a voting- 
 
 Aristarchus, [Fr. Aristarque,] a celebrated Greek : tab,et - He com P Iied > but first inquired, " Has Aristides 
 grammarian and critic, born in Samothrace, was a pupil , one y ou an "yury? "No," replied the voter, "nor do 
 of Aristophanes of Byzantium. He passed the greater ' e J e J} kn ° w him ; but I am tired of hearing him always 
 part of his life at Alexandria, in Egypt, where he founded called 'Aristides the Just. " 
 
 a school which flourished for a long time. Suidas states I . V n . , the '"vasion of Greece by Xerxes, in 480 B.C., 
 that he lived about 156 B.C., and other writers date his I Aristides was recalled, and recovered his influence. In 
 birth at 160 B.C. He is said to have died in Cyprus at rep Y to Mal donius, who offered to bribe the Athenians 
 the age of seventy-two. He is regarded by some as the , t0 deser * . the cause of the Gl eeks, he declared, " So 
 greatest critic of antiquity. It is generally admitted that lon ? ^ thls sun sha " smne ' the Athenians will wage war 
 his merits as an editor and commentator of Homer are a g a . lns t the Persians for their ravaged country and for 
 greater than those of any other; and the division of the their vlolated temples. He commanded the Athenian 
 Iliad and Odyssey into twenty-four books is attributed : for ^ e of e !j5 ht thousand at the battle of Plataea, 479 B.C., 
 to him. He wrote commentaries on other Greek poets, and contributed greatly to the victory, 
 and several works on grammar, none of which are pre- Aristides and Cimon obtained command of the troops 
 served sntire. A fragment of his treatise " On Analogy " ; whlch Athens contributed in 477 B.C. to an expedition 
 is extant. of t " e al,| es against the Persians. Pausanias of Sparta 
 
 See Sciioell, " Histoire de la Litttoture Grecque :" C. I.. Mat- 2 commander-in-chief of the allies at first, but rendered 
 Timsn-i, •• Disputatio de Aristarcho Grammatico," 1725 ; K. Lehrs, rnmselt unpopular by his haughtiness and severity. Aris- 
 " De Aristarrlu Studiis Homericis," 1833. I tides by prudence and mildness gained the favour of the 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; o, 11, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 3; th as in this. (Jf^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARISTIDES 
 
 104 
 
 ARISTOBULUS 
 
 allies, and transferred to his own state the supremacy 
 or precedence in the Greek confederation. He was ap- 
 pointed to determine the amount which each state should 
 pay towards the expenses of the war, and gave general 
 satisfaction in the performance of this duty. He died 
 about 468 B.C. 
 
 Aristides is considered as one of the most illustrious 
 statesmen and patriots of antiquity, and one of the most 
 virtuous public men of any age or nation. 
 
 See the article "Aristides," in Plutarch's " Lives," where he is 
 compai ;d with Cato the Censor; "Life of Aristides," by Cornelius 
 Nepos ; Grote, "History of Greece," chap, xxxvi. ; Thirlwall, 
 " History of Greece;" Epkema, "Dissertatio de Aristide," 1829. 
 
 Aristides, a Greek statuary, who lived in the latter 
 part of the fifth century B.C., and was a pupil of Poly- 
 cletus of Sicyon. 
 
 Aristides, (/E'lius,) a distinguished sophist and rhe- 
 torician, born at Hadriani, in Bithynia, about 117, or, as 
 some say, in 129 a.d., was a pupil of Polemon and He- 
 rodes Atticus. He became a resident of Smyrna, and 
 after that city had been ruined by an earthquake, in 1 78 
 A.D., he persuaded the emperor Marcus Aurelius to re- 
 build it. He was very vain of his eloquence, and com- 
 pared himself to Demosthenes. His orations, many of 
 which are extant, have little merit except the choice and 
 arrangement of the words. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca:" Philostratus, "Vitse 
 Sophistarnm." 
 
 Aristides of Athens was the author of an apology 
 for the Christians, which was presented or addressed 
 to the emperor Hadrian about 125 a.d., and is not 
 extant. 
 
 Aristides of Miletus, a Greek writer of fiction, lived 
 in the second century B.C. He wrote tales called "Mile- 
 siaca," (Mityouinu.) 
 
 Aristides of Thebes, an eminent Greek painter, a 
 contemporary of Apelles, flourished between 360 and 
 330 B.C. He excelled in expression, and, according to 
 Pliny, was the first painter that expressed the passions 
 and movements of the soul. When Alexander the Great 
 stormed Thebes, he saw and appropriated a picture by 
 Aristides of the sack of a city. He was a brother of the 
 eminent painter Nicomachus. 
 
 A-ris-ti'des Quin-til-I-a'nus, a Greek writer on 
 music, of an uncertain period. He quotes Cicero, and 
 is supposed to have lived in the second century of the 
 Christian era. His treatise " On Music" is extant, and 
 is highly prized. 
 
 A-ris'tX-on, ['Apurriuv,] otherwise called Athe'nion, 
 a Greek philosopher, who persuaded the Athenians to 
 become the allies of Mithridates against the Romans. 
 About the same time he made himself tyrant of Athens, 
 the people of which he cruelly oppressed. He was put 
 to death by Sulla at the capture of Athens in 86 B.C. 
 
 Aristipp or Aristippe. See Aristippus. 
 
 Ar-is-tip'pus, [Gr. 'AjMo-n7nroc; Fr. ARisnrPE, i'res'- 
 tep'; Ger. Aristipp, a-ris-tip',] a celebrated Greek phi- 
 losopher, the founder of the Cyrenaic school, was born 
 at Cyrene, in Africa, about 425 B.C. He was a pupil of 
 Socrates, but differed from him widely in his principles 
 and life. He passed some years at the court of Diony- 
 sius of Syracuse, and travelled extensively. His system 
 of philosophy favoured the free indulgence in sensual 
 pleasure, and he is said to have regarded pleasure as 
 the chief object of life, although he observed modera- 
 tion in the enjoyment of it. He was intimate with the 
 courtesan Lais. His works, if he wrote any, are not 
 extant ; but concurrent traditions enable us to form a 
 probable estimate of his character and opinions. He 
 neglected mathematics and the physical sciences, and 
 avoided public affairs. His versatility, equanimity, and 
 faculty of adapting himself to the varieties of fortune 
 and circumstance are noticed by Horace, who says, 
 felicitously, 
 
 " Omnis Aristippum decuit color et status et res."* 
 
 A number of his sharp sayings and repartees are re- 
 corded by Diogenes Laertius. When King Dionysius 
 remarked that the philosophers seek the favour of the 
 rich, but the rich do not pay court to philosophers, Aris- 
 
 1 All fortune fitted Aristippus well." — Creech. 
 
 tippus said, "That is because the philosophersknow what 
 they need, while the rich do not know." He was living 
 in 366 B.C. After his death his doctrines were propa- 
 gated by his daughter Arete, and by her son Aristippus. 
 Wieland wrote a romance of "Aristippus and his Con- 
 temporaries," ("Aristipp und seine Zeitgenossen," 4 
 vols., 1800-02.) 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Bio- 
 graphical History of Philosophy;" F. Mentz, "Aristippus Philoso- 
 phus Socraticus. sive de ejus Vita," etc., i7iq;_H. Kunhardt, 
 "Dissertatio philosophico-historica de Aristippi Philosophia morali," 
 1795; Sextus Empiricus, "Adversus Mathematicos;" Diogenes 
 Laertius. 
 
 Aristippus the Younger, a Greek philosopher, 
 grandson of the preceding, whose doctrines he pro- 
 fessed. He flourished about 360 B.C. 
 
 Aristippus, tyrant of Argos, was defeated by Aratus 
 and killed about 242 B.C. 
 
 A-ris'to or A-ris'ton, ['Apioruv,] an ancient Greek 
 physician, is supposed to have lived in the fifth century 
 B.C. Some ancient critics ascribed to him the work " On 
 Wholesome Diet," which has often been included among 
 the works of Hippocrates. 
 
 Aristo or Ariston of Alexandria, a Peripatetic phi 
 losopher, lived about 30 B.C. 
 
 Aristo or Ariston, the son of Aristocles, was an 
 Athenian and the father of Plato. 
 
 Aristo or Ariston of Ceos, a Peripatetic philoso 
 pher, succeeded Lycon as head of the Peripatetic schoo' 
 about 230 B.C. His works are lost. According to Cicero, 
 they gave evidence of a refined and elegant myid. 
 
 Aristo or Ariston of Chios, (surnamed the Si'ren, 
 for his persuasive eloquence,) a Stoic philosopher, was 
 a disciple of Zeno, and lived about 275 B.C. He opened 
 a school at Athens, and lectured on ethics, which he 
 considered the only part of philosophy worthy of study. 
 He did not follow strictly the doctrines of Zeno, but 
 taught that the highest good consisted in indifference 
 to everything except virtue and vice. His works, if he 
 wrote any, are not extant. 
 
 See N. Saal, " Commentatio de Aristone Chio," 1852. 
 
 Aristo or Ariston of Cyrene, was the chief of the 
 democratic party in a civil war which occurred at Cyrene 
 about 403 B.C. 
 
 Aristo or Ariston of Pella, the reputed author of 
 a Greek work called a " Dialogue between Papiscus and 
 Jason," which was probably written in the second cen- 
 tury, and is not extant. It was designed to prove that 
 the prophecies concerning Christ apply to Jesus, and 
 was commended by Origen. 
 
 Aristo or Ariston, a king of Sparta, of the Eupon- 
 tid or Proclid line, a son of Agesicles, ascended the 
 throne about 560 B.C., and after a long reign was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Demaratus. 
 
 Aristo or Ariston, a Spartan sculptor, who made 
 a colossal statue of Jupiter, at Olympia, noticed by Pau- 
 sanias. 
 
 Aristo or Ariston, a Greek painter, who lived about 
 330 B.C., was a son of Aristides of Thebes, and was the 
 master of Euphranor. 
 
 Aristo, (Titus,) a Roman jurist of the time of Tra- 
 jan, was a friend of the younger Pliny, who speaks 
 highly of his virtue and learning. 
 
 Aristobule. See Aristobulus. 
 
 A-ris-to-bu'lus, [Gr. 'Apigt6()ov?.oc ; Fr. Aristobule, 
 i'res'to'biil',] a Greek historian who lived about 330 B.C., 
 and wrote a history of the Asiatic expedition of Alexan- 
 der the Great, which he had accompanied. This his- 
 tory, which is not extant, had a high reputation, and was 
 used as a guide by Arrian. Plutarch and Lucian men- 
 tion an Aristobulus of Cassandria, who was probably the 
 same person. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Graecis." 
 
 Aristobulus, a Jew and Peripatetic philosopher, 
 who lived in Egypt in the reign of Ptolemy Philometor 
 and his successor, (1 81-117 B.C.) He wrote a commen- 
 tary on the law of Moses. 
 
 Aristobulus, a son of Herod the Great and Mari- 
 amne, was sent to Rome to be educated. Having been 
 accused of a plot against Herod, he was put to death 
 about 1 B.C. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; mooo; 
 
ARISTOBULUS 
 
 165 
 
 ARISTOPHANES 
 
 Aristobulus the Younger, a grandson of Herod 
 the Great, passed his life in a private station. He died 
 
 alter 44 A.D. 
 
 Aristobulus, a son of Herod, King of Chalcis, was 
 placed on the throne of Armenia by Nero about 55 A.D. 
 
 Aristobulus L, high-priest of the Jews, was a son of 
 Joannes Hyrcanus, at whose death, in 107 B.C., accord- 
 ing to Josephus, he assumed the title of king. He died 
 in 105 B.C., and was succeeded by his brother Alexander 
 Jannaeus. 
 
 Aristobulus IX, a younger son of Alexander Jan- 
 naeus, obtained the throne about 70 B.C., after he had 
 defeated his brother Hyrcanus. In 63 B.C. Ponipey took 
 Jerusalem, placed Hyrcanus on the throne, and carried 
 Aristobulus as a captive to Rome. He escaped in the 
 year 57, renewed the war in Judea, and was retaken. 
 Having been released by Caesar in 49 B.C. and sent home 
 to fight against Pompey, he was poisoned by the parti- 
 sans of the latter. 
 
 Aristobulus, a grandson of the preceding, was a 
 brother of Mariamne, the wife of Herod. He was made 
 high-priest at the age of seventeen, and was put to death 
 by Herod in 35 B.C. 
 
 Aristocle. See Aristocles. 
 
 A-ris'to-cles, [Gr. 'Apwmvc^c ; Fr. Aristocle, i'res'- 
 tok'l',] a sculptor of Cydonia, is supposed to have lived 
 about 500 or 600 B.C. Pausanias says he was among 
 the most ancient sculptors of Greece. 
 
 Aristocles, a Greek physician, lived probably in the 
 first century after Christ. Some of his formulas have 
 been preserved by Galen. 
 
 Aristocles of Messana or Messina, a Greek Peripa- 
 tetic philosopher, lived in the second century after Christ. 
 He wrote on Ethics, etc. 
 
 Aristocles of Pergamus, a rhetorician and Peripa- 
 tetic philosopher, was a disciple of Herodes Atticus. 
 He flourished between 100 and 135 A.D. 
 
 Aristocles of Rhodes, a Greek grammarian, contem- 
 porary with Strabo. 
 
 Aristocles of Sicyon, a Greek sculptor, and a bro- 
 ther of Canachus, lived about 400 B.C. 
 
 Aristocrate. See Aristocrates. 
 
 Ar-is-toc'ra-tes I., King of Arcadia, lived about 
 770 B.C. 
 
 Aristocrates II., a grandson of the preceding, 
 reigned about 660 B.C. He was put to death by his sub- 
 jects as a traitor. 
 
 Aristocrates, [Gr. 'ApcaTOKpurrjc; Fr. Aristocrate, 
 S'res'to'kRit',] an Athenian politician, was a member of 
 the government of Four Hundred formed in 411 B.C., 
 which he aided Theramenes to subvert. He was one of 
 the ten generals chosen in 407, and one of those who 
 commanded at Arginusae in 406 B.C. He was put to 
 death for his conduct at this battle. 
 
 Aristocrates, a Greek physician mentioned by Ga- 
 len, lived probably between 100 B.C. and 100 A.D. 
 
 Aristocrates, a Greek historian, was a native of 
 Sparta, and appears to have lived later than 188 B.C. 
 He wrote a work on the history of Laconia, which is not 
 extant. 
 
 Aristodeme, the French of Aristodemus, which 
 see. 
 
 Ar-is-to-de'mus, [Gr. 'Apmrodr/poe; Fr. Aristodeme, 
 t'res'to'dAm',] a Greek painter of the fourth century 
 B.C., was the father of two more eminent painters, Aris- 
 tides of Thebes and Nicomachus. 
 
 Aristodemus, a tragic actor of Athens, took an 
 active part in politics, as a supporter of the Macedonian 
 party, and was an opponent of Demosthenes. 
 
 Aristodemus, a Greek statuary, lived about 300 B.C., 
 and made a statue of Seleucus, King of Babylon. 
 
 Aristodemus of Caria, a Greek painter, lived about 
 50 A.D. 
 
 Aristodemus, tyrant of Cuma, in Italy, was a con- 
 temporary of Tarquin the Proud, of Rome. He was 
 killed by conspirators about 490 B.C. 
 
 Aristodemus, a general of the first Messenian war, 
 gained several victories, and became King of Messenia 
 about 730 B.C. 
 
 Aristodemus of Miletus, a general of Antigonus, 
 King of Asia, who sent him in 315 B.C. to the Pelopon- 
 
 nesus to oppose Cassander. He took several fortified 
 places. 
 
 Aristodemus of Nysa, a Greek grammarian, a pupil 
 of Aristarchus, lived about 100 B.C. His works are all 
 lost. 
 
 Aristodemus of Nysa, a grammarian, a relation of 
 the preceding, taught at Rome about 80 B.C. The great 
 Pompey was one of his pupils. 
 
 Aristodemus, a Spartan soldier who escaped from 
 the battle of Thermopylae in 480 B.C. and was stigma- 
 tized as a coward. To retrieve his honour he fought 
 with signal bravery at Plataea, where he was killed, 
 479 B.C. 
 
 Ar-is-to-gi'ton or Aristogei'ton, [Gr. 'AptoToye'tTav,] 
 an Athenian, who conspired with Harmodius against 
 Hippias and Hipparchus. See Harmodius. 
 
 Aristogiton, an Athenian orator and demagfcgue, 
 who was surnamed the "Dog," and was a political op- 
 ponent of Demosthenes. His orations are not extant. 
 
 Aristogiton, a Greek statuary, lived about 400 B.C. 
 
 Ar-is-to-la'us, an eminent Greek painter, a son and 
 pupil of Pausias of Sicyon, lived about 300 B.C. His style 
 was remarkable for severity. 
 
 Ar-is-tom'a-ehus, [Gr. 'Apwrbpax 01 :; Fr. Aristo- 
 maque, i'res'to'mtk',] a Greek Peripatetic philosopher, 
 born at Soli, in Cilicia, spent much time in the study of 
 bees. He was a pupil of Lycon. 
 
 Aristomaque. See Aristomachus. 
 
 Ar-is-to-me'des, [Gr.' ApioTOjU^fyc ; Fr. Aristomede, 
 i'res'to'mid',] a sculptor of Thebes, lived in the time 
 of Pindar, who dedicated a statue of Cybele made by 
 this artist. 
 
 Aristomene. See Aristomenes. 
 
 Ar-is-tom'e-nes, [Gr. 'Apwropevris; Fr. Aristomene, 
 i'res'to'm&n',] a Messenian general, famous for his daring 
 exploits, commanded the Messenians in the war against 
 the Lacedaemonians which began in 685 B.C. and ended 
 in 668 B.C., when the Messenians emigrated to Sicily. 
 The memory of Aristomenes was perpetuated by songs 
 and annual sacrifices for many centuries. 
 
 See Jourdan, " Histoired' Aristomene," 1749 ; Norrmann, "Aris- 
 tomenes Messenius vir heroicus," 1690. 
 
 Aristomenes, an Athenian comic poet, lived about 
 420 B.C. His works are not extant. 
 
 Ar-is-to-ni'cus of Alexandria, a grammarian and 
 contemporary of Strabo. His works are not extant. 
 
 Aristonicus ['Apiorov/A-oc] of Marathon, an Athe- 
 nian orator, who co-operated with Demosthenes against 
 the Macedonian party. He was one of the prominent 
 public men whom the Athenians delivered to the vic- 
 torious A ntipater, by whom he was put to death in 322 B.C. 
 
 Ar-is-ton'I-das, a Greek statuary, who, according to 
 Pliny, by a combination of different metals, imitated the 
 complexion of the human face. 
 
 Ar-is-ton'o-us ['ApKrcwooc] or A-ris'to-nus ['Ap«r- 
 tovov(] of ^Egina, a Greek statuary of uncertain epoch. 
 
 Ar-is-ton'y-mus, ['Apiaruivfiof,] an Athenian comic 
 poet, contemporary with Aristophanes. His works are 
 not extant. 
 
 Aristophane. See Aristophanes. 
 
 Ar-is-toph'a-nes, [Gr. 'ApurroAitnic ; Fr Aristo- 
 phank, t'res'to'fin',] the most celebrated comic poet of 
 Greece, was born about 444 B.C., and is generally sup- 
 posed to have been an Athenian by birth. He produced 
 in 427 his first comedy, " The Feasters," which is not ex- 
 tant. His next work was "The Babylonians," (426,) in 
 which he attacked Cleon, a powerful demagogue, who was 
 his personal and political enemy. He also lashed and 
 ridiculed Cleon with great success in "The Knights" or 
 " Demagogues," which gained the prize in 424 B.C. and 
 is esteemed one of his most admirable works. It is said 
 that Aristophane* acted the part of Cleon in this drama, 
 as no other actor was bold enough to personate him. 
 
 Among his master-pieces is "The Clouds,", (423,) a 
 powerful satire against the Sophists, which, however, was 
 not successful in gaining the first prize. In this play he 
 ridiculed and misrepresented Socrates, whom he unjustly 
 confounded with the Sophists. Plato, in his "Apology, 
 identifies Aristophanes with the accusers of Socrates, 
 and with those who excited the popular prejudice against 
 him as a skeptic and a corrupter of the youth. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARISTOPHANES 
 
 166 
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 Aristophanes was the author of about fifty comedies, 
 of which eleven are extant, viz. : " The Acharnians," 
 (425 B.C. ;) "The Knights," (424 ;) "The Clouds," (423 ;) 
 "The Wasps," which gained the first prize; "The 
 Peace," (419 ;) " The Birds," (414 ;) " Lysistrata ;" " Thes- 
 mophoriazusae," (411 ;) "Plutus," (40S;) "The Frogs," 
 (395;) ar| d "The Female Orators," (392 B.C.) He is 
 praised for his wit, comic humour, originality, good 
 sense, and fidelity in the delineation of Athenian man- 
 ners. His style is considered a model of Attic purity. 
 He is one of the interlocutors in the "Banquet" of 
 Plato, who is said to have been a great admirer of his 
 comedies. "The Acharnians," "The Knights," "The 
 Birds," and "The Frogs" have been translated into 
 Fnglish by J. Hookham Frere. He died probably about 
 }io B.C. 
 
 See Thirlwall, "History of Greece," iv. 250; H. T. Rot- 
 scher, "Aristophanes und sein Zeitalter," 1827; H. Pol, "Disser- 
 iatio de Aristophane," 1834; C F. Ranke, "Commentatio de Aris- 
 tophauis Vita," 1845. 
 
 Aristoph'anes of Byzantium, a celebrated gram- 
 marian and critic, called the founder of the Alexandrine 
 school of criticism, flourished between 250 and 200 B.C. 
 He was a pupil of Callimachus and Zenodotus, the mas- 
 ter of the famous Aristarchus, and keeper of the royal 
 library at Alexandria. The invention of the Greek sys- 
 tem of punctuation and accents is attributed to him. 
 Among his works, which are all lost, except small frag- 
 ments, were commentaries on Homer and on other poets. 
 He shares with Aristarchus the honour of establishing 
 the Alexandrine canon of classic writers. 
 
 See Schoell, "Histoire de la LitteYature Grecque." 
 
 A-ris'to-phon [' kpiorotfiuv] of Azenia, an Athenian 
 statesman and orator. In 403 B.C. he procured the 
 passage of a law to confine the right of citizenship to 
 persons whose parents were both free citizens. He ex- 
 erted great influence in the state throughout a career of 
 unusual length. In 355 B.C. he defended the law of 
 Leptines against Demosthenes. 
 
 Aristophon of Colyttus, an influential Athenian 
 statesman, younger than the preceding, was a contem- 
 porary of Demosthenes. 
 
 Aristophon, a Greek comic poet, whose works are 
 lost, except small fragments. 
 
 Aristophon, an eminent painter of Thasos, of the 
 fifth century B.C., was a brother of the great painter 
 Polygnotus. 
 
 Aristote. See Aristotle. 
 
 Aristoteles. See Aristotle. 
 
 .Aristotile, i-res-tot'e-la, [Fr. Aristote, t'res'tot',] 
 called Fioravanti, fe-o-ra-van'tee, an Italian architect, 
 born at Bologna or Venice. By the invitation of the 
 Czar Ivan, he went to Moscow about 1474. He re- 
 paired or rebuilt the Kremlin, and erected the magnifi- 
 cent church of the Assumption, (1479,) and the palace 
 of the Belvedere, (1497,) at Moscow. He wished to 
 return to Italy, but was forcibly detained by the Czar. 
 His family name was Albertl 
 
 See Bayle, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Aristotile or Bastiano da San Gallo, bas-te-a'no 
 da sin gil'lo, an Italian painter and architect, born at 
 Florence in 1481, was a nephew of Giuliano and An- 
 tonio San Gallo, and a pupil of Pietro Perugino. He 
 excelled in perspective and architectural painting, and 
 was much employed in decorations for festivals and 
 princely entertainments. Among his works was a copy 
 nf Michael Angelo's cartoon of Pisa, and the Expulsion 
 of Adam and Eve from Paradise. Died in 1551. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 A-ris-to-ti'mus, [Gr. 'Apian'm/ioc; Fr. Aristotime, 
 S'res'to'tem',] a tyrant who usurped the supreme power 
 of Elis, lived about 250 B.C. 
 
 Arisfotle, ar'is-tot'l, [Gr. ' 'Apwrm-eXr/c : Eat. and Ger. 
 Aristot'eles; Fr. Aristote, t'res'tot'; It. Aristotile, 
 a-res-tot'e-14 ; Sp. Aristoteles, i-res-to-ta'lSs ; Per- 
 sian and Arabic, AristatAlis, 1'ris'ta'ti'less',] one of 
 the most illustrious philosophers of antiquity, and, if 
 considered with respect to the intellect alone, perhaps 
 the most remarkable man that ever lived, was born at 
 Stagira, (or Stageira,) in Thrace, on the western side of 
 
 the Gulf of Strymon, 384 B.C. From the place of his 
 birth, he was surnamed the Staoirite, (ilrayofwYzjc.)* 
 
 His father, Nicomachus, who was physician to Amyn- 
 tas, King of Macedon, is said to have been the author 
 of several works on medicine and natural history. Being 
 left an orphan at an early age, Aristotle was placed under 
 the guardianship of Proxenus, who had him carefully 
 educated. When he was seventeen years old, he visited 
 Athens, then the great centre of Grecian art, literature, 
 and philosophy. He arrived in that city while Plato 
 was absent in Sicily. Aristotle, however, applied him- 
 self meanwhile to such sources of philosophic instruc- 
 tion as were open to him ; and as soon as Plato returned, 
 he became his pupil. The extraordinary powers and zeal 
 in the pursuit of knowledge evinced by the young Stagi- 
 rite made him a great favourite with his master, who used 
 to call him the " Intellect" of his school. He remained 
 at Athens about twenty years. He seems to have re- 
 garded his illustrious teacher with the highest respect, 
 and even affection ; but he did not accept all his doc- 
 trines ; and, as his own views became more definite and 
 more matured, the difference between the philosophic 
 systems of the master and the pupil became more strongly 
 marked. This divergence of opinion appears to have 
 furnished the sole foundation for the stories of a per- 
 sonal disagreement between the two philosophers, und 
 of Aristotle's disrespect and ingratitude towards his 
 great teacher. During the latter part of the period of 
 twenty years above referred to, Aristotle commenced a 
 school of his own, in which he gave lessons on rhetoric 
 and other subjects. About 347 B.C. he received an in- 
 vitation from Hermias, the prince or ruler of Ataineus, 
 in Asia Minor, who had been one of his pupils, to visit 
 his court. While here, he married Pythias, the adopted 
 daughter of Hermias. But this prince having been 
 assassinated about 344 B.C., Aristotle fled with his wife 
 to Mitylene. Here he remained two years, when he re- 
 ceived an invitation from Philip of Macedon to become 
 the instructor of his son, Alexander. In the lettert which 
 the king is said to have addressed to the philosopher on 
 that occasion, he says (in substance) that he thanks the 
 gods not so much that they have given him a son, as 
 that he was born in the time of Aristotle, under whose 
 instructions he hopes the young prince may become 
 worthy of his high destiny. Aristotle appears to have 
 been always treated with the greatest respect both by 
 Philip and Alexander. The latter, indeed, regarded his 
 master with an affection and reverence that he seems to 
 have felt for no other mortal. He caused to be rebuilt, 
 at Aristotle's desire, the city of Stagira,} which had 
 been destroyed during the wars of Philip. He is said 
 not only to have given him eight hundred talents 
 (more than eight hundred thousand dollars) to en- 
 able him to prosecute his researches in natural history, 
 but to have procured for him, during his campaigns, 
 many rare animals and other curiosities. Alexander 
 having ascended the throne in 336 B.C., Aristotle soon 
 after repaired to Athens, where he opened a school called 
 the Lyce'um, from its proximity to the temple of Apollo 
 Lyceius, (Ai/cooc.) He is said to have been of so active 
 and restless a temperament that he gave his lectures 
 while walking up an.l down, and that hence his school 
 was called the " Peripatetic School," (from nepinareo), to 
 "walk about.") Others say that the term was derived 
 from o Tre(M7zaT<jr t (i.e. "the walk,") a name which had al- 
 ready been given to the place where Aristotle taught. 
 The new school was largely attended, and numbered 
 among its scholars many distinguished men, including, 
 among others, Callisthenes, Demetrius Phalereus, and 
 Theophrastus. 
 
 After the death of Alexander, Aristotle, being regarded 
 by many of the Athenians with distrust as the friend of 
 Macedon, was, as a mere pretext, it would seem, accused 
 
 * Thus, Pope, in his "Temple of Fame," says, 
 
 "There, in a shrine, that cast a dazzling light, 
 Sat, fixed in thought, the mighty Stagirite." 
 t See Aut.us Geixius, " Noctes Attica," lib. x. 
 Jin regard to this subject there is considerable diversity in the state- 
 ments of different writers: thus much, however, may be regarded ai 
 certain, that the city was rebuilt, and that this was due to Aristotie's 
 influence at the Macedonian court. 
 
 i, e, f, o, u, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, it, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: fir, fill, fit; mit; n6t; gd"od; moon: 
 
ARISTOTLE 
 
 167 
 
 ARISTViS 
 
 of impietv. Without awaiting his trial, that the Athe- 
 nians might not, as he said, be guilty of " twice sinning 
 against philosophy,"* he withdrew to Chalcis, in Eu- , 
 biea. Here he died, at the age of sixty-two. 
 
 In the history of Western civilization there is no ex- 
 ample of any other philosopher having exerted so great 
 and so permanent an influence on the minds of men as 
 Aristotle. For nearly two thousand years his authority 
 was not only predominant, but almost despotic, in all coun- 
 tries where the light of learning had penetrated, whether 
 in 1- mope. Northern Africa, or Western Asia. During 
 the period known as the "dark ages," when little atten- 
 tion was paid to learning, even in the most favoured por- 
 tions of Christian Europe, the philosophy of Aristotle 
 was encouraged, and his works diligently studied, in the 
 M islera capitals of Bagdad and Cordova. On the re- 
 vival of letters in Italy and other parts of Europe, Aiis- 
 title reigned for a time in the schools without a rival. 
 Dante (1265-1321) speaks of him as "the master of those 
 that know:" 
 
 " Vidi il Maestro di color che sanno 
 
 Seder tra filosofica famiglia. 
 
 Tutu lo miran, tutti onor gli tanno."t 
 
 Inferno, canto iv., I. 131. 
 
 Unfortunately, his influence, like that of the Roman 
 pontiff, had come to be established on the basis of au- 
 thority rather than of reason ; and that great reaction 
 against authority, in Christendom, which accompanied 
 or caused the Reformation, did not, in its aggressive 
 march, spare the prescriptive throne of the Btagirite. 
 For nearly two hundred years after the time of Bacon, 
 the works of Aristotle were almost universally neglected 
 among the learned in Europe. Towards the close, how- 
 ever, of the last century, attention was again directed to 
 them by several distinguished Germans, including Les- 
 sing, Wolf, Schneider, and afterwards more particularly 
 by Hegel, who deemed the philosophical writings of 
 Aristotle worthy of the profoundest study. Thus, after 
 having been for ages the object of a blind, irrational hom- 
 age, and then of an almost equally blind and irrational 
 contempt, the time is near, we may hope, when at last 
 he will be estimated at his real worth and assume his 
 true position in the realm of intellect. This position, 
 after a thorough and impartial examination of his various 
 claims, must be admitted to be fully equal, if not supe- 
 rior, to that of any other of the great masters of thought 
 that the world has ever seen. Not only was his intel- 
 lect in the highest degree penetrating, comprehensive, 
 and profound, but the different powers of his mind were 
 so justly balanced, that he seemed equally fitted to excel 
 in each of the various departments of thought. There 
 was scarcely any branch of learning or science known 
 to the ancients to which he did not make important con- 
 tributions ; while some branches he may be truly said to 
 have created. He was the founder of the science of 
 logic, and brought it to such a degree of perfection that 
 subsequent philosophers have added little or nothing of 
 any value ; and, in the language of one pre-eminently 
 qualified to judge of such questions, he is "high above 
 comparison with any subsequent logician." (See Sir 
 William Hamilton's "Logic," lecture ii., p. 19). 
 
 It is scarcely too much to say that he was also the father 
 of the "science" of natural history; for he appears to 
 have been the very first who introduced anything like a 
 true scientific arrangement into this department of study. 
 Cuvier has called attention to his extraordinary sagacity 
 as a na'uralist, in which character he was certainly in 
 advance of his age twenty-two hundred years. " He 
 is," says Cuvier, "not only the most ancient author of 
 comparative anatomy whose works have come down to 
 os but he is one of those who have treated this branch 
 of natural history with the most genius, and best deserves 
 to be taken for a model." 
 
 It is common to speak of the scientific process known 
 as " Induction" as if it were wholly a modern invention. 
 But a conception, more or less complete, of induction 
 was common to several of the ancient philosophers. 
 
 • In allusion to Socrates' having been put to death on a similar 
 accusation. 
 
 t " I saw the master of those that know, sitting amid a family of phi- 
 losophers; all gaze upon him, all do him honour " 
 
 Aristotle evidently refers to this process when, in his 
 work on " Metaphysics," he says, " Science begins when 
 from a great number of experiences one general concep - 
 tion is formed which will embrace all similar cases.'' 
 "Aristotle," says one who has evidently studied his 
 works with great care, "may be truly styled the father 
 of the Inductive Philosophy, since he first announced 
 its leading principles, and announced them with a com- 
 pleteness and precision not surpassed by Bacon himself." 
 (See G. H. Lewes's "Aristotle," p. 108.) 
 
 The moral character of Aristotle seems to have been 
 in every way estimable. In his friendships he was warm 
 and constant. He appears to have cherished the 
 memory of his friend and patron llermias with a deep 
 and devoted affection. Of his poetical productions there 
 remains a beautiful paean, full of noble simplicity and 
 pathos, written on the occasion of the death of his be- 
 loved prince. Besides other charges brought against 
 him by the Athenians, he was accused of paying divine 
 honours to Hermias. Although a measure of Alexander's 
 aversion and hatred to Callisthenes extended to Aris- 
 totle, there is ground for believing that the latter never 
 lost his regard and affection for his royal pupil. And so 
 tar was he from furnishing just occasion for the charge 
 against him of disrespect and ingratitude to Plato, that 
 he shows towards his great master an affectionate regard 
 in those very passages wherein he expresses his dissent 
 from him. While clearly intimating that Plato is dear 
 to him, he maintains that truth ought to be dearer to us 
 than any personal considerations. This, in all proba- 
 bility, is the true origin of the proverb, " Amicus Plato, 
 sed magis arnica Veritas," (" Plato is dear, but truth is 
 more dear.") He did not accept Plato's theory of 
 Ideas, nor the doctrine of Reminiscence which was so 
 intimately connected with that theory. (See Plato.) 
 Although he fully recognizes the existence of a supreme 
 spiritual (or immaterial) Intelligence as the creative 
 power of the universe, there is nothing in his writings to 
 show that he believed in the immortality of the soul, as 
 this expression is commonly understood, — that is, the 
 continuation of a man's personal identity in a future 
 state of existence. 
 
 Only a comparatively small portion of Aristotle's 
 writings have come down to us ; but these treat of a 
 great variety of subjects, and prove the universality of 
 his genius. They may be divided under the following 
 heads : I. Dialectics and Logic ; 2. Physics ; 3. Mathe- 
 matics ; 4. Metaphysics ; 5. Ethics ; 6. Politics ; 7. CEco 
 nomics ; 8. Historical Writings ; 9. Miscellaneous Writ- 
 ings. The best edition of Aristotle's entire works is that 
 of Bekker, Berlin, 1831. Of the earlier editions, the first 
 Aldine, (Aldina editio princeps,) published at Venice in 
 5 vols., (1495-98,) is the most valuable. 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Aris- 
 totle," 1 vol. 8vo, London, 1864; AdolphStahh, " Aristotelia," 1830; 
 Ammonius, "Vita Aristotelis ;" Fahricius, " Bibliotheca Grzeca;" 
 Diooenes Laertius; Andreas Schott, "Vita; comparatse Aris- 
 totelis et Demosthenis," 1603; F^ctx Ravaisson, " Essai stir la 
 M etaphvsique d'Aristote," 2 vols., 1837-46 ; article " Aristote," in the 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generate, " by Dr. Hoefer; "Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica ;" " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Aristoxene. See Aristoxenus. 
 
 Ar-is-tox'e-mis [Gr. 'AptaTo^cvor; Fr. ARlsxoxfeNE, 
 i'res'tok's|n'] of Tarentum, a Greek philosopher and 
 writer, a pupil of Aristotle, lived about 330 B.C. He 
 wrote many works, which are lost, and three extant 
 books on music, which are esteemed valuable and are 
 the oldest on that subject that have come clown to '_s. 
 He rejected the arithmetical system of Pythagcras in 
 music. 
 
 Aristoxenus, a Greek physician, who lived about 
 the beginning of the Christian era, and whose opinions 
 are quoted by Galen. 
 
 A-ris'tus ['ArwoToc] of Salamis, in Cyprus, a Greek 
 historian of uncertain date. He wrote a History of 
 Alexander the Great, which is lost. Some statements 
 derived from his work have been preserved by Arrian 
 and Strabo. 
 
 Aristus, an Academic philosopher, who was a friend 
 of Cicero, and a brother of the philosopher Antiochus. 
 He taught philosophy at Athens, where Marcus Brutus 
 was among his pupils, and where Cicero visited him in 
 51 B.C. 
 
 ask; cas s; %hard; gas>; g,h,k, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sass; th as in this. (Jt^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARISTTLLUS 
 
 168 
 
 ARLOTTI 
 
 Ar-is-tjfl'lus, [Gr. ' kpiarv'Alor ; Fr. Aristylle, t'res'- 
 tel',] a Greek astronomer, lived in the third century B.C. 
 
 Ariu, a're-oo, (Emilio,) a Venetian sculptor of the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 A-ri'us or A-rei'us, popularly called A'rl-us, [Gr. 
 "Aohoc,] the founder of Arianism, and author of the 
 greatest schism that ever divided the Christian Church 
 before the Reformation, was born at Cyrene, in Africa, 
 shortly after the middle of the third century. He was 
 ordained a deacon at Alexandria by the patriarch Peter, 
 and promoted to the highest rank among the clergy by 
 the patriarch Alexander. 
 
 The controversy which arose between Alexander and 
 Arius about 318 A.D. caused Constantine to summon 
 the first general council, which met at Nicaea (or Nice) in 
 325 A.D., and condemned with great unanimity the doc- 
 trines of Arius, who denied that the Son is coeternal 
 and coessential with the Father. Arius, who had at- 
 tended this council, was exiled to Illyricum by Constan- 
 tine, but this sentence was revoked two or three years 
 later. Arianism spread rapidly in Syria and Asia Minor, 
 and was approved by the Synods of Tyre and Jerusalem 
 in 335 a.d. 
 
 Soon after this date he returned to Alexandria; but 
 his presence excited there so great a disturbance that 
 Constantine recalled him to Constantinople, where the 
 Arians were numerous and powerful. According to 
 some writers, he avowed his submission to the creed 
 adopted by the Council of Nice, and was about to be 
 restored to communion, when he died suddenly near 
 336 a.d. Authorities differ respecting the place of his 
 death and many events of his life. Arianism was patron- 
 ized as the religion of the state by the emperor Con- 
 stantius, and by Valens. The contest between the 
 Arians and Athanasians (see Athanasius) raged for 
 more than two centuries and carnal weapons were re- 
 sorted to by each party to enforce its arguments. The 
 Goths, Vandals, and Suevi of the fifth and sixth cen- 
 turies were nearly all Arians. 
 
 The sect became divided into two portions, called 
 " Hetero-ousians" (who were strict or ultra-Arians) and 
 Semi-Arians or " Homoiousians," who admitted the 
 " similar essence" of the Son with the Father. 
 
 The followers of Arius were often called Eusebians, 
 from Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia. 
 
 See Neandf.r," History of the Christian Church;" Maimbourg, 
 " Histoire de 1'Arianisme , Stark, " Essay on Arianism," fin Ger- 
 man,) 1783; G. M. Travasa, "Storia critica della Vita di Ario," 
 174S; Eusebius, " Vita Constantini ;" Sozombn, " Historia Ecclesi- 
 astical" Epiphanius, " Panarium :" Theodoret, " Historia Ecclesi- 
 astical" Reuterdahl, "Memorabilia Arii ejuaque Hx-reseos," 1813. 
 
 Arivey, de 1', deh lt're'vj', (Pierre,) a French comic 
 writer, born at Troyes, flourished about 1550-80. 
 
 Arja, a German spelling of Akva, which see. 
 
 Arjasp or Argiasp, au'jasp', a king of Turin or 
 Tartary, reigned about five or six centuries before 
 Christ. He waged war against Gushtasp, King of Per- 
 sia, because the Persians had adopted the religion of 
 Zoroaster. He was defeated and killed by the Persian 
 prince Isfendiyar. 
 
 See Malcolm's " History of Persia." 
 
 Arje, aR'iia, (R. Jacob Judah,) a learned Spanish 
 rabbi and antiquary, born about 1602, resided at Am- 
 sterdam, and wrote a number of works. His great work 
 called "Tabnith Hecal" ("The Model of the Temple," 
 1642) was highly esteemed. 
 
 Arje or Arie, (R. Judah.) See Leo oe Modena. 
 
 Arjona, de, da aR-Ho'na, (Manuel,) a Spanish poet, 
 born at Osuna in 1761, passed the greater part of his life 
 at Seville. He became doctoral of the royal chapel of San 
 Fernando at Seville, and obtained other offices in the 
 church. He wrote an " Ode to the Spanish Nobility," 
 (" Oda a la Nobleza Espanola,") and other poems of 
 some merit, none of which were published during his 
 life. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Quintana, "Tesoro del Parnaso Espanol." 
 ^Ar'ju-na, Ar'joon, or Ar'jun, [Hindoo pron. &■'- 
 joo-na or ur'joon,] a mythic hero among the Hindoos, 
 supposed to represent courage, (or, according to some 
 writers, prudence.) He was a companion of Krishna. 
 
 Arkenholtz. See Arckenholtz. 
 
 Arkevolti, aR-ka-vol'tee, a celebrated Italian rabbi, 
 grammarian, and poet, died in his native town of Padua 
 in 161 1. 
 
 Arkwright, ark'rlt, (Sir Richard,) an Englishman, 
 whose ingenuity has contributed greatly to the prosperity 
 of Great Britain, was born at Preston, Lancashire, in 1732, 
 and was a barber in his youth. He is the reputed in- 
 ventor of a machine for spinning cotton, which produced 
 an immense extension of the cotton-manufacture in the 
 British Empire. He set up the machine at Preston in 1 768, 
 and obtained a patent for it in 1769, about which date he 
 formed a partnership with Need and Strutt of Notting- 
 ham. In 1771 they built a spinning-mill on the Der- 
 went at Cromford, which was moved by water-power. 
 This enterprise was very successful. He became the 
 proprietor of other cotton-mills, and controlled the mar- 
 ket of cotton yarn for some years. His right to the 
 patent was contested, and a verdict was given against 
 him in 1781; but his business continued to prosper. He 
 was knighted by George III. in 1786. Died in 1792. 
 It is stated that he left property valued at nearly half a 
 million sterling. 
 
 Arkwright is celebrated not only as an ingenious in- 
 ventor, but also as the founder or pioneer of the factory 
 system. He was a man of wonderful energy and perse- 
 verance. " It required," says Dr. Ure, " a man of Napo- 
 leon nerve and ambition to subdue the refractory tempers 
 of workpeople accustomed to irregular paroxysms of 
 diligence, and to urge on his multifarious and intricate 
 constructions in the face of prejudice, passion, and envy. 
 Such was Arkwright, who, suffering nothing to turn aside 
 his progress, arrived gloriously at the goal, and has for- 
 ever affixed his name to a great era in the annals of 
 mankind." 
 
 See Dr. Ure, "Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain," vol. i., and 
 " Philosophy of Manufactures," p. 14; " Pursuit of Knowledge under 
 Difficulties," vol. ii.; " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1827, (vol. xlvi. ;) 
 Baines, " History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain ;" 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Arkwright, (Richard,) the only son of the preced- 
 ing, was born in 1755, and inherited excellent talents for 
 business. He was also a manufacturer of cotton, and 
 accumulated an immense fortune, which, after his death, 
 was sworn by the executors to exceed one million 
 pounds ; but this was a mere statement of form : his 
 actual wealth was far beyond that sum. It has been 
 stated that he was the richest commoner of England. 
 He was well versed in political economy. Died in 1843. 
 
 Arlanibceus, aR-ld-ne-bo'us, (Fii.ip,) a Swedish his- 
 torian of the seventeenth century, wrote a work entitled 
 "Swedish Arms," ("Anna Suecica," 1631.) 
 
 Arlaud, fu'lo', (Benoit,) a Swiss portrait-painter, 
 born at Geneva, worked in London. Died in 17 19. 
 
 Arlaud, (Jacques Antoine,) an eminent miniature- 
 painter, born at Geneva in 166S, had great success in his 
 art, both in Paris and London. He formed a friendship 
 with Newton, and, after his return to Geneva, corre- 
 sponded with him. Died at Geneva in 1746. 
 
 See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Ar-len'sis de Scu-da-lu'pis, (Peter,) an alchemist, 
 lived in the last part of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Ar'ler or Arleri, von, fon aR-15'ree, (Peter,) an ar- 
 chitect, born in Bologna about 1333, exercised his art in 
 Germany, and particularly at Prague, where he was for 
 thirty years engaged on the cathedral of Saint Vitus, a 
 fine specimen of the Gothic style. He was living in 13S6. 
 
 Arlincourt, d\ diR'liN'kooR', (Victor,) VlCOMTE, 
 a French poet and novelist, born near Versailles in 17S9. 
 He was appointed auditor to the Council of State by 
 Napoleon I. He published in iSiSan epic poem called 
 " Charlemagne, on la Caroleide." His most popular ro- 
 mance is " Le Solitaire," (1825.) His style is eccentric, 
 and not approved by the critics. Died in 1856. 
 
 Arlington, Earl of. See Bennet. 
 
 Arlotti, aR-lot'tee, (Decio,) an Italian dramatist of the 
 eighteenth century, was born at Reggio; died in 1759. 
 
 Arlotti, (Ludovico,) an Italian poet and priest, lived 
 in the first half of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Arlotti, (Marcantonio,) an Italian poet, lived in the 
 second half of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Arlotti, (Pompf.o,) an Italian physician, born at Reg- 
 
 i, e, I, o, ii, y, lony; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; &r, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ARLOTTI 
 
 169 
 
 ARM FELT 
 
 gio in the latter part of the sixteenth century, wrote a 
 work on Bleeding in Fevers. 
 
 Arlotti, (Ridolfo,) an Italian poet, born at Reggio, 
 in Lombardy, about the middle of the sixteenth century. 
 He was a friend of Tasso, and had a fair reputation as a 
 poet. Among his works was a poem on the Conquest 
 of Granada by Ferdinand V. of Castile and Aragon. 
 Died in 1613. 
 
 Arlotto, ap-lot'to, called II Piovano, el pe-o-va'no, 
 ("The Curate,") or Arlotto Mainardi, aK-lot'to ml- 
 naR'dee, a celebrated Italian wit, born at Florence in 
 1396, was originally a wool-comber, but afterwards took 
 holy orders, and travelled extensively. He was a favour- 
 ite with sovereigns for his bonmots, which have been 
 published at various times and in different languages. 
 He died about 1483. 
 
 Ar-lo'tus or Ar'lot de Pra'to, an ecclesiastic, born 
 probably in Tuscany, is said to have compiled the first 
 Concordance of the Bible. Died at Paris in 1287. 
 
 Arluno, aR-loo'no, (Bernardino,) an Italian jurist 
 and historian, who lived at Milan about 1500, wrote, be- 
 sides other works, a history of his native city, (" Historia 
 Patriae,") which was never printed. 
 
 Arluno, (Giovanni Pietro,) brother of the above, 
 was a physician of eminence. He practised at Milan, 
 and wrote several medical works. 
 
 Arma, aR'mi, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian 
 physician, born in Piedmont. He was appointed first 
 physician to the Duke of Savoy in 1553, and had a re- 
 spectable reputation as a medical writer. 
 
 Armagnac, d', da'R'mtn'ya'k', (Bernard,) Count, 
 Constable of France, succeeded to his title and estate 
 in 1391. He was ambitious, unscrupulous, and skilful 
 in war. He became the head of the league formed in 
 1410 by the princes of the blood against the Duke of 
 Burgundy, and was the chief instigator of the civil war 
 which raged between the " Armagnacs" and the " Bur- 
 gundians." (See Charles VI.) Called by Queen Isabeau 
 to defend the kingdom against the English in 141 5, he 
 insisted on being appointed constable and chief minister. 
 Having obtained these offices, he treated the royal family 
 with contempt, and rendered himself odious to the peo- 
 
 Ele of Paris by his tyranny. In 1418 Paris was taken 
 y the Burgundians, who massacred the Count of Ar- 
 magnac, with many of his partisans. 
 
 See Rymer, "Fcedera;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran<;ais." 
 
 Armagnac, (Jean,) "L, Count of, succeeded to his 
 county in 1319, and distinguished himself in the French 
 service under the kings Philip of Valois, John, and 
 Charles V., taking a prominent part in most of the mili- 
 tary movements of those sovereigns. Died in 1373. 
 
 Armagnac, (Jean,) III., Count of, was a brother of 
 Bernard, and grandson of Jean I. He was appointed 
 captain-general in 1385, and commanded an expedition 
 for the conquest of Milan from Galeazzo Visconti in 
 1391. He was killed in battle before he reached Milan, 
 in the same year. 
 
 Armagnac, (Jean,) IV., Count of, succeeded his 
 father Bernard VII. in 1418, taking sides with the Eng- 
 lish against Charles VII. He assumed independent 
 powers, but was subdued by Louis XI. (then dauphin) 
 m 1444, and imprisoned for a year. Died in 1450. 
 
 Armagnac, (Jean,) V., Count of, a son of Jean 
 IV., was born about 1420. He was excommunicated 
 by the pope for incest, and was notorious for various 
 crimes. He joined the League of the Public Good in 
 rebellion against Louis XI. about 1465. After this rebel- 
 lion was terminated by the treaty of Conflans, he again 
 revolted. He was taken prisoner and killed by the 
 royal troops in 1473. 
 
 Arrnand, Sk'hion', (Alfred,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1805. He built railway-stations at Ver- 
 sailles, Amiens, Paris, Calais, etc. 
 
 Armaud, (Chaki.es,) Marquis df. la Rouarie, deh 
 IS roo't're', a French officer who served m the American 
 war of the Revolution and rose to the rank of brigadier- 
 general, lie died in France in 1793. 
 
 Armand, (Francois Hucuet,) a celebrated French 
 comedian, born at Richelieu in 1699, and died at Paris 
 in 1765. 
 
 Armand de Bourbon. See Conti. 
 
 Armandi, aR-mln'dee, (Pierre Damien,) a general 
 born at Fusignano, in Italy, in 1778. He served in the 
 French army during the empire, and obtained on th» 
 field of Bautzen (1813) the rank of colonel. After the 
 restoration of 1815 he was governor of the eldest son of 
 Louis Bonaparte. He fought for the Italian insurgents 
 in 1848-49, and commanded the artillery at Venice. He 
 wrote a valuable work entitled " Military History of Ele- 
 phants," (" Histoire Militaire des Elepharts," 1843.) 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Armani, aR-ma'nee, or Armanni, aR-man'nee, (Gio- 
 vanni Battista,) an excellent Italian improvisatore, 
 born in Venice in 1768, performed in many cities of 
 Italy, and held several civil offices under Napoleon in 
 his native country. He translated into Italian Chateau- 
 briand's "Genius of Christianity" and "Martyrs," and 
 wrote two dramas which added nothing to his reputa- 
 tion. Died in 181 5. 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Armani, (Piermartire, pe-aR-maR'te-ri,) an Italian 
 painter, born near Modena in 1613 ; died in 1669. 
 
 Armann, ajt'man, (VlNCENZ,) called by the Italians 
 Vincenzo Armanno, a Flemish landscape-painter of 
 great ability, worked a number of years at Rome, and 
 painted in oil, fresco, and distemper. Died at Venice in 
 1649. 
 
 Armansperg, von, fon aR'man-spf rg', (Joseph Lud- 
 wig,) Count, a liberal German statesman, born at Kot- 
 zing, in Bavaria, in 1787. He attended the Congress of 
 Vienna in 181 5, and was elected to the chamber of depu- 
 ties in 1825. He became minister of finances in 1826, 
 and minister of foreign affairs in 1828. In 1832 he was 
 appointed president of the council of the regency formed 
 for Otho, King of Greece, who was a minor. He directed 
 the affairs of Greece until February, 1837. Died in 1853. 
 
 Armati, aR-ma'tee, (Salvino, sal-vee'no,) a Floren- 
 tine, who is the reputed inventor of spectacles. Little is 
 known of his life. His epitaph, preserved by L. del 
 Migliore in "Firenze Illustrata," designates him as the 
 inventor of spectacles, and dates his death in 13 17. Vanni 
 del Busca, who wrote in 1299, mentions spectacles as a 
 recent invention. 
 
 Armelle, f R'mJl', (Nicole,) a French mystic, born in 
 1606, was celebrated for her piety. Her life was pub- 
 lished under the title of " School of the Pure Love of 
 God," (Paris, 1704.) Died in 1671. 
 
 See Zimmermann's "Solitude." 
 
 Armellini, aR-mel-lee'nee, (Carlo,) an Italian patriot 
 and eminent lawyer, was born at Rome about 1780. 
 He was an adherent of the Roman republic formed 
 under French influence in his youth, and continued to 
 be a republican to the last. He was a member of the 
 provisional government formed at Rome in 1848, and 
 one of the committee of three to whom the executive 
 power was confided in 1849. On the restoration of the 
 pope by the French army he went into exile. Died in 1863. 
 
 Armellini, (Mariano,) an Italian monk, antiquary, 
 and writer, born at Ancona about 1662 ; died in 1737. 
 
 Armenini, aR-ma-nee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Faenza, published in 1587 "True 
 Precepts of Painting," ("Veri Precetti della Pittura.") 
 
 Armero y Peneranda, aR-ma'ro e pa-na-ran'da, 
 (Francisco,) a Spanish admiral of the present age. He 
 was minister of the marine several times between 1840 
 and 1850, and attained the rank of chief admiral in 1855. 
 He succeeded Narvaez as prime minister in 1857. 
 
 Armessin, de 1', deh lt&'m|'saN', (Nicolas,) a 
 French engraver, born in Paris in 1684. He engraved 
 portraits and history with success, and received the title 
 of engraver to the king. Died in 1 755. 
 
 His father, of the same name, born in 1640, was an 
 engraver of inferior skill. 
 
 Armfelt or Armfeldt, aiim'felt, (Carl,) Baron of, 
 an eminent Swedish general, born in Finland in 16C6. 
 He was employed by Charles XII. to defend Finland 
 against the Russians, and displayed great skill and valour 
 in a battle near Storkyro, in 1718, but was overpowered 
 by superior numbers. Died in 1736. 
 
 Armfelt or Armfeldt, (G tlSTAF Mauritz,) a Swedish 
 general and courtier, born in the province of Abo in 
 1757, was a great-grandson of the preceding. lie was 
 
 * as k; c as s; g hard; g as^'; c, H, K./v.Uural: N, natal; e. t*'»ed; s as 2; th as in this. (2CF**See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARM IN 
 
 170 
 
 ARMSTRONG 
 
 a favourite of Gustaviis III., and, just before the death 
 of that king in 1792, was appointed governor of Stock- 
 holm. In 1794 he was charged with treason by the 
 regent, who, during the absence of Armfelt on a mission 
 to Naples, procured a sentence of death against him. 
 He was restored to his former dignities by Gustavus IV. 
 in 1799, and appointed governor-general of Finland in 
 1805. In 1808 he commanded an army which was sent 
 to conquer Norway, but failed. He entered the Russian 
 service in 1810, and obtained several high offices. Died 
 
 in 1814. 
 
 See "Autobiography of G. M. Armfelt," 1830. 
 
 Ar'raiu or Ar'myn, (Robert,) an English actor in 
 Shakspeare's company, licensed in 1603. He was author 
 of a small work called "A Nest of Ninnies," (1608,) 
 which is of little value. "The Valiant Welshman," a 
 play, (161 5,) is attributed to him. 
 
 Arminius. See Hermann. 
 
 Ar-min'i-us, (Fuloentius, ful-jeVshe-us,) the Latin 
 name of an Italian writer who became BisTiop of Nusco 
 in 1669. 
 
 Ar-min'i-us, [Dutch pron. aR-mee'nejiis,] (Jacobus,) 
 a celebrated Dutch theologian, from whom the system 
 of theology called Arminianism takes its name, was born 
 at Oudewater in 1560. His Dutch name was Jacob Har- 
 MENSEN, in place of which he used the Latinized form 
 Arminius. The surname Veteraquinas (sometimes 
 given to him) was derived from "Vcteres Aquae," the 
 Latin for Oudewater. He was educated at Marburg, 
 Leyden, and Geneva, 1575-85, visited Rome in 1586, 
 and was ordained a minister at Amsterdam in 1588. He 
 succeeded Francis Junius as professor of divinity at Ley- 
 den in 1603. Before this date he had entertained doubts 
 of the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination, and had 
 incurred the suspicion of heterodoxy. In 1604 he pro- 
 pounded tenets on grace and predestination which were 
 opposed by Francis Gomar and others and excited a 
 violent controversy. His adversaries accused him of 
 Pelagianism, but he denied the charge. Among his 
 adherents were Grotius and Olden-Barneveldt. The 
 Supreme Court of the Hague, after hearing a discussion 
 between Arminius and Gomar in 1608, declared that the 
 difference in their doctrines was of little importance. A 
 national synod was convoked to settle this dispute ; but, 
 before the appointed time, Arminius died in 1609, leaving 
 several able theological treatises, which were published 
 in one volume, (1629.) He was a man of blameless life 
 and moderate temper. His device was, "A good con- 
 science is Paradise." The national synod which met at 
 Dort in 1618 condemned the five articles of the Armin- 
 ian creed, the adherents of which were severely perse- 
 cuted in Holland by Maurice, Prince of Orange. The 
 principles of Arminius have been adopted by the Wes- 
 leyan Methodists, and by many members of the Anglican 
 Church. 
 
 See Caspar Brandt, "Life of Arminius," (in Latin,) 1724; 
 Mosheim, "Ecclesiastical History;" Petk"us Bertius, "Oratio in 
 Oliitum J. Arniinii," 1629; Professor Moses Stijart, "The Creed 
 of Arminius, with a Brief Sketch of his Life and Time," in "The Bibli- 
 cal Repertory," 1831. 
 
 Ar'mis-tead, (Lewis A.,) an American general, born 
 in Virginia. He served in the Mexican war, 1846-47, 
 and became a brigadier-general in the Confederate army 
 in 1861. He was killed at Gettysburg, July, 1863. 
 
 Armistead, (Walker Keith,) an American general, 
 born in Virginia about 1780. He was educated at West 
 Point, and in the second war with Great Britain was 
 chief engineer to the army on the Niagara, and after- 
 wards at Norfolk. In 1828 he was breveted a brigadier- 
 general, and in 1836-37 commanded in the war against 
 the Florida Indians. Died in 1845. 
 
 Ar'ml-tage, (Edward,) an eminent English painter 
 cf the present age, has executed, besides other works, 
 some excellent frescos for the new Houses of Parliament. 
 
 Armonville, 4R'm6N'v41', (Jean Baitiste,) a French 
 Jacobin member of the Convention, born at Rheims in 
 1756 ; died in 1808. 
 
 Arm'strong, (Archibald,) commonly called Archy 
 or Archee, jester to James I. of England, lost his place 
 by his sarcasms on Archbishop Laud, and died in 1672. 
 
 Armstrong, (Francis,) an English physician, lived 
 at Uppingham; died in 1789. 
 
 Armstrong, (George,) M.D., a brother of John the 
 poet, gave peculiar attention to the diseases of children, 
 and founded a dispensary for the relief of the infant poor 
 in London in 1769. Died about 1780. 
 
 Arm'strong, (James,) an American genera!, born in 
 Pennsylvania in the early part of the eighteenth century. 
 He took part in the defence of Fort Moultrie and in the 
 battle of Germantown. He was a representative in Con- 
 gress from 1793 to 1795. Died in 1795. • 
 
 Armstrong, (John or Johnnie,) the hero of a ballad 
 in Scott's " Border Minstrelsy," famous for his freeboot- 
 ing expeditions and levies of black mail in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Langholm. He was hung, by order of James 
 V., about 1529, with thirty-six followers who had come 
 with offers of service. 
 
 Armstrong, (John,) an eminent British poet and 
 physician, born at Castleton, Roxburghshire, Scotland, 
 about 1709. He took his degree in medicine at Edin- 
 burgh in 1732, soon after which he settled in London 
 and practised with little success. He published anony- 
 mously in 1735 a satirical "Essay for Abridging the 
 Study of Physic ;" and in 1737, " The Economy of Love," 
 a poem, which is censured for indecency. His principal 
 work is "The Art of Preserving Health," (1744,) a didac- 
 tic poem, which was received with favour by eminent 
 critics of that age, and often reprinted. " There is a clas- 
 sical correctness and closeness of style in this poem," 
 says Dr. Warton, " that are truly admirable, and the 
 subject is raised and adorned by numberless poetical 
 images." (" Reflections on Didactic Poetry.") 
 
 He afterwards produced " Benevolence, a Poetical 
 Epistle," (1751,) "Taste, an Epistle to a Young Critic," 
 (1753,) and several other works. He was physician to 
 the army in Germany from 1760 until the peace of 1763, 
 after which he lived on half-pay. In 1773 he published 
 a volume of "Medical Essays." He was a friend of 
 the poet Thomson. Died in 1779. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 Chalmers, " Lives of the English Poets." 
 
 Armstrong, (John,) an English military engineer, 
 wrote a "History of Minorca," (1752.) Diecl in 1758. 
 
 Armstrong, (John,) an American general, born at 
 Carlisle, in Pennsylvania, about 1758. He served as an 
 officer in the Revolutionary war, at the end of which he 
 wrote the celebrated " Newburg Addresses," in order to 
 obtain redress or relief for the officers of the army. He 
 was sent as minister to France in 1804, and became sec- 
 retary of war in January, 1813. For his ill success in 
 defending Washington against the British, he was re- 
 moved in September, 1814. He died in 1843. (Allen 
 says 1855.) 
 
 Armstrong, (John,) an eminent English medical 
 writer, born near Sunderland, in the county of Durham, 
 in 1784. He studied in Edinburgh, and practised with 
 success in Sunderland. In 1814 he published a treatise 
 on "Puerperal Fever." His reputation was widely ex- 
 tended by " Practical Illustrations of Typhus Fever," 
 (1816,) which was a very popular work. He removed 
 to London in 181 8, and, though rejected at his examina- 
 tion by the College of Physicians, obtained great profes- 
 sional success in the metropolis. He was also a popular 
 lecturer in the Webb Street School of Medicine, of which 
 he was one of the founders. It appears that he expressed 
 a great contempt for medical learning, and regarded him- 
 self as a reformer of the science. He was author of other 
 works besides the above-named. Died in 1829. 
 
 See " Memoir of the Life of J. Armstrong," by F. Boott, M.D., 
 183-*- 
 
 Armstrong, (John.) an English writer and prelate, 
 born near Sunderland in 1813. He became Bishop 
 of Grahamstown, South Africa, about 1853. Died in 
 1856. 
 
 Armstrong, (Rev. John,) a Scottish poet and politi- 
 cal writer of much promise, born at Leith in 1 771, re- 
 moved to London, and, while expecting church prefer- 
 ment, supported himself by writing for periodicals. He 
 died of consumption, induced by excessive occupation, 
 at the early age of twenty-seven. Many of his poems 
 appeared in the daily papers of that time. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," September, 1797. 
 
 Armstrong, (John Mostyn,) an English gtogra- 
 
 3, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; not; good; moon; 
 
ARMSTRONG 
 
 171 
 
 ARNAUD 
 
 pher of the eighteenth century, published an "Essay on 
 the Contour of the Coast of Norfolk,'' ( 1 791.) 
 
 Armstrong, (Robert,) a general in the Florida war, 
 was burn in Tennessee about 1790. Died at Washing- 
 ton in 1S54. General Jackson bequeathed to him his 
 sword. 
 
 Armstrong, (Samuel T.,) a noted bookseller of Bos- 
 ton, mayor of the city, and Governor of Massachusetts 
 for the unexpired term occasioned in 1836 by the elec- 
 tion of Governor Davis to the United States Senate. 
 Died in 1S50, aged sixty-six. 
 
 Armstrong, (Sir Thomas,) a British subject, born at 
 Nymwegen, was twice imprisoned by Cromwell for his 
 adherence to the royal cause ; released and rewarded at 
 the restoration, lie fell under suspicion of the court as 
 an intimate friend of the Duke of Monmouth and an 
 accomplice in the Rye-House Plot, and suffered death 
 in 1684, under circumstances of great injustice. A com- 
 mittee of the House in 1689 reported that "his execu- 
 tion was illegal, and was murder under pretence of 
 justice." 
 
 Armstrong, (Sir William George,) F.R.S., an 
 English engineer, inventor of the Armstrong gun, was 
 born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1810. He became pro- 
 prietor of an establishment for the manufacture of hy- 
 draulic engines for the use of mines, etc. About 1856 
 he invented the wrought-iron rifled cannon which bears 
 his name and is extensively used. Since that date he 
 was appointed engineer-in-chief for rifled ordnance, and 
 superintendent of a foundry at Woolwich. 
 
 Armstrong, (William Joseph,) an American Pres- 
 bvterian divine, born at Mendham, New Jersey, in 1796. 
 He was pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Rich- 
 mond, Virginia, from 1824 to 1834. He was lost at sea 
 in the steamer Atlantic in November, 1846. A volume 
 .of his sermons, with a memoir of his life, has been pub- 
 lished. 
 
 Armyn, (Robert.) See Armin. 
 
 Arnal, an-nal', (Juan Pedro,) a learned Spanish 
 architect, born at Madrid in 1735. He was appointed 
 vice -director of the Academy of San F'ernando in 1774, 
 and director of architecture in the same Academy in 
 17S6. The latter appointment was made by the king. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 Ar'nald, (Richard,) an English divine, born in Lon- 
 don near the close of the seventeenth century, became a 
 fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and rector of 
 Thurcaston, Leicestershire, in 1733. His principal work 
 is a " Critical Commentary on the Apocryphal Books," 
 which is esteemed judicious and valuable. It is usually 
 printed as a continuation of the commentaries of Lowtn 
 and Patrick. Died in 1756. 
 
 See J. Nichols, " History and Antiquities of Leicester." 
 
 Arnald, (William,) son of the above, and preceptor 
 to the Prince of Wales, was for twenty years insane, 
 and died in 1802. 
 
 Arnaldi, aR-nal'dee, (Enea, a-na'5,) an Italian count 
 who was born at Vicenza in 1716, and devoted much at- 
 tention to architecture. He wrote a work on the con- 
 struction of theatres, and another " On Ancient Basili- 
 cas, and particularly those of Vicenza," ("Delle Basiliche 
 antiche, e specialmente di quella di Vicenza," 1767.) 
 
 Arnaldo (aR-nal'do) or Arnold 01 Brescia, bResh'a, 
 [in I atin.AkNAi/DUS, Arnul'phus, or Arnoi/dusBrix- 
 Ien'jiS; Fr. Arnaud (iVno') de Brescia, 1 an eloquent 
 Italian agitator and reformer, was burn at Brescia about 
 the end of the eleventh century. lie studied under the 
 celebrated Abelard in France, and on his return to 
 Italy became a monk and preacher. At this time the 
 corruption of the clergy was general and notorious. He 
 began to preach openly that the clergy ought not to pos- 
 sess temporal property or power, and ought to be con- 
 tented with their tithes and the free offerings of the 
 people. His doctrines were received with favour by 
 many nobles and others, and produced much excite- 
 ment For this cause he was banished from Italy by 
 Pope Innocent II. in 1 139. He retired to F'rance and 
 Switzerland, where he obtained many adherents. 
 
 In 1 143 the populace of Rome, who favoured the 
 opinions of Arnaldo, revolted against the pope. On 
 .'earning this event, Arnaldo went to Rome and raised 
 
 there the standard of civil liberty and religious reform. 
 Excited by his harangues, the Romans established a 
 senate, detied the temporal power of the pope, and some 
 of the more violent committed great excesses against 
 the persons and property of the cardinals. The pope, 
 Eugenius HI., was ariven out of Rome in 1146. His 
 successor, Adrian IV.. reduced the people to submis- 
 sion by placing Rome under an interdict in 1 154. Arnaldo 
 was driven out of the city, and afterwards seized by 
 Frederick Barbarossa. who delivered him to his ene- 
 mies. He was put to death at Rome in 1 155. His vio- 
 lent enemy Saint Bernard admits that his morals were 
 pure. 
 
 Sue J. D. KbLER, " Dissertalio de Arr.oldo Brixiensi," 1742: D. 
 H. Fkanke, "Arnold von Brescia," Zurich, 1825; Hodgson, " Re- 
 formers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867; Guadagnini, "Difesa 
 di Amoldo da Brescia," 2 vols., 1790; D'Acherv, " Spicilegium ;" 
 Saint Bernard, " Spfotqtee :*' Beck, "Arnold von Brescia;" Qui- 
 kin, " Essai historique sur Arnaud de Brescia," 1848. 
 
 Ar-nal'dus Vil-la-no-va'nus, [Fr. Arnaud de 
 Villeneuve, Sr'iio' deh vel'nuv'; It. Arnaldo di Vil- 
 lanova, aR-nal'do de vel-U-no'va,] written alsoArnal'- 
 dus Novicomen'sis, a celebrated physician, born 
 about 1235. He studied at Paris, at Montpellier, and 
 in Italy, seems to have possessed all the medical and 
 chemical knowledge of his day, and paid particular atten- 
 tion to alchemy. His medical essays are numerous, as 
 well as others on alchemy and religion. He incurred 
 the charge of heresy at one time for his religious specu- 
 lations. He was also employed in diplomatic affairs by 
 the Kings of Sicily and Naples, and died in 1313 on his 
 way to Avignon to visit, as a physician, Clement V., who 
 had sent for him. 
 
 See Campegius, "Arnaldi Vita;" Pierre Joseph Haitze, "Vie 
 d'Arnauld," 1719; N. Antonio, "Bibliolheca Hispana Vetus." 
 
 Ar'nall, (William,) a political pamphleteer, editor 
 of the "British Journal," "Free Briton," and an instru- 
 ment of Sir Robert Walpole's, has been condemned to 
 notoriety in Pope's "Dunciad." He died about 1740. 
 
 Arnas Magnseus. See Arni-Magnusson. 
 
 Arnason, aR'na-son, (Jon,) a Danish jurist, born in 
 Iceland about 1727; died in 1777. 
 
 Arnason, (Jon,) an Icelandic writer, born at Hof in 
 1819. He published, besides several biographies and 
 other works, " Icelandic Popular Tales and Adventures," 
 (Leipsic, 1862-64,) an English version of which appeared 
 in 1864. 
 
 Arnason, (Magnus Jon,) Bishop of Skalholt, and a 
 man of great learning, was born in Iceland in 1665, but 
 studied in Copenhagen. He appears to have been a 
 faithful but rigid ecclesiastical ruler. He died in 1743. 
 
 Arnau, HR-now', (Juan,) a Spanish painter, born at 
 Barcelona in 1595, excelled as a colorist. Died in 1693. 
 
 Arnaud, iR'no', (Daniel,) a celebrated F'rench Pro- 
 vencal poet, born in Perigord, is supposed to have lived 
 in the latter part of the twelfth century. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Arnaud, (Francois,) a French abbe, writer, and 
 critic, born near Carpentras in 1 721. He published in 
 1754 a " Letter on Music to the Count de Caylus," which 
 was received with favour. He was associated with M. 
 Suard as joint editor of the "Journal Etranger," (176c— 
 62,) and of the "Gazette litteraire de l'Europe," (8 vols., 
 1764-66.) In 1 771 he was admitted into the French 
 Academy, and became reader and librarian to Monsieur, 
 afterwards Louis XVIII. Died in 1784. 
 
 Arnaud, (George,) a jurist and classical scholar, of 
 French extraction, born at Franeker, in Holland, in 1711. 
 Before he attained the age of twenty, he excelled as a 
 classical antiquary and critic. He became professor of 
 law at Franeker in 1739, and died in 1 740, leaving seve- 
 ral critical and legal works, which have a high reputa- 
 tion. 
 
 Arnaud, (Henri,) a warlike pastor of the Waldenses, 
 bom at La Tour or La Torre, in Piedmont, in 1641, was 
 noted for his sagacity and ability as a military leader. 
 He led a successful expedition of the Waldenses, (Vau- 
 dois,) who in 1689 recovered by arms their homes, from 
 which they had been expelled by the Duke of Savoy on 
 account of their religion. In their march among or over 
 the Alps towards their native valleys, they defeated the 
 F"rench armies in several battles. An account of this 
 
 e as i; 9 .t. s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( ^^""See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARNAVD 
 
 172 
 
 ARNAULD 
 
 expedition, written by Arnaud, was published in English 
 in 1827. He served as colonel in the armies of the allies 
 'n the war against the French which began about 1702. 
 Dieu at Schonberg in 1721. 
 
 Arnaud, d', dSu'no', (Francois Thomas Marie 
 Baculard — bi'kii'lSR',) a voluminous French writer of 
 plays, novels, etc., born in Paris in 1718, was patronized 
 in his youth by Voltaire. He afterwards corresponded 
 with Frederick the Great, who addressed to him some 
 complimentary verses. His biographers record with 
 admiration his nswer to Frederick, who, after several 
 atheists had just professed their creed, asked the opinion 
 of Arnaud on the subject. He replied, " I rejoice to be- 
 lieve in the existence of a being greater and wiser than 
 kings." He wrote many novels, which had a temporary 
 popularity. Among his principal works is a collection 
 of anecdotes and essays called "Recreations of the Man 
 of Sensibility," (" Les Delassements de l'Homme sensi- 
 ble," 12 vols., 1784.) Died in 1805. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Arnaud de Marsan, SR'no' deh mSR'sSN', a Pro- 
 vencal troubadour, and the author of a poem illustrating 
 the society of the age of the troubadours. 
 
 Arnaud de Nobleville. See Arnault de Noble- 
 ville. 
 
 Arnaud de Ronsil, SR'no' deh r6N'sel' or r6N'se'ye, 
 (George,) a skilful French surgeon, born about 1700, 
 devoted himself especially to the treatment of hernia. 
 He practised in Paris, and subsequently in London, with 
 a high reputation. His writings are praised for clear- 
 ness and profoundness. His chief work is a " Disser- 
 tation on Hernias," (2 vols., 1749.) Died in 1774. 
 
 Arnaud de Villa Nova. See A rn Aldus. 
 
 Arnauld, aVno', (Angelique,) called also Ange- 
 lique de Saint-Jean, 5N'zhi'lek' deh sdN'zhdN', an 
 eminent nun, born in 1624, was a niece of Marie Ange- 
 lique and a daughter of Robert Arnauld d'Andiily. 
 She was elected prioress of Port-Royal in 1669, and ab- 
 bess in 1678, after which she was persecuted by the 
 Jesuits. She was considered a prodigy of piety and 
 learning, and it is stated that her father said, " All my 
 children and myself are fools in comparison of Ange- 
 lique." She was the principal author of a biographical 
 work called " Memoires pourservir a l'Histoire de Port- 
 Royal," (3 vols., 1742.) Died in 1684. 
 
 See Saintk-Beuve, "Port-Royal," and Mary Anne Schimmel- 
 penninck, " Memoirs of Port-Royal," 2 vols., 1853. 
 
 Arnauld, (Antoine,) procureur-general to Catherine 
 de Medicis, was a man of eminent abilities, and, though 
 a Huguenot, was saved from the Massacre of Saint Bar- 
 tholomew by Catherine. He died in 1585. 
 
 Arnauld, formerly written Arnaud, (Antoine,) sur- 
 named L'Avocat, (13'vo'kS',) or " the Advocate," a cele- 
 brated orator, born in Paris in 1560, was the most 
 eloquent French pleader of his day, and the father of 
 the eminent Arnaulds of Port-Royal. He succeeded his 
 father as procureur-general in 1585. His most celebrated 
 speech was a " plaidoyer" for the University of Paris 
 against the Jesuits in 1594, which is supposed to have 
 been the cause of the persecution which the recluses of 
 Port-Royal suffered after his death. He died in 1619, 
 leaving six daughters and four sons, all of whom were 
 distinguished. 
 
 Arnauld, (Antoine,) Doctor of the Sorbonne, a 
 celebrated theologian and philosopher, born in Paris on 
 the 6th of February, 1612, was a son of the preceding 
 and Catherine Marion. He was the most celebrated 
 member of the family of Arnauld, and was sometimes 
 called " le grand Arnauld." He was ordained a priest 
 in 1641, and became a doctor of the Sorbonne about 
 the same time. In 1643 ne published an able work " On 
 Frequent Communion," (" De la frequente Communion,") 
 which made a powerful impression, and gave great 
 offence to the Jesuits, of whom he was always a deter- 
 mined antagonist. This work produced a reform in 
 the style of French theologians, and set an example of 
 a purer taste, which was soon followed by Pascal and 
 Bossuet. 
 
 In the controversy respecting grace which arose be- 
 tween Jansenius and his opponents, Arnauld became a 
 zealous Jansenist. He passed some years in the retire- 
 
 ment and seclusion of Port-Royal, (a convent near Paris,) 
 and wrote many works on theology and philosophy. In 
 1656 he was expelled from the Society of the Sorbonne for 
 a work which he wrote on the Jansenist question. This 
 affair gave rise to the " Provincial Letters" of Pascal, for 
 which Arnauld furnished some materials. During the 
 persecution to which his party was exposed from 1656 
 to 1668, he lived in concealment. He published in 1669 
 " The Perpetuity of the Faith of the Catholic Church 
 touching the Eucharist defended against Sieur Claude 
 de Charenton," which added to his reputation. A large 
 part of it was written by Nicole. He sought refuge from 
 the enmity of the Jesuits in exile in 1679, after which he 
 lived in various cities of Flanders and Holland until his 
 death, which occurred at Brussels in 1694. 
 
 Arnauld was remarkable for his simplicity of charac- 
 ter and habits, his impetuosity, and his industry. Boileau 
 wrote his epitaph, and designated him "the most learned 
 mortal that ever wrote," ("le plus savant mortel qui 
 jamais ait ecrit.") His fellow-worker Nicole having 
 expressed a desire for repose and respite from their long 
 literary and dogmatical strife, Arnauld exclaimed, " Will 
 you not have all eternity to' rest in?" ("N'aurez-vous 
 pas pour vous reposer l'eternite toute entiere ?") 
 
 Among his works, which were collected in a good 
 edition of forty-five closely-printed quarto volumes, 
 (1775-83,) are " La Logique, 011 l'Art de Penser," (1662,) 
 an excellent treatise, generally called "The Port-Royal 
 Logic;" "Elements of Geometry," (1667;) a "Treatise 
 on True and False Ideas," (1683 — in opposition to the 
 theory of Malebranche ;) and " The Practical Morality 
 of the Jesuits," (" Morale pratique des Jesuites," 8 vols., 
 1683-94.) He aided Lancelot in the composition of the 
 "Grammaire generate et raisonnee." 
 
 See " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvra^es de M. Arnauld," by P. 
 Quesnel, 1697; "Vie d' Antoine Arnauld," by Larriere, 17S3; 
 " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvragesde M. Arnauld ;" Saintk-Beuve, 
 " Port-Royal," vol. ii. ; Varin, La Verity sur les Arnauld," 2 vols., 
 1847; C. Jourdain, "Notice sur les Travaux philosophiques d'A. 
 Arnauld," 1843; "Biographie Universeile." 
 
 Arnauld, (Antoine,) commonly called THE Abbe, 
 born in 1616, was the son of Robert Arnauld d'Andiily. 
 He first joined the army, but, failing of promotion, re- 
 sorted to the Church. He was a moderate Jansenist. 
 In 1674 Louis XIV. conferred on him the abl>ey of 
 Chaumes-en-Brie. He died in 1698, leaving some valu- 
 able historic Memoirs, published in 1756. 
 
 Arnauld or Arnaud, Sr'iio', (Antoine,) a French 
 general, born at Grenoble in 1749, was of humble birth, 
 but, joining the army in 1 791, he distinguished himself 
 under Dumouriez, in the campaign on the Rhine, at 
 Hohenlinden and other places. He died in Holland in 
 1804. 
 
 Arnauld, (Henri,) Bishop of Angers, the sixth child 
 of "L'Avocat" before mentioned, was born in 1597. In 
 his early career he pursued the law, and spent several 
 years at Rome as attache to Cardinal Bentivoglio. On 
 his appointment to the bishopric of Angers, from a com- 
 plete worldling he became a self-denying, charitable, and 
 laborious pastor. He died at Angers in 1692. 
 
 See BesoiGNE, "Vie de Henri Arnauld," 2 vols., 1750. 
 
 Arnauld, (Marie Angelique,) de Sainte-Made- 
 leine, a sister of Antoine Arnauld, (1612-94,) was born 
 in 1591. Her original name was Jacqueline Marie. 
 She became in early youth abbess of Port-Royal, in 
 which she made a reform by enforcing a rigid ascetic 
 regimen, and acquired a high reputation for virtue and 
 intelligence. Died in 1661. Her sister Agnes was also 
 abbess of Port-Royal, and author of two religious books. 
 These sisters were Jansenists. Agnes died in 1671. 
 
 Arnauld, (Simon,) Marquis de Pomponne. See 
 Pomponne. 
 
 Arnauld d'Andiily, SR'no' ddN'de'ye', (Robert,) 
 the eldest brother of the great Antoine Arnauld, and 
 father of Angelique, (de Saint- Jean,) noticed above, born 
 in Paris in 1589, was distinguished for probity, piety, and 
 literary ability. In early life he had much favour and 
 influence at the court of Louis XIII., who, it is said, 
 offered him the office of secretary of state, which he de- 
 clined. He accepted the place of intendant of the army 
 in 1634. About 1645 he retired from the world and 
 entered the monastery of Port-Royal. His principal 
 
 5, e, I, o u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fjr, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ARNAULD 
 
 •73 
 
 ARNEMANN 
 
 works are interesting autobiographical Memoirs, pub- 
 lished in 1 734, and an elegant translation of Josephus's 
 History, (1667-69.) He died in 1674, leaving a son, 
 Simon, .Marquis de Pomponne. 
 
 Amauld (Arnold) de Chartres, ik'no' deh shf RtR, 
 [Lat. Aknol'dus Carnoten'sis,] a French writer on 
 theol >gy, became abbot of Bonneval in 1138. He 
 wrote, besides other works, "On the Principal Works of 
 Chi Hi, (" De Cardinalibus Christi Operibus.") His style 
 gant. 
 
 Arnauld de Marveil, Sii'no' deh miVvJI' or mfa'- 
 vi've, written also Arnaud de Merueil or de Ma- 
 ruelh, a Provencal troubadour, whom Sismondi places 
 highest as an amatory poet of his day. lie died in the 
 latter part of the twelfth century. 
 
 Arnault, Sr'iio', (Lucien Emile,) a French dramatic 
 writer, son of Vincent Antoine, noticed below, was born 
 at Versailles in 1787. He was appointed auditor to the 
 council of state in 1808. He produced a number of 
 tragedies, one of which, entitled " Reguius," was success- 
 ful. After the revolution of 1830 he was prefect of 
 several departments. 
 
 Arnault, (Vincent Antoine,) a French poet and 
 dramatist, born in Paris in 1766.- He began his career 
 by the tragedy of "Marius at Minturnae," (1791,) which 
 had great success. He was author of two other popular 
 tragedies, entitled " Lucrece," (1792,) and "Germanicus," 
 (1816,) and of a number of poems, fables, etc. In 1797 
 he was charged by Napoleon to organize the government 
 of the Ionian Isles. In 1808 he was appointed chief or 
 director of public instruction. He succeeded Andrieux 
 in 1833 as perpetual secretary of the French Academy, 
 and published " Souvenirs of a Sexagenarian," (4 vols., 
 1833.) Died in 1834. 
 
 See Jourdain, " Poetes Francais." 
 
 Arnault (aVno') or Arnaud de Nobleville, deh 
 nobl'vel', (Louis Daniel,) a French physician, noted for 
 his benevolence, born at Orleans in 1701. He devoted 
 himself to the gratuitous service of the poor in his native 
 city. He wrote a "Manual for Charitable Ladies," 
 (" Manuel des Dames de Charite," 1747,) often reprinted, 
 and a "Natural History of Animals," to serve as a sup- 
 plement to the Materia Medica of Geoffroy, (6 vols., 1756.) 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 Arnavon, Sr'iiS'vAn', (Francois,) a French theolo- 
 gian, born near Vaucluse about 1740; died in 1824. 
 
 Aruay, d', dlk'n^', (JoHANNIS Kudolphus,) a Swiss 
 writer, born in the canton of Berne in 1710. He became 
 professor of eloquence and history at Lausanne, and 
 wrote, besides other works, a " Treatise on the Private 
 Life of the Romans," (1732.) Died in 1766. 
 
 Arnd, aunt, (Christian,) a German writer on phi- 
 losophy and logic, born in 1623 ; died in 1653. 
 
 Arnd, Arnt, or Arndt,aRnt, (Joiiann,) a German Lu- 
 theran divine of great merit, born at Ballenstadt, duchy 
 of Anhalt, in December, 1555. He was minister at Qued- 
 linburg from 1590 to 1599, and then removed to Bruns- 
 wick. He was an earnest teacher of practical religion. 
 About 1595 he published the first -part of his great work 
 "On True Christianity,")" Vomwahren Christenthum,") 
 which produced a powerful impression, was admired as 
 a master-piece of composition, and translated into nearly 
 all the languages of Kurope. There are English versions 
 of it by Boehm (1712) and W. Jacques, (1815.) Probably 
 no other book except the Bible has been so often printed 
 in Germany. In 161 1 he became general superintendent 
 at Zelle, where he died in 1621, leaving several other 
 works. 
 
 See "Johann Arnd, ein biographischer Versuch," von Fr. Arndt, 
 1838; F. W. Krummacher, "J. Amds Leben," 1842; Wiluen- 
 hahn, " J. Arnt : Zeitbild aits Braunschweigs Kirchen- nnd Stadtge- 
 schichte," etc., 2 vols., 1847: Wehrhan, " Lebensgeschichte J. 
 Arndts.'' 184S; H. I.. Pertz, " Commentatio de J. Arndtio," 1852. 
 
 Arnd, [Lat. Arn'dius,] (Josua or Josiah,) a German 
 Lutheran minister and prolific writer, born at Giistrow 
 in 1626. He became professor of logic at Rostock in 
 1653, and resigned that chair in 1656, after which he 
 preached at Giistrow. He wrote in Latin on theology, 
 philosophy, history, etc. Among his works is a "Lexi- 
 con of Ecclesiastical Antiquities," (1667,) and several 
 Latin poems. Died in 1684. 
 
 Arnd, (Karl,) one of the earliest bibliographical 
 
 writers, a son of the preceding, was born at Giistrow in 
 1673. He became professor of Hebrew at Rostock in 
 1708, and published several learned works. Died in 1721. 
 Arndt, aRnt, (Ernst Moritz,) a popular German 
 poet and political writer, born in the Prussian island of 
 Riigen on the 26th of December, 1769. His first work 
 was a book of "Travels in Germany, Hungary, and 
 Italy," (1797-98.) He became a professor at Greifswalde 
 in 1806, and successfully invoked the spirit of German 
 nationality against the aggressions of Napoleon, in his 
 "Spirit of the Time," ("Geist der Zeit," 1806.) He 
 zealously promoted the war of independence (1812-13) 
 by a number of spirited songs, poems, and pamphlets, 
 which were considered master-pieces. His famous song, 
 "Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland ?" ("What is the 
 German's Fatherland?") is called the most popular song 
 of Germany. He was appointed professor of history at 
 the University of Bonn in 1818; but he was suspended 
 from his functions in 1819, because he insisted on the 
 constitutional reforms which the king had promised. 
 Arndt was restored to his chair at Bonn in 1840, and 
 was deputed to the National Assembly of Frankfort in 
 1848. Among his works are a tract entitled "Ueber 
 Landwehr und Landsturm," ("On the Militia and the 
 Levy en Masse," 1812,) and "Souvenirs of my Life," 
 (1 840.) He died in i860. 
 
 See W. Neumann, " E. M. Amdt: eine Bio.qraphie;" E. M. 
 Arndt, " Erinnerungen aus dem aussern Leben," 1840; Longfel- 
 low, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Arndt, (Gottfried August,) a German writer on 
 history and law, born at Breslau in 1748. He became 
 professor of moral philosophy and political economy at 
 Leipsic in 1 791. He published, besides other works, 
 "Archives of the History of Saxony," (3 vols., 1784-86.) 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Arndt, (Johann Gottfried,) a German historian, 
 born at Halle in 1713. He was rector of a gymnasium 
 at Riga, and published a valuable work entitled "Chroni- 
 cles of Livonia," (1740-50.) Died in 1767. 
 
 Arndt, von, ion aRnt, (C. Gottlieb,) a German 
 writer, and imperial councillor of Catherine II. of Rus- 
 sia, published a work " On the Origin of European 
 Dialects." Died in 1829. 
 
 Arndts, aRnts, or Arendts, a'rjnts, (Ludwig,) a Ger- 
 man jurist, born at Arnsberg, in Prussia, in 1805. He 
 was successively professor of law at Bonn, Munich, and 
 Vienna, and wrote a " Manual on the Pandects," and 
 other works. 
 
 Arne, arn, (Cecilia,) (originally Young,) one of the 
 most distinguished singers of her time, was the wife of 
 Thomas Arne. Died in 1776. 
 
 Arne, (Michael,) an English composer, son of Tho- 
 mas, noticed below, was born in London about 1 740. 
 He inherited a moderate portion of his father's talent. 
 His principal work was the opera of "Cymon," (1767.) 
 He composed several popular songs, among which is 
 "The Topsails shiver in the Wind." Died in 1785. 
 
 Arne, (Susanna.) See Cihiier. 
 
 Arne, (Thomas Augustine,) an eminent English 
 musician and composer, born in London in 1710, was the 
 son of an upholsterer who is identified by some with a 
 person of that trade mentioned by Addison in " The Spec- 
 tator," No. 50. He composed the music for Addison's 
 opera of " Rosamond," which was performed with suc- 
 cess in 1733, arK ' a ' so tnat ' or Milton's "Ccmus," (1738,) 
 which increased his reputation. "The melody of Arne 
 at this time," says Dr. Burney, "and of his'Vauxhall 
 songs afterwards, forms an era in English music : it was 
 so easy, natural, and agreeable to the whole kingdom 
 that it had an effect on the national taste." In 1740 he 
 married Cecilia Young, a popular vocalist, and in 1 745 
 was engaged as composer by the manager of Vauxhall 
 Gardens. Among his most celebrated works is the opera 
 "Artaxerxes," (1762.) The two principal national songs 
 of England, "God save the King" and " Rule Britannia," 
 owe their popularity chiefly to his music. Died in 1 778. 
 
 See Burnev, " History of Music;" Fstis, " Biographie Univer- 
 selle des Musiciens." 
 
 Arnemann, aR'neh-man', (Justus,) a German medi- 
 cal writer, born at Liineburg in 1763, practised some 
 years at Altona. He published numerous works of 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JRNEST 
 
 '7+ 
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 moderate merit, among which is a treatise on Materia 
 Medica, (" Entwurf einer praktischen Arzeneimittel- 
 lehre," (2 vols., 1792.) He committed suicide in 1807. 
 
 Ar'nest or Er'nest [Lat. Arnes'tus] of Pardubicz, 
 first Archbishop of Bohemia, minister to Charles IV. of 
 that kingdom, and first chancellor of the University of 
 Prague, died in 1364. 
 
 Arn'grims-son,(Eystein — T'stTn,) an Icelandic monk 
 of the fourteenth century, celebrated for his " Lily," re- 
 puted the best poem in the Icelandic language. It en- 
 joyed great popularity during the reign of Catholicism in 
 the North. He died in 1361. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyerup, " Almindeligt Litteraturlexicon. 
 
 Amheim, von, fon aRii'hTm, or Amim, aR'nim, 
 (Johann GEORG,) a distinguished German diplomatist 
 and general, born in the Mark of Brandenburg about 1 581. 
 He entered the army of the emperor Ferdinand II. in 
 1626, and won the favour of Wallenstein, who employed 
 him in a negotiation frith Gustavus Adolphus. In 1628 
 he obtained the rank of field-marshal. He passed in 
 1630 into the service of the Elector of Saxony, who gave 
 him the chief command of his army, and he commanded 
 the left wing under Gustavus Adolphus at Leipsic in 
 1631. Arnheim and Wallenstein commanded opposing 
 armies in 1632 and 1633; but the former was suspected 
 of collusion with the enemy. He defeated the Impe- 
 rialists at Liegnitz in May, 1634, and detached Saxony 
 from the Swedish alliance in 1635. He resigned his 
 commission the same year. Died in 1641. 
 
 See Pufendorf, "De Rebus Suecicis ;" Waldstein, (Wallen- 
 stein,) "Briete," 3 vols., 18215. 
 
 Arnigio, aR-nee'jo, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Brescia in 1523 ; died of the plague in 1577. 
 
 Amim. See Arnheim. 
 
 Araim, aR'nim, (Elisabeth or Bettin a — beTtee'na,) 
 a celebrated German authoress, born at Frankfort-on- 
 the-Main in 1785. She was a sister of the poet Clemens 
 Brentano, and became the wife of L. A. von Arnim, also 
 a poet. She was in her youth a passionate admirer of 
 Goethe, with whom she corresponded. Her imagination 
 was ardent and eccentric. Her principal works are 
 'The Correspondence of Goethe with a Child," (3 vols.. 
 1835,) which she translated into English, and " Die 
 Gunderode," (2 vols., 1840,) a collection of letters and 
 charming idyllic poems. Died in Berlin in January, 1859. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine," vol. lviii., and "Foreign Quarterly," 
 vol. xxxiv. 
 
 Amim, von, fon aR'nim, (Ludwig Achim — a'Kim,) 
 a popular, original, and romantic German poet, born at 
 Berlin in 1781. He studied the natural sciences, and 
 published in 1799 a "Theory of Electricity." In part- 
 nership with his friend Clemens Brentano, whose sister 
 Bettina he afterwards married, he published a collec- 
 tion of popular songs, called "The Boy's Wonder-horn," 
 ("Des Knaben Wunderhorn," 3 vols., 1806.) His novel 
 entitled " Poverty and Riches, Guilt and Repentance of 
 the Countess of Dolores," (2 vols., 1810,) is highly com- 
 mended, and is perhaps his best work. His productions 
 display great imagination, depth of feeling, and a tenden- 
 cy to the romantic simplicity of the middle ages. Among 
 his admired prose works are the tale called "Angelica 
 the Genoese and Cosmus the Rope-dancer," ("Angelica 
 die Genueserin und Cosmus der Seilspringer,") and 
 "Isabella of Egypt," (1811.) Died in 1831. 
 
 See Gervinus, " Neuere Geschichte der poetischen national 
 Literatur der Deutschen." 
 
 Ami-Magnusson, aR'ne mag'nus-son, [Lat. Ar'nas 
 MagN/e'us,] an eminent archaeologist of Iceland, born 
 in 1663, studied at Copenhagen, where he subsequently 
 became professor of history and anticpiities. He was 
 sent to Iceland, in 1702, by Frederick IV., and, during a 
 residence of ten years in that country, made a large and 
 valuable collection of manuscripts. The Arna-Mag- 
 naean Commission, having for its object the publication 
 of these works, was named in his honour. Died in 
 
 I73°- 
 
 See the Introduction to Kevser's "Rcligirn of the Northmen," 
 translated by Pennock, pp. 22, 23. 
 
 Arnisaeus or Arnisaus, aR-ne-za'us, (Hennin'gus,) 
 a miscellaneous writer, born near Halberstadt, in Prus- 
 
 sian Saxony, in the sixteenth century. In 1620 he re- 
 moved to Copenhagen and became physician to Chris- 
 tian IV. Died in 1636. 
 
 Arnkiel, aRn'keel, (Friedrich,) a historian, a son of 
 Trogillus, noticed below, lived at Apenrade in the first 
 part of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Arnkiel, (Trogillus, tRo-gil'lus,) a divine and anti- 
 quary, born near Apenrade, in Sleswick. He became 
 superintendent of the Lutheran Church in Holstein in 
 1686. His work " On the Philosophy and School of Epi- 
 curus" (in Latin, 1671) was received with favour. He 
 also wrote an able treatise on the ancient religion tnd 
 the moral and political state of the Saxons, Goths, etc., 
 entitled "Cimbrische Heiden-Religion," (1691.) Died 
 at Apenrade in 1713. 
 
 Ar'no, first Archbishop of Salzburg, in Germany, 
 was a man of great influence in his day, being councillor 
 to the Duke of Bavaria, and held in high esteem by 
 Charlemagne and Pope Leo III. Died about 820. 
 
 Arnobe. See Arnobius. 
 
 Ar-no'bl-us, [Fr. Arnobe, iR'nob',] (A'ff.r,) some- 
 times called the Elder, a rhetorician and eloquent 
 apologist for Christianity, was a native or resident of 
 Sicca, in Numidia, and flourished about the end of the 
 third century. Little is known of his life. He was con- 
 verted from paganism to Christianity, and wrote an able 
 work called "Disputations against the Gentiles," (" Dis- 
 putationes contra Gentes,") in which he attacks the ab- 
 surdities of the pagan religion with powerful sarcasm. 
 This is supposed to have been written soon after the 
 persecution under Diocletian, which began in 302 A.D. 
 His doctrines are not considered strictly orthodox. M. 
 Villemain, in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," re- 
 marks that certain circumstances give this work a char- 
 acter of originality and a real importance in relation to 
 philosophy and history. " Writing at the end of perse- 
 cution and before the ruin of paganism, he is full of 
 ardent recriminations and of curious details." Lactan- 
 tius was a pupil of Arnobius. 
 
 See Cave, " Historift Literaria ;" Neander, " History of the 
 Christian Church;" Bayle, "Historical Dictionary;" MoRERr, 
 " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Arnobius the Younger, [Fr. Arnobe le Jeune, 
 SR'nob' leh zhun,] a semi-Pelagian ecclesiastic, who 
 flourished about 460 A.D. His chief work was a Com- 
 mentary on the Psalms. He opposed the doctrines of 
 Saint Augustine. 
 
 Ar'nold, Duke of Gueldres, (or Geldern,) of the 
 house of Egmond, (or Egmont,) was born in 1410. He 
 was defeated in battle by the Duke of Berg in 1444, and 
 lost the duchy of Julich. His son Adolphus rebelled 
 against him with success, and confined Arnold in prison 
 for about five years. He was released by the interven- 
 tion of Charies the Bold of Burgundy, to whom he sold 
 his duchy in 1472. Died in 1473. 
 
 See Pontanus, " Htstoria Gelrica." 
 
 Arnold, aR'nolt, Abbot of Lubeck, a German chroni- 
 cler of the twelfth century. 
 
 Arnold, (Andreas,) a German theologian, and pro- 
 fessor of Greek at Nuremberg, where he was born in 
 1656 ; died in 1694. 
 
 Ar'nold, (Benedict,) succeeded Roger Williams as 
 Governor of Rhode Island in 1657, and held the office 
 for many years. Died in 1678. 
 
 Arnold, (Benedict,) an American genera], infamous 
 for his attempt to betray his country, was born at Nor- 
 wich, Connecticut, January 3, 1740. During his boy- 
 hood he was noted for his turbulence, audacity, and love 
 of mischief. Having been apprenticed to an apothecary, 
 he ran away and enlisted as a soldier, but soon deserted, 
 and afterwards became a merchant of New Haven and 
 engaged in an extensive trade with the West Indies. His 
 speculations ended in bankruptcy, under circumstances 
 which left a stain upon his reputation for honesty. 
 Soon after the battle of Lexington, April, 1775, he re- 
 ceived a commission as colonel in the service of Mas- 
 sachusetts. He aided Ethan Allen in the capture of 
 Ticonderoga in May, 1775, and in the autumn of that 
 year commanded a body of about twelve hundred men 
 sent to take Quebec. In the long and difficult march 
 through the pathless forests he displayed the qualities 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
ARNOLD 
 
 175 
 
 ARNOLD 
 
 of an able commander. He joined the army of General 
 Montgomery, who had the chief command, and who 
 attacked Quebec about the end of December, but was 
 defeated and killed. Arnold was wounded in the leg at 
 Quebec, and his services in this campaign were rewarded 
 with the rank of brigadier-general. 
 
 Having obtained command of a flotilla of small ves- 
 sels on Lake Champlain, he encountered a superior 
 force on the nth of October, 1776, and, although he 
 was not victorious, he fought with such skill and deter- 
 mined courage that this action tended to animate and 
 revive the hopes of the patriots. Early in 1777 he was 
 deeply offended because Congress promoted five of his 
 juniors to the rank of major-general. He was soon after 
 raised to the same rank, but the affront still rankled in 
 his heart, for the five previously appointed continued to 
 be above him. He was frequently involved in difficul- 
 ties by his violent and imperious temper and his dis- 
 honesty in pecuniary transactions. 
 
 He commanded the left wing at the battle of Bemus 
 Heights, September 19, 1777, and there quarrelled with 
 General Gates, who appears to have been jealous of Ar- 
 nold. In consequence of this dispute, Arnold resigned 
 his command soon after the date just named ; but dur- 
 ing the battle of Stillwater, October 7, he entered the 
 field without the permission of General Gates, and dis- 
 played desperate courage or temerity. According to 
 Sparks, "Arnold received no orders during the day, 
 but rode about the field in every direction, seeking the 
 hottest parts of the action, and issuing his commands 
 wherever he went. Being the highest officer in rank 
 that appeared in the field, his orders were obeyed when 
 practicable ; but all accounts agree that his conduct was 
 rash in the extreme, indicating rather the frenzy of a 
 madman than the considerate wisdom of an experienced 
 general." In this battle he received a severe wound, 
 which disabled him for several months, during which 
 Congress accorded to him his full rank. 
 
 In June, 1778, he was appointed to the command of 
 Philadelphia, which had just been evacuated by the 
 British. He ran deeply into debt, and lived in an ex- 
 travagant style, which he endeavoured to support by 
 peculation and acts of rapacity. He married about 1779 
 Margaret, a daughter of Edward Shippen, an eminent 
 citizen of Philadelphia. A court-martial called to inves- 
 tigate his official conduct in Philadelphia sentenced him 
 to receive a reprimand from the general-in-chief, (Janu- 
 ary, 1780.) Although the reprimand was administered 
 by General Washington in very mild and conciliatory 
 terms, the vindictive spirit of Arnold was not appeased. 
 About six months before the date last named, he had 
 made treasonable overtures to the enemy. To enhance 
 the value of his treachery, he solicited and obtained 
 command of West Point, (perhaps the strongest and 
 most important position in the United States,) which he 
 proposed to betray into the hands of Sir Henry Clinton. 
 The latter employed Major Andrei as his agent in this 
 negotiation. The plot was detected and defeated bv 
 the capture of Andre, September 23, 17S0, (see Andre, 
 John,) and Arnold narrowly escaped (September 25) in 
 the British sloop Vulture, which was stationed below- 
 West Point. It is stated that he received from Sir 
 Henry Clinton ^6315 as the reward of his treason or a; 
 an indemnity for what he had lost by desertion. 
 
 Arnold entered the British army as a colonel, and 
 issued two proclamations or addresses to the Americans, 
 designed to vindicate his own course and to persuade 
 others to desert. He was appointed to command an 
 expedition against Virginia, and sailed from New York 
 to Hampton Roads in December, 1780. He ascended 
 the James River, and inflicted much damage on the 
 people of that region, by burning and pillage. In Sep- 
 tember, 1781, he commanded a body of troops which 
 took Fort Griswold, Connecticut, massacred the garri- 
 son after they had surrendered, and burned New Lon- 
 don. This was his last exploit in tnc war of the Revo- 
 lution. He passed the rest of his life mostly in England, 
 where, according to Sparks, "he was shunned and 
 despised by everybody" except the king and a few per- 
 sons in authority. He died in London in June, 1801, 
 leaving a son, James Robertson Arnold, who became a 
 
 major-general in the English army. (See fjparks's " Life 
 of Benedict Arnold," in his "Library of American Biog- 
 raphy," vol. iii.) 
 
 Arnold, aR'nolt, (Christoph,) a German peasant, 
 distinguished for his knowledge of astronomy, born near 
 Leipsic in 1646. He is said to have discovered the 
 comet of 1683 eight days before Hevelius ; and he was 
 the first to call attention to that of 1686. He also ob- 
 served the transit of Mercury across the sun's disc in 1690. 
 Died in 1695. 
 
 Arnold, (Christoph,) a German philologist, born at 
 Nuremberg (or, according to some authorities, at Hers- 
 bruck) in 1627, became a professor of history and elo- 
 quence. He wrote a number of works, among which 
 was the " Ornament (or Beauty) of the Latin Language," 
 ("Ornatus Linguae Latinte," 1657.) Died in 1685. 
 
 Arnold, (Daniel Heinrich,) professor of philosophy 
 and divinity at KSnigsberg, born in that city in 1706, 
 was the author of a history of the KSnigsberg Univer- 
 sity. Died in 1775. 
 
 Arnold, (Franz,) a priest of Cologne, and a violent 
 opposer of Luther, against whom he wrote several works. 
 
 Arnold, (Friedrich,) a German engraver, born in 
 Berlin in 1780; died in 1809. 
 
 Arnold, (Gf.org,) a German jurist, born at Chem- 
 nitz in 1 53 1, wrote in Latin a "Life of Maurice, Elector 
 of Saxony." Died in 1588. 
 
 Arnold, (Georg,) an organist, born in the Tyrol, 
 lived towards the close of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Arnold, (George Daniel,) a jurist, born at Stras- 
 burg in 1780. He was appointed professor of Roman 
 law at his native city in 181 1, published a text-book of 
 Roman law, (1812,) and gave in the Alsatian dialect a 
 remarkable picture of manners in his popular comedy 
 of "Whit-Monday," ("Le Lundi de Pentec6te,") which 
 was eulogized by Goethe. He also wrote fugitive poems 
 of some merit. Died in 1829. 
 
 Arnold, (Gottfried,) a German Protestant theolo- 
 gian of high reputation, born at Annaberg, Saxony, in 
 1666. He preached at Werben and at Perleberg, and 
 received the title of historiographer to Frederick I. of 
 Prussia. He wrote, besides many other theological 
 works, a mystical book called " Sophia, or the Mysteries 
 of Divine Wisdom," (1700,) and a " History of the Church 
 from the Christian Era to 1688," (3 vols., 1699-1700,) 
 which offended the orthodox Lutherans, and was noticed 
 in foreign countries. He died in 1714, leaving an auto- 
 biography, (1716.) 
 
 See also Colerus, " Historia G. Arnoldi," 1718 ; Petersen, " Ge- 
 retteter Brnder Arnold," 1718; AdolpheRiff, "G.Arnold, Historien 
 de l'E*g!ise," 1847. 
 
 Arnold, (Haldrenius Vesaliensis.) See Arnol- 
 
 DUS. 
 
 Arnold, (Johann Christian,) professor of philoso- 
 phy, and afterwards of physics, in the University of 
 Erlangen, was born at Weissenfels in 1724 ; died in 1765. 
 
 See Rf.inhard, "Memoria J. C. Arnoldi," 1765. 
 
 Arnold, (Johann Gerhard,) a German publicist 
 and historian, born in 1637 ; died in 1717. 
 
 Arnold, (Johann Gottfried,) an eminent musical 
 composer for the violoncello, was born in Hohenlohe in 
 1773; died in 1806. 
 
 See F£tis, " Biographie Universelle des Mnsiciens." 
 
 Arnold, (Johann von Bergel — fon beVgel,) a Ger- 
 man poet of the sixteenth .century. He wrote a potm 
 "On the Invention of the Art of Engraving on Cor per 
 or Brass," (" De Chalcographia: Inventione," 1541.) > 
 
 Arnold, (John,) one of the greatest improvers of the 
 chronometer, was born at Bodmin, in Cornwall, in 1744. 
 lie removed to London, and was patronized by Georg< 
 1 1 1. Among his improvements are the detached escape- 
 ment, the expansion balance, the cylindrical balance 
 spring, etc. Died in 1799. 
 
 Arnold, (Joseph,) M.D., an English naturalist, born 
 in Suffolk in 1783, entered the navy as assistant sur- 
 geon, visited New South Wales, and made a large col- 
 lection of natural objects, which was destroyed by fire 
 at Batavia. He afterwards accompanied Sir Stamford 
 Raffle* to Sumatra, where he died in 1831. 
 
 Arnold, (Lemuel II.,) born at Saint Johnsbury, Ver- 
 mont, in 1792, was elected Governor of Rhode Island in 
 
 t as /•; c as s; g Ann/; g as_/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltil; s as 2; th as in this. 
 
 ee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARNOLD 
 
 176 
 
 ARNOLDI 
 
 1831, re-elected in 1832, and was a member of Congress 
 from 1843 to 'S45- Died in 1852. 
 
 Arnold, (Lewis G.,) an American general, born in 
 New Jersey, graduated at West Point in 1837, and dis- 
 tinguished himself in the Mexican war, and also in the 
 Florida war of 1856. He was appointed a brigadier- 
 general in the Union army in January, 1862. 
 
 Arnold, (Matthew,) an English poet, a son of Dr. 
 Thomas Arnold of Rugby, was born at Laleham, near 
 Staines, in Middlesex, December 24., 1822. He was 
 educated at Rugby and Oxford, and elected a Fellow of 
 Oriel College in 1845. He became in 1847 private secre- 
 tary to Lord Lansdowne, and lay inspector of schools, 
 under the Committee of the Council of Education, in 
 185 1. In 1848 he published "The Strayed Reveller, and 
 other poems," and in 1856 appeared a "new and complete 
 edition" ot his poems. He was elected professor of poetry 
 at Oxford in 1857. " For combined culture and fine natu- 
 ral feeling in the matter of versification," says the " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for October, 1856, "Mr. Arnold has no 
 living superior." In 1865 appeared a volume of " Essays 
 in Criticism," in which Mr. Arnold shows himself to be a 
 critic of no common order : his observations " On Trans- 
 lating Homer" are among the very best that have ever 
 been written on that subject. A volume of " New Poems 
 by Matthew Arnold" was published in 1867. 
 
 Arnold or Arnoldus, ( Nicolaus,) a Protestant divine 
 and eminent preacher, born at Lesna, in Poland, in 
 161 8. He became professor of theology at Franeker in 
 1651, and wrote in Latin several works on theology. 
 Died in 1680. 
 
 Arnold, aR'nolt, (Oi.ori'nus or Cygn/e'us,) a Dutch 
 writer on theology ; died in 1622. 
 
 Arnold, (Richard,) an English chronicler and mer- 
 chant of London, born about 1450, was the author of 
 a work commonly called "Arnold's Chronicle," but 
 sometimes named "The Statutes of London," (about 
 1500.) 
 
 Arnold, (Samuel,) a successful English musical com- 
 poser, born in London in 1740. His opera of the " Maid 
 of the Mill" (1765) was greatly applauded. Among his 
 most popular works are the oratorio of "THe Prodigal 
 Son ;" and operas entitled "Rosamond," (1767,) "Inkle 
 and Yarico," (1787,) and "The Castle of Andalusia," 
 (1782.) He was appointed organist and composer to the 
 king in 17S3, and organist of Westminster Abbey in 1793. 
 At the request of the king, he published a magnificent 
 edition of Handel's Works, (36 vols.) Died in 1802. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Arnold, (Samuel Benedict,) a German painter of 
 history and portraits, born at Dresden in 1744; died in 
 1817. 
 
 Arnold, (Samuel J.,) a son of Samuel Arnold the 
 composer, published a number of dramatic pieces, 
 among which are "Auld Robin Gray," (1794,) " Irish 
 Legacy," (1797,) and "Britain's Jubilee," (1809.) 
 
 Arnold, (Thomas,) D.D., of Rugby, an English his- 
 torian and teacher of great merit, was born at Cowes, in 
 the Isle of Wight, on the 13th of June, 1795. He en- 
 tered Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in 181 1, took a 
 first-class degree in 1814, and gained the chancellor's 
 prize for a Latin Essay in 181 7. He was distinguished 
 at college for the liberality of his opinions and the inde- 
 pendence of his character. In 1S20 he married Mary, a 
 daughter of the Rev. John Penrose. 
 
 He passed several ensuing years at Laleham, near 
 Staines, where he was employed as a private tutor. In 
 1827 or 1828 he was ordained a priest, and became head- 
 master of Rugby School, where he found a proper sphere 
 for the exercise of his rare qualifications as a teacher. 
 He raised the character of that school by the influence 
 of Christian principles, enforced by his own example, 
 and diligently cultivated a sense of duty and responsi- 
 bility in the students. 
 
 He published a pamphlet on Church Reform in 1833, 
 and a valuable edition of Thucydides, (in 1830-35.) His 
 principal work is a " History of Rome," (3 vols., 1838- 
 40-42,) which comprises the period from the origin of 
 Rome to the end of the second Punic war, and was in- 
 terrupted by his death. This is a work of high reputa- 
 tion, composed on the basis of Niebuhr's discoveries. 
 
 He contributed articles to the " Quarterly Review" and 
 "Edinburgh Review." In August, 1841, he was ap- 
 pointed regius professor of modern history at Oxford. 
 Soon after he had finished the introductory course of 
 lectures, he died at Rugby, in June, 1842. Among his 
 works are five volumes of sermons, (1828-42,) and "In- 
 troductory Lectures on Modern History," (1842.) 
 
 " He will strike those who study him more closely," 
 says the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1844, 
 " as a complete character, — complete in its union of 
 moral and intellectual gifts ; ... for his greatness did 
 not consist in the pre-eminence of any single quality, but 
 in several remarkable powers, thoroughly leavened and 
 pervaded by an ever-increasing moral nobleness." 
 
 "His sermons," says Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, "are 
 remarkable as being, by their simple and natural lan- 
 guage, one of the first practical protests raised in the 
 nineteenth century against the technical and unreal 
 phraseology generally used in English preaching, and as 
 uniting a high religious standard, a strong imagination, 
 and a living spirit of devotion with unaffected good 
 sense, and moral energy and sincerity." 
 
 "As an historian, his moral qualifications consisted 
 chiefly in his love of truth, his conscientiousness, and 
 his high Christian judgment of all political transactions. 
 Intellectually, his chief excellence lay not so much in the 
 philosophical and biographical department of history as 
 in analyzing laws, parties, and institutions." 
 
 See "Life and Correspondence of Dr. Arnold," (2 vols.. 1844,) 
 by A. P.Stanley. "Encyclopaedia Britannica;" "Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for January, 1843 ; "Tom Brown's School-Days at Rugby." 
 
 Arnold, (Thomas,) an English physician, born in 
 1742. He took his degree at Edinburgh, and settled at 
 Leicester, where he became senior physician to the in- 
 firmary, and physician to the lunatic asylum. His prin- 
 cipal work is " Observations on the Nature, Kinds, 
 Causes, and Prevention of Insanity, Lunacy, or Madness," 
 (2 vols., 1782-86,) which displays much learning. Died 
 in 1S16. 
 
 Arnold, (Thomas Ker'chever,) an English clergy- 
 man, rector of Lyndon, noted as editor of numerous 
 popular text-books, was born about 1800. Among his 
 publications are school-manuals for the Greek, Latin, 
 French, and German languages. Died in 1853. 
 
 Arnold,' (William Del'afield,) a son of Dr. 
 Thomas Arnold of Rugby, born in 1828, became an 
 officer in the British army, and afterwards director of 
 public instruction in the Punjab. He was author of a 
 novel called "Oakfield; or, Fellowship in the East," an 
 exposition of the trials of a young officer who resolves to 
 set an example of fidelity to Christian principles in the 
 army. He died at Gibraltar, on his passage homeward 
 from India, in April, 1859. His brother Matthew has 
 written some beautiful and touching lines on his death. 
 
 Arnold of Brescia. See Arnaldo. 
 
 Arnold or Arnolt von Bruck, aR'nolt fon bRoSk, 
 (or de Prug, deh pRooo,) a German musician of the six- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Arnold von Biiderich, aR'nolt fon bii'deh-riK.', a 
 German theologian, lived in the second half of the fif- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Arnold Melchthal. See Mei.chthal. 
 
 Arnold of Meldorp, a German theologian of the 
 twelfth century. 
 
 Ar'nold or Ar'nould of Rotterdam, a Dutch theo- 
 logian, whose family name was Geilhoven. Died in 1442. 
 
 Ar'nold von 'Vfank'el-ried, [Ger. pron. aR'nolt fon 
 <vink'el-reet',] a brave Swiss patriot, who broke the Aus- 
 trian phalanx at the battle of Scmpach in 1386, by rush- 
 ing against the points of their spears and gathering within 
 his arms as many as he could. He fell pierced with 
 mortal wounds, but decided the victory in favour of the 
 Swiss. 
 
 See " Histoire de la Confederation Suisse," translated from the 
 German of J. von Mullerby Monnard and Vuillemin, Paris, 
 1X40-46. 
 
 Arnoldi, aR-nol'dee, or di Arnoldo, de aR-noi'do, 
 (Alberto,) an eminent Florentine sculptor and archi- 
 tect of the fourteenth century, executed a colossal mar- 
 ble group of the Madonna and Child, in the church of 
 Santa Maria del Bigallo, Florence, (1364,) which was 
 formerly attributed to Andrea Pisano. 
 
 5, e, T, 0, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mht; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ARNOLD I 
 
 177 
 
 ARNTZENIUS 
 
 Arnoldi, aR-nol'dee, (Bartholomew,) a German 
 friar and philosopher, born at Usingen, was an adver- 
 sary of Luther. Died in 1532. 
 
 Arnoldi, (Daniel,) a German philologer, born at 
 Bergedorf in 1595; died in 1651. 
 
 Arnoldi, (Wilhelm,) Bishop of Treves, was born at 
 Budan, in the district of Treves, in 1798. He was elected 
 bishop in 1839. In 1844 he induced a great multitude 
 of people to make a pilgrimage to Treves to see or wor- 
 ship a relic called "the holy coat of Treves." This pro- 
 ceeding caused great excitement, and resulted in a schism 
 of the Church. (See Ronce.) 
 
 Arnoldi, von, fon aR-nol'dee, (Johann,) a German 
 diplomatist and historian, born at Herborn, in Nassau, 
 in 1 751. He was employed as a negotiator by the Stadt- 
 holder William V. About 1803 he entered the service 
 of William I., King of the Netherlands, who appointed 
 him a privy councillor in 1815. He wrote a "History 
 of the Countries ruled by the House of Orange-Nas- 
 sau," (" Geschichte der Oranien-Nassauischen Lander," 
 3 vols., 1799-1816.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Ar-nol'dus or Arnold, aR'nolt, (Haldrf/nius 
 Vesalien'sis,) a learned theological writer, born at 
 Wesel, on the Lower Rhine. He taught Greek at Co- 
 logne, and was chosen canon of the metropolitan chap- 
 ter of that city. Died in 1534. 
 
 Arnoldusde Villa Nova. See Arnaldus. 
 
 Ariiolfini, aR-nol-fee'nee, (Giovanni Attilio,) an 
 able Italian hydraulic engineer, born at Lucca in 1733. 
 He was charged with the hydraulic department of pub- 
 lic works at Lucca in 1761, after which he improved the 
 river Serchio by confining it between new rocky banks. 
 He died in 1791, leaving in manuscript many volumes 
 on physics, hydrostatics, etc. 
 
 Ar-nol'fo, [Lot Arnul'fus,] written also Arnoul, 
 of Milan, a historian, who lived near the end of the 
 eleventh century. He wrote a "History of Milan," 
 (from 925 to 1076,) prized for its fidelity and accuracy. 
 It is commended by Muratori. 
 
 Arnolfo, written also Arnoul, became Archbishop 
 of Milan in 1093, and preached a crusade in company 
 with Urban II. 
 
 Arnolfo di Lapo. See Lapo. 
 
 Arnolt von Bruck. See Arnold von Bruck. 
 
 Arnone, aR-no'ni, (Alberto,) a skilful Neapolitan 
 portrait-painter, born in the seventeenth century, was a 
 pupil of Carlo Maratta. Died at Naples in 1721. 
 
 Ar'not, (Hugo,) a Scottish writer and advocate, born 
 at Leith in 1749. His original name was Pollock, which 
 he changed when he became heir to the maternal estate 
 of Balcormo. He published an entertaining and valua- 
 ble " History of Edinburgh," (1779,) a " Collection of 
 Celebrated Criminal Trials in Scotland," (1785,) which 
 displays great research, and an " Essay on Nothing," 
 (1777.) Died in 1786. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Ar'nott, (Archibald,) a Scottish physician, born in 
 1771, served as surgeon in the army in Egypt, Spain, 
 and other countries. His regiment was stationed at 
 Saint Helena while Bonaparte was confined there. In 
 April, 1821, he was called to attend the imperial captive, 
 at whose death he was present. He received from his 
 dying patient a gold snuff-box as a token of his esteem, 
 and published "An Account of the Last Illness, Decease, 
 and Post-Mortem Appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte," 
 (1822.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Arnott, (James Moncrif.ff,) a British surgeon, born 
 in 1794 He settled in London about 1817, and became 
 professor of surgery in King's College of that city. 
 
 Arnott, (Dr. NEIL,) a Scottish physician and eminent 
 experimental philosopher, born near Montrose in 17S8, 
 was a pupil of Sir Everard Home. He began to prac- 
 tise in London about 1812, and delivered a course of 
 lectures on natural philosophy in its application to medi- 
 cine, (1823-24,) which he published in 1827 under the 
 title of " Elements of Physics or Natural Philosophy, 
 General and Medical, explained in non-technical Lan- 
 guage." This work was received with great favour and 
 translated into nearly all the European languages. He 
 became one of the physicians-extraordinary to the queen 
 in 1837, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 
 
 1838. The Rumford medal of this society was awarded 
 to him in 1854 for his inventions, among which are the 
 water-bed or floating mattress for the sick, and the 
 "Arnott Stove." He received also a gold medal from 
 the jurors of the Universal Exposition of Paris in 1855. 
 He is author of an " Essay on Warming and Ventilating," 
 (1838.) 
 
 Arnoul. See Arnulfo. 
 
 Arnoul, iR'noo', written also Arnulf, one of the 
 most learned and eloquent French prelates of his time, 
 was appointed Bishop of Orleans in 986. 
 
 Arnoul, written also Arnulf or Ermilf, born at 
 Beauvais about 1040, became Bishop of Rochester in 
 1 1 14. Died in 11 24 He was author of some docu- 
 ments relating to the church and see of Rochester, which 
 were published by Hearne in 1720. 
 
 Arnoul, written also Arnulf, a Norman priest, who 
 served Robert II. of Normandy as chaplain in the first 
 crusade. He obtained by intrigues in nil the office of 
 Patriarch of Jerusalem. Died in 11 18. 
 
 Arnoul, written also Arnulf, a French prelate, who 
 became Bishop of Lisieux about 1 140, was a friend of 
 Thomas A Becket. He died in 1 182, leaving many let- 
 ters, which have some historical value. 
 
 Arnoul of Milan. See Arnolfo. 
 
 Arnoul, (Rene,) a French poet, born at Poitiers in 
 1569 ; died in 1639. 
 
 Arnould. See Arnulf. 
 
 Arnould, iR'noo', (Ambroise Marie,) a French 
 political economist, born at Dijon about 1750. He pub- 
 lished a successful work " On the Balance of Trade," 
 ( 1 79 1 , ) and was one of the leaders of the party which 
 revolted against the Convention on the 13th Vende- 
 miaire, 1794. Having supported Bonaparte in the Council 
 of Five Hundred in the crisis of the 18th Brumaire, 1799, 
 he was appointed a member of the Tribunat, after the 
 suppression of which he was a counsellor of state. Among 
 his important works is "The Political Maritime System 
 of the Europeans during the Eighteenth Century," (" Sys- 
 teme maritime politique," etc., 1797.) Died in 1812. 
 
 Arnould, (Sophie,) a popular French actress and 
 opera-singer, born in Paris about 1744, was noted for her 
 conversational powers and bonmots. Died in 1803. 
 
 See A. Deville, "Arnoldiana," 1813. 
 
 Arnould of Rotterdam. See Arnold of Rotter- 
 dam. 
 
 Arnoult, iR'noo', (Charles,) a French jurist, born 
 at Beze in 1750; died in 1793. 
 
 Arnoult, (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer, born in 
 1689, published, besides a few other works, "The Pre- 
 ceptor," (1747,) which contains treatises on grammar, 
 the Christian religion, and other subjects. Died at Besau- 
 con in 1753. 
 
 Arnoux, tR'noo', (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born at 
 Riom about 1560, or, as one account states, in 1575. He 
 became distinguished as a preacher and skilful contro- 
 versialist, and was appointed confessor to Louis XIII. 
 in 1617, but was removed from this position in 1621. He 
 wrote several theological works, some of which were 
 against Calvinism. Died in 1636. 
 
 Arntzen, aRnt'sen, or Arnt-ze'ni-us, [Ger. pron. 
 aRnt-sa'ne-us,] (Johann,) a German philologist, born at 
 Wesel in 1702. He succeeded Burmann as professor of 
 history and eloquence at Franeker in 1742. His repu- 
 tation is founded on excellent editions of Aurelius Victor, 
 ('733') °f Pliny's Panegyricus, (1738,) and of the Pane- 
 gyncus of Drepanius Pacatus, (1753.) Died in 1759. 
 
 See Ersch und Grurer, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Arntzen or Arntzenius, (Johann Heinrich,) a 
 learned philologist, a son of the preceding, born at Nvm- 
 wegen in 1734. He became in 1774 professor of law at 
 Utrecht, where he died in 1797, leaving valuable editions 
 of Arator's poems, (1769,) and of the "Panegyrici Ve- 
 teres," (1790.) 
 
 Arntzen or Arntzenius, (Ot'to,) a brother of Jo- 
 hann, born at Wesel in 1703, was a good Latin scholar. 
 He was professor or rector at Utrecht and Amsterdam. 
 His edition of Dionysius Cato's " Disticha" (1735) is said 
 to be the best. Died in 1763. 
 
 See Ersch und Grixer, "Ailgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Arntzenius. See Arntzen. 
 
 e as t; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 12 
 
ARNU 
 
 178 
 
 JRRHID^EUS 
 
 Amu, $R'nu', (Nicolas,) a French theologian of con- 
 •iderable reputation, born near Verdun (Meuse) in 1629. 
 Died at Padua in 1692. 
 
 Arnulf. See Arnoul. 
 
 Ar'nulf, [Lat. Arnul'phus,] written also Arnoul or 
 Aruould, Emperor of Germany, was a son of Carloman 
 of Bavaria, and a great-grandson of Charlemagne. He 
 was elected King of Germany in 887 or 888 a.d., and 
 defeated the Normans near Louvain in 892, after which 
 he invaded Italy and captured Rome in 896. He was 
 then crowned as emperor by the pope. He died at Ratis- 
 bon in 899, and was succeeded by his son, Louis IV. 
 
 See Schwarz, " Historia Arnulphi Imperatoris," 1744; Gagern, 
 "Amuifi Imperatoris Vita," 1837. 
 
 Arnulf, a natural son of Lothaire, King of France, 
 became Archbishop of Rheims in 988. Died in 1023. 
 
 Arnulf, Saint, or Arnoul, an ancestor of Charle- 
 magne, was born about 580 A.D., and became Bishop of 
 Metz in 611. He was a confidential adviser of King 
 Clotaire, and had a high reputation as a statesman. 
 Died about 640 a.d. 
 
 Arnulfus or Arnulphus. See Arnulf. 
 
 Arnulfus of Milan. See Arnolf. 
 
 Arn'way, (John,) D.D., an English divine, born in 
 1601, suffered much for his attachment to the cause of 
 Charles I., and during his exile in Holland wrote "An 
 Alarum to the Subjects of England," (1650,) containing, 
 among other things, a defence of the character of the 
 late king. He died in Virginia in 1653. 
 
 Aromatari, degli, dal'yee a-ro-ma-ta'ree, (Giu- 
 seppe,) a learned physician and naturalist, born at Assisi, 
 in the Papal States, about 1586. He practised medicine 
 at Venice for about fifty years with such success that he 
 was invited to England by James I. ; but he preferred to 
 remain where he was. He published in 161 1 a "Reply 
 to the Criticisms of Alessandro Tassoni on the Poems 
 of Petrarch." His most important production is a short 
 treatise on the reproduction of plants, " De Generatione 
 Plantarum ex Seminibus," which was prefixed to his 
 work on Hydrophobia, (1625.) He showed the analogy 
 which exists between the seeds of plants and the eggs 
 of animals, and first suggested those principles of germi- 
 nation which have been recognized by modern physiolo- 
 gists. Died in 1660. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia;" Haller, " Bibliotheca 
 Botanica." 
 
 Aronce. See Aruns. 
 
 Arooj, Aroudj, or Aruj, a-rooj', written also Aruch 
 or Arouds, corrupted intoHorusn.Horuc, etc., a Turk- 
 ish pirate, the elder of two brothers who about 1510-40 
 were the terror of Christendom. See Barbarossa. 
 
 Aroon. See Aruna. 
 
 Arouet. See Voltaire. 
 
 Arpad, aR'pid, founder of the kingdom of Hun- 
 gary, was a chief of the Magyars, who about 890 A.D. 
 migrated from Galicia and conquered the Slavonic 
 princes who then possessed Hungary. A part of his 
 army invaded Italy and defeated Berengarius, on the 
 Brenta, in 900. Died in 907. Andrew III., who died in 
 1301, was the last king of the Arpad dynasty. 
 
 See Krsch unrl GrubRR, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Mailath, 
 "Gescliichte der Magyaren." 
 
 Arpajon, d', dSR'pi'zhAN', (Louis,) Duke, and Mar- 
 quis of Severac, a French general, distinguished him- 
 self at the siege of Montauban in 1621. He had a 
 high command in the Thirty Years' war. In 1645 ' le 
 was appointed generalissimo by the grand master of 
 Malta, for the defence of which against the Turks he 
 raised two thousand men. Died in 1679. 
 
 Arpajon, d', (Louis,) Marquis, a French general, 
 was a grandson of the preceding. Died in 1736. 
 
 Arpe, an'peh, (Peter Friedrich,) a learned juris- 
 consult and writer, born at Kiel, in Holstein, in 1682. 
 He was professor of law at Kiel from 1717 until 1722. 
 In his " Laicus Veritatis Vindex" ( 1 7 1 7) he maintained 
 that the division of Christians into clergy and laity is 
 contrary to the law of Moses and to the Gospel. Among 
 his works is "Themis Cimbrica," (1737,) which treats of 
 the institutions and manners of the Cimbri and other 
 Teutonic tribes. Died about 1745. 
 
 See Moli.er. " Cimbria Literata;" Adelung, Supplement to 
 JScher's "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Arpino. See Cesari, (Giuseppe.) 
 
 Arpino, aR-pee'no, (Jacopo Francesco,) an Italian 
 physician, philosopher, and naturalist, was born in Pied- 
 mont in the early part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Arquato, aR-kwa'to, (Giovanni Francesco,) an 
 Italian physician who wrote a work called " Medicus 
 Reformatus," (1608,) was born in the Venetian States, 
 and lived about the commencement of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 Arquier. See Darquier. 
 
 Ar-Radhee- (or Ar-Radhi-) Billah, ar-ra'dee bil'- 
 lah, one of the Abbasside Caliphs, was raised to the 
 caliphate in 934 a.d. Died about 940. 
 
 Arraes, ar-ra'es, or Arraiz, ar-ra'iz, almost ar-rlz', 
 (Amador, a-ma-doR',) a Portuguese classic writer, 
 born at Beja in 1530. He became Bishop of Portale- 
 gre in 1581, and wrote "Moral Dialogues," (1589) a 
 work of high reputation, in which he took Plato for his 
 model. Died in 1600. 
 
 Arraes or Arrais, (Duarte Madeira,) a Portuguese 
 physician, born near Lamego. He became physician to 
 John IV., and wrote several medical works which were 
 often reprinted. Died in 1652. 
 
 Arragos, i'ri'go', (Guillaume,) [Lat. Guliei/mus 
 Arrago'sius,] a French physician, born near Toulouse 
 in 1513 ; died at Bale in 1610. 
 
 Arraiz. See Arraes. 
 
 Arran, Earl of. See Hamilton, (James.) 
 
 Arras, d', di'ras', (Mathieu,) a French architect.born 
 at Arras about 1300. He was employed by John, King 
 of Bohemia, to build the cathedral of Prague, com- 
 menced in 1344. Before the completion of this work, 
 he died, in 1352. 
 
 Ar-Rasheed or Ar-Rashid, ar-ra-sheed', (Aboo- 
 (Abu-) Mohammed-Abdul-Wahed, a'boo' mo- 
 ham'med ab'dool wa'hed,) a sultan of Western Africa, 
 commenced his reign in 1232, after a hard struggle 
 with his rival, Yahya An-Nasir, in which he took Mo- 
 rocco by siege. He died in 1242. 
 
 Ar-Rashid See Haroun-al-Raschid. 
 
 Arrault, S'ro', (Charles,) a French jurist, born in 
 the Gatinais in 1643 i died in 1718. 
 
 Arreboe, ar'reh-bo'eh, (Anders,) a popular Danish 
 poet, born in the island of Arroe in 1587. He was 
 chosen Bishop of Drontheim in 1618, but was deposed 
 for disorderly conduct in 1621. Having partially re- 
 trieved his reputation, he became pastor at Vordingborg 
 in 1626. He was considered the greatest poet that 
 Denmark had produced before Tullin. His principal 
 work is " Hexaemeron," (1641,) a poetical paraphrase 
 of the French poem of Du Bartas. Died in 1637. 
 
 See Molbech, " Danske Anthologie ;" Kraft og Nverup, "Al- 
 mindeligt Litteraturlexicon for Danemark," etc. 
 
 Arredondo, ar-ri-Don'do, (Isidoro,) a Spanish his- 
 torical painter, born at Colmenarde Oreja in 1653. He 
 was patronized by Charles II., who gave him the title of 
 painter to the king. Died in 1702. 
 
 Ar-rhe'nI-us, [Swed. pron. ar-rTt'ne-ils,] (Clas or 
 CLAUDrus,) a Swedish historian, eminent for learning 
 and sagacity, was born at Linkoping in 1627. He 
 became professor of history at Upsal in 1668. His 
 chief work is an " Ecclesiastical History of Sweden," 
 (" Historian Svecornm Gothorumque Ecclesiastical Libri 
 IV.," 1689.) He was appointed royal historiographer 
 in 1678, and ennobled in 1684, when he assumed (he 
 name of Oernhielm, (Eagle-Helmet.) Died in 1695. 
 
 See Gezelius, " Biographiskt-Lexiconofver namnkunnige Svenska 
 Man;" P. Lagerloef, " Memoria C. Arrhenii," 1696; Thysei.ius, 
 "Dissertatio de Meritis literariis C. Arrhenii," 1791. 
 
 Arrhenius, (Jacob,) a Swedish scholar, a brother of 
 the preceding, born in 1642, was professor of history at 
 Upsal from 1687 until 1716. He wrote many able treat- 
 ises on points of ancient history, among which are a 
 " Short Sketch of Ancient Egypt," (" Brevis Adumbra- 
 tio Veteris TEgypti," 1694,) and an essay on the office of 
 Roman Consul, (" De Consule Romano," 1705.) Died 
 in 1725. 
 
 See Gezelius, "Biographiskt-Lexicon." 
 
 Arrhidaeus, ar-re-dee'us, or Aridaeus, [Gr. 'AtfxSaiof 
 or 'KpuSaloc; Fr. Arrhidee, fre'da',] a son of Philip 
 of Macedon and of a courtesan named Philinna, was a 
 
 i, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ARRHWjEUS 
 
 '79 
 
 JRRIQUIBJR 
 
 half-brother of Alexander the Great. He had a weak 
 mind, which, according to Plutarch, was the result of 
 poison administered by Olympias. On the death of 
 Alexander he was proclaimed king at Babylon, under the 
 name of Philip. He was controlled by his wife Eurydice, 
 and, after a nominal reign of six years, was put to death 
 by order of Olympias, the mother of Alexander, about 
 315 B.C. 
 
 See Justin, books ix., xiii., and xiv. 
 
 Arrbidaeus, a Macedonian general, who was one of 
 the two regents appointed at the death of Perdiccas in 
 321 B.C. He and the other regent, Python, resigned in 
 the same year because they were unable to enforce their 
 authority against Eurydice. In the division of provinces 
 made about 320 he received a part of Phrygia. 
 
 Arrhidee. See Arrhid.bus. 
 
 Ar'rI-a, a Roman matron, eminent for fortitude, was 
 the wife of Caecina Paetus, who was condemned to death 
 in 42 A.D. She killed herself in order to set an example 
 of courage and fortitude to her husband. 
 
 Arriaga, de, da ar-re-a'ga, (Juan Crisostome,) a 
 Spanish composer of great genius, born at Biiboa in 
 180S, studied in Paris under Fetis. He displayed great 
 inventive power in his fugue for eight voices, called " Et 
 Vitam Venturi," which Cherubini pronounced a master- 
 piece. In 1824 he published a set of quartets, which are 
 highly praised. Died prematurely in 1825 or 1826. 
 
 See Fbtis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Arriaga, de, (Pablo Jose,) a Spanish Jesuit and 
 missionary, born at Vergara in 1562, laboured in Peru. 
 Died about 1622. 
 
 Arriaga, de, (Rodrigo,) a Spanish philosopher and 
 Jesuit, born at Logrono in 1592. He taught philosophy 
 with great success for thirteen years at Prague, where he 
 resided from 1624 until his death. He attempted to re- 
 vive the philosophy of the schoolmen in his " Philoso- 
 phical Course," ("Cursus Philosophicus," 1632,) which 
 evinces an acute and subtle mind. He also wrote a 
 work on theology, (8 vols., 1643-55.) Died in 1667. 
 
 See Adelung, " Geschichte der Philosophic" 
 
 Ar'rI-an, [Gr. 'AffyWoc ; Lat. Arria'nus Fla'vius ; 
 Fr. Arrien, t're-a.N'',] an eminent Greek historian, born 
 at Nicomedia, in Bithynia, was a pupil and friend of Epic- 
 tetus. He committed to writing, edited, or digested the 
 philosophic doctrines of Epictetus, (who published noth- 
 ing himself.) There are now extant a " Manual (" En- 
 chiridion") of Epictetus," compiled by him, and four 
 books of a work called the "Epictetus of Arrian." He 
 obtained the favour of the emperor Hadrian, who in 
 136 A.D. appointed him governor of Cappadocia. We 
 have no evidence that he held this office, or any other, 
 after the death of Hadrian, 138 A.D. He was at one 
 time priest of Ceres and Proserpine in his native city. 
 His principal work is a " History of the Expedition of 
 Alexander the Great," ' 'kvupaois' A7ie$uvfy>ov, (The Ascent 
 of Alexander,) which is highly prized on account of its 
 intrinsic merit, and because we have no other history 
 of Alexander worthy of equal confidence. Among his 
 qualifications for a historian were a good judgment, ac- 
 curacy in geographical and strategical details, and a cor- 
 rect and simple style. In style, and in other respects, he 
 proposed Xenophon as his model. He was author of 
 many other works, some of which are lost. Among those 
 extant are a "Treatise on Tactics," a "Discourse on 
 Hunting," a "Circumnavigation of the Euxine Sea," and 
 a small but interesting work called "Indica," describing 
 India, its people, customs, products, etc. The date of 
 his death is not known. His abstract of the philosophy 
 of Epictetus, or " Enchiridion," was highly esteemed, 
 both by the pagans and early Christians. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grxca ;" Ellendt, " De Arriaiie- 
 orum Librorum Reliquiis," 1836; Mauermann, "Arrianus Nicome- 
 diensis et Qtiintus Curtius Rums," 1S35. 
 
 Arrianus, (the historian.) See Arrian. 
 
 Ar-rl-a'nus, [Gr. 'kfijiuivoc ; Fr. Arrien, i're-aN',1 a 
 Greek author of uncertain date, wrote a treatise on 
 meteors and comets. 
 
 Arrianus, a Roman jurist, who is supposed to have 
 lived in the time of Trajan, wrote a work on law, en- 
 titled " De Interdictis," ("Concerning Interdicts.") 
 
 Arrianus, a Greek poet, who wrote a poem on Alex- 
 
 ander, called "The Alexandriad," and translated Virgil's 
 Georgics into hexameter verse. 
 
 Arriaza, ar-re-d'tha, (Juan Bautista,) an eminent 
 Spanish poet, born at Madrid in 1770, was sometime.- 
 called Arriaza y Superviela, (e soo-p^R-ve-a'la.) He 
 published a volume of poems entitled " First-Fruits," 
 or first productions of his genius, ("Las Primicias," 
 1797,) and soon after that date went to England as secre- 
 tary of legation. In 1803 appeared his poem "Emilia," 
 on the influence of the fine arts. He returned to Spain 
 in 1807, and took a prominent part in politics as a friend 
 of absolute monarchy. After the restoration of 1814 he 
 was minister of foreign affairs. Among his works are 
 " Poesias patrioticas," (1810.) Died in 1837. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon;" Longfellow" Foets 
 and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Arribas, ar-ree'isas, (Pablo Antonio,) a Spanish 
 minister of state, born in 1 771, held office under Joseph 
 Bonaparte. Died in 1828. 
 
 Arrien. See Arrian and Arrianus. 
 
 Arrighetti, ar-re-get'tee, (Filippo,) an Italian eccle- 
 siastic, born at Florence in 1582, was distinguished for 
 his knowledge of philosophy and theology. Died in 1662. 
 
 Arrighetti,(NiccoL6,) a disciple and friend of Galileo, 
 also a poet, born at Florence in the sixteenth century. 
 Died in 1639. 
 
 Arrighetti, (Niccol6,) a learned Jesuit, born at 
 Florence in 1709, wrote a "Theory of Fire," ("Ignis 
 Theoria," etc., 1750.) Died in 1767. 
 
 Arrighetto, ar-re-get'to, or Arrigo da Settimello, 
 ar-ree'go da s£t-te-mel'lo, a Latin poet and ecclesiastic, 
 born near Florence in the latter part of the twelfth cen- 
 tury. He wrote an elegiac poem on " The Mutability 
 of Fortune and the Consolation of Philosophy," (" De Di- 
 versitate Fortunae et Philosophiae Consolatione,") which 
 is said to have been used in schools and esteemed as a 
 model by mediaeval teachers. 
 
 Arrighi, ar-ree'gee, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian 
 jurist, and professor of civil law at Padua, born in Cor- 
 sica in 1689, was naturalized as a citizen of Venice in 
 1741. He wrote, besides other works, one "On Uni- 
 versal Pontifical Law," ("Dejure Pontificum Universo," 
 1727,) and a "Life of F. Morosini," (1749.) Died about 
 1760. 
 
 Arrighi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian historical painter, 
 born at Volterra, lived in the second half of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Arrighi, (Jean Toussaint — too'saN',) Duke of 
 Padua, an able general, born in Corsica in 1778. He 
 entered the French service, and was wounded at Saint- 
 Jean-d'Acre in 1798 or '99, a few years after which Na- 
 poleon gave him the title of Duke of Padua. As colonel 
 he distinguished himself near Ulm in 1805, and he was 
 made a general of division on the field of battle at Ess- 
 ling, 1809. He rendered important services at Leipsic in 
 1813, and was appointed governor of Corsica on the re- 
 turn of Napoleon from Elba. He lived in exile from 1815 
 to 1820. In 1852 he became a senator. Died in 1853. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Arrighi Landini, ar-ree'gee lan-dee'nee, (Orazio,) 
 a native of Florence, born in 1718, is reckoned among 
 the good Italian poets of the eighteenth century. Ar- 
 righi was the family name of his father, and Landini that 
 of his mother. He served for some time in the Neapoli- 
 tan army, and afterwards settled at Venice. His prin- 
 cipal works are "The Tomb of Isaac Newton," a poem 
 in blank verse, ( 1 75 1,) and "La Bibliade," a poetical 
 description of the great libraries, ancient and modern. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Arrigho. See Arrighetto. 
 
 Arrigoni, (Honorio.) See Arigoni. 
 
 Arrigoni, Ar-re-go'nee, (Carlo,) an Italian musician 
 and composer, born at Florence. He went to London 
 in 1732, and entered into competition with Handel, with 
 but poor success. 
 
 Arrigoni, (Francesco,) an Italian writer, born at 
 Bergamo in 1610; died in 1645. 
 
 Arrigoni, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Mantua in the sixteenth century. He published 
 "Madrigali," (1602,) and " Rime," (1604.) 
 
 Arriquibar, Jr-re-kee'baR, (Don Nicolas,) a Span- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARRIUS 
 
 1 80 
 
 ARSACES 
 
 ish merchant of Bilboa, who about 1770 composed a 
 work of some merit on political economy, called " Re- 
 creacion politica." Died about 1778. 
 
 Ar'ri-us, (Quintus,) Roman praetor in 72 B.C., dis- 
 tinguished himself in the servile war and also as an 
 orator. 
 
 Arrius, (Quintus,) son of the above, was a friend of 
 Cicero. 
 
 Arrivabene, ar-re-va-ba'na, (Andrea,) a Venetian 
 printer and translator of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Arrivabene, (Ferdinando,) an Italian jurist and 
 philologist, born at Mantua in 1770, was president of a 
 court at Brescia. He wrote, besides two legal treatises, 
 a historical Commentary on Dante, and an Essay on 
 Forensic Language. Died in 1834. 
 
 Arrivabene, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Mantua, flourished about the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. His chief works are two maritime 
 eclogues, called "Cloanto" and " Idromanzia," (1547.) 
 
 Arrivabene, (Giovanni Pietro,) a poet, born at 
 Mantua in the fifteenth century. He wrote a Latin 
 poem, called "Gonzagidos Libri quatuor," in honour 
 of Ludovico Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua, which was 
 first printed in 1738. Died about 1504. 
 
 Arrivabene, (Ippouto,) an Italian physician, prac- 
 tised at Rome. Died in 1739. 
 
 Arrivabene, (John,) Count, an Italian patriot and 
 economist, born about 1785, was a friend of Silvio Pei- 
 lico. He was arrested in 1821 by the Austrian govern- 
 ment, and only escaped imprisonment by exile from his 
 native country. 
 
 See "Memoirs of Count John Arrivabene," written by himself, 
 (London, 1862.) 
 
 Arrivabene, (Ludovico,) an Italian poet, flourished 
 about 1600. 
 
 Ar'row-smith, (Aaron,) an eminent English geog- 
 rapher, born at Winston, Durham, in 1750. He became 
 a resident of London about 1770, and made himself 
 master of the theory and practice of map-engraving. In 
 1790 he published a large map of the world on Merca- 
 tor's projection. He collected a large fund of new in- 
 formation from navigators and other sources, and pub- 
 lished more than one hundred maps, which had a high 
 reputation on the continent, and among which is a " Map 
 of the World on a Globular Projection, with a Com- 
 panion of Explanatory Letter-press," (1794.) Died in 
 .823. His son Aaron published several school atlases 
 and manuals of geography. 
 
 Ar'rowsmith, (John,) D.D., an eminent English 
 divine, born near Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1602. He 
 was educated at Cambridge, and was regarded as one 
 of the ablest as well as most worthy Puritan divines of 
 that age. He preached at Lynn about twelve years, 
 (1631-42,) and became regius professor of divinity at 
 Cambridge in 165 1. He was master of Trinity College 
 from 1653 until his death. His chief works are "Tactica 
 Sacra," (1657,) and a "Chain of Principles," ("Armilla 
 Catecheti.a," 1659.) Died in 1659. 
 
 See Neal, "History of the Puritans." 
 
 Arroyo, de, da ar-ro'yo, (Diego.) an excellent Span- 
 ish miniature-painter, born in 1498, worked at Toledo 
 and Madrid. He was appointed cabinet-painter to Charles 
 V. Died in 1551. 
 
 Arruntius, ar-riin'she-us, a Roman physician men- 
 tioned by Pliny, lived probably about 50 a.'d. 
 
 Arruntius, (Lucius,) a Roman consul, 22 B.C., is 
 supposed to have been the author of a " History of the 
 First Punic War," referred to by Seneca. 
 
 Arruntius, (Lucius,) a son of the above, was consul 
 in 6 A.D., and eminent for his wealth and integrity. Au- 
 gustus is said to have considered him worthy of the em- 
 pire. His merits excited the jealousy of Tiberius, and 
 brought upon him annoyance and persecution, which 
 induced him to commit suicide in 37 A.D. 
 
 Aisace. See Arsaces. 
 
 Ar-sii'ces or Ar'sa-ces, [Gr. 'Apouxrir : Fr. Arsace, 
 Sr'sSss'; Persian, Ar'shak,] the founder of the kingdom 
 of Parthia and of the dynasty of the Arsacida;. He prob- 
 ably flourished in the third century B.C. ; but his history 
 is involved in much obscurity. He is supposed to have 
 been the chief of a nomade tribe of Scythians, Bac- 
 
 trians, or Parthians. His memory was so highly hon- 
 oured that his successors assumed the name of Arsaces. 
 
 Arsaces I., King of Parthia, is identified by some 
 historians with the preceding ; others have regarded 
 him as his son or grandson. In the reign of Antiochus 
 Theos of Syria, the Parthians, who had been subject to 
 the Syrian monarchy, revolted with success about 250 
 B.C., and Arsaces became their king. After a reign of 
 two years, he was succeeded by his brother Tiridates. 
 
 Arsaces II., (Trr-I-da'tes,) brother of Arsaces I., 
 began to reign about 248 B.C. He gained a decisive 
 victory, about 238, over Seleucus Callinicus, who at- 
 tempted to regain possession of Parthia. This event 
 was celebrated by the Parthians as a new era, from 
 which their national independence was dated. He is 
 supposed to have died about 220 B.C. 
 
 Arsaces III. (Ar-ta-ba'nus) was the son and suc- 
 cessor of Arsaces II. He was defeated about 212 B.C. 
 by Antiochus the Great, who invaded Parthia. Peace 
 was restored soon after that event. The length of his 
 reign is unknown. 
 
 Arsaces IV. (Priapetius, pri-a-pe'shg-us) was a 
 son of the preceding. According to JustinThe reigned 
 fifteen years. 
 
 Arsaces V., (Phra-a'tes I.,) King of Parthia, son of 
 the above, succeeded his father about 170 B.C. He con- 
 quered the Mardi. 
 
 Arsaces VI., (Mith-ri-da'tes I.,) brother of the 
 preceding. This king extended his conquests to the 
 Indus. He reigned twenty-five years or more, and died 
 about 135 B.C. 
 
 Arsaces VII., (Phraates II.,) son of Arsaces VI., 
 after being himself defeated three times by Antiochus 
 VII., King of Syria, conquered and killed the latter in 
 128 B.C., but was in turn overcome and slain by the 
 Scythians. 
 
 Arsaces VIII., (Artabanus II.,) uncle of the pre- 
 ceding, was slain, after a short reign, by the Scythians. 
 
 Arsaces IX. (Mithridates II.) surnamed the 
 Great, was a son of Arsaces VIII. He waged war 
 against the Scythians with success. An embassy sent 
 by him, in 92 B.C., to Sulla, (who was then in Asia,) was 
 the first intercourse between the Parthians and Romans 
 of which we have an authentic account. 
 
 Arsaces X. Of this king scarcely anything is known. 
 
 Arsaces XI. (San-a-tro'ces) seems to have been 
 in exile among the Scythians, who restored him to*his 
 throne about 70 B.C. He reigned only seven years. 
 
 Arsaces XII. (Phraates III.) succeeded his father 
 Arsaces XI. in 70 B.C., during the Mithridatic war. His 
 alliance was courted by the Romans and by Mithridates, 
 but he resolved to remain neutral. He made or renewed 
 a treaty with Pompey in 66 B.C., after which he was 
 offended because Pompey cast into chains his son-in- 
 law Tigranes the Armenian, and because he refused to 
 address him (Arsaces) as " King of Kings." He was 
 murdered by his sons Mithridates and Orodes about 
 60 B.C. 
 
 Arsaces XIII., (Mithridates III.,) a son of Arsa 
 ces XII., was expelled from his throne by the Parthia! 
 senate on account of his cruelty, and put to death by hi> 
 brother Orodes about 55 B.C. 
 
 Arsaces XIV., (O-ro'des,) a son of Arsaces XII.. 
 was King of Parthia when the war began between the 
 Romans and Parthians. His army, under Surena, 
 gained a great victory over Crassus, who was slain, in 
 53 B.C. The Parthians under Pacorus, a son of Orodes, 
 invaded Syria in 50 B.C., and were defeated by Cassius. 
 He maintained neutrality in the civil war between Ca:sar 
 and Pompey ; but after the battle of Philippi, 42 B.C., the 
 war was renewed between him and the Romans. The 
 Parthians were defeated by Ventidius, an officer of 
 Antony, in 39 and 38 B.C., and Arsaces was murdered by 
 his son Phraates about 37 B.C. 
 
 Arsaces XV. (Phraates IV.) was a son of the 
 preceding. In 36 B.C. the war was renewed by Antony, 
 who led a large army through Armenia, but was repulsed 
 by the Parthians and pursued as far as the Araxes. 
 About 23 B.C. Arsaces made a treaty of peace with Au 
 gustus, to whom he restored the prisoners and standard* 
 taken at the defeat of Crassus. Died in 4 A.D. 
 
 », e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ARSACES 
 
 i8i 
 
 ARS1LLI 
 
 Arsaces XVI., (Phra-a-ta'ges,) said to have been 
 accessory to the death of his father Arsaces XV. He 
 was put to death, after a reign of a few months, in con- 
 sequence of a rebellion caused by his vices. 
 
 Arsaces XVII. (Orodes LL) was also put to death 
 by his subjects, on account of his cruelty, in the same 
 year as his predecessor. 
 
 Arsaces XVIIL, (Vo-no'nes I.,) son of Phraates 
 IV., lived a long time at Rome as a hostage, where he 
 acquired habits which made him unpopular among the 
 Parthians and led to his expulsion from the throne. He 
 was assassinated, it is supposed, by the order of Piso, a 
 Roman officer, about 19 a.d. 
 
 Arsaces XIX., (Artabanus III.,) a Median king, 
 who expelled Arsaces XVIIL, had a stormy reign of 
 twenty-eight years, during which he was twice driven 
 from his throne by the aid of Rome, but died at last in 
 possession of Parthia about 44 A.D. 
 
 Arsaces XX. (Go-tar'zes) and Arsaces XXL, 
 (Bar-da'nes,) after a struggle for the empire, settled it 
 by the former retiring to Hyrcania and the latter retain- 
 ing Parthia ; but, Bardanes having been assassinated, 
 Gotarzes resumed the royal authority. Gotarzes died 
 about 50 A.D. He was succeeded by Arsaces XXII. , 
 whose reign was very short. 
 
 Arsaces XXIII., ( Vol-o-ge'ses I.,) one of the most 
 distinguished of the Parthian kings, was involved in a 
 long contest with Rome in relation to the sovereignty of 
 Armenia, over which he had placed his brother Tiridates. 
 The difficulty was finally compromised by Tiridates going 
 to Rome to receive the crown from Iviero. Vologeses 
 died in 90 a.d. 
 
 Arsaces XXIV., (Pac'o-rus,) son of the above, 
 after a reign of nearly eighteen years, died about 107 A.D. 
 
 Arsaces XXV., (■ehos'ro-es,) [Gr. Xooparjc ; Per- 
 sian, Khos'roo' or Kosrew,] brother of the preceding, 
 was defeated by Trajan in 114, and finally driven from 
 his throne, on which Parthamaspates was placed by the 
 Roman emperor; but on the death of Trajan, in 117, 
 Chosroes expelled his rival, and died probably in 122, 
 greatly esteemed by his subjects. 
 
 Arsaces XXVI, (Vologeses II.,) a son of Arsaces 
 XXV., is said to have gained great advantages over the 
 Romans for a period, but afterwards, having been driven 
 back into his own dominions, he is supposed to have 
 died in 149 a.d. 
 
 Arsaces XXVII., (Vologeses ILL,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, seems, like all his predecessors, to have been in- 
 volved in wars with Rome. Diedin2i6A.D. Somewriters 
 suppose two or more kings to have reigned between Ar- 
 saces XXVI. and XXVIII., (as we have numbered them :) 
 on this point see article " Partner," in Ersch and Gru- 
 ber's " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," by Krause. 
 
 Arsaces XXVILL, (Artabanus IV.,) also called 
 Ardavan, was a son of Arsaces XXVII., and was the 
 last king of Parthia of the dynasty of the Arsacida:. He 
 began to reign about 216 A.D. In 217 he fought an in- 
 decisive battle against the Romans, under Macnnus, near 
 Nisibis. He then turned his arms against the Persians, 
 who had revolted and were led by Ardsheer or Artax- 
 erxes. Having been defeated and taken prisoner, he 
 was put to death by Ardsheer about 226 A.D. 
 
 Ar-sa'ces (or ar'sa-sez) L, King of Armenia, was a 
 son of Arsaces XIX. (Artabanus III.) of Parthia. He 
 obtained the throne by the aid of his father in 35 A.D. 
 About a year later he was murdered by his own officers, 
 who were bribed by Mithridates the Iberian. 
 
 Arsaces II. was placed on the throne of Armenia in 
 222 or 223 A.D. by his brother Artabanus IV., King of 
 Parthia. He joined Alexander Severus in his expedi- 
 tion against Persia, by which alliance he saved his own 
 kingdom. He died before 260 a.d. 
 
 Arsaces ITT, of Armenia succeeded his father Tiri- 
 dates III. about 340 a.d. He waged war against Sapor, 
 King of Persia, about 360, and entered into an alliance 
 with Julian the Apostate. In the campaign of 363 A.D. 
 he deserted Julian, whose defeat and death near Ctcsi- 
 phon are attributed to the treachery of Arsaces. His 
 nobles having rebelled against him, he applied for aid to 
 Sapor, who detained him in captivity until his death. 
 
 See AMMiAiiusMARCELLiNUS,book:ixx., xxi., xxiii.,xxv., andxxvii. 
 
 Arsaces IV. was probably a grandson of Arsaces III. 
 He began his reign conjointly with his brother Valarsaces 
 in 382, but, the latter dying the next year, he reigned alone, 
 till his deposition by Sapor and Theodosius, who divided 
 his kingdom between them about 387 A.D. 
 
 Arsachel. »See Arzachel. 
 
 Arsacid or Arsacide, ar-sas'sid, the English sin- 
 gular of Arsacidve; employed also as an adjective. The 
 plural form Arsacids or Arsacides is rarely used. 
 
 Arsacidae, ar-sas'e-de, [Fr. Arsacides, iR'si'sed' ; 
 Ger. Arsaciden, aR-sat-see'den, and Arsakiden, aR- 
 sa-kee'den ; a patronymic from Arsaces, which appears 
 to have been a very common name among the ancient 
 Persians, Parthians, etc.,] an appellation given to several 
 Asiatic dynasties, but especially to the dynasty of Par- 
 thian kings who reigned from Arsaces I., about 250 B.C., 
 to the death of Artabanus IV., (Arsaces XXVIII., — or 
 XXXI., according to some authorities,) in 226 A.D., and 
 to a dynasty of Armenian kings who reigned between 
 150 B.C. and 430 A.D. 
 
 Arsakes. See Arsaces. 
 
 Arsakiden. See Arsacid^e. 
 
 Ar-sa'mes, [Gr. 'A/iau/ji/c,] the father of Hystaspes, 
 and grandfather of Darius I., King of Persia. Another 
 of the same name, son of Darius I., accompanied Xerxes 
 in his expedition against Greece. A third was a favourite 
 (illegitimate) son of Artaxerxes Mnemon. A fourth is 
 supposed to have been a king of Armenia in the time 
 of Seleucus II., and the founder of Arsamosata. 
 
 Arsdekin. See Archdekin. 
 
 Arsene. See Arsenius. 
 
 Ar-se'nI-us, [Gr. 'Apaevioc; Fr. Arsene, iR'sJn',] 
 Saint, written also A rsennus > born at Rome in 354 or 
 355 A.D., was appointed tutor to Arcadius, son of the 
 emperor Theodosius, in 383, and remained at the court 
 of Constantinople eleven years, having gained the favour 
 of the emperor. In 394 he retired to a desert in Egypt, 
 where he became noted for his ascetic piety. Died in 
 
 449 A.D. 
 
 Arsenius surnamed Autoria'nus, Patriarch of 
 Constantinople, was born in that city about the end of 
 the twelfth century. He was appointed in 1259, by the 
 Greek emperor Theodore Lascaris II., guardian of .the 
 prince his son, an office for which he seems to have been 
 wholly unfitted. He was circumvented by Michael Palaeol- 
 ogus, who usurped the throne and banished the patriarch 
 for his refusal to grant him absolution. Died in 1273. 
 
 Arsenius, a distinguished Greek scholar and philolo- 
 gist, son of Michael Apostolius, born in the latter part of 
 the fifteenth century, was, it is supposed, a native of 
 Candia (Crete) or of Italy. He became Roman Cath- 
 olic Archbishop of Malvasia, or Monembasia, in the 
 Morea. He edited his father's " Apophthegmata," and 
 a collection of scholia on several dramas of Euripides, 
 (1534.) Died in 1535. 
 
 See Hodius, "De Grsecis illustribus." 
 
 Arsenius, a Greek bishop, who accompanied Jere- 
 miah II., Patriarch of Constantinople, to Russia, about 
 1588, when he established the Russian Patriarchate, of 
 which Arsenius wrote an account. 
 
 Arsenius, a Greek monk, founder of a Greek and Latin 
 school at Moscow in the early part of the seventeenth 
 century, and inventor of a type still called the Arsenian. 
 
 Ars'enne, tk'sen', (Louis Charles,) a French painter, 
 born in Paris in 1790, was a pupil of David. He pro- 
 duced some remarkable paintings of religious subjects, 
 among which was " Christ in the Garden of Olives." He 
 also derived from the works of Chateaubriand and Lamar- 
 tine subjects of some designs. 
 
 Arsennus. See Arsenius. 
 
 Ar'ces, |Gr. "AoptK,\ Nar'ses, [Gr. Napcjjc,] or Oar'- 
 ses, [Gr. 'QapoqsA a son of Artaxerxes III., King of 
 :. was placed on the throne in 339 B.C. by Bagoas, 
 who had killed Artaxerxes. After a reign of three years, 
 be was put to death by Bagoas. He was succeeded by 
 1 lariua Codomannu*. 
 
 Arsheiievsky, aR-she-neVske, (Basil,) a Russian 
 mathematician, born at Kiev in 1758 ; died in 1808. 
 
 Arshi, ak'shee, also called Chaki, a Turkish poet, 
 born in Roumelia ; died in 1570. 
 
 Arsilli, aR-sil'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet and 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARSINOE 
 
 182 
 
 ARTAVASDES 
 
 physician, born at Sinigaglia about 1470. He practised 
 in Rome many years, and was a friend of Paulus Jovius. 
 He wrote in verse a descriptive catalogue of contempo- 
 rary Roman poets, "De Poetis Urbanis," (1524,) which 
 is interesting to students of literary history. Died in 1 540. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storiadella Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Ar-sin'o-e, [Gr. 'Apaivo/j,] a concubine of Philip of 
 Macedon, became the wife of Lagus and the mother of 
 Ptolemy I., King of Egypt. 
 
 Arsiiioe', a daughter of Ptolemy I., King of Egypt, 
 and Berenice, was born about 316 B.C., and was married 
 to Lysimachus of Thrace in 300 B.C. In order to secure 
 the succession for her son, she excited the suspicion of 
 Lysimachus against Agathocles, his son by a former 
 marriage, who was put to death in prison. After the 
 death of Lysimachus, in 281 B.C., she went to Thrace 
 with her sons, who were put to death by Ptolemy Cerau- 
 nus. She then fled to Egypt, and became the queen of 
 her own brother, Ptolemy Philadelphus. A gold medal 
 of Arsinoe is extant. 
 
 Arsiiioe, a daughter of Lysimachus, King of Thrace, 
 and Nicaea, became the wife of Ptolemy Philadelphus of 
 Egypt, by whom she had three children, Ptolemy, Ly- 
 simachus, and Berenice. She was banished by the king 
 before his marriage with Arsinoe above noticed. 
 
 Arsinoe, wife of Magas, King of Cyrene, brother of 
 Ptolemy II. of Egypt. 
 
 Arsiiioe, daughter of Ptolemy III., became the wife 
 of her brother, Ptolemy IV., Philopator, by whom she 
 was put to death to make way for Agathoclea, his second 
 wife. She appears to have been the queen whom Livy 
 calls Cleopatra. 
 
 Arsiiioe, daughter of Ptolemy XI., Auletes, and sis- 
 ter of Cleopatra, assumed the sovereignty during the 
 Siege of Alexandria by Caesar in 48 B.C., who, on the 
 capture of the city, carried her to Rome to grace his 
 triumph. She was put to death by Antony, at Cleo- 
 patra's instigation, 41 B.C. 
 
 Arslaii. See Alp-Arslan. 
 
 Artabanus of Parthia. See Arsaces III. and 
 XXVIII. 
 
 Artabasdes. See Artavasdes. 
 
 Artabaze. See Artabazus. 
 
 Artabazes. See Artavasdes. 
 
 Ar-ta-ba'zus, [Gr. 'Apru/jafoc; Fr. Artabaze, iR'tS'- 
 biz',] a Persian general, who lived about 450 B.C. He 
 and Megabysus suppressed the revolt of Inarus in Egypt. 
 
 Artabazus, a Median, who formed a devoted attach- 
 ment to Cyrus, King of Persia. 
 
 See Xenophon's "Cyropaidia." 
 
 Artabazus, a distinguished Persian general and 
 favourite of Xerxes, whom he accompanied on his inva- 
 sion of Greece in 480 B.C. He was present at the battle 
 of Plataea, 479 B.C. 
 
 Artabazus, a general of Artaxerxes I., quelled a 
 revolt of the Egyptians about 460 B.C. 
 
 Artabazus, a Persian general, was a satrap of Asia 
 Minor in the reign of Artaxerxes III., against whom he 
 revolted in 356 B.C. With the aid of the Athenian Chares 
 and other Greeks, he gained several victories. He was 
 afterwards defeated, and fled with his brother-in-law, 
 Memnon of Rhodes, to the court of Philip of Macedon. 
 Having obtained pardon, he returned to Persia, and 
 pro ed his loyalty to King Darius at the battle of Ar- 
 bela. He was appointed Satrap of Bactria by Alexander 
 the Great about 330 B.C. He died, at a very advanced 
 age, about 320 B.C. 
 
 See Thirlwall, " History of Greece;" Diodorus Siculus, books 
 xv. and xvi. 
 
 Artachaees, ar-ta-kee'ez, [Gr. 'ApraxaitK,] a Persian, 
 who cut the canal for Xerxes near Mount Athos, by which 
 his fleet avoided the dangerous voyage round the pro- 
 montory. 
 
 Artaldus. See Artaud. 
 
 Artale, aR-ta'la, or Artali, aR-ta'lee, (Giuseppe,) an 
 Italian poet, born at Mazzareno, in Sicily, in 1628. He 
 Served with distinction in the defence of Candia against 
 the Turks, and was noted as a swordsman and duellist. 
 He published several poetical works of no great merit. 
 Died at Naples in 1679. 
 
 Artapherne. See Artaphernes. 
 
 Ar-ta-pher'nes, [Gr. ' ApTa^pvqc ; Fr. Artapherne, 
 iR'tS'fiRn',] a half-brother of King Darius Hystaspes, by 
 whom he was appointed satrap of the Asiatic coast of the 
 ^Egean Sea and of other parts of Asia Minor in 506 B.C. 
 He intervened in favour of Hippias, who had been ex- 
 pelled from Athens, and ordered the Athenians to receive 
 him again ; but they refused. He suppressed, about 498, 
 a revolt of the Ionians, who were aided by the Athenians. 
 
 Artaphernes, a son of the preceding, was appointed 
 in conjunction with Datis to the command of the Persian 
 army which invaded Greece in 490 B.C., and which was 
 defeated at Marathon. He appears to have been the 
 second in command under Datis in this campaign ; and 
 he commanded the Lydians in the expedition of Xerxes 
 against Greece in 480 B.C. 
 
 Artaphernes, a Persian ambassador, sent in 425 B.C. 
 by Artaxerxes I. on a mission to Sparta. 
 
 Artario, aR-ta're-o, (Joseph,) a Swiss sculptor and 
 modeller, born near Lugano in 1697. He worked in 
 Germany and England, and his productions are called 
 good imitations of the antique. He died at Cologne in 
 1760. 
 
 Ar-ta-si'res, [Gr. 'Apraaipric,] a corruption of the 
 Armenian Ar'da-shir' or Ar'da-sheer', i.e. Artax- 
 erxes, written also Ardashes, a son of King Bahram 
 Sapor, was the last king of Armenia of the dynasty of 
 the Arsacidae. He was deposed in 428 A.D. by Bahram 
 V. of Persia, who annexed Armenia to his own empire. 
 This result was promoted by the Armenian nobles, who 
 were opposed or indifferent to Christianity. Artasires 
 was nominally a Christian. 
 
 Artaud, iR'to', [Lat. Artai/dus,] an archbishop of 
 Rheims in the first half of the tenth century. 
 
 Artaud, (Antoine Francois Marie,) a French 
 antiquary, born at Avignon in 1767. His chief work is 
 " The Mosaics of Lyons," (" Les Mosai'ques de Lyon," 
 1818.) Died in 1838. 
 
 See Dumas, " £loge de A. F. M. Artaud," 1840. 
 
 Artaud, (Jean Baptiste,) a French dramatist, born 
 at Montpellier in 1732. Among his works is "Le Cen- 
 tenaire de Moliere," (1773,) which was performed with 
 success. Died in 1796. 
 
 Artaud, (Joseph Pierre,) a French prelate, born in 
 Venaissin in 1706, became eminent as a preacher, and 
 was appointed Bishop of Cavaillon in 1756. He wrote 
 a "Panegyric on Saint Louis," (1754,) and "Pastoral 
 Instructions," which are commended. Died in 1760. 
 
 Artaud, (Nicolas Louis,) a French writer and trans- 
 lator, eminent as a Greek scholar, was born in Paris in 
 1794. After the revolution of 1830, he became inspec- 
 tor of the Academy of Paris, and inspector-general of 
 letters. In 1840 he was commissioned to organize 
 instruction in Algeria. He was a member of the coun- 
 cil of public instruction a few years before his death. 
 He translated the tragedies of Sophocles, (3 vols., 1827,) 
 the comedies of Aristophanes, (6 vols., 1830,) and the 
 tragedies of Euripides, (1832.) Among his works is a 
 " Literary Essay on the Poetical Genius of the Nine- 
 teenth Century," (1825.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Artaud de Montor, iR'to' deh miN'toR', (Alexis 
 Francois,) Chevalier, a French author, born in Paris 
 in 1772. In his early life he. was secretary to several 
 embassies to Rome and other cities of Italy. He after- 
 wards devoted himself to literature and arts, and was 
 admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions. Among 
 his works are " Lives of Artists," " Machiavel, his 
 Genius and Errors," (1833,) a " History of the Sovereign 
 Pontiffs," 8 vols., and a "Life of Pope Pius VII.," 
 which passed through eleven editions and obtained a 
 prize of the French Academy in 1838. Died in 1849. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Ar-ta-vas'des, [Gr. 'Apraovuadijc ; Fr. Artavasde, 
 fR'tS'vSsd',1 Ar-ta-bas'des, [Gr. 'Apraffdovfyf,] or Ar- 
 ta-ba'zes, [Gr. 'ApTafiufyc; in Armenian, Ar'da-wazt' 
 or Ar'ta-wazt',1 King of Armenia, was a son of Tigra- 
 nes. He formed an alliance with the Roman Crassus 
 against the Parthians in 54 B.C. After Crassus persisted 
 in meeting the enemy in an open level country against 
 the advice of Artavasdes, the latter retired into Armenia 
 and made peace with Orodes the Parthian. He offered 
 his assistance to Antony in his expedition against Par- 
 
 te, T, 6, u, f, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fl, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit, met; n6t; good; moon: 
 
ARTAVASDES 
 
 '83 
 
 ARTEMISIA 
 
 thia in 36 B.C., but deserted him in the same year. In 
 34 he was enticed by Antony to the Roman camp, and 
 detained as a captive until 31 b.c, when he was put to 
 death by Cleopatra. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, "History;" Tacitus "Annals." 
 
 Artavasdes IX, placed by Augustus on the throne 
 of Armenia in 6 H.c, was driven out by his subjects the 
 (allowing year, 
 
 Artavasdes IH. was King of Armenia and ally of 
 Sapor I., King of Persia, in 260 A.D., when the latter con- 
 quered and took prisoner the emperor Valerian. 
 
 Artavasdes or Ar-ta-bas'dus [Gr. 'ApraSaa^; 
 . Fr. Artavasde, ik'ti'visd'] surnamed Curopala'tes, 
 was the political chief of the orthodox party at Con- 
 stantinople in the reign of Constantine V., who was 
 art iconoclast. He rebelled in 742 A.D., and was pro- 
 claimed emperor by his party. In the civil war that 
 ensued, he was defeated, taken prisoner, and executed 
 about the end of 743 A.D. 
 
 Artaxerce. See Artaxerxes. 
 
 Ar-tax-erx'ei L, Lon-gim'a-nus, [Gr. 'ApTa&pfric 
 Uaupoxrtp ; Kr. Artaxerce LoNGUE-Main, SR't Jk's^Rss' 
 loNg'ma.\'; Persian, Ard'sheer' Darazdast,] a celebra- 
 ted king of Persia, the son of Xerxes I., whom he succeeded 
 in 465 B.C. He was surnamed Longimanus (i.e. Long- 
 banded) because his right hand was longer than his left. 
 He killed with his own hand Artabanus, who had mur- 
 dered his father. Among the events of his reign was a 
 revolt of the Egyptians, (460,) who were aided by the 
 Athenians. About 455 B.C., Egypt, with the exception 
 of the marshes of the Delta, was subjected to the power 
 of Persia. The Persians, however, were defeated by the 
 Athenians, tinder Cimon, near Salamis, in Cyprus, in 449 
 B.C. The reign of Artaxerxes is described by Plutarch as 
 wise and moderate. He died in 425 B.C., and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Xerxes II. 
 
 See DrouoRUs Siculus; Thirlwall, "History of Greece." 
 
 Artaxerxes II, surnamed Mnemon (nee'inon) from 
 the excellence of his memory, was the eldest son of 
 Darius II. and Parysatis, and began to reign in 405 n.c. 
 His younger brother Cyrus, who was satrap of the west- 
 ern part of Asia Minor and aspired to the throne of Per- 
 sia, collected a large army, in which were ten thousand 
 Greeks. Artaxerxes having taken the field in person, 
 the armies met at Cunaxa in 401 B.C., and Cyrus was 
 killed. (See Cyrus and Xenophon.) His provinces in 
 Asia Minor were invaded by the Spartan Agesilaus, who 
 gained several victories; but this danger was averted by 
 the peace of Antalcidas, in 387 B.C. His reign was dis- 
 turbed by many revolts, and his efforts to recover Egypt 
 failed. His eldest son Darius was detected in a conspi- 
 racy against the king, by whose order he was put to death. 
 Artaxerxes died in 362 B.C., aged about ninety-four. 
 
 See article "Artaxerxes," in Plutarch's " Lives ;" Diodorus Sicu- 
 lus; Xenophon, "Anabasis;" Thirlwau, " History of Greece." 
 
 Artaxerxes ITX (or O'-ehus) was a son and suc- 
 cessor of the preceding. He massacred his father's 
 surviving children, and became notorious for cruelty. 
 By the aid of Mentor the Rhodian, and other Greeks, he 
 reduced Egypt to his domination about 350 or 345 B.C. 
 He abandoned himself to sensuality, and left the direc- 
 tion of the government to Bagoas, a eunuch, by whose 
 order he was poisoned in 339 B.C. His son Arses suc- 
 ceeded him. 
 
 Ar-tax'I-as [Gr. 'Apra&as] or Ar-tax'es, ['ApruSjTK,] 
 according to the Greek and Roman historians, founded 
 the kingdom of Armenia in 190 B.C. After the defeat 
 of Antiochus the Great (whose general he was) by the 
 Romans, he made himself independent in-Armenia. 
 
 Artaxias II, King of Armenia, whose father was de- 
 throned and carried to Alexandria by Mark Antony in 
 34 B.C., was chosen king by the Armenians, but expelled 
 by the Romans, and reinstated by Phraates IV. of Parthia. 
 He was murdered bv his nobles for his cruelty. 
 
 Artaxias LTX This sovereign, whose Greek name 
 was Zk'no, a son of the King of Pontus, was placed 
 on the throne of Armenia by the Romans in 18 A.D., 
 after an interregnum of two years in consequence of the 
 flight of Vonones. 
 
 Arteaga, aR-ta-a'ga, (Esteban,) a Jesuit, born in 
 Madrid near the middle of the eighteenth century, re- 
 
 moved to Italy after the suppression of his order. He 
 published at Bologna a history of the Italian lyrical 
 drama, (" Le Rivoluzioni del Teatro musicale italiano," 
 etc., 2 vols., 1783,) which is called the best work on 
 that subject. Died in Paris in 1799. 
 
 Arteaga, (Hortensio.) See Artiaga. 
 
 Arteaga y Alfaro, aR-ti-a'ga e al-fa'ro, (Matias,) 
 a Spanish painter and engraver, one of the founders of 
 the Academy of Seville, was born in that city in the first 
 half of the seventeenth century. Died in 1704. 
 
 See Bbrmudez, "Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Artedi, aR-ta'dee, (Peter,) [Lat. Pe'trus Arcte'- 
 Dius,] an eminent Swedish naturalist, born at Anund in 
 1705. He entered the University of Upsal in 1724, and 
 studied natural sciences and medicine. About 1728 
 he formed, at Upsal, an intimate friendship with Lin- 
 naeus. They entered into a scientific partnership, and 
 agreed to divide the field of labour in natural history. 
 Artedi, having chosen the departments of fishes and 
 reptiles, departed, in 1734, to England, where he had 
 access to the museum of Sir Hans Sloane. He met 
 Linnaeus again at Leyden in 1735, and was employed 
 by Seba, a rich apothecary of Amsterdam, to describe 
 his collection of fishes. Before he had finished this 
 task, he fell into a canal in the night and was drowned, 
 in December, 1735. He left an excellent work on fishes, 
 which was published by Linnaeus in 1738, with the fol- 
 lowing title, " Petri Artedi Ichthyologia sive Opera 
 omnia de Piscibus," etc. This was the most complete 
 work that had appeared on that subject. In the opin- 
 ion of Du Petit-Thouars, " it was worthy to be proposed 
 as a model to natural historians, and was a master-piece 
 which has not yet been surpassed." 
 
 See " Life of Artedi," by Linn^cus, prefixed to his "Opera 
 Omnia," 1738; Gezelius, " Biographiskt-Lexicon ;" "Biographie 
 Universelle." 
 
 Artefius. See Artephius. 
 
 Artemidore. See Artemidorus. ' 
 
 Ar-tem-I-do'rus, [Gr. 'Aprefiidupoc; Fr. Art£mi- 
 noRE, iR'ta'me'doR',] a Greek grammarian, who lived 
 about 240 B.C, was a pupil of Aristophanes of Byzantium. 
 His works are not extant. 
 
 Artemidorus, a Greek physician, born in Pamphylia 
 in or after the third century B.C. He taught that the 
 cesophagus or stomach was the seat of hydrophobia. 
 
 Artemidorus, a native of Cnidos, grammarian, and 
 friend of Julius Caesar, lived in Rome. According to 
 Plutarch, he was informed of the plot to kill Caesar, and 
 warned him of his danger in a letter which Caesar held 
 in his hand (but had not read) when he entered the 
 senate-house on the Ides of March. 
 
 Artemidorus, a painter at Rome in the time of the 
 poet Martial, by whom he is ridiculed. 
 
 Artemido'rus Cap'ito, a Greek physician and gram- 
 marian, who lived at Rome in the time of the emperor 
 Hadrian, and published a valuable edition of Hippoc- 
 rates, which was highly esteemed by Hadrian. 
 
 Artemido'rus Corne'lius, an ancient physician, 
 an accomplice of Verres in his iniquities in Cilicia and 
 Sicily. He is mentioned by Cicero in this connection. 
 
 Artemido'rus Daldia'nus, a native of Ephesus, 
 who lived about 160 A.D., wrote a curious work on 
 dreams and their interpretations, (OvupoKpLTiKu,) which 
 is valuable for the light it throws on ancient customs 
 and opinions. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotlieca Grjeca." 
 
 Artemido'rus ok Eph'ksus, a geographer, who lived 
 about 103 B.C., and who is frequently quoted by Strabo. 
 
 Artemis, {'Apre/iic,] the Greek name of the goddess 
 Diana, which see. 
 
 Artemise. See Artemisia. 
 
 Artemisia, ar-te-mish'e-a, [Gr. 'Aprefuaia ; Fr. Arte- 
 mise, tR'ti'mez',] a warlike queen of Halicarnassus, 
 who reigned after her husband's death. She joined the 
 fleet of Xerxes, with her ships, in the expedition against 
 the Greeks, and distinguished herself by bravery and 
 skill at the naval battle of Salamis, fought against her 
 advice in 480 B.C. Being pursued by an Athenian ship, 
 she artfully eluded the danger by attacking a Persian 
 vessel, and thus led her pursuers to think she was not 
 their enemy. A doubtful tradition adds that, in conse- 
 
 ea**;casj; gAard; gas j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jr^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ARTEMISIA 
 
 184 
 
 ARTIGA 
 
 quell' e of disappointed love, she jumped from the Leu- 
 cadian rock into the sea. 
 
 See Herodotus, " History," vii. and viii. ; Pausanias, iii. 
 
 Artemisia, an Oriental princess, celebrated for her 
 grief at the death of her husband and for her devotion to 
 his memory, was the wife of Mausolus, Prince of Caria, 
 who died in 352 B.C. She erected for him at Halicar- 
 nassus a magnificent tomb, which was reckoned one of 
 the seven wonders of the world, and from which such 
 monuments, in succeeding times, have derived the generic 
 name of mausoleum. It is stated that she invited the 
 eminent poets and orators of that time to compete with 
 each other in composing a eulogy on Mausolus, that 
 she mingled his ashes with her drink, and died of grief 
 about two years after his death. 
 
 See Diodokus Siculus ; Strabo, xiv. ; Cicero, " Tusculanae ;" 
 J. C. Avenarius, "Dissertatio de Artemisia et Mausoleo," 1714. 
 
 Artemius. See Anastasius II. 
 
 Ar-te'ml-us [ Gr. 'Ap-f/aoc] or Ar-the'nil-us, ['Apfle- 
 poc, I a Christian commander-in-chief of the Roman 
 army in Egypt in the reign of Constantius. He was put 
 to death on the accession of Julian, (362 a.d.,) on account 
 of his severity towards the pagans. 
 
 Ar'te-mon, ['Apreuuv,] a Greek painter of uncer- 
 tain period, who is classed by Pliny among artists of the 
 second rank. Among his master-pieces mentioned by 
 Pliny was the "Apotheosis of Hercules." 
 
 Artemon, a sculptor, who lived in Rome about the 
 time of Pliny. His works adorned the palace of the 
 Caesars. 
 
 Artemon, a rhetorician, often quoted by Seneca, is 
 supposed to have lived under Augustus or Tiberius. 
 
 Artemon or Ar'te-mas, the founder of the sect of 
 Artemonites, who denied the divinity of Christ, lived in 
 the third century. 
 
 Artemon of Cassandria, a learned grammarian, who 
 Nourished about 300 B.C. 
 
 Artemon of Clazomenae, a famous engineer, the re- 
 puted inventor of the testudo and battering-ram, was 
 employed by Pericles in the siege of Samos. 
 
 Ar-te'phi-us or Ar-te'fl-us, an alchemist, who ap- 
 pears to have lived in the twelfth century. 
 
 Arteveld, van, van aR'teh-v£lt', or Artevelde, van, 
 vin aR'teh-veTdeh, (Jacob,) a famous demagogue, born 
 at Ghent near the beginning of the fourteenth century. 
 He was a wealthy brewer, and by his eloquence and 
 other talents acquired great influence over the people of 
 Ghent, who, having revolted against the Count of Flan- 
 ders, chose Arteveld as the commander of their forces. 
 He confirmed his power by proscribing the nobles, and 
 ruled the city in a violent and arbitrary manner. In 
 1335 he formed an alliance with Edward III. of Eng- 
 land, whom he aided in his war against France. In 
 1340 he induced the Flemings to do homage to Edward 
 as King of France. He afterwards formed a project to 
 make the English Black Prince Count of Flanders. The 
 citizens of Ghent, led by Gherard Denys, revolted against 
 him for this cause and killed him in 1345. He is called 
 James d'Arteville by Hume, and Jacques d'Artvelle by 
 French writers. 
 
 See Froissart, "Chronicles;" Meyer, "Annales Rerum Flandri- 
 carum ;" Ecrevisse, " Redevoering op J. van Artevelde," 8vo, 1846 ; 
 J. de Winter, "J. van Artevelde^" 8vo, 1846. 
 
 Arteveld, van, (Philip,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Ghent about 1540, and inherited his father's 
 riches. He passed the prime of life in a private station, 
 which he suddenly left to become, like his father, a 
 powerful popular leader. In 1379 the people of Ghent 
 revolted against Louis, Count of Flanders, who be- 
 sieged that city so effectually that famine was imminent. 
 Finding that their leaders were inadequate for the crisis, 
 they nominated Arteveld captain by acclamation in 1381. 
 In May, 1382, he gained a decisive victory over Count 
 Louis at Bruges, which was captured by the victors, and 
 he assumed the title of regent. Charles VI. of France 
 soon after sent an army under Clisson to aid the Count 
 of Flanders against the insurgents, who were defeated 
 with great loss at Roosebeke or Rosebec in November, 
 1382. Arteveld was killed in this battle, and Count 
 Louis became master of Ghent. 
 
 See Froissart, "Chronicles;" M. de Barante, " Histoire de 
 Bourgogne." 
 
 Artevelde. See Arteveld. 
 
 Arteveldt, van, (Andrew.) See Artvelt. 
 
 Arteviile or Artvelle. See Arteveld. 
 
 Ar'thur or Ar'tus, written also Artur, a semi-fabu- 
 lous prince of Britain, and hero of the famous romances 
 of .the Round Table, is supposed to have flourished in 
 the fifth or sixth century, during the dark period which 
 occurred between the evacuation of Britain by the Ro- 
 mans and the conquest of that island by the Saxons. 
 The authentic accounts of his deeds are so scanty that 
 his existence has been doubted by some antiquaries. 
 According to popular tradition, he gained several victo- 
 ries over the Saxons, and over Cerdtc, the founder of 
 the West Saxon kingdom, after which he was killed in 
 battle against his rebellious nephew Modred or Medrod 
 at Camlan. His exploits were the favourite subjects of 
 mediaeval poets and romancers. Hume calls him Prince 
 of the Silures. (" History of England.") 
 
 See Turner, "History of the Anglo-Saxons;" Owen, "Cam- 
 brian Biography ;" Leland, "Assertio Arthuri ;" Joseph Ritson, 
 " Life of King Arthur," 1825. 
 
 Ar'thur I., Duke of Brittany, born in 1187, was a 
 grandson of Henry II. of England. He was put to death 
 by his uncle John Lackland in 1202. 
 
 Arthur II. of Brittany, born in 1262, was a son of 
 John II. Died in 1312. 
 
 Arthur III., Due de Bretagne, (or Brittany,) born in 
 1393, was a son of John (Jean) V. He fought for the 
 Orleans faction, was wounded at Agincourt, and became 
 Constable of France about 1424. He succeeded to the 
 dukedom at the death of his nephew Pierre in 1456. 
 Died in 1457. 
 
 Ar'thur, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of Henry 
 VII. and Elizabeth of York, was born in i486. He 
 married Catherine of Aragon in 1501, and died without 
 issue in 1502, after which his widow became the wife of 
 his brother, Henry VIII. 
 
 Ar'thur, (Archibald,) a Scottish divine of liberal 
 principles, was born in Renfrewshire in 1744, and licensed 
 as a preacher in 1767. Soon after that date he was 
 appointed chaplain to the University of Glasgow. He 
 became the assistant of Dr. Reid as professor of moral 
 philosophy at Glasgow in 17S0, and succeeded to the 
 chair vacated by Dr. Reid at his death in 1796. He 
 died in June, 1797, leaving "Discourses on Theological 
 and Literary Subjects," (1803.) 
 
 Ar'thur, (Timothy S.,) an American writer of f ction, 
 born near Newburg, Orange county, New York, in 1809. 
 He was educated in Baltimore, and became a clerk or 
 agent of a banking company. Since 184.1 he *.as resided 
 in Philadelphia. He has written many popular tales 
 illustrative of domestic life and designed to promote 
 morality. Among his works are " Lights and Shadows 
 of Real Life," " Tales for Rich and Poor," (6 vols.,) 
 "Library for the Household," (12 vols.,) "The Good 
 Time Coming," (1855.) 
 
 Arthus, aR'toos, Ar'tus, or Ar-thu'si-us, (Gott- 
 hard,) a translator and compiler, born at Dantzic about 
 1570. Among his publications is a " History of the East 
 Indies," ("Historia Indiae Orientalis," 1608.) He sup- 
 plied many Latin translations for De Bry's "Collection 
 of Voyages." 
 
 Artiaga, or Paravicino y Artiaga, pa-ra-ve-thee'- 
 no e aR-te-a'ga, (Hortensio Felix,) a Spanish poet and 
 priest, born at Madrid in 1580, was appointed preacher 
 to Philip III. in 1616. As a poet he was a disciple 0/ 
 Gongora, and was much admired by his contemporaries. 
 Died in 1633. 
 
 Artieda.de, da a R-te-a'Da, (Andres Rey — raorra^e,) 
 a Spanish writer, born at Valencia about the mid.lhTof 
 the sixteenth century. He served in the army for many 
 years, and distinguished himself at Lepanto. lie wrote 
 "The Lovers," ("Los Amantes," 1581,) and other 
 dramas. His reputation rests chiefly on his " Discourses, 
 Epistles, and Epigrams," (1605.) Died in 1613. 
 
 Artiga, de, da aR-tee'ga, (Don Francisco,) a Span- 
 ish landscape-painter and engraver, born at Huesca 
 about the middle of the seventeenth century. He founded 
 and endowed a chair of mathematics at Huesca, and 
 taught in it himself. He wrote treatises on mathematics 
 and other subjects. Died in 1 711. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a. e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ARTIGAS 
 
 185 
 
 AR UNDEL 
 
 Artigas, aR-tee'gas, (Don Juan or Fernando Jose,) 
 a South American general, born at Montevideo about 
 1760. He entered the service of the Junta or republic 
 of Buenos Ayres about 181 1, before which he had been 
 a leader of the lawless Gauchos. He gained victories 
 over the royalists, made himself master of the Banda 
 Oriental, and became a general. Having quarrelled with 
 Posadas, the director of the new state, he raised an army 
 of Gauchos, defeated the troops of Buenos Ayres, and 
 compelled the Junta to recognize him as independent 
 chief of the Banda Oriental in 1814. He waged war with 
 various success against the Portuguese, who invaded the 
 Banda Oriental in 1816. In 1820 he captured the city 
 of Buenos Ayres, but before the end of the year he was 
 driven into exile. Died in Paraguay in 1825 or 1826. 
 Akmitagk, " History of Brazil." 
 
 Artigny, d', diR'ten've',( Antoinf. Gachat — gi'sht',) 
 a French litterateur, born at Vienne in 1706, became a 
 canon of the church in that city. He published a valua- 
 ble work entitled " New Historical, Critical, and Literary 
 Memoirs," (" Nouveaux Memoires d'Histoire, de Cri- 
 LitteVature," 7 vols., 1749-56.) Died in 1778. 
 
 Artis, d', daVte', (Gabriel,) a French Protestant and 
 controversial writer, noted for his zeal against Socinian- 
 ism, was bom in Aveyron in 1660. He became minister 
 of a church in Berlin, but was deprived of that office 
 about 1692 on account of his contentious spirit. Died 
 about 1730. 
 
 Artis, d', [Lat. Artis'ius,] (Jean,) a French writer 
 on canon law and kindred subjects, born at Cahors in 
 1572, was appointed professor of canon law in the Uni- 
 versity of Paris in 1623. Died in 1651. 
 
 Artisjosky. See Arciszewski. 
 
 Artmann, aRt'man, (Jerome,) a celebrated organ- 
 maker of Bohemia, born at Prague in the latter part of 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
 Artner, von, fon aRt'ner, (Maria Therf.sk,) a Ger- 
 man poetess, daughter of an Austrian officer, born at 
 Schnitau, in Hungary, in 1772. She produced several 
 successful dramas, among which was "Quiet Greatness," 
 ('• Stille Grosse," 1824.) Her most popular works are 
 lyric poems, published under the name of Theone, 
 " Field-Flowers from Hungary's Plains, gathered by 
 Minna and Theone," ("Feldblumen auf Ungarns Fluren 
 gesammelt von Minna und Theone," 1800.) Died at 
 Agram in 1829. 
 
 See Doring, "Vie d' Artner," 1820. 
 
 Artois, van, vSn SR'twa', (Jacques,) an excellent 
 Flemish landscape-painter, born at Brussels in 1613. 
 His works are commended for good taste, and for the 
 richness and variety of the details. Many of the figures 
 in his landscapes were painted by the younger Teniers. 
 He obtained high prices for his pictures, but his habits 
 were so extravagant that he remained poor. He is sup- 
 posed to have died about 1665. 
 
 See Hm/BRAKEN, "Groote Schouburg;" Heinecken, "Diction- 
 naire des Artistes." 
 
 Ar-to'mi-us, (Peter,) a Polish poet and Lutheran 
 minister at Thorn, was born in 1552; died in 1609. 
 
 Artopoeus, aR-to-pee'us, or Artopous, aR-to-po'us, 
 (ToiiANN,) a German writer and professor of law, born 
 at Worms in 1520 ; died about 1580. 
 
 Artopoeus, aR-to-pee'us or aR-to-po'ils, sometimes 
 written Artopaeus, (Peter,) a learned Protestant divine, 
 born in Pomerania in 1491, was the author of many 
 polemical and religious works. Died at Stettin in 1563. 
 
 Artopoeus or Artopous, (Johann Christoph,) a 
 philologist and historian, originally named Becker, born 
 at Strasburg, on the Rhine, in 1626. He was professor 
 of Latin in the gymnasium of his native city for many 
 years. He wrote many historical and antiquarian treat- 
 ises, and was the reputed author of a curious Latin 
 " Kssay on the State and Place of Souls after Death," 
 ("De Statu, Loco et Vita Animarum," etc.) Died in 
 1702. 
 
 See Tocher, "Allgerheines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Ar-to'rl-us, [Gr. 'ArmirKuc,] (Marcus,) a medical 
 writer of Rome, was physician to the emperor Augustus, 
 whom he attended in the campaign against Brutus and 
 Cassius, 42 B.C. By his advice, Augustus removed from 
 his camp at Philippi just before it was taken by the 
 
 enemy. Artonus was drowned at sea in 31 D.c. H» 
 was the author of a work on Hydrophobia, which is lost. 
 
 Artot, iR'to', (Joseph,) a Belgian violinist, born at 
 Brussels in 1815 ; died in Paris in 1845. 
 
 Artur or Artus. See Arthur. 
 
 Artus, (Gotthard.) See Arthus. 
 
 Artus, SR'tuss', (Thomas,) Sieur d'Embry, a French 
 litterateur, born at Paris about 1550, was a coadjutor of 
 Blaise de Vigenere. 
 
 Artusi, aR-too'see, (Giovanni Maria,) a writer on 
 music, born at Bologna about the middle of the six- 
 teenth century, was a canon in the church of that city. 
 He published "The Art of Counterpoint," (1586,) and 
 a work " On the Imperfections of Modern Music," 
 (1600.) He is supposed to have died about 1610. 
 
 See Burnev, " History of Music." 
 
 Artusini, aR-too-see'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet 
 and jurist, born at Forli in 1554; died about 1630. 
 
 Artvelt, van, vari aRt'vSlt, (Andries,) a good marine 
 painter of Antwerp, nourished about 1620, and was a 
 contemporary of Van Dyck, who painted his portrait. 
 He excelled in depicting storms. 
 
 Aruajo de Azevedo Pinto Pereyra, a-roo-a'zho 
 da a-za-va'do pen'to pi-ra'e-ra, (Antonio,) Count of 
 Barca, a Portuguese poet and diplomatist of the latter 
 part of the eighteenth century. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Arum, a'rum, (Dominic,) a Dutch jurist, born at 
 Leeuwarden in 1579, became professor of law at Jena 
 about 1605. "He rendered," says Guizot, "importan 
 services to the public law of Germany." Among his 
 works are "Academic Discourses on Public Law," 
 ("Discursus academici de Jure publico," 5 vols., 1617- 
 23,) and a " Treatise on the Diets of the German Em- 
 pire," (" De Comitiis Imperii Romaito-Germanici," 1630.) 
 Died at Jena in 1637. 
 
 See Foppens, " Bibliotheca Belgica." 
 
 Ar'u-na or Ar'un, [Hindoo pron. ur'60-na, and 
 tir'oon,] in the Hindoo mythology, the charioteer of the 
 Sun, (Soorya or Surya.) He is a son of Kasyapa, and 
 brother-german of Garuda, the eagle of Vishnu. As a 
 personification of the dawn, he may be said to corre- 
 spond to the Aurora or Eos of classic mythology. 
 
 See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Ar'un-del, (Lady Blanche,) the wife of Thomas, 
 Lord Arundel, and daughter of Edward Somerset, Earl 
 of Worcester, was born in 1583. She gained distinction 
 by her defence of W ardour Castle against the Parliament 
 about 1642. Died in 1649. 
 
 Arundel, Earl of. See Howard. 
 
 Arundel, (Henry,) third Baron of Wardour, suc- 
 ceeded to his title in 1648. He was one of the five 
 Roman Catholic lords who were imprisoned upon the 
 perjured testimony of Titus Oates. On the accession 
 of James II. he became lord keeper of the privy seal. 
 Died in 1694. 
 
 Arundel, (Mary,) Countess of, a learned English 
 lady and writer of the sixteenth century, was the wife 
 of Henry Howard, Earl of Arundel. 
 
 Arundel, (Thomas,) Archbishop of Canterbury, born 
 at Arundel Castle, Sussex, in 1353, was a younger son 
 of Richard Fitz-Alan, Earl of Arundel. He became 
 Bishop of Ely in 1375, lord high-chancellor in 1386, and 
 Archbishop of York in 1388. In 1396 he was translated 
 to the see of Canterbury. This was the first instance 
 that occurred of a translation from the see of York to 
 that of Canterbury. In 1397 he was impeached for high 
 treason, and banished by Richard II. He took a promi- 
 nent part in the revolution by which Richard was de- 
 throned, and was restored to the see of Canterbury 
 by 1 lenry IV. in 1399. He prohibited the translation 
 of the Scriptures into English, and persecuted the Lol- 
 lards, — i.e. the disciples of Wickliffe. Died in 1413. 
 
 See Fuller. "Church History:" Holinsiird, "Chronicle:" 
 Rapin, "History of England;" W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Arch- 
 bishops of Canterbury," vol. iv. chap, xvii., (i860.) 
 
 Arundel, (Thomas,) first Lord Arundel of Wardour, 
 was a son of Sir Matthew Arundel of Wardour Castle, 
 Wilts, and was bom about 1540. In his youth he en- 
 tered the service of the German emperor, who rewarded 
 his remarkable exploits in the war against the Turks 
 
 k; 5 as s, g hard; g asy; G, H, K,jfullurat; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (jJ^ = See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 cas 
 
AR UNDEL 
 
 1 86 
 
 ASAN 
 
 
 with the title of Count of the Roman Empire, (1595.) 
 lie was created Baron Arundel by James I. in 1605. 
 Died in 1639. 
 
 Arundel, (Thomas,) the second baron, a son of 
 the preceding, fought for Charles I. in the civil war, and 
 was mortally wounded at Lansdowne in 1643. 
 
 Arundel, (Sir Thomas,) was a grandfather of the 
 first Lord Arundel of Wardour. He was a friend of the 
 Duke of Somerset, and was charged with being his ac- 
 complice in treason and in a conspiracy to kill the Duke 
 of Northumberland. Though he was probably innocent, 
 he was executed in February, 1551-52. His wife was a 
 sister of Catherine Howard, a queen of Henry VIII. 
 
 A'ruus or Aruntius, a-run'she^us, [Fr. Aronce, 
 S'r6.Nss',l a son of Demaratus of Corinth, who is said to 
 have emigrated to Etruria, was a brother of Tarquin 
 the Elder, of Rome. 
 
 Aruns, a Roman prince, was a brother of Tarquin the 
 Proud (Superbus,) the last king of Rome. According 
 to the legend, he was killed by his wife Tullia, (a daugh- 
 ter of Servius Tullius,) who was notorious for cruelty. 
 
 Aruns, a son of Tarquin the Proud. After the ex- 
 pulsion of that king, an army of Etruscans marched 
 against Rome to reinstate him, and encountered the 
 Roman army, led by the consul Brutus. Aruns, who 
 fought for his father in this battle, engaged Brutus in a 
 single combat, in which both were killed. 
 
 Aruns, a son of Porsena, who accompanied his father 
 in his invasion of Rome. 
 
 Aruns, an Etrurian, who is said to have invited the 
 Gauls into Italy to revenge himself for an insult offered 
 to his wife by a noble of that country. 
 
 Aruns, a Roman historian, lived about 60 B.C., and 
 wrote a History of the Punic War. 
 
 Arusianus, a-ru-she-a'nus, (Messus or Messius,) a 
 Roman grammarian, of whom nothing is known except 
 that his name is connected with a work called " Quad- 
 riga vel Exempla Elocutionum," a vocabulary of remark- 
 able phrases found in Virgil, Sallust, Terence, and Cicero. 
 The value of this is enhanced by many fragments of the 
 lost works of Sallust and Cicero which are preserved in it. 
 
 Ar-van'dus, a prefect of Gaul from 467 to 472, was 
 condemned to death by the Roman senate for malprac- 
 tices in his office ; but his punishment was commuted to 
 perpetual exile and confiscation of property. 
 
 Arvidsson, au'vids-son, written also Arwidsson, 
 (Truls or Troils,) a Swedish engraver, born at Wes- 
 tervik, studied at Upsal about i6So, and became learned 
 in Oriental languages, especially Hebrew. He was cop- 
 per-plate engraver to the Antiquarian Archives, and pub- 
 lished a singular work on the original music of the first 
 seven Psalms of David, (1705.) Died in 1705. 
 
 Arvieux, d', diit've'uh', (Laurent,) Chevalier, a 
 French traveller and Oriental scholar, born at Marseilles 
 in 1635. He showed much tact in negotiating a treaty 
 with the Dey of Tunis in 1668, and rendered important 
 services to the French ambassador at Constantinople in 
 1672. He was consul at Aleppo from 1679 to 1686, and 
 refused the office or title of Bishop of Babylon, which 
 was offered him by the pope. His "Treatise on the Man- 
 ners and Customs of the Arabs" (1 717) is commended. 
 His accuracy and veracity have been attested by Niebuhr. 
 He left papers from which Labat compiled " Memoirs 
 of Chevalier D'Arvieux, containing his Travels in Asia, 
 Syria, etc.," (6 vols., 1735.) Died in 1702. 
 
 See also Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Arwidsson. See Arvidsson. 
 
 Arwidsson, aR'wids'son, ( A dolf,) a Swedish scholar, 
 born in Finland in 1791. He was exiled in 1822 from 
 Finland for a political article in a journal. Having re- 
 moved to Stockholm, he was appointed keeper of the 
 royal library. He published, besides other works, a 
 collection of old popular Swedish songs, (3 vols., 1834- 
 42.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Arya, Ir'ya, [Ger. Arja,] English plural Ar'yas, 
 the name of an ancient race of men who are supposed 
 to have dwelt originally near the sources of the Oxus, 
 (Amoo,) and who first crossed the Indus from the north 
 probably about two thousand years before the Christian 
 era. The Aryas were the ancestors of the modern Hin- 
 doos, and were nearly related (as is shown by a com- 
 
 parison of their respective languages) to the ancient 
 Persians. The Aryan language was the Sanscrit, gene- 
 rally regarded as the most ancient of all the Indo- 
 European tongues. Using the term in a more compre- 
 hensive sense, the Aryas may be said to have been the 
 ancestors of the entire Indo-European (otherwise called 
 Aryan) family of nations. The word would seem to have 
 signified originally "agriculturists," used in contradis- 
 tinction to the Turanian or Tartar nations, who were 
 nomadic shepherds, though its later Sanscrit significa- 
 tion is "of good family," "noble," "honourable," and 
 hence it was applied only to the higher castes among the 
 Hindoos. (See Brahmanism.) 
 
 See Max MOller's "Science of Language," pp. 237, 238, 239; 
 Whitney's " Language and the Study of Language," particularly lec- 
 tures v. and vi. 
 
 25P™Aryan,* the adjective derived from Arya, is also 
 used as a noun, with the same signification as Arya. 
 [The Germans use Arif.r, i're-er, singular and plural] 
 
 Aryabhatta, ir-ya-bat'ta, called by the Arabs Ar- 
 yabahr, aR'ya-baHR', a celebrated Hindoo mathema- 
 tician and astronomer, who lived probably about the 
 beginning of the Christian era. He was the earliest 
 known writer on algebra. He announced the diurnal 
 rotation of the earth, and made a near approximation 
 to the truth in his statement of the earth's diameter. 
 
 See Colebrooke's " Essays." 
 
 A-rj?m'bas [Gr. 'Apv/iflac] I., sometimes written Ar- 
 rybas, King of the Molossi, is supposed to have reigned 
 about 390 B.C., and to have been the first to give a well- 
 organized government to the Molossi. 
 
 Arymbas II., also a king of the same people. Died 
 in 346 B.C. 
 
 Ar-jfs-da'ghSs, Saint, a Christian bishop, born in 
 Cappadocia about 280 A.D., was Patriarch of Armenia. 
 Died in 339. 
 
 Arysdagbes, an Armenian grammarian, born in 
 1 1 78; died in 1239. 
 
 Arzachel, aR-tha-cheV, a noted astronomer, who 
 lived in Spain in the latter half of the eleventh century. 
 
 Arzan, aR'zan, an Armenian high-priest and pagan, 
 opposed Christianity by arms. He was killed in 302 a.d. 
 
 Arzao, aR-zowN', (Antonio Rodriguez,) a Brazilian 
 traveller, who, about 1694, explored the province of Minas 
 and the river Doce. 
 
 Arzere, dell', del-laRd-za'ra, (Stefano,) an Italia-.) 
 fresco-painter of note, lived in the sixteenth century, at 
 Padua. He imitated Titian. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 As or Asa. See ^Esir. 
 
 A'sa, [Heb. XDK ; Gr. 'Ao-u,] King of Judah, and a 
 son of Abijam or Abijah, began to reign in 970 B.C. ac- 
 cording to Hales, or 955 according to Usher. He was 
 distinguished by his zeal against idolatry. He died about 
 929 B.C. (See I. Kings xv. ; II. Chronicles xiv.,xv., xvi.) 
 
 Asadi (a'sa'dee) of Toos, a Persian poet, who flour- 
 ished about 950 A.D., was a preceptor of Firdousee, 
 and chief poet at the court of Mahmood of Gazna. 
 Among his works is Gushtasp Nameh, an epic poem. It 
 is said that he wrote the last part of the Shahnameh, 
 which Firdousee left unfinished at his death in 102a 
 
 See "Annals of Oriental Literature," 1820. 
 
 Asam, a'slm, a Bavarian painter, born in the seven- 
 teenth century. He acquired a great reputation by his 
 frescos, and, with his brother Egid, adorned many 
 churches in Bavaria. Among their works are the pic- 
 tures in the Johannes-Kirche at Munich. Died in 1739. 
 
 See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 A'san, [Gr. 'Xauvr/c; Lat. Asa'nes,] King of Bulga- 
 ria, reigning about the close of the twelfth century, 
 restored his country to independence by throwing off 
 the yoke of the Greek Empire. 
 
 Asan TX, (Joannes,) son of the preceding, having 
 been compelled to flee to Russia by the usurpation of 
 a relative, returned about 1217 with a Russian army and 
 drove out the usurper. Died in 1241. 
 
 Asan III., (Joannes,) the last Bulgarian king of the 
 Asanian dynasty, (whose father King Mitzes was an exile 
 
 * Pronounced aVyan or ftr'e-an, to distinguish it from A nan, {i.e. 
 'belonging to Anus," the great heresiarch.) 
 
 S, 8,1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, u, $>, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mil; n&t; gSod; moora 
 
ASANDER 
 
 187 
 
 ASCHENBRENNER 
 
 at the time of his death,) recovered his kingdom in 1279, 
 but was expelled in 12S1 by the usurper Terter or Ter- 
 teres, and died at Constantinople. 
 
 A-san'der, [Or. 'Anuwipof; Fr. Asandre, i'z&NdR',] a 
 M.u edonian ofhcer, was a brother of Parmenio, and son 
 of l'hilotas. He was appointed in 334 B.C. governor of 
 Lydia by Alexander the Great, after whose death he ob- 
 tained the satrapy of Caria. He formed an alliance 
 with Ptolemy the son of Lagus, and extended his power 
 by the conquest of Lycia. From 3 1 5 to 3 1 3 B.C. he waged 
 war against Antigonus. The time of his death is un- 
 known. 
 
 Asander, appointed governor of the Bosphorus in 
 the Tauric Chersonesus by Pharnaces II. in 47 B.C., 
 revolted from his master and formed a kingdom in which 
 he was confirmed by Augustus. He is reputed to have 
 built the wall across the Tauric Chersonesus. 
 
 Asandre. See Asander. 
 
 A'saph [Heb. ^DN] or As'saph, a Hebrew musician 
 or psalmist, who was contemporary with King David. He 
 was the chief of certain Levites whom David appointed 
 to minister before the ark and to thank and praise 
 the Lord. (See I. Chronicles xvi. 5 and xxv. I.) The 
 name occurs at the beginning of many of the Psalms. 
 (See Psalms 1., lxxiii. et sea.) 
 
 As'aph, Saint, a prelate of the seventh century, sup- 
 posed to have been the first Bishop of Saint Asaph in 
 Wales. Several theological works are attributed to him. 
 
 See H. Wharton, " Historia de Episcopis et Decanis Londinen- 
 sibits, etc." 
 
 AsTjoth, [Hun. pron. osh'bot,] (Alexander,) a 
 Hungarian patriot, born in 181 1, distinguished himself 
 as an engineer in the war of 1848-49. Having come to 
 the United States, he was made, in 1861, a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers under General Fremont, in Mis- 
 souri. Died in 1868. 
 
 Asar. See /Esir. 
 
 Asbury, as'ber-e, (Francis,) was born in Stafford- 
 shire, England, in 1745. He was sent by John Wesley 
 to America as a missionary about 1770, and was ap- 
 pointed in 1784 the first bishop of the Methodist Church 
 then organized upon a new basis in the United States. 
 Died in Virginia in 1816. 
 
 See "Asbury and his Coadjutors," by W. C. Larrabee. 
 
 Ascagiie. See Ascanius. 
 
 Ascalus.as'ka-lus, (Conrad,) a German philosopher, 
 lived about 1600-20. He published "Physica et Ethica 
 Mosaica," (1613,) and other works. 
 
 As-ca'nI-us [Gr. 'Aoxuvioc; Fr. Ascagne, fs'ktn'] 
 was, according to Virgil and Livy, a son of ^Eneas and 
 Creusa, and the founder of Alba Longa. He was also 
 called lulus (Julus) or litis, and was claimed by the Julia 
 gens of Rome as one of their ancestors. There are 
 various traditions about him, according to one of which 
 he succeeded his father as King of the Latins. 
 
 Ascanius, Is-ka'ne-us, (Peter,) a Swedish naturalist, 
 who lived about 1 750, was for many years inspector of 
 the mines in the north of Norway. He corresponded 
 with Linnaeus, and published a work on natural history, 
 entitled " Figures enluminees d'Histoire naturelle," 1767. 
 
 AFcarrOli. as-kS-rellee, written also Ascariel, (De- 
 BORA,) a Jewish poetess, born at Rome, lived about 1600. 
 
 As'ca-rus, ['Ao/capoo,] a Theban sculptor, lived about 
 300 B.C. He made a statue of Jupiter, at Olympia. 
 
 As'ce-lin, or Ascelino, a-sha-lee'no, (Nicola,) a 
 Dominican who was sent by Innocent IV. on a mission 
 to Tartaiy about 1245. 
 
 Ascensius. See Radius. 
 
 Asch, van, vin 5sk, (Pieter Janzen — yan'zen,) a 
 skilful Dutch landscape-painter, born at Delft in 1603. 
 He lived to an advanced age, but left few works. 
 
 Asch, von, fon ash, (Georg Thomas,) a physician 
 and anatomist, born at Saint Petersburg in 1729, studied 
 at Gottingen, of which university he was subsequently a 
 liberal benefactor. He was the companion and friend of 
 Haller. He served for some years as a surgeon in the 
 Russian army. Died in 1807. 
 
 Asch, von, (Peter Ernst,) brother of the above, 
 one of the most esteemed physicians of his time in 
 Mosc iw, wrote a work " De Natura Spermatis." 
 
 Ascha. See Maimoon-Ben-Kais. 
 
 Ascham, as'kam, (Anthony,) an English astrologer 
 and writer on herbs, lived about 1550. 
 
 Ascham, (Anthony,) an Englishman, born at Bos- 
 ton, in Lincolnshire, entered Cambridge University in 
 1633. He supported the Parliament in the civil war, 
 and was appointed tutor to the captive Duke of York 
 in 1646. He wrote a work " On the Confusions and 
 Revolutions of Government," (1648.) He was sent soon 
 after as ambassador to Madrid, where he was murdered 
 in 1650 by some English royalists, who were tried and 
 condemned, but released by the influence of the pope. 
 One of them, however, was retaken and executed. 
 
 See Clarendon's "History of the Rebellion." 
 
 Ascham, (Roger,) an eminent English classical 
 scholar and writer, was born near Northallerton, in 
 Yorkshire, in 15 15. He was educated at Saint John's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, and was elected a Fellow of the same 
 in 1534. In 1544 he was chosen orator of the university, 
 and in 1545 published "Toxophilus, or the School of 
 Shooting." "He designed not only to teach the art of 
 shooting," says Dr. Johnson, "but to give an example 
 of diction more natural and more truly English than was 
 used by the common writers of that age. He has not 
 failed in either of his purposes." He was appointed in 
 1548 tutor of the Princess Elizabeth, whom he instructed 
 in Greek and Latin until 1550, when he resigned that 
 situation. His motive appears to have been the offen- 
 sive conduct of some attendants of his pupil. 
 
 On a visit to Lady Jane Grey at her father's country- 
 seat, he found her reading Plato's " Phaedon," in the 
 original. " While the horns were sounding and the 
 dogs in full cry," says Macaulay, " she sat in the lonely 
 oriel with eyes riveted to that immortal page which tells 
 how meekly and bravely the first great martyr of intel- 
 lectual liberty took the cup from his weeping jailer." 
 (" Essay on Lord Bacon.") He was appointed (notwith- 
 standing his Protestantism) Latin secretary to Queen 
 Mary in 1553, and was continued in this office by Queen 
 Elizabeth, (1558,) who also after her accession took les- 
 sons in Greek and Latin from him. He resided con- 
 stantly at court from this time until his death, which oc- 
 curred in 1568. He left a son Giles, and other children. 
 Ascham appears to have had the rare felicity of passing 
 through the worst of times without persecution or dis- 
 honour. His greatest work is "The Schole-Master, or 
 Plain and Perfite Way of teaching Children to under- 
 stand, read, and write the Latin Tonge," (1 57 1,) which 
 is a production of great merit. Dr. Johnson speaks of 
 it as " perhaps the best advice that was ever given for 
 the study of languages." 
 
 See a " Life of Ascham" (probably by Dr. Johnson) appended 
 
 to an edition of his English works, 1761 ; Grant, "De Vita Rogeri 
 Ascham ;" Wood, " Fas ' 
 vol. iv., (1821.) 
 
 Ascham;" Wood, " Fasti Oxonienses;" " Retrospective Review, 
 
 Aschaneus, as-ka-na'us, (Martin,) a Swedish writer 
 of the seventeenth century, obtained the office of " royal 
 antiquarian" about 1630, before which he was a chaplain 
 in the army. He published a translation of the Psalms, 
 (16 19,) and left in manuscript several works, among which 
 was a drama " On the Creation and Fall of Man." 
 
 Aschbach, ash'blK, (Joseph,) a German historian, 
 born at Hochst, near Frankfbrt-on-the-Main, in 1801. 
 He became professor of history at Bonn about 1842. 
 Among his works are a " History of the Visigoths," (1827,) 
 and. a "History of the Omeyyades in Spain," ("Ge- 
 schichte der Omaijaden in Spanien," 2 vols., 1829-30,) 
 which are commended. 
 
 Ascheberg, von, fon aVkeh-b?Rg', or Aschen- 
 berg, von, fon as'ken-bjRg', (Rutger, riit'ger,) Count, 
 an able Swedish general, born at Afgiilden in 1621. He 
 was made a colonel in 1655 for his victory over a greatly 
 superior force of Poles, and defeated the Danes in several 
 actions in 1658-59. In 1670 he attained the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-general. During the war between Sweden and 
 Denmark, which was renewed in 1675, he was charged 
 with the defence of Sweden. The victories of the Swedes 
 at Halmstadt, Lund, and Carlscrona, in 1676, are ascribed 
 to his skill, although the king had the nominal command. 
 He was made a field-marshal in 1680. Died in 1693. 
 
 See Svkn Lagerbring, " Rutger von Aschebergs Lefveme," 1751. 
 
 Aschenbrenner.ash'en-bRen'ner.fCHRiSTiANHElN- 
 
 « as k; 9 as 1; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (23^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AS C UNO 
 
 188 
 
 ASFELD 
 
 RICH.1 a German violinist, born at Alt Stettin in 1654. 
 Died in 1732. 
 
 Asciano, d', dl-sha'no, (Giovanni,) a Siennese 
 painter, lived towards the close of the fourteenth century. 
 
 Ascione, a-sho'na, (Angelo,) a Neapolitan fruit- 
 painter, who lived towards the close of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 Asclepi, as-kla'pee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian natural 
 philosopher, born at Macerata in 1706; died in 1776. 
 
 Asclepiad or Asclepiade, as-klee'pe-ad, the Eng- 
 lish singular of Asclepiad/E; used also as an adjec- 
 tive. 2^"™ The plural form Asclepiads or Ascle- 
 piades rarely occurs in English. 
 
 .A sclepiadse, as-kle-pi'a-de, [Gr. ' ' kaiChfituiMt ; Fr. 
 Asclepiades, ts'kla'pe'ad',] the name of the descend- 
 ants of /Esculapius, who, during several centuries, were 
 the most celebrated physicians of Greece. 
 
 As-cle-pi'a-des, [Gr. 'AaKh/mutij/c ; Fr. Asclepiade, 
 as'kla'pe'Sd',] a Greek lyric poet, inventor of a kind of 
 verse called Asclepiad, is supposed to have lived about 
 600 B.C. 
 
 Asclepiades, one of the bishops of Antioch, was dis- 
 tinguished as a writer of commentaries. 
 
 Asclepiades of Myrleia, a native of Bithynia, said to 
 have taught at Rome in the time of Pompey the Great. 
 To him, or a person bearing the same name, are ascribed 
 various literary works, including a ''History of Bithynia," 
 a work on Spain, and a commentary on the Odyssey. 
 
 Asclepiades of Phlius, a Greek philosopher, who 
 was a pupil or friend of Menedemus, and lived about 350 
 B.C. Nothing is known of his opinions or works. 
 
 Asclepiades, an eminent physician, born in Prusa, in 
 Bithynia, in a.d. 88, was presented by Trajan with the 
 freedom of seven cities. 
 
 Asclepiades ot Samos, a Greek poet, who lived 
 about 280 B.C., is said to have been a teacher of The- 
 ocritus. A number of epigrams preserved in the Greek 
 Anthology are ascribed to him. 
 
 Asclepiades of Tragilos, (a town of Thrace,) sup- 
 posed to have been a pupil of Isocrates, was the author 
 of some critical works. 
 
 Asclepi'ades Bithy'nus, a celebrated Greek phy- 
 sician, born at Prusa, in Bithynia, in the second cen- 
 tury B.C. He practised with great success at Rome, 
 where he founded a school which was very popular. 
 Among his pupils were Artorius (noticed in this work) 
 and Themison. His system exercised an important 
 influence on medical science for a long time. He in- 
 dulged the inclinations of his patients in the use of wine 
 and other things, and professed that a physician's duty 
 consists in healing his patients safely, speedily, and 
 pleasantly. He adopted the corpuscular theory of Epi- 
 curus as the basis of his pathology. His works were 
 numerous ; but only small fragments of them remain. 
 He died at a great age, probably between 90 and 60 B.C. 
 
 See Gumpert, "Asclepiadis Bithyni Fragmenta," 1798; A. Coc- 
 chi, "Discorso priino sopra Asclepiade," 1758; Bianchini, "La 
 Medicina d'Asclepiade," 1769. 
 
 Asclepi'ades Pharma'cion, a Greek physician, 
 lived about 100 A.D. He wrote a work on Pharmacy, in ten 
 books, which is not extant, but is often quoted by Galen. 
 
 See C. F. Harless, "De Medicis veteribus 'Asclepiades' dictis," 
 1828. 
 
 As-cle-pi-o-do'rus, [Gr. 'AwcAj/TnmS'jpoc ; Fr. Ascle- 
 piodore, Ss'kla'pe'o'doR',] an excellent Greek painter, 
 born at Athens, was a contemporary of Apelles, and 
 lived about 330 B.C. According to Pliny, he surpassed 
 Apelles in symmetry. 
 
 Asclepiodorus, a general of Alexander the Great, 
 and a satrap of Syria, lived about 330 B.C. 
 
 As-cle-pl-od'o-tus, [Gr. 'Aa/dr/mofSoroc; Fr. Asci.E- 
 PIOdote, is'kla'pe'o'dot ,] a Stoic philosopher, who was 
 a pupil of Posidonius. 
 
 Asclepiodotus, a Greek physician and mathemati- 
 cian, flourished about 470-500 A.D. 
 
 Asclepiodotus, a New- Platonic philosopher of Alex- 
 andria, was a disciple of Proclus. 
 
 Asclepios or Asklepios. See /Esculapius. 
 
 As-cle'pi-us, [Gr. 'Af7K/l!?7rwc,] the supposed author 
 of a dialogue in Greek on God, Man, and the World, 
 between Hermes and himself. 
 
 Asclepius, an ancient Greek commentator on Hip- 
 pocrates, whose period is unknown. He wrote a com- 
 mentary on the "Aphorisms," which is not extant. 
 
 Asclepius of Tralles, a Christian writer, who lived 
 in the sixth century. He composed a commentary on 
 part of the " Metaphysics" of Aristotle. 
 
 As-cle'pi-us, (Nicholas,) a German theologian, sur- 
 named Barba'tus, was a native of Cassel. He p jb- 
 lished numerous works in Latin. Died in 1571. 
 
 Ascoli, d', (Cecco.) See Cecco. 
 
 Ascoli, d', das'ko-lee, (David,) a Jew who lived about 
 1550, and wrote "Defence of the Hebrews," ("Apologia 
 Hebraeorum," 1559,) for which he was imprisoned. 
 
 Ascoli, d', (Trojano Marulli, tRo-ya'no ma-rool'- 
 lee,) Duke, a Neapolitan officer and personal friend of 
 Ferdinand IV., was remarkable for his loyalty. In 1800 
 or 1801 he was appointed director-general of the police 
 of the kingdom. He is praised for the prudence and 
 humanity with which he restored order after the disturb- 
 ances of 1 798-1 800. Died in 1823. 
 
 Ascondo, as-kon'do, (Francisco,) a Spanish archi- 
 tect, born in the province of Biscay in 1 705 ; died in 
 1 781 at Valladolid. He built several churches and con- 
 vents in Castile. 
 
 As-co'nl-us Pe-dl-a'nus, (Quintus,) an eminent 
 Roman critic and commentator, who flourished about 
 50 A.D., is supposed to have been a native of Padua. 
 He wrote a iLife of Sallust, which is lost, and valuable 
 commentaries on Cicero's orations, some of which are 
 extant. In 1416, Poggio Bracciolini found at Saint Gall, 
 in Switzerland, a manuscript containing commentaries 
 on the following orations: "In Verrem ;" "In Divina- 
 tionem ;" "Pro Cornelio;" "In Toga Candida;" "In 
 Pisonem;" "Pro Scauro;" and "Pro Milone." His ex- 
 planations and comments are historical, legal, and con- 
 stitutional, rather than grammatical. He became blind 
 at the age of seventy-three, and survived the loss of his 
 sight about twelve years. 
 
 See Madvig, "De Q. Asconii Pediani Commentariis Disputatio 
 Critica," 1828. 
 
 Ascough, (Anne.) See Askew. 
 
 Ascough, (Sir George.) See Ayscue. 
 
 Asdrubal. See Hasdrubal. 
 
 Asdrubali, as-dRoo-ba'Iee, (Francesco,) an eminent 
 obstetrical practitioner and teacher at Rome, died in 
 1832. He published a useful work, entitled "Elements 
 of Obstetrics," ("Elementi di Ostetricia," 3 vols., 1793.) 
 
 Aseer-ed-Deen Oomanee or Assir-ud-Din Uma- 
 ni, a-seer' ed- (or 6"6d-) deen' oo-ma'nee, a Persian poet 
 of wit and learning, lived in the thirteenth century. 
 
 Aselli, a-sel'lee, or Asellio, a-sel'le-o, [Lat. Asel'- 
 lius,] (Gasparo,) an Italian anatomist, born at Cremona 
 about 1580, became professor of anatomy at Pavia, after 
 he had served as surgeon-in-chief in the army. He was 
 at Milan when, in 1622, he made the important discov- 
 ery of the lacteal vessels, which has rendered his name 
 memorable. This discovery was announced in a work 
 entitled " On the Lacteal Veins," (" De Lactibus sive 
 Lacteis Venis," etc., 1627.) Died in 1626. 
 
 See Haller, " Bibliotheca Anatomica :" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nei.ile." 
 
 A-sel'11-o, (Publius Sempronius,) a Roman histo- 
 rian, lived about 130 B.C., and was military tribune under 
 Scipio Africanus. He wrote a "History of the Punic 
 Wars," which is not extant. 
 
 Asellius. See Aselli. 
 
 A-sel'lus, (Tiberius Claudius,) a Roman knight, 
 whom Scipio Africanus in his censorship reduced to a 
 lower rank in 141 B.C. He became tribune of the peo- 
 ple in 139 B.C. 
 
 Asen. See ^Esir. 
 
 As'e-nath, a daughter of Poti-pherah, an Egyptian 
 priest, became the wife of the patriarch Joseph. (See 
 Genesis xli. 45, 50.) 
 
 Asensio y Mezorada, a-sen'se-o e ma-tho-ra'Da, 
 (Francisco,) a Spanish engraver, born in Old Castile. 
 Died at Madrid in 1794. 
 
 Asfandiyar. See Isfendiyar. 
 
 Asfeld, d', dts'feld', (Alexis Bidal— be'dil',) Baron, 
 a French officer of German extraction, born about 1650. 
 He served with distinction in several campaigns against 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Q, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nflt; good; in<55n; 
 
ASFELD 
 
 189 
 
 ASHDOWNE 
 
 the Germans, and became marechal-de-camp in 1688. 
 He defended Bonn with great obstinacy for about four 
 months against a large army, and was mortally wounded 
 in that siege in 1689. 
 
 Asfeld, d', (liKNoir Bidal,) Baron, a brother of the 
 preceding, born in 1658. He fought at Fleurus, {1690,) 
 Steenkerke, (1692,) and Charleroi, (1693,) and obtained 
 the rank of marechal-de-camp in 1696. He was an able 
 and active officer of cavalry. Died in 17 15. 
 
 Asfeld, d', (Claude Francois Bidal,) Marquis, an 
 able general, brother of the preceding, born in 1 667. He 
 served in Flanders in 1690-97, and in 1703 obtained a high 
 command in Spain, where he besieged and took many 
 fortified places. In 1704 he became a lieutenant-general. 
 He contributed to the victory of Almanza, where he com- 
 manded the French cavalry, in 1707. He was rewarded 
 with the title of marquis by Louis XIV. about 1714. 
 In 1733 he was second in command under Villars in 
 Italy, and gained several victories. He succeeded Ber- 
 wick as commander-in-chief in Germany in 1734, was 
 made a marshal of France, and maintained the field 
 again.-t Prince Eugene until the peace. Died in 1743. 
 
 See Pinard, "Chronologie historique militaire." 
 
 Asfeld, d', (Jacques Vincent Bidal,) a French 
 Jansenist theologian, brother of the preceding, born in 
 1664. Died in 1745. 
 
 Asgard. See ^Esir. 
 
 As'gill, (Sir Charles,) the first baronet of that name, 
 
 from the station of a clerk to great wealth. He was 
 
 elected lord-mayor in 1757, and created a baronet in 1761. 
 
 Asgill, (Sir Charles,) son of the preceding, born 
 about 1763, served under Cornwallis in America, and 
 was selected, by lot, to be hung in retaliation for an 
 American officer who had been put to death by a party 
 of English ; but he was pardoned through the interces- 
 sion of Marie Antoinette. He served under the Duke 
 of York in 1793, and took a conspicuous part in putting 
 down the rebellion in Ireland. He rose to the rank of 
 general, and died in 1823. 
 
 Asgill, (John,) an English lawyer and pamphleteer, 
 born in the seventeenth century. He published in 1700 
 "An Argument proving that Men may be translated to 
 Heaven without Dying, etc," which caused a great sen- 
 sation. The House of Commons, of which he was 
 elected a member in 1707, condemned his book as blas- 
 phemous, and expelled the author. He attributed death 
 to the power of custom and to the fear of death, rather 
 than to necessity. Asgill advocated the cause of the 
 House of Hanover, in several pamphlets. He died in 
 prison for debt in 1738, aged eighty or more. 
 
 See Kippis, "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Ash, (Edward,) an eminent English physician of 
 London, took the degree of M.D. at Oxford in 1796. 
 He wa> a good scholar, and had excellent conversational 
 powers. He wrote critical articles for a literary paper 
 called "The Speculator," (1790.) About 1797 he dis- 
 covered that when plates of zinc and silver moistened 
 are placed in contact, the zinc is rapidly oxydated. This 
 was a step towards the discovery of the chemical changes 
 and laws on which the action of the galvanic battery de- 
 pends. The discovery of Dr. Ash was published in 1797 
 by Humboldt, to whom he had written a letter. Died in 
 1829. 
 
 Ash, (Dr. John,) F.R.S., an uncle of the preceding, 
 bom in 1723, was educated at Oxford. He had a high 
 reputation as a physician, and practised for many years 
 in Birmingham and London. Among his works is a 
 treatise on the mineral waters of Spa and Aix-la-Cha- 
 pclle, (1788.) He was president of the Eumelian Club, 
 of which Sir Joshua Reynolds and others were mem- 
 bers. Died in 1798. 
 
 Ash, (Rev. John,) an English philologer and dissent- 
 ing minister, born in Dorsetshire about 1724. He was 
 minister of a I'.aptist congregation at Pershore from 
 1 75 r until hi:-, death. His principal work is a " New 
 and Complete English Dictionary," (2 vols., 1775,) which 
 is not considered a high authority. Died in 1779. 
 
 Ash or Ashe, ash, (Saint George,) an Irish prelate, 
 who was born about 1658. During the troubles of James 
 II.'s reign he left for England, and became an attache to 
 Lord Paget, who was ambassador for King William at 
 
 the court of Austria. On his return to Ireland he was 
 made successively Bishop of Cloyne, of Clogher, and of 
 Derry. He was also a member of the Irish privy council. 
 Died in 1718. 
 
 Ash'burne, de, (Thomas,) an English friar, lived 
 about 1350, and wrote a treatise against the "Trialogus" 
 of Wickliffe. 
 
 Ash-burn'ham, (John,) an English gentleman, a 
 native of Sussex, was a confidential agent of Charles I. 
 in the civil war. He was one of the commissioners for 
 the treaty of (Jxbridge in 1644, and was employed in 
 other important missions. Ashburnham and Berkeley 
 were the principal agents and attendants of the king in 
 his escape from Hampton Court in November, 1647, an d 
 in his surrender to Colonel Hammond. He was sus- 
 pected of treachery in this transaction ; but his character 
 has been vindicated from this suspicion. He became 
 groom of the bedchamber to Charles II. about 1660. 
 Died in 1671. His grandson was created Earl of Ash- 
 burnham. 
 
 See Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion ;" Whitelocke, 
 " Memorials." 
 
 Ashburton, Lord. See Dunning. 
 
 Ash'bur-ton, (Alexander Baring,) Lord, an Eng- 
 lish financier and diplomatist, born in 1774, was a son 
 of Sir Francis Baring, a merchant of London. He 
 passed some of his early years in the United States as a 
 commercial agent of his father, and married a daughter 
 of William Bingham of Pennsylvania, a United States 
 Senator. In 1810 he succeeded his father as head of 
 the great firm of Baring Brothers & Company. He was 
 elected to Parliament in 1812 and in several subsequent 
 years. In politics he was a Whig until his opposition 
 to the Reform Bill of 1831 converted him into a sup- 
 porter of Sir Robert Peel. For a few months in 1834-35 
 Mr. Baring was president of the Board of Trade in the 
 cabinet of Peel, through whose influence he was created 
 Baron Ashburton in 1835. Soon after the return of 
 Peel to power in September, 1841, Lord Ashburton was 
 sent on a special mission to the United States to nego- 
 tiate on the subject of a long-disputed boundary between 
 Maine and the British Colonies. For this important 
 service he was selected because his sentiments and an- 
 tecedents were favourable to peace and conciliation. 
 The negotiation on the part of the United States was 
 conducted in a similar spirit by Mr. Webster, and the 
 treaty was signed in 1842. This is usually called the 
 Ashburton Treaty. He was a liberal patron of the fine 
 arts. He died in May, 1848, and left his title to his son, 
 William Bingham Baring, born in 1799. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for July, 184X. 
 
 Ashbury, ash'ber-e, (Joseph,) a distinguished tragic 
 actor, born in London in 1638. Accompanying the 
 Duke of Ormond to Ireland, he became connected with 
 the Dublin stage, and died in that city in 1720. 
 
 Ash'bjf, (Rev. George,) an English antiquary, born 
 in 1724, obtained the living of Barrow, Suffolk, in 1774. 
 He contributed to the works of Bishop Percy, Richard 
 Gough, and Nichols. Died in 1S08. 
 
 Ashby, (Henry,) an English penman and engraver 
 of writing, born in 1744; died in 1818. 
 
 Ashby, (Sir John,) an English admiral, who became 
 a captain before the revolution of 1688. He led the van 
 at the battle of Bantry Bay in 1689, soon after which he 
 was made a vice-admiral of the red. After the defeat 
 of the Earl of Torrington in 1690, the command of the 
 fleet was given to Ashby and two other admirals jointly. 
 As admiral of the blue, he commanded a squadron of 
 the fleet which gained a victory over the French at La 
 Hogue in 1692. Died in 1693. 
 
 See Camprei.l, " Naval History." 
 
 Ash/by, (Turner,) a Virginian general, born in Fau- 
 quier county, Virginia, about 1824. He took arms against 
 the Union in 1861, and distinguished himself as an officer 
 of cavalry. In May, 1862, he became a brigadier-general 
 in the army of Stonewall Jackson. He was killed near 
 Harrisonburg, Virginia, in June of the same year. 
 
 Ashdowne, ash'down, (William,) a writer in de- 
 fence of Unitarianism, lived at Canterbury, England, 
 from about 1760 to 1800. Among his works is one en- 
 titled the "Unitarian, Arian, and Trinitarian Opinion 
 
 C as k; 9 as s ; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23. 
 
ASHE 
 
 190 
 
 ASH WORTH 
 
 respecting Christ, examined and tried by Scripture 
 alone," (1789.) 
 
 Ashe, ash, (Andrew,) an ex:ellent flute-player, born 
 at Lisburn, in Ireland, about 1758. He performed at 
 the Italian Opera-House, London. Died in 1838. 
 
 Ashe, (John,) a patriot of the American Revolution, 
 born in England in 1721, emigrated to North Carolina. 
 He led an expedition against Fort Johnson in 1775, and 
 served as brigadier-general in Georgia in 1778 and 1779. 
 Died in 1781. 
 
 Ashe, (Samuel,) a brother of the preceding, born in 
 1725. He became chief-justice of North Carolina in 1777, 
 and Governor of that State in 1796. Died in 1813. 
 
 His son, John Baptist, born in 1748, was an officer in 
 the Revolutionary war, and afterwards a member of Con- 
 gress. Died in 1795. 
 
 Ashe, (Simeon,) an English Puritan minister, who 
 preached many years in London. He became chaplain 
 to the Earl of Manchester about 1642, and favoured the 
 Parliament in the civil war, but after the death of Charles 
 I. was an opponent of the dominant party. He actively 
 promoted the restoration of 1660. A number of his ser- 
 mons were published. According to Baxter, he was a 
 nonconformist of the old stamp, and was eminent for a 
 holy life. Died in 1662. 
 
 See Neal, " History of the Puritans." 
 
 Ashe, (Thomas,) an. English writer, called Captain 
 Ashe, published, besides other works, "Travels in 
 America," (1808.) Died in 1835. 
 
 See "Life and Correspondence of T. Ashe," 3 vols., 1814. 
 
 Ash'e or Ash'i, sometimes written Asser, (Rab or 
 Rav,) a celebrated Babylonian rabbi, born in 353 a.d. 
 He is said to have been the original author or compiler 
 of the " Babylonian Talmud," which is a vast body of 
 traditions, commentaries, and illustrations of the Hebrew 
 laws, especially of the oral law recorded in the " Mishna," 
 which forms the text of the Talmud. This work was 
 not finished until many years after his death. He was 
 considered a man of great learning, genius, and piety. 
 Died in 427 a.d. For many centuries the Jews regarded 
 the Babylonian Talmud as the chief object of their study 
 and the highest authority for the decision of legal ques- 
 tions. In 1554 the Talmud was burnt, by order of the 
 pope, throughout Italy. 
 
 See Wolf, " Bibliotheca Hebraica;" "Talmud Babylonicum," 
 Amsterdam, 1644. 
 
 Ash'er, [Heb. It^X,] a son of the Hebrew patriarch 
 Jacob and Zilpah, was the head of one of the twelve 
 tribes of Israel. (See Genesis xxx. 13 ; Deuteronomy 
 xxxiii. 24.) The name signifies happy. 
 
 Ash'er, (R. Ben Jechiel,) was head of the Jewish 
 college of Toledo, in Spain, where he was very highly 
 esteemed. His works, all relating to the Jewish laws 
 and religion, are very numerous. Died in 1321. 
 
 Ash'field, (Edmund,) an English portrait-painter, 
 who lived in the age of Charles II. He is said to have 
 been the first artist who drew in coloured crayons (now 
 termed pastels) in imitation of oil-painting. 
 
 Ashi. See Ashe, (Rah.) 
 
 Ashik, ash'ik, a Turkish poet and biographer, born 
 in Roomelia about 1518. He officiated as judge in several 
 towns. He wrote biographies of about four hundred 
 Turkish poets, and a number of lyrical poems, mostly 
 erotic. His ode on the Danube is called one of the 
 finest specimens of Oriental poetry. Died about 1570. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte der Osmanischen Dichtkunst." 
 
 Ash'ley, (Chester,) born in Westfield, Massachu- 
 setts, in 1790, was elected in 1844 from Arkansas to the 
 United States Senate, in which he served as chairman of 
 the Committee on the Judiciary until his death in 1848. 
 
 Ash'ley, (John,) an English musician and dealer in 
 music. He had a son, General Ashley, an excellent vio- 
 linist, who died in 1818. Another son, John James, was 
 noted as an organist. 
 
 Ashley, Lord. See Shaftesbury. 
 
 Ashley, (Robert,) an English translator, born in 
 Wiltshire in 1565. He published translations of" Uranie" 
 from the French of Du Bartas, (1589,) of the "Life of 
 Almansor, King of Spain," from the Spanish, (1627,) 
 and of a few other works. Died in 1641. 
 
 Ash'mole, (Elias,) an English antiquary, alchemist, 
 and herald, born at Lichfield in 161 7, was the founder 
 of the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford. He studied law 
 and astrology, in which he had strong faith. In the civil 
 war he favoured the royal cause. He published in 1652 
 "Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum,"a work which con- 
 sists of treatises on alchemy by various authors. In 1660 
 he was appointed Windsor herald by Charles II. His prin- 
 cipal work, " The Institution, Laws, and Ceremonies of 
 the Order of the Garter," (1672,) was received with great 
 favour, and is still esteemed. About 1682 he presented 
 to the University of Oxford a collection of curiosities, 
 medals, coins, and botanical specimens, the most of 
 which he had received as a gift from the botanist Trades- 
 cant and his son. The museum thus commenced still 
 bears his name. Died in 1692. He left Memoirs of his 
 own life, (1717.) 
 
 See also Allen's " History of Lambeth." 
 
 Ash'more, (John,) an English poet and translator, 
 who lived in the first half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Ash'mun, (Jehudi,) a zealous and efficient promoter 
 of colonization in Liberia, whither he sailed in 1822, 
 from which period he devoted all his time to the cause. 
 He died in Boston in 1828, while on a visit for the re- 
 covery of his health. 
 
 See the "Life of Jehudi Ashmun," by R. R. Gurlev; "North 
 American Review," vol. xli., (1S35;) and "Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 view," vol. xxvi., (1841.) 
 
 Ash'mun, (John Hooker,) a distinguished American 
 jurist, born at Blandford, Massachusetts, in 1800. He 
 graduated at Harvard in 1818, and, on the organization 
 of the department of law in that university in 1S29, was- 
 appointed its first professor. Died in 1833. " He had 
 gathered about him," says Judge Story, " all the honours 
 which are usually the harvest of the ripest life." 
 
 Ashoka. See Asoka. 
 
 Ashraf, ash'raf, a tyrannical and cruel Afghan chief, 
 who occupied the throne of Persia from 1725 to 1729. 
 He was defeated by Nadir Shah, who espoused the cause 
 of the deposed prince Tahmasp, and soon after killed, 
 by a follower of the latter, in 1729. 
 
 See Malcolm, " History of Persia ;" Sir William Jones, " His- 
 toire de Nadir Chah," London, 1770. 
 
 Ash'ton, (Charles,) an English classical critic, born 
 at Bradway, Derbyshire, in 1665. He obtained a pre- 
 bendal stall in Ely, and became master of Jesus College, 
 Cambridge, in 1701. His chief work is an edition of 
 Justin Martyr's "Apologies," (1768.) Died in 1752. 
 
 Ashton, (John,) a gentleman in the service of James 
 II. of England, was executed in 1691, on the charge of 
 conspiring to restore that sovereign. 
 
 Ashton, (Thomas,) a popular English clergyman, 
 born in 1716, was a friend of Horace Walpole. He was 
 elected preacher of Lincoln's Inn in 1762, and published 
 a volume of sermons in 1770. Died in 1775. 
 
 Ashton, (Sir Thomas,) an alchemist in the reign of 
 Henry VI., who had a patent for transmuting the baser 
 metals into gold. 
 
 See Fuller, "Worthies of England." 
 
 Ash'to-reth [Heb. mntyj? ; Gr. 'Aaruprv] or Ash'- 
 ta-roth, the name of a Syrian goddess, who was wor- 
 shipped also by the people of Israel. (See Judges ii. 13 
 and x. 6 ; I. Samuel vii. 3 ; and I. Kings xi. 33 ; also, 
 Milton's "Paradise Lost," book i.) 
 
 Ash'urst, (Henry,) an English gentleman, who ac- 
 quired considerable wealth in London and was noted 
 for his benevolence. He contributed liberally to the 
 support of Puritan preachers, but he professed to belong 
 to no sect. Died in 1680. 
 
 Ash'well, (George,) an English theologian, born in 
 London in 1612, was rector of Hanwell, near Banbury, 
 from 1658 until his death. He published " Fides Apos- 
 tolica," (1653,) an argument for the Apostles' Creed, 
 and a treatise on Socinianism, (1680.) Died in 1693. 
 
 Ash'worth, (Caleb,) D.D., an English dissenting 
 minister, born in Lancashire in 1722. He succeeded Dr. 
 Doddridge in 1752, in accordance with the will of that 
 divine, as principal of the academy in which young men 
 were educated for the ministry, and which was removed 
 from Northampton to Daventry, where Ashworth was 
 then pastor. He fulfilled the duties of this position in 
 
 
 a e, i, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; me t; not; good; moon; 
 
ASINARI 
 
 191 
 
 JSPJSIJ 
 
 such a mannei as fully to justify the recommendation of 
 Dr. Doddridge Died in 1775. 
 
 See Chalmers's "Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 Asinari, a-se-na'ree, (Fedekigo,) Count of Camerano, 
 an Italian poet, born at Asti, in Piedmont, in 1527. He 
 was sent as ambassador to Florence in 1570. He wrote, 
 besides sonnets, madrigals, and other lyrical poems, a 
 tragedy in verse, called "Tancred," (" Tancredi," 1587,) 
 which was highly praised by Italian critics. Died in 1576. 
 
 Asinari, (Ottaviano,) an Italian poet, was a son or 
 brother of the preceding. According to some authorities, 
 he was author of " Tancredi," above referred to. 
 
 Asinelli, a-se-nel'lee, (Gerhardo,) an Italian archi- 
 tect, lived about 1 1 10. He and his brother erected the 
 famous tower of Bologna which bears their name. 
 
 A-sin'I-us, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian jurist, 
 lived in the second half of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Asiiiius Gallus'. See Gallus. 
 
 Asiiiius Pollio. See Pollio. 
 
 Asioli, a-se-o'lee, (Bonifazio,) an Italian composer, 
 born at Correggio in 1769. He was appointed chapel- 
 master to the viceroy Eugene at Milan, and director of 
 the Conservatorio, about 1800. He composed operas, 
 cantatas, and notturnos, which were admired especially 
 for their ease and grace. Died in 1832. 
 
 Asir. See /Esir. 
 
 Asir-ud-Din Umani. See Aseer-ed-Deen. 
 
 A'sl-us, (or a'she-us,) ["Amoc,] of Samos, one of the 
 earliest of the GreelT poets, composed both epic and 
 elegiac poetry, some extracts from which have come 
 down to us. He is supposed to have lived about 700 B.C. 
 
 See Voss, "De Poetis Gratis;" Ulrici, "Geschichte der Hel- 
 leni-chen Dichtkunst." 
 
 Askelof, is'keh-lof, (Johan Christoth,) a Swedish 
 journalist and editor, born in 1787. 
 
 As'kew, written also Ays'cough and As'cough, 
 (Anne,) an English martyr, born in Lincolnshire in 
 1 52 1. Having beerf" convinced of the Reformed doc- 
 trines by reading the Bible, she was turned out of doors 
 by her husband, whose name was Kyme. She was ar- 
 rested in 1545, questioned on the subject of the sacra- 
 ment, and burned at the stake in 1546, after giving proof 
 of invincible fortitude. 
 
 See Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs." Philadelphia, 1867; 
 Fuller, " Church History;" Fox, " Book of Martyrs." 
 
 Askew, (Anthony,) F.R.S., an English physician, 
 noted as a Greek scholar and a collector of classical 
 books and manuscripts, was born at Kendal in 1722. He 
 travelled in the Levant, and after his return practised in 
 London. He was a friend of Dr. Mead, Dr. Parr, and 
 Sir William Jones. Died in 1774. His books were sold 
 at auction for about four thousand pounds sterling. 
 
 See Dibdix, " Bibliomania;" Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Askew, (George.) See Ayscue. 
 
 Asklepiadse. See Asclepiam:. 
 
 Asklepiades. See Asclepiadfs. 
 
 Asklepiodorus. See Asclepiodorus. 
 
 Asklepiodotus. See Asci.fpiodotus. 
 
 Asklepios. See /Esculapius. 
 
 Aslacus, as'la-kus, (Cunradus,) a Norwegian, a pupil 
 of Tycho Brahe, born at Bergen in 1564. He became 
 professor of philosophy and theology at Copenhagen 
 about 1600. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise 
 on the " Moral and Physical Doctrines of Moses," (" Phy- 
 sica et Ethica Mosaica," 1613.) Died in 1624. 
 
 Asmai, Al. See Ai!d-ei.-Malek. 
 
 As'mar, (Maria Theresa,) born near Nineveh in 
 1804, was a daughter of the Emir Abdallah-Asmar, and 
 was educated in the Christian faith. She travelled over 
 the principal part of Asia Minor, and subsequently visited 
 Italy, France, and England, where she published in 1844 
 an account of her adventures. 
 
 See " Memoirs of a Babylonian Princess," London, 1844 ; " Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review." 
 
 Asmonaeans,as-mo-nee'ans, or As-mo-ne'ans, [Fr. 
 ASMONEENS, ts'mo'na'd.N',] a family or dynasty of Jew- 
 ish princes, some of, whom were called Maccabees. 
 The name is derived from Asinonseus or Asamonxus, 
 an obscure person who lived about 300 B.C. His great- 
 grandson Mattathias was eminent as a zealous patriot, 
 
 and left several sons, who ruled Judea and repulsed the 
 armies of their Syrian persecutors. (See Maccab/EUS.) 
 The sovereignty of Judea remained in this family until 
 the death of Antigonus, about 37 B.C. 
 
 See Josephus, "Jewish Antiquities;" and the Apocryphal Booki 
 of Maccabees. 
 
 Asmoneans. See Asmoneans. 
 
 Asne, 1', Ian, (Michel,) an able French designer and 
 engraver, born at Caen in 1596. He engraved after 
 Rubens, Titian, and other masters. Died in Paris in 
 1667. 
 
 Asoka or Acoka, a-so'ka, sometimes written 
 Asho'ka, called also Dhar-ma-so'ka, King of Magha- 
 da, one of the greatest sovereigns that ever ruled in India, 
 was a son of Bindusara, and a grandson of Chandragupta, 
 (the Sandracottus of the Greek historians.) He was 
 born at PStaliputtra about three centuries before Christ. 
 Having attempted the life of his father, he was banished 
 to a distant province. On hearing that his father was 
 at the point of death, he hastened to Pataliputtra, and 
 killed all his brothers except one, who was a son of the 
 same mother w'ith himself, and placed himself upon the 
 throne. But, having at length been converted to Bood- 
 dhism, his character became entirely changed ; and 
 whereas he had formerly been called Chandasoka, (i.e. 
 the " raging Asoka,") he now received the name of 
 DharmSsoka, (the "Asoka of the law,") on account of 
 his zeal for the law of Booddha. He is said (with 
 Oriental hyperbole, no doubt) to have erected eighty- 
 four thousand monasteries (vihars) in honour of the 
 eighty-four thousand discourses of Booddha. (See Gau- 
 tama.) He has left monuments with inscriptions in dif- 
 ferent parts of India, proving that his dominion extended 
 over a large part of what is now known as Hindostan. 
 
 See Koppen, "Religion des Buddha," p. 168 et seq. 
 
 Asola. See Asula. 
 
 Asolano. See Asolanus. 
 
 Asoora or Asoor. See Asura. 
 
 A-sop-o-do'rus, a Greek statuary, mentioned by 
 Pliny, was a disciple of Polycletus. 
 
 Asp, asp, (Matthias,) a Swedish scholar, noted for 
 his knowledge of Greek, born at Norrkjbping in 1696. 
 He became professor of poetry and eloquence at-Upsal 
 about 1730, and professor of theology there in 1737. 
 He wrote many academical dissertations on ancient 
 literature. Died in 1763. 
 
 Asp, (Pehr Olof,) a nephew of the preceding, born 
 at Stockholm in 1745, was minister to Constantinople 
 from 1790 to 1795, and to London from 179610 1799. 
 He wrote a treatise on " Political Economy," (1800,) and 
 "Travels in the Levant," (1805.) Died in 1808. 
 
 As'par, [Gr. "Aonap,] a general of the Eastern Empire, 
 was a son of Ardaburius. In 425 A.D. he and his father 
 defeated the usurper John, at Ravenna. He acquired so 
 much power that at the death of Marcian in 457 A.D. he 
 procured the accession of Leo I., whom he caused to be 
 consecrated by a bishop. This is said to have been the 
 first instance of the consecration of an emperor by a 
 bishop. His Arianism, it seems, prevented Aspar from 
 making himself emperor. In 471 a.d. he was killed in 
 the palace by order of Leo. 
 
 Aspasia, as-pa'she-a, [Gr. 'Koimaia; Fr. Aspasie, 
 Ss'pS'ze',] a Grecian woman, celebrated for her beauty, 
 talents, and political influence, was a native of Miletus. 
 She removed to Athens in her youth, and gained the 
 affection of Pericles, with whom she lived as his wife. 
 The laws of Athens, however, did not permit him to 
 marry a foreigner. Tne comic poets and other scandal- 
 mongers reported that she instigated Pericles to wage 
 war against the Samians. Her house was frequented 
 by the/lite of Athens, and even by Socrates, who called 
 himself her disciple. According to Plutarch, who refers 
 to Plato's "Menexenus" as his authority, many Athe- 
 nians resorted to her on account of her skill in the art 
 of speaking. It was commonly reported that she com- 
 posed part of the famous funeral oration which Pericles 
 pronounced over the Athenians who fell in battle. She 
 was once prosecuted by the poet Hermippus on a charge 
 of impiety, but was acquitted through the efforts of Peri- 
 cles. She survived Pericles, who died in 429 B.C., and is 
 said to have formed a similar connection with Lysicles. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, tuual; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ASPASIA 
 
 192 
 
 ASQUINI 
 
 There is an antique bust which bears the name of Aspa- 
 sia and is supposed to be a portrait of the subject of this 
 article. "Aspasia," says Madame de Stael, " was consid- 
 ered a mode! of female loveliness, as Alexander of hero- 
 ism," ("Aspasie signifiait la plus aimable des femmes, 
 comme Alexandre le plus grand des heros.") 
 
 See Plutarch, "Pericles;" Suidas, 'Ao-n-ao-t'o ; Burigny, "Vie 
 d' Aspasie." 
 
 Aspasia the Younger, a beautiful Ionian lady, be- 
 came the wife of Cyrus the Younger, who changed her 
 original name, Milto, to Aspasia. She was distinguished 
 for virtue and intelligence. After Cyrus had been killed 
 at Cunaxa, 401 B.C., she was taken as a captive by the 
 king Artaxerxes, whose favour she gained. When this 
 king appointed his son Darius as his successor, the lat- 
 ter requested his father to give him Aspasia ; but the old 
 king preferred to consecrate her as a priestess of Anaitis. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Life of Artaxerxes." 
 
 Aspasius (as-pa'she^us) [Gr. 'AoTraoroc] the Peripa- 
 tetic, a Greek writer, lived probably in the first century 
 of the Christian era. His commentaries on Aristotle's 
 "Nicomachean Ethics" are extant. 
 
 Aspasius of Byblos, a teacher of rhetoric, lived about 
 150 A.D., or later, and wrote several works. 
 
 Aspasius of Ravenna, a sophist of the third century, 
 was secretary of the emperor Alexander Severus, who 
 appointed him principal teacher of eloquence in the 
 school of Rome. 
 
 Aspegren, as'peh-gRen', (Gustaf Carsten,) a Swe- 
 dish naturalist, a baker by trade, born at Carlscrona in 
 1791. He contributed to Nilsson's Fauna, Agardh's 
 works on Algas, and other Swedish works on natural 
 history. He published " An Essay at a Flora of Blek- 
 ing," his native province, (1823.) Died in 1828. 
 
 Aspelin, as'peh-lm', (David,) a Swedish poet, born 
 at Langasjo in 17S0. He became minister of a church 
 at Tolg, and composed several successful poems on 
 public events. His poem on the union of Norway and 
 Sweden gained the first prize of the Swedish Academy 
 in 1813. Died in 1821. 
 
 Aspelmayeror Aspelmeyer, as'pel-ml'er, (Franz,) 
 a German composer, died at Vienna in 1786. 
 
 As'per, a Latin critic and grammarian, of whom little 
 is known, wrote a commentary on Virgil, and a treatise 
 on grammar. He is quoted by Saint Augustine, Saint 
 Jerome, and other writers. 
 
 Asper, (Caius Julius,) an eminent Roman, whom 
 Caracalla raised to high honour, but in a fickle moment 
 afterwards degraded and banished. 
 
 Asper, as'per, (Hans,) an eminent Swiss painter, 
 born at Zurich in 1499. He painted landscapes, por- 
 traits, and animals of various kinds. His style was 
 similar to that of Holbein, his contemporary, whom he 
 nearly rivalled in portraits. He made the original draw- 
 ings for Gesncr's Natural History. His works are very 
 scarce, unless some of those sold as the works of Hol- 
 bein were painted by Asper. Died in 1571. His sons 
 Hans and Rudolph were painters* 
 
 Asper, d', das'peR, or Aspre, d', dSspR, (Constant 
 Ghilain Charles van Hoobrouck — van ho'bRowk,) 
 BARON, a general, born at Ghent in 1754. He served 
 with distinction in the Austrian army in the war against 
 the French republic, and became a general-major in 1 798. 
 In 1805, while covering the march of General Mack, he 
 was taken prisoner near the Danube. He obtained com- 
 mand of sixteen thousand men in 1809, and was rewarded 
 for his conduct at Essling with the rank of general of 
 the ordnance. He was mortally wounded at Wagram 
 in 1809. 
 
 Asper, d', or Aspre, (Constantin,) Baron, a son 
 of the preceding, was born at Brussels in 1789. He 
 entered the Austrian army in 1806, after which he served 
 several campaigns against the French. In 1825 he be- 
 came a colonel. He fought against the insurgents in 
 Italy in 1830, and obtained the rank of general of divi- 
 sion about 1840. He contributed greatly to the defeat 
 of the revolted Italians in 1848-49, and became a general 
 of the ordnance. Died at Padua in 1850. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Aspertini, as-peR-tee'nee,or Aspertino, as-peR-tee'- 
 no, (Amico, i-mee'ko,) a skilful and eccentric painter, 
 
 born at Bologna in 1474, was called Maestro Amico. 
 He painted with both hands at the same time, had great 
 facility of execution, and excelled as a painter of ani- 
 mals. His style was a mixture of all styles, from that of 
 Giotto to that of Giorgione. Died in 1552. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Aspertini, (Guido,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 a painter, and probably a native of Bologna. Among 
 his works is an "Adoration of the Magi." He died 
 about the beginning of the sixteenth century, at the age 
 of thirty-five. 
 
 ' As-per'tus or Ans-ber'tus, Bishop of Ratisbon in 
 891, but previously private secretary to King Arnulf of 
 Germany. He is thought to have been the author of a 
 part of the " Annales Fuldenses." 
 
 Aspetti, as-pet'tee, (Tiziano,) an Italian sculptor, 
 born at Padua in 1565, was said to be a nephew of the 
 painter Titian. He worked at Venice, Padua, Florence, 
 and Pisa. His works are highly commended. Vasari 
 calls him "Tiziano Padovano," ("Titian of Padua.") 
 He died at Pisa in 1607. Among his master-pieces are 
 a statue of Saint Anthony at Padua, and the statues of 
 Saint Peter and Saint Paul which adorn the facade of 
 Saint Mark at Venice. M. Weiss argues that he could 
 not be a nephew of Titian, who was born eighty-eight 
 years earlier. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters, Sculptors, etc." 
 
 Aspilcueta, as-pel-kwa'ta, (Juan,) a Spanish mis- 
 sionary, born in Navarre. He went in 1549 to Brazil, 
 where he laboured with success. Died at Bahia in 1555. 
 
 Aspilcueta, (Martin.) See Azpilcueta. 
 
 As'pin-wall, (William,) an American physician, 
 born at Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1743, was noted 
 for his skill in treating small-pox, and erected hospitals 
 for inoculation. He served as a volunteer at the battle 
 of Lexington, April, 1775. Died in 1823. 
 
 SeeTHACHER, "Medical Biography." 
 
 As'pland, (Robert,) an eminent English dissenting 
 minister, born at Wicken, in Cambridgeshire, in 1782. 
 He was ordained as a Baptist minister about 1802, after 
 which he became a Unitarian. He preached at the 
 Gravel-pit Chapel, Hackney, from 1805 until his, death, 
 in 1845. He began about 1815 to issue the "Christian 
 Reformer," a monthly magazine, and was author of 
 numerous works. • 
 
 See "A Memoir of the Life of R. Aspland," by his son, Robert 
 B. Aspland, 1S50. 
 
 Asplund, as'ploond, (Arnold,) an eminent Swedish 
 ecclesiastic, born at Stockholm in 1736, had a high repu- 
 tation as a preacher, and published several sermons. He 
 was a member of the National Diet about 1790. His life 
 appears to have been passed in Stockholm. Died in 1815. 
 
 Aspre. See Asper. 
 
 Aspremont, d', dispR'm6N', Vicomte, was governor 
 of Bayonne in the reign of Charles IX. He distin- 
 guished himself by his refusal to massacre the Huguenots 
 in 1572. 
 
 Aspremont, d', (Franqois de la Mothe Ville- 
 bert — tleh IS mot vel'baiR',) Vicomte, a French general 
 and engineer, who commanded with success at several 
 sieges in Flanders, 1655-72. He was wounded at Conde, 
 Valenciennes, and Gravelines. Died in 1678. 
 
 Aspruck, as'pRook, (Franz,) a German painter and 
 engraver, lived at Augsburg about the beginning of the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 As'pull, (George,) an excellent English musician, 
 born at Manchester in 1813. He performed on the piano 
 with applause before the king in 1824, and about the 
 same time gave public concerts. Before he was eleven, 
 he executed with ease the most difficult pieces which 
 were composed as tests of manual skill by Kalkbrennei 
 and Czerny. It is stated that Rossini pronounced him 
 "the most extraordinary creature in Europe." Died in 
 1832. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Asquini, Is-kwee'nee, (Basilio,) an Italian priest 
 and artist, born at Udine in 1682, designed a fine church 
 for his native town, and published a volume of bio- 
 graphies of eminent men born in Friuli, (1735.) Died 
 in 1745. 
 
 a, e, I, 0, u, y, long; a, A, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; nftt; good; moon; 
 
ASQUINI 
 
 '93 
 
 JSSENEDE 
 
 Asquini, (Fariano,) Count, a meritorious rural 
 economist of Italy, was born at Udine in 1726. Me is 
 entitled to the greater part of the honour of introducing 
 the cultivation of silk into Friuli. He is said to have 
 been the first to promote in Italy the use of potatoes as 
 food and of turf as fuel. He also enriched himself and 
 the country by extensive plantations of trees. Died in 
 1818. His treatise "On the Means of Obviating the 
 Scarcity of Timber" was published after his death. 
 
 See TiPAi.no, •' Italian! illustri del Secolo XVIII." 
 
 Assaeed-(as-sa-eed') Abool-Hassan-Alee, (or As- 
 said -Abul-Hassaii- All,) a'bool' has'san a'lee', twelfth 
 Sultan of Western Africa, was raised to the throne in 
 1242 A.D., under the title of Al-M6otadhed Billah, and 
 was killed in 1246 in battle at Tlemcen. 
 
 >\*i>k, " Ilistoire de la Domination des Arabes," etc. 
 
 Assafadee or Assafadt, as-saf'a-dee', an Arabian 
 ipher, born at Safada in 1296; died in 1362. 
 
 Assalini, is-sa-lee'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian physician, 
 born at Modena about 1765. He served in the French 
 army in the campaign of Egypt, 1798, and was afterwards 
 appointed by Napoleon first surgeon to the court and 
 surgeon-in-ordinary to the viceroy Eugene. He pub- 
 lished " Observations on the Plague," (1803,) and a work 
 on diseases of the eye, (181 1.) Died about 1840. 
 
 As-Samaanee 'or As-Samaani, as-si-ma-a'nee, 
 surnamed Kawam-ed-Deen or Kawwam-ud-DJn, ka- 
 wim'ed-deen', (the "support or pillar of religion,") a 
 famous Mohammedan writer, born at Merv, in Khoras 
 san, in 
 
 French poet, born at Vire in 1682, was a friend of 
 Thomas Corneille, on whose death he wrote an ode. 
 He became president of the college of Harcourt, Paris, 
 and composed, among other poems, one entitled " Re- 
 ligion," (1725.) Died in 1767. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Asseline, (Jean Rene,) a French ecclesiastic, born 
 in Paris in 1742, was professor of Hebrew at the Sor- 
 bonne. In 1790 he was appointed Bishop of Boulogne, 
 but he refused to conform to the civil constitution of the 
 clergy, and went into< exile. On the death of Abbe 
 Edgeworth he became confessor to Louis XVIII. He 
 published several religious works. Died in 1813. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Asselyn, as'seh-lin', (Jan,) an excellent painter of 
 landscapes, horses, and battles, born in Holland, or at 
 Antwerp, in 1610, was a pupil of J. Vandevelde. He 
 studied in Rome, and painted a number of landscapes 
 taken from the vicinity of that capital. He imitated the 
 manner of his friend Peter Laer. About 1645 he settled 
 in Amsterdam, where he gained a high reputation. His 
 colouring is brilliant and warm, his touch fine, and his 
 composition displays good taste. Died at Amsterdam 
 in 1660. 
 
 See Houbraken, " Groote Schouburg ;" D'Argenville, "AbregiS 
 de la Vie des plus fameux Peintres." 
 
 Assemani, as-sa-ma'nee, (Giuseppe Luigi or Aloy- 
 sio,) a theological writer, a nephew of Giuseppe Simone, 
 noticed below, was born in Syria about 1710, but edu- 
 
 13, was the author of a History of Bagdad, in cated at Rome, where he was appointed professor of 
 15 vols., a History of Merv, and a work on Genealogy. Syriac, and afterwards professor of Oriental la guages, 
 Died about 1166. at the Propaganda. He died in Rome in 1782. 
 
 As-Sameel-Ibn-Hatim-al-Kelabee or As-Sa- I Assemani, (Giuseppe Simone,) a learned Maronite, 
 mil-Ibn-Hatim-Al-Kelabi, as-sa-meel' Tb'n ha'timal- '•■ born at Tripoli, in Syria, about 1686, was educated at 
 ke-la'bee, a distinguished Mohammedan general and j Rome- He was sent to the Levant by the pope, in 
 governor of Spain under the caliphs, flourished about : search of manuscripts, in 1715, and was appointed keeper 
 750 a.d. He was afterwards poisoned in prison by the i ? { tne Vatican Library about 1730. His principal work 
 
 is " KiLliothfr:! Ori<*nfa]ic Plfun^ntinrt. VotiV^ni " /* 
 
 order of Abd-er- Rahman. 
 
 As - samh - Ibn - Malik - Al - Khoulanee, (or Al- 
 Khauiani,) as-'samh' Ib'n ma'lik al-Kow-la'nee, gover- 
 nor of Mohammedan Spain under the caliphs. He was 
 appointed to that office in 719. In 721 he took Carcas- 
 sonne and Narbonne, in France, but was defeated and 
 killed by the Duke of Aquitaine in the same year. 
 
 Assandro, as-san'dKo, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian jurist, lived at Cremona in the early part of the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 Assaph. See Asaph. 
 
 Assarino, as-sa-ree'fio, (Luca or Lucas,) an Italian 
 historian and popular novelist, son of a Genoese mer- 
 chant, born at Seville in 1607. He resided mostlv in 
 Italy. He wrote "La Stratonica," (1635,) "L'Ar'me- 
 linda," (1640,) and other novels, which had a great suc- 
 cess for a time ; also a history of the wars in Italy 
 between 1613 and 1630, ("Delle Guerre e Successi d'lta- 
 lia," etc., 1665.) Died at Turin in 1672. 
 
 See Soprani, "Scritlori della Liguria." 
 
 Assarotti, as-sa-rot'tee, (Ottavio Giovanni Bat- 
 tista,) a benevolent priest, born at Genoa in 1753, is 
 known as the founder of the Italian institutions for the 
 education of the deaf and dumb. He was for many 
 
 is " Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana," (4 
 vols., fol., 1719-28,) which is probably the most ample 
 fund of information on Syriac literature that has ever 
 been amassed. He wrote a valuable work on Oriental 
 Church History, in which he was well versed. Died at 
 Rome in 1768. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Sax, 
 "Onomasticon;" " Nouvelle Biographie G&ie'rale. " 
 
 Assemani, (Simone,) an Orientalist of high reputa- 
 tion, born at Tripoli, or, as some writers state, at Rome, 
 in 1752, was a relative of Giuseppe Luigi. He became 
 professor of Oriental languages in a seminary of Padua 
 about 1785, and professor of the same in the' university 
 of that city in 1807. Among his works are an "Essay 
 on the Origin, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the 
 Arabs before the Time of Mohammed," (1787,) and 
 "Globus Ccelestis Cufico-Arabicus," (1790,) the descrip- 
 tion of a celestial globe which belonged to one of the 
 Sultans of Egypt. Died in 1821. 
 
 Assemani, (Stefano Evodio — i-vo'de-o,) a nephew 
 of Giuseppe Simone, was born at Tripoli about 1707. 
 He was the principal compiler of a valuable catalogue 
 of the manuscripts of the Vatican Library, (3 vols., 
 1756-59.) an <I succeeded his uncle as keeper of that 
 
 rears a teacher in the schools of his order, called Scuole i !i 'r ary in 1?6S - . H ? Polished catalogues of the Orien- 
 he, (benevolent schools.) About 1802 he began to teach \ ^_^^JP^i^S.I?^???'. hb ^? , J l ?_ , J? edIce ^ 
 in his own chamber a few deaf-mutes, being almost en 
 
 tircly ignorant of what had been done for that class in 
 other countries. He received aid from the government 
 in 1812. Died in 1829. 
 
 Sec Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Assas, a'sa', (NICOLAS,) a French officer, was captain 
 of the regiment of Auvergne. In 1760, while he was 
 ting the outposts near Klostercamp, he found him- 
 self in the hands of a party of the enemy who were about 
 10 surprise the French. He was threatened with instant 
 death if he gave the alarm ; but he cried out, "A moi, Au- 
 vergne ! voila les ennemis !" and fell pierced with wounds. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV." 
 
 Asscherades, ish'er-a'des, (Carl Gustav Sohultz 
 
 ■shdolts,) a Swedish diplomatist and historian. Died in 
 1 799- 
 
 Asseline, iss'len', (Gilles Thomas,) a mediocre 
 
 Laurentiana, and Palatina, (1742.) Died in 1782. 
 
 See TlPAt.no, " Biosrana degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Asseu, van, van as'sen, (Jan,) a Dutch historical 
 and landscape painter of considerable merit, born at 
 Amsterdam -about 1635. His style of painting is very 
 bold, and he is said to nave used the prints of Antonio 
 Tcmpesta for his own pictures. Died in 1695. 
 
 See Naglf.r, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Assen, van, (Jan Wai.ther,) a Dutch engraver on 
 wood, born at Amsterdam about 1480. His heads have 
 much expression, but his design is not very correct. His 
 prints are in great request among amateurs. 
 
 Assenede, van, vSn Ss-seh-na'deh, (Diderik,) a 
 Flemish poet of the middle of the fourteenth century, 
 translated into Flemish verse the romance of " Flores 
 et Blanche." 
 
 See Paquot, " Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire litteraire des 
 Pays-Bas. " 
 
 e as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. 
 
 (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JSSEOLO 
 
 194 
 
 AST BURT 
 
 Asseolo. See Osceola. 
 
 Asser. See Ashe, (Rah.) 
 
 As'ser, or As-se'rI-us Men-e-ven'sis, a learned 
 English monk of the ninth century, passed much time 
 at the court of Alfred the Great, who treated him as a 
 friend and employed him as his reader. His name is 
 connected with a Latin " Life of Alfred the Great," 
 (which comprises only the period from 849 to 8S9,) but 
 some critics maintain that it is the work of some other 
 author. Died about 910. 
 
 Assereto, as-si-ra'to, (Giovacchino,) an Italian 
 painter in oil and fresco, born at Genoa about 1600, was 
 a pupil of Andrea Ansaldo, whose design he imitated 
 with success. He worked at Genoa, Sarzana, and Rome, 
 and gained a high reputation. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Assezan, d, dis'zfi.N', a French dramatic author, born 
 at Toulouse in 1654. His principal works were the trage- 
 dies of " Agamemnon" and "Antigone." Died in 1696. 
 
 See Parkait, "Histoire du Theatre Francais." 
 
 Assheton, ash'tiin, (William,) an English clergyman, 
 born in I,ancashire in 1641. He became rector of Beck- 
 enliam, Kent, in 1676, and wrote many religious works, 
 among which is "Toleration Disapproved and Con- 
 demned," (1670.) He was the projector of an unsuc- 
 cessful scheme for the maintenance of the widows of 
 clergymen and others. Died in 171 1. 
 
 Sec Watt, "Life of William Assheton," and Wood, "Athenffi 
 Oxonienses. " 
 
 Ass'hod, written also Aschod, the name of several 
 princes and kings of Armenia, of the dynasty of the Pagra- 
 tidce, who were of Jewish origin, but who appear to have 
 adopted the Christian religion about 600 A.D. 
 
 Asshod I. restored the kingdom of Armenia about 
 856 A.D., and ruled with wisdom and moderation, ex- 
 tending the bounds of his dominions. Died in 889. 
 
 Asshod II. ascended his throne in 914, after a long 
 warfare with the Arabs, who had usurped for a period 
 the government of Armenia. Died about 930. 
 
 Asshod III. succeeded his father in 952, and was dis- 
 tinguished for his patronage of industry, trade, and 
 architecture, and for his wars with the Mohammedans. 
 Died in 977. 
 
 Asshod IV. shared the kingdom of Armenia with 
 his brother John, and both afterwards became tributary 
 to the Greek Empire. In this reign Armenia was much 
 harassed by the Turks. Died in 1039. 
 
 Assignies, d', di'sen'ye', (Jean,) a Flemish monk, 
 and writer of devotional works, born in 1562; died in 
 1642. 
 
 Assigny, d', di'sen'ye' or das-seen'ye, (Marius,) a 
 clergyman of the Anglican Church, of French extraction, 
 born in lingland in 1643, wrote "The Art of Memory," 
 (1699,) and other works. Died in 1 71 7. 
 
 Assing, as'sing, (Rosa Maria,) a German poetess, 
 a sister of Varnhagen von Ense, was born at Dussel- 
 dorf in 1783. She was married in 1816 to Dr. Assing, 
 a physician, who soon after settled at Hamburg. She 
 wrote numerous poems and tales of some merit. Died 
 in 1840. A volume of her works, entitled "Poetical 
 Remains," (" Rosa Maria's poetischer Nachlass,") ap- 
 peared in 1841. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Assisi, d', (Andrea.) See Luigi, (Andrea.) 
 
 Asso. See Adso. 
 
 Assollant, S'so'15n', (Jean Baptiste Alfred,) a 
 French novelist, born at Aubusson, Creuse, about 1827. 
 He published, besides other works, "Acacia," " Brancas," 
 (1859,) "Les A ventures de Karl Brunner," (1861,) " Rose 
 d'Amour," (1862,) and "Scenes from Life in the United 
 States," ("Scenes de la Vie des fitats-Unis," 1858.) 
 
 Assomption, de 1', deh li'sAMp'se-6N', (Charles,) 
 a Flemish Carmelite, and writer on theology, born in 
 1625 ; died in 1686. 
 
 Assoucy, d', di'soo'se', (Charles Coypeau — kwa'- 
 po',.) a French satirical poet of considerable notoriety 
 for his imprudence and misfortunes, was born at Paris 
 about 1604. Died in 1678 or 1679. 
 
 See Ft.oGEL, " Geschichte des Burlesken." 
 
 Asso y del Rio, de, da as'so e del ree'o, (Ignazio 
 
 Jordan — HoR-dan',) a Spanish jurist and naturalist of 
 the eighteenth century. He published in 1775 "Insti- 
 tutes of the Civil Law in Spain," ("Instituciones del 
 Derecho civil de Castilla,") which is considered the best 
 work on the subject. He also wrote a treatise on the 
 plants of Aragon, (" Synopsis Stirpium indigenarum 
 Aragoniae," 1799.) 
 
 See Watt, " Bibliotheca Britannica." 
 
 Assump9ao, de, da as-soomp-sowN', (Jose,) a Por- 
 tuguese theologian, noted as a writer of Latin verse. 
 Died in 1751. 
 
 Assumpcao-Velho, da, da as-soomp-sowN' vel'yo, 
 (Joachim,) a Portuguese natural philosopher, born in 
 1 753, was a canon regular of the congregation of Saint 
 Croix. He studied physical science with great success, 
 and published " Meteorological Observations made in 
 1 783-84," and " Observafoes fysicas por Occasiao de seis 
 Raios," etc. Died in 1793. " He left unfinished works 
 which," says Correa da Serra, "would have procured for 
 him a great reputation in Europe." 
 
 Assunto, dell', d£l las-soon'to, (Onorio,) an Italian 
 monk, and writer on theology, born in 1639 ; died in 1 716. 
 
 Ast, ast, (Georg Anton Friedrich,) a German 
 scholar and teacher of great eminence, was born at 
 Gotha in 1778. He was educated at Gotha and Jena, 
 and became in 1805 professor of classical literature 
 in the University of Landshut. In 1826, when this 
 university was transferred to Munich, Ast removed 
 thither and retained his professorship. His lectures 
 were eminently suggestive. Among his works (which 
 are mostly philological or philosophical) are a metri- 
 cal German version of the tragedies of Sophocles, 
 (1804,) a "Manual of ./Esthetics," (1805,) an "Introduc- 
 tion to Philology," (1808,) "Elements (Grundlinien) of 
 Philosophy," (1809,) and "The Life and Writings of 
 Piato," (" Platons Leben und Schriften," 1816.) He 
 published an edition of all the works of Plato, with a 
 Latin version and commentary, (11 vols., 1S19-32.) 
 Few modern critics have done more to illustrate the 
 works of Plato. Died at Munich in December, 1841. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Asta, dell', del las'ta, (Andrea,) a Neapolitan his- 
 torical painter, born at Bagnuoli about 1673, was a pupil 
 of Solimena. Among his chief works is a Nativity. Died 
 in 1721. 
 
 As-ta'rI-us or As-tl-a'ri-us, (Blasius,) [It. Btasio 
 Astario, be-a'se-o as-ta're-o,) an Italian medical writer, 
 born at Pavia, lived in the first half of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. * 
 
 Astarloa y Aguirre, de, da as-taR-lo'a e a-gwer'ri, 
 (Don Parlo Pedro,) a Spanish linguist, born at Du- 
 rango in 1752. He devoted his life chiefly to the study 
 of languages. His principal work is an argument for 
 the antiquity of the Basque language, ("Apologia de la 
 Lengua Bascongada," 1803,) in which he proves its 
 identity with the language of the ancient Iberi. "As- 
 tarloa was the first," says W. von Humboldt, "who 
 studied the Basque language in a really searching spirit." 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Astarrita, as-tar-ree'ta, (Gennaro,) an Italian dra- 
 matic composer, born at Naples about 1750. He com- 
 posed many operas, which were for the most part suc- 
 cessful, but he was deficient in originality. His most 
 popular production was "Circe and Ulysses," ("Circe e 
 Ulisse.") 
 
 As-tar'te, [Gr. 'Aorapr!?; see Ashtoreth,] a god- 
 dess worshipped by the Phoenicians and Syrians, who 
 erected to her a famous temple at Hierapoh's. (See I. 
 Kings xi. 33.) She has by some mythologists been iden- 
 tified with Aphrodite or Venus. 
 
 Astbury, ast'ber-e, (J.,) an Englishman who made 
 great improvements in the manufacture of pottery, was 
 born about 1678. It is stated that by feigning to be an 
 idiot he obtained admission into the workshop of a 
 foreign potter and learned a secret process used by him. 
 He began business at Shelton, and produced a white 
 stoneware of a very superior quality by mixing pipe- 
 clay with Shelton marl. He was the first British potter 
 who used calcined flint as an ingredient of his fabrics. 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 See Shaw, " History of the Staffordshire Potteries." 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long ; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mi* t; n6t; good; moon ; 
 
AST ELL 
 
 '95 
 
 ASTOR 
 
 As'tell, (Mary,) an English authoress, born at New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne in 1668. In 1697 she published a 
 
 ous Proposal to the Ladies for the Advancement 
 of their True and Greatest Interest," which provoked 
 the ridicule of certain writers of the "Tatler," who gave 
 her the name of Madonella. One of her religious treat- 
 ises having been attacked by Lady Masham, she de- 
 fended her opinions in "The Christian Religion as pro- 
 
 I bya Daughter of the Church of England," (1705,) 
 which was praised for logical ability. She was esteemed 
 by several eminent divines and authors. Died in 1731. 
 ■ See Ballard, "Memoirs of Several Learned Ladies of Great 
 Britain," Oxford, 175a. 
 
 Astemio. See Abstemius. 
 
 Aster. See Asterius. 
 
 Aster, as'ter, (Ernst Ludwig,) a Prussian general 
 and engineer, born at Dresden about 1778, planned the 
 fortifications of Coblentz and Ehrenbreitstein. 
 
 Astere. See Asterius. 
 
 As-te'rI-a, [Or. 'Aare/iia; Fr. Asterie, jts'ti're',] in 
 classic mythology, was a daughter of the Titan Coeus, 
 a sister of Latona, and the wife of Perses. The poets 
 feigned that to escape from Jupiter she assumed the 
 form of a quail. 
 
 As-te'rI-us, [Gr. 'Aorepiof,] a Sophist and advocate 
 of Arianism, lived in Cappadocia about 320 A.D. During 
 Maximum's persecution of the Christians, in the early 
 part of the fourth century, he is said to have relapsed 
 into paganism ; but he afterwards renounced this error. 
 He wrote several works, which are not extant. 
 
 Asterius, [Gr. 'hc-ipux;; Fr. Astere, is'taiR',] written 
 also Aster, Saint, a Father of the Church, supposed to 
 have been born at Antioch about 340 A.D. He became 
 Bishop of Amasea, in Pontus ; but the date of this pro- 
 motion and nearly all the events of his life are unknown. 
 His extant homilies contain some eloquent passages, and 
 teach doctrines considered sound by the Roman Catholics. 
 
 Astesano, as-tl-sl'no, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, 
 born near Asti in 141 2. 
 
 Astesati, Ss-ta-sa'tee, (Giovanni Andrea,) an Italian 
 historian, born at Brescia in 1673; died in 1747. 
 
 Astiarius. See Astarius. 
 
 Astle, as's'l or as't'l, (Thomas,) F.R.S., an eminent 
 \^h antiquary, born in Staffordshire in 1734. He was 
 appointed about 1775 chief clerk in the record office in the 
 Tower, and became keeper of the records several years 
 later. His principal work is " The Origin and Progress 
 of Writing, as well Hieroglyphic as Elementary, illus- 
 trated by engravings, etc.; also, some Account of the 
 Origin and Progress of Printing," (1784,) which is said 
 to be the best work in the language on that subject. 
 Died in 1803. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes ;" Shaw, " History and Anti- 
 quities of Staffordshire ;" "Gentleman's Magazine," vol. lxiv., (1804.) 
 
 Ast'ley, (Sir jACon,) afterwards Lord Astley, an 
 English royalist general, who had served under Gustavus 
 Adolphus. Having been made a major-general by Charles 
 I. in 1642, he fought at Edgehill, where he was wounded, 
 and commanded the garrison of Reading in 1643. In 
 1644 he repulsed Waller at the Cherwell, and was created 
 Lord Astley of Reading. He led a division at Naseby 
 in 1045, and commanded the last remnant of the royal 
 army which was defeated at Stow in 1646. Died in 1651. 
 "Sir Jacob," says Clarendon, "was an honest, brave, 
 plain man, and as fit for the office he exercised, as major- 
 general of foot, as Christendom yielded." 
 
 See Clarendon, " History of the Great Rebellion." 
 
 Astley, (John,) an English portrait-painter, born in 
 Shropshire in the early part of the eighteenth century, 
 1 pupil of Hildson. He visited Rome, and subse- 
 quently worked with success in London and Dublin. He 
 married the widow of Sir William Daniel, whose large 
 fortune he inherited a few years after his marriage. Died 
 in 1787. 
 
 See Edwards, "Anecdotes of Painters." 
 
 Astley, (Philip,) an excellent equestrian, and founder 
 of Astley's Amphitheatre, London, was born at New- 
 castle-under-I.ine in 1742. He served with distinction 
 in the Seven Years' war, and, having left the army about 
 1765, began to exhibit equestrian feats to the public. He 
 published "The Modern Riding-Master," (1775,) a " Sys- 
 
 tem of Equestrian Education," (iSoi,) and other works. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1814. 
 
 As-tol'phus or As-tul'phus, [Fr. Astolphe, is' 
 tolf',] written also Aistulf, King of the Lombards 01 
 Longobards, succeeded his brother Ratchis in 749 or 750 
 A.D. He seized Ravenna and the Pentapolis about 752, 
 after which he marched against the duchy of Rome. The 
 pope called to his aid Pepin, King of the Franks, who 
 defeated Astolphus in 754, and compelled him to cede 
 the provinces called the Exarchate and Pentapelis to 
 the see of Rome. This was the origin of the temporal 
 power of the popes. Died in 756 a.d. 
 
 As'tpn, (Antony,) an English writer of comedies, 
 appeared as actor at Drury Lane about 1700. He is 
 supposed to have died about 1750. 
 
 See "Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Aston, (Sir Arthur,) an English royalist, who n 
 Hume calls "an officer of reputation," commanded the 
 dragoons at Edgehill, (1642,) and distinguished himself 
 in the defence of Reading. He afterwards went to Ire- 
 land and became commander of a garrison of three thou- 
 sand men at Drogheda, which was taken by Cromwell 
 in 1649. Aston and nearly all his men were massacred 
 by the victors. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England." 
 
 Aston, (Sir Thomas,) an Englishman, who wrote a 
 "Remonstrance against Presbytery," (1040.) In the 
 civil war he fought for Charles I., was taken prisoner, 
 and in an attempt to escape was mortally wounded. Died 
 in 1645. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Aston, (Sir Walter,) of Tixall, in Staffordshire, born 
 about 1580, was a patron of Drayton the poet. He was 
 sent as ambassador to Spain in 1619. Died in 1639. 
 
 Astor, de, di as-toR', (Diego,) a Spanish copper-plate 
 and die engraver, lived at Toledo. In 1609 he was ap- 
 pointed engraver to the mint of Segovia. 
 
 SeeBERMUDEZ, "Diccionario Historico." 
 
 As'tor, (John Jacob,) a celebrated New York mer- 
 chant, was born near Heidelberg, in Germany, in 1763. At 
 the age of sixteen he joined his brother in London in the 
 business of making musical instruments, and four years 
 later (1783) embarked for Baltimore, taking a stock of 
 instruments with him. In New York he exchanged his 
 stock for furs, which he took to London and disposed of 
 to great advantage. Thus encouraged, he resolved to 
 devote himself to the fur trade, and with this view made 
 himself acquainted with the various European markets 
 and carefully studied the different kinds of furs. On re- 
 turning to America he established himself in New York, 
 which was henceforth his usual place of residence. His 
 enterprise and thrift soon enabled him to ship his furs 
 in his own vessels, which brought back cargoes of foreign 
 produce, thereby reaping a double profit. In sixteen 
 years he had acquired a fortune of two hundred and fifty 
 thousand dollars. Such was his diligence, and so great 
 were his talents for business, that when his commerce 
 covered the seas, he was enabled to control the action 
 of his shipmasters and supercargoes in the minutest 
 details, and rarely if ever was he known to have erred 
 either in judgment or in a knowledge of the facts. Hp 
 conceived the vast scheme of connecting the fur trade 
 with the Pacific by means of a line of trading-posts ex- 
 tending from the great lakes along the Missouri and 
 Columbia to the mouth of the latter river, where he 
 founded Astoria in April, 181 1, to be used as a central 
 depot, and then, by getting possession of one of the 
 Sandwich Islands as a station, to supply China and the 
 Indies with furs directly from the Pacific coast. The 
 disasters which befell two of the expeditions sent out to 
 the Pacific for this purpose, and the desertion of one of 
 the principal agents or partners in the enterprise, and 
 his betrayal of Astor's plans to the Northwest (British 
 Fur) Company, prevented the success of this scheme. 
 Astor invested largely in real estate, erected numerous 
 buildings, both public and private, and thus, from the 
 almost unexampled rise in the value of this kind of 
 property in New York during the first half of the pres- 
 ent century, added immensely to his rapidly increasing 
 
 \k; 9 as s; %/iard; gas/; G,n,K, guttural; s,»usal; v., trilled; sass; th as'in this. (Jt^'See Explanations, p. 23., 
 
ASTORGA 
 
 196 
 
 ATAHUALPA 
 
 wealth. A t his death in 1 848 his property was estimated at 
 not less than twenty millions of dollars. For many years 
 Fitz-Greene Halleck, the poet, was his private secretary. 
 
 Astor no doubt owed much to fortuitous circumstances, 
 but his great success was chiefly due to sagacity and 
 close application to business through a long course of 
 years. Among his bequests were four hundred thousand 
 dollars for the establishment of a library in New York, 
 and fifty thousand dollars to his native village in Ger- 
 many ; but almost the whole of his property was left to 
 his son, William B. Astor. William B. Astor subse- 
 quently added to his father's bequest nearly as much 
 2nore, so that the Astor Library is now one of the most 
 liberally endowed institutions of the kind on the Ameri- 
 can continent. 
 
 See Washington Irving, "Astoria," 1836, and "Adventures of 
 Captain Bonneville," 1837 '• Hunt's " Merchant's Magazine" for 
 August, 1S44; Hunt's "Lives of American Merchants," vol. ii. 
 
 Astorga, as-top/ga, (Antonio Pedro Alvarez Oso- 
 
 rio — al'vi-reth o-so're-o,) Marquis ok, a Spanish 
 statesman and diplomatist, born near the beginning of 
 the seventeenth century, filled the office of ambassador 
 to Rome with great credit. He was also Viceroy of Na- 
 ples from 1672 to 1675. 
 
 See Giannone, " Sloria civile del Regno di Napoli." 
 Astorga, d', das-toR'ga, (Emanuele,) Baron, an ex- 
 cellent musical composer, born in Sicily about 1680. 
 Astorga was a name which he assumed after his father 
 had been executed for a political offence. He was pa- 
 tronized by Leopold I., at whose death (1705) he left 
 Vienna. He afterwards visited many capitals of Europe, 
 but did not perform in public. Among his works are 
 an admirable " Stabat Mater," and Cantatas entitled 
 "Quando Penso," and "Torna Aprile." 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 Astorga, de, di as-toR'ga, (Juan Lorenzo,) a Span- 
 ish poet, lived in the middle of the thirteenth century. 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 Astori, as-to'ree, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 antiquary, classical scholar, and priest, born at Venice 
 in 1672, became canon of the ducal church of Saint 
 Mark. Among his works is a treatise " On the Cabiri 
 Gods," ("De Diis Cabiris," 1703.) Among his friends 
 were A. Zeno, Scipio Maffei, and Poleni. Died in 1743. 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 Astorini, as-to-ree'nee, (Elia,) a learned Italian 
 priest, born in Calabria in 165 1. He was a Cartesian in 
 philosophy, and appears in his youth — during a residence 
 in Germany — to have adopted or favoured Protestant 
 doctrines. About l6"88 he returned to Italy and to the 
 Roman Church. He became professor of mathematics 
 at Sienna in 1690. Among his works are " Elementa 
 Euclidis," (1691,) and a treatise entitled "On the True 
 Church against the Lutherans," (1700.) Died in 1702. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia," and Jocher, "Allgemeines 
 Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 As-tor-pil'co, a son of Francisco Pizarro and Ange- 
 lina,, who was a daughter of Atahualpa, Inca of Peru. 
 
 See Humboldt, "Tableaux de la I^ature.'* 
 
 Astrsea, as-tree'a, [Gr. 'Aurpala; Fr. Astree, is'tRa',] 
 a mythical personage, regarded as a daughter of Jupiter 
 and Themis, was sometimes called the goddess of jus- 
 tice. According to tradition, she lived on the earth dur- 
 ing the golden age, at the end of which she ascended to 
 a more congenial sphere among the stars, being the last 
 of the immortals to leave the earth. 
 
 As-tram-p3y'-etms, [Gr. 'Aorpaui/wroc,] the name of 
 several Persian Magi. One of this name, mentioned by 
 Suidas, wrote a work on the Interpretation of Dreams. 
 
 Astree. See Astr^ea. 
 
 As-tron'o-mer, The, [in Latin, Astron'omus ; Fr. 
 L'Astronome, Ifs'tRo'nom',] is the appellation given 
 , to the unknown writer of a valuable " Life of Louis le 
 Debonnaire." It appears that he was attached to the 
 court of that monarch, and wrote from personal know- 
 ledge, about the middle of the ninth century. 
 
 See Guizot, " Collection des Historiens de la France." 
 
 Astros, d', dSs'tRos', (Paul Therese David,) a 
 French prelate, born in Var in 1772. He was imprisoned 
 by Napoleon for several years, ending in l8i4,'because 
 
 he was an agent of the pope in his contest against the 
 emperor.- In 1830 he became Archbishop of Toulouse. 
 He published several theological works. Died in 1851. 
 
 See Picot, "MtSmoires pour servir a l'Histoire eccl^siastique du 
 dix-huitieme Steele." 
 
 Astruc, is'tRiik', (Jean,) a French medical writer 
 and teacher of high reputation, born at Sauve, in Lan- 
 guedoc, in 1684. By the aid of an excellent memory and 
 methodical habits, he acquired great erudition. He be- 
 came professor of anatomy at Toulouse in 17 10, and of 
 medicine at Montpellier in 1716 or 1717. About 1728 he 
 removed to Paris, and was appointed consulting physician 
 to the king, and professor of medicine in the Royal Col- 
 lege, in 1730. In 1736 he published his capital work 
 "On Venereal Diseases," ("De Morbis Venereis,") 
 which, according to the "Biographie Universelle," is 
 the most complete work on the subject, in respect to 
 erudition and historical research. Among his works is 
 a " History of the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier," 
 ("Memoirespour servir a l'histoire," etc.) Died in 1766. 
 
 See Lorry, "Vie d* Astruc;" and Astruc, "Autobiographic," in 
 "Memoires de la Faculty de Montpellier." 
 
 Astulphus. See Astolphus. 
 
 As-ty'a-ges, [Gr. 'Aarvdyrjc; Fr. Astyage, ts'te'- 
 fzh',] King of the Medes, was the son and successor of 
 Cyaxares, and grandfather of Cyrus the Great. He was 
 dethroned by Cyrus about 560 B.C., and is called the 
 last king of Media. (See Cyrus I.) Herodotus is the 
 authority for this statement. According to Xenophon, 
 Astyages had a son Cyaxares, who succeeded him. 
 
 As-ty'a-nax, [Gr. 'Aarvuva^] also called Seaman- 
 drius, son of Hector and Andromache, was killed in 
 infancy by the Greeks at the capture of Troy. 
 
 As-tyd'a-mas, [Gr. 'AoTviii/iat;,] an Athenian tragic 
 poet, was a son of Morsimus, also a tragic poet. He 
 lived about 380 B.C., and gained prizes for many of his 
 dramas, none of which are extant. The people erected 
 to him a statue, on which he wrote an egotistical inscrip- 
 tion. He had a son Astydamas, who was a tragic poet. 
 Only the titles of his works remain. 
 • See Bruncks and Jacobs, " Anthologia Graeca." 
 
 As-t^-me'des, [Gr. 'AaTv/xi/drjc ; Fr. Astymede, fs'- 
 te'mid',] a prominent citizen of Rhodes, who sided with 
 the Romans against Perseus of Macedon, about 1 70 B.C. 
 
 As-ty'o-ehus, [Gr. 'Ao-rOoroc,] a Spartan admiral, who 
 obtained chief command of the fleet in 412 B.C. He 
 sailed to Chios and Lesbos to expel the Athenians, but 
 failed ; and is said to have sold himself to Tissaphernes. 
 He was deprived of his command in 411 B.C. 
 
 Asula, a'soo-la, or Asola, a'so-la,(GioVANNi Matteo 
 or G. Maria,) an Italian composer, a native of Verona, 
 lived about 1 580-1620. 
 
 A-su-la'nus, Asolano, a-so-la'no, or D'Asola, da'- 
 so-la, (Andrea,) one of the earliest Italian printers, born 
 at Asola, flourished about 1490-1520. He was the father- 
 in-law of the celebrated Aldus Manutius. 
 
 See Renouard, "Annales de l'lmprimerie des Aides," 1825. 
 
 As'u-ra or As'oo-ra, [Hindoo pron. iis'oo-ra,] in 
 common language Asur or Asoor, usually pronounced 
 us'oor. In the Hindoo mythology, the Asuras, children 
 of Kas'yapa and Diti, are a race of powerful demons, 
 who are represented as constantly opposing the Suras, 
 (Sooras,) or gods. (See Sura.) The Asuras may be 
 said to correspond, in some of their leading attributes, to 
 the giants, (Jotuns,) and the Suras to the Msir, of the 
 Northern mythology. 
 
 See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 As'jf-ebjs, [(Jr. "Ao-u^ic,] an Egyptian king, whose 
 period is uncertain, but who built the eastern propy- 
 laea of the great temple of Phtha (Vulcan) at Memphis, 
 regarded as the finest work of the kind in Egypt. He 
 also built a brick pyramid, and established the law of 
 giving the dead body of the debtor's father as security 
 for debt. 
 
 Atabalipa. See Atahualpa. 
 
 Atahualpa or Atahuallpa, a-ta-hwal'pl, sometimes 
 written Atabalipa, the last Inca of Peru, was a son of 
 Huayna Capac and a princess of Quito. About 1525 
 he became King of Quito by the will of his father, who 
 left Peru to Atahualpa's brother Huascar, the lawful 
 heir of the whole empire. Atahualpa, who was warlike 
 
 = 
 
 i, e, I, o, ft, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; m 
 
ATAWE 
 
 »97 
 
 ATHANASIUS 
 
 and ambitious, invaded, with a large army, the domin- 
 ions of Huascar, whom he defeated and took prisoner, 
 (1532.) According to Garcilasso de la Vega, he massa- 
 cred of the royal family all who had the blood of the 
 Incas in their veins, except Huascar and his brother 
 Manco Capac. In the same year that he thus usurped 
 the throne of the Inca, Pizarro entered upon the con- 
 quest of Peru. After mutual professions of amity, 
 Atahualpa and Pizarro met in an interview, (November, 
 1532,) during which the former was seized by the Span- 
 iards and loaded with chains. 
 
 To obtain his release, the Inca offered to fill with gold, 
 as high as he could reach, the room in which he was con- 
 fined, twenty-two feet long and seventeen feet wide. 
 Pizarro accepted this offer. Before the full amount had 
 been collected, the Spaniards became impatient, and di- 
 vided the spoil. Rumours of a rising among the natives 
 afforded Pizarro a pretext to arraign the captive Inca 
 before a military court. He was condemned to be 
 burned alive, but by abjuring his religion he obtained 
 the privilege of being strangled by the garrote, in Au- 
 gust, 1533. "He is allowed to have been bold, high- 
 minded, and liberal," says Prescott. "All agree that he 
 showed singular penetration and quickness of percep- 
 tion. His exploits as a warrior had placed his valour 
 beyond dispute." 
 
 See Prescott, "Conquest of Peru,"vol. i. ; Garcilasso de la 
 . "Historia general del Peru;" A. von Humboldt, "Ta- 
 bleaux de la Nature." 
 
 Ataide, a-ta-ee'di, written also Atayde, (Dom Luis,) 
 Count of Tougia, a Portuguese nobleman, who was twice 
 roy of India. He first landed in that country in 
 1568, at a period when there was. a conspiracy between 
 the Nizam and other native princes to drive out the Por- 
 tuguese, which he frustrated. He embarked for Portu- 
 gal in 1572, but returned to India in 1580, where he died 
 shortly after. 
 
 See A. Pinto Pereira, "Historia da India, etc.," 1616. 
 
 Atajee, Ataji, a-ta'jee, or Athadschi, a distin- 
 guished Turkish poet, born at Constantinople about 
 15S3 ; died in 1635. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte der Osmanischen Dichtkunst." 
 
 At-a-lan'ta or At-a-lan'te, [Gr. 'AraMivrri; Fr. Ata- 
 lante, i'tt'lo.Nt',] in ancient mythology, the most swift- 
 footed of mortals, was distinguished also for courage 
 and martial exploits. She promised her hand to the 
 man who should outstrip her in the race, with the con- 
 dition that if he failed he must forfeit his life. Milanion 
 won the race by dropping three golden apples which he 
 received from Venus, and which tempted her to stop 
 and pick them up. 
 
 Ata-Malek, at'a mal'ek, written also Atha-Melik, 
 (Ala-ed-Deen or Ala-ed-Din, a-la-ed-deen',) a Persian 
 historian, born in Khorassan about 1227, was appointed 
 prefect of Bagdad after its capture by the Moguls in 
 1258. He was author of a history of the Moguls, en- 
 titled "The Conquest of the World." Died in 1282. 
 
 Atanagi, a-ta-n.Vjce, (Dionigi,) a distinguished Ital- 
 ian litterateur and editor, born at Cagli, in the duchy of 
 Urbino. About 1532 he went to Rome, where he re- 
 mained twenty-five years in indigence. He removed to 
 Venice in 1560, and died there >>etween 1567 and 1574. 
 He is regarded as a judicious and accurate editor. Among 
 his publications are "Familiar Letters of Thirteen Illus- 
 trious Men," (1554,) and " Poems of Several Eminent 
 Tuscan Poets," ("Delle Rime di diversi nobili Poeti Tos- 
 cani," 2 vols/, 1565.) 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Atanasio. See Athanasius and Athanasio. 
 
 Atar, 5'tar, (Ben David,) a Jewish rabbi and poet, 
 lived at Amsterdam in the second half of the seven- 
 teenth century, translated the Psalms into Spanish verse. 
 
 Atar, (Ben SAMUEL,) a Jew of the sixteenth century, 
 published a work on Hebrew traditions. 
 
 At'a-ulf, Ad'a-ulf, or Ad'olf, [Gr. 'Aroou/l^oc; Lat. 
 Ataul'phus,] was brother-in-law of Alaric I., King 
 of the Visigoths, whom he succeeded in 411 a.d. He 
 married Placidia, (a sister of the emperor Honorius,) 
 whom he had taken captive at the capture of Rome in 
 10. In 412 he evacuated Italyand marched into Gaul, 
 Where he took Narbo, Burdigafa, (Bordeaux,) etc. After 
 
 he had conquered Aquitaine, he crossed the Pyrenees t« 
 expel the Vandals and Suevi from Spain. He was assas- 
 sinated by one of his officers at Barcelona in 415 a.d. 
 See Muratori, " Annali d'ltalia." 
 
 Atayde. See Ataide. 
 
 Atch'I-son, (David R.,) an American politician, born 
 in Fayette county, Kentucky, in 1807, removed in 1830 
 to Missouri. He was appointed in 1841 to fill an unex- 
 pired term in the United States Senate, of which he 
 continued a member till 1855. He at first acted with 
 the Benton wing of the Democratic party, but soon after 
 embraced the extreme views of Calhoun. In the troubles 
 attending the organization of the territory of Kansas in 
 1854, '55, and '56, he not only lent his countenance to the 
 outrages committed by armed men from Missouri, by 
 which the free-soil voters of Kansas were driven from 
 the polls, but also took an active part in those civil dis- 
 turbances and conflicts in that territory, which may be 
 said to have foreshadowed the war of the great rebellion. 
 
 A'te, [Gr. 'At?/,] a personage of classic mythology, 
 was said to have been a daughter of Eris, (Discord,) or, 
 according to Homer, of Jupiter. She was called the 
 goddess of evil, or the goddess that avenges crimes. 
 
 A-te-nul'fus or At'e-nulph, written also Ate- 
 nolphe, became Prince of Beneventum by conquest 
 about 900 a.d., before which he was Count or Prince of 
 Capua. He died in 910, leaving two sons, Landulphus 
 and Atenulphus, who reigned jointly. They defeated 
 the Saracens on the Liris in 916, and subjected nearly all 
 Apulia. Atenulphus II. died about 940 A.D. 
 
 See Giannone, "Storia civile del Regno di Napoli." 
 
 Atenulphus II. of Beneventum, reigned jointly with 
 his brother Landulphus. He waged war against the Sa- 
 racens, who were driven out of Italy in 916. Died in 933. 
 
 Atha-Ben-Hakim. See Al-Hakem-Ibn-AttX. 
 
 Athaji or Athadschi. See AtAjee. 
 
 A-thal'a-ric or A-thal'ric, [Lat. Athalari'cus,] a 
 Gothic prince, a son of Euthelric or Eutharic, and a 
 grandson of Theodoric I., reigned nominally over the 
 Gothic kingdom of Italy (his mother being regent) from 
 526 until 534 A.D.,when he died, aged eighteen. 
 
 Ath-a-li'ah, [Heb. rrSn^ ; Fr. Athalie, i'ti'le',1 
 Queen of Judah, a daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, ana 
 the notorious Jezebel. She was married to Jehoram, 
 King of Judah, and became a zealous patron of idolatry. 
 At the death of her son Ahaziah, she usurped the throne, 
 and murdered all the males of the royal family except 
 Joash, by whose adherents she was killed about 878 B.C. 
 The history of Athaliah forms the subject of one of Ra- 
 cine's most admired tragedies. (See II. Kings viii. 18, 
 26, and xi. ; II. Chronicles xxii. and xxiii.) 
 
 Ath'a-mas, [Gr. 'XQuuar,] a mythical person, was a 
 son of Mollis, and a brother of Sisyphus and Salmoneus. 
 He married Nephele, and afterwards Ino, a daughter of 
 Cadmus. It is said that he became insane and killed 
 his son. (See Ino.) 
 
 Atha-Melik. See Ata-Malek. 
 
 A-than-a-gil'dus [Fr. ATHANAOiLDE,S'tS'nf'zheld'] 
 became king of the Spanish Visigoths in 554 A.D. by the 
 aid of the emperor Justinian. He fixed his court at To- 
 ledo, where he died in 567 A.D. His daughter Brunehaut 
 was married to Siegbert, King of Austrasia, and her sis- 
 ter Galswinda to King Chilperic. 
 
 See Mariana, " Historia general de Espana." 
 
 A-than'a-ric, an able chief of a tribe of Visigoths 
 who inhabited Dacia, made a treaty of peace about 370 
 a.d. with the emperor Valens, against whom be had 
 waged war several years. He failed in an effort to resist 
 a horde of wild Huns who rushed like a torrent from the 
 north in 376 a.d. Died in 381. 
 
 Athanase. See Athanasius. 
 
 Athanasio, a-ta-na'se-o, or Atanasio, (Don Pedro,) 
 a Spanish painter and excellent colorist, born at Granada 
 in 1638, was a pupil of Alonzo Cano. Died in 1688. 
 
 Athanasius, ath-ana'she-us, [Gr. 'AOavumoe ; Fr. 
 Athanase, Jt'trfiiSz'; It. Atanasio, a-ti-na'Se-o,] Saint, 
 an illustrious Greek Father and pillar of the Church, was 
 born at Alexandria about 296 A.D. He was a pupil and 
 secretary of the archbishop Alexander. He attended in 
 325 a.d. the famous Council of Nice, in which he dis- 
 
 ease,- 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (£y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AT HAN AS I US 
 
 198 
 
 ATHENAGORAS 
 
 tinguished himself by his eloquence and zeal against the 
 doctrine of Arius. In the next year he was elected 
 Archbishop of Alexandria by the clergy and the people. 
 It is said that he refused to obey an order which Con- 
 stantine the Great issued in 331, to restore Arius to 
 communion. Having been accused of sacrilege and 
 other crimes by his enemies, he was summoned, in 334 or 
 335 A.D., before a council at Tyre, which condemned 
 him without proof. He was exiled to Treves by Con- 
 stantine, at whose death (337) he was restored to his see 
 by the favour of Constantine II. The Arians prevailed 
 in the Council of Antioch, 341 A.D., and were patronized 
 by the emperor Constantius. Athanasius was again 
 deposed, and retired to Rome, where he was cordially re- 
 ceived by the bishop Julius, and found many friends. 
 In 347 his cause and doctrines were approved by the 
 Co-mcil of Sardica, and in 349 he returned in triumph 
 to Alexandria. He was considered the leader of the 
 orthodox party, who were sometimes called Athanasians. 
 
 Athanasius is commended for the fortitude with which 
 he endured long persecution, and the firmness with which 
 he defended the faith against imperial power and pre- 
 sented himself as a barrier against despotism. His in- 
 fluence and reputation were so great that Constantius 
 did not venture to use open violence against him. but by 
 artful and indirect means he procured his condemnation 
 at the Council of Milan, 355 A.D. Athanasius then found 
 a safe refuge among the anchorites of Upper Egypt, 
 where he remained six years and composed several 
 works. On the death of Constantius, 361 A.D., he was 
 restored to his office. He was exiled by Julian (362) 
 and by Valens, (367 ;) but he passed his last five years in 
 the possession of his see, and died in 373 a.d. 
 
 Among his most important works are, a " Discourse 
 on the Incarnation," " Five Books against Alius," a 
 " Discourse against the Greeks or Gentiles," a " Disputa- 
 tion (Aui'Mktos) with Arius in the Council of Nice," 
 " Epistles to Serapio," "An Apology to the Emperor 
 Constantius," and an "Apology for his own Flight." 
 His style is clear, simple, and forcible. His character 
 appears to have been a rare combination of genius, wis- 
 dom, practical ability, courage, and discretion. 
 
 It is now generally admitted that the Athanasian 
 Creed, which was a 'standard of orthodoxy in the Middle 
 Ages, was not composed by this Athanasius, to whom it 
 was formerly ascribed. 
 
 See Hermant, "Vie d'Athauase," 1671 ; Mohler, "Athanasius 
 der Grosse," 1827: Socrates, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Sozomen, 
 " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" E. Renaudot, " Histoire des Patriarches 
 d'Aiexandrie," 1713; Photius, " Bibliotheca." 
 
 Athanasius, Bishop of Ancyra in 360 a.d., was a 
 strenuous advocate of the Nicene Creed against the 
 Eunomians and others. Died about 372 A.D. 
 
 Athanasius, presbyter of Alexandria, of which city 
 he was a native, lived about 450 A.D. 
 
 Athanasius, a jurist of Emesa, in Syria, lived in the 
 sixth century. 
 
 Athanasius, Bishop, was elevated to the see of 
 Naples in 877 by his brother Sergius, duke of that city, 
 whom he afterwards conspired against, put out his eyes 
 and delivered him a captive to Pope John VIII., and 
 took possession himself of the dukedom. 
 
 See Giannone, "Storia civile del Regno di Napoli." 
 
 Athanasius, Patriarch of Constantinople, attained 
 that dignity in 1289, and abdicated in 1310. 
 
 Athanasius called the Rhetorician, was born at 
 Constantinople (or, according to some authorities, in 
 Cyprus) about 1552. He removed to Paris, where he 
 died in 1663, leaving several Greek works, among which 
 is "The Delight of the Soul, etc.," (1639,) and a "Com- 
 pendium of Moral Philosophy," (1641.) 
 
 A'the-as, a warlike and prudent king of Scythia, lived 
 about 350 11.C. and waged war against Philip of Macedon. 
 
 Athelard. See Adelard. 
 
 Atheling. See Edgar Athei.ing. 
 
 Ath'el-stan', more correctly .ffithelstan or Ethel- 
 stan — eth-el-stan', written also Adelstan and Edel- 
 stan, one of the wisest and ablest of the Anglo-Saxon 
 kings, born about 895 A. D., was the eldest son of Edward 
 the Elder, and a grandson of Alfred the Great. He 
 succeeded his father in 925, and soon after annexed to 
 
 his kingdom Northumbria, which had been ruled by Sig- 
 trie or Sithric, a Danish chief. In 934 he invaded Scot- 
 land. Among the important events of his reign was a 
 great victory which he gained in 937 A.D. at Brunenburg, 
 Brunsbury, or Brunford, over an army of Danes, Scots, 
 Picts, etc., led by Anlaf, (a son of Sigtric,) and by Con- 
 stantine of Scotland. His power exceeded that of any 
 previous Anglo-Saxon king. He reigned over all the 
 island except Cumbria, Wales, Cornwall, and Scotland,' 
 which were tributary to him. His liberality, and respect 
 for laws, learning, and religion, are commended by Wil- 
 liam of Malmesbury. He died without issue in 941, and 
 was succeeded by his brother Edmund. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England," chap. ii. ; Freeman, "Nor- 
 man Conquest," vol. i. chap. ii. 
 
 A-the'na, [Gr. 'AOqvr) or 'Adnvu,] the goddess of wis- 
 dom, one of the great divinities of the Greek mythol- 
 ogy, was fabled to have sprung in full armour from the 
 head of Jupiter. She presided over agriculture, inven- 
 tions, sciences, laws, and industry, and was the reputed 
 creator of the olive-tree. She was the great national 
 divinity of the Athenians, whose capital derived its 
 name from her. Athena, sometimes called Pallas Athena, 
 corresponds to the Minerva of the Romans. (See Mi- 
 nerva.) 
 
 Athenaeus, ath-a-nee'us, [Gr. 'Adijvaioc; Fr. Athe- 
 nee, a'ta'nl',] a Peripatetic philosopher, born at Seleu- 
 cia, in Cilicia, lived about 50 B.C. He was a party leader 
 in his native city, and was intimate with Lucius Murena, 
 who conspired against Augustus in 22 B.C. He was ar- 
 rested on this account, but was released because there 
 was no proof against him. 
 
 Athenaeus, the author of an extant Greek work on 
 Military Engines, addressed to Marcellus, (probably the 
 conqueror of Syracuse.) He is said to have been a con- 
 temporary of Archimedes. 
 
 Athenaeus, an eminent physician, the founder of the 
 medical sect of " Pneumatici," was born in Cilicia, at Tar- 
 sus or Attalia, probably in the first century after Christ. 
 He practised at Rome with success, and wrote many 
 works, of which only small fragments remain. The name 
 of his sect is derived from ixveviia, spirit, an active prin. 
 ciple which they considered a fifth element 
 
 Athenaeus, a distinguished Greek litterateur and an- 
 tiquary, born at Naucratis, in Egypt, flourished about 
 200 A.D. Little is known of his life, except that he became 
 a resident of Rome, and wrote or compiled an interest- 
 ing work entitled AairvoooQioTai, " The Banquet of the 
 Learned," or, perhaps, " The Contrivers of Feasts," which 
 is extant. It is in the form of a dialogue, and purports to be 
 a description of a banquet given by Laurentius or Laren- 
 sius, a noble Roman, to a number of eminent men, among 
 whom was Galen. It is an immense mass of anecdotes, 
 criticisms, facts in natural history, and extracts from the 
 works of about seven hundred poets, dramatists, histo- 
 rians, etc., and derives its value chiefly from these ex- 
 tracts from authors whose works are lost. As a work 
 of art it has little merit ; but it affords much information 
 about the private life of the ancient Greeks, and gives 
 proof of great antiquarian research. 
 
 A good edition of Athenaeus was published by W. Din- 
 dorf, Leipsic, 3 vols., 1827. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Schoell, " Histoire de la 
 Literature Grecque ;" " Edinburgh Review," vol. iii., (1803 ;) "Black- 
 wood's Magazine," vol. iv,, (1818.) 
 
 Athenaeus, a Greek epigrammatic poet mentioned 
 by Diogenes Laertius. Two of his epigrams are found 
 in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Ath-e-nag'o-ras, [Gr. ' A(tyi>ayopac; Fr. Athenagore, 
 S'ta'ni'goR',] an ancient physician to whom is ascribed 
 an extant unedited Latin treatise on the Pulse and Urine. 
 He is supposed to have lived before the Christian era. 
 
 Athenagoras, a Greek philosopher, born at Athens, 
 was converted to Christianity in the second century, and 
 wrote " An Apology for the Christians," which is still 
 extant. It was addressed to Marcus Aurelius, or, as 
 some say, to Hadrian and Antoninus. He also left an 
 extant treatise in defence of the doctrine of the Resut- 
 rection. His works have considerable literary merit, and 
 are highly esteemed in other respects. They have been 
 translated into English by David Humphreys. Athenag- 
 
 a. e, I, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon*. 
 
ATHENAGORE 
 
 199 
 
 ATKINSON 
 
 oras has been accused of alloying Christianity with Pla- 
 tonic philosophy. 
 
 See N'eander, "History of the Christian Church." 
 Athenagore. See Athenagoras. 
 Athenais. See EuDOCIA. 
 
 Athenas, i'ta'nas', (Pierre Louis,) a Frenchman 
 distinguished for his efforts to improve agriculture, com- 
 . and the useful arts, was born in Paris in 1752. 
 pened a manufactory of sulphuric acid at Nantes, 
 invented a plough which was much used, discovered the 
 tui-mines of Piriac, and wrote treatises on agriculture, 
 economy, etc. He introduced and naturalized the 
 Guinea grass', (Panicum altissimum,) which is valuable 
 for pasture or fodder. Died in 1829. 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 Athenee. See Athen/EUS. 
 Athenion. See Aristion. 
 
 A-the'uI-on, [' Xffi/viui;] a famous Greek encaustic 
 painter, born at Maronea, in Thrace, lived about 320 B.C., 
 and was a pupil of Glaucion of Corinth. He is said to 
 excelled Nicias, compared with whom he was more 
 austere in colouring. Among his works were "Ulysses 
 detecting Achilles in a female dress," and a "Groom 
 ' breaking in a horse." Pliny expresses the opinion that 
 he would have surpassed all men in painting if he had 
 not died young. 
 
 See Puny, " Natural History." 
 
 Athenion, a Greek comic poet of the middle comedy, 
 from whose play "The Samothracians" we have a long 
 extract in Athenseus. 
 
 Athenion or Athe'nio, a leader of the insurgents 
 
 in a servile war in Sicily, is said to have been a Cilician 
 
 by birth. He was defeated by the consul Manius Aquil- 
 
 lius, who killed Athenion with his own hand, in 102 B.C. 
 
 See Diodorus Siculus, "Fragments." 
 
 Athenion, a Greek physician, mentioned by Soranus 
 as being a follower of Erasistratus, lived probably be- 
 tween 200 K.c. and 100 A.D. 
 
 A-then'o-cles [(Jr. 'A0v?vo/cAw] of Cyzicus, a commen- 
 tator upon Homer, is spoken of by Athenaeus as a better 
 critic of Homer's poems than Aristarchus. Another 
 Athenocles is mentioned by Athenseus as an excellent 
 engraver, and embosser of drinking-cups. 
 Athenodore. See Athf.nodorus. 
 A-then-o-do'rus, [Gr. 'A%ror!wpoc; Fr. Atheno- 
 dore, S'ta'no'doR',] a Greek statuary, was a native of 
 Arcadia and a pupil of Polycletus the elder. He was 
 particularly successful in representing women of rank. 
 He flourished about 350 B.C. 
 
 Athenodorus, one of the three sculptors of the 
 celebrated group of " Laocoon and his Sons," was a son 
 of Agesander of Rhodes. (See Agesander.) 
 
 Athenodorus, a Greek physician, who was probably 
 a contemporary of Plutarch. He wrote a work "On 
 Epidemic Diseases," (not extant.) 
 
 Athenodorus, [Fr. Athenodore,] a Stoic philoso- 
 pher, called Canani'tes, (from Cana, in Cilicia, the birth- 
 place of his father,) was born at Tarsus. He was proba- 
 bly the person whom Cicero calls Athenodorus Calvus, 
 ("Ad Atticum," xvi.) He taught at Apollonia, where 
 Octavius appears to have taken lessons from him, and 
 afterwards removed to Rome. His influence over Oc- 
 tavius, before and after he became emperor, tended to 
 restrain him from excessive severity. Among the lost 
 works attributed to Athenodorus is a treatise against the 
 "Categories" of Aristotle. He died aged eighty-two. 
 See Diogenes I.aertius; Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Gra^ca." 
 Athenodorus surnamed Cordyi/io, of Tarsus, a 
 Stoic philosopher, was keeper of the great library of 
 Pergamus. He removed to Rome, where he lived in 
 the same house with Cato Uticensis until his death. 
 
 Athenodorus of iEnos, a Greek rhetorician, taught 
 at Athens between 150 and 200 A.D. 
 
 Athenodorus of Teos, a Greek, who performed on 
 the harp at the marriage of Alexander the Great and 
 Statira in 324 B.C. 
 
 Ath'er-stone, (Edwin,) an English poet, born at 
 Nottingham about 1788, was the author of "Abradates 
 and Panthea," (1821,) "The Last Davsof Herculaneum," 
 »nd "The Fall of Nineveh," (182$,) which are highly 
 
 commended. He contributed to the "Edinburgh Re- 
 view." 
 
 See "Blackwood's Magazine," vol. xxvii., and "Edinburgh Re- 
 view," vol. xlviii. 
 
 Ath'er-ton, (Charles G.), an American Democratic 
 politician, son of Charles H. Atherton, was born at Am- 
 herst, New Hampshire, in 1804. He graduated at Har- 
 vard in 1822. In 1837 he was elected to Congress, and 
 the next year introduced a series of resolutions, which 
 passed the House of Representatives, requiring that all 
 petitions or papers relating in any way to the subject of 
 slavery should be laid on the table without being de- 
 bated, printed, or referred. These resolutions formed 
 the basis of the famous "gag-law," in the repeal of which 
 John Quincy Adams won immortal renown. In 1843 Mr. 
 Atherton was elected to the United States Senate, and 
 re-elected in 1852. Died in 1853. 
 
 Atherton, (Humphrey,) a major-general in New 
 England, much employed in negotiations with the In- 
 dians, came from England to Dorchester, Massachusetts, 
 in 1650. Died in 1653. 
 
 Athias, a-tee'as, (Isaac,) a Spanish Jew and writer, 
 lived at Amsterdam about 1600—20. 
 
 Athias, (Rabbi Joseph,) an eminent Jewish printer 
 of Amsterdam, published editions of the Hebrew Bible 
 (1661 and 1667) which were highly esteemed. He was pre- 
 sented with a gold chain by the States-General for these 
 services. The majority of modern editors of the Bible 
 have followed the text of Athias. Died in 1700. 
 Athlone, Earl of. See Ginkel. 
 Atia, a'she-a, the mother of the Roman emperor Au- 
 gustus, was a daughter of M. Atius Balbus and Julia, 
 the sister of Julius Caesar. She is praised for the care 
 and wisdom with which she educated her son. Died in 
 43 B.C. 
 
 Atienza Calatrava, a-te-en'tha kJ-la-tRaM, (Mar- 
 tin,) a Spanish painter, one of the founders of the Aca- 
 demy of Seville, lived about 1660. 
 
 A-til-i-91'nus, a Roman jurist, who lived in the first 
 century of our era. His works are cited in the Digest. 
 
 A-til'I-us, a freedman in the reign of Tiberius, chiefly 
 famous for an amphitheatre for gladiators which he 
 erected near Fidenas, but so slightly that it fell when 
 filled with spectators, in 27 A.D., and from twenty to 
 fifty thousand persons are said to have been killed and 
 wounded. He was banished. 
 
 Atilius, (Caius and Marcus,) Roman decemviri in 
 216 B.C. 
 Atilius, (Lucius,) was tribune of the people, 311 B.C." 
 Atilius, (Lucius,) a quaestor, 216 B.C., fell at Cannse. 
 Atilius, (Lucius,) commanded the Roman garrison 
 at Locri, 215 B.C. 
 Atilius, (Lucius,) praetor in 197 B.C. 
 Atilius, (Lucius,) a Roman jurist in the second cen- 
 tury B.C. 
 
 Atilius, (Lucius,) surnamed Sapiens, a Roman jurist, 
 lived between 200 and 150 B.C. 
 
 Atilius, (Marcus,) an early Latin comic poet, whose 
 period is unknown. His works are not extant. Cicero 
 calls him a very rugged poet,— -poeta durissimus. 
 
 At'kins, (Henry,) a Boston navigator, who in nume- 
 rous trading voyages to Davis Straits, between 1729 and 
 1758, explored much of the coast of Labrador. A brief 
 account of his observations is published in the " Massa- 
 chusetts Historical Collections." 
 
 At'kins, (John,) born at Plaistow, Essex, in England, 
 entered the navy as surgeon about 1703. He served in 
 various parts of the world, and published an interesting 
 work entitled "Voyage to Guiana, Brazil, and the West 
 Indies," (1737,) and "The Navy Surgeon, or a Practical 
 System of Surgery," (1737.) 
 Atkins, (Richard.) See Atkyns. 
 Atkins, (Robert,) an English nonconformist divine, 
 born in Somersetshire about 1625. He preached at 
 Exeter, and was ejected for nonconformity in 1662. Died 
 in 1685. 
 
 At'kin-son, (Benjamin Andrew,) an English Pres- 
 byterian minister, preached in London about 1715-35, 
 and wrote against Popery. 
 
 Atkinson, (Henry,) an English mathematician, born 
 near Newcastle-upon-Tyne about 1786. He contributed 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th aS in this. (2£p="See Explanations 
 
 1>- 23- 
 
ATKINSON 
 
 200 
 
 ATT ALUS 
 
 to (he Ladies' and Gentlemen's Diaries, and was one of 
 the editors of the "Newcastle Magazine." Died in 1831. 
 
 At'kin-son, (Henry,) an American general, born in 
 North Carolina about 1780. Having in 1820 been made 
 a brigadier-general, he commanded the Western Army at 
 the battle of Bad Axe, in which he defeated the Indians 
 under Black Hawk, August 2, 1832. Died in 1842. 
 
 Atkinson, (Theodore,) a chief-justice of New 
 Hampshire, born at New Castle in 1697; died in 1779. 
 
 Atkinson, (Thomas,) an English clergyman and 
 Latin poet, was rector of Islip, where he died in 1639. 
 He left in manuscript a Latin tragedy, entitled " Man," 
 (" Homo.") 
 
 At'kiu-son, (Thomas,) a Scottish writer, born about 
 1800, lived in Glasgow. Died in 1833. 
 
 Atkinson, (Thomas Witlam,) an English artist and 
 traveller, born in Yorkshire in 1799. He painted land- 
 scapes, passed about seven years in the exploration of 
 Siberia, and published " Oriental and Western Siberia, 
 a Narrative of Seven Years' Explorations and Adven- 
 tures," etc., (1858,) and "Travels in the Regions of the 
 Upper and Lower Amoor," (i860.) Died in 1861. 
 
 At'kyns, (John Tracy,) an English lawyer, who was 
 called to the bar in 1732. He was appointed cursitor 
 baron of the exchequer in 1755. His " Reports of Cases 
 argued and determined in Chancery from 1736 to 1754" 
 are considered good authority. 
 
 See Foss, "Judges of England," vol. viii. 
 
 Atkyns or At'kins, (Richard,) an English gentle- 
 man, born in Gloucestershire about 1615, raised a troop 
 of horse for the king in the civil war. In a work " On 
 the Origin arid Growth of Printing," (1664,) he attempted 
 to deprive Caxton of the credit of introducing printing 
 into England. (See Caxton.) Died in 1677. 
 
 Atkyns, (Sir Roisert,) an eminent English lawyer and 
 judge, a son of Edward Atkyns, who was a baron of the 
 exchequer, was born in Gloucestershire in 1621. He was 
 knighted at the coronation of Charles II., and appointed 
 a judge of the court of common pleas in 1672. Re- 
 fusing to be subservient to the designs of the corrupt 
 court, he resigned or was removed in 1680. After the 
 revolution which dethroned James II. he was appointed 
 chief baron of the exchequer in 1689. Among his works 
 are an " Inquiry into the Power of dispensing with Penal 
 Laws," (1689,) and a "Defence of Lord Russell's Inno- 
 cency," (1689.) Died in 1709. 
 
 See Foss, " Jndges of England," vol. vii. 
 
 Atkyns, (Sir Robert,) a son of the preceding, born 
 near London in 1646 or 1647. He devoted much time 
 to researches in the history and antiquities of the county 
 in which he resided, and is chiefly known as author of 
 "The Ancient and Present State of Glo'stershire," (1712.) 
 Died in 1711. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 At-lan'tl-des, [Gr.'\T?,avrifiec,] the daughters of Atlas, 
 were also called Hesperides, Pleiades, and Hyades. 
 
 At'las, [Gr. "ArAaf, J a mythical personage represent- 
 ed by the ancient poets sometimes as bearing the heavens 
 on his shoulders, and sometimes as the keeper of the 
 pillars which support the heavens. Hesiod calls him a 
 son of Japetus and Clymene. In later traditions the 
 conception of his superhuman personal existence is 
 blended or lost in the idea of the celebrated mountain 
 in Northern Africa. By some he was represented as the 
 leader of the Titans in their war against Jupiter. 
 
 At'lee, (Samuel John,) an American colonel in the 
 Revolutionary war, born in Pennsylvania in 1738, was 
 elected 'to Congress from Lancaster in 1780. Died in 
 1786. 
 
 Atman, St'man, or Atma, St'mS, (i.e. "soul,") called 
 also Paramatma, (" first or great soul,") the Sanscrit 
 name of the great soul of the world, [in German, Welt- 
 seei.e,] alluded to in the Vedas as the original or pri- 
 mary principle of nature. This idea is regarded as the 
 germ or commencement of the Brahminical philosophy. 
 
 See Koppen, "Religion des Buddha," p. 29. 
 
 Atondo y Antillon, a-ton'do e an-tel-y6n', (Don 
 IsiDORO,) a Spanish admiral who explored Lower Cali- 
 fornia and planted a colony there about 1682. 
 
 See Venegas, " Noticias de la California." 
 
 A-tos'sa, [Gr. 'Kroaaa,] a daughter of Cyrus, King of 
 Persia, became successively the wife of Cambyses, of 
 Smerdis the Magian, and of Darius Hystaspes, over whom 
 she had great influence. She was the mother of Xerxes. 
 According to Hellanicus, she was the first person who 
 wrote epistles. 
 
 Atree_ See Atreus. 
 
 A'treus, [Gr. 'Arprfic; Fr. Atrbe, t'tRa',] an ancient 
 king of Mycenae, supposed to have been a son of Pelops 
 and Hippodami'a, and father or grandfather of Agamem- 
 non and Menelaus. The crimes and calamities of Atreus 
 and his family afforded a prolific subject for the Greek 
 poets and fabulists. 
 
 A-tri'des, [Gr. 'ATpn'o^c,] plural A-tri'dae, ['ArpucVu,! 
 a patronymic from Atreus. In the singular it commonly 
 designates Agamemnon, but in the plural the two bro- 
 thers Agamemnon and Menelaus. (See Homer's " Iliad," 
 passim,) 
 
 A-tro-91-a'nus, [Ger. pron. a-trot-se-a'nus,] (Joan- 
 nes,) a German poet and botanist, lived at Bale and Col- 
 mar in the first half of the sixteenth century. He was a 
 teacher of languages, and published, besides other works, 
 a Latin poem on "The Peasants' War of 1525," ("De 
 Bello Rustico Anni 1525,") (published in 152S,) and an 
 edition of /Emilius Mac'er "On the Virtues of Plants." 
 
 A-trop'a-tes, [Gr. 'Arpmrunjc,] a Persian general, 
 commanded a division at the battle of Arbela, 331 B.C., 
 and was made Satrap of Media by Alexander, 330 B.C. 
 
 Atropos. See Parc^e. 
 
 At'syil, (Richard,) an English engraver, worked for 
 Henry VIII. about 1510-40. 
 
 See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting in England." 
 
 At'ta, (Titus Quintius,) a Roman dramatic poet, 
 wrote comedies about 80 B.C. Some fragments of his 
 writings have been preserved. 
 
 At-ta-gi'nus, [Gr. 'Arrajwoc,] a Theban, who fa- 
 voured the cause of Xerxes on his invasion of Greece, 
 480 B.C. 
 
 Attaignant, i'tkn'yftN , (Pierre,) a French printer 
 of Paris, said to have been .'he first who printed music 
 with movable types. Died in 1556. 
 
 See Panzer, "Annales Typographical." 
 
 Attaignant, de 1', deh li'tkn'yoN', (Gabriel 
 Charles,) a French versifier, born in Paris in 1697, be- 
 came a canon of Rheims. His works, comprising songs, 
 madrigals, etc., were published in four volumes in 1757. 
 Died in 1779. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Attaji. See Atajee. 
 
 Attale. See Attalus. 
 
 At'ta-li'a-tes or Attali'ata, [Gr. 'Arra/taanjc,] (Mi- 
 chael,) compiled a compendium of law at Constanti- 
 nople in the eleventh century. 
 
 At'ta-lus, [Gr. "ArraAoc; Fr. Attale, ftil',] a gene- 
 ral of Philip of Macedon, was uncle of Cleopatra whom 
 Philip married in 337 B.C. At a feast which followed 
 this event, he offended the prince Alexander by a wish 
 or prayer for a legitimate successor to the throne. Atta- 
 ins insulted or injured Pausanias, who complained to 
 King Philip ; but the latter, from favouritism to Attalus, 
 refused to give him redress. This offence is supposed 
 to have caused the assassination of Philip by Pausanias. 
 Attalus was put to death, by order of Alexander, in 336 
 or 335 B.C. 
 
 See Diodorus Siculus, book xvi. ; Justin, books ix. and xii. 
 
 Attalus, [Fr. Attale,] an officer of Alexander the 
 Great, and brother-in-law of Perdiccas, was one of the 
 officers left with part of the army in Bactria in 328 B.C., 
 and accompanied Alexander in the invasion of India in 
 326. In 321 he commanded the fleet of Perdiccas in 
 his expedition against Ptolemy of Egypt. He was de- 
 feated in Pisidia and taken prisoner by Antigonus in 320 
 B.C. His ultimate fate is unknown. 
 
 See Arrian's "Anabasis." 
 
 Attalus I., King of Pergamus, succeeded his cousin 
 Eumenes I. in 241 B.C. He gained a decisive victory 
 over the Gauls, who had occupied Galatia. Before the 
 year 226 he had made himself master of all Asia Minor 
 west of Mount Taurus. As ally of the Romans and 
 /Etolians, he waged war against Philip of Macedon be- 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ATT ALUS 
 
 201 
 
 ATTERBURT 
 
 tween 210 and 204. In 200 B.C. he met at Athens a Ro- 
 man embassy and formed another league against Philip. 
 He died in 197 B.C., and left the throne to his son 
 Eumenes II. Attalus had the reputation of a just and 
 wise ruler, and a very able general. 
 
 Sec Polybius, " History," books iv., v., x., xvi., xvii., xviiL, xxii., 
 etc ; LlVY, books xxvi., xxvii., xxviii., xxix., xxxi., etc. 
 
 Attalus H, sumamed Philadel'phus, was the sec- 
 ond son of Attalus I., and was born about 220 B.C. He 
 began to reign in 159, before which he had served Eu- 
 menes II. as general and ambassador to Rome. He 
 adhered constantly to the Roman alliance, and waged 
 war against I'rusias of Bithynia. He founded Philadel- 
 phia in Lydia, and patronized the arts and sciences. 
 Horace is supposed to refer to the flourishing finances of 
 Attains in the phrase " Attalicis conditionibus," (Ode I. 
 "Ad Msecenatem.") Died in 138 B.C. 
 
 See Polybius " History," books iii., xxii., xxv., xxx., xxxi. ; Livy, 
 books xxxv., xxxvii., xxxviii., xlii., xlv. 
 
 Attalus III., (Piiilome'tor,) a nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, and son of Eumenes II., ascended the throne in 
 138 B.C., soon after which he murdered many of his 
 friends and relatives. Having been seized with remorse, 
 he abandoned public affairs, and applied himself to sculp- 
 ture, and to gardening, on which he wrote a book. He 
 died in 133 B.C., having made a will, in which the Roman 
 people were appointed his heirs. 
 
 See Diodorus Siculus, book xxiv. ; Justin, book xxxvi. 
 
 Attalus, a mathematician, who wrote a commentary 
 on the " Phenomena" of Aratus, is supposed to have 
 flourished between 162 and 128 B.C. 
 
 Attalus, a Greek physician of the second century, 
 A.D., was a pupil of Soranus, and belonged to the medi- 
 cal school called Methodici, (or " Methodists.") 
 
 Attalus, an Athenian sculptor of unknown dafe, who 
 executed the statue of the Lycian Apollo at Argos. 
 
 Attalus, an able and eloquent Stoic philosopher, who 
 lived at Rome in the reign of Tiberius. He was a teacher 
 of the philosopher Seneca, who speaks of him in very 
 favourable terms and quotes a number of his sayings. 
 "He was banished through the influence of Sejanus. 
 
 See Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." 
 
 Attalus, a rhetorician or sophist, who appears to 
 have been a native of Laodicea. He settled at Smyrna, 
 and flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 Attalus, a presbyter of the Christian Church in the 
 fourth century, was condemned for Arianism, 381 A.D. 
 
 Attalus, (Fi.avius Priscus,) probably an Ionian by 
 descent, was a pagan by birth, and was converted to 
 Arianism. I le was prefect of Rome when that capital 
 was taken by Alaric in 409 A.D., and was then proclaimed 
 emperor by Alaric in place of Honorius. He refused the 
 offer of Honorius to be his associate in the empire. In 410 
 he was deposed by Alaric, and in 416 A.D. was banished by 
 Honorius to Lipari. His subsequent fate is*<ot known. 
 
 See Sozomkn, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Gibbon, '"Decline and 
 Fall of the .Roman Empire. 
 
 Attalus, (Maktyn,) one of the Christians put to death 
 at Lugdunum (Lyons) in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, 
 177 A.D. 
 
 Attameemee, (or Atamimi,) an Arabian physician, 
 a native of Jerusalem, gave much attention to pharmacy 
 and materia medica, and wrote numerous medical works. 
 He was living in Egypt in 980 A.D. 
 
 Attar, at-taR', or, as he was usually called, Co'gi 
 (or Kho'jah) Attar, was nominally the vizier, but really 
 the ruler, of Ormuz when Albuquerque first arrived before 
 that city. He successfully resisted until his death all 
 the attempts of the Portuguese to take Ormuz. He is 
 believed to have died in 1513. 
 
 Attardi, at-taR'dee, (P.on avkntura,) an Italian theo- 
 logian and Augustine monk of the early part of the eigh- 
 teenth century, became in 1738 provincial of his order in 
 Sicily and Malta. 
 
 See MAKtUCHKLLI, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Attar-Fereed-ed-Deen, (or Ferid-ed-Din,) attar' 
 feh-reed' ed-deen', a celebrated Persian poet, who was 
 distinguished for his profound knowledge of the Soofee 
 doctrines, was born in a suburb of Nishapoor, in Kho- 
 rassan, about 1120 A.D. He wrote forty poetical works, 
 one of which was published at Paris in 1819, with a 
 
 memoir. He is said to have been killed by a soldier 0} 
 Jengis Khan, 1221 a.d., aged one hundred and one years. 
 
 Attavante, at-ta-van'ti, (Fiorentino,) an Italian 
 illuminator and miniature-painter of the latter part of the 
 fifteenth century, worked principally at Venice. 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 Attavanti, at-ta-vaii'tee, (Paolo,) an Italian friar and 
 eloquent preacher, born at Florence in 1419, entered the 
 order of Servites, of which he wrote an account, (1727.) 
 Among his works are " Compendium of Canonical Law," 
 ("Breviarium totius Juris canonici," 1479,) and an "Ex- 
 position of the Penitential Psalms," (1479.) Died in 1499. 
 See Tikaboschi, "Storiadella Letteratura ltaliana." 
 At-te'ius surnamed Pr-zEtexta'tus, a grammarian, 
 and afterwards called Philologus. He lived in the latter 
 half of the first century B.C., and taught many noble 
 Roman youths, and prepared a Compendium of Roman 
 History for the use of Sallust. 
 Atteius Capito. See Capito. 
 Attendolo, at-ten'do-lo, or Attendoli, at-ten'do-lee, 
 (Dario, da-ree'o,) an Italian jurist of the middle of the 
 sixteenth century, was born in the duchy of Ferrara. 
 Among his works is a treatise on the Duel, ("Duello 
 diviso in tre Libri," 1560.) 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 Attendolo, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian priest, 
 distinguished as a poet and a linguist, was born at Capua. 
 In the dispute respecting Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," 
 he defended that poet against the Academy della Crusca. 
 He left, besides other works, "Rime," ("Poems," 1584.) 
 Died in 1592. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 Atterbom, at'ter-bom', (Peter Daniel Amadeus,) 
 a Swedish poet, born in East Gothland, or in the county 
 of Christianstadt, in 1790. He became German teacher 
 of Prince Oscar about 1S20, and professor of philosophy 
 at Upsal in 1828. For many years he edited the " Poetical 
 Almanac," ("Poetisk Kalender.") His poems are ad- 
 mired for grace and harmony. He first introduced son- 
 nets and octaves into Swedish poetry. Among his chief 
 works is "The Seers and Poets of Sweden," a contribu- 
 tion to literary history, in five or six volumes, the first 
 of which appeared in 1841. Died in 1855. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Brockhaus, 
 "Conversations-Lexikon;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Atterbury, at'ter-ber-e, (Francis,) Bishop of Roches- 
 ter, an eminent English writer, pulpit orator, and politi- 
 cian, born at Milton, near Newport-Pagnell, in Bucking- 
 hamshire, in March, 1662, was a son of Lewis Atterbury, 
 noticed below. He entered Christ Church, Oxford, in 
 1680, published a Latin version of Dryden's "Absalom 
 and Achitophel" in 1682, and married Miss Osborn, a 
 relative of the Duke of Leeds, in 1690. In 1691 he be- 
 came lecturer at Saint Bride's Church, London. Having 
 distinguished himself as an eloquent preacher, he was 
 appointed one of the chaplains to William and Mary 
 about 1694. He was the chief author of a witty answer 
 to Bentley's " Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris." 
 (See Bentley and Boyle.) He wrote, in answer to Dr. 
 Wake, "The Rights, Powers, and Privileges of an Eng- 
 lish Convocation stated and vindicated," (1700.) He 
 was appointed chaplain to Queen Anne in 1702, Dean of 
 Carlisle in 1704, and Bishop of Rochester in 1713. 
 
 Atterbury was a zealous Tory and Jacobite, and was 
 intimate with Pope and Swift. He was an able and adroit 
 politician, and would probably have been primate if 
 Queen Anne had survived a few years longer. It is re- 
 ported that on her death (1714) he urged Bolingbroke to 
 proclaim the Pretender James. He was committed to the 
 Tower in 1722 on a charge of being engaged in plots to 
 restore the Stuart family, and was convicted by the House 
 of Lords in May, 1723. The sentence was deprivation of 
 all his offices and benefices and banishment for life. He 
 retired to France, and continued to be a favourite agent 
 and adviser of the Pretender. He died in Paris in Feb- 
 ruary, 1732. Four volumes of his sermons were pub- 
 lished in 1740. 
 
 According to Boswell, Dr. Johnson reckoned Atter- 
 bury's sermons among the best in the language for style. 
 "He is the glory of our English orators," says Dod- 
 dridge. " In his writings we see language in its strictest 
 
 « u *; c as s, g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ATTERBURY 
 
 202 
 
 ATTWATER 
 
 purity and beauty." Among his works is an eloquent 
 vindication of Lutlier, in "An Answer to some Considera- 
 tions on the Spirit of Martin Luther and the Original 
 of the Reformation," (1687.) 
 
 See his " Epistolary Correspondence," 4 vols., 1783, edited by J. 
 Nichols; Thomas Stackhouse, " Memoirs of the Life of Francis 
 Atterbury," 1727; Hallam, "Constitutional History;" SwiFT, 
 "Four Last Years of the Reign of Queen Anne;" Kippis, " Bio- 
 graphia Britannica." 
 
 Atterbury, (Lewis,) the father of the preceding, was 
 born in 1631. He became rector of Milton or Middleton 
 Keynes, in Bucks, about 1657, and retained that living 
 under the reign of Charles II. Three of his sermons were 
 published. He was drowned near his residence in 1693. 
 Atterbury, (LEWIS,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 in the parish of Newport-Pagnell in 1656. He was ad- 
 mitted to priest's orders in 1681, and elected preacher at 
 Highgate Chapel, London, in 1695. He was one of the 
 chaplains of Queen Anne, who presented him to the rec- 
 tory of Sheppcrton. He also obtained the rectory of 
 Hornsey in 1719, but continued to preach at Highgate 
 until his death. Two volumes of his sermons were pub- 
 lished in 1699 and in 1703. Died in 1731. 
 
 Atterbury, ( Lui-tman,) an English composer of glees 
 and songs, born about 1740; died in 1800. 
 
 At'ti-cus, [Gr. 'Arxocof,] a philosopher of the Platonic 
 school, lived in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, about 175 
 A.D. His works are not extant. 
 
 Atticus, an Athenian, who was raised from indigence 
 to affluence by the discovery of a vast treasure in his 
 house or land near Athens. He was the father of He- 
 rodes Atticus the rhetorician. (See Herodes.) He an- 
 nounced his discovery of the treasure to the emperor 
 Nerva, who answered that he might use it or abuse it as 
 he pleased. He left by will an annuity of one mina* to 
 each citizen of Athens. 
 
 Atticus, a native of Sebaste, in Armenia, was irregu- 
 larly chosen Patriarch of Constantinople in 406 A.D., in 
 place of John Chrysostom, who had been deposed. Pope 
 Innocent refused to recognize the appointment ; but they 
 were finally reconciled. He wrote a treatise " On Faith 
 and Virginity," ("De Fide et Virginitate,") not extant. 
 Died in 425 a.d. 
 
 Atticus, (Dionysius,) a Greek rhetorician, a native 
 of Pergamus, lived at Athens about 50 B.C. 
 
 Atticus, (Titus Pomponius,) a Roman philosopher 
 and scholar, celebrated for his benevolence, moderation, 
 and mediatorial services, was born in 109 B.C. He be- 
 longed to the equestrian order, and inherited an ample 
 fortune. On becoming heir to his uncle Quintus Ca;cilius, 
 he assumed that name, or prefixed it to his original 
 name. During the civil war between Sulla and Marius, 
 he retired to Athens, where he remained many years, and 
 gained the favour of the Athenians by his munificence. 
 He returned to Rome about 65 B.C., and devoted his 
 time chiefly to literature, adhering constantly to a reso- 
 lution, which he had formed in early life, to accept no 
 public office and to maintain neutrality between hostile 
 parties. He was an intimate friend of Cicero, with whom 
 he corresponded regularly for many years, and was on 
 friendly terms with Caesar, Pompey, Brutus, Mark An- 
 tony, and Augustus. When Brutus was forced to fly 
 from Italy, Atticus sent him a million sesterces.t He 
 also afforded relief to the wife of Antony in her adversity. 
 In philosophy he favoured the sect of Epicurus. He 
 wrote an epitome of Roman history, entitled "Annales," 
 comprising a period of seven centuries, and several other 
 works, which are all lost. He was distinguished for fine 
 literary taste, and excelled in the composition of epi- 
 grammatic inscriptions. His daughter Pomponia (or 
 Attica) was married to M. Vipsanius Agrippa, the chief 
 minister of Augustus, and his granddaughter Vipsania 
 Agrippina was the wife of the emperor Tiberius. Many 
 letters of Cicero to Atticus are extant. Died in 32 B.C. 
 See "Life of Atticus," by Cornelius Nepos; Cicero, "Letters 
 to Atticus," in Middleton's "Life of Ciceror" HOllemann, "Dia- 
 tribe in T. Pomponiinn Atticum," 1S3S ; Drumann, "Geschichte 
 Roms;' Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 _ * About twenty dollars of our money ; but, owing to the compara- 
 tive scarcity of the precious metals in that age, its relative value was 
 probably very much greater. 
 
 t About forty thousand dollars. See preceding note. 
 
 At'tl-la, [Gr. 'Arri^ac; in German, Etzel, et'sel, or 
 Atzel, at'sel,] a famous heathen conqueror, chief 0/ 
 the Huns, surnamed the Scourge of God, was a 
 son of Mundzuk or Mundzuccus. About 432 A.D. he 
 succeeded his uncle Roas as king of the nomadic Huns 
 who lived in Pannonia and north of the Danube. In 
 a few years he extended his domination over Scythia 
 and Germany. He invaded the Roman Empire in 447 
 or 446, defeated the armies of Theodosius, Emperor of 
 the East, in several battles, and obliged him to treat for 
 peace, which he obtained by the payment of an annual 
 tribute. Marcian, who began to reign in 450 a.d., re- 
 fused to pay tribute, and said, in reply to the messengers 
 of Attila, " I have gold for my friends, and iron for my 
 enemies." The haughty barbarian sent to the Emperors 
 of the East and West a message in these terms : "Attila, 
 my master and thy master, commands thee to prepare 
 without delay a palace for his reception." He demanded 
 in marriage Honoria, a sister of the emperor Valentinian, 
 but the latter refused his consent. Having led a large 
 army (estimated at seven hundred thousand men) into 
 Gaul, he was defeated in a great battle by the Roman 
 general Aetius and Theodoric the Visigoth near Chalons- 
 sur-Marne in 451 a.d. Soon after this date he invaded 
 Italy, the northern part of which he ravaged without 
 meeting any resistance. The emperor sued for peace by 
 the mediation of Pope Leo I., who, in a personal inter- 
 view with Attila, induced him to grant a truce and to retire 
 from Italy. He died in Hungary in 453 or 454 a.d., and 
 was buried by night. It is reported that he said "the 
 grass could not grow where his horse had passed." He 
 left sons named Ellac and Dengezic ; but they did not 
 inherit his abilities nor his power. Attila is the hero of 
 many old German legends and songs, especially of the 
 Niebeltmgen-Lied. 
 
 See Jornandes, "De Rebus Geticis;" "Attila," an epic poem, 
 (with notes,) by Rev. William Herbert, 1828 ; Gibbon, " Decline 
 and Fall of the Roman Empire," chaps, xxxiv. and xxxv. ; Calli- 
 machus Experiens, " De Gestis Attihe," 1541 ; Juvencus Celius 
 Callanus, "Vita Attila:," 1503; J. M. Barbieri, "La Guerra 
 d'Attila," 1568; Fessler, "Attila Konig der Hunnen," 1794 ; Am£- 
 dee Thierry, "Attila dans les Gaules," 1852; Link, "Ueber. 
 Attila K<5nig der Hunnen," 1780 ; Dr. Hoefer, in the " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G&ieVale." 
 
 Attinghausen, at'ting-how'zen, a Swiss patriot, who 
 was landamman of the canton of Uri in 1306, and one of 
 the founders of the federation between the cantons of 
 Uri, Schwitz, and Unterwalden. 
 
 Attiret, t'te'ri', (Claude Franqois,) a French sculp- 
 tor, born at Dole in 1728, worked at Dijon. By order 
 of the magistrates of Dole, he executed a statue of Louis 
 XVI., the first erected to that prince. Died in 1804. 
 
 Attiret, (Jean Denis,) a French painter and Jesuit, 
 an uncle of the preceding, bom at Dole in 1702. He 
 worked at Lyons and Avignon. In 1737 he went to 
 Pekin, inconsequence of a request from the French mis- 
 sionaries trfat an artist should be sent to them. He 
 gained the favour of the emperor Kien-Lung, by whom 
 he was employed in his palace for many years. Kien- 
 Lung also required the artist to accompany him in a 
 military expedition and to paint the battles or pomps 
 which he witnessed. Attiret, from motives of policy, 
 conformed to the Chinese taste, and used water-colours, 
 or distemper, because the emperor disliked the gloss of 
 oil-colours. Died at Pekin in 1768. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Attius, (L.,) a Roman poet. See Accius. 
 
 At'to or Ac'to [Fr. Atton, t'toN'| Ver-cel-11-en'- 
 sis, a French monk, who was chosen Bishop 'of Vercelli 
 about 924 a.d. His works were published in 1768. 
 
 At'tucks, (Crispus,) a half-breed Indian or mulatto, 
 was the leader of the mob in the fray known as the 
 " Boston Massacre," which occurred on the 5th of March, 
 1770. He was killed by the soldiers on that occasion, 
 and was buried with much pomp. 
 
 Attumonelli, at-too-mo-nel'lee, (Michele,) a dis- 
 tinguished physician and medical writer, born at Andria, 
 in Naples, 1753, in 1799 removed to Paris, where he had 
 an extensive practice. Died in 1826. 
 
 Att'wa-ter, \ Russell,) a soldier of the American 
 Revolution, born in Cheshire, Connecticut, in 1762. In 
 the attack of the British on New Haven he was wounded 
 
 a, e, i, o, 3, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 0, ii, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ATT WOOD 
 
 203 
 
 AUBERT 
 
 and left for dead on the field, but recovered. After the 
 defeat of Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo he was 
 employed by the friends of the emperor to purchase a 
 tract of land in Northern New York, which they in- 
 tended as a retreat for the emperor should he succeed in 
 making his escape. But on hearing that Napoleon had 
 given himself up to the English, the project was aban- 
 doned. Died in 1851. 
 
 Att'wood or At'wood, (Thomas,) an English judge, 
 who officiated in the island of Dominica. He wrote 
 "Observations on the true Method of Treatment of the 
 Negro Slaves in the British West-India Islands," (1790,) 
 and " History of Dominica," (1791.) Died in prison for 
 debt in 1793. 
 
 Attwood or Atwood, (Thomas,) a distinguished 
 English composer for the church, theatre, etc., born 
 in 1767, was a favourite pupil of Mozart, at Vienna. He 
 was patronized by the Prince of Wales, (George IV.,) 
 an 1 was elected organist of Saint Paul's Cathedral in 
 1795, and composer to the chapel royal in 1796. His 
 anthem " The King shall rejoice," composed for the 
 coronation of George IV., was much admired. He be- 
 came organist to the chapel royal in 1837. He com- 
 posed a number of popular songs and glees, among 
 which are " The Harp's Wild Notes," and " In this Fair 
 Vale," several operas, and a grand anthem for the coro- 
 nation of William IV., (1S30.) Died in 1838. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 At'well, (George,) of Cambridge, England, published 
 a "Defence of Astrology," (1660,) and "The Faithful 
 Surveyor," (1662.) Sir Isaac Newton is said to have 
 expressed a favourable opinion of him. 
 
 At'wood or Att'wood, (George,) an English 
 mathematician, eminent as a lecturer on natural philoso- 
 phy, was born in 1745. He became a Fellow and tutor 
 of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1784 he published a 
 "Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion and Rotation of 
 Bodies," which was highly esteemed, and contained the 
 first account of the machine since called by the name of 
 "Atwood," by which the laws of simply accelerated mo- 
 tion are verified. His " Dissertation on the Construction 
 of Arches" (1801) is a work of much merit. Accord- 
 ing to some writers, he was financial private secretary to 
 William Pitt. Died in 1807. 
 
 Atwood, (William,) an English constitutional and 
 political writer, was chief-justice of New York, and lived 
 about 1700. He wrote, besides several historical or 
 legal treatises, a tract entitled " The Superiority and Di- 
 rect Dominion of the Crown of England over the Crown 
 and Kingdom of Scotland," (1704,) which was answered 
 by James Anderson. 
 
 Atzel. See Attii.a. 
 
 Aubais.d', do'bi', (Charles de Barchi— deh biV- 
 she',) a French marquis, noted as a patron of literature, 
 was born near Nimes in 1686. He published, with Leon 
 Menard, " Documents for the History of France, with 
 Notes," (" Pieces fugitives pour servir a l'Histoire," 
 etc., 3 vols., 1759.) Died in 1777. 
 
 Auban. See Saint-Auban. 
 
 Aubenton. See Daubenton. 
 
 Auber, o'baiR', a French economist, born at Rouen 
 about the middle of the eighteenth century. He wrote 
 several able reports on Agriculture, Internal Improve- 
 ments, etc., as secretary of the " Societe d'EmuIation" 
 of Rouen. Died in 1804. 
 
 Auber, (Daniel Francois Esprit,) an eminent 
 French composer, born at Caen in January, 1784, was a 
 pupil ofCherubini. His first production, "LeSejour mili- 
 taire." (1813,) was coldly received, but his comic opera 
 "La Bergere Chatelaine" (1820) was a complete suc- 
 cess. In partnership with Eugene Scribe, he composed 
 the music of many popular operas which are remarkable 
 for originality and grace. His opera "La Muette de 
 Portici," (1828,) commonly known as " Masaniello," had 
 great success, and is called his master-piece. " In this are 
 found," says M. Denne-Baron, "situations strong and 
 impassioned, rendered with admirable energy, nuances 
 which the composer has seized with exquisite delicacy, 
 displaying all the riches of a style diversified to infinity." 
 Among his most popular comic operas are " Fra Dia- 
 volo," (1830,) "Lestocq," (1834,) "Le Domino noir," 
 
 (1837,) and " Haydee," (1847.) He was chosen a member 
 of the Institute in 1826. He was for a time director 
 of music in the chapel of Napoleon III. Died in 1871. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale ;" JLom^nib, "Galerie des Contemporains." 
 
 Auberi. SeeAuBERY. 
 
 Auberlen, ow'ber-len, (Samuel Gottlob,) a Ger- 
 man composer and organist, born near Stuttgart in 1758. 
 He composed symphonies, cantatas,' duets, and music 
 for various instruments. About 1816 he founded a school 
 for choral singing. He was afterwards organist of the 
 cathedral of Ulm. Died about 1830. 
 
 See S. G. Auberlen, " Leben, Meinungen," etc. ; Fetis, "Bio- 
 graphie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Aubernon, o'beVno.N', (Philippe,) a French admin- 
 istrator, born in 1757, became commissary of the army 
 of the Alps in 1792. Died in 1832. 
 
 Aubert, o'baiR', (Anais, t'ni',) Mademoiselle, a 
 French dramatic artist, born about 1800. 
 
 Aubert, (Augustin,) a French painter, bom in 1781, 
 lived at Marseilles. He painted history, landscapes, and 
 portraits with success. Died in 1832. 
 
 Aubert, (Esprit,) born near Avignon, was the author 
 of a dictionary in Latin, with synonyms in Greek and 
 French, published at Lyons in 1613. 
 
 Aubert, Father, a Jesuit, who lived in the first 
 half of the eighteenth century, and wrote several works, 
 principally on natural history. 
 
 Aubert, (Francois,) a French physician and medical 
 writer, born at Dormans, in Champagne, in 1695 J died 
 about 1760. 
 
 Aubert, (Francois,) a canon and religious writer, born 
 at Paris in 1709. He wrote a "Refutation of Belimire 
 and his Oracles" — i.e. Rousseau, Voltaire, etc., (1768.) 
 
 Aubert, (Francois Hubert,) a French advocate, 
 born at Nancy in 1720. He wrote a " Life of Stanislas 
 Lecszinski, King of Poland and Duke of Lorraine,"( 1 769,) 
 which was praised by Freron. He passed about twenty- 
 five years in the service and at the court of this prince. 
 
 Aubert, (Guillaume,) an eloquent French advocate, 
 born at Poitiers about 1534. He published a fragment 
 called a " History of the Wars waged by the Christians, 
 under Godfrey of Bouillon, against the Turks," (1559.) 
 Died about 1600. 
 
 Aubert, (Jacques,) a French physician, born at Ven- 
 dome. He wrote a " Treatise on the Plague," (" Libellus 
 de Peste," 1571,) and other works. Died in 1586. 
 
 Aubert, (Jean Louis,) Abbe, a French poet, fabulist, 
 and critic, born in Paris in 1731, was for many years 
 editor of the " Petites Affiches," a journal, which he 
 made popular. In 1756 he published a collection of 
 fables, which had a European reputation. Voltaire 
 found in them philosophy adorned with the charms of 
 wit, and wrote to Aubert, " You have the merit of style 
 and of invention in a department where every thing 
 seemed to have been said. You have placed yourself 
 beside La Fontaine." His drama, in verse, on "The 
 Death of Abel," was less successful. He was appointed 
 professor of French literature in the College Royal, 
 Paris, in 1773. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Qu^rard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Aubert, (Michel,) a French engraver, born in Paris 
 in 1700. He engraved some works of Rubens and of 
 several Italian masters, also portraits of painters for 
 D'Argenville's work, "The Lives of the Most Famous 
 Painters." Died in Paris in 1757. 
 
 Aubert, (Pierre,) a literary French lawyer, born at 
 Lyons in 1642. He published a new and enlarged edi- 
 tion of Richelet's " Dictionary of the French Language," 
 (3 vols., 1728,) and presented to the city of Lyons a large 
 library for the public use. Died in 1733. 
 
 Aubert, (Pierre Francois Olivier,) a violoncellist, 
 musical composer, and author of a History of Music, 
 born at Amiens in 1765. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Aubert, Saint, became Bishop of Avranches, in 
 France, in the early part of the eighth century. He 
 founded the monastery of Mont Saint-Michel, on a high 
 rock in the sea, on the coast of France. 
 
 Aubert de la Chesnaye des Bois, o'baiR' deh li 
 shi'n&'da bwa, (Francois Alexandre,) a French com- 
 
 mas k; c as s; % hard; g as ;; g, h, K,guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jrjf~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AUBERT 
 
 204 
 
 AUBIGNE 
 
 piler, bom at Ernee, in Mayenne or Maine, in 1699. He 
 published " Historical, Philosophical, and Critical Cor- 
 respondence in answer to the Lettres Juives" (3 vols., 
 1739,) a "Military Dictionary," and other dictionaries; 
 also, " Critical Letters on the Romans, English, and 
 French," (1743.) Died in Paris in 1784. 
 
 Aubert (or G-aubert) de Puicibot, o'baiR' deh 
 pwe'se'bo', a French troubadour, born in Limousin, after 
 a life of dissipation entered a monastery. Died in 1263. 
 
 Aubert de Vertot See Vertot. 
 
 Aubert de Vitry, 6'baiR' deh ve'tRe', (Francois 
 Jean Philibert,) a French writer and translator, born 
 inParisin 1765. He published in 1792 "Studies on Edu- 
 cation," and wrote against the Jacobins in 1793. Dur- 
 ing the republic and the empire of Napoleon he filled 
 several civil offices. He translated " Memoirs of Goethe" 
 from the German, (1823,) and several works from the 
 English. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Aubert du Bayet, 6'baiR'dii bi'yi', (Jean Baptists 
 Annibal,) a French general, born in Louisiana in 1759. 
 He fought under La Fayette for the United States, and 
 was elected in 1791 to the French legislative assembly, in 
 which he acted with the popular party. Having re-entered 
 the army, he rose to the rank of general of division, and 
 in 1793 commanded at the famous siege of Mentz, which 
 he surrendered to the Prussians. He was minister of 
 war about three months in 1795, and was ambassador at 
 Constantinople, where he died in December, 1797. 
 
 Aubert du Petit-Thouars. See Du Petit-Thou- 
 ars. 
 
 Aubertin, o'beVtiN', (Dominique,) an adjutant- 
 general in the French army, and author of " Memoirs 
 on the War of La Vendee," born at Luneville in 1 75 1 ; 
 died in 1825. 
 
 Aubertin, (Edme, Jdm,) a learned French Protestant, 
 born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1595, became minister at 
 Charenton, near Paris. He published in 1629 "The 
 Conformity of the Creed of the Church with Saint Augus- 
 tine in Relation to the Eucharist," which was received 
 with favour by the Protestants, and was answered by the 
 great Arnauld. Died in 1652. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Aubert-Roche, 6'baiR' rosh, (Louis,) a French phy- 
 sician, graduated at Paris in 1833, and passed some years 
 in the service of Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of Egypt. In 
 1839 he published a treatise " On the Plague and Ty- 
 phus of the East," in which he argues that the plague is 
 not contagious. 
 
 Aubery, o'bRe', (Antoine,) a French historical wri- 
 ter, born in Paris in 1616. He published a " General His- 
 tory of Cardinals," (5 vols., 1642-49,) a " History of Car- 
 dinal Richelieu," (1660,) "Memoires pour l'Histoire du 
 Cardinal de Richelieu," (2 vols., 1660,) and a " History 
 of Cardinal Mazarin," (2 vols., 1695,) which Beuchot 
 calls glossed over (fardie) and inexact. Died in 1695. 
 
 See NlCBRON, "Memoires." 
 
 Aubery, (Claude,) a French physician, who lived in 
 the sixteenth century. Having adopted the Reformed 
 religion, he removed to Lausanne, where he became pro- 
 fessor of philosophy. His works, on religious and medi- 
 cal subjects, display great erudition. Died in 1596. 
 
 Aubery, (Jacques,) a French jurist and advocate, 
 lived at Paris between 1550 and 1600. 
 
 Aubery, (Jean,) physician to the Duke of Montpen- 
 sier, was born in the Bourbonnais in the latter part of 
 the sixteenth century. He wrote several medical works, 
 and a " History of the City of Autun." 
 
 Aubery, (Louis,) Sieur du Maurier, (rao'rei',) a 
 French historical writer of the seventeenth century, 
 studied at Leyden, and travelled in the north of Europe. 
 His chief work is "Memoirs to illustrate the History of 
 Holland and the other United Provinces," ("Memoires 
 pour servir a l'Histoire de Hollande," etc., 1680,) which 
 passed through many editions and is praised for its 
 veracity and impartiality. Died in 1687. 
 
 Aubespine, de 1', deh 16'bes'pen', (Charles,) Mar- 
 quis de Chatcauncuf, and Abbe de Preaux, a French 
 diplomatist, notorious for intrigues, born in Paris in 1580, 
 was a son of Guillaume de l'Aubespine. After he had 
 served in several foreign missions, he was appointed 
 
 keeper of the seals in 1630. He is censured for his 
 severity or injustice to Marshals de Marillac and de 
 Montmorency, at whose trial he presided. He was de- 
 prived of office and imprisoned by Richelieu in 1633. 
 Died in 1653. 
 
 Aubespine, de 1', (Claude,) born about 1508, was 
 secretary of state and finance for a long period, and 
 was employed by several kings in important diplomatic 
 missions. He was one of the ablest negotiators of his 
 time. He left a son Guillaume. Died in 1567. 
 
 Aubespine, de 1', (Gabriel,) a brother of Charles, 
 and grandson of Claude, noticed above, was born in 
 1579. He became Bishop of Orleans in 1604, and dis- 
 played much learning in several works, one of which is 
 entitled "On the Ancient Rites of the Church," ("De 
 veteribus Ecclesiae Ritibus," 1623.) Died in 1630. 
 
 Aubespine, del',(MADELEiNE,) adaughter of Claude, 
 and aunt of Gabriel, was celebrated for her beauty, talents, 
 and accomplishments. She wrote some poetical and prose 
 compositions, and translated Ovid's Epistles. 
 
 Aubeterre, d', dob'taiR', (David Bouchard — boo'- 
 shtR',) Vicomte, a French officer, born at Geneva, of a 
 t Protestant family. He became a Roman Catholic, and 
 was appointed governor of Perigord by Henry IV. He 
 was killed at the siege of L'Isle in 1598. 
 
 Aubeterre, d', (Francois d'Esparbes de Lussan 
 — des-piR'bi' deh 1u's5n',) Vicomte, a French officer 
 who fought for Henry IV. in the civil war, became a mar- 
 shal of France in 1620. Died in 1628. 
 
 Aubeterre, d', (Joseph Henri Bouchard d'Espar- 
 bez — boo'sha'R'deYpa'R'ba',)MARQUis, a French general, 
 born in 1714, served with distinction in several campaigns, 
 became marechal-de-camp in 1748 and lieutenant-general 
 in 1758. He was afterwards ambassador to Vienna, Mad- 
 rid, and Rome, and proved himself an able negotiator. 
 In 1783 he was made marshal of France. Died in 1788. 
 
 Aubignac, d', do'ben'ySk', (Francois Hedelin — 
 had'laN',) Abbe, a mediocre French critic and dramatist, 
 a grandson of Ambroise Pare, born in Paris in 1604. 
 He wrote " Pratique du Theatre," (1669,) which, says La 
 Harpe, " is a dull and tedious commentary on Aristotle ;" 
 " Zenobie," a tragedy in prose, (1647 ;) and epigrams and 
 brochures against Corneille and Menage. Died in 1676. 
 
 Aubigne, d', (Merle.) See D'Aubigne. 
 
 Aubigne, d', do'ben'ya', (Theodore Agrippa — 
 t'gRe'pi',) a French Huguenot historian, warrior, and 
 poet, remarkable for his learning, wit, and audacity, was 
 born at Saint-Maury, in Saintonge, in 1550. He was 
 grandfather of Madame de Maintenon. It is reported that 
 he translated the " Crito" of Plato in his eighth year. At 
 the age of thirteen he was sent to a college in Geneva, from 
 which he ran away two years later. He fought for the 
 Huguenots in 1567 and 1568, a few years after which he 
 entered the service of Henry of Navarre, who prized him 
 highly as a partisan and companion in perilous adven- 
 tures, and also employed him in negotiations. He some- 
 times, however, offended Henry by his bold sarcasms 
 and epigrams. In 1586 he raised a regiment at his own 
 expense to fight against the League. He rendered im- 
 portant services at the battle of Coutras, (1587,) and .vas 
 intrusted by Henry IV. with the custody of Cardinal 
 Bourbon, a competitor for the crown. In 1616 he pub- 
 lished the first volume of his valuable History of his own 
 Time, entitled " Histoire universale depuis l'An 1550 
 jusqu'al'An 1601," (3 vols., 1616-20,) which is his greatest 
 work. A sentence of death was passed against him b| 
 the French court in 1621, but he had previously escaped 
 to Geneva. The pretext for this sentence was that he 
 had used the materials of a ruined church to repair a 
 fortress. He died at Geneva in 1630. Among his works 
 are a satire called "Catholic Confession of Sieur de 
 Sancy," "Adventures of Baron de Fceneste," a satirical 
 romance, (1617-20,) and interesting autobiographic me- 
 moirs, (" Histoire secrete de T. A. d'Aubigne, ecrite par 
 lui-meme," (1729-31.) 
 
 See M. A. Sayous, "Vie d'Aubigne';" Bayle, "Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary ;" Davii.a, " History of the Civil Wars in France;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Aubigne de la Fosse, d', do'ben'ya' deh It fos, (Na- 
 than,) [called in Latin Albin'eus or Albin^e'us,] a 
 French physician, born near Pluviers in 1601, was a son 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat;Tnet; ndt; good; moon; 
 
 
HUB1GNY 
 
 205 
 
 AVBUSSON 
 
 of Theodore Agrippa d'Aubigne, (according to Beuchot of 
 the " Biographic Universelle.") He practised at Geneva, 
 the citizenship of which he obtained in 1627, and pub- 
 lished "Bibliotheca Cheraica Contracta," (1654.) He 
 died at an advanced age. 
 
 Aubigny, d', do'ben'ye', (Robert Stewart,) mar- 
 shal of France, served under Charles VIII. in Italy, and 
 was made a marshal in 1514. He died in 1544. 
 
 Aubin. See Saint-Aubin. 
 
 Aubin, 6'baN', (N.,) a French Protestant minister, 
 bom at Loudun in the seventeenth century. He took 
 refuge in Holland on the repeal of the edict of Nantes, 
 1685. His principal work is " Histoire des Uiables de 
 Loudun," (1693,) an account of some nuns said to have 
 been possessed by devils. 
 
 Aublet o'hlj', (Jean Baptiste Christophk Fusee 
 — fit'zi',) a Trench botanist, born at Salon, in Provence, 
 in 1720. He passed about nine years (1752-61) in the 
 t France, and published a list of plants growing 
 there. In 1762 he was sent by the government as apothe- 
 cary-botanist to French Guiana, in which he collected 
 many specimens. His greatest work is a description of 
 these, with figures, "Histoire des Plantes de la Guiane 
 Franooise," (4 vols., 1775,) which was highly esteemed. 
 It describes nearly four hundred new species. His her- 
 barium was purchased by Sir Joseph Banks. Died in 1778. 
 
 See "Biographie Me'dicale;" " Nouvelle Eiographie G^nei-ale." 
 
 Aubree, 6'bRa', (Rene,) a French general, born at 
 Rennes in 1763, was killed at Saragossa in 1808. 
 
 Aubrey, aw'bre, (John,) F.R.S., an eminent English 
 antiquary, born at Easton-Piers, Wiltshire, in March, 
 1626, inherited several valuable estates. He was edu- 
 cated at Oxford, and became a diligent collector of lite- 
 rary and antiquarian materials. In 1656 he was a member 
 of the club of Commonwealth's Men, founded on the 
 principles of Harrington's "Oceana." Soon after 1666 
 he was reduced to poverty by law-suits and other causes. 
 As a writer he shows much credulity, particularly in his 
 "Miscellanies," (1696,) in which he treats of omens, ap- 
 paritions, oracles, knockings, etc. Anthony Wood's ac- 
 count of Milton was transcribed from a manuscript of 
 Aubrey, who was acquainted with that poet. Died in 1697. 
 He left in manuscript "The Natural History and Antiqui- 
 ties of Surrey," which was published in 1719, and valuable 
 memoirs of English poets, etc., published in 1813, under 
 the title of " Letters written by Eminent Persons in the 
 Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries." 
 
 See "Memoir of John Aubrey," by John' Britton*. 
 
 Aubrey or Aw'brey, (William,) an eminent civil- 
 ian, born in the county of Brecon, Wales, in 1529 
 or 1 530, belonged to the same family as the preceding. 
 He was appointed regius professor of civil law at Oxford 
 in 1553, and afterwards a member of the council of the 
 marches of Wales and a master in chancery. He was 
 distinguished for wisdom and learning. Died in 1595. 
 
 See Tanner, " Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibernica." 
 
 Aubriet, o'bRe'i', (Claude,) a French painter of 
 flowers, and an able botanist, born at Chalons-sur-Marne 
 in 165 1. He accompanied Tournefort to the Levant, and 
 on his return was appointed painter to the king at the 
 Janlin des Plantes. He added to the collection of designs 
 of plants on vellum commenced by Nicolas Robert, de- 
 signed the plates of Sebastien Vaillant's "Botanicon Pa- 
 risiense," (1727,) and illustrated Tournefort's "Elements 
 de Botanique." Died in 1743. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgeraeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Aubrion, o'bRe'6N', (Jean,) a French historian of the 
 fifteenth century, was a burgess of Metz, and wrote a 
 "Chronicle of Metz from 1464101500." Died about 1500. 
 
 Aubriot, o'bRe'o', (Hugues,) a prevot (provost) of 
 Paris, who fortified and drained that city by subterranean 
 channels, {/gouts,) and, by his strict police, made some 
 powerful enemies, who prosecuted him for heresy and 
 other crimes. He was condemned and imprisoned in 
 1381, and liberated by a party of insurgents in 1382. He 
 is said to have died the same year. 
 
 Aubrussel, V, lf/bRii'sel', (Ignace.) a French Jesuit 
 and writer, born at Verdun in 1663; died in Spain in 1730. 
 
 Aubry, 5'bRe', (Charles,) a French Latin poet, 
 flourished about 1700. 
 
 Aubry, (Charles Louis,) a French economist and 
 writer, born at La Ferte-Milon in 1746; died in 1817. 
 
 Aubry, (Claude Charles,) a French general, born 
 at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1773. For his services on the 
 Danube in 1809 he was made a general of brigade. He 
 distinguished himself by the construction of a bridge 
 across the Berezina, which saved the remains of Napo- 
 leon's army retreating from Moscow. He was rewarded 
 with the title of count and the rank of general of division. 
 He was killed at Leipsic in 1813. 
 
 Aubry, (Etienne,) a successful French painter of por- 
 trait and genre, born at Versailles in 1745; died in 1781. 
 
 Aubry, (Francois,) a French revolutionist, born in 
 Paris about 1750, became in 1792 a member of the Con- 
 vention, in which he acted with the Plaine. He protested 
 against the proscription of the Girondists, May 31, 1793, 
 and was arrested by the Jacobins. In April, 1795, he 
 was appointed a member of the Committee of Public 
 Safety, and succeeded Carnot in the direction of military 
 operations. Among the acts of his administration was 
 his refusal to employ Bonaparte, who solicited a com- 
 mand in 1795. Aubry belonged to the party which was 
 defeated September 4, 1797, and he was deported to 
 Guiana. Died in exile about 1800. 
 
 Aubry, (Jacques Charles,) a French jurist, born in 
 1688; died in 1739. . 
 
 Aubry, (Jean,) a French alchemist and quack doctor, 
 practised in Paris about 1650-60. According to Gui- 
 Patin, he was merus et ignarus netndo, (an " arrant and 
 ignorant knave.") 
 
 Aubry, (Jean Baptiste,) a learned French Benedict- 
 ine, born near Epinal in 1736. He wrote "The Philo- 
 sophic Friend," (" L'Ami philosophique," 1776,) and 
 other works'. Died in 1809. 
 
 Aubry, (Jean Francois,) physician-in-ordinary to 
 Louis XVI. of France, was a native of Lu.xeuil, where 
 he died in 1795. He published a well-known work 
 called "The Oracles of Cos," (1778.) He was a great 
 admirer of Hippocrates. 
 
 Aubry, (Marie.) See Gouges. 
 
 Aubry, (Philippe Charles,) a French translator and 
 poet, born at Versailles in 1744, was a teacher of lan- 
 guages. He published the " Wit of Addison," ("Esprit 
 d'Addison,") a French version of Goethe's "Sorrows of 
 Werther," (1777,) and a volume of lyric poems, called 
 "Le Petrarque Francais," (1799.) Died in 1812. 
 
 Aubry, d', do'bRe', or Aubery, d', dob'Re', (Jean,) 
 commonly known as Abbe Aubry, an ecclesiastic, after- 
 wards a physician and medical writer of considerable 
 celebrity, born at Montpellier about 1700. 
 
 Aubry de Montdidier, 6'bRe' deh m6N'de'de-a', a 
 French knight, murdered by Richard de Macaire in 
 1371. His dog pursued Macaire until the king ordered 
 that the affair should be decided by a combat between 
 the dog and the suspected assassin, who, having been 
 conquered in the contest, confessed his crime. 
 
 Aubry du Bouchet, 5'bRe' dii boo'shi', a deputy of 
 the States-General, and originator of the general regis- 
 try of estates, was born in 1740 at La Ferte-Milon, in 
 Aisne. 
 
 Aubry-Lecompte, 5'bRe' leh k6Nt', (Hyacinthe 
 Louis Victor Jean Baptiste,) a French designer and 
 lithographer, born at Nice in 1797, produced lithographs 
 of " The Holy Family," after Poussin, and of some works 
 of Raphael, among which is the Sistine Madonna. Died 
 in 1858. 
 
 Aubusson, d', (Francois,) Due de Feuillade. 
 See Feuillade. 
 
 Aubusson, d', do'Tju'soN', (Jean,) a troubadour of 
 the thirteenth century, was patronized by Frederick II., 
 Emperor of Germany. 
 
 See Millot, "Histoire litte'raire des Troubadours. " 
 
 Aubusson, d', (Jean,) a French writer, who lived 
 about 1550. 
 
 Aubusson, d', (Pierre,) grand master of the order 
 of Saint John of Jerusalem, was born of French family 
 in 1423. He entered that order (at Rhodes) about 1450, 
 and was employed in important missions to Paris and 
 Rome. In 1476 he was elected grand master. He for- 
 tified Rhodes and prepared for a vigorous defence against 
 Mahomet II., who besieged the city of Rhodes in 1480 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in tin's, (2^ = See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AUCHMUTT 
 
 206 
 
 AUDIFFRET 
 
 with an army of about one hundred thousand men. The 
 Turks were repulsed with great loss, after a severe fight, 
 in which Aubusson was wounded in several places. In 
 1501 he was chosen captain-general of a league of Chris- 
 tian princes against the Moslems, the formation of which 
 had been the great object of his life. This enterprise 
 failed, partly from the jealousies of the allies. Died in 
 
 I5°3- 
 
 See Bouhours, "Histoire de Pierre d'Aubusson," 1676; "Nou- 
 vclle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Auchmuty, a'mu-te, (?) [Scotch pron. aH'moo-te,] 
 (Robert,) an eminent lawyer of Massachusetts, born 
 in the north of Scotland, settled in Boston early in the 
 eighteenth century. He published a pamphlet entitled 
 "The Importance of Cape Breton to the British Nation." 
 Died in Boston in 1750. 
 
 Auchmuty, (Robert,) a son of the preceding. He 
 devoted himself to the law, and in 1768 became judge 
 of the court of admiralty. In 1770 he was associated 
 with John Adams in the trial of Captain Preston, but 
 upon the breaking out of the war sided with the royalists. 
 Died in England. 
 
 Auchmuty, (Samuel,) D.D., a distinguished Epis- 
 copal clergyman, brother of the preceding, was born in 
 Boston in 1725. He graduated at Harvard in 1742, 
 studied divinity at Oxford, and, on returning to America, 
 became assistant rector of Trinity Church, New York, 
 and afterwards had charge of all the Episcopal churches 
 in the city. Died in 1777. 
 
 Auchmuty, a'mu-te, (?) (Sir Samuel,) a British gen- 
 eral, a son of the preceding, born in New York in 1756. 
 He served in several campaignsVagainst the United 
 States, 1776-78, after which he was employed about 
 twelve years in India. He acted as adjutant-general to 
 the army in Egypt in 1801 and 1802. Having obtained 
 in 1S06 command of the British troops in South Amer- 
 ica, with the rank of brigadier-general, he took the 
 strongly fortified city of Montevideo from the Spaniards 
 in 1807. He was appointed to the chief command at 
 Madras in 1810, and captured Java in 181 1. In 1813 he 
 returned to England, and became a lieutenant-general. 
 Died at Dublin in 1822. 
 
 See " Narrative of the Operations of a Snail British Force em- 
 ployed in the Reduction of Montevideo," London, 1S07. 
 
 Auck'land, (George Eden,) Earl of, a son of Wil- 
 liam Eden, noticed below, was born in 1784. On his 
 father's death in 1814, he entered the House of Lords, 
 as an adherent of the' Whig party. In 1834 he was 
 appointed first lord of the admiralty, and in 1835 sent 
 to India as Governor-General. Among the important 
 events of his administration was the disastrous war 
 against the Afghans, (1838-39.) He was recalled in 1842. 
 Died in 1849. 
 
 Auckland, (William Eden,) Lord, an English 
 diplomatist, born about 1750, was one of three commis- 
 sioners appointed in 1778 to negotiate with the revolted 
 American colonies and restore the British dominion 
 over them. In 1785 he was sent as ambassador to 
 France, with which he negotiated a commercial treaty. 
 He published "The Principles of the Penal Laws," 
 (1771,) a treatise "On the Population of England," 
 ( 1 786,) and other works. Died in 1814. 
 
 Auclere, o'klaiR', (Gabriel Andre,) a revolutionist, 
 born in Argcnton, France, about 1750, sought to substi- 
 tute paganism for Christianity. Died in 1815. 
 
 Aucour. See Bariuer d'Aucour. 
 
 Auda, ow'da, (Domenico,) a Franciscan monk and 
 medical writer, born near Nice towards the end of the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 Audaeus, au-dee'us, [Gr. AMa?of,] or Au'di-us, [Gr. 
 AikSioc; Fr. Audek, o'd.V,] the founder of a sect in the 
 fourth century A.D., was born in Mesopotamia. Epipha- 
 nius ascribes his secession from the church to persecu- 
 tion which his zeal against the luxury and vices of the 
 clergy had provoked, rather than to heterodox opinions. 
 
 Aude, od, (Jean,) a French dramatist, born at or 
 near Apt in 1755. He was secretary to the celebrated 
 Buffon, and author of several dramas. He is said to 
 have written a Life of Buffon. Died in 1841. 
 
 Audebert, od'baiR', (Germain,) a French lawyer 
 and Latin poet, born at Orleans in 15 18, was the author 
 
 of three Latin poems in praise of Venice, Rome, and 
 Naples, entitled " Venetia," (1583,) "Roma," (1585,) and 
 " Parthenope," (1585.) He was decorated with the collar 
 of Saint Mark by the senate of Venice. Died in 1598. 
 
 Audebert,. (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent French 
 painter, engraver, and naturalist, was born at Roche- 
 fort in 1759. He first attained success as a miniature- 
 painter, and afterwards became an enthusiastic student of 
 natural history. He published, in 1800, a "Natural His- 
 tory of Apes, Lemurs, and Galeopitheci," with sixty-two 
 plates, designed and engraved by himself, and printed in 
 oil-colours by a new method which he invented. The 
 description and engravings of this work are highly com- 
 mended. His costly and splendid " History of Hum- 
 ming-Birds, Fly-Catchers, jacamars, and Promerops" 
 (1 vol., 1802) "is regarded," says Du Petit-Thouars, 
 " as the most perfect work of the kind which has ever 
 appeared." He died in 1800, leaving unfinished works 
 on birds, which were edited by Vieillot and Desray. 
 
 See "Biographie Universelle ;" Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclo- 
 p^dique de la France." 
 
 Audebert, Saint. See Aubert, Saint. 
 
 Audee. See Aud/Eus. 
 
 Audefroi (od'fRwa') the Bastard, one of the most 
 celebrated troubadours of the Langtie d'Oil in the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries. He is thought by some to 
 have been the inventor of the " Romance." 
 
 Audenaerde, Audenarde, or Oudenaerde, van, 
 pronounced alike van ow-deh-nSr'deh, (Robert,) a Flem- 
 ish portrait-painter and celebrated engraver, born at 
 Ghent in 1663. He was a pupil of Carlo Maratta, many 
 of whose works he engraved. He painted but few pic- 
 tures. Died in 1743. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands." 
 
 Audentius, aw-den'she^us, a Spanish theological 
 writer of uncertain age, supposed to have lived in the third 
 or fourth century. He wrote a treatise against heretics. 
 
 Audhumla, (AuSumla,) Sw-thum'la or o-thum'la, 
 written also Audhumbla and CEdumla, [from auftr, 
 "desert," and hum, "darkness,"] a mythic cow, which, 
 according to the Norse mythology, came into existence 
 simultaneously with the giant Ymir, who was nourished 
 by her milk. She licked the salt 'frost-covered rocks, 
 and there came forth a mighty being called Buri, whose 
 son Bor was the father of Odin. Her name doubtless 
 has reference to the primeval chaotic darkness in which 
 she arose. 
 
 See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i., pp. 4 and 140. 
 
 Audibert, 6'de'baiR', an antiquary, born at Toulouse 
 about 1720, wrote a treatise on the origin of that city. 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 Audibert, (Louis Francois Hilarion — e'li're'oN',) 
 a French litterateur, born at Marseilles about 1798, was 
 master of requests several years, and resigned in 1830. 
 Among his works is a " Melange of Literature and His- 
 tory," (1839.) 
 
 Audibert, (Urbain,) a French botanist, born at 
 Tarascon (Bouches-du-Rh&ne) in 1789, was a pupil of 
 De Candolle. He cultivated a nursery near Tarascon, 
 and co-operated with Dunal and Requien in the comple- 
 tion of " Flore du Midi." He took an important part in 
 the redaction of the " Nouveau Duhamel" and " Annals 
 of French Agriculture." Died in 1846. 
 
 Audierne, o'de'<iRn', (Jacques,) a French geometer, 
 born at Beauchamps about 1 7 10. He taught mathematics 
 in Paris, and published a "Treatise on Trigonometry," 
 (1756,) and "Elements of Geometry," (1765.) Died 
 about 1785. 
 
 Audiffred, o'de'fRSd', (J. P.,) a French mathematician 
 of the eighteenth century, was joint author (with F. N. 
 Babeuf) of a "Cadastre perpetuel," (1789.) 
 
 Audiffredi, ow-def-fna'dee, (Giovanni Battista,) 
 an astronomer and bibliographer, born at Saorgio, near 
 Nice, in 1714, resided at Rome. He published, besides 
 other works, " Celestial Phenomena observed," (" Phe- 
 nomena Ccelestia observata," 1753-56.) Died in 1794. 
 
 See Delambre, "Histoire de l'Astronomie moderne." 
 
 Audiffret, o'de'fRi', (Hercule, er'kiil',) a French 
 theologian, born at Carpentras in 1603, was considered 
 one of the most eloquent writers of his day. His "Ou- 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; a, e, |, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; not; good; moon; 
 
 
AUDIFFRET 
 
 207 
 
 AUDRA 
 
 trages de Piete" (3 vols.) were published in 1675. He 
 was an uncle of the pulpit orator Flechier, whose educa- 
 tion he directed. Died in 1659. 
 
 Audiffret, (Jean Baptiste,) a French geographer, 
 born at Marseilles about 1658, published "Geography, 
 Ancient, Modern, and Historical," (2 vols., 1689-9,1.) 
 Died in 1733. 
 
 See Watt's " Bibliotheca Britannica." 
 
 Audiffret, (Polyeucte, po'le'ukt',) a French monk 
 and numismatist, born in Provence about 1750, had a 
 rich cabinet of medals. Died in 1807. 
 
 Audiffret, d', do'de'fRi', (Charles Louis Gaston — 
 gis'toN'.i Marquis, a French financier and senator, born 
 of an Italian family at Paris in 1787. He served many 
 - as chief clerk in the administration of the finances, 
 and became president of the court of accounts (cotir des 
 comptes) in 1829. His " Financial System of France" 
 (1839) was regarded as the best work to consult on the 
 actual state of French finances. He was appointed a 
 senator in 1852. 
 
 Audigier, 6'de'zhe-i', a French historical writer of 
 the seventeenth century, wrote a work on the Origin of 
 the French, (1676.) 
 
 Audigier, a French historian of the eighteenth cen- 
 turv, born at Clermont, was the author of a History of 
 Auvergne, which remains in manuscript. 
 
 Audiguier, d', do'de'ge-i', (Vital, ve'til',) Sieur 
 de la Menor, (ma-noR.',) a French writer, born near 
 Villefranche, Guienne, about 1570. He fought for Henry 
 IV. in several campaigns against the League. He gained 
 an extensive but transient reputation by his novels, verses, 
 and other works, among which are " La Philosophie sol- 
 dade," (1604,) and "The Portrait of the World," (" Pour- 
 trait du Monde," 1604.) His versions of Cervantes's 
 Tales ("Novelas," 1618) were included by the French 
 Academy among the best specimens of French writing. 
 He was assassinated about 1625, or, according to some 
 authorities, in 1630. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary r" Goujet, 
 "Bibliotheque Francaise." 
 
 Audin, o'daN', (J. M. V.,) a French historian, and 
 biographer, born at Lyons in 1793, became a resident of 
 Paris. Among his chief works are a "History of the 
 Life and Works of Luther," (2 vols., 1839,) and a " His- 
 tory of Leo X. and his Age." Died in 1851. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Audinot, o'de'n6', (Nicolas Medard — ma'dtR',) a 
 French actor and writer of plays, born at Nancy about 
 1740; died at Paris in 1801. 
 
 Audin-Rouviere.S'dix'roo've-aiR'.QosErH Marie,) 
 a French physician, born at Carpentras in 1764, lived 
 chiefly in Paris. He published "La Medecine sans 
 Medecin," (" Physic Without a Doctor," 1794,) which was 
 very popular and was translated into many languages. 
 He vended a medicine called "Grains of Life," ("Grains 
 de Vie.") Died in 1832. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Audius. See Aud^us. 
 
 Audley, awd'le, originally de Aldithley, (Henry, 
 the first of the line of Lords Audley. He supported 
 John in his contest with the barons, and otherwise took 
 a conspicuous part in the events of his time. 
 
 Audley, (James,) Lord, son and successor of the 
 preceding, took a prominent part in the support of Henry 
 IH. against the barons and the Welsh rebels. Died 
 about 1272. 
 
 Audley, (James,) Lord Audley of Helegh, an English 
 nobleman, born about 13 14, has been confounded with 
 Sir James Audley, noticed below. He served with dis- 
 tinction in the army of Edward III. Died about 1386. 
 
 Audley or Au'deley, (Sir James,) a chivalrous at- 
 tendant of the Black Prince, and one of the original 
 knights of the order of the Garter. He displayed signal 
 courage at the battle of Poictiers, (1356,) in which he was 
 severely wounded. The Black Prince immediately re- 
 tained him as his own knight, and several years later 
 appointed him governor of Aquitaine. Died in 1369. 
 The order of the Garter was instituted in 1344. 
 
 Audley or Awdeley, (J< iiin,) a noted English printer, 
 who lived about 1570, was the reputed author of several 
 ballads and short poems. 
 
 Audley, (Thomas,) Lord Audley of Walden, lord 
 chancellor of England, was born in Essex about 1488. 
 He became Speaker of the House of Commons about 
 1529, lord keeper of the great seal in 1532, and lord 
 chancellor in 1533. He presided at the trial of Sir 
 Thomas More, and is censured for his servile compli- 
 ance with the arbitrary will of Henry VIII. in that affaii 
 and in other proceedings. He was created Baron Aud- 
 ley of Walden in 1538. Died without male issue in 1544. 
 
 See Fuller, "History of the Worthies of England;" Lord 
 Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors ;" Foss, "The Judges 
 of England." 
 
 Audoin. See Alduin. 
 
 Audoin de Chaignebrun, od'waN' deh shSn'bRuN', 
 (Henri,) a French physician and medical writer, born 
 in 1714 ; died in 1781. 
 
 Au-do'le-on, [Gr. AwSoAewv,] a king of the Preonians, 
 reigned about 300 B.C. 
 
 Audouard, 5'doo-tR', (Mathieu Francois Max- 
 enoe — mSk's&Nss',) a French physician, born at Castres, 
 in Tarn, in 1776. He served for many years as physician 
 in the army. About 1822, the legislature voted him an 
 annual pension of two thousand francs. He wrote treat- 
 ise s on intermittent fevers and on the yellow fever, (1807 
 -24.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Audouin, 5'doo-aN', (Franijois Xavif.r,) a French 
 revolutionist and economist, born at Limoges in 1766. 
 He was commissioner in La Vendee about 1792, and 
 during the republic was a judge of the court of cassation. 
 He wrote a treatise "On Maritime Commerce and its 
 Influence on the Power and Riches of States," (1800,) and 
 a " History of the Administration of the War," (4 vols., 
 i8u,) which are commended. Died in 1837. 
 
 Audouin, (Jean Victor,) an eminent French- ento- 
 mologist and comparative anatomist, born in Paris in 
 April, 1797, was educated as a physician. He began in 
 1818 to contribute, to various journals and the Trans- 
 actions of Societies, numerous and valuable treatises on 
 insects, which procured for him the friendship of Cuvier. 
 He was associated with Milne-Edwards in researches 
 upon the Crustacea and Annelida. In 1827 he married 
 a daughter of Alexandre Brongniart. He succeeded 
 Latreille as professar at the Museum in 1833, and was 
 admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1838. Among 
 his chief works is a " History of Insects which infest the 
 Vine, especially the Eyrale, etc.," (1840-43.) He was 
 one of the editors of the " Annales des Sciences natu- 
 relles," and left in manuscript several volumes on the 
 economy of insects when he died, in November, 1841. 
 
 See "Fringes de J. V. Audouin," par MM. Serres, Chevreul, 
 and Milne-Edwards, in the "Annales des Sciences naturelles;" 
 " Nouvelle Biogiaphie GeneVale." 
 
 Audouin, (Pierre,) a skilful French engraver, born 
 in Paris in 1768. He engraved, for Laurent's "Collec- 
 tion du Musee," " La belle Jardiniere" of Raphael, the 
 "Jupiter and Antiope" of Correggio, and other works. 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 Audouin de G-eronval, o'doo-iN' deh zha'riN'vil', 
 (Maurice Ernest,) a French writer and economist, 
 born in Paris in 1802, was secretary of the Academie de 
 l'lndustrie. He wrote, besides several historical treat- 
 ises and tales, a " Project of a Model Farm," adopted 
 by the Institute in 1830. He is said to have originated 
 the idea of a model farm. Died in 1839. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Audoul, o'dool', (Gaspard,) an advocate, and mem- 
 ber of the Council of the Duke of Orleans, was born in 
 Provence in the last half of the seventeenth century. 
 He wrote a work upon the origin and powers of the 
 regale. 
 
 Audra, o'dRt', (Joseph,) a French abbe and histo- 
 rian, born at Lynns about 1 712, was a friend of Voltaire. 
 He became professor of history at Toulouse about 1768, 
 and published a "General History from the Time of 
 Charlemagne to the Present Day," (I vol., 1770,) which 
 was eulogized by Voltaire, but censured as irreligious 
 by the Archbishop of Brienne, who deprived him of his 
 office. His chagrin on this account induced a brain- 
 fever, of which he died in 1770. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Correspondance," and Grimm, "Corr«pon- 
 dance." 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (S^**See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AUDRADE 
 
 208 
 
 AUDUBON 
 
 Audrade, 6'dRtd', [Lat. Audra'dus,] called Mod'- 
 icus, a French visionary, who professed to be inspired. 
 He wrote a poem called the " Fountain of Life," (" Fons 
 Vitas.") Died about 854 A.D. 
 
 Audran, o'dRdx', (BENofr,) an eminent French de- 
 signer and engraver, a son of Germain, was born at Lyons 
 in 1661, and became a pupil of his uncle Girard Audran. 
 Among his best works are "The Seven Sacraments," 
 after Poussin, and "The Brazen Serpent," after Le 
 Brun. He also engraved some works of Raphael, Paul 
 Veronese, and other Italians. He was patronized by 
 Louis XIV. Died in 1721. 
 
 Audran, (Ciiari.es,) a French engraver, born in 
 Paris in 1594, studied in Rome. He engraved prints 
 after Titian, the Caracci, Domenichino, and other Italian 
 masters. Died in 1674. 
 
 Audran, (Claude,) a mediocre engraver, born in 
 Paris in 1592, was a brother of the preceding. He set- 
 tled at Lyons, where he died in 1677, leaving three sons, 
 Germain, Girard, and Claude, all distinguished engravers 
 or painters. 
 
 Audran, (Claude,) a son of the preceding, born at 
 Lyons in 1639 or 1640, was a painter of history. He 
 assisted Le Brun in his " Battles of Alexander," and Was 
 an imitator of his style. He was admitted into the 
 Academy of Paris in 1675, and became a professor in 
 the same in 1681. Among his chief works is "The 
 Miracle of the Five Loaves." Died in 1684. 
 
 Audran, (Claude,) eldest son of Germain, a painter 
 of grotesque subjects, was born at Lyons in 1658. Died 
 in 1 734. 
 
 Audran, (Germain,) an engraver, born at Lyons m 
 1631, was a son of Claude I. He worked at his native 
 city, and died in 17 10, leaving four sons, Claude, Benoit, 
 Jean, and Louis, who were artists. 
 
 Audran, (Girard or Gerard,) regarded by some 
 as the greatest historical engraver that ever lived, was 
 a son of Claude I., and was born at Lyons in 1640. 
 After he had received instruction from his father, he 
 studied several years in Rome, where he designed an- 
 tique statues, copied with the crayon some works of 
 Raphael, and became an excellent draughtsman. He 
 returned to Paris about 1670, and was appointed en- 
 graver to the king, for whom he engraved Le Brun's 
 " Battles of Alexander." These are Audran's master- 
 pieces. Among his other works are two cartoons of 
 Raphael, (the " Death of Ananias" and " Paul and Bar- 
 nabas at Lystra,") " Coriolanus," after N. Poussin, and 
 the " Martyrdom of Saint Agnes," after Domenichino. 
 The point and graver in his hand assumed the powers 
 of the pencil. By a bold mixture of free hatchings and 
 dots, he gave to his works the harmony and effect of a 
 picture in which the colours of objects are finely distin- 
 guished. He published a work called "The Propor- 
 tions of the Human Figure," (1683.) Died in 1703. 
 
 See Fontenai, " Dictionnaire des Artistes;" Strutt, "Diction- 
 ary of Engravers;" Huber, "Manuel des Amateurs :" Nagler, 
 " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Audran, (Jean,) son of Germain, born at Lyons in 
 1667, was, next to Girard, the most eminent artist of this 
 family, and was a pupil of his uncle Girard. He en- 
 graved after more than fifty eminent painters, among 
 whom are Poussin, Rubens, Le Brun, and Van Dyck. 
 " The Rape of the Sabines," after Poussin, is called 
 his master-piece. Among his best works are " Galatea," 
 after C. Maratta, and "The Victories of Alexander," 
 after Le Brun. He was appointed engraver to the king 
 in 1707. Died in 1756. 
 
 See Fontenai, " Dictionnaire des Artistes :" Huber, "Manuel 
 des Amateurs." 
 
 Audran, (Louis,) a brother of the preceding, born at 
 Lyons in 1670, was a skilful engraver.. He studied with 
 his uncle Girard in Paris. Among his works, which are 
 not numerous, is " The Massacre of the Innocents," 
 after Le Brun. He died prematurely in 1712. 
 
 See Huber, "Manuel des Amateurs." 
 
 Audran, (Prosper Gabriel,) a French lawyer, born 
 at Paris in 1744. He became professor of Hebrew in 
 the University, and wrote a Hebrew and Arab grammar. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Audrein, 5'dRaN', (Yves Marie,) a French politi- 
 
 cian and writer, was one of the teachers of Robespierre. 
 He became a warm but humane partisan of the princi- 
 ples of the Revolution, and a member of the Convention, 
 in which he voted for the death of Louis XVI. with a 
 respite. He was elected Bishop of Quimper-Corentin in 
 1798, and was assassinated by the Chouans (royalists) in 
 1800. He left a treatise on national education, and an 
 "Apology for Religion against Pretended Philosophers," 
 
 (I797-) 
 
 Audren de Kerdrel, o'dRON' deh keR dRel', (Jean 
 Maure — mor,) a French monk, author of a History of 
 Bretagne, (1707.) Died in 1725. 
 
 Audri. See Audry. 
 
 Audrichi, ow-dRee'kee, (Everardo,) an Italian eccle- 
 siastic of the eighteenth century, who taught philosophy 
 and mathematics, published a collection of Latin plays, 
 and a work on Antiquities. 
 
 See Mazzucheixi, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Audry, Audri, o'dRe', or Aldric, Sl'dRek', [Lat. 
 Aldri'cus,] Saint, a French ecclesiastic, born about 
 775, became Archbishop of Sens. Died in 840. 
 
 See "Vita Sancti Aldrici;" Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Audry de Puyraveau, 6'dRe' deh pii-e'rS'vo', 
 (Pierre Francois,) a French revolutionist, born at 
 Puyraveau in 1783. He was elected to the Chamber of 
 Deputies in 1827, boldly avowed himself a republican 
 and was a leader of the popular party in the revolution 
 of 1830. His manufactory in Paris was the rendezvous 
 of the insurgents, whose efforts he directed with great 
 efficiency. It is stated that he was the first to nomi- 
 nate La Fayette as commander of the national guard. 
 
 Au'du-bon, (John James,) an American ornitholo- 
 gist of great eminence, born in Louisiana on the 4th of 
 May, 1780. He was the son of a French naval officer 
 who settled as a planter in Louisiana. He manifested in 
 childhood a passion for observing the habits of birds. 
 Educated partly in Paris, to which he went at the age of 
 fifteen, he studied design in the school of the celebrated 
 painter David. Having returned to America about 1798, 
 he inherited from his father a good farm in eastern Penn- 
 sylvania, and married. About 1810 he commenced a 
 series of excursions through the vast primeval forests, 
 which he explored alone, and in which he passed the 
 greater portion of his time for many years. He pro- 
 duced coloured designs of all the birds he could find, 
 being impelled to this pursuit by his love of nature 
 rather than an ambition to make himself famous. He 
 removed to Henderson, on the Ohio River, where he re- 
 sided for several years with his wife and children. 
 
 In 1826 he went to England, and began in London the 
 publication of a great work on ornithology. He visited 
 France in 1828, and was receivecj with great honour by 
 Cuvier, Humboldt, and other savants. He obtained 
 numerous subscribers, at one thousand dollars a copy, for 
 his magnificent work entitled "The Birds of America," 
 in folio, illustrated with about four hundred and forty- 
 eight plates of one thousand and sixty-five species of 
 birds of the natural size, beautifully coloured, (1830-39.) 
 It consists of five volumes of engravings designed by him- 
 self, and five volumes of letter-press. 
 
 Cuvier expressed the opinion that this work " is the most 
 magnificent monument that art has ever erected to orni- 
 thology," ("C'est le plus magnifique monument que Part 
 ait encore llevl a rornithologie") Audubon returned to 
 America in 1830, after which he explored the coasts, 
 the lakes, the rivers, and the mountains from Labrador 
 and Canada to Florida. He visited England again, to 
 superintend the publication of Iris "Birds of America." 
 He also published his "Ornithological Biography, or 
 an Account of the Habits of the Birds of the United 
 States of America, accompanied by a Description of the 
 Objects represented in the Work entitled The Birds of 
 America," (Edinburgh, 5 vols., 1831-39.) Having crossed 
 the Atlantic homeward for the last time about 1840, he 
 settled on the Hudson River, in New York... He pub- 
 lished a popular and cheaper edition of his " Birds of 
 America," (7 vols. 8vo, 1844,) and "The Quadrupeds 
 of North America," (3 vols, of letter-press and 3 vols. 
 ~f plates, 1846-50.) In the latter work he was assisted 
 by his sons Victor Gifford and John Woodhouse. 
 
 To excellent skill in designing natural objects he added 
 
 a, e, T, 0, ft, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
AUDWIN 
 
 209 
 
 AUGER 
 
 an admirable talent for describing them in graphic lan- 
 guage. His character is eulogized by Professor Wilson, 
 of Edinburgh, in the following terms: "The hearts of 
 all warmed towards Audubon, who were capable of con- 
 ceiving the difficulties, dangers, and sacrifices that must 
 have been encountered, endured, and overcome before 
 genius could have embodied these, the glory of its in- 
 numerable triumphs. . . . The man himself is just what 
 you would expect from his production, full of fine enthu- 
 siasm and intelligence, most interesting in his looks and 
 manners, a perfect gentleman, and esteemed by all who 
 know him for the simplicity and frankness of his nature. 
 He is the greatest artist, in his own walk, that ever lived." 
 He died in New York City, in January, 1851. 
 
 See article on "American Ornithology" in the "London Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1832; Griswold, "Prose Writers of America;" 
 IHnlap, " History of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design," 
 etc , (vol. ii. chap, xxviii. ;) " Brief Biographies," bySAMUEt. Smiles; 
 Rev. C. C. Adams, "Journal of the Life and Labours of J. J. Audu- 
 bon ;" "Audubon the Naturalist in the New World," by Mrs. Horace 
 Saint John, London, 1S56; "Democratic Review" for May, 1842. 
 
 Audwin. See Aldwin. 
 
 Auenbrugger von Auenbrug, ow'en-bRooc'ger fon 
 Sw'en'bRooG, (called Avenbrugger by French and 
 English writers,) (Leopold,) a German physician, who 
 invented percussion as a means of detecting diseases of 
 the thorax or lungs, was born at Gr'atz, in Styria, in 1722. 
 He became physician to the Spanish hospital of Vienna. 
 He announced his great discovery in his " Inventum 
 novum ex Percussione Thoracis humani," etc., ("New 
 Discovery by Percussion of the Human Chest," etc., 
 Vienna, 1761.) This was translated into English by Dr. 
 Forbes in 1824. The practice of percussion was neg- 
 lected until it was revived by Corvisart about 1808. Auen- 
 brugger wrote two treatises on insanity. Died in 1809. 
 
 See "Biographie MeMicale." 
 
 Aue. See Hartmann von Aue. 
 
 Auer, ow'er, (Anton,) considered the founder of the 
 present school of Bavarian porcelain-painters, was born 
 at Munich in 1778. He was patronized by Prince Lud- 
 wig, (afterwards king.) Died in 1814. 
 
 Auer, (Johann Paul,) a distinguished historical and 
 portrait painter, was born at Nuremberg in 1636, and 
 died in 1687. 
 
 Auerbaoh, ow'er-MK', (Berthold,) a popular Ger- 
 man author, born of Jewish parents at Nordstetten, in 
 Wtirtemberg, in 1812. He published "Spinoza," a his- 
 torical romance, in 1837, "The Poet and Merchant," 
 a novel, (1839,) and "The Cultivated Citizen," ("Der 
 gebildete Burger," 1 842. ) His reputation rests chiefly on 
 his "Village Tales of the Black Forest," ("Schwarz- 
 wiilder Dorfgeschichten," 2 vols., 1843,) which were 
 translated into English and other languages. His novel 
 entitled "Auf den Hbhen" ("On the Heights") has also 
 been translated into English. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Auerbaoh, (Johann Gottfried,) a German por- 
 trait-painter, born in Saxony in 1697 ; died at Vienna 
 (where he was court-painter) in 1753. 
 
 Auerell, (William.) See Averell. 
 
 Auernhammer. See Aurenhammer. 
 
 Auersperg, von, fon ow'er-sp?RG', (Anton Alf.x- 
 anhf.r,) Count, a German poet, whose assumed name 
 H Anasta'sius Grun, was born at Laybach in 1806. He 
 lias published successful poems, among which are "The 
 Last Knight," ("Der letzte Ritter," 1830,) and "Pro- 
 menades" (or "Excursions") of a Poet of Vienna," 
 (" Spaziergange eines Wiener Poeten," 1831,) which is 
 remarkable for wit and humour. 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Auersperg or Auersberg, von, (Herb arm,) Baron, 
 hereditary marshal of Carniola, (Krain,) was famous as 
 the defender of Germany against the Turks. Born in 
 1525 ; killed in battle in 1575. 
 
 AuerstSdt or Auerstedt. See Davoust. 
 
 Auffenberg, von, fon owf'fen-bSRG', (Joseph,) Frf.i- 
 HERR, a German dramatic poet, born at Freiburg, in 
 Brisgau, in 1798. After serving in the army of Baden, 
 he settled in Baden about 1836, and received the title of 
 marshal of the court [hoffmarschall) of the grand duke 
 in 1S39. His principal works are "The Alhanibra," a 
 
 dramatic poem, (3 vols., 1829-30,) and "Louis XI. in 
 Peronne." Died in 1857. 
 
 Auffmann, owf* man, (Joseph Anton Xaver,) a Ger- 
 man organist and composer, born about 1720; died in 
 
 1778- 
 
 AufFray, o fR.y, (Jean,) a French political economist, 
 who considered the art of printing an injury to litera- 
 ture, but was an advocate of free trade. Born at Paris 
 in 1733; died in 1788. 
 
 Auffschnaiter, owf'shnl'ter, (Benedict Anton,) a 
 German musician, lived at Passau about 1700. 
 
 Au-fidl-us, (Cneius,) a Roman quaestor in 119 B.C., 
 and tribune in 1 14. He was the author of a Greek his- 
 tory of Rome. 
 
 Aufidius, (Titus,) a jurist, who was quaestor in 84 
 B.C., and afterwards praetor of Asia. 
 
 Aufidius, (Titus,) a Sicilian physician, lived in the 
 first century B.C. 
 
 Aufrere, o'frair', (Anthony,) an English writer, who 
 translated a number of works from the German of Goethe 
 and others, and the editor of the " Lockhart Letters," was 
 born at Norfolk in 1756, and died at Pisa in 1833. 
 
 Aufreri, o'fRa're', (E'tienne,) a distinguished French 
 jurist, who wrote on civil and canon law. He became 
 the official of the Archbishop of Toulouse in 1483. Died 
 about 1 5 10. 
 
 Aufresne, 6'fReV, (Jean Rival — re'vf 1',) an eminent 
 French actor, was born in Geneva in 1709, and died in 
 Russia (where Catherine II. gave him a distinguished 
 reception) in 1806. 
 
 Augaron, o'gt'roN', (Jacques,) a French surgeon 
 employed by the King of Navarre about 1570. 
 
 Auge, d', d5zh, [Lat. Auge'tius,] (Daniel,) a French 
 philologist and writer, born at Villeneuve-PArcheveque ; 
 died about 1595. 
 
 Augeard, o'zhf r', (Jacques Mathieu,) a farmer-gen 
 eral, (the last who held the office,) and secretary of com- 
 mands to Marie Antoinette, was born at Bordeaux, 1731. 
 He left memoirs on the intrigues of the French court in his 
 time, which remain in manuscript. Died in Paris in 1805. 
 
 Augeard, (Mathieu,) a French jurist and advocate 
 of the parliament of Paris. Died in 175 1. 
 
 Au'ge-as, (or au-ge'as,) [Gr. Aiyeac or Avyriac; Fr. 
 Augeas, o'zha' as',or Augee, o'zha',] a mythical king 
 of Elis, said to be a son of Neptune, (or of the Sun.) 
 One of the tasks imposed on Hercules was to cleanse 
 the stables of Augeas, who kept a great number of oxen. 
 He was killed by Hercules because he refused to pay 
 the reward which he had promised for this work. 
 
 Augee. See Augeas. 
 
 Augenio, 6w-ja'ne-o, (Orazto,) an Italian physician 
 and medical writer, born in the Romagna about 1527, 
 became professor of medicine at Turin in 1577, and at 
 Padua in 1593. Died in 1603. 
 
 Auger, o'zha', (Athanase, i'ti'niz',) Abbe, a French 
 classical scholar and translator of great learning, was 
 born in Paris in 1734. He was appointed vicar-gen- 
 eral by the Bishop of Lescars. He published a trans- 
 lation of the " Complete Works of Demosthenes and 
 ^Eschines," (4 vols., 1 777,) which is generally correct, but 
 is deficient in spirit. He also translated the works of 
 Isocrates, (3 vols., 1783,) and the Orations of Cicero, (3 
 vols., 1787.) In 1792 he published an able work "On 
 the Constitution of the Romans under the Kings and 
 during the Republic," (3 vols.) Died in 1792. 
 
 SeeHERAULT de Sechelles, "iSloge d' Athanase Auger;" Que- 
 rard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Auger, (Edmond,) a French Jesuit, born near Troyes 
 in 1 515. He was one of the missionaries sent by his su- 
 periors to convert the Protestants in the south of France, 
 and became confessor of Henry III. about 1575. His elo- 
 quence is praised by Catholic writers. Died in 1591. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Auger, (Hippolyte Nicolas Just,) a French novel- 
 ist and dramatist, born at Auxerre in 1797. He wrote 
 "Marpha," (1818,) "Rienzi," (1825,) and other novels. 
 Among his successful dramas are "Peter the Great," 
 (1836,) and "Poor Mother!" (" Pauvre Mere!" 1837, 
 with F. Cornu.) 
 
 Auger, f Louis Simon,) a successful French critic and 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1772. He edited with ability 
 
 e as k; c as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as ; 
 
 th as in this. (jE5P*"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AUGEREAU 
 
 2IO 
 
 AUGUST I 
 
 the works of numerous French authors, and began to 
 write for the "Journal of the Empire" in 1808. In 1816 
 he was elected to the French Academy, of which he be- 
 came perpetual secretary in 1827. He wrote many arti- 
 cles for the " Biographie Universelle," among which are 
 those on Moliere and Voltaire, and the " Preliminary Dis- 
 course" of the same work. He also published "Melanges 
 philosophiques et litteraires." He was found drowned 
 in the Seine in 1829, having probably committed suicide. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Augereau, ozh'ro', [in Latin, Augurel'lus,] (An- 
 TOINE,) a French printer of Paris. Died in 1544. 
 ^Augereau, (Pierre Franqois Charles,) Due de 
 Castiglione, (kis'teg'le'on',) a celebrated French general, 
 born in Paris in 1 757, was a son of a mechanic or domes- 
 tic, and had few opportunities of acquiring an education. 
 He was a fencing-master at Naples before the Revolution. 
 Having enlisted in 1792 as a private, he rose rapidly, 
 and became a general of division about the end of 1 793. 
 He contributed mainly to the victory at Loano, in No- 
 vember, 1795, ar| d was one of the most active and suc- 
 cessful of Bonaparte's generals in the campaign of 1796. 
 He took Millesimo in April, and decided the victory of 
 Lodi, by his charge along the bridge, in May, 1796. 
 Among his brilliant exploits were the defence of Casti- 
 glione and his charge at Areola in the same year. In 
 August, 1797, he was appointed commander of the 
 seventeenth military division, (which included Paris,) 
 having been selected because he was a devoted partisan 
 of the new regime. He obeyed the commands of a 
 majority of the Directors with audacity in the coup d'etat 
 of the 18th Fructidor, (4th of September,) 1797, and was 
 elected to the Council of Five Hundred in 1799. Be- 
 fore this date Augereau and Bonaparte regarded each 
 other with distrust or jealousy. 
 
 He commanded the Gallo-Batavian army in 1800 and 
 1801, was made a marshal of France in 1804, and Duke 
 of Castiglione in 1805. He took part in the battle of 
 Jena, 1806, and was severely wounded at Eylau. In 
 1809 he was employed in Spain. When Napoleon in- 
 vaded Russia in 1812, he left Augereau in command of 
 an army in Germany to cover his rear. He maintained 
 his reputation at Leipsic in 1813. Having declared his 
 adhesion to Louis XVIII. in 1814, he was confirmed in 
 his rank and dignities ; but he deserted to Napoleon in 
 March, 1 81 5. Died in June, 1816. 
 
 See Las Cases, " Me'morial de Sainte-Hetene ;" Bourrienne, 
 'Mdmoires sur Napoleon;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Augetius. See Auge. 
 
 Augier, o'zhe-i', (Emile,) a French dramatist and 
 poet, a grandson of Pigault Lebrun, was born at Valence, 
 in Drome, in 1820. He produced in 1S44 a drama entitled 
 "La Cigue," (" Hemlock,") which had a great success. 
 His " Aventuriere," a comedy, (1848,) was received with 
 favour, and his comedy of " Gabrielle" (1849) obtained 
 the Monthyon prize of the French Academy. These 
 comedies are in verse. He published a volume of poems 
 in 1856, and was elected to the French Academy in 1857 
 in place of M. Salvandy. 
 
 Augier, (Jean Baptiste,) a French lawyer and gene- 
 ral, born at Bourges in 1769. He served under Napo- 
 leon, and was governor of Konigsberg. During the 
 Russian campaign, as a member of the Chamber of • 
 Deputies, he took an active part in the restoration. Died 
 in 1819. 
 
 See " Dictionnaire historique des GtSneraux Francais." 
 
 Augier-Dufot, o'zhe-i' du'fo', (Anne Amable — %.'■ 
 mibl',) a French physic an, born at Aubusson in 1733, 
 was author of works on various subjects. Died at 
 Soissons in 1775. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Auguis, 6'gtss', (Pierre Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 revolutionist, born at Melle, in Deux-Sevres, about 1745. 
 He was elected to the Convention in 1792, voted for the 
 detention or banishment of the king, and courageously 
 opposed the power of Robespierre in 1794. In 1799 he 
 was a member of the Council of Five Hundred. Hav- 
 ing supported Bonaparte on the 18th Brumaire, he ob- 
 tained a seat in the legislative body. Died in 1810. 
 
 Auguis, (Pierre Rene,) a French litterateur, son of 
 the preceding, was born at Melle, near Niort, in 1786. 
 
 He published "The New Odyssey," a poem, (1812,) 
 " History of Catherine II. of Russia, and of Paul I.," 
 (1813,) "The Genius of the French Language," (1820,) 
 and various other works. In 1830 he was elected to the 
 Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted with the oppo 
 sition. Died in 1846. 
 
 Au'gur, (Christopher Colon,) an American general, 
 born in New York, graduated at West Point in 1843. 
 He served as lieutenant in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) 
 and gained the rank of captain in 1852. He commanded 
 a division at Cedar Mountain, Virginia, in August, 1862, 
 and became a major-general in November of that year. 
 He served under Banks, in Louisiana, in 1863, and com- 
 manded the department of Washington from October, 
 1863, to August, 1866. He holds the rank of colonel in 
 the United States regular army. 
 
 Augur, (Hezekiah,) an American sculptor and in- 
 ventor, born in New Haven, Connecticut, in 179 1. 
 Among his works maybe mentioned "Jephthah and his 
 Daughter," in the Trumbull Gallery of Yale College. 
 He invented a machine for carving, now in general use. 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists ;" Dunlap, " Histoiy 
 of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design," etc. 
 
 Augurelli, 6w-goo-rel'lee, or Augurello, ow-goo- 
 rel'lo, (Giovanni Aurelio — 5w-ra'le-o,) a Latin poet 
 and critic of superior merit, born at Rimini about 1454, 
 (or, according to Ginguene, about 1441.) He taught 
 Greek and Latin at Venice, and wrote odes, elegies, 
 epistles, and Iambics, which were printed collectively in 
 1491 or 1492, and a longer poem entitled "Chrysopoiia," 
 (or " Chrysopoia,") 1515. Died at Treviso in 152401 
 
 1537- 
 
 Au-gu-ri'nus, (Lucius Minucius,) a Roman, who 
 was prcefectus annona during a famine in 439 B.C. He 
 exposed the designs of Spurius Melius. 
 
 Augurinus, (Marcus Genucius,) a Roman consul 
 in 444 B.C. Under his consulate the law (Lex Canuleia) 
 permitting marriage between patricians and plebeians 
 was passed. 
 
 Augurinus (Publius Minucius) was a Roman con- 
 sul (492 B.C.) in a year of dreadful famine, which he and 
 his colleague mitigated by importing corn from Sicily, 
 and by founding a colony at Norba, to which many of 
 the poor were sent. 
 
 Augurinus, (Quintus Minucius,) Roman consul in 
 457 B.C., led an army against the ^Equi and Sabines, 
 and compelled them to abandon the Roman territory 
 and shut themselves up in their own towns. 
 
 Augurinus, (Sentius,) a Roman poet, who was the 
 friend of the younger Pliny, by whom his verses are 
 highly commended. 
 
 Augurinus, (Tiberius Minucius,) a Roman consul, 
 who defeated the Samnites in 305 B.C. 
 
 Augurinus, (Titus Genucius,) brother of Marcus, 
 noticed above, became consul in 451 B.C., and was after- 
 wards one of the first Decemvirate. 
 
 August, the German of Augustus, which see. 
 
 AU-GUS'TA, a Latin word signifying "majestic," or 
 " venerable," given as a title to the wives of the Roman 
 emperors. The first who received it was Livia, the wife 
 of Augustus Cassar. 
 
 Augusta, ow-goos'ta, (Cristoforo,) a painter of the 
 sixteenth century, born near Cremona, gave great pro- 
 mise of future eminence, but died young. 
 
 See LArizi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Augusta, ow-go6s'ta, (Johann,) a friena of Luther, 
 born at Prague in 1500, became a minister of the sect of 
 Bohemian Brethren, which is regarded as the origin of the 
 Moravian Church. He was chosen bishop of all their 
 churches in Bohemia about 1538. He differed from 
 Luther in religious opinions. He was imprisoned six- 
 teen years by Ferdinand I. (from 1548 to 1564.) He 
 published several works. Died in 1575. 
 
 See Pelzer, " Portraits de Savants Bohemes." 
 
 Augustenburg, Prince of. See Charles Augus- 
 tus, Prince Royal of Sweden. 
 
 Augusti, ow'goos'tee, (Christian Johann Wil- 
 HELM,) an eminent German theologian, born at Esch- 
 enberg, near Gotha, in 1771. He -became professor 
 extraordinary at Jena in 1800, and succeeded Ilgen as 
 
 a, e. T. o, u, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, it, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n8t; gdod ; moon; 
 
AUGUST I 
 
 21 I 
 
 AUGUSTUS 
 
 professor of Oriental literature in that city in 1803. In 
 1S07 lie obtained the chair of theology at Jena. As an 
 orthodox Lutheran he opposed the philosophical or spec- 
 ulative school. From 181 1 to 1819 he was professor at 
 lau, and removed to the University of Bonn in 1819. 
 His chief work is " Memorable Things from Christian 
 Archaeology," (" Denkwiirdigkeiten aus der Christlichen 
 Archaeologie," 12 vols., 1817-35,) which he condensed 
 into a " Manual of Christian Archaeology," (3 vols., 1836.) 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Augusti, (Friedrich Albrecht,) a grandfather of 
 the preceding, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1696, 
 Was the son of a Jew. He was converted to Christianity 
 in 1 72 1, and became a Lutheran minister at Eschenberg. 
 He published several learned works on theology. Died 
 in 1782. 
 
 Augustin, (Antonio.) See Augustinus. 
 
 Augustin, o'giis'taN', (Jean Baptiste Jacques,) a 
 distinguished French miniature-painter in oil and ena- 
 mel, was born at Saint-Diez, in Vosges, in 1759. He 
 worked in Paris, was patronized by Louis XVIII., and 
 painted portraits of many eminent persons. He was 
 appointed painter to the king in 1819. Died in 1832. 
 
 Au'gus-tiue, [Lat Aure'lius Augusti'nus ; Fr. 
 Augustin, o'gu» tax'; It. Augustino, 6w-goos-tee'no,] 
 Saint, the most illustrious Latin Father of the Church, 
 was born at' Tagasta, in Numidia, on the 13th of No- 
 vember, 354 a.d. He was instructed in religion by his 
 mother Monnica (or Monica,) who was a devout Chris- 
 tian. He also studied Greek, rhetoric, and philosophy 
 at Madaura and Carthage. About the age of nineteen 
 he was captivated with the heresy of the Manichaeans, to 
 which he adhered for nine years. Having taught gram- 
 mar and rhetoric at Tagasta, Carthage, and Rome, he 
 was appointed professor of rhetoric and philosophy at 
 Milan in 384. Amidst a career of immorality into 
 which strong youthful passions had impelled him, he 
 was seriously impressed by the sermons of Saint Am- 
 brose. He experienced a decided conversion in 386, 
 after deep conflicts, which he has described in his "Con- 
 ns," an autobiography. Soon after this event he 
 returned to Africa. 
 
 He was ordained a priest about 391 by Valerius, 
 Bishop of Hippo, whom he succeeded in 396. He dis- 
 tinguished himself as the adversary of the Donatists at 
 the Council of Carthage in 401 a.d., and had a high 
 reputation as an eloquent preacher. About 418 he pro- 
 duced two works against the Pelagians, " On the Grace 
 of Christ," ("De Gratia Christi,") and' "On Original 
 Sin," ("De Peccato Originali.") His capital work, en- 
 titled "On the City of God," ("De Civitate Dei,") was 
 intended to subvert the foundations of paganism and 
 establish those of Christianity, and to refute the opinion 
 that the capture of Rome by Alaric, and other calami- 
 ties of the empire, were caused by the prevalence of the 
 new religion. It was finished about 426. He wrote 
 many other works, among which are those " On Faith 
 and Works," ("De Fide et Operibus,") and "On the 
 Soul and its Origin," (" De Anima et ejus Origine.") 
 He died at Hippo, during the siege of that city by the 
 Vandals, on the 28th of August, 430 A.D. His habits 
 simple and temperate, rather than ascetic. The 
 best edition of his works is that published by the Bene- 
 dictines at Paris, (ti'vols., 1679-1700.) "Of all the 
 Fathers of the Latin Church," says Villemain, "Saint 
 Augustine manifested the most imagination in theology, 
 the most eloquence, and even sensibility, in scholasticism. 
 ... lie writes as well on music as on free will; he 
 explains the intellectual phenomena of memory as well 
 as he reasons on the decline of the Roman Empire. 
 His subtile and vigorous mind has often consumed on 
 mystical problems an amount of sagacity which would 
 have sufficed for the most sublime conceptions." 
 
 See " Confessions of Saint Augustine ;" Possidius, " Vie de Saint- 
 
 in;" George Moringo, "Vie de Saint-Augustin," 1533; 
 
 \ ie de Saint-Augustin," 1657; Tillemont, "Me'moi'res 
 
 piques." (vol. xiii..) 1702; Rivtus, "Vita Sancti Augus- 
 
 1646 ; Poutoulat, "Vie de Saint-Augustin," 2d edition, 1852; 
 
 makn. " Augustines Leben," 1844; Buti er, "Lives of the 
 
 Iiaur, " Christliche Romische Theologie:" Villemain, 
 
 "Tableau de 1'Eloquence chre'tienne au quatricme Steele," 1849; 
 
 •'Nouvelle Biographie Ge*nerale." 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 Augustine or Austin, Saint, "the Apostle of Eng- 
 land," was prior of a Benedictine monastery at Rome 
 before he was sent by Gregory I. to convert the Anglo- 
 Saxons. He arrived in the island in 596 or 597 A.D., 
 and was well received by Ethelbert, whose wife Bertha 
 was a Christian. The king and many of his subjects 
 were soon after baptized. Augustine was appointee 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. The year of his death is 
 variously dated 604, 607, and 614. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury'' 
 vol. i. chap. ii. 
 
 Augustini (6w-go6s-tee'nee) ab Hor'tis, (Chris- 
 tian,) a Hungarian physician, born at Zips in 1598. He 
 became physician to the emperor Ferdinand, and formed 
 a botanic garden at Vienna. Died in 1650. 
 
 Augustino. See Agostino. 
 
 Augustino, (Veneziano.) See Agostino. 
 
 Au-gus-ti'nus, (Antonius,) [Sp. Antonio Augus- 
 tin, an-to'ne-o ow-goos-teen',] Archbishop of Tarragona, 
 one of the most learned jurists of Spain, was born at Sara- 
 gossa about 1516. He gained a high reputation by his 
 " Emendations and Opinions of Civil Law," (" Emenda- 
 tiones et Opiniones Juris Civilis," 1538-43.) In 1555 
 he was sent as papal nuncio to England, to promote the 
 interests of the Roman Church in that country. He be- 
 came Bishop of Lerida in 1560, and Archbishop of Tar- 
 ragona in 1574. He wrote several works on Roman 
 and canon law, which are called classical, and among 
 which is " De Emendatione Gratiani Dialogi," (1581.) 
 " His works," says Correa da Serra, in the " Biographie 
 Universelle," "will preserve his celebrity in all ages." 
 Died in 1586. 
 
 See "A. Augustini Vitas Historia," by Gregorius Mayansus Sis- 
 carius; N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Augustinus, (Aurelius.) See Augustine, Saint. 
 
 Augusto, ow-goos'to, [Lat. Augus'tus,] of Udine, 
 an Italian poet, lived in the first half of the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 Au-gus'tu-lus, (Romulus,) the last Roman Emperor 
 of the West, was a son of the patrician Orestes. He 
 became emperor in 475 a.d., and was deposed by Odoacer 
 in the following year. 
 
 AU-GUS'TUS, a name conferred by the Roman sen- 
 ate on Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, 27 B.C. The word 
 signifies "noble," "majestic," or "venerable." This 
 name was adopted as a title by Tiberius and his suc- 
 cessors. The Greek equivalent of Augustus is Sebastos. 
 
 Augustus. See Augustus Caesar. 
 
 Au-gus'tus [Ger. August, ow'goost] I., (or II.,) 
 (Frederick,) King of Poland, was born at Dresden in 
 1670. He was the second son of John George III., Elec- 
 tor of Saxony, and Anna Sophia of Denmark. He was 
 endowed with superior talents, which were well cultivated, 
 and possessed extraordinary physical strength. In 1690 
 and 1691 he served with distinction in the Imperial army 
 against the French. He succeeded his brother John 
 George IV. as Elector of Saxony in 1694, formed an al- 
 liance with the emperor, and obtained from him the chief 
 command in the war against the Turks, by whom he was 
 defeated in Hungary in 1697. 
 
 Augustus was elected King of Poland in May or June, 
 1697, having abjured the Protestant religion for the sake 
 of this prize. His rival, the Prince of Conti, was the 
 choice of a strong party in the Diet; but Augustus ob- 
 tained possession of the throne without difficulty. He 
 joined Peter the Great of Russia in a league against 
 Charles XII. of Sweden, and invaded Livonia in 1700. 
 His army was defeated by the Swedes on the Duna in 
 1 701 and at Klissow in 1702. He was expelled from 
 Poland, on the throne of which Charles XII. placed 
 Stanislas Leszczynski, in July, 1704. To save his Saxon 
 dominions from the victorious Swede, he signed a treaty 
 in 1706, by which he renounced the crown of Poland. 
 
 The defeat of Charles XII. at Pultowa enabled Au- 
 gustus to recover the throne of Poland in 1 709, when 
 Stanislas retired without a contest. The Diet in 1712 
 demanded the removal of the Saxon troops from Poland, 
 but the king refused to remove them, and thus provoked 
 an insurrection, which was at last appeased by the king's 
 complying with the demand of the Diet. The latter part 
 of his reign was comparatively quiet. He died in Febru- 
 
 ee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AUGUSTUS 
 
 212 
 
 AUGUSTUS 
 
 ary, 1733, leaving a son, Augustus, who succeeded him, I 
 and a natural son, Maurice of Saxony, the famous general. 
 Augustus was ambitious, licentious, prodigal, and ex- 
 tremely fond of luxury and splendour. His court at 
 Dresden was more splendid than any other in Europe, 
 except that of Louis XIV. 
 
 See Fassmann und Horn, " Friedrich August desGrossenLeben," 
 1734 ; D<*sroches de Parthenay, " Histoire de Pologne sous le Roi 
 Auguste U." 4 vols., 1734. 
 
 Augustus (or August) II., (or III.,) (Frederick,) a 
 s >n 01 the preceding, born at Dresden in 1696, did not 
 IT herit his father's talents. He was educated as a 
 Protestant, but was converted to the Roman Catholic 
 Church about 1712. He married Maria Josephine, a 
 daughter of Joseph I., Emperor of Austria, in 1 7 19. In 
 1733 he succeeded as Elector of Saxony, and was elected 
 King of Poland by a party in the Diet, another party 
 choosing Stanislas. In the contest which ensued, Au- 
 gustus, supported by Russia and Austria, prevailed about 
 1736. He joined the league formed by France and 
 Prussia against Maria Theresa of Austria in 1740 or 1741, 
 but in 1743 he became an ally of that empress against 
 Frederick the Great, who defeated the Saxon army and 
 took Dresden in 1 745. In the Seven Years' war, 1 756-63, 
 the Saxons were defeated, and Saxony was ravaged by 
 the victorious Prussians. He died in October, 1763, and 
 was succeeded in Saxony by his son, Frederick Christian 
 August. 
 
 See Bottiger, "Geschichte des Kurstaates und Konigreiches 
 Sachsen." 
 
 Au-gus'tus (or August) I., Elector of Saxony, a son 
 of Henry the Pious, born in 1526, succeeded his brother 
 Maurice in 1553. He was distinguished as a legislator, 
 and had the reputation of a wise ruler ; but he was intol- 
 erant to the Calvinists. Under his auspices, a creed of 
 Lutheran orthodoxy, called " Formula Concordia;," was 
 adopted about 1580. He died in 1586, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Christian I. 
 
 See Hommei., " Elector Augustus Saxoniae Legislator," 1765 ; Eich- 
 horn, " Deutsche Staats- und Rechts-Geschichte." 
 
 Augustus II. of Saxony. See Augustus I. (or II.) 
 of Poland. 
 
 Augustus I, King of Saxony. See Frederick Au- 
 gustus. 
 
 Augustus II., King of Saxony. See Frederick 
 Augustus. 
 
 Augustus, Duke of Saxony, and last Archbishop of 
 Magdeburg, born at Dresden in 1614. He was dispos- 
 sessed and repossessed of his archbishopric several times 
 during the wars between Gustavus Adolphus and the Em- 
 peror of Germany. Died in 1680. 
 
 Augus'tus, [Ger. August, ow'goost,] (Emil Leo- 
 pold,) Duke of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg, born at 
 Gotha in 1772, was the eldest son of Duke Ernest II., 
 whom he succeeded in 1804. He was an admirer of 
 Napoleon, and joined the Rhenish Confederation about 
 1807. He was a liberal patron of the fine arts, and 
 author of several aesthetical novels, among which is " Kyl- 
 lenion, oder Auch ich war in Arcadien," (" I also was in 
 Arcadia," 1805.) He died in 1822, and was succeeded by 
 his brother Friedrich. The daughter of Duke August was 
 the mother of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. 
 
 Au-gus'tus, (Friedrich Wii.hei.m Heinrich,) 
 Prince of Prussia, born in 1779, was a nephew of Frede- 
 rick the Great, and a son of Prince Augustus Ferdinand. 
 He fought at Jena in 1806, where he was taken prisoner. 
 Having obtained in 1813 the rank of lieutenant-general, 
 he displayed skill and courage at Dresden, Kulm, and 
 Leipsic. In 1815 he was appointed commander of a 
 corps-d'armee, and besieged and took many fortified 
 French towns. He was reputed the first artillery officer 
 in the Prussian army. Died in 1843. 
 See "Preussische National-Encyklopadie." 
 
 Augustus, [Ger. August, ow'goost,] (Paul Fried- 
 rich,) Grand Duke of Oldenburg, was born in 1783. 
 He served against the French in Russia in 1S12, and 
 began to reign in 1829. He is represented as an en- 
 lightened and liberal prince. About 1848 he granted 
 a constitution which increased the civil and religious 
 freedom of his subjects. Died in 1853. 
 
 Augus'tus, (William,) Prince of Prussia, an able 
 
 general, born at Berlin in 1722, was a younger brother of 
 Frederick the Great. He studied the military sciences 
 with zeal, and distinguished himself at Hohen-Friedberg 
 in 1745. As general of infantry, he gave proof of skill at 
 Lowositz in 1756. After the defeat of the Prussians at 
 Kollin, in 1757, Augustus was appointed commander of 
 thirty thousand men who covered the rear of the retreat- 
 ing army. He failed in his effort to check the superior 
 force of the enemy, and for this failure was deprived of 
 his command. He died in 1758, leaving a son, Frederick 
 William, who became King of Prussia. 
 
 See Archenholz, " History of the Seven Years' War," (in Ger- 
 man.) 
 
 Augus'tus Cae'sar, called by Suetonius Octavius 
 Caesar Augustus, [Fr. Octave Cesar Auguste, ok'- 
 tSv' sa'ziR' o'giist'; It. Ottavio Cesare Augusto, ot- 
 ti've-o cha'sa-ra ow-goos'to,] and subsequently named, 
 as the heir of Julius Caesar the dictator, Ca'ius Ju'lius 
 Cae'sar Octavia'nus, the first Roman emperor, was 
 born at Velitrae, not far from Rome, in 63 B.C. He was 
 the son of Caius Octavius and Atia, the daughter of 
 Julia, who was the sister of Julius Caesar. His father 
 died about the year 60, and his mother married L. Mar- 
 cius Philippus, who was consul in 56 B.C., and who . 
 superintended the education of young Octavius. At the 
 age of twelve he pronounced a funeral oration in praise 
 of his grandmother Julia, and four years later he assumed 
 the toga virilis. He was adopted as a son by Julius 
 Caesar the dictator, whom he followed to Spain in 45 B.C. 
 According to some writers, he was present at the battle 
 of Munda. He was pursuing his studies at Apollonia 
 when he learned that Caesar was killed, in 44 B.C., and 
 that he had been appointed the heir of his uncle. In com- 
 pany with his friend Vipsanius Agrippa, he went to Rome 
 to claim his inheritance. He found a dangerous rival in 
 Mark Antony, who had possession of the money and 
 papers of the dictator and refused to give them up. 
 Octavius pursued an artful and temporizing course, by 
 which he gained the support of Cicero and other sena- 
 tors, and showed himself an equal match for old and 
 experienced players in the game of political intrigue. 
 In January, 43, the senate gave him command of an 
 army, and sent him with the consuls Hirtius and Pansa 
 to fight against Antony, who was in Cisalpine Gaul. The 
 army of the senate defeated Antony near Mutina, (M6- 
 dena,) but Hirtius and Pansa were killed in the battle. 
 Soon after this event the command of the army was 
 transferred to D. Brutus by the senate, which had re- 
 solved to check the growing power and ambitious efforts 
 of Octavius. In defiance of the authority of the senate, 
 he marched with an army to Rome, was elected consul 
 in August, 43 B.C., (before he had reached the legal age,) 
 and formed a coalition or triumvirate with Antony and 
 Lepidus against M. Brutus and the other republicans. 
 Antony and Octavius, commanding in person, gained a 
 decisive victory over Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, 
 42 B.C. According to Suetonius, he treated the van- 
 quished with merciless cruelty. Thousands of persons 
 perished as victims of the proscription which the trium- 
 virs ordered. Octavius and Antony soon quarrelled, but 
 postponed hostilities by a feigned reconciliation, and 
 combined their forces against Sextus Pompey, who was 
 master of Sicily and Sardinia. Octavius gained a deci- 
 sive victory over Pompey in 36 B.C., and, while Antony 
 was engaged in Eastern campaigns or in dalliance with 
 Cleopatra, established his power in Italy. He becnne 
 consul for the second time in 33 and for the third time 
 in 31 B.C. At length, owing in part to Antony's infatua- 
 tion for Cleopatra, and his neglect of Octavia, (the sister 
 of Augustus,) whom he had recently married, the breach 
 became irreconcilable. Octavius gained a decisive victory 
 at the naval battle of Actium, (31 B.C.,) which rendered 
 him sole master of the Roman empire. He entertained or 
 professed a design to restore the republic ; but he allowed 
 himself to be persuaded to usurp imperial power, partly 
 disguised under the form of a republican government 
 He was elected consul several times after the year 30, and 
 received the title of Augustus from the senate in 27 B.C. 
 His chief ministers or advisers were Agrippa, Maecenas, 
 and Asinius Pollio. He accepted in the year 23 the 
 tribitnitia potestas (tribunitian power) for life. 
 
 5, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, )*, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; mrjon; 
 
AUGUSTUS 
 
 213 
 
 AUMALE 
 
 Augustus was a liberal patron of the poets Virgil and 
 Horace, whose genius rendered the Augustan age the 
 most illustrious in the history of Roman literature. He 
 greatly increased the architectural splendour of Rome, 
 and boasted that he left that a city of marble which he 
 had found a city of brick. Under his rule the people 
 enjoyed such a share of peace and prosperity as recon- 
 cilecl them to the loss of their liberty. He married 
 several wivjes, namely, Clodia, Scribonia, and Livia Dru- 
 silla. Scribonia bore him a daughter Julia, his only 
 child. In his domestic relations he was not happy. He 
 was temperate or abstemious in his diet, and lived in a 
 comparatively simple style. 
 
 He applied himself with great diligence to the study 
 of eloquence from his early youth. Although he could 
 speak very well extemporaneously, he never addressed 
 the senate, the soldiers, or the people, unless he had care- 
 fully prepared himself beforehand. He was partial to 
 the study of Greek literature and philosophy, but he never 
 wrote in that language, and did not speak it fluently. Ac- 
 cording to Suetonius, Augustus composed many works in 
 prose on various subjects, including a history of his own 
 Bfe, which extended only to the Cantabrian war. He 
 also wrote some epigrams and other verses. Having 
 adopted Tiberius (his step-son) as his successor, he died 
 in August, 14 A.D. 
 
 See Suetonius, " Life of Augustus," ("Vita Augusti ;") Nicolas 
 
 Damascenus, "De Vita Augusti;" Tacitus, " Annales;" Drumann, 
 
 hichte Roms;" Plutarch's "Life of Marcus Antonius;" 
 
 Nougarede, "Histoire du Siecle d'Auguste," 1840; Larrey, "Vie 
 
 d'Auguste," 1840. 
 
 Augus'tus Pred'erick, Prince of Great Britain, 
 and Duke of Sussex, the sixth son of George III., was 
 born in 1773. He married, at Rome, in 1793, Lady Au- 
 gusta Murray, a daughter of the Earl of Dunmore. The 
 prerogative court having declared this marriage to be null 
 and void, the parties were separated, after the birth of a 
 son, Sir Augustus Frederick d'Este. The Duke of Sus- 
 sex was liberal in politics, voted for the abolition of the 
 slave-trade and slavery, and favoured religious toleration. 
 He was chosen president of the Royal Society in 1830, 
 and retired from that position in 1839. He contributed 
 liberally to benevolent institutions. Died in 1843. 
 
 Au'laf, written also Anlaf, a Danish chief, who rav- 
 aged Ireland and the north of England, and finally, 
 having conquered Edmund at Leicester, obtained the 
 northern part of the kingdom, which he ruled until his 
 death about 943. 
 
 Aulaf, King of Norway. See Olaf. 
 
 Aulagnier, o'lin'ye-4', (Alexis Francois,) a French 
 medical writer, born in Grasse in 1767; died in 1839. 
 
 Aulaire. See Saint-Aui.aire. 
 
 Au-la'ni-us E-van'der, an Athenian sculptor, who 
 lived in Rome in the time of Augustus. 
 
 Aulard, 6'liR', (Pierre,) a French general, born in 
 Languedoc in 1763, was killed at Waterloo in 1815. 
 
 Aulber, (Erasmus.) See Alber. 
 
 Aulber, owl'ber, (Johann Christoph,) a German 
 historian, born at Waiblingen in 1671 ; died in 1743. 
 
 Aulber, (Matthaeus,) a German reformer, born at 
 Blaubeuren in 1495, became a disciple of Luther about 
 1518. He preached at Reutlingen, and induced that 
 city to adopt the Augsburg Confession in 1530. In 1548 
 he was appointed cathedral preacher at Stuttgart by 
 Duke Ulrich. 
 
 Aulbery, o'ba're', (George,) secretary to Charles 
 III., Duke of Lorraine, was author of several poems, a 
 life of Saint Sigisbert, King of Austrasia, and a descrip- 
 tion of Lorraine and Nancy. 
 
 Auletta, 6w-let'ta, (Pii-.tro,) an Italian composer of 
 operas, lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Aulich, ow'Uk, (Louis,) a Hungarian general, born 
 at Presburg in 1792. He was made a general in the 
 spring of 1849, and contributed to the success of the 
 Hungarians over Windischgratz. He succeeded Gbrgey 
 as minister of war in July or August, 1849. After the 
 surrender of Gbrgey, he was hung as a rebel by the 
 \ustrians at Aracl in October, 1849. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Auliczeck See Aulizeck. 
 
 Aulisio, d', dow-lee'se-o, [Lat. Aulis'ius,] (Dome- 
 
 nico,] an Italian jurist, linguist, and writer, eminent for 
 his learning, was born at Naples about 1645. He was 
 well versed in the ancient and modern languages, numis- 
 matics, and various sciences, and was professor of civil 
 law at Naples for many years. Among his numerous 
 works are, " On the Architecture of the Mausoleum," 
 ("De Mausolei Architectura,") "On the Timaic Har- 
 mony," ("De Harmonia Timaica,") and "Commentaries 
 on Civil Law," ("Commentaria Juris Civilis," 3 vols., 
 1719-20.) Died in 1717. 
 
 See " Vita di Aulisio," prefixed to his " Scuole Sacra" by Troi- 
 sio, 1723. 
 
 Aulizeck, 6w'lit-seV, or Auliczeck, ow'lit-chfk, 
 (Dominic,) a Bohemian sculptor, born at Policzka in 
 1734; died at Munich in 1803. 
 
 Aulnaye, de 1', deli lo'ni', (Francois Henri Sta- 
 nislas,) a French writer, born at Madrid in 1739. He 
 translated " Don Quixote" into French, (1824,) and wrote 
 many articles for the " Biographie Universelle." Among 
 his numerous works are a " History of the Religions and 
 Worships of all Nations," (1791,) "Pax Vobis, or the 
 Anti-Mason," (Philadelphia, 1791,) and an essay "On 
 the Pantomime of the Ancients," ("De la Saltation 
 theatrale," 1790.) "His version of Don Quixote," says 
 Weiss, "is the best in the language." He lived mostly 
 in Paris. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Aulon, d', do'lc-N', (Jean,) a French gentleman, known 
 as a companion-in-arms of Joan of Arc. He was ap- 
 pointed by the king to attend her as intendant or maitre- 
 d'hStcl. He fought at the siege of Orleans. In the cam- 
 paign of 1449 he was made a chevalier. 
 
 Aultamie, d', dol'ttn', (Joseph Augustin de Four- 
 nier — deh fooR'ne-i',) Marquis, a French general, born 
 at Valreas in 1759, served at the battles of Zurich and 
 Hohenlinden, but, having connected himself with Moreau, 
 became suspected by Napoleon for a time. He after- 
 wards distinguished himself at Austerlitz and Jena, and 
 was made governor of Warsaw and Toledo. Died in 
 1828. 
 
 Aulu-Gelle. See Gellius, (Aulus.) 
 
 Au'lus, the name of one or more gem-engravers, who 
 lived under early Roman emperors. 
 
 Aulus Gellius. See Gellius. 
 
 Aulus Postumius. See Postumius. 
 
 Aumale, d', do'mil', (Charles de Lorraine — deh 
 lo'r&n',) Due, a French prince, born about 1555, was a 
 son of Claude II., and a first-cousin of Henry, Duke of 
 Guise. After the death of the latter, (1588,) Aumale and 
 the Duke of Mayenne became the chiefs of the League 
 formed against the Huguenots and Henry IV. Aumale 
 commanded a wing of the army of the League at the 
 battle of Ivry, (1590,) and afterwards joined in a trea- 
 sonable design to transfer France to the King of Spain. 
 He was sentenced to death by Parliament in 1595, but 
 had escaped from their power. Died at Brussels in 
 1631. 
 
 See De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis;" Sismondi, "Histoire 
 des Francais." 
 
 Aumale, d', (Claude de Lorraine,) Due, a French 
 duke, born about the end of the fifteenth century, was a 
 son of Rene II. of Lorraine. He conquered the duchy 
 of Luxembourg in 1542, and was created Duke of Guise 
 by Francis I. Died in 1550. 
 
 Aumale, d', (Claude II.,) Due, the son of the pre- 
 ceding, born about 1525, was a brother of Francois, 
 Duke of Guise. He had a high command in the war 
 against Charles V., and fought against the Huguenots 
 at Dreux, (1562,) Saint-Denis, (1567,) and Moncontour, 
 (1569.) He was one of the principal instigators of the 
 Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, (1^72.) He was killed 
 at the siege of La Rochelle in 1573, and left a son 
 Charles, noticed above. 
 
 See De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis." 
 
 Aumale, d', (Claude,) a Knight of Malta, son of 
 Claude II., was born in 1563. He was an active, fierce, 
 and cruel member of the League, and declared he would 
 make a Saint Bartholomew of the royalists all over 
 France. He was killed at Saint-Denis in 1591. 
 
 Aumale or Albemarle, d'.dSl'beh-miRl', (Etienne, 
 or Stephen,) Count of, was son of Eudes, first Count 
 
 e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AUMALE 
 
 214 
 
 AURELIO 
 
 of Aumale, (ami Earl of Holderness,) and nephew of 
 William the Conqueror. In 1095 a conspiracy was 
 formed to place him on the English throne, but being 
 defeated he was* condemned to the loss of his eyes ; Wil- 
 liam Rufus, however, pardoned him. He twice rebelled 
 against Henry I., who burnt his castle in Aumale. He 
 made two pilgrimages to the Holy Land, in the last of 
 which he died, in 1127. 
 
 Aumale, d', or Albemarle, (Eudes or Odo,) Count, 
 son of Etienne II., Count of Champagne, being deprived 
 of his inheritance by his uncle Thibaut III., took refuge 
 with the Duke of Normandy, whose half-sister he mar- 
 ried, and to whom he rendered good service in the 
 conquest of England, for which he was created Earl 
 of Holderness. Having joined Mowbray's rebellion, 
 in 1094, he was imprisoned by William Rufus the rest 
 of his life. 
 
 Aumale, d', or Albemarle, (Guillaumk, or Wil- 
 liam,) Count, son of Etienne, succeeded his father in 
 Aumale and Holderness in 1127. He supported Stephen 
 in his contest for the crown of England against the em- 
 press Matilda. In 1 1 73 he joined the rebellion of Prince 
 Henry against his father Henry II., but afterwards sub- 
 mitted. Died in 1180. 
 
 Aumale, d', (Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Or- 
 leans — doR'la'oN',) Due, the fourth son of King Louis 
 Philippe, was born in Paris in 1822. He entered the 
 army in 1839, served in Africa in 1840, and became 
 marechal-de-camp in 1842. In 1843 he gained a victory 
 over Abd-el-Kader, whose camp and treasures fell into 
 the hands of the French. He was rewarded with the 
 rank of lieutenant-general, and in September, 1847, 
 was appointed Governor-General of Algeria. Soon after 
 that date Abd-el-Kader surrendered to him. When the 
 news of the revolution of 1848 arrived in Algeria, the 
 Due d'Aumale submitted to the new regime in a manner 
 that was generally applauded. He retired as an exile to 
 England. 
 
 Aumale, d', (Jkan dArcourt — diVkooR',) Comte, 
 a French soldier, born in 1396, defeated the English in 
 1423 between Laval and Vitre. He was killed at the 
 battle of Verneuil in 1424. 
 
 Aumont, d', do'moN', (Jacques,) Due, an officer in 
 the national guards in the Revolution, (who was mal- 
 treated by the mob for supposed aid to Louis XVI. in 
 his escape,) served till 1793. He died in 1799. 
 
 Aumont, d', dS'moN , (Jean,) an able French gene- 
 ral, born in 1522 of a noble family. He fought against 
 the Protestants in the war which began in 1562, and was 
 made a marshal of France in 1579. In 1589 he became 
 an adherent of Henry IV., for whom he fought with dis- 
 tinction at Ivry, in 1590. He was killed in battle in 1595. 
 He was renowned for courage and magnanimity. His 
 grandson Antoine, Due d'Aumont, (1601-69,) was a mar- 
 shal of France. 
 
 See De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis;" and L'Estoile, "Me 1 - 
 moires." 
 
 Aumont, d', (Louis Marie Alexandre,) Due, a 
 brother of Jacques, born in 1736, was a member of the 
 States-General in 1 789, and an adherent of the Bourbons. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 Aumont, d, (Louis Marie Celeste de Pienne — 
 deh pe'en',) Due, a royalist general, born in 1770, was a 
 son of Jacques, above noticed. He commanded a band 
 of royalists who entered Normandy from the sea during 
 the Hundred Days. Died in 1831. 
 
 Aumont, d, (Louis Marie Victor,) Due, a French 
 general, a son of Antoine, born in 1632. He distin- 
 guished himself as an officer in the wars of Louis XIV. 
 u: Flanders. Died in 1704. 
 
 Au-na'rl-us or Au-na-eha'rl-us, [Fr. Aunaire, 
 o'nSR',] Saint, Bishop of Auxerre, is known by various 
 names. He was born of a noble family at Orleans about 
 540 a.d., and enjoyed a high reputation for learning and 
 sanctity. 
 
 Aurigerville. See Richard de Bury. 
 
 AunLllon, 5'ne'y6N', (Pierre Charles Pabiot — 
 fl'be'o',) Ahhe, born in 1684, was the author of "The 
 Disguised Lovers," a comedy, " Azor, a Fairy Tale," and 
 "The Force of Education," a novel. Died in 1760. 
 
 Aunoy, o'nwa', (Marie Catherine,) Countess of, 
 
 a distinguished ornament of the court of Louis XIV., 
 born about 1650. She is known in our times chiefly by 
 her fairy-tales, which have run through numberless 
 editions and been translated into various languages. 
 She also wrote several novels, and, among them, " The 
 History of the Count of Warwick," " Memoirs of the 
 Court of England," and other historical memoirs and ro- 
 mances. Died at Paris in 1 705. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litt^raire ;" Dunlop, .'History ol 
 Fiction;" "Histoire LitteYaire des Femmes Francaiscs. 
 
 Aupick, o'pek', (Jacques,) a French general, born at 
 Gravelines in 1789. He served in several campaigns of 
 Napoleon, became a colonel in 1834, and a general of 
 division in 1847. In 1851 he was ambassador to London. 
 He was appointed a senator in 1853. Died in 1S57. 
 
 Auramazda. See Ormuzd. 
 
 Aurang-Zebe. See Aurung-Zeb. 
 
 Aurat, d'. See Dorat. 
 
 Aurbach, von, ton owR'baK, or Aurpach, SwR'paK, 
 (Johann,) a German jurist of Bamberg, lived in the sec- 
 ond half of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Aurbacher, 5wR'baK-er, (Ludwig,) a German school- 
 master, born in Bavaria in 1784, wrote, besides other 
 works, "The Adventures of Seven Suabians," (1846.) 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 Au-re'11-a, the mother of Caius Julius Caesar the 
 dictator, was a woman of superior character. Died in 
 54 B.c. 
 
 Aurelia Gens, a plebeian family in Rome, of Sabine 
 origin, containing many illustrious names. C. Aurelius 
 Cotta was the first who obtained the consulship, 252 B.C. 
 
 Au-re'11-an or Au-re-H-a'nus, [Fr. Aurelien, 
 6'ra'le'aN',] (Claudius Domitius,) a Roman emperor, 
 who was born of obscure parents about 212 A.D., at Sir- 
 raium, in Pannonia, or, according to some, in Lower 
 Dacia, or in Moesia. He rose by his talents and courage 
 from the rank of private to the highest position in 
 the army of Valerian, and was appointed consul in 25S 
 a.d. On the death of Claudius in 270, Aurelian was 
 proclaimed emperor by the army. About the same time 
 the north of Italy was invaded by the Alemanni, who 
 were defeated at Fanum, in Umbria. The principal event 
 of his reign was an expedition against Zenobia, Queen 
 of Palmyra, who reigned over Syria, Egypt, etc., and 
 whose army he defeated near Emesa. Palmyra and the 
 queen were captured by him in 273 a.d. (See Zenobia.) 
 He punished a revolt of the Palmyrenes, which occurred 
 soon after, with a general massacre, and acted with ex- 
 treme severity on other occasions. He was very success- 
 ful in his military enterprises, and was called the restorer 
 of the empire, but was more competent to command an 
 army than to govern a nation. He was assassinated by 
 his own officers in 275 A.D., and was succeeded by 
 Tacitus. 
 
 See Vopiscus, "Vita Aureliani;" Trebellius Pollio, "Odena- 
 tus," and "Zenobia;" Tillemont, "Histoire des Erapereurs;" Gib- 
 bon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. xi. ■ 
 
 Aurelian or Aurelianus, Saint, was born about 
 500 a.d. He became Bishop of Aries, and the pope's 
 vicar for Gaul, about 546. He died at Lugdunum, (Lyons,) 
 551 a.d. 
 
 Aurelianus, Saint. See Aurelian, Saint. 
 
 Aurelianus Caelius. See C/Elius Aurelianus. 
 
 Aurelien, the French of Aurelian, which see. 
 
 Aurelio, ow-ra'le-o, King of Asturias, reigned from 
 768 to 774 a.d. 'He bound himself by treaty to deliver 
 annually a number of maidens to the Moorish king as 
 tribute. 
 
 See Paquis and Dochez, "Histoire d'Espagne." 
 
 Aurelio, 6w-ra'le-o, (Aurelio,) a Venetian pott. 
 flourished between 1660 and 1720. 
 
 Aurelio, Aurelli, ow-rel'lee, or Arelli, i-rel'lee, 
 (Giovanni Muzio — moot'se-o,) [in Latin, Joan'nes 
 Mu'tius Aure'lius,] a Latin poet, born at Mantua, 
 lived in the early part of the sixteenth century. He was 
 appointed governor of Mondolfo by Leo X., became un- 
 popular, and was assassinated a few months after his 
 appointment. He left a hymn to John the Baptist and 
 an epistle to Leo X., which are highly praised by J. C 
 Scaliger. 
 
 See BAiLLET,"Jugements des Savants," and Scaliger," Poetica." 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nSt; good; moon; 
 
AURELIO 
 
 215 
 
 AURIFABER 
 
 Aurelio, (Ludovico,) an Italian historian and Jesuit, 
 born at Perugia, was distinguished for his proficiency in 
 Greek, Latin, and German. He became a canon of the 
 Lateran at Rome. Among his works are a " History of 
 the Rebellion of the Bohemians against the Emperors 
 Matthias and Ferdinand," (1625,) and an "Epitome of 
 the Annals of Cardinal Baronius," (2 vols., 1634.) Pied 
 in 1637. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 Au-re'll-us. a famous Roman painter, lived in the 
 reign of Augustus. 
 
 Aurelius, ow-ra'le-us, (TEgidius,) a learned Swedish 
 writer and translator, born at Upsal, lived about 1650. 
 
 Aurelius, (Joannes Mutius.) See Aurelio, (Gio- 
 vanni Muzio.) 
 
 Au-re'll-us An-to-ni'nus, (Marcus,) commonly 
 called Mar'cusAure'lius,[Fr.MARC-AuRELE,miR'ko- 
 rjl',1 sometimes sumamed the Philosopher, a Roman 
 empeior, celebrated for his wisdom, learning, and virtue, 
 was burn at Rome in April, 121 A.D. He was a son of 
 Annius Verus, who once held the office of praetor. His 
 ohm original name was Marcus Annius Verus. He was 
 educated by able teachers, among whom were Fronto, 
 Apollonius of Chalcis, and Herodes Atticus. In philo- 
 sophy he was a disciple of the Stoics, of which sect he 
 became an illustrious ornament by his practice as well 
 as by his writings. Having been adopted by Antoninus 
 Pius in 138 a.d., he assumed the name of M. /Elius 
 Aurelius Verus Caesar. In .139 Antoninus, who had just 
 become emperor, associated him in the administration. 
 Aurelius married Faustina, a daughter of Antoninus, 
 about 146 A.D., and succeeded his adopted father in 161, 
 after he had been urged by the senate to accept the 
 throne. He associated with himself in the empire Lu- 
 cius Commodus, alias Lucius Verus. They reigned har- 
 moniously together until the death of Verus in 169 A.D. 
 His reign was disturbed by many insurrections, and 
 by inroads of northern barbarians, especially the German 
 tribes of the Marcomanni and Quadi. Though he pre- 
 ferred peace, he was almost continually involved in war, 
 in which he acted on the defensive and was generally 
 victorious. He is said to have shown himself a skilful 
 general. He commanded in "erson the army that drove 
 the Marcomanni out of Pannunia. His victory over the 
 Quadi in 174 A.D. is attributed to a miracle by some 
 writers, who affirm that the thirsty Romans were refreshed 
 by a shower during the battle, while the enemy were 
 assailed by a violent storm of hail and lightning. An 
 ancient tradition ascribes this miracle to the prayers 
 of a Christian legion which formed part of the army of 
 Aurelius. 
 
 In 175 A.D., Avidius Cassius, an able general, who 
 commanded the Roman army in Syria, revolted, de- 
 clared himself emperor, and made himself master of 
 Egypt and of the part of Asia which lies east of Mount 
 Taurus. He was killed by his own officers in the same 
 year. Aurelius visited Syria, Egypt. Athens, etc., in 176. 
 He was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries at Athens, 
 and on other occasions conformed to the established re- 
 ligious rites. In 177 he associated his son Commodus 
 with himself in the empire. He was engaged in a cam- 
 paign against the Marcomanni and Quadi, when he died 
 at Siruiium, or at Vindebona, (Vienna,) in March, 180 A.D. 
 Commodus erected to his memory the Antonine column, 
 which stands at Rome in the Piazza Colonna. His 
 thoughts and doctrines were recorded by himself in a 
 Greek work, called "Meditations," which is considered 
 an excellent manual of moral discipline. His biogra- 
 phers find it difficult to explain the persecution which the 
 Christians suffered in his reign, and which is perhaps 
 the only stain on his memory. We learn from one short 
 passage of his writings that he was prejudiced against 
 the Christians. No monarch was ever more beloved by 
 his subjects. He acquired the boasted equanimity of 
 the Stoic philosophy, without the asperity which was a 
 characteristic of the Stoics in general. A good English 
 version of "The Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius Anto- 
 ninus," by George Long, appeared in 1862. 
 
 See Cakitolinus, "Marcus Antoninus Philosophus ;" Tii.le- 
 mont. " Histoire des Empereurs;" Ripault, "Histoire (ie TEm- 
 pereur Marc-Antonin," 5 vols., 1S20; Dion Cassius, lib. Ixxi.; Fa- 
 
 bricius. "Bibliotheca Grajca ;" De Suckau, "Etude sur Marc 
 Aurele," 1857; Aurelius Victor, " De Ca:saribus Historia." See 
 also the notice of Marcus Aurelius in Matthew Arnold's "Essays 
 in Criticism," 
 
 Aurelius Arcadius Charisius. See Charisius. 
 
 Aurelius Augustinus. See Augustine, Saint. 
 
 Au-re'll-us Cor-ne'11-us, the Latin name of a Dutch- 
 man whose family name was Sopsen, better known as 
 the friend of Erasmus (whose preceptor he is said to 
 have been) than by his works, which were principally 
 Latin elegies. He was a native of Gouda. 
 
 See Erasmus, " Epistolas." 
 
 Aurelius Cornelius Celsus. See Celsus. 
 
 Aurelius Cotta. See Cotta. 
 
 Au-re'll-us Vic'tor, (Sextus,) a Roman historian, 
 who flourished between 350 and 400 A.D., is supposed to 
 have been a pagan. He was appointed prefect of Pan- 
 nonia Secunda by the emperor Julian about 360, and 
 was prefect of the city of Rome under Theodosius. The 
 materials for his biography are very scanty. He wrote 
 " De Caesaribus Historia," which contains the lives of 
 the emperors from Augustus to Constantius, and is ex- 
 tant. He is also the reputed author of two extant works, 
 entitled "Lives of Illustrious Romans," ("De Viris 
 illustribus Urbis Romae,") and " On the Life and Cha- 
 racter of the Emperors," (" De Vita et Moribus Impera- 
 torum," or "Aurelii Victoris Epitome.") 
 
 Aurelli, (Giovanni Muzio.) See Aurelio, (Gio- 
 vanni Muzio. ) 
 
 Auren<;-Zebe. (or Zeyb.) See Aurung-Zep,. 
 
 Aurenhammer, ow'ren-ham'mer, or Auernham- 
 mer, ow'ern-hSm'mer, (Josepha,) a celebrated piano- 
 forte player at Vienna, and a composer of some reputa- 
 tion. She lived at the close of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Au-re'o-lus, (Caius,) one of the various usurpers 
 called the "Thirty Tyrants" that arose in different parts 
 of the Roman Empire during the reign of Gallienus, was 
 born in Dacia, of an obscure family, and rose by his 
 military merit. After having put down two pretenders 
 to the imperial throne, he assumed the purple about 267 
 A.n. Having by treachery procured the assassination of 
 his rival Gallier.us, he soon after submitted to Claudius 
 II., (the successor of Gallienus,) but subsequently, re 
 volting, was slain, 268 A.D. 
 Aurgelmir. See Ymir. 
 
 Auria, ow-ree'a, (Vincenzo,) an Italian antiquary and 
 historian, born at Palermo in 1625, is said to have been 
 chancellor of Sicily. He published numerous useful 
 works, among which are a " History of the Viceroys of 
 Sicily," ("Istoria de' Signori Vicere di Sicilia," 1697,) 
 and a "Treatise on Tournaments," (1690.) He also wrote 
 verses in Latin and Italian. Died in 17 10. 
 
 See Mongitore, "Vita di Auria," in Crescimbeni's " Vite degli 
 Arcadi illustri." 
 
 Auria, d', dow're-a, (Giovanni Domenico,) an emi- 
 nent Neapolitan sculptor and architect of the sixteenth 
 century. His master-piece is the Fontana Medina in the 
 Piazza del Castelnuovo at Naples. Died in 1585. 
 
 See Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura." 
 
 Auria, d\ (Giuseppe,) an Italian mathematician, who 
 lived in Naples in the sixteenth century. He wrote a 
 work on the best method of study. He also translated 
 various works of the Greek mathematicians. 
 
 Aurifaber, ow're-fa'ber, (Andreas,) a Latin form of 
 the name of Andreas Goldschmidt, a German phy- 
 sician, born at Breslau in 1512, became professor in 
 the University of Kbnigsberg. He published a treatise 
 "On the Management of Dogs, ("De Cura Canum," 
 1545,) and wrote a " History of Amber," (" Succini His- 
 toria," 1561.) Died in 1559. 
 
 Aurifaber, (Johann,) a brother of the preceding, 
 born at Breslau in 1517, was a Lutheran divine. He 
 gained distinction by settling some religious differences 
 at Lubeck, and became professor of divinity at Kbnigs- 
 berg about 1555. Died in 1568. 
 
 Aurifaber, (Johann,) a German divine, born in the 
 county of Mansfeld about 1519. He is said to have been 
 private secretary of Luther, at whose death he was pres- 
 ent. He was appointed court preacher at Weimar in 
 1551, and minister of the principal Lutheran church at 
 Erfurt in 1566. He edited the "Letters of Luther" and 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. 
 
 ee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AURIFERI 
 
 216 
 
 JUSTE N 
 
 his " Table-Talk," and was one of the editors of Luther's 
 other works. Died in 1575. 
 
 See Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Auriferi, ow-ree'fl-ree, (Bernardius,) a botanist of 
 distinction, was born in Sicily, of very poor parents, in 
 1739. He published a work entitled " Hortus Panormi- 
 tanus," (1789.) Died in 1796. 
 
 Aurigny, d', do'ren'ye', (Gilles,) a French poet, 
 born at Beauvais, became an advocate in the Parliament 
 of Paris. He produced a number of imaginative works, 
 which were once popular. Among the most admired of 
 these is "The Guardian of Love," ("Tuteur d' Amour," 
 1546,) a poem. Died in 1553. 
 
 Auriol, d', do're'ol', (Blaise,) a French poet and 
 jurist, born at Castelnaudary, became professor of canon 
 law at Toulouse. His chief poem is " Le Depart 
 d'Amour," ("The Departure of Love," 1508,) intended 
 as a continuation of " La Chasse d'Amour" of Octavien 
 de Saint-Gelais. Died about 1540. 
 
 Auriol, d', (Pierre,) {in Latin Aure'olus or Auri'- 
 OLUS,] a French theologian, born at Toulouse, became 
 Archbishop of Aix about 1320. 
 
 See Cardinal Sernano, "Vie de Pierre d' Auriol." 
 
 Aurisicchio, ow-re-sek'ke-o, an Italian composer, 
 who died about the middle of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Aurispa, ow-res'pa, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian 
 scholar, who contributed much to the restoration of 
 classical learning among his countrymen. He was born 
 at Noto, in Sicily, about 1370. Having visited Constan- 
 tinople in 1418, he returned with a rich store of Greek 
 manuscripts, many of which were almost, if not wholly, 
 unknown in Europe. He also contributed not a little 
 to the popularity of Greek literature by his zeal and 
 success as a teacher. Died at Ferrara in 1459. He 
 translated into Latin "Hieroclis Liber in Pythagoras 
 Aurea Carmina." 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storiadella Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Au-rl-vil'li-us, (or ow-re-vil'le-us,) (Carl,) an emi- 
 nent Swedish Orientalist, born at Stockholm in 1 71 7, 
 studied at Jena, Halle, and Paris. He became professor 
 of Oriental languages at Upsal in 1772, and was ap- 
 pointed a member of a commission to translate the Bible 
 into Swedish. He translated the Pentateuch, Job, the 
 Psalms, and the Prophets. His academical dissertations 
 are highly commended. Died in 1786. 
 
 See " Biographiskt-Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Aurivillius, (Eric,) a Swedish jurist, born at Knutby 
 in 1643 ; died in 1702. 
 
 Aurivillius, (Magnus,) a Swedish minister, who 
 served Charles XII. as chaplain at Pultowa and Bender, 
 was born in 1673. 
 
 See " Biographiskt-Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Aurivillius, (Pehr Fabian,) a son of Carl, born in 
 1756, was for forty years keeper of the principal library 
 of Sweden, at Upsal, of which he compiled a catalogue, 
 (1814.) He was professor of humanities at Upsal, and 
 wrote a biography of Bergman the chemist. Died in 
 1829. 
 
 See " Biographiskt-Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Aurivillius, (Samuel,) a Swedish physician, and pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Upsal. Died in 1767. 
 
 Au-ro-gal'lus, (Matthaeus,) a distinguished scholar, 
 cotemporary and friend of Luther, was born in Bohe- 
 mia about 1480. He was for some time professor of 
 Hebrew, Greek, and Latin in the University of Witten- 
 berg, and afterwards rector in that institution. He pub- 
 lished several works, and aided Luther largely in his 
 translation of the Bible. Died in 1543. 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Auroux des Pommiers, o'roo' d& po'me-a', (Ma- 
 thieu,) a French ecclesiastic and legal commentator, 
 who lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Aurpach. See Aurbach. 
 
 Au-run'cus, (Posthumius Cominius,) a Roman 
 general, who was consul in 493 B.C., when the plebeians 
 asserted their rights on Mons Sacer. 
 
 Aurung-Zeb, (Aurengfor Aurang) -Zebe,) o'rftng- 
 zab', the "ornament of the throne," afterwards sur- 
 named Alum-Geer or Alam-Gir, a'liim-geeR, ("con- 
 queror of the world,") a celebrated emperor of Hindostan, 
 
 
 was born in 1618. Though the third son of Shah Jehdn, 
 he managed, by creating dissension among his brothers, 
 and finally by the assassination of the two elder, Dara 
 and Shuja, and the imprisonment of the younger, Moorad, 
 to possess himself of the whole empire, even in the life- 
 time of his father, whom he detained in captivity for J 
 seven years. Notwithstanding the unscrupulous means 
 by which he possessed himself of power, he seems to 
 have used it not unwisely nor very unjustly, so far as 
 his Mohammedan subjects were concerned ; though his I 
 bigoted intolerance towards the Hindoos created dis- 
 content and was the cause of the first formidable insur- 
 rection among the warlike Marhattas. Though cool and 
 crafty, he seems not to have been cruel, except from mo- i 
 tives of policy. During a severe famine which afflicted 
 his empire in the third year of his reign, he showed both 
 wisdom and humanity in the relief of his famishing sub- 
 jects. He added Beejapore and Golconda to his domin- 
 ions, and increased the imperial revenue to ,£40,000,000. 
 He died in 1707, in the fiftieth year of his reign. The 
 Mussulmans of India regard him as one of the greatest 
 of their monarchs ; but the decadence of the empire 
 may be traced to his policy. As in the case of Louis 
 XIV. of France, whom he resembled, his religious intol- 
 erance and habits of duplicity ruined the resources and 
 prosperity of the country. 
 
 See Elphinstone, "History of India;" Bernier, "Voyages et 
 Description de PEmpire Mogol ;" J. Mill, "History of British 
 India;" Dow, "History of Hindustan." 
 
 Au'sl-us, (or 6w'se-us,) (Henry,) a Swedish Hellen- 
 ist, born in Smaland in 1603, was professor of Greek at 
 Upsal. Died in 1659. 
 
 Ausone. See Ausonius. 
 
 Au-so'nl-us, [Fr. Ausone, 6'son',] (Decimus Mag- 
 nus,) a celebrated Latin poet, born at Burdigala (Bor- 
 deaux) about 310 A.D. He taught grammar and rhetoric 
 at that city with such success that his fame induced Va- 
 lentinian to appoint him tutor of his son Gratian in 367. 
 After the accession of Gratian to the throne, 375 A.D., 
 Ausonius enjoyed the favour of his former pupil, and 
 obtained, besides other high offices, that of consul in 
 379. He appears to have been a Christian in profession ; 
 but Muratori and others have affirmed or supposed he 
 was a pagan. He wrote epigrams; "Idyllia;" a descrip- 
 tive poem on the Moselle ; and " Series of Noble Cities," 
 ("Ordo nobilium Urbium.") His poems were greatly 
 admired by his contemporaries, but are less agreeable to 
 the taste of modern critics, who consider his style faulty 
 in many respects. His poem on the Moselle has consid- 
 erable merit, and is called the oldest specimen of descrip- 
 tive poetry. Died about 394 A.D. 
 
 See M. de Puymaigre, " Vie d'Ausone ;" Souchav, "Disserta- 
 tio de Vita et Scriptis Ausonii ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Latina ;" J. 
 Demogeot, " Etudes historiques et litteraires sur Ausone," 1837. 
 
 Ausonius, [Fr. Ausone,] Saint, born in the French 
 province of Saintonge, is supposed to have been conse- 
 crated firstjjishop of Angouleme (Engolisma) in 260 A.D., 
 and to have been slain by the Vandals about 270 ; but 
 his history is doubtful. 
 
 Auapicius, aw-spish'e-us, Saint, Bishop of Toul, 
 was a learned and distinguished ornament of the Church 
 in France in the fifth century. Died about 480 A.D. 
 
 Aussigny, d, do'sen'ye', (Thibauld,) was Bishop of 
 Orleans, France, in the fifteenth century. He wrote 3 
 " History of the Acts of Joan of Arc." 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, " Tableau de la Poesie Francaise au seiziemt 
 Siecle." 
 
 Aus'ten, (Miss Jane,) an English authoress, born at 
 Steventon, Hampshire, in December, 1775, was a daugh- 
 ter of a clergyman who was rector of that parish for 
 many years. After the death of her father, she resided 
 at Southampton and at Chawton, to which she removed 
 in 1809. In 181 1 she published anonymously her first 
 novel, " Sense and Sensibility," which was very favour- 
 ably received. Her other works are " Pride and Preju- 
 dice," " Mansfield Park," " Emma," (1816,) "Northanger 
 Abbey," (1818,) and " Persuasion," (1818.) Her charac- 
 ters belong to the middle rank of English society, and 
 are not extraordinary either morally or intellectually. 
 She is considered almost unrivalled in fidelity to nature. 
 Her writings are free from sentimental extravagance, but 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m2t; n5t; good; moon; 
 
AUSTEN 
 
 217 
 
 AUTENRIETH 
 
 not deficient in tenderness. They have been translated 
 into French, and are admired in France. " Edgeworth, 
 Ferrier, Austen," says Sir Walter Scott, "have all given 
 portraits of real society far superior to anything vain man 
 has produced of like nature." Died in May, 1817. 
 
 See Lockhart, " Life of Sir Walter Scott ;" " Quarterly Review" 
 for January, 1831; "Atlantic Monthly" for February, 1863; Mrs. 
 Elwood, Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England trom the 
 Commencement of the Last Century, voL ii., 1843. 
 
 Austen, (Ralph,) a writer on horticulture, fruit-trees, 
 etc., was born in Staffordshire about 1610. 
 
 Austen or Aus'tin, (William,) an English metal- 
 founder in the reign of Henry VI., was one of the artists 
 employed to execute the splendid tomb of Richard, Earl 
 of Warwick, in Saint Mary's Church at Warwick. 
 See DfGDALE, "Antiquities of Warwickshire." 
 Aus'tin, (Benjamin,) an American political writer of 
 the democratic school, bom about 1752. He was a sup- 
 porter of Jefferson. A collection of his writings in the 
 "Boston Chronicle," under the signature of "Old 
 South," was published in 1803 in a volume entitled 
 " Constitutional Republicanism." He died in Boston 
 in 1820. 
 
 Austin, (Charles,) a son of Benjamin, noticed above, 
 was shot in the streets of Boston (1806) in an attempt to 
 inflict castigation upon one who had attacked his father 
 in the public papers. 
 
 Austin, (James Trecothic,) an American lawyer and 
 writer, son of Jonathan L. Austin, born in Boston in 
 17S4. He graduated at Harvard in 1802, was advocate 
 of Suffolk county for twenty-nine years, and attornev- 
 general of Massachusetts from 1832 to 1843. He pub- 
 lished a " Life of Elbridge Gerry," and other works. 
 
 Aus'tin, (John,) an English writer, born in Norfolk 
 county in 1613, became a Roman Catholic about 1640, 
 and afterwards resided mostly in London. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "The Christian Moderator; or, 
 Persecution for Religion condemned," (1651,) the style 
 of which is commended. Died in 1669. 
 
 See Butler, " Historical Memoirs respecting the English, Irish, 
 and Scotch Catholics." 
 
 Austin, (John,) an English jurist, born in 1797, was 
 author of "The Province of Jurisprudence determined," 
 (1832,) which is said to be one of the most valuable con- 
 tributions to the philosophy of law and legislation that 
 has been produced in modern times. Died in i860. 
 
 Austin, (Jonathan Loring,) an American patriot, 
 born in Bostun in 1748. In 1 777 he was sent to Paris 
 with the news of the surrender of Burgoyne. Here he 
 remained two years as Franklin's secretary, and after- 
 wards spent two years as his agent in England. On his 
 return to the United States he was liberally rewarded 
 by Congress. Died in 1826. 
 
 Austin, (Moses,) an American pioneer, born in Dur- 
 ham, Connecticut, about the commencement of the Amer- 
 ican Revolution. He sold his property in 1820, and pen- 
 etrated to the interior of Texas. At Bexar he forwarded 
 to the Mexican government an application for permission 
 to establish in that country an American colony of three 
 hundred families, and, without waiting for a reply, he set 
 out on his return to Missouri for settlers. He died soon 
 after (June, 1821) from the effect of the hardships to which 
 he had been exposed. His application, however, was 
 successful, and the colony was established by his son, 
 Stephen F. Austin. 
 
 Austin, (Robert,) an English clergyman, who de- 
 fended the Parliament in a pamphlet entitled "Alle- 
 giance not impeached," etc., (1644.) 
 Austin, Saint. See Augcstini:, Saint. 
 Austin, (Samuel,) an English poet, son of Rev. Sam- 
 uel, noticed below, was born in 1636; died in 1661. 
 
 Austin, (Samuel,) D.D., president of t lie University 
 of Vermont, was born in New Haven, Connecticut, in 
 1760. He graduated at Yale with distinguished honours 
 in 1783, and, after studying divinity, preached for several 
 years in Fair Haven, and about twenty-five years in Wor- 
 cester, Massachusetts. Died in 1830. 
 
 Austin, (Rev. Sami hi.,) an English poet, born in 
 Cornwall in 1606. His principal work is "Austin's 
 Urania, or the Heavenly Muse," (1629.) 
 See Wood, "Athen* Oxonienses." 
 
 Austin, (Mrs. Sarah,) an English writer, distin- 
 guished as a translator from the German, was a member 
 of the Taylor family of Norwich. She became the wife 
 of John Austin, barrister, of London. She published 
 " Characteristics of Goethe," (3 vols., 1833,) which had a 
 great success, " Considerations on National Education," 
 "Sketches of Germany from 1760 to 1814," and other 
 original works. She also made excellent translations of 
 Prince Piickler-Muskau's " Travels in England," and of 
 Ranke's " History of the Popes," (3 vols., 1840,) of which 
 Macaulay remarks, "It is such as might be expected 
 from the skill, the taste, and the scrupulous integrity of 
 the accomplished lady who, as an interpreter between 
 the mind of Germany and the mind of Britain, has already 
 deserved so well of both countries." (Review of Ranke's 
 "History of the Popes.") Died in 1867. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine" for September, 1867. 
 
 Austin, (Stephen F.,) the founder of the State of 
 Texas, was a son of Moses Austin, noticed above. He 
 explored the region watered by the Colorado and Brazos 
 Rivers in 1821, and conducted from New Orleans a party 
 of emigrants, who settled where the city of Austin now 
 stands. About the end of 1822 the grant made to his 
 father was confirmed to him by the Mexican government. 
 In the spring of 1833 the Texan colonists formed a con- 
 stitution and applied for admission to the Mexican con- 
 federacy ; but Austin, who visited the city of Mexico on 
 this mission, found that country in a state of anarchy, and 
 failed to obtain the ratification of the Texan constitu- 
 tion. He was detained at Mexico as a prisoner or hos- 
 tage until September, 1835. About that time the Texans 
 took arms to drive the Mexicans out of Texas, and ap- 
 pointed Austin commander-in-chief. In November, 1835, 
 he went as commissioner to the United States to pro- 
 mote the liberation of Texas from the Mexican domi- 
 nation, and to obtain the recognition of Texas as an 
 independent State. Died in December, 1836. 
 
 Austin, (William,) of Lincoln's Inn, London, was 
 the author of a poem on the passion of Christ, some 
 prose works of a religious character, and a translation 
 of Cicero on "Old Age." Died in 1633. 
 
 Austin or Aus'ten, (William,) a designer and en- 
 graver, who lived in London about 1750. Views of 
 buildings in Palmyra and Rome are his most noted 
 works. 
 
 Austin, (William,) an English physician and chemist 
 of high reputation, was born in 1753. He practised at 
 Oxford and in London, and was chosen physician to 
 Saint Bartholomew's Hospital in 1786. He published 
 a " Treatise on the Origin and Component Parts of the 
 Stone in the Bladder," (1791,) and wrote several papers 
 on gases. Died in 1793. 
 
 Austin, (William,) an American lawyer and writer, 
 born in 1778, rose to eminence at the Boston bar. His 
 principal works are his "Letters from London," in 1802 
 and 1803, and "Essay on the Human Character of Jesus 
 Christ," in 1807. Died in 184.1. 
 
 Aus-tre-ber'ta, Saint, born in Artois in 633 A.D., 
 was related to the'royal family. She died in 704. 
 
 Austregilde, os't r-zheld', the wife of Gontran, King 
 of Burgundy, notorious for her crimes. Died in 560 A.D. 
 
 Austreraoine, Saint, saN'tos't'r-mwan', [Lat. Stre- 
 mo'nius,] the first Bishop of Auvergne, converted many 
 pagans in Gaul about 250 A.D. 
 
 Autelli, ow-tel'lee, (Jacopo,) an Italian worker in 
 mosaic, flourished in the first half of the seventeenth 
 century. There is said to be a curious mosaic in the mu- 
 seum at Florence upon which he worked sixteen years. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Autelz, des, dft zo'tel', (Guillaume,) a French poet 
 of considerable reputation in his day, but of no great 
 merit, born in Burgundy in 1529. He is supposed to 
 have died about 1600. 
 
 See Nicbron, "M^moires." 
 
 Autenrieth, von, fon 6w'ten-reet',(HERMANN Fried- 
 rich,) a physician, born at Tubingen in 1799, succeeded 
 his father as professor of anatomy in 1835. He has 
 published, besides other works, one "On the Diseases 
 of the Common People of Great Britain," ("Ueber die 
 Volkskrankheiten in Gross-Britannien," 1824.) 
 
 See Callisen, "Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 
 
 € as /•; 9 as s; g hard; g zsj; c, H, v.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (B^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AUTENRIETH 
 
 218 
 
 AVVERGNE 
 
 Autenrieth, von, (Johann Hermann Ferdinand,) 
 an able German medical writer and physiologist, born 
 at Stuttgart in 1772, was the father of the preceding. 
 He practised about one year (1794) at Lancaster, Penn- 
 sylvania, and became professor of anatomy, etc. at TU- 
 birtgen in 1797. He was distinguished for his varied 
 knowledge and powers of observation, and wrote nume- 
 rous works, the principal among which is a "Manual 
 of Human Physiology," (" Handbuch der empirischen 
 menschlichen Physiologie," 3 parts, 1801-02.) Died at 
 Tubingen in 1835. 
 
 Auteroche,(CHAPPE d\) See Chappe d'Auteroche. 
 Autharis. See Antheric. 
 Authon. See Auton. 
 
 Authville des Amourettes, d', dot'vel' di zi'- 
 moo'ret', (Charles Louis,) a p'rench tactician, who 
 published several works on military subjects. He was 
 barn at Paris in 17 16, and died there in 1762. 
 
 Autichamp, d', do'te'shdN', (Antoine Joseph Eu- 
 lalie de Beaumont — uh'li'le' deh bo'm6N',) Count, 
 born in 1 744, was a brother of the marquis Jean T. Louis, 
 noticed below. He fought for the American cause at 
 Yorktown. Died in 1822. 
 
 Autichamp, d', (Chari.es,) a son of the preceding, 
 born in 1770, was a royalist chief in the Vendean war of 
 1793. Died in 1852. 
 
 Autichamp, d', (Charles,) Seigneur de Miribel, a 
 French officer, entered the army about 1640. He dis- 
 tinguished himself at Lerida and Lens. Died in 1692. 
 
 Autichamp, d', (Jean Therese Louis de Beau- 
 mont — deh, bd'moN',) Marquis, was born at Angers, of 
 a distinguished French family, in 1738. He took an act- 
 ive part in the royalist cause during the Revolution until 
 1797, when he entered the service of Paul I. of Russia, 
 where he obtained considerable distinction. Returning to 
 France with the Bourbons in 181 5, he was made lieuten- 
 ant-general, and governor of the Louvre. Died in 183 1. 
 See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire historique des Gdneraux 
 Francais." 
 
 Au'to-cles, [Airo/cA^c,] an Athenian general and 
 orator, commanded in Thrace in 362 B.C. 
 
 Au-toc'ra-teS [Ai>ro/cpur;?c] of Athens, one of the 
 earliest Greek dramatic poets. 
 Autoin. See Alduin. 
 
 Au-tol'y-cus, [Airo/lwcoc,] a Greek mathematician, 
 born at Pitane, in /Eolis, lived about 320 B.C. He taught 
 mathematics to the philosopher Arcesilaus, and wrote 
 two extant works, "On the Moving Sphere," and "On 
 the Risings and Settings of the Stars." 
 
 See Schoell, " Histoire de la Literature Grecque." 
 Autolycus, a famous thief of antiquity, the son of 
 Hermes. (See Sisyphus.) 
 
 Au-tom'e-don, [kiro/jeduv,] the name of a poet to 
 whom are attributed a number of epigrams in the Greek 
 Anthology. He is supposed to have been a native of 
 Cyzicus, and to have lived in the reign of Nerva. 
 
 Automne, o'ton', [Lat. Autum'nus,] (Bernard,) a 
 French jurist, bom near Agen about 1570. He wrote, 
 besides other legal works, a " Commentary on the Com- 
 mon Law (Coutiime) of Bordeaux." Died in 1666. 
 
 Auton, Authon, d', do't6N', or Autun, o'tuN', 
 written also Anton and D'Anton, (Jehan or Jean,) a 
 French poet and chronicler, who is supposed to have 
 been born about 1470. His reputation as a poet brought 
 him to the notice of Anne of Brittany, queen of Louis 
 XII., through whom he received the appointment of 
 chronicler to the king. His " Annals of the Reign of 
 Louis XII." are distinguished for their truth and fidel- 
 ity. Died in 1527. 
 
 See Goujet, " Bibliotheque Francaise." 
 Au-ton'o-e, |Gr. Airoi'm;,] a daughter of Cadmus, 
 and a sister of Ino, was the wife of Aristaeus, and mother 
 of Actaeon. 
 
 Au-toph-ra-da'tes, [Gr. AvTotipafiurric,] a Persian 
 general in the time of Artaxerxes III. and Darius II. 
 He suppressed the revolt of Artabazus, Satrap of Lydia, 
 and commanded the fleet of Darius in the war with Alex- 
 ander the Great, in conjunction with Pharnabazus. 
 
 Autran, 5'tRoN', (Joseph,) a French poet, born at 
 Marseilles in 1812. He produced in 1838 "Sports for 
 the Winds," ("Ludibria Ventis,") which was received 
 
 with favour, and in 1848 "The Daughter of iEschylus," 
 a drama in five acts, which shared the prize of the Acad- 
 emy with the " Gabrielle" of Augier. His " Poems of 
 the Sea" (1852) are admired. 
 
 Autreau, 6'tRo', (Jacques,) a French artist of the 
 seventeenth century, was respectable both as a painter 
 and dramatic writer. His comedy of " Port a l'Anglais" 
 (1718) was eminently successful. Died in poverty, at 
 Paris, in 1745, aged eighty-nine. 
 
 See Heinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Autrey, o'tR&', (Henri Jean Baptiste Fabry de 
 Moncault — fi'bRe' deh m6N'ko',) Count, born in 
 Paris in 1723. He was commander of a brigade of 
 cavalry of Brittany ; but was chiefly noted for the works 
 he wrote in opposition to the Encyclopaedists, (as the 
 infidel philosophers of the French Revolution were 
 called.) Died in 1777. 
 
 See Grimm, " Correspondance litte"raire." 
 
 Autrive, d', do'tRev', (Jacques Francois,) an emi- 
 nent French violinist and composer, was born at Saint- 
 Quentin in 1758, and died in 1824. 
 
 Autroche, d', do'tRosh', (Claude de Loynes— -deh 
 lwan,) a French translator, born at Orleans in 1744. He 
 published in 1804 a metrical version of Virgil's " TEneid," 
 which he considered an improvement on the original. 
 He proposed to give an edition of the yEneid such as 
 he supposed Virgil would have written if he had lived 
 long enough to make it perfect. In 1808 he produced a 
 mediocre version of " Paradise Lost, separated (tUgagie) 
 from the superfluous parts which disfigure it." Died in 
 1823. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litt^raire." 
 
 Au-tro'nI-us Pce'tus was consul of Rome in 66 B.C., 
 after which he was banished as an accomplice of Catiline. 
 
 Autumnus. See Automne. 
 
 Autun. See Auton. 
 
 Auvergne, o-vern', [Fr. pron. o'v^Rn',] (Bernard,) 
 the first Count of, obtained his title in 864. He joined 
 the league of Charles the Bald in 877, but made his 
 peace with the king in the following year, and afterwards 
 rendered distinguished services to Louis II., who ap- 
 pointed him guardian to his son Louis III. He was 
 killed in war in 884 
 
 Auvergne, d', do'v&Rfi', (Antoine.) a French ope- 
 ratic composer, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 17 13, went 
 to Paris, where he became director of the Opera. Died 
 in 1797. 
 
 Auvergne, d', (Edward,) an English historical writer, 
 born in the island of Jersey about 1660. He was chap- 
 lain to William III., whom he accompanied in his wars 
 in the Spanish Netherlands, of which he afterwards 
 wrote the history. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena? Oxonienses;" Salmon, "History and Anti- 
 quities of Essex." 
 
 Auvergne, d', (Guillaume,) [Lat. Guliel'mus Ar- 
 ver'nus or Alver'nus,] Bishop of Paris, was born at 
 Aurillac in the latter part of the twelfth century. A 
 doctor of the Sorbonne, he was distinguished by his phi- 
 losophical, mathematical, and theological studies, having 
 written voluminously on the last subject. His chief 
 work is a treatise on " The Universe," (" De Universe") 
 Died in 1249. 
 
 Auvergne, d', (Latour.) See Latour d'Auvf.rgne. 
 
 Auvergne, d', (Martial, mtR'se'il',) called also 
 Martial of Paris, an eminent French lawyer, poet, and 
 wit, was born in Paris about 1440. Among his works 
 maybe mentioned the " Decrees of Love," ("Les Arrests 
 d'Amour,") partly in prose and partly in poetry, in imi- 
 tation of the subjects treated in the courts of Love as 
 established in that age, and a poem entitled " Vigils of 
 the Death of Charles the Seventh." Died in 1508. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Auvergne, d', (Peyrols, p&'rol',) a distinguished 
 Provencal poet, many of whose songs are preserved in 
 the Vatican and the Royal Library of Paris, flourished 
 in the twelfth century. 
 
 See M11.LOT, "Histoire litteVaire des Troubadours;" Sismondi, 
 "De la Litte'rature du Midi de 1'Europe." 
 
 Auvergne, d', (Pierre,) also called Petrus de Al- 
 vernia (or Arvernia) and Petrus de Cros, a pupil 
 of Thomas Aquinas, was born in Auvergne about 1250, 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; not; good; moon; 
 
AVVERGNE 
 
 219 
 
 AVALOS 
 
 and became one of the most distinguished philosophers 
 and theologians of his day. He wrote several commen- 
 taries on Aristotle's works, was a socius of the Sorbonne, 
 and canon of the Cathedral of Paris. 
 
 See Bi-lee, " Historia Universilatis Parisiensis." 
 Auvergne, d", (Pierre.) -written also Peyre d'Aul- 
 vergne, a famous troubadour of Clermont, flourished 
 about the middle of the twelfth century. He afterwards 
 renounced the world and became a monk. He died, it 
 is supposed, about 1215. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Millot, 
 ■ H.^toire Htteraire des Troubadours." 
 
 Auvergne, d', (Pierre,) a celebrated French scholar, 
 who became rector of the University of Paris in 1272. 
 Died probably about 1300. 
 
 Auvergne. d', (Theoihile Malo Corret de la 
 ToUR.) See Latour D'Auvergne. 
 
 Auvigny, d', do'ven'ye', (Jean du Castre — dii 
 kSst'K.' a French litterateur, born in Hainaut about 1710, 
 is said to have been addicted to pleasure no less than to 
 literature. Among his works are " Lives of Illustrious 
 Men of France," (10 vols., 1739-57,) and a romance 
 called '•Memoirs of Madame de Barneveldt," (1732 or 
 1735. 1 He \\ns killed at the battle of Dettingen in 1743. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Auvity, o've'te', (Jean Abraham,) for several years 
 a surgeon of the Foundling Hospital at Paris, was noted 
 for his skill in treating the diseases of children. He 
 wrote several medical essays. Died in 1S21. 
 
 Auvray, o'vRi', (Felix,) a French historical painter, 
 born in 1S00, was one of the most distinguished pupils 
 of Baron Gros. Died in 1833. 
 
 Auvray, (Jean,) a French poet of considerable 
 merit, but whose works are too often disfigured by in- 
 delicate allusions and coarseness of expression, born 
 about 1590; died in 1633. His "Sacred Treasure" 
 seems to have been the best of his productions. 
 
 Auvray, (Louis Marie,) a French colonel, born in 
 1762, was prefect of La Sarthe from 1800 until 1814. 
 He published " Statistics of the Department of La 
 Sarthe," (1S02.) Died in 1833. 
 
 Auvray, 1 1'hilipp Peter Joseph,) a portrait-painter, 
 born at Dresden in 1778; died in 1815. 
 
 Auwera, 6w-wa'ra, (Johann Georg,) an artist who 
 was educated at Rome, but afterwards became court- 
 sculptor in Bavaria, resided at Wurzburg, where he died 
 in 1756. 
 
 See Jack, "Leben und Werke der Kunstler Bambergs." 
 
 Auxbceuff, 6'buf, (Pierre,) a French priest, emi- 
 nent as a pulpit orator, lived at Paris about 1400. 
 
 Auxentius, awk-sen'she^us, [Fr. Auxence, 5k'- 
 sonss',] Bishop of Milan, (Mediolanum,) born in Cappa- 
 docia about 310 A.D. He was at first an Arian, but 
 afterwards recanted, and enjoyed the favour of the 
 emperor Valentinian until his death in 374. 
 
 Aux-Epaules, o'zi'pol', fLat. De Hu'mf.ris, Ad 
 Hu'meros, or De Scap'ulis,] a French soldier of for- 
 tune of the fifteenth century, took an active part in the 
 civil wars under Charles Vll., and served for a time in 
 the English army. Died in 1643. 
 
 See Jean Chartier, " Chronique," and "LaMer des Hisloires," 
 Lyons, 15 1 2. 
 
 Aux-il'I-us, a French theologian, lived about 900, and 
 wrote some treatises against Pope Sergius III. 
 
 Auxiron, ok'se'roN', (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 mathematician, born at Baume-les-Dames about 1680; 
 died in 1760. 
 
 Auxiron, d',dok'se'r6N',(CLAUDF. Francois Joseph,) 
 a French officer, born in Besancon in 1728, wrote some 
 works on the best method of supplying Paris with water, 
 and one (2 vols. 1 2mo) on " Government." Died in 1 778. 
 
 Auxiron, d', (Jean Baptiste,) a French jurist, born 
 at Besancon in 1736 ; died in 1800. 
 
 Auzanet, o'zj'ni', (Barthei.f.mi,) a French lawyer 
 of high repute, born in Paris in 1591. He was engaged 
 with De Lamoignon in an effort to produce a uniform 
 system of laws throughout France, which, though it 
 failed of its object, produced some valuable legal works. 
 Died in 1673. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Auziron, 6'ze'r6N', (Jean Baptiste,) a French engi- 
 neer, and writer on political economy, bom at Besancon 
 in 1728; died in 1778. 
 
 Auzoles, d', do'zol', (Jacques,) Lord of La Peyre, and 
 author of several works on Chronology and the Bible, was 
 born in Auvergne in 1571, and died at Paris in 1642. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Auzou, o'zoo', (Louis Napoleon,) a nonconformist 
 French priest, born at Versailles in 1806, was a disciple 
 of Abbe Chatel, founder of the " French Catholic Church." 
 He wrote " On Sacerdotal Usurpations," (1832,) and other 
 works, and protested 'against the celibacy of the clergy. 
 In 1839 he retracted his heterodox opinions. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteYaire." 
 
 Auzout, o'zoo', ( Adrien,) an able French astronomer, 
 mathematician, and instrument-maker, born at Rouen, be- 
 came one of the first members of the Academy of Sciences, 
 founded in 1666. He was the inventor of the movable 
 wire micrometer, and published a "Treatise on the Mi- 
 crometer," (1667.) "He shares with Picard," says Biot, 
 " the honour of having applied the telescope to graduated 
 instruments or quadrants." Died at Rome about 1692. 
 
 See Delambre, "Histoire de l'Astronomie moderne;" Con- 
 dorcet, " EJoges." 
 
 Auzoux or Auzou, o'zoo', (Louis,) a French physi- 
 cian, born in the department of L'Eure in 1797. He is 
 distinguished by the invention of a new art of imitating 
 anatomical preparations with paste or pulp, (pdte de 
 carton,) which becomes hard when it dries. He gave 
 the name of anatomic clastiaue to his method, which is 
 considered a very valuable invention. 
 
 Av-a-lo'nI-us, (Elvan,) an English missionary, who 
 is said to have preached the gospel to the Bretons in the 
 second century. 
 
 See Godwin, "De Episcopiis Anglicis;" Moreri, "Dictionnaire 
 Historique." 
 
 Avalos, d', da-va'16s, sometimes written Davalo 
 (da-vl'lo) by the Italians, the name of a noble family of 
 Spanish origin, who migrated to the kingdom of Naples 
 in the fifteenth century. 
 
 Avalos, d', (Alfonso,) Marquis of Pescara, an officer 
 and friend of Ferdinand II. of Naples, to whom he ren- 
 dered good service in his war against the French. He 
 died from the effects of a wound in 1495, leaving a son 
 Ferdinand, who was a famous general. 
 
 Avalos, d', (Alfonso,) Marquis del Vasto, (written 
 also Del Guasto,) an able general, born at Naples in 
 1 502, was a son of Ifiigo, noticed below, and a first-cousin 
 of the Marquis of Pescara. He entered the army of 
 Charles V. at an early age, and greatly contributed to tjie 
 victory of Pavia in 1525. He succeeded the Marquis of 
 Pescara in command of the army in November of the 
 same year. In the expedition against Tunis in 1535 he 
 had the chief command of the land-forces. He succeeded 
 De Leyva as captain-general of the Imperial forces in 
 Italy, and became governor of Milan in 1536 or 1537. 
 He was defeated with great loss by the French under 
 Conde, at Cerisoles, in 1544. Died in 1546. His sonnets 
 and Rime are commended.. 
 
 See Botta, "Storiad' Italia ;" Verri, "Storiadi Milano;" Bran- 
 t6me, "Vies des grands Capitaines." 
 
 Avalos, d', (Costanza,) a distinguished poetess, 
 sister of the preceding, lived about 1520. She became 
 the wife of Alfonso Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi. Her 
 poetical talents, beauty, and virtue are highly praised 
 by contemporary writers. 
 
 Avalos, d', (Ferdinando,) Marquis of Pescara, [in 
 French, Le Marquis de Pescaire,] a famous general, 
 born at Naples about 1490, was a son of Alfonso the 
 elder, noticed above. About 1508 he married Vittoria 
 Colonna, a poetess. (See Colonna, Vittoria.) He was 
 taken prisoner by the French at Ravenna in 1512, and 
 appointed general of the infantry in Italy by Charles V. 
 about 1518. In 1521 he captured Milan from Lautrec, 
 and in 1522 pillaged Genoa after he had taken it by 
 storm. Pescara and the Duke of Bourbon invaded Pro- 
 vence in 1524, but were forced to retreat. The former 
 formed the plan of the battle of Pavia, (1525,) and ap- 
 pears to be entitled to the honour of the victory, although 
 he was not nominally the first in command. (See Lan- 
 nov, and Bourbon, Due de.) Sismondi says Pescara 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AVALOS 
 
 2 20 
 
 A FAUX 
 
 had the greatest share in gaining this battle, in which he 
 was wounded. Lannoy having gone to Spain with the 
 royal captive, the chief command devolved on Pescara. 
 At this juncture, several Italian princes formed a secret 
 league to drive the Spaniards out of Italy, and attempted 
 to seduce Pescara into the project ; but he divulged the 
 secret to Charles V. Died at Milan, in November, 1525. 
 See Paolo Giovio, "La Vita di Don Ferrando Davalo;" Bran- 
 T6.ME, "Vies des Hommes illustres;" Giannone, "Storia civile 
 del Regno di Napoli;" Guicciardini, " I storia d'ltalia;" Botta, 
 "Storia d'ltalia;" Verri, " Storia di Milano." 
 
 Avalos, d', (Inigo,) Marquis del Vasto, a younger 
 brother of Alfonso, Marquis of Pescara, noticed above, 
 served under the great captain Gonzalo de Cordova, and 
 died in his service in 1503. 
 
 Avalos, de, di a-va'16s, (Inigo,) a Spanish general, 
 who was a constant adherent of Alfonso V. of Aragon. 
 Died in 1481. 
 
 Avalos, de, (Ruy Lopez,) father of the preceding, 
 was Grand Constable of Castile, and a noted warrior. 
 Died about 1427. 
 
 A-van-ci'nus, [Ger. pron. a-vant-see'nus,] (Nico- 
 LAUS,) a learned Jesuit, rector of the colleges of Gratz, 
 Passau, and Vienna, and author of several works on 
 biography, criticism, and theology, was born in the Tyrol 
 in 1612, and died in 1685. 
 
 See Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Avancon, d', di'vdN's6N', (Guillaume,) Archbishop 
 of Embrun, born about 1530, was a violent adversary of 
 the Protestants. Died in 1600. 
 
 Avantio. See Avanzi. 
 
 Avantius,(HiERONYMUs.) See Avanzi, (Girolamo.) 
 
 Avanzi, a-van'zee, or Avantio, a-van'te-o, [Lat. 
 Avan'tius,] (Giovanni Maria,) a distinguished Italian 
 jurist and poet, born at Rovigo in 1549, was a friend of 
 Torquato Tasso. He resided at Padua from 1606 until 
 his death. He wrote " II Satiro, Favola pastorale," a 
 drama, (1587,) "The Glow- Worm," ("La Lucciola," a 
 poem, 1627,) and other works in prose and verse, which 
 remain in manuscript. Died in 1622. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Avanzi, (Girolamo,) an Italian philologist and editor, 
 born at Verona probably about 1460. He assisted Aldus 
 Manutius in preparing the works of Latin authors for 
 the press, and was rather bold and unscrupulous in his 
 conjectural emendation of texts. Among the classics 
 which he edited were Catullus, (1493,) Lucretius, (1500,) 
 and the Younger Pliny, (1504.) He was living in 1534. 
 
 Avanzi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Fer- 
 rafa in 1655, was more noted for the number than the 
 quality of his productions. Lanzi says that he seems to 
 have painted against time. He executed figures, land- 
 scapes, etc. His master-piece is the " Beheading of John 
 the Baptist." Died in 1718. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Avanzi, (Niccol6,) a distinguished engraver of gems, 
 of the sixteenth century. He was born at Verona, but 
 worked mostly at Rome. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Avanzi, d', di-van'zee, (Jacopo di Paolo,) an emi- 
 nent Italian painter of the fourteenth century, supposed 
 to have been a native of Bologna or Padua. He worked 
 at Bologna between 1370 and 1400. In his youth he 
 painted Madonnas almost exclusively. He afterwards 
 formed a partnership with Simone de' Crocefissi. His 
 style resembled that of Giotto, whom he surpassed in 
 attitude and expression. The frescos which he exe- 
 cuted in San Felice, Padua, in 1376 were partly restored 
 in 1773 by F. Zanoni. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Avanzini, a-van-zee'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian ma- 
 thematician and natural philosopher, born at Gaino, in 
 Venetia, in 1753. He became professor of mathematics 
 at Padua about 1797. Having been deprived of this 
 place by the political events of 1S01, he was restored in 
 1806. He was chosen in 1805 a member of the National 
 Institute. He wrote essays on the resistance of fluids, 
 and a " Treatise on the Theory of the Hydraulic Ram," 
 (1815.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Avanzini, (Giustiniano,) an Italian painter, who 
 flourished in the first half of the nineteenth century. 
 
 Avanzini, (Pietro Antonio,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Piacenza; died in 1733. 
 
 Avanzino, a-van-zee'no, a painter of many frescos in 
 the churches of Rome, born at Citta di Castello in 1552; 
 died in 1629. 
 
 Avanzino, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Italian physician 
 of Roveredo, became professor at Florence. He was a 
 pupil of Vallisnieri, and defended the opinion of his 
 master respecting the origin of springs, in a treatise, 
 (1725.) Died in 1739. 
 
 Avanzo. See Avanzi. 
 
 Avaray, d', dt'vi'rj', (Antoine Louis,) Due, a 
 French officer, born in 1759, chiefly distinguished for 
 aiding the escape of Monsieur (afterwards Louis XV III) 
 from Paris in June, 1 791, of which Louis in gratitude 
 published a full account after his accession to the throne. 
 Died in Madeira (whither he had gone for his health) in 
 1811. 
 
 Avaray, d, (Claude Antoine de Besiade — deh 
 ba'ze'Sd',) Due, father of the preceding, was born in 
 1740. He served in the Seven Years' war, was a deputy 
 in the States-General, a member of the Constituent As- 
 sembly, (1790,) and a zealous royalist. He only escaped 
 the guillotine by the death of Robespierre. In 1814 he 
 carried the address of the Senate to Louis XVIII. Died 
 in 1829. 
 
 Avaray, d', (Claude Theophile de Besiade,) 
 Marquis, a French general, born in 1655. He served in 
 several campaigns before the peace of Ryswick, (1697,) 
 and became marechal-de-camp in 1702. He commanded 
 a wing with great success at the battle of Almansa in 
 1707, and served under Villars in Flanders in 17 10-12. 
 Died in 1745. 
 
 Avas, a-vas', (R. Moses Judah,) a Jewish theological 
 writer and poet, lived in the seventeenth century. 
 
 Avatar, av'a-tir', or Avatara, av'a-ta'ra, [from ava, 
 " off," "away," "down," and tira, a " crossing over" or 
 passing from one thing to another,] a term signifying 
 " descent" or " transformation," applied in the Hindoo 
 mythology to an incarnation of one of the principal dei- 
 ties, particularly of Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu. The 
 avatars of Vishnu are especially celebrated; they are 
 named as follows : I. Matsya, the " Fish ;" 2. Kurma, 
 (kooRma,) the "Tortoise;" 3. VarSha, the "Boar;" 4. 
 Narasingha, the " Man-Lion ;" 5. Va'mana, (or Wa'ma- 
 na,) the " Dwarf;" 6. Parasura ma, (called in the com- 
 mon dialect PuVasooram';) 7. Rama Chandra ; 8. Krish- 
 na ; 9. Booddha, (Buddha;) the tenth, which is yet to come, 
 is called Kalki. The particular Avatars of Vishnu will 
 be treated of more fully under their respective heads. 
 (See Matsya, Kurma, etc.) 
 
 Avaux. See Felidien. 
 
 Avaux, d', dS'vo', a violin-player and composer, who 
 lived in Paris in the latter part of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Avaux, d', (Claude de Mesmes — deh mini,) 
 Count, one of the most distinguished French diploma- 
 tists of the seventeenth century, was born about 1595. 
 He was sent on a mission to Venice in 1627. About 1643 
 he was appointed a plenipotentiary to conduct the intri- 
 cate negotiations required to terminate the Thirty Years' 
 war. fie passed several ensuing years at the Hague, 
 at Minister, and at various German courts, and is said 
 to have gained the confidence of foreign powers by his 
 integrity. Before he had completed the negotiations 
 which resulted in the peace of Westphalia, (164S,) he 
 was recalled by Mazarin, in consequence of the in- 
 trigues and jealousy of Servien, who had been sent as 
 his colleague. He died in 1650. He left diplomatic 
 memoirs, which were published in 1674. 
 
 See Retz, "Memoires;" Flassan, " Histoire de la Diplomatic 
 Francaise." 
 
 Avaux, d', (Jean Antoine de Mesmes,) Count, a 
 French diplomatist, born in 1640, was a nephew of the 
 preceding, whose talents he is said to have inherited. 
 He was one of the plenipotentiaries who negotiated thj 
 treaty of Nymwegen, (1678,) after which he was ambas- 
 sador to Holland until 1688. In 1689 he was envoy ex- 
 traordinary to James II. in Ireland. He also had some 
 agency in the treaty of Ryswick, (1697.) Died in 1709. 
 
 i, 6, 1, 0, Q, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n&t; good; moon 
 
 
AVAUX 
 
 221 
 
 AVENARIUS 
 
 The " Negotiations of Count d'Avaux" were published 
 in 6 vols., 1753. 
 
 See Macaulav, " History of England," especially chap. xii. of 
 vol. iii.; Saint-Simon, "Memoires. 
 
 Avaux, d', (Jean Antoine de Mesmes,) Count, a 
 judge and academician, born in Paris in 1661, was a 
 grand-nephew of Claude, noticed above. He became 
 first president of the Parliament of Paris in 1712, and 
 courageously headed that Parliament in opposition to 
 several measures of the regency, especially to the finan- 
 cial schemes of Law in 1 7 18. He was elected in 17 10 
 to the French Academy. He was noted for his bon- 
 mots. Died in 1723. 
 
 See D'Ale.mbert, " Histoire des Membres de l'Academie." 
 
 Avaux, d', (Jean Jacques de Mesmes,) a French 
 judge, born in 1640, was a member of the French Acad- 
 emy. Died in 168S. 
 
 Aved, $ ved', (Jacques Andre Joseph,) a successful 
 French portrait-painter, born at Douay in 1702, was a 
 pupil of La Belle. He was elected a member of the 
 Academy of Paris in 1734, soon after which he was ap- 
 pointed portrait-painter to the king. Among his works 
 are portraits of Mehemet-Effendi, J. B. Rousseau, and 
 Mirabeau. He is said to have been particularly success- 
 ful in representing character. Died in 1766. 
 
 See Heinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Av'e-dik, Patriarch of Armenia. Having persecuted 
 or offended the Catholics, he was abducted by the Jesuits 
 about 1704, and imprisoned at Messina. 
 
 Aveelen. See Avelen. 
 
 Aveen, d-van', (Adrian,) a Dutch engraver, born at 
 Amsterdam, lived about 1700. 
 
 Aveiro, a-va'e-ro, (Don Jose de Mascarenhas — 
 da mas-ka-rSn'yas,) Duke of, a Portuguese nobleman of 
 infamous character, born in Lisbon about 1710, is chiefly 
 noted for his having been one of the prime actors in an 
 attempt to assassinate the king (Jose I.) in 1758, for which 
 he was broken on the wheel, and his property confis- 
 cated. This conspiracy was originated by the Jesuits and 
 discontented nobles in revenge for the protection which 
 the king gave to the Marquis of Pombal. 
 
 See Smith, "Memoirs of the Marquis of Pombal," and "Gentle- 
 man's Magazine" for February, 1759. 
 
 Aveis or Aveys, a-vas' or a-vls', written also Avis, 
 SULTAN, second sovereign of the Persian dynasty of 
 Ilkhanian princes. He became sultan in 1356. He is re- 
 presented as the benefactor of his people and a munifi- 
 cent patron of learning. Died in 1374. 
 
 Avelen, van den, van den a'veh-len, or Aveelen, 
 i'va'len, also written Aveele, (Johan,) a Dutch en- 
 graver of moderate ability, worked at Stockholm from 
 1702 to 1 7 12. 
 
 Aveline, iv'len', (Antoine,) a French engraver and 
 designer, born in Paris about 1660. He engraved many 
 landscapes and views of cities. Died in 1712. 
 
 Aveline, (Francois Antoine,) an engraver of me- 
 diocre abilities, was born in Paris in 1718. He worked 
 chiefly for the booksellers. Died in London in 1762. 
 
 Aveline, (Jean,) an engraver, born in Paris, was a 
 brother of the preceding. . 
 
 Aveline, (Pierre,) a designer and engraver, born in 
 Paris in 1710, was a cousin, of the preceding. He was 
 the most able artist of the family. He engraved after 
 Jordiens, Watteau, Teniers, Rubens, Albani, and his 
 own Jesigns. Died about 1760. 
 
 See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs.* 
 
 Avellaneda, de, da a-vSl-yJ-na'Da, (Ai.onso Fer- 
 nandez,) the assumed name of a Spanish author who 
 in 1614 published a sequel to the first part of "Don 
 Quixote," before Cervantes had published his second 
 part. This spurious continuation, entitled " Segundo 
 Tomo del ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quixote," was trans- 
 lated into French by Le Sage, (1704,) and into English 
 in 1805. Avellanecfa's work is much inferior to that of 
 Cervantes, but has some literary merit. His real name 
 is not known. His prologue contains a scurrilous attack 
 on Cervantes. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Avellaneda, de, (Don Garcia— gaR-thee'a,) Count 
 of Castrillo, a distinguished Spanish statesman, born 
 
 about 1600. He was sent by Philip IV. as vicerov to 
 Naples in 1653. During his administration two hundred 
 thousand people are said to have died of plague in the 
 city alone in six months. Avellaneda has been justly cen- 
 sured for the inefficiency of his measures of prevention. 
 See Giannone, " Storia civile del Regno di Napoli." 
 
 Avellaneda, de, (Gertrudis Gomes,) a popular 
 Spanish poetess, born in the island of Cuba in 1816, was 
 a daughter of a naval officer. She settled at Madrid 
 about 1840, and published a volume of "Lyric Poems" 
 in 1841. Her tragedies, "Alfonso Munio," " Principe de 
 Viana," and " Egilona," had great success. She was 
 married in 1846 to Don Pedro Sabator, who died the 
 same year. She afterwards produced two poems, " The 
 Cross," (" La Cruz,") ar.d the " Last Accent of my Harp," 
 and several dramas, among which are "The Glories of 
 Spain," (1850,) "The Flower-Girl," ("La Hija de las 
 Flores,") and "La Sonambula." 
 
 Avellani. See Avelloni, (Giuseppe.) 
 
 Avellar, de, da a-vel-laR', (Francisco Gomes,) a 
 Portuguese prelate, born in 1739, became Bishop of Al- 
 garve in 1789. He merited the title of public benefactor 
 by his improvements in agriculture. Died in 1816. 
 
 Avellino, a-vll-lee'no, (Francesco Maria,) an Ital- 
 ian antiquary and numismatist, born at Naples in 1788. 
 He became professor of Greek in the University of 
 Naples in 1815. In 1839 he was appointed director of 
 the Museo Borbonico. He wrote many treatises on 
 medals and antiquities. Died in 1850. 
 
 Avellino, (Giui.io,) a Sicilian landscape-painter, 
 called II Messinese, ("the Messinese,") was a pupil of 
 Salvator Rosa. His style resembles that of his master, 
 but is not so wild. He worked at Ferrara, where he died 
 about 1700. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Avellino, (Onofrio,) a skilful Italian painter of his- 
 tory and portraits, born at Naples in 1674, was a pup'l of 
 Solimena. He was especially successful in portraits. 
 He worked at Naples and at Rome, where he died in 
 1 741. Among his best works is a fresco in the church 
 of San Francesco di Paolo in Rome. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Avellone. See Avelloni. 
 
 Avelloni, a-vjl-lo'nee, (Francesco,) a prolific Italian 
 dramatist, born at Venice in 1756. His first play, "Giulio 
 Assassino," was performed with success at Naples. He 
 wrote many plays which were brought on the stage of 
 Naples under the name of the Prince of Sangro, who 
 paid him eight ducats apiece. He was most successful in 
 the sentimental drama, sometimes called the "lachry- 
 mose." Among his works are the " Lantern of Epicte- 
 tus,"and " II Sogno d'Aristo," ("Aristo's Dream.") Died 
 at Rome in 1837. 
 
 SeeTiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Avelloni or Avellani, a-vei-la'nee, (Giuseppe,) an 
 Italian poet of great imagination, born at Venice in 1761. 
 Among his works is "Padova Riacquistata," ("Padua 
 Recovered," 1790.) Died at Venice in 1817. 
 
 A'ven, Da'ven, Davent, di'v6N', or D'Avesnes, 
 an engraver, the time and place of whose birth are un- 
 known. He engraved on copper several works of Pii- 
 maticcio and Giulio Romano. 
 
 Avenant. See Davenant. 
 
 Av-e-na'rI-uB, (Johann,) a German theologian, born 
 at Eger in 1520. His German name was Habermann, (or 
 Hafermann, i.e. " Oatman,") which, according to the cus- 
 tom of the time, he changed to the Latin equivalent Ave- 
 narhis. He was professor of theology at Jena. He 
 published a Hebrew Lexicon, (1568,) and other works. 
 Died in 1590. 
 
 Avenarius, (Johann,) a Protestant minister, born at 
 Steinbach in 1670. He preached at Berka and Gera, 
 and wrote several theological and musical works, among 
 which is " Evangelic Doctrine, or Song-Sermons," 
 (" Evangelische Lehr, oder Lieder-Predigten," 1729.) 
 Died at Gera in 1736. 
 
 Avenarius, (Johann,) a grandson of Tohann, (1520 
 -90,) noticed above, was professor of eloquence. He 
 wrote " Synopsis CEconomica," and other works, dated 
 1608-28. 
 
 c as k; 9 as s;g hard; gas/,- G, n, K, guttural; K, natal; R, trilled; §ass; th as in this. (2^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AVENARWS 
 
 AVERROES 
 
 Avenarius, (Thomas,) a German composer, born 
 near Leipsic, published some songs in 1614. 
 
 Avenbrugger. See Auenbrugger. 
 
 Avendaimo, a-ven-dan'no, (Pedro Nunez — noon'- 
 yeth,) a Spanish jurist, lived about 1540. 
 
 Avenelles, des, d& zaVnel', (Albin or Aubin,) a 
 French satirical poet, born in 14S0, was canon of Sois- 
 sons. He translated into verse the " Remede d' Amour" 
 of /Eneas Sylvius, (Pius II.) 
 
 See Goujet, "Bibiiotheque Francaise." 
 
 Avenelles, des, (Philippe,) a French translator of 
 Plutarch's "Lives," (Paris, 1558.) 
 
 Avenelles, des, (Pierre,) an advocate of the Parlia- 
 ment of Paris, chiefly known by his disclosure of the 
 Amboise conspiracy (formed in 1560 by the Prince de 
 Conde) to remove the Guise family from about the per- 
 son of Francis II. 
 
 Avenpace, a'ven-pa'tha, Avempace, I'vem-pVtha, 
 Abenpace, or more properly Ibn-Bajah, Ib'n-ba'jah, 
 ( Aboo-Bekr - Moham'med-Ibn -Yahya — yah'hya,) 
 a celebrated Arabian philosopher, born probably at 
 Saragossa. He practised medicine at Seville, which he 
 quitted about 1120 A.D. He afterwards became vizier 
 at the court of Fez, where he is supposed to have died 
 about 1 130. He was one of the teachers of Averroes, 
 and was a devoted admirer of Aristotle. Avenpace 
 wrote treatises on philosophy, metaphysics, etc. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus;" CASiRi v "BJblio- 
 theca Arabico- H ispana ; " W usten feld, " Geschicb te der Arabischeu 
 Aerzte." 
 
 Avenport, d', dav'en-port, (Francis Christopher,) 
 an English monk, born at Coventry about 1598, was 
 chaplain to Charles II. Died in 1665. 
 
 Av-en-tl'nus, (or d-vJn-tee'nus,) (Johannes,) a histo- 
 rian of much merit, whose family name was Thurmaier 
 or Thurnmaier, was born at Abensberg, in Bavaria, in 
 1466. Having taught eloquence, etc. at Vienna and In- 
 golstadt, he was invited to Munich in 1512, and became 
 the tutor of the duke's sons. His chief work is a " His- 
 tory of Bavaria," (" Annales Boiorum," 1554,) which was 
 generally esteemed, and highly praised by Leibnitz. The 
 editor of this work suppressed some passages unfavour- 
 able to the Romish Church, which were restored in an 
 edition published by Cisner in 1580. Died in 1534. 
 
 See J. Ziegler, "Vita Aventini;" D. W. Moller, "Dissertatio 
 de J. Aventino," 1698. 
 
 Av'en-zo'ar, written also Avenzohar or Aben- 
 zohar, a corruption of the Arabic name Ibn-Zohr, (Ib'n 
 z6hR,) a celebrated Arabian physician, born probably 
 near Seville, Spain, about 1075. According to some 
 modern authorities, he was a Jew. He was a son of an 
 eminent physician of similar name who wrote several 
 works and died in 1 130. The son became vizier of the 
 Sultan Abdel-Moomen. Died at Seville in 1162. His 
 principal work, commonly called "Teiseer," ("Teisir," 
 "Taisir," or "Theizir,") is one of the most valuable 
 works of the Arabian physicians. 
 
 See Leo Africanus, " De Viris illustribus ;" Fabricius, " Biblio- 
 theca Gra;ca;" Casiri, " Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana." 
 
 Avenzoar the Younger, a son of the preceding, 
 born at Seville about 1 1 14, was a distinguished physician 
 and poet. He succeeded his father as chief physician to 
 the Sultan Abdel-Moomen, and was raised to the rank 
 of vizier. He wrote several medical works, which arc 
 not extant. Died at Morocco about 1200. By Arabian 
 writers he was accounted the most eminent of the family. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graca ;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca 
 Hispana Vetus." 
 
 Aver. See Auer. 
 
 Aver, a'ver, (Johann Paul,) a German painter, born 
 at Nuremberg in 1636 ; died in 1687. 
 
 Averani, a-va-ra'nee, (Benedetto,) an eminent 
 Italian professor and classical scholar, born at Florence 
 in 1645, became in 1676 professor of Greek, and after- 
 wards of humanities, in the University of Pisa. He was 
 very successful as a teacher of the Greek and Roman 
 languages and antiquities. His lectures on Thucydides, 
 Euripides, Cicero, Livy, and Virgil were published in 
 three volumes, (17 1"6. ) He wrote other works, in prose 
 and verse. Died at Pisa in 1707. 
 
 See G. Averani, " Benetlicti Averani Vita;" Fabroni, "Vita 
 Italorum doctrina excellentiuin." 
 
 Averani, (Giuseppe,) a celebrated jurist, brother of 
 the preceding, born at P'lorence in 1662, was also dis- 
 tinguished for his attainments in the physical sciences. 
 He became in 1684 professor of law at Pisa, where he 
 lectured with high reputation for many years. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " Discourse on the Law of War 
 and Peace," (" Disputatio de Jure Belli et Pads," 1703,) 
 and " Interpretations of Law," (" Interpretationes Juris," 
 1716-36.) His Latinity is admired by Italian critics. 
 Died in 1738. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita; Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Tipaldo, 
 " Biografia degli Italiani illustri;" Mazzuchelli, " Scrittorid' Italia." 
 
 Averani, (Niccol6,) brother of the preceding, an 
 eminent Italian advocate and mathematician, who edited 
 the works of Gassendi, was born at Florence about 1650 ; 
 died in 1727. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Averara, a-vi-ra'ra, (Giovanni Battista,) an Ital- 
 ian fresco-painter, born at Bergamo, was an imitator of 
 Titian. He was a good colorist, and excelled in paint- 
 ing infants and landscape-backgrounds. He was in the 
 prime of life when he died in 1548. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Averari, a-vi-ra'ree, (Antonio,) an Italian writer and 
 famous preacher, born in Lombardy, lived about 1500. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Averdy, de 1', deh 18'veVde', called also Laverdi, 
 (Clement Charles Francois,) a French statesman, 
 born in Paris about 1720, was made comptroller-general 
 of the finances in 1763. He recommended the abolition 
 of the transit-duties on grain, which was afterwards car- 
 ried into effect, and proposed other salutary measures, 
 but was soon after removed from office. He perished 
 by the guillotine in 1793. 
 
 See Lacretelle, "Histoire de France," and "Vies des Surinten- 
 dants des Finances et des Controleurs-generaux. " 
 
 A'ver-ell, also written Auerell, (William,) »n 
 English pamphleteer of the sixteenth century, wrote a 
 "Dial for Daintie Darlings," (London, 1590,) and other 
 works. 
 
 A'ver-ill or A'ver-ell, (William W.,) an American 
 general, born in the State of New York, graduated at 
 West Point in 1855. In tne autumn of 1862 he was ap- 
 pointed a captain in the regular army, and brigadier- 
 general of volunteers. He commanded a troop of cav- 
 alry in several actions fought in Virginia in 1863. In 
 December of that year he conducted a raid into South- 
 western Virginia and destroyed a large amount of stores 
 at Salem. He served under Sigel and Hunter in West 
 Virginia in 1864. 
 
 Averkam, van, van a'ver-kam', written also Aver- 
 kampen, (Hendrik,) a Dutch landscape and marine 
 painter, born at Kampen about the end of the sixteenth 
 century, was called "the Mute of Kampen." His his- 
 tory is unknown. His drawings are more prized than 
 his pictures, the colours of which have been injured by 
 time. 
 
 Averois or Averoys. See Averroes. 
 
 Averoldi, J-va-rol'dee, (Giulio Antonio,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Venice in 1651, became a resident of 
 Brescia. He formed a rich collection of medals, marbles, 
 etc., and wrote a treatise on the paintings and antiquities 
 of Brescia, (1700.) Diedin'i7i7. 
 
 See Brulliot, " Dictionnaire des Monogrammes." 
 
 Averoni, a-vi-ro'nee, (Valentino,) an Italian theo- 
 logian, born at Florence, lived between 1550 and 161C. 
 
 Averrhoes. See Averroes. 
 
 Averroes,* a-vSr'ro-ez, or A-ver'ro-is, written also 
 Averois, Averoys, or Averrhoes, the common form 
 of the name of Ibn-Roshd, (Tb'n rdsh'd,) one of the most 
 famous of all the Arabian philosophers and physicians, 
 was born at Cordova, in Spain, probably in the first 
 quarter of the twelfth century. He was a pupil of Aven- 
 pace and Avenzoar. He became cadi (judge) at Seville 
 and Cordova, and enjoyed a high degree of favour at the 
 court of Aboo-Yoosuf-Yakoob-Al-Mansoor-Billah, at 
 Morocco. His celebrity as a writer rests chiefly on his 
 Commentary on Aristotle, which in the middle ages 
 
 * Chaucer, after Dante, writes the name Averrois. (See Prologue 
 to the " Canterbury Tales.") 
 
 a, e,T, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; 3, e, 1, 6, fi, )?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; m65n; 
 
AVERS A 
 
 223 
 
 AVICENNA 
 
 obtained for him the title of "The Commentator." He 
 is mentioned by Dante, in the " Inferno," canto iv., as 
 
 "Averrols che il gran coinento feo."* 
 His works are extremely numerous. He wrote on medi- 
 cine, theology, law, logic, etc Some of his works have 
 been translated into Latin and Hebrew. He died at 
 Morocco in 1 198. He seems to have been a more de- 
 vout believer in the philosophy of Aristotle than in the 
 religion of Mohammed. In trie fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries the disciples of Aristotle in Italy were divided 
 into two sects, the Averroists and the Alexandrists. 
 
 See Leo Africancs, " De Viris illustribus ;" N. Antonio, " Bi- 
 biioiheca Hispana Vetus;" Brucker, "History of Philosophy;" 
 Tennemann, "Geschichte der Philosophic;" E. Renan, "Averroes 
 el Averrolsme," 1852 : Dr. F. Hoeper s article on Averroes, in the 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Aversa, a-veVsa, (Tommaso,) an Italian poet and 
 dramatist, born at Amistrato, in Sicily. He was patron- 
 ized by several cardinals and dukes, and gained con- 
 siderable reputation by his poems, among which are 
 " I'iramo e Tisbe," an idyl, (1617,) and "The Pilgrim," 
 ("II Pellegrino," a drama, 1641.) He translated Vir- 
 gil's "/Eneid" into Sicilian verse, (1654-60.) Died in 1663. 
 
 See Mazzuchblu, "Scrittori d'lta'ia." 
 
 A'ver-y, (Waitstill,) an American lawyer and pa- 
 triot, born in Norwich, Connecticut, near the middle of the 
 last century. He removed to North Carolina, of which 
 State he became attorney-geiteral in 1777. Died in 1821. 
 
 Avesani, a-va-sa'nee, (Gioaciiino,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Verona in 1 741, became professor of rhetoric 
 at Verona in 1775. In 1807 he published a volume of 
 elegant Latin and Italian poems, ("Poesie Italiane e 
 Latine.") Among his works is "The Metamorphoses," 
 ("Le Metamorfosi," a poem, 1S12.) His edition of 
 "Orlando Furioso," in which the licentious passages 
 are suppressed, appeared in 1820. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Moschini, "Delia Letteratura Veneziana del Secolo XVIII." 
 
 Avesbury, (Robert ok.) See Roisert of Aves- 
 BURY. 
 
 Avesne, d', (Baudouin.) See Baudouin d'Avesne. 
 
 Avesne, d', dS'vin', (Francois,) a French fanatic of 
 the seventeenth century, who claimed a divine mission 
 for himself, and made virulent attacks upon the king and 
 his ministers. He is supposed to have died about 1660. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires." . 
 
 Aveyro. See Aveiro. 
 
 Avezac, d', daVzik', (Auguste Genevieve Valen- 
 tin,) nephew of Jean Pierre Valentin, noticed below, was 
 a native of Saint Domingo. Having settled in the United 
 States, he became a successful lawyer, and in 1831 was 
 appointed charge-d'affaires to the Netherlands. Died 
 in 1850. 
 
 Avezac, d', (Jean Pierre Valentin,) son of Pierre 
 Valentin, noticed below, was born in 1756, and was one 
 of the deputies sent to France in 1790 to oppose the 
 revolutionary ideas then prevalent. Died in Saint Do- 
 mingo in 1803. 
 
 Avezac, <A", (Pierre Valentin,) a French lawyer, 
 bom at Tarbes in 1 7 19, emigrated in 1748 to Saint Do- 
 mingo, where he became a planter and was distin- 
 guished for his zeal in promoting public improvements. 
 Died in 1781. 
 
 Avezac, d\ (Pierre Valentin Dominique Julif.n,) 
 son of the preceding, born in Saint Domingo in 1769, 
 removed to New Orleans, where he died in 1 831. He 
 translated Scott's "Marmion" into French. 
 
 Avezzana, a-vet-za'na, (Giuseppe,) an Italian pa- 
 triot, born in Piedmont in 1797, fought in the repub- 
 lican campaigns of 1821-23, afterwards served in Mexico 
 under Santa Anna, and took part in the Italian revolu- 
 tion of 1848. 
 
 Aviaui, 3-ve-a'nee, an excellent Italian painter of 
 architecture, landscapes, and marine views, born at 
 Vicenza, adorned the ceilings of several churches in that 
 city. Some of his works contain figures painted by 
 Carpioni. He flourished in the first half of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Aviano, i-ve-a'no, (Girolamo,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Vicenza, was, according to Ginguene, one of the most 
 
 * "Averrols who wrote the great Commentary.' 
 
 successful burlesque poets of his time. He published 
 three satirical chapters, ("Capitoli," 1603,) which are 
 praised by several Italian critics. Died about 1608. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 A-vI-a'nus, (Flavius,) a Roman poet, who is often 
 confounded with Rums Festus Avienus, was the author 
 of numerous fables in verse, which are sometimes printed 
 with those of /Esop. His date is uncertain. He proba- 
 bly lived between 200 and 350 A.D. 
 
 Aviau du Bois de Sanzay, S've'6' dii bwa deh 
 son'zV, (Charles Francois,) Archbishop of Bordeaux, 
 noted for his piety and benevolence, was born in 1736, in 
 the diocese of Poitiers. He emigrated in the Revolu- 
 tion, but, returning in disguise, visited all parts of his 
 diocese, at great personal hazard. Though appointed 
 archbishop by Napoleon, he sided with the pope in his 
 contests with the French emperor. He was named a 
 peer in 181 5, and died in 1826. 
 
 See J. Tournon, "Precis de la Vie de Monseigneur ' C. F. 
 d'Aviau." 1829. 
 
 Av'i-bus, (Gasparo Osello, gas-pa'ro o-sel'lo, or 
 Gas'par ab Osel'lo,) an Italian engraver of Padua, 
 lived about 1560-80. He imitated the style and copied 
 some of the prints of Giorgio Ghisi surnamed Manto- 
 vano. 
 
 See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Avicebron, a-ve-thi-bR6n', (Solomon Ibn Gabi- 
 rol,) a Spanish Jew and philosopher, was author of a 
 work called " Source of Life," (" Fons Vita?,") which was 
 often noticed by Albertus Magnus and Aquinas. He ap- 
 plied the philosophy of Aristotle to the Mosaic doctrines. 
 M. Munck has recently proved the identity of Avicebron 
 witli Solomon Ibn Gabirol, who was distinguished as a 
 religious poet, and died at Malaga in 1070. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Av-I-c,en'na, [It. pron. a-ve-cheVni ; Fr. Avicenne,* 
 a've'senn',] the Latin form of Ibn-Sina, Ib'n-see'nS, 
 the most illustrious of Arabian physicians, born at Af- 
 shena, a village in Bokhara, 980 A.D. He was a re- 
 markable instance of precocity as well as activity of in- 
 tellect. He is said to have been a thorough master of 
 Moslem theology, and of the chief branches of mathe- 
 matical and physical science then cultivated, including 
 arithmetic, algebra, Euclid's elements, and the Almagest 
 of Ptolemy, before he was sixteen. At this age he began 
 the study of medicine, of natural science, and of the meta- 
 physical writings of Aristotle. Before he was twenty he 
 had the reputation of being the most learned and gifted 
 man of his time. He was patronized in turn by several 
 Mohammedan princes, among whom he had acquired 
 great fame by his extraordinary skill in the cure of dis- 
 eases. Although he applied himself intensely to study 
 and to the composition of his numerous works, he appears 
 to have given himself with scarcely less ardour to the 
 pursuit of pleasure, to the ruin of his constitution, so that 
 it was said of him that his philosophy could not procure 
 him wisdom nor all his medical skill procure him health. 
 He died in 1037, in the fifty-seventh year of his age. 
 Among his numerous writings we may particularly men- 
 tion his "Rule" or "System of Medicine," ("Canon 
 Medicinse,") a great work, the different parts of which 
 treat of anatomy and physiology, materia medica, and the 
 various diseases to which man is subject, with their ap- 
 propriate remedies. It was originally written in Arabic, 
 and has been translated into Hebrew as well as into 
 Latin. He wrote various other works, including a book 
 on animals, said to be little more than a paraphrase of 
 Aristotle's "History of Animals," and a work on the 
 " Soul," (" De Anima ;") also several small treatises on 
 alchemy and other subjects. No man, except Aristotle 
 and Galen, exercised so absolute an authority in science, 
 during the middle ages, as Avicenna. For five centuries 
 his " Canon" was regarded as the highest authority in 
 the schools of Europe. 
 
 See Ibn Khallikan's "Biographical Dictionary," published by 
 De Slane, Paris, 1842; Frkind, "History of Physic;" Brucker, 
 "History of Philosophy;" Wustenfei.d, "Geschichte der Ara- 
 bischen Aerzte ;" S. Klein. " Dissertatio de Avicenna medico,"_i84.6 ; 
 Choulant, " Handbuch der Bucherkunde fur die altere Medicin ;'' 
 Abulfaraj, "Oriental History;" Aculff.da. " Universal History." 
 
 * Chaucer writes the name Avycen. (See the " Pardoneres Tale." 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AVIDIUS 
 
 224 
 
 AV1TT 
 
 A-vidl-us Caa'sl-us, a brave and able Roman gen- 
 eral, born in Syria, was noted for his extreme severity 
 as a disciplinarian. He commanded under Marcus Aure- 
 lius the army which defeated the Parthians in 165 A.D., 
 and a few years later was appointed governor of Syria. 
 Having several legions under his command, he revolted 
 in 175 A. IJ. and declared himself emperor. He made 
 himself master of Egypt and of Asia east of Mount Tau- 
 rus. Marcus Aurelius was about to march against him, 
 when Avidius was killed by his own officers in 175 a.d. 
 
 A-vi-e'nus, (Rufus Festus,) a Roman poet, who 
 probably lived about 400 a.d. He is supposed to have 
 been a native of Italy, and to have been a pagan. The 
 works which have come down to us under his name are 
 a Latin paraphrase, in hexameters, of the " Periegesis" 
 of Dionysius, a translation of the " Phenomena" and 
 " Prognostica" of Aratus, and a fragment (seven hun- 
 dred and three lines) of a poem called " The Maritime 
 Region," ("Ora Maritima.") His style is superior to 
 that of contemporary writers. 
 
 See Wernsdorf, "Poetae Latini minores." 
 
 Avigador, a-ve-ga-d6R', (Solomon Ben Abraham,) 
 a Jewish philosopher and writer, lived about 1400. 
 
 Avila, de, (Alfonso.) See Alphonsus Abulensis. 
 
 Avila, de, da a've-la, (Francisco,) a Spanish por- 
 trait-painter of Seville, lived in the first part of the seven- 
 teenth century. His portraits were celebrated for their 
 fidelity. 
 
 Avila, de, (Gil Gonzalez,) a Spanish biographer and 
 antiquary, born at Avila about 1577. He published in 
 1606 "The Antiquities of Salamanca, with the Lives of 
 its Bishops," and in 1623 a description of Madrid, with 
 the lives of the principal natives, in his " Theatre of the 
 Greatness (or "Glories") of Madrid," ("Teatro de las 
 Grandezas de Madrid.") His chief work, " Ecclesiasti- 
 cal Theatre," (" Teatro eclesiastico," 4 vols., 1645-53,) 
 giving the biographies of the bishops and archbishops 
 of the two Castiles, was left unfinished at his death. 
 Died in 1658. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Avila, de, (Hernando,) was painter and sculptor to 
 Philip II. of Spain. He appears to have worked chiefly 
 in Toledo, where about 1568 he painted two altar-pieces, 
 — a "John the Baptist" and an "Adoration of the Kings." 
 Died about 1600. 
 
 See Bermudez, " Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Avila, de, (Juan,) an eloquent and zealous Spanish 
 preacher, born in La Mancha about 1500, was called "the 
 Apostle of Andalusia," in which province he laboured 
 with success as home-missionary for twenty years. 
 Among his converts were Saint Francisco Borja and 
 Saint Teresa de Jesus. He died in 1569, leaving, be- 
 sides other religious works, " Spiritual Letters," which 
 were translated into French and (partly) into English. 
 
 See Luis de Munoz, " Vida de Juan de Avila," 1635. 
 
 Avila, de, (Don Sancho,) a Spanish general, born 
 at Avila in 1523. He was an officer in the Expedition 
 against the corsair Dragut, in Africa, in 1550. He 
 went to the Netherlands in 1567 with the Duke of 
 Alva, of whose guard he was then commander. It was 
 Avila who arrested the Counts Egmont and Hoorn at 
 Brussels. He failed in an attempt to relieve Middelburg 
 in 1574, but in the same year defeated Count Louis 
 of Nassau at Mook or Mookerheide. In 1577 he with- 
 drew with his army from the Low Countries in com- 
 pliance with the treaty of Ghent. Died at Lisbon in 
 1583. According to the Dutch historians, he was as cruel 
 as Alva. 
 
 See Brant6me, " Capitaines Grangers;" De Thou, "Histoire 
 Universelie;" Motlev, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," vol. ii. 
 
 Avila y Zuniga, de, di a've-la e thoon-yee'ga, (Luis,) 
 a Spanish historian who lived in the reign of Charles V., 
 whose favour he enjoyed. He was ambassador to Rome 
 in the time of Paul IV. and Pius IV., served in the war 
 against the Protestant German princes, and commanded 
 the Spanish cavalry at the siege of Metz in 1552. He 
 wrote "Commentaries of the War of Charles V. in Ger- 
 many in the Years 1546 and 1547," (1548,) which was 
 translated into English and other languages. This work 
 has been praised for the elegance and conciseness of its 
 
 style, but is considered partial by some judges. He ap- 
 pears to have died about 1560. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" De Thou, 
 " Histoire Universelie." 
 
 Aviler, i've'la', (Augustin Charles,) a French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1653, studied in Rome, with 
 the aid of a pension from the king. He worked some 
 time with Mansard, in Paris, and afterwards erected 
 several fine buildings at Carcassonne, Nimes, and Tou- 
 louse, among which is the palace of the Archbishop of 
 Toulouse. He published a " Course of Architecture," 
 (1691,) often reprinted, and a good "Dictionary of all 
 the Terms of Architecture, Civil and Hydraulic Died 
 at Montpellier in 1700. 
 
 See Fontenai, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Avis. See Aveis. 
 
 Avisenna. See Avicenna. 
 
 Av'I-son, (Charles,) an eminent English musician 
 and musical critic, born about 17 10, passed nearly all 
 his life at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, where he was church or- 
 ganist. He was a pupil of Geminiani, and published 
 an ingenious and able " Essay on Musical Expression," 
 (1752,) which displays good taste, scholarship, and sound 
 judgment. It was, however, severely and bitterly criti- 
 cised by Dr. Hayes, professor of music at Oxford. Avi- 
 son's reputation as a composer rests chiefly upon his 
 concertos. Died in 1770.* 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelie des Musiciens." 
 
 Avisse, i'vess', a blind French versifier, born in 1772, 
 became professor in the Institution for the Blind at 
 Paris. Died in 1801. A volume of his poems was pub- 
 lished in 1802. 
 
 Avisse, (Etienne Francois,) a French comic poet, 
 born in Paris about 1694. He wrote "The Divorce," 
 and other comedies, which had a temporary success. 
 Died in 1747. 
 
 Avitabile, a-ve-ta'be-14, (Pietro,) an Italian mission- 
 ary, died at Goa in 1650. 
 
 See F. Maggi, "Vita d' Avitabile Pietro." 
 
 Avitabile, d', da-ve-ta'be-li, or Avitable, a-ve-ta'bla, 
 (Biasio Magoli — ma-go'lee,) an Italian writer of poetry 
 and biography, lived at Naples in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Avitus. See Elagabalus. 
 
 A-vi'tus, (Al'cimus Ecdic/ius,) Saint, Bishop of 
 Vienne, was born in Auvergne about the middle of the 
 fifth century. He obtained great reputation for learning, 
 and succeeded his father as bishop about 490 a.d. He 
 was a zealous adversary of Arianism, from which he 
 converted Sigismund, Prince of Burgundy. He wrote 
 letters, homilies, and other works, some of which are 
 lost. Among his extant works is a poem, or series of 
 poems, " On the Creation of the World," " On Original 
 Sin," "On the Deluge," ("Diluvio Mundi,") etc. "The 
 analogy of these two poems," says Guizot, referring to 
 Milton's epic, " is a curious literary fact, and that of Saint 
 Avitus deserves the honour of being compared to that 
 of Milton." Died in 525. 
 
 See Ceillier, "Auteurs sacr^s;" Bollandus, "Acta Sanc- 
 torum." 
 
 Avitus, (Gallon ius,) a governor of Thrace in the 
 time of Aurelian. 
 
 Avitus, (Julius,) successively governor of Mesopo- 
 tamia, Asia, and Cyprus, which appointments he held 
 under Seve'rus and Caracalla. He was the husband of 
 Mcesa, and grandfather of the emperors Elagabalus 
 and Alexander Severus. 
 
 Avitus, (Marcus M/ecilius,) one of the emperors 
 of the Western Roman Empire, is supposed to have been 
 born in Auvergne about 400 a.d. Before his accession 
 to the empire he had been Prefect of Gaul, and had dis- 
 tinguished himself in the wars against the Huns and 
 Vandals. On the sack of Rome by the latter, and the 
 death of Maximus in 455, he assumed the purple, and 
 after a reign of fourteen months was deposed by Ricimer, 
 and appointed Bishop of Placentia. Died in 457. He 
 was the father-in-law of Sidonitts Apollinaris. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Avity, d', dt've'te', (Pierre,) a French writer and 
 soldier, was born at Tournon in 1573. His productions 
 
 a, e, T, 0, ii, y, long; a. 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m6t; not; good; moon; 
 
AVOGADRO 
 
 225 
 
 AXTEL 
 
 are very miscellaneous, embracing poetry, history, fiction, 
 morals, etc.; but his greatest work appears to have been 
 " A General Description of the Four Quarters of the 
 Globe, its Empires, Kingdoms, States, and Republics," 
 (1st vol., 1626.) Died in 1635. 
 
 Avogadro, a-vo-ga'dRo, (Alberto,) an Italian poet, 
 bom at Vercelli, lived at Florence in the fifteenth century. 
 
 Avogadro, (Camillo), an Italian poet, born at Milan ; 
 died in 101 7. 
 
 Avogadro, not Avogrado, as sometimes spelled, 
 (Girolamo,) an Italian philologer, jurist, and patron 
 of learning, born at Brescia, lived between 1450 and 
 1500. 
 
 Avogadro, (Giuseppe,) Count of Casanova, an Ital- 
 ian nobleman, born at Vercelli in 1731. He wrote 
 several treatises on rural economy, (1783-1810.) Died 
 in 1S13. 
 
 Avogadro, (Lucia,) an Italian poetess of the six- 
 teenth century, born at Bergamo. She had the distinc- 
 tion of being praised by Tasso. Died about 1570. 
 
 Avogadro, (Ludovico,) was the chief of a band which 
 conspired to expel the French from Brescia in 1512, and 
 was killed in the attempt. 
 
 Avogadro, (Nestore Dionigi,) an Italian philolo- 
 nd friar of Novara, lived in the latter half of the 
 th century. He composed a Latin Lexicon, which 
 il through many editions. The oldest known edi- 
 tion is dated 1488. 
 
 See Mazzuchelu, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Avogadro, (Pietro,) an Italian painter of consider- 
 able merit, lived in Brescia in the first half of the eigh- 
 teenth century. " The Martyrdom of San Crispino" is 
 called his master-piece. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Avogadro or Awocati, av-vo-ka'tee, (Vincenzo 
 Maria,) an Italian writer on theology, born at Palermo 
 in 1702. 
 
 Avogaro or Avogari, (Azzoni Rambaldo.) See 
 Azzoni Avogari. 
 
 Avolo, i'vo-lo, (Cesare,) an Italian philosopher of the 
 sixteenth century, wrote "On the Causes of Sympathy 
 and Antipathy," (" De Causis Sympathise et Antipathiae, 
 1580.) 
 
 Avondano, a-von-da'no, (Pietro Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian composer, lived at Naples in the first half of the 
 eighteenth century. 
 
 Avont, van, vin a'vont' or fv6N', (Pieter,) a Flem- 
 ish painter and etcher of Antwerp, flourished about 1650. 
 He painted landscapes with figures from sacred history 
 or from mythology. His pictures and etchings are scarce 
 and highly prized. 
 
 See Hl-kkr, "Manuel des Amateurs;" Heinecken, " Diction- 
 natre des Artistes." 
 
 Avosani, a-vo-sa'nee, (Orfeo, oR-fa'o,) an Italian 
 organist and composer of sacred music of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Avost, d', di'vo', (Jerome,) a French poet, born in 
 Brittany in 1558 or '59, had an office in the household 
 of Margaret, queen of Henry IV. He translated into 
 French the "Jerusalem Delivered" of Tasso, and other 
 works, and wrote some original verses. 
 
 Avrigny, d', di'vRen'ye', (Charles Joseph Loeil- 
 lard — luh'ytk',) a French poet and dramatist, born in 
 the i. .land of Martinique about 1760, lived mostly in 
 Paris. He wrote several operas and vaudevilles, which 
 neie moderately successful, and in 1801 an elegant and 
 rigorous "Essay on the Origin and Progress of the 
 British Power in India." His poem on " The Departure 
 of La Perouse," (1807,) and his tragedy of "Joan of 
 Arc," ( 1 8 1 9, ) are highly commended. He was a censor 
 of the press under the empire. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Avrigny, d',( Hyacinths Robillard — ro'be'yii;'., ;\ 
 French Jesuit, and a historian of high and merited it) il- 
 lation, was born at Caen in 1675. By his impartial and 
 tandid statements of the actions of the Jesuits, he in- 
 cutred the censure of his superiors, who mutilated his 
 writings. His grief on this account is said to have has- 
 tened his death, which occurred at Alencon in 1719. His 
 chief work is " Memoirs contributory to a General His- 
 
 tory of Europe from 1600 to 1716," (4 vols., 1725,) which 
 we have only in a mutilated state. 
 
 See Morbri, "Dictionnaire Historique;" Le Long, "Biblio- 
 theque Historique." 
 
 Avril, i'vRel' or i'vRe'ye, (Jean Jacques,) Baron, a 
 French general, born at Loudun in 1752 ; died in 1839. 
 
 Avril, (Jean Jacques,) an eminent French engraver, 
 born in Paris in 1744, was a pupil of J. G. VVille. His 
 numerous works are executed with much taste and tech- 
 nical skill. Among his best plates are "Virginia and 
 Icilius," after Lebarbier, "The Family of Darius," after 
 Lebrun, and several after Rubens and N. Poussin. Died 
 in 1832. 
 
 See Huber, "Manuel des Amateurs." 
 
 Avril, (Jean Jacques,) a son and pupil of the pre- 
 ceding, born in Paris in 1771, was an able engraver. He 
 obtained in i8ioagoldmedal for a plate of "The Woman 
 of Cana," after Drouais. Died in 1831. 
 
 Avril, (Philippe,) a French Jesuit, who in 1685 made 
 an effort to go by land to China as a missionary. Having 
 reached Astrachan, he encountered some obstacle, and 
 resolved to try another route through Russia. He per- 
 formed his journey as far as Moscow ; but the govern- 
 ment would not permit him to proceed farther. Having 
 returned to France, he published "Travels in various 
 States of Europe and Asia," (1692,) a work of some 
 value. 
 
 Avrillon, i'vRe'ydN', (Jean Baptiste £lif.,) an elo- 
 quent French monk, and voluminous author of religious 
 works, was born in Paris in 1652, and died in 1729. 
 
 Avrillot, i'vRe'yo', (Barbe,) or Madame Acarie — 
 S'kffre', a French devotee, called the founder of the 
 order of Carmelites in France, was born in Paris in 1565. 
 Died in 1618. 
 
 See Tronson de Cheneviere, "Vie de Barbe Avrillot." 
 
 Awocati. See Avogadro, (Vincenzo Maria.) 
 
 Avy, i've', (Antoine Sylvain,) Baron, a French 
 general, born in 1776, was killed at Antwerp in 1814. 
 
 Avycen. See Avicenna. 
 
 Awbrey, (William.) See Aubrey. 
 
 Awdeley, (John.) See Audley. 
 
 Awdeley, (Thomas.) See Audley, (Thomas.) 
 
 Awhadi (a'wa-dee') of Maragha, a Persian poet, of 
 the Soofee (Sufi) sect, was the author of "Jam-i-Jam," 
 a mystical work treating of the doctrines of the Soofees, 
 which is still extant. Died at Ispahan in 1297. 
 
 Axajacatl, a-Ha-Ha-ka'tl, sometimes written Axa- 
 jatl, emperor of the Mexicans or Aztecs, was the fathei 
 of the celebrated Montezuma. He reigned about four- 
 teen years, and added a number of provinces to the 
 empire. Died about 1477. 
 
 Axehielm, ax'S-hyelm, (Joannes,) a Swedish anti- 
 quary, born at Norrkjoping in 1608, became assessor at 
 the superior court of law at Abo in 1617. He left in 
 manuscript several treatises on the antiquities of Sweden. 
 Died in 1692. 
 
 Axel. See Absalon. 
 
 Axel, ak'sel, (Isaac,) a Swede, who was secretary »o 
 Gustavus Adolphus, and wrote a treatise on morality, 
 (1662.) 
 
 Axelson, ak'sel-son', (Iver, ee'ver,) a Dane, who re- 
 nounced allegiance to Denmark in H53> and reigned 
 over the island of Gothland. He delivered that island 
 to the King of Denmark about 1467. 
 
 Axelt, ak'selt or Atzelt, it'selt, (Johann,) a Ger- 
 man engraver of portraits, born at Nuremberg in 1654. 
 
 Axen, ik'sen, (Petrus,) a German philologist and 
 lawyer, born at Husum, in Sleswick, in 1635. He trans- 
 lated into Latin Galeazzi Gualdi's " History of the Peace 
 between Louis XIV. and Philip IV.," (1667,) and pub- 
 lished " Phaedri Fabulae yEsopics," (1671.) Died in 1707. 
 
 Ax-I-o-ni'cus, ['A^ovotoc,] an Athenian dramatic 
 author, who lived about 380 B.C. 
 
 Ax I-o'the-a, ['A^ioOea,] a Greek woman who lived 
 about 300 B.C. and came to Athens disguised in male 
 apparel to attend the lectures of Plato. 
 
 Axmann, aks'man, (Joseph,) an Austrian engraver, 
 born at Brunn in 1793. He illustrated various works, 
 chiefly those of Schiller and Stolberg. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Ktinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Ax'tel, (Daniel,) Colonel, was an adherent of Par- 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/,- O, H, k, guttural; K, tun rt; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 "S 
 
 (2^*"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AXTELMAYER 
 
 226 
 
 AYLMER 
 
 liament in the civil war, and served under Cromwell in 
 Ireland. He was executed by the royalists in 1660. 
 
 Axtelmayer, aks'tel-ml'er, (Stanislaus Reinhard,) 
 a German natural philosopher, who lived about 1700- 
 25, and wrote on various subjects. 
 
 Ax'ti-us, or Axt, akst, (Johann Conrad,) a Ger- 
 man physician, who graduated in 1670. He published 
 a "Treatise on Coniferous Trees and their Products," 
 (1679,) and other works. 
 
 Axtman, akst'man, (Leopold,) a clever Austrian 
 painter of animals, born at Fulneck, in Moravia, in 1700. 
 He settled in Prague, where he died in 1748. He ex- 
 celled in painting dogs and horses. 
 
 See Jack, "Leben und Werke der Kiinstler Bambergs." 
 
 Axular, Sk'su'liR', (Pierre,) a French writer in the 
 Basque language, was born in Gascony. He became 
 parish priest of Sare, and published in 1642 a popular 
 treatise " On Repentance," which is called the most re- 
 markable work ever written in the Basque language. 
 
 See Augustin Chaho, "Voyage en Navarre," Paris, 1836; Lar- 
 ramendi, "Diccionario trilingue del Castellano, Bascuence y Latin," 
 '745- 
 
 Ayala, a-ya'la, (Sebasttano,) a learned Jesuit, born 
 in Sicily in 1744, was a friend of Metastasio, of whom he 
 wrote a biography. He was once minister from the re- 
 public of Ragusa to the court of Vienna. He edited the 
 posthumous works of Metastasio, (3 vols., 1785,) wrote a 
 pamphlet against the doctrines of the French Revolution, 
 (1792,) and an "Essay on the Faults of the Dictionary 
 della Crusca." Died in 181 7. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Ayala, de, da a-ya'la, (Balthasar,) a learned writer 
 of Spanish extraction, was born at Antwerp about 1548. 
 He was judge-advocate of the army of Philip in the Low 
 Countries. He wrote a treatise " Upon the Rights and 
 Duties of War and Military Discipline," ("De Jure et 
 Officiis Bellicis et Disciplina Militari," 1582,) which is 
 said to be the first that systematically reduced the prac- 
 tice of nations in the conduct of war to legitimate rules. 
 Died in 1584. 
 
 See Foppens, " Bibliotheca Belgica." 
 
 Ayala, de, (Barnabe,) a Spanish painter of Seville. 
 Died about 1670. 
 
 Ayala, de, (Diego Lopez,) a canon of Toledo, lived 
 in the sixteenth century. He made elegant Spanish 
 versions of the "Philocopo" of Boccaccio, and of the 
 "Arcadia" of Sannazar, (1547.) 
 
 Ayala, de, (Juan Interian — en-ti-re-an',) [Lat. 
 Joan'nes Interamnen'sis Ajalje'us,] a Spanish poet 
 and prose writer, born about 1656, was professor of He- 
 brew and theology at Salamanca. His best works are 
 Latin poems, "Opuscula Poetica," (1723,) which are 
 praised for their grace and elegance, and the " Learned 
 Christian Painter," (" Pictor Christianus Eruditus," 
 1730,) a treatise on the errors which painters often 
 commit in the representation of religious subjects. 
 He wrote many letters to Emanuel Marti, which are 
 published with those of his correspondent. Died in 
 
 I73°- 
 
 See Mayans, " Specimen Bibliotheca; Hispano-Majansianae." 
 
 Ayala, de, (Pedro Lopez,) the most popular of the 
 early Spanish historians, was born in Murcia in 1332. 
 He fought for Henry de Trastamarre at the battle of 
 Nagera, (1367,) where he was taken prisoner by the 
 English. He was afterwards a member of the council 
 of King Henry (Enrique) of Castile, and filled the 
 office of high chancellor in the reign of John I. His 
 chief work is a " History of Castile," ("Cronicas de los 
 Reyes de Castilla, Don Pedro, Don Enrique II., Don 
 Juan I. y Don Enrique III.," 1495,) which is highly 
 esteemed for fidelity. He was probably the most learned 
 Spaniard of his time. He translated Livy's History, and 
 other works, into Spanish. Died in 1407. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus;" Lopez de 
 Ayala, "Cronicas;" Sanchez, "Coleccion de Poesias Castellanas.'' 
 
 Aybar, I-baR', (Ximenes Pedro,) a Spanish painter 
 who lived at Calatayud in the latter half of the seven- 
 teenth century, was a pupil and imitator of Francisco 
 Ximenes. 
 
 Aybek. See Aibek. 
 
 Aycard, ^'kaV, (Marie,) a French novelist, was 
 
 born at Marseilles in 1794. He published, besides 
 other works, novels entitled " Flora," " Marie de Man- 
 cini," (1830,) and "The Count of Horn," (1834.) Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 Ayer, a'er, (Peter,) a soldier of the American Revo- 
 lution, and subsequently one of the founders of the so- 
 ciety of Shakers, was born in 1760, in Canterbury, New 
 Hampshire; died in 1857. 
 
 Ayeshah or Aieshah, a'e-shah or T'e-shah, [Ger 
 spelling, Aischah or Ayeschah,] the daughter of Aboo- 
 Bekr, and favourite wife of Mohammed, to whom she 
 was married when only nine years of age. In the events 
 that took place after his death she bore a conspicuous 
 part, — particularly against the caliph Othman, and after- 
 wards Alee, whom she resisted in arms, but by whom 
 she was finally subdued. She was held in great venera- 
 tion by all Moslems. Died at Medina in 677. 
 
 See Irving, " Mahomet and his Successors ;" Ockxey, " History 
 of the Saracens." 
 
 Aylesbury or Ailesbury, alz'ber-e, (Frances,) a 
 daughter of Sir Thomas, noticed below, was the wife of 
 the Earl of Clarendon, and grandmother of Queens Mary 
 and Anne. 
 
 Aylesbury or Ailesbury, (Sir Thomas,) an Eng- 
 lish mathematician and patron of learning, was born in 
 London in 1576. He was appointed master of requests 
 and master of the mint, and created a baronet in 1627. 
 He patronized Thomas Hariot, and welcomed to his 
 table all men of science, some of whom received pen- 
 sions from his private income. Having adhered to the 
 royal cause in the civil war, he went into exile in 1649. 
 Died at Breda in 1657. 
 
 See Wood, "Fasti Oxonienses ;" " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Aylesbury, (William,) a son of the preceding, born 
 in Westminster about 1612, became tutor to the young 
 Duke of Buckingham. By the order of Charles I., he 
 translated (with the aid of Sir C. Cotterell) Davila's " His- 
 tory of the Civil Wars of France," (1647.) He was for 
 some time secretary to the Governor of Jamaica, where 
 he died in 1657. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Aylett, a'let, (Robert,) an English poet, born about 
 1 5S0, obtained the office of master in chancery. He pub- 
 lished in 1622 a volume of four poems, entitled " Peace 
 with her four Garders," "Susanna," "Thrift's Equip- 
 age," and "Joseph or Pharaoh's Favourite." Among 
 his other works are "Divine and Moral Speculations," 
 (1654.) 
 
 Ayliffe, a'lif, (John,) a learned English jurist, who 
 lived in the eighteenth century, and styled himself a 
 Fellow of New College, Oxford. We have little inform- 
 ation of the events of his life. He published in 17 14 
 " The Ancient and Present State of the University of 
 Oxford," (2 vols.) He manifested his hostility to the 
 Romish Church in his " Supplement to the Canons and 
 Constitutions of the Church of England," (1726.) In 
 1734 he published a" Pandect of the Roman Civil Law." 
 The time of his death is unknown. 
 
 Aylini, I-lee'nee, or Ailiiio, I-lee'no, (Giovanni,) an 
 Italian historian, lived between 1350 and 1400. 
 
 Ayllon, de, da il-yin', (Lucas Vasquez,) a Spaniard, 
 of the early part of the sixteenth century, who was in- 
 strumental in inducing the men of Narvaez to desert to 
 Cortez, and was among the first to land on the territo- 
 ries of the (now) United States, for the purpose of carry- 
 ing off Indians for slaves. He formed a settlement in 
 South Carolina, (which was afterwards abandoned,) where 
 he died in 1526. 
 
 Aylmer, al'mer, called also El'mer, (John,) an 
 English bishop, born at Tilney, in Norfolk, in 1521. Soon 
 after he left college, he became tutor to Lady Jane Grey, 
 who expressed her opinion of him in these terms : " He 
 teaches me so gently, so pleasantly, with such fair allure- 
 ments to learning, that I think all the time nothing whiles 
 I am with him." He was a zealous Protestant, and lived 
 in exile on the continent during the reign of Mary. In 
 1559 he published an " Harborowe (harborough) for 
 faithful and true Subjects against the late-blown lilast," 
 in answer to John Knoxs "Blast of the Trumpet 
 against the Monstrous Regiment of Women." He be- 
 came Bishop of London in 1576, after which he distin- 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n8t; grjod; m6on ( 
 
ATLMER 
 
 227 
 
 ATRMANN 
 
 guished himself by his intolerance and persecution of 
 the Puritans and the Catholics. Died in 1594. 
 
 See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses ;" Filler, " Worthies of Eng- 
 land ;" Stryfe, "Annals and Ecclesiastic Memorials." 
 
 Ayl'mer, (Matthew,) Lord, born probably in Ire- 
 land about 1643, became a rear-admiral in 1692, after he 
 had distinguished himself at the battle of La Hogue. 
 In 1 709 he was appointed lord commissioner of the ad- 
 miralty, admiral, and commander-in-chief of the fleet. 
 He was deprived of his command in 1710, but reinstated 
 in 1 714. In 1 718 he was raised to the Irish peerage as 
 Lord Aylmer, Baron of Balrath. Died in 1720. 
 
 Ayloffe, a'lof, (Sir Joseph,) a distinguished antiquary, 
 b>rn in Sussex, England, about 1708. He was chosen a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society in 1731, and became audi- 
 tor-general of the hospitals of Bridewell and Bethlem in 
 1750. His chief work is "Calendars of the Ancient 
 Charters, and of the Welsh and Scotch Rolls, now re- 
 maining in the Tower of London," (1772.) He contrib- 
 uted some papers to the Society of Antiquaries, and 
 edited several works, among which was Leland's "Col- 
 lectanea," (6 vols., 1770.) Died in 1781. 
 
 See Thomson's " History of the Royal Society." 
 
 Ayl'ward, (Theodore,) an English composer of 
 rmt-ic, was organist of Saint George's chapel, Windsor. 
 Died in 1S01. 
 
 Aymar. See Ademar. 
 
 Aymar, i'miR', (Jacques,) a successful French im- 
 postor, who was born a peasant in 1662. He professed, 
 by his skill in divination, to discover hidden treasures, 
 mines, and even the guilt of suspected persons. He 
 obtained a "•onderfu! degree of credence, — even scientific 
 men maintaining controversies as to the source of his 
 marvellous powers. After several years of successful 
 imposture, he finallv confessed the fraud. 
 
 Aymard, i'mtR', (Antoine,) a French general, born 
 at Lezignan, in Aude, in 1773, became a colonel in 
 1807, and served with distinction in Spain from 1808 to 1 
 1812. Having been made a general of brigade in 1813, 
 he adhered to Napoleon during the Hundred Days. He 
 commanded the troops which, after a severe fight, sup- 
 pressed an insurrection at Lyons in 1834. Died in 1861. 
 
 Aymar Rivault See Rivault. 
 
 Ayme, i'ma', (Jean Jacques,) better known by the 
 name of Job Ayme, a French advocate, born at Monte- 
 limart in 1752, took an active part in the French Revolu- 
 tion, and escaped the guillotine only by the fall of Ro- 
 bespierre. He was elected a member of the Council of 
 Five Hundred in 1795, but was banished to Guiana in 
 1798, on suspicion of being a royalist. On his return 
 he received an appointment from Napoleon, and pub- 
 lished a work on Guiana. Died in 1818. 
 
 Ayme, (Job.) See Ayme, (Jean Jacques.) 
 
 Ayme de Chatillon. See Ayme de Varenne. 
 
 Ayme de Varenne, (or Varranne,) i'ma' deh vS'- 
 ren', (or vir'rin',) sometimes called Ayme de Chatil- 
 lon, (deh shl'te'yoN',) a French poet of the twelfth cen- 
 tury, is chiefly known as fhe author of the " Romance 
 of I'lorimont." 
 
 Aymon, Aimon, a'mon, [Fr. pron. Jt'm6N',] written 
 also Haimon, Count of Ardennes, and his four sons 
 Al.ud, Rcgnaud, (Rinaldo or Renaud,) Richard, (or 
 Richardet,) and Guichard, (or Guiscard,) ("les quatre 
 fils Aymon,") were celebrated characters in the romances 
 and poems of the Middle Ages. It is doubtful if they 
 had a real existence. Rinaldo is one of the principal 
 characters of Ariosto's great poem. 
 
 See Ferrario, "Storia ed Analisi degli antichi Romanzi." 
 
 Ay'mon, [in Italian Aimone, I-mo'na,] Count of 
 Savoy, was born in 1291. He sent troops to the assist- 
 ance of France in the war against Edward III. of Eng- 
 land, created the office of chancellor, and introduced other 
 reforms calculated to maintain a pure administration of 
 justice. Died in 1343. 
 
 Aymon, 4'm6N , (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, born 
 in Dauphine. He turned Protestant about 1700, after 
 which, it is said, he stole some manuscripts from the 
 royal library of Paris and fled to Holland. He published, 
 besides other works, a satirical " Tableau of the Court 
 of Rome," (1707,) and "Acts of all the National Synods 
 of the Reformed Churches of France," (1710.) 
 
 Aynes, J'neV, (Francois David,) a French littera- 
 teur, born at Lyons in 1766, published a "Universal 
 Dictionary of Geography," (3 vols., 1814.) Died in l82"i 
 
 Aynsworth, (Henry.) See Ainsworth. 
 
 Ayo or Ai'o, a'yo, Duke of Beneventum, succeeded 
 to the dukedom in 641 a.d. 
 
 Ayolas, de, da a-yo'las, or dAyolas, da-yo'las, 
 (Juan,) a Spanish adventurer, who sailed with Pedro de 
 Mendoza, in 1534, on a voyage of conquest and discov- 
 ery to the La Plata. Mendoza, having been disabled by 
 disease in 1536, deputed his command to Ayolas, who 
 ascended the Paraguay to Asuncion, where he defeated 
 a body of natives and remained six months. Leaving a 
 garrison at Asuncion, he ascended the river about eighty 
 leagues, and then marched westward by land with two 
 hundred Spaniards. He never returned. According to 
 the report of an Indian, Ayolas and his men were de- 
 coyed into a morass and killed by the Payagos. 
 
 See Southey, " History of Brazil," and Herrera, " Historia 
 general." 
 
 Ayraultor Airault, £'ro', [Lat. ^Ero'dius,] (Pierre,) 
 a French jurist, born at Angers in 1536. He practised 
 in the Parliament of Paris with a high reputation, and 
 wrote, besides other legal works, a treatise " On the 
 Paternal Authority," (" De Patrio Jure," 1593,) composed 
 on the occasion of his son Rene having joined the Jesu- 
 its against his father's will ; also "On the Judicial Order 
 and Instruction employed by the Ancient Greeks and 
 Romans in Public Accusations," (" De l'Ordre et Instruc- 
 tion judiciaire dont les anciens Grecs et Romains ont 
 use en Accusations publiques," 1575.) Died in 1601. 
 
 See Taisanp, "Vies des plus cetebres Jurisconsultes ;" "Vita 
 Petri jErodii," by his grandson, Gilles Menage, 1675. 
 
 Ayrault, (Rene,) a Jesuit and writer, born in Paris 
 in 1567, was a son of the preceding. Died in 1644. 
 
 Ayrenhoff, von, fon I'ren-hof, (Cornelius Her- 
 mann,) a German dramatic poet of decided talent, was 
 born in Vienna in 1733, and died there in 1819. He took 
 the French dramas as his models. His most successful 
 works were comedies ; but they are now little known. 
 He attained the rank of lieutenant-field-marshal in the 
 army in 1794. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," published in j8io, and Wolff, "Ency- 
 klopadie der Deutschen Nationallitteratur." 
 
 Ayrer, I'rer, (Christoph Heinrich,) a German 
 medical writer, lived about 1600. 
 
 Ayrer, (Emanuel Wilhelm,) a German medical 
 writer, born at Nuremberg in 1647; died in 1690. 
 
 Ayrer, (Georg Heinrich,) a German jurist, born in 
 Meiningen in 1702. He was professor of law at Gottin- 
 gen, and author of many legal treatises. Died in 1774. 
 
 Ayrer or Eyer, T'er, (Jacob,) a German dramatic 
 poet, who flourished in the latter part of the sixteenth 
 century, and practised as a notary and advocate at Nu- 
 remberg. Little else is known of his life, except that he 
 wrote sixty-six dramas for his own amusement, the 
 earliest of which are dated about 1585. They display 
 great dramatic power, but are little more than stories in 
 the form of dialogue, without unity of action or of time. 
 Died about 1605. 
 
 See Tieck, "Deutsches Theater;" Wolff, " Encyklopadie der 
 Deutschen Nationallitteratur." 
 
 Ayrer, (Johann Wilhelm,) a son of Emanuel Wil- 
 helm, noticed above, born in 1671, was a physician at 
 Altorf. 
 
 Ayrer, (Mei.chior,) a German physician and chemist, 
 born at Nuremberg in 1520, was a pupil of Melanchthon. 
 He left some works in manuscript. 
 
 Ayres, 3rz, (John,) an eminent English penman, pub- 
 lished a Treatise on Penmanship, (1697.) Died about 
 1705. 
 
 Ayres, (Philip,) an English writer, who flourished 
 between 1650 and 1700. He published "Emblems of 
 Love," (1683,) " Lyric Poems," (1687,) and other works. 
 
 Ayrmann, TR'man, (Christoph Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man scholar, born at Leipsic about 1695, became pro- 
 fessor of history at Giessen in 1721, and began several 
 historical works, but finished nothing. He edited Vei 
 leius Paterculus, Florus, Eutropius, Caesar, Suetonius, 
 Justin, and Terence. Died in 1747. 
 
 See Jocher, " AUgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 € as i; c as s; g hard; g as 7 G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (J[^~See Explanations, p. 23.7 
 
ATRTON 
 
 228 
 
 JZJNZA 
 
 Ayrton, Sr'ton, (Edmund,) an English composer of 
 cathedral music, was born at Ripon, Yorkshire, in 1734. 
 He was appointed vicar-choral of Saint Paul's Cathedral 
 about 1765, and master of the children of the royal 
 chapels in 1780. His compositions are highly com- 
 mended. Died in 1808. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universale des Musiciens." 
 
 Ayrton, (William,) a critical writer on music, born 
 in London between 1777 and 1781, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. He was a successful teacher of music, and editor 
 of " The Harmonicon," a monthly musical review, 1823- 
 33 Died in 1858. • 
 
 Ayscough, (Anne.) See Askew. 
 
 Ayscough, as'ku, (?) (Francis,) an English clergy- 
 man, entered Oxford in 1 71 7. He was preceptor to 
 George III. before his accession, and became Dean of 
 Bristol. He married a sister of George, Lord Lyttle- 
 ton. Died about 1766. 
 
 Ayscough, (Sir George.) See Ayscue. 
 
 Ayscough, (George Edward,) a son of Francis, 
 noticed above, edited the works of his uncle, Lord Lyttle- 
 ton, in 1774, and published " Semiramis," a tragedy, in 
 1776. Died in 1779. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes ;" "Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Ayscough, (James,) an English optician, lived in 
 London about 1720-40, and wrote a treatise on Spec- 
 tacles, (1750.) 
 
 Ayscough, (Samuel,) an Englishman, noted as a 
 maker of indexes, was born about 1745. He was ap- 
 pointed assistant librarian in the British Museum in 1785, 
 of the manuscripts of which he had published a good 
 catalogue in 1782. He made indexes for the "Gentle- 
 man's Magazine," (56 vols., 1731-86,) for the " Remark- 
 able Passages and Words of Shakspeare," (1790,) and 
 for other works. Died in 1804. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1S05. 
 
 Ayscue, as'ku, written also Ayscough, Ascough, 
 or Askew, (Sir George,) a distinguished English ad- 
 miral, who had acquired the reputation of an able officer 
 before the end of the reign of Charles I. He adhered 
 to the Parliament when, in July, 1648, the greater part 
 of the navy revolted and went over to the Prince of 
 Wales, and for his fidelity was raised to the rank of vice- 
 admiral in 1649. He conveyed Cromwell's army to Ire- 
 land in that year, and took Barbadoes from the royalists 
 about the end of 165 1. He commanded in an indecisive 
 battle against the Dutch admiral De Ruyter, near Ply- 
 mouth, in 1652, a few months after which he resigned, 
 or was dismissed. In 1665 he led a squadron in the 
 battle which the Earl of Sandwich gained over the Dutch, 
 and greatly contributed to the victory. As admiral of 
 the blue, he took part in a great battle in June, 1666, and 
 was taken prisoner by the Dutch after his ship had struck 
 on a sand-bank. This was the last action in which he 
 was engaged. The date of his death is unknown. 
 
 See Campbell, " Lives of British Admirals;" Charnock, "Bio- 
 graphia Navalis," 1794 ; Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion." 
 
 Ayta, I'ti, or Aytta, It'tH, (Ulrich Viger van 
 Zuichm — v«-haiR' van zoiKm,) usually called Vig'11-us 
 Zui'chemus, an eminent Dutch jurist and statesman, 
 of Spanish extraction, was born at Leeuwarden in 1507. 
 He lectured on the Institutes at the University of Padua, 
 and became very popular as a teacher. He was appointed 
 an imperial senator in 1543, and president of the impe- 
 rial council of the Netherlands in 1549. In the contest 
 which resulted in the independence of the United Prov- 
 inces, he adhered to the King of Spain, but opposed 
 some of the violent measures of the Duke of Alva. His 
 " Commentaries on Ten Titles of the Institutes," relating 
 to wills, (1534,) were regarded at that time as the very 
 highest authority. According to Motley, he was crafty, 
 plausible, adroit, and pusillanimous. He died at Brus- 
 sels in 1577. 
 
 See Taisand, "Vies des pins ce'lebres Jurisconsultes;" Motley, 
 " Rise of the Dutch Republic," vols. i. and li. ; Foppens, " Bibliotheca 
 Belgica " 
 
 Ay'ton or Aytoun, a'ton, (Sir Robert,) a. Scottish 
 poet, born at Kinaldie, Fifeshire, in 1570. On the acces- 
 sion of James I., (1603,) he complimented that king in a 
 Latin poem, for which he was rewarded with the offices 
 of private secretary to the queen and master of requests. 
 
 He wrote other Latin poems, and some in the vernacu- 
 lar, which were admired by Burns, Died in 1638. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Ay'toun, (William Edmondstoune,) an eminent 
 British critic and poet, born in Fifeshire in 1813, was a 
 son-in-law of Professor John Wilson. In 183 1 he gained 
 a prize at the University of Edinburgh for his poem of 
 "Judith." Having studied law, he was called to the bar 
 in 1840. He was appointed professor of rhetoric in the 
 University of Edinburgh in 1845. " His literary connec- 
 tion," says "Blackwood" for April, 1868, "with Maga,* 
 became so intimate and so well known that common 
 repute attributed the editorship to him, as it had to his 
 father-in-law, Professor Wilson, — in either case without 
 foundation." His nom de plume was Augustus Dun- 
 shunner. In 1849 he published "Lays of the Scottish 
 Cavaliers, and other Poems," which reached the tenth 
 edition in 1857. "A volume of verse," says the " London 
 Quarterly Review," "which shows that Scotland has yet 
 a poet. Full of the true fire, it now stirs and swells like 
 a trumpet tone, now sinks in cadences sad and wild a,s 
 the wail of a Highland dirge." Among his most suc- 
 cessful works are "Bothwell, a Poem," (1856,) and a 
 parody on certain poets of the spasmodic school, entitled 
 " Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy, by T. Percy Jones," 
 (first published in 1854.) In a later volume, with the 
 last-named work are included Aytoun's "Bon Gaultier 
 Ballads." Died in 1865. 
 
 See " Memoir of William Edmondstoune Aytoun," by Theodore 
 Martin; "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1868. 
 
 Ayyub or Ayyoub. See Aiyoob. 
 
 Ayyubiah. See Aiyoobites. 
 
 Ayyubites or Ayyoubites. See Aiyoobites. 
 
 Azad Khan, a-zid' K$n, an Afghan chief, who served 
 under NSdir Shah. Six years after the death of that 
 conqueror, (in 1753,) he became a powerful competi- 
 tor for the throne of Persia with Kareem (Karim) Khan, 
 whom he at one time nearly drove from his kingdom ; 
 but, being afterwards surprised in a mountain-pass, his 
 army was utterly destroyed by the forces of Kareem. He 
 at first fled to Georgia, but afterwards returned, and, 
 throwing himself on the mercy of Kareem, was not only 
 pardoned, but admitted to his intimate friendship. 
 
 Azad-ud-Daulah, 3/zad (or fiz'ad) 6"6d dow'lah, 
 second prince of the Deelamee (Dilami) dynasty, who 
 ruled over the western part of Persia in the tenth cen- 
 tury. He was a mild and beneficent sovereign, who fos- 
 tered letters and promoted public improvements. Died 
 
 in 983- 
 
 Azairi (jl-zi're) of Rai, a Persian poet, who lived 
 about 1000 A.D., at the court of Mahmood of Gazna, (or 
 Ghiznee.) 
 
 Azais, i'zfess', (Pierre Hyacinthe,) a French 
 philosopher, born at Soreze in 1766, was a son of 
 Pierre Hyacinthe, noticed below. Having written against 
 the excesses of the Revolution, he was condemned to 
 deportation, but escaped by concealing himself. Under 
 the empire he was inspector, of books at Nancy. His 
 favourite study was the doctrine of compensations, on 
 which he published a work, "The Compensations in 
 Human Destinies," (1809.) In 1812 he published a larger 
 work, called " Systeme universel," 8 vols. Died in 1845. 
 
 See J. Guadet, "Notice sur Aza'is," prefixed to the fifth edition 
 of his "Compensations," and " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Azais, (Pierre Hyacinthe,) a French musician and 
 composer, born in Languedoc in 1743; died in 1793. 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 Azambuja, de, da a-zam-boo'zha, (J0A0 Estf.ves,) 
 a Portuguese prelate, became Archbishop of Ijsbon in 
 1402, and afterwards cardinal. Died in 1415. 
 
 Azambuza, de, da i-zam-boo'zl, (Diogo,) an able 
 and humane Portuguese commander, was sent out in 
 1481 by Joao II. at the head of an expedition, and estab- 
 lished a settlement on the coast of Guinea. 
 See Marmol, "Description geneVale de l'Afrique." 
 Azanza, de, di a-than'thS, (Miguel Jose,) an able 
 Spanish statesman, born in Navarre (Navarra) in 1746, 
 was appointed minister of war in 1793. He was Viceroy 
 of Mexico from 1796 to 1799, and governed that colony 
 
 * Another name for " Blackwood's Magazine." 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; n8t; got- ; in 55n; 
 
 
AZARA 
 
 229 
 
 AZEVEDO 
 
 with unusual equity. In March, 1808, he was appointed 
 minister of finance by Ferdinand VII. As a member of 
 the Supreme Junta, to which the king committed the 
 government on his departure to Bayonne, Azanza ap- 
 pears to have favoured the French party. He was min- 
 ister of the Indies and minister of justice under Joseph 
 Bonaparte, (1809-13,) and followed him into exile. Died 
 at Bordeaux in 1826. 
 
 See Alison, "History of Europe;" Southev, "History of the 
 Peninsular War." 
 
 Azara, de, di a-tha'ra, (Don Felix,) a Spanish natu- 
 ralist, born near Balbastro, in Aragon, in 1746. He had 
 obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel of engineers, 
 when in 1780 he was sent to South America to survey 
 the disputed boundary between the Spanish and Portu- 
 guese possessions. He remained there about twenty 
 years, during which he prepared a map of Buenos Ayres 
 and Paraguay and studied the natural history of those 
 regions. Amidst his arduous labours he was greatly 
 hindered and harassed by jealous and ignorant officials. 
 An account of his observations on the mammalia and 
 birds of Paraguay was published in French in 1801. He 
 published, in Spanish, " Observations on the Quadrupeds, 
 Reptiles, and Birds of Paraguay and La Plata," (5 vols., 
 Madrid, 1802.) These works entitle him to a high rank 
 as an original observer. His " Travels in South Amer- 
 ica," with notes by Cuvier, were published in French 
 (4 vols., 1S09) by Walckenaer, at the request of the 
 author. Percival Hunter translated into English the 
 volume of his Spanish work which treats of the quadru- 
 peds of Paraguay, etc., (1836.) Died in Aragon in 181 1. 
 
 See Walckenaer, " Notice sur F. Azara," prefixed to the " Voy- 
 age dans 1'Amerique Me'ridionale ;" P. Hunter, "Natural History, 
 etc." 
 
 Azara, de, (Don Jose Nicolas,) a brother of the 
 preceding, distinguished as a writer, diplomatist, and 
 patron of literature and art, was born at Barbttnales, 
 near Balbastro, in 1731. He succeeded Grimaldi as 
 ambassador at Rome in 1785, before which date he had 
 for some vears performed the functions of that, office 
 without the title. He acquired great influence with the 
 court of Rome, where he remained until 1798. He pa- 
 tronized manyartists, especially Raphael Mengs, of whom 
 he wrote an entertaining biography, (1780.) In 1790 he 
 produced an elegant Spanish version of Middleton's 
 "Life of Cicero." He was sent to Paris as ambassador 
 about 1800, and died there in January, 1804. 
 
 See Bourgoing. " Notice historique sur le Chevalier d'Azara," 
 1804; Sempere v Gt'ARlNOs, " Biblioteca Espafiola." 
 
 Azaree or Azari, a'za-ree, a celebrated Persian poet 
 of the Soofee sect, was the author of many religious 
 works. Died in 146c. 
 
 Azariah. See Abf.dm 00. 
 
 Az-a-ri'ah, [Heb. mjrt,] a king of Judah, succeeded 
 his father Amaziah. (See II. Kings xiv. 21,22.) 
 
 Azariah di Rossi, a-za-ree'a de ros'see, (or De 
 Ru'beis,) a very learned Jewish rabbi and writer of the 
 sixteenth century, was a native of Mantua. He displayed 
 a spirit of liberal criticism in his work called "The Light 
 of the Eyes," (1574,) which treats on history, chronology, 
 etc., and is highly esteemed by Christian scholars. 
 
 See tiBLONG, " Bibliotheca Sacra." 
 
 Azario, ad-za're-o, (Pietro,) an Italian chronicler, 
 born at Novara in the early part of the fourteenth 
 century. He compiled a chronicle of Lombardy from 
 1250 to 1362, called "Book of Achievements in Lom- 
 bardy," (" Liber Gestorum in Lombardia.") 
 
 Azeezee or Azizi, a-zee'zee, a Turkish statesman, 
 historian, and poet, born at Constantinople about 1590; 
 died in 1657. 
 
 Azeglio, d', dad-zil'yo, (Cesare,) Marquis, born at 
 Turin in 1763, served in the army against the French, 
 by whom he was taken prisoner in 1792. About 1815 
 he was ambassador from the King of Sardinia to Rome. 
 He founded in 1822 a journal called the "Friend of 
 Italy," ("Amico d'ltalia, ) which he edited until 1829. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 Azeglio, d', (Massimo Taparelli — ta-pa-rel'lee,) 
 MARQUIS, an illustrious Itali?.n statesman, author, and 
 artist, son of the preceding, was born at Turin about 
 1800. He passed about eight years (1821-29) at Rome, 
 
 and gained distinction as a painter of landscapes, etc. 
 He married a daughter of the celebrated author Man- 
 zoni, and began his literary career by a popular romance, 
 "Ettore Fieramosco," (1833,) which was received with 
 enthusiasm by the Italians. His historical romance 
 "Niccol6 di Lapi" (1841) had also a great success, and 
 gave a powerful impulse to Italian patriotism. He mani- 
 fested his liberal principles in a political treatise called 
 "The Late Events in the Romagna," (1846.) In 1848 
 he took arms against the Austrians, and was severely 
 wounded at Vicenza. In May, 1849, he was appointed 
 president of the council (prime minister) by Victor Em- 
 manuel. He was succeeded by Cavour in 1852. His 
 policy was too moderate or conservative to satisfy the 
 zealous republicans. Died in 1866. 
 
 See "M. Azeglio prima et dopo la Guerra della Indipendenza," 
 Turin, 1S50; Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Gentleman's 
 Magazine" for March, 1866. 
 
 Azelt. See Axelt. 
 
 Az'e-mar' (or AzT-mar') le Noir — leh nwar, a 
 Provencal troubadour, lived in the first half of the thir- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Azemar, 4'za'mtr', (Francois Bazile,) a French 
 general, born at Cabannes in 1776, was killed at the bat- 
 tle of Gross Drebnitz in 1813. 
 
 Azevedo. See Acevedo and Acebedo. 
 
 Azevedo, (Felix Alvares.) See Acevedo. 
 
 Azevedo, a-za-va'do, (Joao,) a Portuguese theolo- 
 gian, born at Santarem in 1665; died in 1746. 
 
 Azevedo, (Luiz,) a Portuguese Jesuit and linguist, 
 born at Chaves in 1573, educated at Goa, was afterwards 
 sent to Abyssinia, where he was greatly beloved, and 
 where he died in 1634. He spoke fluently the Geez and 
 Amharic dialects, into which he translated the New 
 Testament and other works. 
 
 Azevedo, a-thi-va'Do, (Pedro,) a Spanish physician, 
 born in the Canaries, wrote a treatise on the plague, 
 
 ('589-) 
 
 Azevedo, (Pedro,) a Spanish medical writer, who 
 lived about 1720. 
 
 Azevedo, de, di a-tha-va'Do, (Alonso,) a Spanish 
 lawyer and legal writer, died in his native city of Plasen- 
 cia in 1598. 
 
 Azevedo, de, (Alonso,) a Spanish poet, who pub- 
 lished at Rome, in 1615, a poem entitled the "Creation 
 of the World." 
 
 Azevedo, de, di a-zi-va'do, (Angela,) a Portuguese 
 dramatic authoress, lived about 1650. She wrote in 
 Spanish, and was attached to the court of Philip IV. of 
 Spain. 
 
 Azevedo, de, (Francisco,) a Portuguese poet, born 
 at Lisbon ; died in 1680. 
 
 Azevedo, de, (Ignazio,) a Portuguese Jesuit mis- 
 sionary, born at Oporto in 1527, was noted for his self- 
 denial and ascetic piety. He laboured several years in 
 Brazil, and returned to Europe. On a second voyage to 
 Brazil, of which he was appointed provincial, the ship in 
 which he sailed was attacked near the Canary Islands 
 in 1570 by a fanatical sea-captain in the service of the 
 Queen of Navarre, who massacred Azevedo and many 
 other Jesuit missionaries. 
 
 See Beauvais et Cardura, " La Vie et le Martyre d'Azevedo," 
 '745- 
 
 Azevedo, de, (Jeronymo,) a brother of the preced- 
 ing, was Governor-General of Ceylon from 1595 to 1612, 
 and Viceroy of the Portuguese dominions in India from 
 1612 to 1617. He returned to Portugal in 1617, and 
 died in prison, to which he is said to nave been com- 
 mitted for alleged disloyal intrigues. 
 
 Azevedo, de, (Luis Antonio,) a Portuguese gram- 
 marian, lived at Lisbon about 1800. 
 
 Azevedo. de, (Luiza,) a Portuguese poetess, born at 
 Villa de Paredes in 1655 ; died in 1679. 
 
 Azevedo-Coutinho, a-za-va'do ko-ten'yo, (JozE 
 Joaquim,) a Portuguese bishop and writer on commerce, 
 was born in Brazil in 1742. Died in 1821. 
 
 Azevedo-Morato, de, da a-za-va'do mo-ra'to, (Ma- 
 NOEL,) a Portuguese poet, born at Coimbra, lived about 
 1 710. 
 
 Azevedo-Tojal, de, da a-zi-va'do to-zhal', (P.,) a 
 Portuguese poet, published, in 1716, "Carlos reduzido, 
 
 € as *; 9 as j; g hard; g asy'; c, H, Y.,gutlural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2C^ = See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
AZEVEDO 
 
 230 
 
 AZZOOBETDEE 
 
 Inglaterra illustrada," ("Charles restored or reclaimed, 
 and England enlightened,") a heroic poem, of which the 
 conversion of Charles II. of England to Catholicism 
 forms the chief subject. 
 
 Azevedo y Zuiiiga, de, da a-tha-va'Do e thoon- 
 yee'ga, (Caspar,) Count of Monterey, was made Viceroy 
 of Peru in 1603, having previously filled the office of 
 viceroy in Mexico. Died at Lima in 1606. 
 
 Azim-ed-Dowlah-Bahadur,(or -Behauder,) a'zim 
 ed dow'lah ba-ha'der, (or ba-ha'do6r,) the last nabob of 
 the Carnatic in India. He ceded the Carnatic to the 
 East India Company in 1801. Died in 1819. 
 
 Azinhero, a-zen-ya'ro, (Christovao Rodriguez,) a 
 Portuguese jurist and historian, born at Evora in 1474. 
 
 Azizi. See Azeezee. 
 
 Aznar, az-naR', or As-I-na'ri-us, Count of Gas- 
 cony or Vasconie, died in 836 A.D., and left a son Sancho, 
 who became Count of Navarre. 
 
 Azo, Azzo, at'so, or A-zo-li'nus, (Fortius,) one of 
 the most celebrated jurists of the middle ages, was born 
 at Bologna near the middle of the twelfth century. He 
 lectured at the University of Bologna. His chief works, 
 " Summa Codicis" and " Summa Institutionum," were 
 the highest authority in his time. Died about 1220. 
 
 See Taisand, "Vies des plus c&ebres Jurisconsultes." 
 
 Azolinus. See Azo. 
 
 Azopardi, ad-zo-paR'dee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 musician, lived at Malta about 1750, and published 
 " Practical Music," (" II Musico prattico.") 
 
 Azor, a-th6R', [Lat. Azo'rius,) (Juan,) a Spanish 
 Jesuit and casuist, born at Zamora in 1533. He pub- 
 lished at Rome " Institutes of Morals," (" Institutiones 
 Morales,") the principles of which were censured by 
 Pascal in his " Provincial Letters." Died in 1603. 
 
 Azpilcueta, ath-pel-kwa'ta, (Martin,) a celebrated 
 Spanish doctor of canon law, often called the " Navar- 
 rese" or "Navarro," was born near Pampeluna about 
 1490. He wrote a number of works, which were pub- 
 lished in 3 vols., 1590. At the age of eighty he appeared 
 as counsel for Carranza, an archbishop who was tried 
 for heresy at Rome. He was remarkable for his charita- 
 ble disposition. Died at Rome in 1586. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Azraki, az'ra-kee, a Persian poet and sage, born at 
 Herat in the eleventh century, flourished at the court 
 of Tugan Shah, at Nishapoor. He was the author or 
 reviser of a work of philosophical and moral maxims 
 called the " Book of Sinbad." 
 
 Azulai, a-zoo'll, (Abraham,) a Jewish cabalistic wri- 
 ter, lived at Fez. Died in 1644. 
 
 Azuni, ad-zoo'nee, (Domenico Alberto,) a distin- 
 guished jurist and antiquary, born at Sassari, in the island 
 of Sardinia, in 1749. He published in 1786-88 a valua- 
 ble " Universal Dictionary of Mercantile Jurisprudence," 
 and in 1795 "The General System of the Principles of 
 the Maritime Law of Europe, (" Sistema universale dei 
 Principii del Dritto maritimo dell' Europa," 4 vols.,) a 
 work of high reputation. An improved French version 
 was published by him in 1805. He was appointed by 
 Napoleon president of the court of appeal at Genoa in 
 1807, and was one of the compilers of the French Code 
 of Commerce. Among his works is a " Civil and Natu- 
 ral History of Sardinia," (1802.) Died at Cagliari in 
 182;. 
 
 S(e G. Manno, "Vita d'Azuni;" Tipaldo, " Biografia degli 
 Italian! illustri." 
 
 Azurara, de, da a-zoo-ra'ra, or Zurara, zoo-ra'ra, 
 (Gomez,) a Portuguese historian, born in the first half of 
 the fifteenth century, was appointed keeper of the Torre 
 do Tombo in 1454. Among his works is a " Chronicle 
 of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea." He was 
 living in 1472. 
 
 Azzanello, at-sa-nel'lo, (Gregorio,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Cremona, lived about 1400. 
 
 Azzari, at-sa'ree, (Fulvio,) a historian, born at Reg- 
 gio, in Lombardy, about the middle of the sixteenth 
 
 century. He wrote a " History of Reggio," in Latin, 
 (1623.) 
 
 Az-zarkal, az-zar-kal', Abool- (or Abul-) Kasim- 
 Xbn-Abderrahman, a'bool ka'sim Ib'n ab-der-raH'- 
 man, a distinguished astronomer and mathematician, 
 born at Cordova about 1000 A.D., was the inventor and 
 improver of some astronomical instruments, and the 
 propounder of some ingenious theories in astronomy. 
 
 Azzemino, at-si-mee'no, (Paolo,) a Venetian artist, 
 who flourished about 1500-20. He excelled in the art 
 of inlaying on gold, silver, and iron, called in French 
 damasquinage. 
 
 Azzi, at'fcee, (Orazio,) an Italian writer on theology, 
 born at Parma, lived about 1700-25. 
 
 Azzi, degli, dal'yee at/see, (Francesco Maria,) an 
 Italian poet, born at Arezzo in 1655. His sonnets have 
 been commended by Italian critics. Died in 1707. 
 
 Azzi ne' Forti, degli, dil'ye at'see na foR'tee, 
 (Faustina,) a sister of Francesco Maria, noticed above, 
 wrote verses which were received with favour. Died in 
 1724, aged about seventy-four. 
 
 Azzio, at'se-o, [Lat. Actius,] (Tommaso,) an Italian 
 jurist, born in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was 
 the author of a treatise on the game of chess. 
 
 Azzo, at'so, I., (Albert,) Marquis of Este, was in- 
 volved in war against the Emperor of Germany about 
 1014. Died in 1029. 
 
 Azzo II., son of Azzo I., the wealthiest of the Italian 
 nobles, played a conspicuous part in the affairs of Italy, 
 as also did his successors Azzo III., V., and VI. Azzo 
 VII. was a distinguished leader of the Guelph faction, 
 in which he experienced great variety of fortune, but 
 finally triumphed, and died in Ferrara in 1264. 
 
 Azzo, (Alberto,) called also Atto or da Alberto, 
 a nobleman of Lucca, who took a distinguished part in 
 the defence of the towns of Lombardy in the latter half 
 of the tenth century, and was created by Otho the Great 
 Marquis of Reggio and Modena. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Azeoguidi, at-so-gwee'dee, (Germani,) an Italian 
 physician, born at Bologna in 1740, was the author of an 
 excellent work on the structure of the uterus, and was 
 the founder of the museum of comparative anatomy and 
 physiology in his native city. Died in 1814. 
 
 Azzoguidi, (Valerio Felice,) an Italian antiquary, 
 born at Bologna in 1 65 1 . He published a work " On the 
 Origin and Antiquity of Bologna," (" De Origine et Ve- 
 tustate Bononiae," 1716.) Died in 1728. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Azzolini, at-so-lee'nee, (Decius,) an Italian cardinal 
 and poet, born at Fermo in 1623 ; died in 1689. 
 
 Azzolini or Mazzolini, mit-so-lee'nee, (Giovanni 
 Bernardino,) a Neapolitan painter, who worked at 
 Genoa about 1610, or, according to some authorities, in 
 1510. He excelled in expression. 
 
 See Soprani, " Vite de' Pittori Genovesi." 
 
 Azzolini, (Lorenzo,) an Italian poet, born at Fermo, 
 was a nephew of Cardinal Azzolini. He became secre- 
 tary to Pope Urban VIII., who appointed him Bishop 
 of Ripatransone in 1630. He wrote, besides other poems, 
 a " Satire against Luxury," (1686,) which was much ad- 
 mired by Italian critics. Died in 1632. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Azzoni Avogari, degli, dal'yee at-so'nee a-vo-ga'- 
 ree, (Rambaldo,) an Italian antiquary, born at Treviso 
 in 1719, became a canon of the cathedral in that town. 
 He founded a public library at Treviso. His knowledge 
 of the ancient documents and inscriptions of Italy was 
 remarkable. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise 
 "On the Origin and Antiquities of Treviso," (1840.) 
 Died in 1790. 
 
 See a "Life of Azzoni," prefixed to his " Considerazioni sopra Ie 
 prime Notizie di Trivigi," 1840. 
 
 Azzoobeydee or Az-zubeydi, az-zoo-'oa'dee, a 
 Moslem lexicographer and grammarian, born at Seville 
 about 927 ; died about 990. 
 
 a, e, I, o. u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,I, 6, u, y, short; a, e,i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; nStjgobd; moon. 
 
 
BAADER 
 
 231 
 
 BABER 
 
 R 
 
 Baader, ba'der, (Clemens Alois,) brother of Franz 
 Xaver, noticed below, born in 1762, published a work 
 entitled "Learned Bavarians," ("Geiehrten Baiern.") 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 Baader, (Franz Joseph,) born at Ratisbon in 1733, 
 was physician to the Elector of Bavaria. Died in 1794. 
 
 Baader, (Tobias,) a German sculptor, born in Bava- 
 ria, lived in the second half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Baader, von, ton ba'der, (Franz Xaver,) a German 
 pi losopher, born at Munich in 1765, became professor 
 01 ipeculative theology in that city. He was an adherent 
 0! l.icob Bohnie, and' published several works in oppo- 
 to the philosophy of Hegel and Schilling ; also 
 many well-written pamphlets or short treatises. Died 
 in 1841. 
 
 F. Hoffmann, " F. v. Baader in seinem Verhaltniss zu 
 etc.," 1850. 
 
 Baader, von, (Joseph,) brother of Franz Xaver, 
 born at Munich in 1763, was the author of a number 
 of treatises on mechanics. Died in 1S35. 
 
 Baah-Deen or Baahdin, ba'ah-deen', a learned Per- 
 sian, supposed to have lived in the seventeenth century, 
 trn ite, by command of Abbas the Great, a " Summary of 
 Civil and (anon Law," (left unfinished.) 
 
 Baak-Hattigh, b5k-hat'tiG, (Jean,) a Flemish land- 
 painter, flourished about 1640. 
 
 Ba'al, (or bal,) [ Heb. j?j»3,] written also Bel, the princi- 
 pal god of the Phoenicians and several other Oriental 
 nations, represented the sun, while Baaltis, Astarte, or 
 Ashtoreth, the correlative female deity, corresponded to 
 the moon, (queen of heaven.) Baal was also the Bel or 
 Belus of the Babylonians, and his worship became al- 
 most universal under several of the Jewish kings. (See 
 I. Kings xviii. 22.) 
 
 Baale, van, vin bj'leh, (Hendrik,) a Dutch dramatic 
 poet, born at Delft, wrote "De Saracenen." Died in 1822. 
 
 Baan, van, vtn bin, (Jacob,) an able Dutch portrait- 
 painter, son of Jan, noticed below, was born at the 
 Hague in 1673. He accompanied William HI. to Eng- 
 land in 1688, and worked for some years in London. 
 Died in Vienna in 1700. 
 
 Baan, van, (Jan,) a Dutch portrait-painter of high 
 reputation, born at Haarlem about 1633, imitated Van 
 Dvck. He was invited to England by Charles II., whose 
 portrait he painted. Among his master-pieces was a 
 portrait of John de Witt, which was torn in pieces by 
 the mob that murdered that statesman. Van Baan re- 
 fused to paint Louis XIV. in 1672, because he waged an 
 aggressive war against Holland. Died at the Hague in 
 1702. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies desPeintres Flamands, Hollandais, etc. ;" 
 Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-I.exikon." 
 
 Baardt or Baart, bSRt, (Peter,) a Flemish physician 
 of the seventeenth century, was the author of agricultural 
 poems, which have been compared by his countrymen 
 .to Virgil's "Georgics." 
 
 Baarland or Barland, van, vSn baR'lant, (Adrian,) 
 a Flemish writer and professor of rhetoric at Louvain, 
 born in 1488; died in 1542. 
 
 See Nicekon, "M^moires." 
 
 Baarland, van, (Hubert,) a medical writer, born at 
 Baarland, in Holland, flourished between l5loand 1550. 
 
 See De la Rue, "Geletterd Zeeland." 
 
 Baarsdorp. See Baersdorp. 
 
 Baart. See Baardt. 
 
 Baart or Baert, baRt, (Arnaud,) a Flemish jurist, 
 born at Brussels in 1554; died in 1629. 
 
 Baasha, ba'a-sha, [Heb. XJ^l'^,] a captain of Israel 
 and son of Ahijah, slew King Nadab and usurped the 
 throne about 950 B.C. Died 926 B.C. (See I. Kings 
 xv. and xvi.) 
 
 Baaz,bits,orBaaziua,bJt'se-as,(BENEDlCT,) a Swed- 
 ish writer on morals, etc., was governor of the royal 
 castle at Stockholm. Died in 1650. 
 
 Baazius, bJt'se-us, (JoHAN,) a bishop of Wexiri, and 
 author of the " Ecclesiastical History of Sweden," born 
 
 in 1 581, was a brother of the preceding. He had three 
 sons, who distinguished themselves — John, (Archbishop 
 of Upsal,) Eric, and Benedict. Died in 1649. 
 
 Bab, bib, (John,) an Armenian theologian, died about 
 the end of the ninth century. 
 
 Baba,ba'ba, a Turkish prophet or impostor, flourished 
 about 1240. 
 
 Baba-Alee or Baba-Ali, ba'b.V a'lee', the first inde- 
 pendent Dey of Algiers, was elected successor to Ibra- 
 heem, who was slain in an insurrection of the people in 
 1 710. He was a man of great abilities and worth. He 
 succeeded in inducing the Turkish sultan to recognize in 
 Algiers an ally instead of a subject. He died in 1718, 
 lamented by Europeans as well as Moslems. 
 
 Babarczy, ba-biRt'se, (Anton,) born at Pesth, in 
 Hungary, was a partisan of Austria in the revolution of 
 1848, and rose to be chief commissioner of civil affairs 
 for Hungary. 
 
 Bab'bage, (Charles,) F.R.S., an eminent English 
 mathematician, born about 1790, was educated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, where he was Lucasian professor 
 from 1828 to 1839. In 1832 he published an important 
 work on the " Economy of Manufactures and Machinery," 
 which was often reprinted, and translated into several 
 languages. He contributed many papers to the " Phi- 
 losophical Transactions" and other scientific publica- 
 tions. Among his works is " The Ninth Bridgewater 
 Treatise," (1837.) He invented about 1822 a calculating 
 machine, and expended a large sum of money (about 
 ,£17,000) in its construction; but the government, which 
 had supplied him with funds, having abandoned the enter- 
 prise, the machine was never completed. Died in 1871. 
 See " London Quarterly" for January and March, 1827, (vol. 
 xxxv.;) "Passages from the Life of a Philosopher;" "Edinburgh 
 Review" for January, 1833, (vol. lvi. ;) " Fraser's Magazine," vol. 
 viii. 
 
 Bab'bard, (Ralph,) an English mechanical inventor, 
 lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 
 Babbini. See Babini. 
 
 Babek (ba'bek) Khor'remee or Kho'remi, i.e. " the 
 Sensualist," a famous Persian impostor, who is said to 
 have inculcated an unbounded libertinism. He propa- 
 gated his doctrines with the sword, and for a time defied 
 the utmost power of the caliph Motassem, but was at 
 last taken and put to death in 837 A.D. 
 
 Babel, ba'bel, (Hugh,) a writer on logic and gram- 
 mar, was professor of Hebrew, Greek, etc. at Louvain. 
 Died in 1 5 56. 
 
 Ba'bell, (William,) an English composer and or- 
 ganist, born about 1690, lived in London'. Died in 1722. 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 Babeno Sanct Huber, M-ba'no sankt hoo'ber,( Lud- 
 wio,) a German philosopher and Benedictine, born at 
 Leiningen in 1660. He was professor of theology at Salz- 
 burg, and published several works. Died in 1726. 
 
 Baber, ba'ber, written also Babour, a Persian prince, 
 was a grandson of Tamerlane. He dethroned in 145 1 
 his brother Mohammed, who reigned over Irak and Fars. 
 Died about 1460. 
 
 Baber (or Babur) Mohammed, bl'ber mo-hSm'- 
 med, written also Babour and Baubur, surnamed Za- 
 heer f.d-Df.f.n, (ZahT r Eddi n,) za-heer'ed-deen',("pro- 
 tector of religion,") the illustrious founder of the Tartar 
 or Mogul Empire in India, was born of the race of Tamer- 
 lane in 1482 or 1483. In 1494, when not more than twelve 
 years of age, he succeeded to the throne of his father, 
 King of Ferghana. The career of Baber was marked by 
 a series of extraordinary vicissitudes and wonderful ex- 
 ploits unparalleled even in Oriental history. On one 
 occasion, having been expelled from his paternal king- 
 dom, he resolved to attack with less than three hundred 
 followers Samarcand, then one of the strongest cities of 
 Asia, and defended by a large army. He scaled the walls 
 in the night, and was joined by many of the inhabitants. 
 A panic having seized upon the troops of the city, the 
 king fled, leaving his capital in the hands of Baber. The 
 latter was compelled soon after, by the vicissitudes of 
 
 c as k; 5 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. ( J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BABEVF 
 
 232 
 
 BACCHUS 
 
 wai, to retrre to Cabool. Here he was at first received 
 with great favour ; but, a formidable insurrection having 
 been raised against him, he successively challenged and 
 Blew in single combat five of the principal leaders of the 
 opposing faction. The others, filled with admiration or 
 fear, accepted him as their king. Our limits will not 
 permit us to pursue the various changes of his fortune. 
 Suffice to say that, after having made two incursions into 
 India, one in 1505 and the other in 15 19, he crossed the 
 Indus thethird time in 1524, and defeated and slew Ibra- 
 heem, King of Delhi, thus putting an end to the second 
 Gaurian dynasty, in 1526. Baber died in 1530, leaving 
 his throne to his son Humayoon. Baber possessed not 
 only great bodily strength and dexterity, but abilities of 
 a very high order, and was not less distinguished for 
 his courage and generosity. He was, moreover, a mas- 
 ter of the arts of music and poetry. He left an interest- 
 ing as well as highly instructive history of the events of 
 his own life, of which there is an able review in Lord 
 Jeffrey's "Essays." 
 
 See "Life of Bibei, Emperor of Hindustan," by R. M. Calub- 
 cott; "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., second series, 182S; "His- 
 tory of British India," in Harper s Family Library, vol. i. ; Khrishta, 
 " Mahomedan Power in India," translated by J. Briggs, 4 vols. 8vo, 
 London. 1S29. 
 
 Babeuf, bi'buf, (Em.ile,) a son of Francois, noticed 
 below, born in 1785, was a zealous partisan of Bonaparte, 
 whom he followed to Elba in 1814. 
 
 Babeuf, (Francois Noel,) a French conspirator and 
 political theorist, born at Saint-Quentin in 1764, assumed 
 the name of Caius Gracchus. He founded in 1794 a 
 journal called the "Tribune of the People," in which he 
 advocated absolute equality and community of property. 
 He became the chief of a numerous band of conspirators 
 who designed to revolt against the Directory and estab- 
 lish the regime of babouvisme. Having been betrayed 
 by one of his accomplices, he was executed in 1797. 
 
 See Buonarotti, "Conspiration pour I'lSgalite' dite de Babeuf," 
 3 vols., 1828; Sudrh, " Histoire du Communisme," Paris, 1849. 
 
 Babey, bS'b^', (Athanase Marie Pierre,) a mem- 
 ber of the French Constituent Assembly, born in 1744, 
 was chosen one of the Council of Five Hundred in 1795. 
 Died in 1815. 
 
 Babi, bi" be', (Jean Francois,) a French anarchist, 
 born at Tarascon in 1759, was one of a party which at- 
 tacked the camp at Grenelle, for which he was executed 
 in October, 1796. 
 
 Babie de Bercenay, bi'be-i' d?h beRss'ni', (Fran- 
 cois,) a prolific French writer on history, etc., born at 
 Lavaur in 1761. Died about 1830. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Babin, bS'ba.N', (Francois,) a French ecclesiastical 
 writer, and professor of theology at Angers, born in 165 1. 
 Died in 1 734. 
 
 Babinet, bt'be'ni', (Jacques,) a French natural phi- 
 losopher, born at Lusignan in 1794, became professor of 
 physics in the College of Saint Louis, Paris. He pub- 
 lished a number of valuable treatises on meteorological 
 optics and terrestrial magnetism, and made important 
 improvements in the air-pump, hygrometer, etc. He 
 became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1840. 
 Among his works is " Studies and Lectures on the Sci- 
 ences of Observation," etc., (" Etudes et Lectures sur 
 les Sciences d'Observation," etc.) 
 
 Bab'ing-ton, (Anthony,) an English gentleman, and 
 a zealous Catholic, devoted to the cause of Mary Stuart, 
 was executed in 1586 for having conspired against the 
 life of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England," chap, xlii.; Froude, "Reign 
 of Elizabeth." 
 
 Babington, (Charles Cardale,) F.R.S., an English 
 botanist, born about 1808. He became professor of bo- 
 tany at Cambridge, and published, besides other works, 
 a " Manual of British Botany." 
 
 Babington, (Gervase,) an English prelate, born in 
 Nottinghamshire about 1550, became Bishop of Wor- 
 cester in 1597. Died in 1610. 
 
 Babington, (William,) F.R.S., a chemist and min- 
 tralogist, was born near Coleraine, Ireland, in 1756. 
 He began to practise medicine in London about 1797, 
 and lectured on chemistry at Guy's Hospital. In 1799 
 
 he published a "New System of Mineralogy." He was 
 one of the founders of the Geological Society, of which 
 he was chosen president in 1822. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Richard Bright, "Memoir of the Life and Writings of WU« 
 11am Babington." 
 
 Babini, ba-bee'nee, or Babbini, bab-bee'nee, (Mat- 
 teo,) a celebrated Italian vocalist, born at Bologna in 
 1754. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Babo, ba'bo, (Joseph Maria,) a German dramatist, 
 born at Ehrenbreitstein in 1756, was the author of the 
 historical tragedy of "Otto von Wittelsbach," which is I 
 ranked among the best dramas of its kind in the lan- 
 guage. He lived at Munich. Died in 1822. 
 
 Babo, von, fon ba'bo, (Lambert,) a German culti- \ 
 vator, born at Manheim in 1790, published several valua- j 
 ble treatises on the culture of the vine. 
 
 Babois, bi'bwa', (Marguerite Victoire,) a French j 
 poetess, born at Versailles in 1760, was a niece of Ducis. I 
 Her "Elegy on the Death of her Daughter" (1805) 
 was greatly admired. Died in 1839. 
 
 Babou, bi'boo', (Jean,) Baron de Sagonne, a French 
 general, commanded the artillery at the battle of Saint- 
 Denis in 1567. Died in 1569. 
 
 See De Courcellbs, " Dictionnaire historique des Generaux 
 Francais." 
 
 Babr. See Baker. 
 
 Ba'brl-us [Bu/fyioc] or Ba'brl-as, [Ba;3pi'ac,] a Greek 
 fabulist, supposed to have lived a short time previous to 
 Augustus, made a collection of ^Esop's Fables, which he 
 turned into choriambic verse. 
 
 See Tvrwhitt, "Dissertatio de Babrio," 1776. 
 
 Babuer or Babure, ba'biiR, (Theodore,) a Dutch 
 painter of interiors, worked about 1600-40. 
 
 See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bab'^Mas, Bishop of Antioch, suffered martyrdom 
 under Decius in 251 A.D. He was esteemed one of the 
 most faithful and virtuous prelates of his time. 
 
 Bac, bik, (Theodore,) a French jurist, born at Li- 
 moges in 1808, was associate editor of the journal 
 " L'Europe monarchique," in 1837. He was a deputy to 
 the Constitutional Assembly in 1848. 
 
 Baccaini, Mk-kaee'nee or bak-ki'nee, (Benedetto,) 
 an Italian writer, born in 1657, was professor of ecclesi- 
 astical history at Modena. Died in 1 72 1. 
 
 Baccalar y Sanna, blk-kl-laR' e sin'na, (Vin- 
 cente,) Marquis of Saint Philip, a Spanish historian and 
 statesman, who occupied important posts under Charles 
 II. and Philip V. He wrote, in Spanish, a " History of 
 the Jewish Monarchy" and a " History of Philip V." 
 Died in 1726. 
 
 Baccanelli, Bacchanelli, bak-ka-nel'lee, or Bac- 
 canel'cius, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician and medi- 
 cal writer of the sixteenth century, born at Reggio. 
 
 Baccarini, bak-ka-ree'nee, (Giacomo,) an Italian 
 painter, was born at Reggio ; died in 1682. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Baccelli.bat-chel'lee, (Girolamo,) an Italian writer 
 and physician, born at Florence in 15 15, translated 
 Homer's "Odyssey" into Italian verse. Died in 1581. 
 
 Bacchaneili. See Baccanelli. 
 
 Bac-ehei'us [Bu/cr«oc] or Bac -ehe'us, written also 
 Vacceus, a Greek musician, surnamed the Elder, 
 flourished in the early part of the fourth century. He 
 was the author of an " Introduction to the Art of Music." 
 
 Bac-ehi'des, a general of Demetrius Soter, invaded 
 Jndea 160 i;.c, and fought a battle against Judas Mac- 
 cabaeus, who was killed in this action. 
 
 Bacchini, bik-kee'nee, (Benedetto,) a learned Bene- 
 dictine monk, born in the duchy of Parma, or at Flor- 
 ence, in 165 1. He published several religious and mis- 
 cellaneous works. Died in 1721. 
 
 See Ireneo Affo, "Vita del P. Bacchini," 1797. 
 
 Bac'-ehus, |Gr. B<k.tof,] called also in Greek Diony'- 
 sus, [Aioitooc,] the god of wine, is commonly said to have 
 been the son of Jupiter and Semele. He taught men 
 the culture of the vine and the mode of extracting the 
 juice of the grape. According to one account, Bacchus 
 was the son of Amnion, King of Libya, and a beautiful 
 woman named Amalthe'a. Amnion, fearing the jealousy 
 
 
 t, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; g<56d; moon; 
 
BACCHTL1DES 
 
 233 
 
 BACH 
 
 of his wife Rhea, had young Bacchus and his mother con- 
 veyed to a town called Nysa, on a delicious island formed 
 by the river Triton. He became, according to this legend, a 
 mighty conqueror and benefactor of mankind, by whom he 
 was at last deified. Among the most important events of 
 his history is his expedition to India. From this and other 
 circumstances, many writers suppose the worship of Bac- 
 chus to have been derived from India. His chariot drawn 
 by panthers or tigers, and the Indian origin of the vine, 
 are cited as incidental evidences of that fact. Bacchus is 
 usually represented as an effeminate young man crowned 
 with vine- and ivy-leaves, with a thyrsus in his hand. 
 
 See K.EICHTLKV, " Mythology:" GuigniauT, " Religions de 1'An- 
 tiquite," vol. ii. : G. F. Creuzer, " Dionysus seu Commetitationes de 
 Reruin Bacchicarum Orphicarumque Ongine et Causis," 2 vols. 4to, 
 1808-co. 
 
 Bac-ehjfH-des, [Gr. Bok^vVAk; Fr. Bacchylide, 
 bS'ke'led',] an eminent Greek lyric poet, born about 512 
 11.1 ., in the island of Ceos, was a nephew of Simonides 
 and a rival of Pindar. His extant works have been pub- 
 lished in Bergk's "Poctae Lyrici Grasci." 
 
 Bacci, bat'chee, (Andrea,) an Italian physician, natu- 
 ralist, and writer, who lived about 1580. 
 
 Bacciarelli, bat-cha-rel'lee, (Marcei.lino,) an Italian 
 artist, born at Rome in 1731, was employed by Augustus 
 111. of Poland as designer of the gallery of engravings at 
 Dresden. He also painted portraits and historical pieces. 
 He settled at Warsaw about 1765, and was patronized by 
 the king Stanislas Poniatowski. Died at Warsaw in 181 5. 
 
 Bacciccio. See Baciccio. 
 
 Baccio, bat'cho, or Bacci, bat'chee, [Lat. Bac'cius,] 
 (Andrea,) an Italian physician and naturalist of the six- 
 teenth century, was a native of Milan. 
 
 Baccio d'Agnolo. See Agnolo. 
 
 Baccio da Monte-Lupo, bat'cho da mon'ti-loo'po, 
 a Florentine sculptor and architect, born about 1445. 
 His bronze statue of Saint John the Evangelist is re- 
 garded as his master-piece. He was the father of the 
 sculptor Raphael da Monte-Lupo. Died about 1533. 
 
 See Vasari, '^ Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." 
 
 Baccio deUa Porta, bat'cho dJl-la-poR'ta, an emi- 
 nent Italian painter, known also as Fra Bartolommeo 
 di San Marco, (fRa baR-to-lo-ma'o de san maR'ko,) was 
 born at Savignano, near Florence, in 1469. He was a 
 pupil of Cosimo Rosselli, and subsequently studied the 
 works of Leonardo da Vinci. He was an adherent and 
 friend of the celebrated reformer Savonarola, and was 
 so deeply affected by his martyrdom that in 1500 he took 
 the habit of Saint Dominic. After four years, passed 
 chiefly in the convent of San Marco, at Florence, which 
 he adorned with some of his finest pictures, he visited 
 Rome, where his intercourse with Raphael was pro- 
 ductive of benefit to both. Among his master-pieces are 
 the magnificent fresco of the "Last Judgment" in the 
 chapel of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, the figure of 
 "Saint Mark" in the Pitti palace, the "Marriage of Saint 
 Catherine," a " Virgin on a Throne," and a " Saint Paul" 
 at Rome, which was finished by Raphael. Baccio's pro- 
 ductions display great knowledge of chiaroscuro, rich- 
 ness of colouring, and grace in the disposition of the 
 draperies, united to a dignity and sweetness of expres- 
 sion little inferior to those of Raphael. Died in 1517. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing;" Mrs. Jameson, " Memoirs of Earlv Italian Painters;" Winck- 
 elmann, "Neues Maler-Lexikon;" "Nouvelle Biographie G&uS- 
 rale." 
 
 Bacciochi, bat-cho'kee, (Adorno,) a Corsican officer, 
 who entered the French army in 1 761, was an emigrant 
 in 1792, after which he served under Conde until 1801. 
 
 Bacciochi, (Felice Pasquale,) Prince of Lucca 
 and Piombino, born in Corsica in 1752. He married 
 in 1797 Maria Elisa, sister of Napoleon. lie was made 
 a senator, and obtained the rank of general, and other 
 distinctions. Died in 1841. 
 
 Baccusi, bak-koo'see, (Ippolito,) an Italian com- 
 poser, lived at Verona about 1 590-1 600. 
 
 Bacellar. See Barrosa Bacei.i.ar. 
 
 Bach, bitK, the name of a German family which for 
 more than two centuries was celebrated for musical 
 talent, and produced upwards of fifty distinguished art- 
 ists. Veit Bach, the founder of the family, a native of 
 Tresburg, in Hungary, settled in Thuringia about 1600. 
 
 Bach, (Alexander,) an Austrian statesman, born at 
 Loosdorf in 1813. He became in 1848 minister of justice, 
 and was elected to the Constituent Assembly, where he 
 advocated the centralization of the Austrian monarchy 
 and strongly opposed the democratic party. He favoured 
 the policy which provoked the revolt of Hungary in 1848. 
 In 1849 he succeeded Count Stadion as minister of the 
 interior. 
 
 See C. Wurzbach, "A. Bach, politisches Charakterbild," i8 3 o; 
 Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lcxikon." 
 
 Bach, (Johann August,) a German jurist, and pro- 
 fessor of law at Leipsic, born in 1721. He wrote, in Latin, 
 a "History of Roman Jurisprudence." Died in 1759. 
 
 Bach, (Johann Christian,) youngest son of Johann 
 Sebastian, noticed below, born in 1735, was surnamed 
 the Milanese or English Bach. He resided five years as 
 organist at Milan, and in 1759 became chapel-master at 
 London. He produced a number of popular operas and 
 instrumental pieces. Died in 1782. 
 
 Bach, (Johann Christoph,) born at Arnstadt, in 
 Thuringia, in 1643, enjoyed the highest reputation as an 
 organist, composer, and contrapuntist. His works are 
 numerous, including ecclesiastical and secular music. 
 He died in 1703, leaving two sons, Johann Nicholas and 
 Johann Christoph, who were distinguished musicians. 
 
 Bach, (Johann Christoph Friedrich,) a musical 
 composer, a son of Johann Sebastian, born in 1732. 
 He lived at Biickeburg, where he died in 1795. 
 
 Bach, (Johann Sebastian,) the most illustrious 
 member of the family, born at Eisenach on the 21st of 
 March, 1685, was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach. 
 Having received his first instruction from his brother 
 Johann Christoph, he became for a time a chorister at 
 Luneburg. In 1704 he was appointed organist at Arn- 
 stadt, and in 1 708 court organist at Weimar. During the 
 seven years that he occupied this post, he produced 
 many of his finest '.ompositions for the organ. In 1723 
 he became musical director at the Saint Thomas School 
 of Leipsic, which situation he filled till his death. Hav- 
 ing been invited to Jie Prussian court by Frederick II., 
 in 1747, he surprised and delighted that monarch by his 
 wonderful extemporaneous performances. The works 
 of Bach are very numerous, embracing almost every va- 
 riety of sacred and secular music, and so admirable for 
 their grandeur, science, and inventive power as to en- 
 title him to rank among the greatest composers that have 
 ever lived. As an organist, he was esteemed equal to 
 Handel, who was his contemporary ; and his skill as a 
 performer on the piano and other keyed instruments was 
 unsurpassed. Among his best compositions are his orato- 
 rio of "The Nativity," ("Passions-Musik,") and a collec- 
 tion of preludes and fugues, entitled " The Well-tempered 
 Clavier." Bach was twice married, and had eleven sons 
 and nine daughters. Died at Leipsic in 1 750. 
 
 See the "Life of John Sebastian Bach," translated from the Ger- 
 man; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" J. N. For- 
 KEL, " Ueber J. S. Bach's Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke," 1802. and 
 the English translation of the same; C. L. Hilgenfkldt, "J. S. 
 Bach's Leben, Wirken und Werke," 1850. 
 
 Bach, (Karl Philipp Emanuel,) son of Sebastian, 
 noticed below, born at Weimar in 1 7 14. He was ap- 
 pointed chamber-musician to Frederick the Great of 
 Prussia in 1740, and in 1767 became director of music 
 at Hamburg. Among his principal compositions are the 
 oratorio of "The Israelites in the Wilderness," and 
 numerous sonatas, symphonies, and songs of great origi- 
 nality and beauty. He also wrote an " Essay on the True 
 Art of playing the Harpsichord," (1797.) Died in 1788. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Bach, bSk, (Victor,) a French physician and Jaco- 
 bin, born at Villefranche about 1770, practised in Paris. 
 He killed himself about the end of 1799. 
 
 Bach, (Wilhelm Friedemann — fRee'deh-man',) 
 eldest son of Johann Sebastian, born at Weimar in 1710, 
 was surnamed Bach of Halle, from his residence in 
 that city. He studied music under his father, and be- 
 came organist at the church of Saint Sophia, Dresden, 
 ('733.) a "d afterwards at Halle, (1747.) He attained 
 great excellence both in the theory and practice of music, 
 and as a performer was second only to his father. Owing 
 to his dissipated habits, he died in great poverty in 1784. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; a H, Y^, guttural ; N, muni; K, trilled; s as s; th as in this. ($^""See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BACHARTIER 
 
 234 
 
 BACH0V1US 
 
 Bachartier-Beaupuy, bi'shtR'te-i' bS'pu^e', (Mi- 
 chel Armand,) a French general, burn in 1755, was 
 killed at the battle of Reutlingen in 1796. 
 
 Bachaumont,b4'sh6'm6N , (I.ouis,) a French literary 
 gossip and scandal-monger, published a collection of an- 
 ecdotes, songs, facetiae, etc., entitled " Memoires secrets," 
 (6 vols., 1777.) Died in Paris in 1771. 
 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." 
 
 Bachaumout, de, deh bi'sho'm6N', (Francois le 
 Coigneux — leh kwin'yuh',) a French lawyer and title- 
 rateur, born in Paris in 1624, was the author of a number 
 of witty and satirical poems against Cardinal Mazarin, 
 during the war of the Fronde. Died in 1702. 
 
 Bache, batch, (Alexander Dallas,) an American 
 philosopher and savant, born in Philadelphia in July, 
 1806, was a great-grandson of Dr. Franklin. He grad- 
 uated at the military academy at West Point in 1825, and 
 was appointed professor of mathematics in the Univer- 
 sity of Pennsylvania in 1827. In 1836 he was chosen 
 president of Girard College, and visited Europe to study 
 various systems of instruction. He published in 1839 a 
 "Report on the European System of Education." He 
 became in 1841 the first principal of the Philadelphia 
 High School, which he had organized. In 1843 he was 
 appointed Superintendent of the United States Coast Sur- 
 vey. His services in this position were most important, 
 and gave general satisfaction. Besides his voluminous 
 official reports, he contributed many valuable scientific 
 papers to the Proceedings of the American Association 
 for the Advancement of Science. Died in 1867. 
 
 Bache, (Benjamin Franklin,) an American printer 
 and journalist, son of Richard Bache, was born in Phila- 
 delphia about 1768. He accompanied Dr. Franklin to 
 Paris, and there learned the business of printing and 
 type-founding in the celebrated establishment of the 
 brothers Didot. After his return to the United States, 
 he began, in 1790, the publication of the " General Ad- 
 vertiser," afterwards called the " Aurora," a paper which, 
 under his editorial management and that of his succes- 
 sor, Mr. Duane, exerted a powerful influence in opposi- 
 tion to the administrations of Washington and Adams. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 Bache, (Franklin,) a physician and chemist, son of 
 the preceding, and cousin of Alexander Dallas, noticed 
 above, was born in Philadelphia in 1792. He graduated 
 as M.D. in the University of Pennsylvania in 1814, pub- 
 lished a "System of Chemistry for the Use of Students 
 of Medicine" in 1819, and became professor of chemistry 
 in the Franklin Institute in 1826. In 1831 he was ap- 
 pointed professor of chemistry in the Philadelphia Col- 
 lege of Pharmacy, and in 1841 obtained the same chair 
 in the Jefferson Medical College. He was one of the 
 authors of Wood and Bache's " Dispensatory of the 
 United States," (I vol. 8vo, 1833, 13th edition, 1869,) a 
 work of the highest character, and an acknowledged 
 standard in the department of which it treats. He was 
 elected president of the American Philosophical Society 
 in 1853. Died in 1864. (See Wood, George B.) 
 
 See " Biographical Memoir of Franklin Bache, M.D.," by George 
 B. Wood, Philadelphia, 1865. 
 
 Bache, (Richard,) born in England in 1737, emi- 
 grated to the United States, where he married, in 1767, 
 Sarah, only daughter of Benjamin Franklin. He was 
 appointed postmaster-general of the United States in 
 1776. Died in 1811. 
 
 Bache, (Sarah,) only daughter of Dr. Benjamin 
 Franklin, and wife of Richard Bache, was born in Phila- 
 delphia in 1744. She was a lady of superior accom- 
 plishments, and was remarkable for her humane and 
 patriotic efforts to relieve the sufferings of the sick and 
 destitute soldiers of the Revolution. Died in 1808. 
 
 Bachelet-Damville, bish'li' doVvel', (Louis Alex- 
 andre,) a French general of brigade, born at Saint- 
 Aubin in 1771, was killed in Saxony in 1813. 
 
 Bachelier, bish'le-4', (Jean Jacques,) a French 
 painter of lanflscapes, fruit, and flowers, born in Paris 
 in 1724. He devoted his fortune of sixty thousand francs 
 to the establishment of a free school of design. He 
 was for many years director of the porcelain manufactory 
 at Sevres. Died in 1805. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bachelier, (Nicolas,) a French sculptor and archi- 
 tect, born at Toulouse, was a pupil of Michael Angelo. 
 
 Bachelin. See Basselin. 
 
 Bachelot, btsh'lo', (Jean Alexis Augustin,) a 
 French theologian, born in 1790. He went as a mission- 
 ary to the Sandwich Islands about 1826, but he was ex- 
 pelled by the English. Died in 1838. 
 
 Bachelot de la Pylaie, btsh'lo' deh IS pe'l^', (A. ; 
 J. M.,) a French naturalist and antiquary, born at Fou- 
 geresin 1786. He published a "Manual of Conchology," 
 (1828,) and a "Flora of Newfoundland," (1829.) 
 
 See Qubrard, " La France LitteVaire," (Supp.) 
 
 Bachelu,bSsh'lu', (Gilbert Desire Joseph,) Baron, 
 a French general, born in Dole in 1777, served with dis- 
 tinction in the Egyptian, Austrian, and Russian cam- 
 paigns, and in 1814 was created lieutenant-general by 
 Louis XVIII., having previously been made an officer 
 of the Legion of Honour. In 1838 he represented 
 Chalons-sur-Saone in the Chamber of Deputies, where 
 he acted with the opposition. Died in 1849. 
 
 Bacher, bi'shi', (Alexandre Andre Philippe Fre- 
 deric,) Son of George Frederic, noticed below, was born 
 about 1730. He was for many years editor of the 
 "Journal de Medecine." Died in 1807. 
 
 Bacher, [Lat. Bachf/rius,] (George Frederic,) a 
 French physician, born in Upper Alsace in 1709, pub- 
 lished several works on the Treatment of Dropsy. 
 
 Bacher, (Theobald,) a French diplomatist, born in 
 Alsace in 1748, was charge-d'affaires at Ratisbon and 
 Frankfort. He died in 1813, leaving "Memoirs on Ger- 
 many and Switzerland." 
 
 Bachet. See Meziriac. 
 
 Bacheville, bish'vel', (Antoine,) a French adven. 
 turer, born at Trevoux, served in the army from 1804 to 
 1814. Having been accused of a political conspiracy in 
 1 81 6, he escaped and went into exile. He died at Mus- 
 cat in 1820. 
 
 Bacheville, (Barthelemi,) a brother of the preced- 
 ing, was his companion in his campaigns and in exile, 
 but returned to France, and died in 1835. 
 
 See " Voyages des Freres Bacheville en Turquie et en Asie," iS22 f 
 
 Bachiacca, ba-ke-ak'ka, a surname of Francesco 
 Ubertini, fRan-ches'kooo-beR-tee'nee, anltalian painter, 
 born at Florence, wasapupil of Pcrugino. Died in 1557. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Bachman, bak'man, (John,) D.D., an America* 
 naturalist, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1790. 
 He became pastor of the German Lutheran church of 
 Charleston, South Carolina, about 1815. He assisted 
 Audubon in the composition of his great work on Orni- 
 thology, and was the principal author of a work on the 
 Quadrupeds of North America, illustrated by Audubon 
 and his sons. He wrote various other works. 
 
 Bachmann, baK'man, (Gottlob, ) a German com- 
 poser, born in 1763; died about 1810. 
 
 Bachmann, (Gottlob Ludwig Ernst,) a German 
 philologist, and professor of classical literature at Ros- 
 tock, born at Leipsic in 1792. He published an excel- 
 lent edition of Lycophron's " Alexandra," a collection of 
 " Anecdota Grxca," from the Royal Library of Paris, and 
 other learned works. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Bachmann, (Karl Friedrich,) a German philoso- 
 pher, born at Altenburg in 1785, was professor of moral 
 and political economy at Jena, and wrote several works 
 on philosophy. Died in 1855. 
 
 Bachmann, de, deh baK'man, (Jacques Joseph An- 
 toine Leger,) Baron, a Swiss general, born in 1733, 
 commanded the Swiss guard which defended Louis XVI. 
 in August, 1792. He was executed the same year. 
 
 Bachmann- Anderletz, baK'man an'der-lets, (Nico- 
 laus Franz,) Baron, a Swiss general, born in the can- 
 ton of Glarus in 1740, served during the Seven Years' 
 war in the French army, and rose to be major-general 
 under the King of Sardinia. Under the Bourbons he 
 was created commander of Saint Louis. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Girard, " Histoire des Omciers Suisses qui se sont distingue"s 
 aux Services Strangers," 1781. 
 
 Bachovius, ba-Ko've-us, (Reinhart,) called also 
 Bachov (baic'of) of Echt, (eKt,) a German theolo- 
 gian, born in 1544, was the author of several treatises in 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
BAC1CCI0 
 
 *3S 
 
 BACON 
 
 defence of Calvinism. Died in 1614. His son, of the 
 same name, born in 1575, was professor of law at Heidel- 
 berg in 1613. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Ailgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Baciccio, ba-chet'cho, Bacciccio, bat-chet'cho, or 
 Bacici, ba-chee'chee, (Giambattista Gauli — gow'lee,) 
 a Genoese painter of portraits and scriptural subjects, 
 born in 1639. His pictures, both in fresco and oil, are 
 numerous. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bacici. See Baciccio. 
 
 Baciochl See Bacciochi. 
 
 Back or Baeck, bek, (Abraham,) a Swedish physi- 
 naturalist, and scientific writer, born at Soderhamn 
 in 1 713. He became physician-jn-ordinary to the king, 
 and president of the Royal College of Medicine, in 1749. 
 H; was intimate with Linnaeus, who named the genus 
 l!a;( kia in his honour. Died in 1795. 
 
 See Gezelius, "Biographiskt-Lexicon." 
 
 Back, (Sir George,) an English navigator, born at 
 port in 1796. After serving against the French in 
 1809, he accompanied Sir John Franklin on his Arctic 
 lition in 1819 and 1823. In 1833 he undertook 
 another voyage in search of Captain Ross. Being in- 
 formed of Ross's safety, he continued his journey, and 
 made several discoveries, of which he gave an account 
 after his return, entitled "A Narrative of the Expedition 
 along the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in 1833-34." 
 
 See " Quarterly Review" for April, 1836; "Edinburgh Review" 
 for July, 1836. 
 
 Back, de, deh bak, (James,) a Dutch physician, born 
 at Rotterdam, lived about 1650. He was one of the first 
 to accept the doctrine of the circulation of the blood. 
 
 Back'er, (George,) an English physician of the eigh- 
 teenth century, was the author of " Researches on the 
 Advantages of Inoculation," (1776,) and other medical 
 Works. 
 
 Backer, bak'ker, (Peter,) a Prussian sculptor, a 
 pupil of Schlutter, worked at Berlin in the second half 
 of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Backer, van, vin bakV, (Adrian,) a Dutch painter 
 ot history and portraits, born in 1643, worked at Amster- 
 dam. Died in 1686. 
 
 Backer, van, (Francis,) an able Dutch painter, lived 
 about 1 720, and was court painter to the elector-palatine 
 Johann Wilhelm. 
 
 Backer, van, (Jacob,) a Dutch painter, brother of 
 Adrian, born at Haarlem in 1608. He worked at Am- 
 sterdam, and had great facility of execution. Died in 165 1. 
 
 See Houbraken, "Viesdes Peintres." 
 
 Backer, van, (James or Jacob,) sometimes called 
 James of Palermo, a distinguished historical painter 
 and excellent colorist, born at Antwerp in 1530: died 
 in 1560. 
 
 Backereel, bak'eh-ral', (Giles,) a Flemish or Dutch 
 painter, born about 1572, worked at Antwerp. His de- 
 sign is said to be as correct as that of Rubens. 
 
 See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Backhouse, bak'kus, (William,) an English writer 
 on astronomy and alchemy, born in 1593, was the author 
 ot "The Golden Fleece,'' and "The Complaint of Na- 
 ture." He also translated, from the French, "The Plea- 
 sant Fountain of Knowledge." Died in 1662. 
 
 Backkuysen or Bakhuysen,bak-hoi'zen,(LuDOLF,) 
 
 an eminent Dutch marine painter and engraver, born at 
 
 n in 1631. He was the pupil of Van Everdingen, 
 
 but owed his great excellence chiefly to the study of 
 
 e. It was his custom to put out to sea during a 
 
 1, to observe the motion of the waves and the agi- 
 
 takd vessels, and, on his return, finish the sketches he 
 
 had made. Among his master-pieces is a marine view, 
 
 for which the burgomasters of Amsterdam gave him 
 
 thirteen hundred florins, and subsequently presented to 
 
 Louis XIV. of France. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Nagier, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Backhuysen, (Ludolf,) a painter of martial scenes, 
 
 frendson of the preceding, born in 1717. He died at 
 Lotterdam about 1782. 
 
 Backmeister, bak'ml-ster, (Hartmann Ludwtg 
 Christian,) director of the German College at Saint 
 
 Petersburg, born at Dillenburg, in Nassau, in 1736. H( 
 wrote, in German, a " History of the Swedish Nation,' 
 (1767,) " Bibliotheca Russica/' (n vols., 1778,) and othei 
 useful works. Died in 1806. 
 
 Backmeister, (Lucas,) a German theologian, born 
 at Liineburg in 1530, was the author of a number of 
 commentaries on the Bible. Died in 1608. 
 
 Backmeister, (Lucas,) a son of the preceding, born 
 in 1570, published several theological and controversial 
 works. Died in 1638. 
 
 See J. Custerus, "Memoria L. Bacnieisteri Oratione parentali. 
 etc." 
 
 Backmeister, (Matthew or Matthaeus,) a German 
 physician, born at Rostock in 1580, was the author of a 
 " General Treatise on Practical Medicine," and other 
 medical works. Died in 1626. 
 
 Back'us, (Azel,) D.D., the first president of Hamilton 
 College, New York, born in Norwich, Connecticut, 1765. 
 He graduated at Yale in 1787, and succeeded the cele- 
 brated Dr. Bellamy as pastor of the church in Bethlehem 
 Connecticut. Died about 1817. 
 
 Backus, (Charles,) D.D., an American Baptist di- 
 vine, uncle of President Azel Backus, was born in Nor- 
 wich, Connecticut, in 1749. Dr. Backus was an eloquent 
 preacher and an able theologian. Died in 1803. 
 
 Backus, (Isaac,) an American Baptist minister, born 
 m Norwich, Connecticut, in 1724. He published nume- 
 rous works, among which is a " History of the Baptists 
 in New England." Died in 1806. 
 
 Bacler d'Albe, bSk'laiR'dilb, (Louis Albert Ghis- 
 laiu — gez'laN',) a skilful French painter and engineer, 
 born at Saint- Pol in 1762. He served in the Italian cam. 
 paign of 1796, and took a distinguished part in the battle 
 of Areola, which forms the subject of one of his best 
 pictures. In 1802 he prepared an excellent chart of the 
 theatre of war in Italy, with 54 plates. He was ap. 
 pointed by Bonaparte director of his topographical 
 bureau, and became general of brigade in 1813. Ho 
 published "Annales pittoresques et historiques des Pay- 
 sagistes," (1803.) Died in 1824. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Ba'con, (Anne Cooke,) a daughter of Sir Anthony 
 Cooke, born about 1528, was married to Sir Nicholas 
 Bacon, and was the mother of Lord Bacon. She was 
 versed in the Greek, Latin, and Italian languages, and 
 translated Bishop Jewel's "Apology for the Church of 
 England" from Latin into English. Died in 1600. 
 
 Bacon, (Anthony,) an English politician, born about 
 1558, was a son of Sir Nicholas, and a half-brother of Lord 
 Bacon. He was a friend of the Earl of Essex and of Henry 
 of Navarre, whom he visited about 1585. 
 
 Bacon, (Francis,) [Lat. Francis'cus Baco'nus,*] 
 Baron Verulam, (veVu-lam,) Viscount Saint Al- 
 lan's, (commonly called Lord Bacon,) one of the most 
 illustrious philosophers of modern times, was born in 
 London, the 22d of January, 1561. His father was Sir 
 Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper of the great seal under Eli- 
 zabeth. His mother was Lady Anne, the daughter of Sir 
 Anthony Cooke, and the sister of Mildred, Lord Bur- 
 leigh's second wife. She is represented as a person of 
 bright talents, no inconsiderable learning, and very de- 
 cided religious opinions. While still a child, Bacon was 
 remarkable for his ready wit, as well as for his general in- 
 telligence. When the queen once asked him how old 
 he was, he replied, "Just two years younger than your 
 majesty's happy reign." Queen Elizabeth used to call 
 him, it is said, her "little lord keeper." 
 
 It is related that on one occasion, while his young com- 
 panions were playing and amusing themselves in Saint 
 James's Park, near his father's house, he stole away to 
 the brick conduit, to find out the cause of a singular echo 
 which was heard there. "Every tale told of him in his 
 childhood," says Dixon," wins on the imagination.whether 
 he hunts for the echo in Saint James's Park, or eyes the 
 jugglers and detects their trick, or lisps wise words to the 
 cjueen and becomes her young lord keeper." When a 
 little more than twelve years of age, he and his brother 
 
 • Baco nus (genitive Baco'ni) is the usual Latin form of Bacon'i 
 name. Sometimes, though rarely, it is made a noun of the third de- 
 clension — m the nominative Bacon, (genitive Baco'nis.) 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/,- c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. (jjQf-See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
BACON 
 
 236 
 
 BACON 
 
 Anthony were sent to Cambridge, and entered Trinity 
 College, of which Dr. Whitgift, afterwards Archbishop 
 of Canterbury, was then master. Francis was a diligent 
 and successful student, and before he was sixteen years 
 old he is said to have conceived a decided dislike to the 
 Aristotelian philosophy, as then taught in the schools. 
 On leaving the University, he entered Gray's Inn as a 
 student of law, and soon after visited France, for the pur- 
 pose of becoming acquainted with the French language, 
 as well as the institutions and customs of the continent. 
 But the death of his father, in 1579, made it necessary 
 for him to return to England. The other brothers had 
 been well provided for, but Sir Nicholas had delayed 
 making any provision for Francis, his youngest son, 
 though intending to do so, when all his plans were cut 
 short by his sudden death. In 1582 young Bacon was 
 admitted to the bar ; he was made a bencher in 1586, and 
 in 1589 became counsel-extraordinary to the queen, at the 
 early age of twenty-eight ; " a grace," says his biographer 
 Rawley, " scarce known before." He had been elected 
 to Parliament for Melcombe Regis in 1585, at the early 
 age of twenty-four, and appears to have sat in every 
 House of Commons from that time until 1614. Ben Jon- 
 son, in his " Discoveries," gives the following description 
 of Bacon's oratory while he was in Parliament : "There 
 happened in my time one noble speaker who was full of 
 gravity in his speaking. His language, when he could 
 spare or pass a jest, was nobly censorious.* No man 
 ever spake more neatly, more pressly, more weightily, or 
 suffered less emptiness, less idleness, in what he uttered. 
 No member of speech but consisted of his own graces. 
 His hearers could not cough or look aside from him 
 without loss. He commanded when he spoke, and had 
 his judges angry or pleased at his devotion. No man 
 had their affections more in his power. The fear of every 
 man that heard him was lest he should make an end." 
 
 Although a near connection of Burleigh, whose influ- 
 ence during the greater part of Elizabeth's reign was un- 
 rivalled, Bacon appears to have owed little or nothing to 
 the favour of that powerful minister. Nevertheless, the 
 Cecils procured him the reversion of the place of Register 
 of the Star Chamber, an office worth ^1600 per annum ; 
 but it did not fall to him until nearly twenty years later, 
 in the reign of King James. Without adopting the sug- 
 gestion of Rawley, that Burleight sought in every way, 
 especially by secret means, to keep Bacon down, " lest if 
 he had risen he might have obscured his glory," it is suf- 
 ficiently evident that the Cecils were little inclined to 
 favour his promotion, possibly because they regarded 
 him as a man of speculation rather than of practical 
 ability. The intellectual powers of Bacon were of a cha- 
 racter too original and profound to be understood and 
 appreciated by those whose chief talent consisted in the 
 facility with which they could adapt themselves to the 
 servile routine of courts. And, although Burleigh may 
 have been somewhat raised above the class referred to, 
 still his mind appears to have been of a very ordinary 
 stamp. Prudence and fidelity to his sovereign were 
 almost the only virtues he possessed ; and even his pru- 
 dence was of a low and vulgar type, the offspring of a 
 cold and plodding experience, rather than the inspiration 
 of an original and far-seeing intellect ; and hence, in an 
 extraordinary emergency, he was really less prudent than 
 many men who had far less experience.} 
 
 Bacon, being thus left to his own unaided exertions, 
 applied himself diligently to the law, and in time ac- 
 quired a lucrative if not an extensive practice. In 1 592 ap- 
 
 * Censor-like — m other words, severe and dignified in his style. 
 
 t Alluding to Bacon's failure to obtain any present provision, Raw- 
 ley's words are, it "might be imputed not so much to her Majesty's 
 averseness or disaffection towards him, as to the arts and policy of a 
 great statesman then who laboured, by all industrious and secret 
 means, to suppress and keep him down, lest if he had risen he might 
 have obscured his glory." Some suppose that the person here alluded 
 to was Burleigh's son Robert, a view which, perhaps, better corre- 
 sponds to the known facts of history, although at that date young Cecil 
 could scarcely be termed a " great statesman." "The Cecils," says 
 Lord Campbell, "not only refused to interest themselves for their 
 kinsman, but, that he might receive no effectual assistance from others, 
 they spread reports that he was a vain speculator, and totally unfit for 
 real business." 
 
 J See Motley's account of Burleigh's conduct during the prepara- 
 tions for the Spanish invasion, (" History of the United Netherlands.") 
 
 peared his first publication, a pamphlet, in reply to a little 
 book, (or "Libel,") entitled "A Declaration of the True 
 Causes of the Great Troubles." In 1594 he became a 
 candidate for the office of solicitor-general, but was not 
 successful. The Earl of Essex, a kinsman and favourite 
 of the queen, had greatly interested himself in Bacon's 
 behalf, but he was overborne by the superior influence 
 of the Cecils. Essex felt deeply the disappointment of 
 his friend, and generously gave him an estate, near 
 Twickenham, worth ^1800, a sum very greatly superior 
 in value to what would be represented by the same figures 
 at the present time. Mr. Dixon endeavours to prove 
 that Bacon was under no real obligation to Essex for this 
 magnificent present, — that it was indeed nothing more 
 than a just, though scarcely adequate, payment for Bacon's 
 professional services. But Bacon himself evidently did 
 not regard it in that light ; for he says, referring to the 
 gift of his friend, that it was made " with so kind and 
 noble circumstances as the manner was worth more than 
 the matter." 
 
 For many years Bacon appears to have entertained 
 the project of making his fortune by a wealthy marriage. 
 About the year 1596 he was paying court to a rich widow 
 named Hatton. Essex again warmly interested himself 
 in the cause of his friend, but with no better fortune than 
 before. " This suit, happily for Bacon," says Macaulay, 
 "was unsuccessful." Lady Hatton afterwards married 
 " that narrow-minded, bad-hearted pedant," Sir Edward 
 Coke, "and did her best," adds the same writer, "to 
 make him as miserable as he deserved to be." 
 
 Bacon was not insensible to the kindness of his noble 
 friend ; but the difference of character, and still more 
 the difference of policy, of the two men, led necessarily 
 to a coldness between them and to their final estrange- 
 ment. Bacon could not approve the rash and criminal 
 schemes of Essex, and his remonstrances were lost upon 
 the headstrong and infatuated earl. Nevertheless, when 
 fortune and everything else seemed to desert his former 
 friend, he did not desert him, but appears to have used 
 all his influence and eloquence with the queen, even to 
 the risk of her favour, in order tp soften her resentment 
 towards her misguided kinsman. And when at length 
 he was called to act as one of her majesty's counsel, he 
 seems to have availed himself of his official position to 
 mitigate, as far as possible, the severity of the charges 
 against Essex. It is, indeed, difficult wholly to excuse 
 Bacon for the part which he took in this trial ; but it is 
 altogether probable that he sincerely believed— at least in 
 the earlier stages of the business — that what he did was 
 the best for Essex that could be done under the circum- 
 stances. But if, when he found that all his efforts to save 
 his former friend and benefactor were unavailing, he had 
 absolutely declined to take any further part in the prose- 
 cution, his character would have been cleared from one 
 of the darkest shadows now resting upon it. According 
 to Mr. Dixon, having done all in his power to satisfy the 
 claims of friendship, Bacon was perfectly right in turning 
 against one wjjo had "proved himself a rebel and a 
 traitor," and that in this " he did no more than discharge 
 his necessary duty to his country and his queen." This 
 might be a valid defence, if there was any good reason 
 to believe that without Bacon's efforts to secure the con- 
 viction of Essex the safety of his country would have 
 been seriously imperilled. But, as the case now stands, 
 the common sense and common feeling of mankind are 
 naturally arrayed against one who, whatever may have 
 been his secret motives, did actually promote his worldly 
 interests and his advancement at court — the object ri his 
 life-long ambition — by seeking to convict and bring to 
 the block one to whom he was once closely bound by 
 gratitude and friendship. 
 
 After the accession of James I., (in 1603,) Bacon's 
 advancement was all that a man of reasonable ambition 
 could desire. He was raised to the knighthood the day 
 before the king's coronation. Having soon after been 
 chosen by the House of Commons to make a representa- 
 tion of the oppressive acts of the royal purveyors, he 
 performed the duty with such ability and address as to 
 give satisfaction both to the king and to the Parliament. 
 The House gave him a vote of thanks, and the king ap- 
 pointed him one of his counsel. 
 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 0, ii, *j, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon| 
 
BACON 
 
 237 
 
 BACON 
 
 In May, 1606, Bacon married Alice Bamham, the 
 daughter of a wealthy London merchant and alderman. 
 In 1607 he was made solicitor-general. In 161 1 he be- 
 came one of the judges of the knights-marshal's court, 
 and in 1613 he was appointed attorney-general, and was 
 made a member of the privy council. His law practice 
 was now very lucrative, and the emoluments arising from 
 his various offices afforded him what for those times may 
 be called an immense income. He was selected by the 
 king as his agent in the prosecution of Peacham, a cler- 
 l 11 who was accused of treason on account of some 
 iges in a sermon found in his house. The sermon 
 had never been preached, and there was no proof that 
 he had any intention of preaching it. Bacon is charged 
 with having sought, contrary to law and justice, to ob- 
 tain the opinions of the judges before the case came up 
 for trial. 
 
 In March, 161 7, Bacon was appointed keeper of the 
 great seal, and in January, 1618, he became lord high 
 chancellor of England, the highest civil office to which 
 an English subject could then attain. In July of the same 
 year he was created Baron Verulam, and took his seat in 
 the llou-e of Peers. In 1620 he was made Viscount 
 Saint Alban's. His sixtieth birthday (January 22, 1620) 
 was celebrated with great state, Ben Jonson furnishing a 
 poem to be recited on that occasion, in which he speaks 
 of the lord chancellor as one 
 
 "Whose even thread the Fates spin round and full 
 Out of their choicest and their whitest wool." 
 
 The same year he published his " Novum Organum," 
 embodying tire ripest and richest results of his life-long 
 studies. 
 
 In contemplating the life of Bacon, we cannot help 
 calling to mind those words of our great poet, descriptive 
 of the career of one who, though far inferior to him in 
 genius, was in worldly power and splendour fully his 
 equal : 
 
 " This is the state of man ; to-day he puts forth 
 The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms, 
 And bears his blushing honours thick upon him. 
 The third day comes a frost, a killing frost. 
 
 Farewell, a long farewell, to all [his] greatness !" 
 
 A man named Wraynham, against whom Bacon had 
 decided a suit in chancery, accused the chancellor of 
 accepting bribes ; and, though he did not make good his 
 accusation in regard to his own case, his complaints led 
 to the appointment of a committee in the House of Com- 
 mons, to inquire into the abuses of the courts of justice. 
 In consequence of this inquiry, a number of cases of al- 
 leged corruption on the part of the lord chancellor were 
 ;ented. The Commons referred the case to the 
 House of Lords, as the only proper tribunal for trying it. 
 In the course of the trial it was shown that in a ma- 
 jority of the cases the presents were received after the 
 suits were terminated, and in some others that the 
 chancellor had decided against the donors. But, unfor- 
 tunately, the accusations could not all be thus disposed 
 of. It was alleged that in one instance, when the decision 
 was drawn up but not yet delivered, a timely and liberal 
 present prevailed on the chancellor to reverse his decree. 
 In another, when one of the parties had administered a 
 liberal bribe and was encouraged to hope that the deci- 
 sion would be in his favour, a subsequent and larger gift 
 from the opposite party turned the scale in favour of the 
 Utter. At the commencement of the trial Bacon strongly 
 asserted his innocence, but he afterwards abandoned his 
 defence and acknowledged his guilt. His words were, 
 "I do plainly and ingenuously confess that I am guilty 
 of corruption, and do renounce all defence. "* So that 
 either some of the accusations were well founded, or 
 else, from some motive difficult to conceive of, he was 
 induced to cast away his good name by telling a false- 
 hood. His apologists suggest that he did this to please 
 
 • No greater stigma can be cast upon the memory of Lord Bacon 
 than to charge him with insincerity in making the above confession. 
 After the paper containing it had been read in the House of Peers, 
 twelve lords were appointed to wait on him, to ascertain if the signa- 
 ture appended to the confession was genuine. He passionately ex- 
 claimed, •' My lords, it is my act, my hand, my heart ! I beseech 
 your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed !" (For a full account 
 of the case the reader is referred to the State Trials.) 
 
 the king. But such a defence from his friends dishon- 
 ours him, if possible, even more than the accusations of 
 his enemies. An honourable man, to please his sovereign, 
 might indeed sacrifice his life, but not his honour, not 
 his good name for all coming time. On the 3d of May, 
 1621, he was sentenced to pay a fine of forty thousand 
 pounds and to be imprisoned during the king s pleasure. 
 " The sentence of Bacon," says Macaulay, " was scarcely 
 pronounced when it was mitigated. He was indeed sent 
 to the Tower ; but this was a mere form. In two days 
 he was set at liberty." Not long after, his fine was re- 
 mitted. He was even permitted to present himself at 
 court. He was allowed a pension of twelve hundred 
 pounds, no inconsiderable income for that age. The 
 rest of his life was passed in retirement, and was chiefly 
 occupied in scientific pursuits. He died on the 19th of 
 April, 1626, leaving no children. 
 
 In person Bacon was of a middling stature; well formed, 
 but not robust. His forehead was high and broad, and 
 the expression of his face was benevolent as well as in- 
 tellectual. " In advanced life," says Lord Campbell, " his 
 whole appearance was venerably pleasing, so that a stran- 
 ger was insensibly drawn to love before knowing how 
 much reason there was to admire him." In society he 
 is represented to have been " a most delightful companion, 
 adapting himself to company of every degree, calling, 
 and humour," and "bringing out with ' great effect his 
 unexhausted stores of jests new and old." Prominent 
 among his good qualities was his entire freedom from all 
 mean jealousy of others, and his disposition to patronize 
 merit wherever found. Towards his servants and de- 
 pendants he appears to have been uniformly kind and 
 generous ; if he had a fault in this respect it was in being 
 too indulgent, and their extravagance contributed to his 
 ruin. 
 
 In contemplating the fall of so great a man, we should 
 not lose sight of the principal cause. With his many and 
 rare accomplishments, and with all the strength of his 
 transcendent intellect, Bacon had one " weakest weak- 
 ness," an inordinate love of splendour and display. The 
 consequence was that he was often embarrasseel and in 
 debt, and he was tempted to eke out the deficiency of his 
 large income by accepting presents and bribes. 
 
 Bacon's greatest work was his " Instauratio Magna,"* 
 of which the *' Novum Organum, "t already referred to, 
 is but a part, although the most important part, and his 
 treatise " L>e Augmentis Scientiarum" ("On the Ad- 
 vancement of the Sciences"}) the opening chapter. Be- 
 lieving, as Bacon did, that the then prevailing mode of 
 studying science (particularly the science of nature) had 
 become greatly perverted, his aim was to bring men 
 back, so to speak, to the right employment of their 
 powers, and to direct them into such a path of inquiry 
 and examination as would best promote the cause of true 
 science. This he proposed to effect by teaching them a 
 new method of exploring or investigating nature, the 
 principles of which are laid down with great explicitness 
 and fulness in his " Novum Organum." 
 
 Among Bacon's other works we may mention his " Es- 
 says," (first published in 1598,) perhaps the most popular 
 of all his writings ; "On the Wisdom of the Ancients," 
 (" De Sapientia Veterum,") which appeared in 1610, and 
 of which a good translation, by Sir Arthur Gorges, was 
 published in 1619. His collection of Apothegms con- 
 stitutes one of the most attractive portions of his various 
 works. 
 
 In regard to Bacon's attainments as a lawyer, and his 
 qualifications as a judge, Lord Campbell observes that 
 " his mind was thoroughly familiar with the principles of 
 jurisprudence," and "that he had made himself complete 
 master of the common law of England." The same able 
 critic pronounces Bacon's "History of the Alienation 
 Office" " a treatise worthy of Hale, showing a most co- 
 pious and accurate acquaintance with existing law and 
 with our legal antiquities." " No one ever sat in West- 
 minster Hall with a finer judicial understanding ; no one 
 
 * Literally, the "Great Installation," (or "Restoration.") 
 t " New Instrument," or new method of pursuing science. 
 % Or, as Bacon himself translates it, [On] " the Advancement of 
 
 Learning," using the word in a wider sense than is common at the 
 
 present d iv. 
 
 « as k; 9 as /; g hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJJT-See Explanations, p. 73.) 
 
BACON 
 
 238 
 
 BACON 
 
 ever more thoroughly understood the duties of a judge." 
 ("Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. ii. chap, lvi.) 
 
 Respecting Bacon's rank as a philosopher a great 
 diversity of opinion prevails. While some claim that to 
 his improved method of studying nature are chiefly to 
 be attributed the prodigious strides which have been 
 made by modern science, others deny to him not merely 
 pre-eminent but even eminent mc.it in this respect, 
 asserting that the present method of scientific investiga- 
 tion is quite different from the method laid down by 
 Bacon. The truth will probably be found between the two 
 extremes. If Bacon's method was not in all respects the 
 same as that pursued by the most enlightened interro- 
 gators of nature at the present clay, there can scarcely 
 be a reasonable doubt that by his writings and influence 
 he has contributed far more than any other philosopher 
 to pave the way for that wonderful " advancement of the 
 sciences" which forms the peculiar distinction and glory 
 of modern philosophy. Our narrow limits preclude us 
 from entering, in this place, more fully into the consider- 
 ation of the subject. All that remains for us is to direct 
 the reader's attention to such sources of information as 
 may enable him to form a correct judgment for himself. 
 Respecting this question, see particularly Professor Na- 
 pier's Essay on this subject, published in the "Transac- 
 tions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh," (1818,) and G. 
 H. Lewes's article on Bacon, in his " Biographical His- 
 tory of Philosophy ;" Hallam's " Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe ;" also Macaulay's very interesting 
 "Essay on Lord Bacon," one of the ablest and most 
 brilliant of his many able and brilliant review-articles. 
 
 See, also, " Personal History of Lord Bacon," by William Hep- 
 worth Dixon, (1859.) who has brought to light some interesting facts 
 which had escaped the researches of previous biographers ; Montagu, 
 "Life of Bacon," added to Bacon's collected works; Campbell, 
 "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," containing one of the most impar- 
 tial and, on the whole, one of the best of all the Lives of Lord Bacon; 
 William Rawley, "Life of Lord Bacon," 1658; David Mallet, 
 " Life of Francis Bacon, Lord Chancellor," 1740 : Robert Stephens, 
 "Life of Lord Bacon," 1734; G. L. Craik, " Bacon, his Writings and 
 ' his Philosophy," 3 vols., 1846-47; Joseph Sortain, "Life of Lord 
 Bacon," 1851; Remusat, "Bacon, sa Vie et son Influence," 1S57; 
 De Vauzeli.es, "Histoire de la Vie de F. Bacon de Verulam," 2 
 vols., 1S33; Pouillot, "Vie du Chancelier F. Bacon," 1755; Kuno 
 Fischer, " Franz Bacon von Verulam," 1S56, (a work of great merit ;) 
 Ozanam, "Deux Chanceliers d'Angleterre : Bacon de Verulam et S. 
 Thomas (Becket archevecme) de Cantorbery," 1835; W. Dugdal, 
 "Life of Lord Bacon," in the " Baconiana" of Thomas Tentson, 
 1679; Wilhelmy, " Dissertatio de Vita et Philosophia F. Baconis," 
 1843; J. Spedding, " Life of Bacon," in his very complete edition of 
 Bacon's works, of which n vols. 8vo have already (i869)appeared. 
 
 Bacon, (John,) an eminent English sculptor, born 
 in Surrey in 1740. Having gained a number of prizes 
 from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he be- 
 came in 1770 an associate of the Royal Academy. His 
 principal works are a statue of Mars, a bust of George 
 III., the monument to Lord Chatham in Guildhall, the 
 statue of Blackstone at Oxford, and the statues of How- 
 ard and Dr. Johnson at Saint Paul's, London. Died in 
 1799- 
 
 See Richard Cecil, "Memoirs of John Bacon," 1801 ; Cun- 
 ningham, " Lives of Painters, Sculptors," etc. 
 
 Bacon, (John.) See Baconthorp. 
 
 Ba'con, (Leonard,) an American divine, born at De- 
 troit, Michigan, in 1802, graduated at Yale College in 
 1820, and became pastor of the Centre Church.New 
 Haven, Connecticut, in 1825. He has published many 
 theological works, and distinguished himself as a cham- 
 pion of orthodoxy and of the Congregational Church 
 polity. About 1850 he became one of the editors of the 
 " Independent." Among his works is " Slavery discussed 
 in Occasional Essays from 1833 to 1846," (1846.) 
 
 Bacon, (Nathaniel,) an English lawyer, a grandson 
 of Sir Nicholas, was a member of the Long Parliament, 
 and a republican in the civil war. Died in 1660. 
 
 Bacon, (Nathaniel,) a Virginian leader of insur- 
 gents, was born probably in England about 1630. He 
 was an eloquent lawyer, and a popular favourite among 
 the Virginians. He took command of a body of mal- 
 contents who, in 1676, rose in arms partly to defend the 
 province against the Indians and partly to maintain their 
 rights against Governor Berkeley. Bacon obtained suc- 
 cesses over both the Indians and the governor, but be- 
 fore the end of the contest he died, in 1677. 
 
 See Sparks, "American Biography," vol. iii. of new series. 
 
 Bacon, (Sir Nathaniel,) an English landscape- 
 painter, a half-brother of Lord Bacon, studied in Italy. 
 Died about 1615. 
 
 Bacon, (Sir Nicholas,) an eminent English states- I 
 man, born at Chiselhurst, in Kent, in 1510, was the t 
 father of the great philosopher Lord Bacon. He was 
 educated at Cambridge, and studied law. In 1537 he J 
 was appointed solicitor to the court of augmentations. \ 
 He was attorney to the court of wards from 1546 until 
 the death of Edward VI., when, having become a Prot- 
 estant, he was removed by Queen Mary. He was ap- J 
 pointed lord keeper of the great seal by Elizabeth in 
 1558, and became a friend of Sir William Cecil, who 
 was his brother-in-law. He held the office of lord keeper jj 
 for twenty years, during which, by a moderate and pru- •! 
 dent policy, he contributed much to the prevalence of J 
 the reformed religion in England. His mind was sound, ' 
 well balanced, and vigorous. Referring to Bacon and 
 other ministers of Elizabeth, Macaulav «ays, It is 
 needless to relate how dexterously, how resolutely, how 1 
 gloriously they directed the politics of England during 
 the eventful years which followed ; how they succeeded 
 in uniting their friends and separating their enemies ; 
 how they humbled the pride of Philip ; how they backed , 
 the unconquerable spirit of Coligni. . . . Among these 
 statesmen Sir Nicholas Bacon was generally considered 
 as ranking next to Burleigh. He was called by Camden 
 sacris conciliis altemm columen." (" Essay on Lord 
 Bacon.") Died in 1579. 
 
 See "A Remembrance of the Woorthie and Well Employed Life 
 of the Right Honourable Sir Nicholas Bacon, etc.," by George \ 
 Whetstones; Lord Campbell's "Lives of the Lord Chancellors." 
 
 Bacon, (Phanuel,) an English divine and humorous 1 
 writer, born in 1700, became rector of Balden, in Oxford- 
 shire. He was the author of dramatic pieces, entitled 1 
 "The Moral Quack," "The Insignificants," and "The J 
 Trial of the Time-Killers," (1757.) Died in 1783. 
 
 Bacon, (Robert,) an English divine, writer, and J 
 popular preacher, born about 1168 ; died in 1248. 
 
 Bacon, sometimes written Bakon or Bacun, (Ro- 1 
 ger,) a celebrated English philosopher and monk, called I 
 the Admirable Doctor, was born near Ilchester, in 3 
 Somersetshire, about 1214. He was educated at Oxford 
 and Paris, took the vows of the Franciscan order at Ox- 
 ford, and found a liberal patron in Robert Greathead, ' 
 Bishop of Lincoln. He was profoundly versed in Latin, B 
 Greek, Hebrew, metaphysics, theology, philosophy, and 
 several sciences. His learning and skill in mechanics 
 were so great that he was suspected of dealing in magic. 
 He wrote in Latin many works on astronomy, chemistry, 
 optics, physics, theology, etc. "The mind of Roger 
 Bacon," says Hallam, " was strangely compounded of 
 almost prophetic gleams of the future course of science ' 
 and the best principles of the inductive philosophy, with 
 a more than usual credulity in the superstitions of his 
 own time." " It seems hard to determine whether or 
 not he be entitled to the honours of a discoverer in sci- B 
 ence ; that he has not described any instrument analo- 
 gous to the telescope is now generally admitted, but he 
 has some new and important notions in optics. That he 
 was acquainted with the explosive powers of gunpowder, 
 it seems unreasonable to deny." His principal work is 
 entitled " Opus Majus," which was composed about 
 1265, and first printed in 1733. It treats of nearly all 
 the sciences. In 1278 a council of Franciscans con- 
 demned his writings and committed Bacon to prison, in j 
 which he was confined ten years. He died probably at 
 Oxford, in 1292. He is regarded as the greatest philo- i 
 sopher of the thirteenth century. "The resemblance 
 between Roger Bacon and his greater namesake," says 
 Hallam, "is very remarkable. Whether Lord Bacon J 
 ever read the ' Opus Majus,' I know not ; but it is sin- 
 gular that his favourite quaint expression prttrogativa 
 scientiarum should be found in that work. And who- 
 ever reads the sixth part of the ' Opus Majus' upon ex- 4 
 perimental science must be struck by it as the prototype 
 in spirit of the 'Novum Organum. ("Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Anthony A Wood's " History' and Antiquities of Oxford ;*' 
 Lelano's "Commentarii de Scriptoribus Britanmcis;" " Biographia 
 Britannica ;" F. Hoefer, " Histoire de Chimie," vol. i.,and his article 
 in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, o, It, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nSt; good; moon 
 
 
BACON 
 
 239 
 
 BADIA 
 
 Bacon, (SAMUEL,) an Episcopal clergyman, employed 
 with two other persons by the United States government 
 as an agent for establishing a colony of blacks in South- 
 ern Senegambia, where they arrived in charge of eighty- 
 two tree blacks in 1820. All three of the agents died 
 toon after. 
 
 Bacou-Tacon, bi"k6N' tS'kAN', (Pierre Jean 
 TaCQUES,) a French antiquary, born at Oyonnax in 1738. 
 lie was the author of a " Numismatical History of Dif- 
 ferent Nations, Ancient and Modern." Died in 1817. 
 "■erard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Ba'con-thorp, Ba'con-dorp, or Ba'con, (John,) an 
 English monk of the fourteenth century, born in Norfolk, 
 was Rurnamed the Resolute Doctor. He had a high 
 reputation for learning, and professed the philosophy of 
 A vermes. He wrote, among other works, a commentary 
 on the " Master of Sentences." Died about 1346. 
 
 Bacoue, bi'koo', (Leon,) a French Catholic theo- 
 logian of the seventeenth century, became Bishop of 
 Pamiers in 1685. He was the author of a Latin poem 
 "On the Education of a Prince," (1671.) Died in 1694. 
 
 Sec Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Bacquere, de, deh bl'kaiR', (Benott,) a French 
 writer of the seventeenth century, was the author of a 
 medical work entitled " Physician for Old Men," (" Senum* 
 Medicus.") 
 
 Bacquet, bS'ki', (Jean,) a French jurist and legal 
 writer of the sixteenth century; died in 1597. 
 
 Bacsanyi, boh-chtn'yee, (Janos,) a Hungarian writer, 
 born at Tapolcza in 1763. He was one of the founders 
 of the " Magyar Museum," and the author of a poem 
 entitled "The Bravery of Hungary." Died in 1845. 
 
 Bactishua. See Bakhtishwa. 
 
 Bacun, (Roger.) See Bacon. 
 
 Baczko, batch'ko, called also Glodzlatis, a Polish 
 chronicler of the thirteenth century, was keeper of the 
 library of Posen. He wrote a continuation down to 
 1 27 1 of the chronicle of Poland, begun by Bagalulphus, 
 Bishop of Posen. 
 
 See Jocher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Baczko, von, fon bats'ko, (Ludwig,) a German 
 writer, born at Lyck, in East Prussia, in 1756, became 
 blind at the age of twenty-one. He was the author of 
 several romances and dramas, and a " History of Prus- 
 sia." Died in 1823. 
 
 See his " Geschichte meines Leben," 3 vols., 1824. 
 
 Bada, ba'na, (Jose,) a Spanish architect, born at Ma- 
 laga about 1690, finished the cathedral of that city. Died 
 in 1756. 
 
 Badajos, ba-Da-His', (Juan de,) a Spanish architect, 
 a native of the city of that name, lived in the sixteenth 
 century. One of his greatest works is the cloister of the 
 monastery of Saint Zoil at Carrion, in Old Castile. 
 
 Badakhshi, ba-daK'shee, a Persian poet of the tenth 
 century, was the author of a divan or collection of poems 
 which enjoyed great popularity with his countrymen. 
 
 Badalocchio, ba-da-lok'ke-o, sometimes called Sis- 
 to Rosa, an Italian painter and engraver, born at Parma 
 in 1 58 1, was a pupil of Annibal Caracci, who highly com- 
 mended his skill in design. Among his master-pieces 
 we may name a "Saint Francis," and "Galatea." His 
 engravings after Correggio's cupola at Parma are greatly 
 admired. Died in Rome in 1647. 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Badaracco, ba-da-rak'ko, (Giovanni Raffaello,) 
 a skilful painter, son of Giuseppe, noticed below, born 
 at Genoa in i C4S. Died in 1726. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Badaracco, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter, called II 
 ), born at Genoa about 1588. He imitated Andrea 
 del Sarto with success. Died in 1657. 
 
 Badaro, ba-dl'ro, (Giovanni,) an Italian botanist 
 and writer, born near Genoa in 1793 '• died in 1831. 
 
 Bad'bjf, (John,) an English Lollard of the fourteenth 
 century, perished at the stake during the persecutions 
 of his sect under Henry IV., (1409.) 
 
 Bad'cock, (Richard,) an English botanist, lived 
 about 1745, and wrote on the structure of anthers. 
 
 Badcock, (Samuel,) an English divine, born in De- 
 »onshire in 1747. He opposed the doctrines of Priestley, 
 
 and was the author of a number of able criticisms in the 
 "Monthly Review." Died in 1788. 
 
 Badehorn, ba'deh-hoRn', (Sigismunx>,) a German 
 theologian, born in 1585, was professor of Hebrew at 
 Leipsic. Died in 1626. 
 
 Baden, ba'Den, (Jakob,) a Danish philologist, born 
 at Vordenborg in 1735. He studied at Gbttingen and 
 Leipsic, and became in 1779 professor of eloquence and 
 the Latin language at Copenhagen. He published 
 school editions of Virgil, Horace, and Phasdrus, and 
 translated several classics into Danish. He was editor 
 of the "University Journal" from 1793 to 1801. His 
 Danish Grammar is highly esteemed. Died in 1804. 
 
 See Kraft og Nverup, "Almindeligt Litteraturlexicon ;" G. L. 
 Baden, " Bidrag tit Professoren J. Baden," 1800. 
 
 Baden, (Jakob Gustav Ludwig,) son of the preced- 
 ing, born in 1764, was the author of several legal and 
 historical works. Died in 1840. 
 
 See Kraft og Nverup, " Almindeligt Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Ba'den, (Richard de,) founder of University Hall, 
 Cambridge, in 1326. After that building was destroyed 
 by fire, another was erected, which is called Clare Hall. 
 
 Baden, (Torkki.,) a Danish philologist, born at Frede- 
 ricksburg in 1765, became professor of eloquence at Kiel 
 in 1794. Died in 1804. 
 
 Baden, (Torkel,) a Danish philologer, born in 1668, 
 wrote " A Demonstration of the Affinity of the Danish 
 and Latin Languages," (" Roma Danica, Affinitatem Lin- 
 guae Danicae cum Romanaexhibens," 1699.) Died in 1732. 
 
 Baden-Baden, ba'den ba'den, (Ludwig Wilhelm 
 I.,) Margrave of, a distinguished general, born in Paris 
 in 1655. He served under Montecuccoli against the 
 French, and in 1683 assisted Sobieski in defending Vienna 
 against the Turks. He subsequently defeated the Turks 
 in two engagements. He constructed the celebrated for- 
 tifications called the lines of Stollhofen. Died in 1707. 
 
 See A. Schreiber, " Badische Geschichte," 16:7 
 
 Baden-Baden, (Wilhelm I.,) Margrave of, a Ger- 
 man general, born in 1 593, was appointed by Ferdinand 
 II. to command the army of the Upper Rhine, which 
 was defeated by Gustavus Adolphus, (1631.) He made 
 several unsuccessful attempts to unite the Catholics and 
 Protestants, at the Diet of Ratisbon. Died in 1677. 
 
 Badenius, ba-da'ne-us, (Andreas,) a German theo- 
 logian, died in 1667. 
 
 Badenius, (Christoph,) a son of the preceding, pub- 
 lished, in 1710, "John's Testimony to the Truth." 
 
 Badens, li i'dens, [Fr. pron. bt'doN',] (Francis,) a 
 Flemish pain »r of history and portraits, born at Ant- 
 werp in 1571, was surnamed the Italian, from his 
 merijs as a col irist. Died in 1604. 
 
 Badens, (Ji hn,) a brother of the preceding, born in 
 1576, was a ski ful portrait-painter. Died in 1603. 
 
 See Naoler, " Veues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bader, ba'der, (Karl Adam,) a celebrated German 
 vocalist, born at Bamberg in 1789. 
 
 Badesi, ba-da'see, (Girolamo,) an Italian poet, lived 
 in the second half of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Badessa, ba-des'sa, (Paolo,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Messina, flourished about 1560. He translated the first 
 five books of Homer's " Iliad" into Italian verse. 
 
 Badg'er, (George E.,) an American statesman and 
 jurist, born at Newbem, North Carolina, in 1795, grad- 
 uated at Yale College in 1813. President Harrison ap- 
 pointed him in 1841 secretary of the navy, in which office 
 he was continued by Tyler, but resigned on the Presi- 
 dent's vetoing the bill to recharter the United States 
 Hank. In 1846 he was elected to the United States 
 Senate, and was re-elected for a full term in 1848. 
 
 Badger, (Iosei'H,) an American missionary, born at 
 Wilbraham, Massachusetts, in 1757. Having served 
 four years in the army, he went to Ohio.wherc he laboured 
 more than thirty years as a missionary. Died in 1846. 
 
 Bad'ham, (David C.,) a British physician and natu- 
 ralist, borii about 1805. He became a curate of Wymond- 
 ham, in Norfolk, about 1846. He wrote on natural 
 history, particularly on insects. Died in 1857. 
 
 Badia, M-dee'a, (Carlo Agostino,) an Italian com- 
 poser of the eighteenth century, was chapel-master to 
 Leopold I. at Vienna. 
 
 « w A: c as s, g hard; g as_/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( Ji^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BADIA 
 
 240 
 
 BAFFIN 
 
 Badia, (Carlo Francesco,) an eloquent Italian 
 preacher, born at Ancona in 1675, became president of 
 the University of Turin about 1730 ; died in 1 75 1. 
 
 Badia, (Tommaso,) an Italian cardinal, born at Modena 
 about 1483, attended the Diet of Worms in 1540. Died 
 in 1547. 
 
 Badia y Leblich. See Alee Bey. 
 
 Badiale, ba-de-a'li, (Alessandro,) an Italian painter 
 and skilful engraver, born at Bologna. He is supposed 
 to have died about 1650. 
 
 Badie, de la, deh It bj'de', (Louis Augustin,) a 
 French general, born in 1696; died in 1765. 
 
 Badier, bi'de-i', (Jean Ettenne,) a French monk 
 and writer, born at Dole in 1650; died in 1719. 
 
 Badile, M-dee'li, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 painter and admirable colorist, born at Verona in 1480. 
 He was the uncle and preceptor of Paul Veronese, and 
 numbered Zelotti among his pupils. Died in 1560. 
 
 See J.anzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Ba-di'uus or Badiuo, ba-dee'no, (Luigi Donato,) 
 an Italian priest and Latin poet, born at Mondovi in 
 1675. Died in 1742. 
 
 Badius, bi'de'iis', (Conrad,) a learned printer, bom 
 in Paris in 15 10, was a son of Jodocus, noticed below, and 
 a brother-in-law of Robert Estienne. Having been con- 
 verted to Calvinism, he removed in 1549 to Geneva, 
 where he published fine editions of many works. Died 
 about 1560. 
 
 See A. F. Didot, " Essai sur l'Histoire de l'lmprimerie." 
 
 Badius, ba'de^tjs, (Jodocus, yo-do'kus, or Josse, 
 zhoss,) a celebrated Flemish printer and Latin poet, born 
 in 1462, was surnamed Ascensius, from Asche, near 
 Brussels, his birthplace. About 1500 he established a 
 large printing-house in Paris, called "Praelum Ascen- 
 sianum," which issued many fine editions of the classics. 
 Died in 1535. 
 
 See La Caiixe, "Histoire de l'lmprimerie;" D. M. Manni, 
 "Vita di G. Badio," 1757; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dic- 
 tionary." 
 
 Badius, ba'de-oos, (Raolfo,) an Italian theologian, 
 born at Florence, lived in the second half of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Badoaro, ba-do-a'ro, (Federigo,) an Italian diplo- 
 matist, born in Venice in 15 18, was employed by the 
 republic in embassies to the court of Charles V. and 
 Philip II. In 1556 he founded at Venice the Academy 
 della Fama. Died in 1593. 
 
 Badoaro, (Giacomo,) an Italian dramatic poet of the 
 seventeenth century, was a friend of Paolo Sarpi. 
 
 Badoaro, (Giovanni,) an Italian cardinal and writer 
 on theology. Died in 17 14. % 
 
 See "Vita del Cardinale G. Badoaro," 1766. 
 
 Badoaro, (Lauro,) an Italian bishop and poet, born 
 at Venice about 1546, wrote "Rime Spiritual]"," and 
 other works. Died in 1593. 
 
 Badoero. See Baduero. 
 
 Badoero, ba-do-a'ro, (Pietro,) was Doge of Venice 
 from 939 to 942 A.D., during which period the independ- 
 ence of Venice was recognized by Berenger II. of Italy. 
 
 Badolet, bi'do'lk', (Jean,) a Protestant minister, was 
 professor of the humanities at Geneva about 1650. Among 
 his works is " Anatomy of the Human Conscience," 
 ("Conscientias humanae Anatomia," 1659.) 
 
 Badon, ba"d6N', (Edmond,) a French dramatist and 
 novelist, wrote a "Duel under Richelieu," (1S32,) and 
 other works. He died prematurely in 1849. 
 
 Badoureau, bfdoo'ro', (J. F.,) a French engraver, 
 lived in the first half of the nineteenth century. He 
 engraved some works of Raphael and Titian. 
 
 Badstiiber, btD'stvi'ber, (Andrew,) a Danish jurist, 
 born at Copenhagen in 1728; died in 1808. 
 
 Baduel, bi'du'el', (Claude,) a French Protestant 
 minister, born at Nimes in the fifteenth century. He 
 preached at Geneva, and wrote a work to prove the 
 utility of marriage to literary men, (1544.) Died at 
 Geneva in 1 561. 
 
 Baduero, ba-doo-a'ro, or Badoero, (Ursus I.,) Doge 
 of Venice from 864 to 881 A.D., defeated the Saracens. 
 
 Baduero, (Ursus II.,) was elected Doge of Venice in 
 912, and retired to a convent in 932. 
 
 Baeck See Back, (Abraham.) 
 
 Baeck, bak, or Baecx, baks, (Joachim,) a Dutch 
 theologian, born at Utrecht in 1548; died in 1619. 
 
 Baehr. See Bahr. 
 
 Baehrens. See Bahrens. 
 
 Baeli, ba-a'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet and anti- 
 quary, born at Milazzo, in Sicily, in 1639; died in 1710. 
 
 Baena, ba-a'na, (Antonio Ladislau Monteiro— 
 mon-t.a'j-ro, ) a Portuguese historian and geographer, 
 served in Brazil as officer in the army. He wrote some 
 valuable works, one entitled " Chorographic Essay on 
 the Province of Para," (" Ensaio corografico soDre a 
 Provincia do Para," 1839.) Died about 1851. 
 
 Baer. See Bar. 
 
 Baer, bS'aiR', [Ger. pron. bSR,] (Fred6ricChari.es,) 
 a French Protestant professor of theology, and miscel- 
 laneous writer, born at Strasburg in 1 719 ; died in 1797. 
 
 Baerebistes,ber-e-bis'tez, or Berebistes, [Fr. B£re 
 biste, bl'ra'best',] a king of the Dacians about 40-20 B.C., 
 drove the Sarmatians beyond the Dnieper, and rendered 
 Thrace and Macedonia tributary to his kingdom. 
 
 Baerle,van, vSn bSr'leh, [Lat. BarL/e'us; Fr. Bar- 
 lee, biR'la',] (Gaspard,) a Dutch theologian and dis- 
 tinguished Latin poet, born at Antwerp in 1584. He 
 mjvas professor of logic at Leyden in 161 7, and obtained the 
 chair of philosophy and eloquence at Amsterdam about 
 1633. Besides numerous Latin poems and orations, he 
 was the author of a valuable "History of Brazil under 
 Maurice of Nassau." He was also engaged in the de- 
 fence of Arminius against the Gomarists. Died in 1648. 
 
 See Corvinus, "Oraison funebre de G. Baerle." 
 
 Baerle, van, [Lat. Barl^e'us,] (Melchior,) an uncle 
 of the preceding, born at Antwerp, lived between 1550 
 and 1600. He wrote several Latin poems. 
 
 Baermann. See Barmann. 
 
 Baersdorp, van, vin blRs'doRp, (Cornelis,) a 
 Dutch physician and medical writer of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, was first physician to Charles V., who also made 
 him his chamberlain and a councillor of state. Died in 
 1565. 
 
 See Mersseman, " Notice sur C. van Baersdorp," 1844 
 
 Baersius, blr'se-us, or Bek'en-stil, a Dutch mathe- 
 matician of the sixteenth century, was a resident of 
 Louvain. He wrote " Tables of the Latitudes and Lon- 
 gitudes of the Planets." 
 
 Baerstrat, bjr'strat, a Dutch marine painter of the 
 seventeenth century. Died in 1687. 
 
 Baert, bS'aiR' or bjRt, (Alexandre Balthasar 
 Francois de Paule--deh pol,) Baron of, a French 
 geographer and statesman, born at Dunkirk about 1750. 
 He became a member of the Legislative Assembly. (1791,) 
 and of the Chamber of Deputies, (1815.) Among his 
 principal works is his " Picture of Great Britain, Ii eland, 
 and the English Possessions," (1800,) which was highly 
 esteemed by Napoleon. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Baert, [Lat. Baer'tius,] (Francis,) a Flemish Jes- 
 uit, born at Ypres in 1651, wrote a "Commentary on the 
 Life of Saint Basil," and was a contributor to the "Acta 
 Sanctorum." Died in 1719. 
 
 Baeuraer. See Baumer. 
 
 Baeza, de, da bi-a'tha, (Diego,) a Spanish theologian, 
 born in Galicia in 1582 ; died in 1647. 
 
 Baf, Saint. See Bavo, Saint. 
 
 Baffa, baf fa, or Baffl, baf fee, (Francesca,) an Italian 
 poetess of the sixteenth century, resided at Venice. 
 
 Baffl, baf fee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian ecclesiastic, 
 published a number of Latin orations. Died at Milan 
 about 1578. 
 
 Baffl, (Giovanni Batttsta,) an Italian poet and phy- 
 sician, born at Perugia; died in 1596. 
 
 Baffl or BafTo, baf fo, [Lat. Baf'fus,] (Lucui.lo,) an 
 Italian poet and physician, born at Perugia; died about 
 1622. 
 
 Baffin, (William,) a celebrated English navigator, 
 born about 1580. He made three successive voyages to 
 the Arctic regions in 1612, 1615, and 1616, and, during 
 the last, discovered the large bay between Greenland and 
 British America, since called by his name. In his ac- 
 count of his voyage in 161 2 is first given a method for 
 determining the longitude at sea by an observation of 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, ii, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, [, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; mSon; 
 
BAFFO 
 
 241 
 
 BAGLIVI 
 
 the heavenly bodies. Baffin was killed at the siege of 
 Ormuz while fighting against the Portuguese, in 1622. 
 
 Baffo. See Baffi. 
 
 Baffo, baffo, surnamedTHE Pure, a beautiful Venetian 
 lady, who, being captured by pirates in 1580, was sold as 
 a slave to Amurath III. She subsequently became his 
 sultana, and exercised great influence over him and his 
 successor, Mahomet III. 
 
 Baffo, (Giorgio,) a Venetian of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, of the same family as the preceding, was called the 
 most licentious poet of his time. Died in 1768. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Bafor, von, fon ba'for, (Balthasar,) a German di- 
 plomatist of the sixteenth century, was counsellor of 
 State under the emperors Rudolfj Matthias, and Ferdi- 
 nand. Died in 1620. 
 
 Bagseus, ba-jee us, a Persian general of cavalry, de- 
 feated Agesilaus the Spartan, near Dascylium, in 396 B.C. 
 
 Bagard, bigitk', (Cesar,) a French sculptor, born at 
 Nancy in 1639. Among his principal works is a bust of 
 Louis XIV. Died in 1709. 
 
 Bagarotto, ba-ga-rot'to, or Bagarato, ba-ga-ri'to, 
 an Italian jurist and legal writer of the thirteenth cen- 
 turv, was a native of Bologna. Died about 1242. 
 
 Bagarris, de, deh bagi'ress', (Pierre Antoine, 
 Rascas — ris'ka',) Sieur, a French antiquary and col- 
 lector of medals, lived about 1600. He received in 
 1608 from Henry IV. the title of " Maitre des cabinets, 
 medailles," etc. 
 
 Bagatti, ba-gat'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian com- 
 . poser, who was court organist at Milan about 1610. 
 
 Bag'bjf, (Arthur P.,) an American Senator, born in 
 Virginia in 1794. He settled in Alabama about 1818, 
 and represented that State in the Senate of the United 
 States from 1842 to 1849. Died in 1858. 
 
 Bagd-ed-Deen or Bagdeddin, bagd'ed-deen', (Mo- 
 hammed,) an Arabian mathematician of the tenth cen- 
 tury, wrote, among other works, a " Treatise on the Divi- 
 sion of the Superficies," which was translated into Latin 
 jy John Dee. 
 
 Bage, (Robert,) an English novelist, born at Derby 
 in 1728. Among his works we may mention " Barham 
 Downs," "The Fair Syrian," and "James Wallace." 
 His life has been written by Sir Walter Scott. Died in 
 1801. 
 
 See Scott, " Miscellaneous Prose Works ;" William Hutton, 
 "Memoirs of Robert Bage," 1802. 
 
 Bagelaar, ba'geh-ljR', (Ernest Wiu.f.m,) a Dutch 
 designer and engraver, born in 1775; died at Ghent in 
 1836. 
 
 Baget, bi'zhi', (Henri Jean,) a French anatomist of 
 the eighteenth century, was the author of a valuable 
 " Treatise on Osteology," ( 173 1.) 
 
 Baget, de, deh bi'zlii', (Jean Chevalier,) a French 
 general, born in 1743; died in 1821. 
 
 Bagetti, ba-jet'tee, or Baggetti bid-jet'tee, (Giu- 
 seppe Pietro,) an Italian landscape-painter, born at 
 Turin in 1764; died in 1831. 
 
 Bag'ford, (John,) an English antiquary, born in Lon- 
 don in 165 1, made a valuable collection of ancient books 
 and manuscripts for the libraries of Bishop Moore and 
 the Earl of Oxford. Died in 1 716. 
 
 Baggaert, bag'girt, (Jan,) a Dutch physician, born 
 at Hushing about 1657, was the author of treatises on 
 smallpox, measles, and scurvy. Died in 17 10. 
 Van der Linden, "De Scriptoribus Medicis." 
 
 Bagge, bag'geh, (Jakob,) a Swedish admiral, born in 
 the province of Aland in 1499. He served against the 
 Russians in 155J, and afterwards defeated the Danes at 
 Bomholm, but in 1564 was captured by them, and sub- 
 sequently died in prison. 
 
 See Geyer, " Histoire de la Suede." 
 
 Bagge, von, fon bag'geh, (Karl Ernst,) Baron, a 
 German amateur musician of the eighteenth century, was 
 chamberlain to the King of Prussia. He is the subject 
 of one of Hoffmann's tales. Died in 1791. 
 See Fetis "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 Bagger, bag'ger, (John,) a learned Lutheran, Bishop 
 of Copenhagen, born in Holstein in 1646. He was a 
 violent opponent of the Calvinists and Huguenots, and 
 
 used his influence to prevent the Danish government 
 from giving an asylum to the latter. Died in 1693. 
 
 Bagger, (Karl Christian,) a Danish poet, born in 
 1807. Among his principal works is a tale entitled 
 "My Brother's Life." Died in 1846. 
 
 Bag'ge-sen, (or baG'ceh-sen,) (Jens Immanuel,) a 
 celebrated Danish poet, born at Kdrsor, in Zealand, in 
 1764. In 1789 he visited Germany, France, and Switzer- 
 land, and while at Bern married the granddaughter of the 
 illustrious Haller. Having become thoroughly versed in 
 German literature and acquired the friendship of several 
 eminent German writers, he wrote a number of his prin- 
 cipal works in that language, and made Klopstock, Voss, 
 and Wicland his models. His "Comic Tales," ("Co- 
 miske Fortallinger,") in Danish, published in 1785, were 
 very well received, and in 1808 he brought out acollection 
 of German poems, entitled " Heath-Flowers," (" Haide- 
 blumen.") His " Parthenais, or the Alpine Journey," 
 in German, (1812,) is an epic idyll in hexameter verse, 
 and is esteemed one of his finest productions. In 181 1 
 Baggesen was appointed professor of the Danish lan- 
 guage and literature at Kiel. Among his other works 
 may be mentioned his " Labyrinthen, or Wanderings of 
 a Poet in Europe," (4 vols., 1792,) a memoir of his own 
 early life, written in Danish prose, and "Adam and Eve," 
 a humorous epic, (1826.) Died in Hamburg in 1826. 
 
 See D. Fricke, " In Memoriam J. J. Baggesen," (1S27 ;) Long- 
 fellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Howitt, " Literature 
 and Romance of Northern Europe," 1852; August Baggesen, "J. 
 Baggesen's Biographie udarbeitet vornemmeligen efter hans egnc 
 Haandskrifter," 2 vols. Svo, 1842-43; Michel Berk, "Notice sur 
 Baggesen, poe'te Danois," Paris, 1805. 
 
 Baggetti. See Bagetti. 
 
 Bagieu, bi'zhe-uh', (Jacques,) a French wri'er on 
 surgery, lived about 1750. 
 
 Baglione, bal-yo'na, or Baglioni, biU-yo'r"», (Cf.- 
 sare,) an Italian painter of landscapes, fruits, and flowers, 
 born at Bologna about 1525. Died in 1590. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Baglione, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Rome about 1573, was patronized by Pope Paul V. His 
 works in fresco and oil enjoyed a high reputation in his 
 time. He was the author of a valuable work entitled 
 "Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects from 1573 
 to 1642." He worked mostly in Rome. Died about 1650. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Baglioni See Baglione. 
 
 Baglioni, bal-yo'nee, (Astorre,) a relative of Gian 
 Paolo, noticed below, served under Charles V. in the 
 war of Tunis, and was afterwards made governor of 
 Famagosta, in Cyprus, by the Venetians. After a brave 
 defence of that city against the Turks in 1570, he was 
 forced to capitulate, and was executed by order of Mus- 
 tafa Pasha in 1 571. 
 
 See Daru, "Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Baglioni, (Gian Paolo,) an Italian soldier, of a noble 
 family, born in the fifteenth century, rose to be sovereign 
 of Perugia. In 1520 he was summoned to Rome and 
 executed by order of Leo X., who then took his posses- 
 sions. 
 
 Baglioni, bal-yo'nee, (Lelio,) a Florentine professor 
 of theology. Died in 1620. 
 
 Baglioni, (Malatesta,) son of Gian Paolo, noticed 
 above, became governor of Perugia, but was deprived 
 of his power by the allied army of the pope and emperor 
 in 1529. Died in 1531. 
 
 Baglivi, bal-yee'vee, (Giorgio,) an Italian physician, 
 born at Ragusa in 1669. In 1692 he studied under the 
 celebrated anatomist Malpighi, and was afterwards ap- 
 pointed professor of anatomy and medicine at the Col- 
 lege di Sapienza, at Rome. He was chosen a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society of London in 1698. His complete 
 works were published in 1 704, under the title of " Opera 
 omnia Medico-practica," and often reprinted. Baglivi 
 is regarded as the founder of the system of solidism, as 
 opposed to the previous theories, which maintained that 
 in diseases the fluids of the body are the first to be 
 affected. He had a wide reputation as a medical writer. 
 Died in Rome in 1707. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vitas Italorum doctrina excellentium," etc.: Fl- 
 lippo Ferkario, "Delia Vita e delle Opere di G. Baglivi," 1839. 
 
 t as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, Y.,gtittund; x, iimiI; r, trilled; s as *; th as in this. 
 
 16 
 
 (K^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BAGNACAVALLO 
 
 242 
 
 BAIAN 
 
 Baguacavallo, ban-y3-k;i-vai'lo, (Bartolommeo,) 
 originally Bartolommeo Ramenghi, (ra-mgn'gce,) the 
 greatest painter of the Bolognese school, born near Bo- 
 logna in 1484. He was a pupil of Raphael, whom he 
 assisted in the decoration of the Vatican. Among his 
 master-pieces are a " Virgin and Child with Saint John," 
 and "The Coronation of Charles V. at Bologna." His 
 works were admired and studied by Guido and the 
 Caracci. Died in 1542. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bagnacavallo, (Bartolommeo,) the Younger, a 
 nephew of the preceding, was a skilful painter of archi- 
 tecture and ornaments. 
 
 Bagnacavallo, (Giovanni Battista,) a painter, was 
 a son of Bartolommeo the Elder. He worked with 
 Primaticcio in France. Died in 1601. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bagnara, da, da ban-yi'ra, (Pietro,) a painter of the 
 Roman school, and a pupil of Raphael, worked abou 1 1 550. 
 
 Bagnasco, bin-yas'ko, or Bagna Saoco, bln'ya 
 sak'ko, (Antonio,) an Italian jurist of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, was the author of a treatise " On the Succession of 
 the Kingdom of Gaul," (" De Successione Regni Gallioe.") 
 
 Bagnoli, bdn'yo-lee, or Bagnioli, ban-ye-o'lee or 
 ban-yo'lee, (Giulio Cesare,) an eminent Italian poet, 
 born at or near Ferrara, wrote " The Judgment of Paris," 
 and other works. Died about 1630. 
 
 Bagnolino, ban-yo-lee'no, (Girolamo,) an Italian 
 poet, lived about 1520-40. 
 
 Baguolo, ban'yo-lo, (Gian Francesco Giuseppe,) 
 Count, an Italian jurist and mathematician, born at 
 Turin in 1709. His principal work is an "Explanation 
 of the Tables of Gubbio," (1748.) Died in 1760. 
 
 Bagnuolo, ban-yoo-o'lo, Count, an Italian general, 
 born in the kingdom of Naples. He commanded an 
 army for Philip II. in Brazil, and opposed Maurice of 
 Nassau with success in 1638. 
 
 Ba-go'as, [Gr. Bayuoc,] a Persian eunuch and soldier 
 under Artaxerxes Ochus, said to have been a native of 
 Egypt. In 338 B.C. he poisoned the king and his sons, 
 with the exception of Arses, whom he raised to the 
 throne. Having subsequently put him to death, and 
 made Darius Codomatinus king in his stead, Bagoas was 
 seized by the latter, and executed about 336 B.C. 
 
 Ba-go'as Ca'rus, a favourite of Herod the Great, 
 conspired against that king, and was put to death. 
 
 Bagolino, ba-go-lee'no, (Giovanni Battista,) a 
 learned Italian physician of Verona, lived about 1580. 
 
 Bagolino, (Girolamo,) a learned Italian physician 
 of the sixteenth century, was a native of Verona. He 
 wrote a number of medical and philosophical treatises. 
 
 Bagolino, (Skbastiano,) an Italian poet and painter, 
 horn at Alcamo, in Sicily, in 1 560; died in' 1604. 
 
 Ba-goph'a-nes, a Persian general, commanded the 
 citadel of Babylon, which he surrendered to Alexander 
 the Great, with the royal treasure, in 331 B.C. 
 
 Bag'ot, (Sir Charles,) an, English diplomatist, son 
 of William, Lord Bagot, born in 1 781. He was suc- 
 cessively minister to France, (1814,) ambassador to Saint 
 Petersburg, (1820,) and to Holland, (1S24.) He after- 
 wards succeeded Lord Sydenham as Governor-General 
 of Canada, where he died in 1843. 
 
 Bagot, bi'go', (Jean,) a French Jesuit and writer, 
 born at Rennes in 1580, was engaged in the controversy 
 with the Port-Royalists. Died in 1664. 
 
 Bagot, (Lewis,) an English prelate, born in 1740, was 
 successively Bishop of Bristol, of Norwich, and of Saint 
 Asaph. He wrote " Sermons on the Prophecies." Died 
 in 1802. 
 
 Bagot, (Richard,) brother of the preceding, born in 
 1782, became Bishop of Oxford in 1829, and of Bath 
 and Wells in 1845. He was an adherent of Dr. Pusey. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Bagration, ba-gra'shpn, [Russ. pron. ba-GRi-te-6n',] 
 (Peter,) Prince, a celebrated Russian general, of the 
 Georgian family of the Bagradites, born about 1765. He 
 served under Suwarrow in the campaigns of Italy and 
 Switzerland, and was everywhere conspicuous for his 
 impetuous and unyielding courage. He commanded 
 the van-guard under Kootoosov in the Austrian cam- 
 
 paign of 1805, and on the 1 6th of November succes.- fully 
 opposed the greatly superior force of Murat and Lannes, 
 thus allowing Kootoosov, with the main army, to reach 
 Zn'aini in safety. Being appointed lieutenant-general 
 soon after, he commanded the van-guard under Liech- 
 tenstein at Austerlitz, and displayed the greatest bravery 
 and skill in the subsequent engagements of Eylau and 
 Friedland. After having several times defeated the 
 Swedes and the Turks, he was mortally wounded at the 
 battle of Borodino, in 1812. 
 
 See S^gur, " Histoire de Napoleon et de la Grande Arm^e." 
 
 Bag'shaw, (Christopher,) an English scholar and 
 theologian, born in Derbyshire ; died about 1626. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenas Oxonienses." 
 
 Bagshaw, (Edward,) an English lawyer of the sev- 
 enteenth century, was elected to the Long Parliament in 
 1640, and distinguished himself by his opposition to the 
 cause of the king and of episcopacy. He wrote, among 
 other works, "The Right of the Crown of England as 
 established by Law." Died in 1662. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Bagshaw, (Henry,) an English divine, son of the 
 preceding, born in 1632, was chaplain to the Earl of 
 Danby. He was the author of " Discourses against Pa- 
 pists and Socinians." Died in 1709. 
 
 Bagshaw, (William,) an English nonconformist di- 
 vine and theological writer; died in 1703. 
 
 Bagutti, ba-goot'tee, (Pietro Martire,) an Italian 
 sculptor, lived at Bologna about 1780-90. 
 
 Bag'well, (William,) an English astronomer, who 
 wrote "The Mystery of Astronomy made plain," (1673.) 
 
 Bahadar- or Bahadur-Shah. See HkhAdar-Shah. 
 
 Baharam-Kooree, (or Curi,) Mh'a-ram koo'ree, Sul- 
 tan of Persia, reigned in the first half of the fifth century. 
 
 Bahier, bi'e-i' or bi'ya', (Jean,) a French ecclesias- 
 tic and Latin poet ; died in 1707. 
 
 Bahil, bo'hel', (Matthias,) a Hungarian theologian, 
 lived in the second half of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Bahn, bin, (Jerome,) a German theologian, born at 
 Hamburg ; died in 1744. 
 
 Bahn, (Nicolas,) a German writer on theology, born 
 in 1664; died in 1704. 
 
 Bahnsen, bSn'sen, (Benedict,) a German mystic, 
 born in Holstein, lived about 1660-90. 
 
 Bahr or Baehr, baR, (Johann Christian Felix,) a 
 distinguished German scholar, born at Darmstadt in 
 June, 1798, studied at Heidelberg, where in 1826 he 
 became professor of classical literature. His " History 
 of Roman Literature" (2 vols., 1828) is esteemed a stand- 
 ard work. He published editions of the "Alcibiades" 
 of Plutarch, and other classics, and made numerous con- 
 tributions to Ersch und Gruber's " Encyklopaedie," and 
 to other publications. Among his other productions is 
 a valuable edition of the works relating to Herodotus, 
 (4 vols., 1832.) Bahr became chief librarian at Heidel- 
 berg in 1833, and has since been created aulic councillor. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Bahr, baR, (Joseph Friedrich,) a German Protestant 
 bishop, and writer on theology, was born in 1713. He 
 preached at Schonfeld and other places. Died in 1775. 
 
 Bahrdt, bSRt, (Karl Friedrich,) a German Protest- 
 ant theologian, born at Bischofswerda in 1741. He was 
 successively professor of Biblical philology at Leipsic, 
 and of philosophy at Erfurt, but was obliged to give up 
 these offices on account of his profligacy and his bold 
 criticisms on the Bible. He published, among other 
 deistical works, " Letters on the Bible in a Popular 
 Style." Died in 1792. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Geschichte meines Lebens und meiner 
 Schicksale," 4 vols., 1790; Ersch und Gruiuir, " Aligemeine Ency- 
 klopaedie ;" D. Pott, " Leben und Schicksale C. F. Bahrdts," 1700. 
 
 Bahrens orBaehrens, ba'rens, (J. E. F.,) a German 
 writer on agriculture, born in 1760 ; died in 1830. 
 
 Bai, bl, or Bais, bi'ess, (Tommaso,) an Italian com- 
 poser, born at or near Bologna, was master of the chapel 
 of the Vatican. He composed a Miserere, which is much 
 admired. Died in 1714. 
 
 See F^tis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Baian, bi-an', written also Baion, [Lat. Baia'nus,] 
 (Andrew,) an Indian convert to Christianity, born at 
 
 
 a, e, T, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short ; a, r i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BAIARDI 
 
 243 
 
 BA1LIE3 
 
 w:is ordained a priest at Rome about 1635. He 
 translati d the " /Eneid" into < ireek verse, and the "Lu- 
 siati" of Camoens into Latin verse. 
 
 S«c ("HAi'DONetDRLANDiNK, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Baiardi. See Bajardi. 
 
 Baiardi, ba-yaR'dee, or Baiardo, ba-yaR'do, (Otta- 
 Vntonio,) an Italian antiquary, born about 1690, 
 the author of a work entitled " Prodromus of the An- 
 tiquities of Herculaneum," (1742.) Died about 1765. 
 
 Baidu-Khan, bl'doo-kln, called also Eaidu-Ogul, 
 a Tartar or Mongol king of the race of Tengis Khan, 
 died in 1294, after a reign of eight months. 
 
 Baier, bl'er, (Johann David,) a German theologian, 
 born at Jena in 1681, was a son of Johann Wilhelm 
 the elder, noticed below. Died at Altdorf in 1752. 
 
 Baier, (Johann Jacob,) a German physician and nat- 
 uralist, brother of the preceding, born at Jena in 1677. 
 1 le wrote a number of scientific and medical treatises, (in 
 Latin.) Died in 1735. 
 
 See "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon," Supplement. 
 
 Baier, (Johann Wilhelm,) a German Lutheran theo- 
 logian, bom in 1647, became professor at Halle, (1694.) 
 He was the author of a "Compendium of Theology," 
 (1686,) and other works. Died in 1695. 
 
 Baier, (Johann Wilhelm,) a theologian and natural- 
 
 »rn at Jena about 1676, was a son of the preceding. 
 
 He wrote a "Dissertation on the Fossil Monuments of 
 
 the Universal Deluge," ("Disputatio de Fossilibus Di- 
 
 luvii universi Monumentis," 1712.) Died in 1729. 
 
 Baif, de, deh bi'ef, (Jean Antoine,) a French litte- 
 rateur, son of Lazare, noticed below, born at Venice in 
 1552, was an intimate friend of the poet Ronsard. He 
 was the author of sonnets and various other poems. He 
 was one of seven poets called the " Pleiade," and was 
 the reputed founder of the first literary society in France. 
 Died in 1589. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Sainte- 
 ' Tableau de la Poesie Francaise au seizieme Siecle." 
 
 Baif, de, (Lazare,) a French diplomatist and learned 
 writer of the sixteenth century, born near La Fleche, in 
 Anjou, was a counsellor of Francis I. He translated 
 the " Electra" of Sophocles and the " Hecuba" of Euripi- 
 des into French verse, and wrote, among other works, in 
 Latin, a treatise "On Naval Affairs." Died in 1547. 
 
 See La Croix dv MAiNEet Duverdier," Bibliotheque Francaise." 
 
 Bail, bit or bS'ye, (Charles Joseph,) a French wri- 
 ter and officer, born at Bethune in 1777, served in the 
 Belgian war of 1793. He was the author of "Statistics 
 of the Kingdom of Westphalia," esteemed one of the 
 best works of the kind, a work "On the Jews in the 
 Nineteenth Century," and several other treatises. He 
 also edited " Bernadotte's Correspondence with Napo- 
 leon," (1819.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See Querard, "La France I.itteraire." 
 
 Bail, (Louis,) a French theologian of the sixteenth 
 century, born at Abbeville, was a doctor of the Sorbonne, 
 and superior of the monastery of Port-Royal. He wrote 
 a treatise " On the Benefit of the Cross," and other reli- 
 gious works, which had considerable reputation in his 
 time. Died in 1669. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique;** Lelong, "Bibliotheque 
 Francaise." • 
 
 Baila, bl'la or ba-ee'la, (Gii'SErrE,) an Italian jurist, 
 , liorn at Monreale in 1585; died in 1645. 
 
 Bailay. See Bailey. 
 
 Bail'don, (JOSEPH,) an English musician and com- 
 poser, lived about 1750-70. 
 
 Bailey. See Bayley. 
 
 Bailey, ba'le, (Anselm,) an English theologian and 
 writer on music; died in 1724. 
 
 Bailey, ba'le, (Gamaliel,) an American journalist, 
 distinguished as an opponent of slavery, born at Mount 
 Holly, New Jersey, in 1807. He was a physician in 
 early life, removed to Cincinnati in 1831,2nd joined James 
 G. Birney in 1836 as the publisher of an anti-slavery 
 paper called "The Philanthropist." During the first 
 year their office was twice attacked by a mob, who threw 
 their press into the river. In 1837 he became the sole 
 or chief editor of the " Philanthropist" He removed to 
 Washington, District of Columbia, in 1847, and began 
 to edit "The National Era," which under his judicious 
 
 management exerted a considerable influence on politi- 
 cal aflairs. Mrs. Stowc's c'clebrated novel "Uncle Tom's 
 Cabin" first appeared in the columns of the "National 
 Era." Died in 1859. 
 
 Bailey, (Jacob Whitman,) an American microscopist. 
 born at Ward, Massachusetts, about 1808, became pro- 
 fessor of chemistry at West Point. He wrote many 
 treatises on infusoria, algae, etc., inserted in Silliman's 
 "Journal of Science," and in other periodicals. He ac- 
 quired distinction by his microscopic researches in botany 
 and zoology, and made improvements in the construction 
 of microscopes. Died in 1857. 
 
 Bai'ley, (John,) a dissenting divine, born in Lan- 
 cashire, England, in 1644, emigrated in 1684 to America 
 and settled as a pastor at Boston. Died in 1697. 
 
 Bai'ley, (John,) a Scotch mechanician and agricul- 
 turist, born in^the latter part of the eighteenth century. 
 He was the inventor of a plough which he described in 
 a treatise, afterwards translated into German, (1805.) 
 
 Bailey or Bai'ly, sometimes written Bailay," (Na- 
 than or Nathaniel,) an English lexicographer and 
 school-master at Stepney, published an Etymological 
 English Dictionary, which is said to have formed the 
 basis of Dr. Johnson's work, also a "Domestic Diction- 
 ary," and other educational books. Died in 1742. 
 
 Bailey, (Peter,) an English writer, born in Cheshire, 
 was editor of a journal called "The Museum." He 
 published "Sketches from Saint George's Fields," a 
 humorous poem, and "A Queen's Appeal," written in 
 the Spenserian measure. Died in 1823. 
 
 Bailey, (Philip James,) an English poet, born at 
 Nottingham in 1816. He completed his studies at Glas- 
 gow, and subsequently practised law for a short time. 
 His principal poem, " Festus," published in 1839, pro- 
 duced a great sensation. In the words of a judicious 
 critic, " its defects and merits alike gained for it imme- 
 diate and wide success. Its subject was the highest 
 questions of philosophy and religion, and it abounded in 
 bold and glowing passages. Yet, unlike the ' Faust' of 
 Goethe, which doubtless suggested ' Festus,' its art was 
 chaotic ; it was wildly extravagant, and often as unintel- 
 ligible as it was fervent, and its few finely imaginative 
 utterances have not been able to retain for the work its 
 first popularity." He was author of two other poems," 
 entitled "The Angel World" and "The Mystic." 
 
 See "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1S50; R. H. Horne, 
 " New Spirit of the Age." 
 
 Bailey, (Samuel,) an English writer, born at Shef- 
 field in 1787. His "Essays on the Formation and Publi- 
 cation of Opinions" (1820) was very favourably received, 
 and was commended by Sir James Mackintosh. He after- 
 wards published " Essays on the Pursuit of Truth and 
 Progress of Knowledge," "Theory of Reasoning," and 
 other works on mental philosophy, etc. Died in 1870. 
 
 Bailey, (Theodorus,) an American rear-admiral, born 
 in the State of New York about 1804, entered the navy 
 in 1818. He became a lieutenant in 1827, a commander 
 in 1849, anc ' captain in 1855. He was second in com- 
 mand under Farragut in the great naval battle against 
 the defences of New Orleans in April, 1862. He ren- 
 dered important services in this action, and was the fore- 
 most in entering New Orleans, having been sent by Far- 
 ragut to demand the surrender of that city on the 25th. 
 In November, 1862, he was appointed commander of the 
 Eastern Gulf Blockading Squadron. It is stated that in 
 about one year and a half he captured more than one 
 hundred and fifty blockade-runners. 
 
 Bailey, (Thomas,) father of Philip James, noticed 
 above, born in 1785, was the author of the "Advent of 
 Charity," and a "History of Nottinghamshire." Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 Bailey or Baley, (Walter,) bom in Dorsetshire in 
 1529, was appointed royal professor of medicine at Ox- 
 ford in 1561, and was subsequently physician to Quern 
 Elizabeth. lie wrote " Directions for Health," and other 
 works. Died in 1592. 
 
 Bai'lies, (William,) a celebrated physician, of Eng- 
 lish extraction, was employed by Frederick the Great of 
 Prussia. He wrote an " Essay on the Bath Waters," 
 and other medical works. Died in 1787. 
 
 See "Biographic Me'dicak." 
 
 e as i: c as s; g hard; g as/; G. H. K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in tin's, ([jy See Explanations, p 23.) 
 
BAILLARGE2 
 
 244 
 
 BA1LLY 
 
 Baillarger, bS'yia'zhi' or. bil'yfiR'zha', (Jules Ga- \ ian. He also wrote "Lectures and Observations on 
 BRIEL Francois,) a French physician, born at Mont- I Medicine," (1825.) He died in 1823, bequeathing to the 
 bazon in 1806, was distinguished for his skill in mental College of Physicians his medical library and anatomical 
 maladies, on which he published several works. collection. 
 
 Bailie. See Bayle. See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,'* 
 
 Baill^S, bS'yes', (JACQUES Marie JOSEPH,) Bishop and "An Account of Baillie's Life," prefixed to his works, by James 
 of Lucon, and Vicar-General of Toulouse, born in that | W *« DK °>;- _'_•■•, s, _ , „ . , , 
 
 city in 1798. Bailhe, [Lat. Bay'lius,] (Robert,) a Scottish theo- 
 
 Baillet. ' See SaWT-Julien. [logian, born at Glasgow about 1602. In 1640 he was 
 
 Baillet, bi'y&', (Adrien.) a French writer and scholar, sent to London by the Scottish lords to protest against 
 born near Beauvais in 1649. His most important pro- I the innovations of Archbishop Laud, and was subse- 
 
 duction is entitled "Judgments of the Learned upon the 
 Principal Works of Authors," (Jugements des Savants," 
 etc., 1685, 9 vols. l2mo, unfinished.) He also wrote a 
 •Life of Descartes," a "History of Holland from the 
 Truce of 1609 to the Present Time," (1690,) and other 
 works. Died in 1706. » 
 
 See Nicekdn, " Me^noires." 
 
 Bailleul. See Baliol. 
 
 Bailleul, bi'yul' or bi'e-yul', (Jacques Charles,) a 
 French advocate, born near Havre in 1762, was a mode- 
 rate member of the Convention in 1792, and was pro- 
 scribed in 1793. Died in 1843. 
 
 See Tissot, " FJoge de Bailleul, " 1843. 
 
 Bailleux, bi'yuh' or bil'yuh', (Antoine,) a French 
 composer and professor of music at Paris, produced a 
 number of symphonies. Died in 1791. 
 
 See Fbtis, " Biogiaphie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Baillie, ba'le, (Joanna,) one of the most eminent 
 British female poets, was born near Glasgow in 1762. 
 She published in 1798 the first volume of a series of 
 " Plays on the Passions," which was very well received. 
 Her tragedy of " The Family Legend" was brought out 
 at Edinburgh in 1810 with brilliant success, Sir Walter 
 Scott having written the epilogue, and one of the prin- 
 cipal parts having been performed by Mrs. Siddons. 
 Among her other dramas, " De Montfort" and " Basil" 
 enjoy perhaps the highest reputation. Besides the above- 
 named works, she was the author of " Metrical Legends 
 of Exalted Characters," and a number of ballads and 
 songs of great beauty. Miss Baillie resided during the 
 greater part of her life at Hampstead, near London, 
 where her brother, the celebrated Matthew Baillie, was 
 court physician. During her life, which was prolonged 
 almost to ninety years, her house was the resort of the 
 most distinguished persons of her own and other coun- 
 tries. She was a very intimate friend of Sir Walter 
 Scott, who admired her genius and highly esteemed her 
 for her moral and social qualities. She died at Hamp- 
 stead in 1851. "This great work," says the " Edinburgh 
 Review" for April, 1836, referring to her " Plays on the 
 Passions," "is then completed, and in a manner worthy 
 of its commencement : a noble monument of the power- 
 ful mind and the pure and elevated imagination of its 
 author." 
 
 See also "Quarterly Review," vols, xxxvii., Iv. ; "Edinburgh Re- 
 view," vols, ii., v., xix. ; "Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1824; 
 Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Baillie, (John,) a Scottish Orientalist, born at Inver- 
 ness about 1770, became professor of the Arabic lan- 
 guage and Mussulman law in the College of Fort Wil- 
 liam, Bengal. He published several works upon Arabic 
 grammar, which are ranked among the most valuable 
 that have appeared on the subject. Died in 1833. 
 Baillie, (Lady Grizel.) See Hume, (Grizel.) 
 Baillie, (Matthew,) a celebrated physician and ana- 
 tomist, born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1 761, was a 
 brother of Joanna Baillie. He studied at the University 
 of Glasgow, where his father, the Rev. James Baillie, 
 was professor of divinity. Through the influence of his 
 maternal uncle, the eminent anatomist William Hunter, 
 he applied himself to the study of medicine at Oxford, 
 where he graduated in 1 789, and soon after was made a 
 member of the College of Physicians. In 1783 he suc- 
 ceeded Hunter as lecturer on anatomy. He became phy- 
 sician to George III. and the royal family about 1810, 
 and acquired a very extensive practice in London. He 
 was distinguished for his skill in diagnosis. His " Mor- 
 bid Anatomy of some of the most Important Parts of 
 the Human Body" (1795) is esteemed a standard work, 
 and has been translated into German, French, and Ital- 
 
 quently principal of the university at Glasgow. In 1649 
 he was one of the commissioners charged to compliment 
 Charles II. at the Hague in the name of the general as- 
 sembly of the clergy. He was a man of profound learn- 
 ing, and wrote several theological and historical works 
 in English and in Latin. Died in 1662. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 " Westminster Review" tor January, 1842. 
 
 Baillie of Jerviswood, (Robert,) a Scottish patriot, 
 eminent for ability and virtue, was identified with the 
 party or cause of which Lord Russell and Algernon 
 Sidney were the chiefs. He was arrested in 1684, and 
 charged with complicity in the Rye- House plot. He 
 was condemned without evidence, and executed in De- 
 cember, 1684. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen.' 
 
 Bail'lie, (William,) a distinguished engraver, born 
 in Ireland about 1736, served for a time in the army, and 
 obtained the rank of captain. His engravings after 
 Rembrandt are greatly esteemed. 
 
 See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Baillif, (Le Roche.) See Riviere, (Roche le' 
 Baillie.) 
 
 Baillon, bi'yox', (Emmanuel,) a French naturalisl, 
 who was a proficient in ornithology and vegetable physi- 
 ology. He furnished valuable information to Burton, 
 and wrote several works, one of which was " On the 
 Means of counteracting the Encroachments of Moving 
 Sands on the Sea-Coast." Died at Abbeville in 1802, 
 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encycJopt^dique de la France." 
 
 Baillot, b3'yo', (Pierre Marie Francois de Sales 
 — deh stl,) one of the most celebrated French violinists, 
 born at Passy in 1771, was a pupil of Viotti. He visited 
 Russia, Holland, and England, where his performances 
 obtained great applause. Died in 1842. 
 
 Baillon, de, deh bi'yoo', [Lat. Ballo'nius,] (Guil- 
 laume,) a French physician, born in Paris in 1538. He 
 was appointed by Henry IV. first physician to the Dau- 
 phin in 1601. He was the author of several medical 
 works of great merit, among which we may cite " Medical 
 Counsels, in Three Books," (1649,) and "Adversaria 
 Medicinalia." He is said to have been the first who 
 made known the nature of the croup. Died in 1616. 
 
 See Rene Moreau, "Vita G. de Baillon Doctoris Medici," 1641; 
 "Biographie Medicale;" Sprengel, "Geschichte der Medicin." 
 
 Baillu, bi'yii'or bf i'yii', written also Balliu and Bail- 
 lieu, (Peter,) a Flemish engraver of the seventeenth 
 century, executed numerous prints after Rubens, Van 
 Dyck, Rembrandt, and other masters. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vie's des Punlres Fiamands. ' 
 
 Bailly, bt'ye' or bt'e-ye', (Antoine,) a French in- 
 spector-general of finances. He wrote a " Financial His 
 tory of France," (" Histoire financiere de la France,") a 
 work of merit. Died in 1851. 
 
 Bailly, ba'le, (David,) a Dutch painter, born at Ley- 
 den in 1588, acquired a high reputation for his portraits 
 drawn with a pen. 
 
 See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bailly, (George,) a French general, born in 1685 ; 
 died in 1759. 
 
 Bailly, (Jacques,) a French painter, born at Gracay 
 in 1629 ; died in 1679. 
 
 Bailly, (Jacques,) a French dramatist, painter, and 
 keeper of the royal pictures, born at Versailles in 1701, 
 The celebrated Jean Sylvain Bailly was his son. Died 
 in 1 76S. 
 
 Bailly, ba'le, [Fr. pron. bt'ye',] (Jean Sylvain,) 
 an eminent French astronomer, philosopher, and e!b 
 quent writer, was born in Paris on the 15th of Septem- 
 ber, 1 736. He was a pupil and friend of La Caille. In 
 
 
 a, '.-, T, 1 ■, ii, y, longi a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; gorjd; moon; 
 
BA1LLT 
 
 2 45 
 
 BAIN I 
 
 1763 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, to which 
 he had presented some lunar observations. He produced 
 in 1 766 an able " Essay on the Theory of the Satellites 
 of fupiter," and in 1771 a remarkable "Memoir on the 
 Light of the Satellites of Jupiter," which light he had 
 measured by an ingenious method. His eulogy on Leib- 
 nitz, gained the prize offered by the Academy of Berlin, 
 and his eulogy on Moliere obtained an accessit at the 
 French Academy. He published in 1775 the first vol- 
 ume of his great work, "The History of Astronomy, 
 Ancient and Modern," (4 vols., 1775-83,) which is written 
 irilliant, attractive style and abounds in ingenious 
 idea*. It obtained great popularity. He was elected to 
 the Acaderaie Francaise in 1784, and to the Academy 
 oi Inscriptions in 1785. Except Fontenelle, he was the 
 only Frenchman who had the honour to be a member 
 of the three great Academies of Paris. 
 
 Having won the favour of the public by his probity 
 ami other virtues, he was chosen a deputy to the States- 
 ral in 1789. He was the first president of this as- 
 ■ iy, over which he presided during the famous ses- 
 sion of the Tennis-court, and was elected mayor of Paris 
 on the 16th of July, 1789. His efforts, in concert with 
 La Fayette, to maintain order and moderate the violence 
 Revolution, were not successful. By his order, the 
 national guard fired on a riotous crowd which had as- 
 id in the Champ-de-Mars in July, 1791, for the 
 purpose of making a demonstration against the king. 
 This act gave great offence to the popular party. Bailly 
 offered his resignation in September, but was persuaded 
 to retain his office until November, 1791. 
 
 He was arrested by the Jacobins at Melun in 1793, 
 taken to Paris, and condemned to death in November, 
 one of the charges against him being his part in the affair 
 of the Champ-de-Mars. He was executed, after he had 
 suffered many insults and refinements of cruelty, on the 
 12th of November, 1793. To one of the bystanders 
 who said, "Bailly, you tremble," "Yes," he replied, 
 "but it is with cold. "The name of Bailly," says La- 
 martine, "was an inscription on the frontispiece of the 
 Revolution. He was on a level with this destiny by his 
 character, if not by his genius. His administration had 
 been a series of triumphs of the people over the court. 
 When bloody tumults began to stain the victories of the 
 people, he spoke like a sage, and acted like a magis- 
 trate." ("History of the Girondists.") He left Memoirs 
 of the Revolution, (" Memoires d'un Temoin oculaire," 
 etc., 3 vols., 1804.) 
 
 See "Biographie de Bailly." par F. Arago, 1852; " Eloge de 
 
 " par Lalande, 1794: " Eloge de Bailly," par Lacretelle; 
 
 1 version of Arago's "Biographie." Boston, 1850; "Vie privde 
 
 ique de Bailly," Paris, 1790; "Edinburgh Review" for April, 
 
 1805. 
 
 Bailly, (Joseph,) a French physician, born in 1779, 
 wrote an " Essay on Artesian Wells." Died in 1832. 
 
 Bailly, (Joseph A.,) a skilful sculptor, born at Paris in 
 1825, came to Philadelphia in 1850. He executed, besides 
 Othei woi ks, the groups of " Adam and Eve," " Eve and 
 her two Children," and the monument of Washington 
 placed (1869)111 front of the State-House in Philadelphia. 
 
 Bailly de Juilly, bi'ye' (or bt'e-ye') deh zhii'e-ye', 
 
 (EDME Louis BarthELEMI,) a French politician, born 
 
 at Troycs in 1760. He was a moderate member of the 
 
 mal Convention in 1792-95, and opposed theexecu- 
 
 XV 1. Died in 1819. 
 
 Bailly de Monthion, bS'ye' deh m6N'te'6N', (Fran- 
 GbiiEon,) Comte, a French general, born in the 
 1 Bourbon in 1776. He fought at Marengo, and 
 i the rank of colonel at Austerlitz, 1805. He was 
 Wounded at Waterloo, where he acted as general of divi- 
 sion. Died in 1846. 
 
 Baily, ba'le, (EnWARD Hodges,) an eminent English 
 sculptor, born at Ilristol about 1788. He was a pupil of 
 Flaxman, and also studied at the Koyal Academy, where 
 he successively won the silver and the gold medals. He 
 became an academician in 1820. Among his master- 
 pieces in the department of classic and poetic sculpture 
 we may mention " Eve at the Fountain," " Hercules 
 casting Hylas into the Sea," "Psyche," "The Graces 
 Seated," and "Eve Listening to the Voice." He has 
 also produced statues of Earl Grey, Lord Mansfield, 
 Nelson, and other celebrated men. 
 
 Baily, (Francis,) an English astronomer, and writei 
 on assurances, annuities, etc., born in 1774, was a mem 
 ber of the Stock Exchange, London. He was one of 
 the founders of the Astronomical Society of London. 
 Among his most useful labours was the reorganization 
 of the " Nautical Almanac," the revision of the society's 
 catalogue of stars, and the republication in England of 
 the catalogues of Lalande and La Caille. He also made 
 valuable contributions to the "Memoirs of the Astro- 
 nomical Society," and published, among other esteemed 
 works, "The Doctrine of Life Assurances and Annui- 
 ties," (1810.) He was the author of a "Life of Flam- 
 steed." Died in 1844. 
 
 See the " Philosophical Magazine." 
 
 Baily, (Nathan.) See Bailey, (Nathan.) 
 
 Bain, (Alexander,) a distinguished Scottish writer, 
 born at Aberdeen about 1818. He graduated at Maris- 
 chal College, in his native town, in 1840. In i860 he be- 
 came professor of logic in the University of Aberdeen. 
 He has written on a great variety of subjects, including 
 logic, psychology, etc. 
 
 Bain'bridge'or Bam'bridge, (Christopher,) an 
 English prelate, born in Westmoreland about 1450, rose 
 to be Archbishop of York in 1 508. Being afterwards sent 
 by Henry VIII. on an embassy to Pope Julius II., he was 
 made Cardinal of Saint Praxede by the latter. He died 
 at Rome in 1514, and is supposed to have been poisoned. 
 
 Bainbridge, (John,) an English astronomer and 
 physician, born at Ashby-de-la-Zouch in 1582, was first 
 Savillian professor of astronomy at Oxford. ' Among his 
 writings is a "Description of the Comet of 1618." Died 
 in 1643. 
 
 See " Biographie Me'dicale." 
 
 Bain'bridge, (William,) an American commodore, 
 born at Princeton, New Jersey, in 1774. He became a 
 captain in 1800, and took command of the frigate Phila- 
 delphia, which, having run aground near Tripoli, was 
 captured, with all the crew, in October, 1803, by the gun- 
 boats of Tripoli. He was detained in captivity about 
 nineteen months. Having obtained the rank of com- 
 modore, he was appointed, in September, 1812, com- 
 mander of a squadron consisting of the Constitution, 
 of forty-four guns, the Essex, and the Hornet. He cap- 
 tured the British frigate Java, cf forty-nine guns, in 
 December, 1812, after an action in which the British 
 loss was about one hundred and seventy-four killed and 
 wounded, and the American loss thirty-three. After the 
 end of the war, he commanded a fleet in the Mediter- 
 ranean. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Thomas Harris, "Life of Commodore William Bainbridge," 
 Philadelphia, 1837. 
 
 Baines, banz, (Edward,) an English journalist, born 
 in Lancashire in 1774. He was for many years editor 
 and proprietor of the "Leeds Mercury," in which he 
 showed himself an able advocate of Catholic emancipa- 
 tion and of other important reforms. He represented 
 Leeds in Parliament from 1834 till 1841. He wrote a 
 " History of the Reign of George III.," a "History of 
 the County Palatine of Lancaster," (4 vols.,) and several 
 other works. Died in 1848. 
 
 See the " Life of Edward Baines," by his son, 1851. 
 
 Baines, (Edward,) a son of the preceding, born at 
 Leeds about 1800, succeeded his father as editor of the 
 " Leeds Mercury." He wrote a " History of the Cotton 
 Manufacture," (1835,) and a "Life of Edward Baines," 
 (his father, 1851.) In 1859 he was elected member of 
 Parliament for Leeds, and was again elected in 1868. He 
 is a decided Liberal in politics. 
 
 Baines, (John,) an English mathematician, born in 
 Yorkshire about 1786, published valuable contributions 
 to the " Mathematical Repository," " Ladies' Diary," 
 and other periodicals. Died in 1835. 
 
 Baines, (MATTHEW TauboT,) an English lawyer, a 
 son of Edward Baines, born at Leeds in 1799. He was 
 returned to Parliament by the Liberal voters of Hull in 
 1847, and was president of the poor-law board from 1849 
 to 1855. As chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, he 
 had a seat in the cabinet from 1855 to 1858. He repre- 
 sented Leeds in the House of Commons. Died in i860. 
 
 Baini, bl-ee'nee or bl'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 musician, born about 1775, was director of the pontifical 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jty See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BAINS 
 
 246 
 
 BAKER 
 
 chapel at Rome. He composed a number of sacred 
 pieces, and wrote " Historical and Critical Memoirs of 
 the Life and Works of Palestrina," (1828.) Died in 1844. 
 
 See J. Adrien de Lafage, " Notice sur J. Baini," 1845. 
 
 Bains, banz. [Fr. pron. baN,] (Michael,) a Calvinistic 
 divine, born in 1513, was a deputy from Louvain to the 
 Council of Trent. Died in 1589. 
 
 Bainville, bat/vel', (Charles,) a French painter and 
 versifier, was a relative of Boileau, who advised him to 
 cultivate painting. Died in 1754. 
 
 Bairaktar, bi'rak-ttR.', or Beirakdar, bl'rak-d&R', 
 (Mustafa Pasha,) a Turkish officer, born in 1755. In 
 the contest between Selim III. and Mustafa he was 
 the adherent of the former. After the murder of Selim 
 by Mustafa, Bairaktar, having deposed the usurper and 
 aised Mahmood to the throne, was made by him grand 
 /izier. On a revolt of the janissaries, in 1808, he put an 
 end lo his life. * 
 
 See Juchereau de Saint-Denys, "Revolutions de Constanti- 
 nople en 1807-1808," Paris, 1819. 
 
 Baird, bard, (Absalom,) an American general, born 
 at Washington, Pennsylvania, in 1824, graduated at West 
 Point in 1849. He became a captain in the regular army 
 in 1861, and a brigadier-general of volunteers in May, 
 1862. He served at Chattanooga, November, 1863, and 
 commanded a division of Sherman's army in the cam- 
 paign against Atlanta in 1864. 
 
 Baird, bSrd, (Sir David,) a distinguished general, 
 born in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in 1757. Having en- 
 tered the service in India, he was made prisoner by 
 Hyder AH in the engagement at Peramboucum, and de- 
 tained captive four years. After his release, he was cre- 
 ated general of brigade about 1797, and in 1799 headed 
 the assault on Seringapatam, which resulted in the cap- 
 ture of that place. For this splendid achievement he 
 received the thanks of Parliament, while Colonel Welles- 
 ley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, was made governor 
 of the town, though he had taken no prominent part in 
 the assault. He accompanied Lord Cathcart to Den- 
 mark in 1807, and afterwards served in the Spanish cam- 
 paign, where he was severely wounded at the battle of 
 Corunna, (1808.) He was soon after created a baronet, 
 and obtained the order of the Bath. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Theodore Hook, " Life of Sir David Baird." 1832 ; Cham- 
 bers " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Baird, (Robert,) D.D., an American theologian, born 
 in Fayette county, Pennsylvania, in 1798, studied theol- 
 ogy at Princeton, New Jersey. He took a prominent 
 part in the organization of the system of public schools 
 in New Jersey. In 1835 he went to Europe, where he 
 devoted several years to the promotion of Protestant 
 Christianity and the cause of temperance. He became 
 the agent and secretary of the American and Foreign 
 Christian Union. He published, besides other works, a 
 "Visit to Northern Europe," "A View of Religion in 
 America," (1842,) and a "History of the Waldenses, 
 Albigenses, and Vaudois." Died 111 1863. 
 
 See " Life of Robert Baird," by his son, 1866. 
 
 Baird, (Spencer F.,) LL.D., an eminent American 
 naturalist, bom at Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1823, became 
 professor of natural science in Dickinson College, and 
 afterwards assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion. Besides his other labours, he has translated and 
 edited the " Iconographic Encyclopaedia," (4 vols. 8vo, 2 
 vols, steel plates,) and published reports on the collec- 
 tions in natural history made by Stansbury, Gilliss, 
 Marcy, and others. He has also published, in conjunction 
 with J. Cassin, " The Birds of North America," (2 vols. 
 410, i860,) and the "Mammals of North America," (1 
 vol. 4to, 1 86 1.) He has studied, with great success, the 
 various divisions of the vertebrata and their distribution, 
 and has made valuable contributions to the Journal of 
 the Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia, to the pub- 
 lications of the Smithsonian Institution, etc. 
 
 Baireuth, (Frederica, Margravine ok.) See Fred- 
 erica Sophia Wilhelmina. 
 
 Bairo, bi'ro, (Pietro,) an Italian physician and medi- 
 cal writer, born at Turin in 1468; died in 1558. 
 
 Baiter, bi'ter, (John George,) a Swiss philologist, 
 born at Zurich in 1801, was professor in the university 
 of that city. He published " Oratores Attici," (183S-43,) 
 
 and, in conjunction with Orelli, "The Works of Plato, 
 (21 vols.. 1839-42.) 
 
 Baithe, bi'te, written also Beithe, (Stephen,) a 
 Hungarian botanist and Protestant theologian of the 
 sixteenth century, published several works on Botany. 
 
 See Jocher, " AUgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon," (Supplement.) 
 
 Baitz, bits, (Johann Andreas Hartmann,) a cele- 
 brated organ-maker, born at Utrecht about 1708. Among 
 the best may be named those of the churches of Zierik* 
 zee, of Groningen, and of the Mennonites at Utrecht. 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Baius, bl'us, (Jacques,) a Flemish theologian, was a 
 nephew of Michael, noticed below. Died in 1614. 
 
 Baius, bl'yus, the Latinized name of De Bay, deh ba, 
 (Michael,) a learned Flemish theologian, born at Melin, 
 in Hainault, in 1513. He was appointed by Charles V. 
 professor of divinity at Louvain in 155 1, and subsequently 
 became chancellor of that university, and inquisitor-gen- 
 eral of the Netherlands. Having published, about 1565, 
 his works on free will and grace, in which he advocates 
 the doctrines of Saint Augustine, his dogmas were de- 
 nounced by Pope Pius V., and Baius was obliged to 
 retract. His views were afterwards adopted by the Jan- 
 senists. Died in 1589. 
 
 See Sweert, "Athena? Belgicse;" Bayle, " Historical and Criti- 
 cal Dictionary." 
 
 Bajardi or Baiardi, ba-yaR'dee or bl-aR'dee, or Ba- 
 jardo or Baiardo, ba-yaR'do, (Andrea,) a mediocre 
 Italian poet, bom at Parma; died after 1520. 
 
 Bajardo, ba-yaR'do, (Giovanni Battista,) a skilful. 
 Italian painter, born at Genoa ; died prematurely in 1657. 
 
 Bajazet, or Bajaztd. See Bayazeed. 
 
 Bajon, bi'zhoN'', a French naturalist, went to Cayenne 
 in 1763, and practised there as surgeon for many years. 
 He published "Memoirs towards the History of Cayenne 
 and Guiana, etc.," (2 vols., 1778.) 
 
 Bajus. See Baius. 
 
 Bajza, bl'zoh, (Anton,) a Hungarian writer, born in 
 1804. In 1830 he succeeded Kisfaludy as editor of a lite- 
 rary journal entitled "The Aurora." He was the author 
 of "Lyric Poems," and several historical works. 
 
 Bakacs, boh'kotch', (Thomas,) a Hungarian states- 
 man of the fifteenth century, who rose from the condition 
 of a peasant to be secretary of the emperor Matthias Cor- 
 vinus. On the accession of Vladislaus II. to the throne, 
 he was made cardinal primate of Hungary, and papal 
 legate. He afterwards preached a crusade against the 
 Turks, which, however, resulted in a civil war among the 
 Hungarian nobles. Died in 1521. 
 
 Bake, ba'keh, (Jan,) a Dutch philologist, born in 1787 
 at Leyden, where he became professor of Greek and 
 Roman literature in 1817. His editions of Posidonius 
 and Cleomedes (1820) are highly esteemed. He 
 a contributor to the " Bibliotheca Critica Nova," and 
 wrote, in Latin, a number of philological essays of re- 
 markable elegance. 
 
 Bake, (Laurent,) a Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam 
 about 1650, was lord of Wulverhorst. He was the author 
 of "Biblical Poems." Died in 1714. 
 
 Bakee or Baki, ba'kee, or Abd-el-Bakee, (-Baki,) 
 abd-el-M'kee, the greatest of Turkish lyric poets, bom 
 near the beginning of the sixteenth century. In genius 
 he ranks with the Persian poet Hafiz. Died in 1600, or, 
 according to Ersch and Gruber, in 1599. 
 
 See Hammer-Purgstali., "Geschichte der Osmanischen Dicht- 
 kunst, bis auf unsere Zeit;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Ency- 
 klopaedie." 
 
 Ba'ker, (Charles,) an English philanthropist, became 
 in 1829 superintendent of the Yorkshire institution for 
 the deaf and dumb at Doncaster. He contributed valu- 
 able articles on the deaf, dumb, and blind, to the " Penny 
 Cyclopaedia" and other publications. 
 
 Baker, (David or Augustine,) a learned English 
 Benedictine monk, born near Monmouth in 1575, made a 
 valuable collection of documents, which were afterwards 
 used by Cressy in his "Church History," and by Reyner 
 in his "Apostolatus Benedictinorum." Died in 1641. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Baker, (David Erskine,) an English biographical 
 writer of the eighteenth century, was a son of Henry 
 
 
 3, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ft, y, short; a, e, |, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nflt; good; moon; 
 
BAKER 
 
 247 
 
 BALASSI 
 
 Baker, mentioned below. His " Companion to the Play- 
 house" forms a part of the work afterwards published 
 with the title of " Biographia Dramatica." Died in 1774. 
 
 Ba'ker, (Edward Dickinson,) Colonel, a Senator 
 of the United States, born in England in 181 1, was brought 
 to Pennsylvania in his childhood. He studied law in 
 Illinois, served as colonel in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) 
 was elected to Congress in 1848, and removed to Cali- 
 fornia in 1852. Having gained distinction as an orator 
 of the Republican party, he was elected a Senator of the 
 United Sutes for Oregon in i860. He made an eloquent 
 speech against disunion in the Senate, in answer to John 
 C. Breckinridge. He raised a regiment in New York 
 and Philadelphia, called the California regiment, (after- 
 wards the Seventy-first Pennsylvania,) of which he be- 
 came colonel, and commanded a brigade at Ball's Bluff, 
 where he was killed in October, 1861. 
 
 Baker, (Geoffroy,) an English monk and historian 
 of the fourteenth century. He translated into Latin the 
 history of the reigns of Edward I. and Edward II., written 
 originally in French by Thomas de la More. 
 
 Baker, (George,) an English surgeon of the sixteenth 
 century, wrote "On the Nature and Properties of Quick- 
 silver," "The Book of Distillations," and other medical 
 works. He was surgeon-in-ordinary to Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Baker, (Sir George,) an English physician and medi- 
 cal wi iter, born in Devonshire in 1722. He was a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society, of the Society of Antiquaries, and 
 of the Royal College of Physicians, of which he was 
 made president in 1797. He was appointed physician- 
 in-ordinary to George III. Died in 1809. 
 
 Baker, (HENRY,) an English naturalist, born in Lon- 
 don in 1698. About 1720 he opened a school for the 
 instruction of the deaf and dumb, which was very suc- 
 cessful ; but his method was kept secret. He published 
 a treatise entitled "The Microscope made Easy," (1743,) 
 and "Employment for the Microscope," (1764.) He 
 obtained in 1744 the Copley medal for his microscopic 
 experiments on saline particles. He had married in 1729 
 the daughter of the eminent novelist Defoe. He was a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Society of Anti- 
 quaries, and founded the Bakerian Lecture of the Royal 
 Society. Died in 1774. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Baker, (Humphrey,) an English mathematician, pub- 
 lished an arithmetical work entitled "The Well-Spring 
 of Sciences," (1562,) which was esteemed at the time. 
 
 Baker, (John,) an English admiral under the reign 
 of Queen Anne and George I., distinguished himself in 
 the expedition against the French which resulted in the 
 capture of Gibraltar, (1704.) He was afterwards em- 
 ployed in several important missions. Died in 1716. 
 
 Baker, (Sir John,) an English statesman under Henry 
 VIII., Edward VI., and Mary, rose to be chancellor of 
 the exchequer in 1545. As one of the privy council, he 
 signalized himself by his lefusal to sign the bill of Ed- 
 ward VI. excluding his sisters Mary and Elizabeth from 
 the throne. Died in 1558. 
 
 Baker, (Osman C.,) an American bishop, born at 
 Marlow, New Hampshire, in 1812. He became a pro- 
 fessor in the Methodist Biblical Institute in 1847, and a 
 bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1852. 
 
 Baker, (Richard,) an English mathematician, wrote 
 a work entitled "An Idea of Arithmetic," (1655.) 
 
 Baker, (Sir Richard,) an English historian, born 
 about 1568, was the author of a "Chronicle of the Kings 
 of England," which had great popularity in its time. It 
 was composed during the author's residence of more 
 than twenty years in Fleet prison, where he had been 
 confined for debt. Died in 1644. 
 
 Sec Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Baker, (Robert,) an English physician of the latter 
 part of the seventeenth century, was the author of a 
 treatise on the bones, entitled "Cursus Osteologicus." 
 
 Baker, (Sir Samuel White,) an English traveller, 
 born in 182 1. He explored in 1861-64 the region lying 
 around the sources of the White Nile. He published 
 accounts of his explorations, entitled "The Albert 
 N'yanza, Great Basin of the Nile," etc., (1866,) and "The 
 Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia," (1867,) besides various 
 other works. He was knighted in November, 1866. 
 
 Baker, (Thomas,) an English mathematician, born in 
 1625, was the author of "The Geometrical Key; or the 
 Gate of Equations unlocked," (1684.) Died in 1690 
 
 Baker, (Thomas,) an English antiquary, born near 
 Durham in 1656. He is principally known from his valua- 
 ble manuscript collections on the history and antiquities 
 of the University of Cambridge, which comprise in all 
 thirty-nine volumes folio. He also rendered important as- 
 sistance to Bishop Burnet, Dr. Conyers Middleton, and 
 other contemporary writers, in their works. Died in 1740. 
 
 See Masters, " Memoirs of the Life of Thomas Baker," 1784. 
 
 Baker, (William,) an English printer, born in 1742, 
 wrote " Peregrinations of the Mind, by the Rationalist," 
 (1770,) and " Remarks on the English Language." 
 
 Bake'well, (ROBERT,) an English agriculturist, born 
 in Leicestershire about 1 726. He is celebrated for the 
 improvements he introduced into stock, the principal of 
 which are the long-horned breed of cattle and the sheep 
 called by his name. Died in 1795. 
 
 Bakhtishwa, baK'tish'wa, a Nestorian of the eighth 
 century, was physician to Haroun-al-Raschid. Being 
 unable to cure the caliph in his last illness, he was or- 
 dered by the latter to be put to death ; but the death of 
 the sovereign prevented the execution of the order. 
 
 Bakhuysen. See Backhuysen. 
 
 Baki or Abd-el-Baki. See BAkee. 
 
 Bakker, bak'ker, (Gerbrand, HeVbRant,) a Dutch 
 physician, and professor of anatomy and physiology at 
 Groningen, born at Enkhuisen in 1 771. He wrote a 
 treatise, in Dutch, "On Animal Magnetism," and other 
 works in Latin. Died in 1828. 
 
 See La Faille, " Hulde aan de Nagedachtenis van G. Bakker," 
 1828. 
 
 Bakker, (Peter Huizinga — hoi-zing'Ha,) a Dutch 
 poet, born about 1718. He wrote "Satires against the 
 English," a poem on the inundation of 1740, etc. Died 
 in 1S01. 
 
 See Wagenaar, " Notice sur Bakker." 
 
 Bakon. See Bacon, (Roger.) 
 
 Baksai, bok'shT', (Abraham,) a Hungarian jurist and 
 historian of the sixteenth century, wrote, in Latin, a 
 "Chronology of the Dukes and Kings of Hungary." 
 
 Balaam, ba-la-am or ba'lam, [Heb. Q^'Sa,! a famous 
 Oriental seer, lived about 1490 B.C. (See Numbers xxii., 
 xxiii., and xxiv.) 
 
 Baladori. See Beladori. 
 
 Balaeus. See Bale. 
 
 Balamio, ba-la-mee'o, or Bal'amy, (Ferdinand,) 
 physician to Pope Leo X., was a native of Sicily. He 
 translated into Latin several works of Galen. 
 
 See Van der Linden, "De Scriptoribus Medicis. '* 
 
 Balanzac, de, deh bS'loN'ztk', (Francois de Bre- 
 mond — deh breh-moN',) Baron, a French Calvinist 
 and Protestant leader, who fought witjh distinction under 
 Henry of Navarre, in the battles of Jarnac, Coutras, etc. 
 
 See Sully, "Memoires;" Anselmb, " Histoire des grands Offi- 
 ciers de la Couronne." 
 
 Balarama, (Balarama,) commonly pronounced buT- 
 a-ra'ma, [from bala, "strength," and rama, "beautiful," 
 "pleasing," denoting perhaps a union of beauty and 
 strength,] the name of a famous Hindoo warrior, the 
 elder brother of Krishna, whom he assisted in his wars. 
 He is regarded as an incarnation of Vishnu. 
 
 See Moor's "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Balard, bS'lSR', (Antoine Jerome,) a French che- 
 mist, born at Montpellier in 1802, discovered in 1826 the 
 substance called bromium. He became a member of 
 the Academy of Sciences in 1844, and in 185 1 professor 
 of chemistry in the College of France. He was a con- 
 tributor to the "Annales de Chimie et de Physique." 
 
 Balard, (Marie Franchise Jacquete Alky,) a 
 French poetess, born at Castres in 1776; died in 1822. 
 
 See Qu^rard, "La France Littiraire." 
 
 Ba-las'sa, (or bol'osh-shoh,) (Valentine,) Count a 
 Hungarian nobleman of the sixteenth century, wro'e 
 Latin poems, and a number of popular lyrics in Hunga- 
 rian. He was killed in 1594, at the storming of Gia.ii. 
 
 See Horanyi, " Memoria Hungarorum." 
 
 Balassi, ba-las'see, (MaRio,) a Florentine painter. 
 born in 1604; died in 1667. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J[^"See Explanations, p. 2j.) 
 
BALBAN 
 
 248 
 
 BALBOA 
 
 Baibaa-Gsias-ed-Deea, or Balbaa-Gheias-ed- 
 dia, bal'ban gi'as ed-deen', King of Delhi, rose from an 
 obscure position to be vizier of Nasir-ed-Deen-Mahmood, 
 whom he succeeded in 1265. Balban was a man of 
 ability, and was celebrated for the splendour of his court, 
 and for his generosity. His name is sometimes written 
 Bulbun, according to the common Hindoo pronuncia- 
 tion. He died in 1286, and was succeeded by Kai-Kobad. 
 
 Sei Ferishta, "History of the Mahomedan Power in India," 
 translated by General Briggs. 
 
 Balbastre, btl'bfstr', (Claude Louis,) a celebrated 
 French organist, born at Dijon in 1729, was a pupil and 
 friend of Rameau. He was chiefly distinguished for his 
 great skill as a performer. By substituting the piano 
 for the harpsichord, he effected a revolution in this de- 
 partment of music. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Feti ', " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Balbe, the French of Balbo, which see. 
 
 Balbi, bal'bee, (Adriano,) an eminent geographer, 
 born at Venice in 1782. Having visited Portugal in 
 1S20, he obtained materials for his "Statistical Essay on 
 the Kingdom of Portugal and Algarve compared with 
 other States of Europe," (in French, 2 vols., 1822.) He 
 brought out in Paris in 1826 the first volume of his " Eth- 
 nographical Atlas of the Globe, or Classification of An- 
 cient and Modern Nations according to their Language," 
 (in folio.) This work, in which he has drawn inform- 
 ation from the writings of Humboldt, Champollion, 
 Adelung, and other savants, is ranked among the most 
 valuable productions of its kind. He also published 
 a " Compendium of Geography," (" Abrege de Geogra- 
 phic," I vol. 8vo,) which has been translated into the 
 principal European languages and is esteemed one of 
 the very best works on geographical science. His works 
 are written in French. He resided many years in Paris, 
 which he quitted in 1832. Died in 1848. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G&ieVale ;" Brockhaus, " Conversa- 
 tions- Lexikon." 
 
 Balbi, (Domenico,) an Italian dramatist of the seven- 
 teenth century, was a resident of Venice. 
 
 Balbi, (Gasparo,) a celebrated Venetian traveller and 
 merchant, lived in the latter half of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He visited India, where he spent nearly ten years, 
 and published, in 1590, "Travels in the East Indies," an 
 interesting and valuable work. 
 
 See Ginguenb, " Histoire Litte'raire d'ltalie." 
 
 Balbi, (Giovanni,) a Dominican monk of the thir- 
 teenth century, sometimes called Januensis, was born 
 at Genoa, in Italy. He was the author of a kind of en- 
 cyclopaedia, entitled " Catholicon," treating of theology, 
 natural history, and other branches of knowledge. It 
 was one of the first works printed by Faust and Schaeffer ; 
 the original edition is dated at Mentz, 1460. 
 
 See Altamura, " Bibliotheca Ordinis Pra^dicatorum." 
 
 Balbi or Balbo, bal'bo, (Giroi.amo,) a Venetian ec- 
 clesiastic and scholar, born in the fifteenth century, was a 
 pupil of Pomponio Leto. He was successively professor 
 of belles-lettres at the University of Paris, and of German 
 law at Vienna. Having been made Bishop of Gdritz, in 
 Carinthia, he assisted at the coronation of Charles V., 
 on which occasion he wrote a treatise " On the Corona- 
 tion of Princes." Died in 1535. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Balbi, [Lat. Bal'bus,] (Pietro,) an Italian prelate 
 and writer of the fifteenth century, was a relative of 
 ./Eneas Sylvius, afterwards Pope Pius II., under whom 
 he became Bishop of Tropea. Died in 1479. 
 
 Balbi, de, deh bil'be', La Comtesse, born in 1753, 
 was a favourite or confidante of the Count of Provence 
 before he became King Louis XVIII. She was discarded 
 about 1792. Died in 1836. 
 
 Balbiaa, vaa, vin bal'be-an, (Just,) a Dutch physi- 
 cian, born at Alost, was the author of a work which was 
 translated into Italian under the title of "II Specchiodella 
 Chimia," ("The Mirror of Chemistry.") Died in 1616. 
 
 See Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chiraie." 
 
 Balbia. See Balbinus. 
 
 Balbia, bal-ben', or Balbiao, bal-bee'no, (Paolo,) an 
 Italian philosopher and poet, became professor of medi- 
 cine at Bologna about 1724. 
 
 Bal-bi'nus, (Aloysius Boleslaus,) a Bohemian Jes- 
 uit and historian, born at Kdniggratz about 161 1. He 
 wrote, in Latin, an " Epitome of Bohemian History," and 
 " Historical Miscellanies of the Kingdom of Bohemia." 
 Died in 1688 or 1689. 
 
 See Stanislaus Wydra, " Leben A. B. Balbinus," 1788. 
 
 Bal-bi'aus, [Fr. Balbin, baTbaN',] (Decimus C<e- 
 lius,) a Roman senator who, in conjunction with Maxi- 
 mus, was proclaimed emperor in opposition to Maximi- 
 nus. The praetorian guards, dissatisfied with the new 
 emperors elected by the senate, seized them in their 
 palace, and, having put them to death, proclaimed Gor- 
 dianus emperor, 238 A. D. 
 
 See Julius Capitolinus, "Vita Balbini;" Gibbon, "Decline and 
 Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Balbis, bal'bis or bal'bess, (Giambattista,) an 
 Italian botanist, born in Piedmont in 1765, succeeded 
 Allioni as professor of botany at Turin in 1800, and in 
 1819 filled the same chair at Lyons. In conjunction 
 with his friend Nocca, he published the "Flora Ticinen- 
 sis." Died in 1831. 
 
 Balbis, (Silvio,) an Italian litterateur, born at Ca- 
 raglia, in Piedmont, in 1737, wrote, among other works, a 
 poetical paraphrase on the prophet Nahuni. Died in 1 796. 
 
 Balbo, bal'bo, (Cesare,) an Italian writer and states- 
 man, born at Turin in 1789, was appointed by Napoleon, 
 in 1812, commissioner of the Illyrian provinces. In 
 1843 he published a work entitled "Hopes of Italy," 
 (" Speranze dTtalia,") which created a great sensation 
 and obtained extensive popularity. In 1848 he was an 
 earnest advocate of the moderate party and the admin- 
 istration of D'Azeglio, and contributed a number of able 
 articles to the Turin journal " II Risorgimento." His 
 " History of Italy from the Beginning till 1814," published 
 in 1849, is a work of superior merit. Balbo also trans- 
 lated from the German, into Italian, Leo's " Exposition of 
 the Constitutions of the Lombard States." Died in 1853. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Balbo, (Girolamo.) See Balbi. 
 
 Balbo, [Fr. Balbe, bllb,] (Prospero,) Count of, a 
 Sardinian diplomatist and writer, born in 1762, was am- 
 bassador to the French republic in 1796. He became 
 successively rector of the University of Turin, minister 
 of the interior, and president of the Academy of Sciences. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 See L. Cibrario, " Notizie biografiche del Conte P. Balbo," 1837. 
 
 Balboa, bal-bo'a, (Miguel Cavello — kii-veTyo,) a 
 Spanish missionary who visited South America about 
 1566 and collected materials for a " History of Peru," 
 which was published in French, (Paris, 1840.) 
 
 Balboa, de, da bal-bo'a, (Don Francisco,) a native 
 of Italy, who became counsellor of the Spanish Inquisi- 
 tion, lived in the seventeenth century. He wrote, in 
 Latin, a treatise "On the Law of Monarchy," (1630.) 
 
 Balboa, de, (Vasco Nunez,) a celebrated Spanish 
 navigator and discoverer, born at Xeres de los Cabal- 
 leros, in Estremadura, about 1475. Having accompanied 
 Bastidas in his expedition to the West Indies in 1 501, 
 he joined, while at Hayti, in 15 10 the party of Enciso, a* 
 lieutenant of the navigators Ojeda and Nicuesa, both 
 then absent. They founded on the Isthmus of Panama 
 the town of Santa Maria de la Antigua ; but dissensions 
 soon after breaking out between them, the partisans of 
 Balboa prevailed, and he was chosen leader of the expe- 
 dition. Having obtained reinforcements froiy Columbus' 
 at Hispaniola, he proceeded to explore the Isthmus of 
 Darien, and on the 29th of September, 1513, discovered 
 from the summit of a mountain the vast expanse of the 
 Pacific Ocean. Kneeling, he returned thanks to God for 
 permitting him to make this great discovery, and, having 
 erected a cross upon the spot, he descended to the shore, 
 and, standing in the water, took possession of the sea 
 and the adjacent countries in the name of the sovereigns 
 of Castile. Meanwhile, his rival Enciso had traduced 
 him to the Spanish government, and Pedrarias Davila 
 was sent to supersede and try him for having usurped 
 Enciso's command. Balboa was at length appointed 
 deputy under Pedrarias, but eventually fell a victim to 
 the jealousy and ill will of the latter, who caused him to 
 be executed on a charge of treasonable designs, (1517.) 
 In his intercourse with the Indians Balboa displayed 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ti, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m8t; n6t; good; moon. 
 
BALBUENA 
 
 249 
 
 BALDER 
 
 great humanity and prudence, and, in the words of a 
 contemporary writer, " was the best lance and the best 
 head that ever protected a camp in a land of idolatrous 
 savages." 
 
 See W. Irving, " Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions o( 
 Columbus;" M. J. Quintana, "Vidas de Espanoles celebres;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neYale." 
 
 Balbuena, de, da bal-bwa'na, (Bernardo,) a Spanish 
 poet and ecclesiastic, born at Val-de-Penas in 1568, was 
 appointed Bishop of Porto Rico, in the West Indies, in 
 1620. He was the author of a pastoral romance entitled 
 "The Age of Gold," ("El Siglo de Oro,") which was 
 republished by the Spanish Academy, (1821,) "El Ber- 
 nardo," an epic poem, and a number of lyrics. Died 
 at Porto Rico in 1627. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Bal'bus, (L. Cornelius,) surnamed Ma'jor, a native 
 des, lived in the first century B.C., served under 
 Metellus, Memmius, and Pompey, and in 61 B.C. accom- 
 panied Caesar to Spain. In the contest between Pompey 
 and Caesar he was an adherent and intimate friend of the 
 latter, and was intrusted by him with the management of 
 his affairs at Rome. After Caesar's death, Balbus attached 
 himself to Octavius, through whose influence he was 
 made consul in 40 B.C., being the first one not born a 
 Roman citizen who had received that honour. He wrote 
 a diary (not extant) of the prominent events of his own 
 and Caesar's life. 
 
 Balbus, (L. Cornelius,) called Mi'nor, nephew of 
 the preceding, born at Gades, was quaestor to Asinius 
 Pollio in Spain in 43 B.C. After acquiring a large for- 
 tune by oppression and fraud, he went to Africa, where 
 he subsequently became proconsul. For his victory 
 over the Garamantes, a triumph was decreed him at 
 Rome. He built a theatre at Rome supported by pil- 
 lars of onyx. 
 
 Ballus, (L Lucilius,) a Roman jurist, supposed to 
 have been a brother of the Stoic philosopher Q. Lucilius 
 Balbus. He was a pupil of Mucius Scaevola. 
 
 Balbus, (L. Octavius,) an eminent Roman lawyer, 
 who, being informed of his proscription by the triumvirs 
 Augustus, Antony, and Lepidus, effected his escape, but, 
 on hearing that his son's life was in danger, returned to 
 his house, where he was slain by the soldiers. 
 
 Balbus, (M. Atius,) a Roman, who became praetor 
 in 62 B.C., and governor of Sardinia. He married the 
 sister of Julius Caesar, and their daughter Atia was the 
 mother of Octavius. 
 
 Balbus, (Q. Lucilius,) a Stoic philosopher, and pupil 
 of Panaetius, highly commended by Cicero, who makes 
 him one of the interlocutors in his Dialogue " On the 
 Nature of the Gods." 
 
 Balbus, (Sp. Thorius,) a Roman orator, became tri- 
 bune about in B.C. He introduced an agrarian law, 
 some fragments of which still remain on bronze tablets. 
 
 Balbus, (T. Ampius,) a tribune in 63 B.C., and again 
 in 59, was a partisan of Pompey during the civil war. 
 He was subsequently banished" by Caesar, but was after- 
 wards pardoned through the intercession of Cicero. 
 
 Balbus surnamed Men'sor, (the "Measurer,") a 
 Roman engineer, lived in the reign of Augustus, and 
 compiled and superintended a register or census of the 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 Barcan-qual, (Walter,) a Scottish prelate in the 
 time of James I. of England, became Bishop of Dur- 
 ham. He wrote " Letters on the Synod of Dort," and 
 " 1 teclaration of Charles I. concerning the Late Tumults 
 in Scotland." Died in 1642. 
 
 Bal-car'res or Bal-car'ras, (Colin,) Earl of, a 
 Scottisli writer, born in 1649, published a "Brief Account 
 of the Affairs of Scotland relating to the Revolution of 
 1688," (1714.) Died in 1722. 
 
 See Macaitlav's " History of England," vol. iii. 
 
 Bal'chen, (Sir John,) an English admiral, born in 
 1669, served with distinction in the Spanish wars of 
 1707 and 1739, and was sent in 1744 to the assistance of 
 .irks I lardy, then blockaded in the Tagus by the 
 French. On his return, he perished by shipwreck off 
 the coast of Jersey, together with nearly twelve hundred 
 men. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Baldacchini, bal-dak-kee'nee, (Filippo,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Cortona, lived in the early part of the six- 
 teenth century. He was patronized by Leo X., and held 
 the offices of prothonotary and apostolic referendary at 
 Rome. . 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Baldassari, bal-das-sa'ree, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 naturalist and physician, born about 1705, was a resi- 
 dent of Sienna. He made several useful discoveries in 
 chemistry, and wrote treatises on the mineral waters of 
 Tuscany. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Baldasseroni, bal-dJs-sa-ro'nee, (Giovanni,) an Ital- 
 ian statesman, born at Leghorn in 1790, became in 1847 
 minister of finance of Tuscany. As president of the new 
 conservative cabinet, (1849,) he advocated the laws re- 
 straining the liberty of the press. 
 
 Baldasseroni, (Pompeo,) an Italian jurist, born at 
 Leghorn about 1750. He wrote, among other works, 
 " Laws and Customs of Exchange," (3 vols., 4th edition, 
 1805,) which has a high reputation. Died in 1807. 
 
 Baldassini, bal-das-see'nee, (Girolamo,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Jesi about 1720, was the author of " His- 
 torical Memoirs of the City of Jesi." Died in 1780. 
 
 Baldaya, bal-da'ya or bal-di'a, (Alfonso Gonzales,) 
 a Portuguese explorer in the service of the Infant Don 
 Henry, visited the western coast of Africa in 1434. He 
 penetrated thirty leagues beyond Cape Bojador, and the 
 following year arrived at the port since named Puerto de 
 Cavallero. 
 
 See J0A0 de Barros, "Asia Portugueza, Decada Primeira." 
 
 Balde, bal'deh, (Jakob,) a learned Jesuit, and one of 
 the best Latin poets of modern times, born at Ensisheim, 
 in Alsace, in 1603. He became court chaplain to the 
 Prince-Elector of Bavaria. His satires, odes, elegies, 
 idyls, and lyrics are highly commended by Schlegel and 
 Herder, and a number of his songs have been translated 
 by the latter. Died in 1668. 
 
 See F. C. F. Clesca, " Balde's Leben und Schriften," 1842. 
 
 Balde, bal'deh, [Lat. Balm/us,] (Philip,) a Dutch 
 missionary of the seventeenth century, resided ten years 
 in Ceylon. He wrote, in Dutch, a "Description of the 
 Island of Ceylon, Malabar, and Coromandel," (1672.) 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Baldelli, bal-deVlee, (Francesco,) an Italian scholar 
 and Latin poet, lived in the latter half of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, was a native of Tortona. He made translations from 
 Philostratus, Eusebius, Dio Cassius, and other classics. 
 
 Baldelli, (Giambattista,) an Italian litterateur, born 
 at Cortona in 1766, published editions of Macchiavelli, 
 Boccaccio, and Marco Polo, and wrote an " Essay on 
 Petrarch and his Works." Died in 1831. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Balder, bal'der, or Baldur, bal'dur, [from balldr, 
 "strong," "brave," "good,"*] in the Norse mythology, 
 the second son of Odin, often designated as " Balder the 
 Good," is supposed to represent the brightness of the 
 summer sun. He is very beautiful, and makes all things 
 bright and cheerful : hence he has been called the 
 Apollo of the North. He is the comforter of the un- 
 fortunate, and is beloved by all. His dwelling-place is 
 Breidablik, (i.e. "widely shining,") where nothing im- 
 pure can enter. It is related that Balder dreamed one 
 night that his life was in imminent peril. When he 
 told his dream, the gods were exceedingly distressed, and 
 his mother Frigga exacted an oath from all things — from 
 fire, water, iron, stones, from beasts and birds and ven- 
 omous reptiles — that they would not in any way injure 
 her beloved Balder. But from the mistletoe she exacted 
 no oath, because it seemed so feeble and insignificant 
 that it could not possibly be a source of danger. After 
 she had thus bound all nature, as she supposed, to spare 
 her favourite son, the gods were accustomed, by way of 
 sport, to have Balder stand forth while they shot at him 
 with their bows and threw stones at him, to all which 
 assaults he was completely invulnerable. But when 
 Loki, the god of evil, discovered that the mistletoe had 
 
 • Orimm supposes that, like the Lithuanian baltas, the name origin- 
 ally signified both "white" and "good." 
 
 k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, II, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this. (2^r— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 « at 
 
BALDERIC 
 
 250 
 
 BALDUCCI 
 
 taken no oath not to injure Balder, he procured the 
 plant, and came to the assembly of the gods. There he 
 found Hie blind god Hoder standing apart by himself. 
 Loki asked him why he did not throw something at Bal- 
 der as well as. the rest. " Because I am blind," said he, 
 "and have nothing to throw." "Come," said the 
 tempter, "do like the rest; show honour to Balder by 
 casting this trifle at him, and I will direct your hand." 
 Hoder did as he was told, and Balder, pierced through 
 by the fatal mistletoe, fell daad. When they saw what 
 had been done, all the gods were struck speechless, and 
 became paralyzed with astonishment and grief. But 
 after a time Hermod, at Frigga's desire, visited the realm 
 of death, riding Odin's horse Sleipnir. Having reached 
 the world of shades, he besought Hela to release Balder, 
 so greatly beloved by all, that he might return to Asgard, 
 (the habitation of the gods.) Hela answered that if Bal- 
 der was ip.deed so universally beloved he would be uni- 
 versally lamented ; and if it came to pass that everything 
 wept for him, then he should return to the gods, but if 
 anything whatever failed to weep, he must remain in the 
 realm of death. Thereupon the /Esir sent messengers 
 over all the world, entreating all things to weep for Bal- 
 der. And all did so — everything animate and inanimate 
 — until the messengers came to a cavern where dwelt a 
 giant hag named Thok, (or Thokt.) She answered their 
 request with jeers : 
 
 "Is Balder dead? and do ye come for tears? 
 Thok with dry eyes will weep o'er Balder's pyre. 
 Weep him all other things, if weep they will — ■ 
 I weep him not: let Hela keep her prey."* 
 
 It afterwards appeared that it was no other than Loki 
 himself (see Loki) who had thus assumed the form of 
 the hag Thok, in order to prevent Balder's restoration 
 to life. The explanations usually given of the myth of 
 Balder are not very satisfactory. 
 
 See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i., particularly pp. 
 185-6; Kevser's "Religion of the Northmen," pp. 144-5; Mal- 
 let's " Northern Antiquities," vol." ii., Fables xii., xxviii., and xxix. ; 
 Petersen's " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Balderic, baul'der-ik, or Baudry, bo'dre, [Fr. pron. 
 bo'dRe'; Lat. Balderi'cus,J a French ecclesiastic, born 
 at Meun-sur-Loire about 1050, was created Bishop of Dol 
 in 1 107. Among his works are a " Life of Robert d'Ar- 
 brissel," an enlargement of " Theudebode's History of 
 the First Crusade," and a Latin poem on the Conquest 
 of England by the Normans. Died in 1 130. 
 
 See " Histoire Litteraire de la France," tome viii. 
 
 Balderic or Balderi'cus, sui named Ru'keus, or the 
 Red, a French chronicler of the eleventh century, was 
 Bishop of Noyon and Tournay. His principal work is a 
 "Chronicle of Cambray and Arras, from the Reign of 
 Clovis to 1090." Died in 1097. 
 
 Baldeschi. See Baldus, (Angelo.) 
 
 Baldi, bal'dee, [Lat. Bal'dus,] a Florentine physician, 
 and professor of medicine in the College di Sapienza at 
 Rome, was employed by Popes Urban VIII. and Inno- 
 cent X. Died in 1645. 
 
 Baldi, (Bernardino,) called also Baldi d'Urbiuo 
 — dooR-bee'no, [in French, Baldi d'Urbin — duR'ban',] 
 abbot of Guastalla, an Italian scholar, celebrated for 
 profound and varied learning, born at Urbino in 1553. 
 He studied mathematics and classical literature at Padua, 
 where Commandino was one of his teachers. Among 
 his works, which amount to nearly one hundred, we may 
 mention a " History of Calvinism," " Life of Federigo 
 Commandino," a number of eclogues, sonnets, and other 
 poems, and a "Chronicle of Mathematicians." He 
 translated the " Automata" of Hero, and wrote valuable 
 commentaries on Vitruvius and the "Mechanics" of 
 Aristotle, (1621.) He also prepared vocabularies of the 
 Turkish and Hungarian languages, and translated into 
 Italian the Geography of Edrisi. Died at Urbino in 161 7. 
 
 See Baffo, "Vita di Bernardino Baldi;" Isidoro Grassi, "Bal- 
 dus redivivus seu B. Baldi Vita," Parma, 1717; Ireneo Aff6, "Vita 
 di Monsignor B. Baldi d'Urbino," 1783. 
 
 Baldi, (Camillo,) an Italian philosophical writer, born 
 at Bologna about 1 547, was professor of logic in his native 
 city. Died in 1634. 
 
 •See the fine poem by Matthew Arnold, entitled " Balder Dead," 
 which is itself almost an epitome of Northern mythology. 
 
 Baldi, (Giuseppe,) a Florentine physician of the 
 seventeenth century, was the author of a valuable work 
 on mushrooms. 
 
 Baldi, (Lazarro,) an Italian painter, born at Pistoia 
 about 1623, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. Among 
 his master-pieces are the " Repose in Egypt," and an 
 "Annunciation." Died in 1703. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Baldi, (Valentino,) a painter of the Florentine 
 school, born at Pistoia in 1744 ; died in 1816. 
 
 Baldi deTJbaldis, bal'dee da oo-bal'dess, (Pietro,) 
 an Italian jurist and legal writer of the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, was a native of Perugia, where he became professor 
 of law. Died in 1400. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Baldi d'Urbin. See Baldi, (Bernardino.) 
 
 Baldinger, Ml'ding-er, (Ernst Gottfried,) an emi-. 
 nent German physician, born near Erfurt in 1738. He 
 became professor of medicine at Gottingen in 1773. 
 Among his pupils were Blumenbach and Akermann, 
 He published, besides many other medical and botanical 
 works, a treatise "On the Diseases of Soldiers," (1763.) 
 Died at Marburg in 1804. 
 
 See G. F. Creuzer, "Memoria E. G. Baldingeri," 1804. 
 
 Baldini, biil-dee'nee, (Baccio, bat'cho,) a Florentine 
 engraver of the fifteenth century, was originally a gold- 
 smith. He executed, among other prints, a number of 
 illustrations for Dante. He was the contemporary, and 
 is said to have been the pupil, of Finiguerra. 
 
 See Le Blanc, "Manuel de l'Amateur d'Estampes." 
 
 Baldini, (Baccio,) professor of medicine at Pisa, and 
 first physician to Cosimo I., Grand Duke of Tuscany, was 
 director of the Laurentian Library. He wrote a " Life 
 of Cosimo I.," (1578,) and other works. Died in 1585. 
 
 Baldini, (Bernardino,) an Italian mathematician and 
 physician, born near Lake Maggiore about 15 15 ; died in 
 1600. 
 
 Baldini, (Fra Tiburzio,) an Italian painter of Bo- 
 logna, is supposed to have lived about 1610. 
 
 Baldini, (Giovanni,) a Florentine painter, lived about. 
 1500, and was the master of Garofalo. 
 
 Baldini, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian natural- 
 ist and priest, born at Brescia in 1677 ; died in 1765. 
 
 Baldinucci, bal-de-noot'chee, (Filippo,) an Italian 
 writer on art, born at Florence about 1624, was patron- 
 ized by the Grand Duke Cosimo III. He published an 
 important work entitled " Notices of the Professors of 
 Design (Painters) from Cimabue, 1260-1670," ("Notizie 
 de' Professori del Disegno," etc., 6 vols. 4to, 1681-88, 
 4th edition, 14 vols., 1808,) which is highly esteemed. 
 Died in 1696. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Baldit, bfl'de', (Michel,) a French physician of the, 
 seventeenth century, wrote " Wonders of the Waters of. 
 Bagnols," (1651,) and other works. 
 
 Bal'dockor Bau'dake.de, (Ralph,) an English pre- 
 late and statesman of the thirteenth century, was created; 
 Bishop of London in 1304. He was lord chancellor of 
 England for a short time under Edward I. He is said 
 to have written a " History of England," which has bca\ 
 lost. Died in 13 14. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Baldovinetti, bal-do-ve-net'tee, or Balduinetti, 
 bil-doo-e-neYtee, (Alessio,) a Florentine painter and 
 worker in mosaics, born in 1424, was a pupil of Uccello, 
 and the teacher of Domenico Ghirlandaio. Died in 1499. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Baldovini, Ml-do-vee'nee, (Francesco,) a Floren- 
 tine poet, born in- 1635, was the author of a comic idyl 
 entitled "The Lament of Cecco da Varlungo," (1694,)! 
 which is very popular in Italy. Died in 1716. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia;" Domenico Maria 
 Manni, "Vita del priore dottore F. Baldovini," 1769. 
 
 Baldovino. See Baldwin. 
 
 Baldrighi, b&l-dRee'gee, (Giuseppe,) a painter of the 
 school of Parma, born at Pavia about 1722; died in 
 1802. 
 
 Balducci,b51-doot'chee, (Francesco,) a Sicilian poe$ 
 of the seventeenth century, was a native of Palermo. 
 His lyrics in the Sicilian dialect are highly esteemed, and 
 
 3, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, ?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n5t; good; w 
 
 S 
 
BALDUCCI 
 
 25' 
 
 BALDWIN 
 
 he is regarded by some critics as one of the best Anacre- 
 ontic poets of Italy. Died at Rome in 1642. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Balducci, (Giovanni,) an Italian sculptor and archi- 
 tect, born at Pisa in the latter part of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury. Among his master-pieces is the sculptured shrine 
 it Peter in the church of Saint Eustorgio at Milan. 
 He was living in 1347. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Balducci, (Giovanni,) surnamed Cosci, an Italian 
 painter of the sixteenth century, was a native of Florence. 
 Among his best works is "The Finding of the Cross," 
 in the church of La Crocetta. He painted frescos in 
 Florence, Rome, and Pistoia. Died at Naples in 1600. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Balduin. See Baldwin, (Thomas.) 
 
 Balduin, bal'doo-een, (Christian Adolf,) a Ger- 
 man savant, born near Meissen in 1632, was the author 
 of a work entitled " Hermes Curiosus," and other chemi- 
 cal treatises. Died in 1682. 
 
 Balduiu, (Friedrich,) a German Lutheran writer, 
 bom at Dresden in 1575, was professor of theology at 
 Prague. Died in 1627. 
 
 \. G. Neumann, "Programma de Vita F. Balduini," 1709. 
 
 Balduiuus. See Baldwin and Baudouin. 
 
 Baldung, bal'doong, (Hans,) sometimes called Grtin, 
 an eminent German painter and engraver, born at 
 Gmund, in Suabia, about 1470. His works include his- 
 torical pictures and portraits ; among the latter may be 
 named those of Maximilian I. and Charles V. His " Cru- 
 cifixion," in the cathedral of Freiburg, is ranked among 
 his master-pieces. He was a friend of Albert Diirer, to 
 whom he is considered nearly equal. He executed a 
 number of wood-cuts and copper-plates. Died about 1550. 
 
 Baldus, the Latin of Baldi, which see. 
 
 Bal'dus or Baldeschi, bal-des'kee, (Angelo,) some- 
 times called Angelua Baldus de Ubaldis, an emi- 
 nent Italian jurist, born at Perugia about 1325, was pro- 
 fessor of law successively at Pisa, Bologna, Florence, and 
 Padua. He wrote " Commentaries on the Old and the 
 N 1 '■ 1 ligests," " Lectures on the Three Books of Decre- 
 tals," and other legal works of great merit. Died in 1400. 
 Savignv, "Geschichte des Rbmischen Rechts im Mittelalter." 
 
 Baldwin, bauld'win, [Fr. Baudouin, bod'waN', or 
 Balduin, bil'dwaN'; Lat. Baldui'nus ; It. Baldo- 
 vino, bal-do-vee'no,] first Count of Flanders, surnamed 
 Bras de Fer, (" Iron Arm,") acquired his title about 860 
 A.D. Having married Judith, daughter of Charles the 
 Bald. King of France, against the will of the latter, he 
 was excommunicated by the pope, Nicholas I., at the 
 ation of Charles. He afterwards obtained absolu- 
 rom the pope, and was reconciled to the king, who 
 made Flanders a county. Died in 877. 
 
 See Lf Hkoussart, "Memoires sur les Baudouin, Comtes de 
 re," Brussels, 182a 
 
 Baldwin II., Count of Flanders, a son of the preced- 
 ing, was engaged in wars against Charles the Simple, King 
 mce, and Eudes, Count of Paris. He married Alfrith, 
 daughter of Alfred the Great of England. Died in 918. 
 
 Baldwin III., Count of Flanders, grandson of the 
 preceding, began to reign in 958. He died about 1034. 
 
 Baldwin IV, Count of Flanders, surnamed the 
 DED, succeeded his father, Baldwin III. He in- 
 creased his dominions by the conquest of Valenciennes, 
 and established commercial fairs in the Flemish cities. 
 Died in 1036. 
 
 Baldwin V., Count of Flanders, surnamed of Lille, 
 and sometimes LE Dehonnaire, (leh da'bo'neV,) was 
 the son of Baldwin IV. He obtained by conquest several 
 considerable districts in Germany, which he retained 
 as a fief of the empire. On the death of Henry I. of 
 Fiance, Count Baldwin became guardian to his son Philip, 
 and regent of the kingdom. He gave his daughter Ma- 
 tilda in marriage to William of Normandy, whom he 
 accompanied in the invasion of England. Died in 1067. 
 
 Bald-win VI., Count of Flanders, was the son of 
 Baldwin V., and was surnamed THE Good, and also 
 OF Moss. He assigned the county of Flanders to Ar- 
 noul, his eldest son, and Hainault to Baldwin, the second 
 (on. Died in 1070. 
 
 ease 
 
 Baldwin VH., Count of Flanders, surnamed Hap- 
 kin, from a kind of axe used in the execution of outlaws 
 in his reign. He was an ally of Louis le Gros of France 
 against Henry I. of England. Died in 1 1 19. 
 
 Baldwin VIII., Count of Flanders and Hainault, 
 was the enemy of Philip Augustus of France until 1192, 
 when he was reconciled and did homage to him. The 
 counties of Flanders and Hainault were united in his 
 reign. Died in 1 195. 
 
 See Le Broussart, "Memoires sur les Baudouin, Comtes de 
 Flandre." 
 
 Baldwin IX., [Gr. BaMovlvoc ; Lat. Baldui'nus,] 
 son of the preceding, Count of Flanders, afterwards 
 Baldwin I., Emperor of Constantinople, was born in 1171. 
 He joined the fourth crusade in 1200, and on arriving at 
 Zara with a fleet commanded by Dandolo was solicited 
 by Alexius, son of the deposed emperor Isaac, to aid in 
 restoring his father to the throne. He promised them 
 in return to acknowledge the supremacy of the pope and 
 to grant them pecuniary assistance. The crusaders suc- 
 ceeded in defeating the usurper ; but, the people being 
 unwilling to perform the promises of Alexius, hostilities 
 broke out between them, and after a siege of three months 
 Constantinople was taken in 1204, and Baldwin elected 
 emperor. He was subsequently defeated and made 
 prisoner by the Bulgarians in 1205. He died in 1206, 
 and was succeeded by his brother Henry. 
 
 See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" A. Cahour, " Baudouin 
 de Constantinople," 1850; J. J. DE Smbt, "Memoire historique sur 
 Baudouin IX." 1846. 
 
 Baldwin II., Emperor of Constantinople, born in 121 7, 
 ascended the throne in 1228. In 1261 his capital was taken 
 by Michael Palasologus, and Baldwin effected his escape to 
 Italy, where he died. He was a nephew of Baldwin I. 
 
 Baldwin I., [Fr. Baudouin, bod'waN'; It. Bai.do- 
 vino, bal-do-vee'no,] King of Jerusalem, and a brother 
 of the celebrated Godfrey of Bouillon, whom he ac- 
 companied in 1096 on the first crusade. He fought with 
 distinguished bravery against the infidels, and, being 
 afterwards invited by the Christian inhabitants of Edessa 
 to become their ruler, he assumed the title of Count of 
 Edessa. On the death of his brother Godfrey in 1 100 he 
 succeeded him as King of Jerusalem. He gained import- 
 ant victories over the Saracens, and captured Sidon, Asca- 
 lon, Acre, and other cities. He died in 1 118. Tasso, in his 
 "Jerusalem Delivered," has finely contrasted the charac- 
 ter of Baldwin with that of Godfrey, and represents the 
 former as actuated wholly by ambitious motives. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Le Beau, 
 "Histoire du Bas-Empire." 
 
 Baldwin II., surnamed DU Bourg, (du booR,) a cousin 
 of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 1 1 18. He was 
 engaged in numerous wars against the Arabs and Sara- 
 cens. During his reign the military orders of Saint John 
 and the Templars were established for the defence of 
 the Holy Land. He died in 1 131, leaving the crown tc 
 his son-in-law, Foulques of Anjou. 
 
 See Ordericus Vitalis, "Historia." 
 
 Baldwin III., born in 11 30, was the son of Foulques 
 of Anjou, whom he succeeded in 1 142. His country was 
 invaded in 1 145 by Zenghi, Sultan of Aleppo, who took 
 possession of Edessa. Baldwin fought with varying suc- 
 cess against the celebrated Noor-ed-Deen, (Noureddin,) 
 son of Zenghi. He died in 1163, and was succeeded by 
 his brother, Amalric or Amaury. 
 
 Baldwin IV., King of Jerusalem, surnamed THE 
 Leper, born in 1160, was the son of Amaury, whom he 
 succeeded in 1174. In 1182 he gained a signal victory 
 over the famous Saladin near Tiberias, but was after- 
 wards several times defeated by him. He died in 1186, 
 and was succeeded by his nephew, Baldwin V., who died 
 in childhood about 1187. 
 
 See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire." 
 
 Bald'win, (Thomas,) surnamed Devo'nius, (i.e. "of 
 , Devonshire,") an English prelate, born at Exeter, Devon- 
 1 shire, about 1150, became Bishop of Worcester and after- 
 wards Archbishopof Canterbury,(n84.) Having crowned 
 Richard I. in 11 80, he accompanied him the following year 
 to the Holy Land, but died at Acre soon after his arrival. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 I vol. ii. chap. ix. 
 
 ; c as 3; g hard; g as/; c, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BALDWIN 
 
 252 
 
 BALGU7 
 
 Bald'wiu, (Abraham,) an American statesman, born 
 in Connecticut in 1754. Having removed to Savannah, 
 Georgia, he was elected a delegate to Congress in 1786, 
 and was a member of the convention which formed the 
 Constitution of the United States. He was elected a 
 Senator of the United States by the legislature of Geor- 
 gia in 1799. He was a brother-in-law of Joel Barlow. 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Baldwin, (Henry,) an American jurist, born at New 
 Haven, Connecticut, in 1779. He removed to Pennsyl- 
 vania, where he was several times elected to Congress. 
 He was appointed judge of the supreme court of the 
 United States in 1830. Died in 1844. 
 
 Baldwin, (Roger Sherman,) a United States Sena- 
 tor, born in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1793. He 
 graduated at Yale in 181 1. In 1844 he was elected by 
 the Whig party Governor of the State, and was re-elected 
 in 1845. From 1847 to 1851 he was a United States 
 Senator. In 1841 Governor Baldwin distinguished him- 
 self as associate counsel with John Quincy Adams in the 
 famous African Amistad trial before the supreme court 
 of the United States. Died in 1863. 
 
 Baldwin, (Thomas,) D.D., an eminent Baptist divine, 
 born in Norwich, Connecticut, in 1753. He became 
 pastor of the Second Baptist Church in Boston in 1790. 
 He took an important part in establishing Waterville 
 College, Maine, also Columbia College, in the District 
 of Columbia. Dr. Baldwin was author of a work in 
 defence of the religious views of the Baptists, and of 
 numerous published sermons. Died in 1825. 
 
 Baldwin, (William,) an English divine and moralist, 
 published a "Treatise of Moral Philosophy," (1549,) and 
 was one of the authors or editors of a " Mirror for Magis- 
 trates." Died about 1564. 
 
 Bale, [Lat. Bal/e'us,J (John,) a learned prelate and 
 biographical writer, born in Suffolk in 1495. Being per- 
 secuted on account of his conversion to Protestantism, 
 he repaired to Holland, where he remained till the acces- 
 sion of Edward VI. After his return he was created in 
 1552 Bishop of Ossory in Ireland. He was again obliged 
 to leave England during the reign of Mary, and resided 
 in Switzerland until the accession of Elizabeth. His 
 most important work is entitled " Catalogue of the Il- 
 lustrious Writers of Great Britain," (in Latin.) He also 
 wrote a number of dramatic pieces on religious subjects, 
 and several theological treatises. His severe attacks on 
 the Catholics have caused his writings to be prohibited 
 by that church. Died in 1563. 
 
 See Tanner, " Bibliotheca Britannico-Hibemica ;" Pitseus, "De 
 Scriptoribus Anglias. " 
 
 Bale, (Robert,) a Catholic theologian of the fifteenth 
 century, was prior of the Carmelites, at Norwich. Died 
 in 1503. 
 
 Balechou, bi'la'shoo', (Jean Joseph Nicolas,) a 
 celebrated French engraver, born at Aries in 171 5. His 
 full-length portrait of Augustus, King of Poland, is 
 esteemed a master-piece of its kind. Among his other 
 works are "The Calm" and "The Tempest," after Ver- 
 net, and "Saint Genevieve," after Vanloo. Died in 1765. 
 
 See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Balen, van, vSn ba'len, or Ballen, bal'len, (Hen- 
 DRIK,) an eminent Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 
 1560, was a pupil of Adam van Oort, and excelled both 
 in design and colouring. His "Judgment of Paris," "Saint 
 John in the Wilderness," and " Festival of the Gods," 
 are among his master-pieces. He numbered among his 
 scholars Van Dyck and Snyders. Died in 1632. 
 
 His son John, born in 161 1, was a painter. Died after 
 1650. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands." 
 
 Bales, balz, (Peter,) a celebrated English calligrapher, 
 born in London in 1547. It is related by Evelyn that he 
 wrote within the circle of a penny the Lord's Prayer, the 
 Decalogue, the Creed, two Latin prayers, his own name, 
 motto, and date. Died in 1610. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Balestra, ba-leVtRa, (Antonio,) an eminent Italian 
 painter, born at Verona in 1666, was a pupil of Carlo 
 Maratta. His " Defeat of the Giants" gained a prize 
 from the Academy of Saint Luke. His " Saint Theresa" 
 
 and " Descent from the Cross" are also esteemed mas- 
 ter-pieces. Died in 1740. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Baley. See Bailey, (Walter.) 
 
 Balfe, balf, (Michael William,) an eminent musi- 
 cian and composer, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1808. He 
 performed on the violin in his youth, and went to Italy 
 about 1825, after which he produced many operas, and 
 became distinguished as a singer. Among his operas are 
 "Joan of Arc," "The Daughter of Saint Mark," "The 
 Bohemian Girl," which had a great success, " The Maid 
 of Honour," and "The Rose of Castile." Died in 1870. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Balfour, bal'foor or bal'fur, (Alexander,) a Scottish 
 litterateur, born in Forfarshire in 1767, was the author of 
 novels entitled "Campbell, or the Scottish Probationer," 
 and " The Foundling of Glenthorn," (1823.) He also 
 published a volume of poems, and contributed to the 
 " Edinburgh Review." Died in 1829. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Balfour, (Andrew,) a Scottish naturalist of the seven- 
 teenth century, founded at Edinburgh a botanical garden 
 and museum. The " Balfouria," a genus of Australian 
 plants, was named in his honour. 
 
 Balfour, (Francis,) a Scottish physician of the eigh- 
 teenth century, was a native of Edinburgh. He resided 
 many years in Calcutta, and published a treatise "On 
 the Influence of the Moon in Fevers," (1784,) and seve- 
 ral works on the diseases of hot climates. 
 
 Balfour, (Sir James,) a Scottish courtier and intriguer 
 of the sixteenth century. He became a lord of session 
 about 1563, and was implicated in the conspiracy against 
 Damley. In 1567 he was appointed by Queen Mary 
 captain of Edinburgh Castle, which he afterwards deliv- 
 ered to her enemies. He became in 1568 a partisan of 
 Regent Murray, who promoted him to the office of lord 
 president of tl\e court of session ; but he soon deserted 
 to the party of Queen Mary, and was attainted by Par- 
 liament in 1571. He betrayed all parties in turn, and 
 was accessory to the destruction of the regent Morton, 
 who was executed for the murder of Damley in 1581. 
 Died in 1583. 
 
 See Knox, "History of the Reformation;" Chambers, " Bio- 
 
 fraphica! Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Burton, "History of 
 cotland." 
 
 Balfour, (Sir James,) a Scottish antiquary and annal- 
 ist. He wrote some treatises on heraldry, and a brief 
 history of the kings of Scotland, which remained in 
 manuscript until 1824. Died in 1657. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Balfour, (John Hutton,) F.R.S., an eminent Brit- 
 ish botanist and physician, was born in Edinburgh in 
 1S08, and succeeded Dr. Hooker as professor of botany 
 at Glasgow about 1840. He published a "Manual of 
 Botany," (1849,) and a valuable "Class-Book of Botany," 
 (1852.) He also wrote the articles on Botany for the 
 "Encyclopedia Britannica," (8th edition.) In 1845 he 
 succeeded Professor Graham in the chair of botany and 
 medicine at Edinburgh. 
 
 Balfour of Pilrig, (James,) a Scottish jurist and phi- 
 losophical writer, born near Edinburgh about 1705, was 
 appointed in 1754 professor of moral philosophy in that 
 city. He was the author of " Philosophical Essays,'' 
 (1768,) and two treatises against the doctrine of Hume, 
 written, however, with such kindness and canduui as to 
 gain for him the friendship of that writer. Died in 1795. 
 
 Balfour, (Robert,) a learned Scottish philosopher of 
 the seventeenth century, was profoundly versed in mathe- 
 matics and ancient languages. He wrote commentaries 
 on Aristotle, and edited the works of Cleomedes. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Balfour, (Walter,) a prominent Universalist minis- 
 ter, born in Stirlingshire, Scotland, in 1776, emigrated 
 to Massachusetts, where he died in 1852. 
 
 Balguy, baul'ge, (?) (John,) an English divine, born at 
 Sheffield in 1686, became in 1729 vicar of Northallerton, 
 in Yorkshire. He was the author of a " Brief Inquiry 
 concerning the Moral Perfections of the Deity," (1730,) 
 " Letter to a Deist concerning the Beauty and Excellence 
 of Moral Virtue," and other similar works. Died in 1748. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; &t, fall, fat; m?t; n8t; good; moon; 
 
 ' 
 
BALGUT 
 
 253 
 
 BALLAR1NI 
 
 Balguy, (Thomas,) an English divine, son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1716, became vicar of Alton, in Hamp- 
 shire, in 1771. He published "Discourses on Various 
 Subjects," and "Divine Benevolence asserted and vin- 
 dicated from the Reflections of Ancient and Modern 
 Skeptics," (1782.) Died in 1795. 
 
 Bail or Beli, written also Baly, [Hindoo pron. bul'I,] 
 called also Mahabali, ma-ha'ba-II, {i.e. the "great Bali,") 
 (Indian Myth.,) the name of a mighty prince, who, though 
 generally virtuous, was so elated with his great power 
 that he omitted the appropriate ceremonies and offerings 
 to the gods. To humble and punish him, Vishnu took 
 the form of a pitiful dwarf, (see Vamana,) and, presenting 
 himself before Bali, asked as a boon as much land or 
 territory as he could pass over in three steps. The in- 
 cautious monarch unhesitatingly granted and ratified the 
 request. Thereupon Vishnu revealed himself in his true 
 character, and with two steps deprived Bali of earth and 
 heaven, but, in consideration of his virtues, left him 
 Patala, or the Lower World. As king of the lower re- 
 gions, Bali is by some supposed to be the same as Yama, 
 the god of justice and judge of departed spirits. 
 
 See Moor's "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Balicour, bf'le'kooR', (Marguerite Therese,) a 
 popular French actress, born about 1700; died in 1743. 
 
 Balin, bi'laV, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic and his- 
 torian, born at Vesoul about 1570, wrote, in I^atin, a 
 " History of the War in Flanders under Ambrosio Spi- 
 nola," (1609.) 
 
 Ba'U-ol or Bal'H-oL (Edward,) son of John Baliol 
 the rival of Bruce, entered Scotland in 1332, and, having 
 with the aid of Edward III., King of England, gained 
 several victories over the Scots, was crowned king of 
 that country, but was compelled to resign the dignity 
 in less than three months. With the assistance of Ed- 
 ward, he was victorious in 1333 at Halidon Hill ; but, the 
 English king having crossed over into France, the cause 
 of Baliol declined, and David Bruce became king. Died 
 in '3 6 3- 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Ba'll-ol or Bal'lI-oijFr. Bailleul, old French pron. 
 bal'yul',] (John,) an English baron of the thirteenth 
 century, was patronized by Henry III., whose cause he 
 espoused against the revolted barons. Having married 
 the Scottish princess Dervorgill, he became the father 
 of the Baliol who disputed the crown of Scotland with 
 Bruce. He made arrangements for founding the col- 
 lege at Oxford called by his name, but, dying before they 
 were completed, it was founded by his widow. Died in 
 1260. 
 
 Ba'll-ol or BalTI-ol, de, [Fr. Bailleul,] (John,) 
 Lord of Galloway, the son of the preceding, born about 
 1250, is celebrated as the rival of Bruce for the crown of 
 Scotland. On the death of Margaret, granddaughter of 
 Alexander III., the succession was disputed between 
 Kobert Bruce, John Hastings, and John Baliol, the near- 
 est relatives of the deceased king. The case was referred 
 to Edward I. of England as arbiter, who decided in favour 
 of Baliol, on condition that he should do homage to the 
 Kin;; of England for his crown. His coronation took 
 place at Scone, in 1292. During his short reign he was 
 called King John. He soon repented of his oath to 
 Edward, and, renouncing his allegiance, marched against 
 the king, who had invaded Scotland. Baliol's army was 
 signally defeated, and he himself, being made prisoner, 
 resigned to the English king his title to the crown. After 
 several years of confinement, he retired to France, where 
 he died in 1314. 
 
 See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. ii. chaps, xix., xx.; 
 I.ingard, "History of England;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- 
 tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Ba-lis'ta, a Roman commander, was prefect of the 
 praetorians under Valerian. When the emperor was 
 defeated by the Persians in 260, Balista was placed at 
 the head of the army, and obtained several victories over 
 the enemy. He is supposed to have been put to death 
 in 264 A.D., by order of Odenatus, King of Palmyra. 
 
 Balk, balk, (Daniel Georg,) a German physician, 
 born at Konigsberg in 1764, was professor of medicine 
 in the University of Dorpat. He wrote a poem entitled 
 " Human Grandeur," and other, works. Died in 1826. 
 
 Ball, (Sir Alexander John,) a distinguished naval 
 officer, was a native of Gloucestershire. He entered 
 the navy at an early age, and in 1798 commanded the 
 Alexander in the battle of the Nile, where he was con- 
 spicuous for his bravery. He was afterwards appointed 
 Governor of Malta. Coleridge, in his publication en- 
 titled "The Friend," speaks in high terms of Sir Alex- 
 ander Ball, with whom he was intimate. Died in 1809. 
 
 Ball, (John,) an English preacher, who took a promi- 
 nent part in the insurrection of Wat Tyler in 1381, and 
 was executed in the same year at Coventry, with a num- 
 ber of his fanatical companions. 
 
 Ball, (John,) an English Calvinistic divine, born near 
 Woodstock in 1585. He was the author of a "Treatise 
 on Faith," and a "Treatise containing all the principal 
 Grounds of the Christian Religion." The latter passed 
 through many editions, and was translated into several 
 languages. The piety and learning of Ball are highly 
 commended by Fuller and Baxter. Died in 1640. 
 
 See S. Clarke, " Lives of XXXII Divines." 
 
 Ball, (Rohert,) an Irish naturalist, born in the county 
 of Cork in 1802, was secretary of the Royal Zoological 
 Society, and director of the museum of Trinity College, 
 Dublin. Died in 1857. 
 
 Ballabene, bal-la-ba'na, (Gregorio,) an Italian com- 
 poser, born at Rome about 1730. His principal work is 
 a mass of forty-eight notes. Died in 1800. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Ballanche, bt'loNsh', (Pierre Simon,) a French 
 philosopher and writer on social reform, born at Lyons 
 in August, 1776. Among his principal works are an 
 " Essay on Social Palingenesis," " The Vision of Hebal," 
 and two historic prose poems, entitled "Antigone" and 
 "Orpheus." He was a member of the French Acad- 
 emy, and an intimate friend of Chateaubriand, Madame 
 Recamier, Nodier, and other celebrated writers. Died 
 in June, 1847. He is considered by some French critics 
 as a great writer and profound thinker, but by others his 
 writings are regarded as mystical and obscure. 
 
 See Victor Laprade, " Ballanche, sa Vie et ses Merits ;' Lo- 
 menie, " M. Ballanche, par un homme de rien," 1841, (first published 
 in Lom^nie's "Galerie des Conteniporains ;") J. J. Ampere, " Bal- 
 lanche," 1S49: Albert Aubert, " P. S. Ballanche," 1847. 
 
 Ballantyne. See Beli.enden. 
 
 Bal'lan-tyne, (James,) a Scottish printer and jour- 
 nalist, born at Kelso in 1772. At the grammar-school 
 of Kelso he first became acquainted with Walter Scott, 
 and laid the foundation of a friendship which continued 
 through their lives. Having removed in 1799 to Edin- 
 burgh, he established a printing-house, from which he 
 issued in 1802-3 Scott's "Minstrelsy of the Scottish 
 Border." He continued for more than twenty years to 
 print the various works of that celebrated writer, and 
 shared in his failure in 1826. He was also editor and 
 proprietor of the "Edinburgh Weekly Journal." Bal- 
 lantyne's abilities as a critic were highly prized by Scott, 
 and his fine social qualities and admirable recitations 
 are commended in the warmest terms by Lockhart and 
 Professor Wilson. Died in 1833. (See Scott, Sir 
 Walter.) 
 
 Ballantyne, (John,) brother of the preceding, born 
 at Kelso in 1774, was for a time clerk in the publishing- 
 house of Ballantyne & Company, of which he became 
 nominal head in 1808. He was distinguished for his wit 
 and humour, and is said by Lockhart to have surpassed 
 the comedian Mathews as a mimic. Died in 1821. 
 
 Ballard. See Bai.ard, (Antoine.) 
 
 Bal'lard, (George,) an English writer, born in Glou- 
 cestershire, published in 1752 a popular work entitled 
 " Memoirs of British Ladies celebrated for their Writings 
 or Skill in the Learned Languages, Arts, or Sciences." 
 Died in 1755. 
 
 Ballard, (Volant Vashon,) an English naval com- 
 mander, born about 1774, accompanied the expedition 
 of Vancouver to the northwest coast of America. He 
 afterwards had a share in the capture of Guadeloupe, and 
 was made rear-admiral in 1825. Died in 1833. 
 
 Ballarini, bil-la-ree'nee, (Ippolito,) an Italian eccle- 
 siastic and writer, born at Novara; died in 1558. 
 
 Ballarini, (Paolo,) an Italian painter, born at Bo- 
 logna in 1 712; died after 1782. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s ass; th as in this. {$$See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BALLE 
 
 25 + 
 
 BALNAVES 
 
 Balle, bal'leh, (Nikolai Edinger— a'ding-er,) a Dan- 
 ish theologian, born on the island of Laaland in 1744. 
 He became successively professor of theology at Copen- 
 hagen, (1772,) court preacher, (1774,) and Bishop of See- 
 land, (1783.) He published a " Manual of Religion," 
 "Theological Theses," (1776,) and other esteemed works. 
 Died in 1816. , 
 
 Ballenden or Ballanden. See Bellenden. 
 
 Ballenstedt, bal'len-steY, (Johann Georg Justus,) 
 a German theologian, born at Schbningen in 1756, was 
 the author of a valuable geological work entitled " The 
 Primitive World," (" Die Urwelt.") He was pastor at 
 Pabstorf in Prussia. 
 
 See Ersch uhcIGruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ballerini, bal-la-ree'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian theolo- 
 gian, born at Verona in 1698; died about 1760. 
 
 Ballester, bal-yes-tain', (?) or Balester, ba-les-taiR', 
 (Joaquin,) a Spanish engraver, born about 1750. He 
 executed a number of the plates for Yriarte's work on 
 Music; also the engravings for the splendid edition 
 of "Don Quixote" published at Madrid in 1780. Died 
 in 1795. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Ballesteros, bil-ygs-ta'ris, (Don Francisco,) a 
 Spanish general, born at Saragossa in 1770, served 
 against the French in the campaigns of 1793 and 1795. 
 He was for a short time minister of war under Ferdi- 
 nand VII. Died in Paris in 1832. 
 
 Ballesteros, (Luis Lopez,) brother of the preced- 
 ing, born in Galicia in 1778, succeeded Garay as minister 
 of finance in 1825. 
 
 Ballet, ba"l&', (Francois,) a French theologian, who 
 wrote a " History of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Tem- 
 ples," (1760.) 
 
 Ballexserd, bi'lek'saiR', (Jacques,) a Swiss physi- 
 cian, born at Geneva in 1726. He was the author of a 
 " Dissertation on the Physical Education of Children," 
 (1762,) which obtained a prize from the Academy of 
 Haarlem. Died in 1774. 
 
 Balleydier, bt'lj'de-i', (Alphonse,) a French his- 
 torical writer, born at Lyons in 1820, published, besides 
 other works, a " History of the Revolutions of the Aus- 
 trian Empire," (2 vols., 1853.) 
 
 Balleydier, (C. J. C.,) a French officer, born at 
 Annecy in 1762, served with distinction in Holland and 
 Prussia. Died in 1807. 
 
 Balli, bal'lee, (Antonio,) the Elder, an Italian jurist 
 and legal writer, born at Trapani ; died in 1591. 
 
 Balli, (Antonio,) the Younger, a nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, was judge of the royal court of Palermo. 
 
 Balli, (Fabio,) an Italian, who was the author of 
 " Sicilian Songs," and a poem in the Neapolitan dialect, 
 entitled " Palermo Liberato," 1612. Died in 1632. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Balli, (Giuseppe.) See Ballo. 
 
 Balliani, bil-le-a'nee, (Giambattista,) a learned 
 Genoese senator, born in 1586, was the author of a valu- 
 able treatise "On the Natural Motions of Heavenly 
 Bodies." Died in 1666. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Balliere de Laisement, bt'le-aiR' deh 14z'm5N', 
 (Charles Louis Denis,) a VrenchTiite'rateur and writer 
 on music, born in Paris in 1729; died in 1800. 
 
 Ballin, biTaN', (Claude,) a celebrated French gold- 
 smith, born in Paris in 1615, executed a number of ex- 
 quisite works in gold and silver for Cardinal Richelieu 
 and Louis XIV. Died in 1678. 
 
 See Le Bas, Y Dictionnaire encyclope'dique de la France." 
 
 Ballin, (Claude,) a nephew of the preceding, was also 
 highly distinguished in the same department of art. 
 
 Balliueri, bal-le-na'ree, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Florence about 1580, was a pupil of Cigoli. 
 
 Balling, bil'ling, (Emanuel,) a Danish novelist, born 
 in 1743 ; died in 1795. 
 
 Bal'liu-gall', (George,) professor of military surgery 
 in the University of Edinburgh, born at that city in 1786. 
 He was the author of "Outlines of Military Surgery," 
 " Observations on the Diseases of European Troops in 
 India," and other medical works. Died in 1855. 
 
 Balliol. See Baliol. 
 
 Ballo, bdl'lo, or Balli, bal'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 priest and savant, born at Palermo in 1567; died at Pa- 
 dua in 1640. 
 
 Ballots, baTwi', (Louis Joseph Philippe,) a French 
 writer, born at Perigueux in 1778, founded, in 1S02, the 
 "Annales de Statistique." Died in 1803. 
 
 Ballon, de, deh ba'16N', (Louise Blanche Therese 
 Perrucard — p&'rii'ka'R',) a French nun, born in Savoy 
 in 1 59 1, founded, in the convent of Annecy, the sister- 
 hood of the reformed Bernardines. Died in 1668. Her 
 " Religious Works" were published in 1700. 
 
 Ballonius. See Baillou. 
 
 Ballou, bal-loo', (Hoska,) an eminent American 
 preacher and controversialist, the author or founder of 
 " Universalism" in the modern acceptation of this term, 
 was born in Richmond, New Hampshire, April 30, 1771. 
 After he had laboured many years in different parts ol 
 New England, he settled at Boston in 181 7. He pub- 
 lished several theological works, among which the most 
 worthy of notice .is, perhaps, his "Examination of the 
 Doctrine of Future Retribution." In 1819 he estab- 
 lished the " Universalist Magazine," the first weekly 
 newspaper devoted to the doctrines of Universalism ever 
 published, and in 1831, in connection with his nephew of 
 the same name, he issued the first number of the " Uni- 
 versalist Expositor," now known as the " Universalist 
 Quarterly Review." The doctrine preached by Mr. Bal- 
 lou in the early part of his career was that known as 
 " Restorationism," which teaches that all souls will ulti- 
 mately be saved, after undergoing, for a longer or shorter 
 period, punishment designed simply for their purification 
 and preparation for a higher state of happiness ; but in 
 the latter portion of his life he taught the doctrine that 
 there is no punishment whatever in a future state of ex- 
 istence, but that the wicked receive their full punishment 
 in this world, and that all men will be saved without ex- 
 ception, whatever may have been the sins or crimes of 
 their earthly life. His biography has been published by 
 his son, M. M. Ballou, and in three volumes 121110 by the 
 Rev. Thomas Whittemore. Died in 1852. (See Mur- 
 ray, John.) 
 
 Bally, bt'le', (Victor,) a French physician, born at 
 Beaurepaire, published a treatise " On the Typhus Fever 
 of America," (1814,) and " History of the Yellow Fever in 
 Spain in iS2l." 
 
 See Cju^rard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Bal'mer, (Robert,) a Scottish theologian, born in 
 Roxburghshire in 1787. He preached at Berwick for 
 many years, and became professor of theology in the 
 United Secession (or Presbyterian) Church in 1834. He 
 was highly esteemed for talent and moral worth. I tied 
 in 1844. His "Academical Lectures and Pulpit Dis- 
 courses" were published in two volumes, 1845. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Balmes, bal-meV, written also Balmis, (Francisco 
 Xavier,) surgeon to the Spanish court, introduced vats 
 cination into the Spanish Colonies in 1803, and subse- 
 quently into the Canary and Philippine Islands and China. 
 
 Balmes, (Jaime Lucio,) an eminent Spanish theolo- 
 gian and philosopher, born at Vich, in Catalonia, in 1810. 
 He was the author of "Political Considerations on the 
 Situation of Spain," (1840,) and "Protestantism com- 
 pared with Catholicism in its Relations to European 
 Civilization," (3 vols., 1848.) The latter, esteemed hi« 
 ablest work, was written in reply to Guizot. His " Filo- 
 sofia fundamental" was translated into English. Died 
 in 1848. 
 
 See Antonio Soler, " Biogiafia del D. J. Balmes," 1S50; Garcia 
 ue 1.0s Santos, "Vida de Balmes," 1848; Blanche Raffin, "J. 
 Balmes, sa Vie et ses Ouvrages," Paris, 1849, and a German version 
 of the same, by Karker, 1852. 
 
 Balnaves, bal-nav'ess, or Balnav'is, (Henry,) 
 surnamed OF Halhill, a Scottish statesman and Prot- 
 estant writer, born in Filestore. He became in 1538 one 
 of the lords of session, and secretary of state under the 
 regent Arran in 1543. In this post he promoted the 
 passing of Lord Maxwell's act for allowing the Scrip- 
 tures to be read in the vulgar tongue. Being accused of 
 sharing in the conspiracy against Cardinal Beatoun, he 
 was imprisoned, together with Knox and other reformers, 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, lon^ a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; mi 
 
 oon; 
 
BALOG 
 
 255 
 
 BALZAC 
 
 at Rouen, in France, where he wrote his " Confession of 
 Faith." Having returned to Scotland, he was appointed 
 in 1563 one of the commissioners to revise the "Book 
 of Discipline." Died in 1571. 
 
 See Mackenzie, "Livesof Scottish Writers;" Chambers, " Bio- 
 graphic. ti Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Balog, ba-Iog, or Balogh, (JAnos,) a Hungarian states- 
 man, born in 1S00, defended the rights of the people 
 against the nobility, in the Diet of 1825. After the de- 
 feat of the patriots in 1849, he escaped with Kossuth 
 into Turkey. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Baloufeau, bi'loo'fo', or Balouffeteau, bi'Ioof'to', 
 (Jacques,) a French adventurer and impostor, born at 
 Saint- Jean-d'Angely. After having, under assumed names, 
 married many women in different parts of Europe, he 
 obtained two hundred crowns from the King of France 
 as a reward for revealing a pretended conspiracy, and 
 two thousand pounds sterling from the English govern- 
 ment for a similar service. He was at last arrested in 
 France and executed in 1627. 
 
 Balsamina, bal-sa-mee'na, (Camilla,) an Italian vo- 
 calist, born at Milan, was prima donna at the court of 
 Prince Eugene, Viceroy of Italy, in 1807. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Balsamo, (Giuseppe.) See Cagliostro. 
 
 Balsamo, bal'sa-mo, (Paolo,) a distinguished agri- 
 culturist and writer, born at Termini, in Sicily, in 1763. 
 He was professor of agriculture at Palermo, and trans- 
 lated into Italian Arthur Young's "Pleasures of Agri- 
 -culture." Died in 1818. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Bal'sa-mo or Bal'sa-mon, (Theodore,) a Greek 
 prelate, who became Patriarch of Antioch in 1 186. He 
 a " Commentary on the Canons of the Apostles, 
 and the Seven Gicumenic Councils." Died in 1204. 
 
 Bal'sham, written also Belesale, de, (Hugh,) an 
 ish prelate, and founder of Saint Peter's College, 
 Cambridge, born in Cambridgeshire, became, in 1257, 
 Bishop of Ely. Died in 1286. 
 
 Baltacchini bal-tak-kee'nee, (Michele,) an Italian 
 philosopher, born in Naples in 1803. He published, 
 besides other works, a "History of Masaniello," (1834,) 
 and "The Life and Works of Campanella," (1840-43.) 
 
 Baltadschi or Baltadji. See Baltajek. 
 
 Baltajee (Baltaji, Baltadji, or Baltadschi) Mo- 
 hammed, bal-ta'jee mo-ham'med, a Turkish states- 
 man and commander, rose to be grand vizier under Ah- 
 med III. He was appointed in 1710 to command the 
 Turkish forces acting with Charles XII. of Sweden 
 against the Russians. After gaining a decided victory 
 over the enemy, he was induced by the empress Cathe- 
 rine to sign a treaty, by which he lost all the advantages 
 he had won, and gave great offence to Charles. Died 
 in 1712. 
 
 See Von Hammer, " Histoire de l'Empire Ottoman ;" Voltaire, 
 "Histoire de Charles XII." 
 
 Baltard, bSl'tf r',(Louis Pierre,) a celebrated French 
 architect and engraver, born in Paris in 1765. He fur- 
 nished the design for the Palace of Justice at Lyons, and 
 constructed the chapels for the houses of detention of 
 Saint- Lazare and Sainte-Pelagie. Among his engravings 
 We may name "Paris and its Monuments," (1803,) and 
 "Saint John baptizing on the Banks of the Jordan," 
 after Poussin. Died in 1846. 
 
 See J. M. Dalgabio, " £loge historique de M. Baltard," 1846. 
 
 Baltard, (Victor,) a French architect, born in Paris 
 in 1805, published in 1847 a " Monography of the Villa 
 is." 
 
 Baltazarini, Mltad-za-ree'nee, called also Beau- 
 joyeulx, lxi'zhwa'yuh', an Italian musician, who was 
 a favourite at the court of Catherine de Media's. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biocraphie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Balten, or Baltens. See Balton. 
 
 Balthasar, the French for Belshazzar, which see. 
 
 Balthasar, bil'tt'zaR'.fCHRisroPHE,) a French jurist, 
 born at Villeneuve-le-Roi in 1588, was royal advocate at 
 Auxerre. He wrote a "Treatise on the Usurpations of 
 the Kings of Spain upon the Crown of France." Died 
 in 1670. 
 
 Balthasar, (Joseph Antoine Felix,) a Swiss jurist, 
 
 born at Lucerne in 1737, contributed several articles on 
 Swiss history to Haller's " Bibliotheca Helvetica," and 
 wrote a " Defence of William Tell." Died in 1810. 
 
 Balthasar, Idl'ta-zaR, or Balthazari, bal-ta-tsa'ree, 
 (Theodor,) a German savant, and professor of mathe- 
 matics at Erlangen, is supposed to have invented the 
 solar microscope, of which he published a description, 
 (1 710.) This invention is attributed by some to Lieber- 
 k'Jhn. 
 
 See Fischer, " Geschichte der Physik." 
 
 Balthasar, von, fon bal'ta-zaR, (Augustin,) a Ger- 
 man jurist and writer, born at Greifswalde in 1701 ; died 
 in 1779. 
 
 Baltimore, (Lord.) See Calvert, (George.) 
 
 Balton, bal'ton, Baltens, or Balten, biTtdN', (Pe- 
 ter,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1540. He 
 painted in the style of Breughel, and his miniature land- 
 scapes and historical pieces are highly esteemed. Died 
 in 1579. 
 
 See Fiorillo, "Geschichte der Malerei." 
 
 Baltus, btl'tiis', (Jean Francois,) a French Jesuit, 
 born at Metz in 1667, wrote a reply to Fontenelle's 
 " History of Oracles," and other works. Died in 1743. 
 
 Baltzar, balt'sar, (Thomas,) a celebrated German 
 violinist, who in 1658 visited London, where he was ap- 
 pointed director of concerts by Charles II. Died in 1663. 
 
 See Burney, "General History of Music" 
 
 Balue, de la, deh It bi'lii', (Jean,) a French cardinal, 
 born at Poitiers in 1422, was a favourite of Louis XL, 
 by whom he was made Bishop of Evreux and prime 
 minister. For his efforts to abolish the " Pragmatic 
 Sanction" he was made a cardinal by Pope Paul II. in 
 1467. After having been for many years the instigator 
 and partner of his sovereign's tyranny and vices, he en- 
 deavoured to excite a quarrel between Louis and his 
 brother. For this crime he was imprisoned by the king 
 in an iron cage for eleven years. He was released in 
 1480, on the intercession of Pope Sixtus IV. He was 
 afterwards appointed protector of the order of Malta, 
 and obtained other high preferments from Pope Inno- 
 cent VIII. Died in 1491. 
 
 See Aubery, " Histoire des Cardinaux." 
 
 Baluffi, ba-looffee, (Cajetano,) an Italian ecclesi- 
 astic, resided many years in New Granada, and published 
 in 1848 a " Religious History of America." 
 
 Baluze, bt'liiz', (Etienne,) a French historian, born 
 at Tulle in 1630, was charged by Colbert with the care 
 of his library, and afterwards appointed inspector of the 
 Royal College by Louis XIV. He published in 1709 
 his "History of the House of Auvergne," in which he 
 proves that the family of Bouillon are descended from 
 the ancient dukes of Guienne, and, consequently, owed 
 no allegiance to the French crown. This work gave 
 great offence to the king, who caused it to be suppressed, 
 the author exiled, and his estates confiscated. Baluze 
 also wrote the " Lives of the Popes of Avignon," (1693.) 
 Died in Paris in 1718. 
 
 See " Vie de Baluze, par hii-m£me, continue'e par Martin ;" J. B. 
 Vitrac, " £loge de Baluze," 1777. 
 
 Balzac, bSl'ztk', (Charles Louis,) a French archi- 
 tect, born in Paris, accompanied the expedition to Egypt 
 in 1798, and contributed valuable architectural designs 
 to the Description of Egypt afterwards published by 
 the government. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Balzac, de, deh baTzik', (Honore,) a celebrated 
 French novelist, born at Tours in May, 1799. He pub- 
 lished in 1822 a series of tales, underthe names of Horace 
 de Saint-Aubin and other pseudonyms, and in 1829 
 brought out, in his own name, a historical romance en- 
 titled "The Last Chouan," ("Le dernier Chouan.") 
 His next works, the " Physiologie du Mariage," and 
 "La Peau de Chagrin," were very successful, and were 
 soon followed by a series of novels and tales entitled 
 ." Comedie humaine," intended to delineate every phase 
 of French society. Among the most popular of these 
 may be named " Le Pere Goriot," " Eugenie Grander," 
 and " Balthasar Claes." In 1848 Balzac married the 
 Countess Hanska, a Polish lady to whom he had dedi- 
 cated his novel of " Seraphita," He died in Paris in 
 
 « as It; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,giittural; N, mual; R, trilled; s as z; th as in //;; r. (^~Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BALZAC 
 
 256 
 
 BANCROFT 
 
 August, 1850, and a glowing eulogy was pronounced 
 over his grave by Victor Hugo. Balzac's works enjoy 
 great popularity in France, and have been translated 
 into the principal European languages. He had great 
 acuteness of observation and brilliant fancy ; but his de- 
 lineations are often unnatural and extravagant, and his 
 writings are deficient in moral elevation. 
 
 See Gustave Desnoiresterres, "Vie de Honore* de Balzac;" 
 Louis de Lomenib, "Notice sur H. de Balzac," 1842; George 
 Sand, " Notice biographique sur H. de Balzac," 8vo, 1853 ; A Bas- 
 chet, " H. de Balzac, 1852 ; also, a critique on the novels of Balzac, 
 in the " North American Review" for July, 1847, (by J. L. Motley.) 
 
 Balzac, de, (Jean Louis Guez — gi,) Seigneur, a 
 French litterateur, born at Angouleme in 1594. He 
 contributed greatly to the improvement of his native 
 language, and was esteemed the best French prosaist of 
 his time. He was patronized by Cardinal Richelieu, 
 and in 1634 was elected unanimously to the French 
 Academy. His brilliant success as an author and his 
 innovations in literature caused him to be severely as- 
 sailed by Goulu and other contemporary writers. He 
 was the author of a work entitled "The Christian So- 
 crates," (1652,) " Aristippus," (a treatise on the duties 
 of sovereigns, dedicated to Christina of Sweden,) and a 
 number of Latin poems ; but his fame rests chiefly on 
 his " Familiar Letters," (1624,) which have passed through 
 several editions. Died in Paris in 1654. 
 
 See A. Malitourne, " Notice sur la Vie de Balzac," prefixed to 
 his "CEuvres Choisies," 2 vols., 1823; P. H. Marron, "J. L. Guez 
 de Balzac;" Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Moreau 
 de Mersan, " Notice sur la Vie de Balzac," prefixed to the " Pensees 
 de Balzac," 1807. 
 
 Balzani, bal-za'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian portrait- 
 painter, born at Bologna in 1658; died in 1735. 
 
 Baize, btlz, (Nicolas,) an able French advocate, born 
 in Languedoc in 1 735, wrote odes, tales, etc. Died in 1 792. 
 
 Bainbam, bam'bam, (Hartwig,) a German Lutheran 
 theologian, lived at Hamburg; died in 1742. 
 
 Bamberger, bam'bSRG-er, (Johann Peter,) a Ger- 
 man theologian and litterateur, born at Magdeburg in 
 1722. He was editor of the "British Theological Maga- 
 zine" at Halle, and translated " Knox's Essays," Ander- 
 son's " History of Commerce," and other English works, 
 into German. Died in 1804. 
 
 Bambini, bam-bee'nee, (Giacomo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Ferrara about 1590. He died prematurely in 1629. 
 
 Bambini, (Niccolo,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Venice in 1 65 1, possessed great skill in design, but was 
 deficient as a colorist. Died in 1736. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bamboccio, bam-bot'cho, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 sculptor, born at Piperno about 1368. Among his best 
 works are the mausoleum of Cardinal Filippo Minutolo, 
 celebrated by Boccaccio, and the monument of Ludovico 
 Aldemareschi. Died about 1430. 
 
 Bamboccio. See Laer, (Peter van.) 
 
 Bamboche. See Laer, (Peter van.) 
 
 Bambridge, (Christopher.) See Bainbridge. 
 
 Bamesbier, ba'mess-beer', (Hans or Jan,) a Dutch 
 painter, born at Amsterdam in 1500, was a pupil of 
 Lambert Lombard. He lived to the age of a hundred, 
 notwithstanding his intemperate habits. Died in 1600. 
 
 See Naci.er, "Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bamfield. See Bamfylde. 
 
 Bam'ford, (Samuel,) an English writer and radical 
 politician, born near Manchester in 1788, was a weaver 
 Dy trade. He was several times imprisoned on account 
 of his political opinions. He was the author of a col- 
 lection of poems of great merit, a prose work entitled 
 " Walks in South Lancashire," and " Passages in the Life 
 of a Radical." 
 
 See " Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles. 
 
 Bam'fylde or Barn/field, (Francis,) an English 
 theologian, was the author of " An Argument in Favour 
 of the Observance of the Jewish Sabbath," (1672,) and 
 other religious works. Died in 1684. 
 
 Bamp'ton, (Rev. John,) Canon of Salisbury, born in 
 1689, was the founder of the series of lectures called by 
 his name. He gave his estates to the University of Ox- 
 ford for the endowment of eight divinity lecture sermons, 
 to be delivered annually. Died in 175 1. 
 
 Ban'as-ter, (Gilbert,) an English poet and musi- 
 
 cian, whose only extant poem is entitled " The Miracle 
 of Saint Thomas," (1467.) 
 
 See Collier, " History of Dramatic Poetry," etc 
 
 Bancal des Issarts, bdN'kil' d^ze'saV, (Jean 
 Henri,) a French magistrate, born in the diocese of 
 Montpellier in 1750. He was a deputy to the National 
 Convention in 1792, where he voted against the union 
 of Savoy with France, and opposed the execution of the 
 king. Being sent with other commissioners to Dumouriez, 
 he was given up by him to the Austrians and imprisone ' 
 in 1793. With his colleagues he was exchanged in 179^ 
 for the Duchess of Angouleme. In 1796 he became! 
 member of the Council of Five Hundred. He wrote, 
 among other works, a treatise " On New Social Orde: 
 founded on Religion." Died in 1826. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Bancel, b5N's£l', (Louis,) a learned French theolo- 
 gian, born at Valence, lived at Avignon. Died in 1685. 
 
 Banchero, ban-ka'ro, (Angelo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Sestri, near Genoa, about 1774; died in 1793. 
 
 Banchi, ban'kee, (Seraphino,) a Dominican monk 
 born at Florence. Having informed Henry IV. of Franq 
 of Barriere's project to assassinate him, he was offere 
 by that monarch the bkhopric of Angouleme, which 1 
 refused. Died in 1622. 
 
 Banchieri, ban-ke-a'ree, (Adriano,) an Italian poet 
 and writer on music, born at Bologna; died in 1634. 
 
 Banck, bank, (Lawrence,) a Swedish jurist, was 
 native of Norrkjbping. He became professor of law ; 
 Franeker, and wrote in Latin several treatises against the 
 usurpations of the pope. Died in 1662. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Banck or Bank, van der, vitn der bank, (Peter,) 
 a skilful Flemish engraver, born in Paris in 1649, worko" 
 in London, where he died in 1697. 
 
 Banco, ban'ko, (Nanni d'Antonio, nSn'nee dan-to 
 ne-o,) an Italian architect and sculptor, born at Sienn 
 in 1374, had a share in the construction of the cathedra 
 of Florence. Died in 1421. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Ban'croft, (Aaron,) D.D., an American Congrega- 
 tional divine, born at Reading, Massachusetts, in 1755, 
 graduated at Harvard in 1778. He settled a* pastor at 
 Worcester in 1785, and remained there for fifty years or 
 more. Besides a great number of sermons, he published 
 a " Life of Washington," which obtained great popu- 
 larity. He was the father of George Bancroft the his- 
 torian. Died in 1839. 
 
 Ban'croft, (Edward,) an English physician and natu- 
 ralist, published an "Essay on the Natural History of 
 Guiana," (1769,) and "Experimental Researches on the 
 Philosophy of Permanent Colours," (1794.) He was a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Royal College of 
 Physicians, and was intimate with Dr. Franklin and Dr. 
 Priestley. Died in 1821. 
 
 Bancroft, (George,) a distinguished American histo- 
 rian, son of the Rev. Aaron Bancroft, was born at Wor- 
 cester, Massachusetts, on the 3d of October, 1S00. He 
 entered Harvard College in 1813, and graduated with 
 distinguished honours in 1817. In 1818 he went to 
 Germany, entered the University of Gbttingen, and 
 studied history, philology, etc., under Heeren, Bunsen, 
 and other distinguished professors. He took the de- 1 
 gree of doctor of philosophy at GSttingen in 1820, 
 after which he passed some time in Berlin and Heidel-a 
 berg in the society of Wilhelm von Humboldt, Varn- 
 hagen von Ense, and Schlosser. Having returned home 
 in 1822, he served as Greek tutor in Harvard College 
 for one year, published a volume of Poems in 1823, and 
 opened the Round Hill School at Northampton. In 
 1824 he produced a translation of Heeren's " Reflections 
 on the Politics of Ancient Greece." His reputation 
 was increased by the first volume of his "History of the 
 Colonization of the United States," which appeared in 
 
 1834- 
 
 He had been an active supporter of the Democratic 
 party for many years when he was appointed in 1838 
 collector of customs for the port of Boston. The third 
 volume of his History appeared in 1840, and was com- ■ 
 mended by the "Edinburgh Review" in the following 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, 6, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; ml t; not; good; moon; 
 
BANCROFT 
 
 257 
 
 BJNDTKE 
 
 terms: "The real liberality, the general fairness, the 
 labour and conscientious research, it evinces, deserve, 
 and we are assured will receive, his [the reader's] warmest 
 approbation." (Vol. Ixxxv., January, 1847.) He was the 
 Democratic candidate for the office of Governor of Mas- 
 usetts in 1S44, but was not elected. In March, 1845, 
 he became secretary of the navy in the cabinet of Mr. 
 Polk. He established a naval school at Annapolis, and 
 improved the Astronomical Observatory at Washington. 
 In 1846 he resigned his place in the cabinet and was 
 appointed minister plenipotentiary to England. During 
 his residence in Europe he examined the archives and 
 libraries of Paris and London, in which he collected 
 materials for his great work on American history. He 
 returned to the United States in 1849, became a resident 
 of the city of New York, and devoted himself to literary 
 pursuits. He contributed to the "North American 
 Review." In 1853 he published the fourth volume of his 
 History, which is the first volume of the " History of the 
 Revolution." This work has extended to nine volumes 
 octavo, but is not yet (1869) completed. 
 
 " We know few modern historic works," says Professor 
 Hecren, "in which the author has reached so high an 
 elevation at once as an historical inquirer and an his- 
 torical writer. The great conscientiousness with which 
 he refers to his authorities, and his careful criticism, give 
 'he most decisive proofs of his comprehensive studies." 
 
 In a notice of the third volume, William H. Prescott 
 remarks, " The reader will find the pages of the present 
 volume filled with matter not less interesting and import- 
 ant than the preceding. He will meet with the same bril- 
 liant and daring style, the same picturesque sketches of 
 character and incident, the same acute reasoning and 
 compass of erudition." ("North American Review" 
 for January, 1841.) 
 
 In February, 1866, he delivered at Washington, in 
 presence of Congress and the foreign diplomatic corps, 
 an oration in honour of Abraham Lincoln, which at- 
 tracted much attention. 
 
 He was appointed minister to the court of Berlin in 
 1867, and negotiated with the North German Confedera- 
 tion a treaty by which Germans who emigrate and De- 
 naturalized as citizens of the United States are 
 released from their allegiance to the government of their 
 native country and are assured the enjoyment of all the 
 rights of native citizens of the United States. 
 
 See, also, "North American Review" for January, 1835, vol. xl., 
 and " Foreign Quarterly" lor July, 1S41. 
 
 Bancroft, (John,) a nephew of Richard Bancroft, 
 
 - d below, was a native of Oxfordshire. He became 
 
 ip of Oxford in 1632. Died in 1640. 
 
 Bancroft, (Richard,) an English prelate, born in 
 
 i>hire in 1544, became Bishop of London, (1597.) 
 
 and Archbishop of Canterbury, (1604.) He was a zeal- 
 
 ipponent of the Puritans, and wrote, among other 
 
 works, " Dangerous Positions and Proceedings published 
 
 under the Pretence of Reformation, etc." Died in 1610. 
 
 Gardiner, "History of Eneland from 1603 to 1616," chaps. 
 
 iv. and x. ; " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Bancroft, (Thomas,) an English writer, who made a 
 collection of "Epigrams and Epitaphs," (1649.) 
 
 Bandarra, ban-dar'ra, (Gonsai.o Annes,) a Portu- 
 guese poet, and pretended prophet, born at Villa de 
 Trancoso, was surnamed the Portuguese Nostra- 
 damus. His verses entitled "Trovas Redondilhas," 
 prophesying the subjugation of Portugal by Spain, and 
 ubsequent restoration, acquired great popularity 
 in Portugal, and were translated into French. Died in 
 1556. 
 
 General Fov, "Memoires sur les Guerres de la Peninsule." 
 Bandel, ban'del, (Ernst,) a distinguished German 
 sculptor, horn at Anspach in 1800. He studied at Mu- 
 ni, h, wh re in 1820 he exhibited his statue of Mars; 
 he afterwards became a resident of Berlin. Among his 
 i-pieces are a colossal bronze or copper statue of 
 Hermann, (Arminius,) and busts of King Maximilian of 
 Bavaria, and the poet Grabbe. 
 
 Bandello, ban-del'lo, (Mattfo,) an Italian novelist 
 
 and Dominican monk, born at Castelnuovo, in Pied- 
 
 in 1480. Having visited France, he was created 
 
 ■p of Agen by Henry II. in 1550. He published 
 
 as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 1.7 
 
 in 1554 the first three volumes of his novels ; the fourth 
 came out after his death. Though less elegant in style 
 than those of Boccaccio, they bear a strong resemblance 
 to them in originality of conception and descriptive 
 powers, and are equally immoral. Shakspeare, Mas- 
 singer, and other English dramatists derived some 0! 
 their plots from Bandello. Died at Agen in 1561. 
 
 SeeNApioNE, " Piemonlesi illustri," and Moreri, " Dictionnaire 
 Historique." 
 
 Bandello, de, da ban-del'lo, (Vincenzo,) an Italian 
 Dominican monk and writer, born at Castelnuovo in 
 1435 ! c '' e d m 1506. 
 
 Bandelloni, ban-del-lo'nee, (Luigi,) an Italian poet 
 and musical composer of this century, born at Rome. 
 
 Bandettini, ban-dSt-tee'nee, (Teresa,) a celebrated 
 Italian improvisatrice and poetess, sometimes called 
 Amarilla Etrusca, born at Lucca in 1763, was the 
 author of a tragedy entitled " II Polidoro," and "The 
 Death of Adonis," a poem. She was crowned with 
 laurel at Rome in 1794, and her genius and virtues are 
 commended by Alfieri, Monti, and other eminent writers. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Bandiera, bande-5'ra, (Attilio and Emilio,) Ital- 
 ian patriots, brothers, born at Naples or Venice, the 
 elder in 1817, the second in 1819, were the sons of an 
 Austrian vice-admiral. In 1842 they embraced with 
 ardour the cause of Young Italy, and entered into a cor- 
 respondence with Mazzini. In'the hope of exciting the 
 people to insurrection, they advanced in 1844 with a 
 small force into Calabria, but, being soon after betrayed 
 and arrested, were executed by order of the Austrian 
 government. 
 
 See Ricciardi, " Histoire de la Revolution d'ltalie en 1848;" 
 Giuseppe Mazzini, " RicoAli dei Fratelli Bandiera e dei loro Com- 
 pagni," 1845. 
 
 Bandiera, (Benedetto,) a painter of the Roman 
 school, born at Perugia in 1557; died in 1634. 
 
 Bandinelli, ban-de-nel'lee, (Baccio, bat'cho,) an 
 eminent Italian sculptor, born at Florence in 1487, was 
 a pupil of Gian Francesco Rustici. Among his master- 
 pieces are the figure of "Christ at the Tomb," in the 
 church of the Annunziata, the group of " Adam and 
 Eve," and the bas-reliefs in the Duomo at Florence. He 
 also attempted painting, in which, however, he did not 
 excel. As a sculptor he is regarded as second only ti. 
 Michael Angelo, to whom he manifested an envious hos- 
 tility. Bandinelli enjoyed the favour of the emperor 
 Charles V., Cosimo de Medici, and Pope Clement VII. 
 Died in 1559. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" Cicognara, 
 "Storia della Scultura." 
 
 Bandinelli, (Clemente,) a son of the preceding, 
 born at Florence, was a promising sculptor, but died 
 young. 
 
 Bandinelli, (Marco,) a painter of the seventeenth 
 century, born at Bologna, was at first the valet and cook 
 of Guido Reni. He was surnamed Marchino di Guido. 
 
 Bandinelli, (Michel Angelo,) a Florentine painter, 
 a nephew of Baccio, lived about 1550. 
 
 Bandini, ban-dee'nee, (Angelo Maria,) a learned 
 Italian writer, born at Florence in 1726, was appointed 
 in 1756 first keeper of the Laurentian Library. Among 
 his principal works are a " Description of the Obelisk 
 of Augustus discovered on the Field of Mars," and a 
 "Life of Amerigo Vespucci," (1745.) Died in 1800. 
 
 SeeGiNGUENtf, "Histoire LitteYaire d'ltalie." 
 
 Bandini, (Giovanni,) a sculptor, born at Castello, in 
 Tuscany, worked in the second half of the sixteenth 
 century. He made the statue of Architecture placed on 
 the tomb of Michael Angelo at Florence. 
 
 Bandini, (Sai.i.ustio,) an Italian economist, born at 
 Sienna in 1677; died in 1760. 
 
 Bandino, ban-dee'no, (Domenico,) an Italian scholar 
 and writer, born at Arezzo in 1340, was professor of elo- 
 quence at Bologna, and afterwards at Padua. He wrote 
 a large work entitled " Fons Memorabilium Universi," 
 treating of theology, astronomy, natural philosophy, etc., 
 (unpublished.) Died about 1415. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Bandtke, bant'ka, or Bandtkie, bant'kyi, (George 
 
 (JS^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BJNDTKE 
 
 258 
 
 BANKS 
 
 Samuel,) a Polish historian, born at Lublin in 176S, be- 
 came in 181 1 librarian and professor of bibliography at 
 Cracow. He was the author of a " History of the Polish 
 Nation," (in Polish,) which is esteemed a standard work, 
 a " History of Printing in Poland," and " Historico- 
 critical. Miscellanies towards the History of Oriental 
 Europe," (in German, 1802.) Died in 1835. 
 
 Bandtke, (Johann Vincenz,) brother of the preced- 
 ing, born at Lublin in 1783, was professor of law at the 
 University of Warsaw. He published in 1831 a collec- 
 tion of Polish legal documents, entitled "Jus Poloni- 
 cum." Died in 1851. 
 
 Banduri, ban-doo'ree, (Anselmo,) an Italian anti- 
 quary and Benedictine monk, born in Dalmatia in 1671. 
 He published "Coins of the Roman Emperors from 
 Trajan to the Last Palasologus," (1718,2 vols, fol.) Died 
 in Paris in 1743. 
 
 Ban.e, written alsoBenn, (James,) became Archbishop 
 of Saint Andrew's in 1328. Died in 1332. 
 
 Battel, bS'nel', (Pierre,) a French general, born at 
 Lectoure in 1766, was killed at Cossaria, in Piedmont, 
 in 1796. 
 
 Baiter, ba-naiR'orba-nTTR', written also Bannier, Ba- 
 nter, cr Banner, (Johan,) a celebrated Swedish general, 
 born near Stockholm in 1595. Having served in the Rus- 
 sian and Polish campaigns of 1626-29, ne accompanied 
 Gustavus Adolphus to Germany in 1630, and commanded 
 under him the right wing- at the memorable battle of 
 Leipsic. His brilliant achievements upon this occasion 
 won for him the highest commendations from his sove- 
 reign. Being appointed to the chief command of the 
 Swedish army on the death of Gustavus, he gained a 
 signal victory over the allied army under the Elector of 
 Saxony, near Wittstock, in 1636. He defeated the Im- 
 perial troops near Chemnitz in 1639, and subsequently 
 overran and laid waste a great part of Germany. He 
 died in 164.1, long before the conclusion of the Thirty 
 Years' war, in which he had borne so distinguished a 
 part. In the words of Schiller, "He was calm in dan- 
 ger, greater in adversity than in prosperity, and never 
 more formidable than when he was supposed to be on 
 the verge of ruin." 
 
 Sec Carl Manderfeldt, " E*loge de J. Baner," 1787 ; Schil- 
 ler, " History of the Thirty Years' War." 
 
 Banes, ba'n£s, (Domingo,) a Spanish theologian, 
 born at Valladolid in 1527; died in 1604. 
 
 Banfi, bim'fee, (Giulio,) an Italian lute-player, who 
 was taken as a prisoner to Tunis, where his musical tal- 
 ents procured for him the favour of the Bey, who gave 
 him his liberty. He wrote a work entitled " The Guitar- 
 Master," (1653.) Died about 1670. 
 
 Banfi, bin'fee, (Ladislaus,) Baron, a Hungarian 
 patriot, born in 1795, was a coadjutor and intimate 
 friend of Wesselenyi. In the Diet of 1839 he advocated 
 the union of Transylvania with Hungary. Died in 1839. 
 
 Bang, bSng, (Frederik Ludwig,) a Danish physician 
 and medical writer, born in the island of Seeland in 
 1747, became in 1782 professor at the University of Co- 
 penhagen. Died in 1S20. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyerup, " Almindeligt Litleraturlexicon." 
 
 Bang, (Johan,) a Danish medical writer, born in 1737, 
 lived at Copenhagen ; died in 1808. 
 
 Bang, bSng, [Lat. Ban'gius,] (Peter,) a Swedish 
 theologian, and professor of theology at Abo, born at 
 Helsingborg in 1633. He became Bishop of Viborg 
 in 1696. He wrote, in Latin, a "Treatise on Sacred 
 Chronology," and " Ecclesiastical History of Sweden." 
 Died in 1696. 
 
 Bang, [Lat. Ban'gius,] (Thomas,) a Danish philolo- 
 gist and writer, born in the island of Funen in 1600, 
 was professor of Hebrew and afterwards of theology at 
 Copenhagen. Died in 1661. 
 
 See Moller, " Cimbria Literata ;" Morhof, " Polyhistor." 
 
 Bangs, (Nathan,) an American Methodist minister, 
 born in Fairfield county, Connecticut, in 1778. He 
 preached in the city of New York, and was appointed 
 agent for Methodist books in 1820, after which he edited 
 the " Christian Advocate and Journal," and was presi- 
 dent of the Wesleyan University at Middletown, Con- 
 necticut. He published, besides other works, a " History 
 of the Methodist Episcopal Church," (4 vols. !2mo.) 
 
 xmt 
 
 Banier. See Baner. 
 
 Banier, bf'ne^i', (Antoine,) a French littcmteHr, 
 born in AuvergruTin 1673, wrote a work entitled " His- 
 torical Explanation of Fables," and translated into French 
 Ovid's "Metamorphoses." Died in 1741. 
 
 Banieres, bS'ne-aiR', a versatile French genius, born 
 at Toulouse in the early part of the eighteenth century, 
 was successively an ecclesiastic, lawyer, soldier, poet, and 
 comedian. His adventures have furnished Dumas with 
 material for his novel of " Olympe de Cleves." 
 
 See Lemazurier, " Galerie historique du Theatre Francais." 
 
 Ba'nim, (John,) a celebrated Irish novelist, born at 
 Kilkenny about 1800. His delineations of peasant life 
 in Ireland are eminently vivid and truthful, and are re- 
 garded as scarcely inferior to those of Miss Edgeworth. 
 Among his most popular works are "Tales of the O'Hara 
 Family," (1825,) "The Battle of the Boyne," (1S28,) 
 "The Denounced," (1830,) "The Smuggler," (1831J 
 and "The Mayor of Wind-Gap." Died in 1842. 
 
 See "Life of John Banim," by Patrick J. Murray, 1S57; R. H. 
 Horne, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844. 
 
 Banim, (Michael,) a brother of the preceding, bom 
 at Kilkenny about 1796, was also a writer of fiction. He 
 aided his brother in the composition of "Tales of the 
 O'Hara Family," and was chief author of " The Croppy." 
 Among his works is " Clough Fionn, or the Stone of £> 
 tiny." 
 
 Banister. See Bannister, (John.) 
 
 Ban'is-ter, (John,) an English surgeon, born aboui 
 1550, wrote, among other treatises, "The History of 
 Man, sucked from the Sappe of the most approved 
 Anathomistes," (1578,) and " Antidotarie Chyrurgicale," 
 (1589.) Died about 1630. 
 
 Banister, (John,) a distinguished English botanist, 
 who travelled in the United States and West Indies. 
 In 1680 he contributed a catalogue of Virginian plants 
 to Ray's " History of Plants." The genus Banisteria 
 was named in his honour. Died about 1689. 
 
 Banister, (John,) an English violinist, born about 
 1630. He composed the music for the opera of " Circe." 
 Died about 1679. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Banister, (Richard,) an English surgeon, distin- 
 guished for his skill in the treatment of diseases of the 
 eye, in relation to which he wrote several treatises. Died 
 about 1630. 
 
 Bank-Ban, bank'ban', [Lat. Bancha'nus,] a Hun- 
 garian nobleman, who, in 1217, assassinated Gertrude, 
 queen of Andrew II., for having aided her brother Eck- 
 art to outrage his wife. Bank-Ban was subsequently put 
 to death. Katona's tragedy of "Bank-Ban," esteemed 
 the best drama in the Hungarian language, is founded 
 on this event. 
 
 Bankert, van, vin bank'ert, (Adrian,) a Dutch 
 naval commander, born at Flushing, fought against the 
 English in 1666, and in 1672 against the united French 
 and English fleets. Died in 1684. 
 
 Bankert, (Joseph van Trappen — vSn trap'pen,) a 
 Dutch admiral, father of the preceding, born at Flu 
 about 1590, fought in the battle of Dunkirk, and defeated 
 the Portuguese fleet near Brazil in 1647. Died on his 
 voyage home the same year. 
 
 Bankes, banks, (Henry,) an English writer, born 
 about 1757, published the "Civil and Constitutional 
 History of Rome," (1818.) He was a member of Par- 
 liament from 1780 to 1826. Died in 1835. 
 
 Bankes, (Sir John,) an English jurist, born at Kes- 
 wick in 1589, succeeded Sir Edward Littleton as lord 
 chief justice of common pleas under Charles I. in 1640. 
 He supported the king against the Parliament, by which 
 he was declared a traitor. Died in 1644. 
 
 See Foss, " The Judges of England." 
 
 Banks, banks, (Eduard,) a German diplomatist, born 
 at Hamburg in 1796, became secretary of the senate, 
 (1826,) syndic of Hamburg, (1837,) and was subsequently 
 ambassador to London. 
 
 Banks, (John,) an English dramatist, was the author 
 of tragedies entitled "The Destruction of Troy," "The 
 Rival Kings," "The Unhappy Favourite, or the Earl of 
 Essex," (1685,) "Cyrus the Great," (1696,) and others. 
 
 See " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 i, e, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ti, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; nftt; good; m67rn, 
 
BANKS 
 
 2 59 
 
 BANNISTER 
 
 Banks, (John,) born in Berkshire, England, in 1709, 
 was the author of a " Critical Review of the Life of 
 Oliver Cromwell." Died in 1751. 
 
 Banks, (Sir Joseph,) an eminent English naturalist, 
 born in London on the 4th of January, 1 743, was a son 
 of William Banks, Esq., from whom he inherited an 
 easy fortune. He entered Christ Church, Oxford, in 
 1760, and left it in 1763, with an extensive knowledge 
 of natural history, especially of botany. In 1766 he was 
 chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1768 ac- 
 companied Captain Cook in his voyage of discovery 
 round the world. His friend Dr. Solander was asso- 
 ciated with him as naturalist in this expedition. They 
 returned with rich collections of natural objects in June, 
 1 77 1, and intended to publish a botanical work; but the 
 death of Solander prevented its completion. Sir Joseph 
 Banks explored Iceland in 1772. He was president of 
 the Royal Society from 1777 until 1820, and distinguished 
 himself as a liberal patron of travellers and scientific 
 men. Several voyages of discovery were performed 
 under his direction' or favoured by his influence. He 
 laboured to diffuse over each region of the earth the 
 productions of other climates. He was knighted in 1781, 
 and became a member of the privy council in 1797. In 
 1802 he was chosen an associate of the Institute of 
 France. He published a " Short Account of the Cause 
 of the Disease in Corn called the Blight, the Mildew, 
 and the Rust," (1803,) and "Circumstances relative to 
 Merino Sheep," (1809.) He died in London in 1820, and 
 left no family. Cuvier composed a eulogy on him, which 
 he read at the Institute in 1821. 
 
 See, also, Duncan's "Short Account of the Life of Sir Joseph 
 Banks," 1S21 ; "Sir J. Banks and the Royal Society," London, 1844. 
 
 Banks, (Nathaniel Prentiss,) an American states- 
 man and general, born at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 
 January, 1816, was a son of poor parents, and enjoyed 
 few advantages of education. He learned the trade of a 
 machinist, cultivated his mind at home, lectured before 
 lyceums, and studied law. He was elected a member 
 of the State legislature for 1849 as a Democrat, and was 
 chosen Speaker of the House of Representatives of Mas- 
 sachusetts in 1851. In 1852 he was elected a member 
 of Congress, in which he voted against the Kansas-Ne- 
 braska bill and separated from his party on the question 
 of slavery. He was returned to Congress in November, 
 1854, by the Republicans and Know-Nothings, and was 
 selected as the Republican candidate for Speaker of the 
 House. After an exciting contest, which lasted more 
 than two months, he was elected Speaker on the one 
 hundred and thirty-third ballot, in February, 1856. He 
 won a high reputation as a presiding officer. 
 
 In November, 1857, he was elected Governor of Mas- 
 sachusetts, and was re-elected for 1859 and i860. On 
 the breaking out of the rebellion in 1861, he was ap- 
 pointed in May a major-general of volunteers, soon after 
 which he commanded a separate army on the Potomac. 
 His army gained a victory at Winchester in March, 1862, 
 and folk-wed the retiring enemy to Harrisonburg. In 
 May he was ordered to fall back to Strasburg, and a 
 large part of his army was withdrawn. On the 24th of 
 M ;. he was attacked by General Stonewall Jackson, and 
 made a rapid retreat to the Potomac, marching thirty- 
 five miles in a day. He commanded a corps which under 
 the orders of General Pope fought a severe battle at 
 Cedar Mountain, Virginia, August 9, 1862. Both sides 
 claimed the victory. ' In December, 1862, he superseded 
 General Butler at New Orleans as commander of the 
 Department of the Gulf. He took Opelousas in April, 
 1863, and Alexandria in the ensuing month, after defeat- 
 ing the enemy and capturing two thousand prisoners. 
 About the 25th of May he invested Port Hudson, which 
 was surrendered, with about six thousand prisoners, July 9. 
 
 In March, 1864, he, began to move his army on an ex- 
 pedition against Shreveport, on the Red River, in which 
 a fleet of gunboats and monitors under Rear-Admiral 
 Porter co-operated. Porter took Alexandria on the 16th 
 of March, and about ten clays later Banks assembled his 
 whole army at that place, from which he marched to 
 Grand Ecore. On the 7th of April his advance engaged 
 the enemy at Pleasant Hill and drove him from the 
 field. The insurgents attacked and defeated a part of 
 
 his army at Sabine Cross-Roads and Peach Hill on the 
 8th. During the next night General Banks fell back to 
 Pleasant Hill, where the enemy attacked him on the 9th 
 and was repulsed with loss. The preservation of the 
 gunboats under Porter was mainly due to the efficient 
 aid of Lieutenant-Colonel Bailey, who, by damming the 
 river, enabled the boats to descend in safety, although the 
 water was at this time very low. The Union army, pressed 
 by superior numbers, retreated to Alexandria, which it 
 reached on the 27th of April and.evacuated on the 14th 
 of May, 1864. About that date General Banks was re- 
 lieved from the command. He was elected a member of 
 Congress in the autumn of 1S64, and re-elected in 1866 
 and 1868. He served as chairman of the Committee of 
 Foreign Relations in the Fortieth Congress. 
 
 Banks, (Thomas,) one of the most eminent English 
 sculptors, born at Lambeth in 1735. He studied archi- 
 tecture for a time under Kent, but he soon renounced it 
 for sculpture. He exhibited in 1771 his group of "Mer- 
 cury, Argos, and Io," which was so much admired that 
 he was sent by the Academy in 1772 to pursue his studies 
 at Rome. While there he produced his exquisite statue 
 of " Psyche and the Butterfly," a model of classic grace, 
 which was afterwards purchased by Catherine II. of Rus- 
 sia, and his group of " Caractacus before Claudius," also 
 esteemed a master-piece. On the invitation of the em- 
 press Catherine, he visited Saint Petersburg in 1 784 ; but, 
 becoming dissatisfied, he returned to England, where he 
 was soon after made a Royal Academician. Among his 
 other productions may be named his noble figure of the 
 " Mourning Achilles," and the monument to the daughter 
 of Sir Brooke Boothby, a work of touching beauty, rep- 
 resenting a sleeping child. Banks numbered among his 
 friends Flaxman, Fuseli, and Home Tooke. " He was," 
 says Cunningham, "the first of our native sculptors whose 
 aims were uniformly lofty and heroic and who desired 
 to bring poetry to the aid of all his compositions, and, 
 like Flaxman, added another to the number of those de- 
 vout sculptors whose purity of life and reach of intellect 
 are an honour to their country." Died in 1805. 
 
 See Cunningham, "Lives of Painters and Sculptors." 
 
 Banks, (Thomas Christopher,) an English gene- 
 alogist, born about 1762, published, besides other works, 
 " Stemmata Anglicana," (1825.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Ban'na-tyne, (George,) born in Scotland in 1545, 
 was the compiler of the manuscripts entitled " Corpus 
 Poeticum Scotorum." The Bannatyne Club, designed to 
 promote the study of Scottish history and antiquities, 
 was founded by Sir Walter Scott in 1823, and the "Me- 
 morials of George Bannatyne," edited by Sir Walter 
 conjointly with D. Laing, appeared in 1826. 
 
 See Chambers, *' Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bannatyne, (Sir William,) a Scottish lawyer, born 
 in 1743, was one of the founders of the Highland Society 
 of Scotland, and contributed to the "Mirror" and the 
 "Lounger." Died in 1834. 
 
 Ban'ne-ker, (Benjamin,) a negro mathematician of 
 Maryland, born in 1731. Thomas Jefferson sent a manu- 
 script copy of Banneker's almanac to the secretary of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Paris. Banneker assisted in 
 running the boundary-lines of the District of Columbia 
 and laying out Washington City. In 1792 he published a 
 letter addressed to Mr. Jefferson, then secretary of state. 
 Died at Baltimore in 1806. Two sketches of his life have 
 been published by the Maryland Historical Society. 
 
 See "Atlantic Monthly" for January, 1863. 
 
 Banner. See Baner. 
 
 Ban'ner-man, (Alexander,) an English portrait- 
 engraver, born at Cambridge in 1730; died about 1800. 
 
 Bannerman, (Sir Alexander,) born at Aberdeen in 
 1783, was appointed Governor of Newfoundland in 1857. 
 
 Bannier. See Baner. 
 
 Ban'nis-ter or Ban'is-ter, (John,) a distinguished 
 comic actor, born in London in 1760; died in 1836. 
 
 See John Adoi-phus, "Memoirs of John Banister," 2 vols., 1829. 
 
 Ban'nis-ter, (William B.,) an American lawyer and 
 merchant, was born in Brookfield, Massachusetts, in 
 1774, or, according to some authorities, in 1783. He 
 died in 1853, and left forty thousand dollars to charitable 
 institutions. 
 
 « as k; c as t; i» hard; g asj; c, h, k, guttural} N, nasal; R, trilled: § as z; th as in this. (Jrjp-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BANN1TZA 
 
 260 
 
 BAR ALT 
 
 Bannitza, ban-nit'sa, (Joseph Leo,) a German jurist, 
 born at Wurzburg in 1733 ; died in 1800. 
 
 Ban'quo, a Scottish chieftain of the eleventh century, 
 was Thane of Lochaber, and the accomplice of Macbeth 
 in the murder of King Duncan. He was assassinated by 
 Macbeth in 1066, but his son Fleance escaped, and from 
 him the house of Stuart derives its origin. Shakspeare, 
 in his tragedy of ".Macbeth," has somewhat altered the 
 facts of history with regard to Banquo. 
 
 See Guthrie, " History of Scotland ;" Burton, " History of 
 Scotland." 
 
 Bautl, Mn'tee, or Bandi, ban'dee, (Georgina Bri- 
 gida,) a celebrated Italian vocalist, born at Crema in 
 1757 ; died in 1806. 
 
 Banzer, bant'ser, (Mark,) a German medical writer, 
 born at Augsburg in 1592; died in 1644. 
 
 Ba'o-dan', King of Ireland, began to reign about 565 
 A.D. He was killed soon after by Colman. 
 
 Baour-Lormian, bi'oor' lor'me'&N', (Pierre Marie 
 Francois Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Toulouse 
 in 1770. He wrote an imitation of Ossian's poems, which 
 attracted the favourable notice of Napoleon, also a num- 
 ber of poems and dramas, and translated Tasso's "Jeru- 
 salem Delivered" into French verse. He was admitted 
 into the French Academy in 181 5. Died in 1857. 
 
 Ba'pnl-us, a Greek, who wrote " Commentaries on 
 the Basilica," is supposed to have lived about 1050 a.d. 
 
 Ba-phom'e-tus, the name of a personage mentioned 
 in the documents of the Gnostics, Templars, and Free- 
 masons of the middle ages, conjectured by some to have 
 been Mohammed. 
 
 Bapst, blpst, or Pabst, pipst, (Michael,) a German 
 physician and writer, born at Rochlitz in 1540; died in 
 1603. 
 
 Baptista, bap-tes'ta, orBattista, bat-tes'ta, a learned 
 Italian lady and nun of the order of Santa Clara, was of 
 the family of Malatesta. Died in 1447. 
 
 Baptista or Battista, (Giuseppe,) an Italian poet 
 and theologian, born at Naples ; died in 1675. 
 
 Baptiste, (Jean.) See Monoyer. 
 
 Baptiste, bip'test', (John Gaspard,) a Flemish paint- 
 er, a pupil of Boschaert, born at Antwerp; died in 1691. 
 
 Baptiste, bip'test', (Nicolas Anselme,) the Elder, 
 a French actor, born at Bordeaux in 1761, enjoyed a high 
 reputation, particularly in comedy. Died in 1835. 
 
 Baptiste, (Paul Eustache Anselme,) called the 
 Younger,' a son of the preceding, was likewise distin- 
 guished as a comic actor. Died in 1839. 
 
 Baptistin. See Battistin. 
 
 Baquoy, bi'kwa', (Jean Charles,) a French en- 
 graver, born in Paris in 1721. He executed the vig- 
 nettes for an edition of Ovid's " Metamorphoses." Died 
 in 1777. 
 
 Baquoy, (Maurice,) a French engraver, father of the 
 preceding, born about 1680 ; died in Paris in 1747. 
 
 Baquoy, (Pierre Charles,) son of Jean Charles, 
 noticed above, was born in Paris in 1 759. His engraving 
 after Le Sueur's " Martyrdom of Saint Gervais and Saint 
 Protais" is esteemed his master-piece. Died in 1829. 
 
 Bar, bait, (Georg Ludwtg,) Baron of, a German 
 writer, born in Westphalia about 1701 ; died in 1767. 
 
 Bar, bSR, (Jean Etienne,) a French advocate, born 
 at Anneville in 1748. Being elected to the National Con- 
 vention, he voted for the death of the king, and, after the 
 fall of Robespierre, became secretary of the Convention. 
 He was subsequently a member of the Council of Five 
 Hundred, and president of the civil tribunal of Thion- 
 ville. Died in 1801. 
 
 See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." 
 
 Bar, de, deh biR, (Adrien Aime Fleury — fluh're',) 
 a French general, born at Thiais in 1783, served in the 
 principal campaigns of the first empire, and subsequently 
 distinguished himself in Algeria. He became lieutenant- 
 general in 1844, and a senator in 1852. Died in 1861. 
 
 Bar, de, (Francois,) a French Benedictine monk 
 and ecclesiastical writer, born near Saint-Quentin in 
 1538; died in 1606. 
 
 Bar, de, (Nicolas,) a French painter of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Bar or Ba'er, baiR, [Lat. By«'R!US,l (Nicholaus,) a 
 German poet, born at Bremen in 1639, wrote Latin 
 
 poems on natural history, one of which is entitled " Or- 
 nithophonia." Died in 1714. 
 
 Bar or Baer, von, fon baiR, (Karl Ernst,) an eminent 
 Russian naturalist, of German extraction, born in Esthonia 
 in February, 1792. He studied at Dorpat, and in 1819 be- 
 came professor of zoology at Konigsberg, where he found- 
 ed a zoological museum. In 1837 he made a voyag^ to 
 Nova Zembla, of which he afterwards gave an account in 
 the "Memoirs of the Academy of Saint Petersburg." 
 Among his principal works (in German) are a " History 
 of the Development of Animals," (2 vols., 1828-37,) and 
 "Researches on the Development of Fishes," (1835.) 
 Since 1834 he has been a resident of Saint Petersburg, 
 and librarian at the Academy of Sciences there. He 
 made important discoveries in zoology and physiology. 
 
 See a sketch of his life, by himself, Saint Petersburg, 1865; also 
 a notice in the " London Quarterly" for April, 1867. 
 
 Barabas,bor'o-bosh,(NiCOLAUS,) a Hungarian painter, 
 born in Transylvania in 1810. Among his best works 
 are portraits of Baron Wesselenyi, Klapka, and Gbrgey. 
 He was elected a member of the Academy of Arts at 
 Vienna, and of the Hungarian Academy, (1837.) 
 
 Ba'ra-eh or Ba'rak, [Heb. p"0,]'a judge of the 
 Hebrews, and son of Abinoam, flourished about 1240 
 B.C. Having, with the assistance of Deborah, defeated 
 Sisera and delivered his people from the yoke of the 
 Canaanites, he ruled over Israel. (See Judges iv.) 
 
 Baradaeus, M-ra-dee'us, (Jacobus,) sometimes called 
 Zan'zalus, a monk who distinguished himself by his 
 zeal in reviving the heresy of the Monophysites or Euty- 
 chians. He was by his followers (called Jacobites) made 
 Bishop of Edessa. Died in 588 a.d. 
 
 Baraguey d'Hilliers, bi'ri'gi' de'ye-i' or del'ye-a', 
 (Achille,) a French marshal, son of Louis, noticed be- 
 low, born in 1795, was aide-de-camp to Marshal Mar- 
 riiont in 1813. Having served successively in Austria, 
 Spain, and Algeria, he was made lieutenant-general in 
 1843. He was appointed under Louis Napoleon one of 
 the vice-presidents of the senate, and obtained the grand 
 cross of the legion of honour. He was created in 1854 
 marshal of France. 
 
 Baraguey d'Hilliers, (Louis,) a French general, 
 born in Paris in 1764, served in the Italian campaigns of 
 1796-97. Having been created inspector-general of in- 
 fantry (1801) and grand officer of the legion of honour, 
 (1804,) he commanded the dragoons in the invasion of 
 Austria in 1805. Appointed governor of Venice in 1808, 
 he shared with the viceroy Eugene in the victory of Raab. 
 As commander of a division of the Russian army in 1812, 
 he had the misfortune to fall into the hands of the enemy, 
 with the greater part of his forces. For this he was sus- 
 pended from his functions by Napoleon, and died soon 
 after, of mortification. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Barahona, ba-ra-o'na, (Pedro,) surnamed Vai.de- 
 vieso, val-da-ve-a'so, a Spanish theologian and religious 
 writer of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Barahona y Soto, or Baraona y Soto, de, da 
 ba-ra-o'na e so'to, (Luis,) a Spanish poet and physician 
 of the sixteenth century, born at Lucena, in Andalusia. 
 He wrote a continuation of the "Orlando Fiirioso," en- 
 titled " The Tears of Angelica," which is eulogized by 
 Cervantes in "Don Quixote," also a number of satires 
 and eclogues, and translated some of Ovid's works into 
 Spanish. Died about 1586. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Baraillon, bi'ri'ydN', (Jean Francois,) a Freich 
 physician, statesman, and writer, born at Vierzat, in 
 Auvergne, in 1743. He was elected in 1792 to the Con- 
 vention, where he voted for the imprisonment of the 
 king. He was afterwards secretary of the Council of 
 Five Hundred, and in 1801 president of the legislative 
 body. Died in 1816. 
 
 Baraldi, ba-ral'dee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian litterateur, 
 bom in 1778 ; died in 1832. 
 
 Baralt, ba-ralt', (Rafael Maria,) a Spanish-Ameri- 
 can writer, born at Maracaibo about 1810. His principal 
 work is entitled " History of Venezuela from its Dis 
 covery to 1797," (1 vol., 1841.) Two additional volumes, 
 bringing it down to 1837, were subsequently written by 
 Baralt, conjointly with Ramon Diaz. 
 
 1; 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, |, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; r.5t; good; m6&n 
 
BARANOV 
 
 261 
 
 BARBARIGO 
 
 Baranof, M-ra'nof, (Alexander Andrevitch,) 
 governor of the Russian possessions in the northwest- 
 ern part of America, founded in 1796 a colony at Behring 
 Strait. He was ennobled by the emperor Alexander. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Baranovitch, ba-ra'no-vitch, (Lazar,) a Russian 
 theologian, became Archbishop of Tchernigov. He was 
 the author of a poem "On the Vicissitudes of Human 
 Life," and other works. Died in 1693. 
 
 Barauovski, ba-ra-nov'skee, [Lat. Barano'vius,] 
 (Ai.kert,) a Polish archbishop of Gnesen under the reign 
 of Sigismund III. Died in 1615. 
 
 Barauovski, (Stanislas,) of Rzeplin, a Polish bio- 
 graphical writer of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Barante, de, deh bt'rfiNt', (Amable Guillaume 
 Prosper Brugiere — bRii'zhe-aiR',) a French statesman, 
 an excellent historian and miscellaneous writer, son of 
 Claude Ignace, (the second of that name,) noticed below, 
 was born at Riom in 1782. He was appointed under 
 Louis XVIII. general secretary in the ministry of the 
 interior, and in 1819 made a peer of France. He was 
 the author of a " Picture of French Literature in the 
 Eighteentli Century," (1808,) "Literary Miscellanies," 
 (1836,) and "History of the Dukes of Burgundy," (13 
 vols., 1826.) The last-named work has a high reputa- 
 tion. He also published a " History of the National 
 Convention," (1853,) and translated Schiller's dramas. 
 In 1S28 he succeeded Deseze in the French Academy. 
 Died in December, 1866. 
 
 See a "Memoir of Prosper de Barante," by Guizot, 1867. 
 
 Barante, de, (Claude Ignace Brugiere,) a French 
 critic and dramatist, born at Riom, in Auvergne, in 1670 ; 
 died in 1745. 
 
 Barante, de, (Claude Ignace Brugiere,) Baron, 
 grandson of the preceding, born at Riom in 1745. He 
 published, among other works, an " Examination of the 
 Fundamental Principle of Rochefoucauld's Maxims," 
 (1798.) Died in 1814. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Baranzano, ba-ran-za'no, (Giovanni Antonio,) sur- 
 named Rkukmi'tus, a Piedmontese monk and philoso- 
 pher, born in the diocese of Vercelli in 1590, became 
 professor of philosophy at Annecy. He opposed the 
 doctrines of Aristotle, and was the author of " Urano- 
 scopia," and other works, in Latin. He was a fiiend and 
 correspondent of Lord Bacon. Died in 1622. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Nicbron, " Md- 
 moires." 
 
 Baraona y Soto. See Barahona y Soto. 
 
 Barat, bJ'rS', (Nicolas,) a French Orientalist, born 
 at Bourges, aided Thomassin in his " Glossarium He- 
 braicum." Died in 1706. 
 
 Baratier, bS'rS'te-A', written alsoBarretier,(IoHANN 
 PHILIPP,) a German youth, of French extraction, cele- 
 brated for precocity of intellect, was born near Nurem- 
 berg in 1721. At the age of thirteen he had mastered 
 Latin and Greek and the principal Oriental tongues, 
 and translated from the Hebrew into French the travels 
 of Benjamin of Tudela. In 1735 he was created master 
 of arts by the University of Halle, where he publicly 
 defended fourteen theses. He died in 1740, at the age 
 of nineteen. 
 
 See J. H. S. Formev, "Viede J. P. Baratier," 1741; F. Bara- 
 tier, " Nachricht von scinem friihzeitig gelehrten Soline," 1728 ; Dr. 
 Johnson's Works, voL xii., 1812. 
 
 Baratta, ba-rat'ta, (Francesco,) an Italian sculptor, 
 born at Massa di Carrara. Among his works are a 
 " Hercules," and a colossal statue intended to represent 
 the river La Plata. Died in 1666. 
 
 Baratta, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Genoa, removed to Rome in 1824. 
 
 Baratta, (Pietro,) a Venetian sculptor, lived in the 
 second half of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Barattieri, ba-r3t-te-a'ree,(BARTOLOMMEO,) an Italian 
 jurist of the sixteenth century, was a native of Placen- 
 tia. He composed a work "On Feudal Law." 
 
 Baratynski, ba-ra-tin'skee, (Abram,) an eminent 
 Russian poet, the friend and contemporary of Pushkin, 
 resided during his youth in Saint Petersburg. He after- 
 wards spent eight years in the military service in Finland. 
 His poem entitled " The Gypsy" is a charming picture 
 
 of Russian life, and enjoys great popularity. He pub- 
 lished in 1833 his complete works, in two vol-imes. Died 
 in 1844. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Barba, baR'ba, (Alvarez Alonso,) a Spanish eccle- 
 siastic, who lived in the early part of the seventeenth 
 century, was the author of a " Treatise on Metallurgy," 
 (1640,) which was translated into French and German. 
 
 Barba, baR'ba, (Giovanni,) an Italian advocate and 
 prelate, born at Naples, was one of the twelve consisto- 
 rial advocates at Rome. He published a tieatise "On 
 the Art and Method of Languages," (1734.) Died about 
 
 1745- 
 
 Barba, (Juan Sanchez,) a Spanish sculptor, whose 
 principal work is a statue of the " Dying Saviour," at 
 the convent della Merced at Madrid. Died in 1670. 
 
 Barba, (Pedro,) professor of medicine at Valladolid 
 became in 1621 first physician to Philip IV. of Spain. 
 
 Barba, della, del'la baR'ba, (Pompeo,) an Italian 
 naturalist and writer of the sixteenth century, born at 
 Pescia, was physician to Pope Pius IV. Diecf in 1582. 
 
 Barbacena, baR-ba-sa'ni, (F. Caldeira Brant — 
 kal-da'e-ra brant,) Marquis of, a Brazilian diplomatist 
 and soldier, born at Sabora in 1772. He was appointed 
 by the Emperor of Brazil to conduct the negotiations in 
 relation to the independence of that country, with Por- 
 tugal, and was afterwards minister of finance. Barbacena 
 was the first to introduce steamboats and steam-engines 
 into Brazil. Died in 1842. 
 
 Barbadillo, bai<-ba-Del'yo, (Alfonso Geronimo de 
 Salas — da sa'las,) a Spanish novelist and dramatic wri- 
 ter, born at Madrid about 1580, was an intimate friend 
 of Cervantes, whose style he imitated. Died in 1630. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" Baena, "Hijos 
 de Madrid." 
 
 Barbadino, baR-ba-dee'no, a Portuguese writer of 
 the eighteenth century, was the author of a work on the 
 "True Method of being Useful tothe Churchand State." 
 
 Barbadoro, baR-ba-do'ro, (Bartolommeo,) an Ital- 
 ian scholar of the sixteenth century, was a native of 
 Florence. In conjunction with Jerome Mei, he discov- 
 ered the " Electra" of Euripides and the " Agamemnon" 
 of jEschylus, subsequently published by P. Victorius. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Barbalho Bezerra, baR-bal'yo ba-zjr'ra, (Agos- 
 tinho,) a Brazilian traveller, born at Saint Paul. He 
 was appointed general superintendent of the mines of 
 Brazil in 1664, and explored that region in search of 
 precious stones. Died about 1667. 
 
 Barbalunga. See Ricci. 
 
 Barbaii90is, de, deh bSR'boVswa', (Charles He- 
 lion — a'le'oN',) Marquis, a French nobleman and agri- 
 cultural writer, born near Chateauroux in 1760. He 
 was the first who introduced Spanish sheep into France, 
 (1776.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Barban50n.de, deh bSR'bfiN'soN', (Marie,) a French 
 lady of the latter part of the sixteenth century, cele- 
 brated for her brave defence of her castle against Mon- 
 tare, governor of Bourbonnais. 
 
 Barbanegre, bSR'bt'nJgR', (Jo=FrH,) Baron of, a 
 French general, born at Pontacq, in Basses-Pyrenees, in 
 1772. He served in Napoleon's Austrian and Russian 
 campaigns, and in 1815 bravely defended Huningen 
 against the allies for nearly two months. Died in 183a 
 
 Bar'ba-ra, Saint, [Fr. Sainte-Barbe, saNt'biRb,] 
 a celebrated martyr, supposed to have been contempo- 
 rary with Origen and to have been instructed by him. 
 According to some writers, she suffered death under 
 Galerius ; while others state that she was martyred at 
 Nicomedia in the reign of Maximin I. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson's "Sacred and Legendary Art;" Moreri, 
 " Dictionnaire Hislorique." 
 
 Barbarelli. See Giorgione. 
 
 Barbarigo,baR-ba-ree'go,[Lat. Barbari'cus,] (Agos- 
 tino,) became Doge of Venice in i486. During his rule 
 Italy was invaded by Charles VIII. of France, the Turks 
 deprived Venice of her Greek provinces, and Cyprus 
 was reunited to the Venetian republic, on condition of 
 the payment of an annual tribute of eight thousand 
 ducats to the queen of that island. Died in 1 501. 
 
 See Daru, " Histoire de Venise.' 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, 11, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as z; th as in this. (Uy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BARBARIGO 
 
 262 
 
 BARBAULT 
 
 Barbarigo, [Lat. Barbari'cus,] (Gregorio,) born in 
 Venice in 1625, was made a cardinal in 1660. He was 
 distinguished for his learning and piety, and for his libe- 
 ral patronage of literature. Died in 1697. 
 
 See Ricchini, "De Vitaac Rebus gestis B. G. Barbarici," 1761. 
 
 prominent member of the Girondist party during the 
 French Revolution, born at Marseilles in 1767. He had 
 already distinguished himself by his eloquence as an 
 advocate, when he became in 1791 deputy-extraordinary 
 from Marseilles to the Legislative Assembly in Paris, 
 
 Barbarigo, (Niccol6,) a relative of Agostino, was and there formed an intimacy with Vergniaud, Roland, 
 
 ambassador from Venice to Constantinople. He wrote, 
 in Latin, the lives of the doge Andrea Gritti and of 
 Cardinal Contarini. Died in 1579. 
 
 Barbarini, (Francesco.) See Barberini. 
 
 Barbaro, baR'ba-ro, (Daniello,) an Italian ecclesi- 
 astic of the sixteenth century, born at Venice, was the 
 
 and other distinguished revolutionists. Elected after- 
 wards to the National Convention, he denounced Ro- 
 bespierre and his colleagues, and, during the trial of the 
 king, voted for his death, but with the appeal to the 
 people. After the proscription of the Girondists by the 
 Jacobins, in May, 1793, Barbaroux left Paris, but, having 
 
 author of a treatise "On Eloquence," and of one "On concealed himself for some days in the neighbourhood 
 the Architecture of Vitruvius," (1556.) Died in 1570. j oi Bordeaux, was at length discovered, and guillotined 
 Barbaro, (Ermolao,) an Italian prelate, born at : in that citv in '794- 
 
 Venice about 1410, became Bishop of Treviso in 14.13. 
 He made a Latin translation of ^Esop's "Fables," (un- 
 published.) Died in 1471. 
 
 Barbaro or Bar'barus, (Ermolao or Hermolaus,) 
 an Italian diplomatist and scholar, born at Venice in 
 1454, was a grandson of Francesco, mentioned below. 
 He studied under Pomponius La;tus, and in 1477 be- 
 came professor of philosophy at Padua. He was after- 
 wards employed on several important embassies. Among 
 his principal works is a critical commentary on Plinv's 
 "Natural History," entitled " Castigationes PlinianEe." 
 He also made translations from Dioscorides and Aris- 
 totle into Latin. Died in 1493. 
 
 See Teissier, " filogesdes Savants ;" Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Barbaro, (Francesco,) an Italian scholar, orator, 
 and statesman, born at Venice in 1398, rose through 
 several offices to be procurator of Saint Mark. He was 
 the author of a " Treatise on Marriage," and of other 
 works, in Latin. Died in 1454. 
 
 See Ghilini, "Teatro de' Uomini letterati." 
 
 Barbaro, (Josaphat,) a Venetian traveller of the 
 fifteenth century. His " Journey to the Tanais, Persia, 
 India, and Constantinople" (1543) is to be found in 
 Ramusio's "Collection of Travels." Died in 1494. 
 
 See MazzI'chelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Barbarossa. See Frederick I. of Germany. 
 
 Bar-ba-ros'sa,* the name of two brothers, who, as 
 corsairs, were the terror of Christendom during almost 
 the whole of the first half of the sixteenth century. The 
 elder, Arooj, Horush, or Horuc, was a native of 
 Mitylene. -Having embraced the Mohammedan religion 
 and commenced his career as a corsair, he at length be- 
 came (about 15 1 7) ruler of a large portion of what is now 
 known as Algeria. In 1 518 Charles V. sent an army of 
 Spaniards against Arooj, who, after displaying the most 
 desperate courage, was defeated and slain. 
 
 His brother Hadher, (had'er,) usually known by his 
 
 surname Khair-ed-Deen, (or -eddin,) kiR'ed-deen', 
 
 (i.e. the " good of the faith,") was immediately after the 
 
 death of Arooj proclaimed ruler of Algiers. In order 
 
 to resist the Spaniards, he offered the sovereignty of 
 
 Algiers to the Turkish sultan, Selim I., on condition of 
 
 being made viceroy and obtaining reinforcements of 
 
 troops. A body of two thousand janissaries was sent to 
 
 him in 15 19, and the dominion of Turkey from that time 
 
 was established in Algiers. In 1532 Barbarossa, on the 
 
 solicitation of the people of Tunis, drove away their 
 
 king, Muley Hassan, and assumed the chief power. 
 
 Being appointed "capudan pasna," or great admiral, by 
 
 Solyman, he ravaged the coast of Italy in 1534, but was 
 
 soon after defeated by the emperor Charles V. and his 
 
 celebrated admiral, Doria, who captured Tunis. The 
 
 French king, Francis I., having formed an alliance with 
 
 the Sultan against Charles V., their united forces laid 
 
 shge in 1543 to Nice, which they obliged to capitulate. 
 
 Barbarossa died at Constantinople in 1546. 
 
 See Morgan, " History of Algiers ;" Robertson, " Charles V ," 
 chaps, v. and vi. 
 
 Barbarossa, baR-ba-ros'sa, (Paolo Emilio,) an Ital- 
 ian poet and mystic, born at Trapani ; died in 1614. 
 Barbaroux, baVbi'roo', (Charles Jean Marie,) a 
 
 * Derived, according to some writers, from barba, "beard," and 
 rossa, (Italian,) "red," from the colour of their beard ; but, according 
 to others, Barbarossa is a corruption of Baba (,"{M\KT")Horusk 
 the name by which Arooj was commonly called by his followers 
 
 See his ' 
 dists. " 
 
 Memoires," 1822; Lamartin 
 
 ' History of the Giron- 
 
 Barbaroux, (Charles Oger,) a French advocate 
 and writer, son of the preceding, born at Marseilles in 
 1792. He published a part of his father's " Memoires," 
 (1822,) a "History of the United States," (1824,) and 
 other works. He was elected a member of the Council 
 of State in 1849, and became Senator in 1858. 
 
 Barbat See Barbut. 
 
 Barbatelli. See Poccetti. 
 
 Barbato, baR-ba'to, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Padua. He edited Tasso's great poem, and 
 wrote a "Life of Tasso," (1628.) 
 
 Barbato, (GiROLAMO,)an Italian medical writer, first 
 discovered the serum of the blood, on which he wrote a 
 treatise, (1667.) 
 
 Barbatus. See Asclepius, (Nicholas.) 
 
 Bar-ba'tus, (M. Horatius,) a Roman of the Hora- 
 tian gens, who, having distinguished himself by his oppo- 
 sition to the second decemvirate, became, with Valerius 
 Poplicola, the leader of the plebeian party. They were 
 conjointly elected consuls in 449 B.C., and during their 
 consulship were passed the laws entitled "Valeria; llo- 
 ratia; Leges," confirming the liberties of the people. 
 
 Bar'bauld, [Fr. pron. biR'bo',] (Anna L^etitia,) an 
 English writer, born in Leicestershire in 1743. She was 
 the daughter of the Rev. John Aikin, by whom she was 
 early instructed in the classics. In 1773 she brought out 
 a collection of poems, which immediately gave her a high 
 reputation, and which passed through four editions in 
 one year. This was soon followed bv "Miscellaneous 
 Pieces in Prose," written conjointly wit'h her brother, Dr. 
 John Aikin. Miss Aikin was married in 1774 to the 
 Rev. Rochemont Barbauld, a dissenting divine of French 
 extraction, who a short time after opened a school for 
 boys at Palgrave, in Suffolk. About this time Mrs. 
 Barbauld wrote, for the use of a few pupils under her 
 charge, " Hymns in Prose for Children," which are full 
 of poetic feeling and moral beauty. In 1775 she pub- 
 lished " Devotional Pieces,"- and " Early Lessons ;" the 
 latter, intended for young children, was received with 
 great favour, and still retains its popularity. In 1791 
 she wrote a poetical epistle to Wilberforce on the rejec- 
 tion of the bill for the abolition of the slave-trade, and in 
 1792 " Remarks on Mr. Gilbert Wakefield's Inquiry into 
 the Expediency, etc. of Public or Social Worship." 
 She brought out in 1793 a sermon entitled "The Sins of 
 the Government the Sins of the Nation," which, as well 
 as the preceding treatises, displays great ability and the 
 strongest love of justice. Among Mrs. Barbauld's other 
 productions maybe named her poem entitled "Eighteen 
 Hundred and Eleven," and her contributions to the 
 popular work "Evenings at Home." She also pub- 
 lished a selection from the "Spectator," "Tatler," and 
 " Guardian," with a preliminary essay which shows great 
 critical acuteness, and wrote a life of the novelist Richard- 
 son, accompanied by the most interesting parts of his 
 correspondence. She died in 1825. Mrs. Barbauld's 
 books for children are among the most useful and attract- 
 ive of their kind, and her writings are all characterized 
 by the elevated morality and deep devotional feeling 
 which were so conspicuous in her life. 
 
 See "Life of Mrs. Barbauld," prefixed to her works, by Lucy 
 Aikin; Mrs. Elwood, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of Eng- 
 land," etc., vol. i., 1843. 
 
 BarbauTt, btR'bo', (Antoine Francois,) a French 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
 1 
 
BARBAULT 
 
 263 
 
 BARBETRAC 
 
 j surgeon, born in Paris in 1705. He was the author of 
 I " Principles of Surgery," and other works of the kind. 
 , Died in 17S4. 
 
 Barbault-Royer, bSR'bo' Rwa'ya', (P. F.), a West 
 
 Indian diplomatist and journalist, (of the coloured race,) 
 
 was engaged in the insurrection of Saint Domingo in 
 
 1792. Being sent to Fiance with complaints against the 
 
 1i.1l government, he was unable even to obtain a 
 
 hearing from the Council of Five Hundred. He was 
 
 wards associate editor of the official journal of the 
 
 lory in France, and was employed in the ministry 
 
 foreign affairs. 
 
 See Ql'Ekakd, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Barbazan, \Av!\A' zhs' , (Etjenne,) a French writer, 
 
 ) in the diocese of Auxerre in 1696, published, among 
 
 1 works, " Fables and Stories of the French Poets 
 
 . the Eleventh to the Sixteenth Centuries," (1756.) 
 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 Barbazan,de,dehblR'bi'z6N',(ARNAULDGuiLHEM,) 
 SlRK, a celebrated French soldier, was one of the most 
 active defenders of the cause of Charles VII. against the 
 Burgundian faction. In 1430 he defeated the united 
 English and Burgundian army at La Croisette, for which 
 ice he was made governor of Champagne and Brie 
 received the title of restorer of the kingdom and 
 crown of France. Died in 1432. 
 
 See Du Ch&ne, " Histoire de la Maison du Plessis de Richelieu." 
 Barbe, bSRb, (Philippe,) a learned French priest, 
 born in London in 1723, translated some of the Greek 
 Fathers. Died in France in 1792. 
 See Mathiku, " Notice sur le Pere Barbe." 
 
 Barbe, Sainte. See Barbara, Saint. 
 
 Barbe-Marbois. See Marbois. 
 
 Barbe-Radziwil. See Radziwil. 
 
 Barbeau de la Bruyere, baVbo' deh li bRu'yaiR', 
 (Jean Louis,) born in Paris in 1710, published a valu- 
 able "Historical Chart," (1750,) and translated from the 
 German of Strahlcmberg the "Description of the Russian 
 Empire." Died in 1781. 
 
 Barbedette-Chermelais, bSRb'det' sheRm'14', (Jo- 
 seph Jean,) a distinguished French jurist, born in the 
 department of Ille-et-Vilaine in 1784; died in 1826. 
 
 Bar'ber, (Francis,) an American officer, born at 
 Princeton, New Jersey, in 1 751. He became in 1769 
 rector of an academy at Elizabethtown, and gained a 
 high reputation as a teacher. General Alexander Hamil- 
 ton was one of his pupils. He entered the army in 1 776, 
 obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the same year, 
 and served in the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Bran- 
 dy wine, and Monmouth. In 1781 he was selected by 
 General Washington to suppress a mutiny of the Penn- 
 sylvania and New Jersey troops, and performed that 
 mission with success. Colonel Barber was killed acci- 
 dentally at Newburg, New York, in 1783. 
 
 Bar'ber, (John,) an English lawyer of the sixteenth 
 century, was an intimate friend of Archbishop Cranmer. 
 He was a contributor to the compilation entitled " Ne- 
 cessary Doctrine and Erudition of a Christian Man." 
 
 Barber, (John \V.,) an American writer, born in 
 Windsor, Connecticut, in 1798. His principal works 
 aie "Connecticut Historical Collections," (1836,) "Mas- 
 sachusetts Historical Col!ections,"(i839,)and"European 
 Historical Collections," (1855.) In conjunction with 
 Henry Howe, of New Haven, he has also published 
 "Historical Collections" of New York, (1841,) New- 
 Jersey, (1844,) Virginia, (1844,) and Ohio, (1847.) 
 
 Bar'ber, (Mary,) born at Dublin about 171 2, was a 
 fri;nd and protegee of Dean Swift. She published a 
 volume of poems under the patronage of Swift and Lord 
 Orrery. Died in 1757. 
 
 Barbereau, btRb'ro' or bSk'heh'ro', (Mathurin 
 AUGUSTS Ualthasar,) a French musician, born in 
 Paris m 1799, composed the music for the opera en- 
 titled "The Sybarites of Florence." 
 
 Barberet, bSkb'r.y, (Denis,) a learned French phy- 
 sician, born at Arnay-le-Duc, in Burgundy, in 17 14. lie 
 was the author of a treatise " On the Epidemic Diseases 
 of Beasts," and other works. Died in 1770.. 
 
 Barberi, bik-ba'ree, (Filippo,) an Italian theologian, 
 born at Syracuse ; lived about 1480. 
 
 Barberi, (Francesco,) an Italian jurist, was fiscal 
 
 procurator under Pius VI. He had charge of the prose- 
 cution of the celebrated impostor Cagliostro, whom he 
 condemned to perpetual imprisonment. Died about 1800. 
 
 Barberi, (Giovanni,) an Italian architect and painter 
 of perspective, worked at Rome about 1785. 
 
 Barberini, baR-bi-ree'nee, (Antonio,) surnamed the 
 Elder, born at Florence, of a noble family, in 1 569, was 
 a brother of Pope Urban VIII. He was created Cardinal 
 of Sinigaglia in 1624. Died in 1646. 
 
 Barberiiii, (Antonio,) called the Younger, born 
 at Rome in 1608, was a nephew of Pope Urban VIII., 
 and was made a cardinal in 1628. Died in 1671. 
 
 Barberiiii, (Bonaventura,) an Italian ecclesiastic 
 and Archbishop of Ferrara, where he was born in 1674. 
 He was the author of " Orations," in Italian, which were 
 admired in his time. Died in 1743. 
 
 Barberiiii, (Francesco,) an Italian cardinal, born at 
 Florence in 1597, was a nephew of Urban VIII., by whom 
 he was made librarian of the Vatican and appointed to 
 various high offices. He made a translation of the twelve 
 books of Marcus Aurelius from the Greek into Italian, 
 and was the founder of the celebrated Barberini Library. 
 Died in 1679. 
 
 Barberini or Barbarini, baR-ba-ree'nee, (Frances- 
 co,) an Italian poet, born at Barberino, near Florence, in 
 1264, was a pupil of Brunetto Latini, who has been im- 
 mortalized by Dante. His principal work is entitled 
 " Documenti d'Amore," being a kind of moral and phi- 
 losophic treatise in verse. Died in 1348. 
 
 Barberiiii, (Francesco,) a descendant of the noble 
 Roman family of that name, is the present owner of the 
 splendid Barberini palace, which was built in the time 
 of Urban VIII., and, next to the Vatican, is the largest 
 in Rome. It contains several master-pieces of Raphael, 
 Pietro da Cortona, and other eminent painters. 
 
 Barberini or Barberino, (Maffeo.) See Urban 
 VIII. 
 
 Barberini, (Taddeo,) a nephew of Pope Urban VIII., 
 who gave him the principality of Palestrina. He at- 
 tempted to conquer the duchy of Parma, but was defeated. 
 Died in 1647. 
 
 Barberousse, the French for Barbarossa, which see. 
 
 Barbes, biR'bes', (Armand,) a French conspirator, 
 born in the island of Guadeloupe in 1810, removed to 
 Paris, and took part in the attack on the Conciergerie in 
 1839, for which he was condemned to imprisonment for 
 life. On the revolution in 1848 he was released, but 
 soon becoming involved in another conspiracy he was 
 taken and confined in the prison of Belle-Ile-en-Mer. 
 
 Barbesieux, de, deh biR'bi'ze'uh', (Louis Fran- 
 cois le Tellier — leh t&'le-i',) Marquis, born in Paris 
 in 1668, was a son of Louvois. He became minister of 
 state under Louis XIV. Died in 1701. 
 
 Barbette, biR'bet', (Paul,) a distinguished physician 
 of the seventeenth century, born at Strasburg, resided at 
 Amsterdam, where he had an extensive practice. 
 
 Barbetti, baR-bet'tee, (Angelo,) an Italian artist, 
 born at Sienna in 1803, was celebrated for his skill as a 
 sculptor of wood. 
 
 Barbeu-Dubourg, btR'buh' dii'booR', (Jacques,) a 
 French physician and naturalist, born at Mayenne in 
 1 709. He was a friend and correspondent of Franklin, 
 to whom he dedicated his "Code of Human Reason." 
 He also published " The French Botanist," and " Ele- 
 ments of Medicine," and translated into French Boling- 
 broke's "Letters on History," (1752.) He edited the 
 works of Franklin, translated into French by Lecuy. 
 The name of Barbeuia has been given to a genus of 
 Madagascar plants. Died in 1779. 
 
 Barbeyrao, bSR'b^'rSk', (Charles,) a French physi- 
 cian of high reputation, born at Cereste, in Provence, in 
 1629. He is said by John Locke, who was intimate with 
 them both, to have greatly resembled Sydenham both in 
 his views of medicine and his manners. He died in 1699, 
 leaving a number of medical works in Latin and French. 
 
 Barbeyrao, (Jean,) an eminent French jurist, born 
 at Bcziers in 1674, was the son of a Calvinistic divine 
 who removed to Switzerland on the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes. He became professor of history and 
 civil law at Lausanne in 171 1, and of public law at 
 Groningen in 171 7. Among his principal works are his 
 
 € as t; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jgfSee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BARBIANI 
 
 264 
 
 BARB OS A 
 
 "Histmy of Ancient Treaties," from the earliest times 
 to the death of Charlemagne, a translation into French 
 of Puffendorf s " Abridgment of the Law of Nature and 
 of Nations," (1706,) and the treatise "De Jure Belli et 
 Pacis" of Grotius. Barbeyrac was a member of the Royal 
 Society of Sciences at Berlin. Died in 1744. 
 
 See G. Laissac, " Notice biographique sur Barbeyrac," 1838. 
 
 Barbiani, baR-be-i'nee, (Giovanni Battista Si- 
 mone,) a painter of the Bolognese school, born at Ra- 
 venna. Died in 1650. 
 
 Barbiauo, baR-be-a'no, (Alberico,) Count, an Ital- 
 ian commander of the fourteenth century, was noted as 
 having substituted native troops instead of the foreign 
 mercenaries hitherto employed. Barbiano's forces, called 
 the Company of Saint George, acquired a high reputation, 
 and some of the first generals of the time were trained in 
 his school. In 1384 he was appointed, by Charles III. of 
 Naples, grand constable of the kingdom. Died in 1409. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Barbie du Bocage, b$R'be-A' dii bo'kizh', (Alex- 
 andre Francois,) a French geographer, born in Paris 
 in 1798, published a "Dictionary of Biblical Geography." 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 Barbie du Bocage, (Jean Denis,) a distinguished 
 French geographer, born in Paris in 1760, was a pupil 
 of the celebrated D'Anville. He executed the maps for 
 Choiseul-Gouffier's " Voyage pittoresque de la Grece," 
 (1824,) the atlas for the "Travels of Anacharsis," and a 
 valuable map of the Morea. He also wrote an "Ac- 
 count of the Life and Works of D'Anville," (1802.) Died 
 in 1825. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte>aire." 
 
 Bar bier, biR'be-i', (Antoine Alexandre,) a French 
 bibliographer, born at Coulommiers in 1765. He be- 
 came successively keeper of the library of the council of 
 state, private librarian to Napoleon, (1807,) and, after 
 the restoration, superintendent of the private libraries of 
 the king. He obtained the decoration of the legion of 
 honour in 1822. He was the author of a " Dictionary 
 of Anonymous and Pseudonymous Works," (4 vols. 8vo, 
 1806-08,) which is highly esteemed, and a "Catalogue 
 of the Library of the Council of State." Died in Paris 
 in 1825. 
 
 See a " Life of Barbier" prefixed to the fourth volume of his Dic- 
 tionary; Louts Barbier, "Notice biographique sur A. A. Barbier," 
 1827. 
 
 Barbier, (Charles,) a French philanthropist, born 
 in the eighteenth century. He spent much time in de- 
 vising a method to teach the blind to write in characters 
 legible to themselves. Died about 1830. 
 
 Barbier, (Edmond Jean Francois,) a French jurist 
 and litterateur, born in Paris in 1689. He was the au- 
 thor of a" Historical and Anecdotical Journal of the Reign 
 of Louis XV.," (7 vols. 4to,) which contains interesting 
 information not met with elsewhere. Died in 1771. 
 
 Barbier, (Henri Auguste,) a French satiric poet, 
 born in Paris in 1805. His poem entitled "La Curee" 
 cameoutin 1830, and was soon followed bythe "Emeute," 
 " La Popularite," and " The Idol," political satires which 
 caused a great sensation and at once established his 
 fame as a patriot and poet. In 1831 he published a col- 
 lection of pieces under the title of " Iambics." 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Barbier, (Hippolyte,) a French biographer and ec- 
 clesiastic, born at Orleans about 1805. He published 
 .1 valuable " Biography of Contemporary Clergymen," 
 (10 vols., 1841 et sea.) 
 
 Barbier, (Jean Baptiste Gregoire,) a French phy- 
 sician and botanist, lived at Amiens about 1800-20. 
 
 Barbier, (Louis,) surnamed the Ahbe de la Ri- 
 viere, (li re've aiR',) a French prelate, was almoner of 
 Gaston, Duke of Orleans. As a reward for betraying 
 the secrets of his master to Cardinal Mazarin, he was 
 created, by the latter, Bishop of Langres. Died in 1670. 
 
 Barbier, (Marie Anne,) a French writer, born at 
 Orleans, was the author of the tragedies entitled " Cor- 
 nelia," "The Death of Caesar," and "Arria and Paetus," 
 also several poems and operas. Died in 1742. 
 
 Barbier d'Aucour, baVbe-i' do'kooR', (Jean,) a 
 French critic and litterateur, born at Langres about 1640. 
 His principal work is entitled " Opinions of Cleanthe on 
 
 I 
 
 the Conversations of Ariste and Eugene," by the Jesi 
 Pere Bouhours, (1672,) esteemed a model of able am 
 ingenious criticism. Barbier was a member of the Frencl 
 Academy, and an opponent of the Jesuits. Died in 1694, 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Barbier-Vemars, biR'be-4' vi'mtV, (Joseph Nico- 
 las,) a French philologist, born at Louvres in 1775. He 
 aided in the compilation of the "Annals of the Arts and 
 Manufactures," (55 vols., 1807-14.) 
 
 Barbieri, baa-be-a'ree, (F'rancesco,) surnamed il 
 Legnano, (61 lin-ya'no,) an able historical and landscspe 
 painter of the Venetian school, born at Legnano in 1623 ; 
 died in 1698. 
 
 Barbieri, (Giovanni Francesco.) See Guercino. 
 
 Barbieri, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian philologist, 
 born at Modena in 1 5 19, wrote a history of Attila, (" La 
 Guerra d'Attila," 1569.) Died in 1574. 
 
 Barbieri, (Lodovico,) an Italian painter and en- 
 graver, born at Bologna, worked about 1660-1700. 
 
 Barbieri, (Paolo Antonio,) an Italian painter of the 
 Bolognese school, was a brother of Guercino. He devoted 
 himself chiefly to painting animals and fruits, in which 
 department he attained great excellence. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Barbieri, (Pietro Antonio,) a painter of the Milan- 
 ese school, born at Pavia in 1663 ; died after 1700. 
 
 Barbieri, del, del baR-be-a'ree, or Barbiere, baR- 
 be-a'ri, [Fr. Barbier, bSR'be-i',](DoMENico,) surnamed 
 the Florentine, an Italian painter and engraver, born 
 at Florence in 1501. He was a pupil of Rosso, whom 
 he assisted in executing the frescos at Fontainebleau 
 and Meudon, in France. His engravings after Michael 
 Angelo and Titian are highly esteemed. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Barbiers, baR-beers', (Bartholomeus,) a Dutch 
 landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam in 1740, was a 
 son of Pieter, noticed below. Died in 1808. 
 
 Barbiers, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter, born in 1717. 
 One of his principal works represents the burning of the 
 Opera- House at Amsterdam. Died in 1780. 
 
 Barbiers, (Pieter Bartsz — baRts,) son of Bartholo- 
 meus, noticed above, born at Amsterdam in 1772, pro- 
 duced historical pictures and landscapes of superior 
 merit. Died in 1837. 
 
 Bar-bil'lus, a Roman astrologer of the first century, 
 was patronized by the emperor Vespasian, while others 
 of the profession were excluded from the city. 
 
 Barbo, (PETER.) See Paul II. 
 
 Barbolani, baR-bo-la'nee, (Torquato,) an Italian 
 poet and soldier, born at Arezzo, rose to be lieutenant- 
 colonel in the service of the emperor Francis I. I [e was 
 the author of Latin and Italian poems, and translated 
 the "Orlando Furioso" into Latin verse. Died in 1756. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Barbosa, baR-bo'sa, (Agostinha da Svlva,) a Por- 
 tuguese lady, who lived about 1680, and published, under 
 the pseudonym of Pedro do Albornoz, a "Treatise on 
 Architecture and Arithmetic." 
 
 Barbosa, (Agostinho,) a Portuguese prelate and 
 jurist, born in 1590, was created Bishop of Ugento In 
 Philip IV. of Spain. He was the author of theological 
 and legal works. Died in 1649. 
 
 Barbosa, (Ayres (I'rgs) or Arius,) a Portuguese 
 poet and scholar of the fifteenth century, studied 1 
 at Florence, and subsequently contributed greatly to re- 
 vive classical literature in Spain and Portugal. After 
 teaching at Salamanca, he was appointed tutor to the Por- 
 tuguese princes Alfonso and Henry. He died in 1530, 
 leaving several Latin poems and grammatical works. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Barbosa, (Caetano,) surnamed Constantino, (kon- 
 stan-tee'no,) born at Evora, in Portugal, in 1660, was one 
 of the most celebrated preachers of his time. 
 
 Barbosa, (Duarte,) a Portuguese navigator, born 
 at Lisbon about 1480, visited India and the Moluccas, 
 and wrote an account of those countries, which is con- 
 tained in Ramusio's collection. Having accompanied 
 Magellan in his voyage around the world, Barbosa was 
 assassinated in the island of Zebu in 1521. 
 
 Barbosa, (Joze,) a Portuguese historian, born a* 
 Lisbon in 1674, was a brother of Barbosa Machado. He 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, G, j?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mft; n6t; good; moon; 
 
BARB OS J 
 
 265 
 
 BARCENA 
 
 was appointed historiographer of the house of Braganza, 
 and wrote a work entitled " Chronological Catalogue of 
 the Queens of Portugal and their Sons," (1727.) Died 
 in 1750. 
 
 Barbosa, (Manoel,) a Portuguese jurist, the father 
 of Agostinho, flourished about 1570-1630. 
 
 Baxbosa, (Pedro,) a celebrated Portuguese jurist of 
 the sixteenth century, was professor of law at Coimbra. 
 Though he opposed Philip II. of Spain as the usurper of 
 the crown of Portugal, he was created by him a council- 
 lor of state and chancellor of the kingdom. He wrote a 
 number of valuable legal works, in Latin. Died in 1606. 
 
 See Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Barbosa, (Vincent,) a Portuguese monk, born in 
 1663, left a work on Borneo and the missions of that 
 island, (1692.) Died in 171 1. 
 
 Barbosa Bacellar, baR-bo'sJ M-sel-laR', (Antonio,) 
 a celebrated Portuguese jurist, poet, and historian, born 
 at Lisbon in 1610. He wrote, among other works, a 
 defence of the house of Braganza. Died in 1663. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, "Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Barbosa Machado, baR-bo'si ma-shj'do, (Diego,) 
 a Portuguese biographical and historical writer, born at 
 Lisbon in 1682. His principal work, entitled " Biblio- 
 theca Lusitana," (4 vols, folio, 1741-59,) is a historical 
 and critical notice of Portuguese writers, and, though 
 containing some errors, is esteemed the most valuable 
 production of the kind in that language. Died in 1770. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Barbot, baVbo', (Jean,) a French traveller of the 
 seventeenth century, was inspector of the establishments 
 of the French West India Company. He wrote a " De- 
 scription of the Western Shores of Africa and the Ad- 
 jacent Countries." Died in 1720. 
 
 Barbot, (Marie Etienne,) a French general, born 
 at Toulouse in 1770; died in 1839. 
 
 Barbotan, biR'bo'tdN', (Claire Joseph,) a French 
 general, born about 1 7 19, was elected to the States-Gene- 
 ral in 1789, and executed in 1794. 
 
 Barbou, biR'boo', (Hugues,) a son of Jean, noticed 
 below, published at Limoges, in 1580, an excellent edi- 
 tion of Cicero's " Letters to Atticus." 
 
 Barbou, (Jean,) a celebrated French printer and 
 resident of Lyons, published, in 1539, an edition of the 
 works of Clement Marot, printed with remarkable ele- 
 gance and accuracy. 
 
 Barbou, (Jean Joseph,) a French printer of Paris, 
 noted for the correctness and beauty of his editions. 
 Died in 1752. 
 
 Barbou, (Joseph,) a brother of the preceding, became 
 a printer in Paris about 1722. Died in 1737. 
 
 Barbou, (Joseph Gerard,) established himself as a 
 bookseller in Paris in 1746, and issued about 1750 the 
 series of Latin classics called by his name. He also 
 printed in superior style the " New Testament" in Latin, 
 and various other works. 
 
 Barbou - Descourieres, biR'boo' di'koo're-aiR', 
 (GABRIEL,) a French general, born in 1761, served with 
 distinction under Napoleon in Austria, Spain, and Italv, 
 and became governor of Ancona in 1810. Having made 
 his submission to the Bourbons, he was appointed grand 
 officer of the legion of honour, and chevalier of Saint 
 Louis.' Died in 1817. 
 
 Bar'bpur, (James,) an American statesman, born in 
 Orange county, Virginia, in 1775. He was elected Gov- 
 ernor of Virginia in 1812, and a Senator of the United 
 States in 181 5. In accordance with the wish of Presi- 
 dent Madison, he presented a bill to establish a United 
 States Bank, which was approved by the Senate. He 
 was appointed secretary of war by President Adams in 
 1825, and minister to England in 1828. Having been 
 recalled by President Jackson in 1829, he retired from 
 the public service. He was president of the Whig Na- 
 tional Convention in 1839. Died in 1842. 
 See " Encyclopaedia Americana," Supplement. 
 
 Bar'bpur, Bar'ber, or Barbere, (John,) the most 
 eminent of the early Scottish poets, born at Aberdeen 
 about 1320, was contemporary with Chaucer. After be- 
 ing appointed Archdeacon of Aberdeen, he visited Ox- 
 ford in order to complete his studies. His principal 
 
 work, entitled " The Bruce," is a history, in verse, of the 
 life and deeds of Robert Bruce, which, besides its merit 
 as a poem, has great value as a historical record. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Barbour, (John S.,) a relative of James Barbour, 
 noticed above, born in Culpepper county, Virginia, in 
 1790, was a representative in Congress from 1823 to 
 1833. Died in 1855. 
 
 Barbour, (Philip N.,) a nephew of James Barbour, 
 noticed above, was born near Bardstown, Kentucky, in 
 1817. He served as an officer in the Mexican war, and 
 was killed at Monterey in September, 1846. 
 
 Barbour, (Philip Pendleton,) a lawyer and judge, 
 born in Orange county, Virginia, in 17S3, was a brother 
 of Governor James Barbour. He was elected a member 
 of Congress in 1814, and was subsequently chosen 
 Speaker of the House of Representatives. He advocated 
 the admission of Missouri as a slave State in 1821, and 
 continued to serve in Congress until 1825. In 1829 he 
 presided over the convention which formed a new con- 
 stitution for Virginia. He was appointed an associate 
 justice of the supreme court of the United States in 
 1836. Died in 1841. 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Americana," Supplement. 
 
 Barbour, (Thomas,) Colonel, a Virginian officer, 
 born in 1735, was the father of James and Philip Pen- 
 dleton Barbour. He served as a colonel in the Revolu- 
 tionary war, before which he had been a prominent mem- 
 ber of the House of Burgesses. Died in 1825. 
 
 Bar-bu-cal'lus, (Joannes,) lived in the sixth cen- 
 tury, and is supposed to have been a native of Barbucale, 
 in Spain. Eleven of his epigrams are extant in the 
 Greek Anthology. 
 
 Bar'bu-la, (L. ^Emilius,) son of Q. /Emilius, became 
 consul in 281 B.C. He gained important victories over 
 the Tarentines, Samnites, and Etruscans. 
 
 Barbula, (Q. Emilius,) a Roman consul in 317 B.C., 
 in which year Apulia was subdued, became a second 
 time consul in 311. 
 
 Barbuo, baR'boo-o, or Barbo-Soncino, baR'bo son- 
 chee'no, (Scil'IONE,) an Italian jurist of the sixteenth 
 century, resided at Padua. He wrote " Lives of the 
 Dukes of Milan." 
 
 Barbut or Barbat, baR'but, written also Barbud, 
 a famous but semi-fabulous Persian musician, who is 
 supposed to have lived in the earliest times. He was the 
 reputed inventor of a sort of lyre called by his name, 
 whence possibly the Greek barbitos derives its origin. 
 
 Baica. See Hamilcar. 
 
 Barca. See Calderon de la Barca. 
 
 Barca, baR'ki, (Alessandro,) an Italian chemist, 
 born at Bergamo in 1741 ; died in 1814. 
 
 Barca, (Francisco,) a Portuguese musician, born at 
 Evora, lived about 1600-30. 
 
 Barca, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Mantua, worked at Verona in 1650. 
 
 Barca, baR'ka, (Jost,) a captain-general in the Span- 
 ish service, was born at Milan, and lived between 1600 
 and 1650. 
 
 Barca, (Pietro Antonio,) an Italian artist and engi- 
 neer, born at Milan, lived about 1670. 
 
 Barca, de la, da li baR'ka, (Francisco Joaquin 
 Calderon,) a learned ecclesiastic, of Creole extraction, 
 lived in the eighteenth century, and became preacher- 
 general of the order of the Franciscans. He was the 
 author of a " Treatise on Practical Astronomy." 
 
 Barcali, baR-ka'lee, surnamed Mohammed-Ben-Pir- 
 Ai.I, (mo-ham'med ben peer S'lee,) a Mohammedan theo- 
 logian and writer of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Barcellos, de, di baR-sel'16s, (Francisco,) a Portu- 
 guese poet and ecclesiastic, was the author of Latin poems 
 which were highly esteemed in his time. Died in 1570. 
 
 Barceloneta, di, de baR-chi-lo-na'ta, (Ugone,) an 
 Italian theologian and celebrated preacher, born in Pied- 
 mont about 1230, was Cardinal of Saint Sabina. He wrote 
 several religious works in Latin. 
 
 Barcena, baR-tha'na, (Alfonso,) a Spanish Jesuit, 
 born at Cordova, resided as a missionary in South 
 America. He wrote, for the use of the natives, several 
 religious and educational works in the Indian dialects. 
 Died in 1598. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trillcJ; s as 2; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
B ARCH AM 
 
 26b 
 
 BARCLAY 
 
 Barc'ham or Bark'ham, (John,) an English divine 
 and antiquary, born at Exeter about 1570. He contri- 
 buted to Speed's " History of England" the lives of 
 Henry II. and King John, and had a considerable share 
 in Guillim's " Display of Heraldry." Died in 1642. 
 
 See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses." 
 
 Barchetta, baR-ket'ta, (Andrea,) an Italian sculptor, 
 born in Naples, lived about 1630. 
 
 Barchou de Peuhoen, biR'shoo' deh peh-no'oN', 
 (Auguste Theodore Hilaire,) Baron, a French writer, 
 born at Morlaix in 1801. He published, besides other 
 works, a " History of German Philosophy from Leibnitz 
 to Hegel," (2 vols., 1836,) "The Philosophy of Schel- 
 ling," (1834,) and a French version of Fichte's " Destiny 
 of Man," (1833.) He was one of the first redacteurs of 
 the " Revue des Deux Mondes." Died in 1855. 
 
 Barcia, de, da baR-thee'a, (Andrea Gonzalez,) a 
 Spanish historian, who lived about 1700, was the author 
 of a " General History of Florida," and a work entitled 
 " First Historians of the West Indies." 
 
 Barckhausen, baRk'how'zen, (Johann Conrad,) a 
 German chemist and physician, born at Horn in 1666, 
 became professor of chemistry at Utrecht, in Holland. 
 He wrote, among other scientific works, a " Synopsis 
 Pharmaceutica," (1690,) and " Historia Medicinal," and 
 made several important discoveries in chemistry. A genus 
 of plants has been named Barkhausia in his honour. 
 Died in 1723. 
 
 Bar'clay (bark'le) or Bar'klay, (Alexander,) an 
 eminent British writer of the sixteenth century. He 
 studied at Oxford, and subsequently visited Germany 
 and France. He translated an allegorical French poem 
 entitled "The Castle of Labour," also Sallust's "Jugur- 
 thine War," into English, and wrote the lives of several 
 saints. His most popular work is a free translation of 
 the " Ship of Fools," from the German of Sebastian 
 Brandt. Died in 1552. 
 
 SeeWARTON, "History of English Poetry." 
 
 Bar'clay, (George,) a Scottish Jacobite conspirator, 
 formed in 1696 a plot to seize or kill William III. Some 
 of the conspirators were executed, but Barclay escaped 
 by flight. 
 
 Barclay, (Henry,) D.D., an Episcopal clergyman, 
 born in Albany, New York, in the early part of the 
 eighteenth century, was for several years a missionary 
 among the Mohawk Indians, and was afterwards ap- 
 pointed rector of Trinity Church, New York. In con- 
 nection with \V. Andrews and J. Ogilvie, he translated 
 the Liturgy into the Mohawk language. Died in 1765. 
 
 Barclay, baR'kli', (Jean,) an eminent French writer, 
 of Scottish extraction, born at Pont-a-Mousson in 1582. 
 His most admired work is an allegorical romance in 
 prose and verse, written in Latin, entitled "Argenis," 
 (1621.) It has been translated into the principal lan- 
 guages of Europe, and has been eulogized by Leibnitz, 
 Coleridge, and other eminent men. He also wrote, in 
 Latin, several controversial treatises, and the " Satyricon 
 of Euphonnio," a satire. Died at Rome in 1621. He 
 was a son of William Barclay, noticed below. 
 
 See D. Dalrymple, (Lord Hailes,) "Sketch of the Life of J. 
 Barclay, author of the Argenis," 1786; Chambers, "Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" "Encyclopaedia Britannica." * 
 
 Barclay, (John,) a Scottish theologian, born in 1645. 
 He wrote a " Description of the Roman Catholic Church," 
 (1689.) Died in 1710. 
 
 Barclay, (John,) a Scottish physician, who lived 
 about 1620, was the author of a eulogy on tobacco, en- 
 titled " Nepenthes, seu de Nicotianae Herbae Viribus." 
 
 Barclay, (John,) born in Perthshire, Scotland, in 
 1734, was the founder of a religious sect called Barclay- 
 ans, or Bereans, a name derived from a passage in the 
 Acts of the Apostles xvii. 11. His theological works 
 were published in three volumes. Died in 1798. 
 
 Barclay, (John,) a Scottish physician and writer on 
 anatomy, born in Perthshire in 1760. He died in 1826, 
 leaving to the Royal College of Surgeons his anatomical 
 collection, since called the Barclayan Museum. 
 
 Barclay, (Robert,) an eminent writer and an apolo- 
 gist for the Society of Friends, was born at Gordonstown, 
 in Morayshire, Scotland, on the 23d of December, 1648. 
 He was the eldest son of Colonel David Barclay of Ury 
 
 and Catherine Gordon, who was descended from th 
 noble family of Huntley. He was educated in Paris 
 the Scots College, of which his uncle was principal, h 
 learned to write and speak Latin with facility and co 
 rectness, and after he left Paris studied Greek and He 
 brew. About 1664 he returned to Scotland, in obedienc 
 to the will of his father, who had recently adopted th 
 principles professed by George Fox. Robert Barcia 
 entered into fellowship with the Society of Friends in 166; 
 and became a minister of the gosp'.i. He was endowei 
 by nature with talents of a high ord^r, and possessed the 
 moral courage and energy requisite 'or a reformer. 
 
 In 1670 he began to defend the princ'oles of the Friend 
 against the erroneous charges and misrepresentations 1 
 their opponents, by a treatise entitled "Tru'h cleared o 
 Calumnies." He married Christian Mollison \bout 1670. 
 In 1672 he felt himself impelled by a sense of duty t 
 walk through the streets of Aberdeen clothed in sack 
 cloth and ashes. To explain and defend the doctrine 
 of the Friends, he published a "Catechism and Confei 
 sion of Faith," (1675,) "The Anarchy of the Ranters, 
 (1676,)* and " Theological Propositions," (" Theses Theo- 
 logical," about 1676.) 
 
 In company with George Fox and William Penn, h 
 visited Germany on a religious mission in 1677. Abou 
 this date he and his father were imprisoned in Aberdeen 
 on account of their religious profession. His principa 
 work is "An Apology for the True Christian Divinit 
 as the same is held forth and preached by the Peop 
 called in scorn Quakers," (1678,) which was originall 
 written and published in Latin, and afterwards translate( 
 into English by the author. This work is characterize! 
 by great logical acumen, and has been highly commendec 
 by eminent critics of different denominations. 
 
 In 1679 he obtained from Charles II. a charter to 
 erecting his estate of Ury into a free barony with civi 
 and criminal jurisdiction. He published in the sam 
 year a vindication of his " Apology," which had bee 
 attacked by several writers. In 1682 he was appointee 
 governor of the province of East Jersey; but he sent a 
 deputy, and never went to America himself. During the 
 last years of his life he enjoyed the favour of James II. 
 He died at Ury in October, 1690, aged about forty-two, 
 leaving three sons and four daughters. One of the sons, 
 named David, was a merchant of London, and is said to 
 have entertained three successive monarchs, George I., 
 George II., and George III., when they visited the city. 
 
 See Joseph Gurney Bevan, "Life of Robert Barclay," 1S02; 
 Sewel, " History of the Quakers ;" John Barclay, " History of 
 Friends in Scotland." 
 
 Barclay, (William,) a Scottish jurist, born in Aber- 
 deenshire about 1540. He studied in France under the 
 celebrated Cujas and Leconte, and in 1578 became pro- 
 fessor of law at Pont-a-Mousson. In 1603 he visited 
 England ; but, failing to meet with patronage from James 
 I., on account of his being a Catholic, he soon returned 
 to France, and in 1605 was appointed professor of law at 
 Angers. Among his principal works are a treatise on 
 regal power, (" De Regno et Regali Potestate," 1600,) 
 and " On the Power of the Pope." The latter was pub- 
 lished after his death by his son John Barclay, the author 
 of "Argenis." Barclay is ranked among the first jurists 
 of his time. Died in 1606. 
 
 See Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" NlCBHON," Mi- 
 moires;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men." 
 
 Barclay de Tolly, biVkli' deh to'le', (Michael,) 
 Prince, a celebrated Russian field-marshal, of Scottish 
 extraction, born in Livonia about 1755, early distin- 
 guished himself in the wars against Turkey, Sweden, and 
 Poland, between 1788 and 1794, and in 1806 took part 
 in the Polish campaign against the French. He was 
 made lieutenant-general after the battle of Eylau, where 
 he was severely wounded, and in 1810 was appointed 
 minister of war. In 1812 he obtained the command of 
 the army of the West, but after the battle of Smolensk 
 he was superseded by Kootoosov. At Borodino, Barclay 
 commanded ,the right wing, and by his skilful retreat 
 contributed to save the remnant of the Russian army. 
 
 * This title was afterwards exchanged for a " Treatise on Chris- 
 tian Discipline." 
 
 l,e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 8, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
BARCO 
 
 267 
 
 BARDOU 
 
 He subsequently held the chief command at Bautzen, 
 Culm, and Leipsic, and in 1814 was created a field-mar- 
 shal, lie died in 1818, having been previously made a 
 prince of the empire. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Bar'co.del, (Alonso,) an eminent Spanish landscape- 
 painter, born at Madrid in 1645 ; died in 1685. 
 
 Barco, del, (Juan Rodriguez Garcia,) a Spanish 
 painter who was employed by the Duke of Alva to adorn 
 with frescos his castle of Barco d'Avila, which received 
 its name from the artist. 
 
 See Quilliet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols," 
 
 Barcokheba, bar-koK'e-ba, also written Bar- 
 Cochba 01 Barchochebas, (originally Simeon,) a 
 celebrated Jewish impostor under the reign of Hadrian. 
 Claiming to be the Messiah, he excited an insurrection 
 an ong the Jews, a.d. 131, and took possession of Jeru- 
 salem and many fortified places. After a sanguinary 
 contest and immense loss on both sides, the city was re- 
 taken by the Roman general Julius Seve'rus, and Bar- 
 cokheba, after an obstinate defence in the fortress of 
 Bethar, killed, in 136 A.D. 
 
 Barcos, de, deh biR'kos', (Martin,) a French theo- 
 logian, born at Bayonne in 1600, studied at Louvain 
 under the celebrated Jansenius. In 1644 he succeeded 
 his uncle, Duvergier de Hauranne, as abbot of Saint- 
 Cyran. He was a friend of Arnauld, and published, 
 among other works in defence of Jansenism, an " Ex- 
 position of the Faith of the Church touching Grace and 
 Predestination," (1697.) Died in 1678. 
 
 Bard, (John,) an American physician, born near Phi- 
 ladelphia in 1716. He practised many years in the city 
 of New York, to which he removed in 1743, and attained 
 eminence in his profession. He was elected president 
 of the Medical Society of New York about 1788. Died 
 in 1799. 
 
 Bard, (Samuel,) an eminent physician, born in Phi- 
 ladelphia in April, 1742, was a son of Dr. John Bard, 
 and a grandson of Peter Bard, a French Protestant re- 
 fugee, lie was educated at the University of Edinburgh, 
 where he passed about three years and was received as 
 an inmate in the family of Dr. Robertson the historian. 
 Having graduated as M.D. in 1765, he began to prac- 
 tise in the city of New York in 1767. About the end 
 of the Revolutionary war he was selected by Genera] 
 Washington as his family physician. He published a 
 treatise on " Angina Suffocativa," and a treatise on " Ob- 
 stetrics," (1807.) In 1813 he was chosen president of 
 the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York. 
 Dr. Bard was an actfve and efficient promoter of benevo- 
 lent enterprises. Died in May, 1821. 
 
 See Rev. John McVicker, " Life of Samuel Bard," 1822; S. D. 
 Gross, ''American Medical Biography," 1861. 
 
 Bard, (William,) an American merchant, born in 
 the city of New York in 1777. He was the first presi- 
 dent of the New York Life Insurance Company, which 
 he and others organized about 1830. Died in 1853. 
 
 Bardaji y Azara, de, di baR-da-Hee' e a-tha'ra, 
 (Don Eusebio,) a Spanish statesman, born in the pro- 
 vince of Cuenca in 1765, was employed in various im- 
 portant missions, and rose to be minister of foreign 
 affairs and procer of the kingdom in 1834. He favoured 
 the French policy, and opposed the ministry of Cala- 
 trava. Died in 1844. 
 
 Bar'das, brother of the empress Theodora, was, on 
 the death of the emperor Theophilus of Constantinople, 
 appointed one of the tutors to his son Michael III. 
 Having caused his colleague Theoctistes to be put to 
 d< ath, and confined his sister in a cloister, he assumed 
 the title of Caesar, but was afterwards supplanted in 
 the favour of Michael by Basil the Macedonian, and as- 
 sassinated by order of the emperor, 866 A.D. 
 
 See La Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire." 
 
 Bar'das Scle'rus, a distinguished general under the 
 Dyzantian emperor John Zimisces, who had married his 
 sister. After the death of Zimisces, he revolted against 
 the emperor Basil II., and was for a time nearly always 
 victorious. But at length, having been worsted by Bardas 
 Phocas, and weary of his stormy life, he became recon- 
 ciled to the emperor. Died about 990 a.d. 
 
 See Le Beau, "Histoire do Bas-Empire." 
 
 Barde, de la, d?h It bjRd, [Lat. LabardVus,! 
 (Jean,) a French diplomatist, born at Marolles-sur-Seine 
 about 1600, was patronized by Cardinal Mazarin. He 
 was for many years French ambassador in Switzerland. 
 He wrote, in Latin, a valuable history of his own times. 
 Died in 1692. 
 
 Bardeleben, von, fon baR'deh-la'ben, (Kurt,) a 
 Prussian statesman, born in 1796, was a deputy from 
 Konigsberg to the National Assembly at Frankfort, and 
 in 1848 to the National Assembly of Prussia. 
 
 Bar-de-sa'nes, an eminent Syrian writer, and founder 
 of a sect called Bardesanians, was born at Edessa, and 
 lived about 170-200 A.D. He is called a heretic by some 
 writers. It is said, however, that he wrote several works 
 against heretics. He composed in the Syriac language 
 many psalms or hymns of remarkable beauty, and a 
 dialogue on Fate. 
 
 See F. Strunz, "Historia Bardesanis," 1710; Hahn, " Bardesa- 
 nes Gnosticus ;" Mosheim, "De Rebus Christianorum." 
 
 Bardet, hi R'd£', (Pierre,) a French advocate, born 
 in Bourbonnais in 1591, published " Recueil d'Arrets du 
 Parlement de Paris," 1690. Died in 1685. 
 
 Bardi, (Donato.) See Donatello. 
 
 Bardi, baR'dee, (Giovanni,) Count of Vernio, an Ital- 
 ian miscellaneous writer, born at Florence, was patron- 
 ized by Pope Urban VIII. 
 
 Bardi, (Girolamo,) an Italian monk and historian, 
 born at Florence about 1544. Among his works we 
 may name his " Universal Chronology from the Creation 
 of Adam to 1581." Died in 1593. 
 
 Bardi, (Girolamo,) an Italian physician and philoso- 
 pher, born at Rapallo in 1603, became professor of phi- 
 losophy at Pisa. He wrote, in Latin, several treatises on 
 theology and medicine. He lived at Rome from 165 1 to 
 1667. Died in 1670. 
 
 Bardi, (Pietro,) Count of Vernio, son of Giovanni, 
 noticed above, an Italian litterateur, born at Florence, 
 lived about 1640. He translated into Italian the essays 
 of Maximus Tyrius. 
 
 Bardi, de', da baR'dee, (Dea,) an Italian nun of the 
 fifteenth century, was the author of a burlesque poem 
 entitled "Ode on the Death of a Jackdaw." 
 
 Bardili, baR-dee'lee, (Christoph Gottfried,) a Ger- 
 man metaphysical philosopher, born at Blaubeuren in 
 1761, became professor of philosophy at Stuttgart in 
 1794. His principal work is entitled "Sketch of First 
 Logic," in which he opposes the system of Kant and 
 favours the philosophy of absolute identity, ("Identitats- 
 Philosophie.") Died in 1808. 
 
 Bardili, (Johann Wendel — wen'del,) a German 
 writer of travels, born at Reutlingen ; died in 1740. 
 
 Bardin, biR'd&N', (Etienne Alexandre,) a French 
 general, born in Paris in 1774, was a son of Jean Bardin 
 the painter. Died in 1840. His most important work 
 is a very extensive and complete military dictionary, en- 
 titled " Dictionnaire de 1'Armee de Terre," the last part 
 of which has been published since his death. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Bardin, (Guillaume,) a French jurist, wrote a 
 "Chronicle of Languedoc," (from 1031 to 1454.) 
 
 Bardin, (Jean,) a French painter, born at Montbar 
 in 1732, was director of the School of P'ine Arts at Or- 
 leans, and a member of the Institute. He numbered 
 among his pupils Regnault and David. Died in 1809. 
 
 See Chaudruc de Crazannes, " Notice sur la Vie de M. Bardin," 
 1809. 
 
 Bardin, (Pierre,) an eminent French jurist, born at 
 Toulouse, lived about 1420. 
 
 Bardin, (Pierre,) a French littirateur, born at Rouen 
 in 1590, was a member of the French Academy. Died 
 in 1637. 
 
 Bardon, a French painter. See Dandre-Bardon. 
 
 Bardon de Brun, biR'd6N' deh bRuN, (Bernard,) 
 a French ecclesiastic, born at Limoges, wrote a tragedy 
 in verse entitled " Saint James." Died in 1625. 
 
 See Etienne Petiot, " Vie de B. Bardon," 1636. 
 
 Bardou, biR'doo', (Jean,) a French litterateur and 
 ecclesiastic, born in 1729, wrote, among other works, 
 "The History of Laurent Marcel, or the Unprejudiced 
 Observer," (1770.) Died in 1803. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. («j5f=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BJRDOU 
 
 268 
 
 BARGES 
 
 Bavdou, (Oscar Francois,) a French actor, born at 
 Montpellier about 1804. 
 
 Bardozzi, baR-dot'see, (JAnos,) a Hungarian writer, 
 born about 1 740, wrote a continuation of W agner's "Ana- 
 lecta Scepusii." Died in 1819. 
 
 Bar-dyl'lis [Gr. Bup<ii>A/uc] or Bardylis, a robber 
 chief, who lived about 400 B.C., rose to be King of Illyria. 
 He made war upon Perdiccas III. of Macedonia, whom 
 he defeated and killed in 360 B.C. 
 
 Bardziiiski, baRd-zin'skee, (Jan Alan,) a Polish 
 theologian and scholar of the seventeenth century. He 
 translated Lucan's "Pharsalia" into Polish verse, and 
 also made a translation of Seneca's tragedies and Boe- 
 thius's " Consolations of Philosophy." 
 
 Bare, bt'ra', or Baret, a Frenchwoman, born in Bur- 
 gundy in 1741, accompanied the botanist Commerson, 
 disguised as a man, in his voyage with Bougainville in 
 1766. Commerson named several plants in her honour. 
 
 Bare'bone or Bar'bone, (Praise-God,) a noted Eng- 
 lish fanatic, originally a leather-dealer, was a member 
 of Cromwell's Parliament in 1653, which is known in 
 history by his name. On the arrival of General Monk, 
 Barebone headed a large procession of the people with 
 a petition to Parliament against the restoration of 
 Charles II. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Barella, ba-rel'la, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 Jesuit and writer, born at Milan ; died in 1687. 
 
 Barellas, ba-rJl'yas, (Esteban,) a Spanish writer, 
 published a historical romance entitled " History of the 
 Counts of Barcelona, Bernardo Barcino and his son 
 Zinofre," (1600.) 
 
 Barendsen. See Barents. 
 
 Barentin, bS'r&N'taN', (Charles Louis Francois de 
 Paule — deh pol,) a French statesman, born in 1738, 
 succeeded Lamoignon in 1788 as keeper of the seals 
 under Louis XVI. He was the originator of several 
 unpopular measures, for which he was denounced by 
 Mirabeau as one of the most dangerous advisers of the 
 king. Upon this, he resigned his post ; but after the 
 restoration he was appointed honorary chancellor by 
 Louis XVIII. Died in 1819. 
 
 Barentin-Montchal, de, deh bi'roN'taN' moN'shil', 
 (Louis,) Viscount, a French general and litterateur, 
 brother of the preceding, born in Paris in 1737. He 
 served in the Seven Years' war, and subsequently com- 
 manded the guard of Louis XVIII. at Mittau. He 
 wrote a treatise "On Ancient and Historical Geography," 
 (1807.) Died in 1824. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire. " 
 
 Barentin-Montchal, de, Madame, wife of the pre- 
 ceding, wrote an " Abridged History of the Old and 
 New Testament for Children and Youth," (1804.) 
 
 Barents.ba'rSnts, or Barendsen, ba'rent-sen, (Die- 
 trich,) also called Bernard Dirk, a Dutch painter, 
 born at Amsterdam'in 1534. He studied in Italy under 
 Titian, with whom he formed an intimate friendship, and 
 whose portrait he painted. His picture of " Judith" is 
 ranked among his master-pieces. Died in 1592. 
 
 See Descamps, " Viesdes Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Barentz or Barendz, ba'rents, written also Barent- 
 zen, (Willem,) a Dutch navigator of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, who attempted, in 1594, a voyage to China by way 
 of the Arctic Sea, and reached 78 of latitude. His ac- 
 count of the expedition, translated into French, is con- 
 tained in the " Histoire generate des Voyages." 
 
 Barere de Vieuzac, bi'raiR' deh ve-uh'zik', (Ber- 
 trand,) a French Jacobin demagogue, born at Tarbes, 
 in Gascony, in 1755. He entered public life as deputy 
 to the States-General in 1789, and was elected to the 
 Convention in 1792. He voted for the death of the king, 
 and for some time acted with the Girondists. In April, 
 '793> h e was chosen a member of the committee of pub- 
 lic safety. He deserted the Girondists at the critical 
 time of their contest with the Jacobins ; and after the 
 supreme executive power was usurped by a committee 
 of nine, (July, 1793,) he was the reporter or organ of 
 that atrocious committee. The flowery style with which 
 he adorned the measures of a merciless proscription pro- 
 cured him the designation of the " Anacreon of the guil- 
 lotine." He first proposed that "terror should be the 
 
 order of the day." In 1794 a schism occurred in the com- 
 mittee. On one side were Robespierre, Saint-Just, and 
 Couthon ; on the other, Billaud and Collot. Barere 
 waited to see which side should prove the stronger. On 
 the 9th Thermidor he spoke against Robespierre in the 
 Convention, and moved that his head be cut off without 
 trial. Barere, Collot, and Billaud were condemned to de- 
 portation in 1795, but the first escaped from prison and 
 found means to avoid that penalty. He was banished 
 as a regicide in 1816, and returned to France in 1830. 
 Died in 1841. The " Memoires de Barere" were edited. 
 by H. Carnot and David d'Angers, (4 vols., 1843.) 
 
 " Compared with him," says Macaulay, " Fouche seems 
 honest ; Billaud seems humane ; Hebert seems to rise 
 into dignity. . . . He had become a murderer merely for 
 his safety, and continued to be a murderer merely for his 
 pleasure." 
 
 See Macaulay's " Essays ;" M. Carnot, " Notice historique sur 
 Barere," 1S42. 
 
 Baret, bi'r£', (Jacques de la Galanderie — deh IS 
 
 gS'loNd'Re',) a French lawyer and writer, born at Tours 
 in 1579 ; died about 1650. 
 
 Baret, (Jean,) a French jurist and legal writer, born 
 at Tours in 1511. 
 
 Baret, (Jean,) a French historian, published a " His- 
 tory of the Last Troubles in Moldavia," (Paris, 1620.) 
 
 Baret, (Renf.,) grandson ofthe jurist Jean Baret, lived 
 about 1650-70. He wrote a work on the "Knowledge of 
 Horses and their Diseases,".(l66i.) 
 
 Baretti, ba-ret'tee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian writer, born 
 at Turin in 1716. In 1 751 he visited London, where he 
 taught Italian, and, having been befriended by Dr. John- 
 son and other distinguished men, was appointed secretary 
 for the foreign correspondence of the Royal Academy. 
 He published an " Italian and English Dictionary," 
 (1760,) an "Italian Grammar," an " Account of the Man- 
 ners and Customs of Italy," (1768,) and (in English) 
 "Travels through Spain, Portugal, and France," (1770,) 
 which is praised in the highest terms by Dr. Johnson. 
 The first-named work is still in use. He also wrote, in 
 French, an essay "On Shakspeare and Voltaire," in 
 which he exposes the ignorance of the latter with re- 
 gard to the English language and literature. Died in 
 1789. Dr. Johnson observes of Baretti, "There are 
 strong powers in his mind. He has not, indeed, many 
 hooks, but with what hooks he has he grapples very 
 forcibly." 
 
 See Boswell, "Life of Johnson ;" Giuseppe Franchi, " Notizie 
 intorno alia Vita de G. Baretti," 1790. 
 
 Barezzi, ba-ret'see, (Stefano,)" a Milanese painter 
 of the nineteenth century, noted as having discovered a 
 process for transferring frescos to wooden tables. 
 
 Barfod, baR'foD, (Paul Frederik,) a Danish histo- 
 rian, born at Grenaae, in Jutland, in 181 1. He wrote a 
 " History of Denmark and Norway under Frederick 
 III.," "The Jews in Denmark," and "Biography of the 
 Ranzau Family." He edited for a time a journal advo- 
 cating the union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon. 
 
 Barfuss, baR'fooss, (Johann Albrecht,) Count ok, 
 a Prussian general, born in 163 1, served with distinction 
 against the Turks in Hungary in 1691. Died in 1704. 
 
 Bargagli, baR-gal'yee, (Girolamo,) an Italian jurist 
 and dramatic writer, brother of Scipione, noticed bek w, 
 was the author of " La Pellegrina," a comedy, and a work 
 entitled " Dialogo dei Giuochi," an explanation of the 
 social games of Italy. Died in 1586. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Bargagli, (Scipione,) a distinguished Italian writer, 
 born at Sienna, published a series of historical sketches 
 and tales entitled "Trattenimenti," ("Entertainments:,") 
 and a treatise " On Devices," (" Dell' Imprese,") explain- 
 ing the origin and signification of devices in the age 
 of chivalry. He was created a count palatine by the 
 emperor Rudolph II. Died in 1612. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Bargede, htitzh'da', (Nicolas or Nicolle,) a French 
 litterateur and poet, born at Vezelay about 1550. 
 
 Bargeo or Bargaeus. See Angelio. 
 
 Barges, baVzhes', (Antoinf.,) a musician, apparently 
 
 e, 1, 6, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o. ii,y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
BARGES 
 
 269 
 
 BARKER 
 
 of French extraction, was chapel-master at the Casa 
 Grande at Venice about 1 530. 
 
 Barges, (Jean Joskph Leandre,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and Orientalist, born at Auriol in 1810, was ap- 
 pointed in 1842 professor of Hebrew in the faculty of 
 theology in Paris. He published treatises on the church 
 history and antiquities of Africa and the city of Tlemcen, 
 and "On the Temple of Baal at Marseilles." 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Bargeton, bSRzh'tON', (Daniel,) a French jurist, 
 bcrn at Uzes about 1678, was the author of a collection 
 of letters advocating taxation of the clergy. Died in 1757. 
 
 Barginet, biR^.he'n>i', (Alexandre Pierre,) a 
 French political writer and novelist, born at Grenoble 
 in 1798. Died in 1843. 
 
 Bar'grave, (Isaac,) an English divine, born in 1586, 
 became Dean of Canterbury. Died in 1642. 
 
 Bar'ham, (Henry,) an English naturalist of the eigh- 
 teenth century, resided many years in the West Indies. 
 He wrote an account of the vegetable productions of 
 South America and the West Indies, entitled " Hortus 
 Americanus." 
 
 Barham, (Richard Harris,) an English divine and 
 humorous writer, born at Canterbury in 1788. He stu- 
 died at Oxford, and was subsequently appointed rector 
 of Saint Augustine and Saint Faith in London. His 
 " I ngoldsby Legends," a series of tales in verse, appeared 
 in "Bentley's Miscellany" in 1837, and were received 
 with great favour. He was also one of the principal 
 contributors to Gorton's " Biographical Dictionary," and 
 wrote for " Blackwood's Magazine" a story of college life, 
 entitled " My Cousin Nicholas." Barham was a friend 
 of Sydney Smith, Theodore Hook, and other celebrated 
 wits of the time. For a severe but not unjust criticism 
 on the " Ingoldsby Legends," see the " New Spirit of the 
 Age," (London, 1844.) Died in 1845. 
 
 See a " Life of R. H. Barham," in an edition of his " Ingoldsby 
 Legends," 1S47; "Men I have known," by William Jerdan, 1866. 
 
 Barhebraeus. See Aboolfaraj, (Gregorius.) 
 
 Baricelli, ba-re-chel'lee, or Baricello, ba-re-chel'lo, 
 (Gn:LloCKSARE,)an Italian physician, born at San Marco 
 about 1580. 
 
 Barile, ba-ree'la, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter and 
 skilful sculptor in wood, born about 1520. He was the 
 master of Andrea del Sarto. 
 
 Barile, (Giovanni Domenico,) an Italian theologian, 
 flourished between 1700 and 1725. 
 
 Barili, ba-ree'lee, (Antonio di Neri,) an Italian 
 sculptor and architect, worked at Sienna from 1485 till 
 15 1 1. 
 
 Barilli, ba-rel'lee, (Ludovico,) a celebrated Italian 
 vocalist, born at Modena about 1767, was for many years 
 director of the Italian Opera in Paris. 
 
 Barillon, bi're'ydN', a French diplomatist, was am- 
 bassador at the court of London in the reign of James 
 II. He was ordered to leave England by William of 
 Orange about the end of 1688. " His political career," 
 according to Macaulay, " had brought great calamities 
 both on the house of Stuart and on the house of Bour- 
 bon." (" History of England," vol. iii. chap, xii.) 
 
 Barillon, (Jean,) called also Jehan Bourdel, a 
 French historian, born at Issoire, wrote a " History of 
 the First Six Years of the Reign of Francis I.," (unpub- 
 lished.) Died in 1553. 
 
 Barillon, de, deji bf're'yoN', (Henri,) Bishop of 
 Lu9on, born in Auvergne in 1639; died in 1699. 
 
 See C. F. Dubos, " Abrege" de la Vie de M. H. de Barillon," 1700. 
 
 Baring, (Alexander.) See Ashburton, Lord. 
 
 Baring, ba'ring, (Daniel Eherhard,) a German 
 scholar, born near Hildesheim in 1690, was the author 
 of a work on diplomacy, entitled "Clavis Diplomatica." 
 Died in 1753. 
 
 Baring, (Everard,) a German scholar and teacher, 
 born at Lubeck in 1608, taught at Hanover. Died in 1659. 
 
 Ba'ring, (Sir Francis,) an English financier and 
 capitalist, born at or near Exeter in 1740, was the father 
 of Lord Ashburton, and founder of the great banking- 
 house of Baring & Company, London. Died in 1810. 
 
 Baring, (Sir Francis Thornhill,) a liberal English 
 Statesman, born in 1796, was a grandson of the preceding, 
 and a son of Sir Thomas Baring. He was a lord of the 
 
 treasury from 1830 to 1834, joint secretary to the treas- 
 ury from 1835 to 1839, and chancellor of the exchequer 
 from 1839 to 1841. In the cabinet of Lord John Russell 
 he was first lord of the admiralty, 1846-52. 
 
 Baring, (Thomas,) an eminent financier, brother of 
 Sir Francis T. Baring, was born in 1800. In 1835 he was 
 elected to Parliament for Great Yarmouth, and in 1844 
 for Huntingdon. He was for a time the principal man- 
 ager of the banking-house of Baring & Company. 
 
 Baring, (Sir Thomas,) eldest son of Sir Francis, born 
 in 1772, was a member of Parliament from 1830 to 1832. 
 He was a patron of art, and the owner of a choice col- 
 lection of pictures. 
 
 Barisani, b5-re-za'nee, (Joseph,) a German physician 
 and medical writer, born in 1756; died in 1787. 
 
 Barisano, ba-re-sa'no, (Francesco Domenico,) an 
 Italian physician and scientific writer, born at Alba 
 about 1650. 
 
 Barison, M're-s6n', or Bar'riso, the heir of the king- 
 dom of Sardinia, was made king of that country in 1 154 
 by the assistance of Frederick Barbarossa, to whom he 
 offered a tribute of four thousand silver marks. He was 
 subsequently detained a prisoner by the Genoese, as a 
 hostage for the money they had advanced for the tribute. 
 
 See Carl Andreas Bel, " Dissertatio de Barrisone," 1766. 
 
 Barisoni, ba-re-so'nee, (Albertino,) an Italian jurist 
 and ecclesiastic, born in 1587, became professor of the 
 Pandects at Padua in 1631, and Bishop of Ceneda in 
 1653. Died in 1667. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Baritu, bi're-too, (George,) a distinguished Walla- 
 chian scholar and journalist, born in Transylvania in 18 1 2, 
 published in 1853 a "German-Roumanian Dictionary." 
 
 Barjaud, bSR'zho', (Jean Baptiste,) a French lit- 
 terateur and soldier, born at Montlu$on in 1785. He 
 served under Napoleon in the campaigns of 1812 and '13, 
 and was mortally wounded at the battle of Leipsic, (1813.) 
 He was the author of " National Odes" and other works. 
 
 Bar-Jesus. See Elymas. 
 
 Bar'kah Khan I., called also Barbacan, a famous 
 Kharizmian chief, who, having formed an alliance with 
 Nejm-ed-Deen, Aiyoobite Sultan of Egypt, took Jerusa- 
 lem from the Christians in 1244 and slaughtered all the 
 inhabitants who had not escaped. A quarrel breaking 
 out soon after between the Sultan and Barkah Khan, the 
 latter was slain in battle in 1246. 
 
 See Malcolm's "History of Persia." 
 
 Barkah Khan, sometimes called Bor'ga, second 
 Mogul ruler of Kapchak, succeeded his brother Batoo 
 (Batu) in 1255, and waged war against the Russians and 
 Persians. He founded the city of Serai, on the Volga, 
 and was a liberal patron of learning. Died about 1265. 
 
 Bar'ker, (Andrew,) an English merchant of Bristol, 
 in 1576 fitted out two vessels to the West Indies at his 
 own expense, in order to avenge the injuries he had 
 received from the Spaniards at Teneriffe. 
 
 See Hai^luyt, "Collection of Voyages." 
 
 Barker, (Benjamin,) an English landscape-paintei 
 of superior merit, was a brother of Thomas Barker, the 
 inventor of the panorama. Died in 1838. 
 
 Barker, (Edmund Henry,) an English classical 
 scholar, born in Yorkshire in 1788. He published a 
 "Greek and English Lexicon," (1831,) "Classical Recre- 
 ations," and " Parriana," a collection of criticisms and 
 anecdotes relating to his friend Dr. Parr. He was also 
 a contributor to the "Classical Journal," and edited 
 several Latin classics, and the "Thesaurus Graecae Lin- 
 guae" of Henri Estienne, (Stephanus.) Died in 1839. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," May, 1830. 
 
 Barknr, (George,) F.R.S., of Birmingham, an Eng- 
 lishman noted for his public spirit and liberal support of 
 benevolent enterprises. Died in 1 845, aged about seventy. 
 
 Barker, (Henry Aston,) a skilful panorama-painter, 
 son of Robert Barker, noticed below, born at Glasgow 
 in 1774. Died in 1856. 
 
 Barker, (Jacob,) an American merchant and finan- 
 cier, born in Kennebec county, Maine, in 1779. He has 
 for many years resided at New Orleans. 
 
 See "Incidents in the Life of Jacob Barker," by himself, New 
 York, 1855. 
 
 «as^; 9 as j; g .Wrf; g as/; G, H, k, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; sass; thasin this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BARKER 
 
 270 
 
 BARLOW 
 
 Barker, (John,) an English physician, who wrote an 
 " Essay on the Conformity of Ancient and Modern Medi- 
 cine in the Treatment of Acute Diseases." Died in 1748. 
 
 Barker,(JoHN,)an English diplomatist, born in Derby- 
 shire, became in 1826 British consul to Alexandria, and 
 subsequently consul-general in Egypt. Died in 1850. 
 
 Barker, (Matthew Henry,) an English novelist, 
 born about 1790. His novels are mostly sketches of 
 sea-life, and first appeared in the "Literary Gazette," 
 " Bentley's Miscellany," and other journals, under the 
 name of "The Old Sailor," and other pseudonyms. 
 Among the most popular of these are " The Greenwich 
 Pensioners," "Tough Yarns," and "Hamilton King." 
 In 1828 Barker became editor of the " Nottingham Mer- 
 cury." Died in 1846. 
 
 Bar'ker, (Robert,) a distinguished artist, and in- 
 ventor of the panorama, born in the county of Meath, 
 Ireland, in 1739. He exhibited in Edinburgh in 1788 a 
 panoramic view of that city, and subsequently a pano- 
 rama of London in Leicester Square. Among his most 
 admired pieces are the battles of Trafalgar and Copen- 
 hagen. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Barker, (Thomas,) an English painter of landscapes 
 and rural subjects, born in Monmouthshire in 1769. 
 Among his master-pieces is the " Woodman and the 
 Gypsy." Died in 1847. 
 
 Barkey, baR'kl, (Nicolaus,) a German scholar and 
 theologian, born at Bremen in 1709. He published the 
 " Museum of the Hague," (" Museum Haganum,") 
 "Bibliotheca Bremensis Nova," (1760,) and other mis- 
 cellaneous works. Died in 1788. 
 
 Barkham. See Barcham, (John.) 
 
 Barkhausen, baRk'how'zen, (Heinrich Ludwig 
 Willibald,) a German writer on political economy, born 
 in 1742, was the author of "Letters on the Policy of the 
 Corn Trade," and other works. Died in 1813. 
 
 See Ersch undGRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Barkiarokh or Barkyaroc, bark'ya-rok', fourth 
 Persian prince of the Seljookian dynasty, succeeded his 
 father Malik-Shah in 1092. He died in 1104. 
 
 Bark'iy, (Sir Henry,) born in London in 1815, was 
 appointed Governor of Victoria, in Australia, in 1856. 
 
 Bar'kok', first Sultan of the Circassian Mamelukes, 
 or Borgites, possessed himself of the throne of Egypt in 
 1390, after overthrowing the Baharite or Tartar dynasty. 
 He was a promoter of learning, and founded a college 
 at Cairo. Died in 1398. 
 
 Barkow, baR'ko, (Hans Karl Leopold,) a German 
 anatomist and physiologist, born in the isle of Rugen 
 about 1798, published " Monstra animalium duplicia per 
 anatomen indagata," (1830-36.) 
 
 Barks'dale, (Clement,) an English divine and writer 
 born in Gloucestershire in 1609, was the author of a " Life 
 of Grotius," and a collection of poems. Died in 1687. 
 
 Barks'dale, (William,) an American general, born 
 in -Tennessee in 1821. He removed to Mississippi, 
 studied law, and was elected to Congress about 1853. 
 He was a violent partisan of slavery and disunion. He 
 was killed at Gettysburg, July 2, 1863. 
 
 Bar'la-am, a monk of the order of Saint Basil, whose 
 original name was Bernard, born at Seminara, in Ca- 
 labria, about 1290. He resided several years at Constan- 
 tinople, where he became thoroughly versed in the Greek 
 language, and, after his return, was appointed in 1342 
 Bishop of Geraci, in the kingdom of Naples. Died in 1348. 
 
 Barland See Baarland. 
 
 Barlaeus. See Baerle, (Caspar van.) 
 
 Barles, btRl, (Louis,) a French physician of the 
 seventeenth century, translated several medical works 
 from the Dutch of De Graaf. 
 
 Barlesio, baR-la'ze-o, written also Barlezio, [Lat. 
 Barle'tius,] (Marino,) a historian, born at Scutari, in 
 Albania, wrote, among other works in Latin, "The Life 
 and Actions of Scanderbeg," (1506,) which has been 
 translated into several languages. 
 
 See Sax, "Onomasticon." 
 
 Barletta, baR-let'ta, (Oakriello,) a popular Italian 
 preacher, born in the kingdom of Naples, lived about 
 1450-80. His sermons have been often reprinted. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical Dictionary;" Niceron, "Me'moires," 
 
 Barlotta, baR-lot'ta, (Giuseppe,) a Sicilian poet and 
 litterateur, born at Trapani in 1654. 
 
 Bar'low, (Francis,) a distinguished English painter 
 and engraver, born in Lincolnshire about 1625. His 
 representations of landscapes, birds, and fishes are par- 
 ticularly admired. Among his best works are the illus- 
 trations for an edition of .Esop's " Fables," which he also 
 etched, and a " Book of Birds," engraved by Faithorne. 
 
 See Strutt, " Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Bar'low, (Francis Channing,) art American gen- 
 eral, born at Brooklyn, New York, in 1834. Before the 
 breaking out of the rebellion he followed the legal pro- 
 fession. He enlisted as a private in April, 1861, becams 
 a colonel about May, 1862, and served with distinction 
 at the battles of Fair Oaks, June I, and Antietam, Sep- 
 tember 17. He was appointed a brigadier-general about 
 September, 1862. He commanded a division at the bat- 
 tles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania Court-House, 
 May, 1864 ; also in an assault on the defences of Peters- 
 burg in June. In November, 1865, he was elected secre- 
 tary of state by the Republicans of New York. 
 
 Barlow, (Joel,) an American poet and patriot, born 
 at Reading, Connecticut, in 1755, graduated at Yale 
 College in 1778. He studied theology, was licensed as 
 a Congregational minister, and joined the army as a 
 chaplain. When the army was disbanded, in 1783, he 
 settled at Hartford, began to study law, and was admit- 
 ted to the bar in 1785. Before this date he had married 
 a sister of Abraham Baldwin. In 1787 he published 
 " The Vision of Columbus," a poem, which obtained 
 great popularity. He visited Europe in 178S, became a 
 resident of Paris about 1792, and wrote several works to 
 promote the principles of the French Revolution. During 
 his residence in France he wrote a humorous poem on 
 " Hasty Pudding," which was much admired. 
 
 Having enriched himself by commercial speculations 
 in France, he returned to the United States in 1805, and 
 settled on the Potomac near Washington. In 1808 he 
 published his most elaborate work, " The Columbiad," 
 an epic poem, which proved, however, in the opinion of 
 most critics, a complete failure. He was appointed am- 
 bassador to France in 181 1, and was invited by the French 
 minister in the autumn of 1812 to a conference with Na- 
 poleon at Wilna, but before he arrived at that place he 
 died, near Cracow, in December, 1812. " As an author," 
 says R. W. Griswold, " he belonged to the first class of 
 his time in America ; and for his ardent patriotism, his 
 public services, and the purity of his life, he deserves a 
 distinguished rank among the men of our golden age." 
 (" Poets and Poetry of America.") 
 
 See, also. C. E. Oelsner, " Notice stir la Vie de J. Barlow," Paris, 
 1S13; "Edinburgh Review" tor October, 1809: " Encyclopaedia Ame- 
 ricana;" DUYCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature." 
 
 Barlow, (Nicholas,) an English watchmaker, who 
 invented a repeater clock about 1676. 
 
 Barlow, (Peter,) F.R.S., a distinguished English 
 mathematician, born at Norwich in 1776. He became 
 in 1806 one of the mathematical masters in the Royal 
 Academy at Woolwich. He was afterwards a professor 
 in that academy many years, and resigned the chaii in 
 1S47. He published an "Elementary Investigation of 
 the Theory of Numbers," (181 1,) and a "Mathematical 
 and Philosophical Dictionary," (1814.) His "Essay on 
 Magnetic Attractions" (1820) was highly prized. For his 
 researches on magnetism he received the Copley modal 
 in 1825. Among his valuable discoveries is a method 
 of compensating or rectifying errors in the compass 
 caused by the attraction of iron in ships. Died in 1862, 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale." 
 
 Barlow, (Thomas,) an English divine and theologian, 
 born in Westmoreland in 1607, became Bishop of Lin- 
 coln in 1675. He was the author of "The Case of To- 
 leration in Matters of Religion," and several works on 
 civil and canon law. Died in 1691. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Barlow or Bar'lowe, (William,) born in Essex 
 county, England, became Bishop of Chichester in 1559' 
 He wrote a work entitled "Cosmography," and several 
 controversial treatises. Died in 1568. 
 
 Barlow or Barlowe, (William,) an English di- 
 vine and mathematician, son of the preceding, born in 
 
 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met: nAt: (rood; moonj 
 
 «.«, 
 
BJRMAXX 
 
 «7« 
 
 BARNES 
 
 Pembrokeshire, was appointed Archdeacon of Salisbury 
 in 1614. He was the first of his countrymen who wrote 
 on the properties of the magnet, and he made important 
 improvements in the mariner's compass. His principal 
 work is entitled "The Navigator's Supply," (1597.) 
 Died in 1625. 
 
 Barmami or Baermann, baiR'min, (George Frild- 
 BICH,) a German mathematician of the eighteenth cen- 
 turv, became professor of mathematics at Wittemberg. 
 He published an edition of Euclid, and translated 
 Luci. ins "Master of Eloquence" into German. Died 
 in 1769. 
 
 Barmann or Baermann, (Georg Nikolaus,) a Ger- 
 man litterateur, born at Hamburg in 1785, was the author 
 of a number of romances, tales, and dramas. He also 
 made translations from the English, French, Spanish, 
 and Italian, among which are several dramas of Calderon 
 and Gozzi, and Sir Walter Scott's works. Died in 1850. 
 Barmecides, bar'me-sldz, (singular Bar'me-cide,) 
 or Bar'ma-cides, [Fr. Barmecides, biR'ma'scd'; Ger. 
 Barmecidkn, baR-met-see'den ; Lat. Barmac'id^J 
 written also Barmekides, a celebrated Persian family, 
 which derived its name from Barinak or Barmek. His 
 son Khaled-ben-Barmek was first minister of Al-Mah- 
 dee, by whom he was appointed tutor to his son the 
 famous Haroun-al-Raschid. Yahya, son of Khaled, be- 
 came vizier to Haroun, and by his eminent services contri- 
 buted in a great degree to the glory of his sovereign's reign. 
 Yahya's three sons, namely, Yahya, Jaafar, and Fadhl, 
 after enjoying for a long time the favours and friendship 
 of Haroun-al-Raschid, at length incurred his displeasure, 
 and were put to death by his orders, together with nearly 
 all their family, about 802 a.d. The virtues and the 
 tragic fate of the Barmecides have been a favourite sub- 
 ject with Arabian poets and historians. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine EncykJopaedie." 
 Bar'na-bas, [Gr. Bapvitfiac; Fr. Barnabe, baVtii'- 
 ba',] Saint, one of the early Christian apostles, was a 
 native of the island of Cyprus, and was originally named 
 Joseph. He accompanied Saint Paul on a religious 
 mission to Antioch, and afterwards visited Cyprus with 
 Mark. According to tradition, Barnabas founded the 
 church in Milan, of which he was the first bishop. The 
 writings attributed to him are generally regarded as apo- 
 cryphal. The time and manner of his death are unknown. 
 See Acts xiii.-xv. ; P. Puccinelli, "Vita di S. Barnaba," 1649. 
 Bar'nard, (Sir Andrew Francis,) a British general, 
 born in 1773 ; died in 1855. 
 
 Barnabe. See Barnabas, Saint. 
 Bar'nard, (Daniel D., LL.D.,) United States min- 
 ister to Prussia, born in Berkshire county, Massachu- 
 setts, in the early part of the nineteenth century. In 
 1827 ne was elected a representative to Congress, and 
 was re-elected in 1839, 1841, and 1843. He was appointed 
 minister to Prussia in 1850. For several years he has 
 edited a journal of education in New York. 
 
 Bar'nard, (Lady Anne,) a Scottish poetess, whose 
 maiden name was Lindsay, born in Fifeshire in 1750, 
 was a daughter of the Earl of Balcarres. She wrote 
 the ballad of "Auld Robin Gray." Died in 1825. 
 
 Barnard, (Frederick A. P., LL.D.,) an American 
 teacher and educational writer, born in Sheffield, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1809. He graduated at Yale College, and 
 became professor of mathematics, natural philosophy, 
 etc in the University of Alabama, (183810 1854,) and 
 professor of mathematics and astronomy in the Univer- 
 sity of Mississippi, of which he was chosen president in 
 1856. His principal work is "Letters on College Gov- 
 trnnient and the Evils inseparable from the American 
 College System in its Present Form," (1855.) 
 
 Bar'nard, (Hknry,) a British genera), born in Oxford- 
 shire about 1800. He served in the Crimea in 1854, and 
 obtained command of an army in India in June, 1857. 
 Died at Delhi in July of that year. 
 
 Barnard, (Hknry,) an eminent American writer on 
 education, born at Hartford, Connecticut, in January, 
 181 1. He graduated at Yale College in 1830, and studied 
 law. As a member of the legislature of Connecticut, to 
 which he was elected about 1837, he rendered important 
 services by the reorganization of the system of public 
 schools. He became secretary of the board of educa 
 
 tion of Connecticut, and in this capacity wrote a number 
 of able reports on public schools. He published, be- 
 sides other works, " School Architecture," " Normal 
 Schools in the United States," " Hints and Methods for 
 the Use of Teachers," and " National Education in Eu- 
 rope." He has recently been appointed United States 
 Commissioner of Education. " Mr. Barnard," says the 
 "Westminster Review" for January, 1854, "in his work 
 on ' National Education in Europe,' has collected and 
 arranged more valuable information and statistics than 
 can be found in any one volume in the English language." 
 
 Barnard or Bernard, (John,) an English divine 
 and controversialist, born in Lincolnshire ; died in 1683. 
 
 Barnard, (John,) an American divine, born in Bos- 
 ton in 1681. He was minister of Marblehead for more 
 than fifty years, and published numerous sermons. He 
 was distinguished for 'his sagacity in temporal affairs. 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 Barnard, (Sir John,) an English merchant and 
 statesman, born in Berkshire in 1685. He was elected 
 in 1722 a member of Parliament for London, which he 
 continued to represent for nearly forty years, voting gen- 
 erally against the administration of Sir Robert Walpole. 
 He was made a knight in 1732, and in 1737 lord-mayor 
 of London. Died in 1764. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Barnard, (John G.,) an able American general and 
 engineer, born in Essex county, Massachusetts, in 1815. 
 He graduated at West Point in 1833, obtained a com- 
 mission in the corps of engineers, and was employed 
 manv years on the defences of the coast. He became a 
 captain in 1838, and served as engineer in the Mexican 
 war, 1846-47. In the spring of l86t he planned and su- 
 perintended the fortifications of Washington. He was 
 appointed chief of engineers of the army of the Potomac 
 about July 2, 1861, and served at the battles of Gaines' 
 Mill, June 27, and Malvern Hill, July I, 1862. He was 
 chief engineer of the armies in the field, on the staff of 
 General Grant, from June 5, 1864, to April 9, 1865. In 
 December, 1865, he obtained the rank of colonel of 
 engineers. During the war he was a member of many 
 boards and commissions. He has published a number 
 of scientific and military works. 
 
 Barnaud, baVno', (Nicolas,) a French writer on 
 alchemy and philosophy, born at Crest, in Dauphiny. 
 He published, among other works, "The Mirror of the 
 French," (1582,) a political treatise. 
 
 Barnave,btR'nav',(ANTOiNE Pierre Joseph Marie,) 
 a French revolutionist and orator, born at Grenoble in 
 1761. He acquired distinction as an advocate in his 
 youth, and was elected to the States-General in 1789. 
 He was one of the founders of the club called " Friends 
 of the Constitution," one of the leaders of the popular 
 party, and for a short time had much influence in the 
 Assembly. He was the adversary of Mirabeau in a cele- 
 brated debate on the subject of the king's power to make 
 warand peace. In 1791 he and two others were appointed 
 as a committee to attend the king in his compulsory return 
 from Varennes to Paris. His sympathy was excited for 
 the royal captives, and he then became a defender of the 
 throne with the constitution. His political career ended 
 with the dissolution of the Assembly in September, 1791, 
 and he was executed in November, 1793. He left several 
 political treatises, one of which is entitled " Reflexions 
 politiques." Lamartine represents him as an honest 
 man, of moderate capacity, and calls him " the first ora- 
 tor of the Assembly which held the fate of the monarchy 
 suspended," (in June, 1791.) " Barnave, though the best 
 debater in the National Assembly," says Macaulay, 
 " flinched before the energy of Mirabeau." 
 
 See M. De Salvandy, "Vie de Barnave," 1833; Lamartine, 
 " History of the Girondists." 
 
 Barner, baR'ner, (James,) a German chemist and 
 physician, born at Elbing in 1641 ; died in 1686. 
 
 Barnes, barnz, (Albert,) an eminent American di- 
 vine, born at Rome, in the State of New York, in 1 798. 
 He graduated at Hamilton College in July, 1820, and 
 in the autumn of the same year entered the Theological 
 Seminary at Princeton. Having been licensed to preach 
 in 1823, he was soon after ordained pastor of the Presby- 
 terian Church of Morristown, New Jersey. In 1830 he 
 
 €a»*:cas.r;g,<<7n*Vgas/; G, H, m, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 ass; th as in Mir. (2CF*"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BARNES 
 
 272 
 
 BAR0CC1 
 
 was called to the pastoral charge of the First Presbyterian 
 Church of Philadelphia, a position which he held for 
 more than thirty years. In the controversy which led 
 to a division of the church into the Old and New Schools 
 he took an important part, and he is perhaps the most 
 prominent and influential representative of the New- 
 School doctrines. As a commentator on the Scriptures, 
 Mr. Barnes has deservedly a high reputation. It is ad- 
 mitted, even by those who do not agree with him in many 
 of his religious views, that in his scriptural notes he 
 combines extensive learning with great simplicity and 
 clearness of exposition. His writings are highly prized 
 by the religious community on both sides of the Atlantic. 
 It is estimated that the circulation of his " Notes on the 
 New Testament" (of which there are eleven volumes) 
 has up to this time (1869) reached above a million 
 volumes. Among his numerous other works may be 
 mentioned his "Inquiry into the Scriptural Views of 
 Slavery," "The Church and Slavery," (1857,) and "The 
 Atonement in its Relations to Law and Moral Govern- 
 ment," (1859.) Died in December, 1870. 
 
 Many years since, Mr. Barnes took a decided stand, 
 both in his sermons and in his writings, against the 
 iniquities of slavery ; he had the honourable distinction 
 of having firmly and fearlessly declared his views on 
 this subject at a time when such a course was as unpop- 
 ular as it was unusual among the clergy of the United 
 States. 
 
 It may be proper to state that Mr. Barnes declined on 
 conscientious grounds the title of doctor of divinity, a 
 title to which perhaps few divines, either in this country 
 or in Europe, could present a better claim, whether we 
 consider his great learning or the purity and consistency 
 of his Christian character. 
 
 Barnes, barnz, (Barnaby,) an English poet, born 
 about 1569. He was the author of a "Divine Century 
 of Spiritual Sonnets," and a tragedy entitled "The 
 Devil's Charter." He also translated Cicero's "De 
 Officiis." 
 
 Barnes, (Daniel H.,) a Baptist minister and distin- 
 guished American conchologist, was one of the founders 
 and teachers of the New York High School. He con- 
 tributed to " Silliman's Journal" a number of articles on 
 conchology, etc. Died in 1828. 
 
 Barnes, (John,) an English Catholic theologian, who 
 condemned in his writings some of the dogmas of the 
 Romish Church, and was imprisoned nearly thirty years 
 in the Inquisition, where he died. His principal works 
 are " Catholico-Romanus Pacificus," (16S0,) and an 
 " Essay against Equivocations." 
 
 Barnes, (Joshua,) an English scholar, born in Lon- 
 don in 1654, published editions of Euripides, Homer, 
 and Anacreon. He also wrote a " History of Edward 
 the Third," and a number of poems. Died in 17 12. 
 
 Barnes, written also Berners, (Juliana,) born in 
 Essex, was prioress of the convent of Sopewell, near 
 Saint Alban's. She wrote a treatise on hunting, hawk- 
 ing, etc., known as the " Book of Saint Alban's," (i486.) 
 
 See Lingard, "History of England." 
 
 Barnes, (Robert,) an English Protestant theologian 
 under the reign of Henry VIII., who appointed him 
 one of his chaplains. He afterwards incurred the dis- 
 pleasure of the king, and was burnt at the stake by his 
 order, (1540.) He wrote "Lives of the Popes from 
 Saint Peter to Alexander II.," (1536,) with a preface by 
 Luther. 
 
 See Burnet, " History of the Reformation." 
 
 Barnes, (Susan Rebecca,) an American poetess, 
 born in New Hampshire. Her works are included in 
 Griswold's "Female Poets of America." 
 
 Barnes, (Thomas,) an able English editor, born about 
 1786. He was chief editor of the London "Times" for 
 about twenty years, and one of the proprietors of the 
 same. Died in 1841. 
 
 Barnes, (William,) an English philologist, clergy- 
 man, and poet, born in Dorsetshire about 1810. He 
 published various works. 
 
 Bar'nett, (John,) an English musician and composer, 
 born at Bedford in 1802. He has composed popular 
 songs, masses, and a successful English opera, entitled 
 "The Mountain Sylph." 
 
 Barnett, (Morris,) an English actor who successfully 
 adapted the French drama "Monsieur Jacques," and 
 others, to the English and American stage. Died in 1856. 
 
 Barneveldt, baR'neh-velt, (Johan van Olden — vSn 
 old'en,) an eminent and liberal Dutch statesman, born 
 at Amersfoort in 1549. He began to practise law at the 
 Hague about 1570, soon after which he served in the 
 army against the Spaniards, and was chosen pensionary 
 of Rotterdam in 1576. He was at the head of a depu- 
 tation which, in 1585, after the death of William of 
 Orange, offered the sovereignty of the Dutch prov- 
 inces to Queen Elizabeth. On his return he was ap- 
 pointed advocate-general or grand pensionary of Hol- 
 land, and successfully opposed the designs of the Earl 
 of Leicester, who had command of the army. He 
 acquired great influence in the state, and became the 
 chief of the republican party, the opponents of which 
 followed Maurice of Nassau. In his negotiations with 
 the Spanish court, which, despairing of the conquest of 
 the revolted provinces, had made pacific overtures, he 
 was impeded by Maurice and his partisans, who de- 
 nounced him as a traitor ; but he extorted the recognition 
 of the independence of the United Provinces, and in 
 April, 1609, concluded a truce for twelve years. Before 
 and after this event he was grand pensionary, the high- 
 est civil officer of the state. 
 
 The fierceness of faction was increased by fanaticism. 
 A bitter contention had lately risen in Holland be- 
 tween the Arminians and Gomarists, (rigid Calvinists.) 
 Barneveldt having identified himself with the former, 
 Prince Maurice took sides with the Gomarists. (See Ar. 
 minius and Grotius.) The army, the ignorant multi- 
 tude, and the majority of the clergy adhered to Maurice, 
 who procured the convocation of a national synod to 
 agree upon a standard of compulsory conformity. This 
 measure Barneveldt opposed, because he favoured uni- 
 versal toleration. The Synod met at Dort in 1618, and 
 condemned the Arminians. Barneveldt was arrested 
 the same year, convicted on imaginary charges, and be- 
 headed in May, 1619. 
 
 See Motley, " History of the United Netherlands ;" De Thou, 
 " Historiasui Temporis ; Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Bar'ney, (Joshua,) an American commodore, born 
 in Baltimore in 1759. He became a lieutenant in 1775 
 or 1776, was captured by the British in 1777 and again 
 in 1 781. Having obtained command of the Hyder All, 
 he captured the General Monk in 1782. In the autumn 
 of that year he was sent to France with despatches. He 
 received a commission as captain in the French service 
 in 1795, but resigned it in 1800. He commanded a flotilla 
 in Chesapeake Bay in 1813, and was wounded at the 
 battle of Bladensburg in August, 1814. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Mary Barney, "Memoir of Commodore J. Barney," 1S32. 
 
 Barn'field, (Richard,) an English poet, born about 
 1574, was the author of "Cynthia," (1595,) and several 
 other poems. Died after 1605. 
 
 Barni, biR'ne', (Jules,) a French philosopher, born 
 at Lille in 1818. He has published French versions of 
 the works of Kant, with critical remarks. 
 
 Barnstorf, baRn'stoRf, (Bernard,) a German physi- 
 cian and scientific writer, born at Rostock in 1625 ; died 
 in 1704. 
 
 Barn3torf, (Eberhard,) son of the preceding, born 
 at Rostock in 1672, became professor of mathematics and 
 medicine at Haile. He was the author of several medical 
 works in Latin. Died in 1712. 
 
 See " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Bar'num, (Phineas T.,) a famous American specu- 
 lator, born at Bethel, Connecticut, in 1810. In 1841 he 
 established in New York City a museum, which, through 
 its real and pretended wonders, soon acquired great 
 celebrity. For further particulars of his history, see his 
 "Life," written by himself, (New York, 1855.) 
 
 Baro, bS'ro', (Balthasar,) a French poet and jurist, 
 born at Valence in 1600, was the author of an "Ode on 
 the Death of Marshal Schomberg," and several dramatic 
 poems. Died in 1650. 
 
 Barocci, ba-rot'ehee, [Fr. Baroche, bt'rosh',] or 
 Baroccio, ba-rot'cho, (Fiori Federigo d'Urbino — 
 dooR-bee'no,) a celebrated Italian painter, born at Ur- 
 bino in 1528. He studied the works of Raphael and 
 
 S,e,1, 6,0, y,hng;\,h, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, 11, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mlt; not; good; moon 
 
BAROCCIO 
 
 273 
 
 BARREL 
 
 Titian, but formed his style chiefly upon the model of 
 Correggio. Among his masterpieces are a "Descent 
 from the Cross," at Perugia, a "Holy Family," in the 
 urn at Naples, and " Saint Francis in Ecstasy at 
 the Appearance of the Saviour and the Virgin," which he 
 was seven years in completing. Barocci possessed great 
 merit as a oolorist, and skill in the management of chiaro- 
 scuro. H'i also engraved several of his pictures in supe- 
 rior style. Died in 1612. 
 
 See Bhli 3ri, "Vite dei Pittori," etc 
 
 Baroccio, bi-rot'cho, or Barocci, (Amisrogio,) a 
 Milanese painter and sculptor of the fifteenth century, 
 Was an ancestor of F. Federigo d'Urbino, noticed above. 
 
 Baroccio or Barozzio. See Vignola. 
 
 Baroche, the French of Barocci, which see. 
 
 Baroche, bi'rosh', (Pierre Jules,) a French advo- 
 cate and minister of state, born in Paris in 1802. He 
 was a member of the Constituent Assembly in 1848-49, 
 and minister of the interior in 1850. From April to Oc- 
 tober, 1851, he was minister of foreign affairs. Having 
 become a partisan of Louis Napoleon, he was appointed 
 president of the council of state just after the coup d'etat 
 of December, 1S51. In June, 1863, he became minister of 
 justice and keeper of the seals. 
 
 Baroero, ba-ro-a'ro, (?) (GlACOMO,) an Italian pro- 
 of surgery at Turin, born at Soglio in 1790, wrote 
 a "Treatise on Practical Surgery." Died in 1831. 
 
 Bar'on, (Alexander,) a physician, born in Scotland 
 in 1745. emigrated to Charleston, South Carolina, about 
 1770. He practised there with distinction, and was one 
 of the founders of the medical society of South Carolina. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Bar'on, written also Baro, (Bonaventura,) an Irish 
 monk, originally named Fitzgerald, born at Clonmel 
 about 1600. Died in 1696. 
 
 Baron, bf'r6N', (Eguinaire, a'ge'naV,) a distin- 
 guished jurist, born at Saint-Pol-de-Leon in 1495, was 
 styled by Cujas the French Varro. He published seve- 
 ral Latin treatises on the Pandects. Died in 1550. 
 
 See Taisand, " Vies des plus celebres Jurisconsultes." 
 
 Baron, bi-ron', (Ernst Gottlieb,) a celebrated Ger- 
 man lute-player and writer on music, born at Breslau in 
 1696. He published, among other works, "Historical, 
 Theoretical, and Practical Researches on the Lute." 
 Died in 1760. 
 
 Baron, (Hyacinthe Theodore,) a French physician 
 and medical writer, born in Paris in 1686, was elected 
 in 1730 dean of the medical faculty. Died in 1758. 
 
 Baron, (Hyacinthe Theodore,) a physician, son of 
 the preceding, born in Paris in 1707; died in 1787. 
 
 Bar'on, (John,) an English physician, wrote a " Life 
 of Dr. Jenner," (2 vols., 1827-38.) Died in 1851. 
 
 Baron, (Michel,) originally Boyron, a dramatic 
 writer, and one of the most celebrated French actors, 
 born in Paris in 1653. At an early age he attracted the 
 notice of Moliere, who became his intimate friend and 
 gave him valuable instructions in his art. He was called 
 the Roscius of his time. Died in 1729. 
 
 Baron, written also Baro, (Pierre,) a French Prot- 
 estant, became professor of divinity at Cambridge, Eng- 
 land, about 1574. Died in London in 1599. 
 
 Baron, (Richard,) an English dissenting divine and 
 
 political writer, was a native of Leeds. He published a 
 
 compilation entitled "The Pillars of Priestcraft and Or- 
 
 \v shaken," and edited Milton's prose works. Died 
 
 in 1768'. 
 
 Baron, (Vincent,) a French theologian, born at 
 Mai ties in 1604, published several works. Died in 1674. 
 
 Baron d'Henouville, l>S'r6N' da'noo'vel', (Theo- 
 
 Iiori ,) brother of Hyacinthe Theodore Baron the 
 
 younger, noticed above, born in Paris in 1715, wrote 
 
 il valuable works on chemistry and pharmacy. 
 
 Died in 1768. 
 
 Baroni, ba-ro'nee, (Adriana Basii.io,) an Italian 
 lady, celebrated for her beauty, talents, and accomplish- 
 ments. A volume of poems in praise of her graces was 
 published in 1623. 
 
 Baroni, (Leonora,) daughter of Adriana Baroni, 
 was likewise distinguished for her beauty and wit, and 
 enjoyed a high reputation as a vocalist. 
 
 Baroni-Cavalcabo, ba-ro'nee ka-val-ka'bo, (Cle- 
 
 MENTE,) an Italian litterateur, born near Roveredo in 
 1726, wrote "Memoirs towards Literary History," and 
 other works. Died in 1796. 
 
 Baroni-Cavalcabo, (Gaspar Antonio,) a painter, 
 born in 1682 near Roveredo, in the Tyrol. Died in 1759. 
 
 Baronio. See Baronius. 
 
 Ba-ro'nl-us or Baronio, ba-ro'ne-o, (Cesare,) an 
 eminent Italian cardinal and writer on church history, 
 born at Sora, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1538. He 
 studied theology at Rome under the celebrated Filippo 
 di Neri, whom in 1593 he succeeded as superior of the 
 congregation of the Oratory. He became successively 
 confessor to Pope Clement VIII., cardinal, and librarian 
 of the Vatican. His principal work is entitled " Eccle- 
 siastical Annals," 12 vols, folio, (in Latin, 1588-1607,) 
 which, though not free from errors, is characterized by 
 great learning and research, and cost its author thirty 
 years of labour. Among his other productions is a 
 treatise " On the Sicilian Monarchy," in which he op- 
 poses the claims of the King of Spain to Sicily. At an 
 election for pope he once received thirty-one votes. Died 
 in Rome in 1607. 
 
 SeeNic^RON, "Memoires;" J. Barnab^us, "Vita purpurati 
 
 ?rincipis C. Baronii Cardinalis," 165 1 ; La Croze, " Viede Baronius;" 
 \ LE Febvre, "Vie de C. Cardinal de Baronius," 1668. 
 
 Baronius, (Justus,) a Calvinistic theologian of the 
 seventeenth century, born at Xanten, in the duchy of 
 Cleves, was converted to Catholicism, in defence of 
 which he wrote several treatises. 
 
 Barotti, M-rot'tee, (Giovanni Andrea,) an Italian 
 litterateur, born at Ferrara in 1701 ; died about 1775. 
 
 Barou du Soleil, bt'roo' du so'la'ye, (or so'lAI',) 
 (Pierre Antoine,) a French writer, born at Lyons in 
 
 1742, was executed during the reign of terror in 1793. 
 Barozzi or Barozzio. See Vignola. 
 
 Barozzi, ba-rot'see, or Barocci, ba-rot'ehee, (Fran- 
 cesco,) an Italian jurist, was professor of canon law at 
 Padua. He was related to the popes Eugene IV and 
 Paul II., and was appointed by the latter Bishop of Tre- 
 viso. Died in 147 1. 
 
 Barozzi or Barocci, (Francesco,) an Italian mathe- 
 matician and scholar, lived about 1570. 
 
 Barozzi, (Giacomo,) nephew of the preceding, wrote 
 a " Treatise on Mathematics" and " Commentary on the 
 Sphere." 
 
 Barra, bS'rf, (Pierre,) a French physician and medi- 
 cal writer, lived at Lyons about 1650. 
 
 Barraband or Barraban, bf 'rf 'boN',(PiERRE Paul,) 
 a French artist and excellent bird-painter, born at Au- 
 busson in 1767. Among his best productions are the 
 illustrations for Le Vaillant's "Natural History of Afri- 
 can Birds," for Sonnini's edition of Buffon, and for La- 
 treille's "History of Insects." Died in 1809. 
 
 Barrabino,bar-ra-bee'no, (Simone,) an Italian paint- 
 er, born near Genoa; died in 1640. 
 
 Barrados, bar-ri'dAs, or Barradas, bar-ra'das, [Lat. 
 Barra'dius,] (Sebastiao,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born in 
 1542, was venerated as a saint. Died in 1615. 
 
 Barragan, bar-ra-gan', (Miguel,) a Mexican general 
 who became president of Mexico in 1835 and died a few 
 months afterwards. 
 
 Barral, bS'rfl', (Jean Augustin,) a French chemist, 
 born at Metz in 1819, first extracted nicotine from the 
 tobacco-leaf and made known its highly poisonous quali- 
 ties. He also wrote several treatises on the application 
 of chemistry to agriculture and the arts. 
 
 Barral, (Pierre,) a French writer and zealous Jan- 
 senist, born at Grenoble, was one of the principal con- 
 tributors to the " Historical, Literary, and Critical Dic- 
 tionary of Celebrated Men." Died in 1772. 
 
 Barral, de, deh bi'rfl', (Andre Horace Fran- 
 cois,) Viscount, a French general, born at Grenoble in 
 
 1743, served in the last campaigns of the Seven Years' 
 war, and in 1792 under Kellermann in the army of the 
 Alps. Died in 1829. 
 
 Barral, de, (JosF.ru Marie,) Marquis of Montferrat, 
 brother of Andre Horace, a French magistrate, born at 
 Grenoble in 1742, became first president of the imperial 
 court at Grenoble. Died in 1828. 
 
 Barral, de, (Louis Mathias,) Count, brother of 
 Andre 1 Horace, noticed above, born in 1746. He be- 
 
 c as /•; c as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J[^ = "See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 18 
 
BARRANCO 
 
 274 
 
 BARRERE 
 
 came successively Bishop of Meaux, almoner to the 
 empress Josephine, and Archbishop of Tours. 
 
 Barranco,bar-ran'ko,( Francisco,) a Spanish painter, 
 lived in Andalusia about 1650. 
 
 Barms, de, deh bi'ra', (Louis,) Count, a French 
 naval officer, born in Provence, served under De Grasse 
 in the American war in 1782, and afterwards took pos- 
 session of the English colonies of Nevis and Mont- 
 ferrat. 
 
 Barras, de, (Paul Franqois Jean Nicolas,) Count, 
 one of the first five Directors of the French Republic, 
 was born of a noble family at Foy-Emphoux, in Pro- 
 vence, in 1755. He favoured the popular cause in 1789, 
 and in 1792 was elected to the Convention, in which he 
 was a prominent partisan of the Mountain. In Octo- 
 ber, 1793, Barras and Freron were sent on a mission 
 to the south of France. They are charged with insti- 
 gating the cruel execution of many royalists of Toulon 
 after that city had been taken by the army. Barras was 
 one of the conspirators who triumphed over Robespierre 
 on the 9th Thermidor, 1794. Having been appointed by 
 the Convention commander of the national guard on that 
 ' day, he distinguished himself by his successful audacity. 
 In October, 1795, with the aid of Bonaparte, whom he 
 selected as general of the artillery, he defeated the in- 
 surgents of the sections in Paris, and was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the Directory. After the coup d'etat of the 18th 
 Fructidor, Barras was the most powerful of the directors. 
 1 le was the only man who kept his place in the Direc- 
 tory from its first appointment until its subversion by 
 Bonaparte in 1799, which was the end of his political 
 career. He died near Paris in 1829. He was indolent 
 and dissolute, and possessed only moderate abilities. 
 
 See " M^moires de Barras;" Thiers, " History of the French 
 Revolution ;" C. Doris, "Amours et Aventures du Vicomte de Bar- 
 ras," 4 vols., 1816. 
 
 Barrau, bi'ro', (Theodore Henri,) a French teacher 
 and educational writer, born at Toulouse in 1794. 
 
 Barraud, bi'ro', (Jacques,) an eminent French jurist 
 and legal writer, born at Poitiers in 1555 ; died in 1626. 
 
 Barraud, (Jacques,) a son of the preceding, was also 
 noted as a jurist and Latin poet. 
 
 Barre, bi'ra', (Guillaume,) a German publicist of 
 French extraction, born about 1760. Having visited 
 Paris in the early part of the Revolution, he became in- 
 terpreter to Napoleon. He published in 1804 a "His- 
 tory of the French Consulate under Bonaparte." Died 
 in 1829. 
 
 Barre, (Isaac,) Colonel, an officer of the British 
 army, born in Dublin in 1 726, was a son of a Frenchman. 
 He served in Canada under General Wolfe, was patron- 
 ized by Lord Shelburne, and was elected a member of 
 Parliament in 1761. He gained the favour of the Amer- 
 icans by a spirited speech against the Stamp Act in 1765, 
 and by his subsequent course during Lord North's ad- 
 ministration. In 1766 he was appointed a privy coun- 
 cillor. The " Letters of Junius" have been ascribed to 
 Colonel Barre. Died in 1S02. 
 
 Barre, biR, (Jean Auguste,) a French sculptor, a son 
 of Jean Jacques, noticed below, born in Paris in 181 1. 
 He gained a first medal in 1840. 
 
 Barre, (Jean Jacques,) a French engraver of medals, 
 born in Paris in 1793. He became graveur-general of the 
 mint in 1842. Died in 1855. 
 
 Barre, (Joseph,) a French ecclesiastic and chancellor 
 of the University of Paris, was the author of a "General 
 Histo;y of Germany," (11 vols., 1748,) and other works. 
 Died in 1764. 
 
 Barre, (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Lille in 
 1 799, translated Walter Scott's poems into French, and 
 published in 1844 a "New Classical Biography." 
 
 Barre, (Pierre Yves,) born in Paris in 1749, was the 
 author of several popular dramas, one of which is en- 
 titled "The Marriage of Scarron." Died in 1832. 
 
 Barre, de la, deh li Mr, (Antoine le Fevre — leh'- 
 flvr' or f&vr',) a French general, appointed Governor 
 of Guiana in 1663, re-took Cayenne from the Dutch, and 
 was made Governor of Canada in 1682. He was recalled 
 in 1685, and died in 1688. 
 
 See Charlevoix, " Histoire de la Nouvelle France." 
 
 Barre, de la, (Cesar Alexis Chichereau — shesh'- 
 
 ro',) Chevalier, a French littb-ateur, born at Langeais 
 about 1630, was the author of "Fables" in verse. 
 
 Barre, de la, (F^ranqois Poulain — poo'laN',) a 
 French miscellaneous writer, born in Paris in 1647. He 
 published, among other works, a treatise " On the Equal- 
 ity of the Sexes." Died in 1723. 
 
 Barre, de la, (Jean,) a French lawyer and litterateur^ 
 born in Paris about 1650, wrote a continuation of Bos- 
 suet's "Discourse on Universal History." Died about 
 1711. 
 
 Barre, de la, (Jean,) a French antiquary of the seven- 
 teenth century, was a resident of Corbeil. 
 
 Barre, de la, (Jean Francois le Fevre — leh'fevr' 
 or fivr',) Chevalier, grandson of Antoine le Fevre, 
 noticed above, born at Abbeville in 1747. He was con- 
 demned to death by the tribunal of that city for having 
 mutilated a crucifix, and was executed in 1766, at the age 
 of nineteen. This act of barbarity and intolerance I3 
 severely commented upon by Voltaire in his "Account 
 of the Death of the Chevalier de la Barre." 
 
 See Voltaire, "Correspondance," and his "Relation de la Mort 
 du Chevalier de la Barre," 1766. 
 
 Barre, de la, (Jean Jacques,) a Protestant theolo- 
 gian, born at Geneva in 1696, was a son of Francois 
 Poulain, noticed above. He published "Philosophic 
 Thoughts" and " Dialogues on Different Subjects." Died 
 in 1 75 1. 
 
 Barre, de la, (Louis Francois Joseph,) a French 
 scholar and critic, born at Tournay in 168S, was a brother 
 of Antoine Barre de Beaumarchais. He published edi- 
 tions of the "Vetera Analecta" of Mabiilon, of Moreri's 
 "Dictionary," and other valuable works. Died in 1738. 
 
 Barre, La, li biR, (Michel,) a celebrated French 
 musician and composer of operas, born in Paris about 
 1680. Died in 1744. 
 
 Barre de Beaumarchais, de la, deh li biR deh 
 bo'miR'sh^', (Antoine,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Cambrai, was the author of "Letters, Serious and Play- 
 ful, on the Works of Savants," (1729.) Died about 1757. 
 
 Barre de Saint-Venant, bi'ra' deh saN'veh-noN', 
 (Jean,) a French agricultural writer, born at Niort in 
 1737, became a resident of Saint Domingo. He wrote 
 a work "On the Modern Colonies under the Torrid 
 Zone," (1802.) Died in 1810. 
 
 Barreau, bi'ro', (Alexandrine Rose,) a French 
 heroine, born at Sartens about 1770, served as soldier 
 in nearly all the campaigns of the republic and empire. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Barreau, (Franqois,) an ingenious French mechan- 
 ician, born at Toulouse in 1 73 1. One of his master- 
 pieces was an ivory sphere of exquisite and complic ate 
 workmanship, called a kiosk, which he presented to N« 
 poleon. Died in 1814. 
 
 Barreaux, des, d<i bi'ro', (Jacques Vallee — vi'la ',) 
 Seigneur, an indifferent French poet, born in ParisB 
 1602. Died in 1673. 
 
 Barreiros, bar-rii'e-r6s, (Caspar,) a Portuguese geo- 
 grapher, was a nephew of the celebrated historian joio 
 de Barros. His principal work is entitled "Chora 
 graphia ;" besides which he was the author of " Cosmo- 
 graphic Observations." Died in 1574. 
 
 Barrelier, biR'le-J', (Jacques,) a French botanist; 
 born in Paris in 1606. In 1635 he entered the order of 
 Saint Dominic, and, while visiting the convents of 
 France, Spain, and Italy, made a valuable collection of 
 plants and shells. He was engaged upon a large botan- 
 ical work when he died in 1673. His manuscripts were 
 subsequently destroyed by fire ; but the copper-plates 
 were preserved, and were collected by Antoine de Jus- 
 sieu, and published with accompanying descriptions, 
 under the title of " Plants of France, Spain, and Italy." 
 The work contains thirteen hundred and ninety-two 
 figures of plants, and three plates of shells. Plumier 
 has named the genus Barrelia in honour of this botanist 
 
 Barreme, bi'rim', (Francois,) a French arithmeti- 
 cian of the seventeenth century, was a native of Lyons, 
 and the author of valuable arithmetical works, 1 
 in 1703. 
 
 Barrere. See Barere. 
 
 Barrere, bi'raiR', (Pierre,) a French naturalist ai 
 physician, born at Perpignan about 1690. He was t 
 
 lis. 
 
 ; 
 
 nd 
 
 ,,, 
 
 a, e, 1, o, it, y, long ; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, % short ; a, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fill, fit; mlt; n&t; good; 
 
BARRES 
 
 275 
 
 BARRON 
 
 author of an " Essay on the Natural History of Equi- 
 noctial France," being a mere list or enumeration of the 
 natural productions of Guiana and Cayenne, where he 
 resided nearly three years. Died in 1755. 
 See "Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Barres, (Joseph Frederick.) See Desbarres. 
 Barretier. See Baratier. 
 
 Barreto, bar-ra'to, (Francisco,) a Portuguese mis- 
 sionary and Jesuit, born at Montemor-o-Novo in 1588. 
 He wrote, in Italian, an " Account of Missions, etc. in 
 the Province of Malabar," (1645.) Died at Goa in 1663. 
 Barreto, de, da bar-ra'to, (Francisco,) a Portuguese 
 who was appointed in 1555 governor of the Indies. In 
 an attempt to conquer that portion of Africa called Mo- 
 nomotapa, after suffering great hardships, he died in 
 1574. It was by his orders that the poet Camoens was 
 exiled to Macao. 
 
 Barreto, de, (MuSoz, moon-y6z',) a Portuguese 
 under the reign of Sebastian, was Viceroy of the Indies 
 in 1573, and in 1589 governor of the eastern shores of 
 Africa. 
 
 Barreto de Resende, ba>-ra'to da ra-seVda, (Pe- 
 dro,) a Portuguese historian, who left in manuscript a 
 work on the history of India. Died in 1651. 
 
 Bar'rett, (Eaton Stannard,) an Irish writer of satire 
 and fiction, born about 1785. He published poems en- 
 vitled " Woman," and "All the Talents," (1807;) also 
 "The Heroine," a satirical romance. Died in 1820. 
 
 Barrett, (Elizabeth.) See Browning. 
 
 Barrett, (George,) a distinguished landscape-painter, 
 born at Dublin about 1730, was one of the first members 
 of the Royal Academy of Painting. He was a friend 
 of Edmund Burke. Died in 1784. 
 
 Bar'rett, (George Morton,) an English actor, born 
 in 1794, removed to the United States, where he gained 
 considerable popularity, and became manager of the 
 Bowery Theatre in New York. 
 
 Bar-rett', (or bjfri',) (Jean Jacques,) a French littera- 
 teur, of English extraction, born at Condom in 1717. He 
 made translations from Cicero, Ovid, Virgil, and Tacitus, 
 and also translated Macchiavelli's" History of Florence," 
 and "The Praise of Folly" by Erasmus. Died in 1792. 
 
 Barrett, (John,) a distinguished classical scholar, born 
 in Ireland about 1750. He studied at Trinity College, 
 where he became vice-provost in 1806. He wrote an 
 "Inquiry into the Origin of the Constellations that com- 
 pose the Zodiac," and an "Essay on the Life of Swift." 
 Dr. Barrett discovered, among the manuscripts of the 
 college library, a palimpsest, containing fragments of the 
 Gospel of Saint Matthew, supposed by some to have been 
 written in the second century. He was noted for his 
 eccentricities ; and many anecdotes are related of his 
 simplicity and ignorance of common life. Died in 1821. 
 
 Barrett, (William,) an English antiquary and sur- 
 geon, resided at Bristol. His principal work is entitled 
 "History and Antiquities of Bristol," (1788.) He was 
 a fellow of the Antiquarian Society. Died in 1789. 
 
 Barrey, b$'r4', (Claude Antoine,) a French physi- 
 cian, born at Besancon in 1771^ was a zealous promoter 
 of vaccination. Died in 1837. 
 
 Barrl See Giraldus Cambrensis. 
 
 Barri, Mr'ree, (Gabriello,) an Italian scholar and 
 antiquary, born at Francica, in Calabria, wrote, in Latin, 
 a treatise "On the Antiquity and Situation of Calabria," 
 (t^7l,) and other works. 
 
 Barri, (Giacomo,) a Venetian painter and engraver, 
 born about 1630, imitated Titian and Tintoretto. He 
 published " Viaggio pittoresco," (1671,) which was trans- 
 lated into English by Lodge. Died after 1684. 
 
 Barrientos, bar-re-6n't6s, (Bartolome,) a Spanish 
 scholar and commentator of the sixteenth century, was 
 a native of Granada. 
 
 BarrientOB, (Genes, Ha'nes,) a Spanish theologian, 
 preached in the Philippine Islands. Died in 1694. 
 
 Barriere, bi're-aiR', (Jean Francois,) a French lit- 
 t/rateur, born in Paris in 1786, published, among other 
 works. "Memoirs of Madame Campan." 
 
 Barriere, or Labarre, li'biR', (Pierre,) a French 
 soldier, notorious from his attempt on the life of Henry 
 Hi was executed in 1593, declaring that he had 
 
 IV 
 
 been incited to the deed by the Catholic priests. 
 
 Barriere, (Theodore,) a French dramatist, born in 
 Paris in 1823. Among his works is "Les Filles dfc 
 Marbre," (1853.) 
 
 Barriere, de la, deh If bi're-aiR', (Dom Jean,) the 
 founder of the order of the Feuillants, born at Saint- 
 Cere in 1544. In 1586 his institution was recognized 
 by a brief from Pope Sixtus V. Died in 1600. 
 
 Bar'rin-ger, (Daniel Moreau,) an American poli- 
 tician, born in Cabarras county, North Carolina, in 1807. 
 He represented a district of his native State in Congress 
 from 1843 to 1849, and was minister to Spain from 1849 
 to 1853. 
 
 Bar'ring-ton, (Hon. Daines,) a distinguished English 
 jurist and naturalist, born in 1727, was a son of John 
 Shute, Viscount Barrington, noticed below. He pub- 
 lished in 1766 " Observations upon the Statutes, chiefly 
 the more Ancient, from Magna Charta to the 21 Jac. I. 
 c. 27," which is esteemed a standard work. He wrote 
 also a "Dissertation on the Linnsean System," and a 
 tract " On the Probability of reaching the North Pole," 
 (1775,) which is said to have suggested to Captain Phipps 
 his voyage to the Arctic regions. Barrington contributed 
 to the "Archceologia" and to the " Philosophical Transac- 
 tions." He was vice-president of the Royal Society. 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 Barrington, (John,) son of the first Viscount Bar- 
 rington, a major-general who commanded the British 
 forces at the capture of Guadeloupe. Died in 1764. 
 
 Barrington, (John Shute,) first Viscount, an able 
 English writer and politician, born in Hertfordshire in 
 1678. He became a member of Parliament about 1714, 
 after which he was raised to the Irish peerage. " He is 
 reckoned the shrewdest head in England," says Dean 
 Swift. His principal work, "Miscellanea Sacra; or a 
 New Method of considering so much of the History of 
 the Apostles as is contained in Scripture," (2 vols., 1725,) 
 was highly esteemed. Died in 1734. 
 
 Barrington, (Sir Jonah,) an Irish lawyer and writer, 
 born in Queen's county in 1767. He became in 1790 a 
 member of the Irish Parliament, where he acted with 
 the popular party and voted against the Union. He was 
 subsequently made a knight and a judge of the admiralty 
 court. He was the author of " Historic Memoirs of Ire- 
 land" and " Personal Sketches of his Own Times." The 
 latter was very popular : it abounds in amusing though 
 extravagant anecdote, and presents a tolerably correct 
 picture of Irish society at that time. Died in 1834. 
 
 Barrington, (Hon. Samuel,) fifth son of the first 
 Lord Barrington, entered the navy at an early age. He 
 was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral, and in 1778 
 took Saint Lucia from the French. Died in 1800. 
 
 See Campbell, " Lives of the British Admirals." 
 
 Barrington, (Shute,) the youngest son of the first 
 Lord Barrington, born in Berkshire in 1734, rose to be 
 Bishop of Durham in 1791. He wrote a "Lifeof Wil- 
 liam, Viscount Barrington." Died in 1826. 
 
 Barrington, (William Wildman,) second Viscount 
 Barrington, eldest son of John Shute, Lord Barrington, 
 born in 1710. He was elected to Parliament for Ply- 
 mouth in 1754, which he continued to represent for more 
 than twenty years. He was successively appointed sec- 
 retary at war, (1755,) chancellor of the exchequer, (1761,) 
 and treasurer of the navy, (1762.) Died in 1793. 
 
 See Shute Barrington, "Political Life of W. Wildman Bar- 
 rington," 1815; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1S16. 
 
 Barrios, bar're-6s, or De Barros, da bar'r6s, (Mi- 
 guei.,) sometimes called Daniel Levi, a Spanish Jew 
 of the seventeenth century, wrote, among other works, 
 an "Account of the Spanish Toets and Writers of Jew- 
 ish Origin." 
 
 Barris, bl'ress', (Pierre Joseph Paul,) a French 
 statesman, born at Montesquieu in 1759, was a deputy 
 to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and subsequently 
 president of the court of cassation. Died in 1824. 
 
 Barroilhet, bi'Rwa'li',(PAUi.,) a French vocalist, born 
 at Bayonne in 1810. He performed in the Opera of Paris. 
 
 Barrois, bi'Rwi', (Jacques Marie,) a learned French 
 bookseller, born in Paris in 1704, published a great num- 
 ber of valuable catalogues. Died in 1769. 
 
 Bar'ron, (James,) an American commodore, born in 
 Virginia in 1768. He commanded the Chesapeake, 
 
 € as A; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. d3f=See Explanations, p. 23,' 
 
BARRON 
 
 276 
 
 BARRY 
 
 which the British ship Leopard attacked and captured 
 in 1807, in time of peace, because Barron refused to al- 
 low his vessel to be searched for deserters. For his con- 
 duct in this affair he was suspended for several years. In 
 1820 he killed Commodore Decatur in a duel, and was at 
 the same time severely wounded himself. Died in 1851. 
 
 Barron, (Samuel,) a naval officer, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born in Virginia about 1764. He commanded a 
 squadron sent against Tripoli in 1805. Died in 1810. 
 
 Barron, (Samuel,) an American officer, born in Vir- 
 ginia, entered the navy about 1812. He became a com- 
 mander in 1847, and captain in 1855. As commodore 
 of the rebel navy, he commanded at Fort Hatteras, which 
 he surrendered in August, 1861. 
 
 Barros, bar'ros, (Andrea,) a Portuguese Jesuit, native 
 of Lisbon, lived about 1700-30. He wrote a "Life of 
 Antonio Vieyra." 
 
 Barros, de, da bar'r6s, (Joao,) the most eminent of 
 the Portuguese historians, born at Viseu in 1496. He 
 was patronized by the Infant of Portugal, afterwards John 
 III., on whose accession he was appointed governor of 
 the Portuguese establishments on the coast of Guinea. 
 He subsequently filled the post of agent-general for those 
 colonies for more than thirty years. The first two de- 
 cades of his great work, entitled "Asia, or the History 
 of the Discoveries and Conquests of the Portuguese in 
 the East Indies," came out in 1552-53, and the third 
 decade ten years later. The fourth, which brings the 
 history down to 1539, was published in 1615, with notes 
 by Lavanha. A continuation of this history has been 
 written by Diego de Couto. Barros was the author of a 
 historical romance called "Chronicle of the Emperor 
 Clarimundo," and a number of moral and scientific treat- 
 ises. His writings are remarkable for elegance of style, 
 and his merits as a historian have procured for him the 
 name of "the Portuguese Livy." Died in 1570. 
 
 See Manoel Severim de Faria, "Vida de Jo3o de Barros," 
 1624; Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana," and an able 
 essay on " Portuguese Literature" in the " London Quarterly Review" 
 for May, 1809. 
 
 Barroso, Mr-ro'so, (Miguel,) a Spanish painter, 
 born at Consuegra, in New Castile, in 1538, was em- 
 ployed by Philip II. to adorn a part of the Escurial. Died 
 in 1590. 
 
 Barrot, bi'ro', (Camille Hyacinthe Odillon — 
 o'de'y6iN',) an eloquent French advocate and statesman, 
 born at Villefort, in Lozere, in 1791. Having gained 
 distinction as an advocate, and adopted liberal opinions, 
 he began his political career as president of the society 
 which took for its name Aide-toi et le del faidera. He 
 was an active promoter of the revolution of 1830, and, 
 it is said, advised or persuaded Lafayette to refuse the 
 presidency of the republic. In August, 1830, he was 
 appointed prefect of the department of Seine at Paris, 
 and a few months later was elected to the Chamber of 
 Deputies, in which he became a leader of the opposition, 
 or gauche moderee. He favoured electoral reform, and 
 won popularity by his speeches against the administra- 
 tion of Guizot, between 1840 and '48. He was a member 
 of the brief ministry which the king appointed in Febru- 
 ary, 1848, as a concession to the victorious revolutionists. 
 On the abdication of Louis Philippe, he advocated the 
 appointment of the Duchess of Orleans as regent. He 
 was minister of justice and president of the council in the 
 first cabinet of Louis Napoleon from December, 1848, to 
 September, 1849. He protested against the coup d'etat 
 of December, 1851, after which he retired from political 
 life. 
 
 See Louis Bi.anc, " Histoire de dix Ans." 
 
 Barrot, (Ferdinand,) brother of Odillon Barrot, born 
 in 1806, became minister of the interior in 1849, a mem- 
 ber of the council of state in 1851, and a senator in 1853. 
 
 Barrot, (Jean Andre,) a French politician, the father 
 of Odillon, was born about 1752. As a member of the 
 Convention in 1793, he voted against the execution of the 
 king. Died in 1845. 
 
 See Odillon Barrot, " Notice sur la Vie de J. A. Barrot," 1814. 
 
 Bar'row, (Isaac,) an eminent English divine, mathe- 
 matician, and pulpit orator, born in London in October, 
 1630, was educated at Cambridge, where he took the 
 degree of M.A. in 1652. After an extensive tour on the 
 
 Continent, he was ordained in 1660, and chosen professor 
 of Greek at Cambridge. In 1662 he obtained the chair 
 of geometry in Gresham College, and in 1663 the Lu- 
 casian professorship of mathematics. He resigned this 
 in favour of his friend and pupil, the illustrious Newton, 
 in 1669, and was appointed master of Trinity College by 
 the king in 1672. As a mathematician he is estimated 
 more highly by the English than by the French. By the 
 invention of the method of tangents he prepared the way 
 for the application of the differential calculus to geometry. 
 He published, besides other works, " Euclidis Elementa," 
 (1655,) "Lectiones Opticas," (1669,) and " Lectiones Geo- 
 metricas," (1670.) Among his posthumous works are 
 "Lectiones Mathematicae," (1683,) and an admirable 
 "Treatise on the Pope's Supremacy." His Sermons and 
 other theological works, edited by Dr. Tillotson, ap- 
 peared in three volumes, 1685. He was never married. 
 His moral character was irreproachable. Died in London 
 in May, 1677. 
 
 "We admire," says Robert Hall, "as much as it is 
 possible for our readers to admire, the rich invention, the 
 masculine sense, the exuberantly copious yet precise and 
 energetic diction, which distinguish Barrow, who, by a 
 rare felicity of genius, united in himself the most distin- 
 guishing qualities of the mathematician and the oratoi," 
 
 "The sermons of Barrow," says Hallam, "display a 
 strength of mind, a comprehensiveness and fertility, which 
 have rarely been equalled." (" Introduction to the Litera- 
 ture of Europe.") 
 
 See Arthur Hill, "Life of Barrow," prefixed to his collected 
 works, 1685; Ward, " Lives of the Professors of Gresham College." 
 
 Barrow, (John,) an English writer of the last cen- 
 tury, chiefly known as the compiler of .a "Geographical 
 Dictionary," and a " History of Discoveries made by 
 Europeans in Different Parts of the World," (1756.) 
 
 Barrow, (John,) an English physician, who published 
 a "New Medicinal Dictionary." (1749,) and a "New 
 Essay of the Practice of Physic." 
 
 Barrow, (Sir John,) an English traveller, and one of 
 the founders of the Geographical Society, born in Lan- 
 cashire in 1764. He accompanied Lord Macartney, as 
 his secretary, to the Cape of Good Hope in 1797, and in 
 1804 was appointed by Lord Melville second secretary to 
 the admiralty, a position which he held for forty years. 
 During this period he rendered important services to geo- 
 graphical science, and was active in promoting voyages 
 to the Arctic regions. Among his principal works are 
 "Travels in South Africa," (1803,) "Memoirs of Naval 
 Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," (1845,) and "Voy- 
 ages of Discovery and Research in the Arctic Regions." 
 He was also a contributor to the " Encyclopaedia Britan- 
 nica" and "Quarterly Review." He became a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society in 1805, and was subsequently presi- 
 dent of the Geographical Society. Died in 1848. 
 
 See "An Autobiographical Memoir of Sir John Barrow." 
 
 Bar'row-by, (William,) ar English physician, born 
 in London about 1700, translated from the Latin some 
 of the works of Astruc. 
 
 Bar'rowe or Ear'r3wes, (Henry,) an English non- 
 conformist, of the sect called Brownists, was executed in 
 1592 on a charge of publishing seditious books against 
 the queer, and government. lie was the author of "A 
 Brief Discoverie of the False Church," (1590.) 
 
 Barruel, de, deh bi'rii-el', (Augustin,) a learned 
 French Jesuit, born near Viviers in 1741. He published, 
 among other works, a treatise " On the Pope and his 
 Religious Rights," (1803.) Died in 1820. 
 
 Barruel- Beauvert, de, deh bfru-el' bo'vaiR', (An- 
 toine Joseph,) Count, a French litterateur, born near 
 Bagnols, in Languedoc, in 1756, was the author of a " Life 
 of Rousseau," and several political works in favour of 
 the royalists. Died in 1817. 
 
 Bar'rjr, (Sir Charles,) an eminent English architect, 
 born at Westminster in 1795. Among his master-pieces 
 are the church of Saint Peter's at Brighton, King Edward's 
 Grammar-School at Birmingham, and the Athemeum 
 at Manchester. In 1840 he began the new Parliament- 
 House, which, though he did not live to see it completed, 
 is a splendid monument of his genius and taste. Sir 1 
 Charles was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and a member ' 
 
 i, e, T, 0, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; n5t; grnid; moon.- 
 
BARRY 
 
 277 
 
 BARTH 
 
 of the Institute of Architects, and of various learned 
 societies in Europe. Died in i860. 
 
 .1 " Memoir of Sir Charles Barry," by his son, the Rev. Alfred 
 Barky, 1867. 
 
 Bar'rjf, (Sir David,) a learned physician, born in the 
 county of Roscommon, Ireland, in 1780, was the author 
 of " Researches on the Influence exercised by Atmos- 
 pheric Pressure upon the Progression of the Blood in 
 the Veins," etc. Died in 1835. 
 
 Barry, (Edward,) an English divine, born at Bristol 
 about 1759; died in 1822. 
 
 Barry, (Sir Edward,) an English physician and me- 
 di«al writer, studied under Boerhaave at Leyden. He 
 became professor of medicine at Dublin, and was a Eel- 
 low of the Royal Society. Died in 1776. 
 
 Barry, (Garret,) an officer, born in Ireland, published 
 in 1634 a "Discourse of Military Discipline." 
 
 Bar'rjf, (George,) a Scottish divine, born in Berwick- 
 shire in 1 747, was the author of a " History of the Ork- 
 ncv Islands," (1805.) Died in 1804. 
 
 Barry, (Gerald.) See Giraldus Cambrensis. 
 
 Barry, (James,) Lord of Santry, writer on law, born 
 in Dublin in 1598, became lord chief-justice of the king's 
 bench in Ireland. Died in 1673. 
 
 Barry, (James,) an eminent historical painter, born 
 at Cork in 1741. He was the son of the master of a 
 ing-vessel, who destined him for his own profession. 
 He manifested a passion for art at a very early age, pass- 
 ing whole nights in drawing, and "spending all his pocket- 
 money on pencils and candles." One of his first pro- 
 ductions represented the conversion of a king of Cashel 
 by Saint Patrick : it attracted general admiration, and 
 ured for the artist the friendship and patronage of 
 Edmund Burke, by whose pecuniary assistance he was 
 soon after enabled to visit Rome. Having studied five 
 years in that city, he returned to England in 1770, and 
 Was subsequently elected an associate of the Royal Acad- 
 emy. In 1775 he published an "Inquiry into the Real 
 and Imaginary Obstructions to the Progress of Art in 
 England," an able refutation of Winckelmann's theory 
 that the climate of England was unfavourable to the high 
 development of art. In 1777 he began a series of six 
 pictures designed to illustrate human improvement. Of 
 these works, which are esteemed his master-pieces, the 
 "Victors at Olympia" deserves particular mention. Barry 
 was elected professor of painting at the Academy in 1782 ; 
 but his unfortunate irritability of temper kept him con- 
 stantly embroiled with his colleagues, and having, as was 
 alleged, made some false accusations against members 
 of the Academy, he was deprived of his office in 1797. 
 He died in iSo6, in destitute circumstances. "Barry," 
 says Cunningltam, "was the greatest enthusiast in art 
 which this country ever produced : his passion for it al- 
 most amounted to madness ;" and the same writer adds, 
 " his imagination was second only to that of Fuseli." 
 
 See Cunningham's " Lives of Painters and Sculptors ;" " Ency- 
 clopaedia Britannica ;" " Edinburgh Review" for August, 1810 ; 
 kwood's Magazine" for December, 1820. 
 
 Barry, (John,) Commodore, a naval officer, born in 
 Wexford county, Ireland, in 1745, emigrated to America 
 1760. Having obtained command of a United 
 5 frigate in 1776, he captured the British vessel 
 Atalanta in May, 1781, and commanded the Alliance, 
 which conveyed La Fayette to France about the end of 
 that year. Died in 1803. 
 
 Barry, bS're', (Marie Jeanne Gomart de Vauber- 
 
 nier — go'mSk' deh vo'beVne-4', ) Countess of, a mis- 
 
 I Louis XV., of France, was born at Vaucouleurs 
 
 in 1 746. She exercised a powerful influence at court, 
 
 and received the homage of Chancellor Maupeou and 
 
 other distinguished men, who obtained through her the 
 
 most important offices and privileges. During the reign 
 
 of terror she was arrested as a royalist, and executed in 
 
 nber, 1793. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Barry, (Martin,) a distinguished English physiolo- 
 liorn in Hampshire in 1802, graduated in medicine 
 linburgh, and finished his studies at Heidelberg 
 14. 11 is principal work, entitled "Researches in 
 yology," first appeared in the " Philosophical Trans- 
 actions" from 1838101842, and obtained for him the gold 
 
 medal of the Royal Society. He also published a treat- 
 tise " On Fibre," and other works relating to animal de- 
 velopment. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society 
 in 1840. Died in Suffolk in 1855. 
 
 Barry, (Rene,) a French litterateur and royal histori- 
 ographer, lived about 1630. Among his works is a " Life 
 of Louis XIII.," (in Latin.) 
 
 Barry, (Spranger,) a celebrated actor, born at Dub- 
 lin in 1719, performed with great success in his native 
 city and in London. He is said to have been in some 
 characters scarcely inferior to Garrick. Died in 1777. 
 
 See " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Bar'rjf, (William F.,) an American general, born in 
 New York City in 1818, graduated at West Point. He 
 was made captain in 1852, and major of artillery in May, 
 1861. In August of that year he became a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers, and served as chief of artillery, 
 under General McClellan, in the battles near Richmond, 
 June, 1862. 
 
 Barry, (William Taylor,) an American politician, 
 born in Lunenburg county, Virginia, in 1785. He be- 
 came a citizen of Kentucky, was elected to Congress in 
 1810, and was subsequently chief justice of that State. 
 He was appointed postmaster-general under President 
 Jackson in 1829, and was the first incumbent of that 
 office who was a member of the cabinet. In 1835 he 
 was sent as minister to Spain. He died at Liverpool, 
 while on his way to Madrid, the same year. 
 
 Barry or Barri, de, deh bt're', (Paul,) a French 
 Jesuit, born near Narbonne in 1587, wrote a number of 
 mystical religious treatises, which were satirized by Pas- 
 cal in his " Provincial Letters." Died in 1661. 
 
 Barry Cornwall. See Procter. 
 
 Barsorry (baR-shon') of Lovas Bereny, (lo-vosh' 
 bi-ren',) (George,) a Hungarian Catholic bishop, dis- 
 tinguished for his zeal against the Protestants. Died in 
 1678. 
 
 Bar-su'mas or Bar-sau'mas, a prominent leader of 
 the Nestorians, became Bishop of Nisibis in 435 a.d. 
 
 Bart or Barth, bSR, (Jean,) a celebrated F'rench sea- 
 man, born at Dunkirk in 1 651, signalized himself as a 
 privateersman against the Dutch in 1672. After per- 
 forming many brilliant exploits as a cruiser in the Medi- 
 terranean, he was appointed by Louis XIV. chief of 
 a squadron in 1697. He obtained letters of nobility 
 from the French king for having captured a Dutch fleet 
 laden with corn, in 1694. Died in 1702. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. iv. ; A. Richer, "Vie 
 de Jean Bart," 1780; Vanderest, "Histoire de Jean Bart," 1841. 
 
 Bart a, baR'ta, (Balthasar,) a Hungarian chronicler, 
 born at Szoboszlo, lived about 1770. 
 
 Bartalini, baR-ta-lee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Sienna about 1560; died in 1609. 
 
 Bartas, du, dii baVta', (Guillaume de Salluste — 
 deh st'liist',) an eminent French poet and negotiator, 
 born at Montfort, in Armagnac, in 1544, was a Protestant. 
 He was sent by Henry IV. on missions to several foreign 
 courts. His chief work is a poem entitled "The Week 
 of Creation," ("La premiere Semaine, ou la Creation,") 
 which was once greatly admired, and was translated 
 into Latin, Italian, English, and German. He received 
 several wounds at the battle of Ivry, survived a few 
 months, and died in 1590. "His imagination, though 
 extravagant, is vigorous and original." (Hallani's "In- 
 troduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See, also, Sainte-Beuve, "Tableau de la Poesie Francaise." 
 
 Bartels, baR'te' Is, (Ernst Daniel August,) a Ger- 
 man physician, born at Brunswick in 1778, became pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Berlin in 1827, and published many 
 works on physiology, etc. Died in 1838. 
 
 See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 
 
 Bartenstein, baR'ten-stln', (Johann Christoph,) 
 born in 1690, rose to be vice-chancellor of Austria and 
 Bohemia. He wrote "The Law of Nature and of Na- 
 tions." Died in 1766. 
 
 Bartenstein, (Lorenz Adam,) a German mathema- 
 tician and scholar, born at Heldburg in 1711, was the 
 author of several critical and mathematical treatises. 
 Died in 1796. 
 
 See J. C. Briegi.eb, "Vita L. A. Bartensteinii," 1793. 
 
 Barth, bSRt, (Friedrich Gottlieb,) a German phi- 
 
 < as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BARTH 
 
 278 
 
 BARTHOLD 
 
 lologist, bom at Wittenberg in 1738, published an edition 
 of Propertius with notes, and a " German and Spanish 
 Grammar," (1778.) Died in 1794. 
 
 Barth, (Gottfried,) a German jurist and professor 
 of law at Leipsic, born in that city in 1650 ; died in 1728. 
 
 Barth, (Heinrich,) a celebrated German explorer, 
 born at Hamburg in 1821. He visited Northern Africa 
 in 1845, whence he proceeded to Arabia and Asia Minor, 
 and in 1849 published his " Wanderings along the Shores 
 of the Mediterranean." About this time he received 
 proposals from the British government to join the expe- 
 dition which was then being fitted out for Central Africa. 
 [n company with Mr. Richardson and Dr. Overweg, he 
 set out in December, 1849. Having spent nearly six 
 years in his explorations, during which time his two 
 companions died, Dr. Barth returned to Europe in 1855. 
 He published in 1857 his "Travels and Discoveries in 
 Worth and Central Africa." Died in 1865. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for January and April, 1859, vol. cix. 
 
 Barth, (Jean.) See Bart, (Jean.) 
 
 Barth, bin, (Jean Raphael Philippe,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Sarreguemines, in Moselle, about 
 1812. His chief work is a "Practical Treatise on Aus- 
 cultation," (1S40.) He was assisted by Henri Roger in 
 the composition of this work. 
 
 Barth, bSRt, (Karl,) a German engraver, born at 
 Hildburghausen in 1792. He engraved some works of 
 Cornelius and Overbeck. 
 
 Barth, [Lat. Bar'thius,] (Michael,) a German phy- 
 sician, born at Annaberg, in Saxony, about 1650, was 
 the author of " Letters on Medicine," and a number of 
 Latin poems. Died in 1684. 
 
 Barth, (Paul,) a German Orientalist, born at Nu- 
 remberg in 1635 ; died in 1688. 
 
 Barth, von, ton bj$Rt, [Lat. Bar'thius,] (Caspar,) a 
 German scholar, born at Ciistrin in 1587, wrote a Latin 
 work entitled " Adversaria," and commentaries on Clau- 
 dian, Statius, and other classics. Died in 1658. 
 
 See Kromayer, "Programma in C. Barthii obitum," 1658; Ni- 
 ceron, "M^moires." 
 
 Barth-Barthenheim, blRt-b5Rt'en-hmi', (Johann 
 Baptist Ludwig Ehrenreich,) Count of, a distin- 
 guished statesman and jurist, born at Hagenau, in Al- 
 sace, in 1784. He rose, through various offices under 
 the Austrian government, to be aulic councillor. He 
 wrote several legal and political works. Died in 1846. 
 
 Barthe, blRt, (Felix,) a French jurist and statesman, 
 born at Narbonne in 1 795. He became minister of pub- 
 lic instruction in 1830, and in 1831 minister of justice 
 under Casimir Perier. In 1834 he was made first presi- 
 dent of the court of accounts, and a peer of France. 
 
 See " Notice sur la Vie de M. Barthe," 1846. 
 
 Barthe, (Nicolas Thomas,) a French writer, born 
 at Marseilles in 1734, wrote an epistle "On Genius con- 
 sidered in its Relation to the Fine Arts." Died in 1785. 
 
 Barthel, baR'tel, (Johann Caspar,) a German jurist, 
 born at Ki&singen in 1697, became vice-chancellor of 
 the University of Wurzburg. He wrote several Latin 
 treatises on canon law. Died in 1771. 
 
 See "Vita J. C. Bartheli," 1752. 
 
 Barthel, written also Bartel, (Johann Christian 
 Friedrich,) a German engraver, born at Leipsic in 
 1775. Among his best works are the "Castle of Hei- 
 delberg," after Primavesi, and a view of Vaucluse. He 
 also produced several paintings. 
 
 Barthel, (Mei.chior,) a German sculptor, born in 
 Saxony, worked at Venice ; died in 1674. 
 
 Barthelemy or Barthelemi. Saint. See Bartholo- 
 mevv, Saint. 
 
 Barthelemy, biii'tal'me', (Auguste Marseille — 
 mfR'sa'ye,) a French satiric poet, whose works had 
 great popularity, born at Marseilles in 1796. Among the 
 principal we may name the " Villeliade," an attack on the 
 ministry of Villele, (1826,) " Satire against the Capuchins." 
 and "Napoleon in Egypt," (1828.) In conjunction with his 
 friend Mery, he wrote the "Dupinade," (1831,) a mock- 
 heroic poem, and a number of political satires. He re- 
 sided mostly in Paris. 
 
 Barthelemy, (Francois,) Marquis of, a French 
 statesman, born at Aubagne in 1747, was a nephew of 
 the author of " Anacharsis." He held various offices 
 
 under Napoleon, and at the fall of the empire in 1814 
 presided over the commission of the senate which de- 
 throned the emperor. Under Louis XVII 1. he was made 
 a peer and grand officer of the legion of honour, and 
 was subsequently appointed minister of state. Died in 
 1830. 
 
 Barthelemy, (Jean Jacques,) a celebrated FrenchS 
 writer and scholar, born near Aubagne, in Provence, in; , 
 1716. Having studied theology and ancient languages 
 under the Jesuits at Marseilles, he visited Paris, where 
 he acquired the friendship of Gros de Boze, keeper of 1 
 the royal cabinet of medals. In 1753 he succeeded De 
 Boze in this post, having previously been elected to tke 
 Academy of Inscriptions. He subsequently travelled 
 in Italy, where he spent several years in antiquarian re -I 
 searches and made a large and choice collection of 
 medals for the royal cabinet. Having obtained several: ' 
 lucrative offices through the favour of the Duke of 3 
 Choiseul, Barthelemy devoted himself to literary pursuits™ 
 and published a number of valuable treatises, chiefly on 
 numismatics and ancient inscriptions. In 17S8 he 
 brought out his principal work, entitled 1 "Travels of I 
 Anacharsis the Younger in Greece," (" Voyage du Jeune 
 Anacharsis en Grece,") on the composition of which he 
 had spent thirty years. It soon obtained great popularity 
 both in France and other countries, and was translated 
 into several languages. In 1789 Barthelemy became a 
 member of the French Academy. Died in Paris in 1795. 
 
 See Mancini-Nivernais, " Essai sur la Vie de J. J. Barthelemy," 
 1795; M. G. C. Villenave, "Notice stir les Ouvrages de J. J. Bar- 
 thelemy," 1821 ; " Encycrupaedia Britannica." 
 
 Barthelemy, (Jean Simon,) a French historical 
 painter, born at Laon in 1742; died in Paris in 181 1. 
 
 Barthelemy, (Louis,) a French writer on grammar, 
 history, etc., born at Grenoble in 1759; died in 1S15. 
 
 Barthelemy, (Nicolas,) a French Benedictine, bornjl 
 in Touraine in 1478, was the author of Latin epigrams 
 and idylls, and a treatise " On Active and Contemplative 
 Life," (1523.) Died about 1535. 
 
 Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, bSR'tal'me' saNt'e'lJr', 
 (Jules,) a French journalist and scholar, born in Paris 
 in 1S05, was assistant editor of the "Globe," the " Na- 
 tional," and other journals. He became in 1S38 pro- 
 fessor of Latin and Greek philosophy in the College of 
 France. He wrote, among other works, a " Commentary 
 on Aristotle," which obtained a prize from the Academy. 
 
 Barthelmont. See Bartlemann. 
 
 Barthes. See Barthez. 
 
 Barthez.btR'ta', or Barthes, biR'ti', (Paul Josephs 
 a celebrated French physician and physiologist, born 
 at Montpellier in 1734. In 1757 he was appointed 
 royal censor, and became associate editor* of the " Jou^B 
 nal des Savants" and the " Encyclopedic Methodique." 
 He obtained the chair of medicine at Montpellier inB- 
 1759. Having settled in Paris in 1780, he was made 
 consulting physician to the king, and a councillor of 
 state. He was the author of "New Doctrine of the 
 Functions of the Human Body," (in Latin, 1774,) "New 
 Elements of the Science of Man," (1778,) a "Discourse 
 on the Genius of Hippocrates," (1801,) and other valua- 
 ble works. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Lordat, " Me'moires sur la Vie de P. J. Barthez," 1818. 
 
 Barthez, de, deh baVta', (Antoine Charles Er- 
 nest,) a French medical writer, born at Narbonne, in 
 Aude, about 1800. Among his works is a "Treatise on 
 the Diseases of Children," (3 vols., 1843.) 
 
 Barthez (or Barthes) de Marmorieres — deh hiSr'- 
 mo're-aiR', (Antoine,) Baron, son of Guillaume, noticed 
 below, was born at Saint Gall, in Switzerland, in 1736. 
 He wrote a tragedy entitled " The Death of Louis XVI.," 
 and other works. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Barthez (or Barthes) de Marmorieres, (GuiLj;, 
 laume,) a French engineer of bridges, etc., and writer 
 on mechanics, lived about 1750. 
 
 Barthius. See Barth, (Caspar von.) 
 
 Barthold, baR'tolt, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a Ger- 
 man historian, born in Berlin in 1799, became a professor 
 at Greifswalde in 1834. He published a number of well- 
 written works on German history, among which is a 
 " History of the German Cities and Corporations," 
 (" Burgerthums") 1851. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; mi 
 
BARTHOLDT 
 
 279 
 
 BARTLETT 
 
 • Bartholdy. See Mendelssohn, (Felix.) 
 
 Bartholdy, baR-tol'dee, (Jakob Salomo,) a German 
 
 isoldier, diplomatist, and writer, of Jewish extraction, 
 
 born at Berlin in 1779. He served in the campaigns 
 
 1st the French from 1809 to 1S14, and subsequently 
 
 me consul-general at Rome, fie wrote a " History 
 
 of the Tyrolese War of 1809," and a " Life of Cardinal 
 
 Consalvi," (1S25.) Died in 1825. 
 
 Bai thole. See Bartoli. 
 
 Bartholin, baK'to-lin', [Lat. Bartholi'nus,] (Eras- 
 , . a Danish physician and savant, born at Roskild in 
 1025, was a son of Kaspar, noticed below. He became 
 sor of geometry and medicine at Copenhagen. 
 Niceron, "Memoires." 
 Bartholin, written also Bartholine, (Kaspar,) a 
 ■ : learned physician and medical writer, born at Malmo, in 
 ! Scania, in 1585, was professor of medicine at Copen- 
 1. and in 1618 rector of the university in that city. 
 Died in 1629. 
 
 : \llek, " Bibliotheca Anatomica." 
 
 Bartholin, (Kaspar,) a Danish physician, born in 
 
 [655, was a son of Thomas Bartholin, (the first of that 
 
 name.) He became physician to the King of Denmark, 
 
 and published a number of medical and scientific works, 
 
 in Latin. Died in 1738. 
 
 Bartholin, baR-to-leen', or Bartolini, baR-to-lee'nee, 
 
 , (Ricardo,) an Italian litterateur of the sixteenth century, 
 
 native of Perugia. 
 
 Bartholin, (Thomas,) son of Kaspar the elder, noticed 
 
 ! above, born at Copenhagen in 1616, was one of the most 
 
 I eminent physicians of his time. Having studied at Leyden 
 
 I ami afterwards visited the principal countries of Europe, 
 
 as appointed in 1648 professor of anatomy at Co- 
 
 agen. Among his works, which are written in Latin, 
 
 are a treatise on the lymphatic vessels, (the discovery of 
 
 which he claimed,) a dissertation on the functions of the 
 
 I liver, and his "Anatomia," (1641,) which had a high re- 
 
 | putation as a text-book and passed through numerous 
 
 I editions. Died in 1680. 
 
 Sue Haller, " Bibliotheca Anatomica ;" G. Hann^us, "Oratio 
 I in obitum T. Bartholin!," 1680. 
 
 Bartholin, (Thomas,) a Danish jurist, son of the 
 preceding, born in 1659, was appointed keeper of the 
 archives, and held other important offices. He 
 the author of several works on northern antiquities 
 i^tory. Died in 1690. 
 Eartholine. See Bartholin. 
 Eartholinus. See Bartholin. 
 Eartholomaeus, bar-thol-o-mee'us,an English bishop 
 of Exeter, wrote a compilation entitled a "Penitential," 
 and "Dialogues against the Jews." Died about 1 187. 
 
 Eartholomaeus, baR-to-lo-ma'oos, Bishop of Urbino, 
 
 in Italy, lived about 1350. 
 
 Bartholomaeus, baR-to-lo-ma'us, [Fr. Barthei.emi, 
 
 al'me' ; Sp. Bartolome, baR-to-lo-ma',] (a Mar- 
 
 1 vk'ikus ; so named from the church of the Martyrs,) a 
 
 iL'uese prelate, born in 1514. In 1559 he became 
 
 J Archbishop of Braga. At the Council of Trent he 
 
 ' distinguished himself by his advocacy of reform in the 
 
 Catholic Church. Died in 1590. 
 
 I fmaistre de Sacv, " Vie de Barthe'lemi," 1663 ; L. Muftoz, 
 de Fr. Bartolome 1 de ]os Martyres," 1645 ; F. A. Vitoria, 
 do arcebispo Fr. Bartholomeo dos Martyros," 2vo]s., 1748-49. 
 
 Bar-thol-o-mae'us Co-lo-nl-en'sis, or Bartholo- 
 mew of Cologne, a distinguished scholar and writer, 
 at Cologne about 1460, studied at Deventer, where 
 \ he became acquainted with Erasmus. Died about 1514. 
 Bartholomaeus (or Bar-thol'o-mew) de Glan'- 
 ville, a Franciscan monk, called Anglicus, (the "Eng- 
 H»hman,") born in Suffolk, lived about 1370. His prin- 
 j cipal work is a kind of encyclopaedia, entitled "On the 
 ( rties of Things," ("De Proprietatibus Rerum,") 
 which had a high reputation in his time. 
 
 Bar-thol'o-mew, [G-r. BapOoAOfiaioc; Lat. Barthoi.o- 
 
 m.i 'rs,l Saint, (believed by many to be the same as the 
 
 j Nathanael spoken of in John i. 45-49,) one of the 
 
 twelve apostles, is supposed to have been a native of 
 
 1 Galilee. It is stated by Eusebius that he preached the 
 
 rl in India. The time and place of his death are 
 
 unknown, and none of his writings are extant. His 
 
 I relics are said to have been brought to Rome, where a 
 
 eas,£: 
 
 church was erected in his honour. (See Matthew x., 
 Mark hi., and Luke vi.) 
 
 Bartisch, baR'tish, (Georg,) a German surgeon, who 
 lived about 1570, and wrote "On Diseases of the Eye." 
 Bar'tle-mann, [Fr. Barthelmont, bia'tel'moN',] 
 written also Barthelemon, (Mippolyte,) a French mu- 
 sician and composer of operas, born at Bordeaux in 1731 ; 
 died in London in 1808. He was an excellent violinist. 
 See " Fraser's Magazine," vol. xlviii. 
 
 Bar'tle-mann, (James,) an English vocalist, espe- 
 cially distinguished as a bass singer, born at Westmin- 
 ster in 1769; died in 1821. 
 
 Bart'lett, (Elisha,) an American physician, born at 
 Smithfield, Rhode Island, in 1804 or 1805, graduated in 
 1826. He practised several years at Lowell, Massachu- 
 setts, obtained the chair of medicine in the University of 
 Maryland in 1844, and afterwards lectured on medicine 
 at Lexington and Louisville, Kentucky. In 1850 he was 
 appointed professor of medicine in the University of New 
 York. He was a popular teacher, and acquired distinc- 
 tion by his medical works, among which is an " Essay on 
 the Philosophy of Medical Science." Died in 1855. 
 See Gross, "American Medical Biography." 
 Bartlett, (Ichabod,) a distinguished American lawyer, 
 born at Salisbury, New Hampshire, in 1786. He grad- 
 uated at Dartmouth College in 1808, and afterwards prac- 
 tised law at Portsmouth. He was a representative in 
 Congress from 1833 to 1839. Died in 1853. 
 
 Bartlett, (John Russell,) an American writer, born 
 at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1805. He was a mer- 
 chant in New York in early life, and was appointed in 
 1850 commissioner to determine the boundary-line be- 
 tween the United States and Mexico. He published a 
 "Dictionary of Americanisms," (1848,) and a "Personal 
 Narrative of Explorations and Incidents in Texas, New 
 Mexico, California, etc.," (2 vols., 1854.) 
 
 Bartlett, (John Sherren,) M.D., a physician and 
 journalist, born in England in 1790. He emigrated to 
 the United States, and in 1822 established in New York 
 "The Albion," a journal of the English conservative 
 school of politics, which he conducted with signal ability. 
 On the introduction of ocean steam-navigation he founded 
 "The European" in Liverpool, intended to furnish the 
 American public a weekly summary of foreign news. His 
 latest enterprise in journalism was "The Anglo-Saxon," 
 commenced in Boston in 1855. 
 
 Bartlett, (Joseph,) an American satiric poet, born in 
 Plymouth, Massachusetts, about 1763. He graduated at 
 Harvard in 1782. In 1799 he delivered a poem on 
 Physiognomy before the Phi Beta Kappa Society of Har- 
 vard. An edition of this poem was published in 1823, 
 together with a number of aphorisms on various subjects. 
 On the 4th of July, 1823, he delivered an oration in 
 Boston, and recited a poem called "The New Vicar of 
 Bray." Died in 1827. 
 
 Bartlett, (Josiah,) M.D., an American patriot, born 
 in Amesbury, Massachusetts, in 1729. He was a dele- 
 gate to the Continental Congress in 1776-78, and signed 
 the Declaration of Independence. He was appointed 
 chief justice of the common pleas in 1779, and soon 
 after chief justice of the superior court of New Hamp- 
 shire. In 1 790 he became President of New Hampshire, 
 and in 1793 was chosen the first Governor under the 
 new constitution. 
 
 See Chari.es A. Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declara- 
 tion of Independence." 
 
 Bartlett, (Josiah,) an American physician, born in 
 Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1759. He delivered 
 orations on various subjects. Died in 1820. 
 
 Bartlett, (William,) a wealthy American merchant, 
 one of the principal founders and benefactors of the 
 Theological Seminary at Andover, was born at Newbury, 
 Massachusetts, in 1748; died in 1841. 
 
 Bartlett, (William Henry,) an English artist, born 
 in London in 1809, travelled extensively in the East, and 
 published several works illustrated with drawings by 
 himself. Among them are " Walks in and about Jeru- 
 salem," (1844,) "Forty Days in the Desert," (1848,) and 
 "The Nile Boat, or Glimpses of the Land of Egypt," 
 (1849.) Died at sea ift 1854 or 1855. 
 See William Bhattie," Memoir of William Henry Bartlett,"iS5S. 
 
 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,,^utturat; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (ST^=See Explanations, p. 21 1 
 
BARTLETT 
 
 '280 
 
 BARTON 
 
 Bartlett, (William H. C.,) an American scientific 
 writer, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 1804, 
 published treatises on "Optics," "Mechanics," and 
 "Spherical Astronomy," and contributed to "Silliman's 
 Journal," etc. 
 
 Bar'tol, (Cyrus Augustus,) an American Congre- 
 gational minister, born at Freeport, Maine, in 1813. He 
 became pastor of a church in Boston about 1837. He 
 published, besides other works, " Pictures of Europe," 
 and " Discourses on the Christian Spirit and Life." 
 
 See a notice, by E. P. Whipple, in the " North American Re- 
 view" for January, 1850. 
 
 Bartoldy, baR-tol'dee, (Georg Wii.helm,) a learned 
 German writer, born at Colberg in 1765. He translated 
 Bacon's " Novum Organum." Died in 1815. 
 
 Bartoli, baR'to-lee, or Bartolo, baR'to-lo, [Lat. Bar'- 
 tolus ; Fr. Barthole, bSR'tol',] an Italian jurist and 
 legal writer, born at Sasso-Ferrato in 13 13, was professor 
 of law at Perugia. He enjoyed a very high reputation 
 in his time. Died in 1356. 
 
 Bartoli, (CosiMO,) an Italian litterateur, lived at Flor- 
 ence, and wrote several scientific, historical, and moral 
 treatises. He was one of the founders of the Academy 
 degli Umidi, formed in 1540. Among his works is a 
 "Life of Frederick Barbarossa," (1559-) 
 See Ginguenk, " Histoire Litte'raire d'ltalie." 
 Bartoli, (Daniele,) an Italian Jesuit and distinguished 
 writer, born at Ferrara in 1608. His greatest work is a 
 " History of the Company of Jesus," (1653-63,) which 
 gives an interesting account of the missions of the Jesuits 
 in the various parts of Asia, including Japan. He also 
 wrote a "Life of Ignatius Loyola," (1689,) and several 
 moral and scientific treatises, which are highly esteemed. 
 Died in Rome in 1685, 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letleratura Italiana." 
 Bartoli, (Domenico,) an Italian poet, born near Lucca 
 in 1629, assisted Beverini in translating the " /Eneid" 
 into Italian. Died in 1698. 
 
 Bartoli, (Francesco,) an Italian painter of the school 
 of Modena, was a pupil of Bibbiena. Died in 1779. 
 
 Bartoli, (Giuseppe,) an Italian antiquary, born at 
 Padua in 17 17, became professor of belles-lettres at Turin 
 in 1745. He was a corresponding member of the French 
 Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1788. 
 
 Bartoli, (Minerva,) an Italian poetess, born at Ur- 
 bino, lived about 1580. 
 
 Bartoli, (Pietro Santi,) a celebrated Italian en- 
 graver and painter, born at Perugia about 1635. He 
 studied painting under Nicolas Poussin, whose style he 
 imitated with great success. He is chiefly known from 
 his engravings, which are for the most part illustrations 
 of ancient art from the Catacombs and the ruins of 
 Rome. Died at Rome in 1700. He engraved some 
 works of Raphael. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 Bartolini, baR-to-lee'nee, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Ital- 
 ian painter of the Bolognese school, born at Imola in 
 1657 ; died in 1725. 
 
 Bartolini, (Lorenzo,) a celebrated Florentine sculp- 
 tor, born about 1778. Having studied in Paris under 
 Lemot, he soon after established his reputation by a bas- 
 relief of great beauty, representing "Clcobis and Biton." 
 He was charged by Napoleon with the execution of a 
 number of works, and founded by his order the school 
 of sculpture at Carrara. His colossal bust of Napoleon 
 is ranked among his master-pieces ; also the group of 
 " Hercules and Lycas," and the monument of Lady 
 Stratford Canning at Lausanne, in Switzerland. Bartolini 
 is esteemed by his countrymen as second only to Canova. 
 " No artist," says M. Breton, " not even Canova, ap- 
 proached as near as Bartolini to the ideal purity and 
 the noble simplicity of the works of the age of Pericles." 
 (" Nouvelle Biographie Generate.") He died at or near 
 Florence in January, 1850. 
 Bartolo. See Bartoli. 
 
 Bartolo, baR'to-lo, or Bartoli, baR'to-lee, (Dome- 
 nico,) sometimes called Domenico d'Asciano, an 
 Italian fresco-painter, born abou,t 1450, was a nephew 
 and pupil of Taddeo, noticed below. 
 
 Bartolo or Bartoli, (Taddeo,) an Italian painter of 
 
 Sienna, born about 1350. Among his master-pieces are 
 the frescos in the public palace at Sienna. 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 Bartolocci, baR-to-lot'chee, [Lat. Bartoloc'cius,] 
 (Giulio,) an Italian scholar and ecclesiastic, born in 
 1613, is sometimes called di Celano, (de chi-la'no,) 
 from the place of his birth. He was professor of Hebrew 
 in the college di Sapienza at Rome. His principal work 
 is entitled " Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica," (4 vols., 
 1675-93,) a valuable synopsis of rabbinical literature. 
 Died in 1687. 
 
 See Wolf, " Bibliotheca Hebraica." 
 
 Bartolomniei, baR-to-lom-ma'ee, (Geronimo,) n 
 Italian litterateur, born at Florence about 1584, was the 
 author of several tragedies and poems, among which 
 is " Didascalia, sive Doctrina Comica." Died in 1662. m 
 
 Bartolommei, (Mattko Mario,) an Italian drama- 
 tist, born at Florence in 1640, was a son of the preced- 
 ing. Died in 1695. 
 
 Bartolommei, (Simone Pietro,) an antiquarian 
 writer, born in the Tyrol in 1709 ; died in 1764. 
 
 Bartolomineo, baR-to-lom-ma'o, a Florentine painter 
 who worked about 1250. 
 
 Bartolommeo, (Maestro,) a Venetian sculptor and 
 
 architect, lived about 1390. He designed the " Porta dtlla 
 
 Carta," the chief entrance to the doge's palace at Venice. 
 
 Bartolommeo della Porta. See Baccio della 
 
 Porta. 
 
 Bartolommeo, di, de baR-to-lom-ma'o, (Dionisio,) 
 an Italian architect, worked at Naples about 15S0. 
 
 Bartolommeo, di, (Leonardo,) a Sicilian politician 
 born at Palermo ; died in 1450. 
 
 Bartoloni, baR-to-lo'nee, (Pietro Domenico,) an 
 Italian physician and miscellaneous writer, born at Em- 
 poli, near Florence, about 1640. 
 
 Bartolozzi, baR-to-lot'see, (Francesco,) an eminent 
 Italian engraver, born at Florence about 1725. He 
 studied under Wagner at Venice, and, after residing for 
 a time at Rome, removed to England, where he executed 
 a series of plates from Guercino. On the invitation of 
 the Prince-regent of Portugal, about 1805, he settled in 
 that country, where he died about 1816. Bartolozzi ex- 
 celled in every department of engraving, and is justly 
 esteemed one of the greatest masters of the art. Among 
 his most admired works are the " Virgin and Child," 
 after Carlo Dolce ; Guido's " Massacre of the Innocents ;" 
 and the "Death of Lord Chatham," after Copley. The 
 number of his prints is estimated at more than two 
 thousand. 
 
 See Le Blanc " Manuel de 1' Amateur d'Estampes." 
 Bartolus. See Bartoli. 
 
 Bar'ton, (Benjamin Smith,) an American naturalist 
 and physician, born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1766, 
 was a nephew of David Rittenhouse. He studied medi- 
 cine in London and Edinburgh, and graduated at Gbt- 
 tingen about 1788. He obtained in 1789 the chair of 
 natural history in the College of Philadelphia, which 
 was incorporated with the University of Pennsylvania in 
 1 791. He was appointed professor of materia medica in 
 1795, and succeeded Dr. Rush as professor of the theory 
 and practice of medicine in 1813. He promoted the 
 diffusion of natural science by his writings, among which 
 are "Elements of Botany," (1803,) and " Collections for 
 an Essay towards a Materia Medica of the (j.iited 
 States," (1798.) Died in 1815. 
 
 See a " Biography of Benjamin S. Barton," by bis nephew, W. P. 
 C. Barton ; Thacher, "Medical Biography." 
 
 Bar'ton, (Bernard,) a member of the Society of 
 Friends, popularly known as "the Quaker poet," was 
 born in London in 1784. He was the author of "Napo- 
 leon, and other Poems," (1822,) "Devotional Verses," 
 (1826,) "Poetic Vigils," "A Widow's Tale, and othef 
 Poems," (1827,) and "The Reliquary," (1836.) "His 
 works are full of passages of natural tenderness, and his 
 religious poems, though animated with a warmth of devo- 
 tion, are still expressed with that subdued propriety of 
 language which evinces at once a correctness of taste and 
 feeling." ("Gentleman's Magazine.") Died in 1849. 
 
 See "Memoirs, Letters, etc. of Bernard Barton," edited by hU 
 daughter; "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1820; "Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for December, 1822. 
 
 , e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
BARTON 
 
 281 
 
 B AS CHI ERA 
 
 Barton, (Elizabeth,) an English fanatic or impostor 
 under the reign of Henry VIII., commonly called "the 
 Holy Maid of Kent." Having acquired a reputation for 
 being inspired, she was instigated by the partisans of 
 Queen Catherine to prophesy against the marriage of 
 the king with Anne Boleyn. The excitement produced 
 by these revelations among the people was so great that 
 the government, becoming alarmed, caused her to be 
 arrested in 1533, together with a number of priests, her 
 accomplices, and she was executed with them at Tyburn 
 in 1534- 
 
 Barton, (Thomas,) a learned Episcopal minister, born 
 in Ireland in 1730. He married a sister of David Rit- 
 tenhouse in 1753, and officiated for many years as rector 
 at Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He was the father of Ben- 
 jamin Smith Barton, M.D. Died in New York in 1780. 
 Barton, (William,) Lieutenant-Colonel, an Ame- 
 rican officer, born about 1747. He commanded a small 
 party which surprised and captured General Prescott 
 near Newport, Rhode Island, in July, 1777. Died in 1831. 
 Barton, (William P. C.,)an American botanist and 
 ician, born in 1786. He was a nephew of Benjamin 
 Smith Barton, whom he succeeded as professor of botany 
 in the University of Pennsylvania. He published "Ve- 
 il Materia Medica of the United States, or Medical 
 Botany," (2 vols., 1817-25,) "Compendium Florae Phila- 
 ;cae," (2 vols., 1S18,) and " Flora of North America, 
 illustrated by coloured figures," (3 vols., 1821-23.) Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 Bar'tram, (John,) an eminent American botanist, born 
 in M.uple, Delaware county, Pennsylvania, in 1701. His 
 nents in natural history attracted the attention 
 ol Linnaeus, who pronounced him "the greatest natural 
 botanist in the world." He was the first American to 
 :sh a botanical garden, which he enriched with 
 s and rare native plants. Sir Hans Sloane, Lin- 
 naeus, and other eminent European botanists furnished 
 him with books and apparatus, and he in return sent 
 them new and curious specimens of the natural produc- 
 of America. He was chosen a member of several 
 learned societies in Europe, and appointed American 
 botanist to George III. of England, a position which he 
 held till his death in 1777. The results of his observa- 
 tions on the inhabitants, animals, climate, soil, produc- 
 etc, in a journey to Lake Ontario, were published 
 in London in 1751, and a journal of a lour to East 
 Florida in 1766. He also contributed various papers 
 to the "Philosophical Transactions." Mr. Bartram was 
 distinguished in other departments of natural history, 
 >sed some knowledge of medicine, and was an in- 
 genious mechanic. He had a fine botanic garden in the 
 environs of Philadelphia. 
 
 See William Darlington, "Memorials of John Bartram and 
 Humphrey Marshall," 1849; " Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Bartram, (William,) a botanist and traveller, born 
 near Philadelphia in 1739, was a son of the preceding. 
 He passed about five years in the exploration of the na- 
 tural productions of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida, 
 and published "Travels through North and South Caro- 
 lina, Georgia, and East and West Florida," (1791.) He 
 produced a list of American birds, which was the most 
 complete that appeared before the work of Wilson. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 See " Encyclopedia Americana." 
 
 Bartsch, baRtsh, (Jan,) a Dutch physician and savant, 
 ibout 1720, was a friend of Boerhaave and Linnaeus. 
 The latter named the genus Bartsia in his honour. 
 
 Bartsch, von, fon baRtsh, (Johann Adam Bern- 
 Hard,) a German engraver and writer upon art, born at 
 Vienna in 1747, was keeper of the imperial library and 
 of the prints in the royal collection. His principal 
 work is entitled "The Painter-Engraver," (" Le Peintre- 
 Graveur," 21 vols., 1821,) besides which he prepared a 
 logue of all the Prints of Rembrandt," with several 
 other similar works. Among his engravings and etch- 
 ings, which amount in all to more than five hundred, we 
 may mention his prints after Rembrandt and Potter. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See l.E Blanc, "Manuel de PAmateur d'Estampes." 
 
 Barucco, bi-rook'ko, (Giacomo,) a painter of the 
 Venetian school, born about 1620. 
 
 Baruch, ba'ruk, [Heb. 1^3,] the son of Neriah, was, 
 the friend and companion of the prophet Jeremiah, whom 
 he served as a scribe. He accompanied Jeremiah in 588 
 B.C. into Egypt, where, as stated by some writers, he 
 died ; while others assert that he died in Babylon. The 
 book of Baruch is recognized as canonical by the Cath- 
 olics, but it is regarded by the Protestants as apocryphal. 
 (See Jeremiah xxxii. 12-16; xxxvi. 4, 17, 27.) 
 
 Baruffaldi, ba-roof-fil'dee, (Geronimo,) an Italian 
 litterateur, born at Ferrara in 1675 ; died in 1753. 
 
 Baruffaldi, (Geronimo,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, 
 born at Ferrara in 1740, was a nephew of the preceding. 
 Died in 181 7. 
 
 Bar'wick, (John,) an English divine, born in West- 
 moreland in 1612, distinguished himself by his zeal in 
 promoting the restoration of Charles II. Died in 1664. 
 
 See Peter Barwick's "Life of John Barwick," 1721. 
 
 Barwick, (Peter,) brother of John Barwick, was 
 appointed in 1660 physician-in-ordinary to Charles II. 
 He wrote, among other works, a " Defence of Harvey's 
 Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood." Died in 1705. 
 
 Bary, bi're', (Henry,) a Flemish engraver, born about 
 1625. Among his master-pieces are portraits of Grotius 
 and Admiral Van Tromp, and " Summer and Autumn," 
 after Van Dyck. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamar.ds," etc 
 
 Barye, bi're', (Antoine Louis,) a French sculptor 
 and engraver, born in Paris in 1795. Among his master- 
 pieces are a "Lion strangling a Boa," a "Group of 
 Young Bears," "Charles VI. in the Forest of Mans," 
 and "The Three Graces." 
 
 Barzena. See Barcena. 
 
 Barzini, baRd-zee'nee, (Francesco,) a Florentine 
 writer on astrology and philosophy, born about 1667. 
 
 Barzizzio or Barziza. See Gasparino. 
 
 Barzoni, baRd-zo'nee, (Vittorio,) an Italian politi- 
 cal and historical writer, born at Lonato in 1768; died in 
 1829. 
 
 See William Thompson, "Life of Vittorio Barzoni," London, 
 1831 ; "Quarterly Review" for March, 1813. 
 
 Bas or Basse, Ms, (Martin,) a Dutch engraver, who 
 lived about 1600, left several portraits of superior merit. 
 
 Bas or Basse, (William,) an engraver, whose prin- 
 cipal work is a " Virgin with the Infant Jesus and Saint 
 John." Nothing is known of his life. 
 
 See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Bas, Le. See Le Bas. 
 
 Basadonna, ba-sa-don'na, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Venice, wrote "Latin Dialogues," (1518.) 
 
 Basaiti, ba-si'tee, (Marco,) sometimes called del 
 Friuli, an eminent Italian painter of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, was a native of Friuli. His "Calling of Saint 
 Peter," in the Academy at Venice, is esteemed his mas- 
 ter-piece. He painted other pictures of great merit, 
 among which we may name an "Assumption," and "The 
 Prayer in the Garden." 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Basan or Bazan, bi'z6N', (Pierre Francois,) a 
 French engraver, born in Paris in 1723. Among his 
 best works are a " Bacchus and Ariadne," after Gior- 
 dano, and"Antiope," after Correggio. He was the author 
 of a "Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Engravers," 
 which is highly esteemed, (3 vols., 1767.) Died in 1797. 
 
 See Le Blanc, "Manuel de PAmateur d'Estampes." 
 
 Basanier, bi'zi'ne-a', (Martin,) a French musician 
 and mathematician, born about 1540, wrote a work on 
 the theory and practice of music. 
 
 Bascape, bas-k.Vpa, (Geronimo,) an Italian jurist 
 and legal writer; died in 1641. 
 
 Baschenis, bas-ka'ness, (Evaristo,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Bergamo in 1617, was celebrated for his 
 skilful representations of musical instruments, books, and 
 similar objects of still life. Died in 1677. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Baschi, bSs'kee, (Matteo,) an Italian monk, born in 
 the duchy of Urbino, was the founder of the order of 
 Capuchins, so called from a hood of peculiar form (cap- 
 puccio) worn by them. Died in 1552. 
 
 See Bavbrius, " Am.ales Capucinorum." 
 
 Baschiera, bls-ke-a'ra, (Niccol6,) an Italian artist, 
 
 € as k; c as t; g hard; g as_/; c, H, K, guttural '; M, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
B AS CHILD W 
 
 282 
 
 BASILIDES 
 
 who designed the magnificent marble front of Saint 
 Peter's at Mantua. Died about 1760. 
 
 Baschilow. See Bashilof. 
 
 Bas'com, (Henry B.,) an American Methodist bishop 
 and pulpit orator, born in Western New York in 1 796. 
 He was ordained bishop at Saint Louis, Missouri, in 
 1849 or 1S50, and died in the latter year. 
 
 See M. M. Henkle, "Life of Bishop Bascom," 1857. 
 
 Basedow, ba'zeh-do', (Johann Bernhard,) origin- 
 ally Johann Berend Bassedau, (bas'seh-dow,) a cele- 
 brated Get man teacher and educational reformer, was 
 born at Hamburg in 1723. He published in 1774311 
 elementary school-book entitled " Orbis Pictus," in three 
 volumes and illustrated with one hundred engravings, 
 which soon became widely popular. About the same 
 time he founded at Dessau a school called a " Philan- 
 thropin," in which he sought to render knowledge at- 
 tractive and adapt it to the comprehension of the young. 
 Died at Magdeburg in 1790. 
 
 See J. C. Meyer, " Basedows Leben und Schriften," 2 vols., 1792 ; 
 H. Rathmann, "Beitrage zur Lebensgeschichte J. B. Basedow's," 
 1791. 
 
 Baseilhac. See Cosme, (Frere Jean.) 
 
 Ba-se'll-us or van Basel, van ba'zei, written also 
 Basle, (Jacobus,) a Dutch historian and theologian, born 
 in 1530, wrote an "Account of the Siege of Bergen-op- 
 Zoom in 1588." Died in 1598. 
 
 Baselius, (Jacobus,) agrandson of the preceding, born 
 at Leyden, was the author of an "Ecclesiastical History 
 of Belgium," (1657.) 
 
 Baselius, (Nicholas,) a Flemish surgeon and writer, 
 wrote, in Latin, a " Description of the Comet of 1577." 
 
 Baselli, ba-sel'lee, (Benedetto,) an Italian physician 
 and surgeon, born at San Pellegrino. Having been re- 
 fused admission to the College of Physicians because 
 he practised surgery, he wrote, in Latin, a vindication of 
 the nobility of surgery. Died in 1621. 
 
 See " Biographie Me"dicale." 
 
 Basevi, bas'e-ve, (George,) a distinguished English 
 architect, born at Brighton in 1794. Among his princi- 
 pal works are the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, 
 and Saint Mary's Hall at Brighton. He also furnished 
 the designs for Belgrave Square. Died in 1845. 
 
 Bash'aw, (Edward,) an English nonconformist min- 
 ister of Exeter. For refusing to take the oath of allegiance 
 he was imprisoned in Newgate, where he died in 1671. 
 
 Bashilof, bash'I-lof, or Baschilow, (Semen,) a Rus- 
 sian savant, born at Moscow in 1740. He was secretary 
 of the senate at Saint Petersburg, and translated several 
 French works, among which was the " Candide" of Vol- 
 taire. Died in 1770. 
 
 Bashkin, bash/kin, (Matthei Semenof,) a Russian 
 heresiarch of the sixteenth century, who professed doc- 
 trines resembling those of the Arians. 
 
 Bashuysen, von, fon bas'hoi'zen,(HEiNRiCH Jakob,) 
 a German Oriental scholar, born at Hanau in 1679, was 
 appointed to the chair of Oriental languages and history 
 at Zerbst. He published a number of Latin commenta- 
 ries on the Hebrew writers. Died in 1758. 
 
 See E. L. D. Huch, " Programma continens Vitam H. J. de Bas- 
 huysen," 1759. 
 
 Ba'sil, Bishop of Thessalonica, called Ascolius or 
 Acholius, was a friend of Saint Ambrose. He bap- 
 tized the emperor Theodosius. Died about 384 a.d. 
 
 Ba'sil or Ba-sill-us, [Gr. BaaUaoc or Baai'Atog; It. 
 Basilio, bd-see'le-o ; Fr. Basile, bt'zel',] Saint, sur- 
 named the Great, one of the most eminent of the 
 Christian Fathers, born at Caesarea, in Cappadocia, about 
 329 a.d. He studied law and rhetoric at Constantinople, 
 and subsequently at Athens, where Julian (afterwards 
 emperor) and Gregory Nazianzen were his fellow- 
 students. With the latter he formed an intimate friend- 
 ship, which lasted through life. About 358 A.D. he 
 abandoned his profession, and retired to a cloister in a 
 mountainous region of Pontus, where he was soon joined 
 by Gregory. He here established a system of monastic dis- 
 cipline, which still prevails in Greek and Oriental monas- 
 teries. On the death of Eusebius in 370, Basil was elected 
 Bishop of Caesarea. In this station he was distinguished 
 for his extensive charities, his zeal for the reformation 
 of church discipline, and his opposition to the Arian 
 
 heresy, at that time maintained by the emperor Valens. 
 Among his chief productions (in Greek) are " Nine 
 Homilies on the Six Days' Work," "Two Books on 
 Baptism," " Homilies on the Psalms," and a collection 
 of " Letters." His writings are characterized by great 
 purity of style, and an elevated moral tone combined 
 with fervent piety. Died in 379 a.d. 
 
 See Socrates, "Historia Ecclesiastica;" Godfrey Hermant, 
 "Vie de Saint-Basile," 1674; Sozomen, "Historia;" A. Agkesta, 
 "Vita del protopatriarca S. Basilio Magno," 1658; J. E. Feisseb, 
 "Dissertatio de Vita Basilii Magni," 8vo, 1828; Klosh, " Basiiius 
 der Grosse nach seinem Leben," etc., 1835. 
 
 Basil or Basiiius of Cilicia, Bishop of Irencpolis, an 
 ecclesiastical writer of the fifth century. He was the 
 author of a "History of the Church," and several con- 
 troversial works. 
 
 Basil I., [Lat. Basil'ius; Fr. Basile, bt'zel',] sur- 
 named the Macedo'nian, Emperor of the East, was 
 born about 820, in humble circumstances. He succeeded 
 in winning the favour of the emperor Michael III., who 
 raised him to be his colleague in the empire, (866 ;) but 
 Basil did not long retain his favour, and, believing his 
 own life to be in danger, he caused Michael to be assas- 
 sinated in 867. He commenced the compilation of the 
 code of laws entitled " Basilica," which was completed 
 by his son Leo. Having conquered a considerable part 
 of Asia Minor, he drove the Saracens out of Italy in 
 885. He died in 886, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Leo VI. ' 
 
 See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas- Empire; 
 'Basilio il Macedone," 2 vols., 1809. 
 
 G. Impacciantx, 
 
 Basil II., [Lat. Basilius,] Emperor of the East, born 
 in 958, was a son of Romanus II. On the death of the 
 usurper John Zimisces, (975,) Basil succeeded to the 
 throne, his brother Constantine having a nominal share 
 in the government. Basil was one of the greatest com- 
 manders of his time, and was engaged in almost con- 
 tinual wars with the Saracens, Bulgarians, and Germans. 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Basil or Basiiius, made Bishop of Ancyra in 336 
 A.D. in opposition to Marcellus, who was deposed by the 
 party of Eusebius. He was a zealous opponent of the 
 Arians. 
 
 Basil, Bishop of Seleucia. See Basilius. 
 
 Basil, the founder of the heretical sect of Bogomiles 
 in Bulgaria. He was burnt at the stake, by order of the 
 emperor Alexius Comnenus, in 11 18. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Basil, Prince of Moldavia in the seventeenth century, 
 was deposed for his tyranny. 
 
 Ba'sil- Val'en-tine, [Lat. and Ger. Basil'ius Va- 
 lenti'nus,] a celebrated German writer on chemistry 
 and alchemy, born about 1410. He was the author of 
 a treatise entitled " The Triumphal Car of Antimony," 
 ("Currus Triumphalis Antimonii,") and other scientific 
 works, which had a high reputation among his contem- 
 poraries. 
 
 See F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Basile, the French of Basil, which see. 
 
 Basile, bd-see'la, ( Adriana,) a sister of Giambattista, 
 noticed below, was distinguished for her beauty, and her 
 talent for music and poetry. 
 
 Basile, (Gennaro,) a Neapolitan painter, who about 
 1756 resided at Briinn, in Moravia, where are most of 
 his works. 
 
 Basile, (Giambatttsta,) an Italian poet, born about 
 1580; died in 1637. 
 
 Basiletti, ba-se-let'tee, (LuiGl,)an Italian painter of 
 history and landscapes, born at Brescia ; died about 1845. 
 
 Basili, ba-see'lee, (Pier-Angelo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Gubbio about 1540; died in 1604. 
 
 Basilico, ba-see'le-ko or ba-sil'e-ko, (Ciriaco,) an 
 Italian littlrateur, lived about 1670, and translated into 
 Italian verse the " Satyricon" of Petronius Arbiter. 
 
 Basilico, (Geronimo,) an Italian jurist, born at Mes- 
 sina, was the author of some legal and other works. 
 Died in 1670. 
 
 Bas-I-li'des, [Gr. Bamte&je; Fr. Basilide, bf 'ze'led',1 
 the founder of a sect, lived in Egypt under the reign of 
 Trajan and Hadrian. His doctrine is said to have be«n 
 a reflection of that of Zoroaster. He taught that ihe 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
 : 
 
BASIUNA 
 
 283 
 
 BASS 
 
 world was produced by two principles, Good or Light, 
 and Evil or Darkness. Died about 130 A.D. 
 
 Sec Hitter, " History of Philosophy." 
 
 Bas-I-H'na, the second wife of Julius Constantius, 
 and the mother of Julian the Apostate. She is said to 
 have favoured the doctrines of the Arians. Died in 331 a.d. 
 
 Basilio. See Basil, Saint. 
 
 Basilio da Gama, ba-see'le-o da ga'ma, (Joze,) born 
 at Ban [oze, in Brazil, in 1740, was one of the founders 
 of the "Brazilian Academy. He was the author of a 
 popular poem entitled "Uruguay," and a number of 
 lyrics. Died about 1795. 
 
 Bas-I-lis'cus, [Gr. Ba<T«Ai<raoc ; Fr. Basilisque, bf - 
 ze'lcsk',] Emperor of the East, was a brother of the 
 empress Verina, wife of Leo I. In 468 A.D. he was 
 appointed, under Leo I., commander-in-chief of the great 
 expedition against Genseric, King of the Vandals, who 
 had taken possession of Carthage. His army suffered 
 a total defeat, and Basiliscus was banished to Thrace. 
 On the death of Leo, 474, he usurped the throne, of 
 which Zeno was the rightful heir. In 476 Zeno defeated 
 and took captive the usurper, who died in prison in 477 
 or 478. During his reign the great library of Constan- 
 tinople was destroyed by fire. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Basilisque or Basilique. See Basiliscus. 
 Basilius. See Basil, Saint. 
 
 Ba-sil'I-us, Bishop of Seleucia from 448 till 458, was 
 the author of a collection of homilies. 
 
 Basil'iua ok Gi.kmo'na, a missionary to China, pub- 
 lished a "Chinese Dictionary," (1726,) which has been 
 translated into several languages. Scarcely anything is 
 known of his life. 
 Basilovitch. See Ivan, Czar of Russia. 
 Bas'I-lus, (L. MinuCIUS,) sometimes called M. Sa- 
 trius, a Roman soldier, served under Caesar in Gaul in 
 54 and 52 ii.c. Though a professed friend of Caesar, he 
 60k part in his assassination, and was afterwards mur- 
 dered by his own slaves, whom he had treated cruelly. 
 
 Basin, bi'zaN', (Simon,) a French ecclesiastic and 
 writer, born in Paris in 1608, was chaplain to Anne of 
 Austria, wife of Louis XIII. Died in 1671. 
 
 Basin or Bazin, bf zax', (Thomas,) a French his- 
 torian, born at Caudebec in 1402. He became professor 
 of canon law at Caen, and in 1447 Bishop of Lisieux. 
 He wrote, in Latin, a "History of Charles VII. and 
 - XI.," which is highly interesting, a "Justification 
 of the Maid of Orleans," and other works. Died in 1491. 
 See '* Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Basine or Bazine, bS'zen', was originally married to 
 the King of Thuringia, whom she abandoned, and be- 
 came the wife of Childeric I. of France, and the mother 
 of the celebrated Clovis. 
 
 Ba'sing or de Ba'sing-stoke, (John,) an English 
 scholar, born in Hampshire, studied at Oxford, and sub- 
 sequently at Athens, where he collected a number of 
 Greek manuscripts. He introduced the Greek numeral 
 letters into England. He wrote several learned works, 
 and translated into Latin a Greek treatise on grammar, 
 entitled "Donatus of the Greeks," ("Donatus Graeco- 
 rum.") Basing was appointed Archdeacon of Leicester. 
 Died in 1252. 
 
 See Schoell, " Histoire de la LitteYature Grecque." 
 Basinio di Basanii, ba-see'ne-o de M-sa'ne-ee, an 
 Italian poet, born at Parma about 1425, became pro- 
 i of Latin eloquence at Ferrara. He wrote a Latin 
 poem entitled " Hesperides." Died in 1457. 
 Basire, (CLAUDE.) See Bazire. 
 Basire, ba-zeer', (Isaac,) an English divine, born in 
 the island of Jersey in 1607. He was appointed chap- 
 lain to Charles I. about 1640, and held the same office 
 onder Charles II. He wrote a "History of the English 
 and Scotch Presbytery." Died in 1676. 
 
 Basire, (James,) an English engraver, born in 1730. 
 Among his works are " Pyladesand Orestes," after West, 
 and "The Field of the Cloth of Gold; or the Interview 
 between Francis I. and Henry VIII." The last-named 
 plate was one of the largest ever engraved. Died in 1802. 
 Basire, (James,) son of the preceding, born in 1769, 
 •ucceeded his father as engraver to the Royal and Anti- 
 
 quarian Societies. His prints of the English cathedrals 
 after John Carter are among his best works. Died in 1822. 
 Bas'ker-ville, (John,) an English printer, celebrated 
 for the great improvements he effected in typography, 
 was born in Worcestershire in 1706. His English Bible, 
 Book of Common Prayer, and editions of the classics 
 are still admired and sought for. Died in 1775. 
 
 Baskerville, (Sir Simon,) an eminent English phy- 
 sician, died in 1641. 
 
 Basmaison Pougnet, de, deh ba'ir4'z6N' poon'yi', 
 (Jean,) a French jurist and legal writer, born about 1540, 
 was a native of Riom. 
 
 Basmaji, bas-ma'jee, or Basmadji, (Ibraheem,) a 
 Hungarian renegade, who, in conjunction with Seid-Ef- 
 fendi, established the first printing-press in Turkey. He 
 was permitted by the Sultan Ahmed III. to print any- 
 thing except the Koran and the canonical writings. Died 
 in 1746. 
 
 Basmanov, bas-ma'nov, (Peter,) a Russian general, 
 who, having in 1605 aided the false Demetrius to usurp 
 the throne, was killed in attempting to enter the Kremlin. 
 Basnage, ba'nSzh', (Antoin'e,) a French Protestant 
 divine, son of Benjamin, noticed below, born in 1610. He 
 took refuge in Holland after the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantes, and died as pastor at Zutphen in 1691. 
 
 Basnage, (Benjamin,) a Protestant theologian, born 
 at Carentan in 1580. He was pastor in his native town, 
 and in 1637 became president of the synod at Alencon. 
 lie wrote a "Treatise on the Church,"'(i6i2.) Died in 
 1652. 
 
 Basnage de Beauval, ba'nizh' deh bo'vtl', (Henri,) 
 son of Basnage du Fraquenay, born at Rouen in 1656, was 
 advocate of the parliament in his native city. He was 
 the author of a "Treatise on Religious Toleration," 
 (1684,) and edited a journal entitled "History of the 
 Works of Savants." He became an exile for religion 
 about 1686. Died at the Hague in 1710. 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 Basnage de Beauval, (Jacques,) an eminent scholar 
 and theologian, brother of the preceding, born at Rouen 
 in 1653. He studied at Saumur under the celebrated 
 Tannegui Le Fevre, and acquired a profound knowledge 
 of the ancient and modern languages. He subsequently 
 devoted himself to theology at Geneva and Sedan, and in 
 1676 became Protestant pastor at Rouen. He emigrated 
 to Holland about 1685. Through the influence of his 
 friend the grand pensionary Heinsius, he was appointed 
 pastor at the Hague in 1709. About this time he was 
 employed in several political negotiations, in which he 
 displayed such diplomatic ability that Voltaire said of 
 him, "he was fitter to be minister of state than of a 
 parish." Among his numerous and valuable works may 
 be named " The Holy Communion, or Treatise on the 
 Necessity and Means of Communing Worthily," (1688,) 
 " History of the Church from Jesus Christ to the Present 
 Time," (2 vols., 1699,) and "History of the Jews from 
 Jesus Christ to the Present Time," (5 vols., 1706.) Died 
 in 1723. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Basnage de Flottemanville, ba'nSzh' deh flot'- 
 moN'vel', (Samuel,) grandson of Benjamin, noticed 
 above, born at Bayeux in 1638. He became pastor at 
 Zutphen, where he died in 1 721. He wrote several ec- 
 clesiastical works in French and Latin. 
 
 Basnage du Fraquenay, ba'nSzh' du fRfk'ni', 
 (Henri,) a French jurist, son of Benjamin Basnage, 
 born at Sainte-Mere-figlise in 1615, was one of the most 
 learned and eloquent advocates in the parliament of 
 Normandy. He wrote a "Treatise on Mortgages," 
 (1687,) and other legal works. Died in 1695. 
 See Taisand, " Vies des plus ceJebres Jurisconsultes." 
 Basque, le, leh bSsk, (Michel,) a French buccaneer, 
 who, in concert with L'Olonnais, captured the towns of 
 Maracaibo and Gibraltar, in the Gulf of Venezuela, about 
 1660, and obtained immense booty. 
 
 See Charlevoix, " Histoire de la Nouvelle France." 
 Bass, (George,) an English navigator, discovered in 
 1798 the strait which separates Australia from Tasmania, 
 since called Bass's Strait. 
 
 See Flinders, " Journey of Discovery, etc." 
 
 « u k; S a» s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (jrjfSee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BASS 
 
 284 
 
 BASSI 
 
 Baas bass, [Lat. Bas'sius,] (Heinrich,) a German 
 physician and medical writer, born at Bremen in 1690, 
 was for many years professor of anatomy and surgery 
 at Halle. Died in 1754. 
 
 Bassa, bas'sa, (Don Pedro Holasco,) a Spanish 
 general, born at Reus, in Catalonia, in 1790. He served 
 with distinction against the French, and was appointed 
 in 1834 governor of Barcelona, where he was killed in 
 a riot, (1835.) 
 
 Bassaeus, bas-sa'us, (Nicholas,) a German printer, 
 born at Frankfort-on-the-Main about 1550, published 
 several valuable botanical works with plates. 
 
 Bassal, bi'sil', (Jean,) a French priest and revolu- 
 tionist, born at Beziers in 1752. As a member of the 
 National Convention, he voted for the death of the king, 
 and was subsequently elected by the Jacobins president 
 of their society. Died in 1802. 
 
 Bassan, the French of Bassano, which see. 
 
 Bassand, bi's6N', (Jean Baptiste,) a French phy- 
 sician, born in Franche-Comte in 1680. He studied 
 at Leyden under Boerhaave, with whom he afterwards 
 maintained a correspondence, which was published at 
 Vienna in 1778. Died in Vienna in 1742. 
 
 Bassani, bas-sa'nee, or Bassanio, bas-sa'ne-o, (Ai.es- 
 SANDRO,) an Italian lawyer, born at Padua ; died in 1495. 
 
 Bassani, (Cesare.) See Bassano. 
 
 Bassani, (Giacomo Antonio,) an Italian Jesuit and 
 pulpit orator, born at Vicenza in 1686. He wrote a 
 number of sermons and poems in Latin and Italian. 
 Died in 1747. 
 
 Bassani, (Giambattista,) an Italian violinist and 
 composer of church music and operas, born at Padua 
 about 1657. He numbered Corelli among his pupils. 
 
 See Fins, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Bassani, (Giovanni,) an Italian musician and com- 
 poser, born about 1600, resided at Venice. He invented 
 a musical instrument called the bassanello. 
 
 Bassanino, bas-sa-nee'no, (Francesco,) a Venetian 
 writer, was the author of a work entitled "Life and 
 Death of Saint Rosalie," (1733.) 
 
 Bassanio. See Bassani. 
 
 Bassano, bas-sa'no, (Annibale,) an Italian architect, 
 born at Padua about 1440. 
 
 Bassano or Bassani, bas-sa'nee, (Cesare,) an Ital- 
 ian engraver, born at Milan about 1580. 
 
 Bassano, Duke of. See Maret. 
 
 Bassano, [Fr. Bassan, bi'soN',] (Francesco da 
 Ponte — dapon'ti,) called the Elder, an Italian painter, 
 born at Vicenza, belonged to the first Venetian school. 
 He worked mostly at Bassano, from which he derived his 
 surname. Died in 1530. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bassano, (Francesco,) called the Younger, eldest 
 son of Giacomo, noticed below, born in 1548. Among 
 his master-pieces are the fresco representing "The Cap- 
 ture of Pavia,"in the ducal palace at Venice, and "The 
 Rape of the Sabines." Died in 1591. 
 
 Bassano, (Geronimo da Ponte,) youngest son of 
 Giacomo, born in 1560. His principal work is an altar- 
 piece in the church of San Giovanni at Bassano, repre- 
 senting " Saint Barbara and the Virgin." Died in 1622. 
 
 Bassano, (Giovanni Battista da Ponte,) born in 
 1553, was the second son of Giacomo. He copied his 
 father's works with such exactness that the copies are 
 frequently mistaken for the originals. Died in 1613. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Bassano, [Ft. Le Bassan, leh bi'sSN',] (Jacopo or 
 Giacomo da Ponte,) son of the elder Francesco, born 
 at Bassano in 1510. He studied at Venice the works of 
 Titian and other great masters of the Venetian school. 
 Among his best historical pictures are "The Birth of 
 Jesus Christ," "The Flight into Egypt," and a "Mater 
 Dolorosa." He also painted landscapes, animals, and do- 
 mestic and tavern scenes, with admirable skill and fidelity. 
 Bassano had a profound knowledge of chiaroscuro, and 
 as a colorist was scarcely inferior to Titian. He like- 
 wise produced several excellent portraits, among which 
 we may name those of Tasso and Ariosto. He died in 
 1592, leaving four sons, who were distinguished painters. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ingin Italy;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirsof Early Italian Painters." 
 
 Bassano, (Leandro da Ponte,) called the Cheva- 
 lier, third son of Giacomo, born in 1558, produced his- 
 torical pictures and portraits of superior merit. He 
 painted the portrait of the doge Grimani, who created 
 him Chevalier of Saint Mark. Died in 1623. 
 
 Bas'san-tin, Bas'sin-toun, or Bas'sen-tin,(jAMES,) 
 a Scottish mathematician, born about 1500, was the au- 
 thor of several astronomical and mathematical works 
 which were esteemed in his time. Died in 1568. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bassaraba. See Bessaraba. 
 
 Basse. See Bas. 
 
 Basse, bass, (William,) an English poet of the sev- 
 enteenth century, was the author of "The Sword and 
 Buckler," "Great Brittaines Sunnes-set, bewailed with 
 a Shower of Teares," composed on the death of Prince 
 Henry, and an epitaph on Shakspeare. 
 
 Bassee, de la, deh \& bi'sa', (Bonaventurk,) a 
 French Capuchin, sometimes called Louis le Pippre, 
 (leh pepR,) born in Artois about 1580. He wrote, in 
 Latin, a work entitled " The Obedient Parishioner." 
 
 Basselin, bis'la.N', or Vasselin, vis'laN', written 
 also Bachelin and Bisselin, (Olivier,) a French poet, 
 born in the Val-de-Vire, Normandy, about 1350, was a 
 fuller by trade. His works, which are chiefly convivial 
 and bacchanalian songs, were called " vaux-de-Vire" 
 from the residence of the writer. The modern term 
 vaudeville is supposed to be derived from vau-de-Vire. 
 Died about 1419. 
 
 See Nicot, " Tresor de la Langue Francaise." 
 
 Bassen, van, vSn bis'sen, (B.,) a Dutch painter and 
 sculptor, born about 1590, resided for some time in Lon- 
 don, where he painted the portraits of Charles 1. and his 
 queen. He excelled in perspective and in architectural 
 pictures. 
 
 Bassenge, bS'soNzh', (Jean Nicolas,) a Flemish 
 poet, born at Liege in 1758. He published, in conjunc- 
 tion with his friends Reynier and Henkart, a work en- 
 titled "Leisures of Three Friends." Died in 181 1. 
 
 Bassentin. See Bassantin. 
 
 Basseporte, bis'poRt', (Madeleine Franchise,) a 
 French lady, celebrated as a painter of flowers and birds, 
 born in Paris in 1700, held the position of designer of the 
 Jardin des Plantes. Her principal work is the continua- 
 tion of the collection of plants painted on vellum for 
 Gaston, Duke of Orleans. Died in 1780. 
 
 Bassermann, bas'ser-man', (Friedrich Daniel,) a 
 German politician, born at Manheim in 181 1, became in 
 1848 under-secretary of state in the ministry of the in- 
 terior, which post he held till the resignation of Gagern. 
 He died by suicide in 1850. 
 
 Basset, bi'sh', (Cesar Auguste,) a French Bene- 
 dictine monk and educational writer, born in Paris about 
 1760; died in 1828. 
 
 Bas'set, (Peter,) an English historian, born in Staf- 
 fordshire about 1390, was chamberlain to Henry V., whom 
 he accompanied to France. His work entitled "Acts of 
 King Henry" ("Acta Regis Henrici") remains in manu- 
 script. 
 
 Basset de la Marelle, bf 'si' deh It mi'reV, (Louis,) 
 a French jurist, born at Lyons about 1730, rose to be 
 president of the grand council in Paris. He was con- 
 demned to death by the Jacobins, and executed in 1794. 
 
 Bassetti, bas-set'tee, (Marcantonio,) an Italian 
 painter of the Venetian school, born at Verona in 1588. 
 He was a good colorist. Died in 1630. 
 
 See Ridolfi, " Vite dei Pittori Veneti." 
 
 Bassetti, (Simonf.,) an Italian writer, born about 1590, 
 wrote, in Latin, a work entitled " Monomachia of Virtues 
 and Vices." 
 
 Bassewitz, bas'witz, (Heinrich Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man diplomatist and historian, born in 1680, was ambas- 
 sador to the court of Peter the Great. He was the authoi 
 of "Historical Memoirs of Russia from 1713 to 1725." 
 Died in 1749. 
 
 Bassi, bas'see, a celebrated Italian buffo singer, died 
 at Vicenza in 1825. 
 
 Bassi, (Bartolommeo,) a Genoese painter, born 
 about 161 5, was noted for his skill in perspective. 
 
 Bassi, (Ferdinando,) an Italian naturalist, born at 
 Bologna. A genus of trees indigenous to the coast of 
 
 a, e, I, o, Q, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, Jf, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m8t; not; good; moon; 
 
BJSSI 
 
 285 
 
 BASTARD 
 
 Malabar was named by Linnaeus Bassia in his honour. 
 Died in 1774. 
 
 Bassi, (Francesco,) a painter of Bologna, was a pupil 
 of Barbieri. Died in 1732. 
 
 Bassi, (Francesco,) born at Cremona in 1642, was 
 surnanied il Cremonese dei Paesi, ("the Cremonese 
 of landscapes,") from his excellence in that department 
 of painting. Died in 1700. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bassi, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian sculptor of 
 Bologna, lived about 1710. 
 
 Bassi, (Giuseppe,) Count of Velletri, an Italian phi- 
 losophical and satirical writer, lived at Rome about 1630. 
 
 Bassi, (Laura Maria Catarina,) an Italian lady, 
 born at Bologna in 1 711, was celebrated for her profound 
 knowledge of philosophy, mathematics, and languages. 
 She was appointed in 1732 professor of philosophy in 
 her native citv, having previously received the title of 
 doctor. In 1738 she was married to Dr. Joseph Verati. 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 See J. Fantuzzi, " Elogio de Laura Bassi," Bologna, 1778. 
 
 Bassi, (Martino,) an Italian architect of the sixteenth 
 Century, was a native of Milan, and assisted in the con- 
 struction of the great cathedral in that city. 
 
 Bassi, (Uoo,) an Italian patriot and eloquent preacher, 
 born in the Roman States about 1804. He fought against 
 the Austrians in 1848, and served as chaplain to Gari- 
 baldi. Having been taken prisoner, he was put to death 
 in August, 1849. 
 
 Bassi, de', aa bas'see, (Ugo Visconti,) the natural 
 son of a wealthy gentleman of Sardinia. The Pisan 
 government having refused him, on account of his illegi- 
 timacy, the large possessions of his father, Bassi resolved 
 to betray Sardinia into the hands of James II. of Aragon. 
 For this purpose he treacherously invited a number of 
 Pisans to assist in defending the island against the King 
 of Aragon, and, having separated them into small bodies, 
 I caused them to be massacred, (1323.) 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Bassiano, bas-se-a'no, (Landi,) [Lat. Bassia'nus 
 Lan'dus,] an Italian physician, born at Placentia, wrote 
 a number of medical works in Latin. Died in 1562^ 
 
 Bassiano, (Ulisse,) an Italian poet, born at Bologna, 
 lived at Rome about 1550. 
 
 Bassianus. See Caracalla. 
 
 Bassignana, da, da bas-sen-ya'na, (Giovanni Ste- 
 fano,) an Italian Carmelite monk and religious writer, 
 flourished about 1480. 
 
 Bassinet, de, deh bi'se'n^', (Alexandre Joseph,) a 
 French ecclesiastic and writer, born at Avignon in 1733. 
 He was editor for a time of the " Magasin Encyclope- 
 dique," and wrote, among other works, "The Sacred 
 History of the Old and New Testaments," (8 vols., 1804.) 
 The last volume was written by the Abbe Lecuy. Died 
 in 1S13. 
 
 Bassintoun. See Bassantin. 
 
 Bassius. See Bass, (Heinrich.) 
 
 Basso, bas'so, (Antonio,) an Italian poet and jurist, 
 who was put to death by order of the Duke of Guise for 
 having been engaged in the insurrection of 1647. 
 
 Basso, del, del bas'so, (Andrea,) an Italian poet and 
 prose-writer, lived about 1470. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Bas'sol, (John,) a Scottish philosopher, was the au- 
 thor of " Philosophic and Medical Miscellanies," (in 
 Latin.) Died in 1347. 
 
 See Cave, "Historia Literaria." 
 
 Bassompierre, bt'soN'pe-aiR', (Francois,) Baron 
 OF, Marquis d'Harouel, and marshal of France, was 
 born in Lorraine in 1579. At an early age he became 
 distinguished at the French court, where his personal 
 advantages and brilliant accomplishments procured for 
 him the friendship and patronage of Henry IV. Having 
 served in Savoy, and subsequently against the Turks in 
 1603, he was appointed colonel-general of the Swiss 
 guards. After the death of Henry, Bassompierre en- 
 joyed in an equal degree the favour of Louis XIII., who 
 created him marshal of France in 1622. He was soon 
 after employed in important embassies to Spain, Swit- 
 zerland, and England. He married privately Louise de 
 
 Lorraine, Princess of Conti. In 1631 he was imprisoned 
 in the Bastille by order of Cardinal Richelieu, whom he 
 had offended, and was not released until the death of the 
 cardinal in 1642. He died in 1646, leaving two volumes 
 of " Memoirs," written while in prison, and published in 
 1665 ; they are considered to present a faithful picture 
 of the profligacy of the French court at that time. His 
 style is said to be animated and spirituel. 
 
 See "M^moiresdu Mare"chalde Bassompierre," 1665 ; Puvmaigre, 
 "Vie de Bassompierre," 1S4S; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Bassot, bi'so', (Jacques,) a French writer, to whom 
 has been attributed a " History of the Giant Teutobo- 
 chus, King of the Teutons, etc.," (1613.) 
 
 Bassotti, bas-sot'tee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Perugia, flourished about 1660. 
 
 Bassuel, bi'sii-el', (Pierre,) a French surgeon and 
 medical writer, born in Paris in 1706; died in 1757. 
 
 Bas'sus, (C/ESius,) a Roman lyric poet of the first 
 century, to whom the sixth satire of Persius is addressed. 
 Fragments of his works are in the " Corpus Poetarum." 
 
 Bassus, (Cesellius,) a Roman of Carthaginian ex- 
 traction, promised the emperor Nero to discover the 
 treasures concealed by Dido. Having failed, he com- 
 mitted suicide. 
 
 Bassus, (Cneius Aufidius Orestes,) a Roman his- 
 torian and orator in the time of Augustus. He wrote a 
 history of the Roman wars in Germany, also a general 
 history of Rome, which was continued by Pliny the 
 Elder. His works are not extant. 
 
 Ba3sus, (Lollius,) a Greek poet, a native of Smyrna, 
 flourished about 20 A.D. He was the author often Epi- 
 grams which are contained in the "Greek Anthology." 
 
 Bassus, (Sai.eius,) a Roman poet, lived about 60 
 A.D. He was highly esteemed and patronized by Ves- 
 pasian, and his genius was commended by Quintilian. 
 None of his woiks are extant. 
 
 BassviUe, de, deh bis'vel', (Nicolas Jean Hugou 
 (hii'goo') or Husson — hu'sON',] a French journalist and 
 diplomatist, was editor for a time of the " Mercure Na- 
 tional." Being sent as secretary of legation to Naples 
 in 1792, he was soon after summoned to Rome, and, 
 while attempting to exhibit the republican cockade, was 
 killed in a riot. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Bast, bast, (Friedrich Jakob,) a German scholar 
 and diplomatist, born in the duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt 
 in 1772, was secretary of legation at Paris. He pub- 
 lished a "Critical Letter on Antoninus Liberalis, Par- 
 thenius, and Aristametus," (1S05,) written in French 
 and addressed to M. Boissonade ; also "Notes and 
 Palaeographical Dissertations" in Schaefer's edition of 
 "Gregory of Corinth." Both of these works are ranked 
 among the best of their kind. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Quekard, " La France LkteYaire." 
 
 Bast, bast, (Peter,) a Dutch painter and engraver ; 
 died in 1605. 
 
 Bast, de, deh bast, (Lievin Amand Marie,) nephew 
 of Martin Jan, noticed below, born at Ghent in 1787. 
 He was keeper of the cabinet of medals at Ghent, and 
 the author of several works on art. Died in 1832. 
 
 See A. Voisin, "Notice sur L. A. M. de Bast," 1833. 
 
 Bast, de, deh bfst, (Louis Amedee,) a French novel- 
 ist, born in Paris in 1795. 
 
 Bast, de, (Martin Jan,) a Flemish ecclesiastic and 
 writer on antiquities, born at Ghent in 1753, was a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Brussels and the Society of An- 
 tiquaries in France. Died in 1825. 
 
 Basta, Ms'ta, (Giorgio,) an Italian soldier, born at 
 Naples, served with distinction under the Duke of Parma 
 in 1579. He was the author of two works on military 
 science, which have a high reputation. Died in 1613. 
 
 Basta, (Giuseppe,) an Italian jurist and legal writer, 
 born in 1743 ; died in 1819. 
 
 Bastard, bfs'tfR', (T.,) a French botanist, was di- 
 rector of the botanic garden at Angers in 1814. He 
 wrote a "Flora of Maine-et-I.oire," (1807.) 
 
 Bas'tard, (Thomas,) an English epigrammatist in 
 the time of Queen Elizabeth, born at Blandford, in Dor- 
 setshire. He wrote, besides his epigrams, a Latin poem 
 entitled "Magna Britannia." Died in 1618. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 it; 9 as/; g/iartt; gas/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5as«;th as in this. (Jr^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BASTARD 
 
 286 
 
 BATES 
 
 Bastard, de, deh bis'taR', (Dominique,) a French 
 jurist, born at Toulouse in 1683 ; died in 1777. 
 
 His son Francois, born in 1722, became first presi- 
 dent of the Parliament of Toulouse. Died in 1780. 
 
 Bastard or Bastart, de, deh bSs'ttk', (Guillaume,) 
 Vicomte de Fussy, (fu'se',) born at Bourges, held several 
 important offices under Charles VI. and Charles VII. 
 Died in 1447. 
 
 Bastard d'Estang, de, deh bis'taR' deVtfiN', (Do- 
 minique Franqois Marie,) Comte, an able French 
 judge, born at Nogaro in 1783. He became a member 
 of the Chamber of Peers in 1819. Died in 1S44. 
 
 See A. de Bastard d'Estang, "Notice historique sur F. de 
 Bastard Comte d'Estang," 1844. 
 
 Bastardi, bas-taR'dee, (Zaccheria,) an Italian eccle- 
 siastical writer, born at Modena; died about 1650. 
 
 Bastaro, del, d£l bas-ta'ro, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 painter of the Roman school, born about 1590. 
 
 Baste, bSst, (Pierre,) a French naval commander, 
 born at Bordeaux in 1768, served against the English at 
 the siege of Malta, the battle of Aboukir, (1798,) and in 
 the Spanish campaign of 1808. In 1809 he was created by 
 Napoleon count of the empire, and rear-admiral in 181 1. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 Baster, bas'ter, (Job,) a Dutch botanist, born at 
 Zierikzee, in Zealand, in 171 1. He published " Obser- 
 vations on some Marine Plants and Insects," (1753,) and 
 other scientific works. The name Bastera has been given 
 in his honour to several genera of plants. Died in 1775. 
 
 See Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 Basterio, bas-ta're-o, (Niccoi.6 di Carmagnola — 
 de kaR-man-yo'la,) an Italian professor of theology and 
 philosophy at Pavia, lived about 1620. 
 
 Bastholm, bSst'holm, (Christian,) an eminent Dan- 
 ish theologian, born at Copenhagen in 1740. He became 
 court preacher in the Danish capital, and published 
 numerous works, among which are "Spiritual Elo- 
 quence," (1775,) " Philosophy for the Unlearned," (in 
 German, 1787,) and "Principal Doctrines of the Chris- 
 tian Religion," (1783.) Died in 1819. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bastiani, bas-te-a'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Macerata, was a pupil of Gasparini, and lived 
 about 1580. 
 
 Bastianino. See Gratella. 
 
 Bastiano di San Gallo, bas-te-a'no de san gal'lo, 
 an Italian painter of perspective and theatrical decora- 
 tions, was a pupil of Perugino and a friend of Raphael. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Bastiat, bts'te'S', (Frederic,) an able French writer 
 on political economy, born at Bayonne in 1801. He 
 published in 1844, in the "Journal des Lconomistes," a 
 treatise " On the Influence of French and English 
 Tariffs on the Future of the Two Nations," in which he 
 opposed the-protective system. Having visited England 
 and made the acquaintance of Cobden, he brought out 
 after his return a translation of various addresses of the 
 free-traders, to which was prefixed an introduction, en- 
 titled "Cobden and the League." He subsequently 
 edited in Paris the "Libre Echange," a journal devoted 
 to the cause of free trade. His "Harmonies ficono- 
 miques" (1849) > s regarded as his greatest work. Died 
 at Rome in 1850. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Bastide, bas-tee'Da, (Fernando,) a Spanish Jesuit 
 of the sixteenth century, was professor of theology and 
 chancellor of the University at Valladolid. 
 
 Bastide, bts'ted', (Jules,) a French republican jour- 
 nalist and statesman, born in Paris in 1800. He became 
 about 1836 chief editor of the " National," a daily jour- 
 nal, and in 1846 was one of the founders of the "Revue 
 Nationale." He was minister of foreign affairs under 
 Cavaignac from June to December, 1848. 
 
 Bastide, (Louis,) a French jurist and theologian, 
 born about 1680, was the author of several esteemed 
 religious works. 
 
 Bastide, (Marc,) a French Benedictine monk and 
 ecclesiastical writer; died in 1668. 
 
 Bastide, (Marc Antoine,) a French Protestant 
 theological writer and diplomatist, born at Milhau-en- 
 
 Rouergue about 1624. He wrote in 1672 a reply to 
 Bossuet's " Explanation of the Doctrine of the Catholic 
 Church," a "Treatise on the Eucharist," and other simi- 
 lar works. Died in 1704. 
 
 Bastide, (Philippe,) a French Benedictine, born in 
 the diocese of Bourges in 1620 ; died in 1690. 
 
 Bastide, de, deh bts'ted', (Jean Francois,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Marseilles in 1724, was editor of the 
 " Spectateur Francais," and other journals. His works 
 are of a frivolous character : they were severely criticised 
 by Voltaire and other writers of the time. Died in 1 798. 
 
 Bastien, bis'te-aN', (Jean Francois,) a French book- 
 seller, born in Paris in 1 747, compiled a number of valua- 
 ble works on agriculture and gardening. Died in 1824. 
 
 Bastiou, bis'te-oo', (Yves,) a French teacher and 
 educational writer, born at Pontrieux, in Brittany, in 
 1751 ; died in 1814. 
 
 Baston, bas'tdN', (Guillaume Andre Rene,) born 
 at Rouen in 1741, became in 1S13 Bishop of Seez. Died 
 in 1825. 
 
 Bas'ton, (Robert,) an English writer, born near 
 Nottingham, was the author of Latin poems on various 
 subjects. Died about 1312. 
 
 Bastoul, bis'tool', (Louis,) a French general, born 
 at Montolieu in 1753, was killed at Hohenlinden in De- 
 cember, 1800. 
 
 Bast'wick, (John,) an English physician and con- 
 troversial writer, born in Essex in 1593. For his violent 
 attacks on episcopacy he was condemned to imprisonment 
 for life ; but the sentence was afterwards reversed. 
 
 Baszko, bash'ko, (Godislas,) a Polish historian, au- 
 thor of a "Chronicle of Great Poland," lived about 1820. 
 
 Batacchi, ba-tik'kee, (Domenico,) a licentious Ital- 
 ian writer, born at Leghorn in 1749 ; died in 1802. 
 
 Bataillard, bt'tt'ya'R', (Charles,) a French writer, 
 was the author, among other works, of a " Political and 
 Moral Picture of France," (1S01.) 
 
 Bat'a-lus [BuraAoc] or Bat'ta-lus, a Greek' flute- 
 player, noted for his effeminacy, lived about 420-400 B.C. 
 
 Bate, (George,) a distinguished English physician 
 and historian, born in Buckinghamshire in 1608. He 
 was first physician successively to Charles I., Cromwell, 
 and Charles II. He wrote, in Latin, several medical 
 works, and a " History of the Civil War between 
 Charles I. and Cromwell," in which he favours the Puri- 
 tans. Dr. Bate was a member of the Royal Society and 
 of the College of Physicians. Died in 1668. 
 
 See "Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Bate, [Lat. Ba'tus,] (John,) an English scholar and 
 theologian, born about 1350; died in 1429. 
 
 Bate, (Julius,) an English divine, published a " He- 
 brew and English Lexicon." Died in 1771. 
 
 Bate'cumbe or Bade'combe, (William,) an Eng- 
 lish mathematician, born about 1390, wrote, in Latin, a 
 treatise " On the Solid Sphere," and other works. 
 
 Batelier or Bathelier, le, leh bt'ta'le-a', (Jacques,) 
 a French jurist, was the author of " Commentaries on 
 the Common Law of Normandy," (1626.) 
 
 Bateman, bat'man, (Charles Philip Botei.fr,) an 
 English admiral, born in 1775, assisted in the defence of 
 Cadiz against the French in 1812. 
 
 Bateman, (Thomas,) an eminent English physician, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1778, was for a time associate editor 
 of the " Edinburgh Medical and Surgical journal." He 
 wrote a number of medical treatises, chiefly on diseases 
 of the skin, and contributed the principal articJfS on 
 medicine to Rees's "Cyclopaedia." Died in 1821. 
 
 See J. Rumsey, "Account of the Life, etc. of Thomas Bateman," 
 1826. 
 
 Bateman, (William,) an English prelate, born at 
 Norwich, was the founder of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. 
 He became Bishop of Norwich in 1343. Died in 1355. 
 
 Baten, M'ten, (Henry,) a Flemish astronomer of the 
 thirteenth century, wrote a work entitled " Mirror of 
 Divine and Natural Things," (" Speculum Divinorum et 
 Naturaliam,") unpublished. 
 
 Bates, (Barnabas,) a distinguished advocate of cheap 
 postage in the United States, was born in England in 
 1785. About 1825 he established "The Christian En- 
 quirer" at New York. He devoted himself for years to 
 the work of effecting a reduction in the rates of postage, 
 
 a, e I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
BATES 
 
 287 
 
 BATHURST 
 
 and to his labours we are greatly indebted for our present 
 m of cheap letter-carriage. Died in 1853. 
 
 Bates, (Edward,) an American statesman, born in 
 Goochland county, Virginia, about 1792. He emigrated 
 to Missouri at an early age, studied law. and became an 
 eminent lawyer. He was a political friend of Henry 
 Clay in 1824, was elected a member of Congress in 
 1827, and voted for John Quincy Adams in 1828. After 
 the expiration of his first term in Congress, he devoted 
 himself exclusively to his profession for many years. 
 He was president of the national convention of the 
 friends of internal improvement which met in Chicago 
 in 1847, and he maintained in an able speech that it is 
 the duty of the Federal government to develop the re- 
 sources of the country by great public works. He op- 
 posed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise in 1854, 
 alter which he acted with the friends of free labour in 
 the Kansas question. He was appointed attorney-gen- 
 eral df the United States by President Lincoln in March, 
 1861, and resigned about September, 1864. 
 
 Bates, (Toah,) a distinguished English musician and 
 composer, Dorn in Yorkshire in 1740. He was appointed 
 in 1784 to conduct the commemoration of Handel at 
 Westminster Abbey. Died in 1799. His wife, originally 
 Miss Harrop, was an excellent vocalist. 
 
 Bates, (Joshua,) born in Weymouth, Massachusetts, 
 in 1788, established in 1826, in connection with John 
 Baring, son of Sir Thomas Baring, a mercantile house in 
 London under the name of Bates & Baring. Subse- 
 quently the firm was merged into the celebrated house 
 of Baring Brothers & Company. In 1854 he filled the 
 position of umpire to the British and American commis- 
 sioners for settling the claims of citizens of the United 
 States and Great Britain growing out of the war of 1812, 
 and appears to have discharged its delicate and respon- 
 sible duties with entire satisfaction to all parties. But 
 that which confers the greatest lustre on Mr. Bates's 
 memory is his munificent endowment of the Boston Li- 
 brary, with the express condition that it should be 
 "ikkfectly free TO ALL, with no other restrictions 
 than may be necessary for the preservation of the books." 
 He may thus be said to have been the founder not only 
 of the most useful, but — if we consider the variety and 
 character as well as the number .of its books— of per- 
 haps the most magnificent library of which this continent 
 can boast. When the project of establishing a public 
 library in Boston was made known to Mr. Bates, he 
 wrote to the mayor, offering the sum of fifty thousand 
 dollars towards the library, that it might be commenced 
 "at once ;" he afterwards added to this munificent dona- 
 tion books to the value of not less than fifty thousand 
 dollars more. On his death, in 1864, the trustees passed 
 a resolution that the large hall of the library, in which 
 the rarest and most valuable books are contained, should 
 thenceforward be designated as Bates Hall. 
 
 See " Memorial of Joshua Bates, from the City of Boston," 1865. 
 
 Bates, (Joshua,) an American clergyman, born at 
 Cohasset, Massachusetts, in 1776. He was president of 
 Middlebury College, Vermont, from 1818 to 1839, and 
 afterwards minister at Dudlev, Massachusetts. Died in 
 
 1854- 
 
 Bates, (Thomas,) an English farmer, who lived at 
 Kirkleavington, was distinguished for his success in im- 
 proving the breed of cattle. Died in 1849. 
 
 Bates, (William,) an eminent English dissenting 
 minister, born in 1625, was a Presbyterian and a royalist. 
 He preached in London until he was ejected by the Act 
 of Uniformity in 1662. He was a person of great learn- 
 ing and superior talents, and had a high reputation both 
 as a preacher and a writer. Among his intimate friends 
 were Archbishop Tillotson and John Howe. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, "The Lives of Pious and 
 Learned Men," (in Latin, 1681.) Died in 1699. 
 
 See Macaulay's "History of England," vol. ii. chap. viii. 
 
 Bate'son, (Thomas,) a celebrated English composer 
 of madrigals, was organist of the cathedral at Chester 
 about 1600. 
 
 Bath, Earl of. See Pulteney, (William.) 
 
 Bathe, bath, (William,) an Irish Jesuit and writer, 
 born at Dublin about 1532, became director of the Irish 
 •eminary at Salamanca. Died in 1614. 
 
 Bathelier. See B atelier. 
 
 Bathem, van, vin ba'tem, written also Battem 01 
 Battum, (Gerard,) a Dutch landscape-painter of supe 
 rior merit, lived in the seventeenth century. 
 
 Ba-thil'da or Ba-til'da, [Kr. BATHFLDEOr Batilde, 
 bS'teld',] Saint, originally an Anglo-Saxon slave, be- 
 came the wife of Clovis II., King of Fiance, wfcc., -vying 
 young, left her regent of the kingdom. She was cele- 
 brated for her talents and piety, and was canonized by 
 Pope Nicholas I. Died in 680. 
 
 See Baillet, "Vita Sancta: BathiV.is." 
 
 Bathori, ba'to-ree, (Elizabeth,) Princess of, a niece 
 of Stephen Bathori, King of Poland, and wife of the Hun- 
 garian count Nadasdi, was one of the most striking ex- 
 amples of fiendish cruelty recorded in history. With the 
 assistance of three servants, she enticed to her castle a 
 great number of young girls, whom she caused to be mas- 
 sacred, in order that she might restore her beauty by 
 bathing in their blood. Her crimes being discovered, she 
 was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment. Died in 1614. 
 
 Bathori, (Gabor or Gabriel,) became Prince of 
 Transylvania in 1 608. Matthias, King of Hungary, having 
 invaded his country, was repulsed with the assistance of 
 Bethlen Gabor ; but the life of the latter being threatened 
 by his cousin Bathori, Bethlen Gabor was made Frince 
 of Transylvania by the Turks, and Bathori was killed 
 soon after, (1613.) 
 
 Bathori, (Ladislas,) a Hungarian monk, born about 
 1490, translated the Bible and the "Lives of the Saints" 
 into Hungarian. 
 
 Bathori, (Sigismund,) a prince of Transylvania, born 
 about 1550. Having married a princess of the house of 
 Hapsburg, he promised to the emperor Rudolph that, in 
 case of his dying without children, the crown of Transyl- 
 vania should be united to that of Austria. Through the 
 influence of the Jesuits, he soon after abdicated in favour 
 of Rudolph. His subjects, dissatisfied with this arrange- 
 ment, reinstated him in 1601 ; but, having been defeated 
 by the Austrians, Bathori again abdicated, in considera- 
 tion of a large pension and other advantages. Died in 
 1613. 
 
 See Horanyi, "Memoria Hungaromm." 
 
 Bathori, (Stephen,) was elected in 1571 Prince of 
 Transylvania, and in 1576 succeeded to the throne of 
 Poland. He reconquered Lithuania from the Russians, 
 and obtained other important advantages over them. 
 Died in 1586. 
 
 See Warsewitz, "Vita et Res gestae Stepliani Regis Polonorum," 
 
 Bath'urst, (Allen,) Earl Bathurst, born at West- 
 minster in 1684, was a son of Sir Benjamin Bathurst, 
 treasurer of the household to the princess Anne, after- 
 wards queen. In 1705 he was elected to Parliament for 
 Cirencester, and signalized himself by his opposition to 
 Marlborough and other Whig leaders. Pie obtained 
 the title of Lord Bathurst in 171 1. Throughout his 
 public career he firmly opposed the administration of Sir 
 Robert Walpole. Lord Bathurst (who was created an 
 earl in 1772) was distinguished for his literary tastesand 
 attainments, and was intimate with Pope, Swift, Addison, 
 and other eminent men. Pope dedicated to him the third 
 epistle of his "Moral Essays." Died in 1775. 
 
 See the "Annual Register" for 1775. 
 
 Bathurst, (Benjamin,) an English diplomatist, born 
 in London in 1784. Having been sent on a mission to 
 Vienna in 1807, he disappeared mysteriously near Ham- 
 burg, and is supposed to have been assassinated. 
 
 Bathurst, (Henry,) second Earl Bathurst, and Lord 
 Apsley, an English judge, son of Allen Bathurst, be rn in 
 1 7 14. ' He was appointed a judge in the court of com- 
 mon pleas in 1754, and lord chancellor of England ir 
 1770 or 1771. He resigned the great seal in 1778, and 
 became president of the council in 1780. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Lord Campbell. "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Foss, 
 "The Judges of England," vol. viii. 
 
 Bathurst, (Henry,) a nephew of Allen, Lord Bath- 
 urst, born in Northamptonshire in 1744. He was created 
 in 1805 Bishop of Norwich. Died in 1837. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Dr. Henry Bathurst, Bishop of Norwich," by 
 Rev. H. Bathurst, 1837. 
 
 Bathurst, (Henry,) son of Baron Apsley, mentioned 
 
 « as t; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; M, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BATHURST 
 
 288 
 
 BATTEN 
 
 above, born in 1762. Having filled several important 
 offices, he became secretary of the colonies, (1812,) and 
 president of the council, (1828.) He was a decided Tory 
 in politics. Died in 1834. 
 
 Bathurst, (Ralph,) an English physician, divine, 
 and scholar, born in Northamptonshire in 1620, was one 
 of the founders of the Royal Society, of which he was 
 elected president in 1668. He was appointed chaplain 
 to Charles II., (1663,) and vice-chancellor of the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford, (1673.) He was the author of Latin 
 poems and other works. Died in 1704. 
 
 See Warton, "Life of R. Bathurst," 1761. 
 
 Bathurst, (Theodore,) a relative of Dr. Ralph Bath- 
 urst, translated Spenser's " Shepherd's Calendar" into 
 Latin verse, (1653.) 
 
 Bathyani. See BatthyAnyi. 
 
 Bath-y-cles, [BaOvuXr/c] a Greek sculptor, native of 
 Magnesia, supposed to have been contemporary with 
 Solon. His principal work was the colossal throne of the 
 Amyclaean Apollo, which he covered with bas-reliefs. 
 
 Bathylle, the French of Bathyllus, which see. 
 
 Ba-thylTus, [Gr. BuAdaAoc; Fr. Bathylle, bS'tel',] 
 a celebrated comedian, who lived about 30 B.C., was a 
 native of Alexandria and a freedman of Maecenas. He 
 excelled in comic pantomime, and his performances were 
 exceedingly popular with the Romans. His partisans 
 were styled Bathyllians, while those of his rival Pylades 
 the tragedian were called Pyladians. 
 
 Batilda, Saint. See Bathilde. 
 
 Batinskof, M-tins'kof, (Constantine Nicolae- 
 vitch,) a Russian poet and critic, born at Vologda in 
 1787. He was the author of lyric poems and elegies, 
 which are highly esteemed, and essays on Russian and 
 Italian literature. He also translated into Russian 
 Schiller's " Bride of Messina." Died in 1855. 
 
 Batista. See Battista. 
 
 Batizi, bi-tee'zee, (Andrew and Michael,) Hunga- 
 rian Protestants of the sixteenth century. The former 
 was the author of national hymns, the latter of religious 
 works. 
 
 Batka, bat'ka, (Lorenz,) a German musician, born at 
 Lischau, in Bohemia, in 1705, was director of music at 
 Prague. He died in 1759, leaving five sons, who were 
 noted as vocalists and musicians. 
 
 Batlowski, bat-lov'skee, a Polish painter, lived in the 
 latter part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Bat'man, (Stephen,) an English divine and writer, 
 born in 1537. He published, among other works, a poem 
 entitled " The Travayled Pilgrime, bringing Newes from 
 all Parts of the Worlde." Died in 1587. 
 
 Bat'man-son, (John,) an English Carthusian monk, 
 who lived in the sixteenth century, wrote several works, 
 in Latin, against Erasmus and other reformers. 
 
 Ba'ton, [Buruv,] a Greek comic poet, lived about 300 
 B.C. A few fragments of his comedies are extant. 
 
 Baton of Sinope, a Greek historian, supposed to have 
 lived about 277 B.C. He wrote "Commentaries on Per- 
 sian Affairs," a " History of Attica," and other works, 
 which are mentioned by several ancient writers. 
 
 Batoni, ba-to'nee, (Pompeo Girolamo,) a celebrated 
 Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1708. He studied in 
 Rome, where he soon acquired the reputation of one of 
 the first artists of his time. Among his master-pieces 
 in historical painting are "Saint Catherine of Sienna," 
 "The Fall of Simon Magus," and "Saint Celso." His 
 portraits of Joseph II. and Leopold II. of Austria are 
 also hijthly esteemed : the former procured for him let- 
 ters of nobility from the empress Maria Theresa. His 
 style is graceful, and free from the prevalent mannerism 
 of his time. He had great facility of execution. Died 
 at Rome in 1786 or 1787. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Onofrio Boni, 
 "Elogiode! Cavaliere P. Batoni," 1787. 
 
 Batoo- (Batou- or Batu-) Khan, ba'too' kSn, sup- 
 posed to have been the grandson of Jengis Khan, as- 
 sumed the government of Kapchak in 1223. By the 
 command of the great khan Oktai, whom he acknow- 
 ledged as his superior, he made war on Poland and Hun- 
 gary, and conquered Russia, which he held in subjection 
 for ten years. Died in 1255. 
 
 See D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheque Orientale." 
 
 Batootah, Batoutah, or Batutah, ba-too'ta, written 
 also Battuta, (Moham'med-Ibn-Abdil'lah,) com- 
 monly called Ibn-Batootah, (or -Batutah,) a famous 
 Moorish traveller of the fourteenth century, visited Egypt, 
 and the principal part of Asia, including China and the 
 Indian archipelago. Only fragments of his travels have 
 been discovered and published. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 184:. 
 
 Batou-Khan. See Batoo-Khan. 
 
 Batoutah. See Batootah. 
 
 Bat'ra-ehus, [Gr. Barpaxos, a " frog,"] a Greek archi- 
 tect of the time of Augustus. With his countryman 
 Saurus, [SaOpoc, a "lizard,"] he built two temples at 
 Rome. As they were not allowed to inscribe their 
 names on their work, they carved, it is said, a lizard and 
 a frog on the columns. 
 
 Batsch.batsh, (August JohannGeorg Karl,) aGer- 
 man naturalist, born at Jena in 1761. He wrote, among 
 other works, a monograph of the mushrooms in the 
 vicinity of Jena, entitled " Elenchus Fungorum," (1783,) 
 and " Elements of Systematic Chemistry," (1789.) Gmelin 
 has given the name Batschia to a genus of the order 
 Boraginae. Batsch was professor of natural history, etc. 
 at Jena, where he died in 1802. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generalc." 
 
 Batt, bit, (Bartholomew,) a Flemish Protestant, 
 born at Alost in 1515, wrote, in Latin, a treatise "On 
 Christian Economy." 
 
 Batt, (Charles,) a Flemish physician, translated 
 several medical works from the French. He lived at 
 Dort from 1593 to 1598. 
 
 Batt, bit, (Conrad,) a Dutch or German physician, 
 born at Rostock in 1573; died in 1605. 
 
 Batt, (Cornelius,) son of James, noticed below, born 
 in Zealand in 1470, was the author of a " Description of 
 the World." Died in 1517. 
 
 Batt, (James,) born in Zealand, was secretary of the 
 town of Bergen-op-Zoom. He was an intimate friend 
 of Erasmus. 
 
 Batt, (Lievin,) a Flemish physician, son of Bartholo- 
 mew, noticed above, born at Ghent about 1540, was pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Rostock. Died in 1591. 
 
 Batt, (William,) an English physician, born at Col- 
 lingham in 1744, became in 177S professor of chemistry 
 at Genoa, where he introduced vaccination. Died in 1812. 
 
 Battaglia. See Cerquozzi. 
 
 Battaglia, bat-tal'ya, an Italian architect of the eigh- 
 teenth century, celebrated for having completed the mag- 
 nificent convent of Catania, in Sicily. 
 
 Battaglia, (Cesare,) an Italian ecclesiastic, born at 
 Milan in 1605. 
 
 Battaglia, (Dionisio,) an Italian painter of the Vene- 
 tian school, born at Verona, lived about 1520-40. 
 
 Battaglia, (Francesco,) a Venetian senator, who 
 distinguished himself by his zeal in the cause of the 
 French Revolution, and proposed an alliance between 
 the republics of France and Venice. Died in 1799. 
 
 Battaglini, Mt-tal-yee'nee, (Marco,) an Italian pre- 
 late, born near Rimini in 1645, was Bishop of Ccscna. 
 He wrote a "Universal History of Councils," (1686,) 
 and other works. Died in 1717. 
 
 Battalus. See Batalus. 
 
 Battara, bat-ta'ra, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 naturalist and physician, born at Rimini, published sev- 
 eral botanical works. Died in 1789. 
 
 Bat'tel, (Andrew,) an English traveller, born in Es- 
 sex about 1565, was made prisoner by the Portuguese 
 and detained many years in their settlements in Africa. 
 His adventures are related in Purchas's " Collection of 
 Voyages." 
 
 Battelli, bat-tel'lee, (Giovanni Cristoforo,) an Ital- 
 ian antiquary, born near Urbino in 1658, became Arch- 
 bishop of Amasia. Died in 1725. 
 
 Battely, bat'Ie, (John,) a learned English divine, 
 born at Bury Saint Edmund's in 1647, became Archdea- 
 con of Canterbury. His principal work is an account 
 of the antiquities of Richborough and Reculver, entitled 
 " Antiquitates Rutupinae." Died in 1708. 
 
 Battem. See Bathem. 
 
 Bat'ten, (Adrian,) an English composer of sacred 
 music, became organist of Saint Paul's Cathedral ir. 1624. 
 
 a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, Q, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; iru?t; not; good; moon; 
 
BJTTEUX 
 
 289 
 
 BAUDENS 
 
 Batteux, bt'tuh', (Charles,) a' French litterateur, 
 born near Vouziers in 1713, was appointed professor of 
 Greek and Latin philosophy in the College of France, 
 rote, among other works, a "Treatise on the Fine 
 Arts," and also made a translation of Horace, (1750,) 
 which is valued for its accuracy. He was a member of 
 the French Academy, and of the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions. Died in 1 780. 
 
 See Madame Dacier, " E"loge de Batteux," and a "History of 
 ^MftCauses," or " Expose' sommaire des Pensees des Philosophes 
 Principe des Etres," 1769. 
 
 Batthyanyi, bot'ySn-yee, or Bathyanyi, (Casi- 
 
 »iir,) Count, a Hungarian nobleman and patriot, born 
 
 about 1S17. He took an active part in the revolution of 
 
 .iikI in 1S49 was appointed minister of foreign af- 
 
 After the defeat of the Hungarians he was im- 
 
 ned for a time, and on his release went to Paris, 
 
 he died in 1854. 
 
 Batthyanyi or Bathyani, written also Battyany, 
 
 ■ Mi's,) Count, a canonist, born in Transylvania in 
 
 1741, became Bishop of Weissenburg. He founded an 
 
 observatory at Carlsburg, and published several works. 
 
 Died in 1798. 
 
 Batthyanyi,(CHARLES,) Prince, a Hungarian general, 
 born about 1697. He performed a prominent part in 
 the war of the Austrian succession, which ended in 
 1745. He also had a high command in the Austrian 
 service during the Seven Years' war. Died in 1772. 
 
 Batthyanyi or Bathyanyi, (Louis,) Count, a Hun- 
 garian patriot and liberal statesman, born at Presburg in 
 1809. He contended for religious liberty, and became 
 chief minister of the government formed in March, 1848. 
 In consequence of the hostile movements of Jellachich, 
 Ban of Croatia, who was instigated by the imperial court, 
 he resigned in September, 1848. Civil war ensued, in 
 which the friends of Batthyanyi were vanquished. He 
 was tried by a court-martial, and shot in October, 1849. 
 
 See Horvath, " Louis Bathyanyi, ein politischer Martyrer," 
 1850; and "Graf L. Batthyanyi, sein Leben, Wirken und Ende," 
 Leipsic, 1850. 
 
 Battie, bat'te, (William,) an English physician, born 
 in Devonshire in 1704, was celebrated for his skilful 
 treatment of insanity. His principal work is a " Treatise 
 on Madness," (1758.) He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society. Died in 1776. 
 
 See "Biogiaphie M^dicale." 
 
 Battier, bt'te-i', (Samuel,) a Swiss physician, born 
 at Bale in 1667, was a friend of Malebranche and Toitr- 
 nefort. He published several philosophical and scien- 
 tific works in Latin. Died in 1744. 
 
 Battiferri, (Laura.) See Ammanati. 
 
 Bat'tis-hill, (Jonathan,) an English musical com- 
 poser, born in 1738. His anthems, glees, and songs are 
 highly esteemed. Died in 1801. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Battista, bat-tes'ta, (Fulgoso,) a Doge of Venice, 
 who, being exiled about 1480, wrote, in Latin, a work 
 entitled " Memorable Examples." 
 
 Battista or Baptista, (Giuseppe,) an Italian writer, 
 born in the kingdom of Naples. He was the author of 
 Latin epigrams, Italian lyrics, and several prose works. 
 Died in 1675. 
 
 Battista, (Ignazio,) an Italian writer, who lived about 
 1540, wrote a " History of the Roman Emperors," and 
 a work "On the Origin of the Turks," both in Latin. 
 
 Battista, (Spagnuoli,) an Italian ecclesiastic and 
 I.atin poet, surnamed THE Mantuan, born at Mantua 
 about 1430. His works were greatly admired by his 
 contemporaries, but are now forgotten. Died in 1516. 
 
 Battista d'Agnolo, bat-tes'ta dln'yo-lo, or Battista 
 del Moro, bat-tcs'ti del mo'ro, an Italian painter of 
 the sixteenth century, born at Verona. He worked at 
 Verona and Venice. 
 
 Battista del Moro. See Battista d'Agnolo. 
 
 Battista di Ferrara, bat-tes'ta de fer-ra'ra, an Ital- 
 ian writer, born about 1380, was the author of "Chroni- 
 cles of Ferrara," and other works. 
 
 Battisti, bat-tes'tee, (Bartolommf.o,) born at Rove- 
 redo, in the Tyrol, in 1755, was appointed about 1784 
 physician to the Emperor of Austria. Died in 1S31. 
 
 Battistin, blt-tes-teen', written alsoBaptistiii t (J<~>HN 
 
 Baptist Stuck,) an Italian musician and composer, of 
 German extraction, born at Florence about 1677. He was 
 an excellent performer on the violoncello, which he is 
 said to have first introduced into France. Died in 1755. 
 
 Battistini, bat-tes-tee'nee, (Francesco,) a noted Ital- 
 ian improvisatore, born in 1747, became professor of 
 Latin and Italian eloquence in the college De Propa- 
 ganda at Rome. Died in 1825. 
 
 Batton, bi'tAN', (Desire Alexandre,) a French 
 composer of operas, born in Paris in 1797, was a pupil 
 of Cherubini. 
 
 Battoni, (Pompeo.) See Batoni. 
 
 Battori. See Bathori. 
 
 Battum. See Bathem. 
 
 Bat'tus L, a Lacedaemonian, born at Thera, was the 
 founder of the colony of Cyrene, about 630 B.C. He 
 received divine honours after his death. 
 
 Battus U., surnamed Felix, was grandson of the 
 preceding, and succeeded Arcesilaus as King of Cyrene. 
 Under his reign the colony was greatly increased by the 
 arrival of colonists from various parts of Greece. Died 
 about 575 B.C. 
 
 Battus III., son of Arcesilaus II., reigned about 
 
 544 B.C. 
 
 Battuta. See Batootah. 
 
 Battyany. See BatthyAni. 
 
 Batu-Khan. See Batoo-Khan. 
 
 Batus. See Bate. 
 
 Batfitah. See Batootah. 
 
 Batz, de, deh bSts, (Jean,) Baron, a French general, 
 born near Tartas in 1760, made several unsuccessful 
 attempts during the Revolution to save Louis XVI. and 
 the royal family. Died in 1822. 
 
 Baubur or Bauber. See BAbkr. 
 
 Bau'cte, (Myth.,) a Phrygian peasant, who, with her 
 husband Philemon, kindly received Jupiter and Mercury 
 when travelling in disguise. For this favour Jupiter 
 changed their cottage into a temple, and made them his 
 priests. At their death they were changed to trees. 
 
 Baudake. See Baldock. 
 
 Baudart, b5'diR', (William,) a Protestant theolo- 
 gian, born at Deinse, in Flanders, in 1565. In conjunc- 
 tion with Bucer and ,Bogerman, he translated the Old 
 Testament into Dutch. Died in 1640. 
 
 Bauddha or Baudha, bow'd'ha, worshipper of 
 Booddha, which see. 
 
 Baude, bod, (Henri,) a French poet and satirist, born 
 at Moulins about 1430; died about 1495. 
 
 See V. de Viriville, " NouvellesRecherchessurH. Baude," 1853 
 
 Baudeau, bo'd5', (Nicolas,) a French writer on 
 political economy, born at Amboise in 1730. He was a 
 contributor, conjointly with Mirabeau, to the journal 
 entitled " Ephemerides of the Citizen ;" and published, 
 among other works, an " Exposition of the Natural Law." 
 Died about 1792. 
 
 See Qubrard, "La France LitteYaire." 
 
 Baudelaire, bod'lSR', (Charles,) a French poet, born 
 in India in the early part of the present century. He 
 wrote, among other things, " Les Fleurs du Mai," (" The 
 Flowers of Evil,") and made translations of the works 
 of Edgar A. Poe. His productions exhibit a mind of 
 uncommon force, but intensely morbid. Died in 1867. 
 
 See "Atlantic Monthly" for February, 1869. • 
 
 Baudelocque, bod'lok', (Jean Louis,) a celebrated 
 French surgeon, Twrii at Heilly, in Picardy, in 1746. He 
 studied under Solayres, and became chief surgeon and 
 accoucheur of the hospital de la Maternite. He was also 
 appointed by Napoleon first accoucheur to the empress 
 Marie Louise. Among his writings, which are esteemed 
 standard works, we may name his "Art des Accouche- 
 ments," (2 vols., 1781.) ' Died in 1810. 
 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." 
 
 Baudelot de Dairval, bod'lo' deh diR'vil', 
 (Charles Cesar,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 
 1648, was the author of a popular work "On the Utility of 
 Travels," etc. He became a member of the Academy of 
 Inscriptions in 1705. Died in 1772. 
 
 See Niceron, " Me"moires." 
 
 Baudens, Ix/cIon', (Jean Baptists Louis,) a French 
 surgeon, born at Aire in 1804, was the author of a " New 
 Method of Amputations," and other surgical works. 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; c, 11, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 (Jjy~See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
BAUDER 
 
 290 
 
 BAUDUIN 
 
 Bauder, bow'der, (Johann Friedrich,) born at 
 Hersbruck in 1 713, wrote on Fossils, etc. Died in 1791. 
 
 Bauderon, bod rdN', (Bkice,) a French physician, 
 born about 1540, was the author of a " Pharmacopoeia," 
 which passed through many editions. Died in 1623. 
 
 Baudesson, bo'd.VsA.N, (Nicolas,) a French flower- 
 painter, born at Troyes in 1609 ; died in 16S0. 
 
 Baudet, b5'd&', (Etienne,) a French engraver, born 
 at Blois in 1643, executed a number of prints after Pous- 
 sin and Le Brun. His "Adam and Eve," after Domeni- 
 chino, is regarded as his master-piece. Died in 1716. 
 
 Baudier, (Dominicus.) See Baudius. 
 
 Baudier, bo'de-4', (Michel,) historiographer of 
 France, born in Languedoc about 1590. He published 
 a "History of the War in Flanders from 1359 to 1609," 
 "Life of Cardinal Ximenes," "General History of the 
 Religion of the Turks,'' (1626,) and other works. Died 
 in 1645. 
 
 Baudin, bo'daN', a French priest, afterwards a mode- 
 rate Jacobin, born about 1766; died in 1830. 
 
 Baudin, (Nicolas,) a French naturalist, born in the 
 Isle of Re in 1750, was captain of a vessel sent in 1800 
 on a scientific expedition to New Holland. He died in 
 the Isle of France in 1803. 
 
 Baudin des Ardennes, bo'daN' di'zaR'd£n', 
 (Charles,) son of Pierre Charles Louis, noticed below, 
 born at Sedan in 1784. He served with distinction 
 against the English in 180S-12, and took the fortress of 
 San Juan de Ulloa from the Mexicans in 1838. He was 
 made vice-admiral and obtained the grand cordon of the 
 legion of honour in 1848. Died in 1854. 
 
 Baudin des Ardennes, (Pierre Charles Louis,) 
 a French revolutionist and political writer, born at Sedan 
 in 1748. As a member of the National Convention, he 
 voted for the imprisonment of the king, and the appeal 
 to the people. He was a member of the Institute. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 Baudis. See Baudissin. 
 
 Baudissin, bow'dis-sin' or bo'de'sAN', (Otto Fried- 
 rich Magnus,) a German general, born in 1792. 
 
 Baudissin, written also fiauditz or Baudis, (Wolf 
 Heinrich,) Count of, a distinguished general, of Dan- 
 ish extraction, served under GusUtvus Adolphus in the 
 Thirty Years' war, from 1625 to 1633. Died about 1650. 
 
 Baudissin, (Wolf Heinrich Friedrich Karl,) 
 Count OF, a German litterateur, brother of Otto Fried- 
 rich, noticed above, born at Rantzau in 1789. He trans- 
 lated into German " Henry VIII.," "Othello," "Lear," 
 " Much Ado about Nothing," and other dramas of Shak- 
 speare, which are accompanied with notes by Tieck. 
 
 Bauditz. See Baudissin. 
 
 Bau'dl-us or Baudier, bo'de-i', (Dominicus,) a 
 Flemish historian and scholar, born at Lille in 1561. 
 He became professor of history and eloquence at Ley- 
 den in 1602. His "History of the' Twelve Years' Truce" 
 is written in elegant Latin, and his Latin poems were 
 likewise greatly admired. Died in 1613. 
 
 See Sw^ert, "Athenje Belgicae." 
 
 Baudoin or Baudoin de Conde, bo'dwaN' deh 
 kdN'da', a French poet, lived about 1220. 
 
 Baudoin, (Jean.) See Baudouin. 
 
 Baudory, du, dii bo'do're', (Joseph,) a French Jes- 
 uit and miscellaneous writer, born at Vannes in 1710. 
 Died in 1749. 
 
 Baudot, bo'do', (Auguste Nicolas,) a French gene- 
 ral, born at Rennes in 1765, served under Moreau and 
 Kleber, and was mortally wounded at Alexandria in 1801. 
 
 Baudot, (Marc Antoine,) a French Jacobin, mem- 
 ber of the National Convention, voted for the death of 
 the king within twenty-four hours. Died in 1830. 
 
 Baudot, (Pierre Louis,) a French antiquary, and 
 writer on numismatics, born at Dijon in 1760; died in 
 1816. 
 
 Baudot de Juilly, bo'do' deh zhii'e'ye' or zhwe'ye', 
 (Nicolas,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1678. 
 lie wrote a " History of the Conquest of England by 
 William of Normandy," and other works. Died in 1759. 
 
 Baudouin, the French of Baldwin, which see. 
 
 Baudouin, bo'dwaN', (BENofr,) a French antiquary, 
 born at Amiens; died in 1632. 
 
 Baudouin, [Lat. Baldui'nus,] (Francois,) an emi- 
 
 nent French jurist' and writer, born at Anas in 1520. 
 He was professor of law successively at Angers, Paris, 
 Strasburg, and Heidelberg, and was created a councillor 
 of state by Henry III. Died in 1573. 
 
 See Niceron, "M^moires." 
 
 Baudouin, (Gabriel,) a French priest, born at 
 Avesnes in 1689, founded a hospital at Warsaw. Died 
 in 1768. 
 
 Baudouin or Baudoin, bo'dwaN', (Jean,) born at 
 Pradelles about 1590, wrote translations of the Latin 
 classics. Died in 1650. 
 
 Baudouin, (Pierre Antoine,) a French miniature- 
 painter, born in Paris in 1723 ; died in 1769. 
 
 Baudouin d'Avesne, bo'dwaN' da'vSn', a French 
 chronicler of the thirteenth century, wrote " The Genea- 
 logical History of the Counts of Hainault." 
 
 Baudouin de Ninove, (ne'nov',) a Flemish monk, 
 author of a chronicle from the birth of Christ till 1294. 
 
 Baudouin (bo'dwaN') of Paderborn, a priest, lived 
 about 1420, and wrote a " Universal History." 
 
 Baudouxor Beaudoux, bo'doo', (Robert,) a Flem- 
 ish engraver, born at Brussels, lived about 1620. 
 
 Baudrais, bo'dR&', (Jean,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Tours in 1749, held several offices under the govenB( 
 ment, and was one of the witnesses of the last testament 
 of Louis XVI. He passed thirteen years as an exile in 
 the United States, (1S04-17.) His works are chiefly ro- 
 mances, tales, and dramas. Died in 1S32. 
 
 Baudran or Baudrand, bo'dRS.N', (Michel An- 
 toine,) a French geographer, born in Paris in 1633. He 
 wrote, in Latin, a "Geographical and Historical Diction- 
 ary," (2 vols.,) which was translated into French. Died 
 in 1700. 
 
 Baudrand, bo'dRfiN', (Marie Etienne Franqou 
 Henri,) Count, a French general, born at Besancon id 
 1774, served under Napoleon, and in 1830 became lieuteA 
 ant-general. He was created a peer in 1 832, and appointed] 
 tutor to the Count of Paris in 1838. Died in 1848. 
 
 Baudrexel, bow-dRek'sel, (Philipp Jakob,) a Gew 
 man musical composer, born in Suabia about 1635 ; died 
 about 1700. 
 
 Baudricourt, de, deh bo'dRe'kooR', (Jean,) a French 
 marshal, born at Blois, served successively under CharMj 
 the Bold, Louis XI., and Charles VIII. Died in 1499. 
 
 Baudrigeen. See Baudringheen. # 
 
 Baudrillart, bo'dRe'yiR', (Henri,) a French econo* 
 mist, born in Paris in 1821. He gained the prize of thai 
 French Academy for his " Eloge de. Turgor.," (1846,) aaM 
 his "Eloge de Madame de Stael," (1850.) He also wrote 
 several works on political economy. 
 
 Baudrillart, (Jacques Joseph.) a French agricultu- 
 rist, bom at Givron, in Ardennes, in 1774, publishe^H 
 " Dictionary of Arboriculture and the Management oB< 
 Forests," (1821,) and other works. Died in 1832. 
 
 See " Notice biographique sur M. Jacques Joseph Baudrillart," 
 by Baron de Silvestre. 
 
 Baudrimont, bS'dRe'miN', (Alexandre Edouard,) 
 born at Compiegne in 1806, was a professor of chemistry 
 at Bordeaux, and wrote "On General and Experimental 
 Chemistry," and other works. 
 
 Baudringheen, bow'dRing-Han', or Baudrigeen, 
 bow'dRe-Han', a Dutch painter, lived at Amsterdam about 
 1640. 
 
 Baudron, bo'dRdN', (Antoine Laurent,) a French 
 musician, born at Amiens in 1743 ; died in 1834. 
 
 Baudry dAsson, bo'dRe' cII'son', (Antoine,) a 
 French Jansenist, born in Poitou, was a friend of the 
 celebrated Arnauld. He published various religious an<" 
 controversial works. Died in 1668. 
 
 Baudry dAsson, (Gabriel,) a royalist officer, bop 
 in Poitou, in France, in 1755, took an active part in the 
 defence of La Vendee, and was killed at Mans in 1793^ 
 
 Baudry des Lozieres, bo'dRe' di. lo'ze-aia', (Loui: 
 Narcisse,) a French traveller, born in Paris in 1761, pub 
 lished, besides other works, a " Voyage to Louisiana and 
 South America," (1802.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Bauduer, bo'dii'i', (Gilles Arnaud,) a Frenc 
 scholar and theologian, born near Audi in 1744; die 
 in 1787. 
 
 Bauduin, bo'dwaN', (Dominique,) a Flemish theolo 
 gian, born at Liege in 1742, was professor of history ; 
 
 me 
 md 
 
 arn 
 the 
 
 >3- 
 u.s 
 ub- 
 md 
 
 a,e, i, 6, \\,y,long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e,I,o,u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nflt;gSod; moon 
 
BAUDUINS 
 
 291 
 
 BAULDRI 
 
 Maastricht. He wrote, among other works, a defence 
 of the Christian religion. Died in 1809. 
 
 Bauduins, bo'dwaN', (Adrian Francis,) a Flemish 
 painter and engraver, born at Dixmude in 1640, executed 
 il prints after Van der Meulen, who was his brother- 
 in-law. Died in 1700. 
 
 Baudus, bo'diiss', (Jean Louis Amable,) a French 
 journalist, born at Cahors in 1 761, removed to Ham- 
 burg in 1791, and became editor of the "Spectateur du 
 Nord." Died in 1822. 
 
 Bauer. See Baur. 
 
 Bauer, bow'er, a German jurist and legal writer, born 
 at Leipsic in 1695; died in 1763. 
 
 Bauer, (Anton,) a German jurist, and professor of law 
 at Gottingen, born at Marburg in 1772. He was the author 
 of a " Manual of Natural Law," (1808,) "Introduction to 
 the Practice of Criminal Law," (1837,) and other works. 
 Died at Gottingen in 1S43. 
 
 Bauer, (Aurel Reinhard Eduin,) a German theo- 
 logian, and preacher of th'~ German Catholic congrega- 
 tion at Dresden, born near Grossenhain in 1816. He 
 wrote, among other works, a " History of the Founda- 
 tion and Development of the German Catholic Church," 
 (1846,) and a, treatise " On Primitive Christianity." In 
 1849 he embraced Protestantism. 
 
 Bauer, (Bruno,) a German rationalistic theologian, 
 distinguished for the boldness or recklessness of his 
 biblical criticisms, was born at Eisenberg in 1809. In 
 183S he published a "Critical Exposition of the Religion 
 of the Old Testament." Among his numerous other 
 works is a " Critique of the Gospels, and History of their 
 Origin," (2 vols., 1850.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Bauer, (Christian Friedrich,) a German Protest- 
 ant writer, and professor of theology at Wittenberg, was 
 born at Hofgarten in 1696; died in 1782. 
 
 Bauer, (Chrysostom,) a distinguished German organ- 
 builder, born in Wurtemberg, lived about 1700. 
 
 Bauer, (Edgar,) a German political writer, a brother 
 of Bruno, noticed above, born at Charlottenburg in 1821. 
 He was imprisoned four years at Magdeburg for a work 
 entitled "The Contest of Criticism with the Church and 
 State," (" Der Streit der Kritik mit der Kirche und Staat," 
 
 I843-) 
 
 Bauer, (Ferdinand,) a German painter of objects of 
 natural history, born at Feldsperg in 1744. He accom- 
 panied Dr. Sibthorp to Greece in 1784, and furnished 
 the exquisite designs for the " Flora Grasca," published 
 after the death of Sibthorp. He subsequently joined 
 Captain Flinders's expedition to Australia, and published, 
 after his return, "Illustrations of the Flora of New Hol- 
 land," (1813,) one of the most superb works of the kind. 
 Died in 1826. 
 Bauer, (Georg Lorenz,) a German rationalistic 
 igian, born at Hiltboltstein in 1755. He studied 
 at Altdorf, where in 1789 he became professor of elo- 
 e, Oriental languages, and moral philosophy, and 
 in 1805 obtained the chair of Oriental literature and ex- 
 at Heidelberg. Among his principal works are 
 Hermeneutica Sacra Veteris Testamenti," (1797,) 
 "Biblical Theology of the New Testament," (4 vols., 
 1800-2,) and " Hebrew Mythology of the Old and New 
 iment," (1802-3.) He also translated from the Arabic 
 Into German the History of Abool-Faraj. Died in 1806. 
 Aeusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 Bauer, (Johann Gottfried,) a German jurist and 
 ■gal writer, born at Leipsic in 1695 > died in 1763. 
 
 Bauer, (Johann Jakoh,) a German bookseller, born 
 at Strasburg in 1706, began the publication of the "Uni- 
 »ersal Library of Rare Books," (" Bibliotheca Librorum 
 rariorum universalis.") Died in 1772. 
 
 Bauer, (Karl Ludwtg,) a German philologist, born 
 
 at Leipsic in 1730. He published a "German-Latin 
 
 ■nary," and other educational works. Died in 1799. 
 
 See J. D. Daniel, " C. L. Bauer, biographisch.es Dcnknial," 1806. 
 
 Bauerle, bow'?R-leh. (Adolf,) a German dramatist, 
 
 born at Vienna in 1784, wrote " The False Prima Donna," 
 
 ' The Friend in Need," and other popular comedies. 
 
 Bauernfeld, bow'iRn-fclt', (Eduard,) a German dra- 
 matic writer, born at Vienna in 1804, was the author of 
 "The Confession," and several other successful comedies. 
 
 Baufiremont, de, deh bofR'mAN', (Alexandre Ema- 
 nuel,) Prince, born in Paris in 1773. He fought against 
 the French Republic in 1793-94. Died in 1833. 
 
 Baufiremont, de, (Alfonse,) Due, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, created a count by Napoleon, served with dis- 
 tinction at the battles of Moskwa and Dresden, 1813. 
 
 Bauflreniont or Beauflremcnt, de.tleh botVm6N', 
 (Claude,) Baron of Senescey, son of Nicolas, noticed 
 below, was a zealous partisan of the Duke of Guise in 
 the war of the League. He wrote several political works. 
 Died in 1596. 
 
 His son Claude Charles Roger was created Bishop 
 of Troyes in 1562. 
 
 Bauflreniont, de, (Henri,) son of Claude, noticed 
 above, held several offices under the government. Died 
 in 1622. 
 
 Baufiremont, de, (Nicolas,) Baron of Senescey, and 
 governor of Auxonne, was a zealous Catholic, and (ought 
 in the battles of Jarnac and Moncontour. He was ap- 
 pointed grand provost of France under Charles IX. Died 
 in 1582. 
 
 Baugier, bo'zhe-A', (Edme,) a French writer, born 
 about 1680, was the author of "Historical Memoirs of 
 the Province of Champagne," (1721.) 
 
 Baugin, bo'zha.N', (Lubin,) a French painter, called 
 lf. petit Guide, lived in Paris about 1650. 
 
 Bauhin, bo'a.N', (Gaspard,) a celebrated anatomist 
 and naturalist, of French extraction, born at Bale in Janu- 
 ary, 1560, was a younger son of Jean the elder, noticed 
 below. He studied at Padua under Fabricius ab Aqua- 
 pendente and other eminent teachers, and was appointed 
 professor of anatomy and botany at Bale in 15S8. He 
 was also made rector of the university, and obtained 
 other distinctions. He was the author of a number of 
 valuable medical and botanical works, among which we 
 may name his "Pinax Theatri Botanici," (1596,) and 
 "Prodromus Theatri Botanici," (1620.) Plumier named 
 the genus Bauhinia in his honour. Died at Bale in 1624. 
 "Gaspard Bauhin," says Dr. Hoefer, "was not a mere 
 compiler. He had the merit and glory of a legislator; 
 his name for a long time was received as an authority, 
 and even at the present day it is sometimes associated 
 with those of Tournefort and Linnaeus." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate;" Niceron, "M^moires;" 
 Haller, "Bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 Bauhin, (Jf.an,) born at Amiens in 151 1, was first 
 physician to Margaret, sister of Francis I. Having be- 
 come a Protestant, he removed to Bale, in Switzerland, 
 where he was made dean of the College of Physicians. 
 Died in 1582. 
 
 Bauhin. (Jean,) an eminent botanist and physician, 
 born at Bale in 1541, was a son of the preceding. He 
 studied botany at Tubingen under Fuchs in 1560, after 
 which he accompanied Gesner on a scientific excursion 
 in Switzerland. He also travelled and studied in France, 
 but was compelled to leave the country on account of 
 his being a Protestant. In 1566 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric at Bale, and in 1570 he became physi- 
 cian to the Duke of Wiirtemberg at Montbeliard, where 
 he resided until his death. His reputation is founded 
 on two posthumous works, viz.: "Historia: Plantarum 
 generalis novas et absolutae Prodromus," (1619,) and 
 " I listeria universalis Plantarum nova," ("A New Uni- 
 versal History of Plants," 3 vols., 1650-51.) Died in 1613. 
 
 See Peter Brebach, " Christlicher Am, Leichenpredjgt auf J. 
 Bauhin," 1614; Spkengel, "Historia Rci Herbaria ;" Haller, 
 " Bibliotheca Botanies." 
 
 Bauhin, (Jean Gaspard,) son of Gaspard, noticed 
 above, born at Bale in 1606, was professor of botany in 
 his native city. In 1659 he was appointed physician-in- 
 ordinaryto Louis XIV. Died in 1685. 
 
 See Sprencel, "Historia Rei Herbaria;;" Zwinger, "Oratio 
 in obitum J. G. Bauhin," 16S7. 
 
 Bauhin, (Jerome,) son of the preceding, born in 1637, 
 was also a distinguished physician. Died in 1667. 
 
 Bauhuis, bow'hois, [Lat. Bauhu'sius,] (Bkrnardus,) 
 a Jesuit, born at Antwerp in 1575, was the author of Latin 
 epigrams. Died in 1629. 
 
 Bauhusius. See Bauhuis. 
 
 Baulacre, bo'likR', (Leonard,) a Swiss littirateur, 
 born at Geneva in 1670; died in 1761. 
 
 Bauldri or Bauldry, bo'dRe', (Paul,) a French 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BAULIEU 
 
 BAUMSTARK 
 
 
 scholar, born at Rouen in 1629, became professor of 
 sacred history at Utrecht, where he married the daugh- 
 ter of the celebrated Henry Basnage. He published an 
 edition of the " De Mortibus Persecutorum" of Lactan- 
 tius. Died in 1706. 
 
 Baulieu. See Baulot. 
 
 Baulme S.aint- Amour, de la, deh If bom saNt'S'- 
 mooR', (Jean,) a French scholar and Latin poet, born 
 in Franche-Comte in 1539 ; died about 1578. 
 
 Baulot, bo'lo', or Baulieu, bo'le-uh', (Jacques,) a 
 French surgeon, celebrated for his skill in lithotomy, 
 burn near Lons-le-Saulnier in 1651 ; died in 1720. 
 
 Baumann, bow'man, (Christian Jakob,) a German 
 Protestant and theological writer, born at Berlin in 172c. 
 
 Baumann, (Nicholas,) professor of history at Ros- 
 tock, to whom some writers attribute the authorship of 
 ' Reineke Fuchs," was born about 1450 ; died in 1526. 
 
 Baumbach, bowm'baK, (Friedrich August,) a Ger- 
 man composer and writer on music, born at Leipsic in 
 1753. He was a contributor to the " Dictionary of the 
 Fine Arts" published in 1794. Died in 1813. 
 
 Baumbach, (Johann Balthasar,) a German Orien- 
 talist, was professor of Greek and Hebrew at Heidelberg. 
 Died in 1622. 
 
 Baumchen, boim'Ken, a German sculptor, born at 
 Dusseldorf, worked in Russia. Died in 1789. 
 
 Baume, bo'ma', (Antoine,) a celebrated French 
 chemist, born at Senlis in 1728. His early instruction 
 was very defective, but he acquired by his own exertions 
 so thorough a knowledge of chemistry that he was ap- 
 pointed about 1752 professor in the College of Pharmacy 
 in Paris. He founded a manufactory of sal-ammoniac, 
 hitherto imported from Egypt, perfected the scarlet dye 
 of the Gobelin tapestry, improved the manufacture of 
 porcelain, and invented a method of dyeing cloth of two 
 colours. He was also the inventor of the areometer 
 called by his name, and made several other important 
 inventions and discoveries. He was elected to the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1773. Among his most valua- 
 ble works are his " Elements of Pharmacy, Theoretical 
 and Practical," (1762, 8vo,) "Plan of a Course of Ex- 
 perimental and Rational Chemistry," (1757,) and "Man- 
 ual of Chemistry," (1763.) Died in 1804. 
 
 See Cadet de Gassicourt, "Fjoge de Baiim**," 1S06; " Bio- 
 graphic Medicale;" Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Baume, de la, deh It bom, (Nicolas Auguste,) 
 Marquis of Montrevel, born in 1645, distinguished him- 
 self by his bravery at the siege of Lille and at the battles 
 of Namur, Luxemburg, and Cassel, and was made a mar- 
 shal in 1703. While dining with the Duke of Biron, he 
 accidentally overturned a salt-cellar, when he exclaimed, 
 " I am a dead man !" and died a few days after, the vic- 
 tim of his superstitious fears, ( 1 7 1 6. ) 
 
 See Saint-Simon. " Memoires." 
 
 Baume des Dossat, de la, deh IS bom di do'st', 
 (Jacques Francois,) a French litterateur, born at Car- 
 pentras in 1705 ; died in 1756. 
 
 Baume Montrevel, de la, deh IS bom moNtR'vel', 
 (Claude,) Archbishop of Besancon, in France, born in 
 1 53 1 ; died in 1584. 
 
 Baume Saint- Amour, de la, deh IS bom sant'- 
 S'mooi/, (Philippe,) a governor of' Franche-Comte, 
 which was conquered from Spain by Louis XIV. of 
 Fiance in 1668. Died about 1670. 
 
 Baumeister, bow'ml'ster, (Friedrich Christian,) 
 
 a German philosophical writer, born in Saxe-Gotha in 
 
 1709, studied at Jena under the celebrated Wolf, of 
 
 whose system he was an advocate. Died in 1785. 
 
 See Brihgleb, " Epistola de Vita, Moribus, etc. Fr. C. Baumeis- 
 teri," 1766. 
 
 Baumeister, (Johann Wilhelm,) a German, born 
 at Gmiind in 1804, was appointed in 1839 professor in 
 the veterinary school at Stuttgart. He wrote several 
 treatises on the diseases and management of animals. 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 Baumer, bow'mer, written also Baumer, (Georg,) a 
 German sculptor, born in Bavaria about 1763. Among 
 his works are a bas-relief representing a descent from 
 the cross, and a bust of Napoleon. Died about 1830. 
 
 Baumer, (Johann Paul,) a German physician, born 
 about 1725, lived at Erfurt ; died in 1771. 
 
 Baumer, (Johann Wilhelm,) a German naturalist^ 
 and professor of medicine at Giessen, born at Rehweilfcr, 
 in Franconia, in 1719. He published "The Natural 
 History of the Mineral Kingdom," (1780,) and other 
 scientific treatises. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Baumes, bom, (Jean Baptiste Timothee,) a French- 
 physician and medical writer, professor in the medical 
 school of Montpellier, was born at Lunel in 1777: died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Baumgaertner. See Baumgartner. 
 
 Baumgarten, bowm'gaR'ten, (Alexander Gott- 
 lieb,) a celebrated German philosopher and disciple of 
 Wolf, born at Berlin in 17 14, became in 1740 professor 
 of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He is regarded 
 as the founder of the science or philosophy of the Beau- 
 tiful, to which he gave the name of "/Esthetics." Among 
 his principal works are his " Elements of Belles-Lettres, 
 (3 vols., 1748,) " Metaphysica," "Ethica Philosophia," 
 and " /Fsthetica," (2 vols., 1750, unfinished.) Died at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1762. 
 
 See Meyer, "Leben AlexanderG. Baumgartcns," 1763; Semler, 
 "Ehrengedachtniss," 1758; " Biographic Universelle." 
 
 Baumgarten, (Johann Christian Gottlob,) a Ger- 
 man botanist, born at Lucknau, in Lusatia, in 1765, pub- 
 lished the "Flora of Transylvania," and other botanical 
 works. Died about 1830. 
 
 Baumgarten, (Martin A.,) a German traveller, born 
 in 1473, v 'S'ted Egypt, Arabia, and Palestine. An ac- 
 count of his travels was published in Churchill's Col- 
 lection. Died in 1535. 
 
 See Niebuhr, "Voyage en Arabic" 
 
 Baumgarten, (Sigismund Jakob,) a German theo- \ 
 logian, and professor of theology at Halle, born at Wol- 
 mirstiidt in 1706, was a brother of Alexander Gottlieb, 
 noticed above. He was the author of" Moral Theology," 
 (1738), "Abridgment of Ecclesiastical History," (3 vols.,] 
 1742,) and other works. He also translated from the 
 English the "Universal History of the World," (16 vol-., 
 1744,) which was continued after his death by his friend 
 Semler. Died in 1757. 
 
 See Semler, " Prograinma in Memoriam S. J. Baumgarten," 1757. 
 
 Baumgarten-Crusius, bowm'gaR'ten kRoo'ze-us, 
 (Detlev Karl Wilhelm,) a German scholar, born at 
 Dresden in 1786. He published editions of Plutarch's 
 "Agesilaus," of Xenophon, Suetonius, and other cl. 
 and was the author of moral and educational treatises, 
 He lived at Meissen, where he died in 1845. 
 
 See A. Baumgarten-Crusius, " Leben des Rectors D. C. W, 
 Baumgarten-Crusius," 1853. 
 
 Baumgarten-Crusius, (Ludwig Friedrich Otto,) 
 a learned German theologian, brother of the preceding, 
 born at Mcrseburg in 1788. H« published, among other 
 works, a "Manual of the History of Dogmas," (1S31,) 
 "Compendium of the History of Dogmas," (1S40,) and 
 "Observations on some -Writings of Lamennais." He 
 was professor of theology at Jena from 1817 until his 
 death in 1843. 
 
 Baumgartner, bowm'gaRt'ner, (G. J.,) a Swiss jurist 
 and politician, born at Saint Gall in 1797. 
 
 Baumgartner or Baumgaertner, bowm'gaRt'ner, 
 (Johann,) a German sculptor, born in Bavaria in 1744; 
 (lied in 1792. 
 
 Baumgartner or Baumgaertner, (Johann Bap- 
 tist,) a German musician and writer on music, born at 
 Augsburg about 1725; died in 1782. 
 
 Baumgartner, (Johann Wolfgang,) a Tyrclese art- 
 ist and skilful glass-painter, born about 1710. 
 
 Baumgartner, von, fon bowm'gaRt'ner, (Andreas.) 
 a German savant and minister of trade and public works, 
 born at Friedberg, in Bohemia, in 1793. He became pro- 
 fessor of physics at Vienna in 1823. He wrote, an 
 other works, " Mechanics in their Application to the 
 Arts and Industry." In 1S51 he was elected president 
 of the Academy of Sciences at Vienna. 
 
 Baumhauer, bowm'how'er, a German sculptor, lived 
 about 1620. 
 
 Baumstark, bowm'staRk, (Anton,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born in 1800. He published editions of Cxsar, 
 Quintus Curtius, and other classics, made a German 
 
 S, c, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, ii, j?, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
 'i 
 
BAUM STARK 
 
 293 
 
 BAFO 
 
 translation of Caesar, and wote a "Commentary on the 
 Poetry of Horace." 
 
 Baumstark, (Eduard,) a German writer, brother 
 
 of the preceding, born near Baden in 1807. He became 
 
 in 1S39 professor of financial science and political econ- 
 
 ..t Greifswalde, and translated into German Ricardo's 
 
 " Principles of Political Economy." 
 
 Baune, de la, deh IS bon, (Jacques,) a French Jesuit 
 and Latin writer, born in Paris in 1649; died in 1726. 
 
 Bauny, bo'ne', (Etienne,) a French Jesuit, noted for 
 his works on casuistry, born at Mouzon in 1564; died in 
 1649. 
 
 Baur, bowR, (Ferdinand Christian,) a German 
 critic and Protestant theologian of much influence, born 
 at Schneiden in June, 1792, is called the founder of the 
 Tiibingen school of theology. About 1826 he became 
 pn 'lessor of theology at Tubingen. He published, be- 
 other works, a " History of the Doctrine of the 
 Atonement," (1838,) and "The Christian Dogma of the 
 Trinity and Incarnation," (1843.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Baur, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German general, 
 born at Bieber, in Hanau, in 1735. He entered the ser- 
 t Frederick the Great in the Seven Years' war, 
 and was subsequently invited to Russia by Catherine II., 
 who made him engineer-general and conferred on him 
 other distinctions. He wrote, in French, " Geographical 
 and Historical Memoirs of Wallachia." Died in 1783. 
 
 See Stkieder, " Hessische Gelehrten-Geschichte." 
 
 Baur, Bawer, or Bauer, bow'er, (Johann Wil- 
 helm,) a German painter and engraver, born at Stras- 
 burg about 1600, was a pupil of Brendel. Among his 
 works are prints from his own designs of the " Meta- 
 morphoses" of Ovid. Died in 1640. 
 
 ,e Blanc, " Manuel de l'Amateur d'Estampes." 
 
 Baur, bowR, ( Nicolaas,) a Dutch painter of marine 
 and landscapes, born at Harlingen in 1767. His 
 '• 1!' unbardment of Algiers" is regarded as his master- 
 piece. Died in 1820. 
 
 N'agler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Baur, (Samuel,) a German scholar and miscellaneous 
 writer, born at Ulm in 1768, was a contributor to Ersch 
 and Gruber's " Encyklopaedie." Died in 1832. 
 
 Baurenfeind, bow'ren-fmt', written also Bauern- 
 feind, (Georg Wilhelm,) a German artist, born at 
 Nuremberg, executed several of the designs for Nie- 
 buhr's "Travels in Arabia." Died in 1763. 
 
 Bauria, bow're-a, (Andrea,) an Italian theologian of 
 i ara, wrote, in Latin, a "Defence of the Apostolic 
 Power against Martin Luther," (1521.) 
 
 Bausa, bpw'sa, (Gregorio,) a Spanish painter, born 
 in 1596, lived at Valencia; died in 1656. 
 
 Bausan, bo'zft.s', (Jean,) a naval officer, born at 
 in 1757. He fought for the French, under Mas- 
 at Gaeta, in 1806, and gained a victory over the 
 h and Sicilians in 1808. Died in 1821. 
 
 Bausch, bowsh, (Johann Lorenz,) a German physi- 
 cian, born at Schweinfurt in 1605, was the founder and 
 the first president of the Academy of the Curious in 
 Nature, (1652.) Died in 1665. 
 
 Bause, bow'zeh, (Johann Friedrich,) an eminent 
 German engraver, born at Halle in 1738, was an intimate 
 friend and pupil of Wille, whom he took for his model. 
 Bause was appointed professor of engraving in the 
 Academy of Arts at Leipsic. He executed numerous 
 portraits of the celebrated writers of his time. Died in 
 1814. His daughter Juliana Wilhelmine was also a 
 skilful engraver. 
 
 See Le Blanc, "Manuel de l'Amateur d'Estampes;" Nagler, 
 "Neues Allgemcines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bause, (Theo.X)R,) a German jurist and antiquary, 
 born in Saxony in 1752, became professor at the Uni- 
 versity of Moscow, and corresponding member of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Saint Petersburg. Died in 1812. 
 
 Bausner, bows'ner, (Bartholomew,) a physician and 
 writer, born in Transylvania about 1629; died in 1682. 
 
 Bausset, de, deh b5's4', (Louis Francois,) a distin- 
 guished cardinal and writer, born at Pondicherry in 1748, 
 came at an early age to France, where he rose through 
 various promotions to be Bishop of Alais in 1784. In 
 1791 he signed the protest of the French bishops against 
 the civil constitution of the clergy. He entered the 
 
 Chamber of Peers after the second restoration, and in 
 181 7 was made a cardinal, having previously been elected 
 to the French Academy. His " History of Fenelon" 
 (3 vols.) came out in 1808, and met with the most favour- 
 able reception ; it was followed in 1814 by the " History 
 of Bossuet," which was less successful. He was also the 
 author of several miscellaneous treatises. Died in 1824. 
 See M. de Villeneuve, " Notice historique sur le Cardinal de 
 Bausset," 1824; De Quelen, "Discours sur Bausset," 1829. 
 
 Bausset-Roquefort, bo's^' rok'foR', (Pierre Fran- 
 cois Gabriel* Raymond Ignace Ferdinand,) Count 
 of, cousin of Louis Francois, noticed above, born at Be- 
 ziers in 1757, became Archbishop of Aix. Died in 1829. 
 Bautain, bo'taN', (Louis,) a French theologian and 
 philosophical writer, born in Paris in 1796. He was ap- 
 pointed in 1838 dean of the literary faculty at Strasburg, 
 and in 1849 director of the college of Juilly. He was 
 the author of "The Philosophy of Christianity," (1835,) 
 and other similar works. 
 
 See Querakd, " La France Litte"raire," (Supplement.) 
 Bauter, bo'ta', (Charles,) a French dramatic poet, 
 born in Paris about 1580; died about 1630. 
 
 Bautru, bo'tRii', (Guillaume,) Count of Serrant, a 
 French nobleman, diplomatist, and celebrated wit, born 
 at Angers in 1588, was one of the first members of the 
 French Academy. Died in 1665. 
 
 Bauvin, bo'vaN', (Jean Gr£goire,) a French littera- 
 teur and lawyer, born at Arras in 17 14, was professor at 
 the military school in his native city. Died in 1776. 
 
 Baux, bo, (Pierre,) a French physician, born at 
 Ninies in 1679, wrote, among other works, a "Treatise 
 on the Plague." Died in 1732. 
 
 Bauza, bow'tha, (Don Felipe,) a Spanish geographer, 
 born about 1750, became director of the hydrographic 
 depot at Madrid. He published some excellent maps of 
 South America. Died in 1833. 
 
 Bava, ba'va, (Gaetano Emanuele,) Count of San 
 Paolo, a Piedmontese savant, born at Fossano in 1737, 
 published a " Historical Survey of the Changes and Pro- 
 gress of Sciences, Arts, etc. from the Eleventh to the 
 Eighteenth Century." Died in 1829. 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 Bava, (Giovanni Battista,) a general, born at Ver- 
 celli, in Piedmont, in 1790, served with distinction in the 
 French armies and in the war of Italian independence. 
 
 Bavay, de, deh bi'vi', (Paul Ignatius,) a Flemish 
 physician and chemist, born at Brussels in 1704, was 
 professor of anatomy and surgery and head-physician of 
 the military hospitals in that city. Died in 1768. 
 
 Baverel, bSv'ReT, (Jean Pierre,) a French ecclesi- 
 astic and litterateur, born in Paris in 1744; died in 1822. 
 Baverini, ba-va-ree'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian mu- 
 sician, born about 1420, is said to have composed the 
 music for " The Conversion of Saint Paul," ("San Paolo,") 
 the first opera ever represented. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 Bavia, de, da ba-vee'a, (Luis,) a Spanish historian, 
 born at Madrid, wrote a continuation of Ulesca's "His- 
 tory of the Popes." Died in 1628. 
 
 Baviera, ba-ve-a'ra, (Marcantonio,) an Italian 
 jurist, lived about 1490, was professor of civil law at Pisa 
 and Padua. 
 
 Baville, bi'vel', (Arnaud,) a French general, bora 
 at Fronton in 1757, died of a wound received at Licgnit;. 
 in 1813. 
 
 Bavisano, ba-ve-sa'no, (Francesco Domenico,) bon 
 at Alba, in Montferrat, was appointed in 1570 physician 
 to the Duke of Savoy. 
 
 Ba'vl-us, a Latin poet in the time of Augustus, who, 
 with his friend Mjevius, is known only from his envioas 
 and malicious attacks on Horace and Virgil. He is sati- 
 rized by the latter in his " Bucolics." 
 
 Bavo, ba'vo, or Baf, baf, [Fr. Bavon, bfv6N',j 
 Saint, sometimes called Allowiri, born in Brabant 
 about 589, was the patron of the city of Ghent. Died 
 about 653. 
 
 See Jean de Thielrode, "Chronique de Saint-Bavon a Gand," 
 ■798. 
 
 Bavo, di, de ba'vo, (Gottofredo,) president of the 
 council of Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, wrote- a 
 valuable work "On Criminal Law," (1607.) 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JC^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BAVON 
 
 294 
 
 BAYARD 
 
 Bavon, the French of Bavo, which see. 
 
 Bavoux, ba'voo', (Evariste,) son of Francois Nico- 
 las, noticed below, was a deputy in 1852 to the legislative 
 body. He was the author of "Political Philosophy," 
 (1S40,) and other works. 
 
 Bavoux, (Francois Nicolas,) a French jurist and 
 legal writer, born at Saint-Claude in 1774, was elected to 
 the Chamber of Deputies, and about 1830 became coun- 
 sellor in the court of accounts. Died in 1848. 
 
 Bawd'wen, (William,) an English divine, who pub- 
 lished in 1809-12 two volumes of a translation of the 
 " Domesday-Book." He died soon after, leaving the 
 work unfinished. 
 
 Bawr. See Baur. 
 
 Bawr, bowp, (Alexandrine Sophie Goury de 
 Champgraud — goo're' deh shoN/gRoN',) Baroness, a 
 novelist and dramatic writer, of French extraction, born 
 at Stuttgart in 1776. She was first married to the cele- 
 brated Count de Saint-Simon, who, not long after, re- 
 quested a divorce on the grounds that it was not fit that 
 he, being the first man in the world, should have any 
 other than the first woman for his wife. She was subse- 
 quently married to the Baron de Bawr, who died soon 
 afterwards. Madame de Bawr published a number of 
 popular works, among which we may name the comedy of 
 "Money and Address," and"Raoulou l'Eneide," a novel. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire," (Supplement.) 
 
 Bax'I-us, (Nicaisius,) a Flemish scholar and Latin 
 poet, born at Antwerp about 1595. 
 
 Bax'ter, (Andrew,) an eminent Scottish philosopher 
 and metaphysician, born at Aberdeen about 1686. His 
 principal work is entitled " Inquiry into the Nature of 
 the Human Soul," (1737 ;) it is commended by Dugald 
 Stewart and Bishop Warburton, who observes of the 
 book .that it is "orite of the most finished of the kind 
 that the present times, greatly advanced in true philoso- 
 phy, have produced." Died in 1750. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Bax'ter, (Richard,) an eminent English noncon- 
 formist divine, born at Rowdon, in Shropshire, on the 
 12th of November, 1615. He was a man of great learn- 
 ing, though not educated at any college. He was or- 
 dained in 1638, was chosen vicar of Kidderminster in 
 1640, and soon became distinguished as an eloquent 
 preacher. In the civil war he was disposed to be neu- 
 tral, and to mediate between the hostile parties. About 
 1645 he accepted the place of chaplain to a regiment of 
 Cromwell's army; but he afterwards showed himself 
 hostile to the government of the Protector. He pub- 
 lished in 1650 "The Saint's Everlasting Rest," a work 
 which is generally and justly admired. At the restora- 
 tion (1660) he was appointed one of the chaplains of 
 Charles II.; but he was separated from the Anglican 
 Church by the Act of Uniformity in 1662, after he had re- 
 fused a bishopric. He subsequently preached at Acton, 
 and after the Act of Indulgence in 1672 he removed 
 to London, where he lectured in Pinners' Hall. Among 
 his principal works are " Methodus Theologise," (1674,) 
 " Catholic Theology," and a " Call to the Unconverted," 
 (1669,) of which about twenty thousand copies were sold 
 in one vear. In 1685 Baxter was tried before the noto- 
 rious Jeffries on a charge of sedition, founded on a pas- 
 sage in one of his works. He was fined five hundred 
 marks, for the non-payment of which he was imprisoned 
 about eighteen months. Died in December, 1691. In 
 his character, zeal and moderation were happily united. 
 He was the founder of a new school of theology, which 
 Dears his name. "He discovers a manly eloquence," 
 says Doddridge, "and the most evident proofs of an 
 amazing genius, with respect to which he may not im- 
 properly be called the English Demosthenes." "Pray 
 read with g.'eat attention," says Coleridge, "Baxter's 
 Life of himstlf; it is an inestimable work. There is no 
 substitute fol it in a course of study for a clergyman or 
 public man." 
 
 _ See his own ''Narrative of the most memorable Passages of his 
 Life and Times," 1696; E. Calamy, "Life of Baxter," 1713; Rev. 
 William Orme, "Life and Times of R. Baxter," prefixed to an 
 edition of Baxter's works in 23 vols., 1830; August Neander, "R. 
 Baxter ein Mann der Wahrhaft rechten Mitte," etc., Berlin, 1833; 
 Macaui.ay, " History of England," vol. i. chap. IT., vol. iii. chap. 
 xi. ; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1839. 
 
 Baxter, (Thomas,) an English mathematician, pub- 
 lished " Principles of Astronomy and Natural Philoso- 
 phy," (1740.) 
 
 Baxter, (Thomas,) an English artist, especially dis- 
 tinguished as a painter of china, born in 1782. Among 
 his master-pieces are copies of the works of Reynolds 
 and West. Died in 1821. 
 
 Baxter, (William,) an English scholar, born in 
 Shropshire in 1650, was a nephew of the celebrated 
 Richard Baxter. He prepared editions of Horace and 
 Anacreon, and a Latin Grammar, and wrote, in Latin, 
 a " Glossary of British Antiquities." Baxter's edition 
 of Horace formed the basis of the one subsequently pub- 
 lished by Gesner. Died in 1723. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Baxter, (William Edward,) a British Liberal poli- 
 tician, born at Dundee in 1825. He was returned to 
 Parliament for Montrose in 1855. He published "Ame- 
 rica and the Americans," (1850,) and other works. 
 
 See "Quarterly Review" for April, 1850. 
 
 Bay, de, deh bi, (Alexandre,) Marquis, a French 
 general, born at Salins about 1650, served with distinc- 
 tion in the war of the Spanish succession. Me was ap. 
 pointed viceroy of the province of Estremadura in 1 705, 
 and created a knight of the Golden Fleece in 1708. 
 Died in 1 71 5. 
 
 Bayam, ba-yowN', (Joze Pereira,) a Portuguese his- 
 torian and ecclesiastic, born near Coimbra in 1690, wrote 
 a history of Portugal and the achievements of Don Se- 
 bastian, (1737,) also a "Treatise on Purgatory," (1742.) 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 Bayaiine.bi'yin', (Alphonse Hubert deLattier— 
 deh lt'te-i',) a French cardinal, born at Valence in 1739, 
 held several offices under the empire, and was made a 
 peer by Louis XVIII. He wrote, in Italian, a valuable 
 work on the malaria in Italy. Died in 1818. 
 
 Bayard, bfyaV, (Ferdinand Marie,) a French 
 writer, born at Moulins-la-Marche in 1763, pub/ 
 "Travels in the Interior of the United btates in 1791," 
 and other works. Died about 1818. 
 
 Bayard, bl'ard, (George D.,) an American general, 
 born in New York about 1836, graduated at West Point 
 in 1856. He became a captain of cavalry in the regular 
 army in August, 1861, and a brigadier-general of volun- 
 teers in 1S62. He distinguished himself as a leader of 
 cavalry in several actions in Virginia under General Pope. 
 He was killed at Fredericksburg in December, 1862. 
 
 Bayard, (James A.,) a distinguished American si 
 man and lawyer, born in Philadelphia in 1767. He 
 graduated at Princeton College in 1784, and commenced 
 the practice of law in Delaware. In 1796 he was elected 
 a member of Congress, in which he acted with the Fede- 
 ral party and acquired a high reputation as an onitor 
 and constitutional lawyer. He supported Jefferson Mr 
 President in preference to Burr when the duty devolved 
 on the House of Representatives to elect one of those 
 two candidates in 1801 ; and the result of this contest is 
 ascribed chiefly to his influence. He represented Dela- 
 ware in the Senate of the United States from 1S04 to 
 1813, and opposed the war of 1812. He was one of the 
 commissioners who negotiated the Treaty of Ghent with 
 Great Britain in 1814, soon after which he was appointed 
 minister to the court of Saint Petersburg ; but he de- 
 clined that mission, saying that he had no wish to serve 
 the administration except when his services were neces- 
 sary. He died in August, 1815, soon after his return 
 from Europe. 
 
 His son James A. was elected a Senator of the United 
 States for Delaware in 1S50. 
 
 Bayard, (Jean Baptiste Franqois,) a French jurist 
 and legal writer, born in Paris in 1750, was appointed by 
 the Directory a judge of the court of cassation about 
 1799. Died in 1800. 
 
 Bayard, (Jean Francois Alfred,) a French littera- 
 teur, born at Charolles in 1796, was the author of nu- . 
 merous very popular comedies and vaudevilles ; among 
 others, of "Christine, or the Queen of Sixteen Years," 
 (1828,) and "The Promenade to Vaucluse." Died in 
 Paris in 1853. 
 
 Bayard, (John,) a patriot of the American Revolution, 
 born in Cecil county, Maryland, in 1738. At the battle 
 
 S, e. I. o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not: good; moon; 
 
BAYARD 
 
 295 
 
 BAYLE 
 
 of Trenton lie commanded a battalion of Philadelphia 
 militia. In 1785 he was chosen a member of the Con- 
 
 ; ion. Mr. Bayard was an intimate 
 d. Died in 1S07. 
 
 Bayard, ba'erd, [Fr. pron. bt'yaV,] (Pierkk du Ter- 
 rail — du t.V'ial',) called "le chevalier sans peur et sans 
 reproche," (" the knight without fear and without re- 
 proach,") was born at Castle Bayard, near Grenoble, in 
 1475. Having attracted the notice of Charles VIII. by 
 his skill in horsemanship and knightly accomplishments, 
 he accompanied that monarch on his expedition to Na- 
 ples in 1494, and performed remarkable feats of valour 
 at the battle of Fornovo. After the death of Charles he 
 took part in the Italian campaigns of Louis XII., and at 
 ;he "battle of the Spurs," in 15 13, he was chiefly instru- 
 mental in saving the French army from total rout when 
 pursued by the English cavalry. On the invasion of 
 Italy !>y Francis I., Bayard took Prosper Colonna prison- 
 er, and had a prominent part in the sanguinary battle 
 of Marignano, (1515,) after which, at the request of 
 Francis I., he conferred upon that sovereign the honour 
 of knighthood. 'In 1522 he defended the frontier town 
 of Mezieres against the forces of Charles V., an exploit 
 which, in the words of Uampmartin, " would have sufficed 
 for the glory of any other than Bayard." Being sent in 
 1524 against the imperial army under the Duke of Bour- 
 bon, Bayard assumed the chief command after Bonnivet 
 was disabled by a wound. While exerting himself to 
 enable the French to effect a retreat, he was mortally 
 wounded, and died soon after on the field of battle. 
 
 " Perhaps no other person," says Southey, " who acted 
 so unimportant a part in the world ever attained so wide 
 and just a renown." ("Quarterly Review," vol. xxxii.) 
 The same writer adds that he was indebted for his re- 
 nown to his genuine worth, — his generosity and virtue. 
 
 See SvmPHorien Chawpier, "La Vie et les Gestes de Bayard," 
 1525; L. A. Baquillot, " Histoire du Chevalier Bayard," 1702; 
 :> de Berville, "Histoire du Chevalier Bayard," 1760; Rev. 
 1 Sterling, "Life of Chevalier Bayard," 1781 ; Bucholz, 
 Bayard," Berlin, 1801 ; Pillot, " Essai sur le Chevaiier Bayard," 
 1816; I'. Cohen, "Histoire de Pierre du Terrail," 1821 ; Dslandinb 
 de Saint-Esprit, "Histoirede Bayard," 1842; W.G.SlMMS, "Lite 
 of Chevalier Bayard," New York, 1S47; Major-General John M it- 
 CHELL, " Biographies of Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centu- 
 ries," 1865. 
 
 Bayard, (Samuel,) an American jurist, born about 
 1765. He published a "Digest of American Cases on 
 the Law of Evidence," 1810, and an "Abstract of the 
 Laws of the United States." Died in 1840. 
 
 Bayazeed, Bayazid, or Bajasid, ba'yd-zeed', I., less 
 correctly, Baj'a-zet, Sultan of the ( Htomans, surnamed 
 ILDKKEEM, (Ii.derim,) or " Lightning," on account of his 
 rapid movements, born in 1347, was the son of Amurath I. 
 He ascended the throne in 1390, and within a few years 
 subjugated Bulgaria, the greater part of Asia Minor, and 
 a considerable portion of Greece. In 1396 he gained a 
 tjgnal victory over the allied army of the Hungarians, 
 Poles, and French, at Nicopolis, from which Sigismund, 
 King of Hungary, with difficulty escaped. Tamerlane 
 having invaded Asia Minor, a battle was fought be- 
 tween him and Bayazeed near Angora in 1401, in which 
 the army of the latter was totally defeated and he him- 
 self taken prisoner. It is related that Bayazeed was 
 confined by his conqueror in an iron cage. He died in 
 1403, and was succeeded by Mahomet I. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Gescliichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Bayazeed, Bayazid, or Bajazet II., born in 1447, 
 
 succored his father, Mahomet II., in 1481. He was 
 
 ;ed in almost constant warfare with the Hungarians, 
 
 Poles, Venetians, and Persians, and was at length deposed 
 
 by his son Selim. Died in 1512. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Baye, \A, (Francois Berthelot — beRt'lo',) Mar- 
 QJIS OF, a French general, wrote an "Account of the 
 Campaigns of Marshal deCrequi in 1677." Died in 1776. 
 
 Bayen, bl'yoN', (Pierre,) a French chemist and phar- 
 macist, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1 725, was the author 
 of treatises on the mineral waters of France, and on the 
 metallic oxides. Died in 1798. 
 
 See Hosran, " Hisurin <1<- la Chimie." 
 
 Bayen y Sabias. See Bayeu y Subias. 
 
 Bayer, ba-yaiR', (Francisco Perez,) a Spanish an- 
 tiquary, born at Valencia in 171 1. He was successively 
 
 professor of Hebrew at Salamanca, preceptor of the In- 
 fant Don Gabriel, and keeper of the library at Madrid. 
 He wrote, among other works, a treatise " On the Alpha- 
 bet and Language of the Phoenicians and their Colonies," 
 (1772.) Died in 1794. 
 
 Bayer, bl'er, (Gottlieb Siegfried,) an eminent Ger- 
 man Orientalist, particularly distinguished as a Chinese 
 scholar, born at KSnigsberg in 1694, was a grandson of 
 the astronomer Johann Bayer. In 1726 he was invited 
 to become professor of Greek and Roman antiquities at 
 Saint Petersburg. His principal work is entitled "Mu- 
 seum Sinicum," (2 vols., 1730.) It contains a Chinese 
 grammar and lexicon, a treatise on Chinese chronology, 
 and extracts from Chinese works. He also wrote, in 
 Latin, a valuable " History of Osrhcena and Edessa, 
 illustrated by Coins," and was a contributor to the "Acta 
 Eruditorum," and the "Memoirs" of the Academy of 
 Saint Petersburg. Died in 1738. 
 
 Bayer,(HiERoNYMUs Johann Paul,) a German jurist, 
 and professor of law at Munich, born at Rauris in 1792. 
 
 Bayer, (Johann,) a German astronomer and Protest- 
 ant preacher, born at Augsburg about 1572. He pub- 
 lished in 1603 an excellent work called " Uranometria," 
 a description of the constellations, with charts, in which 
 the stars were for the first time designated by the letters 
 of the Greek alphabet. This very convenient innovation 
 was universally approved. He died in 1660. 
 
 See Montucla, "Histoire des Mathematiques;" Ersch und 
 Gruber, "Allgenieine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bayer, (Johann Wolfgang,) a German Jesuit, born 
 at Schlesslitz, in Bavaria, was sent in 1749 as a mission- 
 ary to Peru. 
 
 Bayer de Boppart, bl'er deh bop'paRt, (Conrad,) 
 became Bishop of Metz in 1415 ; died in 1459. 
 
 Bayer de Boppart, (Thierry,) Bishop of Metz, was 
 ambassador of the emperor Charles IV. at Rome. Died 
 in 1384. 
 
 Bayes, baz, (Joshua,) a Presbyterian nonconformist 
 minister, born at Sheffield in 1671, preached in London. 
 Died in 1746. 
 
 Bayes, (Thomas,) a son of the preceding, was a Pres- 
 byterian minister at Tunbridge Wells, and noted as a 
 writer on mathematics. Died in 1761. 
 
 Bayeu y Subias, bi'e-oo e soo-Ree'as, sometimes in- 
 correctly written Bayen y Sabias, (Francisco,) an 
 able Spanish painter, born at Saragossa in 1734. He 
 worked at Madrid, and obtained the title of painter to 
 the king. Died about 1795. 
 
 See Bermudez. " Diccionario Historico," 
 
 Bayeux, bS'yuh', (George,) a French jurist and 
 litterateur, born at Caen about 1752. He made a prose 
 translation of the *. Fasti'* of Ovid, accompanied with 
 valuable notes, and wrote, among other works, " Reflec- 
 tions on the Reign of Trajan," (1787.) Having been 
 appointed royal commissioner, he was killed in a mob at 
 Caen in 1792. 
 
 Bayf. See Baif, (Lazare.) 
 
 Bayhoffer. See Bayrhoffer. 
 
 Bayle, bil, (Antoine Laurent Jess£,) a French phy- 
 sician, nephew of Gaspard Laurent, noticed below, was 
 born at Vernet in 1799. He wrote, among other works, 
 an " Elementary Treatise on Anatomy," and was principal 
 editor of the " Encyclopedic- des Sciences." 
 
 Bayle, (Francois,) a French physician and writer, 
 born at Saint-Bertrand-de-Cominines in 1622, was pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Toulouse. Died in 1709. 
 
 Bayle, (Gaspard Laurent,) an eminent French phy- 
 sician, born at Vernet, in Provence, in 1774. He gradu- 
 ated in Paris, where he was subsequently appointed 
 physician to the emperor Napoleon. He wrote, among 
 other treatises, " Researches on Pulmonary Consump- 
 tion," (1810,) a work of high reputation, and was a con- 
 tributor to the " Dictionnaire des Sciences medicates. " 
 Died in Paris in 1816. 
 
 Bayle, (Moi'SE,) a French revolutionist and member 
 of the National Convention, born in Languedoc about 
 1760, voted for the death of the king and the Girondists. 
 He was appointed in 1703 president of the Convention. 
 He was the author of "Letters to Freron," (1795.) Died 
 about 1815. 
 
 Bayle, (Pierre,) a celebrated philosopher and critic, 
 
 » as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as;; G, II, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jrjff=See Explanations, p. 23. 1 
 
BAYLE 
 
 296 
 
 BAZAINE 
 
 born at Carlat, in Ariege, in the south of France, on the 
 18th of November, 1647, was a son of a Protestant min- 
 ister. He studied at the college of Toulouse, where he 
 joined the Roman Catholic Church ; but he returned to 
 his former religion about a year later, and retired for 
 safety to Geneva, (1670.) For several years he served 
 as private tutor at Geneva, Rouen, and Paris. In 1675 
 he was appointed professor of philosophy at the Protest- 
 ant academy of Sedan, which was suppressed by Louis 
 XIV. in 1681. To reassure the public, alarmed by the 
 comet of 1680, he produced his admirable letter on the 
 Comet, ("Pensees diverses sur la Comete," 1682.) He 
 became professor of philosophy and history at Rotter- 
 dam in 16S1. He defended the Calvinists against the mis- 
 representations of Maimbourg, in his " Critique generate 
 de l'Histoire de Calvinisme de Maimbourg," (1682,) 
 which was very successful and contributed much to in- 
 crease his reputation. In 1684 he began to issue monthly 
 a critical journal or review, entitled " Nouvelles de la 
 Republique des Lettres," which obtained some reputa- 
 tion, but was discontinued in 1687. 
 
 His repose was disturbed by the jealous enmity of 
 Jurieu, his former friend, who accused him of being the 
 author of an anonymous work, "Avis aux Refugies," 
 which was injurious to the Protestant cause. The magis- 
 trates of Rotterdam deprived him of his professorship 
 in 1693, actuated, it appears, by a suspicion that he was 
 not sound in faith. His principal work is a "Historical 
 and Critical Dictionary," (" Dictionnaire historique et 
 critique," 2 vols, folio, 1696,) which obtained extensive 
 popularity but was censured for its skeptical tendency. 
 It appears to have exerted a great influence over the 
 literature and philosophy of Europe. A third and en- 
 larged edition was published by Prosper Marchand, (4 
 vols., 1720.) This dictionary was translated into English 
 and other languages. As a writer, Bayle was remarka- 
 ble for wit, vivacity, dialectical skill, and love of paradox. 
 "An admirable dialectician rather than a profound phi- 
 losopher," says Voltaire, "he knew scarcely anything of 
 physical science." " Bayle is admirable," says Hallam, 
 "in exposing the fallacies of dogmatism, the perplexities 
 of philosophy, the weaknesses of those who affect to 
 guide the opinions of mankind. But, wanting the ne- 
 cessary conditions of good reasoning, an earnest desire 
 to reason well, a moral rectitude, ... he often avails 
 himself of petty cavils and becomes dogmatical in his 
 very doubts. . . . The sophistry of Bayle, however, bears 
 no proportion to his just and acute observations." (" In- 
 troduction to the Literature of Europe.") He died at 
 Rotterdam in December, 1706. He is said to have been 
 strictly moral, disinterested, and indifferent to temporal 
 riches. Warburton speaks of him as one " who with a 
 soul superior to the sharpest attacks of fortune and a 
 heart practised to the best philosophy," yet "struck into 
 the province of paradox as an exercise for the unwearied 
 vigour of his mind." ("Divine Legation," book i.) 
 
 See Du Revert, "Histoire de Bayle et de ses Ouvrages," 1716; 
 Pierre des Maizeaux, "Viede Pierre Bayle," 1712; Keuerbach, 
 " Pierre Bayle, seine Verdienste fur die Geschichte der Philosophic," 
 1838; " Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" Sainte-Beuve, in the "Revue 
 des Deux Mondes" for December, 1835. 
 
 Bayle, sometimes written Bailie, (Pierre,) a French 
 Jacobin, born at Marseilles, was a member of the Na- 
 tional Convention, where he voted for the death of the 
 king. He was arrested at Toulon when that city was given 
 up to the English, and was put to death in prison, (1793.) 
 
 Bayley, ba'le, (Edward,) an English physician, wrote 
 an "Account of the Earthquake at Havana in 1734." 
 Died in 1760. 
 
 Bayley, (Frederick W. N. B.,) an English littera- 
 teur, and first editor of the " Illustrated London News," 
 born in 1807. He wrote the "New Tale of a Tub," in 
 verse, " Little Red-Riding-Hood," and other poems. 
 Died in 1852. 
 
 Bayley, (Sir John,) an English jurist, born in 1763. 
 He published a " Summary of the Laws of Bills of Ex- 
 change," ( 1 789,) and became a justice of the king's bench 
 in 1808. Died in 1841. 
 
 Bayley, (Richard,) an American physician, born in 
 Fairfield, Connecticut, in 1745. He began to practise 
 medicine in the city of New York in 1 772, and advocated 
 a new mode of treating croup, which was extensively 
 
 adopted. He published a " Letter on the Croup," ( 1 7S1,) 
 and an "Essay on the Yellow Fever," (1797.) In I793he 
 became professor of surgery in Columbia College. Lied 
 in 1801. 
 
 See Thacher, "Medical Biography." 
 
 Baylies. See Bailies, (William.) 
 
 Baylies, ba'lez, (Francis,) an American politician, 
 born in 1784, was a member of Congress from Massa- 
 chusetts. He wrote a " History of the Old Colonv of 
 Plymouth," (1828.) Died in 1852. 
 
 Bay'ly or BaiTey, (Anselm,) an English scholar, 
 published some theological and critical works. 
 
 Bayly, (John,) son of Lewis, Bishop of Bangor, born 
 in 1595, was the author of a work entitled "The Angtl 
 Guardian." Died in 1633. 
 
 Bayly, (Lewis,) Bishop of Bangor, born in Caennar. 
 then about 1565, was the author of a very popular worl, 
 entitled "Practice of Piety." It was translated int.- 
 Welsh and several other languages. Died in 1632. 
 
 Bayly, (Thomas,) an English divine and controveB 
 sialist, was a son of Lewis, Bishop of Bangor. He was 
 converted to Catholicism about 1650. 
 
 Bayly, (Thomas Haynes,) an English lyric poet and 
 miscellaneous writer, born near Bath in 1797. His works 
 include novels and tales and numerous dramatic pieces. 
 His songs enjoy great popularity. Died in 1839. 
 
 Bay'ljf, (Thomas Henry,) an American politician, 
 born in Accomac county, Virginia, in 1S10, was a law- 
 yer. He was a member of Congress from 1844 to 1856, 
 and was chairman of the committee of ways and means 
 during several sessions. Died in 1856. 
 
 Bayly, (William,) an English astronomer, sent by 
 the Royal Society in 1769 to the North Cape, to ob- 
 serve the transit of Venus. Died in 1810. 
 
 Bay'nam or Bayn'ham, (William,) an American 
 surgeon and anatomist, born in Caroline county, Virginia, 
 in 1 749. He studied in London, where he passed many 
 years, and became an excellent anatomist. He returned 
 to America about 1785, and settled in Essex county, Vir- 
 ginia. He performed many difficult surgical operations 
 with success, and wrote several articles for medical jour- 
 nals. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Thacher, "Medical Biography." 
 
 Bayne, (Alexander,) a Scottish jurist, born in Fife- 
 shire, was appointed in 1722 to the chair of Scottish law 
 at Edinburgh, then recently established. He wrote a 
 treatise "On the Rise and Progress of the Law of Scot- 
 land, and the Method of studying it," and edited Hope's 
 " Minor Practicks," which had remained in manuscript 
 nearly a century. Died in 1737. 
 
 Bayne or Baine, ban, (James,) a Scottish dissenting 
 divine and eloquent preacher, born in 1710. Hepreached 
 in Edinburgh. Died in 1790. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bayne, (William,) an English naval officer, was 
 killed in an engagement between the French and English 
 near the West Indies in 1782. 
 
 Bayn'ham, (James,) an English lawyer, who was 
 burned at the stake in 1530 for having denied the real 
 presence in the eucharist. 
 
 Bayn'tun, (Sir William Henry,) a British admiral, 
 born about 1765; died in 1840. 
 
 Bayon, de, deh bi'ydN', (Jean,) a French monk and 
 ecclesiastical writer, lived at Bayon about 1290. 
 
 Bayrhoffer, biR'hof'fer, incorrectly written Bay 
 hoffer, (Karl Theodor,) a German philosopher of the 
 school of Hegel, born at Marburg in 1812. He became 
 professor of philosophy in his native city in 1845. Hs 
 wrote, among other works, a treatise "On Catholicism 
 in Germany," "Idea and History of Philosophy," (1838,) 
 and "Researches on the Essence, History, ana Criti- 
 cism of Religion," (1849.) He was an active radical 
 politician in 1848. 
 
 Bayro. See Bmro, (Pietro.) 
 
 Bazaine, bt'z&n', a French mathematician, born near 
 Metz about the middle of the eighteenth century, wrote 
 a work entitled " French Metrology." Died in 1833. 
 
 Bazaine, (Francois Achille,) a French general, 
 born in 181 1. He commanded a brigade at Sevastopol 
 in 1854, and became a general of division in 1855. He 
 obtained, in 1863 or 1864, the chief command of the 
 
 S, e, I, o, u, y, long; 1, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, 11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
BAZAL1ER0 
 
 297 
 
 BEATON 
 
 That army was withdrawn in 
 
 French army in Mexico, 
 the latter part of 1866. 
 
 Bazaliero, bad-za-le-a'ro, (Caligula,) an Italian poet 
 end bookseller of Bologna, lived about 1480. 
 
 Bazan. See BasaN. 
 
 Bazancourt, de, deh bS'z&N'kooR', (Jean Baptiste 
 Marin Antoine Lecat— leh'kS',) a French general, 
 born at Val-de-Molle in 1767. He served in Egypt and 
 in the Austrian campaign of 1805, and was subsequently 
 created a baron of the empire and commander of the 
 of honour. Died in 1830. 
 ■■ Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Baz'a-rad', the first Prince of Wallachia of whom his- 
 tory gives a particular account, ruled over that country 
 1 530. . 
 
 Bazard, bi'zaV, (Amand,) a French journalist, and 
 founder of Carbonarism in France, born in Paris inl79l. 
 He was a principal contributor to the journal entitled 
 " L'Aristarque," and was subsequently associate editor 
 of " Le Producteur," the organ of the Saint-Simonians, 
 whose system he had adopted. Becoming dissatisfied 
 with the extreme doctrines of that sect, he proclaimed 
 himself the head of the new Saint-Simonian hierarchy. 
 I in 1832. 
 
 SeeMiciiAtDetViLLENAVE,"HistoireduSaint-Simonisme,"i847. 
 
 Baze, biz, (N.,) a French lawyer, born at Agen in 
 1S00, was elected in 1848 to the Legislative Assembly. 
 
 Bazhenof, bazh'e-nof, (Vasili Ivanovitch,) an 
 eminent Russian architect, born at Moscow in 1737. He 
 studied at Saint Petersburg, and subsequently in Paris 
 under Duval, and on his return was made adjunct of the 
 Academy of Fine Arts. His principal work is the Saint 
 Michael Palace at Saint Petersburg; he also assisted 111 
 the construction of the Kazan church in that city. Bazh- 
 enov made a Russian translation of Vitruvius, (4 vols., 
 1790.) He was vice-president of the Academy of Fine 
 Arts at Saint Petersburg, and member of several foreign 
 Academies. Died in 1799. 
 
 Bazicalva, bad-ze-kal'va, written also Bazzicaluve, 
 (Ercole,) an Italian designer and engraver of the seven- 
 teenth century, was a native of Pisa. 
 Baziii. See Basin. 
 
 Bazin, ba'zaN', (Anais de Raucou, f'nt'ess' deh 
 ro'koo',) a French historian and lawyer, born in Paris 
 in 1797. He wrote a "History of France under Louis 
 XIII.," (2 vols., 1837,) and other works. Died in 1850. 
 Bazin, (Claude,) a French physician and professor 
 of pharmacy, born in Paris; died m 1612. 
 
 Bazin, (Denis,) a French physician and professor of 
 surgery at the Royal College ; died in 1632. 
 
 Bazin, (GlLLES Augustin,) a French naturalist, born 
 in Paris, practised medicine at Strasburg. He wrote 
 several treatises on plants and insects. Died in 1754. 
 
 Bazin, (Guillaume,) a French physician, born near' 
 Chartres, became in 1472 dean of the faculty of medicine 
 in Paris. Died in I SOO. 
 
 Bazin, (JAOQUES Rigomer,) a French jurist and poli- 
 tician, born at Mans in 1771, was editor for a time of 
 "Le Democrate," in which he opposed the Directory. 
 He was mortally wounded in a duel in 1820. 
 
 Bazin, (JEAN,) a French diplomatist, born at Blois in 
 1538. 1 Ic'was sent on a mission to Poland in 1572, and 
 procured the election of the Duke of Anjou as King of 
 Poland. Died in 1592. 
 
 Bazin, (Nicolas,) a French engraver, born at Troyes 
 about 1636, was a pupil of Claude Mellan. He executed 
 a number of prints after Correggio, Guido, and Lebrun. 
 Died about 1706. 
 
 Bazin, (Simon,) son of Claude Bazin, noticed above, 
 was dean of the faculty of Paris in 1638. Died in 1660. 
 Bazine. See Basine. 
 
 Bazinghen, de, deh bS'?aN'g6N', (Francois Andre 
 Abot— S'bo',1 a French antiquary and numismatist, born 
 at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1710. Died in 1791. 
 
 Bazire or Basire, bS'zeR', (Claude,) born at Dijon 
 in 1764, was a member of the National Convention, and 
 voted for the death of Louis XVI. He was a partisan 
 of Danton, and was executed in 1 794. 
 Bazius or Baaziua. See Baaz, 
 Baz'ley, (Thomas,) born in Lancashire in 1 797, became 
 president of the Manchester chamber of commerce in 1 845. 
 
 Bazot, bi'zo', (Etienne Francois,) a French littira 
 teur, born in the department of Nievre in 1782. 
 Bazzacco. See Ponchino. 
 
 Bazzani, bat-sa'nee, (Gasparo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Reggio in 1701 ; died in 1780. 
 
 Bazzani, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, and director 
 of the Academy of Painting at Mantua, executed a num- 
 ber of frescos in that city. Died in 1 769. 
 
 Bazzani, (Matteo,) an Italian physician and natu- 
 ralist, born at Bologna in 1674; died in 1749. 
 
 Bazzano, di, de bat-sa'no, (Francesco Angeluc- 
 Cio,) an Italian chronicler of the sixteenth century, wrote 
 a " History of Aquila from 1436 to 1585." 
 Bazzicaluve. See Bazicalva. 
 Bazzino, bat-see'no, or Bazzini, bat-see'nee, (Fran- 
 cesco,) an Italian composer and organist, born at Lovero, 
 in the Venetian States, about 1600. Died in 1660. 
 
 Bazzino, (Natale,) an Italian musician, was a bro- 
 ther of the preceding. Died in 1639. 
 
 Beach, (Abraham,) D.D., an Episcopal clergyman, 
 born at Cheshire, Connecticut, in 1740, graduated at 
 Yale College in 1757. He became assistant rector of 
 Trinity Church, New York. Died in 1828. 
 
 Beach, (Moses Yale,) an American mechanic and 
 projector, born in Wallingford, Connecticut, in 1800. 
 About 1835 he went to the city of New York, and be- 
 came proprietor of "The Sun," said to be the first penny 
 paper published in this country. Died in 1868. 
 Beacon. See Becon, (Thomas.) 
 Beak. See Bek, (Anthony.) 
 
 Beale, beel, (Bartholomew,) an English physician, 
 born in the latter part of the seventeenth century, was a 
 son of Mary Beale, mentioned below. 
 
 Beale, (Lionel,) an English physician and writer, 
 born about 1820. He became professor of physiology, 
 etc. in London. 
 
 Beale, (Mary,) an English portrait-painter, born in 
 1632, was a pupil of Sir Peter Lely. Among her best 
 works are portraits of Dr. Tillotson and the Bishop of 
 Chester. She was also the author of poems, which were 
 admired by her contemporaries. Died in 1697. 
 See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting in England." 
 Beale, [Lat. Be'lus,] (Robert,) an English jurist 
 and diplomatist under the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was 
 a brother-in-law of Sir Francis Walsingham. He was 
 ambassador at the court of the Prince of Orange in 1576, 
 and was employed in other important missions. He 
 possessed one of the most valuable historical libraries in 
 Europe. Died in 1601. 
 
 Bean, (Richard,) an English painter and engraver, 
 born in 1792; died in 1817. 
 
 Beard (J 0HN J a distinguished English tenor-singer, 
 born about 17 17; died about 1791. 
 
 Beard, (John R.,) an English clergyman, born about 
 1800, published, besides other works, the "People's Dic- 
 tionary of the Bible," (2 vols.,) and a "Life of Toussaint 
 L'Ouverture." He preached some years in Manchester. 
 Beard, (Thomas,) an Irish engraver, lived about 1720. 
 Bearde de l'Abbaye, baVda/ deh li'bj', a French 
 agricultural writer, died in 1771. 
 
 Beas'ley, (Frederick,) an Episcopal clergyman, 
 born in 1777, was professor of moral philosophy in the 
 University of Pennsylvania from 1813 to 1828. Among 
 his works are "An Examination of the Oxford Divinity," 
 "A Search of Truth in the Science of the Human Mind," 
 and a "Reply to the Views of Dr. Channing." His 
 writings attracted attention in Europe. Died at Eliza- 
 bethtown, New Jersey, in 1845. 
 Beatiano. See Beaziano. 
 
 Beatillo, ba-5-tel'lo, (Antonio,) an Italian Jesuit and 
 popular preacher, born near Naples in 1570 ; died in 1642. 
 Bea'ton, [Scottish pron. ba'ton,] written also Bea- 
 toun, Beton, or Bethune, (David,) Cardinal, and Arch- 
 bishop of Saint Andrew's, a formidable opponent of the 
 reformed religion in Scotland, was bom in 1494. He 
 finished his studies in Paris, and in 1 5 19 was appointed 
 Scottish resident at the French court. After his return, 
 he took his seat in Parliament, in 1525, as Abbot of 
 Arbroath, and became lord privy seal in 1528. In 1533 
 he was ambassador, in company with Sir Thomas Ers- 
 kine, to France, where he negotiated the marriage of 
 
 1 k; c as s; g hard; g mj; G, h, K, guttural; N, »asal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BEATON 
 
 298 
 
 BEAUCHAMP 
 
 James V. with Madeleine, daughter of Francis I., and, 
 after her decease, prepared the way for a second mar- 
 riage with the daughter of the Duke of Guise. He suc- 
 ceeded his uncle as Archbishop of Saint Andrew's in 
 1539, having shortly before been created a cardinal by 
 Pope Paul III. On the death of King James, in 1542, 
 Beaton claimed the regency by right of a forged will 
 which he produced ; but the Earl of Arran was appointed 
 regent, and, after a struggle for the supremacy, the car- 
 dinal prevailed upon him to abjure Protestantism. From 
 this time he applied himself to the work of persecution, 
 and incurred general odium by his cruelties, especially 
 in the execution of the celebrated George Wishart. In 
 May, 1546, he was assassinated in the chamber of his 
 castle by a band of reformers headed by Norman Leslie. 
 
 See Cook, " History of the Reformation in Scotland;" Knox, 
 "History of the Reformation in Scotland;" Froude, "History of 
 England," vol. iv. chaps, xviii.-xxii. ; Robertson, " History of Scot- 
 land ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Beaton, (James,) uncle of the preceding, was born 
 about 1470. He rose through several promotions to be 
 chancellor of the kingdom, and Archbishop of Saint An- 
 drew's, in 1522. He was a member of the council of 
 regency appointed in 1524. Died in 1539. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Beaton, (James,) an eminent Scottish prelate, born 
 about 1520, was a nephew of Cardinal Beaton. He be- 
 came Archbishop of Glasgow in 1552. He was a confi- 
 dential adviser of the queen regent, after whose death, 
 in 1560, he retired for safety to France. Died at Paris 
 in 1603. 
 
 Beatoun. See Beaton. 
 
 Beatrice. See Beatrizet, (Nicolas.) 
 
 Beatrice Fortinari, ba-a-tRee'cha poR-te-na'ree, an 
 Italian lady of rare beauty and loveliness of character, 
 immortalized by Dante in his "Divine Comedy," was a 
 native of Florence. She was married to Simone dei 
 Bardi. Died about 1290. 
 
 See Balbo, "Vita di Dante." 
 
 Be'a-trix, (or be-a'triks,) a daughter of Renaud, 
 Count of Burgundy, was married in 1 156 to the emperor 
 Frederick I. of Germany. Died in 1185. 
 
 Beatrix, a daughter of P'erdinand of Aragon, King 
 of Naples, was married to Matthias Corvinus, King of 
 Hungary, in 1475. Died in 1508. 
 
 Beatrix OF Lorraine was the wife of Boniface III., 
 Marquis or Duke of Tuscany, and the mother of the cele- 
 brated Countess Matilda. After the death of Boniface 
 she was married to Godefroi le Barbu, Duke of Lorraine. 
 Died in 1076. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Beatrix, Saint, sister of Saint Faustinus and Saint 
 Simplicius, was put to death in 303 for having drawn 
 from the Tiber and buried the bodies of her brothers 
 above named, who had been decapitated by order of Dio- 
 cletian. 
 
 Beatrizet, bS'tRe'zk', or Baautrizet, bo'tRe'zi.', 
 (Nicolas,) a French designer and engraver, sometimes 
 called Beatrici or Beatrice, born about 1507. Among 
 his master-pieces are "Joseph sold by his Brethren," 
 after Raphael, and an "Ascension," after Michael Angelo. 
 Died about 1570. 
 
 See Le Blanc, " Manuel de PAmateur d'Estampes." 
 
 Beatson, beVson or beet'son, (Robert,) a Scottish 
 writer and compiler, born in Fifeshire in 1742. Among 
 his principal works we may name the " Naval and Military 
 Memoirs of Great Britain from 1727 to the Present Time," 
 (3 vols., 1790.) Died in 1818. 
 
 See Chambers. "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Beattie, bee'te, [Scottish pron. ba'te,] (James,) a 
 Scottish poet and philosophical writer, born in the county 
 of Kincardine in 1735. He was appointed in 1760 pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy and logic at Marischal Col- 
 lege, Aberdeen. In 1767 he brought out his " Essay on 
 Truth," written in refutation of the doctrines of Hume. 
 It went through five editions in four years, and was trans- 
 lated into several languages. The first book of " The 
 Minstrel" appeared in 1771, and met with great favour. 
 Beattie soon after this visited London, where he ac- 
 quired the friendship of Dr. Johnson, Goldsmith, and 
 other eminent literary men ; and during a second visit, 
 
 in 1773, he obtained from the University of Oxford the 
 degree of D.C.L. About this time he published the 
 second book of "The Minstrel," which was followed hi 
 a few years by a number of moral and critical essays, and 
 a treatise " On the Evidences of Christianity," (1786.) In 
 1790 Dr. Beattie lost his eldest son, James Hay Beattie, 
 a youth of rare promise and endowments ; and to this 
 bereavement was added in 1796 that of his only remain- 
 ing child, a son of eighteen years. His health, which had 
 long been feeble, gave way under these afflictions, and 
 he died in 1803. His most popular work, "The Min- 
 strel," without displaying great originality, is charac- 
 terized by such melody of versification, tenderness of 
 feeling, and fine perception of the beauty and grandeur 
 of external nature, as have rendered it a favourite with 
 all classes. It is eulogized by Gray, Dr. Johnson, and 
 Byron. Burns sent a copy as a present to a friend with 
 these lines : 
 
 " I send you more than India's boast, 
 In Edwin's simple tale." 
 
 Cowper pronounces Beattie the most agreeable and 
 amiable writer he ever met with, "whose critical and 
 philosophical researches are diversified and embellished 
 by a poetical imagination that makes even the driest sub- 
 ject a feast for an epicure in books." 
 
 See Sir William Forbes, "Life of James Beattie," 2 vols., 1S06; 
 Alexander Bower, "Life of James Beattie," 1804 ; Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " EncyclopsedSJ 
 Britaimica ;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807. 
 
 Beattie, (James Hay,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Aberdeen in 1768. He was appointed professor 
 of moral philosophy at Aberdeen before he was nineteen 
 years old. He died in 1790, leaving " Essays and Frag- 
 ments," (1794.) 
 
 See " Life of James H. Beattie," by his father, 1791. 
 
 Beattie, (William,) born in 1770, was physician to 
 the fleet, and was present at the death of Nelson, at the 
 battle of Trafalgar. He published an "Authentic Nar- 
 rative of the Death of Nelson," (1807.) Died in 1843. 
 
 Beattie, (William,) M.D., a popular English author 
 and physician, born in Scotland. He graduated about 
 1820, and removed to London. Among his numerous 
 works are the " Heliotrope, or Pilgrim in Pursuit of 
 Health," a poem, (1833,) and "The Danube: its His- 
 tory, Scenery, etc.," (1844.) He published a well-written 
 " Biography of Thomas Campbell," who was his friend, 
 (3 vols., 1849.) 
 
 Be-a'tus Rhe-na'nus, a German scholar, wlmse 
 original name was Bild, (bJlt,) born in Alsace in 14S5. 
 He published the first edition of the Roman hi 
 of Velleius Paterculus, and, according to Dupin, first 
 caused the works of Tertullian to be printed. He also 
 wrote, in Latin, a " History of Germany." Died in 1547. 
 
 SeeVossius, " De Historicis Latinis;" Baillet, " Jugements des 
 1 Savants." 
 
 Beaubreuil, de, deh boTiRul', (or bo'bRuh'ye,) 
 (Jean,) a French lawyer and litterateur of the sixteenth 
 century, was the author of a tragedy entitled " Atilius 
 Regulus," (1582.) 
 
 Beaubrun, bo'bRuN', (Charles and Henri,) some- 
 times written Bobrun, French portrait-painters, born at 
 Amboise in the early part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Beaubrun, (Louis,) a portrait-painter, born at Am- 
 boise, resided in Paris about 1640. 
 
 Beaucaire de Peguillon, bo'kaV deh pa'ge'voN', 
 (Francois,) a French prelate and historian, born in 
 1514, was an intimate friend of the Cardinal Charles de 
 Lorraine, by whom he was created Bishop of Metz. lie 
 wrote, in Latin, a "History of France from 1 541 to 1562." 
 
 See Baillet, " Jugements des Savants." 
 
 Beauchamp or Beauchamps, bo'shoN', (Joseph,] 
 a French astronomer, and member of the Institute of 
 France, born at Vesoul in 1742, was a friend and pupil 
 of Lalande. He was appointed in 1795 consul at Mus- 
 cat, in Arabia. He contributed a number of treatises to 
 the "Journal des Savants" and the "Memoirs of the 
 Institute of Cairo." He was one of the savants employed 
 in Egypt in 1798. Died in 1801. 
 
 Beauchamp, bee'eham, (Richard,) Earl of War- 
 wick, an English general, born about 1380, served in 
 France under Henry V. He succeeded the Duke of 
 Bedford as regent in France, and died at Rouen in 1439. 
 
 3, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, $!, short ; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mi t; not; g<56d; moon; 
 
BEAV CHAMP 
 
 299 
 
 BEAUHARNAIS 
 
 Beauchamp, (Richard,) an English prelate, noted 
 for his knowledge of architecture, became Bishop of 
 ury in 1450. He rebuilt the chapel at Windsor 
 Under Edward IV., and the great hall in the episcopal 
 of Salisbury. Died about 1481. 
 Beauchamp, de, deh bo'sh6.N', (Alfonse,) a littera- 
 teur and politician, born at Monaco, in Sardinia, in 1767. 
 He wrote, among other works, a "History of La Ven- 
 and a " Life of General Moreau," (1814.) He was 
 ributor to the " Biographie Universelle" and the 
 ;te de Fiance." Died in 1832. 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclop^dique de la France." 
 
 Beauchamp, de, (Charles Gr£goire,) Marquis, 
 born in Poitou in 1731, was a deputy in 1789 to the 
 General, where he was an advocate of the cause 
 of royalty. Died in 181 7. 
 
 Beauchamps, de, deh bS'sho.N', (Pierre Francois 
 Godart — go'dik',) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 
 1689, WTot; .'. number of comedies and romances. Died 
 in 17"! 
 
 Beauchateau, de, deh bo'shi'to', (Franqois Ma- 
 
 THIEU Chastelet — shat'li',) a precocious French poet, 
 
 born in Paris in 1645. Fie wrote, at the age of twelve, a 
 
 collection of poems entitled "The Lyre of the Young 
 
 1." Died about 1700. 
 
 Beauchateau, de, (Hippolyte Chastelet,) brother 
 of the preceding, visited England, where he was converted 
 'testantism in 1675, and became noted as a pulpit 
 orator. 
 
 Beauchene, de, deh bo'sheV, (Edme Pierre Chan- 
 vot — shdN'vo',) a French physician and writer, born at 
 Ville-Franche, near Joigny, in 1748, was consulting phy- 
 sician to Louis XVIII. Died in 1824. 
 
 Beauchesne-Gouin, de, deh bo'shin' goo-ax', a 
 French navigator, who discovered in 1699 an island in 
 the Strait ot Magellan, to which he gave the name of 
 Louis-le-Grand, and in 1701 an island south of East 
 Falkland, which he called Isle Beauchene. 
 
 See Wood, " Cruizing Voyage," London, 1718. 
 
 Beauclair, de, deh bo'klSR', (P. L.,) a miscellaneous 
 writer, born in the Isle of France in 1735 ; died in 1804. 
 
 Beauclerc, bo'klerk', (Diana,) an English artist, who 
 lived about 17S0, furnished designs for the beautiful 
 edition of " Lenore" translated by W. H. Spencer. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Beauclerk, bo'klerk', (Topham,) an English gentle- 
 man of distinguished talents and wit, born in 1739, was 
 an intimate friend of Dr. Johnson. Died in 1780. 
 Beaucousin, bo'koo'zaV, (Christophe Jean Fran- 
 a French jurist and biographical writer, born at 
 n 1723 ; died in 1798. 
 Beaudoux. See Baudoux. 
 Beauffremont. See Bauffremont. 
 Beaufils, bo'fess', (Guillaume,) a French Jesuit, 
 born in Auvergne in 1674; died in 1757. 
 
 Beaufort, bu'fort, (Sir Francis,) F.R.S., a British 
 
 rear-admiral, born about 1775, was distinguished as a 
 
 ^rapher, and produced several charts of sea-coasts. 
 
 9 hydrographer to the admiralty from 1832 to 1855. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Beaufort, (Henry,) Cardinal, an ambitious English 
 
 ' ", a half-brother of King Henry IV., was born 
 
 about 1370. He was a son of John of Gaunt, Duke of 
 
 nd Catherine Swynford. He became Bishop 
 
 of Winchester in 1404, after which he appears to have 
 
 acted as lord chancellor. At the death of Henry V., in 
 
 1422, the care of the person and education of the infant 
 
 VI. was intrusted to Beaufort, who, says Hume, 
 
 "was a prelate of great capacity, but of an intriguing 
 
 an i dangerous character." He had a long contest for 
 
 the ascendency with his nephew the Duke of Gloucester, 
 
 over whom he eventually prevailed. (See Gloucester, 
 
 hrey, Duke of.) Died in 1447. Shakspeare has 
 
 no doubt followed the commonly-received estimate of 
 
 Beaufort's character in his "Henry VI." 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Livesof the Lord Chancellors ;" Aubery, 
 e des Cardinaux." 
 
 Beaufort, (Margaret,) Countess of Richmond and 
 
 Derby, born in 1441, was descended from John of Gaunt, 
 
 Duke of Lancaster. She was successively married to 
 
 I Edmund Tudor, half-brother of Henry VI., to Sir Henry 
 
 Stafford, and to Lord Stanley, afterwards Earl of Derby 
 Her son by her first marriage became king, under the 
 name of Henry VII. She was distinguished for her 
 charities and her patronage of learning, and was the 
 founder of Christ's College (1505) and Saint John's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge. She also established the professorship 
 of divinity called from her name the Lady Margaret 
 professorship. She translated some religious works from 
 the French. Died in 1509. 
 
 See " Life of Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond," by C. 
 A. Halsted; Walpole. "Royal and Noble Authors." 
 
 Beaufort, de, deh bo'foR', (Eustache,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born in 1635, was appointed abbot of Sept- 
 Fonts. Died in 1709. 
 
 Beaufort, de, (Francois de Vendome,) Due, born 
 in Paris in 1616, was the son of Cesar de Vendome, and 
 the grandson of Henry IV. In the war of the Fronde 
 he became, with the Prince of Conti and other nobles, 
 one of the leaders of the disaffected party. Being sent 
 in 1669 to assist the Venetians against the Turks, he 
 was killed in the defence of Candia. 
 
 See Mascaron, " Oraison funebre du Ducde Beaufort" 
 
 Beaufort, de, (Henri Ernest Grout: — gRoo,) Che- 
 valier, a French traveller, born at Aubevoye in 1798. 
 He visited Africa in 1824, and explored the Gambia, 
 Bondou, and the country of the Mandingoes. Died in 
 Africa of a fever in 1825. 
 
 See E. F. Jomard, " Notice sur De Beaufort," 1824. 
 
 Beaufort, de, (Louis,) a distinguished historian, of 
 French extraction, was tutor to the Prince of Hesse- 
 Humburg. He wrote, in French, a " Dissertation on the 
 Uncertainty of the F'irst Five Centuries of Roman His- 
 tory," (173S,) which is commended by Niebuhr, a " His- 
 tory of Gcrmanicus," (1741,) and a "History of the Ro- 
 man Republic," (1766.) He was a member of the Royal 
 Society of London. Died in 1795. 
 
 Beaufort de Thoriguy, bo'foR' deh to'ren'ye', 
 (Jean Bapttste,) a republican general, born in Paris in 
 1 761, distinguished himself in the war in F'landers, (1793.) 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 Beaufort d'Hautpoul, bo'foR' do'poo', (Edouard,) 
 Marquis of, a French officer, born in Paris in 1782; 
 died in 1831. 
 
 Beaugeard, bo'zhaV, (Jean,) a French Jacobin, and 
 member of the National Convention, born at Vitre in 
 1764. Died in 1832. 
 
 Beaugeard, (Jean Simon Ferreol,) a French litte- 
 rateur, born at Marseilles in 1754; died in 1828. 
 
 Beaugendre, bo'zhdNdR', ( Antoinf.,) a French Bene- 
 dictine monk, born in Paris in 1628; died in 1708. 
 
 Beauharnais, de, deh bS'tR'ni', (Alexandre:,) Vi- 
 comte, a distinguished general, born in 1760 in the 
 island of Martinique, where in 1779 he married Josephine 
 Tascher de la Pagerie, afterwards Empress of France. 
 He served under Rochambeau in the American war, 
 was a deputy to the States-General in 1 789, and was twice 
 president of the National Assembly. In 1794 he served 
 under Custine on the Rhine, but, being accused of treason 
 by the revolutionary tribunal for having failed to deliver 
 Mentz from the allies, he was guillotined in that year. 
 
 See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclope'dique de la France." 
 
 Beauharnais. de, (Claude,) Count, born in 1756, 
 was a son of Marie Anne Francoise Beauharnais, noticed 
 below. Died in 1819. 
 
 Beauharnais, de, (Eugene,) Viceroy of Italy, born 
 in Paris, September 3, 1781, was the son of Alexandre 
 de Beauharnais and Josephine, afterwards Empress of 
 France. After the marriage of his mother with Napo- 
 leon, he accompanied the latter to Egypt in 1798, and 
 was severely wounded at Saint-Jean -ci' Acre. For his 
 conduct at Marengo (1800) he obtained the rank of chef- 
 d'escadron. In 1805 he was appointed arch-chancellor 
 of state, grand officer of the legion of honour, and Vice- 
 roy of Italy. In this high office he distinguished him- 
 self by the ability and justice of his administration. In 
 the Austrian campaign of 1809 he defeated the Arch- 
 duke John at Raab, in Hungary. He had married in 
 1806 Augusta Amelia, daughter of the King of Bavaria, 
 and was soon after declared by Napoleon his adopted 
 son, and heir-apparent to the crown of Italy. He took 
 a prominent part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and 
 
 ' « as *; c as .r;g /&«/-</; g as ;';g. H, K.guttural: N. nasal: K.trilleJ: sas«; th asmthis. (jrjfSee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BEAUHaRNAIS 
 
 300 
 
 BEAUMLS 
 
 after the defeat of the French succeeded Murat in the 
 command of the army. His conduct on this occasion 
 was commended in the warmest terms by Napoleon, and 
 his masterly retreat from Moscow contributed in a great 
 degree to save the remnant of the French forces. In 
 1814 Eugene was compelled to relinquish Italy to the 
 Austrians, upon which he retired into Bavaria, where he 
 was made Prince of Eichstadt and Duke of Leuchten- 
 berg. He died in February, 1824, leaving two sons and 
 four daughters. 
 
 See Leonard Gallois, " Histoiredu Prince Eugene de Beauhar- 
 nais," 1821 ; AntoineAubriet, " Vie de Eugene Beauharnais," 1S24 ; 
 Schonberg, "Prinz Eugen und seiu Hof," 1825; Armandi,_ " Vie 
 militaire du Prince Eugene," 2 vols., 1843; Vaudoncourt, "Histoire 
 politique et militaire du Prince Eugene," 3 vols., 1825. 
 
 Beauharnais, de, (Franqois,) Marquis, born at La 
 Rochelle in 1756, was a brother of Alexandre. He was 
 a devoted royalist, and rose to be major-general under 
 Conde. He was made a peer under the Bourbons. Died 
 in 1823. 
 
 Beauharnais, de, (Hortense.) See Hortense. 
 
 Beauharnais, de, (Josephine.) See Josephine. 
 
 Beauharnais, de, (Marie Anne Franchise Mou- 
 chard,) Countess, generally called Fanny Beauhar- 
 nais, born in Paris in 1738, was married to Count de 
 Beauharnais, uncle of Alexandre. She was the author 
 of several dramas and poems. Died in 1813. 
 
 See'MADAME Briquet, " Dictionnaire des Francaises." 
 
 Beaujeu. See Anne de Beaujeu. 
 
 Beaujeu, de, deh bo'zhuh', (Christophe,) a French 
 soldier and poet, served under Henry III. and Henry IV. 
 
 Beaujeu, de, (Edouard,) son of Guichard, noticed 
 below, born in 1316. He fought against the English 
 under Edward HI., and was present at the battle of 
 Crecy, soon after which he was made marshal of.France. 
 He was killed at the battle of Ardres in 135 1. 
 
 Beaujeu, de, (Guichard,) served under Philip the 
 Fair and several succeeding sovereigns, and in 1328 fought 
 under Philip VI. in Flanders. Died in 133 1. 
 
 Beaujeu, de, (HUMBERT,) fought against the Albi- 
 genses under Louis VIII., and became Constable of 
 France in 1240. He accompanied Saint Louis to Pales- 
 tine, and, according to some authorities, died in Egypt 
 in 1250. 
 
 Beaujeu, de, (Pierre de Bourbon,) SiRE,was Con- 
 stable of France. He subsequently married Anne, 
 daughter of Louis XL, and became regent during the 
 minority of Charles VIII. Died in 1502. 
 
 See Anselme, " Histoire genealogique, etc. de la Maison royale 
 de France." 
 
 Beaujolais, de, deh bo'zho'lk', (Louis Charles 
 d'Orleans,) Comte, born in Paris in 1779, was a son 
 of the Duke of Orleans, surnamed Egalite, and brother 
 of Louis Philippe, afterwards king. Died in 1808. 
 
 Beaujon, bo'zh6N', (Nicolas,) a wealthy and philan- 
 thropic French banker, born at Bordeaux in 1718, was 
 the founder of a hospital in Paris which bears his name. 
 Died in 1786. 
 
 Beaujour, bo'zhooR', (Louis Felix,) a French diplo- 
 matist and writer, born in Provence in 1765 ; died in 1836. 
 
 Beaujoyeulx. See Baltazarini. 
 
 Beaulac, bo'lik', (Guillaume,) a French jurist and 
 legal writer, born in the department of Herault about 
 1745 ; died in 1804. 
 
 Beaulaton, bOTatOr*', a French poet, born at Mon- 
 targis, made an indifferent translation of Milton's " Para- 
 dise Lost" into French. Died in 1782. 
 
 Beau, lie. See Le Beau. 
 
 Beaulieu. See Baulot. 
 
 Beaulieu, b5'le-uh', almost bol'yuh', (Aucustin,) a 
 French navigatorTTjom at Rouen in 1589, visited the 
 East Indies in 1616. He wrote an account of his travels, 
 which was published in Thevenot's "Collection of Voy- 
 ages." Died in 1637. 
 
 Beaulieu, (Claude Franqois,) a French publicist 
 and litterateur, born at Riom in 1754, was editor of the 
 "Assemblee Nationale" and other journals, in which he 
 advocated a constitutional monarchy. He contributed 
 a number of articles to the "Biographie Universelle," 
 and wrote "Historical Essays on the Causes and Effects 
 of the French Revolution," (1801.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." 
 
 Beaulieu, (Eustorg,) sometimes called Hector, a 
 French poet and musician, born about 1530. 
 
 Beaulieu, de, deh bo'le-yh', (Camus de Vernet, 
 ki'mtis' deh veVni',) favourite of Charles VII. of 
 France, who appointed him grand master of the horse 
 and director of the finances. He was assassinated, by 
 order of the constable Artus de Richemont, in 1427. 
 
 Beaulieu, de, (Charles Gilloton — zhe'yo'to.N',) a 
 French writer on political economy, lived about 1750. 
 
 Beaulieu, de, (Jean Baptiste Allais — t'LV,) a 
 French calligrapher, was the author of a work entitled 
 "The Art of Writing," (1681.) 
 
 Beaulieu, de, (Jean Pierre,) Baron, an Austrian 
 general, born in 1725, fought in the Seven Years' war. 
 Being sent in 1796 to Italy, he was signally defeated at 
 Montenotte by Bonaparte. He resigned his command 
 in June, 1796. Died in 1820. 
 
 Beaulieu, de, (Louis le Blanc,) a Protestant divine, 
 and professor of theology at the Calvinist Academy of 
 Sedan, born at Plessis-Marly, in Limousin, in 1614. He 
 was the author of "Sedan Theses," ("Theses Seda- 
 nenses,") and other religious works. Died in 1675. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Beaulieu, de, (Sebastien de Pontault — deh p6.N'- 
 to',) first engineer of Louis XIV., wrote a work entitled 
 "The Glorious Conquests of Louis le Grand, or Col- 
 lection of Plans and Views of Places Besieged and the 
 Sites of Battles." Died in 1674, 
 
 See De Courcelles, "Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais." 
 
 Beaumanoir. See Lavardin, (Jean de.) 
 
 Beaumanoir, bo'mt'nwaR', Marquis op, a French 
 litterateur and dramatist, born in Brittany about 1720; 
 died about 1795. 
 
 Beaumanoir, de, deh bo'mi'nwaR', (Jean,) Sire, a 
 French soldier, and companion-in-arms of the famous 
 Bertrand du Guesclin. He fought on the side of the 
 Count of Blois against John of Montfort, and was the 
 leader of the thirty Breton knights who in 135 1 had a 
 combat with and defeated the thirty English champions. 
 
 See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." 
 
 Beaumanoir, de, (Philippe,) born in Picardy, was 
 one of the most eminent jurists of his time. His prin- 
 cipal work, entitled "The Common Law (Continue) of 
 Beauvoisis," still enjoys a high reputation, and was re- 
 published in 1842 by M. Beugnot. Died in 1296. 
 
 See Montesquieu, " Esprit des Lois ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Beaumarchais, de, deh bo'mSR'sh.Y, (Pierre Au- 
 guste Caron — kS'roN',) a French dramatist and versatile 
 genius, born in Paris in 1732. He was the son of a watch- 
 maker named Caron, and for a time pursued his father's 
 occupation ; but his skill in music soon procured hint ad- 
 mission to court. About this time he entered into busi- 
 ness relations with the famous financier Duverny, by which 
 he was enabled to make a large fortune, and at the com^ 
 mencement of the American Revolution made an advan- 
 tageous contract to supply the colonies with arms and 
 ammunition. In this affair he was the secret agent of 
 the French government. In 1775 he brought out "The 
 Barber of Seville," an opera which was very successful; 
 and in 1784 "The Marriage of Figaro." The latter, 
 in which the aristocracy was assailed, was prohibited 
 from being acted by Louis XVI. ; but in spite of the 
 interdiction it was brought on the stage, and was received 
 with the greatest enthusiasm. Among his other works 
 we may name the drama of "Eugenie," which formed 
 the groundwork of Goethe's " Clavigo ;" also a number 
 of memoirs or pleadings written on occasion of lawsuits 
 in which he was engaged, and displaying such powers 
 of wit and satire as to excite the jealousy of Voltaire. 
 He favoured the popular cause in the French Revolu- 
 tion, to which his writings had largely contributed. Died 
 in 1799. 
 
 See Cousin d'Avalon, "Vie de P. A. Caron de Beaumarchais," 
 1S02: M. DE Lomenie, "Beaumarchais, sa Vic et son Temps," in the 
 " Revue des Deux Mondes," October and November, 1S52; SainT- 
 Marc Girardin, "Notice sur la Vie de Beaumarchais," 1835; E. 
 Berger, " Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Beaumarchais," 1S47; 
 "Edinburgh Review," vol. civ., 1856; " Fraser's Magazine," vol. 
 xlix., 1854: "Westminster Review" for September, 1844. 
 
 Beaume, bom, (Joseph,) a French historical painter, 
 born at Marseilles in 1790, worked in Paris. 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long, a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 0, u, % short; a, %, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m?t; n&t; good; moan; 
 
BEAUMELLE 
 
 301 
 
 BEAUMONT 
 
 Beaumelle, de la, deh It bo'mel', (Laurent Angli- 
 Viel — dx'gle've-el',) a French writer, born at Valle- 
 raugue in 1726. Having published a work entitled 
 "My Thoughts," ("Mes Pensees,") which contained 
 remarks offensive to Voltaire, he was imprisoned in the 
 Bastille, chiefly at the instigation ef the latter. On his 
 release he wrote a reply to Voltaire's " Supplement to 
 the Age of Louis XIV.," which is esteemed a master- 
 piece of wit and polemics. In 1756 he brought out 
 "Memoirs towards the History of Madame de Main- 
 tenon," for which he was imprisoned about a year. Died 
 
 '" >775- 
 
 See M. Nicolas, "Notice sur la Vie, etc de L. A. de la Beau- 
 melle." 1S52; Charles Nisard, "Les Ennemis de Voltaire, Des- 
 fomaines, Freron et La Beaumelle," 1S53. 
 
 Beaumelle, de la, (Victor Laurent Angliviel,) 
 son of the preceding, born near Mazeres in 1772. He 
 served in the Spanish campaign of 1 80S, and subsequently 
 under Dom Pedro, Emperor of Brazil. He wrote a treat- 
 ise " « >n the Brczilian Empire," (1823,) and various other 
 works. Died in 183 1. 
 
 Beaumes. See Belmeis. 
 
 Beaumesnil, bo'm&'nel', (Henriette Adelaide 
 Villard — ve'yiR',) a French comic actress and opera- 
 born in 1748; died in 1803. 
 
 Beaumetz, de, deh bo'mis', (Bon Albert Briois — 
 bRe'wa',) Chevalier, a French jurist, member of the 
 Constituent Assembly, born at Arras in 1759. He made 
 important improvements in the laws, and wrote a valua- 
 ble work, entitled " Penal Code of the Jurymen of the 
 Chief National Court," (1792.) To escape the reign of 
 terror, he emigrated in 1792. Died at Calcutta about 1809. 
 
 See Qcekakd, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Beaumont, bo'mont, formerly bu'mont, (Basil,) an 
 English naval officer, born in 1669, became rear-admiral 
 under Queen Anne. While on his way to Rotterdam in 
 1703, l.t was overtaken in the Downs by a terrible storm ; 
 thirteen vessels were sunk, and the admiral, with fifteen 
 hundred seamen, perished. 
 
 See Burchet, "Naval History." 
 
 Beaumont, bo'm6N', (Claude Etienne,) a French 
 architect, born at Besancon in 1757, studied in Paris 
 under Dumont. His principal work is the " Salle du 
 THbunat" in Paris. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Beaumont, bo'mont', (Claudio Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian painter, born at Turin in 1694. Among his best 
 works are the frescos of the royal palace at Turin. Died 
 in 1766. 
 
 Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Beaumont, bo'm6.N', (Etienne,) a Swiss lawyer and 
 philosophical writer, born at Geneva in 1718, was the 
 author of an anonymous work entitled " Principles of 
 Philosophy," attributed by some to Diderot. Died in 
 
 R, "Histoire litte'raire de Geneve." 
 
 Beaumont, (Felix Bellator,) Count, a French 
 
 soldier and statesman, born in Paris in 1793, served in 
 
 mpaignsof 1812-15, and became a senator in 1852. 
 
 Beaumont, (Francis,) the father of the celebrated 
 dramatist, was one of the judges of the court of common 
 pitas. Died in 1598. 
 
 Beaumont, (Francis,) an English dramatic poet, son 
 of the preceding, was born in Leicestershire in 1586. He 
 led at Oxford, and studied law in the Temple. 
 In London he associated with Ben Jonson and other wits 
 who met at the Mermaid Tavern. He married Ursula 
 Islcy, by whom he had two daughters. He became the 
 intimate friend of John Fletcher, in conjunction with 
 whom he wrote a number of popular dramas. Among 
 these are "Philaster," (i6ll,)"The Maid's Tragedy," 
 Co.\comb,"(i6l3,)and"Cupid's Kevenge," (1613.) 
 Beaumont was sole author of "The Masque of the Inner 
 Temple," (1612,) and of minor poems, among which is a 
 er to Ben Jonson." Diedini6i5. (See Fletcher, 
 John.) "It cannot be denied," says Hazlitt, "that they 
 arc lyrical and descriptive poets of the highest order; every 
 ir writings is a florilcgium : they are dramatic 
 poets ol the sei ond class in point of knowledge, variety, 
 vivacity, and effect; they are masters of style and versi- 
 fication in almost every variety of melting modulation 
 or sounding pomp of which they are capable : in comic 
 
 wit and spirit they are scarcely surpassed by any writers 
 of our age." (" Lectures on the Dramatic Literature of 
 the Age of Elizabeth.") The elder Coleman's prologue 
 to "Philaster," spoken in 1763, has the following apt 
 and admirable lines : 
 
 " Beaumont and Fletcher, those twin stars that run 
 Their glorious course 'round Shakspeare's golden sun." 
 
 (Beaumont and Fletcher's Works, vol. i. p. 203.) 
 See " Biographia Dramatica ;" Campbell's " Lives of the British 
 Dramatists." 
 
 Beaumont, (Sir George Howland,) an English 
 amateur, landscape-painter, and liberal patron of art, was 
 born in Essex in 1753. He had the principal share in 
 the establishment of the National Gallery, to which he 
 presented sixteen paintings, many of them works of emi- 
 nent artists. He was a friend of Wordsworth and Cole- 
 ridge. Died in 1827. 
 
 Beaumont, (Jean Francois Albanis— fl'bS'ness',) 
 a French agriculturist, born at Chambery about 1755, 
 was the author of several books of travels and antiqua- 
 rian treatises. Died in 1812. 
 
 Beaumont, (Jeanne le Prince.) See Prince de 
 Beaumont. 
 
 Beaumont, (Sir John,) elder brother of the drama- 
 tist, born in 1582, was the author of an unpublished reli- 
 gious poem, entitled "The Crown of Thorns," and a 
 collection of poems called "Bosworth Field." Died in 
 1628. 
 
 Beaumont, (Joseph,) an English divine, born in Suf- 
 folk in 161 5, became professor of divinity at Cambridge 
 in 1670. His poem entitled "Psyche, or Lovers' Mys- 
 teries," had a transient popularity. Died in 1699. 
 
 See "Retrospective Review," vols. xi. and xii., 1S25. 
 
 Beaumont, (Pierre Francois,) a French engraver, 
 born in Paris in 1720, executed several prints after 
 Wouwerman and Breughel. Died about 17S0. 
 
 Beaumont, bo'mont', (William,) M.D., asurgeori in 
 the United States navy, born in 1796. While stationed 
 at Michilimackinac, in 1822, a young man was brought 
 to him with a wound in his stomach produced by the 
 discharge of a musket at the distance of only three or 
 four feet. By skilful treatment the wound was healed, 
 leaving an aperture of about two and a half inches in 
 diameter, through which could be witnessed the process 
 of digestion. Dr. Beaumont availed himself of this ex- 
 traordinary phenomenon to prosecute a series of obser- 
 vations and experiments on digestion, the results of 
 which have' been received as valuable acquisitions to 
 medical science throughout the world. They were first 
 published in 1833, and have been republished in Eng- 
 land and on the continent. Died m 1853. 
 
 Beaumont, de, deh Ix/mo.N', (Amklard,) a French 
 jurist, born near Grenoble ; died in 1375. 
 
 Beaumont, de, (Antoine Francois,) Vicomte, a 
 French naval officer, born in Perigord in 1733, distin- 
 guished himself as commander of a squadron against the 
 English in 1781. In 1789 he was a deputy from Agen 
 to the States-General. Died in 1805. 
 
 Beaumont, de, (Christophe,) Archbishop of Paris, 
 born in Perigord in 1703. He was a zealous opponent 
 of the Jansenists, and excited so much hostility by his 
 violence that he was at length exiled to La Trappe. 
 Died in 1 781. 
 
 See P. Pichot, " E*]oge de C. de Beaumont," 1822 : Ae-ntf. Fer- 
 let, "Oraison funebre de Monseigneur de Beaumont," Paris, 1784; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Beaumont, de, (Ei.ie.) See Elie de Beaumont. 
 
 Beaumont, de, (Geoffroy,) born at Bayeux, was 
 Bishop of Laon and papal legate in Lombardy. Died 
 in 1273. 
 
 Beaumont, de, (J. T. G. Leprevot— Ich'pRa'vo',) 
 born in Normandy about 1740. He suffered, during the 
 reigns of Louis XV. and Louis XVI., an imprisonment 
 of more than twenty years, for having discovered a secret 
 coalition for a monopoly of grain, known as the pacte de 
 famine, ("contract of starvation,") which was sanctioned 
 by the government. 
 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopeMique de la France ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge : ne*rale." 
 
 Beaumont, de, (Jean de Hainaut— h&'no',) Sire, 
 a French soldier, celebrated by Froissart, was a brother 
 of William the Good, Count of Hainaut. He at first 
 
 € as k. c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J£jf See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BEAUMONT 
 
 302 
 
 BEAUREPAIRE 
 
 favoured the cause of Edward III. of England, who after- 
 wards married his niece Philippa. In 1345 he went over 
 to the party of Philip of Valois, and distinguished him- 
 self at the battle of Crecy. Died in 1356. 
 
 See Froissart, "Chronicles." 
 
 Beaumont, de, (Jean Louis Moreau,) a French 
 magistrate, born in Paris in 1 71 5, wrote "Memoirs con- 
 cerning Taxes in Europe," (1768.) Died in 1785. 
 
 Beaumont, van, vfn bo'moN', (Simon Herbert,) a 
 Dutch botanist and Latin poet, born at Dort in 1574; 
 died in 1654. 
 
 Beaumont de Brivasac, de, deh bo'moN' deh bRe'- 
 vS'ztk', CoMTE, a French geographer, born near Tou- 
 louse in 1746, was the reputed author of a work entitled 
 "Europe and its Colonies." Died in 1821. 
 
 See Qu^rard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Beaumont de Carriere, de, deh bo'm6N' deh ki'- 
 re-aiR', Baron, a French general of division, was aide- 
 de-camp of Murat. Died in 1813. 
 
 Beaumont de la Bonniere, de, deh bS'moN' deh 
 IS bo'ne-aiR', (Gustave Auguste,) a distinguished 
 French publicist and writer, born at Beaumont-la-Chatre, 
 in Sarthe, in February, 1802. In 1831 he accompanied 
 M. de Tocqueville to the United States, in order to study 
 the penitentiary systems of that country. Having re- 
 turned to France, he married in 1836 the granddaughter 
 of La Fayette. In 1840 he was elected to the Chamber 
 of Deputies, and in 1848 became a member of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly, where he voted with the moderate 
 republicans. In August, 1848, he was sent by General 
 Cavaignac as ambassador to England. He wrote a val- 
 uable treatise "On the Penitentiary System of the United 
 States, and its Application in France," (2 vols., 1832,) 
 " Slavery in the United States," (" L'Esclavage aux fitats- 
 Unis," 1835,) and "Ireland, Political, Social, and Reli- 
 gious," (1839.) The two last-named works obtained the 
 Montyon prize from the Institute. He resigned his office 
 of ambassador on the election of Louis Napoleon, De- 
 cember, 1848. About the end of 185 1 he was imprisoned 
 for opposition to the coup d'etat of December 2. Died 
 in 1866. 
 
 See QuiRARD, "La France LitteVaire," (Supplement.) 
 
 Beaumont de la Bonniere, de, (Marc Antoine,) 
 Co.mte, a French general, born in Touraine in 1760. He 
 served in the principal campaigns from 1795 to 1809, and 
 was made general of division, grand officer of the legion 
 of honour, and count of the empire. In I"8i4 he was 
 created a peer by Louis XVIII. Died in 1830. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Beaumont de Perefixe. See Perefixe. 
 
 Beaumont des Adrets. See Adrets. 
 
 Beaune, de, deh bon, (Fi.orimond,) a French geo- 
 meter, and an intimate friend of Descartes, born at Blois 
 in 1601. He wrote a treatise, in Latin, "On the Limits 
 of Equations," and invented several astronomical instru- 
 ments. Died in 1652. 
 
 Beaune, de, (Jacques,) a French minister of finance 
 under Francis I. He lent to the queen-mother money 
 provided for the army, for which offence he was executed 
 in 1527. 
 
 Beaune, de, (Renaud,) born at Tours, in France, in 
 1527, became Archbishop of Sens in 1596. He was in- 
 strumental in the conversion of Henry IV. to Catholi- 
 cism. Died in 1606. 
 
 Beaunoir, bo'nwaR', (Alexandre Louis Bertrand 
 Robineau — ro'be'no',) a French dramatist, born in 
 Paris in 1746. Beaunoir is an anagram of Robineau, 
 which was his proper name. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Beaupere, bo'paiR', (Jean,) a French priest, noto- 
 rious as one of the judges who condemned Joan of Arc 
 in 1430. Died about 1450. 
 
 Beauplan, de, deh bo'pIoN', (Guii.i.aume le Vas- 
 seur — leh vI'sur',) a French geographical writer, born 
 in Normandy, published a "Description of the Ukraine," 
 (1650,) which was translated into German and English; 
 also a valuable map of the Ukraine. Died about 1670. 
 
 Beaupre, de, deh bo'pRa', (Plat,) a French priest, 
 a member of the Convention of 1 792, voted for the death 
 of Louis XVI. 
 
 Beaupuis.de, deh bo'pu-e', almost bo'pwe',(CHARLES 
 Walon,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Beauvais in 162 
 became director of the Port-Royal schools in Paris, ai 
 wrote several "Moral Essays." Died in 1709. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Beaupuy, de, deh bo'pii e', (Armand Mich: 
 BACHEL[ER,)a French general, born at Mussidan in 175 
 served under Moreau on the Rhine, and was killed in 
 retreat from Bavaria in 1796. 
 
 Beaupuy, de, (Nicolas Michel Bachelif.r,) 
 brother of the preceding, born at Mussidan in 1 750, 
 elected to the Council of Ancients in 1799. Died in 1 
 
 Beaurain, de, deh bo'ra.N', (Jean,) born at Aix-ei 
 Essart in 1696, was appointed in 1721 royal ge< 
 His principal work is a "Topographical and Milita: 
 Description of the Campaigns of [Marshal] Luxembou; 
 from 1690 to 1694," (1756.) Died in 1771. 
 
 Beauregard. See Berigard. 
 
 Beauregard, bSR'gSR', (Charles Victor,) son- 
 times called Woirgard, a French general, born at Me 
 in 1764, was killed near Badajos in 18.10. 
 
 Beauregard, (Jean Nicolas,) a French Jesuit an 
 popular preacher, born at Metz in 1731 ; died in 1804. 
 
 Beauregard, b5're-gard', [Fr. pron. bo'reh-gtR ; 
 boR'gtR',] (Peter Gustavus Toutant,) an Americ: 
 general, born near New Orleans about 1816. He grai 
 uated at West Point, the second in his class, in l8_ 
 and was appointed second lieutenant of artillery, but w: 
 soon after transferred to the corps of engineers, 
 was breveted as major for his meritorious conduct in th( 
 Mexican war, (1846-47.) He obtained in 1853 the rai ' 
 of captain, which he resigned in February, 1S61. to enti 
 the Confederate army. He directed the bombardmei 
 of Fort Sumter, which initiated the civil war. April 1 
 
 1861. In June he took command of the army at Ma- 
 nassas Junction. He commanded at the battle of B 
 Run, (July 21,) where he gained a decided victory ov< 
 the Union forces. In this engagement, according to " 
 own statement, he had 27,000 men, of whom 269 we 
 killed and 1483 were wounded. For this service he w; 
 promoted to be a general in the regular army of tl 
 Southern Confederacy. Early in 1862 he passed froi 
 the Army of the Potomac to that of the Mississippi. 
 the first day of the battle of Shiloh (April 6) he was ne 
 in command under General Albert S. Johnston, on whoa 
 death he succeeded to the chief command. He was, ho 1 
 ever, the next day defeated by General Grant. He tin 
 retired to Corinth, which was strongly fortified, and which 
 he defended against the Union army in a long siege. 
 He evacuated Corinth about May 30, 1862, and retrcati 
 with but little loss. Having been raised to the full ra 
 of general, the highest in the service, he took, in Aligns) 
 
 1862, command of the department of South Carolina a' 
 Georgia. He defended Charleston with success in I 
 against the Federal navy and army commanded #espe 
 ively by Dahlgren and Gillmore. 
 
 About the 1st of May, 1864, Beauregard moved 
 forces to Petersburg and reinforced the army of 
 He was appointed commander of the military division of 
 the West in October, and was sent to Georgia to defend 
 it against Sherman, but proved utterly unable to will 
 stand the advance of the Union army. He had unit 
 his forces with those of General J. E. Johnston in Nortl 
 Carolina when that officer surrendered to Sherman ii 
 April, 1865. 
 
 See "Southern Generals," an anonymous work, 1865; Greb: 
 "The American Conflict," vol. ii. 
 
 Beaurepaire, boR'paV, (Nicolas Joseph,) bom 
 Coulommiers in 1740, was appointed in 1792 command- 
 ant of Verdun, which was immediately afterwards be- 
 sieged by the Prussians. Finding his efforts to maintain 
 the place unavailing, Beaurepaire destroyed himself. 
 
 See "Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Beaurepaire, de, deh boR'paV, (Nicolas Girar 
 a French soldier, born in Poitou, was one of the leade: 
 of the Vendeans in the campaign of 1793, and was mor- 
 tally wounded the same year. 
 
 Beaurepaire-Rohan, de, deh boR'paR' ro'ox', (Hf.n- 
 ri,) a Brazilian traveller, of French extraction, born about 
 1818. Among his principal works is a " Complete Geog- 
 raphy of Matto Grosso." 
 
 a, e,I, o, ii, y,long ;h., e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii,y, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mft; nftt; good; moon; 
 
BEAURIEU 
 
 3°3 
 
 BEAUVAU 
 
 Beaurieu, de, deli bf/Rg-uh', (Gaspard Guillard— 
 ge 'vStn'.i . French 'litterateur, born at Saint- Paul, in Ar- 
 lois, in 1728, mote "The Disciple of Nature," and other 
 Works. Died in 1795. 
 
 :>. " La Trance Litteraire." 
 
 Beausobre, de, deh bo'sobR', (Charles Louis,) a 
 
 >tant divine, born at Dessau, in Germany, in 1690, 
 
 1 son of Isaac de Beausobre, noticed below. He 
 
 became a privy councillor of the King of Prussia, and 
 
 pastor .it Berlin. Died in 1753. 
 
 Beausobre, de, (Isaac,) an eminent French Protest- 
 ant theologian, born at Niort in 1659. On the revoca- 
 tion of the edict of Nantes he took refuge in Rotterdam, 
 .1 and in 1694 repaired to Berlin, where he became 
 1 of one of the French churches, and subsequently 
 court chaplain. He was the author of a "Critical His- 
 f Manichaeus and the Manicheans," (2 vols., 1739,) 
 1 is esteemed a standard work, and of " Critical and 
 Philological Remarks on the New Testament," (1742.) 
 He also contributed a number of valuable articles to 
 the " Bibliotheque Allemande," and wrote a " History of 
 the Reformation," which he left unfinished. Died at 
 Berlin in 1738. Beausobre and Lenfant translated the 
 New Testament into French, (1718.) 
 
 See Lachapellb, "Viede Beausobre." 
 
 Beausobre, de, (Jean Jacques deBeault — deh bo,) 
 Comte, a French general and military writer, born in 
 1704. He assisted at the sieges of Menin and Vpres in 
 1744, and in 17^7 commanded at the blockade of Guel- 
 dres, which he forced to surrender. Died in 1784. 
 
 See De Courceli.es, " Dictionnaire des GeneYaux Francais." 
 
 Beausobre, de, (Louis,) son of Isaac, noticed above, 
 born at Berlin in 1730, was the author of "Letters on 
 German Literature," and other works. Died in 1783. 
 
 Beausoleil, bo'so'lil' or bo'so'lA'ye, (Jean du Chate- 
 let— dU shat'IA',) born in Brabant about 1576, wrote a 
 work on alchemy entitled " Diorismus." Died in 1643. 
 
 See Hoeper, "Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Beaussier, bo'se-a', (Louis Andre,) an able naval 
 officer, was a nephew of Louis Joseph, noticed below. 
 Died in 1789. 
 
 Beaussier de Lille, bo'se-i'deh 161, (Louis Joseph,) 
 a French naval officer, born at Toulon in 1700; died 
 in 1765. 
 
 Beautemps-Beaupre, bo't6x' bo'pRa', (Charles 
 ;cois,) a celebrated French hydrographer, born 
 near Sainte-Menehould in 1766. Among his principal 
 works are the Atlas accompanying the account of D'En- 
 trecast*au.\'s voyage in 1791, an " Atlas of the Baltic 
 ' and " General Hydrographic Chart." He was ap- 
 pointed, in 1814, chief hydrographer and keeper of the 
 marine depot, aid was a member of the French Institute 
 and of the Royal Society of Gbttingen. Died in 1S54. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 BeauteviUe, de, deh bot'vel', (Jean Louis Dubuis- 
 son — du'bu-c'soN'', Bishop of Alais, born at BeauteviUe, 
 in France, in 1708; died in 1775. 
 
 Beauvais, bo'vA', (Charles Nicolas Dauphin,) a 
 h engraver, son of Nicolas, noticed below, bom 
 in Paris about 1720. 
 
 Beauvais, (Charles Theodore,) a French general, 
 it Orleans in 1772, was a son of Charles Nicolas 
 de Preaux. He served under Napoleon in 
 Italy, Egypt, and Spain. He published, among other 
 works, " The Official and Confidential Correspondence 
 of Napoleon with Foreign Courts," (7 vols., 1819,) and 
 was principal editor of the compilation entitled " Victo- 
 rs of the French," (" Victoires et Con- 
 Francais," 28 vols., 1817.) Died in 1830. 
 
 Beauvais, (Gillfs Francois,) a French Jesuit and 
 moralist, born in Brittany in 1695 ; died in 1773. 
 
 Beauvais, (Guillaume,) a French antiquary, born 
 at Dunkirk in 1698, wrote an "Abridged History of the 
 Roman Emperors from Medals," (1767,) and other 
 works on numismatics. Died in 1773. 
 
 Beauvais, (Jacques,) a French engraver, born about 
 1750. 
 
 Beauvais, (Nicolas Dauphin,) a French engraver, 
 born in Paris in 1687, was a pupil of Gerard Adrian. 
 Died in 1763. 
 
 Beauvais, (Philippe,) a French sculptor, son of the 
 
 preceding, died in 1781. His principal work is a statue 
 of " Immortality," executed for the Empress of Russia. 
 
 Beauvais, de, deh bo'vi', (Bertrand Pairier,) a 
 French royalist, born at Chinon about 1755, took an 
 active part in the Vendean war, of which he wrote an 
 account, entitled "View of the War of La Vendee." 
 Died in 1827. 
 
 See Billard de Veaux, "Biographie des Personnes marquantes 
 de la Chouannerie." 
 
 Beauvais, de, (Jean Baptiste Charles Marie,) an 
 eloquent French prelate, born at Cherbourg in 1731, be- 
 came Bishop of Senez. He wrote a number of Funeral 
 Orations and Sermons. Died in 1790. 
 
 See N. Maii.let, " FJoge de Messire de Beauvais," 1807 ; N. N. 
 de Sambucy, "Vie de Monseigneur de Beauvais," 1842. 
 
 Beauvais, de, (Remy,) a French Capuchin, born about 
 1580, wrote a burlesque poem entitled " La Madeleine." 
 
 Beauvais de Preaux, bo'vi' deh pRa'6', (Charles 
 Nicolas,) a French physician and writer, born at Or- 
 leans in 1745. As a member of the National Conven- 
 tion in 1792, he voted for the death of the king. Died 
 in 1794. 
 
 Beauval, bo'vfl', (Jeanne Olivier Bourguignon 
 — booR'gen'ydN',) a comic actress, born in Holland 
 about 1643, was patronized by Moliere. Died in 1720. 
 
 Beauvallet, bo'vft'li', (Pierre Francois,) a French 
 actor and dramatist, born at Pithiviers in 1801. 
 
 Beauvallet, (Pierre Nicolas,) a French sculptor, 
 born at Havre in 1749, studied under Pajou. Among 
 his best works are busts of William Tell and Marat. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 Beauvarlet, bo'vfR'UV, (Jacques Firm in,) a French 
 engraver, born at Abbeville in 1 73 1, executed several prints 
 after Giordano. Died in 1793. 
 
 Beauvau, de, deh bo'vo', (Bertrand,) a French 
 statesman, born about 1400, was employed by Charles 
 VII. in several important negotiations, and was appointed 
 royal chamberlain in 1435. Died in 1474. 
 
 See S. de Sainte-Marthe, " Histoire genealogique de la Maison 
 de Beauvau." 
 
 Beauvau, de, (Charles Juste,) marshal of France, 
 born at Luneville in 1720. He commanded the principal 
 attack at the storming of Mahon in 1756, and had a pro- 
 minent share in the victory of Corbach in 1760. In 1789 
 he became a member of the cabinet of Louis XVI. 
 Marshal Beauvau was elected to the French Academy 
 and the Academy della Crusca. Died in 1793. 
 
 See S. J. de Boufflers, "FJoge de M. de Beauvau," 1805. 
 
 Beauvau, de, (Charles Juste Francois Victur- 
 nien — vek'tuVne-aN',) Prince, son of Marc Etienne, 
 noticed below, was born in 1793. He served in the 
 Russian campaign of 1812, and was created a senator 
 by Louis Napoleon in 1852. 
 
 Beauvau, de, (Henri,) Baron, a French general, 
 served with distinction under Rudolph II. of Germany. 
 He wrote an account of his campaigns and travels, (1619.) 
 
 Beauvau, de, (Henri,) Marquis, son of the prece- 
 ding, wrote " Memoirs of Charles IV., Duke of Lorraine 
 and of Bar." Died in 1684. 
 
 Beauvau, de, (Louis,) a French statesman, born 
 about 1410, became grand seneschal of Provence, and 
 chamberlain of Rene, King of Sicily. Died in 1462. 
 
 Beauvau, de, (Louis Charles Antoine,) Marquis, 
 a French general, born in 1710, was killed at the siege 
 of Ypres in 1744. 
 
 Beauvau, de, (Marc,) Prince of Craym, was governoi 
 of Francis of Lorraine, afterwards Emperor of Germany, 
 and subsequently became Viceroy of Tuscany. He had 
 a high reputation for learning and accomplishments. 
 Died in 1754. 
 
 See Moreri, "Diclionnaire Historique." 
 
 Beauvau, de, (Marc Etienne Gabriel,) born in 
 1773, bore the title of a prince of the Holy Empire, and 
 was a grandee of Spain. Died in 1849. 
 
 Beauvau, de, (Rene,) a distinguished French soldier, 
 fought under Charles of Anjou in Italy in 1265, and was 
 mortallv wounded at the battle of Benevento in 1266. 
 
 Beauvau, de, (Rene Franqois,) an excellent French 
 prelate, born in 1664. Appointed Bishop of Tournay in 
 1707, he did his utmost to relieve the sufferings of the 
 soldiers and citizens during the siege of that place by 
 
 « as t; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled; s as z; th as in t/ilt. (ft^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BEAUVILLIERS 
 
 3°+ 
 
 BECCARIA 
 
 Prince Eugene, and, after it was captured, refused to 
 perform a Te Deum for the conquerors. He was created 
 Archbishop of Narbonne in 1 7 19. Died in 1739. 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Beauvilliers, bo've'ye-a', (Antoine,) a noted French 
 gastronome, born in Paris in 1754, wrote "The Art of 
 Cookery," (2 vols., 1814.) Died in 1817. 
 
 Beauvilliers, de, deh bo've'ye-i', (Francois Hono- 
 Rat,) Duke of Saint-Aignan, born in 1607, was a member 
 of the French Academy. Died in 1687. 
 
 Beauvilliers, de, (Marie,) daughter of Count Saint- 
 Aignan, born in 1574, was mistress of Henry IV. until 
 superseded by Gabrielle d'Estrees, after which she be- 
 came abbess of Montmartre. Died in 1656. 
 
 Beauvilliers, de, (Paul Hippolyte,) Duke of Saint- 
 Aignan, born in 1684, wrote a work entitled " Literary 
 Amusements." He was a member of the French Acad- 
 emy. Died in 1776. 
 
 Beauvoir, de, deh bo'vwaR', (Aimee Leocadie 
 Doze,) a French dramatic authoress, the wife of Edouard, 
 noticed below, born in 1823. She wrote several successful 
 dramas, and " Les Confidences et Causeries de Made- 
 moiselle Mars," (3 vols., 1855.) 
 
 Beauvoir, de, (Edouard Roger,) a French novelist 
 and dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1809. 
 
 Beauvois. See Belenvei. 
 
 Beauvois, de, (Palisot.) See Palisot. 
 
 Beauvollier, de, deh bo'vo'le-i', (Jean Valot — 
 vS'lo',) a French officer, born near Loudun, served in the 
 Vendean army in 1793, was afterwards taken prisoner by 
 the republicans at Mans, and executed in 1794. 
 
 Beauvollier, de, (Pierre Louis Valot,) a Vendean 
 leader, brother of Jean Valot, born near Loudun in 1770. 
 He became marechal -de-camp after the second restora- 
 tion. Died about 1825. 
 
 See De Courceli.es, "Dictionnaire des Generaux Frangais." 
 
 Beauxatlmis, bo'zfl'me', written also Beaulxamis, 
 (Thomas,) a French ecclesiastic of the order of the Car- 
 melites, born at Melun in 1524. Died in 1589. 
 
 Beauzee, bo'zi', (Nicolas,) a French grammarian 
 and litterateur, born at Verdun in 1 71 7. Among his prin- 
 cipal works are his " Grammaire Generale, " (2 vols., 
 1767,) for which Maria Theresa bestowed upon him a 
 gold medal, " Dictionary of Grammar and Literature," 
 written conjointly with Marmontel, and " Exposition of 
 the Historical Proofs of Religion," (1747.) Beauzee was 
 a member of the French Academy. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique de ]a France." 
 
 Bea'ver, written also Biever or Bever, (John,) 
 known also by the Latin names of Cas'tor, Casto'rius, 
 Fi'iser, and Fike'rius, was an English Benedictine monk 
 of Westminster, and lived about 1330. He wrote a 
 "Chronicle of England from Brutus down to his own 
 Time." 
 
 Beaver, (Philip,) an English naval officer of great 
 merit, born in 1760, attempted in 1792 to found a colony 
 on the island of Bulama, off the west coast of Africa, for 
 the purpose of introducing civilization among the natives. 
 Having lost the greater part of his colonists by sickness, 
 he returned to England in 1794, and published soon after 
 an account of his expedition, entitled "African Memo- 
 randa," (1805.) Died in 1813. 
 
 See "Life and Services of Captain Philip Beaver," by W. H. 
 Smyth, London, 1829; "London Quarterly Review" for July and 
 November, 1829. 
 
 Beaziano, ba-ad-ze-a'no, Beatiano, ba-d-te-a'no, or 
 Beazzano, bi-at-sa'no, (Agostino,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Treviso, lived about 1550. 
 
 Beaz'ley, (Samuel,) an English architect and littera- 
 teur, born in Westminster in 1786. He constructed a 
 number of theatres in England and Dublin, and wrote 
 upwards of a hundred dramas, also novels entitled "The 
 Oxonians" and "The Roue." Died in 1851. 
 
 Beazzano. See Beaziano. 
 
 Bebel, ba'bel, (Balthasar,) born at Strasburg in 
 1632, was professor of theology at Wittenberg. He wrote 
 "Antiquitates Ecclesise," (3 vols., 1669.) Died in 1686. 
 
 Bebel, [Lat. Bebe'lius,] (Heinrich,) a German 
 scholar and litterateur, born in Suatia, became in 1497 
 professor of belles-lettres at Tubingen, and wrote " Face- 
 
 tiae," and other Latin works in prose and verse. Died 
 about 1 5 16. 
 
 See G. W. Zapf, " H. Bebel nach seinem Leben und seinen 
 Schriften," 1802. 
 
 Bebenburg, von, fon ba'ben-booRc/, (Ludolf,) a 
 German professor of canon law, became Bishop of Bam- 
 berg about 1340. 
 
 Bebootoff or Bebutoff, ba-boo-toff', (Vasili Osi- 
 povitch,) Prince, a Russian commander, born in 1792, 
 served with distinction in the Caucasian campaigns of 
 1828-29, and became lieutenant-general in 1843. 
 
 Becan, ba'kan, [Lat. Goro'phiusBecca'nus,](John,) ■ 
 a Flemish physician, whose original name was Van Gorp, 
 born in Brabant in 1518 ; died in 1572. 
 
 See Morhof, "Polyhistor." 
 
 Becan, (Martin,) a Flemish Jesuit and writer, born 
 in Brabant about 1550, was successively professor of theo- 
 logy at Mentz, Wiirzburg, and Vienna, and confessor to 
 the emperor Ferdinand Tl. Died in 1624. 
 
 See "Scriptores Societatis Jesu." 
 
 Becan, (William,) a Flemish poet and Jesuit, born 
 at Ypres in 1608; died in 1683. 
 
 Beccadelli, (Antonio.) See Panormita. 
 
 Beccadelli, bek-ka-del'lee, or Beccatelli, b8k-ka- 
 tel'lee, (Luigi,) an able Italian litterateur, born at Bo- 
 logna in 1502. He wrote, besides other works, a "Life 
 of Cardinal Pole," which was translated into Latin, 
 (1563,) and a "Life of Petrarch." He became Arch- 
 bishop of Ragusa about 1555. Died at Prato in 1572. 
 
 See Mazzuchei.li, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Beccafumi, bSk-ka-foo'mee, (Domenico,) an eminent 
 Italian painter and sculptor, born at Sienna about 1480, 
 was originally named Mechekino. Among his master- 
 pieces are his " Saint Sebastian," in the Borghese palace, 
 and the designs of the mosaic pavement of the cathedral 
 of Sienna. He was also a wood-engraver, and was skilled 
 in the art of casting bronze. Died at Genoa in 1549. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters, Sculptors," etc. 
 
 Beccara, bek-ka'ra, or Bechara, bk-ka'ra, (Camil 
 L0,) an Italian poet, born at Placentia, lived about 1550. 
 
 Beccari, bek'ka-ree, (Agostino,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Ferrara about 1540, was the author of a pas- 
 toral comedy entitled "The Sacrifice," ("II Sacrifizio,") 
 said to have been the first work of the kind ever written, 
 and to have been the model of Tasso's "Aminta." Died, 
 in 1590. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie." 
 
 Beccari, (Glacomo Bartolommeo,) an Italian phy- 
 sician and savant, born at Bologna in 1682. He was art 
 intimate friend of Morgagni and other eminent men, 
 whom he assisted in founding the Academy of the " In- 
 quieti," (the "Restless,") which was changed or devel- 
 oped by Count Marsigli into the Institute of Sciences and 
 Arts in 1 71 1. Beccari was soon after appointed professor 
 of physics in that institution, and in 1750 succeeded Baz- 
 zano as president, having previously been elected to the 
 Royal Society of London. He wrote several scientific 
 treatises. Died in 1766. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Beccaria, b8k-ka-ree'a, (Antonio,) an Italian scholar 
 and poet, born at Verona, lived about 1470. 
 
 Beccaria, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian savant and 
 natural philosopher, born at Mondovi in 1716, was ap- 
 pointed in 1748 professor of experimental physics at 
 Turin. He published a treatise on " Natural and Arti- 
 ficial Electricity," (1753,) and "Letters on Electricity," 
 (1758.) He contributed several articles to the " Trans- 
 actions" of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1781. 
 
 See A. Tana, " fsloj-e de J. B. Beccaria," Turin, 1781 ; G. A. F. < 
 Landi, " Memorie storiche intorno a gli Studj G. B. Beccaria," 17S3. 
 
 Beccaria, di, de Wk-ka-ree'a, (Cesare Bonesana,) 
 Marquis, an eminent philosophical and political writer, 
 born at Milan, in Italy, on the 15th of March, 1738. He 
 early became familiar with the works of Helvetius and 
 Montesquieu, and the latter exercised a powerful influ- 
 ence on the direction of his studies. He published in 
 1762 a work "On the Abuses of the Coinage in the 
 State of Milan, and their Remedies." In 1764 he brought 
 out his "Treatise on Crimes and Punishments," ("Trat- 
 tato dei Delitti e delle Pene,") which was most favourably 
 
 a, e, 1, o, G, y, long; i,.e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BECCAR VZZI 
 
 305 
 
 BECK 
 
 received, and at once established the author's reputation. 
 or," says a French writer, "did so small a book pro- 
 duce such great effects." It was translated into the 
 principal languages of Europe, including modern Greek, 
 and went through six editions in less than two years. 
 ire, regarding it as the code of humanity, wrote a 
 commentary upon it ; and Catherine II. of Russia caused 
 it to be transcribed into her new code. Under the patron- 
 i Count Firmian, he had, in 1764, assisted in found- 
 ing a periodical called " II Caffe," on the plan of Addison's 
 tator." In 1 768 Beccaria accepted the chair of pub- 
 lic economy created for him at Milan by Count Firmian. 
 Died at Milan in November, 1793. 
 
 SeeTiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri," vol. iii.; Ugoni, 
 itura Italiana," 1820-22; C. P. VllXA, "Vita del Mar- 
 iria,"iS2i; Pietko Custodi, " Vita di C. Beccaria;" 
 paedia Britannica." 
 
 Beccaruzzi, bek-ka-root'see, (Francesco da Cone- 
 gliano— da ko-nil-ya'no,) an Italian painter, born about 
 1490 at Conegliano, was a pupil of Pordenone. 
 
 See I.anzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Beccatelli, bek-ka-tel'lee, (Giovanni Francesco,) 
 an Italian musician and writer on music; died in 1734. 
 
 Beccatelli, (Luigi.) See Beccadelli. 
 
 Becchio, bek'ke-o, [Lat. Bec'chius,] (Guglielmo,) 
 Bishop of Fiesole, was a native of Florence. Died in 1480. 
 
 Beccold. See John of Leyden. 
 
 Bec-Crespin,du, dii bek'kRes'paN', (Jean,) a French 
 j theologian, born about 1540, became Bishop of Saint- 
 He wrote a " History of the Great Tamerlane, 
 j taken from the Monuments of the Arabs," (1602.) 
 
 See "Gallia Christiana." 
 
 Beccuci, bSk-koo'chee, (Domenico Maria,) an Ital- 
 ian writer, born at Florence in 1730; died in 1800. 
 
 Beccuti, bek-koo'tee, or Beccuci, bek-koo'chee, 
 (Francesco,) an Italian burlesque poet, surnamed IL 
 1 i.\, born at Perugia in 1509; died in 1553. 
 
 Bec-de-Lievre, bek'deh'le-ivR', (Anne Chris- 
 tophi,) a French royalist, served under Conde against 
 the republicans, and was killed at Oudan in 1795. 
 
 Becelli, ba-chel'lee, (Giulio Cesare,) an Italian poet 
 and litterateur, born at Verona in 1683, wrote a number 
 of dramas, and an essay "On Modern Poetry," (1732.) 
 Died in 1750. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Becerra, bi-thjr'ra, (Domingo,) a Spanish priest, 
 born at Seville, published a "Treatise on Customs," 
 ("Trr.tado dos Costumbres," 1589.) 
 
 Becerra, (Fernando,) a Spanish friar, born about 
 1580, wrote several religious works. 
 
 Becerra, (Francisco,) a Spanish architect, born about 
 1545, built in Spanish America the cathedral of Lima, 
 the church at Cuzco, and other public edifices. 
 
 Becerra, (Gasparo,) an eminent Spanish painter, 
 sculptor, and architect, born at Baeza about 1520, studied 
 at Rome under Michael Angelo, and afterwards worked 
 for Philip II. His master-piece is a statue of the Virgin, 
 at Madrid. Died in 1570. 
 
 See I " Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Becerril, ba-ther-rel', (Ai.onzo,) a Spanish artist, 
 noted for his skilful sculpture in silver, born about 1550. 
 Becerril, (Francisco,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was also an artist and silversmith. Died in 1573. 
 Sei- ) "Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Bechada, bi'shS'di', (GrEgoire,) a French poet, 
 about 1090, wrote "The Conquest of Jerusalem," 
 (not extant.) 
 
 Bechard, ba'shiR', (Ferdinand,) a French political 
 writer, bom at Nimes in 1799. He published, besides 
 3, an " Essay on Administrative Centraliza- 
 12 vols., 1837.) 
 Bechaud, ba'sho', (Jean Pierre,) a French general, 
 born at Befort in 1770, was killed at Orthez in 1814. 
 Beche, de la. See Dk la Beche. 
 Becher, beK'er, (Alfred Julius,) of German extrac- 
 111 at Manchester, in England, in 1804. He 
 d law at Heidelberg and Berlin, and was subse- 
 quently professor of music at the Hague. On the break- 
 out of the revolution of 1848, he edited "The Radi- 
 a democratic journal, which was suppressed after 
 
 1 IVbk 
 
 the storming of Vienna, and Becher was arrested and 
 put to death, (1848.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Becher, beK'er, (Johann Joachim,) a German che- 
 mist, born at Speyer about 1630. He was successively 
 professor of medicine at Mentz, aulic councillor at Vi- 
 enna, and chief physician of the Elector of Bavaria, but 
 did not remain long in any place. He was fond of specu- 
 lation, and was the first who attempted to connect by a 
 theory the scattered facts of chemistry. His theory was 
 the basis of that perfected by Stahl. The most import- 
 ant of his numerous works is his " Physica Subterranea," 
 (1669.) Died in London about 1684; some say in 1682. 
 
 See F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie;" Urban G. Bucher, 
 "Muster eines niitzlichen Gelehrten in der Person J. J. Bechers," 
 1722. 
 
 Becher, (Siegfried,) a German statistician, born at 
 Plan, in Bohemia, in 1806. He published a treatise 
 "On the Austrian Monetary System from 1524 to 1838," 
 and "Population of the Austrian Monarchy from 1819 
 to 1843." 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Becherer, b?K'er-er, (Friedrich,) a German archi- 
 tect, born at Spandau in 1746; died in 1823. 
 
 Bechet, ba'shi', (Antoink,) a French ecclesiastic and 
 litterateur, born at Clermont in 1649 ; died in 1722. 
 
 Bechet, (Jean Bapttste,) a French antiquary and 
 litterateur, horn near Salins in 1759, wrote "Historical 
 Researches concerning the City of Salins." Died in 1830. 
 
 Bechstein, MK'stin, (Johann Matthias,) a German 
 naturalist, born in the duchy of Saxe-Gotha in 1 757. He 
 was appointed in 1800 director of the Academy of Forest 
 Science at Dreissigacker. He published the "Natural 
 History of Germany," "Insectology of the Forest," 
 " Forest and Hunting Science in all its Departments," 
 (5 vols., 1818,) "Natural History of Cage-Birds," (1840,) 
 and other works. He is regarded as the founder of forest 
 science. Died in 1822. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Bechstein, (Ludwig,) a German litterateur, nephew 
 of the preceding, born near Meiningen in 1801. He 
 wrote a number of poems and tales, among which is 
 "Deutsches Mahrchenbuch," (1848.) 
 
 Bechtold, beK'tolt, (Johann,) a German artist, lived 
 in Nuremberg about 1584. He coloured many of the 
 engravings of Albert Diirer. 
 
 See Nagler, " Nenes Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Becichemi, ba-che-ka'mee, (Marino,) born at Scu- 
 tari, in Turkey, about 1468, became professor of Latin 
 eloquence successively at Venice, Brescia, and Padua. 
 Died in 1526. 
 
 Becius, ba'se-us, (Jan,) a Dutch Socinian theologian, 
 born in 1622 ; died about 1700. 
 
 Beck, (Cave,) an English clergyman, published "The 
 Universal Character by which all Nations may under- 
 stand one another's Conceptions," (1657.) 
 
 Beck, bek. (Christian Daniel,) a German historian 
 and philologist, born at Leipsic in 1757. He became in 
 1785 professor of Greek and Latin in his native city, and 
 filled other important offices. He published valuable 
 editions of Euripides, Pindar, Apollonius, and other 
 classics, and wrote a "Universal History of the World," 
 (1787-1806.) Died in 1832. 
 
 See Carl F. A. Nodbe, "Vita C. D. Beckii," 1837. 
 
 Beck, (David.) See Beek. 
 
 Beck, (David,) a German organ-builder, resided at 
 Halberstadt about 1790. His greatest work is the organ 
 in the cathedral of Groningen. 
 
 Beck, (Dominicus,) a German mathematician and 
 writer, born near Ulm in 1732; died in 1 791. 
 
 Beck, (Franz,) a German musician, born in 1 73 1, 
 composed a number of symphonies and a " Stabat Mater." 
 Died in 1809. 
 
 Beck, (GEORGE,) born in England about 1740, was 
 appointed professor of mathematics in the Royal Acad- 
 emy at Woolwich in 1776, and emigrated in 1795 to 
 America. He translated Anacreon, and a large part of 
 Homer, Horace, and Virgil. Died in 1812. 
 
 Beck, ( II 1.1 n rich,) a German comedian and comic 
 writer, born at Gotha in 1760; died in 1803. 
 
 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as 2; th as in this. (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 20 
 
BECK 
 
 306 
 
 BECKER 
 
 Bfcck, b<5k, 'Jakob Ciikistoph,) a Swiss historian, 
 born at Bale in 1712 ; died about 1770. 
 
 Beck, (Johann J.,) a German jurist, born at Nurem- 
 berg in 1684, became professor of law at Altdorf. Died 
 
 in 1744- 
 
 Beck, (Johann Ludwig Wilhelm,) son of Chris- 
 tian Daniel, noticed above, born at Leipsic in 17S6, be- 
 came professor of law at Konigsberg in 1812. He wrote 
 "Corpus Juris Civilis," and other. legal works. 
 
 Beck, b£k, (John,) Baron of, a distinguished soldier, 
 fought in the Spanish army in the campaigns of the 
 Netherlands from 1640 to 1648, and became lieutenant- 
 general, and governor of the duchy of Luxemburg. 
 
 Beck, (John Brodhead,) an eminent physician, born 
 at Schenectady, New York, in 1794, graduated at Colum- 
 bia College in 1813, and in 1826 succeeded to the chair 
 of materia medica and botany in the College of Physicians 
 and Surgeons in New York City. At the time of his 
 death, in 1851, he was professor of medical jurisprudence 
 in the same institution. He was author of " Infant Thera- 
 peutics," (1849,) and was associated with his brother, T. 
 R; Beck, in the authorship of their great work on Medical 
 Jurisprudence. 
 
 See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography," 1861. 
 
 Beck bSk, (Karl,) a Hungarian poet, born at Baja 
 in 1817, wrote "The Poet Traveller," (1838,) "Silent 
 Songs," (" Stille Lieder,") and other lyrics. 
 
 Beck, (Karl Joseph,) a German surgeon, born in the 
 duchy of Baden in 1794, published a " Manual of Ocular 
 Medicine," (1824,) and other medical treatises. Died in 
 1838. 
 
 See C. H. Baumcaertner, " Gedachtnissrede auf Dr. C. J. Beck," 
 
 '839- 
 
 Beck, (Lewis C.,) M.D., an American naturalist, born 
 at Schenectady about 1798, was a brother of John B. 
 Beck, noticed above. He graduated in 181 7, was ap- 
 pointed professor of chemistry at Rutgers College, New 
 Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1830, and mineralogist of the 
 survey of the State of New York in 1836. In 1840 he 
 became professor of chemistry in the Medical College of 
 Albany. He wrote numerous treatises on chemistry, 
 botany, etc. His valuable Report on the Mineralogy of 
 New York was published by the State in 1842. Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography," 1861. 
 
 Beck, (Matthias Friedrich, ) a German theologian 
 and Orientalist, born in Suabia in 1649; died in 1701. 
 
 Beck, (Michael,) a German theologian and scholar, 
 born at Ulm in 1653, became professor of the Hebrew 
 language in his native city. Died in 1712. 
 
 Beck, (Theodric Romeyn — ro'inln',) M.D., an 
 American medical writer, born at Schenectady, New York, 
 in 1791. He graduated at Union College in 1807, prac- 
 tised at Albany until 181 7, and then became principal of 
 the Albany Academy, which he directed for more than 
 twenty-five years. In 1 826 he was appointed professor of 
 medical jurisprudence in Fairfield Medical College. He 
 obtained the chair of materia medica in the Albany Medi- 
 cal College about 1840. His principal work is " Elements 
 of Medical Jurisprudence," (1823, 10th edition, 2 vols., 
 1850,) which is highly esteemed. Died in November, 1855. 
 
 See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography," 1S61. 
 
 Becke, von der, fon der bek'keh, (Johann Karl,) 
 a German jurist and poet, born at Iserlohn in 1750. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 Becker, (Balthasar.) See Bekker. 
 
 Becker, bek'ker, (Christiane Amalie Luise,) a 
 celebrated German actress, born in 1777, is the subject 
 of Goethe's poem of " Euphrosyne." Her personations 
 of Srjhiller's and Lessing's dramatic characters were 
 eulogized in the highest terms by Wieland and other 
 eminent critics. She was married at the age of fifteen, 
 and died about 1796, leaving a daughter, the present 
 Madame Werner. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Becker, (Daniel,) a German physician, and professor 
 of medicine at Konigsberg, born at Dantzic in 1594; 
 died in 1655. 
 
 Becker, (Daniel,) son of the preceding, born at 
 Konigsberg in 1627, was dean of the faculty in his native 
 
 city. He died in 1670, leaving a son named Daniel 
 Christopher, also a physician. 
 
 Becker, (Ferdinand,) canon of Paderborn, was born 
 at Grevenstein in 1740. He was imprisoned for a time 
 in the convent of Paderborn for having written works 
 containing heresies. Died in 1810. 
 
 Becker, (Ferdinand Wilhelm,) son of Karl Fer- 
 dinand, noticed below, born at Hoxter in 1805. He 
 studied at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and subsequently at 
 Edinburgh. In 1829 he settled as a physician at Berlin. 
 He published a valuable treatise "On Cholera," and a 
 Latin essay "On the Historical Explanation of Medi- 
 cine." Died in 1834. 
 
 Becker, (Gottfried Wilhelm,) a German physi- 
 cian and litterateur, born at Leipsic in 1 778. He pub- 
 lished sketches of travel, and other works, and t, ans- 
 lated some of Cooper's novels, and " My Prisons" (" Le 
 mie Prigioni") of Silvio Pellico, into German. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Becker, (James,) a skilful German painter of genre 
 and landscapes, born near Worms in 1810. 
 
 Becker, (Johann,) a German physician and mcdicai 
 writer, born at Schwerin in 1770; died about 1840. 
 
 Becker, (Johann Philipp,) a German patriot, born 
 at Frankenthal in 1809. Being compelled to leave his 
 country on account of his liberal opinions, he went to 
 Switzerland, where he took an active part against the 
 Jesuits and the Sonderbund. In conjunction with Ksse- 
 len, he published a " History of the Revolution of May, 
 1849, in Southern Germany." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Becker, (Julius,) a German composer and writer on 
 music, born at FYeiberg in 181 1. He published a treat- 
 ise " On the Science of Harmony," and composed an 
 opera entitled " The Siege of Belgrade." 
 
 Becker, (Karl Ferdinand,) a German scholar, born 
 in the electorate of Treves in 1775. He published t 
 " Complete German Grammar," " Organism of the Ger- 
 man Language," (1841.) and other works. Died in 1849. 
 
 Becker, (Karl Ferdinand,) a German organist, 
 born at Leipsic in 1804, was a son of Gottfried Wilhelm, 
 noticed above. He wrote a " Systematic and Chrono- 
 logical Exposition of Musical Literature," (1S36,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Becker, (Karl Friedrich,) a German historian, born 
 at Berlin in 1777, wrote a very popular " History of the 
 World for Children and Teachers," (9 vols., 1S01.) Five 
 volumes were subsequently added to it by YVoltmann, 
 Menzel, and Loebell. Died in 1806. 
 
 Bec'ker or Bajert-Becker, [Fr. pron. bi'zhaiit' 
 b&'kaiR', J (Leonard Nicolas,) Comte de Mons, a French 
 general, born at Obernheim in 1770. He was raised to 
 the rank of general of divisipn on the field of Austerlitz. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Becker, (Nikolaus,) a German poet, born at Geilen- 
 kirchen in 1816, is chiefly known as the author of a very 
 popular national song beginning, " They shall not haj 
 it, the free German Rhine !" (" Sie sollen ihn nicht hab 
 den freien deutschen Rhein !") It was written in : 
 in response to a proposed annexation of the valley < 
 the Rhine to France. Died in 1845. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Becker, (Philipp Christoph,) a German engrav 
 of seals and medals, born at Coblentz in 1674. He ' 
 patronized by Joseph I. and Charles VI. of Austria, an 
 Peter the Great of Russia. Died in 1742. 
 
 Becker, (Philipp Jakob,) a German painter, born 1 
 Pforzheim in 1763, studied at Rome under Rapha 
 Mengs. Died in 1829. 
 
 Becker, (Rudolf Zacharias,) a popular Gern 
 writer, born at Erfurt in 1752, published a number < 
 moral and educational works for the lower classes. On 
 of these, entitled " Instructive Tales of Joy and Sorrow 
 in the Village of Mildheim," (1787,) was so popular that 
 more than half a million copies of it were soon printed 
 in German and other languages. Died in 1822. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Becker, (Wilhelm Adolf",) a son of Wilhelm Gott- 
 lieb, noticed below, born at Dresden in 1796, published 
 a "Manual of Roman Antiquities," (1S43,) and other 
 works. Died in 1846. 
 
 a, e, T, o, it, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, ^, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; mo 
 
BECKER 
 
 3°7 
 
 BECON 
 
 Becker, (Wilhelm Gottlieb,) a German writer on 
 
 antiquities and horticulture, born at Kalenberg in 1753, 
 
 published " Augusteum, or Description of the Antique 
 
 nents of Dresden," (3 vols., 1805,) and "Manual 
 
 nateurs of Gardens," (1795-99.) Died at Dresden 
 
 in [81 ;. 
 
 Beckerath, de, deh bek'keh-r5t', (Hermann,) a 
 Prussian statesman and financier, born at Crefeld in 
 1801. He was a deputy in 1848 to the National Assem- 
 bly at Frankfort, where he sided with the liberal con- 
 servative party, and the same year became minister of 
 finance in the ministry of the empire. He resigned 
 both offices in 1849. 
 
 Beck'et, (Thomas a,) Archbishop of Canterbury, was 
 born in London in 11 17. He became Archdeacon of 
 Canterbury about 1 1 54, and chancellor of England in 
 1 1 5S. According to Hume, the chancellor in that age kept 
 the great seal, acted as secretary of state, and was a kind 
 of prime minister. Becket lived in splendid style, per- 
 formed the part of a courtier, and on one or more occa- 
 sions exposed his person in battle in Normandy, whither 
 he had followed the king. He was appointed Archbishop 
 of Canterbury by the influence of Henry II. in 1 162, after 
 which he totally altered his demeanour and affected in 
 his person the greatest austerity. He determined to 
 resist the projects which Henry had formed to limit or 
 diminish the ecclesiastical power. After a contest with 
 the king in relation to the " Constitutions of Clarendon," 
 Becket appealed to the pope, and escaped to France, 
 (1 164.) Supported by the pope, he excommunicated 
 Henry's ministers, suspended the spiritual thunder over 
 Henry himself, and persisted in his course with the ut- 
 most obstinacy. In 1 170 he was permitted to return, and 
 was reinstated in his office without resigning any of those 
 pretensions which had been the origin of the contest. 
 The haughty prelate continued to defy the authority of 
 the king, and excommunicated two bishops for their com- 
 pliance with Henry's will. Not long after (December 
 29, 1 1 70) he was assassinated by four barons, servants 
 of Henry. Becket was the first Saxon Archbishop of 
 Canterbury after the Norman conquest. He was re- 
 garded as a martyr not only by the devoted adherents 
 of the church, but by thousands of patriotic Saxons, who 
 beheld in him the champion of their race against Nor- 
 man tyranny. He was canonized by the pope in 1 172, 
 and his shrine at Canterbury became the resort ofmyriads 
 of pilgrims. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England," vol. i. chap. viii. ; Macaulav, 
 "History of England," vol. l ; Canda, "Vie de Saint Thomas 
 Becket,' f 1615; BataillEj "Vie de Saint Thomas Becket," 1K43: 
 Robert. "Hisloire de Saint Thomas Becket," 1844; Giles, "Life 
 and Letters of Thomas a Becket," London, 2 vols., 1846; James C. 
 Robertson, "Biography of Thomas Becket," 1859; Immanuel 
 Bekkkr, " Leben des heiligen Thomas von Canterbury,]' 1838; VV. 
 r . H ok, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. ii. chap. xii. 
 
 Becket, (William,) an English surgeon and writer 
 on surgery, was bom at Abingdon in 1684 ; died in 1738. 
 
 Beck'ett, (Isaac,) one of the earliest English mezzo- 
 tint engravers, born in Kent in 1653. Among his master- 
 pieces are portraits of Charles II. and of Lady Williams. 
 
 See Walpole's "Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Beck'fc-rd, (William,) born in the West Indies in 
 1690, rose through several offices to be lord mayor of 
 London. Died in 1770. 
 
 Beckford, (William,) a celebrated English writer, 
 son of the preceding, born in 1760. He inherited from 
 his father the estate of Fonthill, in Wiltshire, and large 
 estates in Jamaica, producing an annual revenue of more 
 than one hundred thousand pounds. At the age of twenty 
 he published " Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary 
 Painters," which is characterized by a critic in the " Lon- 
 don Quarterly" as "a series of sharp and brilliant satires 
 on the Dutch and Flemish schools." His romance of 
 " Yathek" came out in 1784. This work, written in 
 elegant French, wa-s commended in the highest terms by 
 Byron, who says, "As an Eastern tale, even Ras- 
 selas must bow before it ; his Happy Valley will not 
 bear a comparison with the Hall of Eblis." An able 
 writer in the " London Quarterly" observes, however, 
 that " its inspiration is too often such as might have been 
 inhaled in the Hall of Eblis." Having visited Portugal 
 in 1794, he built a splendid mansion near Cintra, alluded 
 
 to by Byron in "Childe Harold," canto i. In 1796 he 
 began the erection of Fonthill Abbey, upon which he ex- 
 pended enormous sums, and filled it with the rarest anc 
 most costly works of art. This magnificent establishment 
 was sold in 1822, and Beckford built another palace in 
 the neighbourhood of Bath. In 1834 he brought out a 
 series of letters entitled " Italy, with Sketches of Spain 
 and Portugal," which are ranked by an English critic 
 "among the most elegant productions of modern litera- 
 ture." Died in 1844. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for March and June, 1834. 
 
 Beck'ing-ham, (Charles,) an English dramatist, 
 born in London, wrote, before the age of twenty, his 
 tragedies of "Scipio Africanus," and "Henry IV. of 
 France." Died in 1730. 
 
 See "Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Beck'ing-ton, (Thomas,) an English prelate and di 
 plomatist, born about 1385, was tutor to Henry VI., under 
 whom he became successively secretary of state, lord 
 privy seal, and Bishop of Bath and Wells. In 1432 he 
 was one of the ambassadors charged to negotiate a peace 
 with France. Died in 1465. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Beckmaim, bek'man, (Friedrich,) a popular Ger- 
 man comedian, born at Breslau in 1803, acted at Berlin, 
 and afterwards at Vienna. 
 
 Beckmaim, (Johann,) a German naturalist and agri- 
 cultural writer, born at Hoya in 1739. He became pro- 
 fessor of physics and natural history at the Protestant 
 Gymnasium of Saint Petersburg in 1763, and in 1770 
 professor of economy at Gottingen, where he lectured 
 forty years or more. He wrote, among other works, 
 "Principles of Rural Economy in Germany," (1769,) 
 and "Contribution to the History of Inventions," ("Bei- 
 trage zur Geschichte der Erfindungen," 5 vols., 1786- 
 1805.) Died in 181 1. 
 
 See G. Heyne, "Memoria Joan. Beckmanni," 1811 ; "London 
 Quarterly Review" for January, 1816. 
 
 Beckmaim, (Johann Friedrich Gottlieb,) born 
 in 1737, was organist at Celle, in Hanover, and one of the 
 most skilful pianists of his time. Died in 1792. 
 
 Beck'with, (Sir George,) an English general, born 
 in 1753, became successively Governor of Bermuda, 
 (1797,) Governor of Saint Vincent, (1804,) and com-, 
 mander of the South American forces in 1808. He sub- 
 sequently took Martinique and Guadeloupe from the 
 French. Died in 1823. 
 
 Beckwith, (John Charles,) an English general and 
 philanthropist, born in 1790. He served on the staff of 
 the Duke of Wellington, and lost a leg at Waterloo, 181 5. 
 He devoted much of his time and money to the welfare 
 of the Waldenses, and opened many schools in Piedmont, 
 where he died in 1862. 
 
 Beclard, ba'kliR', (Pierre Augustin,) a French sur- 
 geon and anatomist, born«>at Angers in 1 785, became 
 surgeon-in-chief of the hospital de la Charite in Paris, 
 and in 1818 professor of anatomy at the School of Medi- 
 cine. He was an excellent teacher of anatomy, and pub- 
 lished "Elements of General Anatomy,!' (1823.) Died 
 in Paris in 1825. 
 
 See C. P. Ollivier, " Notice sur la Vie, etc. de P. A. Be'clard," 
 1827. 
 
 Becmann, bek'man, (Gustav Bernard and Otto 
 David Heinrich,) brothers, and German jurists, born 
 in the duchy of Mecklenburg in 1720 and 1722, were 
 professors of law at Gottingen. The first-named died 
 in 1783, the latter in 1784. 
 
 Becmann, (Johann Christoph,) a German geo- 
 grapher and historian, born at Zerhst in 1641, became 
 professor of Greek and of history at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Oder. Died in 1717. 
 
 See "Monumentum Becmannianum, hoc est Vita et Scripta J. C. 
 Becmanni," 1719. 
 
 Becceur, beh-kUR', (Charles,) a French painter of 
 history and portraits, born in Paris in 1807. 
 
 Be'con or Bea'con, (Thomas,) an eminent English 
 divine, and one of the early Protestant reformers, bom 
 in Kent about 1512. He was an excellent writer, and 
 was the author of several works against popery. Froude 
 calls him "the large-minded Becon." Died in 1570. 
 
 See Froude, "History of England," vol. v. chap, xicviii. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (23^™See Explanations, p. 2X ' 
 
BECQUEREL 
 
 308 
 
 BEDELL 
 
 Becquerel, bck'rJl ', (Alexandre Edmond,) a natu- 
 ral philosopher, son of Antoine Cesar, born in Paris in 
 March, 1820. He has distinguished himself by researches 
 on electricity, magnetism, and optics, and has been asso- 
 ciated in' the labours of his father. He ascertained that 
 oxvgen gas has a magnetic power, and discovered a chlo- 
 ride of silver capable of receiving and preserving the 
 coloured impressions of light. In conjunction with his 
 father, he wrote a "Treatise on Terrestrial Physics and 
 Meteorology," (1847.) In 1853 he became professor of 
 physics at "the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. 
 
 Becquerel, (Antoine Cesar,) a French savant, dis- 
 tinguished for his discoveries in electro-chemistry, was 
 born at Chatillon-sur-Loing, in Loiret, in March, 1788. 
 He studied in the Polytechnic School, served in the army 
 as an officer of engineers from 1810 to 181 5, and then 
 retired, with the rank of major, to devote himself to the 
 study of electricity. Among the results of his early re- 
 searches were the'refutation of Volta's theory of contact, 
 and the construction of the first pile with a constant 
 current. He obtained by slow electric action the metals 
 aluminum, silicium, glucium, etc., and invented a method 
 of electrotyping, [coloration electrique sur or et argent.) He 
 was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1829, and 
 received the Copley medal of the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don in 1837 for various memoirs on electricity. Among 
 his works are a "Treatise on Electricity and Magnet- 
 ism," (7 vols., 1834-40,) and a "Treatise on Electro- 
 chemistry." He afterwards became professeur-aclmi- 
 nistrateur in the Museum of Natural History. He has 
 presented more than a hundred memoirs to the Institute. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" Querard, " La France 
 Litteraire." 
 
 Becquerel, (Louis Alfred,) a physician, son of the 
 preceding, was bom in Paris in 1814. He wrote several 
 able professional treatises, and was appointed physician 
 to the hospital of Sainte-Perrine in 1851. 
 
 Becquet, b&'k£', (Antoine,) a learned French monk 
 of the order of the Celestines, born in Paris in 1654, wrote 
 several bibliographical works in Latin. Died in 1730. 
 
 Becri- (or Bekri-) Mustafa, bSk'ree miis'ta-fa, a 
 favourite of the sultan Amurath IV., lived about 1630. 
 
 Bectoz, de, deh bek'to',(CLAUDiNE,) a learned French 
 lady, born near Grenoble about 14S0, was surnamed the 
 Scholastic Sister. She was abbess of the convent of 
 Saint-Honorat, in Provence. Died in 1547. 
 
 See Hilarion DE Coste, " Fjoges des Femmes illustr.es." 
 
 Beczkowski, Mtch-kov'skee, (Johann Franz,) a 
 Bohemian historian, born at Deutschbrod in 1658. 
 
 Beda, beh-di', (Noel,) a French theologian, born in 
 the diocese of Avranches, was noted for the bitterness 
 and violence of his controversial writings. He published 
 a work against Erasmus, which the latter pronounced a 
 " repertory containing one hundred and eighty-one lies, 
 two hundred and ten calumnies, and forty-seven blas- 
 phemies." Died in 1536. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Bedaffa, van, van bi-daf'fa, or Bedaff, be-daf, 
 (Antony,) a skilful Flemish painter, born at Antwerp 
 in 1787 ; died in 1829. 
 
 Beddevole, bed'vol', (Dominique,) a native of Ge- 
 neva, in Switzerland, became physician to William III. 
 of England. Died about 1692. 
 
 Beddevole, (Jean,) a Swiss jurist, born at Geneva 
 in 1697, made a French translation of Giannone's "Civil 
 History of the Kingdom of Naples," (1742.) Died about 
 1760. 
 
 See Senebier, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve." 
 
 Bed'does, (Thomas,) an eminent English physician 
 and chemist, born at Shiffnal, in Shropshire, in 1760. 
 He studied in Pembroke College, Oxford, and attained 
 great proficiency in Latin and other languages. He also 
 received instruction in medicine from Dr. Cullen of Ed- 
 inburgh. About 1787 he was appointed reader in che- 
 mistry to the University of Oxford. He resigned this 
 office about 1792 because his liberal political opinions 
 did not accord with those that prevailed at Oxford. He 
 married a younger sister of Maria Edgeworth. In 1798 
 he established at Bristol a Pneumatic Institution in order 
 to experiment on the cure of disease by the respiration 
 
 of gases, and employed Humphry Davy — then a young 
 aspirant for fame — as his assistant. He was the author 
 of numerous works, among which are a " Popular Essay 
 on Consumption," (1799,) and " Hygeia, or Essays Mo- 
 ral and Medical," (3 vols., 1802.) "He was a remark- 
 able man," says Sir Humphry Davy, " admirably fitted 
 to promote inquiry, better than to conduct it." Died in 
 December, 1808. 
 
 See E. Stock, "Life of Beddoes," 1811. 
 
 Beddoes, (Thomas Lovell,) a son of the preceding, 
 born in 1803, was a poet, and an eccentric character. In 
 1822 he produced "The Bride's Tragedy," a remarkable 
 poem. " With all its extravagancies," savs " Blackwood's 
 Magazine," "it shows far more than glimpses of a true 
 poetical genius," (vol. xiv.) His favourite sciences were 
 anatomy and physiology, which he studied in Germany. 
 He died at Bale in 1849, in consequence of a scratch he 
 received while dissecting at Frankfort. A volume of his 
 poems was published after his death. 
 
 Bede, beed, [Lat. Be'da,] surnamed the Venerable,. 
 an English monk and ecclesiastical writer, illustrious for 
 his learning and virtues, was born in the county of Dur- 
 ham about 673, and at the age of thirty was ordained priest 
 His writings include treatises on astronomy, mathema- 
 tics, grammar, and music, but his reputation rests chiefly 
 on his " Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, I 
 (" Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum.") This work, 
 upon which he was employed many years, was completed 
 about 734, and first printed about 1474. It was trans- 
 lated into Saxon by King Alfred. I lis severe applica- 
 tion to study brought on a consumption, of which he died, 
 about 735. It is related that on the night of his death 
 he continued dictating to his amanuensis a translation of 
 some work, probably of the Gospel of Saint John, into 
 Anglo-Saxon. He asked the scribe how many chapters 
 remained. "Only one," he replied; "but you are too 
 weak to dictate." " No," said Bede; "take your pen 
 and write quickly." After some time the scribe said, 
 " Master, it is finished ;" to which Bede replied, " Thou 
 hast said truly, consummatum est," (it is finished ;) and, 
 having repeated a short prayer, he expired. 
 
 See Gehi.e, " De Beda Venerabilis Vita et Scriptis;" Cavk 
 "Historia Literaria;" J. A. Giles, " Life of Bede," prefixed to ha 
 complete works, 12 vols. Svo, 1844. 
 
 Bede, (Cuthbert.) See Bradley, (Edward.) 
 
 Bedeau, beh-do', (Marie Alphonse,) a French gen- 
 eral, born at Nantes in 1804. He served in Algeria ten 
 years, (1836-46,) and became a general of division in 1S44. 
 Holding a high command in Paris during the revolution 
 of 1848, he favoured the republicans, and was vice- 
 president of the Legislative Assembly in 1849. 
 
 Bede de la Gormandiere, ba'da' deh IS goR'moN''- 
 de-aik', (Jean,) a French jurist, born at Angers, livid 
 afiout 1620. He wrote, among other works, a treatise 
 "On the Liberty of the Gallican Church." 
 
 Be-dell', (Gregory Townsend,) D.D., a distinguished 
 Episcopal clergyman, bom on Staten Island, New York, 
 in 1793. He graduated at Columbia College in 1S11. 
 For the last twelve years of his life he was rector of 
 Saint Andrew's Church, Philadelphia, where he died in 
 1834. Dr. Bedell was greatly admired as a pulpit orator. 
 He was author of "Ezekiel's Vision," "Onward, ot 
 Christian Progression," " Renunciation," two volumes 01 
 published sermons, and other religious works. 
 
 Be-dell', (William,) an eminent English prelate, 
 born in Essex in 1570. He accompanied Sir Henry 
 Wotton, ambassador to Venice, as his chaplain about 
 1604, and, during his residence in that city, acquired the 
 friendship of the celebrated Paul Sarpi, known as Father 
 Paul. Having become thoroughly versed in Italian, he 
 translated into that language the ISook of Common Prayer. 
 After his return to England, he was elected prov. 
 Trinity College, Dublin, (1627,) and created Bishop of 
 Kilmore and Ardagh, (1629.) He effected a great re- 
 formation among the Protestants of Ireland, and made 
 numerous converts from the Catholics. He caused the 
 Old Testament, and the homilies of Chrysostom and 
 Leo in praise of the Scriptures, to be translated into 
 Irish. Died in 1642. 
 
 See Burnet, " Life of Bedell," 16S5 ; H. J. Monck Mason," Lift 
 of W. Bedell," 1842. 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, 5, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; mo. .n; 
 
BEDENE 
 
 3°9 
 
 BEE CHER 
 
 Bedene, bi'din', or Bidene, be'd&n', (Vital,) a 
 French poet, born at Pezenas, lived about 1610. 
 
 Bed'fr-ic, (Henri,) surnamed de Bury, an English 
 monk, born at Bury Saint Edmund's, lived about 1380. 
 He wrote sermons and other religious works in Latin. 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Bed'ford, (Arthur,) an English divine, born in 
 Gloucestershire in 1668, wrote a number of treatises 
 against the stage and the corrupt dramatic literature of 
 the time, also a work entitled "The Great Abuses of 
 Music," (171 1.) Died in 1745. 
 
 Bedford, Duke of. See Russell. 
 
 Bedford, ( Russell,) first Earl of. He attended 
 
 v VIII. in his expedition against France, was 
 ted in 1522 for his services, and created Lord Rus- 
 sell in 1539. He was afterwards made Earl of Bedford, 
 and died in 1555, leaving the title to his son Francis. 
 
 Bed'ford, (Gunning S.,) M.D., an American phy- 
 sician, born in Baltimore in 181 1, was professor of mid- 
 wifery, etc. in the University of New York. He wrote a 
 treatise on midwifery, a volume of clinical lectures on 
 the Diseases of Women and Children, and other works. 
 Died in 1870. 
 
 Bedford, (Hilkiah,) an English divine, born in Lon- 
 don in 1663, was fined and imprisoned on a charge of 
 having written the work entitled " Hereditary Right to 
 the Crown of England asserted," of which it is believed 
 George Harbin was the author. Died in 1724. 
 
 Bedford, (John Plaiitagenet,) Duke of, the third 
 son of Henry IV. of England, and Mary Bohun, was 
 born about 1390. He was created Duke of Bedford in 
 1414 or 141 5, and commanded the army in England 
 during the absence of his brother Henry V. in France. 
 By the will of Henry V., who died in 1422, he was ap- 
 pointed regent of France, part of which had recently 
 been conquered by the English. In the same year the Par- 
 liament appointed him "protector" of England during 
 the minority of Henry VI. He is described by Hume 
 as "the most accomplished prince of his age; whose 
 experience, prudence, and valour qualified him for his 
 high office." Having taken command of the army in 
 person, he gained victories over the French at Verneuil 
 (1424) and other places ; but his victorious progress was 
 effectually arrested by Joan of Arc at Orleans in 1429. 
 It appears that he was not supported and reinforced by 
 the English Parliament or the chief ministers. He was 
 one of the chief authors of the judicial murder of Joan 
 of Arc. Died at Rouen in 1435. 
 
 See Hume's "History of England." 
 
 Bedford, (John RussrtL) sixth Duke of, an Eng- 
 lish peer, distinguished as a patron of fine arts, was 
 born in 1766. He devoted much time and money to the 
 improvement of agriculture, and was noted for his libe- 
 ralitv and public spirit. He was the father of Lord John 
 (Earl) Russell. Died in 1839. 
 
 Bedford, (Thomas,) son of Hilkiah, was the author 
 of a " Historical Catechism," and other works. Died 
 
 i> 1773- 
 
 See " Biograpbia Britannica." 
 
 Bedford, (William Russell,) fourth Earl and first 
 Duke of. He was a member of the Long Parliament 
 which met in 1640, and was a general in the armv of the 
 Parliament at the battle of Edgehill, (1642.) He was 
 created Duke of Bedford about 1694. Died in 1700. He 
 was the father of Admiral Lord Russell. 
 
 Bediiielli, di, de bi-de-nel'lee, (Francesco di Pao- 
 lo,) an Italian surgeon and medical writer, who resided 
 at Fano about 1760. 
 
 Bed'in-ger, (George M.,) an officer in the American 
 army of the Revolution, settled in Kentucky, and was a 
 representative from that State in Congress from 1803 to 
 1807. 
 
 Bedloe, (William,) a notorious English adventurer, 
 who was rewarded with ,£500 for his pretended revela- 
 tion of the popish plot, and of the circumstances attend- 
 ing the murder of Sir Edmundbury Godfrey. Died in 1680. 
 
 See Hume's " History of Knfclam!," vol. vi. 
 
 Bedmar, de, di bed-maR', (Alfonso de la Cueva — 
 di la kwa'vi,) a Spanish marquis, born in 1572. Having 
 been sent by Philip III. as ambassador to Venice in 
 1607, he entered into a conspiracy to betray that republic 
 
 into the hands of Spain. The plot was discovered, and 
 Bedmar was compelled to leave the city. He was made 
 a cardinal in 1622. Bedmar's conspiracy is said to have 
 suggested the plot of Otway's " Venice Preserved." Died 
 in 1655. 
 
 See Daru, "Histoire de Venise;" Saint-Real, "Conspiration 
 contre Venise." 
 
 Bedoch, bi'dok', (Pierre Joseph,) a French magis- 
 trate, born in the department of Correze in 1761, was a 
 representative to the Chamber of Deputies in 1818. Died 
 in 1837. 
 
 Bedos de Celles, beh'dos' deli s61, (Dom Fran- 
 cois,) a learned French ecclesiastic, born at Caux in 
 1706, wrote "Practical Gnomonics, or the Art of Draw- 
 ing Solar Dials," an excellent work. Died in 1779. 
 
 Bedouin, beh-dwaN', (Samson,) a French monk of 
 the abbey de la Couture, near Mans, was the author of a 
 number of dramas, satires, and songs. Died about 1563. 
 Bedoyere. See La Bedoyere. 
 Bedriaga, b£d-re-a'ga, (Maria E.,) a Russian lady, 
 born at Tver in 1794, was the author of several talcs, etc 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 Beduschi, bi-doos'kee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Cremona in 1576, was a pupil of Antonio Campi. 
 Bed'welL (William,) an English divine and Ori- 
 ental scholar, born about 1562, had a share in the trans- 
 lation of the Scriptures published under James I. Died 
 in 1632. 
 
 Bee, (Bernard E.,)'a South Carolinian general, born 
 at Charleston, graduated at West Point in 1845. He 
 became a captain in 1855, and fought against the Union 
 at Bull Run, where he was killed, July 21, 1861. 
 
 Bee'cher, (Catherine E.,) an American authoress, 
 a daughter of Dr. Lyman Beecher, was born at East 
 Hampton, Long Island, in 1800. She was principal of a 
 female seminary at Hartford, Connecticut, from 1822 to 
 1832. She published, besides other works, "Domestic 
 Service," a " Treatise on Domestic Economy," " Physi- 
 ology and Calisthenics," (1856,) and "Common Sense 
 applied to Religion," (1857.) 
 
 Beecher, (Rev. Charles,) an American writer, son 
 of Dr. Lyman Beecher, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, 
 in 1815. He published "Pen-Pictures of the Bible," 
 (1855,) and several other works. 
 
 Beecher, (Edward,) an American clergyman, a son 
 of Dr. Lyman Beecher, was born in 1S04. He graduated 
 at Yale College in 1822, became a tutor in that institution 
 in 1825, and pastor of Park Street Church, Boston, in 
 1826. He was president of Illinois College from 1831 
 to 1844, and pastor of Salem Street Church, Boston, from 
 1846 to 1856. Among his works is "The Conflict of 
 Ages," (1854.) 
 
 Beecher, (Harriet.) See Stowe, (Harriet 
 Beecher.) 
 
 Beecher, (Henry Ward,) a distinguished American 
 minister and writer, a son of Dr. Lyman Beecher, no- 
 ticed below, was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 
 24th of January, 1813. He appears to have given in child- 
 hood but little promise of future distinction. " He had," 
 says Mrs. Stowe, "precisely the organization which often 
 passes for dulness in boyhood. He had great deficiency 
 in verbal memory ; ... he was excessively sensitive to 
 praise and blame, extremely diffident, and with a power 
 of yearning, undeveloped emotion which he neither un- 
 derstood nor could express. . . . In forecasting his horo- 
 scope, had any one taken the trouble to do it, the last 
 success that ever would have been predicted for him 
 would have been that of an orator." But even while a 
 boy he proved that, if he did not inherit the eloquence, 
 he inherited at least something of the controversial abil- 
 ity, of his father. "A forward school-boy among the elder 
 scholars had got hold of Paine's 'Age of Reason,' and 
 was flourishing largely among the boys with objections 
 to the Bible* Henry privately looked up Watson's 
 'Apology,' studied up the subject, and challenged a de- 
 bate with the big boy, in which he came off victorious 
 by the acclamation of his school-fellows." This occurred 
 when he was about eleven years old. He manifested at 
 this period little inclination for severe study, but had 
 conceived a passionate desire to go to sea. His father 
 adroitly used this desire to induce him to commence a 
 
 c as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/ <i, H, v.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (J^=*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BEECHER 
 
 310 
 
 BEER 
 
 course of mathematics with a view to qualify himself to 
 become a naval officer. He applied himself energetic- 
 ally to his new studies, " with his face to the navy, and 
 Nelson as his beau ideal." But not long afterwards 
 there occurred in that section of the country a religious 
 "revival," and young Beecher, with many others, was 
 powerfully impressed. The result was that the naval 
 scheme was abandoned, and his thoughts were directed 
 to the pulpit as his natural and proper sphere. After 
 going through the preparatory studies, he entered Am- 
 herst College, where he graduated in 1834; and soon 
 after he commenced the study of theology at Lane Semi- 
 nary, under the direction of his father. (See Beecher, 
 Lyman.) He began his ministerial course at I^awrence- 
 burg, Indiana, but removed soon after to Indianapolis. 
 In 1847 he became pastor of the Plymouth Church (of 
 orthodox Congregationalists) in Brooklyn, near New 
 York. Here he has gathered around him the largest con- 
 gregation, it is said, in the United States. He is also one 
 of the most popular writers and most successful lecturers 
 in America. His success as a public speaker is due not 
 so much to what is popularly termed eloquence, as to an 
 unfailing flow of racy and original thought, which, though 
 often enlivened with flashes of quaint humour, is not 
 without an under-current of deep moral and spiritual 
 earnestness. In 1850 Mr. Beecher published a volume 
 of "Lectures to Young Men." He was one of the ori- 
 ginators of "The Independent," a weekly religious paper 
 published in New York, which acquired through his con- 
 tributions a wide popularity. The articles which he 
 furnished to the paper were signed with an asterisk. A 
 volume of these contributions was published in 1855, with 
 the title of " Star Papers ;" and a second series of the 
 same appeared in 1858. His "Life Thoughts" (1858) 
 has had a very extensive circulation. One of his latest 
 productions is a novel, entitled "Norwood," (1868,) which 
 first appeared in the columns of the "New York Ledger." 
 As a reformer, particularly in the causes of temperance 
 and anti-slavery, Mr. Beecher has long stood in the fore- 
 most rank in America. 
 
 See " Men of Our Times," by Harriet Beecher Stowe, 1S68. 
 
 Beecher, (Lyman,) D.D., an eminent American 
 preacher and theologian, born at New Haven, Connec- 
 ticut, on the 12th of October, 1775. He graduated at 
 Yale College in 1 797, and studied theology under Presi- 
 dent Dwight. After he had preached several years at 
 East Hampton, Long Island, he became in 1810 minister 
 of the Congregational church of Litchfield, Connecticut. 
 He was a popular pulpit orator, and acquired great influ- 
 ence in the religious world. About 1826 he removed 
 from Litchfield to Boston, in order to uphold the ancient 
 (orthodox) faith against the influence of the Unitarians. 
 He was installed as minister of the Hanover Street 
 Church, Boston. His zealous efforts to prevent defec- 
 tion from the orthodox church are said to have been 
 very successful. In 1832 he became president of Lane 
 Theological Seminary at Cincinnati, and minister of the 
 Second Presbyterian Church in that city. He was an 
 active and earnest promoter of temperance and other 
 moral enterprises, and was distinguished by the boldness 
 and energy of his character. He quitted Cincinnati 
 about 1842, after which he resided for many years in Bos- 
 ton. He wrote, besides other works, " Views in Theol- 
 ogy," and "Skepticism." His sermons on Temperance 
 have had an immense circulation, and have been trans- 
 lated into several foreign languages. His collected works 
 were published under his direction, in Boston, in three 
 volumes. About 1856 he removed to Brooklyn, where 
 he died in January, 1863. Dr. Beecher w,as thrice mar- 
 ried, and had thirteen children, several of whom became 
 distinguished as writers or ministers. 
 
 See his- "Autobiography and Correspondence," edited by his son, 
 Chari.es Beecher, 2 vols., 1864. 
 
 Beecher, (Thomas K.,) a son of Dr. Lyman Beecher, 
 noticed above, born- at Litchfield, Connecticut, February 
 10, 1824. He graduated at Illinois College (Jacksonville, 
 Illinois) in 1843. For about fifteen years he has had the 
 pastoral charge of a Congregational church at Elmira, in 
 the State of New York. He is an eloquent preacher, 
 and a zealous philanthropist. He considers it to be es- 
 pecially his duty to discourage the spirit of sectarianism, 
 
 and to promote a liberal "and fraternal feeling among 
 the various Christian churches. 
 
 Bee'chey, (Frederick William,) an English navi- 
 gator and naturalist, son of Sir William Beechey, men- 
 tioned below, was born in London in 1796. In 181S he 
 sailed with Franklin on his first Arctic voyage, and in 
 1819 accompanied Sir Edward Parry to the Polar re- 
 gions. He was charged in 182 1, in conjunction with his 
 brother, H. W. Beechey, to make a survey of the northern 
 coast of Africa. In 1825 he sailed, as commander of the 
 Blossom, on another Arctic expedition, reached 71° 23' 
 north latitude, and returned in 1828. He had discovered 
 in 1827 two harbours southeast of Cape Prince of Wales, 
 which he named Port Clarence and Port Grantley. He 
 was made rear-admiral of the blue in 1854. He pub- 
 lished in 1828 " Proceedings of the Expedition to explore 
 the Northern Coast of Africa from Tripoli eastward," 
 and in 1831 a "Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and 
 Behring's Strait," which was followed by two volumes 
 treating of the botany and zoology of the voyage. Died 
 in November, 1856. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for 1831 ; " Edinburgh Review" 
 for March, 1831. 
 
 Beechey, (Sir William,) a distinguished English 
 portrait-painter, born in Oxfordshire in 1753. He was 
 chosen an associate of the Royal Academy in 1 793, and 
 was appointed portrait-painter to Queen Charlotte. 
 Among his principal paintings was one of George III, I 
 on horseback ; he also painted the Prince of Wales and 
 other members of the royal family, Lord Cornwallis, 
 Lord Nelson, and John Kemble. He became a Royal 
 Academician in 1797. Died in 1839. 
 
 Beeck, bak, (JoHann Martin,) a German Protest- 
 ant theologian, born at Lubeck in 1665 ; died in 1727. 
 
 Beek, bak, (David,) a celebrated Dutch portrait- 
 painter, born at Delft in 1621, was one of the most dis- 
 tinguished pupils of Van Dyck. He was appointed by 
 Charles I. of England teacher of drawing to the Prince 
 of Wales and his brothers, and was subsequently pa- 
 tronized by Christina of Sweden, who charged him to 
 paint the portraits of the sovereigns and eminent per- 
 sons of Europe. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Beekkerk, bak'keRk, (Hermann Walter,) a Dutch 
 painter, born at Leeuwarden in 1756; died in 1796. 
 
 Beeldemaker, bal'deh-ma'ker, or Beeldemakeu, 
 bal'deh-ma'ken, (Franciscus,) a Dutch historical paint- 
 er, son of Jan, noticed below, born at the Hague in 1669. 
 
 Beeldemaker, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at the 
 Hague in 1636, was distinguished for his hunting-scenes 
 and animals. Died in 1736. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Beer, bait, (Cornelis,) a Flemish painter, worked in 
 Spain about 1630-50. 
 
 Beer, baR, (Georg Joseph,) a German physician and 
 oculist, born at Vienna in 1763. He invented several 
 surgical instruments, and wrote " Practical Observations 
 on the Cataract," (1791,) "Bibliotheca Ophthalmica," (3 
 vols., 1799,) and other valuable works. Died in 182 1. 
 
 Beer, (Jakob Meyer.) See Meyerbeer. 
 
 Beer, Bahr, or Baehr, bar, (Joseph,) a German musi- 
 cian, born at Griinwald, in Bohemia, in 1744; died in 1811. 
 
 See Sprengel, "Geschichte der Medicin." 
 
 Beer, (Martin,) a German philosopher and geogra- 
 pher, born at Nuremberg in 161 7. He wrote various 
 works. Died in 1692. 
 
 See Johann Fabricius, " Memoria M. Beerii," 1693. 
 
 Beer, (Michael,) a German dramatic writer, brother 
 of the celebrated composer Meyerbeer, born at Berlin in 
 1800. Among his best works are the tragedies of "Stru- 
 ensee" and " The Pariah," (1826,) which are highly com- 
 mended. Died at Munich in 1833. 
 
 See Marmier, "Revue Gennanique," 1834. 
 
 Beer, (VVilhelm,) a German astronomer, brother of 
 the preceding, born in Berlin in 1797. He was an inti- 
 mate friend of Madler, in whose astronomical labours 
 he was associated. They published in 1836 a map of the 
 moon, which obtained the Lalande prize from the Fre-ach 
 Academy. It was followed in 1837 by a commentary, 
 entitled "The Moon in its Cosmic and Individual Rela- 
 tions." Died in 1850. 
 
 i, e, i, 6, u, y, long: a, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, All, fat; met; nflt; good; moon; 
 
 
BEER-BING 
 
 3<i 
 
 BEHADAR 
 
 Beer-Bing, baR bing, (Isaiah,) a Jewish scholar, lived 
 about 1810. He translated from German into Hebrew 
 the " i'hsedon" of Mendelssohn. 
 
 Beering. See Behring. 
 
 Beers, (Nathan,) an American subaltern officer, born 
 at Stratford, Connecticut, in 1753. He entered the army 
 I in 1777, and served until 1783. Died in 1849. 
 
 Beethoven, van, van ba'to-ven, (Ludwig,) a cele- 
 i brated composer, of Dutch extraction, was born at Bonn, 
 in Prussia, on the 17th of December, 1770. He was a pupil 
 efe, whom he succeeded as organist at the court of 
 the Elector of Cologne, who sent him to Vienna to finish 
 his studies under Haydn; but Haydn, who was about 
 to depart to England, placed Beethoven under the tui- 
 tion of Albrechtsberger. He settled in Vienna at an 
 early age, and gained a high reputation by his extempore 
 fantasias. Desiring to offer homage to the genius of 
 Napoleon, he commenced in 1802 a symphony for that 
 purpose. This master-piece of art and science, in which 
 the genius of the artist is revealed in its greatest majesty, 
 was not finished until 1804. It is said that when he was 
 about to send it to Napoleon he learned that he had 
 usurped imperial power, for which reason he changed the 
 title of the piece to "Sinfonia eroica." In 1805 he pro- 
 duced the celebrated opera of " Leonore" or " Fidelio." 
 He composed many symphonies, overtures, cantatas, 
 sonatas, quintets, quartets, etc., which attest the origin- 
 ality and sublimity of his genius. In 1809 he resolved 
 to accept the office of chapel -master at the court of Je- 
 rome Bonaparte, but was induced to remain at Vienna by 
 the promise of a pension. He was extremely reserved 
 in conversation, and, having become deaf in the prime 
 of life, avoided society, and fell into a habit of gloom and 
 distrust. He was never married. Died at Vienna in 
 March, 1827. 
 
 "His imagination," says Denne-Baron, "required the 
 vast field of the orchestra to display itself in all its splen- 
 dour. It is in instrumental music, especially in the sym- 
 phony, the compass of which he extended beyond the 
 scale laid down by Haydn and Mozart, that Beethoven 
 acquired his chief title to celebrity." In 1831 appeared 
 a volume of "Beethoven's Studies in Thorough Bass, 
 Counterpoint, and the Theory of Composition." 
 , See Schindi.hr, " Biographie von L. van Beethoven," 1840, and 
 lish version of the same, by Moscheles, 2 vols., 1841 ; F. We- 
 obler und F. Ries, " Biographische Notizign nber L. van Beetho- 
 ven," 1838 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for 1831. 
 
 Beets, bats, (Nikolaas,) a popular Dutch humor- 
 ist and poet, born at Utrecht in the early part of the 
 present century. His " Camera Obscura," a collection of 
 sketches and tales, and a volume of poems entitled 
 "Corn-Flowers," ("Korenbloemen,") have been very 
 favourably receiver! 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1854. 
 
 Beffa-negrini, bef-fa-ni-gRee'nee, (Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian historical writer, born at Asola in 1532 ; died in 1602. 
 
 Beffara, bi'fS'ra', (Louis Francois,) a French litte- 
 rateur, born at Nonancourt in 1751, wrote contributions 
 to the history of the French drama. Died in 1838. 
 
 Beffroy de Beauvoir, bi'fRwa'deh bo'vwaR', (Louis 
 Etienne,) born at Laon in 1754, was a deputy to the 
 National Convention, and voted for the death of the 
 king. He afterwards became a member of the Council 
 of Five Hundred. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclop^dique de la France." 
 
 Beffroy de Reigny, bi'fRwd' deh rin'ye', (Louis 
 Ahei.,) brother of the preceding, known by his pseudo- 
 nym of "Cousin Jacques," born at Laon in 1757. He 
 was the author of a popular comedy entitled " La petite 
 Nanette," and various other works. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Qu^rard, "La France Litterajre." 
 
 Bega, ba'ga, (Corneus,) a Dutch painter and en- 
 graver, born at Haarlem about 1620, was a pupil of Adrian 
 van Ostade, and excelled in the same department of 
 painting. Among his master-pieces are a "Chemist in 
 H* laboratory," and a "Company of Drinkers." Died 
 in 1664. 
 
 Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines KtinstlerLexikoii ;" Strutt, 
 "Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Begarelli, ba-ga-rel'lee, sometimes written Begarilli, 
 (Antonio,) an Italian artist, born at Modena about 1498, 
 
 was celebrated for his skill in modelling stucco and clay. 
 He was intimate with Correggio, whom he is said to have 
 instructed in his art. Died in 1565. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Begas, ba'gas, (Karl,) court painter to the King of 
 Prussia, and professor in the Academy of Arts at Ber- 
 lin, born at Hcinsberg in 1794. He studied under Philip- 
 part at Bonn, and subssquently in Paris under Gros. 
 Among his best historical pictures are "The Finding 
 of Moses," "The Sermon on the Mount," and "Henry 
 IV. at the Chateau of Canossa." He also painted a 
 number of excellent portraits, including those of Alex- 
 ander von Humboldt, Cornelius, and Meyerbeer. Died 
 in 1854. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kitnstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Begat, beh'gt', (Jean,) a French jurist and legal 
 writer, born at Dijon in 1523, became president of the 
 parliament in his native city. Died in 1572. 
 
 Begault, ba'go', (Gilles,) a French ecclesiastic, cele- 
 brated as a pulpit orator, born in 1660; died about 1715. 
 
 Begein. See Begeyn. 
 
 Beger, ba'ger, (Lorenz,) a German antiquary, born 
 at Heidelberg in 1653, wrote, in Latin, a number of treat- 
 ises on numismatics. Died in 1705. 
 
 Begeyn, ba-gm', (Abraham,) a Dutch landscape- 
 painter, born in 1650; died about 1710. 
 
 Begh, beg, (Lambert,) sometimes called Le Begue, 
 a French ecclesiastic, supposed to have founded at Liege, 
 in the latter part of the twelfth century, the religious 
 order of Beguines, consisting of widows and unmarried 
 women. The foundation of this order is ascribed by 
 some writers to Saint Francis of Assisi. Died in 11 77. 
 
 See "L'Art de verifier les Dates." 
 
 Begin, bl'zhaN', (Auguste Smile,) a French littlra 
 teur, born at Metz in 1803. He published a "History 
 of Napoleon, his Family, and his Epoch," (6 vols., 1853 
 et sea.) 
 
 Begin, (Louis Jacques,) a French surgeon and writer, 
 born at Liege in 1793 ; died in 1859. 
 
 Begon, ba'gA.N', (Etienne,) a French lawyer, born 
 about 1658; died in 1726. 
 
 Begon, (Michel,) a French magistrate and eminent 
 patron of science, born at Blois in 1638, possessed a 
 choice collection of medals and objects in natural his- 
 tory. Plumier named in his honour the Begonia, a genus 
 of South American plants remarkable for the beauty of 
 their foliage and flowers. Died in 1710. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Begon, (Scipion Jerome,) son of the preceding, born 
 at Brest in 1681, became Bishop of Toul. Died in 1753. 
 
 Begue de Presle, le, leh bjg deh pRJM, (Achille 
 Guillaume,) a French physician, born near Orleans 
 about 1735. He translated from the English some of 
 the works of Monro and Lewis, and was a contributor 
 to the " Bibliotheqtie physico-economique." He was a 
 friend of J. J. Rousseau, and wrote an account of his last 
 days. Died in 1807. 
 
 See "Biographie M^dicale. | 
 
 Begue, Le, leh big or leh beg, a celebrated French 
 musician and composer, was organist of the church of 
 Saint-Merry, in Paris. Died about 1720. 
 
 Beguelin, de, deh big'laN', (Nicolas,) a Swiss phy- 
 sician, born at Courlary in 1714, was tutor to Frederick 
 William, afterwards King of Prussia. He subsequently 
 became director of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. 
 Died in 1789. 
 
 Beguignot, de, deh ba'gtn'yo', (Francois BarthE- 
 lemi,) Comtk, a French general, born in 1747, served 
 in the campaigns of 1795 and 1799. Died in 1808. 
 
 Beguillet, b&'ge'yA', (Edme,) a French agricultural 
 writer; died in 17S6. 
 
 Beguin, ba'gaN', (Jean,) a French chemist, born about 
 1600, wrote "Tyrocinium Chymicum." 
 
 Behadar- 1 Bahadai - or Bahadur-) Khan, be-ha'dar 
 or ba-ha'difr Kan, f Ala-ed-Deen-Aboo-Saeed, or 
 Ala-ed-Din-Abu-Said, al'i-ed-deen' i'boo sa-eed',) 
 last Sultan of the Mongol dynasty in Persia, born in 
 Azerbaijan in 1302. Died in 1335. 
 
 See Price, " History of Persia." 
 
 Behadar- (Bahadar- or Bahadur-) Shah, second 
 
 €as«; 9 as s; % hard; gusj; G,li,K,gullural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sass; th as in this. (JJg^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
B EH AGUE 
 
 312 
 
 BEISCH 
 
 son of Aurung-Zeb, born about 1642, was also called the 
 Sultan Moazzem, (mo-az'zem.) His brother Moham- 
 med having died, Behadar became Emperor of the Moguls 
 on the death of his father in 1707. He died in 1712. 
 
 See Elphinstone, "History of India;" Eraser, "History of 
 Nadir Shah," etc. 
 
 Behague, de, deh ba'fg', (Jean Pierre Antoine,) 
 Comte, a French general, was appointed Governor of 
 Martinique in 1792. 
 
 Behaim, ba'hlm, written also Behem or Boehm, 
 (Martin,) an eminent navigator and geographer, born at 
 Nuremberg in 1436, is said to have been a pupil of Regio- 
 montanus. About 1480 he visited Portugal, where he was 
 received with great distinction, and in 1484 was appointed 
 geographer to the African expedition of Diogo Cam, in 
 which they explored the western coast of Africa from the 
 river Gambia to the Congo. After his return to Lisbon 
 he was made a knight by King John II. He subse- 
 quently settled in the island of Fayal. In 1492 he made 
 a terrestrial globe, (still in the possession of his family,) 
 which is an interesting monument of the geographical 
 science of that time. He died about 1506, leaving a num- 
 ber of valuable maps and charts. 
 
 See "Geschichte des Seefahrers Ritter Martin Behaim," by F. W. 
 Ghillanv, 1S53; C. G. von Murr, " Diplomatische Geschichte des 
 beruhmten Ritters M. Behaim," 1778. 
 
 Beham, ba'ham, sometimes written Bochem, (Bar- 
 tholomaus,) a distinguished German painter and en- 
 graver, born about 1496, was a pupil of Albert Diirer. 
 Among his master-pieces in engraving are "Triton and 
 the Nereids," and "Cleopatra." Died in 1540. 
 
 See Hkinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Beham, (Hans Sebald,) nephew of the preceding, 
 born at Nuremberg in 1500, was one of the best pupils 
 of Albert Diirer. His prints are of very small size, and 
 include engravings on copper, etchings, and woodcuts. 
 Died about 1550. 
 
 See Nagle«, " Nenes Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Behem. See Behaim. 
 
 Behlen, ba'len, (Stephan,) a German writer, born at 
 Fritzlar in 1784, published treatises on forest science and 
 hunting. Died in 1847. 
 
 Behm, bam, (Ernst Leopold,) a German Protestant 
 theological writer, born in 1700; died in 1742. 
 
 Behm, (Johann,) a German Protestant divine, born 
 at Konigsberg in 1578, published, in Latin, a "Chro- 
 nology of the World from the Creation to the Destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem." Died in 1648. 
 
 Behm, (Johann,) a German Protestant writer on 
 theology, born in 1687; died at Konigsberg in 1753. 
 
 Behm, (Michael,) a Protestant theologian and writer, 
 born at Konigsberg in 16 12 ; died in 1650. 
 
 Behmen. See Bohme, (Jakob.) 
 
 Behmer, bri'mer, (Friedrich Ehrenreich,) a Ger- 
 man jurist, born at Berlin in 1721 ; died in 1776. 
 
 Behn, ben, (Mrs. Aphra,) an English authoress, whose 
 maiden name was Johnson, born about 1640. She wrote, 
 besides plays, a number of poems, tales, etc., remarkable 
 for their licentiousness. She is alluded to by Pope under 
 the name of Astrea, which was her pseudonym. Her 
 novel entitled "Oroonoko the American Prince" was' 
 very popular. About 1666 she was employed by Charles 
 II. as a secret agent at Antwerp, and captivated several 
 lovers, from one of whom she extorted information of 
 an intended expedition to • burn the shipping in the 
 Thames. Died in 1689. 
 
 See Cibber, "Lives of the English Poets." 
 
 Behourt, beh-ooR', (Jean,) a French grammarian 
 and dramatist, born in Normandy, lived about 1600. 
 
 Behr, baR, (Christian Friedrich,) a German gene- 
 ral, born in Pomerania in 1739, served in the French 
 army in the Seven Years' war. Died in 1831. 
 
 Behr, (Christoph,) a German scholar, wrote several 
 works in Latin. Died in 1704. 
 
 Behr, (George Henri,) a physician, born in Stras- 
 burg in 1708, was a pupil of Boerhaave. Died in 1761. 
 
 Behr, (Johann Heinrich August,) a German states- 
 man, born at Freiberg in 1793, became in 1849 minister 
 of finance for the kingdom of Saxonv. 
 
 Behr, (Wilhelm Joseph,) a German publicist, born 
 at Sultzheim in 1775. He became professor of law at 
 Wiirzburg in 1799, and was subsequently twice elected 
 
 to the Bavarian Diet, in which he supported liberal prin- 
 ciples, and was punished by a long imprisonment. He 
 became a member of the Frankfort Parliament in 1S48. 
 He published, besides other works, a " System of Public 
 Law," (3 vols., 1810.) Died in 185 1. 
 
 Behrens, ba'rens, (Conrad Barthoi.d,) a German 
 physician, born at Hildesheim in 1660. He wrote medi- 
 cal, scientific, and historical treatises. Died in 1736. 
 
 Behrens, (Georg Henning,) a German physician, 
 born at Goslar in 1662. He wrote " Hercynia Curiosal 
 a work on the Hartz Forest, (1703.) Died in 1712. 
 
 Behrens, (Karl Friedrich,) a German traveller, 
 published in 1739 " Visits to Southern Countries." 
 
 Behrens, (Michael,) a German theologian, bom at 
 Buxtehude, in Hanover, in 1657; died in 1728. 
 
 Behrens, (Rodolk Augustin,) a German physician 
 and medical writer, born at Brunswick ; died in 1747. 
 
 Behring, ba'ring, (Vitus,) a Danish historian and 
 Latin poet, born in Jutland in 1617, became historio- 
 grapher to the King of Denmark. Died in 1675. 
 
 See Baillet, " Jugements des Savants." 
 
 Behr'ing, Beer'ing, or Be'ring, [Dan. pron. ba'ring,] 
 (Vitus,) a celebrated Danish navigator, anddiscove 
 the strait which bears his name, born in Jutland in 1680. 
 Having entered the Russian navy at an early age and 
 served with distinction against the Swedes, he was ap- 
 pointed in 1725 commander of a scientific expedition to 
 the Sea of Kamtchatka. After an absence of more than 
 three years, during which he explored the coast of Kamt- 
 chatka as fat as 67° 18' N. lat. and ascertained that 
 Asia was not joined to America, he returned to Russia. 
 Appointed captain-commander in 1732, he set out on a 
 second voyage in 1741, and discovered a part of the North 
 American coast, supposed to have been New Norfolk, 
 Both he and his crew being disabled by sickness, they 
 attempted to return to Kamtchatka, but were wrecked 
 on the island of Avatcha, since called Behring's Island, 
 where Behring died soon after. 
 
 See "Nouvelles Decouvertes faites des Russes entre l'Asie et 
 I'Amerique," Paris, 1781. 
 
 Beidawee or Beidawi, (Al,) al ba'da'wee', written 
 also Beidhawi and Beidhavi, (Abdal'lah-Ben- 
 O'mar,) a learned Mussulman of the thirteenth century, 
 born at Beda or Beida, in Farsistan, was the author o( m 
 a "Universal Chronology," (in Persian,) and a "Com- 
 mentary on the Koran," (in Arabic.) The latter is highly 
 esteemed by Mohammedans. 
 
 Beier, bl'er, (Adrian,) a German jurist and legal 
 writer, born at Jena in 1634, was professor of law in his 
 native city. Died in 1712. 
 
 Beier, (August.) See Beyer. 
 
 Beier, (Hartmann,) a Protestant theologian, born at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1516, studied at Wittenberg, 
 where he acquired the friendship of Luther. Died in 1577. 
 
 Beil, bil, (Johann David,) a German actor and dra- 
 matist, born at Chemnitz in 1734; died in 1794. 
 
 Beimiram, bl'me-ram', (Isaac,) a Jewish physician 
 of the eleventh century, was a contemporary of Avi< 
 He wrote several works. 
 
 Bein, bin, (Johann,) a designer and engraver, born 
 at Coxweiller (Bas-Rhin) in 17S9; died in 1857. 
 
 Beinaschi. See Benaschi. 
 
 Beinga-della, ban'ga del'la, the last king of Pegu, 
 who, after having conquered Ava in 1752, was madi 
 oner in 1757 by the Burmans, and put to death in 1775. 
 
 Beinl von Bienenburg, bln'l Ion bee'nen-bi 
 (Anton,) a German physician, and professor of pat! 
 at Vienna, born in 1749. He was physician-in-chi 
 the Imperial armies. Died in 1820. 
 
 Beinville, baN'vel', (Charles Barthelemi,) a French 
 publicist and partisan of Richelieu, wrote a work entitled 
 " French Truths opposed to Spanish Calumnies." Died 
 in 1641. 
 
 See Lelonc, " Bibliotheque historique de la France." 
 
 Beireis, bi'rls, (Gottfried Christoph,) a German 
 physician and chemist, born at Miihlhausen in 1730. He 
 wrote on medicine and natural history. Died in 1809. 
 
 See J. P. Gabler, " Narratio de Vita G. C. Beireisii," 1S12. 
 
 Beisch, bish, written also Beich, (Joachim Franz.) a 
 German landscape-painter and engraver, born in Suabia 
 in 1665. Died in 1748. 
 
 a, e, I, c, S, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, ?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, All, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BEISLER 
 
 3'3 
 
 BELDERBVSCH 
 
 Beisler, bls'ler, (Hermann,) a Bavarian statesman, 
 
 bom at Bensheim in 1790, filled several important offices 
 
 under the government, and was appointed in 1848 mill- 
 
 if the interior, but held the office only three months. 
 
 Beissier, bj'se-i', (Jacques,) a French surgeon, born 
 in 1623;- in Daupmny, attended Louis XIV. in his cam- 
 paigns. Died in 1712. 
 
 Beisson, b&'soN', (Francois Joseph Etienne,) a 
 French engraver, born at Aix in 1759 ; died in 1820. 
 
 Beitar. See Aben-Beitar. 
 
 Beja, ba'zha, (Luis,) a Portuguese theologian and 
 writer, born at Perestrello, lived about 1600-50. 
 
 Beja, de, da ba'zha, (Frey Antonio,) a Portuguese 
 priest, bom in 1493, wrote a treatise against astrology. 
 
 Bejart, bi'zhiR , (Jacques,) a French comedian, born 
 in Paris in 1622, was a friend of Moliere, and acted some 
 of the characters in his plays. Died in 1659. 
 
 Bejotbeh-zho', (Francois,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Montdiclferin 1718, was professor of Greek at Paris, and 
 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1 787. 
 
 Bek. See Beek, (David.) 
 
 Beke, (Charles Tilstone,) an English traveller and 
 writer of high reputation, born in 1800, accompanied the 
 expedition of Major Harris to Abyssinia about 1845. r * e 
 "Origines Biblicae, or Researches in Primeval His- 
 tory," (1834,) which was severely criticised in Germany 
 bv Paulus and others ; " Essay on the Nile and its Tribu- 
 taries," ( 1 847 ;) " On the Sources of the Nile in the Moun- 
 tains of the Moon," (1848;) and "On the Geographical 
 Distribution of the Languages of Abyssinia," (1849.) 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for November, 1834. 
 
 Beketof, bek'l-tof', or Bek'e-ton"', (Nikita,) a 
 Russian administrator, born in 1729, was governor of 
 Astrachan, and a benefactor to the public. Died in 1794. 
 
 Bekiesz, ba'ke-ess, (Gaspar,) a Hungarian general in 
 the service of Poland, born about 1530; died in 1579. 
 
 Bekk, bek, (Johann Baptist,) a German statesman 
 and jurist, born at Tryberg, in Baden, in 1800, became 
 minister of the interior in 1846, which position he resigned 
 after the revolution of 1848. 
 
 Bekker or Becker, bek'ker, (Balthasar,) a Dutch 
 theologian, born in Friesland in 1634, was the author of 
 " Researches on Comets," and " The World Bewitched," 
 ("Bctoverde Weereld," 1691.) For the latter, in which 
 he condemned the prevailing superstitions of the time 
 respecting sorcery, he was deprived, by the synod, of his 
 office as preacher. Died in 1698. 
 
 See J. M. Schwager, " Geschichte der Intoleranz, oder Leben und 
 Schicksale des Dr. B. Bekker," 1780; "B. Bekker in Franeker," 
 Groningen, 1848. 
 
 Bekker, (Elizabeth,) a celebrated Dutch novelist 
 and poetess, born at Flushing in 1738. She was married 
 to Adrian Wolff, a Protestant preacher, and after his death, 
 in 1777, resided with her friend Agatha Deken, in conjunc- 
 tion with whom she wrote her most admired romances, 
 among which are the "History of William Leevend," 
 and " History of Sara Burgerhart." Died in 1804. 
 
 Bekker, bek'ker, (Immanuel,) an eminent German 
 philologist and critic, born at Berlin in 1785. He studied 
 at Halle under Wolf, and was appointed professor of 
 philology and Greek at Berlin about 1807. As a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Sciences, he was sent by that 
 body, in 181 7, to Italy, in order to assist in deciphering 
 the " Institutes of Gaius," discovered by Niebuhr. In 
 1814 he had published his "Anecdota Graeca," (3 vols.) 
 He produced good editions of the following authors : 
 Plato, (10 vols., 1814-21,) "The Attic Orators," (7 vols., 
 1823,) Aristotle, (7 vols.,1831,) Thucydides, (3 vols., 1821,) 
 Aristophanes, (3 vols., 1825,) " Scholia for the Iliad," (3 
 vols., 1827,) and Photius, (2 vols., 1824.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Bektasb, Bektasch, or Bektach. See Beygtash. 
 
 Bel. See Bklus and Baal. 
 
 Bel, bel, (Jean Jacques.) a French littirateur, born 
 at Bordeaux in 1693, wrote "Critical Letters on the Ma- 
 rianne of Voltaire," ( 1 726,) and other works. Died in 1 738. 
 
 See Quekarij, " La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Bel, Ml, (Karl Andreas,) born at Presburg in 1717, 
 was a son of Matthias, noticed below. He became pro- 
 fessor of poetry at Leipsic. Died in 1782. 
 
 Bel, [Lat. Be'lius,] (Matthias,) a Hungarian theolo- 
 
 gian, historiographer to the emperor Charles VI., bom 
 at Orsova in 1684. He wrote several valuable works ; 
 in Latin, on Hungarian history. Died in 1749. 
 
 Bel, le, leh bSl, (Jean,) a Belgian, born about 1305. 
 wrote a chronicle of his own times, which was recently 
 discovered, and published in 1850. Died about 1390. 
 
 Be'la I., King of Hungary, succeeded to the throne 
 in 1059. Died in 1063. 
 
 Bela II., the Blind, succeeded Stephen in 1131. 
 
 Belalll. became King of Hungary in 11 74. Hungary 
 was first divided into counties in his reign. Died in 1 196. 
 
 Bela IV., son of Andrew II., ascended the throne ir. 
 1235. During his reign the Moguls under Batoo- (Batu-) 
 Khan ravaged Hungary with fire and sword. Died in 1270. 
 
 Bela, de, da ba'la, Caballero, a Basque historian, 
 born about 1715, wrote a valuable "History of the 
 Basques," of which only an extract has been published. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Beladori or Beladzori, (Ahmed,) or, more fully, 
 Aboo-1-Hassan -Ahmed -Ibn -Yahya-al-Beladori, 
 (or -Baladori,) aTjool has'san an'med Ib'n yah'hya al 
 ba-la'do-ree, an Arabian historian and poet, lived at 
 Bagdad in the ninth century. He wrote a history of the 
 early conquests of the Arabs, and translated works from 
 the Pehlevi into Arabic. He died in a hospital for the 
 insane, in 892 a.d. 
 
 See Ibn-Khalukan, "Biographical Dictionary;" " Nouvellc 
 Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Belair, beh-lSR', (Alexandre Pierre Julienne,) a 
 French general, born in Paris in 1747, served in the army 
 of the North in 1793, and rose to be commander of the 
 National Guards. He wrote several works on fortifica- 
 tions. Died in 1819. 
 
 See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Ge"neraux Francais." 
 
 Belair, (Charles,) born in Saint Domingo, was a 
 nephew of the celebrated Toussaint L'Ouverture. He 
 took an active part as general of brigade against the 
 French in 1802 ; but, having been taken prisoner, he was 
 condemned by a military commission and shot. 
 
 See P. Lacroix, "Mdmoires sur les Revolutions de Saint-Do- 
 mingue." 
 
 Belanger, beh-16N'zha', (Francois Joseph,) a French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1744; died in 1818. 
 
 Belbeuf, de, deh beTbuf, (Antoine Louis Pierre 
 Joseph Godard — go'dtR',) Marquis, a French jurist, 
 born at Rouen in 1791, became a senator in 1852. 
 . Bel'camp, van, (John,) a Dutch painter, who worked 
 in London. Died in 1653. 
 
 Belcari, de, da beTka'ree, (Maffeo,) an Italian 
 poet, born in Florence ; died in 1454. 
 
 Bel'cher, written also Belchier, (Dabridgecourt,) 
 an English antiquary and dramatic writer. Died in 1621. 
 
 Belcher, (Sir Edward,) an English naval officer and 
 explorer, born in 1799. He sailed with Captain Beechey 
 to the Arctic regions in 1825, and subsequently, in the 
 ship Sulphur, made a voyage round the world. He 
 joined the expedition to China in 1841, and was knighted 
 in 1843. In 1852 he commanded the expedition in search 
 of Sir John Franklin. He published a " Narrative of 
 the Voyage round the World on the Sulphur," (1836,) 
 and several other works. 
 
 Belcher, (Jonathan,) one of the royal governors in 
 America, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1681, 
 became one of the principal merchants in New Eng- 
 land. He was Governor of Massachusetts and New 
 Hampshire from 1730 to 1741, when his enemies pro- 
 cured his removal. Repairing at once to England, he 
 vindicated his conduct before the king, was restored to 
 the royal favour, and appointed Governor of New Jer- 
 sey about 1747. Died in 1757. 
 
 Belcher, (Jonathan,) son of the preceding, born in 
 171 1. He graduated at Harvard in 1728, was appointed 
 Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia in 1760, and chief 
 justice in 1761. Died in 1776. 
 
 Belchier, bel'cher or bel'chT-er, (John,) an Eng- 
 lish surgeon, and Fellow of the Royal Society, born in 
 Surrey in 1706, became governor of Guy's Hospita.', 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 See Watt, " Bibliotheca Britannica." 
 
 Belderbusch, bSl'der-bdosh', (Karl Leopold,) 
 
 € as a 4 ; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (J|^ = See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BELD0R1 
 
 3H 
 
 BELKNAP 
 
 Count, born in 1749, became a member of the senate 
 of the Netherlands in 1810. Died in 1826. 
 
 Beldori, bel-do'ree, (Giovanni Pietro,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Rome about 161 5 ; died in 1696. 
 
 Belelli, bi-lel'lee, (Fulgencio,) an Italian ecclesias- 
 tic, born at Buccino, in Naples, about 1682 ; died in 1742. 
 
 Belenvei, de, deh bel'&n-v^', or Beauvois, bo'v^', 
 (Aimery,) a French troubadour. Died in 1264. 
 
 Bel'e-sis or Bel'e-sjrs, a priest of Babylon, joined 
 Arbaces in overthrowing the old Assyrian Empire. He 
 was afterwards governor of Babylon, about 826 B.C. 
 
 Belestat, de, deh beh-les'tt', (Gardouch, gtR'- 
 doosh',) Marquis, a French writer, born at Toulouse 
 in 1725 ; died in 1807. 
 
 Belestat, de, (Pierre Langlois,) a French physi- 
 cian, who lived about 1570, wrote on Egyptian antiquities. 
 
 Beleze, beh-liz', (Guillaume Louis Gustave,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Montpellier in 1803. Among 
 his works is a "Universal Dictionary of Practical Life." 
 
 Bel'four, (Hugo James,) an English dramatist and 
 poet, born about 1802, published, under the pseudo- 
 nym of Saint John Dorset, two dramas, entitled " Mon- 
 tezuma," and "The Vampyre." Died in 1827. 
 
 Bel'frage, (Henry,) minister at Falkirk, in Scotland, 
 was born in 1774. He published "Discourses for the 
 Young," (1817,) and other works. Died in 1835. 
 
 See McKerrow, " Life of Henry Belfrage," 1837. 
 
 Belfredotti, de, dib51-fRa-dot'tee, (Bocchino,) sove- 
 reign of Volterra, in Italy, was put to death as a traitor 
 (1361) for attempting to sell his country to the Pisans. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Belgiojoso, b&l-jo-yo'so, (Cristina Trivulzio,) 
 Princess of, an Italian lady, distinguished for her tal- 
 ents and her patriotism, born at Milan in 1808. About 
 1830 she removed to Paris, where she acquired the 
 friendship of Augustin Thierry, Mignet, and other emi- 
 nent men of the liberal party. In 1848 she warmly ad- 
 vocated the Italian revolution, and raised a battalion of 
 volunteers at her own expense. After the defeat of the pa- 
 triots and the confiscation of her property, she went again 
 to Paris, and became a contributor to the " National." 
 
 Bel'gl-us or Bol'gl-us, a leader of the Gauls, who 
 in 279 B.C. gained a signal victory over the Macedonians, 
 in which their king, Ptolemy Ceraunus, was killed. 
 
 Belgrado, bel-gRa'do, (Giacomo,) an Italian Jesuit, 
 born at Udine in 1704, wrote (in Latin) on mechanics 
 and natural philosophy. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Belgrand, bel'gR8N', (Claude Henri,) a French 
 general, born in 1748, commanded at the long siege of 
 Malta in 1800. Died in 1839. 
 
 Bel-gra'vl-us or Bel-lo-gra'vus, (Richard,) an 
 English Carmelite monk under the reign of Edward II. 
 
 Belhomme, beTom' or b.Ylom', (Dom Humbert,) a 
 French Benedictine friar and eloquent preacher, born at 
 Bar-le-Duc in 1653 ; died in 1727. 
 
 Belhomme, (Jacques Etienne,) a French physician, 
 born in Paris in 1800, wrote several treatises on insanity. 
 
 Beli. See Bai.i. 
 
 Belidor, de, 04. b4-le-DAR', (Bernard Forest,) a 
 distinguished engineer anO military writer, born in Cata- 
 lonia in 1693, became professor in the School of Artillery 
 at La Fere, in France. He serveO in the German cam- 
 paign of 1742, anO afterwarOs became a member of the 
 AcaOemy of Sciences. Among his principal works are 
 his " Hydraulic Architecture," (1737,) "New Course of 
 Mathematics for the Use of Artillery," (1757,) anO a 
 work on engineering. Died in 1761. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Beliere, dela, deh li beh-Ie-aiR', (Claude,) a French 
 writer, was born at Charolles7~and published, in 1664, 
 " Physionomie raisonnee." 
 
 Beligatti, b4-le-git'tee, (Cassio,) an Italian Capuchin 
 and Orientalist, born at Macerata in 1708, resideO as* a 
 missionary in Thibet. He published an alphabet of the 
 language of Thibet, and a Hindostanee grammar. Died 
 in 1791. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Belin, beh-laN' or blaN, (Francois,) a French dra- 
 matist, born at Marseilles in 1672; died in 1732. 
 
 Belin, (Jean Albert,) a learned French writer, born 
 at Besancon about 1610, became Bishop of Bellay h 
 1666. Died in 1677. 
 
 Belin de Ballu, beh-llN' deh bt'lii', (Jacques Nico- 
 las,) a French scholur, born in Paris in 1753, became 
 professor of Greek in the University of Kharkov, in the 
 Ukraine. He translated into French -the " Hecuba" of 
 Euripides and the complete works of Lucian, with critical 
 and historical remarks. He also wrote a "Critical His- 
 tory of Eloquence among the Greeks and Romans," 
 (1803.) Died in Saint Petersburg in 1815. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Beling, ba'ling, (Oswald,) a German poet, born at 
 Sleswick in 1625 ; OieO at Cassel in 1646. 
 
 Bel'ing, (Richard,) an Irish Catholic, born in the 
 county of Dublin in 1613. He first fought for the insur- 
 gents in the rebellion of 1641, but afterwarOs joineO the 
 royalist army. He wrote, in Latin, a Oefence of the Irish 
 Catholics, anO other works. He aOdeO a sixth book to 
 Sir Philip Sidney's "Arcadia." Died in 1677. 
 
 Belisaire or Belisar. See Belisarius. 
 
 Bel-I-sa'rI-us, [Fr. Belisaire, b4'le'zaR'; Ger. Beli- 
 sar, ba'Ie-zaR',] a Byzantine general, whose talents were of 
 the highest order, was born at Germania, in Illyria, about 
 505 A.D. He serveO in the guarO of Justinian before his 
 accession to the throne, (527,) anO soon after that event 
 was appointeO general-in-chief of the army of the East 
 He defeated the Persians at Dara, in 530, and quelled a 
 dangerous sedition at Constantinople in 532 A.D. In 533 
 and 534 he gained decisive victories over the Vandals in 
 Africa, captureO their king, Gelimer, anO destroyed his 
 kingdom. For this service he was honoured with a tri- 
 umph, and chosen sole consul, in 535. Between 535 and 
 540 he was employed against the Ostrogoths, who had 
 obtained possession of Italy. He made himself master 
 of Rome, and had nearly reduced Italy, when he was re- 
 called in 540 A.D. He opposed with success on the 
 eastern frontier a Persian army under Cosroes (or Khos- 
 roo) in 542, and at the end of this campaign was de- 
 graded by the influence of the empress Theodora. He 
 was fineO anO threatened with death, but was pardoned 
 on conOition that he woulO be reconciled to his unfaithful 
 and abandoned wife Antonina, who was a favourite of 
 Theodora. In 544 he renewed the war against the Gothic 
 king Totila in Italy, with a small army, which proved to 
 be inadequate to the expulsion of the more numerous 
 enemy. He returned to the capital in 548, anO passed 
 about ten years in inaction. His last service was the 
 repulse of the Bulgarians, who invaded the empire in 
 559 A.D., after which the jealousy of Justinian or the 
 intrigues of courtiers deprived him of command. 
 
 In 563 he was falsely accused of a conspiracy against 
 the life of Justinian, for which his fortune was seques- 
 tered. According to Gibbon, his innocence was recog- 
 nized before his death, which occurred in 565 A.D. There 
 appears to be no foundation for the once current tra- 
 dition or fiction that he was deprived of sight and re- 
 duced to support himself by begging. He seems to 
 have been a Christian in outward conformity at least. 
 As a general, he was distinguished for presence of mind 
 and rapidity of movement. He was loyal to the em- 
 peror, humane to the vanquished, and patient towards 
 rivals who falsely accused him. 
 
 See " Life of Belisarius," by Lord Mahon, 1829 ; Gibbon, " De- 
 cline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Christian Friedrich Zbl- 
 ler, " Belisarius," Tubingen, 1809; C. L. Roth, " Ueber Belisars 
 Ungnade," 1846; "Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1847. 
 
 Belknap, bel'nap, (Jeremy,) an American historian 
 anO clergyman, born in Boston in 1744. He was ordained 
 pastor of a Congregational church at Dover, New Hamp- 
 shire, in 1767, and in 1787 removed to Boston, where he 
 preached about ten years. He published a "History of 
 New Hampshire," (3 vols., 1784-92.) "American Biog- 
 raphy," (2 vols., 1794-98,) and "The Foresters," an 
 apologue. Died in 1798. 
 
 See a " Life of J. Belknap," 1847. 
 
 Belknap, (William G.,) an American officer, born 
 at Newburg, New York, in 1794, served at the battle of 
 Fort Erie in August, 1814, became a captain in 1822, 
 and a major in 1842. He distinguished himself at Buena 
 Vista in 1847. Died in 1852. 
 
 , e, I, o, Q, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m£t; not; good; moon; 
 
BELL 
 
 315 
 
 BELL 
 
 Bel], (Andrew,) the founder of the monitorial system 
 of instruction, also called the Madras system, was born at 
 Saint Andrew's, in Fifeshire, in 1752. He was appointed 
 in 17S9 chaplain of Fort Saint George, at Madras, where 
 he devoted himself to the gratuitous instruction of the 
 orphans of the military asylum. On his return to Eng- 
 land he published an account of the new method, and 
 soon after a school was established upon this plan by 
 >h Lancaster. The success of these experiments 
 ' caused the system to be generally adopted in England 
 land other countries. Dr. Bell died in 1832, leaving large 
 'sums tor the endowment of schools on the Madras sys- 
 tem. (See Lancaster, Joseph.) 
 
 See "Life of the Rev. Andrew Hell," by R. and C. C. Southey; 
 on Quarterly Review" for October, 1811; Chambers, "Bio- 
 paphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bell, (Beaupre,) an English antiquary, who be- 
 queathed a valuable collection of medals and manu- 
 script-- to Trinity College, Cambridge. Died in 1745. 
 
 Bell, (Benjamin,) F.R.S., a distinguished Scottish sur- 
 geon, born at Edinburgh, studied under Professor Monro, 
 lie published a "System of Surgery," (6 vols., 1782,) 
 and other works of high reputation, which were translated 
 into French and German. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bell, (Sir C harles,) an eminent physiologist and anato- 
 mist, born at Edinburgh in 1774, was a son of the Rev. 
 11 Bell. He was a pupil of his brother John, noticed 
 below. About 1804 he became a resident of London, 
 where he practised and lectured on surgery. He pub- 
 lished in 1806 an "Essay on the Anatomy of Expression 
 in Painting," which is highly esteemed, and in 1807 his 
 valuable " System of Operative Surgery." In 1814 he 
 was appointed surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital, which 
 he left in a nourishing condition in 1836. He was highly 
 distinguished for his skill as an operator. In 1821 he 
 announced an important discovery in a paper on the 
 "Nervous System," read before the Royal Society. He 
 discovered that the nerves of sensation are distinct from 
 the nerves of motion ; that the former, arising from the 
 posterior column of the spinal marrow, convey sensation 
 from the body to the brain ; and that the nerves con- 
 nected with the anterior column convey the mandates of 
 the will to the members, and are essential to voluntary 
 motion. This has been pronounced the most important 
 discovery in physiology since that of the circulation of 
 the blood by Harvey. In 1824 he published "An Ex- 
 position of the Natural System of the Nerves of the 
 Human Body," and was appointed to the senior chair 
 of anatomy and surgery in the London College of Sur- 
 He was knighted on the accession of William 
 IV., ( 1830,) and accepted a chair of surgery in the Edin- 
 burgh University in 1836. He died in Worcestershire, 
 on a journey to London, in April, 1842. 
 
 Among his works are " Illustrations of the Great 
 Operations of Surgery : Trepan, Hernia, Amputation, 
 Aneurism, and Lithotomy," (1821,) "The Hand, its 
 Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design," 
 (one of the Bridgewater Treatises, 1833,) and an im- 
 proved edition of his "Anatomy of Expression," with 
 'llustrations drawn by himself, (1844.) 
 
 See A. Shaw, " Narrative of the Discoveries of Sir Charles Bell 
 in the Nervous System," 1837; "Quarterly Review" for May, 1843, 
 vnj. Ixxii. ; Amedek Pichot, "Sure. Bell, Paris, 1846; Chavbers, 
 hicai Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) 
 
 Bell, (Currer.) See Bronte. 
 
 Bell, (George Joseph,) an eminent Scottish jurist, 
 born near Edinburgh in 1770. He published "Com- 
 mentaries on the Laws of Scotland," (1810,) which soon 
 i through six editions. Its rare merit procured 
 for him a vote of thanks from the Faculty of Advocates. 
 He also wrote "Principles of the Law of Scotland," and 
 other standard treatises on law. In 1821 he was appointed 
 professor of Scottish law at Edinburgh. Died in 1843. 
 
 Bell, (HENRY,) a Scottish engineer and mechanician, 
 born in Linlithgowshire in 1767. He constructed in 
 181 1 a steamboat, which he launched on the Clyde in 
 1812, four years after Fulton's first experiment on the 
 in, of which he appears to have been ignorant. 
 He died in 1830, and a monument was erected to his 
 memory near Bowling. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bell, (Henry Glasford,) editor of the "Edinburgh 
 Literary Journal" in 1830, wrote a '' Life of Mary Queen 
 of Scots," and a collection of poems. 
 
 Bell, (Henry H.,) an American rear-admiral, born in 
 North Carolina, entered the navy in 1823. He was ap- 
 pointed fleet-captain to Farragut in April, 1862. He 
 commanded a division of the fleet in the great battle 
 with the forts below New Orleans, April 18-25 °f tnat 
 year. On the capture of New Orleans, he took down, 
 in the midst of an angry mob, the flag of the disunion- 
 ists from the custom-house. During the absence of 
 Farragut in 1863, he commanded the Western Gulf 
 Blockading Squadron, and was promoted to the rank of 
 rear-admiral. He was drowned on the coast of Japan 
 in January, 1868. 
 
 Bell, (James,) born at Jedburgh, in Scotland, in 1769, 
 published a " System of Popular and Scientific Geogra- 
 phy," (6 vols.) Died in 1833. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 BelL (John,) sometimes called Bell of Antermony, 
 from his residence, a Scottish traveller, born in 1691. In 
 1 7 14 he visited Saint Petersburg, and in 17 15 was ap- 
 pointed by Peter the Great surgeon and physician to the 
 expedition then preparing for Persia. He subsequently 
 travelled in Siberia, China, and the Caucasus, and in 
 1737 was sent by the Russian government on a mission 
 to Constantinople. He died in Scotland in 1780. His 
 works had been published in 1763, under the title of 
 "Travels from Saint Petersburg to various Parts of 
 Asia :" they are highly interesting, particularly the por- 
 tion relating to China. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scot•smen.' , 
 
 Bell, (John,) an English printer, born in 1746, pub. 
 lished fine editions of Shakspeare and other English 
 poets. Died in 1831. 
 
 Bell, (John,) an English artillery officer, born in 1747, 
 was the inventor of the "gun proof" and several other 
 military machines, for which he obtained a silver medal 
 from the Society of Arts. Died in 1798. 
 
 Bell, (John,) a distinguished British surgeon, born 
 in Edinburgh in May, 1763, was a brother of Sir Charles 
 Bell. He began to lecture on anatomy and surgery in 
 Edinburgh about 1790, in a theatre built for himself, 
 and practised surgery with great success. In 1 793 he 
 published the first volume of a " System of the Anatomy 
 of the Human Body," (4 vols., 1793-1804.) He was an 
 eloquent lecturer, a powerful writer in controversy, and 
 one of the most skilful operators of his time. His other 
 principal works are " Discourses on the Nature and 
 Cure of Wounds," (2 vols., 1793-95,) "Principles of 
 Surgery," (3 vols., 1801,) and "Observations on Italy," 
 (1825.) Having visited Italy for the benefit of his health, 
 he died at Rome in April, 1820. " His picturesque de- 
 scriptions of the country are fresh and delightful land- 
 scapes, while his remarks on the pictorial and sculptured 
 treasures of Italy are replete with feeling and judgment." 
 (" London Literary Gazette.") 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmep." 
 
 Bell, (John,) M.D., a physician and medical writer, 
 born in Ireland in 1796, emigrated in 1810 to America. 
 He was for several years lecturer on the institutes of 
 medicine in the Philadelphia Medical Institute, and 
 afterwards became professor of the theory and practice 
 of medicine in the Medical College of Ohio. 
 
 Bell, (John,) an American statesman, born near 
 Nashville in 1797, studied law, and was admitted to the 
 bar in 1816. He was elected a member of Congress in 
 1827, and was re-elected six times between that year and 
 1841. He opposed Calhoun's project of nullification, 
 and supported General Jackson as candidate for the 
 Presidency in 1832, but protested against the removal of 
 the deposits from the Bank of the United States. He 
 acquired distinction as a debater, and was a constant ld- 
 vocate of a protective tariff, and of the improvement of 
 rivers and harbours. About 1833 he separated from the 
 Democratic party and joined the Whigs, who elected 
 him Speaker of the House of Representatives in 1834, 
 when James K. Polk was his competitor. In 1836 he 
 advocated the election of Hugh L. White to the Presi- 
 dency, and was returned to Congress by the voters of 
 the district which contains Nashville and the Hermitage, 
 
 etsi: casj;g^att/;gasy;G,H, K., guttural ;K, nasal; R, trilled; % as z; th as in this. (JJJf^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 

 BELL 
 
 316 
 
 BELLARMINO 
 
 (General Jackson's residence.) He was appointed secre- 
 tary of war by President Harrison in 1841, but he re- 
 signed in September of that year, in consequence of 
 Tyler's defection from the Whig party. Having passed 
 about six years in retirement, he was elected a Senator 
 of the United States from Tennessee in 1847. He favoured 
 the compromise measures of Mr. Clay in 1850, and op- 
 posed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise in 1854. 
 In 1853 he was re-elected a Senator for six years. In 
 i860 a National Convention of a party styling itself the 
 Constitutional Union Party nominated Mr. Bell for Pre- 
 sident and Edward Everett for Vice-President, with a 
 brief "platform," which insisted only on "The Consti- 
 tution, the Union, and the Enforcement of the Laws." 
 He received thirty-nine electoral votes, cast by the States 
 of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. Died in 1869. 
 
 Bell, (John,) an English sculptor, born -in Norfolk in 
 1800. Among his master-pieces are "The Eagle-Slayer," 
 (1837,) "Una and the Lion," "Dorothea," (1841,) and 
 " The Babes in the Wood." He has also produced sta- 
 tues of the "Madonna and Child," "Andromeda," and 
 other scriptural and classical subjects. 
 
 Bell, (Luther V.,) an American physician, born at 
 Chester, New Hampshire, in 1806. He became, in 1837, 
 superintendent of the McLean Insane Asylum at Charles- 
 town, Massachusetts. 
 
 Bell, (Robert,) a distinguished journalist and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born at Cork, in Ireland, in 1800. 
 Having removed to London, he became a contributor to 
 the "New Monthly Magazine," "The Atlas," and Lard- 
 ner's " Cabinet Cyclopaedia." In conjunction with Bul- 
 wer and Lardner, he founded, in 1840,. "The Monthly 
 Chronicle." He also published a " History of Russia," 
 (3 vols., 1836-38,) " Lives of the English Poets," (2 vols., 
 1839,) "Outlines of China," (1845,) a "Life of George 
 Canning," (1846,) and other works. Died in London 
 in April, 1867. 
 
 Bell, (Samuel,) an American Senator and lawyer, 
 born at Londonderry, New Hampshire, in 1770. He was 
 Governor of his native State for five years, (1819-23,) 
 and was a Senator of the United States from 1823 to 
 1835. Died in 1850. 
 
 Bell, (Thomas,) a distinguished English naturalist, 
 born in Dorsetshire in 1792. He became, in 1 825, one 
 of the founders of the " Zoological Journal," and was 
 subsequently elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and 
 president of the Linnaean Society, (1853.) He published 
 a "Monograph of the Testudinata," (1833,) a "History 
 of British Quadrupeds," (1836,) and a "History of the 
 British Stalk-Eyed Crustacea," (1853.) 
 
 Bell, (William,) an English divine and religious 
 writer, born about 1731, was chaplain to the princess 
 Amelia, and was appointed, in 1765, prebendary of West- 
 minster. Died in 1816. 
 
 Bell, (William,) an English painter, born at New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne. He obtained the gold medal of the 
 Royal Academy, in 1771, for his picture of "Venus re- 
 questing Vulcan to forge the Arms for ^Eneas." Died 
 about 1800. 
 
 Bella, bel'la, (Geronimo,) an Italian pastoral poet, 
 born in Piedmont, lived about 1630-60. 
 
 Bella, della, del'la bel'la, (Giano,) an Italian demo- 
 crat, who was exiled from Florence in 1294. Died about 
 1295. 
 
 Bella, della, (Stefano,) an eminent Italian engraver, 
 born at Florence in 1610, was commissioned by Cardinal 
 Richelieu to engrave the " Capture of Arras," and other 
 military exploits of Louis XIII. His works are of 
 small dimensions, and number over fourteen hundred 
 pieces. " No one," says Basan, " has surpassed this 
 excellent artist in delicacy and lightness of point." In 
 drawing human figures, it is said, he always began at 
 the feet and worked upwards. On his return to Flor- 
 ence, he was appointed teacher of design to Prince 
 Cosimo II., afterwards grand duke. Among his master- 
 pieces is a " View of Pont-Neuf, Paris," and " Parnas- 
 sus." Died in 1664. 
 
 See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bellacato, bel-la-ka'to, (Luigi,) an Italian physician, 
 born at Padua in 1501, practised in his native city. Died 
 in 1575- 
 
 Bellagatta, bSl-la-gat'ta, (Angelo Antonio,) ai 
 Italian physician, born at Milan in 1704, wrote " Philo 
 phic Letters," and other works. Died in 1742. 
 
 Bellaguet, bi'lS'gi', (Louis Francois,) a Frenci 
 litterateur, born at Sens in 1807, translated several workl 
 from the Latin and Italian. 
 
 Bel'la-mont, (Richard,) Earl op, an English noble- 
 man, who was appointed Governor of New York anc J 
 Massachusetts in 1695. He was a popular governor, anc 
 captured the pirate Captain Kidd. Died at New York 
 in 1701. 
 
 Bel'la-mjr, (Anne George,) a noted English actress, 
 born in London in 1733. She died in poverty in 
 leaving a work entitled "Apology for the Life of G. Anne 
 Bellamy," (London, 1785,) which some writers have at- 
 tributed to Alexander Bicknell. 
 
 Bellamy, bel'la-me, [Dutch pron. bel'la-ml,] (Ja- 
 cobus,) one of the most eminent of Dutch poets, bun 
 at Flushing in 1757. On the occasion of the war ot 
 1785, he published his "Patriotic Poems," ("Yader- 
 landsche Gezangen.") His other principal works are 
 "Songs of my Youth," ("Gezangen mijner Jeugd,") and 
 a simple and touching story in the ballad form, entitled 
 " Roosje." He contributed greatly to improve the Dutch 
 language and literature and bring them nearer to his 
 favourite German models. He died at the early age of 
 twenty-eight. 
 
 See Q. Knipees, "Notice sur Bellamy:" A. Vereul, " Rede- 
 voeringen over J. Douza en over J. Bellamy," 1791 ; Ockerse eu 
 Kleyn, "Gedenkzuil op het Graf van J. Bellamy," 1822; Longfel- 
 low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Bellamy, (John,) an English writer, published in 1818 
 "The Holy Bible, newly translated from the Original 
 Hebrew." . 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review," vols. xix. and xxiii. ; " Eclectic 
 Review," vol. x. 
 
 Bel'la-my, (Joseph,) a celebrated American theolo- 
 gian, born in Connecticut in 1719, graduated at Yale Col- 
 lege in 1735. He was ordained pastor of the church at 
 Bethlehem, Connecticut, in 1740, and also laboured as 
 an itinerant preacher. He was regarded as a powerful 
 preacher and a learned divine. His system of theology 
 is similar to that of Jonathan Edwards. Several vol- 
 umes of his sermons and other works have been pub- 
 lished. Died in 1790. 
 
 Bellamy, (Thomas,) an English writer, born at Kings- 
 ton-upon-Thames in 1745, wrote a novel entitled "Sa- 
 daski," and other works. Died in 1800. 
 
 Bellange, b&'lo.wzh', (Jacques,) a French engraver, 
 born at Chalons about 1610. Among his best prints are 
 "Saint John Ir *he Wilderness," and "The Death of 
 Virginia." 
 
 See Heinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Bellange, bi'lfi.N'zha', (Joseph Louis Hippolyte,) a 
 French painter of battles and historical pieces, born in 
 Paris in 1800. 
 
 Bellange, (Thierry,) a French painter, pupil of 
 Vouet, born at Nancy about 1596; died about 1650. 
 
 Bellanger, b&'16N zha', (Francois Joseph,) a French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1744. Among his works is 
 the iron cupola of the grain-market, {Halle au Ble,) Paris, 
 (1812.) Died'in 1818. 
 
 Bellanger, (Jean Antoine,) a French engraver, who 
 lived about 1745, executed, among other prints, the 
 " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes," and " The School 
 of Athens," after Raphael. 
 
 See Heinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 mil 
 
 Bellardi, bel-laR'dee,(CARi.o Luigi,) a physician and 
 naturalist, born near Vercelli, in Piedmont, in 1 741. He 
 wrote several botanical treatises, and contributed to Al- 
 lioni's " Flora Pedemontana." He lived many years in 
 Turin. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Tipai.do, "Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Bellarini, bSl-la-ree'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian theo- 
 logian, born at Castelnuovo, entered the society of Bar- 
 nabites in 1575. He wrote "Mirror of Divine and 
 Human Wisdom," ("Speculum humame atque divinae 
 Sapiential," 1630.) Died in 1630. 
 
 Bellarmin or Bellarmine. See Bellarmino. 
 
 Bellarmino, bSl-laR-mee'no, [Fr. Bellarmin, bj'- 
 JiR'maN',] often called in English Bellarmin or Bellar- 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ti, y, short; a, e, j, p, obscure; far, fall, fat; m8t; n6t; good ; moon; 
 
mine 
 
 BELL ART 
 
 3'7 
 
 BELLE-ISLE 
 
 e, bel-Iar'min, (Roberto,) an eminent Italian cardinal 
 (and champion of Catholicism, born at Montepulciano 
 on the 4th of October, 1542. He entered the order of 
 ts at the age of eighteen, and became professor of 
 >gy at Louvain in 1570. On his return to Rome 
 in 157(1, he was appointed by Gregory XIII. to teach 
 controversial theology in the college he had just founded. 
 He was made a cardinal by Clement VIII. in 1598, and 
 In 1601 Archbishop of Capua, but upon being appointed 
 librarian of the Vatican, in 1605, he resigned his see. He 
 idied at Rome in 1621. Among his principal works are 
 this "Controversies," ("Disputationes de Controversiis 
 [Fidei adversos hujus temporis Haereticos," 1581-88, 4 
 ,) "Treatise on the Duty of Bishops," and 
 the Power of the Pope in Temporal Affairs," (all 
 in.) Cardinal Bellarmine was distinguished for 
 ration of character and mildness of disposition, 
 esteemed one of the ablest controversialists 
 >f his time, was accustomed to say that "an ounce of 
 .>eace was worth more than a pound of victory." 
 "As the century drew near its close," says Hallam, 
 the Church of Rome brought forward her most re- 
 owned and formidable champion, Bellarmin. . . . His 
 jjpjties are best tested by Protestant theologians, not 
 . inly in their terms of eulogy, but indirectly in the pecu- 
 liar zeal with which they chose him as their worthiest 
 adversary. More than half a dozen books in the next 
 fifty years bear the title of Anti-Bellarminus." ("In- 
 troduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Bellarmino's "Autobiography;" G. Fuligatti, "Vita del 
 Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino," 1622 ; Daniello Bartoli, " Delia 
 Vita di R. Bellarmino," 1678; Francesco Marazza, " Ristretto della 
 Vita di R. Bellarmino," 1682; P. Frizon, "Vie du Cardinal Bellar- 
 min," 1708 : and "Lebendes Cardinals R. Bellarmin, von einem Pries- 
 ter in Franken," 1846. 
 
 Bellart, bi'lSR', (Nicolas Francois,) a distinguished 
 French advocate, born in Paris in 1761. He was made 
 attorney-general of the royal court, grand officer of the 
 legion of honour, and obtained other distinctions under 
 Louis XVIII. Died in 1826. 
 
 See Billecoq, "Notice sur Bellart," 1826. 
 
 Bellati, bgl-la'tee, (Antonio Francesco,) an Italian 
 theologian, Jesuit, and pulpit orator, born at Ferrara in 
 1665, wrote "Sacred and Moral Treatises," and other 
 works. Died in 1742. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Bellati, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born in 1745 ; 
 died in 1808. Some of his works are at Rome. 
 
 Bellavene, b<Ylt'vW, (Jacques Nicolas,) Baron, 
 born at Verdun in 1770, was appointed by Napoleon in 
 1812 inspector-general of military schools. He wrote a 
 " Course of Mathematics for the Use of Military Schools." 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Bellavia, bel-lS-vee'J, (Marcantonio,) a Sicilian 
 engraver and painter, lived about 1600. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bellay, \A%' or beTl£',(FRANCois Philippe,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Lent in 1762, practised at Lyons. 
 He published, with Dr. Brion, a good medical journal, 
 (1799-1S04.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Bellay, du, dii b&'lj', (Guillaume,) Seigneur de 
 Laogey, a French diplomatist and soldier, born near 
 nirail in 1491. He was appointed by Francis I. 
 Viceroy of Piedmont, and was employed in important 
 embassies to England, Italy, and Germany. He died in 
 1543, leaving "Memoirs of his Times." 
 
 ant6me, "Memoires des Capitaines Francais." 
 
 Bellay, du, (Jean,) a French cardinal, brother of the 
 preceding, born in 1492, was patronized by Francis I., 
 and became successively Bishop of Paris and of Limoges, 
 *nd Archbishop of Bordeaux. Died in 1560. 
 
 See Aueery, "Histoire des Cardinaux." 
 
 Bellay, du, (Joachim,) a distinguished poet, nephew 
 of the preceding, surnamedTHE French Ovid, was born 
 near Angers about 1524. He enjoyed the favour of 
 Francis I and his sister, Margaret of Navarre. He wrote 
 Latin poems and sonnets, which were greatly admired in 
 his time. Hied in 1560. 
 
 _ See Sainte-Beuve, "Tableau de la Po^sie Francaise au seizieme 
 Siecie ;" and Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Bellay, du, (Martin,) brother of the cardinal, became 
 
 lieutenant of Normandy. He wrote " Historic Memoirs 
 from 1513 to 1547." Died in 1559. 
 
 Bellay, du, (Rene,) the youngest brother of Cardinal 
 du Bellay, became in 1535 Bishop of Mans. Died in 1546. 
 
 His nephew, Eustache du Bellay, became Bishop 
 of Paris. 
 
 Belle, Ml, (Clement Louis Marie Anne,) a histori- 
 cal painter, born in Paris in 1722; died in 1806. 
 
 Belle, de, deh bel, (Jean Francois Joseph,) a French 
 officer, born at Voreppe in 1767, served in the Italian 
 campaign of 1799, and subsequently under Le Clerc in 
 Saint Domingo, where he fell in battle in 1802. 
 
 Belle, la, li bel, (Alexis Simon,) a French portrait- 
 painter, born about 1674; died in 1734. 
 
 Belleau, bi'16', (Remy,) born at Nogent-le-Rotrou in 
 1528, was a friend of Ronsard, and was one of the seven 
 poets called "the French Pleiades." He wrote pastorals 
 entitled " Bergeries," and "Amours et nouveaux Es- 
 changes des Pierres precieuses," (1576.) Died in Paris 
 in 1577. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Bellebuoni, b?l-la-boo-o'nee, (Matteo,) an Italian 
 writer, born about 1290, translated from the Latin into 
 Italian "The History of the War of Troy." 
 
 See Ginguene\ "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Bellecombe, de, deh beTkfiMb', (Andre Ursule 
 Casse,) a French litterateur, born at Montpezat, in Lot- 
 et-Garonne, in 1822, wrote a "Universal History," (8th 
 volume, 1858; unfinished.) 
 
 Bellecourt, bel'kooR', (Jean Claude Gilles,) some- 
 times called Colson, a French comedian, born in Paris 
 in 1725; died in 1778. His wife, Rose Petronille Le 
 Roy de la Corbinaye, was also a popular actress. 
 
 Bellee, b&'la', (Teodoro,) an Italian physician, born 
 near Ragusa. He taught medicine at Padua for many 
 years. Died in 1600. 
 
 Bellefonds or Bellefont, de, deh beTfdN', (Bernar- 
 din Gigault — zhe'go',) Marquis, born in 1630, served 
 in Flanders in 1637, and subsequently in Holland, and 
 was made marshal of France in 1668. Died in 1694. 
 
 Belleforest, de, deh beTfo'ri', (Franqois,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Sarzan in 1530, was a favourite at the 
 court of Margaret, Queen of Navarre. He published 
 many mediocre works, among which is " Histoires tra- 
 giques," translated from Bandello. Died in Paris in 15S3. 
 
 Bellegarde, de, deh beTgiRd', (Antoine Dubois,) 
 a member of the French National Convention, born in 
 Angoumois about 1740. He became subsequently a 
 member of the Council of Five Hundred and of the Coun- 
 cil of Ancients, (1798.) Died in 1825. 
 
 Bellegarde, de, (Gabriel du Pac,) a French Jansen- 
 ist theologian, born near Carcassonne in 1 71 7. He wrote 
 "Historical Memoirs on the Affair of the Bull Unigeni- 
 tus," and other works. Died in 1789. 
 
 Bellegarde, de, (Henri,) Comte, born at Chambery, 
 in Savoy, in 1755, entered the Austrian service, and 
 fought in the principal campaigns against the French 
 from 1793 to 1800. He was made field-marshal in 1806. 
 Died in 1831. 
 
 Bellegarde, de, (Jean Baptiste Morvan,) generally 
 known as the Abbe de Bellegarde, born near Nantes 
 in 1648. He made translations from Saint Chrysostom, 
 Saint Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and other Fathers, also 
 several of the Latin classics. Died in 1734. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnatre Historique." 
 
 Bellegarde, de, (Roger de Saint-Lary — deh saN'- 
 If're',) a French marshal, who enjoyed the favour of 
 Catherine de Medicis and Henry III., but, having fallen 
 into disgrace, was poisoned by order of the former, (1579.) 
 
 See F. Secousse, " Memoire historique sur la Vie de Roger de 
 Saint-Lary de Bellegarde," 1764. 
 
 Bellegarde^ de, (Roger de Saint-Lary et de 
 Termes — deh saN'IS're' a deh tJlRm',) Due, born about 
 1563, was a favourite of Henry III., Henry IV., and 
 Louis XIII. Died in 1646. 
 
 Bellegingue, Ml'gaNg', (Pierre,) a French physician, 
 born at Besancon in 1759; died in 1826. 
 
 Belle-Isle, de, Due. See Fouquet, (Charles Louis 
 Augustk.) 
 
 Belle-Isle, de, (Louis Charles Armand Fouquet,) 
 Chevalier. See Fouquet. 
 
 «as*V casj; %hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; v., trilled; sasz; th as in this. ($5^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BELLENDEN 
 
 3'8 
 
 BELLING 
 
 Bel'len-den, Ballantyne, or Ballentyne, (John,) 
 a Scottish poet, who served James V. as " clerk of his 
 comptis," and became Archdeacon of Moray about 1536. 
 He translated Hector Boece's " History of Scotland" 
 from the Latin into the vernacular language, and wrote 
 several poems. Died at Rome about 1550. 
 
 See Ballentyne, in Chambers's "Biographical Dictionary of 
 Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bellenden, Ballantyne, or Ballenden, (Sir John,) 
 a Scottish statesman and jurist, was appointed a lord of 
 session in 1547, and on the arrival of Queen Mary be- 
 came one of her privy council. Died in 1577. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bellenden, (William,) a Scottish writer, celebrated 
 for the elegance of his Latinity. He resided many years 
 in Paris, where he is said to have been professor of hu- 
 manities. His principal works are a sort of compilation 
 from Cicero, entitled "Ciceronis Princeps," (1608,) dedi- 
 cated to Prince Henry, " De Statu Reipublicae," and " De 
 Statu prisci Orbis," (1615.) Dr. Middleton has been 
 charged with borrowing from these writings in his " Life 
 of Cicero." Died before 1633. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bellenger, b&'loN'zhi', (Francois,) a French philolo- 
 gist and litterateur, born in the diocese of Lisieux in 
 1688. He translated Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and 
 wrote several critical essays. Died in 1749. 
 
 Bellenghi, bgl-leVgee, (Filippo Maria Albertino,) 
 an Italian writer on theology and physical sciences, born 
 at Forlimpopoli in 1758. He became Archbishop of Ni- 
 cosia. Died in 1839. 
 
 Belle-Perche, de, deh beTpaRsh', (Pierre,) a chan- 
 cellor of France and learned bishop, born in Nivernais ; 
 died in 1307. 
 
 Beller or Bellere, b&'laiR', [Lat. Belle'rus,] a Flem- 
 ish typographer and writer, published at Antwerp a num- 
 ber of elegant editions of the classics. Died in 1595. 
 
 Bellermann, bel'ler-man', (Christian Friedrich,) 
 son of Johann Joachim, noticed below, a German Prot- 
 estant theologian and writer, born at Erfurt in 1 793. 
 
 Bellermann, (Johann Friedrich,) a German litte- 
 rateur, a brother of the preceding, born at Erfurt in 1795. 
 He published in 1840 an edition of the "Hymns of 
 Dionysius and Mesomedes." 
 
 Bellermann, (Johann Joachim,) a German theolo- 
 gian and antiquary, born in 1754 at Erfurt, where he 
 became professor of theology, (1790.) He wrote a 
 " Manual of Biblical Literature," (1787,) " Remarks on 
 Phoenician and Punic Coins," (181 2,) and other works. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 See "J. J. Bellermanni, Vita breviter ab ipso descripta," 1804. 
 
 Bel-ler'o-phon, [Gr. Be?,Xefxxpuv,] i.e. " Slayer of Belle- 
 rus," originally called Hippon'ous, in Grecian mythol- 
 ogy, was the son of Glaucus, King of Corinth. Having 
 slain Bellerus, he fled to Proetus, King of Argos, who, 
 at the instigation of his wife, sent him to Iobates, King of 
 Lycia, requesting the latter to put him to death. Bellero- 
 phon being sent by Iobates against the monster Chi- 
 msera, slew him, and afterwards defeated the Amazons. 
 Attempting to soar to Olympus on the winged horse 
 Pegasus, Jupiter caused him to be thrown to the earth, 
 and he was made blind by the fall. 
 
 Bellerose, beTroz', (Pierre le Messier — leh m&'- 
 se-a',) a French comedian, died in 1670. 
 
 Bellet, bi'lj', Abbe, a French antiquary and natural- 
 ist, lived about 1720. He was canon of Cadillac. 
 
 Bellet, (Charles,) a French ecclesiastic and religious 
 writer, born in 1702; died in 1771. 
 
 Bellet, (Isaac,) a French physician, who was in- 
 spector of the mineral waters of France. Died in 1778. 
 
 Bellet-Verrier, hk%' vi're-V, (Hubert,) a French 
 writer, lived about 1680-1725. His principal work is 
 entitled "Alphabetical Memorial concerning the Law, 
 Police, and Finances of France." 
 
 Belleteste, bel'tit', (B.,) a French Orientalist, born at 
 Orleans in 1778, translated from the Arabic a "Treatise 
 on Precious Stones." Died in 1808. 
 
 Belleval, de, deh bel'vfl', (Charles Franqois Du- 
 meisniel — dii'mi'ne-el',) a French botanist, born in 
 '733 ! died at Abbeville in 1790. 
 
 Belleval, de, (Pierre Richer,) a French physician 
 and botanist, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1558. Ho 
 became, in 1596, professor of botany at Montpellier, be- 
 ing the first who taught that science in France except 
 in connection with medicine. The genus Richeria was 
 named in his honour. Died at Montpellier in 1623. 
 
 See " Recherches sur la Vie de P. R. de Belleval," Paris, 1822. 
 
 Belleville, beTvel', or Turlupin.tiiR'lii'paN', (Hknr; 
 Legrand — leh'gRdN',) a French comedian. Died in 
 1634- 
 
 Bellevois, beYvwa', a skilful painter of marine views, 
 Died at Hamburg in 1684. 
 
 Bellevue, de, deh beTvli', (Armand,) a French Do- 
 minican monk, born in Provence about 1290. 
 
 Bellevue, de, (Jacques,) a French jurist, born at 
 Aix, became, in 1314, professor of law at Perugia. 
 
 Belley, b&'li', (Augustin,) a French antiquary, born 
 at Sainte-Foi-de-Montgomery in 1697, was a member of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1771. 
 
 Belli, bSl'lee, (Carlo,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, 
 born at Venice in 1742; died in 1816. 
 
 Belli, (Cherubino,) a Sicilian monk and poet, lived 
 about 1590-1650. 
 
 Belli, (Francesco,) an Italian theologian and writer, 
 born at Arzignano in 1577 ; died in 1644. 
 
 Belli, (Giulio,) an Italian writer, born at Capo d'Is- 
 tria, wrote a work entitle'd " Hermes Politicus," (1608.) 
 
 Belli, [Lat. Bel'lius,] (Honorius,) an Italian physi- 
 cian and botanist, born at Vicenza, lived about 1550-90. 
 He practised in the island of Crete, was well versed in 
 the Greek language, and was one of the first that at- 
 tempted to identify the plants mentioned by the ancients. 
 
 See Jocher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Belli, (Paolo,) an Italian Jesuit and Latin writer, 
 born at Messina in 1588; died in 1658. 
 
 Belli, (Pietro,) an Italian jurist, born at Alba in 1502; 
 died in 1575. 
 
 See Vernazza, "Vie de P. Belli," 1783. 
 
 Belliard, bk'le-f r', (Augustin Daniel,) Comte, a 
 French general, born at Fontenay-le-Comte in 1769. He 
 became a general in 1796, fought successfully in the 
 campaigns of Italy, Egypt, Austria, and Russia, and in 
 1S14 was made colonel-general of the cavalry of the 
 guard. He was created a peer by Louis XVIII., and 
 in 1831 was sent as ambassador to Belgium. Died at 
 Brussels in 1832. 
 
 See " M^moires du Comte Belliard, Merits par lui-meme," 3 vols., 
 1834; " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Bellicard, bVle'kiR', (Jerome Charles,) a French 
 architect and engraver, born in Paris in 1726, was pro- 
 fessor in the Royal Academy of Architecture. He pub- 
 lished "Observations on the Antiqmties of Hercula- 
 neum," (1754.) He was a member of the Academies of 
 Florence and Bologna. Died in 1786. 
 
 See Le Blanc, "Manuel de 1'Amateur d'Estampes." 
 
 Bellier, bi'le-4', (Pierre,) a French scholar, who 
 translated a part of the works of Philo-Judaeus, (1575.) 
 
 Bellievre, de, d?h bJ'le-ivR', (Albert,) a French 
 prelate, son of Pomponne, noticed below, was appointed 
 Archbishop of Lyons by Henry IV. in 1599. In 16C4 he 
 resigned his office to his brother Claude. Died in 1621. 
 
 Bellievre, de, (Nicolas,) brother of the preceding, 
 born in 1583, rose to be president of the parliament of 
 Paris in 1614. 
 
 Bellievre, de, (Pomponne,) a French jurist and diplo- 
 matist, born at Lyons in 1529. He was sent on import- 
 ant missions to Sweden and England, and in 1599 was 
 made chancellor of France by Henry IV. Died in 1607. 
 
 See Jean Papire Masson, " Elogium P. de Bellievre," 1607. 
 
 Bellin, the French of Bellini, which see. 
 
 Bellin, b&'laN', (Jacques Nicolas,) a French hydro- 
 grapher and engineer of the marine, born in Paris in 
 1703. He executed the maps for the Abbe Prevost's 
 " Histoire Generate des Voyages," and published a col- 
 lection of charts entitled "French Hydrography," (1756.) 
 Died in 1772. 
 
 BeLUncioni,bSl-]en-cho'nee, (Bernardo,) sometimes 
 called Bellinzona, a Florentine poet. Died in 1491. 
 
 Belling, von, fon bel'ling, (Wilhelm Sebastian,) 
 a Prussian general and favourite of Frederick the Great, 
 
 5 
 
 5, e, I 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
BELL1NGEN 
 
 319 
 
 BELLOWS 
 
 born about 1 719, served with distinction in the Seven 
 Years' war. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Archenholz, " Hisloire de la Guerre de Sept Ans." 
 
 Belliugen, de, deh biTaN'zhoN', (Fleuri,) a French 
 grammarian, was the author of " Etymology or Expla- 
 nation in French Proverbs," (1656.) 
 
 Belliiigham, bel'ling-am, (Sir Edward,) an able sol- 
 dier, ami for two years governor or deputy of Ireland 
 under Edward VI. Died in 1549. 
 
 See Frouue, "History of England," voL v. chap, xxviii. 
 
 Bel'ling-ham, (Richard,) Governor of Massachu- 
 setts, horn in England in 1592. He came to America 
 as a lawyer in 1634, and subsequently filled the office of 
 lieutenant-governor for thirteen years and that of gov- 
 ernor for ten years. He was first elected in opposition 
 to Governor Winthrop in 1641. Died in 1672. 
 
 Bellini, bel-lee'nee, or Bellino, bel-lee'no, an Italian 
 painter of the Venetian school, lived about 1500. 
 
 Bellini, (Filippo,) an Italian painter, born at Urbino 
 about 1560. His pictures in fresco and oil are praised. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bellini, [Fr. Bellin, b&'l&N',] (Gentile,) a celebrated 
 Venetian painter, born in 1421, was a son of Jacopo, no- 
 ticed below. Among his master-pieces are " The Preach- 
 ing of Saint Mark," and "Presentation of the Infant 
 at the Temple." He was invited to Constantinople 
 by the Sultan Mahomet II., who treated him with dis- 
 tinguished favour and employed him to paint several 
 historical pieces. Died about 1507. 
 
 SeeVASARl, "Lives of the Painters;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs 
 of Early Italian Painters," 
 
 Bellini, (Giovanni,) brother of the preceding, born at 
 Venice about 1426, was the most distinguished member of 
 his family, and is regarded as the founder of the Venetian 
 school. He assisted his brother in the embellishment 
 of the senate-house at Venice, and painted a great num- 
 ber of historical pieces. Of these we may name a " Coro- 
 nation of the»Virgin," a " Madonna and Child attended 
 by the Angels," "Christ at Emmaus," and "The Saviour 
 giving a Benediction." His works display great richness 
 of colouring and superior arrangement of the draperies. 
 Among his numerous pupils were Titian and Giorgione. 
 His death is variously dated 1510, 1512, or 1516. 
 
 SeeVASARl, "Lives of the Painters;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs 
 of Early Italian Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy ;" 
 "G. Bellini e Pittori contemporanei," Venice, 184a 
 
 Bellini, (Jacopo,) a Venetian painter, chiefly distin- 
 guished for his portraits. He was one of the first who 
 painted in oil. Died about 1470. 
 
 Bellini, (Laurf.ntio,) a celebrated Italian anatomist 
 and physician, born at Florence in f643- He studied 
 at Pisa under Borelli, whose peculiar system he adopted. 
 (See Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso.) After having filled 
 the chair of anatomy at Pisa for thirty years, he became 
 first physician to the grand duke Cosimo III. at Flor- 
 ence. He wrote several medical treatises in Latin, 
 which had a high reputation in his time. Died in 
 1704. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vit» Ttalorum doctrina excellentium ;" G. Atti, 
 "Notizie biografiche della Vita di M. Malpighi e di L. Bellini," 
 1847. 
 
 Bellini, [Fr. Bellin,] (Vincenzo,) a celebrated mu- 
 sical composer, born at Catania, in Sicily, about 1802. 
 He studied at Naples under Zingarelli. Having produced 
 several symphonies and other musical pieces, he brought 
 out at Milan in 1827 his opera of "II Pirata," which was 
 very successful. It was soon followed by " La Straniera," 
 and "I Capuletti ed i Montecchi." "La Sonnambula" 
 came out in March, 1831, and in December of the same 
 year " La Norma." The two last-named operas were 
 received with enthusiasm throughout Europe, and still 
 retain their popularity. In 1834 he produced "I Puri- 
 tani," which ranks among his best works. He died near 
 Paris in September, 1835, at the early age of thirty-two. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens ;" F. Gerardi, 
 
 "Biografia di V. Bellini," 1835. 
 
 Bellman, Wl'man, (Karl Mickf.l,) a Swedish poet, 
 born at Stockholm about 1740. His lyrics are princi- 
 pally bacchanalian songs and delineations of low life, 
 and enjoy great popularity in Sweden. Among these 
 
 may be named " The Temple of Bacchus" and " Fred- 
 man's Sanger og Epistlar." Died in 1795. 
 
 See CaRi. Ploug, " C. M. Bellman's Liv, og Bellman som comisk 
 Dithyrambiker af J. L. Heiberg," 1844. 
 
 Bello, bel'lo, (Filippo,) an Italian litterateur, born at 
 Naples in 1666; died in 1719. 
 
 Bello, (Marco,) an Italian painter of the Venetian 
 school, lived about 1450. 
 
 Belloc, b&'lok', (Jean Hilaire,) a French painter ot 
 history and portraits, born at Nantes in 1787. 
 
 Belloc, (Jean Louis,) a French surgeon, born near 
 Agen in 1 730, published a number of works on surgery 
 and legal medicine, and invented several surgical instru- 
 ments. He acquired celebrity as a professor in Paris, 
 where he died in 1807. 
 
 Belloc, b£'lok', (Louise Swanton,) Madame, a 
 French writer, of Irish extraction, born at La Rochelle 
 in 1799, translated into French a number of the works 
 of Byron, Moore, and Miss Edgeworth, also Goldsmith's 
 "Vicar of Wakefield," and "Uncle Tom's Cabin." 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Bellocq, b£'lok', (Pierre,) a French litterateur and 
 satirist, born in Paris in 1645 ; died in 1704. 
 
 Bel-lo'na, [Fr. Bellone, bi'lon'; derived from the 
 Latin helium, "war,"] the goddess of war of the ancient 
 Romans. She delights in war and carnage ; she is 
 usually represented as the companion, and sometimes as 
 the sister or wife, of Mars. She is described by the poets 
 as armed with a scourge, and bearing a torch in her hand. 
 Her priests were called Bellonarii. 
 
 See Tiesler, " Dissertatio de Bellonse Cultn," 1842. 
 
 Belloni, beJ-lo'nee, (Geronimo,) a Roman banker, 
 patronized by Benedict IV., wrote an " Essay on Com- 
 merce," which was translated into several languages. 
 Died in 1761. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Belloni, (Giovanni,) an Italian theologian and jurist, 
 was canon of Padua. Died in 1623. 
 
 Belloni, (Giuseppe,) an Italian sculptor and archi- 
 tect, resided at Venice about 1600-20. 
 
 Belloni, (Paolo,) an Italian jurist and legal writer, 
 was professor of civil law at Pavia. Died in 1625. 
 
 Bellori, bel-lo'ree, (Giovanni Pietro,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Rome in 1615, wrote a number of 
 treatises on Roman history and antiquities. Christina 
 of Sweden appointed him her librarian and keeper of 
 her cabinet. Died in 1696. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Bellot, b&'lo', (Joseph Rene,) a French naval officer, 
 born in Paris in 1826, accompanied Captain Belcher in 
 search of Sir John Franklin in 1852. Having afterwards 
 joined Ingleneld's expedition, he perished in a storm 
 near Cape Bowden in 1853. He discovered a strait con- 
 necting Prince Regent's Inlet and Peel Sound, which has 
 been named Bellot's Strait. 
 
 Bellot, (Pierre Francois,) a French jurist, born at 
 Geneva in 1776, was professor of civil law. Died at 
 Geneva in 1836. 
 
 See Cherbuliez, " Notice sur la Vie de P. F. Bellot," 1838. 
 
 Bellotti, bel-lot'tee, (Bernardo,) an Italian painter 
 and engraver, surnamed Canaletto, born at Venice in 
 1724. Died in 1780. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bellotti, (Pietro,) an Italian painter of the Venetian 
 school, born at Volgano ; died in 1700. 
 
 Bel-lo-ve'sus, the first Gallic chief who passed the 
 Alps, established himself with his band in Etruria, ac- 
 cording to Livy, about 590 B.C. 
 See Dupleix, " M^moires des Ganles." 
 
 Bel'lows, (Henry Whitney,) D.D., an eminent 
 Unitarian divine, born in Boston in 1814. He took the 
 degree of A.B. at Harvard in 1832, and afterwards stu 
 died in the theological school of that university. In 
 1838 he became pastor of a church in the city of New 
 York. He was the principal founder of the "Christian 
 Inquirer," (1846,) and was for several years the chief 
 contributor to its columns. Mr. Bellows is an able and 
 eloquent public speaker, and has lectured successfully on 
 a great variety of subjects, especially those connected 
 with social or educational interests, or with patriotic ot 
 
 € as k; <; as s; g hard; g as// G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. {fi&~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 r*> or 
 
BELLOT 
 
 320 
 
 BELSHAM 
 
 philanthropic enterprises. Among his publications, his 
 lectures " On the Treatment of Social Diseases," deliv- 
 ered at the Lowell Institute, Boston, in 1857, deserve to 
 be particularly mentioned. He was the principal origin- 
 ator of the United States Sanitary Commission, of 
 which he became the first president in 1862. He held 
 this position as long as that organization continued. 
 
 Belloy, de, deh bi'lwa', (Auguste,) Marquis, a 
 French poet, born in Paris about 1815. He produced, 
 besides other works, " Orfa," (1853,) and "Flowery 
 Legends," ("Legendes fleuries," 1855.) 
 
 Belloy, de, (Jean Bafhste,) a French cardinal, and 
 Archbishop of Paris, born near Senlis in 1709; died in 
 1808. 
 
 Belloy, de, (Pierre,) a French jurist, born at Mon- 
 tauban about 1540. His principal work is entitled "The 
 Catholic Apology," being a defence of the rights of 
 Henry of Navarre to the throne independent of his Ca- 
 tholicity. In consequence of this he was imprisoned 
 two years in the Bastille by the Guises. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Belloy, de, (Pierre Laurent Buyrette — bii-e'ret' 
 or bwe'ret',) a French dramatist, born at Saint-Flour-en- 
 Auvergne in 1727, wrote a tragedy entitled "The Siege 
 of Calais." He was a member of the French Academy. 
 Died in 1775. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Bellucci, bfl-loot'chee, or Belluzzi, bel-loot'see, 
 (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born in 1654, was patron- 
 ized by Joseph I. of Austria. He excelled in painting 
 small figures. Died in 1726. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bellucci, (Tommaso,) an Italian botanist, born at 
 Pistoia. He became professor of botany at Pisa, and 
 published in 1662 an " Index of Plants in the Garden of 
 Pisa," (in Latin.) 
 
 Bellune, Due de. See Victor. 
 
 Bellunello, bel-loo-nel'lo, (Andrea,) an Italian 
 painter, born in the Friuli, lived about 1470. 
 
 Bellunese, bel-loo-na'sa, (Giorgio,) an Italian por- 
 trait-painter, born in the Friuli, lived about 1550. 
 
 Belluno, Duke of. See Victor. 
 
 Belluti, bel-loo'tee, (Bonaventura,) a Sicilian phi- 
 losopher and ecclesiastic, born at Catania in 1599. He 
 wrote a " Course of Philosophy," and other works, in 
 Latin. Died in 1676. 
 
 Belluzzi. See Bellucci. 
 
 Belly, b&'le', or Billy, be'ye', (Jacques,) a French 
 painter and engraver, born at Chartres in 1603. 
 
 Belmas, bel'ma', (Louis,) born at Montreal, in the 
 department of Aude, in 1757, became Bishop of Cam- 
 brai in 1802. By his advocacy of the liberty of the Gal- 
 lican Church and his submission to the civil constitution 
 of the clergy, he incurred the displeasure of the pope. 
 He was the last constitutional bishop. Died in 1841. 
 
 See Lasalve, " Fjoge de M. Belmas," 1S4S. 
 
 Bel'meis or BeTmeys, (John,) called also John of 
 York, a divine of the twelfth century, was Bishop of 
 Poitou. He wrote against Thomas a Becker. 
 
 Belmeis or Beaumes, de, (Richard,) was conse- 
 crated as Bishop of London about 1150. 
 
 Belmeis or Beaumes, de, (RiCHARD,)became Bishop 
 of London in 1 108. He expended a large sum of money 
 in the erection of Saint Paul's Cathedral. Died in 1127. 
 
 Belmissero, bel-mfcs-sa'ro, or Belmessere, bel-mes- 
 sa'ra, (Paolo,) an Italian physician and Latin poet, born 
 at Lanni, lived about 1530. He was professor of medi- 
 cine and philosophy at Bologna. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Belmondi, beTm6N'de', (Pierre,) a French littera- 
 teur, born at Virieux in 1774 ; died in 1822. 
 
 Belmont, de, deh beTmiN', (Aimeri,) a troubadour 
 of Provence, lived about 1270. 
 
 Belmontet, beYmdN'tV, (Louis,) a French littlrateur 
 and politician, born at Montauban in 1799. He became 
 in 1830 editor cf "La Tribune," in which he opposed 
 the Orleans dynasty. He published several republican 
 odes, and a collection of poems entitled "Golden Num- 
 bers," (" Les Nombres d'Or," 1846.) In 1835 he married 
 a granddaughter of the famous Vcrgniaud. Among his 
 
 works is "Une F6te de Neron," a tragedy, (1829.) 
 is now a Bonapartist in politics. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Belmonti, bel-mon'tee, (Pietro,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Rimini in 1537 ; died in 1592. 
 
 Be'15e, (William,) an English divine and scholar, 
 born at Norwich in 1756. He made several translations 
 from the Greek, of which his "History of Herodotus, 
 with Notes," (4 vols., 1791,) deserves especial mention. 
 He also wrote a number of original works, and was as- 
 sociated with Archdeacon Nares as editor of " The Brit- • 
 ish Critic." Died in 1817. 
 
 Belon, beh-16N' or bloN, (Pierre,) one of the most 
 eminent naturalists of his time, born in the department 
 of Sarthe, in France, about 1517. He visited successively 
 Greece, Egypt, and Palestine, and, after an absence of' 
 three years, returned to France in 1550. In 1553 he pub- 
 lished an account of his expedition, which was trans- 
 lated into Latin by L'Ecluse. On his way to Paris, 
 through the Bois de Boulogne, in 1564, he was assas- 
 sinated by an unknown hand. Belon wrote a number 
 of valuable treatises on natural history, geography, and 
 antiquities. His " History of Birds" (1555) is said to be 
 the most important treatise on that subject produced in 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 See Cuvier, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles." 
 
 Beloselsky, ba-lo-sel'skee, (Alexander,) Prince, a 
 Russian litterateur, born at Saint Petersburg in 1757, 
 wrote a collection of poems in French. Died in 1809. 
 
 Beloste, ba'lost', (Augustin,) a French surgeon, born 
 in Paris in 1654, published a treatise on surgery, (1695,) 
 and a "Treatise on the Use of Mercury," (1725.) He 
 adopted some good old methods which had fallen into 
 disuse. He practised at Turin, where he died in 1730. 
 
 Belot, beh-lo' or bio, (Jean,) a French lawyer, born 
 at Blois about 1590, published an "Apology for the Latin 
 Language." Menage, in his " Requete des Dictionnaires," 
 remarks " that his generous interest in that language ig 
 the more praiseworthy, as he had not the fionour to be 
 acquainted with it." 
 
 See Pelisson, " Histoire de l'Academie Francaise." 
 
 Belot, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, who lived about 
 1570, wrote treatises on chiromancy and occult science. 
 
 Belot, (Octavie Guichard,) Madame, a French au. 
 thoress, born in Paris in 1 719. She published "Reflec- 
 tions on Rousseau's Discourse concerning the Inequality 
 of Conditions," and translated from the English Dr. 
 Johnson's " Rasselas," and portions of Hume's History. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclope'dique de la France." 
 
 Below, ba'lo, (Jacois Frederick,) a Swedish physi- 
 cian and naturalist, born at Stockholm in 1669. He was 
 appointed by Charles XII., in 1705, physician to the 
 army. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Pultowa, 
 after which he practised in Moscow. Died in 1 716. 
 
 Bel'per, (Edward Strutt,) Lord, an English poli- 
 tician, born at Derby in 1801. He represented Derby 
 in Parliament from 1830 to 1848, voting with the Liberals. 
 
 Belprato, b?l-pRa'to, (Giovanni Vincenzo,) an Ital- 
 ian litterateur, lived about 1550. 
 
 Bel'sham, (Thomas,) an English Unitarian divine 
 and theological writer, born at Bedford in April, 1750. 
 He became, in 1805, pastor of the Essex Street chapel, 
 London, where he remained until his death. Among his 
 principal works are his " Evidences of the Christian 
 Revelation," and "Elements of the Philosophy of the 
 Human Mind and of Moral Philosophy," (iSoi.) He 
 also published a "Translation of the Epistles of Saint 
 Paul, with an Exposition and Notes," (4 vols., 1822.) 
 Died in 1829. 
 
 See John Williams, "Memoirs of Thomas Belsham," 1S33: 
 "London Quarterly Review" for 1S23-24, and " Edinburgh Review" 
 for January, 1803. ^ 
 
 Belsham, (William,) an English historian and politi- 
 cal writer of the Whig party, born in 1752, was a brother 
 of the preceding. He published a " History of Great 
 Britain to the Conclusion of the Peace of Amiens in 
 1802," (12 vols. Svo, 1806,) "Essays, Historical, Politi- 
 cal, and Literary," (2 vols., 1789-91,) and other works. 
 His history was commended by Professor Smyth and 
 other critics. Died in 1827. 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; 1, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, j?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moonj 
 
BELSHAZZAR 
 
 321 
 
 BEMMEL 
 
 Bel-shaz'zar, [Hcb. -iXNjySo ; Fr. Balthasar, biT- 
 ti'^au'.J King of Babylon, began to reign about 554 B.C. 
 He was a descendant of Nebuchadnezzar. In 538 or 
 539 Babylon was taken by Cyrus the Great, and Bel- 
 
 sha//ar was killed. 
 
 Sec Book of Daniel, chap. v. ; D. S. Goebel, " Dissertatio de 
 Belsasaro," 1757. 
 
 Belsunce, de, deh bel'suNss', Comte, a French roy- 
 alist officer, was killed in a mob, at Caen, in 1790. 
 
 Belsunce, de, (Armand,) a French general, born in 
 1722. lie fought at Fontenoy in 1745, and at Hasten- 
 beck in 1757. Died in Saint Domingo in 1764. 
 
 Belsunce de Castel-Moron, de, deh beTsuNss' 
 deh kis'tel' mo'roN', (Henri Francois Xavier,) a 
 French Jesuit, born in 1671, was made Bishop of Mar- 
 seilles in 1709, and during the prevalence of the plague 
 in that city (1720) devoted himself to the relief of the 
 sufferers. Died in 1755. 
 
 See P. Barbet, "£logede Belsunce," 1821. 
 
 Beltrafflo, Wl-tRaffe-o, (Giovanni Antonio,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Milan in 1467, was a pupil of 
 Leonardo da Vinci. Died in 1516. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Beltramelli, bel-tRi-mel'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 litterateur, born at Bergamo in 1734; died in 181 5. 
 
 Beltrami, Wl-tRa'mee, (Fabrizio,) an Italian writer, 
 bom at Cetona, in Tuscany, lived about 1630. 
 
 Beltrando, bel-tRan'do, (Hermano Domingo,) a 
 Spanish architect and sculptor, born at Vittoria ; died 
 in 1590. 
 
 Beltrano, bel-tRa'no, (Agostino,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Naples in 1616 ; died in 1665. 
 
 Beltrano, (O ttavio,) an Italian writer and publisher, 
 who lived about 1650. 
 
 Belurger, beh-luR'zha', (Claude,) a French professor 
 of belles-lettres at the College of Navarre. Died about 
 1622. 
 
 Be'lus, [Gr. B?)Aoc,] a mythical king of Phoenicia, re- 
 garded as a son of Neptune and Libya, a brother of 
 Agcnor, and father of ^igyptus. He is by some writers 
 identified with the Hebrew Baal, and in a mythic sense 
 signifies the Sun. 
 
 .See Guigniaut, "Religions de !' Antiquity," Paris, 1825-29, vol. 
 ii. book iv. chap. iii. 
 
 BeTus or Bel, one of the first kings of Babylon, was 
 the father of Ninus. He is sometimes confounded with 
 the preceding. 
 
 Belvedere, bel-va-da'ri, (Andrea,) an excellent Ital- 
 ian painter of animals, fruits, and flowers, born at Naples 
 about 1646; died in 1732. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 Belvezen. -See Belenvei. 
 
 Belyard, bi'le-iR', (Simon,) a French poet, who lived 
 ■bout 1580, was a partisan of the League, and wrote 
 st Henry III. 
 Belzoni, b£l-zo'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) a cele- 
 1 traveller and explorer, born at Padua about 1778. 
 In 1S03 he visited England, where he married, and for 
 I several years gained a livelihood by exhibiting as an 
 athlete. He possessed great muscular strength, and is 
 ) have supported himself by performing the parts 
 , ot Hercules and Samson. Having studied hydraulics in 
 his youth, he sought in several foreign countries an 
 1 1 unity to apply his knowledge of that science. 
 Having travelled in Portugal, Spain, and Malta, accom- 
 d by his wife, they arrived in Egypt in 181 5. One 
 first antiquarian labours was the removal of the 
 al head incorrectly styled the young Memnon, in 
 1 enterprise he was assisted by Mr. Salt, the British 
 consul. With great difficulty it was shipped to England ; 
 j and it now forms one of the grandest ornaments of the 
 department of Egyptian antiquities in the British Mu- 
 seum. He soon after visited the temple of Ipsambool, 
 which he was the first to open, and in 1818 discovered 
 in the valley of Heban-el-Molook a magnificent Egyptian 
 He made drawings of the chambers and took 
 ssions of the figures and hieroglyphics, which fac- 
 1 he subsequently exhibited in London. This tomb 
 ontained an alabaster sarcophagus, which Belzoni 
 Jit to England. He penetrated into the second 
 pyramid of Gizeh, and discovered the ruins of the tenvn 
 
 of Berenice. On his arrival in England in 1819 he pub- 
 lished a very interesting and well-written narrative of 
 his discoveries. He set out in 1S23 for Timbuctoo, in 
 Africa, but died in Benin, after a short illness, in Decem- 
 ber, 1823. 
 
 See Belzoni, "Narrative of the Operations and Recent Discov- 
 eries within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs, and Excavations in 
 Egypt and Nubia," London, 1820; "Household Words," vol. ii., 
 1851, (republished in the "Living Age," vol. xxix.;) C. L. Bright- 
 well, "Annals of Industry and Genius," 1863. 
 
 Bern, bem, (Joseph,) a distinguished Polish gen- 
 eral, born at Tarnow, in Galicia, in 1795. He served in 
 the campaign of 1812 under Davoust, and about 1819 
 was made professor in a school of artillery at Warsaw. 
 On the breaking out of the revolution of 1830, he be- 
 came a major in the Polish service. Having joined the 
 Hungarian patriots in 1848, he obtained command of 
 an army; and defeated the Austrians in several battles. 
 After the defeat at Temesvar he took refuge in Turkey, 
 where he became a Mohammedan, and was made a pasha 
 by the Sultan. Died in 1850. 
 
 See Patakv, "Bem in Siebenbiirgen," 1850; N. N. Lajos, " Le 
 General Bern," Paris, 1851. 
 
 Be-mar'ehl-us, [Bii/xupx'<K,] a Greek sophist, born 
 at Cassarea, in Cappadocia, about 320 a.d. He wrote 
 a "Life of the Emperor Constantine," and other works, 
 not extant. 
 
 Benibo, bera'bo, (Bernardo,) a Venetian senator and 
 liberal patron of learning, born in 1433, was the father 
 of the celebrated Cardinal Bembo. Died about 1520. 
 
 Bembo, (Giovanni,) succeeded Marcantonio Memnao 
 as Doge of Venice in 1615. Died in 1618. 
 
 Bembo, (Pietro,) an Italian cardinal, celebrated for 
 his learning, born at Venice in May, 1470. He studied 
 Greek under Lascaris, and subsequently became a mem- 
 ber of the academy of Aldus Manutius. In 1512 ho 
 repaired to Rome, where Leo X. appointed him his pri- 
 vate secretary and bestowed upon him numerous eccle- 
 siastical preferments. After the death of Leo he retired 
 to Padua, where he formed a valuable library and a col- 
 lection of rare medals. He was made a cardinal by Paul 
 III. in 1539. He died in 1547. Among his principal 
 works are a " History of Venice," (in Latin,) which he 
 afterwards translated into Italian, (1552,) dialogues on 
 the nature of love, entitled "Gli Asolani," and a number 
 of Italian sonnets. His writings are all characterized 
 by great elegance of style. Among his friends were 
 the painter Raphael and Cardinal Bibbiena. His chief 
 literary merit consisted in his being one of the restorers 
 of pure Latinity. His collected works were published in 
 Venice, in four volumes, 1729. "If some praise is due," 
 says Hallam, " as it surely is, to the art of reviving that 
 consummate grace and richness which enchants every 
 successive generation in thejieriods of Cicero, we must 
 place Bembo among the ornaments of literature in the 
 sixteenth century." ("Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe.") 
 
 See Beccadf.lli, "Vita di P. Bembo;" J. de la Casa, "Vita 
 Bembi;" M. Battaggia, " Elogio del Cardinale Bembo," 1827; 
 Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Auberv, "Histoire 
 ties Cardinaux ;" Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori dTtalia ;" " NouveDe 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 Berne or Besme, bfm, (Karl Dianowitz — de-S'no- 
 wits,) a Bohemian, notorious as the assassin of Coligny. 
 He was killed by some Protestants at Saintonge in 1575. 
 
 Bemetzrieder, ba'mJts-ree'der, writer on music, born 
 in 1747, resided in Paris, and subsequently in London. 
 
 Bemmel, van, vin bem'mel, (Willem,) a Dutch 
 landscape-painter of great merit, born at Utrecht in 
 1630. Having visited Italy and England, he established 
 himself at Nuremberg. Died in 1708. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc 
 
 Bemmel, von, fon bem'mel, (Christoph,) a German 
 landscape-painter, son of Peter, noticed below, born in 
 1707. 
 
 Bemmel, von, (Joel Paul,) elder son of Johann 
 Georg, born at Nuremberg in 1 713, was a painter of 
 landscapes and historical pieces. 
 
 Bemmel, von, (Johann Georg,) a skilful German 
 painter of landscapes and animals, born at Nuremberg 
 in 1669, was a son of Wilhelm, noticed below. Died in 
 1725. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon.' 
 
 ( as /•, c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (J^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 21 
 
BEMMEL 
 
 322 
 
 BENDLER 
 
 Bemmel, von, (Johann Noah,) brother of Joel Paul, 
 born at Nuremberg in 1716. His works include hunting- 
 scenes, battles, animals, and portraits. 
 
 Bemmel, von, (Karl Sebastian,) nephew of Chris- 
 toph, mentioned above, born at Bamberg in 1743, painted 
 landscapes, sea-pieces, and night and morning scenes, 
 which are greatly admired and sought for. Died in 1796. 
 
 See Jack, "Pantheon der Literaten und Kunstier Bambergs." 
 
 Bemmel, von, (PETER,) brother of Johann Georg, 
 born at Nuremberg in 1685, painted landscapes, storms, 
 and winter scenes with great effect. Died in 1754. 
 
 Bemmelen, van, vin bem'meh-len, (Abraham,) a 
 Dutch writer on physical science, born in 1755, published 
 " Elements of Experimental Physics," and other works. 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 Ben, ben, (Sev,) a Polish Jew, born in 1763, was a 
 good Hebrew scholar, and published a Hebrew Lexi- 
 con. Died in Vienna in 181 1. 
 
 Benaben, beh'nS'b&.N', (Louis Guillaumf. Jacques 
 Marie,) a French journalist and litterateur, born at Tou- 
 louse in 1774, was associate editor of " La Minerve," and 
 subsequently edited the "Gazette de France," a journal 
 of Paris. Died in Paris in 1831. 
 
 Benaglio, ba-nal'yo, (Girolamo,) an Italian' painter, 
 worked at Verona in the fifteenth century. 
 
 Benalcazar, ba-nal-ka'thaR, or Belarcazar, ba-laR- 
 ka'thaR, (Sebastian,) a Spanish soldier, born in Estre- 
 madura. In 1514 he accompanied Pedrarias, governor 
 of Darien, to South America, where he assisted Pizarro 
 in the conquest of Peru. He was subsequently appointed 
 governor of Popayan. Died in 1 550. 
 
 See PliESCOTT, "History of the Conquest of Peru ;" ToURON, 
 " Histoire generale de l'Amerique." 
 
 Benamati, ba-na-ma'tee, (Guido Ubaldo,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Gubbio. Among his works is an epic poem, 
 "The Naval Victory," ("La Vittoria navale," 1640.) 
 Died in 1653. 
 
 Benard, beh-nf r', (Laurent,) a French Benedictine 
 monk and writer, born at Nevers in 1573; died in 1620. 
 
 Benary, ba'na-ree, (Franz Ferdinand,) a German 
 Orientalist, born at Cassel in 1805. He published in 
 1830 the Sanscrit poem of " Nalodaya," with a Latin 
 translation and explanation. 
 
 Benaschi,ba-nas'kee,( Angela,) daughter of Giovanni 
 Battista, by whom she was instructed in painting, was born 
 in 1666. She excelled in portraits. (See next article.) 
 
 Benaschi, written also Beinaschi, Benoschi, or 
 Berneschi, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Turin about 1634, imitated the style of Lanfranco. 
 Among his master-pieces are the frescos of the church 
 of Santa Maria at Naples. Died about 1690. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Benavente, (Luis,) a Spanish poet, born at Toledo 
 about 1630. 
 
 Beuavides, ba-na-vee'Des, (Alfonso,) a Spanish 
 Franciscan monk, lived about 1600-40. 
 
 Benavides.ba-na-vee'des, [Lat. Benavid'ius,] (Mar- 
 co,) surnamed Mantuano, (man-too-a'no,) an eminent 
 Italian jurist and writer, born at Padua in 1489. He 
 was created count palatine by Charles V., and was pro- 
 fessor of law at Padua. He wrote a work entitled 
 " Polymathia," and legal treatises. Died in 1582. 
 
 See A. Riccoboni, " Oratio in obitum M. Benavidii," 15S2. 
 
 Benavides, (Vincent,) a painter, born at Oran, in 
 Africa, settled in Spain, where he obtained the title of 
 painter to Charles II. Died in 1703. 
 
 Ben'a-ze€h or Ben'e-zech, (Charles,) an English 
 painter and engraver, born about 1740, worked several 
 years in Paris and Rome. Died in England in 1803. 
 
 See Le Blanc, " Manuel de l'Amateur d'Estampes." 
 
 Benazech, (Peter Paul,) an English engraver, born 
 in London about 1744. 
 
 Ben'bow, (John,) an English admiral of distinguished 
 bravery, born in 1650, entered the service under James II., 
 and was subsequently employed by William III. In Au- 
 gust, 1702, he had a severe engagement near Jamaica with 
 a Fiench squadron under Ducasse; but, after maintain- 
 ing a running fight for more than four days, he was 
 mortally wounded. He survived until November, 1702. 
 
 See Smollett, "History of England;" Campbell, " Lives of 
 the British Admirals." 
 
 Benbow, (John,) a son 'of Admiral Benbow, was 
 shipwrecked on the coast of Madagascar in 1701 or 1702. 
 He was compelled to remain on that island several vcars. 
 
 Benchaim, ben-Ka'em, (Abraham,) an Italian rabbi, 
 who published in 1488 an edition of the Bible which is 
 said to have been the first printed in Hebrew. 
 
 Benci ben'chee, (Francesco,) an Italian Jesuit, born 
 at Acquapendente in 1542, wrote a number of treatises in 
 elegant Latin. Died in 1594. 
 
 Bencius, ben'she-ijs, [It. Benci, ben'chee,] (Hugo,) 
 called also Hugo of Sienna, an Italian physician, who 
 translated several works from the Greek and Arabic 
 medical writers. Died in 1448. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Bencivenni, ben-che-ven'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 litterateur, born in 1731, wrote a "Life of Dante," and 
 other works. Died in 1808. 
 
 Benckert. See Benkert. 
 
 Bencovich, ben'ko-vik', (Friedrich,) an Austrian 
 painter, sometimes called Federighetto di Dalmatia, 
 lived in the early part of the eighteenth century. 
 
 See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Benda, ben'da, (Franz,) a German musician and ex- 
 cellent violinist, born in Bohemia in 1709, became in 1771 
 concert-master to Frederick the Great. Died in 1788. 
 
 Benda, (Georg,) brother of the preceding, born in 
 1721, was patronized by Frederick the Great. He pro- 
 duced several popular operas. Died in 179s. His son 
 Friedrich Ludwig, a composer, was born in 1746. 
 Died in 1792. 
 
 Benda, (Johann Wilhelm Otto,) a relative of the 
 preceding, born at Berlin in 1775, translated into Ger- 
 man the works of Shakspeare and the poems of Sir 
 Walter Scott. Died in 1832. 
 
 Beudavid, ben-dd'vit, (Lazarus,) a philosopher and 
 mathematician, of Jewish extraction, born at Berlin in 
 1762, was a disciple of Kant. He wrote, among other 
 works, a treatise "On the Jewish Calendar," andseveral 
 essays in defence of Kant's philosophy. Died in 1832. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," ("Selbstbiographie,") 1S04. 
 
 Bendeler, ben'deh-ler, or Bendler, bend'ler, (Jo- 
 hann Christian,) a German landscape-painter, born 
 in 1688 ; died in 1728. 
 
 Bendeler, (Johann PuiLipr,) a German musician 
 and writer on music, born near Erfurt about 1660 ; died 
 about 1 7 12. 
 
 Bendeler, (Salomon,) a German singer, born at 
 Quedlinburg in 1683, is said to have possessed a voice 
 of prodigious strength and compass. Died in 1 724. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens. " 
 
 Bendemann, ben'deh-man', (Eduard,) a German 
 painter, of Jewish extraction, born at Berlin in 1811, was 
 a pupil of Schadow. Among his master-pieces may he 
 named "The Jews by the Rivers of Babylon," " |ere- 
 miah on the Ruins of Jerusalem," (a worn of very large 
 dimensions,) and the " Two Maidens at a Fountain.'' In 
 1838 he became professor at the Academy of Arts at 
 Dresden. He afterwards decorated the royal palace at 
 Dresden with many grand frescos, which are greatly 
 admired. Some of these represent allegories, religious 
 subjects, and portraits of the heroes and legislators of 
 universal history. According to a French critic, he "is 
 distinguished for a peculiar grace and a profound 1, 
 ledge of nature. He is one of the few painters of 
 Dusseldorf who have succeeded equally in historical 
 pictures and in genre." 
 
 See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kunstier- Lexikon." 
 
 Bender, von, fon ben'der, (Bi.asius,) Baron, a medi- 
 ocre Austrian general, born in Breisgau in 1 7 13. lie 
 obtained the chief command in Belgium in 1 790. 1 )ied 
 in 1798. 
 
 Bendinelli, ben-de-nel'lee, (Agostino,) an Italian 
 musical composer, born at Lucca about 1550 ; died about 
 1620. 
 
 Ben'dish, (Bridget,) daughter of General Ireton, and 
 granddaughter of Oliver Cromwell, born about 1650, was 
 noted for her energy of character and her eccentricities. 
 She is said to have strongly resembled Cromwell, both 
 physically and morally. Died in 1727. 
 
 Bendler. See Bendeler. 
 
 %,p, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, s/wrt; a, e, i, <?, obscure: far, fall, fit; mft; not; good; moon; 
 
 
BEXDLOfFES 
 
 3*3 
 
 BENEDICT 
 
 Bendlowes, l>cnd'16z, or Benlowes, (Edward,) an 
 et, born in Essex in 1 602, published a num- 
 ber of poems in Lttin and English. Died in 1676. 
 Sec WouD, "Athena: Oxonienses." 
 
 Bendonsky, bin-don'skee, (Symon Symonowicz,) 
 ^h poet, born in Galicia in 1557, assumed the name 
 of SlMONlDES. He wrote elegant poems in Latin and 
 Died in 1629. 
 
 Beudtsen, bent'sen, (Bendt,) a Danish scholar, born 
 at Copenhagen in 1 763. He was director of the college 
 of Fi ederiksburg, and published several works. Died in 
 1830. 
 
 See J. N. Madvig, " Mindeord over B. Bendtsen," 1831. 
 
 Benecke, ba'neh-keh, (Georg Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man philologist, born in the principality of Oettingen in 
 1762. He wrote " Contributions to the Knowledge of 
 the Old German Language and Literature." He was 
 professor and librarian in the University of Gottingen. 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Benedek, von, fon ba'neh-deV, (Ludwig,) an Aus- 
 trian general, born at Oedenburg, in Hungary, in 1804. 
 rved as colonel in the war against the Italians in 
 49. Having been raised to the rank of general, 
 he fought against the Hungarian patriots in 1849. He 
 obtained in June, 1866, the command of the grand Aus- 
 trian army of about 200,000 men, with which he was 
 expected to conquer Prussia. Remaining on the defen- 
 sive in Bohemia, he permitted the two Prussian armies 
 >s a range of mountains and to effect a junction 
 with each other at Sadowa, where, on the 3d of July, 
 1866, Benedek was defeated in a battle which decided 
 the issue of the war. The victors took more than one 
 hundred pieces of cannon, and 21,471 prisoners. 
 
 Benedette, Le. See Castiglione, (Giovanni.) 
 
 Benedetti, ba-na-det'tee, or Benedicti, bi-ni-dek'- 
 tee, (AlessaNDRO,) an Italian physician, whose medical 
 and anatomical works had a high reputation in his time. 
 He settled at Venice in 1495. Died after 1510. 
 
 Benedetti, (Antonio,) an Italian Jesuit and anti- 
 quary, born at Fermo in 1715, was professor of rhetoric 
 in the Jesuits' College at Rome. Died in 1788. 
 
 Benedetti, (Domenico,) an Italian physician, and 
 prolessor of anatomy at Venice, lived about 1740. He 
 wrote, besides medical works, several poems and dramas. 
 
 Benedetti, (Francesco,) an Italian dramatic poet, 
 born at Cortona in 1785, wrote several tragedies, and a 
 'Life of Cola di Rienzo," (1831.) Died in 1821. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri.'* 
 
 Benedetti, (Giovanni Battista,) an able Italian 
 aiathematician, born at Venice, was a pupil of Tartaglia. 
 He published in 1585 a remarkable work, entitled "Di- 
 vers Speculations of J. B. Benedetti," ("J. B. Benedicti 
 divers.-c Speculationes.") He made many discoveries in 
 mathematics, and advanced many sound ideas in physical 
 philosophy. Died in 1590. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Benedetti, (Giulio Cesare,) an Italian medical 
 Writer, born at Aquila, was professor of medicine at 
 Died in 1656. 
 
 Benedetti, (Mattf.o,) an Italian painter, born at 
 about 1650. He painted frescos at Brescia. 
 
 Benedetti, (Michkle,) an Italian painter and en- 
 graver, born at Viterbo in 1745, was a member of the 
 
 my of Vienna. Died in 1S10. 
 1 Benedetti, ba-na-det'tee, (Vincent,) born in Corsica 
 about 1S15, was appointed by the French government 
 to the kingdom of Italy in 1861. 
 
 Benedetti, de', da ba-na-det'tee, (Domenico,) an 
 Italian historical painter, born in Piedmont in 1610; 
 died in 1678. 
 
 Benedetti, de', (Pietro,) an Italian poet of the early 
 >art of the seventeenth century, born at Genoa, trans- 
 
 !ed eight of the Odes of Horace into Italian verse. 
 
 Benedetto. See BENEDICT. 
 
 Benedetto. Sec Taoonwx, 
 
 Benedetto. See Marcei.lo. 
 
 Benedetto da Majano, ba-na-det'to da mi-yi'no, a 
 Florentine sculptor and architect, borrt in 1444; died 1498. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." 
 
 Benedetto da Rovezzano, ba-ni-det'to di ro-ve< 
 sa'no, an Italian sculptor, born near Florence abou. 
 1480 ; died about 1550. 
 
 Ben'e-dict I, [Lat. Benedic'tus ; It. Benedetto, 
 ba-na-det'to; Fr. BENofr, beh-nwi', | suruamed Bono'- 
 sus, became pope in 575 A.D. Under his rule the Longo- 
 bards extended their conquests in Italy, and threatened 
 Home. Died in 578. 
 
 Benedict II., a native of Rome, succeeded Leo II. as 
 pope in 684. He prevailed upon ConstantinelV. to re- 
 nounce the usurped right of confirming papa) elections. 
 He died in 685, and was succeeded by John V. 
 
 Benedict ILL, successor of Leo IV., was elected 
 pope in 855. He was distinguished for his piety and 
 mildness of character. He died in 858, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Nicholas I. 
 
 Benedict IV. succeeded John IX- in 900 a.d. The 
 following year he crowned as sovereign of Italy Louis, 
 son of the King of Provence. He died in 903, and was 
 succeeded by Leo V. 
 
 Benedict V. was made pope in 964, in opposition to 
 Leo VIII.; but the Emperor Otho I. of Germany, who 
 favoured the cause of Leo, reduced Rome by famine, 
 and exiled Benedict to Hamburg, where he died in 965. 
 
 Benedict VI. was elected in 972 successor of John 
 XIII. After the death of Otho I., the Romans re- 
 belled against Benedict and put him to death, (974.) 
 
 Benedict VII. succeeded Benedict VI. in 975. He 
 assembled a council and excommunicated the anti-pope 
 Boniface. Died about 984. 
 
 Benedict VIII. became pope in 1012. His claims 
 were supported against the anti-pope Gregory by Henry 
 II., whom he crowned at Rome in 1013. He signally 
 defeated the Saracens, who had invaded Tuscany. He 
 died in 1024, and was succeeded by John XIX. 
 
 Benedict IX. (Theophylac'tus of Tusculum) was 
 the successor of John XIX. in 1034. His vices and op- 
 pressive rule caused him to be expelled by the Romans 
 in 1044, and Silvester III. was made pope in his stead. 
 The date of his death is not known. 
 
 Benedict X., a native of Capua, succeeded Stephen 
 IX. in 105S, though not regularly elected. He was com- 
 pelled to give up the tiara to Nicholas II. in 1059. 
 
 Benedict XL, (Niccoi.6 Boccasini — bok-ki-see'- 
 nee,) Cardinal of Ostia, was a native of Treviso, and 
 succeeded Boniface VIII. in 1303. He died in 1304, 
 and was succeeded by Clement V. 
 
 Benedict XII. (originally Jacques Fournier — fooR'- 
 ne-i',) was a native of France, and succeeded John 
 XXII. in 1334. He was the third pope who reigned at 
 Avignon. He laboured zealously to reform the clergy 
 and the monastic orders, and was the author of several 
 ecclesiastical works. He died in 1342, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Clement VI. 
 
 See A. DE Montor, " Histoiredessonverains Pontifes Romains." 
 
 Benedict XIII., Cardinal Orsini, succeeded Inno- 
 cent XIII. in 1724. He was distinguished for his private 
 virtues and his pacific disposition, and did much to pre- 
 serve peace among the sovereigns of Europe. He died 
 in 1730, and was succeeded by Clement XII. 
 
 See Alessandro Borgia, "Vita Benedicti XIII.," 1741 : Mi- 
 chael Ranft, "Lebensbeschreibung ties Psjpstes Benedict XIII.," 
 1743; Clkmente da Cruz, "Vidado Benedicto XI II.," 1739. 
 
 Benedict XIV., Cardinal Prospeko Lamhertini, 
 born at Bologna in 1675, succeeded Clement XII. in 
 August, 1740. His talents were of a high order, and he 
 was profoundly versed in theology, history, and classical 
 literature. He founded academies at Rome, built a 
 number of public edifices, and was a munificent patron 
 of learning and the arts. He died in 1758, leaving (he 
 reparation of one of the most learned, prudent, and re- 
 spectable pontiffs who have ever lived. 1 1c was the 
 author of several esteemed religious works in Latin. 
 He was succeeded by Clement XIII. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vita di Benedetto XIV.," 1787; " Vie du Pape 
 I'.enoit XIV," Paris, 1775; F. Galiani, " Delle Lodi di Papa 
 Benedetto," 1758. 
 
 Benedict XLTI., (Anti-pope,) Pedro de Luna, 
 (pa'dRo di loo'ni,) was born in Aragon about 1334. He 
 was elected pope at Avignon in 1394, but his title war 
 disputed by Boniface IX., who reigned in Rome. This 
 
 I*,' fast; ihard; g as/; G, H, K, «7«7«ra/; N,«nW; KJrilled; sas«; th as in this. (£^~See Explanations, p. 2 J* 
 
 r 
 
BENEDICT 
 
 324 
 
 BENGER 
 
 
 schism caused great perplexity in the church for many 
 years. At length, in 1415, the Council of Constance de- 
 posed both of the popes. Died in 1424. 
 
 Ben'e-dict or Benoit of Aniane, (i'ne'in',) Saint, 
 born in Languedoc about 750, became abbot of the mon- 
 astery of Aniane. Died in 821. 
 
 See Baillet, "Vies des Saintes." 
 
 Benedict of Appenzell, (Jp'pent-seK,) an eminent 
 Swiss musician and contrapuntist, born at Appenzell 
 about 1480. His works are eulogized by Dr. Burney and 
 Fetis. 
 
 See Burney, "General History of Music." 
 
 Benedict, surnamed Bis'cop, an Anglo-Saxon monk, 
 and a noted promoter of learning, of the seventh cen- 
 tury, built the monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow. 
 
 Benedict [Fr. Benoist, beh-nwa'] of PETERBOR- 
 OUGH, an English chronicler, became abbot of Peterbor- 
 ough in 1 1 17. He wrote a History of Henry II. and 
 Richard I., and a "Life of Becket." 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Benedict, ba'neh-dikt, (Julius,) a German composer 
 and pianist, born at Stuttgart in 1804. Among his prin- 
 cipal works are the operas of " The Brides of Venice," 
 "The Assassins," and "The Gypsy's Warning." 
 
 Ben'e-dict, [Lat. Benedic'tus; Fr. BenoIt, beh- 
 nwa'; It. Benedetto, bi-na-det'to; Sp. Benito, ba- 
 nee'to,] Saint, a celebrated Italian ecclesiastic, regarded 
 as the founder of the monastic system in the West, was 
 born at Nursia, near Spoleto, in 480 a.d. He founded an 
 establishment at Monte-Casino, near Naples, about 529, 
 and instituted as the rule of his order, in addition to reli- 
 gious duties, various kinds of manual labour, the instruc- 
 tion of the young, and the transcription of valuable manu- 
 scripts. He was the author of a work entitled " Regula 
 Monachorum," containing the rules of the order of Saint 
 Benedict. Died in 543. 
 
 See Juan deCastaniza, "VidadeS. Benito," 1583: J. B. Plan- 
 chette, "Vie du grand S. Benoit," 1652; Anton Sulger, "Vita 
 divi Benedicti," 1691 ; J. G. Waitzmann, " Leben und Wirken des 
 heiligen Benedict," 1825. 
 
 Benedict, (Traugott Wilhelm Gustav,) a German 
 medical writer, lived at Breslau about 1820. 
 
 Benedicti. See Benedetti. 
 
 Ben-e-dic'tis, de, (da,) (Ben. Tetius,) an Italian 
 canonist, surnamed Capra, (ka'pRa,) lived about 1440. 
 
 Benedictis, de, (Giambattista,) an Italian Jesuit, 
 born about 1620. He wrote a number of polemical treat- 
 ises against the philosophy of Descartes and against the 
 Jansenists. Died in 1706. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Benedictis, (Jacob.) See Jacopone da Todi. 
 
 Benedictus. See Benedict. 
 
 Ben-e-dic'tus, or Benoit, a learned Maronite, whose 
 original name was Ambarach, born in Phoenicia in 
 1663. He studied at Rome, and subsequently became 
 professor of Hebrew at -Pisa. Died in 1742. 
 
 Ben-e-dic'tus, (John,) a Polish physician, who pub- 
 lished in 1530 a work in Latin on the sweating-sickness. 
 
 Benediktov, ben-e-dik'tof, (Vladimir,) a Russian 
 poet, published in 1835 a collection of lyrics, which ob- 
 tained great popularity. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon," 
 
 Benedix, ba'neh-diks, (Julius Roderich,) a German 
 dramatist and litterateur, born at Leipsic in 181 1. 
 
 Benefiale, ba-na-fe-a'li, or Beneficiale, ba-na-fe- 
 cha'la, (Marco,) Chevalier, an Italian painter, born 
 at Rome in 1684; died in 1764. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Ben'e-field, (Sebastian,) an English Calvinistic di- 
 vine, born in Gloucestershire in 1559, became professor 
 of divinity at Oxford in 1613. He published numerous 
 sermons and commentaries on Scripture. Died in 1630. 
 
 Beneke, ba'neh-keh, (Friedrich Eduard,) a Ger- 
 man philosopher, born in 1798 at Berlin, where he be- 
 came professor extraordinary of philosophy in 1832. He 
 published "Psychological Sketches," (1825-27,) "Prag- 
 matic Psychology," (1850,) and other works. He was 
 found in 1856, drowned in a canal; and it is supposed 
 he died by suicide. 
 
 Benekendorf, beVeh-ken-doRf, (Karl Friedrich,) 
 a German writer, born in Brandenburg in 1 720, published 
 
 several popular works on political and rural economy, 
 Died in 1788. 
 
 Benese, de, de ben-eez', (Richard,) an English ec- 
 clesiastic, who wrote a treatise on mensuration, (1535.) 
 Beneton de Morange de Peyrins, beh-neh-t6\' 
 deh mo'rONzh'deh p.VraN', (Etienne Claude,) a French 
 litterateur, published a "History of War," (1741.) Died 
 in 1752. 
 
 Benetti, ba-net'tee, (Giovanni Domenico,) an Italian 
 physician, born in 1658 at Ferrara, where he became a 
 professor in the university. He was physician to the 
 Duke of Mantua, and wrote a work entitled " Corpus 
 Medico-Morale," (1718.) 
 
 Benevento or Benevent, Prince of. See Talley- 
 rand. 
 
 Benevoli, bi-neVo-lee, (Antonio,) an Italian sur- 
 geon and skilful oculist, born in the duchy of Spoleto 
 in 1685, published treatises on the cataract and on hernia. 
 He practised at Florence, where he died in 1756. 
 
 Benevoli, (Orazio,) an Italian musican and com- 
 poser, born at Rome in 1602 ; died in 1672. 
 
 Benezech, bi'na'zeV, (Pierre,) born at Montpellier 
 in 1745, became minister of the interior under the Di- 
 rectory in 1795, and afterwards a counsellor of state. 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 See Challan, " filoge historique de P. Bene'zech," 1803. 
 Ben'e-zet', (Anthony,) an eminent philanthropist, 
 born at Saint-Quentin, in France, in 1713, was the son of 
 Protestant parents. He joined the Society of Friends, 
 emigrated to Philadelphia in 1731, and became a school* 
 teacher. He was a zealous opponent of the slave-trade, 
 and a benefactor of the negroes, for whom he opened an 
 evening school. He wrote on the slave-trade and slavery 
 several tracts, which, it is said, first drew the attention 
 of Clarkson and Wilberforce to that subject. Among 
 his writings is " Some Historical Account of Guinea, with 
 an Inquiry into the Slave-Trade," (1771.) He was dis- 
 tinguished for his generosity and active kindness to the 
 poor and suffering wherever found. Died in 1784. 
 See Vaux, "Memoir of Anthony Benezet" « 
 
 Benfatto, ben-fat'to, (Luigi,) an Italian painter, sur- 
 named il Friso, (el fRee'so,) born at Verona in 1 551, was 
 a nephew and pupil of Paul Veronese. Died about 1641. 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 Benfey, bgn'fT, (Theodor,) a German philologist^ 
 born near Gottingen in 1809. He published a "Dic- 
 tionary of Greek Roots," (1839,) which obtained the 
 Volney prize from the French Academy of Sciences; 
 also an edition of the hymns of Sama-Veda, with a 
 translation and glossary, and translated the comedies of 
 Terence. His "Sanscrit-English Dictionary" (London, 
 1866) is highly esteemed. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Beng, bSN, or Bengy, bSN'zhe', (Antoine,) a French 
 jurist, succeeded Cujas as professor of law at Bourges 
 in 1595. Died in 1616. 
 
 Bengel, beng'el, [Lat. Benge'lius,] (Johann Al- 
 BRECHT,) an eminent Lutheran theologian, born at YVin- 
 nenden, in Wiirtemberg, in 1687. Having finished his 
 studies in the theological college at Tubingen, he was 
 employed for many years as pastor at Denkendorf, and 
 about 1749 became prelate at Alpirsbach. Mis edition 
 of the Greek Testament, published in 1734, is esteemed 
 a standard work. He also wrote a treatise on the holi- 
 ness of God, entitled "Syntagma de Sanctitate Dei," 
 " Gnomon Novi Testamenti," " Explanation of the Reve- 
 lation of Saint John," (in German, 1740,) and other 
 works of a high character. Died in 1752. 
 
 See "Memoir of the Life and Writings of f. A. Bengel," trans- 
 lated from the German : J. P. Fresenius, " Zuverlassige Nachricht 
 von dem Leben und den Schriften J. A. Bengels," 1756; J. C. F. 
 Burk, "Dr. J. A. BengeFs Leben und Wirken," 1S31. 
 
 Bengel, von, fon beng'el, (Ernst Gottlieb,) grand- 
 son of Johann Albrecht, noticed above, born in" 1769, 
 became professor of theology at Tubingen. Died in 1S26. 
 
 Benger, b£ng'ger, (Miss Elizabeth Ogilvy,) an 
 English authoress, born at Wells, in Somersetshire, in 
 1778. She published poems, novels, and dramas; but 
 she owes her reputation chiefly to her historical and 
 biographical works, among which are " Memoirs of 
 Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia ;" " Memoirs of 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BENGTSON 
 
 3*5 
 
 BEN NET 
 
 Mary Queen of Scots ;" and " Memoirs of Klopstock 
 and his Friends." Miss Benger was an intimate friend 
 of Mrs. liarbauld, Joanna Baillie, and Mrs. E. Hamilton. 
 Died in 1S27. 
 
 Bengtaon, bengt'son, (Joiian,) Archbishop of Upsal, 
 in Sweden, born in 141 7; died in 1467. 
 
 Ben-ha'dad |Heb. -nn-p] X, King of Syria, was 
 contemporary with Asa, King of Judah, whom he as- 
 sisted in repelling the invasion of Baasha, King of Israel. 
 
 See I. Kings xv. 20. 
 
 Benhadad IX, son of the preceding, made war on 
 Ahab, King of Israel, and besieged Samaria. He was 
 afterwards murdered by Hazael, who succeeded him on 
 the throne of Syria. 
 
 See II. Kings vi. 24; viii. 7-15. 
 
 Benhadad HZ, King of Syria, was the son of Hazael. 
 He carried on a war against jehoahaz, King of Israel. 
 
 See II. Kings xiii. 3. 
 
 Beni, ba'nee, (Paolo,) a scholar and critical writer, 
 born in the island of Candia about 1552, was successively 
 professor of theology at Perugia, of philosophy at Rome, 
 and of belles-lettres at Padua. Died at Padua in 1625. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Ginguene, 
 "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Be-nig'nus, [Fr. Benigne, ba'nen',] Saint, supposed 
 to have been a disciple of Polycarp, was sent on a mis- 
 sum to Gaul, and suffered martyrdom at Dijon about 
 179 A.D. 
 
 rski, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Benincasa, bi-nen-ka'sS, (Bartolommeo,) Count, 
 a literary Italian nobleman, born near Modena about 
 1745 ; died about 1825. He published, in French, " Les 
 Mulaques," (1788,) and founded a journal in Dalmatia. 
 Benincori, bl-nen-ko'ree, (Angelo Maria,) an Ital- 
 ian musician and composer, born at Brescia in 1770 ; 
 died in 1821. 
 
 Beiiiuga, bl-ning'Ha, (Eggerik,) a Dutch historian, 
 wrote a "Chronicle of East Friesland." Died in 1562. 
 Benini, Jji-nee'nee, (Vincenzo,) an Italian physician 
 and litterateur, born at Bologna in 1713 ; died in 1764. 
 
 Beniowsky or Benyowsky, bi-ne-ov'skee, (Mau- 
 Rint s Augustus,) Count, a Hungarian nobleman and 
 adventurer, born in the county of Ncutca in 1 741. He 
 served in the Seven Years' war, and in 1768 joined the 
 confederation against the Russians. Being taken 
 itr, lie was exiled in 1770 to Kamtchatka, whence 
 .ctcd his escape to France in 1772. He was soon 
 after sent by the French government to establish a col- 
 ony in Madagascar ; but, having claimed the sovereignty 
 of "that island, he was killed in an encounter with the 
 11 in 1786. 
 
 M. A. Beniowsky, "Voyages et Memoires,"* vols., 1791, and 
 English version of the same, by W. Nicholson. 
 
 Benit, beh-ne', (Anne Francois,) a French physician, 
 bom at Mirecourt in 1796 ; died in Spain in 1823. 
 Benito. See Benedict, (Saint.) 
 Benivieni, ba-ne-ve-a'nee, (Antonio,) a learned 
 Italian physician, was a friend of Marsilio Ficino and 
 1110. Died in 1502. 
 Benivieni, (Domenico,) brother of the preceding, 
 an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Florence, was surnamed 
 1 NO (skot-tee'no) from the subtlety of his theology, 
 came, in 1479, professor of dialectics at Pisa. He 
 was a warm friend of Savonarola, and wrote in defence 
 of his doctrines. Died in 1507. 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Benivieni, (Geronimo,) brother of the two preced- 
 born at Florence about 1453. He was a friend of 
 narola, and translated from Latin into Italian his 
 itise on' the Simplicity of Christian Life," (1496.) 
 He was one of the first Italians who discarded the low 
 and trivial taste which prevailed in the fifteenth century 
 and returned to the standards of Dante and Petrarch. 
 He published in 1500 "II Commento di Ieronimo Beni- 
 vieni.'' Died in 1542. 
 
 See Gjnguf.ne, * ; Hisloire I.itteraire d'ltalie." 
 Ben'ja-min, [Heb. pr3'j3,] youngest son of the pa- 
 triarch Jacob and Rachel. He was the favourite of his 
 father, who reluctantly permitted him to accompany his 
 brothers to Egypt (See Genesis xlii., xliii., xliv.) 
 
 Benjamin OK Tudela, a Jewish rabbi and traveller 
 born in the kingdom of Navarre. He visited, between 
 1 160 and 1 1 73, Egypt, Persia, and the frontiers of China, 
 which countries he describes in his " Itinerary." This 
 work has been translated into several languages, and is 
 interesting as being the first description of those regions 
 given by a European. 
 
 See Carmoly, "Notice sur B. de Tudele et ses Voyages," 1837. 
 
 Ben'ja-min, (Judah P.,) an American politician, of 
 Jewish parentage, born in Saint Domingo about 1812. 
 He studied law, which he practised with success in New 
 Orleans. In 1852 he was elected a United States Senator 
 for Louisiana, and re-elected in 1858 or 1859. In politics 
 he was a Democrat and disunionist. He was secretary 
 of war at Richmond from about September, 1 861, to Feb- 
 ruary, 1862, when he became secretary of state to the 
 Southern Confederacy. He retired to Europe soon after 
 the capture of Jefferson Davis, May, 1865. 
 
 Benjamin, (Park,) an American poet and journalist, 
 born in 1809 at Demerara, in Guiana, where his father 
 was engaged in trade. He studied at Harvard, and 
 graduated at a college of Hartford, Connecticut. He 
 edited the "American Monthly Magazine" of New York 
 in 1837 and 1838. In 1840 Mr. Benjamin and R. \V. 
 Griswold began to publish a literary journal, called "The 
 New York World." He wrote numerous lyrical poems 
 and sonnets. His longest work is entitled a "Poem on 
 the Meditation of Nature." "Many of his pieces," says 
 Griswold, "are distinguished for poetical simplicity of 
 thought and elegance of diction." (" Poets and Poetry 
 of America.") Died in 1864. 
 
 Benkendorf, ben'ken-doRf, (Karl Frikdrich,) a 
 German writer on agriculture and rural economy. Died 
 in 1788. 
 
 Benkendorf, (Ludwig Ernst,) a German general, 
 born at Anspach in 171 1. He served in the Seven Years' 
 war, and became in 1775 inspector-general of cavalry. 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 Beuk'en-dorff, (Alexander,) Count, a Russian 
 general and diplomatist, born in Esthonia about 1782. 
 He served in the Russian campaigns against the French, 
 and became aide-de-camp to the grand duke Nicholas, 
 afterwards emperor. After the accession of Nicholas he 
 was made a count, and a member of the imperial council. 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Benkendorff, (Constantine,) brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1784, served against the French in 1813- 
 14, and subsequently in the Persian campaign of 1826, 
 when he was made lieutenant-general. He died soon 
 after. 
 
 Benkert or Benckert, benk'kert, (Johann Peter,) 
 a German sculptor, born at Neustadt in 1709. He 
 adorned with his works the royal palace of Sans-Souci, 
 in Prussia. Died in 1769. 
 
 Benkowitz, ben-ko'vits, (Karl Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man writer of novels, poems, etc., born in 1764, com- 
 mitted suicide at Glogau in 1807. 
 
 Benlowes. See Bendi.owes. 
 
 Benn, (William,) an English dissenting divine, born 
 in Cumberland in 1600; died in 1680.. 
 
 Bennatl ben-na'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian physi- 
 cian, born at Mantua in 1788, wrote medical treatises, 
 one. of which gained the Montyon prize of the French 
 Institute. Died in Paris in 1834. 
 
 Ben'net, (Benjamin,) an English nonconformist di- 
 vine, born in I^icestershire in 1674, published a "Me- 
 morial of the Reformation," (1721,) and other works. 
 Died in 1726. • 
 
 Bennet. (Christopher,) an English physician, born 
 in 1617; died in 1655. He practised in London. 
 
 Bennet, (Henry,) Earl of Arlington, an English 
 statesman under Charles II., born in 1618. He was ap- 
 pointed secretary of state in 1662, and was one of the 
 ministry styled "the Cabal," from the initials of their 
 titles forming that word. On the accession of James II. 
 he was continued in the office of lord chamberlain, which 
 he had previously held. Died in 1685. 
 
 See Macaui.ay's "History of England, vol. i. 
 
 Bennet, (John,) a celebrated English composer ol 
 madrigals, lived under the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 ! 1* t; 5 as s; g hard; g as// G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JE^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SENNET 
 
 326 
 
 BENSEN 
 
 Bennet, (Robert,) an English dissenting divine, 
 wrote a " Theological Concordance of the Synonymous 
 Words in Scripture," (1657.) Died in 1687. 
 
 Bennet, ben'net, (Roelof Gabriel,) a Dutch naval 
 officer and writer, born about 1774, published, in conjunc- 
 tion with Van Wyk, a " History of the Navigation of 
 the Netherlands from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth 
 Centuries." Died in 1829. 
 
 Bennet, (Thomas,) an English divine and controver- 
 sialist, born at Salisbury in 1673, published a "Refuta- 
 tion of Popery," "Treatise on Schism," a Hebrew 
 Grammar, and other works. Died in 1728. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Bennet, (William,) an English musician and com- 
 poser, born about 1767, became organist of the church 
 of Saint Andrew's at Plymouth. His sacred composi- 
 tions are highly esteemed. 
 
 Ben'nett, (Agnes Maria,) an English novelist, was 
 the author of "Anna, or Memoirs of a Welsh Heiress," 
 and other works. Died about 1805. 
 
 Bennett, (Edward Turner,) an English zoologist 
 and writer, born near London in 1797 ; died in 1836. 
 
 Bennett, (James,) an English drssenter, born in 1774. 
 He wrote (with David Bogue) a " History of the Dis- 
 senters," (3 vols., 1809.) Died in 1862. 
 
 Ben'nett, (James Gordon,) an American journalist, 
 born in Banffshire, Scotland, about 1800, emigrated to 
 the United States in 1819. He was employed as re- 
 porter or assistant editor of several journals of New 
 York City, and took an active part in politics as a sup- 
 porter of General Jackson. About 1830 he became 
 associate editor of the "Courier and Enquirer," and in 
 1833 was chief editor of " The Pennsylvanian," in Phila- 
 delphia. He founded ill 1835 the "New York Herald," 
 which he has conducted with great ability and success 
 for thirty-four years. 
 
 Bennett, (John Hughes,) an English medical writer, 
 born in London in 1812. He obtained about 1848 the 
 chair of the institutes of medicine in Edinburgh. He 
 published a "Treatise on Clinical Medicine," (1S56,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Bennett, (William Cox,) an English poet, born at 
 Greenwich about 1820. He published several volumes 
 of poems, and gained distinction as a writer of songs. 
 
 Bennett, (William James Early,) an English theo- 
 logian, and a leader of the tractarian party, was born 
 about 1805. He became vicar of Frome about 1852. 
 He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on the 
 Eucharist." 
 
 Bennett, (William Stf.rndale,) an English pianist 
 and composer, born in 1816. Having studied at the 
 Royal Academy of Music, he visited Germany, where he 
 acquired the friendship and patronage of Mendelssohn. 
 In 1838 he was elected a member of the Royal Society 
 of Music. 
 
 Benning, ben'ning, (John Bodecher — bo'deK-er,) 
 a Dutch philosopher and poet, born in 1606, was pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Leyden. Died in 1642. 
 
 Beuningsen, ben'ningsen, written also Bennigsen, 
 (Alexander Levin,) Count, a German politician, a son 
 of General Benningsen, noticed below, was born near 
 Wilna in 1S09. He was minister of foreign affairs of 
 Hanover from March, 1848, until October, 1850. 
 
 Benningsen, written also Bennigsen, (Levin Au- 
 gust Theophil,) Count, a celebrated military com- 
 mander in the Russian service, born at Brunswick in 
 1745. I le fought in the Turkish campaign of 1788, and 
 against the Poles in 1793. In 1796 he took Derbend 
 from the Persians, and was made lieutenant-general in 
 1798. Though he headed the conspiracy against the 
 emperor Paul, he was appointed by Alexander, on his 
 accession, Governor-General of Lithuania. He com- 
 manded in 1807 at the battle of Eylau, where the victory 
 was claimed by both parties. On the death of Kootoosut, 
 in 1S13, he took the command of the army of reserve, 
 and was soon after created a count. Died in Hanover 
 in 1826. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Ben'no, [Fr. Bennon, bi'noN',] Saint, Bishop of 
 Meissen, in Germany, born in ion, was at first a parti- 
 san of Henry IV. against Gregory VII., but afterwards 
 
 espoused the cause of the pope. Luther wrote on the 
 subject of his canonization (in 1523) a work entitled 
 "The New Idol of Meissen." Died in 1107. 
 
 See "Leben und Wunderthaten des heiligen Benno," 1844. 
 
 Ben'nor or Ben'no, a German cardinal, who lived 
 in the last part of the eleventh century, supported the 
 cause of the anti-pope Clement III. against Gregory VII. 
 He wrote a "Life of Gregory VII.," (in Latin,) which is 
 very unpopular with the Catholics. 
 
 See Aubery, "Histoire des Cardinaux." 
 
 Benoist, beh-nwa', or Benoit, [Lat. Benedic'tus,] 
 Bishop of Marseilles, lived about 1230. 
 
 Benoist (or Benedict) of Saint-Maure, (mor,) a 
 troubadour in the reign of Henry II. of England, wrote 
 a poem called "The Romance of Troy." "The Chroni- 
 cle of the Dukes of Normandy" (in French verse) is 
 ascribed to him by some critics. 
 
 See Abbe de la Rue, " Essais sur les Bardes." 
 
 Benoist, (Marie Guilhelmine Leroux Delaville 
 — leh-roo' deh-lt'vel',) Madame, wife of Pierre Vincent, 
 noticed below, born in Paris in 1767, studied painting 
 under Lebrun and David. Among her best works are 
 portraits of Napoleon and Marie Louise. Died in 1S26. 
 
 Benoist or Benoit, beh'nwa', (Pierre Vincent,) a 
 French statesman and litterateur, born at Angers in 1758, 
 rose to be minister of state and member of the privy 
 council in 1828. Died in 1834. 
 
 Benoist, [It. Benedetto, ba-na-det'to,] (ZacharieJ 
 a naval officer, of Genoese extraction, gained two vfll 
 tories over the fleet of Pisa in 12S4 and 1286. He after- 
 wards became an admiral of France. 
 
 Benoit. See Benedict. 
 
 Benoit, beh'nwa', (Antoine Vernier — veVnc-i.',) a 
 French litterateur, born at Dole in 1769, wrote a "Treat- 
 ise on Religious Liberty," and was a contributor to the 
 " Bibliotheque Historique." Died in 1832. 
 
 Benoit, (Ei.ie,) a French Protestant theologian, born 
 in Paris in 1640, wrote a " History of the Edict of Nantes,™ 
 (1693,) and other works. Died in 1728. 
 
 Benoit, (Jean,) called also Benedicti,' a French 
 theologian and Dominican, was born at Evreux. He 
 wrote "Introductions to Dialectics," (" Introductiones 
 Dialecticae," 1538.) Died in 1563. 
 
 Benoit, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Carcas- 
 sonne in 1632, wrote a "History of the Albigenses and 
 the Waldenses." Died in 1705. 
 
 Benoit, (Michel,) a learned French Jesuit, born at 
 Autun in 1715. In 1745 he was a missionary to China, 
 where he introduced the reflecting telescope, the 
 engraving, and other useful inventions. Died in 1774. 
 
 See " Lettres e'difiantes et curieuses." 
 
 Benoit, (Pierre Vincent.) See Benoist. 
 
 Benoit, (Rene,) a French theologian, born near An- 
 gers in 1521. He published in 1566 a French translation 
 of the Bible, which was condemned by Pope Gregory 
 XIII. as favouring Protestantism. He was subsequently 
 confessor to Henry IV., who appointed him Bishop of 
 Troyes. Died in 1608. 
 
 See Mor^ri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Benoli, ba'no-Iee, (Ignazio,) called il 1!<>rn<>, an 
 Italian painter, born at Verona. He imitated Rubens, 
 whose works he copied, but with reduced dimensions. 
 Died in 1724. 
 
 Benomont, beh-no'm6N', (Pierre,) a rich French 
 physician and philanthropist, born at Machault in 1679. 
 He practised in Paris, where he died in 1772. 
 
 Benoni. See Ruffini. 
 
 Benoschi. See Benaschi. 
 
 Beuouville, beh-noo'vel', (Franqois Leon,) a French 
 historical painter, born in Paris in 1821. He gained the 
 grand prize in 1845, and a medal of the first class in 
 1853. Among his most admired works are "Judith," 
 " Esther," and " Raphael seeing La Fornarina for the 
 First Time." 
 
 Benouville, (Jean Achili.e,) a landscape-painter, 
 brother of the preceding, born in Paris in 1S15. He 
 obtained the grand prize of Rome in 1845. 
 
 Benozzo. See GozZOIX 
 
 Bensen, ben'sen, (Karl Daniel Heinrk.h,) a Ger 
 man writer, born in 1761, was professor of finam ' 
 science at Wurzburg, where he died in 1805. 
 
 cial 
 
 ST, 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; !ai«, fall, fat; met; not; good; m65n, 
 
BEXSERADE 
 
 327 
 
 BENTINCK 
 
 Benserade, de, deh b&Nss'Kacl' or b&N'seh-Eid', 
 (Isaac," a French poet, born in Upper Normandy in 
 161 2, « as a favourite of Cardinal Richelieu, and acquired 
 great popularity at the court of Louis XIV. by his 
 Inly and brilliant verses. During twenty years he 
 irrployed to compose verses for the ballets, which at 
 that time constituted the favourite diversion of the court. 
 In such performances he displayed great ingenuity and 
 finesse, and was unrivalled among his contemporaries. 
 He aiso wrote several tragedies, elegies, sonnets, etc. 
 He was 4 member of the French Academy. Died in 
 1691. 
 
 See Sknko;, "Histoire du Theatre Francais;" C. Perrault, 
 Aucieits et ties Mudemes." 
 
 Bensi, ben'see, (Bernardo,) an Italian Jesuit, born 
 at Venice in ibis, was professor of moral theology at 
 Venice. Died in 1760. 
 
 Bensi or Eenso, ben'so, (GiULlo,) an Italian painter, 
 bom near Genoa in 1601, excelled in painting architec- 
 tural perspectives. Died in 1668. 
 
 BensTey, (Thomas,) a celebrated English printer, 
 was associated with Konig in the construction of the 
 steam press first used in the printing of the " London 
 Times" in 1814. (See Konig.) liensley published a 
 splendid edition of Shakspeare's Works, and of Hume's 
 "History of England." Died in 1833. 
 Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes," etc. 
 
 Ben'son, (George,) an English dissenting divine, 
 born in Cumberland in 1699, originally a Calvinist, after- 
 wards became an Arian. He wrote, among other works, 
 a " History of the Life of Christ," and a "Treatise on 
 Prayer.'' Died in 1763. 
 
 Benson, (Joseph,) an English Methodist minister, 
 born in Cumberland in 1748. He preached in several 
 large towns of England, and acquired extensive influence. 
 He published a "Defence of the Methodists," (1793,) an 
 •Apology for the Methodists," (1801,) a "Life of the 
 Rev. John Fletcher," a number of Sermons, and a " Com- 
 mentary on the Holy Scriptures," (5 vols., 1811-1S,) 
 which is highly esteemed. " He was," says Adam 
 Clarke, " a powerful and able preacher, and a profound 
 theologian." Died in London in 1821. 
 
 Benson, (Martin,) born in Herefordshire in 1689, 
 became Bishop of Gloucester about 1734. Died in 1752. 
 
 Benson, (William,) sometimes called Auditor Ben- 
 Son, an English Whig politician, born in 1682, was a 
 member of Parliament in the reign of George I. He 
 published an edition of Virgil's "Husbandry," with notes, 
 and was the first to propose the erection of a monument 
 to Mii;.)n in Westminster Abbey. Benson is satirized in 
 Pope's " Dunciad." Died in 1754. 
 
 Bent, van der, vSn der bent, (Jan,) a Dutch painter 
 born at Amsterdam in 1550, was a pupil of Wouwerman 
 and Van der Velde. Died in 1690. 
 
 Bentabolle, bftN'tt'bol', (Pierre,) a French Jacobin, 
 became a member of the National Convention and of the 
 Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1798. 
 
 Bent-Aichah, bRnt-Fkah, daughter of Ahmed, an 
 of Cordova, was celebrated for her poetic 
 talent. Died in 1009. 
 
 Bentham, ben'tam, (Edward,) an English divine, 
 born at Ely in 1707, became professor of divinity at Ox- 
 ford. Died in 1776. 
 
 Bentham, (James,) an English divine and antiquary, 
 bom at Ely in 1708. He published a "History and An- 
 tiquities of the Conventual and Cathedral Church of Ely 
 from 675 to 1771." Died in 1794. 
 
 Bentham, ben'tam or ben'tham, (Jeremy,) a cele- 
 brated English jurist and utilitarian philosopher, was 
 in London on the 15th of February, 1748. He 
 entered Queen's College, Oxford, about the age of four- 
 teen, and studied law, but soon declined the practice 
 of that profession. His motive is said to have been 
 disgust at the unjust charges to suitors. His first pub- 
 lication was an anonymous " Fragment on Government," 
 (1776.) He visited Paris, Constantinople, Smyrna, and 
 White Russia in 1785-86. In 1787 he published a 
 "Defence of Usury," which, says Sir J. Mackintosh, "is 
 perhaps the best specimen of the exhaustive discussion 
 of a moral or political question, leaving no objection, 
 however feeble, unanswered." His "Introduction to the 
 
 Principles of Morals and Legislation," though printed 
 in 1780, was not published until 17S9. 
 
 He devoted his life to the reform of legislation, and 
 maintained the theory that " utility is the test and mea- 
 sure of virtue," — that the happiness of the greatest num- 
 ber should be the object of legislation. In his long war- 
 fare against the iniquities of legislation as he found ir, he 
 was ridiculed and denounced as a lunatic by many of the 
 leaders of public opinion in England. His works were 
 first appreciated by foreigners. About 1791 he formed 
 a friendship with M. Dumont, who became to him a val- 
 uable coadjutor and translated into French several of 
 his works, viz., " Treatise on Civil and Penal Legisla- 
 tion," (" Traite de Legislation civile et penale," 3 vols., 
 1802,) and "Theory of Penalties and Rewards," ("The- 
 orie des Peines et des Recompenses," 2 vols., 1818.) 
 These were first published in F'rench. (See Dumont, 
 Etienne.) 
 
 Among his numerous English works are " Panopticon," 
 a valuable work on prison-discipline, (1791,) "The Ra- 
 tionale of Judicial Evidence," (5 vols., 1827,) and a " Con- 
 stitutional Code." His "Traite de Legislation," etc. 
 (1802) was translated into English by R. Hildreth, Bos- 
 ton, (1840.) "Those who read it," says Lord Jeffrey, 
 "will dissent, we should imagine, from many of the au- 
 thor's fundamental principles; but they will infallibly be 
 delighted with the sagacity and independence which dis- 
 tinguish all his speculations." He died at Westminster 
 on the 6th of June, 1832, having retained to a great age 
 the freshness and serenity of his prime. An edition of 
 his works, in eleven volumes, was published by Dr. Bow- 
 ring in 1843. "Of Mr. Bentham," says Macaulay, "we 
 would at all times speak with the reverence which is due 
 to a great original thinker and to a sincere and ardent 
 friend of the human race. . . . Posterity will pronounce 
 its calm and impartial decision, and that decision will, 
 we firmly believe, place in the same rank with Galileo 
 and with Locke the man who found jurisprudence a gib- 
 berish and left it a science." " In some of the highest de- 
 partments in which the human intellect can exert itself, 
 he has not left his equal or his second, behind him." 
 " Never was there a literary partnership so fortunate as 
 that of Mr. Bentham and M. Dumont. The raw mate- 
 rial which Mr. Bentham furnished was most precious, 
 but it was unmarketable. He was assuredly at once a 
 great logician and a great rhetorician. But the effect of 
 his logic was injured by a vicious arrangement, and the 
 effect of his rhetoric by a vicious style. . . . His oracles 
 were of high import, but they were traced on leaves and 
 flung loose to the wind. . . . M. Dumont was admirably 
 qualified to supply what was wanting in Mr. Bentham. 
 (See " Dumont's Recollections of Mirabeau," in Macau- 
 lay's Essays.) " It cannot be denied," says Mackintosh, 
 " that Mr. Bentham has done more than any other writer 
 to rouse the spirit of juridical reformation which is now 
 gradually examining every part of law. . . . The true 
 and eminent merit of Mr. Bentham is that of a reformer 
 of jurisprudence. He is only a moralist with a view to 
 being a jurist." 
 
 See "Memoirs of Jeremy Bentham," prefixed to his works by 
 Dr. BoWltlHG ; " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1843 ; Sir James 
 Mackintosh, "View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy." 
 
 Bentham, (Sir Samuel,) a brother of Jeremy, was 
 born in 1757. He was a ship-builder and naval engineer, 
 and was employed by the government as inspector of 
 naval works. Died in 1831. 
 
 Bentham, (Thomas,) born in Yorkshire about 1513, 
 was appointed by Queen Elizabeth in 1559 Bishop of 
 Lichfield and Coventry. Died in 1578. 
 
 Ben'tinclf, (Lord George,) a political leader, whose 
 full name was William George Frederick Cavendish 
 Bentinck, was the third son of William Henry, fourth 
 Duke of Portland. His mother, Henrietta Scott, was a 
 sister of the wife of George Canning. He was born in 
 February, 1802. In 1826 he became private secretary 
 to his uncle Canning, then a member of the cabinet. 
 He was elected in 1827 a member of Parliament for 
 King's Lynn, which he represented to the end of his life. 
 lie was more remarkable for his passion for the turf 
 than for his political knowledge or talents. About 1836 
 he deserted the Whigs, and became a political friend of 
 
 e as /■; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in thit. (B^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BENT1NCK 
 
 3'8 
 
 BENTLET 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, whom he served efficiently as " whipper- 
 in," urging and coercing absent members of his party to 
 attend and vote on important questions. Like the ma- 
 jority of the Tories, he was opposed to free trade, and 
 on the repeal of the corn-laws, in 1846, was converted 
 into a violent adversary of Peel. He then became the 
 leader of the Protectionist or Tory party, who chose 
 him in consideration of the energy and skill he had 
 shown in his favourite pursuits. He began to study 
 statistics, spoke often in the House, and maintained a 
 spirited contest against the ministry. He died suddenly, 
 of a disease of the heart, in September, 1848. 
 
 See B. Disraeli, "Lord George Bentinck, a Political Biogra- 
 phy," 1851 ; "Edinburgh Review," vol. xcv., 1852. 
 
 Bentinck, (Henry,) son of William, noticed below, 
 was created Duke of Portland in 1716, and became 
 Governor of Jamaica in 1721. Died in 1726. 
 
 Bentinck, (William,) a Dutch statesman, born in 
 1648, was a personal attendant and friend of William, 
 Prince of Orange, before his accession to the throne. 
 He came to England with that prince in 1688, was cre- 
 ated Earl of Portland in 1689, and served as general in 
 Ireland in 1690. In 1697 he was the principal agent of 
 his government in the negotiation of the treaty of Rys- 
 wick. He is said to have possessed the confidence of 
 William III. in a greater degree than any other person. 
 Died in 1709. 
 
 See Macaulay's " History of England," vols, ii., iii., and iv. 
 
 Bentinck, (William Charles Cavendish,) Lord, 
 a British general, born in 1774, was the second surviving 
 son of William Henry, third Duke of Portland. Having 
 served in many campaigns, he became Governor of Mad- 
 ras in 1803, and was recalled about 1805. He was com- 
 mander of the troops sent to aid Ferdinand, King of 
 Sicily, in 1810, and held at the same time the office of 
 plenipotentiary. He gave in 1812 a liberal constitution 
 to Sicily. In 1814 he led a successful expedition against 
 the French in Italy, and took possession of Genoa. He 
 was appointed Governor-General of India by Canning in 
 1827. In this position he showed himself a humane 
 and enlightened governor. The most 'important act of 
 his administration was the abolition of the Suttee — the 
 custom which required widows to be burned on the 
 funeral piles of their husbands — in 1829. Lord Bentinck 
 resigned, on account of ill health, in 1835. Died at Paris 
 in 1839. 
 
 See Macfarlane, "Our Indian Empire." 
 
 Beutinck,(WiLLiAM Henry CAVENDisH,)third Duke 
 of Portland, an eminent statesman, son of the second 
 duke, born in 1738. He began his public life as a Whig, 
 became Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland in 1782, and was 
 prime minister of the new cabinet formed in 1783 by a 
 coalition of Lord North with Mr. Fox. About 1791 he 
 changed his politics and became a supporter of the Tory 
 ministry. He was appointed first lord of the treasury in 
 1807. Died in 1809. 
 
 Bentivoglio, ben-te-v61'yo, (Cornelio,) an Italian 
 ecclesiastic and writer, born at Ferrara in 1668, was a 
 son of Ippolito, noticed below. He became Archbishop 
 of Carthage, and papal nuncio in France, and was made 
 a cardinal in 1719. Died in 1732. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Long- 
 fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Bentivoglio, (Ercole,) an Italian poet and diplo- 
 matist, born about 1510, wrote sonnets, eclogues, and 
 dramatic works which were greatly admired in his time. 
 Died in 1573. 
 
 See Ginguene, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Bentivoglio, (Giovanni,) an Italian nobleman, and 
 leader of the anti-papal party, was proclaimed sovereign 
 of Bologna in 1401, but after a short rule was defeated 
 and put to death. His son Antonio and his grandson 
 Annibal were also rulers of Bologna. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Bentivoglio, (Giovanni II.,) rose to be sovereign of 
 Bologna about 1462. After a rule of more than forty 
 years, he was driven from the city by Pope Julius II. 
 Died in 1508. 
 
 Bentivoglio, (Guido.) an able writer and diplomatist, 
 born at Ferrara in 1579, became successively Archbishop 
 of Rhodes, papal nuncio in France and Flanders, and 
 
 cardinal. He wrote an " Account of the War in 
 Flanders," (1633, in Italian,) a volume of " Memoirs,'' 
 (1648,) and a collection of "Letters." Died in 1644. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" GiNGUENi, 
 "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Bentivoglio, (Ippolito,) a lyric poet and dramatist, 
 born at Ferrara; died in 1685. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Bentkowski, bfnt-kov'skee, (Felix,) a Polish au- 
 thor, born in 1781, was professor of history at Warsaw. 
 He published an important work, entitled a." History 
 of Polish Literature," (2 vols., 1814.) Died in 1852. 
 
 BentTey, (Gideon,) an American soldier of the 
 Revolution, born in 1751 ; died in Oswego county, New 
 York, in 1858, aged one hundred and seven years. 
 
 BentTey, (Sir John,) a British admiral, was knighted 
 for his conduct in an action off Cape Saint Vincent about 
 1760. Died in 1772. 
 
 Bentley, (Richard,) a celebrated critic, regarded as 
 the greatest classical scholar that England ever produced, 
 was born at Oulton, in Yorkshire, on the 27th of 
 January, 1662. He entered Saint John's College, Cam- 
 bridge, in 1676, and in 1683 became tutor to Dr. Stil- 
 lingfleet's son, whom he accompanied to Oxford. His 
 first publication was a " Latin Epistle to John Mill, 
 containing Critical Observations on the Chronicle of 
 Joannes Malala," (1691,) which procured him a high Eu- 
 ropean reputation. In 1692 he was honoured with the 
 first appointment to the Boyle lectureship, and chose for 
 his subject the absurdities of atheism. These lectures 
 were much admired, and reached the sixth edition in 
 1735. He became keeper of the Royal Library in 1693, 
 and chaplain-in-ordinary to the king in 1695. In 1697 
 he produced his celebrated "Dissertation on the Epistles 
 of Phalaris," in which he affirmed those epistles to be 
 spurious. On this subject he was involved in a contro- 
 versy with Charles Boyle, Atterbury, Pope, Swift, and 
 other wits, who attacked his personal character with as- 
 perity. He replied in another " Dissertation on the 
 Epistles of Phalaris," in 1699. " It was," says Hallam, 
 "the first great literary war that had been waged in Eng- 
 land. Both combatants were skilful in wielding the 
 sword: the arms of Boyle, in Swift's language, were 
 given him by all the gods ; but his antagonist stood for- 
 ward in no such figurative strength, master of a learning to 
 which nothing parallel had been known in England ; . 
 with a style rapid, concise, amusing, and superior to Boyle 
 in that which he had chiefly to boast, a sarcastic wit." 
 Posterity has decided that Bentley was victorious in this 
 affair. He was appointed master of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, in 1700, and Archdeacon of Ely in 1701. He 
 became involved in a long contest and lawsuit with the 
 Fallows of Trinity College, in relation to which he is 
 censured for his arrogant and arbitrary conduct. Having 
 been elected regius professor of divinity in 1717, he gave 
 great dissatisfaction by the demand of illegal or unusually 
 large fees from candidates for the degree of I). I ). For this 
 offence the senate of the university deprived him in 1718 
 of all his degrees ; but he was restored by a mandamus of 
 the court of king's bench about 1724. He published an 
 excellent edition of Horace, (1711,) and an edition cf 
 Terence, (1725,) which is called one of his best perform- 
 ances. His ill-judged attempt to improve the text of 
 Milton's great poem gave much offence to the admirers 
 of that poet. His last work was an edition of Homer, 
 which, however, he did not live to finish. Died in fuly, 
 1742. Bentley's daughter was the mother of Richard 
 Cumberland the dramatist. 
 
 See Monk's "Life of Bentley," 1830; Hartley Coleridge, 
 "Lives of Distinguished Northerns;" " Encyclopaedia Britannica; 
 "EdinburRh Review" for July, 1830; "London Quarterly Review" 
 for November, 1831. 
 
 Bentley, (Richard,) son of the preceding, wrote a 
 comedy entitled " The Wishes," and several other works. 
 Died in 1782. 
 
 Bentley, (Robert,) an English botanist, born about 
 1820, became professor of botany in London, and wrote 
 a "Manual of Botany." 
 
 Bentley, (Thomas,) a nephew of the famous Richard 
 Bentley, was a Fellow of Trinity College. He published 
 an edition of Cicero "De Finibus" in 1718. 
 
 Bentley, (William,) an American Unitarian minister 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, 11, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, j?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
BENTON 
 
 329 
 
 BERANGER 
 
 and antiquary, born in Boston in 1758, was ordained pas- 
 tor of a church at Salem in 1783. He wrote a " History 
 of Salem." Died in 1819. 
 
 Ben'tpn, (Thomas Hart,) an American Senator, born 
 at or near Hillsborough, North Carolina, on the 14th of 
 March, 17S2. Having removed to Tennessee in early 
 youth, he studied law, and began to practise at Nashville 
 about 1S11. In 1812 he commanded a regiment under 
 ral Jackson, with whom he quarrelled. Jackson 
 attempted to strike Benton with a horsewhip at Nash- 
 ville in 1S1 j, and was severely wounded with a pistol by 
 Benton's brother. Colonel Benton settled at Saint Louis, 
 Missouri, in 181 5, and began to publish a political paper. 
 He was elected a Senator of the United States by the 
 legislature of Missouri in 1820. He acted with the Dem- 
 ocrats, became a supporter of General Jackson, and the 
 most prominent politician of Missouri. Having been 
 re-elected to the Federal Senate in 1826, he distinguished 
 himself as an advocate of a gold and silver currency, and 
 received the sobriquet of Old Bullion. He supported 
 President Jackson in his hostility against the United 
 States Bank. About 1832 he was again chosen to repre- 
 sent Missouri in the Senate of the United States, of which 
 he continued to be a member for a period of thirty years. 
 He was a political friend of President Van Buren, voted 
 for the annexation of Texas to the United States in 1845, 
 and opposed Calhoun on the subjects of nullification and 
 State rights. In 1850 he made a speech against Clay's 
 compromise bill. In consequence of a division in the 
 Democratic party in relation to slavery, Mr. Benton was 
 defeated as a candidate for the office of Senator about the 
 end of 1850, and retired from the Senate in March, 1851. 
 He was elected a member of the national House of Rep- 
 resentatives in 1852, and opposed the repeal of the Mis- 
 souri Compromise. In 1856 he was supported by one 
 section of the Democracy as candidate for Governor of 
 Missouri, but was not elected. He advocated the elec- 
 tion of Buchanan to the Presidency in 1856, in preference 
 to Fremont, who was his son-in-law. He published a 
 voluminous work entitled "A Thirty Years' View, or a 
 History of the Working of the American Government 
 for Thirty Years, from 1820 to 1850," (2 vols., 1854-56,) 
 and "An Abridgment of the Debates of Congress from 
 1789 to 1856," (15 vols., 1857.) He died at Washington 
 in April, 1858. 
 
 Benton, (William P.,) an American lawyer and gen- 
 eral, born in Maryland, emigrated to Indiana. He be- 
 came a brigadier-general of the Union army in 1862. 
 
 Bentzel-Sternau, von, fon bent'sel steR'now, (An- 
 ski.m Franz,) a German statesman, born in 1738, was 
 counsellor to the Elector of Mentz. Died in 1784. 
 
 Bentzel-Sternau, von,(CnRisriAN Ernst,) Count, 
 a German statesman and writer, born at Mentz in 1767, 
 became minister of state and finance in the grand duchy 
 of Frankfort, (1812.) He published "The Stone Guest/' 
 ("Der Steinerne Gast,") "The Golden Calf," and other 
 popular satirical romances. Died in 1850. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Bentzen, bent'sen, or Bentzon, (Adrian Benoni,) 
 a Norwegian litterateur, born at Tonsberg in 1777. 
 
 Benvenuti, ben-vi-noo'tce, (Carlo,) an Italian ma- 
 thematician and Jesuit, born at Leghorn in 1716. He 
 wrote, in Latin, a " Synopsis of General Physics," and 
 translated into Italian Clairault's " Elements of Geom- 
 etry." Died in 1789. 
 
 Benvenuti, (Giuseppe,) an Italian physician and 
 medical writer, born in the duchy of Lucca about 1728. 
 
 Benvenuti, (Pietro,) an eminent Italian painter, born 
 at Arezzo in 1769. He was regarded by some as the 
 best painter of Tuscany in his time. His design is cor- 
 rect and his style elevated. His chief work is a series 
 of frescos of prophets and evangelists on the dome of 
 the chapel of Medici at Florence. Among his other 
 works is " The Woman of Samaria." Died at Florence 
 in 1844. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." 
 
 Benvenuto, ben-va-noo'to, (Giovanni Battista,) 
 oiled Ortolano, an Italian painter of the school of 
 I errara, born about 1480 ; died in 1525. 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini. See Cellini. 
 
 Benvoglienti, ben-vol-yen'tee, (Uberto,) an Italian 
 
 litterateur and patron of learning, born in 1668; died In 
 
 1733. 
 
 Benyowsky. See Beniowsky. 
 
 Benzel, bent'sel, [Eat. Benze'lius,] (Eric,) born 
 about 1632, was made, in 1700, Archbishop of Upsal by 
 Charles XII. He superintended the Swedish transla- 
 tion of the Bible published by order of Charles XII., 
 and wrote several religious works. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Johan Esbkrg, " Libri in E. H. Benzelii Tumulum," 1712. 
 
 Benzel, [Lat. Benzelius,) (Eric,) son of the preced- 
 ing, born at Upsal in 1675, became successively Bishop 
 of Gothenburg and of Linkoping, and Archbishop of 
 Upsal. He was one of the founders of the Academy 
 of Sciences at Upsal, and wrote several valuable histori- 
 cal and antiquarian works. Died in 1743- 
 
 See Olof Dalin, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver E. Benzelius," 1744. 
 
 Benzel, (Henry,) brother of Eric, mentioned above, 
 born at Strengnas in 1689, was one of the savants sent 
 by Charles XII., in 1714, on a scientific expedition to 
 the East. He was made Archbishop of Upsal after his 
 return. His journal of his travels is still in manuscript. 
 Died in 1758. 
 
 See M. Asp, " Likpredikan bfver H. Benzelius med Personalier," 
 >75»- 
 
 Benzel-Sternau. See Bentzel-Sternau. 
 
 Benzenberg, bent'sen-b^Rc', (Johann F'riedrich,) 
 a German mathematician and astronomer, born near 
 Elberfeld in 1777. He wrote, among other works, a 
 "Manual of Geometry," (1810,) and a treatise "On 
 Falling Stars," (1839.) Died in 1846. 
 
 Benzi, ben'zee, (Massimiliano Soldano,) a painter 
 and engraver of medals, born at Florence in 1658. 
 
 Benzio, ben'ze-o, (Trikone,) an Italian diplomatist 
 and poet, born at Assisi, lived in the latter part of the 
 sixteenth century. He was secretary to Pope Julius III., 
 and was employed on several missions. 
 
 Benzon, ben'zon, (Friedrich Wilhelm Karl,) a 
 Danish historian, born at Kioge in 1 791. 
 
 Benzoni, ben-zo'nee, (Geronimo,) an Italian travel- 
 ler, born about 1520, spent many years in America, of 
 which he gave an account in a work entitled "History 
 of the New World," (1565.) 
 
 Beolco, ba-ol'ko, or Biolco, be-ol'ko, (Angelo,) an 
 Italian dramatic poet, born at Padua in 1502, was sur- 
 named Ruzzante, from the number of rustic farces he 
 composed. Died in 1542. 
 
 Beorn. See Biorn. 
 
 Beowulf, be-o'woblf, a semi-fabulous naval hero of 
 Denmark, who forms the subject of a celebrated epic 
 poem in Anglo-Saxon, supposed to have been written in 
 the ninth century. It has been translated into English 
 and German. 
 
 See Turner, " History of the Anglo-Saxons." 
 
 Bequet, bA'k&', (Etienne,) an able French journalist 
 and critic, born in Paris about 1800. He wrote for the 
 "Journal des Debats" for fifteen years. In 1830 he was 
 prosecuted and acquitted for apolitical article ending with 
 these words : " Unfortunate France ! unfortunate king !" 
 which were afterwards often repeated. Died in 1838. 
 
 Berain, beh-raN', (Jean,) a French designer, born at 
 Saint-Michel in 1630; died in 1697. 
 
 Berain, (Pierre Martin,) a French historian, lived 
 about 1710. 
 
 Beranger, ba'r&N'zha', (Charles,) a French painter 
 of landscapes and genre, born at Sevres in 1816. 
 
 Beranger, de, deh ba'r&N'zha', (Pierre Jean,) a cele- 
 brated F'rench lyric poet, born in Paris on the 19th of 
 August, 1780. He lived with his grandfather, who was 
 a tailor, until he was nine years old, after which he went 
 to reside with an aunt, who appears to have acted towards 
 him the part of a true mother, and, while giving him the 
 rudiments of an education, instilled into his mind the 
 principles calculated to make him a good man and a true 
 patriot. For a short time he served as apprentice to a 
 printer. When he was about sixteen, he began to write 
 poetry. Several of his lyrics attracted the attention and 
 procured for him the patronage of Lucien Bonaparte, 
 and in 1815 he brought out his first collection of songs. 
 They were received with great favour by the people ; but 
 their bold, patriotic, and often satirical tone gave offence 
 to the government ; and, as Beranger in his succeeding 
 
 c as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 27 th as in this. (JT^ = *See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BERARD 
 
 33° 
 
 BERCHEURE 
 
 productions abated nothing of the freedom of his satire, 
 he was condemned in 1828 to an imprisonment of nine 
 months and a heavy fine. He was an ardent republican. 
 After the revolution of 1830, which his poems had con- 
 tributed to bring about, he refused to accept any office 
 under the government. He brought out in 1833 a fifth 
 collection of his songs, leaving memoirs of his life and a 
 number of poems, which were published after his death. 
 In 184S he was elected to the Constituent Assembly 
 by the voters of the department of Seine, but he de- 
 clined to serve. He died in July, 1857. He is repre- 
 sented as a man of a generous, noble, and independent 
 character. 
 
 " His style," says J. F. Destigny, " has a limpidity, 
 precision, and purity which defy criticism. All ordinary 
 eulogy (louange banale) would cast a shade upon his 
 glory." ("Nouvelle Biographie Generale.") 
 
 " The great peculiarity of Beranger," says the " Quar- 
 terly Review" for January, 1832, " is the mixture of gayety 
 and pathos which he combines with the happiest effect. 
 He indeed mingles 'the grave and gay, the lively and 
 severe,' with a very original and singular felicity." 
 
 See a posthumous work of Beranger, entitled " Ma Biographie," 
 1857; Boiteau, "Philosophic et Politique de Beranger," 1858; Sa- 
 vinien-Lapointe, " Mewoires sur BeVanger," 1857; Longfellow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1833 ; 
 Louis de Lomenie, " Notice sur Be'ranger," 1844. 
 
 Berard, ba'rtR', (Auguste,) an eminent French sur- 
 geon, born at Varrains, near Saumur, in 1802. He was 
 the founder of the Societe de Chirurgie of Paris. In 1842 
 he obtained the chair of surgical clinique in Paris. He 
 published a number of able treatises on surgery. Died 
 in 1S46. 
 
 Berard, (Auguste Simon Louis,) born in Paris in 
 1783, became master of requests to the Council of State in 
 1814, and founded (with Chaptal) the first company for the 
 production of illuminating gas. He was a liberal member 
 of the Chamber of Deputies in 1827-30, and took a pro- 
 minent part in the revolution of 1830 as a partisan of 
 Louis Philippe. Died in 1859. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Berard, (Frederic,) a French physician and medical 
 writer, born at Montpellier m 1 789, was a contributor to 
 the " Dictionnaire des Sciences medicales" of Paris. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 See J. A. Dupau, "Notice historique sur F. Berard," 1828. 
 
 Berard, (Pierre,) a French pharmacist and botanist, 
 born at Grenoble about 1630. He wrote a work entitled 
 " Theatrum Botanicum," (unpublished.) The genus Be- 
 rardia was named in his honour. 
 
 Berard, (Pierre Honore,) a distinguished French 
 surgeon, brother of Auguste, born at Lichtenberg in 
 1797. He became in 1831 professor of physiology to the 
 faculty of medicine in Paris, and was subsequently elected 
 to the Academy of Medicine. He began the publication 
 of a "Course of Physiology," (1st vol., 1848.) Died in 
 1858. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Berardi, bi-raR'dee, (Angelo,) an Italian musician 
 and composer, born near Bologna about 1650, wrote 
 several treatises on music. 
 
 Berardi, (Fab 10,) an Italian engraver, born at Sienna in 
 1728, was one of the most distinguished pupils of Wagner. 
 
 Berardier de Bataud, bi'riR'de-i' deh bi'to', 
 (Francois Joseph,) a French litterateur, born in Paris 
 in 1720 ; died in 1794. 
 
 Berardo, bi-raR'do, (Geronimo,) an Italian writer, 
 born about 1 500, translated two of the comedies of Plautus. 
 
 Beraud, bi'ro', (Antoine,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Aurillac in 1 794. He wrote dramas, political songs, etc 
 
 Beraud, (Jeaj* Jacques,) a French savant, born near 
 Castellane in 1753, was professor of mathematics and 
 experimental physics at Marseilles. Died in 1794. 
 
 Beraud, (Laurent,) a French Jesuit and astronomer, 
 born in 1703 at Lyons, where he was director of the 
 observatory. He published several valuable scientific 
 works. Died in 1777. 
 
 See Le Febvre, "£loge historique du P. L. Beraud," 1780. 
 
 Beraudiere, de la, deh li bi'ro'de-aiR', (Francois,) 
 Bishop of Perigueux, born at Poitiers, wrote a " Funeral 
 Oration on Henry IV." Died in 1646. 
 
 Berauld, bi'ro', (Francois,) a French scholar, soc 
 of Nicolas, noticed below, born at Orleans about 15 10. 
 He wrote Greek and Latin poems, and translated the 
 two books of Appian containing the wars of Hannibal 
 and those of Spain. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Berauld, [Lat. Beral'dus Aure'lius,] (Nicolas,) 
 an eminent French scholar and writer, born at Orleans 
 in 1473. He was a friend of Erasmus, and numbered 
 among his pupils DAndelot and Admiral de Coligny. 
 Me published a Greek-Latin Dictionary (1521) and an 
 edition of Pliny's "Natural History," (1516,) and wrote 
 several Latin treatises. Died in 1550. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Berault, bi'ro', (Claude,) a French philologist, suc- 
 ceeded D'Herbelot as professor of the Syriac language 
 in the Royal College in Paris. He published an edition 
 of "Statius ad Usum Delphini," (1685.) Died in 1705. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Berault, (Jean,) a French litterateur, translated Bar- 
 clay's "Euphormio" from the Latin, (1640.) 
 
 Berault, (Josias,) a French jurist, and advocate of 
 the parliament of Rouen, born in 1563, wrote a "Com- 
 mentary on the Common Law of Normandy." Died 
 about 1640. 
 
 Berault, (Michel,) a French Protestant theologian, 
 published in 1598 a "Brief and Clear Defence of the 
 Vocation of the Ministers of the Gospel," in reply to 
 Cardinal Perron. He preached at Montauban. 
 
 Berault-Bercastel, bi'ro' beVkis'teT, (Antoinf. 
 Henri,) a French writer, born near Metz in 1772, wrote 
 a "History of the Church," (24 vols., 1778-90,) and 
 other works. Died in 1794. 
 
 Berbiguier, bl u'be'ge-i', (Benoit Tranquille — 
 tK6x'kel',) a French flutist and composer, born at Car- 
 derousse in 1781 ; died about 1838. 
 
 Berbiguier, (Charles Alexis Vincent,) a French 
 visionary, born at Carpentras about 1776, wrote a work 
 on demonology. Died in 185 1. 
 
 Bercb, berK, (Anders,) a Swedish writer on rural 
 economy, born in 1711 ; died in 1774. 
 
 Bercb, (Karl Reinhold,) a Swedish antiquary, born 
 in 1706, wrote a "History of the Kings and Celebrated 
 Characters of Sweden, taken from Medals." Died in 1777. 
 
 See Olof Celsius, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver C. R. Berch," 17S1. 
 
 Berchelmann, bCR'Kel-man', (Johann Phii.iit,) a 
 German physician, born at Darmstadt in 1 718; died 1783. 
 
 Berchem. See Berghem. 
 
 Berchem, beVK^m, [Lat. Berche'mius,] (Wil- 
 Helm,) a German chronicler, lived about 1480. 
 
 Bercheiiy, [Fr. pron. beVshi'ne'; Hun. Bercseny, 
 MR-chin',] written also Berkeny, (Ladislas Ignaz,) 
 Count of, son of Nicholas, noticed below, burn at 
 Eperies, in Hungary, in 1689. He entered the French 
 service in 1 712, and became a marshal in 1758. Died 
 in 1778. 
 
 Bercheny or Bercseny, b?R-chiii', (Nicholas,) a 
 Hungarian nobleman, born in 1664, made an unsuccess- 
 ful attempt, in conjunction with Prince Ragotsky, to 
 separate Hungary from Austria about 1705. Died in 1725. 
 
 Berchet, beR shi', (Giovanni,) an Italian patriot and 
 poet, born at Milan about 1790, was a friend of Silvio 
 Pellico. After the suppression of the "Conciliatore," a 
 liberal journal to which he had contributed, he removed 
 to Geneva. He published in 1841 a volume of patriotic 
 songs, which were received with enthusiasm, and still 
 enjoy great popularity, though prohibited by the govern- 
 ment. Died in Italy in 1851. 
 
 Berchet, beVshi', (Toussaint,) a French philologist 
 and Protestant writer, born at Langres in 1540. He made 
 a version of Henry Estienne's Greek Catechism, which 
 was often reprinted. Died about 1605. 
 
 Berchett, bcVsheY, (Pierre,) a French painter and 
 engraver, born in 1659, was employed by William III. 
 of England to decorate his palace at Loo. Died in 1720. 
 
 See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting in England." 
 
 Bercheure, beVshuR', written also Berchoire, [Lat. 
 Bercho'rius,] (Pierre,) a French Benedictine monk, 
 born in Poitou. He translated into French Livy's " Ro 
 man History." Died in 1362. 
 
 i, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
 *,«, 
 
BERCHHEIM 
 
 33' 
 
 BERENICE 
 
 Berchheim, beVkas', or Berckheim, de, deh WrU'- 
 hTui, (Frudkich Sigismu.nd,) Baron, a French general, 
 of Germ.. n extraction, born at Ribeauville in 1775. He 
 served with distinction in the armies of Napoleon, and 
 attained the rank of general of division. Died in 1819. 
 
 Berchoire. See Bercheure. 
 
 Berchoux, beVshoo', (Joseph,) a French poet, born 
 at Saint-Symphorien, near Lyons, in 1765. His first 
 poem was a well-known satire on the ridiculous ambi- 
 tion then prevalent of imitating the Greek and Roman 
 costumes and habits of life, entitled "Qui me delivrera 
 d< s Grecs et des Romains ?" (" Who will deliver me from 
 th> Greeks and the Romans?") He published in 1800 
 "La Gastronomie," which had great success and was 
 translated into English. His later works were less suc- 
 cessful. Died in 1839. 
 
 Fee Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclop^dique de la France." 
 
 Berchtold, b^RK'tolr, (Leopold,) Count of, a Ger- 
 man philanthropist, born in 1738, travelled in Europe, 
 Asia, and Africa, and introduced vaccination where it 
 was previously unknown. He also founded several chari- 
 table institutions in his native country. Died in 1809. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Berckel, van, vin bfir'kel, (Theodorus Victor,) a 
 Dutch engraver, born at Bois-le-Duc in 1739; died 1808. 
 
 Berckheim. See Berchheim. 
 
 Berckmann, beRk'man, Bergmami, beRG'man, or 
 Barkmann, baRk'man, (John,) a chronicler, supposed 
 'o have been a native of Stralsund. His principal work 
 is entitled " Chronicles of Stralsund," (in manuscript, and 
 written in Low German.) Died in 1560. 
 
 Berckmans, beKk'mans, (Hendrik,) a distinguished 
 Dutch portrait-painter, born near Willemstadt in 1629. 
 He was a pupil of Jordaens and Wouwermans. 
 
 See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Berckringer, beRk'ring'er, (Daniel,) a German 
 scholar, born in the Palatinate, was tutor to the children 
 of the King of Bohemia. Died in 1667. 
 
 Bercseny. See Bercheny. 
 
 Bere or Ber, baiR, [Lat. Bk'rus,] (Louis,) a Catholic 
 theologian, born at Bale; died in 1554. 
 
 Bere, ba'reh, (Oswald,) a German physician, born at 
 Frankfort in 1472; died at Bale in 1567. 
 
 Berebistes. See B^erebistes. 
 
 Berecynthia. See Cybei.e. 
 
 Berednikof, be-red'ne-kof, (Yakov Ivanovitch,) a 
 Russian archaeologist, born in 1802, contributed to the 
 large Sclavonian Dictionary (1847) of the Academy of 
 Sciences of Saint Petersburg, of which he was a member. 
 
 Beregani, ba-ra-ga'nee, (Niccol6,) an Italian historian 
 and dramatic poet, born at Vicenza in 1627 ; died in 1713. 
 
 Berends, ba'rthits, (Johann Bernard Jakob,) a 
 German physician, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main about 
 1760. Died about 1830. 
 
 Berends, (Julius,) a German democratic politician, 
 born at Kyritz in 1817, was elected in 1848 to the Prus- 
 sian National Assembly. 
 
 Berends, (Karl August WiLHELM,)a German phy- 
 sician and medical writer, born in 1753, was professor 
 of medicine successively at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Bres- 
 lau, and Berlin. Died in 1826. 
 
 See Cau.iskn, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 
 
 Berengaria,ba-ren-ga're-a, jFr. Berengere, bi'r&N'- 
 zhah',] a Spanish lady distinguished for beauty and reso- 
 lution, was the queen of Alfonso VIII. of Castile. Died 
 in 1 1 59. 
 
 Berengaria, a sister of the famous Blanche of Cas- 
 tile, was married to Alfonso IX. of Castile, who divorced 
 her in 1209. Died in 1244. 
 
 Berengario, ba-r£n-ga're-o, [Lat. Bf.renga'rius ; 
 Fr. BtSBMGKK, bi'r&N'zhi',] (Giacomo,) an eminent 
 Italian surgeon and anatomist of the sixteenth century, 
 surnamed Carpen'sis, was born at Carpi. He was pro- 
 fessor of surgery at Pavia and Bologna, and wrote seve- 
 ral anatomical works in Latin. He is said to have made 
 important discoveries. Fallopius called him the restorer 
 of anatomy. He lectured at Bologna from 1502 to 1527. 
 
 See Tiraiiosc hi, "Storia deila Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Berengarius or Berengario. See Berenger, (kings 
 of Italy.) 
 Berenger, the French of Berengario, which see. 
 
 Berenger, bi'rSN'zha', [It. Berengario, ba-ren-gl'- 
 re-o ; Lat. Berenga'rius,] L, grandson of Loub le De- 
 bonnaire, was crowned King of Italy about 888, in opj o- 
 sition to Guido, Duke of Spoleto. He was assassinated 
 in 924. 
 
 Berenger (or Berenga'rius) II., called the Young- 
 er, grandson of the preceding, was crowned King of Italy 
 in 950. His country being afterwards invaded by Otho 
 the Great of Germany, Berenger became tributary to that 
 sovereign, and was at length deposed and imprisoned. 
 Died in 966. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Berenger, ba'rdN'zhi', (Alphonse Marie Marcel- 
 lin Thomas,) a French jurist and magistrate, born at 
 Valence in 1785. He became counsellor at the court of 
 cassation in 1831, and a member of the Chamber of Peers 
 in 1839. Among his principal works is a treatise "On 
 Criminal Justice in France," (1818.) He became in 1831 
 a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. 
 
 Berenger, (Jean,) Count, a French legislator, born 
 near Grenoble in 1767. He was elected to the States- 
 General in 1790, and was a member of the Tribunat in 
 1800. Died about 1845. 
 
 Berenger, (Jean Pierre,) a Swiss litterateur, born at 
 Geneva in 1740. He wrote, among other works, a " His- 
 tory of Geneva from its Origin to the Present Time," 
 (6 vols., 1772.) Died in 1807. 
 
 Berenger, (Laurent Pierre,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Riez in 1749, became inspector of the Academy 
 at Lyons. Among his works we may name " Morality 
 in Action," ("La Morale en Action, ) which has gone 
 through numerous editions. Died in 1822. 
 
 See J. B. Dumas, "Notice historique sur L. P. BeVenger," 1836. 
 
 Berenger, (Pierre,) a French theologian of the 
 twelfth century, was a native of Poitiers. 
 
 Berenger, (Raymond,) grand master of the order of 
 Saint John of Jerusalem, was a native of Dauphiny, in 
 France. He defeated the Egyptian corsairs who infested 
 Cyprus and Rhodes, and took Alexandria after a short 
 siege. Died in 1373. 
 
 Ber'en-ger, (Richard,) gentleman of the horse to 
 George III. of England, was the author of "The History 
 and Art of Horsemanship," (1771.) Died in 1782. 
 
 Berenger de Palasol, ba'rON'zha' deli pi'la'sol', a 
 French troubadour of the twelfth century. Died in 1194. 
 
 Berenger de la Tour, ba'rdN'zhi' deh li tooR, a 
 French poet of the sixteenth century, was the author of 
 "The Golden Age," and other works. Died about 1560. 
 
 Berenger [Lat. Berenga'rius] de Tours, ba'rON'- 
 zha' deh tooR, a celebrated French ecclesiastic, born 
 about 998, was a native of Tours. He studied under 
 Fulbert of Chartres, and became in 1039 Archdeacon of 
 Angers. Having opposed the dogmas of transubstan- 
 tiation and the real presence, his doctrine was condemned 
 by Pope Leo IX. in 1050. He formally retracted his 
 opinions ; but, as he still continued to deny the orthodox 
 dogmas, he was compelled, in a council at Rome, to make 
 another recantation. Died in 1088. 
 
 See Fleurv, "Histoire eccl^siastique ;" Heinrich Mui.ler, 
 "Berengarii veteris^ novique Historia," 1674; H. Sudendorf, " Be- 
 rengarius Turonensis, oder eine Sammlung ihn betreffender Briei'e," 
 1850. 
 
 Berenguer, ba-ren-gaiR', (Pedro Juan Morales — 
 mo-ri'les,) a Spanish theologian of the early part of the 
 seventeenth century. He published a work entitled 
 " Explanation of the Mysteries of our Holy Faith," (1608.) 
 
 Berenhorst, ba'ren-hoRst', (Georg Heinrich,) a 
 German officer and military writer, born in 1733, served 
 in the Seven Years' war. His principal work is entitled 
 " Reflections on the Military Art," (1797.) 
 
 Ber-e-ni'ce, [Gr. tiipmKt/,] an Egyptian princess, the 
 daughter of Lagus, and niece of Antipater, was married 
 to Ptolemy Soter. Through her influence he appointed 
 as his successor her son Ptolemy Philadelphus, to the 
 exclusion of the children of Eurydice, his other wife. 
 
 Berenice II., daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, was 
 married to Antiochus Theos, King of Syria, who had 
 divorced Laodice, his former wife. After the death of 
 Ptolemy, Laodice murdered her husband and her rival 
 Berenice (247 B.C.) and placed her own son on the throne 
 
 Berenice III, daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus and 
 
 a — . — —.-.,. ...~.,„. v , — 1 «._».. ~~w. i...x.,i. j.j.j.., u«u£inci ui x luiciny jriiuaueipiius ane 
 
 c a* k; c as s; g iiard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( j[^=See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
BERENICE 
 
 332 
 
 BERGER 
 
 Arsinoe. was married to Ptolemy Evergetes. During 
 his absence on an expedition to Syria, she made an offer- 
 ing of her hair to Venus for his safe return ; and the 
 astronomer Conon publicly reported that Jupiter had 
 made of it the constellation called " Coma Berenices." 
 Berenice was put to death by her father in 216 B.C. 
 
 See Carl W. Ramler, " Ptolemaus und Berenice," 176s. 
 
 Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy Lathyrus, was married 
 to Alexander II., whom Sulla had made king. She was 
 soon after murdered by her husband. 
 
 Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, and sister of 
 the celebrated Cleopatra, was raised to the throne by the 
 Alexandrians, who had revolted against her father, (58 
 B.C.) Having poisoned her first husband, Seleucus, she 
 was married to Archelaus, high-priest and King of 
 Comana. In 55 B.C. she was put to death by order of 
 her father, who had regained his crown. 
 
 Berenice, (called Berm'ce [Gr. Yinpviiirj] in the New 
 Testament,) daughter of Agrippa I., King of Judea, was 
 born about 28 A.D. She was married to Herod, King of 
 Chalcis, and afterwards to Polemon, King of Cilicia. 
 About 75 a.d. she visited Rome, where Titus wished to 
 marry her, but renounced her when he found the match 
 would displease his people. This event has formed the 
 subject of one of Racine's tragedies. Berenice was the 
 sister of Herod Agrippa, before whom Paul preached. 
 (See Acts xxv.) 
 
 Beres, baia, (Smile,) a French political economist, 
 born at Castelnau dAnzac in 1801, wrote several works 
 on political economy, trade, etc. 
 
 Ber'es-ford, (Rev. James,) an English writer, born 
 in 1764, published "The Miseries of Human Life, or 
 The Last Groans of Timothy Testy and Samuel Sensi- 
 tive," (2 vols., 1806-07.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Beresford, (Lord John George,) Primate of Ire- 
 land, a son of the Marquis of Waterford, born at Dub- 
 lin in 1773. He became Bishop of Cork in 1806, of 
 Clogher in 1819, Archbishop of Dublin in 1S20, and was 
 translated to the see of Armagh in 1822. Died in 1862. 
 
 Beresford, (William Carr,) Viscount, a distin- 
 guished general, born in Ireland in 1768, was the natural 
 son of the first Marquis of Waterford. Having served 
 in Egypt and Buenos Ayres, and captured Madeira in 
 1807, he fought in the Peninsular war under Wellington, 
 and was made a field-marshal of Portugal and Duke of 
 Elvas. After his return to England he was created a 
 viscount in 1823, and in 1828 master-general of the ord- 
 nance. Died in 1854. 
 
 Berettoni, bi-ret-to'nee, written also Berrettoni, 
 (N1CCOL6,) an Italian painter, born at Montefeltro in 
 1627, was one of the best pupils of Carlo Maratta. Died 
 at Rome in 1682. 
 
 Berg. See Bergius, (Bengt.) 
 
 Berg, 1>6rg, (Jens Christian,) a Norwegian jurist 
 and antiquary, born at Drontheim in 1775. 
 
 Berg, b&RG, (Johann Peter,) a German theologian 
 and Orientalist, born at Bremen in 1737, became pro- 
 fessor of ecclesiastical history and Oriental languages 
 at Duisburg. He wrote valuable commentaries on the 
 Scriptures. Died in 1800. 
 
 See Mollkr, " Denkschrift zur Ehre J. P. Bergs," 1801. 
 
 Berg, (Magnus,) a Norwegian painter and excellent 
 sculptor in ivory, born in 1666, was patronized by King 
 Christian V. Died in 1739. 
 
 Berg, van den, van den b^RG, (Matthias,) a Flem- 
 ish painter, born at Ypres in 161 5, was a distinguished 
 pupil of Rubens, whose works he copied with great ac- 
 curacy. Died in 1647. 
 
 See Brvan, "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Berg, von, fon Mrg, (Joachim,) a German diplo- 
 matist and philanthropist, born at Herrndorf in 1526, 
 bequeathed all his property to create a fund for the edu- 
 cation of the poor in his own country. Died in 1602. 
 
 See G. von Berg, "Memoria Bergeriana;" Keller, "Joachim 
 von Berge und sein Stiftungen," 1S34. 
 
 Bergalli, bSR-gal'lee, (Carlo,) an Italian ecclesiastic 
 and litterateur, born at Palermo ; died in 1679. 
 
 Bergalli, (Luigia,) an Italian dramatic authoress, born 
 at Venice in 1703, became the wife of Count Gasparo 
 Gozzi. (See Gozzi.) Died about 1760. 
 
 Bergamasco. See Castello. 
 
 Bergamini, b^R-ga-mee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Vicenza in 1666 ; died in 1744. 
 
 Bergamo, b&R'g£-mo,(jACOPo FilippoForesti,) Ital- 
 ian chronicler, born near Bergamo in 1434 ; died in 1520. 
 
 Bergamo, da, da beVga-mo, (Fra Damiano,) an 
 Italian Dominican monk, who was celebrated as a sculptor 
 in wood. Died in 1549. 
 
 Bergantini, beR-gan-tee'nee, (Giovanni Pietro,) an 
 Italian poet and miscellaneous writer, born at Venice in 
 1685; died about 1760. 
 
 Bergasse, beVgtss', (Alexandre,) a French royalist 
 and political writer, brother of Nicolas, noticed below, 
 was born at Lyons in 1747 ; died in 1821. 
 
 Bergasse, (Nicolas,) a French jurist and political 
 writer, born at Lyons in 1750, published in 1787 a memo- 
 rial in favour of his client Kornmann, which won for him a 
 high reputation, and was answered by Beaumarchais. He 
 also wrote in favour of animal magnetism. Died in 183:. 
 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclop^dique de la France." 
 
 Berge, beVgeh, (Ernst Gottlieb,) a German writer, 
 born in 1649, visited England in 1678, and published; 
 after his return, an excellent translation of Milton's 
 "Paradise Lost," (1682.) 
 
 Berge, b&Rzh, (Francois Beaudire — bo'deR',) born 
 at Collioure, in France, in 1779, served successively in 
 Egypt, Germany, and Spain, and was made lieutenant- 
 general in 1823. Died in 1832. 
 
 Ber-gel-la'nus, (Johann Arnold,) a German typog- 
 rapher, wrote a Latin poem in praise of printing, en- 
 titled " Encomium Chalcographiae," (1541.). 
 
 Bergelmir, ber-gel'mir, [originally Berggelmir, a 
 " mountain mass," (?)] the name of one of the Frost-giants 
 in the Norse mythology. It is related that when ( Min 
 and his brothers slew the giant Ymir, all the Frost-Jotuns 
 were drowned in his blood except Bergelmir, who, with 
 his wife, escaped, and continued the race of Frost-giants. 
 (See Ymir.) 
 
 See Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. 
 
 Bergen, bSRG'en, a Dutch painter of rare promise, 
 born at Breda about 1670, died at the age of nineteen. 
 Some of his works are in the Louvre, others at Dresden. 
 
 Bergen, (Daniel.) See Berger. 
 
 Bergen, van, vin beVnen, (Dirk,) a Dutch painter 
 of landscapes and animals, born at Haarlem about 1645, 
 was a pupil of Van der Velde. Died in 1689. 
 
 Bergen, von, fon b£ R'gen, (Johann Georg,) a Ger- 
 man medical writer, the father of Karl August, born at 
 Dessau ; died at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1738. 
 
 Bergen, von, (Karl August,) a German botanist, 
 anatomist, and scientific writer, born at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Oder in 1704. In 1744 he became professor of pathology 
 and therapeutics in his native city. The genus Bergena 
 was named in his honour by Adanson. Died in 1760. 
 
 See "Biographie Me^licale." 
 
 Bergen, von, (Rudiger,) a German poet, born at 
 Riga in 1603 ; died in 1661. 
 
 Bergenhielm, beVgen-he-e'lm or beVgen-hyllm, 
 (Johan,) Baron of, a Swedish statesman and Latin poet, 
 born in Ostrogothia in 1629, rose to be secretary of state 
 and chancellor of the court. Died in 1704. 
 
 Berger, beR'ger, (Albrecht Ludwig,) a German 
 jurist, born at Oldenburg in 1768; died in 1813. 
 
 Berger, beVger, (Christian Johan,) a Danish phy- 
 sician, born in 1724, became professor of medicine and 
 surgery at Kiel. Died in 1789. 
 
 Berger or Bergen, beVgen, (Daniel,) a German 
 engraver, born in Berlin in 1744. He engraved history 
 and portraits. Died in 1824. 
 
 Berger, beVzha', (Jacques,) a painter of history, born 
 at Chambery, was agood colorist. Died at Turin in 1823. 
 
 Berger, (Jean Jacques,) a French senator, born at 
 Thiers, in Puy de Dome, in 1790. He was a member of 
 the Chamber of Deputies from 1837 to 1848, and took 
 an active part in the republican movement of 1848. He 
 became prefect of La Seine about December, 1848, and 
 senator in 1853. 
 
 Berger, (Johan Eric,) a Danish savant, born about 
 1772, was professor of astronomy at Kiel. He wrote 
 " A General Sketch of Science," and other works. Died 
 in 1833. 
 
 See H. Ratjen, "J. E. von Berger's Leben," 1835. 
 
 i,e,i,o,u,y,U/ig; 1,4 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1,6, fi, J, short; a,e, j, 9, obscure;&x, fill, fit; m£t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
BERGER 
 
 333 
 
 BERGMAN 
 
 Berger, (Johann Gottfried Emanuel,) a German 
 theologian, born at Ruhland in 1773, published, among 
 other works, a " History of the Philosophy of Religions." 
 Died in 1803. 
 
 Berger, (Julien Francois Adolphe,) a French clas- 
 sical scholar, born in 1810. He was for several years pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric at the College of Charlemagne, Paris. 
 
 Berger, (Ludwig,) a German composer and pianist 
 of great merit, born at Berlin in 1777. His works are 
 chiefly cantatas, operas, and symphonies. He numbered 
 among his scholars the celebrated Mendelssohn. Died 
 in Berlin about 1839. 
 
 Berger, (Paul,) a German theologian and Hebraist, 
 born at Rosenburg, lived about 1730. 
 
 Berger, (Theodor,) a German jurist and historian, 
 born near Coburg in 1683, published legal and historical 
 works in Latin and German. Died in 1773. 
 
 Berger, von, fon beVger, (Christoph Heinrich,) a 
 German jurist and aulic councillor, born at Wittenberg 
 about 1680. Died in 1757. 
 
 Bergerac, de, deh beRzh'Rfk', (Savinien Cyrano,) 
 a French dramatist and notorious duellist, born in Peri- 
 gord about 1620. He served in the army in his youth. 
 His principal works are the tragedy of "Agrippina," 
 ( 1653.) and the " Pedant Joue," a comedy. Died in Paris 
 in 1655. Some writers conjecture that Swift derived the 
 idea of his " Gulliver's Travels" from Bergerac's " Comic 
 History of the States and Empires of the Moon," ("His- 
 toire comique des Etats et Empires de la Lune," 1656.) 
 
 See Charles Nodier, " B. Desperriers et Cyrano de Bergerac," 
 1841. 
 
 Bergeret, bSRzh'R^', (Jean,) a French botanist, born 
 at Morlas, in Basses-Pyrenees, published a Flora of the 
 Basses-Pyrenees, (2 vols., 1803.) Died about 1814. 
 
 Bergeret, (Jean Pierre,) a French physician and 
 botanist, born near Auch in 1 75 1, became surgeon to 
 Monsieur (afterwards Louis XVIII.) in 1785. Died 
 in 1813. 
 
 Bergeron, beRzh'r6N', (Louis,) a French journalist 
 and litterateur, born at Chauny in 181 1, published, among 
 other works, " Campaigns of Spain and Portugal under 
 the Empire," (1833.) 
 
 Bergeron, (Nicolas,) a French jurist and historian, 
 a native of Bethity, lived about 1560. He is said to have 
 produced the first synchronic tables of history. 
 
 Bergeron, (Pierre,) son of the preceding, born in 
 Paris, wrote a "Treatise on Navigation and Modern 
 Voyages of Discovery and Conquests," (1629,) and other 
 geographical and historical works. 
 
 Bergeron,) Pi erre,) a French poet and litterateur, born 
 in Paris in 1 787, was professor in a college at Brussels. 
 
 Bergery, beRzh'Re', (Claude Lucien,) a French ma- 
 thematician, and professor of mathematics in the School 
 of Artillery at Metz, born at Orleans in 1787. He pub- 
 lished " Geometry applied to Industry," (1835,) and 
 "Elementary Astronomy," (1832.) 
 
 Berghaus, Wrg'Iiows, (Heinrich,) an eminent Ger- 
 man geographer, born at Cleves in 1797. He was ap- 
 pointed in 1 81 6 geographical engineer in the war depart- 
 ment at Berlin, and in 1824 professor of mathematics in 
 the Academy of Architecture. Among his numerous 
 and excellent works are his " Physical Atlas," (with 
 ninety maps, 1838,) an oro-hydrographic map of France, 
 charts of Asia and Africa, " Elements of Geography," 
 (1842,) "Ethnography," (1846,) and "The Nations of the 
 Globe," (•' Die Volker des Erdballs," 1845.) He also 
 published a German edition of Catlin's " Indians of North 
 America." 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Berghe, van den, v3n den beR'neh, (Thomas,) a 
 Flemish physician, born at Dixmude about 1 61 5, wrote a 
 treatise on the plague of 1669. 
 
 Berghem.MRC.'hem, (Nikolaas,) an excellent Dutch 
 landscape-painter, whose original name was Van Haf.r- 
 1.1 m, was born at Haarlem in 1624. He was a pupil of 
 Van Goyen, Jan Wils, and Weeninx. He had great 
 executive facility, painted with equal success landscapes, 
 animals, and figures, and gave a fine finish to his works 
 without impairing the general effect. His works are ex- 
 tremely numerous, and present a great variety of subjects. 
 Their peculiar charm results partly from a graceful and 
 
 easy touch, a harmonious colouring, and a natural conv 
 position. He also left designs and etchings of remark- 
 able beauty. Died at Haarlem in 1683. "The delicate 
 degradation of his aerial perspective," says Bryan, " the 
 light floating of his skies, and the transparence of his 
 water, have never been surpassed by any Dutch painter." 
 See Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters;" Nagler, " Neues Allge- 
 meines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bergier, beVzhe-i', (Claude Francois,) a French 
 jurist and lilterateur^yotn at Darnay, in Lorraine, in 172 1. 
 He translated Ferguson's " Essay on Civil Society," and 
 other English works, into French. Died in 1784. 
 
 Bergier, (Nicolas,) a French writer, born at Rheims in 
 1567, published, among other antiquarian works, a valu- 
 able " History of the Great Roads (grands chemins) of 
 the Roman Empire," (1622.) Died in 1623. 
 
 See Bayle, Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Bergier, (Nicolas Sylvestre,) a French scholar and 
 theologian, born at Darnav in 17 18, was a brother of 
 Claude Francois, noticed above. He wrote several able 
 treatises in defence of the Christian religion against the 
 attacks of Voltaire, Rousseau, and Baron Holbach, and 
 made a translation of Hesiod, (1767,) which is highly 
 esteemed. Died in Paris in 1790. 
 
 See Ocerard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Ber'gl-us or Berg, b?Rg, (Bengt,) a Swedish botan- 
 ist, born at Stockholm in 1723, wrote a "Treatise on 
 Luxuries," and other works. Died in 1784. 
 
 See Schoenberg, "Aminnelse-Tal bfver B. Bergius," 1785. 
 
 Bergius, (Peter Jonas,) brother of the preceding, 
 was a pupil of the celebrated Linnaeus, and became pro- 
 fessor of natural history at Stockholm. Linnaeus named 
 in his honour the genus Bergia. Born about 1730 ; died 
 in 1790. 
 
 See Olof Swartz, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver P. J. Bergius," 1822. 
 
 Bergk, beRk, (Theodor,) a German linguist and clas- 
 sical scholar, born at Leipsic in 18(2, became professor 
 of philosophy at Marburg in 1842, and at Freiburg in 
 1852. He published an edition of Anacreon, (1834,) 
 and " Poetae Lyrici Graeci," (1843.) 
 
 Bergklint, beRk'lint, (Olaus,) a Swedish poet of the 
 latter part of the eighteenth century, wrote an " Ode on 
 Adversity," which is very popular in Sweden. 
 
 Bergier, beRc/ler, (Joseph,) a statuary and painter, 
 born in the Tyrol in 1718, worked at Vienna, Passau,and 
 Prague. Died in 1788. 
 
 Bergier, (Joseph,) a German painter, son of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Salzburg in 1753. He executed a series 
 of pictures illustrating the history of Bohemia. Died 
 in 1829. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bergier, (Stephen,) a distinguished philologist, born 
 at Cronstadt, in Transylvania, about 1680. He contri- 
 buted a number of articles to the "Acta Eruditorum" 
 and " Bibliotheca Graeca," and edited several Greek and 
 Latin classics. Died at Constantinople in 1746. 
 
 See Sax*, " Onomasticon." 
 
 Bergman or Bergmann, beRG'man, (Torbern 
 Olof,) a celebrated Swedish chemist and naturalist, 
 born at Catherinberg, in West Gothland, in March, 1735. 
 He studied at Upsal, and devoted himself chieflv to natu- 
 ral history, physics, and mathematics. In 1761 he was 
 appointed adjunct professor of mathematics and natural 
 philosophy at Upsal, where he succeeded Wallerius as 
 professor of chemistry in 1766 or 1767, after which he 
 gave almost exclusive attention to chemistry. He first 
 discovered that fixed air was an acid, and wrote a me- 
 moir entitled "On the Aerial Acid," (1774.) He ascer- 
 tained the distinctive characters of nickel, analyzed many 
 mineral substances with great accuracy, and published a 
 classification of minerals, in which the grand divisions 
 are founded on the chemical nature of the substances. 
 By the application of geometry to the forms of crystals, 
 he laid the basis of crystallography, which was developed 
 by Haiiy. "His researches," says Biot, "have placed 
 Bergman in the first rank of chemists." His theory of 
 Elective Attractions, on which he published an essay, 
 (1775,) was admired, and considered as an important 
 contribution to science. He was a member of the Royal 
 Societies of London, Berlin, Turin, etc. He wrote a 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J[^""See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BERG MANN 
 
 334 
 
 BERKELEY 
 
 " Physical Description of the Earth," (2 vols., 1770-74,) 
 an " Essay on the Forms of Crystals," a thesis on " Astro- 
 nomical Interpolation," (1758,) and many other works, 
 published under the title of " Opuscula Physica et Chim- 
 ica," (6 vols., 1779-90.) He was an early patron of 
 Scheele the chemist. Died at Medevi in 1784. 
 
 See P. F. Aurivillius, "Aminnelse-Tal bfver T. O. Bergmann," 
 1785 ; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encykk>i>aedie ;" Biot, arti- 
 cle in the " Biographie Universale ;" Peter J. Hjelm, "Aminnelse- 
 Tal ofver T. O.Bergman," 1786; Hoefer, " Histoire de laChimie." 
 
 Bergmann, b^RG'mJn, (Gustav,) a German writer 
 on Livonian history, etc., born in 1744; died in 1814. 
 
 Bergmann, (Joseph,) a German Jesuit and naturalist, 
 born at Aschaffenburg in 1736, became professor of 
 physics and natural history at Mentz. He published 
 several scientific works. Died in 1S03. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bergmann, (Michael Adam,) born at Munich in 
 1733, wrote contributions towards the " History of Mu- 
 nich," (1780.) Died in 1783. 
 
 Bergmuller, beRG'mul'ler, (Johann Gf.org,) a Ger- 
 man engraver, born in Bavaria in 1687, became director 
 of the Academy at Augsburg. Died in 1762. 
 
 Bergoeing, bSR'gwiN', (Francois,) born at Saint- 
 Macaire in 1755, was a member of the French National 
 Convention, and voted for the imprisonment of Louis 
 XVI. Died in 1820. 
 
 Bergon, beR'g6N', (Joseph Alexandre,) Count, a 
 French statesman, born at Mirabel in 1 741, rose to be 
 councillor of state under Napoleon. Died in 1824. 
 
 Bergonzoni, beR-gon-zo'nee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Bologna in 1646, was a pupil of Guer- 
 cino. Died in 1722. 
 
 Bergstrasser.beRG'stR&s-ser, (Johann Andreas Be- 
 NIGNUS,) an eminent German naturalist, born at Idstein 
 in 1732, was professor of philosophy at Hanau. Among 
 his works is a " Description, with Figures, of all the Diur- 
 nal Butterflies of Europe," (1759.) Died in 1812. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Berigard beh-re'gjR', (Pierre,) a relative of the 
 following, born at Florence, lived about 1620. He trans- 
 lated the "Aphorisms" of Hippocrates into verse. 
 
 Berigard, de, deh beh-re'gf r', or Beauregard, boR'- 
 gfR', (Claude Guii.lermet,) Seigneur, a French 
 mathematician, born at Moulins about 1591, became pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Pisa. Died in 1664. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me"moires." 
 
 Bering. .See Behring. 
 
 Beringer, ba'ring-er, (Dif.phold,) a fanatical German 
 peasant, also called Peringer and Shuster, born about 
 1490, gained notoriety by preaching against the pope. 
 
 Beringer, (Joachim,) a German Protestant theologian, 
 lived between 1600 and 1650. He assumed the name of 
 Joachim Ursinus. 
 
 Beringer, (Johann Bartholomaus Adam,) a Ger- 
 man physician and naturalist, born about 1680, published 
 several works. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Beringer, (Michael,) a German philologist, born at 
 Uhlbach in 1566, was professor of Hebrew at Tubingen. 
 Died in 1625. 
 
 See W. Schickard, "Vita M. Beringeri," 1627. 
 
 Beringhen, de, deh beh-raN'g&N', (Jacques Louis,) 
 Marquis, born in Paris in 1651, was first groom of Louis 
 XIV. He served with distinction as an officer of cavalry. 
 Died in 1723. 
 
 BSr'ing-ton, (Joseph,) an English Catholic historian, 
 born in Shropshire about 1750, published a " Literary 
 History of the Middle Ages," (1814,) one of the best 
 works on that subject ; and a " History of the Reign of 
 Henry 1 1, of England and his Sons," (1 790.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See Butler, " Historical Memoirs of the English, Irish, and 
 Scottish Catholics," etc.; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 
 1814. 
 
 Beriot, de, deh bi're'o', (Charles Auguste,) a cele- 
 brated Belgian violinist, born at Louvain in 1802, suc- 
 ceeded Baillot as professor at the Conservatory of Music 
 in Paris, (1842.) He had married in 1836 the famous 
 vocalist Madame Malibran. Died in 1870. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie UniverseUe des Musiciens;" Favolle, 
 " Pagauini et Beriot," 1831. 
 
 Berkel, van, viin bcr'kel, [Lat. Berke'lius,] (Abra- 
 ham,) a Dutch philologist, born at Leyden about 1630, 
 published editions of the "Enchiridion" of Epictetus, 
 and other classics. Died in 1688. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Berkeley, berk'le, (Francis Henry Fitz-Har- 
 dinge,) a liberal English legislator, a younger son of 
 the fifth Earl of Berkeley, born in 1794. He has repre- 
 sented Bristol in Parliament since 1837, and has gained 
 distinction as an advocate of the mode of voting by ballot. 
 
 Berkeley, (George,) an English bishop and meta- 
 physical philosopher of great merit, was born at Kilcrin, 
 near Thomastown, Ireland, on the 12th of March, 1684. 
 He became a Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, in 1707, 
 and established his reputation as a philosopher by "An 
 Essay towards a New Theory of Vision," (1709.) In 
 1710 he published a remarkable work, "The Principle! 
 of Human Knowledge," in which he maintained his 
 celebrated theory of idealism, affirming that there is no 
 proof of the existence of matter anywhere but in our 
 own perceptions. In 1713 he visited London, where he 
 became intimate with Addison, Pope, Swift, Arbuthnot, 
 and Steele, and wrote several essays for the " Guardian." 
 In 1718 Mrs. Vanhomrigh (Swift's "Vanessa") left 
 Berkeley a legacy of ^4000. He was appointed Dean 
 of Derry in 1724, before which he had been chaplain to 
 the Duke of Grafton. He published in 1725 a " Proposal 
 for Converting the Savage Americans to Christianity," 
 and wished to found a college in America for that object, 
 for which he raised a large sum of money by subscrip- 
 tions. He also received a grant or promise of ^20,000 
 from government, and, having married a Miss Anne 
 Forster, sailed to Rhode Island in 1728. On this subject 
 he wrote a short poem, ending with these lines : 
 
 "Westward the course of empire takes its way; 
 The four first acts already past, 
 A fifth shall close the drama with the day ; 
 Time's noblest offspring is the last." 
 
 He preached about two years in Newport, but was com- 
 pelled to abandon the project of the college because the 
 ministry failed to send the funds, and he returned to Eng- 
 land. He defended religion against infidels and skeptics 
 in his "Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher," (1732,) a 
 dialogue on the model of Plato. He yvps chosen Bishop 
 of Cloyne in 1734, and about 1745, ?J7 order to set a 
 shining example to churchmen, refused the See of Clo- 
 gher, the revenue of which was twice as great as that of 
 Cloyne. Among his later works are "The Analyst," 
 addressed to an infidel mathematician, (1735,) and "A 
 Word to the Wise," (1749.) He removed to Oxford 
 in 1752, and died there in January, 1753. 
 
 " Berkeley," says Dr. Johnson, " was a profound scholar 
 as well as a man of fine imagination." "Ancient learn- 
 ing, exact science, polished society, modern literature, 
 and the fine arts," says Sir J. Mackintosh, "contributed 
 to adorn and enrich the mind of this accomplished man. 
 All his contemporaries agreed with the satirist [Pope] in 
 ascribing 
 
 'To Berkeley every virtue under heaven.' 
 Adverse factions and hostile wits concurred only in lov- 
 ing, admiring, and contributing to advance hint. . . . Mis 
 works are beyond dispute the finest models of philo- 
 sophical style since Cicero. Perhaps they surpass those 
 of the orator in the wonderful art by which the fullest 
 light is thrown on the most minute and evanescent parti 
 of the most subtle of human conceptions." (" View of the 
 Progress of Ethical Philosophy.") 
 
 See "Life of Berkeley," by Dr. Stock, prefixed to his works, 1784; 
 also G. N.Wright, " Life of George Berkeley," prefixed to his works, 
 1843; Cousin's French version of Tennemann's " Geschichte der 
 Philosophic ;" " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Berkeley, (George,) an English divine, son of the 
 preceding, born in London in 1733, became prebendary 
 of Canterbury. Died in 1795. 
 
 Berkeley, (George,) Earl of, published " Histori- 
 cal Applications and Occasional Meditations on Several 
 Subjects." Died in 1698. 
 
 Berkeley, (George Charles Granti.ey Fitzhar- 
 iMNC.i',) an English writer, son of the Earl of Berkeley, 
 born in 1802. He published, in 1836, a novel called 
 " Berkeley Castle." 
 
 Berkeley, (Maurice Frederick Fitz-Hardinge,) 
 
 S.e. T, o, ii. y, Ion?: a, e, o. same, less prolonged: a, e. T. o, ii. Iff, short; a, ?. \,o, obscure: fir, fill, fit; m8t: not; good; moon: 
 
BERKELEY 
 
 335 
 
 BERNADOTTE 
 
 M P., a naval officer, second son of the fifth Earl of Berke- 
 ley, born in 17S8. He became a vice-admiral in 1857. 
 
 Berkeley, (Rev. Miles Joseph,) an English natural- 
 ist, horn at Biggin about 1803, published botanical treat- 
 i-i s, among which is " Gleanings of British Algas." He 
 linguished as a mycologist 
 
 Berkeley, (Sir William,) born near London, was 
 appointed Governor of Virginia in 1641, took sides with 
 Charles I. in the civil war, and maintained the roval au- 
 thority in Virginia until the death of the king. He sub- 
 mitted to Cromwell in l65l,and then retired from office. 
 In 1659 he again became Governor of Virginia. He is 
 censured for his cruelty towards the insurgents whom 
 his tyrannical conduct provoked to revolt. (See Bacon, 
 Nathaniel.) He once said, "I thank God there are no 
 free schopls nor printing-presses in Virginia." Died in 
 England in 1677. 
 
 Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Berkeley, (Sir William,) a British vice-admiral, 
 born about 1640, served against the Dutch under the 
 Duke of Vork, and was killed in a naval engagement in 
 1666. 
 
 Berkeley, de, (Thomas,) an English baron, was 
 owner of Berkeley Castle, in which Edward II. was con- 
 fined and murdered in 1327. He was not, however, ac- 
 cessary to that crime. 
 
 Berkely, berk'le, (George Henry Frederick,) an 
 sh general, born in 1785, served in the Peninsular 
 ■rar, and subsequently represented Devonport in Parlia- 
 ment. Died in 1857. 
 
 Berkeu, written also Berquen, de, deh beVken, 
 (Louis,) a lapidary of Bruges, discovered in 1476 the 
 art of cutting and polishing diamonds. 
 
 Berkenhead. See Birkenhead. 
 
 Ber'ken-hout, (John,) an English physician, of Dutch 
 extraction, born at Leeds about 1730, graduated at Lev- 
 den in 1765. He published "Outlines of the Natural 
 History of Great Britain and Ireland," (1769,) "Bio- 
 graphia Literaria," (1777,) and a "Botanical Lexicon." 
 Died in 1791. 
 
 Berkeny. See Bf.rcheny. 
 
 Berkheiden or Berkheyden, beRk'hl'dSn, (Ge- 
 rard,) a Dutch painter, born at Haarlem about 1645, 
 excelled in architectural pictures. Died in 1693. 
 
 See Naglzb, ''Neues AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Berkheiden, sometimes written Breckberg, (Job,) 
 brother of the preceding, born at Haarlem about 1632, 
 painted landscapes and portraits with skill. Died about 
 1695. 
 
 Berkhey, beRk'hT, or Berkey, (Jan Lefrancq,) a 
 Dutch poet and savant, born in 1729 at Levden, where 
 he became professor of natural history. He published 
 a " Natural History of Holland," (1769,) and other sci- 
 entific works, and a collection of Idylls. Died in 1812. 
 
 Berk'ley, (John,) an English royalist officer in the 
 time of Charles I., wrote "Memoirs of the Negotiations 
 of Charles I. with Cromwell," etc. 
 
 Berlepsch, von, fon beVlcpsh, (Emilie,) a German 
 authoress, born at Gotha in 1757, published "Miscel- 
 lanies in Prose and Verse," which are highly esteemed. 
 
 Berlichingen, von, fon beVliK-ing'gn, (Gotz or 
 GOTTFRIED,) a celebrated German knight, surnamed 
 OF the Iron Hand, from an artificial hand which re- 
 placed one lost in battle. Having taken part in the 
 war of the peasants against the nobles, he was put under 
 ban of the empire by Maximilian I., and sentenced to 
 pay a heavy fine. According to some writers, he was 
 afterwards mortally wounded while defending his castle 
 against the Imperial troops, (1562.) His achievements 
 form the subject of one of Goethe's most popular dramas, 
 which has been translated by Sir Walter Scott. He left 
 "Memoirs of his Life." 
 
 See Carl Lang, " Ritter G. von Berlichingen," 1825: F. W. 
 !>ebensbeschreibung des Ritters G. von Berlichingen," 
 1738; BOschikg, "Leben G6tz von Berlichingens," 1814. 
 
 Berlichingen, von, (Joseph I'riedrich Anton,) 
 Count, an officer and litterateur, born at Tyrnau in 1759, 
 served in the Austrian army against the Turks in 1788. 
 He translated into Latin verse Goethe's " Hermann and 
 Dorothea." Died in 1832. 
 
 See Brockhavs, "Convereations-Lexikon." 
 
 Berlier, beVle-i', (Theophile,) a French jurist, born 
 at Dijon in 1761, was a member of the Convention, 1792- 
 95. Died about 1840. 
 
 Berlin, beR-leen', (Johann Daniel,) a German com- 
 poser and musician, born at Memel in 17 10, was organist 
 at Drontheim, in Norway. Died in 1775. 
 
 Berlinghieri, beR-len-ge-a'ree, (Andrea Vacca,) an 
 eminent Italian surgeon, born at Pisa in 1772, studied 
 anatomy under Desault in Paris and John Hunter in 
 London. He lectured on surgery at Pisa, and published 
 a number of valuable treatises on lithotomy and other 
 branches of surgery. He also improved several surgi- 
 cal processes, and invented a number of surgical instru- 
 ments. Died in 1826. 
 
 See TiPALDo, "Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Berlioz, beVIe'o', (Hector,) a celebrated French 
 composer, born in the department of Isere in 1803. lie 
 visited Rome in 1830 as pensionary of the Academy of 
 Fine Arts, and after his return brought out, in 1833, his 
 ■symphony of " Harold." His Requiem for General 
 Danremont, performed in 1837, was received with gen- 
 eral applause, and was followed in 1839 by his dramatic 
 symphony of "Romeo and Juliet," one of his most suc- 
 cessful productions. He also published a number of 
 valuable treatises on music. He was considered by some 
 as the chief of the romantic musical school. Died in 1869, 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Mnsiciens." 
 
 Bermann, de, deh beVnioN', a French jurist, born at 
 Nancy in 1 741, wrote a "Historic Dissertation on the 
 Ancient Chivalry and Nobility of Lorraine," (1763.) 
 
 Bermudes, beR-moo'DeV (Geronimo,) a Spanish 
 ecclesiastic, and professor of theology at Salamanca, 
 born about 1530, published several tragedies and poems. 
 Died about 1589. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Bermudes, (Juan,) a Spanish ecclesiastic, born in 
 Galicia. In 1520 he accompanied the Portuguese em- 
 bassy to Abyssinia, where he was appointed patriarch. 
 He died in 1575, leaving an interesting account of Abys- 
 sinia. 
 
 See Veyssiere la Croze, "Histoire du Christianisme d'Fahiopie 
 et d'Ann^nie." 
 
 Bermudez, (Juan Augustin Cean.) See Cean- 
 Bermudkz. 
 
 Bermudez de Castro, beR-moo'Dlth da kas'tRo, 
 (Salvador,) born at Cadiz in 1817, contributed a num- 
 ber of poems to the " Revista de Madrid," of which he 
 was editor. 
 
 Bermudo, Wr-itioo'do, or Vermudo, v£r-iiioo'do, 
 [Fr. Bermude, beVmiid',] X, surnamed the Deacon, 
 was proclaimed King of the Asturias in 788, in opposi- 
 tion to his relative Alfonso II. He subsequently made 
 the latter his colleague on the throne. 
 
 Bermudo II., son of Ordofio, became King of Leon 
 and Asturias in 982. In conjunction with the King of 
 Navarre and the Count of Castile, he gained a signal vic- 
 tory over the Moors at Osma under Almanzor, (998.) 
 Died in 999. 
 
 Bermudo III. succeeded Alfonso V. as King of Leon 
 and Asturias in 1027. He was killed in 1037, while fight- 
 ing against Sancho, King of Navrre. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Berna or Bernia. See Berni, (Francesco.) 
 
 Bernabei, beR-ni-ba'ee, (Giuseppe,) a musician, son 
 of the following, born at Rome about 1643, became 
 chapel-master to the Elector of Bavaria. Died at Mu- 
 nich in 1732. 
 
 Bernabei, (Giuseppe Ercoi.e,) an Italian composer, 
 born at Caprarola, was patronized by the Elector of Ba- 
 varia. Died at Munich in 1690. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biograpliie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Bernabei, (PIE* Antonio,) an excellent Italian fres- 
 cn-pairiTer of Parma, flourished about 1550. 
 
 Bernacchi, bcK-nak'kee, (Antonio,) an Italian vocal- 
 ist, born at Bologna about 1 700; died about 1750. 
 
 Bemadotte, ber'na-dot', [Fr. pron. bCK'ni'dot',] 
 Carl XIV. Johan, King of Sweden and Norway, Prince 
 of Ponte-Corvo, and marshal of France, was born at Pau, 
 in January, 1764, and was the son of a lawyer. His origi- 
 nal name was Jean Baptists Jules Behnadottf, (zIio'n 
 bip-test'zlnil beVnS'dot'.) In 1780 he enlisted asS» pri- 
 
 «as*;cas.r:g/;W,-gas_/V G,H,K,p</tural: n. nasal: K.trilM: 5 as*: thasin this. (ftySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 
BERNAERT 
 
 33° 
 
 BERNARD 
 
 vate in the royal marines. While a sergeant, in the begin- 
 ning of the Revolution, he saved the life of his colonel 
 from a mob at Marseilles, in 1790. In politics he was an 
 ardent republican. Promoted rapidly in the wars which 
 followed the Revolution, he gained distinction in Flanders 
 and on the Rhine, under Custine, in 1792. In 1794 he 
 became a general of division under Kleber and Jourdan, 
 and distinguished himself at the battle of Fleurus in that 
 year. He served under Bonaparte in Italy in 1797, and 
 was applauded for his conduct at the passage of the 
 Piave and in other actions. In consequence of a dis- 
 agreement with Bonaparte, he applied to the Directory 
 for another command, and was appointed minister to 
 Vienna. The mob of that capital having made a fero- 
 cious attack on him in his hotel in April, 1798, he sud- 
 denly left Vienna, and in the same year married Made- 
 moiselle Clary, a sister-in-law of Joseph Bonaparte. In 
 June, 1799, he was appointed minister of war at Paris, 
 and displayed much ability in directing this department, 
 until he was removed in the autumn of the same year. 
 
 Though he refused to join in the movements which 
 made Bonaparte consul and emperor, the latter in 1804 
 created him marshal of France and gave him command 
 of an army in Hanover. In 1805 he joined the grand 
 army which invaded Austria ; and he maintained his repu- 
 tation at Austerlitz, where he and Lannes commanded 
 the French left wing. He was created Prince of Ponte- 
 Corvo in June, 1806, and in October gained a decisive 
 victory over the Prussians at Halle. In 1807 he received 
 the military command of the Hanse Towns and Northern 
 Germany. His conduct at Wagram, in 1809, was severely 
 censured by the emperor. 
 
 On the death of the crown-prince of Sweden, an im- 
 portant question arose, who should be the successor to the 
 Swedish throne. Bernadotte had gained credit for mod- 
 eration and humanity during the war between France 
 and Sweden in 1807-8. For this and other reasons, the 
 Swedish Diet elected him as heir to the throne in 
 August, 1810. With some difficulty he obtained the as- 
 sent of Bonaparte, who, it is said, wished Bernadotte had 
 refused the crown, but exclaimed, finally, " Go, then : let 
 our destinies be accomplished !" Bernadotte immediately 
 went to Sweden, and became the colleague of Charles 
 XIII. in the government. They refused to support Na- 
 poleon's continental system by the exclusion of English ' 
 goods. The French army having invaded Pomerania in 
 January, 1812, the Swedish court prepared for hostilities 
 by a treaty of alliance with Russia, in which the annexa- 
 tion of Norway to Sweden was stipulated. 
 
 In the campaign of 1813 he joined the allies in Ger- 
 many with jin army of about 28,000 Swedes. Having 
 assumed command of a larger army designed for the 
 protection of Berlin, he gained an important victory over 
 Oudinot at Gross-Beeren iu August, and another over 
 Ney at Dennewitz in September. He also contributed 
 to the victory of Leipsic, but was considered rather 
 backward and lukewarm in the cause. The English 
 agent, Sir C. Stewart, having resorted to menaces to drive 
 him into the action, he exclaimed, " Do you forget that 
 I am Prince of Sweden, and one of the greatest generals 
 of the age ?" He did not follow the* allies in the inva- 
 sion of France in 1814, and, returning home, he soon 
 effected the conquest of Norway, which was averse to 
 be transferred to the Swedish crown. On the death of 
 the king, February 5, 1818, Bernadotte succeeded as 
 Carl XIV. Johan. His reign was peaceful and pros- 
 perous. He introduced many important reforms, and 
 was a zealous promoter of education and internal im- 
 provement in his kingdom. He died on the 8th of March, 
 1844, and was succeeded by his son, Oscar I. 
 
 See Touchard-Lafosse, "Histoire de Charles XIV;" Heri- 
 court, "E*tude biographique sur Charles XIV," 1844; Sarrans, 
 " Histoire de Bernadotte," 1845 ; Erik G. Geijer, " Konung Karls 
 XIV. Johan Historia," 1844: M. Runkel, "Carl XIV. Johan," 
 1841 ;Wm. G. Meredith, "Memorials of Charles (XIV.) John, King 
 of Sweden," 1829; Carl Grosse, "Carl XI V. Johan von Schweden," 
 1844. 
 
 Bernaert, beVnlRt, or Bernaerst, beR'nlRst, (Nl- 
 Casius,) a Dutch painter, born about 1600; died about 
 1665. 
 
 Bernaerts, beR'niRts, [Lat. Bernar'tujs,] (Jean,) 
 a Flemish jurist and litterateur, born at Mechlin in 1568. 
 
 He wrote a "History of the Life and Martyrdom of 
 Mary Queen of Scots," (in Flemish.) Died in 1601. 
 
 See Sweert, "Athenx Belgicx." 
 
 Bernaldez, beR-nal'deth, (Andres,) often called El 
 Cura de los Palacios, (da los pa-la'the-os,) a Spanish 
 historian, born in Leon about 1490, wrote a " History of 
 the Catholic Sovereigns," (still in manuscript.) 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. part i. ; 
 Irving, "Life of Columbus." 
 
 Bernal Diaz de Castillo. See Castillo. 
 
 Bernaldus. See Bkrtholdus. 
 
 Bernard. See Barnard, (Jean.) 
 
 Ber'nard, [Fr. pron. beR'niR'; It. Bernardo, beR- 
 naR'do ; Lat. Bernar'dus,] King of Italy, and grandson 
 of Charlemagne, succeeded his father Pepin about 812. 
 He was deposed by his uncle Louis, and put 4o death, 
 about 818. 
 
 Bernard, Duke of Septimania and Toulouse, espouse I 
 the cause of Louis le Debonnaire against his revolted 
 sons. Being afterwards accused of treason by Charles 
 the Bald, he was put to death in 844. 
 
 Bernard of Brussels, a Flemish painter of portraits, 
 hunting-pieces, etc. Died in 1540. 
 
 Bernard of Thuringia, a German visionary, who 
 caused great alarm in Europe by predicting the end of 
 the world, lived about 960. 
 
 Bernard, beR'niR', (Adrien Antoine,) called Ber- 
 nard de Saintes, was born at Saintes in 1750. As a 
 member of the National Convention, he voted for the 
 death of Louis XVI. Died in 1819. 
 
 Bernard, (Andrew,) a French monk, born at Tou- 
 louse, was historiographer to Henry VII. of England. 
 He wrote, in Latin, a "History of Henry VII. to the 
 Capture of Perkin Warbeck." 
 
 Bernard, (A ristide Martin,) a French radical poli- 
 tician, born at Montbrison in 1808. He was imprisoned 
 for political offences from 1 840 to 1 848. 
 
 Bernard, (Auguste Joseph,) a French antiquary and 
 historical writer, born at Montbrison in 181 1. 
 
 Bernard, (Catherine,) a French poetess, born at 
 Rouen in l"562, was a relative of Corneille and Fonte- 
 nelle. Her principal works are the tragedies of " Lao- 
 damia," (1690,) and " Brutus," (1691.) She wrote several 
 novels, which exhibit much knowledge of the human 
 heart. Fontenelle was her friend and admirer. Died in 
 
 
 1712. 
 
 Bernard, (Charles,) historiographer of France under 
 Louis XIII., wrote a "History of the Wars of Louis 
 XIII. against the Rebellious Religionists," (1646.) 
 
 Bernard, (Claude,) called the Poor Priest, born 
 at Dijon in 1588, was noted for his benevolence, and 
 spent a large fortune in acts of charity. Died in 1640. 
 
 See Francois de Girv, " Vie de C. Bernard," 1683 ; F. Gerson, 
 "Vie du Pere Bernard." 
 
 Bernard, (Claude,) an eminent French physiologist, 
 born at Saint-Tulien, in Rhone, in July, 1813. His treat- 
 ise entitled " Researches on the Uses of the Pancreas" 
 obtained the grand prize of the Institute in 1849. He 
 was admitted into the Institute in 1S54, and succeeded 
 Magendie as professor of experimental physiology in the 
 College de France in 1855. Among his works are " Re- 
 searches on the Functions of the Spinal Nerve," and a 
 "Memoir on Animal Heat," (1856.) 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G&ieVale." 
 
 Ber'nard, (Edward,) an English astronomer and 
 philologist, born near Towcester in 1638, published a 
 " Treatise on Ancient Weights and Measures." He was 
 for many years Savilian professor of astronomy at Ox- 
 ford. Died in 1697. 
 
 See Thomas Smith's " Life of E. Bernard," in Latin. 
 
 Bernard, (Sir Francis,) an English lawyer, who was 
 Governor of New Jersey from 1758 to 1760, when he 
 became Governor of Massachusetts. He offended the 
 people by bringing troops into Boston, and showed him- 
 self hostile to the popular cause. He was one of the 
 principal instruments employed to enforce the obnoxious 
 measures which produced the Revolution. He was re- 
 called in 1769. Died in 1779. 
 
 See Bancroft's "History of the Uuited States." 
 
 Bernard, (Herman Hedwig,) of Cambridge, Eng- 
 
 i, e,1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, >■, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moonj 
 
BERNARD 
 
 337 
 
 BERNARD 
 
 land, a Hebraist, born in 17S5, published "The Main 
 pies of the Creed and Ethics of the Jews," (1S32.) 
 Died in 1S57. 
 
 Bernard, (Jacques,) a French Protestant divine and 
 
 scholar, born at Nyons, in Dauphiny, in 165S. He wrote 
 
 il religious and historical treatises, and succeeded 
 
 .is editor of the journal entitled "Nouvelles de la 
 
 blique de Lettres." He passed his latter years in 
 
 Holland. Died in 1718. 
 
 .'' erard, " La France Litte'raire." 
 Bernard, beVnaRt, (Jan Frederik,) a writer and 
 bookseller of Amsterdam, published " Memoirs of the 
 Count of Brienne, Minister of Louis XIV.," (1719,) and 
 various other works. Died in 1752. 
 See Qubrard, " La France Litteraire." 
 Bernard, (Jean,) a French writer and Latin poet, 
 born at Dijon in 1576. 
 
 Bernard, (Jean,) a French physician and medical 
 writer, born at Nantes in 1702. He became professor 
 of anatomy at Douay in 1744. Died in 178 1. 
 
 Bernard, (Jean Baptiste,) a French /it/eraleur,bom 
 in Paris in 17 to, became professor of eloquence in the 
 College of Navarre. Died in 1772. 
 
 Bernard, (Jean Etienne,) a physician and medical 
 writer, of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1718; 
 died in 1793. 
 
 Bernard, (John,) an English clergyman, born at Cas- 
 tor, in Lincolnshire, became a Fellow of Lincoln College, 
 Oxford, in 1648. He wrote a " Life of Peter Heylin," 
 (1683,) who was his father-in-law. Died in 1683. 
 
 Bernard, (John,) an English actor, born at Ports- 
 mouth in 1756, performed with applause in England and 
 the United States, and became one of the managers of 
 the Boston Theatre. Died in London in 1830. (See 
 Bernard, William.) 
 
 Bernard, (Louis Rose Desire,) called also Bernard 
 de Ren.nes, a French magistrate and writer, born at 
 Brest in 1 788. 
 
 Bernard, (Nicholas,) an English divine, was a friend 
 of Archbishop Usher, whom he served as chaplain. He 
 took the degree of M.A. at Oxford in 1628. About 1642 
 he was presented to the rectory of Whitchurch. He 
 wrote a "Life of James Usher," (1656.) Died in 1661. 
 
 Bernard, (Pierre,) a French lawyer and writer, born 
 at Calais in 1640, published "Annals of Calais," (1715.) 
 Died in 1720. 
 
 Bernard, (Pierre,) a French litterateur, sometimes 
 called Bernard d'Herv, born near Auxerre in 1756, pub- 
 lished ' Poetical Preludes," and other works. He also 
 translated Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered" into French 
 verse. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 Bernard, (Pierre Joseph,) a French poet, born at 
 Grenoble in 1710, was styled by Voltaire the "Gentil 
 Bernard." His works are of a frivolous and immoral 
 tharacter. Died in 1775. 
 
 Bernard, (Pons Joseph,) a French mathematician, 
 lorn near Draguignan in 1748, published "New Prin- 
 ciples of Hydraulics," (1787.) Died in 1816. 
 
 Bernard, (Richard,) an English Puritan divine, rec- 
 tor of Batcombe, Somersetshire, born about 1566, wrote 
 "The Key of Knowledge for the Opening of the Myste- 
 ries of Saint John," " The Faithful Shepherd," and other 
 theological works. He translated Terence into English. 
 Died in 1641. 
 
 Bernard, [ Kr. pron. beR'uaV; Ger. Bkrnh ard, l>eRn'- 
 I \Rt ; It. BERNARDO, bcit-nau'do, | Saint, an eminent 
 ecclesiastic, born near Dijon, in Burgundy, in 1091. He 
 entered the Cistercian monastery of Citeaux at an early 
 age, accompanied by his five brothers and a number of 
 iates, whom his eloquence had induced to embrace 
 the monastic life. In 11 15 he became Abbot of Clair- 
 vaux, near Langres, where, refusing all higher prefer- 
 ment, he exercised a powerful influence on the ecclesias- 
 tical affairs of Europe. He prevailed upon the French 
 and English sovereigns to recognize Innocent II. as pope, 
 in opposition to the cardinal Peter of I^eon, and in 1 140 
 was chiefly instrumental in procuring the condemnation 
 af Abelard's heretical writings. He was also active in 
 promoting the crusade of 1146. lie died in 1 153, and 
 was canonized in 1174 by Pope Alexander HI. The 
 
 best edition of his works, including sermons, epistles, 
 and religious treatises, was published by Mabillon in 1 709. 
 
 See Lemaitre, "Vie de Saint-Bernard," 1649; Bourgoing de 
 Villkforb, "Vie de S. Bernard," 1704; A. Neander, "Der Iiei- 
 lige Bernard und sein Zeitaher," 1813, (translated into English by 
 Wrench, 1843;) J. L. T. Ratisbonne, • Histoire de S. Bernard," 2 
 vols., 1841 ; C. Montalembert, " Histoire de S. Bernard;" Lkvin 
 Olbers, "Vita Bernardi Clarjevallensis," 1810; J O. Ellendorf, 
 " Der heilige Bernhard," 1837 ; Eugenic de Corral, " Vida de S. 
 Bernardo," 1782; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Bernard, (Salomon,) a French painter and wood-en- 
 graver, called Petit Bernard, born at Lyons about 1500. 
 
 Bernard, (Samuel,) a French painter and engraver, 
 born in Paris in 161 5 ; died in 1687. 
 
 Bernard, (Samuel,) a French banker, son of the 
 preceding, born about 1651. He acquired an immense 
 fortune, and lent large sums to Louis XIV. and Louis XV. 
 Died in 1739. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "M^moires." 
 
 Bernard, (Simon,) a French general and engineer, 
 born at Dole in 1779, served under Napoleon in several 
 campaigns. In 1824 he accompanied La Fayette to 
 America, where he rendered important services as chief 
 engineer of the army. After his return to France he 
 became aide-de-camp to Louis Philippe, lieutenant- 
 general of engineers, and in 1836 minister of war. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Bernard, (Thomas,) a wealthy English philanthropist, 
 born at Lincoln in 1750. He procured the erection of 
 a free chapel in Saint Giles's, London, and in conjunction 
 with Count Rumford founded, about 1800, a scientific 
 establishment, which afterwards became the Royal In- 
 stitution. He wrote several works on the iinprovemeut 
 and education of the poor. Died in 1818. 
 
 See James Baker, " Life of Thomas Bernard," 1819. 
 
 Bernard, (Willi am Bayle,) son of John Bernard the 
 actor, noticed above, born in 1808, wrote "The Nervous 
 Man," "The Middy Ashore," and other popular dramas, 
 and completed and published his father's " Recollections 
 of the Stage." 
 
 Bernard, de, deh beR'ntu', (Louis Simon Joseph,) 
 a French writer, sometimes called Hernard de Mont- 
 BRISON, was born at Saint-Esprit in 1768. He was rec- 
 tor of the Academy of Strasburg. Died in 1832. 
 
 Bernard de Chartres, Wr'hSr' deh sIiSiur, a cele- 
 brated Platonic philosopher and theologian of the twelfth 
 century. He directed a school at Chartres, in France, and 
 wrote two works, called " Megacosmus" and " Microcos 
 mus," which are extant. 
 
 See Haureau, " De la Philosophie scolastique." 
 
 Bernard del Carpio. See Bernardo. 
 
 Bernard de Menthon, beVniK' deh mSN'toN', 
 Saint, founder of the celebrated establishments of the 
 " Great and Little Saint Bernard," was born near An- 
 necy, in France, in 923. After having converted the 
 pagan inhabitants of the Alpine country to Christianity, 
 he built, on the ruins of heathen structures, two monas- 
 teries for the relief and entertainment of pilgrims. These 
 houses are still inhabited by monks, who render great 
 services to travellers in the Alps. Died in 1008. 
 
 See Richard, "Vie de Saint-Bernard de Menthon;" J. C. Le- 
 crand, "Vie de S. Bernard de Menthon," 1743; "Four Ecclesi- 
 astical Biographies," by J. H. Gurnev. 
 
 Bernard de Morlaix, beR'naV deh moR'l&', a Bene- 
 dictine monk and Latin poet of the twelfth century, wrote 
 a treatise "On Contempt of the World," ("De Con- 
 temptu Mundi,") printed in 1597. 
 
 Bernard de Palissy. See Palissv. 
 
 Bernard de Saxe- Weimar. See Bernhard. 
 
 Bernard de Varennes, beVniV deh vi'r£ n', Dom, 
 a French ecclesiastic, born about 1650, published a 
 " History of Constantine the Great," (1728,) and several 
 religious works. Died in 1730. 
 
 See MoKRki, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Bernard de Veutadour, bek'naV deh vfiN'ti'dooR', 
 a French troubadour of the twelfth century, was patron- 
 ized by Eleonore of Guienne. He is noticed and praised 
 by Petrarch in his "Trionfi," iv. 
 
 See "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1836; Longfellow's 
 " Poels and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Bernard du Grail, de, deh beVniR' dii gRSI or 
 gRi'ye, (Charles,) a popular French novelist, bom at 
 Besancon in 1805. Among his chief works are "The 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; f hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as s; th as in this. (J^T"See Explanations, p. 23. 1 
 
 22 
 
BERNARD 
 
 338 
 
 BERNHARD 
 
 
 Goidian Knot," (1838,) "Gerfaut," (1838,) and "The 
 Serious Man," (1847.) Died in 1850. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire;" "Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine," vol. lxi., 1S47. 
 
 Bernard Saint- Affrique, beVniV saN'tS'fRek', 
 (Louis,) a French statesman, born in the department of 
 Gard in 1745, became a member of the National Con- 
 vention and of the Council of Ancients. 
 
 Bernardes, WR-naR'dSs, (Diogo,) one of the most 
 eminent Portuguese poets, born at Ponte de Barca about 
 1540. His pastoral poems are greatly admired by his 
 countrymen, who have styled him the " Portuguese The- 
 ocritus." Died in 1596. 
 
 See Adamson, "Lusitania illustrata ;" R. Southev, "On Portu- 
 guese Poetry;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Bar- 
 bosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Bernardi, bfiR'naVde', (Arnald,) a French theolo- 
 gian, born at Cahors, wrote "Postilla super Apocalyp- 
 sin." Died in 1334. 
 
 Bernardi, (August Ferdinand.) See Bernhardt. 
 
 Bernardi, ber-nar'dee, (John,) an English officer, 
 noted for his zeal in the cause of James II. , whom he 
 followed into France and Ireland. Died in 1736. 
 
 Bernardi, (Joseph Elzear Dominique,) a French 
 jurist and legal writer, born at Monieux, in Provence, in 
 1 75 1, became a member of the Council of Five Hundred, 
 and of the Academy of Inscriptions, (1816.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Bernardi or Bernardy, beR'niR'de', (Philippe,) a 
 French writer, brother of the preceding, born at Monieux 
 in 1759, was professor of rhetoric at Poitiers. Died after 
 1815. 
 
 Bernardi, bSR-naR'dee, (Stephen,) a German com- 
 poser and writer on music, lived about 1600-40. He 
 was chapel-master at Verona. 
 
 Bernardi del Castel-Bolognese, bSR-naR'dee del 
 kas'tel bo-ldn-ya'sa, (Giovanni,) an Italian lapidary, 
 born at Castel-Bolognese about 1495, was patronized Sy 
 Charles V. and Pope Clement VII. Died in 1555. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bernardin. See Bernardino. 
 
 Bernardin de Pequigny, beVntR'daN' deh pi'ken'- 
 ye', a French theologian and writer, born in Picardy 
 about 1663 ; died in 1709. 
 
 Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. See Saint-Pierre. 
 
 Bernardini, bSR-naR-dee'nee, (Marcello,) an Italian 
 opera-composer, born at Capua about 1752. 
 
 Bernardino, bSR-naR-dee'no, [Fr. Bernardin, Mk'- 
 ni R'daN',] Saint, of Sienna, an eloquent Italian eccle- 
 siastic, born at Massa di Carrara in 1380. He became 
 Vicar-General of the order of Saint Francis, and is said 
 to have founded more than three hundred monasteries. 
 Died in 1444. 
 
 See Dupin, " Bibliotheque ecclesiastique." 
 
 Bernardo, beR-nlR'do, [Fr. Bernard, beVniR ',]an 
 Italian, surnamed il TrEVISANO, (i.e Trevisan,) born 
 at Padua in 1406, wrote a number of works, in Latin and 
 French, on alchemy. Died in 1490. 
 
 See F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Bernardo of Pavia, an Italian ecclesiastic, became 
 successively professor of canon law at Rome and at Bo- 
 logna, and Bishop of Pavia. He published a collection 
 of decretals, and several other works. Died in 1213. 
 
 Bernardo, (Zenale,) called Bernardino, a painter 
 and architect, born at Treviglio, in the Milanese, was a 
 friend of Leonardo da Vinci, who praises him m his 
 "Treatise on Painting." Died in 1526. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Bernardo da Bologna, bCK-nau'do da bo-16n'ya, an 
 Italian theologian and biographer, lived about 1740-50. 
 
 Bernardo da Cruz, beR-nait'do da kRoos, (Frey,) 
 a Portuguese historian, wrote a " History of the Reign 
 of Don Sebastian," (1837.) 
 
 Bernardo del Carpio, b?R-naR'do del kaR'pe-o, a 
 celebrated Spanish hero of the ninth century, was a 
 nephew of Alfonso the Chaste. He displayed the most 
 brilliant courage in the wars against the Moors, and, ac- 
 cording to tradition, defeated the famous Roland at 
 Roncesvalles. His exploits form the subject of several 
 dramas by Lope de Vega, and 01 many popular Spanish 
 ballads. » 
 
 See Mariana, "Historiade Espatia." 
 
 Bernardoni, b?R-n3R-do'nee, (Pietro Antonio,) an 
 Italian poet, born at Vignola in 1672 ; died in 1714. 
 
 Bernasconi, beR-nas-ko'nee, (Andrea,) a musician, 
 born at Marseilles in 1712. He produced a number of 
 successful operas. Died at Munich in 1784. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Bernasconi, (Laura,) an Italian flower-painter, born 
 at Rome about 1620; died after 1670. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bernauer, beVnow-er, (Agnes,) the beautiful daugh- 
 ter of a citizen of Augsburg, was privately married to 
 Albert, Duke of Bavaria. His father, having discovered 
 the marriage, caused Agnes to be drowned in the Danube, 
 (1435,) on a charge of sorcery. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Bernazzano, beR-nat-sa'no, a Milanese painter of 
 landscapes, animals, and still-life, lived about 1540. 
 
 Bernd, beRnt, (Christian Samuel Theodor,) a Ger- 
 man writer on heraldry, born at Meseritz in 1775, pub- 
 lished " The Principal Points of Heraldic Science." 
 
 Bernegger, beVneVker, (Matthaus,) a German 
 scholar and Latin writer, born at Hallstadt in 1582 ; died 
 in 1640. 
 
 Berner, beVner, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German 
 musician and composer, born at Breslau in 1780, was a 
 skilful organist and pianist. Died in 1827. 
 
 Berner, (Johann Benjamin,) a German Protestant 
 theologian, born at Greitz in 1727; died in 1772. 
 
 Berneron, de, deh beRn'riN', (Francois,) a French 
 general, born in 1750, served under Luckner and Du- 
 mouriez. 
 
 Ber'ners, (John Bourchier,) Lord, an English 
 statesman and writer, born about 1474, rose to be chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer under Henry VIII. He is chiefly 
 celebrated for his translation of Froissart's " Chronicles. 
 Died in 1532. 
 
 Berners, (Juliana.) SccBarnes. 
 
 Berneachi See Benaschi. 
 
 Bernet, beR'nJ', (Jacques,) a French cardinal, born 
 at Saint-Flour in 1770. He became Archbishop of Aix 
 in 1835. Died in 1846. 
 
 Bernetti, b^R-net'tee, (Tommaso,) born at Fermo i" 
 1779, was one of the thirteen cardinals who refused to 
 attend the marriage of Napoleon and Maria Louisa, and 
 who were called black cardinals, from their not being al- 
 lowed to wear the purple. He assisted in the conclusion 
 of the concordat with the Netherlands, (1S27,) and was 
 employed in other important negotiations. Died in 1852. 
 
 See "Biographie du Cardinal Bernetti," 1852. 
 
 Berneville, de, deh beRn'vel', (Gilebert,) a famous 
 French poet or trmtvire, born in Artois, lived about the 
 middle of the thirteenth century. 
 
 See A. Dinaux, " Trouveres de la Flandre." 
 
 Bernhard, beRn'haRt, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, one of 
 the most celebrated commanders in the Thirty Y 
 war, born in 1604, was a son of John III., Duke of Saxe- 
 Weimar. Having previously served in the armies of 
 Holland and Denmark, he joined Gustavus Adolphus 
 on his arrival in Germany, and distinguished himself in 
 various engagements in 1631 and 1632. After the death 
 of Gustavus at Liitzen, (1632,) he commanded the left 
 wing of the Swedish army, and by his skill and en 
 contributed greatly to the victory. In 1633 he obtained 
 the command of half the army, and received the duke- 
 dom of Franconia. Dissatisfied with the terms of the 
 peace of Prague, he entered into a personal treaty of 
 alliance with France in 1635. He subsequently gained 
 a signal victory over the Imperial troops at Rhemielden, 
 (1638,) and soon after captured Breisach. He died in 
 1639, of pestilential fever, or, according to some writers, 
 of poison administered by order of Cardinal Richelieu. 
 
 See Schiller, " History of the Thirty Years' War ;" " Historv of 
 the two illustrious Brothers Erneslus the Pious, and Bernard. I 
 Duke of Saxe-Weimar," London, 1740; J. A. C. von HellfblO, 
 "Geschichte Bernhards des Grossen, Herzogs zu Sachsen-Weim.ir," 
 1797: Bernhard Roese. " Herzog Benihard der Grosse von Sach* 
 sen- Weimar," 2 vols., 1828-29. 
 
 Bernhard, (Karl,) Duke of Saxe-Weimar, born at 
 Weimar in 1792. He served in the principal campaigns 
 against the French from 1806 to 181 5, and was made lieu- 
 tenant-general in 1 83 1. He published "Travels in North 
 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ti, f, short: a, e, i, o, obscure: fir. fall, fat; m?t: not; good: moon: 
 
BERN HARD 
 
 339 
 
 BERNOULLI 
 
 America," (iS28,) and "Summary of the Campaign in 
 Java in 1S11." 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for July and November, 1829. 
 
 Bernhard, bCRn'haRt, (Karl,) the pseudonym of 
 Saint- Aubaiii, a celebrated Danish novelist, of French 
 extraction. Among his most popular works are " Pic- 
 tures of Life in Denmark," (1841,) "The Children's 
 Ball," and "Christian II. and his Times," (1837,) a his- 
 torical romance. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale," and Bellman, "Poetes 
 
 Sued. 
 
 Bernhard or Bernhardi (b<*Rn-haR'dee) of Bernitz, 
 (Martin,) a Polish botanist, physician to the King of 
 Poland, lived about 1650. 
 
 Bernhard, Saint. See Bernard, Saint. 
 
 Bernhardi, beRn-haR'dee, written also Bernardi, 
 [August Ferdinand,) a German philologist, born at 
 Berlin about 1769. He was a brother-in-law of Tieck, 
 and published conjointly with him " Bambocciaden," a 
 collection of comic tales. He also wrote " Elements of the 
 ce of Language," (" Anfangsgriinde der Sprachwis- 
 senscliaft," 1S05,) and other works. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Bernhardi, (Johann Jakob,) a German botanist and 
 medical writer, born at Erfurt in 1774; died about 1840. 
 
 Bernhardi, (Karl Christian Sigismund,) a Ger- 
 man statesman, scholar, and writer, born at Ottrau in 
 1799. He succeeded Grimm as first keeper of the library 
 of the museum at Cassel in 1829, and was in 1848 a 
 member of the National Assembly at Frankfort. 
 
 Bernhardy, beRn-haR'dee, (Gottfried,) born at 
 Landsberg, in Prussia, in 1800, became professor of clas- 
 sical philology at Halle in 1829. 
 
 Bernhold, beRn'holt, (Johann Balthasar,) a Ger- 
 man poet and theologian, born in 1687 ; died in 1769. 
 
 Bernhold, (Johann Gottfried,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1721, wrote several tragedies. Died about 
 17;;. 
 
 Bernhold, (Johann Michael,) a learned German 
 physician and medical writer, born in 1736 ; died in 1797. 
 
 Berni, WR'nee, or Bernia, beVne-1, (Francesco,) 
 mnent Italian burlesque poet, was born at Lampo- 
 recchio, in Tuscany, about 1490. He became a priest, 
 and entered the service of Cardinal Bibbiena at Rome. 
 the death of Bibbiena he passed seven years in the 
 •• of Ghiberti, Bishop of Verona, as secretary. He 
 was appointed a canon of the cathedral of Florence about 
 1 530. I le wrote a number of burlesque poems and satires, 
 which are remarkable for the elegance of their style, 
 and arc considered the best model of a kind of poetry 
 which derives from him its name, "Poesia Bernesca." 
 He mi also produced a modification (rifacitnento) of Bo- 
 jardo's" Orlando Innamorato," which some critics regard 
 as superior to the original poem. It was published in 
 1541- "Berni undertook," says Hallam, "the singular 
 office of writing over the 'Orlando Innamorato,' pre- 
 serving the sense of almost every stanza, and inserting 
 nothing but a few introductory passages, in the manner 
 of Ariosto, to each canto. The genius of Berni, playful, 
 satirical, flexible, was admirably fitted to perform this 
 labour; . . . and the 'Orlando Innamorato' has de- 
 scended to posterity as the work of two minds." (" In- 
 troduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1536. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Mazzuchelli, 
 Sermon d'ltalia;" Rev. H. Stebbing, " Lives of the Italian 
 Poets," 1831; "North American Review" for October, 1824, article 
 "Italian Narrative Poetry," (by Pkescott.) 
 
 Berni, (Francesco,) an Italian jurist and dramatic 
 poet, born in 1610 at Ferrara, where he became pro- 
 fessor of belles-lettres. Died in 1673. 
 
 Bernice. See Berenice. 
 
 Bernier, beVne-4', (Adhelm,) born at Senlis, in 
 France, published several works on French history, 
 dated 1834-37. 
 
 Bernier, (Etienne Alexandre,) a zealous royalist, 
 born at Daon, in La Mayenne, in 1762, was called "the 
 Apostle of La Vendee." He was appointed Bishop of 
 Orleans by Napoleon. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de 1'Empire." 
 
 Bernier, (Francois,) a celebrated French traveller 
 and physician, born at Angers. In 1654 he visited Syria 
 
 and Egypt, and subsequently resided many years in India 
 as physician to the Mogul emperor Aurung-Zeb. He 
 published, after his return, a" History of the Last Revo- 
 lution of the States of the Great Mogul," (1670,) and a 
 "Continuation of Memoirs of the Empire of the Great 
 Mogul," (1671.) These are esteemed standard works, 
 and are written in a spirited and attractive style. Ber- 
 nier also wrote several scientific treatises, which were 
 popular in his time. Died in 1688. 
 
 See Walckenaer, "Vies de plusieurs Personnages celebres;" 
 " Retrospective Review," vol. i., second series. 1827. 
 
 Bernier, (Jean,) a French physician, born at Blois in 
 1622, wrote " Medical Essays," and a " History of Blois." 
 Died in 1698. 
 
 Bernier, (Nicolas,) a French musician and com- 
 poser, born at Mantes in 1664, became royal chapel- 
 master. Died in 1734. 
 
 See Fins, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Bernieri, be\R-ne-a'ree, (Antonio,) a skilful Italian 
 miniature-painter, born in 1516, was apupil of Correggio. 
 Died in 1565. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Berningroth, beVning-rot', (Martin,) a German 
 engraver and designer, born in 1670; died in 1733. 
 
 Bernini, beR-nee'nee, (Domenico,) an Italian eccle- 
 siastic, son of Giovanni Lorenzo, noticed below, wrote a 
 " History of all Heresies from the Beginning of Chris- 
 tianity to Innocent XL," (1705.) 
 
 Bernini, [Fr. Le Bernin, leh beVnaN',] (Giovanni 
 Lorenzo,) often called "the Cavalier Bernini,"' an emi- 
 nent Italian sculptor and architect, born at Naples in 
 December, 1598. At a very early age he was taken to 
 Rome, where his first specimens of sculpture procured 
 for him the favour of Paul V. and Cardinal Barberini, 
 afterwards Urban VIII. Among his best works are 
 the Barberini palace, the colonnade before the entrance 
 of Saint Peter's, and the monument of the Countess Ma- 
 tilda. He also executed busts of Charles I. of England, 
 Louis XIV. of France, and other distinguished persons. 
 He was patronized and munificently rewarded by the 
 principal sovereigns of Europe, and left at his death, in 
 November, 1680, a fortune of nearly ,£100,000 sterling. 
 He died in Rome. 
 
 See Quatremere de Quincy, "Dictionnaire d' Architecture :" 
 Domenico Bernini, "Vita del Cavaliere G. L. Bernini suo Padre," 
 1713; P. B. Silorata, " Biografia del Cavaliere G. L. Bernini," 1838. 
 
 Bernini, (GIUSEPPE Maria,) a Capuchin missionary 
 to the East Indies, born in Piedmont, translated several 
 works from the Sanscrit. Died in 1753. 
 
 Bernini, (Pietro,) an Italian painter and sculptor, 
 father of Giovanni Lorenzo, above noticed, born in Tus- 
 cany in 1562. Died in 1629. 
 
 Bernis, de, deh beVness', (Francois Joachim de 
 Pierre,) a French cardinal and diplomatist, born at 
 Saint-Marcel de l'Ardeche in 1 715. He was ambassa- 
 dor to Venice, was employed in various negotiations by 
 Louis XV., and subsequently became minister of foreign 
 affairs. He held this office during the Seven Years' war, 
 (1755-62.) He was made Archbishop of Albi in 1764, 
 having been previously elected a member of the French 
 Academy. He wrote a number of poems and prose 
 works. In 1769 he was sent as ambassador to Rome, 
 where he remained until his death in 1794. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Sieclede Louis XV," and " Correspondance ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Bernitz, (Martin of.) See Bernhard, (Martin.) 
 
 Ber'no, [Fr. Bkrnon, beVno.N'J a learned Bent- 
 dictine monk, became Abbot of Reichenau, near Lake 
 Constance. He wrote, in Latin, several treatises on 
 music and theology. Died in 1045. 
 
 Bernouilli. See Bernoulli. 
 
 Bernoul. See Bertholdus. 
 
 Bernoulli, b^R'noo'ye', written also Bernouilli, 
 (Ciiristophe,) nephew of Jacques, (second of the name,) 
 noticed below, was born at Bale in 1782. He studied at 
 Gottingen, where he became professor of natural history 
 in 181 7. He published a treatise "On the Phospho- 
 rescence of the Sea," (1802,) and "Physical Anthro- 
 pology," 181 1, (in German.) 
 
 Bernoulli, (Daniel,) a celebrated mathematician and 
 philosopher, son of Jean, (the first of that name,) noticed 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; r.. H. K, guttural ': N. vasal: R, trilled: s as z: th as in thh. (Jr^-Sce Explications, p. 23.' 
 
BERNOULLI 
 
 340 
 
 BERQUIN 
 
 below, was born at Groningen on the 9th of February, 
 1 700. He studied mathematics and medicine in Italy under 
 Michelotti and Morgagni, and was appointed professor 
 of mathematics at Saint Petersburg about 1725. After 
 his return in 1733 he became professor of anatomy and 
 botany at Bjlle, and subsequently of physics and specu- 
 lative philosophy. In 1748 he succeeded his father as 
 member of the French Academy of Sciences. He ob- 
 tained the prize of that institution ten times, having 
 shared it once with Euler, and was a member of the 
 principal learned societies of Europe. Among his nu- 
 merous works, which are written in Latin and French, 
 we may mention his "Treatise on Hydrodynamics," 
 (1738,) and "Physical and Mechanical Researches on 
 Sound," (1762.) Died at Bale in 1782. 
 
 See Condorcet, " FJoge de Daniel Bernoulli," 1782; D. Ber- 
 •ioulli, " Vita D. Bernoulli," 1783. 
 
 Bernoulli, (Jacques or James,) an eminent mathe- 
 matician, born at Bale, in Switzerland, in December, 
 1654. He studied the philosophy of Descartes, and in 
 1687 became professor of mathematics in his native city. 
 He improved the differential calculus invented by Leib- 
 nitz, and solved many important problems, among which 
 is the " Isoperimetrical problem." He discovered the 
 properties of the logarithmic spiral, and wrote several 
 treatises on mathematics. In 1699 he was elected a 
 foreign associate of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. 
 Died at Bale in 1705. 
 
 See Battier, "Vita Jacobi Bernoulli," 1705. 
 
 Bernoulli, (Jacques,) son of John, (the second of the 
 name,) born at Bale in 1759. He was instructed in 
 geometry and physics by his uncle Daniel, and became 
 professor of mathematics at Saint Petersburg, where he 
 married the granddaughter of Euler. He was drowned 
 in the Neva in 1789. 
 
 Bernoulli, (Jean or John,) born at Bale in 1667, was 
 a brother of Jacques, (the first of the name.) He dis- 
 covered the exponential calculus, and had a share in the 
 principal discoveries of his brother. He became pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Groningen, (1695,) anc ' ul tne 
 University of Bale, (1705.) He was a member of the 
 Academies of Paris, Berlin, and Saint Petersburg, and 
 of the Royal Society of London. His contributions to 
 the "Acta Eruditorum," and other journals, were pub- 
 lished in four volumes, (1742,) and his " Correspondence 
 with Leibnitz" in 1745. Died in 1748. 
 
 He left three sons, Nicholas, Daniel, and John, 
 who are all noticed in this work. 
 
 See D'Alembert, E*loge de J. Bernoulli." 
 
 Bernoulli, (Jean or John,) brother of Daniel, born 
 in 1 7 10 at Bale, where he became professor of mathe- 
 matics. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences 
 of Paris and Berlin, and wrote several scientific works, 
 which obtained the prize from the first-named institu- 
 tion. Died in 1790. 
 
 Bernoulli, (Jean,) son of the preceding, born at Bale 
 in 1744, became astronomer royal at Berlin. He was a 
 member of the Academy of Saint Petersburg and the 
 Royal Society of London, and published a number of 
 works on astronomy, mathematics, and geography, also 
 "Travels in Germany, Russia," etc., (6 vols., 1779.) 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Bernoulli, (Jerome,) a Swiss naturalist, a relative of 
 the preceding, born at Bale in 1745 ; died in 1829. 
 
 Bernoulli, (NICOLAS,) eldest brother of Daniel, born 
 at Bale in 1695. rle became professor of law at Berne, 
 and subsequently of mathematics at Saint Petersburg, 
 in conjunction with his brother Daniel. Died at Saint 
 Petersburg in 1726. 
 
 Bernoulli, (Nicolas,) cousin of the preceding, born 
 at Bale in 1687. He was, on the recommendation of 
 Leibnitz, appointed in 1716 professor of mathematics at 
 Padua. He made several important mathematical dis- 
 coveries. Died in 1759. 
 
 Bernstein, bean'stin, (Georg Heinrich,) born near 
 Jena in 1787, became in 1821 professor of Oriental lan- 
 guages at Berlin. He published an edition of the "Arabic 
 Grammar and Chrestomathy" of Michaelis, and of " Hi- 
 topadesa," a popular Sanscrit book of stones or fables. 
 He removed to Breslau in 1843. 
 
 Bernstein, (Johann Gottlieb,) a German writer on 
 
 surgery, born in 1747 in Berlin, where he was professor 
 from 1810 until 1821. Died in 1835. 
 
 Bernstorff, von, fon beRn'stoRf, (Andreas Peter,) 
 Count, an eminent statesman, born in the duchy of 
 Brunswick-Liineburg in 1735. He studied at Gottingen 
 and Leipsic, and became minister of state (1769) under 
 the King of Denmark. He died in 1797, leaving a high 
 reputation for ability and integrity. He was a nephew 
 of Johann Hartwig Ernst, noticed below. 
 
 See Eggers, " Denkwiirdigkeiten aus dem Leben des Staatsmi- 
 nisters Von Bernstorff," 1800; Rasmus Nyerup, "A. P. Bernstorffs 
 Levnetsbeskrivelse," 1812. 
 
 Bernstorff; von, (Christian Gunther,) Count, 
 son of the preceding, born at Copenhagen in 1769. He 
 became successively ambassador to Berlin and Stock- 
 holm, and minister of state, (1797.) He represented 
 Denmark at the Congress of Vienna in 1814, and in 1 Si 5 
 signed the cession of Norway to Sweden. In 1818 he 
 entered the service of Prussia, and was appointed minis- 
 ter of foreign affairs. Died in 1835. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Bernstorff, von, (Johann Hartwig Ernst,) Count, 
 a celebrated statesman in the Danish service, born at 
 Hanover in 1 712. He was employed in various import- 
 ant negotiations, and became minister of foreign affairs 
 in 1 75 1. In 1773 he concluded a treaty by which Russia 
 exchanged Holstein for Oldenburg. He was a generous 
 patron of learning and the arts, and greatly promoted 
 the commerce and manufactures of his country. Died 
 in 1772. A monument was erected to his memory by 
 the serfs whom he had emancipated. 
 
 See Martin HObner, " Sorgetale over Greve J. H. E. Bernstortf," 
 1772 : G. L. Ahlemann, " Ueber das Leben und den Charaktei des 
 Graten von Bernstorff," 1777; G. Navarro, "Vie du Conite J. H. 
 E. Bernstorff," 1822. 
 
 Bernt, beRnt, (Joseph,) a German writer on legal 
 medicine, born about 1770. He lectured on medical 
 jurisprudence at Prague and at Vienna. Died in 1842. 
 
 Bernward, beRn'waRt, Saint, Bishop of Hildesheim, 
 in Lower Saxony, born about 950, was celebrated for his 
 profound and various learning, and his patronage of the 
 arts. He was appointed tutor and court chaplain to the 
 emperor Otho III. Died in 1022. 
 
 Beroalde,ba'ro'ild',orBerould,ba'roo',(M.YTHiEU,) 
 a French Calvinistic theologian, born near Paris about 
 1510, was professor of Hebrew at Orleans. Died in 1576. 
 
 Beroalde de Verville, bi'ro'ild' deh vjR-vel', 
 (Francois,) a French mathematician and litterateur, son 
 of the preceding, born in Paris in 1558 ; died in 1612. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Beroaldo, ba-ro-al'do, (Fii.ippo,) called the Elder, 
 an Italian scholar and writer of high reputation, born in 
 1453 at Bologna, where he was for many years professor 
 of belles-lettres. He published numerous commentaries 
 on the Greek and Latin classics, also Orations, and other 
 short works. Died at Bologna in 1505. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Giovanni Pini, 
 " Vita P. Beroaldi Senioris," 1505. 
 
 Beroaldo, (Filitpo,) nephew of the preceding, born 
 at Bologna in 1472, became librarian of the Vatican in 
 1 5 16. Died at Rome in 15 18. 
 
 Beroaldo, (Vincenzo,) an Italian poet, son of Bero- 
 aldo the Elder, was born at Bologna; died in 1557. 
 
 Beroldingen, de, deh ba'rol-ding'en, (Franz,) Ba- 
 ron, a Swiss mineralogist, born at Saint-Gall in 1740. 
 He wrote a " Treatise on Ancient and Modern Volca- 
 noes," (1791,) and other works, in German. Died in 1798. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Be-ro'sus, [Gr. Br/puaoc; Fr. Berose, ba'roz',] a Chal- 
 dee historian, sometimes called Bar-Oseas, ("son of 
 Oseas,") lived in the time of Alexander the Great, and 
 was a priest of Belus at Babylon. His principal work 
 was a " History of Babylonia and Chaldaea," written in 
 Greek ; fragments of it are preserved in Eusebius and 
 other Greek writers. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Grascis;" Fabricius, " Bibliotbeca 
 Graca." 
 
 Berould. See Beroai.de, (Mathieu.) 
 
 Berquen. See Berken. 
 
 Berquin, beVka.N', (Arnaud,) a French writer, born 
 at Bordeaux in 1749, is chiefly celebrated for his "Chil- 
 dren's Friend," (6 vols., 1784,) and other popular works 
 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good: moon; 
 
BERQUIN 
 
 34' 
 
 BERRrER 
 
 for the joung. lie also made a number of translations 
 from the English. Died in Paris in 1791. 
 
 See Lb Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." 
 Berquin, de, deh beVka.N', (Louis,) a French gen- 
 tleman, born in Artois in 14S9, was a counsellor of Fran- 
 cis I. He was a friend of Erasmus, whose works he was 
 active in circulating. Being accused of Lutheranism by 
 the theological faculty of Paris, he was burned at the 
 stake in 1529. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoiredes Francais," chap, xvi.; Bayle, "His- 
 ind Critical Dictionary ;" "Quarterly Review" for July, 1S59. 
 
 Berr, bCR, (Friedrich,) a German musician and 
 ser of instrumental music, born at Manheim in 
 1704 ; died about 1838. 
 
 Berre, b&'ri', (Jean Baptiste,) a Flemish painter of 
 animals, born at Antwerp in 1777 ; died in 1838. 
 
 Berredo, de, da ber-ra'do, (Bernardo Pereira,) a 
 Portuguese writer and soldier, born at Villa de Serpa. 
 He became Governor of Maranham, Brazil, and wrote 
 annals of that province, (1749.) Died at Lisbon in 1748. 
 
 Berrettoni. See Berettoni. 
 
 Berres, beVres, (Joseph,) a skilful German surgeon, 
 born at Coding, in Moravia, in 1796. About 1830 he 
 became professor of anatomy in the University of Vienna, 
 and published, besides other works, "Anthropologic," 
 (1821,) which was highly esteemed. Died in 1844. 
 
 Berretoni, (NiccolO.) See Berretti. 
 
 Berretti, Mr-ret'tee, or Berretini, be>-ri-tee'nee, 
 written also Berretoni, (Niccol6,) an Italian painter, 
 one of the best pupils of Carlo Maratta, born about 1637 ; 
 died in 1682. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Berrettini See Cortona, (Pietro da.) 
 
 Berri. See Berry. 
 
 Berriat. See Berryat. 
 
 Berriat Saint-Prix, b^'re-i' saN'pRe', (Charles,) a 
 French jurist and litterateur, born at Grenoble in 1802, 
 became a counsellor at the imperial court of Paris in 1857. 
 
 Berriat Saint-Prix, (Jacques,) a French jurist, born 
 at Grenoble in 1769. He published numerous works, 
 and edited the writings of Boileau, (1830-34.) Died at 
 Paris in 1845. 
 
 See Duchesne, " Notice sur la Vie, etc de Berriat Saint-Prix," 
 1847; A. H. Taillandier, "Notice sur la Vie de Berriat Saint- 
 Prix," 1S46. 
 
 BeVridge, (John,) born about 1716, became vicar of 
 Everton in 1755, and published "The Christian World 
 Unmasked," (1773.) Died in 1793. 
 
 BeVrl-en, (John McPherson,) an American lawyer 
 and Senator, born in New Jersey in 1781, removed to 
 Georgia, where he was elected to the United States Senate 
 in 1824. He was appointed attorney-general of the United 
 States in 1829, and resigned in 1831. He was again 
 made Senator in 1840 and in 1846. Died in 1856. 
 
 Berrier, b4're-a', (Jean Francois Constant,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Aire, in Artois, in 1766, wrote 
 birthday odes, vaudevilles, etc. Died in Paris in 1824. 
 
 BeVrl-man, (William,) a learned English divine, 
 born in London in 1688, became chaplain to the Bishop 
 of London in 1720. He wrote, among other works, a 
 "Historical Account of the Trinitarian Controversy," 
 (1725.) He was well versed in Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, 
 Arabic, etc. Died in 1750. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Berroyer, bJ'Rwa'yi', (Claude,) a French jurist, 
 born at Moulins in 1655, was an advocate in the Parlia- 
 ment of Paris. Died in 1735. 
 
 Berruguete, ber-roo-ga'ti, ( Alonzo,) a Spanish archi- 
 tect and sculptor, born near Valladolid, was a pupil of 
 Michael Angelo. He restored the Alhambra, and exe- 
 cuted several important works at Madrid. Among his 
 faiaster-pieces was the choir of the cathedral of Toledo. 
 He was made a chevalier by the emperor Charles V. 
 Died in 1561. 
 
 See Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Berruyer, b&'rii-e'a', (Jean Francois,) born at Lyons 
 > n .'737. served in the Seven Years' war and in the cam- 
 paigns of the French Revolution, and was made inspector- 
 general of cavalry. Died in 1804. 
 
 Berruyer, (Josfph Isaac,) a French Jesuit, born at 
 Rouen in 1681 ; died in 1758. 
 
 Bfir'ry, (Hiram G.,) an American general, born at 
 Thomaston, (now Rockland,) Maine, in 1824. He served 
 as colonel at Bull Run, July 21, 1861, and became a 
 brigadier-general of volunteers in April, 1862. He dis- 
 tinguished himself by his skill and courage at Fair Oaks, 
 June 1, and in the Seven Days' battles near Richmond, 
 June 26-July 1, 1862. About February, 1863, he was 
 appointed a major-general. He commanded a division 
 at Chancellorsville, where he was killed, May 3, 1863. 
 
 BSr'rjf, (Sir John,) an English naval commander, 
 born in Devonshire in 1635 ; died in 1691. 
 
 Berry, (Mary,) an English lady of distinguished tal- 
 ents and beauty, born in 1762, was an intimate friend 
 and correspondent of Horace Walpole. She wrote a 
 work entitled " England and France," and a " Life of 
 Lady Rachel Russell." Her correspondence and that 
 of her sister Agnes with Horace Walpole came out in 
 1S40. Died in 1852. 
 
 See " Journals and Correspondence of Miss Mary Berry," edited 
 by Lady Theresa Lewis, 1S66; "London Quarterly Review" for 
 March, 1845 ; " Edinburgh Review," vol. exxii., 1865. 
 
 Berry, (William,) a Scottish seal-engraver, born 
 about 1730; died in 1783. 
 
 Berry or Berri, de, deh ber're, [Fr. pron. bj're',] 
 (Caroline P'erdinande Louise,) Duchesse, daughter 
 of Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sicilies, was born at 
 Naples in 1798. She was married in 1816 to the Duke 
 of Berry, second son of Charles X. After the assassina- 
 tion of her husband, in 1820, the legitimists supported the 
 claims of her infant son, the Duke of Bordeaux, to the 
 throne. In 1832 a rising in her favour took place in Brit- 
 tany, but, being betrayed by a pretended friend, she was 
 taken by the enemy, and, after a short imprisonment, 
 retired to Sicily. Died in 1870. 
 
 See Dermoncourt, "La Vendue et Madame," Paris, 1834; Al- 
 fred Nettement, " M&noires de Madame la Duchesse de Berry," 
 3 vols., 1836; "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1833; 
 " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1837. 
 
 Berry or Berri, de, (Charles,) Due, born in 1446, 
 was a son of King Charles VII., and a younger brother 
 of Louis XI. Impelled by ambition to be king, he con- 
 spired with Charles the Bold against Louis XI. This 
 was the origin of the League of the Public Good, (Bien 
 public.) (See Louis XL) Died in 1472. 
 
 Berry.de, (Charles,) Due, a grandson ofLouis XIV., 
 born in 1686. He married in 1710 the daughter of Philip, 
 Duke of Orleans, afterwards regent of France. Died in 
 1714. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "Me'moires." 
 
 Berry or Berri, de, (Charles Ferdinand d'Ar- 
 tois — diit'twa',) Due, a French prince, born at Ver- 
 sailles in 1778, was the second son of Charles X. He 
 emigrated about 1790, and served in the army under the 
 Prince of Conde. In 1816 he married the Princess Caro- 
 line of Naples. He was assassinated by Louvet in Paris 
 in February, 1S20. 
 
 See Chateaubriand, " Me'moires touchant la Vie et la Mort du 
 Due de Berry," 1820; F. T. Delbare, "Vie de S. A. R. le Due dc 
 Berry," 1820. 
 
 Berry or Berri, de, (Jean,) Due, born in 1340, was 
 the third son of John II., King of France. He was pres- 
 ent at the battle of Poitiers, and in 1360 was one of the 
 hostages delivered up to England by the treaty of Bre- 
 tigny. In 1381 he was, by Charles VI., appointed royal 
 lieutenant for Languedoc, but on account of his tyranny 
 was deprived of his orifice. After the murder of the Duke 
 of Orleans, he joined the faction of the Armagnacs 
 against the Burgundians. He died in 1416, leaving a 
 valuable collection of manuscripts and works of art. 
 
 See Ravnal, " Histoire du Berry:" Froissart, "Chronicles." 
 
 Berry or Berri, de, (Marie Louise E LIS a Beth 
 d Orleans — doR'li'fiN',) Duchesse, eldest daughter of 
 Philip, Duke of Orleans, born in 1695, was married to 
 the Duke of Berry, grandson of Louis XIV. She was 
 noted for her ambition and profligacy. Died in 1719. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "Me'moires." 
 
 Berryat or Berriat, bi're-i', (Jean,) a French phy- 
 sician and medical writer ; died in 1754. 
 
 Berryer, bj're-i' or bcVv.V, (Anioine Pierre,) a ce- 
 lebrated political orator and chief of the legitimist party, 
 a son of Pierre Nicolas, noticed below, born in Paris on 
 the 4th of January, 1790. He studied in the college 
 
 « as; /•; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; 8, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (J^^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BERRrER 
 
 342 
 
 BERTHET 
 
 Juilly, and made his dibut at the bar of Paris in 181 1. 
 Although he favoured the restoration, he thought it ex- 
 pedient to show lenity to the losing party. He was as- 
 sociated with his father in pleading the cause of Marshal 
 Ney in 181 5, and defended with success General Cam- 
 bronne, who had followed Napoleon to Waterloo. As a 
 prelude to his parliamentary career, he gave a course of 
 political lectures, which were very successful, and in 1830 
 was elected a deputy for Puy, (in Haute-Loire.) In his 
 first speech, March, 18.30, he sustained with magnificent 
 eloquence the bo' 1 position that the crown has a right 
 to choose the miu.stry outside of the majority. 
 
 After the revolution of July, 1830, he remained as 
 champ'in of the legitimist cause, although the members 
 of hia .irty retired from the Chamber en masse. He 
 maintained a position independent of the ministerial and 
 he opposition parties. His speech against the abolition 
 >f the hereditary peerage, in 183 1, was very celebrated. 
 In June, 1832, he was arrested as a suspected partisan of 
 the Duchesse de Berry, who attempted to effect a revo- 
 lution u arms, although he had advised her against that 
 course. He was tried and acquitted. About the period 
 of 1835 ne was considered the foremost orator in the 
 Chambe r. He opposed, as defective and premature, the 
 motion for the abolition of slavery in 1838, supported 
 the transient coalition of Guizot and Thiers in 1839, and 
 defended the captive Louis Napoleon in 1840. In the 
 Assemblies of 1848 and 1849 he was one of the chiefs of 
 the majority formed by a coalition of several monarchical 
 parties. He opposed the coup d'etat of Napoleon in De- 
 cember, 1851, after which he remained aloof from politics 
 for some years. He was elected to the French Academy 
 in 1852. Died in November, 1868. 
 
 See Louis Marie de la Haye Cormenin, "Biographie parle- 
 memaire de M. Berryer," 1837 ; " Biographie de M. Berryer," Paris, 
 8vo, 1839; "Nouvelle Biographie Geneiale;" "Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for July, 1837; " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1842. 
 
 Berryer, (Nicolas Rene,) a French statesman, born 
 in Paris in 1703, became keeper of the seals in 1761. 
 Died in 1762. 
 
 See Duclos, " Mdmoires sur le Regne de Louis XV." 
 
 Berryer, (Pierre Nicolas,) a French jurist and elo- 
 quent pleader, born at Sainte-Menehould in 1757, was the 
 father of Antoine Pierre, noticed above. He had a large 
 practice in commercial causes, and was counsel in several 
 political trials, among which was that of Marshal Ney 
 in 1815. He published an "Allocution of an Old Friend 
 of Liberty to France," (1830,) and "Souvenirs," (1838.) 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 See " Souvenirs de M. Berryer de 1774 a 1838," 2 vols., 1838. 
 
 Ber'ser-ker, [from ber, "bare," and serk, "coat of 
 mail,"] a legendary Scandinavian hero of the eighth 
 century, celebrated for his strength and valour. He 
 fought without coat of mail or helmet, whence his name. 
 The name Berserkers was also applied to a class of war- 
 riors who, under the influence of a sort of demoniac 
 possession, fought naked, performing marvellous feats 
 of valour, unmindful or insusceptible of wounds. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Bersmann,b?Rs'man,[Lat. Bersman'nus,](Gregor,) 
 a German scholar, born at Annaberg, in Saxony, about 
 1536. He translated the Psalms into Latin verse, and 
 published editions of several classics. Died in 161 1. 
 
 See W. Schubert, "De G. Bersmanno Philologo et Poeta," 1853. 
 
 Berta, beVta, (Francesco,) born about 17 19, at Turin, 
 where he became one of the keepers of the royal library. 
 Died in 1787. 
 
 Bertaire or Berthaire, Saint, saN'b^R't^R', born 
 about Sio, was descended from the kings of France. He 
 became, in 856, abbot of the monastery of Monte-Casino. 
 He was killed by the Saracens in 884. 
 
 See Mabillon, "Acta Sanctorum Ordinis Sancti Benedicti." 
 
 Bertana b?R-ta'na, (Lucia,) an Italian poetess, born 
 about 1530 ; died in 1567. 
 
 Bertani, beR-ta'nee, or Bertano, (Giovanni Bat- 
 TISTA,) an Italian painter and architect, was a pupil of 
 Giulio Romano. He worked at Mantua about 1566. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Bertani, (Lei.io,) an Italian musician and composer, 
 born at Brescia about 1520 ; died in 1600. 
 
 Bertaut, Bertault, or Berthaut, pronounced alike 
 beR'to', born at Valenciennes about 1705, was an excel- 
 lent performer on the violoncello, which he first rendered 
 popular in France. Died in 1756. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Bertaut, (£loi,) a French writer, born at Vesoul in 
 1782, became professor of mathematics at Besancon 
 about 1800. Died in 1834. 
 
 Bertaut, (Franqois,) a French litterateur, born in 
 Paris in 1621, was a favourite with Louis XIII., who ap- 
 pointed him his reader. He was a brother of Madame 
 de Motteville. (See Motteville.) 
 
 Bertaut, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic and popular 
 poet, born at Caen about 1560, rose to be Bishop of Seez 
 in 1606, and almoner to Mary de Medicis, queen of Henry 
 IV. It is said that he contributed much to the conver- 
 sion of Henry IV. to Catholicism. He composed pas- 
 torals, songs, elegies, and other poems, which were much 
 admired. Many of them were translated into Greek and 
 Latin. He was an uncle of Madame de Motteville the 
 authoress. Died in 161 1. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Sainte- 
 Beuve, "De la Po^sie Francaise au seizieme Siecle." 
 
 Bertaut, (Leonard,) a French ecclesiastic, born at 
 Autun ; died in 1662. 
 
 Bertaux, bSR'to', (Duplessi,) a French artist, en- 
 graved the "Campaigns of Napoleon in Italy," after 
 Vernet. Died in 1815. 
 
 Bertel, beVtel, or Bertels, bSR'tels, (Jan,) a Flem- 
 ish ecclesiastic and historical writer, born at Louvain in 
 1559 ; died in 1607. 
 
 Ber'tha or Ber'trade, called also E'dith-ber'ga, a 
 daughter of Caribert, King of Paris, lived about 560 A.I). 
 She was married to Ethelbert, King of Kent, whom she 
 persuaded to embrace Christianity. 
 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopeMique de la France." 
 
 Ber'tha, [Fr. Berthe, b&Rt,] a daughter of Conrad, 
 King of Burgundy, was married to Robert, King of Paris, 
 her cousin in the fourth degree, about 995, and after- 
 wards divorced on account of relationship. 
 
 Berthaire. See Bertaire, Saint. 
 
 Berthault, beVto', (Louis Martin,) a French archi- 
 tect, born in Paris about 1 771, was commissioned by 
 Napoleon to execute a number of public works. He 
 furnished the designs for the principal parks and gardens 
 of France. 
 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclope*dique de la France." 
 
 Berthault, (Pierre,) a French ecclesiastic, born at 
 Sens, lived about 1600-50. 
 
 Berthault, (Rene,) a French litterateur, translated 
 the "Golden Book" of Marcus Aurelius. Died in 1534. 
 
 Berthaut. See Bertaut. 
 
 Berthe. See Bertha. 
 
 Berthegene. See Berthezene. 
 
 Berthelemy, beR'til'me', (Jean Simon,) a French 
 historical painter, born at Laon in 1743 ; died in 181 1. 
 
 Berthelet, (Gregoire.) See Berthelot. 
 
 Berthelin, WRt'li.N', (Pierre Charles,) a French 
 writer on lexicography, born in Paris about 1720; died 
 in 1780. 
 
 Berthelot, beRt'lo', (Claude Francois,) a French 
 mechanician, engineer, and professor of mathematics, 
 born at Chateau-Chalons in 1718. He published "Me- 
 chanics applied to the Arts, Manufactures, Agriculture, 
 and War," (1782.) Died in 1800. 
 
 See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclop^dique de la France." 
 
 Berthelot or Berthelet, (Gregoire,) a French Bene- 
 dictine writer, born at Berain in 1680; died in 1745. 
 
 Berthelot, (Jean Francois,) a French jurist, and 
 professor of law in Paris, where he was born in 1749; 
 died in 181 4. 
 
 Berthelot, (N.,) a French satiric poet, born about 
 1580. 
 
 Berthereau,beRt'ro', (Georges Francois,) a French 
 ecclesiastic and philologist, born at Belesme in 1732; 
 died in 1794. 
 
 Berthet, beVt&', (Cue Bertrand,) a French novel- 
 ist, born at Limoges in 1 81 5. He became a resident 
 of Paris in 1834, and produced many successful novels, 
 among which are "The Poacher," (" Le Braconnier," 
 
 3, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; nflt; good; mo^n 
 
BERTHET 
 
 343 
 
 BERTHOUD 
 
 1846.) "The Storks' Nest," (" Le Nid de Cigognes," 1848,) 
 and "The Catacombs of Paris," (8 vols., 1854.) 
 
 Berthet, (J fan,) a French Jesuit and writer, born at 
 Taniscon in 1622 ; died in 1692. 
 
 Berthezene, l^Kt'z^N', written also Berthegene, 
 (Pierre,) a French baron, born in Herault in 1775, 
 gained the rank of general of division by his conduct at 
 Bautzen and Lutzen in 1S13. He had a prominent part 
 in the conquest of Algeria. 
 
 Berthier, beR'te-4',(GuiLLAUME Franqois,) a French 
 Jesuit and critic, born at Issoudun in 1704, wrote a con- 
 tinuation (in 6 vols.) of the "History of the Gallican 
 Church." He edited the "Journal de Trevoux" for 
 many years. Died in 1782. 
 
 Berthier, (Joseph Etienne,) a French Cartesian phi- 
 losopher, born at Aix in 1702, was an Oratorian. He 
 published, besides other works, "The Nature of Comets," 
 Physique des Cometes," 1760,) and "The Princi- 
 if Physics," (1763.) Died in Paris in 1783. 
 
 Berthier, (Louis Alexandre,) Prince of Wagram, 
 was born at Versailles in November, 1753. He served 
 as captain under La Fayette in the United States, (1778— 
 82,) and in 1796 became chief of staff of the army of 
 Bonaparte, with the rank of general of division. He 
 gained in this campaign the favour and confidence of 
 parte, whom he followed in 1798 to Egypt, and 
 aided in his victory over the Directory in 1799, soon 
 after which he became minister of war. He was made a 
 marshal of France in 1804, distinguished himself in the 
 campaign against Austria in 1805, and received the title 
 of Prince of Neufchatel in 1806. During the absence 
 of Napoleon, in 1809, Berthier had for a short time the 
 title of general-in-chief of the grande armee. For his 
 services at the battle of Wagram, in 1809, he was created 
 Prince of Wagram. In this and subsequent campaigns 
 he was chief of the staff, and usually rode in the carriage 
 Of Napoleon, whose plans and orders he digested and 
 despatched with admirable precision and promptitude. 
 He was not, however, equal to the chief command of an 
 army. He shared the disasters of the Russian campaign. 
 In 1S14 he was among the first of the generals to give 
 his adhesion to Louis XVIII., by whom he was raised to 
 the peerage. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, 
 Berthier wished to be neutral, and retired to Bamberg, 
 where he met a violent death in March, 1815. Six men 
 in masks (says the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale") 
 threw him from a window into the street, whence he was 
 taken up in a dying condition ; but this story is discre- 
 dited by some writers. 
 
 Sec "Me'moires d'A. Berthier," Paris, 1826. 
 
 Berthier, (Napoleon Louis Joseph Alexandre,) 
 Duke of Wagram, the only son of the preceding, was 
 bum in Paris in 1810. He entered the Chamber of 
 Peers in 1836, and about 1848 became a partisan of 
 Louis Napoleon. In 1852 he was made a senator. He 
 is distinguished as a practical agriculturist. 
 
 Berthier, (Pierre,) a French mineralogist, born at 
 Nemours in 1772, became a member of the Academy 
 of Sciences in 1827. His chief work is a "Treatise on 
 Assays by the Dry Method," ("Traite des Essais par la 
 Vm'c seclie," 11 vols., 1833.) Died in August, 1861. 
 
 Berthold. See "Bertholdus. 
 
 Berthold, beVtolt, a Saxon ecclesiastic, who was 
 distinguished for his zeal in converting the Livonians to 
 Christianity. He was killed in 1 198, while endeavour- 
 ing to propagate his doctrines by force of arms. 
 Krsch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Berthold, a German ecclesiastic and eminent pulpit 
 orator ; died in 1272. 
 
 Berthold, (Arnold Adolf,) a German savant, born 
 at Soest, in Westphalia, in 1803. He published a" Man- 
 ual of the Physiology of Men and Animals," (2 vols., 
 l829,)a "Manual of Zoology," (1845,) anc ' several works 
 on comparative anatomy and physiology. He became a 
 professor at Gottingen in 1836. Died in 1861. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Ber-thol'dus or Berthold, beVtolt, called also Ber- 
 naldus, Bernoul, and Bertoul, a German ecclesiastic, 
 who lived about 1060, wrote, in Latin, a history of his 
 times, and other works. 
 
 Bertholet, beR'to'l*/, (Jean,) a Flemish Jesuit, born 
 
 at Salm, wrote the "Ecclesiastical and Civil History of 
 the Duchy of Luxembourg," (1741.) Died in 1755. 
 
 Bertholet-Flemalle. See Flemallf, 
 
 Berthollet, beR'to'l^', (Claude Louis,) a French 
 chemical philosopher of great eminence, was born at 
 Taillore or Talloire, near Annecy, Savoy, on the 9th of 
 November, 1748. He was educated at Turin, where he 
 took his degree in medicine in 1768. In 1772 he re- 
 moved to Paris, and by the mediation of Tronchin became 
 physician to the Duke of Orleans, with whom he enjoyed 
 facilities for his chemical investigations. He produced 
 " Researches on the Nature of Animal Substances" in 
 1780, a"nd about this time was admitted into the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences. In 1785 he announced his conversion 
 to the anti-phlogistic theory of Lavoisier, which no other 
 eminent French chemist had yet adopted, and presented 
 a memoir on oxy-muriatic acid, (chlorine.) He discovered 
 the composition of ammonia in 1785, proved that nitro-' 
 gen is an essential principle in the composition of animal 
 substances, and in an essay on pnissic acid (1787) main- 
 tained that oxygen is not necessary to the formation of 
 acids. About this time he rendered an important ser- 
 vice by inventing the process of bleaching by chlorine. 
 In 1790 he published a good work on the art of dyeing, 
 " Siemens de l'Art de la Teinture." He was chosen 
 professor of chemistry in the Polytechnic School in 1794, 
 and was sent to Italy with Monge in 1796 to select works 
 of art and science which should be taken to Paris as 
 spoils. He was associated with Lavoisier and others in 
 reforming the nomenclature of chemistry. Berthollet is 
 said to have been the only one to whom Bonaparte con- 
 fided in advance the secret of his. expedition to Egypt, 
 (1798,) which he accompanied. Under the auspices of 
 Monge and Berthollet, the Institute of Egypt was founded; 
 and a number of their pupils made a grand application 
 of the lessons of the Polytechnic School. He explained 
 the formation of the carbonate of soda at Lake Natron, 
 and discovered a valuable mode of obtaining muriatic 
 acid from common salt, then called muriate of soda. 
 
 Berthollet was one of the few select friends who re- 
 turned to France with Bonaparte in 1799, about the end 
 of which year he was made a senator. His " Researches 
 on the Laws of Affinity" (1801) was translated into 
 English by Farrel, (1804.) In 1803 he published an able 
 " Essay on Chemical Statics," (" Essai de Statique clii- 
 mique," 2 vols.,) which was translated into English and 
 other languages. In the last-named work he controverted 
 the opinions of Bergman on elective affinity. During 
 the empire he received the title of Count ; but he always 
 preserved his simplicity and love of study. He discov- 
 ered how to keep water pure in voyages by carbonizing 
 the inside of the cask or other vessel. On the restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons he was admitted to the Chamber 
 of Peers. He died at Arcueil, near Paris, on the 6th of 
 November, 1822, or, according to some writers, on the 
 6th of December of that year. 
 
 See Cuvier, "FJogede Berthollet," 1824; E. F. Jomard, "No- 
 tice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Berthollet," 1823; Julia dh 
 Fontenelle, " Notice historique sur Berthollet," 1826; Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." , 
 
 Bertholon, beVto'loN', (Pierre,) a French physi- 
 cian and savant, born at Lyons in 1742, was a friend of 
 Dr. Franklin. He wrote a treatise on the " Electricity 
 of Meteors," (1787,) and other similar works. Died in 
 1800. 
 
 See "Biographie Me'dicale." 
 
 Berthon, bJVtoN', (Rene Theodore,) a French 
 artist, born at Tours in 1778, painted history at Vienna 
 and Paris. 
 
 Berthot, beVto', (Clement Louis Charles,) a 
 French writer, born in Haute-Marne in 1758, wrote a 
 " History of the French Revolution," (18 vols., 1792- 
 1803.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Berthoud, beVtoo', (Ferdinand,) a Swiss mecha- 
 nician and writer, born in the county of Neufchatel 
 about 1725, was the inventor of marine clocks. He was 
 a member of the Institute of France and of the Royal 
 Society of London. Died in 1807. 
 
 Berthoud, (Samuel Henri,) a French journalist and 
 litterateur, born at Cambrai in 1804, was successively 
 associate editor of the " Revue des Deux Mondes," the 
 
 € as k, i as s; g hard; g as /'; c, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BERTI 
 
 344 
 
 BERTON 
 
 " Revue de Paris," and " La Presse." He has published 
 romances, poems, and moral and historical treatises. He 
 settled in Paris about 1832. 
 
 See Quhrard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Berti, beVtee, (Alessandro Pompeo,) an Italian ec- 
 clesiastic and historical writer, born at Lucca in 1686. 
 Died in Rome in 1752. 
 
 Berti, (Giovanni Lorenzo,) an Italian theologian, 
 and professor of ecclesiastical history at Pisa, born at 
 Saravezza in 1696; died in 1766. 
 
 Berti, (Pietro,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born at 
 Venice in 1 741, was professor of rhetoric at Parma. 
 Died in 1813. 
 
 Ber'tie, (Richard,) an English Protestant gentleman, 
 who married the Duchess-dowager of Suffolk. In the 
 reign of Mary he retired with his wife to the continent, 
 for refuge from persecution. 
 
 His son Peregrine, born in 1555, was an eminent 
 officer, and succeeded Leicester as commander of the 
 English troops in the Low Countries. Died in 1601. 
 
 Bertie, (Robert,) a son of Peregrine, noticed above, 
 born in 1582, was a military officer, and fought for Charles 
 I. in the civil war. He was created Earl of Lindsey about 
 1626, and was mortally wounded at Edgehill in 1642. 
 
 Bertie, (Sir Thomas Hoar,) an English naval com- 
 mander, born in London in 1758. He served against 
 the French in 1778-82, and was made vice-admiral in 
 1813. Died in 1825. 
 
 Bertie, (Wii.loughhy,) fourth Earl of Abingdon, an 
 English statesman and political writer. He published 
 " Thoughts on the Letter of Edmund Burke to the She- 
 riffs of Bristol." Died in 1799. 
 
 Bertier de Sauvigny, beR'te-A' deh so'ven'ye', 
 (Louis Benigne Francois,) a French statesman, born 
 about 1742, was intendant of the district of Paris in 1768. 
 He was killed in a mob in 1789, together with his father- 
 in-law Foulon. 
 
 Bertin, beVtaN', (Antoine,) a French erotic poet, 
 born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1752. His reputation was 
 founded on his poem " Des Amours," (1780.) Died in 
 Saint Domingo in 1790. 
 
 Bertin, (Antoine,) a French ecclesiastic, born at 
 Droup-Saint-Basle in 1761, became professor of theo- 
 logv at Rheims. Died in 1S23. 
 
 Bertin, (Edouard Francois,) a French landscape- 
 painter, son of Louis Francois, noticed below, was born 
 in Paris in 1797. Among his master-pieces are "The 
 Forest of Fontainebleau," and a " View of the Apen- 
 nines." He became editor or director of the "Journal 
 des Debats" in 1854. 
 
 Bertin, (Exupere (eVsu'paiR') Joseph,) a French 
 anatomist of high reputation, born at Tremblay in 1712, 
 published a "Treatise on Osteology," (4 vols., 1754,) and 
 other anatomical and medical works. Died in 1781. 
 
 See Condorcet, "Fjoge de Bertin." 
 
 Bertin, (Henri Leonard Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 statesman, born in Perigord in 1719, became controller- 
 general of finance in 1759. Died in 1792. 
 
 See Lacretelle, " Histoire du dix-huitieine Siecle " 
 
 Bertin, (Jean Victor,) a French landscape-painter, 
 born in Pans in 1775; died in 1841. 
 
 Bertin, (Louis Francois,) a French journalist and 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1766. He founded in 1800 
 the "Journal des Debats," a literary daily paper, to which 
 Chiteaubriand and other eminent writers of the time 
 were contributors. Accused by Napoleon of favouring 
 the royalists, he was first imprisoned and afterwards 
 exiled, and in 181 1 his journal was confiscated. He had 
 then twenty thousand subscribers or more. In 1814 he 
 resumed its publication. Died in 1841. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Bertin, (Louis Marie Armand,) son of the preced- 
 ing, born in Paris in 1801. He succeeded his father as 
 editor of the "Journal des Debats" in 1841. Died in 1854. 
 
 Bertin, (Louise Angelique,) daughter of Louis Fran- 
 cois, born at Roches in 1805, studied music under Fetis, 
 and composed the operas of " Esmeralda" and " Faust." 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Bertin, (Nicolas,) a French painter, born in Paris in 
 1667. He became a professor in the Academy of Paris 
 
 in 1716. Among his works is " Saint Philip baptizing 
 the Eunuch." Died in 1736. 
 
 Bertin, (Rene Joseph Hvacinthe,) a French phy- 
 sician and medical writer, son of Exupere Joseph, noticed 
 above, born near Rennes in 1767; died in 1827. 
 
 Bertin, (Theodore Pierre,) a French litterateur, 
 born near Provins in 1 751. He translated into French 
 the " Curiosities of Literature" and other English works. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Bertin, Saint, born at Constance, in Switzerland, be- 
 came Abbot of Sithieu, at Saint-Omer, about 695. Died 
 in 709. 
 
 Bertin d'Antilly, b?R'taN' ddN'te'ye', (Louis Au- 
 guste,) a French dramatic writer, a natural son of An- 
 guste Louis, noticed below, born in Paris about 1760. 
 He died at Saint Petersburg in 1804. 
 
 Bertin de Blagny, beR'taN' deh blin'ye', (Augusts 
 Louis,) a French litterateur, and member of the Academy 
 of Inscriptions, lived about 1750. 
 
 Bertin de Veaux, bjR'ti.N' deh vo, (Louis Fran- 
 (JOIS,) a French politician and journalist, brother of Louis 
 Francois Bertin, noticed above, born in Paris in 1771. 
 He was one of the founders and managers of the " Jour- 
 nal des Debats." He was twice elected to the Chamber 
 of Deputies, became a councillor of state in 1827, and a 
 member of the Chamber of Peers in 1832. Died in 1S42. 
 
 Bertini, beR-tee'nee, (Antonio Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian physician, born at Castel-Fiorentino in 1658 ; died 
 in 1726. 
 
 Bertini, (G 1 usF.ri'K Maria Saverio,) a physician and 
 medical writer, son of the preceding, born at Florence in 
 1694 ; died in 1756. 
 
 Bertini, ber-tee'nee, (Henri,) a composer and pianist, 
 born in London in 1798, lived many years in Paris. He 
 composed for the piano some works which are highly 
 commended by Fetis. 
 
 Bertini, (Salvatore,) an Italian musician and com- 
 poser, born at Palermo in 1721, became chapel-master 
 to the king. Died in 1794. 
 
 Bertius, beVte-us, (Peter,) born at Baveren, in Flan- 
 ders, in 1565, was historiographer and cosmographer of 
 Louis XIII., and published a work entitled "Theatre 
 of Ancient Geography," (in Latin, 1619.) Died in 1629. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Walckenaer, "Vies de plusieun 
 Personnages ce'lebres," 1830. 
 
 Bertlef, beRt'lef, (Martin,) a German writer, born in 
 Transylvania, was professor at Thorn in 1699. He pub- 
 lished " Solemn and Civil Orations," (or "Assemblies,") 
 (" Solennes et Civiles Condones," 1695.) 
 
 Bertling, beRt'ling, (Ernst August,) a German 
 theologian, born at Osnabruck in 1721 ; died in 1769. 
 
 Bertola. See Bertoli. 
 
 Bertolacci, bSR-to-lat'chee, (Antonio,) a magistrate 
 of Corsican extraction, born in England, was appointed 
 by the government administrator and controller-general 
 of the island of Ceylon, which post he filled for seventeen 
 years. He wrote a " View of the Agricultural, Com- 
 mercial, and Financial Interests of Ceylon," (1817.) Died 
 in 1833. 
 
 Bertoli, beVto-lee, or Bertola, beVto-la, (Aurelio 
 Giorgio,) an Italian author and monk, born at Rimini 
 in 1753. He lectured on history at Naples, and was 
 afterwards professor of belles-lettres at Pavia. He ti .ins 
 lated the works of Horace, and Gesner's Idylls, into Ital 
 ian, and wrote, besides several able critical essa\ s, a poert 
 on the death of Clement XIV., entitled " I.e Notti Cle- 
 mentine," which was received with favour. Died at 
 Rome in 1798. 
 
 See Tipai-do, " Biografia degH Italiani ilhistri." 
 
 Bertoli, (Giovanni Domenico,) an Italian antiquary, 
 born at Merets, in the Friuli, in 1676; died after 1750. 
 
 Bertolio, beVto'le-o', (Antoine Rene Constance,) 
 a French jurist, born at Avignon, was appointed by 
 Napoleon chief judge of Guadeloupe. Died in 1812. 
 
 Bertolotti, bSR-to-lot'tee, (Giovanni Lorenzo,) an 
 Italian historical painter, born at Genoa in 1640; died 
 in 1721. 
 
 Berton, beVt6N', (Emii.e Adolpiie Joseph,) a French 
 physician and writer, born at Dinant in 1801, was a son 
 of General Berton, executed in 1822. Died in 1855. 
 
 Berton, (Francois,) son of Henri Montan, noticed 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon: 
 
BERTON 
 
 345 
 
 BERTRANS 
 
 below, bom in Paris in 1784, produced a number of ballads 
 and comic operas. Died in 1832. 
 
 Berton, (Henri Montan — m6x't6x',) a popular 
 French composer, son of Pierre Montan, noticed below, 
 born in Paris in 1766. His works include oratorios, songs, 
 and operas, one of which is entitled "Aline, Queen of 
 Golconda." Died in 1844. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Berton, (J ean Baptiste,) a French general of brigade, 
 born near Sedan in 1769. He was a member of the 
 Carbonari, and in 1822 was executed, by order of Louis 
 XVIII., for having headed an insurrection against the 
 government. 
 
 See " Memoire pour ]e G^n^ral Berton," 1822. 
 
 Berton, (Louis Sebastien,) principal of the military 
 school of Brienne, where he was born in 1745. Among 
 his pupils was Napoleon Bonaparte, who, on becoming 
 First 1 onsul, made him director of the Lyceum of Arts at 
 Compiegne. DiediniSu. 
 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." 
 
 Berton, (Pierre Montan,) a French composer, born 
 in Paris in 1727. He became director of the Opera in 
 1767. Died in 1780. A great reform in dramatic music 
 was effected under his administration. 
 
 Ber'ton, (William,) chancellor of Oxford University, 
 lived about 1380. He wrote several Latin treatises 
 against Wickliffe. 
 
 Bertoni, beu-to'nee, (Ferdinando,) an Italian musi- 
 cian, born at or near Venice in 1727, composed success- 
 ful operas entitled "Orfeo," "Armida,"and "Tancredi." 
 Died in Venice about 1800. 
 
 Bertotti-Scamozzi, beR-tot'tee ska-mot'see, (Otta- 
 vio,) an Italian architect, born at Vicenza in 1726. He 
 built several fine palaces near Vicenza, and published 
 an edition of Palladio's works. Died about 1800. 
 
 Bertoul. See Bertholdus. 
 
 Bertoux, beR'too', (Guillaume,) a French Jesuit 
 and writer, born in 1723. 
 
 Bertrade. See Bertha. 
 
 Bertram, beK'tRam, (August Wilhelm,) a German 
 physician, born in 1752, became in 1787 professor of 
 medicine at Halle. Died in 1788. 
 
 Bertram, beVtRON', (Box a venture Corneille,) a 
 French Orientalist, born at Thouars, in Poitou, in 1531, 
 became a Protestant minister and professor of Hebrew 
 at Geneva. He wrote, in Latin, a work on the civil and 
 ecclesiastical policy of the Jews, (1580.) Died in 1594. 
 
 Ber'tram, (Charles,) an English antiquary and phi- 
 lologist, born about 1700, was professor of the English 
 language in the Royal Marine Academy at Copenhagen. 
 
 Bertram, (Christian August,) a German litterateur 
 and journalist, born at Berlin in 1751 ; died in 1830. 
 
 Bertram, (Johann Friebrich,] a German Lutheran 
 theologian, born in 1699; died in 1741. 
 
 Bertram, (Johann Gkorg,) a German theologian, 
 born at Liineburg in 1670; died in 1728. 
 
 Bertram, (Philii'>> Ernst,) a German jurist and 
 writer, born at Zerbst in 1726, was professor of law at 
 Halle in 1761. Died in 1777. 
 
 Bertrand, beu'tRON', (Antoine Marie,) a French 
 revolutionist, was appointed mayor of Lyons in 1792. 
 He was condemned to death by the Directory, and exe- 
 cuted in 1796. 
 
 Bertrand, beR'tR&x', (Elie,) a Swiss naturalist and 
 geologist, born at Orl>e in 1712. He became pastor of a 
 church at Berne about 1744, published "Memoirs on the 
 Interior Structure of the Earth," (1752,) a "General Dic- 
 tionary of Fossils," (2 vols., 1763,) and other scientific 
 Works. He also wrote some moral and religious treatises. 
 Died about 1790. 
 
 Bertrand, (Francois Seraphique — sa'riTek',) a 
 French jurist and poet, born at Nantes in 1 702 ; died in 
 I7«. 
 
 Bertrand or Bertrandi, beR-tR5n'dee, (Jean,) a 
 French statesman and cardinal, born in 1470, was keeper 
 of the seals under Henry II. and afterwards became 
 Archbishop of Sens. Died in 1560. 
 
 Bertrand, (Jean.) a Swiss livine and miscellaneous 
 writer, brother of Elie, noticed above, born at Orbe in 
 170S. He wrote several agricultural treatises, and made 
 translations from the English. Died in 1777. 
 
 Bertrand, (Jean Baptiste,) a French physician, born 
 at Martigue, in Provence, in 1670, practised at Marseilles. 
 He wrote, among other works, a " Historical Account 
 of the Plague of Marseilles in 1720." Died in 1752. 
 
 Bertrand, (Jean Baptiste,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and litterateur, born at Cernay-les-Reims in 1764, pub- 
 lished several works on Etymology. Died in 1830. 
 
 Bertrand, (Jean Elie,) a Swiss moralist and religious 
 writer, born at NeufchStel in 1737. He was pastor of a 
 French church at Berne. Died in 1779. 
 
 Bertrand, (Joseph Louis Francois,) a French ma- 
 thematician, born in Paris in 1822, was admitted into the 
 Institute in 1856. He published several able works on 
 Algebra, etc. 
 
 Bertrand, L'Abbe, a French astronomer, born at 
 Autun in 1755, became professor of physics in the college 
 of Dijon, (1782.) Died in 1792. 
 
 Bertrand, (Louis,) a Swiss mathematician and geolo- 
 gist, born at Geneva in 1731, was a pupil of Euler. He 
 wrote " Elements of Geometry," (1812,) and other mathe- 
 matical treatises. He obtained a professorship at Geneva 
 in 1 761. Died in 1812. 
 
 SteCuviER. "Discourssur les Revolutions de la Surface du Globe." 
 
 Bertrand, (Louis Jacques Napoleon Aloysius,) a 
 French poet, born in Piedmont in 1807 ; died in 1841. 
 
 Bertrand, (Philippe,) a French sculptor, born in 
 Paris in 1664; died in 1724. 
 
 Bertrand, (Philippe,) a French engineer and geolo- 
 gist, born near Sens in 1730. He published several 
 works on Navigation and Geology, and was engineer of 
 a canal connecting the Rhine with the Rhone. Died in 
 Paris in 181 1. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Bertrand, (Thomas Bernard,) a French physician 
 and medical writer, born in Paris in 1682, became dean 
 of the faculty in 1740. Died in 1751. 
 
 See " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Bertrand d'Alamanon, beR'tRSN' dt'lS'mi'niN', or 
 d'Allamon, dt'li'mdN', a French troubadour, born in 
 Provence about 1100. 
 
 Bertrand de Born. See Born. 
 
 Bertrand de la £[osdiniere, beR'tRd.s' deh It ho' 
 de'115-aiR', (Charles Ambroise,) a French magistrate, 
 and member of the National Convention, sided with the 
 Girondists, and voted for the death of the king. He 
 became in 1798 a member of the Council of Five Hun- 
 dred. Died in 1819. 
 
 See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclopedique de la France." 
 
 Bertrand de Molleville, de, deh be R'tRdN' deh mol'- 
 vel', (Antoine Francois,) Marquis, a French states- 
 man, born at Toulouse in 1744. He was appointed 
 minister of the marine in October, 1 79 1, but held that 
 office only a few months. He wrote a " History of the 
 French Revolution," (14 vols., 1800-1803,) and other 
 works. He was proscribed as a royalist in August, 1792, 
 but escaped by flight. Died in Paris in 1818. 
 
 Bertrand, de, deh beVtRox', (Henri Gratien,) 
 Comte, a French general, born at Chateauroux in 1773. 
 He served in Egypt, Austria, and Russia, and in 1815 
 accompanied Napoleon to Saint Helena. After his re- 
 turn to France, he was elected to the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties. He died in 1844, leaving in manuscript "Memoirs 
 of the Campaigns of Egypt and Syria, dictated by Na- 
 poleon at Saint Helena. They were published in two 
 volumes (1847) by the son of Count Bertrand. 
 
 See _" Victoires et Conqueres des Francais ;" L. de Lomenie, 
 " Galerie des Contemporains ;" Paulin, " Notice biographique sur le 
 General Comte Bertrand," 1S47. 
 
 Bertrandi, beR-tRan'dee, (Giovanni Antonio Ma- 
 ria,) an Italian surgeon, born at Turin in 1723, wrote 
 several medical and anatomical works, which are highly 
 esteemed. He was professor of surgery in Turin, and 
 chief surgeon to the king. Died in 1765. 
 
 See " Biographic Mrfdicale." 
 
 Bertrandi, (Jean.) See Bertrand. 
 
 Bertrandi, beVtRoN'de', (Nicolas,) a French jurist, 
 and professor of law at Toulouse, wrote a historical ac- 
 count of Toulouse, ("De Tholosanorum Gestis," 1515.) 
 Died in 1527. 
 
 Bertrans, bek'tRox', surnamed Ci.erc, (klcRk,) a 
 French poet and romance-writer of the thirteenth century. 
 
 cas/t; suss; gfianl; gasj; G.u.K^'uttural; H.uasal; R.lrilleJj sas*; thasinrVw. fljySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BERTUCH 
 
 346 
 
 BESKOW 
 
 Bertuch, beR'tooK, (Friedrich Justin,) a German 
 litterateur and journalist, born at Weimar in 1747. He 
 published, in conjunction with Seckendorf and Zanthier, 
 the "Magazine of Spanish and Portuguese Literature," 
 and translated " Don Quixote" into German. His tragedy 
 of "Elfrida," (1775,) and his "Picture-Book for Chil- 
 dren," (" Bilderbuch fiir Kinder,") enjoy great popu- 
 larity. Died in 1822. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Gen^rale." 
 
 Bertusio, MR-too'se-o, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian painter and pupil of the Caracci. Died about 1650. 
 
 Bertuzzi, beR-toot'see, (Niccol6,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Ancona, worked at Bologna. Died in 1777. 
 
 Berulle, ba'riil', [Lat. Berul'lus,] (Pierre,) an emi- 
 nent French cardinal and statesman, born near Troyes 
 in 1575, was the founder of the congregation of the Ora- 
 tory (Oratoire) in France, and first superior of the order 
 of the Carmelites, which he also instituted. He was sent 
 on embassies to Spain and to Rome, and was afterwards 
 appointed minister of state, in which post his abilities and 
 virtues excited the jealousy of Cardinal Richelieu. He 
 died in 1629, leaving sermons and controversial writings 
 which are highly esteemed. The piety and learning of 
 Cardinal Berulle are warmly eulogized by Bossuet. 
 
 See Habert de Cerisy, "Vie de Berulle," 1646; M. M. Taba- 
 raud, " Histoire de P. de Berulle, Cardinal," etc., 2 vols., 1817 ; Louis 
 Doni d'Attichy, "De Vita et Rebus gestis P. Berulli Cardinalis," 
 1649. 
 
 Berullus. See Berulle. 
 
 Bervic, beVvek', (Charles Clement,) an eminent 
 French engraver, born in Paris in 1756, was a pupil of J. 
 George Wille. Among his master-pieces are a full-length 
 portrait of Louis XVI., a print of Laocoon, the "Rape 
 of Dejanira," after Guido, and the "Education of Achil- 
 les," after Regnault. Died in 1822. 
 
 See Le Blanc, "Manuel de 1' Amateur d'Estampes." 
 
 Berville, beVvel', (Saint-Albin, saN'tfl'baN',) an 
 advocate-general in the royal court of Paris, born at 
 Amiens in 1788, was a contributor to the " Revue Ency- 
 clopedique" and other journals. 
 
 Berwick, ber'rik or ber'wik, (James Fitz-James,) 
 Duke of, born in 1660, was a natural son of James II. 
 of England and Arabella Churchill, sister of the Duke 
 of Marlborough. He served in Austria under Charles 
 of Lotraine, and in 1688, after an unsuccessful attempt 
 to oppose the Prince of Orange, retired with James II. 
 to France. Having been naturalized in 1703, he was 
 appointed commander of the French army in Spain in 
 1704. He gained a signal victory over the Spaniards at 
 Almanza in 1707, which established Philip V. on the 
 throne. He was created by that sovereign Duke of 
 Liria and Xerica, having previously been made a mar- 
 shal. He was killed at the siege of Philipsburg in 1734. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. v. ; Montesquieu, 
 " filoge historique du Due de Berwick;" Due DE Berwick, " Me- 
 moires depuis 1685 iusqu'en 1734," 2 vols. 8vo, 1778; "Life of J. 
 Fitz-James, Duke of Berwick," Dublin, 1738. 
 
 Be-r jfl'lus, [Gr. BtywiUoc,] Bishop of Bostra or Bozra, 
 in Arabia, maintained that Christ had no existence be- 
 fore his incarnation. He was converted from this belief 
 by Origen in 244 a.d. 
 
 Berze, beRz, or Bersil, beii'sel', (Hugues,) a French 
 satiric poet, lived about 1230. 
 
 Berzel. See Berzelius. 
 
 Ber-ze'11-us, [Sw. pron. beR-zn'le-us,] (or Berzel, 
 b?Rt'sel,) (Johan JAKOB,) Baron, a celebrated Swedish 
 chemist, was born near Linkbping, in East Gothland, on 
 the 20th of August, 1779. He is said to have been the 
 son of a parish schoolmaster. He studied medicine 
 and chemistry at the University of Upsal, where he 
 graduated in 1804. In 1806 he became professor of 
 chemistry at Stockholm, and began to edit, in conjunc- 
 tion with Hisinger, " Memoirs of Physical Philosophy, 
 Chemistry, and Mineralogy," (6 vols., 1806-18,) for 
 which he wrote forty-seven important articles. Among 
 his first publications was an able "Treatise on Animal 
 Chemistry, (2 vols., 1806.) He was chosen president of 
 the Academy of Sciences in 1810, and perpetual secre- 
 tary of the same in 1818. He was greatly distinguished 
 by his skill and precision as an annalist, and enriched 
 many departments of chemistry by his researches. His 
 
 great work is a " System of Chemistry," (" Larebok i 
 Kemien," 3 vols., 1808—18,) which was translated into 
 English and other languages. 
 
 He contributed much to perfect the atomic theory 
 after Dalton, and proposed a chemical nomenclature 
 which was received with great favour in the north of 
 Europe. He discovered selenium, thorium, and perhaps 
 other elementary substances. It was his researches that 
 gave the first impulse to modern organic chemistry. We 
 owe to him a greater number of accurate analyses than 
 to any other chemist of his time. At the request of the 
 academy, he produced "Annual Reports on the Progress 
 of Physics, Chemistry, and Mineralogy," (27 vols., 1S21- 
 48,) which are highly prized and contain many judicious 
 criticisms. He resigned his professorship about 1832, 
 and received from the king the title of " Freiherr," or 
 baron, soon after that date. He married about the age 
 of fifty-two. Died in August, 1848. 
 
 See B. von Beskow, "Tal ofver Professoren J. Berzelius," i8.,8, 
 G. Forchhammer, "J. J. Berzelius," Stockholm, 1849: Louybt, 
 "Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de J.J. Berzelius," 1849; L. de 
 Lomenie, " Galerie des Contemporains." 
 
 Berzsenyi, beVzhan-yee, (Daniel,) a Hungarian 
 lyric poet, born at Heteny in 1776 ; died in 1836. 
 
 Besancon, beh-sfiN'sdN', (Etienne Modeste,) a 
 French litterateur and ecclesiastic, born near Beaune in 
 1730. He wrote "The Old Market Town," ("Le Vienx 
 Bourg,") a mock-heroic and satirical poem, (1779,) which 
 passed through several editions. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Besard, beh-zSR', (Jean Baptiste,) a French physi- 
 cian and writer, born at Besancon about 1576. 
 
 Besborodko.bes-bo-rod'ko, (Alexander,) Prince, 
 a Russian statesman, born in Little Russia in 1742, was 
 patronized by Catherine II., who appointed him secre- 
 tary of state in 17S0. Died in 1799. 
 
 Bescherelle, bJsh'reV, (Louis Nicolas,) an eminent 
 French grammarian and lexicographer, born in Paris in 
 1802. He was appointed librarian of the Louvre in 1828. 
 He has published, besides several works on grammar, a 
 French dictionary, (" Dictionnaire National," 2 vols., 
 1843-46,) which is regarded as the best in the language. 
 
 A younger brother of the preceding, known as Besche- 
 relle Jeune, born at Paris in 1804, has published a 
 "Complete Course of the French Language," (6 vols., 
 1852.) 
 
 See "Notice biographique sur M. Bescherelle aine\" 1847. 
 
 Beschi, b&'kee, (Constantino Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 Jesuit and missionary, resided many years in India. He 
 wrote, in Latin, a " Grammar of the High Dialect of the 
 Tamil Language," and other similar works. Died in 1742. 
 
 See Mazzuchelu, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Beschitzi, bi-shet'see, (Ellas,) a Jewish theologian, 
 born at Adrianople about 1420, was surnamed the By- 
 zantine, from his residing at Constantinople. He pub- 
 lished " The Mantle of Elias," esteemed a standard work 
 by the Jews. Died in 1490. 
 
 See Bartolocci, " Bibliotheca Latino-Hebraica." 
 
 Beseler, ba'zeh-ler, (Karl Georg Christian,) a 
 German jurist, born near Husum in 1809, became pro- 
 fessor of law at Rostock in 1837. 
 
 Beseler, (Wilhelm HARTWTG,)a German politician, 
 a brother of the preceding, born in Oldenburg in 1806. 
 He was an active promoter of the revolt of Sleswick and 
 Holstein against Denmark in 1848. 
 
 Besenval, de, deh beh-z6N'vaT, (Pierre Victor,) 
 Baron, a Swiss officer, born at Soleure in 1722, entered 
 the French service and attained the rank of lieutenant- 
 general. His " Memoirs" (4 vols.) were published in 
 1805. Died in 1791. 
 
 See " Memoires de M. le Baron de Besenval, e'erits par lui-meme," 
 Paris, 1805. 
 
 Besenzi, ba-sen'zee, (Paolo Emilio,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Reggio about 1624; died in 1666. 
 
 Besiers, beh-ze-a', (Michel,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 born at Bayeux in 1719, wrote a "History of the City of 
 Bayeux," (1773.) Died in 1 782. 
 
 Beskow, bSs'kov, (Bernard,) a Swedish poet and 
 dramatist, born at Stockholm in 1796. His tragedy of 
 "Torkel Knutsson," esteemed one of the best of Swedish 
 plays, was translated into German and Danish by Gen- 
 
 ii, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BESLER 
 
 347 
 
 BESSIERES 
 
 lenschlager, as well as the tragedies of " Hildegarde," 
 "Gustaf Adolf i Tyskland," and others. He also wrote 
 a collection of poems, and " Recollections of Travel," 
 (" Vandrings-minnen.") In 1833 he was appointed mar- 
 shal of the royal household, and subsequently became 
 perpetual secretary of the Swedish Academy. He ob- 
 tained the rare distinction of being made a doctor of 
 philosophy by the University of Upsal in 1842. 
 
 See Bkockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Besler, bes'ler, (Basil,) a German botanist and phar- 
 macist, born at Nuremberg in 1561, published several 
 botanical works in Latin. The genus Beslerawas named 
 in his honour by Plumier. Died in 1629. 
 
 Besler, (Michael Robert,) a German physician, 
 nephew of the preceding, born at Nuremberg in 1607; 
 died in 1661. 
 
 Besly, bi'le', (Jean,) a French jurist and writer, born 
 at Coii'onges-les-Royaux,in Poitou, in 1572 ; died in 1644. 
 
 Besnaid,bes'niR',(FRANCOis Joseph,) born at Busch- 
 weiler, if Alsace, in 1748, became first physician to Maxi- 
 milian, Cjunt Palatine. He introduced vaccination into 
 Bavaria, and wrote on the abuse of mercury. Died in 1814. 
 
 Besnier, bi'ne^i', (Pierre,) a French Jesuit, born 
 at Tours in 1648, wrote a "Discourse on the Science of 
 Etymologies." Died in 1705. 
 
 Bes'o-dun [Lat. Besodu'nus] or Bes'ton, (John,) 
 a prior of the Carmelites at Lynn, in England, wrote a 
 "Compendium of Moral Theology," (in Latin.) Died 
 in 1428. 
 
 Besoigne, beh-swan', (Jerome,) a French Jansenist, 
 born in Paris in 16S6, wrote a "History of the Abbey of 
 Port-Royal," (8 vols., 1756,) and other works. Died in 
 
 '7°3- 
 
 Besold, ba'zolt, or Besolde, ba-zol'deh, (Chris- 
 TOPH,) a German jurist, and professor of law at Tubingen, 
 he was born in 1577. Died in 1638. 
 
 Besombes de Saint-Genies, beh-zdiub' deh s4n'- 
 zheh-ne-A', (Pierre Louis,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Cahors in 1 719. Died in 1783. 
 
 Besozzi, bi-sot'see, (Alessandro,) an Italian musi- 
 cian, born in 1700, was patronized by the King of Sar- 
 dinia. His brothers, Girolamo, Antonio, and Gae- 
 TANO, were distinguished musicians. 
 
 Besplas, de, deh bes'pla', (Joseph Marie Anne 
 Gros — gRO,) a French theologian, born at Castelnaudary 
 in 1734, wrote an "Essay on Pulpit Eloquence," and 
 other works. Died in 1783. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litt^raire." 
 
 Bessa, bi'si', (Pancrace,) a French painter of flowers 
 and fruits, born in Paris in 1772 ; died after 1830. 
 
 Bessaraba, bes-si'ra'ba, a powerful family, which gave 
 a name to Bessarabia, a region comprised between the 
 Pruth and the Dniester. 
 
 Bessaraba, (Constantine Brancovan,) was elected 
 vaivode in 1688, and became the secret agent of Leopold 
 of Austria. In order to relieve himself from the Turkish 
 yoke, he formed an alliance with Peter the Great about 
 1709. But he proved to be a treacherous ally in the 
 war which Peter waged against the Turks in 171 1. He 
 was put to death, by order of the Sultan, in 1714. 
 
 See Cante.mir, " History of the Ottoman Empire." 
 
 Bessaraba, (Matthew Brancovan,) reigned over 
 Wallachia from 1633 to 1654. 
 
 Bessaraba, (Michael,) the Brave, born about 1558, 
 »>• elected vaivode in 1592. He was a warlike prince, 
 and made himself master of Transylvania by conquest. 
 He A-as assassinated in 1601. 
 
 Bessaraba, (Mirce,) Vaivode of Wallachia, was a son 
 of Rudolph' II., and was elected in 1382. He waged 
 war against the Turks, to whom he was forced to become 
 tributary in 1393. Died in 1418. 
 
 Bessaraba, (Rudolph,) was the founder of the prin- 
 cipality of Wallachia. Died in 1265. 
 
 Bes'-sa'rI-on, (John,) sometimes called Basil, a 
 learned Greek cardinal, born at Trebizond about 1390. 
 He was sent in 1438 by the emperor John Pala:ologus 
 to the Council of Ferrara, to assist in effecting a union 
 fietwcen the Greek and Latin Churches. He was created 
 Archbishop of Siponto by Nicholas V., and in 1463 ob- 
 tained the title of Patriarch of Constantinople from Pius 
 II. He was a zealous promoter of Greek literature, and 
 
 translated into Latin the " Metaphysics" of Aristotle and 
 the " Memorabilia" of Xenophon. Died in 1472. 
 
 See Aubery, " Histoire des Cardinaux ;" A. Bandini, "DeVitaet 
 Rebus gestis BessarionisCardinalis," 1777; O. Raggi, " Conimenlario 
 sulla Vita del Cardinale Bessarione," 1844. 
 
 Besse, b£'sa', (Guillaume,) a French jurist and 
 writer, born at Carcassonne, wrote a " History of the 
 Dukes, Marquises, and Counts of Carcassonne, (1660.) 
 Died in 16S0. 
 
 Besse, (Pierre,) a doctor of the Sorbonne, born at 
 Rosiers, in Limousin, was preacher to Louis XIII. and 
 the Prince of Conde. He had a high reputation for 
 eloquence, and published " The Christian Democritus," 
 and other religious works. Died in 1639. 
 
 Besse, de, deh b&'sa', (Henri,) a French writer, was 
 a member and secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions. 
 He is the supposed author of an " Account of the Cam- 
 paigns of Rocroi and Friburg in 1643 and 1644," (1673.) 
 Died in 1693. 
 
 Besse, de, (Joseph,) a French medical writer, born 
 at Peyrusse, in Aveyron, about 1670. He practised in 
 Paris, and published " Analytical Researches on the 
 Structure of the Parts of the Human Body," (2 vols., 
 1701,) and other works. He died at an advanced age. 
 
 Bessel, beVsel, (Christian Georg,) a German moral- 
 ist, born at Minden, wrote in German a curious work, 
 (1673,) which was translated into Latin with the title of 
 the "Artificer of Political Fortune," ("Faber Fortune 
 politicae,") 
 
 Bessel, (Friedrich Wilhei.m,) one of the greatest 
 of modern astronomers, was born at Minden, Prussia, 
 on the 22d of July, 1784. He served an apprenticeship 
 in the counting-house of a merchant of Bremen for 
 about seven years. Among his first scientific labours was 
 the reduction of Harriott's observations on the comet 
 of 1607, which he performed with success at the age of 
 twenty. He was appointed assistant to Schroter at 
 Lilienthal in 1806, and became director of a new obser- 
 vatory, built under his superintendence, at Konigsberg, 
 in 1811-12. He was also professor of astronomy in the 
 university of that place. In 1818 he published an excel- 
 lent work, entitled " Fundamenta Astronomic," deduced 
 from the observations of J. Bradley. He undertook 
 about 1837 the arduous task of ascertaining the annual 
 parallax of a fixed star, 61 Cygni. The result which he 
 obtained, and which is almost immeasurably small, o".374, 
 is generally received as the truth. Among his chief 
 works are "Tabulae Regiomontanae," (1830,) "Determi- 
 nation of the Length of the Simple Seconds' Pendulum," 
 (1837,) "Measure of the Distance of the Star 61 in the 
 Constellation of Cygnus," (1839,) and "Astronomical 
 Observations," (1841-42.) No observatory has contrib- 
 uted more during the present century to the improve- 
 ment of every branch of astronomy than that of Konigs- 
 berg under his direction. Bessel was appointed a privy 
 councillor by the King of Prussia, and received several 
 titles of honour. He was author of a great number of 
 treatises published in the " Astronomische Nachrichten." 
 In early life he married a daughter of Professor Hagen. 
 Died in March, 1846. 
 
 See J. F. W. Hekschel, " Brief Notice of the Life and Discover- 
 ies of F. W. Bessel," 1847 : C. T. Anger, "Erinnerung an F. \V. 
 Bessels Leben und Wirken," 1846. 
 
 Bessel, von, fon bSs'sel, (Gottfried,) a German 
 chronicler, born at Buchheim in 1672, became abbot of 
 the monastery of Gottwich in 1 7 14. He wrote a "His- 
 tory of Gottwich," in Latin. Died in 1749. 
 
 See Ersch undGRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bessenyi, besh'shan-yee, of Galantai, (George,) a 
 Hungarian litterateur, wrote several tragedies, and trans- 
 lated Pope's " Essay on Man." Died about 1810. 
 
 Besser, von, fon beVser, (Johann,) a German poet, 
 born at Frauenburg in 1654, became counsellor to the 
 Elector of Brandenburg at Berlin. He entered the ser- 
 vice of Augustus, Elector of Saxony, after 1713. Died 
 in 1729. 
 
 Bessieres, b&'se-aiR', (Jean Bafitste,) a distin- 
 guished French marshal, born near Cahors in 1768. He 
 served in the campaigns of Italy, Egypt, and Austria, 
 and was made a marshal of France, and grand officer of 
 the legion of honour, in 1804. In 1805 he defeated the 
 Russian army under Kootoosov, and greatly distinguished 
 
 e as £; 9 as .r; g hard; g as/; G, II, v., guttural ; ti, nasal; v., trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BESS1N 
 
 348 
 
 BETHIST 
 
 himself at the battle of Austerlitz. Appointed, in 1808, 
 to a command in Spain, he was chiefly instrumental by 
 his victories in placing Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. 
 He was soon after made Duke of Istria by Napoleon. 
 In 1813 he obtained the chief command of all the cavalry, 
 and, while reconnoitring on the morning before the bat- 
 tle of Lutzen, was killed by a shot from the enemy, the 
 1st of May, 1813. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais;" C. Miramont, " Vie 
 de J. B. Bessieres." 
 
 Bessin, b^'saN', (Dom Guillaume,) a French Bene- 
 dictine monk, bom near Evreux in 1654; died in 1736. 
 
 Besson, b£'s6N', (Alexandre,) a French Jacobin, 
 born near Ornans about 1757, became a member of the 
 National Convention, and of the Council of Five Hun- 
 dred. Died in 1826. 
 
 Besson, (Jacques,) a French mathematician and 
 writer, born at Grenoble, became professor at Orleans 
 in 1569. He invented several instruments. 
 
 See Moheri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Besson, (Jacques Francois,) born in Ain in 1756. 
 He became Bishop of Metz in 1824. Died in 1842. 
 
 See " Notice sur J. F. Besson," 1842. 
 
 Besson, (Joseph,) a French Jesuit, born at Carpen- 
 tras in 1607, spent many years as a missionary in Syria. 
 He published in 1660 a work entitled "Missions of the 
 Jesuits in Syria." Died in l69t. 
 
 Besson, L'Ahbe, born at Flumet, in Upper Faucigny, 
 wrote " Memoirs towards the Ecclesiastical History of 
 the Dioceses of Geneva, Tarentaise, Maurienne, etc." 
 Died about 1780. 
 
 Bes'sus, [Gr. B^ottoc,] a satrap of Bactriana, fought for 
 Darius at Gaugamela, accompanied him in his retreat, 
 and murdered him in 330 B.C. He was taken prisoner by 
 the Macedonians and delivered to a brother of Darius, 
 who put him to death. 
 
 Best, best, (Jean,) a French printer and engraver on 
 wood, born at Toul in 1808. He executed illustrations for 
 works published in Prussia, Austria, and other foreign 
 countries, and obtained a medal of the first class at the 
 Exposition of Paris in 1855. 
 
 Best, bSst, (Willem,) a Dutch jurist and legal writer, 
 born at Amersfort in 1683, became professor of civil law 
 at Harderwick. Died in 1719. 
 
 Bestelmeier, bSs'tel-mi'er, (Georg,) a German poli- 
 tician and magistrate, born at Schwabach in 1785. 
 
 Beston. See Besodun, (John.) 
 
 Bestoozhef or Bestoujev, bgs-too'shSf, written 
 also Bestoujef, Bestuschew, and Bestouchef, (Al- 
 exander,) a Russian novelist and soldier, born about 
 I795> was implicated in a conspiracy against the emperor 
 in 1825, and exiled to Siberia. In 1830 he was permitted 
 to join the Russian army, and fell in 1837 in an engage- 
 ment with the Circassian mountaineers. He had pub- 
 lished in 1823, conjointly with Ryleief, a literary journal 
 entitled "The Polar Star." His romances of "Mullah 
 Nur" and "Ammalath Beg" are highly esteemed by his 
 countrymen, and have been translated into German. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Bestoozhef, Bestoujev, or Bestuschew, (Mi- 
 chael Alexis Petrovitch,) a Russian statesman, born 
 at Moscow in 1693. He enjoyed successively the favour 
 of Peter the Great and the empresses Anna and Elizabeth, 
 by the last of whom he was appointed grand chancellor of 
 the empire. He negotiated important treaties with Eng- 
 land, Denmark, and Sweden, and influenced the Russian 
 government to espouse the cause of Austria in the Seven 
 Years' war. In 1758.be was convicted of treason for 
 having endeavoured to exclude the grand duke Peter 
 from the throne, and was stripped of his titles and ex- 
 iled. He was recalled in 1762 by Catherine II., who 
 created him a field-marshal. He died in 1766. The 
 invention of a chemical preparation called " Tinctura 
 tonica nervina Bestuzewi" is attributed to Count Bes- 
 toozhef. 
 
 See Manstein, " Histoire de Russie;" Rulhiere, "Histoire 
 tel'Anarchie de Pologne." 
 
 Bestoozhef, Bestoujev, or Bestuschew Riumin, 
 .jfcs-too'shev re^'min, (or re-u'meen',) (Michael,) a 
 Russian officer, a relative of the preceding, was engaged 
 in the conspiracy of 1825, having for its object the exter- 
 
 mination of the imperial family. He was executed in 
 1826, with three of his accomplices. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Besuchet, beh-zU'shJ', (Jean Claude,) a French 
 physician, born near Paris in 1790, published a " Treatise 
 on Gastritis," (1837,) and a "History of Free-Masonry 
 from its Introduction into France till 1829." 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Betancos, de, da bi-tan'thds, or Betanzos, (Do- 
 mingo,) a Spanish missionary, born at Leon. He visited 
 Hayti about 1514, and afterwards resided in Mexico, 
 where he laboured earnestly to convert the natives and 
 save them from the tyranny of their rulers. He died in 
 Spain in 1549. 
 
 See Ternaux-Compans, " Pieces sur la Mexique." 
 
 Betancos, de, (Juan,) a Spanish historian of the six- 
 teenth century, visited the West Indies, of which he wrote 
 an account, (still in manuscript.) 
 
 See Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Betencourt, de, deh ba'tdN'kooR', (Pierre Louis 
 Joseph,) a French Benedictine monk and antiquarian 
 writer, born at Arras in 1743. Died in 1829. 
 
 Beth'am, (Edward,) an English clergyman, who 
 gave two thousand pounds for a botanical garden at 
 Cambridge, and founded a charity-school. Died in 1783. 
 
 Betham, (Sir William,) an English antiquary and 
 writer on genealogy, born in Suffolk in 1779. In 1812 
 he was appointed genealogist of the order of Saint 
 Patrick, and soon after deputy-keeper of the records at 
 Dublin. He wrote " On the Origin and History of the 
 Constitution of England and the Early Parliaments of 
 Ireland," (1834,) "On Parliamentary and Feudal Digni- 
 ties," and " Etruscan Literature and Antiquities Inves- 
 tigated." He was foreign secretary of the Irish Academy. 
 and Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, London. Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 See "London Ouarterly Review" for June, 1845; " Blackwood'l 
 Magazine" for April, 1845. 
 
 Beth'ell, (Sir Richard,) an eminent English lawyer 
 and reformer of law, born at Bradford, in Wiltshire, in 
 1800. He was appointed queen's counsel in 1840, and 
 returned to Parliament for Aylesbury in 185 1. About 
 the end of 1852 he became solicitor-general. He was 
 appointed attorney-general in 1856, resigned in 185S, and 
 was reappointed in 1859. He became lord chancellor, 
 with the title of Baron Westbury, in June, 1861, and re- 
 signed in July, 1865. He belonged to the Liberal party 
 in politics. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. 
 
 Bethencourt or Bettencourt, b&'tS.N'kooR', (Jac- 
 ques,) a French physician, who practised at Rouen, lived 
 about 1520. 
 
 Bethencourt, (Jean,) the conqueror of the Canary 
 Islands, was chamberlain of Charles VI. of France. He 
 died in 1425, and his " History of the First Discovery and 
 Conquest of the Canaries in 1402" was published in 1630. 
 
 See " Histoire de la premiere De'scouverte et Conqueste des Cana- 
 ries," Paris, 1630. 
 
 Bethencourt y Molina, de, deh b&'toN'kooR' e 
 mo'le'nS', (Augus'I'IN,) a descendant of the preceding, 
 was born in the island of Teneriffe in 1760. He studied 
 engineering at Madrid, entered the Russian service in 
 1808, and executed many important public works. Died 
 in 1826. 
 
 Bethisy, de, deh ba'te'ze', (Charles,) Comie, a 
 French general, son of the following, born in 1770. 
 He served in the royalist army, and in 1S20 was created 
 a peer of France, and lieutenant-general. Died in 1.S27. 
 
 Bethisy, de, (Eugene Eustache,) Comie, a French 
 general, nephew of Jean Laurent, noticed below, was 
 born at Moutiers in 1739. He served under Conde in 
 the campaigns of 1792-93, and, after the restoration, was 
 made lieutenant-general. Died in 1823. 
 
 Bethisy, de, (Jean Laurent,) a French musician, 
 born at Dijon in 1702, wrote an "Exposition of the The- 
 ory and Practice of Music," (1754.) Died about 1770. 
 
 Bethisy de Mezieres, de, deh ba'te'ze' deh nii'- 
 ze-aiR', (Henri Benoit Jules,) brother of Eugene Eus- 
 tache, born in 1744, became Bishop of Uzes in 17S0. 
 Died in 181 7. 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, { 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; xah.; ndt; good; mooq 
 
BETHLEN 
 
 349 
 
 BETTINELLI 
 
 Bethlen, bet'len, (Gabriel,) or Bethlen-Gabor, 
 (gi'bor,) an able Magyar general and ruler, born in 
 1580, became Prince of Transylvania in 1613. He was a 
 Protestant, a friend of religious liberty, and a patron of 
 learning. Having, as commander of the oppressed Hun- 
 garians, defeated the emperor Ferdinand of Austria, he 
 was elected King of Hungary in 1620; but he soon re- 
 nounced or lost that kingdom. Died in 1629. . 
 
 See Horanyi, "Memoria Hungarorum." 
 
 Bethlen-Bethlen, l>et'len-bet'len, (John,) Count, 
 bom in 1613, became Chancellor of Transylvania. He 
 write a " History of Transylvania from 1629 to 1663,'' (in 
 Latin.) Hied in 1687. 
 
 Bethlen-Bethlen, von, fon beVlen beVlijn, (Nico- 
 las,) Count, a German chronicler, son of the preceding, 
 was born in 1642 ; died in 1716. 
 
 Bethlen-Bethlen, von, (Wolfgang,) Count, Chan- 
 cellor ul Transylvania, born in 1648, wrote, in Latin, a 
 " History of Transylvania from 1526 to 1609." Died in 
 1679. 
 
 Bethmann, bat'man, (Frkderike Augustf. Conra- 
 dim.) a celebrated German actress, originally named 
 Fli 1 in! R, born at Gotha in 1766; died in 1814. 
 Bethmann, (Simon Moritz,) a celebrated German 
 1 and philanthropist, born in 1768, was one of the 
 ftnn of Bethmann Brothers, at Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
 He was ennobled by the emperor Francis of Austria. 
 1 )mi in 1S26. 
 Bethmann-Hollweg, von, fon bat'man hol'weo, 
 1/ August,) a German jurist and writer, born at 
 Krankfort-on-the-Main in 1795. He studied under Sa- 
 at Berlin, where he became professor of civil law, 
 and, in 1827, rector of the university. 
 Brocuhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 Bethmont, bet'm6N', (Eugene,) a French lawyer, 
 born in Paris in 1804, was elected to the Chamber of 
 lies in 1846, and was afterwards appointed minister 
 ~t ice. 
 Bethune. See Beaton. 
 Bethune. See Sully. 
 
 Bethune, bet'iin or ba'ton, (Alexander,) a Scottish 
 irriter, born in Fifeshire in 1804, was a poor peasant. 
 In conjunction with his brother John, he wrote "Tales 
 Sketches of the Scottish Peasantry." Died in 1843. 
 >ther John was born in 1810; died in 1839. 
 Bethune, (Armand Joseph.) See Charost. 
 Bethune, [see next article,] (I)ivik,) a philanthropist, 
 born at Dingwall, Scotland, in 1771, came to America in 
 1792, and settled in New York as a merchant. One-tenth 
 income was devoted to the cause of religion. He 
 orted Sunday-schools, and imported Bibles for dis- 
 tribution; he printed at his own expense ten thousand 
 -, many of which he distributed with his own hand. 
 I in 1824. 
 
 \. k. Van Nest, " Memoir of the Rev. Dr. Geo. W. Bethune," 
 Vork, 1867. 
 Bethune, be-thoon',* (George W.,) D.D., an Ameri- 
 ivine, scholar, and poet, ason of the preceding, was 
 :n the city of New York in 1805. He commenced 
 lucation at Columbia College, in his native city, and 
 afterwards graduated at Dickinson College, in Pennsyl- 
 vania. He studied theology at Princeton, and in 1828 
 became the pastor of a Dutch Reformed church at 
 Rhinebeck, New York. Two or three years afterwards, 
 he removed to Utica. In 1834 he was invited to Phila- 
 delphia, where he became pastor of the First Dutch Re- 
 formed Church of that city. He was not only an eloquent 
 1 preacher, but an accomplished scholar and an able and 
 successful public lecturer. In 1849 he removed to Brook- 
 lyn, where he continued to reside, for the most part, 
 during the remainder of his life. The anxieties which he 
 'elt for his country at the commencement of the civil war 
 n 1861, preyed upon his health, on account of which he 
 visited Europe in the autumn of that year. After passing 
 some time in France, he arrived at Florence in the spring 
 of 1862. Having, while there, imprudently accepted an 
 invitation to preach in public, he was soon after attacked 
 
 * The name Bethune is the same in its origin as Beaton, Bea- 
 and Betton; and it appears, from the Rev. A. Van Nest's 
 "Memoir," that the name of t)r. Betbune's father was pronounced 
 in Scotland precisely like Beaton, — i.e. ba'ton or bet'ton. 
 
 with cerebral symptoms, and died of apoplexy the fol 
 lowing night, April 27, 1862. Dr. Bethune was dis- 
 tinguished for his fine culture, his genial spirit, and his 
 vivid appreciation of the varied beauties of nature. 
 Among his religious publications are three volumes, en- 
 titled respectively "The Fruit of the Spirit," "The His- 
 tory of a Penitent," and "Early Lost, Early Saved." He 
 also edited a volume of " British Female Poets," and 
 Walton's "Complete Angler," (1847,) to which he pre- 
 fixed a valuable bibliographical preface. A collection of 
 his poems, entitled " Lays of Love and Faith, with other 
 Fugitive Poems," appeared in 1848. A volume of his 
 lectures before various literary associations and popular 
 assemblies was published in New York in 1850. 
 
 See A. R. Van Nest's " Memoir of the Rev. Dr. Geo. W. Be- 
 thune," New York, 1867, and "Obituary Notice of Dr. Geo. W. 
 Bethune," read before the American Philosophical Society, by Dr. 
 Robi.ev Dunglison, October, 1862. 
 
 Bethune, (John Drinkwater,) Colonel, an Eng- 
 lish officer, born about 1762. He wrote a " History of 
 the Late Siege of Gibraltar," (1785.) Died in 1844. 
 
 Bethune, (John Elliot Drinkwater,) an English 
 gentleman, born in 1801, was appointed in 1848 president 
 of the "Council of Education" in India, where he first 
 established schools for the education of native females. 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 Bethune, ba'tun', (Quesnes or Coesnes, kwin,) a 
 French poet, accompanied Baldwin, Count of Flanders, 
 to Palestine, about 1190. 
 
 Bethune, de, deli ba'tiin', (HirpoLYTE,) a benevolent 
 French prelate, grandson of Philippe, noticed below, 
 born in 1647. He became Bishop of Verdun about 
 1680, and founded a hospital. Died in 1720. 
 
 Bethune, de, (Philippe,) Count of Sellcs and Cha- 
 rost, a French diplomatist and soldier, served under 
 Henry IV. in his principal campaigns. He was employed 
 in several important embassies, and concluded the treaty 
 of I'avia in 1619. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Mor£ri, "Diclionnaire Historique." 
 
 Be'tia or Ba'tis, called also Bab-e-mes'sea, an 
 officer of King Darius, defended Gaza bravely against 
 Alexander the Great ; but that place was at length taken 
 by an assault, in which Betis was killed. 
 
 Beton, (Cardinal) See Beaton. 
 
 Betourne, beh-tooR'ni', (Amrroise,) a French poet, 
 born at Caen in 1795. He wrote fables, ballads, and 
 elegies, some of which were translated into various lan- 
 guages. Died in 1835. 
 
 Betta dal Toldo, bet'ta dal tol'do, (Francesco,) an 
 Italian jurist, born at Roveredo in 1526; died in 1599. 
 
 Bette d'Etienville, bit di'te-aN'vil', (Jean Charles 
 Vincent,) a French litterateur, born at Saint-Omer in 
 1759. He was implicated in some of the intrigues of the 
 notorious Madame La Motte-Valois, for which he was im- 
 prisoned for a short time. He published " The Effects of 
 Prejudice,"(i788,)andotherworks. Died in Paris in 1830. 
 
 Bettelini, bet-ta-lee'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian en- 
 graver, born at Lugano in 1763, was a pupil of Bartolozzi. 
 Among his master-pieces are an "Assumption" alter 
 Guido Reni, and an "Ecce Homo" after Correggio. He 
 also engraved several of the works of Thorwaldsen. 
 
 See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bettencourt. See Bethencourt. 
 
 Bet'ter-ton, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, and 
 one of the most popular actors of his time, born in 
 Westminster, London, in 1635. He excelled in the roles 
 of Macbeth, Othello, and Hamlet, and was commended 
 by Addison, Dryden, and Pope. Died in 1710. 
 
 See Charles Gildon, " Life of T. Betterton," 1710. 
 
 Betti, bet'tee, (Biagio,) an Italian painter, born near 
 Pistoia in 1545, became a monk in 1572; died in 1615. 
 
 Betti, (SlGISMONDO,) a Florentine painter and skilful 
 designer, flourished about 1750. 
 
 Betti, (Zaccaria,) an Italian poet, born at Verona in 
 1732, wrote a poem entitled "The Silk- Worm," ("Del 
 Baco da Seta.") Died in 1788. 
 
 See B. del Bene, " Klogio del Conte Z. Betti," 1790. 
 
 Bettiue or Bettiua. See Arnim. 
 
 Bettinelli, bet-te-nel'lee, (Saverio,) an Italian Jesuit 
 and author, born at Mantua in 1718. He wrote tragedies, 
 poems, and other works; but his reputation is chiefly 
 
 cas k; 9 as j;g hard; g as_/; G, H, K, guttural '; N. nasal: K, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (JiySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BETTING 
 
 35° 
 
 BEUST 
 
 founded on an essay on the " Renaissance of Literature 
 and Art in Italy,' (" Kisorgimento negli Studj nelle 
 Arti," etc., 2 vols., 1775.) He published his collected 
 works, in twenty-four volumes, 1801. Died in 1808. 
 
 SeeTiPAi.DO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" G. F. Napione, 
 "Vita dell' Abate S. Bettinelli " 1809. 
 
 Betting de Lancastel, bi'taN' deh ISN'kis'tel', a 
 French publicist, born in the department of Lower 
 Rhine in 1798, wrote "Considerations on the State of 
 'he Jews in Christian Society," (1824.) 
 
 Bettini, bet-tee'nee, (Antonio,) Bishop of Foligno, 
 born at Sienna in 1396, wrote a religious work entitled 
 ' II Monte-Santo di Dio," (1477,) chiefly remarkable for 
 containing the first copper-plate engravings. Died in 1487. 
 
 See Panzer, " Annales Typographici." 
 
 Bettini, (Domentco,) a skilful Italian painter of flowers 
 and fruits, born at Florence in 1644, was a pupil of Mario 
 Nuzzi. Died at Bologna in 1705. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bettini, (Mario,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born 
 at Bologna in 1582 ; died in 1657. 
 
 Bettkober, Wt'ko-ber,(CiiRisTiAN Heinrich Fried- 
 rich,) a German sculptor, born in Berlin in 1746; died 
 about 1822. 
 
 Bettoni, beTto'nee, (Carlo,) Count, an Italian agri- 
 cultural writer, born at Bugliaco, near Lake Garda, in 
 1735 ; died in 1786. 
 
 See F. Soave, " Memorie intorno alia Vita del Conte Bettoni." 
 
 Bettoni, (Niccol6,) a learned Italian printer and 
 writer, lived about 1800-20. He published a complete 
 edition of " Euripides," and Alfieri's tragedy of "Alceste," 
 (1807.) 
 
 Betts, bSts, (John,) born at Winchester about 1620, 
 studied at Oxford, and became physician to Charles II. 
 
 Bet'ty, (William Henrv WEST,)-a precocious Eng- 
 lish actor, generally called " the young Roscius," born at 
 Shrewsbury in 1791. Before the age of thirteen he per- 
 formed with unprecedented success in London, Edin- 
 burgh, and Cork. Having made a large fortune, he 
 retired from the stage in 1807. He appeared again in 
 public in 1812 ; but, as the popular mania had subsided, 
 he was received without enthusiasm. 
 
 Betuleius, ba-too-11'us, (Sixtus,) a German philolo- 
 gist, born at Memmingen, in 1500, was professor of phi- 
 losophy and belles-lettres at Augsburg. Died in 1554. 
 
 Betussi, ba-toos'see, (Giuseppe,) an Italian litterateur, 
 born at Bassano about 1500. 
 
 Beuchot,buh'sho',(ADRiEN Jean QuENTiN,)a French 
 bibliographer, born in Paris in 1773. He wrote many 
 articles for the "Biographie Universelle," and published 
 a new edition of Bayle'sDictionary, (16 vols., 1821,) and 
 an edition of Voltaire's works, (72 vols., 1827-33,) which 
 is said to be the most complete and valuable that has 
 been issued. Died in 185 1. 
 
 Beudant, buh'dSN', (Francois Sulpice,) an eminent 
 French mineralogist and natural philosopher, born in 
 Paris in September, 1787. He explored the minerals 
 of Hungary at the public expense in 1818, and became 
 professor of mineralogy in the Faculty of Sciences of 
 Paris about 1820. He published "Researches on the 
 Causes which determine the Variations of Crystalline 
 Forms of the same Mineral Substance," (1818,) an im- 
 portant work on the geology and mineralogy of Hungary, 
 (3 vols.', 1822,) an excellent "Elementary Treatise on 
 Mineralogy," (2d edition, 1831,) and other works. He be- 
 came a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1824, and 
 was inspector-general of the University. Died in Paris 
 in 1852. 
 
 See Qi/brard, "La Literature Contemporaine." 
 
 Beuf, Le. See Le Beuf. 
 
 Beughem, van, vtn buh'iiem, (Charles Antoine 
 Francois de Paule,) a Flemish writer and Latin poet, 
 born at Brussels in 1744; died in 1820. 
 
 Beugnot, de, deh bun'yo', (Arthur Auguste,) 
 Comte, an able French writer and liberal politician, 
 born at Bar-sur-Aube in 1797, was a son of Jacques 
 Claude. His most important work is a " History of the 
 Destruction of Paganism in the West," (2 vols., 1835.) 
 He was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions 
 about 1S32, became a peer of France in 1841, and a mem- 
 
 ber of the Legislative Assembly in 1849. He was an emi- 
 nent advocate of the freedom of education in that body. 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for September, 1836. 
 
 Beugnot, de, (Jacques Claude,) Comte, a French 
 statesman, born at Bar-sur-Aube in 1761. As a member 
 of the Legislative Assembly, (1791,) he was conspicuous 
 for his opposition to the Jacobins. In 1807 he took part 
 in the organization of the kingdom of Westphalia, and 
 became minister of finance under Jerome Bonaparte, 
 He was appointed minister of the interior under the 
 provisional government, (1814,) and director-general of 
 police under Louis XVIII. He a/:ted as minister >{ the 
 marine for a short time in 1815. Died in 1835. The 
 memoirs of Comte Beugnot have been published by his 
 grandson, Albert Beugnot, in two volumes, Paris, 1S66. 
 
 See " Kdinburgh Review" for April, 1867. 
 
 Beuil, de, deh bul, (Jean,) a French warrior, born in 
 Touraine in 1346, had a high command in the army, and 
 gained some victories. He was killed at Agincourt in 
 1415. 
 
 Beuil, de, (Jean,) a son of the preceding, commanded 
 with success in many actions between 1420 and 1450, and 
 was called "the Scourge of the English." Died in 1470. 
 
 Beukels, buh'kels, (Willem,) a Dutch fisherman, to 
 whom Charles V. erected a statue for having discovered 
 the method of preserving herrings. Born in 1397 ; died 
 in 1449. 
 
 Beulan, bu'lan, [Lat. Beula'.nus,] an English writer, 
 was contemporary with Saint Gregory the Great. He 
 wrote a Latin work " On the Genealogies of Nations." 
 
 SeeMoiiERi, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Beumler, boim'ler, (Markus,) a Swiss scholar and 
 Protestant theologian, born in' the canton of Zurich in 
 1555. He made translations from Plutarch and Demos- 
 thenes. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Beuree, buh'ra', (Denis,) a French diplomatist in the 
 service of Sweden, was preceptor to Prince Eric, son of 
 Gustavus Vasa. After the accession of Eric to the 
 throne, he was ennobled and made a senator ; but he was 
 subsequently put to death by order of the king, who was 
 insane at the time, (1567.) 
 
 Beurer, boi'rer, (Johann Amrrosius,) a German 
 naturalist and physician, born at Nuremberg in 1716, was 
 a contributor to the " Opera Botanica" of Conrad Gesner. 
 Died in 1754. 
 
 Beurmann, de, deh buR'mSN', (Pais (pi) Ernest,) a 
 French general, born at Strasburg in 1775 ; died in 1835. 
 
 Beurnonville, de, deh bUR'ndNvel', (Pierre dhJ 
 Ruel,) Marquis, a French marshal, born at Champi- 
 gn'olle in 1752. He served under Dumouriez in 170,2, 
 became successively minister of war, (1793,) commander- 
 in-chief of the army of the North, (1796,) a peer and" 
 minister of state under Louis XVIII., ( 1 8 1 4, ) marshal 
 of France, and commander of the order of Saint Louis, 
 (1816.) Died in 1821. 
 
 See '' Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Beurrier, buh're-i', (Louis,) a French monk of the 
 order of the Celestines, born at Chartres, wrote a " His- 
 tory of the Monastery of the Celestines in Paris," (1634.) 
 Died in 1645. 
 
 Beurrier, (Paul,) a French theologian, born in 1610, 
 was Abbot of Sainte-Genevieve. Died in 1696. 
 
 Beurrier, (Vincent Toussaint,) a French pre. 
 and ecclesiastical writer, born at Valines in 1715 ; died 
 in 1782. 
 
 Beurs, buRs, (Willem,) a Dutch painter of landscapes 
 and portraits, was born at Dort in 1656 ; died near the 
 close of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Be ust, von, fon boist, (Friedrich Constantin,) a 
 German geologist, born at Dresden in 1S06, wrote, be-1 
 sides other works, a "Critique on Werner's Theory ofj 
 Veins," (1840.) He became engineer-in-chief of mines J 
 in 1851. , 
 
 Beust, von, (Friedrich Ferdinand,) Baron, anl 
 eminent German statesman, brother of the preceding, I 
 born at Dresden in 1809. He became minister of foreign ] 
 affairs in Saxony in February, 1849. In October, 1S66, i 
 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs (i.e. prime 
 minister) of the Austrian Empire. He acquired a high 
 reputation in this position, and effected important chang 
 which promoted civil and religious liberty, and whi< 
 
 a., e. T. o. fi. v. l'<i : a. e. o. sime. less prolonged: a. e. T. 0. fl. ?. shnrt: a. e. i. o. obsntrr: far. fall, fat: met: not: good; 1110 
 
BEVTH 
 
 35 • 
 
 BETGTASH 
 
 were denounced by the pope in an allocution in the sum- 
 mer of 1S6S. 
 
 Beuth, boit, (Peter Christian Wii.helm,) born at 
 Cloves in 17S1, became a member of the Prussian coun- 
 cil of state. 
 
 Beuther, boi'ter, sometimes written Beuthere, (Mi- 
 chael,) a German theologian and scholar, born at Carl- 
 Stadt in 1522, studied under Luther and Melanchthon. 
 lie wrote "Commentaries on Livy" and other classics, 
 and " Historical and Chronographical Observations," 
 (in Latin.) Died in 1587. 
 
 Beutler, boit'ler, (Clement,) a Swiss landscape- 
 painter of great merit, lived in the eighteenth century. 
 Among his master-pieces are "The Garden of Eden," 
 and " Saint Anthony preaching on the Sea-Shore." 
 
 Beutler, boit'ler, (Johann Heinrich Christian,) 
 a German writer, bom at Suhl, in Franconia, in 1750; 
 died about 1835. 
 
 Beuve, (Sainte.) See Sainte-Beuve. 
 
 Beuvelet, buv'lV, (Mathieu,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and devotional writer, born near Soissons about 1500. 
 
 Bev'an, (Joseph Gurney,) a member of the Society 
 of Friends, born in London in 1753, was a chemist and 
 druggist. He published a " Life of Robert Barclay," 
 (1S02,) and a "Life of the Apostle Paul," (1807,) which 
 is commended by Home and Orme. Died in 1814. 
 
 Bever. See Beaver. 
 
 Be'ver, (Thomas,) an English jurist and scholar, 
 born in Berkshire in 1725. He published a "History 
 of the Legal Polity of the Roman State," (1781.) Died 
 in 1 781. 
 
 Beverense, ba-va-ren'sa, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 painter, worked in Venice about 1670. 
 
 Bev'er-idge, (William,) an eminent English prelate 
 ami Orientalist, born at Barrow, in Leicestershire, about 
 1637. He published in 1658 a Latin treatise on the He- 
 brew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, and Samaritan languages. 
 On the revolution of 1688 he became chaplain to Wil- 
 liam and Mary, and in 1704 Bishop of Saint Asaph. 
 Among his principal writings are a " Treatise on Chro- 
 nology," (1669,) and a valuable work on the "Canons of 
 the Greek Church," (1672,) both in Latin ; also "Private 
 Thoughts upon Religion," (1709,) and other esteemed 
 devotional treatises. Died in 1708. 
 
 See a "Memoir of Bishop Beveridge," by Thomas H. Horne, 
 prefixed to Be-veridge's Works, in 9 vols., 1824. 
 
 Beverini, ba-va-ree'nee, (Bartoi.ommeo,) an Italian 
 ecclesiastic and litterateur, born at Lucca in 1629 ; died 
 in 16S6. 
 
 Beverland, bcv'er-lant, (Adrianus,) a Dutch writer 
 and classical scholar, born at Middelburg in 1654. He 
 wis fined by the University of Leyden, and afterwards 
 banished from Utrecht, on account of the obscenity and 
 impiety of his works. Died in 1712. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." ■ 
 
 Bev'er-ley, [Lat. Bkveri.a'cius,] (John of,) one of 
 the most learned men of his time, was the tutor of the 
 Venerable Bede. He became Archbishop of York in 
 687, and in 704 founded at Beverley a college for secular 
 priests. He wrote several theological works, in Latin. 
 Died in 721. 
 
 See Pits "De Scriptoribus Angliz :" "Biographia Britannia." 
 
 Beverley, (John of,) an English Carmelite monk, 
 was professor of divinity at Oxford about 1390. 
 
 Bev'er-iy, (Robert,) an American writer, born in 
 Virginia. He was clerk of the Council about 1697, and 
 a "History of the Present State of Virginia," 
 (1705.) Died in 1716. 
 
 Bevern, ba'veRn, (August Wii.helm,) a German 
 general, born at Brunswick in 1715, served in the Seven 
 years' war. Died in 1782. 
 
 Beverningk, van, vSn ba'ver-nink', or Beverning, 
 
 (Huron,) a Dutch statesman, born at Gouda in 1614, 
 
 'lied the Pacificator, from his successful negotia- 
 
 Hc became curator of the University of Leyden, 
 
 and contributed greatly to promote the study of botanv 
 
 and other sciences. He first introduced into Europe the 
 
 olum majus, or Nasturtium. Died in 1690. 
 
 See G. D. J. Schotei, "Jets over H. van Beverning," 1847; 
 Bavi.k, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Beverwyck, van, vin ba'ver-wik', [Lat. Beverovi'- 
 
 Cius,] (Jan,) a Dutch physician and writer, born in 1594 
 at Dort, where he practised and taught medicine. Died 
 in 1647. 
 
 Bevilacqua, bi-ve-Ia'kwa, (Ambrogio,) a Milanese 
 painter, flourished about 1480. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Ifcaly." 
 
 Bevilaqua or Bevilagua. See Salimbeni. 
 
 Bev'in, (Elvvay,) an English musician and composer 
 under the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James, 
 became royal chapel-master, and organist of the Bristol 
 Cathedral. He wrote "A Briefe and Short Instruction 
 of the Art of Musicke," (1631.) 
 
 See Fktis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Bev'is, an English astronomer, and secretary of the 
 Royal Society, born in 1696. He assisted in publishing 
 the tables of Halley, and was the inventor of a circular 
 microscope. Died in 1771. 
 
 Bevy, bi've', (Dom C hari.es Joseph,) a French Bene- 
 dictine monk, born near Orleans in 1738, was royal his- 
 toriographer for Flanders and Hainault. He wrote, 
 among other works, a " History of the Nobility of the 
 Gaol*, French, and other European Nations, (1791.) 
 I Ic was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Bewick, bu'ik, (John,) an English artist, born in 
 1760, was a brother and pupil of Thomas, noticed below. 
 He produced some of the designs of the " History of 
 Quadrupeds," and aided his brother in the illustration 
 of other works. Died in 1795. 
 
 Bewick, (Thomas,) an English artist, distinguished 
 for his skill in wood-engraving, was born near Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne in 1753. He studied under Beilby, by whom 
 he was employed to engrave the diagrams of Hutton's 
 " Treatise on Mensuration," (1770.) Encouraged by the 
 success of this work, he furnished illustrations to Gay's 
 " Fables," for one of which, "The Old Hound," he ob- 
 tained the premium offered «by the Society of Arts for 
 the best wood-engraving. In 1790 he published, con- 
 jointly with Mr. Beilby, a "General History of Quadru- 
 peds," for which his brother John furnished apart of the 
 designs. His " History of British Birds," esteemed his 
 greatest work, came out in 1804, in two volumes. He 
 also illustrated Goldsmith's "Traveller" and "Deserted 
 Village," the " Fables of ^Esop," and other works. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers;" " Pursuit of Knowledge 
 under Difficulties," vol. ii., 1839; "Blackwood's Magazine" for Julv, 
 1825. 
 
 Bexley, Lord. See Vansittart. 
 
 Bexon, M'son', (Gabriel Leopold Charles A me,) 
 a French ecclesiastic and naturalist, born at Remiremont 
 in 1748, was a friend of Count de Buffon, whom he aided 
 in his work on natural history. He published several 
 treatises on agriculture and natural history, and a " His- 
 tory of Lorraine," (1 vol., 1777, unfinished.) Died in 1784. 
 
 Bexon, (Scipion Jer6me,) a French jurist and legal 
 writer, brother of the preceding, born at Remiremont in 
 1753, was charged in 1806 by the King of Bavaria to 
 draw up a criminal code for his states. Died in 1822. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1809. 
 
 Beyer or Beier, bi'er, ( Adolph,) a German mineralo- 
 gist, lived in Saxony; died in 1768. 
 
 Beyer or Beier,'(AuGUST,) a philologist and minister, 
 born in Saxony in 1707, published several bibliographi- 
 cal works. Died in 1741. 
 
 Beyer, (Georg,) a German jurist, bom at Leipsic in 
 1665 ; died in 1714. 
 
 Beyerlinck or Beierlynck, bl'er-llnk', (Laurens,) 
 born at Antwerp in 1578, was canon of the cathedral in 
 his native city. He wrote "The Great Theatre of Human 
 Life," (7 vols.,) and other works, (in Latin.) Died in 1627. 
 
 Beygtash or Beygtach, bag'tash' or big'tash', writ- 
 ten also Bektasch or Bektach, 1 1 aji, ( Hadji,) or Vf.i.y, 
 (i.e. the " Saint,") a Turkish Mussulman, was the founder 
 of an order of dervishes called by his name. Being em- 
 ployed by Amurath I. to bless the standard of his militia, 
 he gave them the name of Yeni-Shery, or "new soldiers," 
 which is the origin of the word Janissa'ry. Died about 1368. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanipchen Reichs." 
 
 1 ^.-cas.t; £//W: gas;': g.h. K, guttural: !». nasnl: v. trilled: sasc: «h asm /*;>. (;T|f See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BETLE 
 
 352 
 
 BIJNCHI 
 
 Beyle, b;\l, (Marie Henri,) a popular and versatile 
 French litterateur, known also by the pseudonym of 
 Stendhal, born at Grenoble in 1783. Among his prin- 
 cipal works are a " History of Painting in Italy," (2 vols., 
 181 7;) "Lives of Haydn, Mozart, and Metastasio," 
 ( iSl 7 ;) "Rome, Naples, and Florence in 1817;" "Life 
 of Rossini," (1824;) "Memoirs of a Tourist," (1838;) and 
 the romances of " The Carthusian Nun of Parma," (" La 
 Chartreuse de Parme," 1839,) and "Le Rouge et le Noir." 
 His life was adventurous, and diversified by various pur- 
 suits. He became intendant of the domains of the em- 
 peror Napoleon at Brunswick in 1806, and entered the 
 Council of State as auditor in 1810. He passed seven 
 years at Milan, (1814-21,) and was appointed consul at 
 Civita Vecchia about 1830. Died in Paris in 1842. 
 
 See Coulomb, " Notice sur la Vie de M. H. Bevle," 1S45 ; Honors 
 dk I.ai.zac, "Etudes sur M. Beyle;" "Edinburgh Review" for 
 January, 1S56. 
 
 Beyma, van, vtn bl'ma, (Julius,) a Dutch jurist, 
 born about 1539, became successively professor of law 
 at Wittenberg, Leyden, and Franeker. Died in 1598. 
 
 Beyme, bl'meh, (Karl Friedrich,) Count, a Prus- 
 sian statesman, born at Konigsberg in 1765 ; died in 1838. 
 
 Beyrich, bl'riK, (Heinrich Ernst,) a German geol- 
 ogist, born in Berlin in 181 5. 
 
 Beys, hi, (Gili.es,) a French printer; died in 1593. 
 
 Beys, de, deli hi, (Charles,) a French poet and dra- 
 matist, born in Paris in 1610; died in 1659. 
 
 Beysser, bi'sa', (Jean Michel,) a French republican 
 general, born at Ribeauville, in Alsace, in 1734, distin- 
 guished himself in the war of La Vendee. He was exe- 
 cuted in 1794, on a charge of favouring the royalists. 
 
 Beytz, bits, (Joseph Francis,) Baron of, a Belgian 
 in 1 gjstnate, born at Bruges, became, after the union of 
 Belgium with France, a member of the Council of Five 
 Hundred, Died in 1832. 
 
 Be'za, [Fr. De Beze, deh biz, sometimes written 
 Besze,] (Theodore,) a celebrated Calvinistic theologian 
 and scholar, was born at Vezelay, in Burgundy, on the 24th 
 of June, 1519. He studied the classics under Melchior 
 Wolmar, professor in the University of Bourges, and 
 subsequently devoted himself to literary pursuits in Paris. 
 Having abjured Catholicism in 1548, he was soon after 
 appointed professor of Greek at Lausanne. He published 
 in 1554 a treatise in defence of the execution of Servetus, 
 entitled " De Haereticis a Civili Magistratu puniendis." 
 In 1556 he completed his translation of the New Testa- 
 ment into Latin, and in 1559 removed to Geneva, where, 
 through the influence of Calvin, he was appointed rector 
 of the university. On the death of Calvin, in 1564, Beza 
 succeeded him as professor of theology. He died in 
 160^. He was the author of a " Life of Calvin," " Eccle- 
 siastical History of the Reformed Churches in France 
 from 1521 to 1563," (3 vols., 1580,) and several controver- 
 sial works. He was profoundly versed in ancient litera- 
 ture, and was one of those in France who contributed 
 most to the great movement of the renaissance. 
 
 See BnrzEC, " Histoire de la Vie de Theodore de Beze," 1577: 
 Taih-epifd, ''Vie de T. de Beze," 1577; La Fay, "De Vita et Obitu 
 T. Beza?," 1606; Vega, " De Vita et Miraculis Lutheri, Calvini et 
 Beza;," 1646 ; Zirgenbein, " l.eben Calvins und Bezas," 1789: 
 Schi.osser, " Leben des The. Beza," 1809. 
 
 Bezard, Ij.VzIr', (Leon Louis,) a French painter, 
 born at Toulon in 1800. He painted historical and re- 
 ligious subjects, and gained a first medal in 1836. 
 
 Bezborodko. See Besborodko. 
 
 Beze. See Beza. 
 
 Beziers, (Michael.) See Besiers. 
 
 Bezons.de deh beh-z6N', (Claude Bazin — bf'zdN',) 
 SBIGNECR, a French magistrate and writer, born in Paris 
 in 161 7, succeeded Chancellor Seguier in the French 
 Academy in 1643. Died in 1684. 
 
 Bezons, de, (Jacques Bazin,) a French marshal, son 
 of Claude, born in 1646, served under Turenne, in Hol- 
 land, in 1672, and subsequently in the war of the Spanish 
 succession. He became a member of the Council of Re- 
 gency on the death of Louis XIV. Died in Paris in 1733. 
 
 Bezout, beh-zoo', (Etienne,) a French mathemati- 
 cian, born at Nemours in 1730. He wrote a "Complete 
 Course of Mathematics, for the Use of the Marine, the 
 Artillery, and the Pupils of the Polytechnic School," (6 
 vols., 1780.) Died in Paris in 1783. 
 
 Bezzi, bet'see, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Bologna about 1500; died in 1 57 1. 
 
 Bezzuoll,bet-soo-o'lee,(GiusEi'i'E,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Florence in 1784. Among his best works are 
 "The Baptism ofClovis," and "The Entrance of Charles 
 VIII. into Florence." 
 
 Bhairava, b'hi'ra-va, [a Sanscrit word signifying 
 "terror ;" also "terrible,"] one of the many appellations 
 applied to Siva. It is also the name of one of Siva's 
 sons, who is said to lie chiefly worshipped among the 
 Mahrattas. 
 
 See Moor's "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Bharata-Muni (or -Mount,) b'har'a-ta moo'nT, [ Hin- 
 doo pron. b'hur'a-ta mdo'nl,] sometimes written Bha- 
 ratu-Wouni, an ancient Hindoo writer and sage, com- 
 monly regarded as the inventor of the drama. 
 
 Bharavi, b'ha'ra-vl, a Hindoo poet, author of a poem 
 called " Kiratarjuniya." 
 
 Bhar'trl-Har'i, [Hindoo pron. b'hur'trl hur'I,] a Hin- 
 doo poet, supposed to have been a brother of King 
 Vikramaditya, wrote, it is said, a grammatical poem en- 
 titled " Karika," (or "CaridL") Another poet of the 
 same name wrote a poem on Rama', called " P,hatticavya." 
 
 Bhat'ta Nara'yana, [Hindoo pron. b'hut'ta nirl'- 
 ya-na,] a Hindoo dramatist, supposed to have lived be- 
 tween 800 and 1000 a.d. 
 
 Bhav'a-bhu'ti [Hindoo pron. b'huv-a-b'hoo'tt,] writ- 
 ten also Bhavabhouti, a Hindoo poet of the eighth 
 centurv, wrote a popular drama, entitled the " Loves of 
 Malatf'and Madhava." 
 
 Bhavani, one of the names of Parvati, which see. 
 
 Bhrigu, b'hidg'oo, a famous sage or demigod of the 
 Hindoo mythology, was, according to one account, the 
 son of Brahma, according to another, of Varuna ; but it 
 is stated in the " Institutes of Manu" that Mann produced 
 "ten lords of created beings," among which lords Bhrigu 
 is numbered. (Chap, i., v. 32-35.) According to the 
 Sivapurana, Bhrigu was the father of Marichi, who was 
 the father of Kasyapa. 
 
 See Moor's "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Biacca, be-Jk'ka, (Francesco Maria,) an Italian 
 litterateur and ecclesiastic, born at Parma in 1673, trans. 
 lated the poems of Catullus and Statius. Died in 1735. 
 
 Biagi, be-i'jee, (Clemenzo,) an Italian antiquary, born 
 at Cremona in 1740, published several works. Died at 
 Milan in 1804. 
 
 Biagi, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian poet and priest, 
 born at Roveredo in 1724; died in 1777. 
 
 Biagioli, be-a-jo'lee, or Biascioli, be-a-sho'lee, (N10 
 COL6 GiosaeattE,) an Italian litte'rateur, born at Vezzano, 
 •near Genoa, in 1768, published an "Elementary Italian 
 Grammar." In 1799 he was exiled on account of his 
 liberal opinions, and became a resident of Paris, where 
 he taught Italian. He edited Dante's works, (3 vols., 
 181S,) and Petrarch's works, (3 vols., 1821.) Died in 1S30. 
 
 Bialobocki, be-a-lo-bot'skee, (John,) a Polish poet 
 of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Biamonti, be-a-mon'tee, (Giuseppe Luioi,) an Italian 
 litterateur, born at Vintimiglia in 1730, translated into 
 Italian prose the works of Sophocles, Homer's "Iliad," 
 and the " Odes" of Pindar, and wrote several tragedies. 
 He was professor of eloquence at Bologna and at Turin. 
 Died at Milan in 1824. 
 
 Bianca Capello. See Capello. 
 
 Biancani, be-an-ka'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian ma- 
 thematician and Jesuit, born at Bologna in 1566; died 
 in 1624. 
 
 Biancardo, be-Sn-kaR'do, (Ugoletto,) an Italian 
 general, lived about 1370. 
 
 Bianchi, be-Sn'kee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet and 
 gondolier of Venice, lived about 1760. He wrote an epic 
 poem entitled "II Davide," (1751,) which is highly 
 praised. 
 
 Bianchi, (Brigida,) an Italian dramatist, lived about 
 1650. She wrote several comedies under the name of 
 AUREI.IA. 
 
 Bianchi, (Federigo,) an Italian painter, born at Mi- 
 lan about 1590. According to the "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale," he was one of the best Milanese masters of 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 % c, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, Ci, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BIANCHI 
 
 353 
 
 BIBARS 
 
 Bianchi, (Francesco,) an Italian composer of operas, 
 born at Cremona in 1752; died in 181 1. 
 
 Bianchi, (Francesco 1 Ferrari,) sometimes called il 
 FRARI, an Italian painter, born at Modena in 1447, is 
 to have been the teacher of Correggio. He was a 
 ■lorist. Died in 1510. 
 Bianchi, [Lat Blan'cus or Plan'cus,] (Giovanni,) 
 1 an Italian savant, born at Rimini in 1693, became pro- 
 of anatomy at Sienna in 1 741. About 1744 he 
 returned to his native place and restored the Academy 
 of the I.vncei. Died in 1775. 
 
 Bianchi, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian sculptor 
 and painter, born in Lombardy ; died at Genoa in 1657. 
 Bianchi, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian litterateur 
 and dramatist, born at Lucca in 1686 ; died in 1758. 
 Bianchi, (Giovanni Battista,) an eminent Italian 
 mist, born at Turin in 1681, was professor of anat- 
 in the University of Turin for many years. Among 
 his principal works is a "History of the Liver," (" His- 
 Hepatica," 2 vols., 1725.) Died in Turin in 1761. 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 Bianchi, (Isidoro,) a Milanese painter, born about 
 i6:6, was a pupil of Morazzone. Died about 1670. 
 
 Bianchi, (Isidoro,) an Italian monk and philosophical 
 writer, born at Cremona in 1733 ; died in 1807. 
 See Louis Bello, "Vie du Pere Bianchi." 
 Bianchi, (Marcantonio,) an Italian jurist, born in 
 149S at Padua, where he became professor of criminal 
 law in 1544. Died in 1548. 
 
 Bianchi, (Orazio,) an Italian philologist and trans- 
 lator, born at Rome; died at Milan in 1756. 
 
 Bianchi, (Pietro,) an Italian painter, born at Rome 
 in 1694 ; died in 1740. 
 
 Bianchi, be-oN'ke', (Thomas Xavier,) a French phi- 
 lologist, born in Pans in 1783, became royal secretary and 
 interpreter (secretaire-interprete) for Oriental languages, 
 ublished, among other works, a "Turkish-French 
 Dictionary," in which he was assisted by J. D. Kieffer. 
 
 Bianchi, (VKNDRAMlNO,)an Italian diplomatist, lived 
 about 1730. 
 
 Bianchi, von, fon be-an'kee, (Friedrich,) Baron, 
 an Austrian commander, of Italian extraction, born at 
 1a in 1768. He served in the principal campaigns 
 against the French, and in 1809 obtained the rank of 
 lieutenant-field-marshal. In 1815 he gained a signal vic- 
 tory over Murat near Tolentino, and was afterwards 
 created Duke of Casalanza. Died in 1855. 
 See Bkockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 Bianchi Giovini. See Giovini. 
 Bianchini, be-an-kee'nee, (Francesco,) an eminent 
 Italian astronomer and antiquary, born at Verona in 
 nber, 1662. He published a number of valuable 
 treatises on the antiquities of Rome, and a " Universal 
 iry, proved by Monuments and illustrated with 
 >ols of the Antique," (1697.) He passed the most 
 life at Rome, was patronized by the popes Alex- 
 ander VIII. and Clement XI., and was appointed by the 
 latter secretary of the commission charged with reform- 
 ing the calendar. He also drew a meridian-line and 
 erected a gnomon in the church of Santa Maria degli 
 i. Died at Rome in 1729. 
 
 FoNTENKU.E, " fi'oge de Bianchini," 1757 ; A. Mazzoi.eni, 
 I Bianchini,'* 1735 ; Njcekon, "Memoires." 
 
 Bianchini, (Giovanni Fortunato,) an Italian physi- 
 
 'irn in the kingdom of Naples in 1720; died in 1779. 
 
 Bianchini, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian antiquary, born at 
 
 a in 1704, was a nephew of Francesco, noticed 
 
 al of whose works he completed. 
 
 Bianco, be-an'ko, written also Biancho, (Andrea,) 
 
 etian geographer, lived about 1420. He executed 
 
 a number of hydrographic charts. 
 
 Bianco, (BaRTOLOMMEO,) an Italian architect, born 
 
 in the province of Como. Among his best works is the 
 
 t the University at Genoa. Died in 1656. 
 
 Bianco, del, del be-an'ko, (Baccio, bat'cho,) an 
 
 1 painter, born at Florence in 1604. Having teen 
 
 Invited by Philip IV., he went to Madrid, where he died 
 
 in 1656. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of PaintinR in Italy." 
 
 Biancolelli, be-an-ko-lel'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 
 actor, often called Domenico, (dom-i-nee'ko,) born at 
 Bologna in 1640, performed the part of Harlequin in 
 Paris. Died in 1688. 
 
 Biancolelli, (Pierre Francois,) called likewise Do- 
 minique, (do'ine'nek',) a French actor and dramatic 
 writer, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1681 ; died 
 in 1734. 
 
 Biancolini, be-ln-ko-lee'nee, (Giovanni Battista 
 Giuseppe,) an Italian chronicler, born at Verona in 1697 ; 
 died in 1780. 
 
 Bianconi, be-an-ko'nee, (Charles,) an Italian, noted 
 as the inventor or originator of the Irish car system which 
 bears his name, was born in the duchy of Milan about 
 1787. He emigrated to Ireland in early youth, and be- 
 gan in 1815 to carry passengers in cars. He succeeded, 
 and extended his lines of cars or stages through all parts 
 of Ireland. 
 
 Bianconi, (Giamhattista,) an Italian ecclesiastic 
 and philologist, born in 1698 at Bologna, where he be- 
 came professor of Greek and Hebrew. Died in 1781. 
 
 Bianconi, (Giovanni Luigi,) an Italian physician 
 and philosopher, nephew of the preceding, born at Bo- 
 lognain 1717. He published "Two Letters on Physics," 
 (1746,) a "Treatise on Electricity," (1748,) and other 
 works. He became physician to the King of Poland 
 about 1750. Died at Perugia in 1781. 
 
 Biancucci, be-an-koot'ehee, (Paolo,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Lucca in 1583, was a pupil of Guido. 
 Died about 1653. 
 
 Biandrate, be-an-dRa'ta, (Benvenuto,) an Italian 
 diplomatist and historian, was commander of the order 
 of Saint John of Jerusalem. Died in 1527. 
 
 Biard, be'tR', (Auguste Francois,) a celebrated 
 French painter, born at Lyons in 1S00. In 1828 he 
 visited various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and 
 made valuable collections of materials for the exercise 
 of his art. His " Family of Mendicants," exhibited at 
 the Paris Exposition in 1832, obtained the gold medal, 
 and was succeeded in a few years by "The Strolling 
 Players," "The Mad-House," "Attack of Spanish Rob- 
 bers in the Sierra Morena," "The Wind of the Desert," 
 and "The Slave-Trade." 
 
 See L. Boivm, " Notice sur M. Biard," etc. ; " Examen critique 
 des Tableaux de Biard," Paris, 1842. 
 
 Biard, (Paul,) a French Jesuit, born at Grenoble iu 
 1565, was professor of theology at Lyons. In 161 1 he 
 visited Canada, being one of the first Jesuit missionaries 
 to that country. He died in France in 1622. 
 
 See Charlevoix, "Histoire de la Nouvelle France." 
 
 Biard, (Pierre,) a French sculptor and architect, born 
 in Paris in 1559; died in 1609. 
 
 Biarnoy de Merville, be'ir'nwa' deh meVvel', 
 (Pierre,) a French jurist, born in Normandy, published 
 a work entitled " Regies pour former tin Avocat," (" Rules 
 for making a Lawyer," 171 1,) which obtained great suc- 
 cess. Died in 1740. 
 
 Bi'as, [Biof,] one of the seven sages of Greece, was a 
 native of Priene, and is supposed to have lived about 
 566 K.C He enjoyed a high reputation for skill and 
 ability as an advocate, as well as for practical wisdom and 
 love of justice. A number of his maxims are preserved 
 in the writings of Diogenes Laertius, Plutarch, and others. 
 
 Biascioli. See Biagioi.i. 
 
 Biauzat, de, deh be'5'zi ', (Gauthiek,) a French 
 magistrate, became a member of the Council of Ancients, 
 (1798,) and of the court of cassation, (1799.) Died in 181 5. 
 
 Bl-bac'u-lus, (M. Furius,) a Latin satirical poet, born 
 
 at Cremona about 103 B.C. He wrote, in iambic verse, 
 
 a poem on the wars of Gaul, entitled " Pragmatia Belli 
 
 Gallici," and a number of epigrams and satires. He is 
 
 compared by Diomedes with Horace and Catullus. A 
 
 few fragments of his works are preserved. 
 
 See Weichert, "Dissertatio de Turgido Alpino S. M. F. Biba- 
 cuto," 1822. 
 
 Bibars or Bibarz, bee'barz, sometime? written Bai- 
 bars, called also Bundokdar, bdon'dok-daR', Sultan of 
 Egypt, was the fourth of the Baharite dynasty of Mame- 
 lukes. He ascended the throne in 1260, having murdered 
 his predecessor, Kootooz, (Kiiifiz.) He defeated the 
 Tartan and ravaged Armenia, but at length died from 
 accidentally drinking poison, in 1277. 
 
 5 as ,r,- g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gwttu<v/; n, „<i:al; R, tr 
 
 ■Med; s as z: th as in this. ("fly-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BIBARS 
 
 354 
 
 BIDDLE 
 
 Bibars or Bibarz, twelfth Sultan of the Baharite 
 Mamelukes, ascended the throne in 1309, and was deposed 
 and put to death in 1310. 
 
 Bibaut, be'bo', [Lat. Bibau'cius,] (Willem,) a 
 Flemish preacher, born at Thielt, became general of the 
 order of Carthusians in 1521. Died in 1535. 
 
 Bibbiena. See Galli, (Ferdinando.) 
 
 Bibbiena, beb-be-a'na, (Angelo Dovizio,)- nephew 
 of Cardinal Bibbiena, lived about 1570. He held the 
 office of apostolic prothonotary. 
 
 Bibbiena, (Bernardo,) called also Bernardo Dovi- 
 zio (do-vet'se-o) or Devizio, (di-vet'se-o,) and Ber- 
 nardo diTarlatti, (de taR-13t'tee,) a celebrated Italian 
 cardinal, born at Bibbiena in 1470. He was intimate 
 with Giovanni de Medici, who afterwards became Pope 
 Leo X. and made Bibbiena a cardinal in 15 13. He pa- 
 tronized literary men and artists, and wrote, besides other 
 works in verse and prose, " Calandria," a comedy, which 
 was much admired and passed through many editions. 
 In 15 r8 Bibbiena was sent on a mission to the French 
 court to promote a crusade against the Turks. He died 
 suddenly in 1520, not without a suspicion of his having 
 been poisoned. 
 
 See Paolo Giovio, " Elogio de Bibbiena ;" Ginguenb, " Histoire 
 LitteYaired'Italie;" A. M. Bandini, " II Bibbiena, ossia il Ministrodi 
 Stato," etc., 1758. 
 
 Bibbiena, da, da beb-be-a'na, (Giovanni Maria 
 Galli,) an Italian painter, born in 1625, was the father of 
 Ferdinando Galli, and a pupil of Albano. Died in 1665. 
 
 See I.anzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bibbiena, da, or simply Bibbiena, beb-be-a'na, 
 (Giuseppe Galli,) a painter, born at Bologna in 1696. 
 He worked at Vienna and Dresden. Died in 1756. 
 
 Biber, bee'ber, (George E.,) a theologian, born pro- 
 bably in Germany about 1800, became curate of Roe- 
 hampton, England, about 1842. He published " Bishop 
 Blomfield and his Times," and many theological works. 
 
 Biberstein, bee'ber-stin', (Marschall,) Baron, a 
 German botanist, born at Wurtemberg in 1768, travelled 
 in the Crimea and the Caucasus, and published a descrip- 
 tion of the flora of those countries. Died in 1828. 
 
 Biberstein, von, fon bee'ber-stin', (Ernst Franz 
 Ludwig Marschall,) a German statesman, born at 
 Wallerstein in 1 770, became in 1806 minister of the Duke 
 of Nassau. Died in 1834. 
 
 Bib-I-a'na, Saint, a Roman virgin, who suffered 
 martyrdom about 360 A.n. 
 
 Bib'11-an-der, (Theodore,) an eminent Swiss divine 
 and philologist, whose original name was Buchmann, 
 (bdoK'miiij) born at Bischofszell in 1504, was professor 
 of theology at Zurich from 1532 to 1560. He wrote theo- 
 logical treatises in Latin, and translated several books of 
 the Zurich Bible commenced by Leo Juda. Died in 1564. 
 
 Bibron, be'bRON', (Gabriel,) a French zoologist, 
 born in Paris in 1806. He wrote, in conjunction with 
 Dumeril, a "Natural History of Reptiles," (about 1833.) 
 Died in 1848. 
 
 Bib'u-lus, (L. Calpurnius,) a Roman, who became 
 consul in 59 B.C. He was a partisan of Pompey during 
 the civil war, and was afterwards proconsul in Syria, and 
 commander of the fleet in the Ionian Sea, (49 B.C.) 
 
 Bibulus, (L. Calpurnius,) son of the preceding and 
 of Portia, the daughter of Cato, was made governor of 
 Syria by Antony. He died about 40 B.C., leaving a life 
 of his stepfather Brutus. 
 
 Bicaise, be'k&z', (Honore,) a French physician, born 
 at Aix-en-Provence in 1590, wrote a work "On the 
 Causes and Cure of the Plague." 
 
 Bicci, di, de bet'chee, (Lorenzo,) a painter of the 
 Florentine school, born before 1400. He painted frescos 
 in the cathedral of Florence. Died about 1460. 
 
 Bicci, di, (Neri,) an Italian painter, son of Lorenzo, 
 noticed above. Died after 1466. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Bichat, be'shi', (Marie Francois Xavier,) a French 
 physiologist and anatomist of great eminence, was born 
 at Thoirette, in Jura, on the nth of November, 1771. 
 He went to Paris in 1793, and became a favourite pupil 
 of Desault, who adopted him as his son. In 1797 he col- 
 lected and edited the "Surgical Works of Desault," and 
 began to lecture on anatomy, surgery, and physiology in 
 
 a school established by himself. He developed new and 
 important ideas on the anatomy of the tissues, and on 
 the distinction between organic'and animal functions, in 
 his "Treatise on the Membranes," (1798,) in " Researches 
 on Life and Death," (1800,) and in his great work, "Gene- 
 ral Anatomy applied to Physiology and Medicine," ("Ana- 
 tomie generate appliquee," etc., 4 vols., 1801,) which 
 established his reputation as a profound philosopher. 
 
 Bichat was the first who reduced the organs of the 
 body to their elementary tissues and explained the 
 chemical, physical, and vital properties of each primitive 
 tissue. He has also the honour of being the first who 
 recognized the importance of the distinction between 
 organic and animal functions and made it the basis of t 
 classification. He was appointed physician to the Hotel- 
 Dieu in 1799 or 1800. He impaired his health by ex- 
 cessive application to study and experiments, and died 
 prematurely in July, 1802, leaving an unfinished work on 
 " Descriptive Anatomy," of which he published two 
 volumes. His pupils Buisson and Roux added three 
 more volumes. " No one," says Corvisart, " has done 
 so much and so well in so short a time." 
 
 See P. Sue, " fiioge de Bichat," 1803; Bilon, " £loge historique 
 de Bichat," 1802 ; Miquel, " £loge de Bichat," 1823; Roux, " Eloge 
 de Bichat," 1851; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Bick'er-staff, (Isaac,) an Irish dramatist, born about 
 1735, was for some time an officer of marines. He pro- 
 duced, besides other plays, three comic operas, entitled 
 "Love in a Village," (1763,) "The Maid of the Mill," 
 (1765,) and "Lionel and Clarissa," (1768,) all of which 
 were successful. He died after 1787. 
 
 Bick'er-steth, (Edward,) D.D., an English writer, 
 born at Acton, in Suffolk, in 1814, became Archdeacon 
 of Buckinghamshire in 1853. He has published several 
 theological works. 
 
 Bickersteth, (Rev. Edward,) a distinguished Eng- 
 lish divine and theological writer, born in Westmoreland 
 in 1786. He published in 1814 a " Help to the Study 
 of the Scriptures," which obtained great popularity. 
 Having taken orders, he visited Africa in 1816, for the 
 purpose of inspecting the stations of the Missionary So- 
 ciety in that country. He officiated as secretary ot that 
 society for about fifteen years. In 1830 he became rector 
 of Watton, in Hertfordshire, where he was active in 
 promoting the cause of religious and benevolent associa- j 
 tions. He was one of the founders of the Evanu 
 Alliance. Among his numerous and valuable works may ■ 
 be named "A Practical Guide to the Prophecies." "A 
 Treatise on Baptism," "The Promised Glory of the 
 Church of Christ," and "The Restoration of the J' 
 Died in 1 850. 
 
 See "Memoir of the Rev. Edward Bickersteth," by T. R. Bikks. 
 2 vols., 1851 ; " Burning and Shining Lights," by the Rev. K 
 Steel. 
 
 Bickersteth, (Henry,) Lord Langdale, an English 
 judge, brother of the preceding, born at Kirkby-Lons- 
 dale in 1783. He practised in the courts of equity, and 
 attained to eminence as a lawyer. He was appointed 
 master of the rolls, and raised to the peerage, in 1836. 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 See Foss, " The Judges of England," vol. ix. 
 
 Bick'er-ton, (Sir Richard Hussey,) an English 
 admiral, born in 1759, served under Lord Keith in 1801, 
 and assisted in the blockade of Alexandria. 1 1 1 
 created admiral of the blue in 1810, knight-commander 
 of the Bath in 1815, and subsequently general of the 
 royal marines. Died in 1832. 
 
 Biclara, be-kli'rS, (Joao,) a Portuguese historian, 
 born at Santarem, flourished between 550 and 600 A. 11. 
 
 Bid'dle, (Clement,) an American officer, born in 
 Philadelphia in 1740, was originally a member of the 
 Society of Friends. Before the Revolution he « 
 merchant, and a decided asserter of the rights of the 
 colonies. He served as colonel at the battles of Tren- 
 ton, Princeton, Brandywine, and Monmouth. He was 
 appointed marshal of Pennsylvania about 1789 by Gene- 
 ral Washington, who was his friend and correspondent. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 Biddle, (Clement Cornell,) a son of the preceding, 
 born in Philadelphia in 1784, was a lawyer and political 
 economist. He served as colonel in the war against 
 Great Britain, (1812—15.) He published, with notes and 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mit; n6t; good; mfiir 
 
B1DDLE 
 
 355 
 
 B IE L INS KI 
 
 
 additions, a translation of J. B. Say's " Treatise on Po- 
 litical Economy,'' (1S21.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Biddle, (James,) an American naval officer, born in 
 17S}, was educated in Philadelphia. He entered the 
 navv alxiut 1800, and in 1832 signed a commercial treaty 
 with Turkey. Having obtained the rank of commodore, 
 he commanded a squadron on the coast of China in 
 1S47. Died in Philadelphia in 1848. 
 
 Bid'dle, (John,) the founder of Unitarianism in Eng- 
 land, born in Gloucestershire in 1615, was a graduate 
 of Oxford. In 1647 he wrote for private circulation a 
 pamphlet in which he attempted to refute the commonly- 
 received opinion respecting the Deity of the Holy Spirit. 
 For this he was summoned before the Parliament, and, 
 alter a protracted trial, condemned to five years' imprison- 
 ment. While in prison, he wrote (in 1648) a "Confession 
 of Faith concerning the Holy Trinity," and several other 
 in defence of his peculiar doctrines. After the 
 death of Charles I., Biddle was released ; but he was soon 
 remanded by Bradshaw, president of the council. The 
 act of indemnity and oblivion having been passed in 1651, 
 he was set at liberty, and soon after formed with his ad- 
 herents a society to which was given the name of Unita- 
 rians. He was subsequently twice imprisoned under 
 Cromwell, and his works publicly burned. After the 
 restoration of Charles II. he was again sent to prison, 
 where he died in 1662. 
 
 See J. TouLMiN, "Life of John Biddle," 1815; John Farri.vg- 
 ton, "vita J. Bidelli," 1682. 
 
 Biddle, (Nicholas,) an American naval commander, 
 born in Philadelphia in 1750. He entered the British navy 
 in 1770, and served as midshipman in the same vessel 
 with Lord Nelson. Having returned to America in 1776, 
 he was appointed captain of the Andrew Doria, and cap- 
 tured several prizes from the British. In February, 1777, 
 he took command of the Randolph, a frigate of thirty- 
 two otitis. During an action with the British ship Yar- 
 mouth, in March, 1778, the magazine of the Randolph ex- 
 ploded, and killed Captain Biddle with nearly all his crew. 
 
 Biddle, (NICHOLAS,) an American financier, born in 
 Philadelphia in January, 1786, was a nephew of Commo- 
 dore Piddle, and a son of Charles Biddle, who was for 
 some time vice-president of the commonwealth of Penn- 
 sylvania. He graduated at Princeton in 1S01, after which 
 he passed several years in Europe. Having returned 
 in 1807, he edited for a time "The Port- Folio," (a literary 
 journal,) and was elected a member of the legislature 
 of Pennsylvania in 1810. He served in the Senate of 
 that State from 1S14 to 1817, and in 1819 was appointed 
 a director of the United States Bank by President Mon- 
 roe. In 1823 he became president of that bank, which, 
 by virtue of his new financial measures, supplied the 
 country with a uniform currency, until, after an exciting 
 political contest, the bill for the recharter of the bank 
 was vetoed by President Jackson in 1832. In accord- 
 ance with the limitation of its charter, the bank was closed 
 in 1836. A second " United States Bank," designed as a 
 successor to the old one, having been chartered by the 
 State of Pennsylvania, in whose legislature the Whig or 
 Anti-Jackson party had at that time a majority, Mr. Bid- 
 dle was made president of the new institution : it failed, 
 however, in 1841. Mr. Biddle was also president of the 
 trustees of the fund (amounting to 2,000,000 dollars) left 
 by Stephen Girard for the establishment of a college for 
 orphans. "To his exertions alone," says Judge Robert 
 T. Conrad, "the country owes one of the most beautiful 
 structures of modern times, — the Girard College. . . . 
 He proposed the present plan, and, in the midst of wild 
 political excitement and opposition, persisted firmly, 
 and secured a building which every citizen now not only 
 approves, but applauds." His eloquence and literary 
 merits are highly extolled by his biographer just quoted. 
 Died in February, 1844. 
 
 See a " Memoir of Nicholas Biddle," by Robert T. Conrad, in 
 the "National Portrait-Gallery," vol. iv., 1839. 
 
 Biddle, (Richard,) an American lawyer and writer, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia in 
 1796. He practised law at Pittsburg, and published a 
 " Memoir of Sebastian Cabot ; ^vith a Review of the 
 ty of Maritime Discovery," (1831.) He was a 
 member of Congress from 1837 to 1840. Died in 1847. 
 
 Bid'dfilph, (Thomas TreoenKa,) an English divine, 
 born in Worcestershire in 1763, wrote "Essays on the 
 Liturgy," (1798,) and other religious works, which have 
 a high reputation. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1824. 
 
 Bidermann. See Biedermann. 
 
 Bidet maim or Biedermann, bee'der-man', (Jakob,) 
 a German Jesuit and writer, born at Tubingen ; died at 
 Rome in 1639. 
 
 Bidermann, (Johann Gottfried,) a German writer 
 on genealogy, lived about 1760. 
 
 Bidermann, (Johann Gottlieb,) a German philolo- 
 gist, born at Naumburg in 1705 ; died in 1772. 
 
 See Hubler, "Memoria J. G. Biedermann," 1772. 
 
 Bidet, be'd&', (Nicolas,) a French agriculturist, born 
 in 1709, wrote on the culture of grapes. Died at Rheims 
 in 1782. 
 
 Biding, be'daN', (Moses Israel,) a French Jew, born 
 in 1775, was professor of Hebrew at Merz. 
 
 Bid'lake, (John,) an English divine, born at Ply- 
 mouth in 1755 ; died in 1814. 
 
 Bidloo, bid 16, (Godfried,) a Dutch anatomist, born 
 at Amsterdam in 1649. He became physician to Wil- 
 liam III. of England, and in 1694 professor of anatomy 
 and surgery at Leyden. He wrote, in Latin, "Anatomy 
 of the Human Body," with one hundred and five plates 
 by G. de Lairesse, (1685,) and other works. Died in 1713. 
 
 Bidloo, (Lambert,) a Dutch botanist, brother of the 
 preceding, was a resident of Amsterdam. 
 
 Bidou, be'doo', (Francois Simon,) a French medical 
 writer, born at Ecos (Eure) in 1769 ; died in Paris in 1824. 
 
 Bidpai. See Pilpay. 
 
 Bie, van, vin bee, (Adrian,) a Flemish painter, born 
 near Antwerp in 1594; died about 1640. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Bie, van, (Jakob,) a Flemish engraver, born about 
 1600, resided at Antwerp. 
 
 Biedermann. See Bidermann. 
 
 Biedermann, bee'der-man', (Friedrich Karl,) a 
 German publicist, and professor of law at Leipsic, where 
 he was born in 1812. He founded in 1842 the "German 
 Monthly Journal for Literature and Public Life," and 
 published a treatise " On German Philosophy from Kant 
 to the Present Time," (2 vols., 1842,) and " i undamental 
 Philosophy," (1837.) About 1850 he began to direct the 
 publication of an extensive encyclopaedic work, called 
 " Germania." 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Biedermann, bee'der-man', written also Bidermann, 
 (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss landscape-painter, born at 
 Winterthur, lived about 1 780-1820. 
 
 Biehl, heel, (Charlotte Dorothea,) a Danish au- 
 thoress and dramatist, born at Copenhagen in 1 73 1, made 
 a translation of " Don Quixote," which is highly es- 
 teemed. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Kraft og Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon for Danemark." etc. 
 
 Biel, beel, (Gabriel,) a German philosophical writer, 
 born at Speyer ; died in 1495. 
 
 Biel, (Johann Christian,) a German Lutheran theo- 
 logian, born at Brunswick in 1687; died in 1745. 
 
 Biel, (Ludwic,) professor of philosophy at Vienna, 
 wrote a treatise entitled "The Utility of Money," ("Utili- 
 tates Rei Nummariae," 1733.) 
 
 Biela, von, fon bee'la, (Wii.hf.lm,) Baron, a German 
 astronomer, bom near Stolberg in 1782, discovered in 
 1826 the comet since called bv his name. Died in 1856. 
 
 Bielefeld, von, fon bee'leh-fJIt, (Jakob Fried- 
 rich,) Baron, a German publicist and litteratetir, born 
 at Hamburg al>out 1712, became in 1747 inspector of the 
 Prussian universities. Died in 1770. 
 
 Bieler, bee'ler, (Benjamin,) a German antiquary and 
 theologian, born in Saxony in 1693; died in 1772. 
 
 Bieler, (Karl AMBRO.sius,)a German physician, born 
 at Ratisbon in 1693 ; died in 1747. 
 
 Bielinski, be-i-len'skee, (Francis,) a Polish natu- 
 ralist, was appointed by Augustus III. grand marshal of 
 the crown. Died about 1 766. 
 
 Bielinski, (Peter.) a Polish magistrate, born in 1754, 
 became senator palatine, and filled other offices under 
 government. Died in 1829. 
 
 tas>, c as s; % hard; g asy; o, H, v.,gvttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jt^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BIELKE 
 
 35<5 
 
 BIGELOW 
 
 Bielke, be-el'keh, written also Bjelke, (Nicholas,) 
 Count, a Swedish mineralogist, was director of the de- 
 partment of mines from 1782 to 1789. 
 
 Bielke, (STBS (or Steno) Kari.,) a Swedish naturalist 
 and scientific writer, born at Stockholm in 1709; died in 
 
 1754- , . 
 
 See Gezelius, " Biographiskt- Lexicon;" Rosenadler, Amin- 
 nelse-Tal ofver Sten Karl Bjelke," 1755. 
 
 Bielowski, be-a-lov'skee, (Augustus,) a Polish lit- 
 terateur, born in Galicia about 1806, published a trans- 
 lation of Goethe's " Faust." 
 
 Bielski, be-61'skee, (Martin,) a Polish chronicler, 
 born in 1495. His " Kronika Polska" is admired for the 
 elegance of its style, and is the first important history 
 of Poland written in the Polish language. Died in 1576. 
 His son Joachim wrote a continuation of the "Chronicle 
 of Poland," and published the entire work in 1597. 
 
 Bienaime,be-an'i'ma',( Pierre Theodore,) a French 
 architect, born at Amiens in 1765 ; died in 1826. 
 
 Bienaise, be-nn'&z', (Jean,) a French surgeon, born 
 at Mazeres, wrote " Operations of Surgery by a Short 
 and Easy Method," (1688.) Died in 1681. 
 
 Bienayme.bc-jn'i'ma', (Pierre FRANgois,) a French 
 naturalist, became"~Bishop of Metz in 1802. He was a 
 friend of Buffon and Daubenton. Died in 1806. 
 
 Bienne, be-Jn'na', [Lat. Benena'tus,] (Jean,) a 
 French typographer, published several fine editions of 
 the Greek and Latin classics. Died in 1588. 
 
 Bienvenu, be-a.N'veh-nii', (Jacques,) a Genevese litte- 
 rateur and satirist^ lived about 1570. 
 
 Bienville, de, deh be-aN'vel', (Jean Bafitste Le- 
 moine — leh-mwan',) a French captain, born in Canada 
 about 1680. He was a brother of Lemoyne d'Iberville, 
 whom he accompanied on his expedition to the mouth 
 of the Mississippi in 1699, and after his death (1706) be- 
 came governor of the French colony which was planted 
 in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans in 
 1 7 18. Died in France about 1768. 
 
 Bierbrauer, beeR'bRow'er, (Johann Jakob,) a Ger- 
 man magistrate, bom at Hesse in 1705; died in 1760. 
 
 Bierkander or Bjerkander, be-eVkan-der, (Klau- 
 Dius,) a Swedish savant, born in 1735 ; died in 1795. 
 
 See Oedm ANN," Aminnelse-Tal ofver probslenC. Bjerkander," 1 798. 
 
 Bierling, beeR'ling, (Conrad Friedrich Ernst,) 
 son of Friedrich Wilhelm, born in 1709, was professor of 
 metaphysics and theology at Kinteln. Died in 1755. 
 
 Bierling, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German preacher 
 and theologian, born at Magdeburg in 1676, was a friend 
 and correspondent of Leibnitz. Died in 1728. 
 
 Bierrnann, beeR'man, (Karl Eduard,) a German 
 landscape-painter, and professor in the Academy of Arts 
 at Berlin, where he was born in 1803. 
 
 Biermann, (Martin,) a German physician, and pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Helmstedt, lived about 1570-1600. 
 
 Biernacki, be-eR-nat'skee or byeR-nit'skee, (Alois 
 Prosper,) a Polish nobleman, distinguished for the agri- 
 cultural improvements he introduced into Poland, born 
 in the palatinate of Kalisch in 1778; died in 1856. 
 
 Biernatzki, beeR-nats'kee, (Johann Chkistoph,) a 
 German Lutheran divine, born at Elmshorn, in Hol- 
 stein, in 1795, published "The Hallig, or Shipwrecks 
 in an Island of the North Sea," (1836,) and other tales. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 See C. L. Biern-vtzki, "Biographie von J. C. Biernatzki," 1852. 
 
 Bierstadt, beer'stat, (Albert,) an eminent landscape- 
 painter, born at Dusseldorf, in Germany, in 1828. His 
 parents emigrated to New England when he was about 
 two years old. In 1853 he visited Germany, studied for 
 a time at the Dusseldorf Academy, and executed several 
 views of German scenery, which attracted very favourable 
 notice. Having spent a winter in Rome, and made the 
 tour of Switzerland and the Apennines, he returned to 
 the United States in 1857. The following year he ac- 
 companied General Lander's expedition to the Rocky 
 Mountains, where he spent several months in making 
 sketches. In 1863 he produced his magnificent "View 
 of the Rocky Mountains — Lander's Peak," (six feet by 
 ten.) Among his other works may be mentioned his 
 "Sunlight and Shadow," "The Storm in the Rocky 
 Mountains," and "The Domes of the Yo Semite." 
 
 See Tuckerman's "Book of the Artists." 
 
 Bieselinghen. See Biezf.lingen. 
 
 Biesenthal, bee'zen-taT, (Johannes Heinrich,) a 
 Hebrew philologist, a friend of the celebrated Neander, 
 born in Posen about 1800. Though born of Jewish 
 parents, he early embraced Christianity. He published 
 in 1840 a Hebrew-Latin Lexicon, and in 1851 a valuable 
 " History of the Christian Church during the First Three j 
 Centuries.'' 
 
 Biesniann, bees'man, (Kaspar,) a German Jesuit and 
 professor of philosophy, born at Dusseldorf in 1639. He , 
 wrote on rhetoric and ethics. 
 
 Biester, bees'ter, (Johann Eric,) a German littera- 
 teur and journalist, born at Lubeck in 1749. In 1785 he 
 founded, conjointly with Gedike, the "Berlin Monthly 
 Review," (" Monatsschrift,") and became in 1784 libra- 
 rian of the royal library. He translated from the French 
 Barthelemy's "Travels of Anacharsis.". Died in 1816. 
 
 Biet, be-i', (Antoine,) a French missionary to Ca- 
 yenne, born near Senlis about 1620. 
 
 Biet, (Claude,) born near Verdun-sur-Saone, became 
 first apothecary to the king. Died in 1728. 
 
 Biet, (Rene,) a French antiquary, wrote a "Disserta- 
 tion on the True Epoch of the Establishment of the 
 Franks in Gaul," (1736.) Died in 1767. 
 
 Biett, be-eV, (Laurent,) born in the canton of Gri- . 
 sons, became physician to the hospital Saint-Louis, 
 (Paris,) into which he introduced important improve- 
 ments. Died in 1840. 
 
 Biever. See Beaver. 
 
 Bievre, de, deh be-evR', (Marechal,) Marquis, a 
 French litterateur and wit, born in 1747, published several 
 dramas, and the "Almanac of Puns," ("Calembours.") 
 Died in 1789. 
 
 Biez, du, dii be-a', (Oudard,) a French marshal, who 
 served against thtfEnglish in 1523, and in the Italian 
 campaign of 1528. Died in 1553. 
 
 Biezelingen or Bieselinghen, van, vSn bee'zeh- 
 ling'en, (Christian Jan) a Dutch portrait-painter, burn 
 at Delft in 1558. Among his master-pieces is a portrait 
 of William I., Prince of Orange. Died in 1600. 
 
 Biffi, bef'fee, (Andrea,) a Milanese sculptor, lived 
 about 1600, and executed works for the Milan cathedral, 
 
 Biffi, (Giovanni,) an Italian litterateur and Latin poet, 
 born near Milan in 1464. 
 
 Biffi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian musician and composer, 
 born at Milan, flourished about 1580. 
 
 Bifield, (Nicholas.) See Byitei.d. 
 
 Bin 6s t, bif'rost, the name given in the Norse my- 
 thology to the rainbow. See Heimdall. 
 
 Bigari, be-ga'ree, (Vittorio,) an Italian painter and 
 sculptor, born at Bologna about 1692 ; died in 1776. 
 
 Bigarre, be'gt'ra', (Auguste Julien,) a French gen- 
 eral, born at Palais in 1775 ; died in 1838. 
 
 Bigelot, bezh'lo', (Francois Emmanuel Simeon,) 
 a French littlrateur, born at Nancy in 1789; died in 
 1820. 
 
 Big'e-low, (Erastus,) born at West Boylston, in 
 Massachusetts, in 1814, invented a machine for weaving 
 counterpanes, which was a great improvement on those 
 previously in use. 
 
 Bigelow, (Jacob,) M.D., LL.D., an eminent American 
 physician, born in Sudbury, Massachusetts, in 1787, grad- 
 uated at Harvard in 1806. He was for many years phy- 
 sician to the Massachusetts General Hospital, and pro- 
 fessor of materia medica and of clinical medicine in 
 Harvard University. He became president of the Mas- 
 sachusetts Medical Society, and also president of the 
 American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He served on 
 the committee of five appointed in 1820 to form the 
 "American Pharmacopoeia," and for ten years delivered 
 lectures at Cambridge on the application of science to the 
 useful arts. As the founder of Mount Auburn Cemetery, 
 he displayed great taste in laying out the grounds, design- 
 ing the gateway, etc. His first work, entitled "Florida 
 Bostoniensis," appeared in 1814, (3d edition, greatly en- 
 larged, 1840;) and his "American Medical Botany" (3 
 vols. 8vo) in 1817-21. He has also published a work 
 entitled "The Useful Arts considered in Connection 
 with the Applications»of Science," an excellent " Dis- 
 course on Self-Limited Diseases," and a kindred vvork, 
 entitled " Nature in Disease." 
 
 a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
B1GEL0W 
 
 357 
 
 B1HER0N 
 
 Bigelow, (John,) an American author and journalist, 
 born in Ulster county, New York, in 1817, graduated at 
 n College in 1835. He has contributed a number of 
 able articles to the "Democratic Review." From 1845 
 to 1S4S he was prison-inspector at Sing-Sing, and origin- 
 ated some important reforms in the discipline of that 
 institution. In 1850 he became associated with Mr. Bry- 
 ant as editor of the New York "Evening Post." In the 
 same year he visited Jamaica, and published after his re- 
 turn an excellent work, entitled "Jamaica in 1850 ; or the 
 Effects of Sixteen Years of Freedom on a Slave Colony." 
 In 1S61 Mr. Bigelow was appointed American consul at 
 Paris ; on the death of Mr. Dayton, in December, 1864, 
 be became charge-d'affaires, and in April, 1865, minister 
 plenipotentiary at the court of France. He resigned this 
 on in Decembei, 1866. 
 
 Bigelow, (Timothy,) an American lawyer, born at 
 Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1767, graduated at Har- 
 vard in 17S6. He rose to the first rank in his profession. 
 In iSo7he removed to Medford, and opened an office in 
 n. He was an active Federalist, and was Speaker t>f 
 the 1 louse of Representatives of Massachusetts for eleven 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 Bigeou, be'zhdN', (Louis Francois,) a French medi- 
 cal writer, born at La Villee in 1773, practised at Dinan 
 about forty years. Died in 1848. 
 
 Bigeot, be'zho', (Claude Etienne,) a French diplo- 
 matist in the service of Spain. Died in 1675. 
 
 Biget See Marthe. 
 
 Bigg, (Wiim am Redmore,) an English painter of 
 interiors and domestic scenes. Died in 1828. 
 
 Bigi, bee'jee, (Felice,) an Italian flower-painter, 
 worked at Verona about 16S0. 
 
 Bigio, bee'jo, (Marcantonio Francia,) an Italian 
 painter, born at or near Florence in 1445 ; died in 1525. 
 
 Big'land, (John,) an English writer, born in York- 
 shire, published "Letters on the Study and Use of Ancient 
 and Modern History," and a " History of Spain," which 
 has been translated into French. Died in 1832. 
 
 Bigland, (Ralph,) an English antiquary, born in 
 Westmoreland in 171 1, was appointed Garter king-at- 
 arms in 17S0. Died in 1784. 
 
 Biglia, bel'ya, (Andrea,) an Italian scholar, wrote 
 historical works in Latin. Died in 1435. 
 
 Big'low, (William,) a New England teacher and 
 writer, born in 1773. He graduated at Harvard in 1794, 
 and subsequently became principal of the Boston Latin 
 School, which he conducted with distinguished success 
 for several years. Edward Everett was among his pupils. 
 He prepared several text-books for his school, and was an 
 active contributor to the periodical press. Died in 1844. 
 
 Bignan, ben'yS.N', (Anne,) a French poet and transla- 
 tor of the classical school, born at Lyons in 1 795, produced 
 good poetical versions of Homers "Iliad" (1830) and 
 "Odyssey," (1840.) He obtained four prizes of the French 
 Academy for original poems, among which are an " Epis- 
 tle to Cuvier," and "Napoleon in Russia," (1844.) Died 
 in November, 1861. 
 
 Bigne, de la, deh li ben, (Gaces, gis,) a French poet 
 and ecclesiastic, born in Normandy about 1328, was 
 chaplain successively to Philip of Valois, John II., and 
 Charles V., of France. 
 
 Bigne, de la, (Marguerin, miRg'raN',) a French 
 doctor of the Sorbonne, born at Bernieres-le-Patry about 
 1546; died about 1590. 
 
 Big'nell, (Henry,) an English divine, born at Oxford 
 in 1611 ; died about 1660. 
 
 Bignicourt, de, deh ben'ye'kooR', (Simon,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Rheims in 1709; died in 1775. 
 
 Bignon, ben'yoN', (Armand Jerome,) a French jurist, 
 
 nephew of Jean Paul, noticed below, whom he succeeded 
 
 yal librarian, was born in 1711. He was a member 
 
 of the French Academy, and of the Academy of Inscrip- 
 
 1 1 i s son Jean Frederic also became royal I ibrarian. 
 
 Died in 1772. 
 
 Bignon, (Jean Paul,) grandson of Jerome, noticed 
 below, born in Paris in 1662, was appointed preacher to 
 
 1 Louis XIV., and in 1718 became royal librarian. He 
 member of the French Academy. He was a friend 
 and patron of Tournefort, who named in his honour the 
 genus Bignonia. Died in 1743. 
 
 Bignon, (Jerome,) a French magistrate and scholar, 
 born in Paris in 1589, became a page and companion ol 
 the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. He was subse- 
 quently councillor of state, and on the death of De Thou 
 succeeded him as first keeper of the royal library. He 
 was distinguished for his profound learning, and pleaded 
 many important causes with great Mat. He wrote, 
 among other works, a treatise "On the Grandeur of our 
 Kings, and their Sovereign Power," (1615.) Died in 1656. 
 According to Voltaire, " he left a great name, rather than 
 great works.." 
 
 See Pbrau, "Vie de JeVome Bignon," 1757. 
 
 Bignon, (Louis Pierre Edouard,) an able French 
 statesman and historian, born at La Meilleraye in 1 771. 
 He was minister plenipotentiary to Baden in 1809, and 
 soon after administrator-general of Austria. After the 
 battle of Waterloo he was made minister of foreign 
 affairs by Napoleon, was elected to the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties in 1817, and created a peer of France in 1837. He 
 was the author of a " History of France from the 18th 
 Brumaire to the Peace of Tilsit," (6 vols., 1829-30,) and 
 a " History of France under Napoleon from the Peace of 
 Tilsit to 1812," (4 vols., 1838,) also of several political 
 treatises. Napoleon bequeathed to M. Bignon 100,000 
 francs, and charged him to write the history of French 
 diplomacy from 1792 to 1815. Died in Paris in 1841. 
 
 See Mignkt, "Notice sur L. P. it. Bignon," 1841. 
 
 Bignoni, de, da ben-yo'nee, (Mario,) an Italian monk 
 and eminent preacher, born in Venice ; died in 1660. 
 
 Bignotti, ben-yot'tee, (Vincenzo,) an Italian eccle- 
 siastic and litterateur, born at Vercelli in 1764; died in 
 1831. 
 
 Bigoni, be-go'nee, (Ludovico,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Brescia in 1712 ; died in 1785. 
 
 Bigoimet, be'go'ni', (Jean Adrien,) a French revo- 
 lutionist and republican, born in 1755, became a member 
 of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1832. 
 
 Bigot, be'go', (Emery,) a French scholar,, born at 
 Rouen in 1626. He discovered in the library of Florence 
 the Greek text of the " Life of Saint Chrysostom" by 
 Palladius, which he published in 1680. Died in 1689. 
 
 Bigot, (Guillaume,) a French poet, born at Laval, 
 in Maine, in 1502, became professor of philosophy at 
 Tubingen. He published a " Prelude of Christian Phi- 
 losophy," (" Christianas Philosophise Prasludium," 1 549. ) 
 
 Bigot, (MARIE,) a celebrated pianist, whose original 
 name was KlENE, born at Colmar in 1786. She was in- 
 structed in music by Haydn and Beethoven, by whom 
 her performances were highly commended. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Le Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclope'dique de la France." 
 
 Bigot de Palaprat. See Palaprat. 
 
 Bigot de Preameneu, be'go' deh pRa'Sm'nuh', (Fe- 
 lix Julien Jean,) a French jurist, born at Rennes in 
 1747, was made a count of the empire and grand officer 
 of the legion of honour under Napoleon, and in 1815 a 
 peer of France. He was a member of the French 
 Academy, and a coadjutor of Portalis and others in the 
 reformation of the civil code. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Nougarede DE Fayet, " Notice sur la Vie de Bigot de Pre- 
 ameneu." 
 
 Bigotier, be'go'te-a', [Lat. Bigothe'rius,] (Claude,) 
 a Latin poet, born at Treffort, in La Bresse, about 1500, 
 was professor of rhetoric at Lyons. 
 
 Bigotiere, de la, deh li be'go'te-aiR', (Perciiam- 
 liAUi.T, peVsh&N'bo',) a French officer, born at Rennes, 
 served in the royalist army in La Vendee. Having been 
 made prisoner at Mans, he was shot in 1794. 
 
 Bigotiere, de la, (Rene de Perchambauit,) a 
 French jurist, born at Angers about 1640, wrote a treat- 
 ise " On the Common Law of Brittany," and other legal 
 works. Died in 1727. 
 
 Bigs'bjf, (ROBERT,) an English antiquary, born at 
 Nottingham about 1806. He published "Poems and 
 Essays," "The Antiquarian Enthusiast," (3 vols., about 
 1850,) and other works. 
 
 Bihar! L61, bl-ha'ree 151, a Hindoo poet, contempo- 
 rary with Kabir. 
 
 Biheron, be'r6N' or be'e'roN', (Marie Catherine,) 
 a French anatomist, was born in Paris in 1719. She was 
 patronized by the celebrated physicians Jussieu and Vil- 
 loiton in Paris, and by Hunter and Hewson in London. 
 
 «asi;casj; g/iard; gasyyc, H, Y., guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 ass; thas in this. ($ySee Explanation*, p. 23.) 
 
BILAIN 
 
 358 
 
 B1LLICH 
 
 Her anatomical cabinet was bought at her death for Cath- 
 erine II. of Russia. Died in 1786. 
 
 See Chaudon et Delandine, " Nouveau Dictionnaire Biogra- 
 phique." 
 
 Bilain, be'laN', (Antoine,) a French jurist and legal 
 writer, born near Rheims ; died in 1672. 
 
 Bilderbeck, de, deh bel'deVbek' or bil'der-bek', 
 (L. F.,) Baron, a French novelist and dramatist, born 
 at Wissembourg, in Alsace, lived about 1800. 
 
 Bilderbeck, von, fon bil'der-beV, (Christoph Lo- 
 renz,) a German jurist, born at Schwerin in 1682. 
 
 Bilderdijk or Bilderdyk, pronounced alike bil'der- 
 Hk', (Willem,) an eminent Dutch poet, born at Amster- 
 dam in 1756. He published in 1777 "The True Love of 
 Fatherland," (" De ware Liefde van het Vaderland,") 
 rod in 1779 a successful translation of the " CEdipus Ty- 
 ranr.us" of Sophocles. In 1806 he was chosen by King 
 Louis Bonaparte to instruct him in the Dutch language, 
 ■ltd afterwards elected one of the first members of the 
 Institute then recently founded at Amsterdam. Among 
 the most important ot his numerous works may be named 
 "Elius," (1778,) "Miscellaneous Poems," (1799,) "The 
 Destruction of the First World," (" De Ondergang der 
 eerste Wereld," 1817, unfinished,) " Maladies of Literary 
 Men," " Rural Life," (" Buitenleven,") a free translation 
 of some of Ossian's poems, an,d a number of tragedies. 
 He was distinguished for his attainments in almost every 
 department of learning. " Willem Bilderdijk," says Bos- 
 worth, " is the Samuel Johnson of the Dutch. . . . He 
 was a giant in literature and intellectual strength, the 
 most fertile of the Dutch writers." Died at Haarlem in 
 1831. 
 
 His second wife, Katharina Wilhelmina, was the 
 author of the tragedies of " Elfrida" and " Iphigenia," 
 and translated Southey's "Roderick." Died in 1830. 
 
 See Jan van Wai.re, " Ter Gedachtenis van W. Bilderdijk," 
 1832; I. da Costa, " Overzicht van het Leven en deWerken van W. 
 Bilderdijk," 1844; Van Kempen, "Histoire Litteraire;" Longfel- 
 low, " Poe«s and Poetry of Europe ;" " Fraser's Magazine," vol. 1., 
 1854; Bosworth's "Anglo-Saxon Dictionary," preface, pp. cviii., 
 cix. 
 
 Bilderdyk. See Bilderdijk. 
 
 Bilfinger, bil'fing-er, (Georg Bernhard,) a German 
 philosopher of the school of Leibnitz, born at Canstadt, 
 in Wiirtemberg, in 1693. He was curator of the Uni- 
 versity of Tubingen, and a member of the Royal Acade- 
 my of Berlin. He wrote a number of philosophical and 
 scientific treatises in Latin. He obtained the prize of- 
 fered by the French Academy of Sciences for an expla- 
 nation of the cause of the weight of bodies. Died in 
 
 175°- 
 
 See Adelung, Supplement to Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten- 
 Lexikon:" W. G. Tafinger, " Leichenrede liber den hoch zu be- 
 trauernden Todesfall des zinn seltenen Exempel," etc., 1750. 
 
 Bilguer, bel'gaiR', (Jean Ulric,) a distinguished 
 Swiss surgeon and medical writer, born at Coire in 1720, 
 became surgeon-general of the Prussian army about 1759, 
 and received a title of nobility from the Emperor of Ger- 
 many. His Latin treatise on the management of gunshot 
 wounds (1761) has been translated into French, German, 
 and English. Died in 1796. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Bilguer, von, fon bel'gaiR', (Paul Rudolf,) a famous 
 German chess-player, born in 1809. He died in 1840, 
 leaving a " Manual of Chess-Playing," which was com- 
 pleted and published in 1843 by Heydebrand. 
 
 Bilhon, be'liV, (Jean Joseph Frederic,) a French 
 writer on political economy, born at Avignon in 1759; 
 died in 1834. 
 
 Bilhuber, bil'hoo'ber, (Joseph Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man physician, born at Aurich in 1758; died in 1793. 
 
 Bilintani, be-len-tj'nee, (Pompeo,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Venice, lived about 1530. 
 
 Biliotti, be-le-ot'tee, (Ivo,) an Italian soldier, who 
 lived about 1530, distinguished himself 1)y his brave de- 
 fence of Florence against the forces of Charles V. 
 
 Bilistein, de, deh be'le'staN', (Charles Leopold 
 Andreu,) Baron, a French writer, born in Lorraine in 
 1724, published an "Essay on the Navigation of Lor- 
 raine," and other works. 
 
 Biliverti, be-le-veVtee, (Giovanni,) a skilful painter, 
 born at Florence in 1576, was a pupil of Cigoli. Among 
 
 his master-pieces are a " Holy Family," and the " Chas- 
 tity of Joseph." Died in 1644. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bill, (Robert,) an English mechanician, distinguishe 
 for his zealous efforts to introduce the use of gas into 
 England, was born in 1754; died in 1827. 
 
 Billard, be'yiit', (Charles Michel,) a French phy 
 sician, born near Angers in 1800, translated from th 
 English Thomson's " Elements of Chemistry." Amo 
 his works is a "Treatise on the Diseases of Infant: 
 (182S.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Billard, (Claude,) a French poet and dramatist, ■ 
 counsellor to Queen Margaret of Valois. Died in 1618 
 
 Billard, (Etienne,) a French comic writer, born at 
 Nancy ; died in 1785. 
 
 Billard, (Jean Pierre,) a French physician and medi- 
 cal writer, born at Vesoul in 1726; died in 1790. 
 
 Billard, (Pierre,) a French theologian, born in the 
 department of Maine in 1653, wrote against the Jesuits 
 a work entitled "The Beast with Seven Heads," (1693.) 
 Died in 1726. 
 
 Billaud-Varenne, (or -Varennes,) be'yo' vi'ren', 
 (Jacques Nicolas,) a French Jacobin, born at La Ro 
 chelle in 1756. As a member of the National Convention 
 in 1792, he voted for the death of the royal family and 
 the ministers, and in various ways distinguished himself 
 by the violence of his measures. He was subsequently 
 made president of the Convention, and a member of the 
 Committee of Public Safety. He was exiled to Cayenne, 
 in company with Collot d'Herbois, in 1795, and after- 
 wards went to Hayti, where he died in 1819. 
 
 See " Memoires de Billaud- Varennes," 2 vols., 1821; Thiers, 
 " Histoire de la Revolution Francaise." 
 
 Billault, be'yo', (Auguste Adolphe Marie,) a 
 French jurist and politician, born at Valines in 1805. 
 He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1837, and 
 distinguished himself as a legislator. In 1848 he was a 
 republican member of the Constituent Assembly. Hav- 
 ing given his adhesion to the policy of Napoleon, he be- 
 came president of the legislative body in 1851. Me was 
 minister of the interior from July, 1854, to 1858, and 
 succeeded Walewski as minister of state in June, 1863. 
 Died in October of the same year. 
 
 Billaut, (Adam.) See Adam-Billaut. 
 
 Bille, bil'leh, (Steen Andersen,) a Danish admiral, 
 born in Funen in 1751, took part in the blockade of] 
 Tunis, (1796,) and the battle of Copenhagen, (1801.) 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 Bille, (Steen Andersen,) son of the preceding, born 
 at Copenhagen in 1797, served in the French army in the 
 campaign of 1823. He was made by the King of Den- 
 mark minister of the marine, and rear-admiral, in 1852. 
 He commanded a scientific expedition around the world 
 in 1845-47, and published a narrative of the same, (3 
 vols., 1849-51.) 
 
 Billeberg, bil'leh-beRt;', (Johan,) a Swedish savant, 
 professor of mathematics at Upsal. Died in 171 7. 
 
 Billecocq,be'ye-kok, (Jean Baptiste Louis Joseph,) 
 an eminent French advocate and litterateur, born in Paris 
 in 1765; died in 1829. 
 
 See Dupin, "Notice sur Billecocq." 
 
 Billemaz, bel'mi' or be'ye-mf, (Francois B.,) a 
 French Jacobin, born at Belley about 1750, was executed 
 in 1793 on a charge of being an agent of the Girondists. 
 
 Bilierbek, von, fon bil'ler-beV, (Constantine,) born 
 at Janikow in 1713, served in the Prussian army in the 
 principal campaigns of the Seven Years' war, and was 
 made lieutenant general and chevalier of the Black Eagle 
 in 1784. Died in 1785. 
 
 Billerey, bei'ri' or be'ye-rV, (Claude Nicolas.) a 
 French physician, born about 1667 at Besancon, where 
 he was professor of medicine. Died in 1759. 
 
 Billet, be'yi', (Pierre,) a French scholar and Latin 
 poet, born in 1656, was professor of rhetoric in the col- 
 lege du Plessis. Died in 1 719. 
 
 Billi, (Jacques.) See Billy. 
 
 Billican, bil'le-kan', (Theobald,) also called Ger- 
 lach, a German reformer, born at Billigheim, was con- 
 verted by Luther about 1518. He preached at Nord- 
 lingen. and lectured on taw at Heidelberg. Died in 1554. 
 
 Billion, bil'liK, [Lat. Billich'ius,] (Anton Gu.n 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, 6, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ft, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£ t; not; good ; moon 
 
BILLING 
 
 359 
 
 BINGHAM 
 
 THER.) a German physician and chemist, wrote a treatise 
 "On the Three Chemical Principles," in Latin. 
 
 Billing, be'yaN', (Sigismond,) a French officer, born 
 at Colmar in 1773. lie was commandant of the national 
 guard of Paris during the Hundred Days, and was ap- 
 pointed chief of the staff by La Fayette in 1830. Died in 
 
 183?- 
 
 Billings, (Joseph,) an English navigator, commanded 
 ai. expedition sent out in 1787 by Catherine II. of Rus- 
 sia, and discovered some islands in the Northern Ocean. 
 See " Decouvertes des Russes dans le Nord." 
 Billings, (William,) said to have been the fust 
 American musical composer, was born in Boston in 1746. 
 He introduced a new style of church music, which ob- 
 tained great popularity m New England. Me was an 
 intimate friend of Samuel Adams. Died in 1800. 
 Bil'lings-ley, (Sir Henry,) an English mathemati- 
 translated Euclid's " Elements of Geometry" into 
 li, with notes by Whitehead. Died in 1606. 
 Bil'liug-ton, (Mrs. Elizabeth Weichsel — wTK'sel,) 
 brated English vocalist, of German extraction, born 
 in London in 1770. She was married when very young 
 Li Mi. Billington, a musician of Drurv Lane Theatre, 
 whom she visited the principal cities of Europe. 
 She was everywhere received with enthusiasm, and is 
 1 have realized ten thousand pounds in one year 
 by her engagements. Died in 1818. 
 
 her "Autobiographic Memoirs," 1792; Oxberry, "Dramatic 
 Biography." 
 
 Billot, be'yo', (Jean,) a French preacher, born at 
 ;i 1709; died in 1767. 
 
 Billonet, bel'yoo'A' or be'yoo'i', (Philippe,) a French 
 Hebraist, horn at Rouen in 1684; died at Orleans in 1720. 
 
 Billuart, bel'yii-iR' or be'vii-aV, (Charles Rene,) a 
 French theologian, and professor of philosophy in the 
 of Douay, born in 1685; died in 1757. 
 
 Billy. See Belly. 
 
 Billy, de, deh be'ye', (Jacques,) a French scholar, 
 born at Guise in 1 535, translated into Latin the works 
 of Saint Gregory Nazianzen, Saint John Chrysostom, and 
 John of Damascus. Died in 1581. 
 
 Billy, de, (Jacques,) a French mathematician and sci- 
 entific writer, born at Compiegne in 1602 ; died in 1679. 
 
 Billy, de, (Nicolas Antojne,) a F'rench ecclesiastic 
 and writer, born at Vesoul in 1753; died in 1825. 
 
 Bi'lon or Pilon, an Armenian historian, born in 
 643 \. I). I le wrote a " History of the Patriarchs of Ar- 
 i," and translated into Armenian the " Ecclesiastical 
 History" of Socrates. Died in 711. 
 
 Bilon, be'16.N', (FRANgois Marie Hippolyte,) a 
 French physician, born at Grenoble in 1780, was a pupil 
 of Bichat. He was a contributor to the "Dictionnaire 
 iences medicales." Died in 1824. 
 
 Bilotta, be-lot'ta, (Giambattista,) an Italian jurist, 
 wrote some legal works. Died in 1636. 
 
 Bilotta, (Giovanni Camili.o,) an Italian jurist and 
 Icca) waiter, born in 1557; died in 1588. 
 
 Bilotta, (Ottavio,) son of Giambattista, noticed above, 
 wa- a jurist at Naples. Died about 165c. 
 
 Bilotta, (Scipione,) an Italian jurist and legal writer. 
 Died in 1581. 
 
 Bils, van, vSn bils, [Lat. Bn/sius,] (Lodewijk,) a 
 Dutch anatomist, who lived about 1670-90, pretended 
 to have a secret process by which he could preserve 
 bodies from decomposition. 
 
 Bil'son, (Thomas,) a learned English prelate, born 
 at Winchester in 1536, became Bishop of Worcester in 
 1596, and of Winchester in 1597. He published "The 
 tual Government of Christ's Church," "The True 
 • nee between Christian Subjection and Unchristian 
 -lion," (1595,) and "The Survey of Christ's Suffer- 
 ing for Man's Redemption, etc.," (1604.) Died in 1616. 
 
 Bimard. See La Bastie. 
 
 Bimbi, l>£m'bee,(BARTOLOMMF.o,) a Florentine painter 
 of (lowers and fruit, born in 1648 ; died in 1725. 
 
 Bimet, be'mi', (Pierre,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Avignon in 16S7; died in 1760. 
 
 Binasco, bc-nas'ko, or Binaschi, be-nas'kee, (Fl- 
 UPPO,) an Italian poet, born at Binasco, in the duchy of 
 Milan ; died in 1576. 
 
 Binchois, bas'shwi', (Giu.ES,) a musician, who lived 
 
 about 1400-20, made improvements in harmony and the 
 notation of music. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Binck. See Bink. 
 
 Binder, bin'der, (Wilhelm Christian,) a German 
 writer, born at Weinsberg in 1810. In 1846 he became 
 editor of the " Encyclopaedia for Catholic Germany." 
 He published, besides other works, "The German 
 Horace," (3d edition, 1841,) and " Prince Metternich 
 and his Times," (3d edition, 1845.) 
 
 Bineau, be'no , (Amand,) a French chemist, born 
 about 1810, became professor of chemistry at Lyons. He 
 collected and published in 1837 a series of lectures on 
 chemical philosophy, by Thenard. 
 
 Bineau, (Jean Martial,) a French engineer and 
 financier, born at Gennes, in Maine et-Loire, in 1805. He 
 was elected to the Legislative Assembly in April, 1849, 
 and was minister of public works from October of that 
 year to January, 1851. He became minister of finance 
 in January, 1852. Died in September, 1855. 
 
 Binet, be'ni', (Claude:,) a French poet, born at Beau- 
 vais, was a friend of Ronsard, who intrusted to him the 
 publication of his works. 
 
 Binet, (Etienne,) a French Jesuit, born at Dijon in 
 1569, is satirized in Pascal's "Provincial Letters." Died 
 in 1639. 
 
 Binet, (Etienne,) a French surgeon, practised in the 
 army, and was killed at the siege of Rochelle in 1627 or 
 1628. 
 
 Binet, (Francois Isidore,) a French preacher and 
 Capuchin monk, born at Niort in 1720. 
 
 Binet, (Jacques Philippe Marie,) an eminent French 
 mathematician and astronomer, born at Rennes in 1786. 
 He succeeded Delambre in 1823 as professor of astron- 
 omy in the College of France, and in 1843 replaced 
 Lacroix in the department (section) of geometry at the 
 Academy of Sciences. He wrote a number of valuable 
 treatises on geometry and natural philosophy, among 
 which is a "Memoir on the Composition of Forces and 
 the Composition of Momenta," (1815.) Died in 1856. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Littei-aire," (Supplement.) 
 
 Binet, (Rene,) a F'rench litterateur, born near Beau- 
 vais in 1729. He published a " History of the Decline 
 of Morals among the Romans," (1795,) and a good trans- 
 lation of the works of Virgil and Horace. Died in 1812. 
 
 See Boulard, " Notice sur la Vie de R. Binet," 1817. 
 
 Bing. See Beer-Bing. 
 
 Bingham, bing'am, (George,) an English divine, born 
 in Dorsetshire in 1713, wrote a " Vindication of the Doc- 
 trine and Liturgy of the Church of England," (1774,) "Es- 
 say on the Millennium," and other works. Died in 1800. 
 
 Bingham, (Sir George Ridout,) an English major- 
 general, born in 1777, served in the Peninsular war. He 
 was subsequently charged to convey Napoleon to Saint 
 Helena. Died in 1833. 
 
 Bing'ham, (John A.,) an American lawyer and legis- 
 lator, born in Pennsylvania in 1815. He was admitted 
 to the bar in 1840, and was elected a member of Congress, 
 in 1854, by the Republicans of the twenty-first district of 
 Ohio. He was re-elected at five subsequent elections, 
 and acquired distinction as a debater. On the 24th of 
 February, 1868, Thaddeus Stevens and Mr. Bingham 
 were appointed a committee to impeach Andrew John- 
 son, President of the United States, at the bar of the 
 Senate. He was also chairman of the managers who con- 
 ducted the impeachment in April, 1868, and was re- 
 elected to Congress in October of that year. 
 
 Bingham, (Joseph,) an eminent English scholar and 
 divine, born in Yorkshire in 1668. He published, m 
 1722, " Antiquities of the Christian Church," ("Origines 
 Ecclesiastical, " 10 vols.,) esteemed one of the most valu- 
 able works of the kind. Died in 1723. His son Joseph 
 prepared an edition of the "Story of the Theban War," 
 published after his death. 
 
 See Richard Bingham, " Life of Joseph Bingham," 1839. 
 
 Bingham, (Peregrine,) an English writer on law, 
 born about 1788. He published several legal treatises, 
 (1820-40,) and " Reports in the Common Pleas," (1822- 
 34.) Died in 1864. 
 
 Bingham, (Sir Richard,) an English general, who had 
 a high command in the reign of Elizabeth. He served 
 
 C as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jry^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BINGHAM 
 
 360 
 
 BIORN 
 
 with distinction against the Irish insurgents about 1586- 
 )2. He was the ancestor of the Earls of Lucan. 
 
 Bingham, (William,) an American Senator, born in 
 1752. He married Miss Willing, of Philadelphia, in 1780. 
 He represented Pennsylvania in the Senate of the United 
 States from 1795 to 1801. Died at Bath, England, in 1804. 
 His daughter was married to Sir Francis Baring's son. 
 
 Bingham. See Lucan, Earl of. 
 
 Bing'ley, a celebrated actor, of English extraction, 
 born at Rotterdam in 1755 ;. died in 1818. 
 
 Bingley, (William,) an English divine and miscel- 
 laneous writer, born in Yorkshire. He published, among 
 other works, "Memoirs of British Quadrupeds," (1819,) 
 "The Economy of a Christian Life," "Animal Biog- 
 raphy," and "Useful Knowledge," (3 vols. 8vo, 1S16.) 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 Bini, bee'nee, (Carlo,) an Italian writer and repub- 
 lican, born at Leghorn in 1806, was a friend of Mazzini 
 and devoted to his political principles. Died in 1842. 
 
 Bini, bee'nee, [Lat. Bin'ius,] (Severin,) a German 
 ecclesiastic, and professor of theology at Cologne, was 
 born in Rhenish Prussia. Died in 1641. 
 
 Bink or Binck, bink, (Jakob,) a celebrated painter 
 and engraver, born at Cologne about 1500, is supposed to 
 have studied under Albert Diirer. He became portrait- 
 painter to Christian VIII. of Denmark. Died about 1560. 
 
 Binkes, binks, (Jakob,) a Dutch mariner, who in 1676 
 defended the island of Tobago for a time against Admiral 
 D'Estrees. He perished by an explosion the same year. 
 
 Bin'ney, (Amos,) M.D., an American naturalist, born 
 in Boston in 1803, was noted as a patron of art and 
 science. He possessed an ample fortune, which he ex- 
 pended liberally in the promotion of science and the pa- 
 tronage of art. He was president of the Boston Society 
 of Natural History at the time of his death. Among his 
 works is "Terrestrial and Air-Breathing Mollusks of the 
 United States," illustrated by beautiful engravings, (3 
 vols., 1851.) Died at Rome i:i 1847. 
 
 See a notice of A. Binney, prefixed to the above work, by A. A. 
 Gould, who edited the same. 
 
 Binney, (Horace,) a distinguished lawyer of Phila- 
 delphia, was born in that city in 1780. At an early age 
 he entered Harvard College, where he graduated in 1797, 
 dividing the first honours with his classmate, the late 
 Judge White, of Salem, Massachusetts. He is now (1869) 
 the only surviving member of his class. He studied law 
 in Philadelphia, in the office of Jared Ingersoll, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1800. He devoted himself with 
 great assiduity to his profession, and in a few years stood 
 at its head with John Sergeant, Charles Chauncey, and 
 other eminent lawyers. He took a leading part in the 
 most important cases in the higher courts of Pennsyl- 
 vania, and was frequently called to the supreme court of 
 the United States. More than once he had tendered to 
 him high judicial positions, which he declined. Towards 
 the close of President Jackson's first administration Mr. 
 Binney was elected to Congress, where his ability and 
 eloquence soon gave him a commanding position. He 
 appeared in court for the last time in 1843, when he 
 made his celebrated argument in the supreme court of 
 the United States in the case of Vidal versus the Mayor 
 of Philadelphia. This argument, which was exhaustive 
 and is regarded as unanswerable, is often cited as autho- 
 rity, by the bench and bar throughout the United States, 
 on questions involving the law of charitable uses, and it 
 has been referred to in England by eminent jurists in 
 terms of the highest commendation. Mr. Binney's last 
 appearance before his legal brethren was on the occasion 
 of the death of his friend, the Honourable John Ser- 
 geant ; and in delineating the character of that distin- 
 guished man he spoke with eloquence and touching 
 pathos.* His great and varied learning, his large expe- 
 rience and profound judgment in all matters pertaining 
 to his profession, joined to his consistent and upright 
 character, have given Mr. Binney a position of authority 
 and influence to which few men have attained. Among 
 his most important writings we may mention "An In- 
 quiry into the Formation of Washington's Farewell Ad- 
 dress," (1859,) and his Eulogiums on Chief-Justice 
 
 * His remarks on that occasion are to be found in "Wallace's Cir- 
 cuit Court Reports," vol. ii. 
 
 Tilghman (1827) and on Chief-Justice Marshall, (1836.) 
 His argument in the Vidal case, before referred to, was 
 published in Philadelphia in 1844, (1 vol. 8vo.) Binney's 
 " Reports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Pennsyl- 
 vania," in six volumes, are esteemed models of their kind. 
 
 See "Quarterly Review" for April, 1S60. 
 
 Bin'ney, (Thomas,) an eloquent English noncon- 
 formist minister, born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne about 
 i8oo>. He settled in London about 1830, and preached 
 many years in the Weigh-House Chapel. He is the author 
 of numerous popular works, among which are "The 
 Closet and the Church," "The Practical Power of Faith," 
 and " Is it possible to make the Best of both Worlds ?'\ ■< 
 
 Bin'ning, (Hugh,) a Scottish Presbyterian minister; 
 born in Ayrshire in 1627, became professor of moral phi- 
 losophy at Glasgow. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen.*' 
 
 Binninger, bin'ning-er, (Jean Nicolas,) born at 
 Montbelliard in 1628, was physician to the Duke of 
 Wurtemberg. 
 
 Binos, de, deh be'nos', L'Abbe, a French traveller* 
 born in 1730, published in 1786 an account of his travels 
 in Egypt and Palestine. Died in 1803. 
 
 Biriterim, bin'ter-im, (Anton Joseph,) a German 
 Catholic theologian, born at Dusseldorf in 1779, pub- 
 lished "Memorable Things (Denkwiirdigkeiten) respect"! 
 ing the Catholic Church," (7 vols., 1825-32,) and other 
 works. Died in 1855. 
 
 Bintinaye, de la, deh Is biN'te'ni', (Agathon Ma- 
 rie Rene,) a French naval officer, born at Renncs in 
 1758; died in 1792. 
 
 Bioern. See Biorn. 
 
 Biolco. See Beolco. 
 
 Bi'on, [Bt'uv,] a Greek tragic poet, mentioned by Dio- 
 genes Laertius, lived probably in the first century B.C. 
 
 Bion of Abde'ra, a Greek mathematician, who lived in 
 the third or fourth century B.C. 
 
 Bion of Borysthenes, a philosopher, who lived about 
 280 B.C. After professing nearly all the systems of philo- 
 sophy in turn, he embraced that of the Peripatetics. 
 
 Bion [Gr. Bi'ut'] of Smyrna, a celebrated bucolic poet, 
 lived under the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus II. of 
 Egypt. He was a contemporary and friend of Moschus, 
 who composed an elegy in his honour. His style is 
 elegant, and his versification harmonious. His principal 
 extant poem is a lament for Adonis. He is supposed 
 to have died by poison. 
 
 Bion, be'd.N', (Jean,) a French priest, born at Dijon 
 in 1668, was converted to Protestantism, and subsequently 
 took charge of an English congregation in Holland. He 
 wrote a " Narrative of the Sufferings of the Protestants 
 in the Galleys of France," (1708.) 
 
 Bion, (Jean Marie,) a French jurist, and member of 
 the Natienal Convention, (1792,) voted for the imprison- 
 ment of the king. He became secretary in the Council 
 of Five Hundred about 1795. 
 
 Bion, (Nicolas,) a French engineer and mechanician, 
 born in 1652. He wrote a " Treatise on the Construction, 
 etc. of Mathematical Instruments," etc. Died in 1733. 
 
 Biondi, be-on'dee, (Angelica Lucia,) an Italian 
 poetess, daughter of the architect Zucchi, was born in 
 Piedmont in 1771 ; died in 1805. 
 
 Biondi, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian littiratettt 
 and diplomatist, born in Dalmatia in 1572. Having been 
 introduced by Sir Henry Wotton to James I. of England, 
 he was employed by that sovereign in several embassies. 
 He wrote, in Italian, a " History of the Civil War between 
 the Houses of Lancaster and York," (1637.) Died in 1644. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Biondo, be-on'do, [Lat. Blon'dus,] (Michael An- 
 GELO,) an Italian physician and medical writer, born at 
 Venice in 1497 ; died about 1560. 
 
 Biondo Flavio. See Flavio. 
 
 Biorn, Bioern, or Bjorn, be-6RN', I., King of Sweden 
 in the eighth century, was surnamed IRONSIDES, 
 
 Biorn III. reigned in the ninth century. He favoured 
 the introduction of Christianity into Sweden. 
 
 Biorn or Bjorn, be-6Rn' or byorn, sometimes writ- 
 ten Beorn, a historian of the seventeenth century, born 
 in Iceland, was the author of a work on the discoveries 
 in Greenland, " De Novitiis Grcenlandorum Indiciis." 
 
 a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
BIOT 
 
 361 
 
 B1RDE 
 
 Biot, be'c/, (Edouard Constant,) a French Orien- 
 . sun ot Jean Baptiste, noticed below, was born in 
 Paris in 1803. He was a member of the Academy of 
 riptions. He translated several works from the 
 nese, and was a contributor to the "Journal Asia- 
 Died in 1850. 
 Biot, beV or be'ot', (Jean Baptiste,) a celebrated 
 -uonomer, optician, and natural philosopher, 
 born in Paris on the 21st of April, 1774. He was edu- 
 I in the college Louis-le-Grand and in the Poly- 
 iic School, and became professor of physics in the 
 i France in 1800. Having written some mathe- 
 >avs, he was elected to the Academy of Sciences 
 03, and accompanied Gay-Lussac in his ascension 
 balloon in 1804. His "Analytic Treatise on Curves 
 : the Second Degree" (1802) was highly 
 esteemed and often reprinted. In 1 805 he published an 
 mentary Treatise on Physical Astronomy," (3d edi- 
 .6 vols., 1850.) He was appointed a member of the bu- 
 ll longitudes, and in 1806 was employed by thegov- 
 nent, in conjunction with Arago, in the measurement 
 le arc of the meridian in Spain. He obtained the 
 of physical astronomy in the Faculty of Sciences 
 in 1809. Biot was chosen a member of the Royal Sociey 
 ' I of London about 1815. He was sent to the Shetland 
 
 ■ I Islands, in 1817, to perform a geodesic operation. His 
 
 ■ "Treatise on Experimental Physics and Mathematics" 
 M(4 vols., 18:6) is called one of the best on that subject. 
 
 2 1 he published " Geodesical, Astronomical, and 
 
 ical Observations made in Spain, France, England, 
 
 and Scotland, to determine the Variation of Gravity, etc." 
 
 contributed many articles to the "Journal des Sa- 
 
 i" and the "Annates de Chimie et de Physique." 
 
 ; For the "Biographie Universelle" he wrote many able 
 
 ea of scientific men, among whom were Descartes, 
 
 Dr. Franklin, and Galileo. In his "Memoir on Circular 
 
 1 ization and its Application to Organic Chemistry" 
 
 in 1833) he announced a new discovery, which has 
 
 applied with success in testing the quality of sugar. 
 
 He received in 1840 the Rumford medal of the Royal 
 
 v ot London for his researches in the circular po- 
 
 ition of light. He was admitted to the French 
 
 lemy in 1856, in consideration of the beauty and 
 
 I eloquence of his writings, among which we should notice 
 
 Researches on Ancient Astronomy." He married 
 
 ■ ! ly lite a daughter of Professor Brisson. Died in 
 
 I 1862, in his eighty-eighth year. 
 
 I.e Bas, "Dictionnaire encyclope'diquede la France ;" "Nou- 
 II velle Biographie Generate ;" " Biacltwood'^ Magazine" for July, 18 18. 
 
 Birago, be-ra'go, (Carlo,) Baron of, a distinguished 
 military engineer, born near Milan in 1792, was the in- 
 1 of the system of bridges called by his name. Died 
 H5- 
 Birago, (Francesco,) an accomplished Italian gentle- 
 and writer, born at Milan in 1562. He was well 
 (1 in the sciettza cavalleresca, i.e. the laws of honour 
 liivalry, on which he wrote several works of much 
 He was appealed to as an oracle or arbiter on 
 questions of chivalry. Died about 1640. 
 See "N'ouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Birago, (Jacopo,) sometimes called Lapo orLampo, 
 
 an Italian scholar and Hellenist, born in Tuscany about 
 
 He became professor of literature and philosophy 
 
 ogna, and translated Plutarch's "Lives" into Latin. 
 
 Birago Avogadro, be-ra'go a-vo-ga'dRo, (Giambat- 
 
 .ian Italian historian and jurist, wrote an "African 
 
 History,' 1 1650,) which has been translated into French. 
 
 Birague, be-ri'ga. (Clemente,) a Spanish artist, born 
 
 about 1560, is said to have been the inventor of engrav- 
 
 on diamonds. Among his works of this kind is a 
 
 I portrait of Don Carlos, son of Philip II. 
 
 Birague, de, deh be'rtg', (Flaminio,) a French poet, 
 v of Rene, noticed below, lived about 1570. 
 1 Birague, de, (Rene,) a statesman and cardinal under 
 II. and Charles IX., was born at Milan in 1510. 
 came keeper of the seals in 1570, and on the death 
 of L'llopital obtained the title of chancellor. He is said 
 ve been one of the principal instigators of the Mas- 
 sacre of Saint Bartholomew. Died in 1583. 
 
 See De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis;" Mukbri, "Diction- 
 naire Historique." 
 
 Biraii. See Maine de Biran. 
 
 Birch, beeRK, (Johann Georg,) a Danish author, 
 born in 1750, lived at Seeland ; died in 1795. 
 
 Birch, (Peter,) an English divine, born in 1652, be- 
 came prebendary of Westminster. 
 
 Birch, (Samuel,) an English antiquary, born in Lon- 
 don about 1813. He has written on Greek and Roman 
 antiquities and Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
 
 Birch, (Thomas,) D.D., an English historian and 
 biographer, born in London in 1705. He was originally 
 a member of the Society of F'riends, but he subsequently 
 entered into orders in the Church of England. lie be- 
 came a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1734, and one of 
 its secretaries iu 1752. He published, in 1 741, his "Gene- 
 ral Dictionary, Historical and Critical," (10 vols.,) being 
 a translation of Bayle's work, with great additions. He 
 also wrote a " Life of Archbishop Tillotson," " Life of 
 Henry, Prince of Wales, Son of James I.," and other 
 works. Died in 1766. 
 
 Birch'ing-tou, written also Brychhigton,( Stephen,) 
 an English monk and chronicler, wrote a "History of 
 the Archbishops of Canterbury down to 1368," published 
 in Wharton's "Anglia Sacra." 
 
 Birch-Pfeiffer, bdSRK'pfi'fer, (Charlotte,) a popu- 
 lar German actress and dramatic writer, born at Stuttgart 
 in 1800, was the author of "The Favourites," ("Die 
 Gunstlinge,") "Hinko," and other plays. Died in De- 
 cember, 1868. 
 
 Birck'beck, (Simon,) an English divine, born in 
 Westmoreland in 1584, published a work entitled "The 
 Protestant's Evidence." 
 
 Birckner, beeRk'ner, (Michael Gottlieb,) a Danish 
 author, born at Copenhagen in 1756, was vicar at Kor- 
 soer. He gained a high reputation by his writings, among 
 which is a "Plea for the Liberty of the Press," (1797.) 
 Died in 1798. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," 1707, and a German translation of the 
 same, 1812; also Kraft og Nverup, "Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Bird, (Charles Smith,) an English theologian and 
 controversialist, born about 1795 ; died in 1862. 
 
 Bird, (Edward,) an eminent English painter of rural 
 and domestic scenes, born at Wolverhampton in 1772. 
 His pictures of the "Choristers Rehearsing," "Good 
 News," and "The Will," established his reputation, and 
 caused him to be elected an academician. He was ap- 
 pointed painter to the Princess Charlotte about 1813. 
 Among his other works we may name "The Surrender 
 of Calais," " The Field of Chevy Chase the Day after the 
 Battle," "The Gipsy Boy," "The Country Auction," and 
 "The Death of Eli." For the last-named picture he 
 obtained from the Marquis of Stafford the sum of five 
 hundred guineas. Died in 1819. 
 
 See Cunningham, " Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects." 
 
 Bird, (Francis,) an English sculptor, born in London 
 in 1667. Among his works are Dr. Busby's monument, 
 in Westminster Abbey, and a statue of Queen Anne. 
 Died in 1731. 
 
 Bird, (Golding,) an English medical writer, born in 
 1815, practised in London with success. He contributed 
 many treatises to medical periodicals, and published 
 " Elements of Natural Philosophy," (2d edition, 1843.) 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Bird, (John,) an English mechanician and instrument- 
 maker, published a work entitled "Method of Dividing 
 Astronomical Instruments." Died in 1776. 
 
 Bird, (Robert Montgomery,) M.D., an American 
 author, born at New Castle, Delaware, in 1803. He 
 began to practise medicine in Philadelphia, and produced 
 successful tragedies, entitled "The Gladiator" and "Ora- 
 loosa." In 1834 he published "Calavar, a Romance of 
 Mexico." Among his other works are "The Infidel," a 
 novel, (1835,) and "The Adventures of Robin Day," 
 (1839.) He became in 1847 joint editor and proprietor 
 of the "North American and United States Gazette," 
 published in Philadelphia. He was distinguished for his 
 learning, versatility, and practical ability. Died in 1854. 
 
 See Gkiswulo's " Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Birde or Byrd, bird, (William,) an eniincnt Eng- 
 lish composer of church music, born about 1540. lie 
 was a pupil of Thomas Tallis, and became, conjointly 
 with him, organist to Queen Elizabeth in 1575. Among 
 
 C as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; M, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. ( J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BIRE 
 
 362 
 
 BISCHOFF 
 
 his best productions ate his "Sacred Songs," and his 
 magnificent canon entitled " Non Nobis, Domine," which 
 is still popular. Died in 1623. 
 
 See Bukney, "General History of Music." 
 
 Bire, be'ra', (Pierre,) a French jurist, lived about 1580. 
 
 Biren, bee'ren, Biron, bee'ron, or Buren, boo'ren, 
 (ERNEST JOHN,) Duke of Courland, born in 1690. He 
 Mas patronized by Anne, Duchess of Courland, who, on 
 becoming Empress of Russia, made him governor and 
 duke of Courland. He was made regent by the empress 
 at her .death, but, having formed a scheme to marry his 
 son to the Princess Elizabeth, he was exiled to Siberia. 
 He was afterwards recalled by Peter III. Died in 1772. 
 
 See Ruehl, "Geschichte E. J. von Biron," 2 vols., 1764; Hem- 
 pel, " Leben des Herzogs E. J. von Curland," 1772; Karamsin, 
 " Histoire de la Russie." 
 
 Birger, beeVger, King of Sweden, born in 1281, was 
 deposed by his subjects, and died in Denmark in 1321. 
 
 Birger de Bielbo, (Bjelbo,) beeVger da be el'bo, 
 Duke of Gothia, born about 1210, was a brother-in-law 
 of Eric, King of Sweden, on whose death he became 
 regent of the kingdom. He founded the city of Stock- 
 holm, and introduced numerous reforms into the- gov- 
 ernment. Died in 1266. 
 
 See Silfverstolpe, "Areminneofver Birger Jarl till Bjallbo," 1787. 
 
 Biringuccio, be-ren-goot'cho, (Vanucci,) an Italian 
 mathematician, lived about 1520. He wrote a work on 
 pyrotechny. 
 
 Birk'beck, (George,) an English physician and edu- 
 cational reformer, born in Yorkshire in 1776. He gradu- 
 ated at Edinburgh, where he made the acquaintance of 
 Jeffrey, Lord Brougham, and Sidney Smith. He became 
 soon after professor in the Andersonian Institution at 
 Glasgow. From 1801 to 1804 he gave a gratuitous course 
 of lectures to the mechanics of that city, which were 
 numerously attended. In 1823 the London Mechanics' 
 Institution was founded, and Dr. Birkbeck was elected 
 its president. Died in 1841. 
 
 See Knight, "Dictionary of Arts, Commerce," etc. 
 
 Birk'en-head or Berk'en-head, (Sir John,) an Eng- 
 lish journalist, born in Cheshire about 1615. In 1642 he 
 became editor of "The Court Mercury," or "Mercurius 
 Aulicus," a royalist journal. After the restoration he 
 became a member of Parliament for Wilton, and a Fel- 
 low of the Royal Society. Died in 1679. 
 
 Birk'head, [Lat. Birchea'dus,] (Henry,) an Eng- 
 lish writer and Latin poet, born in London in 1617. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena: Oxonienses." 
 
 Birnbaum, beSim'bowm, (Johann Michael Franz,) 
 a German litterateur, born at Bamberg in 1790, became 
 professor of law and chancellor of the University at Gies- 
 sen, (1848.) 
 
 Bir'ney, (David Bell,) an American general, son of 
 James G. Birney, noticed below, born at Huntsville, Ala- 
 bama, in 1825. He was a lawyer before the rebellion, and 
 resided in Philadelphia. About the end of 1861 he was 
 appointed a brigadier-general. He served with distinc- 
 tion at Fredericksburg, December, 1862, and at Chancel- 
 lorsville, May, 1863. Having been raised to the rank of 
 major-general, he commanded a division at the battle of 
 Gettysburg, July, 1863, and in several battles Jjetween 
 Grant and Lee in 1864. In July of that year he obtained 
 command of the tenth army corps. He died in Phila- 
 delphia, October, 1864. 
 
 See Tenney, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion." 
 
 Birney, (James G.,) a distinguished opponent of sla- 
 very, born at Danville, Kentucky, in 1792 or 1793. He 
 studied law, which he practised at Huntsville, Alabama. 
 About 1834 he'began to advocate publicly the immediate 
 emancipation of slaves, and liberated twenty or more 
 which he owned, thus sacrificing property valued at sev- 
 eral thousand dollars. He founded an anti-slavery paper, 
 called "The Philanthropist," at Cincinnati, in 1834 or 
 1 S35. His office was attacked by a mob, which threw his 
 press into the Ohio River. About 1836 he was appointed 
 secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and 
 afterwards resided several years in New York City. He 
 acted an important part in the organization of a new po- 
 litical party, called the " Liberty Party," by which he was 
 nominated for the Presidency in 1840. About 1842 he 
 removed to Saginaw, Michigan. He received 62,263 
 
 votes as the candidate of the Liberty party in the Piesi- 
 dential election of 1844. He was author of a tract en- 
 title'd "The American Churches the Bulwarks of Ame- 
 rican Slavery." Died near Perth Amboy, New Jersey, 
 in 1857, leaving several sons. 
 
 Bir'nie, (Sir Richard,) a Scottish magistrate, born 
 at Banff about 1760. As a police magistrate in London, 
 he rendered service in the suppression of a riot in 1820. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Biroli, be-ro'lee, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician 
 and botanist, born at Novara in 1772, became professor 
 of botany and materia medica at Turin, and published 
 several works on agriculture, etc Died in 1825. 
 
 Biron. See Biren. 
 
 Biron, de, deh be'r6N', (Armand de G-ontaut— -deh 
 g6N'to',) Due, a French marshal, born about 1524. 
 He fought against the Huguenots at Saint-Denis and 
 Moncontour, and subsequently under Henry IV. at Ivry. 
 He was killed at the siege of Epernay in 1592. 
 
 Biron, de, (Armand Louis de Gontaut,) Due de 
 Lauzun, a nephew of Louis Antoine, noticed below, was 
 born in Paris in 1747. He fought in America for the 
 United States about i78o,-andwas appointed general-in- 
 chief oX the army of the Rhine in July, 1792. lie defeated 
 the Vendeans at Parthenay in 1793. Having offended 
 the Committee of Public Safety by insisting on resigning 
 his command, he was executed in December, 1793. 
 
 Biron, de, (Charles Armand,) Due, a French gen- 
 eral, born in 1663. He obtained the baton of marshal 
 in the reign of Louis XV. Died in 1756. 
 
 Biron, de, (Charles de Gontaut,) Due, son of Ar- 
 mand de Gontaut, noticed above, born in 1562, was a 
 favourite of Henry IV., who gave him the title of mar- 
 shal of France and appointed him in 1595 Governor of 
 Burgundy. Being afterwards convicted of conspiring 
 with the Duke of Savoy against the French king, he was 
 put to death in 1602. 
 
 See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis;" Martir-Rizo, " His- 
 toria de la Vida del Duque de Biron," 1629. 
 
 Biron, de, (Louis Antoine,) a son of Charles Ar- 
 mand, noticed above, born in 1700, served in Italy, Flan- 
 ders, etc., and became marshal of France. Died in 1788. 
 
 Biroteau, be'ro'to', (Jean Baptiste,) a French Gi- 
 rondist, born at Perpignan, was a member of the Na- 
 tional Convention, and voted at the trial of the king for 
 the appeal to the people. He was executed on a charge 
 of treason in 1793. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire, de la Revolution Francaise." 
 
 Birr, beTJR, (Antoine,) a Swiss physician and critiq 
 born in 1693, became professor of Greek at Bale. 
 
 Bisaccioni, be-sat-cho'nee,(MAjoLiNO, ma-yo-lee'no,) 
 Count, an Italian soldier, diplomatist, and writer, born 
 at Ferrara in 1582. He was employed in various em- 
 bassies by the Duke of Savoy and other princes. Died 
 in 1663. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Bis'bie, (Nathaniel,) D.D., an English divine, wrote 
 "The Modern Pharisee," and a number of sermons. 
 Died in 1695. 
 
 Biscaino, bes-ka-ee'no, (Domenico,) an Italian 
 painter and engraver, born at Genoa in 1632; died in 1657. 
 
 Bischof, bish'off, (Karl Gustav,) a German chemist 
 and geologist, born at Word, near Nuremberg, in 1792, 
 became professor of chemistry at Bonn in 1822. He 
 published a " Manual of Chemical and Physical Geology," 
 (2 vols., 1847-55, unfinished,) which is highly esteemed. 
 
 Bischof, (Nicolas.) See Froben. 
 
 Bischoff, bish'off, (Christoph Heinrich Ernst,) a 
 German physician, and professor of pharmacy and thera- 
 peutics at Bonn, was born at Hanover about 1780. 
 
 Bischoff, (Georg Friedrich,) born at Ellrichin 1780 
 was the originator of the musical festivals of Germany. 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 Bischoff, (Gottlieb Wilhelm,) professor of botany 
 at Heidelberg, born at Durkheim in 1797, published 
 "Elements of Medicinal Botany," (1831,) and "Manual 
 of Universal Botany," (1834.) 
 
 Bischoff, (Ignaz Rudolf,) of Altenstern, a German 
 physician and surgeon of high reputation, born at Krems- 
 miinster in 1 784, became professor of clinics at Vienna 
 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 3, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, Q, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BISCHOFF 
 
 363 
 
 BISSET 
 
 about 1825. He published a treatise "On Chronic Dis- 
 eases in general," (1S17,) and other medical works. Died 
 in 1850. 
 
 Bischoff, (Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm,) a German 
 physiologist and anatomist, son of Christoph Heinrich 
 Ernst, born at Hanover in 1807. In 1844 he became 
 professor of anatomy and physiology at Giessen, where 
 he founded an anatomical museum and a physiological 
 institute. He wrote several valuable treatises on the 
 development of the mammalia. 
 
 See Bkockiiaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Bischofsberger, bish'offs-beVuer, (Bartholomew,) 
 a Swiss wiiter and Protestant divine, born in the canton 
 Of Appenzell in 1622, wrote a "History of the Canton of 
 Appenzell." Died in 1678. 
 
 Bischofswerder, von, ton bish'ofs-fteR'der, (Jo- 
 H .' n s Rl DOLF,) a Prussian officer and statesman under 
 Frederick William II., was employed by him in several 
 important negotiations. Died in 1803. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkuber, "Alhjemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bischop (or Biskop) van, v!in bis'Kop, (Jan,) a skil- 
 ful Dutch designer and painter of landscapes and history, 
 was born at the Hague in 1646. He copied the Italian 
 masters with the crayon. Died in 1686. 
 
 See DescamI'S, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Bischop, van, written also Biskop, (Kornelis,) a 
 Flemish or Dutch painter, born in 1630, was a pupil of 
 Bol, whose style he imitated. Died in 1674. 
 
 Biscioni, be-sho'nee, (Antonio Maria,) a learned 
 Italian ecclesiastic and eloquent preacher, born at Flor- 
 ence in 1674, was appointed apostolic prothonotary, and 
 chief librarian of the Laurentian Library of Florence. 
 He wrote a " History of the Noble Family of the Pan- 
 ciatichi," and other works. Died in 1756. 
 
 See Gingukne, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Bis'coe, (Richard,) an English divine, born about 
 1670. He published "The History of the Acts of the 
 Apostles, confirmed from other Authors," etc., " which," 
 says Dr. Doddridge, "shows how incontestably the Acts 
 of the Apostles demonstrate the truth of Christianity." 
 
 Biset, be'zi', (Ciiari.es Emmanuel,) a Flemish 
 painter, born at Mechlin in 1633, became director of the 
 Academy of Antwerp in 1674. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands." 
 
 Bish'pp, (George,) an English astronomer, born in 
 1784 ; died in 1861. 
 
 Bishop, (Sir Henry Rowley,) an eminent English 
 composer, born in London in 1780. He was elected pro- 
 fessor of music at Oxford in 1848, and was one of the 
 first directors of the Philharmonic concerts. Among the 
 most popular of his numerous operas are " The English- 
 man in India," " Guy Mannering," "The Knight of Snow- 
 don," and "The Slave." His ballads, songs, glees, etc. 
 are esteemed master-pieces of the kind. He was knighted 
 in 1842. Died in 1855. 
 
 Bishop, (Samuel,) an English divine and poet, born 
 in London in 1731. He is believed to have written the 
 popular farce of " High Life Below-stairs," sometimes 
 attributed to Garrick. Died in 1795. 
 
 See T. Clarke, " Life of S. Bishop," prefixed to his works, 1796. 
 
 Bishop, (William,) an English Catholic theologian, 
 born in Warwickshire in 1553. In 1623 he was appointed 
 by the pope apostolic vicar, and obtained the title of 
 Bishop of Chalcedon. Died in 1624. 
 
 Bisi, bee'see, (Bonaventura,) an Italian painter of 
 miniatures, born at Bologna in 1612, was also an etcher. 
 Died at Modena in 1662. 
 
 Biskop. See P.ischop. 
 
 Bismark. biz'maRk, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a Ger- 
 man general and military writer, born at Windheim, in 
 Westphalia, in 1783. He entered the French army, and 
 distinguished himself under Ney in the Russian cam- 
 paign of 1812. 
 
 Bismark- (or Bismarck-) Schonhausen, von, 
 fon biz'maRk shon'how'zen, (Karl Otto,) a celebrated 
 Prussian statesman, born at Brandenburg in 1813. He 
 »tudied law at the Universities of Gottingen and Berlin. 
 In 1847 he was elected a member of the United Diet, 
 «nd became one of the chief orators of the Junkers, or 
 Conservative party. In 185 1 he was sent to Frankfort 
 
 as first secretary of legation, with the title of Privy Courv 
 sellor to the Prussian Embassy. He adopted the politi- 
 cal axiom that Prussia could not fulfil its mission in 
 Germany until Austria should be driven out of the Bund. 
 He was sent as ambassador to Saint Petersburg in 1859, 
 about the end of which year he visited Paris, ostensibly 
 for amusement. He represented Prussia at Paris for a 
 short time in 1862, and was appointed prime minister in 
 September of that year. His reactionary policy gave 
 great offence to the Liberals. In October, 1862, he dis- 
 solved the chamber, (the majority of which opposed his 
 measures,) and declared that the ministry would govern 
 on their own responsibility. Prussia, with the aid of Aus- 
 tria, conquered Sleswick and Holstein from Denmark in 
 1864, and signed the Convention of Gastein in relation 
 to those duchies in August, 1865. Bismark designed to 
 annex Sleswick and Holstein to Prussia, but could not 
 obtain the consent of Austria. The long rivalry between 
 these two powers was now brought to a crisis. A ma- 
 jority of the German Bund having voted in favour of Aus- 
 tria, Prussia seceded from the Bund and formed an alli- 
 ance with the King of Italy. War was declared in June, 
 1866". The Prussian armies speedily occupied Hanover 
 and Saxony. Advancing into Bohemia, they encountered 
 the Austrian army near Sadowa (Koniggratz) on the 3d 
 of July, and gained a victory so decisive that the Em- 
 peror of Austria made overtures of peace; and a treaty 
 was signed in August, 1866, by which Austria was ex- 
 cluded from the German Bund. Hanover, Electoral 
 Hesse, Holstein, and other small states were annexed 
 to Prussia. Bismark negotiated in August, 1866, secret 
 treaties of offensive and defensive alliance with Bavaria, 
 Baden, and Wiirtemberg. According to these treaties, 
 (which were made public in April, 1867,) the King of Prus- 
 sia is commander of the armies of the said states. This 
 brief and momentous war rendered Prussia perhaps the 
 foremost power in Europe, united nearly all Germany, 
 (except Austria, Bohemia, and Moravia,) and greatly 
 impaired the influence and prestige of Napoleon III. 
 It is generally admitted that Bismark outwitted the 
 French emperor in the diplomatic intrigues and con- 
 tests of 1866. "In considering recent events," says M. 
 Thiers, March, 1867, "I am tempted to exclaim, with 
 Bossuet, 'A man was found.' Not that I wish to insti- 
 tute any comparison between Cromwell, to whom the 
 quotation applies, and the bold minister who has so 
 rapidly raised Prussia to greatness. . . . But, considering 
 how wonderfujly adapted he has shown himself to the 
 task he has undertaken, I cannot help saying, Yes, a 
 man has been found endowed with rare political saga- 
 city, still greater boldness, and whom his countrymen 
 must consider a great patriot." He was appointed chan- 
 cellor of the North German Confederation in July, 1867. 
 See a Memoir of liismaik in the " North American Review" for 
 January, 1868. 
 
 Bisot or Bizot, be'zo', (Jean Louis,) a French me- 
 chanician and pyrotechnist, born at Besancon in 1702; 
 died in 1781. 
 
 Bis'sat, Bis'set, or Bis'sart, (Peter,) a Scottish 
 philosopher and poet, bom in 1500, became professor of 
 canon law at Bologna. Died in 1568. 
 
 Bisschop. See Episcopius. 
 
 Bisschop, van, (Jan.) See Bischop. 
 
 Bisselin. See Basseun. 
 
 Bis'sell, (William H.,) an American Governor, born 
 in Otsego county, New York, in 181 r. He studied medi- 
 cine, and removed to Monroe county, Illinois, in 1837. 
 About 1842 he began to practise law. He served as col- 
 onel in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and represented a dis- 
 trict of Illinois in Congress from 1849 to 1855. Having 
 separated from the Democratic party in 1854, he was 
 elected Governor of Illinois by the Republicans in 1856. 
 Died at'Springfield in i860. 
 
 Bissen, bis'sen, (Wilhelm,) a Danish sculptor, born 
 near Sleswick in 1798, studied at Rome under Thor- 
 waldsen. He became president of the Academy of Fine 
 Arts at Copenhagen in 1850. Among his master-pieces 
 are "Cupid sharpening his Arrow," an "Apollo," and a 
 " Venus." 
 
 Bis'set, (Charles,) a Scottish physician and savant, 
 born in Perthshire in 171 7. He wrote an " Essay on the 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as 1; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
BISSET 
 
 364 
 
 BLACK 
 
 Theory and Construction of Fortifications," and several 
 medical works. Died in 1791. 
 
 S-ie Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bisset, (James,) a Scottish litterateur and amateur 
 arti>,t, born at Perth in 1752 ; died in 1832. 
 
 Bisset, (ROBERT)) a Scottish writer, published a " His- 
 tory of the Reign of George III.." (6 vols.,) a " Life of 
 Edmund Burke," (1798,) and an edition of the "Specta- 
 tor," with notes and lives of the authors. Died in 1805. 
 
 Bis'set, (William,) an English divine and political 
 writer under the reign of Queen Anne, wrote several 
 controversial treatises against Dr. Sacheverell. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Bisso, bes'so, (Francesco,) a resident of Palermo, 
 was appointed by Philip II. of Spain, in 1581, first physi- 
 cian of the kingdom of Sicily. Died in 1598. 
 
 Bisson, be'soN', (Louis Charles,) Bishop of Bayeux, 
 born in the department of Manche in 1742 ; died in 1820. 
 
 Bisson, (Count P. F. J. G.J a French general, born 
 at Montpellier in 1767, served in the Prussian campaign 
 of 1807, and was created a count in 1808. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Bissoni, bes-so'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 painter of Padua. Died in 1636. 
 
 Bistac, bes'tSk', (Francois,) a French grammarian, 
 and rector of the college at Langres, vv+iere he was born 
 in 1677. Died in 1752. 
 
 Bitaube,be't6'bi',(PAUL Jeremie,) aGerman scholar, 
 of French extraction, born at Konigsberg in 1732. He 
 published a French translation of the " Iliad" and " Odys- 
 sey," and of Goethe's " Hermann and Dorothea." His 
 most esteemed work is a prose poem entitled "Joseph." 
 He was a foreign associate of the French Academy of 
 Inscriptions. Died in 1808. 
 
 See Dacier, "Notice snr Bitaube' ;" Michel Berr, " Essai sur 
 la Vie et les Ouvrages de P. J. BitaubeV' 1809. 
 
 Biton. See Cleobis. 
 
 Bi'ton, [BiVur',] a Greek writer, known as the author 
 of a work on machines of war, dedicated to a king At- 
 talus, but which one is uncertain. 
 
 Bitzius, bit'se-us, (Albert,) a popular Swiss author, 
 who wrote under the assumed name of Jeremias Gott- 
 Helk, was born at Morat, in the canton of Freiburg, in 
 1797. He was pastor of Lutzelfluh. He published many 
 tales and other works, among which are " Kathi die 
 Grossmutter," (2 vols., 184.8,) and "Uli der Pachter," 
 (1849.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Biumi, be-oo'mee, (Paolo Girolamo,) an Italian 
 physician and medical writer, who graduated at Pavia in 
 1685, was professor of anatomy at Milan. Died in 1731. 
 
 Bivar, be-vaR', (Francisco,) a Spanish theologian 
 and religious writer, born at Madrid; died in 1636. 
 
 Bivar, de, (Rodrigo Diaz.) See Cm, The. 
 
 Biver, be-vaiu', orBivero, be-va'ro, (Pedro,) a Span- 
 ish Jesuit and religious writer, born at Madrid in 1572 ; 
 died in 1656. 
 
 Bixio, bek'se-o, (Jacques Alexandre,) an able 
 journalist, born at Chiavari, in Sardinia, in 1808. He 
 founded at Paris, with M. Buloz, the " Revue des Deux 
 Mondes," and published a good work, entitled " La 
 Maison rustique." In 1848 he was elected to the Con- 
 stituent Assembly, and was wounded in a contest with the 
 seditious mob. He was minister of agriculture and com- 
 merce for a short time in December, 1848. His public 
 life was abruptly terminated by the coup d'etat in 185 1. 
 
 Bizardiere, de la, deh IS be'ziR'de-iiu', (Michel 
 David,) Sieur, a French historian, who published a 
 " History of Louis le Grand," (1712,) and several works 
 on Polish history. 
 
 Bizet, be'zi', (Martin Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born near Bolbec in 1746. 
 
 Bizot, be'zo', (Pierre,) a French antiquary, born in 
 1630 ; died in 1696. 
 
 Bizzarri, bit-saVree, or Bizari, bed-zi'ree, (Pietro,) 
 an Italian historian and poet, born about 1530. His 
 principal works are a " History of the War in Hungary," 
 (1569,) and a " History of the Cyprian War between the 
 Venetians and Solyman," (1573,) both in Latin. 
 
 Bizzelli, bet-sel'lee, (Giovanni,) a Florentine painter 
 of history and portraits, born about 1556; died in 1612. 
 
 Bjelke. See Bielke. 
 
 Bjeringor Biering, be-SVing, (Christian Henrik.) 
 a Danish author, born in Funen, was pastor of Aastrup. 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 Bjerkeu, be-eVken, (Peter,) an able Swedish sur- 
 geon, born in Stockholm in 1765, became in 1802 physi- 
 cian-in-ordinary to the king. He obtained the order of 
 the Polar Star, and other distinctions. Died in 1818. 
 
 See S. A. Hedin, " Ammnelse-Tal ofver P. af Bjerken," 1819. 
 
 Bjorn or Bjcern. See Biorn. 
 Bjorner, Bjcerner, or Bicerner, be-oVner, (Eric 
 Julius,) a Swedish antiquary, born in 1696 ; died in 1750. 
 See Ersch und Gruijkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bjornklow or Bicernklow, be-oRn'klow, (Mat- 
 thew,) a Swedish statesman and senator, born in 1607, 
 was employed in various embassies. Died in 167 1. 
 
 Bjornson, be-6Rn'son, (Bjornstjerne, be-oRn'- 
 ste-^R'neh,) a popular Norwegian author, born in 1832, 
 has written a few short poems, some dramas, and several 
 charming tales, among which are "Arne," (recently 
 translated into English,) "A Happy Lad," and "The 
 Fisher-Maiden," ("Fiskerjenten," 1868.) The last, 
 which is his latest production, has been translated into 
 German and English. His works have been received 
 with extraordinary favour wherever they have become 
 known. "With M. Bjornson," says the London "Athe- 
 naeum" of April 26, 1862, "a new era begins in Scandi- 
 navian literature." 
 
 See, also, the London " Spectator," September 8, 1868. 
 
 Bjornstahl or Bicernstahl, be-bRn'stal, (Jacob 
 Jonas,) a Swedish traveller, born in Sudermania in 1731, 
 was sent by Gustavus III. on a scientific expedition to 
 Greece, Syria, and Egypt, but died at Salonica in 1779. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bjomstjerna or Bjcernstjerna, be-oRn'sheVni, 
 (Magnus Frederick Ferdinand,) a Swedish general 
 and writer, born at Dresden in 1779, entered the Swedish 
 army, and served against the French in the campaigns of 
 1809-13. He afterwards concluded the treaty by which 
 Sweden and Norway were united. He became lieuten- 
 ant-general in 1820, and minister plenipotentiary to Eng- 
 land in 1826. He published a treatise "On British Rule 
 in India," ("Det Brittiska Riket i Ostindien," 1S39,) 
 and " The Theogony, Philosophy, and Cosmogony of the 
 Hindoos," 1843, ('" German and Swedish.) Died in 1847. 
 
 Blaarer de Wartensee, bl&R'er da waR'ten-sa. 
 (Jean,) a Swiss jurist and litterateur, born at Zurich in 
 1685 ; died in 1757. 
 
 Blacas, blS'kas',(PiERRE Louis Jean Casimir,)Dukk 
 OF, a French statesman, born at Aulps in 1770, was em- 
 ployed on important embassies to Rome and Naples, and 
 negotiated the Concordat of 1817. He was the founder 
 of the Egyptian Museum in Paris, and a member of the 
 Institute. He was a constant adherent of the Bourbons. 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 See Vaulabelle, "Histoire de la Restauration." 
 
 Blacas d' Aulps, bli'kt'dops, a French troubadour, 
 born at Aulps about 1160; died in 1229. 
 
 Blache. blish, (Antoine,) a French ecclesiastic, born 
 at Grenoble in 1635, was imprisoned in the Bastille in 
 1709 for having accused the Jesuits of conspiring against 
 the king. Died in 17 14. 
 
 Black, (Adam,) a Scottish publisher and statesman, 
 born in Edinburgh in 1784, was twice elected to Par- 
 liament from his native city. He has published the 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica," and other standard works. 
 
 Black, (Jeremiah S.,) an American lawyer and 
 Democratic politician, born in Somerset county, Penn- 
 sylvania, in 1810. He was elected a judge of the su- 
 preme court of Pennsylvania in 185 1, and again in 1854. 
 He was attorney-general in the cabinet of Buchanan 
 from March, 1857, to December, i860, and secretary of 
 state from December, i860, to March, 1861. 
 
 Black, (John,) a distinguished journalist and littera- 
 teur, born at Dunse, in Scotland, in 1783, became prin- 
 cipal editor of the London " Morning Chronicle" in 1819. 
 He translated Goldoni's "Autobiography" from the 
 Italian; also Schlegel's "Lectures on Dramatic Art and 
 Literature," and Humboldt's " New Spain," from the 
 German. Died in 1 855- 
 
 Black, (Joseph,) an eminent chemist and physician, 
 of Scottish extraction, born at Bordeaux in 1728. He 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good ; moon ; 
 
 
BLACK ALL 
 
 365 
 
 BLACKWOOD 
 
 graduated at Edinburgh in 1754, and became professor of 
 anatomy at Glasgow in 1756, and in 1766 of chemistry 
 at Edinburgh, where he lectured with eminent success 
 for thirty years. He published in 1755 " Experiments on 
 Magnesia, Quicklime, and other Alkaline Substances," 
 in which he makes known his important discoveries on 
 the nature of lime and fixed air, (carbonic acid gas.) He 
 also originated the theory of latent heat, in relation to 
 which he made many interesting experiments. Dr. Black 
 was a friend of Lavoisier, and numbered among his pupils 
 the celebrated James Watt. Died in Edinburgh in 1799. 
 See Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie ;" Robison's preface to 
 :'s "Lectures on Chemistry;" Chambers, '* Biographical Dic- 
 tionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;"" Edinburgh Review" for October, 1803. 
 
 Black'all or Black'hall, (Offspring,) an English 
 divine and controversialist, born in London in 1654. He 
 was created Bishop of Exeter in 1707. Died in 1716. 
 
 Blackbourne, blak'burn, (John,) an English non- 
 juring bishop, born in 16S3. He published an edition 
 of Bayle's "Chronicle concerning Sir John Oldcastle." 
 Died in 1 741. 
 
 Blackburne, blak'burn, (Francis,) an English divine, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1705, became Archdeacon of Cleve- 
 land. His principal work is entitled "The Confessional, 
 or a Full and Free Inquiry into the Right, Utility, etc. 
 of establishing Confessions of Faith and Doctrine." It 
 caused a great sensation, and gave rise to a protracted 
 controversy. Died in 1787. 
 
 a Life of Blackburne, prefixed to his works by his son Francis, 
 London, 1804. 
 
 Black'burne, (Francis,) an eminent Irish lawyer 
 and judge, born in the county of Meath in 1782. He 
 became attorney-general for Ireland in 1830, master of 
 the rolls in 1842, and chief justice of the court of queen's 
 bench in 1S46. He was keeper of the great seal during 
 the brief ministry of Lord Derby, (1852,) and became 
 lord-justice of appeal in 1856. 
 
 Blackburne, (Thomas,) an English physician, son 
 of Archdeacon Blackburne, noticed above ; died in 1782. 
 
 Black'et, (Joseph,) an English poet, born in York- 
 shire in 17S6, was the son of a day-labourer. He died 
 in 1810, leaving a collection of poems of superior merit. 
 
 See " Remains of Joseph Blacket," with a Life by Pratt, 1811. 
 
 Black Hawk, a famous American Indian chief, born 
 about 1768. He waged war against the United States in 
 1832. Died in Iowa in 1838. 
 
 See "Life of Black Hawk," by W. J. Snelling. 
 
 Black'ie, (John Stuart,) a Scottish classical scholar 
 and writer, born in Glasgow in 1809. He produced a 
 poetical version of Goethp's " Faust," and a good trans- 
 lation of the works of /Eschylus, (1850.) In 1852 he 
 became professor of Greek in the University of Edin- 
 burgh. He published in 1866 two volumes entitled 
 " Homer and the Iliad." Besides the above, he has con- 
 tributed to the " Foreign Quarterly," the " Westminster 
 Review,'' " Blackwood's Magazine," and other British 
 periodicals. He has also written several articles /or the 
 " Imperial Dictionary of Biography." 
 * See " Eraser's Magazine" for 1S60. 
 
 BlackTock, (Thomas,) D.D., a Scottish divine and 
 poet, born at Annan in 1721. He became blind in in- 
 fancy, but nevertheless acquired at an early age a good 
 English education and some knowledge of the classics. 
 Through the kindness of Dr. Stevenson, he was enabled 
 to study at the University of Edinburgh, where he mas- 
 tered the Latin, Greek, and Italian languages. In 1762 
 he was ordained mfhister of the Church of Scotland at 
 Kirkcudbright. He published poems, also philosophical 
 and theological works. Died in 1791. 
 
 See Lives of Blacklock, by H. Mackenzie and by Gordon; 
 Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Black'loe, (Thomas,) an English Catholic theologian 
 and controversialist, lived about 1620. 
 
 Black'more, (Sir Richard,) an English writer, born 
 in Wiltshire about 1650, was physician to William HI. 
 He was the author of several epic poems, which were 
 satirized by Pope and other contemporary wits. His 
 entitled "The Creation" (1712) is warmly com- 
 mended by Cowper and Dr. Johnson ; and Addison pro- 
 nounce? it "one of the most useful and noble productions 
 m our Finish verse." Died in 1729. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets." 
 
 Black'rie, (Alexander,) a Scottish apothecary, who 
 wrote "A Disquisition on Medicines that dissolve the 
 Stone," (1766.) 
 
 Black'stone, (John,) an English botanist and apothe- 
 cary, who lived in London, and died in 1753. 
 
 Black'stone, (William,) an Episcopal' clergyman, 
 who was one of the first settlers of Boston. Died in 1675 
 
 Blackstone, (Sir William,) a celebrated English 
 jurist, born in London in 1723. He practised law, was 
 elected to Parliament in 1761, and appointed solicitor- 
 general in 1763. About 1770 he became one of the jus- 
 tices of the court of common pleas. His reputation is 
 founded on his "Commentaries on the Laws of England," 
 the first volume of which appeared in 1765. Three other 
 volumes were afterwards added to this work, which passed 
 through many editions and is extensively used by students 
 of law. Died in 1780. The very high reputation which 
 Blackstone enjoys as a legal writer is due more to the 
 judgment and taste evinced in the selection and arrange- 
 ment of his materials, and to the clearness, purity, and 
 classic elegance of his style, than to the extent of his legal 
 knowledge or the force of his intellect. J. Home Tooke 
 justly characterizes his work as "a good gentleman's 
 law-book, clear but not deep." Nearly the same judg- 
 ment has been pronounced by Fox, Mackintosh, Lord 
 Eldon, and other competent critics. 
 
 See Ci.itherok, "Life of Sir W. Blackstone," 1780; Foss, "The 
 Judges of England," vol. viii. ; Ali.ibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Black'wall, (Anthony,) an English schoolmasterand 
 critical writer, born in Derbyshire in 1674, published 
 "The Sacred Classics defended and illustrated," (1725.) 
 Died in 1730. 
 
 Black'well, (Alexander,) a Scottish physician and 
 agricultural writer, went in 1740 to Sweden, where he 
 was executed in 1748 on a charge of conspiracy against 
 the royal family. His wife, Elizabeth Blackwell, pub- 
 lished in 1737-39 a herbal, with coloured plates, of the 
 principal plants used in the practice of physic. Com- 
 merson named in her honour the genus Blackwellia. 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Black'well, (Antoinette L. Brown,) born in Mon- 
 roe county, New York, in 1825, studied at Oberlin, where 
 afterwards she finished a three-years course in theology. 
 On leaving Oberlin in 1849, though not licensed, she oc- 
 casionally preached by invitation in several churches in 
 different parts of the United States. In 1853 she was 
 regularly ordained pastor of a Congregational church at 
 South Butler, New York, which position she relinquished 
 the following year on account of ill health. In 1856 she 
 was married to Samuel C. Blackwell, and has since re- 
 sided near New York City. 
 
 Blackwell, (Elizabeth.) See Blackwell, Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 Blackwell, (Elizabeth,) the first woman that ever 
 received the degree of M.D. in the United States, was 
 born at Bristol, England, in 1821. She was brought to 
 New York by her parents about 1832, taught school 
 several years, studied medicine, and applied for admis- 
 sion to the medical colleges of Philadelphia, New York, 
 Boston, and other places. Her application was rejected 
 by all except that of Geneva, New York, where she was 
 welcomed by a unanimous vote of the students, and 
 where she graduated in 1849. She afterwards studied 
 midwifery in Paris, and practised medicine with success 
 in New York. 
 
 Blackwell,(C.EORGE,) an English Catholic theologian, 
 born in Middlesex in 1545, wrote several controversial 
 works. Died in 1612. 
 
 Blackwell, (Thomas,) a Scottish critic and scholar, 
 born at Aberdeen in 1701, became professor of Greek 
 in Marischal College of that city. Among his principal 
 works are "Letters on Mythology," and "An Inquiry 
 into the Life and Writings of Homer," (1735.) He was 
 a brother of Alexander, above noticed. Died in 1757. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Black'wood, (Adam,) a Scottish writer, born at 
 Dunfermline in 1539, studied in Paris, where he was 
 patronized by Mary Queen of Scots. He published, in 
 French, "The Martyrdom of Mary Stuart," (1588,) and 
 several Latin works. Died in 1613. 
 
 See Chambers," RiogTnphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 € as aV 5 as s; g hard; g as/; O, H, v.,giitti. nil; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jr^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BLACKWOOD 
 
 366 
 
 BLAIR 
 
 Black-wood, (Henry,) a Scottish physician and wri- 
 ter, born about 1525, became professor of philosophy at 
 Paris. Died about 16 14. 
 
 Blackwood, (Henry,) son of the preceding, born 
 in Paris, became professor of medicine and surgery in 
 that city. Died in 1634. 
 
 Blackwood, (Sir Henry,) a distinguished admiral, 
 born in the county of Down, Ireland, in 1770. He 
 served against the French in 1798, and was present 
 at the battle of Trafalgar. In 1819 he was created a 
 K.C.B., and appointed commander-in-chief on the East 
 India station. Died in 1832. 
 
 Blackwood, (William,) publisher of the celebrated 
 magazine called by his name, was born in Edinburgh in 
 1776. He brought out in 1817 the first number of his 
 journal, which soon numbered among its contributors 
 Sir Walter Scott, Lockhart, Hogg, and other eminent 
 writers of Tory principles. Under the editorship of 
 Professor Wilson it became the most popular of British 
 periodicals, and its pages were enriched with the writings 
 of Wordsworth, Lamb, Coleridge, De Quincey, and, at a 
 later period, Bulwer, Douglas Jerrold, W. S. Landor, and 
 Professor Aytoun. Died in 1834. 
 
 See "Atlantic Monthly," December, 1865. 
 
 Bla'den, (Martin,) an English officer and writer, 
 served under Marlborough, and attained the rank of 
 lieutenant-colonel. He was nine times elected to Par- 
 liament. He published a translation of Caesar's " Com- 
 mentaries," which he dedicated to the Duke of Marl- 
 borough. Died in 1746. 
 
 Blaes. See Blasius. 
 
 Blaesus, blee'sus, [Gr. B'Acuaoc,] a dramatic poet, sup- 
 posed to have lived in the third century B.C., was a 
 native of Capraea. His works were written in Greek, 
 and some of them are mentioned by Athenoeus. 
 
 Blaeu, bla'uh, Blaeuw, or Blauw, blow, (Willem,) 
 a celebrated Dutch geographer and typographer, born 
 at Amsterdam in 1571. He was a friend and disciple 
 of Tycho Brahe. Among his principal works are his 
 "Theatre of the World," ("Theatrum Munch,") "Atlas 
 of the Seas, or Aquatic World," and "Astronomical In- 
 struction on the Use of Globes, etc." Died in 1638. 
 
 Blaeuw, bla'uh, (Jan,) son of the preceding, published 
 a number of beautiful editions of the classics, and wrote 
 several geographical works. Died in 16S0. 
 
 Blag'den, (Sir Charles,) an English physician and 
 chemist, born in 1748, was one of the secretaries of the 
 Royal Society, and an intimate friend of Sir Joseph 
 Banks. • He contributed a number of scientific treatises 
 to the " Philosophical Transactions." Died in 1820. 
 
 Blag'rave, (John,) an English mathematician, pub- 
 lished "The Art of Dialling," "The Mathematical 
 Jewel," and other similar works. Died in 161 1. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Blagrave, (Joseph,) an English physician and astrolo- 
 ger, born in 1610, wrote "The Astrological Practice of 
 Physic," (1682,) and other works. Died in 1679. 
 
 Blaine, (James Gillespie,) an American legislator, 
 born in Washington county, Pennsylvania, in 1830. He 
 removed to Maine, and became editor of the " Kennebec 
 Journal," and afterwards of the " Portland Advertiser." 
 He was elected a member of Congress by the Republicans 
 in 1862, 1864, 1866, and 1868. In March, 1869, he was 
 chosen Speaker of the House .of Representatives. 
 
 Blainville, de, deh bliN'vel', (Henri Marie Ducro- 
 tay,) an eminent French zoologist and physician, born 
 near Dieppe in September, 1777. Having studied medi- 
 cine for a time, he was attracted by the lectures of Cuvier 
 to the study of comparative anatomy and zoology, and 
 was employed by that great naturalist as assistant lec- 
 turer. He obtained the chair of anatomy and zoology 
 in the Faculty of Sciences in 181 2, on which occasion 
 he took for his thesis the Ornithorhynchus, or duck- 
 bill. He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 
 1825. In 1830 he was appointed professor of the natural 
 history of mollusks and zoophytes at the Jardin des 
 Plantes, and on the death of Cuvier, in 1832, succeeded 
 him in the chair of comparative anatomy in that insti- 
 tution, now called the Museum of Natural History. 
 About this time he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society and of the Geological Society of London. His 
 
 most important work is entitled "Osteography, or Com- 
 parative Iconographic Description of the Skeleton and 
 Dentary System of the Five Classes of Vertebrated Ani- 
 mals, Recent and Fossil." He died in Paris in May, 
 1850, leaving the above-named production unfinished. 
 Twenty-four parts (livraisons) were issued before his 
 death. He also contributed numerous scientific treatises 
 to the " Revue Zoologique" and other similar periodicals, 
 and published "Lectures on General and Comparative 
 Physiology," (3 vols., 1833.) 
 
 See Nicard, " Notice surDe Blainville," 1850; Flourf.ns, " Me- 
 moire de Ducrotay de Blainville," and English translation of the saint 
 in the "Smithsonian Report" for 1865, p. 175. 
 
 Blair, (Francis Preston,) an American journalist 
 and politician, born at Abingdon, Virginia, in 1 791. He 
 began in 1830 to edit the "Globe," a Democratic paper 
 at Washington, and became a friend and confidential 
 adviser of General Jackson. He ceased to edit the 
 "Globe" in 1845. I" ^48 ne supported Van Buren for 
 the Presidency, in opposition to the regular candidate 
 of the party. He aided in the organization of the Re- 
 publican party about 1855. 
 
 Blair, (Frank Preston, Jr.,) an American general 
 and lawyer, son of the preceding, was born at Lexington, 
 Kentucky, in 1821. He was elected a member of Con- 
 gress by the voters of Saint Louis, Missouri, in 1856, was 
 re-elected in 1861, and acted with the Republicans for sev- 
 eral years. He commanded a corps in the army of Sher- 
 man in its march from Chattanooga to Atlanta in 1864, 
 and in the campaign of South Carolina, February, 1865. 
 He joined the Democratic party about 1865, and was 
 nominated as Democratic candidate for the Vice-Presi- 
 dency in July, 1868, but was not elected. 
 
 Blair, (Hugh,) a celebrated divine of the Church of 
 Scotland, born at Edinburgh in 1718. He became a doc- 
 tor of divinity in 1757, and in 1758 one of the ministers 
 of the High Church of Edinburgh. In 1762 he was ap- 
 pointed to a chair of rhetoric and belles-lettres recently 
 created by George HI. in the University of Edinburgh. 
 He published "Lectures on Rhetoric," (1783,) and sev- 
 eral volumes of sermons, which had an extraordinary 
 popularity in his time, and were translated into the prin- 
 cipal European languages ; but they have not found with 
 modern readers and critics the same favour which they 
 once enjoyed. His "Lectures on Rhetoric" has been 
 extensively used as a text-book for schools in the United 
 States as well as in Great Britain. Died in 1800. 
 
 See James Finlayson, " Life of Hugh Blair," 1801 ; Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Blair, (James,) a Scottish divine in the time of Charles 
 II., was sent in 1685 as a missionary to Virginia, where 
 he founded William and Mary College, and was appointed 
 its first president. Died in 1743. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Blair, (John,) a Scottish chronicler and Latin poet, 
 was chaplain to Sir William Wallace. He wrote the 
 "LifeW Wallace," in Latin verse, translated in Hume's 
 " History of the Douglases." 
 
 Blair, (John,) a relative of Hugh Blair, born at Edin- 
 burgh, published a popular work entitled "The Chro- 
 nology and History of the World, from the Creation to 
 '753-" He was afterwards elected a Fellow of the Rojal 
 Society, appointed tutor to the Duke of York, and ob- 
 tained other distinctions. Died in 1782. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Elninent Scotsmen." 
 
 Blair, (John,) an American jurist, born in 1732, was 
 appointed by Washington, in 1789, to the bench of the 
 supreme court of the United States, of which John Jay 
 was chief justice. Died at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 
 1 800. 
 
 Blair, (Montgomery,) a brother of General F. P. 
 Blair, was born in Kentucky about 1813. He studied 
 law, which he practised in Saint Louis, Missouri, and 
 became a judge of the court of common pleas. About 
 1852 he removed to Maryland. He was appointed post- 
 master-general in March, 1861, and was removed near the 
 end of 1864. Since that event he has assumed an atti- 
 tude of decided opposition to the Republican party. 
 
 Blair, (Patrick,) a Scottish physician and naturalist, 
 born at Dundee, published " Miscellaneous Observation* 
 on the Practice of Physic, Surgery, and Botany," (171S,) 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e. 1, 6, 11, f, short; a, e, j, o, obscure: far. fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon 
 
 
BLAIR 
 
 367 
 
 BLANC 
 
 ' Anatomy and Osteology of the Elephant," and other 
 scientific works. Died about 1728. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Blair, (ROBERT,) a Scottish poet and clergyman, born 
 in Edinburgh in 1699, was a cousin of Hugh Blair, no- 
 ticed above. He was ordained minister of Athelstane- 
 ford in 1731, and married a Miss Law in 1738. He died 
 in 1746, leaving a i»oem entitled "The Grave," which 
 was printed in 1747 and was highly esteemed by many 
 readers. The poet Campbell expresses the opinion that 
 his " language and imagery are free, natural, and pic- 
 turesque." 
 
 See Campbell, " Specimens of British Poets ;" Chambers, " Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Blaise, bl£z, (Baktiielkmy,) a French sculptor, born 
 at Lyons in 1738. Among his principal works are the 
 intent of Count Vcrgennes, and a bust of Frederick 
 the Great of Prussia. Died in 1819. 
 
 Blaise, blaz, [Lat. Bla'sius,] Saint, Bishop of Se- 
 baste in Armenia, suffered martyrdom in 316 A. D., under 
 Agricola, governor of Cappadocia and Lesser Armenia. 
 
 Blake, (Francis,) an American lawyer, born at Rut- 
 land. Massachusetts, in 1774. He graduated at Harvard, 
 and practised law in Worcester, where he died in 181 7. 
 
 Blake, (George Smith,) an American naval officer, 
 born in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1803, served in the 
 Mexican war, and became in 1857 superintendent of the 
 United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. He was 
 made commodore in 1862. 
 
 Blake, (Homer C.,) an American naval officer, born 
 in Dutchess county, New York, in 1822, entered the 
 navy about 1840. He obtained command of the Hat- 
 teras in 1861, and was employed in the Gulf of Mexico 
 near Galveston. In January, 1862, he attacked the 
 Alabama, commanded by Captain Semmes, although his 
 vessel was inferior to that of the enemy. The Hatteras 
 was sunk in the action. He rendered an important ser- 
 vice by defeating an attempt of the enemy to bring their 
 rams, etc. down James River against City Point, in Jan- 
 uary, 1864. 
 
 Blake, (Joaquin,) a Spanish general, of Irish extrac- 
 tion, served from 1808 to 1811 against the French, by 
 whom he was several times defeated. Died in 1827. 
 
 Blake, (John Bradley,) an English mathematician 
 and naturalist, born in London in 1745 ; died in 1773. 
 
 Blake, (John Lauris,) an American compiler and 
 biographer, born at Northwood, New Hampshire, in 1788. 
 He served as rector of an Episcopal church at Concord, 
 New Hampshire, and at Boston. He published, besides 
 numerous school-books, a "General Biographical Dic- 
 tionary," (1 vol. 8vo, 1835,) which passed through several 
 editions. Died in 1857. 
 
 Blake, (Joseph,) nephew of the celebrated Admiral 
 Blake, succeeded Thomas Smith as Governor of South 
 Carolina in 1694. Died in 1700. 
 
 Blake, (Robert,) a celebrated British admiral, born 
 at Bridge-water, in Somersetshire, about 1599. Having 
 finished his studies at Oxford, he was elected to Parlia- 
 ment for Bridgewater in 1640. He was a staunch Puri- 
 tan and republican, and distinguished himself in the 
 civil war by his brave and successful defence of Taunton 
 against the royalists, (1645,) thus rendering a service of 
 importance to the cause. Being appointed in 1649 
 commander of a squadron of the line, with the title of 
 "General of the Sea," he blockaded Prince Rupert at 
 Kinsale, and on his effecting his escape pursued him to 
 the Tagus and captured a great number of Portuguese 
 galleons. For these achievements he was made Warden 
 of the Cinque Ports. On the breaking out of the war 
 with Holland, in 1652, he gained a signal victory over Van 
 Tromp in the Straits of Dover, (May 19,) and on the 
 28th of September defeated the Dutch fleet under Ad- 
 miral De Witt. In February, 1653, he again encoun- 
 tered Van Tromp, whom he defeated after a running 
 fight of three days, in which the English took eleven men- 
 of-war and thirty merchantmen. On account of his fail- 
 ing health, he retired soon after from the service, and 
 became a member of the first two Parliaments summoned 
 by Cromwell. In 1656 he was sent to blockade Cadiz, 
 and the same year destroyed the Spanish plate-fleet at 
 Santa Cruz, in the island of Teneriffe. He received for 
 
 this service the thanks of Parliament and a diamond 
 ring worth ^500. He is considered as the founder of 
 the naval supremacy of England. He died on his voy- 
 age to England in 1657. 
 
 See Campbell, " Lives of the British Admirals;" "Robert Blake. 
 Admiral and General at Sea," by Hepworth Dixon, 1852 ; Macau- 
 Lay, " History of England," vol. i. ; Dk. Johnson's Works, vol. xii. ■ 
 "Quarterly Review" for July, 1858. 
 
 Blake, (Thomas,) an English Puritan divine, born in 
 Staffordshire in 1597, published "The Covenant Sealed," 
 and other religious treatises. Died in 1657. 
 
 Blake, (William,) a singularly gifted English artist 
 and poet, born in London in 1757, studied engraving fot 
 a time under Basire. A collection of his ballads and 
 songs was published in 1787, partly at the expense of 
 his friend and patron the sculptor Flaxman. These were 
 followed in 1789 by his " Songs of Innocence and Expe- 
 rience," accompanied by etched illustrations of great 
 beauty. He next produced his "Gates of Paradise," in 
 sixteen designs, and soon after a series of twenty-seven 
 designs, entitled "Urizen," both works of a mystical 
 character, but displaying remarkable genius. He sub- 
 sequently illustrated Young's "Night Thoughts," Hay- 
 ley's "Life of Cowper," and Blair's "Grave." Among 
 his other works are "Twenty-one Illustrations to the 
 Book of Job," and "The Canterbury Pilgrimage," a 
 picture in water-colours. Blake was a believer in the 
 power of conversing with departed spirits, and painted 
 the portraits of several eminent persons who he alleged 
 were revealed to him. He died in 1828, having passed 
 the latter part of his life in extreme poverty, which he 
 bore without repining, finding in his entire devotion to 
 his art a compensation for all privations. 
 
 See Cunningham, "Lives of Painters and Sculptors;" "Life of 
 William Blake," by Alexander Gilchrist; " Piclor Ignotus," in 
 the "Atlantic Monthly" for April, 1864. 
 
 Blake, (William Rufus,) a comic actor, born in 
 Nova Scotia in 1805, acted with great success in New 
 York and other places. Died in 1863. 
 
 Blake'ly or Blake'ley, (Johnston,) a naval com- 
 mander, born in Ireland in 1 781, entered the navy of the 
 United States in 1800. He took command of the sloop 
 Wasp in August, 1813, and captured, in June, 1814, the 
 British sloop Reindeer. In September of that year he 
 attacked the Avon, which surrendered. The Wasp never 
 returned to port, and it is not known what became of 
 Captain Blakely. 
 
 Blake'ney, Lord, an Irish military commander, 
 born in the county of Limerick in 1672. He was lieu- 
 tenant-governor ol the island of Minorca when it was 
 taken by the French in 1756. 
 
 Blake.'way, (John Brickdale,) an English divine 
 ttnd antiquary, born at Shrewsbury in 1765. He wrote 
 a " History of Shrewsbury," and other works. Died in 
 1826. 
 
 Bla'key, (Robert,) an English philosopher, born at 
 Morpeth about 1795. He published a "History of Moral 
 Science," (2 vols., 1833,) a "History of the Philosophy 
 of the Mind, embracing the Opinions of all Writers on 
 Mental Science," (4 vols., 1848,) which was received with 
 favour, a "History of Political Literature," (1855,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Blamire, bla-mlr', (Susannah,) an English poetess, 
 born near Carlisle in 1747. She wrote, in the Scottish 
 dialect, a number of admired lyrics, among which are 
 "The Siller Crown," and "The Nabob." Died in 1794. 
 
 Blamont, de, deh blt'm6N', (Francois Collin,) a 
 French musician and composer, born at Versailles in 
 1690 ; died in 1760. 
 
 Blampin, bldN'paN', (Thomas,) a French Benedictine 
 monk, born at Noyon in 1640, edited the works of Saint 
 Augustine, (8 vols., 1679-17QO.) Died in 1710. 
 
 Blampoix, blON'pwa', (Jean Baitlsti.,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Macon in 1740, became constitu- 
 tional Bishop of Troyes. Died in 1820. 
 
 Blanc, bl6.N, (Charles,) a French litterateur, brother 
 of Louis Blanc, noticed below, born at Castres about 
 1815. He wrote a " History of the French Painters of 
 the Nineteenth Century," (1845,) and a " History of the 
 Painters of all the Schools," (1st vol. about 1850.) 
 
 Blanc, (Jean Denis FERRioi.,) a French jurist, bom 
 at Besancon m 1744; died in 1789. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BLANC 
 
 368 
 
 BLANCHETON 
 
 Blanc, (Louis,) a celebrated journalist and historian, 
 of French extraction, born at Madrid in 1813. He was 
 educated in Paris, and in 1837 became principal editor 
 of the journal entitled " Bon Sens," (" Good Sense.") 
 He founded in 1839 "La Revue du Progres," and in 
 1840 brought out his treatise on the " Organization of 
 Labour," an exposition of his radical views of social 
 and political reform. In 1848 he became a member 
 of the provisional government, and was chiefly instru- 
 mental in passing the decree abolishing the death-pen- 
 alty for political offences. He has published a " History 
 of the Ten Years 1830-40," (" Histoire des dix Ans 
 1830-1840," 6 vols.,) and has begun a " History of the 
 French Revolution," the seventh volume of which came 
 out in 1855. He was very popular with the operatives 
 and socialists of Paris. Having been accused of complicity 
 in the bloody revolt of May and June, 1848, he escaped 
 to England, where he remains an exile. 
 
 See Cuari.es Robin, " Louis Blanc, sa Vieet sesOuvrages," 1S51 ; 
 "Blackwood's Magazine" for September, 1844; "Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for July, 1863. 
 
 Blanc, blank, (Ludwig Gottfried,) a German writer 
 and preacher, born at Berlin in 1781, was a resident of 
 Halle. He published a popular work, entitled "Manual 
 of Things best worth knowing in Nature," (" Handbuch 
 des Wissenswiirdigsten aus der Natur, etc.," 3 vols., 5th 
 edition, 1846-49.) 
 
 Blanc, Le. See Le Blanc. 
 
 Blancard. See Blankaard. 
 
 Blancard, blS.N'kaV, (Pierre,) a French traveller in 
 Asia, born at Marseilles in l74i,wrotea "Manual of the 
 Commerce of the East Indies and China." Died in 1826. 
 
 Blancas, blan'kas, (Geronimo,) a Spanish historian, 
 born at Saragossa, succeeded Zurita as royal histo- 
 riographer. His principal work is a History of Aragon, 
 ("Commentarii Rerum Aragoniensium," 1588.) His 
 Latin style is eulogized by Prescott for its elegance. 
 Died in 1590. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i. 
 
 Blancha, blan'cha, (JUAN,) governor of Perpignan 
 when under Spanish rule, defended that place for eight 
 months against the French in 1474. 
 
 Blanchard bloN'shtR', (Alain,) a citizen of Rouen, 
 in France, who generously sacrificed himself for the 
 safety of his native city when besieged in 1418 by Henry 
 V., who consented to spare the place only on condition 
 of a number of victims being given up. 
 
 See Licquet, " Notice sur Alain Blanchard." 
 
 Blanch'ard, (Albert G.,) an American general in 
 the Confederate army" born in Massachusetts about 1810, 
 graduated at West Point in 1829, served in the Mexican 
 war, and was made a brigadier-general in 1861. 
 
 Blanchard, (Elie,) a French antiquary and scholar, 
 born at Langres in 1672, was a pupil of Dacier. He was 
 elected to the Academy of Inscriptions in 1714. Died 
 in 1756. 
 
 Blanchard, (Emile,) a French naturalist, born in 
 Paris in 1819, published a number of treatises on ento- 
 mology and other departments of zoology. 
 
 Blanchard, (FRANgois,) a French jurist and littera- 
 teur ; died in 1660. 
 
 Blanchard, (Francois,) a celebrated French aero- 
 naut, born at Andelys in 1738. After the brothers 
 Montgolfier had invented the balloon, Blanchard con- 
 structed one with wings and a rudder, in which he made 
 an ascension in 1784. In company with Dr. Jeffries, he 
 crossed the Channel in his balloon in 1785, for which 
 achievement he received from the king twelve thousand 
 francs and a pension. Died in 1809. 
 
 His wife, Marie Madeleine Sophie Armant, made 
 several ascensions after his death, and was killed by the 
 explosion of her balloon in 1819. 
 
 Blanchard, (Guillaume,) son of Francois, (the first 
 of the name,) was an advocate in the Parliament of Paris. 
 He wrote a "Chronological Compilation of the 'Statutes 
 of the French Kings." Died about 1724. 
 
 Blanchard, (Jacques,) a French painter, born in 
 Paris in 1600, studied at Rome and Venice. His " De- 
 scent of the Holy Ghost," in the church of N&tre-Dame, 
 in Paris, is esteemed his master-piece. Died in 163S. 
 
 Blanchard,(jEAN Baptiste,) a French Jesuit, teacher, 
 and educational writer, born in the department of Ar- 
 dennes in 1731 ; died in 1797. 
 
 Blanch'ard, (Laman,) an English journalist and lit- 
 terateur, born at Great Yarmouth in 1803. He became 
 associated with Bulwer as editor of " The New Monthly 
 Magazine" in 1831, and subsequently assisted in editing 
 the "Court Journal," the " Constitutional," and " The 
 Courier." He contributed numerous articles in prose 
 and verse to the leading English periodicals. He com- 
 mitted suicide in a fit of insanity in 1845. His "Essays 
 and Sketches" were published by Bulwer Lytton, accom- 
 panied by an interesting Memoir, which see. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1846, (by Thackeray.) 
 
 Blanchard, (Thomas,) an eminent American in- 
 ventor, born in Sutton, Worcester county, Massachu- 
 setts, in 1788. Mr. Blanchard has taken out in all, in- 
 cluding machinery for locomotives, steamboats, etc., 
 twenty-four patents for his different inventions. Died 
 in 1864. 
 
 See Henry Howe, "Eminent American Mechanics," etc., 1847. 
 
 Blanchard de la Musse, bl&N'shiR' deh li miis, 
 (FRANgois Gabriel Ursin,) a French littirateur, born 
 at Nantes in 1752 ; died in 1837. 
 
 Blanche, blanch, [Fr. pron. .blfiNsh,] of Artois, 
 (SR'twa',) daughter of Robert, Count of Artois, and niece 
 of Saint Louis, was married in 1270 to Henry I., King 
 of Navarre. She afterwards became the wife of Edmund, 
 Earl of Lancaster, brother of Edward I. of England. 
 Died about 1300. 
 
 See Mezeray, " Histoire de France." 
 
 Blanche of Bourbon, (boor'bgn,) a daughter of 
 Peter, Duke of Bourbon, born about 1338, was married 
 at the age of fifteen to Peter the Cruel, King of Castile, 
 who soon abandoned her, and caused her to be im- 
 prisoned in the castle of Medina-Sidonia, where she died 
 in 1361. Her tragic fate forms the subject of numerous 
 ballads and poems. 
 
 See Froissart, "Chronicles;" Ticknor, "History of Spanish 
 Literature." 
 
 Blanche of Castile, (kas-teel',) daughter of Al- 
 phonso IX., King of Castile, born in 1 187, was married 
 in 1200 to the son of Philip Augustus, afterwards Louis 
 VIII. On the death of her husband, she became regent 
 of the kingdom, and governed with great ability and wis- 
 dom. She was the mother of Louis IX., commonly 
 known as Saint Louis. Died in 1252. 
 
 See Macheco, "Vie de Blanche de Castile," 1820; Vauviu.iers, 
 " Histoire de Blanche de Castile," 1841 ; T. Nisard, "Histoire de la 
 Reine Blanche," 1842. 
 
 Blanche of Navarre, daughter of Charles III., (sur- 
 named " the Noble,") was first married to Martin, King 
 of Sicily, (1402,) and in 1420 to John of Aragon, son of 
 Ferdinand I. Died in 1441. 
 
 See Galland, " Me'moires de Navarre." 
 
 Blanchelande, de, deh blSNsh'l&xd', (Philibert 
 Francois Roussel.) a French general, born at Dijon in 
 1735. He was appointed in 1792 lieutenant-governor 
 of Saint Domingo, but, being accused of causing the 
 troubles in that country, he was condemned by the Revo- 
 lutionary tribunal, and executed in 1793. 
 
 Blanchet, bloN'shi', (Alexandre Paul Louis,) a 
 French physician, born at Saint-Lo in 1817, published a 
 work on " Deaf- Dumbness," ("LaSurdi-Mutite,"4vols.) 
 
 Blanchet, (Francois,) a French litterateur, born near 
 Chartres in 1707, was appointed royal censor, and keeper 
 of the books in the royal cabinet. He published " ( >ri- 
 ental Tales and Apologues," "Moral and Amusing Va- 
 rieties," and other works. Died in 1784. 
 
 See Dusaui.x, "Vie de 1'AbW Blanchet," prefixed to his " Vane - - 
 tds Morales," etc, 
 
 Blanchet, (Pierre,) a French dramatic poet, born at 
 Poitiers about 1459, is supposed to have written the 
 "Farce de Pathelin," which was translated into Latin. 
 Died in 1 5 19. 
 
 Blanchet, (Thomas,) a French historical and portrait 
 painter, born in Paris in 1617. His*works are praised 
 by D'Argenville. Died in 1689. 
 
 'Blancheton, bl&Nsh'toN', (Marc Antoinf.,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Vervaison in 1784. His chief 
 
 i e. I, o, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, o, fi, y, short; a, §, i, o, obscure; far. fall, fat; m?t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
 
BLANCHON 
 
 369 
 
 BLAZE 
 
 work is an " Essay on Man considered in his Geographi- 
 cal Relations," (1808.) Died in 1830. 
 
 Blaiichon, bldN'sh6.N', (JoxCHrM,) a French poet, 
 born at Limoges about 1550. 
 
 Blanckhof, blink'hof, or Blankofl; blln'kof, (An- 
 ed also John Maet, (mat,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at Alkmaar in 1628. His best works are marine 
 pieces. Died in 1670. 
 
 Bland, (Richard,) an American political writer and 
 antiquary, was a citizen of Virginia. He published in 
 1710 an "Inquiry into the Rights of the British Colo- 
 nic," and was elected a delegate to Congress in 1774. 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 Bland, (Rev. Robert,) an English scholar and divine, 
 born in London in 1779. He published, conjointly with 
 J. II. Merivale, "Translations from the Greek Antholo- 
 tiSoo,) and wrote several poems, and a poetical 
 romance entitled "The Four Slaves of Cythera," Died 
 in 1S25. 
 
 Bland, (Colonel Theodoric,) an American patriot, 
 born in Prince George county, Virginia, in 1742, was an 
 uncle of John Randolph of Roanoke. He joined the 
 army in 1777, and gained the rank of colonel and the 
 confidence of Washington. He served as a member of 
 Congress from 1780 to 1783, was a member of the Con- 
 vention which ratified the Federal Constitution in 1788, 
 and was again elected to Congress in 1789. Died in 1790. 
 
 See a " Memoir of T. Bland," in the " Bland Papers," published 
 by Charles Campbell, 184a 
 
 Bland, (William,) an English writer, born about 
 1788. He published, besides other works, " Principles 
 of Agriculture," (1827.) 
 
 Blandin, bl6N'daN', (Philippe Frederic,) a French 
 suryeon of high reputation, born at Aubigny in 1 798, 
 practised in Paris. He published "Traite d' A natomie 
 topographique," (1826,) and "Elements of Descriptive 
 Anatomy," (2 vols., 1838.) Died in Paris in 1849. 
 
 Blandrata, blan-dRa'ta, (Giorgio,) an Italian physi- 
 cian, born in Piedmont, was the founder of Unitarianism 
 in Poland and Transylvania. He became successively 
 a Lutheran, Calvinist, and Socinian, and being appointed 
 physician to John Sigismund, Prince of Transylvania, 
 about 1563, he made many proselytes in that country. 
 He is supposed to have been assassinated by his nephew 
 about 1590. 
 
 See Varillas, " Histoire des Heresies." 
 
 Blane, (Sir Gilbert,) F.R.S., an eminent British 
 physician, born at Blanefield, Ayrshire, in 1749. He ob- 
 tained,«dx>ut 1780, the high office of physician to the 
 fleet commanded by Rodney, in which he served until 
 the end of the war, and published, in 1785, "Observations 
 on the Diseases of Seamen." From 1785 to 1795 he was 
 physician to Saint Thomas's Hospital, London. In 1819 
 he published "Elements of Medical Ix>gic," which is 
 highly esteemed. He was elected a member of the French 
 ite about 1826, and became first physician to Wil- 
 liam IV. in 1830. Died in London in 1834. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Blangini, blan-jee'nee, (Giuseppe Marco Maria 
 Felice,) an Italian composer, born at Turin in 1781, 
 produced a number of operas, canzonets, and other mu- 
 sical pieces. Died in 1841. 
 
 See Arsene Houssaye, " Philosophers and Actresses," vol. H. 
 
 Blankaard, blan'kaRt, written also Blancard, (Nik- 
 ola as.i a Dutch scholar, born at Leyden in 1625. He 
 became professor of the Greek language and history at 
 Franeker in 1669, and published editions of Quintus Cur- 
 tius, the " Enchiridion" of Epictetus, and other classics. 
 Died in 1703. , 
 
 Blankaard or Blancard, (Steven,) a Dutch phy- 
 siciar., son of Nikolaas, noticed above, born at Middel- 
 bur;;, published a number of medical and anatomical 
 works in Latin, the most important of which is "Ana- 
 tomia practica Kationalis," (1688.) 
 
 Blankenburg, von, fon blan'ken-bdoRo', (Christian 
 Friedrich,) a German litterateur and critic, born at Col- 
 berg in 1744. He translated into German Johnson's 
 •Lives of the Poets," and other English works. Died 
 in 1796. 
 
 Blankenstein, blan'ken-stTn', (Ernst,) Count, a 
 German commander, born in Thuringia in 1733, served 
 
 in the Austrian army in the Seven Years' war, and be- 
 came lieutenant-fielcl-marshal. Died in 1816. 
 
 Blankofl See Blanckhof. 
 
 Blanpain, blta'paN', (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and historical writer, born in 1704; died in 1765. 
 
 Blanquart de Bailleul, blftN'kiR'deh ba"yul',(LoU!S 
 Edmond Marie,) born at Calais in 1795, became Bishop 
 of Versailles in 1833, and in 1844 Archbishop of Rouen. 
 
 Blanquet, blo.N'ki', (Samuel,) a French physician 
 and naturalist, born in the diocese of Mende ; diecf about 
 1750. 
 
 Blanquet du Chayla, bloN'kJ' dii shi'13', (Armand 
 Simon Marie,) a French vice-admiral, born in the de- 
 partment of Lozere in 1759 ; died in 1826. 
 
 See " Notice sur Blanquet du Clrayla," Paris, 1852. 
 
 Blanqui, blfiN'ke', (Jean Dominique,) born at Nice in 
 1759, was a deputy to the National Convention, and in 
 1795 became a member of the Council of Five Hundred. 
 He wrote a work entitled "My Ten Months' Agony," 
 ("Mon Agonie de dix Mois," 1794.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Blanqui, (Jerome Adolphe,) a celebrated writer on 
 political economy, born at Nice in 1798. He studied 
 economic science under J. B. Say, and in 1833 succeeded 
 him as professor at the Corservatory of Arts and Trades 
 in Paris. He published a " History of Political Economy 
 in Europe from the Ancients to the Present Time, 
 (1837,) which ranks as a standard work, a "Summary of 
 the History of Commerce and Industry," anda "Journey 
 in England," (1824.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Blanqui, (Louis Auguste,) brother of the preceding, 
 born at Nice in 1805, has distinguished himself as a 
 political conspirator and socialist. He was several times 
 imprisoned for his seditious attempts previous to 1848. 
 He was a ringleader of the insurgents and outlaws of 
 Paris who took arms against the republic in April and 
 May, 1848. For this offence he was condemned to im- 
 prisonment for ten years. 
 
 Blarru, de, deh bli'rii', (Pierre,) a French poet, born 
 in 1437, wrote a heroic poem in Latin, entitled "The 
 Nanceid," (1518,) which was once admired, and has been 
 translated into French. Died in 1505. 
 
 Blasche, blas'Keh, (Bernhard H einrich,) a German 
 educational writer, born at Jena in 1766; died in 1852. 
 
 Blasco, blas'ko, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Chiusa, in Sicily, taught philosophy and belles-lettres at 
 Naples and Rome about 1600-25. 
 
 Blasius, bla'ze-us', (Ernst,) a German surgeon, born 
 at Berlin in 1802, became professor of surgery at Halle 
 in 1834. 
 
 Bla'sl-us or Blaes, blSs, (Gerard,) a learned Flem- 
 ish physician, born near Bruges, settled in 1660 in Am- 
 sterdam, where he became professor of medicine. He 
 published several Latin treatises on anatomy and medi- 
 cine. Died in 1682. 
 
 Blasius, Saint. See Blaise, Saint. 
 
 Blas'ta-res, (Matth,«us,) a Greek canonist and 
 monk of the order of Saint Basil, lived about 1350. He 
 was the compiler of a " Collection of the Canons and 
 Councils of the Fathers, and Laws of the Greek Em- 
 perors on Ecclesiastical Matters." 
 
 Blau, blow, (Felix Anton,) a German Catholic the- 
 ologian, born in 1754, wrote against the abuses of the 
 Romish Church. Died in 1798. 
 
 Blaurer, blfiw'rer, (Ambrose,) a Swiss Lutheran 
 divine, born at Constance in 1492; died in 1568. 
 
 Blavet, b!S'v&', (Jean Louis,) a French litterateur, 
 son of Michel, noticed below, born at Besancon in 1719. 
 He translated from the English Adam Smith's " Wealth 
 of Nations," and Dalrymple's "Memoirs of Great Brit 
 ain and Ireland." Died in 1809. 
 
 Blavet, (Michel,) a French musician and composer, 
 born at Besancon in 1700; died in 1768. 
 
 Blavier, bla've-a', (Edouard,) a French geologist 
 and engineer, boriT'in Paris in 1802. 
 
 Blay'ney, (Benjamin,) D.D., an English philologist, 
 and regius professor of Hebrew at Oxford, had a high 
 reputation as a Biblical critic. He published new trans- 
 lations of Jeremiah and Lamentations, and of Zechariah, 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 Blaze, blSz, (Eij.ear,) a French litterateur, brother of 
 Castil-Blaze, born at Cavaillon about 1786; died in 1848. 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard '; gasy '; G, H, K,gitttural; N, nasal) R, trilled: 5 as ;; th as in this. (2ry* See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 
BLAZE 
 
 37° 
 
 BLITTERSWICK 
 
 Blaze, (Francois Henri Joseph,) called also Castil- 
 Blaze, kis'tel'bliz, a French musical critic and com- 
 poser, born at Cavaillon in 1784. He edited the musical 
 department of the "Journal des Debats" from 1820 to 
 1831, published a " Dictionary of Modern Music," (1821,) 
 and composed several operas. Died in Paris in 1857. 
 
 Blaze, (Henri Sebastien,) a French musician and 
 composer, father of the preceding, born at Cavaillon in 
 1763 ; died in 1833. 
 
 Ble, du, dii bla, (Nicolas,) Marquis d'Uxelles, a 
 French general, born in 1652, became a marshal of 
 Fiance in 1703. Died in 1730. 
 
 Blecker, blek'ker, or Blek'er, (Jan Gaspar,) a 
 painter and engraver, born at Haarlem about 1600. 
 
 Bleda, bla'ua, (Jaime,) *t Spanish ecclesiastic, born 
 in the province of Valencia about 1550, wrote a "Chro- 
 nology of the Moors of Spain." Died in 1624. 
 
 Bleeck, van, vSn blak, (Peter,) a Flemish painter and 
 engraver, born about 1700. Among his best works is a 
 portrait of Paul Rembrandt. Died in London jn 1764. 
 
 Bleeoker, blee'ker, (Ann Eliza,) an American poet- 
 ess, whose maiden name was SCHUYLER, born in New 
 Yurk in 1752; died in 1783. 
 
 See Griswold, " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Bleek, blak, (Friedrich,) born at Arensbbk, in Hoi- 
 stein, in 1793, published several valuable critical works 
 on the Scriptures. He became professor of theology at 
 Bonn in 1829. Died in 1859. 
 
 Blefken, blefken, (Dithmar,) a German traveller, 
 visited Iceland in 1563, and afterwards wrote a descrip- 
 tion of that country, in Latin. 
 
 Bleg'bp-rpugh, (Ralph,) an English physician, born 
 in Yorkshire in 1769, was a member of the Royal College 
 of Physicians. He published " Facts and Observations 
 respecting the Air-Pump Vapour-Bath in Gout, Rheu- 
 matism, etc." Died in 1827. 
 
 Blegny, de, deh blan'ye', (Nicolas,) a French surgeon 
 and writer, born in 1652, became physician to the king 
 in 1687. Died in 1722. 
 
 Blein, blaN, (Franqois Ange Alexandre,) Baron, 
 a French general of engineers, born in Drome in 1767. 
 He served at Austerlitz, Jena, etc., and wrote several 
 scientific works. 
 
 Bleiswick, van, vin blis'wik, (Pieter,) grand pen- 
 sionary of Holland, born at Delft in 1724, wrote a Latin 
 treatise "On Dykes." Died in 1790. 
 
 Blekers, bla'kers, (N.,) a Dutch painter of history 
 and landscapes, born at Haarlem about 1635, was patron- 
 ized by the Prince of Orange. 
 
 Blende, de, deh blen'deh or bl6Nd, (Barthblemy,) 
 a Jesuit missionary, born at Bruges in 1675, visited Para- 
 guay, where he was killed by the natives in 1 71 5. 
 
 Blenker, blenk'er, (Louis,) a general, born at Worms, 
 Germany, in 1812. He took an active part in the revo- 
 lutionary movement in his native city in 1849, and after 
 the defeat of the popular party became an exile in New 
 York. He was appointed a brigadier-general in August, 
 1861, and commanded a division under General Fremont 
 in Virginia in 1862. Died in New Jersey in 1863. 
 
 Blen'ner-has'set, (IIarman,) a wealthy Englishman, 
 noted as an associate or accomplice of Aaron Burr, was 
 born in Hampshire about 1770. He purchased about 
 1798 an estate on an island in the Ohio River, and ruined 
 his fortune by advancing money to aid Burr in his pro- 
 jects. He was indicted for treason in 1807, but was re- 
 leased on the acquittal of Burr. Died in 1831. 
 
 See "Life of Harman Blennevhasset," by W. H. Safford, 1853. 
 
 Bles, de, deh blfis, or Bless, (Henri,) a Flemish 
 landscape-painter of great merit, born near Dinant in 
 1480. Died in 1550. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Blessebois, blSss'bwa', (Pierre Corneille,) an 
 enigmatical personage, of whom nothing positive seems 
 to be known. The name is attached to several French 
 dramas, satires, and poems, published about 1675. Some 
 of these are said to be scurrilous and indecent. 
 
 Blessendorf, bles'sen-doRf, (Samuel,) a German 
 painter in enamel, born in Berlin in 1670, was also an 
 engraver. 
 
 Blessig, bles'siG, (Johann Lorenz,) a Protestant 
 minister, born at Strasburg on the Rhine about 1748. 
 
 He became professor of theology in his native city in 
 1783, and published several works. Died in 1816. 
 
 See C. M. Fritz, " Leben J. L. Blessig's," 2 vols., 1818. 
 
 Bles'sing-ton, (Margaret,) Countess of, an Irish 
 lady, celebrated for her beauty, accomplishments, and 
 social qualities, was born in Tipperary county in 17S9. 
 She was married when very young to Captain Farmer, 
 and after his death to the Earl of Blessington in 1818. 
 Lord Blessington dying in 1829, his widow took up her 
 residence at Gore House, in London, which was for 
 many years the resort of the literati and other celebrated 
 persons of England and the Continent. Among her most 
 popular works we may name " The Victims of Society," 
 a novel, "Conversations with Lord Byron," (1832,) "The 
 Idler in Italy," and "The Idler in France." She was 
 a frequent contributor to the magazines, etc. Diedin 1849. 
 
 See " The Literary Life and Correspondence of the Countess of 
 Blessington," by R. R. Madden ; "Edinburgh Review," vol. Ixvii. 
 
 Blesson, bli's6N', (Ludwig Johann Urban,) a Ger- 
 man officer, born at Berlin in 1790, published a " Survey 
 of the Art of Fortification," (1827,) and other works. 
 
 Bletterie, de la, deh IS blJ'tRe' or blet're', (Jean 
 Philippe Rene,) a French litterateur, born at Rennes in 
 1696. He was professor of eloquence in the Royal Col- 
 lege, and a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He 
 wrote a "History of Julian the Apostate," (1735,) and 
 made translations from the Latin. Died in 1772. 
 
 Bleuland, bluh'ISnt, (Janus or Jan,) a Dutch medi- 
 cal writer, born at Utrecht, lived about 1780-1800. 
 
 Bleville, bleh-vel', (Jean Baptiste Thomas,) born 
 at Abbeville in 1692, published "The Universal Banker 
 and Merchant," and other works. Died in 1783. 
 
 Blicher, bliic'er, (Steen StEENSEN,) a Danish poet 
 and novelist, born in the stift or province of Viborg in 
 1782. His "National Novels" are very popular, and in 
 some points have a strong resemblance to those of Sir 
 Walter Scott. He translated the poems of Ossian into 
 Danish. He had studied theology in early life, and in 
 1819 entered on the duties of a pastor. He wrote several 
 treatises on rural economy, and an " Autobiography," 
 which was published in a collection of his works, (9 vols., 
 1847-48.) Died in 1848. 
 
 See P. L. M5ller, "Dansk Pantheon." 
 
 Bligh, blT, (Sir Richard Rodney,) a British admiral, 
 born in Cornwall in 1737; died in 1821. 
 
 Bligh, (William,) an English naval officer, born in 
 1753. By the orders of George III. he was sent in 1787 
 to the South Sea Islands, for the purpose of introducing 
 the vegetable productions of those countries into the 
 Wpst Indies. While proceeding with his cargo to Ja- 
 maica, his men mutinied, (April, 1789,) and he, with 
 eighteen of the crew, was sent adrift in the launch. 
 After enduring great hardships, they arrived at the 
 island of Timor in June, and in the spring of 1790 landed 
 in England. He published soon after a " Narrative of 
 the Mutiny on Board H.M. Ship Bounty," which excited 
 great interest. He was appointed Governor of New 
 South Wales in 1806, but, owing to his tyrannous con- 
 duct, was sent back to England in 1808. He died in 
 1817. The mutiny of the Bounty suggested to Lord 
 Byron his poem entitled "The Island." (For an ac- 
 count of the mutineers, see Adams, John.) 
 
 Blin, blaN, (Francois Pierre,) a French physician, 
 born at Rennes in 1756 ; died in 1834. 
 
 Blin de Sainmore, blaN deh saN'moR', (Adrien 
 Michel Hyacinthe,) a French littirateur, born in Paris 
 in 1733, was appointed by Louis XVI. keeper of the ar- 
 chives, and historiographer. He wrote poems, dramas, 
 and historical works. Died in 1807. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Correspondance." 
 
 Blioul, du, dii ble'ool', (Jean,) a Flemish ecclesiastic, 
 born in Hainault about 1570. 
 
 Bliss, (James C.,) M.D., an American philanthropist, 
 born at Bennington, Vermont, in 1 791. He practised 
 medicine in the city of New York about forty years, 
 and was eminent for his skill and beneficence, lie was 
 one of the founders of the American Tract Society. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Blitterswick, van, vSnblit'ters-wik', (Jan,) a Flem- 
 ish ecclesiastic and religious writer, born at Brussels; 
 died in 1661. 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
 
BLITTERSWICK 
 
 37i 
 
 BLONDEAU 
 
 Blitterswick, van, (Wii.i .km,) a Flemish jurist and 
 ■:ur, born at Brussels ; died in 1680. 
 
 Bliz'ard, (Sir William,) a celebrated English anato- 
 mic and surgeon, born in Surrey in 1748. He became, 
 in 1787, professor of anatomy to the old Corporation of 
 Surgeons, being elected a fellow of the Royal Society 
 the same year. When the Royal College of Surgeons 
 was founded, he was appointed to the chair of anatomy 
 conjointly with Sir Everard Home, and was afterwards 
 twice president of that college. He was the founder of 
 the Hunterian Society, and of several other learned and 
 benevolent institutions. He published a number of 
 works on Surgery and Sanitary Reform. Died in 1835. 
 
 See "A Brief Memoir of Sir William Blizard," by William 
 
 Bloch, bloK, (Georg Castaneus,) a Danish botan- 
 ist, bom in 1717, became Bishop of Ribe. Died in 1773. 
 
 Bloch, (JoHANN Erasmus,) a Danish gardener, pub- 
 lished, in 1647, a work entitled " Horticultura Danica." 
 
 Bloch, bloK, (MARKUS Elieser,) a German physician 
 and naturalist, of Jewish family, born at Anspach in 1723, 
 practised medicine In Berlin. His "Universal Natural 
 History of Fishes" (12 vols., with 432 coloured plates, 
 1782) is esteemed a standard work. Died in 1799. 
 
 Bloch, bloK, or Ballagi, (Moritz,) a learned Hun- 
 garian Jew, born at Ternova in 1815. He published a 
 "Complete Dictionary of the Hungarian and German 
 Languages," (1846.) 
 
 Blochmann, bloK'man, (Karl Justus,) a German 
 teacher and educational writer, born at Reichstadt, in 
 Saxony, in 1786. About 1824 he founded at Dresden a 
 large school called Bloch man"sche Institut. Died at or 
 near Geneva in 1855. 
 
 Block, (Ai.brecht,) a German agricultural writer, 
 born at Sagan in 1774; died in 1847. 
 
 Block, (Benjamin,) a German portrait-painter, born 
 at Lubeck in 1631. 
 
 Block, (DANIEL,) a German portrait-painter, father 
 of the preceding, born in Pomerania in 1580. He was 
 court painter to the King of Denmark and the King of 
 Sweden. Died in 1661. 
 
 Block, blok, (James Reucers,) a Dutch painter, born 
 at Gouda about 1580, excelled in perspective and archi- 
 tectural views. Died in 1632. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Block, (Joanna Koerten — kooR'ten,) an ingenious 
 female artist, born at Amsterdam in 1650, was celebrated 
 for her skill in cutting with her scissors landscapes, por- 
 traits, and animals. For such works she was paid im- 
 mense prices by several sovereigns of Europe. Died in 
 1715. 
 
 Block, blok, (Magnus Gabriel,) a Swedish physician, 
 born at Stockholm in 1669; died in 1722. 
 
 Blockland, blok'lant, (Anthony dk Montfor*t,) a 
 Dutch painter of history and portraits, born at Montfort 
 in 1532. He worked at Utrecht. Died in 1583. 
 
 Blod'get, (SAMUEL,) an American projector, born at 
 Wobura, Massachusetts, about 1720. He raised a valu- 
 able cargo from a sunken vessel, and began the canal 
 around the Amoskeag Falls, at Haverhill, New Hamp- 
 shire, but, Inline it was finished, was sent to prison for 
 debt Died in 1807. 
 
 Bloemaert, bloo'mlRt, (Abraham,) a celebrated 
 Dutch painter, born at Gorkum about 1564 or 1567. He 
 painted landscapes and portraits, but excelled in histori- 
 cal pieces. 1 1c was also a skilful engraver. "The Death 
 of Niobe'l Sons" is called his master-piece. Died at 
 Utrecht in 1647. 
 
 Bloemaert, (Kornelis,) an excellent engraver, son 
 of the preceding, born at Utrecht in 1603, studied en- 
 graving in Paris and in Rome. Among his master-pieces 
 arc the " Adoration of the Shepherds," after Cortona, 
 and "Meleager," after Rubens. His three brothers, 
 Adrian, Henry, and Frederick, were also engravers. 
 Died at Rome in 1680. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Ktinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Bloemen, van, vfn bloo'men, (John Francis,) a 
 
 lish painter, born at Antwerp in 1656. He studied 
 
 in Italy, where he passed his mature life, and where he 
 
 received the surname of Okizzonte from some peculi- 
 
 arity of his style. His landscapes are greatly admired, 
 and command high prices. Died at Rome in 1740. 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, " etc. 
 Bloemen, van, (Norbert,) brother of John Francis 
 born at Antwerp in 1672, painted portraits and conver- 
 sation-pieces. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 Bloemen, van,( Peter,) surnamed SiANDAERT,(si.in'- 
 d&Rt,) a Flemish painter, brother of the preceding, was a 
 native of Antwerp. His principal works represent mili- 
 tary marches, battles, fairs, caravans, etc. He became 
 director of the Academy of Antwerp in 1699. 
 
 Bloeteling, bloo'teh-ling, sometimes written Blote- 
 Ung, (Abraham,) a celebrated Dutch designer and en- 
 graver, born at Amsterdam in 1634. Among his prin- 
 cipal works are " Daniel in the Lions' Den," after Rubens, 
 and a portrait of Erasmus, after Holbein. Died in 1676. 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon. " 
 Blois. See Blosius. 
 
 Blom, blom, (Karl Magnus,) a Swedish naturalist 
 and physician, born in Smaland in 1737, was a pupil of 
 Linnaeus. He was the first to introduce vaccination into 
 Sweden. He wrote several medical and scientific works 
 in Latin. Died in 1815. 
 
 Blomberg, blom'beRG, (Barbara,) a lady of distin- 
 guished family in Nuremberg, was the mistress of Charles 
 V., and the reputed mother of Don John of Austria. 
 
 Blome, blo'meh, (Johann,) a learned German writer, 
 born at Hamburg about 1620 ; died in 1672. 
 
 Blome, (Richard,) an English historical writer, lived 
 about 1670. 
 
 Blome'field, (Francis,) born in Norfolk, England, 
 in 1705, published "The Topographical History of Nor- 
 folk," (3 vols., 1739-69.) Died in 1751. 
 
 Blomfield, bliim'feld, (Charles Jamks,) Bishop of 
 London, born in Suffolk in 1786. He graduated at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, in 1808, and soon after brought out 
 valuable editions of the " Prometheus" and several other 
 dramas of TEschylus. He also edited the "Adversaria 
 Porsoni," and contributed to various reviews a number 
 of critical essays on the Greek classics. In 1824 he pub- 
 lished an edition of Callimachus. He became Bishop of 
 London in 1828. Bishop Blomfield distinguished himself 
 by his efforts to improve the condition of the poor, and 
 promoted the erection of a great number of churches in 
 London. His opinions were decidedly "high-church." 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 See Dr. Biber, "Bishop Blomfield and his Times," 1857: A. 
 Blomfield, "Life of C. J. Blomfield," 1863; "London Quarterly 
 Review" for January and April, 1S68. ■ 
 
 Blomfield, (Edward Valentine,) a distinguished 
 English scholar, brother of the preceding, was born in 
 1788. He published a valuable translation of Matthiac's 
 "Greek Grammar," and was a contributor to the "Mu- 
 seum Criticum." Died in 1816. 
 
 Blommaert, blom'maRt, (Philippus,) a Belgian phi- 
 lologist and poet, born about 1809, published editions of 
 several old Flemish poems, and translated the " Niebe- 
 lungen" into Dutch iambics. His best production is a 
 historical work entitled "Aloude Geschiedenis der Belgen 
 of Nederduitschers," ( 1849.) 
 
 Blond, le, leh 1>16n, (Jacques Chriskhiii-,) a min- 
 iature-painter, born at Frankfort in 1670. He worked in 
 London, and made unsuccessful attempts to produce col- 
 oured engravings or copies of paintings. Died about 1 740. 
 Blond, Le. See Le Blond. 
 
 Blonde, bldNd, (Andre.) a French jurist, born at 
 Auxerre in 1734; died in 1794. 
 
 Blondeau, bl6N'do', (Antoine Francois Raymond,, 
 a French general, born in Franche-Comte in 1747, s. 
 under Pichegru in 1794, and in the Italian campaign of 
 1799. Died in 1825. 
 
 Blondeau, (Charles,) a French jurist and miscel- 
 laneous writer, born at Mans; died in 1680. 
 
 Blondeau, (Claude,) a French jurist and legal 
 writer, born in Paris, lived about 1650. 
 
 Blondeau, (Ji 'an P.aitistk Antoine Hyacinth*,) 
 professor of Roman law in the faculty of Paris, was born 
 at Namur in 1 784. He became a member of the Academy 
 of Moral and Political Science, and published several 
 works on Roman jurisprudence. 
 
 e as *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilUd; S as t; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BLONDE AU 
 
 372 
 
 BLOUNT 
 
 Blondeau de Charnage, b!6N'd5' deli shtR'ntzh', 
 (Claude Francois,) a French litterateur, born near Pon- 
 tarlier in 17 10. Died in 1776. 
 
 Blondel, bl6N'deT, [Lat. Blondel/e'us,] a French 
 troubadour, and favourite of Richard Coeur de Lion, 
 whom he accompanied on his principal expeditions. He 
 is said to have discovered the place of the king's impris- 
 onment in Germany by singing before the fortress part 
 of a song which was answered from within. 
 
 Blondel, (David,) a French Protestant divine and 
 writer, born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1591. In 1650 he 
 succeeded Vossius as professor of history at Amsterdam. 
 He published a number of theological and historical 
 works in Latin and French. Died in 1655. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and "Critical Dictionary;" Brucker, 
 " History of Philosophy." 
 
 Blondel, bloN'del', (Francis,) a Flemish physician, 
 born at Liege in 1613 ; died in 1682. 
 
 Blondel, (Francois,) a French architect and mathe- 
 matician, born at Ribemont in 1617. He was appointed 
 professor of mathematics in the Royal College, and was 
 chosen by Louis XIV. to teach that science to the dau- 
 phin. He published a " Course of Architecture," and 
 various other treatises. The triumphal arch of the Porte 
 Saint-Denis is esteemed his master-piece in architecture. 
 Died in 1686. 
 
 See Fontenay, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Blondel, (Francois,) a French physician, born in 
 Paris, graduated about 1631, was noted for his opposition 
 to the use of antimony in medicine. Died in 1682. 
 
 Blondel, (Jacques,) a French surgeon, who lived at 
 Lille about 1580, translated, from the Latin, Godin's 
 "Military Surgery." 
 
 Blondel, (Jacques Francois,) a French architect, 
 nephew of Francois the architect, noticed above, was 
 born at Rouen in 1705. He became professor in the 
 Academy of Architecture in Paris. Died in 1774. 
 
 Blon'del, (James Augustus,) an English physician, 
 of French extraction, wrote several esteemed medical 
 works. He was a member of the Royal College of Phy- 
 sicians. Died in London in 1734. 
 
 Blondel, (Jean,) a French jurist and legal writer, 
 born at Rheims in 1733, became president of,, the impe- 
 rial court of Paris in 1803. Died in 1810. 
 
 Blondel, (Laurent,) a French scholar and theologi- 
 cal writer, born in Paris in 1671 ; died in 1740. 
 
 Blondel, (Marie Joseph,) a French historical painter, 
 born in Paris in 1781, was a pupil of Regnault. Among 
 his works are " Zenobia on the Shore of the Araxis," and 
 " Homer in Athens." He was a member of the Institute. 
 
 Blondel, (Pierre Jacques,) a French litterateur, born 
 in Paris in 1674; died in 1730. 
 
 Blondel, (Robert,) a French poet and moralist, born 
 in Normandy about 1390, was preceptor to the dauphin 
 Charles, a son of Charles VII. Died about 1460. 
 
 Blondin, bl6N'daN', (Jean Noel,) a French gram- 
 marian, born in Paris in 1753, became secretary and in- 
 terpreter at the Royal Library. He published a " Polyglot 
 Grammar, French, Latin, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 
 and English." Died in 1832. 
 
 Blondin, (Pierre,) a French botanist, born at Vaudri- 
 court in 1682, was a pupil of Tournefourt. Died in 1713. 
 
 Blondus, (Fi.avius.) See Flavio Biondo. 
 
 Blood, bifid, (Colonel Thomas,) a notorious Irish 
 adventurer, born about 1628, served for a time in Crom- 
 well's army. Having failed in his attempt to surprise the 
 castle of Dublin and take the Duke of Ormond, then 
 lord-lieutenant, he seized the person of that nobleman in 
 'lis coach in London, (1670,) and was only prevented from 
 hanging him by the resistance of his servants. In 1671 
 he nearly succeeded in possessing himself of the crown 
 jewels ; but, after a short imprisonment for this crime, he 
 was pardoned by Charles II., and received from him a 
 pension. Died in 1680. 
 
 See Kennet, "History of England." • 
 
 Bloom'field, (Robert,) an English poet, born at 
 Honington, in Suffolk, in 1766. He was the son of a 
 tailor, and was apprenticed at an early age to a shoe- 
 maker in London. While in this situation he composed 
 his rural poem of "The Farmer's Boy," which, after 
 being refused by several booksellers, was published under 
 
 the patronage of Mr. Capel Lofft. It was received with 
 extraordinary favour, and was translated into French, 
 Italian, and Latin. Among his other poems we may 
 name "Good Tidings, or News from the Farm," "Mav- 
 Day with the Muses," and "Ballads and Songs." Of 
 the " Farmer's Boy," Dr. Nathan Drake observes, in his 
 " Literary Hours," that " in true pastoral imagery and 
 simplicity no production can be put in competition with 
 it since the days of Theocritus ;" and a critic in " Black- 
 wood's Magazine" pronounces it "by far the best-written, 
 as to style and composition, of any work of our unedu- 
 cated poets." Died in Bedfordshire in 1823. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1822, vol. xi. ; " Pursuit 
 of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. ii., 1839. 
 
 Bloomfield, (S. T.,) D.D., an English divine and 
 scholar, born about 1790. He has published an edition 
 of Dr. Robinson's " Greek and English Lexicon to the 
 New Testament," with important additions and correc- 
 tions, which is highly commended by the "Church of 
 England Quarterly;" also the "Greek Testament, with 
 English Notes, Critical, Philological, and Explanatory," 
 (1832,) and other valuable works of thje kind. He brought 
 out in 1829 an excellent translation of Thucydides. 
 
 Bloot, blot, (Pieter,) a Dutch or Flemish painter, 
 whose favourite subjects are drunken frolics, quarrels of 
 peasants, etc. Died in 1667. 
 
 Blo'sl-us or De Blois, deh blwa, (Francis Louis,) 
 a Flemish Benedictine monk of noble family, born near 
 Liege in 1506, became abbot of the monastery of Liesses, 
 in Hainault. He was educated with Prince Charles, after- 
 wards the emperor Charles V. Died about 1565. 
 
 Blot, bio, Baron de Chauvigny, (deh sho'ven'ye',) a 
 French wit and litterateur in the reign of Louis XIII., 
 wrote a number of satires and epigrams against Cardinal 
 Mazarin. Died in 1655. 
 
 Blot, (Maurice,) a French painter and engraver, born 
 in Paris in 1754, was a pupil of Saint-Aubin. Died in 1S18. 
 
 Bloteling. See Bi.oeteling. 
 
 Blouet, bloo'A', (Jean Francois Nicolas,) a French 
 journalist and litterateur, born at Metz in 1745, wrote on 
 agriculture, commerce, and other subjects. Died in 1809. 
 
 Blount, blunt, (Charles,) Lord Mountjoy and Earl 
 of Devonshire, born in 1563, lived in the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth, by whom he was treated with great favour. 
 He succeeded to the title of Lord Mountjoy, and became 
 governor of Portsmouth in 1594, and lord deputy of Ire- 
 land in 1600. Having put down the Irish rebellion in 
 1603, he was created Earl of Devonshire by James [., 
 and obtained other distinctions. Died in 1605 or 1606. 
 He was an intimate friend of the Earl of Essex, whose 
 sister he married. She was a great beauty, and previ- 
 ously the wife of Lord Rich. Lord Devonshire and 
 Lady Rich had five children born before their marriage. 
 
 Blount, (Charles,) an English writer, son of Sir 
 Hem>y, mentioned below, born at Upper Holloway in 
 1654, published a deistical work entitled " Anima Mun'di," 
 (1678,) and several others of a similar nature. He also 
 translated from the Greek the " Life of Apollonius Tya- 
 naeus," by Philostratus. He committed suicide in 1693. 
 
 See Macaulay's " History of England," vol. iv. 
 
 Blount, (Sir Henry,) born in Hertfordshire in 1602, 
 travelled in Greece, Palestine, and Egypt, of which coun- 
 tries he gave an account in his " Voyage into the Levant," 
 published in 1636. It was translated into French and 
 Dutch. Died in 16S2. 
 
 Blount, (I.at. Blon'dus,] (John,) an English writer, 
 who was prebendary and chancellor in the church of York. 
 He wrote theological works which were highly esteemed 
 by his contemporaries, but they are not known to be ex- 
 tant. Died in 1248. 
 
 See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses." 
 
 Blount, (Thomas,) an English jurist and writer, born 
 in Worcestershire in 1618. He published "Glosso- 
 graphia," or a dictionary of legal terms, " Lamps of the 
 Law and Lights of the Gospel," (1658,) "The Academy 
 of Eloquence," and other works. Died in 1679. 
 
 Blount, (Sir Thomas Pope,) son of Sir Henry, noticed 
 above, born in 1649, was several times elected to Par- 
 liament for Saint Alban's and Hertfordshire. He pub- 
 lished a "Critique on Celebrated Writers," ("Censura 
 celebriorum Authorum," 1690,) which is commended by 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mgt; u6t; good; mi 
 
 
BLOUNT 
 
 373 
 
 BLVNDEFILLE 
 
 Hallam, Sir Egerton Brydges, and other eminent critics. 
 Died in 1697. 
 
 Blount, blunt, (William,) an American Senator, born 
 about 1744. He was appointed governor of the territory 
 south of the Ohio River in 1790, and was elected a Sena- 
 tor of the United States by the legislature of Tennessee 
 In 1796. He was expelled from the Senate, in 1797, on 
 a charge that he had abetted an attempt of the British 
 ncjuer from Spain part of the lower valley of the 
 Mississippi. Died at Knoxville in 1800. 
 
 Blount (blunt) Mount-joy', Lord Mountjoy, born 
 about 1598, was the eldest son of Charles Blount and 
 Lady Rich. He was created Earl of Newport in 1628, 
 and appointed Constable of the Tower in 1641, but was 
 removed in the same year because the king distrusted 
 his loyalty. He adhered to the royal cause in the civil 
 war, but was regarded as lukewarm. Died in 1665. 
 
 Blow, (John,) an English musician and composer, 
 born in Nottinghamshire in 1648, became organist of 
 Westminster Abbey. Among his principal compositions 
 are a " Gloria Patri," and a collection of secular pieces 
 entitled "Amphion Anglicus." The celebrated Purcell 
 was one of his pupils. Died in 1708. 
 
 See Burney, " History of Music." 
 
 Bliicher, von, fon bloo'ker, [Ger. pron. fon blu'Ker,] 
 (Gebhard Lebrecht,) a celebrated Prussian field-mar- 
 shal, born at Rostock in 1742. At an early age he en- 
 tered the Swedish army, and was taken prisoner by the 
 same Prussian regiment (then under the command of 
 Colonel von Belling) which he afterwards commanded 
 with such distinction. He was prevailed upon by Von 
 Belling to join the army of Frederick the Great, and, after 
 the accession of Frederick William, distinguished him- 
 self in the campaigns of 1793-94 against the French. 
 In 1806 he commanded the Prussian vanguard at Auer- 
 stadt, and effected a masterly retreat to Lubeck, though 
 pursued by Soult, Bernadotte, and Murat. Appointed 
 in 1S13 to the chief command of the allied Russian and 
 Prussian army, he obtained a signal victory over Mac- 
 donald on the Katzbach, and soon after took a promi- 
 nent part in the battle of Leipsic. After various en- 
 fagements with the French, he advanced to Paris in 
 larch, 1814, and, having stormed the heights of Mont- 
 martre, entered the city with the allied sovereigns. On 
 this occasion he was created Prince of Wahlstadt by the 
 King of Prussia, and received other high distinctions. 
 In 1 Si 5 he again took command of the Prussian army, 
 and though defeated at Ligny, June 16, he appeared 
 on the field of Waterloo in the evening of the 18th and 
 decided the fortunes of that eventful day. With his 
 fresh troops he pursued the flying enemy through the 
 night, and, having arrived in Paris, assisted in re-estab- 
 lishing the Bourbon dynasty. He died in 1819, at the 
 age of seventy-seven. Bliicher was chiefly remarkable 
 for his impetuous courage and the rapidity of his move- 
 ments, which procured for him the name of "Marshal 
 Yni warts," ("Forwards.") For the plans of his battles 
 he relied principally upon Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, 
 generals of his staff. When praised for one of his vic- 
 , he said, " It is owing to my rashness, Gneise- 
 nau's prudence, and the mercy of the great God." 
 
 See "Life and Campaigns of Bliicher," London, 181 5: Foerster, 
 
 " Blticher und sein Umgebung," 1821 ; Pischon, "Bluchers Leben, 
 
 Thaten und Rude," 1842; Varnhaoen von Ense, " Bluchers Le- 
 
 bensbeschreihtmg," 1827: W. Burckhardt, " G. L. von Blticher 
 
 Ki-'denund Thaten geschildert," 1835 ; " Viede Bliicher," 
 
 1H16. 
 
 Bludoff or Bloudoff, bloo'doff, (Dmitri,) Count, a 
 Russian statesman, born at Moscow about 1783. He has 
 been employed in various embassies, appointed secre- 
 tary of the interior, and president of the legislative 
 department in the council of the empire. 
 
 Bluet d'Arberea, de, deh bltt-4' (almost blwi) d&V- 
 baiR', (Bernard,) a French litterateur, and fool by pro- 
 fession, sometimes called the Comte de Permission, was 
 born near Savoy about 1560. He wrote eulogies on his 
 patrons, and a number of prophecies for the people. A 
 'f his works was sold for five hundred francs at the 
 ihy sale in 1816. 
 
 See Floghl, "Geschichle des Burlesken." 
 
 Bluf, bloof, (Matthaus Joseph,) a German physician 
 and medical writer, born at Cologne in 1805; died in 1837. | 
 
 Bluhme, bloo'meh, (Christian Albert,) a Danish 
 statesman, bom at Copenhagen in 1794, became minister 
 of foreign affairs in 1851, and in 1852 president of the 
 council. 
 
 Bluhme or Blume, bloo'meh, (Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man jurist, born at Hamburg about 1798. He became 
 profoundly versed in the Roman law, and was appointed 
 professor of law at Bonn. Among his works are " Iter 
 Italicum," (4 vols., 1824-36,) containing the results of 
 his researches in Italy, " Canon Law of the Jews and 
 Christians, especially in Germany," (1826,) and a "Sketch 
 of the Law of the Pandects," (1829.) 
 
 Blum, bloom, (Jean,) a Swiss architect, resided at 
 Zurich. He published in 1596 a " Book of Architecture." 
 
 Blum, bloom, (Joachim Christian,) a German lit- 
 tiratcur, born at Kathenau in 1739; died in 1790. 
 
 Blum, (Karl,) a German composer, and director of 
 the Royal Opera at Berlin, born in that city about 1785. 
 He composed numerous operas and songs. Died in 1844. 
 
 Blum, (Robert,) a German democratic politician, 
 born at Cologne in 1807. In 1840 he founded the Schiller 
 Association at Leipsic, and soon after became a leading 
 contributor to the "Sachsischen Vaterlandsblattern," a 
 political journal. He was the founder of the German 
 Catholic church at Leipsic in 1845. I' 1 tne revolution of 
 1848 he was a prominent leader of the Liberal party, and 
 was one of the deputation sent to Vienna with the ad- 
 dress of the parliamentary opposition. On the capture 
 of that city by Windischgratz, he was arrested and shot, 
 November 9, 1848. 
 
 See Eduard Duller, "R. Blums Leben und Tod," 1848; 
 Eduard Franke, "Leben, Wirken, etc. des R. Blum," 1848; Lud- 
 wig Wittig, " Blums letzte Stunden in Wien," 1848. 
 
 Blumauer, bloo'mow'er, (Aloys,) a German poet, 
 born at Steyer in 1755, published a burlescpue poem en- 
 titled "Virgil's /Eneid travestied," (1784,) which was 
 very popular in Germany and was translated into Rus- 
 sian. Died in 1798. 
 
 Blumberg, bloom'bSRG, (Christian Gotthelf,) a 
 German Lutheran divine and philologist, born near Quer- 
 furt in 1664 ; died in 1735. 
 
 Blume. See Bluhme. 
 
 Blumenbach, bloo'men-bak, [Ger. pron. bloo'men- 
 baK,] (Johann Friedrich,) a celebrated German com- 
 parative anatomist and physiologist, was born at Gotha 
 on the nth of May, 1752. He studied at Jena, and after- 
 wards at Gdttingen, where he took his degree in medi- 
 cine in 1775. On this occasion he wrote a thesis on the 
 " Varieties of the Human Race," (" De Generis humani 
 Varietate Nativa,") which was translated into many lan- 
 guages. He became ordinary professor of medicine and 
 anatomy at Gottingen in 1778, and continued to lecture 
 there more than fifty years. He published in 1780 a 
 popular "Manual of Natural History," (10th edition, 
 1830,) and in 1786 a "Description of the Bones of the 
 Human Body." He explained with success the functions 
 of the human system in his " Institutiones Physiologicae," 
 (1787,) which was translated into English and other lan- 
 guages and used as a text-book in schools. 
 
 Blumenbach was the first who divided the human 
 species into five races, — viz., the Caucasian, Mongolian, 
 Malay, American, and African or Ethiopian. He advo- 
 cated the unity of the human species. " He was the first," 
 says Dr. Hoefer, " who placed natural history on a sci- 
 entific basis, — comparative anatomy." Among his im- 
 portant works is a "Manual of Comparative Anatomy," 
 (1805.) In the number of his pupils was Alexander von 
 Humboldt. He was a member of about seventy learned 
 societies, and corresponded with the most eminent phi- 
 losophers of Europe. He was cresttd a knight of the 
 Guelphic order about 1821. Died at Gottingen in Janu- 
 ary, 1840. 
 
 See "Fjoge de Blumenbach," par Flourkns, 1846: C F. H. 
 Marx, "Zum Andenken an J. F. Blumenbach," 1840; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Geneiale." 
 
 Blumroder, von, fon bl6"6m'r6'der, (August Fried- 
 rich,) a German litte'rateur and soldier, born at Gehren 
 in 1776, served against the French in the campaigns of 
 1814-15. 
 
 Blun'dell, (James,) a British physician and medical 
 writer, born about 1810, practised in London. 
 
 Blun'de-ville, (Thomas,) an English mathematician, 
 
 •e as /■; c as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BLUNT 
 
 374 
 
 BOB RUN 
 
 published in 1594 a popular work, entitled "Exercises, 
 containing Six Treatises." 
 
 Blunt, (Edmond,) an American hydrographer, son 
 of Edmond M. Blunt, noticed below, born in Newbury- 
 port, Massachusetts, in 1799. He was for many years 
 engaged in making surveys of the sea-coast of the United 
 States, the West Indies, Guatemala, etc., and since 1833 
 has been first assistant in the United States Coast Survey 
 at Washington. 
 
 Blunt, (Edmond March,) an American writer on nau- 
 tical subjects, born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 
 1770. In 1796 he published his " American Coast Pilot," 
 which has since passed through many editions and been 
 translated into several European languages. It con- 
 tains descriptions of every seaport in the United States 
 and of most of those in America, with sailing-directions, 
 lists of light-houses, etc He has also published many 
 other valuable nautical works, charts, etc. 
 
 Blunt, (Henry,) an English religious writer, born 
 about 1794. In 1835 he became rector of Streathan, 
 Surrey, lie published, besides sermons, " Lectures on 
 the History of Saint Paul," (1833,) "Lectures on the 
 History of Elisha," and other popular works. It is 
 said that some of his works have passed through forty 
 editions. Died in 1843. 
 
 Blunt, (James G.,) an American general, born in 
 Hancock county, Maine, in 1826. He settled in Kansas 
 about 1856, and became a leader of the Free State party. 
 He was appointed a brigadier-general about April, 1862. 
 He defeated the enemy at Kane Hill, Arkansas, in No- 
 vember, and at Prairie Grove in December, 1862. Having 
 been promoted to the rank of major-general, he com- 
 manded the department of Kansas in 1863, but was re- 
 lieved in October of that year. 
 
 Blunt, (John James,) an English divine and scholar, 
 born at Ncwcastle-under-Lime in 1794. He became in 
 1839 Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge. 
 He published " Undesigned Coincidences in the Writ- 
 ings both of the Old and New Testaments an Argument 
 of their Veracity," (1847,) "Vestiges of Ancient Manners 
 in Italy and Sicily," and other works. Died in 1855. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1858, (vol. civ.) 
 
 Blunthli, bloont'lee, or Bluntschli, bloont'shlee, 
 (Jean Henri,) born at Zurich in 1656, wrote a chronicle 
 of the city and canton of Zurich, entitled " Memorabilia 
 Tigurina." Died in 1722. 
 
 Bluntschli, bloont'shlee, (Johann Kaspar,) a Swiss 
 jurist, born in 1808 at Zurich, where he became professor 
 of law in 1836. 
 
 Bluteau, blit'to', (Dom Raphael,) a learned writer, 
 of French extraction, born in London in 1638, became 
 preacher to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. He 
 published a "Portuguese-Latin Dictionary," (1712, 8 
 vols, fol.) Died in 1734. 
 
 Blutel, blii'tel', (Charles Auguste Esprit Rose,) a 
 French jurist, and member of the National Convention, 
 born at Caen in 1757. He was a member of the Council 
 of Five Hundred. Died in 1806. 
 
 See " Notice sur M. Blutel," Paris, 1847. 
 
 Blyenburg, bll'en-biiRG', (Adrian,) a Latin poet, 
 nephew of Damasus, born at Dort in 1560; died in 1599. 
 
 Blyenburg, van, vSn bll'en-biiRG', (Damasus,) a 
 Dutch litterateur, born at Dort in 1558, published a com- 
 pilation of the modern Latin poets. 
 
 Bo, bo, (Jean Baptists Jerome,) a French physician, 
 born near Mur-de-Barrez in 1753, was elected to the 
 National Convention in 1792, and voted for the imme- 
 diate death of the king. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Boabdil, bo-ab-del',[corrupted from Aboo-Abdillah 
 or Aboo-Abdallah,] surnamed el Chico, (chee'ko,) 
 (or THE Little,) the last Moorish king of Granada. His 
 claim to the throne was contested by his uncle, Abdallah- 
 el-Zagal. This dispute was settled by Ferdinand of 
 Aragon, who conquered Granada in 1491, when Boabdil 
 ceased to reign. He retired to Africa in 1496, and died 
 about 1536. 
 
 Boaden, bo'den, (James,) an English writer, born at 
 Whitehaven in 1762, was an intimate friend of John 
 Kemble. He published several dramas, a "Life of John 
 Philip Kemble," a " Life of Mrs. Jordan," and one of 
 Mrs. Siddons. Died in 1839. 
 
 Bo-ad-I-ce'a, [Fr. Boadicee, bo't'de'si',] written 
 also Boudicea, Boodicia, and Voadica, wife of Prasu- 
 tagus, king of the British tribe of the Iceni, flourished 
 about the middle of the first century. After the death 
 of her husband, Boadicea, incensed by the rapacity and 
 insults of the procurator Catus, took up arms against 
 the Roman colonists and their allies, seventy thousand 
 of whom, according to Tacitus, fell in battle. She was 
 subsequently defeated by Suetonius Paulinus with im- 
 mense loss, and took poison to avoid falling into the 
 victor's hands. 
 
 See Tacitus, "Annales," book xiv. 
 
 Boadicee, the French of Boadicea, which see. 
 
 Board'man, (George D.,) an eminent Baptist mis- 
 sionary, born at Livermore, Maine, in 1801. He gradu- 
 ated at Waterville College in 1821, studied divinity at the 
 Theological Seminary at Andover, and in 1825 sailed 
 for the East under the auspices of the Baptist Board of 
 Foreign Missions. He arrived at Calcutta in December 
 following, and, after devoting some fifteen months to the 
 study of the Burmese language, established a mission at 
 Maulmain, on the Tenasserim coast. This place sub- 
 sequently became the principal seat of the Baptist mis- 
 sions in that region. The next year he founded another 
 mission at Tavoy. Mr. Boardman continued his work 
 with great zeal and success until his death in 1831. 
 
 Boardman, (Henry Augustus,) D.D., an eloquent 
 American divine, born at Troy, New York, January 9, 
 1808. He graduated at Yale in 1829 as valedictorian of 
 his class, and studied theology at Princeton. For more 
 than thirty years he has had the pastoral charge of the 
 Tenth Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. In 1853 he 
 was elected by the general assembly to fill the chair of 
 pastoral theology at Princeton, but he declined the honour. 
 
 See Ali.ibone's "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Boaretti, bo-a-ret'tee, (Francesco,) an able Italian 
 litterateur, born near Padua in 1748, became professor 
 of sacred eloquence at Venice about 1785. He trans- 
 lated some of the works of Sophocles and several tra- 
 gedies of Euripides into Italian, (versi sciolti,) and Ho- 
 mer's " Iliad" into ottava rima, (1788.) Died in 1799. 
 
 Boas, bo'as, (Eduard,) a German novelist, born at 
 Landsberg in 1815, published a supplement to the works 
 of Goethe, (3 vols., 1841,) and other works. Died in 1853. 
 
 Boat See Boot. 
 
 Boaton, de, deh bo'i't6.N', (Pierre Francois,) born 
 near Aubonne, in the Pays de Vaud, in 1734, translated 
 into French verse Gessner's " Idyls" and " Death of 
 Abel," and Wieland's "Oberon." Died in 1794. 
 
 Bobadilla, de, dabo-Ba-Del'ya, (Francisco,) a Span- 
 ish magistrate, who was charged, in 1500, to ascertain 
 the condition of the colony at Saint Domingo under Co- 
 lumbus. On his arrival he caused that illustrious man 
 to be arrested and sent in chains to Spain, where he was 
 kindly received by his sovereigns and reinstated in his 
 honours. Bobadilla was soon after obliged to resign his 
 post to Nicholas Ovando. 
 
 See Irving's " Life of Columbus." 
 
 Bobart, bo'baRt, (Jacob,) a German botanist and 
 physician, born at Brunswick about 1598, became super- 
 intendent of the botanical garden at Oxford in England. 
 Died in 1679. 
 
 Bobart, (Jacob,) son of the preceding, became pro- 
 fessor of botany at Oxford in 1683. Died in 1719. 
 
 Bobolina, bo-bo-lee'na, a modern Greek heroine, 
 who in the revolution of 1.821 equipped three ships at 
 her own expense, one of which she commanded. She 
 offered her vessels to the government for the blockade 
 of Nauplia, which was maintained fourteen months. She 
 was assassinated in 1825 by the friend of a person sup- 
 posed to have been wronged by a member of her family. 
 
 See Pouqueville, " Histoire de la Regeneration de la Grece." 
 
 Bobrof, bo'bRof, (Semen Sergeevitch,) a Russian 
 poet, whose principal poem is entitled " Khersonida," 
 being a history and description of Taurida, in Southern 
 Russia. Died in 1810. 
 
 Bobrun, bo'bRuN', (Charles,) a French painter, 
 born at Amboise in 1604, executed a number of portraits 
 in conjunction with his cousin Henri, noticed below. Died 
 in 1692. 
 
 Bobrun, (Henri,) a French portrait-painter, born at 
 
 a, e. 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
 
BOCJCCINO 
 
 375 
 
 BOCCURDO 
 
 Amboise in 1603, was patronized by Louis XIV. Among 
 his master-pieces are portraits of Louis and of Anne of 
 Austria. Died in 1677. 
 
 See Heineckkn, " Dictionnaire ties Artistes." 
 
 Bocacciiio, bo-kiit-chee'no, (Boccaccio,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Cremona about 1460. He is praised by 
 Lanzi. Died about 1518. 
 
 See V asaki, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Bociccino, (Camillo,) sumamed 11. Boccalini, (el 
 bok-ka-lee'nee,) born at Cremona in 151 1, was a son of 
 the preceding. Among his master-pieces are the frescos 
 in the church of Saint Sigismund at Cremona. Died in 
 1546. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bocace. See Boccaccio. 
 
 Bocande, bo'kdN'da', (Bertram),) a French natu- 
 ralist and geographer, bom at Nantes about 1820, resided 
 many years in Africa. He published " Notes on Portu- 
 guese Guinea, or Southern Senegambia." 
 
 Bocanegra, bo-ka-na'gRi, (Pedro Atanasio,) a 
 Spanish painter, born at Granada about 1638, was a 
 pupil of Alonzo Cano. Died in 1688. 
 
 Bocarro, bo-kar'ro, (Antonio,) a Portuguese histo- 
 rian, wrote a continuation of the "Asia Portugueza" of 
 Joao de Barros, (in manuscript.)' 
 
 Bocarro Francez, bo-kar'ro fRan'ses, (Manoel,) a 
 Portuguese astronomer and physician, born at Lisbon 
 in 15SS, received lessons from Galileo. Died at Florence 
 in 1662. 
 
 Boccaccio, bo-kat'cho, [Old English, Boccace or 
 Bocace, bo-kSss'; Fr. Boccace, bo'kfes'; Lat. Bocca'- 
 in s and Boccac'cius,] or, more fully, Boccaccio di 
 Certaldo, bok-cat'cho de ch^K-til'do, (Giovanni,) the 
 most celebrated of Italian novelists, born in Paris in 13 1 3, 
 was the illegitimate son of a Florentine merchant and a 
 Frenchwoman. At his father's desire heengaged in mer- 
 cantile pursuits, and afterwards studied canon law, which, 
 however, he soon abandoned. Among his first produc- 
 tions were the romance of " II Filicopo," and a poem in 
 ottava rima, entitled "La Teseide," written at the request 
 of his mistress, the Princess Mary, natural daughter of 
 Robert, King of Naples. After the accession of Joanna 
 to the throne of Naples, Boccaccio wrote, at her desire, 
 his " Decamerone, or Hundred Tales," (1353,) which are 
 esteemed models of Italian prose composition ; but marry 
 of them are disgustingly licentious. About this time he 
 was (sent on several diplomatic missions, and formed an 
 intimacy with Petrarch, which continued for the remainder 
 of their lives. He was appointed in 1373 to lecture at 
 Finn nee on Dante, and wrote a commentary on the 
 " Inferno," and a " Life of Dante." Besides his works 
 in Italian, Boccaccio was the author of a number of Latin 
 eclogues and prose essays, and, like his friend Petrarch, 
 rendered important services to classical learning by col- 
 lecting and transcribing ancient manuscripts. He died 
 in 1375, havit\g for many years previously been in a great 
 measure reformed from the profligacy of his early life 
 and writings. The " Decamerone" has furnished Shak- 
 speare with the subjects of several of his dramas, and 
 Chaucer derived from it his poem of " The Knight's 
 Tale." Hazlitt, after remarking that Shakspeare's play 
 of " All's Well that Ends Well" is from Boccaccio, adds, 
 " The poet has dramatized the original novel with great 
 skill and comic spirit, and has preserved all the beauty 
 of character and sentiment without improving upon it, 
 tthich was impossible. There is indeed in Boccaccio's 
 Serious pieces a truth, a pathos, and an exquisite refine- 
 ment of sentiment which is hardly to be met with in 
 any other prose writer whatever. . . . The invention 
 implied in his different tales is immense; but we are not 
 1 that it is all his own. He probably availed him- 
 : all the common traditions which were floating in 
 his time, and which he was the first to appropriate." (See 
 Hazlitt's "Characters of Shakspeare's Plays.") 
 
 also Baldelli. "Vita di Giovanni Boccaccio," 1806: MaZZU- 
 
 cjiru.i, "Scrittori d'ltalia :" LONGFELLOW, "Poets and Poetry of 
 
 ;" Gianotti Manetti," Specimen Historian literariae Floren- 
 
 <:uliXIII. ac XI V., sen Vita; Dantis, Petrarcha: acBoccaccii," 
 
 »747 ; I. F. ADRV,"Notice sur Boccace," 1802; " Lives of the Italian 
 
 liy the Rev. Henry Stebbing. London, vol. i., 1831. 
 
 Bocca di Ferro, bok'ka de feVro, (Girolamo,) an 
 
 Italian jurist, nephew of Luigi, born at Bologna in 1552 ; 
 died in 1623. 
 
 Bocca di Ferro, Bucca Ferri, book'ka feR'ree, or 
 Bucca Ferra, book'ka feVra, (Luigi,) an Italian phy- 
 sician and philosopher, born at Bologna in 1482. He 
 became professor of logic in his native city, and numbered 
 among his pupils J. C. Scaliger and Benedict Varchi. 
 He wrote several Latin commentaries on the works of 
 Aristotle. Died in 1545. 
 
 Boccage, du, dii bo'klzh'^MANOEL Maria Barhosa,) 
 a celebrated Portuguese poet and improvisatore, of French 
 extraction, born at Setuval in 1771. He published nu- 
 merous sonnets, odes, elegies, and epigrams, and made 
 several translations from the French and Latin. It is 
 stated that he could speak French, Italian, and Latin 
 with facility. He became the chief of a poetic school 
 known under the name of Elmanisme. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Boccage, du, (Marie Anne Le Page,) a French 
 poetess, born at Rouen in 1710, was the wife of P. J. Fi- 
 quet du Boccage, noticed below. She was the author of a 
 tragedy entitled "The Amazons," imitations of "Para- 
 dise Lost" and of Gessner's " Death of Abel," and other 
 poems, which enjoyed great popularity in her time, but 
 are now nearly forgotten. She was a member of several 
 foreign academies, as well as of those of Lyons and Rouen. 
 Her letters to her sister, Madame Duperron, are still 
 admired. Died in 1802. 
 
 See Guilbert, " Notice sur Madame Boccage," 1807. 
 
 Boccage, du, (Pierre Joseph Fiquet — fe'k^',) a 
 French litterateur, born at Rouen in 1700, wrote " Letters 
 on the English Theatre," and translated several works 
 from the English. Died in 1757. 
 
 Boccalini, bok-kJ-lee'nee, (Trajano,) a witty Italian 
 satirist, born at Loretto in 1556, was the author of " News 
 from Parnassus," (" Ragguagli di Parnaso," 1612,) and 
 other works, which were translated into several languages. 
 Among these is a satire called " Pietra del Paragone 
 politico," (1626.) Died at Venice in 1613. 
 
 See Morhof, " Polyhistor." 
 
 Boccanera, bok-ka-na'ra, (Egidio,) a Genoese admi- 
 ral, was a brother of Simone, Doge of Genoa. Having 
 entered the Spanish service, he assisted in the capture of 
 Algesiras in 1344, and in 1372 defeated the English fleet 
 under the Earl of Pembroke, whom he made prisoner. 
 Died about 1373. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Rrfpubliques Italiennes." 
 
 Boccanera,(GuGLiELMO,) a Genoese nobleman, raised 
 by the democratic party in 1257 to the sovereign power 
 in Genoa, was deposed in 1262. 
 
 Boccanera, (Simonk,) was elected Doge of Genoa in 
 1339, removed in 1344, and re-elected in 1356. He 
 gained victories over the Turks and Moors. Died about 
 
 1363- 
 
 See SlSMONDT, "Histoire des Re'publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Boccherini, bok-ka-ree'nee, (Luigi,) an Italian com- 
 poser of instrumental pieces, born at Lucca in 1740, was 
 patronized by Charles IV. of Spain. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musicieus." 
 
 Bocchi, bok'kee, |Lat. Boc'chius,] (Achii.i.e,) an 
 Italian scholar, born at Bologna in 1488, became pro- 
 fessor of Greek and Latin literature in his native city. 
 He wrote several Latin works, in prose and verse, on 
 history, philosophy, etc. Died in 1562. 
 
 Bocchi, (Fausti no,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia 
 in 1659 ; died about 1742. 
 
 Bocchi, (Francesco,) born at Florence in 1548, wrote 
 essays on various subjects, and eulogies on eminent Ital- 
 ians. Died in 1618. 
 
 Boc'-ehus [Gr. Boxroc] I., King of Mauritania, was 
 the father-in-law of Jugiirtha, and an ally of that prince in 
 the war against the Romans. Having been defeated by 
 Marius, he betrayed Jngurtha to the Romans in 106 B.C. 
 
 Bocchus II., supposed to have been a son of the pre- 
 ceding, fought for Ca;sar against Juba, King of Numidia, 
 and was rewarded with a part of the kingdom of Massi- 
 nissa. In a war between Antony and Octavius, Bocchus 
 was a partisan of the latter. 
 
 Bocciardo, bot-chaR'do, (Clemente,) an Italian 
 
 » as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ¥L,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ([jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BOCCONE 
 
 37° 
 
 BOCLER 
 
 pair'.er, born at Genoa in 1620, was surnamed Clemen- 
 TONE, from his large stature. Died in 1658. 
 
 Boccoue.bok-ko'na, (Paolo,) a distinguished Sicilian 
 naturalist, born at Palermo in 1633. He published a 
 large number of Latin and Italian treatises on botany 
 and mineralogy. Died in 1704. 
 
 Bocconio, bok-ko'ne-o, (Marino,) a Venetian con- 
 spirator, who, having failed in his attempt to overthrow 
 the aristocracy of Venice, was executed in 1299. 
 
 Boccuci, bok-koo'chee, (?) or Bocous,( Jose,) a Span- 
 ish dramatist, probably of Italian origin, born at Barce- 
 lona in 1775, resided for some years in Paris. He wrote 
 successful dramas, and was a contributor to the " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle." 
 
 Bocerus. See Bocker, (Johann.) 
 
 Boch, bok, or Bochius, bo'ke-us, (John,) a Flemish 
 poet, called "the Belgian Virgil," born at Brussels in 
 1555, wrote Latin poems which were much admired. 
 Died in 1609. 
 
 Bochart, bo'shtR', (Mathieu,) a French Protestant 
 theologian, was the author of a "Treatise against Relics," 
 and a work entitled " Diallacticon," (1662,) advocating 
 the union of Lutherans and Calvinists. 
 
 Bochart, (Samuel,) an eminent French scholar and 
 Protestant theologian, born at Rouen in May, 1599. He 
 studied divinity and the Oriental tongues under Cameron 
 and Louis Cappel, and was subsequently instructed by 
 Erpenius, at Leyden, in Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldee. He 
 was appointed in 1625 pastor at Caen, where he remained 
 forty-three years and acquired great influence and repu- 
 tation as a preacher. In 1628 he acquitted himself with 
 credit in a public dispute with the Jesuit Veron, who was 
 employed by Cardinal Richelieu. His greatest works 
 are his " Hierozoicon," (1663,) or an account of animals 
 mentioned in the Bible, and "Geographia Sacra," (1646.) 
 They are commended by Cuvier and Baron Humboldt. 
 Bochart died at Caen in 1667, with the reputation of one 
 of the most learned men of his time. Several volumes 
 of his sermons were published after his death. " No one," 
 says Hallam, " has left a more durable reputation in this 
 literature [Rabbinical or Hebrew] than Bochart. His 
 'Geographia Sacra' displays great learning and sagacity." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Morin, "De Vita et Scriptis S. Bocharti," 1692; Edward 
 Herbert Smith, "S. Bochart: Recherches sur la Vie et les Ou- 
 vrages de cet Auteur illustre," 1833. 
 
 Bochart de Sarron, bo'shaV deh si'r6N', (Jean 
 BAPTISTS Gaspard,) a French mathematician and 
 astronomer, born in Paris in 1730. He was a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences, and first president of the 
 Parliament of Paris. He was guillotined in 1794. 
 
 See Montjove, " filoge historique de B. de Sanon," 1800. 
 
 Bochat, de, deh bo'shf', (Charles Guillaume 
 Loys,) a Swiss historian and miscellaneous writer, born 
 at Lausanne in 1695 ; died in 1753. 
 
 Bocholt, von, fon boK'olt, (Franz,) one of the ear- 
 liest German engravers, lived about 1470. Among his 
 principal works are "The Judgment of Solomon," and 
 "Christ and the Twelve Apostles," (in thirteen plates.) 
 
 Bochsa, bok'si', written also Bocska, (ROBERT 
 Nicolas Charles,) a French musician and composer, 
 born at Montmedy in 1789. He studied in Paris under 
 Mehul, and attained great excellence as a performer on 
 the harp. In 1822 he became professor of the harp at 
 the Roval Academy of Music, London. His composi- 
 tions are chiefly pieces for that instrument. Died in 
 Australia in 1856. 
 
 Bock, bok, (Friedrich Samuel,) a naturalist, born 
 at Konigsberg in 1716, was professor of Greek and the- 
 ology in his native city. He wrote a " History of Socin- 
 ianism in Prussia," (1753,) and several works on natural 
 history. Died in 1786. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bock, bok, [Fr. LeBoucq, leh book ; Lat. Tra'gus,] 
 (Hieronymus,) a German botanist, born at Heidesbach 
 in 1498, was one of the greatest promoters of botanical 
 science in his time. The genus Tragia was named in 
 his honour by Plumier. Died in 1554. 
 
 Bock, (Karl August,) a German anatomist and 
 physician, born at Magdeburg in 1782, published, among 
 other works, a " Manual of Practical Anatomy of the 
 
 Human Body," (1819.) He lived many years at Leipsic. 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 Bock, (Karl Ernst,) an anatomist, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Leipsic in 1809, published a " Manual of 
 Pathological Anatomy and Diagnostic," (1848.) 
 
 Bock, de, deh bok, (Jean Nicolas Etienne,) Baron, 
 a French litterateur, born at Thionville in 1747. He 
 wrote an " Essay on the History of Sabeism," and trans- 
 lated from the German the " Life of Baron Trenck," and 
 several works of Wieland and Kotzebue. Died in 1809. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Bipgraphie Gi£ne>ale." 
 
 Bockelmami, bok'kel-man', (Johann Friedrich,) a 
 German jurist, born at Steinfurt in 1633 ; died at Leyden 
 in 1681. 
 
 Bockenberg, van, vin bok'ken-bSuo', [Lat. Cor- 1 
 nelisso'nius Buckenber'gius,] (Pieter,) a Dutch 
 chronicler, born at Gouda in 1548, was historiographer 
 of the States of Holland. Died in 161 7. 
 
 Bocker, bok'ker, [Lat. Boce'rus,] sometimes writ- 
 ten Boedeker, (Johann,) a German writer, Latin poet, 
 and professor of law at Rostock, born near Minden in 
 1525; died in 1565. 
 
 See J. C. Opitz, "De Vita, Fatis et Scriptis J. Boceri," 1750. 
 
 Bockh or Boeckh, boK, (August,) an eminent Ger- 
 man philologist and antiquary, born at Carlsruhe on the 
 24th of November, 1785. He studied at Halle under 
 F. A. Wolf, and became in 181 1 professor of eloquence 
 and the Greek language at Berlin. He published an 
 edition of Pindar with a continuous commentary, a Latin 
 translation, and a treatise on Greek versification, |i8n,) 
 and in 181 7 brought out his " Political Economy of the 
 Athenians," (" Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener,") a 
 work displaying profound learning and research. He 
 likewise published "Metrological Investigations concern- 
 ing the Weights, Coins, and Measures of Antiquity," 
 (1838,) a "Dissertation on the Silver Mines of Laurium 
 in Attica," and other treatises. He began the "Corpus 
 Inscriptionum Graecarum," continued by his pupil Franz, 
 and still unfinished. (The third volume was published 
 in 1850.) He was a member of the principal learned so- 
 cieties of Germany and other countries. Died in Berlin 
 in August, 1867. The works of Bockh have marked an 
 era in the history of archaeology and philology. Ac- 
 cording to his ideal, the aim of those studies should be to 
 reproduce the entire social and political life of a people 
 during a determinate epoch. 
 
 See Klausen, " Biographic von Bockh," forming part of HOFf» 
 mann's " Lebensbilder beriihmter Humanisten," 1837. 
 
 Bockh or Boeckh, boK, (Christian Gottfried,) a 
 German educational writer, born at Memmingen in 1 732. 
 He assisted in publishing the "Universal Library of 
 Education," (1774.) Died in 1792. 
 
 Bockh or Boeckh, von, fon boK, (Friedrich,) a 
 German minister of state, brother of the preceding, born 
 at Carlsruhe in 1777. He became a counsellor of finance 
 in 1810, and was minister of finance (in Baden) from 
 1828 to 1844. He was president of the cabinet about 
 two years, (1844-46.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Bbckhorst, van, v2n bok'hoRst, (Jan,) a Dutch 
 painter, bom at Dentekoom in 1661, studied under 
 Kneller in London. Died in 1724. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Bockhorst, von, fon bok'hoRst, (Johann,) a Ger- 
 man painter, born at Minister about 1610, was surnamed 
 Langhen Jan, from his tall stature. He was a pupil 
 of Jordaens, in Holland, and ranked high among the 
 artists of the time. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais et 
 AHemands." 
 
 Booking or Boecking, bdk'king, (Eduard.) a Ger- 
 man jurist and legal writer, born at Trarbach, Prussia, 
 in 1S02. He became professor of law at Bonn in 1835. 
 
 Bockler or Boeckler, bok'kler, (Georg Andreas,) 
 a German architect and mechanician, wrote a treatise 
 "On Hydraulic Architecture," (1663.) 
 
 Bockmann or Boeckmann, bok'man, (Jonas,) a 
 Swedish physician, born at Windberg in 1716. He 
 studied anatomy at Berlin under Budams, and in 1753 
 was appointed physician to the King of Sweden. Died 
 in 1760. 
 
 Bocler or Boeder, bok'ler, (Johann,) a German 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, J, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, ii, f, short; a, e, i, 9, ibscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BOCLER 
 
 377 
 
 BOD IN 
 
 physician, born at Ulm in 1651, settled at Strasburg, 
 where he died in 1701. His son John, born at Stras- 
 burg in 1681, became professor of medicine in his native 
 city. Died in 1733. 
 
 Bocler or Boeder, (Johann Heinrich,) one of the 
 most learned Germans of his time, born at Cronheim, 
 •11 Franconia, in 1611. He was invited in 1648 to fill 
 the chair of eloquence at Upsal by Christina of Sweden, 
 who appointed him her historiographer. He wrote a 
 number of historical and critical works in Latin, and 
 edited several classic authors. Died in 1692. 
 
 See Mokhof, " Polyhistor." 
 
 Boeder or Boeder, (Johann Philipp,) son of Jo- 
 hann, (the second of the name,) born at Strasburg in 1710. 
 In 1 738 he succeeded Salzmann as professor of chemistry, 
 botany, and materia medica at Strasburg. Died in 1759. 
 
 Bocler or Boeder, (Philipp Heinrich,) born at 
 Strasburg in 1718, was a brother of Johann Philipp. Died 
 in 1759. 
 
 Bocquillot, bo'ke'yo', (Lazare Andre,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Avallon in 1649, published a num- 
 ber of theological works, and a " History of the Cheva- 
 lier Bayard," (1702.) Died in 1728. 
 
 See Letors, "Vie de L. A. Bocquillot," 1745. 
 
 Bocska. See Bochsa. 
 
 Booskai, botch'kT, (Stephan,) a nobleman of Tran- 
 sylvania, who in 1604 joined the Hungarians in a revolt 
 against Austria. Having defeated the Imperial troops, 
 he was proclaimed hereditary King of Hungary by Sul- 
 tan Ahmed I. In 1606 a peace was concluded with the 
 emperor Rudolph, by which religious freedom was se- 
 cured to the Protestants of Hungary, and Bocskai was 
 acknowledged Prince of Transylvania. Died in 1606. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Bocthor, bok'toR', (Elie or Ellious,) a distinguished 
 Orientalist, born at Sioot, in Upper Egypt, in 1784. He 
 settled in France, where he was appointed professor of 
 Arabic in the Royal Library. He published a " French- 
 Arabic Dictionary," and several translations from the 
 Arabic into French. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litte'raire," (Supplement.) . 
 
 Bodaeus a Stapel, bo-da'fts a sta'pel, (Jan,) a Dutch 
 botanist and physician of Amsterdam, died young in 1 636. 
 
 Bodard, hd'&iv.', (Pierre Henri Hippolyte,) a 
 French botanist and physician, lived about 1800. 
 
 Bodard de Tezay, bo'diV deh teh-zi', (Nicolas 
 Marie Felix,) a French litterateur and diplomatist, 
 born at Bayeux in 1757; died in Paris in 1823. 
 
 Boddaert, bod'dlRt, (Pieter,) a Dutch poet, born at 
 Middelburg in 1694, published several original works, 
 and translated into Dutch verse the " Atreus" and 
 "Thyestes" of Crebillon. Died in 1761. 
 
 See " Levensgeschiedenis van den vermaarden Dichter P. Bod- 
 daert," Amsterdam, 1836. 
 
 Boddaert, (Pieter,) a Dutch physician and natu- 
 ralist, a relative of the preceding, born in Zealand about 
 1730. He translated into Dutch the "Elenchus Zoophy- 
 torum" of Pallas, and John Hunter's "Natural History 
 of the Teeth" (1773) into Dutch and Latin. Died about 
 1790. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexiknn." 
 
 Bode, bo'deh, (Christoph August,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born at Wernigerode in 1722, became professor 
 of Oriental languages at Helmstedt in 1754. He pub- 
 lished an Ethiopic version of the New Testament, and 
 several commentaries on the Scriptures. Died in 1796. 
 
 Wideboug, " Memoria C. A. Bodii," 1796: Ersch und Gru- 
 MS, 'A! -emeine Encyclopaedic" 
 
 Bode, (|mii inn El.ERT,)an eminent German astrono- 
 mer, born at Hamburg in January, 1747. He published 
 in 1768 a popular work entitled "Introduction to the 
 Knowledge of the Starry Heavens," ("Anleitung zur 
 Kenntniss ties gestirnten Mimmcls,") and discovered in 
 the Bam< year a comet, which was the first one having a 
 very short period. He was invited to Berlin by Fred- 
 erick the Great, and admitted into the Academy of Sci- 
 >de has the credit of discovering a law of the 
 planetary system respecting the distances of the planets 
 from each other, called " Bode's Law." Among his chief 
 works is " Uranographia," or "Great Celestial Atlas," 
 
 (1801,) by which, it is said, twelve thousand stars are 
 added to former catalogues. Died in Berlin in 1826. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^rale," and Brockhaus, "Conver- 
 sations-Lexikon." 
 
 Bode, (Johann Joachim Christoph,) a German lit- 
 terateur, born at Brunswick in 1730. He is chiefly noted 
 for his excellent translations from the English of Gold- 
 smith's " Vicar of Wakefield" and Sterne's " Sentimental 
 Journey," and of Montaigne's " Essays" and Marmontel's 
 " Incas" from the French. He was a zealous advocate of 
 free-masonry, upon which he wrote several treatises. 
 He was also distinguished as a musician and composer. 
 Died in 1793. 
 
 See C. A. Boettiger, "J. J. C. Bodes literarisches Leben," 1796. 
 
 Bodega y Quadra, bo-Da'ga e kwa'DRa, (Juan Fran- 
 cisco,) a Spanish navigator, who explored the west coast 
 of North America. Died in 1794. 
 
 Bodekker, bo-dek'ker, (Jan Franciscus,) a Dutch 
 portrait-painter, born in the duchy of Cleves in 1660; 
 died in 1727. 
 
 Bodel, bo'del', (Jehan,) a French troubadour, lived 
 about 1270. 
 
 Bodelschwingh-Velmede, von, fon bo'del-shwing' 
 veVmeh-deh, (Ernst,) a Prussian, born at Velmede, near 
 Haram, in 1794, became minister of the interior in 1844. 
 
 Bodenschatz, bo'den-shats', (Johann Christoph 
 Georg,) a German scholar and antiquary, born at Hof 
 in 1 71 7. He wrote an "Explanation of the New Testa- 
 ment from Jewish Antiquities." Died in 1797. 
 
 Bodenstedt, bo'den-stet', (Friedrich Martin,) a 
 German writer and journalist, born in the kingdom of 
 Hanover in 1819. He resided as a tutor in the family 
 of Prince Galitzin at Moscow, where he perfected him- 
 self in the Russian language and translated some of the 
 works of Pushkin and other poets into German. He 
 subsequently travelled in Turkey, Greece, and Asia 
 Minor, and published in 1848 "The Nations of the Cau- 
 casus." In 1850 he became editor of the " Weser Zei- 
 tung." He has also made a successful German translation 
 of the Persian poems of Meerza Shaffee, (Mirza Shaffy.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Bodenstein. See Carlstadt. 
 
 Bodenstein, von, fon bo'den-stin', (Adam,) a Ger- 
 man physician and alchemist, born in 1528, was a dis- 
 ciple of Paracelsus. Died in 1577. 
 
 See Schmieder, "Geschichte der Alchemie," 1832. 
 
 Bodewyns, bo'deh-wlns', (Nikolaas,) a Flemish or 
 Dutch landscape-painter, was associated with Francis 
 Bout, who painted figures for the landscapes of Bode- 
 wyns. The latter died at Brussels in 1700. Pilkington 
 states that Bout was born at Brussels in 1660. 
 
 Bodiker or Boediker, bo'de-ker, (Johann,) a Ger- 
 man writer, born in 1641, published Latin and German 
 poems. Died in 1695. 
 
 Bodin, bo'daN', (Jean,) a celebrated French political 
 writer, born at Angers in 1530. He studied law, and 
 became secretary to the Due d'Alencon. His principal 
 work is a treatise on government, published in French, 
 " De la Republique," (1576,) and afterwards translated by 
 himinto Latin," De Republica,"(i586.) He maintains that 
 a limited monarchy is the best form of government. This 
 work is analyzed at length by Hallam, who says, " No 
 former writer on political philosophy had been either so 
 comprehensive in his scheme or so copious in his know- 
 ledge ; none, perhaps, more original, more independent 
 and fearless in his inquiries. Two names alone, indeed, 
 could be compared with his, — Aristotle and Machiayel." 
 " Bodin and Montescjuieu are, in this province oi political 
 theory, the most philosophical of those who have read 
 so c" 
 80 1 
 
 deeply, the most learned of those who have thought 
 
 much." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 Died at Laon in 1596. 
 
 See Lysrr, "Selecta de Vita et Scriptis J. Bodini," 1715: E. 
 Colombel, "Jean Bodin: Suite d'Emdes sur le seizieme Siecle," 
 1X45; Baudrillart, "J. Bodin et son Temps," 1853: Bwi.k, 
 "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Guhrauer, "Das Hepta 
 plomaroa def j. Bodin," 1841. 
 
 Bodin, (Jean Francois,) a French magistrate, born 
 at Angers in 1776, wrote "Historical Researches con- 
 cerning Angers and Lower Anjou." Died in 1829. 
 
 Bodin, (Laurent,) a F'rench physician and medical 
 writer, born in the department of Indre-et-Loire in 1762. 
 
 «•!*; $a& s; g Aard; gas j; G,H, K,guttural: s, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (Jrjp-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BOD IN 
 
 378 
 
 BOERHAAVE 
 
 Bodin, (Pierre Joseph Franqois,) a deputy to the 
 French National Convention in 1792, voted for the im- 
 prisonment of the king. He afterwards became a mem- 
 ber of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1810. 
 
 Bo-dis'co, (Alexander,) a Russian diplomatist, born 
 about 1 780. He was appointed Russian minister at Wash- 
 ington about 1837, and retained that position until his 
 death in 1854. 
 
 Bod'ley, (John,) an English physician, published a 
 "Critical Essay on the Works of Physicians," (1741.) 
 
 Bodley, (Sir Thomas,) founder of the library at Ox- 
 ford called by his name, was born at Exeter in 1544. He 
 studied theology and the ancient languages at Geneva, 
 whither his father had repaired during the persecutions 
 of Queen Mary's reign. Having returned to England on 
 the accession of Elizabeth, he graduated at Oxford in 
 1566. He became gentleman-usher to the queen in 1583, 
 and was afterwards employed by her on important em- 
 bassies to Denmark, Germany, and France. He was sent 
 in 15S8 to the Hague, where he resided many years and 
 was admitted to the Council of State. Soon after his re- 
 turn, in 1597, he founded the Bodleian Library, and, on the 
 accession of James I., was made a knight. Died in 1612. 
 
 See Thomas Hearne, " Reliquiae Bodleianae." 
 
 Bodmer, bod'mer, (Georg,) a Swiss mechanician, 
 born at Zurich in 1786, invented numerous machines, and 
 made an improvement in the method of spinning cotton. 
 
 Bodmer, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss critic and littera- 
 teur, born near Zurich in 1698. In 1 72 1 he became asso- 
 rted with Breitinger as editor of a literary journal en- 
 titled " Discurse der Maler," having for its object the 
 reformation of German poetry. They succeeded, not- 
 withstanding the opposition of Gottsched and other par- 
 tisans of French taste, in bringing to their views several 
 of the principal writers of Germany, and laid the founda- 
 tion of the German school soon after made illustrious by 
 Klopstock, Goethe, and Schiller. Bodmer translated the 
 "Paradise Lost" and Pope's "Dunciad" into German, 
 and also published versions of the " Niebelungen" and 
 other ancient poems. He died in 1783, having for fifty 
 years filled the chair of Swiss history at Zurich. 
 
 See Meister, " Ueber Bodmer;" J. J. Hottinger, "Acroamade 
 J. J. Bodinero," 1783; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Bodoni, bo-do'nee, (Giambattista,) an eminent 
 Italian printer and scholar, born at Saluzzo in 1740. He 
 studied the Oriental languages at Rome, and in 1768 
 became superintendent of the royal press in Parma. 
 Among his works, which are esteemed models of typo- 
 graphic beauty, may be named editions of " Homer," 
 " Virgil," " Horace," Tacitus's "Annals," and Tasso's 
 "Gerusalemme Liberata." He also wrote a "Typo- 
 graphic Manual," (1818.) Died in 1813. 
 
 See Grkgori, " Biographie de Lagrange. Denina et Bodoni," 1814 ; 
 Lama, " Vita del Cavaliere G. B. Bodoni," 1816. 
 
 Bodwell. See Bothwei.l, 
 
 Boece or Boyce, boiss, [Lat. Boe'tius or Boe'thius,] 
 (Hector,) one of the early Scottish historians, born at 
 Dundee about 1465. He finished his studies and grad- 
 uated at the University of Paris, where he subsequently 
 became professor of philosophy. While there, he ac- 
 quired the friendship of Erasmus, by whom he was highly 
 esteemed. His " History of Scotland" (in Latin, 1526) 
 ranks among the best historical works of that period. It 
 was subsequently translated into the Scottish dialect by 
 Bellenden, at the command of James V. Died about 1536. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Boece, the French of Boethius, which see. 
 
 Boecio, the Italian of Boethius, which see. 
 
 Boeckel. See Bockel. 
 
 Boeckel, book'kel, [Lat. Bockf/lius,! (Jan,) a Flem- 
 ish physician and medical writer, born at Antwerpin 1535, 
 became professor of medicine at Helmstedt in 1575. 
 Died in 1605. 
 
 Boeckh. See Bockh. 
 
 Boeckhout, van, vin book'howt, (Jan Joseph,) a 
 Belgian publicist and political writer, born at Brussels ; 
 died in 1827. 
 
 Boecking. See Booking. 
 
 Boeckler. See Bocki.er. 
 
 Boeckmann. See Bockmann. 
 
 Boediker. See Bodiker. 
 
 Boehm, or Boehme. See Bohme and Bohm. 
 
 Boehmer. See Bohmkr. 
 
 Boehmius. See Bohme. 
 
 Boel, bool, (Kornelis,) a Flemish engraver, born at 
 Antwerp about 1580, worked in England. 
 
 Boel, (Pieter,) a skilful Flemish painter of animals, 
 fruits, and flowers, born at Antwerp in 1625. One of his 
 master-pieces is called "The Four Elements." Died 1680. 
 
 Boemondo, the Italian of Bohemond, which see. 
 
 Boerhaave, (Abraham Kaau.) See Kaau. 
 
 Boerhaave, bor'hav, [Dutch pron. book'hl-veh ; 
 Lat. Boerha'vius,] (Herman,) a Dutch physician and 
 philosopher, whose celebrity has scarcely been equalled 
 by that of any physician in modern times, was born at 
 Voorhout, near Leyden, on the 31st of December, 1668. 
 He was educated for the ministry at Leyden, where he 
 took the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1689, and 
 wrote an inaugural thesis " On the Distinction between 
 the Soul and the Body." At the age of twenty-two he 
 began the study of medicine. He read Hippocrates 
 diligently, and took his degree as doctor of physic at 
 Harderwick in 1693, after which he practised in Leyden, 
 and in 1701 was chosen the successor or substitute of 
 Drelincourt, who lectured on the theory of medicine in 
 the university of that city. His precise definitions, bril- 
 liant eloquence, and immense erudition rendered him a 
 very popular lecturer. He obtained in 1709 the chair 
 of medicine and botany vacated by Hotton at Leyden, on 
 which occasion he pronounced a discourse in favour of 
 simplicity in the practice of medicine. 
 
 Before this period he had deviated from the Hippo- 
 cratic method, and adopted mechanical and chemical 
 hypotheses, which he advocated in his treatise " De Usu 
 Ratiocinii Mechanici in Medicina," (1703.) His reputa- : 
 tion was widely extended by an excellent systematic work 
 entitled " Medical Institutes," etc. ; (•' Institutions Medi- j 
 cse in usus annuae Exercitationis domesticos," 1708.) 
 He gave a classification of diseases, and explained their 
 causes, nature, and treatment, in his "Aphorisms on the 
 Diagnosis and Cure of Diseases," (" Aphorismi de cog- 
 noscendiset curandis Morbis," 1709,) which is considered | 
 a master-piece of learning and of style. His medical 
 system was generally adopted by his contemporaries. 
 Boerhaave was also distinguished as a botanist and a 
 chemist. He published in 1710 a "Description of Plants 
 growing in the Botanic Garden of Leyden." In 1718 
 he became professor of chemistry, without ceasing to fill 
 the chairs of medicine and botany. He was the first, ac- 
 cording to the "Biographie Universelle," who rendered 
 chemistry popular by treating it in a clear and beautiful 
 style. His "Elements of Chemistry" ("Elementa Che- 
 mise," 1724) is called his chef-d'oeuvre by the work just 
 referred to. In consequence of severe attacks of gout, 
 he resigned his chairs of botany and chemistry in 1727 
 and 1729. He was elected rector of the University of Ley- 
 den for the second time in 1730. About this date he was 
 chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. He 
 died on the 23d of September, 1738, leaving one child, 
 a daughter. He was a man of sincere and earnest piety. 
 Among his admired works are two orations, viz., " De 
 Comparando certo in Physicis," (1715,) and "De honore 
 Medici Servitute," (1731.) 
 
 The reputation of Boerhaave as a physician and a man 
 of learning is perhaps without a parallel in history. His 
 fame extended not only to every part of Christendom, 
 but to the farthest bounds of Asia. A Chinese mandarin 
 addressed a letter to him with this superscription, "To 
 Boerhaave, Physician in Europe," and the missive was 
 duly received. Although he spent his money freely in the 
 interests of science, yet so extensive and lucrative was his 
 practice that at his death he left, it is said, more than two 
 million florins. His intense application to study, and the 
 exposure incident to his professional duties, had brought 
 upon him (in 1732) a severe illness, which confined him 
 to his bed for several months. When he recovered, the 
 inhabitants of Leyden celebrated the joyful event by a 
 public illumination. 
 
 See Maty, " Fjoge historique de H. Boerhaave," 1747; Fonts* 
 nelle, " Fjoge de Boerhaave," 1763; Dr. S. Johnson, ''Life of H. 
 Boerhaave;" Burton, "Life and Writings of H. Boerhaave," a 
 vols., 1743: Carl Wilhelm Ebert, "Dissertatio his'orico-medica 
 de H. Boerhavio," 1843; "Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mJt; n5t; good; moon; 
 
BOERHAVWS 
 
 379 
 
 BOGUE 
 
 Boerhavius. See Boerhaavi:. 
 
 Boerio, bo-a're-o, (Giuseppe,) an Italian jurist and 
 legal writer, born at Lendinara in 1754; died in 1832. 
 
 Boeme. See Borne. 
 
 Boemer. See Borner. 
 
 Bo-e'thl-us, [It. Boecio, bo-a'cho, or Boezio, bo-at'- 
 se-o; in French, Boece, bo'4ss',] (Anicius Manlius 
 INI s,) a celebrated Roman philosopher and states- 
 man, born about 475 A.D. He was liberally educated, 
 and well instructed in Greek philosophy. When about 
 thirty-three, he was elected consul. His administration 
 was beneficent and favourable to the oppressed. He 
 translated the works of Plato and other Greek writers 
 into Latin, wrote commentaries on Aristotle, and acquired 
 a great reputation as an author. He held several high 
 omces under Theodoric the Goth, but, having been ac- 
 cused by some envious courtiers of conspiring against 
 the government, he was unjustly condemned by that 
 king and executed about 525 A.D. His principal work 
 is "On the Consolation of Philosophy," ("De Conso- 
 latione Philosophise,") which was written in prison, 
 where he was confined just before his death. It is com- 
 
 Eosed of alternate portions of verse and prose. "Few 
 ooks," says Hallam, "are more striking from the cir- 
 cumstances of their production. Last of the classic 
 writers, in style not impure, ... in elevation of senti- 
 ment equal to any of the philosophers, and mingling a 
 Christian sanctity with their lessons, he speaks from his 
 prison in the swanlike tones of dying eloquence. Quenched 
 in his blood, the lamp he had trimmed with a skilful 
 hand, gave no more light; the language of Tully and 
 Virgil soon ceased to be spoken." (" Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe.") His great work was very popu- 
 lar in the middle ages, and was translated into various 
 languages. It was translated into Anglo-Saxon by Al- 
 fred the Great, and imitated by Chaucer. English ver- 
 sions of it have been produced by W. Causton, Rev. 
 Philip Ridpath, R. Duncan, and others. 
 
 See Procopius, "History;" Barberini, " Exposizione della Vita 
 de Boezio," z783;DoMGERVAisE,"HistoiredeBoece t "i7i5; Heyne, 
 "Censiua ingenii Boethii," 1806; "Life of Boethius, prefixed to 
 Ridpath's translation, 1785; Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire," chap, xxxix. ; Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine 
 EncykJopaedie;" Fabricius, " bibliotheca Latina;" Siro Comi, 
 " Memoria storico-critica sopra S. Boecio." 
 
 Boethius, (Hector.) See Boece. 
 
 Boethius, bo-a'te-us, (Jacob,) professor of theology 
 at Upsal, in Sweden, born in 1647. He was condemned 
 to perpetual imprisonment for having opposed the abso- 
 lute monarchy introduced by Charles XI., but he was 
 released in 1710. Died in 1718. 
 
 See Erik M. Fant, "Vita J. Boethii," Upsal, 1812. 
 
 Boetie, de la, deh It bo'a'te', (Btienne,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Sarlat, in Perigord, in 1530. He was 
 an intimate friend of Montaigne, who refers to him in his 
 chapter "On Friendship." He was the author of Latin 
 and French poems, and a political treatise "On Volun- 
 tary Servitude," (written about 1546,) a work of much 
 merit, sometimes called "Le Contr'un." Died in 1563. 
 "La Boetie, in fact," says Hallam, "is almost a single 
 instance of a thoroughly republican character till nearly 
 the period of the Revolution. Montaigne, the stanchest 
 supporter of church and state, excuses his friend, le phis 
 grand liomme, a mon avis, de notre siicle, (the greatest 
 man, in my opinion, of our age,) assuring us that he was 
 always a loyal subject." 
 
 See La Feugrre, " Eludes sur la Vie de La Boetie," 1845 ; J. F. 
 Payen-, " Notice bio-bibliographiqne sur E. de la Boetie," 1853. 
 
 Boetius, (Hector.) See Boece. 
 
 Boetius Epo, bo-a'te-us a'po, a Dutch jurist and 
 wiiter, born in Friesland in 1529; died in 1599. 
 
 Boettger or Boettcher. See BoITger. 
 
 Boettiger. See B6ttiger. 
 
 Boetzlaer, boots'llr, Baron of, a Dutch general, 
 born about 1720, distinguished himself by his brave de- 
 fence of Willemstadt against Dumouriez. 
 
 Boezio. See Boethuts. 
 
 Boffrand, bo'fRcW', (Germain,) a French architect 
 and engineer, born at Nantes in 1667. Among his works 
 are the palace of Nancy, the castle of Luneville, and the 
 castle de la Favorite, near Mentz. Died in 1754. 
 
 Bogaert, bo'glitt, (Adam,) a Flemish physician, born 
 
 at Dort in 1413, was professor of medicine at Louvain 
 for more than thirty years. Died in 1483. 
 
 Bogaert, (Jacob,) son of the preceding, born at Lou- 
 vain in 1440, succeeded his father as professor of medi- 
 cine in that city. Died in 1520. 
 
 Bogaert, van deir, (Martin.) See Desjardins. 
 
 Bogaerts, bo'gSRts, (Felix,) a Belgian poet and 
 novelist, born at Brussels in 1805. Among his works are 
 "Bibliotheque des Antiquites," (1834,) and "Lord Straf- 
 ford," (1843.) Diedini8si. 
 
 See E. de Busscher, "F. Bogaerts, Notice biographique," 1851. 
 
 Bo'gan, (Zachariah,) an English philologist, born in 
 Devonshire in 1625, wrote a "View of Scriptural Threats 
 and Punishments." Died in 1659. 
 
 Bo-gar'dus, (Everardus,) the first minister of the 
 Reformed Dutch Church in New York, came to this 
 country about 1633. He was drowned on his passage 
 to Holland in 1647. 
 
 Bo'gart, (Elizabeth,) an American poetess, born in 
 New York in the early part of this century, has contrib- 
 uted to the "New York Mirror," under the norn de plume 
 of "Estelle." A number of her poems are published in 
 Griswold's " Female Poets of America," which see. 
 
 Bogatzky, von, fon bo-gats'kee, (Karl Heinrich,) 
 a German theological writer, author of "The Golden 
 Treasury," was born in Silesia in 1690; died in 1774. 
 
 Bogdane, bog'dan, (James,) a Hungarian painter of 
 flowers, fruits, and birds, worked in England lor Queen 
 Anne. Died about 1720. 
 
 Bogdanovitch, bog-dd-no'vitch, (Hippolytus Fe- 
 DOROVITCH,) an eminent Russian lyric poet, born in 
 Little Russia in 1743. He was appointed in 1761 in- 
 spector at the University of Moscow. His principal work, 
 entitled "Dushenka," ("Psyche,") came out in 1775. It 
 ranks among the finest poems of its kind in the lan- 
 guage, and was received with the greatest favour by all 
 classes. He also translated from the French Vertot's 
 "History of the Revolutions of the Roman Republic." 
 He was appointed in 1788 president of the archives of 
 the empire. Died in 1803. 
 
 See Bowring, "Russian Anthology;" Karamzin, "Biographic 
 de Bogdanovitch." 
 
 Bogdanus, bog-da'nus, (Martin,) a Prussian phy- 
 sician, born at Driesen about 1640. 
 
 Bogerman, bo'ger-man, [Lat. Bogerma'nus,] (Jan,) 
 a Dutch theologian and controversialist, born in Fries- 
 land in 1576. He sided with Gomarus in his dispute 
 with Arminius, and wrote a polemical treatise against 
 Grotius. He was president of the Synod of Dort, and 
 was one of the translators of the Bible into Dutch. Died 
 in 1637. 
 
 Boggs, (Charles Stewart,) an American commo- 
 dore, a nephew of Captain James Lawrence of the Chesa- 
 peake, was born at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 181 1. 
 He entered the navy in 1826, and gained the rank of 
 commander in 1855. He commanded the gunboat Va- 
 runa in the battle by which Farragut captured New Or- 
 leans, in April, 1862. In that action he sunk or burned 
 six gunboats, partly iron-clad. The Varuna having been 
 fatally damaged by an iron-clad running against her, 
 Captain Boggs ran her ashore, tied her to a tree, and 
 continued to fight as long as his guns remained above 
 the water, or "till the water was over the gun-truck." 
 
 Bogin, bo'zhaN', [It. Bogino, bo-jee'no,] (Jean Bap- 
 tists,) born at Turin in 1701, became grand chancellor 
 of Victor Amadeus, King of Sardinia, in 1730, and in 
 1750 minister of state under Charles Emmanuel. Died 
 in 1784. 
 
 Bog'o-ris, Prince of Bulgaria, succeeded Baldimir, (or 
 Valdimir.) He was converted to Christianity in 853 A.D., 
 and induced or compelled his subjects to adopt the same 
 religion. Died in 896. 
 
 Bogros, bo'gRo', (Annet Jean,) a distinguished 
 French anatomist, born in the department of Auvcrgne 
 in 1786; died in 1823. 
 
 See Verniere, "Notice sur A. J. Bogros," 1824. 
 
 Bogsch, bogsh, (Johann,) an agricultural writer, born 
 at Deutschendorf, in Hungary, in 1745; died in 1821. 
 
 Bogtte, bog, (David,) a Scottish divine, burn in Ber- 
 wickshire in 1750, was one of the founders of the London 
 Missionary Society in 1795. He was one of the first 
 
 e as /•; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this, (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BOGUET 
 
 380 
 
 BOHMER 
 
 editors of the " Evangelical Magazine," and took an act- 
 ive part in promoting the principal religious associations 
 of the day. Died in 1825. 
 
 See James Bennett, " Memoir of Dr. Bogue;" Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Boguet, bo'g&', (Henri,) a French magistrate and 
 
 miscellaneous writer, born in Franche-Comte about 1550. 
 
 Boguphal, bo'goo-fal, Bishop of Posen, in Poland, 
 
 wrote a Latin "Chronicle of Poland," (1729,) continued 
 
 by Baczko. Died in 1253. 
 
 Boguslawaki, bo-gus-lav'skee, (Adalhert,) a Polish 
 dramatist and actor, born in 1752, translated dramas from 
 the French, Italian, and Spanish. Died in 1829. 
 
 Boguslawski, bo'goo-slav'skee, (Palm Heinrich 
 Ludwig,) a Prussian astronomer, of Polish extraction, 
 born at Magdeburg in 1789. Appointed director of the 
 observatory at Breslau in 1S31, he discovered in 1834 
 the comet called by his name. In 1836 he became pro- 
 fessor of astronomy at Breslau. Died in 1851. 
 See Bkockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 Bohadsch, bo'hadsh, (Johann Baptist,) a German 
 physician and naturalist, was professor of natural history 
 at Prague. Died in 1772. 
 
 Boha-ed-Deen or Boha-eddin, bo'ha-ed-deen', 
 (Ibn-Shedad, Ib'n she-dSd',) an Arab historian, born 
 at Mosul in 1145, was distinguished by the favour of the 
 Sultan Saladin, who appointed him cadi of Jerusalem. 
 His principal work is a " Life of Saladin," which has been 
 translated into Spanish by Borbon. Died in 1232. 
 
 Bohaire-Dutheil, bo'SR' dii'til', a French dramatist 
 and satirical writer, born about 1750 ; died in 1825. 
 
 Bohan, de, deh oo'on'^Franqois Philippe Lourat,) 
 Baron, a French tactician and military writer, born at 
 Bourg-en-Bresse in 1751 ; died in 1804. 
 
 Bohemond, bo'he-mdnd,[Fr. Bohemond, bo'a'm6N'; 
 [fa Boemondo, bo-a-mon'do ; Lat. Bohemun'dus,] I., a 
 famous chief of the crusaders, was the son of Robert 
 Guiscard, Duke of Apulia and Calabria. Accompanied 
 by his cousin Tancred and several Norman princes, he 
 joined the first crusade, at the head of a large army, in 
 1096. Having assisted at the capture of Nicoea, he 
 gained possession of Antioch by a strategem, and suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining the sovereignty of that city. He 
 subsequently married the daughter of Philip I. of France. 
 He died in im, and was succeeded by his son, Bohe- 
 mond II. 
 
 See Michaud, "Histoire des Croisades." 
 Bohemond II. became Prince of Antioch in 1126. 
 He assisted Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, in his wars 
 against the Saracens. Died in 1 130. 
 
 Bohemond III., grandson of Bohemond II., suc- 
 ceeded to the throne of Antioch in 1 163. Died in 1201. 
 Bohemundus. See Bohemond. 
 Bohic, bo'ik', written also BouhicorBoich, (Henri 
 or Herve,) an eminent French jurist, born in Bretagne 
 in 1310; died about 1390. 
 
 Bonier, de, deh bo'e-1', [Lat. Boe'rius,] (Nicolas,) 
 
 a French jurist, born at Montpellierin 1469 ; died in 1539. 
 
 Bohl, bol, (Johann Christian,) a German physician, 
 
 and professor of medicine at Konigsberg, where he was 
 
 born in 1703; died in 1785. 
 
 Bohle, bo'leh, (Samuel,) a German theologian and 
 Hebjraist, born in Pomerania in 161 1 ; died in 1689. 
 
 Bohlen, bo'len, (Henry,) born in Germany, emigrated 
 to the United States in his youth, and became a rich 
 merchant in Philadelphia. In April, 1862, he was ap- 
 pointed a brigadier-general. He served under Fremont 
 and Sigel in Virginia, and was killed near the Rappahan- 
 nock in August, 1862. 
 
 Bohlen, von, fort bo'len, (Peter,) an eminent Ger- 
 man Orientalist, boni near Jever in 1796. Owing to the 
 poverty of his family, he enjoyed few advantages of edu- 
 cation, until enabled to enter -the University of Halle 
 through the kindness of several wealthy patrons. He 
 became in 1830 professor of Oriental languages at Ko- 
 nigsberg. Among his principal works are a dissertation 
 on the Arabic poet Montenabbi, ("Commentatio de Mon- 
 tenabbio,") an excellent treatise on Indian antiquities, 
 entitled "Das Alte Indieti," (2 vols., 1830,) an edition 
 of Bhartrihari's " Sententise," and "Genesis Historically 
 and Critically explained," (in German.) He also wrote 
 
 a very interesting "Autobiography," published in 1841. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Bohm or Boehm, bom, (Andreas,) a German ma- 
 thematician and philosopher, born at Darmstadt in 1720. 
 He published, among other works, a "Magazine for 
 Engineers." Died in 1790. 
 
 Bohm, (Jacoh.) See Bohme. 
 
 Bohm or Boehm, bom, (John Daniel,) a Hungarian 
 sculptor, born at Wallendorf in 1794. 
 
 Bohm or Boehm, (Joseph,) a German violinist, born 
 at Pesth in 1798, became professor at Vienna. 
 
 Bohm or Boehm, (Theobald,) a German flutist, 
 born in Bavaria about 1802, made improvements in the 
 construction of the flute. He also composed music for 
 that instrument. 
 
 Bohm or Boehm, ( Wenzel Amadeus,) a German 
 engraver, born at Prague in 1771. His best works are a 
 Saint Paul, after Sereta, and a portrait of the King of 
 Denmark. Died in 1823. 
 
 Bohme, bo'meh, Bohm, or Boehm, bom, written also 
 Behmen, [Fr. Bcehm or Bcehme, Mm ; Lat. Boeh*- 
 mius,] (Jacob,) a celebrated German mystic, was born 
 near Gorlitz, in Upper Lusatia, in 1575. He served an ap- 
 prenticeship to a shoemaker, and followed that trade at 
 Gorlitz. He was a devout reader of the Scriptures from 
 his youth, and was a member of the Lutheran Church, 
 which he probably never forsook. According to his own 
 statement, he was divinely illuminated, and thus enabled 
 to perceive the mysteries of nature and grace. He wrote, 
 about 1610, a religious book called "Aurora, or the 
 Morning Redness," which Hallam says was not pub- 
 lished until 1641. He was generally accounted a vision- 
 ary by the clergy, but his opinions were adopted by many 
 in Germany, Holland, and England. Among his ad- 
 mirers or disciples were many men of high rank and 
 high cultivation. He wrote numerous works, which 
 were published, in 10 vols., 1682. They were trans- 
 lated into English (1764) by the eminent divine William 
 Law, who was an admirer of Bohme. He died at Gor- 
 litz in 1624. " His supernatural illumination," says 
 Hallam, "came without the gift of transferring the light 
 to others, for scarce any have been able to pierce the 
 clouds in which his meaning has been charitably sup- 
 posed to lie hid." 
 
 See La Mottk-Fouqub, "Notice sur J. Boehm," 1831 ; Wul- 
 len, "Jacob Bdhms Leben," 1836; Johann Adam Calov, " Dis- 
 sertatio de Vita J. Boehmii," 1707; G. L. Gmelin, "Dispntatio de 
 J. Boehmio," 170S; J. F. Sillig, "J. Boehme: biograplmcher Ver- 
 such," 1801. 
 
 Bohme or Boehme, (Johann Eusebius,) a German 
 writer, and professor of history at Leipsic, born at Wurzen 
 in 171 7 ; died in 1780. 
 
 Bohmer or Boehmer, boh'mer, (Georg Ludwig,) 
 a younger son of Justus Henning, noticed below, was 
 born at Halle in 1 715. He became professor and dean 
 of the faculty of law at Gbttingen. Died in 1797. 
 
 Bohmer or Boehmer, (Georg Rudolf,) a German 
 physician and botanist, born at Liegnitz in 1723. He 
 became professor of therapeutics at Kemberg in 1783, 
 and afterwards dean of the university in that city. The 
 genus Boehmeria was named in his honour. Died in 1803. 
 
 See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftstelier-Lexikon." 
 
 Bohmer or Boehmer, (Georg Wilhelm Rudolf ) 
 a Protestant theologian and writer, born near Magde- 
 burg in 1800, became professor of divinity at Greifswaldc 
 in 1830. 
 
 Bohmer or Boehmer, (Johann Benjamin,) a Ger 
 man physician, born at Liegnitz in 1 719 ; died in 1753. 
 
 Bohmer or Boehmer, (Johann Friedrich,) a Ger' 
 man historian and compiler, born at Frankfort-011-the- 
 Main in 1795, published "The Archives of the Roman 
 Kings and Emperors from Conrad I. to Henry VII.," 
 (1831,) and "Fontes Rerum Germanicarum," (1843-53.) 
 Died in 1863. 
 
 Bohmer or Boehmer, (Johann Samuel Fried- 
 rich,) son of the following, became counsellor to the 
 King of Prussia and director of the University of Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Oder. Died in 1772. 
 
 Bohmer or Boehmer, (Justus Henning,) a German 
 jurist, born at Hanover in 1674. He became chancellor 
 of the University of Halle, and was created by Frederick 
 the Great a member of his state council. His principal 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, S, fi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
BOHMER 
 
 38i 
 
 B01LEAU 
 
 work is an " Introduction to Public Universal Law," in 
 Latin, (1709.) Died at Halle in 1749. 
 
 See ERfCH undURUBKR, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" A. Stro- 
 "Das griinende und fruchtbare Alter: Gedachtniss Predigt 
 lum Andenken des J. H. Boehmer," 1749. 
 
 Bohmer or Boehmer, (Philipp Adolf,) brother of 
 Georg Ludwig, born at Halle in 171 7, was first physician 
 to the Duke of Saxe- Weimar. He became professor of 
 anatomy at Berlin in 1741, and '•> I7 8 7 r °y al counsellor 
 anil dean of the university. Died in 1789. 
 
 Bohu, bon, (Henry G.,) a distinguished London pub- 
 lisher, of German extraction, born in London about 1800. 
 Among his numerous and valuable publications may be 
 named his "Standard Library," (130 vols.,) "Library of 
 French Memoirs," "Library of British Classics," and 
 "Guinea Catalogue," which describes three hundred 
 thousand volumes. He has made several translations 
 from the German, and edited the " Bibliotheca Parriana." 
 Bohn, bon, [Lat. Boh'nius,] (Johann,) an eminent 
 German medical writer, born at Leipsic in 1640. He 
 became professor of anatomy at Leipsic in 1668, and was 
 the first who attacked successfully the chemical system 
 of physiology maintained by F. de la Boe. He was dis- 
 tinguished in medical jurisprudence. Among his chief 
 works are "Circulus'anatomicus physiologicus," (1680,) 
 and " Medicinae forensis Specimina Tria," (1690.) Died 
 in 1718. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Bohomolecbo-ho-mo'lets, (Francis,) a Polish writer 
 of dramas, biography, etc. Died in 1790. 
 Bohren or Bohra. See Bora. 
 Bohse, bo'zeh, (August,) also called Talander, 
 ta'ian-der, a German writer of little merit, born at Halle 
 in 166 1. He wrote novels, operettas, etc. Died about 1735. 
 Bohtlingk, bot'link, (Otto,) a distinguished Orien- 
 talist, of German extraction, born at Saint Petersburg 
 in 1 Si 5. He has published, among other works, "Kili- 
 dasa's Sakuntata," (text with a translation, 1842 ;) a " San- 
 scrit Chrestomathia," (1845,) and (in conjunction with 
 Roth) a " Sanscrit-German Lexicon," (not yet finished,) a 
 Work 1 >l unrivalled merit in this department of literature. 
 See Brqckhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 Bohtori, boh'to-ree, (Al-Waleed or Al-Walid, 11- 
 wa-leed'.) an Arabian poet, born about 821. His verses 
 were styled, by his countrymen, chains of gold. 
 
 Bohtz, hots, (August Wilhei.m,) born at Stettin in 
 
 1799, 1* 1 ame professor of philosophy at Gottingen in 1842. 
 
 Bo'hun, (EDMUND,) an English writer, was the author 
 
 of a " Historical, Geographical, and Poetical Dictionary," 
 
 (1694,) and several political works. 
 
 See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iv. ; Wood, "Athe- 
 na? Oxouiense 
 
 Bohusz,bo'h6osh,(XAViER,) a Polish historian, born 
 in 1746, published "Researches on the Historical Anti- 
 quities and Language of Lithuania." Died in 1825. 
 Boianus. See Bojanus. 
 
 Boiardo or Bojardo, bo-yaR'do, (Matteo Maria,) 
 Count of Scandiano, a celebrated Italian poet, born at 
 Scandiano about 1430. His principal work, the "Or- 
 lando Innamorato," (left unfinished,) was published about 
 1495, and was afterwards continued by Ariosto under the 
 title of "Orlando Furioso." It was also written over 
 and so greatly improved by Berni that the original is 
 nearlv forgotten. The "Orlando Innamorato of Boiardo," 
 says "Hallam, " has hitherto not received that share of 
 renown which seems to be its due. In point of novel 
 invention and just keeping of character, especially the 
 latter, he has not been surpassed by his illustrious fol- 
 lower Ariosto ; and whatever of this we find in the Or- 
 lando Innamorato is due to Boiardo alone." ("Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1494. 
 
 See LoKGFELtow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Gingueke, 
 " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" W. H Prbscott, critique on Boiardo 
 in the " North American Review" for October, 1824, vol. xix. ; G. F. 
 Cremona " Elogio del Come M. M. Bojardo," 1827 : " Lives of the 
 Italian Poets,"bythe Rev. Henry Stebbing. London, 1831 : "Quar- 
 terly Review" for April, 1819, article " Narrative and Romantic 
 Poetry of the Italians." 
 
 Boiceau, bw.Vso', (Jean,) a French jurist, born at 
 Poitiers about 1520; died in 1589. 
 
 Boichot, bwl'sho', (Guillaume,) a French sculptor, 
 "lorn at Chilons-sur-Sa6ne in 1738; died in 1814. 
 
 See Lb Bas db Gourmont, "Vie de Guillaume Boichot," 1823. 
 
 Boie or Boje, bo'yeh, (Heinrich Christian,) a Ger- 
 man litterateur, born at Meldorp, in Holstein, in 1745. In 
 1770 he published, conjointly with Gotter, the first "Mu- 
 senalmanach," and in 1776 became associate editor of the 
 " Deutschen Museum." Died in 1806. 
 
 Boieldieu, bwal'de-uh', (Francois Adrien,) an emi- 
 nent French composer, born at Rouen in 1775. Among 
 his best operas are "The Caliph of Bagdad," "The 
 White Lady," ("La Dame blanche,") and "My Aunt; 
 Aurora," (" Ma Tante Aurore.") In 1803 he was ap- 
 pointed by the emperor Alexander of Russia his chapel- 
 master. Died in 1835. 
 
 See Fetis, " BiographieUniverselledes Musiciens;" Rekuveii.i.b, 
 (alias Andre Reloi,) Boieldieu, sa Vie, ses CEuvres," Rouen, 1751. 
 Boigne, bwan, (Bknoit le Borgne — leh boun,) 
 Count, a French general, born at Chambery in 1741, 
 entered the service of the Rajah of the Mahrattas about 
 1783. He made an immense fortune, a great t part of 
 which he bequeathed to charitable purposes in his native 
 city. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Turina, "E^oge historique du Comte de Boigne." 
 Boileau, bwa'16', (Charles,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 and member of the French Academy, was a native of 
 Beauvais. Died in 1704. 
 
 See D'Alembert, " filoge de Charles Boileau." 
 Boileau, (GlLLES,) a French magistrate, born in 1584, 
 father of the celebrated Nicolas Boileau. Died in 1657. 
 Boileau, (Gii.les,) a French litterateur, a brother of 
 the celebrated poet of that name, born in Paris in 1631. 
 He wrote a "Life of Epictetus," and a number of poems 
 and satires. He also translated the " Enchiridion" of 
 Epictetus. He was a member of the French Academy., 
 Died in 1669. 
 
 Boileau, (Gilles de Buillon— deh bii-e'yo.v,) a 
 Flemish litterateur of the sixteenth century, translated, 
 from the Latin into French, Albert Diner's treatise on 
 Fortifications, and made translations from the Spanish. 
 Boileau, (Jacques,) brother of Nicolas Boileau, born 
 in Paris in 1635, was a doctor of the Sorbonne. He 
 wrote several ecclesiastical works. Died in 1716. 
 
 Boileau, (Jean Jacques,) a French biographer and 
 writer on morals, born near Agen in 1649; died in Parti 
 
 Boileau, boi'lo or bwa'16', or, more fully, Boileau- 
 Despreaux, bwa'16' di'pRa'6', (Nicolas,) an eminent 
 French poet and satirist, born in Paris (or at Crosne, 
 near Paris) on the 1st of November, 1636, was a son of 
 Gilles Boileau, registrar of the great chamber of the 
 Parliament. He was educated for the law or the church ; 
 but his tastes did not incline him to either, and he fol- 
 lowed no profession but that of author. He was a friend 
 of Racine and La Fontaine. His first production was 
 a satire called " Adieu of a Poet to the City of Paris," 
 (1660,) remarkable for purity of style and elegance of 
 versification. In 1666 he published seven satires, which 
 had great success. He afterwards wrote five other sa- 
 tires, at various dates. In the maturity of his poetical 
 power he composed twelve Epistles, which are even more 
 admired than his satires. , - . 
 
 Among his best works are "The Reading-Desk, 
 ("Le Lutrin," 1674,) and "The Art of Poetry," ("L'Art 
 poetique," 1674,) which, in the opinion of Michaud, ex- 
 cels the poem of Horace in the felicity of the transitions 
 and in the sustained elegance of the style. " Boileau is 
 the analogue of Pope," says Hallam, "in French litera- 
 ture. 'The Art of Poetry' has been the model of the 
 ' Essay on Criticism ;' few poems more resemble each 
 other. Both are uncommon efforts of critical good sense, 
 and both are distinguished by their short and pointed 
 language, which remains in the memory. The ' Lutrin' 
 is the most popular of the poems of Boileau. Its subject 
 is ill chosen. . . . But the poignant wit and satire, the 
 elegance and correctness of numberless couplets, as well 
 as the ingenious adaptations of classical passages, redeem 
 this poem, and confirm its high place in the mock-heroic 
 line." (" Introduction to the Literature ol Europe.") 
 
 Boileau was appointed historiographer jointly with 
 Racine, by Louis XIV., and was elected a member of the 
 French Academy in 1684. He has the honour of having 
 effected a revolution in the poetical taste of the French, 
 which was greatly vitiated when he began to write. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as .; th as in this. (JrySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BOILEAU 
 
 382 
 
 BO IS SAT 
 
 He was visited in 1700 by Addison, whose Latin 
 poems Boileau had read and greatly admired. " He 
 certainly opened himself to Addison with a freedom 
 which was a sure indication of esteem. The old man 
 talked on his favourite theme, literature, long and well ; 
 indeed, as his young hearer thought, incomparably well. 
 Boileau had undoubtedly some of the qualities of a great 
 critic. He wanted imagination, but. he had strong sense. 
 In mere style, abstracted from the ideas of which style 
 is the garb, his taste was excellent. ... It is easy, we 
 think, to discover in the ' Spectator' and the ' Guardian' 
 traces of the influence, in part salutary and in part per- 
 nicious, which the mind of Boileau had on the mind of 
 Addison." (Macaulay, " Review of the Life of Addison.") 
 
 He was an intimate friend of Racine, and co-operated 
 with Madame Dacier in the vindication of the merits of 
 the ancient classical authors. His poems, it is said, con- 
 tain no .line that would offend the strictest moralist. 
 Probity and benevolence were prominent traits of his 
 character. " He had the spirit," says Macaulay, "to tell 
 Louis XIV., firmly and even rudely, that his majesty knew 
 nothing about poetry." Died in Paris in March, 171 1. 
 
 See D'Alembert, " £!oge de Boileau;" Desmaizeaux, "Vie de 
 Boileau," 1712; Daunou, "E*loge de Boileau," 1787; Michaud, 
 article on Boileau in the " Biographie Universelle ;" Louis Simon 
 Auger, " filoge de Boileau-Despreaux," 1805 : Longfellow, " Poets 
 and Poetry of Europe ;" " Lives of the Most Eminent French Wri- 
 ters," by Mrs. Shklley, vol. i. 
 
 Boileau, de, deh bwa'lo', (Marie Louis Joseph,) a 
 French jurist and litterateur, born at Dunkirk in 1741 ; 
 died in 181 7. 
 
 Boileau de Maulaville, bwa'lo' deh mo'lS'vel', 
 (Edme Francois Marie,) a French archaeologist, born 
 at Au.xerre in 1759, published several antiquarian treat- 
 ises, and was a contributor to the " Biographie Univer- 
 selle." Died in 1826. 
 
 Boileux, bwa'luh', (Jacques Marie,) a French jurist, 
 born at Caen in 1803. He published a "Commentary on 
 the Civil Code," (3 vols., 1828-44.) 
 
 Boillot, bwa'yo', (Henri,) a French Jesuit and littl- 
 rateur, born in Franche-Comte in 1698; died in 1733. 
 
 Boillot, (Joseph,) a French architect and writer, born 
 at Langres In 1560. 
 
 Boilly, bwa'ye', (Louis Leopold, >-a French painter of 
 portraits and genre, born in 1761 ; died in 1830. 
 
 Boindin, bwaN'daN', (Nicolas,) a French litterateur, 
 born in Paris in 1676; died in 1 75 1. 
 
 Boinvilliers-Desjardins, bwaN've'ya' di'zhi r'daN', 
 (Jean Etienne Judith Forestier-fo'r&'te-i',) a French 
 litterateur, born at Versailles in 1764; died in 1830. 
 
 Boirel, bwa'rel', (Antoine,) a French surgeon, born 
 in 1625 ; died about 1700. 
 
 Boiron. See Borron. 
 
 Bois, (John.) See Boyse. 
 
 Boisard, bwa'ziV, (J. J. F. M.,) a French fabulist, 
 Horn at Caen in 1743 ; died in 1831. 
 
 Bois de la Pierre, bwa deh IS pe-aiR', (Louise Marie 
 de Lanfernat — deh 16.N'feVnS',) a French poetess, born 
 at Verneuil, in Normandy, in 1663 ; died in 1730. 
 
 Bois, du. See Duhois. 
 
 Bois-DuvaLbwa'dii'viK, (Jean Alphonse,) a French 
 naturalist, born at Ticheville (Orne) in 1801, wrote several 
 works on insects, and a "French Flora," (3 vols., 1828.) 
 
 Boisgelin, de, deh bwazh'laN', (Jean de Dieu 
 Raymond de Cuce — de-uh' ri'moN' deh kii'sa',) a 
 French theologian, born at Rennes in 1732, became 
 successively Archbishop of Aix and of Tours, and a 
 cardinal about 1803. He was elected to the French 
 Academy in 1776. He was the author of several theo- 
 logical and miscellaneous works. Died in 1804. 
 
 See De Bausset, " Notice historique sur M. de Boisgelin," 1804. 
 
 Boisgelin, de, (Louis Bruno,) Comte, a French 
 diplomatist, brother of the preceding, born at Rennes in 
 1773. He was executed in 1794 by order of the Revolu- 
 tionary tribunal. 
 
 Boisgelin de Kerdu, de, deh bwazh'laN' deh keV- 
 dii', (Pierre Marie Louis,) brother of the preceding, 
 born in the diocese of Saint-Brieuc in 1758. He wrote 
 a continuation of Vertot's " History of the Revolutions 
 of Portugal," (1809,) and a work entitled "Ancient and 
 Modern Malta," in English. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Queraro, "La France LitteVaire," (Supplement.) 
 
 Boisgerard, bwa'zha'riR', (Marie Anne FRANgois 
 Barbuat,) born at Tonnerre in 1767, served in the army 
 of the republic, and was mortally wounded in 1799 at 
 the battle of Capua. 
 
 Bois-Guilbert or Bois-Guillebert, bwa'gel'baiR', 
 (Pierre lePesant — leh peh-zoN',) a French litterateur, 
 translated the " History" of Herodian, and published 
 several original works. Died in 1714. 
 
 Boisjolin, bwa'zho'laN', (Jacques Francois Marie 
 Vieilh — ve'al',) a French poet, born at Alencon in 1761. 
 He was a member of the Tribunat in 1800-1801. Died 
 in 1841. 
 
 Boisjolin, de, deh bwa'zho'laN', (Claude Augustin 
 Vieilh,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1788, suc- 
 ceeded Rabbe as editor of the " Biographie portative 
 des Contemporains." Died in 1832. 
 
 Boislandry, de, deh b\va'16.\'dRe', (Louis,) a mem- 
 ber of the French Constituent Assembly, born *l Ver- 
 sailles in 1749; died in 1834. 
 
 Boisleve, bwa'Iiv', (Pierre,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 born at Saumur in 1745, became honorary canon of 
 Notre-Dame. In 1810, as official of the diocese of Paris, 
 he pronounced the sentence of divorce between the em- 
 peror Napoleon and Josephine. Died in 1830. 
 
 Boismont. See Briere de Boismont. 
 
 Boismont, de, deh bwa'moN', (Nicolas Thyrel— 
 te'rel',) a distinguished French preacher, born in Nor- 
 mandy about 1 7 15. He was a member of the French 
 Academy, and was appointed preacher-in-ordinary to the 
 king. Died in 17S6. 
 
 See Rulhiere, "£loge de Boismont," prefixed to his " Oraisons 
 funebres, etc." 
 
 Boismoraud, bwi'mo'rSN', (Claude Joseph,) a 
 French writer and priest, born at Quimper in 1680. He 
 published "Anecdotes of the Court of Philip Augustus," 
 and other works, and translated " Paradise Lost" into 
 French. Died in 1740. 
 
 Boismortier, de, deh bwa'moR'te-a', (N. Bodin — 
 bo'daN',) a French composer, born at Perpignan in 
 1691 ; died in 1768. 
 
 Boisot, bwa'zo', (Jean Baptiste,) a learned French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Besancon in 1638. He was a con- 
 tributor to the "Journal des Savants." Having obtained 
 the library of Cardinal Granvelle, he arranged and pre- 
 served the important documents, treaties, etc. which it 
 contained, and thus rendered a great service to history. 
 Died in 1694. 
 
 Boisrobert, de, deh bwa'ro'baiR', (Francois le 
 Metel,) a French ecclesiastic and litterateur, born at 
 Caen in 1592. His wit and gayety procured for him the 
 favour of Cardinal Richelieu, who made him his com- 
 panion and gave him many preferments. He wrote a 
 number of dramas, poems, and tales. He was one of 
 the first members of the French Academy, which Riche- 
 lieu established at his suggestion. Once, when Richelieu 
 was indisposed, his physician advised him that the com- 
 pany of Boisrobert would be more efficacious than any 
 drugs, and wrote this prescription : — Recipe Boisrobert. 
 He was sometimes called Abb£ Mondori. Died in 1662. 
 
 See Hippeau, " Notice sur Boisrobert," 1852; Otpeau, "Notice 
 sur Boisrobert," 1852. 
 
 Boissard, bwa'siR', (George David Frederic) a 
 French Protestant minister, born at Montbelliard in 1783. 
 He preached for many years in Paris, and wrote numer 
 ous religious works. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Rodolphe Cuvier, " £loge de Boissard," 1837. 
 
 Boissard, (Jean Jacques,) a French Protestant anti- 
 quary and Latin poet, born at Besancon in 1528. He 
 went to Rome, where he formed a collection of antiqui- 
 ties. He published numerous works, among which are 
 "Emblemata Latina et Gallica," (1584,) "Portraits and 
 Lives of Illustrious Men," (" Icones et Vitas Virorum 
 illustrium," 1592,) and "Romanas Urbis Topographia et 
 Antiquitates," (1597.) Died at Metz in 1602. 
 
 See Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Morhof, 
 " Polyhistor." 
 
 Boissat, de, deh bwa'si', (Pierre,) a French jurist 
 and Hellenist, born at Vienne about 1550. 
 
 Boissat, de, (Pierre,) son of the preceding, born at 
 Vienne, was the author of a " History of the Knights of 
 Saint John of Jerusalem," (1612.) Died in 1613. 
 
 d, e, T, 6> \\,y,long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
 
BOISSAT 
 
 383 
 
 BO WIN 
 
 Boissat, de, (Pierre,) poet and soldier, son of the 
 ding, born at Vienne in 1603. He composed Latin 
 is, and .several prose works. He was admitted into 
 the French Academy. Died in 1662. 
 
 See Chorikr, *' De P. Boessatii Vita, Amicisque literatis," 1680. 
 
 Boisseau, bwa'sfj', (Francois Gahriel,) a French 
 al writer, born at Brest in 1791 ; died at Metz in 
 He left many valuable works, among which is 
 graphie organique," (4 vols., 1828-30.) 
 
 Boissel de Monville, bwa'sdl' d§h moN'vel', (Tho- 
 mas Charles Gaston,) Baron, councillor to the Par- 
 tent iif Paris, born in that city in 1763. He was the 
 author of fables and dramatic works. Died in 1832. 
 
 Boisseree, bwass'ra', (Melchior,) brother of Sulpice, 
 noticed below, born in 17S6, was distinguished for his skill 
 m painting on glass, (see next article.) Died in 185 1. 
 
 Boisseree, (Sulpice,) an eminent Prussian architect 
 and antiquary, of French extraction, born at Cologne 
 in 1783. in conjunction with his brother Melchior and 
 his friend J. B. Bertram, he formed the celebrated col- 
 lection of paintings called by his name and now in the 
 possession of the King of Bavaria at Munich. In 1824 
 he began the restoration of the cathedral of Cologne. 
 He published "The Monuments of Architecture on the 
 Lower Rhine, from the Seventh to the Thirteenth Cen- 
 turies," (1830,) and "Views, Plans, and Details of the 
 Cathedral of Cologne," etc, (in folio, 1823.) Died in 1854. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Boisset, bwa's&',(JosEPH Antoink,) a French Jacobin, 
 born at Montelimart in 1748, became a member of the 
 National Convention, and subsequently of the Council 
 ot Ancients. Died in 1813. 
 
 Boissier, bwa'se-A', (Edouard Pierre,) a Swiss 
 botanist, born at Geneva in 1810, published "Diagnoses 
 Plantarum Orientalium," (3 vols., 1849-59.) 
 
 Boissiere, de, deh bwa'se-aiR', (Claude,) a French 
 mathematician, who was bornTTear Grenoble, lived in the 
 latter half of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Boissieu, de, deh bwa'se-uh', (Barth£lemy Ca- 
 MH.i.e,) a French physician, born at Lyons in 1734 ; died 
 in 1770. 
 
 Boissieu, de, (Denys Salvaing— sf 1'vaV,) a French 
 jurist and diplomatist, born at Vienne, in Dauphiny, in 
 1600; died in 1683. 
 
 See A. DE Terrebasse, "Vie de Salvaing de Boissieu," 1850. 
 
 Boissieu, de, (Jean Jacques,) a French engraver 
 and painter, born at Lyons in 1736. His prints are highly 
 esteemed, particularly those after Ruysdael. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Dugas-Montbel, "Eloge de J. J. de Boissieu," 1810. 
 
 Boissonade, b\\ a'so'nad', (Jean Francois,) an emi- 
 nent French philologist, born in Paris on the 12th of 
 August, 1774. In 1812 he succeeded Larcher as pro- 
 of Creek literature in the Academy of Paris, and 
 also took his place in the Academy of Inscriptions. He 
 became professor of Greek in the College of France in 
 1828. Among his works, which relate principally to 
 Greek literature, are editions of Philostratus, Holsten- 
 tius, Nicetas Eugenianus, and other classics. He also 
 published a " Sylloge Poetarum Gra:coruni," (24 vols., 
 1825,) and a collection of one hundred and twenty-three 
 fables ot Babrius, with a commentary and Latin version. 
 He also edited several French classics, and contributed 
 numerous articles to the " Biographie Universelle," and 
 other works of high reputation. " His lectures," says a 
 French biographer, "have been the honour and pride of 
 the university which could match him against the most 
 renowned Hellenists of foreign universities." Died in 
 September, 1857. 
 
 Querard, "La France Litteraire;" " Noiivelle Biographie 
 Genera! e ;" " Classical Journal," Match, 1825. 
 
 Boissy, bwt'se', (Jean Baptiste Thiaudiere— 
 tc'6'd^-aiR',) a French antiquary, and member of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions, born in' Paris in 1666 ; died in 
 1729. 
 
 Boissy, (Louis Michel,) a French historical writer, 
 son of Louis de Boissy, noticed below. Died in 1793 
 
 Boissy-d'Anglas, de, deh bwS'se' dON'gla', (Fkan- 
 
 UNE,) a French statesman and revolutionist, 
 
 bom at Saint-Jcan-Chambre, in Ardeche, in 1756. As a 
 
 memlwr of the National Convention, he voted for the 
 
 detention of the king and the appeal to the people. He 
 became successively secretary of the Council of Five 
 Hundred, president of the tribunat, (1802,) commander 
 of the legion of honour, and senator, (1805.) In 1816 he 
 was elected to the Academy of Inscriptions. He pub- 
 lished a number of political essays. Died in 1826. 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Boissy, de, deh bwa'se', (Charles Desprez — d&'- 
 pRa ',) a French jurist and legal writer, born in Paris 
 about 1730; died in 1787. 
 
 Boissy, de, (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Vic 
 in 1694, was the author of a successful comedy entitled 
 "The Man of the Day," ("L'Homme du Jour.") In 
 1754 he succeeded Destouches as a member of the French 
 Academy. Died in 1758. 
 
 Boiste, bwast, (Pierre Claude Victoire,) a cele- 
 brated French lexicographer, born in Paris in 1765. His 
 "Universal Dictionary of the French Language" (2 vols. 
 8vo, 1800) is esteemed a standard work, holding the 
 same rank in Fiance that Johnson's does in England. He 
 also published a " Dictionary of Universal Geography, 
 Ancient and Modern." Died in 1824. 
 
 See Qubrard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Boistuau de Launai, bwas'tii'6' deh lo'n4', (Pierrea 
 a French historian, lived in the first half of the sixteenth 
 century. His " Theatre du Monde" was printed twenty 
 times or more. He wrote other works. 
 
 Boisville, de, deh bwa'vel',(jEAN Francois Martin,) 
 a F'rench theologian, born at Rouen in 1755, was canon 
 of the cathedral of that city. Died in 1829. 
 
 Boisy, de, deh bwa'ze', (Artus Gouffier, tR'tiis' 
 goo'fe-i',) Seigneur, a French statesman and soldier, 
 born about 1475. He served in Italy under Charles VIII. 
 and Louis XII., and was appointed by the latter tutor to 
 the young prince, afterwards Francis I. On the acces- 
 sion of Francis, he became grand master of France and 
 governor of Dauphiny. Died in 1 5 19. 
 
 See Anselme, " Histoire genealogique de la Maison de France." 
 
 Boitard, bwa'tiR', (Pierre,) a French naturalist and 
 writer on agriculture, born at Macon in 1789. He edited 
 several journals, and published numerous works, among 
 which are "The Cabinet of Natural History," (1821,) 
 "Gardener's Manual," "Natural History of European 
 Birds of Prey," (1824,) and "Manual of Entomology," 
 (1828.) 
 
 Boiteau, bwa'to', (Dieudonne Alexandre Paul,) a 
 French litterateur, born in Paris in 1830. He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, " The Philosophy and Politics of Be- 
 ranger," (1858.) 
 
 Boitel, bwa'tel', (Pierre,) a French litterateur, lived 
 about 1620. 
 
 Boitet de Frauville, bwa't&' deh fRo'vel', (Claude,) 
 born at Orleans in 1570, translated Homer's "Odyssey" 
 into French. Died in 1625. 
 
 Boivin, bwa'vaN', (Jacques Denis,) a French general 
 of brigade, born in Paris in 1756, served in the republican 
 army from 1793 to 1805. Died in 1831. 
 
 Boivin,(Louis,) a French scholar and historical writer, 
 born in the diocese of Lisieux in 1649, became a member 
 of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1701. Died in 1724. 
 
 Boivin, (Marie Anne Victoire Gillain — zhe'yiN',) 
 born near Versailles in 1773, studied anatomy and ob- 
 stetrics, and obtained the degree of M.D. from the Uni- 
 versity of Marburg. She was patronized by Madame 
 Elizabeth, sister of the king, and was appointed in 1801 
 chief superintendent of the hospital de la Maternity, in 
 Paris. She wrote several treatises relating to her pro- 
 fession. Died in 1841. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Boivin, (Rf.n£,) a French engraver, born at Angers 
 in 1530. Among his master-pieces are "Portraits of 
 Ancient Philosophers and Poets," and "./Eneas saving 
 his Father." Died in 1598. 
 
 Boivin, de, deh bwa'vaN', (Francois,) a French his- 
 torical writer, born about 1550 ; died in 1618. 
 
 Boivin deVilleneuve, bwa'vaN' deh vtl'nuv',( Jean,) 
 brother of Louis Boivin, noticed above, born in 1663. 
 He became in 1705 professor of Greek in the College de 
 France. He translated the " CEdipus" of Sophocles and 
 "The Birds" of Aristophanes into French, and wrote in 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; c, II, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jty-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BOIZOT 
 
 384 
 
 BOLINGBROKE 
 
 reply to Lamotte an " Apology for Homer, and the Shield 
 of Achilles," (1715.) Died in 1726. 
 
 See Quhrard, "La France LitteYaire." 
 
 Boizot, bwa'zo', (Louis Simon,) a French sculptor, 
 born in 1748. He executed statues of Joseph Vernet, 
 Joubert, and Daubenton. Died in 1809. 
 
 Bojanus or Boianus, bo-ya'nus, (Ludwig Hein- 
 rich,) a German anatomist, born in Alsatia in 1776 ; died 
 at Darmstadt in 1827. 
 
 Bojardo. See Boiardo. 
 
 Bojer, bo'yer, (Wenceslaus,) a German botanist, 
 born at Prague about 1798. He visited Madagascar and 
 other islands near Africa, and published " Hortus Mauri- 
 tianus," (1837.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Bo-joc'a-lus, a German warrior and ally of Rome, 
 lived in the first century of the Christian era. He is 
 supposed to have been put to death under Nero, for 
 having refused to take up arms against his people, the 
 Ansibarians. 
 
 Bo'ker, (George H.,) an American poet, born in 
 Philadelphia in 1824. After graduating at Princeton in 
 1842, he made a tour of Europe, and has since resided 
 in Philadelphia. His first volume, " The Lesson of Life, 
 and other Poems," appeared in 1847; followed in 1848 
 by "Calaynos," a tragedy, which has been played with 
 success both in England and America. Among his other 
 productions are "Anne Boleyn," a tragedy, " Leonore de 
 Guzman," and his " War Lyrics," which have been much 
 admired. 
 
 Bckharee, Bokhari, or Bokhary, bo-Ka'ree, 
 (Aboo Abdallah Mohammed — a'boo ab-dal'Uh mo- 
 ham'med,) a celebrated Mussulman theologian, born in 
 810 A.D., compiled a collection of traditions or sentences 
 borrowed from Mohammed. Died in 870. 
 
 Bol, bol, (Ferdinand,) a Dutch painter and engraver, 
 born at Dort about 1610, was a pupil of Rembrandt. 
 Among his best engravings are a "Sacrifice of Abra- 
 ham," and " Saint Jerome holding a Crucifix." His por- 
 traits are highly esteemed. Died about 1685. 
 
 See Desca.mps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Bol or Boll, bol, (Hans, or John,) a skilful Flemish 
 painter of landscapes, animals, and flowers, born at 
 Mechlin in 1 534. He worked at Amsterdam, and was 
 also an engraver. Died about 1590. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Bol, (Kornelis,) a Dutch painter, who lived in Lon- 
 don in 1666, and painted views of the great conflagration 
 which occurred there in that year. 
 
 Bolanger, bo'ld.N'zha', (John,) a painter of history, 
 born in 1606, was a pupil of Guido, and worked for the 
 Duke of Modena. Died in 1660. 
 
 Bolchowitinow. See Bolkhovitinov. 
 
 Bold, (Samuel,) an English clergyman, who was vicar 
 of Shapwick, Dorsetshire. He published several theo- 
 logical works. Died in 1737. 
 
 Boldetti, bol-det'tee, (Marcantonio,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Rome in 1663 ; died in 1749. 
 
 Boldoni, bol-do'nee, (Sigismondo,) an Italian physi- 
 cian, and professor of philosophy at Pavia, born at Milan 
 about 1597; died in 1630. 
 
 Bolduc, bol'diik', (Jacques,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and theological writer, born in Paris about 1580. 
 
 Boleslaw, bo'les-liv', or Bole3laus, bo'les-la'us, I., 
 [Fr. BoLF.SLAS, bo'lSs'lis',] surnamed the Brave, suc- 
 ceeded his father Mieczislaw (Micislaus) as Prince of 
 Poland in 992. He was engaged in a war with Henry II. 
 of Germany, and conquered a portion of Silesia from the 
 Prussians. He died in 1025, and was succeeded by his 
 son, Mieczislaw II. 
 
 Boleslaw or Boleslaus II., surnamed the Boi.ii, 
 born in 1042, was a son of Casimir I., whom he succeeded 
 in 1058. Having slain at the altar the Archbishop of 
 Cracow, who had remonstrated against his tyranny, he 
 was anathematized by the pope, and, being deserted by 
 his subjects, fled to Carinthia, where he died about 1090. 
 
 Boleslaw or Boleslaus III., surnamed the Wry- 
 Mouthed, was the son of Ladislaus, whom he succeeded 
 in 1 102. He was engaged in frequent wars with the 
 Hungarians and Russians, and is said to have been vic- 
 tor in more than forty battles. Died in 1 138. 
 
 Boleslaw or Boleslaus IV., surnamed Cris'pus, 
 second son of the preceding, ascended the throne in 
 1 147, having deposed his brother Wladislaw, (Ladislaus.) 
 His country was invaded by the emperor Frederick Bar- 
 barossa in 11 57 ; but the following year a peace was con- 
 cluded between them. Died in 1173. 
 
 Boleslaw or Boleslaus V., surnamed the Chaste, 
 succeeded his father Leszko in 1237. His country was 
 laid waste by the Tartars in 1240 and 1260. Died in 1279. 
 
 Boleyn or Bullen, pronounced alike bool'en, (Anne,) 
 was a daughter of Sir Thomas Bullen, afterwards Vis- 
 count Rochford and Earl of Wiltshire, who was allied to 
 the principal nobility in the kingdom. Her mother was 
 Lady Howard, a daughter of the Duke of Norfolk. She 
 was born in 1507, and passed some years at the court 
 of France. About the age of twenty she became a maid 
 of honour to Queen Catherine, and captivated the fancy 
 of Henry VIII., who, from his desire to marry Anne 
 Boleyn, urged the pope to grant him a divorce from 
 Catherine. Henry married her privately in the early 
 part of 1533. She was crowned publicly in June of that 
 year, and became the mother of Princess Elizabeth in 
 September. She favoured the cause of the Reformers. 
 In 1536 she lost the favour of the king, and was accused 
 of criminal intercourse with several men. She was con- 
 demned by a jury of peers and beheaded in May, 1536. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Anne Boleyn," by Miss Benger ; Strickland's 
 "Queens of England;" also the Histories of Hume and LlNGARD. 
 For an examination into the character of Anne Boleyn, see Froude's 
 " History of England," vol. ii. chap. xi. 
 
 Bolgeni, bol-ja'nee, written also Boligeni, (Gio- 
 vanni Vincenzo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Bergamo 
 in 1733, became professor of theology and philosophy at 
 Macerata. He wrote a number of treatises against the 
 Jansenists. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Bolingbroke, bol'ing-brdok, (Henry Saint John,) 
 Viscount, an eminent English author, orator, and poli- 
 tician, born at Battersea, Surrey, on the tst of October, 
 1678, was a son of Sir Henry Saint John, afterwards 
 viscount. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, 
 and became extremely dissipated. In 1701 he was elected 
 to Parliament, in which he acted with the Tory party. 
 He was appointed secretary of war in 1704, and retained 
 the office until the change of the ministry in 170S. A 
 violent political change occurred in 1710. The queen, 
 always partial to the Tories, and no longer influenced by 
 the Duchess of Marlborough, dismissed the Whigs from 
 power, and formed a ministry in which Harley was pre- 
 mier and Saint John secretary of state for foreign affairs. 
 The great question which divided the nation in the en- 
 suing four years was, whether England should make 
 peace with FYance without exacting from Philip V. a 
 resignation of the crown of Spain. After a violent con- 
 test, the Tories — the peace party — prevailed. Saint John 
 was the principal (English) negotiator of the treaty of 
 Utrecht, (April, 1713,) which ended the long war of the 
 Spanish succession. He was created Viscount Boling- 
 broke in 1712, and about that time became a rival of 
 Harley, Earl of Oxford, who had been his friend. Sec- 
 onded by the influence of Lady Masham over the queen, 
 he became prime minister in place of Harley on the 27th 
 of July, 1714. But his triumph was of short duration. 
 The death of Queen Anne (August 1, 1714) deprived 
 him of power, and frustrated the plans which he is known 
 to have entertained for the restoration of the Stuart 
 dynasty. In the spring of 1715 he escaped to France 
 and entered the service of the Pretender, who appointed 
 him his prime minister. He was impeached of high 
 treason in the same year, and, having failed to appear 
 before his judges, was attainted by Parliament. 
 
 In his exile he corresponded with his old friends Pope 
 and Swift. He married in 1720 the widow of the Mar- 
 quis de Villette, a niece of Madame de Maintenon. He 
 was permitted to return to England in 1723, and recovered 
 Ids estate, but was not admitted into the House of Lords. 
 He maintained a long opposition to Walpole by articles 
 published in the " Craftsman." Among his works are a 
 " Dissertation on Parties," (1735,) " Remarks on the His- 
 tory of England," in twenty-four letters, first published 
 in the "Craftsman," (1743,) and "The Idea of a Patriot 
 King," (1749.) His works have little merit except the 
 style. His talents were rather brilliant than solid. " In 
 
 
 a, e, 1, o, it, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; m?t; n8t; good; moon 
 
BOLIVAR 
 
 385 
 
 BOLOGNI 
 
 his reasonings," says Dr. Blair, " he is for the most part 
 flimsy and false ; in his political writings, factious ; in 
 what he calls his philosophical ones, sophistical and 
 irreligious in the highest degree." He was brilliant in 
 conversation, and had a high reputation as an orator. 
 He died in December, 1751, having bequeathed some 
 manuscript essays on metaphysics and morals to David 
 Mallet, who published an edition of his works in five 
 volumes, (1754.) " His political writings," says the "Ed- 
 inburgh Review" for October, 1835, "are the works of a 
 skilful partisan — a master in the arts of insinuation and 
 sarcasm. They abound in animated and splendid pas- 
 and contain many sound constitutional truths 
 are now trite and common, but which had never 
 been so clearly stated nor so well expressed before." 
 See Goldsmith's "Life of Bolinfrbroke :" Chesterfield's 
 ind Letters ;" "Memoirs of Lord Bolingbroke," by G. 
 •,5; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1835, and Oc- 
 " Life of Lord Bolingbroke," London, 1770: Thomas 
 r, "Sketch of the Philosophical Character of Lord Boling- 
 1770: Kriedrich von Kacmer, "Lord Bolingbroke uiid 
 seine W'erke," '.S41 ; Charles de Remusat, "Bolingbroke, sa Vie 
 et son Temps," 1S53. 
 
 Bolivar, bo-lee'vaR, (Greoorio,) a Spanish mission- 
 ary to Mexico and South America, lived about 1620. 
 
 Bol'I-var, [Sp. pron. bo-lee'yaR,] or, more fullv, Boli- 
 var y Poute, bo-lee'vaR e pon'ta, (Simon,) the liberator 
 of South America, was born at Caraccas in July, 1783, 
 and inherited a large estate from his father. He was lib- 
 erally educated at Madrid, and returned to his native 
 land in 1S09. In 1S11 he joined the insurgents who had 
 ■\ up arms to liberate their country from the Span- 
 domination, and became a colonel under Miranda. 
 1 He obtained the command of an army in 1813, defeated 
 
 I' the royalists, and declared himself dictator, but was driven 
 out of Venezuela in 1814- In 1815 he took refuge from 
 the victorious Spaniards by flight to Jamaica. He returned 
 to the scene of contest in 1816, and raised another army, 
 which defeated the Spaniards under Morillo in February, 
 1817. At a congress of the republic of Venezuela, held 
 in February, iSiq, he resigned his dictatorship, or ex- 
 changed it for the title of president. His army in the 
 same year defeated the royalists at Bojaca and other 
 places, and liberated New Granada. In December, 1819, 
 Venezuela and New Granada united to form the repub- 
 lic of Colombia, of which Bolivar became the first presi- 
 dent. He gained a decisive victory at Carobobo in June, 
 1821, and in 1822 marched with an army to Peru, which, 
 with his aid, was quickly liberated from the Spaniards. 
 The independence of the South American republics was 
 recognized by Fngland and the United States. About 
 the end of 1823 Bolivar was appointed Dictator of rem. 
 The war having been ended bv a decisive victory over 
 the royalists at Ayacucho in December, 1824, Bolivar 
 resigned the office of Dictator of Peru in January or Feb- 
 ruary, 1S25. The same year he visited Upper Peru, which 
 was formed into a separate state, called Bolivia, of which 
 he was declared perpetual protector. He framed for this 
 state a code or constitution by which the executive power 
 was vested in a president for life with irresponsible powers. 
 This caused him to be suspected of designs against popu- 
 lar liberty. During his absence from Colombia, Paez 
 rebelled against the government, which was too feeble to 
 suppress his rebellion. The enemies of Bolivar intimated 
 that he fomented this revolt in order to impress on the 
 minds of the people the necessity of a dictator. He re- 
 1 in 1826, and restored order by his presence. In 
 nber of that year he was declared president for life of 
 which had adopted the Bolivian code. About this 
 date he was again elected President of Colombia. He 
 nowever, regarded with distrust by the republicans, 
 and formally resigned in February, 1827 ; but, as the Con- 
 gress refused to accept his resignation, he remained in 
 power. Some writers state that he retired to private life 
 months before his death. He died at San Pedro 
 ember, 1830. The result of his military services 
 was the independence of three large states, which he 
 ized with ability. 
 See \inerican Review" for January, 1S20, vol. xxviii.. 
 
 to:) iH'CounRAY-Hot.sTRiN, " Memoires de S. Boli- 
 ■-"), and English translation of the same, 2 vols., 1^30. 
 
 Bolkbovitinov or Bolchowitinow, bol-ko-vee'te- 
 a Russian archbishop and historical writer, born in 
 
 1 761. He wrote, besides other works, " Literary Russia," 
 which was translated into German by Strahl in 1828. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Bolla, bol'la, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian burlesque 
 poet, born at Bergamo about 1540. He wrote verses 
 called " macaronic." 
 
 Bol'lan, (William,) a lawyer, born in England, re- 
 moved to Massachusetts about 1740. He was sent to 
 England in 1745 as agent of the colony, and remained 
 there many years, during which he rendered valuable 
 services to Massachusetts and wrote several political 
 tracts. Died in 1776. 
 
 Bollandus, bol-lan'diis, (John,) a Flemish Jesuit, 
 born in the province of Limburg in 1596. He was the 
 first of the theological writers called Bollandists, the 
 contributors to the great work entitled " Acta Sanc- 
 torum," or Lives of the Saints. In 1643 he published, 
 conjointly with Godfrey Henschen, the first two volumes, 
 in folio. Died in 1665. The "Acta Sanctorum" was con- 
 tinued by several learned men, and in 1 794 had reached 
 fifty-four volumes. 
 
 See L. P. Gachard, "Memoire historique sur les Bollandistes," 
 1835. 
 
 Bollandus, bol-lan'diis, or De Bollandt, deh bol'- 
 lant, (Sebastiaan,) a Dutch theologian and philosopher, 
 born at Maestricht. Died in 1645. 
 
 Bollemont, de, deh bol'moN', (Francois Charles 
 Robert ChourT,) a French general, born at Arrancy 
 in 1749, served under Jourdan in Austria, and rose to 
 be inspector-general of artillery. Died in 1810. 
 
 Bollet, bo'UV, (Philippe Albert,) a French Jacobin, 
 and member of the National Convention, (1792,) voted 
 for the death of the king. He subsequently became a 
 member of the Council of Five Hundred, and of the 
 legislative body. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Bollioud-Mermet, bo'le-oo' meVmk', (Louis,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Lyons in 1709 ; died in 1793. 
 
 Bollman, bol'man, (Eric,) a German physician, born 
 in Hanover about 1770. He made an unsuccessful effort 
 to release La Fayette from prison at Olmutz, and after- 
 wards passed some years in exile in the United States. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 Bologna, bo-16n'ya, (Antonio,) an Italian writer, 
 born about 1580. 
 
 Bologna, (Giovanni Battista,) a Latin poet, born 
 at Milan about 1580, wrote the "Crown of Poets," ("Co- 
 rona Poetarum," 1616.) 
 
 Bologna, da, da bo-lon'yi, (Giovanni, or John,) [Fr. 
 [kan de Bologne, /.1i6n (leh bo'lon',] generally called 
 John (Giovanni) ok Bologna, an eminent sculptor and 
 architect, born at Douai, in Flanders, in 1 524. He passed 
 the greater part of his life in Italy, principally at Flor- 
 ence, where he became acquainted with Michael Angelo. 
 He was one of the first members of the Academy of 
 Florence. Among his master-pieces in that city are the 
 bronze statue of Mercury in the Imperial Gallery, the 
 " Rape of the Sabines," a statue of Saint Luke, and a 
 "Centaur vanquished by Hercules." The fountain at 
 Bologna, with a colossal bronze figure of Neptune, is 
 ranked among the finest works of the kind ; and Irom 
 this production the artist received his name. He also 
 executed a number of excellent pieces of sculpture at 
 Genoa. As a sculptor he is regarded as inferior only to 
 Michael Angelo. Died in 1608. 
 
 See Vasari " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors ;" Cicognara, 
 "Storia delta Scultura ;" Fontenay, " Dictionnaire des Artistes ; 
 Ttcnzzi, " Dizionario ;" Duthilloeul, " Eloge de Jean de Bologne, 
 1820. 
 
 Bologna, de, (Lattanv.io.) See Mainardi. 
 
 Bologne, de, deh bo'lon', (Pierre,) a lyric poet, of 
 Italian extraction, born in Martinique in 1706; died in 
 1700. 
 
 Bolognese. See Grimat.di. 
 
 Bolognetti, bo-lAn-yet'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Bologna about 1540. 
 
 •Bolognetti, (Pompeo,) an Italian physician, born at 
 Bologna about 1 S90. 
 
 Bologni, bo-l&n'yee, (Girolamo,) born at Treviso in 
 1454, was the author of Latin poems, and edited several 
 Latin classics. He became a priest in 1479, after he had 
 married. He was crowned as poet-laureate by the em- 
 peror Frederick III. Died at Treviso in 15 17. 
 
 , Mi; 9 as,; g hard; g as/; c, H, K,p,ttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas«; th as in this. (W See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 2? 
 
 
BOLOGNINI 
 
 386 
 
 BON 
 
 Bolognini, bo-16n-yee'nee, (Angelo,) an Italian phy- 
 sician and surgeon, born near Padua about 1490, wrote 
 " On the Cure of External Ulcers," (" De Cura Ulcerum 
 exteriorum," 1514.) He was professor at Bologna. 
 
 Bolognini, (Carlo,) an Italian painter of architecture, 
 born at Bologna in 1678; died at Vienna in 1718. 
 
 Bolognini, (Giacomo,) a painter, a nephew of the 
 following, was born at Bologna in 1664; died in 1734. 
 
 Bolognini, (Giovanni Battista,) called the Elder, 
 an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 161 1. He was a 
 pupil of Guido, whose works he copied with great suc- 
 cess. He also etched some works after that master. 
 Died in 1688. 
 
 Bolignini, (Giovanni Battista,) the Younger, an 
 Italian sculptor, son of Giacomo, noticed above, born at 
 Bologna; died in 1760. 
 
 Bolognini, (Luigi,) an Italian jurist, legal writer, and 
 diplomatist, born at Bologna in 1447 ; died in 1508. 
 
 Bolomier, de, deh bo'lo'me-4', (Guillaume,) secre- 
 tary of Amadeus VIII. of Savoy, rose to be chancellor 
 of the kingdom. He was put to death, on a charge of 
 calumny, in 1446. 
 
 Bolot, bo'lo', (Claude Antoine,) a French jurist, 
 and member of the National Convention, born in Franche- 
 Comte about 1740. He voted for the death of Louis 
 XVI. with a delay of the sentence. Died in 1812. 
 
 Bolsec, bol'sek', (Jerome Hermes,) a French phy- 
 sician, born in Paris, wrote virulent attacks on Calvin 
 and Beza. Died in 1585. 
 
 Bolswert, bol'sweRt, or Bolsward, bol'swaRt, (Boe- 
 tius Adam,) an eminent Dutch engraver, born in Fries- 
 land about 1580, lived at Antwerp. Among his works 
 are a " Last Supper," a " Resurrection of Lazarus," after 
 Rubens, and landscapes after Bloemaert. Died in 1634. 
 
 See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon;" Huber, "Ma- 
 nuel des Amateurs." 
 
 Bolswert or Bolsward, (Scheltius,) an excellent 
 engraver, brother of the preceding, born at Bolsward in 
 1586, resided in Antwerp. His prints after Rubens, Van 
 Dyck, and Jordaens are highly esteemed. 
 
 See Heinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Boltin, bol'tin, (Ivan,) a Russian litterateur and his- 
 torian, born at Saint Petersburg in 1735 ; died in 1792. 
 
 Bol'ton or BSul'ton, (Edmund,) an English anti- 
 quary and historical writer, published "The Elements 
 of Armories," a " Life of Henry II.," and "Nero Caesar, 
 or Monarchic Depraved," (1624.) 
 
 Bolton, (James,) an English naturalist, who lived 
 about 1770-1800. He published a "History of British 
 Ferns," (1795,) " Natural History of British Song-Birds," 
 (2 vols., 1794-96,) and other works. 
 
 Bolton, (Matthew.) See Boulton. 
 
 Bolton, (Robert,) an English scholar and Puritan 
 divine, born in Lancashire in 1572, published " Helpes 
 to Humiliation," and other works. Died in 1631. 
 
 See E. Bagsuaw, " Life of Robert Bolton." 
 
 Bolton, (Robert,) Dean of Carlisle, born in 1697, 
 published " Letters and Tracts on the Choice of Com- 
 pany," and other treatises. Died in 1763. 
 
 Bol'ton, (Sarah T.,) an American poetess of the 
 present century, born in Ohio, was a contributor to the 
 " Home Journal" of New York, and other periodicals. 
 
 See Griswold's " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Bolts, bolts, (Wii.lem,) born in Holland about 1740, 
 entered the service of the English East India Company, 
 and acquired an immense fortune. He wrote "Consid- 
 erations on the Affairs of India," and a work on Bengal. 
 Died in 1808. 
 
 Bolzani, bol-za'nee, or Bolzanio, bol-za'ne-o, (Ur- 
 bano Valeriano,) an Italian monk and Greek scholar, 
 born in 1440, published a Greek grammar. Died in 1524. 
 
 Bolzano, bol-za'no, (Bernhard,) a German Catholic 
 theologian and philosophical writer, born at Prague in 
 1781. He published, among other works, "Athanasra, 
 or Proofs of the Immortality of the Soul." Died in 1848. 
 
 Bom, bom, (Peter,) a Flemish landscape-painter, born 
 it Antwerp in 1530, painted in distemper. Died in 1572. 
 
 Bomare. See Valmont de Bomare. 
 
 Bombaci, bom-ba'chee, (Gasparo,) an Italian, born at 
 Bologna in 1607, wrote a " History of Bologna," (1666.) 
 
 Bombardini, bom-baR-dee'nee, (Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian jurist, and professor of law at Padua, where he was 
 born in 1666; died in 1726. 
 
 Bombasio, bom-ba'se-o, written also Bombace, 
 (Gabriello,) an Italian poet and orator, born at Reggio 
 about 1540. He was patronized by the Duke of Parma. 
 He wrote "Alidoro," a tragedy, and other works. 
 
 Bombelles, de, deh bom'beY, (Henri Francois,) 
 Comte, a French general and military writer, born in 
 1680, distinguished himself at the battles of Oudenarde, 
 Malplaquet, and Belgrade, (1717.) Died in 1760. 
 
 Bombelles, de, (Marc Marie,) Marquis, son of 
 the preceding, was born at Bitche in 1744. He served in 
 the Seven Years' war, and was subsequently employed 
 in various embassies to the courts of England, Holland, 
 and Austria. He afterwards entered into orders, and 
 was made Bishop of Amiens, (1819.) Died in 1822. 
 
 See De Courcelles, "Dictionnaire des Ge'tvfraux Francais." 
 
 Bombelli, bom-bel'lee, (Rafaello,) a distinguished 
 Italian mathematician, born at Bologna. His principal 
 work is a "Treatise on Algebra," (1572.) He appears to 
 have been one of the first Europeans who were aware 
 that the Arabs derived their knowledge of algebra from 
 the Hindoos. 
 
 See G. Libri, " Histoire des Sciences mathimatiques en Italic" 
 
 Bombelli, (Sebastiano,) an Italian portrait-painter, 
 born in Friuli in 1635 ; died about 1685. 
 
 See LANZt, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bomberg, bom'MRG, (Daniel,) a printer of Antwerp, 
 celebrated for the beauty of his Hebrew characters. 
 Among his works are several editions of the Hebrew 
 Bible, the " Hebraic Concordance" of Isaac Nathan, and 
 the "Babylonish Talmud." Died in 1549. 
 
 See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Bombino, bom-bee'no, (Bernardino,) an Italian 
 jurist, born at Cosenza In 1523; died in 1588. 
 
 Bomfim, b6N-feN', (Joze Joaquim,) a distinguished 
 Portuguese general and statesman, born in Estremadura 
 in 1790, was one of the partisans of Dom Pedro in Portu- 
 gal, and of Donna Maria on her accession to the throne. 
 He was appointed minister of war and of the marine in 
 1837. After the downfall of the constitution, he was 
 banished to Africa, whence he was recalled in 1847. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Bo-mil'car, [Gr. Bo/u'A/rac or Boa/i'ilmc,] a Carthagin- 
 ian admiral, who commanded a fleet which was sent about 
 209 B.C. to support the army which defended Syracuse 
 against the Romans. He avoided a battle by a hasty 
 retreat, and returned to Carthage. 
 
 Bomilcar, a Carthaginian general, who aspired to be 
 king of Carthage about 308 B.C., but failed and was put 
 to death. 
 
 Bommel, van, vSn bom'mel, [Lat. Bomme'lius,] 
 (Hendrik,) a Dutch historical writer. Died in 1542. 
 
 Bommel, van, (Kornelis Richard Antoon,) a 
 Catholic theologian, born at Leyden in 1790, became 
 Bishop of Liege in 1829. Died in 1852. 
 
 Bompard, b6N'ptR r , (Alexis,) a French physician, 
 born at Conflans in 1782, wrote, besides other works, a 
 " Treatise on the Diseases of the Digestive Passages," 
 ("Traite des Maladies des Voies digestives," 1829.) 
 
 Bompiano, bom-pe-a'no, (Ignazio,) an Italian Jesuit 
 and historical writer, born at Frosinone in 1612, became 
 professor of Hebrew and belles-lettres in the Roman 
 College. Died in 1675. 
 
 Bon, b6N, (Florent,) a French Jesuit and poet, born 
 about 1580, resided at Rheims. 
 
 Bon, bon, (Giovanni Filippo,) an Italian physician, 
 and professor in the University of Padua, born in 1520. 
 
 Bon, (Louis Andre,) a French general, born at Ro-. 
 mans, in Dauphiny, in 1758. He served with distinction 
 under Augereau in Italy, and subsequently in the cam- 
 paigns of Egypt and Syria. He was killed at the siege 
 of Saint-Jean-d'Acre in 1 799. 
 
 See De Courcelles, "Dictionnaire des GeneYaux Francais." 
 
 Bon de Saint-Hilaire, d6n deh saNt'e'liR', (Fran- 
 cois Xavier,) a French savant, born at Montpellier in 
 1678, was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and 
 of the Royal Society of London. He published a num- 
 ber of scientific treatises, one of which, entitled a "l)is- 
 
 a, e, I, o, u y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
 
BONA 
 
 387 
 
 BONAPARTE 
 
 sertationon the Spider," (1 710,) obtained extensive popu- 
 larity and was translated into Chinese. Died in 1761. 
 See Le Bas, "Diclionnaire encyclopexiique de la France." 
 
 Bona, bo'na, (Giovanni,) an Italian cardinal, born at 
 Mondovi in 1609, was the author of several ecclesias- 
 tical and religious works in Latin. Died in 1674. 
 
 See Brrtolotti, "Vita J. Bonae," 1677; Gouget, "Vie du Car- 
 dinal Bona." 
 
 Bona, della, del'li bo'na, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 physician, born near Verona in 1712, was professor at 
 the University of Padua. 
 
 Bonac, de, deh bo'nik', (Jean Louis d'Usson — 
 dti'sdN',) Marquis, a French diplomatist, born about 
 1672, was employed by Louis XIV. in important em- 
 bassies to Sweden, Poland, and Spain. In 1716 he was 
 ambassador to Constantinople, where he resided nine 
 years. Died in 1738. 
 
 Bonacci, (Leonardo.) See Leonardo of Pisa. 
 
 Bonaccioli, bo-nat-cho'lee, or Bonacciuoli, bo-nat- 
 choo-o'lee, (Alfonso,) an Italian litterateur, born about 
 1540. He translated the first and second parts of Strabo's 
 Geography into Italian; also portions of Pausanias. 
 
 Bonaccioli, (Luigi,) an Italian physician, born at 
 Ferrara about 14S0. 
 
 Bonacina, bo-na-chee'na, (Marttno,) an Italian ec- 
 clesiastic and theological writer, born at Milan; died in 
 1631. 
 
 Bonacossi, bo-na-kos'see, (Bardellone,) son of 
 Pinamonte, noticed below, having imprisoned his father 
 and brother, caused himself to be proclaimed sovereign 
 of Mantua in 1292. He was deposed in 1299 by his 
 nephew Bottesella. Died about 1302. 
 
 Bonacossi, (Passerino,) a relative of the preceding, 
 expelled the Guelphs from Mantua, and obtained from 
 the emperor Henry VII. the title of imperial vicar. He 
 was killed in a riot about 1328. 
 
 Bonacossi, (Pinamonte,) Prefect of Mantua, became 
 reign of that city about 1275, having murdered his 
 colleague, and sided alternately with the Guelph and 
 Ghibeline factions. He is mentioned in Dante's " In- 
 ferno." Died in 1293. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Rrfpubliques Italiennes." 
 
 Bo-na-cos'sus or Buoncossa, bqo-6n'kos'sa, (Er- 
 cou ,) an Italian physician, and professor in the Univer- 
 sity of Bologna, was a native of Ferrara. Died in 1578. 
 
 Bo'na De'a, [Fr. Bonne Deesse, bon da'Sss',] ("The 
 Good Goddess,") a Roman divinity, supposed to be the 
 sister or wife of Faunus, and by some authors identified 
 with Ops. She was worshipped by the Roman matrons 
 at an annual festival and with mysterious rites, from 
 which all males were strictly excluded. 
 
 Bonafide, bo-na-fee'di, or Buonafede, bQo^n-a- 
 fa'da, (Francesco,) an Italian botanist, born at Padua 
 in 1474. He founded the botanic garden in that city in 
 1540. Died in 1558. 
 
 See R. de Visiani, "Notizie della Vita di Bonafede," 1845. 
 
 Bonafous, bo'na'foo', ( ? ) (Mathif.u,) an agriculturist, 
 born at Turin in 1794, wrote on the production of silk and 
 on other branches of rural economy. Died in 1852. 
 
 Bonair, bo'nSR', (Henri Stuard,) a French histori- 
 cal writer, lived about 1650. 
 
 BonaL de, deh bo'nil , (Francois,) born in the dio- 
 cese of Agen, in France, in 1734, was appointed Bishop 
 of Clermont in 1776, and was afterwards elected to the 
 States-General. Died in 1800. 
 
 Bonald, de, deh bo'nil',(Louis Gabriel Ambroise,) 
 Vicomte, a French statesman and journalist of the roy- 
 alist party, born near Milhau-en-Rouergue in 1754. He 
 was associated in 1806 with Chateaubriand and Fievee 
 as editor of the "Mercure," became minister of state in 
 1822 and a peer of France in 1823. He was the author 
 »f " The Theory of Political and Religious Power," (3 
 vols., 1796,) "La Legislation primitive," (3 vols., 2d 
 edition, 1821,) and other works, in which he favours ab- 
 solutism. He was a member of the French Academy. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 See Henri de Bokald, "Notice mirle Vicomte de Bonald," 1841. 
 
 Bonald, de, (Louis Jacques Maurice,) son of the 
 preceding, born at Milhau in 1787, was made Archbishop 
 of Lyons in 1839, became a cardinal in i84i,and a senator 
 in 1851. He was a legitimist in politics. Died in 1870. 
 
 Bonami, bo'ni'me', (Francois,) a French naturalist 
 and scientific writer, born at Nantes in 1710. Du Petit- 
 Thouars has called by his name the genus Bonamia. 
 Died in 1786. 
 
 Bonamici. See Buonamici. 
 
 Bonamy, bo'ni'me', (Charles Auguste Jean Baf- 
 tiste Louis Joseph,) born at Fontenay-le-Comte in 
 1764, served with distinction in the army of Napoleon in 
 Italy, Austria, and Russia, and rose to be general of 
 brigade. Died in 1830. 
 
 Bonamy, (Pierre Nicolas,) a French historical 
 writer, born at Louvres in 1694; died in 1770. 
 
 Bonanni, bo-nan'nee, or Buonanni, boo-o-nan'nee, 
 (Filippo,) an Italian naturalist and antiquary, born in 
 Rome in 1638, published, besides other works, " Gabi- 
 netto armonico," (1716.) Died in 1725. 
 
 Bonaparte, bo-na-paR'ta, (Carlo,) a Corsican law- 
 yer, born in 1744 was the father of Napoleon I. He 
 was a partisan of Pascal Paoli, with whom he fought 
 against the Genoese. He married the beautiful l.etitia 
 (Letizia) Ramolino in 1767, and had five sons and three 
 daughters. Died at Montpellier in February, 1785. 
 
 Bonaparte, (Caroline Marie Annonciade,) Queen 
 of Naples, a sister of Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio 
 in 1782. She was married in 1800 to General Murat, who 
 became King of Naples in July, 1808. She is said to 
 have exercised a great influence over her husband, and 
 to have taken an active part in the government. After 
 the death of Murat (1815) she assumed the title of 
 Countess of Lipona, and resided at Trieste for many 
 years. Died at Florence in 1839. 
 
 Bonaparte, (Charles Lucien Jules Laurent,) 
 Prince de Canino, an eminent naturalist, born in Paris 
 in 1803, was the eldest son of Lucien Bonaparte. He 
 married his cousin Zenai'de, a daughter of King Joseph, 
 in 1822, soon after which he became a resident of Phila- 
 delphia and devoted himself to ornithology. He pub- 
 lished a valuable work, entitled "American Ornithology, 
 or History of the Birds of the United States," (Phila- 
 delphia, 3 vols., 1825-33,) which is complementary to 
 Wilson's Ornithology. In 1828 he settled in Italy. He 
 took a prominent part in organizing the Roman republic, 
 (1848-49.) Among his chief works is " Illustrations of 
 the Italian Fauna," (" Iconografia della Fauna Italica," 
 3 vols., 1832-41,) which has a high reputation. He had 
 four sons and eight daughters. Died in Paris in 1857. 
 
 Bonaparte, (Jerome,) King of Westphalia, the young- 
 est brother of Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio in No- 
 vember, 1784. He entered the navy in 1800, obtained 
 the rank of lieutenant, and served in the West Indies. 
 During a visit to the United States he became acquainted 
 with Miss Paterson, of Baltimore, whom he married in 
 1803 without the consent of his family. His marriage 
 was declared null in 1805 by Napoleon, who would 
 not permit the wife to enter France ; but he pro- 
 moted Jerome to the rank of rear-admiral in 1806. In 
 the same year he passed from the navy into the army as 
 a general of brigade. He commanded a corps which 
 gained some successes in Silesia in 1807, and was 
 placed on the throne of the new kingdom of West- 
 phalia in July, 1807. In the ensuing month he married 
 Catherine, a daughter of the King of Wurtembcrg. Cas- 
 sel was the capital of his kingdom. He ceased to reign 
 in October, 1813. After the return of Napoleon from 
 Elba, he joined his standard, and commanded a division 
 at Waterloo. He resided as an exile at Trieste, Rome, 
 and Lausanne until 1847, when he returned to France. 
 He became a marshal of France in 1850. He died in 
 June, i860, leaving two sons, Jerome, (whose mother 
 was Miss Paterson,) and Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul, 
 called Prince Napoleon, issue of his second marriage. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," (under the head of Nato- 
 leon.) 
 
 Bonaparte, (Joseph,) the eldest brother of Napo- 
 leon I., was born at Corte, in the island of Corsica, 
 on the 7th of January, 1768. He was sent to the Col- 
 lege of Autun about 1777, and returned to Corsica in 
 1784, after which he studied law at Pisa, and was re- 
 ceived as an advocate in Bastia in 1788. Expelled from 
 Corsica by the partisans of Paoli m 1793, he retired to 
 France, and married Julie Clary. In May, 1797, he was 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (2^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BONAPARTE 
 
 388 
 
 BONAPARTE 
 
 sent as ambassador to the court of Rome, and received 
 from Napoleon instructions in which occur the following 
 sentences : " Display a grand character. If the pope 
 dies, permit not another to be chosen." On the murder 
 of the French general Duphot by the Papal troops, De- 
 cember, 1797, he returned to Paris, and became a mem- 
 ber of the Council of Five Hundred. He negotiated the 
 treaty of Luneville with Austria in February, 1801, and 
 the treaty of Amiens with the English in March, 1802. 
 His manners and talents are said to have been well 
 adapted to diplomacy. He seems to have been rather 
 unambitious; but, urged by the imperious will of Napo- 
 leon, he accepted the throne of Naples, February, 1806. 
 On this occasion the imperial egotist addressed to him 
 these words : "All sentiments of affection yield now to 
 reasons of state. I recognize as relatives only those 
 who serve me." In May, 180S, he quitted Naples, and 
 was transferred to the thfone of Spain, where he en- 
 countered a far more determined resistance. He entered 
 Madrid with the French army in July, 1808, but received 
 little support from the Spaniards, many thousands of 
 whom took arms against the French. He was forced to 
 retire from Madrid, July 31; but Napoleon arrived in 
 November, gained several victories in rapid succession, 
 and occupied the capital in December, 1808. In 1809 a 
 large portion of Spain was occupied by the French 
 armies, severally commanded by Soult, Victor, and Suchet, 
 over whom the authority of the king was only nominal. 
 Disgusted with his anomalous and vexatious position, 
 he offered his resignation or abdication, (March, 1S09,) 
 which Napoleon would not accept. His army fought an 
 indecisive battle against the English under General Wel- 
 lesley, at Talavera, in July, 1809. The war was prose- 
 cuted with various success for several years. (See M.vs- 
 sena; Soult; Wellington.) Joseph was appointed 
 general-in-chief of all the French armies in Spain in 
 March, 1812, and was defeated by Wellington at Victoria 
 in June, 1813, soon after which event he ceased to reign. 
 When Napoleon departed from Paris for the army, in 
 January, 1814, he left Joseph at that capital, with the title 
 of lieutenant-general. After the battle of Waterloo, he 
 emigrated to the United States, styled himself Count de 
 Survilliers, and resided at liordentown, New Jersey, with 
 his two daughters. After the accession of Louis Philippe 
 to the throne of France, in 1830, Joseph Bonaparte re- 
 turned to Europe. He passed several years in England, 
 and afterwards settled at Florence, in Italy, where he 
 died in 1844. (See Bonaparte, Napoleon.) 
 
 See A du Casse, " Memoires et Correspondance du Roi Joseph," 
 10 vols., 1854: Thihks, " Histoire du Consulat et de I'bmpire :" 
 " Biographical Sketch of Joseph Bonaparte," London, 1S33; " Nou- 
 velle Biographic Generale, " (under Napoleon.) 
 
 Bonaparte, (Lf.tizia or LbTIXIA Ramolino (ra-mo- 
 lee'noi or Ramolini,) the mother of Napoleon I., was 
 born in Corsica in 1750. She was celebrated for her 
 beauty ; she was also a woman of amiable character and 
 good sense. Napoleon once declared, " It is to my mother 
 and her good principles that I owe my fortune and all 
 the good that I have ever done ;" and again, " Madame 
 Mere had a great character, energy of soul, much ele- 
 vation and pride." After her son became emperor, she 
 was styled Madame Mere, and resided in Paris. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Bonaparte, (Louis,) King of Holland, a brother of 
 Napoleon I., was born at Ajaccio in 1778. He entered 
 the army about 1794, and served in Italy at the battles 
 of the Hrenta, Areola, (1796,) and Rivoli, (1797.) Hav- 
 ing aided Napoleon in the coup d'etat of the iSth Bru- 
 maire, 1799, he was raised to the rank of colonel. In 
 1802 he was induced to sacrifice his own inclinations and 
 peace by a marriage with Hortense de Beauharnais, who 
 was also averse to the union. They separated finally in 
 1S07. He became a general of division in April, 1804, and 
 was raised to the dignity of prince in May of that year. 
 In compliance with the will of Napoleon, he accepted 
 the title of King of Holland in June, 1806. The Dutch 
 submitted quietly, perhaps contentedly, to the authority 
 of Louis, who was disposed to respect their rights and 
 consult their interests ; but Napoleon insisted that the 
 policy of Holland should be subservient to his own de- 
 signs. Louis was compelled to sacrifice the mercantile 
 
 interests of Holland by co-operation with the " Conti- 
 nental System," i.e. the paper blockade of the British 
 ports. On this and other subjects he and the emperor 
 had disputes which ended in a total suspension of friendly 
 relations. In December, 1809, there occurred at Paris a 
 meeting of allied sovereigns, which Louis attended. When 
 he was about to return, he found himself treated as a pris- 
 oner, and was not permitted to leave Paris until he sub- 
 mitted to certain conditions which Napoleon imposed. In 
 January, 1810, the French army began to occupy Holland. 
 Louis abdicated in July, 1810, and Holland was then an- 
 nexed to the French Empire. He retired to private life, 
 and resided successively at Rome and Florence. Died 
 at Leghorn in 1846. He was author of several works, 
 among which may be noticed " Historical Documents 
 and Reflections on the Government of Holland," (3 vols., 
 1S20.) He had three sons, — Napoleon, who died in 1S07 ; 
 Napoleon Louis, who died in 1831 ; and Louis Napoleon, 
 now Emperor of France. 
 
 See " Memoires sur la Cour de Louis Napoleon et sur la Hollnnde." 
 Paris, 1S2S; Thiers, "Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire;" F, 
 Wuuters, " Les Bonaparte depuis 1S15 jusqu'en 1846," 184S, 
 
 Bonaparte, (Louis Lucien,) a son of Lucien, and 
 nephew of Napoleon I., was born in England in 1813. 
 He was elected to the Constituent Assembly of France 
 in 1848. In 1852 he became a senator, and received the 
 title of prince. 
 
 Bonaparte, (Louis Napoleon.) See Napoleon III. 
 
 Bonaparte, (Lucien,) Prince de Canino, a brother 
 of Napoleon I., born at Ajaccio in March, 1775, was one 
 of the ablest members of the family. He was educated 
 at the College of Autun and the school of Brienne. In 
 the French Revolution he showed himself a zealous 
 republican, and acted with much energy and moderation 
 on several occasions. In 1795 he married Christine 
 Boyer, a poor girl of Provence, and was appointed 
 commissary of war. He was elected to the Council of 
 Five Hundred in April, 1798, acquired great influence, 
 and became an opponent of the Directory, — or rather of 
 the policy of the Directors; for he supported the Consti- 
 tution of the year III. He united with Sieves, who was 
 elected a Director in May, 1798, and counteracted the 
 Jacobins. After the return of Napoleon from Egypt, 
 October, 1799, Lucien was elected president of the Five 
 Hundred. He co-operated most efficiently with Napo- 
 leon in the revolution of the 18th Brumaire, November 
 9, 1799. According to some authorities, he acted with 
 more resolution and firmness in this affair than Napoleon 
 himself. Lucien was appointed minister of the interior 
 in December, 1799, was sent as ambassador to Spain in 
 November, rSoo, and became a member of the Tribunat 
 in 1802. He offended the First Consul by marrying, in 
 1S03, a widow named Madame Jouberthon. His first 
 wife had died about 1800. He went into exile in 1S04, 
 settled at Rome, and exchanged politics for literature 
 and art. The emperor offered him a throne on condition 
 that he must dissolve his marriage ; but he declined the 
 offer. He was ordered, it is said, to quit the continent 
 of Europe. He embarked for the United States in 1S10, 
 was captured during the voyage by an English cruiser, 
 and detained in England until 1814. He was reconciled 
 to Napoleon in 181 5, supported him actively during the 
 Hundred Days, and after his abdication advocated in the 
 House of Peers the claim of Napoleon II. He passed 
 the remainder of his life in exile in Italy, and wrote, be- 
 sides other works, a poem entitled "Charlemagne," (2 
 vols., 1S14,) and "Autobiographic Memoirs," (i8;6.) 
 He had six daughters and five sons, Charles Lucien 
 the naturalist, Paul, Louis Lucien, Pierre Napoleon, 
 and Antoine. Died at Rome in 1S40. 
 
 See P. W. Forchhammer, "Denkrede auf den Fursten von Ca- 
 nino L. Bonaparte," 1840. 
 
 Bonaparte, (Lucien,) Cardinal, a son of Charles 
 Bonaparte, Prince of Canino, was born about 1828. His 
 mother was Zenai'de Charlotte Julie, a daughter of Jo- 
 seph Bonaparte. He was ordained a priest in 1853. and 
 became a cardinal in 1868. He is said to be remarkable 
 for his personal resemblance to Napoleon I. 
 
 Bonaparte, (Marie Anne Elisa,) usually called 
 Elisa, Princess de Piombino, a sister of Napoleon I., 
 was born at Ajaccio in 1777. She was mairied in 1797 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon: 
 
 
BONAPARTE 
 
 389 
 
 BONAPARTE 
 
 to Felix BacCiochi, a captain of the French army, and 
 went to reside in Paris in 1798. In 1805 Lucca and 
 Piombino were erected into a principality by Napoleon, 
 who gave the sovereignty of the same to his sister Elisa. 
 She became Grand Duchess of Tuscany in March, 1809, 
 and governed that country with ability until 1814. Died 
 near Trieste in 1820. 
 
 Bonaparte, bo'na-part, or Buonaparte, (Napo'- 
 LEON,) IFr. Napoleon Bonaparte, ni'po'la'ds' bo'- 
 ni'pJKt'; It. Napoleons Bonaparte, (or Buonaparte,) 
 na-po-la-o'ni bo'na-paK'ta, (or boo-o'na-paR'ti,)] NAPO- 
 LEON I., Emperor of the French, the greatest general of 
 Modem times, was born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, August 
 15,1769. His father, Carlo Buonaparte, was an officer 
 under General Paoli, and distinguished himself as one 
 of the bravest and most energetic defenders of the liber- 
 ties of his country against the French. In the hardships 
 and dangers of that contest he was accompanied by his 
 wife Letitia, (whose maiden name was Ramui.ino, ra- 
 Uo-lee'no,) a young woman of rare beauty as well as 
 courage. It is said that she was suddenly taken in labour 
 at mass, and, having reached her home in haste, her 
 child was born on a piece of old tapestry on which 
 were represented the battle-scenes of the Iliad. The 
 child thus ushered into the world, the offspring of war- 
 like parents and surrounded by the images of war, is 
 said to have been not only singularly beautiful, but verv 
 gentle and easiiv managed until he was two years old. 
 At this age his character suddenly changed : he became 
 imperious, and was invincibly obstinate to those who 
 sought to control him by menaces or by force. In the 
 childish disputes that occurred between him and his 
 elder brother Joseph, Napoleon, it is said, invariably 
 came off conqueror. His mother, however, by com- 
 bining moderation with firmness, succeeded at length in 
 obtaining a complete ascendency over him. He after- 
 wards said, " It is to ray mother, and to the principles 
 which she instilled into me, that I owe my fortune and 
 all the good that I have ever done." " Nevertheless," 
 says his biographer in the " Nouvelle Biographic Gene- 
 rale," "we may well believe that this education, with all 
 its efficiency, was somewhat wanting in tenderness. Napo- 
 leon was educated to be one of Plutarch's Heroes. He 
 was not, perhaps, sufficiently imbued with those gentle, 
 refined, and benevolent sentiments which form the very 
 essence of the moral sense. The standard of virtue on 
 which his character was moulded was that of antiquity : 
 it was force mastering itself in order that it might become 
 the master of others." Before he was ten years old, 
 (April, 1779,) Napoleon left Corsica for the military school 
 at Brienne, where he remained until he went (October, 
 17^4) to the military school at Paris to complete his 
 education. While at Brienne he was for some time 
 under the instruction of Pichegru. He was distinguished 
 for his proficiency in mathematics ; but he manifested no 
 fondness for classical studies or for belles-lettres in any 
 form. He was studious, of regular habits, well-behaved, 
 and enjoyed excellent health. He took a particular In- 
 in history, in which his favourite authors were Plu- 
 
 . C.nesar, Arrian. and others of this class. His father 
 
 died in February, 1 785, at the early age of thirty-six. In 
 
 Septemlxr of the same year Napoleon received a com- 
 
 >n as sub-lieutenant of artillery ; but he was soon 
 
 made first lieutenant in a regiment of artillery sta- 
 
 1 at Valence. Having gone to Corsica on a fur- 
 lough, he expressed himself in 1789 very warmly in favour 
 of the revolutionary movement in France. In February, 
 he was made captain of artillery. While he was in 
 Ajaccio, in April of that year, a serious dispute having 
 I occurred between the troops and the inhabitants of the 
 
 . Bonaparte was accused of having given orders to 
 
 in the people ; he was in consequence summoned to 
 to answer for his conduct. He was, however, ac- 
 quitted. While in the capital he witnessed the insur- 
 
 on of June 20. He was at a coffee-house, when, 
 seeing the mob pass by armed with pikes, axes, etc., he 
 said to his friend Bourrienne, "Let us follow this ca- 
 naille." He saw them break into the palace of the Tuile- 
 
 .vithout meeting any resistance. When the king 
 appeared at the window, wearing the bonnet rouge, he ex- 
 
 led, " It's all over with that poor man ! How could 
 
 they permit those wretches to enter the palace ? A lew 
 discharges of grape would have sent them all flying. 
 He afterwards witnessed the rising of the 10th of Au- 
 gust. Having returned to Corsica, he found the people 
 of that island divided into two parties. Much the larger 
 number, with Paoli, were in favour of seeking the protec- 
 tion of England. The Bonaparte family, though once 
 strongly attached to General Paoli, adhered to the cause 
 of F'rance and the Convention. In the civil war that 
 ensued in Corsica, Napoleon was closely besieged in a 
 tower with only fifty men, who for three days were re- 
 duced to the necessity of living on horse-flesh. He after- 
 wards succeeded in making his escape, and in conveying 
 his mother and the family in safety to Nice, and subse- 
 quently to Marseilles. 
 
 Napoleon spent a portion of the summer of 1 793 in 
 Paris. In the autumn he was ordered to Toulon, then 
 in possession of the Spanisri and English. He found 
 the French artillery at that place in a miserable condi- 
 tion, and the troops without any competent commander. 
 A commissioner having arrived from Paris about this 
 time, a council of war was called, and, Bonaparte's plan 
 for the reduction of the place having been decided upon, 
 the execution was intrusted to the young Corsican. It 
 proved a brilliant success, and the name of Bonaparte 
 at once became distinguished throughout France. He 
 was made soon after a brigadier-general. On the fall of 
 Robespierre in July, 1794, Bonaparte was suspended in 
 his command and put under arrest, but was released after 
 a short detention. We find him again actively engaged 
 in military operations towards the close of that and during 
 the early part of the ensuing year. But in the spring of 
 1795, the army having been reorganized, Bonaparte, for 
 some unexplained cause, was suspended from his duties 
 and placed upon half-pay. He immediately repaired to 
 Paris, and complained to the proper authorities of this 
 unworthy treatment. But his remonstrances were with- 
 out avail : he received for answer only that he was too 
 young to command the artillery of an army. He replied, 
 "One grows old very quickly on the field of battle." His 
 protestations were, however, in vain. He remained for 
 some months without any regular employment. But 
 Fortune seemed resolved not to neglect her favourite son. 
 The 13th Vendemiaire, (October 4,) the famous Day of 
 the Sections, was at hand. A formidable insurrection, 
 headed by the National Guards, threatened the total 
 overthrow of the power of the Convention, which, though 
 provided with troops and artillery, had no officer com- 
 petent to command them. Menou had been selected by 
 the Convention for this duty ; but his indecision had in- 
 creased the confidence of the insurgents and greatly dis- 
 heartened his own party. Barras, Tallien, and the other 
 leaders were in the greatest perplexity and alarm. Barras 
 had fortunately become acquainted with Bonaparte at the 
 siege of Toulon. He said to his colleagues, Tallien and 
 Camot, "I have just the man for our purpose, — a little 
 Corsican officer, who will not stand upon ceremony." 
 The Corsican was accordingly appointed to the com- 
 mand. He had more than five thousand regular troops, 
 about fifteen hundred volunteers, and two hundred pieces 
 of cannon, which his science and skill rendered more 
 effective than ten times the number under the command 
 of an ordinary officer. The insurgents, amounting to 
 more than thirty thousand, fell before the Corsican's ter- 
 rible artillery like grass before the scythe. Although the 
 National Guards fought with the greatest bravery, the 
 fate of the day was quickly decided. The Convention 
 used the victory thus obtained with great moderation. 
 Only two persons, it is said, suffered death after the con- 
 flict was over. Soon after, Barras proposed that the Con- 
 vention should approve Bonaparte's appointment as 
 second in command of the army of the interior, Barras 
 himself remaining commander-in-chief. The proposal 
 was adopted by acclamation. Although nominally the 
 second in rank, he became by this appointment virtually 
 the commander-in-chief of the army of the interior. 
 
 Among the intimate friends of Madame Tallien was 
 Josephine Beauharnais, a young widow of rare beauty 
 and accomplishments. She was the daughter of M. de 
 la Pagerie, a naval officer of Martinique, where she was 
 born in 1763. Having gone to France with her father 
 
 as k; c as s; Hard; gasy; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; lass; th as in this. (JrJT-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BONAPARTE 
 
 39° 
 
 BONAPARTE 
 
 in 1779, she became acquainted with the young Marquis 
 of Beauharnais, to whom she was soon after married, 
 being then scarcely more than sixteen. Her husband 
 had in 1793 risen to the rank of general in the army of 
 the Republic ; but, as he belonged to the noblesse, he 
 naturally incurred the suspicion of those in power, and 
 suffered death by the guillotine in the summer of 1794. 
 Soon after the arrest of General Beauharnais his wife 
 also was imprisoned, and would in all probability have 
 shared his fate had she not been delivered by the timely 
 fall of Robespierre. Bonaparte became acquainted with 
 her, and was deeply smitten with her charms. He had 
 been appointed, March 2, 1796, commander-in-chief of 
 the army of Italy. He married Josephine on the 9th of 
 March, and a few days afterwards set out for Nice to take 
 command of the army. The events of the war which fol- 
 lowed belong to history rather than to biography : suffice 
 to say that the exploits of young Bonaparte surpassed 
 in splendour everything before recorded of modern war- 
 fare. To heighten the romance of the story, the youthful 
 hero, all in the midst of the hardships, excitements, and 
 anxieties of that unequalled campaign, seems to have 
 abandoned himself wholly to the "sweet delirium" of 
 his first love. We find him writing frequent and most 
 impassioned letters to Josephine, — at one time expressing 
 all the tenderness and devotion which he felt for her, at 
 another bitterly reproaching her that she wrote to him 
 so coldly, so briefly, or so seldom. He had sent for his 
 wife to join him in Italy. She arrived at Milan towards 
 the end of June, and spent some days with him at the 
 Serbelloni palace. As she was about to set out under 
 an escort towards Brescia, they found the passage ob- 
 structed by the enemy. She saw the Austrian uniforms 
 and heard the musketry at a little distance. Trembling 
 and weeping, she returned. Bonaparte, touched at the 
 sight of her distress, exclaimed, with emotion, "Wurm- 
 ser shall pay me dearly for the tears which he has caused 
 you to shed." Having defeated and almost annihilated 
 three Austrian armies in succession, and compelled 
 Wurmser, their ablest and bravest general, to take 
 refuge in Mantua, Bonaparte at length brought the war 
 to a triumphant close by the capture of that city. Wurm- 
 ser surrendered on the 2d of February, 1797, having re- 
 ceived from the victor the most honourable terms. With 
 true magnanimity, the French commander declined to be 
 present at the capitulation ; and thus the Austrian gen- 
 eral was spared the mortification of delivering up his 
 sword to a conqueror so much younger than himself. 
 Having subdued the Austrians in Northern Italy, Napo- 
 leon turned his victorious arms against the pope, who, 
 after sustaining several defeats, was compelled to pur- 
 chase a precarious peace by the payment of thirty millions 
 of livres, besides delivering up to the French a number 
 of statues, paintings, and manuscripts. It was resolved 
 at Vienna that another army, under the Archduke Charles, 
 who had distinguished himself in the recent campaigns 
 on the Rhine, should take the field against Bonaparte. 
 But nothing could resist the genius or the fortune of the 
 French commander. By a masterly movement he sur- 
 prised the archduke, who occupied a very strong position 
 on the Tagliamento, and succeeded in crossing the river 
 before the Austrians were prepared to offer any effectual 
 resistance. Nothing remained for them but to retreat. 
 Napoleon, following up his advantages with his accus- 
 tomed promptitude, advanced by rapid strides towards 
 the Austrian capital. On the 7th of April he arrived 
 at Leoben, and pushed his advanced guard to within two 
 cr three days' march of Vienna. But as his own situation, 
 sj far from France, and without sufficient forces to keep 
 open the line of his retreat, was not free from danger, he 
 offered terms of peace, which the Austrian court, trem- 
 bling for the safety of the capital, eagerly accepted. Hav- 
 ing returned to Italy, the young conqueror was for some 
 months occupied in regulating the affairs of that country, 
 of which he claimed to be the liberator. By the treaty 
 of Campo Formio, signed October 17, 1797, Austria ac- 
 knowledged the independence of the new Cisalpine Re- 
 public, which included the larger part of her former 
 possessions in Northern Italy, and guaranteed to France 
 the extension of her boundary to the left bank of the 
 Rhine. In return for these concessions, the French gov- 
 
 ernment gave up to Austria Venice and the Venetian 
 territory as far as the Adige, besides Istria and Dalmatia, 
 Genoa, having offered some opposition to the French 
 arms, was required, by way of reparation, to establish a 
 democratic form of government, taking the name ot the 
 Ligurian Republic. The terms granted to Austria were 
 thought by many of the friends of France to be much too 
 favourable. This treaty appears, indeed, to have been 
 afterwards a subject of regret and mortification to Bona- 
 parte himself. This may be inferred from the great 
 anxiety he manifested to defend or apologize for it. The 
 Directory had enjoined it upon him not to make peace 
 with the Emperor of Austria, except on condition that 
 the latter should renounce all claim to Venice and all 
 the Venetian territory except Istria and Dalmatia. But 
 Napoleon, having discovered that some persons con- 
 nected with the government of Venice had made propo- 
 sals for an alliance with Austria, determined to sacrifice 
 that republic to the interests of France and his own am- 
 bition, abandoning, apparently without scruple, those of 
 the democratic party who had been faithful to France, 
 as well as the aristocrats who had sought the protection 
 of the emperor. The Directory, it is said, had thoughts 
 at one time of bringing him to trial for disobeying its 
 orders ; but his unbounded popularity rendered such a 
 step not merely unwise, but extremely perilous. In the 
 early part of 1798 the French government contemplated 
 the invasion of Great Britain ; and the preparations for 
 this great undertaking were intrusted to Bonaparte. With 
 this object he made a survey of the French coast along 
 the British Channel. It was, however, soon after deter- 
 mined to attack the power of England in her remote 
 possessions. A formidable expedition, destined for Egypt 
 and the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, was fitted 
 out, as it was believed that the British empire in India 
 could be most conveniently reached from that side. This 
 enterprise was regarded by the Directory with the more 
 favour, on account of the growing influence and ascend- 
 ency of Bonaparte : the members of the government were 
 not unwilling to send far from France, into a sort of hon- 
 ourable banishment, the object of their anxiety and fears. 
 On the other hand, the scheme was perhaps still more 
 agreeable to Napoleon. Visions of boundless conquest 
 and glory floated before his youthful imagination. It 
 seemed not unreasonable that a young commander, who 
 in his first campaigns had rivalled, if he did not surpass, 
 the most brilliant achievements of Alexander, should 
 think he might carry his victorious banners as far as the 
 Macedonian hero had done two thousand years before. 
 
 The expedition was got ready with the utmost secrecy. 
 The land -force, consisting principally of the armyof Italy, 
 is said to have amounted to near 30,000 men. The arma- 
 ment set sail from Toulon on the 19th of May, 1798, and 
 was joined soon after by a large fleet of transports carry- 
 ing the land-forces under General Desaix. They reached 
 Malta on the 10th of June, and Bonaparte, having come to 
 an understanding with some person within the place, 
 took possession of it without the slightest opposition. As 
 they were passing the impregnable defences, constructed 
 by the famous Knights of Malta, one of his officers said 
 to him, " It is well, general, that there was some one 
 within to open the gates for us ; for we should have had 
 more trouble in entering had the place been empty." 
 The expedition arrived at Alexandria on the 29th of June, 
 having by great good fortune escaped the fleet of Nelson, 
 who had rightly guessed the destination of the French 
 armament, and had actually reached Alexandria before 
 the arrival of Bonaparte ; but, hearing nothing of the 
 hostile fleet, the English admiral had set sail for Rhodes. 
 As France was at that time at peace with the Sultan, 
 who had then an ambassador in Paris, the invasion of 
 Egypt was wholly unexpected, and Bonaparte met with 
 little resistance until the French troops had arrived near 
 Cairo, in sight of the Pyramids, where they encountered 
 a large body of Mamelukes with their Arab auxiliaries. 
 Bonaparte, galloping to the front of the army, exclaimed, 
 with enthusiasm, " Soldiers, from the summit of yonder 
 monuments forty centuries look down upon your actions !" 
 The battle was fiercely contested, the Mamelukes fighting 
 with all the bravery of desperation; but nothing could 
 withstand the tactics and artillery of the French. The 
 
 e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure: far, fill, fit; mdt; n6t; good; 1 uian; 
 
 
BONAPARTE 
 
 39" 
 
 BONAPARTE 
 
 Mamelukes were almost annihilated: the few who es- 
 caped fled to Upper Egypt and Syria, no one offering any 
 further resistance to the progress of the invading army. 
 Thus ended the famous "battle of the Pyramids." 
 
 In his endeavour to regulate the government of the 
 country, Bonaparte earnestly strove to conciliate the good 
 will of the conquered people. With this view, he not 
 onlv attended with his army the yearly festival of the 
 Nile, but celebrated with great pomp the Feast of the 
 Prophet, which took place the 20th of August. He has 
 been accused by some of childish folly in supposing that 
 by hi.- expressions of respect or reverence for Mohammed 
 he could impose upon the minds of the Moslems or de- 
 lude them into the hope that he was about to turn Mus- 
 sulman. Hut, in a secular point of view, it was certainly 
 not unwise for a conqueror to show the people whom he 
 had just conquered that he was not an enemy to their 
 religion. It cannot be doubted that they wouW submit 
 far more patiently to the rule of one who was even in- 
 different than of one who was hostile to their faith, as 
 they would naturally have supposed him to be — coming 
 from Europe, and especially from the country of Saint 
 Louis — had he not taken the pains to convince them of 
 the contrary. The statements about Bonaparte's having 
 made a distinct profession of the Mohammedan faith ap- 
 pear to be erroneous or much exaggerated. But he cer- 
 tainly made use of some expressions which were designed 
 to give an impression to the Mohammedans that he was 
 very favourable towards their religion. At the same time, 
 assuming an exaggerated or, as we might say, an Orien- 
 tal style of speech, which indeed seemed to be in perfect 
 harmony with his natural character, he assured them 
 that he, like their prophet, was a man appointed by des- 
 tiny, whom it would be as vain as it was impious to re- 
 sist. He even went so far as to declare that he could 
 call them to account for their most secret thoughts. But 
 these declarations did not prevent the Arabs and Turks 
 from perceiving that his claims to a supernatural power 
 were made simply with a view to establish more firmly 
 an earthly domination. 
 
 Meanwhile the Porte, assisted by England, was making 
 vigorous preparations for war. Napoleon resolved to be 
 first in the field. Leaving Cairo on the loth of February, 
 1799, he crossed the desert through the Isthmus of Suez, 
 taking successively El Arish, Gaza, and Jaffa, the last 
 of which was carried by storm. From 1200 to 1 500 Turks 
 and Arabs were taken prisoners, and two days after- 
 wards marched out of the town and put to death in cold 
 blood by volleys of musketry or by the bayonet. The 
 reasons alleged for this inhuman massacre were that the 
 victims had been taken prisoners previously at Gaza and 
 El Arish, and had violated their parole. But the utmost 
 severity of the laws of war could require no more than 
 that they should receive no quarter while they were 
 fighting with arms in their hands : it could never jus- 
 tify the victor in first offering them life, and then taking 
 it again after they had been for two days his prisoners. 
 The apologists for Napoleon allege that it was found im- 
 possible to furnish food to the prisoners, or even to guard 
 them, surrounded as Bonaparte was by swarms of active 
 and exasperated enemies, and that they were at last re- 
 luctantly sacrificed to the urgent demands of the army.* 
 The French general next marched against Acre. But the 
 plague had broken out in the army, and he had no guns 
 suitable for carrying on a siege. '1 he place was ably and 
 obstinately defended by Djezzar Pasha, assisted by an 
 English force commanded by Sir Sidney Smith. Re- 
 peated and desperate assaults were made by the attack- 
 ing forces, but in vain. One day three hundred chosen 
 men, presenting themselves before the French com- 
 mander, took an oath that they would enter the town or 
 perish in the attempt. They kept their word : not one 
 ol them returned. Napoleon was at last under the ne- 
 cessity of abandoning the place. He afterwards said, 
 " If Acre had fallen, I would have changed the face of 
 the world." " My fortune was arrested by a grain of 
 sand ;" alluding to some little contingencies which had 
 
 • Thiers, who will scarcely be accused of hostility to Bonaparte, 
 throw; upon him the whole responsibility of this atrocious act, calling 
 I "the only cruel act of his life." (See "Revolution Francaise," 
 ivre xliv.) 
 
 prevented his success. The encampment before Aero 
 was broken up on the 21st of May, 1799, and the army 
 commenced its retreat towards Egypt. Nelson having 
 destroyed the French fleet, August, 1798, all communica- 
 tion with Europe was cut off. Bonaparte could hope 
 neither for reinforcements nor supplies. The retreating 
 army reached Cairo about the middle of June. Having 
 learned (July 15) that the Turkish and English fleets 
 had landed an army of 18,000 men at Aboukir, the 
 French commander instantly made preparations to attack 
 them. After a bloody contest, (July 25,) almost all the 
 Turks were either cut to pieces or perished in the sea, 
 into which they had thrown themselves in the hope of 
 reaching their ships. A few who had sought refuge in 
 the fort of Aboukir were compelled to surrender a few 
 days afterwards. Soon after this victory, Napoleon, hav- 
 ing heard of the defeats that had recently been sustained 
 by the French armies in Italy, and of the unpopularity 
 of the Directory, at once resolved to return to France. 
 He made preparations for his departure with the utmost 
 secrecy, taking with him only a few of his best and 
 most attached officers. Kleber was left in command of 
 the army of Egypt, now reduced, by disease and war, to 
 less than 20,000 men. Bonaparte, and the officers who 
 accompanied him, embarked (August 22) in two frigates, 
 and, after a long passage and several narrow escapes from 
 the English cruisers, he landed at Frejus on the 14th of 
 October. He found the French nation thoroughly dis- 
 satisfied with the existing government, and disheartened 
 by the recent disasters.' Taking advantage of the un- 
 certainty and confusion among the political parties, he 
 contrived to have himself chosen First Consul, with a 
 power little short of absolute. The First Consul was 
 assisted by two other consuls, of whom he had the ap- 
 pointment, and a senate entirely dependent upon his 
 will. This revolution is known as that of the 18th and 
 19th Brumaire, (9th and 10th of November.) The news 
 of Bonaparte's elevation to the supreme power was re- 
 ceived by the French nation with transports of joy. The 
 people were in truth tired of revolutions, and they longed 
 for a government which should possess the ability and 
 the will to maintain itself unmoved against all enemies 
 from abroad and all factions at home. Commercial con- 
 fidence was at once restored. Many of the royalists and 
 priests who had fled from their native country during 
 the reign of terror were allowed to return ; and Chris- 
 tian worship, which had been forbidden under the dif- 
 ferent revolutionary governments, was again permitted 
 throughout F'rance. The reason Napoleon afterwards 
 gave for having recourse to the Concordat furnishes the 
 key to this new policy: "The restoration of the public 
 worship will give me the hearts of the people." In this 
 he was not deceived. In return for the contemptuous 
 smiles of a comparatively few skeptics, he won the ad- 
 miration and gratitude of millions in every quarter of 
 the empire. On his return from Egypt, Napoleon found 
 France at war with Austria, England, and Turkey. His 
 first aim, after he felt himself established in his new 
 power, was to restore to the banners of France the pres- 
 tige which they had lost during his absence. Early in 
 May, 1800, he set out for Italy. On the 14th of June he 
 fought the great battle of Marengo. Late in the after- 
 noon a large part of the French army was routed, and 
 seemed to be in irretrievable disorder. At this moment 
 Desaix, at the head of an army of reserve, arrived on the 
 field. He observed to Napoleon, "The battle is lost : t 
 suppose all I can do now is to secure your retreat." 
 " By no means," replied the First Consul : "the battle is, 
 I trust, gained. Push forward your column : I will rally 
 the disordered troops in your rear." This order was 
 gallantly obeyed, and what seemed a disastrous defeat 
 was changed into a complete victory; but General De- 
 saix himself fell dead, being shot through the breast in 
 the first charge. Moreau, at the head of the army of the 
 Rhine, had made a scarcely less successful, though a 
 less brilliant, campaign than Napoleon ; and Austria was 
 compelled to sue for peace. The conditions were settled 
 by the treaty of Luneville. Soon after, negotiations with 
 England were begun, and at length the definitive treaty 
 of Amiens was signed, March 27, 1802. A decree was 
 passed, April 26, 1801, granting a general amnesty to all 
 
 «ui;<;ass;gAarct;gasj; G.u.K, guttural; N, nasal; H,trillai; Sasz; thasin this. (ft^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BONAPARTE 
 
 392 
 
 BONAPARTE 
 
 emigrants who wished to return to France, on condition 
 that they would take the oath of fidelity to the govern- 
 ment. From this amnesty were excepted the leaders of 
 armed bodies of royalists, those who had held rank in 
 the armies of the allies, or had been encouragers of war 
 against France, those who had been guilty of treason to 
 the republic, and those who had belonged to the house- 
 hold of the Bourbon family. Such of their property as 
 had not been sold was ordered to be restored to the 
 emigrants who should avail themselves of the amnesty. 
 Soon after the battle of Marengo, negotiations were be- 
 gun with the pope for the establishment of a treaty known 
 as the Concordat, of which the principal provisions were, 
 on the one hand, that the Catholic religion should be 
 acknowledged as the national faith, and its services openly 
 performed, subject to such police regulations as the gov- 
 ernment should deem necessary ; and, on the other, 
 that there should be, under the supervision of the pope 
 and of the French government, a new division of the 
 dioceses, that the bishops should take an oath of fidelity 
 to the government, and observe a ritual containing forms 
 of prayer for the consuls ; those bishops who should de- 
 cline to conform to the terms of the treaty were to be 
 removed, and their places filled by the pope on nomina- 
 tions made by the French government. Lastly, the pope 
 renounced all right to dispute or change the sales of 
 church property which had taken place since the Revo- 
 lution. This important treaty was ratified on the 18th 
 of September, 1801. The measure was received very 
 coldly by the members of the* government, and with 
 murmurs of dissatisfaction by the army ; but it doubtless 
 contributed immensely towards attaching the mass of the 
 people, especially in the provinces, to Napoleon's gov- 
 ernment and person. The First Consul next directed his 
 earnest efforts towards the organization of a thorough 
 system of police. This was the more necessary because 
 not only the restraints of religion and morality, but the 
 habit of obedience to authority so influential with the 
 mass of the people, had, to a great extent, lost their 
 power. The secret police was organized under the su- 
 pervision of Fouche, who at a later period was himself 
 carefully watched by four counsellors of state, (conseillers 
 tTltat,) appointed for this purpose. The whole nation, 
 from the highest officer under the First Consul to the 
 lowest peasant, was subjected to a system of the strictest 
 espionage, from which even the privacy of domestic iife 
 afforded no shelter. In a society thus organized there 
 was little room for men of character or virtue, except 
 perhaps in the army. In the civil government, men of 
 suppleness and address alone were in request. Fear and 
 self-interest, the lowest motives of human action, were 
 the chief springs by which the machinery of government 
 was set or kept in motion. Under these circumstances, 
 the freedom of the press became an impossibility, if not 
 an absurdity. Yet homage was so far paid to liberty 
 that the very restrictions by which she was fettered were 
 enacted in her name. The decree establishing the cen- 
 sorship of the press began with these words : " Pour 
 assurer la liberte de la presse," etc., (" In order to in- 
 sure the liberty of the press," etc.) 
 
 To this period belong the preparation and completion 
 of Napoleon's celebrated Civil Code, by which, even in 
 the judgment of those least favourable to him, he ren- 
 dered an inestimable service to France. That he might 
 establish an order of nobility based upon merit, Napo- 
 leon instituted what he called the " Legion of Honour," 
 designed to embrace all those, whether in the civil or 
 military ranks, who were sufficiently distinguished by 
 their worth or services to the state. Having established 
 his power at home, he next sought to change the form 
 of government in the Cisalpine Republic. Between four 
 and five hundred deputies from that republic were, at 
 the instance of Napoleon, assembled at Lyons for the 
 purpose of drawing Up a new constitution. Anticipating 
 the wishes of the First Consul, they adopted a report, 
 inviting him to take upon himself the office of protector, 
 of which their state, being still in its infancy, stood so 
 much in need, — an office which none but himself was ca- 
 pable of filling. He graciously acceded to their wishes, 
 promising them the protection of the strongest nation in 
 Europe. Taking advantage of the political dissensions 
 
 that prevailed among the different Swiss cantons, he 
 offered himself as a mediator in their disputes, at the 
 same time enforcing his authority by the presence of a 
 French army, so that from that time forward, so long as 
 his power lasted, Switzerland was a mere dependant of 
 France. The negroes of Saint Domingo, having been 
 given their freedom daring the invasion of the island by 
 the Spaniards and English in 1793, and their liberty 
 having been confiimed by the National Convention at 
 Paris, had for some years been governed as citizens of 
 a free and independent state by their able ruler, Tous- 
 saint L'Ouverture. In 1801 the First Consul resolved 
 to reduce them again to complete subjection. Per 
 this purpose General Leclerc, who had married Napo- 
 leon's sister Pauline, was despatched with a fleet and 
 an army of more than 20,000 men. They arrived at 
 Saint Domingo in January, 1802. After a war of great 
 atrocity 6n both sides, during which the yellow fever was 
 perhaps even more fatal to the French troops than the 
 arms of their enemies, the invaders were all -but exter- 
 minated. General Leclerc himself had died of the 
 fever ; and his successor, in order to save the feeble 
 remnant of that once fine army, was obliged to surrender 
 at discretion to the English squadron. Meanwhile, Bona- 
 parte had taken possession of the island of Elba and of 
 Parma, and had formally annexed Piedmont to France. 
 These encroachments excited the jealousy of Europe ; 
 England, in particular, complained of them as infractions 
 of the treaty of Amiens, and at length, on the 18th of 
 May, 1803, declared war against France, laying an em- 
 bargo on all the French vessels found in the British 
 ports. Bonaparte retaliated by seizing on all the Eng- 
 lish who, as travellers, or from whatever cause, hap- 
 pened to be in the French dominions. In the early part 
 of 1804 a conspiracy was detected at Paris among the 
 partisans of the Bourbons. The Duke d'Enghien, grand- 
 son of the Prince of Conde, was reported to be in cor- 
 respondence with the conspirators. Although he was 
 living at Ettenheim, in Baden, on neutral territory, the 
 First Consul ordered him to be arrested. A body of 
 French soldiers entered the territory of Baden, seized 
 the duke in his own chateau, and conveyed him to* the 
 citadel of Strasburg, whence he was taken to the castle 
 of Vincennes, near Paris. After a nominal trial, in which 
 he was not allowed to have any counsel or to call any 
 witnesses, he was condemned to death. He asked for a 
 confessor in his last moments, but was refused. The 
 trial, or rather inquisition, had commenced at midnight ; 
 and the next morning, a little after daybreak, the prisoner 
 was shot on the margin of a grave which had been dug 
 even before the sentence of death was pronounced against 
 him. 
 
 Napoleon was chosen "Emperor of the French" in 
 May, 1804. About this time he made great prepara- 
 tions for the invasion of England ; but he after- 
 abandoned the project, and turned all his energies against 
 Austria, who, aided by Russia, had renewed the war. 
 Sweden and England were also members of the coalition 
 against France. Our limits will permit us to do scarcely 
 more than allude to the chief events of the ensuing 
 struggle. The Austrian general Mack was surrounded 
 and compelled to surrender, with above 20,000 men, at 
 Ulm, October 17, 1805. A few days after the surrendei 
 of Mack's army, the great naval battle of Trafalgar was 
 fought, resulting in the almost total destruction of the 
 French fleet. The combined Austro-Russian army, 
 consisting of" 80,000 men, commanded by the emperor 
 Alexander in person, was defeated with terrible !<><■- 
 in the great battle of Austerlitz, fought on the 2d of 
 December. An armistice was concluded between Na- 
 poleon and Alexander, and soon after a treaty of peace 
 with Austria was signed at Presburg. The French 
 emperor, being thus left free to carry out his ambitious 
 schemes, appointed (March, 1806) his brother Joseph 
 King of Naples and Sicily, and in June of that war 
 made his brother Louis King of Holland. Napoleon 
 had previously (May 26, 1805) been crowned King of 
 Italy at Milan. Soon after he annexed the Ligurian Re- 
 public (Genoa) to France. Prussia had for some time 
 been a sort of timid ally of France. Napoleon, since his 
 recent successes against Austria and Russia, had begun 
 
 a,e,T, 6, u,y, Aw.v; -V e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short ; 3.,$,\,o,of>saire; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good, moon. 
 
 
BONAPARTE 
 
 393 
 
 BONAPARTE 
 
 to treat her with supercilious contempt. The King of 
 Prussia, offended at the tone of Napoleon, had the im- 
 prudence to demand that the French troops should be 
 withdrawn from the German territory. The French em- 
 peror replied, with contemptuous defiance, that "to pro- 
 voke the enmity of France was as senseless as to attempt 
 to withstand the waves of the ocean." The battle of 
 Jena, fought October 16, iSoo, seemed to justify the arro- 
 gant boast of Napoleon, and laid Prussia completely 
 prostrate at the feet of the conqueror. On February 8, 
 1807, the great battle of Kylau was fought between the 
 armies of France and Russia, with tremendous loss on 
 both sides, though neither could justly claim the victory. 
 Bonaparte, having been reinforced at the battle of Fried- 
 bod, (June 13,) defeated the Russians, and compelled 
 them to retreat, but without the loss of their baggage or 
 artillery. The treaty of Tilsit between the French and 
 Russian emperors was signed July 7, 1807. Two dayfl 
 afterwards, at the same place, a treaty was signed between 
 France and Prussia. From the time that Bonaparte be- 
 came First Consul, Spain had been the submissive ally 
 of France ; but, a misunderstanding and dispute having 
 occurred between Charles IV. and his son and heir, the 
 Prince of Asturias, Napoleon made it a pretext for in- 
 terfering with the internal affairs of that country. The 
 result was that Joseph Bonaparte was removed trom the 
 kingdom of Naples and placed on the Spanish throne. 
 This event was followed by a long, obstinate, and most 
 cruel war, which ended only with the downfall of Napo- 
 leon in 1814. The French emperor himself had gone to 
 Spain, in order to establish his brother firmly on the 
 throne at Madrid. A despatch from Paris caused him 
 to return with the utmost expedition. Austria was pre- 
 paring for another war. Napoleon took the field with 
 his usual celerity. After gaining a victory at Eckmuhl, 
 and a still more decisive one at Wagram, where 20,000 
 Austrians were taken prisoners, he made peace (October 
 14, 1809) with Austria, who was obliged to give up to 
 the conqueror Trieste, Carniola, and a part of Croatia 
 and Galicia. On his return to Paris the French emperor 
 announced to Josephine his purpose of obtaining a di- 
 vorce ; and an act to that effect was passed'on the 16th 
 of December, 1809. The reason given for this step was 
 that Josephine had never borne him any children, and 
 it was necessary, for the interests of the empire, that he 
 should have an heir. Not quite three months from that 
 date his marriage was celebrated at Vienna (March II, 
 1810) with Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of 
 Austria. Napoleon was not present, but he was repre- 
 sented in the ceremony by his favourite Berthier. The 
 young bride, accompanied by the Queen of Naples, set 
 out for Paris a few days afterwards. 
 
 Although Napoleon's power at this time appeared to 
 be at its greatest height, those who looked beyond the 
 surface might discern not a few elements which were 
 calculated to impair, if not destroy, the stability of that 
 magnificent edifice which he had just succeeded in erect- 
 ing. In every campaign where he commanded in person 
 he had been successful against the ablest generals and 
 mightiest armies of Europe. His empire extended from 
 Denmark to Naples. The pope, having launched a bull 
 of excommunication against the conqueror. of Italy, was 
 seized at midnight in his own palace on the Quirinal by 
 a body of French soldiers, and held a prisoner ; and out 
 of the territories of the Church were formed two French 
 departments. But, while Napoleon sought to extend his 
 sway more and more widely, he neglected to strengthen 
 his empire by any attempts to soothe the irritation or 
 win the affections of the nations whom he had conquered. 
 On the contrary, elated and rendered arrogant by his un- 
 
 {>aralleled successes, he appears to have aimed at nothing 
 ess than to completely break the spirit, as he had broken 
 the armies, of those who had opposed him. The in- 
 structions which he wrote to his brothers Joseph and 
 1 reveal his temper and policy, and show us clearly 
 why such a power as his could not, in the nature ot 
 things, be durable. Joseph, then King of Naples, was 
 desirous of governing his subjects mildly, and, if possi- 
 ble, of gaining their affections. Napoleon wrote to him, 
 proclamations ne scntent assez le maltre. . . . 
 Quel amour voulez-vous qu'ait pour vous ml peuple 
 
 pour qui vous n'avez rien fait ?" (" Your proclamations 
 have not enough of the tone of a master. What love do 
 you expect a people for whom you have done nothing, 
 will have for you ?") and he ends with virtually recom- 
 mending his brother not to rely upon their love, but 
 upon their fears and his own power. To Louis, at that time 
 King of Holland, he wrote, reproving him for some in- 
 dulgence he had shown the people, " Never forget that 
 your first duty is towards ME, your second towards 
 France : all your other duties, even those towards the 
 people whom 1 have called you to govern, must be sub- 
 ordinate to these." Of all the European powers, Eng- 
 land alone continued to offer any effectual resistance to 
 the encroachments of Napoleon ; but her resources 
 seemed as nothing in comparison with those of the con- 
 queror. To crown the good fortune which appeared ever 
 to attend him, on the 20th of March, 181 1, Maria Louisa 
 bore him a son, who received the title of " King of Rome ;" 
 Rome being the second capital of his vast empire. (See 
 Reichstadt, Duke of.) But, while his extended do- 
 minions excited their jealousy and fear, the haughty and 
 imperious tone which he assumed deeply wounded the 
 pride of those nations whom he had not yet subdued. 
 A coolness gradually took place between him and Alex- 
 ander. He had demanded of Sweden and Russia that 
 they should strictly enforce his decrees prohibiting all 
 commerce with the English. Both nations had evaded 
 his demands. Napoleon at first contented himself with 
 simply making complaints to Russia ; but Sweden, being 
 a far less formidable power, was treated with less cere- 
 mony. His armed vessels in the Baltic captured a great 
 number of Swedish merchantmen. These were confis- 
 cated, on the ground of their being engaged in the con- 
 traband trade with Britain. To resist these aggressions, 
 Sweden signed a treaty of alliance with Russia in the 
 early part of 1812. Then followed the memorable cam- 
 paign of 1812. Napoleon approached the confines of 
 Russia with an army of about 480,000 men. Aftet the great 
 battles of Smolensk, August 16, and Borodino, Sep- 
 tember 7, Napoleon entered Moscow, and took up his 
 residence in the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the Rus- 
 sian emperors. Soon after a fire broke out, and was 
 spread by the winds to every part of the city, all efforts 
 to extinguish it being in vain. It is still a disputed point 
 whether Moscow was purposely set on fire by the Rus- 
 sians, or whether the destruction of the city was the 
 result of accident. But, whatever may have been the 
 cause, the effect was fatal to the power of Napoleon. 
 He had designed to take up his winter-quarters in Rus- 
 sia, but the conflagration of Moscow made it necessary 
 for him to retreat ; and, the winter having set in much 
 earlier than usual, nearly the whole of his magnificent 
 army were either taken prisoners, or else perished in 
 battle or with hunger and cold. At Smorgoni, on the 
 5th of December, Napoleon took leave of his generals, 
 to whom he committed the wreck of his grand army, 
 and, accompanied by Caulaincourt, set out in a sledge 
 for Warsaw and Paris. He reached the French capital 
 on the 18th of December. The Russian historian Boo- 
 toorlin (Buturlin) states the total loss of the French in 
 the campaign of 1812 at 450,000. men ; of which number, 
 according to his estimate, 125,000 were killed in battle, 
 132,000 died of fatigue, hunger, and cold, and 193,000, 
 including 3000 officers and forty-eight generals, were 
 taken prisoners. More than nine hundred pieces of can- 
 non belonging to the grand army fell into the hands of 
 the Russians. 
 
 On his arrival in Paris, Napoleon began immediately 
 to prepare for another campaign. By fresh conscriptions, 
 and by recalling from distant places all the troops that 
 could be spared, he succeeded in assembling on the 
 German frontier, in the spring of 1813, an army of 350,000 
 men. He won in May the indecisive victories of Lulzen 
 and Bautzen over the combined Russo-Prussian army. 
 Austria at first stood neutral, and offered her mediation ; 
 but, as it was not accepted, she at length, in August, 
 joined the allies. Napoleon might now perceive the fatal 
 mistake he had made not merely in neglecting to use the 
 means in his power to attach the conquered nations to 
 his person and government, but in recklessly wounding 
 ■iiid outraging their feelings of national pride and patriot- 
 
 e as /•; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; o, 11, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as s; th as in this. (&y=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BONAPARTE 
 
 394 
 
 BONAPARTE 
 
 ism. When the French soldiers first entered Germany, 
 not a few of the people seem to have regarded them as 
 liberators, and a large proportion were almost indifferent 
 as to the success of either army ; but, after experiencing 
 the insolence and oppression of the French rule, the 
 mass of the population had become so exasperated that 
 the moment there appeared to be some reasonable pros- 
 pect of throwing off the yoke, they arose as with one 
 mind against their oppressors, in unconquerable numbers. 
 The war which ended in the downfall of Napoleon was 
 commonly called in Germany "der Volkskrieg," ("the 
 people's war,"*) because it was not so much a contest 
 of princes to recover their ancestral dominions, as a 
 stiuggle of the people to regain the liberty which, im- 
 perfect as it was, they had enjoyed under their German 
 rulers. In most of the battles which Napoleon fought 
 during the campaign of 1813, his transcendent military 
 genius gave him the superiority over his foes. But the 
 latter were becoming stronger every moment; and at 
 last, in the fatal battle of Leipsic, about 10,000 .of his 
 Saxon allies left him in a body and went over to his 
 enemies. After a disastrous retreat, he crossed the Rhine 
 with onlv about 70,000 men out of the army of 350,000 
 with which he had entered Germany in the spring. 
 
 The French people had at last become weary of the 
 long and ruinous wars which they were compelled to 
 wage under Napoleon. The legislative body, though 
 hitherto it had seemed to be little more than a pageant 
 designed to add dignity to the imperial court, now 
 ventured to advise the emperor to take the necessary 
 steps for obtaining peace, so far as this could be done 
 consistently with the honour and welfare of the country. 
 A new conscription, however, was ordered ; but France 
 had become completely exhausted, and Napoleon was 
 under the necessity of again taking the field, with an 
 army of less than 80,000 men. After the most extraor- 
 dinary display on his part of courage, promptitude, and 
 military skill, against desperate odds, the allies at last 
 succeeded in taking possession of Paris, on the 31st of 
 March, 1814. Soon after he signed an act of abdication, 
 and retired to the island of Elba, of which he was to 
 have the sovereignty, with the title of emperor, and an 
 annual allowance of six millions of francs, to be paid 
 by France. He remained in Elba only about ten months. 
 During the latter part of his sojourn on the island, he 
 kept up a correspondence with the disaffected parties in 
 France. On the 15th of February, 1815, he left Elba, 
 and landed (March 1) in France, near Frejus. His jour- 
 ney to Paris was a triumphal procession. The Bourbons 
 were everywhere deserted by the troops. Marshal Ney, 
 who had been sent by Louis XVIH. to check Napoleon's 
 progress, went over to his old commander. Napoleon 
 was received in Paris as the Emperor of France, on 
 condition of his reigning as a constitutional sovereign. 
 Early in June, having assembled an army of about 
 125,000 men, he hastened to meet the allied Prussian and 
 English armies in Flanders. He repulsed Bliicher at 
 Ligny, (June 16,) and forced him to retreat with consider- 
 able loss. On the iSth of June the battle of Waterloo 
 was fought between the French army, under Napoleon, 
 and that of the allies, commanded by Wellington. We 
 shall not attempt to give a particular account of this 
 great conflict, as the most contradictory statements are 
 found even among those who are regarded as the best 
 authorities on the subject. Suffice to say that the oppos- 
 ing forces were probably nearly equal, each comprising 
 about 75,000 men. The English troops, however, con- 
 stituted less than one-half of Wellington's army. The 
 battle began between eleven and twelve o'clock, and 
 continued with the utmost fury till near nightfall, when, 
 the Prussian general Bliicher having come up with fresh 
 troops, the French were defeated at every point. The 
 loss of the allies at Waterloo is admitted by Wellington 
 to have been " immense ;" but the army of Napoleon 
 was irretrievably ruined. After the rout once began,- 
 the French fled in the utmost confusion, leaving cannon, 
 baggage, and everything in the hands of the victors. 
 Napoleon seems still to have entertained hopes of re- 
 
 * It was likewise often called "der Freiheitskrieg," ("the war of 
 freedom.") 
 
 sisting his enemies ; but France had become utterly 
 exhausted with her long contest against the combined 
 powers of Europe, and was at last thoroughly weary of 
 war. The Chamber of Representatives at Pans declared 
 itself permanent, and demanded the abdication of the 
 emperor. When Lucien Bonaparte spoke to them of 
 the services which his brother had formerly rendered to 
 the state, La Fayette insisted that the three millions of 
 Frenchmen whom Napoleon had sacrificed upon the 
 altar of his ambition should not be left out of the 
 account. " We have followed your brother," he said, 
 "over the sands of Africa and the frozen deserts of 
 Russia : the bones of F'renchmen scattered over every 
 part of the globe attest our long fidelity." The repre- 
 sentatives remained resolute. Some of them declared 
 that there was but one man between France and peace, 
 and demanded that he should be sacrificed to the com- 
 mon good. On the 22d of June Napoleon signed his 
 second abdication. Thus ended the history of the 
 Hundred Days, (the period between the date of his re- 
 suming power after leaving Elba, and that of his final 
 abdication.) He then went to Rochefort, for the pur- 
 pose of embarking for America ; but, finding that there 
 was little hope of escaping the British cruisers, he vol- 
 untarily gave himself up to Captain Maitland, of the 
 British line-of-battle ship Bellerophon. He was, accord- 
 ing to an agreement among the allied powers, who al- 
 leged that the peace of the world required that he 
 should not again be allowed to regain his liberty, carried 
 to Saint Helena, having been removed from the Bellero- 
 phon to the Northumberland, commanded by Sir George 
 Cockburn. He reached Saint Helena on the 15th of Oc- 
 tober, 1815. After an imprisonment of nearly six years, 
 he died, of cancer of the stomach, May 5, 1821. 
 
 There has probably never been in the history of the 
 world any man who has combined those attributes of 
 intellect and will which confer upon their possessor 
 transcendent military and administrative power, in so 
 high a degree as Napoleon. It has been said, not with- 
 out reason, that as a general Caesar gave proof of greater 
 originality of genius, inasmuch as he never repeated the 
 same stratagem or mode of warfare, but always had a 
 fresh invention for every new emergency. But, even if it 
 be admitted that in fertility of invention Napoleon was 
 inferior to Caesar, it may, on the other hand, be safely 
 affirmed that not only in his power of combination, — 
 of embracing in one harmonious plan a great number 
 of distinct and independent elements,— but also of watch- 
 ing over and directing at one and the same time the 
 complicated movements of mighty armies, the tone of 
 the public press, the operations of foreign and domestic 
 commerce, in addition to the endless intricacies and de> 
 tails of his system of police, and the great measures of 
 his government, not merely in France, but through the 
 whole extent of his vast empire, — he was unequalled by 
 any commander or sovereign that ever lived. 
 
 But, whatever may be thought of the genius of Napo- 
 leon as compared with that of other great commanders, 
 it cannot be denied that in some respects his career was 
 the most extraordinary; and his destiny the most won- 
 derful, of any recorded in the annals of mankind. Other 
 rulers may have wielded a power as extensive and even 
 more absolute ; but they cannot, like Napoleon, boast of 
 having been the sole architects of their own fortunes, — of 
 having risen, like him, from an absolutely private station to 
 the highest pinnacle of greatness. Cyrus and Alexander 
 inherited each; as his birthright, a powerful kingdom ; 
 Hannibal and Caesar were respectively the recognized 
 representatives of high and influential families. Na- 
 poleon, on the contrary, besides his energy and his ge- 
 nius, possessed not a single advantage that might not 
 have fallen to the lot of the humblest citizen of France. 
 No other sovereign of whom history makes mention ever 
 maintained himself, even for a single day, against such a 
 combination of gigantic powers ; yet Napoleon not only 
 maintained himself, but for twelve years was constantly 
 adding to his dominions in the face of an oppositic/1 such 
 as was never before or since arrayed against any single 
 ruler. And he fell at last, so to speak, by his own hand. 
 He seems to have possessed every intellectual endow- 
 ment except wisdom, and every form of power except 
 
 a, e, I, o, 5, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
BONAPARTE 
 
 395 
 
 BONAPARTE 
 
 morai power. His ambition, and the desire to exert his 
 imperious will, often led him to embrace measures which 
 his cooler judgment disapproved.* His invasion of Spain 
 was a remarkable instance of this. No one saw more 
 clearly than he the difficulties and dangers to be encoun- 
 tered in such a war. In a letter addressed to Murat, 
 March 29, 180S, he says, "Do not imagine that you 
 have only to make a display of your troops in order to 
 conquer Spain. . . . They may raise levies against us 
 en masse which will render the war eternal. I have at 
 present partisans, but if I show myself in the character 
 of a conqueror I cannot retain one of them." Again, 
 with prophetic forecast, he says, "If war once break 
 out, all is lost." Yet, in spite of what he so clearly 
 foresaw, he adopted a course which rendered war inevi- 
 table. He afterwards said, bitterly, "That wretched war 
 was my ruin : it divided my forces, multiplied the neces- 
 sity of my efforts, and injured my character for morality.'''' 
 Having lost his reputation for morality, his subjects and 
 allies ceased to have any confidence in his word, and his 
 vast empire, no longer cemented by "that faith which 
 binds the moral elements of the world together," was al- 
 ready beginning to crumble, when his fatal campaign in 
 Russia annihilated his grand army and involved him in 
 irretrievable ruin. With all his sagacity, he committed the 
 stupendous error of supposing that he could, in the nine- 
 teenth century, hold Europe in subjection by the mere 
 force of his intellect and will, without the exercise of any 
 strictly moral attributes, and without laying the founda- 
 tions of his power in the affections of the people. 
 
 Among the writings or productions of Napoleon may 
 be mentioned a " History of Corsica," (" Histoire de la 
 Corse,") which having been shown by the Abbe Raynal 
 to Mirabeau, the latter observed that this little history 
 seemed to him "to indicate a genius of the highest or- 
 der." Napoleon's Correspondence, extending to twelve 
 volumes or more, was recently published in Paris, 
 by order of Napoleon III. But his most important 
 contribution to literature is the work entitled "Me- 
 moirs towards the History of France under Napoleon," 
 etc., ("Memoires pour servir a THistoire de la France 
 sous Napoleon," etc.,) dictated by him at Saint Helena, 
 and written by his generals Gourgaud and Montholon, 
 published in nine volumes 8vo, Paris, 1830. To these 
 may be added his "Military Maxims," ("Maximes de 
 Guerre,") prepared by General Husson, Paris, 1830, 
 and the " Religious Conversations" {" Conversations reli- 
 gieuses") of Napoleon, edited by Beauterne, Paris, 1841. 
 We should fail to do justice to the literary labours of 
 Napoleon did we omit to mention his important contri- 
 butions to the public journals during the consulship and 
 empire. As soon as he became First Consul, he selected 
 the "Moniteur" to be the official organ of his govern- 
 ment, and he became, so to speak, its chief editor ; for if 
 he did not dictate he at least inspired the greater number 
 of the articles that appeared in its columns. In it were 
 published, from time to time, such vindications or expla- 
 nations of his policy, and such statements respecting 
 the measures of his domestic and foreign administration, 
 as he wished the world to receive. It is almost needless 
 to remark that the truth or accuracy of those state- 
 ments and explanations was never regarded by the im- 
 perial editor as a point of vital importance, the great 
 object being to produce the requisite impression upon 
 the mind of France and of Europe. 
 
 Those who desire fuller information respecting the 
 life and character of Napoleon may consult, besides the 
 publications above referred to, the following works : 
 
 Biographic des premieres Annies de Napoleon, etc., (Biography of 
 the First Years of Napoleon,) by the Baron de Coston, 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris. 1840. 
 
 Me 1 moires sur 1'Enfance et la Teunessede Napoleon jusqu'a l'Age 
 de vingt-trois Ans, (Memoirs relating to the Infancy and Youth of 
 eon until the Age of Twenty-Three Years,) by T. Nasica, \ vol. 
 8vo, Paris, 1852. 
 
 Souvenirs de la Jeunesse de Napoleon, (Recollections of the Youth of 
 Napoleon,)published in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," March, 1842. 
 
 • The writer of the excellent notice of Napoleon I. in the " Nou- 
 velle Hiographie Ge"ne>ale" savs, " En son ge*nie il y avait plus de 
 volonte 1 que de raison," (" In his genius there was more of will than 
 of reason.*') That notice, it may be remarked, though extremely 
 favourable, not to say partial, to Napoleon, contains perhaps the best 
 resume' of his policy that has yet appeared. 
 
 L'Enfance de Napoleon depuis sa Naissance jusqu'a sa Sortie de 
 I'EcoIe militaire, (The Childhood of Napoleon from his Birth until 
 his Departure from the Military School,) by the Chevalier de Beau- 
 terne, 1 vol. t2mo, Paris, 1846. 
 
 Memoires anecdotiques sur lTnteVieur du Palais et sur quelque* 
 Evenemeius de l'Empire, etc., (Anecdotical Memoirs relating to the 
 Interior of the Palace and to some Events of the Empire, etc.,) by L. 
 F, I. de Bausset, prefect of the palace, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1S27-29. 
 
 Memoires de Constant, premier Valet-de chambre de l'Empereur, 
 etc., (Memoirs of Constant, first Yalet-de-chambre of the Emperor, 
 etc.,) 6 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1830. 
 
 Memorial de Sainte-HAlene, etc., by the Comte de las Cases, 
 8 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1823. 
 
 Voice from Saint Helena, by Dr. Barry O'Meara. 
 
 Memoires du Docteur Antommarchi, mi les demiers Moments do 
 Napoleon, (Memoirs of Dr. Antommarchi, or the Last Moments of 
 Napoleon,) 2 vols. 8vo f Paris, 1825. 
 
 Recits de la Captivite - de l'Empereur Napoleon, etc., (Account of 
 the Captivity of the Emperor Napoleon, etc.,) by General Montho- 
 lon, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1847. 
 
 History of the Captivity of Napoleon on the Island of Saint He- 
 lena, from the Official Documents and Unpublished Manuscript of Sir 
 Hudson Lowe, by W. Forsvth, 
 
 Chaboulon's Mernoires. 
 
 Vie politique et militaire de Napoleon, (Political and Military Life 
 of Napoleon,) by Jomini, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827. 
 
 Memoirs of Count Segur, 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827. 
 
 Memoires du Due de Rovigo, (Memoirs of Savary, Duke of Ro- 
 vigo.) 8 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1S28. 
 
 Memoirs of Bourrienne, 10 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1829. 
 
 Bourrienne et ses Erreurs, etc, (Bourrienne and his Errors, etc.,) 
 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1830. 
 
 Memoires sur les Cent Jours, (Memoirs in relation to the Hundred 
 Days,) by Benjamin Constant, i vol. 8vo, Paris, 1829. 
 
 Memoirs and Souvenirs of the Comte Lavalette, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 
 1831. 
 
 Lord Holland's Diplomatic Souvenirs, etc. 
 
 Memoirs of the Duke of Ragusa, ^Marshal Marmont,) 9 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1857. 
 
 Histoire ge'neVale de Napoleon Bonaparte, de sa Vie privee et pub- 
 Hque, etc., (General History of Napoleon Bonaparte, of his Private 
 and Public Life, etc.,) by A. C. Thibaudeau, 5 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1827. 
 
 Le Consulat et l'Empire, (The Consulate and the Empire,) by A. 
 C. Thibaudeau, 8 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1834-35. (This work is especially 
 complete in regard to the civil history of France under Napoleon.) 
 
 Histoire de France sous Napoleon, etc., (History of France under 
 Napoleon, etc.,) by Louis Pikrre Edouahd Bignon, 14 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1839-50. (Very complete hi regard to the foreign relations of 
 France during the period referred to.) 
 
 Histoire de la Republique et de l'Empire, (History of the Repub- , 
 lie and of the Empire,) by Wlix Woutrrs, i vol. 4I0, Brussels, 1849. 
 
 Histoire de la Revolution Francaise, (History of the French Revo- 
 lution,) by Louis Adolphe Thiers, :o vols. 8vo, Paris, 1823-27. 
 
 Histoire du Consulat et de 1'Enipire, (History of the Consulate 
 and of the Empire,) by Louis Adolphe Thiers, 20 vols. 8vo, Paris, 
 1845-62. 
 
 Alison's History of Europe, from the Commencement of the French 
 Revolution to the Battle of Waterloo, 10 vols. 8vo, 1S33-42. 
 
 Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, by Sir Walter Scott, 9 vols. 8vo, 
 London, 1827. 
 
 Histoire de Napoldon, by M. de Norvins, 4V0IS. 8vo, Paris, 1827. 
 
 Histoire de Napoleon, by Elias Regnault, 4 vols. 121110, Paris, 
 1846. 
 
 Histoire de Napoleon, de sa Famille, etc., (History of Napoleon, 
 of his Familv, etc.,) bv M. E. Briom, 5 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1853-54 
 
 Histoire de Napoleon, by Abel Hugo, 1 vol. 8vo, Paris, 1833. 
 
 Histoire des deux Restaurations, etc., (History of the Two Resto- 
 rations, etc.,) bv A. de Vaulabeli.e, 6 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1844-47. 
 
 Histoire de Napoleon, by Baron Martin, (de Grey,) 3 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1858. (A work of rare merit.) 
 
 Histoire de la Restauration, (History of the Restoration,) by La* 
 martine, 6 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1851-53. 
 
 Souvenirs contemporaius d'Histoire et de LitteYature, (Contempo- 
 raneous Recollections of History and Literature,) by A. F. Villemain, 
 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1855. 
 
 Victoires et ConquStes, De"sastres, Revers et Guerres civiles des 
 Francais de 1792 a 1815, (Victories and Conquests, Disasters, Re- 
 verses, and Civil Wars of the French from 1792 to 181 5,) by a Society 
 of Military Men and Men of Letters, 27 vols. 8vo, the first of which 
 was issued in 1818. 
 
 Histoire de Napoleon et de la grandeArmee pendant PAnnee 1812, 
 (History of Napoleon and of the Grand Army during the Year 1812,) 
 by the Comte de Segur, 16th edition, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1852. 
 
 Histoire de PExpe"dition de Russie, (History of the Campaign 111 
 Russia,) by the Marquis of Chambray, 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1838. 
 
 Les demiers Jours de la grande Arme'e, (The Last Days of the 
 Grand Army,) 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1847. 
 
 Memoires pour servir' a l'Hisloire militaire sous le D ; rectoire, le 
 Consulat et l'Empire, (Memoirs towards the Military History (of 
 France] under the Directory, the Consulate, and the Empire,) by 
 Marshal Saint-Cyr, 4 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1831. 
 
 Memoires du Marechal Ney, published by his Family, 2 vols. 8vo, 
 Paris, 1833. 
 
 Among the smaller publications relating to Napoleon, the reader 
 is particiuarly referred to Dr. W. E. Channing's able and eloquent 
 review of the life and character of that extraordinary man. Although 
 very severe, it has the merit of being (unlike many of the works pub- 
 lished in France and England) totally free from any partisan or na- 
 tional animosity. 
 
 See also the article " Napoleon Ier" in the " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeWrale," which contains a very complete bibliography of Napoleon'i 
 works and of those publications which relate to his life and history, 
 from which the foregoing bibliographical list is principally taken. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; fch as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 2\) 
 
BONAPARTE 
 
 39 6 
 
 BOND 
 
 Bonaparte, (Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul,) 
 ;ommonly styled Prince Napoleon, a son of Jerome, 
 King of Westphalia, by his second wife, was born at 
 Trieste in September, 1822. His features are said to pre- 
 sent a very striking likeness to those of his uncle Napo- 
 leon I. He passed his youth in various foreign countries 
 until the Revolution of 1848, and was then permitted to 
 enter France. He was elected to the Constituent and 
 Legislative Assemblies, in which he voted with the dem- 
 ocrats. In 1852 he was recognized as a French prince, 
 and heir to the throne in case of the failure of issue of 
 Napoleon III. He commanded a division in the Crimean 
 war, (1854,) and was appointed minister of Algeria and 
 the colonies in 1858. In 1S59 he married Clotilde, a 
 daughter of Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia, and com- 
 manded a corps in the Italian campaign against Austria. 
 He made in 1862 two eloquent speeches, in which he ad- 
 vocated Italian nationality, the principles of the Revolu- 
 tion of 1789, etc., and opposed the temporal power of 
 the pope. About the end of 1862 he visited the United 
 States. 
 
 Bonaparte, (Pauline or Marie Pauline,) Princesse 
 Borghese, a sister of _ Napoleon I., born at Ajaccio in 
 1780. She was the most beautiful of the family, but was 
 inferior to Elisa in talents. In 1801 she was married to 
 General Leclerc, whom she accompanied to Saint Do- 
 mingo in 1802. Having lost her first husband by death, 
 she became the wife of Prince Camillo Borghese of Rome, 
 in August, 1803. This prince was a man of feeble cha- 
 racter, and soon separated from her. She was prodigal 
 and voluptuous, but is praised for generosity to the poor. 
 Canova made a statue of her, which is said to resemble 
 the Venus of Praxiteles. She died at Florence in 1825. 
 
 Bonaparte, (Pierre Napoleon,) the third son of I.u- 
 cien, was born at Rome in 1815. After many adventures 
 in America, Italy, and Greece, he became in 1848 a re- 
 publican member of the French Constituent Assembly. 
 After the coup d'etat of 1851 he retired to private life. 
 
 Bon'ar, (Horatius,) D.D., a sacred lyric poet of 
 • great merit, born in Edinburgh in 1808, published in 1856 
 " Hymns of Faith and Hope," and a second series of the 
 same in 1861. 
 
 See Cleveland, " Literature of the 19th Century," new ed, 1866. 
 
 Bonarelli della Rovere, bo-na-i el'lee del'la ro-va'ra, 
 (Guiduhali)o, gwe-doo-bil'do,) an Italian poet and IHtf- 
 rateur, born at Urbino in 1563, was the author of " Filli 
 di Sciro," (1607,) a pastoral, which obtained great suc- 
 cess and was translated into French, English^ German, 
 and Spanish. Died in 1608. 
 
 See F. Ronconi, " Vie de G. Bonarelli della Rovere." 
 
 Bonarelli della Rovere, (Pietro,) an Italian dra- 
 matist, son of Prospero, noticed below, lived about 1650. 
 
 Bonarelli della Rovere, (Prospero,) an Italian 
 
 Eoet and dramatist, brother of Guidubaldo, noticed above, 
 orn about 1588; died in 1659. 
 
 Bonasoni, bo-na-so'nee, or Bonasone, bo-na-so'nl, 
 (Giulio,) an Italian painter and engraver, born at Bo- 
 logna, lived about 1540-72. He is supposed to have 
 been a pupil of Sabbatini. His engravings after Michael 
 Angelo, Raphael, and Titian possess great merit. 
 
 See George Cumberland, "Some Anecdotes of the Life of J. 
 Bonasoni," 1793. 
 
 Bonassieux, bo'nt'se-yh', (Jean Marie,) a French 
 sculptor, was born at La Panissiere in 1810. He obtained 
 medals of the first class in 1844 and 1855. 
 
 Bonati, bo-na'tee, (Giovanni,) an "Italian historical 
 painter of high reputation, born at Ferrara about 1635. 
 He worked in Rome. Died in 1681. 
 
 Bonati, Bonato, bo-na'to, or Bonatti, (Guino,) an 
 Italian astrologer, born at Florence; died in 1596. 
 
 See Boncompacni, "Della Vi.a, etc. di Guido Bonati," 1851. 
 
 , Bonati, (Teodoro Massimo,) an Italian mathema- 
 tician, physician, and scientific writer, born near Ferrara 
 in 1724. He became professor of mechanics and hy- 
 draulics at Ferrara. Died in 1820. 
 
 Bouaventura, bo-na-ven-too'ra, (Federigo,) an Ital- 
 ian scientific vriter, born at Anconain 1555 ; died in 1602. 
 
 Bonavencura, Saint, [Fr. Bonaventure, bo'nt'- I 
 v6N'tuR',l(Gl0VANNidiFidenza — de fe-deVza,) anemi- ' 
 nent scholastic theologian, born at Bagnarea, in Italy, in 
 1 22 1, was styled " the Seraphic Doctor." He became sue- ] 
 
 cessively professor of theology in Paris, (1253,) general 
 of the order of Franciscans, Bishop of Albano, (1273,) 
 and cardinal, (1274.) Among his principal writings are 
 a "Life of Saint Francis," (in Latin,) and a work entitled 
 "Progress of the Mind towards God," (" Itinerarium 
 Mentis in Deum.") He is regarded by the Franciscans 
 as the greatest scholiast of their order; and Dante has 
 given him a place in his "Paradise" Died in 1274. He 
 was canonized in 1482 by Sixtus IV. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis;" J. C Boule, "Histoirc 
 de la Vie de Saint-Bonaventure," 1747 ; Ignaz A. Fessler, " Bona- 
 ventura's mystische Nachte oder Leben und Meinungen desselben,' 
 1807. 
 
 Bonaventure de Saint-Amable, bo'nt'vdN'tuV 
 deh saNt'i'mSbT, a French Carmelite monk, wrote a 
 "Life of Saint Martial," (1685.) 
 
 Bonavino. See Franchi. 
 
 Boncenne, boN'sSn', (Pierre,) a French jurist, born 
 at Poitiers in 1775, published "The Theory of Civil Pro- 
 cedure," (4 vols., 1828.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Boncerf, bAN'senf, (Claude Joseph,) a French lit- 
 terateur, born in Franche-Comte in 1724; died in 181 1. 
 
 Boncerf, (Pierre FRANgois,) a French publicist and 
 economist, born in Franche-Comte about 1745. He 
 wrote, besides other works, an argument against feudal 
 privileges, (1776,) which attracted much attention and 
 was translated into many languages. Died in 1794. 
 
 Bonchamp, de, deh b6.N'sh6.N', (Charles Melchior 
 Artus,) a French royalist general, born in the province 
 of Anjou in 1759. He distinguished himself in the Yen- 
 dean war, and was mortally wounded at Chollet in 1793. 
 By his dying words he saved the lives of five thousand 
 prisoners whom his soldiers were about to massacre. 
 
 See Cuauveau et Dussieux, "Vie de Bonchamp," 1817. 
 
 Bouciario, bon-cha're-o, (Marcantonio,) an Italian 
 writer, born near Perugia in 1555; died in 1616. 
 
 Boncompagui,bin-kom-pan'yee, (BALDASSARE,)one 
 of the most eminent Italian literati of the present age, 
 bom at Rome in 1821, inherited a large fortune. He is 
 a liberal patron of learning, and has published a number 
 of biographies and other works. 
 
 Boncore, bdn-ko'rk, (Tommaso,) an Italian physician 
 and jurist, lived about 1620. 
 
 Boucuore, b6n-koo-o'r&, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian historical painter, born about 1645 i c ' le d > n [ 699- 
 
 Bond, (George Phillips,) an Ametican astronomer. 
 son of William Cranch Bond, was born at Dorchester, 
 Massachusetts, in 1825. He graduated at Harvard Col- 
 lege about 1845, ar, d aided his father in the observatory 
 at Cambridge. He acquired a high reputation as an 
 observer, and wrote several astronomical works, among 
 which are a "Treatise on the Construction of the Rings 
 of Saturn," and "Elements of the Orbits of Hyperion 
 and the Satellite of Neptune." Died in 1865. 
 
 Bond, (John,) an English scholar, born in Somer- 
 setshire in 1550, wrote commentaries on Horace and 
 Persius. Died in 1612. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena Oxonienses." 
 
 Bond, (Oliver,) an Irish revolutionist, born in 172c, 
 was associated with Wolfe Tone and others in the rebel- 
 lion of 1797. He was arrested in 1798, and was soon 
 after found dead in his prison. 
 
 Bond, (Thomas,) an American physician, born ir. 
 Maryland in 1712. He practised in Philadelphia with 
 distinction, and delivered the first clinical lectures in the 
 Pennsylvania Hospital. He was associated with Frank- 
 lin, Bartram, and others in a literary society. P : ed '11 
 1784. 
 
 See Thacher, " Medical Biography." 
 
 Bond, (Thomas Emerson,) an American physician 
 and Methodist minister, born in Baltimore in 17S2. He 
 practised medicine in his native city, and obtained a chair 
 in the Medical College of Maryland. He was for many 
 years a local preacher among the Methodists, and ac- 
 quired distinction as a defender of Episcopal Methodism 
 during the controversy which resulted in the organization 
 of the Methodist Protestant Church. He edited "The 
 Christian Advocate and Journal" for many years. Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 Bond, (William Cranch,) an American astronomer, 
 born at Portland, Maine, in 1789 or 1790. He was a 
 
 5,e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J 1 , short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
BOND AM 
 
 397 
 
 BONICHON 
 
 watchmaker in early life. In 1838 he was appointed by 
 the government to make observations in connection with 
 the exploring expedition sent to the South Sea. He be- 
 came director of the observatory of Harvard University 
 about 1840. He gained distinction by his observations 
 on Saturn and the fixed stars, and by his operations in 
 celestial photography. Died in 1859. He and his son 
 discovered a satellite of Neptune and the eighth satellite 
 of Saturn. 
 
 Bondam,bon'dam, (Pieter,) a Dutch jurist, and pro- 
 fessor of law at Utrecht, born at Campen in 1727; died 
 in 1800. 
 
 Bonde, bon'deh, (Gustaf,) Count, a Swedish savant, 
 born at Stockholm in 1682, became chancellor of the 
 University of Upsal. He died in 1764, leaving "Memoirs 
 of Sweden in the Reign of Frederick I„" (in manuscript.) 
 
 See D. Tilas, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver G. Bonde," 1766. 
 
 Bondi, bon'dee, (Clements,) an Italian poet and 
 Jesuit, born in the duchy of Parma in 1742, became pro- 
 fessor of history and literature at Vienna in 1815. He 
 translated into Italian verse Virgil's "/Eneid," "Geor- 
 and "Bucolics." His version of the 'VEneid" is 
 considered one of the best in the Italian language. He 
 also translated Ovid's " Metamorphoses." Among his 
 original works are odes, epigrams, idyls, satires, and 
 didactic poems. His style is commended as noble, sim- 
 ple, and refined. Died in Vienna in 1821. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Itaiiani iilustri;" A. Pezzana, " In- 
 torno a C. Bondi, Epistola," 1821. 
 
 Bondioli, bon-de-o'lee, (Pietro Antonio,) a distin- 
 guished physician and medical writer, born in Corfu in 
 1765, became professor of materia medica at Bologna, 
 (1803.) DiediniSo8. 
 
 See Mario Pieri, " Elogio di P. A. Bondioli," 1S10. 
 
 Bondt, bont, (Nikolaas,) a Dutch scholar, born at 
 Voorburg in 1732, wrote a "History of the Confedera- 
 tion of the United Provinces," (1750,) a »d other works. 
 Died in 1792. 
 
 Boiidy, de, deh bA.v'de', (Pierre Marie Taille- 
 pied — tiTpe-4' or tS'ye-pe-4',) Comte, born in Paris 
 in 1766, became chamberlain to the emperor Napoleon 
 in 1805. He was afterwards created count of the empire 
 and member of the state council, and in 1816 was elected 
 to the Chamber of Deputies. Died in 1847. 
 
 Bone, (HENRY,) a celebrated English enamel-painter, 
 born at Truro, in Cornwall, in 1753. He became an 
 academician in 181 1, and was appointed enamel-painter 
 successively to George III., George IV., and William IV. 
 Among his master-pieces may be named " Bacchus and 
 Ariadne," after Titian ; a " Virgin," after Raphael ; and 
 a collection of eighty-five portraits of eminent persons 
 in the reign of Elizabeth. Died in 1834. 
 
 Bonefons. See Bonnefons. 
 
 Bonelli, bo-nel'lee, (Benedetto,) an Italian theolo- 
 gian, bom near Trent in 1704. 
 
 Bonelli, (Francesco Andrea,) a naturalist and scien- 
 tific writer, born in Piedmont in 1784, became professor 
 of natural history at Turin in 1S09. Died in Turin in 1830. 
 
 £ee Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italiani iilustri." 
 
 Bonelli, (Giorgio,) an Italian physician and botanist, 
 whose principal work, the " Roman Garden," (" llortus 
 Romanus," 8 vols, fol., 1772,) has 800 coloured plates. 
 
 Boner, bo'ner, [Lat. Bone'rius,] (Ui.rich,) a German 
 fabulist, who lived in the fourteenth century and wrote 
 a collection of a hundred fables, entitled "The Jewel," 
 (" Dcr Edelstein," 1461.) 
 
 S-e Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Bonet, bo-neV, (Juan Paulo,) a Spanish philanthro- 
 pist, who lived about 1 590-1630, published a work on the 
 instruction of deaf-mutes, (Madrid, 1620.) 
 
 Bonet, ( TiiEoi'HiLE.) See Bonnet. 
 
 Bonet de Lates, bo'ni,' deh lit, a French physician 
 ami astrologer, of Jewish extraction, born about 1480. 
 
 Bonfadio, bon-fa'de-o, (Jacopo,) born near Salo, be- 
 came professor of philosophy at Genoa in 1 545. He 
 wrote a history of the republic of Genoa, (" Annalium 
 Genuentium," 1528 to 1550,) which was translated into 
 Italian. lie was executed in 1550, on a charge of having 
 libelled several distinguished persons in his history. He 
 left poems, which are highly commended. 
 » Mazzlciielli, "Viladi J. Bonfadio," 1746. 
 
 Bonfante, bon-fan'ti, (Angelo Matteo,) an Italian 
 poet and' naturalist, born at Palermo; died in 1676. 
 
 Bonfiglio, b6n-fel'yo, or Buonfigli, boo-on fel'yee, 
 (Benedetto,) an able Italian painter, born at Perugia 
 about 1420, is said to have been the master of Perugino. 
 Died about 1500. 
 
 Bonfini,bon-fee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian litterateur, 
 born at Ascoli in 1427. He was patronized by Matthias 
 Corvinus, King of Hungary, at whose request he wrote a 
 " History of Hungary," in Latin. Died in 150a. 
 
 See BavlEj "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Vosstus, "De 
 Histnricis Latinis." 
 
 Bonfos, bdN'fos', (Manahem,) a learned Jew of Per- 
 pignan, in France, published a book of definitions in He- 
 brew, (1567,) explaining scientific and technical terms. 
 
 Bonfrere, bd.N'iRaiR', [I.at. Bonfre'rius,] (Jacques,) 
 a Flemish Jesuit and Hebrew scholar, born at Dinant in 
 '573. wa s professor of theology and Hebrew at Douai. 
 He wrote valuable commentaries, in Latin, on the Pen- 
 tateuch and other books of the Scriptures. Died in 1643. 
 
 See Sweert, "Athena? Belgica;." 
 
 Bongars, bo.N'gaV, (Jacques,) a learned French Cal- 
 vinist, born at Orleans in 1546, was employed by Henry 
 IV. in several important negotiations. He wrote "Epis- 
 tles," and other works, in Latin, which are admired for 
 the elegance of their style. Died in 1612. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Bongars, de, deh b6N'gSR', (Jean Francois Marie,) 
 Baron, born in the department of Lower Seine in 1758, 
 served in several campaigns of the Revolution, and was 
 appointed general of division in 1812. He translated 
 into French the " Military Institutes" of Vegetius, (1772.) 
 Died about 1820. 
 
 Bongarten, bon'gaR'ten, (Anichius,) a German sol- 
 dier of fortune, lived about 1380, and served under sev- 
 eral Italian princes. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Bongiovanni, bon-jo-van'nee, [Lat. Bonjohan'nes,] 
 (Antonio,) an Italian scholar, born near Verona in 1712, 
 published editions of several classics, and in conjunction 
 with Zanetti, librarian of Saint Mark at Venice, com- 
 pleted a catalogue of the manuscripts in that library. 
 
 Bongo, bon'go, [Lat. Bun'gus,] sometimes written 
 Bonges, (Pietro,) an Italian ecclesiastic and scholar, 
 born at Bergamo ; died in 1601. 
 
 Bon'ham, (Milledge L.,) an American general, born 
 in South Carolina about 181 5, was a member of Con- 
 gress from 1856 to i860. At the battle of Bull Run, July 
 21, 1861, he commanded a brigade under Beauregarcf. 
 He was elected Governor of South Carolina in January, 
 1863. 
 
 Bonheur, bo'nuR', (Auguste,) brother of Rosa Bon- 
 heur, born at Bordeaux in 1824. He has painted land- 
 scapes, portraits, etc. 
 
 Bonheur, (Isidore,) a French sculptor, brother of 
 the preceding, born at Bordeaux in 1827. Among his 
 favourite subjects are horses and cattle. 
 
 Bonheur, (Rosa,) a celebrated French painter of ani- 
 mals, born at Bordeaux in 1822, was instructed in draw- 
 ing by her father, an artist of talent. Her principal 
 studies, however, were from living models, which she 
 represented with admirable skill and fidelity. Having 
 previously executed several pieces of great merit, she 
 exhibited in 1850 "The Nivernais Ploughing," ("La- 
 bourage Nivernais,") which is esteemed her master- 
 piece and has obtained a place in the gallery of the Lux- 
 embourg. Among her other works may be named "The 
 Horse-Fair," "The Three Musketeers," and "Cows and 
 Sheep in a Hollow Road." 
 
 Boni, bo'nee, (Giacomo Antonio,) an Italian fresco- 
 painter, born at Bologna in 1688; died in 1766. 
 
 Boni, (Mauro,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Genoa in 
 1746, published a number of treatises on antiquities and 
 bibliography. Died in 1817. 
 
 Boni, (Onofrio,) an Italian architect and antiquary, 
 born in 1743. He wrote several antiquarian treatises, 
 and a "Eulogy" on his friend Lanzi. Died in 1818. 
 
 Bonichi, bo-nee'kee, (Bindo,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Sienna ; died in 1337. 
 
 Bonichon, bo'ne'shdN', (Francois,) a French eccle- 
 siastic, wrote "Pompa Episcopalis." Died in 1662. 
 
 « as i: c, as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, tutsal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J[^"See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
BONIFACE 
 
 398 
 
 BONNARD 
 
 Boniface, bon'e-fass, [Fr. pron. bo'ne'fitss' ; Lat. Bo- 
 NIFa'cius; It. Bonifazio, bo-ne-fit'se-o,] L, Pope, suc- 
 ceeded Zozimus as Bishop of Rome in 419 a.d. His 
 claims were opposed by a party in favour of Eulalius ; 
 but the emperor Hononus decided in favour of Boniface. 
 He was a patron of learning, and Saint Augustine dedi- 
 cated to him some of his works. He died in 422, and 
 was succeeded by Celestinus I. 
 
 See Bakomus, "Annales." 
 
 Boniface II., born at Rome, succeeded Felix IV. in 
 530 ; died in 532. 
 
 Boniface III., born at Rome, was elected pope in 
 607, and died the same year. He obtained from the 
 emperor Phocas permission for the pope to be entitled 
 universal bishop. 
 
 Boniface IV., a native of Valeria, in Italy, succeeded 
 Boniface III. in 608. He dedicated the Pantheon to the 
 Virgin and saints, having first removed the heathen 
 images. Died in 615. 
 
 Boniface V., a native of Naples, succeeded Deus- 
 dedit in 619. He was noted for his efforts to convert 
 the Britons to Christianity. He died in 624, and was 
 succeeded by Honorius I. 
 
 Boniface VI., born at Rome, was the successor of 
 Formosus in 895, and survived his election but fifteen 
 days. He was succeeded by Stephen VII. 
 
 Boniface VII., the anti-pope, (Cardinal Francone, 
 fRan-ko'ni,) was elected in 974, during the rule of Bene- 
 dict VI., who was soon after put to death. Though 
 driven from Rome the following year, he returned in 
 985, and imprisoned Pope John XIV., who is said to 
 have been starved to death. He died in 985, and was 
 succeeded by John XV. 
 
 See Platina, "Vitae Pontificum." 
 
 Boniface VIII., (Cardinal Benedetto Gaetani — 
 ga-a-ta'nee,) born at Anagni about 1228, succeeded Ce- 
 lestine V. in 1294. The Colonna family having disputed 
 his election, he excommunicated them and all their ad- 
 herents, and destroyed their city of Prseneste, with a 
 number of their castles. He was subsequently involved 
 in a contest with Philip the Fair of France, whom he 
 excommunicated. Philip, in return, charged him with 
 heresy and other crimes, and had him arrested and im- 
 prisoned at Anagni. He was rescued after a few days 
 by his followers, but died soon after, in 1303. Dante, in 
 his " Inferno," mentions Boniface as one of the simon- 
 ists, and dwells on his persecution of the Ghibelines. 
 (See " Inferno," canto xxvii.) 
 
 See Rubeis, "De Vita et Rebus gestis Bonifacii VIII.," 1651 ; 
 Wii.helm Dkumann, " Geschichte des Papstes Bonifacius VIII.," 
 2 vols., 1852; Luigi Tosti, "Storia di Bonifazio VIII.," 1847. 
 
 Boniface IX., (Cardinal Pietro Tomacelli — to-ma- 
 chel'lee) a Neapolitan, succeeded Urban VI. in 1389. 
 He had a competitor in Benedict XIII., the anti-pope, 
 who held his court at Avignon. Boniface died in 1404, 
 and was succeeded by Innocent VII. 
 
 Boniface, [Lat. Bonifa'cius,] a Roman general, born 
 in Thrace, gained the confidence of the empress Placidia, 
 who began to exercise royal power in 424 a.d. By insid- 
 ious arts Aetius induced her to recall him from Africa, 
 where he had the chief command. Boniface then re- 
 volted, and, contrary to the advice of his friend Saint 
 Augustine, invited Genseric the Vandal to invade Africa. 
 Having returned to the service of Placidia, he came to 
 Italy, and was killed in a battle against Aetius in 432 A.D. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Boniface, bo'ne'fiss', (Hyacinthe,) a French jurist, 
 born at Forcalquier in 1612; died in 1695. 
 
 Boniface, [Lat. Bonifa'cius,] (Win'frid,) Saint, 
 born in Devonshire, England, about 680, was styled "the 
 Apostle of Germany," and distinguished himself by his 
 zeal in converting the Germans to Christianity. He re- 
 sided among them more than thirty years, and founded 
 numerous cathedrals, schools, and monasteries. In 732 
 he was appointed by Gregory III. Archbishop and Pri- 
 mate of Germany, and subsequently created Archbishop 
 of Mentz by Pepin le Bref, whom he consecrated King 
 of the Franks in 752. He was assassinated in 755, with a 
 number of his companions, by an armed troop of pagans. 
 
 See Willibald, "Life of Saint Boniface;" George W. Cox, 
 "Life of Saint Boniface," 1853; J. C. Seitbrs, "Bonifacius der 
 Apostel der Deutschen." 
 
 Bonifacio, bo-ne-fa'cho, (Baldassare,) nephew of 
 Giovanni, noticed below, born at Crema about 1586, be- 
 came Bishop of Capo d'Istria in 1653. He published 
 poems and treatises on various subjects, in Latin and 
 Italian. Died in 1659. 
 
 Bonifacio, (Giovanni,) an Italian jurist and writer, 
 born at Rovigo in 1547, wrote a "History of Treviso," 
 (" Storia Trivigiano.") Died in 1635. 
 
 Bonifacius. See Boniface. 
 
 Bonifazio. See Boniface. 
 
 Bonifazio, bo-ne-fat'se-o, or Bonifacio, bo-ne-fa'- 
 cho, (called il Veneziano, el va-n6t-se-a'no ; i.e. "the 
 Venetian,") a skilful painter of Verona, born about 1490, 
 is supposed to have been a pupil of Titian. Among his 
 principal works, which are to be seen at Venice and 
 Rome, is "The Traffickers driven from the Temple." 
 Died in 1553. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," eta 
 
 Bonifazio, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Viterbo in 1637, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. 
 
 Bonilla, de, da bo-n6l'ya, (Alonso,) a Spanish poet, 
 born at Baeza, in Andalusia, about 1580. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Bonin, von, fon bo-neen', (Eduarb,) a Prussian gen- 
 eral, born at Stolpe in 1793. He commanded the army 
 which fought against the Danes in Slesvvick-Holstein in 
 1848 and 1849. 
 
 Bon'ing-ton, (Richard Parkes,) an English painter 
 of landscapes and coast-scenery, born near Nottingham 
 in 1801. He studied in Paris under Baron Gros, and 
 subsequently visited Italy. Among his master-pieces are 
 "Views of Venice and Bologna;" "The Tomb of Saint 
 Omer;" and "The Turk in Repose." Died in 1828. 
 
 Bonini, bo-nee'nee, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Ancona; died about 1680. 
 
 Bonisoli, bo-ne-so'lee, or Bonizoli, bo-ned-zo'lee,( ?) 
 (Agostino,) an Italian historical painter, born at Cre- 
 mona in 1633 ; died in 1700. 
 
 Bonito, bo-nee'to, (Giuseppe,) a Neapolitan portrait- 
 painter, born in 1705 ; died at Naples in 1789. 
 
 Bonjean, b6N / zh6N / , (Louis Bernard,) a French 
 jurist and legal writer, born at Valence, in Drome, in 
 1804. He was appointed a senator in 1855. 
 
 Bonjour, biN'zhooR', two brothers, noted as the 
 founders of a new sect of Flagellants, lived about 1780. 
 
 Bonjour, (Casimir,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Clermont in 1795, published "The Rival Mother," " The 
 Two Cousins," and other popular comedies. 
 
 Bonjour, (Francois Joseph,) a French chemist, born 
 near Salins in 1754, was a pupil and assistant of Ber- 
 thollet. He published a translation of Bergman's "Chem- 
 ical Affinities," (1788.) Died in 1811. 
 
 Bonjour, written also Bonjours, (Guili.aume,) a 
 French Augustine monk, born at Toulouse in 1670, went 
 as a missionary to China, where he died in 1 714. 
 
 Bon, Le. See Le Bon. 
 
 Bonn, bon, (Andreas,) a Dutch surgeon and medical 
 writer, born at Amsterdam in 1738. He was a member 
 of the Academy of Brussels. Died in 1819. 
 
 Bonnaire, bo'nSR', (Jean Gerard,) a French gen- 
 eral, born in 1771, was condemned to exile on a charge 
 of being concerned in the attack on Colonel Gordon at 
 Conde in 1816. He died the same year. 
 
 Bonnaire, de, deh bo'iiaV, (Louis,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and moralist, born about 1680; died in 1752. 
 
 Bonnal, (Francois.) See Bonal. 
 
 Bonnard, bo'ntR', (Charles Louis,) a French ma.h- 
 ematician and engineer, born at Amay-le-Duc in 1709; 
 died in 1828. 
 
 Bonnard, (Ennemond,) a French general of division, 
 born in Dauphiny in 1756, served in the Revolutionary 
 campaigns from 1793 to 1798. Died in 1819. 
 
 Bonnard, (Jacques Charles,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1765, was a pupil of Renard, whom 
 he aided in restoring the palace of the Tuileries. Died 
 in 1818. 
 
 Bonnard, (Jean Louis,) a French missionary to 
 China, born in 1824. He arrived in China in 1850, and 
 was put to death by order of the government in 1852. 
 
 Bonnard, de, deh bo'ntR', (Bernard,) a French 
 poet, born at Semur-en-Auxois in 1744; died in 1784. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m4t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
BONNARD 
 
 399 
 
 BON NEPAL 
 
 Bonnard, de, (Robert ALEXANDRE,) a French geol- 
 ogist, sun of the preceding, born in Paris in 1781. He 
 was a member ot the Institute, and wrote on geognosy 
 anil metallurgy. Died in 1857. 
 
 Bonna-Sforza, bon'na sfoiu'sa, daughter of Galeazzo 
 Sforza, Duke of Milan, was married in 1518 to Sigismund 
 I., King of Poland. Died in 1557. 
 
 Bonnaterre, bo'nS'taiR', (J. P.,) a French naturalist, 
 born in Rouergue about 1750, was one of the founders 
 of the "Encyclopedic Methodique." He published in 
 this work his " Picture of the Three Kingdoms of Na- 
 ture, " being a continuation of the natural history of 
 Daubenton, in the same work. Died in 1804. 
 See Querard, "La France Litl^raire." 
 Bounaud, bo'no', (Jacques Philippe,) a French 
 general of division, born in 1757. He served under 
 Pichegru and Hoche, and was mortally wounded at Gies- 
 sen in 1797. 
 
 Bounaud, (Jean Baptists,) a Jesuit, of French ex- 
 traction, bom in America in 1740, was educated in Paris. 
 He wrote several political works, which offended the 
 Jacobins, by whose orders he was executed in 1792. 
 
 Boimay, de, deh bo'ni', (Francois,) Marquis, a 
 French statesman and diplomatist, born in 1750, was 
 elected president of the National Assembly in 1789, and 
 sent in 1814 on a mission to Copenhagen. Died in 1825. 
 Bonne, bon, (Rigohert,) a French hydrographer and 
 engineer, born in 1 727. He published a "Picture of 
 France," (in 27 maps,) and " Neptune Americo-septen- 
 trional," (in 18 maps.) Died in 1794. 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 Bonneau, bo'no', (Jean Ives Alexandre,) French 
 consul to Poland, born at Montpellier in 1739. He was 
 arrested and imprisoned by Catherine II. for having 
 opposed the dismemberment of Poland. He died in 
 1805, soon after his release. 
 
 Bonne-Carrere, de, deh bon'kt'raiR', (Guillaume,) 
 a French revolutionist, born at Muret, in Languedoc, in 
 1 754, was employed by the Directory in several important 
 negotiations. Died in 1825. 
 
 Bonnechose, de, deh bon'shoz', (Francois Paul 
 Em ilk Boisnormand — bw&'noR'moN',) a distinguished 
 dramatist and historian, born at Leyderdorp, in Holland, 
 in 1801. His "History of France" (Paris, 1834) enjoys 
 a high reputation : he has also published a "History of 
 the Four Conquests of England," and a popular tragedy 
 entitled " Rosamond." 
 
 Bonnechose, de, (Henri Marie Gaston,) born in 
 Paris in 1800, became Bishop of Carcassonne in 1847. 
 
 Bonnechose, de, (Louis Charles Boisnormand,) 
 brother of Francois Paul, noticed above, born at Nym- 
 wegen in 1812, was one of the pages of Ch;;rles X. He 
 was mortally wounded soon after the battle of La Penis- 
 siere, in 1832. 
 
 Bonnecorse, de, deh bon'koRss', (Balthasar,) a 
 French poet, born at Marseilles, wrote a collection of 
 madrigals entitled "The Watch of Love," ("LaMontre 
 d'Amour.") Died in 1706. 
 
 Bonnefoi, bon'fw a', (Ennf.mond,) [Lat. Enimun'dus 
 Boneeid'ius,] a French jurist, born at Chabeuil in 1536, 
 became professor of law at Geneva. He published a 
 valuable work on Oriental jurisprudence. He was a 
 friend of Cujacius, and numbered De Thou among his 
 pupils. Died in 1574. 
 
 Bonnefoi, (Jean Baptists,) a French surgeon, born 
 in 1756, published a treatise "On the Application of 
 Electricity to the Art of Healing." Died in 1790. 
 
 Bonnefons, bon'f6N', (Amahi.e,) a French writer of 
 devotional works, born at Riom in 1600; died in Paris 
 in 1653. 
 
 Bonnefons, (Ei.ie Bknoit,) a French Benedictine 
 monk, bom at Mauriac in 1622 ; died in 1702. 
 
 Bonnefons, written also Bonefous, (Jean,) a French 
 jurist and litterateur, born at Clermont-en-Auvergne in 
 1554, wrote amatory poems in Latin, which are com- 
 mended by Menage. Died in 1614. 
 
 Bonnegai de, Bon'gtRd', a French compiler, who pub- 
 lished a "Historical and Critical Dictionary," (1771.) 
 
 Bonnelier, bon'le-i', (HlPPOLYTE,) a contemporary 
 French litterateur, has published a number of tales and 
 other works. 
 
 Bon'nell or Bon'nel, (James,) son of an English 
 merchant at Genoa, born in 1653, published "Medita- 
 tions and Prayers." Died in 1699. 
 
 Bon'ner, (Edmund,) an English prelate, infamous for 
 his persecutions, born in Worcestershire about 1490. He 
 was patronized by Henry VIII., who made him his chap- 
 lain, employed him in several important negotiations, 
 and in 1540 promoted him to the see of London. Having 
 on the accession of Edward VI. refused to take the oath 
 of supremacy, Bonner was deprived of his bishopric and 
 imprisoned. After the death of Edward he was rein- 
 stated in his office by Mary, and took an active part in 
 the persecution which has made her reign infamous. 
 The number of those who suffered martyrdom through 
 his agency is estimated at more than a hundred. On the 
 accession of Elizabeth, Bonner was the only one of the 
 Catholic bishops whom she would not permit to kiss her 
 hand. The queen appears to have fully sympathized 
 with the feeling of the people, among whom he was 
 known as " Bloody Bonner." Bonner's brutality and 
 cruelty contributed greatly to promote the Protestant 
 cause, A published letter, addressed to him by a lady 
 of that time, contains the following passages : " The 
 very papists themselves begin now to abhor your blood- 
 thirstiness and speak shame of your tyranny. . . . You 
 have lost the hearts of twenty thousand that were rank 
 papists within this twelvemonth." He was imprisoned 
 for life in the Marshalsea for refusing to take the oath of 
 supremacy. Died in 1569. 
 
 See Froude's " History of England," vol. vi. chap, xxxiii., and 
 vol. vii. chap. i. ; Hume's History of England ;" Foxe's " Book of 
 Martyrs ;" " Life and Defence of Bonner, Bishop of London.' 
 
 Bonnet, bo'ni', (Auguste Bernard,) a French med- 
 ical writer, born at Miramont about 1790, resided at 
 Bordeaux. 
 
 Bonnet, bo'ni', (Charles,) an eminent naturalist and 
 philosopher, born at Geneva in March, 1720. He pub- 
 lished in 1745 his "Treatise on Insectology," in which 
 he gives the result of his important discoveries on the 
 modes of reproduction and animal functions of butter- 
 flies, caterpillars, etc. His treatise " On the Use of 
 Leaves in Plants" came out in 1754. It is commended 
 by Cuvier as one of the best works extant on vegetable 
 physiology. Having impaired his sight by the use of the 
 microscope, he turned his attention to philosophy, and 
 published in 1762 " Considerations on Organized Bodies." 
 This was followed by his " Contemplation of Nature," 
 (1764,) "Philosophical Palingenesis," (1769,) and "Phi- 
 losophical Researches on the Evidences of Christianity," 
 (1770.) The genus Bonnetia was named in his honour 
 by Wahl. Died at Geneva in 1793. 
 
 See H. B. de Saussure, " £loge historique de C. Bonnet," 1787; 
 J. Tremblev, " Memoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de C. Bonnet," 
 1794; Albert Lemoine, "C. Bonnet de Geneve, Philosophe et 
 Nimiraliste," 1850; article "Bonnet," in "Biographie Universale," 
 (by Cuvier.) 
 
 Bonnet, (Jacques,) a French writer on music, born 
 in 1644. He published a "History of Music and its 
 Effects," (1715.) Died in 1724. 
 
 Bonnet or Bonet, bo'ni', (Jean,) a skilful Swiss 
 physician, brother of Theophile, noticed below, born at 
 Geneva in 161 5 ; died in 1688. 
 
 Bonnet, (Pierre,) physician to the Duchess of Bur- 
 gundy, brother of Jacques, noticed above, born in Paris 
 in 1638; died in 1708. 
 
 Bonnet, (Simon,) a French theologian, born at Puy- 
 en-Velay about 1653, expended some years on a work 
 called "Biblia maxima Patrum." Died in 1705. 
 
 Bonnet, written also Bonet, (Theophile,) a cele- 
 brated physician, born at Geneva in 1620. His princi- 
 pal works are entitled "Sepulchretum seu Anatomia 
 Practica," and " Labyrinthus Medicus extricatus," (1679.) 
 Died in 1689. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Bonnetty, bo'nj'te', (Augustin,) a French theolo- 
 gian and Orientalist, bom in the department of Lower 
 Alps in 1798. He founded in 1830 a religious journal, 
 entitled "Annales de Philosophie chretienne." 
 
 Bonneval, de, deh bon'vil', (Claude Alexandre,) 
 Comte, a French adventurer, born in Limousin in 1675, 
 served in the Austrian army under Prince Eugene. He 
 subsequently went over to the Turks, and became an 
 
 « as k; 9 as /,• g hard; g as/,- G, H, K,gi/ltural; N, vasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (jry See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
BONNEVAL 
 
 400 
 
 BONTEKOE 
 
 officer in their army, under the name of Ahmed (Ach- 
 met) Pacha. Died in 1747. 
 
 See " Me"moire sur le Comte de Bonneval," by the Prince de 
 LtGNE, 1817; David Fassmann, " Leben des Grafen von Bonneval," 
 1740; "Memoirs of the Bagshaw Count Bonneval," London, 1750. 
 
 Bonneval, de, (Michel,) a native of Mans, was 
 the author of a number of operas and ballets. Died in 
 1766. 
 
 Bonneval, de, (Ren6,) a French critic and contro- 
 versialist, born at Mans; died in 1760. 
 
 Bonneval, de, (Sixte Louis Constant Ruffo,) a 
 French ecclesiastic, born at Aix in 1742, was a deputy 
 from the clergy of Paris to the States-General in 1789. 
 Died in 1S20. 
 
 Bonneville, bon'vil, (Benjamin L. E.,) an officer 
 and traveller, born in France, graduated at West Point, 
 United States, about 1815. He served in the Mexican 
 war, (1846-47,) and obtained the rank of lieutenant-colo- 
 nel. He published a " Journal of an Expedition to the 
 Rocky Mountains." In 1837 Irving published a work 
 entitled "Adventures of Captain Bonneville." 
 
 Bonneville, de, deh bon'vel', (C.,) a French en- 
 gineer and military writer, born at Lyons about 1710; 
 died about 1780. 
 
 Bonneville, de, .(Nicolas,) a French journalist and 
 litterateur, born at Evreux in 1760, was imprisoned as a 
 Girondist in Paris in 1793-94. He wrote a " History of 
 Modern Europe," (3 vols., 1792,) and other works. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Bonnier, bo'ne-A', (Edouard,) a French jurist, born 
 at Lille in 1808, was the author of several legal works. 
 
 Bonnier d'Alco, bo'ne-4' dfl'ko', (Ange Elisa- 
 beth Louis Antoine,) a member of the French Na- 
 tional Convention, born at Montpellier in 1750, voted 
 for the death of the king. He was killed by some Aus- 
 trian hussars while returning from an embassy to Ras- 
 tadt in 1799. 
 
 Bonnierea, de, deh bo'ne-aiR', (Alexandre Jules 
 BenoIt,) a French jurist, born' at Grancy in 1750. He 
 favoured the royalists, and became a member of the 
 Council of Five Hundred in 1795. Died in 1801. 
 
 Bonnivard, de, deh bo'ne'vSR', (Francois,) born 
 at Seyssel, in the department of Ain, in 1496. Having 
 adopted republican opinions, he took sides with the 
 Genevese against Duke Charles III. of Savoy; but he 
 had the misfortune in 1530 to fall into the power of the 
 latter, who confined him six years in the castle of Chil- 
 lon. Bonnivard is the hero of Byron's " Prisoner of 
 Chillon." He wrote a "Chronicle of Geneva," and be- 
 queathed to that city his library and other possessions. 
 He was a man of noble character, and a friend of the 
 Reformation. Died in 1570. 
 
 See Byron, notes to the " Prisoner of Chillon." 
 
 Bonnivet, de, deh bo'ne'vi', (Guillaume Gouf- 
 fier — goo'fe-4',) Seigneur, a French admiral, born about 
 1488, was aTavourite of Francis I., who sent him on 
 embassies to England and Germany. It was by the ad- 
 vice of Bonnivet that Francis I. fought the disastrous 
 battle of Pavia, (1525;) and the admiral, unwilling to 
 survive a defeat of which he was the principal cause, 
 sought and found death in the thickest of the fight. 
 
 See Brant6me, "Vie de Bonnivet;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gendrale." 
 
 Bonnycaatle, bon'e-kas'sel, (John,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish mathematician, born in Buckinghamshire, became 
 professor at the Royal Military Academy of Woolwich. 
 His " Introduction to Mensuration," (1782,) "Elements 
 of Geometry," (1789,) "Treatise on Trigonometry," 
 (1806,) and "Elements of Algebra," (1S13,) are esteemed 
 standard works. Died in 1821. 
 
 Bono, bo'no, (Giamhattista Agostino,) an Italian 
 jurist, born near Saluzzo in 1738, became in 1768 pro- 
 fessor of canon law at Turin. Died in 1799. 
 
 Bonomi, bo-no'mee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian, born at Cremona in 1536, was patronized by the car- 
 dinal Carlo Borromeo, who made him Bishop of Vercelli 
 in 1572. He wrote, in Latin, "The Life and Death of 
 Carlo Borromeo," and other works. Died in 1587. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Bonomi, (Giovanni Francesco,) born at Bologna in 
 1626, published a number of poems in Latin and Italian. 
 
 Bonomi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian architect, born at 
 Rome in 1 739, resided mostly in England. He became 
 an associate of the Royal Academy. Among his principal 
 works are the Duke of Argyll's mansion at Roseneath, 
 and Eastwell House in Kent. Died in 1808. 
 
 Bo-no'ml, (Joseph,) an antiquary, born in London 
 about 1796, was a son of the preceding. He published 
 " Nineveh and its Palaces," the " Discoveries of Botta 
 and Layard applied to the Elucidation of Holy Writ," 
 (1852,) and other works. 
 
 Bononcini, bo-non-chee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) 
 a famous musical composer, born at M6dena about 1670, 
 was a son of Giovanni Maria, noticed below. He had 
 composed several operas, when in 1716 the Royal Acad- 
 emy of Music engaged him to go to London. There he 
 became the rival of Handel, and produced a number of 
 operas, among which were "Erminia" and "Astyanax." 
 The Tories were the partisans of Handel, and the Whigs 
 patronized Bononcini. He quitted England about 1733. 
 Died after 1748. 
 
 Bononcini, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian composer, 
 born at Modena about 1640, was the author of a work 
 entitled " The Practical Musician." His sons Antonio 
 and Giovanni were noted as musicians. 
 
 Bonone, bo-no'ni, (Carlo,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Ferrara in 1569. His best works are the frescos in 
 the church of Campo Santo at Ferrara, and of Santa 
 Maria in Vado, which are highly commended. As a pupil 
 and imitator of the Carracci, Bonone is sometimes called 
 "the Carracci of Ferrara." Died in 1632. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bonours, de, deh bo'nooR', (Christophe,) a French 
 officer in the Spanish service, born at Vesoul about 1590, 
 published "The Memorable Siege of Ostend." 
 
 Bonpland, bo.N'plfl.N', (Aime\) an eminent French 
 naturalist and traveller, born at La Rochelle in 1773. 
 He studied medicine under Corvisart, in Paris, where he 
 formed an intimate friendship with Humboldt, and in 
 1799 accompanied him on a scientific tour to South 
 America. They published, after their return, " Travels 
 in the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent," (12 
 vols., 1815 et seq.) Bonpland presented to the Museum 
 of Natural History his large and valuable collection of 
 dried plants, (6000 new species,) and was appointed by 
 the empress Josephine superintendent of her gardens at 
 Malmaison. In 1816 he sailed for Buenos Ayres, where 
 he became professor of natural history. At the end of 
 five years he set out on a journey to the Andes, but in 
 passing through Paraguay was captured by the troops of 
 the dictator Francia. After a residence of nearly ten years 
 under strict surveillance, he was released in 1831. He 
 afterwards resided in Uruguay, and died in 1858. Among 
 his other productions we may name his "Nova Genera 
 et Species Plantarum,"(7vols. fol.,with 700 plates, 1S15,) 
 a magnificent work, in which he was assisted by Kunth, 
 a " Monograph of the Melastomes," (2 vols., 120 plates,) 
 and " Equinoctial Plants collected in Mexico, Cuba, etc.," 
 (2 vols, fol., 140 plates.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Bonsi, bon'see, (Francesco,) Count, an Italian 
 writer on veterinary medicine, born at Rimini about 
 1720. 
 
 Bonsi, (Lelio,) an Italian litterateur, born at Florence 
 about 1552. 
 
 Bonstetten, de, deh bon'steYten, written also Bon- 
 atettin, (Charles Victor,) a Swiss philosopher, born 
 at Berne in 1745. He was a friend of Voltaire, Rousseau, 
 and the historian Miiller. Among his principal winks 
 are " Researches on the Nature and Laws of Imagina- 
 tion," (1807,) "Studies on Man," (in French, 182 1,) an 
 essay on " National Education," and other treatises, in 
 German. Died at Geneva in 1832. 
 
 See " Souvenirs de Bonstetten," 1832; and his "Autobiography," 
 contained in a collection of his letters, published by H. Fuessli in 
 1837 ; (two other volumes of his " Letters" were published in 1829 j) 
 Ersch und Grubkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" "Edinburgh 
 Review" for April, 1864. 
 
 Bontekoe, bon'teh-koo', (Kornelis,) a Dutch phy- 
 sician and medical writer, born at Alkmaar in 1648; died 
 in 1685 or 1686. 
 
 See Overkamp, " Reden over het Leven en de Dood van C. Bon- 
 tekoe," 1685; "Biographie Me'dicale." 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, wttg; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 11, J>, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BONTEKOE 
 
 401 
 
 SOONER 
 
 Bontekoe, (Wii.i.km Ishraxi>,) a Dutch sea-captain, 
 
 j who sailed in 1618 to the East Indies. His ship having 
 
 taken fire and exploded when near Batavia, Hontekoe 
 
 thrown unhurt into the sea, and saved himselt' by 
 
 means of a mast. He wrote an account of his adven- 
 
 hire, which was translated into French. 
 
 See Th^vsnot, "Relation de divers Voyages curieux." 
 
 Bontempi. l>6n-tim'pee, or Buontempi, boo-6n- 
 
 [ tem'pee, (G10VANNJ ANDREA Angkuni,) an Italian 
 
 musician and composer, born at Perugia about 1630, 
 
 "Musical History," (1695,) and other works. Vied 
 
 ■'.it 1700. 
 
 Bontemps or Bontems, boN'toN', (Marik Jeanne 
 
 , de Chatillon — deh shi'te'yo.N',) a literary French lady, 
 
 born in i'aris in 1718, was the first translator of Thom- 
 
 n 's "Seasons" into Fiench. Died in 1768. 
 
 Boutins, bon'te-us, (Gerard,) a Dutch physician, 
 bun at Ryswick about 1536, became professor of medi- 
 cine at Ixyden. Died in 1599. 
 
 Bcuitius, (Jacok,) son of Gerard, born about 1590, 
 obtained a high reputation as a naturalist. He visited 
 India and Persia, and in 1625 settled as a physician in 
 Batavia. He wrote several valuable works on medicine 
 and botany. Plumier named in his honour a genus of 
 American plants. Died in 1631. 
 
 Bonvicino, Mm-ve-cheeAio, written also Buonvi- 
 ciiio, (Al.KSSANDRO,) an eminent Italian painter, born 
 in 1514, was sometimes called IE Moreito DA Brescia, 
 (el mo-ret'to da bRcsh'ya.) He was a pupil of Titian, 
 whom he imitated admirably. He painted portraits 
 with success, and altar-pieces the dignity and grace of 
 which are highly praised. " Inspired with ardent admi- 
 ration for Raphael!" says E. Breton, "he formed for him- 
 self a new style, simple, graceful, and elevated." Died 
 in 1564. 
 
 See Kidolfi. " Vite de' Pittori Veneti." 
 
 Bonvicino, (Amhrogio.) a skilful Italian sculptor, 
 born at Milan in 1552 ; died in 1622. 
 
 Bonwicke, bon'wik, (Ambrose,) an English non- 
 juring divine, born in 1652, became master of Merchant- 
 Taylors' School. He wrote "Pattern for Young Stu- 
 dents in the University." 
 
 See VV. Beveridge, "Life of A. Bonwicke," 1846. 
 
 Bonzi, (Paolo.) See Gorko. 
 
 Booddha or Buddha, bood'da or lwxl'd'ha, fFr. 
 BOUPDHA, boo'da',] the name of an Asiatic divinity, 
 (Those worshippers, called Booddhists, (or Buddhists',) 
 are supposed to constitute about one-third of the human 
 race. The name is derived from the Sanscrit verb bad, 
 to "understand," to "know," and signifies "wisdom," 
 also the " wise one," or the "sage." The term Booddha 
 has been applied to many different individuals or beings. 
 The Booddhists of India and Ceylon teach that, through- 
 out the countless ages of the past, there have appeared, 
 at long intervals, sages who, by the merit thev have ac- 
 quired during innumerable transmigrations, have at last 
 attained to unlimited intelligence and power. (See Brah- 
 JJANISM.) During the long period of their probation, the 
 Bodhisattvas (or "Aspirants to the Booddhaship") are 
 sometimes born as dci'as, (inferior deities,) and sometimes 
 in the forms of various animals, even insects, but more 
 frequently as men : in their last and most perfect mani- 
 festation as supreme Booddhas, they are always born in 
 the human form. Of these divine sages the most recent 
 ant! best-known is Gautama, (which see.) 
 
 Some of the Nepaujcse Booddhists believe in an eter- 
 nal, self-existent Being, whom they style AdI Booddha, 
 thai is, the " First Booddha," who created all things in 
 hea.cn and earth, (see Hodgson's "Literature and 
 ion of the Buddhists," page 63 ;) but the Ccvlonese 
 ihisls, who appear to have departed the least from 
 the primitive doctrines of Booddhism, are atheists, that 
 is, they do not recognize the existence of any God, prop- 
 erly so called. According to their belief,' the highest 
 forms of being arc those of glorified men, who, having 
 ne supreme Booddhas, are thereby deified ; though 
 they enjoy but a very brief existence in this exalted state, 
 ant! then pass into' Nirwana, which signifies. "annihila- 
 tion," according to the Oylonese Booddhists, but, ac- 
 cording to the Aishwarikas of Nepaul, "absorption" into 
 he eternal essence of AdI Booddha. For a more par- 
 
 ticular account of the doctrines, and for the history, of 
 Booddhism, see Gautama. 
 
 o 5ju ^, a ?," y ' " Maiu,al °f Budhism;" KOppen, "Religion de* 
 Buddha, Berlin, 1857; (Juigniaut, " Religions de l'Antiquit«" 
 i'aris, 1825, vol. 1. book 1. chap. v. ; Moon, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Boodt, bot, (Ansklm Boethis,) a Flemish physi- 
 cian and naturalist, born at Bruges about 1580: died 
 in 1634. 
 
 Boogrof, Bougrov, or Bugrow, boo'gRof, a Rus- 
 sian astronomer, published a " Dissertation on the Ellip- 
 tic Motion of the Stars." Died in 1822. 
 
 Boo'ker, (Kev. Luke,) rector of Tedstone, an English 
 writer, born at Nottingham in 1762. He wrote theolog. 
 ical and other works. Died in 1835. 
 
 Boole, bool, (George,) an English mathematician, 
 born about 1820. He published a " Mathematical Ana- 
 lysis of Logic," (1847,) and an "Investigation of the 
 Laws of Thought." Died in 1864. 
 
 Boolgarin, Boulgaxine, or Bulgarin, bool-ga'rin or 
 bool-ga'ren, (Thaddeus,) a celebrated Russian writer, 
 born m Lithuania in 1789. He studied at the Institution 
 of Military Cadets at Saint Petersburg, and, having made 
 several campaigns in the Russian array*, entered the 
 French service. After the fall of Napoleon he became 
 in 1825 associated with Gretsch as editor of "The 
 Northern Bee." He published in 1827 a collection 0/ 
 essays and tales, among which the " Recollections of the 
 War in Spain" deserves especial mention. His novel of 
 " Ivan Vuizhegin" (1829) enjoys great popularity, and has 
 been styled "the Russian Gil Bias." He also wrote a 
 work entitled " Russia in a Historical, Statistical, Geo- 
 graphical, and Literary Point of View." 
 
 See Friedrich Otto, "Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur." 
 
 Boo'mer, (George Boarpman,) an American gene- 
 rat, born in Worcester county, Massachusetts, in 1832. 
 He was killed in an attack on Vicksburg in May, 1863. 
 
 Boon, bon, or Boone, bo'neh, (Daniel,) a Dutch 
 painter, who worked in England. He painted drunken 
 revels, etc. Died in 1698. 
 
 Boone, (Daniel,) an American pioneer and explorer, 
 born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1735, wa s a fa- 
 mous hunter from his youth. During his "minority he 
 emigrated with his father to North Carolina, where he 
 married. In 1769 Boone and five companions pene- 
 trated into the unexplored forests of Kentucky, where 
 he passed many months in the pursuits of the chase. 
 He was captured by some Indians, but escaped from 
 them, and returned home in March, 1771. Having re- 
 solved to emigrate to Kentucky with his family, he left 
 North Carolina, accompanied by five other families, in 
 September, 1773. After several fights with the Indians, 
 he built a fort at Boonesborough, 611 the Kentucky River, 
 in 1775. He repulsed several attacks which the savages 
 made on this fort in 1777. In February, 1778, he was 
 surprised and captured by the Indians, who carried him 
 to Chillicothe and Detroit. He, however, gained the 
 favour of the savages, and was adopted as a son by all 
 Indian family. He escaped in June, 1778, and returned 
 to the fort, which was attacked in August by a party 
 of Indians, about four hundred and forty-five in number, 
 fighting under the British flag. Boone, who had about 
 fifty men under him, defended the fort with great resolu- 
 tion and success. Two of his sons were at different times 
 killed by the Indians. 
 
 Having lost his lands in Kentucky in consequence of 
 a defective title, he removed to Missouri about 1705, and 
 settled on the Feinme Osage River. He continued to 
 follow the occupation of hunter and trapper in Missouri, 
 and obtained a large tract of land in that territory, which 
 then belonged to Spain ; but when it was ceded to the 
 United States his title was not admitted to be valid. He 
 died in Missouri in 1820 or 1822. 
 
 See Sparks, "American Biography," vol. xiii., Second Series! 
 W, H. I'.oGAKT. " Lite of Daniel Boone," 1857. 
 
 Boonen, bo'nen, (ARNOUD,)an eminent Dutch painter, 
 born at Dort in 1669. Among his master-pieces are por- 
 traits of Peter the Great, the Duke of Marlborough, and 
 the painter Van Huysum. Died in 1729. 
 
 See Descampr, "Viesdes Peintrcs Flamaudx, Hollandais," etr. 
 
 Boonen, (Kaspar,) a portrait-painter, brother of the 
 preceding, born at Dort in 1667; died in 1729. 
 
 as k; 9 as s: 
 
 d; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JTj^See Explanations, p. 23.I 
 
 26 
 
BOORINSKI 
 
 402 
 
 BORCH 
 
 Boorinski or Burinski, boo-rin'ske or boo-ren'skee, 
 a Russian lyric poet, lived in the early part of the present 
 century. 
 
 Boos, bos, (Martin,) a German theologian, born in 
 1762; died in 1825. 
 
 See " M. Boos der Prediger der Gerechtigkeit die vor Gott gilt: 
 seine Selbslbiographie," 1826 ; C. Bridges, " Life of M. Boos," 1836. 
 
 Boos, (Roman Anton,) a German sculptor, born in 
 1735, worked mostly at Munich, where he died in 1810. 
 
 Booseeree, (or Busiri,) boo-see'ree, written also 
 Bousyry, (Shereef-ed-Deen Aboo-Abdallah-Mo- 
 hammed,) an Arabian poet, born in Upper Egypt in 
 1210; died in 1294. 
 
 Boot, bot, written also Boat, (Gerard,) a brother 
 of the following, born at Gorkum in 1604, became phy- 
 sician to Charles I. of England. He wrote a work en- 
 titled " Ireland's Natural History." Died in 1650. 
 
 Boot, van, vtn bot, (Arnood,) a Dutch physician, 
 born at Gorkum in 1606; died in 1650. 
 
 Booth, (Abraham,) a Baptist minister, born in Der- 
 byshire in 1734, published " Paedo-Baptism Examined," 
 (1784.) Died in 1806. 
 
 Booth, (Barton,) a celebrated English actor, born 
 in Lancashire in 1681, was a relative of the Earl of War- 
 rington. His performances in "Hamlet," "Othello," and 
 Addison's "Cato" were everywhere received with the 
 highest applause. He wrote "The Death of Dido," a 
 drama. Died in 1733. 
 
 See T. Cibber, "Life of B. Booth." 
 
 Booth, (Edwin,) a popular American tragedian, a 
 son of Junius Brutus Booth, noticed below, was born in 
 Baltimore in 1833. He visited England and the continent 
 of Europe in 1861. He has since acted with great ap- 
 plause in different parts of the United States. 
 
 See "Atlantic Monthly" for May, 1866. 
 
 Booth, (Sir Felix,) a wealthy English manufacturer, 
 of the firm of Booth & Co., London, born in 1775. He 
 was knighted as a reward for his generous donation of 
 ^20,000 for promoting the expedition of Sir John Ross 
 to the Arctic regions. The most northern tract of land 
 was called, an his honour, Boothia Felix. Died in 1850. 
 
 See Sir John Ross's Narrative of his Second Voyage in Search 
 of a Northern Passage, etc. 
 
 Booth, (George,) son of Henry, whose title he in- 
 herited, published " Considerations upon the Institution 
 of Marriage," (1739.) Died in 1758. 
 
 Booth, (Henry,) Earl of Warrington, born in 165 1. 
 As a member of Parliament for Cheshire, under the 
 reign of Charles II., he was conspicuous for his opposi- 
 tion to the Papists. In 1689 he was appointed chancellor 
 of the exchequer by William III.. He wrote a number 
 of political tracts, and a vindication of his friend Lord 
 Russell. Died in 1694. 
 
 Booth, (John Wilkes,) an American actor, notorious 
 as the assassin of President Lincoln, was born in Bal- 
 timore. He was a son of the English actor Junius 
 Brutus Booth. He sympathized with the Southern se- 
 cessionists in the civil war, and, in order to avenge their 
 defeat, formed a conspiracy with J. H. Surratt, Lewis 
 Payne Powell, D. Harold, and others. On the night of 
 the 14th of April, 1865, he entered the pri\sate box of 
 the theatre, shot the President in the head, and, rushing 
 to the front of the box, brandished a dagger in his hand, 
 exclaimed, "Sic semper tyrannis!" and leaped down to 
 the stage. In his descent his spur caught in the Ameri- 
 can flag, and he broke his leg. He then mounted a 
 horse, which was standing at the back-door, and escaped 
 to Virginia. He secreted himself in a barn near Bowling 
 Green, to which he was tracked by detectives, and, re- 
 fusing to surrender, was shot, on the 26th of April, 1865. 
 
 Booth, (Junius Brutus,) a popular English trage- 
 dian, born in London in 1796. He visited America in 
 1 82 1, where he performed with great applause. He was 
 ■pre-eminently successful in the character of Richard III. 
 He died in 1852, while returning from California. 
 
 See "Life of Junius Brutus Booth," by his daughter, New York, 
 1866; Oxberry, "Dramatic Biography." 
 
 Booth'bjf, (Sir Brooke,) an English writer, published 
 " Fables and Satires," and " Sorrows sacred to the Mem- 
 ory of Penelope," (1796.) 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for February, 1810. 
 
 Booth'royd, (Benjamin,) D.D., an English dissent- 
 ing divine and bookseller, born in Yorkshire in 1768. 
 He published an edition of the Hebrew Bible without 
 points, which is commended by Home and other able 
 critics. Died in 1836. 
 
 Bootoorlin, (or Bootoorleeu,) Boutourline, or 
 Buturlin, boo-tooR-leen' or boo-tooR-lin', (Dmitri Pe^ 
 trovich,) a Russian general and distinguished military 
 writer, born at Saint Petersburg in 1790. He published, 
 in French, an "Account of the Italian Campaign in I 
 1799;" also a "History of Napoleon's Campaign in 
 Russia," (1820, in Russian.) He was a senator, and 
 director of the Imperial Library. Died in 1850. 
 
 See Otto, " Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur." 
 
 Bopp, bop, (Franz,) a distinguished German Oriental- 
 ist, who may be said to be the founder of the modern 
 science of comparative philology, was born at Mentz, in 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1 791. kje studied in Paris, where 
 he acquired the friendship of S. de Sacy and A. W. 
 Schlegel ; he subsequently visited London and Gottin- 
 gen, and soon after was appointed professor of Oriental 
 languages at Berlin. He published in 1816 a treatise 
 "On the Conjugation-System of the Sanscrit Language,'' 
 which was succeeded by a "Glossarium Sanscritum," 
 and "Critical Grammar of the Sanscrit Tongue." His 
 greatest work is entitled "Comparative Grammar of the 
 Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Sclavo 
 nian, Gothic, and German Languages," (1833,) which has 
 been translated into English under the care of II. H. 
 Wilson, late professor, of Sanscrit at Oxford, (1845.) ^ e 
 also published portions of the Indian poem " Maha- 
 bharata," with a German version and notes. 
 
 "Professor Bopp," says Wilson, "may be considered 
 to have established, beyond reasonable question, a near 
 relationship between the languages of nations separated 
 by the intervention of centuries and the distance of half 
 the globe, by differences of physical formation and social 
 institutions, — between the forms of speech current among 
 the dark-complexioned natives of India and the fair- 
 skinned races of ancient and modern Europe ; a rela- 
 tionship of which no suspicion existed fifty years ago, 
 and which has been satisfactorily established only within 
 a recent period." Died in Berlin in October, 1S67. 
 
 See preface to the English translation of Bopp's "Comparative 
 Grammar," London, 1S45 ; also an excellent article by Professor 
 Whitney, on Dr. Key and M. Oppert, in the " Nc-th American 
 Review" for October, 1867, and " Blackwood's Magazine" for Feb- 
 ruary, 1841. 
 
 Boquin, bo'kaN', or Bouquin, boo'kaN', (Pierre,) a 
 French Protestant theblogian, succeeded Calvin as pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Strasburg, and was afterwards 
 preacher to the Queen of Navarre. Died in 1582. 
 
 Bor or Bore. See Odin. 
 
 Bor, (Pieter Kristiaan,) a Dutch historian, born at 
 Utrecht in 1559, published a " History of the Nether- 
 lands," (1621,) and several other works. Died in 1635. 
 
 Bora, von, fon bo'ra, or Bohren, bo'ren, (Katha- 
 rina,) the wife of Martin Luther, born at Loeben in 1499, 
 was originally a nun in a convent of Saxony. Having, 
 with a number of her companions, been converted to 
 the doctrines of Luther, they were assisted by him in 
 effecting their escape. (See Luther.) Died in 1552. 
 
 See Walch, "Geschichte der Catharina von Bora," 2 vols., 1754, 
 Mayer, " De Catharina Martini Lutheri Conjuge," 1669; Hoffmann 
 " Catharina von Bora," 1845. 
 
 Borak, bo-rSk', or Burak, boo-rSk', (or, with the 
 article prefixed, Al-Borak, i.e. the " lightning,") written 
 also Buraq, (Myth.,) the name of a creature on which, 
 according to Mohammedan legends, the prophet rode 
 from Mecca to Jerusalem, and afterwards to heaven, 
 under the guidance of Jabreel, (Gabriel.) It is variously 
 represented, but usually as an animal, in size between an 
 ass and a horse, having a human face, two wings, and, 
 according to some accounts, a tail like a peacock. 
 
 See Shea's translation of Mirkhond's "Early Kings of Persia," 
 p. 441 ; Sprenger's "Life of Mohammad," p. 127. 
 
 Borastus, bo-ras'tus, (Gregorius Lars,) a Swedish 
 publicist, born at Norrkjoping about 1584, became secre- 
 tary to the King of Poland. 
 
 fiorch, boRK, (Michael John,) Count of, a Polish 
 naturalist, published several treatises on mineralogy, and 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, J, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good ; moon; 
 
 
BORCH 
 
 403 
 
 BORDONI 
 
 translated Wieland's " Oberon" into French verse. Died 
 in 1810. 
 
 Borch, lxiRK, or Borrich, bor'riK, [Lat. Borrich'- 
 It;s,] (OLAUS or Oluf,) a learned Dane, born in Jutland 
 in 1626, became professor of chemistry and botany at 
 Copenhagen. He founded in that city a college for in- 
 digent students. He wrote several valuable scientific 
 works in Latin. Died in 1690. 
 
 See Borneman, " Ligpraediken over O. Borch," 1690; Nic^ron, 
 ;res." 
 
 Borcholten, boRK'ol'ten, [Lat. Borchol'dus,] (Jo- 
 hann,) a German jurist, born at Luneburg in 1535, 
 studied under Cujacius, (Cujas,) and became professor 
 of law at Helmstedt. Died in 1593. 
 
 Borcht, van der, vin der boRKt, (Hendrik,) a Flem- 
 ish}>ainter and engraver, born at Brussels in 1583, worked 
 for Charles I. of England. Died in 1660. 
 
 Borcht, van der, (PlBTER,) a Flemish painter and 
 engraver, born at Brussels about 1540; died in 1608. 
 
 Borck. boRk, (Kaspar Wilhelm,) a German diplo- 
 matist and writer, born in Pomerania in 1650, rose to be 
 minister of state. He translated into German Shak- 
 speare's "Julius Csesar." Died in 1747. 
 
 Borda, boR'dl", (Jean Charles,) a celebrated French 
 mathematician and engineer, born at Dax in 1733. He 
 studied military engineering, and wrote in 1756 a "Me- 
 moir on the Motion of Projectiles," which procured him 
 admission into the Academy of Sciences. In 1757 he 
 fought at the battle of Hastenbeck, soon after which he 
 entered the navy. He published a "Memoir on the Re- 
 sistance of Fluids," (1763.) In 1767 he explained the 
 principles of the calculus of variations discovered by 
 Lagrange, in a memoir of pure analysis, which is highly 
 commended by Biot. About 1776, Lieutenant Borda 
 improved the method of determining the position of 
 points on a coast, for which he adopted astronomical 
 bearings obtained by reflecting instruments. Having 
 obtained the rank of major-general of the naval army, he 
 served in the American war, (1778-82.) He perfected in 
 1777 an instrument of great value to mariners, called 
 "circle of reflection," or reflecting circle, (cercle el rS- 
 fiexion.) The utility of the repeating circle invented by 
 nim was proved in the measurement of an arc of the 
 meridian from Dunkirk to the Balearic Isles, a vast en- 
 terprise, of which Borda was the master-spirit. " It is to 
 Borda and Coulomb," says Biot, " that we owe the renais- 
 sance of sound experimental philosophy in France. Borda 
 should also be regarded as one of the men who have 
 most contributed to the progress of the nautical art." 
 Died in Paris in February, 1799. 
 
 See M. Biot, "Notice sur Borda," in "Memoires de 1* Academic 
 des Sciences;" "Nouvelle Biographie Getie'rale." 
 
 Borda, boR'da, (Siro,) an Italian physician, born in 
 1 76 1 at Pavia, where he became professor of materia 
 medica in 1800. Died in 1824. 
 
 See G. DEI. Chiappa, "Memorie intomo alia Vita del Cavaliere 
 S. Korda," 1834. 
 
 Bordazar de Artazu, boR-da-thaV da ar-ta-thoo', 
 (Antonio,) a Spanish printer' and writer, born at Va- 
 lencia in 1671, published "Spanish Orthography," and 
 other works. Died in 1 744. 
 
 Borde or Boorde, bord, (Andrew,) [Lat. Andre' A 
 Perfora'tus,[ an English physician, born in Sussex 
 about 1500. He was the author of "The Breviary of 
 Health," "Merrie Tales of the Wise Men of Gotham," 
 and other works. He was patronized by Henry VIII. 
 The designation " Merry-Andrew" was originally applied 
 to him. Died in 1549. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena: Oxonienses ;" " Retrospective Review," vol. 
 »., new series, 1853. 
 
 Borde, bond, (Charles,) a French poet and skeptical 
 writer, born at Lyons in 171 1, was a friend of Voltaire. 
 Among his works is "Le Cat^chumene," (1766.) Died 
 in 1781. 
 
 See Antoine Pericaud, "Notice sur la Vie de C. Borde," 1824. 
 
 Borde, de la, deh li boRd, (Jean Benjamin,) a 
 French litthateur, a favourite of Louis XV., born in 
 Paris in 1734. He was put to death by the Jacobins 
 in 1794. 
 
 Bordeaux, de, deh bou'do', Due, a French prince, 
 ton of Charles Ferdinand, Due de Berry, and grandson 
 
 of Charles X., was born in Paris in 1820. He is some- 
 times called Count de Chamrord. He is recognized 
 by the Bourbonists as the legitimate heir to the throne, 
 and is styled Henri V. 
 
 Bordelon, boRd'I6N', (Laurent,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Bourges in 1653; died in 1730. 
 
 Bor'den, (Simeon,) an American civil engineer and 
 mechanician, born in Fall River, Massachusetts, in 1798. 
 Having invented a valuable instrument for determining 
 the base-line in the trigonometrical survey of Massa- 
 chusetts, he was appointed in 1834 to superintend the 
 work, which he completed in 1841. This is said to 
 have been the first geodetic survey ever accomplished 
 in the United States. He afterwards ran the bound- 
 ary-line between Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and 
 directed the construction of several railroads. Died at 
 P'all River in 1856. 
 
 Bordenave, boRd'niv', (Toussaint,) a French sur- 
 geon, born in Paris in 1728, wrote an "Essay on Phy- 
 siology," (1756,) and translated Haller's "Elements of 
 Physiology," (1766.) Died in 1782. 
 
 Bordereau, boRd'ro', (Renee,) a French heroine of 
 the Revolution, born near Angers in 1770, served with 
 distinction in the Vendean army. Died in 1828. 
 
 See "Memoires de Retire de Bordereau," etc 
 
 Borderie, boRd're', a French poet, born in Nor- 
 mandy in 1507. 
 
 Borderies, boRd're', (Etienne Jean Francois,) 
 born at Montauban in 1764, became in 1827 Bishop of 
 Versailles. Died in 1832. 
 
 Bordessoulle, de, deh boRd'sool', (Etienne Tar- 
 dif,) Count, a French general, born at Luzeret in 1771. 
 He gained the rank of colonel at Austerlitz, (1805,) and 
 displayed courage and ability in numerous battles during 
 the first empire. Died in 1837. 
 
 See MacDonald, (Istienne J. J. A. de Tarente,) "filoge du 
 GeneVal de Bordessoulle," 1839. 
 
 Bordeu, de, deh boR'duh', (Antoine,) a French 
 physician, born in Beam in 1696, wrote a "Dissertation 
 on the Mineral Waters of Beam," (1749.) 
 
 Bordeu, de, (Francois,) a French medical writer, 
 son of the preceding, born at Pau in 1734. 
 
 Bordeu, de, (THEorHiLE,) a French medical writer 
 of high reputation, son of Antoine, born at Iseste, in 
 Beam, in 1722. He settled in Paris about 1750, and 
 became physician of the hospital La Charite. Among 
 his important works are " Researches on the Pulse," 
 (4 vols., 1772,) and a "Treatise on Chronic Diseases," 
 (2 vols., 1776-1801.) Died in 1776. 
 
 See Roussel, "itloge historique de M. de Bordeu," 1778; Riche- 
 rand, " Notice sur la Vie de T. de Bordeu," 1817. 
 
 Bording, boR'ding, (Anders,) a Danish poet, bom 
 at Ribe in 1619, published a literary periodical in Copen- 
 hagen. Died in 1677. 
 
 See Kraft og Nverup, "Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Bording, boR'ding, (Jakob,) a Dutch physician, born 
 at Antwerp in 151 1, became principal of the college at 
 Carpentras, and subsequently physician to Christian III. 
 of Denmark. Died in 1560. 
 
 See M. Adam, "Vita; Eruditorum." 
 
 Bord'ley, (John Bealf.,) an American writer on 
 agriculture, born in 1728; died in Philadelphia in 1804. 
 
 Bordone, boR-do'ni, (Paridf.,) a celebrated Italian 
 painter of the Venetian school, born at Treviso about 
 1 5 10. He studied first under Titian, but he subsequently 
 formed his style on the model of Giorgione. Among 
 his master-pieces are a " Holy Family," " Fisherman 
 presenting the Ring of Saint Mark to the Doge," "The 
 Martyrdom of Saint Andrew," "The Sibyl," and a 
 " Paradise." His portraits are nearly equal to those 
 of Titian. Died in Venice in 1588, or, according to some 
 writers, in 1570. 
 
 ■ See Lanzi, " Historv of Painting in Italy;" Ridoi.fi, " Vite de' 
 Pittori Yeneti ;" Winck'hlmann, " Neues Maler-Lcxikon." 
 
 Bordoni, boR-do'nce, (Benedetto,) an Italian geog- 
 rapher, born at Padua, wrote a "Description of Italy." 
 Died about 1530. 
 
 Bordoni, (Placido,) an Italian litterateur, born at 
 Venice about 1740, made several translations from the 
 French and Latin. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Filiasi, " Elogio storico di P. Bordoni," 18*0. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g asy'; G, H, K,gnttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (JTjf"See Explanations, p. 23.1 
 
BORDONIO 
 
 404 
 
 BORGIA 
 
 Bordonio, boR-do'ne-o, (Giuseppe Antonio,) an 
 Italian Jesuit, and professor of rhetoric at Turin, where 
 he was born in 1682. Died in 1742. 
 
 Bo're-as, [Gr. Bopiaf t>r Bopac; Fr. Boree, bo'ri',] 
 the North Wind personified by classic poets, who repre- 
 sent him as a son of Astra;us and Aurora, and the father 
 of Zetes and Calais. 
 
 Boreau, bo'ro', (Victor,) a French poet and miscel- 
 laneous writer, published a " History of the Middle 
 Ages," (1838,) and other works. 
 
 Boree, the French for Boreas, which see. 
 
 Boree, bo'ra', (Vincent,) a French tragic poet, born 
 about 1530. 
 
 Borel, bo'rhY, (Petrus,) a French litterateur and jour- 
 nalist, brother of Andre Francois, born at Lyons in 1809. 
 
 Borel, (PIERRE,) physician to Louis XIV., born at 
 Castres, in Languedoc, about 1620, published a treatise 
 "On the True Inventor of the Telescope," (in Latin, 
 1655,) and other scientific works. Died in 1689. 
 
 See F. Hokfer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Borel d'Hauterive, bo'rel' dSt'rev', (Andre Fran- 
 cois Joseph,) a French historian, born at Lyons in 1812. 
 
 Borelli, bo-rel'lee, [Lat. Borei/i.us,] (Giovanni Al- 
 fonso,) a celebrated Italian physician and savant, born 
 at Naples in January, 1608, was one of the founders of 
 the so-called iatro-mathematical school, which attempted 
 to apply mathematics to medicine. He studied at Flor- 
 ence and Koine, and became professor of mathematics 
 at Pisa in 1656. His greatest work is entitled "On the 
 Motion of Animals," ("De Motu Animalium," 16S0,) 
 and is dedicated to his patroness, Christina of Sweden. 
 He also wrote (in Latin) an "Account of the Eruption 
 of Etna in 1669," and a number of medical and scien- 
 tific treatises in Latin and Italian. Died at Rome in 1679. 
 
 See Eulogy on G. A. Borelli, prefixed to his "De Motu Anima- 
 lium ;" NlCERON, " M^moires ;" Hai.i.er, " Bibliotheca Anatomica." 
 
 Borelli, bo'r&'le' or bo-rel'lee, (Jean Alexis,) a 
 French litterateur, born in Provence in 1738, resided at 
 Berlin, where he was patronized by Frederick the Great. 
 He published moral and critical essays, and edited some 
 posthumous works of Frederick. Died about 1810. 
 
 Borelli, (Jean Marie,) a French Jesuit and poet, 
 born in Provence in 1723; died in 1808. 
 
 Borellus, (G. A.) See Borelli. 
 
 Boiga. See Barkaii Kuan. 
 
 Borgarucci, boR-gd-root'chee, [Lat. Borc-aru'tius,] 
 (Prospero,) an Italian physician, born near Gubbio, 
 became professor of anatomy at Padua in 1564. 
 
 Borger, boRc'er or boR'iier, (Elias A.,) born in 
 Friesland in 1785, became, in 1815, professor of theology 
 at Leyden. He published poems, and several critical 
 and theological works. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Willem 
 Broes, " Leerrede op E. A.' Borger." 1820; Jan Tichler, "Jets 
 over E. A. Borgers Kanselwelsprekenbeid," 1835. 
 
 Borghe3e, boR-ga'si, (Camillo,) born in 1552, was 
 elected pope in 1605, under the name of Paul V. 
 
 Borghese, (Camillo,) son of Marcantonio III., born 
 at Koine in 1775. On the entrance of the French into 
 Italy, he attached himself to their cause, and in 1803 
 received from Napoleon the hand of his sister Pauline, 
 widow of General Leclerc. He was afterwards created 
 Duke of Guastalla, and governor-general of the trans- 
 alpine provinces, (1810.) He died in 1832, having pre- 
 viously separated from his wife. He left his immense 
 fortune to his brother, Francesco Borghese Aldobrandini. 
 
 See TlPAttto, " Biografia degli Italiani ilhtstri." 
 
 Borghese, (Giovanni Ventura,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Cittadi Castello about 1640, was a pupil of Pietro 
 da Cortona. Died in 1708. 
 
 Borghese, (Ippolito,) a Neapolitan painter, lived 
 about 1620. 
 
 Borghese. (Marcantonio I.,) nephew of Paul V., 
 was created by him Prince of Sulmona and a grandee of 
 Spain. One of his relatives, Marcantonio II., became 
 Viceroy of Naples in 1721. Marcantonio HI., of the 
 same family, was celebrated for his patronage of the arts, 
 and his magnificent collection of statues and antiquities 
 in his villa on the Pincian Hill. 
 
 Borghesi, boR-ga'see, (Bartolommeo,) an eminent 
 Italian archaeologist and numismatist, born at Savignano, 
 
 near Rimini, about 1780. His principal work is entitled 
 "Nuovi Frammenti di Fasti Consolari Capitolini," (3 
 vols., 1820.) He has also made valuable contributions 
 to various scientific journals, and is a member of the 
 principal learned societies of Europe. His collection 
 of coins and medals is esteemed one of the best in Italy. 
 His researches and writings have contributed greatly to 
 elucidate the military, political, sacerdotal, and municipal 
 institutions of the ancient Romans. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GdneYale." 
 
 Borghesi, (Diomede,) an Italian poet and orator, 
 born at Sienna, was an able critic and philologist. He 
 published several volumes of poems and of letters, (1566- 
 1584.) Died in 1598. 
 
 See Ginouene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Borghi-Mamo, boR'gee-ml'mo, (Adelaide,) an Ital- 
 ian vocalist, born at Bologna in 1830. 
 
 Borghini, boR-gee'nee, (Rafaello,) an Italian poet 
 and litterateur, wrote a pastoral play called " La Diana 
 pietosa," (1585,) and " II Riposo in cui si tratta della 
 Pittura e della Scoltura," (1584.) 
 
 Borghini, (Vincenzo,) a learned Italian antiquary and 
 ecclesiastic, born at Florence in 15 15, wrote a work on 
 the "Antiquities of Tuscany," (1584.) He refused an 
 archbishopric which was offered him by Cosimo de Me- 
 dici. Died in 1580. 
 
 Borgi, boR'jee, (Giovanni,) an Italian mechanic and 
 philanthropist, born at Rome about 1735, is called "the 
 founder of ragged schools." He was encouraged and 
 assisted in his benevolent labours by Pope Pius VII. 
 Died about 1802. 
 
 Borgia. See Alexander VI. 
 
 Borgia, bok'ja, (Alessandro,) an Italian theologian, 
 born at Velletri in 1682, became Archbishop of Fermo. 
 Died in 1764. 
 
 Borgia, (Cesare,) Due de Valentinois, (vt'lSN'te'- 
 nwa',) was an illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI., 
 by whom he was made a cardinal in 1492. He was dis- 
 tinguished for cunning, cruelty, and perfidy. In 1498 he 
 was sent to France with a bull of divorce for Louis XII., 
 who gave him the title of Due de Valentinois. He mar- 
 ried a daughter of Jean d'Albret, King of Navarre, in 
 1499. Having raised an army, he undertook the con- 
 quest of the Romagna, the cities of which were ruled by 
 feudatories of the Roman See. He took Imola, Forli, 
 Pesaro, Rimini, etc. before the end of 1501, and put to 
 death prisoners in violation of his oath. Alter the death 
 of Alexander VI., in 1503, his power rapidly declined. 
 (See Alexander VI.) His army having been defeated, 
 he was taken prisoner and sent to Spain in 1504. He 
 escaped in 1506, entered the army of the King of Navarre, 
 and was killed in battle in 1507. 
 
 See Tomasi, "Vita del Duca di Valentino," 1655 ; French version 
 of the same, 1739 ; and " Lebcn des C. Borgia," Berlin, 1782. 
 
 Borgia, (Francisco.) See Francisco, Saint. 
 
 Borgia, boR'jd, sometimes written Borja, (Fran- 
 cisco,) a Spanish poet, highly esteemed in his time, was 
 a descendant of Pope Alexander VI., and on his mother's 
 side of Ferdinand the Catholic, King of Spain. He was 
 appointed Viceroy of Peru ill 1614. Died in 1658. 
 
 See Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Borgia, (Lucrezia,) a daughter of Pope Alexander 
 VI., and a sister of Cesare Borgia, was distinguished for 
 beauty and talents. She was married to Giovanni Sforza, 
 Lord of Pesaro, in 1493, to Alfonso, a natural son of 
 Alfonso, King of Naples, in 1498, and to Alfonso of 
 Este, a son of the Duke of Ferrara, in 1501. Her con- 
 duct gave rise to scandalous reports, which were gener- 
 ally believed by her contemporaries. She patronized at 
 Ferrara several literary men, especially Bembo, who cele- 
 brated her in his works. "The compliments "t the 
 literati whom she rewarded," says Sismondi, with covert 
 sarcasm, "seem at present to counterbalance the unani- 
 mous testimony of the historians, who accuse her of in- 
 famous conduct." Died in 1523. 
 
 See'BoTTA, " Histoire d'ltalie." 
 
 Borgia, (Stefano,) an Italian cardinal, nephen of 
 Alessandro, noticed above, born at Velletri in 1731. He 
 published several antiquarian treatises, and made a val- 
 uable collection of medals anil manuscripts. Died in 1S04. 
 
 See AuniN Louis Mii.i.in, " Nonce stir la Vie du Cardinal Borgia.' 
 
 a,e,T,o, u, y, /«;/?•; a, e, o.same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o, 8,'y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon 
 
 ;ood; moon: 
 
BORGUNI 
 
 +°S 
 
 BOROWLASKI 
 
 Borgiani, boR-ja'nee, or Borgianni, boR-jin'nee, 
 (( Iraziu,) an Italian painter and engraver, born in Rome 
 about 1580, worked in Spain and in Rome. Died about 
 1630. 
 
 Borgo, boR'go, (Carlo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at 
 Yiccn/.a in 1731, was professor of theology at Modena. 
 He wrote a panegyric on Ignatius Loyola, and a work 
 unifications, which he dedicated to Frederick the 
 Died in 1794. 
 Borgo, [Lat. }Sor'gus,) (Pietro Battista,) an Ital- 
 ian soldier and historian, served in the Swedish army in 
 the Thirty Years' war, of which he wrote an account in 
 1, entitled "Commentaries on the Swedish War," 
 
 J*33) 
 
 bee Mazzucheli.i, " Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 Borgo, dl, (LuCA.) See Paciolt. 
 
 Borgognone. See Courtois, (Jacques.) 
 
 Borgognone, boR-gon-yo'na, (Amurogio,) a distin- 
 guished Italian painter, born at Fossano about 1480. 
 Among his master-pieces are the frescos in the church 
 of San Ambrogio at Milan, and a "Madonna with Two 
 Angels" in the Museum at Berlin. 
 
 .S<:e Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Borgoudio. See Burgundio. 
 
 Borgt, van der, vin der boRkt, (Hendrik,) a Flem- 
 ish painter, born at Brussels in 1583. 
 
 Borhan-ed-Deen or Borlian-Eddin, bor-han' ed- 
 deen', a learned Arab, born about 12JO, published "Ad- 
 vice to Students on the Manner of Studying," which has 
 been translated into Latin and Turkish. 
 
 Borhan-ed-Deen or Borhan-Eddin, (Ibraheem,) 
 an Arab writer, who wrote a "Treatise on the Customs 
 kand Maxims of the Ancient Philosophers," and other 
 works. Died in 1480. 
 
 Borie, bo-ree', (Adolph E.,) an American merchant, 
 of French extraction, born in Philadelphia about 1810. 
 He acquired a large fortune in foreign commerce. During 
 the civil war he was an active and liberal supporter of 
 the Union cause. He was appointed secretary of the 
 navy by President Grant in March, 1869. 
 
 Borie, bo're', (Pierre Rose Ursui.e Dumoulin,) 
 
 a French ecclesiastic, born at Beynat, in the diocese of 
 
 Tulle, in 1808. He set out on a mission to Tonquin in 
 
 . where he laboured successfully for seven years ; 
 
 but in 1838 he was put to death by order of the king. 
 
 "Viede Monseigneur Borie," etc., 1844; " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Gen^rale." 
 
 Borie-Cambort, bo're' kos'boR', (Jean,) a French 
 jurist, and member of the National Convention, voted 
 for the death of Louis XVI. Died in 1805. 
 
 Bories, bo're', (Jean Francois Louis Leclerc,) 
 born at Villefranche in 1795, attempted in 1821, with 
 several accomplices, to excite a revolt against the gov- 
 ernment ; but they failed in their enterprise, and were 
 executed in 1822. 
 
 Boris. See GoDOONOF. 
 
 Borjon, boK'zh6N', (Chari.es Emmanuel,)* French 
 and legal writer, bom at Pont-de-Vaux, in Bresse, 
 in 1633 ; died in 1691. 
 
 Borkhausen, bokk'how'zen, (Moritz Bai.thasar,) 
 
 a German naturalist, torn at Giessen in 1760, published 
 
 Natural History of the Butterflies of Europe," 
 
 I "Fauna of Germany," (1797,) and other scientific 
 
 s. Bied at Darmstadt in 1806. 
 
 See " Biographic Midicale." 
 
 BorTace or Bor'lase, (EDMUND,) an English physi- 
 cian and historical writer, published the "History of the 
 ible Irish Rebellion, etc.," (1680,) and other works 
 on Ireland. Died in 1682. 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Bor'land, (SoiX)N,) an American general, born in 
 nia, removed to Arkansas. He waselected a Sena- 
 tor of the United States for Arkansas about 1848. He 
 • against the Union in the civil war. Died in Texas 
 64. 
 Borlase, (Edmund.) See Borlack. 
 Borlase, bor'fas, (William,) an English divine and 
 eminent naturalist and antiquary, born in Cornwall in 
 He was appointed in 1732 vicar of Saint Just, in 
 wall, and in 1750 became a Fellow of the Royal 
 
 Society. Among his works are " Observations on the 
 Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of the County 
 of Cornwall," (1754,) "Natural History of Cornwall/' 
 (1758,) and "Observations on the Ancient and Present 
 State of the Islands of Scilly." He also wrote several 
 religious treatises. He was an intimate friend and cor- 
 respondent of Pope. Died in 1772. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Born, boRn, (Jakob,) a German jurist, born at Leipsic 
 in 1638 ; died in 1709. 
 
 Born, (Jakob Heinrich,) a German jurist, born at 
 Leipsic in 1717 ; died at Dresden in 1775. 
 
 Born, de, deh boRn, (Bertran or Bertrand,) a 
 French troubadour and warrior, born in Perigord, took • 
 a prominent part in the wars between Henry II. of Eng- 
 land and his sons, and between Philippe Auguste and 
 Richard Cceur de Lion, about 1 185-1200. According 
 to Dante, (" Inferno,") Bertran de Born by his verses 
 fomented war, and incited the sons of Henry II. to fight 
 against him and against each other. 
 
 See Mili.ot, "Histoiredes Troubadours;" Viu.emain, "Count 
 de Littei-ature;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Born, von, fon boRn, (Ignaz,) an eminent German 
 mineralogist, born at Karlsburg, in Transylvania, in 1742. 
 He wrote "Letters on the Minerals of Hungary," (1774,) 
 " Index of Fossils," (" Lithophylacium Bornianum, seu 
 Index Fossilium," 2 vols., 1772-75,) "Index Rerum 
 Naturalium Musei Caes. Vindobonae," (1778,) and other 
 works. He made important improvements in mining 
 precious metals, among which was a new method of 
 amalgamation. Died in Vienna in 1791. 
 
 See Ersch und Geumer, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Johann 
 Pezzl, " l.ebensbeschreibung Montecuculi's, W. Liechtenstein's und 
 Born's," 1792. 
 
 Borne or Boerne, boR'neh, (Ludwig,) a celebrated 
 journalist, critic, and politician, of Jewish extraction, born 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1786. He studied at Hei- 
 delberg and Giessen, and subsequently became editor of 
 the " Staats-Ristretto," a democratic journal, which was 
 soon suppressed. Having been previously converted to 
 Christianity, he edited in 1818-21 the " Wage," a period- 
 ical for literature, science, and art. After the revolution 
 of 1830, he founded in Paris "Le Balance," in which he 
 displayed great powers of satire and caustic wit. Among 
 his best works are "Memorial of Jean Paul," ("Dcnk- 
 rede auf Jean Paul,") "Letters from Paris," (1832,) and 
 " Menzel the Frenchman-Eater," (" Menzel der Franzo- 
 senfresser,") in reply to that critic's attack on the French. 
 Borne was involved in a controversy with Heine, who 
 wrote a severe attack upon him, entitled " Heine iiber 
 Borne." Died in Paris in 1837. 
 
 See Kari. Gutzkow, " L. Bornes Leben." 1840; Eduard Beur- 
 mann, " L. Bbrne als Charakter in der Literatur," 1837; Karl 
 Boelsche, "Zwei Repubiikaner," 1850; "Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 view" for August, 1832. 
 
 Borneil, de, deh boR'nJI'or boR'n&'ye, (Giraud,) a 
 French troubadour, bom about 1 150, is mentioned by 
 Dante in his " Divine Comedy." 
 
 Bornemann, boR'neh-man', (Wii.helm,) a German 
 jurist, born in Pomerania in 1794, became councillor of 
 state in 1842, and in 1848 minister of justice. 
 
 Bonier or Boerner, bok'ner, (Caspar,) a German 
 theologian and mathematician, born at Hayn, in Misnia, 
 lived at Dresden. Died in 1547. 
 
 See J. A Ernksti, " Eulogium C. Boerneri," 1740. 
 
 Bonier or Boerner, (Christian Friedricii,) :<orn 
 at Dresden in 1683, was professor of theologv at leipsic. 
 He published several religious and philosophical works, 
 in Latin. Died in 1753. 
 
 See Christian Boerner, " Viiae suat Descriptio," 1753. 
 
 Bbrner or Boerner, (Friedricii,) brother of the 
 preceding, born at Leipsic in 1723, was a distinguished 
 phvsician and writer. Died in 1761. 
 
 Bbrner or Boerner, (Nikolaus,) a German physi- 
 cian; born in Thuringia in 1693 ; died about 1770. 
 
 Bornier, boR'nc-A', (Philippe,) a French jurist, was 
 born at Montpellier in 1634; died in 171 1. 
 
 Borowlaski, bor-ro-las'ke, Count, a Polish dwarf, 
 whosettled in England, is mentioned in Lockhart's " Life 
 of Scott." He is said to have had uncommon intclligenc 
 and culture. Died in 1837. 
 
 « as if ( as s: g hard; g as/'/ c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as *,' th as in this. (J(3^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BO ROWS KI 
 
 406 
 
 BORZONI 
 
 Borowski, bo-rov'skee, (Georg Heinrich,) a natu- 
 ralist, born in 1746 at Konigsberg, in Prussia, published 
 the "Natural History of the Animal Kingdom," and other 
 works. Died in 1801. 
 
 Borowski, von, fon bo-rov'skee, (Ludwig Ernst,) 
 a German Protestant divine, born at Konigsberg in 1740, 
 became Archbishop of Prussia about 1829. Died in 1831. 
 
 Borri. See Borrus. 
 
 Borri, bor'ree, or Bor'ro, [Lat. Bur'rus,] sometimes 
 written Burrhi, (Giuseppe Francesco,) an Italian ad- 
 venturer, born at Milan in 1627. He professed to have 
 discovered the philosopher's stone, on the strength of 
 which he obtained considerable sums from Christina of 
 > Sweden and the King of Denmark. He was afterwards 
 arrested as a heretic, and died in prison in 1695. 
 
 See Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Borrich. See Borch, (Olaf.) 
 
 Borrichius. See Borch. 
 
 Borromee or Borromseus. See Borromeo. 
 
 Borromeo, bor-ro-ma'o, (Antonio Maria,) Count, 
 an Italian litterateur, born at Padua in 1724, wrote poems 
 of some merit, and published " Catalogo de' Novellieri 
 Italiani." Died in 1813. 
 
 Borromeo, [Fr. Borromee, bo'ro'mi'; Lat. Bor- 
 rom/e'us,] (Carlo,) Saint, an Italian cardinal, illus- 
 trious for his virtue and piety, born at Arona in 1538. 
 He was a nephew of Pope Pius IV., by whom he was 
 made Cardinal and Archbishop of Milan in 1560. He 
 devoted himself to reforming the morals of the clergy and 
 providing charitable institutions for the poor. During 
 the prevalence of the plague at Milan in 1576, he gave 
 his personal attendance to the sick at the risk of his life, 
 and spent all he possessed in administering to their 
 wants. He died in 1584, reverenced as asaint and martyr. 
 He was canonized by Paul V. in 1610. He was the author 
 of several theological works, and an exposition of the 
 doctrines of the Roman Church, entitled "Calechismus 
 Tridentinus," ("Trent Catechism.") 
 
 See Bimius, " Vita di S Carlo Borromeo," 1585 : Magnago," Vita 
 di S. Carlo Borromeo," 15S7; Possevino. "Vita di Carlo Borromeo," 
 1591; Besozzi, "Vita Cardinalis C. Borromasi," 1601 ; GlUSSANO, 
 "Vita di S. Carlo Borromeo," 1610: Godeau, " Vie de Saint Charles 
 Borromee." 1748 ; Touron, " Vie de Saint diaries Borromee," 3 vols., 
 1761 ; Dieringer, " Der heilige C. Borromaus und die Kirchen- 
 verbesserung seiner Zeit," 1846; Luis Munoz, "Vida de S. C. 
 Borromeo," 1624 ; Alban Butler, " Vita di S. C. Borromeo," 1S35 ; 
 Alexandre Martin, " Histoire de la Vie de S. C. Borromee," 1847. 
 
 Borromeo, (Federigo,) Cardinal and Archbishop 
 of Milan, born in that city in 1564, was the nephew or, 
 as some writers state, the cousin of Saint Carlo. He 
 was distinguished for his profound attainments in the 
 classics and Oriental tongues, and was the founder of the 
 Ambrosian Library at Milan, for which he caused a great 
 number of manuscripts to be collected. He was, like 
 his predecessor, eminent for his exalted character and 
 active benevolence, which were conspicuous during the 
 famine and plague at Milan in 1627 and 1630. Of his 
 conduct on these occasions Manzoni has given a most 
 interesting picture in his celebrated novel, " I Promessi 
 Sposi." Died in 1631. 
 
 See Rivola, "Vita di Federigo Borromeo," 1656. 
 
 Borromini, bor-ro-mee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 architect, born in the district of Como in 1599. He as- 
 sisted his relative Maderno, and subsequently the cele- 
 brated Bernini, in the completion of Saint Peter's. He 
 was employed by Urban VIII. in several works at Rome, 
 which, though displaying much talent, are disfigured by 
 extravagance and bad taste. He committed suicide in 
 1667, in a fit of insanity. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Borron, bo'rdN', or Bouron, boo'roN', written also 
 Boiron, Beron, Bosron, or Burons, (Robert and 
 Helis,) two Norman-English writers, supposed to have 
 been brothers or near relatives, were patronized by 
 Henry II. 
 
 See Wn.KEN, " Histoire des Croisades." 
 
 Borroni, bor-ro'nee, (Giovanni Angf.lo,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Cremona in 1684, worked many years in 
 Milan. Died in 1772. 
 
 Bor'row, (George,) an English writer, born at Nor- 
 wich in 1803. He early distinguished himself by his 
 attainments in modern languages, including that of the 
 
 gipsies, with whom he associated. He published in 
 1841 "The Zincali ; or an Account of the Gipsies of 
 Spain ;" being the result of his observations in thai coun- 
 try. He was soon after sent by the London Bible So- 
 ciety on a mission to Spain. In 1843 he brought out his 
 "Bible in Spain; or Journeys, Adventures, and Impris- 
 onments of an Englishman in an Attempt to circulate 
 the Scriptures in the Peninsula." It was received with 
 extraordinary favour, and is regarded as one of the most 
 original and attractive works ever written on that country. 
 Among his works are "Lavengro," (1851,) and "Romany 
 Rye," (1857,) which are partly autobiographical. 
 
 "We conceive," says the "Quarterly Review" for Dt- 
 cember, 1842, "that Mr. Borrow has come out in these 
 pages" ("The Bible in Spain") "asan English author of 
 high mark. Considering the book merely as one of ad- 
 venture, it seems to us about the most extraordinary one 
 that has appeared in our own, or indeed in any other, 
 language, for a very long time." 
 
 See, also, " Edinburgh Review" for February, 1843 ; " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for September, 1841, and March, 1851 ; " Brief Biogra- 
 phies," by Samuel Smiles. 
 
 Bor'rus or Borri, bor'ree, (Cristoforo,) bom at 
 Milan, went on a mission to the East, and was afterwards 
 professor of mathematics at Lisbon. Died in 1632. 
 
 Borsato,boR-sa'to,(GiusEi>i'E,)askilful Italian painter 
 of the present century, has painted landscapes and archi- 
 tectural pieces. He was for some time professor of paint- 
 ing in the Academy of Venice. 
 
 Borsieri de Kanifeld, boR-se-a'ree da ka'ne-ffeMt, 
 [Lat. Burse'rius,] (Giovanni Battista,) a Tyrolese 
 physician and medical writer, born at Trent in 1725. 
 He studied at Padua, and in 1770 was appointed by 
 Maria Theresa professor of materia medica at Pavia.« 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 See Leonardo dei Clock, "Notizie biografiche intomo G. B 
 Borsieri de Kanifeld," 1839. 
 
 Borsini, boR-see'nee, (1/jrenzo,) an Italian satirical 
 poet, born at Sienna in 1800. He was in his youth suc- 
 cessively soldier, comedian, and musician, and led an 
 adventurous life. In 1837 he published a "Sentimental 
 Journey." His chief works are a poem entitled "The 
 Ass," ("Asino," 1844,) and "Novissimo Galateo,"(i8si,) 
 a satire in verse, which had considerable popularity. 
 
 Borsum, van, vin boit'stim, (Adam,) a Dutch painter 
 of landscapes and animals, lived about 1666. 
 
 Borth'wick, (David,) a Scottish jurist in the time 
 of James I. of England, rose through various offices to 
 be lord advocate of Scotland. Died in 1581. 
 
 Borth'wick, (Peter,) a noted Tory politician, born 
 in Scotland in 1804. About 1833 he had a public dis- 
 cussion with Mr. George Thompson, in which he ad- 
 vocated gradual, instead of immediate, emancipation 
 of the slaves. He subsequently became manager of the 
 "Morning Post." Died in 1852. 
 
 Boru, (Brian.) See Brian Boroimhe. 
 
 Bory, de, deh bo're', (Gabriel,) a French savant, 
 born in Paris in 1720, contributed several scientific treat- 
 ises to the "Memoirs of the, Academy of Sciences," and 
 other journals. He was appointed in 1761 Governor- 
 General of Saint Domingo. Died in 1801.- 
 
 Bory de Saint-Vincent, bore' deh saN'vaN'soN', 
 (Jean Baptiste George Marie,) a distinguished French 
 naturalist and geographer, born at Agen in 1780. He 
 set out with Baudin's scientific expedition to Australia 
 in 1800, but proceeded no farther than Mauritius, where 
 he made a survey of the neighbouring islands. On his 
 return to France he published his " Essavs on the Fortu- 
 nate Isles and the Ancient Atlantis," (1803,) and "Voy- 
 age among the African Islands," (1804, 3 vols., with an 
 atlas.) He was charged in 1829 with the command of 
 the scientific expedition to the Morea. He was principal 
 editor of the "Dictionnaire classique d'llistoire natu- 
 relle," and contributed numerous articles to other scien- 
 tific journals. Died in 1846. 
 
 See "Justification de la Conduite, etc. de J. B. Bory de Saint- 
 Vincent," by himself. 1S16; Hericart de Tuury, "Notice sur le 
 Baron Bory de Saint- Vincent," 1848; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 
 1805. 
 
 Borzoni, boRt-so'nee, or Borzone, boRt-so'ni, 
 (Francesco Maria,) a painter of Genoa, ton of Luciano, 
 noticed below, born in 1625 ; died in io9<>. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
 
BORZONI 
 
 407 
 
 BOSIO 
 
 Borzoni, (Luciano,) a painter of portraits and his- 
 born at Genoa in 1590. His chief merit was truth 
 Ot expression. Died at Genoa in 1645. 
 
 Bos, bos, Bosch, bosk, or Bosco, (Hikrom,) a Dutch 
 i and engraver, born at Bois-le-Duc, in Brabant, 
 1450, was surnamed l.E JoYEUX. He is supposed 
 to have spent part of his life in Spain, where several of 
 his best works are to be seen. Among these we may 
 name the "Flight into Egypt," "Temptation of Saint 
 v," and a "Crucifixion" in the Escurial. He ex- 
 celled particularly in delineating spectres, demons, and 
 other supernatural subjects. He is said by Descamps 
 to have been one of the first artists who painted in oil. 
 A rding to some authors, he died about 1500. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Bos, Bus, bus, or Van den Bosch, vSn den bosk, 
 jK> } »klis,) a Dutch engraver, born at Bois-le-Duc about 
 1 5 10. He engraved after Raphael and Giulio Romano. 
 
 Bos, (Lambert,) a Dutch philologist, born in Fries- 
 land in 1670, became professor of Greek at Franeker in 
 1704. Among his numerous and learned works we may 
 name " Ellipses Graecae," " Description of Greek Anti- 
 quities," (" Antiquitatum Graecarum Descriptio," 17 13,) 
 which is highlv esteemed, and an edition of the Septua- 
 gint, (1709.) Died in 1717. 
 
 See Schultens, " Oratio funebris in Obitum L. Bos," 1718. 
 
 Bos, de, deh bos, (Jan Ludwig,) a Dutch painter of 
 flowers, fruits, and insects, born at Bois-le-Duc. Died 
 in 1507. 
 
 See Descamps "Vies des'Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Bos, du. See Dubos. 
 
 Bosc, bosk, (Louis Augustin Guili.aume,) an emi- 
 nent French naturalist, son of Bosc d'Antic, noticed 
 below, bom in Paris in 1759. Having narrowly escaped 
 death during the reign of terror, he visited America in 
 1796, where he spent two years in scientific investigations. 
 After his return he became a member of the Academy 
 of Sciences, and professor at the Jardin des. Plan tes, and 
 obtained other distinctions. He published the "Natural 
 History of Shells," (5 vols., 1824,) " History of Worms and 
 Crustacea," (2 vols., r829,) a "Dictionary of Agricul- 
 ture," (1809,) and a "Complete Course of Agriculture." 
 He was charged by Madame Roland with the publication 
 of her memoirs, and appointed guardian of her daughter. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 See SlLVESTRB, " Notice biocraphique snr L. A. G. Bosc," 1829 ; 
 " Nonvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Bosc d'Antic, bosk doN'tek', (Paul,) born in Lan- 
 guedoc in 1726, published a treatise " On the Best Means 
 of uniting Perfection and Economy in the Glass-Manu- 
 facture in France." Died in 1784. 
 
 Bosc, du, dii bosk, (Claude,) a French engraver, 
 who worked in England in 1715, engraved "Marlbor- 
 ough's Battles," and other works. 
 
 Bosc, du, (Pierre Thomines,) a French Protestant 
 theologian, born at Bayeux in 1623 ; died in 1692. 
 
 See P. Legendre, " Vie de Pierre Thomines du Bosc," 1694. 
 
 Boscager, bos'ki'zha', (Jean,) a French jurist, born 
 at Beziers in 1601 ; died in 1687. 
 
 Boscan Almogaver,bos-kan'al-mo-ga-vaiR ,(Juan,) 
 a celebrated Spanish poet, born at Barcelona about 1500. 
 Through the influence of his friend the Venetian am- 
 lor Navagero, he attempted, conjointly with Gar- 
 cilasso de la Vega, to reform Spanish poetry by adopting 
 the metre and forms of the Italian. This innovation, 
 though at first strongly opposed, was eventually success- 
 ful. He was the author of sonnets and canzones in the 
 style of Petrarch, and several epistles of great beauty. 
 He also made an excellent translation of the Greek poem 
 of " Hero and Leander," by Musaeus. Died in 1544. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Bos'ca-wen, (Edward,) an English admiral, born in 
 171 1, was a son of Viscount Falmouth, and related on 
 the mother's side to the Duke of Marlborough. In 1747 
 he fought under Anson in the engagement off Cape Fi- 
 nisterre, and in 1748 against the French in India. As 
 admiral of the blue, he commanded in 1758 the expedi- 
 tion to America, where he gained several victories. The 
 following year he defeated the French in the Mediterra- 
 nean, taking several ships and two thousand prisoners. 
 
 He was for these services made general of the marines 
 and a member of the privy council, and obtained a pen- 
 sion. Died in 1761. 
 
 See Campbell, " Lives of the British Admirals." 
 
 Boscawen, (William,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 born in 1752, wrote a poetical "Essay on the Progress 
 of Satire," and translated the works of Horace. Died 
 in 181 1. 
 
 Bosch. See Bos. 
 
 Bosch, van, vSn bosk, (Bernardus,) a Dutch poet] 
 born in 1709, wrote " Poetic Recreations." Died in 1786. 
 
 Bosch, van, (Hierom,) a Dutch scholar and biblio- 
 pole, and one of the best Latin poets of his time, born at 
 Amsterdam in 1740; died in 181 i. 
 
 See J. D. van Lennep, " Memoria H. de Bosch," 1817. 
 
 Bosch, van den, vfn den bosk, (Balthasar,) a 
 Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1675. Among his 
 master-pieces is the portrait of the Duke of Marlbor- 
 ough on horseback. Died at Antwerp in 1 7 15. 
 
 See Descamps. " Vies des Peintres Fiamands," etc. 
 
 Bosch, van den, (Jakob,) a Dutch painter of fruit 
 and still life, born at Amsterdam in 1636; died in 1676.] 
 
 Bosche, van den, van den bos'keh, [Lat. Bos'cmus,] 
 (Pieter,) a learned Flemish Jesuit, born at Brussels in 
 1686, was a contributor to the " Acta Sanctorum," begun 
 by Bollandus. Died in 1736. 
 
 Boscheiistein or Boeschenstein, bosh'en-stli/, 
 (Johann,) a German philologist, born in 1471, was pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew at Augsburg and Wittenberg. Melanch- 
 thon was one of his pupils. His "Hebrew Grammar" 
 was printed in 1514, under the direction of Melanchthon, 
 
 Boscheron-Desportes. See Destortes. 
 
 Boschi, bos'kee, (FaBRIZJO,) a skilful Italian painter, 
 born at Florence about 1575 ; died in 1642. 
 
 Boschini, bos-kee'nee, (Marco,) a Venetian painter, 
 engraver, and writer on art, born in 1613; died in 1678. 
 
 Boschius. See Bosche. 
 
 Boscoli, bos'ko-lee, (Andrea,) an Italian historical 
 painter, born at Florence about 1550; died in 1606. 
 
 Boscovich, bos'ko-vik,?[Lat. Boscovi'cHtts,](RuG- 
 GlJtRO GtUSEPPE,) a voluminous writer on mathematics, 
 astronomy, and natural philosophy, was born at Ragusa, 
 in Dalmatia, in May, 171 1. He entered the order of Jesuits 
 in 1725, and became distinguished by his talents and at- 
 tainments in various sciences. He was appointed professor 
 of philosophy and mathematics at the Roman College 
 about 1740. He was among the first savants on the 
 continent who adopted the Newtonian philosophy, which 
 he explained in" Philosophise NaturalisTheoria,'' (1758,) 
 a work of much merit. About 1750 he was employed 
 by the pope to measure an arc of the meridian in the 
 Papal States. An account of this operation was pul>- 
 lished in 1755. His Latin poem "On Eclipses of the 
 Sun and Moon" (London, 1760) is praised by Walcke- 
 naer. Boscovich is ranked among the best modern Latin 
 poets by several French critics. After the suppression 
 of his order, (about 1765,) he became professor at Pavia. 
 About 1775 he removed to Paris, and was appointed 
 " Directeur de 1'Optique de la Marine." Among his chief 
 works are " EJementa universa Matheseos," (3 vols., 
 1754,) and treatises on Optics and Astronomy, "Opera 
 pertinentia ad Opticam et Astronomiam," (5 vols., 1785.) 
 He died at Milan in February, 1787. 
 
 See Lalande," FJoge de Boscovich," in the "Journal des Savants, t* 
 1792; Fabroni, "Vitae Italontm doctrina excellentium ;" Ricca, 
 "Elogio storico dell' Abate R. G. Boscovich," 1789. 
 
 Bose, bo'zeh, (Ernst Goitlob,) a German physician 
 and scientific writer, born at Leipsic in 1723, became 
 professor of therapeutics in his native city. Died in 1788. 
 
 Boselli, bo-sel'lee, (Antonio,) a painter of the Vene- 
 tian school, lived about 1500-40. 
 
 Bosellini, bo-Sel-lee'nee, (Carlo,) an Italian jurist 
 and writer on political economy, born at M6dena in 
 1765; died in 1823. 
 
 Bosio, Wse-o, (Angioi.ina,) an Italian vocalist, born 
 at Turin in 1829, performed with brilliant success at Co- 
 penhagen, Madrid, Paris, and in the United States. She 
 was married about 1856 to Signor Xindavelonis. 
 
 Bosio, (Antonio,) an Italian antiquary of Rome, 
 author of" Roma Sottcrranea," (1632,) a treatise on the 
 catacombs of Rome. Died in 1629. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (5iy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BOSIO 
 
 408 
 
 BOS SUET 
 
 Bosio, (Francois Joseph,) Baron, a distinguished 
 Italian scilptor, born at Monaco in 1769, studied under 
 Pajou, in France. He was employed by the emperor 
 Napoleon in numerous works, among which are the bas- 
 reliefs of the column of the Place Vendome, busts of 
 Napoleon, the empress Josephine, Queen Hortense, and 
 Pauline Borghese. His "Cupid Darting Arrows" is es- 
 teemed one of his best poetic works. He was a member 
 of the French Institute and of the Academy of Arts at 
 Berlin. Died in 1845. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeVieVale." 
 
 . Bosio, [Lat. Bo'sius,] (Giacomo,) an Italian eccle- 
 siastic and historical writer, lived about 1560. 
 
 Bosnian or Bosmaim, bos'man, (Wii.lem,) a Dutch 
 traveller, published in 1704 "Travels in Guinea," which 
 has been translated into French and English. 
 
 Bosquet, bos'k^', (Pierre Francois Joseph,) a 
 marshal of France, born at Pau in 1810. He served in 
 nearly all the campaigns of Algeria from 1834 to 1852, 
 became general of brigade in 1848, and general of division 
 in 1853. His conduct at Alma was applauded, and his 
 skilful dispositions contributed to the victory at Inker- 
 man, November, 1854. He performed a prominent part 
 at the siege of Sebastopol, and was wounded in the final 
 assault in September, 1855. In 1856 he became marshal 
 of France. Died in 1862. 
 
 Bosquet, de, deh bos'kj', (Francois,) born at Nar- 
 bonne in 1605, became Bishop of Montpellier. He wrote 
 a Latin " History of the (J^Uicail Church." Died in 1676. 
 
 Bosquillou, bos'ke'yoN', (Edouard Francois Ma- 
 rie,) a French physician and scholar, born at Montdidier 
 in 1744. He settled in Paris, became professor of Greek 
 in the College of France in 1774, and was afterwards 
 royal censor. He was the owner of a library of more 
 than thirty thousand volumes, including the most valu- 
 able medical works in ancient and modern languages. 
 He produced translations of English medical works, to 
 which he added valuable notes. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Qurrard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Bosron. See Borron. 
 
 Bosscha, bos'ka, (Herman,) an eminent Dutch phi- 
 lologist and Latin poet, born at Leeuwarden in 1755. He 
 studied at Franeker, and in 1804 became professor of 
 ancient literature at Groningen. A collection of his Latin 
 poems, entitled " Musa Daventriaca," was published at 
 Deventer in 1820. He also translated into Dutch Schil- 
 ler's " Revolt of the Netherlands," Denon's "Travels in 
 Egypt," and Plutarch's "Lives." Died in 1819. 
 
 See Van Kamphn, "Histoire LitteVaire." 
 
 Bosschaert, dos'kSiu, (Thomas Wili.ebrord,) a 
 Dutch painter of great merit, born at Berg-op-Zoom in 
 J613, was director of the Academy at Antwerp. His 
 works are in the style of Van Dyck. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Bosse, bos, (Abraham,) a French engraver and writer 
 on art, born at Tours in 161 1; died in 1678. 
 
 Bosseck, bos'se'k, (Heinrich Otto,) M.D., a Ger- 
 man botanist, born at Leipsic in 1726; died in 1776. 
 
 Bosselet, bos'la', (Hippolyte,) a Brench political 
 writer, born in Paris in 1824. • 
 
 Bossi, bos'see, (Giuseppe,) an eminent Italian painter 
 and poet, born near Milan in August, 1777, was a friend 
 of Canova. He was elected president of the Academies 
 of Milan, Venice, and Bologna, and published in 1810 
 "II Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci," which is an admir- 
 able monument of learning and taste. He produced a 
 number of sonnets, canzones, etc. Among his paintings 
 are " The Italian Parnassus," and " Aurora and Night." 
 Died in 1815. 
 
 See Tipai.do, " Biosjana degli Italian! illustri ;" G. Calvi, " Vers! 
 in Morte di G. Bossi," 1816. 
 
 Bossi, bos'see, (Giuseppe Carlo Aurelio,) Baron, 
 an able Italian diplomatist and poet, born at Turin in 
 1758. He was employed by the King of Sardinia on 
 embassies to Prussia, Russia, and Venice. About 1800 
 he entered the service of Bonaparte, and promoted the 
 annexation of Piedmont to France. Among his poems 
 are "American Independence," (1785,) and "Oroma- 
 sia," (1805-12.) Died in Paris in 1823. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Bossi, (Luigi,) an Italian antiquary and litterateur. 
 born at Milan in 1785. He published an " Introduction 
 to the Study of the Arts of Design," and other works. 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 SeeG. B. Carta, "CennibiografichiintomoalCavaliereL. Bossi," 
 ■835- 
 
 Bos'sl-us or Bo'sl-us, (Benignus,) an engraver, sur- 
 named the Belgian, lived about 1510, and worked at 
 Rome. , f 
 
 Bosso, bos'so, (Mattf.o,) a learned Italian ecclesias- 
 tic, born at Verona in 1428, was the friend and patron of 
 Politian and other eminent scholars. He wrote, in Latin, 
 several moral essays, among which is one "On the Cul- 
 ture of True Wisdom," ("De vero Sapientia; Cultu," 
 1509.) His letters and orations are highly commended. 
 Died at Padua in 1502. 
 
 Bossu, bo'sii', (N.,) a French navigator, was one of 
 the first who explored the State of Louisiana. He pub- 
 lished, in 1777, "New Voyages in North America." 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Bossuet, bo'sii-i', almost bos'swi ', (Jacques Be- 
 nignk,) a celebrated French divine and pre-eminent pul- 
 pit orator, born at Dijon, September 27, 1627, was a son 
 of a counsellor of the parliament of Metz. In 1642 he be- 
 came a student in the College of Navarre, in Paris. His 
 favourite studies were Greek, Latin, philosophy, and the 
 theology of the Bible. In 1648 he pronounced a thesis 
 in the presence of the Prince of Conde, who was thence- 
 forth his friend. He received the degree of doctor and 
 the order of priesthood in 1652, and removed to Metz, 
 of which he had been appointed canon. He is said to 
 have converted many Protestants at Metz by his sermons 
 and by a tract which he wrote against their doctrines in 
 1655. Having become renowned for eloquence, he was 
 appointed to preach the Advent sermons before the court 
 in 1661, and the Lent sermons of 1662. Between 1661 
 and 1669 he preached in nearly all the pulpits of Paris, 
 converted from Protestantism Marshal Turenne, and 
 composed his celebrated " Exposition of the Doctrine 
 of the Catholic Church on Subjects of Controversy," 
 (" Exposition de la Doctrine de T'figlise catholique sur 
 les Matieres de Controverse," 1671,) which was circulated 
 in manuscript three years before it was printed. He 
 became Bishop of Condom in 1669, and pronounced in 
 that year a funeral oration on Henrietta Maria, Queen 
 of England, which is an admirable model of eloquence. 
 
 In 1670 he was appointed preceptor to the dauphin, 
 and in 1671 was elected a member of the French 
 Academy. He wrote for the instruction of the dauphin 
 a "Treatise on the Knowledge of God and Oneself," 
 and his " Discourse on Universal History," (" Discours 
 sur l'Histoire universelle," 1681,) "which," says Hallam, 
 "is perhaps the greatest effort of his wonderful genius. 
 Every preceding abridgment of so immense a subject 
 had been superficial and dry. He first irradiated the 
 entire annals of antiquity, down to the age of Charle- 
 magne, with flashes of light that reveal a unity and co- 
 herence which had been lost in their magnitude and 
 obscurity. ... It is written in that close, nervous style 
 which no one certainly in the French language has ever 
 surpassed." Bossuet, who was now the recognized cham- 
 pion of the Roman Church in France, had a "regular 
 conference" on church authority with the Protestant 
 minister Claude in 1678. He was appointed Bishop of 
 Meauxin 1681, and was the organ and master-spirit of the 
 assembly of ciergy which met in 1682, on the subject of 
 a quarrel between Pope Innocent XI. and Louis XIV. in 
 relation to the regale. Bossuet was the author of the four 
 articles which this assembly adopted as the Gallican creed 
 on the limitations of the papal authority, and which were 
 confirmed by the king. In 1688 appeared his greatest 
 polemical work against the Protestants, a " History of the 
 Variations of the Protestant Churches," ("Histoire des 
 Variations des Egliscs protestants," 2 vols.) "Never 
 did his genius," says Hallam, "find a subject more fit to 
 display its characteristic impetuosity, its arrogance, or 
 its cutting and merciless spirit of sarcasm." (" Introduc- 
 tion to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 He was engaged in a long correspondence (1691-1700) 
 with Leibnitz in relation to a proposed treaty for the 
 union of the Lutheran and Roman Churches. lie offered 
 
 5, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, 11, $>, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; meV.; nit; good; moort. 
 
 
BOSSUET 
 
 409 
 
 B0TF1ELD 
 
 Mada 
 
 o important concession in doctrine, and assumed the 
 
 jne of a dictator rather than a mediator, but was dis- 
 
 osed to concede the sacramental cup to the laity. Bos- 
 
 uet and Fenelon clashed with each other in the contro- 
 
 rsy of Quietism, which originated in the writings of 
 
 ame Guyon. He treated Fenelon with remarkable 
 
 harshness, and procured the condemnation at Rome of 
 
 his " Maximes des Saintes" in 1699. He died in Paris on 
 
 the 1 2th of April, 1704. Even during his life he had 
 
 received from La Bruyere the title of a Father of the 
 
 Church. 
 
 Among his most admired productions are six funeral 
 orations, viz., "On the Queen of England," "On the 
 Duchess of Orleans," (1670,) "On Maria Theresa, Queen 
 of Fiance," (1683,) "On Anne, Princess Palatine," (1685,) 
 M. Letellier," (1686,) and "On the Prince de 
 (Sonde," (1687.) "Few works of genius, perhaps, in 
 the French language," says Hallam, "are better known 
 or have been more prodigally extolled. In that style of 
 eloquence which the ancients call demonstrative, or 
 rather descriptive, the style of panegyric or commemo- 
 ration, they are doubtless superior to those justly cele- 
 brated productions of Thucydides and Plato that have 
 descended to us from Greece ; nor has Bossuet been 
 equalled by any later writer. . . . In moral wisdom Bos- 
 suet was pie-eminent; his thoughts are never subtle or 
 far fetched ; they have a sort of breadth, a generality of 
 application, which is peculiarly required in those who 
 address a mixed assembly." ("Introduction to the Lit- 
 erature of Europe.") 
 
 Among the best editions of his complete works is that 
 published at Versailles in 43 vols., (1815 et seq.) 
 
 See Saint-Marc-Giraroin, " £loge de Bossuet," 1827; "Life 
 of Bossuet," in English, by Charles Butler, 1812 ; " Vie de Bos- 
 by Buricny, 1761 ; " fiioge de Bossuet," by D'Alkmbert; 
 "Histoi're <'e Bossuet," by M. DH Bausset, 4 vol's., 1S14; Henri 
 Patin, " Eloge de Bossuet," 1S27; ).]. E. Rov, "Histoire de J. 
 B. Bossuet," 1S40; " Edinburgh Review" for January, 185S; "Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for January, 1814; Lamaktine, "Memoirs 
 Of Celebrated' Characters," 1856. 
 
 Bossuet, (Jacques Benigne,) nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1664, became Bishop of Troyes in 1716. 
 He edited his uncle's works, and wrote several theologi- 
 cal treatises. Died in 1743. 
 
 Bos'su-lus, (MATHIEU,) a rhetorician, born in France 
 or Italy, was preceptor to Don Carlos, the son of Philip 
 II. of .Spain. He lived in Paris in 1583. 
 
 Bossut, bo'su', (CHARLES,) an eminent French geom- 
 eter, born near Lyons in 1730, studied in the Jesuits' 
 College at Lyons. He was a friend of Fontenelle and 
 D'Alcmbert, and assisted the latter in preparing the 
 mathematical articles for the "Encyclopedic" In 
 1752 he became professor of mathematics in the school 
 of engineers at Mczieres. He obtained several prizes 
 of the Academy of Sciences, of which he became a 
 member in 1768. Among his works are a "Treatise on 
 Mechanics and Hydrodynamics," (1763,) "Complete 
 Course of Mathematics," and "Essay on the General 
 History of Mathematics," (2 vols., 1802.) He also pub- 
 lished an edition of Pascal's works, 5 vols. 8vo. Died 
 in 1S14. 
 
 Delaware, "Eloge de Bossut;" "Memoires," (of the In- 
 stitute.) 
 
 Bostkal, bost'ki, (Stephen,) a Hungarian chief, was 
 leader of a revolt against Rudolph II., who by the treaty 
 of Comoro confirmed him in the possession of Transyl- 
 vania. Died in 1606. 
 
 Bos'tpn, (John,) a monk of Bury Saint Edmund's, in 
 id, of the fifteenth century, wrote a " History of 
 tchism." 
 
 Bos'tpn, (THOMAS,) a Scottish Presbyterian divine 
 and Hebrew scholar, born at Dunse in 1676. He pub- 
 ! a " Body of Divinity," " Human Nature in its Four- 
 fold State," and several other works, which arc highly 
 esteemed by his sect. He preached many years at Et- 
 trick, Selkirkshire. Died in 1732. 
 
 See " Memoir of the Life, Time, etc. of Thomas Boston," 1776; 
 Cm 'mukrs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bos'well, (Sir ALEXANDER,) son of the biographer 
 of Dr. Johnson, born in Scotland in 1775, was a friend 
 of Sir Walter Scott. He published " Songs chiefly in 
 the Scottish Dialect," and other works. He was killed 
 in 1822, in a duel arising from a political quarrel. 
 
 Boswell, (James,) a Scottish lawyer and famous 
 biographer, born at Edinburgh in 1740, was a son of the 
 Laird of Auchinleck, (pronounced aPflek.) He published 
 in 1763 a volume of Letters which had passed between 
 himself and Andrew Erskine, and was introduced to Dr. 
 Johnson in the same year. He afterwards made a tour 
 in F'rance, Germany, and Italy, and returned home in 
 1 766 a warm admirer of Paoli, whom he had visited. He 
 is said to have exhibited himself in public with a placard 
 on his hat bearing the inscription of Corsica Boswell, ana 
 he published in 1768 a "Journal of a Tour in Corsica." 
 Having become intimate with Dr. Johnson, he made a 
 journey with him to the Western Islands in 1773. His 
 vanity, curiosity, or other questionable motive, prompted 
 him to seek the society of eminent men, and not unfre- 
 quently rendered him the laughing-stock of those whose 
 favour he courted. Dr. Johnson said that Boswell had 
 missed his only chance of immortality by not having 
 been alive when the "Dunciad" was written. His "Life 
 of Johnson" (2 vols., 1791) was received with great 
 favour. "The Life of Johnson," says Macaulay, "is as- 
 suredly a great, a very great work. Homer is not more 
 decidedly the first of heroic poets, Shakspeare is not more 
 decidedly the first of dramatists, . . . than Boswell is 
 the first of biographers. He has no second. . . . We 
 are not sure that there is in the whole history of the 
 human intellect so strange a phenomenon as this book. 
 Many of the greatest men that ever lived have written 
 biography. Boswell was one of the smallest men that 
 ever lived, and he has beaten them sill." Died in 1795. 
 
 See Macaulay's critique on Croker's edition of Boswei.l's " Life 
 of Johnson," published in the "Edinburgh Review," 1831; also 
 "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1858; "Edinburgh Review" 
 for April, 1S57 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1857. 
 
 Boswell, (James,) son of the preceding, born in 1779. 
 He published Malone's edition of Shakspeare, to which 
 he made some additions. Died in 1822. 
 
 Bos'worth, (Joseph,) an eminent English philologist 
 and divine, born in Derbyshire in 1788. He studied at 
 Aberdeen, where he took the degree of LL.D., and in 
 1839 received that of D.D. at Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 He had been previously appointed British chaplain at 
 Rotterdam, (1832,) where he resided eight years. His 
 studies were principally directed to the Anglo-Saxon 
 and kindred dialects ; and he has published " Elements 
 of Anglo-Saxon Grammar," (1823,) "A Dictionary of 
 the Anglo-Saxon Language," (1838,) and an edition of 
 "King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of the History of 
 the World, from the Latin of Orosius." Dr. Bosworth's 
 distinguished attainments in philology have procured 
 him admission to the Royal Institution of the Nether- 
 lands, and other learned societies of Europe ; he is also 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society, and of the Society of Anti- 
 quaries, London. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1839. 
 
 Botal, bo-til', or Botalli, bo-tal'lee, (Leonardo,) a 
 distinguished physician and medical writer, born at Asti, 
 in the Sardinian States, about 1530. He studied under 
 Fallopius, and was subsequently physician to Charles 
 IX. and Henry III. 
 
 See Baylk, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Botalli. See BoTAli 
 
 Botelho, bo-tel'yo, or Botello, (Nuno Alvarez,) a 
 Portuguese navigator, was appointed in 1628 Governor 
 of the Portuguese Indies. Died in 1630. 
 
 Botero, bo-ta'ro, (Giovanni,) surnamed Benis'mis, 
 an Italian ecclesiastic and writer, born at Bene, in Pied- 
 mont, in 1540. He was secretary to Saint Carlo Borro- 
 meo, and in 1599 was appointed by Charles Emmanuel 
 tutor to his children. His political treatise entitled 
 " Delia Ragione di Stato" had a high reputation in his 
 time. Died in 161 7. 
 
 Botetourt, bot'e-tdort, (NorhornE Berkeley,) 
 l.okU, born about 1738, was sent to Virginia as governor 
 in 1768. Although he dissolved the house of burgesses 
 (1769) for passing resolves against the obnoxious meas- 
 ures of the British Parliament, he was very much re- 
 spected in the colony. Died in 1770. 
 
 Bot'field, (Beriah,) F.R.S., an English antiquary, 
 born in Salop in 1807. He wrote a "Tour in Scotland," 
 and other works. Died in 1863. 
 
 « as t; c as s; g hard; g asy; <>, H, v.,gutturat; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as s; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 2 1.) 
 
BOTH 
 
 410 
 
 BOTTICELLI 
 
 'Both, hot, (John and Andrew,) brothers and dis- 
 tinguished painters, born at Utrecht about 1610, were 
 pupils of Bloemaert, and worked for some years in Italy. 
 John is said to have painted the landscapes, while his 
 brother supplied the figures and animals. They died 
 about 1650. According to some authors, Andrew died 
 in 1656. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Bothwell, both'well, or Bodwell,(jAMES Hepburn,) 
 Earl OK, a Scottish courtier and conspirator, noted for 
 his audacity and profligacy, was born about 1526. He 
 was the son and heir of Patrick, Earl of Bothwell, who 
 died in 1556. On the accession of Queen Mary ( 1 561 ) 
 he joined the Protestant party, against which he had be- 
 fore fought, and became a member of the privy council. 
 In 1562 he formed a conspiracy to seize the queen, but 
 was detected and imprisoned. He escaped to Fiance, 
 and in his absence was outlawed. He returned in 1565, 
 and gained the favour of the queen, "whose measures," 
 says Hume, "were all directed by his advice and autho- 
 rity." When Darnley was killed in 1567, public opinion 
 designated Bothwell as the author or accomplice of the 
 crime. He was tried, but no accuser dared to appear ; 
 and he was acquitted, with circumstances that confirmed 
 the general opinion of his guilt. " The favour which 
 Mary openly bore to Bothwell," says Hume, " kept every 
 one in awe." A large number of nobles signed a paper 
 in which they recommended Bothwell to Mary as a hus- 
 band. In 1567 he seized the queen (who was returning 
 from a visit to Stirling) and carried her to Dunbar Castle, 
 with an avowed design to force her to marrv him. He ef- 
 fected this object without difficulty. (See Mary Stuart.) 
 The principal nobility having taken arms against him, 
 he escaped to the Orkneys, where, according to a doubt- 
 ful story, he subsisted for some time by piracy. Ac- 
 cording to Burton, he simply made his escape from the 
 Orkneys in a pirate vessel to Denmark. He afterwards 
 died in the castle of Draxholm, about 1577. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. iv. chaps, xlv.. xlvi., and 
 xlvii. ; Robertson, " History of Scotland ;" Froude, " Reign of 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Bothwidi, bot'we-dee, (Johan,) Bishop of Linko- 
 ping, in Sweden, was preacher to Gustavus Adolphus, 
 whom he accompanied in his campaigns. Died in 1635. 
 
 Botin, bo'tin, (Anders,) a Swedish historian, born in 
 1724, wrote a "History of the Swedish Nation to the 
 Reign of Gustavus I.," (1757.) Died in 1790. 
 
 Botscbild or Bottschild, bot'shllt, (Samuel,) a 
 German painter and engraver, born in Saxony about 
 1640 ; died in 1707. 
 
 Bott or Bodt, de, deh bot, (Jean,) a French architect, 
 born in 1670, was employed by Frederick I. of Prussia to 
 construct the arsenal at Berlin. Died in 1745. 
 
 Bott, (Thomas,) an English dissenting divine, born 
 at Derby in 1688, published, among other works, an 
 answer to Warburton's "Divine Legation of Moses," 
 
 (1 743-> 
 
 Bot'ta, (Anne Charlotte Lynch,) an American 
 poetess, born at Bennington, Vermont, was married in 
 1855 to Vincenzo Botta, noticed below. A volume of her 
 poems has been published. 
 
 Botta, bot'ta, (Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo,) an 
 eminent Italian historian, born at San Giorgio, in Pied- 
 mont, about 1768. He graduated in medicine at Turin, 
 and in 1795 was appointed surgeon to the French army 
 in Italy. He became in 1800 a member of the Con- 
 sulta of Piedmont, and in 1803 was elected to the French 
 legislative body. He published in 1809 a " History of 
 the War of American Independence," translated into 
 English by G. W. Otis of Boston, and in 1824 his " His- 
 tory of Italy from 1789 to 1814," (4 vols.,) which is 
 written with impartiality, in a spirited and attractive 
 style, and is ranked among the best productions of the 
 kind in recent Italian literature. His "Continuation of 
 Guicciardini's History of Italy down to 1789" (10 vols.) 
 came out in 1832. He also wrote a "History of the 
 Nations of Italy from Constantine to Napoleon," (1825,) 
 " Description of the Isle of Corfu," a poem entitled "II 
 Camillo, o Vejo conquistato," and other works. Died 
 in Paris in 1837. 
 
 See Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" F. Becchi, 
 " Elogio storico di C. Botta," 1839. 
 
 Botta, (Paolo Emilio,) a distinguished archaeologist 
 and naturalist, son of the preceding, born about 1S00. 
 Being appointed French consul to Alexandria, he visited 
 Arabia in 1837, and in 1844 published an "Account of a 
 Journey in Yemen in 1837 for the Museum of Natural 
 History, Paris." While consul at Mosul in 1843, he ex- 
 cavated at the village of Khorsabad, on the Tigris, in 
 the neighbourhood of Mosul, the remains of an Assyrian 
 palace containing stones with cuneiform inscriptions, and 
 statues similar to those since discovered by Layard. A 
 number of these sculptures are now at the Louvre in 
 Paris. Botta published, conjointly with Letronne, Bur- 
 nouf, and other savants, a splendid work entitled " Monu- 
 ments of Nineveh discovered and described by P. E. 
 Botta, with Designs by Flandrin," (5 vols, fol., 1847.) 
 
 See "Journal des DtSbats" for December, 1844. 
 
 Botta, (Vincenzo,) an Italian statesman, born in 
 Piedmont, became professor of philosophy at Turin, and 
 in 1849 w:ls elected to the Sardinian Parliament. 
 
 Bottalla, bot-til'la, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Savona in 1613, was surnamed 11. Ra 
 faei.i.in'o, from the resemblance of his style to that of 
 Raphael. He was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona, and 
 executed several works of great merit at Rome and 
 Genoa. Died in 1644. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bottani, bot-ta'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Cremona in 171 7, became professor in the Acad- 
 temy of Mantua. Died in 1784. 
 
 Bottari, bot-ta'ree, (Giovanni Gaetano,) an emi- 
 nent Italian scholar and ecclesiastic, born at Florence in 
 ' 1689. He published in 1738, in conjunction with other' 
 learned men, a new edition of the " Vocabolario della 
 Crusca," (6 vols, fol.) He was subsequently appointed 
 director of the grand duke's printing-establishment at 
 Florence, professor of ecclesiastical history in the col- 
 lege di Sapienza, librarian of the Vatican, and prelate 
 of the pontifical court. He wrote, among other antiqua- 
 l.rian works, an account of the monuments found in the 
 catacombs of Rome; also a number of valuable critical 
 essays. He published in 1741 his excellent edition of 
 the " Vatican Virgil," with the different versions and 
 notes. Died in 1775. 
 
 See MazzI'chei.li, "Scrittori d'ltalia;" F. Grazzini, " Elogio di 
 G. G. Bottari," 1818. 
 
 Bottazzi, bot-tat'see, (Francesco,) an Italian poet 
 and Latin scholar, born about 1 770, translated into Latin 
 verse Monti's " Bard of the Black Forest," (" Bardo 
 della Selva nera.") ■ 
 
 Eottcher or Boettcher, bot'Ker, Bottger or Boett- 
 ger, bot'oer, (Adolph,) a German poet and translator, 
 born in Leipsic in 1815. He wrote several original 
 poems, among which is "Till Eulenspiegel," (1850,) and 
 produced translations of the poems of Byron, (12 vols., 
 1840-50,) Milton, (1846,) and other English poets. 
 
 Bottcher or Boettcher, (Christian,) a German 
 painter, born near Aix- -Chapelle in 1818. Among his 
 works are "Evening in he Black Forest," and "Young 
 Villagers of the Rhine." 
 
 Bottcher, Boettcher, Bottger, or Boettger, bot'- 
 oer, written also Boettiger, (Johann Friedrich,) the 
 inventor of Dresden china, born at Schleitz, in Voigt- 
 land, about 1681. Having devoted himself for several 
 years to the study of alchemy and chemistry, he suc- 
 ceeded in manufacturing a porcelain nearly equal in 
 beauty and strength to that of China. Died in 1719. 
 
 See Engelharut, "Life of J. F. Boettcher," (in German,) Leip- 
 sic, 1S37. 
 
 Bottee de Toulmon, bo'ta' deh tool'm6N', (Au- 
 gusts,) a French antiquary and writer on music, born 
 in Paris in 1797; died in 1850. 
 
 See Vincent, " Notice sur la Vie de M. A. 60116*6 de Toulmon," 
 1851. 
 
 Bottex, bo't?ks', (Alexandre,) a French medical 
 writer, born in 1796, lived at Lyons. Died in 1849. 
 
 Botticelli, bot-te-chel'!ee, (Sandro or Alessandro,) 
 an eminent Italian painter, surnamed Filipepi, (fe-le- 
 pa'pee,) born at Florence about 1440, was a pupil of 
 Filippo Lippi. He was patronized by the popes Sixtus 
 IV. and Pius IV., and painted in the chapel of the Vatican 
 frescos which display great power of imagination. Having 
 
 \> e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mS t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
B0TT1GER 
 
 411 
 
 BOVCHhT 
 
 returned to Florence, he became a disciple of Savonarola, 
 and neglected his art. Died in 1515. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Bottiger or Boettiger, bot'te-ger, (Karl August,) 
 an eminent German archaeologist and litterateur, born 
 at Reichenbach, in Saxony, in 1760, resided at Weimar, 
 and was a friend of Goethe, Wielantl, and other eminent 
 German writers. A collection of his essays, etc. (" Kleine 
 ten") was published in 3 vols., 1837-38. Died in 
 
 I835- 
 
 See Karl Wilhelm Bottiger, "Karl August Bottiger: biogra- 
 phic he Skizze," 1837 ;Nostiz mid Jaknkendokk, " K. A. Bottiger: 
 •em Bild, sein Deiikmal," 1836; " Foreign Quarterly Review" tor 
 January, 1S36. 
 
 Bottiger or Boettiger, bot'te'ger, (Karl Wilhelm,) 
 an eminent Swedish poet, of German extraction, born at 
 Wtsteris in 1807, is a son-in-law of Teener. He ob- 
 tained the degree of doctor in philosophy at Upsal in 
 1S33, and has been twice crowned by the Swedish Acad- 
 emy. He has published poems of great merit, and pro- 
 duced a translation of Tasso's " Gerusalemtne Liberata," 
 and of Uhland's ballads. 
 
 Bottiger or Boettiger, (Karl Wilhelm,) a Ger- 
 man historian, and professor of literature and history at 
 Eriangen, born at Bautzen in 1790, wrote a "History of 
 Germany," (1S38,) and "History 01 the Electorate and 
 Kingdom of Saxony." 
 
 Bottoni, bot-to'nee, (Alberto,) an Italian physician, 
 born at Padua, where he became professor of medicine. 
 Died in 1596. 
 
 Bottoni, (Domenico,) a learned physician, and cor- 
 responding member of the Royal Society of London, 
 born at Leontini, in Sicily, in 1641 ; died in 1731. 
 
 Bottrigari,bot-tRega'iee,(ERCOLE,)an Italian mathe- 
 matician and miscellaneous writer, born at Bologna in 
 15; I ; died in 1612. 
 
 Botts, (John Minor,) an American statesman, born 
 at Dumfries, Prince William county, Virginia, in 1802. 
 He studied law, joined the Whig party, and was elected 
 a member of Congress in 1839. He was re-elected in 
 1841, supported Mr. Clay in 1844, and was returned to 
 Congress in 1847. He was one of the few Southern 
 members who co-operated with John Quincy Adams in 
 his defence of the right of petition. After the dissolu- 
 tion of the Whig party he acted with the American party. 
 II opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise in 
 1S54, and was a constant adherent of the Union during 
 the civil war, after which he supported the Republican 
 party. Died in January, 1S69. 
 
 Bbttschild. See Botschild. 
 
 Boturiui Benaduci, bo-too-ree'nee bi-na-doo'chee, 
 
 ENZO,) a native of Milan, who visited Mexico in 
 
 1735, and was afterwards appointed historiographer of 
 
 the Indies. He wrote a "General History of North 
 
 America," (in manuscript.) Died about 1750. 
 
 See PrsscotT, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i. book i. 
 
 Botzaris. See Bozzaris. 
 
 Boubee, boo'bi', (Neree,) a French geologist, born at 
 Toulouse in 1806, published several works on geology. 
 
 Bouchard or Bouchart, boo'shiR', (Alain,) a 
 French chronicler and jurist, born about P470. 
 
 Bouchard, (Amaury,) a French statesman, born at 
 Saint- lean-d'Angely about 1480. 
 
 Bouchard, (David.) See Aubeterre. 
 
 Bouchardat, boo'shtR'di', (Adoi.phk,) a French 
 Uieniist and pharmacist, born about i8loin Paris, where 
 he became professor of hygiene in the Faculty of Medicine. 
 He has written various scientific works. 
 
 Bouchardon, boo'shSR'd6.N', (Edmf.,) an eminent 
 French sculptor, born atChaumont-en-Bassigny in 1698. 
 lb- studied under the younger Coustou in Paris, and 
 subsequently passed ten years at Rome. He became, 
 after his return, professor in the Academy of Fine Arts. 
 The "Fountain of Crenelle" in Paris is esteemed his 
 master-piece; his equestrian statue of Louis XV., upon 
 which he was employed twelve years, was destroyed by 
 a mob in 1 792. He executed a number of bas-reliefs and 
 bronze statues of great merit, and was also skilled in 
 etching and design. Died in 1762. 
 
 See A. C. P. dp. Caylus. "Vie d'E. Bouchardon," 1763: Fontk- 
 hay, " Diciionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Bouchaud, boo'sho', (Mathieu Antoine,) a French 
 jurist, born in Paris in 17 19, became professor of law ip 
 the College of France in 1774. He was a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences, and contributed a number of legal 
 articles to the "Encyclopedic." Died in 1804. 
 
 Bouche, boosh, (Honore,) born at Aix in 1598, wrote 
 a "Description of Provence." Died in 1671. 
 
 Bouche, boosh, (Martin,) a Flemish engraver of 
 portraits, supposed to have been born at Antwerp, flou- 
 rished about 1680. 
 
 Bouchel, boo'shel', (Laurent,) a French jurist and 
 legal writer, born at Crespy in 1559; died in 1629. 
 
 Boucher, boo'shi', (Alexandre Jean,) a French 
 musician, surnamed the Alexander of violins, born 
 in Paris in 1770. He was patronized by Charles IV. and 
 Ferdinand VII. of Spain. 
 
 Boucher, (Francois,) a celebrated French painter, 
 born in Paris in 1703. He studied under Le Moine, 
 and in 1765 succeeded Vanloo as painter to Louis XV. 
 Among his master-pieces we may name "Venus order- 
 ing Arms for /Eneas," and "The Bath of Diana." His 
 works are censured for mannerism, meretricious attrac- 
 tions, and wanton tendencies. Died in 1770. 
 
 See C. Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres;" Grimm et Diderot, 
 " Correspondance Litteraire." 
 
 Boucher, (Jean,) a French theologian, born in Paris 
 about 1548, was a violent partisan of the league against 
 Henry IV., and a "trumpet of sedition." Died in 1644. 
 
 See Mrzeray, "Histoire de Henri IV." 
 
 Boucher, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Besan- 
 9011, published his Travels in Palestine, (1626.) 
 
 Boucher, bow'cher, (Jonathan,) an English philolo- 
 gist and political writer, born near Wigton, in Cumber- 
 land, about 1738. He emigrated to Virginia about 1756, 
 and became rector of Hanover, King George county, in 
 1761. He adhered to the royal cause in the Revolution, 
 was forced to resign his charge, and returned to England 
 in 1775. About 1784 he obtained the vicarage of Epsom, 
 in Surrey. He published in 1797 a " View of the Causes 
 and Consequences of the American Revolution." He 
 spent many years in compiling a "Glossary of Archaic 
 and Provincial Words," which was unfinished when he 
 died in 1804. Parts 1 and 2 of this work appeared in 
 1832. 
 
 Boucher d'Argis, boo'shi' diR'zhe', (Andre Jean,) 
 son of Antoine Gaspard, born in Paris in 1751. Having 
 publicly denounced Marat, he was condemned to death 
 by the Revolutionary tribunal, and executed in 1794. 
 
 Boucher d'Argis, (Antoine Gaspard,) a French 
 jurist, born in Paris in 1708, contributed legal treatises 
 to the "Encyclopedic Methodique." Died in 1791. 
 
 Boucher de la Richarderie, boo'shi' deh If re'- 
 sh$Rd're', (Gii.i.es,) a French 'litterateur, born at Saint- 
 Germain-en-Laye in 1733, published a "Universal Li- 
 brary of Travels," (6 vols., 1808.) Died in 1810. 
 
 Boucher de Perthes, boo'shi' deh pirt, (Jacques,) 
 a French archaeologist, born at Rethel in 1788. He 
 wrote several dramas, and a dictionary of passions and 
 sensations, entitled " Hommes et Choses," (" Men and 
 Things," 4 vols., 185 1.) His reputation is founded chiefly 
 on his work called "La Creation," (5 vols., 1839-41,) 
 and his "Celtic and Antediluvian Antiquities," (1847.) 
 Died at Abbeville in August, 1868. He has been called 
 the founder of the science of archaeo-geology. 
 
 Boucherie, boosh're', (Augustf,) a French chemist, 
 born at Bordeaux in 1801. He invented a method of 
 rendering wood incorruptible by impregnating it with 
 sulphate of copper. 
 
 Boucheron, boosh'roN', (Carlo,) an Italian scholai 
 and writer, of French extraction, born in Turin in 1773. 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 SeeT. Vallauri, "De C. Boucherono," 1838. 
 
 Boucheseiche, boosh's^sh', (Jean Baptiste,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Chaumont in 1760, translated 
 the "Historical and Geographical Description of Hin- 
 dost.m," from the English of Rennel. Died in 1825. 
 
 Bouchet, boo'shi', (Claude Antoinf,) a French 
 surgeon, born at Lyons in 1785, originated a method of 
 healing by the first intention after amputations. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 See Castellan. " Notice sur le Docteur Bouchet," 1840. 
 
 * as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BOUCHET 
 
 412 
 
 BOUGEREL 
 
 Bouchet, (Frederic Jules,) a French architect and 
 designer, born in Paris in 1799. He published several 
 professional works, among which is "Compositions an- 
 tiques," (1850.) 
 
 Bouchet, (Guillaume,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Poitiers in 1526; died in 1606. 
 
 Bouchet, (Jean,) a French writer, born at Poitiers 
 in 1476, published "Annals of Aquitaine," (1524.) Died 
 about 1550. 
 
 See Nickron, "Memoires." 
 
 Bouchet, du, dii boo'shi', (Jean,) a French writer on 
 genealogy, born in 1599; died in 16S4. 
 
 Bouchetel, boosh'tgl', or Bochetel, bosh't?!', (Guil- 
 laume,) born in the province of Berry, became secretary 
 to Francis I., King of France. Died in 1558. 
 
 Boucheul, boo'shul', (Joseph,) a French jurist and 
 legal writer, born at Dorat; died in 1706. 
 
 Bouchitte, boo'she'ti', (Louis Firmin Herve\) a 
 French litterateur, and professor of history at Versailles, 
 born in Paris in 1795, published a " History of the Proofs 
 of the Existence of God," (1841,) and other works. 
 
 Bouchon-Dubournial, boo'shd.N' du'booR'ne'il', 
 (Henri,) a French litterateur, born at Toul in 1749, trans- 
 lated "Don Quixote," and other works of Cervantes. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 Bouchotte, boo'shot', (Jean Baptiste Noel,) born 
 at Metz, in France, in 1754, was minister of war from 
 April, 1793, until April 1, 1794. Died in 1840. 
 
 Boucicault, boo'se'ko', sometimes written Bourci- 
 Cault, (Dion,) a dramatist and actor, born in Dublin 
 in 1822. He produced about 1841 a successful comedy 
 called "London Assurance," and afterwards numerous 
 dramas, some of which he translated from the French. 
 
 Boucicaut, de.'deh boo'se'ko', (Jean le Meingre — 
 leh maNgR',) a French soldier, who became a marshal 
 under Charles V. of France. Died in 1370. 
 
 Boucicaut, de, (Jean le Meingre,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, bom at Tours in 1365, distinguished himself in 
 the war against the Turks in 1396, and became marshal 
 of France in 1412. Being taken prisoner at the battle 
 of Agincourt, he died in England in 1421. 
 
 See De Pilham, " Histoire du Marshal Boucicaut," 1697 ; D'Au- 
 BIGNV, "Vies des Hommes illustres," tome vii. 
 
 Boucquet, boo'ki', (Victor,) a Flemish painter of 
 history, born at Fumes in 1619. "The Judgment of 
 Cambyses" is called his master-piece. Died in 1677. 
 
 Bouddha or Boudha. See Booddha. 
 
 Boudet, boo'dk', (Charles Ernest,) a French medi- 
 cal writer, born in 1813 ; died in 1849. 
 
 Boudet, (Jean,) Comte, a French general of division, 
 born at Bordeaux in 1769. He fought against the Eng- 
 lish in the West Indies in 1794, and in the subsequent 
 campaigns of Holland and Austria. For his services at 
 Aspem and Essling, he was created by Napoleon grand 
 officer of the legion of honour. Died m 1809. 
 
 See De Courcei.les, " Dictiouuaire des Generaux Francais." 
 
 Boudewyns, bow'deh-wlns', (Antoon Franciscus,) 
 a Flemish painter, born at Brussels about 1660, was a 
 pupil of Van der Meulen. His landscapes are highly 
 praised. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Boudewyns, (Michael,) a physician of Antwerp, 
 was professor of anatomy and surgery in that city. Died 
 in 1681. 
 
 Boudinot, boo'de-not, (Ei.ias,) an American patriot 
 and philanthropist, born in Philadelphia in 1740. He 
 studied law, which he practised in New Jersey, and was 
 a zealous advocate of the patriotic cause in the Revolu- 
 tion. In 1777 he was appointed commissary-general of 
 prisoners, and elected a delegate to Congress, of which 
 he became president in 1782. He was director of the 
 mint at Philadelphia from 1796 to 1805, after which he 
 resided at Burlington, New Jersey. He was chosen the 
 first president of the American Bible Society in 1816. 
 Among his writings is "The Star of the West; or, An 
 Attempt to discover the Lost Tribes of Israel." He 
 bequeathed large amounts of money and land to chari- 
 table institutions. Died in 1821. 
 
 Boudon, boo'doN', (Henrt Marie,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and religious writer, born in the department of 
 Aisne in 1624; died in 1702. 
 
 Boudot, boo'do', (Jean,) a French printer and book- 
 seller, published in 1704 a "Latin-French Dictionary," 
 which was long popular in schools. Died in 1706. His 
 son, of the same name, was distinguished as a printer 
 and bibliographer. Died in 1754. 
 
 Boue, boo'i', (Ami,) a French geologist, born at Ham- 
 burg in 1794, published several works on geology, and 
 "Turkey in Europe," ("La Turquie en Europe," 1840.) 
 
 Bouelles, boo'el', sometimes written Bouilles, [ 1 .at. 
 Bovil'lus,] (Charles,) a French mathematician and 
 philologist, born at Sancour, in Picardy, about 1470, 
 published "The Book of the Art and Science of Geom- 
 etry," (1511,) and "Three Books of Common Proverbs," 
 (" Proverbiorum vulgarium Libri tres," 1531.) Died 
 about 1550. 
 
 Bouffe, boo'fa', a popular French comedian, born in 
 Paris about 1800 ; died in 1853. 
 
 Bouflers, de, deh boo'flaiR', (Louis Francois,) Due, 
 a celebrated French marshal, born in 1644, served under 
 Turenne in Holland and Germany. He had a principal 
 share in the victory of Steenkerke in 1692, and in 1693 
 obtained the rank of marshal. In 1695 he defended 
 Namur a long time against the allies under William III. 
 of England, and in 1708 maintained Lille for nearly ihree 
 months against Prince Eugene. He received from Louis 
 XIV. the order of Saint Louis and many other distinc- 
 tions, and was created a knight of the Golden F'leece 
 by the King of Spain. The last battle in which he was 
 engaged was that of Malplaquet, (1709,) where he com- 
 manded the right wing ; and his retreat on that occasion 
 was esteemed a master-piece of military skill. Died in 
 1711. 
 
 See "Vie du Marechal de Bouflers," Lille, 1852; Charles de la 
 Rue, "Oraison funebre de M. le Marechal de Bouflers," 1711. 
 
 Bouflers, de. (Marte Franchise Catherine de 
 Beauvau Craon — deh bo'vo' kRi'oN',) Marchioness, 
 a French lady of distinguished talents and accomplish- 
 ments, was the wife of the Marquis de Bouflers-Reiiiien- 
 court, captain of the guards to Stanislaus Augustus, King 
 of Poland. She was a friend and correspondent of Vol- 
 taire. Died in 1787. 
 
 Bouflers, de, (Stanislas,) Marquis, a mediocre 
 French writer, son of the preceding, born at Luneville 
 in 1737; died in 1815. 
 
 Bouflers-Rouvrel, boo'flaiR'roov'reT,(MARiE Char- 
 lotte Hippolyte,) Countess, born in Paris in 1724, 
 was a friend of Rousseau and other celebrated French 
 writers, and a correspondent of Hume. Died in 1800. 
 
 See J. J. Rousseau, " Correspondance ;" Hume, "Private Cor- 
 respondence." 
 
 Bougainville, boo'gaN'vel', (Jean Pierre,) a French 
 litterateur, brother of the navigator, born in Paris in 1722, 
 was a member of the French Academy and secretary of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1763. 
 
 Bougainville, de, deh boo'gaN'vel', (Louis AN- 
 toine,) a celebrated French navigator, born in Paris in 
 1729, accompanied Montcalm to America in 1756, as his 
 aide-de-camp. In 1766 he set sail with the frigate La 
 Boudeuse and the ship L'fitoile for the Falkland Is- 
 lands, being charged by the government with the trans- 
 fer of the French colony of Port Louis, on one of those 
 islands, to the Spaniards. Continuing his voyage, he 
 discovered a number of islands in the South Sea, and 
 gave the name of Navigator's Islands to the Samoan 
 Archipelago. He also saw part of the group afterwards 
 called New Hebrides by Captain Cook. He returned 
 to France in 1769, having been the first French navi- 
 gator who made the circuit of the world. His account 
 of his voyage ("Voyage autour du Monde") appeared 
 in 1 77 1, and was translated into English aid Gern an. 
 Bougainville was a Fellow of the-Royal Society of Lon- 
 don. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Marius Pascal, "Essai historique sur laViede Bougain- 
 ville," 1831. 
 
 Bougeant boo'zhoN', (Guillaume Hyacinthe,) a 
 French Jesuit and historical writer, bom at Quimper in 
 1690, wrote a "History of the Treaty of Westphalia," 
 and other works. Died in 1743. 
 
 Bougerel, boozh'rel', (Joseph,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and litterateur, born at Aix in 1680, wrote "Memoirs ol 
 Illustrious Men." Died in 1753. 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
 
BOUGET 
 
 4'3 
 
 BOULA^D 
 
 Bouget, boo'zhi', (Jkan,) a French Orientalist, iiom 
 at S.tumur in 1692, became professor of Hebrew in the 
 college of the Propaganda at Rome. He published 
 " Rudiments of Hebrew Grammar," and other learned 
 forks. Died in J 775. 
 
 Boughton, baw'ton, (George H.,) a distinguished 
 contemporary painter of landscapes and genre, was bom 
 in England, and resided many years in London and on 
 the continent. He afterwards settled at Albany, in New 
 York, where he has produced many works of great merit. 
 Among these may be named his "Coming through the 
 Kyi, "The Ambush," and "Passing into the Shade." 
 
 See Tcckerman, "Book of the Artists." 
 
 Bougouinc, boo'gwaN', (Simon,) a French litterateur, 
 tarn about 1490, was a valet of Louis XII. 
 
 Bougrov. See Boogrov. 
 
 Bouguer, boo'gaiR', (Pierre,) a celebrated French 
 mathematician, born at Le Croisic, in Lower Brittany, in 
 169S. Having obtained several prizes from the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences, he became an associate of that body 
 in 1 731. His "Treatise on the Gradation of Light" 
 came out in 1729, and in 1736 he accompanied La Con- 
 damine and Godin to Peru, in order to measure a degree 
 of the meridian. He published an account of this opera- 
 tion, entitled "Theory of the Figure of the Earth," 
 ( 1 749. ) He also wrote a " Treatise on Mechanics and 
 Dynamics," and a " Treatise on Navigation and Pilotage," 
 (1753,) and invented an instrument which he named the 
 heliometer. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of 
 London. Died in 1758. 
 
 See article "Bouguer" in the " Biographie Universale," by Biot ; 
 Labrhthonis, "Relation de la Conversion et de la Mort de Bou- 
 guer," 17M. 
 
 Bouhier, boo'e-a', (Jean,) a learned jurist, and mem- 
 ber of the French Academy, born at Dijon in 1673, be- 
 came president of the parliament of Dijon in 1704. He 
 published a number of legal works, and valuable criti- 
 cisms on classical subjects. " He was," says Abbe Olivet, 
 "a savant of the first order." Died in 1746. 
 
 See Ot-DiN, " Commentarius de Vita J. Bouhierii," 1746; D'Ai.em- 
 bekt, " E*.oges." 
 
 Bouhours, boo'ooR', (Dominique,) a French Jesuit 
 and etymologist, born in 1628 in Paris, where he became 
 professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres. He published 
 in 1671 "Conversations of Aristes and Eugenius," and 
 " Remarks and Doubts on the French Language." These 
 works were received with great favour by some critics, 
 and severely assailed by Menage and others. He also 
 wrote a " Life of Francis Xavier," which was translated 
 into English by Dryden. Died in 1702. 
 
 Xkekon, " Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale;" 
 Daciek, " filoge de Bouhours," 1702. 
 
 Bouillard, boo'yin', (Jacques,) a French engraver, 
 born in 1744; died at Paris in 1806. 
 
 Bouillart, boo'yiR', (Jacques,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and historian, born at Meulan in 1669; died in 1726. 
 
 Bouillaud, boo'y5', or Bouilliaud, boo'ye-6', (Is- 
 HAKI,) a French astronomer, born in Loudun in 1605; 
 died in 1694. 
 
 Bouillaud, (Jean Baptiste,) professor of clinics in 
 the Medical Faculty of Paris, born at Angouleme in 1796. 
 lb 1 ontributed numerous articles to the "Revue Medi- 
 cale" and other journals, and published a "Treatise on 
 Medical NosQgraphy," (5 vols., 1846.) 
 
 Bouille.de, deh boo'ya', (Francois Claude Amour,) 
 
 tins, a distinguished French general, born in Au- 
 
 yergne in 1739. In the war of American independence, 
 
 while Governor of Guadeloupe, he defended the French 
 
 Antilles against the English, and captured several of 
 
 their islands. He was a devoted royalist, and active in 
 
 promoting the escape of Louis XVI. from Paris : on the 
 
 failure of that enterprise, he repaired to Russia, in order 
 
 to obtain assistance from the empress Catherine. He 
 
 died in England in 1800, leaving interesting "Memoirs 
 
 of the French Revolution," which were published in 
 
 English, (1797,) German, (1798,) and French, (1801.) 
 
 See Thiers "Histoire de ia Revolution Francaise ;" Rene de 
 
 i.e. " K*sai sur la Vie du Marquis de Bouillrf," 1853; Carlvle, 
 
 * Freud) Revolution." 
 
 Bouilles. See Boufi.i.ks. 
 
 Bouillet, boo'y.V, (Jean,) a French physician, born 
 near Beziers in 1090; died in 1777. 
 
 Bouillet, (Jean Baptiste,) a French geologist, born 
 at Cluny in 1799, has written on minerals and fossils, 
 and on the geology of Auvergne and Puy-de-D6me. 
 
 Bouillet, (Marie Nicolas,) a F'rencn lexicographei, 
 became inspector of the University of Paris, where he 
 was born in 1798. He published a "Classical Diction- 
 ary of Sacred and Profane Antiquity," (1841,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Bouillier, boo'ye-i', (Francisque,) a French philos- 
 opher, born at Lyons in 1813, published a "History o< 
 the Cartesian Philosophy," (2 vols., 1854.) 
 
 Bouillon. See Godfrey. 
 
 Bouillon, de, deh boo'y6N', (Emmanuel Theodore 
 de la Tour d'Auvergne — deh 13 tooR do'v&Rfi',) a 
 French cardinal, son of Frederic Maurice, noticed below, 
 was born in 1644. He became chief almoner to Louis 
 XIV. Died in 1 715. 
 
 Bouillon, de, (Frederic Maurice de la Tour 
 d'Auvergne,) Due, elder brother of Marshal Turenne, 
 was born at Sedan in 1605. He fought under his uncle the 
 Prince of Orange, and subsequently entered the French 
 service. Appointed lieutenant-general in 1642, he shared 
 with Prince Thomas of Savoy the command of the army 
 of Italy. During the wars of the Fronde he was an ad- 
 herent of the princes fighting against Mazarin. Died 
 in 1652. 
 
 See "Me'moires de la Viede F. M. de la Tour d'Auvergne," edited 
 by Aubertin, 1692; PiVard, "Chronologie Militaire. " 
 
 Bouillon, de, (Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne,) 
 Due, a French marshal, originally Viscount Turenne, 
 born in 1555, was a grandson of the Constable of Mont- 
 morency. At an early age he became a Calvinist, and 
 was a zealous partisan of Henry of Navarre, who ap- 
 pointed him lieutenant-general of his armies. He mar- 
 ried for his second wife Elizabeth of Nassau, daughter 
 of William Prince of Orange. One of the sons of this 
 marriage was the celebrated Turenne. Marshal Bouillon 
 was a patron of learned men, and founded at Sedan a 
 college and library. Died in 1623. 
 
 See J. Marsollier, "Histoire de H. de la Tour d'Auvergne, Due 
 de Bouillon," 1709; Anselme, "Histoire g&iealogique des Pairs de 
 France." 
 
 Bouillon, de, (Robert de la March,) Due, a French 
 marshal, born in 1492, became lieutenant-general of 
 Normandy. Died in 1556. 
 
 See Brant6me, " Vies des grands Capitaines." 
 
 Bouillon-Iiagrange, boo'y6N' 13'gRONzh', (Edmk 
 Jean Bafitste,) a French chemist, physician, and writer, 
 born in Paris about 1765, became apothecary to the im- 
 perial household. Died about 1840. 
 
 Bouilly, boo'ye', (Jean Nicolas,) a French drama- 
 tist and miscellaneous writer, born in the department of 
 Indre-et-Loire in 1763; died in Paris in 1842. 
 
 See E. Lkgouve, " j. N. Bouilly," 1842. 
 
 Boulage, boo'ltzh', (Thomas Pascal,) a French Ju- 
 rist, born at Orleans in 1 769, became professor of French 
 law in Paris. He was one»of those who offered them- 
 selves as a hostage for the liberty of Louis XVI. Died 
 in 1820. 
 
 Boulainvilliers, de, deh boo'laN've'ye^i', (Henri,) 
 a French historian, born in Normandy in 1658, was a son 
 of Francois, Count of Saint-Saire. He wrote a "Chro- 
 nological Abridgment of the History of France," and 
 other works on French history, also a "Life of Mo- 
 hammed," (1730.) Died in 1722. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Querard, 
 "La Fratice Litteraire." 
 
 Boulanger, boo'loN'zhi', (Jean,) a French engraver, 
 born at Amiens in 1607 ; died in 1680. 
 
 Boulanger, (Louts,) a French painter, born in Pied- 
 mont in 1806, was a friend of Victor Hugo, whose works 
 he illustrated. He gained a first medal in 1836. 
 
 Boulanger, (Nicolas Antoine,) a French littera- 
 teur, born in Paris in 1722, wrote a work entitled "An- 
 tiquity Unveiled," published after his death. Died in 
 
 175?- 
 
 Boulard.boo'lSR', (Antoine Marie Henri,) born in 
 Paris in 1754, was appointed by La Harpe his executor, 
 and published the last part of his "Counde Litterature." 
 He was the owner of a very large and valuable library 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in Ms. (£j^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BOULARD 
 
 414 
 
 BOURBON 
 
 Boulard, (Michel,) a French philanthropist, born in 
 Paris in 1761, became upholsterer {tapissier) to the em- 
 peror. He gave large sums of money to the poor, and 
 left .1 million francs to found a hospital. Died in 1825. 
 
 Boulay, boo'l&', (Jacques,) a French agricultural 
 writer of Orleans. Died about 1730. 
 
 Boulay de la Meurthe, boo'li' deh IS mURt, (An- 
 toine Jacques Claude Joseph,) Comte, a French 
 statesman, born in 1 761. He became successively a 
 member of the Council of Five Hundred and of the 
 council of regency, (1810,) minister of state, and min- 
 ister of justice conjointly with Cambaceres. He had a 
 principal part in drawing up the Civil Code of Napoleon. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 See " Biographie de M. Boulay de la Meurthe," 1836. 
 
 Boulay de la Meurthe, (Henri George,) Comte, 
 son of the preceding, born at Nancy in 1797. In 1837 he 
 represented the department of Meurthe in the Chamber 
 of Deputies. He was vice-president of the republic from 
 December, 1848, to December 2, 185 1. Died in Paris 
 in 1858." 
 
 Boulay, du, dii boo'l&', [Lat. Bul^e'us,] (Cesar 
 Egasse,) born in the department of Mayenne, was rector 
 and historiographer of the University of Paris. Died in 
 1678. 
 
 Boulay-Paty, boo'l£' pS'te', (Evariste Felix Cy- 
 PRIEN,) son of Pierre Sebastien, noticed below, born at 
 Donges, in Brittany, in 1804. He published a collection 
 of "National Odes," (1830,) and other poems, and re- 
 ceived in 1851 the Montyon prize of the French Academy 
 for his "Sonnets on Human Life." 
 
 Boulay-Paty, (Pierre Seuastien,) a French jurist, 
 born in Brittany in 1763, filled several offices during the 
 Revolution, and became a member of the Council of Five 
 Hundred in 1798. Died in 1830. 
 
 Boulduc, bool'duk', (Gili.es Francois,) a French 
 chemist, son of Simon, noticed below, born in 1675, be- 
 came professor of chemistry in the Jardin du Roi in 1729. 
 Died in 1742. 
 
 Boulduc, (Simon,) professor of chemistry at the Jardin 
 du Roi, and member of the Academy of Sciences in Paris. 
 Died in 1729. 
 
 Boule, bool, (Andre Charles,) a French cabinet- 
 maker, born in Paris in 1642, adorned his works with 
 mosaics. He worked for nearly all the sovereigns of 
 Europe. Died in 1712. 
 
 Boulee, boo'li', (EVienne Louis,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1728; died in 1799. 
 
 Boulen. See Boleyn, (Anne.) 
 
 Boulgarine. See Boolgarin. 
 
 Boullanger, boo'l&N'zha', (Andre,) a popular French 
 preacher, born in Paris about 1578; died in 1657. 
 
 Boullemier, bool'me-4', (Charles,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and writer, born at Dijon in 1725; died in 1803. 
 
 Boullenger de Rivery, boo'16N'zha' deh rev're', 
 (Claude Francois Felix,) a French jurist and littera- 
 teur, born at Amiens in 1725 ; died in 1758. 
 
 Boulleuois or Bouleuois, bool'nwa', (Louis,) a 
 French jurist and legal writer, born in Paris in 16S0; 
 died in 1762. 
 
 Boulliau, boo'le-o', or Bouillaud, boo'yo', [Lat. Bul- 
 lial'dus,] a distinguished French astronomer, born at 
 Loudun in 1605. He wrote " Astronomia Philolaica," 
 (1682,) and other learned works. Died in 1694. 
 
 Boullier, boo'le-A', (David Renaud,) a Protestant 
 theologian, of French extraction, born at Utrecht in 
 1699; died in London in 1759. 
 
 Boullougne, boo'ldNfi', (Bon,) a French painter, son 
 of Louis, noticed below, (the first of the name,) born in 
 Paris in 1649. He became professor in the Academy of 
 Fine Arts, at Paris, in 1678. His design and composi- 
 tion are praised. Died in 1717. 
 
 Boullongne, (Louis,) a French painter and engraver, 
 born in Picardy about 1609, worked in Paris. He had 
 remarkable skill as a copyist. Died in 1674. 
 
 Boullougne, (Louis,) son of the preceding, born in 
 Paris in 1654, became first painter to the king, and 
 director of the Academy of Fine Arts. Died in 1733. 
 
 See Heinecken, "Dictinnnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Boulogne, de, deh boo'lon', (Etienne Antoine,) 
 born at Avignon in 1747, became Bishop of Troyes in 
 
 1807, was deposed by Napoleon in 181 1, and appointed 
 Archbishop of Vienne in 1817. His collected works 
 were_published in 8 vols., (1827 et sea.) Died in 1825. 
 
 Boul'ter, (Hugh,) born in or near London in 1671, 
 became in 1723 Archbishop of Armagh, in Ireland. He 
 was distinguished for his charities, and his zeal in the 
 cause of education. Died in 1742. 
 
 Boul'ton, (Matthew,) an English mechanician, born 
 at Birmingham in 1 728. He was the friend and coadju- 
 tor of the celebrated Watt, in conjunction with whom he 
 effected great improvements in the steam-engine, which 
 he also applied to new purposes. His coining-apparatus 
 was particularly distinguished for its excellence. His 
 services are mentioned in terms of the highest praise by 
 Watt. Died in 1809. 
 
 See a "Life of M. Boulton," published at Birmingham, 1809; 
 Henkv Howe, " Eminent American and European Mechanics," 184/. 
 
 Bouma, bow'ma, (Dominick Acronius,) a Dutch 
 publicist, was professor of eloquence and political his- 
 tory at Franeker. Died in 1656. 
 
 Bouquet, boo'k&', (Dom Martin,) a French Bene- 
 dictine monk, born at Amiens in 1685, published a "Col- 
 lection of the Historians of Gaul and France," which has 
 been continued by several other writers. Died in 1754. 
 
 Bouquier, boo'ke-i', (Gabriel,) a French litterateur, 
 born in Perigord about 1750, was a Jacobin member of 
 the Convention, (1792-95.) Died in 181 1. 
 
 Bouquin. See Boquin. 
 
 Bourbon, boor'bon, [Fr. pron. booR'boN',] the name 
 of a famous French dynasty, which reigned over France 
 from 1589 to 1848, excepting the period of the republic 
 and the empire of Napoleon I. Henry IV. was the first 
 king of the house of Bourbon. The house of Orleans is 
 a younger branch of the same family, the founder of 
 which was Robert.Count de Clermont, a younger son of 
 King Louis IX. Robert died in 13 1 7. (See Orleans.) 
 
 Louis de Bourbon, first Duke, and Count of Cler- 
 mont, was a son of Robert, and was born in 1279. He 
 fought with success against the English for Charles le 
 Bel, and was created Duke of Bourbon. He died in 1341. 
 
 Pierre, the second duke, a son of Louis I., was born 
 in 1310. He was a brave warrior, and was killed at the 
 battle of Poitiers in 1356. 
 
 His son, Louis II., third Duke of Bourbon, born in 
 1337, distinguished himself in battle against the English. 
 In 1391 he led a successful crusade against the pirates 
 of Tunis. Died in 1410. 
 
 Jean, the fourth duke, born in 1381, was the eldest 
 son of Louis II. He was a leader of the Armagnac 
 party in the civil war. He was taken prisoner by the 
 English at Agincourt, and confined until his death in 1434. 
 
 His son Charles I., born in 1401, became fifth Duke 
 of Bourbon. He rendered important military services 
 to the dauphin, (Charles VII.,) and defended Orleans 
 against the English in 1428. Died in 1456. 
 
 Jean II., the sixth duke, born about 1426, was the 
 eldest son of Charles I. He joined the Due de Bretagne 
 and others in the league against Louis XL, (ligue du bien 
 public.) In 1483 he became Constable of France. Died 
 in 1488. 
 
 The seventh duke was Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon, 
 a son of Charles I., born in 1437. He was a diplomatist 
 and a favourite counsellor of Louis XI. 
 
 See Desormeaux, "Histoire de la Maison de Bourbon," 5 vols., 
 1772-88. 
 
 Bourbon, (Nicolas,) surnamed the Elder, a French 
 scholar and distinguished Latin poet, born near Bar-sur- 
 Aube in 1503 ; died in 1550. 
 
 Bourbon, (Nicolas,) the Younger, nephew of the 
 preceding, born near Bar-sur-Aube in 1774. He be- 
 came professor of Greek at the Royal College in 161 1, and 
 was a member of the French Academy. Died in 1044. 
 
 Bourbon, de, (Antoine.) See Antony of Bour- 
 bon. 
 
 Bourbon,de,dehbooR'boN', (Charles,)Duc, usually 
 called Constable Bourbon, (Conn&able de Bourbon,) 
 a famous French general, born in February, 1490, was 
 a son of Gilbert Bourbon, Count of Montpensier. He 
 married the heiress of the Duke of Bourbon, and ob- 
 tained with her the title of duke. Having served several 
 campaigns in Italy, he received in 1515 the office of 
 
 :, I, o. u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, o, it, ?, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mJt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
 M 
 
 
BOURBON 
 
 4'5 
 
 BOURDOIS 
 
 constable, the highest military office in the kingdom of 
 Frame. He contributed to the victory of Marignano, 
 (1515,) and in the next year was chosen viceroy of the 
 
 ise. His loyalty to Francis I. was shaken by 
 various injuries and acts of ingratitude, which historian's 
 attribute to the influence of the king's mother, Louisa 
 of Savoy. Her motive is supposed to have been resent- 
 ment for the coldness or contempt with which he treated 
 her amorous overtures. About 1521 he was deprived by 
 legal process of his estates, which were claimed by Louisa 
 of Savoy. This transaction determined the haughty duke 
 to accept the brilliant offers which he had received from 
 Charles V., for whose service he raised a large body of 
 Germans in 1523. He became lieutenant-general of the 
 emperor in Italy, and had a high command at the battle 
 of l'avia, (1525.) The victory at this place is attributed 
 by some writers to his skill. (See Avai.os, Marquis 
 OF Pkscara.) He was regarded with distrust by Charles 
 V., who neglected to pay the German troops commanded 
 by Bourbon Disgusted by the conduct of Charles, he 
 
 ed to become an independent prince and to satisfy 
 Ivs mutinous troops with the spoils of conquest. His 
 first enterprise was extremely bold, and conducted with 
 great ability. He led his army three hundred miles or 
 more through a hostile country, and assaulted Rome. 
 He was the first who mounted the wall, and was killed 
 among the first, on the 6th of May, 1527. His victo- 
 rious army (which contained many Lutherans) pillaged 
 the city, and committed frightful excesses. He was 
 reputed the ablest French general of his time. The 
 Constable Bourbon forms a prominent character in 
 Byron's drama entitled "The Deformed Transformed." 
 See Robertson, " History of Charles V.;" Brant6me, "Vies 
 des grands Capitaines;" Guicciakdini, " Historia d'ltalia ;" Gail- 
 lard, " Hisioire de Francois 1 ;" N. Baudot de Juillv, " Histoire 
 secrete du Connetable de Bourbon," 1612; Von Schwaktzenau, 
 "Der Konnetable Karl von Bourbon, Bilder aus seinem Leber.," 
 |8« : Major-General John Mitchell, "Biographies of Eminent 
 Soldiers 01 the Last Four Centuries," 1865. 
 
 Bourbon, de, (Charles,) Cardinal, born in 1520, 
 was a brother of Antoine de Bourbon, and an uncle of 
 Henry IV. of France. He was one of the chiefs of the 
 Catholic League, and was proclaimed king, with the title 
 of Charles X., in 1589. He was recognized as such by 
 the Parliament of Paris and the majority of the people. 
 Died in 1590. 
 
 See J. Dubreui., "Vie de Charles de Bourbon," 1612 ; Sismondi, 
 " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Bourbon, de, (Charles,) Cardinal VendSme, a rela- 
 tive of the preceding, born about 1 560. I Ie was a son 
 of Louis, first Prince de' Conde. Died in 1594. 
 
 Bourbon, de, (Louts Henri,) Due, son of Louis, 
 born at Versailles in 1692. After the death of Louis 
 XIV., he was placed at the head of the council of re- 
 gencv, and was subsequently first minister of Louis XV. 
 Died in 1740. 
 
 Bourbon, de, (Luis Antonio,) a younger son of 
 Philip V. of Spain, born in 1727, was made a cardinal 
 about the age of eight, but renounced that office when 
 he arrived at manhood. Died in 1785. 
 
 Bourbon, de, (Luis Maria,) a Spanish prelate, born 
 in 1777, was a son of the preceding. As president of 
 the regency, he promulgated the Constitution of 1812, 
 a/id abolished the Inquisition. Died in 1823. 
 
 Bourbon, de, (Mathieu,) surnamed i.k grand BA- 
 t*k!> was a son of Jean II., Duke of Bourbon, and was 
 riis: ncuished as a warrior. Died in IS05. 
 
 Bourbon Conde, de.deh booR'b6N' koN'da',1 1 awis,) 
 Due, a French nobleman and soldier, born in 1668, was 
 a grandson of the great Conde. Died in 17 10. 
 
 Bourbotte, booR'bot', (Pierre,) a French Jacobin, 
 and member of the National Convention, born near 
 Avallon in 1763. Having excited an insurrection, he 
 was defeated, and executed in 1795. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire de la Revolution Francaise." 
 
 Bourcet, booR'sJ', (Pierre Joseph,) a French tac- 
 tician and military writer, born near Ch&tellerault in 
 1700. Died in 1780. 
 
 Bourchenu, de, deh booRsh'nii', (Jean Pierre Mo- 
 ret,) Marquis de Valbonnais, a French historical writer, 
 born at Grenoble in 165 1 ; died in 1730. 
 
 Bourchier, (John.) See Berners, Lord. 
 
 Bourchier, boor'chl-er, [Fr. pron. booR'she-i',] 
 Bourgchier, or Bouchier, (Thomas,) an English - ec- 
 clesiastic, rose to be Archbishop of Canterbury in 1454, 
 cardinal, and lord chancellor of England. He crowned 
 Edward IV., Richard III., and Henry VII., and per- 
 formed the marriage-ceremony between the last-named 
 sovereign and Elizabeth of York. Died in i486. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. v. chap, xxi., i860. 
 
 Bourcicault See Boucicault. 
 
 Bourcier, booR'se-a', (Jean Leonard,) Baron de 
 Montureux, (deh m6N'tii'ruh',) a French jurist and magis- 
 trate, born at Vezelise, in Lorraine, in 1649. He was 
 the principal author of the Leopold Code, adopted in 
 Lorraine. Died in 1726. 
 
 See M. Salmon, " £lude sur le President Bourcier," 1846. 
 
 Bourcier, (Jean Louis,) Comte de Montureux, a 
 French magistrate and jurist, son of the preceding, born 
 at Luxembourg in 1687 ; died in 1737. 
 
 Bourdaille, booR'dSI' or booR'di'ye, (Michel,) a 
 French theologian, and doctor of the Sorbonne. Died 
 in 1694. 
 
 Bourdaisiere, de la, deh IS booR'dJ'ze-aiR', (Jean 
 Bahou,) Seigneur, a French statesman, lived about 1570. 
 
 Bourdaloue, booR'dS'loo', (Louis,) an eminent 
 French pulpit orator and Jesuit, born at Bourges on the 
 20th of August, 1632. Having been successively pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric, philosophy, and moral theology, he 
 was appointed in 1669 court preacher in Paris, where for 
 more than twenty years he preached the sermons during 
 Lent and Advent. His discourses were enthusiastically 
 admired by Louis XIV. and his court; and the king ob- 
 served that Bourdaloue's "repetitions were better than 
 the novelties of others." His main object was to con- 
 vince, and his chief weapon was logic, compared with 
 which he considered pathos of secondary importance. 
 His proofs fortify each other by their connection, and 
 respond by their gradation to the auditor's desire to re- 
 ceive impressions more and more vivid. He is said to 
 have been a shining example of modesty, consistency, 
 and other virtues appropriate to his office. His sermons 
 were published in 16 vols., 1707-34. Died in 1704. 
 
 See Prigny, "Vie de Bourdaloue," 1705: Vili.enave, "Notice 
 sur Bourdaloue," 1812: Jean Labouderie, "Notice sur Bourda- 
 loue," 1825 ; De Saint-Amand, " Notice biographique sur le P. 
 Bourdaloue," 1842. 
 
 Bourdeille, de, (Claude.) See Montresor. 
 
 Bourdeilles, de, (Pierre.) See Brantome. 
 
 Bourdelot, booRd'lo', (Jean,) a celebrated French 
 scholar, published valuable editions of Lucian, Helio- 
 dorus, and Petronius. Died in 1638. 
 
 Bourdelot, (Pierre Michon,) Abbe, a distinguished 
 French physician, born in 1610 at Sens, was patronized 
 by Christina of Sweden. He wrote an "Account of Mount 
 ,Etna," and "The History of Music and its Effects,' 
 (171 <;.) Died in 1685. 
 
 Bburdic-Viot, de, deh booR'dek' ve'o', (Marie 
 Anne Henriette Payan de l'Etang— pa"y&N' deh 
 li'toi*',) an authoress, born at Dresden in 1746, was suc- 
 cessively married to the Marquis d'Antremont, the Baron 
 de Bourdic, and M. Viot. She published eulogies on 
 Montaigne and Tasso, and other works. She was eulo- 
 gized by Voltaire. Died near Bagnols in 1802. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Bourdigne, de, deh booit'den'ya', (Charles,) a 
 French poet, born at Angers ; died in 1531. 
 
 Bourdin, booR'daN', (Gilles,) a French scholar, born 
 in Paris in 1515, published esteemed commentaries on 
 several of the classics. Died in 1570. 
 
 Bourdin, (Jacques,) a French statesman under Henry 
 II., Francis II., and Charles IX., became secretary of 
 finance in 1549. He wrote in defence of the rights of 
 the Gallican Church. Died in 1567. 
 
 Bourdin, (Maurice,) a French prelate, born in Li- 
 mousin, became Archbishop of Braga, and was subse- 
 quently elected pope by the German emperor Henry V., 
 in opposition to Gelasius II. He was soon after deposed, 
 and died in prison in 11 22. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire de» souverains Pontifes." 
 
 Bourdois de la Mothe, booR'dwa' deh IS mot, 
 (Edme Joachim,) a French physician, born at Joigny in 
 
 « u k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; s as z; th as in this. (jgfSee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
B OUR DO IS E 
 
 4.6 
 
 BOURGUET 
 
 1754. lie was physician to Louis XVIII. and Charles 
 X. Died about 1S30. 
 
 Bourdoise, booK'dwiz', (Adrien,) a French theolo- 
 gian, born near Chartres in 1584; died in 1655. 
 
 See Descourveaux, " Vie de M. Bourdoise," 1714; Bouchard, 
 "Vie de M. Bourdoise," 1784. 
 
 Bourdon, booR'd6N', (Aime,) a French physician, 
 born at Cambray in 1638. He published an "Anatomi- 
 cal Description of the Human Body," and "New Ana- 
 tomical Tables." Died in 1706. 
 
 Bourdon, (Isidore,) an eminent French physician 
 and writer, born at Merry, in Orne, in 1796. He practised 
 in Paris, and published -numerous and valuable works, 
 among which are "Principles of Medical Physiology," 
 (2 vols., 1828,) " Principles of Comparative Physiology, 
 or History of the Phenomena of Life in all Beings which 
 are endowed with it," (1830,) and "Illustrious Physi- 
 cians and Naturalists of Modern Times," (1844.) He is 
 said to be one of the most brilliant writers of his time. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Bourdon, (Pikrre Louis Marie,) a French mathe- 
 matician, born at Alencon in 1799, published "Elements 
 of Algebra," (1843,) anc * otrier works. Died in 1854. 
 
 Bourdon, (Sehastien,) one of the most celebrated 
 French painters, born at Montpellier in 1616. At an 
 early age he visited Rome, where he formed an intimacy 
 with Claude Lorrain, whose pictures he copied with 
 admirable exactness. He became in 1648 one of the 
 founders and first rector of the Royal Academy of Paint- 
 ing and Sculpture in Paris. In 1652 he visited Sweden, 
 where Queen Christina appointed him her first painter. 
 Among his master-pieces are his "Crucifixion of Saint 
 Peter," in the Louvre, and the " Woman taken in Adul- 
 tery." Bourdon excelled in historical painting, portraits, 
 landscapes, andgrotesque subjects, and worked with won- 
 derful rapidity and facility. His engravings and designs 
 are also highly esteemed. Died in Paris in 1671. 
 
 See R. Dumesnil, " Le Peintre Graveur Francais ;" J. PofTK- 
 vin, " Notice historique sur S. Bourdon," 1812; Fslibien, " Entre- 
 tien sur les Peintres.' 
 
 Bourdon de la Crosniere, booR'doN' deh li kRo'- 
 ne-aiR', (Leonard Jean Joseph,) a French Jacobin, and 
 member of the National Convention, born at Longne- 
 au-Perche in 1758. He voted for the death of the king, 
 and for other violent measures of his party. Having 
 quarrelled with Robespierre, he joined Barras as leader 
 of the National Guards, and seized the person of his 
 former chief and others of the Jacobin faction. He was 
 afterwards a member of the Council of Five Hundred, 
 where he was publicly denounced as an assassin. He 
 wrote a " Memoir on National Education," and other 
 works. Died about 1816. 
 
 See Le Bas. " Dictionnaire encyclope'dique de la France." 
 
 Bourdon de l'Oise, booR'd6N' deh lwaz, (Francois 
 Louis,) a French revolutionist, born near Compiegne, 
 was a member of the National Convention. He advo- 
 cated the most violent measures of the Jacobins, but 
 joined with the enemies of Robespierre on the 9th Ther- 
 midor. He was elected to the Council of Five Hundred, 
 and subsequently opposed the republican party. He was 
 transported by the Directory to Cayenne, where he died 
 in 1797. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire de la Revolution Francaise." 
 
 Bourdon de Sigrais, booR'doN' deh se'gR<i',(Ci.AUDE 
 Guii.laume,) a French writer, born near Lons-le-Saul- 
 nier in 1715, was a member of the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions. He published, among other works, a " History 
 of Rats," and translated into French the " Military In- 
 stitutes" of Vegetius. Died in 1791. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Bourdon de Vatry, booR'doN' deh vi'tRe', (Marc 
 Antoine,) Baron, a French administrator, born at 
 Saint-Maur in 1761. He was minister of the marine, for 
 a short time, about 1800, after which he was prefect of 
 Havre, Vaucluse, and Maine-et-Loire. Died in 1828. 
 
 Bourdonnaie. See La Bourdonnaie. 
 
 Bourdonnais. See La Bourdonnais. 
 
 Bourdot de Rlchebourg, booR'do' deh resh'booR', 
 (Chari.es Antoine,) a French jurist, born in Paris in 
 1685, edited a collection of the common laws of France. 
 Died in 1735. 
 
 Boure, (Paul Joseph,) a Belgian statuary, born in 
 1823 ; died in 1848. 
 
 See SousT de Borkenfkldt, " Notice sur la Vie de P. Boure"," 
 1849. 
 
 Bourette.boo'reV, (Charlotte,) a French authoress, 
 born in 1 7 14, published a collection of works in prose 
 and verse. She kept in Paris a cafe which was a resort 
 of literary men. Died in 1784. 
 
 Bourg, du,dii booR, (Anne,) a French magistrate and 
 Calvinist, born at Riom, in Auvergne, in 1521. Being 
 falsely accused of the assassination of Minard, one of t' 
 Catholic judges, he was executed in 1559. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais ;" Henri Doniol, " Notia 
 historique sur A. du Bourg," 1846; Hoffmann von Westhoffen, 
 " Le Martyr eVangeMique, A. du Bourg," 1841. 
 
 Bourgade, booR'gid', (Francois,) a French mission- 
 ary, born at Ganjou in 1806, laboured in Algeria, and pub- 
 lished " Evenings at Carthage," (" Soirees de Carthage.") 
 
 Bourgeat, booR'zhi', (Louis Alexandre Marouk- 
 rite,) a French litterateur, born at Grenoble in 1787; 
 died in 1814. 
 
 Bourgelat, booRzh'lS', (Claude,) the founder 
 veterinary schools in France, born at Lyons' in 1712. He 
 wrote numerous treatises on veterinary medicine, and in 
 1772 established the Royal Veterinary School at Lyons. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 See Grognier, " Notice sur C. Bourgelat," 1805. 
 
 Bourgeois, booR'zhwl', (Anicet,) a French drama- 
 tist, born in Paris in 1806, produced a large number of 
 successful melodramas, vaudevilles, and farces. 
 
 Bourgeois, (Dominique Francois,) an ingenious 
 French mechanician, born in 1698; died in 1781. 
 
 Bourgeois, biir-joiss', (Sir Francis,) an English 
 painter, of Swiss extraction, born in London in 1756. He 
 was appointed, in 1791, painter to the King of Poland, 
 and in 1792 became a member of the London Royal 
 Academy. He died in 181 1, leaving his choice collec- 
 tion of more than three hundred pictures to Dulwich 
 College, together with a large sum of money for building 
 a gallery. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon. 
 
 Bourgeois, (N.,) a French historian, born at La Rc- 
 chelle in 1710; died in 1776. 
 
 Bourges, de, deh booRzh, (Clemence,) a French 
 lady, born at Lyons, enjoyed a high reputation among her 
 contemporaries as a poetess and musician. Died in 1562. 
 
 Bourgo or Bourgh. See Burgho. 
 
 Bourgogne, de, Dues. See Burgundy, Dukes of. 
 
 Bourgogne, de, Dukes. See Philip the Good; 
 Charles the Bold. 
 
 Bourgoing, booR'gwaN', (Francois,) a French theo- 
 logian and religious writer, born in Paris in 1585, became 
 confessor to Gaston, Duke of Orleans, and superior -gen- 
 eral of the order of the Oratory, (Oratoire.) Died in 1662. 
 
 See Bossuet, "Oraison funebre du P. Bourgoing." 
 
 Bourgoing, de, deh booR'gwax', (Charles Paul 
 A MApLE,) Baron, a diplomatist and statesman, son of 
 fean Francois, noticed below, born at Hamburg in 1791. 
 He was minister plenipotentiary from France to Saxony 
 in 1832, and was made a senator in 1853. 
 
 Bourgoing, de. (Jean Francois,) Baron, a French 
 diplomatist and writer, born at Neversin 1748. He was 
 appointed in 1777 secretary of the embassy to Spain, 
 where he resided seven years, and in 1791 was minister 
 plenipotentiary at Madrid. His " Picture of Modern 
 Spain" (1S03) has been translated into English and other 
 languages. He also wrote " Historical and Philosophical. 
 Memoirs on Pius VI. and his Pontificate," (1798,) and 
 made several translations from the German. Died in 1811. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale ;" " London Quarterlv Re- 
 view" for October, 1S04 ; Edinburgh Review" for October, 1804. 
 
 Bourgoing de Villefore. See Villefore. 
 
 Bourguet, booR'gi', (Louis,) a French naturalist and 
 antiquary, born at Nimes in 1678, became professor of 
 philosophy and mathematics at Neufchatel. He wrote a 
 "Treatise on Petrifactions," (1762,) "Philosophical Let- 
 ters on the Formation of Salts and Crystals," etc., (1729,) 
 and other works. He was a friend and correspondent of 
 Leibnitz. He is said to have discovered the explanation 
 of the Etruscan alphabet. Died in 1742. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^iale." 
 
 J, e,T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fl, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mit; n6t; good; moon; 
 
BOURGUEVILLE 
 
 4'7 
 
 BOUTJRrC 
 
 Bourgueville, de, deh booRg'vel', (Charles,) Sieur 
 de Bras, (bRa,) a French antiquary, born in 1504, was 
 patronized by Francis I. He published "Antiquities of 
 the Province of Neustria, now Duchy of Normandy," 
 (1588.) Died in 1593. 
 
 Bourguignon, (K. M.) See Bourignon. 
 
 Bourguigiion, (the painter.) See Courtois. 
 
 Bourignon, boo'ren'yoN', (Antoinette,) a French 
 visionary, and founder of a sect called by her name, was 
 born at Lille in 1616. She pretended to have revelations 
 from heaven, in which she was commanded to restore the 
 true church. She travelled over a considerable part of 
 Europe, making many converts, and while at Amsterdam 
 renounced Catholicism. Her works amount to twenty- 
 One large octavo volumes. Died in 1680. 
 
 . See '* Vie d'Antoinette Bourignon," prefixed to her works. 
 
 Bourignon or Bourguignon, booR'gen'yAN', (Fran- 
 cois Marie,) a French antiquary, born at Saintes in 1753, 
 published "Topographic Researches on the Gallic and 
 Roman Antiquities of Saintonge and Angoumois." Died 
 in 1796. 
 
 Bourke, bitrk, (Sir Richard,) ageneral in the British 
 service, born at Dublin in 1777, distinguished himself in 
 the Peninsular war, and afterwards became Governor of 
 New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Died in 1855. 
 
 Bourlet de Vauxcelles. See Vauxcelles. 
 
 Bourlie, de la, deh IS booR'le', (Antoine de Guis- 
 card — deh ges'kSk',) Abbe, a French politician, born in 
 1658. Having failed in an attempt to excite an insurrec- 
 tion of the Protestants against the government, he took 
 refuge in England, where he obtained a pension from 
 Queen Anne. Being convicted of treason before the 
 privy council, he stabbed the chancellor, Lord Oxford, 
 for which he was sent to prison, where, it is said, he com- 
 mitted suicide, (1711.) 
 
 Sec Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Bourmont, de, deh booR'miN', (Louis August*: 
 Victor,) Comte de Ghaisne, (gin,) marshal of France, 
 born in the department of Maine-et-Loire in 1773. He 
 was a royalist during the Revolution, and fought against 
 the republic in the Vendcan war from 1794 to 1799. 
 Having refused to serve under the First Consul as a gen- 
 eral, he was imprisoned about the end of 1800. He made 
 his escape in 1804, and took refuge in Portugal. He 
 entered the service of Napoleon in 1809 or 1810, distin- 
 guished himself in the Russian campaign, and was made 
 lieutenant-general in 1814. On the fall of the emperor 
 he gave in his adhesion to Louis XVIII., after whose 
 flight he again went over to Bonaparte. Unwilling to 
 subscribe to the Acte Additionnel, (by which the Bour- 
 bons were proscribed,) he offered his resignation to Na- 
 poleon, and, after the second restoration, was appointed 
 in 1823 to a command in Spain. He became minister of 
 war in 1829, and in 1830 commander-in-chief of the ex- 
 pedition which resulted in the conquest of Algiers. He 
 was created a marshal the same year. During the revo- 
 lution of 1830 he was superseded by General Clause!, and, 
 after an exile of several years, died in France in 1846. 
 
 See De Lansac, " Notice biographique sur le Comte de Bour- 
 -mont," 1S47; Mbrsoh, "Notice biographique sur le Marechai de 
 Bourmout, 1847; Alison, " History of Europe." 
 
 Bourn, boorn, (Samuel,) an English dissenting divine, 
 born in Birmingham in 1 713 ; died in 1796. 
 
 See R. Flexman, "Life of S. Bourne," 1799: J. Toulmin, "Me- 
 of the Rev. S. Bourne," 1809. 
 
 Bourne, boorn, (Hugh,) founder of the sect of Primi- 
 tive Methodists, was born in Staffordshire in 1 772. This 
 connection, first established in 1810, numbered in 1853 
 i6 members. Mr. Bourne successively visited Scot- 
 I land, Ireland, and the United States, where he was re- 
 ■vith great favour. Died in 1852. 
 
 Bourne, (Vincent,) a distinguished English scholar 
 and writer, born about 1698, wrote I^atin poems which 
 rank among the most elegant of modern times. Several 
 of them were translated into English by Cow per. He 
 was an usher of Westminster School. Died in 1747. 
 
 Bourne, (William Sturges,) an English statesman, 
 born at Winchester in 1769. He became a lord of the 
 treasury in 1807, privy councillor in 1814, and secretary 
 of state for home affairs under Canning in 1827. Died 
 In 1845. 
 
 Bournon, de, deh booR'ndN', (Jacques Louis,) 
 Comte, a French mineralogist, born at Metz in 1 751 s 
 was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Geological 
 Society of London. He was appointed by Louis XVIII, 
 director of his mineral cabinet. He died in 1825, leaving 
 a " Treatise on Carbonate of Lime," and other works. 
 
 Bournonville, booR'noN'vy, (Anton August,) a 
 Danish composer of ballets, born at Copenhagen in 1805. 
 
 Bournouf. See Burnouf. 
 
 Bouron. See Borron. 
 
 Bourquelot, booRk'lo', (Louis Felix,) a French 
 antiquary and litterateur, born at Provins in 1815. He 
 succeeded Louandre in the editorship of the " Litterature 
 Francaise contemporaine," a continuation of a work 
 commenced by Querard. 
 
 Bourrienne, de.deh boo're-eV,(FAUVELET,) a French 
 diplomatist and biographer, born at Sens in July, 1769. 
 He was a fellow-student and friend of Bonaparte at the 
 school of Brienne. On leaving school they made mutual 
 promises of eternal friendship. He and Bonaparte again 
 met at Paris in 1792, and renewed their intimate rela- 
 tions. In 1796 he became confidential secretary to his 
 friend, then general-in-chief of the army of Italy, whom 
 he followed to Egypt. He was dismissed from that office 
 in 1802, and was appointed minister or charge-d'affaires to 
 Hamburg in 1804 or 1805. Having been accused of pecur 
 lation, he was recalled in 1810. He deserted the cause 
 of Napoleon in 1814, and was appointed minister of state 
 by Ixiuis XVIII. in 1815, after the battle of Waterloo. 
 He published " Memoirs of Bourrienne," (10 vols., 1829- 
 31,) which produced a great sensation and was trans- 
 lated into many languages. This work is considered par- 
 ticularly interesting as throwing light on the character 
 of Napoleon ; although it is not entirely reliable. Diet] 
 at Caen in 1834. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Bourrit, boo're', (Marc Theodore,) a Swiss natu- 
 ralist, born at Geneva about 1739, wrote a " Description 
 of the Glaciers of Savoy," (1774,) "Description of the 
 Pennine and Rhetian Alps," (1 781,) and other works. 
 He ascended to the top of Mont Blanc with Saussure in 
 1787. Died near Geneva in 181 5. 
 
 See " Notice biographique sur M. T. Bourrit," 1836. 
 
 Bourru, boo'rii', (Edme Claude,) a French physi- 
 cian and writer, born in Paris in 1737 ; died in 1823. 
 
 Boursault, booR'so', (Edme,) a French dramatist, 
 born at Mucit-l'fiveque, in Burgundy, in 1638, published 
 the -comedies of " Le Mercure galant," " /Esop in Town," 
 and "/Esop at Court." Died in 1701. 
 
 See NlCKKON, " Memoires.' 
 
 Boursier, booR'se-A', (Laurent Francois,) a French 
 theological writer, born at Ecouen in 1679, wrote a work 
 called "Action de Dieu sur les Creatures." Died in 1749. 
 
 Bourvalais, de, deh booit'vS'li', (Paul Poisson,) a 
 wealthy French financier under the reign of Louis XIV. 
 Died in 1719. 
 
 Bousbecq. See Busbecq. 
 
 Bourzei's, de, deh booR'za'ess', (Amable,) a French 
 litterateur and theologian, born near Riom in 1606; died 
 in 1672. 
 
 Bousmard, de, deh boo'miR', (Henri Jean Bap- 
 TISTE,) a military engineer in the Prussian service, born 
 at Saint-Mihiel m 1749, was killed at the siege of Dant- 
 zic in 1807. He wrote an "Essay on Fortification," (4 
 vols., 1803.) 
 
 Bousseau, boo'so', (Jacques,) a French sculptor, 
 born in 1681, was a pupil of Coustou, and became first 
 sculptor to Philip V. of Spain. Died in 1740. 
 
 Boussingault, boo'sly'go', (Jean Baptiste Joseph 
 Dif.udonneJ a French chemist, born in Paris in 1802, 
 served in his youth on the staff of Bolivar in South Amer- 
 ica. In conjunction with Dumas, he determined the pro- 
 portions of the gases which constitute air. He made 
 contributions to meteorology, and published a " Treatise 
 on Rural Economy," (2 vols., 1844,) and other works. 
 He was a member of the Institute. 
 
 Bottsyry, (Cherif-Eddin.) Sec Booseeree. 
 
 Boutard, boo'tiR', (Francois,) a French litterateur 
 and latin poet, born at Troyes in 1664; died in 1729. 
 
 Boutaric, de, deh boo'tf rek', (Francois,) a French 
 jurist and writer, born at Figeac in 1672 ; died in 1733. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. tf&~ See Explanations, p. 23,.) 
 
 27 
 
BOUTAULD 
 
 418 
 
 BO WD ITCH 
 
 Boutauld, boo'to', (Michel,) a French Jesuit and 
 theological writer, born in Paris in 1607 ; died in 1688. 
 
 Boutelle, boo'tSl', (Timothy,) a distinguished Amer- 
 ■can lawyer, born at Leominster, Massachusetts, in 1777, 
 practised at Waterville, Maine. Died in 1855. 
 
 Bouteroue, boot'roo', (Claude,) a French antiquary, 
 born in Paris ; died about 1680. 
 
 Bouterwek, boo'ter-weV, (Friedrich,) a German 
 philosopher and critic of high reputation, born near 
 Goslar, in Hanover, hi 1766. He published in 1791 a 
 popular romance entitled " Count Donamar." In 1802 he 
 became professor of philosophy at Gottingen. His " His- 
 tory of Modern Poetry and Eloquence" (12 vols., 1801- 
 19) is ranked among the best works of the kind, and 
 portions of it have been translated into French, English, 
 and Spanish. He also wrote a treatise " On ^Esthetics," 
 (1806,) and a "Manual of Philosophical Science," (1813.) 
 Died at Gottingen in 1828. 
 
 See J. F. Blumenbach, " Memoria T. Bouterwekii," 4to, 1832; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Bouteville, de, deh boot'vel', (Francois de Mont- 
 morency — deh m6N'mo'r6N'se',) Seigneur, a noted 
 French duellist and soldier, born in 1600, fought with 
 distinction against the Protestants in the wars of the 
 League. He was condemned to death for one of his 
 duels, and executed in 1627. He was the father of the 
 celebrated Marshal Luxembourg. 
 
 Bouthilier, le, (Armand Jean.) See Rance. 
 
 Boutillier, boo'te'ye-A', (Maximilien Jean,) a 
 French dramatist, was born in Paris in 1745; died in 
 1811. 
 
 Boutrays, boo'tRi', or Boutterais,boot'ri',(RAOUL,) 
 [Lat. Rodol'phus Bothe'rius,] a French writer and 
 Latin poet, born at Chateaudun about 1552 ; died in 1630. 
 
 Boutwell, bowt'wel, (George S.,) an American 
 statesman, was born in Norfolk county, Massachusetts, 
 in 1818. He studied law, and was elected Governor of 
 Massachusetts in 1850, and re-elected in 1851. Having 
 joined the Republican party, he represented the seventh 
 district of Massachusetts in Congress in 1863-69. In 
 February, 1868, he advocated, in an able speech, the im- 
 peachment of President Johnson, and was placed at the 
 head of the committee appointed to report articles of im- 
 peachment. He was one of the seven managers who 
 conducted the impeachment of Johnson in April. In 
 March, 1869, he was appointed by President Grant sec- 
 retary of the treasury. 
 
 Bouvard, (Alexis.) See Bouvart, (Alexis.) . 
 
 Bouvard, boo'viR', (Charles,) a French physician, 
 born near Vendome in 1572, became professor in the 
 College of France in 1625, and first physician to Louis 
 XIII. in 1628. Died in 1658. 
 
 Bouvart or Bouvard, boo'vaR', (Alexis,) a French 
 astronomer, born in Faucigny, near Mont Blanc, in 1767. 
 He became an assistant in the Observatory of Paris in 
 1795, and afterwards a member of the Institute. He 
 worked with Laplace, who confided to him all the re- 
 searches of detail and calculations of his "Mecanique 
 Celeste." He rendered important services to practical 
 astronomy by his tables of the planet Uranus, (the per- 
 turbations of which were first noticed by him,) as sug- 
 gesting the existence of a planet then undiscovered. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 See Alfred Gautier, "Notice sur A. Bouvard," 1P44. 
 
 Bouvart, (Michel Philippe,) a French physician 
 and writer, born at Chartres in 1717, enjoyed a high 
 reputation in his time, and became professor of medi- 
 cine in the College of France. Died in 1787. 
 
 Bouvenot, boov'no', (Louis Pierre,) a French phy- 
 sician, boni at Arbois in 1756 ; died at Sens in 1830. 
 
 Bouverie, boo'veh-re', (Edward Pleydell,) an 
 English politician, son of the Earl of Radnor, was born 
 in 1818. He became paymaster-general, and president 
 of the poor-law board, in 1855. He is a member of the 
 privy council. 
 
 Bouvet, boo'vi', (Joachim,) a French missionary to 
 China, born at Mans about 1662. He died in 1732, 
 leaving several works on China. 
 
 Bouvet de Crease, boo'vj' deh kRi'sa', (Auguste 
 Jean Baptiste,) a French writer of history and educa- 
 tional works, born at Provins in 1772; died in 1839. 
 
 Bouvier, boo've-i', (Andre Marie Joseph,) a 
 French physician, was born at Dole in 1746. He prac- 
 tised in Paris, and was employed by the mother of Na- 
 poleon I. Died in 1827. 
 
 Bouvier, boo-veer', [Fr. pron. boo've-i',] (John,) a 
 jurist and legal writer, born at Codognan, in the south 
 of France, in 1787. He emigrated to America about 
 1802, and studied law, which he practised in Philadel- 
 phia. In 1838 he became a judge of the court of crimi- 
 nal sessions. He published a " Law Dictionary," (2 vols., 
 1839,) which enjoys a high reputation, and a valuable 
 work, entitled " Institutes of American Law," (4 vols., 
 1 85 1,) which has received the commendation of several 
 eminent jurists. Died in 1851. 
 
 Bouys, boo'e', (Andre,) a French portrait-painter 
 and engraver, born at Hyeres, in Var, in 1657 ; died in 
 Paris in 1740. 
 
 Bovadilla. See Bobadilla. 
 
 Boverio,bo-va're-o, [Lat. Bove'rius,] (Zaccaria,) an 
 Italian theologian, born at Saluzzo in 1568 ; died in 1638. 
 
 Boves, bo've's, (Jose Tomas,) a Spanish royalist sol- 
 dier, notorious for ferocity, born in Castile. He fought 
 in South America, and defeated Bolivar at San Mateo in 
 February, 1814. He was killed in battle in December 
 of the same year. 
 
 Bovet, de, deh bo'vi', (Francois,) a French eccle- 
 siastic, born in 1745, became Archbishop of Toulouse 
 in 1817. He published a work "On Egyptian Dynas- 
 ties," ("Des Dynasties Egyptiennes.") Died in 1838. 
 
 Bovillua. See Bouelles. 
 
 Bow'den, (John,) a clergyman of the Anglican 
 Church, born in Ireland in 1 75 1, emigrated to America 
 in 1770. He became professor of moral philosophy in 
 Columbia College, New York, in 1805. Died in 1817. 
 
 Bowdich, bow'ditch, (Thomas Edward,) an Eng- 
 lish traveller and savant, born at Bristol in 1790. About 
 1816 he accompanied amission to the King of Ashantee, 
 and published, after his return, "A Mission to Ashan- 
 tee," (1819,) which was received with great favour. In 
 1822 he again set out for Africa, but on reaching the 
 mouth of the Gambia died of a fever, January, 1S24. 
 He wrote, besides other works, an " Essay on the Geogra- 
 phy of North-Western Africa," and an " Essay 011 the 
 Superstitions, Customs, and Arts common to the Ancient 
 Egyptians, etc." 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for March and November, 1820. 
 
 BBw'ditch, (Nathaniel,) an eminent American ma- 
 thematician, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in March, 
 1773. He was the son of a cooper, who was not able to 
 give him a liberal education. He served an apprentice- 
 ship to a ship-chandler, and passed about nine years at 
 sea, as an inferior officer of a merchant-vessel, after he 
 attained the age of twenty-one. He learned Greek, 
 Latin, and other languages. About 1802 he published a 
 work called " The Practical Navigator," which was highly 
 esteemed. He was president of an insurance company 
 from 1804 to 1823, and removed to Boston in the latter 
 year. He was offered the chair of mathematics in Har- 
 vard College, which he declined. His reputation is 
 founded chiefly on a translation of the "Mecanique Ce- 
 leste" of Laplace, with a copious commentary, published 
 in 4 vols. 4to, (1829-38.) Referring to this subject, the 
 "London Quarterly Review" of July, 1832, remarks, 
 "The idea of undertaking a translation of the whole 
 'Mecanique Celeste,' accompanied throughout with a 
 copious running commentary, is one which savours at 
 first sight of the gigantesque. . . . The first volume 
 only has as yet reached us ; and when we consider the 
 great difficulty of printing works of this nature, to say 
 nothing of the heavy and probably unremunerated ex- 
 pense, we are not surprised at the delay of the second. 
 Meanwhile, the part actually completed (which contains 
 the first two books of Laplace's work) is, with few and 
 slight exceptions, just what we could have wished to see, 
 — an exact and careful translation into very good Eng- 
 lish, exceedingly well printed, and accompanied with 
 notes appended to each page, which leave no step in the 
 text of moment unsupplied, and hardly any material diffi- 
 culty, either of conception or reasoning, unelucidated. 
 To the student of 'Celestial Mechanism,' such a work 
 must be invaluable." Bowditch was actuary of the Mas- 
 
 a, e, J, 6, 8, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
 
BOWDLER 
 
 4'9 
 
 BOWYER 
 
 •achusetts Life Insurance Company from 1823 until his 
 death. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don. He married in early life, and had several children. 
 Died in Boston in March, 1 838. 
 
 See a " Memoir of N. Bowditch," bv his son N. J. Bowditch, 1839 ; 
 notice of Bowditch in Ihe " American journal of Science," vol. xxxv. 
 
 Bfiwd'ler, (Hannah,) sister of Thomas, noticed be- 
 low, published " Poems and Essays," and " Sermons on 
 the Doctrines and Duties of Christianity." Died in 1830. 
 Her sister Jane was also distinguished as a writer. 
 
 Bowdler, (John,) brother of the preceding, born in 
 London in 1 783, published " Select Pieces in Verse and 
 Prose," and other works. Died in 1815. 
 
 See "Memoir of John Bowdler and Thomas Bowdler ;"" Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for January and April, 1819; "Edinburgh 
 Re\iew" for August, 1817. 
 
 Bowdler, (Thomas,) an English physician, born near 
 Bath in 1754, wrote " Letters from Holland," and edited 
 "The Family Shakspeare." Died in 1825. 
 
 Bowdoiii, boM'n, (James,) a patriotic American 
 governor, born in Boston in 1727, was descended from 
 a Huguenot refugee. He graduated at Harvard College 
 in 1745, and inherited an ample fortune. He was elected 
 president of the Council of Massachusetts in 1775, be- 
 fore which he had served many years in the council 
 and general court. In 1778 he was president of the con- 
 vention which formed the Constitution of Massachusetts. 
 He was chosen Governor of the State in 1785, and again 
 in 1786. Among the events of his administration was 
 Shays 's rebellion, which he suppressed with vigour. He 
 was one of the chief founders of the American Academy 
 of Arts and Sciences at Boston. Died in 1790. 
 
 Bowdoiii, (James,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 at Boston in 1752. In 1805 he was sent on a mission to 
 Spain to negotiate the cession of Florida to the United 
 States, and to settle other affairs. He was a benefactor 
 of Bowdoin College. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Bow'en, (Francis,) an American scholar and author, 
 born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 181 1, graduated 
 with distinction at Harvard University in 1833. He 
 edited the "North American Review" from 1843 until 
 1854, and published, in 1849, "Lowell Lectures on the 
 Application of Metaphysical and Ethical Science to 
 the Evidences of Religion." In 1853 he became Alford 
 professor of natural religion, moral philosophy, and civil 
 polity in Harvard University. He contributed several 
 articles to Sparks's " American Biography" and to the 
 "Imperial Dictionary of Biography." Among his works 
 is " Principles of Political Economy applied to the 
 Condition of the American People," (1856,) favourablv 
 noticed in the "North American Review" for April, 185*). 
 Bowen, (John S.,) an American general, born in 
 Georgia about 1831, graduated at West Point in 1853. 
 He became a major-general in the Confederate service, 
 and commanded the army which General Grant defeated 
 at Port Gibson in May, 1863. He died at Raymond, 
 Mississippi, in July or August of that year. 
 
 Bowen, (Pardon,) M.D., a physician, born in Provi- 
 dence, Rhode Island, in 1757. He published an "Account 
 of the Yellow Fever at Providence." Died in 1826. 
 
 Bowen, (William C.,) an American physician, born 
 probably in Rhode Island, in 1785. He was a pupil of 
 Sir Astley Cooper of London, and was appointed pro- 
 fessor of chemistry in Brown University in 1812. His 
 experiments on the bleaching-properties of chlorine pro- 
 duced a disease or injury of which he died in 1815. 
 
 B6w'er, (Archibald,) a Scottish writer, born at 
 Dundee about 1686, originally a Catholic, professed 
 Protestantism for a time, and afterwards returned to 
 Catholicism. He was a contributor to the "Historia 
 Literaria" and the "Universal History," and wrote a 
 "History of the Popes." Died in 1766. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 B8w'er-bank, (John Scon,) an English naturalist, 
 born in London about 1797, published a " History of the 
 Fossil Fruits and Seeds of the London Clay." 
 
 Bowie, bol, (John,) an English divine, was a con- 
 tributor to the " Archseologia" and the " Biographical 
 History of England," and defended Milton against the 
 attacks of Lauder. Died in 1788. 
 Bowles, (Caroline.) See Southey. 
 
 Bowles, bolz, (William,) a distinguished naturalist, 
 born in Ireland, resided in Spain, where he publisher!, 
 m 1775, an "Introduction to the Natural History ano 
 the Physical Geography of Spain," (in Spanish.) It has 
 been translated into French and Italian. 
 
 Bowles, (William A.,) was born in Maryland. Dur- 
 ing the American Revolution he instigated the Indians 
 to commit atrocities against the whites. He afterwards 
 incited the savages against the Spaniards, who took him 
 prisoner. He died in prison, at Havana, in 1805. 
 
 Bowles, (William Lisle,) an eminent English poet, 
 born at King's Sutton, on the border of Northamp- 
 tonshire, in September, 1762. He was educated at 
 Trinity College, Oxford, and chose the clerical profes- 
 sion. After he had been disappointed in love by the 
 death of a lady to whom he was engaged, he composed, 
 in 1789, "Fourteen Sonnets," which were remarkable 
 for grace of expression and an air of melancholy tender- 
 ness. He became rector of Dumbleton in 1 797, married a 
 daughter of the Rev. Dr. Wake, and obtained the valu- 
 able living of Bremhill, Wiltshire, in 1805. He published 
 in 1804 "The Spirit of Discovery," which is his longest 
 poem. Among his numerous other poems are "The 
 Grave of Howard," (1790,) "The Missionary of the 
 Andes," (1822,) and "Saint John in Patmos," (1832.) 
 In 1828 he became a canon of Salisbury Cathedral. 
 He edited the works of Pope, (1807,) and made some 
 criticisms on that author which provoked a long contro- 
 versy between himself and the two poets Byron and 
 Campbell. He published in 1825 his "Final Appeal 
 to the Literary Public relative to Pope." Died in 1850. 
 
 The poems of Bowles were admired by Coleridge, 
 Wordsworth, and Southey, the last of whom wrote to 
 a friend, "My poetical taste was much meliorated by 
 Bowles." "The Sonnets of Bowles," says Hallam, "may 
 be reckoned among the first-fruits of a new era in poetry. 
 They came in an age when a commonplace facility in 
 rhyming, on the one hand, and an almost nonsensical 
 affectation in a new school, on the other, had lowered 
 the standard so much that critical judges spoke of Eng- 
 lish poetry as of something nearly extinct." ("Address 
 before the Royal Society of Literature.") 
 
 See a " Life of Bowles," by a relative and Alaric Watts ; " Men 
 I have known," by William Jerdan, London, 1866; "London 
 Quarterly Review" for April and December, 1818, and May and July, 
 1820. 
 
 Bow'man, (William,) F.R.S., an English surgeon, 
 born at Nantwich about 1816. He became professor of 
 physiology and anatomy in King's College, London. 
 He published "Lectures on Operations on the Eye," 
 and other works. 
 
 BSw'ring, (Sir John,) LLD., an English statesman 
 and linguist, noted for his attainments in the Sclavonic 
 languages, was born in Exeter in 1792. He published 
 "Specimens of the Russfan Poets," (1821,) "Ancient 
 Poetry and Romances of Spain," " Poetry of the Mag- 
 yars," "Servian Popular Poetry," (1829,) and "Ches- 
 kian Anthology," (1832.) He had become in 1825 editor 
 of the " Westminster Review," for which he wrote nu- 
 merous articles on political economy and in favour of 
 free trade. He was elected to Parliament in 1835, re- 
 elected in 1841, continuing in office till 1849, when he 
 was appointed British consul at Hong-Kong and su- 
 perintendent of trade in China. He was knighted in 
 1854, and made governor of Hong-Kong. He had pub- 
 lished in 1838-39 "The Works of Jeremy Bentham," 
 who was his intimate friend and had appointed him his 
 executor. He returned from China about 1858. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1831 ; " Dictionnaire d'fico- 
 nomie politique.' 
 
 Bow'yer, (Sir George,) an English jurist, born in 
 Berkshire in 181 1, published a "Treatise on Modern 
 Civil Law," and other works. He became in 1852 a 
 member of Parliament, where he has distinguished him- 
 self as a zealous defender of the policy of the Roman 
 Catholic powers. 
 
 Bowyer, (William,) a celebrated English printer 
 and scholar, born in London in 1699. Among the 
 numerous and excellent works which issued from his 
 press we may name his " Novum Testamentum Grae- 
 cum," the " Greek Lexicon" of Schrevelius, the " Works 
 
 ! as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, yl, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (HQp-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BOXER 
 
 420 
 
 BOTER 
 
 of Selden," (" Seldeni Opera Omnia,") Pocock's " De- 
 scription of the East," yertot's " Knights of Malta," and 
 "The Coptic Pentateuch." These editions are not only 
 of great typographic beauty and accuracy, but are en- 
 riched with valuable notes, prefaces, and indexes. lie 
 also wrote "Remarks on Greek and Roman Money," 
 a treatise "On the Origin of Printing," and "Critical 
 Conjectures and Observations on the New Testament," 
 a work of the highest reputation, which was translated 
 into German by Schulz. He was a Fellow of the Society 
 of Antiquaries. He was distinguished for the benevo- 
 lence and integrity of his character, and numbered among 
 Hs friends many of the most .eminent scholars of his 
 time. Died in 1777. 
 
 See " Biographical and Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer," 
 by John Nichols, 177S. 
 
 Box'er, (Edward,) an English admiral, born at Dover 
 hi 1784, served against the French in the campaigns of 
 1S01 and 1809, and subsequently took part in the Crimean 
 war. Died near Balaklava in 1855. 
 
 Boxhorn, boks'hoRn, (Marcus Zuerius — zii-a're-us,) 
 an eminent Dutch critic and historian, born at Berg-op- 
 Zoom in 1612. He succeeded Heinsius as professor of 
 history and politics at Leyden. He wrote a large num- 
 ber of Latin works, in prose and verse, among which are 
 " Qua^stiones Romanae," (1637,) "Chronicle of Zealand," 
 (1643,) and a "Universal History," (1675.) Vied in 1653. 
 
 See Niceron, "Mt*moires;" L. Barl;Eus, " Oratio funebris in 
 Excessnm M. Z. Boxhomii," 1653. . 
 
 Boyardo. See Boiardo. 
 
 Boyce. See Boece. 
 
 Boyce, (WIlliam,) an eminent English composer, 
 born in London in 1710. He studied under Dr. Greene, 
 and in 1758 became organist to the Chapel Royal. 
 Among his best works are his grand anthem, " Lord, 
 Thou hast been our Refuge," a " Te Deum," six anthems, 
 and a Jubilate in Dr. Arnold's "Collection of Cathedral 
 Music," and " Solomon," a serenata. He also published 
 a work entitled "The Cathedral Music of the English 
 Masters of the Last Two Centuries," (3 vols, fol., 1760.) 
 Died in 1779. 
 
 See Flirts, " Bipgraphie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Boyd, (Andrew K. H.,) a popular Scottish writer 
 and divine, born in Ayrshire in 1825. He published in 
 " Fraser's Magazine" a number of essays, which appeared 
 in i860 under the title of ." Recreations of a Country 
 Parson." He has also been a contributor to the "Atlantic 
 Monthly." 
 
 Boyd, (Henry,) an Irish littiratatr, published " Dra- 
 matic and Lyric Poems," and translated Dante's " Divine 
 Comedy" into English verse. Died in 1832. 
 
 Boyd, (Hugh Macaui.ey,) a jurist and political wri- 
 ter, born in the county of Antrim, Ireland, in 1746. In 
 1781 he accompanied Lord Macartney to Madras, where 
 he died about 1792. The "Letters of Junius" were for 
 a time attributed to him. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Boyd, (Hugh Stuart,) an English writer and Greek 
 scholar. He translated into English some of the works 
 of Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzen, and Basil, (1806,) and 
 wrote several treatises on theology. Died in 1848. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review"' for November, 1814. 
 
 Boyd, (James,) an English classical scholar, born 
 about 1795. He edited, besides other works, Adams's 
 " Roman Antiquities." Died in 1856. 
 
 Boyd, (John Parker,) an American general, born 
 at Ncwbur'yport, Massachusetts, in 1768, commanded a 
 small corps in the service of Ilolkar and other East In- 
 dian princes. He served as a brigadier-general in the 
 American army in the war of 1812, and took part in 
 the battle of Williamsburg, Canada, in November, 1813. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 Boyd, (Linn,) from 1853 to 1855 Speaker of the Na- 
 tional House of Representatives, was born at Nashville, 
 Tennessee, in 1800. In 1835 he was elected to Congress, 
 and, with the exception of 1837-38, was regularly re- 
 elected till 1855, a period of twenty years. Died in 1859. 
 
 Boyd, (Mark Alexander,) a Scottish writer, born 
 at Galloway in 1562, published " Epistolae Heroidum," 
 ■and other esteemed Latin poems. Died in 1601. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Boyd, (Robert,) a Scottish statesman, and one of the 
 lords of the regency during the minority of James III-. 
 He afterwards declared himself sole regent, and pro- 
 moted a marriage between his son, subsequently Lord 
 Arran, and the'sister of the king. Being summoned to 
 Parliament by James to answer for his conduct, Boyd 
 escaped to England, where he died in 1470. 
 
 See Burton's "History of Scotland," chap. xxix. 
 
 Boyd, (Roisert,) a Scottish divine, born at Glasgow 
 in 1578 ; died in 1627. 
 
 Boyd, (WiLi.iAio,, Earl of Kilmarnock, a Scottish 
 Jacobite, born in 1704 He was taken prisoner at Cul- 
 ioden, tried for treason, and executed in 1746. 
 
 Boyd, (Zachary,) a Scottish theologian, lived at 
 Glasgow, and wrote "Zion's Flowers," in verse, and 
 other works. Died in 1653. 
 
 Boy'dell, (John,) an English engraver and. amateur, 
 born in Shropshire, or, as some writers assert, in Staf- 
 fordshire, in 1719. Having previously published a col- 
 lection of engravings, among which were upwards of 
 one hundred of his own views in England and Wales, he 
 began business as a print-seller, by which he acquirec 
 an immense fortune. By his patronage of the best Eng- 
 lish painters and engravers he rendered the greatest 
 services to art in his native country. His "Shakspeare 
 Gallery," consisting of illustrations of Shakspeare's dra- 
 mas, by the most eminent English painters, whom he 
 employed, is a splendid monument of his munificence 
 The engravings from these pictures were published mule 
 his patronage in a superb folio volume, (1803.) Boydel 
 had been elected in 1790 lord mayor of London. Diet 
 in 1804. 
 
 See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Boye, bo'yeh, (Caspar Johannes,) a distinguished 
 poet and divine, born at Kongsberg, in Norway, in 
 1 791, wrote several poems and tragedies. He also 
 translated Sir Walter Scott's romances, and sever'a 
 German works. 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon." 
 
 Boyen, bo'yen, (Hermann,) a Prussian statesman 
 and general, born at Kreuzburg in 1771. He serve! 
 against the French in the campaigns of 1810-12, ant) 
 became minister of war about 1814 In 1847 ' lc was 
 made a field-marshal, and governor of the House of 
 Invalids at Berlin. Died in 1848. 
 
 Boyer, bwa'ya', (Adel,) a French lexicographer, born 
 at Castres in 1664, published a "French Dictionary" and 
 "Grammar," a " Dissertation on French Prosody," and 
 other works. Died in 1729. 
 
 Boyer, (Alexis,) a celebrated French surgeon, born 
 in Limousin in 1757. He became about 1804 first sur- 
 geon of the emperor Napoleon, who made him a baton 
 of the empire and conferred on him the cross of the 
 legion of honour. He was appointed in 1823 consulting 
 surgeon to Louis XVIII., which post he continued U: 
 hold under Charles X. and Louis Philippe. He was 
 afterwards chief surgeon of the Hospital of Charity, in 
 Paris, and a member of the Institute. He published a 
 "Complete Treatise on Anatomy," (4 vols., 1799,) and 
 a "Treatise on Surgical Maladies," (11 vols., 1814-26.) 
 Died in Paris in 1833. 
 
 See a " Notice sur la Vie et les CEnvres de Boyer," prefixed to an 
 edition of his "Traite* des Maladies chirurgicales," 7 vols., 1844-53; 
 Roux, " Eloge de Boyer;" *' Nonvelle Biographie Gi*ne>ale." 
 
 Boyer, (Jean Baptiste,) Marquis d'Aguilles, (d9'g'-I' 
 or dit'ge'ye,) a French painter and engraver, born at Aix 
 about 1640; died in 1709. 
 
 Boyer, (Jean Baptiste Nicolas,) a French physi- 
 cian, born at Marseilles in 1693, was conspicuous for 
 his skill and humanity during the prevalence of the 
 plague in that city in 1720. He wrote an "Historic 
 Account of the Plague of Marseilles," and several treat- 
 ises on infectious diseases. Died in 1768. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Boyer, (Jean Francois,) a French theologian, born 
 in Paris in 1675, became Bishop of Mirepoix in 1730, 
 and subsequently preceptor to the dauphin, father ot 
 Louis XVI. He was a member of the French Academy 
 and of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1741 succeeded 
 Cardinal de Polignac in the Academy of Inscriptions. 
 Died in 1755. ■ 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; aye, T, o, ft, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon 
 
 
BOTER 
 
 431 
 
 BOTM 
 
 Boyer, boi'er, [Fr. pron. bwa'yi',] (Jean Pierre,) 
 President of the republic of Hayti, bom at Port-au- 
 l'rince in 1776, was the son of a white Creole ami a free 
 ss. Alter the capture of Toussaint L'Ouverture in 
 the revolution of 1802, he attached himself to the party 
 qf the mulatto general Alexander Petion, then at war 
 •nth Christophe, and rose to the rank of general of di- 
 Un the death of Petion he succeeded him as 
 lent of the republic in 1818. The Haytians be- 
 coming dissatisfied with his rule, he was deposed in 1842 
 ami obliged to leave the country. He was succeeded by 
 Herard, also a mulatto. Died in Paris in 1850. 
 See Madion, "Histoire d' Haiti," 1847. 
 Boyer, (Pierre,) a French theological writer, born at 
 Arlanes in 1677; died in 1755. 
 
 Boyer, (Pierre Denis,) a French ecclesiastic and 
 controversialist, born at Caissac in 1766, became pro- 
 fessor of dogmatic theology in the Seminary of Saint- 
 Sulpice, Paris. Died in 1842. 
 Boyer-Fonfrede. See FoNFRfeDE. 
 Boyle, (Charles,) Earl of Or'rery, a son of Roger, 
 Fail of Orrery, and nephew of the great Robert Boyle, 
 was born at Chelsea in 1676. While a student at Christ 
 Church, Oxford, he published, at the age of nineteen, an 
 edition of the "Fpistles of Phalaris," with some reflec- 
 tions on the incivility of Bentley, who was .keeper of the 
 king's library, and who had lent to Boyle a manuscript 
 of the Epistles, with a remark that they were spurious. 
 (See Bentley, Richard.) In 1698 appeared a witty and 
 personal attack on Bentley, entitled an "Examination of 
 the Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris, by the Hon. 
 Charles Boyle," which was written mostly by Atterburv. 
 Boyle fought as major-general at the battle of Malplaquet 
 in 1709. Soon after the accession of George I., he be- 
 came a favourite courtier of that king. Died in 1731. 
 
 See Budgei.l, "Memoirs of the Lives and Characters of the 
 Faniily of the Boyles," 1732. 
 
 Boyle, (Henry,) an able politician, a son of Charles, 
 Lord Clifford, and a great-grandson of the first Earl of 
 Cork. He was chancellor of the exchequer from 1701 
 to 1708, and in the latter year became secretary of state. 
 He was created Lord Carleton in 1714, and appointed 
 president of the council. He was a nephew of the famous 
 •Robert Boyle. Died in 1725. 
 
 Boyle, (Henry,) a grandson of Roger, Lord Broghill, 
 became Speaker of the Irish House of Commons in 1 732. 
 About 1756 he received the title of Earl of Shannon. 
 Died in 1764. 
 
 Boyle, (Jeremiah T.,) an American general and law- 
 yer, born in Mercer county, Kentucky, in 1818. He en- 
 tered the Union armv in 1861, and commanded a brigade 
 at Shiloh, April, 1862. 
 
 Boyle, (John,) son of Charles Boyle, fourth Earl of 
 Orrery, born about 1707. As a member of the House 
 of Lords, he was conspicuous for his opposition to Sir 
 Robert Walpole. He published "Imitations of Two of 
 the Odes of Horace," and " Remarks on the Life and 
 Writings of Swift." Died in 1762. 
 
 Boyle, (Richard,) the first Earl of Cork, called "the 
 Great Earl of Cork,'' was born at Canterbury in 1566. 
 He settled in Ireland, acquired a large estate, and held 
 several high offices. In 1620 he was created Earl of 
 Cork. He contributed greatly to the suppression of the 
 Irish Rebellion of 1641. He had seven sons. Died in 
 1643 or 1644. 
 
 Boyle, (Richard,) second Earl of Cork, a son of the 
 preceding, born in 161 2. I le was a partisan of Charles I. 
 in the civil war, and received the title of Earl of Bur- 
 lington. Died in January, 1698. 
 
 Boyle, (Richard,) fourth Earl of Cork and third 
 Earl of Burlington, born in 1695, was an amateur archi- 
 tect, and a friend of Pope. Died in 1753. 
 
 Boyle, (Ropert,) a celebrated chemist and experi- 
 mental philosopher, born at Lismore, in Ireland, on the 
 2;th of January, 1626, was the seventh son of Richard, 
 the "great Earl of Cork." He studied at Eton and at 
 a, which he left in 1641, and afterwards travelled 
 in Italy. In 1644 he returned to England, and devoted 
 himself to study and experiments. He resided at Oxford 
 1654 to 1668. He improved the air-pump, and dis- 
 covered the law of the air's elasticity,— namely, that its 
 
 bulk is inversely as the pressure. By his "Skeprica. 
 Chymist" (1661) he contributed to subvert the theories 
 of the iatro-chymists. He taught that the elements o, 
 bodies are atoms of different shapes and sizes, the unioi: 
 of which gives origin to what are vulgarly called ele- 
 ments. He was one of the founders of the Royal Society, 
 of which he was chosen president in 1680, but he de- 
 clined the honour. 
 
 " No one Englishman of the seventeenth century after 
 Lord Bacon," says Hallam, "raised to himself so high a 
 reputation in experimental philosophy as Robert Boyle. 
 . . . His 'Disquisition on Final Causes'was a well- 
 timed vindication of that palmary argument against the 
 paradox of the Cartesians, who had denied the validity 
 of an inference 1 from the manifest adaptation of means to 
 ends in the universe to ah intelligent Providence. Boyle 
 takes a more philosophical view of the principle of filial 
 causes than had been found in many theologians." ("In- 
 troduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 Boyle learned the Hebrew and Greek languages to 
 qualify himself to write in defence of revealed religion', 
 and printed at his own expense a translation of the Gos- 
 pels into the Malay language. He refused a peerage, 
 which \Vas offered to him repeatedly. It has been "re- 
 marked that he was born in the. year of Bacon's death, as 
 the person destined by nature to succeed him ; and he 
 maybe accounted the most zealous and successful dis- 
 ciple of Bacon in inductive philosophy. His merits were 
 commemorated by Boerhaave in terms like these : " Mr. 
 Boyle, the ornament of his age and country, succeeded 
 to the genius and talents of Lord Verulam. We owe to 
 him the secrets of fire, air, water, animals, plants, iind 
 fossils.'' He was distinguished for his liberality and 
 active benevolence. 
 
 Among his works are a "Free Inquiry into the Re- 
 ceived Notion of Nature," "Excellency of Theology," a 
 "Discourse of Things above Reason," "On the Great 
 Veneration that Man's Intellect owes to God," "Con- 
 siderations on the Style of the Holy Scriptures," and 
 " Hydrostatical Paradoxes," (1666.) An edition of his 
 complete works (with a Life of the author prefixed) 'was 
 published by Dr. Birch in 5 vols, folio, 1744. By his last 
 will he left a fund to endow eight sermons in a year in 
 defence of the Christian religion, which are called the 
 "Boyle Lectures." He was never married, and took no 
 part in political affairs. From 1668 until his death he 
 resided mostly in London, where he died on the 30th of 
 December, 1691. A narrative of his early life, written by 
 himself, may be found prefixed to the edition of his works 
 published bv Dr. Birch in 1744. 
 
 See Budgell, " Memoirs of the Lives and Characters of the 
 Family of the Boyles;" Thomas Birch, "Life and Writings of the 
 Hon. R. Boyle," 1741; Hoeper, "Histoire delaChtmie;" " Ency- 
 clopedia Bntannica." 
 
 Boyle, (Roger,) Baron Broghill, son of the first Earl 
 of Cork, was born in 1621. Originally a partisan of 
 Charles I., he afterwards fought under Cromwell, and 
 distinguished himself at the siege of Clonmel, in Ireland. 
 He became one of Cromwell's privy council, and, after 
 the restoration of Charles II., filled the same office, was 
 made lord president of the province of Munster, and 
 created Earl of Orrery. He wrote several poems, and a 
 romance called " Parthenissa." Died in 1679. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England." 
 
 Boyleau, Boyleaux, bwa'lo', sometimes written 
 Boilesve, (Estienne,) an eminent French magistrate 
 and jurist, born about 1200. • He. accompanied Saint 
 Louis in the crusade of T248, and was appointed after his 
 return provost of Paris. ' 
 
 Boyl'ston, (Nicholas,) the founder of the Boylston 
 professorship of rhetoric and elocution of Harvard Uni- 
 versity, was born in 1716; died in 1771. 
 
 Boylston, IZahdiei.,) a physician, noted as the first 
 who practised inoculation for the small-pox in America, 
 was born at Brookline, Massachusetts, in ,1080. I le began 
 to inoculate in Boston in 1721, and excited an opposition 
 so violent that the populace threatened to hang him. He 
 was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. 
 Died in 1766. 
 
 Boym, boim, (Michael,) a Polish Jesuit, was a mis- 
 sionary to India and China, where he died in 1659. He 
 wrote an "Account of China," and otivei wuks. 
 
 tii; 9 as s; %,hard;&zs,j; O, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (fl^'See Explanations, p. 3^) 
 
BOTNE 
 
 422 
 
 BRADDOCK 
 
 Boyne both, (Gustavus Hamilton,) Lord, a British 
 general, born about 1640. Having enlisted in the service 
 of William of Orange, he was appointed governor of 
 Enniskillen in 1689. He served with distinction at the 
 battle of the Boyne, (1690,) and in other battles in Ireland. 
 He was created Viscount Boyne in 1717. Died in 1723. 
 
 Boyse, Boys, or Bois, boiss, (John,) an English 
 scholar, born in Suffolk in 1560, assisted in the transla- 
 tion of the Bible under James I., and was one of the com- 
 mittee of six charged to revise it. He also co-operated 
 with Sir Henry Saville in the publication of the works 
 of Saint Chrysostom. Died in 1643. 
 
 See Pits, "De Scriptoribus Angliae." 
 
 Boyse, (Joseph,) an English dissenting divine, born 
 in Yorkshire in 1660, belonged to the sect of Brownists, 
 ind was a coadjutor of Thomas Emlyn. Died in 1728. 
 
 Boy3e, (Samuel,) an English poet, son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in Dublin in 1708. Although patronized by 
 several persons eminent for rank and talents, he died in 
 extreme poverty, owjng to his dissolute habits, (1749.) 
 He contributed numerous poems to the " Gentleman's 
 Magazine," and published separately "Chaucer's Tales 
 in Modern English," "Albion's Triumph," and other 
 works. 
 
 Boyseau, de, deh bwa'zo', (Pierre,) Marquis de 
 Chateaufort, (deh sha'to'for',) born near Namur in 1659, 
 fought on the side of Philip V. in the war of the Spanish 
 succession, and became Captain-General of Old Castile. 
 Died in 1741. 
 
 See De Stassart, " Notice sur P. Boyseau," 1846. 
 
 Boysen, boi'zen, (Friedrich Eberhard,) a German 
 historian, born at Halberstadt in 1 720. He produced a 
 " Universal History," (10 vols., 1767-72,) and other works. 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" " F. E. 
 Boysen's Lebensbeschreibung," 2 vols., 1795. 
 
 Boyssieres, de, deh bwa'se-aiV, (Jean,) a French 
 poet, was born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1555. 
 
 Boz. See Dickens. 
 
 Boze, de, deh boz, (Claude Gros,) an eminent 
 French archaeologist, born at Lyons in 1680. He be- 
 came in 1706 perpetual secretary of the Academy of 
 Inscriptions, and in 1715 succeeded Fenelon in the 
 French Academy. He published an " Historical Treat- 
 ise on the Jubilee of the Jews," (1702,) a " Dissertation 
 on the Janus of the Ancients," and several treatises on 
 numismatics. Died in 1753. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Boz'man, (John Leeds,) an American lawyer, poet, 
 and historian, born in Oxford, Maryland, in 1757. He 
 was a contributor to " Dennie's Port-Folio" and other 
 periodicals, and was author of a " History of Maryland," 
 (2 vols. 8vo,) and of several legal works. Died in 1823. 
 
 Bozzaris or Botzaris, bot'sa-ris, popularly called 
 bpz-zir'is, (Marcos,) a celebrated modern Greek patriot, 
 born at Suli, in Albania, about 1790. He enlisted in 
 the French army about 1808, and retired in 1 81 5 to the 
 Ionian Isles, where he married. In the war of independ- 
 ence which began in 1820 he was an able leader and 
 performed many heroic exploits. He was appointed 
 Stratarch of Western Greece late in 1822, and passed 
 the winter at Missolonghi. In the summer of 1823 he 
 attacked by night a greatly superior force of Turks, and 
 fell mortally wounded in the action, which resulted in a 
 decisive victory of the Greeks. 
 
 See C. Paganel, "Tombeau de M. Botzaris," 1826; Pouque- 
 ville, " Histoire de la Regeneration de la Grece." 
 
 Bozzoli, bot'so-lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian litterateur, 
 born at Mantua in 1724, translated Homer's "Imid"and 
 " Odyssey," and Virgil's " ^Eneid," into Italian verse. 
 Died about 1790. 
 
 Brabant, bRa'bant or bra-bant', (Henry,) Duke of, 
 surnamed le Guerroyeur, or " the Warrior," went on 
 a crusade to the Holy Land. He was the first who bore 
 the title of Duke of Brabant. Died in 1235. 
 
 Brabant, (John IV.,) Duke of, married in 1418 his 
 cousin Jacqueline, Countess of Holland and Hainault, 
 who afterwards separated herself from him in order to 
 marry Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. In 1425 he ob- 
 tained from the pope a bull for the erection of the Uni- 
 
 versity of Louvain. He died in 1427, being the last of 
 the sovereign dukes of Brabant. (See Jacqueline.) 
 
 Braccio da Montone, bRat'cho da mon-to'na, (An- 
 drea,) a famous Italian mercenary commander or con- 
 dottiere, born in 1368. He took Rome in 141 7, and fought 
 in the service of Naples against Sforza. Died in 1424. 
 
 Bracciolini See Poc-gio. 
 
 Bracciolini, bRat-cho-lee'nee, (Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian poet, surnamed DELL'Api, del-la'pee, born at Pis- 
 toia in 1566. He became secretary to Cardinal Barberini, 
 afterwards Pope Urban VIII. He wrote "The Cross 
 Regained," (" La Croce Riacquistata,") a heroic poem, 
 ranked by some critics next to Tasso's " Jerusalem De- 
 livered." Died at Pistoia in 1646. 
 
 See Ginguenb, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Vossius, "De His- 
 toricis Latinis ;" Paolo Giovio, "Elogia." 
 
 Brace, (Charles LorinG,) an American writer and 
 clergyman, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1826. He 
 travelled in Europe, and published "Hungary in 1851," 
 "Home-Life in Germany," (1853,) and "Norsefolk: 
 Travels in Norway and Sweden," (1857.) He was the 
 principal founder of the Children's Aid Society of New 
 York. 
 
 Brace, (Jonathan,) an American jurist, born at Har- 
 rington, Connecticut, in 1754. He graduated at Yale 
 College in 1779, and in 1798 was elected to Congress. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Brace, (Julia,) a blind deaf-mute, born near Hart- 
 ford, Connecticut, in 1806. She lost by a severe illness 
 both sight and hearing when she was four years old 
 She had previously learned to speak and spell a little. 
 After her misfortune she continued to speak for nearly a 
 year, but gradually forgot the few words she had learned. 
 
 For a very interesting notice of her case, see Dunglison's "Phy- 
 siology," vol. ii. pp. 160, 161. 
 
 Bracelli, bRa-chel'lee, (Jacopo,) an Italian historian, 
 born at Sarzana, became chancellor of the republic of 
 Genoa. He wrote a " History of the Spanish War," 
 and other works, in Latin. Died in 1460. 
 
 Brachmann, bRaK'man, (Luise Karoline,) a Ger- 
 man poetess and novelist, born at Rochlitz in 1777. At 
 an early age she acquired the friendship of Novalis and 
 of Schiller, who in 1799 published some of her first pro- 
 ductions in his "Musenalmanach" and "Horen." She 
 committed suicide in 1822. 
 
 See " Life of Luise Brachmann," prefixed to her works, edited by 
 SchOtz. 
 
 Bracht, van, vin bRaKt, (Tielman,) a Dutch Prot- 
 estant theologian, born at Dort in 1625, was pastor of 
 the Mennonites in his native city. Died in 1664. 
 
 Brack'en-ridge, (Henry M.,) an American judge and 
 writer, born at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1786. He 
 published a "History of the Second War with Great 
 Britain." In 181 7 he accompanied as secretary the 
 commission to the South American republics, and in 
 1820 produced a "Voyage to South America," which 
 was commended by Humboldt. He also wrote " Recol- 
 lections of Persons and Places in the West," (2d edition, 
 2 vols., 1869.) He was appointed a judge of the western 
 district of Louisiana in 1821. In 1840 he was elected a 
 member of Congress. ' m 
 
 Brackenridge, (Hugh Henry,) a writer and poli- 
 tician, the father of the preceding, born near Campbelton, 
 Scotland, in 1748. Having studied law, he settled at Pitts- 
 burg, Pennsylvania, about 1782, and was appointed a 
 judge of the supreme court of the State in 1799. He 
 wrote, besides other works, a humorous and satirical 
 book, entitled "Modern Chivalry, or the Adventures of 
 Captain Farrago," (1792.) Died in 1816. 
 
 Brac'ton, de, (Henry,) an eminent jurist, and one 
 of the earliest English writers on law, lived under the 
 reign of Henry III. His principal work is entitled " De 
 Consuetudinibus et Legibus Angliae," being a complete 
 treatise on legislation and jurisprudence. 
 
 See Prince, " Worthies of Devon;" " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Brad'bury, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist 
 divine and writer, born in London ; died about 1759. 
 
 Brad'dock, (Edward,) a British general, born about 
 1 71 5, commanded the army in America in the war against 
 the French and Indians. He was defeated and killed 
 near Pittsburg in 1755. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; not, good; moSn; 
 
 ,UU1I, 
 
BRADDON 
 
 4*3 
 
 BRADWARD1N 
 
 Brad'don, (Mary Elizabeth,) an English novelist, 
 born in London about 1837. She wrote poems entitled 
 "Garibaldi " and " Lady Lisle," and a number of popular 
 novels, among which are " Lady Audley's Secret," " Au- 
 rora Flovd," "Eleanor's Victory," and " Henry Dunbar." 
 
 Brad'ford, (Alden,) LLU, an American divine and 
 author, born at Duxbury, Massachusetts, in 1765. His 
 principal work is a"History of Massachusetts from 1764 
 to 1820." Hied in 1843. 
 
 Bradford, (ANDREW,) son of William Bradford, 
 (printer,) was born about 1686. In 1719 he commenced 
 the publication of the " American Weekly Mercury," the 
 first newspaper issued in Philadelphia. Died in 1742. 
 
 Brad'ford, (John,) an English Protestant divine un- 
 der the reign of Henry VIII., born at Manchester, be- 
 came chaplain to Edward VI., and was a popular preacher. 
 After the accession of Mary, he suffered martyrdom at 
 the stake, (1555.) His sermons and other writings were 
 published after his death. 
 
 See William Stevens, "Life of John Bradford," 1832; W. W. 
 Hokne, " Lite of John Bradford," 1800. 
 
 Bradford, (Robert,) a major in the army of the 
 American Revolution, descendant of Governor Bradford, 
 was born in Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1750. He 
 served in the principal battles of the Revolution, com- 
 mencing with that of Bunker Hill and ending with the 
 capture of Cornwallis. For his gallant conduct La Fa- 
 yette presented him with a sword. Died in 1823. 
 
 Bradford, (Samuel,) born in 1652, became Bishop 
 of Rochester in 1723. Died in 1731. 
 
 Bradford, (William,) one of the Pilgrim Fathers, 
 born in Yorkshire, England, about 1590. While still 
 very young, for the sake of religious liberty he emigrated 
 to Holland. He was one of the enterprising band who 
 crossed the Atlantic in the Mayflower in 1620. In 1621 
 he was elected Governor of Plymouth Colony, and by 
 annual re-elections held that office for about thirty years. 
 One of his first acts was a treaty of peace with the In- 
 dian Sachem Massasoit. In 1630 the English govern- 
 ment granted to William Bradford, his heirs, associates, 
 and assigns, a patent for the colony. He wrote a history 
 of Plymouth People and Colony from 1602 to 1647, which 
 was published in 1856. He is said to have been distin- 
 guished for piety and wisdom. Died in 1657. 
 
 See Belknap, "American Biography ;" "New England Register" 
 of 1850. 
 
 Bradford, (William,) the first printer in Pennsyl- 
 vania, born in Leicester, England, in 1658. Having re- 
 sided for a time in Philadelphia, he removed (1693) to 
 New York, where for upwards of fil.y years he was 
 printer to the government. In 1725 he issued the first 
 newspaper (" New York Gazette") published in New 
 York City. Died in 1752. 
 
 Bradford, (William,) attorney-general of the United 
 States, born in Philadelphia in 1755. Having graduated 
 at Princeton, he served in the war of the Revolution, at- 
 tained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and in 1780 became 
 attorney-general of Pennsylvania. In 1794 he was ap- 
 pointed United States attorney-general by Washington. 
 Died in 1795. 
 
 Bradford, (William,) an American landscape-painter 
 of great merit, born at New Bedford, Massachusetts. 
 His favourite subjects are coast-views, rocky shores, and 
 icebergs. Among his chief pictures are " Hailing the 
 Sloop in Martha's Vineyard," "Light-House in Saint 
 John's Harbour," and "The Coast of Labrador." 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Brad'ley, (Rev. Edward,) an English author, whose 
 assumed name is Cuthbert Bede, born in 1827, became 
 rector of Denton in 1859. Among his works are "Ver- 
 dant Green," a popular novel, and "The Curate of Crans- 
 ton," (1862.) 
 
 Bradley, (James,) an eminent English astronomer, 
 who united the qualities of observer and theorist in a 
 degree perhaps never surpassed, was born in Gloucester- 
 shire in 1693. He was educated at Balliol College, Ox- 
 ford, was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1718, 
 and Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford in 1 721. 
 In order to observe with the utmost exactitude the vari- 
 ations in the positions of the fixed stars, he erected a 
 zenith-sector at Wansted in 1727, about which date he 
 
 discovered the cause of the phenomenon called the "ab 
 erration of light." This important discovery furnished 
 the first demonstration of the earth's motion around the 
 sun. He was appointed astronomer royal in 1742, and by 
 a series of observations arrfved at another great discovery 
 the "nutation of the earth's axis," which he announced 
 in 1747. "These two discoveries,'.' says M. Biot, "have 
 had the greatest influence on all astronomy ; for as long 
 as the cause of these petty motions was unknown, they 
 were confounded with errors in observations, and ren- 
 dered it impossible to detect those errors." The same 
 writer calls Bradley's twelve hundred observations of the 
 moon "a monument of inimitable patience, address, and 
 fidelity." He made successful researches on the law of 
 refraction, for which he produced an empirical formula. 
 He died at Chalford in July, 1762, leaving in manuscript 
 thirteen volumes of valuable observations, which were 
 presented to the University of Oxford, and published 
 1798-1805. Bessel has rendered a great service to as- 
 tronomy by the reduction of these observations. (See 
 Bessel, F. W.) Sir Isaac Newton pronounced Bradley 
 " the best astronomer in Europe." 
 
 See a good biographical notice of Bradley, by Professor Ricaud, in 
 the edition of his works published at Oxford in 1832; " Biographia 
 Britannica;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1837. 
 
 Bradley, (Ralph,) an English lawyer, born in the 
 county of Durham in 1717 ; died in 1788. 
 
 Bradley, (Richard,) an English physician and botan- 
 ist, became in 1724 professor of botany at Cambridge. 
 He wrote a " Treatise on Agriculture and Gardening," 
 (1724.) and other works. Died in 1732. 
 
 Brad'shaw, (Henry,) an English Benedictine monk, 
 wrote poems and chronicles. Died in 1 5 13. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Bradshaw, (John,) an English republican judge, 
 born about 1586, of a Cheshire family. He studied law 
 in Gray's Inn, and practised with success before the 
 civil war. He was appointed chief justice of Chester 
 by the Parliament in 1647, and was chosen president of 
 the high court of justice which tried Charles I. in Janu- 
 ary, 1649. In answer to Charles, who denied the au- 
 thority of the court, he firmly maintained its superiority 
 above the prisoner. His dignity and moderation on this 
 occasion are commended by some writers; but Hume 
 says " his style will be esteemed to the last degree auda- 
 cious and insolent." He was afterwards president of 
 the Council of State, and courageously opposed the as- 
 sumption of supreme power by Cromwell. After the 
 death of Cromwell he was president of the council for a 
 short time. He died in November, 1659, leaving the 
 reputation of a staunch and consistent friend of liberty. 
 He was a kinsman and friend of Milton, who in his 
 "Defensio Secunda" has highly extolled Bradshaw's 
 virtue and talents, saying, among other things, that "he 
 was an eloquent pleader, and discharged all the duties 
 of an uncorrupt judge." John Forster ranks Bradshaw 
 among " the purest and loftiest-minded" statesmen of 
 the Commonwealth. (" Life of Henry Marten.") 
 
 See Hume, " History of England." 
 
 Bradshaw, (William,) an English Puritan, born in 
 Leicestershire in 157 1, preached in London, and wrote 
 several works on theology, among which is "English 
 Puritanism," (1605.) Died in 1618. 
 
 Brad'street, (Anne,) an English poetess, born at 
 Northampton in 1613, was married to Governor Simon 
 Bradstreet, noticed below. Died in 1672. For speci- 
 mens of her poems, see Griswold's " Female Poets of 
 America." 
 
 Bradstreet, (John,) a general of the British army in 
 America, commanded a force which took Fort Frontenac 
 in 1758. Died at New York in 1774. 
 
 Bradstreet, (Simon,) born in Lincolnshire, England, 
 in 1603, emigrated to New England in 1630. He was 
 Governor of Massachusetts from 1679 to 1686, and from 
 May, 1689, to May, 1692. Died at Salem in 1697. 
 
 Brad'street, (Simon,) an American divine, born in 
 1669, was minister at Charlestown, Massachusetts. Died 
 in 1 741. 
 
 Brad'war-din, (Thomas,) an eminent English pre- 
 late, surnamed the Profound Doctor, born in Sussex 
 in 1290. He was confessor to Edward III., and subse- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, n,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. (UQ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BRADY 
 
 424 
 
 BRAHE 
 
 «juently Archbishop of Canterbury. He wrote mathe- 
 matical works, and a theological treatise entitled " The 
 Cause of God against Pelagius," (" De Causa Dei contra 
 Pelagium,") etc. Died in 1348. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. iv. chap. xi. 
 
 Bra'djf, (Hugh,) an American general, born in Penn- 
 sylvania in 1768; died at Detroit in 1851. 
 
 Brady, (James T.,) an eloquent American lawyer, 
 born in New York City in 1815, was admitted to the bar 
 in 1836. He distinguished himself as counsel for the 
 defence in criminal cases. During the civil war he was 
 an influential leader of the party known as " War Demo- 
 crats." Died in 1869. 
 
 Bra'djf, (Nicholas,) D.D., a learned divine, born at 
 Bandon, in Ireland, in 1659. He graduated at Dublin 
 University, and subsequently became chaplain to Wil- 
 h'am I If. and Mary. He translated Virgil's " /Eneid," 
 and made a popular version of the Psalms in conjunction 
 with Mr. Tate. Died in 1726. 
 X See Gibber, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Brady, (Robert,) an English physician and historian, 
 born in Norfolk in 1643, was professor of medicine at 
 Cambridge, which town he represented in Parliament. 
 He wrote an " Introduction to the Old English History," 
 and other works. Died in 1700. 
 
 Braganza, bRa-gan'zi, the name of a royal family of 
 Portugal, descended from Alfonso the first Duke of Bra- 
 ganza, who was an illegitimate son of King John I. Died 
 in 1461. James the fourth Duke of Braganza was a 
 favourite of King Emmanuel, who in 14S9 designated 
 him as his successor in case he should leave no issue. 
 (See John IV. of Portugal.) 
 
 Bragelongne, de, deh bRizh'loNfi', (Christopke 
 Bernard,) a French mathematician and philologist, born 
 in Paris in 1688, was a member of the Academy of Sci- 
 ences, and a friend of Malebranche. Died in 1744. 
 
 Bragg, (Braxton,) an American general, born in 
 Warren county, North Carolina, about 1815, graduated 
 at West Point in 1837. ' He served with distinction in 
 the Mexican war under General Taylor, with the rank of 
 captain, and resigned his commission in 1856. He be- 
 came a brigadier-general in the Confederate service in 
 1861, commanded at Pensacola until February, 1862, and 
 was raised to the rank of major-general about that time. 
 He commanded a corps at the battle of Shiloh, April 6 
 and .7, 1862. In May ensuing he succeeded Beauregard 
 is commander of the army in Mississippi, with the rank 
 of general. Moving from Chattanooga in August, he in- 
 vaded Kentucky with a large army and threatened Louis- 
 ville. He was opposed by an army under General Buell, 
 with part of which he fought a severe and indecisive 
 battle at Perryville, October 8, 1862. General Bragg 
 retired in the night after this action, and returned to Ten- 
 nessee loaded with spoils captured at Lexington and 
 Other places. General Rosecrans, who took command 
 late in October, followed Bragg to Murfreesborough, near 
 which they fought the great battle of Stone River, Decem- 
 ber 31, 1862-January 2, 1863. The Union army, which re- 
 mained master of the field, lost here 1533 killed and 7245 
 wounded. General Bragg reported that he lost 9000 
 killed and wounded, and had about 35,000 when the bat- 
 tle began^ He retired to Tullahoma, followed slowly by 
 Rosecrans, and thence to Chattanooga. A flank move- 
 ment of Rosecrans compelled him to evacuate that im- 
 portant point on the 9th of September. Having been 
 reinforced, he turned back and attacked the Union army 
 at Chickamauga on the 19th of September, 1863. Bragg 
 drove his opponent from the field, and claimed the vic- 
 tory ; but he is said to have lost 15,000 men in this battle, 
 which lasted two days. He was defeated by General Grant 
 in a great battle on Missionary Ridge, near Chattanooga, 
 November 25, 1863. About the 2d of December, 1863, 
 he was relieved from his command. He led a small army 
 from North Carolina to Georgia in the autumn of 1864. 
 
 See "Southern Generals," (anonymous,) New York, i.%g.j;iff 
 
 Bragi, bri'ge, written also Brage, [supposed to be 
 derived from the Icelandic bragga, to " adorn," and re- 
 lated to the German pracht, "splendour,] in the Noise 
 mythology, a son of Odin, is the god of eloquence and 
 poetry. From him poetry is called "bragr," and men 
 
 distinguished for the gift of speech are styled " bragr 
 men." His wife Iduna keeps the apples of immortality, 
 partaking of which the gods never grow old. This myth 
 doubtless refers to the power of poetry to confer immor- 
 tality. Bragi is represented as an old man with a flowing. 
 beard, the type of an ancient minstrel. 
 
 See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i.; Keyser, "Religion 
 of the Northmen ;" Petersen, " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Bra'ham, (John,) a celebrated English vocalist, born 
 in London about 1774. He performed with brilliant 
 success in London, Paris, and the principal cities of Italy. 
 He composed several operas and popular songs. Died 
 in 1831. 
 
 See Fktis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" Oxberry, 
 "Dramatic Biography." 
 
 Brahe, bra or brJ, [Dan. pron. bRj'eh,] (Tycho,) a 
 celebrated astronomer, descended from a noble Swedish- 
 family, was born in December, 1545, at Knudsthorp, in' 
 Scania, which at that time belonged to Denmark. Hd 
 entered the University of Copenhagen in 1559, and was 
 destined for the profession of the law ; but the great 
 eclipse of the sun, August 21, 1560, gave a new direc- 
 tion to his studies. In 1562 he was sent to Leipsic to 
 study law under the charge of a tutor. While the tutor 
 was asleep, Tycho read astronomical works, watched the 
 motions of stars and planets, and, with no better instru- 
 ment than a pair of compasses, detected a large error in 
 the Alphonsine Tables. He became in 1569 a resident 
 of Augsburg, where he found two congenial spirits, named 
 John and Paul Hainzel, and employed skilful artists to 
 make a quadrant of fourteen cubits' radius. 
 
 Having returned to his native land in 1571, he fitted' 
 up an observatory, and cultivated alchemy in order to 
 replenish his purse. In 1573 he published a notice of a 
 new star, brighter than Sinus, which suddenly appeared, 
 in the constellation of Cassiopeia in November, 1572, 
 and disappeared finally in March, 1574. He offender] 
 his noble relatives by marrying a peasant-girl in 1573. 
 At the request of the king, he delivered a course of 
 lectures on astronomy at Copenhagen in 1574, having 
 gradually overcome his aristocratic prejudice against 
 the occupations of teacher and author. He proposed to 
 settle in Germany, but was retained by the liberal offers of 
 the king, F'rederick II., who gave him a grant for life of 
 the island of Huen, Hven, or Hoene, situated about four- 
 teen miles from Copenhagen, and built for him an obser- 
 vatory on the island. This magnificent structure, called 
 Uramberg or Oranienberg, ("City of the Heavens,")' 
 was ready for use in 1577, and was the most splendid 
 observatory that had ever been erected in Europe. 
 
 Tycho spent there twenty years, during which lie made 
 vast additions to astronomical science by his observations, 
 and merited the title of "the restorer of astronomy.'' 
 He formed a catalogue of seven hundred and seventy- 
 seven stars, and discovered, it is said, the true theory of 
 comets. He rejected the Copemican system, for which 
 he substituted a hypothesis that seemed more consistent 
 with the language of Scripture, — namely, that the earth 
 is stationary in the centre of the universe, and that the 
 sun and stars revolve around that centre. 
 
 After the death of his royal patron in 1588, a powerful 
 party was formed against Tycho Brahe by courtiers who 
 envied his honours and coveted his revenues. He was 
 deprived of his pensions about 1594, and, being unable 
 to support the expense of his establishment, resolved to 
 transfer his instruments to another place. He emigrated 
 to Germany in 1597, and, having obtained the patronage 
 of the emperor Rudolph, settled at Prague in 1600. "In 
 the same year Kepler became the assistant of Tycho,. 
 who had invited him to Prague. Among his principal 
 works is "Astronomiae Instauratoe Progymnasmata," 
 (1587-89.) Died at Prague on the 13th of October, 1601, 
 
 " As a practical astronomer," says Sir David Brewster, 
 " Tycho has not been surpassed by any observer of an- 
 cient or modern times. The splendour and number of 
 his instruments, the ingenuity which he exhibited in in- 
 venting new ones, and his skill and assiduity as an ol> 
 server, have given a character to his labours and a value 
 to his observations which will be appreciated to the 
 
 latest posterity His improvements in the lunar 
 
 theory were still more valuable. He discovered the 
 
 I, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o,.u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; mooHj 
 
BRAHM 
 
 4*5 
 
 BRJHMJNJSM 
 
 important inequality called the variation, and also the 
 annual inequality which depends on the position of the 
 earth in its orbit." 
 
 See Brewster, " Martyrs of Science," 1841; P. Gassbndi, "Vie 
 
 de Tycho Brahe," 1654; P. Pedkrsbn, "Den D."piske Astronom T. 
 
 Brahe's Liv og Levnel," 183S; A. G. Kaestner, "Ueber T. de 
 
 Brahe's Wahlspruch," 1771: Olaus Schilling, "Dissertatio de 
 
 1 T. Brahe in Aslronomiam," Upsal, 1791; P. VON her 
 
 . kitz, " Lebensbeschreibung des Sternsehers X. von Brahe," 
 
 - ■ ■ '"S - 
 
 Brahm, [Hindoo pron. bruhm or br'hm,] a Sanscrit 
 hum I, signifying originally "earnest, intense prayer,"* 
 but now used as the name of the eternal sell-existent 
 Being, of whose attributes or powers the gods of the 
 Indian triad, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, are personifica- 
 tions. His image is the outward universe. In the "In- 
 stitutes of Manu" (chap, i.) he is spoken of as follows : 
 " He whom the mind alone can perceive, whose essence 
 eludes the external organs, who has no visible parts, who 
 exists from .eternity, — even he, the soul of all beings, 
 "whom no being can' comprehend, shone forth in person," 
 in other words, his creative power was manifested or 
 personified, in Brahma. (See the two following articles.) 
 " ( If that infinite, incomprehensible, self-existent Spirit," 
 says Moor, "no representation is made; to his direct 
 and immediate honour no temples rise; nor dare a Hin- 
 doo address to him the effusions of his soul otherwise than 
 by the mediation of a personified attribute, or through 
 the intervention of a priest." The Hindoos have no 
 images of Brahm, but the pious Brahmans meditate in 
 profound and silent awe upon his unspeakable attributes. 
 
 - See Mook, "Hindu Pantheon;" "Religions de l'Antiquirt," 
 -translated by M. GuiGWAuT from the German of Dr. Creuzer, 
 Pa. is. 1S25, vol. i. p. i$oetseq. 
 
 Brahma, bra'ma, [Hindoo pron. bruh'ml,] a Sanscrit 
 word signifying "worship" or " prayer, "t forming the 
 name of one of the great deities of the Hindoos. Brahma 
 js a personification of the creative power, (see Brahm,) 
 'and is usually styled the '' Creator." It may be observed 
 that Brahma has no temples or rites exclusively dedi- 
 cated to him, and he is far less worshipped or honoured 
 by the Hindoos than Siva or Vishnu. The votaries of 
 •the last-named deities are stimulated by the most power- 
 ful of human motives, — hope and fear ; but, as the act of 
 •creation is past, the worshippers of Brahma are influ- 
 enced only by the comparatively feeble principle of grati- 
 tude. Images of Brahma are sometimes found in temples 
 'dedicated to other gods. He is commonly represented 
 with fovir faces or heads, having reference probably to 
 .the four corners of the world. The pictures of him are 
 ■usually red, or of a reddish hue, which is supposed to 
 have allusion to the colour of the all-producing earth, of 
 which Brahma is regarded as a personification. As fire 
 is the symbol of Siva, and water of Vishnu, so earth is 
 'the symbol of Brahma. In another relation, Brahma 
 ■represents matter, Vishnu spirit, and Siva time. (See 
 ■articles Siva and Vishnu.) 
 
 MoOR, "Hindu Pantheon;" Coleman, "Mythology of 
 rheHindus," Lof!don, 1S32 ; GciGNlAL'T, " Religions de l'Antiqui'teY' 
 Paris, 1825, vol. i. book i. chap, iv, 
 
 Brah'man-ism or Brah'min-ism, [Fr. Brahma- 
 NIsmk, bRS'mi'nezm'; Ger. Brahmaismus, bRa-ma-is'- 
 Tnus, or Br ahmanismus, bRa-ma-nis'mos,] the name 
 M the religious system taught by the BrahmansJ of 
 India. We first find this system developed in the " Insti- 
 tutes of Manu," (or Menu,) a work whose date (like that 
 of all the early writings of the Hindoos) it is impossible 
 
 - * "Brahm" and "Brahma" are from the same root, (brih,) and 
 teem originally to have had essentially the same signification. (See 
 Koi'Pis. "Religion des Buddha," pp. 27, 28.) Brahm is also writ- 
 ten Brahmif ; but in the popular pronunciation it has but one syllable, 
 t Brahma appear* to have originally signified that "earnest, all- 
 ins prayer" by which the gods were compelled (according to 
 the Hindoo belief ) to grant the request of the suppliant. (See next 
 1 In like manlier, Agni, (or Agnis,) the god of fire, carrying the 
 incen-> ;■ of mortals to heaven, prevailed upon the gods to 
 
 grant the prayer* of their worshippers. Hence in very early times 
 nd Hrahma may bj said to have been scarcely more than dif- 
 ferent names for one and the same power. (See Koppen, " Religion 
 tddha," p. 27.) Afterwards Brahma came to be regarded not 
 as a mediator between the gods and men, but as the external mani- 
 festation of the creative power of Brahm. (See Brahm.) 
 
 t The term Brahman (or Brahmin) appears to have been derivednot 
 from the god Brahma, but from brahma, "prayer," or "worship;" 
 and hence it properly signifies a "praying-man," or "priest." (See 
 Bkahma.) 
 
 to fix with any approximation to exactness.* It is re- 
 markable that the Vedas (the oldest of all the books of 
 the Hindoos) contain so few traces— only a few scattered 
 germs, so to speak — of that elaborate religious system 
 which is presented to us in the " Institutes of Manu" and 
 other later works. In the Vedas the gods are mostly 
 such as would be suggested by the objects or phenomena 
 of external nature : for example, Varuna, (Uranus,) or 
 Heaven, (see Varuna ;) Agni, or the god of fire ; Indra, 
 the god of the atmosphere and clouds ; Mitra, the sun, 
 etc. As, however, the Brahmanical system gradually 
 becomes developed, these divinities retreat into the back- 
 ground and are replaced by the gods of the Hindoo triad, 
 Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, who appear as manifestations 
 of Brahm, the eternal, self-existent Spirit. (See Brahm.) 
 Brahma first makes his appearance as the creator of the 
 visible universe, and becomes the source and centre of 
 an endless system of divine sages, inferior gods, celestial 
 nymphs, genii, giants, demons, animals, etc. 
 
 In the early ages the head of each family among the 
 Aryas (see Aryas) appears to have been his own priest, 
 making offerings to the deities in his own name ; but, 
 as the people abandoned the primitive customs of their 
 ancestors, they had recourse to professional priests, who 
 were supposed to know the mind and wishes of the gods 
 and how best to propitiate their favour. The priesthood, 
 having thus become an indispensable necessity, was not 
 long in becoming the dominant power in the state ; and 
 the Brahmans, having once obtained the ascendency, took 
 every precaution to fortify their power and make it per- 
 petual. 
 
 With this object, they introduced the distinctions of 
 caste.t not merely as a civil institution, but as resting on 
 and inseparably connected with the very foundations of 
 their religious system. Like the modern advocates of 
 slavery, they taught that these distinctions had been 
 established by the Creator himself. They ingeniously 
 feigned that the priestly class, or Brahmans, were pro- 
 duced from the mouth of Brahma, becoming thus his 
 spokesmen ; while the Kshatriyas,} or warrior caste, 
 sprang from his arm ; the Vaisyas,§ (herdsmen, agricul- 
 turists, or merchants,) from his thigh ; and the Soodras, 
 (or labourers,) from his foot. The three higher castes 
 are supposed to be of pure Aryan descent ; the Soodras 
 (written alsof^udras) were not improbably the earlier in- 
 habitants of India, whom the Aryas subdued and reduced 
 to slavery. In the Mahabharata the Brahman is called 
 white, the Kshatriya red, the Vaisya yellow, and the 
 Soodra black. It may be proper to observe that the 
 Brahmans are not all priests ; but from the Brahmanical 
 caste alone the priests must be chosen. 
 
 In order to preserve the sanctity of the priestly caste 
 and defend it against all encroachments, a man of any 
 of the lower castes is strictly forbidden to marry a 
 Brahman woman, (Brahmani or Brahmanee,) and the 
 children of such marriages are regarded as irredeemably 
 base. The offspring of a Soodra and a Brahmani is 
 called a Chandala, and is accounted the lowest of mor- 
 tals. His very shadow is shunned as pollution ; and a 
 Brahman is forbidden to take shelter under the same 
 tree with one of those wretched outcasts. The Insti- 
 tutes of Manu abound with passages exhibiting the 
 boundless pretensions of the Brahmans, setting forth 
 their godlike dignity and the respect and adoration due 
 them from persons of the other classes. " From his 
 high birth alone, a Brahman is an object of veneration 
 even to the gods." (chap. xi. 85.) "A Brahman, whether 
 learned or ignorant, is a powerful divinity. . . . Though 
 Brahmans employ themselves in all sorts of mean occu- 
 pation, they must invariably be honoured ; for they are 
 something transcendently divine." (ix. 317,319.) "Let 
 
 * Sir William Jones supposes that the work in question received its 
 present form about 880 B.C : and it seems to be generally admitted 
 that the greater part, if not the whole of it, was composed some cen- 
 turies before the rise of Booddhisin, (about 500 B.C.) 
 
 t We do not, of course, mean to say that the system as it existed in 
 after-ages was definitely and fully planned from the first, but simply 
 that those who laid its foundations did so in the interest of the priest- 
 hood ; and the same motives which prompted its commencement pre- 
 sided over ils completion. 
 
 t Kshatriya is pronounced kshut're-ya by the modern Hindoos. 
 
 § Pronounced vis'yat. 
 
 ;« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /'; <;, H, K, guttural; N', nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BRAHMANISM 
 
 426 
 
 BRAIN ERD 
 
 not a king, although in the greatest distress for money, 
 provoke Brahmans to anger by taking their property ; 
 for they, once enraged, could immediately, by sacrifices 
 and imprecations, destroy him, with his troops, elephants, 
 horses, and cars. . . . What prince could gain wealth by 
 oppressing those who, if angry, could frame other worlds 
 and regents of worlds ?— could give being to new gods 
 andmortals?" (ix.313,315.) "No greater crime is known 
 on earth than slaying a Brahman. . . . Never shall the 
 king slay a Brahman, though convicted of all possible 
 crimes : let him banish the offender from his realm, but 
 with all his property secure and his body unhurt." (viii. 
 380, 381.) "A Brahman is born above the world, the 
 chief of all creatures. . . . Whatever exists in the uni- 
 verse is in effect, though not in form, the wealth of the 
 Brahmans : . . . through the benevolence of the Brah- 
 mans, indeed, other mortals enjoy life." (i. 99, 100, 101.) 
 
 The doctrine of " emanation," as it has been termed, 
 may be said to form the basis of the Brahmanical sys- 
 tem. According to this doctrine, Brahm is the source 
 and centre of all existence, and the various creatures of 
 the universe are nothing more than emanations from 
 Him ; in other words, they are so many parts or mem- 
 bers of the Universal Being, as the bays and creeks on 
 the sea-coast are parts or members of the ocean. And 
 as Brahm is the source whence all things have pro- 
 ceeded or been evolved, so all things will at last return 
 to Him and be absorbed into His essence. This final 
 absorption is regarded by the devout Hindoo as his sal- 
 vation. In cpnsequence of his dislike to motion and 
 excitement, the notion of absolute repose becomes a 
 necessary part in his ideal of perfect happiness. Hence 
 the aim of all his efforts is to bring his transmigrations 
 to an end, that his individual existence may wholly cease, 
 and that his soul may be completely absorbed and swal- 
 lowed up in Brahm. The same general doctrine, though 
 with important modifications, may be said to form the 
 foundation of Booddhism. (See Booddha.) 
 
 The doctrine of the transmigration of souls (called by 
 the Greeks Metempsychosis, and by the Germans See- 
 lenwanderung, or "soul-wandering") became a powerful 
 engine, in the hands of the Brahmans, for curbing and 
 breaking the spirit of the laity. For neglecting the 
 smallest duties or ceremonies enjoined by the priests, 
 one might have to pass ages in unhappy transmigra- 
 tions ; while, on the other hand, by an implicit and faith- 
 ful observance of those duties and ceremonies he might 
 at length acquire such an accumulation of merit as to 
 raise him above the power of the gods themselves. 
 There is no other example in the history of mankind of 
 an ascendency of one class over another so despotic and 
 absolute as that which has been obtained by the Brah- 
 mans through the institution of caste. And this has 
 been effected not by any punishment applied to the 
 body, or by any external force, but by gradually acquiring, 
 through an artful employment of hope and fear, an un- 
 limited control over the mind. No inconsiderable part of 
 the twelfth chapter of the Institutes of Manu is occupied 
 in stating the kind and number of transmigrations which 
 one must undergo for each of a long list of sins therein 
 enumerated. Thus, for example, he who steals the gold 
 of a priest (unless he makes in this life expiation by some 
 voluntary and cruel penance) will be born a thousand 
 times in the form of a spider or of some disgusting reptile ; 
 if a man steal meat, he will in the next life become a 
 vulture ; if he steal grain, he will become a rat ; and so 
 on. He who kills a Brahman (after "having passed 
 through terrible regions of torture for a great number 
 of years") may, according to the circumstances of his 
 crime, be born as a dog, a boar, or other low animal, 
 or as a Chandala. A priest who has drunk spirituous 
 liquor will become a worm or insect feeding on filth. 
 Some learned Hindoos hold that there is no expiation 
 by penance for a voluntary sin ; but this is not the 
 general opinion. To a Brahman who knows the Vedas, 
 all expiation is rendered easy. Although the ancient 
 Hindoos appear to have regarded women with far more 
 tenderness and respect than most other Asiatic nations, 
 Manu shows but scant indulgence towards those who err. 
 He says, in substance, that since a woman is not per- 
 mitted to know the Vedas, by which her guilt might be 
 
 expiated, she has no right whatever to commit any sin : 
 her son, however, can perform expiation for her by the 
 repetition of holy texts. (Chap. ix. 18 et seq.) 
 
 Not the least remarkable feature in the religious sys- 
 tem of the Brahmans is the immense importance which 
 it attaches to the performance of prayer and penance. 
 The most efficacious prayer is the committing to memory 
 and repetition of portions of the Vedas. " As fire con- 
 sumes in an instant with its bright flame the wood that 
 is placed upon it, so with the flame of knowledge a 
 Brahman who understands the Veda consumes all sin." 
 (" Institutes of Manu," chap. xi. 247.) "A priest," says 
 Manu, " who should retain in his memory the whole 
 Rig- Veda would be absolved from guilt even if he had 
 slain the inhabitants of the three worlds," (chap, xi, 
 262,) a statement which acquires additional force when 
 we consider the tender regard for life which distinguishes 
 the Hindoos from most other nations.* 
 
 The Hebrew and Christian Scriptures teach us that 
 prayer and sacrifice, to be availing, must be acceptable 
 to God.t The Brahmans, on the contrary, believe that 
 prayers, even though prompted by the most unworthy 
 motives and uttered for the most unrighteous purposes, 
 if repeated according to the prescribed form and duly 
 persevered in, can compel the gods to grant the wishes 
 of the suppliant. By the persevering performance, more- 
 over, of prayer, penance, and sacrifice, a man may in time 
 acquire a power superior to that of the highest gods.J 
 
 See, besides the " Institutes of Manu," already referred to, Moor, 
 "Hindu Pantheon;" Coleman, "Hindu Mythology;" Kopfen, 
 " Religion des Buddha," (first part ;) Professor H. H. Wilson's 
 Introductions to the several volumes of his translation of the " Rig- 
 Veda," 1850^ seq., and " Essays on the Religion of the Hindus," vol. 
 ii. ; Colebrooke," On the Vedas," in "Asiatic Researches," vol. viii. ; 
 Sir W. Jones, "On the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India," in vol.i. 
 of " Asiatic Researches ;" Max Muller, "Chips," etc. ; Duncker, 
 "Geschichie des Alterthums;" see, also, the "Vedas," the two Hin- 
 doo epics " Mahabharata" and " Ramayana," and the " Puranas." 
 
 Braid'wood, (Thomas,) one of the first teachers of 
 the deaf and dumb in Great Britain, founded about 1760 
 an institution at Edinburgh, and subsequently at Hack- 
 ney, near London. Died in 1806. 
 
 Braille, bRS'yi', (Louis,) born near Paris in 1809, 
 was blind from his birth, and was distinguished for his 
 intelligence and his rapid acquisition of knowledge, par- 
 ticularly music. He invented a method of writing with 
 points, which has been generally adopted. 
 
 Brai'nard, (John G. C.,) an American poet, born at 
 New London, Connecticut, in 1796, graduated at Yale 
 College in 1815. He edited "The Connecticut Mirror" 
 (published at Hartford) for about six years, and produced 
 a volume of poems in 1825. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America;" John G. Whit- 
 tier, " Memoir of Brainard," prefixed to his Poems, 1832. 
 
 Brai'nerd, (David,) an American divine and mission- 
 ary to the Indians, born in 17 18 at Haddam, Connecticut 
 He entered Yale College in 1739, but in February, 1742, 
 was expelled for expressing his belief that one of the tutors 
 was wholly without the grace of God. Says President 
 Edwards, " I never knew his equal of his age and stand- 
 ing for clear, accurate notions of the nature and essence 
 of true religion, and its distinctions from its various false 
 appearances." Among his works may be mentioned a 
 narrative of his labours among the Indians in Massachu- 
 setts, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, published in 1746, 
 
 * According to Manu, he who does not willingly inflict pain upon 
 any creature, but "seeks the good of all sentient beings, enjoys bliss 
 without end." (chap. v. 46.) 
 
 It is not, however, true, as many suppose, that the Brahmans or 
 other Hindoos are absolutely forbidden to eat flesh: we are expressly 
 told that the Self-existent created beasts for sacrifice. " He who eats 
 according to law commits no sin, even though every day he tastes the 
 flesh of such animals as may lawfully be tasted. Those animals, 
 moreover, " which have been destroyed for the purpose of sacrifice 
 attain in the next world exalted births." But he who eats the flesh 
 of animals which have not been duly consecrated for sacrifice to the 
 gods or manes " will, unable to save himself, be devoured in the next 
 world by those animals whose flesh he has thus illegally swallowed." 
 (See, on this subject, the " Institutes of Manu," chap. v. 26-52, and 
 the "Miscellaneous Notice of the Brahmans and Hindus" in Moor's 
 " Hindu Pantheon.") 
 
 t See Isaiah i. 15, lix. 2 ; Proverbs xv. 8 and 20, xxi. 27, xxviiL 9: 
 John ix. 31 ; James iv. 3, v. 16., etc. 
 
 t This doctrine furnishes the groundwork, so to speak, of Southey's 
 celebrated poem, the " Curse ofKehama ;" and in_ the note» to that 
 work the reader will find some curious and striking illustrations of the 
 foregoing remarks. 
 
 a. e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
 
BRAIN ERD 
 
 4*7 
 
 BRAND 
 
 "Mirabilia Dei inter Indicos," and "Divine Grace Dis- 
 played ;" the two latter being portions of his journal, 
 edited and published by Sereno Dwight Edwards in 1822. 
 His life was written by President Edwards. His journal 
 is one of the most interesting and instructive narratives 
 of the kind ever written. 
 
 See, also, Sparks's "American Biography," vol. viii. 
 
 Brainerd, (John,) a missionary among the Indians, 
 brother of the Rev. David Brainerd, whom he succeeded 
 in his labours in New Jersey about 1748. Born in 1720; 
 died in 1781. 
 
 See "Life of John Brainerd," by the Rev. Thomas Brainerd, 
 1865. 
 
 Braith'waite, (John,) an English writer, born about 
 1690, published an "Account of the Political Events 
 which, on the Death of the Emperor Muley Ismael, took 
 Place in the Empire of Morocco." It was translated into 
 several languages. 
 
 Braith'waite, (John,) an English mechanician, who, 
 by means of a diving-bell, recovered a considerable 
 amount of the property sunk in the Royal George and 
 other vessels. Died in 1818. 
 
 Braithwaite, (William,) an English theologian, 
 born about 1560, assisted in the translation of the Bible 
 in the reign of James I. 
 
 Brake!, van, vjn bRa'kel,(jAN,) a Dutch naval officer, 
 born in 1618, distinguished himself in several engage- 
 ments with the English, and attained the rank of rear- 
 admiral. He was killed in a battle against the French 
 in 1690. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Brakenburg, bRa'ken-buRC,', (Reinier,) a Dutch 
 painter, born at Haarlem in 1649. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Bra'mah, (Joseph,) a celebrated English mechani- 
 cian and engineer, born in Yorkshire in 1749. Among 
 his numerous and very valuable inventions are the safety- 
 lock called by his name, the hydrostatic press, the beer- 
 machine for drawing liquor from a cellar, improvements 
 in fire-engines, pumps, steam-engines, and paper-making 
 machinery, and the construction of mains or large water- 
 pipes in London. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Stuart, "Anecdotes of Steam-Engines ;" Samuel Smii.es, 
 "Industrial Biography," 1864; Henry Howe, "Eminent American 
 and European Mechanics," 1847. 
 
 Bramante, bRa-man'ti, (Donato Lazzari.) a cele- 
 brated Italian architect and painter, born near Urbino in 
 1^ /]/) , was a relative of Raphael. He passed many years 
 of his early manhood at Milan, whence he removed to 
 Rome and built the Cancellaria, or palace of the chancery, 
 (about 1495,) a fine specimen of the architecture of the 
 Renaissance. He was patronized by Pope Julius II., 
 and was the architect of the vast structures which joined 
 the Belvedere to the palace of the Vatican. Among his 
 master-pieces is the small round oratory or temple in 
 the cloister of San Pietro in Montorio, in the genuine 
 antique style. Bramante was the author of the original 
 design of the basilica or church of Saint Peter, which 
 he began to build in 1513, (some say in 1506.) He had 
 finished the four great piers which support the dome, 
 when he died, in 1514. His plan was not adhered to by 
 the succeeding architects, among whom was Michael 
 Angelo. Some critics think the work would have been 
 more noble if Bramante's design had been carried out. 
 Hit style is admired for its simplicity, grace, and 1 har- 
 mony of proportions. He was a benefactor of Raphael, 
 who through the influence of Bramante obtained the 
 patronage of Julius II. 
 
 Vasaki, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Pungileoni, " Memo- 
 tia interim alia Vita di Donato Bramante," 1837: Quatremere 
 DBQuincy, " Vies des Architects celebres ;" Salvetti, "Anedotti 
 Sulla Patria dell'Architetto Bramante," 1824. 
 
 Bramantino, da, di bRa-min-tee'no, (Agostino,) a 
 Milanese painter, flourished about 1525. 
 
 Bramantino, (Bartolommko,) an Italian architect 
 and painter, who lived about the middle of the fif- 
 teenth century, and built the church of San Satiro in 
 the Milanese. 
 
 BrambiUa, bRam-bel'li, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian painter, who worked in Turin about 1770. 
 
 Bramer, bRa'mer, (Leonard,) a skilful Dutch painter, 
 born at Delft in 1596. He worked in Italy, and imitated 
 
 the Italian style. He excelled in the treatment of noc- 
 turnal conflagrations and illumined caverns. Among 
 his works is a " Raising of Lazarus." 
 
 See Descamps "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 Bram'hall, (John,) born in Yorkshire about 1593, 
 graduated in divinity in 1630, and in 1634 became Bishop 
 of Londonderry. As one of Strafford's coadjutors, he 
 was impeached by the Irish House of Commons in 1640, 
 and was imprisoned for a time. After the restoration 
 he was created Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of 
 Ireland. Bramhall is chiefly known from his contro- 
 versy with Hobbes, entitled "The Question concern- 
 ing Liberty, Necessity, and Chance, clearly stated and 
 debated," (1656.) Died in 1663. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Bramp'ston or Bram'ston, (Sir John,) an English 
 judge, bom in Essex about 1576. He was chief justice 
 of the king's bench from 1635 to 1642. His conduct 
 was vacillating in the civil war. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Livesof the Chief Justices;" Foss, "The 
 Judges of England." 
 
 Bramp'ton, de, (William,) an English judge justi- 
 ciar, who was convicted of peculation in 1288 and fined 
 forty thousand marks. 
 
 Bram'ston, (Rev. James,) an English satirical poet, 
 took his degree at Oxford in 1720. He wrote the "Art 
 of Politics." Died in 1744. 
 
 Brancaccio, bRan-kat'cho, (Francesco Maria,) an 
 Italian cardinal, patronized by Urban VIII. Died in 1675. 
 
 Brancadori-Perini, bRan-kido'ree pi-ree'nee, (Gl- 
 ambattista,) an Italian writer on chronology, born at 
 Sienna in 1674; died in 171 1. 
 
 Branoaleone, bRan-ka-la-o'na, (Dandoi.o, dan'do- 
 lo,) Count of Casalecchio, (ka-sa-lek'ke-o,) born at Bo- 
 logna, was made a senator by the Romans in 1253, and 
 invested with the powers of a dictator, in order to re- 
 press the quarrels of the nobles. He compelled Pope 
 Innocent IV. to acknowledge the power of the people, 
 waged war with the barons, and restored peace to Rome. 
 Died in 1258. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Brancaa, bRdN'ka', (Andre,) a French officer, known 
 as Admiral de Villars, (ve'yiV,) served for a time in 
 the army of the League, but afterwards went over to 
 Henry IV. Being made prisoner at the siege of Doul- 
 lens, he was killed by the Spaniards for his desertion. 
 
 See Motley, " History of the United Netherlands," chap. xxxi. ; 
 Anselme, " Histoire generate des Pairs de France." 
 
 Brancaa, de, Due. See Lauraguais. 
 
 Brancaa, de, deh bRoN'ka', (Louis,) Marquis de 
 Cereste, (sa'rest',) served with distinction under Louis 
 XIV. and Louis XV., and was made marshal of France 
 in 1740. Died in 1750. 
 
 Brancaa- Villeneuve, de, deh bRSN'ka' vel'nuv', 
 (Andre Francois,) a French astronomer. Died in 1748. 
 
 Brancato, bRan-ka'to, (Francesco,) an Italian mis- 
 sionary to China, published a "Treatise on the Eucha- 
 rist," and other works, (in Chinese.) Died in 1671. 
 
 Branch, (John,) born at Halifax, North Carolina, in 
 1782, became a Senator of the United States in 1823, 
 was secretary of the navy from March, 1829, till 1831, 
 and was appointed Governor of Florida in 1843. Died 
 in 1863. . 
 
 Branch, (Lawrence O'Brien,) an American general, 
 born in Halifax county, North Carolina, in 1820, was a 
 son of the preceding, and represented a district of that 
 State in Congress for several years between 1855 and 
 1861. He was killed at the battle of Antietam (where 
 he fought against the Union) in September, 1862. 
 
 Brand? liKant, (Bernard,) a Swiss jurist and magis- 
 trate, born at Bale in 1523, wrote a "Universal History," 
 (in German.) Died in 1594. 
 
 See Brandmoller, "Vie de Bernard Brand," Bale, 1650. 
 Brand, bRant, (Christian,) a German painter, born 
 at Vienna in 1722, was director of the Academy of Land- 
 scapes. Died in 1 795. 
 
 Brand, (John,) an English antiquary, born at New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne about 1741, published "Observations 
 on Popular Antiquities," and "History and Antiquities 
 of the Town of Newcastle," (2 vols., 1789.) Died in 1806. 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1814. 
 
 < as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, h, K.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as *; th as in this. (Uy=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BRJISPD 
 
 428 
 
 BRANT,. 
 
 Brand, (John,) an English divine' and writer on poli- 
 tical economy ; died in 1809. 
 
 Brandau, Saint. See Brendan. 
 
 Brandao, bRan-dowN', (Alexandre,) a Portuguese, 
 who lived about 1650-90, wrote a "History of the War 
 by which Portugal was separated from Spain," (2 vols., 
 1689.) 
 
 Brandao, (Antonio,) a Portuguese historian, suc- 
 ceeded De Brito as chief historiographer of the kingdom, 
 (1617.) Died in 1637. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, "Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Brande, brand, (William Thomas,) F.R.S., an emi- 
 nent English chemist, was born in London in 1788. He 
 became professor of chemistry in the Royal Institution 
 in 1813, and acquired a high reputation as a lecturer. 
 He published a " Manual of Chemistry," (6th edition, 
 1848,) and an excellent "Dictionary of Science, Litera- 
 ture, and Art," (1842.) He was for many years super- 
 intendent of a department in the Mint. Died in 1866. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for November, 181 1, and October, 1813 ; 
 "Gentleman's Magazine" for April, 1S66. 
 
 Brandel, bRan'del, (Peter,) a German painter of his- 
 tory and portraits, born at Prague in 1660 ; died in 1739. 
 
 Brandenburg, E lecto r of. See A lb ert Ac hi lles, 
 and Frederick William. 
 
 Brandenburg, bRan'den-booRG', (Friedrich Wil- 
 helm,) Count of, son of Frederick William II. of Prus- 
 sia by his morganatic marriage with the Countess von 
 Doenhoff, was born at Berlin in 1792. He served in 
 several campaigns against the French, and became lieu- 
 tenant-general. He was appointed prime minister in 
 1848. Died in 1850. 
 
 Brander, bRan'der, (Gustavus,) a Swedish naturalist, 
 resided in London, and was a contributor to the " Philo- 
 sophical Transactions." Died in 1787. 
 
 Brandes, bRan'des, (Ernst,) a German statesman 
 and writer, born at Hanover in 1758, published an 
 "Analysis of Burke's Reflections on the French Revo- 
 lution," and other works. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Heyne, " Memoria Ernesti Brandes," 1S10; Ersch und 
 Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Brandes, [Lat. Brande'sius,] (Heinrich Wil- 
 hk.i.m,) born at Groben in 1777, studied at Gottingen, 
 and became professor of mathematics at Leipsicin 1826. 
 He wrote a "Manual of Higher Geometry," and several 
 treatises on astronomy and hydraulics. Died in 1834. 
 
 See G. Hermann, "Exequias H. Brandesii," 1834. 
 
 Brandes, (Johann Christian,) a German dramatist 
 and actor, born at Stettin in 1735. His wife, Esther 
 Charlotte, was a popular actress, and his daughter, Minna, 
 a distinguished vocalist. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," and his 
 "Autobiography," 3 vols., 1802-07, 
 
 Brandes, (Rudolf,) a German pharmacist, born in 
 Lippe-Detmold in 1795. He was the founder of the 
 "Archives of Pharmacy," to which he made numerous 
 contributions. Died in 1842. 
 
 See L. F. Bley, " Leben des Dr. R. Brandes," 1844. 
 
 Brandi, bRan'dee, (Giacinto,) an Italian painter, born 
 in the Roman States in 1623, was a pupil of Lanfranc. 
 Died in 1691. 
 
 Brandis, bRan'dis, (Christian August,) professor 
 of philosophy at Bonn, a son of Joachim, noticed below, 
 was born at Hildesheim in 1790. He published, con- 
 jointly with Niebuhr, the " Rhenish Museum for Phi- 
 ology, History, and Greek Philosophy," (1827-30,) and 
 wrote several critical works. He was chosen a foreign 
 associate of the French Institute in 1855. Died in 1867. 
 
 Brandis, (Joachim Dietrich,) an eminent German 
 physician and medical writer, born at Hildesheim in 1762. 
 He graduated at Gottingen, became professor of medi- 
 cine at Kiel in 1803, and in 1809 physician to Frederick 
 VI. of Denmark. Died in 1846. 
 
 Brandmiiller, bRint'intJl'ler, (Gregorius,) a Swiss 
 painter, born at Bale in 1661, was a pupil of Lebrun, and 
 worked at Prague and Bale. Among his best works, the 
 design, expression, and colour of which are highly com- 
 mended, is a " Descent from the Cross." Died in 1691. 
 
 Brandmiiller, (Johann,) a Swiss theologian, born in 
 1533, was professor of Hebrew at Bale. Died in 1596. 
 
 Brando, bKan'do, Brand, bRint, or Brands, bRants, 
 (Johann,) a Flemish chronicler, born near Hulst, wrotj 
 a history of the world from the creation to 1413. Died 
 in 1428. 
 
 Brandolese, bRan-do-la'sa, (Pietro,) an Italian bibli- 
 ographer, born in 1754; died in 1809. 
 
 Brandolini, bRan-do-lee'nee, (Aurelio,) an Italian 
 poet and litterateur, surnamed IL Lippo, born at Florence, 
 about 1440. He was a celebrated pulpit orator, was 
 patronized by Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, and 
 became professor of eloquence at Buda. Among his 
 works is one " On the Condition of Human Life," (" De 
 Vitse humanx Conditione," 1541.) Died in 14)7. 
 
 See Gincuene, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie;" Bavle, "Histori- 
 cal and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Brandolini, (Raffaello,) a blind Italian litterateur, 
 brother of the preceding, lived about 1460-1520, and was 
 professor of eloquence at Rome. He had a rare talent 
 for improvising Latin verse. He was patronized by Leo 
 X., who became pope in 1513. 
 
 Bran'don, (Charles,) Duke of Suffolk, a favourite 
 of Henry VIII. of England. He married Mary, a sister 
 of King Henry, the widow of Louis XII. of France. 
 Died in 1545. 
 
 Brandt or Brand, bRant, a German alchemist, who, 
 in attempting to find the philosopher's stone, is said to 
 have first discovered phosphorus.* Died about 1695. 
 
 See F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Brandt, bRant, (Georg,) a Swedish chemist, born in 
 1694, made various interesting experiments upon metals, 
 of which he gave an account in the "Memoirs of the 
 Academy of Upsal." Died in 1768; 
 
 See Gezelius, " Biographiskt- Lexicon." 
 
 Brandt, bRant, (Gerard,) a Dutch Arminian theo- 
 logian, born in Amsterdam in 1626. He preached in his 
 native city, and published, besides other works, a " His- 
 tory of the Reformation in the Low Countries," (2 vols., 
 1671-74.) Died in 1685. 
 
 See Jan van Haes, "Leveri van G. Brandt," 1740. 
 
 Brandt, (Sebastian,) a German poet, born at Stras- 
 burg in 1458, wrote " The Ship of Fools," (" Das Narreir- 
 schiff," 1494,) a satirical poem, which enjoyed extraor- 
 dinary popularity in its time and was translated into 
 Latin and the principal European languages. Died in 
 1521. 
 
 See Flogei., " Geschichte der Komischen Literatur;" Gervinus, 
 "Geschichte der Deutschen Literatur." 
 
 Brandt, von, fon bitSnt, (Heinrich,) a Prussian 
 general, born in Westphalia in 1789, published a " His- 
 tory of the Art of War in the Middle Ages," (1828,) a 
 "Manual of Grand Strategy," (1829,) and other military 
 works. 
 
 Branicki, bRi-nits'kee, (Francis Xavier,) a Polish 
 statesman, took an active part in the dismemberment of 
 Poland by Russia, and was one of the leaders of the 
 confederation of Targowicza. Having been declared a 
 traitor to his country, he retired to the Ukraine, where 
 he died in 1819. 
 
 See Ferrand, "Histoire des trois Dt?membrements de la Po- 
 logne," 1S20. 
 
 Branicki, (John Clement,) grand general of the 
 crown of Poland, born in 1688, was distinguished as the 
 champion of the nobility against the king, Augustus II. 
 Died in 1771. 
 
 See Rui.hiere, " Histoire de l'Anarchie de Pologne," 1807. 
 
 Braniss, bita'niss, (Christlieb Julius,) a German 
 philosophical writer, born at Breslau in 1792. He wrote 
 a " History of Philosophy since Kant," (1842,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Brank'er, (Thomas,) an English mathematician and 
 scientific writer, lived about 1650. 
 
 Bran'nan or Bran'non, (John M.,) an American 
 general, born in the District of Columbia about 1S21, 
 graduated at West Point in 1841. He became a brig» 
 dier-general in September, 1861, and commanded a di* 
 vision at the battle of Chickamauga, September 19 and 
 20, 1863. He served under General Sherman in the 
 campaign against Atlanta, May-September, 1864. 
 
 Brant, (Joseph,) Thayendanega, (tT-er. -da-ne'ga,) 
 a famous Indian chief of the Mohawk tribe, was hern 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moom 
 
BRANTOME 
 
 429 
 
 BRAT 
 
 in 1742. He fought against the American colonists in the 
 Revolution, and had a commission in the British service. 
 After the end of the war he went to England, and pub- 
 lished the Gospel of Mark in Mohawk. Died in 1807. 
 
 See W. L. Stone, "Life of Brant." 
 
 Brantome, bRox'tom', (Pierre de Bourdeilles — 
 deh booR'dJI' or booR'd&'ye,) a popular French historian, 
 born of a noble family about 1540, was a brave soldier, 
 and a witness of many military events of his time. He 
 was for some time chamberlain to the Duke of Alencon, 
 and obtained great favour at the court of Charles IX., 
 who gave him a pension. As a historian he is sprightly, 
 ntttf, and sometimes eloquent, but never profound. His 
 history is valued as a vivid picture of the epoch in which 
 he lived, and of the characters of the principal actors in 
 it. His chief work, entitled "Lives of Illustrious Men 
 and Great Captains, both French and Foreign," (" Les 
 les I lommes illustres et grands Capitaines Francais 
 et etrangers,") was not published until after his death. 
 Died in 1(114. 
 
 See Nicolas de Monmerque, " Notice historique sur Brantome," 
 1824; " X'tuelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Brants or Brantz, bR ants, written also Brant,( John,) 
 a Flemish writer, born at Antwerp in 1559, was father- 
 in-law of the celebrated Rubens. Died in 1639. 
 
 Bran'white, (Peregrine,) an, English poet, born in 
 Suffolk in 1745 ; died in 1794. 
 
 Brard, bRiR, (Cyprien Prosper,) a French mineral- 
 ogist, bom at L'Aigle, in Orne, in 1786. He published, 
 besides other works, "Mineralogy applied to the Arts," 
 (; vols., 1821,) and "New Elements of Mineralogy," 
 (1824.) Died in 1838. 
 
 See Jouannet, "Notice sur C. P. Brard," 1839. 
 
 Brarens, bRa'rens, (Hendrik,) a Danish naval officer, 
 born in 1751, was the author of a "System of Practical 
 lion." Died in 1826. 
 
 Brascassat, bua'ka"sa", (Jean,) a French painter of 
 landscapes and animals, born at Bordeaux in 1805. He 
 gained a first medal in 1831, and was elected a member 
 of tie Institute in 1846. Among his works, which are 
 praised for a rare solidity of colour, are " Mercifry and 
 Argus," and the "Campagna of Rome," (1833.) 
 
 Braschi, bRas'kee, (Giambattista,) an Italian anti- 
 
 uary, and Bishop of Sarsina, born at Cesena in 1664 ; 
 ied in 1727. 
 
 Braschi-Onesti, bRas'kee o-n?s'tee, (Luigi,) Duke 
 
 1 Italian statesman, born at Cesena in 1748, was a 
 
 nephew of Pius VI. He was one of the signers of the 
 
 treaty of Tolentino in 1797, and was afterwards appointed 
 
 mayor of Rome. Died in 1818. 
 
 Srash'er, (ABRAHAM,) an American patriot and colo- 
 nel in the war of the Revolution, born in New York in 
 1734, was the author of numerous popular ballads. Died 
 in 1782. 
 
 Bras'I-das, [Gr. Bpaahfoc,] a celebrated Spartan com- 
 mander in the Peloponnesian war, gained several victo- 
 ries over the Athenians, and rendered important services 
 as negotiator. In Plato's "Symposium" he is compared 
 to Achilles. He was killed in battle at Amphipoiis in 
 422 B.C., alter which annual sacrifices were offered to him 
 as a hero. 
 
 See Thijcydides, books iii., iv., and v, 
 
 Brassac, de, deh bRS'sik', (Jean Gali.ard de 
 Beam — deh ba'iRn',) Comte, a French minister of 
 under Louis XIII., born in the province of Sain- 
 tonge in 1579; died in 1645. 
 
 Brassavola, bRls-si-vo'la, (Antonio Musa,) an 
 Italian physician, born at Ferrara in 1500, was patronized 
 by Frartcis I., Charles V.,the popes Paul III. and Clem- 
 ent VII., and other distinguished persons. Died in 1570. 
 
 .SeeGiNGUENE. "Histoire Lilteraire d'ltalie;" Castellani, " De 
 Vita M. Brassavola: Commentarius," 1767. 
 
 Brasseur, bRa'sUR', (Philip,) a Flemish writer and 
 latin poet, born at Mons about 1597; died about 1650. 
 
 Brassicanus, bRas-se-ka'nus, (Joiiann Alexander,) 
 a German philologist and Latin poet, whose original name 
 was Kohi.burger, born at Wittenberg in 1500 ; died in 
 •53')- 
 
 Brathwayte,brath'wat,(RiCHARl),) an English writer, 
 born in 1588, published "The Prodigal's Tears," "The 
 Golden Fleece," and other poems. Died in 1673. 
 
 I 
 
 Brattle, brat't'I, (Thomas,) an American merchant and 
 scientific writer, born at Boston in 1657; died in 1713. 
 
 Brault, bud, [Charms,) born at Poitiers in 1752, be- 
 came Archbishop of Albi in 1823, and was afterwards 
 made a peer of France. Died in 1833. 
 
 Braun, bRown, (Alexander Karl Hermann,) a 
 German statesman, born at Plauen in 1807, became min- 
 ister of justice and president of the Council in Saxony. 
 (184S.) He resigned office in 1849. 
 
 Braun, (August Emil,) a German archaeologist, born 
 at Gotha in 1809. He resided many years in Rome, 
 where he became pro-secretary to the Archaeological In- 
 stitute. He wrote a treatise "On the Mythology of Art," 
 ("Kunst-Mythologie," with ioo plates,) and "Antique 
 Marbles," (1843.) Died at Rome in 1856. 
 
 Braun, (Joiiann Wilhelm Joseph,) a German 
 Catholic theologian, born near Duron in 1S01. He 
 studied at Bonn, under Hermes, whose peculiar views 
 he adopted. He became professor of ecclesiastical his- 
 tory at Bonn in 1833, and was one of the founders of 
 the "Journal of Philosophy and Catholic Theology." 
 
 See Brockuaur, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Braur. See Brauwer. 
 
 Brauwer or Brouwer, bRow'wer, written also 
 Brawer or Braur, (Adriaan,) a celebrated Dutch 
 painter, born in 1608 at Oudenarde, or, as some writers 
 state, at Haarlem. He was a pupil of Franz Hals, and was 
 patronized by Rubens, but, owing to his dissipated habits, 
 died in poverty at the age of thirty-two. His works are 
 chiefly tavern-scenes, and other delineations of low life, 
 and rank among the best of their kind. Died in 1640. 
 
 See IJescamps, " Viesdes Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Bravais, bui'vi', (Auguste,) a French natural phi- 
 losopher, born at Annonay in 181 1. He has written able 
 treatises on meteorology, crystallography, and astronomy. 
 In 1854 he was admitted into the Institute, (section of 
 geography and navigation.) His brother Louis F. is a 
 botanist and writer. 
 
 Bravo, &Ra'vo, (Bartoi.ome,) a Spanish Jesuit, poet, 
 and grammarian, born about 1560. 
 
 Bravo, (Juan,) a Spanish physician, born in Castile, 
 lived in the second half of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Bravo, bRa'vo, (Nicolas,) a Mexican general, born 
 about 1780 or 1790, was elected vice-president in 1824. 
 He took arms against President Vittoria in 1827, but was 
 quickly defeated, and was banished. Died about 1854. 
 
 Bravo de Sobramonte-Ramires bRa'vo da so- 
 bR3-mon'ta ra-mee'r£s, (Caspar,) professor of medicine 
 and surgery at Valladolid, was physician to Philip IV. 
 and Charles II. 
 
 Bravo-Murillo. See Murili.o. 
 
 Brawe, bRl'weh, (Joachim Wilhelm,) Baron op, 
 a German tragic poet, born at Weissenfels in 1738. His 
 tragedies entitled "Der Freigeist" and "Brutus" were 
 edited and published by Lessing after his death, which 
 took place in 1758. • 
 
 Brawer. See Brauwer. 
 
 Brax'ton, (Carter,) one of the signers of the Decla- 
 ration of American Independence, was bom at Newing- 
 ton, King-and-Queen county, Virginia, in 1736. In 1775 
 he was elected to Congress as successor to Peyton Ran- 
 dolph. Died in 1797. 
 
 Bray, (Anna Eliza,) an English novelist, whose 
 maiden name was Kempe, born in Surrey about 1806. 
 She was married to Charles Stothard in 1818, and to 
 Rev. Edward A. Bray about 1825. She published a 
 number of novels, among which are "Gaston de Foix," 
 (1826,) "The White Hoods," (1828,) "Talba," (1834,) 
 and "Trelawncy," (1837 ;) also, "Traditions and Legends 
 of Devonshire," (1838.) 
 
 See " London Quarterly" for October, 1837. 
 
 Bray, (Sir Reginald,) an English architect, and a 
 favourite of Henry VII., whose chapel at Westminster 
 is supposed to have been designed by him. He also con- 
 structed the nave of Saint George's Chapel at Windsor. 
 Died in 1503. 
 
 Bray, (Thomas,) an English divirte, born in Shrop- 
 shire in 1656, made several voyages to America as a 
 missionary, and founded in 1697a society for the propa- 
 gation of 'he gospel in the colonies. Died in 1730. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BRAT 
 
 43° 
 
 BREDERODE 
 
 Bray, (William,) an English antiquary, born in 1736, 
 published the " Diary and Memoirs of Evelyn," and was 
 t. contributor to the " Archaeologia." He was a Fellow 
 of the Society of Antiquaries. Died about 1830. 
 
 Bray, de, deh bRi, (Francois Gabriel,) a French 
 diplomatist, born at Rouen in 1765, was minister to 
 Berlin and Saint Petersburg, (1808.) He published a 
 "Critical Essay on the History of Livonia," (1817,) and 
 several scientific works. A genus of plants has been 
 called Braya in his honour. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Martius, "filoge acade'mique du Comte de Bray," 1835. 
 
 Bray, de, deh bRi, (Jakob,) an excellent Dutch 
 painter of portraits and history, son of Salomon, noticed 
 below, born at Haarlem about 1600 ; died in 1664. 
 
 Bray, de, (Salomon,) a Dutch painter, born at Haar- 
 lem in 1 579 ; died in 1664. 
 
 Bray'brooke, (Richard Cornwallis Neville,) 
 Lord, an English antiquary, born in London in 1820 ; 
 died in 1861. 
 
 Braybrooke, (Richard Neville Griffin,) Lord, 
 an English antiquary, born about 1783. He published a 
 "History of Audley End, Essex." Died in 1858. 
 
 Brayer de Beauregard, bRfyi' deh boR'gtR', 
 (Jean Baptiste Louis,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Soissons in 1770, wrote several works on political econ- 
 omy. Died in 1834. 
 
 Bray'ley, (Edward Wedlake,) an English anti- 
 quary and topographer, born in London in 1773. He 
 published numerous works on the antiquities and to- 
 pography of England, among which is " Londoniana," 
 (4 vols., 1829.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Bray 'man, (Mason,) an American officer, born at 
 Buffalo, New York, in 1813, entered the Union army in 
 1861, and became brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. 
 
 Brea, bRa'a, (Lodovico,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Nice, flourished from about 1480 to 15 15. He worked 
 mostly at Genoa. His heads and draperies are com- 
 mended. 
 
 Breard, bRa'tR', (Jean Jacques,) born at Marennes, 
 in France, in 1760, was a member of the National Con- 
 vention, where he voted for the death of the king. Died 
 in 1840. 
 
 Brebeuf, de, (Guillaume,) a French poet, born at 
 Thorigny in 1618. He produced a metrical version of 
 Lucan's " Pharsalia," which was once popular, but was 
 severely criticised by Boileau in his "Art Poetique." 
 Died in 1661. 
 
 Brebeuf, de, (Jean,) a French missionary, born in 
 1593, laboured in Canada, where he was killed by sav- 
 ages in 1649. 
 
 Brebiette, bReh-be-eV, (Pierre,) a French painter 
 and engraver, born about 1596. 
 
 Brechten, bR^K'ten, or Verbrechten, v?r-bR£K'ten, 
 (Nikolaas,) a Dutch poet, born at Haarlem about 1240. 
 
 Breckburg. See Berkheiden. 
 
 Breck'en-ridge, (James,) an American politician, 
 born in Botetourt county, Virginia, in 1763, was a repre- 
 sentative in Congress from 1809- to 1817, and was an 
 active leader of the Federal party. Died in 1833. 
 
 Breckenridge, (John,) attorney-general of the United 
 States under Jefferson from 1805 to 1806, was born in 
 Virginia near the middle of the eighteenth century. 
 Having removed to Kentucky, he was elected in 1801 
 to the United States Senate. In this body he proposed 
 the repeal of the judiciary system established at the close 
 of Adams's administration, and took a prominent part in 
 the great debate which followed. Died in 1806. 
 
 Breckenridge, (John,) D.D., an eminent Presbyte- 
 rian divine, son of the preceding, and uncle of John C. 
 Breckinridge, (Vice-President of the United States,) was 
 born at Cabell's Dale, Kentucky, in 1797. He graduated 
 at Princeton in l8l8,andsubsequentlybecameaprofessor 
 in that institution. 
 
 Breckenridge, usually written Breckinridge, (John 
 C.,) an American statesman and general, a nephew of 
 Robert J. Breckenridge, was born near Lexington, Ken- 
 tucky, in 1821. He studied law, became a Democrat in 
 party politics, and was elected to Congress from Ken- 
 tucky in 1851, and re-elected in 1853. Having been nomi- 
 nated as Democratic candidate for Vice-President, he was 
 elected in November, 1856, when James Buchanan was 
 
 chosen President. He was nominated for the Presidency 
 in i860 by the disunion Democrats, after they had seceded 
 from the convention which nominated Douglas as a Union 
 Democrat. He had two other competitors, — John Bell 
 and Abraham Lincoln. He received seventy-two elec- 
 toral votes, Lincoln received one hundred and eighty, 
 Bell thirty-nine, and Douglas twelve. All the Southern 
 States, except Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mis- 
 souri, voted for Breckinridge. He was elected to the 
 Senate of the United States by the legislature of Ken- 
 tucky, and took his seat in March, 1861. After he had 
 defended the cause of the new confederacy by several 
 speeches in the Senate, he went to the South in Septem- 
 ber, 1861, and took arms against the Union, with the 
 rank of brigadier-general. He commanded a division at 
 Stone River, December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863, and at 
 Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. He defeated 
 General Sigel near Newmarket, Virginia, in May, 1864. 
 His corps formed part of the army of Early, which Sheri- 
 dan defeated near Winchester in September, 1864. He 
 was appointed Confederate secretary of war in January, 
 1865. Soon after the surrender of General Lee, he sailed 
 for Europe. He returned to the United States in 1868. 
 
 Breckenridge, (Robert J.,) an American Presby- 
 terian divine, born at Cabell's Dale, Kentucky, in 1800, is 
 a son of John Breckenridge, (the first of the name,) no- 
 ticed above. He studied at Yale College, graduated at 
 Union College in 1819, practised law eight years in Ken- 
 tucky, and became pastor of a church in Baltimore in 
 1832. About 1847 he removed to Lexington, Kentucky. 
 He gained distinction as a preacher and a writer, had 
 much influence in the church, and was appointed pro- 
 fessor of theology in a seminary at Danville, Kentucky, 
 in 1853. Among his works are "Travels in Europe," 
 (1839.) and "The Knowledge of God objectively consid- 
 ered," (1857.) He is said to have been the principal 
 author of the common-school system of Kentucky. 
 During the civil war he was a decided and earnest sup- 
 porter of the Union. Died in 1871. 
 
 Breckinridge, (John C.) See Breckenridge. 
 
 Brecling, bReViing, (Frederik.) a Danish Protest- 
 ant theologian and writer, born in 1629; died in 1711. 
 
 Brecourt, de, deh bRa'kooR', (Guillaume Marcou- 
 rf.au,) a French actor and dramatic poet. Died in 1685. 
 
 Breda, van, vfnbReh -da', (Jan,) a Flemish painter of 
 landscapes, fairs, battles, etc., born at Antwerp in 1683. 
 He copied the works of Breughel and Wouwerman with 
 remarkable skill. His touch and skies and distances are 
 praised by Descamps. Died in 1750. 
 
 See Descami-s, " Viesdes Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Breda, van, (Pieter,) a Flemish landscape-painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1630 ; died in 1681. 
 
 Bredahl, bRa-dil', (Christian David,) a Danish 
 poet, born in 1784, wrote "Dramatic Scenes taken from 
 an Old Manuscript," and other works. 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." 
 
 Bredahl, (Niels Krog,) a Danish dramatist, born 
 about 1732, wrote several plays, and translated Ovid's 
 "Metamorphoses" into Danish verse. Died in 1778. 
 
 Bredenbach, bRa'den-biK', (Tilmann,) a historical 
 writer, born at Emmerich about 1535 ; died in 1587. 
 
 Brederode, bRa'deh-ro'deh, (Gerisrand,) a Dutch 
 poet, born at Amsterdam in 1585. Among his principal 
 works are "The Meditative Song-Book," "The Great 
 Fountain of Love," and a comedy entitled " Spaanschen 
 Brabander." Died in 1618. 
 
 See 1.<wgfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Brederode, bRa-deh-ro'deh, (Hendrik,) Count, a 
 Flemish nobleman, born in Brussels in 1531,'was an 
 adherent of Egmont and Horn. In 1566 he presented a 
 petition to the Duchess of Parma for the removal of the 
 Inquisition. He was also one of the principal members 
 of the association called " Les Gueux,"("The Beggars.") 
 Having fought unsuccessfully against the Spaniards, he 
 took refuge in Germany, where he died in 1568. 
 
 See P. Scheltema, " H. van Brederode te Amsterdam in 1567," 
 1847 ; Schiller, " History of the Revolt of the Netherlands :" 
 Motley, "Dutch Republic;" M. C. van Hall, "H. Graaf van 
 Brederode verdedigd," 1845. 
 
 Brederode, (Pieter Kornelis,) a Dutch jurist, born 
 at the Hague, flourished about 1600. 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mit; not; gocd; moon; 
 
BREDOW 
 
 43' 
 
 BRENDAN 
 
 Bredow,bRa'do, (Gabriel Gottfried,) born at Ber- 
 lin iu 1773, became professor of history at Breslau in 
 181 1. He published a "Manual of Ancient History," 
 etc., (1803,) "Memorable Events of Universal History," 
 (1810,) and a series of tables entitled " Historische Ta- 
 bellen," which were translated into English by Major 
 Bell. Died at Breslau in 1814. 
 
 See Kunisch, " Bredows Leben,"i8i6; Ersch und Gruber, 
 ^AJlgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bredsdorff, bReWdoRf, (Jakob Hornemann,) a 
 Danish naturalist, born in Seeland in 1790, became in 
 1828 professor of botany and mineralogy at Soroe. He 
 published " Elements of Geognosy," and other scientific 
 works. Died in 1841. 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." 
 
 Bree, bRa, (Mathieu Ignace,) a distinguished his- 
 torical painter, born at Antwerp in 1773, was director of 
 the Academy of Fine Arts in that city. Died in 1839. 
 
 See F. Bogaerts, "M. van Bree," 184a. 
 
 Bree, (Robert,) an English physician, born in War- 
 wickshire in 1759, practised in London. He published 
 " An Inquiry into Disordered Respiration," (1797.) Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Breenberg, bRan'b?RG, or Breemberg, bRam'b?RG, 
 (BaRTHOLOMEUS,) a Dutch painter and engraver, born 
 at Utrecht about 1620, excelled in small landscapes and 
 animals. Died in 1660. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Bregis or Brtgy, de, deh bRa'zhe', (Charlotte 
 Baumaise de Chazan — so'mjz' deh shS'zoN',) Com- 
 Tkssk, a witty and accomplished French lady, born in 
 Paris in 1619, was a niece of the celebrated Salmasius. 
 She was maid of honour to Anne of Austria. Died in 
 1693, leaving a collection of letters and poems. 
 
 See " Memoires de Madame de Motteville." 
 
 Breguet, bRi'gl', (Abraham Louis,) a celebrated 
 Swiss mechanician and watchmaker, born at Neufchatel 
 in 1747. He made improvements in watches, and in- 
 vented numerous astronomical, nautical, and other in- 
 struments, distinguished for the perfection of their work- 
 manship. He was a member of the French Bureau of 
 Longitude, and of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 See Fourier, "Fjoge de Breguet." 
 
 Breguet, (Louis,) a French watchmaker and natural 
 philosopher, grandson of the preceding, was born in Paris 
 in 1804. He is said to have been the first Frenchman 
 who applied himself seriously to the electric telegraph, 
 on which he produced a treatise in 1845. 
 
 Bregy. See Bregis. 
 
 Brehm, bRam, (Christian Ludwig,) a German or- 
 nithologist, born at Schonau in 1787. He published a 
 "Manual of the Natural History of European Birds," 
 (2 vols., 1823-24,) and other works. 
 
 Brehmer, bRa'mer, (Heinrich,) a German jurist and 
 diplomatist, born at Lubeck in 1800. 
 
 Breislak, bRls'lak, (Scipio,) an eminent geologist, of 
 German extraction, born at Rome in 1748. Having been 
 appointed professor in the Nazarene College at Rome, 
 he made valuable contributions to the mineralogical cabi- 
 net of that institution. He subsequently visited Paris, 
 where he became acquainted with Cuvier and other cel- 
 ebrated savants. He published " Physical Topography 
 of the Campagna," (1798,) "Introduction to Geology, 
 (181 1,) and other works, in which he favours the vulcanic 
 the y. He died in 1826, leaving his cabinet of minerals 
 to the Borromeo family. 
 
 See CoNFici.iACHl, " Memorie intorno alle Opere, etc. del Gen- 
 loco S Kreislak," 1827; "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1804, and 
 September, 1816. 
 
 Breithaupt, bRlt'howpt, (Joachim Justus,) a German 
 Protestant divine and sacred poet, born in Hanover in 
 1658, became professor of theology at Halle. 
 
 Breithaupt, (Johann August Friedrich,) a dis- 
 tinguished German mineralogist, born near Saalfeld, 
 Saxe-Meiningen, in May, 1791, was a pupil of Werner. 
 He liecame professor of oryctognosy at Freiberg in 1827. 
 He discovered a number of new species of minerals. His 
 chief work is a "Complete Manual of Mineralogy," (3 
 vols., 1836-47 ) 
 
 Breitinger, bRT'ting'er. (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss 
 scholar and writer, born at Zurich in 1701, became pro 
 fessor of Greek and Hebrew in his native city. He was 
 associated with Bodmer in his efforts to reform German 
 literature, and took a prominent part in the controversy 
 with Gottsched. He was the author of a "Critique on 
 the Art of Poetry," ("Kritische Dichtkunst,") and other 
 works. Died in 1776. 
 
 See J. C. Lavater, " E'loge historique de J. J, Breitinger," 1771. 
 
 Breitkopf, bRit'kopf, (Johann Gottlob Emma- 
 nuel,) a distinguished German typographer, born at 
 Leipsic in 17 19, introduced great improvements into the 
 form of types, and wrote a work on the invention of 
 printing. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Haurius, 
 " Biographie J. G. E. Breitkopfs," 1794. 
 
 Brembati, bR?m-ba'tee, (Isotta,) an Italian poetess, 
 born at Bergamo ; died in I ;86. 
 
 Bre'mfr, [Sw. pron. bRli'mer,] (Frederika or Fred- 
 RIKA,) a celebrated Swedish novelist, born at Abo, in Fin- 
 land, in 1802. Her parents having removed to Sweden 
 while she was yet a child, her education was finished at 
 Stockholm, where she was subsequently teacher in a fe- 
 male seminary. She early became familiar with German 
 literature, and was an especial admirer of the works of 
 Schiller. Her novel of " The Neighbours" was first made 
 known to the English and American public in 1842, 
 through the excellent translation of Mrs. Mary Howitt. 
 It was followed by "The Home," (1843,) "The Presi- 
 dent's Daughters," "The Diary," "The H. Family," 
 "Strife and Peace," "Nina," "Brothers and Sisters," 
 and several others, also translated by Mrs. Howitt. 
 They enjoy great popularity in England and the United 
 States, and have been translated into German, French, 
 Dutch, and other languages. Having visited the United 
 States in 1850, she published, after her return, "The 
 Homes of the New World," (1853,) of which an English 
 and a German translation soon appeared. Among her 
 more recent works are "England in 1851," and a novel 
 entitled " Hertha," (1856.) Died in 1866. 
 
 See " Life, Letters, and Posthumous Works of Frederika Bremer," 
 edited by her sister Charlotte, New York, tamo, 1868; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for November, 1843 ; and an article in the " North Ameri- 
 can Review" for April, 1844, (by Lowell.) 
 
 Bremond, bR&-m6N', (Gabrielle,) a French lady, 
 born at Marseilles, travelled in Egypt, Palestine, and 
 Syria, and wrote an account of her journey, which was 
 translated into Italian, (1673.) 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Bremond, de, deh bReh-mdN', (Charles,) Marquis 
 d'Ars, (diR,) a French naval officer, born in Saintonge 
 in 1738, was killed in battle against the English in 1761 
 
 Bremond, de, deh bRa'mON', (Francois,) a French 
 natural philosopher, born in Paris in 1713. He pro- 
 duced a good translation of the " Philosophical Trans- 
 actions of the Royal Society of London," (4 vols., 1738.) 
 Died in 1742. 
 
 Bremond, de; (Gabriel,) a French romance-writer, 
 lived about 1670-1703. 
 
 Bremond d'Ars, de, deh bReh-m6N'dSRs, (Charles,) 
 a French captain, born in 1538, rendered important ser- 
 vices to the king and Catholic party in the civil wars. 
 Died in 1599. 
 
 See Dupleix, " Histoire de France." 
 
 Bremond d' Arses, (or d'Ars,) bReJi-moN' diRs, 
 (Ixwis,) a French commander, born in Saintonge, distin- 
 guished himself in Italy in the reign of Louis XII., and 
 had a high command at Ravenna in 151 1. 
 
 Bremontier, bRi'mAN'te-i', (Nicolas Theodore,) 
 a French engineer and inspector-general of bridges and 
 highways, born in 1738; died in 1809.' 
 
 Bremser, bR?m'ser, (Johann Gottfried,) a German 
 physician and naturalist, born at Wertheim, on the Main, 
 in 1767. He practised in Vienna, and wrote on intestina! 
 worms. Died in 1827. 
 
 Bren'dan, Saint, written also Brandan, was born 
 in Ireland in the fifth century. According to a legend 
 which obtained currency for several centuries, he made 
 a long voyage in the Atlantic and discovered an island 
 called by his name. Died in 577 A.D. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1836. 
 
 e as A; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BRENDEL 
 
 43* 
 
 BRET 
 
 Brendel, bReVdel, (Adam,) a German physician, was 
 professor of anatomy and botany at Wittenberg. Died 
 in 1719. 
 
 Brendel, (Johann Gottfried,) a German physician, 
 born at Wittenberg in 1712, became professor of medi- 
 cine at Gottingen. Died in 1758. 
 
 Brendel, (Zacharias,) a Germanmedical writer, born 
 at Jena in 1592 ; died in 1638. 
 
 Brenius, bRa'ne-us, (Daniel,) a Dutch theologian, 
 born at Haarlem in 1594, was a disciple of Episcopius. 
 Died in 1664. 
 
 Brenkenhoff; bRenk'en-hof, (Leopold,) a German 
 writer on the art of war, born at Dessau in 1750; died 
 in 1799. 
 
 Brenkenhoff, von, fon bRenk'en-hof, (Franz Bal- 
 thasar Schoenberg,) a German rural economist, born 
 near Halle in 1723 ; died in 1780. 
 
 See Meissner, " Leben des F. B. Schoenberg von Brenkenhoff," 
 1782. 
 
 Brenkmann, bRenk'man, (Hendrik,) a Dutch jurist, 
 born at Rotterdam about 1680; died in 1736. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Brenner, bRen'ner, (Elias,) a Swedish antiquary and 
 artist, born in 1647, was appointed miniature-painter to 
 Charles XI. Died in 1717. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Brenner, (Hf.nrik,) a Swedish scholar and historian, 
 born in 1669. He translated into Latin the " History of 
 Armenia" of Moses Chorenensis, and wrote an account 
 of the expedition of Peter the Great against Persia. Died 
 in 1732. 
 
 Brenner, (Sofia Elisabet Weber,) a Swedish poet- 
 ess, born about 1660, was the wife of Elias, above noticed. 
 Died about 1730. 
 
 Bren'nus, a famous chief of the Sen'ones, a tribe of 
 Gauls, invaded the Roman State about 390 B.C. Having 
 defeated the Roman army, he entered Rome, which he 
 found deserted except by a number of aged senators 
 sitting in ivory chairs, whom the Gauls massacred. The 
 Capitol, however, was defended by a garrison, whom Bren- 
 nus attempted to surprise by night; but Manlius and 
 his companions, alarmed by the clamour of some geese, 
 repulsed the Gauls. Brennus was induced to depart by 
 the payment of one thousand pounds of gold — plus the 
 weight of his sword, which he threw into the scale, ex- 
 claiming, "Vae victis!" According to the popular story, 
 Camillus, who had been previously banished, came to 
 the relief of his countrymen at the very moment when 
 they were weighing out the money which was to purchase 
 peace with the Gauls : the latter were so utterly defeated 
 that, it is said, not one remained to carry home the news 
 of their overthrow. (See Camillus.) 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome," book v. 
 
 Brennus, a Gallic chieftain, invaded Greece about 
 280 B.C. with an immense army, and committed great 
 devastation. He was defeated at Delphi, and died soon 
 after that event. 
 
 Brent, (Nathaniel,) an English jurist and litterateur, 
 born in Warwickshire in 1573. He translated into Eng- 
 lish and Latin Paul Sarpi's " History of the Council of 
 Trent." Died in 1652. 
 
 Brenta, bRen'ta, [Lat. Bren'tius,] . (Andrea,) an 
 Italian physician and litterateur, born at Padua about 
 1450, was secretary to Cardinal Caraffa. Died in 1483. 
 
 Brentana, bRen-ta'nii, (Simone,) an Italian painter, 
 born in 1656 at Verona, or, as stated by some writers, 
 at Venice. Among his master-pieces is a " Martyrdom 
 of Saint Sebastian," at Verona. Died about 1736. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Brentano, bRefi-ta'no, (Clemens,) a German novel- 
 ist and dramatist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1777, 
 was the brother of Bettina von Arnim, the friend of 
 Goethe. Among his most popular works are the dramas 
 of "Ponce de Leon" and "The Foundation of Prague," 
 (" Die Grundung Prags,") a tale entitled " History of 
 the Brave Kaspar and the Fair Annerl," and a collection 
 of national ballads called "Des Knaben Wunderhorn," 
 written conjointly with his brother-in-law, A. von Arnim. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Brentano, (Lorenz,) a German politician, born at 
 Manheim in 1810, took an active part in the Baden revo- 
 lution of 1848. Being afterwards compelled to leave his 
 country, he took refuge in America. 
 
 Brentano, (Sophie,) wife of Clemens, noticed above, 
 born at Altenburg in 1761, was originally named Schu- 
 Bart. She published several poems and romances. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Brentel, bRen'tel, (Frederick,) a painter of Stras- 
 bttrg, born about 1580, numbered William Bawer among 
 his pupils. 
 
 Brentrus. See Brentz and Brenta. 
 
 Bren'ton, (Captain Edward Pelham,) an English 
 naval officer, born in 1774, wrote a "Naval History of 
 Great Britain from 1783 to 1822," (5 vols.) Died in 1839. 
 
 See " Memoir of Capt. E. Pelham Brenton," by Sir J. Brenton. 
 
 Brenton, (Sir Jahleel,) a British rear-admiral, bro- 
 ther of the preceding, born in 1770. He published "The 
 Hope of the Navy," (1839,) and other works. Died in 
 1844. 
 
 See Henry Raikes, "Memoir of Sir Jahleel Brenton," 1S.15; 
 " London Quarterly Review" for March, 1847. 
 
 Brentz, brunts, or Brentzen, bRtlnt'sen, [Lat. Bren'- 
 tius,] (Johann,) a German Protestant theologian, and 
 coadjutor of Luther, born at Weil, in Suabia, in 1499. 
 He assisted at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, drew up 
 the "Confession of Wurtemberg," and was present at 
 the Council of Trent. Pursued by the emissaries of 
 Charles V, he was at length protected by Duke Ulric 
 of Wurtemberg. Died in 1570. 
 
 See J. W. Camerer, "J. Brentz der Wurtembergische Reforma- 
 tor," 1S40; Carl Dietrich, "Leben des J. Brentz," 1841 ; Vai- 
 hinger, " Leben und Wirkeu des Reformators J. Brentz," 1841. 
 
 Brentzen. See Brentz. 
 
 Brequigny, de, deh bRa'ken'ye', (Louis George 
 Oudard Feudrix — fuh'dRe',) a French historian and 
 antiquary, born at Granville in 1716, was a member of 
 the French Academy and of the Academy of Inscriptions. 
 He wrote, in conjunction with Mouchet, a continuation 
 of the " Memoirs of the Chinese," begun by Amiot and 
 others, and assisted in the publication of the "Collection 
 of Laws and Ordinances of the Kings of the Third Race." 
 Died in 1795. 
 
 See Grimm, "Correspondance." 
 
 Brera, bRa'ra, (Valeriano Luigi,) an Italian physi- 
 cian and medical writer of great merit, born at Pavia in 
 1772, became professor of therapeutics and clinics in his 
 native city. Died in Venice in 1840. 
 
 See Tassinari, " Raccolta della Cure e Scritti del Professore 
 V. L. Brera," 1840. 
 
 Brere'ton, (Jane Hughes,) an English poetess, born 
 in Flintshire in 1685; died in 1740. 
 
 Brere'wood, (Edward,) an English mathematician 
 and antiquary, born at Chester in 1565. He published 
 "The Patriarchal Government of the Ancient Church," 
 a treatise " On the Weights and Values of Ancient Coins, 
 etc.," (" De Ponderibus et Pretiis Veterum Nummorum,") 
 and other works, in English and Latin. Died in 1613. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenaa Oxonienses." 
 
 Bres, bRa, (Jean Pierre,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Limoges in 1782, was one of the editors of the " Revue 
 Encyclopedique." Died in 1832. 
 
 Breschet, bui'shi', (Gilbert,) a French physician, 
 medical writer, and professor of anatomy in the Faculty 
 of Paris, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1784. He was a 
 member of the Institute. Died in 1845. 
 
 Brescia, da, da brgsh'yj or bRa'sha, or Bresciano, 
 bRi-sha'no, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian painter and 
 engraver, born at Brescia about 1460. His brother 
 Giovanni Antonio, born about 1461, was an engraver. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Bresmal, bRi'mtl', (Jean Francois,) a Flemish 
 medical writer of Liege, lived about 1700. 
 
 Bressani, bRes-sa'nee, (Gregorio,) an Italian philos- 
 opher, born at Treviso in 1703, wrote against the doc- 
 trines of Galileo, and in favour of Aristotle. Died in 1771. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire Litte'raire d'ltalie." 
 
 Bret, bRi, (Antoine,) a French littirateur, born at 
 Dijon in 1 717, wrote a "Commentary on the Works of 
 Moliere," and other works. Died in 1792. 
 
 a, f, 5, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BRETAGNE 
 
 433 
 
 BRETDEL 
 
 Bretagne, de, (Anne.) See Anne of Brittany. 
 
 Bretagne, de, (Arthur.) See Arthur. 
 
 Breteuil, de, deh bReh-tuI', (Louis Auguste le 
 Touuelier — leh ton'le_-i',) Baron, a French diplomatist 
 of the royalist party, born in Touraine in 1733, was em- 
 ployed in missions to Russia, Sweden, and Naples, and 
 became minister of state about 1783. Died in 1807. 
 
 Breton, bReh-ti.M', (Francois Pierre Hiitolytk. 
 Ernest,) a French artist and antiquary, born in Paris in 
 1S12. He published "Monuments ot All Nations," (2 
 vols., 1843, with 300 engravings designed by himself,) 
 which was translated into several languages, and "Pom- 
 peia," (1S55.) He wrote many articles on painters for 
 the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Breton, (Guili.aume,) sometimes called Gulielmus 
 Brito-Armoricus, a French ecclesiastic and historian, 
 born in Brittany about 1150. He was chaplain at the 
 court of Philip Augustus, and wrote two histories of his 
 reign, — one, entitled " Philippis," in Latin verse, the other 
 in prose. Died in 1226. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Breton, brit'on, (Nicholas,) an English poet, born 
 in 1555. He wrote pastorals, sonnets, etc Died in 
 J624. 
 
 Breton, (Raymond,) a French missionary to the West 
 Indies, born in 1609, published a "French-Carib and 
 Carib- French Dictionary," and a "Carib Grammar." 
 Died in 1679. 
 
 Breton de los Herreros, bRa-tdn' da 16s e>-ra'ros, 
 (Manuel,) a Spanish dramatist and poet, born in the 
 province of Logrono in 1796. 
 
 Bretonnayau, bkeh-to'ni 'yo', (Rene,) a French sur- 
 geon and writer, lived about 1540-90. 
 
 Bretonne, de la. See Reitf. 
 
 Bretonneau, bReh-to'no', ( Francois,) a French 
 Jesuit, theological writer, and pulpit orator, born in 
 Touraine in 1660; died in 1 741. 
 
 Bretonneau, (Pierre,) a French physician and medi- 
 cal writer, born at Tours in 1771. He obtained celebrity 
 as a practitioner, and is the reputed inventor of the ope- 
 ration called tracheotomy. Died in 1862. 
 
 See Callisbn, "Medicinische Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 
 
 Bretschneider, bRet'shnl'der, (Heinrich Gott- 
 fried,) a German litterateur, born at Gera in 1739. He 
 was the author of fables, poems, romances, and satires, 
 and " Travels to London and Paris," a translation of 
 which appeared in "Blackwood's Magazine." He is 
 also supposed to have furnished the principal material 
 for Nicolai's "Travels." Died in 1810. 
 
 See Ersch und Grl*ber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bretschneider, (Karl Gottlieb,) a German ration- 
 alist theologian, born at Gersdorf in 1776, was general 
 superintendent in Gotha. He published a "Dogmatic 
 Manual of the Evangelical Lutheran Church," (1814-18.) 
 and "Corpus Reformatorum, or Philippi Melanchthonis 
 Opera quae supersunt Omnia," (15 vols., 1834-48.) Died 
 in 1848. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," ("Selbstbiographie,") 1851. 
 
 Brett, (Thomas,) an English nonjuror, born in Kent 
 in 1667. He became rector of Ruckinge in 1705. He 
 Wrote several polemical treatises. Died in 1743. 
 
 Bretteville, de, deh bret'vel', (Etif.nnf. Dubois,) a 
 French theologian, born near Caen in 16=10; died in 
 1688. 
 
 Breughel, bRtih'gel or bRuh'Hel, (Abraham,) sur- 
 named the Neapolitan, an excellent painter of birds 
 and of still lite, born at Antwerp, resided many years in 
 Koine and Naples. Died in 1690. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Breughel, ij \N,)an eminent Flemish painter, brdther 
 of Peter the younger, born at Brussels about 1570, was 
 called Velvet Breughel, from the usual material of his 
 dress. 1 le painted landscapes, fruit, flowers, and animals 
 with admirable skill. Among his master-pieces is the 
 landscape of " Adam and Eve in Paradise," now in the 
 11m of the Louvre, for which Rubens furnished the 
 figures. In conjunction with that great artist he executed 
 'The Four Elements," and " Vertumnus and Bellona." 
 His death is variously dated from 1625 to 1642. 
 
 See Dp-scamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Breughel, (Peter or Pieter,) an eminent Flemish 
 painter, sumamed the Droll, born near Breda about 
 1525, excelled in village festivals and comic subjects. 
 Died about 1 590. 
 
 Breughel, (Peter,) son of the preceding, born af 
 Brussels alxnit 1569, was sumamed the Hellish) from 
 the nature of the subjects he painted. Died about 1625. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 Breuil, du. See Dubreuil. 
 
 Brev'al, de, (John Durand,) an English officer and 
 writer, published a " History of the House of Nassau," 
 and several poems. Died in 1739. 
 
 Breves, de, deh bRiv, (Francois Savary,) Comte, 
 a French diplomatist, born in 1560, was ambassador to 
 Constantinople and to Rome. Died in 1628. 
 
 Brev'int, (Daniel,) a Protestant theologian, born in 
 the island of Jersey in 1616. After the restoration of 
 Charles II. he became Dean of Lincoln. Died in 1695. 
 
 Brew'er, (Anthony,) an English dramatist, lived 
 about 1615-30, and wrote a play entitled "Lingua." 
 
 Brewer, (Samuel,) an English botanist, was a friend 
 of Dillenius, whom he assisted in publishing his " His- 
 torv of Mosses," ("Historia Muscorum.") Died in 1743. 
 
 Brewer, (Thomas,) an English musician and lyrical 
 composer, lived under the reign of Charles I. 
 
 Brews'ter, (Sir David,) an eminent British optician 
 and experimental philosopher, born at Jedburgh, Scot- 
 land, December 11, 1781. He was educated at the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, for the ministry, and was licensed 
 to preach ; but his fondness for scientific research led him 
 to abandon the profession of divine and devote himself to 
 his favourite pursuits. He was editor of the " Edinburgh 
 Encyclopaedia" from its commencement, in 1808, until its 
 completion, about 1829, and wrote many articles for that 
 valuable work. After he had been engaged some years 
 in optical researches, he published, in 1812, a "Treatise 
 on Burning Instruments, containing the Method of builcr- 
 ing Large Polyzonal Lenses." In 1815 the Royal Society 
 of London awarded him the Copley medal for his essay 
 " On the Polarization of Light by Reflection," and elected 
 him a Fellow. He invented the kaleidoscope about 1816. 
 In the same year he received from the French Institute 
 half of the prize of three thousand francs awarded for 
 the two most important discoveries made in Europe in 
 physical science during the two years preceding. Dr. 
 Brewster and Professor Jameson founded the "Edin- 
 burgh Philosophical Journal" in 1819, and the "Edin- 
 burgh Journal of Science," of which sixteen volumes 
 were issued. He invented an improved system of illumi- 
 nating light-houses by polyzonal (or polygonal) lenses, 
 which was adopted in 1833. He marriecf a daughter of 
 Macpherson, the author or editor of "Ossian's Poems." 
 
 Among his chief works are a "Treatise on Optics," 
 (1831,) "More Worlds than One, the Creed of the Phi- 
 losopher and the Hope of the Christian," (1854,) and 
 "Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir 
 Isaac Newton," (2 vols., 1855.) Among his chief titles 
 to celebrity are his discovery of the law of the polar- 
 ization of light by reflection, and his researches on double 
 refraction. 
 
 "In the earlier compositions of Sir David, always 
 severe in style and sternly scientific in form," says Hugh 
 Miller, "there is comparatively little indication of that 
 rich flow of fancy and imagination and that fertility of 
 happy illustration which his later writings exhibit." He 
 was a contributor to the "North British Review" and the 
 "Encyclopaedia Britannica." In 1841 he was appointed 
 principal of Saint Leonard's College at Saint Andrew's. 
 In 1849 he was elected one of the eight foreign associates 
 of the Institute of France, in place of Berzelius. Died 
 in February, 1868. 
 
 Brewster, (William,) one of the Pilgrim Fathers, 
 was born at Scrooby, England, in 1560. He was one of 
 a company of Puritans who emigrated to Holland, and 
 he removed to Plymouth in 1620. He was a ruling elder 
 in the church. Died in 1644. 
 
 See '* Life and Times oT William Brewster," by A. Steele, 1857. 
 
 Breydel, bRT'del, (Carl,) a Flenjish painter of land- 
 scapes, battles, etc., born at Antwerp in 1677 ; died in 
 1744- 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 28 
 
 (2£y = See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BRETDEL 
 
 434 
 
 BRIGGS 
 
 Breydel, (Frants,) a Flemish painter of portraits, 
 carnivals, and feasts, brother of the preceding, born at 
 Antwerp in 1679; died in 1750. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Breyn, bRln, [Lat. Brey'nius,] (Jakob,) a German 
 botanist, born at Dantzic in 1637 ; died in 1697. 
 
 Breyn, (Joha.sh Philipp,) a German physician and 
 scientific writer, born at Dantzic in 1690; died in 1764. 
 
 Brez, bKi, (Jacques,) a botanist, and Protestant min- 
 ister, born in Piedmont in 1771, published a "History 
 cf the Waldenses," (2 vols., 1797.) Died in 1798. 
 
 Breze. See Maille-Breze. 
 
 Brezin, bRa'zaN', (Michel,) a French philanthropist, 
 and manufacturer of locks, machinery, etc., born in 1758. 
 He founded a hospital for aged operatives. Died in 1828. 
 
 Brial, bRe'Jl', (Michel Jean Joseph,) Dom, a French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Perpignan in 1743. He was a con- 
 tributor to the " Literary History of France," and wrote 
 other works. Died in Paris in 1828. 
 
 Bri'an Boroihme, (or Bo-ru',) a king of Ireland, 
 succeeded his father Kennedy on the throne of Minister 
 in 978 A. D. He obtained numerous victories over the 
 Danes, but was killed at the battle of Clontarf, after de- 
 feating the King of Leinster and his Danish allies, (1014.) 
 
 Briaree, the French of Briareus, which see. 
 
 Bri-a're-us, (or bri'a-rus,) [Gr. U^iapevc ; Fr. Briaree, 
 bRe'S'ra',] a giant or monster who was said to have a 
 hundred arms. According to Homer, he was called 
 yEgaeon by men and Briareus by the gods. He and his 
 two brothers, Gyges and Cottus, conquered the Titans. 
 
 Bricheteau, bResh'to', (Isidore,) a French medical 
 writer, born in the department of Aude in 1789, was a 
 favourite pupil and assistant of Pinel. He contributed 
 important articles to the " Dictionary of Medical Sci- 
 ences," and published several works, which are highly 
 esteemed. 
 
 Bricomiet, bRe'so'ni', (Guillaume,) a French ec- 
 clesiastic and statesman, rose to be superintendent of 
 finance, and minister of Charles VIII. He was also 
 Archbishop of Narbonne and Cardinal of Saint-Malo. 
 
 Bricomiet, (Guillaume,) a son of the preceding, 
 was Bishop of Meaux, and a patron of learning. Died 
 in I53.v 
 
 Bridaine or Brydaine, bRe'din', (Jacques,) a cele- 
 brated French preacher, born at Chuslan (Gard) in 1701. 
 His eloquence is highly commended by Massillon, La 
 Harpe, and other eminent writers. He published "Can- 
 tiques spirituels," (1748.) Died near Avignon in 1767. 
 
 See La Harpe, " Cours de LitteVature ;" Maury, " Essai sur 
 I'EIoquence de la Chaire." 
 
 Bridan, bRe'ddN', (Charles Antoine,) a French 
 sculptor, born at Ruviere, in Champagne, in 1730; died 
 in 1805. 
 
 See C. F. Viel, " Notice sur Bridan," 1807. 
 
 Bridault, bRe'do', (Jean Pierre,) a litterateur of 
 Paris, published "The Manners and Customs of the 
 Romans," (1745.) Died in 1761. 
 
 Bridel, bRe'del', (Jean Louis,) a Swiss litterateur, 
 born in 1759, became professor of the Oriental lan- 
 guages at Lausanne. Died in 1821. 
 
 Bridel, (Samuel Elisee,) Baron, a Swiss naturalist 
 and poet, brother of the preceding, born in 1761. He 
 published " Muscologia Rccentiorum," (1797,) and other 
 botanical works. He was secretary to the Prince of 
 Saxe-Gotha. Died near Gotha in 1828. 
 
 Bridge, (William,) an English Puritan and Inde- 
 pendent minister, born in 1600, was ejected from Great 
 Yarmouth in 1662. Died in 1670. 
 
 Bridge'man, (Sir Orlando,) an English judge, pre- 
 sided at the trial of the regicides, (1660J and succeeded 
 Lord Clarendon as keeper of the great seal in 1667. 
 His reputation is similar to that of the other ministers 
 of Charles II. Died in 1674. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Bridges, brTj'iz, (John,) an English antiquary, born 
 In Berkshire about 1666; died in 1724. 
 
 Bridg'et, Saint, patroness of Ireland, born in the 
 County of Armagh, lived about 520 A.D. 
 
 Bridg'et or Bri-git'ta, written also Birgite, Saint. 
 [Fr. Sainte-Brigitte, saNt'bRe'zhet',] born in 1302 
 
 was the daughter of Birger, Prince of Sweden. Her 
 work entitled "Revelations" was translated into seveial 
 languages. Died in 1373. 
 
 See Baillet, "Vies des Saints;" Etienne Binet, "Vie dc 
 Sainte-Brigitte," 1634. 
 
 Bridge'wa-ter, (Francis Egerton,) third Dukk 
 OF, an English peer, born in 1736, was a younger son of 
 Scroop, the first Duke of Bridgewater. His mother was 
 Lady Rachel Russell. He succeeded to the dukedom 
 in 1748. In consequence of his delicate health, his 
 education was neglected. His reputation is founded 
 on important improvements of inland navigation. He 
 projected a canal from Worsley to Manchester, — the 
 first navigable canal constructed in England. It was 
 completed at his expense in 1761. He died, without 
 issue, in 1803. 
 
 Bridgewater, (Francis Henry Egerton,) Earl 
 OF, and Baron Ellesmere, born in 1758, was a son of 
 John, Bishop of Durham. He succeeded to the earl- 
 dom on the death of his elder brother in 1823. He is 
 noted as the originator of the Bridgewater Treatises. 
 In his will he left eight thousand pounds as a premium 
 for the production of several treatises "On the Power, 
 Wisdom, and Goodness of God." In accordance with his 
 will, the president of the Royal Society selected for this 
 task Rev. Thomas Chalmers, John Kidd, M.D., Peter 
 Mark Roget, Charles Bell, William Whewell, Dr. Buck- 
 land, Rev. William Kirby, and William Prout, M.D. 
 Died in 1829. 
 
 Bridgewater, [Lat. Aquaponta'nus or Aquipon- 
 tanus,] (John,) an English Catholic theologian and 
 Jesuit, born in Yorkshire, livefl about 1 560-1600. 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Bridg'man, (Laura,) a blind deaf-mute, who fur- 
 nishes a remarkable example of the development of intelli- 
 gence under circumstances apparently the most adverse, 
 was born at Hanover, in New Hampshire, in 1829. She 
 had the enjoyment of all her faculties until she was about 
 two years old, when, in consequence of a severe attack 
 of illness, she lost her sight, hearing, and smell, and the 
 sense of taste was at the same time much impaired. 
 When about eight years old, she was placed under the 
 tuition of Dr. S. G. Howe, principal of the Perkins In- 
 stitution, in Boston. She learned in a few months to 
 spell and read with a manual alphabet. She afterwards 
 learned to write, and to play skilfully on the piano. 
 
 See Dunguson's " Physiology," vol. ii. p. 161; also, "Annual 
 Reports of the Perkins Institution" for 1837 et seg. 
 
 Brid'port, (Alexander Hood,) Lord, an English 
 admiral, brother of the celebrated Admiral Hood, born 
 about 1724. He served with distinction against the 
 French in 1793 and 1794. Died in 1816. 
 
 Brienne, de, deh bRe'eV, (Jean,) a French noble- 
 man, married Isabella, daughter of Conrad of Montfer- 
 rat, and heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem. He was 
 subsequently crowned King of Jerusalem, and gained 
 several victories over the Saracens. Died in 1237. 
 See Lafitau, "Histoire de Jean de Brienne," 1727. 
 Brienne Lomenie. See Lomenie. 
 Briere (or Brierre) de Boismont, bRe'ait' deh bwl'- 
 *«' (A.,) a French physician, born at Rouen 111 1796, 
 
 iiAn' 
 
 practised in Paris. He" wrote " Elements of Botany,' 
 (1825,) a treatise on hygiene, and a work entitled " Ha) 
 lucinations," ("Des Hallucinations," Paris, 1852,) whii 
 has attracted considerable attention. 
 
 Briet, bRe'4', [Lat. Brie'tius,] (Philippe,) a French 
 Jesuit, born at Abbeville in 1601, wrote "Parallels of 
 Ancient and Modern Geography," and other works. 
 
 Died 
 
 1668. 
 
 ks. 
 
 Briey, de, deh bRe'4', (Camille,) Comte, a Belgian 
 diplomatist, born in 1799, was minister of foreign affairs 
 from August, 1841, to April, 1843. He was a leader of 
 the Catholic party. 
 
 Brifaut, bRe'fo', (Charles,) a French litttrateur, bom 
 at Dijon in 1 781, became a member of the French Acad- 
 emy in 1826. His drama called " Ninus II." was very 
 successful. Died in Paris in 1857. 
 
 Brigga, (Charles Frederick,) an American writer, 
 born in the island of Nantucket, became in early life a 
 resident of New York City. He edited " Putnam's Maga- 
 zine" from 1853 to 1856, and afterwards became an editor 
 
 J, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, C, $>, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; gf?6d; moon; 
 
 
BRIGGS 
 
 435 
 
 BR1LL0N 
 
 of the New York "Times." Among his works is "The 
 Adventures of Harry Franco, a Tale of the Great Panic," 
 
 (1839) 
 
 Briggs, (George Nixon,) an American statesman 
 ami philanthropist, born in Berkshire, Massachusetts, in 
 1796. He was elected to Congress in 1830, and in 1844 
 was chosen Governor of Massachusetts. He was an 
 earnest advocate of the temperance cause and other im- 
 portant reforms, and became president of the American 
 Temperance Union in 1S60. Died in 1861. 
 
 See "Great in Goodness: Memoir of George N. Briggs," by Wil- 
 liam C. Richards. 
 
 Briggs, (Henry,) an eminent English mathematician, 
 born at Warleywood, near Halifax, about 1556. He was 
 educated at Saint John's College, Cambridge. In 1596 
 he was chosen professor or reader in geometry in Gres- 
 ham House, (since called Gresham College,) London. 
 He l>ecame in 1619 first Savilian professor of geometry 
 at Oxford. He is chiefly distinguished for the improve- 
 ment and construction of logarithms. "Napier found," 
 says Hallam, "a coadjutor well worthy of him in Henry 
 Briggs, professor of geometry at Gresham College. It 
 is uncertain from which of them the change [i.e. from 
 the hyperbolical to the decimal method] in the form of 
 logarithms proceeded." Briggs published in 1624 a 
 great work, " Arithmetica Logarithmica," containing the 
 logarithms of all natural numbers as high as 20,000, 
 and again from 90,000 to 100,000, calculated to fourteen 
 places. Died in 1630. 
 
 See Ward's " Lives of the Gresham Professors." 
 
 Briggs, (Henry Perronet,) an English painter of his- 
 tory and portraits, among whose master-pieces may be 
 named the " First Interview between the Spaniards and 
 the Peruvians," and " Othello relating his Adventures to 
 Desdemona." In 1832 he was elected an Academician. 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 Briggs, (Henry Shaw,) born in Berkshire, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1824, served in the campaign of 1861, and 
 was made brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. 
 
 Briggs, (William,) an English physician, born in 
 1641, published a "Theory of Vision," and a work en- 
 titled " Ophthalmograph^," or description of the eye. 
 Died in 1704. 
 
 Brigham, brig'am, (Amariah,) an American physi- 
 cian, born in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1798, 
 began to practise medicine in 1821. He became super- 
 intendent of the Retreat for the Insane at Hartford, Con- 
 necticut, in 1840, and obtained the same office in the 
 New York State Lunatic Asylum at Utica in 1842. He 
 wrote, besides other works, "Mental Cultivation and 
 Excitement," and "The Anatomy, Physiology, and Pa- 
 thology of the Brain," (1840.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Brigham, brig'am, (Nicholas,) an English poet, born 
 at Caversham, wrote " Memoirs of Eminent Persons," 
 and other works. Died in 1559. 
 
 Brigham Young. See Young, (Brigham.) 
 
 Bright, (Jesse D.,) an American politician, born in 
 
 ingo county, New York, removed to Indiana, and 
 
 was elected to the United States Senate in 1845. He 
 
 was expelled in 1861 for a treasonable correspondence 
 
 with Jefferson Davis. 
 
 Bright, (John,) a celebrated English orator and Radi- 
 cal statesman, was born at Greenbank, near Rochdale, 
 on the 16th of November, 181 1. He is a membcr'of the 
 ty of Friends. He was the son of Jacob Bright, 
 a cotton-spinner,, and is a partner in the firm of John 
 Bright and Brothers, manufacturers of cotton, at Roch- 
 dale. ' In 1835 he travelled on the continent and visited 
 ■line. He enlisted in the Anti-Corn-Law League 
 in 1839, and became a zealous champion of the repeal 
 of the corn-laws. About this time he formed an intimate 
 friendship with Richard Cobden. He addressed many 
 public meetings with powerful and impassioned decla- 
 mation, and was considered second only to Cobden among 
 the advocates of the Anti-Corn-Law league. 
 
 H<: was elected to Parliament for the city of Durham 
 in 1843. The repeal of the corn-laws was followed by 
 1 general election in 1847, when Mr. Bright was one of 
 the two members sent from Manchester. He was not 
 identified with either of the great political parties, but, 
 in co-operation with Cobden, formed the Manchester 
 
 school of politics, advocates of electoral reform and non- 
 intervention in foreign wars. He was re-elected by the 
 voters of Manchester in 1852, but, in consequence of his 
 opposition to the war against Russia, was defeated in 
 1857. Since that year he has represented Birmingham 
 in Parliament. As a consistent friend of liberty and 
 equal rights, he testified his sympathy with the American 
 Republicans in the civil war, by several eloquent public 
 speeches. In the great debate on the Reform Bill of 
 Russell and Gladstone (1866) he took a prominent part. 
 After the defeat of this bill he made speeches orr the 
 subject of Reform at immense meetings held in Man- 
 chester, Birmingham, Glasgow, London, and other places. 
 " He is endowed," says the " Saturday Review," " with 
 a voice that can discourse most eloquent music, and with 
 a speech that can equally sound the depths of pathos 
 or scale the heights of indignation." Alluding to Mr. 
 Bright's recent efforts in the cause of Reform, the " Eu- 
 ropean Times" of December 8, 1866, remarks, "In all 
 Mr. Bright's previous career, he has never put forth such 
 extraordinary power, such floods of the very highest 
 order of eloquence on the great question of the day, as 
 during the last four months ; and it is not too much to 
 say that no orator of the century has stirred the heart of 
 the country in so short a time, or so effectually, by his 
 own unaided intellect." On the 15th of August, 1867, 
 the queen signed a Reform bill which granted the right 
 of suffrage to every householder in a borough. 
 
 He made, in March, 1868, a speech on Ireland, which 
 is commended by the London " Spectator," March 21, 
 in these terms: "Mr. Bright's grand speech did more 
 to draw the noblest men of all parties nearer to each 
 other than long years of discussion had effected before." 
 At the general election of November, 1868, he was .re- 
 turned for Birmingham. He declined the office of secre- 
 tary for India, which was offered to him, but he entered 
 the cabinet of Mr. Gladstone as president of the Board 
 of Trade in December, 1868. Two volumes of his 
 " Speeches on Questions of Public Policy" were pub- 
 lished in 1868. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1869. 
 
 Bright, (Richard,) an English physician, born in 
 Bristol in 1789. He settled in London, and published 
 an important work entitled "Original Researches into 
 the Pathology of Diseases of the Kidney." He was the 
 first to describe an affection of the kidney which is gene- 
 rally known as "Bright's Disease." Died in 1858. 
 
 Bright, (Timothy,) an English physician and clergy- 
 man, born at Cambridge, wrote, besides other works, a 
 "Treatise on Melancholy," (1586.) Died in 1615. 
 
 Bright'man, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born 
 at Nottingham in 1557; died in 1607. 
 
 Brigitte. See Bridget, Saint. 
 
 Brignolo-Sale, bRen-yo'lo sa'la, [Fr. Brignole- 
 Sale, bRen'yol' sil,] (Antonio Giulio,) an Italian wri- 
 ter in prose and verse, born in 1605, was a son of a doge 
 of Genoa.> Died in 1665. 
 
 See J. M. Visconti, "Vita di A. G. Brignolo-Sale," 1666. 
 
 Bril, bRel, (Mattheus,) a Flemish painter, born at 
 Antwerp in 1550. He was patronized by Pope Gregory 
 XIII., for whom he painted several frescos in the Vati- 
 can. Died in 1584. 
 
 Bril, (Paulus,) brother and pupil of the preceding, 
 born at Antwerp in 1556. At an early age he joined his 
 brother at Rome, where he soon acquired a very high 
 reputation as a landscape-painter. Among his master- 
 pieces are "The Martyrdom of Saint Clement," in the 
 Vatican, two landscapes in the Pitti palace at Flor- 
 ence, and "Building of the Tower of Babel," in the Berlin 
 Museum. The figures in several of his pieces were 
 painted by Annibal Caracci. Died at Rome in 1626. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 BriUat-Savarin, bRe'yi' sf'vt'raN', (Antiiei.me,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Bellay in 1755, published a 
 popular work on gastronomy, entitled "The Physiology 
 of Taste," (1825,) the style of which is highly praised. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835. 
 
 Brillon, bRe'yAN', (Pierre Jacques,) a French jurist 
 and legal writer, born in Paris in 1671 ; died in 1736. 
 
 eas.f/cas.r/g.WdVgas/; G,H,K, guttural; N, nasal; v.,trilled; %2&z; th as in this. (JJ^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BRINDLE7 
 
 43° 
 
 BRITTON 
 
 
 Brind'ley, (James,) an English engineer and mecha- 
 nician, Lorn at Thornset, in Derbyshire, in 1716, was an 
 apprentice to a millwright. He had a remarkable faculty 
 of invention, and made improvements in the machinery 
 of mills. About 1758 he was employed by the Duke 
 of Bridgewater as engineer of a canal from Worsley to 
 Manchester, — the first navigable canal made in Great 
 Britain in modern times. He performed this difficult 
 enterprise with success, and exhibited great fertility of 
 resources. He superintended the construction of the 
 Trent and Mersey Canal, begun in 1766, and other simi- 
 lar works. Died in 1772. 
 
 See " Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties." vol. i., 1839 ; 
 Henky Howe, " Eminent American and European Mechanics." 
 
 Brink'ley, ( John,) an English divine and astronomer, 
 born in 1763, became professor of astronomy at Trinity 
 College, Dublin. He published, among other works, 
 " Elements of Astronomy," which is esteemed a standard 
 work. He was created Bishop of Cloyne in 1826. Died 
 in 1835. 
 
 Brinkmann, bRink'man, (Karl Gustaf,) Baron, a 
 Swedish diplomatist and poet, born near Stockholm in 
 1764, was sent as ambassador to London in 1807. In 
 1829 he became a member of the Royal Academy of 
 Stockholm. He was a friend and correspondent of 
 Madame de Stael. He died in 1848, leaving to the Uni- 
 versity of Upsal his library of ten thousand volumes. 
 
 See Bernard von Beskow, "Tal, etc. ofver C. G. von Brink- 
 mann," 1848. 
 
 Brins'ley, (John,) an English nonconformist min- 
 ister, born in 1600, was a nephew of Bishop Hall, (of 
 Norwich.) He preached at Yarmouth, and wrote several 
 works. Died in 1665. 
 
 Brinvilliers, bRaN've'yeV, (Marie Marguerite 
 dAubray — do'bi<&',) Marchioness of, a Frenchwo- 
 man, notorious for her crimes, was the daughter of Dreux 
 d'Aubray, civil lieutenant of Paris, and was married in 
 165 1 to the Marquis de Brinvilliers. She successively 
 poisoned her father and two brothers, having previously 
 exercised her art on the patients at the hospitals. She 
 was at length detected, condemned to death, and exe- 
 cuted in 1676. 
 
 See " Histoire du Proces de la Marquise de Brinvilliers," Paris, 
 1676; Madame de Sevign^'s "Letters." 
 
 Brion, bRe-An', (Luis,) a South American naval 
 officer, born at Curacoa in 1782. He acquired great in- 
 fluence, took arms against Spain about 181 1, and served 
 under Bolivar with distinction. Died in 1821. 
 
 Briot, bRe'o', (Charles,) a French mathematician, 
 born at Saint-Hippolyte, in Doubs, in 1817. He became 
 teacher of mechanics and astronomy in the Normal 
 School of Paris in 1855. He published, besides other 
 works, "Lessons in Analytical Geometry," (1851,) in 
 which he was assisted by M. Bouquet. 
 
 Bris'bane, (Sir Charles,) an English admiral, served 
 with distinction under Rodney, Hood, and Nelson, was 
 appointed Governor of Saint Vincent, and created vice- 
 admiral in 1820. Died in 1829. 
 
 Brisbane, (Sir Thomas Macdougal,) a British as- 
 tronomer and general, born at Bishopton in 1773. He 
 commanded a brigade in many actions in the Peninsula 
 in 1812-13, after which he was Governor of Jamaica 
 and of New South Wales. He built an observatory on 
 the river Tweed. Died in i860. 
 
 Brissac, de, Due. See CossA-Brissac. 
 
 Brisseau, bRe'so', (Pierre,) a French physician, born 
 in Paris in 1631, published a "Treatise on the Cataract," 
 and other works. Died in 1717. 
 
 Brisson.^bRe'sAN', [Lat. Brisso'nius,] (Barnaise,) 
 an eminent French jurist and philologist, born in Poitou 
 in 1 53 1. He was appointed first president of the Par- 
 liament of Paris in 1588 by the League, and was hung in 
 1 59 1 by the Seize, a committee of sixteen factious persons 
 who had possession of the capital. He was author of 
 a treatise "On the Formulas and Solemn Words of the 
 Roman People," ("De Formulis et solennibus Populi 
 Romani Verbis," 1583,) and other works. 
 
 See De Tnou t> " Histoire;" Daniel W. Moller, "Disputatio 
 circularis de B. Brissonio," 1696. 
 
 Brisson, (Barnaise,) a French engineer, born at Lyons 
 in 1777, wrote an "Essay on Navigation," and other 
 works. Died in 1828. 
 
 Brisson,(MATHURiN Jacques,) a distinguished French 
 naturalist, born at Fontenay-le-Comte in 1723, became 
 professor of physics in the College of Navarre, published 
 "The Animal Kingdom," ("Le Regne animal," 1756,) 
 "Ornithology," (6 vols., 1760,) and a treatise "On the 
 Specific Weight of Bodies," ( 1 787.) Died near Versailles 
 in 1806. 
 
 Brissot, bRe'so', (Pierre,) a French physician, born 
 at H'ontenay-le-Comte in 1478, wrote an able treatise on 
 bleeding for the pleurisy, (1529.) Died in Portugal in 
 1522. 
 
 Brissot de WarviUe, bRe'so' deh v$R'vel', (Jean- 
 Pierre,) a French Girondist leader and political writer, 
 born at or near Chartres in January, 1754. He published 
 in 1 781 "Theorie des Lois criminelles," (2 vols.) In 1785 
 he was confined in the Bastille on suspicion of having writ- 
 ten an anonymous libel, of which he was innocent. To 
 promote the abolition of the slave-trade, he formed with 
 several friends, in 1788, the Societe des Amis des Noirs, 
 (Society of the Friends of the Negroes,) and made a 
 voyage'to the United States to inquire into that subject. 
 Having returned to France on the eve of the Revolution, 
 he became editor of the "Patriote Francais,"- a journal 
 which would have sufficed to render him famous if he 
 had no other titles to celebrity. He was elected in 1791 
 to the National Assembly by the voters of Paris, advo- 
 cated a republic, and was recognized as the master spirit 
 of the Girondist party, often called Brissotins. In the 
 Convention (1792-93) he strenuously opposed the execu- 
 tion of the king and other excesses of the Jacobins. He 
 was imprisoned in June, 1793, and executed in Paris, 
 with twenty-one other Girondists, in October of the same 
 year. He was author of numerous works. 
 
 See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" "Vie privee et 
 politique de Brissot," Paris, 1792; Brissot's "Memoires pour servii 
 a 1'Histoire de la Revolution," published by his son, 4 vols., 1830. 
 
 Bris'ted, (Charles Astor,) an American writer, 
 born in New York in 1820, graduated at Yale College 
 in 1839, and pursued his studies at Oxford, England. 
 He published "Five Years in an English University," 
 (1852.) 
 
 Bristed, (John,) an Episcopal clergyman, father of 
 the preceding, born in Dorsetshire, England, in 1779. 
 He emigrated to the United States in 1806, and married 
 a daughter of John Jacob Astor in 1820. He preached 
 at Bristol, Rhode Island, and wrote "The Resources of 
 the United States." Died in 1855. 
 
 Bris'tow, (Henry William,) an English geologist 
 and scientific writer, born about 1817. 
 
 Bri-tan'ni-cus, (Tiberius Claudius Germanicus,) 
 a Roman prince, born in 42 A.D., was a son of the empe- 
 ror Claudius and Messalina. He was the heir presump- 
 tive to the throne before the death of his mother ; but, 
 through the influence of Agrippina, Nero was preferred 
 as the successor of Claudius. Britannicus was poisoned 
 by Nero at a banquet in 56 A.D. 
 
 See Tacitus, " Annales." 
 
 Britard. See Brizard. 
 
 Brito, de, da bree'to, (Bernardo,) a Portuguese his- 
 torian, born at Villa de Almeida in 1569, wrote a "His- 
 tory of the Portuguese Monarchy," and "Eulogies ol 
 the Kings of Portugal." Died in 1617. 
 
 See Beauvais, "Vie de B. de Brito," 1744. 
 
 Brito, (Francisco Joze Maria,) a Portuguese diplo- 
 matist, born about 1759. He was minister plenipoten- 
 tiary to France in 1815. Died in 1825. 
 
 Brito, (Gulielmus.) See Breton, (Guillaume.) 
 
 Brito-Armoricus. See Breton, (Guillaume.) 
 
 Brito Freire, de, da bRee'to fRa'e-ra, (Francisco,) s 
 Portuguese admiral, born about ioTo, served with dis- 
 tinction against the Dutch in Brazil. Died in 1692. 
 
 Brit-o-mar'tis [Gr. BptTo/iapnc] or Bri'to, [\ipiru,] 
 a nymph, the daughter of Jupiter, and favourite com- 
 panion of Diana, was beloved by Minos, to escape from 
 whom she threw herself into the sea. She was wor- 
 shipped especially by sailors and fishermen. 
 
 Britton. See Bracton. 
 
 Brit'ton, (John,) a celebrated English antiquary, born 
 in Wiltshire in 1771. Among his numerous works are 
 "The Cathedral Antiquities of England," (14 vols. fol. 
 and 4to, with nearly 300 engravings,) "Architectural 
 
 a, », T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure: far, fill, fit; met; n&t; good; moon: 
 
BRITTON 
 
 437 
 
 BRODHEJD 
 
 Antiquities of Normandy," (1825,) "A Dictionary of 
 the Architecture and Archaeology of the Middle Ages," 
 (1832,) "Illustrations of Fonthill Abbey," and "Histo- 
 rical Notices of Windsor Castle," (1842.) Died in 1857. 
 Sec ''Men I have known," by William Jerdan, London, 1866; 
 "London Quarterly Review'* for June and September, 1826. 
 
 Britton, (Thomas,) an English coal-dealer, born in 
 Northamptonshire about 1650, was celebrated for his 
 proficiency in music. Died in 1714. 
 
 See "Annals of Industry and Genius," by C. L. Brightwell, 
 London, 1863. 
 
 Brizard, bRc'zaV, or Britard, bRe'tiV, (Jean Bap- 
 tjsi'e,) a French actor and dramatist, born at Orleans 
 in 172 1 ; died in 1 791. 
 
 Brize, bRee'zeh, (Kornelis,) a Dutch painter of still 
 life, bas-reliefs, etc., lived between 1650 and 1700. 
 
 Brizeux, bRe'zuh', (Julien Auguste Pelage,) a 
 French poet, born at Lorient in 1806. He produced a 
 successful poem entitled "Marie," (1832,) "The Bre- 
 (1846,) which was crowned by the French Acad- 
 emy, and ■' I'rimel et Nola," (1850.) Died in 1858. 
 
 firizio. See Brizzi. 
 
 Brizzi, bRet'see, or Biizio, bRet'se-o, (Francesco,) 
 an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1574, was one of 
 the most distinguished pupils of the Caracci. Among 
 his best works is the " Coronation of the Madonna del 
 Borgo." Died in 1623. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Brocario, l>Ro-ka're-o, a Spanish typographer, pub- 
 lished in 1514-16 the Polyglot Bible of Cardinal Xime- 
 nes, (6 vols, fol.) 
 
 Brocchi, bRok'kee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 naturalist, born at Bassano in 1 772. He became professor 
 of botany at Brescia in 1S02, and in 1808 inspector of 
 mines o( the kingdom of Italy. Among his principal 
 works are his " Sub-Apenninc Fossil Conchology, with 
 Geological Observations on the Apennines and the Ad- 
 jacent Soil," (2 vols., 1814,) and a work "On the Physi- 
 cal Condition of the Soil of Rome," (1820.) Died at 
 Khartoom, in Nubia, in 1826. 
 
 Tipaldo, " Bingralia degli Italiani illustri;" G. Larber, 
 io storico di G. B. Brocchi," 182S; "Edinburgh Review" for 
 February, 1816. 
 
 Brochant de Villiers, bRo'shoN' deh ve'ye-a', (An- 
 dre Jean Francois Marie,) a French naturalist and 
 scientific writer, born in Paris in 1773. He was a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Sciences, and inspector-general 
 of mines. Died in 1840. 
 
 Brochet, bRo'shJ', (Jean Etienne,) a demagogue of 
 the French Revolution. He was exiled by Bonaparte 
 to Cayenne, but was soon after permitted to return, and 
 passed the rest of his life in merited obscurity. Died 
 in 1823. 
 
 Brock, (Isaac,) a British major-general, whose prin- 
 cipal achievement was the capture of General Hull and 
 his army at Detroit, in August, 181c. At the battle of 
 Queenstown, October 13 of the same year, he was killed, 
 being pierced by three balls. As a token of the respect 
 which was felt for his high character, the guns of the 
 American forts were fired during his funeral. 
 
 Brookedon, brok'don, (William,) an English author 
 and artist, born in 1787. He published "Passes of the 
 Alps," illustrated by elegant engravings, (2 vols., 1828,) 
 "Views in Italy," (1842-44,) and "Excursions in the 
 Alps," (1845.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Brookes, bRok'k?s, (Bartiiold Heinrich,) a Ger- 
 man devotional poet, born at Hamburg in 1680. He trans- 
 lated Thomson's " Seasons" into German. Died in 1747. 
 
 Brock'ett, (John Trotter,) an English antiquary, 
 born in 1788; died in 1842. 
 
 Brockhaus, bRok'howss, (Friedrich Arnold,) a 
 celebrated German publisher, born at Dortmund in 
 1772, was the founder of the firm of Brockhaus at Leipsic. 
 Having purchased the copyright of the "Conversations- 
 Lexikon," lie. settled at Altenburg in 181 1, and began in 
 1812 the second edition of that work. In 1813 he edited 
 a patriotic journal, entitled "Deutsche Blatter." He 
 removed in 1817 to I-eipsic, where, besides six editions 
 of the "Conversations-Lexikon," he brought out Ebert's 
 "Universal Bibliographical Lexicon," Von Raumer's 
 ' History of the Hohenstaufen and their Times," Ersch's 
 
 *' Manual of German Literature," and other important 
 publications. He died in 1823 ; and the firm was con- 
 tinued by his two eldest sons, Frederick and Henry, 
 under whose auspices the "Conversations-Lexikon" 
 reached the tenth edition. To this were subsequently 
 added three accompanying works, entitled " Conversa- 
 tions-Lexicon of the Most Recent Times and Litera- 
 ture," ("Conversations-Lexikon der neuesten Zeit und 
 Literatur," 4 vols., 1832,) "Conversations-Lexicon of 
 the Present," ("Conversations-Lexikon der Gegenwart," 
 4 vols., 1838,) and "The Present," ("Der Gegenwart," 
 1848.) They have also published Ersch and Gruber's 
 "Universal Encyclopaedia," (" AUgemeine Encyklopae- 
 die,") the " Pfennig-Magasin," and a number of useful 
 periodicals. 
 
 Brockhaus, (Hermann,) third son of Friedrich Ar- 
 nold, noticed above, was born at Amsterdam in 1806. He 
 became in 1848 professor of the Sanscrit language and 
 literature at Leipsic. He has published, in German and 
 Sanscrit, a portion of the legends of Somadeva. 
 
 Brocklesby, brok"lz-be, (Richard,) a distinguished 
 English physician, born in Somersetshire in 1722, was 
 an intimate friend of Edmund Burke. He graduated 
 at Leyden, and in 1758 was appointed physician to the 
 army, which he accompanied to Germany in the Seven 
 Years' war. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and 
 of the College of Physicians, and published several medi- 
 cal works. Died in 1797. 
 
 See " Biographie Me'dicale." 
 
 Brockmami, bRok'man, (Johann Franz Hiero- 
 nymus,) a celebrated German actor, born at Gratz, in 
 Styria, in 1745 ; died in 1812. 
 
 Brodeau, bRo'do', (Jean,) a distinguished French 
 scholar, born in 1500, published " Notes on Martial," a 
 " Commentary on the Tragedies of Euripides," and other 
 critical works. Died in 1563. 
 
 Bro'der-ick, (David Colbreth,) an American Sen- 
 ator, born at Washington, District of Columbia, in 1818 
 or 1819. He worked at the trade of stone-cutter in New 
 York City in his youth, removed to California in 1849, and 
 became a leading Democrat. In 1856 he was elected a 
 member of the Senate of the United States by the legis- 
 lature of California. He acquired eminence as a debater, 
 spoke against the admission of Kansas as a slave State 
 under the Lecompton Constitution, and separated from 
 his party, on the question of slavery, in 1858. He was 
 challenged, and killed in a duel near San Francisco in. 
 September, 1859, by Judge David S. Terry, a partisan of 
 slavery, whose motive appears to have been revenge for 
 the speeches which Broderick had made against Senator 
 Gwin and others of the pro-slavery party. 
 
 Broderip, brod'rip, (William John,) an English 
 naturalist, born at Bristol. He published "Zoological 
 Recreations," (1 847,) and " Leaves from the Note-Book of 
 a Naturalist," (1852,) and contributed numerous articles 
 on natural history to Knight's " Penny Cyclopaedia." He 
 was a Fellow of the Linnaean Society and of the Royal 
 Society, and vice-president of the Zoological Society. 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1847 ; " Fraser's, 
 Magazine" for April, 1859. 
 
 Brod'head, (Jacob,) D.D., an American clergyman, 
 born in Ulster county, New York, in 1782. He became 
 pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in New York in 
 1809, removed to Philadelphia in 1813, and returned to 
 New York in 1826. Died in 1855. 
 
 Brodhead, (John Romeyn,) an American historian, 
 son of the preceding, born in Philadelphia in lSi(, 
 graduated at Rutgers College, New Jersey, in 1831, 
 and studied law. He devoted himself to the study of 
 American history, and, while attached to the United 
 States legation at the Hague, in 1841, was appointed by 
 Governor Seward an agent to procure information re- 
 lating to the colonial history of New York. He spent 
 three years in examining the records in Holland, Lon- 
 don, and Paris, and returned in 1844 with eighty volumes 
 of documents.' In 1849 the legislature passed an act 
 authorizing their publication in ten volumes quarto. 
 The first volume of the " History of New York from 
 1609 to 1664" (the period of its occupation by the Dutch) 
 appeared in 1853. 
 
 € as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/- G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in tin's. ( Jf^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
B ROD IE 
 
 438 
 
 BROME 
 
 Bio'die, (Sir Benjamin Collins,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish surgeon, born in Wiltshire in 1783. He studied 
 under Sir Everard Home, and became, in 1832, surgeon 
 to the queen. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety, corresponding member of the Institute of France, 
 and obtained the degree of D.C.L. from the University 
 of Oxford, (1850.) Among his principal works are "Ex- 
 periments and Observations on the Different Modes in 
 which Death is produced by Certain Vegetable Poisons," 
 ([Si 1,) " Pathological and Surgical Observations on Dis- 
 eases of the Joints," and " On Local Nervous Affec- 
 tions." Died in 1862. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," 1865; H. W. Acland, "Biographical 
 Sketch of B. C. Brodie," 1864; " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 
 1863, and July, 1865. 
 
 Brodie, (George,) an English historian. He pub- 
 lished a " History of the British Empire from the Ac- 
 cession of Charles I. to the Restoration," (4 vols., 1822,) 
 which was written for the purpose of pointing out the 
 faults or errors of Hume. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for March, 1824; Professor Smyth, 
 " Lectures on Modern History." 
 
 Brodzinski, brod-zins'kee, (Casimir,) a Polish poet 
 and critic of distinguished merit, born at Krolowko in 
 1791, became professor of aesthetics at Warsaw. He 
 made a number of translations from the English, Ger- 
 man, and other languages. Died in 1835. 
 
 Broeck, van den, vSn den bRook, (Barbara,) a 
 Flemish engraver, born about 1560, was a daughter of 
 Crispin, noticed below, some of whose designs she en- 
 graved. 
 
 Broeck, van den, (Crispin,) a Flemish historical 
 painter and engraver, bom at Antwerp about 1530; died 
 about 1 60 1. 
 
 Broeck, van den, (Elias,) a Flemish painter of 
 flowers, fruits, etc., bom in 1657 ; died in 1711. 
 
 See Descami'S, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Broekhuizen, van, v3n bRook'hoi'zen, (Jan,) [Lat. 
 Ja'nus Broukhu'sius,] a Dutch scholar and poet, 
 born at Amsterdam in 1649. He published editions of 
 Tibullus and other classics, and a collection of Latin 
 poems. Died in 1707. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Jocher, 
 " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Brofferio, bRof-fa're-o, (Angelo,) an eminent Italian 
 dramatist, orator, and political writer, born at Asti, in 
 Piedmont, in 1802. He produced "Vitiges, King of 
 the Goths," " Salvator Rosa," and other dramas, and a 
 volume of popular songs ; also a " History of Piedmont," 
 (1849-52.) In 1848 he became a member of the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies. In politics he is a radical republican. 
 
 BroghiU, Lord. See Boyle, (Roger.) 
 
 Broglia, bRol'ya, (Francesco Maria,) born at Chieri, 
 in Piedmont, in 161 1, first distinguished himself in the 
 civil war of Savoy in 1638. He afterwards entered the 
 service of France, where he won a high reputation for 
 bravery and military skill. Died in 1656. He was the 
 founder of an illustrious family of French nobles, of whom 
 the following are, perhaps, the most worthy of notice. 
 
 Broglie, de, deh bRog'le', (Achille Leonce Victor 
 Charles,) Due, a French statesman, born in Paris in 
 1785 or 1789, was a son of Claude Victor, noticed below. 
 He married the only daughter of Madame de Stael in 
 1816, and in the same year became a member of the Cham- 
 ber of Peers, in which he made a speech against the slave- 
 trade in 1822. After the revolution of 1830, the Due de 
 Broglie and his friend Guizot were the chiefs of the party 
 called Doctrinaires. De Broglie was minister of public in- 
 struction for a few months in 1830, and minister of foreign 
 affairs from October, 1832, to April, 1834. Hewaselected 
 in 1849 to the Legislative Assembly, in which he voted 
 with the conservative droite. In 1856 he was elected a 
 member of the French Academy. Died in 1870. 
 
 Broglie, de, (Albert,) Prince, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 182 1, is distinguished in literature 
 and philosophy. He has contributed several articles 
 to the " Revue des Deux Mondes." Among his works 
 is a history of Constantine the Great, entitled "The 
 Church and the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century," 
 (2 vols., 1856.) 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for April, i860. 
 
 Broglie, de, (Albertine Ida Gustavine de S'i ael,) 
 Duchesse, born in Paris about 1797, was the only daugh- 
 ter of the celebrated Madame de Stael-Holstein, and the 
 wife of Achille, Due de Broglie, noticed above. She was 
 a zealous Protestant, and the author of " Fragments on 
 Various Subjects of Religion and Morals," (1840,) and 
 other works. Died in 1838. " Whatever might be the 
 eclat of her position," says the " Nouvelle Biographia 
 Generale," "she enhanced it by the admirable example 
 that she gave of all the domestic virtues. Her salon was 
 not only the resort of eminent statesmen, but was one of 
 those to which the elite of Paris came to seek intellectual 
 pleasure." 
 
 Broglie, de, (Claude Victor,) Prince, son of Victor 
 Francois, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1757. He 
 was president of the National Convention in 1791, and 
 in 1794 was executed by order of the Revolutionary 
 tribunal. 
 
 Broglie, de, (Francois Marie,) Dye, grandson of 
 Francesco Maria Broglia, noticed above, and son of 
 Victor Maurice, Count of Broglie, was born in 1671, and 
 made marshal of France in 1734. Ten years before, 
 he had resolutely refused this high promotion, because 
 he believed the claims of his father, who was then still 
 living, were juster than his own. In consequence of this 
 generous refusal, his father was made marshal, which 
 office he held till his death in 1727. The Duke of Brog- 
 lie was a man of great ability, courage, and nobleness of 
 character. Died in 1745. 
 
 Broglie, de, (Maurice Jean Madeleine,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born in 1766, became in 1803 almoner to 
 the emperor, and subsequently Bishop of Ghent. Died 
 in 1821. 
 
 Broglie, de, (Victor Francois,) Due, son of Fran- 
 cois Marie, noticed above, born in 1718. He served with 
 distinction in the Seven Years' war, commanded in sev- 
 eral battles, and was created marshal of France in 1759. 
 He became minister of war in 1789, and emigrated about 
 1790. Died at Minister in 1804. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Broglie, de, (Victor Maurice,) Comte, Marquis 
 de Brezolles, (deh bReh-zol',) son of Francisco Maria 
 Broglia, noticed above, born about 1647, rendered im- 
 portant services in Flanders, (1672-90,) and became a 
 marshal of France in 1724. Died in 1727. 
 
 Brogni, bR6n'yee, Cardinal of, (originally Gio- 
 vanni Allarrnet — al-lar-meV,) an eminent Italian eccle- 
 siastic, born in 1342, was the son of a peasant of Brogni, a 
 village near Annecy. His talents soon raised him to dis- 
 tinction, and in 1385 he was made cardinal. He presided 
 in 141 7 at the Council in which John Huss was con- 
 demned. He is said, however, to have manifested the 
 kindest sympathy towards Huss, and to have pronounced 
 his sentence reluctantly, and not till he had tried every- 
 thing to reclaim him which Christian charity could sug- 
 gest. Died in 1426., 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 G^neVale." 
 
 Broke. See Brooke. 
 
 Broke, brook, (?) (Francis J.,) an officer of the Ameri- 
 can Revolution, and an intimate friend of Washington, 
 was born near Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 1763. He 
 entered the army with his twin-brother John at the age 
 of sixteen, and served his first campaign as a lieutenant 
 under La Fayette. He afterwards joined the army of 
 General Greene, and continued in service to the end of 
 the war. Died in 185 1. 
 
 Broke, brook, (Sir Philip Bowes Vere,) a British 
 rear-admiral, born in 1776. He commanded the Shannon 
 in a fight against the American frigate Chesapeake, 
 which he captured in June, 1813. (See Lawrence, 
 James.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Brome, (Alexander,) an English poet and lawyer, 
 born in 1620. He wrote a number of satires, sunns, 
 and epigrams in ridicule of the Parliamentary party; 
 also a comedy entitled "The Cunning Lovers." Died 
 in 1666. 
 
 Brome, (James,) an Englishman, who published 
 "Travels in England, Scotland, and Wales," (1700,) 
 and "Travels through Portugal, Spain, and Italy," 
 (1712.) 
 
 3, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 8, ft, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; not; good; moon; 
 
BROME 
 
 439 
 
 BRONTE 
 
 Brome, (Richard,) an English dramatist, was origin- 
 ally a servant of lien Jonson. He published fifteen 
 its, among which may be named "The Jovial 
 . or the Merry Beggars," and " The Northern Lass." 
 Bed in 1652. 
 
 Bromel, bRo'mel, (Olaf,) a physician and botanist, 
 : of the following, born in the province of Nericia 
 in 1639; died in 1705. 
 
 Bromel, von, ton bRo'mel, (Magnus,) born at Stock- 
 holm about 1678, became chief physician to the King of 
 Sweden. Died in 1731. 
 
 Broni'field, (John,) an American merchant, born at 
 Kewburyport, Massachusetts, in 1779, lived in Boston. 
 He gave twenty-five thousand dollars to the Boston Athe- 
 naeum. Died in 1849. 
 
 Brom'field, (William,) an English surgeon, bom in 
 1712, published "Chirurgical Observations and Cases," 
 and other medical works ; also a comedy called "The 
 City Match." Died in 1792. He was one of the founders 
 of Lack Hospital, London. 
 
 Brom'ley, (Sir Thomas,) an English judge, born in 
 the county of Salop about 1530. He became solicitor- 
 al in 1570, and lord chancellor in 1579. According 
 to Lord Campbell, "he framed the measures intended 
 to bring Mary Queen of Scots to trial." He presided 
 over the court which condemned her in 1586. Died 
 in 15S7. 
 
 Sec Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. ii. ; 
 the Judges of England." 
 
 Bromley, (William,) an English engraver, born at 
 Carisbrooke, in the Isle of Wight, in 1769. Among his 
 principal works are portraits of the Duke of Wellington 
 and Young Napoleon, and the illustrations to " Mack- 
 lin's Bible." Died in 1842. 
 
 His son John, born at Chelsea in 1795, obtained great 
 excellence in mezzotinto engraving. Died in 1839. 
 
 Bromp'ton, (John,) an English monk, the reputed 
 author or editor of a "Chronicon" from 588 to 1198. 
 
 Bronchorst, (Jan.) See Bronkhorst. 
 
 Brondex, bRON'dex', (Albert,) a French wit and 
 poet, born in 1750 ; died in 1786. 
 
 Brondsted or Bronsted, bRon'sted, (Peter Oluf,) 
 a Danish antiquary and scholar, born at Horsens, in 
 Jutland, about 1780. Having visited Italy, Greece, and 
 Asia Minor, he was appointed professor of Greek at 
 Copenhagen, (1813,) director of the Royal Museum of 
 Antiquities, and professor of philology and archaeology. 
 He published "Travels and Investigations in Greece," 
 (1826, in German and French,) and other valuable treat- 
 ises on ancient art. Died in 1842. 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon ;" J. P. Mynster, "P. O. 
 Brondsted's Biographie," 1844. 
 
 Brongniart, bRoN'ne -Sr', (Adolphe Theophile,) a 
 French botanist, son of Alexandre, noticed below, born 
 in Paris in 1801. He succeeded Desfontaines as a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Sciences in 1834, and about 1840 
 became professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes. 
 Among his works may be named "Prodromus of a 
 iry of Fossil Vegetables," (1828,) "Botanical and 
 Geological Researches on Vegetables enclosed in the 
 Different Strata of the Earth," (2 vols., 1828 et seq.,) 
 and "Observations on the Interior Structure of the 
 Sigillaria Elegans." He was chosen a foreign member 
 of the Royal Society of London in 1852. 
 
 See Qcerard, "La France Litteraire," (Supplement.) 
 Brongniart, (Alexandre,) an eminent French chem- 
 ist and mineralogist, born in Paris in 1770, was a son 
 of Alexandre Theodore, noticed below. He served as 
 physician or apothecary in the army in his youth, and 
 was afterwards a professor of natural history. In 1800 
 or 1801 he was appointed director of the manufactory of 
 porcelain at Sevres. He wrote an "Elementary Treat- 
 ise on Mineralogy." (1807,) which was used as a text- 
 book by many professors. He is said to have been the 
 first who classified reptiles under the heads of Saurians, 
 Batrachians, Chelonians, and Ophidians. In conjunction 
 with Cuvier, he produced a celebrated " Essay on the 
 Mineralogical Geography of the Environs of Paris," 
 (1810.) He was elected a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1815, after which he travelled in Sweden with 
 Berzelius. Among his works is "A Treatise on the Art 
 
 of Pottery," ("Traite des Arts ceramiques," 1845.) Died 
 in October, 1847. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikou." 
 
 Brongniart, (Alexandre Theodore,) a French ar- 
 chitect, and member of the Academy of Architecture, 
 born in Paris in 1739. He was the first architect of 
 the Palais de la Bourse, (Exchange,) but did not live to 
 finish it. Died in 1815. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Brongniart, (Antoine Louis,) a French chemist, 
 brother of the preceding, was professor in the College 
 of Pharmacy, and apothecary to Louis XVI. He wrote 
 an "Analytical View of the Combinations and Decom- 
 positions of Different Substances." Died in 1804. 
 
 Bronikowski, bRo'ne-kov'skee, (Alexander Au- 
 gust Ferdinand von Opeln — fon o'peln,) a German 
 writer, of Polish extraction, born at Dresden in 1783, 
 published novels entitled "Olgierd and Olga, or Poland 
 in the Eleventh Century," (1832,) and " Hippolytus 
 Boratynski ;" also a " History of Poland." Died in 
 1834. 
 
 See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for December, 1834. 
 
 Bronkhorst or Bronchorst, van, vSn bRonK'horst, 
 (Jan,) a distinguished Dutch painter jf animals, born at 
 Levden in 1648; died in 1726. 
 
 Bronkhorst, van, (Pieter,) an excellent Dutch 
 painter of architectural pieces and perspective, born at 
 Delft in 1588; died in 1661. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 Bronn, bRon, (Heinrich Georg,) a German natu- 
 ralist, born in 1800 near Heidelberg, where he became 
 professor of natural science in 1833. He published, 
 besides other works, " Universal Zoology," (1850,) and 
 " Lethaea geognostica," a treatise on petrifactions which 
 serve to characterize rocky formations, (2 vols., 1834.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- I.exikon." 
 
 Bronner, bRon'ner, (Franz Xaver,) a German pas- 
 toral poet, born at Hochstiidt, on the Danube, in 1758; 
 died in 1850. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," 3 vols., 1795-97. 
 
 Bronsted. See Brondsted. 
 
 Bronte, bron'te, (Anne,) an English novelist, whose 
 assumed name was Acton Bell, was born in Yorkshire 
 about 1820. She was a sister of Charlotte Bronte. She 
 wrote, besides several short poems, a prose tale called 
 "Agnes Grey," (1847,) and "The Tenant of Wildfeld 
 Hall," (1848.) Died in May, 1849. 
 
 See a biographical notice prefixed by her sister Charlotte to the 
 edition of " Wuthering Heights" and "Agnes Grey," 1850. 
 
 Brontei, (Charlotte,) "Currer Bell," a popular 
 English novelist, born at Thornton, Yorkshire, April 
 21, 1816, was a daughter of Patrick Bronte, who be- 
 came curate of Haworth in 1820. She lost her mother 
 when she was a child. While at a boarding-school her 
 health was injured by impure air and food of bad quality. 
 Her friend Mrs. Gaskell says she was (about 1833 or 
 1834) a " little, set, antiquated girl, very quiet in manners 
 and very quaint in dress." In 1835 she became a teacher 
 of the school at Roe Head, and in 1841 a governess in a 
 private family. Charlotte and her sister Emily went to 
 Brussels in 1842 to learn French, etc. The former was 
 afterwards employed there as a teacher of English, at a 
 salary of sixteen pounds a year ; but she returned to 
 Haworth about the end of 1843. In 1846 the Misses 
 Bronte published a volume entitled "Poems by Currer, 
 Ellis, and Acton Bell," Currer Bell being the assumed 
 name of Charlotte. About two years later, under the 
 pressure of painful domestic trials, she produced "Jane 
 Eyre, an Autobiography, edited by Currer Bell," (3 
 vols., 1848,) which obtained great popularity and was 
 translated into many languages. "Almost all that we 
 require in a novelist," says " Fraser's Magazine," "the 
 writer has, — perception of character and knowledge of 
 delineating it, picturesqueness, passion, and knowledge 
 of life." Of "Jane Eyre" the "Edinburgh Review" for 
 January, 1850, says, "It is certain that for many years 
 there had been no work of such power, piquancy, and 
 originality. Its very faults were faults on the side of 
 vigour, and its beauties were all original. The grand 
 secret of its success, however, — as of all genuine and 
 
 1 as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,giittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas t; th as in this. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BRONTE 
 
 44° 
 
 BROOKS 
 
 lasting success, — was its reality." This work was, how- 
 ever, severely criticised by the " Quarterly Review" for 
 December, 1848. "Anyone who has studiecf her writings," 
 says Mrs. Gaskell, " must have noticed her singular fe- 
 licity in the choice of words." In 1849 she published 
 " Shirley, a Tale." Before this time the death of her 
 sisters had filled her home with desolation. About the 
 end of 1849 she visited London, and became acquainted 
 with Thackeray and Harriet Martineau. Extreme, in- 
 tense solitude had rendered her shy and somewhat taci- 
 turn in the presence of strangers. " Indigestion, nausea, 
 headache, sleeplessness," says Mrs. Gaskell, "all com- 
 bined to produce miserable depression of spirits." About 
 the end of 1852 she finished "Villette," another novel, 
 which "was received with one burst of acclamation." 
 In December, 1852, a proposal of marriage was made to 
 her by Arthur B. Nicholls, who had been curate of Ha- 
 worth for many years, and had seen her almost daily 
 during that period. She at first declined the offer because 
 her father sternly disapproved the match ; but he finally 
 consented, and they were married in June, 1854. After 
 a brief taste of domestic happiness, she died at Hawot th 
 in March, 1855. 
 
 " No one in her time," says " Blackwood" for May,l855, 
 "has grasped with such extraordinary force the scenes 
 and circumstances through which her story moved, or 
 thrown so strong an individual life into place and lo- 
 cality. Her passionate and fearless nature, her wild, 
 warm heart, are transfused into the magic world she 
 has created, — a world which no one can enter without 
 yielding to the irresistible fascination of her personal 
 influence." 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for 1857; E. C. Gaskell, "Life of 
 Charlotte Bronte," 2 vols., 1857. 
 
 Bronte, (Emily,) "Ellis Bell," a younger sister of 
 the preceding, was born in Yorkshire about 1819. She 
 was one of the authors of a volume entitled " Poems 
 by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell," (1846.) She also 
 published " Wuthering Heights," a novel, (1847,) the 
 merit of which was variously estimated. Died in Decem- 
 ber, 1848. 
 
 See a biographical notice of Ellis and Acton Bell, prefixed to an 
 edition of " Wuthering Heights," 1850. 
 
 Bronte, (Patrick,) the father of Charlotte Bronte, 
 was born in Ireland about 1774. He became curate of 
 Haworth, in Yorkshire, in 1820. He wrote "Cottage 
 Poems," (181 1.) Died in i86t. 
 
 Bronzino, (Alessandko.) See Allori. 
 
 Bronzino, bRon-zee'no, (Angelo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Florence in 1501. His "Descent of Christ into 
 Hell" is considered his master-piece. Died in 1570. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Paintere." 
 
 Brook, (Benjamin,) an English writer, born in 1775, 
 published "The Lives of the Puritans," (3 vols., 1813.) 
 Died about 1848. 
 
 Brooke, (Charlotte,) an Irish authoress, a daughter 
 of Henry Brooke, noticed below. She published, about 
 1788, "Reliques of Irish Poetry," translated from the 
 Celtic. Died in 1793. 
 
 Brooke, (Frances,) an English authoress, wrote the 
 " History of Julia Mandeville," and other novels, also 
 " The Siege of Sinope," a tragedy, and several poems. 
 Died in 1789. 
 
 Brooke, (George Mercer,) an officer in the United 
 States army, served with distinction in 1814 and in the 
 Mexican war, and attained the rank of major-general. 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 Brooke, (Henry,) a political and miscellaneous 
 writer of considerable reputation in his time, was born 
 at Rantavan, in Ireland, in 1706. Among his princi- 
 pal works are a poem entitled " Universal Beauty," 
 the tragedies of " The Earl of Essex" and " Gustavus 
 Vasa," and "The Fool of Quality," a novel, (1766.) Died 
 in 1783. 
 
 See Dr. Johnson's " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Brooke, (James,) an English politician, succeeded 
 Wilkes as editor of "The North Briton." Died in 1807. 
 
 Brooke, (Sir James,) a distinguished statesman, of 
 English extraction, born in Bengal in 1803. He sailed 
 in 1838 in his yacht, called the " Royalist," for Borneo, 
 
 where, as a reward for services rendered to the sultan 
 of that country, he was appointed in 1841 Rajah and 
 Governor of Sarawak. He formed a code of laws for 
 the natives, and was zealous in his efforts for the extir 
 pation of piracy. On a subsequent visit to England he 
 was made a K.C.B., and obtained the degree of D.C.L, 
 (1847.) Died in England in June, 1868. 
 
 See "Private Letters of Sir James Brooke," edited by J. C. Tem- 
 pler, 1853 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1846. 
 
 Brooke, (John Charles,) an English topographer 
 and antiquary, born in 1748, published "The Somerset 
 Herald." Died in 1794. 
 
 Brooke, Lord. See Greville, (Fulke.) 
 
 Brooke or Broke, brook, (Sir Robert,) an English 
 magistrate and legal writer ; died in 1558. 
 
 Brookes, brooks, (Joshua,) a celebrated English 
 anatomist and surgeon, born in 1761. The number of 
 his pupils is said to have amounted to seven thousand; 
 and he formed an anatomical museum of great value. 
 Among his works is a "Treatise on Osteology." Died 
 in 1833. 
 
 Brooks, brooks, (Rev. Charles,) an American Uni- 
 tarian divine, born at Medford, Massachusetts, in 1795. 
 He was a member of the Peace Society, and a prominent 
 advocate of the temperance reform from its commence- 
 ment. He also contributed to the improvement of the 
 public schools of New England and to the establishment 
 of normal schools, which work was finally completed by 
 Horace Mann. In 1839 he visited Europe, for the second 
 time, having previously been chosen professor of natural 
 history in the University of New York. After spending 
 four years on the continent, he returned to his professor- 
 ship, which, however, on account of his failing eye -sight, , 
 he did not long retain. He wrote a treatise on " Peace, . 
 Labour, and Education in Europe," and other works. 
 Mr. Brooks also published one volume of a work on 
 Ornithology, (finely illustrated.) 
 
 See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans," 1854. 
 
 Brooks, (Charles Shirley,) an English dramatist, 
 born in 181 5 or 1816. He produced dramas, entitled 
 "The Creole" and " Honour and Riches," also several | 
 novels, among which is "Aspen Court," (1857.) 
 
 Brooks, (Charles T.,) an American Unitarian di- 1 
 vine and poet, born in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1S13. j 
 He graduated at Harvard, and in 1837 was settled as 
 pastor in Newport, Rhode Island. He has published | 
 translations of Goethe's " Faust," and of the " Wilhelrfl 
 Tell" and other poems of Schiller. 
 
 Brooks, (Erastus,) an American journalist, born 
 Portland, Maine, in 1815. He became editor of th 
 " New York Express" about 1836, supported the Nativ 
 American party in 1855 and 1856, and afterwards joined 
 the Democratic party. 
 
 Brooks, (James,) an American politician, a brothel | 
 of the preceding, was born at Portland, Maine, in 1810. 
 He became in 1836 associate editor of the- " New York 
 Express," and was elected a member of Congress in j 
 1848. Since the rebellion of 1861 he has served for > 
 several terms in Congress, and has acted with the Dem- 
 ocrats. 
 
 Brooks, (James Gordon,) an American poet, born 
 at Claverack, New York, in 1801, graduated at Union 
 College in 1819. He removed in 1823 to New York, 
 where he edited successively "The Minerva," "The 
 Literary Gazette," and "The Athenaeum." He married 
 Mary E. Aikin, a poetess, in 1828. Died in 1841. 
 
 See Griswold's " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Brooks, (Maria Gowen,) called Maria del Oca- 
 dente by Southey, an American poetess, born at Med- 
 ford, Massachusetts, about 1795. She was married at 
 an early age to Mr. Brooks, a merchant of Boston, who 
 died in 1823. She published in 1820 a volume entitled 
 "Judith, Esther, and other Poems." About 1823 she 
 removed to the island of Cuba. Her principal work is 
 "Zophiel, or the Bride of Seven," (1825,) which was 
 highly praised by Southey, who spoke of Mrs. Brooks 
 as the "most impassioned and most imaginative of all 
 poetesses." She visited Southey at Keswick in 1831. 
 Died at Matanzas in 1845. 
 
 See Griswoi.u, " Female Poets of America ;" " London Quarterly 
 Review" for September, 1840. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, Q, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
 
BROOKS 
 
 44 r 
 
 BROUGHAM 
 
 Brooks, (Nathan Covington,) an American scholar 
 and poet, born in Cecil county, Maryland, in 1809. In 
 184s he became president of the Baltimore Female Col- 
 lege, in which position he has acquired a high reputation 
 as a teacher. lie has published a " History of the Mex- 
 ican War," which is regarded as one of the best that has 
 appeared on the subject, and a number of poems, among 
 which we may cite " Shelley's Obsequies," and " The 
 Fall of Superstition." 
 
 See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans," 1S54. 
 
 Brooks, ( Peter Chardon,) a distinguished merchant 
 of Boston, bom at Medford in 1767. He was active in 
 promoting benevolent enterprises. Died in 1849. His 
 three daughters were married to Hon. Edward Everett, 
 Charles Francis Adams, and the Rev. N. L. Frothing- 
 ham, D.D. 
 
 See Euward Everett, "Life of P. C. Brooks," in Hunt's 
 * American Merchants." 
 
 Brooks, (Rev. PHILLIPS,) a popular American cler- 
 gyman, born in Boston, December 13, 1835. He gradu- 
 ated at Harvard in 1855, and studied for the ministry in 
 the Episcopal Theological Seminary at Alexandria, Vir- 
 ginia. Having been ordained in 1S59, he became pastor 
 of the Church of the Advent in Philadelphia, in 1862 of 
 the Church of the Holy Trinity, in the same city, and in 
 i860 of Trinity Church, in Boston. 
 
 Brooks, (Preston S.,) an American politician, born 
 in Edgefield district, South Carolina, in 1819. He was 
 elected a member of Congress in 1853 and in 1855. In 
 May, iSy>, he acquired notoriety by a personal outrage 
 Varies Sumner in the chamber of the Senate of the 
 United States. He was censured by the House of Re- 
 presentatives, anil resigned his seat, but was re-elected. 
 He died in Washington in January, 1857. 
 
 Brooks, (William T. H.,) an American general, 
 born in Ohio about 1820, graduated at West Point in 
 1841. He became a captain in 1851, and a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers about September, 1861. He com- 
 manded a division at Chancellorsville in May, 1863, and 
 served in the army of the Potomac at Cold Harbour and 
 Petersburg, June-July, 1864. Died in 1870. 
 
 Broome, (William,) an English poet and divine, 
 who assisted Pope in translating the "Odyssey." Having 
 complained that his services were inadequately paid bv 
 Pope, the latter gave him a place in the "Dunciad.'' 
 Broome's merits as a translator are highly commended 
 by Dr. Johnson. Died in 1745. 
 
 See Dr. Johnson's "Lives of ihe Poets." 
 
 Brosamer, bRos'5-mer, or Broa'hamer, (Hans,) a 
 German painter and engraver, born about 1506, resided 
 at Fulda. Died about 1560. 
 
 BrosbbU, bRos'bol, (Karl,) a Danish novelist and 
 dramatist, born in Jutland in 1820. Among his works 
 is "Madsalune," (1841.) 
 
 Broschi. See Farinei.li. 
 
 Broshamer, (Hans.) See Brosamer. 
 
 Brossard, de, deli bRo'saV, (Serastikn,) an eminent 
 French musician, died in 1730. His musical library was 
 one of the most valuable ever formed. 
 
 Brosse, bkoss, physician to Louis XIII., and founder 
 of the "Jardin Royal," (or "Royal Garden,") otherwise 
 called the "Jardin des Plantes," of Paris. Died in 1641. 
 
 Brosses, de, deh bROss, (Charles,) a French anti- 
 quary, born at Dijon in 1709. He was a member of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions, and published, among other 
 works, a "History of Voyages to Australia," ("Terres 
 rartrales," 2 vols., 1756,) and a "History of the Seventh 
 Century of the Roman Republic," (3 vols., 1777.) He was 
 the first who used the terms Polynesia and Australasia. 
 Died in 1777. 
 
 See Villemaim, "Tableau de la Literature au dix -huhieme 
 
 Steele." 
 
 Brosset.bRo'si', (Marie Fei.icite,) a French Orien- 
 talist, born in Paris in 1802. He removed to Saint Pe- 
 tersburg, where he became keeper of the great public 
 library, (1842.) He published several works on the his- 
 tory and language of Georgia. 
 
 Brossette, bRo'sct',(Cl.AUDE,)a French advocate and 
 litttrateur, born at Lyons in 1671 ; died in 1743. 
 
 Brotero, hko-ta'ro, (Felix DE Avei.lar,) an eminent 
 Portuguese botanist, born near Lisbon in 1744, published 
 
 " Phytographia Lusitanica," (1827.) He was professor 
 of botany at Lisbon for many years. Died in 1828. 
 
 SeeGusMAo, "Noriceofthe LifeofF. A. Brotero," London, 1845. 
 . Brothers, brfith'erz, (Richard,) an English fanatic, 
 who professed to be the prophet of a new religion and 
 that he was sent to restore the Hebrews to the land of 
 Canaan. He made numerous predictions relative to 
 European affairs, and published several works of a blas- 
 phemous character. Died about 1824. 
 
 Brotier, bro'te-4', (Gabriel,) a French scholar, born 
 at Tannay in 1723, was librarian in the College of Louis 
 le Grand. He published a valuable edition of Tacitus, 
 and wrote a " Treatise on Roman, Greek, and Hebrew 
 Coins compared with the Coins of France," (1760.) 
 Died in 1789. 
 
 Brouaut, Ijroo'6', (Jean,) [Lat. Johan'nes Brevo' 
 tius,] a physician and chemist of merit, lived in the Low 
 Countries about 1590. 
 
 See Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie."" 
 
 Brouckere, de, deh bRoo'kaiR', (Charles Marie 
 Joseph Ghislain — ges'lS.v',) a Belgian politician and 
 political economist, born at Bruges in 1796, was minister 
 of war from August, 1831, to March, 1832. He pub- 
 lished "Principles of Political Economy," (1 85 1.) 
 
 Brouckere, de, (Henri Marie Joseph Ghislain,) 
 a brother of the preceding, was born at Bruges in 1801. 
 He became a leader of the Liberal party, and was ap- 
 pointed minister of state in 1847. In October, 1852, he 
 was directed to organize a new ministry, of which he 
 became president. He resigned in March, 1855. 
 
 Broue, de la, deh If bRoo, (Pierre,) a French theolo- 
 gian, born at Toulouse in 1643, became Bishop of Mire- 
 poix. Died in 1720. 
 
 Brougham, broo'am or broo'm, (Henry,) Lord, a 
 popular British orator, statesman, and author, distin- 
 guished for his great learning and versatility, was born in 
 Edinburgh on the 19th of September, 1779. His father 
 was Henry Brougham, Esq., of Brougham Hall, West- 
 moreland, and his mother was Eleanor Syme, a niece 
 of Dr. Robertson the historian. He began his classical 
 studies in the High School of Edinburgh, and about the 
 age of fifteen entered the university of that city, where 
 Dugald Stewart and Dr. Black were among his teachers. 
 His favourite studies were the mathematics and physical 
 sciences. At the age of seventeen, he wrote a paper on 
 the Refraction and Reflection of Light, which was printed 
 in the " Transactions" of the Royal Society. 
 
 Having chosen the profession of the law, he became a 
 member of the Edinburgh Society of Advocates about 
 1800. In 1802 he united with Francis Jeffrey and Syd- 
 ney Smith to found the "Edinburgh Review," to which 
 he contributed many able articles during a period of 
 twenty-five years, (1803-28.) He published in 1803 an 
 "Enquiry into the Colonial Policy of the European 
 Powers, (2 vols.) 
 
 Having removed to London in 1807 or 1808, he was 
 called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in the latter year, and 
 chose the courts of common law and the Northern cir- 
 cuit. He had attained a high reputation as a forensic 
 orator, when he was elected a member of Parliament for 
 Camelford by the Whigs in 1810. As a parliamentary 
 debater he soon occupied the first rank, and was pre- 
 eminent in passionate vehemence and invective. For 
 many years he found no equal in the House of Com- 
 mons except Canning, who was his political adversary. 
 Brougham procured the passage of an address to the king 
 for the suppression of the slave-trade in 1810. He lost 
 his election in 181 2, and remained out of Parliament 
 four years. He was returned in 1816 for Winchelsea, 
 which he represented until 1830. In 1819 he married a 
 daughter of Thomas Eden of Wimbledon, a brother of 
 Lord Auckland. 
 
 He denounced the Holy Alliance, and the foreign 
 policy of the Tory ministry, on several occasions, and 
 distinguished himself as the advocate of popular educa- 
 tion and political reform. His popularity was greatly 
 increased by his forensic arguments in 1821, before the 
 House of Lords and Privv Cemncil, in defence of Queen 
 Caroline, who had appointed him her attorney-general. 
 He supported the measures of Canning after the latter 
 became prime minister in 1827, although he had once 
 
 e as *: c as s; g hard; g as/; c, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as *; th as in this. ($$"" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BROUGHAM 
 
 442 
 
 BROWN 
 
 vehemently assailed the integrity of Canning's public 
 conduct. 
 
 In 1825 he published "Practical Observations on the 
 Education of the People," which was often reprinted, 
 and produced a powerful impression on the public mind." 
 He was chosen lord rector of Glasgow University in 
 1825, when Sir Walter Scott was his competitor. He 
 rendered an important service to the community as one 
 of the founders of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge, (1827,) of which he was the first chairman. 
 His treatise " On the Objects, Advantages, and Pleasures 
 of Science" was the first work published by this society. 
 "There is no second man in the kingdom who couid 
 with such admirable art have analyzed, as it were, his 
 mental wealth, and sent it forth in a form at once the 
 simplest, the most convenient, and the most ready of 
 access that it was possible to contrive." ("London 
 Monthly Review.") 
 
 In 1830 he was returned to Parliament for Yorkshire, 
 after a contest in which, it is said, he addressed eight 
 different electoral meetings in one day. He avowed 
 himself, at the opening of the session, a champion of 
 Parliamentary reform, which was then the principal issue 
 before the country. In November, 1830, he became 
 lord chancellor of England in the new ministry formed 
 by Earl Grey, and received the title of Baron Brougham 
 and Vaux. Among his most celebrated oratorical efforts 
 was a speech for the Reform Bill in the House of Lords, 
 in'October, 1831. He manifested prodigious activity in 
 the performance of his duties as chancellor and legisla- 
 tor. He promoted the abolition of slavery in the colo- 
 nies, and reforms in municipal jurisprudence. On the 
 dissolution of the Whig ministry in November, 1834, he 
 retired from office, and ceased to act with the Whig party. 
 His political course from that time was independent of 
 party : he supported, however, several liberal measures, 
 and devoted himself especially to the cause of law-reform. 
 In 1843 ne published " Letters on Law-Reform, ad- 
 dressed to Sir James Graham." He denounced the Anti- 
 Corn- Law League, but voted for the repeal of the corn- 
 laws in 1846. 
 
 Lord Brougham was chosen a foreign associate of the 
 Institute of France (class of moral and political sciences) 
 in 1833. He hailed with enthusiasm, or at least cordial 
 favour, the French revolution of 1848, soon after which 
 he signified his desire to become naturalized as a French 
 citizen, but was officially informed that he could not be 
 received as such unless he ceased to be an English peer. 
 Among his principal works are " Sketches of Statesmen 
 of the Time of George III.," (3 vols., 1839-43,) "Politi- 
 cal Philosophy," (3 vols., 1840-44,) " Speeches at the 
 Bar and in Parliament," {4 vols., 1843,) "Lives of the 
 Men of Letters and Science who flourished in the Time 
 of George III.," (2 vols., 1845-46,) and "Contributions 
 to the Edinburgh Review : Political, Historical, and Mis- 
 cellaneous," (3 vols., 1857.) A complete edition of his 
 works was published, under the superintendence of the 
 author, in ten volumes, 1857 It is stated as a fact with- 
 out precedent in the history of English chancellors that 
 he retired from the court Of chancery without leaving a 
 single case, which had been heard, in arrear for judg- 
 ment. Died at his rural retreat at Cannes, in France, on 
 the 9th of May, 1868. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1818, and April, 
 1859; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1837, and April, 1858: 
 "British Quarterly" for July, i860. 
 
 Brougham, broo'am, (John,) a popular Irish come- 
 dian, born in Dublin in 1810. He came to the United 
 States about 1842, and performed in New York. He 
 produced several comedies and other works. 
 
 Broughton, brow'ton, (Arthur,) M.D., an English 
 botanist, published several botanical works, (1782-94.) 
 
 Broughton, (Hugh,) an English theological writer 
 and Hebrew scholar, born at Oldbury in 1549, was a 
 protege of the celebrated Bernard Gilpin. Died in 1612. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Broughton, Lord. See Hobhouse, (John Cam.) 
 Broughton, (Richard,) an English theologian, pub- 
 lished an "Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain from 
 the Nativity to the Conversion of the Saxons." Died 
 in 1634. 
 
 Broughton, (Thomas,) an English divine, born in 
 London in 1704, published "Christianity distinct from 
 the Religion of Nature," and was a contributor to the 
 " Biographia Britannica." Died in 1774. 
 
 Broughton, (William Grant,) an English divine, 
 born at Canterbury in 1789, became in 1835 first Bishop 
 of Australia. He died on the voyage home to England 
 in 1853. 
 
 Broughton, (William Robert,) an English navi- 
 gator, born in Gloucestershire in 1763. He accompanied 
 in 1790 the expedition of Vancouver, who gave the name 
 of Broughton's Archipelago to some islands in the Pa« 
 cific, in about 50 degrees north latitude. He published 
 a " Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean," 
 (1804,) which see. Died in 1822. 
 
 Brouncker or Brounker, brunk'er, (?) (William,) 
 Viscount, a distinguished mathematician, born in Ire- 
 land in 1620. He became first president of the Royal 
 Society in 1662, and was subsequently appointed lord of 
 the admiralty and chancellor of the queen. He wrote 
 several scientific treatises, and originated some valuable 
 discoveries in mathematics. Died in 1684 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Broussais, bRoo'sJ', (Francois Joseph Victor,) a 
 distinguished French physician and medical writer, born 
 at Saint-Malo in 1772, was professor of pathology in the 
 Faculty of Paris. He was a member of the Institute, 
 and the teacher of a system or theory of medicine called 
 the Physiological. Died in 1838. 
 
 See " Essai critique sur Broussais," Paris, 1839; Montegrb, 
 " Notice sur la Vie, les Travaux et les Qpinions de Broussais," 1839; 
 J. B. Priou, "Notice historique sur F. J. V. Broussais," 1841. 
 
 Broussier, bRoo'se-i', (Jean Baptiste,) Count, a 
 French general, born near Bar-le-Duc in 1 766. As gen- 
 eral of brigade, he contributed to the victory at Marengo 
 in 1800. He became a general of division in 1805, and 
 rendered important services in Italy in 1809. Died in 
 1814. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Brousson, bRoo's6N', (Claude,) a French Protestant 
 theologian and religious writer, born at Nimes in 1647. 
 He was executed in 1698, on a charge of treason. 
 
 See La Beaumelle, " Lettres a Voltaire ;" A. Borrel, " Biogra- 
 phie de C. Brousson," 1852; "Life of C. Brousson," London, 1853. 
 
 Broussonnet, bRoo'so'ni', (Pierre Auguste,) a 
 French physician and naturalist, born at Montpellier in 
 1761. He published " Ichthyologia," and "Memoirs 
 towards the History of the Respiration of Fishes." He 
 was professor of botany at Montpellier, and a membei 
 of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1807. 
 
 See Cuvier, " Elogede Broussonnet," 1808; A. P. DecandollK, 
 " £loge de Broussonnet," 1809. 
 
 Brouwer. See Brauwer. 
 
 Browall, bRo'ftal, [Lat. Browal'lius,] (Johan,) a 
 Swedish theologian, naturalist, and scientific writer, 
 born at Westris in 1707. He became professor of natu- 
 ral history at Abo in 1737, and was subsequently Bishop 
 of that city. Linnaeus named in his honour the genus 
 Browallia. Died in 1755. 
 
 See Gezelius, " Biographiskt-Lexicon." 
 
 Brower. See Brauwer. 
 
 Brown. See Browne. 
 
 Brown, (Aaron Vail,) an American lawyer, born in 
 Brunswick county, Virginia, in 1795, removed to Nash- 
 ville, Tennessee. He was a member of Congress from 
 1839 to 1845, was elected Governor of Tennessee 
 1845, and appointed postmaster-general of the Unite 
 States in 1857. Died in 1859. 
 
 Brown, (Albert G.,) an American Senator, born i 
 Chester district, South Carolina, in 1813. He 
 elected Governor of Mississippi in 1843 and in 18 
 was a member of the national House of Representativ 
 from 1847 to 1853, and was chosen a Senator of th 
 United States in the latter year. He was re-elected abou 
 1858, and retired from the Senate, as a secessionist, i 
 1 861. 
 
 Brown, (Alexander,) an English botanist and sur- 
 geon, lived about 1670. The genus Browniawas named 
 in his honour. 
 
 Brown, (Alexander,) the founder of a family of 
 eminent merchants, was born in Antrim county, Ire- 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, 3?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
 
BROWN 
 
 443 
 
 BROWN 
 
 land, in 1764. He settled in Baltimore about 1800. 
 Died in 1S34. He was the father of William George, 
 John A., and James Brown. 
 Brown, (Antoinette.) See Blackwell. 
 Brown, (Catherine,) a Cherokee convert to Chris- 
 tianity, bom in Alabama in 1800; died in 1823. 
 
 Brown, (Chadd,) an American Baptist divine, who 
 fled from the persecutions of Massachusetts in 1636 to 
 , Rhode Island. For more than two centu- 
 :s descendants have been among the most distin- 
 guished citizens of that State. Died in 1665. 
 
 Brown, (Charles Brockden,) an eminent American 
 novelist, born in Philadelphia in January, 177 1. His 
 ancestors were Quakers, who came to Philadelphia with 
 an Penn. He was liberally educated, and from his 
 earlv years he manifested a decided inclination for lite- 
 rary pursuits. He published " Wieland, or the Trans- 
 formation," (1798,) "Ormond, or the Secret Witness," 
 (1799,) and "Arthur Mervyn," (1800.) In the last-named 
 work he gives a graphic account of the scenes exhibited 
 during the prevalence of the yellow fever in Philadelphia 
 in 17115. He was editor of the "Monthly Magazine and 
 fcan Review," (1799-1800.) He also founded, in 
 1803 or 1805, "The Literary Magazine and American 
 -ter," which he edited about five years. Among 
 lier works are "Clara Howard," (1801,) and "Jane 
 \ Talbot," (1804.) He married a Miss Linn, of New York, 
 in 1S04. He died of consumption in February, 1810, 
 1 leaving one son. Referring to his characteristics as a 
 writer. Mr. Prescott observes, " He has been said to have 
 ; formed himself on Godwin, and has certainly in some re- 
 1 spects adopted his mode of operation, studying character 
 J with a philosophic rather than a poetic eye. But there 
 I is no servile imitation in all this. He has borrowed the 
 I same torch, indeed, to read the page of human nature, 
 , but the lesson he derives from it is totally different. His 
 I peculiar merits appeal to a higher order of criticism than 
 j is to be found in ordinary and superficial readers. Like 
 I the productions of Coleridge or Wordsworth, they seem 
 ! to rely on deeper sensibilities than most men possess, 
 I and tax the reasoning powers more severely than is agree- 
 I able to readers who resort to works of fiction only as 
 an epicurean indulgence." 
 
 See William H. Prescott's "Life of C. Brockden Brown," 
 •arks's "American BiograDliy," vol. i., reprinted in Pres- 
 cott's "Miscellanies," 1855 ; W*. DuK. ^P , S "Life of Brown," pre- 
 J fixed to an edition of his works, 1827 ; Griswold's " Prose Writers 
 1 of America." 
 
 Brown, (David,) an English clergyman, went to Cal- 
 . cutta as chaplain to the East India Company, and be- 
 icame provost of the College of Fort William in 1800. 
 ■ Died in India in 1812. 
 
 Brown, (David,) a Cherokee, a brother of Cathe- 
 rine, noticed above, was converted by missionaries, who 
 I employed him as an interpreter and teacher. Died in 
 
 ; 1829. ' 
 
 Brown, (David Paul,) an American lawyer, born in 
 
 : Philadelphia in 1795, gained distinction as a pleader in 
 
 criminal cases. He published " The Forum, or Forty 
 
 -' Full Practice at the Philadelphia Bar," (2 vols., 
 
 Brown, (Ford Madox,) an English painter, born at 
 Calais in 1821. Among his works are "King Lear," 
 Chaucer at the Court of Edward III.," and "The Last 
 of England." 
 
 See " Fraser*s Magazine" for May, 1865. 
 
 Brown, (Frances,) a blind Irish poetess, born at 
 Stranorlar, in Donegal, about 1816. She published "The 
 Star of Atteghei," and other poems, (1844,) which were 
 received with favour. 
 
 Brown, (Sir George,) a Scottish general, born near 
 Elgin in 1790, served in the Peninsular war, and in the 
 American campaign of 1814. He became lieutenant- 
 general in 185 1, and distinguished himself in the Cri- 
 mean war at Alma, Inkerman, and Sebastopol. He was 
 K.C.B. in 1855. 
 
 Blown, (George L.,) an American landscape-painter, 
 born in Boston about 1820. He has executed Italian and 
 American landscapes of great merit : among the latter 
 we may name his " Crown of New England," a view in 
 the White Mountains. 
 
 See Tuckkrman, " Book of the Artists. 
 
 Brown, (Goold,) an American teacher and gramma- 
 rian, died at Lynn, Massachusetts, in 1857, aged sixty- 
 six years. His principal works are the "Institutes of 
 English Grammar," (1823,) which obtained an immense 
 circulation, and the " Grammar of English Grammars," 
 (1850; 2d edition, 8vo, 1857, pp. 1070,) probably the most 
 extensive treatise of the kind that has hitherto been 
 published. 
 
 Brown, (Harvey,) an American officer, born at Rail- 
 way, New Jersey, about 1795, graduated at West Point 
 in 1818. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) be- 
 came a colonel of the regular army in April or May, 
 1861, and conducted a successful expedition for the re- 
 lief of Fort Pickens, of which he had command from 
 April 16, 1861, to February, 1862. 
 
 Brown, (Henry Kirk,) an American sculptor, born 
 in Leyden, Massachusetts, in 1814. He studied in Italy, 
 and, after his return, produced a bronze statue, said to 
 be the first ever executed in America. One of his most 
 noted works is the colossal equestrian statue of Wash- 
 ington in Union Square, New York. He has also exe- 
 cuted " The Four Seasons," " Pleiades," and other works 
 in marble. 
 
 See Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists." 
 
 Brown, (Jacob,) an American general, born in Bucks 
 county, Pennsylvania, in 1775. In 1799 he settled in 
 the northern part of New York. He defended Ogdens- 
 burg in 1812, and Sackett's Harbour in 1813. Having 
 obtained the rank of major-general, he commanded an 
 army which invaded Canada in the spring of 1814. He 
 gained victories at Chippewa and Niagara Falls in July, 
 1814. In 1821 he became commander'-in-chief of the 
 army of the United States. Died in 1828. 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.) 
 
 Brown, (James,) an Englishman, born in 1709, origin- 
 ated, it is said, "The Directory, or List of Principal 
 Traders in London," (1782.) Died in 1787. 
 
 Brown, (James,) born in Virginia in 1766, was elected 
 a Senator of the United States from Louisiana in 1813, 
 and re-elected in 1819. He was minister to France from 
 1823 to 1829. Died in 1835. 
 
 Brown, (James,) an American publisher, born in Ac- 
 ton, Massachusetts, in 1800, became a partner of the 
 firm of Little, Brown & Co., Boston. Died in 1855. 
 
 Brown, (John,) D.D., an eminent English clergy- 
 man and miscellaneous writer, born in 1 71 5 ; died, by 
 suicide, in 1766. Besides other works, he wrote "Bar- 
 barossa," a tragedy, and an " Estimate of the Manners 
 and Principles of the Times." The latter work especially 
 enjoyed an extraordinary popularity. 
 
 Brown, (John,) a Scottish linguist and minister, born 
 in Perthshire in 1720 or 1722, preached at Haddington. 
 
 He published a "Dictionary of the Bible," (1769,) and 
 
 Bible," ( 
 1787. 
 
 'The Self-Interpreting 
 
 (2 vols., 1 791.) Died in 
 
 Brown, (John,) M.D., the author of the Brunonian 
 system of medicine, was born at Dunse, in Berwickshire, 
 Scotland, in 1735. He was a pupil of Dr. Cullen, and 
 afterwards became his enemy. According to some au- 
 thorities, a desire for revenge induced him to form a new 
 system of medicine, which should supplant that of Cul- 
 len, and which he propounded in his "Elementa Medi- 
 cinae," (1780.) This work was translated into many lan- 
 guages. His system was more popular in Germany than 
 in Great Britain. He divided diseases into two classes, 
 the sthenic and the asthenic, the former of which resulted 
 from excess and the latter from deficiency of exciting 
 power. He used alcohol as a remedy for one set of dis- 
 eases, and opium for the other. Died poor, in London, 
 in 1788. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Brown, (John,) an American merchant, brother of 
 Joseph, Moses, and Nicholas Brown, was born in Provi- 
 dence, Rhode Island, in 1736. He was a zealous pro- 
 moter of all benevolent and educational objects, and one 
 of the most liberal benefactors of Brown University. 
 From 1799 to 1801 he was a representative in Congress. 
 Died at Providence in 1803. 
 
 Brown, (John,) an American officer, born in Berk- 
 shire county, Massachusetts, in 1744. He served with 
 distinction in the expedition against Quebec in 1775, and 
 
 — » »• * vLni.r,-in,i, iiuur ui inc ni uaia. lii.ilmiv,i.ivjii i i i my, lalilvihiuii ncainoi \^r 111 i/vi. ill • / / ")t «• ' «J 
 
 € a* i; [ as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jg?*"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BROWN 
 
 444 
 
 BROWN 
 
 was raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1776. He 
 was killed in a fight with Indians in October, 1780. 
 
 Brown, (John,) a Scottish painter and writer upon 
 art, born at Edinburgh in 1752, wrote "Letters on the 
 Poetry and Music of the Italian Opera." Died in 1787. 
 
 Brown, (John,) an eminent Scottish divine, born in 
 1784, was a grandson of the author of the "Self-Inter- 
 preting Bible." He studied at the University of Edin- 
 burgh, and in 1822 became pastor of the Rose Street 
 Church in that city. He was appointed in 1834 professor 
 of exegetical theology to the United Secession Church. 
 His principal works are " An Exposition of our Lord's 
 Intercessory Prayer," (1850,) "Discourses and Sayings 
 of our Lord Jesus Christ," and a commentary "On the 
 Epistle to the Galatians." Died in 1858. 
 
 See Rev. Robert Steel, "Burning and Shining Lights," 1864. 
 
 Brown, (John,) M.D., son of the preceding, a Scot- 
 tish writer, and Fellow of the Royal College of Physi- 
 cians at Edinburgh, born about 1830. He published in 
 1858 an interesting and popular work entitled " Horae 
 Subsecivae." He has also written "Pet Marjorie : a Story 
 of Child-Life Fifty Years ago." 
 
 See "Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1859. 
 
 Brown, (John,) of Ossawatomie, a distinguished 
 champion of liberty, born at Torrington, Connecticut, 
 in May, 1800. His father removed to Ohio in 1805. 
 From the age of fifteen to twenty he worked at the trade 
 of tanner and currier. He married in 1820 Dianthe 
 Lusk. According to Redpath, he conceived in 1839 the 
 idea of becoming a liberator of the Southern slaves. He 
 was a devout member of the Congregational Church, and 
 a man of strict moral character. He possessed unflinch- 
 ing courage and intense earnestness. In 1846 he re- 
 moved to Springfield, Massachusetts, where he was em- 
 ployed as a dealer in wool. He afterwards visited Europe 
 on business. He emigrated in 1855 to Kansas, where 
 he took an active part in the contest with the pro-slavery 
 party. In August, 1856, he gained some advantages at 
 Ossawatomie over a band of Missourians who had in- 
 vaded Kansas and were ten times more numerous than 
 his own company. In May, 1859, he called a secret con- 
 vention of the friends of freedom, which met at Chatham 
 m Canada, organized an invasion of Virginia for the pur- 
 pose of liberating the slaves, and adopted a constitution. 
 In the following July he rented a farm-house about six 
 miles from Harper's Ferry, and collected there a supply 
 of pikes, guns, etc. On the night of October 16, 1S59, 
 aided by about twenty men, he surprised Harper's Ferry, 
 seized the arsenal and armory, and took over forty pris- 
 oners. About noon on the 17th the party of Brown was 
 attacked by the Virginian militia. After two of his sons 
 and nearly all of his men had been killed, and he himself 
 had been wounded in several places, he was captured. 
 "Enemies and friends," says Redpath, "were equally 
 amazed at the carriage and sayings of the wounded war- 
 rior." He was tried in November, and hung at Charles- 
 town, Virginia, on the 2d of December, 1859. He met 
 his death with serene composure. He was twice mar- 
 ried, and had twenty children. 
 
 See Redpath, "Life of Captain John Brown," i860; "Life and 
 Letlers of Captain John Brown," edited bv R. D. Webb, London, 
 1861 ; Greeley, "American Conflict," vol. i. 
 
 Brown, (John Newton,) a Baptist clergyman and 
 writer, born at New London, Connecticut, in 1803. He 
 published in 1835 the "Encyclopaedia of Religious Know- 
 ledge," which was received with favour. It is stated that 
 he has been engaged for many years on a history of the 
 Church. 
 
 Brown, (John W.,) an American author, born at 
 Schenectady in 1814, was an Episcopal minister. He 
 produced "Christmas-Bells, a Tale of Holy Tide, and 
 other poems." Died in 1849. 
 
 Brown, (Lancelot,) an English landscape-gardener, 
 called Capability Brown, wits born in Northumber- 
 land in 1715. He was at the head of his profession in 
 England. Died in 1773. 
 
 Brown, (Matthew,) an English historical and por- 
 trait painter. Died in 1831. 
 
 Brown, (Moses,) an English poet, born in 1703, was 
 vicar of Olney. He wrote "Percy Lodge," (1756,) and 
 other poems. Died in 1787. 
 
 Brown, (Moses,) an American merchant, born at 
 Providence, Rhode Island, in 1 738, was an uncle of Ni- 
 cholas, noticed below. He joined the Society of Friends 
 in 1773. He was a liberal patron of the Friends' Board- 
 ing-School at Providence. Died in 1836. 
 
 Brown, (Moses,) an American merchant, born at 
 Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1742, was a benefactor 
 of Andover Theological Seminary. He also gave largely 
 to several benevolent institutions. Died in 1827. 
 
 Brown, (Nicholas,) a distinguished American mer- 
 chant, and munificent patron of Brown University, (for- 
 merly Rhode Island Colhee,) born at Providence in 
 1760. His donations to the institution at different times 
 amounted in the aggregate to not less than J 100,000. 
 He also gave freely to missionary and other charitable 
 objects, and in his will made a bequest of $30,000 to- 
 wards the erection of a Retreat for the Insane, lie died 
 October 27, 1841. For fuller particulars, see Hunt's 
 " Lives of American Merchants." 
 
 Brown, (Obadiah,) a manufacturer, born at Provi- 
 dence, Rhode Island, in 177 1. He was a member of 
 the firm of Almy, Brown & Slater, cotton-spinners. He 
 gave large sums for various charitable purposes. Died 
 in 1822. 
 
 Brown or Browne, (Robert,) an English theologian, 
 the founder of the sect called Brownists and afterwards 
 Independents. He taught that all the members of a 
 church are equal, and that the minister should be elected 
 by the members of his congregation. Died in 1630, 
 aged about eighty. He differed from the Church of 
 England about discipline rather than doctrines. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Brown, (Robert,) a Scottish agriculturist, born at 
 East Linton about 1770, published an esteemed wort 
 "On Rural Affairs," (2 vols., 1S11.) Died in 1831. 
 
 Brown, (Robert,) M.D., an excellent British botan- 
 ist, born at Montrose in 1773, was educated at Aberdeen 
 and Edinburgh. He was attached as botanist to the expe- 
 dition sent out in 1801 under Captain Flinders to explore 
 the coast of Australia. He returned in 1805 with a col- 
 lection of four thousand species of plants from Australia 
 and became librarian to Sir Joseph Banks. In 1S10 Ik 
 published " Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae." A: 
 an appendix to Flinders's "Narrative," Dr. Brown alsi 
 published "General Remarks, Geographical and Sys 
 tematical, on the Botany of Terra Australis," a worl 
 of great merit. He adopted and illustrated in hi: 
 writings the natural method of Jussieu. He contribute 
 many able treatises to the "Transactions" of the Lin- 
 naean Society, and made important discoveries in vi 
 table physiology, especially in the fecundation of plai 
 In 1833 he was elected one of the eight foreign 
 ciates of the French Academy of Sciences. His repu 
 tation was perhaps higher on the continent than in Grea 
 Britain ; and Humboldt estimated him as the first 0! 
 botanists, {botankorum facile princeps.) Died in Londoi 
 in 1858. 
 
 See article by Dr. Hoefer in the " Nouvelle Biographie < 
 rale." 
 
 Brown, (Samuel,) M.D., a Scottish poet and ch 
 cal theorist, born at Haddington in 1817, was a grant 
 of Rev. John Brown, (1722-87.) His talents and attain 
 ments are said to have been extraordinary. He devote 
 much time to the subject of isomerism, and laboured t 
 pro^e that chemical substances which are usually con 
 sidered simple can be transmuted into each other. I 
 1S50 he produced "The Tragedy of Galileo." Died i 
 1856. Two volumes of his Essays and Lectures ver 
 published in 1858. 
 
 Brown, (Sir Samuel,) a civil engineer, born in Lit 
 don in 1776, served in the royal navy, and gained th 
 rank of captain. He acquired distinction by improve 
 ments in suspension bridges. Died in 1852. 
 
 Brown, (Tarlton,) an American officer, born i 
 Barnwell district, South Carolina, in 1754, served as caj 
 tain in the Revolutionary war. Died in 1846. 
 
 Brown, (Thomas,) a satirical and facetious End! 
 poet, commonly called Tom Brown, born in 1663, W> 
 addicted to buffoonery and immoral practices. Died t 
 1704. 
 
 See Cibber, "Lives of the English Poets," etc. 
 
 i,e, 
 
 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, % short; a, 9, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; n&t; good; md 
 
BROWN 
 
 445 
 
 BROWNE 
 
 Brown, (Thomas.) one of the most distinguished of 
 the Scottish metaphysicians, was born at Kirkmabreck, 
 near Dumfries, in 1778. He manifested his fondness for 
 Metaphysical speculation before he was fifteen years of 
 age. Not long after he attended the lectures ot Dugald 
 .Stewart in Edinburgh, and attracted the attention of that 
 philosopher by the acuteness of his remarks on a certain 
 theory propounded in one of his lectures. This was the 
 beginning of a life-long friendship between these two 
 eminent men. He published, in 1798, "Observations on 
 Darwin's Zoonomia," which evinced remarkable pre- 
 cocity of intellect and was much admired. Mackintosh 
 calls the "Observations" the "perhaps unmatched work 
 of a boy in the eighteenth year of his age." 
 
 About 1803 he took his degree as doctor of medicine. 
 He resigned his practice in 1810, and was appointed 
 colleague of Dugald Stewart in the chair of moral phi- 
 iv in the University of Edinburgh. He obtained 
 great popularity as a lecturer. His lectures were pub- 
 lished under the title of " Lectures on the Philosophy of 
 the Human Mind," (4 vols., 1820.) He wrote a number 
 ins. one of which is entitled "The Paradise of 
 Coquettes," (1814.) His principal work is "Observa- 
 tions on the Relation of Cause and Effect," (3d edition, 
 enlarged, 1818.) "His first tract on causation," says 
 Sir |. Mackintosh, "appeared to me the finest model 
 of discussion in mental philosophy since Berkeley and 
 Hume." Died in 1S20. 
 
 Dr. Brown possessed, besides an acute and powerful 
 1 intellect, a poetic temperament, with a lively imagination 
 and refined sensibilities. " His mind," says Mackintosh, 
 i "soared and roamed through every region of philosophy 
 1 and poetry ; but his untravelled heart clung to the hearth 
 I of his father and to the children who shared it with him. 
 ... His heart sought little abroad, but contentedly dwelt 
 1 in his family and in his study. He was one of those men 
 I of genius who repaid the tender care of a mother by 
 I rocking the cradle of her reposing age." Respecting the 
 of Dr. Brown, the same eminent critic observes, 
 " His prose is brilliant to excess ; it must not be denied 
 i that its beauty is sometimes womanly ; that it too often 
 I melts down precision into elegance; that it buries the 
 i main idea under a load of illustration. ... It is dark- 
 I ened by excessive brightness ; it loses ease and liveliness 
 by over-dress; and, in the midst of its luscious sweet- 
 ness, we wish for the striking and homely illustrations 
 I of Tucker, and for the pithy and sinewy sense of Paley, 
 ; either of whom, by a single short metaphor from a fami- 
 liar, perhaps a low, object, could at one blow set the two 
 worlds of reason and fancy in movement." 
 
 See Dk. Welsh's "Account of the Life and Writings of Thomas 
 \ Brown." iS>5 ; Mackintosh's "View of the Progress of Ethical Phi- 
 I losophy ;" Ai. li bone's " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Brown, (William,) an English botanist, born in 
 162S, published "Catalogus Horti Oxoniensis." Died 
 in 1678. 
 
 Brown, (William,) an eminent merchant and barker, 
 born at Hallymena, Ireland, in 1784, settled in Liver- 
 pool. I le was senior partner of the firm of Brown, Ship- 
 ley & Co., and represented South Lancashire in Parlia- 
 ment in 1845. He gave £30,000 or more for a public 
 library in Liverpool. Died in 1864. 
 
 Brown or Browne, (William Laurence,) a theolo- 
 gian, born at Utrecht in 1755, removed to Scotland in 
 1795, and became professor of divinity at Aberdeen in 
 that year. He wrote an " Essay on the Folly of Skep- 
 ticism," (1788,) and an " Essay on the Existence of a 
 Supreme Creator," (1816.) The latter gained a prize 
 of £1250. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1804. 
 
 Browne, (Andrew,) a Scottish physician and medical 
 writer, lived about 1650-95. 
 
 Browne, (Edward,) an English writer, born in 1642, 
 was physician to Charles II. He translated some of 
 Platan n's works, and wrote a book of travels. Died in 
 1708. 
 
 Browne, (George,) became Archbishop of Dublin 
 in 1535. He promoted the Reformation. Died about 1558. 
 
 Browne, 1 1,1 urge,) an Irish general, born in 1698, 
 entered the Russian service and fought against the Poles, 
 
 French, and Turks. He was created a field-marshal anc 
 Governor of Livonia by Peter III. Died in 1792. 
 
 See " Histoire de la Vie de Georges Browne," 1794. 
 
 Browne, (Isaac Hawkins,) an English poet, born 
 at Burton-upon-Trent in 1706, studied law, and became 
 a member of Parliament. He wrote poems " On Design 
 and Beauty," and " On the Immortality of the Soul,'' 
 ("De Animas Immortalitate," 1754.) Died in 1760. 
 
 Browne, (John,) an English surgeon and medical 
 writer, born in 1642, was surgeon-in-ordinary to Charles 
 II. Died about 1700. 
 
 Browne, (John Ross,) an American traveller and 
 writer. He published in 1846 " Etchings of a Whaling 
 Cruise, with Notes of a Sojourn on the Island of Zan- 
 zibar." After a visit to Palestine, he produced a humorous 
 account of his adventures, entitled " Yusef, or the Jour- 
 ney of a Frangi : a Crusade in the East." He was ap- 
 pointed minister to China in 1868. 
 
 Browne, (Joseph,) an English physician, born about 
 1650, published a work entitled " Antidotaria;" and wrote 
 against the doctrine of the circulation of the blood. 
 
 Browne, (Joseph,) D.D., an English scholar, born 
 in Cumberland in 1700, was provost of Queen's College, 
 Oxford. Died in 1767. 
 
 Browne, (Mary Ann,) an English poetess, born in 
 Berkshire in 1812. She produced "Ada," (1828,) "The 
 Coronal," (1833,) " Ignatia," (1838,) and other poems. 
 In 1842 she was married to James Gray. Died in 1846. 
 
 Browne, brown/ (Maximilian Ulysses,) a distin- 
 guished general in the Austrian service, born at Bale in 
 1705, was a relative of the field-marshal George Browne, 
 lie fought in the Silesian war against Frederick the Great, 
 and commanded the right wing at the battle of Mollwitz 
 in 1 741. In 1754 he was made a field-marshal. He was 
 mortally wounded at- the battle of Prague in 1757. Fred- 
 erick the Great was accustomed to call Marshal Browne 
 his teacher in the art of war. 
 
 See Archenholz, " History of the Seven Years' War." 
 
 Browne, (Patrick,) M.D., born in Mayo county, 
 Ireland, about 1720, published a "Civil and Natural 
 History of Jamaica," (1756.) Died in 1790. 
 
 Browne, (Peter,) Bishop of Cork, wrote several 
 works on theology. Died in 1735. 
 
 Browne, (Robert.) See Brown. 
 
 Browne, (Simon,) an English Dissenting minister, 
 born in Somersetshire about 1680, preached in London. 
 He wrote against Tindal a " Defence of the Religion 
 of Nature and the Christian Revelation," (1732.) Died 
 in 1732. 
 
 Browne, (Thomas,) a learned English theologian, 
 born in Middlesex in 1604, was chaplain to Charles I. 
 Died in 1673. 
 
 Browne, (Sir Thomas,) an eminent English physi- 
 cian, philosopher, and writer, born in London in 1605. 
 He settled in 1636 at Norwich, where he practised medi- 
 cine for many years, and married Dorothy Mileham about 
 1640. In 1642 he published anonymously his "Religio 
 Medici," which was very successful and has often been 
 reprinted and translated. "A superior genius," says 
 Hallam, "was exhibited in Sir Thomas Browne. His 
 mind was fertile and ingenious, his analogies original and 
 brilliant, and his learning so much out of the beaten path 
 that it gives a peculiar and uncommon air to all his 
 writings." Among his principal works is " Pseudodoxia 
 Epidemica, or Inquiries into Vulgar and Common 
 Errors," (1646.) He also wrote a "Treatise on Christian 
 Morals," ( 1 7 1 6, ) which is highly esteemed. In 1671 he 
 was knighted by Charles II. He died at Norwich, on 
 his seventy-seventh birthday, 1682. 
 
 See Dr. Samuel Johnson, " Life of Sir Thomas Browne;" Haz- 
 i.itt, " Age of Elizabeth :" " Retrospective Review," vol. i. ; Nlci- 
 ron, "Me'moires;" Wood, "Athena: Oxonienses." 
 
 Browne, (William,) an English poet, born at Tav- 
 istock in 1590. He wrote pastoral poems, (1613-16,) 
 which had a temporary popularity. Died about 1645. 
 
 See "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1820. 
 
 Browne, (Sir William,) an English physician and 
 writer, born in Norfolk in 1692 ; died in 1774. 
 
 Browne, (William George,) an English traveller, 
 born in London in 1768. He travelled in Egypt, and 
 attempted to explore the interior of Africa, but was de- 
 
 e as A; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; 5 as s; th as in this. ( jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BROWNE 
 
 446 
 
 BRUCE 
 
 tained in captivity in Darfoor for three years. He pub- 
 lished, in 1799 or 1800, "Travels in Africa, Egypt, and 
 Syria from 1792 to 1798." Having started on another 
 journey towards Samarcand, he was murdered in Persia 
 in 1813. 
 
 Browne, (William Laurence.) See Brown. 
 
 Br5wn'ell, (Thomas Church,) D.D., LL.D., was 
 born in Massachusetts in 1779. He graduated at Union 
 College, with the highest honours of his class, in 1804, 
 and continued his connection with the institution, as 
 tutor and professor, for many years. He was ordained 
 in 1816, and appointed Bishop of Connecticut in 1819. 
 He was chosen the first president of Washington (now 
 Trinity) College, an institution chartered in 1823, and 
 built up at Hartford under his auspices. In 1852 he 
 became Presiding Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church in the United States. Died in 1865. Bishop 
 Brownell was the author of several valuable religious 
 works and various occasional sermons, addresses, etc. 
 His " Family Prayer" has passed through numerous 
 editions, and been received with great favour by Epis- 
 copalians throughout the country. His " Religion of the 
 Heait" (5 vols., partly a compilation and partly original) 
 is also highly esteemed. 
 
 Brownikowski. See Bronikowski. 
 
 BrBwn'ing, (Elizabeth Barrett,) one of the most 
 gifted female poets that have ever lived, was born near 
 Ledbury, Herefordshire, about 1807. She was the daugh- 
 ter of Mr. Barrett, an opulent merchant of London. 
 She was highly educated, and well acquainted with the 
 Greek and Latin languages. She began to write verse 
 about the age of ten, and gave early proofs of poetical 
 genius. Among her first published works was "The 
 Battle of Marathon." In 1826 she published a volume 
 entitled "Essay on Mind, and other Poems." She pro- 
 duced in 1833 " Prometheus Bound," translated from the 
 Greek of /Eschylus, which was a remarkable perform- 
 ance for a young woman, though not a very good trans- 
 lation. She afterwards made an amended version of the 
 same. Her reputation was extended by "The Seraphim, 
 and other Poems," (1838.) She contributed to the "Athe- 
 naeum" a series of able critical papers on the Greek 
 Christian poets. Her health was naturally delicate, and 
 was almost ruined by grief for the death of her brother, 
 who was accidentally drowned. After that event she was 
 confined for several years in a darkened chamber. She 
 published in 1839 "The Romaunt of the Page," "The 
 Drama of Exile," (1840,) and two volumes of poems 
 in 1844. In 1846 she was married to the poet Robert 
 Browning, with whom she resided in Italy for many years. 
 She produced in 185 1 "Casa Guidi Windows," a poem 
 which- treats of the political condition of Italy. "This," 
 says the "North British Review," "is the happiest of 
 Mrs. Browning's performances, because it makes no 
 pretensions to high artistic character, and is really a 
 simple story of personal impressions." Her greatest 
 or most extensive work is " Aurora Leigh," a poem, or 
 novel in verse, (1856,) which is greatly admired. A new 
 edition of her poems was published in three volumes in 
 1856. She died at Florence in June, 1861. 
 
 " The poetical reputation of Mrs. Browning," says the 
 "North British Review" for February, 1857, "has been 
 glowing slowly, until it has reached a height which has 
 never before been attained by any modern poetess, 
 though several others have had wider circles of readers." 
 " She possesses genius," says another critic, "a cultivated 
 mind, a truth-loving heart, quick powers of observation, 
 and luxuriancy of fancy and expression ; but that luxu- 
 riance too often verges — to say the least — on extrava- 
 gance." 
 
 See "British Quarterly Review" for October, 1865; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for October, 1861. 
 
 Browning, (Robert,) an English poet, born at Cam- 
 berwell, a suburb of London, in 1812. He was educated 
 at the University of London, and produced in 1835 his 
 first poem, entitled " Paracelsus," which attracted much 
 attention by its originality and subtlety of thought. His 
 tragedy of " Strafford" (1837) was not successful. He 
 married Elizabeth Barrett the poetess in 1846, since 
 which he has resided at Florence and Paris. He pub- 
 lished a collection of his shorter poems, in two volumes, 
 
 (1849,) and two volumes of poems, under the title of 
 "Men and Women," in 1855. Among his other works 
 are a drama, called "The Blot in the Scutcheon," (1843,) 
 " Pippa passes," and "The Ring and the Book," (1868.) 
 He is considered by some critics as one of the greatest 
 English poets of his time, but is not popular with the 
 masses. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1865; " Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for October, 1864; "Fraser's Magazine" for February, 1863; 
 "Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles; R. H. Hukne, •' New 
 Spirit of the Age," 1844. 
 
 BrSwa'low, (William G.,) an American politician, 
 born in Wythe county, Virginia, in 1805. He was a 
 Methodist minister in the former part of his mature life. 
 He began about 1837 to edit the " Knoxville Whig," 
 which he continued to publish for many years. He 
 opposed the abolition of slavery before the civil war, but 
 in the crisis of 1861 he showed himself a resolute and 
 uncompromising adherent of the Union. He was per- 
 secuted and imprisoned by the secessionists in the win- 
 ter of 1861-62 for several months. He was elected by 
 the Republicans or Radicals Governor of Tennessee in 
 1865, and again in 1867. In October of the latter year he 
 was chosen a Senator of the United States. 
 
 BrSwn'rig, (Ralph,) an English prelate, born at Ips- 
 wich in 1592, became Bishop of Exeter in 1642. Died 
 in 1659. 
 
 Brown'rigg, (Sir Robert,) born in Ireland in 1775, 
 became Governor of Ceylon in 1813, and conquered the 
 kingdom of Candy, thus reducing the whole island under 
 the British empire, for which service he received the title 
 of baronet in 1816. Died in 1833. 
 
 Brownrigg,( William,) M.D..F.R.S., an English nat- 
 ural philosopher, born in Cumberland in 171 1. He . 
 " The Art of making Common Salt," (1748.) Diedin 1800. 
 
 Brown-Sequard, brown-se-kaR', [Fr. pron. bRown- 
 si'kSR',] (Edouard,) an eminent French physiologist, 
 born in the island of Mauritius in 1818. His father, Mr. 
 Edward Brown, a native of Philadelphia, in the Unitei 
 States, married, in Mauritius, a lady of French e.xtrac 
 tion, named Sequard, and his son, in accordance with 1 
 common French usage, adopted the names of both hi- 
 parents. He studied in Paris, where he graduated m 
 doctor of medicine in 1840. He acquired distinction bi 
 his researches and experiments on physiology, especial)! 
 on the blood, on animal heat, and the spinal cord. Hi: 
 experiments on animal heat indicate that the tempera 
 ture of the human body is 103 Fahr. He has receivet 
 several prizes from the French Academy of Sciences. Ii 
 January, 1869, he was appointed professor in the Schi 
 of Medicine (ficole de Medecine) at Paris. 
 
 ,00 
 
 me 
 
 BrSwn'sou, (Orestes Augustus,) a versatile An 
 rican writer and theologian, born at Stockbridge, Ver 
 mont, in 1803. He joined the Presbyterian Church abou 
 1821, became a Universalist minister in 1825, and a Uni 
 tarian pastor a few years afterwards. Having become : 
 resident of Boston, he founded in 1838 "The 1' 
 Quarterly Review," which he edited until 1843. H 
 joined the Roman Catholic Church about 1844. Amo 
 his works is " Charles Elwood, or the Infidel Convene 
 (1840,) a novel. 
 
 See Griswold's "Prose Writers of America.' 
 
 Bruant, bRii'oN', (Liberal,) an eminent French arch 
 tect, designed the Hotel des Invalides, Paris. He die 
 about 1697. 
 
 Bruat, bRii'S', (Armand Joseph,) a French admira 
 born at Colmar in 1796. He succeeded Admiral Hamc 
 lin as commander in the Black Sea in 1854, and too 
 part in the siege of Sebastopol. Died in December, 1 
 
 Brucseus, bRoo-sa'tis, (Hendrik,) a Flemish mi 
 writer, born at Alost in 1531 ; died at Rostock in 1593 
 
 Bruccioli, (A.) See Brucioli. 
 
 Bruce, (David.) See David II. of Scotland. 
 
 Bruce, (Edward,) a younger brother of King Robei 
 Bruce, was a brave warrior, but deficient in prudeno 
 He invaded Ireland in 13 15, was proclaimed king, an 
 waged war against the English for several years. Havin 
 rashly engaged in battle against a vastly superior fore 
 of English, he was killed near Dundalk in 1318. 
 
 Bruce, (Edward,) a Scottish judge a».d diplomats 
 born about 1549. He was sent to England in 1598 on 
 
 5, e, i, o, fl, y. long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; mfl 
 
BRUCE 
 
 447 
 
 BRUErS 
 
 mission the object of which was to obtain a recognition 
 of James as the heir to the throne of England. He died 
 in 161 1. The Earls of Elgin are descended from him. 
 
 Bruce, (Sir Frederick,) an English diplomatist, 
 brother of the Earl of Elgin, was born in 1814. He was 
 appointed ambassador to the United States in the early 
 part of 1865. Died at Boston in September, 1867. 
 
 Bruce, (James,) a celebrated Scottish traveller, born 
 at Kinnaird, in the county of Stirling, in December, 1730. 
 He was related to the royal family of Bruce. He was ap- 
 pointed in 1762 consul at Algiers by Lord Halifax, who 
 proposed that he should explore the antiquities of Bar- 
 barv. Departing from Algiers in 1765, he spent a year 
 or more in examining and drawing the ruins of Barbary, 
 and afterwards visited Baalbec and Palmyra. In 1768 
 he undertook' a journey to Abyssinia to discover the 
 source of the Nile. Passing through Cosseir, Jidda, and 
 Masuah or Masowa, he arrived at Gondar in February, 
 1770. He was kindly treated by the king, and remained 
 in Abyssinia about two years. He discovered the 
 source of the Blue Nile in November, 1770. Return- 
 ing through Nubia, he encountered great danger and 
 hardships, which he overcame by uncommon energy 
 and courage, and arrived in England in 1774. He pub- 
 lished " Travels to discover the Source of the Nile," 
 (5 vols., 1790,) which attracted much adverse criticism. 
 His veracity was questioned by many persons ; but more 
 recent researches tend to confirm his statements. He 
 died at Kinnaird in 1794. 
 
 See A. Murray, "Life of Bruce," 1805; Chambers, "Biogra- 
 phical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Francis Bond Head, 
 " Life o( James Bruce, the African Traveller," 1832. 
 
 Bruce, (James.) See Elgin, Earl of. 
 
 Bruce, (James Daniel,) a Russian engineer, of Scot- 
 tish extraction, born at Moscow in 1670, became grand 
 master of artillery in 1711. Died in 1735. 
 
 Bruce, (Sir James Knight,) an English judge, born 
 in 1791, was appointed lord justice of appeal in 1852. 
 Died in 1866. 
 
 Bruce, (John,) a Scottish writer on ethics, politics, 
 etc., born in 1744, was professor of moral philosophy at 
 Edinburgh. Died in 1826. 
 
 Bruce, (John,) an English antiquary, born in London 
 about 1802. He contributed to the " Edinburgh Review" 
 and " Gentleman's Magazine," and edited manv old works. 
 
 Bruce, (John C.,) an English antiquary, born at New- 
 
 castle-upon-Tvne in 1805, published a " Hand-Book of 
 
 -h History," (1S48,) and "The Roman \Vall,"(i85l.) 
 
 Bruce, (Michael,) a Scottish poet, born in the county 
 of Kinross in 1746. He died at the age of twenty-one, 
 leaving a collection of poems of great beauty and pathos. 
 
 See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" Chambers, 
 "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bruce, (Peter Henry,) an officer of Scottish extrac- 
 tion, born in Westphalia in 1692, served in Germany and 
 Russia. Hediedin 1751, leaving "Memoirs" of his travels. 
 
 Bruce, (Robert,) King of Scots, born on the 21st of 
 March, 1274, was descended from Robert de Brusor Bruys, 
 a Norman, who came over with William the Conqueror. 
 He was the son of Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, whose 
 father, also named Robert, was the competitor of John 
 Baliol for the throne. He inherited the title of Earl of 
 Carrick. About 1296 he joined Wallace in resistance to 
 the aggressions of Edward I. of England, but soon after 
 retired from the contest and made peace with the English 
 king. He formed in 1305 a secret compact or compromise 
 with Cornyn, his rival, who promised to support him in 
 an effort to liberate Scotland from English domination, 
 on condition that Bruce should give him extensive landed 
 estate-. Comyn, however, betrayed the secret to Edward, 
 and was killed by Bruce for his treachery. The latter 
 was crowned at Scone in 1306, and raised a small army, 
 which was quickly routed by the English. After he had 
 performed prodigies of valour, Bruce was forced to take 
 refuge in a small island near the coast of Ireland. His 
 brother Nigel was taken prisoner and executed, and 
 other friends of liruce were treated with barbarity. 
 
 Bruce renewed the contest in the spring of 1307, and 
 defeated a greatly superior force of English at Loudon 
 Hill. After the death of Edward I., which took place in 
 July of that year, he recovered a number of fortresses 
 
 from the enemy. A series of successful actions rendered 
 him so strong and bold that he invaded England and 
 ravaged the northern counties. At length, in 1314, Ed- 
 ward II. marched into Scotland with an army estimated 
 at 100,000 men, over which Bruce gained a decisive victory 
 at the great battle of Bannockburn, June 24, 1314. The 
 war was continued until 1328, when the English king 
 recognized the independence of Scotland. Bruce died 
 in 1329. He had a son David, who succeeded to the 
 throne, and a daughter Marjory, married to Walter the 
 Steward, ancestor of the house of Stuart. 
 
 See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. ii. chaps, xxii., xxiii., 
 and xxiv. ; Scott, "Tales of a Grandfather;" Chambers, "Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bruce, (Robert,) an able Scottish clergyman, born 
 about 1554. He became minister of a church in Edin- 
 burgh in 1587, and acquired great influence. Died in 1631. 
 
 Bruce, (Thomas.) See Elgin, Earl of. 
 
 Bruce, de, (Robert,) Lord of Annandale, was the 
 grandfather of King Robert Bruce. In 1285 John Baliol 
 and Robert de Bruce were rival claimants of the throne, 
 and referred the question to Edward I. of England, who 
 decided in favour of the former. Bruce died in 1295. 
 
 Brucioli, bRoo-cho'lee, or Bruccioli, bRoot-cho'lee, 
 (Antonio,) an Italian translator, born at Florence, lived 
 about 1525-50. He produced a Tuscan version of the 
 Bible, (1532,) and translated some works of Aristotle, 
 (I547-5L) 
 
 Bruck, bRdok, (Karl Ludwig,) Baron, a German 
 statesman, born at Elberfeld in 1798, became Austrian 
 minister of commerce and public works in 1848. He 
 resigned in 1851, and was appointed minister of finance 
 in 1855. He killed himself in 1861. He was noted as 
 the originator or chief director of the enterprising com- 
 pany at Trieste known as the Austrian Lloyds. 
 
 Brucker, bRook'ker, (Johann Jakob,) an eminent 
 German historian, scholar, and Protestant divine, born 
 at Augsburg in 1696. He published, besides other works, 
 a "Critical History of Philosophy," ("Historia critica 
 Philosophise," 5 vols., 1741-44,) a work of immense 
 labour and high reputation. It was the first complete 
 and methodical history of the various schools of phi- 
 losophy. His biographies of philosophers are especially 
 valuable. The merit of this work consists in the ample 
 collection of materials ; for it is deficient in critical ana- 
 lysis. Died at Augsburg in 1770. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Bruckman, burJok'man, (Franz Ernst,) a German 
 physician and naturalist, born near Helmstedt in 1697; 
 died in 1753. 
 
 Bruckner, bRdok'ner, (Isaac,) an eminent geometer 
 and mechanician, born at Bale in 1686 ; died in 1762. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Brue,bRu'V,(E'riENNE Robert,) a French geographer 
 of merit, born in Paris in 1786 ; died in 1832. Besides 
 several separate maps of great value, he published a 
 "Universal Atlas." 
 
 See Querard, " La France Liue*raire." 
 
 Bruehl. See Bruhl. 
 
 Bruellow. See Brui.lov. 
 
 Bruere, de la, deh li bRu'aiR', (Charles Antoine 
 Leclerc,) a French dramatist, born at Crepy-en-Valois, 
 or, according to some authorities, at Paris, about 1 71 5. 
 wrote a play entitled "Dardamus," (1739.) Died in 1754. 
 
 Brueriu, bRii'raN', (Jean Baptiste,) a French phy- 
 sician, born at Lyons about 1500, wrote a treatise on diet, 
 entitled " De Re cibaria." He was physician to Henry II. 
 of France. 
 
 Brueys d'Aigalliers, bRii'4' d&'gi'le-a', (or dJ'gSl'- 
 yk',) (Francois Paul,) a French admiral, born at Uzes 
 m 1753. He commanded the fleet which conveyed the 
 army of Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798. In August of that 
 year he was attacked by Admiral Nelson in Aboukir Bay. 
 He was defeated and killed in this action, and his ship. 
 the Orient, caught fire and exploded just after his death 
 
 See Thiers, "Histoire de la Revolution Francaise." 
 
 Brueys, de, deh bRii'i', (David Augustin,) a French 
 dramatist and priest, born at Aix in 1640, wrote " Le 
 Grondeur," (" The Grumbler,") and other comedies. 
 Died in 1723. 
 
 SeeDE Launay, "Vie de David A. de Brueys." 
 
 € as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/,- G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as »; *h as in this. (By See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BR UGES 
 
 448 
 
 BRUNE 
 
 Bruges, (John of.) See Eyck, (John van.) 
 
 Bru'ges, van, [Dutch, Van Brugge, vin bRiig'geh,] 
 (Ru'lGliK,) a Flemish painter, was a pupil of John van 
 Eyck. There are several excellent pictures in the Pina- 
 kothek at Munich attributed to him. 
 
 Bruggemann or Brueggemann, bRuc'ceh-man, 
 (Karl Hkinrich,) a German publicist and writer on 
 political economy, born at Hopsten in 1810. 
 
 Bruggeii, van der, vin der bRiig'gen, (Jan,) an ex- 
 cellent Flemish engraver, born about 1650. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines lCunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Brugiere de Barante. See Harante. 
 
 Brugman, bRuG'man, sometimes written Brugmans, 
 (Jan,) a celebrated Franciscan preacher of the Nether- 
 lands. Died in 1473. 
 
 Brugmans, bRuo'mans, (Sebald Justin,) a physician, 
 and distinguished professor of natural history in the Uni- 
 versity of Leyden, born at Franeker in 1763 ; died in 181 9. 
 
 See Van der Boon Mesch, " Lofrede op S. J. Brugmans," 1825. 
 
 Brugnatelli, bRoon-ya-tel'lee, (Luigi Gasparo,) an 
 Italian chemist and natural philosopher, born at Pavia 
 in 1 761. Me became a professor in the University of 
 Pavia in 1796. Among his works are "Annals of Chem- 
 istry," (22 vols., 1790-1805,) and "The Physico-Medical 
 Journal," (20 vols., 1792-96.) Died in 1818. 
 
 See B. Bizto, " Elogio storico di L. Brugnatelli," 1832. 
 
 Brugnot, bRun'yo', (Jean Baptiste Charles,) a 
 French poet of merit, born in 1798. His life was one 
 long brave struggle with poverty and misfortune. Died 
 in 1831. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteYaire." 
 
 Bruguieres,bRu'ge-air',(jEAN GuiLLAUME,)a French 
 traveller and naturalist, was born at Montpellier in 1750 ; 
 died in 1799. 
 
 Bruhier d'Ablaincourt, bRii'e-i' dfb'llN'kooR', 
 (Jean Jacques,) a French medical writer, born at Beau- 
 vais, practised in Paris. Died in 1756. 
 
 Briihl or Bruehl, von, fon bjttil, (Heinrich,) Count, 
 a German statesman, born at Weissenfels in 1700. He 
 was patronized by Augustus II. of Poland, and, on his 
 death, was instrumental in raising to the throne the 
 Elector Augustus III. He was loaded with distinctions 
 by the latter, who in 1747 appointed him prime minister. 
 He impoverished the country by his extravagance to 
 such a degree that, on the breaking out of the Seven 
 Years' war, Saxony could furnish but 17,000 men. His 
 library of sixty-two thousand volumes forms a principal 
 part of the Royal Library at Dresden. Died in 1764. 
 
 See Justi, " Leben und Charakter des Premierministers H. von 
 Briihl," 3 vols., 1760-65; J. H. Seyfart, "Leben des Grafen von 
 B-iihl," 1764. 
 
 Bruin. See Bruyn. 
 
 Bruix, bRu'e', (Eustache,) a French admiral, born at 
 Saint Domingo in 1759. He was minister of the marine 
 about 1798. By a daring effort he carried relief to Mas- 
 sena, besieged in Genoa. He was appointed commander 
 of the flotilla which Napoleon prepared for the invasion 
 of England in 1804. Died in 1805. 
 
 See Mazeres, " Notice historique sur E. Bruix," 1805. 
 
 Bruix, de, deh bRu'e',- a French litterateur, born at 
 Bayonne in 1728; died in 1780. 
 
 Brulart de Sillery. See Sillerv. 
 
 Brulliot, bRii'le'o', (?) (Franz,) a German engraver 
 and writer, born at Dusseldorf in 1780, published a 
 "Dictionary of the Monograms, Initial Letters, etc. by 
 which Artists have designated their Names." He was 
 appointed keeper of the prints of the King of Bavaria. 
 Died in 1836. 
 
 Brullof or Brullow, bRiil'lov, (Alexander,) a Rus- 
 sian architect, brother of Karl, noticed below, built the 
 Observatory of the Academy of Sciences, the Mikhailoff 
 1'heatre, and other edifices, at Saint Petersburg. 
 
 Brullof or Brullow, (Karl,) an eminent Russian 
 painter, born at Saint Petersburg in 1800. He became 
 court painter to the Czar about 1830. Among his master- 
 pieces is "The Last Day of Pompeii." He excelled in 
 colour and composition. Died in 1852. 
 
 Brum'mel, (George Bryan,) " Beau Brummei," 
 an English fop, born in London in 1778, inherited an 
 easy fortune. He studied at Oxford, learned to write 
 Latin verse, and became noted for his elegant taste in 
 
 dress. He was a favourite and companion of the Prince 
 of Wales, lived in splendid style in London, and asso- 
 ciated with the nobility on equal terms. For many years 
 he was regarded as a leader of haul ten, and an oracle 
 in questions of dress, fashion, and etiquette. Having 
 dissipated his fortune, he exiled himself to France about 
 1815. He died poor at Caen in 1840. 
 
 See Captain Jesse, " Life of Beau Brummei," 1844; William 
 Russell, " Eccentric Personages." 
 
 Brunioy, bRu'mwa', (Pierre,) a French classical 
 scholar and Jesuit, born at Rouen in 1688. He wrote 
 Latin poems ; but his reputation is founded chiefly on 
 his "Theatre des Grecs," (3 vols., 1730,) consisting of 
 translations from Greek dramatists, with analytical re- 
 marks which were highly esteemed. Died in 1742. 
 
 Brun, bRdon, (Friedrike Sophie Christians,) a ; 
 German authoress, born in the duchy of Gotha in 176:, 
 was the daughter of Balthasar Miinter. She was married 
 in 1783 to Constantin Brun. Having visited Russia, Swit- 
 zerland, and Italy, she published " Letters from Rome," 
 (1S08,) and "Episodes of Travel," (" Episoden aus Rei- 
 sen," 4 vols., 1816.) She also wrote a number of poems 
 and prose essays. She was intimate with Klopstock, 
 Madame de Stael, and other eminent persons of the time. 
 Died in. 1835. 
 
 See Bonstetten, " Bn'efe an Friedrike Rrun," 1829. 
 
 Brun, bRrJon, (Johan Nordahl,) a Norwegian pul- 
 pit orator of high reputation, born near Drontheim in 
 1745, became Bishop of Bergen in 1804. He wrote lyric 
 poems, and a drama entitled " Zarine," said to have been , 
 the first original tragedy written in the Danish language. 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 Brun, lie. See Le Brun, (Charles and Pierre.) 
 
 Brun, (Mai.te.) See Malte-Brun. 
 
 Brunacci, bRoo-nat'chee, or Brruiazi. bRoo-nid'zee, 
 (Giovanni,) an Italian historian and antiquary, born near 
 Padua in 171 1 ; died in 1772. 
 
 Brunacci, ( Vincenzo,) an Italian mathematician and 
 writer, born at Pisa in 1768. He became professor of 
 the higher mathematics at Pavia about 1800. Among his 
 numerous works is a " Course of Higher Mathematics," 
 ("Corsodi Matematica sublime," 4 vols., 1804-10.) Died 
 at Pavia in 1818. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" Ersch und 
 Gruber, "Allgemeine Faicyklopaedie." 
 
 Brunazi. See Brunacci. 
 
 Brunck, l>R(5onk, (Richard Francois Philippe,) a 
 distinguished classical scholar, born at Strasburg in 1729, 
 was educated in Paris among the Jesuits. Entertaining a 
 passionate fondness for the poets of antiquity, and en- 
 dowed with an exquisite critical taste, his editions of the 
 Greek and Latin authors possess great merit ; but, un- 
 foitunately, his emendations of the ancient text, though 
 for the most part ingenious and even felicitous, are too 
 often rash and unjustified by the authority of the 
 manuscripts. Died in 1803. Among his principal works 
 are editions of Aristophanes, Sophocles, Anacreon, Apol 
 lonius Rhodius, Terence, and Plautus, and a " Greek 
 Anthology," (1776.) 
 
 See "Metnoria R. F. P. Brunckii," 1803; Ersch und Gru 
 "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Brune, l)Kiin,(CHRlsn an,) a French landscape-painter, 
 born in Paris in 1789; died in 1849. His wife, Aimet 
 Pages, born in 1803, is a painter of history and genre. 
 
 Brune, (Guillaume Marie Anne,) a French general, 
 born at Brives-la-Gaillarde in 1763. He gained the rank 
 of general of division by his services at Areola and Ri 
 voli, (1796,) and in 1799 commanded an army in Holland 
 where he gained some victories. He was raised to thi 
 rank of marshal about 1804, and became governor-gen 
 eral of the Hanseatic Towns in 1807. Soon after tin- 
 date he offended Napoleon, who removed him frorr 
 command. He remained out of service until 1815, whei 
 he took a command under Napoleon on his return fron 
 Elba. He was assassinated at Avignon by a royalist mol 
 in August, 1815. 
 
 See " Notice historique sur la Vie de Marechal Brune, 
 1821 ; " Esquisse historique sur le Marechal Brune," 2 vols., 184a 
 
 Brune, van, vSn brii'neh, [Lat. Brun^e'us,] (Jan,) i 
 Dutch poet and statesman, born in 1585 ; died in 1658. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; i, t, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, |, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; gd"6d; mS&n 
 
 
BRUNEHAUT 
 
 449 
 
 BRUNO 
 
 Brunehaut, bRiin'ho', the daughter of Athanagildus, 
 Kins; of Spun, was married in 568 to Sigebert, King of 
 Australia, (or Ostrasie,) one of the four sons of Clotaire I. 
 She was distinguished in her youth by several noble traits 
 of character, as well as by beauty, talents, and courage ; 
 but after the assassination of her husband in 575, at the 
 ttion of Fredegonda, Queen of Neustria, she aban- 
 doned herself to a reckless desire of vengeance and an 
 unprincipled ambition. Having, after a life of vicissi- 
 tudes, fallen at last into the hands of Clotaire II., son 
 )f Fredegonda, she was barbarously murdered in 613. 
 Me was tied to the tail, of a wild horse, which, being let 
 nose, tore her to pieces. 
 
 SeeTmERRv, " RecitsdesTem^. xirovingiens;" Alexis Paulin 
 Paris, " Brunehaut," 8vo, 1834. 
 
 Bru-nel', (Isambard Kingdom,) an eminent British 
 engineer and naval architect, born at Portsmouth in 1806, 
 son of Sir Mark Isambard, whose mechanical in- 
 genuity he inherited. He was educated in Paris. He 
 exhibited great energy and skill in the construction of 
 the Thames Tunnel, on which he was employed as 
 nit or resident engineer. About 1833 he was ap- 
 pointed engineer of the Great Western Railway. He 
 was the chief architect or engineer of the Great Western 
 and Great Eastern steamships, the latter of which was 
 finished about 1859. Among his works is the Hunger- 
 ford Suspension Bridge over the Thames. He was a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1859. 
 
 See '* London Quarterly Review" for July, 1862. 
 
 Brunei, (Sir Mark Isambard,) a celebrated engineer, 
 born at Hacqueville, near Rouen, France, in April, 1769. 
 He displayed great mechanical ingenuity in early youth, 
 joined with an aversion to study and to books, except 
 works on natural philosophy or mathematics. To escape 
 from the reign of terror, (1793,) he emigrated to New 
 York, where he found employment, and built the Bowery 
 Theatre. He removed to England about 1800, and mar- 
 ried Miss Kingdom. He invented an excellent machine 
 for the fabrication of block-pulleys, for which the English 
 government gave him more than ,£15,000. His greatest 
 work is the Thames Tunnel, which is considered one of 
 the must wonderful triumphs of engineering skill in the 
 world. It was commenced about 1825, and -completed 
 in 1S43. Died > n '849. 
 
 See R. Beamish, " Life of M. I. Rrunel ;" E. Frbre, "Notice 
 |ue sur la Vie de M. I. Brunei," 1850; William Jerdan, 
 known," London, 1866. 
 
 Brunelleschi, bRoo-n21-les'kee, (Filippo,) a cele- 
 brated Italian architect and sculptor, born at Florence 
 in 1377. He learned the art of goldsmith, and studied 
 in Rome the monuments of ancient architecture, the 
 principles of which he resolved to restore and illustrate. 
 At that time the Gothic style prevailed almost exclusively. 
 He returned to Florence about 1407, and was appointed 
 architect of the cathedral Santa Maria del Fiore, which 
 Arnolfo di I.apo had left unfinished, and over which 
 he raised a majestic dome, one of the largest and most 
 beautiful in the world. It was nearly finished at his 
 death. He also designed the churches of San Lorenzo 
 and Santo Spirito at Florence. Died in 1444. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters, etc,;" Quatrkmcre de 
 Quincv, "Vies des Architectes c^lebres;" F. Baldinucci, "Vita 
 di F. di Ser Brunellesco," published by D. Moreni, 1812. 
 
 Brunet or Brunetto. See Latini. 
 
 Brunei, bRii'ni', (Francois Florentin,) a French 
 theologian, born in Lorraine, wrote " Parallele des Re- 
 nls., 1792.) Died in 1806. 
 
 Brunet, 1 I si ques Charles,) a French bibliographer, 
 born in Paris in 1780, published "Manuel du Libraire et 
 de I'Amateur des Livres," (3 vols., 1810; new edition, 
 6 -ols., 1860-65.) This is probably the most extensive 
 « irk on the subject, and is called the master-piece of 
 modem bibliography. Died in Paris in November, 1867. 
 
 See Qubrard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Brunet, (Jean Baptiste,) a French general, born at 
 
 Rheims in 1765, distinguished himself in Italy in 1800, 
 
 and afterwards in Saint Domingo, where he inveigled 
 
 lint into his p.jwer. (See Toussaint L'Ouver- 
 
 Died in 1824. 
 
 Brunet 1 ISTE,) a commander of the army 
 
 of Italy in 1793, having been suspected of treasonable 
 
 correspondence with the enemy, was condemned by 
 the Revolutionary tribunal, and executed in November, 
 
 '793- 
 
 Brunet, (Jean Louis,) a French canonist, born at 
 Aries in 1688; died in 1747. 
 
 Brunet, (Pierre,) a French physician and writer, born 
 at Nantes in 1770; died in 1832. 
 
 Brunet, (Pierre Gustave,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Bordeaux in 1807. 
 
 Brunetti, bRoo-net'tee, (Sebastiano,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Bologna about 1609, was a pupil of 
 Guido. Died in 1649. 
 
 Brunetto or Brunetto Latini. See Latini. 
 
 Brunfels, bRooh'felss, or Brunsfeld, bRoons'felt, 
 (Otho or Otto,) a German botanist and physician, 
 born near Mentz about 1464. He published, in 1530, 
 "Living Figures (Pictures) of Plants in Imitation of 
 Nature," ("Herbarum Vivaa Icones ad Naturae Imita- 
 tionem," etc.,) which is said to be a capital work. Died 
 at Berne in 1534. 
 
 See M. Adam, "Vitae Eruditorum." 
 
 Bruni, bRoo'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, became 
 secretary of the Duke of Urbino. He wrote the " Grove 
 of Parnassus," ("Selva di Parnaso," 1615,) " Epistole 
 eroiche," (1626,) and other poems. Died at Rome in 
 
 I635- 
 
 Bruni, (Leonardo,) a learned writer of Italy, born 
 in 1369 at Arezzo, whence he was often called Leo- 
 nardo Aretino, (a-ra-tee'no.) He settled at Florence, 
 of which city he was appointed chancellor. Besides 
 other works, he wrote a "History of Florence," (in 
 Latin,) and the lives of Dante and Petrarch. Died 
 in 1444. 
 
 See Gincuen^, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Brunier. See Brunver. 
 
 Brunings, bRoo'nings, (Christian,) a German Prot- 
 estant divine, born at Bremen in 1702, wrote a "Com- 
 pendium of Hebrew Antiquities," (1763.) Died in 1763. 
 
 Brunings, bRu'nings, (Christian,) a distinguished 
 hydraulic engineer, born at Neckarau, in Baden, in 1736, 
 became director-general of the dikes in Holland. He 
 made several useful inventions, among which was the 
 strommesser, an instrument for measuring the rapidity 
 of streams. Died in 1805. 
 
 Brunius, bRoo'ne-us, (Karl Georg,) a Swedish 
 antiquary and poet, born at Tanum in 1792, became 
 professor of Greek at Lund in 1824, and wrote several 
 Latin poems, and works on Northern antiquities. 
 
 Brunn, bn6on, (Joiiann Jakob,) an eminent physician, 
 and medical professor in the University of Bale, where 
 he was bom in 1591. He published a "System of Ma- 
 teria Medica," ("Systema Materia; Medicae,") of which 
 numerous editions have been published. Died in 1660. 
 
 See G. Seger, " Memoria J. J. Bruunii," 1660. 
 
 Brunner, bRcTon'ner, (Halthasar,) a German phy- 
 sician, born at Halle, in Saxony, in 1533; died in 1604. 
 
 Bruno. See Leo IX. 
 
 Bru'noTHE Great, Archbishop of Cologne, a brother 
 of Otho I., Emperor of Germany, and a man of greKt 
 influence on the affairs of his age, was a scholar and a 
 patron of learning. Otho committed to him the admin- 
 istration of the duchy of Lorraine. Died in 965. 
 
 See Ruotgerus, "Vita Brunonis," Hanover, 1841. 
 
 Bru'no, [Lat. Bru'nus,] (Giordano,) an eminent phi- 
 losopher, bom at Nola, in the kingdom of Naples, about 
 the middle of the sixteenth century. He entered the 
 order of Dominican monks in his youth, but, having found 
 that position irksome to his independent and speculative 
 spirit, he escaped from the convent, and went to Geneva 
 about 1580. He afterwards visited England, Prance, etc. 
 About 1584 he published "Spaccio della Bestia trion- 
 fante," "Della Causa, Principio e Uno," and "Del infi- 
 nito Universo e Mondi," ("On the Infinite Universe 
 and Worlds.") He returned to Italy in 1592, and set- 
 tled at Pavia, where he was arrested by the Inquisition 
 and charged with heresy and apostasy, for which he was 
 burned at Rome in 1600. "His system," says Hallam, 
 " may be said to contain a sort of double pantheism. 
 The world is animated by an omnipresent, intelligent 
 soul, the first cause of every form that matter can as- 
 sume, but not of matter itself. ... In his work 'Del 
 
 € as a 1 ; 5 a; s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 29 
 
 (fty See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BRUNO 
 
 45° 
 
 BR UTUS 
 
 infinito Universo,' he asserts the infinity of the universe 
 and the plurality of worlds. That the stars are suns 
 shining by their own light, that each has its revolving 
 planets, were among the enormous and capital offences 
 of Bruno." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 See Bartholmrs, "Jovdano Bruno," 1847; Dehs, "Brimi No- 
 lani Vita et Placita," 1844 ; C. G. von Murr, " Leben und Schriften 
 des G. Bruno," 1805 : N. Moeli.er, " G. Bruno, sa Vie et ses Doc- 
 trines," 1840: F. J. Clemens, " G. Bruno und Nicolaus von Cusa: 
 philosophische Abhandlung," 1847. 
 
 Bru'no, (Jacobus Pancratius,) a medical writer, 
 born at Altdorf in 1629, became professor of medicine 
 in his native city in 1662. Died in 1709. 
 
 Bru'no, Saint, sometimes calted "the Apostle of 
 Prussia." After several years spent in converting the 
 heathen, he was killed near Lithuania, together with a 
 number of his coadjutors, in 1008. 
 
 Bruno, Saint, founder of the order of Carthusians, 
 was born at Cologne about 1040. He retired in 1086, with 
 several associates, to a mountain near Grenoble, where 
 he formed a religious order which adopted the rule of 
 Saint Benedict. The convent of La Grande Chartreuse 
 was* afterwards erected on this spot. He subsequently 
 founded another Carthusian convent in Calabria, where 
 he died in 1101. 
 
 See Tracy, "Vie de Saint-Bruno," 1785; E. Ducreux, "Vie de 
 Saint-Brunon," 1812. 
 
 Brunof, Brunov, or Bruuow, bRoo'nof, (Ernest 
 Philip,) Baron, an eminent Russian diplomatist, born 
 at Dresden about 1796. He negotiated the famous treaty 
 of July 15, 1840, by which England, Russia, Austria, and 
 Prussia agreed to settle the Eastern Question without the 
 consent of France. He was Russian minister at London 
 from 1840 to 1854, and resumed that position in 1858. 
 
 Brunov. See Brunof. 
 
 Brunow. See Brunof. 
 
 Brunquel or Brunnquell, bRoon'kwel, (Johann 
 Salomon,) a German jurist, born at Quedlinburgin 1693, 
 was professor of law at Gottingen, where he died in 
 1735. He wrote a " History of Romano-German Law," 
 in Latin, (1727.) 
 
 See Jenichen, "Vita J. S. Brunnquelli," 173S. 
 
 Brunsfeld. See Brunfels. 
 
 Bruns'wick, House of, an ancient princely family 
 of Germany, descended from the princes of Este. Er- 
 nest of Brunswick, the Confessor, born in 1497, was a 
 zealous Protestant, and founder of the houses of Bruns- 
 wick-Luneburg and Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel. Died in 
 1546. His descendant Ernest Augustus, Duke of 
 Brunswick-Luneburg, became Elector of Hanover. (See 
 Ernest Augustus.) 
 
 Brunswick, (Caroline of.) See Caroline, Queen 
 of England. 
 
 Bruns'wick-Lti'ne-burg, fGer. Braunschweig- 
 Lunerurg, bRown'shwTG lu'neh-booRG',] (Karl Wil- 
 helm Ferdinand,) Duke of, a celebrated German 
 commander, born in 1735, was the eldest son of Duke 
 Karl, and a nephew of Frederick the Great, for whom 
 he fought in the Seven Years' war. He married Au- 
 gusta, Princess of Wales, in 1764, and succeeded to the 
 dukedom in 1780. In '1792 he was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the allied armies of Austria and Prus- 
 sia, and invaded France to fight against the Republic. 
 He was baffled by Dumouriez, and retired from France. 
 In 1793 he fought several battles against Moreau and 
 Hoche, and resigned the command. Having obtained 
 The chief command of the Prussian army in 1806, he was 
 defeated at Jena in October of that year, receiving a 
 wound of which he died in the following November. 
 
 See Byron's "Childe Harold," canto iii. stanza xxiii. 
 
 Bruns'wick-Oels, 61s or 61s, (Friedrich August,) 
 Duke of, brother of the preceding, born at Brunswick 
 in 1 740. He wrote " Reflections on Alexander the Great," 
 and other works. Died in 1805. 
 
 Brunswick-Oels, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) Dukeof, 
 born in 1771, wasa son of Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand. He 
 fought against the French in 1792 and 1793. In 1815 
 he joined the allies, and was killed at the battle of Ouatre- 
 Bras. 
 
 Karl, a son of the preceding, was born in 1804. Dur- 
 ing his minority Brunswick was governed by George IV. 
 of England, who had married an aunt of Duke Karl. In 
 
 1830 the people, provoked by his misrule, revolted, and 
 drove Karl out of Brunswick, which was transferred by 
 an act of the Germanic Confederation to his brother 
 William. 
 
 Brun'ton, (Mary Balfour,) a British novelist, born 
 in one of the Orkney Islands in 1778, married, about the 
 age of twenty, the Rev. Mr. Brunton. She wrote two 
 successful novels, entitled "Self-Control," (181 1,) and 
 "Discipline," (1814.) Died in 1818. 
 
 _ See Dr. Brunton, " Life of Mary Brunton :" " Memoirs of the 
 Literary Ladies of England," etc., by Mrs. Ei.wood, vol. ii. ; Cham- 
 bers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Bru'nus, [It. Bru'no,] an Italian surgeon, was a friend 
 of Petrarch, and lived at Padua. He wrote in 1352 a work 
 called "Chirurgia magna," etc. 
 
 Brunyer or' Brun'ier, bRu'ne-4', (Arel,) a French 
 physician, born at Uzes in I573,"~j5ractised in Paris. He 
 was physician to the children of Henry IV., and was 
 employed by Richelieu in missions to the Protestants. 
 Died in 1665. 
 
 Brusantini, bRoo-san-tee'nee, or Brusantino, 1>roO' 
 san-tee'no, (Vincf.nzo,) an Italian poet, born at Ferrara. 
 He wrote " Angelica innamorata," a sequel to " Orlando 
 Furioso," (1550.) Died about 1570. 
 
 See Ginguen^, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalic." 
 
 Brusasorci. See Riccio. 
 
 Brusati, bRoo-sa'tee, (P. Giulto Cf.sarf.,) a learnec 
 Italian professor of theology, philosophy, and logic, borr 
 near Novara in 1693 ; died at Pavia in 1743. 
 
 Brusch. See Bruschius. 
 
 Bruschius, bRoosh'e-ns, or Brusch, bRoosh, (Kas 
 par,) a German poet and writer of ecclesiastical history 
 born in 1518. He was assassinated in 1559 bv two per 
 sons whom he was suspected of having satirized. I le i. 
 said to have favoured the doctrines of Luther. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Fishbecx 
 " Vita C. Bruschii," 1710. 
 
 Bruslart, de, deh bRii'ltR', (Louis Guerin — ga'raN', 
 Chevalier, a French officer, born in 1752, became lieu 1 
 tenant-general in 1823. Died in 1829. 
 
 Brusoni, bRoo-so'nee, (Girolamo,) an Italian his 
 torian and poet, born at Legnano in 1610. He wrote 
 besides other works, a "History of Italy from 1655 t 
 1655," (1656.) Died about 1680. 
 
 See Ginguene, * Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Brusoni or Brusonio, bRoo-so'ne-o, (Lucio 1 
 TIO,) an Italian professor of civil law, born near Rom< 
 lived in the first half of the sixteenth century. Hcpul 
 lished " Facetiarum Exemplorumque Libri VII. ,"(1518 
 a collection of anecdotes, etc. from classic authors. 
 
 Brutel de. Lariviere, bRu'til' deh IS're've-; 
 (Jean Baptiste,) a learned Protestant theologian, 1 
 at Montpellier in 1667, lived in Holland. Died in 13 
 
 Bruto, bRoo'to, or Bruti, bRoo'tee, (Giovanni 
 chele,) a distinguished Venetian historian and travel! 
 born about 15 15. He wrote, besides other works of 1 
 moment, a history of Florence, in Latin. Died about 150 
 
 Bru'tus, (Decimus Junius,) one of the murderers < 
 Caesar, had served under him in Gaul, and had been i 
 pointed commander of his cavalry. He was slain (H.c J; 
 by Camillus, a Gaul, to whom he had fled for refuge, ; 
 whom he had formerly loaded with benefits, and his he 
 was sent to Mark Antony. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome," books xlv. and xlvL 
 
 Brutus, (Lucius Junius,) a distinguished Ron 
 patriot, son of Tarquinia, the sister of Tarquin the Pro 
 The king having put to death the father and elder 1 
 ther of Brutus, the latter feigned idiocy, gave up all 1 
 possessions to his tyrannical uncle, and patiently accept! 
 the reproachful surname of Brutus,(/>." stupid, brutish, 
 which was destined to become a titleof so much gloi 
 his family. Aruns and Titus, the sons of Tarquin, ha 
 ing been sent to Delphi to consult the oracle, took Bruti 
 with them to serve for their amusement. When th< 
 were making offerings to the god, Brutus offered a sin 
 staff, which, however, was hollow and contained a f 
 ring, — a significant emblem of the character of the give 
 After the outrage done to Lucretia by Sextus the sc 
 of Tarquin, (see Lucretia,) Brutus threw aside all <" 
 guise, put himself at the head of the people, expelled t 
 reigning family from Rome, and effected the abolition 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n8t; good; 1 
 
BR UTUS 
 
 4>i 
 
 BRYANT 
 
 royalty, (509 B.C.) Shortly after, Titus and Tiberius, the 
 his of Brutus, accused of conspiring for the resto- 
 ration of Tarquin, were brought before the consular tri- 
 bunal for judgment. Their guilt having been proved, 
 is, then consul, with unconquerable patriotism and 
 inflexible justice, condemned his own sons to death, al- 
 though the people were willing that he should pardon 
 them. In the year 507 B.C., Tarquin, who had never 
 abandoned the purpose of regaining his kingdom, led an 
 army against Rome, and his son Aruns and Brutus met 
 in the field of battle and slew each other. The corpse 
 of Brutus was carried to Rome in triumph, a statue 
 of bronze was erected to his memory, and the Roman 
 matrons wore mourning a whole year for the avenger of 
 the wrongs of Lucretia. 
 
 See C. L. Crf.li, " Dissertatio de L. J. Bruto Reipublica; Ro- 
 Auctorc," 1721 ; P. C. ChompriS, "Vie de Brutus premier 
 1 de Rome, 1730. 
 
 Brutus, (Marcus Junius,) a Roman jurist and gen- 
 1 descendant of Lucius Junius Brutus, was the father 
 of the famous conspirator. He fought for Marius against 
 Sulla in the civil war, and commanded a force which de- 
 fended Mutina (Modena) against Pompey. He surren- 
 dered that place in 77 B.C., and was put to death. 
 
 Brutus, (Marcus Junius,) a noted Roman, son of the 
 preceding, was born in So B.C. Cato Uticensis was his 
 maternal uncle, and afterwards his father-in-law, Brutus 
 having married his daughter Porcia. In the civil wars 
 he sided with Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalia he 
 was treated with great kindness by Caesar, and appears 
 to have been sincerely attached to him for a time. He 
 .it the instigation of Caesar's enemies, induced to 
 the conspiracy against the life of the dictator. Sub- 
 sequently he and Cassius became the leaders of the 
 republican army against Antony and Octavius. At the 
 battle of Philippi, Brutus, who commanded the right 
 was at first completely successful, and drove the 
 troops of Octavius even to their camp ; but Antony, 
 ving the mistake his enemies had committed iii 
 pursuing fugitives, instead of assuring the victory to their 
 own friends, turned upon the exposed flank of Cassius 
 and entirely changed the fortune of the day. The re- 
 publican troops were totally defeated; and Brutus, after 
 seeing many of his bravest and most attached followers 
 ay down their lives in order to prevent his falling into 
 the hands of his enemies, killed himself with his own 
 sword, 36 B.C. 
 
 Plutarch "Lives;" Appian, "Bellum Civile;" Quevedo 
 rVllLEC.AS, "VidadeM. Bruto," 1648. V 
 
 Bruun, bRoox, (Thomas Christoffer,) a Danish 
 poet, born in Zealand in 1750; died in 1834. 
 
 See Ersi.ew, "Forfatter-Lexicon." 
 
 Bruyere, de la, deh It bRu-e'yaiR' or brii'yaiR' 
 (JEAN,) a distinguished French writer and moralist, born 
 t Dourdan, in Normandy, in 1646. His principal work 
 is entitled "Les Caracteres de Theophraste. traduits du 
 Orec, avec les Caracteres ou les Mceurs de ce Siecle," 
 £'The Characters of Theophrastus. translated from the 
 Greek, with the Characters or Manners of this Age " 
 1688,) a satire, (in prose,) exhibiting keen powers of ob- 
 servation, accompanied by a refined and good-humoured 
 wit and an elegant and spirited style. Died in 1696. 
 
 I he Greek writer, [Theophrastus,] with no contemp- 
 tible degree of merit," savs Hallam, "has been incom- 
 •arably surpassed by his imitator." ("Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe.") The judgment of posterity 
 has pronounced it to be one of the best books in the 
 rrench language. La Bruyere, according to some critics 
 
 the greatest painter of manners and character that has 
 written 111 rrench. Through the influence of Bossuet, he 
 was appointed teacher of history to a grandson of the 
 great Prince of Conde. 
 
 Bru^r?"",!!"' "w°' iCe 8Uf La B , r JJ yir , e '" '7 8 ' ; SlcAR * " Vi ^e La 
 <ks, 1847. M. J. J. Victorin-Fabre, "Eloge de La Bruyere " 
 
 Bruyeres, bRu-e yam' or bRu'yaiV, (Jean Pierre,) a 
 rrench otlicer, born in Languedoc in 1772, distinguished 
 If at the battle of Jena in 1806, and was in conse- 
 quence made general, served under Murat in the Russian 
 campaign of 1812, and was killed by a bullet in battle in 
 IS13. 
 
 Bruyn, bRoin, (Kornei.is,) a Dutch traveller and 
 artist, born at the Hague in 1652. He studied painting in 
 Rome and Venice, and subsequently visited Asia Minor 
 Egypt, and Russia. His " Voyage to the Levant," pub- 
 lished in Dutch and French, (1698-1700,) contains more 
 than two hundred engravings. His " Travels through 
 Muscovy, etc." (171 1) has three hundred plates, many of 
 them of superior merit. 
 
 See Nacler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 Bruyii, de, deh bRoin, (Abraham,) a Flemish painter 
 and engraver, born at Antwerp about 1540. 
 
 Bruyn, de, (Nicolaas,) son of Abraham, born at 
 Antwerp about 1576, was a skilful painter and engraver. 
 Bruyn, van, vSn bRoin, (Jan,) a learned professor of 
 mathematics, physics, and philosophy in the University 
 of Utrecht, born at Gorcum in 1620 ; died in 1675. 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 Bruys, bRii-e', (Francois,) a French litterateur and 
 critic, born at Serrieres in 1708, published a " History 
 of the Popes," (5 vols., 1734.) Died at Dijon in 1738. 
 
 Bruys.de, deh bRii-e', (Pierre,) [Lat. Pe'trus Bru'- 
 sius,] a French fanatic and iconoclast, suffered death 
 at the stake, in Languedoc, in 1147. Many of his views 
 corresponded with those of the modern Protestants. 
 See Perrin, "Histoire des Vaudois." 
 
 Bry, bRe, [Flemish pron. bRl,] (Theodore,) an emi- 
 nent engraver, born at Liege in 1528; died, in 1598, at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main. His sons, John Theodore (1561- 
 1620) and John Israel, were able engravers. 
 
 Bry'an, (George,) a patriot of the American Revo- 
 lution, born at Dublin, Ireland, about 1730. Having 
 emigrated to America, he was appointed, in 1778, presi- 
 dent of the supreme executive council of the colony of 
 Pennsylvania. Died in 1791. 
 
 Bry'an, (Michael,) a noted connoisseur in painting, 
 and author of a "Biographical and Critical Dictionary of 
 Painters and Engravers," (1812,) was born at Newcastle, 
 in England, about 1754; died in 1821. 
 
 Bry'ant, (Sir Francis,) an English soldier and states- 
 man, served with credit under Lord Surrey in 1522, be- 
 came chief justiciary of Ireland in 1548, and died in 1550. 
 Bryant, (Jacob,) a learned English antiquary, born 
 at Plymouth in 1715. He became secretaryto the Duke 
 of Marlborough in 1756. His reputation is founded 
 chiefly on his " New System or Analysis of Ancient My- 
 thology," (3 vols., 1774-76.) Among his numerous works 
 is a "Treatise on the Authenticity of the Holy Scriptures 
 and the Truth of the Christian Religion," (1792.) Died 
 in 1804. 
 
 Bry'ant, (John Howard,) an American poet, brother 
 of William C. Bryant, born at Cummington, Massachu- 
 setts, in 1807. He removed to Princeton, Illinois, about 
 1832, and became a farmer. He is the author of a num- 
 ber of short poems. 
 
 Bryant, (Solomon,) an American Indian, born in 
 Massachusetts in 1695, resided at Marshpee, where he 
 preached in his own language to the Indians for many 
 years. Died in 1775. 
 
 Bryant, (William Cullen,) an eminent American 
 poet, born at Cummington, Hampshire county, Massa- 
 chusetts, on the 3d of November, 1794. About the age 
 of thirteen he wrote two poems, "The Embargo," a 
 political satire, and "The Spanish Revolution," which 
 were printed in 1808. He entered Williams College in 
 1810, distinguished himself by his proficiency in the lan- 
 guages, and became a student of law about 1812. Hav- 
 ing been admitted to the bar in 1815, he practised law 
 for several years. In 1816 he published "Thanatopsis," 
 which is by many regarded as his finest poem, and in 
 182 1 a volume containing, besides other pieces, a didac- 
 tic poem called "The Ages." He married about this 
 date, removed to New York City in 1825, and became, in 
 1826, one of the editors of the "Evening Post," which 
 he has continued to edit with great ability to the present 
 time. A complete collection of his poems was published 
 in 1832. He visited Europe in 1834, and returned in 
 1836, since which he has crossed the Atlantic several 
 times, and in 1849 travelled in Egypt and Syria. Among 
 his prose works are " Letters of a Traveller." Since 
 1845 ne nas resided at Roslyn, on Long Island. As 
 editor of the "Evening Post,"'he opposed the extension 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard: g as/; ,-,, H , K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (fc^-Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BR TAXIS 
 
 45* 
 
 BUCHANAN 
 
 of slavery, and efficiently supported the Union during 
 the civil war. 
 
 "No poet," says Griswold, "has described with more 
 fidelity the beauties of the creation, nor sung in nobler 
 song the greatness of the Creator. He is the translator 
 of the silent language of the universe to the world. 
 His poetry is pervaded by a pure and genial philosophy, 
 a solemn and religious tone, that influence the fancy, the 
 understanding, and the heart." ("Poets and Poetry of 
 America.") *' All who have read this article," says Pro- 
 fessor Wilson, " will agree with what Washington Irving 
 has said of his friend, — that his close observation of the 
 phenomena of nature, and the graphic felicity of his de- 
 tails, prevent his descriptions from becoming general 
 and commonplace." (" Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 
 1832.) 
 
 See. also. "Foreign Quarterly Review" for August, 1S32; "Demo- 
 cratic Review" for March, 1842. 
 
 Bry-ax'is, [Borate,] a noted Greek sculptor, flour- 
 ished about 380 B.C. 
 
 Bryczyn'ski, bRlt-chin'skee, (Joseph,) a Polish litte- 
 rateur, born near Warsaw in 1798; died in France in 
 1823. 
 
 Brydaine. See Bridaine. 
 
 Brydg'es, (Sir Samuel Egerton,) an able English 
 writer, born at Wootton Court, Kent, in 1762. He 
 studied law, but did not practise H. He induced his 
 brother to prefer a claim to the barony of Chandos. The 
 adverse decision of the House of Peers was a severe 
 disappointment to him. He was a prolific writer of son- 
 nets, novels, essays, letters, etc. Among his chief works 
 are "Sonnets and Poems," (1785,) "Censura Literaria, 
 containing Titles and Opinions of Old English Books," 
 (10 vols., "1805-09,) "Res Literariae," (3 vols., i82l,)and 
 " Letters from the Continent," (1821.) Died near Geneva 
 in 1837. 
 
 See " The Autobiography, Times, and Opinions of Sir Egerton 
 Brydges," 2 vols., 1834; "London Quarterly Review" for March and 
 June. i834._ 
 
 Bry-done', (Patrick,) a Scottish traveller, author 
 of "Travels into Malta and Sicily." Born in 1741 ; died 
 in 1 8 19. 
 
 Bry-en'nI-us, (Nicephorus,) [Gr. Nu«$6pof Bpvev- 
 vior ; Fr. Nicei'HORE Bryenne, ne'sa'foR' bRe'en',] a 
 Byzantine historian and general, was a favourite minister 
 of Alexis Comnenus, and married Anna Comnena. He 
 wrote "'TXrj Itrropiac." Died about 1137. 
 
 Buache, bu'tsh', (Philippe,) an eminent French 
 geographer, born at Paris in 1700, became, when only 
 twenty-nine years old, first geographer to the king. 
 Died in 1773. He wrote several valuable works on geog- 
 raphy, especially that department of it which is termed 
 hydrography. 
 
 Buache de la Neuville, bii'Ssh' deh If nuh'vel', 
 (Jean Nicolas,) a French geographer, a relation of the 
 preceding, born at Neuville-en-Pont in 1741, was the last 
 Frenchman who bore the title of " first geographer to 
 the king," (" premier geographe du roi.") Died in 1825. 
 
 See Wacckenaer, "Vies des Homines ce'lebres;" Querard, 
 "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Buat-Nancay, bii'S' iion's^', (Louis Gabriel,) often 
 called simply Comte DU Buat, a French diplomatist 
 and writer, author of an " Ancient History of the Nations 
 of Europe," (2d ed., 12 vols., 1772,) and other works. 
 Born in Normandy in 1732; died in 1787. 
 
 Bube, boo'beh, (Anoi.PH,) a German poet, born at Go- 
 tha in 1802. He published " German Tales," (" Deutsche 
 Sagen,") which had great success, and afterwards "Obo- 
 leti," (1827,) "Poems," (" Gedichte," 1836,) "New 
 Poems," ("Neue Gedichte," 1840,) and "Naturbilder," 
 (1848.) 
 
 Bubna Littiz, boob'na lit'tits, (Ferdinand,) Count 
 OF, (often called simply Bubna,) a very distinguished 
 Austrian general, born at Zamersk, in Bohemia, about 
 1768, particularly signalized himself in the campaign 
 against Napoleon in 1813. Died in 1825. 
 
 Bu-bul'cus, (Caius Junius,) a Roman statesman who 
 was thrice elected consul, and became dictator in 302 B.C. 
 
 Buc or Buck, (Sir George,) an English antiquary 
 and historical writer, was gentleman of the privy chamber 
 to James I. He wrote a "Life of Richard III.," and 
 other works. Died about 1622. 
 
 Buc, du, du biik, (Jean Bafitste,) born in Martinique 
 in 1717, of a noble Norman family, was appointed by 
 Choiseul chief of the bureaus for the two Indias, and in 
 1770 retired with the title of intendant of the colonics. 
 Died in 1795. 
 
 Bucer, boot'ser, (Martin,) originally Kuhhorn. 
 (koo'hoRn,) a celebrated German reformer, and friend of 
 Luther, born in 1491 near Strasburg, where he was pro- 
 fessor of theology for twenty years. He assisted at tht 
 Diet of Augsburg in 1548, and strongly condemned tht 
 so-called Interim of Charles V. At the invitatioi 
 Cranmer, he removed to England in 1549, and becaim 
 professor of theology at Cambridge. He died about 1550 
 leaving numerous works in Latin and German, among 
 which is a translation of the Psalms with a commentary 
 He was an advocate of peace and conciliation among th< 
 Protestant sects. His " Commentaries on the G«- 
 (1527) are highly esteemed. 
 
 See Mei.chior Adam, " Vitae Theologorum ;" Bavle, " Historica 
 and Critical Dictionary;" De Thou, " Histoire." 
 
 Buch, von, fon bd&K, (Leopold,) an eminent Prus 
 sian geologist, born at Stolpe, in Uckermark, on the 
 Oder, in 1774. He studied mineralogy under Werne 
 at Freiberg, where Alexander von Humboldt was hi 
 fellow-student. In 1797 he published an "Essay toward 
 a Geognostic Description of Silesia," and performed 
 scientific excursion in Italy in 1798-99. During a sec 
 ond visit to Italy he witnessed the eruption of Vest) 
 vius in 1805, and was converted from the Neptunian t 
 the Plutonic theory. The results of his observ; 
 appeared in his " Geognostische Beobachtungen aul Re: 
 sen durch Deutscliland und Italien," (2 vols., 1802-09. 
 He afterwards explored Sweden and other countries 
 generally travelling on foot. He was the first who nt 
 ticed the gradual elevation of Sweden, and he originate 
 the doctrine of the slow upheaval of continents. Anion 
 his more important works is a geological map of Gei 
 many, (1824.) He was pronounced by Humboldt to b 1 
 "the greatest geologist of our age, the first to recogniz 
 the intimate connection of volcanic phenomena." Die 
 in Berlin in 1853. 
 
 See English version of Flourens's "Eulogy on L. von Buchj" 
 the " Smithsonian Report" for 1S62, p. 358 ; Hoffmann, " Geschich 
 derGeognosie," 1838 : Humboldt, "Cosmos;" " Edinburgh Ke 
 for October, 1813; H. von Dechen, "Leopold von Buch, sl-: 
 fluss auf die Entwickelung der Geognosie," 8vo, 1853. 
 
 Buchan, biik'an, (David,) a British navigator, bor 
 about 1780. He commanded an expedition sent out ; 
 1818 to discover a passage from the Atlantic to tl 
 Pacific Ocean through Behring Strait and the Arct 
 Sea. Died in 1839. 
 
 See Barrow, " Chronological History of Voyages into the 
 Regions." 
 
 Buchan, (David Stuart Erskine,) Earl of. St 
 Erskine. 
 
 Buchan, buK'an, (Elizabeth or Ei.speth,) the foundi 
 of a sect of enthusiasts called Buchanists, was born 
 Scotland in 1738 ; died in 1791. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen 
 
 Buchan, (John Stuart,) Earl of, born in 1380,1 
 a son of Robert, Duke of Albany, Regent of Scotia 
 and a grandson of King Robert II. He entered 
 service of Charles VII. of France in 1420, defeated 
 English at Bauge, and was appointed Constable 
 France. Died about 1424. 
 
 Buchan, (Peter,) a Scottish antiquary. He publis 
 "Gleanings of Scotch, English, and Irish Scarce 
 Ballads," (1825,) and other works. Died in 1854. 
 
 Buchan, (William,) M.D., born at Ancruni, in ! 
 land, in 1729 ; died in 1805. He practised in Sheffie 
 and finally in London. His "Domestic Medicine," 
 lished in 1769, had great success. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsn 
 "Gentleman's Magazine" for 1805. 
 
 Buchanan, buk-an'an, (Claudius,) a Scottish div 
 vice-provost of the College of Fort William, in Ben 
 distinguished by his zeal for the propagation of the gc 
 pel in India, was born near Glasgow in 1766; died 
 1815. He wrote "Christian Researches in Asia," (181 
 
 See Pearson, "Life of Claudius Buchanan," 1S10: Cm \mbe; 
 "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "London Qu 
 terly Review" for December, 181 1. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ft, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; nv35 
 
BUCHANAN 
 
 453 
 
 BVCHMANN 
 
 Buchanan, (Francis,) M.D., a Scottish physician, 
 born in Stirlingshire in 1762. Having graduated at 
 Edinburgh, he sailed in 1794 for India, as surgeon in the 
 East India Company's service. He published "Travels 
 in the Mysore," (1807,) which has a high reputation,, and 
 a "History of Xepaul," (1818.) He was a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society, of the Royal Asiatic Society, and of 
 other learned institutions. Died in 1829. 
 
 Set Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1808. • 
 
 Buchanan, btik-an'an, (Franklin,) an American 
 naval officer, born in Baltimore, entered the navy about 
 1S1 v He was a captain when the civil war began, fe- 
 I in 1S61, and commanded the iron-clad Merrimac 
 when she destroved several Federal ships in Hampton 
 Roads, March, 1862. Having been raised to the rank 
 of rear-admiral, he commanded the iron-clad Tennessee 
 in Mobile Bay, August, 1864, where he was defeated by 
 Admiral Farragut, and taken prisoner. 
 
 Buchanan, (George,) a celebrated Scottish historian, 
 scholar, and Latin poet, born near Killearn, in the county 
 of Stirling, in 1506, was educated in Paris. He was em- 
 ployed as tutor to the Earl of Cassilis^br several years, 
 and returned to Scotland about 1537. Having adopted 
 Protestant opinions, and written a satire against the 
 monks, entitled " Somnium," he was thrown into prison ; 
 but he escaped to England, and passed thence to France 
 about 1540. He remained in France until 1547, during 
 which period he taught at Bordeaux and Paris and wrote 
 several Latin tragedies. After he had passed several 
 month? in the prison of the Inquisition in Portugal, he 
 returned to France in 1553, and to Scotland in 1560. In 
 1562 he became classical tutor to Mary, Queen of Scots, 
 and in 1570 or 1571 was appointed preceptor to the 
 young king, James VI. He was an adherent of the 
 regent Murray in the civil war. Among his principal 
 works are a metrical Latin version of the Psalms, (1570,) 
 " Francis anus," a poetical satire, and a " History of 
 Scotland," (" Rerum Scoticarum Historia," 1582.) The 
 last is said to be deficient in impartiality. His Latin 
 writings are celebrated for the purity and elegance of 
 the style. He died at Edinburgh in 1582, after saying, 
 " I am going to a place where there are few kings." His 
 translation of the Psalms shows him to have been a poet 
 of a high order ; though he is perhaps more remarkable 
 for harmony of versification and richness of style than 
 for strength of imagination. 
 
 See his " Autobiography," 1608; David Irving, "Memoirs of 
 the Life and Writings of George Buchanan," 1807 ; Chambers, 
 :.iphica] Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Bayi.e, "His- 
 torical and Critical Dictionary;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 June, 1818. 
 
 Buchanan, (James,) the fifteenth President of the 
 United States, born in Franklin county, Pennsylvania, 
 in April, 1791. He graduated at Dickinson College, 
 ■ Carlisle, in 1809, studied law, and was admitted to the 
 bar in 1812. He was elected a member of Congress in 
 1820, and began his political career as a Federalist. In 
 1828 he supported General Jackson as candidate for the 
 Presidency, and was again elected to Congress. He was 
 sent as ambassador to Saint Petersburg in 183 1, and 
 elected a Senator of the United States by the legisla- 
 ture of Pennsylvania in 1833. He supported the ad- 
 ministration of Van Buren, (1837-41,) and favoured the 
 annexation of Texas to the United States. Having been 
 re-elected, he sat in the Senate until 1845, and was ap- 
 pointed in that year secretary of state in the cabinet of 
 President Polk. He ceased to hold this office in March, 
 1849, after which he passed four years in private life. 
 He opposed the Wilmot proviso, and, like most other 
 'cratic leaders, raised his vofce against the anti- 
 slavery movement. He was minister of the United 
 States at the court of Saint James from 1853 to 1856. In 
 June, 1856, the National Democratic Convention at Cin- 
 ti nominated him for President ofthe United States. 
 lots were John C. Fremont, supported by the 
 Republicans, and Millard Fillmore, "American." .Bu- 
 chanan was elected, receiving 174 electoral votes out of 
 303, which was the whole number. In the first year of 
 ministration, great excitement was produced by an 
 attempt to establish slavery in Kansas, which became the 
 icene of civil war. On this question Buchanan showed 
 
 himself to be a " Northern man with Southern princi- 
 ples." In his message, December, 1857, he argued that 
 Kansas should be admitted with the "Lecompton Con- 
 stitution," which the pro-slavery party, aided by execu- 
 tive influence, had framed. The majority of Congress, 
 however, refused to admit Kansas as a slave State. 
 
 He used his influence to obtain by purchase the island 
 of Cuba, in order to secure a due balance of power be- 
 tween freedom and slavery. In 1854 he had united 
 with John Y. Mason and Pierre Soule in the " Ostend 
 Manifesto" on the subject of Cuba. His cabinet was 
 composed principally of disunionists and their friends, 
 namely, John B. Floyd, secretary of war ; Howell Cobb, 
 secretary of the treasury ; Jacob Thompson, secretary 
 of the interior ; Isaac Toucey, secretary of the navy ; 
 and Jeremiah S. Black, attorney-general. Before the 
 Presidential election of i860, a large number of mus- 
 kets were removed from Northern armories to the 
 South, for the benefit of the disunionists. In his last 
 message, December, i860, the President cast on the 
 Northern people the blame for the disruption of the 
 Union, which was then imminent, and decided that the 
 Constitution has not delegated to Congress or to the 
 Executive any power to coerce a State or to prevent 
 the secession of a State. " How easy would it be," 
 says he, " for the American people to settle the slavery 
 question forever, and restore peace and harmony to this 
 distracted country I They, and they alone, can do it. 
 All that is necessary to accomplish the object, and all 
 for which the slave States have ever contended, is to be 
 let alone. . . . For this \i.e. slavery] the people of "the 
 North are not more responsible, and have no more right 
 to interfere, than with similar institutions in Russia or in 
 Brazil." About the 12th of December, Louis Cass re- 
 signed the office of secretary of state, because the Pre- 
 sident declined to reinforce Fort Sumter. The move- 
 ments which the disunionists initiated to found and fortify 
 a Southern Confederacy were facilitated by the supine- 
 ness of the outgoing Federal administration. Nearly all 
 the forts, arsenals, and custom-houses in the seceded 
 States were seized by the insurgents in the winter of 
 1860-61. Mr. Buchanan, after his retirement from office, 
 resided at Wheatland, near Lancaster, where he died in 
 June, 1868. He was never married. He had published 
 in 1866 a work entitled "Mr. Buchanan's Administra- 
 tion." 
 
 See Greeley, "American Conflict," 2 vols., 1864-66 ; " Edinburgh 
 Review," vol. civ., 1858, and October, i860. 
 
 Buchanan, (Robert,) of Glasgow, a Scottish divine 
 of the present age. He published " The Ten Years' 
 Conflict, being the History of the Disruption of the 
 Church of Scotland," (2 vols., 1849.) 
 
 Buchanan, (Robert,) a British poet, born in the early 
 part of the present century, has written works entitled 
 " Undertones," " Idyls and Legends of Inverburn," (Lon- 
 don, 1865,) and "London Poems," (1866.) 
 
 Buchez, bii'sha', (Philippe Joseph Benjamin,) a 
 French publicist, republican, and able philosophical wri- 
 ter, born at Matagne (Ardennes) in 1796. He advanced 
 some original views in his " Science of the Development 
 of Humanity," (1833.) In conjunction with M. Roux, 
 he published "The Parliamentary History of the French 
 Revolution," (40 vols., 1833-38.) His most important 
 work is his "Complete Treatise on Philosophy, froin 
 the Catholic and Progressive Point of View," (" Essai 
 d'un Traite complet de Philosophic, au Point de Vue de 
 Catholicisine et du Progres," 3 vols., 1840.) He was 
 president of the Constituent Assembly on the 15th of 
 May, 1848, when that body was invaded by ruffians. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Buchholz, bdbK'holts, (Andrew Hfjnrich,) a Ger- 
 man writer of fiction, born at Schbningen in 1607; died 
 in 1671. 
 
 Buchholz, (Paul Ferdinand Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man litterateur, born at Altruppin in 1768 ; died in 1843. 
 
 Buchhorn, booK'hoRn, (Karl Ludwig Bernhard,) 
 a German artist and amateur, born at Halberstadt in 
 1770, became professor of engraving in the Academy of 
 Arts at Berlin. He died in 1856, leaving considerable 
 bequests to the Academy. 
 
 Buchmann. See Bihliandf.r. 
 
 t a» k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/'; c, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; § as *; th as in this. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.)' 
 
BVCHNER 
 
 454 
 
 BUCKLAND 
 
 Buchner, booK'ner, (August,) a German scholar, 
 professor of poetry and eloquence in the University of 
 Wittenberg, born in 1591 ; died in 1661. 
 
 Buchnei, (Jokann Andreas Elia,) born at Erfurt 
 in 1 701, was a writer on materia medica, professor of 
 medicine at Erfurt and afterwards at Halle, and con- 
 sulting physician to the King of Prussia. Died in 1769. 
 See Brockhaus, "Conveisations-Lexikon." 
 Bucholtzer, booK'olt'ser, (Abraham,) a German 
 divine, an intimate friend of Melanchthon, born in 1529. 
 He wrote the " Index Chronologicus," and other works. 
 Died in 1584. 
 
 See Melchior Adam, " Vitse Theologorum." 
 Bucholz, bdoK'olts, written also Buchholz, (Sam- 
 uel,) a German historian, born at Pritzwalk in 1717. 
 He published, besides other works, a "History of the 
 March of Brandenburg," (1759-75.) Died in 1774. 
 See Ersch mid Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Buchon, bii'shoN', (Jean Alexandre,) a French 
 writer, born in the department of Cher in 1 791. He 
 published a "life of Tasso," ( 1 8 1 7, ) and other works, 
 and was a contributor to the "Biographie Universelle." 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 Buchoz, bii'sho', (Pierre Joseph,) a physician and 
 botanist, born at Metz in 1731 ; died in 1807. He pub- 
 lished a "Natural History of France," (14 vols., 1776 
 it seq.,) and other works. 
 
 Buchwald, booK'walt, (Johann Heinrich,) a poet 
 and litterateur, born at Vienna in 1787. He became in 
 1828 professor of French literature at Kiel. 
 
 See his " Souvenirs," (" Erindringer,") 2 vols., 1827-29, and 
 Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon."* 
 
 Buck, (Charles,) an English clergyman, born in 
 1771. He preached in London and Hackney. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, a "Theological Dictionary," 
 (1802.) Died in 1815. 
 Buck, (Sir George.) See Buc, (Sir George.) 
 Bucke, buk, (Charles,) an English writer, born in 
 Suffolk in 1 781. He wrote "The Beauties, Harmonies, 
 and Sublimities of Nature," (new edition, 1837,) an elo- 
 quent work, which was praised by Sir James Mackintosh, 
 and "The Book of Human Character." Died in 1847. 
 
 Buckeridge, buk'rij, or Buck'ridge,(JoHN,) an Eng- 
 lish ecclesiastic, born in Wiltshire. He became Bishop 
 of Rochester in 161 1, and Bishop of Ely in 1626. He 
 wrote "On the Power of the Pope in Temporal Affairs," 
 ("De Potestate Papaa in Rebus temporalibus," 1614.) 
 Died in 163 1. 
 Buckhurst, Lord. See Sackville, (Thomas.) 
 Buckinck, book'kink, (Arnold,) a German of the 
 fifteenth century, the first who engraved maps on and 
 printed them from copper. An edition of Ptolemy's 
 geography with copper-plate maps, the first known work 
 of this kind, was published at Rome by Buckinck in 1478. 
 See Walckenaer, "Vie de Buckinck," in his "Melanges." 
 Buckingham, buk'ing-am, (George Villiers — vil'- 
 yerz,) first Duke of, an English courtier, born in Leices- 
 tershire in 1592, became in his youth the favourite of 
 James I. He obtained in rapid succession the titles of 
 baron, viscount, earl, and marquis, and the office of lord- 
 admiral of England. He induced Prince Charles to pre- 
 sent himself in person at Madrid as a suitor of the Infanta 
 of Spain, and accompanied him in this romantic adven- 
 ture, (1623.) During his absence on this journey he was 
 created Duke of Buckingham. His ascendency con- 
 tinued unimpaired after the accession of Charles I., of 
 whom the duke was the chief favourite and prime min- 
 ister. He involved England in a war with France. His 
 insolence, incapacity, and destitution of principle ren- 
 dered him very unpopular. He was assassinated in 162S 
 by John F'elton. 
 
 See H.Wotton, "Short View of the Life of George Villiers," 1642; 
 Mss T.*;jXPSON, "Life of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham." 
 
 Buckingham, (George Villiers,) second Duke 
 of, born in 1627, was the son of the preceding. He 
 possessed the qualities requisite for a successful courtier, 
 and was a man of profligate habits. In the civil war he 
 fought for the king in one action, and subsequently re- 
 tired to the continent. After the restoration he ob- 
 tained the favour of Charles II., and promoted the fall 
 of Clarendon, (1667,) of whom he was a bitter enemy. 
 
 About 1670 he formed the ministry called the " Cabal," 
 of which he was president. Their policy was to make 
 the king absolute, by the aid of Louis XIV. of France. 
 Died in 1688. 
 
 Buck'iugham, (James Silk,) an English traveller, 
 born in Cornwall in 1786. He visited Egypt and India 
 in 1813, and in 1816 edited a journal in Calcutta, which, 
 owing to its censures of the government, was soon sup- 
 pressed. After his return to England he published 
 several volumes of travels in Palestine, Arabia, etc, 
 and subsequently "Travels in the United States and 
 Canada," (9 vols., 1841-43.) He became a member of 
 Parliament for Sheffield in 1832. He was an earnest 
 advocate of temperance and other social reforms. He 
 died in 1855, leaving an unfinished "Autobiography." 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for October and January, 1822, 
 and September, 1841. 
 
 Buck'ing-ham, (Joseph Tinker,) an American jour- 
 nalist, born at Windham, Connecticut, in 1779. He edited 
 "The New England Galaxy," (1817-28,) "The Boston 
 Courier," (1824-48,) and "The New England Magazine," 
 (1832-36.) He published "Specimens of Newspaper 
 Literature, with Personal Memoirs," (2 vols., 1850,) and 
 "Personal Memoirs and Recollections of Editorial Life," 
 (2 vols., 1852.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Buckingham, (William Alfred,) born in Lebanon, 
 Connecticut, in 1804. He became in early life a merchant 
 at Norwich, and was for many years engaged in the manu- 
 facture of carpets. He was elected Governor of Con- 
 necticut by the Republicans in 1S5S, and was re-elected 
 seven times. In 1868 he was chosen a Senator of the 
 United States for six years. 
 
 See Harriet B. Stowe, " Men of our Times," 1868. 
 
 Buckingham and Chan'dps, (Richard Gren- 
 ville Brydges Chandos,) first Duke of, an English 
 peer, born in 1776, was the son of the second Earl of 
 Temple. He was distinguished as a politician, and voted 
 with the Conservatives. Died in 1839. 
 
 Buckingham and Chandos, (Richard Temple 
 Nugent Brydges Chandos Grenville,) second Duke 
 of, born in London in 1797, was a son of the preceding. 
 He published " Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of 
 George III.," (3 vols.) Died in 1861. 
 
 See "Private Diary of Richard, Duke of Buckingham and Chan- 
 dos," London, 1862. 
 
 Buckinghamshire, buk'ing-am-shir, (John Shef- 
 field,) Duke of, son of the Earl of Mulgrave, born in 
 1649, learned the art of war under Turenne, became 
 keeper of the privy seal under Queen Anne, and died in 
 1721. Besides his "Essay on Satire" and "Essay on 
 Poetry," and other poems, he wrote " Memoirs" of the 
 Revolution of 1688. 
 
 Buck'land, (Cyrus,) an American inventor, master- 
 machinist to the United States armory at Springfield, 
 Massachusetts, was born at Manchester, Connecticut, in 
 1779. His principal inventions consist of various kinds 
 of machinery for working the gun-stock, comprising four- 
 teen different machines, which have been introduced 
 into Great Britain and Russia, and a machine for cutting 
 the grooves in the barrel of the new rifled musket, by 
 which eight barrels are turned off in the time required to 
 groove one by the old process, the work being done in a 
 much superior manner. 
 
 Buck'land, (Francis Trevelyan,) an English natn 
 ralist, son of Dr. William Buckland, noticed below, was 
 born at Oxford in 1826. He has written, among other 
 works, "Curiosities of Natural History," (1857 53d series, 
 2 vols., 1866,) and a valuable treatise on pisciculture, 
 entitled "Fish-Hatching," (1863.) 
 
 Buckland, (Ralph,) an English Catholic priest, born 
 in Somersetshire in 1564, laboured as a missionary in 
 England, and wrote several works. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Buckland, (William,) D.D., F.R.S.,an English geo- 
 logist, born at Axminster, Devonshire, in 1784, was edu- 
 cated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He obtained the 
 chair of mineralogy at Oxford in 1S13, and was appointed 
 reader in geology there about 1818. In 1823 he pub- 
 lished " Reliquiae Diluvianse." His most important work 
 is the Bridgewater treatise entitled "Geology and Min- 
 eralogy considered with Reference to Natural Theology," 
 (1836,) which is highly esteemed. 
 
 , 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
 
BUCKLE 
 
 455 
 
 BUCKNER 
 
 "The extraordinary and inestimable facts," says the 
 
 .burgh Review" for April, 1837, "which he has 
 
 brought under the grasp of the general reader have been 
 
 illustrated by numerous and splendid embellishments; 
 
 and, while his descriptions of them are clothed in simple 
 
 and perspicuous language, the general views to which 
 
 ave been presented to us in the highest tone of 
 
 lofty and impressive eloquence. We have ourselves never 
 
 perused .1 work more truly fascinating or more deeply 
 
 calculated to leave abiding impressions on the heart." 
 
 came Dean of Westminster in 1845. Died in 1856. 
 
 See, also, " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1823; " London Quar- 
 terly Review" for April and July, 1823, and April, 1824; "Men I 
 ha\e known," by William Jerdan, London, 1866. 
 
 Buckle, btik'el, (Henry Thomas,) a popular English 
 writer, born at l.ee in 1S22. His fatherwas a wealthy mer- 
 chant, and the son received, it is said, a "liberal educa- 
 tion." He does not, however, appear to have enjoyed the 
 advantages of that thorough mental training which would 
 have been so valuable a preparation for the prosecution 
 hilosophic inquiries to which his subsequent 
 life was devoted. On the death of his father, in 1840, 
 he inherited an ample fortune, which enabled him to in- 
 his fondness for books and to give himself up 
 wholly to literary pursuits. He is said to have formed 
 one of the finest private libraries to be found in Europe. 
 In [857 Mr. Buckle published the first volume of his 
 celebrated "History of Civilization in England." This 
 work, characterized as it was by great boldness of thought 
 and vigour of style, produced no little sensation in Ame- 
 rica, as well as in Great Britain. By one class of critics 
 it was received with the warmest admiration, while by 
 another class it was severely criticised, and by some it 
 was condemned in unmeasured terms. This wide di- 
 versity of opinion respecting the merits of the work was 
 doubtless chiefly due to the great diversity in the pre- 
 conceived views of its readers, but perhaps also in no 
 small degree to the peculiar genius of the writer. Al- 
 though not remarkable for the closeness of his reasoning 
 or for the accuracy of his knowledge,* Mr. Buckle had 
 
 * Those who have carefully read his History and taken the trouble 
 to examine the facts and authorities which he cites to prove his posi- 
 tions, will scarcely question the justice of these strictures. It may 
 not, however, be superfluous to call attention to one or two examples 
 in support of what we have said above. In attempting to prove his 
 theory respecting the predominant influence of physical circumstances 
 on the character of nations', he contrasts Greece and India. In the 
 former, we are toid, the people are self-reliant and aspiring ; in the lat- 
 ter, they are the victims of a grovelling superstition. He speaks of 
 the religion of India as "a system of complete and unmitigated terror." 
 "In Greece," says Mr. Buckle, "we for the first time meet with hero- 
 worship, — that is, the deification of mortals," (vol. i. chap, ii.) Now.it 
 so happens that in India, for the last twenty-five hundred years, the 
 deification of mortals has prevailed to an extent wholly unparalleled in 
 the history of the human race. Not only wasevery Brahman considered 
 to be "something transcendently divine," hut he was supposed to pos- 
 sess the highest attribute of godhead, that of creation, — of "framing 
 other worlds" and "giving bemg to new gods and mortals." (See "In- 
 stitutes of Manu," chap. ix. 313, 315. 319.) This was the doctrine of 
 Brali manism. If we look at the great offshoots of that system, viz., 
 the religion of the Booddhists (strictly so called) and of the Jains, the 
 case is still stronger against Mr. Buckle's theory ; for with the latter 
 the principal deities, and with the former the only deities, were 
 deified mortals. (See " Asiatic Researches," vol. ix. p. 288 ; Hardy's 
 "Manual of Booddhism;" also article Gautama in the present 
 work.) Mr. Buckle's mistake on this point is the more remarkable, 
 as it has the most vital connection with the fundamental doctrine of 
 his system. It is true, he quotes Mr. Colebrooke to the effect that 
 deified heroes formed no part of the religion of the Vedas ; it should, 
 r, be remembered that the religion of the Vedas was that of 
 the Aryans soon after their arrival in India, adopted (as we may rea- 
 -e) before the climate and other physical conditions had 
 yet had time to produce their full effect upon the minds of the new 
 inhabitants ; and that the "deification of mortals," which Mr. Buckle 
 of a self-reliant or anti-superstitious tendency, prevailed 
 to Ms fuliest extent after all the physical conditions belonging to India 
 had had the amplest scope for exercising their utmost influence. 
 From the foregoing facts and considerations the reader can judge of 
 the truth of Sir. Buckle's assertion that "the tendency of Asiatic 
 [i.e. Hindoo] civilization was to widen the distance between men and 
 their deities." ( !) Mr. Buckle commits an error scarcely less import- 
 ant in regard to Spain. (See " Edinburgh Review" for July, i86r.)_ 
 
 of many instances of defective reasoning to be found in 
 
 his works, we may cite his argument intended to prove that in all the 
 
 ociety the progress is due to the intellect alone. 
 
 hap. iv.) Having shown to his own satisfaction that the 
 
 progress of society must be the result either of the intellect or the moral 
 
 and that it cannot be owing to moral influences alone, he 
 
 ion that the intellectual power only is " the real 
 
 mover" of society, assuming, "so contrary to all we know of nature, 
 
 that a phei omenon cannot have more than one cause." (See Mill's 
 
 "System of I.ogic," book v. chap. iii. 7.) 
 
 the power of presenting his ideas with extraordinary 
 distinctness and force, so that, however he may fail to 
 convince, he seldom or never fails to arouse attention and 
 awaken thought. If we are not mistaken, his influence 
 upon the minds of his readers is owing not so much to 
 the severity of his logic or the weight of his authorities, 
 as to the ardour of his temperament and the energy of 
 his will. Those who read his pages may be compared 
 to men listening to an earnest and gifted orator, who 
 carries his hearers along with him mainly by the intensity 
 and force of his own convictions. Those alone, it would 
 seem, are able to resist the fascination of his genius who, 
 from prejudice or from philosophy, are predetermined 
 not to yield, or to yield only after their reason is fully 
 convinced. We would not intentionally undervalue Mr. 
 Buckle's extraordinary powers. We freely concede to 
 him the possession of vast stores of information, as well 
 as great affluence of thought. But these seeming advan- 
 tages may to an ardent mind — especially if it have a 
 strong bias towards controversy* — become an impedi- 
 ment, rather than a help, in its efforts to arrive at the 
 truth. In its eager desire to build up an intellectual 
 system, it will often unconsciously seize with avidity on 
 such facts as may happen to favour its preconceived theo- 
 ries, and as unconsciously reject or ignore those of an 
 opposite character. 
 
 In 1861 a second volume of Mr. Buckle's History made 
 its appearance ; but it did not excite so great an interest 
 as the first had done. It may be that the novelty which 
 gave attraction to the first was wanting ; it is also pro- 
 bable that Mr. Buckle's impaired health prevented him 
 from doing as full justice to his subject as he would have 
 done under more favourable circumstances. In the lat- 
 ter part of 1861, with a view to recruit his failing health, 
 he set out on a tour in the Levant. He died at Damas- 
 cus on the 29th of May, 1862. 
 
 See "Westminster Review," vol. Ixviii., 1857; "Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for April, 1858, and July, 1861, pp. 189-90; "Quarterly Re- 
 view" for July, 1858 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1861 ; 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1862, also October, 1857, and Au- 
 gust, 1863; Froude, "Lecture on the Science of History," in his 
 "Short Studies on Great Subjects," vol. i., 1867; Charles Hale, 
 " Personal Reminiscences of the late Henry Thomas Buckle," pub- 
 lished in the " Atlantic Monthly" for April, 1863. 
 
 Buckler. See SchiNDErhannes. 
 
 Buck'man, (James,) an English naturalist, born at 
 Cheltenham about 1816, was professor at the Agricul- 
 tural College of Cirencester for many years. He pub- 
 lished several works on botany, geology, and agriculture. 
 
 Buck'min-ster, (Joseph,) an American orthodox cler- 
 gyman, born at Rutland, Massachusetts, in 175 1, gradu- 
 ated at Yale College in 1770. He was ordained pastor 
 of the North Church of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 
 in 1779. He was an eloquent and popular preacher, and 
 was distinguished for the fervour of his devotional exer- 
 cises. His sermons produced emotion rather than con- 
 viction. Died in 1812. 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Life of J. Buckminster," by his daughter, 
 Eliza B. Lee, 1851. 
 
 Buckminster, (Joseph Stevens,) an eloquent Uni- 
 tarian minister, a son of the preceding, was born in 
 Portsmouth in 1784. He graduated at Harvard with 
 distinction in 1800, and became in 1804 pastor of the 
 Brattle Street Church, Boston, one of the largest and 
 most intelligent congregations in New England. He ac- 
 quired a high reputation as a preacher and a scholar. In 
 1806 he made a voyage to Europe for his health. He 
 superintended the publication of Griesbach's "New 
 Testament" in 1S08. Died in 1812. 
 
 See a " Memoir of J. S. Buckminster," prefixed to hi? works, 1 
 vols. ; Griswold, " Prose Writers of America ;" Sprache, " Ameri- 
 can Pulpit," vol. viii. 
 
 Bfick'ner, (Simon Bolivar,) an American general, 
 born in Kentucky about 1824, graduated at West Point 
 in 1844. He was commander of the State Guard of 
 Kentucky in 1861, and took arms against the Union in 
 the autumn of that year. He was one of the generals 
 of the garrison of Fort Donelson when it was attacked 
 by General Grant. The chief command of the fort was 
 
 * "His (Mr. Buckle's] controversial ardour is not only a heat, but 
 a blaze, and frequently dazzles the eye of his understanding." See, 
 in the "Atlantic Monthly" for January, 1863, "Mr. Buckie as a 
 Thinker," an article which is well worthy of perusal by all who 
 would form a just estimate of Mr. Buckle's system of philosophy. 
 
 .JJ--.H.-MI in l,V|;n., UOOh. V. Cliap. 111. J.f WUUIU lUllll a JUOI canumis Ul Hli. uumib o Jjaiti" «. f< uiu«/pi j , 
 
 asX;c as j/g/iW; g asy; G,n,K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; th as in this. (JE^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BUCKRIDGE 
 
 45<5 
 
 BUFFON 
 
 transferred by General Floyd to Buckner, who surren- 
 dered on the 16th of February, 1862. He commanded a 
 corps at Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. 
 
 Buckridge. See Buckeridge. 
 
 Buckstone, (John Baldwin,) an English comic 
 actor and dramatist, born in the Isle of Wight about 
 1800. Among his plays are "Jack Sheppard," "The 
 Wreck Ashore," and " Victorine." 
 
 Bucquet, bu'ki', (Jean Baptiste,) a French physi- 
 cian and chemist, born in Paris in 1746; died in 1780. 
 
 Bucquoi, bii'kwa', (Charles Bonaventure de 
 Longueval — deh loNg'vtl',) a celebrated general in the 
 Thirty Years' war, born in 1561, entered early into the 
 Spanish army destined to the war then raging in the 
 Netherlands. Having afterwards passed into the service 
 of Austria, he totally defeated the revolted Protestants 
 of Bohemia, near Prague, in 1620. He was killed while 
 besieging Neuhausel, in Hungary, in 1621. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bucquoy, van, vin bii'kwa', (Jakois,) a Dutch trav- 
 eller, bom at Amsterdam in 1693 ; died in 1760. 
 
 Buddaus or Buddaeus, bood-da'us, or Budde, 
 bood'deh, (Johannes Franciscus,) a German Lutheran 
 theologian, historian, and voluminous writer, born at 
 Anclam, in Pomerania, in 1667, became professor of 
 moral philosophy at Halle, and afterwards of theology 
 at Jena. Died in 1729. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Buddaus or Buddaeus, written also Buddeus, 
 (Karl Franz,) a writer on philosophy, etc., son of the 
 preceding, born at Halle in 1695, filled several high offices 
 at Weimar and Gotha. Died in 1753. 
 
 See his autobiographic " Denkwiirdigkeiten meines bebens," 1748 ; 
 J. A. Loewe, " Gedachtnisspredigt auf den Vice-Kanzler Buddeus," 
 1753- 
 
 Bud'den, (John,) an English scholar, and professor 
 of civil law at Oxford, born in 1566; died in 1620. 
 
 Buddha. See Booddha. 
 
 Bude, bii'da', (Guillaume,) [Lat. Guliel'mus Bu- 
 D/e'us,] a distinguished scholar, author, of a work of 
 great merit on ancient coins, entitled 1 ' De Asse,"(l5i4,) 
 was born in Paris in 1467. He was suspected of favouring 
 the Reformation. Bude is said to have been the most 
 learned man in France at the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century. He was a friend of Erasmus, and was patron- 
 ized by Francis I., who appointed him in 1522 master of 
 requests. He was well versed in Greek, and wrote " Com- 
 mentaries on the Greek Tongue." Died in 1540. 
 
 See Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Louis le Roy, 
 " VitaG. Bucuei, Parisiensis," 1540; D. Rebitte, "G. Bude\ Restau- 
 rateur des fitudes Grecques en France," 1846; Niceron, "Md- 
 moires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Budee, bii'da', (Adrien Quentin,) a French litte- 
 rateur and mathematician, born in Paris in 1748; died 
 in 1826. 
 
 Buder, boo'der, (Christian Gottlieu,) a learned 
 German jurist and historian, born in Upper Lusatia in 
 1693, became professor of jurisprudence at Jena in 1734, 
 and died in 1763. 
 
 Budes, de, deh biid, (Sylvestre,) a French soldier 
 and companion-in-arms of Du Guesclin. Died in 1379. 
 
 Bfidg'ell, (Eustace,) an English essayist, born near 
 Exeter in 1685, was a relative of Joseph Addison, who 
 procured for him a clerkship in the civil service. He 
 wrote for the "Spectator" numerous papers with the 
 signature of "X," and was suspected of forging the will 
 of Tindal, by which £2000 were bequeathed to Budgell. 
 He lost ^20,000 in the South Sea bubble. He drowned 
 himself in 1736. 
 
 Biidg'ett, (Samuel,) a wealthy English merchant and 
 philanthropist, born near Bristol in 1794. His extra- 
 ordinary talent for business and energy of character en- 
 abled him to amass a large fortune, a great part of which 
 he spent in acts of beneficence and in efforts to improve 
 the condition of the poor in the vicinity. Died in 1851. 
 
 See "The Successful Merchant: Sketches of the Life, etc. of 
 Samuel Budgett," by William Arthur, London, 1853. 
 
 Budha. See Booddha. 
 Budrio. See Lippi, (Giacomo.) 
 Bueil. See Buil. 
 
 Bueil, de, deh bul or buh'ye, (Jean,) Count of San- 
 cerre, (s&N'saiR',) a noted French warrior, contemporary 
 
 with Joan of Arc. He became admiral of France about 
 1450, and was surnamed " the Scourge of the English." 
 
 Bu'el, (Jesse,) an American journalist, born at Cov- 
 entry, Connecticut, in 177S, established about 1S13 the 
 Albany "Argus," a Democratic journal, which has had a 
 powerful influence in the politics of New York. Having 
 severed his connection with it in 1821, he applied him- 
 self to the pursuits of agriculture, and in 1834 published 
 the first number of the Albany "Cultivator," which he 
 conducted for six years. Mr. Buel contributed to pro- 
 mote a taste for agricultural pursuits by his addresses on 
 agriculture in different parts of the country, served repeat- 
 edly in the legislature, and was at one time judge of the 
 county court. He was author of "The Farmer's Instruc- 
 tor" and "The Farmer's Companion." Died in 1839. 
 
 Bu'ell, (Don Carlos,) an American general, born in 
 Ohio about 181 8, graduated at WesJ Point in 1841. He 
 gained the rank of captain about 1848. In November, 
 1861, he was appointed commander of the department 
 of Kentucky, with the rank of brigadier-general of vol- 
 unteers. He became a major-general in March, 1862, 
 and was ordered to move the army of the Ohio (which 
 he commanded) to Tennessee and to join that of Genera! 
 Grant. He arrived at Pittsburg Landing on the evening 
 of April 6, and contributed to the victory on the 7th 
 of that month. In June, 1862, he moved his army from 
 Corinth towards Chattanooga; but before he reached 
 that place he was required to oppose General Bragg, 
 who invaded Kentucky in September and threatened 
 Louisville. General Bueil arrived at Louisvilje about 
 the 24th of September. On the 1st of October he moved 
 in pursuit of the enemy, who had captured Lexington 
 and Frankfort. An indecisive battle was fought at Per- 
 ryville, October 8, between the army of General Bragg 
 and a part of Buell's army. General Bragg escaped into 
 Tennessee with immense spoils. General Bueil, who 
 was considered dilatory and too "conservative," was re- 
 moved from the command in October, 1862. He resigned 
 his commission in June, 1864. 
 
 Buelow. See Bulow. 
 
 Buesching. See Busching. 
 
 Buettner. See Buttner. 
 
 Buffalmacco, boof-fal-mak'ko, (Buonamico di Cris- 
 TOFANO,) a Florentine painter, born about 1262, was a 
 pupil of Andrea Tafi. He is celebrated in the " Deca- 
 merone" of Boccaccio. Died about 1340. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Buffier, bii'fe-i', (Claude,) an eminent grammarian 
 and philosopherTborn of French parents in Poland in 
 1661. He entered the order of Jesuits, and settled in 
 Paris. He showed an excellent faculty of analysis in 
 his " French Grammar," which formed part of his " Cours 
 general et particulier des Sciences," (1732.) Among his 
 works (which seem to be more "highly esteemed by the 
 British than by the French) is a "Treatise on Primary 
 Truths," (1717.) Died in 1737. 
 
 Buffon, de, deh bii'f6.N', [pron. sometimes Anglicized 
 as buffon,] (Georges Louis Leclerc,) Comte, an illus- 
 trious French naturalist and philosopher, born at Mont- 
 bard, in Burgundy, on the 7th of September, 1707. He 
 was a son of Benjamin Leclerc, a counsellor of the fir- 
 liament of Dijon, from whom he inherited a competent 
 fortune, and was liberally educated. After he left col- 
 lege he travelled, in company with Lord Kingston, in 
 Italy and England. In 1735 he produced a translation 
 of Newton's "Treatise on Fluxions." He tested by ex- 
 periments the probability of the statement that Archi- 
 medes set fire to the Roman fleet by burning-mirrors, and 
 he succeeded in igniting wood at the distance of two 
 hundred French feet. In 1739 he was admitted into the 
 Academy of Sciences and appointed intendant of the 
 royal garden, (" Jardin du Roi.") Thenceforth he devoted 
 himself as "the high-priest and interpreter of Nature." 
 
 In 1749 he published the first three volumes of his great 
 work, "Histoire naturelle, generale et particuliere," in 
 which he was assisted by Daubenton, who had charge of 
 the department of anatomy and of those parts of the 
 work which required patient and minute investigation. 
 All the brilliant passages, all the general theories, the de- 
 scription of the habits and manners of animals and of the 
 grand phenomena of nature, are from the pen of Buffon. 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon- 
 
BUFORD 
 
 457 
 
 BULL 
 
 Twelve other volumes were issued between 1749 and 
 1767, after which were added eight volumes containing 
 the History of Birds, in which Daubenton had no share, 
 his place being supplied by Gueneau de Montbelliard 
 and Abbe Bexon. Buffon himself wrote five volumes on 
 Minerals, published between 1783 and 1785. Commenting 
 on this work, Condorcet remarks, " M. de Buffon is poet- 
 ical in his descriptions ; but, like all great poets, he knows 
 how to render interesting the delineation of natural ob- 
 jects by blending with them moral ideas which affect the 
 soul, at the same time that the imagination is amused 
 or astonished." Buffon was elected a member of the 
 French Academy in 1753, and married Mademoiselle de 
 Saint-Bclin in 1762. Among his greatest productions is 
 the "Epoquesde la Nature," ("Epochs of Nature,") con- 
 tained in the Supplement to his Natural History. Never 
 perhaps was any literary reputation more rapidly or more 
 widely established than that of Buffon after his great 
 Work was given to the world. By demonstrating the 
 unity of the human species, Buffon prepared the way for 
 the labours of Camper, Blumenbach, andCuvier. Among 
 his important contributions to the philosophy of natural 
 history is the law of the geographical distribution of ani- 
 mals depending on climate and other physical conditions. 
 He aiso has the credit of discovering that the test of a 
 species consists in fecundity, or power to propagate itself. 
 About 1776 he received the title of Count de Buffon from 
 the King of France. He had one son, who served in the 
 army, obtained the rank of major or colonel, and was ex- 
 ecuted in the reign of terror for the crime of belonging to 
 the aristocracy. Buffon died in Paris on the 16th of April, 
 He had received from nature an imposing figure 
 and an eminently noble countenance, bearing the impress 
 of high intelligence and wisdom. Besides the works 
 above mentioned, he left, unfinished, a "Dissertation on 
 Style," in which occurs the celebrated phrase, Le style est 
 de ritomme. 
 
 See Condorcet, " FJoge de Buffon ;" Cuvier, " filoge de Buffon," 
 prefixed to an edition of the "Natural History," 36 vols., 1826; F1.0U- 
 rfns, "Buffon: Histoire de sa Vie et de ses Ouvrages," 1844; en- 
 larged edition of the same, 1850; A. de Chesnel, " Vie de Buffon," 
 1843 ; Andke Aude, " Vie priv^e de Buffon," 1788. 
 
 Bu'ford, (Abraham,) a native of Kentucky, who be- 
 came a brigadier-general in the Confederate service in 
 1861. 
 
 Buford, (John,) an American major-general, born in 
 Kentucky about 1827. He graduated at West Point in 
 184S, and gained the rank of captain before the civil war. 
 In the summer of 1862 he was appointed a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers. He obtained command of abrigade 
 of cavalry about August, 1862, served at the battle of 
 Antietam, September 17, and distinguished himself as a 
 cavalry officer in several actions. He rendered important 
 services at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. Died of fever at 
 ington in December of the same year. 
 
 Buford, (Napoleon Bonaparte,) an American gen- 
 eral, a half-brother of the preceding, was born in Ken- 
 tucky in 1807. He graduated at West Point in 1827. 
 He was appointed a brigadier-general in April, 1862, and 
 obtained command of a brigade of Federal cavalry in 
 July nf that year. 
 
 Bugeaud de laPicoiinerie.bu'zho'deh lSpe'kon're', 
 (Thomas Robkrt,) Due d'Isly, a celebrated French mar- 
 shal, born at Limoges in 1784. He served in the Span- 
 ish campaigns from 1810 to 1814, and attained the rank 
 of lieutenant-colonel. He went over to Napoleon on 
 his return from Elba, and in the revolution of 1830 gave 
 in his adhesion to Louis Philippe, by whom he was cre- 
 ated marshal of France. Being appointed to a command 
 in Algeria, he gained several victories, and in 1837 he 
 concluded with Abd-el-Ktklerthetreatyof Tafna. In 1840 
 he became governor-general of the t rench possessions 
 in Africa. In the course of the three ensuing years he 
 subjected the whole country from Tunis to Morocco. 
 In 1844 hostilities commenced between the French and 
 the Emperor of Morocco, whom Bugeaud defeated at 
 Isly in the same year. Having been recalled in 1847, 
 he was selected to command the army and national guard 
 at Paris on the 24th of February, 1848. Died in 1849. 
 
 Sec -. " Biographic complete de M. le Marechal Bu- 
 
 geaud," 1841) ; C Pitois, " Souvenirs du Marechal Bugeaud," 2 vols., 
 
 cas* 
 
 Bugenhagen, boo'cen-ha'Gen, (Johann,) surnamed 
 Pomera'nus, a German Protestant reformer, born near 
 Stettin, in Pomerania, in 1485. He became professor of 
 theology, and pastor at Wittenberg, in 1522. He wrote 
 an "Explanation of the Psalms," and other religious 
 works, and assisted Luther in translating the Bible. He 
 was a devoted friend of the great Reformer, and preached 
 his funeral sermon. Died in 1558. 
 
 See Jaencke, "Leben J. Bugenhagen's," 1730; J. C. Lance, "J. 
 Bugenhagens Leben," 1731; F. C. Kraft, "De J. Bugenhagii Po- 
 merani Meritis," etc., 1831 ; Biesner, " Leben des H. Rubenow und 
 des J. Bugenhagen," 1S37 ; F. Koch, " Erinnerungen an J. Bugenha- 
 gen, 1817. 
 
 Bugge, booo'Geh, (Thomas,) an eminent Danish as- 
 tronomer, bom in 1740 at Copenhagen, where he became 
 professor of mathematics and astronomy in 1777. He 
 published " Elements of Spherical and Theoretical As- 
 tronomy," ( 1 796,) " Elements of Abstract Mathematics," 
 and an excellent treatise on Surveying. He was a mem- 
 ber of the French Institute, and perpct tal secretary of 
 the Society of Sciences of Denmark. Died in 1815. 
 
 See Jonas Collin, "Mindetale overT. Buggc og C. Colbjoem- 
 sen," 1815. 
 
 Bugiardini, boo-jaR-dee'nee, (Giuliano,) a mediocre 
 Italian painter, born at Florence in 1480, was an asso- 
 ciate or friend of Michael Angelo. Died in 1552. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Buglio, bool'yo, (Luigi,) a Sicilian Jesuit and mis- 
 sionary, born at Palermo in 1606, went to China in 1637, 
 where he died in 1682. 
 
 Bugnyon,bun / y6N', [Lat. Bugno'nius,] (Philibert,) 
 a French advocate and litterateur, native of Macon. Died 
 in 1590. 
 
 Bugrow. See Boogrov. 
 
 Buhle, boo'leh, (Johann Gottlieb,) a learned Ger- 
 man writer, born at Brunswick in 1763, became professor 
 of philosophy at Gbttingen in 1787, and afterwards taught 
 in his native city. Died in 1821. Besides a multitude 
 of other works, he wrote a " History of Modern Phi- 
 losophy." 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Buil, boo-eel', written also Bueil, a Benedictine monk 
 of Catalonia, sent by Ferdinand and Isabella to preach 
 the gospel in the West Indies, of which he is regarded 
 as the first patriarch. He is chiefly known from having 
 been one of the most bitter enemies of Columbus. 
 
 Buister, bois't^r, (Philippus,) a Flemish sculptor, 
 born at Brussels in 1595, worked in Paris ; died in 1688. 
 
 Bujault, bu'zho', (Jacques,) a French rural econo- 
 mist, born near Bressuire in 1771 ; died in 1842. 
 
 Bulseus. See Boulav. 
 
 Bu-lar'chus, [Fr. Bularque, bii'lSitk',] a Greek 
 painter mentioned by Pliny, lived about 700 B.C. 
 
 Bulau, biilow, (Jriedrich,) a German writer on his- 
 tory and political economy, born at Freyberg, in Saxony, 
 in 1805. He became professor of philosophy at Leipsic 
 in 1836. He published, besides other works, "Histori- 
 sche Plausbibliothek," (" Historical Family Library,") of 
 which the 36th volume appeared in 1855. 
 
 Bulbun. See Balban. 
 
 Bulfinger, bool'fing'er, (Georg Bernhard,) a Ger- 
 man professor of theology at Tubingen, born in 1693 ; 
 died in 1750. 
 
 Bulgaria. See Boolgarin. 
 
 Bulgaria. See Eugenius Bui.garis. 
 
 Bfilk'ley, (Charles,) an English dissenting minister, 
 born in London in 1719, was a grandson of Matthew 
 Henry the commentator. He published "Discourses 
 on the Parables and Miracles of Christ," (4 vols., 1771.) 
 Died in 1797. 
 
 Bfilk'ley, (Peter,) the first minister of Concord, 
 Massachusetts, was born in Bedfordshire in 1583. He 
 emigrated to America in 1635. Died in 1659. 
 
 Bull, (George,) a learned English ecclesiastic, born 
 at.Wells in 1634, became Bishop of Saint David's in 
 1705, and died in 1710. He wrote, besides other works, 
 a "Defence of the Nicene Faith," ("Defensio Fidei Ni- 
 cense," 1685-88,) which has :een applauded in all parts 
 of Christendom. 
 
 See Nelson, "Life of G. Bull," 1717. 
 
 Bull, (John,) an eminent English composer and mu- 
 sician, born in Somersetshire about 1563. He became 
 
 •; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gi<ttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. (j5^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BULL 
 
 458 
 
 BULOW 
 
 organist to the Royal Chapel in 1591. The authorship 
 of the anthem " God save the King" is ascribed to him 
 by some writers. He died about 1625. 
 
 Bull, bo61, (OLE Bornemann,) a celebrated Norwe- 
 gian violinist, born at Bergen in 1810. Having studied 
 a short time under Spohr, at Cassel, he went to seek his 
 fortune in Paris. Here he was reduced to such distress 
 that he was on the point of committing suicide, when he 
 was relieved by a lady of rank. A concert which he gave 
 soon after furnished him with the means of visiting Italy, 
 where his performances were received with the greatest 
 enthusiasm. Having met with the same brilliant success 
 in Paris, London, and the principal capitals of Europe, 
 he set out about 1845 for America. He purchased 
 about 120,000 acres of land in Pennsylvania, where he 
 founded a Swedish colony, to which he gave the name 
 of Oleona. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generate. " 
 
 Bull, bool, (William,) an American physician, born 
 in South Carolina in 1710, became lieutenant-governor 
 of his native State in 1764. Died in 1791. 
 
 Bullant, bu'16iN ', (Jean,) a celebrated French archi- 
 tect, born about 1520. He erected for Catherine de 
 Medicis a palace called at first Hotel de la Reine, and 
 afterwards Hotel de Soissons. He was architect of some 
 parts of the Tuileries, was patronized by several kings 
 of France, and contributed much to the restoration of 
 the classical or Roman style. Died in 1578. 
 
 Bullard, bool'lard, (Artemas,) an American divine, 
 born at Northbridge, Massachusetts, in 1802, became in 
 1838 pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Saint 
 Louis. He was killed by a railroad-accident in 1855. 
 
 Bullard, (Henry Adams,) an American lawyer, born 
 at Groton, Massachusetts, in 1788, removed to Louisiana. 
 He was elected a member of Congress in 1831, and again 
 about 1848. Died in 1851. 
 
 Bullen, (Ann.) See Boleyn. 
 
 Buller, bool'ler, (Right Hon. Charles,) a distin- 
 guished Liberal statesman, born at Calcutta in 1806. 
 Having graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1828, 
 he was elected member of Parliament for West Looe, in 
 Cornwall, in 1830. From 1832 till 1848 he represented 
 Liskeard in Parliament, and distinguished himself by his 
 opposition to the corn-laws and his advocacy of various 
 reforms. He was successively appointed queen's counsel, 
 member of the privy council, 1847, and president of the 
 poor-law commission about the end of the same year. 
 He was a contributor to the " Edinburgh" and " West- 
 minster" Reviews and other periodicals. Died in 1848. 
 
 Buller, (Sir Francis,) an English judge, born in 
 Cornwall in 1745, was a grandson of Allen, Earl Bathurst. 
 He published an "Introduction to the Law relative to 
 Trials at Nisi Prius,"(i767 ; 7th ed., 181 7.) Died in 1800. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. viii. 
 
 Bullet, bu'kV, (Jean Baptiste,) a learned French 
 theologian, born at Besancon in 1699 ; died in 1775. 
 
 Bulleyn, bool'lin, (William,) an English physician 
 in the time of Henry VIII., born about 1500; died in 
 1576. 
 
 Bulliard, bii'lejR ', (Pierre.) a French botanist and 
 artist, born near Langres about 1742 ; died in 1793. He 
 wrote "Flora Parisiensis," (6 vols., 1774,) a " History of 
 Poisonous Plants," (1784,) and other works. 
 
 Bulliuger, bool'ling-er, (Heinrich,) a Swiss Protest- 
 ant reformer of high reputation, born in the canton of 
 Aargau in 1504. While pursuing his studies he is said 
 to have supported himself for several years as a street- 
 musician. He was an intimate friend of Zwingle, whom 
 he succeeded as pastor at Zurich in 1 531. Several vol- 
 umes of his sermons have been published. Died in 1575. 
 
 See Lavater, "Vom Leben Heinrich Bullingers," 1576; Brock- 
 haus, "Conversations-Lexikon;" Melchior Adam, " Vita? Theo- 
 logortim Germanorum ;" Josias Simler, " Narratio de Ortu et Vita 
 H. Bullingeri," 1575: Salomon Hess, " Lebensgeschichte Mag. H. 
 Bullingers," 2 vols., 1828. 
 
 Bullinger, (Johann Balthasar,) a Swiss painter and 
 engraver, born at Langenau in 1 7 13, was first professor 
 in the school of design at Zurich. Died about 1790. 
 
 Bullion, de, deh bit'le-6N', (Claude,) a superintendent 
 of the finances under Louis XIII. Under his direction, in 
 
 1640, louis-d'ors (the earliest gold coins of France) were 
 first made. Hence, perhaps, the origin of the English 
 term "bullion." 
 
 See Blanchard, "Histoire des Presidents de Paris." 
 
 Bullions, bool'yQiiz, (Peter,) a distinguished scholar 
 and educational writer, professor of Greek and Latin in 
 the Albany Academy, was born in Perthshire, Scotland, 
 in 1791. His series of Latin, Greek, and English gram- 
 mars and readers are among the most popular in use. 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Bullioud, bu'le-oo', (Symphorien,) Bishop of Sois- 
 sons, and governor of Milan, born at Lyons in 14S0; 
 died in 1533. 
 
 Bull'ock, (William F.,) an American jurist, born in 
 Fayette county, Kentucky, in 1807. Having served 
 several terms in the State legislature, he was appointed, 
 in 1846, judge of the fifth judicial district, and in 1849 
 became professor of the law of real property, etc. in 
 the University of Louisville. 
 
 See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Bulmer, bool'mer, (William,) an eminent English 
 printer, born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1758. He printed, 
 among other works, a magnificent edition of Shakspeare, 
 regarded as equal to anything ever produced in this de- 
 partment of art. Died in 1830. 
 
 Billow or Buelow, bii'lo, (August Friedrich Wil- 
 iielm,) a German jurist, born at Vorden, in Westphalia, 
 in 1762 ; died in 1817. 
 
 Billow, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) Count, a Prussian 
 general, born in Mecklenburg in 1755, particularly dis- 
 tinguished himself in the campaigns of 1813 and 1815. ! 
 In the latter he commanded under Bliicher ; and by the 
 promptitude and celerity of his march to reach the field 
 of Waterloo on the evening of the 18th of June, he 
 contributed materially to the victory gained by the allies 
 on that memorable day. Died in 1 816. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G&ieYale." 
 
 Biilow, (Heinrich,) Baron, a German diplomatist, 
 born at Schwerin in 1790, was a son-in-law of the cele- 
 brated William von Humboldt, whom he accompanied 
 to London as secretary of embassy in 181 7. He was 
 ambassador to London in 1827, and in 1842 was appointed 
 minister of foreign affairs. He resigned in 1844. Died 
 in 1846. 
 
 Biilow, (Henry William,) a talented though eccen- 
 tric and visionary person, brother of Friedrich Wilhelm, 
 noticed above, born about 1760, became successively a 
 soldier, an actor, and a preacher of Swedenborgianism. 
 After trying his fortune in the United States, he went to 
 France, where he wrote a work on military tactics, which, 
 from its singularity, procured him the name of " Tactician 
 Bulow." He subsequently visited England, and then re- 
 turned to his native country, where, having incurred the 
 suspicion of the government, he was arrested, and died in 
 prison in 1807, (or, according to Oettinger, in 1816.) 
 
 See Julius von Voss, " H. von Buelow; nach seinem Talent- 
 Reichthum, etc.," 1807. 
 
 Billow, (Ludwig Friedrich Victor Hans,) Count, 
 a Prussian statesman, born near Brunswick in 1774. 
 After the peace of Tilsit he became a member of the 
 state council of the kingdom of Westphalia, and in 
 1808 minister of finance, commerce, and the treasury. 
 In 1813 he was appointed minister of state and finance 
 by the King of Prussia. Died in 1825. 
 
 See F. Cramer, " Leben des Grafen von Bulow," 1821. 
 
 Biilow, von, fon bii'lo, (Johann,) a Danish gentle- 
 man, distinguished as a patron of literary men, was born 
 in Funen in 1751. He became a marshal in 1784, and 
 director of the royal museums in 1 791. Many Danish 
 authors and artists were liberally patronized by him. 
 Died in 1828. . 
 
 Biilow, von, fon bii'lo, (Karl Eduard,) a German 
 novelist and litterateur, born in the duchy of Saxony in 
 1803. He published in 1834 his "Novellenbuch," con- 
 taining one hundred tales imitated and selected from 
 the French, Spanish, Italian, etc. He also translated 
 into German Manzoni's " Promessi Sposi," (1828.) 
 
 Biilow-Cummerow, von, fon bii'lo koom'meh-ro, 
 (Ernst,) a German jurist and writer, born in Mecklen- 
 burg-Schwerin in 1775. 
 
 a, e, T, o, it, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
BULOZ 
 
 459 
 
 BUN EL 
 
 Biiloz, bu'lo', (Francois,) a Swiss litterateur, born 
 near Geneva in 1803. He settled in Paris, and founded 
 in iSji the "Revue des Deux Mondes," a periodical of 
 high reputation, issued twice a month. 
 
 Bul'strode, (Edward,) an English jurist, born in 
 1588, published "Reports in King's Bench." Died in 
 1659. 
 
 Bulstrode, (Sir Richard,) a son of the preceding, 
 royalist in the civil war. He wrote "Essays on 
 Manners and Morals," (17I5.) He is said to have at- 
 tained ihs ige of one hundred and one years. 
 
 Bulteau, biil'to', (Louis,) a French writer, born at 
 Rouen in 1625, published an "Essay on the Monastic 
 History of the East," and other works. Died in 1693. 
 
 Bulwer, bool'wer, (Edward George Earle Lyt- 
 Ton,) LSaron I.ytton, a distinguished British novelist, 
 orn at Heydon Hall, in Norfolk, in 1805. His 
 father, William Earle Bulwer, who at one time was 
 brigadier-general in the army, belonged to one of the 
 oldest families of Norfolk. His mother, Elizabeth B. 
 .1, a wealthy heiress, was descended from an ancient 
 family of Knebworth, in Hertfordshire. Edward was 
 the youngest of three sons, and was carefully educated 
 under the superintendence of his mother, who possessed 
 a decided taste for literature, and is said to have con- 
 tributed not a little towards giving form and direction to 
 the intellectual powers of her gifted son. He entered 
 Cambridge, and graduated at Trinity Hall in 1826. The 
 chancellor's prize for English verse had been awarded 
 to him for his poem on "Sculpture" in 1825. On his 
 return from a tour through France, he published in 1827 
 his first novel, " Falkland." In 1828 appeared " Pelham, 
 or the Adventures of a Gentleman," a work, in spite of 
 its extravagances, of considerable merit, and evincing 
 powers of no common order. It was followed by " The 
 :ied," (1828,) "Devereux," (1829,) "Paul Clif- 
 ford," (1830,) "The Siamese Twins," a satirical poem, 
 (1831,) and "Eugene Aram," (1832.) The hero of the 
 last-named novel had taught, it is said, in the family of 
 Bulwer's grandfather, from which circumstance the au- 
 thor had felt a peculiar and deep interest in his tragic 
 history. About the year 1831 he became editor of the 
 " New Monthly Magazine." He was returned to Parlia- 
 ment the same year as member for Saint Ives, and, after 
 the passage of the Reform Bill, was elected by the city of 
 Lincoln, which he continued to represent in the House 
 of Commons till 1841. "England and the English," 
 lies of English society and literature, appeared in 
 j 1833. His health having failed, in consequence of the 
 intense application of his mind, he visited Germany and 
 Italy in 1833-34, and soon after he published "The Pil- 
 grims of the Rhine," and " The Last Days of Pompeii ;" 
 then followed " Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes," (1835.) 
 The same year appeared "The Student," consisting of 
 his contributions to the "New Monthly Magazine." He 
 published in 1837 a work, historical and critical, entitled 
 " Athens : its Rise and Fall." In 1837 also another novel, 
 "Ernest Maltravers," was given to the world ; and soon 
 after a continuation of the same, entitled "Alice, or the 
 Mysteries." He had brought out in 1836 an unsuccessful 
 play called "The Duchess of La Valliere." In 1838 
 appeared his drama entitled "The Lady of Lyons," and 
 niter another, called "Richelieu," both of which 
 were eminently successful. He also produced a comedy 
 entitled " Money," which had a great popularity. Another 
 novel, called "Night and Morning," was published in 
 1841. " Zanoni," a fiction abounding in the marvellous, 
 appeared in 1842 ; then followed "The Last of the 
 Barons," (1843,) " Lucretia, or the Children of the Night," 
 (1846.) designed to show the influence of atheistical (or 
 Lucretian) opinions on the moral character, and "Harold, 
 the Last of the Saxon Kings," (1848.) "The Caxtons," 
 the first of a new series of novels, was published in 1850, 
 "My Novel : by Pisistratus Caxton," in 1851, and "What 
 will He do with It?" in 1858. The three last-named 
 works made their first appearance in the columns of 
 "Blackwood's Magazine." Although Bulwer is chiefly 
 .'listingtiished as a novelist, he has attempted almost 
 every literary composition, and has written, 
 
 not without success, on a vast variety of subjects. In 
 addition to the works already named, he published in 
 
 * as k; 
 
 1827 a poem in the Byronic style, entitled "O'Niel, or 
 the Rebel." "The Crisis," (1835,) a political pamphlet 
 advocating liberal views, had an immense success, and 
 caused his influence to be recognized in politics no less 
 than in literature. Passing over less important works, 
 we may mention his poems "The New Timon," (1846,) 
 and " King Arthur,"( 1848,) which added new laurels to his 
 many-sided fame. His translations of Schiller's poems, 
 (first given to the public in 1844,) though not remarkable 
 for their fidelity to the original, may be regarded on the 
 whole as a decided success, and, by furnishing another 
 proof of his versatility, have contributed to extend his 
 literary reputation. His last fiction, " A Strange Story," 
 which by its marvellous incidents reminds one of "Za- 
 noni," was first published in "All the Year Round" in 
 1861. Bulwer's novels have been translated into several 
 of the European languages, and are extensively read 
 throughout the civilized world. He is perhaps, after 
 Scott, the most universally popular of all the British 
 novelists. 
 
 Bulwer was made a baronet in 1838. Having, on his 
 mother's death in 1844, come into the possession of the 
 Knebworth estates, he assumed, in compliance with the 
 conditions of the will, the name of Bulwer-Lytton. In 
 1856 he was chosen lord rector of the University of 
 Glasgow; and other literary distinctions have been con- 
 ferred on him. During the brief term of the Derby 
 ministry in 1858, he held the office of secretary of state 
 for the colonies. He was raised to the peerage, as Baron 
 Lytton, in 1866. He had married in 1827 Miss Rosina 
 Wheeler, of Limerick, Ireland; but the union was not 
 a happy one, and the parties were subsequently divorced. 
 Robert Edward Bulwer Lytton, the only son by that 
 marriage, has already obtained some distinction as an 
 author, under the pseudonym of "Owen Meredith." 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1837; " London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for July, 1865; "Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1855; 
 11 Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1850. 
 
 Bulwer, (Sir Henry Lytton Earle,) an English 
 diplomatist, brother of the preceding, was born in 1804. 
 He has been employed in missions to Vienna, the Hague, 
 and Brussels, and 111 1830 became a member of Parlia- 
 ment for Wilton. From 1834 to 1837 he represented 
 Marylebone in Parliament. He was minister plenipo- 
 tentiary at Madrid from 1843 to 1848, was sent as minis- 
 ter to Washington in 1849, and created Knight Grand 
 Cross of the Bath in 185 1. He was sent as ambassador 
 to Constantinople in 1858. He has published " France, 
 Social, Literary, and Political," "Historical Characters: 
 Talleyrand, Cobbett, Mackintosh, and Canning," (2 vols., 
 1868,) and several other works. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" forOctober, 1867. 
 
 Bulwer, (John,) an Englishman, who published in 
 1648 a work to teach deaf people to understand a speakei 
 by observing the motions of his lips. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Bulwer, (Rosina Wheeler,) afterwards Lady Bul- 
 wer LYTTON.was born in Ireland in 1807. In 1827 she 
 was married to Bulwer, the celebrated novelist. (See 
 Bulwer, Edward.) She has published numerous works 
 of fiction, among which may be named " Bianca Capello," 
 " Cheveley, or the Man of Honour," and " The Budget 
 of the Bubble Family." 
 
 Biinau, bii'now, (Heinrich,) Count, a German 
 statesman and historian, born at Weissenfels in 1697. 
 He wrote a " History of the German Emperors and Em- 
 pire," (4 vols., 1728, unfinished,) and a "History of the 
 War between France,England, and Germany," (in French 
 and German, 1763.) His library of 42,000 volumes now 
 forms a principal part of the Royal Library of Dresden. 
 Died in 1762. 
 
 See Sax, "Onomasticon." 
 
 Bunbury, bun'ber-e, (Henry William,) an English 
 artist and caricaturist, born in Suffolk; died in 181 1. 
 
 Bunbury, (Sfi.ina,) an English authoress of the pres- 
 ent century. She has written "Rides in the Pyrenees,". 
 (2 vols., 1844,) " Evelyn ; a Novel," (1849,) " Life in Swe- 
 den," and "Russia after the War," (2 vols., 1857.) 
 
 Bundokdar. See Bibars. 
 
 Bunel, bii'nel', (Jacques,) a French painter of history, 
 born at Tours in 1558; died about 1620. 
 
 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jf^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BUN EL 
 
 460 
 
 BUONAFEDE 
 
 Bunel, (Pierre,) a French writer, born at Toulouse 
 'n 1499; died in 1546. 
 
 Bunemanu, boo'neh-man', (Johann Ludolf,) a Ger- 
 man bibliographer, born in 1687 ; died in 1759. 
 
 Bunge, von, fon boong'eh, (Alexander,) a Russian 
 botanist and traveller, born at Kiev in 1803. In 1830 he 
 accompanied a mission to Pekin, and made a valuable 
 collection of the plants of China and Siberia. He was 
 appointed professor of botany at Dorpat in 1836, and 
 published several botanical works. 
 
 Bunge, von, (Frederick George,) a Russian jurist, 
 brother of the preceding, born at Kiev in 1802, became 
 professor of law at Dorpat. 
 
 Buniva, boo-nee'va, (Michele Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian medical writer, and professor of medicine at Turin, 
 born at Pinerolo in 1761 ; died in 1834. 
 
 Bunn, (Alfred,) an English theatrical manager. He 
 published "The Stage, both before and behind the Cur- 
 tain, from Observations taken on the Spot," (3 vols., 
 1840.) Died in i860. 
 
 Bunnick. See Bunnik. 
 
 Bunnik bun'nik, or Bunnick, (Jakob,) a Dutch 
 landscape- and battle-painter, was a brother of Jan, no- 
 ticed below. Died in 1725. 
 
 Bunnik, (Jan,) a noted Dutch landscape-painter, born 
 at Utrecht in 1654, was invited to England by William 
 III. Died in 1707. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Bunon, bii'i^N', (Robert,) a French dentist, born 
 at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1702, wrote several works on 
 the teeth. Died in Paris in 1 748. 
 
 Bunsen, boon'sen, (Robert Wilhelm Eberhard,) 
 a German professor of chemistry at Breslau, born at Got- 
 tingen in 181 1. He made some discoveries in chemistry, 
 and contributed to Liebig's "Annales de Chimie." 
 
 Bunsen, von, fon boon'sen, (Christian Karl Jo- 
 sias,) Chevalier, an eminent German philologist, 
 diplomatist, and theologian, was born, of poor and ob- 
 scure parents, at Korbach, in Westphalia, on the 25th 
 of August, 1 791. He studied under the famous Heyne 
 at Gbttingen, learned Greek, Hebrew, and other lan- 
 guages, and there formed a friendship with Mr. Astor, 
 of New York. He afterwards studied Arabic and Per- 
 sian in Paris under Silvestre de Sacy. " He was endowed 
 by nature," says the "Edinburgh Review," "with the 
 warmest and broadest sympathies. His knowledge was 
 vast and varied ; to no field of intellectual research was 
 he a stranger." About 1816 he became acquainted at 
 Rome with Niebuhr, whom he regarded with peculiar 
 affection and veneration, and of whom he declared, 
 "Him alone I can acknowledge as my lord and master." 
 
 In i8i7he married a Miss Waddington, a young Eng- 
 lish lady of good family and fortune, whose influence 
 gave more regularity and stability to the natural piety 
 of his character. He was appointed secretary to the 
 Prussian embassy at Rome in 1818, through the favour 
 of Niebuhr, who then represented the King of Prussia 
 at that court. There he passed twenty happy years, 
 during which he devoted much time to historical re- 
 search, and published, about 1829, a "Description of 
 the City of Rome." He succeeded Niebuhr as Prus- 
 sian minister at Rome in 1827. Having been recalled 
 in 1838, he was ordered to take leave of absence for a 
 journey to England, where he made many friends among 
 the higher classes and literati. In 1841 he was appointed 
 Prussian ambassador at the court of Saint James. He 
 enjoyed a high degree of the favour of the crown prince 
 who became King of Prussia in 1840. " He acquired," says 
 the " Edinburgh Review" of April, 1S68, " a position and 
 an influence in English society which had never before 
 been possessed by a German diplomatist." He gained a 
 wide reputation as an ecclesiastical historian and Egyp- 
 tologist. Among his principal works are " The Consti- 
 tution of the Church of the Future," ("Die Verfassung 
 der Kirche der Zukunft," 1 845, ) "Egypt's Place in Univer- 
 sal History," (" vEgyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte," 
 5 vols., 1845-57,) " Hippolytus and his Epoch," (4 
 vols., 185 1,) a revised edition of which appeared under 
 the title of "Christianity and Mankind," (7 vols., 1854,) 
 and "God in History; or the Progress of Man's Faith 
 in a Moral Order of the World," (2 vols., 1868,) trans- 
 
 lated by Susanna Winkworth. The first and second of 
 these works have been translated into English. He con- 
 tinued to represent Prussia at London 'until 1854. As 
 he advanced in age, his political principles became more 
 and more liberal. In 1857 he was raised to the peerage, 
 with the title of Freiherr (Baron) von Bunsen. After he 
 left London, he resided at Heidelberg and Bonn, where 
 he died in 1860, leaving a number of children. 
 
 See a "Memoir of Baron Bunsen," by [his wife] Frances, Baron- 
 ness VON Bunskn, drawn chiefly from "family papers," 2 vols., 1868; 
 Rev. F. D. Maurice's article on "Baron Bunsen" in " Macmillan'a 
 Magazine" for March, 1861, and a notice in the "Re^vue Chretienne," 
 i860, byM. Pressense; "Quarterly Review" for June, 1846; "North 
 British Review" for June, 1868; "Blackwood's Magazine" for Sep- 
 tember, 1868. 
 
 BQnt'ing, (Edward,) an Irish musician and lyrical 
 composer, born at Armagh in 1773; died in 1S43. 
 
 Biint'ing, (Jabez,) an eminent English Wesleyan 
 minister, born in Manchester about 1778, was an eloquent 
 preacher. He published a number of sermons. Died in 
 1858. 
 
 See "Life of J. Bunting," by his son, 1859. 
 
 Btin'yan, (John,) the celebrated author of " Pilgrim's 
 Progress," was born at Elstow, near Bedford, in England, 
 in 1628. He followed the occupation of his father, who 
 was a tinker, and for some time led a wandering, dissi- 
 pated life. He married about the age of twenty. During 
 the civil war he served in the army of the Parliament in 
 1645. Having become deeply impressed with the im- 
 portance of religion, he joined the Anabaptists of Bed- 
 ford about 1664, and was distinguished for his zeal. 
 He became a Baptist minister about 1655. After the 
 restoration he was sentenced, as a promoter of seditious 
 assemblies, to transportation for life. This sentence, 
 however, was not executed ; but he was detained more 
 than twelve years in prison, from which he was re- 
 leased in 1672. During his imprisonment he wrote part 
 of his immortal work, " Pilgrim's Progress." Besides 
 "Pilgrim's Progress," (1678,) he wrote "The Resurrec- 
 tion of the Dead," "Gospel Truths Opened," (1656,) 
 "The Holy City," (1665,) "Grace Abounding," (1666,) 
 "Justification by Jesus Christ," (1671,) "The Holy 
 War," (1682,) "The Pharisee and Publican," (16S5,) and 
 other works. After his release he was minister to a 
 congregation at Bedford, and became extremely popular. 
 Died in 1688. 
 
 " He had no suspicion," says Macaulay, "that he was 
 producing a master-piece. He could not guess what 
 place his allegory would occupy in English literature; 
 for of English literature he knew nothing. ... In 
 puritanical circles, from which plays and novels were 
 strictly excluded, the effect was such as no work of ge- 
 nius, though it were superior to the Iliad, to Don Quix- 
 ote, or Othello, can ever produce on a mind unaccus- 
 tomed to indulge in literary luxury. In 1678 came forth 
 a second edition, with additions ; and then the demand 
 became immense. . . . We are not afraid to say that, 
 though there were many clever men in England during 
 the latter half of the seventeenth century, there were 
 only two great creative minds. One of those minds 
 produced the ' Paradise Lost,' the other the ' Pilgrim's 
 Progress.'" (Essay on Southey's edition of "Pilgrim's 
 Progress," 1831.) 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. ii. chap. vii. : Ivimey, 
 "Life of John Bunyan," 1809; Southey, "Life of Banyan;" 
 George Okfor, "Life of Bunyan," prefixed to an edition of his 
 works, 3 vols., 1853; "Quarterly Review," vol. xliii., Muv-Oclober, 
 1830. 
 
 Buol-Schauenstein, von, fon boo'ol show'en-stin', 
 
 (Karl Ferdinand,) Count, an Austrian statesman, 
 born in Switzerland in 1797. He was sent as am: 
 dor to Saint Petersburg in 1848, and to London in 1851. 
 In 1852 he became minister of foreign affairs (i.e. prime 
 minister) of Austria, and in December, 1854, signed a 
 treaty which engaged Austria to favour the allies against 
 Russia. He resigned in May, 1859. 
 
 Buonaccorsi. See Perino del Vaga. 
 
 Buonafede, boo-o'na-fa'da, (Appiano,) an Italian 
 writer, and professor of theology at Naples, born at Co- 
 macchio in 1716. He published " Poetical, Historical, 
 and Critical Sketches of Various Literary Men," and 
 other works. Died in 1793. 
 
 See Mazzucheli.i, "Scrittori d'ltalia." 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; mo&n; 
 
 
BUONAMICI 
 
 461 
 
 BURDETT 
 
 Buonamici, boo-o-nl-mee'chee, (Castruccio, kas- 
 tRoot'cho,) one of the most elegant Latin writers, born 
 at Lucca, in Italy, in 1710. His "Commentaries on the 
 Italian War" (" Commentarii de Bello Italico") is a work 
 of great merit. Died in 1 761. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, "Scrittori d' Italia." 
 
 Buonamici or Bonamici, bo-na-mee'chee, [Lat. Bo- 
 NAMl'cus,] (Lazzaro,) an Italian scholar and litterateur, 
 born at Bassano in 1479; died in 1552. 
 
 See Johann G. Eck, "L. Bonamicus," 176S; G. B. Vkrci, "De 
 Rebus geslis el Scriplis L. Bonamici," 1770. 
 
 Buouamico. See Buffalmacco. 
 
 Buonanui. See Bonanni. 
 
 Buonaparte. See Bonaparte. 
 
 Buonarotti See Michael Angelo. 
 
 Buonarotti. boo-o-na-rot'tee, or Buonarrotti, (Fi- 
 I.H'Im,) an Italian republican and revolutionist, born at 
 Pisa in 1761. He was an enthusiastic partisan of the 
 principles of the French Revolution, in which he took an 
 active part. Having gone to Paris in 1792, he was sent 
 to Corsica with extensive powers in 1793. As an accom- 
 plice in the conspiracy of Babeuf, he was imprisoned 
 several years, (1 797-1800.) Died in 1837. 
 
 See Trelat, " Notice sur Philippe Buonarotti," 1838. 
 
 Buonarroti, boo-o-nar-ro'tee, ( Filippo,) a distin- 
 i Italian antiquary ; died in 1733. 
 
 Buonarroti, (Michael (or Michele) Angelo,) an 
 1. nephew of the famous Michael Angelo, born 
 iitc in 1568; died in 1646. 
 
 Buoncompagni. See Bo.ncompagni. 
 
 Buouconsigli, booon-kon-sel'yee, (Giovanni,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Vicenza, lived about 1500. 
 
 Buoucuore. See Boncuore. 
 
 BuonfigH. See Bonfiglio. 
 
 Buonfigli, boo-6n-fel'yee, (Giuseppe Costante,) an 
 Italian historian, born at Messina, wrote a " History of 
 Sicily," (1604,) and other works. 
 
 Buoni, de', di boo-o'nee, (Buono,) a Neapolitan 
 painter ; died about 1465. 
 
 Buoni, de', (Silvestro,) a son of the preceding, was 
 a painter. Died in 1484. 
 
 Buoninsegna. See DucCiO. 
 
 Buonmattei, boo-6n-mat-ta'ee, (Benedetto,) an able 
 Italian grammarian, born at Florence in 1581. He wrote 
 a treatise "On the Tuscan Language," (1643,) and other 
 Died in 1647. 
 
 Buono, boo-o'no, a distinguisned Italian architect 
 and sculptor, lived about 1 1 50, and erected, besides other 
 edifices, the famous tower of Saint Mark, at Venice. 
 
 Buono, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian architect and 
 
 sculptor, born at Bergamo. He became architect of 
 
 the republic of Venice in 1505. Among his greatest 
 
 works is the " Procuratie Vecchie," at Venice. He also 
 
 d the tower of Saint Mark. Died in 1529. 
 
 Buononcini, (Giovanni Battista.) See Bononcini. 
 
 Buontalenti, boo-6n-ta-len'tee, (Bernardo,) an Ital- 
 ian painter, sculptor, and architect, surnamed dei.i.a 
 Girandola, (je-ran'do-la,) born at Florence in 1536. 
 He was appointed by the grand duke Cosimo de' Medici 
 ptor to his son. Among his master-pieces are the 
 1 palace at Florence, and the villa of Bratonilo for 
 the grand duke Francis I. de' Medici. Died in 1608. 
 
 (^uatremere de QuiNcv, " Dictionnaire d' Architecture ;" 
 Cicogn ■, " Sloria della Scoltura." 
 
 Buontempi. See Bontempi. 
 
 Buouvicino. See Bonvicino. 
 
 Bu'pa-lus, a Greek sculptor and architect, born in 
 the island of Chios, lived about 550 B.C., and was noted 
 for tin: enmity between him and the poet Hipponax. 
 
 Burak or Buraq. See Borak. 
 
 Buranello. See Galuppi. 
 
 Burbage or Burbadge, bur'bij, (Richard,) an emi- 
 nent English actor, was a friend of Shakspeare, whose 
 principal characters he personated. Died in 1619. 
 
 Bur'beck, (Henry,) an American officer, born in 
 Boston in 1754. He served as captain in the war of the 
 Revolution, and obtained the rank of brevet brigadier- 
 general in the war of 1812. Died in 1848. 
 
 Burchard, l.ooR'KaRt, [I.at. Burcar'dus,] sometimes 
 written Bouchard, a German theologian, born in Hesse, 
 became Bishop of Worms in 1006. He made a collection 
 
 of canons, entitled " Magnum Volumen Canonum." Died 
 in 1026. 
 
 Burchard, Saint, first Bishop of Wiirzburg, born in 
 England ; died in 752. 
 
 Burchiello, booR-ke-el'lo, (Domenico,) a witty Ital- 
 ian poet, published a collection of sonnets, which went 
 through twenty editions. Died in 1448. 
 
 See " Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. H. Stebbing, London, 
 1831. 
 
 Burckhard. See Spai.atin. 
 
 Burckhard, booRk'haRt, (Frans,) a German phi- 
 losopher, wrote " De Autonomia," (1586.) Died at Bonn 
 in 1584. 
 
 Burckhard, (James, or Jakob,) a German antiquary, 
 born at Sulzbach in 1681. He wrote (in Latin) "On the 
 Fortunes and Merits of Ulrich Hutten," (1717-23,) and 
 other works. Died in 1753. 
 
 Burckhardt, booRk'haRt, (Johann Kari.,) a German 
 astronomer, born at Leipsic in 1773. He visited Paris 
 in 1797, and acquired the friendship of Lalande, whom 
 he assisted in his scientific labours. He was afterwards 
 appointed adjunct at the Bureau of Longitude, and in 
 1807 succeeded Lalande as astronomer in the observa- 
 tory of the Military School. He translated into German 
 a part of Laplace's " Mecanique Celeste," and wrote 
 several astronomical treatises. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Burckhardt, biirk'hart, [Ger. pron. booRk'haRt,] (Jo. 
 han.n Ludwig,) a celebrated Swiss traveller, born at Lau- 
 sanne in 1784. Having studied at GSttingen, he visited 
 London, where he was introduced to Sir Joseph Banks 
 and other members of the African Association, then about 
 to send out another traveller to Africa. His services being 
 offered and accepted, he set out in 1809, having prepared 
 himself for the journey by a diligent study of the Arabic 
 language, medicine, chemistry, etc. After spending more 
 than two years in Syria, where he assumed the name of 
 Ibrahim and the Oriental dress, he proceeded to Cairo, 
 and, passing through the Nubian desert, arrived in 1814 
 at Mecca. In the character of a Moslem pilgrim or haji, 
 he performed the pilgrimage to Mount Ararat, and subse- 
 quently visited Medina. He returned to Cairo in 1816, 
 and in October, 1817, when about to join the caravan for 
 Fezzan, was attacked with a violent fever, of which he 
 died at Cairo. He was buried by the Mohammedans with 
 distinguished honours. His principal works are en- 
 titled "Travels in Nubia," (in English, 1819,) "Travels 
 in Syria and Palestine," (1822,) "Notes on the Bedouins 
 and Wahabees," (1830,) and "Arabic Proverbs," (1831.) 
 He bequeathed his valuable collection of Oriental manu- 
 scripts to the University of Cambridge. Burckhardt pos- 
 sessed in an eminent degree the intellectual and moral 
 qualities requisite in an explorer ; and his works are 
 esteemed among the best of their kind. 
 
 See Suei-'R-Merun, "Notice sur la Vie duVoyageur Burckhardt," 
 1829; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neYale;" "London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for March, 1820; Edinburgh Review" for August, 1S20. 
 
 Burdach, bdoR'daK, (Karl Friedrich,) a German 
 physician, born at Leipsic in 1776, became in 181 1 pro- 
 fessor of anatomy and physiology at Dorpat. He wrote 
 a treatise "On the Structure and Life of the Brain and 
 Spinal Marrow," (1819,) and other works. Died in 1847. 
 
 See his Autobiography, entitled " Riickblicke auf mein Lcben ; 
 Selbstblographie," 1847. 
 
 Bur'den, (Henry,) a Scottish mechanician, born at 
 Dunblane in 1791, emigrated in 1819 to America, where 
 he made a number of valuable inventions. Among these 
 are a cultivator, a suspension water-wheel, and a machine 
 for making horse-shoes. 
 
 Bur'der, (Rev. George,) an English dissenting divine, 
 born in London in 1752. He became in 1803 pastor of 
 the Congregational church in Fetter Lane, London, and 
 soon after editor of the "Evangelical Magazine." He 
 published "Evangelical Truth Defended, (1788,) and 
 "Village Sermons," (6 vols., 1799-1812.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Bur-dett', (Sir Francis,) an English Liberal politi- 
 cian, born in 1770. He married Sophia, daughter of 
 Thomas Coutts, a rich banker, and was elected to Par- 
 liament about 1795. He opposed the war against France, 
 and advocated reform in representation. In 1807 he was 
 returned for Westminster, which he represented for 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BUR DON 
 
 462 
 
 BURGOTNE 
 
 nearly thirty years. For a publication reflecting on the 
 conduct of Parliament he was committed to the Tower 
 for a few months in 1810. Died in 1844. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Bur'dou, (William,) an English writer on politics, 
 ethics, etc., born in 1764. Among his works is "Mate- 
 rials for Thinking," (2 vols., 1S03-10.) Died in 1818. 
 
 Bure, boo'reh, [Lat. Bur/e'us,] (ANDERS,) a distin- 
 guished Swedish architect and geographer, born in 1571; 
 died in 1646. 
 
 Bure, [Lat. Bur>e'us,] (Johan,) a Swedish antiquary, 
 and one of the earliest poets of Sweden, born in 1568, 
 became royal librarian. Died in 1652. 
 
 Bure, (Ivatarina,) a Swedish scholar and writer, born 
 in 1602, was a daughter of the preceding. Died in 1679. 
 
 Bure, de, deh bur, (Guillaume Francois,) a noted 
 French bookseller and bibliographer. Died in 1782. 
 
 Buren. See Biren. 
 
 Buren. See Egmond, (Maximilian.) 
 
 Buren, Van. See Van Buren. 
 
 Burette, bii'reV, (Pierre Jean,) a learned French 
 physician, bom in 1665 ; died in 1747. He was the au- 
 thor of several valuable dissertations on the gymnastics 
 and the music of the ancients. 
 
 See Morbri, " Dictiounaire Historique ;" Querard, " La France 
 Litteraire. " 
 
 Burette, (Theodore,) a French historian, born in 
 Paris in 1804. Among his works are a "History of 
 France," (2 vols., 1839,) and " Modern History," (2 vols., 
 1843.) Died in 1847. 
 
 See Queraro, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Burg or Buerg, biiRG, (Johann Tobias,) a German 
 astronomer, born in Vienna in 1766. He was professor 
 of astronomy at Klagenfurth, and afterwards astronomer 
 at the observatory in Vienna. He produced valuable 
 lunar tables, and received part of a prize offered by the 
 French Institute for the solution of a problem in regard 
 to the moon's motions. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Ersch nnd Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Burger or Buerger, buit'cer, (Gottfried August,) 
 a popular German poet, born near Halberstadt in 1748 ; 
 died in 1794. He particularly excelled in ballads and 
 in romantic poetry. He was thrice married. Among 
 his chief works are "Lenore," (1772,) and "The Wild 
 Huntsman," which have acquired a European celebrity. 
 The former has been translated into English. 
 
 See H. DSring, "G. A. Burger ; biographisches Denkmal," 1847; 
 Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Burgersdicius, biir-gers-dish'e-us,orBurgersdyck, 
 bttR'Gers-dTk', (Franciscus,) a Dutch philosopher, born 
 near Delft in 1590, wrote on logic and moral philosophy. 
 Died in 1629. 
 
 Burges, biir'jess, (George,) an English dramatist and 
 Greek scholar, born in 1786; died in 1864. 
 
 Burges, biir'jess, (George,) D.D., an American divine, 
 was born in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1809. After 
 graduating at Brown University, he continued his studies 
 in the Universities of Bonn', Gottingen, and Berlin. In 
 1847 he was consecrated Bishop of Maine, becoming at 
 the same time rector of Christ Church at Gardiner. 
 His principal works are a versifioation of the Book of 
 Psalms, " Pafjes from the Ecclesiastical History of New 
 England," "East Enemy Conquering and Conquered," 
 and " Sermons on Christian Life," (1854.) Died in 1866. 
 
 Bur'gess, (Cornelius,) an English nonconformist 
 minister, entered Oxford in 161 1. He preached in Lon- 
 don. Died in 1665. 
 
 Burgess, (Daniel,) an English dissenting divine, 
 born at Staines in 1645, preached in London many years. 
 He was noted for his facetious sayings. Died in 1 713. 
 
 Burgess, (Rev. Richard.) an English writer, born 
 abouti796. He became rector of Upper Chelsea. Among 
 his works is "Topography and Antiquities of Rome," 
 (2 vols., 1831.) 
 
 Burgess, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born at 
 Odiham, in Hampshire, in 1756, became Bishop of Salis- 
 bury about 1825. He wrote numerous religious works. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 See Harford, "Life of Bishop Burgess;" William Jerdan, 
 "Men I have known," London, 1866; "London Quarterly Review" 
 for October and January, 1S22. 
 
 Bttr'gess, (Tristam,) an American orator and states- 
 man, born in Rochester, Massachusetts, in 1770. Having 
 studied law, he was admitted to the bar in 1799, and rose 
 to great eminence. He became a leader of the Federal 
 party, and chief justice of Rhode Island in 1815. In 1825 
 he was elected a member of Congress, in which his fervid 
 eloquence, powerful logic, and formidable sarcasm pro- 
 cured for him a national reputation. He continued to 
 serve in Congress until 1835. Died in 1853. 
 
 See H. L. Bowen, " Memoir of Tristam Burgess." 
 
 Burggrave, booRG'gRa'veh, or Burgrave, boon'gRa- 
 veh, (Johann,) a German physician, born at Darmstadt 
 in 1673; died about 1746. 
 
 Burggrave, (Johann Philipf,) a medical writer, son 
 of the preceding, born at Darmstadt in 1700; died in 1775, 
 
 Burgh. See Burgho. 
 
 Burgh, biir'reh, (James,) an estimable moral and 
 political writer, born in Perthshire, Scotland, in 1 7 14, 
 was a cousin of Robertson the historian. He wrote, 
 among other works, "The Dignity of Human Nature," 
 (1754,) and "Political Disquisitions," (3 vols., 1774.) 
 Died in 1775. 
 
 Burgh, de, (Hubert.) See Burgho or Burgo. 
 
 Burgh, de, (Ulick.) SeeCLANRiCARDE, Marquis of. 
 
 Bur'gho, Bur'go, or Bourgo, boor'go, written also 
 Burgh, Bourgh, and Burke, a distinguished Norman 
 family, related to William the Conqueror. Hubert de 
 Burgo was the minister of King John and Henry III.; 
 but, though faithful to the interests of those sovereigns, 
 he boldly opposed their crimes. From another branch 
 of the same family sprang those invaders, or rather rav* 
 agers, of Ireland, to whom the poet Campbell alludes 
 in his " O'Connor's Child."* 
 
 Burgho, de, de bur'go or boor'go, (Richard,) a pow- 
 erful baron, became master of Connaught, in Ireland. 
 Died in 1243. 
 
 Burgho, de, (Walter,) son and successor of the 
 preceding, obtained by marriage the earldom of Ulster. 
 Died in 1871. 
 
 Biirgi, ( Jobst.) See Byrgiws. 
 
 Burgkmair, booRk'miR, (Hans,) an eminent German 
 painter and wood-engraver, born at Augsburg about 1473. 
 Among his best pictures are a " Saint Sebastian" and a 
 "Virgin and Child" at Nuremberg, and "Saint John 
 at Patmos" in the Pinakothek at Munich. He also exe- 
 cuted a great number of admirable engravings, including 
 a series of one hundred and thirty-five plates called the 
 "Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I." He was a 
 friend of Albert Diirer, in conjunction with whom he 
 produced several engravings. Died about 1559. 
 
 See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Burgo. See Burgho. 
 
 Bur'gon, (John William,) an English poet and 
 biographer, born in London about 1820, published 
 a "Life of Sir Thomas Gresham," (1839,) " Petra," a 
 poem, (1845,) and other works. 
 
 Burgos, de, da booR'gos, (Don Francisco Xavier,) 
 a Spanish author and politician, born at Motel, in An- 
 dalusia, in 1778. He produced a version of Horace, (4 
 vols., 1820-23,) which is commended, and wrote several 
 comedies and poems. His "Ode to Reason" is much 
 admired. 
 
 Burgos, de, (Pablo,) a learned Spanish ecclesiastic, 
 born at Burgos in 1353. He was Bishop of Burgos, and 
 wrote several works. Died in 1435. 
 
 Burgoyne, bur-goin', (John,) an English general 
 and dramatist. He married a daughter of the Earl of 
 Derby, and was elected a member of Parliament in 1761. 
 In the summer of 1777 he obtained command of an army 
 of about 8000 men, with which he marched from Canada 
 towards Albany. Having been repulsed at Stillwater 
 in September, he was forced to surrender at Saratoga 
 in October, 1777. (See Gates, General.) This event 
 was one of the most important victories gained by the 
 Americans in the war, and produced great exultation 
 among the patriots. He had the reputation of a wit as 
 
 * " For now De Bourgo's sword and flame 
 Had ravaged Ulster's boundaries, 
 And lighted up the midnight skies. 
 
 * # # # * 
 
 And stemmed De Bourgo's chivalry." 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moor; 
 
BVRGOl'NE 
 
 463 
 
 BURKE 
 
 well as of a brave and generous man. He composed 
 three dramas, "The Maid of Oaks," "Bon Ton," and 
 "The Heiress," (17S6,) which enjoyed considerable 
 popularity in their day. Died in 1792. 
 
 Hildreth, "History of the United States," vol. iii. chap. 
 
 Burgoyne, (Sir John,) an English general, who dis- 
 tinguished himself in the principal battles of the Penin- 
 sular war, and was subsequently appointed inspector- 
 general of fortifications in England, lieutenant-general, 
 (1851,) and Knight Grand Cross, (1852.) In the Crimean 
 led till 1855 as chief of the engineering de- 
 partment in the British army, lie obtained the degree of 
 1) ' .1.. from the University of Oxford. Died in 1871. 
 
 Buigrave. See Burggrave. 
 
 Burgsdorf, von, fon booRcs'doRf, (Friedrich Au- 
 OUST Li iwif'.,) a German naturalist and writer, born at 
 Leipsic in 1747 ; died in 1802. 
 
 Burgundio, booR-goon'de-o, or Borgondio, boR- 
 ■on'de-o, (( M< azio.) an Italian Jesuit and scientific writer, 
 born at Brescia in 1679, became rector of the Roman 
 Died in 1741. 
 
 Burgundy, I >ukes of. With the exception of Louis, 
 noticed below, these will be found under their respective 
 nanus, as Charles the Bold, John the Fearless, etc. 
 
 Bur'gun-dy, [Fr. Bourgogne, booR'gon',] (Loins,) 
 Duke i >e, Dauphin of France, grandson of Louis XIV., 
 and father of Louis XV., was born at Versailles in 1682. 
 The celebrated Fenelon was appointed his principal pre- 
 ceptor, and was instrumental in effecting a thorough 
 change in his character, of which Saint-Simon gives the 
 following portrait: " This prince was born terrible, and 
 continued terrible through his infancy ; incapable of bear- 
 ing the least resistance, even from time and the elements ; 
 obstinate to excess, and given up to all violent passions 
 From the height of the skies he looked down upon men 
 as atoms with whom he had no resemblance ; even his 
 ers scarcely appeared to him intermediate between 
 him and the human race. From this abyss came forth 
 a prince affable, gentle, and humane, humble and austere 
 towards himself." He died in 1712, greatly regretted 
 by the nation. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Me"moires :" Arbb^ Fi.eurv, " Portrait dti Due 
 de Bourgogne," 1714 ; J. Martineau, " Recueil des Vertus de I.onis 
 de France," 1712; Provart, " Viedu Dauphin, Pere de Louis XV," 
 1 778. 
 
 Burhill, biir'ril, (Dr. Robert,) an English divine, 
 chaplain to Sir Walter Raleigh, whom he is said to have 
 ed in his "History of the World." Died in 1641. 
 
 Burl See Audhumla, and Odin. 
 
 Bur'I-dan, (John,) [Fr. Jean Buridan, z1i6n bii're'- 
 doN',] a schoolman, born at Bethune, in Artois, about 
 1315, known as the author of the sophism that, if a 
 hungry ass were placed between two measures of oats 
 it each should make exactly the same impression 
 on his senses, being incapable of making a choice, he 
 must inevitably die of starvation. He was a professor 
 in the University of Paris, and wrote on logic, etc. Died 
 in 1 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Frobes, "Dis- 
 ■ de J. Buridano ejusque Asino," 1748. 
 
 Burigny, de, deh bii'ren'ye', (Jean Lf.vf.sque,) a 
 French historian, born at Rheims in 1692. He was the 
 of a "History of Pagan Philosophy," (2 vols., 
 1724,) "General History of Sicily," (1745,). "History of 
 ine Revolutions of the Empire of Constantinople," 
 (1750,1 a "Life of Grotius," (1750,) a "Life of Erasmus," 
 (1757,1 and -I "Life of Bossuet," (1761.) He was for a 
 time associate editor of the journal entitled "L'Europe 
 it the Hague. He was a member of the Acad- 
 emy of Inscriptions. Died in 1785. 
 
 See Dacier, "filoge de Burigny," 17S6; Querard, "La France 
 lire." 
 
 Burinski. See Boorinski. 
 
 Burkard, ! doR'kaRt, (Waldis,) a German fabulist 
 of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Burke. See Burgiio. 
 
 Burke, biirk, (/Edanus,) a lawyer, born in Ireland in 
 •743> was appointed a judge of the supreme court of 
 Si. nth Carolina in 1778, after which he became a Senator 
 of the United States. He wrote a famous pamphlet 
 against the Society of the Cincinnati. Died in 1802. 
 
 Burke or Bourke, pronounced alike biirk, (ED- 
 MUND,) an illustrious orator, statesman, and philanthro- 
 pist, born in Dublin in 1730, or, according to some 
 authorities, in 1728. His family was of Norman descent, 
 Burke having been originally the same name as Burgh, 
 De Burgh, De Burgho, or De Bourgo.* His father, 
 Richard Burke, was an attorney of the first rank in his 
 profession in Dublin. His mother, whose maiden name 
 was Nagle, was a Roman Catholic, of respectable family. 
 Her great-aunt, Ellen Nagle, was married to Sylvanus 
 Spenser, the eldest son of the immortal poet. Edmund 
 Burke was the second son out of a family of fourteen or 
 fifteen children, all of whom died young except three 
 sons, Garret, Edmund, and Richard, and a daughter, 
 named Juliana. Edmund was of a delicate constitution, 
 and, for the sake of country air, was sent at an early age 
 to Castletown-Roche. 0*Halloran, the schoolmaster of 
 this place, used to boast to the end of his life that he was 
 the first who put a Latin grammar into the hands of 
 Edmund Burke. Having spent about five years at 
 Castletown-Roche, he returned to Dublin, and not long 
 after he was placed at Ballitore, under the instruction of 
 Abraham Shackleton, a Quaker schoolmaster of superior 
 learning and rare moral worth. At school he formed for 
 Richard Shackleton, the only son of his preceptor, a 
 warm friendship, which continued to the end of his life. 
 It is related that while at school Burke one day saw a 
 poor man pulling down his own hut, which he had been 
 ordered to do because it was too near the highway. The 
 young philanthropist declared that if he were a man in 
 authority the poor should not be thus oppressed. At 
 Ballitore Burke appears to have imbibed that thorough 
 respect for civil and religious liberty for which he was 
 afterwards distinguished. " He had observed," says 
 Prior, " among the Society of Friends, in which he was 
 domesticated, that differences of opinion on those points 
 made neither worse subjects nor worse men. Reflection, 
 and the remembrance that [his] relatives on the side of 
 one parent were Roman Catholics, -probably taught him 
 to extend the same liberality of sentiment towards per- 1 
 sons of that persuasion." Having spent three years at 
 Ballitore, he entered Trinity College, Dublin, as a pen- 
 sioner. The range of his studies was remarkable, in- 
 cluding the classics, history, philosophy, general litera- 
 ture, and metaphysics, besides less important pursuits. 
 1 le was accustomed while at college to spend three hours 
 every day in the public library. While he devoted a 
 large part of his time to studies of the severest and most 
 solid character, he did not neglect the lighter kinds of 
 reading, including poetry, novels, and other works of 
 imagination. It is related that when Richard Burke 
 was found one day in a reverie, shortly after his brother 
 had made a great speech in the House of Commons, 
 and was asked the cause, he replied, "I have been 
 wondering how Ned has contrived to monopolize all the 
 talents of the family; but then, I remember, when we 
 were at play he was alwayrat work." Burke gradu- 
 ated as A.B. in 1748. From the first his destination 
 was the bar; and in 1747 his name was enrolled at the 
 Middle Temple. In 1750 he went to London, but in 
 1 75 1 returned to Ireland, and took the degree of A.M. 
 About the year 1753 he became, it appears, a candidate 
 for the chair of logic in the University of Glasgow, but 
 was not successful. In 1755 Burke felt inclined to try 
 his fortune in America. Several persons whom he con- 
 sulted on the subject highly approved of it ; but his fathei 
 was strongly averse to the scheme, and it was in con- 
 sequence abandoned. In 1756 was published, anony- 
 mously, his "Vindication of Natural Society." It was 
 an imitation, or rather an ironical criticism, of Lord 
 Bolingbroke's writings against Christianity. "The imi- 
 tation of Bolingbroke's style and manner was," says 
 Prior, "so perfect as to constitute identity rather than 
 resemblance. It was not merely the language, style, and 
 general eloquence of the original*which had been caught, 
 but the whole mind of the noble author." The work 
 purported to be written by a "late noble writer." Many 
 
 Cersons, including Lord Chesterfield and Dr. Warburton, 
 elieved it to be a genuine production of Bolingbroke. 
 
 • As Campbell writes it in his poem of " O'Connor's Child." 
 
 t as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gultural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jl^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BURKE 
 
 464 
 
 BURKE 
 
 In the same year appeared Burke's " Philosophical In- 
 quiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and 
 Beautiful." This work attracted much attention, and 
 was greatly admired by some of the most distinguished 
 critics of that age. Dr. Johnson, it is said, regarded it 
 as a model of philosophical criticism. In 1757 Burke 
 was united in marriage with Mary Jane, daughter of Dr. 
 Nugent, a physician of Bath, whither the young student 
 and author had gone for the re-establishment of his 
 health. This union appears to have been a singularly 
 happy one, since he was accustomed to say that "every 
 care vanished the moment he entered under his own roof." 
 "An Account of the European Settlements in America," 
 a work in two volumes, was published in 1757. There 
 is strong reason to believe that it was written principally 
 or wholly by Burke. In 1758^59 he established, in con- 
 junction with the publisher Dodsley, the "Annual 
 Register," a periodical of great merit. His society was 
 now sought by many of the most distinguished men in 
 the kingdom, including, among others, Johnson, Garrick, 
 Reynolds, Lyttleton, Hume, and Warburton. Johnson, 
 as Prior tells us, would submit to contradiction from 
 Burke, though twenty years younger than himself, but 
 would tolerate it from no other person, whatever might 
 be his talents or experience. The admiration which they 
 .conceived for each other at their first acquaintance never 
 afterwards suffered any diminution. Johnson used to 
 say that " no man of sense could meet Mr. Burke by ac- 
 cident under a gateway to avoid a shower without being 
 convinced that he was the first man in England." Grat- 
 tan, the great Irish orator and patriot, considered Burke 
 the greatest man in conversation he had ever met with. 
 
 In 1759 Burke was introduced to William Gerard 
 Hamilton, chief secretary to Lord Halifax, then lord- 
 lieutenant of Ireland. The secretary, better known in 
 political history as " Single-Speech Hamilton," appears to 
 have employed Burke as his private secretary. In 1763 
 the latter received from the government a pension of 
 .£300 per annum, partly or chiefly through Hamilton's 
 influence ; but, finding afterwards that the pension was 
 considered to be the price not merely of his services but 
 of his political independence, he threw it up with indig- 
 nation, having enjoyed it twelve months only. When 
 the Marquis of Rockingham became prime minister, in 
 1765, Burke was appointed his private secretary. Not 
 long after he was returned to Parliament for Wendover, 
 in Buckinghamshire, and entered the House of Com- 
 mons January 14, 1766. He took an active part in the 
 discussion on American affairs, and at once proved him- 
 self an able and eloquent speaker. Alluding to his 
 extensive and varied knowledge, General Lee (who after- 
 wards took part in the American Revolution) says, in a 
 letter to the Prince of Poland, "An Irishman, Mr. Burke, 
 has sprung up in the House of Commons, who has aston- 
 ished everybody with the power of his eloquence and his 
 comprehensive knowledge in all our exterior and internal 
 politics and commercial interests." The Rockingham 
 ministry was dissolved July, 1766; and soon after Burke 
 wrote a sort of manifesto in its defence, with the title of 
 "A Short Account of a Late Short Administration." In 
 the latter part of the same year an attempt was made to 
 enlist him in the ministerial ranks by the Duke of Grafton, 
 who, in addressing Chatham, spoke of Burke as "the 
 readiest man upon all points perhaps in the whole House." 
 But the scheme was not approved of either by the pre- 
 mier or by Burke himself. On the dissolution of Par- 
 liament in 1768, Burke was again returned for Wendover. 
 About the same time he purchased, for above ^20,000, 
 an estate near Beaconsfield, in Buckinghamshire. He 
 wrote to Shackleton, " I have made a push, with all I 
 could collect of my own and the aid of my friends, to cast 
 a little root into this country. I have purchased a house, 
 with six hundred acres of land, in Buckinghamshire, 
 twenty-four miles from London." 
 
 "About this time," says Prior, "Junius broke forth 
 upon the English world with a vigour and rancour never 
 surpassed." Universal opinion fixed at once upon Burke 
 as the author of the "Letters." Even his own friends 
 at first, Dr. Johnson among the number, believed him 
 to be the true Junius. No one else was supposed to 
 possess either the ability or the knowledge which those 
 
 letters displayed. His enemies made it a ground for 
 heaping upon him unmeasured abuse. Although he 
 unequivocally and repeatedly denied the accusation, his 
 denial was not generally credited; and it was only after 
 the publication of the " Grenville Papers" that he was 
 completely cleared from suspicion in regard to this 
 charge. In 1770 Burke published a pamphlet entitled 
 " Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents," 
 which is considered one of the most masterly things of 
 the kind in the language. He was rewarded for his 
 thorough acquaintance with American affairs by being 
 appointed, in 1 77 1, agent to the State of New York, a 
 position worth nearly £700 per annum. As the state of 
 the American colonies claimed at this time a large share 
 of the attention of Parliament, Burke became more and 
 more prominent as the ablest member of the opposition. 
 But his extensive information and superior abilities were 
 acknowledged not only in regard to the affairs of the ' 
 Western colonies, but also those of the remoter East 
 He had already made himself acquainted with the con- 
 dition, population, and resources of India. The affairs 
 of the East India Company having fallen into some con- 
 fusion, in 1772 Sir Charles Colebrooke offered Burke, 
 in the name of the directors, "the first position in a su- 
 pervisorship of three, empowered to trace out in detail 
 the whole administrative system of India and to remedy 
 all they could find amiss." (Prior's "Life of Burke.' ) 
 But he declined the offer. The affairs of America were 
 exciting from day to day a deeper interest ; his friends 
 appear to have felt that he could not be spared from • 
 Parliament ; and he himself was probably unwilling to 
 abandon a field for which he felt himself peculiarly fitted, 
 and in which he had already won, and was still to win, so 
 many laurels. In 1772 he accompanied his son Richard 
 (then about fourteen) to France, and placed him at school 
 at Auxerre. He himself spent some time in Paris, where 
 he saw for the first time the young queen Marie Antoi- 
 nette, of whom he has given so glowing a description in 
 his " Reflexions on the Revolution in France." The state 
 of religion and morals at the French capital filled him 
 even then with apprehension and alarm. Soon after his 
 return, in a speech in Parliament, among other things 
 he uttered these memorable words : " I see propagated 
 principles which will not leave to religion even a tolera- 
 tion, and make virtue herself less than a name." His 
 foresight in regard to affairs in America was scarcely less 
 remarkable. Indeed, he alone, among all the members 
 of Parliament, appears to have fully comprehended the 
 difficulties and dangers which menaced that portion of 
 the empire. He remarked indignantly that a robbery on 
 Hounslow Heath would excite more attention than the 
 incipient insurrection which then threatened to dissever 
 the colonies from the British crown. On the 19th of 
 April, 1774, he made a speech on American taxation. It 
 was considered by many as the greatest effort of oratory 
 that had, till then, ever been put forth in the House of 
 Commons. On this occasion an intelligent American, 
 a friend of Dr. Franklin, (Mr. Sampson,) is said to have 
 exclaimed, "You have got a most wonderful man here: 
 he understands more of America than all the rest of 
 your House put together." On the dissolution of Parlia- 
 ment, which occurred in the autumn of 1774, Burke was 
 returned for Malton. While he was expressing to his con- 
 stituents his acknowledgments for the honour done him. 
 a deputation of merchants arrived from Bristol, inform- 
 ing him that he had been nominated to represent their 
 city, and urging him to accept the nomination. Having 
 obtained the ready assent of his Malton friends, he pro- 
 ceeded at once to Bristol. After an obstinate and pro- 
 tracted contest, he was returned on the 3d of November. 
 His speech in Parliament, March, 1775, recommending 
 conciliatory measures towards the American colonies, 
 commanded general admiration. Lord Chatham, on 
 being asked his opinion of it, replied that "it was very 
 seasonable, very reasonable, and very eloquent;" and 
 Fox, nearly twenty years afterwards, said, " Let gentle- 
 men read this speech by day and meditate upon it by 
 night : they would there learn that representation was 
 the sovereign remedy for every evil." Lord Erskine 
 observed, at Edinburgh, " It could only proceed from 
 this cause [the corruption of Parliament] that the im- 
 
 a, e, T, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BURKE 
 
 465 
 
 BURKE 
 
 mortal orations of Burke against the American war did 
 not produce as general conviction as they did unmingled 
 admiration." But the/ault lay perhaps still more with 
 the blindness and obstinacy of the king and the people. 
 At length the arbitrary measures of the government be- 
 gan to produce their legitimate effect. The rejection of 
 all the petitions from the colonics, and the utter disre- 
 gard not only of the rights but of the feelings of Anuri- 
 as exhioited in the furious and insane abuse heaped 
 upon their representative, Dr. Franklin, before the privy 
 council by Wedderbum in 1774, had resulted in a feeling 
 of almost total alienation from the mother-country. 
 Owing, perhaps, to that large foresight which enabled 
 him to realize all the evils and dangers attending such 
 a contest, Franklin had been among the most reluc- 
 tant to commit his countrymen to war, and one of f he 
 last to abandon all hope of reconciliation. The day 
 previous to his finally quitting London in the spring of 
 1775. he called on Burke and freely stated his views and 
 feelings in regard to the impending crisis, expressing his 
 
 regret that the unaccommodating and obstinate 
 temper of England seemed to render a separation in- 
 evitable. Before he reached America the war had al- 
 ready begun, and the battles of Lexington and Concord 
 (April 19) had been fought. That of Bunker Hill took 
 place in the following June ; and yet so great was the 
 reluctance of the Americans to separate themselves from 
 the mother-country that more than a year elapsed be- 
 fore they could prevail upon themselves to take the step 
 which rendered reconciliation hopeless, and even then 
 the Declaration of Independence was carried with diffi- 
 culty through Congress. There cannot be a reasonable 
 doubt that, had the conciliatory measures recommended 
 by Burke been adopted, the war of the Revolution would 
 not have taken place, or, at least, it might have been 
 indefinitely postponed. In 1780, Burke delivered one of 
 his most admirable speeches, usually known as that 
 "On the Economical Reform." Bv his advocacy of the 
 claims of the Roman Catholics, and by his opposition to 
 the policy of repressing the trade of Ireland, — a policy 
 strongly favoured by the merchants of Bristol, — he had 
 lost his popularity with many of his constituents in that 
 
 iccordingly, at the next election he offered himself 
 as the candidate for Malton, which he continued to repre- 
 sent for the remainder of his political life. Lord North 
 having been compelled to resign his post as prime minis- 
 ter in 17S2, the Marquis of Rockingham and his friends 
 
 came into [lower. Burke was made a privy coun- 
 cillor and appointed paymaster-general of the forces. 
 Ills disinterestedness while in this office gave another 
 illustration of that high principle by which the conduct 
 of his whole life was guided. No man, by the consent 
 of all impartial persons, had rendered greater services 
 to the country than he ; and none could with a better 
 right have availed himself of the perquisites of this lu- 
 crative office to repair the deficiencies of his private for- 
 tune. By the reforms which he introduced into the 
 paymaster's department, he saved to the public revenue 
 ^47,000 per annum : of this sum above ,£25,000 con- 
 of the usual and acknowledged perquisites which 
 all his predecessors had received. Lord Shelburne 
 having become prime minister on the death of the 
 
 lis of Rockingham, (July, 1782,) Burke, and the 
 other friends of the late premier, resigned. By the 
 coalition between Fox and Lord North, the latter came 
 again into power in 1783, and Burke was restored to his 
 
 r office. He took a prominent part in the debates 
 on India, with the affairs of which he was perhaps bet- 
 ter acquainted than any other man in England. One of 
 ; speeches was delivered on the East India 
 ember, 1783. The bill passed the House of 
 
 nons, but was lost in the upper House. This de- 
 feat put an end to Lord North's administration, and Pitt 
 clod as prime minister. Burke retired from office, 
 and never afterwards held anv position under the govern- 
 ment. He had been elected, November, 1783, lord rector 
 of the University of Glasgow, and was re-elected the fol- 
 year. 
 Perhaps the most brilliant, and certainly not the least 
 oseful, portion of Burke's career was that which he de- 
 voted to the cause of India. The affairs of that country 
 
 had recently occupied nearly all his thoughts. The op- 
 pression and cruelty of which Warren Hastings, an*' 
 other officers of the East India Company, had beer 
 guilty, filled his soul with irrepressible pity and indigna- 
 tion. In February, 1785, he made an eloquent and mas- 
 terly speech on the debts of the Nabob of Arcot. " It 
 was," says Prior, " one of those outpourings of a fertile 
 and vigorous intellect, which, on an unpromising theme, 
 seemed to combine all that could instruct, dazzle, and 
 even overpower the hearer." At the opening of the 
 session in January, 1 786, he commenced the most arduous 
 and formidable undertaking of his life, — the prosecution 
 of Hastings. The articles embracing the different charges 
 were delivered in April. They were so numerous and 
 extensive as to occupy no inconsiderable part of the at- 
 tention of the House for two sessions. In January, 1787, 
 Sheridan made his celebrated speech on the Begum case. 
 A committee of impeachment was then formed. On the 
 10th of May, Burke, as chairman of the committee, ac- 
 cused Hastings at the bar of the House of Lords, in the 
 name of the Commons of England. After the necessary 
 preliminary proceedings, and delays from various causes, 
 on the 13th of February, 17S8, Westminster Hall was 
 opened in form, and Burke, in full dress, proceeded 
 thither, followed by the other managers, the House of 
 Commons, the clerks of Parliament, the masters in chan- 
 cery, the sergeants-at-law, the judges, the House of Peers, 
 and the royal family, the Prince of Wales closing the 
 procession. (For a brilliant description of this imposing 
 scene, the reader is referred to Macaulay's article on 
 Warren Hastings.) Two days having been occupied 
 with preliminary business, on the 15th Burke made his 
 opening speech, of which it is enough to say that it was 
 every way worthy of the occasion and of his great repu- 
 tation. After various delavs, some of which at least were 
 unavoidable, extending through a series of years, al 
 length, on the 23d of April, 1795, a verdict of acquittal 
 was passed : the lord chancellor, however, voted with 
 the minority, who thought Hastings guilty. But, although 
 the impeachment was not carried, it would be a great 
 mistake to suppose that the unconquerable zeal and 
 herculean labours of Burke in behalf of India were 
 without avail.* They had the effect of directing the 
 earnest attention of the British nation to the misgovern- 
 ment and oppression of which the agents of the Company 
 had been guilty, and thus led the way to important re- 
 forms in the administrative system of that country. 
 
 But, long before the trial of Hastings was concluded, 
 the mind of Burke had been intensely occupied with a 
 far different subject, which, in his view, was closely con- 
 nected not only with the welfare of England, but with 
 her very existence as a nation. He had for some time 
 beheld with apprehension the dissemination in France 
 of principles which threatened the total overthrow of 
 all religion and all government. As he had been promi- 
 nent in the eyes of Europe as one of the most zealous 
 friends of liberty, he received from time to time, from 
 those in France who favoured the revolutionary move- 
 ment, the most glowing accounts of the success of their 
 experiment. It was in reply to one of these communi- 
 cations that Burke wrote his " Reflexions on the Revo- 
 lution in France." The success of this work has never 
 been paralleled in the history of political literature. It 
 was published in November, 1790, and within a few 
 months more than thirty thousand copies are said to have 
 been sold. The work was immediately translated into 
 French, and was read with avidity in every part of Eu- 
 rope. So great was the influence of his name, combined 
 with the masterly logic and powerful eloquence of the "Re- 
 flexions," that his work completely arrested the spread 
 of the revolutionary spirit in England, and contributed 
 greatly to check its progress in other European coun- 
 tries. The startling and terrible events which followed 
 soon after in France, by proving that the foresight of 
 Burke was even more remarkable than his eloquence, 
 
 * "Never," says Lord John Russell, "has the great object of pun- 
 ishment — the prevention of crime — been attained more completely than 
 by this trial. . . . Hastings was acquitted ; but tyranny, deceit, and 
 injustice were condemned. India was saved from abominations dis- 
 graceful to the English name." (*' Memorials of Charles Jam?s Fox," 
 vol. ii. p. 257.) 
 
 c as k; 5 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. 
 
 3° 
 
 (J^P"See Explanations p. 23.) 
 
BURKE 
 
 466 
 
 BURKE 
 
 raised hi" fame to the highest point, and seemed fully 
 to justify the eulogium that his letter on the French 
 Revolution was "the most magnificent political prophecy 
 ever given to the world." The uncompromising hostility 
 of Burke to the principles of the French Revolution led 
 not long after, May 6, 1791, to an open rupture between 
 him and Fox, who hailed the revolutionary movement 
 as the dawn of a political millennium. Fox and his fol- 
 lowers charged Burke with having abandoned the prin- 
 ciples of his party, and with being guilty of great incon- 
 sistency, in that, after having shown himself a strenuous 
 friend of liberty during the whole of his former life, he 
 had in his late writings and speeches discountenanced 
 and denounced the struggles which a great nation was 
 making to establish its freedom. Burke published a 
 vindication of his course, entitled "An Appeal from the 
 New to the Old Whigs," in which he clearly shows that 
 there is nothing in his recent writings or speeches incon- 
 sistent with the political doctrines which had been the 
 guide of his former life.* The truth is, he never had 
 been an advocate of extreme democratic principles; he 
 had no confidence in any political system based solely 
 upon theoretical ideas of right and adopted without 
 reference to experience or to the existing condition and 
 usages of the people among whom it was sought to be 
 established. He may perhaps with more justice be 
 charged with having urged his views with too great ve- 
 hemence, with an excessive and almost acrimonious zeal. 
 But who shall presume to exactly measure the degree 
 of zeal with which a patriot, who sees, as he believes, 
 his country menaced with imminent and deadly peril, 
 should exert himself in seeking to save her from destruc- 
 tion ? It is certain that in regard to personal affronts 
 and injuries Burke often, if not always, manifested a 
 magnanimous forbearance ; but in the cause of his 
 country, or in the higher cause of justice and humanity, 
 he displayed a spirit as uncompromising as it was dis- 
 interested and lofty. It cannot, however, be denied that 
 after his health had been broken and his nerves shat- 
 tered by the toils and vexations of a life which was one 
 long battle with the various forms of misgovernment, 
 oppression, and tyranny, he sometimes exhibited an im- 
 patience and irritability which were mortifying to his 
 friends and which seriously impaired his political and 
 personal influence. One rather amusing example of this 
 kind may be cited. A rough country gentleman in the 
 House of Commons, seeing Burke rise with papers in his 
 hand, exclaimed, " I hope the gentleman does not mean to 
 read that large bundle of papers, and bore us with a long 
 speech into the bargain." Burke is said to have felt so 
 much irritation that, incapable of utterance, he ran out of 
 the house. " Never before," said the witty Sehvyn, "did I 
 see the fable realized, — a lion put to flight by the braying 
 of an ass." His enemies availed themselves of this weak- 
 ness of the great orator, and when they were wholly un- 
 able to answer they often contrived either to reduce him 
 to silence, or to prevent his being heard, by coughing 
 or continual vociferations. This practice was familiarly 
 termed "muzzling the lion." 
 
 In 1795 Burke received from the king a pension of 
 ,£1200 per annum on the civil list, and not long after 
 another of ^2500 on the West Indian four-and-a-half 
 per cent. fund. These pensions were granted, it is said, 
 at the express desire of the king, no application having 
 been made on the part of Burke or his personal friends. 
 A part of the design in conferring them was to enable 
 Burke to discharge some serious debts incurred in the 
 performance of a long series of unrequited public ser- 
 vices. Nevertheless, his acceptance of this very mode- 
 rate reward for his great services to his country, caused 
 
 * Coleridge, referring to the speeches made by Burke at the com- 
 mencement of the American war, and those made by him at the 
 breaking out of the French Revolution, remarks "that the principles 
 are exactly the same, and the deductions the same; but the practical 
 inferences almost opposite in the one case from those drawn in the 
 other ; yet in both equally legitimate, and in both equally con- 
 mined by the results. Whence gained he this superiority of foresight ?" 
 Coleridge answers, " Burke possessed, and had sedulously sharpened, 
 that eye which sees all things, actions, and events in relation to the 
 laws that determine their existence and circumscribe their possibility. 
 He referred habitually to principles. He was a scientific statesman, 
 and therefore a seer. For every principle contains in itself the germs 
 of a prophecy." (" Biographia Literaria," chap, x.) 
 
 his conduct to be assailed from every quarter. Even 
 the dignity of the House of Lords did not save him 
 from attacks upon his character t>y two of the peers. In 
 reply, he wrote in 1796 his "Letter to a Noble Lord," 
 one of the most successful and popular of all the pro- 
 ductions of his pen. Burke died July 9, 1797. Hig 
 only son, Richard, a man of superior talents ami great 
 moral worth, had died in 1794. The grief occasioned 
 by this irreparable loss contributed, there is reason to 
 believe, materially to shorten his father's life. 
 
 Of Burke, Macaulay says, he was " ignorant, indeed, or 
 negligent of the art of adapting his reasonings and his style 
 to the capacity and taste of his hearers, but in aptitude to 
 comprehension and richness of imagination superior to 
 every orator, ancient or modern." " If we are to praise 
 a man in proportion to his usefulness," says Schlegel, "I 
 am persuaded that no task can be more difficult than to 
 do justice to the statesman and orator Burke. This man 
 has been to his own country, and to all Europe, a new 
 light of political wisdom and moral experience. He 
 corrected his age when it was at the height of its revo- 
 lutionary frenzy; and, without maintaining any system 
 of philosophy, he seems to have seen farther into the 
 true nature of society, and to have more clearly compre- 
 hended the effect of religion in connecting individual 
 security with national welfare, than any philosopher of 
 any preceding age." "Of all the men who are," says 
 the learned Dr. Parr, " or who ever have been eminent 
 for energy or splendour of eloquence or for skill and 
 grace in composition, there is not one who, in genius or 
 erudition, in philanthropy or piety, or in any of the 
 qualities of a wise and good man, surpasses Burke." 
 
 Burke's command of language has always been ad- 
 mired. His style is not a mere trick or artifice designed 
 to give dignity to trivial or point to commonplace ideas: 
 it is simply the clothing of great and glowing thoughts 
 in their most natural and appropriate expression. A 
 collected edition of Burke's works and correspondence 
 (8 vols. 8vo) was published in London in 1852. For 
 some excellent observations on Burke as an orator, see 
 the " Quarterly Review" for January and April, 1858, 
 pages 5915—98. We select the following passages in re- 
 gard to Burke and his style of oratory. Referring to 
 his speeches on the Stamp Act, the writer remarks: 
 
 " This was the appropriate start of a man who, whethet 
 as a statesman, a thinker, or an orator, was withoi 
 equal. Pitt and Fox were great, but Burke belongs b 
 another order of beings, and ranks with the Shaksp 
 the Bacons, and the Newtons. . . . Though his style i< 
 never stilted, it has a rare majesty both in thought and 
 expression. . . . His language was nervous, his sen- 
 tences polished, his abundant metaphors grand anc 
 original. . . . His commonest fault is a monotoi 
 dignity, which wants the relief of passages dressed in 9 
 more familiar garb. . . . His innate genius was un- 
 doubtedly wonderful, but he improved it to the utter- 
 most. . . . The immense labour which he bestowe 
 all he did was his constant boast. ... By the meet 
 practice of composition, he learned to embody his con 
 elusions in a style more grandly beautiful than has evet 
 been reached by any other Englishman, with either the 
 tongue or the pen." But one result of all this laboui 
 was that his speeches were far less interesting and effect 
 ive when heard in the House of Commons than whet 
 read in print. It is related that on one occasion " 
 kine crept under the benches to escape a speech which 
 when published, he thumbed to rags." 
 
 See Prior, "Life of Burke," 1 vol. 8vo; Bissf.t. "Lifeo 
 Burke," 2 vols. 8vo; McCormick, "Memoirs of the Ri^hl 
 ourable E. Burke," 1797; Dr. George Croly, "Political 
 the Right Honourable Edmund Burke." 2vols. 8vo, 1840; P Bl 
 "The Public and Domestic Life of Edmund Burke." 1853: LOW 
 Jeffrey, "Miscellanies." For a description of Burke's com 
 tional powers, see Miss Burney's letter to S. Crisp. 
 
 Burke, (John,) a English genealogist, born in Ire 
 land in 17S6. His chief work is a " Dictionary of thi 
 Peerage and Baronetage of the British Empire," (1826. 
 The twentieth edition was published by his son, Si 
 Bernard, in 1858. Died in 1848. 
 
 Burke, (John Doly,) an Irishman, who emigrate! 
 to the United States in 1797 and became an editor it 
 Boston. He wrote a " History of Virginia." Pied 1 
 Virginia in 1808. 
 
 S, e, T, 6, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; wo 7 *, 
 
BURKE 
 
 467 
 
 BURNET 
 
 Burke, (Peter,) an English jurist and writer, son of 
 John Km ke, noticed above, published several works on 
 the law oi copyright and patents; also, "The Public and 
 Domestic Lite of Edmund Burke," (1853.) 
 
 Burke, (William.) an Irish murderer, was aresident 
 of Edinburgh. In 1828 I e was convicted of murder, and 
 he confessed that he and his accomplice had murdered 
 fifteen persons, and had sold their bodies to a surgeon. 
 
 Burkhart von Hohenfels, booRk'haRt fon ho'en- 
 1 ierman minnesinger, born about 1200. 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Bur'kitt. (William,) an English theologian, born at 
 Hitcham in 1650, wrote "Expository Notes on the New 
 Testament," (1739.) Died in 1703. 
 
 Burlamacchi, booR-la-mak'kee, (Francesco,) an 
 Italian revolutionist, who, about 1546, conspired against 
 the party of the pope and the emperor Charles V. The 
 plot being revealed by one of the conspirators, Burla- 
 macchi was executed for high treason. 
 
 See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1846. 
 
 Burlamaqui, buR'li'mi'ke', (Jean Jacques,) an emi- 
 nent Swiss jurist, born at Geneva in 1694. He was for 
 many years professor of law in his native city, and a 
 member of the Council of State. His chief works are 
 "The Principles of Natural Law," ("Principes du Droit 
 nature]," 1747,) and " Principles of the Law of Nations," 
 cipes du Droit politique," 1751,) both of which 
 were translated into English, German, Italian, and Span- 
 ish. Died at Geneva in 1748. 
 
 See Senebiee, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve;" Ersch und 
 Gri'ber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Burleigh, Lord. See Cecil. 
 
 Burleigh or Burley, bur'le, (Walter,) a learned 
 
 English philosopher and theologian, born in 1275. He 
 
 harged with the education of Edward III., who 
 
 sent him on a mission to Rome in 1327. Died in 1357. 
 
 See Brucker, "History of Philosophy." 
 
 Buraeigh, (William H.,) an American poet and 
 
 abolitionist, born at Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1812. 
 
 a printer and editor of several papers, among 
 
 was the "Christian Witness" of Pittsburg. He 
 
 luted to "The New Yorker," and published in 
 
 1840 a volume of poems which were much admired. 
 
 He is a brother of Charles Burleigh, an anti-slavery 
 
 orator. 
 
 See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Burlingame, bur'ling-gam, (Anson,) an American 
 diplomatist, born in Chenango county, New York, in 
 1S22. He studied law, which he practised in Boston. 
 He was elected a member of Congress by the Repub- 
 licans of the fifth district of Massachusetts in 1854, in 
 Mid again in 1858. He advocated the election of 
 John C. Fremont in several eloquent speeches, (1856.) 
 In 1S61 he was sent as commissioner or minister to 
 China. About the end of 1867 he was appointed am- 
 dor from China to the United States and the great 
 of Europe. Died in 1870. 
 
 Burlington, Earl of. See Boyle, (Richard.) 
 
 Burl'ton, (Peter Henry,) an English geographer, 
 born in 1804. While making scientific researches in 
 India, he was killed by the natives in 1829. 
 
 Burmann, bitR'man, (Franciscus,) a Dutch Protest- 
 ant divine and scholar, born at Leyden about 1628, be- 
 came professor of theology at Utrecht. Died in 1679. 
 
 Burmann, (Franciscus,) son of the preceding, bom 
 in 1671, was professor of divinity at Utrecht. He pub- 
 lished, among other works, a " Harmony of the Evan- 
 (1713.) Died in 1719. 
 
 Burmann, (Jan,) son of Francis the younger, born 
 at Amsterdam about 1707, became professor of botany 
 in that city, and published "Thesaurus Zeylonicus, 
 (1737.) and other botanical works. Died in 1780. 
 
 Burmann, (Kaspar,) a legal writer and historian, 
 nephew of Peter the elder; died in 1755. 
 
 Burmann, (Nikolaas Laurens,) son of Jan, born 
 Bt Amsterdam in 1734. He published a " Flora Indica," 
 jwith sixty-seven plates, (1768,) and other botanical 
 (works. Died in 1793. 
 
 k Burmann, (Pieter,) an eminent philologist, brother 
 f Francis the younger, born at Utrecht on the 6th of 
 ,uly, 1668. He became professor of history, eloquence, 
 
 and the Greek language at Leyden in 1715, and subse- 
 quently obtained the chair of history for the United 
 Provinces. He published editions of Horace, Petronius, 
 Phaedrus, Suetonius, Lucan, Quintilian, Virgil, and other 
 classics, a treatise on "The Revenues of the Romans," 
 ("De Vectigalibus Populi Romani," 1694,) and various 
 other works, which are esteemed for their learning and 
 accuracy. Died in 1741. 
 
 See Dr. Johnson's Works; Schacht, "Oratio funebris in 
 Obitum P. Burmanni," 1741 ; "Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Burmann, (Pieter,) the Younger, nephew of the 
 preceding, born at Amsterdam in 1713, became pro- 
 fessor of history at Franeker. He published a number 
 of Latin poems, an "Anthology" of the Latin poets, 
 (2 vols., 1759-73,) and several excellent editions of the 
 classics. Died in 1778. 
 
 Burmeister, booR'mi'ster, (Hermann,) a German 
 naturalist, born at Stralsund in 1807. He became pro. 
 fessor of zoology at Halle in 1842. He published, be- 
 sides other works, a " Manual of Entomology," (4 vols., 
 1832-44,) a " History of Creation," (1843,) an d "The 
 Animals of Brazil," (2 vols., 1854-56.) 
 
 Burn, (Richard,) LL.D., an Englishman, author of 
 several popular works on law, born in Westmoreland, 
 was many years vicar of Orton. Died in 1785. 
 
 Bur'na-bjf, (Andrew,) an English divine and travel- 
 ler, born in 1 732, published " Travels in North America," 
 "Journal of a Tour to Corsica," etc. Died in 1812. 
 
 "Burn'ap, (George Washington,) an American Uni- 
 tarian clergyman, born in Merrimack, New Hampshire, 
 in 1802, graduated at Harvard in 1824. He was ordained 
 pastor of the First Unitarian Church of Baltimore in 
 1827. He has published several theological and other 
 works. 
 
 Bur'nel, (Robert,) an English lawyer and bishop, 
 became lord chancellor in 1274. He filled that office for 
 eighteen years, and was the chief adviser of Edward I. 
 He died in 1292. "As a statesman and legislator," says 
 Lord Campbell, "he is worthy of the highest commend- 
 ation." 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. i. 
 
 Burnes, biirnz, (Sir Alexander,) a distinguished 
 Orientalist and traveller, born at Montrose, in Scotland, 
 in 1805, was a relative of the poet Burns. At an early 
 age he became a cadet in the Bombay army. He set 
 out in 1832 on an expedition into Central Asia, which 
 he accomplished in about a year. On his return to Eng- 
 land he published his "Travels into Bokhara," which 
 had an immense sale and was soon translated into 
 French and German. He was a member of the Royal 
 Asiatic Society, and also of the Royal Geographical So- 
 ciety, which awarded to him the gold medal " for the 
 navigation of the Indus, and a journey across Central 
 Asia." Returning to India in 1835, he was sent in 1836 
 on a mission to Cabul. On the breaking out of the in- 
 surrection in that city in 1841, he was murdered, with 
 several other British residents. 
 
 See J. B. Eyries, "Notice stir A. Burnes," Paris, 1842; Cham- 
 bers" Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement ;) 
 J. W. Kaye, " Lives of Indian Officers," vol. ii., London, 1S67; " Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for November, 1834. 
 
 Bur'net, (Gilbert,) a British historian and prelate 
 of great eminence, born in Edinburgh on the 18th of 
 September, 1643. He became minister of Saltoun in 
 1665, and professor of divinity at Glasgow in 1669. 
 About 1670 he married a daughter of the Earl of Cassi- 
 lis. Having resigned his professorship in 1674, he re- 
 moved to London. He published in 1679 the first vol- 
 ume of his "History of the Reformation in England," 
 (3 vols., 1679-1715,) for which he received the thanks of 
 Parliament. Charles II. offered him a bishopric on con- 
 dition that he should support the measures of the court ; 
 but he declined the offer. He published a " Life of Sir 
 Matthew Hale" in 1682. Burnet was a person of much 
 influence in public affairs, and contributed greatly to the 
 revolution of 1688 and the succession of William and 
 Mary. He became chaplain to.William HI. and Bishop 
 of Salisbury in 1689. " The name of Burnet," says Mac- 
 aulay, " was odious to the great majority of the Anglican 
 priesthood. . . . This distinction he owed to the promi- 
 nent place which he held in literature and politics, to the 
 readiness of his tongue and of his pen, and above all to the 
 
 1 k; 9 as j; g hard;%asj; G, H, K., guttural; H, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^jf-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BURNET 
 
 468 
 
 BURNS 
 
 frankness and boldness of his nature, — frankness which 
 could keep no secret, and boldness which flinched from 
 no danger." The same author adds, "The utmost ma- 
 levolence of faction could not venture to deny that he 
 served his flock with a zeal, diligence, and disinterested- 
 ness worthy of the purest ages of the church." (" History 
 of England.") He published in 1699 an " Exposition of 
 the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England," 
 which is considered a standard work. His most re- 
 markable work is his " History of his Own Times," (2 
 vols, 1724-34,) which was severely criticised by Swift, 
 Pope and other Tories. He was author of an interest- 
 ing tract entitled "Some Passages in the Life and Death 
 of Lord Rochester," (1680.) Died in 1715. 
 
 See " Life of Bishop Burnet." by his son Thomas, prefixed to the 
 " History of his Own Times;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary 
 of Eminent Scotsmen ;" J. Le Clerc, " Life and Character of Bishop 
 Burn.'t." London, 1715 ; " London Quarterly Review" for April and 
 •July, 1823 ; Guizot, Monk's Contemporaries." 
 
 Burnet, (Gilbert,) a son of the preceding, was chap- 
 lain to George I. He wrote some treatises on theology, 
 and died prematurely. 
 
 Bur'net, (Jacob,) LL.D., an eminent American jurist, 
 born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1770. was one of the 
 first settlers of Cincinnati. He graduated at Princeton 
 College, and afterwards studied law under Judge Bou- 
 dinot. In 1796 he removed to Cincinnati, where he 
 resided for the remainder of his life. He was appointed 
 in 1821 a judge of the supreme court of Ohio, and in 
 1828 elected to the Senate of the United States. He 
 assisted in founding the Cincinnati College, of which he 
 became the first president, and contributed liberally to, 
 the cause of education. He was the author of " Notes 
 on the Early Settlement of the Northwestern Territory." 
 Through the influence of La Fayette, Judge Burnet was 
 elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences. 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 See Livingston's " Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Bur'net, (John,) a Scottish engraver, born near Edin- 
 burgh in 1784. Among his best works are prints after 
 Wilkie's "Blind Fiddler," and "Chelsea Pensioners 
 reading the Gazette of the Battle of Waterloo." He has 
 published a " Practical Treatise on Painting," " Rem- 
 brandt and his Works," (1849,) and "Life and Works 
 of J. M. W. Turner," (1852.) The last-named work was 
 written conjointly with Mr. P. Cunningham. 
 
 Burnet, (Thomas,) an English divine and eloquent 
 writer, born at Croft, in Yorkshire, about 1635. He be- 
 came a Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1657, 
 and was elected master of the Charter-House in 1685. 
 He had the moral courage to offer the first opposition to 
 the dispensing power which James II. usurped. His 
 reputation is founded on a fanciful but well-written 
 work, in Latin, entitled "T6llurisTheoria Sacra," ("The 
 Sacred Theory of the Earth," 1680,) which he translated 
 into English, (1684.) This work has little scientific 
 merit ; but it was greatly admired for the beauty of its 
 imagery and its style. He also wrote " On the State 
 of the Dead," ("De Statu Mortuorum," 1727.) Died 
 in 1715. 
 
 See Brucker, "History of Philosophy." 
 
 Burnet, .(Thomas,) an English theologian, became 
 prebendary of Sarum. He published several works. 
 Died in 1750. 
 
 Burnet, (Sir Thomas,) an English judge and political 
 writer, was a son of Bishop Burnet. He edited his father's 
 " History of his Own Times," and wrote a travesty of the 
 first book of the "Iliad." In his youth he was dissipated, 
 and was supposed to be one of the " Mohocks" of Addi- 
 son's "Spectator." Died in 1753. 
 
 Burnet, (William,) a son of Bishop Burnet, was 
 born at the Hague in 1688. He was appointed Governor 
 of New York and New Jersey in 1720, and ruled those 
 provinces with ability for eight years. In 1728 he be- 
 came Governor of Massachusetts. Died in 1729. 
 
 Bur'nett, (George,) an English writer, published 
 " Letters on the State of Poland," and other works. Died 
 in 181 1. 
 
 Burnett, (Gilbert Thomas,) an English naturalist, 
 born in London in 1800, became professor of medical 
 botany at King's College, London. He wrote "Outlines 
 
 of Botany," (1833,) and was a contributor to the "Jour. 
 nal of Science and Art," and other periodicals. Died 
 in 1835. 
 
 Burnett, (James.) See Monboddo. 
 
 Bur'nett, (John,) a Scottish advocate and legal wri- 
 ter, born in 1765, became judge-admiral of Scotland in 
 1810. He died the same year. 
 
 Bur'nett, (Waldo Irving,) M.D., an American nat- 
 uralist and microscopist, born at Southborough, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1828. He visited Europe about 1850. He 
 contributed to the "American Journal of Science," and 
 other periodicals. Among his works is an "Essay on 
 the Cell : its Physiology, Pathology," etc. Died at Bos- 
 ton in 1854. 
 
 Bur'ney, (Charles,) a musical composer and doctor 
 of music, born at Shrewsbury in 1726. His talents and 
 worth procured him the respect and friendship of several 
 of the principal wits of that age, — among others, Dr. 
 Johnson and Burke. In 1773 he was elected a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society. His "General History of Music," 
 completed in 1789, is highly esteemed. Died in 1814. 
 
 See " Meinoirsof Dr. Burney," by his daughter, Madame D'Ar- 
 blay; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Burney, (Charles,) a distinguished Greek scholar, 
 second son of the preceding, born at Lynn in 1757; died 
 in 1817. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for May, 1811. 
 
 Burney, (Frances.) See D'Arblay, Madame. 
 
 Burney, (James,) the eldest son of Dr. Burney the 
 musical composer, born about 1745, entered the naval 
 service at an early age, and accompanied Cook in his 
 last two voyages. He became rear-admiral, and died in 
 1821. Besides other works, he wrote a valuable "His- 
 tory of Voyages of Discovery in the Southern Ocean," 
 (5 vols., 1804-16.) 
 
 Burney, (William,) master of the Royal (Naval) 
 Academy of Gosport, and author of " Lives of the Na- 
 val Heroes of Great Britain," born in 1762; died in 183a 
 
 Burnouf, buR'noof, written also Bournouf, (Eu- 
 gene,) a distinguished French Orientalist, son of Jean 
 Louis, noticed below, born in Paris in 1801. He became 
 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1832, and 
 the same year succeeded De Chezy as professor of San- 
 scrit in the College of France. Among his principal 
 works are "Commentaries on the Yacna, one of the 
 Liturgic Books of Persia," and " Introduction to the His- 
 tory of Booddhism," '(1845.) He died in 1852, having 
 previously been appointed perpetual secretary of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions. 
 
 See Chari.es Lenormant, " Eugene Burnouf," 1852; " Nonvelle 
 Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Burnouf, (Jean Louis,) a French philologist, born at 
 Urville in 1775. He was appointed, in 1817, pro 
 of Latin eloquence in the College of France. He pub- 
 lished a "Method of Studying the Greek Lang! 
 (1814,) a translation of the complete works of Ta 
 and of Cicerols "De Officiis." He was a memli 
 the Academy of Inscriptions, and librarian, of the uni- 
 versity. Died in 1844. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Burns, (John,) an eminent Scottish medical writer, 
 born in Glasgow in 1775. He became regius professor 
 of surgery in the University of Glasgow in 1815. 
 chief work is "Principles of Midwifery," (10th ed 
 1843,) which obtained great success. He also pub 
 "Principles of Surgery," (2 vols., 1828-38,) and "Prill 
 ciples of Christian Philosophy," (6th edition, 1846. 
 perished in the wreck of trie Orion in 1850. 
 
 Burns, (Robert,) a celebrated Scottish poet, bon 
 near the town of Ayr, January 25, 1759. His father 
 William Burness, (or Burnes — for the name was vai 
 written,) was the son of a farmer, and "was thrown, 
 says the poet, in one of his letters, " by early misfortunes 
 on the world at large, where, after many years' wain; 
 and sojournings, lie picked up a pretty large quanti 
 observation and experience, to which I am inclebti 
 most of my little pretensions to wisdom." In ear 
 Burns's father had followed the profession of a gardener 
 but afterwards he took a lease of a small farm of - 
 acres, in order to set himself up in the nursery bus 
 and built with his own hands the dwelling in which tht 
 
 a, e. T. 6, ", y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o. u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit rift; n&t; good; moon; 
 
 
BURNS 
 
 469 
 
 BURNS 
 
 poet was born. Although his life appears to have been 
 one long struggle with adversity, William Burness spared 
 no pains that he might give his children a good educa- 
 tion. He sent them to school as he had opportunity, 
 and sometimes in the evening, after the day's work was 
 done, assisted their studies himself. "lowed much," 
 says the poet, "to an old woman who resided in the 
 family. . . . She had, I suppose, the largest collection 
 in the country of tales and songs concerning devils, 
 ghosts, fairies, brownies, witches, warlocks, . . . en- 
 chanted towers, dragons, and other trumpery. This cul- 
 tivated the latent seeds of poetry." Robert was the 
 eldest son: he possessed, with a strong intellect and 
 acute sensibilities, a robust and active body, so that 
 when he was only fifteen he is said to have done the 
 work of a man. He was early familiarized with those 
 hardships and sufferings to which the poor are so often 
 subject, and which he has occasionally touched upon in 
 his poems with such pathos and power. In the letter 
 already referred to, he says, " My father's generous mas- 
 ter died, the farm proved a ruinous bargain, and, to 
 clench the misfortune, we fell into the hands of a factor, 
 at for the picture I have drawn of one in my 'Tale' 
 of Twa Dogs.' My father was advanced in life when he 
 married ; I was the eldest of seven children ; and he, 
 worn out by early hardships, was unfit for labour. . . . 
 We lived very poorly. 1 was a dexterous ploughman 
 for my age, and the next eldest to me was a brother, (Gil- 
 bert,) who could drive the plough very well and help me 
 to thrash the corn. A novel-writer might perhaps have 
 viewed these scenes with some satisfaction ; but so did 
 not I : my indignation yet boils at the recollection of the 
 factor's insolent, threatening letters, which used to set us 
 all in tears." In a very interesting and touching account 
 which he wrote of their early troubles, his brother Gil- 
 bert says, " I doubt not but the hard labour and sorrow 
 of this period of his life was in a great measure the 
 cause of that depression of spirits with which Robert 
 was so often afflicted through his whole life afterwards." 
 When the poet was about fifteen, his father gave up his 
 farm near .Ayr, and removed to the parish of Tarbolton. 
 A little before Burns had reached his sixteenth year, he 
 "first committed," he says, "the sin of rhyme." In his 
 
 case, as in that of Sappho, " it was Love that taught [him] 
 A "bonnie sweet sonsie lass" had been assigned 
 as his partner in the labours of the harvest-field, (it was 
 the custom to join a male with a female partner on such 
 occasions.) She sang sweetly, and " the tones of her voice 
 made his heart-strings thrill like an jEolian harp." Her 
 jsingmg first put into his head the idea of writing songs. 
 •Somewhat later, he went to a noted school at a distance 
 |from home, to learn mensuration., surveying, etc., where 
 ihe appears to have made good progress in his studies, 
 luntil a charming young girl, who lived near by, "overset 
 ; his trigonometry, and set him off at a tangent from the 
 isphere ot his studies. It was," he says, "in vain to 
 think of doing any more good at school." This irre- 
 sistible attraction towards what he terms " the adorable 
 half of the human species" seemed destined to exert a 
 constant and controlling influence upon his life. To use 
 his own words, " My heart was completely tinder, and 
 was eternally lighted up by some goddess or other." 
 T he fame which he had acquired by his verses, added to 
 his rare conversational powers, caused his company to 
 be eagerly sought in the social gatherings of the vicinity ; 
 and the promiscuous society into which he was thus 
 thrown appears to have laid the foundation of the irregu- 
 larities and dissipation which unhappily marked the lat- 
 ter part ot his life. In his early youth, as he tells us, 
 ; irded illicit love with horror ; but through the in- 
 fluence of some of his new acquaintance his delicacy of 
 v u g j° n this sub J ect gradually wore away, and before 
 he had reached his twenty-fourth year we find him 
 speaking of his own unlawful amours lightly and almost 
 boastluilv. He had recently been initiated into the mys- 
 teries of free-masonry. He was introduced to the lodge 
 it rarbolton by John Rankin, who, according to Lock- 
 hart^was "a very dissipated man, with considerable tal- 
 ents, and who appears to have exerted a most unfavour- 
 able influence on the moral character of the poet. Burns 
 iftcrwayis addressed to him a poetical epistle. Burns's 
 
 father was a worthy and sincerely pious man. In a 
 beautiful tribute to his memory, the poet speaks of him as 
 
 " The tender father and the generous friend ; 
 
 The pitying heart that felt for human woe ; 
 
 The dauntless heart that feared no human pride ; 
 
 The friend of man, to vice alone a foe ; 
 'For even his failings leaned to virtue's side.' " 
 
 There is reason to believe that these noble lines we 
 not chargeable with any of the proverbial falsity of epi- 
 taphs.^ But, unhappily, at the time above referred to, 
 Burns's character was but too truly expressed by those 
 words of the Roman poet, " Video meliora proboqne, 
 detenora sequor."* In proportion as he rejected the 
 restraints of morality, he appears to have cast off his 
 reverence for religion. "Polemical divinity," says he, 
 "about this time was putting the country half mad ;" and 
 he appears to have been ambitious to show that, while 
 in argument he was not inferior, in wit he was greatly 
 superior, to most of those whom he encountered. He 
 was one day seen "at the door of a public house, 
 holding forth on religious topics to a whole crowd of 
 country-people, who presently became so shocked with 
 his levities that they fairly hissed him from the ground " 
 (See Lockhart's " Life," page 68.) While in this contro- 
 versial spirit, he wrote two satirical pieces which excited 
 no little commotion in that part of Scotland, being as 
 much applauded by one party or class as they were con- 
 demned by the other. These were " The Twa Herds " 
 (or "The Holy Tulzie,") and "Holy Willie's Prayer!" 
 Of the latter, Scott speaks as "a piece of satire more ex- 
 quisitely severe than any which Burns ever afterwards 
 wrote, but, unfortunately, cast in a form too daringly 
 profane to be received into Dr. Currie's collection." 
 
 About the year 1785, Burns formed a liaison (which 
 was, as some writers tell us, according to the usage then 
 prevailing in Scotland, a virtual marriage) with a young 
 woman named Jean Armour, somewhat above his own 
 rank in life. She bore him twins. He had previously 
 given her a written acknowledgment of marriage ; but 
 this did not appease the anger of her father, as Burns 
 was then wholly unable to support a family. It was his 
 purpose to quit Scotland and seek his fortune in Jamaica. 
 "But, before leaving my native country forever." he 
 
 he 
 
 ative country forever, 
 j. resoivea to puonsn my poems. I weighed my 
 productions as impartially as was in my power. I 
 thought they had merit ; and it was a delicious idea that 
 I should be called a clever fellow, even though it should 
 never reach my ears. ... I can truly say that, fanvre 
 inconmt as I then was, I had pretty nearly as high an 
 idea of myself and of my works as I have at this moment, 
 when the public has decided in their favour." The poems 
 were accordingly published, and were so favourably re- 
 ceived that, after all expenses had been paid, he cleared 
 about twenty pounds. The success of his first experi- 
 ment as an author, and the encouragement which he 
 received from some who were not unknown in the world 
 of letters, produced an entire change in his plans ; and, 
 instead of going to America, he resolved at once to visit 
 Edinburgh and make the acquaintance of the distin- 
 guished men of letters of that city. He was soon intro- 
 duced to the notice of Dttgald Stewart, Dr. Hugh Blair, 
 and many others, eminent in rank and fashion as well as 
 in literature. "The attentions he received," says Stew- 
 art, "from all ranks and descriptions of persons, were 
 such as would have turned any head but his own." Scat 
 has left us an extremely interesting account of Bums's 
 appearance at this time, which seems to have made a 
 vivid and deep impression on his youthful mind. " His 
 person was strong and robust, his manners rustic, not 
 clownish, with a sort of dignified plainness and simpli- 
 city which received part of its effect, perhaps, from one's 
 knowledge of his extraordinary talents. . . . There was 
 a strong expression of sense and shrewdness in all his 
 lineaments. The eye alone, I think, indicated the poeti- 
 
 • I see the better course and approve it, but I pursue the worse " 
 One can scarcely doubt that he felt at times all the force of those line! 
 in his admirable " Epistle to a Young Friend:" 
 
 " But ne'er with wits profane to range 
 Be complaisance extended : 
 A n atheist's laugh 's a poor exchange 
 For Deity offended." 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (J&^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BURNS 
 
 470 
 
 BURONZO 
 
 cal character and temperament. It was large and of a 
 dark cast, which glowed — I say literally glowed — when 
 he spoke with feeling or interest I never saw such 
 another eye in a human head, though I have seen the 
 most distinguished men of my time. His conversation 
 expressed perfect self-confidence, without the slightest 
 presumption." 
 
 Among the persons of rank who showed him marked 
 favour, the most prominent was Lord Glencairn, whose 
 kindness the poet ever remembered with the deepest 
 gratitude, and to whose memory he has dedicated one 
 of the most beautiful and touching of all his produc- 
 tions, — the "Lament for James, Earl of Glencairn." 
 Under the patronage of the distinguished men whose 
 acqua.itance he had made in Edinburgh, he brought 
 out, about the close of 1787, a new edition of his poems, 
 from which he is said to have realized more than five 
 hundred pounds. But, unfortunately, the intoxication of 
 fame, and the continual excitement of his Edinburgh life, 
 furnished a fresh temptation to those irregularities which 
 began some years before. In 1788 he openly declared 
 his marriage with Miss Armour, and soon after was ap- 
 pointed officer of the excise, with a salary of but fifty 
 pounds a year : it was afterwards increased to seventy 
 pounds. In 1791 he removed to Dumfries, where he 
 spent the remainder of his life. His intemperate habits, 
 aggravated by pecuniary distresses, gained more and 
 more the ascendency over him, but not to the extent, 
 as has sometimes been asserted, of rendering him inca- 
 pable of discharging the duties of his office. One* who 
 knew him well during the latter period of his life, in re- 
 futing the charge against him of " habitual drunkenness," 
 says, " He superintended the education of his children 
 with a degree of care that I have never seen surpassed 
 by any parent in any rank of life whatever." 
 
 Burns died on the 21st of July, 1796. His funeral was 
 attended by many thousand persons, including those 
 of every rank and condition, some of whom came from 
 a great distance. Nearly twenty years after the poet's 
 death, a costly mausoleum was erected in the church- 
 yard at Dumfries, whither the remains were transferred, 
 June 5, 1815. 
 
 The most striking characteristics of Burns's poetry are 
 simplicity and intensity, — an intensity not limited to feel- 
 ing or passion merely, but belonging equally to his ima- 
 gination and his thoughts, — in which qualities he is 
 scarcely, if at all, inferior to any of the greatest poets 
 that have ever lived. Some of his expressions are like 
 brilliant flashes of light : in an instant the thought or 
 sentiment is impressed upon the mind, never to be for- 
 gotten. His power of concentration is perfectly marvel- 
 lous. In two short lines — 
 
 " The rank is but the guinea stamp, 
 The man's the gowd for a' that, — 
 
 he says more than many able men could do in an elabo- 
 rate essay. His "Tam o' Shanter," as has been well 
 observed, is truly an epic, and one of a high order. As 
 an amatory poet, Burns has no equal among British 
 bards ; 
 
 " For love's own strain to him was given, 
 To warble all its ecstasies. 
 In Pythian words, unsought, unwilled. "t 
 
 He appears, however, through some peculiarity either 
 of his genius or his temperament, to have been disin- 
 clined to undertake any extended poem or other work 
 of imagination. " His poetical temperament," says Camp- 
 bell, "was that of fitful transports rather than steady 
 inspiration." But this peculiarity may have been at least 
 as much the result of habit, confirmed, if not induced, by 
 the necessities of his outward life, as of the original cast of 
 his mind. Had his education and external circumstances 
 been different, his genius might perhaps have taken 
 another arm, and shown itself no less capable of lofty 
 and sustained flights of imagination than it was of bril- 
 liant sallies of wit or of the inimitable expression of pas- 
 sion or sorrow. With his rare insight into the human 
 heart, his intensity of feeling and vividness of imagination, 
 combined with wit and humour as varied as they were 
 exquisite, we can scarcely doubt that had his inclination 
 
 * The Rev. James Gray. (See Lockhart's " Life," pp. 334-338.) 
 t Campbell's " Ode to the Memory of Bums." 
 
 and habits of thought led him to attempt some longer 
 work, whether a drama or an epic, he might have written 
 something not unworthy of a place among the world-re- 
 nowned productions of immortal genius, such as Goethe's 
 "Faust" or Cervantes' *»Don Quixote." " In the inim- 
 itable tale of 'Tam o' Shanter,' " says Scott, "he has lef* 
 us sufficient evidence of his abilities to combine the ludi 
 crous with the awful and even the horrible. No poet, 
 except Shakspeare, ever possessed the power of exciting 
 the most varied and discordant emotions with such rapid 
 transitions."* 
 
 Respecting Burns's moral character little need be 
 added to what is revealed by his life. He had at least 
 the merit of not seeking to defend or excuse his own 
 faults, though he has occasionally suggested palliations, 
 as when he says, 
 
 " What's done viz partly may compute, 
 But not what is resisted." 
 
 His sins were rarely if ever the result of "malice afore- 
 thought ;" and the manner in which he sometimes alludes 
 to them is as full of instruction as of pathos. He could 
 not, indeed, as has been justly observed, have so pathetic- 
 ally enforced the truth of some of his moral lessons had 
 he not preached from the text of his own errors. 
 
 See Lockhart, "Life of Burns," 1 vol. 8vo, 1828; Currie, 
 "Life," prefixed to Burns's "Correspondence;" A. Cunningham, 
 "Life and Land of Robert Bums," 1840; Alexander Peterkin, 
 "Review of the Life of Robert Burns;" John Wilson, "Genius and 
 Character of Robert Burns," 1845; S. Tyler, "Robert Burns as a 
 Poet and a Man," 1S48; R. Chambers, "Life and Times of Robert 
 Burns;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" Carlvle, 
 "Miscellanies," article "Burns;" Jeffrey, "Miscellanies." See, 
 also, Fitz-Greene Halleck's beautiful lines on Bums. 
 
 Burns, (William W.,) an American general, born in 
 Ohio about 1826, graduated at West Point in 1847. He 
 became a brigadier-general of volunteers about Septem- 
 ber, 1861. He served in several battles near Richmond, 
 June, 1862. 
 
 Bum'side, (Ambrose Everett,) an American gene- 
 ral, born at Liberty, Union county, Indiana, in 1824, 
 graduated at West Point in 1847. He obtained the rank 
 of first lieutenant, which he resigned about 1853. He 
 became a colonel of volunteers early in 1861, commanded 
 a brigade at Bull Run, July 21, and was appointed a 
 brigadier-general in August. He directed the expedition 
 which, moving by sea and aided by a large naval force, 
 captured Roanoke Island in February, 1862. He took 
 Newbern in the next month, and was promoted to the 
 rank of major-general. In July, 1862, he moved his 
 army to the James River to reinforce that of General 
 McClellan. He commanded a corps at the battle of 
 South Mountain, September 14, and at that of Antietam, 
 — where he distinguished himself, — September 16, 1862. 
 On the 7th of November he succeeded General McClel- 
 lan as commander of the army of the Potomac. On the 
 13th of December he crossed the Rappahannock and 
 attacked Lee's army, which held a strong and fortified 
 position near Fredericksburg. He was repulsed with a 
 loss of 10,243 killed and wounded, and during the night 
 of the 14th retired to the left bank of the river. At his 
 own request, he was relieved of the command on the 
 26th of January, 1863. In March or April of that year 
 he took command of the department of the Ohio. Mov- 
 ing through Kentucky, via Mount Vernon and London, 
 into East Tennessee, he occupied Knoxville about the 
 2d of September. He defended Knoxville with success 
 against General Longstreet, who besieged it in Novem- 
 ber, 1863. In April, 1864, he obtained command of the 
 ninth corps, which fought under General Grant at the 
 battles of the Wilderness, May 5, 6, of Spottsylvania 
 Court-House, May 9-1 1, and of Cold Harbour, June 3. 
 He was elected Governor of Rhode Island in 1865, and 
 re-elected several times. 
 
 Burons. See Borron. 
 
 Buronzo del Signore, boo-ron'zo d£l sen-yo'ra, 
 (Carlo Luigi,) a learned Italian prelate, born at Ver- 
 celli in 1731, became Bishop of Turin in 1797. He dis- 
 covered a manuscript of the works of Bishop Acto or 
 Atto, " Attonis Vercellensis Ecclesiae Episcopi Opera," 
 which he published in 1768. Died in 1806. 
 
 * " Quarterly Review," No. 1. 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, ?, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
BURR 
 
 471 
 
 BURTON 
 
 Btirr, (Aaron,) an American theologian, born at Fair- 
 6e d, Connecticut, in 1 715, was a son-in-law of the cele- 
 brated Jonathan Edwards. He became in 1 748 president 
 of the College of New Jersey, which was removed about 
 1756 from Newark to Princeton. Died in 1757. 
 
 Burr, (Aaron,) an American politician, son of the pre- 
 ceding, and a grandson of the great Jonathan Edwards, 
 was born at Newark, New Jersey, in February, 1756. 
 He graduated at Princeton in 1772, entered the army in 
 1775, and served in the expedition against Quebec. 
 Earlj in 1776 he was raised to the rank of major, and in 
 July, 1777, he became lieutenant-colonel. He resigned 
 his commission in March, 1779, studied law, was admit- 
 tt 1 to the bar in 1782, and practised with great success 
 it the city of New York. He was a very adroit, plau- 
 sible, ana insinuating speaker. In 1782 he married a 
 will w named Mrs. Prevost. Having become an active 
 Democrat, he was appointed attorney-general of New 
 York State in 1789, and elected to the Senate of the 
 United States in 1791. In 1800, Jefferson and Hun were 
 the Democratic candidates for the offices of President and 
 Vice-President, and received an equal number of votes. 
 The election consequently devolved on the House of 
 Representatives, which, after a long and exciting contest, 
 decided that Jefferson should be President and Burr 
 Vice-President By his effort to supplant Jefferson in 
 this election he lost the favour of the Democrats. In 
 1804 he presented himself as candidate for the office of 
 Governor of New York, but he was defeated, partly by the 
 agency of General Hamilton, whom with slight provoca- 
 tion lie challenged and killed in a duel in July, 1804. 
 This act excited such a storm of popular indignation that 
 he found it expedient to absent himself from the State. 
 After he retired from the Vice-Presidency in 1805 he was 
 suspected of a design to conduct a hostile expedition 
 against Mexico, with the view of establishing a govern- 
 ment there which should also include the southwestern 
 part of the United States. He was arrested on a charge 
 of treason, tried at Richmond, Virginia, in 1807, and ac- 
 quitted. In f8o8 he went to Europe, where he passed 
 several years in poverty. He resumed the practice 
 of law in New York in 1812, but could not recover his 
 former standing. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Parton, "Life and Times of Aaron Burr," 1858; M. L. 
 Davis, "Life of Aaron Burr," 2 vols., 1836-37. 
 
 Bur'rhus, (Afranius,) the commander of the prae- 
 torian cohorts, on the death of the Roman emperor 
 Claudius, caused Nero to be proclaimed his successor. 
 He at first restrained, but afterwards yielded to, the 
 sanguinary tendencies of the new emperor. Died 
 A.D. 62. 
 
 Burriel, boor-re-fl', (Andres Marcos,) a Spanish 
 Jesuit and historian, born in 1719. He published, among 
 other works, a " History of California, and its Temporal 
 and Spiritual Conquest." Died in 1762. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Bfir'rill, (James,) an American Senator and lawyer, 
 born in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1772. He became 
 chief justice of his native State in 1816, and a Senator 
 of the United States in 1817. He opposed the Missouri 
 Compromise and the admission of Missouri as a slave 
 State. Died in 1820. 
 
 Btir'ritt,(El.lHU,) an American reformer and linguist, 
 called "the Learned Blacksmith," was born in New Brit- 
 ain, Connecticut, in 181 1. He was apprenticed to a 
 blacksmith about 1827, and worked at that trade many 
 years, during which he learned, in the intervals of labour, 
 numerous ancient and modern languages. As a public 
 lecturer he advocated temperance and other reforms. 
 He published "Sparks from the Anvil," (1848,) and 
 "Thoughts on Things at Home and Abroad," (1854.) 
 
 Burrough, bitr'ro, (Edward,) an English minister of 
 the Society of Friends, was born near Kendal in 1634. 
 He was convinced by George Fox in 1652, began to 
 preach in London in 1654, and published, besides other 
 works, a " Message to the Present Rulers of England," 
 (1659,) and "The Trumpet of the Lord sounded out of 
 Zion." He also wrote many epistles. In the spring of 
 1662 he was committed to Newgate prison, where he 
 died in the last month of that year. 
 
 See " Friends' Library," vol. xiv. 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, V.,guttural; N, nasal; 
 
 Burrough, (Sikiukn,) an English navigator, made a 
 voyage to the Arctic regions in 1556, of which he wrote 
 an account. 
 
 See Hakluyt, "Voyages and Discoveries." 
 
 Burroughes, biir'rgz, (Jeremiah,) an English Puritan 
 minister, born in 1599, preached in London. He wrote 
 several works, which were highly esteemed. Died in 1G4/S. 
 
 Bur'roughs, written also Boroughs, (Sir John,) an 
 Englishman, who wrote " The Sovereignty of the Bri'ish 
 Seas proved by Records." Died in 1643. 
 
 Bui 'roughs, (George,) an early New England divine, 
 was executed at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692, for witch- 
 craft. 
 
 Biir'row, (Sir James,) an eminent English lawyer ; 
 died in 1782. He published " Reports," (5th ed., 5 vols. 
 1812.) 
 
 Burrow, (Reuben,) an English mathematician, born 
 in Yorkshire, was appointed professor of mathematics 
 at Calcutta in 1782. He died in 1791, leaving a "Treat- 
 ise on Projectiles," and other works. 
 
 Biir'rows, (George Mann,) an English physician, of 
 London. He published about 1 828 "Commentarirs on the 
 Causes, Forms, Symptoms, and Treatment of Insanity." 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1821. 
 
 Biir'rows, (William,) an American naval officer, 
 with the rank of lieutenant, born near Philadelphia about 
 1784. As commander of the brig Enterprise, he cap- 
 tured the British brig Boxer in September, 1813. He 
 was killed in this action. 
 
 Burser, booR'ser, (Joachim,) a German physician 
 and botanist, born in Lusatia in 1593. He wrote several 
 botanical works, in Latin. The name of Bursera has 
 been given to a genus of terebinths. Died in 1689. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Eitr'tpii, (Asa,) D.D., pastor of the church in Thet- 
 ford, Vermont, born at Preston, (now Griswold,) Connec- 
 ticut, in 1752; died in 1836. 
 
 Biir'ton, (Cassibelan,) an English poet, a son of 
 William the antiquary, born in 1609. He made a trans- 
 lation of Martial into English verse. Died in 1681. 
 
 Burton, (Edward,) D.D., an English divine, born in 
 1794, became in 1829 royal professor of divinity at Ox- 
 ford. He published a "Greek Testament with English 
 Notes," (1831,) and other works. Died in 1836. 
 
 Burton, (Henry,) an English theologian and dis- 
 senter, born in Yorkshire in 1579. He published in 
 1626 two sermons, for which he was punished with the 
 pillory, the loss of his ears, and an imprisonment of 
 fourteen years. Among his works is "The Baiting of 
 the Pope's Bull," (1627.) Died in 1648. 
 
 See " Narration of the Life of H. Burton," 1648. 
 
 Burton, (John,) an English philologist and divine, 
 born in Devonshire in 1696, became professor of Greek 
 at Oxford. Pie published " Opuscula Miscellanea theo- 
 logica," (2 vols., 1771.) Died in 1771. 
 
 Burton, (John,) an English physician and antiquary, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1697, published "The Life and 
 Writings of Boerhaave," (1743,) and other works. Died 
 in 1771. 
 
 Biir'ton, (John Hill,) a Scottish advocate and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born at Aberdeen in 1809, has pub- 
 lished " Benthamianae, or Extracts from the Works of 
 Jeremy Bentham," " Life and Correspondence of David 
 Hume," (1846,) "The History of Scotland from the 
 Revolution to the Extinction of the Jacobite Insurrec- 
 tion," (1853,) and "History of Scotland from Agri- 
 cola's Invasion to the Revolution of 1688," (186,7.) 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1867. 
 
 Burton, (Richard Francis,) a celebrated English 
 traveller, born about 1821, published "Sindh, or the Un- 
 happy Valley," (2 vols., 1852.) Under the auspices of 
 the Geographical Society of London, he explored Arabia 
 in 1853, and published a "Personal Narrative of a Pil- 
 grimage to El Medinah and Meccah," (3 vols., 1856,) 
 "The Lake Regions of Central Africa," (i860,) "Abeo- 
 kuta and the Cameroon Mountains," (1863,) and "The 
 Highlands of Brazil," (2 vols., 1869.) He has received 
 for his services to science the gold medals of the English 
 and French Geographical Societies. 
 
 See " British Quarterly Review" for October, i860: " Edinburgh 
 Review" for October, 1S60; " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1855. 
 
 r, trilled; s as *; *h as in this. (gy^See Explanations, p\ 23.) 
 
BURTON 
 
 472 
 
 B USHNELL 
 
 Burton, (Robert,) an English philosopher and hu- 
 morist, born at Lindley, Leicestershire, in 1576, was 
 educated at Oxford. He became vicar of Saint Thomas, 
 Oxford, in 1616, and published in 1621 his famous work 
 "The Anatomy of Melancholy: what it is, with ail the 
 Kinds, Causes, Symptoms, Prognostics, and several 
 Cures of it : Philosophically, Medicinally, Historically 
 opened and cut up. By Democritus Junior." He com- 
 posed this book to cure himself of melancholy. Lord 
 Byron pronounced it "the most amusing and instructive 
 medley of quotations and classical anecdotes I ever 
 perused." Dr. Johnson expressed the following opinion : 
 " There is great spirit and great power in what Burtdn 
 says, when he writes from his own mind." (Boswell's 
 "Life of Johnson.") Burton obtained the living of Se- 
 grave about 1630. Died in January, 1639 or 1640. 
 
 See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 September, 1S61. 
 
 Burton, (William,) a brother of the preceding, born 
 in 1575, wrote, among other works, a "Description of 
 Leicestershire, with its Antiquities." Died in 1645. 
 
 Burton, (William,) an English scholar, born about 
 1609, taught school at Kingston-upon-Thames, and pub- 
 lished "Graecae Linguae Historia,"(i657.) Died in 1657. 
 
 Burton, (William Evans,) a popular English come- 
 dian and dramatist, born in London in 1804. He resided 
 in the United States after 1834, and was manager of 
 several theatres in New York and Philadelphia. He 
 published a "Cyclopaedia of Wit and Humour," (2 vols., 
 1858.) Died about i860. 
 
 Bury, ber're, (Arthur,) an English theologian, was 
 principal of Exeter College in the reign of William III. 
 His work, entitled "The Naked Gospel," was publicly 
 burned in 1690, and the author deprived of his office. 
 
 Bury, (Lady Charlotte Campbell,) a British novel- 
 ist, born in 1775, was a sister of the Marquis of Lorn. 
 She patronized Sir Walter Scott when he was young. 
 Among her works are " The Devoted," and " Flirtation." 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1838. 
 
 Bury, (Elizabeth,) an English scholar, noted for her 
 knowledge of Hebrew, was born in Cambridgeshire in 
 1644. Died in 1720. 
 
 See a " Life of E. Bury," by her husband, Samuel Bury. 
 
 Bury, de, deh bii're', (Richard,) a French historian, 
 born in Paris in 1730. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "The Heroic and Private Life of Henry IV. of France," 
 (2 vols., 1765.) Died in 1794. 
 
 Bury, de, (Richard.) See Richard de Bury. 
 
 Bus. See Bos. 
 
 Bus, de, deh bus, (Cesar,) a French ecclesiastic, born 
 at Cavaillon in 1544, founded in 1592 the Congregation 
 of Christian Doctrine. Died in 1607. 
 
 See J. de Beauvais, " Vie de Cesar de Bus," 1645 ; Pierre Du- 
 mas, "Vie du venerable C. de Bus," 1703. 
 
 Busbecq, bus'bek orbiis'bek', Bousbecq, or Boes- 
 bec, boos'bek, (Augier Ghislen,) [Lat. Auge'rius 
 Ghisle'nius Busbe'quius,] an eminent Flemish scholar 
 and traveller, born at Commines in 1522, was sent by 
 the emperor Ferdinand as ambassador to Solyman II. 
 He afterwards wrote, in Latin, an interesting narrative 
 of his sojourn at the court uf the Sultan, " Legationis 
 Turcica? Epistolaequatuor," (1589,) which is replete with 
 valuable information of various kinds. Besides the above 
 work, he wrote " Letters from France to the Emperor 
 Rudolph." Died in 1592. 
 
 See Sweert, "Athenae Belgicae;" "Retrospective Review," vol. 
 xiii., 1826; J. G. Eck, "Dissertatio de A. G. Busbequio," 1768; Nl- 
 CRRON, "Me^noires." 
 
 Bvis'by, (Dr. Richard,) born in Lincolnshire, Eng- 
 land, in 1606, became master of Westminster School in 
 1640, and in the fifty-five years during which he held 
 that station he is said to have educated a greater num- 
 ber of distinguished men than any other teacher that 
 ever lived. He died in 1695. Though a very severe 
 disciplinarian, he was kind-hearted and eminently chari- 
 table to the poor.* 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses;" "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 ' Yet he was kind ; or, if severe in aught. 
 The love he bore to learning was in fault." 
 
 Goldsmith's " Deserted Village.' 
 
 Busby, (Thomas,) an English musician and writer, 
 born at Westminster in 1755, became organist at the 
 church of Saint Mary Wolnoth. He published a " History 
 of Music," a musical dictionary, "The Age of Genius," 
 a poem, and made a translation of Lucretius. Died in 1838. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1814. 
 
 Busch, boosh, or Busel, boo'zel, (August Ludwig,) 
 a German astronomer, bom at Dantzic in 1804. He was 
 the assistant of Bessel, whom he succeeded as director 
 of the observatory at Konigsberg in 1846. Died in 1855. 
 
 Busche, von dem, fon dam bdosh'eh, [Lat. Bus'- 
 chius,] (Hermann,) a learned German friend of Luther, 
 born in 1468; died in 1534. 
 
 Buschetto, boos-ket'to, surnamed da Dui.ichio, 
 (da doo-lee'ke-o,) from the place of his birth, a Greek 
 architect and sculptor, built the famous cathedral church 
 of Pisa, which was commenced about 1063. 
 
 See Quatremere de Quincy, " Vies des Aichitectes ce'lebres." 
 
 Busching, bii'shing, (Anton Friedrich,) an eminent 
 German geographer and theologian, born in Schaum- 
 burg-Lippe in 1724. He became professor of philosophy 
 at Gottingen in 1759, and in 1761 was invited to Saint 
 Petersburg as preacher to the Protestant congregation. 
 His "Description of the Earth" (1754) was esteemed 
 the most complete work of the kind that had then ap- 
 peared, and was translated into the principal languages 
 of Europe. He also published a " Magazine for History 
 and Geography," " Biographies of Celebrated Persons," 
 and a " History of the Lutheran Churches in Poland and 
 Russia," (3 vols., 1784-87.) Died in 1793. 
 
 See his Autobiography, entitled "A. F. Buschings Lebensge- 
 schlchte," 1789. 
 
 Busching, (Johann Gustav Gottlieb,) son of the 
 preceding, born at Berlin in 1783. He was appointed 
 royal archivist at Breslau in. 181 1, and professor of archae- 
 ology in 1823. He published many works on German 
 literature, art, and mediaeval antiquities. Died in 1829. 
 
 Busel. See Busch. 
 
 Busembaum. See Busenbaum. 
 
 Busenbaum, boo'zen-bowm', or Busembaum, boo'- 
 zem-bowm', (Hermann,) a famous German Jesuit, born 
 at Nottelen, in Westphalia, in 1600. His work entitled 
 "Marrow of Moral Theology" ("Medulla Theologiae 
 Moralis," 1645) went through more than fifty editions; 
 but it was condemned to be burnt, by the parliaments of 
 Paris and Toulouse, for countenancing regicide. Died 
 in 1668. 
 
 Bush, (George,) an American theologian and biblical 
 scholar, born in Norwich, Vermont, in 1796. He grad- 
 uated at Dartmouth in 1818, and was appointed in 1S31 
 professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature in the Uni- 
 versity of New York. In 1832 he published his "Life 
 of Mohammed," and about the same time an elaborate 
 "Treatise on the Millennium," in which he maintained 
 the millennium to have been the period in which Chris- 
 tianity triumphed over Roman paganism. In 1835 ap- 
 peared his "Hebrew Grammar," in 1836 "Illustrations 
 of the Holy Scriptures," and in 1840 he began his series of 
 " Bible Commentaries," in 8 vols. In 1847 he embraced 
 the doctrines of Swedenborg. He edited the " New 
 Church Repository," and officiated as Swedenborgian 
 minister until within a few months of his death in 1S60. 
 
 See Griswold, "Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Bushe, boosh, (Sir Charles Kendal,) an eloquent 
 Irish lawyer and judge, born about 1767, was a member 
 of the Irish Parliament. He became chief justice of 
 Ireland in 1822. Died in 1843. 
 
 See Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George III.," Third 
 Series. 
 
 Bush'el, (Thomas,) an English royalist, born in 1594, 
 was master of the royal mines in Wales, and published 
 several works. Died in 1674. 
 
 Bushnell, boosh'nel, (David,) an American inventor, 
 born in Saybrook, Connecticut, about 1742, became a 
 captain in the army. He prepared explosive machines 
 which he placed in kegs, that they might be carried by 
 the tide against the British ships in the Delaware. This 
 affair occasioned Hopkinson's ballad of "The Battle of 
 the Kegs." Died in 1826. 
 
 See Henry Howe, " Lives of Eminent American Mechanics, etc.," 
 1847. 
 
 E, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
BUS HN ELL 
 
 473 
 
 BUTLER 
 
 Bushnell, (Horace,) D.D., an eminent American 
 divine, born in Litchfield county, Connecticut, in 1802. 
 He graduated at Yale College in 1827, and was after- 
 wards fo some time literary editor of the New York 
 "Journal of Commerce." In 1833 he was ordained pas- 
 tor of the North Congregational Church in Hartford. 
 Dr. Bushnell has long been regarded as one of the most 
 eloquent preachers and accomplished writers in Con- 
 necticut. He has published several volumes, and a great 
 number of discourses and addresses on various subjects, 
 chiefly philosophical and theological, including the 
 "Moral Tendencies and Results of Human History," 
 " Unconscious Influence," " Politics the Law of God," 
 "The Age of Homespun," etc. In 1849 he was sum- 
 moned before the Hartford Central Association of Min- 
 isters for the heretical opinions alleged to be contained 
 in his volume entitled "God in Christ." The charge was 
 not sustained; and in reply Dr. Bushnell published (1851) 
 his " Christian Theology," in which he reviews the various 
 shades of belief that have prevailed in the Church, and 
 arrives at the conclusion that exactness in theological 
 science cannot be attained. In 1858 appeared his most 
 important work, "Nature and the Supernatural as to- 
 gether constituting the One System of God." 
 
 Busiri. See Booseeree. 
 
 Bu-si'ris, [Gr. BofJcxptc,] in ancient mythology, a king 
 of Egypt, and son of Neptune, who sacrificed to Jupiter 
 all the foreigners who entered his dominions. He was 
 killed by Hercules. 
 
 See P. Ekekmann, " Dissertatio de Busiride," Upsal, 1743. 
 
 Busleyden, bus-11'den, [Lat. Buslid'ius,] (Jerome,) 
 a distinguished patron of literature, and friend of Eras- 
 mus, born in the province of Luxemburg about 1470; 
 died in 1517. 
 
 Buslidius, the Latin of Busleyden, which see. 
 ■ Buas, boos, (Franz Joseph,) a German jurist, born 
 at Zell in 1S03, was professor of law and political economy 
 at Freiburg in 1836. He published "The Methodology 
 of Canon Law," and other works. 
 
 Bussey, btiz'ze, (Benjamin,) a wealthy merchant of 
 Boston, born at Canton, Massachusetts, in 1757. He be- 
 queathed a large sum to Harvard College. Died in 1842. 
 
 Bussieres, de, deh bu'se'aiR', a French writer and 
 poet, born near Lyons in 1607 ; died in 1678. 
 
 Bussola, boos4o-la, (Dionigi,) a Milanese sculptor, 
 flourished about 1600-30. 
 
 Busson, bu'so.s', (Julien,) a French physician, born 
 in Brittany in 1 717 ; died in 1781. 
 
 Bussone. See Carmagnola. 
 
 Bussy, bu'se', (Antoine Alexandre Brutus,) a 
 French physician and scientific writer, born at Marseilles 
 in 1794, made several discoveries in chemistry. In 1850 
 he was admitted into the Institute. 
 
 Bussy d'Amboise, de, deh bu'se' d&N'bwaz', (Louis 
 de Clermont,) a French nobleman of the time of Henry 
 III., signalized himself by his cruelty during the Massa- 
 cre of Saint Bartholomew. He was at length murdered 
 by the Count of Montsoreau, whose wife he had seduced. 
 His adventures form the subject of Dumas' romance 
 " La Dame de Montsoreau." 
 
 See De Thou, " Histoire Universelle." 
 
 Bussy-Rabutin, de, deh bu'se' ri'bu'taN', (Roger,) 
 Comtk, a French satirist, born in Nivernais in 1618. 
 He published " Memoirs" and "Letters," and a work 
 entitled "Amorous History of the Gauls." He was im- 
 prisoned a year in the Bastille, and subsequently exiled 
 to his country-seat sixteen years, for writing a satire on 
 Louis XIV. Died in 1693. 
 
 See Lk Bret, "MtSmoires secrets de Bussy-Rabutin," 1767. 
 
 Bustamaiite de la Camara, boos-tamin'ta da la 
 ka'ma-ia, (Juan,) a Spanish naturalist, born at Alcalade 
 Henares. He wrote a work on the animals mentioned 
 in the Scriptures, (2 vols., 1595.) 
 
 Bustamente, boos tA-men'ta, (Anastasius,) a Mexi- 
 can general, born about 1782. He became l'resident of 
 Mexicoin 1830, was soon after banished, was again chosen 
 President in 1837, and was banished a second time in 
 1841. Died in 1851. 
 
 Bustamente or Bustamaiite, de, da boos-ta-man'- 
 ta, (Don Carlos Maria,) a Mexican archaeologist, born 
 
 about 1800. He edited, besides-other works, Bernardino 
 de Sahagun's " History of New Spain," (" Historia uni- 
 versal de las Cosas de Nueva Espafia," 3 vols., 1839.) 
 
 Busti, boos'tee, (Agostino,) a skilful Italian sculp- 
 tor, sometimes called il Bustino, (el boos-tee'no,) and 
 Bambaia, (bam-bi'ya,) born in the Milanese in 1470. 
 His chief work was a monument to Gaston de Foix at 
 Milan. Died about 1550. 
 
 Bute, (John Stuart,) Earl of, a British statesman, 
 born in Scotland in 1713. He became in 1738 one of 
 the lords of the bedchamber to Frederick, Prince of 
 Wales, and in this station succeeded in obtaining a great 
 ascendency over the mind of that prince's son, afterwards 
 George III. The life of Lord Bute belongs rather to 
 history than to biography. We will merely say here 
 that in 1 761 he was made one of the principal secretaries 
 of state, and in May, 1762, he became first lord of the 
 treasury to the young king. As minister he was emi- 
 nently unpopular ; but although he resigned in April, 
 1763, he still retained the confidence of the king, and 
 continued (as was generally believed) to exert a great 
 influence over the counsels of the cabinet. He passed 
 the last six or seven years of his life in unbroken re- 
 tirement, and died in 1792. Lord Bute was a liberal 
 patron of literature and the arts. He was fond of the 
 sciences, especially of botany, and published an expen- 
 sive work, in nine volumes, on the plants of England. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Ersch und Gruher, "Allgemeine Encyclopaedic;" Macaulay, 
 "Essay on the Earl of Chatham," in the "Edinburgh Review" for 
 October, 1844. 
 
 Buteo, bii'ta'o', or Borrel, bo'rel', (Jean,) a French 
 geometer and writer, born at Charpey in 1492 ; died in 
 IS72. 
 
 Biit'ler, (Alban,) a learned English Catholic divine, 
 president of the College of Saint-Omer, author of " Lives 
 of the Saints," (5 vols., 1745,) and other works. Born at 
 Northampton in 17 10; died in 1773. 
 
 See Charles Butler, " Life of Alban Butler," London, 1799. 
 
 BQt'ler, (Andrew Pickens,) an American politician, 
 born in South Carolina about 1796. He was a United 
 States Senator for South Carolina for a number of years 
 between 1846 and 1857. His kinsman Preston Brooks 
 assaulted Charles Sumner in 1856, on account of some 
 remarks offensive to Butler. Died in 1857. 
 
 Butler, (Benjamin F.,) an American lawyer, practised 
 at Albany, in New York State. He was attorney-general 
 of the United States from December, 1831, to June, 1834, 
 in the cabinet of President Jackson. Died in 1858. 
 
 Butler, (Benjamin Franklin,) an American politi- 
 cian and general, born at Deerfield, New Hampshire, on 
 the 5th of November, 1818. According to Parton, he 
 was "a youth of keen vision, fiery, inquisitive, fearless." 
 He graduated at Waterville College, Maine, about 1838. 
 He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1840, and 
 practised with success. It is said that in fertility of ex- 
 pedients and devices to obtain an acquittal of his client 
 he has seldom if ever been equalled. He was originally 
 what is termed a "hard-shell" Democrat, (i.e. one in- 
 flexibly devoted to the principles of the party. ) He took an 
 active part in politics, and was a delegate to the National 
 Convention which was held in Charleston in April, i860, 
 and adjourned to Baltimore, where it separated into two 
 bodies. Butler supported Breckinridge for the Presi- 
 dency in November, i860, and thus made himself so un- 
 popular in the North that he received only six thousand 
 votes as candidate for Governor of Massachusetts in 
 that year. 
 
 On the breaking out of the civil war in 1861 he took 
 command of a brigade, which he moved at once towards 
 Washington ; but, on hearing of the riot in Baltimore, he 
 made a detour to Annapolis. He occupied Baltimore 
 on the 13th or 14th of May, was appointed a major- 
 general on the 16th, and on the 22d took command of 
 Fortress Monroe, the most important fort in the Union. 
 Three slaves having come to the fort for prote< Hon, But- 
 ler received them, and applied to them the famous phrase 
 "contraband of war." "An epigram," said Theodore 
 Winthrop, alluding to this expression, "abolished slavery 
 in the United States." Butler commanded the land- 
 forces of the expedition which took Fi.it 1 1. it t eras, North 
 Carolina, in August, 1861. In January, 1862, he obtained 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; g, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (JJ^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BUTLER 
 
 474 
 
 BUTLER 
 
 command of an army of. about 15,000 men sent by sea 
 to co-operate with the navy in the capture of New Or- 
 leans. The department of the Gulf was then created, 
 and Butler was appointed commander of the same. 
 Admiral Farragut passed the forts on the 24th of April, 
 and transferred New Orleans to General Butler, who 
 entered it on the 1st of May. By stern and vigorous 
 measures he reduced the city to order, and, by his wise 
 and strict sanitary regulations, preserved it from the 
 yellow fever in the summer of 1862. He ordered Wil- 
 liam Mumford to be executed for tearing down the flag 
 of the Union from the mint. To obtain funds for the 
 support of the poor, he exacted money from rich seces- 
 sionists. A great outcry was made against him for his 
 order "that any female who should insult an officer or 
 soldier should be regarded and held liable to be treated 
 as a woman of the town, plying her avocation," which, 
 according to Parton, had a salutary effect. General But- 
 ler imprisoned the insolent Mayor Monroe in Fort Jack- 
 son in May, 1862. He armed free coloured men, and 
 obtained from that class recruits for his army. In No- 
 vember, 1862, he was removed from the command, and 
 was succeeded by General Banks, — a change which it 
 would perhaps be difficult to defend on any principles 
 of sound policy. " At New Orleans," says Parton, "he 
 was magnificently right both in theory and practice." In 
 December, 1862, Jefferson Davis issued a proclamation 
 in relation to General Butler, whom he declared to be a 
 felon, and ordered him to be treated as an outlaw. But- 
 ler had gone to New Orleans a pro-slavery Democrat : 
 he came away a decided anti-slavery man and a Radical. 
 He obtained command of the department of Virginia and 
 North Carolina in the latter part of 1863. Having been 
 instructed to operate on the south side of the James River 
 against Richmond, he moved his army, composed of two 
 corps, up the James River on the 4th of May, 1864, and 
 on the 5th occupied City Point and Bermuda Hundred, 
 where he intrenched himself. His army was attacked 
 on the 16th, near Drury's Bluff, and forced back into its 
 intrenchments, where it was safe, but could not operate 
 efficiently against Richmond. He commanded the land- 
 force of an unsuccessful expedition against Fort Fisher 
 in December, 1864, and soon after this date was removed 
 from command by General Grant, who complained that 
 he had violated his instructions. 
 
 He was elected a member of Congress in 1866, and 
 was one of the managers selected March 2, 1868, to 
 conduct the impeachment of President Johnson. He 
 was re-elected to Congress in 1868. 
 
 See Parton, "General Butler in New Orleans; History of the 
 Administration of the Department of the Gulf in 1862," 1864; Gree- 
 ley, "American Conflict," 2 vols., 1864-66. 
 
 • Butler, (Charles,) an English clergyman, scholar, 
 and writer on music, etc., born at High Wycombe in 1559. 
 Among his works are " The Feminine Monarchy, or the 
 History of Bees," (1609,) and " The Principles of Music," 
 (1636.) Died in 1647. 
 
 Butler, (CHARLES,) an able and learned English jurist 
 and Roman Catholic writer, a. nephew of Alban But- 
 ler, noticed above, was born in London in 1750. He 
 completed the edition of Coke upon Littleton which Har- 
 grave left unfinished. Among his principal works are 
 "Horse Biblicae," (1797,) " Horae juridical subsecivae," 
 (1804,) "Historical Memoirs of the English, Irish, and 
 Scottish Catholics," and a continuation of Alban Butler's 
 "Lives of the Saints." Died in 1832. 
 
 See "Reminiscences of Charles Butler," London, 1822. 
 
 Butler, (Cyrus,) an American merchant, born in 
 1767, lived at Providence, Rhode Island. He gave forty 
 thousand dollars to endow a hospital for the insane at 
 Providence. Died in 1849. 
 
 Butler, (Frances.) See Kf.mhle, (Fanny.) 
 
 Butler, (James.) See Ormond, Duke of. 
 
 Butler, (James,) an American soldier of the Revolu- 
 tion, born in Prince William county, Virginia, settled in 
 South Carolina, where he distinguished himself in par- 
 tisan warfare against the British. He was killed in the 
 massacre at Cloud's Creek, near the close of the war. 
 
 Butler, (John,) Bishop of Hereford, an English politi- 
 cal writer, born at Hamburg in 171 7, He wrote pamph- 
 lets in support of Lord North's measures. Died in 1 802. 
 
 Butler, (John,) an Atnerican tory, born in Connecti- 
 cut, was notorious as the leader of the party which mas- 
 sacred the settlers of Wyoming Valley in July, 1778. 
 
 Butler, (Joseph,) an English bishop and writer of high 
 reputation, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, in 1692. 
 He commenced his scholastic education at the grammar- 
 school at Wantage, from which he went to an academy 
 in Gloucestershire, where he had for his fellow-student 
 Seeker, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. While at 
 this academy " he wrote," says Mackintosh, " private let- 
 ters to Dr. Clarke on his celebrated ' Demonstration,' 
 suggesting objections that were really insuperable, and 
 which are marked by an acuteness which neither himself 
 nor any other ever surpassed." Not long after, he en- 
 tered Oriel College, Oxford. He was admitted into holy 
 orders about 17160^717. In 1721 he became rector of 
 Houghton, and obtained the rich living of Stanhope in 
 1725. In 1726 he published fifteen sermons preached at 
 the Rolls Chapel, which are highly esteemed. He was 
 appointed chaplain to Lord-Chancellor Talbot in 1733, 
 and clerk of the closet to the queen in 1736. His reputa- 
 tion rests chiefly on his admirable " Analogy of Religion, 
 Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of 
 Nature," (1736.) "This," says Sir James Mackintosh, 
 "is the most original and profound work extant in any 
 language on the philosophy of religion." Lord Broug- 
 ham pronounces it " the most argumentative and philo- 
 sophical defence of Christianity ever submitted to the 
 world." Butler was appointed Bishop of Bristol in 1738, 
 and Bishop of Durham in 1750. Died in 1752. His 
 character is represented as pure, modest, and amiable. 
 He was never married. 
 
 See Fitzcerald, " Life of Bishop Butler," prefixed to an edition 
 of his "Analogy," 1848; Mackintosh, "View of the Progress of 
 Ethical Philosophy ;" Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" Thomas 
 Bartlett, " Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Joseph Butler, Bishop of 
 Durham ;" " London Quarterly Review" for May, 1830, and October, 
 1839. 
 
 Butler, (Pierce M.,) Colonel, born in Edgefield 
 District, South Carolina, in 1798, became Governor of 
 his native State, and was killed at the battle of Churu- 
 busco in August, 1847. 
 
 Butler, (Richard,) a major-general in the American 
 army, was killed while fighting, under General Saint 
 Clair, against the Indians, in 1791. 
 
 Butler, (Samuel,) a celebrated English wit and poet, 
 the author of " Hudibras," was born in the parish of 
 Strensham, Worcestershire, about 1612. He became in 
 early life a clerk to Mr. Jeffereys, a justice of the peace, 
 and afterwards entered the service of Sir Samuel Luke, 
 an officer under Cromwell. Luke is supposed to be the 
 original of Hudibras. After the restoration, (1660,) 
 Butler was secretary to the Earl of Carbury, who ap- 
 pointed him steward of Ludlow Castle. He married a 
 Mrs. Herbert, who brought him a fortune, which, how- 
 ever, was lost by investment in unsound securities. The 
 first part of his famous poem was published in 1663, 
 the second part in 1664; but the third part did not ap- 
 pear until 1678. He died poor, in London, in 1680. 
 
 " ' Hudibras,' " says Hallam, " was incomparably more 
 popular than ' Paradise Lost :' no poem in our lan- 
 guage rose at once to greater reputation. Nor can this 
 be called ephemeral, like that of most political poetry. 
 . . . The sense of Butler is masculine, his wit inexhausti- 
 ble, and it is supplied from every source of reading and 
 observation. But these sources are often so unknown 
 to the reader that his wit loses its effect through the ob- 
 scurity of the allusions." (" Introduction to the Litera- 
 ture of Europe.") 
 
 See Dr. Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets ;" A. M. H. Bou- 
 lard, "ViedeS. Butler Auteurdu Poeme d'Hudibras," Paris, 1816; 
 "Biographia Britannica ;" A. Ramsay, "Butler and his Hudibras;" 
 "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1820; " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 March, 1856. 
 
 Butler, (Samuel,) D.D.,an English philologist, born 
 in Warwickshire in 1774. He studied at Saint John's 
 College, Cambridge, and became BisTiop of Lichfield in 
 1836. He published a valuable edition of "/Eschylus," 
 a " Praxis on the Latin Prepositions," and other works. 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 Butler, (Thomas,) Earl of Ossory, son of James 
 Duke of Ormond, born in 1634. He was raised to the 
 rank of admiral in 1673, and commanded the English 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, f, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mit; ndt; good; moon; 
 
BUTLER 
 
 475 
 
 BUXTORF 
 
 •roops in Flanders in the war against the French in 1677. 
 Died in 1680. 
 
 Butler, (Wef.den,) an English divine, born at Mar- 
 gate in 1742, became chaplain to the Duke of Kent. 
 He wrote "The Cheltenham Guide," "Sermons," etc. 
 Died in 1S23. 
 
 Butler, (William,) an English teacher and writer of 
 school-books, born near Worcester in 1748. Among his 
 works is "Exercises on the Globes," (1798.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Butler, (William,) an American general, born in 
 Virginia about 1755, was the father of Andrew P. and 
 Pierce M., noticed above. He represented a district 
 of South Carolina in Congress from 1800 to 1813. Died 
 in 1821. 
 
 Butler, (William Allen,) an American lawyer and 
 poet, son of Benjamin F. Butler the attorney-general, was 
 born in Albany in 1825. His "Nothing to Wear: an 
 Episode in City Life," (1857,) has obtained great popu- 
 larity both in Europe and in this country. Mr. Butler has 
 made contributions in prose and verse to the "Demo- 
 cratic Review,'' '■ Literary World," etc. 
 
 Butler, (William Archer,) a philosopher and poet, 
 born at Annerville, near Clonmel, Ireland, about 1814. 
 He contributed several poems to the " Dublin Univer- 
 sity Magazine." In 1837 he became professor of moral 
 philosophy in Trinity College, Dublin. He wrote "Let- 
 ters on Romanism, a Reply to Cardinal Wiseman," (1854,) 
 "Lectures on the History of Ancient Philosophy," (2 
 vols., 1856,) and other works. Died in 1848. 
 
 Butler, (William O.,) an American general, born in 
 Kentucky about 1793. He served in the war of 1812, and 
 in the Mexican war, (1846-47.) In 1846 he was raised to 
 the rank of major-general. He was the Democratic can- 
 didate for Vice-President of the United States in 1848, 
 but was not elected. 
 
 Butret, de, deh bii'tR^', Baron, a French horticul- 
 turist of Strasburg. He published in 1794 a treatise on 
 the trimming of fruit-trees, " Taille raisonnee des Arbres 
 fruitiers," which was often reprinted. Died in 1805. 
 
 Butt, (George,) an English clergyman and poet, born 
 in 1741, published numerous sermons. Died about 1795. 
 
 Butt, (Isaac,) an Irish lawyer and politician, born in 
 Donegal county in 1813. He was elected a member of 
 Parliament in 1852. He published, besides other works, 
 a " History of the Kingdom of Italy," (i860.) 
 
 Buttafuoco, boot-ti-foo-o'co, (Matteo.) a general, 
 born in Corsica in 1730. He opposed Paoli, and pro- 
 moted the incorporation of Corsica with France. As a 
 member of the States-General in 1789, he favoured the 
 old regime. I lied about 1800. 
 
 But'ter-field, (Daniel,) an American general, born 
 in Oneida county, New York, about 1831. He was ap- 
 pointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in September, 
 1861. He served at several battles near Richmond in 
 May and June, 1862, after which he was raised to the 
 rank of major-general. 
 
 Butt'mann, [Ger. pron. bdot'man,] (Philipp Karl,) 
 a learned and profound German philologist, born at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main in December, 1764, became in 
 1796 secretary and in 1S1 1 librarian of the Royal Library 
 at Berlin. Died in 1829. Buttmann devoted his atten- 
 tion chiefly to the study of the Greek language and an- 
 ti -jtiities. His large Greek Grammar (" Ausfiihrliche 
 Griec hische Sprachlehre") is, so far as it goes, perhaps 
 the liest work of the kind that has ever been written. 
 Unhappily, he did not live to complete it. He was a 
 friend of Niebuhr. He edited various Greek classics. 
 Among his principal works are his " Greek Grammar for 
 Schools," (1792,) which is an abridgment of a more ex- 
 tensive work, sometimes called the " Intermediate Greek 
 Grammar," ( 1 8 1 9, ) "Lexilogus, or Explanation of Greek 
 Words," (1818,) and " Mythologus, or a Collection of 
 Treatises on the Traditions of Antiquity," (2 vols., 1828.) 
 Set " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" Brockhaus, " Conversa- 
 tions- Lextlcon." 
 
 Biitt'ner, (Christian Wilhelm,) an eminent Ger- 
 man philologist and naturalist, born at Wolfenbiittel in 
 1716. He travelled extensively, and formed rich collec- 
 tions of natural history. He passed many years at Got- 
 tingen in researches into the primitive history of nations 
 and the filiation of languages. To him we owe the first 
 
 essay of a glossography, or geography of languages. He 
 published several works. Died at Jena in 1801. 
 See Ersch und Grubrr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Buttner, boot'ner, (David Sigismund August,) a 
 German botanist, born in 1724, succeeded Haller in the 
 chair of botany at Gbttingen. Died in 1768. 
 
 Biit'ton, ( Thomas,) an English navigator, made a 
 voyage to the northeastern part of America in 1612, and 
 discovered the mouth of Nelson River, in about 57° north 
 latitude. He gave the name of Button's Bay to a bay 
 near Nelson River. He is said to have been the first 
 who sailed through Hudson Strait to the western shore 
 of Hudson Bay. 
 
 Butts, (Sir William,) an English physician, born in 
 Norfolk, is mentioned by Shakspeare in his play of 
 "Henry VIII.," act v. He was physician to Henry VIII. 
 Died in 1545. 
 
 Buttura, boot-too'ra, (Antonio,) an Italian critic and 
 litterateur, born near Lake Garda in 177 1. He became 
 professor of the Italian language and literature at Saint- 
 Cyr, in France, and in 1817 succeed d Ginguene as pro- 
 fessor at the Athenaeum. Died in 1832. 
 
 Buttura, bii'tu'rt', (Eugene Ferdinand,) a land- 
 scape-painter, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 
 1 8 12; died in 1852. 
 
 Buturlin. See Bootoorlin. 
 
 Buxbaum, books'bowm, (Johann Christian,) a 
 German botanist, born at Merseburg in 1694, founded, 
 at the command of the Czar, a botanic garden at Saint 
 Petersburg about 1720, and died in 1730. 
 
 Buxhowden, bdoks'ho'den, sometimes written Buz- 
 hoeden, (Frederick William,) Count, a Russian gen- 
 eral, born in Livonia in 1750. He served in the Polish 
 campaign of 1792, and commanded the left wing of the 
 Russians at Austerlitz. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Buxtehude, (Dietrich,) a Dutch musician and com- 
 poser, born about 1635, became organist to Saint Mary's 
 Church at Lubeck. He was esteemed one of the best 
 performers of his time, and composed sacred pieces of 
 great merit. Died in 1707. 
 
 Bfix'ton, (Charles,) an English writer, son of T. 
 Fowell Buxton, noticed below, born in 1822. He wrote 
 " Memoirs of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton," (3d edition, 
 1 85 1 . ) He became a member of Parliament and of the 
 Liberal party. 
 
 Buxton, (Jedediah,) an English arithmetician of 
 singular powers of calculation, bom near Chesterfield in 
 1705. His intellect was below mediocrity, with the ex- 
 ception of a wonderful facility in solving the most diffi- 
 cult problems. When on a visit to London, he was taken 
 to the theatre, and employed himself in counting the 
 words used by the actors. Died about 1774. 
 
 Buxton, (Sir Thomas Fowell,) an eminent English 
 philanthropist, born at Castle Hedingham, in Essex, in 
 1786. He married in 1807 Hannah Gurney, of Earlham 
 Hall, a sister of Joseph John Gumey and Elizabeth Fry. 
 He represented Weymouth in Parliament from 1818 
 to 1837, acquired much influence in public affairs, and 
 succeeded Wilberforce as the leader of the anti-slavery 
 movement. About 1838 he produced a "Treatise on 
 the Slave-Trade." Died in 1845. 
 
 See a " Life of T. F. Buxton," by his son, Chari.es Buxton, 3d 
 edition, 1851; A. von Treskow, "Sir T. F. jiuxton : ein Bild 
 des Englischen Lebens, etc.," Berlin, 1853; "London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for June, 1848; "Edinburgh Review" for September, 1S1S. 
 
 Buxtorf, bdoks'toRf, [Lat. Buxtor'fius,] (Johann,) 
 a distinguished Hebrew scholar, born at Camen, in West- 
 phalia, in 1564. He became professor of Hebrew at Bale 
 in 1591, and published a "Lexicon Hebraicum et Chal- 
 daicum,"(i6o7,) " Biblia Hebraica Rabbinica," or Hebrew 
 Bible with Rabbinical notes, and several treatises on the 
 writings of the Rabbins. Died in 1629. 
 
 See Daniel Tossanus, "Oratio de Vita et Obitu J Buxtorfii," 
 1630; Niceron, "Memoires;" Moreri, "Diet nnaire Historique." 
 
 Buxtorf, (Johann,) son of the preceding, born at 
 BSle in 1599, was also celebrated as a Hebraist. In 1630 
 he succeeded his father as professor at Bale. He pub- 
 lished a "Chaldee and Syriac Lexicon," "Concordance 
 of the Hebrew Bible," (1632,) left unfinished by his father, 
 and other works. Died in 1664. 
 
 See L. Gernler, "Oratio pareutalis J. Buxtorfii Memoriae dicata," 
 1655 ; Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
BUXTORF 
 
 476 
 
 BT RON 
 
 Buxtorf, (Johann Jakob,) son of the preceding, born 
 in 1645 at Bale, was professor of Hebrew in his nativs 
 city. Died in 1704. 
 
 His nephew John was likewise professor of Hebrew 
 at Bale. Died in 1732. 
 
 See S. Werenfels, "Vita exiraii Viri J. J. Buxtorfii," 1705. 
 
 Buy de Mornas, bii-e' deh moR'na', (Claude,) a 
 French geographer, born at Lyons. He published " Me- 
 thodical and Elementary Cosmography," (1770,) and 
 other works. Died in 1783. 
 
 Buys, bois, (Paulus,) an eminent Dutch statesman, 
 lived about 1550-90. He was honoured with the friend- 
 ship and confidence of William, Prince of Orange, and 
 held for a considerable time the office of advocate of 
 Holland. During the administration of the Earl of 
 Leicester in the Netherlands, Buys was the leader of 
 the opposition party. He is pronounced by Motley one 
 nf the ablest statesmen of Holland. 
 
 See Motley, "United Netherlands," vol. i. chap. x. 
 
 Buzanval, de, deh bii'z&N'vil', (Nicolas Choart,) 
 a French prelate, remarkable for his devotion to the 
 duties of his office and for the apostolic simplicity of 
 his character, born in Paris in 161 1, became Bishop of 
 Beauvais in 1650. Died in 1679. 
 
 See J. Besoigne, "Vies des quatre Fiveques engage's dans la Cause 
 de Port-Royal," 2 vols., 1756. 
 
 Buzot, bii'zo', (Francois Leonard Nicolas,) an 
 eminent French Girondist, born at Evreux in 1760, was 
 an advocate before the Revolution. He was sent as a 
 deputy to the States-General in 1789, and to the Na- 
 tional Convention in 1792. In the trial of the king he 
 voted for an appeal to the people. On the 31st of May, 
 1793, he was proscribed as a royalist with the other 
 chiefs of the Gironde, and fled, first to Calvados ; after- 
 wards they attempted to conceal themselves in the south 
 of France. Buzot and Petion were found dead in a field 
 near Bordeaux in June, 1794. Buzot was an especial 
 favourite of Madame Roland. 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists;" "Vie de Buzot," 
 prefixed to his " M^moires sur la Revolution," edited by Guadet, 
 1S23; article on Madame Roland in this work, and "Memoiresde 
 Madame Roland," edited by M. P. Faugere, 1864. 
 
 By'field, (Nicholas,) an English Puritan divine, born 
 in Warwickshire about 1578, was vicar of Isleworth. He 
 wrote commentaries on some books of the New Testa- 
 ment. Died in 1622. 
 
 Bylderdyck. See Bilderdijk. 
 
 Byles, (Mather,) an American clergyman and noted 
 humorist, born at Boston in 1706. He preached many 
 years at Boston. In 1776 he adhered to the royal cause. 
 Died in 1788. 
 
 Bynaeus, bl-na'iis, (Antoon,) a Dutch philologist, 
 born at Utrecht in 1654, published several Latin works. 
 Died in 1698. 
 
 Byng, blng, (George,) an eminent English naval 
 commander, born in 1663, became rear-admiral in 1703, 
 vice-admiral in 1706, and admiral of the blue about 
 1708. In 1721 he was raised to the peerage, with the 
 title of Viscount Torrington. Died in 1733. 
 
 Byng, (John,) an English admiral, son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1704. Having in 1756, in consequence of 
 the improvidence and inefficiency of the English minis- 
 try, been unsuccessful in an expedition to relieve Minorca, 
 then blockaded by a French fleet of superior strength, 
 he was accused of cowardice by the ministers, who were 
 anxious to avert the public odium from themselves. By 
 a sentence of extreme rigour, he was condemned to be 
 shot. He met his death with the firmness of a hero, 
 March 14, 1757. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Sieclede Louis XV;" " Correspondance Gen£- 
 rale;" J. F. Seyfart, " Leben des Admirals J. Byng," 1757. 
 
 Bynkershoeck, van, vfn bTn'kers-hook', (Kor- 
 NELis,) a celebrated jurist, born at Middelburg, in Hol- 
 land, in 1673. He published, besides other works, "Ob- 
 servationes Juris Romani," (1700-33,) and "Quasstiones 
 Juris Publici," (1737.) His death is variously dated 1763, 
 1743. <" 1745- 
 
 See Sax, " Onomasticon ;" Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's 
 "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Byns, van, vin bTns, (Anne,) a Flemish poetess, born 
 at Antwerp; died about 1548. 
 
 Byrd, (William.) See Birde. 
 
 Byrge, the French of Byrgius, which see. 
 
 Byr'gl-us, (Justus,) [Fr. Juste Byrge, zhiist beRzh,) 
 or Jobst Bttrgi, (yopst buVcee,) a Swiss mathemati- 
 cian, born at Lichtensteg in 1552. He was patronized 
 by William IV., Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, for whom 
 he constructed a celestial globe, afterwards bought by 
 the emperor Rudolph II. He was appointed instru- 
 ment-maker to the emperor, and distinguished himself 
 by several valuable inventions. The invention of loga- 
 rithms is ascribed to him by some writers, but is more 
 generally attributed to Napier. Died in 1633. 
 
 Byrne, birn, (William,) an eminent English en- 
 graver, born at Cambridge about 1744; died in 1805. 
 
 By'rom, (John,) an English writer and poet, born 
 near Manchester in 1691, contributed several pieces to 
 "The Spectator," and invented a system of short-hand 
 which still bears his name. His pastoral of "Colin and 
 Phebe," published in the " Spectator," No. 603, was 
 generally admired. Died in 1763. 
 
 By'rpn, (Anna Isabella Millbanke,) Lady, an 
 English heiress, born in 1792 or 1793, was the only 
 daughter of Sir Ralph Millbanke, afterwards Noel. She 
 was married in January, 181 5, to Lord Byron the poet. 
 They separated the following year. After their sepa- 
 ration she inherited the title of Baroness of Wentworth. 
 She was a woman of superior talents. Died in i860. 
 
 Byron, (George Anson,) Captain, an English naval 
 officer, born in 1758, was a son of Admiral Byron, noticed 
 below. He rendered important service in the great naval 
 victory gained by Lord Rodney over the French in April, 
 1782. Died in 1793. 
 
 Byron, (George Gordon Noel,) an English poet of 
 rare genius, born in London, January 22, 1788. He be- 
 longed to an old family (the name appears to have been 
 originally spelled Burun or Burtin, afterwards Biron, 
 and last of all Byron) which traced its origin back to the 
 Norman conquest. His grandfather, John Byron, was an 
 English admiral. His father, Captain Byron, married 
 Catherine Gordon, a Scottish heiress, with whom he lived 
 unhappily, and whose wealth he squandered in a life of 
 vice and dissipation. In 1790 the mother of the poet, 
 having been deserted by her husband, retired to Scotland 
 and took up her residence in Aberdeen. Here her son 
 received the first rudiments of his education at a day- 
 school. Not long after he was sent to the grammar-school 
 of Aberdeen. When he was between six and seven years 
 old his mother took him with her on a visit to the 
 Highlands, the scenery of which is said to have made, 
 even at that early age, a deep and indelible impression 
 on his mind. When he was ten years old he succeeded 
 to the estate and title of William, fifth Lord Byron, 
 his grand-uncle, who had resided at Newstead Abbey, 
 in Nottinghamshire, and had died there in May, 1798. 
 Soon after, his mother took him to London and consulted 
 some able surgeons respecting a congenital deformity and 
 lameness of one of his feet ; but the defect proved to be 
 incurable, and continued to the end of the poet's life a 
 source of bitter mortification to him. He was next placed 
 at the school of Dr. Glennie. at Dulwich. During his 
 school-days, Byron exhibited many indications both of 
 the virtues and weaknesses which marked his character 
 in after-life. On the one hand, his sympathetic nature, 
 his generosity and courage, won for him the love and 
 respect of his companions ; while, on the other, his mor- 
 bidly sensitive, wilful, and passionate temper involved 
 him in continual disputes and quarrels. It is related 
 that while at Harrow he saw one day a large tyrannical 
 boy punishing little Peel (the brother of the celebrated 
 Sir Robert Peel) because he refused to be his " fag." 
 Byron was not large enough to resist the tyrant with 
 any hope of success, but, in a voice trembling between 
 terror and indignation, he demanded that he might bear 
 half of the punishment. On another occasion, having 
 seen a small and sickly boy bullied by one much older 
 and stronger than himself, he interfered with success. 
 Soon after he said to his protege, " If any one bullies 
 you, tell me, and I will thrash him if I can." He kept 
 his word ; and they were afterwards inseparable friends. 
 Byron had been with Dr. Glennie rather less than two 
 years, when he left for Harrow. While here he formed a 
 
 I, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 8, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
 M. 
 
BTRON 
 
 477 
 
 BTRON 
 
 romantic and passionate attachment for Miss Chaworth, 
 the heiress of Annesley, an estate adjacent to Newstead 
 Abbey. Miss Chaworth's father had been killed in a duel 
 (or, as some say, in a drunken fight) by Lord Byron, the 
 poet's great-uncle. This very circumstance may not 
 improbably have tended to inflame young Byron's ima- 
 gination. Alluding to his love for Miss Chaworth, he 
 says, "Our union would have healed feuds in which blood 
 had been shed by our fathers." He appears to have 
 always regarded this as the deepest and truest passion of 
 his life, and to have fully persuaded himself that if he had 
 married Miss Chaworth he would have been a better 
 as well as a happier man. But she did not return his 
 affection, and not long after she was married to a gentle- 
 man named Musters. This union appears, however, not 
 ti have been a happy one. In 1805 Byron went to Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, which he left two years after with- 
 out a degree. During his stay at the University he pub- 
 lished a volume of poems entitled " Hours of Idleness," 
 (1807,) which was very severely criticised in the "Edin- 
 burgh Review." The poet wrote, by way of retaliation, 
 his " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers," a caustic 
 and scathing satire, which at the time caused a great 
 sensation, and convinced the critics that Byron's genius 
 was not to be terror-stricken or reduced to silence by 
 "paper bullets of the brain." Little, however, can be 
 said in praise of the justice or discrimination shown in 
 this satiric poem. The author reminds one of Moliere's 
 blind man with a club, who lays about him so valiantly, 
 striking down, it may be, friend and foe alike. The sat- 
 irist is, in fact, scarcely less severe against Scott, who 
 had never injured him, than against Jeffrey, the object 
 of his burning and bitter resentment. Byron himself 
 afterwards sincerely regretted the publication of this 
 poem, and did all in his power to suppress its circulation. 
 
 In 1809, accompanied by his friend John Cam Hob- 
 house, (with whom he had become acquainted at Cam- 
 bridge,) Byron set out on his travels through Europe, 
 visiting Portugal, Spain, Turkey, and Greece. He was 
 absent from England nearly two years. On his return 
 he published the first two cantos of "Childe Harold's 
 Pilgrimage," the success of which was so sudden and 
 extraordinary that, as he tells us, "he awoke one morn- 
 ing and found himself famous." Soon after the publica- 
 tion of "Childe Harold" he took his seat in the House 
 of Lords ; and he appears to have thought seriously at 
 one time of devoting himself to politics. He addressed 
 the House three times. His most important speech was 
 on the Catholic claims : it is said to have been listened 
 to with much attention. But he seems to have soon lost 
 his interest in politics, and to have abandoned all hopes 
 of making a figure in public life. In 1813 he published 
 "The Giaour," (i.e. "Infidel,") an Oriental tale inverse, 
 which contains some of the most exquisite poetry to be 
 found in the English language. Towards the close of the 
 same year appeared "The Bride of Abydos," another 
 poem of the same general character, which added to his 
 already brilliant reputation. In January, 1814, was pub- 
 lished "The Corsair," ofwhich.it is said, at least 14,000 
 copies were sold in a single day. His other most im- 
 portant poems of this period were " Lara," " The Siege of 
 Corinth," " Parisina," and "The Prisoner of Chillon." 
 
 On the 2d of January, 1815, Byron married Miss Anna 
 Isabella Miilbanke,onIydaiighter of the baronet Sir Ralph 
 Millbanke, afterwards Noel. She was esteemed a great 
 heiress. Byron says, however, "All I have ever received, 
 or am likely to receive, (and that has been twice paid 
 back, too,) was ^10,000." The match was a very un- 
 happy one ; the incompatibility of their tempers, and, 
 still more, Lord Byron's irregular, not to say licentious, 
 habits, rendered domestic harmony and peace impos- 
 sible. Lady Byron bore him, December 10, 1815, a 
 daughter, Ada, who became afterwards the Countess of 
 Lovelace. Soon after she left him and went to her 
 father's, taking with her the child; and he never saw 
 either of them again. In the spring of 1816 he left Eng- 
 land, with the determination of never more returning to 
 his native land. Having passed through Belgium and 
 visited the field of Waterloo, he proceeded to Switzer- 
 land, and resided for some time near Geneva. While 
 here he wrote the third canto of "Childe Harold." He 
 
 afterwards went to Italy and took up his abode in Venice. 
 He next visited Ravenna : during his sojourn in this city 
 he formed a liaison with the beautiful Countess Guic- 
 cioli, whose sprightly and imaginative character power- 
 fully attracted hiin. During his stay at Pisa, in 1822, 
 the tragic death of his friend Shelley, who was drowned 
 in a squall near Leghorn, affected him deeply. In the 
 early part of 1822 he was associated with Shelley and 
 Leigh Hunt in conducting a periodical called "The 
 Liljeral ;" but, soon after Shelley's death, Byron and 
 Hunt quarrelled, and the journal was discontinued. (See 
 Hunt, Leigh.) In October of the same year he removed 
 to Genoa. Soon afterwards his sympathies for Grecian 
 liberty became strongly excited, and he resolved to de- 
 vote all his energies to the cause. During his sojourn 
 in Italy, Byron had written several of his most remark- 
 able productions, including the fourth canto of " Childe 
 Harold," "Mazeppa," "Manfred," "Cain, a Mystery," 
 "Marino Faliero," "The Two Foscari," "Sardanapa- 
 lus," "Werner," and "Don Juan." Having fully em- 
 barked in the cause of Grecian freedom, he left Italy in 
 the summer of 1823, and proceeded first to Cephalonia, 
 where he remained some months. He arrived at Mis- 
 solonghi in January, 1824. He applied himself to busi- 
 ness with great energy, manifesting a good sense and 
 practical judgment which many were not prepared to 
 expect from one who had till then been looked upon 
 merely as a ooet and a man of pleasure. The exposure 
 which he incurred while making preparations for the 
 siege of Lepanto, then in possession of the Turks, laid 
 the foundation of the illness of which he died. About 
 the middle of February he had a severe convulsive fit. 
 During the extreme prostration that followed this attack, 
 a crowd of Suliotes, whom he had engaged to fight under 
 him, rose in mutiny, and, bursting into his apartment, 
 brandished their arms and furiously demanded their pay. 
 Byron retained his perfect self-possession, and, by his 
 calm and determined courage, awed them into submis- 
 sion. Count Gamba, (brother of the Countess Guiccioli,) 
 who was almost constantly with Lord Byron during the 
 last few months of his life, says of him, " It is impossible 
 to do justice to the coolness and magnanimity which he 
 displayed upon every trying occasion. Upon trifling 
 occasions he was certainly irritable ; but the aspect of 
 danger calmed him in an instant. . . . A more undaunted 
 man in the hour of peril never breathed." Having caught 
 a severe cold on the 9th of April, he was attacked with 
 fever and violent rheumatic pains. At last inflammation 
 seized upon his brain and terminated his life on the 19th 
 of April, 1824. 
 
 As a man, Byron certainly had great faults ; but in 
 palliation of these it should be remembered that he was 
 not only born with violent passions, but that almost every 
 influence of his early life was adverse to the acquisition 
 of habits of self-denial and self-control. By his mother 
 he was treated at one time with the most foolish indul- 
 gence ; at another, exasperated with causeless re- 
 proaches. The fame which he so easily and suddenly 
 acquired, joined to his distinguished rank, may be said 
 to have completed the miseducation which was begun 
 in the nursery. But, in spite of all the disadvantages 
 of education and hereditary temperament, he exhibited 
 many truly noble traits of character, among which were 
 a princely generosity, and a ready and true sympathy 
 for the suffering even in the humblest condition. We 
 are told, in Moore's "Life," that the "inmates" (domes- 
 tics) "of his family were extremely attached to him, and 
 would have endured anything on his account," and that 
 "he was most unostentatious in his charities." 
 
 With all his professions of liberality in politics, Byron 
 always remained an aristocrat at heart ; and he is said 
 to have l>een more proud of his Norman descent than 
 he was of the rare endowments of his mind. 
 
 Among the most remarkable characteristics of Byron's 
 poetry, two are deserving of particular notice. The first 
 is his power of expressing intense emotion, especially 
 when it is associated with the darker passions of the 
 soul. " Never had any writer," says Macaulay, " so vast 
 a command of the whole eloquence of scorn, mis- 
 anthropy, and despair. . . . From maniac laughter to 
 piercing lamentation, there is not a single note of human 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural^ N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (J^""See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
BTRON 
 
 478 
 
 CABARRUS 
 
 anguish of which he was not master." The other is his 
 exquisite taste and marvellous felicity in the use of lan- 
 guage. Take for example that passage in the "Giaour" 
 beginning with the lines 
 
 " He who hath bent him o'er the dead 
 Ere the first day of death is fled," etc.* 
 Nothing can exceed the delicacy of perception and taste 
 with which the words are chosen. Of course such exqui- 
 site propriety in the choice of words implies an equally 
 exquisite perception of the proprieties of thought and 
 sentiment. 
 
 See Moore, "Life of Byron," 2 vols. 8vo; Galt, " Life of Byron ;" 
 "Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron," by E. J. 
 Trblawney, 1858; the elaborate and excellent article on Byron in 
 Aixibonk's "D.ctionary of Authors," containing some interesting 
 reco'tections of the poet not before published, besides a very complete 
 list .if bibliographic references ; the notice in the " Biographie Uni- 
 verselie," by M. Vilumaik, the celebrated critic ; Jeffrey, "Mis- 
 cellanies;" Sik Walter Scott, "Miscellaneous Prose Works;" 
 "London Quarterly Review" for January and July, 1814, October, 
 t8l6, April, 1X1S, July. 1823, and January, 1S31 ; " Edinburgh Review" 
 t«r December. 1K16, August, 1S17, and February, 1822; "Atlantic 
 Monthly" for September, 1869; "Quarterly Review" for October, 
 is6g; "The 'True Story of Lady Bvron' established," by Mrs. 
 Harriet Beechek Stowe, 1870. 
 
 Byron, ( John,) an English naval commander, born in 
 1723, was a son of William, Lord Myron. He was to have ac- 
 companied Lord Anson as midshipman on the Wager in his 
 voyage round the world. The Wager was wrecked on the 
 «oast of South Americain 1741. He returned to England 
 
 in 1745. The narrative which Byron published of this 
 shipwreck on his return to England is one of the most 
 interesting works of the kind in the language. He com- 
 manded the Dolphin and Tamar in a voyage of discovery 
 in the South Sea in 1764-66. In 1778 he obtained com- 
 mand of a fleet destined to operate against the French 
 in the West Indies. He fought an indecisive battle against 
 D'Estaing off Grenada in July, 1779, and was promoted 
 about that date to the rank of vice-admiral. He was 
 grandfather of the great poet Lord Byron. Died in 1786. 
 
 See Charnock's " Biographia Navalis." 
 
 Bystrom, bu'stRom, (Johan Nils,) a Swedish sculp- 
 tor, born at Philipsstadt in 1783. He studied in Rome, 
 and, after his return, produced a colossal statue of the 
 crown prince. Among his other works may be named 
 statues of Gustavus Adolphus and of Linnaeus. 
 
 Bythner, bit'ner, or Biittner, btit'ner, ( Victorinus,) 
 a physician and philologist, born in Poland, became 
 professor of Hebrew at Oxford. He published " Lyra 
 Prophetica Davidis Regis," (1645.) Diecl about 1670. 
 
 Bzovius, the Latin of Bzowski, which see. 
 
 Bzowski, bzhov'skee, [Lat. Bzo'vius,] (Abraham,) 
 a Polish theologian, born in 1567. He became professor 
 of philosophy at Milan, and afterwards of theology at 
 Bologna. He wrote "Lives of Paul V. and Gregory 
 
 XV.." " dontinliation nf thp Annalc r\f T^rnninc " nnA 
 
 XV.," "Continuation of the Annals of Baronius 
 other works. Died in 1637. 
 
 and 
 
 c. 
 
 Caab or Cab. See Kaab. 
 
 Ca-ba'des or Ca-va'des, [in Persian. Kobad or Co- 
 Bad, ko-bad',] a Persian king, father of the celebrated 
 Chosroes, ascended the throne about 486 a.d. He 
 gained several victories over the Romans between 502 
 and 505, and died in 531. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Cabakjee Ogloo or Cabakdji Oglou, ka-bak'jee 
 og-loo', an officer of janissaries, one of the ringleaders 
 of the revolt which dethroned Selim III., was assassin- 
 ated in 1808. 
 
 Caballero, ka-Bal-ya'ro, (Fernan,) the pseudonym 
 of a Spanish novelist, whose maiden name was Cecilia 
 Bohl de Faber, (bol deh fa'ber.) She was born at 
 Morgue, in Switzerland, in 1797, has been married several 
 times, and has resided in Spain. She has published "La 
 Gaviota," and other novels, which present brilliant pic- 
 tures of Andalusian life and are highly seasoned with the 
 "Andalusian wit," ("sal Andaluz.") '" No living writer," 
 says the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1861, "has shed 
 so bright a lustre on Spanish literature." 
 
 Caballero, (Firmin,) a Spanish journalist and states- 
 man, born at Barajas de Melo in 1800. He first attracted 
 public attention by his witty criticisms on Miiiano's 
 "Geographical Dictionary." In 1833 he began to edit 
 the "Boletin del Comercio," and in 1834 established 
 another able journal, the " Eco del Comercio." About 
 1835 he was elected a deputy tarthe Cortes, and afterwards 
 became a cabinet minister. He published, besides other 
 works, a "Geographical and Administrative Manual of 
 Spain," (1844.) 
 
 Caballero, de, da ka-Bal-ya'ro, written also Caval- 
 lero, (Don Jose Antonio,) a Spanish marquis, of Ital- 
 ian descent, born at Saragossa about 1760. JJe was one 
 of the ministers of Joseph Bonaparte while King of Spain, 
 and on his deposition in 1814 became an exile in France. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 Caballo, ka-bal'lo, [Lat. Cabal'lus,] (Francesco,) 
 an Italian medical writer, born in Venetia, lived at Padua. 
 Died in 1540. 
 
 Cabanel, kt'bi'nel', (Alexandre,) a French histori- 
 cal painter, born at Montpellier in 1823. He obtained a 
 first medal in 1855. 
 
 Cabanis, kt bS'ness', (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 advocate, born at Issoudun in 1723. He introduced 
 
 * See remarks on this passage in a critique in the " Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for July, 1813. 
 
 improvements in cultivation and rural economy, and 
 wrote a valuable "Essay on Grafting," (1764.) Died 
 in 1786. 
 
 Cabanis, (Pierre Jean George,) an eminent French 
 philosopher, author, and physician, son of the preceding, 
 was born at Conac, near Saintes, in 1757. He studied 
 medicine under Dubreuil, and settled at Auteuil, near 
 Paris. By a version of some parts of the " Iliad," he 
 gained access to the highest society of Paris, where 
 he was intimate with Diderot, D'Alembert, Condorcet, 
 Franklin, etc. He became the personal and political 
 friend of Mirabeau, whom he assisted with his pen, and 
 whom he attended in his last hours. He wrote an "Ac- 
 count of the Illness and Death of Mirabeau," (1791.) In 
 1796 he was chosen a member of the Institute, and in 
 the next year professor of clinical medicine in Paris. He 
 married Charlotte, sister of General Grouchy. In 1802 
 he produced his most important work, " Relation between 
 the Physical System and the Mental Faculties of Man," 
 (" Rapports du Physique et du Moral de l'Homme,") 
 which obtained celebrity, and will doubtless hold its 
 place among the noble essays of abstruse philosophy. In 
 early life, and until about the beginning of the present 
 century, Cabanis held the atheistical views so prevalent 
 at the time of the French Revolution. He maintained, 
 among other doctrines, that the brain " secretes thought," 
 as the liver secretes bile. He afterwards modified his 
 views so far as to recognize in the "primal causes" 
 ("les causes premieres") of the universe the existence 
 of both intelligence and -will, and that the same power or 
 powers {i.e. "les causes premieres") command us to 
 practise virtue. Died in 180S. 
 
 See Mionet, " filoge de Cabanis :" also the article "Cabanis" in 
 the " Nouvelle Biographie G^ne"rale." 
 
 Cabanis-Jonval, kt'bS'ness' zh6N'vil', (Pierre,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Alais about 1725 ; died in 1780. 
 
 Cabarrus, ki'bi'riis', (Francois,) a French mer- 
 chant, born at Bayonne in 1752, settled in Spain at an 
 early age. By his talents and services as financier he 
 acquired great influence in the government about 1780, 
 and a few years later he was councillor of finances. In 
 the reign of Charles IV. he was made a count, and was 
 sent as minister plenipotentiary to the Congress of Ras- 
 tadt in 1797. In 1808 he became minister of finances 
 under Joseph Bonaparte. Died in 1810. His daughter 
 Therese, a famous belle, became Marquise de Fontenay, 
 then Madame Tallien, and lastly Princesse de Chimay. 
 
 Cabarrus, (Teresa.) See Chimay, Princess of. 
 
 a. e, 1 o. u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, % short; a, e, ^ 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
CABASILAS 
 
 479 
 
 CACCIA 
 
 Ca-bas'I-las, (Xi'lus,) [\«/«; Kajaattac,] a Greek 
 archbishop of Thessalonica, wrote an able treatise 
 against the infallibility and supremacy of the pope. 
 Died about 1350. 
 
 Nicholas Cabasilas, nephew of the preceding, whom 
 he succeeded as archbishop in 1350, was also a zealous 
 adversary of the Latin Church or hierarchy, and author 
 of several works on theology. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graca." 
 
 Cabassole, dii, dit kS'bi'sol', (PHILIPPE,) born at 
 Cavaillon, in Provence, became bishop of his native 
 town in 1334, and was made cardinal by Urban V. in 
 1368. He is best known as the friend of Petrarch, by 
 whom he was greatly esteemed for his talents and learn- 
 ing. Died in 1371. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Cabassut, kit basil', (Jean,) a French priest of the 
 Oratory, born at Aix in 1604 or 1605, was eminent for his 
 knowledge of canon law. He wrote "Theory and Prac- 
 tice of Canon Law," and other works. Died in 1685. 
 
 Cabat, ki'b3', (Louis Nicolas,) a skilful French 
 landscape-painter, born in Paris in 181 2. He produced 
 in 1840 an admired historical landscape, called "The Sa- 
 maritan," ("Le Samaritain,") and a view of Lake Nemi 
 near Rome. He was before that date termed a rlaliste ; 
 but his later works indicate a change in his manner. 
 
 Cabel or Kabel, van der, vin der ka'bel, (Adrian,) 
 an able Dutch painter of landscapes, seaports, figures, 
 etc., born at Kyswick in 1631 ; died in 1695. 
 
 Cabestan, kt'bes'toN', or Cabestaing, de, deh ki'- 
 bes'taN', (Guillaume,) a Provencal troubadour, who 
 lived about 1200. 
 
 Cabet, kS'bi', (Ftienne,) a French socialist, and the 
 leader of the " icariens," was born at Dijon in 1788. He 
 became an advocate, and lived in Paris. In 1830 he 
 was appointed procureur-general for Corsica, but he was 
 recalled in 183 1. He became a radical democrat, and 
 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. In 1842 he 
 published his peculiar socialist or communist notions 
 in his romance entitled "Travels in Icaria," ("Voyage 
 en Icarie.") Having made many proselytes to his Uto- 
 pian scheme among the labourers of Paris, he planted a 
 colony in Texas in 1848. After suffering great privations 
 in Texas, Cabet and his Icariens removed in 1850 to 
 the city of Nauvoo, which the Mormons had recently 
 deserted. They held their property in common, and 
 were subject to the sole authority of Cabet. Died at 
 Saint Louis in 1856. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1848. 
 
 Cabeza (or Cabeca) de Vaca. See Nunez, 
 (Alvarez.) 
 
 Ca-bi'ri, written also Cabeiri, [Gr. KuSeipot; Fr. Ca- 
 BIRES, ki'beR',] ancient divinities worshipped in various 
 parts of the world, especialry at Samothrace and Lemnos. 
 The fable of the Cabiri is very obscure. Their myste- 
 ries were celebrated with great solemnity. They were 
 believed, among other things, to preside over metals. 
 Some writers trace the worship of the Cabiri to the 
 Phoenicians. 
 
 See Creuzer, " Symbolik," vol. ii. 
 
 Caboche, ki'bosh', (Simonet,) a butcher of Paris, 
 who became notorious about 141 2 as the chief of a fero- 
 cious band called Cabochiens. They were partisans of 
 the Burgundiaos in the civil war between these and the 
 Armagnacs, and committed many outrages in Paris. 
 
 See Michei.kt, "Histoire." 
 
 Caboos, Cabus, or Cabous, ka-boos', surnamed 
 niK Sun in its Splendour, a prince, poet, and astron- 
 omer, began to reign in Jorjan in 976 a.d. He had a 
 high reputation for virtue, and was a patron of Avicenna. 
 He was deposed in 1012, and died soon after. 
 
 Cab'ot, (George,) an American Senator, born at 
 Salem, Massachusetts, in 175 1, was distinguished for his 
 knowledge of political economy and commercial affairs. 
 He was elected in 1789 to the Senate of the United 
 States, in which he acted with the Federalists and gained 
 the confidence of Washington. He was highly esteemed 
 for his probity and sound judgment. In 1814 he was 
 president of the Hartford Convention. Died in 1823. 
 
 Cab'ot or Gabotto, ga-bot'to, (Giovanni,) a Vene- 
 
 tian pilot and navigator, who lived some time in England 
 and distinguished himself in maritime discovery. In 1496 
 Henry VII. granted a patent to him and his sons for the 
 discovery of unknown regions. (See Cabot, Sebastian.) 
 See Hakluyt, "Principal Navigations and Discoveries of the 
 English Nation." 
 
 Cab'ot, (Sebastian,) [It. Sebastiano Gabotto, sa- 
 bas-te-a'no ga-bot'to,] a son of the preceding, and a nav- 
 igator of great eminence, was born at Bristol, England, 
 about 1477. He made several voyages with his father, of 
 which we have no authentic account. In 1497 they dis- 
 covered a part of North America, which some suppose 
 was Labrador, and others Newfoundland. A few years 
 later he sailed southward as far as Cape Florida. From 
 1512 until 151 7 he was in the service of the King of 
 Spain, who made him a member of the Council of the 
 Indies. In 1526 he commanded a Spanish expedition 
 which explored the river La Plata. About 1548 he re- 
 turned to England, and obtained the favour of Edward 
 VI., who granted him a pension and consulted him in 
 maritime affairs. He became governor of a new com- 
 pany formed to trade with Russia. He was living in 1557, 
 and probably died soon after that date. 
 
 See "Memoirs of Sebastian Cabot," by Richard Biddle, Lon- 
 don, 1831 ; Anderson, " History of Commerce :" " Life of S. Cabot," 
 in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. ix., First Series. 
 
 Cabot, ki'bo', (Vincent,) an eminent French jurist, 
 born at Toulouse about 1550. He professed law four- 
 teen years at Orleans and twenty-two years at Toulouse. 
 He wrote a "Treatise on Benefices," and other works. 
 Died in 162 1. 
 
 Cabral, ka-bRal', (Pedro Alvarez,) an eminent 
 Portuguese navigator, was chosen by Emmanuel, King 
 of Portugal, to command the fleet which that prince 
 sent to the East Indies in 1500. He sailed or was 
 driven so far westward that, by a fortunate accident, 
 he discovered Brazil in the same year. Pursuing his 
 voyage, he reached Calicut, made conquests, and estab- 
 lished the first Portuguese factories in India. He then 
 sailed homeward, and arrived in June, 1 501. 
 
 See Ramusio, "Voyages;" Lafiteau, " Conquetes des Portu- 
 gais;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 Cabral de Vascoiicellos, ka-bRal' da vas-kon-sel'- 
 los, (Paulino,) a Portuguese poet, who lived about 1780. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Cabrera, ki-HRa'ra, (Luis,) a Spanish historian, pub- 
 lished a " History of Philip II.,"(i6i9.) Died about 1655. 
 
 Cabrera, (Don Ramon,) a Spanish general, noted for 
 his cruelty and audacity, was born at Tortosa about 1 8 10. 
 In the civil war between the Christinos and Carlists he 
 joined the latter, and waged a successful guerilla warfare 
 among the mountains of Aragon and Catalonia. He ob- 
 tained command of a large force, took Valencia in 1837, 
 surprised Morella in 1838, and was created Count of 
 Morella by Don Carlos. The victories of Espartero 
 compelled him to retire to France in 1840. In 1848 he 
 returned to Spain and instigated another rebellion, but 
 was defeated and wounded at Pasteral in 1849, since 
 which he has lived in exile. 
 
 See Lavai.lee, " Histoire de PEspagne;" B. de Cordova, " Vida 
 de R. Cabrera," Madrid, 1844; "Blackwood's Magazine" for Sep- 
 tember, 1846. 
 
 Cabrera, de, da ka-BRa'ra, (Juan Tomas Henri- 
 quez,) Duke of Medina del Rio Seco, (ma-dee'na del 
 ree'o sa'ko,) a Spanish statesman, and admiral of Cas- 
 tile, was related to the royal family. He was prime 
 minister under Charles II. in 1693. In consequence of 
 his attachment to the Austrian interests, he was exiled 
 by Porto Carrero. Died in 1705. 
 
 See De la Torre, " Memoires et Negotiations secretes." 
 
 Cabrillo, ka-bRel'lo, (Juan Rodriguez,) a Portuguese 
 navigator in the Spanish service. Died in 1543. 
 
 Cabrol, ki'bRol', (BarthkT.emi,) a French anatomist, 
 born at Gaillac about 1535, became professor at Mont- 
 pellier in 1590. 
 
 Caccia, kat'cha,(GtJGLiEl.MO,)adistinguishcd painter, 
 born in Piedmont about 1568, was usually called II. Mon- 
 calvo, because he worked at a place of that name. He 
 was one of the most skilful fresco-painters of his time, 
 and also executed admired pictures in oil, among which 
 is a "Deposition from the Cross." Died in 1625. 
 
 Set Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,guttural; K, nasal; R*, trilltd; S as *; th as in Ms. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CACCIANIGA 
 
 480 
 
 CADOVIUS 
 
 Caccianiga, kat-chJ-nee'ga, (Francesco,) an able 
 painter and engraver, born at Milan in 1700, worked in 
 Rome, where he died in 1781. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cacciatore, kat-cha-to'ra, (Niccol6,) a Sicilian as- 
 tronomer, born in 1780, became director of the Observa- 
 tory of Palermo in 1817. He published several works 
 on astronomy, (1807-28.) 
 
 Caccini, kjt-chee'nee, (Giulio,) an Italian composer 
 and musician, born at Rome about 1560; died in 1635. 
 
 Cachet, kt'sh£', (Christophe,) a Swiss medical 
 writer, born at Neufchatel in 1572; died in 1624. 
 
 Ca'cus, a fabulous Italian robber and giant, called a 
 son of Vulcan. He lived in a cave. Having stolen 
 some cattle of Hercules, he dragged them by their tails 
 into his cave, so that they could not be discovered by 
 their tracks ; but Hercules heard them bellow, and re- 
 covered them, killing Cacus. (See "iEneid," book viii.) 
 
 Cadahalso. See Cadalso. 
 
 Ca-da-lous', (?) Bishop of Parma, electedpopein 1061, 
 was styled Honorius II. He was deposed in 1064. 
 
 Cadalso, de, da ka-nal'so, written also Cadahalso, 
 (Jose,) a successful Spanish poet and satirist, born at 
 Cadiz about 1740. He wrote "Don Julian," a tragedy 
 of some merit, "Fashionable Learning," a prose satire, 
 and anacreontic verses which were admired. He was 
 colonel in the army, and was killed at the siege of 
 Gibraltar in February, 1782. His " Moorish Letters," 
 a witty and satirical work, has been often reprinted. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Cada Mosto, da, da ka'da mos'to, (Luigi,) a navi- 
 gator, born at Venice about 1432. In the service of 
 Prince Henry of Portugal, he explored the west coast 
 of Africa as far as the mouth of the Gambia, in 1455 
 and 1456. His account of the voyage is said to be in- 
 teresting, and very well written. Died about 1480. 
 
 See Ramusio, "Prima Navigazione di Cada Mosto;" Zurla, 
 "Dei Viaggi e delle Scoperte di Cada Mosto," Venice, 1815. 
 
 Cadaval, de, da ka-da-val', (Nunho Caetano Al- 
 varks PereiradeMello,) Duke, a Portuguese states- 
 man, born in 1798. He became president of the council 
 of ministers in 1828. Died in 1838 at Paris. 
 
 Cade, (John,) an Irishman and noted rebel in the 
 time of Henry VI., figures in Shakspeare's play as Tack 
 Cade. In 1450, assuming the name of Mortimer, he led 
 a large body of Kentish insurgents towards London, 
 and defeated an army which the king sent against him. 
 The gates of the capital having been opened to him by 
 the citizens or the magistrates, he entered the city and 
 put to death Lord Say, whose political course was 
 obnoxious. After the lapse of a few days, the mob was 
 dispersed by a promise of pardon, and Cade fled to 
 Lewes, where he was killed. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England." 
 
 Cadenet, kid'ni', (Elias,) a troubadour, born in 
 Provence about 1 156 ; died about 1280. 
 
 Cader-Billah. See Al-Kaiier-Billah. 
 
 Cadet de Gassicourt, kt'di' deh gf'se'kooR', 
 (Charles Louis,) born in Paris in 1769, was a pharma- 
 cist, lawyer, and author, remarkable for his versatile tal- 
 ents and activity. He pleaded some causes with success, 
 espoused the popular side in the Revolution, and in 1806 
 formed the plan of a new board of health, of which for 
 many years he was secretary. In the campaign of 1809 
 he accompanied Napoleon, who had appointed him his 
 first apothecary. He published many valuable and suc- 
 cessful works, among which are " Memoir of Mirabeau," 
 '• The Supper of Moliere," a comedy, (1798,) "Domestic 
 Chemistry," (1801,) " History of Templars, Free-Masons, 
 and other Secret Societies," "Dictionary of Chemistry," 
 (1803,) "Travels in Austria, etc.," (1818.) He was a 
 member of many scientific academies. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Cadet de Gassicourt, (Louis Claude,) an eminent 
 French chemist, father of the preceding, born in Paris 
 in 1731. He was for some years apothecary-in-chief of 
 the army. About 1765 he was received into the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences, to which he contributed many treatises 
 on chemistry. His collection of drugs was regarded as 
 
 the finest in France. He was appointed a commissioner 
 of the chemical department at the royal manufactory of 
 Sevres. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Boullay, " Notice sur la Vie de L. C. Cadet," 1805 ; Eusebk 
 Salverte, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de L. C. Cadet," 1822. 
 
 Cadet de Metz, ki'di' deh mis, (Jean Marcel,) a 
 French mineralogist, born at Metz in 1751 ; died in 1835. 
 Cadet de Vaux, kS'dJ' deh vo, (Antoine,) a French 
 writer and apothecary, brother of Louis C. Cadet de 
 Gassicourt, born in Paris in 1743. In conjunction with 
 M. Suard, he established, in 1777, the " Journal de Paris." 
 He was noted for practical benevolence, and wrote many 
 useful treatises on domestic and rural economy, among 
 which was an "Essay on the Culture of the Vine," and 
 one " On the Means of Preventing Famine." Died m 
 1828. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Cadij ah. See Khadijah. 
 
 Cad'mus, [Gr. Kuoy/oc,] a hero or demi-god of Greek 
 mythology, was the son of Agenor, King of Sidon. 
 Having been sent by his father in search of his sister 
 Europa, with the charge not to return unless he found 
 her, he settled in Bceotiaand founded the city of Thebes. 
 He is the reputed inventor of sixteen simple letters of 
 the Greek alphabet. Tradition adds that he killed a 
 dragon and sowed its teeth, from which armed men 
 sprang up. (See Ovid's "Metamorphoses," books iii. 
 and iv.) 
 
 Cadmus, a native of Miletus, said to have been the 
 first Greek prose writer, flourished about 550 or 600 B.C. 
 He wrote a " History of Ionia," which is not extant. 
 
 Ca-do'gan, (Henry,) the son of Charles Sloane, Earl 
 Cadogan, was born in 1780. He entered the army in 
 1797, became lieutenant-colonel in 1805, and served with 
 distinction in the Peninsular war. He was killed at the 
 battle of Vittoria in 1813. Wellington in his dispatch 
 paid a high tribute to his merit, and the Commons voted 
 a monument to his memory. 
 
 Cadogan, (William,) Earl and Baron Cadogan, an 
 able English general, was a devoted friend of the Duke 
 of Marlborough, under whom he served at Blenheim 
 (1704) and Ramillies. Having obtained the rank of 
 major-general, he rendered important services at Oude- 
 narde in 1708 and Malplaquet in 1709. He resigned 
 his commission when Marlborough was deprived of the 
 command about 1712. Between 1715 and 1718 he was 
 several times sent as minister to Holland. He was cre- 
 ated a baron in 1716, and Earl Cadogan about 1718. In 
 1722 he succeeded Marlborough as commander-in-chief 
 of the British army. He died without issue in 1726, 
 leaving the title of baron to his brother, General Charles 
 Cadogan, whose son, Charles Sloane, was afterwards 
 made earl. 
 
 Cadogan, (William,) M.D., born in London in 1711, 
 was a graduate of Oxford. He published " An Essay on 
 Children," often reprinted, and a "Treatise on Gout." 
 Died in 1797. 
 
 Cadogan, (William Bromley,) the second son of 
 Earl Cadogan, (Charles Sloane Cadogan,) was born in 
 1 75 1. Having taken orders, he became vicar of Saint 
 Giles, Reading, and afterwards rector of Chelsea. His 
 sermons, letters, etc. were published. Died in 1797. 
 
 Cadore, de, Due. See Champagny. 
 
 Cadoudal, kS'doo'dSl', (Georges,) a famous royalist 
 conspirator, born in Brittany in 1769, foHght in the Ven- 
 dean war in 1793. In 1795 and 1796 he was one of the 
 Chouan chiefs, and was defeated by General Hoche. He 
 instigated another unsuccessful revolt in 1799. It ap- 
 pears that he refused the offers of Bonaparte, who wished 
 to enlist him in his service, in 1800. Having formed with 
 Pichegru a conspiracy to assassinate or dethrone Bona- 
 parte, he went to Paris in 1803, and remained concealed 
 there for several months. In 1804 he was arrested, and 
 after trial was executed with his accomplices. 
 
 See Theodore Muret, "Vie de G. Cadoudal," 1845; Creti- 
 neau-Joly, "Histoire militaire de la Vendee;" Scott, " Life of 
 Napoleon." 
 
 Ca-do'vl-us or Mul'ler, (Jan,) a Dutch theologian 
 and physician, born in 1650, wrote "Memoriale Linguai 
 Frisicae Antiquae." Died in 1725. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 3, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
C ADR or 
 
 481 
 
 CuESAR 
 
 Cadroy, kifdRwi', (Pierre,) a French lawyer, born 
 at Saint-Sever in 1753, was a member of the Convention 
 from 1792 to '95, and a moderate Girondist. He opposed 
 the execution of the king. After the fall of Robespierre 
 he was one of the commissaries of the Convention in 
 the south of France, and took effectual measures against 
 the terrorists in Marseilles and Toulon. Died in 1813. 
 
 Cadwalader, kad-wol'a-der, (George,) an American 
 lawyer and general, born in Philadelphia. He served 
 as a brigadier-general in the Mexican war in 1847. In 
 June, 1861, he was second in command under General 
 Patterson in Virginia. He was appointed a major- 
 general of volunteers in 1862. 
 
 Cadwalader, written also Cadwallader, (John,) 
 an American general, born in Philadelphia in 1743. He 
 served as brigadier-general at Princeton, Brandyw : ne, 
 Germantown, and Monmouth, 1777-78. Died in 1786. 
 
 Cadwaladyr, kad-wol'a-der, the last king of the 
 Britons. Died at Rome in 703 A.D. 
 
 Cadwaladyr, a Welsh bard of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Cadwallon, kad-wol'lon, Prince of Wales, the father 
 of Cadwaladyr, was defeated in 622 A.D. by Edwin, and 
 retired to Ireland. 
 
 Ca'dy,( Daniel,) an American lawyer, born in Colum- 
 bia county, New York, in 1773. He gained distinction as 
 an advocate, became a member of Congress, and after- 
 wards a judge. Died at Johnstown, New York, in 1859. 
 
 Caecilius Calactinus, se-sil'e-us ka-lak-tl'nus, [Kat- 
 k/'/.uic Ka/l-i/t-iioc,] a Greek rhetorician, born at Calacte, 
 in Sicily, lived in Rome in the reign of Augustus. He 
 wrote many works on grammar and rhetoric, which were 
 approved by the critics of the first and second centuries, 
 but are not extant. 
 
 See Pi.ctarch, " Lives of the Ten Orators." 
 
 Caecilius Metellus. See Metellus. 
 
 Caecilius Metellus, se-sil'e-us me-tel'lus, a Roman 
 high-priest, (pontifex maximus,) was twice elected con- 
 sul. He gained a victory over the Carthaginians about 
 250 B.C., and was chosen dictator in 224 i.e. 
 
 Caecilius Statius, se-sil'e-us sta'she-us, a popular 
 Latin comic poet, the friend of Ennius, was born at 
 Milan, and was a slave in his youth, lie wrote forty 
 comedies, of which short fragments only are extant. 
 Died in 168 B.C. Cicero censures his style of I.atinity, 
 but admits that he is perhaps chief among Coptic poets. 
 Horace appears to have thought him in some respects 
 superior to Plautus and Terence. (Epist. lib. ii. 1.) 
 
 See "Quintiiian," xi. , 
 
 Caecina, se-si'na, ( Aui.us,) a Roman orator, was exiled 
 about 48 B.C. for a libellous work against Cassar. He 
 wrote a book on the " Etrusca Disciplina," which Pliny 
 cites as an authority for his second book. 
 
 Caecina Alieuus, se-si'na a-le-ce'nus, (Aui.us,) a 
 Roman general, called also A. Licinius Caecina. In 
 68 A.D. he deserted Galba with a body of troops, and 
 entered the service of Vitellius. In the year 69 he 
 marched with a large force from Germany to Italy, and 
 made a junction with the army of Valens. Caecina 
 and Valens gained a victory over the army of Otho at 
 Bedriacum, which rendered Vitellius master of Italy. 
 Cascina soon deserted to Vespasian, and a few years 
 later formed a plot against him, for which he was billed 
 by order of Titus in 79 a.d. 
 
 See JosEPHtis, " De Bello Judaico," 
 
 Caeci'na Se-ve'rus, (Aui.us,) a Roman general, dis- 
 tinguished in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. He 
 was governor of Moesia in 6 A.D. As legate of Ger- 
 manirus, he commanded an army in Lower Germany, 
 and defeated Arminius (Hermann) in 15 A.D. He lived 
 five years or more after that date. 
 
 Caedmon, kid'mon or kad'mon, styled " the father 
 of English song," is first mentioned by Bedc, who repre- 
 sents him as a "cowherd" attached to the monastery of 
 Whitby. An ode composed by him in praise of the Cre- 
 ator is the earliest specimen of Anglo-Saxon metrical 
 composition extant. Another and longer poem, treating 
 on the creation and fall of man, is attributed to him. He 
 is supposed to have died in 680 A.D. 
 
 See Thomas Wright, " Biopraphia Britannica I.iteraria ;" I.ovo- 
 pfLLOW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Karl W. BnirTF.KWKK, 
 "Dissertatio de Caedmonc Poeta," 1845. 
 
 Caelestius. See Celestius. 
 
 Caelius. See Cceljus. 
 
 Caelius (or Coslius) Aurelianus, see'le-us au-re-le- 
 a'nus, an eminent physician and medical writer, born at 
 Sicca, in Africa, was one of the sect of Methodici. He 
 probably lived between 100 and 300 A.D. He left two 
 valuable Latin works on chronic and acute diseases, which 
 are extant, entitled " De Morbis Chronicis" and "De 
 Morbis Acutis." His writings are said to be.more prac- 
 tical than those of any other medical author of antiquity. 
 
 See Carl J. Kuehn, " Programma de Caslio Aureliano," i?t6. 
 
 Caermarthen, Marquis ok. See Danby, Earl op, 
 
 Caesalpin or Caesalpinus. See Cesalpino. 
 
 Cassar, see'zat, [Fr. Cesar, s&'zJr' ; It. Cesare, 
 cha'sa-ri,| the- cognomen of a patrician family of the 
 Julia gens, which was one of the most ancient in the 
 Roman state, and claimed a descent from lulus, the son 
 of /Eneas. The word is derived by some scholars from 
 the Latin casaries, or the Sanscrit JMsa, which signify 
 "hair." No other name has obtained such celebrity in 
 profane history. The first person bearing the name, who 
 occurs in history, was Sextus Julius Cassar, praslor in 
 2c8 B.C. The name was assumed by the emperor Au- 
 gustus, and by his successors ; and, although the family 
 of Caesar-became extinct with Nero, the succeeding em- 
 perors retained it as a title. After the time of Hadrian, 
 the title of Augustus was confined to the reigning prince, 
 and that of Cassar was given to the heir-presumptive. 
 
 Caesar, tsa'zar, (Aquilinus Julius,) a German his- 
 torian, born at Gratz in 1720. He wrote a " History of 
 Styria," (7 vols., 1788.) Died in 1792. 
 
 Caesar, (Caius.) See Caius C*sar. 
 
 Caesar, (Caius Julius Cesar Strabo Vopiscus,) a 
 distinguished Roman orator and poet. He commenced 
 his public career by a speech against T. Albucius in 103 
 B.C. lie surpassed all the orators of his time in wit. He 
 composed tragedies, which were rather polished than 
 powerful. In 88 B.C. he was supported by the aristo- 
 cratic party for consul ; but his election was violently 
 prevented by the tribunes. This contest was one of 
 the proximate causes of the civil war between Sulla and 
 Marius. Cassar was killed at Rome by the partisans 
 of Marius in 87 B.C. 
 
 See Appian, " Helium Civile." 
 
 Caesar, (Julius,) [Fr. Jules Cesar, zhiil sa'ziR'; It 
 Giulio Cesare, joo'leo cha'sa-ra ; Ger. Julius Casar, 
 (or Caksar,) yoo'le-us tsa'zar,] or, more fully, Ca'iua 
 Ju'lius Cae'sar.one of the greatest generals and greatest 
 men that ever lived, was born in July, 100 B.C. He be 
 longed to the Julian tribe or family, (Julia gens,) one of 
 the most ancient in Rome, since it boasted its descent 
 from Julus or lulus, the son of ^Eneas. Through the 
 influence of Marius, who had married Cassar's aunt Julia, 
 he was elected priest of Jupiter ( Flamen Dialis) while 
 yet a mere boy. In 83 B.C. he married Cornelia, the 
 daughter of ('inn.-.. This act gave great offence to 
 Sulla, who commanded him to divorce his wife ; and, on 
 his refusing to do so, he was proscribed. He escaped 
 from Rome, and concealed himself for a time in the 
 country of the Sabines. At length, at the intercession 
 of some of Sulla's friends, he was reluctantly pardoned 
 by the dictator, who remarked, it is said, that the young 
 Cassar would some day be the ruin of the aristocratic 
 party, adding, " In that boy there are many Mariuses." 
 Soon after Cassar went to Nicomedes, King of Bithynia, 
 and subsequently served with distinction in the Roman 
 army in Cilicia. Having heard, while here, of the death 
 of Sulla, he returned at once to Rome. About 76 B.C., 
 while on his way to Rhodes for the purpose of studying 
 oratory under Apollonius Molo, (who was also the in- 
 structor of Cicero,) he was taken prisoner by the pirates 
 with whom the Mediterranean was at that time greatly 
 infested. He was detained by them more than a month, 
 until his friends could raise the sum demanded for his 
 ransom. According to Plutarch, he treated his captors 
 with great contempt, and, whenever he wished to sleep, 
 used to send and order them to keep silence. He even 
 threatened — in jest, as they supposed — to crucify them 
 when he got his liberty. The ransom having at length 
 been paid, he manned some Milesian vessels, pursued 
 and took the pirates prisoners in their turn, and crucified 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (jr^~Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 3' 
 
CJESAR 
 
 482 
 
 CAESAR 
 
 them according to his promise. Having remained for 
 some time in Rhodes, he returned to Rome, and became 
 a candidate for popular favour. His patrimonial estate 
 being insufficient to supply the means for that un- 
 bounded liberality by which he sought to ingratiate 
 himself with the people, he borrowed for this purpose 
 vast sums from the usurers. It was cast upon him as 
 a reproach, by his enemies, that he was always in debt, 
 and that his poverty ceased only when he had turned his 
 arms against Rome and robbed the public treasury. 
 " Then for the first time," says Lucan, " Rome was poorer 
 than Caesar."* 
 
 Caesar was elected quaestor in 68 B.C. ; and in the same 
 year his wife Cornelia died. In 67 he married Pompeia, 
 a relative of Pompey the Great, and granddaughter of 
 Sulla the dictator. This was especially intended to con- 
 ciliate Pompey ; and by various other means he sought 
 to ingratiate himself with that great leader. He became 
 aedile in 65 B.C., and purchased the favour of the popu- 
 lace by the exhibition of public games surpassing in 
 magnificence anything of the kind ever before seen in 
 Rome. In 64 B.C. he was elected pontifex maximus. 
 Catiline's conspiracy occurred in 63, and Caesar was by 
 many suspected of being accessory to it. When Cicero 
 called for the opinion of the senators as to the punish- 
 ment which should be inflicted on the conspirators, all 
 the others gave judgment in favour of their death, until 
 it came to Caesar's turn to speak. He contended that it 
 was contrary to justice and to the usage of the Roman 
 commonwealth to put men of their birth and dignity to 
 death without an open trial, except in a case of extreme 
 necessity. He recommended that they should be kept 
 in prison in any of the cities of Italy which Cicero might 
 fix upon, and that these cities should be bound by the 
 severest penalties to keep them safely. Caesar's argu 
 ments had great influence with the senate ; but Cato, 
 following in an earnest and powerful speech, in which he 
 accused Caesar of being connected with the conspiracy, 
 carried most of the senators with him : the conspirators 
 were condemned to death ; and Caesar himself narrowly 
 escaped. As he was leaving the senate-house, his life was 
 threatened by some of the Roman knights ; and, had it 
 not been for the fear of the common people, it is proba- 
 ble that he might have been included in the accusation 
 with Lentulus, Cethegus, and the rest. 
 
 He became praetor in 62 B.C., and the next year was 
 sent as propraetor to Spain, where he gained no little 
 distinction both as a general and a civil magistrate, and 
 was saluted by his army imperator. He was elected con- 
 sul, with L. Calpurnius Bibulus as his colleague, in 60, 
 and in 59 B.C. entered upon the duties of his office. One 
 of his first measures was to propose an agrarian law, by 
 which a rich tract of public land was to be distributed 
 among the poorer citizens, especially those who had 
 several children. Although this measure was strongly 
 opposed by his colleague Bibulus, it was carried, chiefly 
 through the influence of Pompey and Crassus. In order 
 that he might strengthen his interest with Pompey still 
 more, he gave him his daughter Julia in marriage, 
 although she had previously been affianced to Servilius 
 Caepio. Soon after Caesar himself married Calpuniia, 
 the daughter of L. Piso, for whom he procured the con- 
 sulship the ensuing year. He formed a secret alliance 
 with Pompey and Crassus, known as the first triumvirate. 
 Supported by such influence, Caesar had no difficulty in 
 carrying through the senate whatever measures he 
 pleased. The government both of Transalpine and 
 Cisalpine Gaul, with that of Illyricum, was decreed to 
 him for five years. The following spring, ("58 B.C.,) when 
 L. Piso and A. Gabinius were consuls, Caesar left Rome 
 for Transalpine Gaul, and before winter had ended tri- 
 umphantly two formidable wars, the one with the Hel- 
 vetii, and the other with Ariovistus, a German prince 
 who had some time before crossed the Rhine and, being 
 supported by a powerful army, had established himself 
 in the eastern part of Gaul. The next year he subdued 
 the various Belgic tribes or nations dwelling between 
 the Rhine and the Seine. In 56 B.C., having divided his 
 
 * " Pauperiorque fuit tunc primum Cassare Roma.') 
 
 Pharsalia, lib. iii. 1. 16S. 
 
 forces, assigning a part of them to his different generals 
 (legati) respectively, he overran nearly all the rest of 
 Gaul, besides quelling the insurrections of several na- 
 tions who had been subdued the year before. In 55 he 
 surprised and cut to pieces two powerful German tribes 
 who had attempted to establish themselves in Gaul. In 
 order more effectually to strike terror into the Germans, 
 he crossed the Rhine by a bridge which he had con- 
 structed for that purpose, and, after ravaging the territo- 
 ries of the Sigambri, he recrossed the river and destroyed 
 the bridge. The same year he invaded Britain, and 
 compelled the submission of several of the tribes. The 
 following year he made another expedition into Britain, 
 defeated Cassivellaunus, one of their princes, who had 
 been chosen generalissimo by the different tribes, and, 
 having demanded hostages and fixed the tribute whicli 
 Britain should pay to the Romans, he returned to Gaul. 
 The ensuing autumn a most formidable revolt occurred 
 among the Eburones, under their king Ambiorix, who 
 succeeded, by stratagem or treachery, in surprising and 
 cutting to pieces a considerable body of Caesar's troops 
 under the generals Sabinus and Cotta. Fortunately, 
 Caesar had not yet set out for Italy, as he was accus- 
 tomed to do on the approach of winter. Ambiorix, 
 whose army had become much increased in consequence 
 of his recent victory, was soon after defeated by Caesar 
 with great loss; but the latter deemed it most prudent 
 to remain in Gaul through the entire winter. During 
 the summer of 53 B.C. Caesar was chiefly occupied in re- 
 pressing an extensive conspiracy which had been formed 
 among the different Gallic nations, and in reducing to 
 subjection such as had broken out into an open revolt. 
 The following year a general insurrection took place 
 among the Gauls. It was headed by Vercingetorix, a 
 young nobleman of the Arverni, who proved himself to 
 be a general of no mean capacity ; so that Caesar's situa- 
 tion was for a time extremely critical. There appeared 
 to be the greatest unanimity among the various Gallic 
 nations. Even the ^Edui, who, from the time when 
 Caesar first obtained the government of Gaul, had been 
 faithful allies to the Romans until now, made common 
 cause with the rest, and joined the revolt. They took 
 Noviodunum, a walled town which Caesar had made the 
 chief depository of his stores ; and he was obliged to 
 retreat to his lieutenant Labienus, beyond the Loire. 
 But, having received reinforcements, he besieged Ver- 
 cingetorix in Alesia, and at length compelled him to 
 surrender. In the next year (51 B.C.) Caesar completed 
 the pacification of Gaul. His daughter Julia, the wife of 
 Pompey, had died in 54 B.C. Crassus, the other mem- 
 ber of the triumvirate, had lost his life in the war against 
 the Parthians. A coldness had gradually sprung up 
 between him and Pompey, who appears to have become 
 jealous of the recent brilliant successes of his colleague. 
 From his first entrance into public life Caesar had at- 
 tached himself to the popular party, and had constantly 
 studied how he might reduce or overthrow the power of 
 the aristocracy. Pompey, on the other hand, a favourite 
 and connection of Sulla, had been one of the staunch- 
 est adherents of the senatorial faction, and, after the 
 death of the dictator, was generally regarded as the 
 chief of the aristocratic party. And although, through 
 the arts and influence of Caesar, he had been induced 
 for a time to take the other side, on the breaking up 
 of their friendship he naturally fell back to his former 
 position. There had been for some time, on the part of 
 the aristocracy, a growing jealousy of Caesar's power and 
 influence in the state. Some of the more violent were 
 resolved to crush him, if possible, at all hazards. In the 
 year 50 B.C. it was proposed to the senate, by Claudius 
 Marcellus, that Caesar, having now finished the Gallic 
 war, should be required to lay down his command. But 
 the tribune Curio, whom Caesar had by large bribes 
 gained over to his interest, interposed his veto. Caesar 
 was, however, on different pretexts, deprived of two of 
 his legions. Yet, desirous — or seeming to be so — of 
 avoiding a rupture, if possible, he proposed to the sen- 
 ate, through Curio, to resign his command on condition 
 that Pompey would do the same. The senate, however, 
 refused even to consider the proposition. Afterwards, 
 on the motion of Scipio, it was decreed that Caesar 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; not; good; moon; 
 
CjESAR 
 
 483 
 
 CAESAR 
 
 should disband his army against a certain clay, otherwise 
 he should be held to be an enemy of the republic. This 
 was a virtual declaration of war ; for few, if any, could 
 suppose that Caesar would give up his army without a 
 struggle. On being informed of the resolution of the 
 senate, he assembled his soldiers and harangued them 
 on the subject of his wrongs. When he found that they 
 eagerly espoused his cause, he determined to Strike at 
 once, while his enemies were yet unprepared. With only 
 5000 infantry and 300 horse — for his other forces were 
 still beyond the Alps — he marched towards the confines 
 of Italy, which, with its then limits, was separated on the 
 east from Cisalpine Gaul by the small river Rubicon. 
 When he arrived at the banks of this stream, as Plutarch 
 informs us, he hesitated for some time, revolving in his 
 mind the arguments for and against the momentous 
 step which he was about to take. At last, exclaiming, 
 " The die is cast !" he crossed the river, and, advancing 
 with the utmost expedition, he occupied successively 
 Ariminum, Arretium, Pisaurum, Ancona, Auximum, be- 
 sides other places. Owing partly to his popularity and 
 partly to the fear which his name inspired, all the towns 
 of Italy seemed ready to open their gates at his approach. 
 His triumphant progress filled Rome with consternation. 
 In the general panic, Pompey, the two consuls, and most 
 of the senators fled from the city in the direction of Capua. 
 Pompey continued his flight to Brundisium, whither he 
 was closely pursued by Caesar. He escaped, however, 
 to Greece. Caesar, being unable to follow, for want of 
 ships, returned to Rome, and not long after set out for 
 Spain, where Afranius and Petreius, Pompey's lieuten- 
 ants, were at the head of a formidable army. In his 
 first engagement with them Caesar was worsted ; but, 
 after encountering for a time great hardships from the 
 want of provisions, he at length triumphed over every 
 obstacle, and compelled Afranius and Petreius to sue for 
 peace, which he granted on condition that they should 
 disband their forces and not again take arms against 
 him during the war. Having overcome all opposition 
 in Spain, — the conquest of which occupied him only 
 about forty days, — and subsequently reduced Massilia, 
 (Marseilles,) he hastened to Rome. During his absence 
 in Spain he had been declared dictator by the prsetor 
 M. Lepidus. After eleven days, during which time 
 several important laws had been passed, he abdicated 
 the dictatorship, and immediately set out for Brundisium, 
 where he had ordered his forces to assemble. But he 
 found it impossible to obtain vessels sufficient for their 
 transportation : he was therefore under the necessity of 
 carrying over to Greece only a part of his troops at the 
 first passage. Meanwhile, his situation was critical in the 
 extreme ; for Pompey, on account of the multitude of his 
 ships, had command of the sea, and a strict watch was 
 kept upon the movements of Caesar's vessels, so that 
 the forces of the latter were for a considerable time 
 divided, one part having been landed in Epirus, while 
 the other was compelled to remain in Italy. At length 
 Bibulus, the commander of Pompey's fleet, died ; and, 
 his place not being at once supplied, each of the officers 
 acted according to his own judgment and independently 
 of the others. After a time, the vigilance of the block- 
 ade having been somewhat relaxed, the remainder of 
 Caesar's forces were carried over, under the conduct of 
 his faithful friends Mark Antony and Fufius Calenus. 
 In his first encounter with Pompey, near Dyrrachium, 
 Caesar was repulsed with some loss, and compelled to 
 retreat. He withdrew to Thessaly, whither he was pur- 
 sued by Pompey. At last the two opposing armies met 
 on the plains of Pharsalia ; and although the forces of 
 Pompey (consisting of about 45,000 infantry and 7000 
 cavalry) were more than double those of his rival, who 
 had about 22,000 foot-soldiers and 1000 horse, they 
 sustained a disastrous defeat According to Caesar's 
 own statement, about 15,000 of Pompey's men fell in 
 the conflict, and more than 24,000 were taken prisoners. 
 Pompey escaped to Egypt, where he was treacherously 
 murdered. (See Pompey.) The result of the civil war 
 may be said to have been decided by the battle of Phar- 
 salia. But there still remained a formidable army of the 
 Pompeians in Africa, under the command of Scipio and 
 Cato. Caesar did not, however, proceed at once against 
 
 these enemies. Having followed Pompey to Egypt, he 
 became involved in a dispute respecting the claims of 
 Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra to the throne of that 
 country. Captivated by the charms of Cleopatra, ht 
 supported her cause against her elder brother, who per- 
 ished during the war which ensued. Cleopatra was de- 
 clared Queen of Egypt ; but her younger brother, called 
 also Ptolemy, was associated with her on the throne. 
 Before returning to Rome, Caesar inarched against Phar- 
 naces, son of Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus, 
 and totally defeated him near Zela. It was concerning 
 this victory that he wrote to the senate the famous letter 
 comprised in three words, "l-'erti, vidi, vici," ("I came, 
 I saw, I conquered.") He arrived at Rome in Septem- 
 ber, 47 B.C., and before the end of that year set out for 
 Africa. The opposing armies met at Thapsus, near the 
 sea-coast, to the southeast of Carthage. The result was 
 the total defeat, and ail-but extermination, of the forces 
 under Scipio. The Caesarean soldiers, exasperated by 
 the obstinacy with which the war had been protracted, 
 cut to pieces all whom they overtook, killing without 
 mercy even those who offered themselves as prisoners, 
 in spite of the remonstrances and entreaties of Caesar. 
 The cause of the senatorial party having become utterly 
 desperate, Scipio, Juba, Cato, and several others of the 
 leaders, unwilling to fall into the power of the conqueror, 
 put an end to their lives with their own hands. 
 
 Caesar returned to Rome, the undisputed master of 
 the world. But he had scarcely completed the celebra- 
 tion of his recent victories, when intelligence arrived 
 that Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sextus, had assembled 
 a powerful army in Spain. Caesar hastened with his 
 usual promptitude to meet the new danger. He en- 
 gaged his enemies near Munda, and, after a very severe 
 action, put them to a total rout. According to Plutarch, 
 when Caesar saw his men hard pressed and making but 
 a feeble resistance, he rushed into the thickest of the 
 fight, exclaiming, " Are you not ashamed to deliver up 
 your general into the hands of these boys ?" — alluding 
 to me youth of Pompey's sons. After the battle he said 
 to his friends that he had often fought for victory ; but 
 then, for the first time, he had fought for his life. ' This 
 was the last of Caesar's wars. 
 
 Although he had thus risen to the summit of power 
 on the ruins of the republic, in the exercise of that power 
 he appears never to have lost sight of the true interests 
 of his country and of the world. One of the first sub- 
 jects that claimed his attention was the regulation of the 
 Roman calendar. For this purpose, though well versed 
 himself both in mathematics and astronomy, he availed 
 himself of the skill of the most eminent mathematicians 
 of that age. The improved mode of computing time 
 introduced by him has, with some slight modifications, 
 been adopted by all civilized nations, and his name has 
 become inseparably associated with the new calendar, 
 both in the name of the month July, and in the phrases 
 "Julian year," "Julian period," etc. He procured the 
 enactment of several important and salutary laws, and 
 was revolving in his mind vast projects of public im- 
 provements, including the preparation of a complete 
 digest of the Roman laws, the clearing out and enlarging 
 of the harbour of Ostia, (at the mouth of the Tiber,) 
 the draining of the Pontine marshes, the cutting of a 
 canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, and the establish- 
 ment of public libraries, when death put an end to his 
 labours and undertakings. 
 
 After the total overthrow of the partisans of Pompey, 
 he had received from the senate the title of Imperator 
 (whence comes our word "emperor") for life; he was 
 also declared dictator, and Prafectus AJorum, (" prefect 
 of manners," or " customs,") both offices being perpetual. 
 As pontifcx maximus, or high-priest, he had control of 
 the religion of the state. To all these honours he wished 
 to add the title of king, {rex,) and thus to hand down 
 his power and dignities to his successor. Having no le- 
 gitimate children, he adopted his grand-nephew Octavius, 
 whose mother Atia was the daughter of Julia the sister 
 of Caesar, as his successor and the inheritor of his name. 
 His devoted adherent Mark Antony, on the occasion 
 of the festival called Lupercalia, perhaps with a view 
 to sound the feelings of the people, publicly offered to 
 
 e as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K", guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; % as z; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CAESAR 
 
 484 
 
 CAESAR 
 
 Caesar a regal crown ; but he, perceiving that it displeased 
 the multitude, refused it, though, as it was thought, with 
 some reluctance. The name of king, from the time of 
 the Tarquins, had always been, and still was, peculiarly 
 odious to all classes of the Romans ; and this considera- 
 tion encouraged Caesar's bitter enemies, of whom there 
 vyere not a few concealed among the aristocracy, to be- 
 lieve that the taking of his life would meet with many 
 approvers even among the people. There was at length 
 formed against him a conspiracy, in which more than 
 sixty persons were implicated. The principal instigator 
 and leader of the enterprise was Cassius, who had dis- 
 tinguished himself as the lieutenant of Crassus in the 
 Parthian war. M. Brutus was also prominent among 
 the conspirators. He appears to have been actuated 
 by a sincere though mistaken patriotism; while Cassius, 
 there is leason to believe, was chiefly influenced by per- 
 sonal animosity. It is said that Caesar had many warn- 
 ings of his approaching fate, and that the night before 
 his death his wife Calpurnia dreamed that he was mur- 
 dered in her arms. In the morning she entreated him 
 with te;js not to go to the senate-house, as he had in- 
 tended. When he had almost decided to stay at home, 
 Decimui Brutus, one of the conspirators, to whom, as 
 well as to M. Brutus, Caesar had shown many favours, 
 and in whom he had the greatest confidence, came in, 
 and at length prevailed on him to go with him to meet 
 the senate. It had been arranged, as it appears, that 
 while one of the conspirators, L. Tillius Cimber, was 
 presenting a petition to Caesar, some of the others 
 should crowd around, as if to urge the same request, 
 when an attack upon him should be made by all at 
 once. At first Caesar resolutely resisted; but, when he 
 perceived the number of his assailants, he wrapped him- 
 self in his toga and resigned himself to his fate. Ac- 
 cording to one account, Cxsar defended himself with 
 spirit until he saw the dagger of M. Brutus among the 
 rest, when he exclaimed, " Et tu, Brute !" (" Thou too, 
 Brutus !") and yielded without any further struggle. 
 Shakspeare, in his tragedy of "Julius Caesar," appears 
 to have followed scrupulously and minutely the popular 
 traditions respecting the death of Caesar. After his 
 death it was found that his body had been pierced with 
 twenty-three wounds. He was assassinated on the Ides 
 of March, 44 B.C., in the fifty-sixth year of his age. 
 
 Caesar was tall in stature, and of a noble and com- 
 manding presence. He was naturally of a delicate con- 
 stitution ; but by continual exercise and by a frequent 
 exposure to hardships, with the aid of an indomitable 
 will, he became so hardy that few if any could surpass 
 him in enduring the fatigues and privations of a military 
 life. It would seem, however, that his unremitting men- 
 tal exertions and anxieties began at last to tell upon his 
 health ; for Suetonius speaks of his suffering from ill 
 health, assigning it as a reason why he was so reckless 
 of the warnings given him by the soothsayers, as if his 
 life had not been worth the trouble necessary for its 
 preservation. He was subject to occasional attacks of 
 epilepsy ; but they were so rare that they do not appear 
 to have seriouslv interfered with his attention to his 
 multitudinous affairs. 
 
 Considered as a general, a statesman, and a ruler, we 
 must admit that few, if any, — even among the most re- 
 markable men that ever lived, — have equalled him, espe- 
 cially if we take into account the versatility as well as the 
 greatness of his talents. " As a soldier," says Suetonius, 
 "it is hard to say whether he was more cautious or 
 mor; daring. He never marched his army where he was 
 liable to any ambush from the enemy without taking all 
 possible precaution by his scouts. Nor did he pass over 
 into Britain until he had made due inquiry respecting the 
 harbours and what convenience there was for landing 
 ■his troops. Yet when information was brought him of 
 the siege of a camp of his in Germany, he made his way 
 to his men in a Gallic dress through the enemy's guards. 
 He also went over from Brundisium to Dyrrachium in 
 winter in the midst of the hostile fleets." In the fertility 
 of his resources he appears to have been superior to 
 every other commander of whom history makes mention. 
 He rarely if ever repeated the same stratagem ; but he 
 seems to have had a new expedient or invention for every 
 
 new occasion, and one which was always adequate to the 
 emergency. 
 
 Speaking of those extraordinary men who have com- 
 pelled "nations unaccustomed to control" to bow obe- 
 dient to their will, Macaulay remarks that "in this class 
 three men stand pre-eminent, — Caesar, Cromwell, and 
 Bonaparte. The highest place in this remarkable tri- 
 umvirate belongs undoubtedly to Caesar. He united 
 the talents of Bonaparte to those of Cromwell ; and he 
 possessed also what neither Cromwell nor Bonaparte 
 possessed, — learning, taste, wit, eloquence, the senti- 
 ments and the manners of an accomplished gentleman." 
 (See his article on Hallam's " Constitutional History," in 
 the "Edinburgh Review," 1828.) In Caesar the intel- 
 lect, the passions, and the will appear to have main- 
 tained a perfect equipoise. For, strong and fierce as 
 were his passions, he never allowed them to rule him ; 
 thus justifying the well-known line of Pope's "Temple 
 of Fame," — 
 
 "Cjesar, the world's great master, and his own." 
 He never permitted personal pique or animosity to in- 
 terfere in any way with the grand purposes of his life. 
 Although he was, it must be confessed, very far from 
 being a virtuous man, even in the pagan acceptation of 
 the word, he possessed some very noble and rare moral 
 qualities. He appears to have shunned, as by " an im- 
 mortal instinct," everything that was petty, narrow, or 
 vindictive. Generosity and magnanimity seem to have 
 been inseparable parts of his nature. Suetonius, who 
 certainly did not err on the side of partiality, says Caesar 
 was always obliging and kind to his friends, mentioning 
 as an example that when he was on a journey through a 
 wild country with C. Oppius, and the latter was suddenly 
 taken ill, Caesar gave up to him the only sleeping-apart- 
 ment, and lay himself on the ground in the open air. 
 The same writer also observes that he never carried a 
 quarrel so far but that he was always ready to lay it down 
 when a reasonable occasion offered. His clemency and 
 generosity were conspicuous in every part of his life, but 
 especially so towards the conquered party in the civil 
 war. He was not only a perfect master in the use of 
 arms, and a most skilful horseman, but he was accus- 
 tomed, when occasion required, to swim across rivers 
 rather than permit the slightest delay. In oratory he 
 was, in that age, second only to Cicero ; and it is thought 
 that had he devoted himself more fully to the study he 
 might have surpassed Cicero himself. He is said to have 
 been a perfect master of all the learning and science of 
 his time. Besides being a general, statesman, jurist, 
 orator, and historian, he was also a poet, a mathemati- 
 cian, an astronomer, and an architect. As a historian he 
 justly holds a very high rank. His style is distinguished 
 for clearness, ease, and simplicity, and is not without ele- 
 gance. His historical writings consist of the first seven 
 books of the commentaries relating to the Gallic war 
 and the three books concerning the civil war. Besides 
 the above, he wrote various other works, of which only 
 fragments remain. A few of his letters have been pre- 
 served among the letters of Cicero. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Lives;" Suetonius, "Lives of the Twelve 
 Caesars:" C«sak, "Commentaries;" Dion Cassius, "History of 
 Rome ;" Appian, " Bellum Civile ;"Drumann, "Geschichte Roms;" 
 Julius Celsus, "De Vita et Rebus gestis C. J. Caesaris," 169; ; Ri- 
 chard de Burv, " Histoire de la Vie de J. Cesar," 2 vols., 1758; 
 At pim\-sE DK Beauchamp, "Vie de J. Cesar," 1823: Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, "Precis des Guerres de J. Ce'sar, ecrit par M. Mar- 
 chaud sous la Dieted de l'Empereur," 1836; Enrico Bindi, "Sulla 
 Vita e sulle Opere di C. G. Cesare discorso," 1844 • P- VAN Limburg- 
 Brouwer, "Cesar en zijne Tijdgenooten," 4 vols., 1845-46; Jacob 
 Abbott, "Life of Julius Caesar," 1849; Napoleon III., "Histoire 
 de Jules C^sar," 2 vols., 1867-68; Lucan, "Pharsalia;" also Byron, 
 "Childe Harold," canto iv., 90th stanza. 
 
 Caesar, see'zar, (Sir Julius,) an eminent English 
 civilian, born in 1557. He was the friend of Lord 
 Bacon, and a favourite of James I., soon after whose 
 accession he was made chancellor of the exchequer. 
 1 It- wrote the "Authority and Proceedings of the Court 
 of Requests." Died in 1636. 
 
 See Edmund Lodge, " Life of Sir Julius Caesar," etc., 1810. 
 
 Caesar, (L. Jm.ius,) a Roman senator, was a nephew 
 of the orator Cains Julius Caesar, and an uncle of Stark 
 Antony the triumvir, who was the son of his sister Julia. 
 He was consul in 64 B.C., and in the next year voted for 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscurt; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CJESJR 
 
 485 
 
 C4GNURD 
 
 the death of Catiline's accomplices, among whom was I 
 his sister's husband, P. Lentulus Sura. He took no 
 active part in the civil war which began in 49, After ! 
 the death of the great CtMMf in 44 B.C., he joined the 
 senatorial party against Antony, ami was included in the 
 proscription by the triumvirs in 43, but was pardoned 
 through the intercession of his sister Julia. 
 
 Caesar, (L. Julius,) a son of the preceding, fought 
 for Pompey in the civil war, and in 46 n.c. had a com- 
 mand at Utica under Cato, who at his death committed 
 his son to his care. Having surrendered Utica, he was 
 pardoned by the dictator. 
 
 See C<«*ar, "Bellum Civile." 
 
 Caesariamts, se-za-re-a'nus, (C.-esar,) [It. Cesare 
 On \riano, cha'si-ra cha-si-re-a'no,) an architect, born 
 at Milan, translated into Italian Vitruvius's work on Ar- 
 chitecture, with a commentary, (1521.) Died in 1542. 
 
 Cassariori, se-za're-on, [Fr. Cesarion. sa'zi're'oN',] 
 the son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra, was born in 
 Egypt in 47 B.C. He probably accompanied his mother 
 to Rome in the year 46. It is said that Antony once 
 declared in the senate that Ctesar recognized Csesarion 
 as his son. In the year 34 he received from Antony 
 the title of king of kings. He was put to death, by order 
 of Augustus, in 30'B.c. 
 
 Caesarius, se-za're-us, [Fr. Cesaire, si'zaV,] Saint, 
 an eminent physician, born about 330 A.D., was the son 
 of Gregory Nazianzen, who is styled a Father of the 
 Church. He was first physician to the emperor Con- 
 stantius at Constantinople until his death in 360. Julian 
 made an exception in his favour when he removed from 
 his court the officers who professed Christianity, and 
 vainly attempted to pervert him from the faith. lie was 
 a brother of Saint Gregory Theologus. Died in 369 A. D. 
 
 See Baii.let, "Vies des Saints." 
 
 Caesarius, [Fr. Cesaire,] Saint, an eminent and in- 
 fluential French prelate, born at Chalons about 470 a.i>., 
 was chosen Bishop of Aries in 502. He strenuously 
 opposed Arianism and Scmi-Pcl.igianism. In 505 he 
 was exiled for a short time by Alaric the Goth. He 
 composed a " Rule for Monastic Life," and numerous 
 sermons or homilies, which arc still extant. Died in 542. 
 
 Caesius Bassus. See Bassus. 
 
 Caetan. Sec C ajktan. 
 
 Caffa, kiffa, (Melchiork,) an able Italian sculptor, 
 born in Malta about 1632, was called "the Maltese." He 
 worked at Rome. Died in 16S7. 
 
 Caffarelli. See Gafeakei.i.i. 
 
 Caffarelli, kS'fS r&'le', (Francois Marie Auguste,) 
 a general in the French service, born at Falga in 1766. 
 He served as general of- division at Austerlitz in 1805, 
 and was minister of war for the kingdom of Italy from 
 1806 to 1S10, after which he made several campaigns in 
 Spain. In 1814 he escorted the empress Maria Louisa 
 to Vienna. Died in 1849, 
 
 See Trelat, " Notice sur le GeneYal A. Caffarelli," 1850. 
 
 Caffarelli du Falga, ki tS'rA'le' dii fSl'gi', (Louis 
 Marie Joseph Maximii.ien,) a French general, brother 
 of the preceding, born in I.anguedoc in 1756. He served 
 in the army before the Revolution, escaped from the 
 proscription of 1793, after a confinement of fourteen 
 months, and distinguished himself near Dusseldorf in 
 1795. Having obtained the rank of general of division, 
 he went to Egypt with Bonaparte in 1798 as chief of the 
 corps of engineers. After rendering important services, 
 he was killed at the siege of Acre in 1799. He was a 
 member of the Institute, and author of several brief and 
 able scientific treatises. Bonaparte had a high opinion 
 of his merit. 
 
 See Degerando, "Vie du General Caffarelli du Falga." 1802; F. 
 d'Aldeguier, "Elude historique stir la Vie de Caffarelli du Falga," 
 1849. 
 
 Caffaro, kaffa-ro, called also Taschiffi.i.onk, (tas- 
 ke-fel-lo'na,) a Genoese historian, born about 1080. He 
 joined the crusade in 1100, and fought in Palestine. He 
 wrote a " History of Genoa," in I.atin. Died in 1164. 
 
 Caffi, kaPlee, iIpi-olito,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Belluno in 1814, liecame a resident of Rome, and de- 
 voted himself to monumental views with Success. His 
 scene of the Carnival was exhibited at the Paris Expo- 
 sition of 1855. He wrote a "Treatise on Perspective." 
 
 Caffiaux, k3'fe-6', (Philippe Joseph,) a French manic 
 and writer, born in 1712; died in 1777. 
 
 Caffieri, kif-fe-a'rcc, (Fn.ii'PO,) an Italian sculptor, 
 born in Rome in 1634; died in France in 1716. 
 
 Caffieri, kaf-fe-a'ree or ki'fe'a're', (Jean Jacques,) a 
 French sculptor, born probably in Paris in 1723, was the 
 son of Jacques Caffieri, who also was a sculptor. The 
 son became sculptor to the king, and professor in the 
 Academy of Painting. Among his finest works are a 
 bust of Corneille and a statue of Moliere. Died in 1792. 
 
 See Fontenay, " Dictiounaire des Artistes." 
 
 Cagliari, kal'ya-ree, or Caliari, ki'le-a-ree, (Bene- 
 detto,) a painter of the Venetian school, brother of 
 Paul Veronese, born in 1538. "Saint Agatha in Prison"' 
 is called his master-piece. Died in 1598. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cagliari or Caliari, (Carlo,) called Carletto, son 
 of Paolo, noticed below, was a painter of metit, and imi- 
 tated the style of his father with success. He died in 
 1596, aged twenty-six, after completing some woiks 
 which his father left unfinished. 
 
 See Ridoi.fi, " Vite de' Pittori Veneti ;" Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cagliari or Caliari, (Paolo,) a celebrated Italian 
 painter, called Paul Vkronksk, (va-ro-na'sa,) was born 
 at Verona about 1530. He received lessons in art from 
 his uncle Badile, and in the early part of his life went to 
 Venice, where he was very successful, especially in the 
 ornamental style. He afterwards worked in Rome and 
 other cities of Italy. Among his master-pieces are "The 
 Marriage at Cana," (in the Louvre,) "The Pilgrims of 
 Kmmaus," and "The Rape of Europa." He was re- 
 markable for richness of imagination, and ranks among 
 the greatest-masters as a colorist. Died in Venice in 1588. 
 
 " The sixteenth century," says Ruskin, " produced the 
 four greatest painters — that is to say, managers of colour 
 — that the world has seen, namely, Tirftoret, Paul Vero- 
 nese, Titian, and Correggio." ("Modern Painters.") 
 
 Set- Carlo Ridoi.fi, "Vitadi P. Cagliari," 1648; Lecarpentier. 
 " Notice sur P. Caliari," 1S16 ; Zabeo, " Elogiodi P. Cagliari," 1813. 
 
 Cagliostro, kal-yos'tRo, (Alexander,) Count, a 
 celebrated charlatan and arch-impostor, whose proper 
 name was Giuseppe Bai .samo, (joo-sep'pi bal'sa-mo,) 
 was born at Palermo, in Sicily, about 1745. He assumed 
 the title of count, travelled in many countries under 
 various names, professed alchemy and free-masonry, 
 practised medicine and sorcery, and raised money by 
 various forms of imposture. He was accompanied in 
 his adventures by his handsome wife Seraphina, who 
 was also a mason. "Masonry," says Carlyle, "with its 
 blazonry and mummery, sashes, drawn sabres, brothers 
 Terrible, brothers Venerable, (the whole so imposing 
 by candle-light,) offered the choicest element for him. 
 Accordingly he goes forth prospering and to prosper," 
 (Carlyle's " Miscellanies," vol. iv.) He travelled in his 
 own Coach, with a numerous retinue in rich liveries. His 
 fame and fortune culminated at Strasburg in 1783, where 
 he made a dupe of the Prince Cardinal de Rohan. In 
 1785 this cardinal and Cagliostro were imprisoned in the 
 Bastille, Paris, for complicity in the notorious affair of 
 the Diamond Necklace. Released pt the end of nine 
 months, the count went to England, and thence to Rome, 
 where in 17S9 he was arrested and sentenced to per- 
 petual imprisonment for being a free-mason. He died 
 in prison in 1795. Schiller's " Geisterscher" was sug- 
 gested by the history of this personage, who was also 
 the subject of Goethe's drama "Gross-Kcphta." 
 
 See "Lettres de Mirabeau sur Cagliostro et Lavater," I-/S6; 
 " Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire du Comte de Cagliosfo," 1785; 
 " Compendio della Vita, etc. di Giuseppe lialsamo den minatn il 
 Conte Cagliostro," 1790; "Life of Count Cagliostro, with liis Trial 
 before the Inquisition," 1791 ; lIlLDEBRANDT, " MerkwUrdige Aben- 
 teuerdes Grafen Cagliostro tnid Anderer," 1839: William Russm i. 
 " Eccentric Personages," 1866. 
 
 Cagnati, kan-ya'tee, (Gilbfrto,) an Italian botanist, 
 born at Nocera, lived about 1550. He published the 
 "Praises of Gardens," (" De Hortorum Laudibus.") 
 
 Cagnati, (Marsilm,) [Lat. Marsh/his Cagna'tus,] 
 a learned Italian physician, born at Padua, published 
 several medical works, (1581-1602.) Died about 1610. 
 
 Cagniard de la Tour, kin'ye-tR' deh IS tooR, 
 (CHARLES,) Baron, a Frenchman, distinguished for his 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as// G, H, mf guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (^y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CAGNOLA 
 
 486 
 
 CAILLIAUD 
 
 mechanical inventions, was born in Paris in 1777. After 
 181 1 he was attached to the council of state and minis- 
 try of the interior. He invented a portable mill fur 
 camps; the siriue, an acoustic instrument; and other 
 machines. In 1851 he was elected to the Academy of 
 Sciences as successor to Gay-Lussac. Among his works 
 is the suspended aqueduct of Crouzol. 
 
 Cagnola, kan-yo'la, (Luigi,) Marquis, an eminent 
 Italian architect, born in Milan in 1762. I lis principal 
 works are the triumphal arch of the Porta del Ticino 
 at Milan, (once called Porta di Marengo,) the Campa- 
 nia a:. Urgnano, (1829,) the churches at Vavallo and 
 Ghisalba, and the marble Porta dei Sempione, Milan, 
 commenced in 1S07, and finished under the name of 
 "Arco della Pace," ("Arch of Peace,") about 1835. This 
 is the most magnificent of modern triumphal arches, 
 except perhaps the " Arc de l'Etoile" at Paris. He was 
 chamberlain to the Austrian emperor, and president of 
 the Institute of Milan. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Valery, "Voyages histoviques, etc. en Italie;" N. GiRom, 
 " Necrologia del Marchese L. Cagnola," 1844. 
 
 Cagnoli, kan-yo'lee, (Antonio,) an Italian geometer, 
 born at Zante in 1743. He passed some years in Paris, 
 where he was attached to the Venetian embassy, and 
 applied himself to astronomy. About 1786 he removed 
 to Verona, where he had an observatory. In 1798 he 
 was chosen professor of mathematics at Modena, and 
 he was president of the Italian Society from 1800 until 
 his death. He wrote an excellent "Treatise on Trigo- 
 nometry," (1786,) one on "Conic Sections," (1801,) and 
 several other works. He was a member of the Institute 
 of France. Died at Verona in 1816. 
 
 See Labus, "Vita di A. Cagnoli," 1S16; Caruni, "Notizie sulla 
 Vita di A. Cagnoli," 1819; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Ency- 
 klopaedie." 
 
 Cahaignes, kS'kn', or Cahagnes, ki'in', (Jacques,) 
 a French medical- writer, born at Caen in 1548 ; died in 
 1612. 
 
 Caben, ki'&N', (Samuel,) a French Jew and eminent 
 Hebraist, born at Metz in 1 796, directed the consistorial 
 school of the Jews in Paris from 1823 to 1836. He 
 published a "Manual of Universal History," (1836,) and 
 other works, the most important of which is a French 
 version of the Old Testament, (1851.) Died in 1862. 
 
 Caher-Billah. See Al-Kaiiir-Billah. 
 
 Cahours, 1<S'oor', (Auguste,) a French chemist, born 
 in 1813. He has distinguished himself by his researches 
 in organic chemistry, has been a teacher of chemistry 
 in the Polytechnic School, Paris, and has exhibited the 
 actual state of chemical science in a methodical and com- 
 plete treatise, entitled "Lessons of General Elementary 
 Chemistry," (1856.) 
 
 Cahusac, de, deh ka'u'zik', (Louis,) a French dra- 
 matist, born at Montauban, became a resident of Paris 
 and secretary to the Count of Clermont. He com- 
 posed tragedies, comedies, and operas, the last of which 
 were successful, aided by the music of Rameau. Died 
 in 1759. 
 
 Caianian, a Persian dynasty. See Kaianian. 
 
 Caiaphaa, ka'e-fas, [Gr. Kalufac ; Fr. Caiphe, kS'ef',] 
 was high-priest of the Jews in 33 a.d. (See Matthew 
 xxvi. 3 ; Luke iii. 2*; John xviii. 13.) 
 
 Caiet. See Cayet. 
 
 Caietano. See Cajetan. 
 
 Caigniez, kin'ye_-i', (Louis Charles,) a French dra- 
 matist, born at Arras in 1762, was called the Racine of 
 the Boulevards. His " Judgment of Solomon" and " Pie 
 voleuse" (1815) were translated into several languages. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Cailhava, k^'lS'va', (Jean Franqois,) a French comic 
 writer, was born near Toulouse in 1731. He composed 
 several successful comedies and comic operas, among 
 which are "The Guardian Duped," (1765,) "Harlequin 
 Mahomet," and "Egotism," a comedy in verse, (1777.) 
 He was elected a member of the Institute in 1798. Died 
 in 1813. 
 
 Caillard, kS'yiR', (Antoine Bernard,) a French 
 diplomatist, born at Aignan in 1737. He was ambas- 
 sador at Berlin in 1795, and received the portfolio of 
 foreign affairs during the absence of Talleyrand in 1801. 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Caiilau, kt'yo',(jEAN Marie,) a French medical wriu r, 
 born at Gaillac in 1765 ; died in 1820. 
 
 Caille, de la, deh IS kil or ki'ye, (Nicolas Louis,) 
 a celebrated French astronomer, born at Rumigny, near 
 Rheims, in Picardy, in March, 1713. He was educated 
 for the church, and obtained the title of abbe, but 
 speedily renounced theology, and applied himself to 
 astronomy under J. Cassini, who gave him a lodging in 
 the observatory at Paris. In 1739 he was employed in 
 the important work of the verification of the meridian, and 
 before the end of the year he finished the triangulation 
 from Paris to Perpignan. By this operation, and others 
 connected with it, he demonstrated that the length of a 
 degree gradually increases from the equator to the pole. 
 In 1740 he was appointed professor of mathematics in the 
 Mazarin College, for the use of which he wrote treatises 
 on geometry, mechanics, astronomy, and optics. He 
 undertook to rectify the catalogue of the stars, and in 
 1 75 1, at the expense of government, performed a voyage 
 to the Cape of Good Hope. Having accurately observed 
 about ten thousand stars, he returned to Paris in 1754 
 He proposed a form of Nautical Almanac since generally 
 adopted, published "Principles of Astronomy," ("As- 
 tronomiae Fundamenta," 1758,) "Tables of the Sun," 
 and Ephemerides. He died in Paris in March, 1762, after 
 which his Southern catalogue ("Ccelum Australe Stelli- 
 ferum,";>. "Southern Starry Heaven") was published. 
 
 Delambre says his observations will compare favour- 
 ably in accuracy with those of his most celebrated con- 
 temporaries who had more perfect instruments. Again, 
 he says, " Having reviewed and verified, with new means, 
 a great part of the labours of La Caille, . . . I have felt, 
 at every step with which I traced his progress, increased 
 admiration for the savant who will ever be the honour 
 of French astronomy." 
 
 See G. Brotier, "Clarissimi Viri N. L. de la Caille, Vita," 1763; 
 Fouchy, " Fjoge de La Caille;" Bailly, " EJoge de La Caille;" 
 Arago, " Notices biographiques," tome iii. 
 
 Caille, kt'ya', or Caillie, ki'e-ya', (Rene,) a French 
 traveller, born at Mauze (Deux-Sevres) in 1799. A pas- 
 sion for travel led him to Western Africa as early as 1817. 
 He learned the Arab language, and pretended to be a 
 Mussulman. About 1827 he performed a journey from 
 Sierra Leone to Timbuctoo, from which he crossed the 
 desert with a caravan to Morocco in 1828. He had 
 succeeded with his own small resources in an enterprise 
 that had baffled the efforts of many men aided by their 
 government. On his return to France he received a 
 reward of ten thousand francs promised to any one who 
 should visit Timbuctoo, and he published a journal of his 
 travels. Died in 1838. 
 
 See E. F. Jomard, " Notice hislorique sur la Vie de Rene" CaiHe"," 
 1839; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1830. 
 
 Caillemote, kaTmot' or ki'ye-mot', a French Prot- 
 estant officer, was a younger son of the Marquis de 
 Ruvigny. He was colonel of a French regiment in the 
 service of William HI. of England, and was killed at 
 the battle of the Boyne in 1690. 
 
 See Macaulay's "History of England," vol. iii. 
 
 Caillet, ki'y.y, (Guillaume,) a French peasant, 
 born at Mello, near Beauvais, was the leader of the 
 peasantry who in 1358 made an insurrection against the 
 nobles and burned two hundred castles. They called 
 Caillet "Jacques Bonhomme," and themselves "La 
 Jacquerie." The avowed object of the insurgents, whose 
 number was about 100,000, was to exterminate the no- 
 bility. Having been defeated by the dauphin, Caillet was 
 taken and executed in 1359. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais;" Froissart, "Chron 
 icles." 
 
 Cailliaud,kt'e-yo',(FREDERic),a distinguished French 
 traveller, born at Nantes in 1787. He went to Egypt in 
 1815, and in the service of Mehemet Ali made explora- 
 tions along the Upper Nile. He re-discovered in Mount 
 Zabarah the famous emerald-mines which were worked 
 in ancient times, and procured in them ten pounds in 
 weight of emeralds. In 1821 a narrative of his travels, 
 entitled "Journey to the Oasis of Thebes," ("Voyage 
 a l'Oasis de Thebes," etc.,) was published by the govern- 
 ment. Having returned to Paris in 1822, he published 
 a "Journey to Meroe, the White River, the Oasis of 
 Sivvah," etc., (1823-26,) and "Researches into the Arts 
 
 a, e, I, o, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CAILLIE 
 
 4»7 
 
 CALAMT 
 
 and Trades and the Civil and Domestic Customs of the 
 Ancient Egyptians, Nubians, and Ethiopians," ( 1 83 1 , ) 
 which are highly interesting works. 
 
 Caillie. See CMV'* 
 
 Caillot, kS'e-yo', (Joseph,) a popular French comic 
 actor, born in Paris in 1732. He made his dibut at Paris 
 in 1766, and performed many years with success. In 
 1S00 he was chosen a correspondent of the Institute of 
 France. Died in 1816. 
 
 Caillouete, kl'yoo'ti', (Louis Denis,) a French 
 sculptor, born in 1791. His works adorn the Louvre 
 and other palaces of Paris. 
 
 Cailly, de, deh kit'e-ye', (Jacques,) a French poet, 
 cilled also D'Aceilly, was born at Orleans in 1604; 
 died in 1673. 
 
 Cain, kan, [Heb. pp.] the eldest son of Adam, was 
 the first who committed homicide. (See Genesis, chap. 
 iv.) In the second century a sect af heretics assumed 
 the name of Cainites. 
 
 Cain, ka.N, ( Auguste,) a French sculptor, born in Paris 
 in 1822. Among his best works are "The Eagle defend- 
 ing his Prey," and "The Frogs wishing for a King." 
 
 Ca'iphe. See Caiaphas. 
 
 Caird, k5rd, (James,) a Scottish agriculturist, born 
 at Stranraer in 1816, published, besides other works, 
 " English Agriculture." He was a Liberal member of 
 Parliament from 1857 to 1865, and became in 1863 chair- 
 man of the royal commission on the sea-fisheries. 
 
 Caird (Rev. John,) a Scottish minister and eloquent 
 pulpit orator, born at Greenock about 1822. He preached 
 at Edinburgh and Errol, and about 1857 became minister 
 of the Park Church, Glasgow. He published "Religion 
 in Common Life," (1856,) and a volume of Sermons, 
 (1858,) which had an extensive circulation. 
 
 See "Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1856; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for August, 1858. 
 
 Cairnes, kSrnz, (David,) an Irish lawyer and officer, 
 who distinguished himself by his bravery at the defence 
 of Derry against the forces of James II. in 1689. He 
 afterwards represented that city in Parliament, and be- 
 came attorney-general. Died in 1772. 
 
 Cairns, k4rnz,(HuGH McCalmont,) commonly called 
 Lord Cairns, an eminent lawyer and orator, born near 
 Belfast, in Ireland, in 1819, has represented Belfast in 
 the House of Commons since 1852, and has been con- 
 spicuous as one of the ablest debaters in Parliament. He 
 was solicitor-general for a short time in 1858, became 
 attorney-general on the formation of a new ministry by 
 Lord Derby in July, 1866, was appointed lord justice of 
 appeal in October, 1866, and lord chancellor of England 
 in February, 1868. In December of the same year he 
 resigned with his colleagues. He is now (1869) leader 
 of the Conservative party in the House of Lords. 
 
 Cairo, kl'ro, (Francesco,) an Italian painter of the 
 Milanese school, born in 1598, was the favourite pupil 
 of Morazzone, whom he is said to have surpassed in 
 design. Died in 1674. 
 
 Caiumers or Caiumaras. See Peshdadian, (dy- 
 nasty.) 
 
 Caius. See Gaius. 
 
 Caius, ka'yus, a Christian writer on theology, lived 
 at Rome about 210 a.d. His works are not extant. 
 
 Caius, ka'yoos, (Bernardino,) an Italian medical 
 writer, born in Venice, flourished about 1610. 
 
 Caius, kcL?. written also Kaye, Key, or Cay, (John,) 
 an eminent English physician, born at Norwich in 1510, 
 was a graduate of Cambridge University. After prac- 
 tising in Norwich, he settled in London, and was ap- 
 pointed physician successively to Edward VI., Mary, and 
 Elizabeth. He founded at Cambridge the college which 
 bears his name. His talents and learning as a linguist, 
 antiquary, and physician were proved by numerous works 
 in Latin, among which are a "Treatise on the Sweating 
 Sickness," one "On British Dogs," one "On the An- 
 tiquity of Cambridge University," and translations from 
 Hippocrates and Galen. Died in 1573. 
 
 See "Lives of British Physicians," London, 1857; Niceron, 
 "M^moires." 
 
 Caius, ka'yus, Saint, a native of Dalmatia, was elected 
 Bishop of Rome in 283 a.d. as successor to Eutychian. 
 He died in 296. 
 
 See Tilusmont, "Vie de Saint-Paul." 
 
 Caius, (Thomas,) an English scholar and divine, was 
 a Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, and J.fterwards 
 prebendary of Sarum. He wrote, in 1566, a ureatise to 
 prove that Oxford University was more ancient than 
 Cambridge, which was answered by Dr. John Caius. 
 Died in 1572. 
 
 Cai'us Cse'sar, a Roman prince, born 20 B.C., was 
 the son of M. Agrippa and Julia, the daughter of the 
 emperor Augustus. The latter adopted Caius and his 
 younger brother Lucius as his heirs. In 1 a.d. he was 
 sent as proconsul into Asia, and subdued the revolted 
 Armenians. He died in Lycia in the year 4. Lucius 
 died in 2 A.D., aged about nineteen. 
 
 Cajado, ka-zlia'do, (Enrique,) a Portuguese poet, 
 who lived a long time in Italy. He composed Latin 
 poems, ("Eclogae Silva," etc., 1501,) which were praised 
 by Erasmus. Died in 1508. 
 
 Cajetan or Gaetani, (Benedetto.) See Boniface 
 VIII. 
 
 Caj'e-tan, (orka'ye-tan,) [It. Cajetano or Caietano, 
 ka-yi-tj'no,] (Constantin,) a learned Italian monk and 
 writer, born at Syracuse in 1560 ; died in 1650. 
 
 Cajetan, sometimes written Caetan, [Fr. pron. kf- 
 a'tfi.N'',] (Enrico,) an Italian prelate, born about 1550. 
 He was made a cardinal in 1585, and sent by Sixtus V. 
 as legate to France, where he united with the League 
 in opposing the accession of Henry IV. When Paris 
 was besieged and suffering famine, about 1590, he urged 
 the inhabitants to hold out, but offered no remedy for 
 their misery except preachings and processions. Died 
 in 1599. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Cajetan, [It. Cajetano or Caietano,] (Thomas de 
 Vio — da vee'o,) received his surname of Cajetan from 
 the city Caieta, (Gaeta,) at which he was born in 1469. 
 He entered while young the order of Saint Dominic, of 
 which he became general in 1508. Leo X. made him a 
 cardinal in 151 7, and soon after sent him as legate to 
 Germany in order to bring Luther back to fellowship 
 with the Church. He is regarded as the first who main- 
 tained the infallibility of the pope without reserve. He 
 was made prisoner at the sack of Rome in 1527. Died 
 in 1534. 
 
 See P. Ekerman, " Dissertatiode Cardinali Cajetano," Upsal, 1761. 
 
 Cajetano. See Cajetan. 
 
 Cajot, kt'zho', (Dom Jean Joseph,) a French Bene- 
 dictine, born at Verdun-sur-Meuse in 1726. He pub- 
 lished " The Antiquities of Metz," and other works. Died 
 in 177Q. 
 
 Cakjamuni. See Gautama. 
 
 Qakya. See Gautama. 
 
 Cal or Cala. See Kala. 
 
 Calaber, (Quintus.) See Quintus Calaber. 
 
 Calabrese. See Preti. 
 
 Calado, ka-la'do, (Manoei.,) a Portuguese historian, 
 born at Villa Vicosa about 1584; died in 1654. 
 
 Calamatta, ki-la-mat'ta, (LuiGI,) an eminent en- 
 graver, born at Civita Vecchia, Italy, in 1802, worked 
 many years in Paris, where he exhibited his first produc- 
 tion in 1827. Among his master-pieces are a masque 
 of Napoleon I., (1834,) and a portrait of George Sand, 
 after his own design. 
 
 Calame, kl'ISm', (Alexandre,) an excellent Swiss 
 landscape-painter and engraver, born at Vevay in 1815, 
 studied and worked in Geneva from his early youth. 
 He painted Mont Blanc and other Alpine scenes, also 
 "The Ruins of Paestum," "An Autumn Evening," and 
 "The Lake of the Four Cantons." Among his admired 
 lithographs and etchings are Views of Lauterbrunnen. 
 
 Cal'a-mis, [KitXa/uc,] a celebrated Greek sculptor and 
 embosser, who flourished at Athens about 450 A.D. He 
 excelled in the imitation of horses, and worked both in 
 marble and in bronze. Among his productions was a 
 colossal bronze statue of Apollo, which was brought to 
 Rome by Lucullus. He executed, in marble, another 
 Apollo, which adorned the garden of Scrvilius in Rome, 
 and which some suppose to be the same as the Apollo 
 Belvedere. 
 
 Cal'a-my\ (Benjamin,) D.D., a son of Edmund, no- 
 ticed below, belonged to the High-Church party. He 
 was appointed chaplain to the king in 1677, and in 1683 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, h, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jry-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CALAMT 
 
 488 
 
 CALDARA 
 
 preached a "Discourse against a Scrupulous Conscience," 
 which made a great sensation. In 1685 he became 
 prebendary of Saint Paul's. His printed sermons are 
 esteemed. Died in 1686. 
 
 Calamy, (Edmund,) an able English divine, born in 
 London in 1600. From 1626 to 1636 he was one of the 
 lecturers of Bury Saint Edmund's. Having separated 
 from the Episcopal Church and become a Presbyterian, 
 he was chosen in 1639 minister of Saint Mary's, in or 
 near London, where he laboured twenty years and was 
 admired for his eloquence. He was one of the five who 
 wrote " Smectymnus," (1641,) a treatise against Episco- 
 pacy. At the restoration he was appointed chaplain-in- 
 ordinary to Charles II., and a few years later was com- 
 mitted to Newgate for expressing his mind too freely. 
 Died in 1666. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Calamy, (Edmund,) an eminent nonconformist divine, 
 grandson of the preceding, born in 167 1. He became 
 minister at Blackfriars, London, in 1692, and at West- 
 minster in 1703. He published many sermons, "Bax- 
 ter's Life and Times," " The Inspiration of the Scrip- 
 tures," and other esteemed works. Died in 1732. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," published by J. T. Rutt, 2 vols., 1830. 
 
 Calancha, de la, di la ka-lan'cha, (Antonio,) a 
 Peruvian chronicler and monk, born at Chuquisaca; 
 died in the seventeenth century, 
 
 Calandar, kal-an-dar', (?) a Mohammedan saint and 
 scholar, died about 1324. 
 
 Calandra, ka-lan'di;3, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian painter of mosaics, born at Vercelli in 1568; 
 died about 1646. 
 
 Calandrelli, ka-lSn-dRel'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 astronomer, born at Zagarola in 1749. He became pro- 
 fessor of mathematics in Rome in 1774, and was em- 
 ployed by Pius VII. to make astronomical observations. 
 He published several treatises on astronomy and natural 
 philosophy. Died in 1827. 
 
 See B. Boncompagni. "Biografia dell' Abate G. Calandrelli," 1840. 
 
 Calaudrini, kil-lan-dRee'nee, (Jean Louis,) a Swiss 
 botanist and philosopher, born at Geneva in 1703, wrote 
 various scientific works. Died in 17^8. 
 
 Calaudrucci, ka-lan-dRoot'chee, (Giacinto,) an Ital- 
 ian painter, born at Palermo in 1646; died in 1707. 
 
 Ca-la'nus, [Gr. Kalivoc,] a Hindoo philosopher, of 
 the sect which the Greeks named Gymnosophists. Plu- 
 tarch reports that his proper name was SpHINES. Having 
 been persuaded to follow Alexander the Great, he be- 
 came sick at Pasargada, where, at his own request, 
 he was burned alive on a funeral pile. It is stated that 
 his last words to Alexander were, " I shall soon see you 
 again in Babylon." A few months later, that prince 
 died in Babylon. 
 
 See Arrian, "Anabasis." 
 
 Calas, kS'lts' or ki'la', (Jean,) a French Protestant, 
 born in 1698, was condemned by eight judgesof Toulouse 
 to be broken on the wheel for an alleged crime of which 
 he was innocent, and suffered death in 1762. In conse- 
 quence of the courageous and generous efforts of Vol- 
 taire, the sentence against the family was annulled, and 
 they were partially indemnified. Louts XV. granted them 
 30,000 livres ; but their persecutors were not punished. 
 
 See Voltaire's "Works;" " Nouvelle Riographie GeneVale." 
 
 Calasanzio, de, da ka-la-san'the-o, (Jose,) a Spanish 
 priest, born in Aragon in 1556, was noted as the founder 
 of the order of chierici regolari, (derici regulares.) Died 
 at Rome in 1648. 
 
 See Hoffmann, "Leben J. Calasantii," 1753; Bartolotti, 
 "Vita del J. Calasanzio," 1740. 
 
 Calasio, de, di kJ-U'se-o, (Mario,) an Italian lin- 
 guist, born at Calasio, near Aquila, in 1550, became 
 professor of Hebrew at Rome. He published a Hebrew 
 Dictionary, and spent about forty years in preparing a 
 Hebrew Concordance of the Bible, which is his most 
 important work. Died in 1620. 
 
 Cal-a-tl'nus, (A. Atilius,) a Roman dictator and 
 general in the first Punic war. He was consul in 258 B.C., 
 and again in 254. In 249 he was appointed dictator for the 
 purpose of prosecuting the war against the Carthaginians 
 in Sicily. Though the events of his dictatorship were 
 not important, he left an honourable name in history. 
 
 Calatrava, ki-la-tRaM, (Jose Maria,) a Spanish 
 statesman, born at Merida in 1781. He became an emi- 
 nent lawyer, and an eloquent orator of the Liberal party, 
 by which he was elected to the Cortes several times. He 
 was proscribed and exiled from 1814 to 1820, and from 
 1823 to 1830. After the accession of Isabella, in 1843, 
 he was appointed a senator. Died in 1846. 
 
 Calau, ka'low, (Benjamin,) a German painter, born in 
 Holstein in 1724, noted as the discoverer of ettodorique, 
 a substance used by ancient painters. Died in 1785. 
 
 Calcagni, kal-kan'yee, (Tiberio,) a sculptor, born at 
 Florence, lived about 1570. He was chosen by Michael 
 Angelo to finish some of his last works. 
 
 Calcagnini, kal-kSn-yee'nee, (Celio,) an Italian phi- 
 losopher and poet, born at Ferrara in 1479. He was 
 professor of belles-lettres in the University of Ferrara. 
 His chief work is "Three Books of Epistolary Ques- 
 tions," ("Quaestionum epistolicarum Libri tres," 1608,) 
 in which he discussed the great questions of philosophy, 
 and maintained that the earth revolves around the sun. 
 Died in 1541. 
 
 See T. C. Calcagnini, "Delia Vita, etc. di Celio Calcagnini," 
 i8iS:GiNGUENE,"HistoireLitteraired'Italie;"P. Glovio, " Eiogia." 
 
 Calcar or Calkar, von, fon kal'kaR, or Calker, kal'- 
 ker, (Johann,) an eminent painter, born at Calkar, in 
 the principality of Cleves, in 1500. He was a pupil of 
 John de Bruges, and formed his style in Italy, where he 
 worked some years. It is stated that his works can 
 hardly be distinguished from those of Titian, whom he 
 imitated. Among his master-pieces is a "Mater Dolo- 
 rosa." He died in Naples in 1546. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines KUnstler-Lexikon ;" Vasari, 
 " Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Caloeolari, kal-cha-o-ll'ree, or Cal-ce-o-la'rl-us, 
 
 (Francesco,) an Italian naturalist, lived at Verona about 
 1550. He wrote a "Journey on Mount Baldo," ("Iter 
 Baldi Montis,",i566.) The genus Calceolaria was named 
 in his honour. 
 
 See Eloy, " Dictionnaire de la Me"decine." 
 
 Cal'-ehas, [Ka/l.\-ac,] a famous Greek soothsayer, who 
 acted a prominent part at the siege of Troy. He was 
 consulted in the most important affairs by the Grecian 
 chiefs. 
 
 Calchi, kal'kee, (Tristan,) a historian, born in Milan 
 in 1462. He was secretary to Duke Francis Sforza and 
 his successors, and wrote a "History of Milan," which 
 is commended. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie." 
 
 Calcia, kal'cha, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter of the 
 last century, born at Genoa. 
 
 Cal'craft, (John,) an English politician, entered Par- 
 liament in 1796, and voted for the Reform Bill in 1831. 
 
 Caldani, kal-da'nee, (Leopoldo Marco Antonio,) 
 an eminent Italian anatomist, born at Bologna in 1725. 
 He professed anatomy with success in his native city, 
 where he published the results of his experiments on 
 Irritability, (1757.) In 1771 he succeeded Morgagni as 
 professor of anatomy at Padua. He wrote a number of 
 treatises on anatomy, physiology, etc., and published a 
 collection of very accurate plates, "Icones anatomicae," 
 (4 vols., 1801-14.) Died in 1813. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Caldani, (Petronio Maria,) an Italian geometer, 
 brother of the preceding, born probably at Bologna about 
 1735. In 1763 he became professor of mathematics at 
 Bologna. He wrote several able treatises on geometry, 
 etc. His talents and attainments were highly commended 
 by D'Alembert. Died in 1808. 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Caldara, kal-da'ra, (Antonio,) an Italian composer, 
 born at Venice about 1675, composed the music of eight 
 operas of Metastasio. Died in 1763. 
 
 Caldara, (Polidoro,) an eminent Italian painter, often 
 called Caravaggio, (kJ-ra-vad'jo,) from the name of 
 the place (in the Milanese) where he was born in 1492. 
 He went to Rome while young, received lessons from 
 Maturino, and soon became so skilful an artist that Ra- 
 phael employed him to paint the friezes in the Vatican. 
 He excelled in landscapes, and painted some admired 
 historical pieces, among which is a "Christ bearing his 
 
 a, e, 1,0, u,y,/o>ig; A, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, gi obscure: far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; mocn; 
 
CALDJRONE 
 
 489 
 
 CALDWELL 
 
 Cross." The last years of his life were passed at Mes- 
 sina, where he was murdered by his servant in 1543. 
 
 See Vasar:, "Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy." 
 
 Caldarone, kal-da-ro'ni, or Calderone, kal-da-ro'- 
 na, (Giovanni Giacomo,) an Italian chemist and physi- 
 cian, born at Palermo in 1651 ; died in 1731. 
 
 Caldas, de, da kal'das, (Francisco Jostf,) a self- 
 taught South American philosopher, born at Popayan, in 
 New Granada, about 1770. He devoted himself to bot- 
 any, astronomy, and physical geography, assisted Mutis 
 in his exploration, and measured the height of Chim- 
 borazo. About 1806 he was appointed director of the 
 observatory at Santa Fe de Bogota. He published 
 some results of his iabours in a periodical named the 
 " Semenario de la Nueva Granada," which he began to 
 edit in 1807. Having joined the movement in favour of 
 national liberty, he was executed by Morillo in 1816. 
 
 See J. Acosta, " Breve Noticia sobre Francisco de Caldas." 
 
 Caldas Pereira de Souza, kal'das pi-ra'e-ra da 
 so'zi, (ANTONIO,) a Brazilian poet and ecclesiastic, born 
 at Rio Janeiro in 1 762, was educated in Portugal. After 
 his death, which occurred in Brazil in 1814, a volume of 
 his odes and other verses was published, with the title 
 01 " Sacred and Profane Poems." 
 
 See F. Denis, " Resume de 1'Histoire Htteraire du Portugal," etc. 
 
 Caldenbach, kal'den-baK', (Christoph,) a German 
 professor, bom in Silesia in 1613. He wrote, besides 
 other works, a "Compendium of Rhetoric," ("Compen- 
 dium Rhetorices,") which was a popular school-book. 
 Died in 1698. 
 
 Cal'der, (Robert,) a Scottish Episcopal clergyman, 
 born at Elgin in 1658. Refusing to acknowledge Wil- 
 liam III., he was deprived of his curacy in 1689, and 
 was imprisoned for nearly a year in Edinburgh jail. He 
 published "The Divine Right of Episcopacy," (1705,) 
 and other works. 
 
 Calder, (Sir Robert,) a British admiral, born at 
 Elgin, in Scotland, in 1745. Having obtained the rank 
 of captain, he contributed to the victory off Cape Saint 
 Vincent in 1797, and was knighted for that service. He 
 was made vice-admiral in 1804. The next year, in July, 
 he fought an indecisive battle against the combined 
 fleets of France and Spain, returning from the West 
 Indies, and ordered a retreat, for which he was censured 
 by a court-martial. He afterwards served as post-admi- 
 ral in one of the English naval stations. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Calderari, kal-da-ra'ree, (Ottone,) Count, an ex- 
 cellent Italian architect, born at Vicenza in 1730. He 
 imitated the style of Palladio with great success, in 
 several palaces and other edifices which he built in Vi- 
 cenza and its vicinity. The Palazzo Cordellina (1776) is 
 regarded by some as his capital work. He was an asso- 
 ciate of the Institute of France, and author of a treatise 
 on architecture. Died in 1803. His plans ("Opere di 
 Architcttura") were published by Diedo, 1808-17. 
 
 See I. L> Breton, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages d'O. Cal- 
 derari, 1804. 
 
 Calderino, kal-da-ree'no, [Lat. Calderi'nus,] (Do- 
 miziii,) an eminent Italian classical scholar, born near 
 Calderio about 1447. He became apostolic secretary 
 to Pope Sixtus IV. He published good editions, with 
 commentaries, of Virgil, Juvenal, Ovid, Martial, and 
 I'ausanias. Politian, Valla, and Calderino were asso- 
 ciated in a literary triumvirate. Died in 1478. 
 
 See Bavlb, " Histofical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 ' Mt-mnires;" P. Glovin, " Elogia." 
 
 Calderinus, the Latin of Calderino, which see. 
 
 Calderon, kSl'da'r6N', (Philippe Hermogene,) a 
 oainter, born at Poitiers, in France, in 1833. Among 
 his works are "The Return from Moscow," and "The 
 Burial of Hampden," (1864.) 
 
 Calderon, kal-da-ron', (Sfrafin,) a Spanish poet, 
 born at Malaga in 1801. He practised law for some 
 time in his native place, and was appointed civil governor 
 of Logroffo in 1836. He has published " Poems of a 
 Solitary," (" Las Poesias del Solitario," 1833,) an in 
 geniotts romance called "Christians and Moors," (1838,) 
 and other works. Died in Madrid in 1867. 
 
 Calderon, de, Count. See CaLleja. 
 
 Calderon de la Barca, kal-da-ron' di la bak'ka, 
 Madame, a Scottish authoress, whose maiden name was 
 Frances In'glis. She was married in 1838 to Calderon 
 de la Barca, minister from Spain to the United States, 
 whom she afterwards accompanied in his mission to 
 Mexico. In 1843 she published " Life in Mexico," which 
 was received with favour. 
 
 Calderon de la Barca, kal-di-r6n' (or kal'de-ron) 
 da la baR'ka, (Pedro,) a celebrated Spanish dramatic 
 author, born of a noble family in Madrid about 1600. 
 He received a liberal education at the University of 
 Salamanca. About the age of thirteen he produced a 
 drama named "El Carro del Cielo," ("The Chariot of 
 Heaven.") His precocity was equalled by the fertility 
 of his genius, as it is stated that he produced at least 
 five hundred dramas. Having acquired fame by his 
 early works, he was invited to court in 1636 by Philip 
 IV., who made Aim a knight of Santiago. He had pre- 
 viously served as a private soldier in several campaigns 
 in Italy and the Low Countries. About 1652 he entered 
 the church, and obtained a canonicate or chaplaincy at 
 Toledo, after which he wrote only sacred pieces, [autot 
 sacnwn-ntales.) By some critics he is regarded as equal 
 to Lope de Vega, who in the preceding age had held the 
 highest rank among Spanish dramatists. His brilliant 
 imagination is not restrained by conventional rules or 
 dramatic unities, and his works present much that is 
 absurd or extravagant, while abounding in interesting, 
 natural, and sublime passages. Among his most admired 
 productions are "The Constant Prince," ("El Principe 
 constante,") a tragedy, " The Devotion of the Cross," 
 " Heraclius," " Love is no Joke," (which furnished to 
 Moliere the idea of his " Femmes savantes,") " The 
 Physician of his own Honour," a tragedy, and "Life is 
 a Dream." Several of his best pieces, including "The 
 Constant Prince" and " Life is a Dream," were translated 
 into German by Augustus Schlegel, and are said to be 
 great favourites on the German stage. 
 
 See an elaborate and able critique in the twenty-fifth 
 volume of the " Quarterly Review," quoted and approved 
 by Hallam, from which we extract the following : "His 
 boundless and inexhaustible fertility of invention, his 
 quick power of seizing and presenting everything with 
 dramatic effect, the unfailing animal spirits of his dramas, 
 if we may venture on the expression, the general loftiness 
 and purity of his sentiments, the rich facility of his verse, 
 the abundance of his language, and the clearness and 
 precision with which he embodies his thoughts in words 
 and figures, entitle him to a high rank as to the imagi- 
 native and creative faculty of a poet; but we cannot 
 consent to enrol him among the mighty masters of the 
 human breast" " His total want of truth to nature," 
 says Hallam, "even the ideal nature which poetry em- 
 bodies, justifies at least this sentence." ("Introduction 
 to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1683. 
 
 See Richard C. Trench, "The Life and Genius of Calderon," 
 1856; Ticknok, "History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" J. L. Heirrrg, "Commentatio de 
 Poeseos dramatical genere Hispanico, praecipue de P. Calderone d» 
 la Barca," 1S17; "Blackwood's Magazine for December, 1839; 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1849, and April, 1857. 
 
 Cal'der-wood, (David,) an eminent Scottish di/ine, 
 born in 1 575, became minister of Crelling in 1604. F01 
 his opposition to Episcopacy he was imprisoned about 
 161 7, and afterwards banished. He published, in Hol- 
 land, "The Altar of Damascus,' and returned home in 
 1625. His "History of the Church of Scotland" was 
 received with favour. Died about 1651. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Caldora, kal-do'ra, (Jacopo,) a famous Italian con- 
 
 dottiere in the service of the Queen of Naples. He 
 
 defeated Braccio da Montone at the battle of Aquila in 
 
 1424. Died in 1439. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Cald'well, (Charles,) an American physician, born 
 in Caswell county. North Carolina, in 1772, studied 
 medicine in Philadelphia under Dr. Rush. He became 
 professor of natural history in the University of Penn- 
 sylvania about 1816. In 1819 he published "The Life 
 and Campaigns of General Greene." He was professor 
 
 « as t; 1; as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, X,gtttt>trali N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (2y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CALDWELL 
 
 490 
 
 CALHOUN 
 
 of medicine in Tralisylvania University, Kentucky, for 
 many years, ending in 1837. He wrote and translated 
 various works, among which was Blumenbach's " Ele- 
 ments of Physiology," (1795.) Died in 1853. 
 See his "Autobiography," 1855. 
 
 Caldwell, (Howard Hi,) an American poet, born 
 at Newbury, South Carolina, in 1831. He graduated at 
 . South Carolina College in 185 1, and settled as a lawyer 
 at Columbia. He has made various contributions to the 
 periodical press, and is the author of two volumes of 
 poems. 
 
 Caldwell, (Rev. Jamks,) an American patriot, born 
 in Charlotte county, Virginia, in 1734. He became pas- 
 tor of a Presbyterian church at Elizabethtown, New 
 Jersey, and during the Revolution was a zealous and 
 very influential supporter of the popular cause. He 
 served as chaplain in the army, and at the same time 
 fought as a soldier. His wife was shot dead by the 
 enemy in 1780. He was killed by a sentinel in Novem- 
 ber, 1781. 
 
 Caldwell, (John C.,) an American general, born in 
 Vermont in 1831. He became a brigadier-general in 
 June, 1862, after which he served in Virginia. 
 
 Caldwell, (Joseph,) D.D., for thirty years president 
 of the University of North Carolina, was born in Laniing- 
 ton, New Jersey, in 1773. He graduated at Princeton 
 with distinguished honours in I79i,and for several years 
 acted as tutor to the college. In 1796 he was elected to 
 the principal professorship in the University of North 
 Carolina, and in 1804 was chosen its first president. Died 
 in 1835. 
 
 Ca'leb, [Heb. 213,} the son of Jephunneh, a He- 
 brew warrior, lived about 1500 B.C. He was one of the 
 two Israelite emigrants or fugitives from Egypt that were 
 favoured to enter the promised land. (See Numbers xiv. 
 24, 30 ; Deuteronomy i. 36 ; Joshua xiv. and xv.) 
 
 Caled. See Khai.ed. 
 
 Ca'let (Robert,) a Boston merchant, distinguished 
 for his opposition to the witchcraft delusion, published 
 in 1700 a work entitled " More Wonders of the Invisible 
 World," in answer to Cotton Mather's " Wonders of the 
 Invisible World." The book excited great indignation, 
 and was ordered to be burned by Increase Mather, the 
 president of Harvard College. Died in 1719. 
 
 Calegari, ka-li-ga'ree, (Antonio,) an Italian sculptor, 
 born at Brescia in 1699 ; died in 1777. 
 
 Calendario, ka-len-da're-o, (Filifpo,) a Venetian 
 sculptor and architect. Died in 1355. 
 
 Ca-le'nI-ua, (Walter,) a Welsh historian, flourished 
 about 1 1 20. 
 
 Ca-le'nus, (Quintus Fufius,) a Roman consul, who 
 was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war, after having 
 served him as legate in Gaul in 51 B.C. In the year 47 
 he was chosen consul through the favour of Caesar, after 
 whose death, in 44, he joined the party of Antony. He 
 commanded an army for Antony in Northern Italy, where 
 he died about 40 B.C. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, "History of Rome." 
 
 Calenzio, ka-len'ze-o, [Lat. Calen'tius,] (Ei.iseo,) 
 born in Apulia, was reckoned among the good Latin 
 poets of his time. He was appointed preceptor to Prince 
 Frederick, son of Ferdinand II. of Naples. His works 
 consist of epigrams, elegies, epistles, etc. Died in 1503. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Calepino, ka-la-pee'no, (Ambrogio,) an Italian phi- 
 lologist, born at or near Bergamo in 1435, published a 
 good Latin Dictionary, (1502,) on which he laboured 
 nearly all his life. It passed through many editions. The 
 French word calepin, signifying memorandum- or scrap- 
 book, is derived from his name. Died in 151 1. 
 
 See Aoelung, Supplement to Jocher's "Allgemeines Gelehrten- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Caletti, ka-let'tee, (Giuseppe,) called ilCremonese, 
 (el kRa-mo-na'si,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara in 
 1600. He painted small historical pieces, demi-figures, 
 etc., with skill. Died about 1660. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Ca'ley, (John,) an English antiquary, born in 1763. 
 H2 was secretary to the National Record Commission 
 from 1801 to 1831, and was joint editor of many works 
 
 on which the commissioners were employed. He con- 
 tributed several articles to the "Archaeologia." Died in 
 1834. 
 
 Calfhill, kaf'il, written also Calfill and Cawfield, 
 (James,) an English divine, poet, and distinguished 
 preacher, born in Shropshire in 1530. He was appointed 
 prebendary of Saint Paul's in 1562, and Bishon of Wor- 
 cester in 1570, but died in the same year, fine of his 
 poems is called the " Complaint of the Oxford Academy," 
 ("Querela Oxoniensis Academiae.") 
 
 Calhoun, kal-hoon', (John Caldwell,) a distin- 
 guished American statesman, born in Abbeville district, 
 South Carolina, in March, 1782, was a son of Patrick 
 Calhoun, an Irishman. He entered Yale College in 
 1802, graduated with distinction in 1804, and studied • 
 law. In 1807 or 1808 he was elected to the legislature 
 of his State, in which he served two years. He was 
 chosen a member of Congress in 1810. He entered 
 public life as a Democrat and leader of the war party, 
 and acquired a national reputation before he had com- 
 pleted his first term in Congress. In 1816 he supported 
 a protective tariff and the United States Bank, for which 
 he reported a bill in Congress. He was appointed secre- 
 tary of war by President Monroe in October, 181 7, and 
 was the only member of the cabinet who expressed the 
 opinion that General Jackson transcended or violated 
 his orders by invading Florida in 1818. Mr. Calhoun, 
 in common with most Southern men, approved the Mis- 
 souri Compromise of 1820. 
 
 In 1824 he was elected Vice-President of the United 
 States by a large majority, receiving the votes of the Jack- 
 simians and also the friends of Adams. Having identified 
 himself with the opposition, (the Jackson party,) he was 
 re-elected Vice-President in 1828, when General Jackson 
 was chosen President. Before this period, the people of 
 South Carolina had adopted the opinion that the tariff 
 was injurious to their interests. Mr. Calhoun changed 
 his course on this question, and became the leader of the 
 party of free trade. To counteract the passage of the 
 tariff-bill of 1828, he asserted the doctrine of the sove- 
 reignty of the States, and composed on this subject 
 a paper entitled " The South Carolina Exposition," in 
 which he claimed that a State can nullify unconstitu- 
 tional laws. During the first term of President Jackson, 
 Calhoun and Van Buren were the prominent competi- 
 tors for the Presidency. " In the public mind," says 
 Parton, "Calhoun towered above his rival; for he had 
 been longer in the national councils," etc. But General 
 Jackson favoured Van Buren as his successor, and thus 
 incurred the enmity of Calhoun, who was bitterly dis- 
 appointed by the result. 
 
 In 1832 he resigned the office of Vice-President, and 
 was chosen a Senator of the United States. Under his 
 influence and direction, a convention, held in South 
 Carolina about the end of 1832, adopted an ordinance 
 to nullify the tariff, and prepared to resist by force the 
 collection of the revenue. But they were overawed by 
 the firmness of General Jackson, who determined that, on 
 the first overt act of treason, Calhoun should be arrested 
 as a traitor. Mr. Calhoun supported Mr. Clay's com- 
 promise tariff of 1833, and acted with the Whigs against 
 General Jackson in relation to the removal of the de- 
 posits from the United States Bank. Still aspiring to 
 the Presidency, he thenceforth used the question of 
 slavery as a means of uniting the South in his support. 
 "Calhoun failed," says Parton, "in all the leading ob- 
 jects of his public life except one ; but in that one his 
 success will be memorable forever.. He has left it on 
 record (see Benton ii. 698) that his great aim, from 1835 
 to 1847, was to force the slavery issue on the North." 
 He advocated the test-measures of Mr. Van Buren's 
 administration, and made several speeches on slavery, 
 which he affirmed to be a positive political and social 
 good. In March, 1843, ne retired from the Senate, and 
 in March, 1844, was appointed secretary of state by 
 Mr. Tyler. He signed in April of that year a treaty for 
 the annexation of Texas to the Union, and resumed his 
 seat in the national Senate in December, 1845. He 
 spoke against the Mexican war in 1S46, and the Wilmot 
 Proviso. He died at Washington in March, 1850. 
 Among his principal writings is a posthumous "Treatise 
 
 a, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 0, u, ?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CALl 
 
 491 
 
 CALLCOTT 
 
 on the Nature of Government," in which he advocates 
 the election of two Presidents, one for the North and one 
 for the South, each having a veto on all acts of Congress. 
 
 See Ji:nkins, "Life of J. C. Calhoun;" "National Portrait-Gal- 
 lery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. ; Bbnton, "Thirty Years' 
 View;" Gki.swold, " Prose Writers of America ;" Pabton, "Fa- 
 mous Americans of Recent Times," 1867; "Democratic Review" for 
 April, 1838 ; " London Quarterly Review" for December, 184a 
 
 Call See KalI. 
 
 Calidasa, (a Hindoo poet.) See KalidAsa. 
 
 Ca-iid'I-us, (Marcus,) an eminent Roman orator and 
 contemporary of Cicero, whose recall from exile he advo- 
 cated. He was praetor in 57 B.C., and supported Milo in 
 52 after the death of Clodius. He joined Caesar in the 
 civil war which began in 49. Died in 48 H.c. His ora- 
 toi v is highly praised by Cicero. (See " Brutus," 79.) 
 
 Calignon', de, deh 'ki'len'vA.s'', (Pierre Antoink 
 d'Ambesieux— ddN'bi'ze-uh',) a French priest, born 
 near London in 1 729, was educated in Paris. He 
 
 I 'reached with success at Geneva, Paris, Lyons, etc. 
 Jesides other works, he published a " View of the Great- 
 ness of God in the Economy of Religion, the Order of 
 Society, and the Wonders of Nature." Died in 1795. 
 
 See Qcerard, "La France Litte"raire." 
 
 Calignon, de, (Soffrey,) a French diplomatist and 
 poet, born at Saint-Jean-de-Voiron in 1 550. He aided 
 L>e Thou in the preparation of the edict of Nantes, and 
 was employed by Henry IV. in difficult negotiations. 
 Died in 1606. 
 
 Caligny, de, deh kf len'ye', (Jean Antenor Hue,) 
 a French military engineer, born in 1657 ; died in 173 1. 
 
 Ca-lig'u-la, (Caius C*sar,) a Roman emperor, bom 
 in 12 A.D., was the son of Germanicus and Agrippina, 
 who was a granddaughter of the emperor Augustus. 
 His childhood and youth were passed among the soldiers, 
 with whom he became a favourite. By deep dissimula- 
 tion he escaped from being a victim to the suspicion of 
 Tiberius, who was the uncle of Germanicus and had 
 adopted the latter as his heir. At the age of twenty-five 
 Caligula succeeded Tiberius, with a general expression 
 of popular favour. The first acts of his reign gave pro- 
 mise of clemency and moderation, by liberating prisoners 
 of state, recalling exiles, etc. Before many months had 
 ejapsed, he became a monster of cruelty, and indulged 
 his vicious passions and appetites to the greatest excess. 
 1 le caused a temple to be erected to himself, and claimed 
 divine honours. It is said that he wished the Roman 
 people had but one head, that he might decapitate them 
 at a single blow. A conspiracy was formed against him 
 by Cassius Chaerea, who assassinated him in the year 41, 
 whereupon his uncle Claudius became his successor. 
 
 See Suetonius, "Lives of the Twelve Caesars;" Tacitus, "An- 
 nales;" Dion Cassiuc, "History of Rome." 
 
 Calippus. See Cau.ippus. 
 
 Ca-lix'tus or Cal-lis'tus | Fr. Cat.ltste, kS'lest', or 
 CaliXTE, kS'lekst'] I., a Bishop of Rome, succeeded 
 Zephyrimis in 219 A.n., and died or was killed in 223. 
 There is a doubtful tradition that he suffered martyrdom. 
 
 Calixtus II., son of William, Count of Burgundy, 
 was elected as successor to Gelasius II. in 11 19, when 
 the church was disturbed by a quarrel with the emperor 
 Henry V., and when the anti-pope Bourdin or Gregory 
 VIII.' was supported by a party. After restoring the 
 peace of the church, Calixtus died in 1124. 
 
 Calixtus III., (Ai.onzo Borgia — boR'ji,) a Spaniard, 
 born at Valencia, was elected pope in 1455, as successor 
 to Nicholas V. He waged war against the Turks with 
 little success, and died in 1458, when he was succeeded 
 by Pius II. His nephew, Cardinal Borgia, became Pope 
 Alexander VI. 
 
 See A. de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 
 Calixtus, ka-liks'tas, originally Callisen, k51'!e-zen, 
 (Geokgius,) a Protestant divine, eminent for his learn- 
 ing and tolerance, was born at Meelby, in Holstein, in 
 1586. He was professor of theology at Helmstedt, and 
 wrote treatises against several doctrines of the Roman 
 Catholics. His moderation exposed him to the charge 
 of crypto-papism, Calvinism, and heresy. Among his 
 works is an "Epitome of Moral Theology," (1634-) r ' e 
 was among the first who attempted to systematize theo- 
 '«gy ; and he had numerous followers, called Calixtines. 
 
 Calixtus was involved in disputes known as the Syncre- 
 tistic controversy, by which the Lutheran Church was 
 distracted for a long time. Died in 1656. Bossuet called 
 him "the most able Lutheran of our time." 
 
 See W. C. Downing, "Life of Calixtus," 1864; B. Cellarius, 
 " Leichenuredigt auf G. Calixtus," 1656; J. Hii.debrand, "Ab- 
 dankung bei Leichbestattung G. Calixti," 1656; Henke, "G. Ca- 
 lixtus und seine Zeit," 1S33. 
 
 Calkar. See Calcar. 
 
 Calkoen (sometimes written Calkon) van Beek, 
 
 kal'koon vin bak, (Jan Frkderik,) a distinguished 
 Dutch astronomer, born at Groningen in 1772. He was 
 appointed extraordinary professor of mathematics and 
 astronomy at Leyden in 1799, and ordinary professor of 
 the same in 1804. In 1805 he became professor of those 
 sciences at Utrecht. He wrote an "Inquiry into the 
 Origin of the Mosaic and Christian Religion, to refute 
 Dupuis's "Origine de tons les Cultes," and a treatise on 
 the Beautiful, entitled " Euryalus over het Schone," and 
 other works. Died in iSn. 
 
 See J. Herinca, "Ter Nagedachtenisse van wijlen J. F. van 
 Beek Calkoen," 1813. 
 
 Call, (Sir John,) an Englishman, born in 1732, be- 
 came chief engineer of the Coromandel coast in India. 
 After his return to England, he was elected to Parlia- 
 ment in 1784. Died in 1S01. 
 
 Call, van, vSn kal, (Jan,) a Dutch designer and en- 
 graver, born at Nymwegen in 1655. He visited Rome 
 and Germany, and drew picturesque views of the Rhine 
 and other regions. Having settled at the Hague, he 
 engraved with aqua-fortis his own designs. His works 
 were sold for high prices. Died in 1 703. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamauds," etc. 
 
 Call, van, (Pieter,) an able Dutch landscape-painter, 
 son of the preceding. Died in 1737. 
 
 Cal'la-nan, (James Joseph,) an Irish poet, born at 
 Cork in 1795. While a student in Trinity College, Dub- 
 lin, he produced a prize poem on the accession of George 
 IV. After he left college he was employed as tutor in 
 private families and in the school of Dr. Maginn. He 
 wrote " The Recluse of Inchidony," and several success- 
 ful lyrics, among which are "The Virgin Mary's Bank" 
 and "Gouzane Barra," a ballad-ode, much admired for 
 its melody of rhythm and its spirit-stirring power. He 
 went in 1827 to Lisbon, where he died in 1829. 
 
 Callard de la Duquerie, kt'liR' deh If duk're', 
 (Jean Baptiste,) a French physician, born in 1630, pub- 
 lished an " Etymological Medical Dictionary," (" Lexicon 
 Medicum Etymologicum," 1673.) Died in 1718. 
 
 CaB/cott, (Sir Augustus Wall,) a distinguished 
 English landscape-painter, brother of John, noticed 
 below, born at Kensington in 1 779. He was elected a 
 member of the Royal Academy in 1810, when he exhib- 
 ited his admired view of " Morning." He employed his 
 pencil chiefly in scenes of quiet beauty, and has often 
 been called the English Claude. Among his productions 
 are "Evening," "Returning from Market," "The Ferry," 
 and " Harvest in the Highlands," with figures by Land- 
 seer, (1833,) which is esteemed one of his master-pieces. 
 He was knighted in 1837, and appointed conservator of 
 the royal pictures in 1844. He died in the same year. 
 (See Callcott, Maria.) "He painted everything tole- 
 rablv. and nothing excellently," says Ruskin. 
 
 Callcott, (John Wall,) one of the most eminent 
 English composers, brother of the preceding, born at 
 Kensington in 1766. Without a master, he attained great 
 proficiency in music, which he adopted as his profession. 
 He received three of the four gold medals awarded by 
 the Catch Club in 1785, and in 1789 won all the four 
 prizes. He composed many admired anthems, glees, 
 canons, etc., and published a " Musical Grammar," ( 1 S05. ) 
 About 1806 he became lecturer on music at the Royal 
 Institution, but was soon compelled by ill health to re- 
 sign that office. He expended much labour on a Musical 
 Dictionary, which was never finished. Died in 1821. 
 
 Callcott, (Maria,) Lady, daughter of Admiral George 
 Dundas, born in 1 788, was first married to Captain Thomas 
 Graham, R.N. In 1809 she went with him to India, 
 where she passed two years. She afterwards travelled 
 in Italy and South America, and in 1827 was married 
 to Sir A. W. Callcott, noticed above. She published 
 
 Travels in India," ( 1 81 2,) " Memoirs of Poussin," ( 1 S20,) 
 
 -5/ , ••- > — •_ ; ; ; 
 
 t as i; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (2®~"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CALLEJA 
 
 492 
 
 CALL1NUS 
 
 vi "Essay towards the History of Painting," (1836,) 
 which is commended, and other works. Died in 1843. 
 
 Calleja, kal-la'iia, or Callejas, kal-la'nas, (Don 
 Felix del Rey,) Count de Calderon, (da kal-da-r6n',) 
 a Spanish general, born in 1750. He commanded the 
 royal forces in Mexico in the civil war which began 
 in 1810, and was appointed Viceroy of Mexico in 1813. 
 Died after 1820. 
 
 Calleuberg, kal'len-beRG', (Gerard,) a Dutch ad- 
 miral, born at Willemstadt in 1642. He commanded a 
 vessel in a battle against the French near Sicily, in 1676, 
 when De Ruyter was killed. The command of the fleet 
 devolved on Callenberg, who was made vice-admiral 
 soon after. He gained applause at the battle of Vigo, 
 (1697,) where he had the chief command. About 1704 
 he bombarded, with the English, the fortress of Gibraltar, 
 which was forced to surrender. Died in 1722. 
 
 See Chalmot, " Biogiaphisch Wooidenboek." 
 
 Callenberg, kal'len-beRG', (Johann Heinrich,) a 
 German author and Lutheran divine, born at Saxe-Gotha 
 in 1694. He became professor of philosophy at Halle 
 in 1727, and professor of theology there in 1739. He 
 was deeply interested in the missionary cause, to' pro- 
 mote which he published from his own printing-press 
 many Arabic and Hebrew works. He wrote several 
 works on the subject of missions and on the conversion 
 of the Jews. Died in 1760. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 CalTen-der, (James Thompson,) a political writer, 
 born in Scotland, became editor of a paper in Richmond, 
 Virginia. He was a partisan of Jefferson, and attacked 
 Washington's administration with virulence. Died in 
 1803. 
 
 Callet, ki'li', (Antoine Francois,) a French his- 
 torical painter and reformer of the French style, born in 
 Paris in 1741 ; died in 1823. 
 
 Callet, (Jean Francois,) a French mathematician, 
 born at Versailles in 1744, was educated in Paris. He 
 was chosen professor of hydrography at Vannes in 1788. 
 In 1792 he returned to Paris, where he acquired a high 
 reputation as a teacher of mathematics. In 1795 he 
 published a stereotype edition of tables of logarithms, 
 which have been extensively used. Died in 1798. 
 
 Calliachi, kal-le-a'kee, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian scholar, 
 born in Candia in 1645, wrote treatises on the antiquities 
 of Greece and Rome. Died in 1707. 
 
 CalTI-as, [KaAAiac,] a Greek architect, who lived about 
 300 B.C. 
 
 Callias, a Greek historian, who wrote a " History of 
 Sicily'' about 310 B.C. 
 
 Callias, a Greek dramatic poet, sumamed Schcenion. 
 
 CalTI-cles, [J£aW«%;] a Greek sculptor, born at 
 Megara, lived about 400 or 425 B.C. 
 
 Callicles, a Greek painter, who is supposed to have 
 lived about 320 B.C. 
 
 Cal-lic'ra-tes, [Gr. Knl/uKpuT7ic ; Fr. Callicrate, 
 kS'le'kRtt',] was distinguished as one of the architects 
 of the Parthenon at Athens, which was finished 438 B.C. 
 This noble and perhaps incomparable specimen of 
 Grecian art, built under the auspices of Pericles and 
 decorated by the genius of Phidias, after serving as a 
 temple to the Athenians, a church to the Christians, and 
 
 mosque to the Turks, was ruined by the explosion of 
 
 magazine during a siege in 1687. It was built of fine 
 hite marble, and surrounded by forty-six columns of 
 he Doric order. (See Ictinus.) 
 
 See Vitruvius, "De Architectural" Felibien, "Recueil his- 
 orique de la Vie des plus celebres Architectes." 
 
 Callicrates, a general of the Achaean League, was 
 noted for his treachery. Died in 149 B.C. 
 
 Cal-li-crat'I-das, [Ka/J?Mpari6ac,] a Spartan general, 
 
 who in 406 B.C. succeeded Lysander in the command of 
 
 the fleet during the Peloponnesian war. He took Me- 
 
 thymne by assault, and gained a naval victory over 
 
 Conon, the Athenian general, whom he blockaded in 
 
 Mitylene. The Athenians sent to the relief of Conon 
 
 a large fleet, which defeated the Spartans near the Argi- 
 
 nusne, where Callicratidas was killed in 406 B.C. He 
 
 was a plain, blunt Spartan of the primitive stamp. 
 
 See Mitford, "History of Greece;" Plutarch, "Life of Ly 
 Sander." 
 
 Callieres, de,dehki']e-aiR', almost kSl'yaiR', (Fran- 
 cois,) a noted French writeTand negotiator, born at Tho- 
 rigny in 1645. He became a councillor of the king, and 
 minister plenipotentiary to Ryswick, in 1693. In 1689 he 
 was received into the French Academy in place of Qui- 
 nault. He published many works on various subjects, 
 among which are "On Wit," ("Du bel Esprit,") a 
 " Treatise on the Manner of negotiating with Princes," 
 (1716,) and "The Knowledge of the World," (1717.) 
 Died in 1717. 
 
 See D'Alembbrt, "Histoire des Membres de l'Acade'mie Fran- 
 chise;" Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iv. 
 
 Cal-H-er'gus, written also Calliergi or Calloergi, 
 (Zacharia,) a Greek scholar, born in the isle of Crete, 
 was educated in Venice, where in 1499 he published a 
 "Dictionary of the Greek Language," which was highly 
 esteemed. He afterwards lived in Rome, and edited 
 the works of Pindar and Theocritus. 
 
 Cal-lim'a-ehus, [Gr. KalJuuaxoc ; Fr. Callimaque, 
 ki'Ie'mik',] an Athenian officer, who commanded the 
 right wing at the battle of Marathon, where he was killed, 
 490 B.C. 
 
 Callimachus, a celebrated Greek sculptor and archi- 
 tect, was probably a native of Corinth or Athens. He 
 is supposed to have flourished about 400 or 450 B.C. 
 The honour of having invented the Corinthian capital 
 is commonly ascribed to him, on the authority of Vi- 
 truvius. His statues were remarkable for an exquisite 
 finish ; but his style was censured as too artificial. 
 
 See Vitruvius, "De Architectural' 
 
 Callimachus, [Gr. Ka'/Ji/iaxoc; Fr. Callimaque, kt' ■ 
 le'inik',] a celebrated Greek poet and grammarian, was 
 born at Cyrene, and flourished at Alexandria between 260 
 and 240 B.C. He was patronized by Ptolemy Philadel- 
 phia, who gave him a place in his museum. He was chief 
 librarian of the famous Alexandrian Library. Among 
 his pupils were Eratosthenes and Apollonius Rhodius. 
 His celebrity surpassed that of nearly all the other Alex- 
 andrine scholars and poets. He was a very prolific writer. 
 Besides several important prose works, which are lost, 
 and among which was a history of Greek literature, 
 " Picture or Account of Writings of all Kinds," ("Tliva.!; 
 nav-odaTTuv crvyypa/ipuTui',") in one hundred and twenty 
 books, he composed epic poems called " Hecale" and 
 "Galatea," several tragedies, comedies, elegies, epigrams, 
 and hymns. His hymns and epigrams are the only por- 
 tion of his works that time has spared. Quintilian ranks 
 him at the head of Greek elegiac poets. Ovid thought he 
 displayed more art than genius : quamvii ingenio non valet, 
 arte valet. Few ancient authors have had more numer- 
 ous and able commentators, among whom were Vossius 
 and Madame Dacier. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Poetis Grascis;" J. G Zierlein, "Dissertatio 
 de ingenio Callimachi," 1770 ; ScHOELL, " Histoire de la Litteratuie 
 Grecque ;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1837, and March, 
 1838; Cleveland, "Compendium of Classical Literature." 
 
 Cal-lim'a-ehuB-Ex-pe'i'I-ens, (Philip,) an Italian 
 historian, born in Tuscany, was a member of the family 
 of Buonaccorsi. Callimachus was an assumed name. 
 About 1473 he emigrated to Poland, where he was ap- 
 pointed preceptor to the sons of Casimir III. Under 
 the reign of John Albert, which began in 1492, he was 
 a powerful favourite at court. He wrote a work on " The 
 Exploits of Attila," a " History of King Vladislaus," aid 
 a few other works. Died in 1496. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 "M^moires." 
 
 Callimaque, the French of Callimachus, which see. 
 
 Cal-lim'e-don, [KrMi/ieAwv,] an Athenian orator, who 
 lived about 330 B.C. He supported the Macedonian party. 
 
 Cal-ll-ni'cus, [Gr. Ka>/U'i«oc,] an architect, born at 
 Heliopolis, in Egypt, was the inventor of the Greek 
 fire, the secret of which has been lost. It is said that 
 by this fire he destroyed a Saracen fleet which attacked 
 Constantinople about 670 A.r>. 
 
 Cal-ll'nus [KaXtivos] of Ephesus, the most ancient 
 of Greek elegiac poets, is supposed to have lived more 
 than 600 years before Christ. Among the fragments of 
 his works which have come down to us is part of a mar- 
 tial elegy of great beauty. It may be found in various 
 collections of the " Poetae Graeci minores." 
 
 See Brukcic, "Analecta." 
 
 a. e, T, 5, 11, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m5t; n6t; good; moont 
 
CJLL10PU 
 
 493 
 
 CJLOGERJ 
 
 Cal-li'o-pe, [Gr. KnA/UoTrj/,] one of the nine Muses, 
 presided over epic poetry, and was represented as holding 
 » closely-rolled parchment or tablets. She was the re- 
 puted mother of Orpheus and Linus. (See Mus.fc) 
 
 Cal-lip'pus [Gr. Kattanror] or Ca-lip'pus [Gr. Ka- 
 Aixrroo : Fr. Cai.lipi-k, ki'lep'] of Athens, was a disciple of 
 Plato, in whose school he became acquainted with Dion of 
 Syracuse. After Dion had become master of Syracuse, 
 Callippus entered his service and obtained his confidence. 
 He assassinated Dion in 353 B.C., and usurped the gov- 
 ernment. About a year after that event he was expelled 
 from Syracuse, and in 35 1 was killed by Leptines, one 
 of his officers. 
 
 See Diodorus Siculus, book xvi. 
 
 Callippus or Calippus of Cyzicus, a Greek as- 
 tronomer, lived about 330 B.C., and was the author of 
 the Calippic period. He was acquainted with Aristotle, 
 who mentions him in his works. Perceiving the in- 
 accuracy of the golden number or period of Meton, 
 (nineteen years,) he invented a new cycle of seventv-six 
 years, which was adopted by astronomers. The Calippic 
 period began in 33! B.C. 
 
 See Delambre, "Histoire de PAstronomie ancienne." 
 
 Callisen. See Calixtus, (Georgius.) 
 
 CaLUsen, kal'le-sen, (ADOLF Karl Peder,) a Danish 
 physician, born at Gliickstadt in 1786. He became pro- 
 fessor in the Academy of Surgery of Copenhagen in 
 1829, and received the title of councillor of state in 
 1839. He published an important work, in German, 
 called " Dictionary of Living Physicians, Surgeons, Phar- 
 maceutists, and Naturalists of all Civilized Nations," 
 (" Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon," etc., 33 vols., 
 1829-35,) which is said to be an indispensable book for 
 every cultivated physician and naturalist. He was a 
 nephew of Hendrik Callisen, noticed below. 
 
 Callisen, (Hendkik,) an eminent Danish surgeon, 
 born at Preez, in Holstein, in 1740. He was appointed 
 surgeon-in-chief of the fleet in 1 771, and professor of sur- 
 gery in the University of Copenhagen in 1773. Having 
 acquired a high reputation, he became physician to the 
 royal family in 1801. He published a " System of Modern 
 Surgery," (" Systema Chirurgiae hodiernae," 1777,) which 
 is esteemed a standard work, and other professional 
 treatises. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Erslew, " Almindeligt Forfatter- Lexicon ;" Rahlff, " Lau- 
 datio in Memoriam H. Caliisenii," 1825. 
 
 Callisthene. See Cai.ltsthenes. 
 
 Cal-lis'tke-nes, (Gr. KaJvuadi vtk ; Fr. Callisthene, 
 ki'les'tin',] a rhetorician, born at Olynthus, in Thrace, 
 about 365 B.C., was the son of Hero, a cousin or niece 
 of Aristotle. Having accompanied Alexander the Great 
 in his invasion of Persia in 334 B.C., he rose to a high 
 degree of favour with that prince, who charged him to 
 write a history of the expedition. This history, which 
 is not extant, is said to have been written in a sycophantic 
 spirit. According to Plutarch, he offended Alexander 
 by his austerity, boldness of speech, and refusal to pros- 
 trate himself before the throne. He was charged with 
 complicity in a conspiracy against the king, and some 
 historians state that he was executed for that crime about 
 328 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Alexander;" A. Westermann, "De 
 Callisthenis Olynthii Vita et Scriptis," 1833. 
 
 Callisthenes, [Fr. Callisthene, ki'les'tjn',] an 
 Athenian orator, was one of the eight orators whom 
 Alexander the Great required to be delivered to him 
 after the destruction of Thebes in 335 B.C. On this oc- 
 casion Demosthenes is said to have applied the fable of 
 the wolf which demanded from the sheep the surrender 
 of their dogs. The orators were saved from that danger 
 by the exertions of Deinades, who interceded with the 
 victor. 
 
 See Arrian, "Anabasis." 
 
 Cal-lis'to, [Gr. Ka/.?jij-u,] a daughter of Lvcaon, 
 King of Arcadia, and a companion of Diana, having 
 lost her chastity, she was transformed into a bear by 
 Diana or Jupiter, and placed among the constellations, 
 under the name of Arctos or Ursa major. 
 
 Cal-lis'tra-tus, [Gr. KaWirrrpaToc ; Fr. Cai.listrate, 
 ki'les'tRit',] the son of Callicrates, an Athenian, was one 
 of the most eloquent orators of his time. It was the 
 
 success and applause which attended one of his forensic 
 efforts (366 B.C.) that inspired the emulation of the 
 youthful Demosthenes and determined him to be an 
 orator. After having performed several embassies, he 
 was exiled from Athens, (in 361,) went to Thrace, and 
 founded the city of Datus, (or Datum.) He returned 
 home without leave, and was put to death. 
 
 See Thirlwall, " History of Greece." 
 
 Callistratus, a Roman jurist, who lived in the reigns 
 of Severus and his son Caracalla, about 200 a.d. Jus- 
 tinian's " Digest" was partly compiled from his writings. 
 
 Calloigne, ki'lwan', (Jean Robert,) a Flemish 
 sculptor, born at Bruges in 1775; died '" '830. 
 
 Cal'lon, [KuAAwr,] a Greek sculptor, born in JEgina, 
 lived about 430 B.C. 
 
 Callot, ki'lo', (Jacques,) an excellent designer and 
 engraver, born at Nancy, France, in 1593. Having studied 
 in Rome, he returned to his native place, and acquired 
 such a high reputation that, in 1628, he was invited 
 by Louis XIII. to design and engrave the siege of 
 Rochelle and the attack on the Isle of Rhi. He de- 
 clined a pension of three thousand livres from the King 
 of France. Though he sometimes used the burin, his 
 etchings are the most admired of his works, among 
 which are "The Miseries of War," "The Temptations 
 of Saint Anthony," "The Fair of Florence," and the 
 sieges above named. Died in 1635. He was a great 
 painter of manners, and was surpassed by few in fertility 
 of invention or in the expression of his figures. 
 
 SeeG. H. Green, "Description of the Worksof Callot ;" Maumk, 
 " Recherches sur la Vie, etc. de J, Callot." 
 
 Cally, kS'le', (Pierre,) a French philosopher and 
 ecclesiastic, born near Argentan, is said to nave been 
 the first who professed Cartesianism in France. He was 
 chosen principal of the College of Caen in 1675, and 
 edited, " ad usum Delphini," Boethius " De Consolatione 
 Philosophise," (" On the Consolation of Philosophy,") 
 in 1680. He wrote a work entitled " Institutes of Uni- 
 versal Philosophy," ("Universal Philosophise Institutio.") 
 Died in 1 709. 
 
 Calmeil, kfl'mil' or kil'm&'ye, (Juste Louis,) a 
 French physician, born at Poitiers (Vienne) in 1798, 
 was appointed chief physician to the Asylum for the In- 
 sane at Charenton. His principal work is " On Insanity 
 considered under the Pathological, Philosophical, His- 
 torical, and Judicial Points of View," (1845.) 
 
 Calmels, kil'meV, (Anatoi.e C£lestin,) an eminent 
 French sculptor, born in Paris in 1822. He studied in 
 the School of Fine Arts, and gained in 1839 one of the 
 grand prizes. Among his chief productions are the 
 statue of Denis Papin for the facade of the Hotel de 
 Ville, and those of Calypso and of Massena for the new 
 Louvre. 
 
 Calmet, kSl'mJ', (Augustin,) a French Benedictine 
 monk, born near Commercy (Lorraine) in 1672, was emi- 
 nent for his learning, and for his labours as a commentator 
 of Scripture. He took the monastic vows in 1689, was 
 appointed abW of Saint-Leopold-de-Nancy in 1718, and 
 ten years later was transferred to the abbey of Senones, 
 where he passed the rest of his life. Calmet published 
 numerous works, among which are "The Bible in Latin 
 and French, with a Literal and Critical Commentary," 
 (1707-16,) a " Historical and Critical Dictionary of the 
 Bible," (2 vols, folio, 1720,) which is regarded as his 
 best production, and has been translated into English, 
 and "Universal History, Sacred and Profane," (17 vols., 
 1735-71.) Died in Paris in 1757. 
 
 See Dom Fange, " Vie de Dom Calmet," 1763 ; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Gine'rale." 
 
 Calmo, kal'mo, (Andrea,) a facetious Italian poet 
 and actor, born in Venice about 1510. He composed 
 "Rhodiana" and other comedies, which were popular, 
 and published a collection of sonnets, stanzas, canzoni, 
 etc. Died in 1571. 
 
 CaIogera,ka-lo-ja'ra,orCaloglera,ka-lo-je-a'ra,(Ax- 
 gki.o,) an Italian monk, eminent as a philologist, born at 
 Padua in 1699. For many years he was an inmate of 
 the monastery of San Michele, near Venice. With the as- 
 sistance of P. Zeno, Mnratori, and others, he compiled 
 and published a selection from the treatises read at 
 the various scientific and philological academies of Italy. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; a, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CALOCIERA 
 
 494 
 
 CALVERT 
 
 This valuable work, entitled " Raccoltad'Opuscoli scien- 
 tific! e filologici," ("Collection of Scientific and Philo- 
 logical Tracts,") was issued periodically from 1729 to 
 1766. Died in 1768. 
 
 See Adklung, Supplement to Tocher's " Allgemeines Gelehrten- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Calogiera. See Calogera. 
 
 Cal'o-Jo-an'nes or Joannes II. Com-ne'nus, [Gr. 
 Kato-luuvvjft Kofivijvog ; Fr. Calo-Jean, kii'lo' zh&N, 
 or Jean Comnene, zIiSn kom'n£n',] Emperor of the East, 
 born in 1088, was a son of Alexis I., whom he succeeded 
 in 1 1 18. The surname Calo is supposed to have re- 
 ferred to his intrinsic merit, as his person was the reverse 
 of beautiful. He is said to have been a wise and good 
 prince. He waged successful wars against the Turks and 
 Servians. After many victories over these and other 
 nations or tribes, he conceived the project of conquering 
 the Latin kingdoms of Jerusalem and Antioch, and en- 
 tered Cilicia with an army. While hunting wild boars 
 in that province, he wounded his hand with a poisoned 
 arrow, which produced his death in 1143. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Manuel. 
 
 See Lb Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" Nicetas, "Joannes 
 Comnenus." 
 
 Calomarde, ka-lo-maR'di, (Francisco Tadeo,) a 
 Spanish minister of state, born at Villel in 1773. He 
 chose the profession of law, became a resident oT Mad- 
 lid, and an adherent of the absolutist party. After hold- 
 ing several inferior officas, he was appointed minister of 
 g'ace and justice in 1823. For the ensuing ten years he 
 was the most powerful member of the cabinet, and ap- 
 pears to have been partly responsible for the evil policy 
 and misrule of that period. Failing in an attempt to 
 make Don Carlos king as successor to Ferdinand VII. 
 In 1833, he was disgraced and exiled. Died at Toulouse 
 in 1842. 
 
 See Lavallee, " Espagne depuis l'Expulsion des Maures jusqu'en 
 1847;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Calomato, ka-lo-ma'to, (Bartolommeo,) a Venetian 
 painter of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Calonne, de, deh kt' Ion', (Alphonse,) a French 
 journalist, born about 1815. He published, in 1852, 
 " Berangere," a tale, and in the same year assisted to 
 establish the " Revue Contemporaine," of which he has 
 since been director, and which has obtained an important 
 place in periodical literature. 
 
 Calonne, de, (Charles Alexandre,) a French 
 courtier and minister of state, born at Douai in 1734. 
 Having studied law, he became master of requests in 
 1763, and intendant of Metz in 1768. In 1783 he was 
 appointed controller-general of finances, through the 
 influence of Vergennes. The expenses of the state were 
 greater than the revenue. Calonne, who was fertile in 
 resources and possessed great powers of application, 
 adopted the policy of disguising the distress by a show 
 of prosperity and by a profuse expenditure of money. 
 He attempted to supply the deficit by loans and tempo- 
 rary expedients, and in 1786 advised an Assembly of 
 Notables, which met next year, thus unintentionally 
 giving the first impulse to the Revolution. The alarm- 
 ing state of the finances then became known, and Ca- 
 lonne was dismissed in 1787. During the Revolution he 
 lived in exile, chiefly in London, and was a zealous roy- 
 alist. He published several able political and financial 
 tracts, of which perhaps the most notable are a " View of 
 Europe in November, 1795," and "On the Finances of 
 France." Died in 1802. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire de la Revolution Francaise :" J. L. Carra, 
 "M. de Calonne tout entier," 17S8; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Calonne, de, (Ernest,) a French poet and dramatic 
 author, born in Paris in 1822. He wrote "Love and 
 Psyche," a poem, (1842,) which was received with favour, 
 and a play in prose, called " The Doctor in Love," (" Le 
 Docteur amoureux,") which he ascribed to Moliere. 
 
 Calov, ka'lof, [Lat. Calo'vius,] originally Kalau, 
 ka'low, (Abraham,) a German Lutheran divine, born at 
 Mohrungen, Prussia, in 1612. He lectured on theology 
 at Wittenberg, was a violent opponent of Calixtus, and 
 was much addicted to controversy. Among his works 
 is a " System of Theological Subjects," (" Systema Loco- 
 rum Theologicorum.") Died in 1686. 
 
 Calovius, the Latin of Calov, which see. 
 
 Calprenede, de la, deh \t kil'pReh-n&d', (Gauthier 
 de Costes — deh kost,) Seigneur, a French writer of 
 fiction, born near Sarlat, (Dordogne,) became a resident 
 of Paris about 1632, and gentleman of the chamber to 
 the king in 1650. He wrote " Cassandre," (1642,) " Cleo- 
 patra," (10 vols., 1647,) and other romances, which had 
 a temporary popularity, and several tragedies, of which 
 "The Earl of Essex" (1639) is said to be the best. 
 Died in 1663. "Calprenede," says Hallam, "had but a 
 life-estate in the temple of Fame, though he was a poet 
 of no contemptible powers of imagination." 
 
 See La Harpe, " Cours de Litterature ;" Malamb de Sbvignb, 
 " Letters." 
 
 Cal-pur'nI-a, a Roman lady, a daughter of L. Cal- 
 purnius Piso, (who was consul in 58 B.C.,) was the fourth 
 wife of Julius Caesar, to whom she was married in 59, 
 and whom she survived. Alarmed by bad dreams, she 
 entreated her husband not to leave home on the fatal 
 Ides of March, 44 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Life of Cassar." 
 
 Calpurnia, a Roman lady, was the wife of Pliny the 
 Younger, and lived in the first century. 
 
 Cal-pur'nI-us. (Titus Julius,) a Latin poet, who 
 was surnamed Sic'ulus, and is supposed to have lived 
 in the third century of our era. Little is known of his 
 history. Several of his Eclogues are extant. They have 
 some merit, and slightly resemble those of Virgil in style. 
 His versification is smooth and sonorous, and his diction 
 is nearly pure. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Calpur'nius Flac'cus, a Latin rhetorician, who is 
 supposed to have lived in the reigns of Adrian and An- 
 toninus Pius. 
 
 Caluso. See Valperga di Caluso. 
 
 Calvart or Calvaert, kal'vaRt, [Fr. pron. kfl'viR',] 
 written also Calvert, [Fr. pron. kaTvaiR',] (Denis,) 
 an eminent Flemish painter, called by the Italians il 
 Fiammingo, (el fe-a-men'go,) "the Fleming," was born at 
 Antwerp in 1555. He went to Italy while young, studied 
 with Fontana and Sabbatini, and opened a .school in 
 Bologna, which became very celebrated. The Bolognese 
 regard him as one of the restorers of their school in 
 respect to colouring. His master-pieces are a " Saint 
 Michael" and a " Purgatory." Among his pupils were 
 Guido, Domenichino, and Albani. Died at Bologna in 
 1619. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Pilkington, "Dic- 
 tionary of Painters." 
 
 Calvel, kfl'vel', (Etienne,) a French writer, who 
 published, besides other works, several treatises on agri- 
 culture. Died about 1830. 
 
 Cal-ve'na, (C. Matius,) a learned Roman, usually 
 called Matius, was an intimate friend of Caesar the die. 
 tator. After the death of the latter, in 44 B.C., he joined 
 the party of Octavius. Tacitus speaks of the power 
 and influence which Matius possessed. He was also 
 intimate with Cicero, who mentions him in his letters. 
 He was perhaps the same as the C. Matius who trans- 
 lated the " Iliad" into Latin verse and wrote an admired 
 work called " Mimiambi." 
 
 Cal'vert, (Cecil or Cecilius,) second Lord Balti- 
 more, was the first proprietor of Maryland, and the son 
 of the first Lord Baltimore. The charter granted ti> 
 him, June 20, 1632, conferred ample political powers and 
 the ownership of the soil on him and his heirs forever, 
 who, in recognition of their fealty to the British crown, 
 were required to pay annually two Indian arrows and 
 one-fifth of all the gold and silver ore which might ever 
 be found. (See Calvert, George.) Lord Baltimore, 
 who never resided in Maryland himself, and probably 
 never saw it, appointed as his lieutenant his brother 
 Leonard, who arrived in the new colony in 1634 with 
 about two hundred persons, mostly Catholics of gentle 
 birth. The colony formed under auspices so favourable, 
 and named in honour of the queen Henrietta Maria, 
 made rapid progress, and for many years enjoyed a re- 
 markable share of peace and prosperity. The proprietor, 
 who was "the heir of his father's intentions not less 
 than of his father's fortunes," discharged his duties to 
 the colonists in a most liberal spirit, and is entitled to a 
 
 a, e, T, 6, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon: 
 
CALVERT 
 
 495 
 
 CALVIN 
 
 shaie of the honour which belongs to the pioneers of 
 civil and religious liberty. I [e died, at an advanced ape, 
 in 1676. Leonard Calvert had died in 1647. The heirs 
 of Lord Baltimore for several generations were proprie- 
 tors of Maryland. 
 
 See Bancroft, "History of the United States;" Hildreth, 
 "History of the United States," vol. i. chap. viii. 
 
 Calvert, (Denis.) See Calvart. 
 
 Calvert, (Frederick,) Lord Baltimore, born in 1731, 
 was the eldest son of Charles, the sixth Lord Baltimore, 
 who tiicd in 1751. The subject of this article then be- 
 came proprietor of Maryland. He published in 1767 a 
 "Tour in the East," and soon after became a resident 
 of Naples, where he died in 1771. He was the author 
 of a work composed in Latin, English, and French, 
 entitled "Gaudia Poetica," ("Poetic Joys.") 
 
 Calvert, (George,) Lord Baltimore, the founder and 
 enlightened lawgiver of Maryland, born at Kipling, in 
 Yorkshire, England, about 1580, was descended from a 
 noble Flemish family of the same name. He was edu- 
 cated at Oxford University. By his talents and virtues 
 he gained the confidence of James I., who appointed him 
 in 1619 one of the principal secretaries of state. In 1624, 
 avowing his conversion to the Roman Catholic faith, he 
 resigned his office ; but the king retained him in the privy 
 council, and raised him to the Irish peerage as Baron of 
 Baltimore, in Longford county, Ireland. He had pre- 
 viously obtained from James I. an extensive grant of 
 land in Newfoundland, where in 162 1 he planted a colony 
 named Avalon, which he supervised in person and sus- 
 tained for a few years at great expense. His motive in 
 this enterprise was partly to obtain liberty of worship for 
 his fellow-professors, who were subject to restraints and 
 disabilities in the mother-country. His first experiment 
 having failed on account of the ungenial climate and the 
 hostilities of the French, he visited Virginia in 1628 and 
 explored the adjacent regions. He returned to England, 
 and received from Charles I. a grant of all the territory 
 included in the present State of Maryland. As Calvert 
 died in 1632, before the grant was legally executed, the 
 charter was issued in the name of his son Cecil, under 
 date of June 20, 1632. This charter, which was doubtless 
 drafted by the first Lord Baltimore himself, guaranteed 
 the civil and religious liberties of the colonists and their 
 exemption from English taxation forever. " Calvert de- 
 serves to be ranked," says Bancroft, " among the most 
 wise and benevolent lawgivers of all ages. He was the 
 first in the history of the Christian world to seek for re- 
 ligious security and peace by the practice of justice and 
 not by the exercise of power ; to plan the establishment 
 of popular institutions with the enjoyment of liberty 
 of conscience ; to advance the career of civilization by 
 recognizing the rightful equality of all Christian sects." 
 He wrote " The Practice of Princes," several letters of 
 state, and a few other works. Several of his speeches in 
 Parliament were published. (See Calvert, Cecil.) 
 
 See Bancroft, " Historv of the United States," vol. i. chap, 
 vii. ; J. P. Kennedy, "Discourse on the Life and Character of 
 George Calvert." 
 
 Calvert, (George Henry,) an American author, and 
 a great-grandson of Lord Baltimore, was born in Mary- 
 land in 1803. He published, besides other works, in 
 prose and verse, "Illustrations of Phrenology," (1832,) 
 "Count Julian, a Tragedy," (1840,) and "Scenes and 
 Thoughts in Europe," (1846,) which were received with 
 favour. 
 
 Calvert, (Sir Harry,) a British general, descended 
 from the Calverts of Hertfordshire. In early life he 
 served in the United States under Clinton, Howe, and 
 Cornwallis, and was made prisoner at Yorktown in 1781. 
 He was aide-de-camp to the Duke of York in 1794, in the 
 Low Countries, and became adjutant-general in 1799. 
 After assisting to organize the military colleges at High 
 Wycombe and Marlow, he was made major-general in 
 1803, a baronet in 1S18, and a general about 1821. Died 
 
 » n '826- „, 
 
 See " Journals and Correspondence of Sir Henry Calvert, by Sir 
 Henrv Vkxney, London, 1853. 
 
 Baltimore. He governed Maryland from 1634 until his 
 death in 1647. 
 
 See Sparks, "American Biography," vol. ix., Second Series. 
 Calvert, (Thomas,) an English dissenting minister, 
 born at York in 1 606. He became vicar of Trinity, York, 
 and officiated in the cathedral during the rule of the Pro- 
 tector. By the Act of Uniformity (1662) he was ejected 
 from his living. He published " Honey of Heaven," 
 ("Mel Cceli,") an exposition of Isaiah liii., and a few 
 other works. Died in 1679. 
 
 Calvi, kal'vee, (Lazzaro,) a Genoese painter, born 
 in 1502 ; died in 1607, at the age of one hundred and five 
 years. Among his works is "The Continence of Scipio." 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 Calvi, (Pantaleone,) a painter, brother of Lazzaro, 
 noticed above, was born at Genoa; died in 1595. 
 Calvidus Laetus. See Quii.lett. 
 Calvin, kal'vin, written also Caulvin, Cauvin, and 
 Chauvin, (John,) [Fr. Jean Calvin, zIiSn ktl'vaN', 
 (or Chauvin, sho'vaN';) Ger. Johann Calvin, yo'han 
 kal-veen'; It. Giovanni Calvino, jo-van'nee kal-vee'no; 
 Lat. Johan'nes Calvi'nus,] after Luther, the greatest of 
 the Protestant Reformers, was born at Noyon, in Picardy, 
 (now the department of Oise,) on the 10th of July, 1509. 
 His father, Gerard Cauvin, (k5'vaN',) secretary of the 
 diocese, and fiscal procureur of the lordship of Noyon, 
 destined him for the church, and gave him a liberal 
 education. When only about sixteen years old, Calvin 
 was appointed cur^ of Marteville, and, by exchange, of 
 Pont-1'Eveque, two years later, while still pursuing his 
 studies in Paris. His relative Robert Olivetan induced 
 him, while at the university, to read the Bible, and pointed 
 out the contradictions between the doctrines of the Holy 
 Scriptures and the theology taught by the Romish Church. 
 At Bourges, where he was studying law, — having aban- 
 doned the purpose of dedicating himself to the church, — 
 Calvin became acquainted with Melchior Wolmar, who 
 instructed him in Greek and confirmed him in the doc- 
 trines of the Protestant faith. He began soon after 
 openly to profess and preach the new doctrines. In 1532 
 he published on Seneca's treatise " De Clementia" a 
 Latin commentary, in which he calls himself Johannes 
 Calvinus. The design of this work, it would appear, 
 was to lead the French king (Francis I.) to the practice 
 of clemency or toleration towards the Protestants ; but 
 it seems to have had no effect. Having by his zeal for 
 the new faith incurred the displeasure of the Sorbonne, 
 Calvin retired from Paris to Angoulerne. For a short 
 period he was protected from persecution by the favour 
 of Margaret of Navarre, sister to Francis I. But being 
 compelled, in 1534, to fly from his native country, he 
 found refuge in Bale, where he published (1536) his 
 "Institutes of the Christian Religion," ("Christianas 
 Religionis Institutio,") which, in an eloquently-written 
 preface, he dedicated to Francis I. The object of this 
 — Calvin's most important work — was to explain and 
 vindicate the views of the Reformed Church. It may, 
 indeed, be pronounced the first systematic and thorough 
 defence of Protestantism that had till then appeared. 
 
 The doctrines of the Reformation having begun to 
 spread into Italy, Calvin, with the view of aiding in the 
 great work, visited Ferrara, where he was cordially re- 
 ceived by the duchess Renee, (Renata,) daughter of 
 Louis XII. of France, and consort of Hercules (Ercole) 
 d'Este. But even her influence was unable to protect 
 him against the power of the Inquisition ; and he was 
 again compelled to seek safety by flight. Returning to 
 Noyon for the last time, he sold his paternal estate, and, 
 accompanied by his brother, sister, and several devoted 
 friends, withdrew to Switzerland. In one of his letters 
 written about this time, he says, " 1 am driven from the 
 land of my birth. Every step towards its boundaries 
 costs me tears. Perhaps it is not permitted to Truth to 
 dwell in France : let her lot be mine." In his flight he 
 had arrived at Geneva, (August, 1536,) intending to pro- 
 ceed to Germany. But Farel, through whose influence, 
 chiefly, the reformed religion had been established at 
 
 € as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, %, guttural', N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as »; th as in Mi. (B^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CALVIN 
 
 496 
 
 CALVO 
 
 teacher of theology. Along with Farel, he prepared a 
 confession of faith and a plan of ecclesiastical discipline, 
 which were approved in a general assembly of the peo- 
 ple, July, 1537. But the severe doctrines and strict 
 discipline of the Reformers were very unpalatable to a 
 large number of the Genevese ; a powerful party was 
 excited against Farel and Calvin, and early in the year 
 1538 they were banished from the city. Calvin withdrew 
 to Strasburg, where, under his care, a Reformed congre- 
 gation was established, which, afforded a pattern to the 
 Protestants of France. During this period (1538-41) he 
 produced the first of his valuable contributions to exe- 
 getical theology. He did not, however, forget the Gene- 
 vese. During his exile, strenuous efforts were made by 
 Cardinal Sadolet, the champion of the Catholic cause, 
 to bring them back to the Church of Rome. Calvin was 
 instrumental in thwarting these designs by a masterly and 
 eloquent refutation (1539) of an epistle which had been 
 addressed to them by Sadolet. They already began to 
 regret the absence of the great Reformer; and in 1540 
 he received from the Genevese senate a pressing invita- 
 tion to return. He was, moreover, urged to this course 
 by Farel and many others of his friends. Calvin appears 
 to have greatly enjoyed the peaceful life which he led at 
 Strasburg, and was extremely reluctant to return to the 
 scene of his former conflicts ; but as he had never ceased 
 to feel the deepest and most affectionate solicitude for 
 the welfare of the church at Geneva, and, above all, as 
 he regarded that city as the post of duty to which Hea- 
 ven had especially called him, the final decision could 
 not be doubtful with one whose devoted and only aim 
 was, not to please himself, but, by every means in his 
 power, to promote the glory of God. On the 13th of 
 September, 1541, he again entered Geneva, and was re- 
 ceived, both by the magistrates and people, "with every 
 demonstration of affection and triumph." During his 
 sojourn at Strasburg he had married (1539) a widow 
 named Idelette de Bures, who is described as a woman 
 of exalted virtues. They had but one child, a son, who 
 died in infancy. Calvin's wife died in 1549. * 
 
 The remainder of the life of this great man was spent 
 in untiring efforts to establish the Genevese church and 
 government on a firm foundation, and to render the 
 former a model for all other Protestant churches. Calvin 
 died May 27, 1564, aged nearly fifty-five. The effects 
 of his labours in promoting sound morality and learning, 
 to say nothing of religion, are still felt in Geneva, after a 
 lapse of three hundred years. Montesquieu, referring 
 to the great services which Calvin had rendered to that 
 state, says " the Genevese ought to observe the day of 
 his arrival in their city as a festival." 
 
 Nothing relating to Calvin is more remarkable than 
 his contempt of riches and the self-denying simplicity of 
 his life. He received from the Genevese only what was 
 sufficient to support him with the greatest parsimony. 
 Although he lived in such poverty, he would never ac- 
 cept a present except for the poor. He repeatedly re- 
 fused to take anything in addition to his regular stipend. 
 Once, during his sickness, the council advanced him the 
 sum of twenty-five thalers, desiring him to accept it as a 
 gift ; but Calvin insisted on repaying it. When some of 
 his friends urged that a person occupying the conspic- 
 uous position which he did before all Europe, ought to 
 live in greater style, he replied by simply referring them 
 to the example of Christ and his apostles. 
 
 There is in Calvin's history one point which must not 
 be passed without notice, as it has been made by the 
 misinformed and illiberal the ground of much unjust 
 censure. We refer to the part which he took in pro- 
 curing the condemnation of Servetus. The utmost that 
 can be justly said against Calvin on this head is that in 
 regard to religious toleration he was not in advance of 
 the age in which he lived ; nor was he one whit behind 
 it. The doctrine of toleration in its largest sense was 
 hot yet recognized, even by men the most liberal and 
 humane.* It must not be forgotten that Calvin was a 
 
 * It should be borne in mind that Calvin died several years before 
 William the Silent, from motives of policy rather than from any higher 
 considerations, recommended toleration as a wise measure of govern- 
 ment, and more than a century (and that, too, during a period of 
 almost unexampled progress) before William Penn taught the great 
 truth that for their religious opinions men are responsible to God alone. 
 
 statesman as well as a preacher of the gospel. The 
 community which he had so admirably organized at 
 Geneva was to him both state and church, over which he 
 felt it his duty to watch with the most jealous care. He 
 had reason to fear that the errors of Servetus, associated 
 as they were with great abilities and an arrogant, reck- 
 less spirit, might endanger the welfare of that community 
 to which he had devoted his life, and which was dearer 
 to him than anything else on earth. He was not ir.erely 
 a watchful pastor, but a zealous patriot, who sought to 
 defend his country against what he deemed a formidable 
 enemy. That his hostility to Servetus was not so much 
 directed against his religious opinions as against his 
 dangerous character, is at least rendered probable by his 
 friendly relations with Socinus, whose theological views 
 were no less objectionable than those of Servetus. 
 
 While deeply regretting this blemish on his character, 
 (shared though it was by all the Reformers of that age,) 
 we must not omit to state that, although Calvin approved 
 of the death of Servetus, he did not wish him brought to 
 the stake, dissenting in this from Farel and some of his 
 other friends, who exhorted him to be " firm and severe." 
 Fare! at first, in opposition to Calvin, distinctly recom- 
 mended that the punishment should be death by fire. 
 Afterwards, however, he repented of his severity, and 
 earnestly implored the council to mitigate the sentence 
 of Servetus ; but in vain.* 
 
 The doctrine of unconditional election and reprobation 
 was the central idea in Calvin's theological system : it is 
 to this doctrine, and others growing immediately out of 
 it, that the term Calvinism is usually applied. 
 
 As a theological writer, Calvin is remarkable for clear- 
 ness, method, and scientific exactness. As a reasoner, 
 he is distinguished for logical acuteness. According to 
 Scaliger, he stood alone among theologians, ("solus inter 
 theologos Calvinus.") Among his numerous works we 
 may name, besides those already mentioned, his "Com- 
 mentaries on the Harmony of the Gospels," (Geneva, 
 1561,) his Commentaries on the New Testament, on the 
 Psalms, etc. His other writings consist chiefly of tracts 
 and letters. 
 
 See Paul Henry, " Life and Times of Calvin," an excellent and 
 exhaustive work; "Letters of Calvin," collected by Dr. Bonnet: 
 Theodore de Heze, " Histoire de la Vie et la Mort de Calvin,'' 
 1564 ; Bolsec, " Historia de J. Calvini Vita," 1572; Masson, " Vita 
 J. Calvini," 1598; Tischer, "Calvin's Leben," 1794; Mackenzie, 
 ■'Memoirs of the Life of J. Calvin," 1S09; John Scott, "Calvin 
 and the Swiss Reformation," 183^ ; Audin, " Histoire de la Vie de J. 
 Calvin," 1S40; T. H. Dyer, "Life of John Calvin," 1849; Maim- 
 bourg, " Histoire du Calvintsme ;" Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical 
 Dictionary;" Guizot, "J.Calvin," 1S44; Kahnis, " Lutheranische 
 Dogmatik," vol. ii. ; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1851. 
 
 Cal-vi'nus, (Cneius Domitius,) a Roman consul, 
 who entered public life about 62 H.c. In the year 54 he 
 offered himself as a candidate for the consulship, which 
 he obtained by bribery and by the influence of Pompey. 
 He became a partisan of Caesar in the civil war, and 
 commanded the centre at Pharsalia, (48 B.C.) In the 
 year 40 he was again elected consul, and afterwards 
 commanded an army in Spain for several years. 
 
 Calvinus, kal-vee'nus, (Johann,) a German jurist, 
 whose proper name was Kahl, (kil,) lived about 1630. 
 He published a " Law Dictionary," (" Lexicon Juridi- 
 cum," 1609,) often reprinted. 
 
 Calvinus, (Johannes.) See Calvin, John. 
 
 Calvisius, kdl-vee'ze-us, (Seth,) a German astro- 
 nomer and poet, born at Groschleben, in Thuringia, in 
 1556. His principal work is "Opus Chronologicum," 
 (1605.) Died in 1615. 
 
 Calvo, kal'vo, or Calvi, kal'vee, (Juan,) a Spanish 
 physician of the sixteenth century, published several 
 useful medical works. 
 
 Calvo, (Marco Fabio,) an Italian physician, born at 
 Ravenna, made one of the first Latin versions of Hip- 
 pocrates, (1525.) Died at Rome in 1527. 
 
 Calvo, de, deh kSl'vo', (Jean Sauveur,) surnamed 
 the Brave, a French general, born at Barcelona in 
 1625. He defended Maestricht against the Prince of 
 Orange in 1676. Died in 1690. 
 
 * It is a striking proof of the universal intolerance of that age that 
 the gentle and humane Melanchthon approved of the execution of the 
 sentence against Servetus. (See Melanchthon's letters to Calvin and 
 Bullinger on this subject.) 
 
 5, e,1, 5, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
CAWQR 
 
 497 
 
 CAMBRIDGE 
 
 Calvor or Calvoer, kal'vbR, (Kaspar,) a German 
 .historian, born at Hildesheim in 1650, wrote, in Latin, 
 a work on the early history of Lower Saxony. Died in 
 1725. 
 
 See J*. J. Fahsius, " Vita G. Calvoerii," 1727. 
 
 Calvus. See Licinius Stolo. 
 
 Calvus, (C. Licinius Macer.) See Licinius Cal- 
 vus. 
 
 Ca-lyp'so, [Gr. KaAvt/xj,] a nymph or demi-goddess 
 of Greek mythology. She is described by Homer as the 
 daughter of Atlas, and proprietor of the island of Ogy- 
 gia, on which Ulysses took refuge after a shipwreck. 
 She detained him some years, and promised him immor- 
 tal youth if he would remain ; but he declined it for the 
 sake of Penelope. 
 
 Calza. kald'za, (Antonio,) a landscape-painter of the 
 Venetian school, born at Verona in 1653 ; died about 
 1714. 
 
 Calzolai, kai-zo-la'ee, or Calzolari, kal-zo-la'ree, 
 (Pietro,) an Italian monk and historian, born in Tus- 
 cany about 1500. He wrote a " Historia Monastica," 
 (1561.) Died in 1580. 
 
 Carri, kowN, (?) (Diogo,) a Portuguese navigator, 
 who in 14S4 explored the west coast of Africa, south 
 of the equator. 
 
 Camadeva or Camadeo. See Kamadeva. 
 
 Camargo, k.A-maR'go, (Alphonso,) a Spanish navi- 
 gator, who explored the Strait of Magellan in 1540. 
 
 Camargo, kS'miR'go', (Marie Anne Cuppi,) a fa- 
 mous danseuse, born at Brussels in 1710. She per- 
 formed in Paris from 1726 to 1 75 1. Voltaire addressed 
 to her verses beginning, "Ah ! Camargo, que vous etes 
 brillante !" Died in 1770. 
 
 See Grimm, "Correspondance." 
 
 Camassei, ka-mas-sa'ee, (Andrea,) an able Italian 
 painter and engraver, born at Bevagna in 1601, worked 
 in Rome. Died in 1648. 
 
 Cambaceres, de, deh kSN'bt'sa'ress', (Abbe,) an 
 uncle of the distinguished statesman, born at Montpellier 
 in 1721, was eminent as a pulpit orator. He pronounced 
 before the French Academy, in 1768, a panegyric on 
 Saint Louis, which was warmly applauded. Several 
 volumes of his sermons were printed. Died in 1802. 
 
 Cambaceres, de, (Etienne Hubert,) a French car- 
 dinal, brother of the jurist noticed below, was born at 
 Montpellier in 1756. He was appointed Archbishop of 
 Rouen in 1802, and the next year became a cardinal and 
 grand cordon of the legion of honour. Died in 1821. 
 
 Cambaceres, de, (Jean Jacques Regis— ra'zhess',) 
 an able French statesman and jurist, born at Montpellier 
 in 1757. He gained distinction as a lawyer before the 
 Revolution, and in 1792 was elected to the National Con- 
 vention, in which he performed a prominent part, but 
 with such caution and wisdom that he was accused of 
 moderation and temporizing. He mostly voted with the 
 republicans, except in the trial of the king. After the 
 fall of Robespierre (July, 1 794) he was president of the 
 committee of public safety, and used his great influence 
 to terminate the reign of terror. He passed into the 
 Council of Five Hundred in 1796, and was one of the 
 first members of the Institute. In 1799, Bonaparte, then 
 first consul, appointed Cambaceres second consul. 
 Under the empire he enjoyed the confidence of his mas- 
 ter, to whom he gave good counsels and adhered with 
 constant fidelity. He was made arch-chancellor, Duke 
 of Parma, president of the senate, president of the coun- 
 cil of state, grand eagle of the legion of honour, e!c. 
 He had the principal part in the compilation of the Civil 
 Code. During the Hundred Days he reluctantly served 
 his former chief as minister of justice, and in 1816 was 
 exiled, but was permitted to return in 1818. He then 
 recovered his civil rights, with the title of duke, but did 
 not hold office under the Bourbons. Died in Paris in 1824. 
 
 See Aubkiet, " Vie de Cambaceres," 1S25; Thiers, "Histoiredu 
 Consulat et de l'Empire." 
 
 Cambaceres, de, (Marie Jean Pierre Hubert,) 
 Due, a French senator, nephew of the eminent states- 
 man, was born at Montpellier in 1 798. He was raised 
 to the peerage in 1837, and appointed a senator about 
 1852. Since that date he has become grand master of 
 ceremonies in the imperial household. 
 
 Camberlyn d'Amougies, kam'ber-Hn' (or kft.N'beV- 
 IAn') di'moo'zhe', (Jean Baptiste Guillaume,) a Bel- 
 gian poet, born at Ghent in 1760 ; died in 1833. 
 
 Cambert, koVbaiR', (Robert,) a French musician, 
 who was organist of the church Saint-Honore in Paris. 
 About 1659 Perrin and he composed a comic opera which 
 had a great success. It was called the "premiere come- 
 die Francaise en musique." They afterwards produced 
 others, entitled "Ariane" and " Pomone." He died in 
 England in 1677, aged about fifty. 
 
 See Fktis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Cambiagi, kam-be-a'jee, (Joachim,) a historical 
 writer, born in Tuscany in 1740, became a partner of 
 Gaetano Cambiagi, a noted printer of Florence. He 
 published a "History of Corsica," (1770.) 
 
 Cambiaso, kam-be-a'so, (Luca,) also called Lu- 
 chetto DA Gi'.nova, (loo-ket'to da ja-no'va,) a cele- 
 brated- Italian painter, born at or near Genoa in 1527. 
 He received lessons in the art from his father Giovanni, 
 and became remarkably skilful in foreshortening. He 
 painted in fresco the " Rape of the Sabines," which was 
 greatly admired. Invited by Philip II., he went to Spain 
 in 1583, and adorned the Escurial with frescos, one of 
 which represents the celestial paradise. He worked 
 with great facility, both in fresco and oil. "The Martyr- 
 dom of Saint George," at Genoa, is called his master- 
 piece. Died in 1585. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Winckelmann, 
 " Neues Maler-Lexikon. 
 
 Cambini, kam-bee'nee, (Andrea,) an Italian histo- 
 rian, born at Florence,*lived about 1470. 
 
 Cambini, (Giuseppe,) an Italian composer, born at 
 Leghorn in 1746, produced a great number of sympho- 
 nies, concertos, oratorios, motets, etc. Died about 1832. 
 
 See Fins, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Cambis-Velleron, de, deh kSN'be' veTrdN', (Joseph 
 Louis Dominique,) Marquis, a French historian, born 
 at Avignon in 1706; died in 1772. 
 
 Cambon, ko.N'boN', (Joseph,) a French republican 
 financier, born at Montpellier in 1756, was a merchant in 
 early life. He was elected to the National Assembly in 
 1791, and to the Convention of 1792, in which he voted 
 for the death of the king. In 1793 he was one of the 
 committee of public safety, and took a prominent part in 
 the government. He concurred in the overthrow of 
 Robespierre in 1794. As a member of the committee on 
 finances, he rendered important services to the republic, 
 and made many able financial reports. He is said to 
 have merited an enduring reputation by that report, 
 which caused the adoption of the great-book, or register 
 of the public debt. In 1795 the rivalry between Cambon 
 and Tallien resulted in a decree for the arrest of the 
 former, who escaped by concealment. Under the reign 
 of Napoleon he lived in a private station, was exiled 
 in 1815, and died in Belgium in 1820. 
 
 See De Barante, " Histoire de la Convention nationale." 
 
 Cambon, de, deh kd.N'b6N', (Jean Louis Auguste 
 Emmanuel,) Marquis, a French lawyer, born at Tou- 
 louse in 1737. He was first president of the Assembly 
 of Notables in 1787. Died in 1807. 
 
 Cambray, k&N'bRj', (Baptiste,) a French peasant, 
 noted as the inventor of a cotton or linen stuff called 
 cambric. He lived in Cambresis, or Cambray, in the! 
 thirteenth century. 
 
 Cambray-Digny, de, deh koN'bRl' den'ye', (Louis 
 Guillaume,) a French physicist, born in Picardy in 
 1723, became a citizen of Florence. He constructed the 
 first steam-engine used south of the Alps. Died about 
 the end of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Cam'bre-leng or Cam'bre-ling, (Churchill C.,) 
 an American politician, born in North Carolina in 1786. 
 He became a merchant in New York, served in Con- 
 gress from 1821 to 1839, was chairman of the committee 
 of ways and means, and was appointed minister to Russia 
 in the latter year. Died in 1862. 
 
 Cam'brldge, (Adolphus Frederick,) Duke of, 
 the seventh son of George III. of England, was born in 
 1774. He entered the army at the age of sixteen, and 
 was taken prisoner by the French at Hondschoote in 
 1793. He was appointed Governor of Hanover in 1816, 
 and Viceroy of the same in 1831. Died in 1850. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g asy'; G, H, Vi, guttural; NJ nasal; R, trilled; sas«; thasin this. 
 
 32 
 
 (£^~See Explanati >nf , p. 23.) 
 
CAMBRIDGE 
 
 498 
 
 CAMERARIUS 
 
 Cambridge, (George William Frederick 
 Charles,) Duke of, a British general, son of the pre- 
 ceding, and a cousin of Queen Victoria, born at Hanover 
 in 1819. He became a major-general in 1845, and suc- 
 ceeded to the dukedom in 1850. In 1854 he commanded 
 a division in the Crimea. His conduct at Alma and 
 Inkerman in 1854 was applauded. He was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the British army in 1856. 
 
 Cambridge, (Richard Owen,) an ingenious English 
 writer, bom in London in 1714. He became a member 
 of Lincoln's Inn in 1737. He wrote the " Scribleriad," 
 a heroic poem, which has been much admired ; twenty- 
 one of the best papers in " The World ;" " The Intruder," 
 a poem ; and a " History of the War in India between 
 the French and English from 1755 to 1761." Died in 
 1802. 
 
 See Cary, " Lives of English Poels from Johnson to Kirke White." 
 
 Cambronne, de, deh kSN'bRon', (Pierre Jacques 
 F/riENNE,) Baron, a French general, born at Nantes in 
 1770. He distinguished himself as colonel in the cam- 
 paigns of 1812 and 1813, and accompanied Bonaparte to 
 Elba in 1814. In 1815 he was admitted into the Chamber 
 of Peers. He commanded a division at Waterloo, where, 
 after being surrounded, refusing to surrender, he was 
 severely wounded and taken prisoner.* At the revolu- 
 tion of 1830 he was restored to his rank in the army. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 See "Victoires et ConquStes des Francais;" "Histoire du Gene- 
 ral Cambronne," Paris, 1845. 
 
 Cambry, kSN'bRe', (Jacques,) a French litterateur, 
 born at L'Orient in 1749, was prefect of the department 
 of Oise.. He wrote a variety of learned works, among 
 which are an " Essay on the Life and Works of Poussin," 
 (1783,) and "Travels in Switzerland and Italy." Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 Canibyse, the French of Cambyses, which see. 
 
 Cam-by'ses, [Gr. Ka/tfooK; Fr. Cambyse, k6N'bez',] 
 King of the Medes and Persians, succeeded his father, 
 Cyrus the Great, about 530 B.C. Five years later he 
 invaded Egypt, defeated Psammenitus, its king, took 
 Memphis, the capital, and in a few months completed 
 the conquest of the country. He then marched against 
 Ethiopia ; but, having lost many men by famine, he re- 
 turned without success. The cruelties that he after- 
 wards committed, among which was the execution of his 
 brother Smerdis, are ascrib.ed by some to the loss of his 
 reason. He was accidentally wounded by his own sword, 
 and died in consequence in 521 or 522 B.C., leaving no 
 issue. 
 
 See Herodotus, "History;" Justin, "Historia;" Valerius 
 Maximus; Ramspeck, "Specimen de Cambyse Persarum Rege," 
 1740. 
 
 Cam'den, (Charles Pratt,) first Earl of, an Eng- 
 lish judge and statesman of great merit, born in 17 14, was 
 the son of Chief-Justice Sir John Pratt. At Eton he 
 formed a lasting friendship with William Pitt. Having 
 graduated at Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 
 1738. For many years he obtained but little practice, 
 until his success in defending a bookseller charged with 
 a libel on the House of Commons, in 1752, brought him 
 into notice. He was appointed attorney-general about 
 1758, was returned to Parliament, and became chief 
 justice of the common pleas in 1762. He there found 
 the proper sphere for his eminent judicial talents, and 
 gained great popularity by his decision against the 
 legality of general warrants in the ca6e of Wilkes. 
 
 In 1765 he was created Baron Camden, and in the 
 next year became lord chancellor. He held the great 
 seal nearly four years, and performed the duties of that 
 office with dignity, firmness, and integrity. "Among 
 the names that adorn the legal profession," says Lord 
 Brougham, " there are few which stand so high as that 
 of Camden. He was, however, more eminent in the 
 senate than the forum. He brought into Parliament a 
 high professional reputation, and his talents were pecu- 
 liarly suited to shine in debate." The constant and 
 powerful champion of constitutional liberty, he opposed 
 the policy of Lord North in relation to America, and 
 has been called the right arm of Lord Chatham, for his 
 
 * He is said to have disowned the famous phrase, " The Guard 
 dies, and never surrenders," which was attributed to him. 
 
 zealous co-operation with that political chief in his long 
 contest with the court. He was president of the coun~ 
 cil from the accession of the younger Pitt as premier, 
 until his own death. In 1786 he was created Earl Cam- 
 den. In 1792 he eloquently and successfully maintained 
 the rights of juries in libel-cases, against Thurlow and 
 all the other law lords. Fox's celebrated Libel Act was 
 then carried through the House of Peers by his exer- 
 tions. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors :" Broug- 
 ham; " Statesmen of the Time of George III.;" Foss, "The Judge; 
 of England." 
 
 Camden, (John Jeffreys Pratt,) Marquis of, 
 the eldest son of the preceding, was born in 1759. About 
 1780 he was returned to Parliament, and appointed a 
 teller of the exchequer. From 1789 to 1794 he was one 
 of the lords of the treasury ; and in the latter year he 
 inherited his father's title and entered the House of 
 Lords. He was lord lieutenant of Ireland for several 
 years previous to 1798. He afterwards served the public 
 with honour as secretary for the colonies and president 
 of the council, and was raised to the rank of marquis 
 about 1812. Died in 1840. 
 
 Camden, (William,) an eminent English antiquary 
 and author, born in London in 1551. Having graduated 
 at Oxford, he became second master of Westminster 
 School in 1575. In 1586 he produced, in Latin, his most 
 celebrated work, " Britannia sive Regnorum Angliae, Sco- 
 tiae et Hibernian ex intima Antiquitate Chorographica 
 Descriptio," (a "Description of Great Britain," etc.,) 
 which was the result of his antiquarian studies and re- 
 searches pursued for many years, and is a very important 
 production. The subsequent editions have been enlarged 
 by various editors, and the book has been translated into 
 English by Gibson and Gough. Camden was made head- 
 master of Westminster about 1592, and Clarencieux king- 
 at-arms in 1597. He published, besides a few other 
 works, "Annals of the Reign of Elizabeth," written in 
 elegant Latin, and admired for various merits. " It is 
 written," says Hume, "with simplicity of expression 
 very rare in that age, and with a regard to truth. It 
 would not, perhaps, be too much to affirm that it is among 
 the best historical productions which have yet been 
 composed by any Englishman." He died in 1623, and 
 left an estate with which the Camden professorship of 
 history at Oxford was founded.' 
 
 See Thomas Smith, " Life of Camden," 1691 ; Molin^us, 
 "Oratio de Vita G. Camdeni," 1652; "Retrospective Review," vol. 
 ix., 1824. 
 
 Camdenu. See Kamadhenu. 
 
 Camdeo. See Kamadeva. 
 
 Camelli, ka-mel'lee, or Kamel, ki'mel, (Georg 
 Toseph,) a German botanist, born at Brunn about 1690. 
 He passed some years as a missionary in the Philippine 
 Islands, the plants of which he described accurately in 
 memoirs sent to the Royal Society of London. Linnasus 
 named the genus Camellia in his honour. 
 
 See Ray, " Histoire universale des Plantes." 
 
 Camenae, ka-mee'nee, [Fr. Camenes, kt'min',] the 
 general name of four divinities or prophetic nymphs in 
 early Roman mythologv, viz. : Antevorta, Postvorta, Car- 
 menta, and Egeria or ^Egeria. The Roman poets some- 
 times applied this name to the Muses. 
 
 Camenes, the French of Camenve, which see. 
 
 Ca-me-nl-a'ta, (Joannes,) [Kaueviara 'IuIivvtk,] of 
 Thessalonica, a Greek writer, who witnessed and wrote 
 an account of the capture of that city by the Saracens in 
 904 a.d. 
 
 Camenz, ka'ments, (Erdmann Gottfried,) a Ger- 
 man antiquary, born in Saxony in 1692; died in 1743. 
 
 Camerarius, ka-ma-ra're-us, or Cammermeister 
 kam'mer-mis'ter, (Alexander,) a physician, born at Tu- 
 bingen in 1695, was a son of Rudolf Jakob, whom he 
 succeeded as professor. Died in 1736. 
 
 Camerarius, (Elias,) a son of Elias Rudolf, noticec 
 
 below, born at Tubingen in 1673, became first physician 
 
 to the Duke of Wurtemberg. He wrote many medical 
 
 works remarkable for singular ideas. Died in 1734. 
 
 See £loy, "Dictionnaire de la M^decine." 
 
 Camerarius, (Elias Rudolf,) a German physician 
 and medical writer, born at Tubingen in 1641, was pro 
 fessor of medicine at that city. Died in 1695. 
 
 J, e, T, o, ii, 5s long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mJt; not; good; moon, 
 
CAMERARIUS 
 
 499 
 
 CAMILLUS 
 
 Cameiarius, (Joachim,) one of the most eminent 
 Gorman scholars of his time, was born at Bamberg in 
 1500. His proper name was 1. 11 mi \un, (leep'haRt.) He 
 was deputed in 1530 to the Diet of Augsburg, where he 
 took a prominent part as the friend and coadjutor of 
 Melanchthon. In 1535 he became director or principal 
 of the University of Tubingen, and in 1541 reorganized 
 that of Leipsic, of which he was rector for many years. 
 He wrote, besides other Latin works, a " Life of Me- 
 lanchthon," (1566,) Commentaries on Cicero, Aristotle, 
 and other classics, and " Commentaries on the Greek and 
 Latin Tongues," ("Commentarii Linguae Grscae et La- 
 titu-e," 1551.) "Budaeus, Camerarius, Scaliger, Casau- 
 bon," says Hallam, "appear to stand out as the great 
 restorers of ancient learning, and especially of the Greek 
 
 language." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe. 1 
 Died at Leipsic in 1574. 
 
 See P. Ekerman, " Fata et Merita J. Camerarii," Upsal, 1761: 
 AOGUST W. Eknksti, "Programma de J. Camerario," 1774: J. F. 
 Eckkakd, "J. Camerarii Memoria," 1774; Jocher, "Allgemeines 
 Gelehrten-Lexilcon." 
 
 Camerarius, (Joachim,) a distinguished physician 
 and botanist, son of the preceding, born at Nuremberg 
 in '534- He practised medicine in his native city, and 
 obtained possession of the botanical library of Gesner, 
 with fifteen hundred wood-engravings which he left. He 
 published several botanical works, among which are the 
 " Medical Garden," (" Hortus Medicus,") and " Epitome 
 Mathioli de Plantis," etc., (1^86.) Died in 1598. 
 
 See De Thou, "Memoires historiques ;" M. Adam, "Vitx 
 Mediconim Germanicorum." 
 
 Camerarius, (Lumvio,) a German diplomatist, son of 
 Joachim II., born at Nuremberg in 1573; died in 1651. 
 
 Camerarius, (Philipp,) a jurist, son of Joachim I., 
 bom at Nuremberg in 1537, was chosen vice-chancellor 
 of the University of Altorf in 1581. He wrote "Leisure 
 Hours," ("Horae subsecivae," 3 vols.,) which passed 
 through several editions. Died in 1624. 
 
 See J. G. Schelhorn, " Commentarius de Vita, Fatis ac Meritis 
 P. Camerarii," 174a 
 
 Camerarius, (Rudolf Jakob,) a German physician 
 and botanist, son of Elias Rudolf, born at Tubingen in 
 1665. He was professor of physics at Tubingen from 
 1689 to 1695, and was then appointed first professor of 
 medicine, including botany, in the same university. In 
 1694 he published a Latin letter on the sex of plants. 
 "The real establishment of the sexual theory," says 
 Hallam, "is due to Camerarius, professor of botany at 
 Tubingen, whose letter on that subject did much to 
 spread the theory over Europe." (" Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe.") Died in 1721. 
 
 See Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 Camerata, ka-ma-ra'ta, (Andrea,) an Italian archi- 
 tect, born at Venice in 1714; died in 1793. 
 
 Camerata, (Giuseppf.,) a miniature-painter and en- 
 graver, born at Venice about 1700. He worked at Dres- 
 den for the Elector of Saxony. Died about 1764. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Camerer, ka'meh-rer, (Johann Frederik,) a Danish 
 historian, born at Ettingen in 1720; died in 1792. 
 
 Cam-e-ri'nus, a Latin poet, who was a contemporary 
 of Ovid. H ' 
 
 Cam'er-on, (Sir Alan,) a British general, born pro- 
 bably in Scotland. In 1793 he raised at his own expense 
 a regiment of Cameron Highlanders, with which he 
 fought against the French. He served in the Peninsula 
 as brigadier-general in 1808 and 1810. About 1820 he 
 was made a lieutenant-general. Died in 1828. 
 
 Cameron, (Archibald,) M.D., a Scottish Jacobite, 
 born about 1698, was a brother of Donald Cameron of 
 Lochiel. He took an active part in the rebellion of 
 ■745. w » s tried for treason, and hung in 1753. 
 
 Cameron, (Donald,) of Lochiel, a Highland chief- 
 tain, who fought for the Pretender in the rebellion of 
 1745. wai called "the gentle Lochiel." He captured 
 Edinburgh by surprise, and was wounded at the battle 
 of Culloden, after which he escaped to France in 1746. 
 The disaster of Culloden forms the subject of Campbell's 
 spirited poem entitled "Lochiel's Warning." Lochiel 
 died in 1748. He is commended as a type and model 
 of the Highland chivalry. 
 
 See Chambers "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement ;) "Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1842. 
 
 Cameron, (Sir Evan or Ewen,) of Lochiel, a Scot 
 tish chief, called "the Ulysses of the Highlands," was 
 born about 1630. He was a zealous Jacobite, took arms 
 against William III. about 1689, and distinguished him- 
 self at Killiecrankie. Died in 1719. 
 
 Cameron, (John,) a Scottish divine and statesman, 
 who became keeper of the great seal, and afterwards 
 Bishopof Glasgow, (1426.) He was lord chancellor under 
 James I. and James II., and represented the Church of 
 Scotland at the Council of Bale about 143 1. 
 
 Cameron, (John,) a liberal Protestant divine and 
 biblical scholar, bom at Glasgow about 1580, liecame 
 eminent for learning and subtlety as a theologian. He 
 went to France in 1600, lectured on Greek and divinity 
 at Bordeaux, Saumur, and Montauban, and published 
 theological works, one of which is called " Myrothecium 
 Evangelicum." He opposed the Calvinistic dogma of 
 predestination. Died at Montauban in 1625. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Haac, "La 
 France protestante." 
 
 Cameron, (Sir John,) a British general, born in 1773, 
 served in Spain with distinction. Died in 1844. 
 
 Cameron, (Richard,) a Scottish minister, the founder 
 of the sect of Cameronians, or " Covenanters," was born 
 at Falkland. In the reign of Charles II. he boldly op- 
 posed the attempt to enforce the Episcopal form of wor- 
 ship, and became an itinerant field-preacher. In 1680, 
 attended by about twenty armed followers, he proclaimed 
 at Sanquhar that Charles Stuart had forfeited the crown. 
 A few weeks after that event he was killed in a fight with 
 the royalist troops at Airdsmoss. The sect of Came- 
 ronians has at present numerous churches in Scotland 
 and elsewhere. They call themselves " Reformed Pres- 
 byterians." 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 G. M. Bell, " Life of Richard Cameron," 1843. 
 
 Cam'er-on, (Simon,) an American politician, born in 
 Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 1799. He learned the 
 trade of printer, and became editor of a Democratic jour- 
 nal at Harrisburg about 1822, after which he acquired a 
 large fortune by operations in banking, railroads, etc. 
 In 1845 ne was elected a Senator of the United States 
 for Pennsylvania. His term in the Senate expired March 
 4, 1849. Having separated from the Democratic party 
 about 1855, he supported Fremont for the Presidency in 
 1856, and was elected a Senator of the United States 
 about the end of that year. He was secretary of war 
 in the cabinent of Lincoln from March 4, 1861, to Jan- 
 uary, 1862, and was then appointed minister plenipoten- 
 tiary to Russia. He returned home in 1863, and was 
 again elected to the Senate of the United States by the 
 legislature of Pennsylvania in 1866. 
 
 Camers, ka'mers, (Giovanni,) originally Giovanni 
 Ricuzzi Vei.lini, (jo-van'nee re-koot'see v81-lee'nee,) 
 an Italian monk and Greek scholar, born at Camerino 
 about 1460. He contributed to the revival of learning 
 by publishing editions of Claudian, Florus, Eutropius, 
 and other classic authors. At one time he was professor 
 of philosophy at Padua. Died about 1550. 
 
 Camldge, (John,) an English musician and com- 
 poser, born at York about 1700; died in 1859. 
 
 Ca-mil'la, |Fr. Camii.le, ki'mel' or kl'me'ye,] a 
 mythical personage, celebrated for swiftness of foot and 
 martial valour, was said to be the daughter of the Vol- 
 scian king Metabus, and an attendant of Diana. Ac- 
 cording to Virgil, she fought in the army of Turnus, and 
 was killed by Aruns. (See "yEneid," book xi. 366-830.) 
 
 Camille, the French of Camili.us and Camilla, 
 which see. 
 
 Camilli, kj-mel'lee, (Camillo,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Sienna about 1550. 
 
 Camillo, ki-mel'yo, (Francisco,) a Spanish historical 
 painter, born at Madrid in 1610; died in 1671. 
 
 Camillo, ka-mel'lo, (Julius,) surnamed Dei.minio, 
 (del-mee'ne-o,) an Italian linguist and writer, born at 
 Forll in 1479. He wrote verses, and treatises on oratory. 
 Died in 1550. 
 
 Ca-mil'lus, (Lucius Furius,) a son of Marcus Furius, 
 noticed below, was chosen dictator of Rome in 350 B.C. 
 
 Camillus, [Fr. Camille, kfrnei' or kS'me'ye,] (Mar- 
 cus Furius,) acelebrated Roman dictator, whose history 
 
 c as h; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; g as 2; th as in this. (jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
C AM IN AD E 
 
 500 
 
 CAMPANELLA 
 
 has been embellished with many fabulous exploits. After 
 serving as military tribune, he was five times chosen dic- 
 tator, and gained victories over the Falisci, Capenates, 
 Volscians, and Fidenates. In his first dictatorship, which 
 began in 396, he took Veii, after a long siege. About 
 390 n.c. he was condemned for peculation, and was ex- 
 iled to Ardea. The Gauls under Brennus having pillaged 
 Rome, Camillus was recalled, and, according to the 
 popular account, gained two decisive victories over the 
 invaders. He was chosen dictator, for the fifth time, in 
 367. He is said to have dissuaded the citizens from 
 removing en masse from Rome to Veii after the former 
 city had been ruined by the Gauls. Died in 364 B.C. 
 Plutarch has written a life of Camillus. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome ;" Niebuhr, " History of Rome,'' vol. 
 i. ; Obkecht, " Dissertatio, M. F. Camillum repnesentans," 1693. 
 
 Caminade, kS'me'nad', (Alexandre Francois,) a 
 French painter, born in Paris in 1783, was a pupil of 
 David. He gained a grand prize, which procured for 
 him a pension and the privilege of studying in Rome. 
 The " Levite of Ephraim" (1838) is called his best work. 
 Died in May, 1862. 
 
 Caminatzin, ka-me-nat-zeen', (?) a nephew of Mon- 
 tezuma, was Prince of Texcuco. He formed an abortive 
 design to liberate his country from the Spaniards, and 
 was killed at the siege of Mexico in 1521. 
 
 Caminer, ki-me-naiR', (Domenico,) an Italian writer, 
 born in Venice in 1 73 1. He issued a periodical entitled 
 "Literary Europe" ("Europa Letteraria") from 1768 to 
 1774, when he changed the plan, and called it "The En- 
 cyclopedic Journal," ("Giornale Enciclopedico.") He 
 wrote a "Life of Frederick II.," and other historical 
 works. Died in 1796. 
 
 Caminer, (Elisabetta,) a daughter of the preceding, 
 born in Venice in 1751, was a scholar and linguist. She 
 made translations of the works of Shakspeare, Marmon- 
 tel, Gessner, and others, Some of which are esteemed. 
 She also edited the journal above named, after her 
 father relinquished it in 1777. Died in 1796. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Caminha, ka-men'yi, (Pedro de Andrade,) a Por- 
 tuguese poet, born at Oporto; died in 1594. His poems 
 were published in 1 791. 
 
 Caminha, de, da ka-m&n'ya, (Pedro Vaz,) a Portu- 
 guese explorer, went to India with Cabral in 1500. He 
 formed part of the expedition which discovered Brazil, 
 and wrote a description of that country, published in 181 7. 
 
 Cammerhof, kam'mer-hof, (Johann,) a German 
 philologist and Lutheran minister, born at Brunswick, 
 lived about 1650. 
 
 Cammermeister. See Camerarius. 
 
 Camoenae. See Camkn/e. 
 
 Camoens, kam'o-ens, [Port, de Camoens, da ka-mo'- 
 Sns,] (Luis or Luiz,) the most celebrated of Portuguese 
 poets, was born of a noble family, probably a Lisbon. 
 The time of his birth is variously stated at 1 517 an," 1524. 
 He was educated at Coimbra. Soon after he left school, 
 a lady of honour at court inspired him with a passion 
 which became the source of his misfortunes and per- 
 haps also a stimulus to his genius. In consequence of 
 this amour he was exiled to Santarem, where he sought 
 to beguile the pain of separation by writing elegiac 
 verses. When the King of Portugal sent an expedition 
 against Morocco, Camoens joined it, and distinguished 
 himself by his courage in several battles. Finding that 
 his poetic talents and martial merits were equally neg- 
 lected and depreciated at court, he embarked for India 
 in 1553, exclaiming, with Scipio, " Ungrateful country ! 
 thou shalt not possess my bones I" (" Ingrata patria, n.on 
 possidebis ossa mea.") 
 
 After serving in several warlike enterprises, he was 
 exiled from Goa to Macao for a political satire which he 
 entitled "Follies in India." There he composed his 
 greatest work, "The Lusiad," (" Os Lusiadas,") a heroic 
 poem (first printed in 1572) commemorating the martial 
 and nautical exploits of Vasco de Gama and other Por- 
 tuguese heroes. "The national glory of the Portuguese," 
 says Madame de Stael, "is there illustrated under all 
 the forms that imagination can devise. The versification 
 is so charming and stately that even, the common people 
 know many stanzas by heart, and sing them with delight." 
 
 In 1 569 he returned to Lisbon in great poverty, which con- 
 tinned to be his portion to the end of his life. His misfor- 
 tunes were aggravated by the degradation and ruin of his 
 country. He died in a hospital in 1579. He has left ad- 
 mired specimens of nearly every species of poetry, among 
 which are numerous sonnets, odes, elegies, and songs. 
 
 "Camoens," says Robert Southey, "is the 'well unde- 
 fined' of that fine language, which he more than any 
 other author enriched and refined." (" Quarterly Re- 
 view" for April, 1822.) 
 
 See F. Mordani, " Elogio storico di L. Camoens," 1S41 ; John 
 Adamson. " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Luis de Camoens," 
 1S20; Souza Botelho, " Vida de Luiz Camoens," 1817; Barreto- 
 Fkio, "Vida de Camoens ;" Henriques Vii.hegas, " Elo^io a Me- 
 moria de L. de Camoens ;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1805. 
 
 Camosio, ka-mo'se-o, or Camoti, kJ-mo'tee, (Gio- 
 vanni Battista,) an Italian Hellenist, born at Asolo 
 about 1 5 1 5. He translated into Latin the "Metaphysics" 
 of Aristotle, and other works. Died in 1581 or 1591. 
 
 See De Thou, " M^moires historiques." 
 
 Campagna, kam-pan'ya, (Girolamo,) an Italian 
 sculptor, born at Verona in 1552 ; died in or after 1623. 
 
 Campagnola, kam-pin-yo'la, (Domenico,) a skilful 
 Italian painter and engraver, born in 14S2, is said to have 
 been a pupil of Titian, whom he imitated. He was an 
 excellent colorist. Died in 1550. Among his engravings 
 are a " Holy Family," and an "Adoration of the Magi." 
 
 See Laxzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Campagnoli, kam-pan-yo'lee, (Bartolommeo,) an 
 Italian violinist of high reputation, born near Bologna 
 about 1750. He composed instrumental pieces, and pub- 
 lished " Exercises on the Seven Positions." Died in 1827. 
 
 Campailla, kam-pa-el'la, (Tommaso,) an Italian phi- 
 losopher and naturalist, born in Sicily in 1668. His 
 chief work is "Adam, or the Creation," a philosophic 
 poem, (1709 ; 5th edition, 1757.) Died in 1740. 
 
 Campan, kjuN'pdN', (Jeanne Louise Henriettk 
 Genest — zheh-ni ,) Madame, a French lady, eminent as 
 a teacher, was born in Paris in 1752. At the age of fifteen 
 she was appointed reader to the three daughters of Louis 
 XV. About 1770 she became the wife of M. Campan, 
 and lady of the bedchamber to Marie Antoinette. For 
 nearly twenty years she was the first lady of the chamber, 
 and tiie most intimate confidante of that queen, and con- 
 tinned to serve her until the attack on the Tuileries by the 
 mob, August 10, 1792, when she narrowly escaped death. 
 She afterwards opened a boarding-school at Saint-Ger- 
 main, which became celebrated, and was patronized by 
 Bonaparte and Josephine. Hortense and two of Napo- 
 leon's sisters were her pupils. About 1806 the emperor 
 founded at Ecouen a school for the daughters and sisters 
 of the officers of the legion of honour, and chose Madame 
 Campan as superintendent. She was deprived of this 
 place in 1814 by the Bourbons, and died in 1822, leaving 
 curious and well-written "Memoirs of the Private Life 
 of Marie Antoinette," (3 vols., 1822,) and other works. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Campana, kam-pa'nS, (Antonio Francesco,) an 
 Italian physician, born at Ferrara in 1 751, obtained a 
 chair of physics at Ferrara, and published several medi- 
 cal works. Died in 1832. 
 
 Campana, (Cesarf.,) an Italian historian, born at 
 Aquila about 1540. Among his works is a "Life of 
 Philip II. of Spain," (1608.) Died in 1606. 
 
 Campana, k&N'pf'na", (Francois Frederic,) a 
 French general, born at Turin in 1771 ; died in 1807. 
 
 Campana, (Pietro,) an Italian engraver, born in 
 1727 ; died in 1765. 
 
 Campanaio, kam-pa-na'yo or kam-pa-nl'o, (Lorenzo 
 di Lodovico,) surnamed Lorknzetto, (lo-ren-zet'to,) a 
 Florentine sculptor and architect, born in 1494. As 
 sculptor he was employed at Rome by Raphael, who 
 esteemed him. He was the architect of the Caffarelli pal- 
 ace, and assisted San Gallo in the repair or completion 
 of Saint Peter's at Rome. Died in 1 541. 
 
 See Cicocnara, " Storia delta Scultura." 
 
 Campanella, kam-pa-nel'la, (Tommaso,) an Italian 
 philosopher and Dominican monk, born at Stilo, in Ca- 
 labria, in 1568. His superior mental powers were very 
 early developed. In 1591 he published, at Naples, " Phi- 
 losophy demonstrated by the Senses," which excited 
 
 a, e, 7, 6, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
CAMPANI 
 
 501 
 
 CAMPBELL 
 
 against him the partisans of Avistotle. Charged with 
 heresy and a conspirac y against the government in 1599, 
 he was confined in a dungeon at Naples for twenty-six 
 years, during which he was put to the rack several times, 
 but confessed nothing. Me was released in 1626 by the 
 mediation of Po])e Lilian VIM., and removed to Rome, 
 where he was well treated. Several of his important 
 works were written or published while he was in prison 
 at Naples, viz., " Introduction to Philosophy," (" Pro- 
 dromus Philosophise instaurandae," 1617,) "Realis Phi- 
 losophia Epilogistica," (1623,) to which was annexed 
 "Civitas Solis," ("The Citv of the Sun, or the Idea of a 
 Philosophic Republic") The "Civitas Solis" has often 
 been reprinted separately, and translated into several lan- 
 l-'or greater security against the cruelty of the 
 ■ iards, he retired in 1634 to France, where he was 
 kindly treated by Richelieu and pensioned by the king. 
 He died in Paris in 1639. Besides those above named, 
 he was the author of many works, among which are a 
 "Treatise on Metaphysics," (1637,) "The Five Parts of 
 Rational Philosophy," (1638,) and an able " Discourse on 
 the Spanish Monarchy," (1640,) which produced much 
 sensation among politicians. "Campanella,"says Hallam, 
 " borrowed his primary theorems from Telesio, but en- 
 larged that Parmenidean philosophy by the invention of 
 his own fertile and imaginative genius. He lays down the 
 fundamental principle that the perfectly wise and good 
 
 » Being has created certain signs and types (stattuts alque 
 imagines) of himself, all of which, severally as well as 
 collectively, represent power, wisdom, and love, and the 
 objects of these, namely, existence, truth, and excellence, 
 with more or less evidence. . . . The strength of Cam- 
 panula's genius lay in his imagination, which raises him 
 sometimes to flights of impressive eloquence on this 
 favourite theme," i.e. the sensibility of all created beings, 
 including plants and minerals. ("Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See" Vita e Filosofia di T. Campanella," byBALDACCHlNt, Naples, 
 
 1S40: Cvpkian'. '"Vita et Philosnphia T. Campanella;." Amsterdam, 
 
 1 1 UiKSTE, ''Thomas Morusel Campanella," Paris, 1843 ; Ten- 
 
 nbmann, " Histoire de la Philosophic; " Eraser's Magazine" for 
 
 Campani, kam-pa'nee, (Giovanni Antonio,) a 
 learned Italian bishop, born at Cavelli in 1427. He 
 wrote epistles, orations, verses, etc., which were printed 
 in 1495. Died in 1477. 
 
 Campani, (Giuseppe,) a brother of Matteo, noticed 
 below, was an optician and practical astronomer. He 
 published some observations, (1664.) 
 
 Campani, (Matteo,) an Italian optician, born near 
 1 1, was curate of a parish in Rome,' in the pon- 
 tificate of Alexander VII. In 1678 he published a work 
 on the construction of clocks. He surpassed all the 
 artists of his time in polishing telescopic object-glasses 
 of great size, and made for Louis XIV. one of one hun- 
 dred and thirty-six feet focal length, with which Cassini 
 discovered two satellites of Saturn. 
 
 Campanile, kim-pa-nee'la, an Italian priest, born in 
 1762, laboured as a missionary in Kurdistan, and wrote 
 a " History of Kurdistan and its Sects." Died in 1835. 
 
 Campauius, kam-pa'ne its, (Thomas,) a Swedish 
 writer, published in 1702 "A Description of the Prov- 
 ince of New Sweden, now called Pennsylvania," which 
 contains historical and other details of some interest. 
 
 Campano, kam-pa'no, [I,at. Campa'nus, ] (Gio- 
 vanni,) an Italian geometer, who first translated Euclid 
 from the Arabic, (printed at Venice in 1482,) the Greek 
 text having not yet been found in his time. He was a 
 native of Novara, and is supposed to have lived in the 
 eleventh or twelfth century. 
 
 Campanua, kam-pa'nu's, (Johann,) a German Prot- 
 estant theologian, separated from the Lutherans in 1530, 
 and formed a sect called Campaniles. 
 
 CampbeU, kam'el,* the name of an ancient and power- 
 ful clan of the Scottish Highlands, which has performed 
 an important part in history since the thirteenth cen- 
 tury. Their original name is said to have been O'Dub- 
 bin. Among the warlike chiefs of the clan was Diarmid, 
 from whom they derive the. appellation of the "sons of 
 
 , • Some families who write their name as above pronounce it 
 tfm'bcl. 
 
 Diarmid." About the middle of the thirteenth century 
 the chief of the clan was Colin or Cai.lum, sununicd 
 Moke, (the "Great.") Niel Campisele, a sou of Colin, 
 was an adherent of Robert Bruce, whose sister he mar- 
 ried. Died in 1316. His son Colin fought for Edward 
 Bruce in Ireland, and aided King David in the expulsion 
 of the English from Scotland. Died in 1340. 
 
 Campbell, kam'el, (Alexander,) D.D., founder of 
 the religious sect known as the "Disciples of Christ," 
 was born in the county of Antrim, in Ireland, in 178S. He 
 came to the United States in 1809. His mind was early 
 impressed with the importance of religion, but he did 
 not find among the various Christian sects any whose 
 religious system he could entirely adopt. He subse- 
 quently declared against all human creeds, and com- 
 menced forming religious associations with the Bible as 
 their only rule of faith. In 1841, Dr. Campbell founded 
 Bethany College, in Virginia, of which he was long the 
 president, and established the "Christian Baptist and 
 Millennial Harbinger," which became the organ of his 
 peculiar religious system. Died in 1855. 
 
 See Richardson's "Memoirs of Alexander Campbell," Philadel- 
 phia, 1868. 
 
 Campbell, (Sir Alexander,) a British general, bom 
 in Perthshire in 1759, entered the army about 1776. 
 After serving with distinction for several years in India, 
 he became colonel in 1803, and succeeded Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley in the command of Seringapatam, Mysore, etc. 
 in 1805. He was wounded at Talavera in 1809, obtained 
 the rank of major-general in 1810, and that of lieutenant- 
 general in 1 814. In 1820 he was appointed commander- 
 in-chief at Madras. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Campbell, (Archibald,) second Earl of Argyle, was 
 killed at the battle of Flodden in 1513. 
 
 Campbell, (Archibald,) fourth Earl of Argyle, was 
 the son of Colin, and grandson of the preceding. He 
 was a zealous Protestant, and the first of his family that 
 adopted the Reformed religion. Died about 1558. His 
 son Archibald, fifth Earl of Argyle, was also a stren- 
 uous promoter of the Reformation. He fought for Mary 
 Queen of Scots at Langside in 1568, and afterwards 
 became lord chancellor. Died without issue in 1575. 
 
 Campbell, (Archibald,) Marquis of Argyle, a pa- 
 triotic Scottish peer, born in 1598, was the son of 
 Archibald, seventh Earl of Argyle, and was styled " Lord 
 Lorn" in his youth. At the death of his father, in 1638, 
 he became Earl of Argyle, and in the same year avowee! 
 himself an adherent of the church in its contest with 
 the court of Charles I., signed the Covenant, and took 
 part in the General Assembly which abolished episco- 
 pacy. In 1641 the king visited Scotland, and, in order 
 to strengthen himself against the English Parliament, 
 courted the favour of the Covenanters. Argyle was 
 raised to the rank of marquis. In the civil war that 
 ensued he took arms against the royalists, became the 
 leader of the Covenanters, and commanded the army 
 sent against Montrose, by whom he was defeated in 1644 
 and 1645. He took a prominent part in the coronation 
 of Charles II. at Scone in 1651, and fought for him against 
 Cromwell. At the restoration of 1660 he was convicted 
 of submission to the usurpation of the Protector, and 
 was executed in 1661. He appears to have possessed 
 political talents of a high order. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Hume, " History of England." 
 
 Campbell, (Archibald,) Lord Lorn, the eldest son 
 of the preceding, was the ninth Earl of Argyle. He 
 fought for the royal cause at Dunbar in 1650, and on 
 other occasions. In 1663 the title of earl and the estate 
 of his father were restored to him, and he was appointed 
 one of the lords of the council. Being required to take 
 the oath called the Test, in 1681, he added, by way 01 
 explanation or reservation, "as far as is consistent with 
 the Protestant faith." For this offence he was condemned 
 to death ; but he escaped to Holland. He returned with 
 armed retainers in 1685, was taken prisoner and executed 
 the same year. It is stated that he slept soundly a few 
 hours before his execution. 
 
 See Chambkks, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen i" 
 MACAtfLAV, History of England," vol. i. th.ip. v. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, 11, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jt^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CAMPBELL 
 
 502 
 
 CAMPBELL 
 
 Campbell, (Archibald,) a son of the preceding, tenth 
 Earl of Argyle, was made a lord of the treasury in 1690, 
 and lord of sessions in 1694. He was created Duke of 
 Argyle in 1701, and died in 1703, leaving his title to his 
 son John. 
 
 Campbell, (Archibald,) Earl of Islay, (i'lay,) and 
 third Duke of Argyle, born about 1682, was a brother of 
 John the second duke. He had great influence in the 
 political affairs of Scotland, and was for many years 
 keeper of the great seal. Died in 1761. 
 
 Campbell, (Archibald,) a Scottish divine, who be- 
 came Bishop of Aberdeen about 1720. Besides other 
 works, he wrote "The Doctrines of a Middle State be- 
 tween Death and the Resurrection." 
 
 Campbell, (Arthur,) an officer of the American 
 Revolution, born in Augusta county, Virginia, in 1742. 
 He served, while a boy, in the frontier wars, was made 
 prisoner by the Indians and adopted by the chief, but 
 escaped after a three years' captivity. He served through- 
 out the Revolution, and rose to the rank of colonel. 
 
 Campbell, (Colin,) first Earl of Argyle, was for a 
 long time chancellor of Scotland. He received the 
 title of earl about 1457, and was succeeded by his son 
 Archibald. 
 
 Campbell, (Colin,) third Earl of Argyle, was the 
 son of Archibald. He was justice-general in the reign 
 of James V. Died in 1542. 
 
 Campbell, kam'el, (Colin,) an English architect, 
 became surveyor of the works at Greenwich Hospital. 
 He published a work on architecture, called " Vitruvius 
 Britannicus," (1715.) Died in 1734. 
 
 Campbell, (Colin,) Lord Clyde, a British general, 
 born in Glasgow in 1792. He entered the army in 1808, 
 served in the Peninsula until 1814, and obtained the rank 
 of major in 1825. In 1842 he became a colonel, and 
 served in the expedition against the Chinese. As gen- 
 eral of brigade, he distinguished himself in India between 
 184S and 1852. He commanded the Highland brigade in 
 the Crimean war, and contributed to the victories of the 
 Alma and Balaklava in 1854, In this year he was pro- 
 moted to the rank of major-general, and in 1855 received 
 the grand cross of the Bath. In July, 1857, Sir Colin 
 was appointed commander-in-chief of the army of India, 
 and departed at once to suppress the rebellion of the 
 Sepoys. His relief of Lucknow in November, 1857, 
 is considered a brilliant achievement. He defeated the 
 Sepoys at Cawnpore, and succeeded in crushing the 
 rebellion in 1858. He was the same year raised to the 
 peerage, with the title of Lord Clyde. Died at Chatham 
 in 1863. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1858. 
 
 Campbell, (George,) D.D., a Scottish divine, emi- 
 nent for talents and learning, born at Aberdeen in 1719. 
 He became minister at Aberdeen in 1756, and principal 
 of Marischal College in 1759. He published in 1762 an 
 able " Dissertation on Miracles," in answer to Hume ; 
 and in 1766, "Philosophy of Rhetoric," which is highly 
 commended, and said to be his best work. This was 
 followed by a "Translation of the Gospels, with Notes," 
 "Lectures on Ecclesiastical History," etc. Died in 1796. 
 
 See Keith, " Life of George Campbell ;" Chambers, " Biographi- 
 cal Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Campbell, (George John Douglas.) See Argyll, 
 Duke of. 
 
 Campbell, (George W.,) born in Tennessee in 1768, 
 embraced the profession of law. From 1803 to 1809 
 he was a representative in Congress, and for two years 
 chairman of the committee of ways and means. He was 
 elected to the United States Senate in 181 1, and was 
 appointed secretary of the treasury in 1815, but the next 
 year resumed his seat in the Senate, in which he served 
 until 1818, when he was sent by Mr. Monroe as minister 
 to Russia. Died in 1848. 
 
 Campbell, (James,) an American jurist, born in Phila- 
 delphia about 1812. He was appointed in 1841 judge 
 of the court of common pleas of Philadelphia, and in 1852 
 attorney-general of the State. He became postmaster- 
 general under President Pierce in 1853. 
 
 See Livingston's " Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Campbell, (Sir James,) a British general, entered the 
 army about 1794. Died in 1835. 
 
 Campbell, (John,) second Duke of Argyll, (Argyle,) 
 an able commander, born in 1678, was the son of Archi- 
 bald, first Duke of Argyle. He inherited his father's title 
 in 1703, and in 1705 was created an English peer, as 
 Baron Chatham and Earl of Greenwich. Between 1705 
 and 1710 he served with distinction at the battles of 
 Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and was pro- 
 moted to the rank of lieutenant-general. On the acces- 
 sion of George I., Argyle was appointed commander-in- 
 chief of all the forces in Scotland. He rendered important 
 services in suppressing the rebellion of 1715, and opposed 
 with success at Dunblane a superior force of the Pre- 
 tender under the Earl of Mar. He changed sides several 
 times in politics, and was accused of trafficking or intri- 
 guing with the Jacobites. He died, without male issue, in 
 1743, when the dukedom of Argyle passed to his brother 
 Archibald. 
 
 See Robert Campbell, "Life of the Dnke of Argyle," 1745; 
 Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Campbell, (John,) LL.D., a Scottish writer on his- 
 tory, biography, politics, etc., was born in Edinburgh 
 in 1708, and was taken to England in childhood. He 
 adopted the profession of author, in which he obtained 
 considerable success. Among his numerous works are 
 "History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlbo- 
 rough," "Lives of British Admirals," and "A Political 
 Survey of Britain," which is variously estimated, but said 
 to be his most important work. He made many and 
 valuable contributions to the "Biographia Britannica" 
 and to the "Universal History." Died in 1775. "I 
 think highly of Campbell," says Dr. Johnson. "In the 
 first place, he has very good parts ; in the second place, 
 he has very extensive reading." 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- 
 tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Campbell, (John,) Lord, an eminent British lawyer 
 and statesman, born near Cupar, in Fifeshire, Scotland, 
 in 1779, was a son of the Rev. George Campbell, noticed 
 above. He was called to the bar by the Society of Lin- 
 coln's Inn in 1806. In 1830 he entered Parliament as a 
 Whig and an ardent Reformer. He was appointed so- 
 licitor-general in 1832, attorney-general in 1834, and lord 
 chancellor of Ireland in 1841. He was raised to the 
 peerage, as Baron Campbell, in the latter year. In 1846 
 he published "The Lives of the Lord Chancellors and 
 Keepers of the Great Seal of England," (7 vols.,) which 
 the " London Quarterly Review" designates as " a work 
 of sterling merit, one of very great labour, of richly di- 
 versified interest, and, we are satisfied, of lasting value 
 and estimation." He was appointed chief justice of the 
 queen's bench in 1S50. On the accession of the Liberal 
 ministry in 1859 he became lord chancellor of England. 
 He published several volumes of Reports, and "Lives 
 of the Chief Justices of England," (3 vols., 1849-57.) 
 Died in June, 1861. 
 
 See the " Quarterly Review" for December, 1845, and December, 
 1847: Foss, "The Judges of England;" "Edinburgh Review" for 
 October, 1857. 
 
 Campbell, (Rev. John,) born in Edinburgh in 1766, 
 was pastor of the Independent Church in Kingsland 
 from 1804 until 1840, and edited "The Youths' Maga- 
 zine" for many years. In 1812 he visited the missionary 
 stations of South Africa, and after his return published 
 "Travels in South Africa," (1815,) and other works. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Campbell, (Rev. John,) a Scottish editor and author, 
 was born in Forfarshire about 1794. He was minister 
 of the Tabernacle, Moorfields, London, for many years, 
 until ill health induced him to retire from the pulpit. 
 Since that time he has edited the "British Banner," 
 commenced in 1849, "The Christian Witness," and 
 other successful journals. He has also written " Jethro," 
 a prize essay, " The Martyr of Erromanga," " Maritime 
 Discovery and Christian Missions," and other religious 
 works. 
 
 Campbell, (Tohn N.,) an eloquent American Pres- 
 byterian minister, born in Philadelphia in 1798. He 
 preached at Albany, New York, from 183 1 until near his 
 death in 1864. 
 
 Campbell, (Sir Neil,) a British officer, born about 
 1770, served with distinction as colonel in the Peninsula 
 from iSio to 1812. In March, 1814, while charging the 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon ; 
 
CAMPBELL 
 
 5°3 
 
 CAMPENON 
 
 French at Fere-Champenoise, he was wounded by a Cos- 
 sack who mistook him for a Frenchman. In the same 
 year he was chosen as commissioner to attend Bonaparte 
 to Elba, to reside with him as a sort of accredited diplo- 
 matist and to act as a spy on his movements. While 
 Campbell was absent on a visit to Florence, in February, 
 1815, the ex-emperor escaped. About 1816 he was sent 
 to explore the sources of the Niger, and in 1826 was 
 appointed Governor of Sierra Leone, where he died 
 in 1827. 
 
 Campbell, (Samuel,) Colonel, an American officer, 
 born in New Hampshire in 1738, removed to the State 
 of New York. He served in the French war and in that 
 of the Revolution. Died in 1824. 
 
 Campbell, (Thomas,) an eminent liritish poet, born 
 at Glasgow in 1777, was the youngest son of a merchant 
 of that city. At the university of his native place he dis- 
 tinguished himself as a superior classical scholar. When 
 in his thirteenth year, he carried off a prize from a com- 
 petitor twice his age. His translations of the Greek 
 dramatists were regarded as the best any pupil in the 
 university had ever made. In 1799 he produced "The 
 Pleasures of Hope," of which the success has perhaps 
 had no parallel in English literature. It passed through 
 four editions in the first year, and was pronounced by 
 Lord liyron " one of the most beautiful didactic poems 
 in our language." " No poet at such an age," says Moir, 
 "ever produced such an exquisite specimen of poetic 
 mastery, — that is, of fine conception and high art com- 
 bined. Sentiments tender, energetic, impassioned, elo- 
 quent, and majestic are conveyed to the reader in the 
 touts of a music forever varied, — sinking or swelling like 
 the harmonies of an ^Eolian lyre." Campbell visited the 
 continent in 1800, and witnessed the battle of Hohenlin- 
 den, which furnished him with the subject of one of the 
 most exquisite lyrics to be found in any language. On 
 his return to Scotland, after residing lor some time in 
 Edinburgh, he removed to London. Soon after his return 
 from the continent he had published "The Exile of Erin," 
 "Ye Mariners of England," "Lochiel's Warning," and 
 other short poems. 
 
 In 1803 he married his cousin, Miss Sinclair, and settled 
 near Sydenham. The government (Fox then being prime 
 minister) granted him in 1806 an annual pension of two 
 hundred pounds. In 1809 he published several of his 
 finest poems, — " Gertrude of Wyoming," which surpasses 
 the " Pleasures of Hope" in simplicity, and, if less per- 
 fect as a work of art, is perhaps not inferior in imagi- 
 native power; "O'Connor's Child," which, for a certain 
 wild, romantic beauty and exquisite pathos, is unequalled 
 by any of his other productions ; and " The Battle of the 
 Baltic," one of the most spirited odes in the language. 
 In 1819 Campbell published "Specimens of the British 
 Poets; with an Essay on English Poetry." From 1820 
 to 1830 he edited the "New Monthly Magazine," which, 
 under the auspices of his distinguished name, was emi- 
 nently successful. He was elected lord rector of the 
 University of Glasgow in 1827, and made a journey 
 to Algiers in 1832. -Among his later works are a not 
 very accurate "Life of Mrs. Siddons," "The Life and 
 Times of Petrarch," and "The Life of Frederick the 
 Great." He died in 1844, and was buried in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey. 
 
 In a conversation with Washington Irving, Scott ex- 
 pressed his regret that Campbell wrote so seldom. 
 "He has," says Scott, "wings that would bear him to 
 the skies, and he does now and then spread them grandly, 
 but folds them up again and resumes his perch, as if he 
 were afraid to launch away. The fact is, Campbell is in 
 a manner a bugbear to himself: the brightness of his 
 early success is a detriment to all his further efforts. He 
 is afraid of the shadow which his own fame casts before 
 him." "It is on his lyrics," says Professor Aytoun, " that 
 the future reputation of Campbell must principally rest. 
 They have taken their place, never to be disturbed, in 
 the popular heart ; and, until the language in which they 
 are written perishes, they are certain to endure." 
 
 See "The Life and Letters of Thomas Campbell." edited bv 
 Wm Hrattik, 1850. 3 vols. Svo: the "Account of Campbell's Life" 
 in "Fi.imm's Magazine" for November. 1844; Gilkm.i.an'-. 
 on ihe Genius and Character of Campbell :" also ihe excellent critique 
 on Campbell in Hazlitt's " Miscellaneous Works," vol. v. 
 
 Campbell, (William,) Lord, a brother of the Duke 
 of Argyle, was the last royal governor of South Carolina. 
 He was expelled by the patriots in 1776, and died in 1778. 
 
 Campbell, (William,) an American soldier, born in 
 Virginia in 1745. He distinguished himself as a colonel 
 at the battle of Guilford, and was killed at Eutaw Springs 
 in September, 178 1. 
 
 Campbell, (William B.,) an American politician, 
 born in Sumner county, Tennessee, about 1807. He was 
 elected Governor of Tennessee in 1851, after he had 
 served as member of Congress. In 1862 he was appointed 
 a brigadier-general in the Union army. Died in 1867. 
 
 Campbell, (William W.,) born at Cherry Valley, 
 New York, in 1806. He became a judge of the supreme 
 court of New York. He published "The Border Wars * 
 of New York," (1831,) and a "Life of De Witt Clinton," 
 (1849.) 
 
 Campe, kam'peh, (Joachim Heinrich,) a German 
 philanthropist and popular writer on education, was 
 born at Deensen, Brunswick, in 1746. He was appointed 
 superintendent of schools in Brunswick in 1787, and be- 
 came proprietor of an extensive publishing house. He 
 published a good " Dictionary of the German Language," 
 (5 vols., 1807— 11,) and wrote many juvenile books, which 
 were received with great favour. His " Robinson the 
 Younger" (" Robinson der Jiingere") has been translated 
 into many languages. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Michel Berr, "Notice biographique sur Campe," 1819; 
 Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Campeggi, kSm-ped'jee, (Benedetto,) a poet, born 
 at Bologna, narrated the important events of his time in 
 a Latin poem, "Italidis Libri X.,"(i553.) Died in 1566. 
 
 Campeggi, (Giovanni,) an Italian jurist, born in 1438, 
 wrote numerous works on civil and canon law. Died at 
 Mantua in 151 1. 
 
 Campeggi or Campeggio, kam-pad'jo, (Lorenzo,) a 
 learned Italian ecclesiastic, born at Bologna in 1474, was 
 made a cardinal by Leo X., who employed him in im- 
 portant missions to Germany and England. Clement 
 VII. sent him as legate to the Diet of Augsburg, famous 
 for its Protestant Confession of Faith, and to England 
 (1528) as one of the judges in the question of the divorce 
 of Catherine of Aragon. He became Archbishop of 
 Bologna. Died in 1539. 
 
 See Carlo Sigonio, "Vita L. Campegii Cardinalis," 15S1; Au- 
 berv, M Histoire des Cardinaux." 
 
 Campeggi or Campeggio, (Tommaso,) Bishop of 
 Feltri, nephew of the preceding, was born in 1500. He 
 was nuncio from Paul HI. to the Conference of Worms 
 in 1540, and was a member of the Council of Trent in 
 1545. Besides other works, he wrote a "Treatise on the 
 Authority of Councils." Died in 1564. 
 
 Campeggio or Campegio. See Campeggi. 
 
 Campellensis. See Champeaux. 
 
 Campello, kam-pel'lo, (Bernardino de' Conti — da 
 kon'tee,) an Italian litterateur, born at Spoleto in 1595. 
 He wrote a "History of Spoleto," (1672,) and other 
 esteemed works, in prose and verse. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Sloria della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Campello, (Paolo de' Conti,) an Italian scholar, ion 
 of the preceding, born at Spoleto in 1643; died in 1713. 
 
 Campen. See Kampen. 
 
 Campen, van, vSn kim'pen, (Jakoh,) a Dutch airhi- 
 tect, born at Haarlem. Having studied in Rome, he 
 returned and built the H6tel de Ville at Amsterdam, one 
 of the grandest edifices of Holland, and designed other 
 buildings in that city. Died in 1638. 
 
 See Nac.ler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Campen or Kampen, van, [Lat. Camten'sis,] 
 (Jan,) called also Van den Campen, a Dutch phi- 
 lologist, born at Campen in 1490. He was professor of 
 Hebrew at Louvain from 1519 to 1531, and produced 
 a Hebrew Grammar, and a good Latin version or para- 
 phrase of- the Psalms,(i532.) Died in 1538. 
 
 See Felix Nhve, "Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de J. Cam- 
 pensis," 1S45. 
 
 Campenon, kftN'peh-niN', (Vincent,) a French poet, 
 born at Guadeloupe in 1772. He was educated at Paris, 
 and afterwards resided in France. In 1795 he wrote, in 
 verse and prose, a "Journey from Grenoble to Cham- 
 beiy." He became an intimate friend of the poet Ducis 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CAMPENSIS 
 
 504 
 
 CJMPOLONGO 
 
 in 1802, soon after which he produced an admired didactic 
 poem called "The Country-House," (" La Maison des 
 Champs.") His "Prodigal Son," a poem, (1811,) was also 
 very successful. He was chosen a member of the French 
 Academy in place of Delille in 1813. Died near Paris 
 in 1843. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 Campensis. See Campen, (Jan van.) 
 Camper, kam'per, (Pieter,) a distinguished Dutch 
 anatomist and naturalist, born at Leyden on the nth of 
 May, 1722. He studied medicine under Gaubius and 
 Albinus. Having graduated, in 1746 he visited Eng- 
 land and France, associating with the most eminent men 
 of science of both countries. He filled successively the 
 chairs of philosophy, anatomy, and medicine at Amster- 
 dam and Groningen, where he lectured with eminent 
 ability. Among his discoveries is that of the presence of 
 air in the bones of birds, (1771.) He wrote many works 
 on anatomy, physiology, etc., among which are "Anato- 
 mico-Pathological Demonstrations," (" Demonstrationes 
 anatomico-pathologicae," 1760-62,) " Dissertation on the 
 Natural Varieties which mark the Physiognomy of Men 
 of Different Climates," and " The Sense of Hearing in 
 Fishes." In 1785 he was chosen foreign associate of 
 the Academy of Paris, — an honour which had been con- 
 ferred on only one other Dutchman.* He was also a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died at the 
 Hague in 1789. 
 
 See Condorckt, " filoge de Camper ;"iVic-D'AzYR, "Iilogede 
 Camper;" A. G. Camper, " Levensschets™ van P. Camper," 1791, 
 and French version of the same; "Notice sur P. Camper," 1803; 
 J. Mulder, " Verdiensten van P. Camper," Amsterdam, 1S09; " En- 
 cyclopaedia liritannica." 
 
 Caniperdown. See Duncan, Admiral. 
 
 Carnpesaiii, de', da kam-pa-sa'nee, (Benvenuto,) an 
 Italian poet of high reputation, was born at Vicenza 
 about 1260. Only fragments of his works are extant. 
 Died about 1324. 
 
 Campesano, kam-pa-sa'no, (Alessandro,) an Ital- 
 ian poet, born at Bassano in 1521 ; died in 1572. 
 
 Camphausen, kamp'how'zen, (Ludoi.f,) a Prussian 
 statesman, born at Hunshoven in 1803. He was chosen 
 representative of Cologne in the diet of the Rhenish 
 provinces in 1842, and president of the council of minis- 
 ters at Berlin in March, 1848. He resigned in June of 
 the same year, and was appointed minister of state, and 
 ambassador to the central power, (CeittralgrMili.) In 
 politics he was a moderate Liberal. He was the author 
 of the circular of January 23, 1849, which proposed a 
 German confederation under the direction of Prussia. 
 
 ' See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Camphausen, (Otto,) a brother of Ludolf, noticed 
 above, was born at Hunshoven in 181 2. He has filled 
 several offices in the public service. 
 
 Camphausen, (Wii.helm,) a German painter of 
 battles, born at Dusseldorf about i8t8. He enlisted in 
 a regiment of hussars in order to study his art. Among 
 his works are "Cavaliers and Roundheads," "Charles I. 
 at Nasebv," and " Prince Eugene at Belgrade." 
 
 Camphuys, kamp'hois, (Jan,) an able Dutch officer, 
 born at Haarlem in 1634. At the age of twenty he 
 entered the service of the East India Company, and in 
 1684 was appointed Governor-General of the Dutch pos- 
 sessions in India. He wrote a " History of the Founda- 
 tion of Batavia." Died in 1695. 
 
 See Zeeman, " Leven en Daden van J. Camphuys," 1833. 
 
 Camphuysen, kamp'hoi'sen, written also Kamp- 
 huizen, (Theodorus Raphael,) an eminent Dutch 
 landscape-painter, born at Gorkum about 1580. He is 
 said to have been the first painter of Holland that exe- 
 cuted landscapes in the proper manner. His sunset and 
 winter scenes are especially admired. In early life he 
 renounced painting for theology, joined the Socinians, 
 and wrote a few theological works. Died in 1627. 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Kiamands," etc. 
 Campi, kam'pee, or Campo, kam'po, (Antonio,) a 
 skilful Italian architect and painter, born at Cremona. 
 He published a " History of Cremona," illustrated with 
 engravings designed by himself. His favourite model in 
 
 ' Boerhaave. 
 
 art was Correggio, whom he imitated with success. He 
 died in or after 1591. 
 
 Campi, (Bernardino,) a painter, born at Cremona 
 about 1525, acquired a high reputation for portraits and 
 historical pictures. A "Nativity" in one of the churches 
 of Cremona is among his master-pieces. Died about 1 590. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Campi, (Galeazzo,) a painter, born at Cremona in 
 1475, was tne father of three eminent artists, Giulio, 
 Antonio, and Vincenzo. Died in 1536. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Campi, (Giulio,) an eminent historical painter, born 
 at Cremona about 1500, was the master of Bernardino 
 and brother of Antonio. He studied under Giulio 
 Romano, and opened a successful school at Cremona. 
 He excelled in colour, grace, and elevation of style. His 
 subjects are mostly taken from sacred history. Died 
 in 1572. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Campi, (Miciiele and Baldassare,) two brothers, 
 who were botanists, and lived at Lucca about 1650. They 
 published " Spicilegio Botanico," (1652.) 
 
 Campi, (Vincenzo,) an Italian painter, born at Cre- 
 mona before 1532, was a brother and pupil of Giulio 
 Campi. He was a good colorist, and excelled in por- 
 traits and pictures of fruiL He also painted religious 
 subjects. Died in 1 591. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Campian. See Campion. 
 
 Campidoglio, kam-pe-dol'yo, (Michelangelo,) a 
 skilful painter of fruits and flowers, born at Rome in 
 1610 ; died in 1670. 
 
 Campiglia, kam-pel'ya, (Alessandro,) an Italian 
 historian, who lived about 1600. His principal work is 
 a well-written history of Henry IV. of France, (1614.) 
 
 Campiglia, (Giovanni Domenico,) an excellent de- 
 signer and painter, born at Lucca in 1692, worked at 
 Rome and Florence. The engravings of the "Capitoline 
 Museum" were chiefly designed by him. Died about 
 1750. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cam'pl-pn or Cam'pl-an, (Edmund,) a Catholic 
 priest, eminent for talents and eloquence, born in Lon- 
 don in 1540. He took orders in the Anglican Church, 
 and was soon after converted to that of Rome. In 1573 
 he went to Rome, and joined the Jesuits, who in 1580 
 sent him to England. Having challenged the Protest- 
 ants to dispute with him in print, and having, as Hume 
 says, "been detected in treasonable practices," a con- 
 fession of guilt was extorted from him by the rack, and 
 he was hanged in 1581. He left a "Universal Chro- 
 nology," a " History of Ireland," and other works. 
 
 See Hume. " History of England ;" Bombino, "Vita et Martyrium 
 E. Campiani," 1618. 
 
 Campion or Champion, (Thomas,) an English poet 
 and musician, lived about 1600. 
 
 Campistron, de, eleh k&N'pes'tRdN',(jEAN G albert,) 
 a French dramatist, born at Toulouse in 1656. He imi- 
 tated Racine, and produced several successful tragedies, 
 among which are "Andronicus," "Alcibiades," and "Ti- 
 ridates." His works ran through ten editions. La Harpe 
 says, " His plans are judicious ; but he has no well-marked 
 character, no striking situation nor nervous lines." He 
 was for many years secretary to the Due de Vendome, 
 and was received into the French Academy in 1701. Died 
 in 1723. 
 
 See Quhrard, " La France LitteYaire." 
 
 Campo. See Campi, (Antonio.) 
 
 Campo-Basso, da, da kam'po bas'so, (Niccoi.6,) 
 Count', a Neapolitan condottiere, who about 1476 entered 
 the service of Charles the Rash of Burgundy, whom he 
 is said to have betrayed. 
 
 See Barante, " Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne ;" Sir Walter 
 Scott, "Anne of Geierstcin." 
 
 Campolo, kam'po-lo, (Placido,) a historical painter, 
 born at Messina, Sicily, in 1693; died in 1743. 
 
 Campolongo, kam-po-lon'go, (EMMANUELE,)an Ital- 
 ian poet and antiquary, born in Naples in 1732. He 
 became eminent as a professor of humanities in Naples, 
 where he began to lecture in 1765. Among his numer- 
 
 a. e, T, o, 6, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m8t; not; good; moon; 
 
CAMPOMANES 
 
 5°5 
 
 CANAL 
 
 ous works are " La Polifemeide," and " The Proteus," 
 (" II Proteo,") a collection of verses in which he assumes 
 the form of various celebrated poets. Died in 1801. 
 
 See M. Robf.rti, " Biographie de Campolongo ;" TiPALno, " Bio- 
 grana degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Catnpomanes, kam po ma'nes, (Pedro Rodriguez,) 
 Count, a Spanish author and minister of state, eminent 
 for probity and liberality, was born in Asturias about 
 1720. Having acquired a high reputation as a juriscon- 
 sult, he was appointed in 176$ JiscaJ of the royal council 
 of Castile. He was made president of the same council 
 in 178S, and afterwards minister of state. His writings 
 on political economy acquired for him a European 
 reputation, and were commended by Robertson in his 
 " History of America." On the recommendation of Dr. 
 Franklin, he was chosen an honorary member of the 
 Philosophic Society of Philadelphia. He wrote "A Dis- 
 course on the Promotion of Popular Industry," (1774,) 
 "Discourse on the Popular Education of Mechanics," 
 an "Appendix to the Education of Mechanics," (in 4 
 vols.,) and other works. Died in 1802. 
 
 See Robertson, "History of America:" Ersch und Gruber, 
 " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" " Fraser's .Magazine" for June, 1831. 
 
 Campra, kflN'pRi', (Andre,) an eminent French com- 
 poser, born at Aix in 1660, produced sacred music and 
 many popular operas. Died in 1744. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Campredon, koN'pRa'doN', (Jacques David Mar- 
 tin, 1 a French general, born at Montpellier in 1761. He 
 was appointed minister of war by Joseph Bonaparte in 
 1809, and served in the Russian campaign, (1812.) Died 
 in 1837. 
 
 See "Vie du General Caroprec'.on," 8vo, 1S38. 
 
 Camps. See Descamps. 
 
 Camps, de, deh k&N, (Francois,) a French abbe\ 
 born at Amiens in 1643, became grand vicar of Serroni, 
 the Archbishop of Albi. He applied himself to the study 
 of medals, of which he made an excellent collection, and 
 wrote treatises on history and numismatics. Died in 1723. 
 
 Camuccini, ka-moot-chee'nee, (Vincenzo,) a distin- 
 guished painter of history, born in Rome in 1775. In 
 his youth he copied the works of Raphael and other old 
 masters, and afterwards acquired celebrity by a series of 
 pictures from ancient Roman history, among which were 
 " Horatius Codes" and "The Continence of Scipio." He 
 also painted "The Conversion of Saul," and other scrip- 
 tural subjects. He was chosen president of the Academy 
 of Saint I.uke, and a mem!>er of the Institute of France. 
 His style is rather conventional than natural. Died in 
 1844. 
 
 See Nagler. "Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Camus, ki'mus', (Armani) Gaston,) a republican 
 legislator and writer, born in Paris in 1740. He pub- 
 lished in 1783 a translation of Aristotle's " History of 
 Animals," which procured him admission to the Acad- 
 emy of Inscriptions. Elected to the Constituent Assem- 
 bly in 1789, he had the principal part in framing the 
 civil constitution of the clergy. He was an active mem- 
 ber of the Convention, which appointed him in 1792 one 
 of the committee of public safety. With three other 
 commissaries of the Convention, he attempted in April, 
 1793, to arrest Dumouriez at the head of his army; but 
 that general sent them prisoners to the Austrian camp. 
 In 1795 he was exchanged for the daughter of Louis 
 XVI., and passed into the Council of Five Hundred. 
 He was a member of the Institute, and author of several 
 able works, among which is a " Journey through the 
 Departments recently united." Died in 1804. 
 
 See Toui.ongeY>n. " Eloge historique de A. G. Camus," 1S06; 
 Thiers, " Hislovy of the French Revolution." 
 
 Camus, (Chari.es Etienne Louis,) a French mathe- 
 matician, born at Crecy-en-Brie in 1699. In 1727 he 
 wrote a treatise on the Masting of Vessels, which opened 
 to him the Academy of Sciences. He was -one of the 
 Academicians who in 1735 went to Lapland with Mau- 
 pertuis to determine the figure of the earth. He wrote 
 a work on Hydraulics, and a Course of Mathematics, 
 which was valued at the time. The Royal Society of 
 London elected him a Fellow about 1765. Died in Paris 
 in 1768. 
 
 Sec Grand*ean dp. Fouchv, " F.loge de C. E. L. Camus. 
 
 Camus, (Jean Pierre:,) Bishop of Belley, was born 
 in Paris in 1582. He preached and wrote zealously 
 against the mendicant monks. For this Richelieu repri- 
 manded him, and added, " If it were not for this fault, 
 I should canonize you." Camus replied, " We should 
 then both have what we wish: you would be pope, and 
 1 would be a saint." He wrote " Dorothee," and other 
 religious romances, which had great success at the time. 
 Died in 1652. 
 
 See Nice' ron, " Memoires ;" Depery, *' Notice sur la Vie de J. K. 
 Catmis." 
 
 Camus, de, deh kt'mus', or des Camus, di kS'miis', 
 (Francois Joseph,) a French mathematician, born in 
 Lorraine in 1672, became a resident of Paris. He was 
 admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1716, and pub- 
 lished in 1722 a curious "Treatise on Moving Forces." 
 Died in England in 1732. 
 
 Camus de Mezieres, le, leh kfrniis' deh mi'- 
 ze-aiR', (Nicolas,) a French architect, born in Paris in 
 1 721. He designed the Corn-Market (Halle an bit) of 
 Paris, and wrote "The Genius of Architecture," (1780,) 
 and other works. Died in 1789. 
 
 Camus, le, leh ki'mus', (Antoine,) a celebrated 
 French physician, born in Paris in 1722. He was ap- 
 pointed professor in the University of Paris in 1762. His 
 reputation was increased by his literary talents and the 
 original character of his medical works, among which 
 are "The Medicine of the Mind," (1753,) and " Maladies 
 of the Region of the Heart." He wrote " Love and 
 Friendship," a comedy, and "The Medical Amphi- 
 theatre," a poem, (1745.) Died in 1772. 
 
 See Bourru, " E*loge historique de M. le Camus," 177a. 
 
 Camus, le, (Etienne,) born in Paris in 1632, became 
 Bishop of Grenoble in 167 1, and performed the duties 
 of that office with great charity and diligence. On the 
 occasion of a curate's complaining to Camus that he 
 could not prevent the people from dancing on festival- 
 days, the'bishop replied, "Oh, permit them at least to 
 give their misery a shake." He received a cardinal's 
 hat in 1686. Died in 1707. 
 
 See Lallouette, "Abrege' de la Vie de M. le Camus," 1720. 
 
 Camusat, ki'mu'za", (Jean,) a learned French pub- 
 lisher of Paris, was printer to the Academie Franchise. 
 Died in 1639. 
 
 Camusat, (Nicolas,) a French priest and antiquary, 
 born at Troyes in 1575. He was a canon of the church 
 of Troyes, and author of " Melanges historiques," (a 
 collection of acts, treaties, and letters, 1619,) and other 
 works. Died in 1655. 
 
 Canaan, ka'nan or ka'na-an, [Heb. [J'JD,] a patri- 
 arch, was a son of Ham, and ancestor of the Canaanites 
 who inhabited Palestine before it was conquered by the 
 Israelites. (See Genesis ix. 18, and x.) 
 
 Can'a-ehus, [Kuva.toc,] a Greek sculptor, born at 
 Sicyon, lived about 400 B.C. He was a brother of 
 Aristocles the artist, and a pupil of Polycletus. 
 
 Caual, ka-nSl', or Canaletto, ki-na-let'to, a Venetian 
 painter, whose proper name was Bernardo Bf.lotto, 
 (bfR-naR'do ba-lot'to,) born in Venice in 1724. He 
 was a pupil of his uncle, Antonio Canal, whom he imi- 
 tated with success. He worked in Dresden, London, 
 and other places, and painted buildings and scenes in 
 the environs of towns. He excelled in perspecthe. 
 Died at Warsaw in 1 780. 
 
 See Lanzi, n History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Canal or Canaletto, (Antonio,) an eminent Italian 
 painter of perspective views, born at Venice in 1697, 
 was a scene-painter in early life. Having studied in 
 Rome, he returned to Venice, and became a successful 
 artist. His subjects are mostly views of the Venetian 
 palaces, canals, etc., which are highly prized. As he 
 painted with great facility, his works are numerous. He 
 is said to have been the first who used the camera ob- 
 scura in painting. Died in 1768. His pictures of Vene- 
 tian buildings, etc. are called admirable by some critics, 
 but by others his art is censured as mere mechanism. 
 "The mannerism of Canaletto," says Ruskin, "is the 
 most degraded I know in the whole range of art." 
 ("Modern Painters.") 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as./'; G, H, K,pUtural; U, nasal; R, (rilled; I as z; th as in this. (£y~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CAN ALE 
 
 506 
 
 CANDIANO 
 
 Canale, ki-na'li, (Niccoi.6,) a Venetian admiral, who 
 commanded against the Turks in 1469. He was removed 
 in 1470 for his dilatory conduct or timidity. 
 
 See StsiuoNDl, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes ;" Daru, 
 41 Histoire de Veuise." 
 
 Canaletto. See Canal. 
 
 Canani, ka-nd'nee, (Giovanni Baitista,) a skilful 
 Italian anatomist, born at Ferrara in 15 1 5. He is said 
 to have observed the valves which indicate the cir- 
 culation of the blood, about 1545, and wrote an able 
 "Treatise on the Muscles," (1572.) Pope Julius III. 
 appointed him his first physician. Died in 1579. 
 
 Canaples, de, deh ki nipl', Sire, a brave French 
 officer, who served with distinction in the armies of 
 Francis I. and Henry II., (1520-52.) 
 
 See De Thou, " Memoires." 
 
 Canard, ki'niii', (Nicolas Franqois,) a French 
 mathematician, born at Moulins, was professor in the 
 Lyceum of Moulins, and wrote a treatise on " Political 
 Economy," (1801,) and a work on "Equations," (1808.) 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 Canaveri, k5-n J- va'ree,(Gl0VANNi Battista,) Bishop 
 of Vercelli, an Italian prelate, eminent for learning and 
 eloquence, was born at Borgomaro in 1753. He pub- 
 lished " Pastoral Letters, " and other works. He was 
 chaplain to the mother of Napoleon I. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Canaye, de, deh kt'ni', (Etienne,) a French abbe, 
 born in Paris in 1694. He entered the congregation of 
 the Oratory in 1716, and became a member of the Acad- 
 emy of Inscriptions in 1728. The records of this insti- 
 tution contain a few able treatises written by him, one of 
 which is on the Areopagus of Athens. Died in 1782. 
 
 Canaye, de la, deh li ki'ni', (Philippe,) Sieur de 
 Fresne, (deh fu§n,) a French statesman, born in Paris 
 in 1 55 1. He served Henry IV. in diplomatic missions. 
 Died in 1610. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Can'bjr, (Edward R. S.,)an American general, born 
 in Kentucky about 1818, graduated at West Point in 
 1839. He served in the Mexican war in 1846-47, became 
 a captain in 1851, a major in 1855, and a colonel in May, 
 1861. When the civil war began, he was in New Mexico, 
 where he defended Fort Craig and defeated the Texan 
 insurgents in February, 1862. He was appointed a 
 brigadier-general of volunteers about March, 1862, and 
 afterwards was raised to the rank of major-general. He 
 succeeded General Banks, as commander of the army in 
 Louisiana and of the departments lying west of the Mis- 
 sissippi River, iri May or June, 1864. He invested and 
 took Mobile in April, 1865. Having been promoted to 
 the rank of brigadier-general in the regular arm}', July, 
 1866, he was assigned in August, 1867, to the command 
 of the second military district, comprising North and 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Cancellieri, kln-chil-Je-a'.ree, (Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian antiquary and priest, born in Rome in 1 75 1. Having 
 gained reputation by some learned treatises, he became 
 librarian to Cardinal Antonelli, and, in 1802, director of 
 the printing-press of the Propaganda. As a writer he 
 was very prolific, and displays more learning than judg- 
 ment. His work "On the Office of the Secretary to the 
 Basilica of the Vatican" (1788) was received with favour. 
 He also wrote treatises on the origin and design of the 
 ceremonies which are performed at Saint Peter's and the 
 Vatican on festival-days. Died in 1826. 
 
 SeeTiPAi.uo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri :" P. V. Baraldi, 
 " Vila di K. G. Cancellieri," 1S27 ; Visconti, " Elogio di F. Cancel- 
 lieri," 1827. 
 
 Cancer, kan'th^R, (Geronimo,) a Spanish writer of 
 comedies and facetious poems, lived about 1620—50. He 
 obtained a place at the court of Philip IV. 
 
 Canclaux, de, deh koN'klo', (Jean Baptiste Ca- 
 mili.e,) Count, a French general, born in Paris in 1740. 
 As lieutenant-general he defended Nantes against the 
 Vendeans in 1793, became commander-in-chief of the 
 army of the west in 1 794, and made prudent and success- 
 ful efforts to pacify the royalists. Under the consulate 
 of Bonaparte he was inspector-general of cavalry, and 
 in 1804 was elected senator. He was created a peer in 
 1814. Died in 1817. 
 
 See De Muv, " FJoge du Comte de Canclaux," 1818. 
 
 Canorin, kan-kReen', [Lat. Cancri'nus,] (Franz 
 Lumvic,,) a German mineralogist, born in Hesse-Darm- 
 stadt in 1738. He was appointed in 1783, by Catherine 
 II. of Russia, councillor of the Imperial College, and 
 director of the salt-mines of Staraya-Roossa. He pub- 
 lished several works, (in German,) among which is " The 
 Elementary Principles of the Science of Mining and 
 of Salt-Works." This is said to be the most complete 
 work on that subject. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Meusel, "Lexikon der jetztlebenden Deutschen Schrift- 
 steller. " 
 
 Cancrin, (Georo,) Count, a distinguished financier, 
 son of the preceding, born at Hanau, in Germany, about 
 1775. He entered the military administration of Russia 
 in 1796, and was made a councillor of state in 181 1. In 
 1812 he became intendant-general of the army, and in 
 1815 obtained the rank of lieutenant-general. By his 
 superior talents and probity he gained the confidence of 
 the emperor, who appointed him minister of the finances 
 in 1823. He held this office twenty-one years, and 
 managed the department with decided ability and suc- 
 cess. He published, besides other works, "Military 
 Economy in Peace and War," (1822,) which is highly 
 esteemed. Died in Saint Petersburg in 1845. 
 
 Can'da-ce, [Gr. Kavou/o;,] the name or title of several 
 ancient queens of Ethiopia, whose court was in the isle 
 of Meroe, and of whom little is known. One of them is 
 mentioned in Acts viii. 27. 
 
 Candale, kS.N'dil', (Charles Louis Gaston — gis'- 
 tAN',) Duke ok, born at Metz in 1627, rose to a high 
 command in the army, and passed for the most gallant 
 person of his time. His mother Gabrielle was*a daugh- 
 ter of Henry IV. of France. Died in 1658. 
 
 Candale, (Henri de Nogaret d'Epernon — deh 
 no'gS'ri' d&'peVn6N',) Duke of, born in 1591, was the 
 eldest son of the Due d'Epernon, and an uncle of the 
 preceding. In 1614 he was chosen first gentleman of 
 the chamber of Louis XIII., and in 1621 served with 
 distinction under the Prince of Orange against the 
 Spaniards. Having entered the service of Venice in 
 1624, he was appointed general-in-chief of the Venetian 
 armies about 1634. Died in 1639. 
 
 Candamo, kAn-da'mo, (Francisco Bances — ban'- 
 thSs,) a Spanish dramatic poet, born at Sabugo in 1662. 
 He was an imitator of Calderon, and author of several 
 successful comedies, one of which is entitled "The Slave 
 in Golden Chains." Died in 1709. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Can-dau'les, [Gr. Kt&favfaK,] King of Lydia, was 
 also called Myr'silus. According to Herodotus, he 
 provoked the resentment of his wife by exposing hel 
 without a veil to a favourite officer, named Gyges. Bj 
 offering him the alternative of the throne or a violent 
 death, she induced Gyges to kill Candaules, and then 
 received the former as her consort. 
 
 Candeille, k6.\'djl' or kdN'di'ye, (Amelie Julie,) a 
 popular French singer and comic actress, born in Paris 
 in 1767. In 1792 she produced "Catherine la belle 
 Fermiere," a comedy, which was very successful and 
 was followed by other dramas. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Candeille, (Pierre Joseph,) a musical composer, 
 born in Flanders in 1744. His opera "Castor and Pol- 
 lux" (1791) had great success. Died in 1827. 
 
 Candiac, de, deh kfiN'de'ik', (Jean Louis Philippe 
 Montcalm,) a precocious French child, brother of the 
 Marquis de Montcalm, was born in 1719. It is said that 
 he could read Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Died in 1726. 
 
 Candiano (kan-de-a'no) I., (Pietro,) Doge of Venice, 
 was killed in a battle against the Sclavonians in 887 a.d. 
 
 Candiano II. (Pietro) was elected Doge of Venice 
 in 932 a.d. He extended the boundaries of the repub- 
 lic by conquest. Died in 939. 
 
 Candiano III., (Pietro,) a son of Candiano II., was 
 elected Doge of Venice in 942. Among the events of his 
 administration was the abduction of a party of patrician 
 brides from a church by the pirates of Istria. The pirates 
 were pursued and slain, and the captives recoveied 
 
 Candiano IV., (Pietro,) a son of the preceding, be- 
 came doge in 959. His tyranny provoked a revolt of thft- 
 people, by whom he was killed in 976. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; &, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, G, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mit; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CJNDIDO 
 
 507 
 
 CANISIUS 
 
 Caudido, kan'de-do, (Pietro,) a historical painter 
 and sculptor, whose proper name was Pietkr de Wi'itf., 
 was bom at Bruges between 1540 and 1548. He went to 
 Italy in early youth, and worked in Florence and Rome. 
 He was invited by the Elector of Bavaria to Munich, 
 where he produced his principal works (in fresco) and 
 acquired a high reputation. Died at Munich in 1628. 
 
 See M11.LIN, " Dictionnaire des Beaux- Arts." 
 
 Caudido Deceinbrlo. See Decemhrio. 
 
 Can'dl-dus I-sau'rus, IKuitMoc'Ioaufioc,] a Byzantine 
 historian, who lived in the reign of Anastasius, (490-518 
 A.D.) He was a person of great influence, and wrote a 
 Byzantine history of the period from 457 to 491. His 
 work is lost; but a summary of its contents is preserved 
 by Photius. 
 
 Can dish. See Cavendish, (Thomas.) 
 
 Candito. See Candido, (Pietro.) 
 
 Cand'lish, (Robert Smith,) a popular Scottish 
 preacher of the present era, and one of the most influen- 
 tial ministers of the Free Church. He was appointed to 
 Saint George's Church, Edinburgh, several years before 
 the secession from the Established Church, which oc- 
 curred in 1843. In the contest which resulted in that 
 disruption he took a prominent part as coadjutor of Dr. 
 Chalmers. He has published sermons, " Scripture 
 Characters," a "Treatise on the Atonement," and other 
 works. 
 
 Candolle, de, deh k6.N'dol',-(Aur,usriN Pvramus,) 
 a distinguished botanist and naturalist, of French extrac- 
 tion, was born at Geneva on the 4th of February, 1778. 
 He was educated at the College of Geneva, where he re- 
 ceived lessons in philosophy from the celebrated Saussure. 
 In 1 796 he went to Paris, to perfect himself in physical and 
 medical sciences, and became a favourite pupil of the 
 botanist Desfontaines. He also formed intimacies with 
 Cuvier, A. von Humboldt, and Lamarck. His fust pro- 
 duction was " History of Fleshy (or Succulent) Plants," 
 (" Histoire des Plantes grasses," 1799-1803.) He took 
 his degree as doctor of medicine in Paris in 1804, pre- 
 senting for his thesis an able " Essay on the Medicinal 
 Properties of Plants." He acquirer! a European repu- 
 tation by an improved edition of Lamarck's " Flora of 
 France," which he revised at the request of the author, 
 and the first volume of which appeared about 1805. In 
 1808 he was appointed professor of botany in the Faculty 
 of Medicine at Montpellier, and director of the Botanic 
 Garden. He published in 1813 his "Elementary Theory 
 of Botany," ("Theorie elementaire de la Botanique,") 
 which is remarkable for profoundness of views, and 
 is called by some his master-piece. In this work he 
 developed his new classification of plants according to 
 the natural system. In 1816 he resigned his chair 
 and removed to Geneva, the citizens of which founded 
 for him in 1817 a chair of natural history. Having con- 
 ceived the plan of a great work which should comprise 
 a description of all known plants, he published in 1818 
 the first volume, with the title of "Natural System of 
 the Vegetable Kingdom," ("Regni vegetabilis Systema 
 naturale.") After the publication of the second volume, 
 (1821,) he discontinued this work, the plan of which 
 was too vast for one man to execute. His " Introduction 
 to the Natural System of the Vegetable Kingdom," 
 (" Prodromus Systematis naturalis Regni vegetabilis,") 
 which he began to publish in 1824, but did not live 
 to finish, is a modification of the original plan, and is a 
 work of great value. It presents a methodical arrange- 
 ment of all known plants, by orders, genera, and spe- 
 cies. He described the organs of plants, with all their 
 anatomical details, and developed the doctrine of meta- 
 morphosis, in his "Vegetable Organography," ("Or- 
 ganographie vegetale," 1827.) In 1828 he was elected 
 a foreign associate of the Academy of Sciences of 
 Paris, being the first botanist since Linnaeus that had 
 received that honour. He published many other treat- 
 ises on botany and physiology, and obtained a high repu- 
 tation as a lecturer. He died at Geneva in September, 
 1841. After his death his "Prodromus" was continued 
 by his son and other botanists. 
 
 De Candolle occupies the highest rank among the 
 botanists of the nineteenth century ; and among those 
 who have propounded new botanical theories there has 
 
 been none whose works have been more influential in 
 promoting the philosophical tendency of the science. 
 
 See Flourens, "filoge historique de P. de Candolle," 1842, and 
 an English version of the same, in the " Smithsonian Report" for 1859, 
 p. 271 ; Dunal, " £loged'A. P. Decandolle," 1842 iMokrkn, " Nonce 
 sur la Vie d'A. P. Decandolle," 1843 ; A. Brongniart, " Notice snr 
 A. P. Decandolle," 1846; Delarive, "A. P. Decandolle. sa Vie et 
 ses Travaux," 1851; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1833. 
 
 Cane della Scala. See Scala. 
 
 Canes, kan'yes, or Cannes, (Francisco,) a Spanish 
 monk, born at Valencia, was for many years a missionary 
 at Damascus. On his return to Spain he published an 
 Arabic Grammar, and a valuable "Spanish-Latin-Arabic 
 Dictionary," (" Diccionario Espafiol-Latino-Arabigo," 
 1787.) Died in 1795. 
 
 Canetta, de, da ka-net'ta, (Don Andrea Hurtado 
 de Mendoza — ooR-ta'ix> da min-do'tha,) Marquis, 
 was appointed Viceroy of Peru about 1550. He restored 
 order, and reduced several turbulent leaders to submis- 
 sion. Died at Lima in 1560. 
 
 Canevari, ka-na-va'ree, (Demetrio,) an Italian phy- 
 sician, distinguished as a writer, was born at Genoa in 
 1559; died in 1625. 
 
 Canga Argiieiles, kang'ga aR-gw81'yes, (Jose,) a 
 Spanish statesman, born in Asturias about 1770. Under 
 the constitutional regime which was initiated by the revo- 
 lution of 1820, he was minister of finance for a short 
 period. In 1823 the absolutists obtained the ascend- 
 ency, and he fled or was exiled to England, where he 
 remained about seven years, and wrote several works. 
 His "Dictionary of Finance" (" Diccionario de Haci- 
 enda," 5 vols., 1828) is one of his most important pro- 
 ductions. Died in 1843. 
 
 Gauge. See Du Cange. 
 
 Cangiage. See Cambiaso. 
 
 Cangiamilla, kan-jamel'la, (Francesco Emmanu- 
 f.i.i:,) an Italian theologian, born at Palermo in 1702. 
 lie wrote " Embryologia Sacra," (1751,) which was trans- 
 lated into several languages. Died in 1763. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GȣneVale." 
 
 Canina, ka-nee'na, (Luigi,) Cavai.iere, an Italian 
 architect and antiquary, born at Casal in 1793. He pub- 
 lished several esteemed works, among which area "Topo- 
 graphical Plan ( Indicazione) of Ancient Rome," (1831,) 
 "Ancient Architecture described and illustrated by 
 Monuments," (9 vols.; 3d edition, 1844,) and "On the 
 Architecture most proper for Christian Temples," (" Sull' 
 Architetture piii propria dei Tempi cristiani," 1843.) " e 
 was professor of architecture in the Academy of Turin. 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 Canini, ka-nee'nee, [Lat. Canin'ius,] (Angelo,) an 
 eminent Italian linguist and grammarian, born in Tus- 
 cany in 1521. He taught Greek, Hebrew, Syriac, etc. in 
 Venice, Rome, and Padua, and was afterwards professor 
 in the University of Paris. He published a good Greek 
 Grammar, and a " Grammar of the Syriac, Chaldee, etc.," 
 (1554.) Died in 1557. 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Canini, (Giovanni Angelo,) a painter and engraver, 
 born in Koine about 1620, was a pupil of Domenichino. 
 He went to France with Cardinal Chigi, and, under the 
 anspices of Colbert, engraved a collection of portraits ot 
 the great men of antiquity. The word " iconografia," 
 (" iconography,") invented by him, was first used in the 
 title of this work. Died in 1665. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Canino, Prince of. See Bonaparte, (Charles 
 Luc 1 en.) 
 
 Canisius, ka-nee'se-us, (Hendrik,) a Dutch theolo- 
 gian, born at Nymwegen, was eminent for his learning in 
 church antiquities. He professed canon law at Ingolstadt 
 about twenty years, and died in 1610. His principal work 
 is entitled "Ancient Lessons," ("Antiquae Lectiones.") 
 He was a nephew of Petrus Canisius. 
 
 Canisius, (Petrus,) a Dutch Jesuit, whose proper 
 name was Pietkr de HoNDT, (deh h6nt,) was born at 
 Nymwegen about 1520. He distinguished himself at the 
 Council of Trent in 1545, and was appointed court 
 preacher to the emperor Ferdinand I. Among his works 
 is " Summa Doctrinae Christianae." Died in 1597. 
 
 SeeM. Radkr, "De Vita P.Canisii," 1617, J. Dorignv, " Vicdu 
 R. P. P. Canisiu!," 1692; Fulicatti, "Vita del P. P. Canisio," 1640. 
 
 € as k; 9 as 1; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CJNISIVS 
 
 jo 8 
 
 CANO 
 
 Canisius-Cannius, ka-nee'se-us kan'ne-us, (Nico- 
 laas,) a philologist, born at Amsterdam, was a secretary 
 and friend of Erasmus, who employed him in translation 
 from the Greek. Died in 1555. 
 
 Canitz, von, fon ka'nits, (Friedrich Rudolf Lud- 
 wig,) Baron, a German poet, born at Berlin in 1654. 
 He was appointed a councillor of state, and employed 
 in diplomatic missions by the King of Prussia. He 
 died in Berlin in 1699, and his poems, consisting of odes, 
 satires, and elegies, were published in 1700, with the title 
 of " Nebenstunden unterschiedener Gedichte." "The 
 poems of Canitz," says Guizot, " have neither original- 
 ity nor verve ; but he had the merit of being simple and 
 natural while a fantastic and rude taste prevailed among 
 his contemporaries." (" Biographie Universelle.") 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgenieine Eticyklopaedie." 
 
 Canitz und Dallwitz, ka'nits 66nt dal'wits, Baron, 
 a Prussian statesman and soldier, born in 1787, was 
 minister of foreign affairs from 1846 to 184S. Died in 
 1850^ 
 
 Ca'nI-us, (Rufus,) a Latin poet, born at Cadiz, was 
 a friend of Martial. He was living in 88 a.d. 
 
 Canizares, de, da kln-ye-tha'res, (Josf.,) a popular 
 Spanish dramatist, born in Madrid. He excelled in 
 comedy, and presents, says Velasquez, "a faithful pic- 
 ture ot manners in a very spirited style." Died in 1750. 
 
 See Ticknok, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Cannabich, kan'na-biK, (Johann Gunther Fried- 
 rich,) a German geographer, born at Sondershausen in 
 1777. He wrote a " Manual of Geography," (1S16,) which 
 soon ran through twelve editions, and other works. 
 
 SeeE. Keyser, "J. G. F. Cannabich, inseinem Leben," etc., 1854. 
 
 Cannamares, kan-na-ma'r8s, (Juan,) a Spaniard, 
 who was executed in 1492 for attempting to kill Ferdi- 
 nand V. It is supposed he was insane. 
 
 Canne, (can, (John,) an English preacher, who be- 
 came the leader of the English Brownists at Amster- 
 dam soon after the restoration of 1660. He published 
 an esteemed edition of the Bible, with marginal notes 
 and references, (1664,) which was often reprinted. 
 
 Cannegieter, kan'neh-gee'ter, (Hermann,) a Ger- 
 man jurist, born at Arnheim in 1725, wrote a work on 
 Roman law, (" Observationes Juris Romani," 1768,) 
 which is highly esteemed. Died in 1804. 
 
 Cannes. See Canes. 
 
 Can'ning, (Charles Fox,) Lieutenant-Colonel, a 
 British officer, who was aide-de-camp of the Duke of 
 Wellington in the campaigns of the Peninsular war and 
 at Waterloo, (181 5,) where he was killed. 
 
 Canning, (Charles John,) Viscount, the son of 
 the eminent statesman George Canning, was born at 
 Brompton in 1812. He succeeded to the title of Vis- 
 count at the death of his mother in 1837, and joined the 
 Conservative party. In 1841 he was appointed under- 
 secretary of foreign affairs. In 1852 or 1853 he became 
 postmaster-general, and a member of Lord Aberdeen's 
 cabinet. He succeeded Lord Dalhousie as Governor- 
 General of India in 1855. His conduct in the critical 
 period of the Sepoy mutiny was severely censured, in 
 1858, by Lord Ellenborough, then a cabinet minister; 
 but Canning vindicated himself with such success that 
 his opponent resigned his office. (See Ellenborough.) 
 He was succeeded by Lord Elgin about August, 1861. 
 Died in England in June, 1862. 
 
 Canning, (George,) a distinguished English states- 
 man, orator, and wit, born in London on the nth of 
 April, 1770, was the son of George Canning, a lawyer 
 without fortune, who died in 1771. He was educated at 
 Eton and Oxford, where he gained honours and began to 
 write verses. In 1793 he entered Parliament as a Tory 
 and supporter of Pitt, to whom he adhered constantly, 
 and in 1796 was appointed under-secretary of state. The 
 next year Canning, Ellis, Frere, and others began to 
 issue weekly the famous series of political satires called 
 "The Anti-Jacobin," which some eminent critics have 
 pronounced one of the wittiest books in the language. He 
 married a rich heiress, a daughter of General John Scott, 
 about 1800. His success as a parliamentary debater was 
 very brilliant, and rendered him an efficient leader of his 
 party. On the dissolution of Pitt's ministry, in 1S01, he 
 shared the fortunes of that chief, and afterwards opposed 
 
 the administration of Addington for several sessions. In 
 April, 1807, he was appointed secretary for foreign affairs 
 in the ministry of the Duke of Portland, and favoured 
 the vigorous prosecution of the war against France. " If 
 ever a man was made for the service and salvation ot a 
 party," says Brougham, " Canning seemed raised up for 
 that of the Tories." This party, however, preferred to 
 follow Lord Castlereagh, who was secretary of war. A 
 dispute between these rivals, in 1809, led to a challenge 
 from Castlereagh, and an exchange of shots, by which 
 Canning was slightly wounded. In consequence of this 
 affair he retired or was dismissed from the cabinet. He 
 made, in 1812, eloquent pleas for Catholic emancipation, 
 to which cause at various times he rendered important 
 services ; but he constantly opposed parliamentary re- 
 form. The city of Liverpool elected him as its repre- 
 sentative in 1812, and at several successive elections. 
 He was censured for serving under his successful rival 
 Castlereagh, who in 1814 gave him an unimportant mis- 
 sion to Portugal. He wa£ appointed Governor-Genera, 
 of India in 1822; but, while he was preparing for the 
 voyage, Castlereagh committed suicide, and Canning 
 succeeded his late rival as secretary of foreign affairs in 
 the cabinet of Lord Liverpool, in September, 1S22. His 
 policy in the latter years of his life was more liberal than 
 that of other Tory leaders. In April, 1827, he was ap- 
 pointed first lord of the treasury, or premier, in place 
 of Lord Liverpool. The Duke of Wellington, Lord 
 Eldon, and the other ministers having resigned in con- 
 sequence of that change, Canning was compelled to re- 
 sort to the support of the Whigs, some of whom accepted 
 office under him. His health had been feeble'for some 
 time when he made his last speech in Parliament in June, 
 1827, and he died in August of that year, leaving a son, 
 Charles John, Lord Canning. 
 
 " His declamation," says Brougham, " though often 
 powerful, always beautifully ornate, never deficient in 
 admirable diction, was certainly not of the highest class. 
 Of his powers of argumentation, his capacity for the pur- 
 suits of abstract science, his genius for adorning the least 
 attractive subjects, there remains an imperishable record 
 in his celebrated speeches on the 'Currency,' of all his 
 efforts the most brilliant and the most happy." He 
 made an important change in the foreign policy of Eng- 
 land, in consequence of which that country ceased to be 
 subservient to the designs of the Holy Alliance. 
 
 See Robert Beli., "Life of Canning," 1846; A. G. Stapi.eton, 
 " The Political Life of George Canning," 1831 and 1859 ; " Auto- 
 biography of William Jerdan," vol. it. ; Brougham, " Statesmen of 
 the Time of George III.;" W. T. Krug, "Canning's Denkmal, 
 etc.," 1S27; Rueder, "G. Canning, seine Leben, seine Politik, etc.," 
 1827; Rede, "Memoirs of G. Canning," 2 vols., 1828; "Encyclo- 
 paedia Britannica;" "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1822; 
 " Foreign Quarterly" for October, 1831. 
 
 Canning, (Stratford.) See Stratford de Red- 
 
 CLIFFE. 
 
 Cano, ka'no, (Alonzo,) one of the greatest artists 
 that Spain has produced, born at Granada about 1600, 
 was a painter, sculptor, and architect. He has been 
 called the Michael Angelo of Spain. He studied paint- 
 ing under Pacheco and Juan de Castillo, and sculpture 
 under Montanes. Having acquired a high reputation, 
 he went to Madrid, and in 1638 received from Philip IV. 
 the title of painter to the king. He painted many pieces 
 for the churches of Seville, Madrid, Granada, etc. A 
 "Conception of the Virgin," at Granada, is called his 
 master-piece. It is reported that on his death-bed he re- 
 fused the crucifix presented to him by a priest, on account 
 of its bad workmanship. Died in 1664. 
 
 See QttlLLlKT, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols;" Brvan', 
 " Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Cano, [Lat. Ca'nus,] (Melchior,) a Spanish theo- 
 logian, born at Tarancon in 1523, entered the order of 
 Saint Dominic. In 1546 he became professor of theology 
 in the University of Salamanca. He opposed the Jesuits, 
 and discountenanced absurd scholastic questions. His 
 treatise "On Theological Subjects" ("De Locis theo- 
 logicis") is highly commended for its sentiments and 
 style. He wrote some other works on theology. Died 
 in 1560. 
 
 Cano, del, del ka'no, (Sebastian,) a Spanish navi- 
 gator, born in Guipuzcoa, is said to have been the first 
 who circumnavigated the globe. He was captain of one 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, v, lo"g; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
CANO 
 
 5°9 
 
 CANTA-GALL1NA 
 
 of the ships under Magellan when the latter was killed 
 at the Philippine Isles, and, returning in the Victory by 
 the Cape of Good Hope, he arrived in Spain in 1522, 
 Died in i5- ! >. 
 
 See F. l)E Navarretk, "Relaciones de Viages," etc. 
 
 Cano de Arevalo, kS'no di a-rA-vl'Io, (Juan,) a 
 Spanish painter, born in 1656 ; died in 1696. 
 
 Canonica, kl-non'e-ka, (LlHGl,) an eminent Italian 
 architect, born at Milan about 1742, designed several 
 theatres in Milan, Mantua, and Brescia. His most re- 
 markable works are the Palazzo Orsini, the Casa Ca- 
 nonica, (his own mansion,) and the amphitheatre of the 
 Porta Vercellina at Milan. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Nagi.hr, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Ca-non'I-cus, an Indian chief of the Narragansett 
 tribe, was born about 1 565. He was a friend of Roger 
 Williams, to whom he gave a large tract of land. Died 
 in 1647. 
 
 Caiionieri, kj-no-ne-a'ree, [Lat. Canone'rius,] 
 (Pietro Andrea,) an Italian physician and doctor of 
 law, born at Genoa, flourished about 1600. 
 
 Canoppi, ki-nop'pee, (Antonio,) a skilful Italian 
 scene-painter, born in 1773, practised his art for several 
 years in Venice and Mantua. When Italy became sub- 
 ject to the power of the French, whom he had opposed, 
 Canoppi fled to Vienna. In 1807 he removed to Mos- 
 cow, where he decorated the hall of the senate and some 
 private palaces. He painted for the theatre of Saint 
 Petersburg many scenes, which are greatly admired, and 
 wrote several treatises on art. Died in 1832. 
 
 Ca-no/pus or Ca-no'bus, a water-god of Egyptian 
 mythology, whose figure was represented on water-vessels. 
 
 Canova, ka-no'va, (Antonio,) a celebrated Italian 
 sculptor, born at Possagno, in Venetia, on the 1st of 
 November, 1757, was the son of P. Canova, an architect 
 and sculptor. He received lessons in art in the studios 
 of Torretti and Ferrari, of Venice. Having produced 
 about 1778 a group of "Dxdalus and Icarus," which was 
 much admired at Venice, he exhibited the same at Rome 
 the next year. Gavin Hamilton, who was a high author- 
 ity in art, praised his success in copying nature, and en- 
 couraged his innate aspirations towards the classic and 
 ideal style. In 1782 he removed his studio to Rome, 
 and increased his celebrity by his group of "Theseus 
 and the Minotaur," which announced the regeneration of 
 modern sculpture. Then followed a monument of Pope 
 Clement XIV., (1787,) and numerous groups of subjects 
 from ancient mythology, among which are "Cupid and 
 Psyche," "The Graces," and "Venus and Adonis." In 
 1S02 he was invited to Paris by Bonaparte, of whom he 
 executed an admirable statue, which came into the pos- 
 session of the Duke of Wellington. He was chosen an 
 associate of the Institute of France. In 1805 he pro- 
 duced an exquisite figure of "Venus Victorious," with 
 the features of Pauline Bonaparte. In 1810 he went' to 
 Paris to make the portrait of the empress Maria Louisa, 
 On his return to Rome he was chosen president of the 
 Academy of Saint Luke. In 1815 the pope sent him to 
 reclaim the works of art of which the French had de- 
 spoiled the galleries of Italy. Soon after this event he 
 received the title of Marquis of Ischia. He afterwards 
 executed a statue of Washington, which is not unworthy 
 of his fame. Having prodnced fifty statues, as many 
 busts, besides numerous cenotaphs, groups, etc., he died 
 at Venice in October, 1822, with the reputation of the 
 greatest sculptor of his age. 
 
 See Missirini, "Vita di Canova," 1S27: Cicognara, "Vita di 
 Canova," 1823; Quatrejiiere de Quincv. "Canova et ses Ou- 
 vrages," 1836; " Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Canova," 
 by Ksveil and Dk Latouchk, 1825; J. S. Mkmes "Memoirs 
 01 Antonio Cariova," Edinburgh, 1825: " Encvclopjedia Britannica ;" 
 Kf.us'ow, " U<;l>er den BildhanmCanova," 1806 : G. RoslNl, "Saggio 
 sulla Vita di A. Canova," 1825. 
 
 Canovai, ka-no-vS'ee, almost ka-no-vl', (Stanislao,) 
 a learned Italian priest, born at Florence in 1740. He 
 taught matnematics at Cortona and Parma. In 1788 
 he produced a prize essay in support of the claim of 
 Americus Vespucius as the first discoverer of America. 
 Canovai and Gaetan del Ricco translated La Caille's 
 " Klements of Mathematics. He published other es- 
 teemed-works. Diedmi8ti. 
 
 See Pozzetti, " Elogio di S. Canovai," 1S12. 
 
 Canrobert, kaVro'baiR', (Francois Certain,) a 
 French marshal, born in Brittany in 1809. He entered 
 the army about 1828, distinguished himself at the siege 
 of Constantine in 1837, and was rapidly promoted. He 
 fought many campaigns in Algeria, and in 1850 returned 
 to France with the rank of general of brigade. Soon 
 after that date he became aide-de-camp to Louis Napo- 
 leon, and was made a general of division in 1853. He 
 commanded the first division of the army sent to the 
 Crimea in 1854, and was wounded at the battle of the 
 Alma. On the death of Saint-Arnaud in September, 
 the chief command devolved on Canrobert, who, in con- 
 junction with Lord Raglan, began the siege of Sebastopol. 
 He was wounded at Inkerman, November 5, 1854. The 
 ill success of the allies, and the difficulty arising from a 
 divided command, rendered his position so painful that 
 he resigned to Pelissier the chief command of the French 
 army in May, 1855. He received a marshal's baton in 
 1856, and in the spring of 1859 was assigned to the third 
 corps of the army of the Alps. He commanded the re- 
 serve at Solferino, June, 1859. 
 
 See Vapereau, " Dictionnaire des Contemporains." 
 
 Canstatt, kan'stat, (Karl Friedrich,) a German 
 physician and medical writer, born at Ratisbon in 1807, 
 became professor at Erlangen. Died in 1850. 
 
 Canstein, von, fon kan'stln, (Carl Hildebrand,) 
 Baron, a German philanthropist, born at Lindenberg in 
 1667, was the founder of the Canstein Bible Society of 
 Halle. Desiring to diffuse Christian principles, he raised 
 a fund to print the Bible about 1712. The enterprise was 
 very successful, and millions of Bibles and New Testa- 
 ments were printed and sold at low prices. Died in 1719. 
 
 See AuctfST H. Francke, "Meinoria Cansteiniana," 1722. 
 
 Cant. See Kant. 
 
 Cant, (Andrew,) an eminent Scottish minister, who 
 in the reign of Charles I. zealously supported the Cove- 
 nant. In 1640 he was one of the chaplains of the army 
 of Covenanters, and about the same time became minis- 
 ter of Aberdeen. He is said to have been a royalist in 
 the civil war. He died about 1664. According to the 
 " Spectator," No. 147, the word cant originated in his 
 affected tone. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Cant, kant, (Arend,) a Dutch anatomist, died young, 
 at Doit, in 1723. 
 
 Cantacuzene. See Cantacuzf.nus. 
 
 Can-ta-cu-ze'nus, Anglicized as Can'ta-cu-zene' 
 [Gr. KaVTaaovj/voc ; Fr. CANTACUZENE, kuN'tS'ku'zjln',] 
 (John,) a Byzantine emperor of superior talents, prime 
 minister in the reign of Andronictts 111., who died in 
 1341, leaving a son, John Palxologus, aged nine years, 
 during whose minority Cantacuzene was regent. Apo- 
 caucus and the empress-mother Anne having conspired 
 against him, he appealed to arms, and was proclaimed 
 emperor by his partisans. After a civil war of several 
 years, Anne and her son agreed, in 1347, to receive him 
 as a partner in the empire. The quarrel, however, was 
 renewed a few years later, and the nation fell into such 
 disorder that Cantacuzene abdicated in 1355 and became 
 a monk. He wrote a work on Byzantine History from 
 1320 to 1357. 
 
 See Parisot, "Cantacuzene Homme d'fitat et Historien," 1845. 
 
 Cantacuzenus, (Matthew,) a son of the preceding, 
 born about 1325. He continued the civil war after his 
 father's abdication, was taken prisoner, and compelled by 
 John Palaeologus to enter a cloister. 
 
 Can-ta-cu-ze'nus or Can'ta-cu-zene', (Serban,) 
 Prince of Wallachia, claimed to be descended from the 
 emperor John Cantacuzene. He designed to liberate 
 Wallachia from the Turkish yoke, and formed an alliance 
 with the Czar of Russia. While he was preparing for 
 hostilities, he died about 1685 ; and it was reported that 
 he was poisoned by his nephew, Constantine Brancovan 
 Bessaraba. 
 
 Cantacuzenus or Cantacuzene, (Stephen,) a son 
 of Constantine Cantacuzene, became Vaivode of Walla- 
 chia in 1 714. He was deposed by the Turks, and put to 
 death, in 1716. 
 
 Canta-Gallina, kan'ta gal-lee'na, (Remi,) an Italian 
 painter and engraver, was, according to some writers, the 
 master of Callot. Died at Florence about 1630. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. ( J3T~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CANT All CIO 
 
 510 
 
 CANUEL 
 
 Cantalicio, kan-ta-lee'cho, [Lat. Cantalyc/ius,] 
 (Giovanni Battista,) a Latin poet, surnamed il Va- 
 lentino, (el va-16n-tee'no,) was born at Cantalice. He 
 wrote a poem of which the "Great Captain" Gonsalvo 
 was the hero, and many epigrams. Died about 15 14. 
 
 Cantarini, kan-ta-ree'nee, (Simone,) an eminent Ital- 
 ian painter and engraver, called the Pesarese, or Sl- 
 mone da Pesaro, (se-mo'na da pa'sa-ro,) was born at 
 Pesaro in 1612. He studied under Guido Reni at Bo- 
 logna, and in some respects rivalled that master. He 
 worked in Rome, Mantua, and Verona, his quarrelsome 
 temper, it is said, preventing him from remaining long 
 in one place. Among his master-pieces are a "San 
 Domenico" and a " Magdalene." He painted portraits 
 with success, and was an excellent colorist. Died at 
 Verona in 1648. 
 
 See Ticozzi, "Dtzionario;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cante del Gabrielli d'Agobbio, kan'ta del gi-bRe- 
 el'lee da-gob'be-o, an Italian leader of the Guelph party, 
 notorious for his cruelty. He became podesta of Flor- 
 ence in 1301, and banished numerous citizens, among 
 whom was the poet Dante. 
 
 Cantel, k5.v'tel', (Pierre Joseph,) a French Jesuit 
 and scholar, born in 1645, was employed on the editions 
 of Latin authors for the education ot the dauphin. He 
 published Justin, (1677,) and Valerius Maximus, (1679,) 
 with notes. Died in 1684. 
 
 Cantemir or Kantemir, kan'teh-mir or kan'teh-. 
 meer, (Antiochus,) Prince, an eminent writer, born at 
 Constantinople about 1709, was a son of Demetrius Can- 
 temir, noticed below. He was educated in Russia. He 
 wrote a number of satires which are remarkable for good 
 sense and which contributed to polish the Russian lan- 
 guage. About 1736 he was sent to Paris as Russian 
 ambassador. He translated several Latin and French 
 works into Russian. He died in 1744, leaving a high 
 reputation as a poet, a diplomatist, and a man. Brock- 
 haus's "Conversations-Lexikon" gives his name as 
 Kantemir, (Constantinos Demetrios.) 
 
 See a " Notice sur Cantemir," prefixed to Guasco's French ver- 
 sion of his Satires, 1750. 
 
 Cantemir, (Demetrius,) an eminent historian and 
 Orientalist, born in 1673, was a son of the Vaivode or 
 Governor of Moldavia. In 1710 he was appointed Vai- 
 vode of Moldavia by the Turkish Sultan, and in 1711 he 
 made an alliance with Peter the Great, then at war with 
 the Turks. He was driven out of Moldavia in the same 
 year, and afterwards lived in Russia. He wrote, besides 
 other works, a " History of the Origin and Decay of the 
 Ottoman Empire," (in Latin,) which is highly esteemed 
 and has been translated into several languages. Died 
 in 1723. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge*ne>ale." 
 
 Canter, kan'ter, [Lat. Cantf/rus,] (Theodorus,) a 
 Dutch scholar, brother of Willem, noticed below, born 
 at Utrecht in 1545. He became a consul in 158S, and 
 governor in 1594. He published "Various Readings," 
 (" Varias Lectiones," 1574,) which was commended by 
 Scaliger. Died in 161 7. 
 
 See " Scaligerana :" Burmann, "Trajectum eruditum." 
 
 Canter, [Lat. Cante'rus,] (Willem,) an able Dutch 
 critic and philologist, born at Utrecht in 1542, is said to 
 have had no passion except for study. He became a 
 resident of Louvain, and published several philological 
 works, one of which, entitled "New Readings," ("Novae 
 Lectiones,") "deserves especial notice as almost the first 
 effort of an art which," says Hallam, " has done much 
 for ancient literature, — that of restoring a corrupt text, 
 through conjecture guided by skilful sagacity, and upon 
 principles which we may call scientific." ("Introduction 
 to the Literature of Europe.") He also published good 
 editions of /Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Died 
 at Louvain in 1575. 
 
 See Meixhior Adam, "Vitse Phiiosophorum ;" De Thou, 
 "Eloges;" Njceron, "Me'moireV 
 
 Canterbury, kan' t?r - ber-e, (Charles Manners 
 Sutton,) Viscount, an English statesman, son of the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, born in 1780. He entered 
 Parliament in 1807, and was elected Speaker of the House 
 of Commons in 1817. He performed the duties of this 
 office with dignity until 1835, and passed into the House 
 
 of Lords with the title of Viscount Canterbury. He 
 died in 1845, and left his title to his son, Charles John. 
 
 Canterzani, kan-teR-dza'nee, (Sebastiano,) an Ital- 
 ian mathematician, born at Bologna in 1734. He was 
 professor of mathematics in the University of Bologna 
 for nearly forty years, beginning at 1760. He wrote able 
 elementary treatises on geometry, arithmetic, etc., and 
 became president of the Institute of his native city. Died 
 in 1819. 
 
 See Schiassi, "Elogium S. Canterzani," 1819. 
 
 Can'tha-rus, [KuvWapof,] a Greek sculptor, born at 
 Sicyon, lived about 260 B.C. 
 
 Cantillon, kftN'te'yoN', (Philip,) a merchant, who 
 removed from London to Paris, where he established a 
 banking-house and became rich. It is said he was mur- 
 dered by his valet in London in 1733. He had written an 
 "Essay on Commerce," and "Analysis of Trade, Com- 
 merce, Coin, etc.," which were printed after his death. 
 
 See Grimm, "Correspondance." 
 
 Cantipratenus or Cantipratensis. See Thomas 
 Can tipratensis. 
 
 Cau-tl-unc'u-la, the Latin name of Claude Chan- 
 sonnette, (klod shdN'so'n? t',) an eloquent lawyer, born 
 at Metz. He studied at Leipsic and Bale : the latter 
 city, in 1519, founded for him a chair of law. Erasmus 
 praised the purity and dignity of his Latin style. The 
 Emperor of Germany employed him in several important 
 negotiations. He died about 1560, leaving a few legal 
 treatises. 
 
 See Erasmus, " De Cicerone ;" Melchior Adam, "Vitse Juris- 
 consultorum Germanise," etc. 
 
 Canton, kan'ton, (Johann Gabriel,) a German 
 painter, born at Vienna in 1 7 10; died in 1753. 
 
 Can'ton, (John,) an English natural philosopher, 
 born at Stroud in 1718, lived mostly in London, where 
 he taught school many years. He was the first person 
 in England who verified Franklin's hypothesis that light- 
 ning is identical with the electric fluid, (1752.) He had 
 previously made some discoveries in electricity, which 
 procured him a Fellowship in the Royal Society about 
 1750. In 1765 that society awarded him a gold medal 
 for his demonstration that water is compressible. He 
 wrote several treatises, which are inserted in the " Philo- 
 sophic Transactions." Died in 1772. 
 
 See" Life of Canton," by his son, in " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Cantoni, kan-to'nee, (Simone,) an Italian architect, 
 born at Maggio, became a resident of Milan, where he 
 erected some fine edifices, among which are the Palazzo 
 Serbelloni and Palazzo Mellerio. He also designed the 
 ducal palace at Genoa. Died in 1818. 
 
 Cantu, kan-too', (Cesare,) a popular Italian historian, 
 born at Brivio, near Milan, in 1805. About the age of 
 eighteen he became professor of belles-lettres at Son- 
 drio, and afterwards resided in Milan. He published 
 in 1842 an "Essay on the History of Lombardy in the 
 Seventeenth Century." For the liberal ideas expressed 
 in this, he was imprisoned one year. His great work is 
 his " Universal History," (" Storia universale," 20 vols., 
 1837-42,) which has been very successful and has been 
 translated into English and French. He also wrote a 
 " History of Italian Literature," several popular hymns 
 and poems, and an educational work called "Juvenile 
 Readings," ("Letture giovanili,") which has passed 
 through more than thirty editions. His style is regarded 
 as a model. In the revolution of 1848 he acted with 
 the Liberal party. 
 
 See " Nouveile Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Cant'well, (Andrew,) an Irish physician, born in 
 Tipperary, graduated at Montpellier, in France, in 
 1729. He was received as doctor in the faculty of Paris 
 in 1742, and was chosen professor of surgery in that city 
 in 1750. He wrote several professional treatises. Died 
 about 1764. 
 
 See E"loy, "Dictionnaire de la Me"decine." 
 
 Cant'well, (Andrew Samuel Michael,) a son of the 
 preceding, translated into French Gibbon's "History," 
 and other popular English works. He became librarian 
 to the Hopital des Invalides, Paris, where he died in 1802. 
 
 Canuel, kfnu'el', (Simon,) a French general, born in 
 Poitou in 1767, was commandant at Lyons under the 
 Directory. Died in 1841. 
 
 S, e, i, o, 5, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 11, p, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mJt; not; good; moon; 
 
CJNUS 
 
 5" 
 
 CAPEL 
 
 Canus. See Cano. 
 
 Caiiut, the French of Canute, which see. 
 
 Canute, ka-nut', originally Cnut, Knut, or Knud, 
 [Danish pron. knoot or knooD; Fr. CANUT, ki'nii',] the 
 Second king of Denmark of that name, and the conqueror 
 of England, was the son of Sweyn, King of Denmark, 
 who, after subjecting a great part of England, died in 
 1014. Canute was then proclaimed king by the Danish 
 army, and after the death of Edmund Ironside, in 1016, 
 the whole Anglo-Saxon nation submitted to his sway. He 
 married Emma, the widow of Ethelred II., and gained 
 the favour of his subjects by his prudent policy and 
 monastic piety. He founded several monasteries, and 
 made a pilgrimage to Rome. Denmark and Norway 
 were also under the dominion of Canute, who was the 
 most powerful monarch of his time. The memorable 
 manner in which he rebuked the flattery of his courtiers, 
 who said that all things were possible to him, is thus re- 
 lated by Hume : " He ordered his chair to be set on the 
 sea-shore while the tide was rising, and, as the waters 
 approached, commanded them to retire, and obey him 
 who was the lord of the ocean. When the sea still ad- 
 vanced, and began to wash him, he turned to his courtiers, 
 and remarked that power resided with one Being alone, 
 who could say to the ocean, 'Thus far shalt thou go, 
 and no farther, and here shall thy proud waves be stayed. ' " 
 He died in 1036, leaving three sons, Sweyn, Harold, and 
 Hardicanute. 
 
 See Humk, " History of England," vol. i. chap. ii. ; Freeman,' 
 " Norman Conquest," vol. i. chaps, v. and vi. 
 
 Canute III., a king of Denmark, known as Saint 
 CANUTE, was the son of Sweyn II., and grandson of the 
 preceding. He succeeded his elder brother, Harold, in 
 10S0. His partiality to the clergy and severity to the 
 people produced great disaffection, which grew at last 
 into a revolt. Canute was assassinated at Odense in 
 1086, and left the crown to his brother, Eric the Good. 
 
 See Annibale Adami, "Vita del Re S. Camito," 1682; Birche- 
 sod, "K. Knud des helliges Historie," 1773; Matthew of West- 
 minster, " Flores Histonarum." 
 
 Canute IV. (or V. according to some authorities) was 
 son of Prince Magnus, and grandson of Nicholas, King 
 of Denmark. At the abdication of Eric in 1 147, Canute 
 and Sweyn (or Suenon) III. disputed for the crown of 
 Denmark by civil war, in which the former was defeated, 
 but retained a part of the kingdom. He was assassin- 
 ated by order of Sweyn in 1156. 
 
 Canute V., King of Denmark, the eldest son of Val- 
 demar I., was born in 1162, and ascended the throne at 
 his father's death in 11 82. He subdued Mecklenburg, 
 and took the title of King of the Slaves and Vandals. 
 He refused to take part in the crusade which the pope 
 promoted about 1186. Afterwards he waged a success- 
 ful war against Adolph, Duke of Holstein, whom he took 
 prisoner. Under his wise reign Denmark was more 
 prosperous and powerful than it had evei been. He 
 died in 1202, and was succeeded by his brother, Valde- 
 mar II. 
 
 See Hoi.berg, "Danmarks Riges Historie;" Saxo Grammati- 
 cus, " Danorum Regum Historia. 
 
 Canute, ka-nut', of Sweden, wa's the son of Eric IX., 
 King of Sweden, who was killed in 1 160. Charles Sver- 
 kerson then reigned, by the choice of the bishops and 
 nobles, until 1168, when Canute defeated him in battle, 
 killed him, and became king. His reign was mostly 
 peaceful. He died in 1199, and left a son, Eric X. 
 
 Canuti, ka-noo'tee, (Domenico Maria,) a skilful 
 Italian fresco-painter, born at Bologna in 1620, was a 
 pupil of Guido. He excelled in composition and fore- 
 shortening, and was a skilful engraver. Died in 1684. 
 
 See Lanzi. " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Canz, kants, (Israel Gottlieb,) a German philo- 
 sopher, born at Heinsheim in 1690. "He was," says 
 Guizot, " one of the most profound disciples of Wolf, and 
 was successively professor of eloquence, philosophy, and 
 theology in his native city." According to another ac- 
 count, he occupied these chairs in Tubingen instead of 
 Heinsheim. He published many works, one of which, 
 entitled " The Use or Advantage of the Leibnitzian and 
 Wolfian Philosophy in Theology," (" Philosophise Leib- 
 nitzianae et Wolfiana: Usus in f heologia,") contributed 
 
 much to the diffusion of the philosophy of Leibnitz and 
 Wolf in Germany. Died in 1753. 
 
 See Ersch mid Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Adei-umg, 
 Supplement to Jocher's " Allgemeines Gclehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Cap, kJp, (Paul Antoine,) a French pharmacist 
 and naturalist, born at Macon in 1788. He published a 
 prize memoir "On the Classification of Medicaments," 
 ( 1 823,) a " History of Pharmacy," ( 185 1,) and a " Museum 
 of Natural History," (1853.) 
 
 Capaccio, ka-pSt'cho, (Giulio Cesare,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Campagna about 1560, was for thirty years 
 secretary of the city of Naples. He wrote a " History 
 of Naples," " The Secretary," and other works. Died 
 in 1631. 
 
 Capanee. See Capaneus. 
 
 Cap'a-neus, [Gr. Kajravn'c ; Fr. CapanEe, ki'pf'nl',] 
 an Argive hero, was a son of Hipponous, and one of the 
 seven chiefs who led an expedition against Thebes to 
 restore Polynices. The poets relate that he was killed 
 at Thebes by a thunderbolt of Jupiter, whom he had 
 offended by impiety. 
 
 Capass'o, ka-pa's'so, (Niccol6,) a Neapolitan poet, 
 born at Fratta in 1671, was professor of civil and canon 
 law in the University of Naples. His version of Homer's 
 "Iliad" is called his master-piece, and displays original 
 genius, though not much like the Iliad itself. "His 
 style," says Ginguene, "is regarded as among the most 
 sprightly and piquant." Died in 1746. 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Capdueil, de, deh kSp'dul' or kSp'du'ye, or Cap- 
 duelh, kip'du'el', (Pons,) a French troubadour of noble 
 birth, who preached a crusade, in favour of which he also 
 composed poems. He afterwards joined the crusade 
 which was conducted by Philip Augustus about 1190. 
 
 Capece, ka-pa'cha, or Capecio, ka-pa'cho, [Lat. Ca- 
 pyc/ius; Fr. Capece, ki'p&ss',] (Scipione,) an eminent 
 Latin poet, was professor of law in the University of 
 Naples. His principal poem, " On the First Principles 
 of Things," ("De Principiis Rerum," 1546,) was much 
 admired, and compared to the great work of Lucretius. 
 The versification and Latinity are better than the phi- 
 losophy, which teaches that air is the principle of all 
 things. He also wrote elegies and epigrams, a poem on 
 John the Baptist, and a legal treatise. Died about 1562. 
 
 See Bayi.e. " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Capece-Latro, ka-pa'cha la'tRo, (Giuseppe,) aliberal 
 Italian prelate, born in Naples in 1744, became Arch- 
 bishop of Tarentum. He wrote a treatise against the 
 celibacy of priests, which attracted much attention, and 
 other works. He was minister of the interior under 
 Joseph Bonaparte and Murat between 1808 and 1815. 
 Died in 1836. 
 
 See Niccol6 Candia, " Elogio storico di G. Capecelatro," 1S37 ; 
 Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Capefigue, kSp'feg', (Baptiste Honore Raymond,) 
 a French historian and editor of the royalist party, was 
 born at Marseilles in 1801. He became a resident of 
 Paris in 1821, and soon after that date editor of the "Quo- 
 tidienne." He subsequently wrote for the "Temps," 
 the "Courrier," the "Gazette de France," and other 
 journals, some of which he edited. He has produced 
 a great number of historical works, among which are a 
 "History of Philippe Auguste," (1829,) "Europe during 
 the Consulate and the Empire," (1839-41,) "History of 
 the Restoration," (1842,) and "Europe since the Acces- 
 sion of Louis Philippe," (10 vols., 1849.) Before the 
 revolution of 1848 he had free access to the archives of 
 state. He is charged with favouring absolutism in his 
 writings. 
 
 See Quekard, "La France Litteraire ;" "Edinburgh Review" 
 for April, 1836; " London Quarterly Review," 1843, 
 
 Cap'el, (Arthur,) Lord, an English cavalier of 
 Hertfordshire, who was elected a member of Parliament 
 in 1640. After acting with the popular party, he turned 
 royalist, and was created Baron Capel in 1641. In the 
 civil war he held a high command in the royalist army, 
 and was appointed a counsellor of the Prince of Wales. 
 After having made peace, or "compounded," with Par- 
 liament, he joined another revolt in 1648, was taken by 
 Fairfax, tried for treason, and executed in 1649. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England." 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (fc^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CAPEL 
 
 512 
 
 CAPISUCCHI 
 
 Capel, (Arthur,) Earl of Essex, the eldest son of 
 the preceding, was born in 1635. He was created Earl 
 of Essex by Charles II. in 1661, and sent on an embassy 
 to Denmark in 1670. In 1672 he was made a privy 
 councillor, and lord lieutenant of Ireland. His eloquence 
 and knowledge of law rendered him one of the most 
 influential members of the House of Lords. He after- 
 wards became an opponent of the court, and in 1683 
 was committed to the Tower on a suspicion of compli- 
 city in the Rye-House Plot. A few days after this event 
 he was found dead, having, according to the verdict of 
 the coroner's inquest, committed suicide. 
 
 See Macaulay's " History of England," vols. i. and iii. 
 
 Cap'ell, (Edward,) an English critic, born at Troston, 
 Suffolk, in 1713, was distinguished as a commentator on 
 Shakspeare. He lived chiefly at Hastings and London, 
 and spent many years in preparing an edition of Shak- 
 speare, which was published in 1767. The text of this 
 edition is said to be one of the purest extant. He wrote 
 or edited several other works, one of which is " The 
 School of Shakspeare." Died in 1781. 
 
 See " Biographia Dramatical" Ersch uud Gruber, "Allgemeine 
 Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Capell, de, (Brooke A.,) was author of "Travels 
 through Sweden, Norway, and Finmark to the North 
 Cape," (London, 1823,) and other works. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1823. 
 
 Capell Lofft. See LoFFf. 
 
 Capella, ka-pel'la, (Galeazzo Fi.avio Capra,) an 
 Italian historian, born at Milan in 1487. He became 
 secretary of state to Francis Sforza, Duke of Milan, who 
 employed him in important missions. He was the orator 
 of the emperor Maximilian, and was retained in his office 
 when Charles V. became master of Milan. Capella wrote 
 several valuable works, among which are a " History of 
 the Wars of the Milanese from 1521 to 1530," (in Latin,) 
 and a "History of Francis Sforza," (1535.) He died in 
 
 '537- 
 
 See Ginguene, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltahe." 
 
 Ca-pelTa, (Martianus Mineus Felix,) a Latin 
 writer, of whose personal history nothing is known, is 
 supposed to have lived about 500 a.d. His great work, 
 entitled "Satyricon," was a voluminous compilation, 
 somewhat like an encyclopaedia of the seven liberal arts, 
 (Grammar, Dialectics, Rhetoric, Geometry, Astronomy, 
 Arithmetic, and Music,) and was highly esteemed and 
 used in the schools of the middle ages. It was a medley 
 of prose and verse, written in an unclassic, pretentious 
 style. Some persons suppose that Copernicus found the 
 germ of his system in a passage of this work which 
 teaches that Mercury and Venus revolve around the sun. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca media* et infinite JEtatis;" Ersch 
 und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Capellen, van, vSn ka-pel'len, (Godard Alexander 
 Gerard Phii.ippus,) Baron, an able Dutch statesman, 
 born in 1778. He was appointed minister of the interior 
 in 1809 by Louis Bonaparte, and resigned on the abdi- 
 cation of that king in i8to. In 1814 he became minister 
 of the colonies under William I. He was Governor- 
 General of the Dutch East Indies for five or more years, 
 ending in 1826. In 1838 he attended the coronation of 
 Queen Victoria as ambassador extraordinary, and in 1840 
 became grand chamberlain to William II. Died in 1848. 
 
 See Urockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Capellen, van, (Robert Gaspard Burne,) one of 
 the chiefs of the popular party in Holland, was born at 
 Zutphen in 1743. He entered the States of Guelderland 
 in 1 771, and when the Prince of Orange aspired to abso- 
 lute power he put himself at the head of the opposition. 
 He was sentenced to death as a traitor in 1 788 ; but he 
 had escaped to France, where he died in 1798. 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Capellen, van, (Theodorus Frederik,) a Dutch 
 admiral, of the same family as the preceding, born about 
 1760. As rear-admiral he commanded in 1799 a Dutch 
 fleet, which, when attacked by the English, he surren- 
 dered without a battle. He resided in England from 
 that time until 1813, when he returned home with the 
 Prince of Orange and was made vice-admiral. In 1816 
 he commanded the Dutch fleet which co-operated with 
 
 the English in the famous attack on Algiers, and was 
 praised by Lord Exmouth for his conduct in that action. 
 Died in 1S24. 
 Capello. See Cappei.lo, (Bernardo and Marco.) 
 Capello, ka-pel'lo, (Bianca,) an ambitious and fas- 
 cinating woman, born of a noble family in Venice. In 
 1563 she eloped to Florence with Pietro Bonaventuri, 
 who had obtained her consent by false pretences. She 
 soon formed a liaison with Francis de' Medici, Grand Duke 
 of Tuscany, to whom she was privately married in 1578. 
 This marriage was afterwards avowed by him, and am- 
 bassadors were sent from Venice to Florence to solem- 
 nize the adoption of Bianca as the daughter of Saint 
 Mark. She is accused of ordering or instigating the 
 assassination of several persons. Died in 1587. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" G. R. DB 
 San Severino, "Stoiia della Vita e Morte di B. Capello," 1776, and 
 French version of the same, 1779; Cicogna, " B. Capello; Cenni 
 storici critici," 1828; Siebenkees, " Lebensbeschreibung der B. Ca- 
 pello," 1789, and English version of the same, 1797 ; Carlo Botta, 
 " B. Capello," 1838. 
 
 Caperan, ktpWJN', (Arnaud Thomas,) a French 
 Orientalist and priest, born at Dol in 1754, was preceptor 
 of Chateaubriand. He left several works on Oriental 
 languages. Died in 1826. 
 
 Ca'pers, (William,) an American Methodist bishop, 
 born in South Carolina in 1790, preached several years 
 at Charleston. He was editor of the " Southern Chris- 
 tian Advocate," and was elected a bishop of the Method- 
 ist Episcopal Church South in 1846. Died in 1855. 
 
 Ca'pet, (Hugh,) [Fr. Hugues Capet* hug ka'pS',] 
 King of France, was the head of the third dynasty, and 
 the ancestor of thirty-two French kings. He was the son 
 of Hugh the Great, Count of Paris, and was born about 
 940 A.D. At the death of Louis V., the last of the Car- 
 lovingians, in 987, he assumed royal power, and obtained 
 the suffrages of the assembled barons ; but his crown was 
 disputed by Charles of Lorraine, the legitimate heir of 
 the last dynasty. Having defeated Charles in battle, he 
 afterwards possessed the throne in peace, and, by mode- 
 ration and policy, confirmed his power, which at first was 
 hardly superior to that of the nobles whose choice had 
 made him king. Paris was chosen as the capital of his 
 kingdom. His posterity continued to reign in France 
 until the Revolution of 1789. He died in 996, and was 
 succeeded by his son Robert. 
 
 See Guillaume de Jumieges ; Capefigue, " Hugues Capet et 
 le troisieme Race," 4 vols., 1836; Sismondi, "Histoire des Fran- 
 cais;" Devismes, "Hugues Capet; F'ragment historique," 1804. 
 
 Capilupi, ka-pe-loo'pee, (Camillo,) a native of Man- 
 tua, wrote a famous work called the " Stratagem of 
 Charles IX. against the Huguenots," (1572,) in which 
 he justified the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew and 
 argued that it was premeditated. Cardinal Lorraine, 
 who was then in Rome, endeavoured to suppress this 
 book, from motives of policy. 
 
 See De Thou, " Historia." 
 
 Capilupi, (Lelio,) an Italian writer, brother of the 
 preceding, born at Mantua in 1498; died in 1560. 
 
 Capistrano, da, da ka-pes-tRi'no, written also Ca- 
 pistran, (Giovanni.) an Italian monk, eminent for his 
 talents and virtues, was born at Capistrano, in the Abruzzi, 
 in 1385. He preached with honour in the chief cities 
 of Italy and Germany, and was employed as legate and 
 nuncio by several popes. When Belgrade was besieged 
 by the Sultan in 1456, he shut himself up in that city, and 
 by his zeal contributed greatly to its successful defence. 
 He wrote " The Mirror of Conscience," (" Speculum Con- 
 scientiae,") and other works on theology. Died in 1456. 
 
 See Baillet. "Vies des Saints." 
 
 Capisuochi, ka-pe-sook'kee, or Capizucca, ka-ped- 
 zook'kS, (Biagio or Biasio,) Marquis of Monterio, an 
 Italian general, born in Rome. He served under the 
 Duke of Parma in the Low Countries in 1584, and was 
 afterwards lieutenant-general of Ferdinand I. de' Medici, 
 Duke of Tuscany. Died in 1613. 
 
 See Adami, " Elogj istorici de* due Marchesi Capisucchi fratelli 
 Camillo et Biagio," 1685. 
 
 * The name Capet is said to have been given to him as a nick 
 
 w 1 ne name i,afbt is sain 10 nave oeen given to mm as a 
 name ; but there is the greatest diversity in regard to its signific 
 One authority says it signifies " big-headed ;" another, a "jester ; 
 
 ication. 
 and 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, 11, J>, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fAt; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CAPISUCCHI 
 
 S«3 
 
 CAPPEL 
 
 Capisucchi, (Ca.mii.lo,) an Italian general, brother 
 of the preceding, born at Rome in 1537; died in 1597. 
 
 See M"Ti.KY. " History 01" ihe United Netherlands," vol. i. chap. v. 
 
 Capisucchi, (Paolo,) born in Rome in 1479, became 
 Bishop of Neocastro. Clement VII. having referred to 
 him the question of a divorce between Henry VIII. of 
 England and Queen Catherine, Capisucchi made a re- 
 port against Henry. Died in 1539. 
 
 Cap'i-to, (C. Ateius,) an eminent Roman jurist, who 
 flourished in the reign of Augustus, and was chosen 
 consul in 5 \.D. He was the rival of Labeo, and founder 
 of a numerous school of lawyers. He wrote books on 
 pontifical law, and other legal works. Died in 22 A.D. 
 
 See Tacitcs, "Annales;" Hoffet, " Esquisses biographiques 
 sur Capiton,'' 1850. 
 
 Capito. ki'pe-to, [Fr. Capiton, k3'pe't6N',] (Wo' f- 
 gang Fahricius,) an eminent German theologian and 
 Reformer, born at Haguenau about 1480. His original 
 name was Wolff Koepstein. He became secretary of 
 Albert, Archbishop of Mentz, who gave him a title of 
 nobility in 1523. About this date he was converted to 
 the Protestant faith, and became intimate with Bucer. 
 He was deputed to the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, and 
 five years later had an interview with Calvin for the pur- 
 pose of effecting a union between the Calvinists and the 
 Lutherans. He wrote " Hebrew Institutes," (" Institu- 
 tiones Hebraic^,") a " Life of CEcolampadius," " The 
 Six Days' Work of God explained," (" Hexaemeron Dei 
 Opus explicatum," 1539,) and other works. Died at 
 Strasburg in 1541. 
 
 See Sax, "Onomasticon ;" Seckendorf, "HistoriaLutheranismi." 
 
 Capitolinus. See Manlios, and Manlia Gf.ns. 
 
 Cap-I-to-li'nus, (Julius,) a Latin biographer, who 
 wrote about the end of the third century, was one of the 
 authors of the " Historia Augusta." The biographies 
 of the following emperors are ascribed to him : Anto- 
 ninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, Pertinax, 
 Clodius Albinus, Opiljus Macrinus, two Maximins, three 
 Gordians, Maximus, and Balbinus. 
 
 See Vosstus, "De Historicis Latinis;" Moller, " Dissertatio de 
 J. Capitolino," 1689: G. Hevne, "Opuscula Academica." 
 
 Capiton, the French of Capito, which see. 
 
 Capivaccio, ka-pe-vlt'cho, or Capo di Vacca, 
 ka'po de vak'ki, (Gf.ronimo,) an Italian physician, born 
 at Padua; died in 1589. 
 
 Capizucca. See Capisucchi. 
 
 Capmani or Capmany, de, da kjp-mi'nee, (Anto- 
 nio,) an eminent Spanish author and philologist, born at 
 Barcelona in 1742. He resided in Madrid many years, 
 and held several political offices. When the French 
 obtained possession of Madrid in 1808, he retired to 
 Seville. He compiled a good French and Spanish Dic- 
 tionary, and wrote a variety of works, among which are 
 "TheSentine! against the French," " Historico-Critical 
 Theatre of Spanish Eloquence," and " Philosophy of 
 Eloquence;" also "Historical Memoirs of Barcelona," 
 (I779-92,) which is commended by Prescott. Died at 
 Cadiz in 1813. 
 
 See Ticknur, "History of Spanish Literature:" Meusel, "Bi- 
 bliotheca Historical" Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella." vol. i. 
 
 Capnion. See ReuchiTn. 
 
 Capo de Peuillide, kS'po' deh fuh'e-yed', (Jean 
 Gakriel,) a French journalist, born in the Antilles in 
 1800, removed to France about 1818. He has edited 
 several journals of Paris, and has been republican and 
 royalist by turns. In 1844 he published a " History of 
 the People of Paris." He was transported to Algeria 
 for opposition to Napoleon's coup d'etat of December, 
 1851, but returned to France a few years afterwards. 
 
 Capo d'Istria, ka'po dis'tRe-a, (Augustin,) Count 
 OF, a brother of John, noticed below, was born in Corfu. 
 He was invited to Greece in 1829 by his brother, who 
 gave him a high position in the army. He was elected 
 President of Greece in December, 183 1; but the opposi- 
 tion became so strong that he resigned in April, 1832. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Capo d'Istria or Capodistrias, ka'po-dis'tRe-as, 
 (John.) Count, and President of Greece, was born in 
 Corfu in 1780. He entered the service of Russia in 1806, 
 as clerk in the foreign office, where he was rapidly ad- 
 vanced. After having been employed by the Czar in 
 
 several diplomatic missions, he represented Russia in 
 the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15, and signed the 
 treaty of peace at Paris in November, 1815. The next 
 year he was appointed foreign secretary of state, and 
 enjoyed the confidence of the emperor, who found in 
 him an unscrupulous and able minister, devoted to the 
 cause of absolutism. About 181 7 he received the title 
 of count, and the cross of the order of Alexander. In 
 April, 1827, he was chosen (probably by Russian influ- 
 ence) President (for seven years) of Greece, which had 
 just thrown off the Turkish yoke. His administration 
 was arbitrary and excited much discontent. He violated 
 the constitution, subverted the liberty of the press, and 
 aimed, it would appear, to make Greece subservient to 
 Russia. Some writers, however, justify or excuse his 
 measures in consideration of the violent and factious 
 character of the Greeks. He was assassinated, October 
 9, 1831, by George and Constantine Mauromichali. 
 
 See S. Bulgari. "Notice sur J. Capodistrias," Paris, 1832; A 
 Papadopoulos Vretos, " Memoires sur le President de la Grece,' 
 j vols., 1838. 
 
 Ca'pon, (William,) an English architect and scene- 
 painter, born at Norwich in 1757. His most admired 
 productions were the scenic decorations of Drury Lane 
 and Covent Garden. Died in 1828. 
 
 Caponi, ka-po'nee, (Agostino,) a citizen of Florence, 
 who in 1 5 13 engaged in a conspiracy with Machiavel and 
 others to subvert the power of the Medicis. A li't of 
 the conspirators dropped by him accidentally betrayed 
 the secret, and Caponi was executed. 
 
 Caporali, ka-po-ra'lee, (Cesare,) a satirical Italian 
 poet, born at Perugia in 1531. He lived some years at 
 Rome in the service of several cardinals, and wrote pjems 
 remarkable for originality and elegance, viz., "A Jo'uney 
 to Parnassus," "The Life of Maecenas," and "The Gar- 
 dens of Maecenas." Died in 1601. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Cappe, kap, (Newcome,) an English Socinian niu- 
 ister, born at Leeds in 1732. He preached many 1 ears 
 in his native place, and had a high reputation 101 elo- 
 quence. He published a number of sermons, anc' left 
 "Critical Remarks on many Important Passages of Scrip- 
 ture." Died in 1800. 
 
 Capped, ki'pel', (Ange,) a French Protestant ji rist, 
 born in 1537, was related to Louis, noticed below. He 
 became secretary to Henry IV., and wrote a work 01 the 
 abuses of litigation, ("Abus des Plaideurs," 1604.) He 
 translated several essays of Seneca into French. 1 lied 
 in 1623. 
 
 Cappel, (Guillaume,) a French theologian, was an 
 uncle of Jacques, who died in 1542. He was rector of 
 the University of Paris in 1491. 
 
 Cappel, (GUILLAUME.) born in 1530, was a son of 
 Jacques, and brother of Ange. He translated the works 
 of Machiavel into French. Died about 1586. 
 
 Cappel, (Jacques,) a French jurist, was a councillor 
 of state under Francis I. He was the father of Ange, 
 Jacques, and Louis Cappel. Died in 1542. 
 
 Cappel, (Jacques,) Sieur de Tilloy, (deh te'lwj',) 
 a French jurist, born in 1525, embraced the Reformed 
 religion in his youth. He became a counsellor at Rennes, 
 and, during the persecution of 1572, found refuge at 
 Sedan. Died in 1586. 
 
 Cappel, [Lat.CAPPEL'LUS,! (Jacques,) a French Prot- 
 estant minister, a son of the preceding, was born at 
 Rennes in 1570. He was professor of Hebrew and 
 theology in his native place, and author of several valu- 
 able works, among which are " A Treatise on Weights 
 and Coins," (1606,) "A Treatise on Measures;" (1607,) 
 and " Notes on the Old Testament." Died in 1624. 
 
 Cappel, (Jacques Louis,) born in 1639, succeeded 
 his father Louis in the chair of Hebrew at Saumur. 
 When the edict of Nantes was revoked, (1685,) he took 
 refuge in England, where he died in 1722. 
 
 See Louts Cappel, "De Cappelorum Gente," 16S9; Nickron, 
 "Memoires." 
 
 Cappel, (Louis,) a French Protestant minister, born 
 in Paris in 1534, was a son of Jacques, (who died in 
 1542.) He was an intrepid advocate of the Reformation. 
 In the latter part of his life he was professor of theology 
 at Sedan, where he died in 1586. 
 
 e as t; c as s: g hatd; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, «ua/; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. (£y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 33 
 
CAPPEL 
 
 5"4 
 
 CAPRARA 
 
 Cappel, [Lat. Cappel'i.us.1 (Louis,) called the 
 Younger, an eminent French Protestant divine, son of 
 Jacques Cappel de Tilloy, born at Sedan in 1585. He 
 passed nearly all his life at Saumur, where he was min- 
 ister and professor of Hebrew and theology. He ren- 
 dered himself memorable by his new system of sacred 
 criticism announced in his " Secret of Punctuation re- 
 vealed," ("Arcanum Punctuationis revelatum," 1624,) 
 maintaining that the vowel points are a modern inven- 
 tion. In 1650 he published his principal work, "Critica 
 Sacra," in pursuance of his project to reform the Hebrew 
 text of the Bible. These works, which excited much 
 opposition, are said to form an epoch in sacred philology, 
 and gained for Cappel the title of father of Hebrew criti- 
 cism. Died at Saumur in 1658. 
 
 See Nic^ron, "M^moires;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Cappel, kap'pel, (Ludwig Christoph. Wilhelm,) 
 a German medical writer, born in 1772; died in 1804. 
 
 Cappellari, kap-pel-la'ree, (Gennaro Antonio,) an 
 Italian writer, born in Naples in 1655. He wrote and 
 spoke Latin with facility and elegance, and published 
 several Latin works, among which are " The Praises of 
 Philosophy," and a poem on the comets of 1664 and 
 1665. He was executed at Palermo in 1702, on a charge 
 of treason. His innocence was afterwards recognized. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Cappelle, van, vtn kap-pcl'leh,(jAN Pieter,) a Dutch 
 writer, born at Flushing in 1783, published "Researches 
 for the History of the Netherlands," (1827,) and other 
 works. He became professor of history at Amsterdam 
 in 1819. Died in 1829. 
 
 See David Jacob van Lennep, " Gedachtenisrede op J. P. van 
 Cappelle," 1830. 
 
 Cappelle, van der, vtn der kap-pel'leh, (Jan,) an 
 eminent Dutch painter of marine and river views, sup- 
 posed to have flourished about 1680. We have no 
 materials to compose his biography. He was an excel- 
 lent colorist, and his works, which include some winter 
 landscapes, command high prices. 
 
 Cappelli, kap-pel'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Sassuolo, was one of the best pupils of Correggio. 
 He was living in 1568. 
 
 Cappelli, (Marcantonio,) an Italian Franciscan monk 
 and theological writer, born at Este, was an opponent 
 of Pope Paul V. in the affair of the interdict of Venice. 
 Died about 1630. 
 
 Cappello, kap-pel'lo, (Bernardo,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Venice about 1500, received lessons from Benibo. 
 Having entered the public service, he was banished in 
 1540 to the island of Arbe, from which he escaped about 
 1542 to the Papal States. lie was afterwards governor 
 of Orvieto and Tivoli. He produced in 1560 a volume 
 of lyric poems, "Rime" or "Canzonieri," which, says 
 Tiraboschi, " are among the most graceful, noble, and 
 polished that appeared in the sixteenth century." Died 
 at Rome in 1565. 
 
 See Serrassi, "Vita di Bernardo Cappello." prefixed to his 
 "Rime;" Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteiatura Italiana." 
 
 Cappello, (Marco,) an Italian poet and priest, born 
 at Brescia in 1706. He had a talent for improvisation, 
 witticisms, and burlesque composition. Among his sa- 
 tirical or burlesque poems are "The Scarecrow," ("La 
 Befana,") and "The Cats," ("I Gatti.") Died in 17S2. 
 
 Cappellus. See Cappel. 
 
 Cap'per, (James,) an English officer in the service of 
 the East India Company. He made the journey from 
 Europe to India by land in 1778, and published "Obser- 
 vations on the Passage to India," (1782.) Died in 1825. 
 
 Capperonnier, ka]>'ro'ne-i', (Claude,) an eminent 
 French linguist and critic, born at Montdidier in 1671, 
 was appointed professor of Greek in the College of 
 France in 1722. He kept this place until his death. He 
 published an edition of Quintilian, and other works. Died 
 in 1744. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Capperonnier, (Jean,) nephew of the preceding, was 
 born at Montdidier in 1716. He succeeded his uncle as 
 professor at the College of France in 1 743, and became 
 librarian to the king. The Academy of Inscriptions was 
 opened to him in 1749. He published editions of Caesar, 
 Plautus, Justin, and other works. Died in 1775. 
 
 Capponi, kap-po'nee, (Gino,) an Italian statesman, 
 father of Neri, noticed below, born about 1350. He was 
 one of the chief magistrates of the republic of Florence, 
 and directed the military administration with success as 
 decemvir of war. "The conquest of Pisa," (1406,) says 
 Sismondi, "was effected chiefly by him." Died in 1420. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Kepubiiques llaliennes." 
 
 Capponi, (Gino,) Marquis ok, an elegant Italian 
 writer, born at Florence in 1792, was a chief of the con- 
 stitutional party in Tuscany, and was placed at the head 
 of a brief ministry in 1848. He produced a "History of 
 the Popes," and a "Treatise on Education," and wrote 
 many memoirs for the Academy Delia Crusca. 
 
 Capponi, (Gregorio Alessandro,) Marquis, an 
 Italian scholar, born in Rome about 1685, was noted for 
 his excellent taste in books and antiquities. He formed 
 a rich collection of medals, cameos, etc., and collected a 
 library of rare books, which by his will was added to 
 that of the Vatican. Died in 1746. The Catalogue of 
 the Capponi Library, with notes by Giorgi, is highly 
 prized by bibliographers. 
 
 See Adelung, Supplement to Jocher's " Allgemeines Gelehrten- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Capponi, (Neri,) one of the chief magistrates of the 
 Florentine republic, born in 1388, was eminent for virtue 
 and talents. The victory of Anghieri in 1440 was as- 
 cribed to his skill. He wrote a Commentary on his own 
 administration. Died in 1457. 
 
 Capponi, (Piktro,) a grandson of the preceding, filled 
 for many years the highest offices in Florence. In 1494 
 Charles VIII. of France, having been hospitably ad- 
 mitted with his soldiers into the city, assumed the part 
 of a master. Capponi boldly asserted the freedom of 
 the city, and by a prompt demonstration of a readiness 
 for battle deterred the king from the execution of his 
 audacious purpose. He was killed at a siege in 1496. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes. " 
 
 Capponi della Porreta, kap-po'nee del'la por-ra'ta, 
 (Seraeino Annibale,) an Italian theologian and monk, 
 born at Bologna in 1536, wrote several works in elucida- 
 tion of the theology of Thomas Aquinas. Died in 1614. 
 
 See Pio, "Vitadi S. Capponi," 1625. 
 
 Capra. See Benkdictis. 
 
 Capra. See Capkli.a, (Galeazzo Flavio.) 
 
 Capra, kl'pRa, (Baldassarf.,) an Italian astronomer, 
 born at Milan. He disputed with Galileo the title of 
 inventor of the compass of proportion. Died in 1626. 
 
 Capranica, ka-pRa-nee'ka, (Domenico,) an Italian 
 cardinal, born in 1400, was eminent for learning and 
 talents, and performed a prominent part in political 
 affairs. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on 
 the Art of Dying," and one " On Contempt of the 
 World," (" De Contemptu Mundi.") Died in 1458. 
 
 See M. Catalani, "Commentarius de Vita et Scriptis D. Capra- 
 nicae," 1793. 
 
 Caprara, ka-pRa'ra, (Alberto,) Count of, an Italian 
 general, nephew of General Piccolomini, born at Bologna 
 in 1631. He entered the service of Austria, and obtained 
 the rank of general. He was a Knight of the Golden 
 Fleece, and was employed hi several foreign embassies. 
 He translated portions of Seneca's works into Italian. 
 Died in 1686. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubeh, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Caprara, (Enka Sylvio,) Count of, a distinguished 
 general, born at Bologna in 1631, was a brother of the 
 preceding, and a nephew of the famous Piccolomini. He 
 entered the service of Austria about 1650, and served in 
 forty-four campaigns. He was defeated by Turenne in 
 Germany in 1674, and was victorious over the Turks in 
 Hungary in 1683 and 1685. Died in 1701. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Caprara, (Giovanni Battista,) Archbishop of Mi- 
 lan, and count, was born of a noble family at Bologna in 
 1733. Having served as nuncio to several capitals of 
 Europe, he was made a cardinal in 1792. In 1S01 he 
 was sent as legate to Paris, with a view to restore public 
 worship, and there performed the ceremony with which 
 the Concordat was celebrated in 1802. He officiated at 
 the coronation of Napoleon as King of Italy in 1805. 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
 a, e,T 
 
CAPRI ATA 
 
 5'5 
 
 CAR ADO C 
 
 Capriata, kS-pRe-l'ta, (Pietro Giovanni,) an Ital- 
 ian historian and lawyer, born at Genoa. He wrote a 
 "History of Italy from 1613 to 1646," (1648,) which is 
 esteemed for its accuracy. Died about 1660. 
 
 Capuro, ka-poo'ro, (Francesco,) a Genoese painter, 
 who lived about 1630. 
 
 Capycius. See Capece. 
 
 Caque, ki'ki', (Augustin Armand,) a French en- 
 graver of medals, born at Saintes in 1793. He worked 
 some time on the "Gallery of the Kings of France," 
 and in 1S31 became a member of the commission of the 
 mint. About 1853 he was appointed engraver of medals 
 for the cabinet of the emperor. 
 
 Carabautes, de, da ka-ra-iian'tes, (Jose,) a Spanish 
 missionary, born in 162S, published several works. Died 
 in 1694. 
 
 See Quiroga, " Vida y Virtudes de J. de Carabantes," 1705. 
 
 Car-a-cal'la, (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Bas- 
 sianus,) a Roman emperor, born at Lyons in 188 a. d. 
 He was the son of the emperor Septimius Severus, who, 
 dying in 212, left the empire to Caracalla and his brother 
 Geta. The latter was assassinated by order of Caracalla, 
 who sought to confirm his power by sacrificing many 
 friends of Geta. Papinian, the jurist, was one of the vic- 
 tims, who, it is said, amounted to thousands. His reign 
 was a series of cruelties, extortions, and follies. He chose 
 for his chief ministers persons of the vilest character. He 
 led his army into Parthia about 216 A.D., ravaged a part 
 of the country, and retired before he had encountered 
 the Parthian army. A conspiracy having been formed 
 by Macrinus, Caracalla was killed by one of his soldiers 
 near Edessa, in Asia, in 217 a.d., and Macrinus reigned 
 in his stead. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Mkis 
 ter, " Dissertatio de Caracalla," 1702; Spartian, "Vita Caracallx." 
 
 Caracci, ka-rat'chee, or Carracci, kar-rat'chee, [Fr. 
 Carrache, ki'rSsh',] (Agostino,) a celebrated painter 
 and engraver, born at Bologna about 1558, was the bro- 
 ther of Annibal and cousin of Ludovico, noticed below.' 
 He studied painting under Prospero Fontana, and en- 
 graving under Cornelius Cort. He became the partner 
 of the other Caracci in the Academy at Bologna, and 
 assisted Annibal in the Famese Gallery at Rome. In 
 invention he was equal or superior to either of his kins- 
 men. "The Communion of Saint Jerome," at the 
 Louvre, is called the master-piece among his paintings. 
 His engravings are numerous and are highly prized. He 
 wrote a "Treatise on Perspective and Architecture." 
 Died in 1602. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Malvasia, " Felsina 
 pittrice." 
 
 Caracci, (Annibal or Annibale,) one of the great 
 masters of the Bolognese school of painting, brother of 
 the preceding, was born about 1560, and was the pupil 
 of Ludovico Caracci. He had more energy and bold- 
 ness, but less cultivation, than his brother, and is esti- 
 mated the greatest painter of the Caracci family. The 
 paintings with which he adorned the Famese Gallery at 
 Rome (on which he worked eight years) are regarded 
 as his master-pieces, and nearly approach the grace of 
 the works of Raphael. He shares with his cousin and 
 brother the honour of founding a new school, which pro- 
 duced many excellent artists. (See Caracci, Ludovico.) 
 Died at Rome in 1609. 
 
 See Malvasia, "Vite de' Pittori Bolognesi;" Bryan, "Diction- 
 ary of Painters and Engravers." 
 
 Caracci, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Venice in 1583, was a son of Agostino, and a pupil of 
 Annibal, his uncle. He executed some frescos in the 
 Vatican, and an oil-painting of the Deluge, which is 
 much admired. Died in 1618. 
 
 Caracci, (Francesco,) a brother of Annibal, born 
 in 1595, was also a painter. After the death of his bro- 
 thers he opened a school at Bologna in opposition to 
 Ludovico, but was not successful. He died in Rome in 
 
 lf>22. 
 
 Caracci, (Ludovico,) the founder of the Bolognese 
 school of painting, was born at Bologna in 1555. His 
 instructors were Fontana of Bologna and Tintoretto of 
 Venice. His slowness of execution was such that he 
 obtained the nickname of " the Ox." Having secured the 
 
 co-operation of his cousins, above noticed, whose educa- 
 tion he had partly directed, he opened an academy in 
 Bologna, which became very celebrated, and effected a 
 reform in the style of art, which had become languid and 
 degenerate. He excelled in design, and was remarkable 
 for fidelity to nature and for his aptitude as a teacher 
 of art. Among his pupils were Guido Reni and Do- 
 menichino. Of his oil-paintings, "The Preaching of 
 Saint John the Baptist" (in the Louvre) is accounted the 
 master-piece. Died in 1619. 
 
 See Malvasia, "Vite de' Pittori Bolognesi." 
 
 Caraccio, ka-rat'cho, (Antonio,) Baron of Corano, 
 (ko-ra'no,) an Italian poet, born at Nardo in 1(130. He 
 published lyric poems, and an epic poem entitled "The 
 Empire Vindicated," (" L'Imperio vendicato," 1690 ) 
 much admired by his contemporaries. Died in 1702. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Caraccioli, ka-rat'cho-lee or ka-rat-cho'lee, (Anto 
 nio,) an Italian theologian, born at Melfi, was a son of 
 Gianni, Prince of Melfi, noticed below. He became abbe 
 of Saint-Victor, in France, about 1543, and afterwards 
 Bishop of Troyes. A few years later he was converted 
 to Calvinism. He wrote " The Mirror of True Religion." 
 Died in 1569. 
 
 Caraccioli, (Domknico,) Marquis, an Italian diplo- 
 matist and wit, born at Naples in 1715. From 1770 to 
 1780 he was ambassador from Naples to the French 
 court, and in the latter year became Viceroy of Sicily. 
 He was chosen minister of foreign affairs in 17S6. Died 
 in 17S9. 
 
 See Tipaldo. " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Caraccioli, (Francesco,) Prince, an admiral, a 
 relative of the preceding, born at Naples about 1748. 
 He commanded the fleet of the Neapolitan republic in 
 1799, and repulsed the Anglo-Sicilian fleet between 
 Cuius and Cape Miseno. Soon after this the royalists 
 prevailed at Naples : he was arrested, tried by a court- 
 martial, and hung by order of Lord Nelson. 
 
 Caraccioli, (Gianni,) a favourite courtier and min- 
 ister of Joanna, Queen of Naples, exercised almost 
 absolute power for about sixteen years. He was assas- 
 sinated in 1432. 
 
 Caraccioli, (Gianni.) Prince of Melfi, born in 1480, 
 fought alternately for the French and the Spaniards in 
 the campaigns of 1528-36, and was made a marshal of 
 France in 1544. Died in 1550. 
 
 Caraccioli, (Luigi Antonio,) born of a noble Ital- 
 ian family in Paris in 1721, became a member of the 
 order of the Oratory, and tutor of the sons of Prince 
 Rewski in Poland. He afterwards resided in Paris. He 
 published many works, one of which attracted much 
 notice. It purported to be a version of Pope Clement 
 the Fourteenth's letters, but was suspected by many to 
 have originated with Caraccioli. Died in 1803. 
 
 See Grimm, " Correspondance litte'raire. " 
 
 Caraccioli, (Roberto,) an Italian theologian and 
 pulpit orator, bom at Lecce, in Naples, in 1425, became 
 Bishop of Aquino in 1471. He wrote, in Latin, "The 
 Mirror of the Christian Faith," and other works. Died 
 in 1475. 
 
 See Domenico de Ancelis, "Vita di R. Caraccioli," 1703. 
 
 Caracciolo, kJ-rat-cho'lo or ka-rat'cho-lo, or Ca- 
 racciuolo, ki-rat-choo-o'lo, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian painter, born in Naples, was an admirer of 
 Annibal Caracci, whose works he studied in Rome 
 and imitated with skill. He adorned the churches 
 and palaces of Naples wjth admired pictures. Died 
 in 1641. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Caracciuolo. See Caracciolo. 
 
 Ca-rac'ta-cus, King of the Silures, a tribe of ancient 
 Britons. After resisting the Roman aims about nine 
 years, he was defeated by Ostorius, and carried captive 
 to Rome, in 51 A.D. The Romans admired his manly 
 deportment in presence of the emperor Claudius, who 
 spared his life and sent him home with presents. He 
 is supposed to have died about 54 A.D. 
 
 See Tacitus, "Annates." 
 
 Caradoc, ka-ri'dok, or Ca-ra'dog, [I.at. Carac'ta- 
 CUS,] a Welsh chronicler, born at Llancarvan. He wrote 
 
 e as i, c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in t/iis. (E^g^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CAR AD UC 
 
 5.6 
 
 CARBONJRA 
 
 jl " History of the Welsh Princes," not extant, but of 
 which an English translation has been preserved. He 
 died about 1154. 
 
 See Wright, " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Caraduc, ka-ra'duk, an ancient Briton or Welsh bard 
 of unknown period. He wrote a lay, the scene of which 
 is laid at the court of King Arthur. 
 
 Caraffa, ka-raf'fa, a noble family of Naples, which, 
 since the thirteenth century, has produced many dukes, 
 cardinals, etc. Paul IV., elected pope in 1555, was a 
 Caiaffa. His efforts to exalt and enrich his kindred 
 involved him in a bloody war with Spain. He made his 
 nephe - Charles a cardinal, and gave the titles of Mar- 
 quis :i .''lontebello and Duke of Palliano to his other 
 nephews Antonio and Giovanni, for whose interest he 
 confiscated the estates of several nobles. In 1559 they 
 were disgraced and exiled by the same pontiff. The 
 cardinal was put to death, after a legal process, in 1561. 
 
 Caiaffa, ka-raffd, (Antonio,) a third-cousin of Pope 
 Paul IV., became a cardinal in 1568, and apostolic libra- 
 rian to Gregory XIII. He edited the Greek Bible of 
 the Septuagint, published in 1587. Died in 1591. 
 
 Caraffa, (Ettore,) Count of Ruvo, born at Naples 
 in 1767, was the heir of the Dukes of Andria. He was 
 arrested in 1796 on account of his liberal opinions, but 
 escaped and left the kingdom. In 1799 lie returned with 
 the French army, and as a general fought bravely for 
 the Parthenopean republic. The republicans were soon 
 dispersed, and the whole country fell into the power of 
 the royalists, by whom Caraffa was executed about 1800. 
 
 Caraffa or Carafa, ka-ra'fa, (Michelk,) an eminent 
 musician and composer, born in Naples about 1785. He 
 removed to Paris in 1821, and adopted France as his 
 country a few years later. He composed " Le Solitaire," 
 (1822,) "II Sonnambulo," and other successful operas, 
 among which "Masaniello" (1828) is called his master- 
 piece. He was a member of the French Institute. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Caraglio.ka-ral'yo, orCaralio, ka-ra'le-o, (Giovanni 
 Giacomo,) a celebrated Italian engraver, was born at 
 Verona about 1510. He was a pupil of Marcantonio 
 Raimondi in Rome, and afterwards worked in Verona. 
 He engraved many of the works of Raphael, Titian, Mi- 
 chael Angelo, Giuho Romano, and other masters. Among 
 these are Raphael's " Holy Family" and Titian's "An- 
 nunciation." He devoted his latter years to engraving 
 gems, cameos, and medals, with great success, and was 
 patronized in this branch of art by Sigismund I. of Po- 
 land. Died about 1570. He sometimes wrote his name 
 Jacobus Veronensis, and Jacobus Caralius. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Engravers;" Ticozzi, 
 "Dizionario." 
 
 Caralio. See Caraglio. 
 
 Caramuel de Lobkowitz, ka-ra-moo-el' da lob- 
 ko-vets', written also Caramuele (ka-ra-moo-a'li) de 
 Lobkowitz, (Juan,) a Spanish ecclesiastic, born in 
 Madrid in 1606, was noted for his learning, but was defi- 
 cient in judgment. The King of Spain sent him as his 
 agent to the court of Vienna, where he made himself so 
 agreeable that the emperor gave him two abbeys, one of 
 which was at Prague. In 1657 he was made Bishop of 
 Campagna. He wrote many works on theology, logic, 
 metaphysics, mathematics, and other sciences. He pre- 
 tended to resolve questions in theology by the rules of 
 aiithmetic. Died in 1682. 
 
 S(.e Tadisi, " Memorie della Vita di Caramuele de Lobkowitz," 
 1760; N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Caraman, de, deli kf rt'inSN', (Pierre Paul de 
 Riquet — deh re'kj',) Count, a French general, born in 
 1646, was a son of M. de Riquet, who constructed the 
 canal of Languedoc. He saved the army at a battle in 
 Flanders between Nodoue and Diest in 1705, and dis- 
 tinguished himself at Ramillies in 1706. Died in 1730. 
 
 Caraman, de, (Victor Louis Charles de Riquet,) 
 Due, a French general, born in 1762, was a son of Victor 
 Maurice. Died in 1839. 
 
 Caraman, de, (Victor Maurice de Riquet,) Count, 
 father of the preceding, was born in 1727. He displayed 
 talents and courage in all the campaigns of the Seven 
 Vears' war, (1756-63,) during which he rose to the rank 
 of lieutenant-general. In 1786 he became commandant- 
 
 general of Provence. He was the principal owner of the 
 canal of Languedoc made by his ancestor, and lost an 
 immense fortune by the Revolution. Died in 1807. 
 
 Cara-Mustafa, (or -Mustapha,) ka'ra' mdos'tafa, 
 written also Kara-Moustapha, a famous grand vizier 
 of Turkey, was born at Merzisoor, in Asia Minor, in 1634. 
 He became Pasha of Silistria in 1660, and grand vizier 
 in 1676. He commanded the army of two hundred thou- 
 sand men which in 1683 attacked Vienna and besieged 
 it for sixty days. John Sobieski, King of Poland, came 
 to the relief of the besieged, and gained a decisive victory 
 over the Turks. Cara-Mustafa was executed the same 
 year, by order of the Sultan, Mahomet IV. 
 
 See Salvandv, " Histoire de J. Sobieski." 
 
 Ca-ra'nus, [Kupavoc or Kaparoc,] a Macedonian gen- 
 eral in the service of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Carascosa, ka-ras-ko'si, (Michele,) Baron, an Ital- 
 ian general, born in Sicily. He served in the arrpy of 
 Joachim Murat from 1808 to 1814, during which period 
 he became a general. In 1820 he commanded a body of 
 insurgents, who were dispersed by the Austrians. He 
 was sentenced to death, but escaped, and went into exile. 
 
 Ca-rau'sl-us, (Marcus Aurei.ius Valerius,) an 
 adventurer, born at Menapia, in Belgium, about 250 A. D. 
 Having been promoted to the command of a Roman 
 fleet, he made himself master of Great Britain and as- 
 sumed the title of emperor. After vain efforts to con- 
 quer him, Diocletian recognized him by treaty. He was 
 assassinated in 293 A.D. 
 
 Caravage. See Caravaggio. 
 
 Caravaggio, da, da ka-ra-vad'jo, [Fr. Caravage, 
 ki'rf'vSzh',] (Michel Angelo,) a celebrated Italian 
 painter, born at Caravaggio, in the Milanese, in 1569. 
 His proper name was Michel Angelo Amerighi or 
 Morigi. He studied in Venice and Rome, imitated no 
 model except nature, and adopted a new manner, which 
 gained him much applause and a crowd of imitators. 
 He was a skilful colorist, especially in the treatment of 
 carnations, but lacks taste and elevation of ideas. Among 
 his master-pieces are a " Supper at Emmaus," and 
 "Christ carried to the Grave by Saint John and Nico- 
 demus." He is said to have been involved by his violent 
 temper in several bloody quarrels. Died in 1609. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Caravaggio, (Pietro Paolo,) an Italian poet and 
 geometer, born at Milan in 161 7. He taught Greek 
 and mathematics at Milan, and was distinguished as a 
 military architect. He wrote " Inno," a poem, besides 
 several odes and sonnets. Died in 168. 
 
 Caravaggio Polidoro. See Cai.dara. 
 
 Cara-Yoosef (-Yfisef or -"5? ousef,) ka'ra' yoo'sef, 
 written also Kara-Yfisuf, the first prince of the Tur- 
 coman dynasty of the Black Sheep. He made himself 
 master of Diarbekir, Kurdistan, Azerbaijan, and Irak 
 about 1410. Died in 1420. 
 
 See Von Hammer, '* Histoire de PEmpire Ottoman." 
 
 Carbajal. See Carvajal. 
 
 Car'bo, (Caius Papirius,) an eloquent Roman orator 
 and consul. He was a tribune of the people in the time 
 of Tiberius Gracchus, who was his friend. About 120 
 li.C. he was elected consul. Being accused of peculation 
 by L. Crassus, he committed suicide. 
 
 Carbo, (Cneius Papirius,) a nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, was a general and a partisan of Marius in the 
 civil war. He was chosen consul, with China for his 
 colleague, in 86 B.C., and raised forces as fast as possible 
 to resist Sulla, who was expected to return soon from 
 the East. Carbo was again elected consul for the year 
 82, after the return of Sulla and after several indecisive 
 battles had been fought. In one of these, Carbo and 
 Sulla commanded the respective armies at Clusium. 
 Soon after that action Carbo was defeated by Metellus 
 at Faventia, and fled to Africa. Having been taken 
 prisoner, he was put to death, by order of Pompey, in 
 82 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Sulla" and " Pompey.' 
 
 Carbon de Flins. See Flins. 
 
 Carbouara, kaR-bo-na'ra, (Luigi,) Count, an Italian 
 judge, born at Genoa in 1753. In 1803 he was chosen 
 judge of 'the supreme tribunal of the Ligurian republic, 
 
 a,e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CARBONDALA 
 
 5'7 
 
 CARDUCCI 
 
 and in 1805 president of the court of appeal. He be- 
 came a senator and count of the French empire in 1809. 
 After the restoration of the Sardinian king, he was presi- 
 dent of the supreme court at Genoa. Died in 1826. 
 
 Carboudala, kaR-bon-da'la, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 surgeon and physician, was born at Santhio, and prac- 
 tised about 1270-1300 at Cremona, Pavia, and Verona. 
 He was professor at Verona in 1298, and wrote a treatise 
 called " De Operatione Manuali." 
 
 Carbone, kaR-bo'na, (Giovanni Bernardo,) an ex- 
 cellent painter of portraits and history, born at Albaro, 
 near Genoa, in 1614. He painted some frescos in Genoa. 
 " His portraits," says Lanzi, " have been mistaken for 
 the works of Van Dyck." Died in 1683. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Carbone, (Luigi,) a Latin poet and orator, born at 
 Ferrara in 1436; died in 1482. 
 
 Carburi See Carburis. 
 
 Car-bu'ris or Carburi, kaR-boo'ree, (John Baptist,) 
 a Greek physician of high reputation, born at Cepha- 
 lonia, was professor of medicine at Turin from 1750 to 
 1770. About the latter date he accompanied the Count- 
 ess of Artois to France, where he was appointed phy- 
 sician to the royal family. Died at Padua in 1801. 
 
 Carburis or Carburi, (Marco,) Count, a chemist, 
 brother of the preceding, born in Cephalonia in 1731 ; 
 died in 1808. 
 
 Carburis or Carburi, (Marino,) Count, a Greek 
 engineer, born in Cephalonia, was noted for his mechan- 
 ical skill. He went to Russia, assumed the name of 
 Lascaris, and became an officer in the army. He dis- 
 tinguished himself by transporting to the capital, in 
 1769, an enormous mass of granite, which supports the 
 equestrian statue of Peter the Great. Having returned 
 to his native place, he was killed there, in 1782, by his 
 own workmen, who broke into his house in the night 
 to rob him. 
 
 See Mazurakis, "Vies des Hommes illustres de Cephalonie." 
 
 Carcano, kaR-ka'no, (Francesco,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Milan in 1733, published several esteemed works 
 in prose and verse. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Corniani, "Elogio del Cavaliere F. Carcano," 1795. 
 
 Carcano, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian physician 
 and writer, who was for many years professor in the 
 University of Pavia, and is said to have made some 
 important discoveries in anatomy. 
 
 Carcano, (Ignazio,) an Italian physician, grandson 
 of the preceding, born at Milan in 1682 ; died in 1730. 
 
 CarcaTi, de, deh kin'kS've', (Pierre,) a French 
 lawyer and bibliographer, born in Lyons. He became a 
 resident of Paris, and a friend of Pascal and Descartes. 
 In 1663 Colbert gave him the charge of the Royal Library. 
 He was one of the first members of the Academy of 
 Sciences, into which he was admitted as a mathematician. 
 Died in 1684. 
 
 See Baillet, "Vie de Descartes." 
 
 Car'91-nus, [Kap/avoc,) an Athenian tragic poet, lived 
 about 375 B.C. Only fragments of his works are extant. 
 
 Cardan, kar'dan, [Fr. pron. kiR'dfiN'; Ger. kaR-dan'; 
 It. Cakdano, kaR-da'no; Lat. Carda'nus,] (Jerome,) 
 an Italian physician, mathematician, and author, cele- 
 brated for his science, self-conceit, and absurd vagaries, 
 was born at Pavia in 1501. He graduated as doctor of 
 medicine at Padua in 1525, and successively professed 
 mathematics and medicine at Milan and Bologna. His 
 reputation as a physician was very extensive. In 1552 
 he visited Scotland, to attend the Archbishop of Saint 
 Andrew's, whom he cured. A few of the last years 
 of his life were passed in Rome, where he received a 
 pension from the pope. He dealt much in astrology, 
 and was a professed adept in magical arts. Among his 
 numerous writings are " Ars Magna," a treatise on alge- 
 bra, "On the Subtilty of Things," ("De Rerum Sub- 
 tilitate,") "On the Variety of Things," ("De Rerum 
 Varietate,") a "Life of Himself," ("De Vita propria,") 
 and several medical treatises. His durable reputation 
 is founded on his discoveries in algebra. In 1545 he 
 published in his "Ars Magna" a method of solving 
 equations of the third degree, which is known by the 
 name of "Cardan's Formula;" but he is said to have 
 
 obtained this from Tartaglia by unfair means. He was 
 the first that noticed negative roots ; and he made other 
 discoveries. "Cardan," says Hallam, "made a great 
 epoch in the science of algebra." Died at Rome in 1576. 
 See Crossi.ey, " Life and Times of Cardan," 1836; H. Morley, 
 "Life of Cardan," 18^4: Cardan, "De Vila propria," 1643; Ten- 
 nemann, "History oj Philosophy;" Bayle, "Historical and Criti- 
 cal Dictionary;" "Nouvelle liiographie Ge^ieVale;" "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for June, 1854. 
 
 Cardano or Cardanus. See Cardan. 
 
 Car'der, (Peter,) Captain, an English mariner, 
 served under Drake, who, after passing through the 
 Strait of Magellan, (1586,) sent back Carder to report 
 his progress. He was wrecked in this homeward voyage, 
 and after much suffering reached England. 
 
 Cardi. See Cigoli, (Ludovico.) 
 
 Car'dl-gan, (James Thomas Bru'denell,) Earl 
 OF, a British general, son of the Earl of Cardigan, born 
 in 1797. He bore the title of Lord Brudenell before 
 the death of his father, (1837,) on which event he en- 
 tered the House of Lords. After passing through the 
 inferior grades with distinction, he was appointed major- 
 general in 1854, and commanded the light cavalry in the 
 Crimean war. His charge at the battle of Balaklava 
 (October, 1854) attracted great applause as a demon- 
 stration of reckless courage. Died in April, 1868. 
 
 Cardini, kaR-dee'nee, (Ignazio,) a Corsjcan naturalist, 
 born at Mariana in 1562; died about 1600. The monks, 
 whom he had satirized, burned nearly all the copies of a 
 scientific work he had written. 
 
 Cardon, kir'doN', (Antoine,) a skilful Flemish en- 
 graver, born at Brussels in 1772. In 1792 he settled in 
 London, where he was employed to engrave the works 
 of Rubens and other masters. Dietl in 1813. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Cardona, de, da kaR-do'na, or Cardone, de, da kaR- 
 do'na, (Raimund,) a Spanish general, was appointed 
 Viceroy of Naples by Ferdinand the Catholic in 1509. 
 He was defeated by the French at the great battle of 
 Ravenna in 1512. Afterwards he was sent to chastise 
 the Florentines and Venetians, whom he treated with 
 great cruelty. He was Viceroy of Naples for some time 
 during the reign of Charles V. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Cardonne, kiR'don', (Denis Dominique,) a French 
 Orientalist, born in Paris in 1720. He passed twenty 
 years in Constantinople, where he acquired an exten- 
 sive knowledge of the Oriental languages and customs. 
 After his return, he was professor of Persian and Turk- 
 ish in the Royal College, interpreter to the king, royal 
 censor, etc. He published a "History of Africa and 
 Spain under the Saracens," and a successful work en- 
 titled " Melanges of Oriental Literature," selected and 
 translated from Arabic and Persian authors. Died in 
 
 1783. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Cardoso, kaR-do'so, (Isaac,) a learned Portuguese 
 Jew and physician, born about 1620, was one of the 
 so-called "compulsory Christians," and practised medi- 
 cine with great success at Madrid. He afterwards re- 
 nounced the Christian faith, and removed to Italy. Died 
 about 1690. 
 
 Cardoso, (Jorge,) an eminent Portuguese author 
 and priest, born in 1606. He wrote "Lives of Portu- 
 guese Saints," etc., (1651-57,) which is much esteemed 
 Died in 1669. 
 
 Car-do'zo, (Isaac N.,) an American journalist, born 
 at Savannah, Georgia, in 1786, was editor of the "South- 
 ern Patriot," and other journals, in which he advocated 
 free trade. He published " Notes on Political Economy," 
 (1826.) 
 
 Cardross, Lord. See Erskine, (Henry,.) and Ers- 
 kine, (David.) 
 
 Carducci, kaR-doot'chee, or Carduccio, kaR-doot'- 
 cho, in Spanish Carducho, (Bartolommeo,) a skilful 
 Florentine painter in fresco and oil, was born in 1560. 
 He was a pupil of Zucchero, whom lie accompanied to 
 Spain. There he was patronized by Philip II., for whom 
 he painted frescos in the Escuiial and pictures for the 
 palace in Madrid. His most admired production is a 
 " Descent from the Cross," which is in a church of 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; <;, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (K^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CARDUCCIO 
 
 518 
 
 CARET 
 
 Madrid. After the death of Philip II. he passed into the 
 service of his successor. Died in 1610. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;"TiCOZZI, "Dizionario." 
 
 Carduccio, (Vincenzo,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was an eminent artist, and became painter to Philip III. 
 in 1609. He was the head of a flourishing school, and 
 contributed much to promote the arts in Spain. He 
 painted a gallery in the royal palace of Pardo, and wrote 
 a "Treatise on the Nature and Dignity of Painting," 
 which is highly commended. His illustrations of the 
 life of Saint Bruno are esteemed his best works. Died 
 in 1638. 
 
 See LANZI, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Ticozzt, " Dizionario." 
 
 Carducho, the Spanish spelling of Carduccio. See 
 Carducci. 
 
 Card'well, (Edward,) D.D., an English divine, born 
 in 1787. He became principal of Saint Alban's Hall, 
 Oxford, in 1831.- He published several important works, 
 among which are " Documentary Annals of the Reformed 
 Church of England," (1839,) and " Synodalia," (Oxford, 
 1842.) He delivered at Oxford a series of lectures on 
 the coinage of the Greeks and Romans, which were 
 published in 1832, and edited Aristotle's "Ethics." 
 Died in 186 1. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1843; "Gentle- 
 man's Magazine" -for August, 1861. 
 
 Cardwell, (Edward,) an English statesman, nephew 
 of the preceding, was born at Liverpool in 1813. He 
 studied law, and was called to the bar in 1838. He 
 was returned to Parliament in 1842, and was appointed 
 secretary of the treasury in 1845. From 1S52 to 1855 
 he was president of % the Board of Trade, and since the 
 former date has represented Oxford in Parliament. He 
 was attached to the Peelite party while it existed. In 
 1859 he accepted office in the Liberal ministry of Pal- 
 merston, as secretary of Ireland. He was appointed 
 chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in July, 1861, retain- 
 ing his seat in the cabinet. On the 4th of April, 1864, he 
 became secretary of state for the colonies. He resigned 
 with his colleagues in June, 1866, and was appointed 
 secretary of war by Mr. Gladstone in December, 1868. 
 
 Garegna, kd-ren'ya or ka-r&n'ya, (Gabriel,) a learned 
 physician, born probably in Italy, wrote a compendium 
 of the various questions connected with medical science, 
 published at Bordeaux in 1520. 
 
 Carel de Saint-Garde, ki'rSl' deh saN'giRd', (Jac- 
 ques,) a French poet, born at Rouen, wrote an epic 
 poem, of which Childebrand was the hero. Boileau 
 satirized him in these lines : 
 
 "Oh le plaisant projet d'un poete ignorant, 
 Qui de taut de heros va choisir Childebrand 1" 
 
 Died about 1684. 
 
 Carelli, ka-rel'lee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian as- 
 tronomer, born at Piacenza, lived about the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. He was the author of various astro- 
 nomical tables published at Venice from 1555 to 1577. 
 
 CarSme, ki'rim', (Marie Antoine,) a French adept 
 in the culinary art, was born in Paris in 1784. He be- 
 came chief cook successively to Talleyrand, the Czar 
 Alexander, and George IV. of England. He published 
 " The French Steward," " The Picturesque Pastry- 
 Cook," (" Le Patissier pittoresque,") and other works. 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 Careiio. See Carreno de Miranda. 
 
 Carera, ka-ra'ra, (Antonio Rafaello,) an Italian 
 writer, born near Milan, lived about 1650. He was the 
 autl ' ^f a satire against physicians. 
 
 Carew, ka-roo', (Bamfyldk Moore,) an English 
 adventurer, called the "King of the Beggars," was born 
 about 1692. He ran away from honie in boyhood, and 
 joined a paity of gipsies, who elected him king. Died 
 after 1758. 
 
 See Goadbv, "Life of Bamfylde M. Carew;" Wm. Russell, 
 " Eccentric Personages," 1866. 
 
 Carew, (Sir Benjamin Hallowei.l,) a British admi- 
 ral, born about 1760. His family name was Hallowell, 
 to which he added Carew in accordance with the will 
 of a relative. He became a post-captain in 1793, distin- 
 guished himself at the battle of the Nile in 1798, and 
 was taken prisoner by the French in 1801. He was 
 
 made a rear-admiral in 181 1, and was employed in the 
 Mediterranean until the peace of 1815. In 1830 he ob- 
 tained the rank of a full admiral. Died in 1834. 
 
 Carew, (George,) Earl of Totness, and Baron Carew, 
 a British general, born in 1557. In the wars against the 
 Irish rebels he rose to the rank of lieutenant-general and 
 master of ordnance, and about 1600 was appointed one 
 of the lords justices of Ireland. By his courage and pru- 
 dence he suppressed a formidable revolt, and repulsed 
 a Spanish invasion. He was created Earl of Totness in 
 1625. A work called " Pacata Hibeniia" ("Ireland 
 Pacified") is ascribed to him. Died in 1629. 
 
 See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Carew, (Sir George,) an English diplomatist, was 
 ambassador to the court of France, from which he re- 
 turned home in 1609, and addressed to the king "A 
 Relation of the State of France, with the Character of 
 Henry IV., etc." This is said to be an excellent per- 
 formance. Died about 1612. 
 
 See Wood, "Athense Oxonienses." 
 
 Carew, (Sir Nicholas,) an English courtier, was re- 
 lated to Queen Anne Boleyn. He became a favourite 
 of Henry VIII., who appointed him master of the horse. 
 He was executed in 1539, on a charge of having conspired 
 with the Marquis of Exeter and others to raise Cardinal 
 Pole to the throne. 
 
 Carew, (Richard,) an English lawyer, brother of 
 Sir George, noticed above, was born in 1555. He was 
 chosen high-sheriff of Cornwall in 15S6, and a member 
 of the College of Antiquaries in 1589. He published in 
 1602 an excellent "Survey of Cornwall," and translated 
 part of Tasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata." Died in 1620. 
 
 See Wood, " Athens Oxonienses." 
 
 Carew, (Thomas,) an English nobleman and soldier, 
 born in 1368. He took part in the battle of Agincourt, 
 and other engagements with the French. 
 
 Carew, (Thomas,) an English gentleman, who fought 
 with distinction at Flodden in 1 5 13. 
 
 Carew, (Thomas,) an English poet and courtier, born 
 of a Gloucestershire family in 1589. He was a gentle- 
 man of the chamber in the court of Charles I., and wrote 
 sonnets and other short poems, which rendered him a 
 favourite of the literary and fashionable world. " Among 
 the poets that have walked in the same limited path," 
 says Thomas Campbell, "he is pre-eminently beautiful." 
 Died in 1639. 
 
 See Cibbek, "Lives of the Poets;" "Retrospective Review," vol. 
 vi., 1822: "London Quarterly Review" for August, 1S10. 
 
 Carey, (Alice.) See Cary. 
 
 Ca'rey, (George Saville,) an English song-writer, 
 born alwut 1 743, was the son of Henry Carey, whose 
 musical talents he inherited. He supported himself by 
 entertaining the public in different towns with songs 
 composed and sung by himself. It is said that he never 
 trespassed against decorum or morality. Died in 1807. 
 
 Carey, (Henry,) Earl of Monmouth, born in 1596, 
 was the son of Robert, first Earl of Monmouth, whose 
 title he inherited in 1639. He was learned in modern 
 languages, and published manv translations, among which 
 are " Romulus and Tarquin," by Malvezzi, (1637,) " His- 
 torical Relations of the United Provinces," by Benti- 
 voglio, (1652,) and "The History of Venice," by Parata, 
 (1658.) Died in 1661. 
 
 Carey, (Henry,) an English poet and musician, was 
 supposed to be the natural son of G. Saville, Marquis of 
 Halifax. He composed the words and music of several 
 popular songs, and wrote farces and other works, among 
 which are "The Contrivances," and "The Musical Cen- 
 tury." He killed himself in 1743. George S. Carey, 
 noticed above, was his son. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" Macaulay, 
 "History of England," vol. iv. chap. xx. 
 
 Ca'rey, (Henry C.,) an eminent American political 
 economist, son of Mathew Carey, noticed below, was 
 born in Philadelphia in December, 1793. He was trained 
 to business in the publishing-house of his father, whom 
 he succeeded in 1821, as the head of the firm of Carey 
 & Lea. In 1824 he initiated the practice of periodical 
 trade-sales as a medium of exchange between booksellers. 
 He retired from mercantile business about 1836, and 
 published in that year an " Essay on the Rate of Wages," 
 
 a, e, I, 0, u,y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t;go6d; moon; 
 
CARET 
 
 5'9 
 
 CARLE 
 
 which he expanded into "The Principles of Political 
 Economy," (3 vols., 1837-40.) This work attracted much 
 attention in Europe, and was translated into Italian and 
 Swedish. He advocates a tariff for the protection of 
 domestic manufactures, and maintains that the real in- 
 terests of classes are not antagonistic. He produced in 
 1S38 "The Credit System in France, Great Britain, and 
 the United States," and in 1848 a valuable work entitled 
 "The Past, the Present, and the Future," in which he 
 presents some new ideas on the progress of agriculture, 
 ■s, and society, and controverts the opinions of Mal- 
 ihus and Ricardo. Among his other important works 
 aie "The Harmony of Interests, Agricultural, Manufac- 
 turing, and Commercial," and "The Principles of Social 
 Science," (3 vols., 1858-59.) He is recognized as the 
 iler of a new school of political economy, which sub- 
 stitutes for the "dismal science" of Malthus and Ricardo 
 a philosophy of physical, social, and political progress. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Ca'rey, (John,) LL.D., an Irish scholar, who pub- 
 lished many educational works. He edited fifty volumes 
 of the "Regent's Classics," also "Ainsworth's Latin 
 Dictionary," and " Schleusner's Greek Lexicon." He 
 translated" some useful works from the French and Ger- 
 man. Died in 1829. 
 
 Carey, (Mathew,) a distinguished bookseller and 
 writer, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1760, learned the trade 
 of printer, and emigrated to Philadelphia in 1784. He 
 founded "The Pennsylvania Herald" in 1785, and pub- 
 lished "The American Museum" from 1787 to 1793. He 
 took a prominent part in political affairs, wrote numerous 
 pamphlets, and advocated the United States Bank. To 
 moderate the violence of party spirit, he produced " The 
 Olive - Branch," which passed through ten editions. 
 Among his works are "Essays on Political Economy," 
 and many pamphlets in advocacy of a protective tariff. 
 He was an influential and much-respected citizen. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 See "Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement ;) Hunt's "Lives 
 of American Merchants," vol. i., 1858. 
 
 Carey or Ca'rjf, (Robert,) first Earl of Monmouth, 
 a British peer, born about t56o, was a relative of Queen 
 Elizabeth, and father of Henry Carey, noticed above. 
 He left manuscript memoirs of his own life, which were 
 published in 1759 by the Earl of Cork and Orrery. Died 
 in 1639. 
 
 Carey, (William,) D.D., an English Orientalist and 
 Baptist missionary, was born in Northamptonshire in 
 1 76 1. He went to India in 1794, laboured a few years 
 in Bengal, founded the Serampore mission, and about 
 1800 became professor of the Sanscrit, Bengalee, and 
 Mahr.itta languages at the College of Fort William. 
 He published a "Sanscrit Grammar," a "Bengalee- 
 English Dictionary," and several other works. He and 
 his associates translated the Bible into Bengalee and 
 many other Oriental dialects. He was a member of 
 the Asiatic Society. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Marshman. "Life of W. Carey," 1S59; Eustace Carey, 
 " Memoir of the Rev. W. Carey," 1836. 
 
 Carey, (William Paulett,) an Irish writer and 
 critic, brother of Mathew Carey, noticed above, was born 
 in 1768. He became a resident of England, and was an 
 able advocate of political reform. He wrote critical and 
 poetical articles for several periodicals. Died in 1839. 
 
 Carez, ki'ra', (Joseph,) a French printer of Toul, who 
 made improvements in the process of stereotype printing, 
 and is said to be the inventor of clichage, by which he 
 printed a book in 1786. Died in 1801. 
 
 Car'gill, (Donald,) a zealous and uncompromising 
 Scottish Covenanter, was born in Perthshire about 1610. 
 He became minister of a parish in Glasgow, and on the 
 restoration in 1660 refused to conform to the new eccle- 
 siastical regulations. He afterwards refused to accept 
 the indulgence, and was a partisan of Richard Cameron 
 when the latter took arms against the king in 1680. Car- 
 gill was executed for treason in i68t. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Caribert See Charobert. 
 
 Car'I-bert [Fr.pron, kS're'baiK'; Lat. Cariber'tus] 
 L, the eldest son of Clotaire I., became King of Paris in 
 561. Died in 567 A.D. 
 
 Caribert II., a son of Clotaire II., and a youngei 
 brother of Dagobert, became King of Aquitaine in 629. 
 Died in 631 A.D. 
 
 Carignauo, ka-ren-ya'no, [Fr. Carignan, kS'ren'- 
 y6.N',] (Charles Emmanuel Ferdinand Joseph Ma- 
 rie,) Prince of, the only son of Victor Amadeus, was 
 born at Turin in 1770. He was taken to France as a 
 hostage in 1799, and died there in 1800, leaving a son, 
 Charles Albert, who became King of Sardinia in 1831. 
 
 Carignano, |Fr. Carignan,] (Thomas Francis de 
 Savoy,) Prince or, born in 1596, was a younger son 
 of Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy. About 1635 he 
 obtained the command of the Spanish army in the Low 
 Countries, and was defeated by the French at Avesncs. 
 lie took arms, against the widow of Victor Amadeus (his 
 sister-in-law) in 1639, and expelled her from Turin, but 
 was reconciled with her in 1642. He was then appointed 
 general-in-chief of the French and Savoyard armies 
 in Italy, and defeated the Spaniards at Mora in 1645. 
 In 1654 he was made grand master or high-steward of 
 France. He died in 1656, leaving two sons, — Emmanuel, 
 who became Prince of Carignano, and Eugene Maurice, 
 who was the father of the famous Prince Eugene. 
 
 See SctOPIS, " Documenti intorno alia Vita di T. F. Principe tie 
 Carignano," 1832; Ersch uikIGruber, " AllgemeineEncyWopaedie." 
 
 Carillo, ka-rel'yo, (Alfonso,) a Spanish prelate, born 
 at Cuenca in the second half of the fourteenth century.. 
 was made a cardinal by the anti-pope Benedict XIII. in 
 1409. Died in 1434. 
 
 Carillo, (Braulio,) an able statesman of Central 
 America, born at Cartago in 1800, became Dictator of 
 Costa Rica in 1838. He was assassinated in 1845. 
 
 Carillo d'Acunha, ka-rel'yo ( ? ) da-koon'ya, (Al- 
 phonso,) an ambitious Spanish prelate, of Portuguese 
 descent. He became Archbishop of Toledo in 1446, and 
 was afterwards chief minister of Henry IV. of Castile, 
 who began to reign in 1454. He rebelled against that 
 king in 1465, took an active part in the civil war that 
 ensued, and was the master-spirit of the party of Isabella 
 of Castile. After her accession in 1474 he changed sides, 
 and fought for Joanna until 1478, when he submitted to 
 the successful party. Died in 1482. 
 
 See Mariana, "Historia de Espana." 
 
 Carin. See Carinus. , 
 
 Ca-rl'nus, [Fr. Carin, k3'raN',] (Marcus Aure- 
 lius,) a Roman emperor, eldest son of the emperor 
 Carus, who committed to him the government of Italy, 
 Africa, and the West, when he set out on an expedition 
 against Persia in 283 A.D. Carus died, or was killed, in 
 284, soon after which Diocletian was chosen emperoi 
 by the army in the East. A battle was fought between 
 Carinus and his rival near Margum, in Mcesia, in which 
 the latter was successful, and Carinus, who was detested 
 for his cruelty, was killed by his own soldiers in 285. 
 
 See Vopircus, "Carinus;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire." 
 
 Carissimi, ka-res'se-mee or ka-ris'se-mee, (Giacomo 
 or Giovanni Giacomo,) one of the greatest composers 
 of his time, was born at Venice about 1582. He was 
 the first who employed cantatas for religious subjects; 
 and he made other reforms in .sacred music. His motets 
 and cantatas are very celebrated. He was appointed 
 master of the pontifical chapel in Rome about 1649. 
 " The Sacrifice of Jephthah" is called his master-piece. 
 He formed many eminent pupils, among whom was 
 Alessandro Scarlatti. Died in or after 1672. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Cariteo, ka-re-ta'o, an Italian poet, was born at Barce- 
 lona, and lived at Naples, I If was a friend of S.umazar, 
 and manifested his devotion to the house of Aragon by 
 several odes. He died before 1509. 
 
 Carl, kai<l, (JoHANN Samuel,) a learned German, 
 born at Oehringen in 1676, was appointed first physician 
 to Christian VI. of Denmark in 1736. He published 
 "Medietas Universalis," (1740,) a treatise "On the Use 
 and Abuse of Bleeding," and many other medical works. 
 Died in 1757. 
 
 See Bornkk! " Jetztlebendc Aerzle." 
 
 Carl der Grosse. See Charlemagne. 
 Carle, kSRl, (Pierre,) a French engineer, born in 
 the Cevennes in 1666. He entered in 1688 the service 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jiy-See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
CJRLES 
 
 520 
 
 CJRLOMJX 
 
 of Williaa of Orange, who employed him as engineer - 
 in several campaigns. About 1701 he passed into the ' 
 service of Portugal, and in the war of the Spanish sac- < 
 ce ssio n became lieutenant genera l, and chief engineer ; 
 of the King of Portugal. In 1720 he retired to London, 
 where be died in 1750. 
 
 Carlen. tax-Ian', almost kaR-lnn', (Emtxje Flyg are. ) 
 a popular Swedish novel-writer, whose maiden name was 
 Schmidt, (shmit,) born at Stockholm about 1S0S. She 
 was married to Mr. Carlen, a lawrer of Stockholm, 
 in 1S4.1, after the publication of her' first novel, " Wal- 
 deraar Klein,'' which had a decided success. She 
 has since written "The Professor," "The Rose of Tk- 
 tetba," (" Thistle-Island,'* 1844,) "Home in the Valley," 
 ("Famiber i Dalen," 1850,) and other aovels derm- 
 eating Swedish file. They have been translated into 
 Eagfish, and have acquired popularity in England and 
 America. 
 
 S« Bbookhabs, ~C*m*erat*m\ li iH«m;" W. and M Hanrr, 
 ~ I ill 1 mi ad ITimmh at Xonbera Europe," 1S5X, mi. i. pp. 
 456-60. 
 
 Carleson, kaR Teh-son, (Eduard,) a Swedish diplo- 
 matist and economist, born at Stockholm in 1704. He 
 was appointed secretary of foreign affairs in 1757, and 
 president of the council of commerce in 1762. He wrote 
 "Travels in Palestine," (1768,) and other works. Died 
 011767. 
 
 S« G»zsugs." Ittu^Jtj bi Jct - l<-T*i» :" A- Sokwx Mac, * *!< ■■■ 
 ■else-Tai after E. Cartoon," 1767. 
 
 Carleson. (Karl,) a Swedish jurist, economist, and 
 writer, brother of the preceding, was born at Stockholm 
 in 1703. He was one of the editors of the "Svenska 
 Argus," a useful literary periodical, and wrote a " Dic- 
 tionary of Economy," and other works. In 1757 he was 
 appointed secretary of state. Died in 1 761. 
 
 SttGczzurs.-Biocn|ihaki-Leiika>r P. WAjrcanrrw, "Awin- 
 ■eae-Tai oircr C CritM," 1763. 
 
 Carleton. karFton. (Sir Dudley.) Lord Dorchester, 
 aa English statesman, born in Oxfordshire in 1573. He 
 was sent as ambassador to Venice in 1610. to Holland in 
 1616, and to France in 1625. In 1628 Charles I. created 
 him Viscount Dorchester, and made him secretary of 
 state. He wrote several political tracts. Died in 1631. 
 
 Carleton, (George.) a learned English bishop, born 
 at Norham Castle, of which his father was governor. He 
 was seat by James I. to the Synod of Don in 1618, and 
 appointed Bishop of Chichester in 1619. He wrote many 
 works on theology and other subjects, among which are 
 a treatise against Astrologv, and one " On Jurisdiction, 
 Regal. Episcopal, etc" Died m 1628. 
 
 Car leto n, (Captain George.) wrote ■ Memoirs of an 
 Eagfish Omccr," (1728.) which hare some historical 
 value, and were once attributed to Defoe or Swift. 
 
 Carleton, (Sir Gcv.l Lord Dorchester, a British 
 general, born at Strabane, Ireland, hi 1724. After serving 
 several years in America, he obtained the rank of major- 
 general m 1772, and was made governor of Quebec, which 
 he defended against the Americans m December, 1775. 
 The next year he commanded the army which invaded 
 New Yorki and fought with Arnold on Lake Cham plain. 
 In 1777 be was superseded by General Burgoyne. He 
 was appointed commander-in-chief, vice Sir Henry Clin- 
 ton, in 1 781, and, when the peace was cone! uded, returned 
 to England. In 1787 he received the title of Lord Dor- 
 chester. Died in 1808. 
 
 See B/uscaorr's "Hkioryrf the Cnhed Sons." 
 
 Carleton, (James Henry,* an American officer, born 
 in Maine, served m the Mexican war, and, soon after the 
 breaking out of the rebellion of 1S61, became brigadier- 
 general of volunteers. 
 
 Carleton, (William,) an eminent Jrish novelist, born 
 at Clogher, Tyrone county, in 179S. He pwbnsbed. in 
 1830, " Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry," which 
 had great success. After that time be resided in Dublin, 
 and produced "Fardorougha the Miser," (1839,) "The 
 Fawn of Spring Vale," (1841,) "Willie ReDry," (1855,) 
 and other popular novels. " Mr. Carleton has caught 
 most accurately the lights and shades of Irish life. His 
 tales are fall of rigorous, picturesque description and 
 genuine pathos." ("London Quarterly Review" for 
 October, 1841.) Died in i860. 
 
 Carlettt kaR-let'tee, (Francesco.) a Florentine tra- 
 veller, who between 1597 and 1601 visited India, China, 
 and Japan. Having returned to Florence, be was ap- 
 pointed steward by the duke, Ferdinand I., and wrote a 
 narrative of his travels, which was afterwards printed 
 
 Carletto. See Cagliarl. (Carlo.) 
 
 Carli or Carli Rubbi, kaRlee roobTiee, (Giam Rl- 
 naldo,) Count, an Italian political economist and anti- 
 quary, born at Capo d'lstria in 1720. He became learned 
 in the exact sciences and ancient languages. The Vene- 
 tian seriate founded a chair of astronomy and nautical 
 science, of which Carli was professor from 1744 to 175a 
 After devoting several years to researches respecting 
 coins and currency, be published in 1 754 the first volume 
 of his important work on that subject," Ot Italian Moneys, 
 (or Coins,) and of the Institution of Mints in Italy," 
 (" Delle Monete e delle Istituzione delle Zecche d'ltalii") 
 This work made a great sensation in Italy, and its prin- 
 ciples were adopted by the courts of Milan and Turin. 
 The court of Vienna having formed at Milan a supreme 
 council of commerce and public economy, Carli was 
 appointed its president. About 1780 he produced two 
 remarkable works, an ■ Essay on the Natural and Civil 
 Liberty of Man," and "American Letters," which treat 
 of the antiquities of the New World. His "Antichita 
 Italiche" ("Italian Antiquities," 17S8) was very success- 
 ful, and secured for him among antiquaries a rank equal 
 to that which be bad attained among political economists. 
 He was author of various other works. Died in 1795. 
 
 See Boss. "Eiogio Banco di Gnu Rinakio. Cani :" TirALOO, 
 " Bicgraiia dega ItaHani iBusari :" " XoareBe Biographic Geoeraie." 
 
 Carlier, kiRle-i', (Claude,) a French writer, bom 
 at Verberie in 1725. He studied natural history in 
 relation to rural economy, especially to the business of 
 wool-growing. He furnished many articles to the "Jour- 
 nal des Savants," and wrote a " History of the Duchy of 
 Valois," and several treatises on the method of raising 
 sheep and on the production of wool. Died in 1787. 
 
 CarTin, (Thomas,) bom in Kentucky in 1 790, removed 
 to Illinois in 1813. He was elected Governor of Illinois 
 in 1838, and was re-elected several times. Died m 1852. 
 
 CarTing-ford, (Theobald Taafe — taf,) Earl of, a 
 general who rendered important services to Charles I. 
 bv his efforts to suppress the rebellion in Ireland about 
 1640-46. Died in 1677. 
 
 Caxlino. kaR-lee'no, [Fr. Carlin, kaVlas',] (Carlo 
 Antonio Berrinaxxi — biR-te-nat'see,) a noted comic 
 actor, bom at Turin in 1713 ; died in Paris in 
 
 Carlisle, kar-!il', (Sir Anthony. I an eminent English 
 surgeon, bora near Durham in 1768. He went to Lon- 
 don to complete his education, and attended the lectures 
 of John and William Hunter. He became a member 
 of the College of Surgeons, professor of surgery and 
 anatomv in London, and surgeon-extraordinary to the 
 prince-regent, (George IV.) In 1800 he was chosen a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, to which he contributed 
 several treatises on physiology, etc. From, 1808 to 1825 
 he lectured on anatomv in the Roval Academy, and in 
 1S29 was chosen president of the College of Surgeons. 
 He published numerous and able treatises on anatomy, 
 and on various sciences connected with medicine, also 
 one on "Galvanic Electricity." Died in 1840. 
 
 Carlisle, Earl of. See Howard, (Charles, Fred- 
 erick, and George William Frederick.) 
 
 Carlisle, (Isabella Byron,) Countess of, bom in 
 1721, was the daughter of William, fifth Lord Byron, 
 and first-cousin to the poet Byron's father. In 1743 she 
 was married to Henry Howard, fourth Earl of Carlisle, 
 by whom she had a son Frederick, who was a poet Died 
 
 m 1795- 
 
 CarUsle, (Nicholas,) a British writer and antiquary, 
 born in 1771. He published topographical dictionaries 
 of England, of Ireland, and of Scotland, which are said 
 to be valuable and accurate. Died in 1847. 
 
 Carlo Alberto. See Charles Albert. 
 
 Carlo Magno. See Charlemagne. 
 
 Carlo Quinto. See Charles V., (of Germany.) 
 
 Car'lo-man or Karloman, [Fr. pron. ktR'lo'moN',] 
 a French prince, was the son of Charles Martel, and 
 elder brother of Pepin le Bref. At his father's death in 
 741 A.D., he obtained for his share Australia. Suabia, 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, S, y, bug; a, i. 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, $ , slurt; a, e, j, o, «^r,f; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CJRLOMAS 
 
 *2I 
 
 CJRLrLE 
 
 and Thuringia. After fighting for these , 
 with the AUcmanni (or Germans* and others, he 
 nounced his principality in fcivooi of Pepin, went to 
 Rome in 747, and became a monk. Died in 755. 
 
 See Sismonx, * Hklarc des Fraacaa." 
 
 Caxloman, the son of Pepin le Bref, and brother of 
 Charlemagne, was born in 751 A.D. At the death of his 
 father, in 768, he became King of Xeustria, Burgundy, 
 and part of Aquitaine or Sooth GanL He died in 771, 
 tearing two sons; but Charlemagne obtained the do- 
 minions of his brother. 
 
 See Sbmcwo*, " Hmnire des Frxacai*." 
 
 Caxloman, a Carlovingian prince of the Franks, was 
 the son of Louis le Begot In S79 A.11. he was crowned 
 King of Aquitaine and of part of Burgundy, while his 
 brother, Louis IIL, obtained Xeustria, etc. They lived 
 in amity, and their united arms were victorious over the 
 Normans and other foes. He died without issue in 884. 
 
 See SisMcatDC, " Hwtnrn! des Fi w^lii " 
 
 Carloni, kaK-k/nce, written also Carlone and Car- 
 Ion, (Giovanni,) an eminent Genoese painter, born in 
 1591. He adorned the churches of Genoa with frescos, 
 which are greatly admired, and worked also in Florence 
 and Milan. He excelled in brilliancy of colour, facility of 
 composition, and grace of design. Died at Milan in 1630. 
 
 Carloni or Carlone, (Giovanni Battista,) a brother 
 of the preceding, born about 1595, was an excellent 
 painter, especially in fresco. The finest works of the 
 two brothers (who often worked together) are frescos 
 in die church of the Annunriata in Genoa. The com- 
 positions are rich and original, and the colours remark- 
 ably splendid. The works of these brothers are similar, 
 but those of G. Battista are superior in some respects. 
 He died in 16S0, leaving two sons, Giovanni Andrea and 
 Niccolo, who were painters, but not equal to their father. 
 Andrea was born in 1639, and died in 1697. 
 
 See Tkuzo, " Dbaaaario f Laxzi, " Hbsumt rf haig ia It*." 
 
 Carlos, [Spanish proa, ka&los,] Don, Infante of 
 Spain, born at VaBadoHd in 1543, was the son and heir- 
 apparent of Philip II. and Maria of Portugal. At an early 
 age be manifested a violent and unhappy temper, which 
 his education did not improve. His physical umstkuti on 
 was also diseased, and his reason was perhaps affected 
 by a fit of sickness in his youth. It is said ihat.be was 
 offended at his father because be married Elizabeth of 
 France after having negotiated a proposal of marriage 
 between Carlos and that princess. Carlos attempted to 
 strike the Duke of Alva with a poniard in 1367; but the 
 blow was warded off. The suspicious king, imagining 
 that Carlos had conspired against him, ordered his son 
 to be arrested and judged by the Inquisition. His fate 
 is involved in mystery. Many historians think be was 
 executed, by order of his father, in 156S; others, that he 
 died of disease in prison. His life has furnished Alfieri, 
 Schiller, and others with the subject for a tragedy. 
 
 See LcBHCumu. " Rebnio Vox Uansqae CaraS fajaatk." 
 1713: Si:\- Rkm. -Hiaoeie de Don Carios.-" PzEscorr, ** His- 
 tory of Pfciip 11 .." roSs- L audi. 
 
 Carlos of Bourbon, (boor'bon,) Don, Count dc 
 Molina, (da m<>ice'na.) born in 17S8, was the second 
 son of Charles IV., King of Spain. During the French 
 empire be was detained in France from 1808 to 1813, when 
 he returned to Spain. He was heir-presumpove to the 
 throne of his brother, Ferdinand VII.. until the latter 
 became a father by the birth of Isabella in 1830. The 
 decree of the king settled the succession on his daughter, 
 though the Cortes some years before had restored the 
 Salic law, which excludes females from the throne. At 
 the death of Ferdinand, in 1833, a civil war broke out 
 between the partisans of Isabella and Carlos. The fatter 
 was the favourite of the priests and absolutists. In 1839 
 the Carlist army was compelled to surrender to Espar- 
 tero. who fought for the queen, and Don Carlos escaped 
 to France. (See Isabella.) He abdicated his claim in 
 -1 favour of his son, Don Carlos Luis Maria Fer- 
 nando, Count de Montemofin. Died in 1855. 
 
 See Da UK Yalus. "Career of Dob Carlos sam the Death of 
 Feadfcaad VIL," Loadam, 1S35 : Rev &una "Hiaaria de Dm 
 Carlos." i new, 1S44- 
 
 Carlos. or, more fullv. Carlos Lens Maria Fer- 
 nando, katlos loo-ess' mi-ree'a feK-nxa'do, Count de 
 
 Montemoha, (da mon-ta-mo4en', ) a son of the preceding, 
 was born in 1818. He is a pretender to the Spanish 
 throne, and a first-cousin of the late queen loh^w* Hi* 
 father abdicated in his favour hi 1845, since which the 
 Carbsts recognize the son as Carlos VL In 1848 his 
 friends attempted to renew the civil war, but were quickly 
 defeated. 
 
 See Carlstadt. 
 de Bourbon, kax-k/ti da boos-bmr*, 
 (Lcisa,) Infanta of Spain, born in 1804, was a daughter 
 of Francis L, King of the Two Sicilies, and Maria Isa- 
 bella of Spain. She was an aunt of Isabella, the late 
 Queen of Spain. In 1819 she was married to Don Fran- 
 cisco de Paul, a brother of Don Carlos. Her intrigues, 
 it is said, procured the repeal of the Safic law, and the 
 s Bj ccrss ion of Isabell a m preference to Carlos. She died 
 
 in 1844, after which her son married Queen Isabella. 
 
 Carlowitx, kajtlo-wits', (Aloise Chkistcse,) Ba- 
 roness of, a French authoress, at German extraction, 
 born at Frame in 1797. She has written "Caroline," 
 < l8 33.> "The Peer of France, or the Divorce,'' (1S35J 
 and other tales. Her French version of Schiller's " His- 
 tory of the Thirty Years' War" was crowned by the 
 French Academy. 
 
 Carlstadt kajtKstit, written also Carlostadt or 
 Carolostadt, ( Andreas Bodenatein— bo'der.-stln ,) a 
 German Reformer, born in Franconia about 14S3. He 
 was pro fesso r of divinity at Wittenberg in his early life. 
 After his conversion to the doctrines of Luther be became 
 an iconoclast. About 1524 he opposed Lather in rela- 
 tion to the eucharist. Died in 1541. 
 
 See B. 8mn,"G_ )l Xy briraatu vaaiCaAri dHTehra,* 
 
 Car-rfle', (Alexander,) D.D., a Scottish Presby- 
 terian divine, born in 17ZL He was appointed —»»*««»-• 
 of Inveresk, near Edinburgh, in 1747, and became the 
 associate of Blair, Hume, John Home, and other emi- 
 nent authors. He published a number of sermons be- 
 | rwcea 1779 and 1794, and wrote memoirs of bis own 
 time, entitled " Autobiography of A. Carfyfe," (published 
 in 1S60.) Died in 1S05. 
 
 CarlYle, (Joseph Dacre.1 an Enghsfa Orientabst. 
 born at Carlisle in 1759, wasa Fellow of Queen's College, 
 Cambridge. In 1794 he was chosen professor of Arabic 
 m that university. About 1800 he went to Constanti- 
 nople as chaplain to Lord Elgin's embassy, and travelled 
 in Asia. He published "Specimens of Arabic Poetrr," 
 (1796,) and undertook a new edition of the Arabic Bible, 
 which be did not live to finish. He died in 1804, leaving a 
 number of admired poems, which were published in 1805. 
 
 Carfyie, kar^il or kar-Hl', (Thomas,) a distinguished 
 British essayist, historian, and speculative philosopher, 
 born at Eccfefechan, in Scotland, in 1795. He entered, 
 in 1809 or 1S10, the University of Edinburgh, where he 
 remained about seven years, and diMwgmsiard B| » Mil iTw* 
 in mathematics. He also became well versed m the Ger- 
 man language aad literature. Having devoted hints* If 
 to the profession of author, be contributed several bio- 
 graphical articles to the " Edinburgh Encvdopzdfa" in 
 1823. published a well-written "Life of Schaier.~(t&24,) 
 aad a translation of Goethe's - Wubehn Metster," » began 
 ia 18x4,) which attracted mack attention. About 1835 
 be married a Miss Welch, and settled oa a farm m his 
 native county. Soon after that year he began to cocrri- 
 
 bute critical essavs and bsographxal notices to the 
 
 burgh Review, 5 ' the " Foreign Quarterrv Reiica, 1 
 
 "Fraser's Magazine." In 1834 he published, z 
 
 moasly, a remarkable work, entitled "Sartor Resarrus/ 
 
 j wakh'ne p io fcsstd to have Uansla ttd from a German 
 
 j treatise on the " Philosophy of Ciothes," bv Diogenes 
 
 Teufelsdrockh. "This volume," says Alexander H. 
 
 ■ Everett, "c ontai n s , under a quaint and ^ i n g wlai form, a 
 
 great deal of deep thought, sound principle, and fine 
 
 writing. . . . The style is a sort of Babylonish dialect, 
 
 j not destitute, h is true, of richness, rigour, and at than 
 
 I a sort of fclicrtvof expression, but verv strocg'.v tinged 
 
 j through o ut with the peculiar idiom of the German bav 
 
 1 guage." ("North American Review" voL xli, October, 
 
 1^35.) " Sartor Resanus," which first appeared in" Fra- 
 
 I ser's Magazine," attained a rapid and wide popularity. 
 
 *& i: $x s: gter*; g^j; c,H,K,£Me*rrf; s,mM**J;K,triikJ; Itss; *ka*m tiit. fjySce E vpl ana tintii p.a»J 
 
CARLYLE 
 
 522 
 
 CARMONTELLE 
 
 In 1834 Mr. Carlyle removed to London, where he re- 
 sided many years. He produced in 1837 a " History of 
 the French Revolution," (3 vols.,) which was generally 
 admired. " On the whole, no work of greater genius, 
 either historical or poetical, has been produced in this 
 country for many years." (" Westminster Review" for 
 July, 1837.) Some other critics, however, express a very 
 different opinion. " Never, indeed," says " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" of July, 1843, " was history written in so mad 
 a vein, — and that not only as regards style, but the pre- 
 vailing mood of mind in which the facts and characters 
 are scanned. That mood is for the most part ironical. 
 ... In fine, turn which way you will, — to philosophy, to 
 politics, to religion, — you find Mr. Carlyle objecting, 
 denouncing, scoffing, rending all to pieces in his bold, 
 reckless, ironical manner, but teaching nothing." In 
 1839 he published "Chartism," in which he treats of the 
 social and political condition of the English. In 1840 he 
 delivered in London a course of lectures on " Heroes 
 and Hero-Worship," which were afterwards published. 
 Among his favourite heroes are Cromwell, Napoleon I., 
 Mohammed, and Frederick the Great. In 1839 or 1840 
 appeared five volumes of his essays, under the title of 
 "Miscellanies," republished from various periodicals. 
 He again assumed the character of social and political 
 reformer in his " Past and Present," (1843,) an( l " Latter- 
 Day Pamphlets," (1850.) Among the most important 
 of his later works are "Oliver Cromwell's Letters and 
 Speeches," (1845,) a "Life of John Sterling," ( 185 1,) and 
 "The Life of Frederick the Great," (4 vols., 1858-64.) 
 He has been a constant opponent of the anti-slavery 
 movement, and professes a great contempt for the African 
 race. In 1867 he denounced the new English Reform 
 Bill, and the tendency of the nations towards democracy, 
 in a strange chaotic essay called " Shooting Niagara." 
 
 Besides his excellent translations from the German, 
 Carlyle has contributed much in various ways to promote 
 a knowledge of German literature among the English ; 
 and the nation is doubtless more indebted to his efforts 
 in this respect than to those of any other single person. 
 Respecting the merit of his original productions the great- 
 est diversity of opinion, as might naturally be expected, 
 prevails among critics. Probably there never was a writer 
 to whom the saying, " Ubi bene nemo melius, ubi male 
 nemo pejus,"* could be more justly applied than to Car- 
 lyle. Not a few of his thoughts are inestimable gems, 
 (although the setting may seem rude or quaint,) and 
 nearly all his earlier works abound with passages illu- 
 minated by flashes of rare insight, or enriched with 
 important truths, which, if not always new, are at least 
 presented in such a manner as to arouse attention and 
 awaken thought. It is scarcely too much to say that no 
 other author of this century has exerted a greater influ- 
 ence not merely upon the literature, but upon the mind, 
 of the English nation, than Carlyle. But, if his merits 
 are of a high order, his defects are, in our judgment, 
 neither few nor small. Not to mention others of less 
 importance, it will be enough to instance his well-known 
 admiration for successful power, however acquired or 
 exercised, and the want of sympathy evinced by him for 
 the oppressed and down-trodden.t The glaring faults 
 of his style are more conspicuous, or at least offend us 
 more, in his later works, because unrelieved by the 
 freshness of feeling and richness of thought by which 
 his earlier writings are distinguished. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1858, and December, 
 1865 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1859 ; " Foreign Quar- 
 terly" for September, 1840; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1S59; 
 " Westminster Review" for January, 1859. For some severe but not 
 unjust strictures on Carlyle's political and moral theories, see "A 
 Letter to Thomas Carlyle," by D. A. Wasson, in the "Atlantic 
 Monthly" for October, 1863. 
 
 * "When [he writes] well, none [can write] better; when ill, none 
 worse." 
 
 t It is a consolation to believe that these moral blemishes proceed 
 from a mistaken theory rather than from an unfeeling or depraved 
 heart. Carlyle's works — at least his earlier ones — afford abundant 
 evidence that he is capable of a true and heartfelt sympathy with 
 heroic suffering ; and we can only attribute it to the influence of a false 
 moral system, or to the prejudice of race, that one who could feel such 
 compassion for the misfortunes of a Marie Antoinette, or such generous 
 admiration for the heroism of a Bouill^, should feel only an unsympa- 
 thizing contempt for the greater misfortunes and sublimer heroism of 
 a Toussaint. a 
 
 Car-ly'on, (Clement,) an English physician, born at 
 Truro in 1777, was a friend of S. T. Coleridge. He 
 practised at Truro, and published, besides other works, 
 "Early Years and Late Reflections," (4 vols., 1836-58.) 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Carmagnola, kaR-man-yo'la, [ Fr. Carmagnole, 
 kSit'min'yol',] an able Italian general, whose proper 
 name was Francesco Bussone, (fKan-ches'ko boos-so'- 
 na,) was born at Carmagnola in 1390. In the service of 
 Visconti, Duke of Milan, he rose to the chief command 
 of the army, and by his military successes restored the 
 declining power of that prince, who made him a count. 
 In 1424, Visconti, prompted by jealousy, deprived him 
 of his command. The general, who had assumed the 
 name of Carmagnola, then passed into the service of 
 Venice, which declared war against the Duke of Milan 
 in 1426. Carmagnola was chosen captain-general, and 
 defeated the Milanese army in 1427. Having suffered 
 some reverses in the ensuing campaigns, he was perfidi- 
 ously seized and executed by the Council of Ten in 1432. 
 His life is the subject of Manzoni's tragedy "II Conte di 
 Carmagnola." 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Sanuto, 
 " Vite de' Dnchi di Venezia ;" Luigi Cibrakio, " La Morte del Conte 
 di Carmagnola illustrata," etc., 1834. 
 
 Carmagnole, the French of Carmagnola, which see. 
 
 Carmarthen. See Caermarthen. 
 
 Carmath and Carmatians. See Karmat. 
 
 Carmeli, kaR-ma'lee, (Michel Angelo,) an Italian 
 monk, noted as a Hebrew and Greek scholar, was born 
 at Cittadella about 1700. He was appointed professor 
 of Oriental languages at Padua in 1744. Among his 
 numerous works are an edition of Euripides with notes 
 and an Italian version, (1743-54,) and a "History of the 
 Various Customs, Sacred and Profane, which have been 
 transmitted from the Ancients to the Present Times," 
 (1750.) Died at Padua in 1766. 
 
 See Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" Fanzago, "Elo- 
 gio storico del P. M. Carmeli," 1779. 
 
 Car-men'ta, [Fr. Carmente, kaVmSNt',] a pro- 
 phetic divinity of ancient Italy, was one of the Camenae, 
 and supposed to be the mother of Evander. She was 
 worshipped by the Roman matrons at a festival called 
 " Carmentalia." 
 
 Carmer, kaR'mer, (Johann Heinrich,) a Prussian 
 lawyer and chancellor, born in 1721 ; died in 1S01. 
 
 Carmichael, kar'ml-kel, (Gerruom,) a Scottish pro- 
 fessor of moral philosophy, born at Glasgow in 1682 ; 
 died in 1738. 
 
 Carmichael, (Richard,) an Irish surgeon and medi- 
 cal writer, born in Dublin in 1779 ; died in 1849. 
 
 Carmignani, kaR-men-ya'nee, (Giovanni Alessan- 
 dro,) an Italian jurist, born near Pisa in 1768. He 
 practised law in Florence with success, and was reputed 
 one of the greatest forensic orators of that city. He 
 published "Theory of Civil Laws," (1797,) " Elements of 
 Criminal Law," (1803,) and other works. Died in 1S47. 
 
 Carminati, kaR-me-na'tee, ( Bassiano,) an Italian 
 physician, born at Lodi in 1750. He was appointed 
 professor of therapeutics, etc. at Pavia, and afterwards 
 became professor emeritus in the same university. His 
 " Hygiene, Therapeutics, and Materia Medica," written 
 in Latin, is a work of great merit. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Carmoly, ktR'mo'le', (Eliacin,) a French Jew, born 
 in 1805. He has published a "Biography of the Israel- 
 ites, Ancient and Modern," (1S29,) "Literary History 
 of Jewish Authors from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth 
 Century," (1850,) and many other works. 
 
 Carmona, kaR-mo'na, (Salvador,) a distinguished 
 Spanish engraver, born at Madrid about 1730, was a 
 pupil of Dupuis of Paris, and was patronized by the 
 King of Spain. Among his works is a " Virgin and 
 Child," after Van Dyck. Died in 1807. 
 
 Carmontelle, ktR'mAN'tJl', an ingenious French 
 dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1 71 7. In 1768 he pub- 
 lished " Dramatic Proverbs," (6 vols.,) on which his liter- 
 ary reputation is founded. These short comedies were 
 favourites with the performers of private theatres. This 
 work is said to be a mine from which several comic 
 authors have borrowed freely. He had a talent for 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, G, )>, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon- 
 
CJRMOUCHE 
 
 523 
 
 CAR NOT 
 
 painting, and painted portraits of the most distinguished 
 persons of the eighteenth century. Died in 1800. 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Carmouche, kak'inoosh', (Pierre Frederic Adol- 
 phe,) a French dramatic author, born at Lyons in 1797. 
 lie produced many successful prays, among which are 
 the " Honey-Moon," (" Lune de Miel,") "The Vampire," 
 (1820,) and "The breams of Matheus," ("Les Reves de 
 Matheus," 1852.) He has also written fugitive poems 
 ar.d songs. Died in December, 1868. 
 
 Car-iiar'von, (Henry Howard Molyneux (mol'e- 
 nooks) Herbert,) fourth Eakl oe, the eldest son of the 
 third carl, was born in 1S31. Hepublished in i860 "The 
 Druses of Mount Lebanon." He became secretary of 
 state for the colonics in June, 1866. Disagreeing with 
 lord Derby and Disraeli on the Reform Bill, he resigned 
 bl March, 1S67. 
 
 Carnarvon, (Henry John George Herbert,) third 
 Earl OF, an English author, boin in 1800. Hepublished 
 " Don Pedro," a tragedy ; " Moor," a poem ; and " Notes 
 on Portugal, Galicia, etc." The last work is said to be 
 one of superior ability and interest. Died in 1849. 
 
 Came, karn, (John,) a British traveller and writer, 
 who passed several years in Asia, and wrote " Recollec- 
 tions of Travels in Syria and Palestine," (1830,) and " Let- 
 ters from the East." Died in 1844, aged about fifty-five. 
 
 Carne, de, dehkSK'na',(I.ouisMarcein — mik'siN',) 
 Count, a French publicist, born at Quimpcr in 1804. 
 He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1S39, and 
 at first acted with the opposition against Guizot. In 
 1847 he accepted in the Foreign Office the place of 
 Drouyn de l'Huys, removed from his functions of di- 
 rector for supporting a motion of Carne himself against 
 Guizot. He was deprived of this office by the Revolu- 
 tion of 1848. He has published "Views on Contem- 
 porary History," (1833,) and other political works. In 
 1863 he was elected to the Institute in place of Biot. 
 
 See QuiSrard, "La France LilteYaire." 
 
 Carneade. See Carneades. 
 
 Car-ne'a-des,[Gr. Kapi-tu&jc ; Fr. Carneade, ktR'na'- 
 £d',] a Greek philosopher and orator, born at Cyrene, in 
 Africa, about 215 B.C., was the founder of a school called 
 the New Academy. He opposed the dogmas of the 
 Stoics, and maintained that the human mind cannot 
 ascertain the truth. He was celebrated for his subtle 
 and powerful eloquence, which his antagonists were un- 
 able to gainsay or successfully resist. In 154 B.C., having 
 been sent as ambassador from Athens to Rome, he 
 charmed the young men of the latter city by his eloquent 
 discourses, so that many were quite possessed with an 
 enthusiastic love of philosophy. After he had harangued 
 one day in favour of justice, on the next day he displayed 
 his specious- and audacious eloquence in refuting his 
 former arguments and in confounding the distinctions 
 of good and evil. Cato the Censor took prompt meas- 
 ures to protect the youth from this sophistry, and Car- 
 neades was dismissed from the city. He died about the 
 age of ninety. 
 
 See Diogenes Laertius; J. Roulez, " De Carneade Philoso- 
 pho;" Verburg, ''De Carneade Romain legato," 1826: Gouraud, 
 " Dissertatio de Carneadis Philosophi Vitaet Placitis," 1S48; Cicero, 
 "Academica" and "Pe Natura Deoriim."' 
 
 Carneaa, kfR'no', (Etienne,) a French poet and 
 monk, born at Chartres ; died in 1671. 
 
 Car'ne-gie, (Sir Robert,) of Kinnaird, a Scottish 
 negotiator, was minister to Fiance about 1550, and after- 
 wards held several high offices in Scotland. Having 
 joined the Reformers, he was sent by the lords of the 
 Congregation on missions to England and France. Died 
 in 1566. 
 
 Carneiro, kaR-na^e-ro, or Carnero, kaR-na'ro, (An- 
 tonio,) a Portuguese historian, born near Elvas. He 
 was commissary and treasurer of the Spanish army sent 
 to Flanders in 1585, and wrote a "History of the Civil 
 W.irs of the Low Countries from 1559 to 1609," (1612.) 
 
 Carnero. See Carneiro. 
 
 Came vale, kaR-na-va'la, (Bartolommeo Corra- 
 DINO,) a celebrated painter of the Roman school, born 
 at Urbino. Having become a friar, he was usually called 
 Fra Carnevale. Died about 1478. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Carnio, kaR'ne-o, (Antonio,) a painter, born in Friuli, 
 was considered superior to any painter whom that country 
 had produced since Pordenone. Died in or after 1680. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Carnochan, kar'non-an or kar'nok-en, (John Mur- 
 ray,) a skilful American surgeon, born at Savannah, 
 Georgia, in 1817, studied under Dr. Valentine Mott. 
 He became in 1851 professor of surgery in the Medical 
 College of New York. 
 
 Carnot, kiR'no', (Joseph Francois Claude,) a 
 French jurist, brother of the great statesman Carnot, 
 born at Nolay in 1752. He was a warm friend of the 
 reforms made in 1789, and was appointed attorney-gene- 
 ral of his department in 1796. He was judge of the 
 tribunal of cassation from 1801 until 1835. Hepublished 
 valuable commentaries on the penal code, and other legal 
 works. Died in 1835. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Carnot, (Lazare Hippolyte,) a French radical poli- 
 tician, a son of the famous war-minister of the republic, 
 was born at Saint-Omer in 1801. He spent several years 
 in exile with his father, and returned to France in 1823. 
 In his youth he was a partisan of Saint-Simon, and ad- 
 vocated socialism in the "Revue Encyclopedique." He 
 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies by the radical 
 opposition in 1839, 1842, and 1846. In February, 1848, 
 he was appointed minister of public instruction by the 
 provisional government, but resigned in July of that year. 
 During this brief term of office he improved the condi- 
 tion of teachers, and procured a decision that the normal 
 school should be gratuitous. Carnot and Cavaignacwere 
 elected by the republican voters of Paris to the Legis- 
 lative Assembly in 1852 ; but, as they refused to take 
 the oath to Louis Napoleon, they were excluded from 
 their seats. 
 
 See I.amartine, "History of the Revolution of 1S48." 
 
 Carnot, (Lazare Nicolas Marguerite,) an emi- 
 nent French statesman, geometer, and military adminis- 
 trator, was born at Nolay, in Burgundy, on the 13th 
 of May, 1753. He received lessons from Monge at the 
 military school of Mezieres, which he entered in 1771 
 and quitted in 1773 with the rank of lieutenant of en- 
 gineers. In his youth he wrote several poems, which 
 have some merit. He gained a prize for hiV'Eloge de 
 Vauban" in 1783, and published in the same year an 
 important "Essay on Machines," containing a new theo- 
 rem on the loss of force, which is ranked among the 
 finest discoveries of mechanical science. 
 
 Having espoused with ardour the popular cause, he 
 was elected a member of the Legislative Assembly by 
 the voters of Pas-de-Calais in 1791, and acquired a great 
 authority in that body. In 1792 he was elected to the 
 National Convention, in which he voted for the execu- 
 tion of Louis XVI. and kept himself aloof from all in- 
 trigues and contentions of party. He was neither a 
 Jacobin nor a Girondist, but an inflexible patriot and 
 republican pur et simple. In August, 1793, he was 
 chosen a member of the committee of public safety, and 
 found the proper sphere for his genius in the functions 
 of war-minister of the republic. The formation of plans 
 of the campaigns, the selection of generals, the organi- 
 zation of the army, etc. imposed on him an immense 
 and arduous labour, which he performed with such suc- 
 cess that it was said that he had " organized victory." 
 He displayed not only the talents of an administrator of 
 the first order, he showed also the science and genius of 
 a great general in the direction of fourteen armies at once 
 so as to insure co-operative action. 
 
 Absorbed in the urgent labours of defending France 
 from invading armies, he had no share in the proscrip- 
 tions and cruelties of the reign of terror. He was chosen 
 a member of the Institute in 1795. After the dissolution 
 of the Convention, he was chosen at one time as repre- 
 sentative by fourteen departments. Although he opposed 
 the establishment of the Directory, he was elected one 
 of the Directors in 1795, and again acted as minister of 
 war. Having opposed the measures of Barrel and the 
 majority of the Directors, he was proscribed in 1797, and 
 condemned to deportation ; but he escaped to Germany. 
 He returned about the end of 1799, and was minister of 
 war for a short time in 1800. In 1802 he became a 
 
 t as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (J|^*"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CARNOT 
 
 524 
 
 CARON 
 
 member of the Tribunal, in which he opposed Bona- 
 parte's, assumption of imperial power, deeming it absurd 
 to reward the restorer of liberty by the ruin or subversion 
 of that very liberty. He declined to hold office under 
 the empire until 1814, when he served as governor of 
 Antwerp. The small fortune with which he retired from 
 office is mentioned as an evidence of his rare probity. 
 Carnot was appointed minister of the interior during the 
 Hundred Days of Napoleon, who felt the necessity of 
 giving some pledges to the friends of liberty. He was 
 also a member of the provisional government formed 
 in June, 1815. On the restoration of Louis XVIII. he 
 was proscribed, and became an exile in Germany. He 
 died at Magdeburg in 1823. 
 
 He published several excellent mathematical works, 
 among which are " Reflections on the Metaphysics of 
 the Infinitesimal Calculus," (1797,) and "Geometry of 
 Position," (1803,) in which he gives many entirely new 
 theorems. He was also author of some political treatises. 
 
 See D. F. Arago, " Biographie de Carnot," 1850; Wilhelm 
 Kortb, "Das Leben Carnots, 1820; P. F. Tissot, "Memoires 
 historiques sur Carnot," 1824; C. Doris, "Vie privee, politique et 
 morale de Carnot," 1816: Thiers, "History of the French Revo- 
 lution;" A. Serieys, "Carnot, sa Vie politique et privee," 1816; 
 " North British Review" for 1851. 
 
 Carnot-Feulins, kSR'no' fuh'laN', (Claude Marie,) 
 a French officer, born at Nolay in 1755, was a brother of 
 the preceding. He was a captain of engineers when 
 the Revolution began, and was elected to the Legislative 
 Assembly in 1 791. In 1792 he was chosen director of 
 the department of fortifications, and performed several 
 important military missions. He was proscribed with 
 his brother in 1797, but was restored on the fall of the 
 Directory in 1799. He obtained the rank of general of 
 brigade, but resigned about 1802, and did not return to 
 the service until the restoration. In 1815 he retired 
 from the army, with the rank and pension of lieutenant- 
 general. Died in 1836. 
 
 See " Nottvelle Biographie Ge'neYale." 
 
 Caro, ka'ro, (Annibale,) one of the most popular 
 Italian authors of his time, was born at Citta Nova, in 
 the March of Ancona, in 1507. In 1543 he became sec- 
 retary to Farnese, Duke of Parma, and from 1548 until his 
 death he was secretary to Cardinal Farnese. lie wrote a 
 pure and elegant Italian style in prose and verse, which 
 spread his reputation throughout Italy. His principal 
 production is a poetical version of Virgil's " ^Eneid," 
 which is called one of the master-pieces of the language, 
 and is a model of elegance and grace. He wrote also 
 original poems and letters, which were greatly admired. 
 An ode, or canzone, which he composed in honour of 
 the King of France, was criticised by Castelvetro, which 
 occasioned an intemperate and rather scandalous war of 
 words between that critic and the author. Died at Rome 
 in 1566. 
 
 See Crasso, "Elogj d'Uomini- letterati ;" Seghezzi, " Vita del 
 Caro," 1742; MuKEiii, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Caro, ki'ro', (Ei.me Marie,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Rennes in 1825. He is one of the editors of 
 the " Revue Contemporaine," and has published, besides 
 a few other works, " Moral Studies on the Present Time," 
 (1855,) which was crowned by the French Academy. 
 
 Caro, ka'ro, (Don Ventura or Bonaventura,) a 
 Spanish general, born at Valencia about 1742. He re- 
 ceived command of the Spanish army in 1793, when war 
 was declared against the French, and obtained some 
 successes on the frontier. In 1802 he was promoted to 
 the high rank of captain-general of the armies. He died 
 in or soon after 1808. 
 
 Carolan. See O'Carolan. 
 
 Carolina Maria, ka-ro-lee'na ma-ree'a, Queen of Na- 
 ples, born in 1752, was the daughter of Francis I. and 
 Maria Theresa of Austria. In 1768 she was married to 
 Ferdinand, King of the Two Sicilies. Being ambitious 
 and high-spirited, she acquired a paramount and evil 
 influence over that imbecile prince. She induced him 
 to join the coalition against Bonaparte about 1805, in 
 consequence of which they were expelled from Naples 
 in 1806, and retired to the island of Sicily. She died in 
 Vienna in 1814. Her daughter had become the wife of 
 the Emperor of Austria, Francis I. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gime'rale." 
 
 Car'o-line, Queen of England, was a daughter of 
 John Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Anspach. She 
 was married in 1705 to the Electoral Prince of Hanover, 
 who became George II. of England. She had great in- 
 fluence over the king as long as she lived, and was popu- 
 lar with the nation. " Her character," says Lord Mahon, 
 "was without a blemish, and her conduct always marked 
 by judgment and good sense." She was the mother of 
 four daughters and two sons, Frederick and William. 
 Died in 1737. 
 
 See an excellent notice of her character in "Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for February, 1868. 
 
 Car'o-line A-me'H-a E-liz'a-beth, Queen of Eng- 
 land, born in 1768, was the daughter of the Duke of 
 Brunswick, and Augusta of England, who was the sister 
 of George III. In 1795 she was married to her cousin 
 the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., who was a 
 reluctant party to the union. His aversion became so 
 decided that a complete separation took place in 1796, 
 after the birth of the princess Charlotte. In 1814 she 
 left England, and passed the ensuing years on the con- 
 tinent, until the accession of George IV. in 1820, when 
 she returned to London. The king then instituted against 
 her a trial for adultery, which made a great excitement. 
 The people mostly sympathized with the queen. Caro- 
 line was defended by Henry (afterwards Lord) Brougham, 
 who gained great applause by his successful efforts in 
 her behalf, and the government abandoned the prosecu- 
 tion. She died in 1821. 
 
 See Thomas Ashe, " Memoirs of the Life of Princess Caroline," 
 1812 ; Brougham's Works, vols. ix. and x.; " M^moireset Documents 
 sur la Vie et le Proces de la Reine Caroline," Paris, 4 vols., 1S21. 
 
 Car'o-line Ma-til'da, [Dan. Caroline Mathilde, 
 ka-ro-lee'neh ma-til'deh,] Queen of Denmark, born in 
 1751, was a sister of George HI. of England. In 1766 
 she was married to Christian VII. of Denmark, a weak 
 and profligate prince, by whom she was neglected or 
 ill treated. Struensee, an ambitious physician, acquired 
 great influence over her and the king, and became prime 
 minister. A conspiracy or coup d'etat in 1772 resulted in 
 the execution of that favourite, and the banishment of 
 Caroline Matilda to Zelle, where she died, asserting her 
 innocence, in 1775. (See Struensee.) 
 
 See Lenzen, " Die letzten Stunden der Kbnigin Caroline Ma- 
 thilde." 1775; Heimburger, "Caroline Mathilde Kdnigin von Dane- 
 mark," 1851. 
 
 CarolostacTt. See Carlstadt. 
 
 Carolus Magnus. See Charlemagne. 
 
 Caron. See Beaumarchais. 
 
 Caron, kS'roN', (Augustin Joseph,) a French officer 
 and Bonapartist, born in 1774. He served in the army 
 during the first republic and the empire, and rose to the 
 rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1814. In 1822 he formed 
 a plot to rescue some prisoners who were accomplices 
 in the Befort conspiracy. He failed, was tried by a 
 council of war, and shot at Strasbourg, in 1822. , 
 
 Caron, k$'r6N', (Francois,) born in Holland," of 
 French parents, went to Japan in his youth, and lived there 
 some years. He became a member of the Dutch Council 
 of the Indies. Having entered the service of the French, 
 he was appointed by Colbert director-general of French 
 commerce in India in 1666. In 1674 he was recalled to 
 Europe, and was drowned at Lisbon just as he arrived. 
 He had published a "Description of Japan," (1636.) 
 
 Caron, (Jean Charles Felix,) a French surgeon, 
 born at Amiens in 1745. He practised in Paris, and be- 
 came chief surgeon of the Cochin Hospital in 1782. He 
 wrote treatises on Respiration, on the Croup, etc. Died 
 in 1824. 
 
 Caron, (Jean Marie,) a meritorious French judge, 
 born at Pontic in 1798. He officiated as judge in sev- 
 eral places, and afterwards was justice of the peace 
 (juge tie paix) at Nantes. He wrote, besides other legal 
 works, one "On the Civil Jurisdiction of Justices of the 
 Peace." Died in 1841. 
 
 Car'on, (Raymond,) an Irish Catholic priest, bom in 
 1605, passed some years on the continent. He defended 
 the doctrine of the Gallican Church on the independence 
 of kings and against the infallibility of the pope, in a 
 Latin work entitled "Remonstrance of the Hibernians 
 against the Ultramontane Censures," (1665,) which made 
 much noise at the time. Died in 1666. 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
CJKONDELET 
 
 525 
 
 CARPI 
 
 Carondelet, ki'ruNcl'IJ' or kS 'rfi.N'deh-lJ', (Jean,) a 
 Burgundian prelate and writer, born at Dole in 1469. He 
 was appointed by Charles V. president of the Council of 
 Brussels in 1527. He subsequently became Chancellor 
 of Flanders, secretary to the emperor, and Archbishop 
 of Palermo. Erasmus, who was his friend, dedicated to 
 him his " Saint-Hilaire." Died in 1544. 
 
 See M. C. Murray, "Memoire histovique sur la Vie de J. de 
 Carondelet," 17S6; Foppkns, "Bibliotheca Belgica." 
 
 Caroprese, ka-ro-pRa'si, (Grf.gorio,) a learned Ital- 
 ian writer and critic, born near Cosenza in 1620. He 
 resided mostly in Rome and Naples. He wrote a refu- 
 tation of Machiavel's " Prince," a letter on " Orlando 
 Furioso," and a few other works. Died in 1 715. 
 
 Caroselli, ka-ro-sel'lee, ( Angiolo,) an Italian painter, 
 born in Rome in 1585. He had a remarkable talent for 
 imitating; the manners of different masters. Skilful 
 connoisseurs were deceived by his imitations of Titian, 
 Raphael, etc. He also painted portraits with success. 
 Died in 1653. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Carotto, ka-rot'to, or Caroto, ka-ro'to, (Giovanni 
 Francesco,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Verona 
 in 1470, was a pupil of A. Mantegna. whom he surpassed 
 in majesty and harmony. He excelled in portraits. 
 Died in 1546. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Giovanni Carotto, a younger brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was distinguished as an architect. 
 
 Carouge, ki'roozh', (Bertrand Augustin,) a French 
 astronomer, born at Dol in 1741. He went to Paris and 
 associated himself with Lalande, for whom he made cal- 
 culations which were inserted in Lalande's "Astronomy." 
 He prepared tables for calculating the phases of the 
 moon for sixty years, which were published in the " Con- 
 naissances des Temps," (1801.) In 1795 he was ap- 
 pointed administrateur-glnlral des pastes. Died in 1798. 
 
 Carove, ki'ro'vi', (Friedrich Wii.hf.lm,) a German 
 critic and philosophical writer, born at Coblentz in 1 789 ; 
 died in 1852. 
 
 Carpaccio, kaR-pat'cho, [Lat. Carpa'thius,] (Vit- 
 Tore,) an Italian painter, sometimes called Scarpazza, 
 born about 1450. He worked in Venice, and was a rival 
 of Bellini. By some writers he is ranked among the 
 first painters of his time. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Carpani, kaR-pa'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian poet and 
 theologian, born at Rome in 1683. He wrote several 
 Latin tragedies, and other works. Died about 1765. 
 
 Carpani, (Giuseppe,) an eminent Italian dramatic 
 poet, born at Villa Albese, in the Milanese, in 1752. 
 He became editor of the "Gazette" of Milan in 1792, 
 and wrote against the French Revolution. In conse- 
 quence of the French invasion in 1796, he removed to 
 Vienna, where he settled permanently about 1810. He 
 became a friend of Haydn, whose oratorio of the "Crea- 
 tion" he successfully rendered into Italian. In 1812 he 
 published " Le Haydine," or "Letters on the Life and 
 Works of Haydn," which are commended as elegant 
 and interesting. He produced numerous operas, dramas, 
 and cantatas, among which are "La Camilla," a drama, 
 and "The Judgment of Apollo," a cantata. Died in 
 Vienna in 1825. 
 
 See Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" Frtis, " Biogra- 
 J'hie Universale des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle Biograpllie GeneVale." 
 
 Car'pen-ter, (George,) Lord, an English general, 
 born in Herefordshire in 1657, entered the army in 1672. 
 In 1707 he commanded the cavalry at the battle of Al- 
 fflanza, Spain, where his conduct was applauded. He 
 was made a lieutenant-general in 1710, and was second 
 in command at the battle of Almenara. In 1715 he com- 
 manded the army which defeated the adherents of the 
 Pretender at Preston. A few years later he received the 
 title of Baron. Died in 1731. 
 
 See " Life of George I,ord Carpenter," London, 1736. 
 
 Carpenter, (Lant,) an English divine, born at Kid- 
 derminster in 1780, was the father of Dr. W. B. Carpen- 
 ter the physiologist. From 1805 to 181 7 he officiated as 
 Unitarian minister at Exeter, and during that period he 
 published his " Introduction to the Geography of the 
 
 New Testament," and " Unitarianism the Doctrine of 
 the Gospel." He became minister of the Unitarian 
 church at Bristol in 1S17. In 1839 he visited the con- 
 tinent on account of his health. While passing from 
 Naples to Leghorn, he was drowned, in April, 1840. He 
 left numerous works, among which his "Apostolical 
 Harmony of the Gospels" (1838) is perhaps the principal 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Rev. Lant Carpenter," by his son, 1K42. 
 
 Carpenter, (Margaret Geddes,) an English por- 
 trait-painter, born at Salisbury in 1793. She was mar- 
 ried to W. H. Carpenter, noticed below, in 181 7. 
 
 Carpenter, (Mary,) an English philanthropist, daugh- 
 ter of Lant Carpenter, was born about 1820. She founded 
 a reformatory institution for females at Bristol, and wrote 
 several works on education, etc 
 
 Carpenter, (Nathaniel,) an English scholar and 
 clergyman, born in Devonshire in 1588. He published, 
 besides other works, "Philosophia Libera," (1621,) one 
 of the first attacks on the philosophy of Aristotle. He 
 lived some years in Dublin, where he died about 1630. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Carpenter, (Richard,) an English priest, who twice 
 or thrice was converted from Protestantism to Catholi- 
 cism. He published several works, one of which is 
 entitled "Experience, History, and Divinity," (1642.) 
 He also wrote "The Pragmatical Jesuit," a comedy. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Carpenter, (William,) an English author and bibli- 
 cal critic, born in London about 1798, published several 
 valuable works, among which are "Calendarium Pales- 
 tinae," (1825,) " Scripture Natural History," (1828,) and 
 "A Guide to the Practical Reading of the Bible," (1830.) 
 
 Carpenter, (William Benjamin,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish physiologist, son of Lant Carpenter, noticed above, 
 was born about 1812. He became a student of medicine 
 in University College, London, in 1833, and graduated 
 in Edinburgh in 1839, before which date he had pub- 
 lished a treatise " On the Unity of Function in Organized 
 Beings," and a few other short works. In 1839 he pub- 
 lished an important and remarkable work, entitled " Prin- 
 ciples of General and Comparative Physiology." About 
 1840 he settled in Bristol. He produced, in 184(3, " Princi- 
 ples of Human Physiology," a work of great merit, and 
 scarcely equalled by any other on that subject. " We 
 know of no work on physiology from which the student 
 is likely to derive so much advantage." (" British and 
 Foreign Medical Review.") Dr. Carpenter is, or was, 
 professor of medical jurisprudence in University Col- 
 lege, London, and a Fellow of the Royal Society. Among 
 his later publications are "Zoology and Instinct in Ani- 
 mals," (1848,) and "On the Microscope: its Revelations 
 and Uses," (1856.) In 1849 ne received a prize of one 
 hundred guineas for an " Essay qn Alcoholic Liquors." 
 His brother, Russell Lant Carpenter, was Unitarian 
 minister at Birkenhead, and published memoirs of his 
 father, the Rev. Lant Carpenter. 
 
 See "Westminster Review" for July, 1863. 
 
 Carpenter, (William H.,) born in London in 1792, 
 became in 1845 keeper of the prints and drawings of 
 the British Museum. 
 
 Carpentier, kiR'poN'te-i', (Pierre,) a French Bene- 
 dictine friar and antiquary, noted for. his learning, was 
 born at Charleville in 1697. He performed the principal 
 part of the improved edition of Du Cange's "Glossarium 
 mediae et infimae Latinitatis," (1736.) In 1766 he pub- 
 lished a valuable supplement to the work above named, 
 with the title of " Glossarium novum," etc. Died iu 
 Paris in 1767. 
 
 See Tassin, " Histoire litte"raire de la Congregation de Saint- 
 Maur." 
 
 Carpi, da, dS kaR'pce, (Girolamo,) a skilful Italian 
 painter and architect, born at Ferrara about 1500. He 
 imitated Correggio with such success that some of his 
 copies passed for the original works of that artist. He 
 adorned the churches of Bologna and Ferrara with fres- 
 cos and oil-paintings. "The Adoration of the Magi" is 
 called one of his master-pieces. Died in 1556. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters. Sculptors, etc.;" Bar'oF- 
 pai.di. " Vitadi G. da Carpi Pitlore," l84r. 
 
 Carpi, da, (UOO,) an eminent Italian wood-engraver 
 and painter, is said to have been born in Rome about 
 
 e as k; 5 as /; g hard; g as/; 0, H, K., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J|y*See Explanations, p. 23.] 
 
CAR PIN 
 
 526 
 
 CARR 
 
 i486. He is the reputed inventor of clair-obscur en- 
 graving, or printing m light and shade. Among his 
 works are " Diogenes and his Tub," after Parmegiano, 
 and "/Eneas bearing off Anchises," after Raphael. He 
 used three blocks, the first for the outline, the second 
 for the middle tints, and the last for the shadows. 
 
 Carpin, kaR-peen', or Carpini, kait-pee'nee, (Johan'- 
 NES de Pla'no,) an Italian monk, noted for his travels 
 and adventures among the Tartars or Mongols who had 
 ravaged the eastern parts of Christendom. In 1246 he 
 was sent by Pope Innocent IV. on a mission to Tartary, 
 with the design to pacify those barbarians or convert 
 them to Christianity. With great courage and patience 
 he penetrated to the court of the Grand Khan, whom he 
 calls Kujak, and who dismissed him with a letter to the 
 pope. On his return home, in 1248, he wrote a narrative 
 of his journey, which is considered tolerably faithful and 
 accurate, (making allowance for the prevalent ignorance, 
 etc.,) and imparted to Europeans their first knowledge 
 of the country of the Mongols. Hakluyt translated it, 
 and inserted it in his " Collection of Voyages," etc. Car- 
 pini afterwards was provincial of Germany, and preached 
 the gospel in Bohemia, Norway, and Denmark. 
 
 See De Guignes, " Histoire ge'ne'rale des Huns." 
 
 Carpioni, kaR-pe-o'nee, (Giur.io,) an Italian painter 
 and engraver, born at Venice in 161 1. He painted fabu- 
 lous and fantastic subjects with success. Died in 1674. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Carpocrate. See Carpocrates. 
 
 Car-poc'ra-tes, [Fr. Carpocrate, kiR'po'kRit',] a 
 heresiarch of Alexandria, lived in the reign of Adrian, 
 in the second century. He is said to have taught that 
 the world was created by angels, that Christ was only a 
 human being of pre-eminent goodness, and that the souls 
 of men existed before their entrance into this world. 
 He also taught doctrines subversive of morality, a kind 
 of Gnostic Antinomianism, and had numerous followers. 
 
 See Matter, "Du Gnosticisme," 2d edition, 1S3S. 
 
 Carpov, kaR'pof, (Jakob,) a German theologian, born 
 at Goslar in 1699. He lectured at Jena, where he made 
 many enemies by attempting to treat theology according 
 to philosophic methods. Having removed to Weimar, 
 he was there chosen professor of mathematics in 1742. 
 He wrote an "Inquiry whether the Earth is a Machine 
 or an Animal," and other works. Died in 1768. 
 
 See Ersch mid Gruber, " Allgemeine Eocyklopaedie." 
 
 Carpzov, kaRp'tsof, [Lat. Carpzo'vius.1 (August,) 
 a German diplomatist, son of Benedict, noticed below, 
 born at Colditz in 1612. He became chancellor of the 
 high court of Saxony, and represented that power at the 
 treaty of Westphalia, (1648.) In 1675 he was appointed 
 a privy councillor at Gotha. Died in 1683. 
 
 See Stukz, "Commentatio de Vita A. Carpzovii," 1750. 
 
 Carpzov, (Benedict,) a distinguished German juris- 
 consult, born in Brandenburg in 1 565. He was appointed 
 professor of law at Wittenberg in 1599, and wrote seve- 
 ral volumes of "Legal Disputations," (" Disputationes 
 Juridical") He died in 1624, leaving several sons, who 
 gained distinction in the same career. 
 
 Carpzov, (Benedict,) a son of the preceding, born 
 at Wittenberg in 1595, was a more able jurisconsult 
 than his father. He was a privy councillor to the Elector 
 of Saxony, and author of many works, among which is 
 " Practice in Criminal Causes," (" Practica Rerum cri- 
 minalium," 1635.) " He deserved to be regarded," says 
 Boissonade, "as the first of German practitioners." Died 
 in 1666. 
 
 See Lange, " Predigt bei der Leichen-Bestattung B. Carpzovii," 
 1667: Kromaver, " Programma in B. Carpzovii funere," 1666. 
 
 Carpzov, (Johann Benedict,) a Protestant theolo- 
 gian, brother of the preceding, born at Rochlitz in 1607. 
 He was professor at Leipsic. Died in 1657. 
 
 Carpzov, (Johann Benedict,) an Orientalist, a son 
 of the preceding, born at Leipsic in 1639, was professor 
 of Hebrew, etc. in that city. He wrote treatises on 
 sacred philology. Died in 1699. 
 
 His brother, Friedrich Benedict, (1649-99,) was 
 noted as a philologist. He contributed to the "Acta 
 Erudite-rum." 
 
 Sec; Jocher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-I.exikon ;" Cyprian, " Pro- 
 jrramma in funere J. B. Carpzovii," 1699 : Crell, " Oratio F. B. 
 Carpzovii Memorise sacra," 1700. 
 
 Carpzov, (Johann Benedict,) a historian and jurist, 
 nephew of the preceding, born at Dresden in 1675. He 
 published several works. Died in 1739. 
 
 See Ersch and Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Ernst 
 F. Haupt, "Ueber J. B. Carpzov als Historiker," 1842. 
 
 Carpzov, (Johann Gottlob,) a Lutheran theologian, 
 born at Dresden in 1679. He was professor of Oriental 
 languages at Leipsic from 17 19 to 1730, and in the last 
 year removed to Lubeck, where he preached many years. 
 He wrote, besides other works, "Sacred Criticism on 
 the Old Testament," ("Critica sacra Veteris Testa- 
 menti.") Died in 1767. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie:" Peter 
 H. Becker, " Leben G. Carpzovs," 1767; Over beck, " Memoria 
 Vitse J. G. Carpzovii," 1767. 
 
 Carpzovius. See Carpzov. 
 
 Carr, (Eugene A.,) an American general, born in 
 Eric county, New York, about 1830, graduated at West 
 Point in 1S50. He became a captain about 1S58, com- 
 manded a division at Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and was 
 appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers the same 
 month. He served in Arkansas in 1S64. 
 
 Carr, (George,) a minister of the Anglican Church, 
 born at Newcastle, England, in 1704. From 1737 to 1776 
 he was senior clergyman of the Episcopal Chapel, Edin- 
 burgh. Several volumes of his sermons were published. 
 " To his merits as a preacher, great as they were," says 
 Dr. Beattie, "the lustre of his private character was still 
 superior." Died in 1776. 
 
 Carr, (John,) an English architect, born near Wake- 
 field, Yorkshire, in 1721. He gained an extensive prac- 
 tice in the north of England, where he erected many fine 
 edifices. Among them are the Town-Hall of Newark, 
 Harewood House, Yorkshire, and the mausoleum of 
 Lord Rockingham at Wentworth. He was chosen lord 
 mavor of York in 1770, and again in 1785. Died in 1807. 
 
 Carr, (John,) LL.D., an English schoolmaster, born 
 in the county of Durham in 1732. He taught a grammar- 
 school at Hertford for many years with credit, and made 
 a translation of Lucian's "Dialogues," which is said 
 to be excellent. He also wrote other works. Died in 
 1S07. 
 
 Carr, (Sir John,) an English writer of travels, born in 
 Devonshire in 1772, was educated for the law. During 
 the brief peace which followed the treaty of Amiens he 
 visited France, and produced in 1803 "The Stranger in 
 France," which was very successful, partly because for 
 many ensuing years the scenes which he described were 
 inaccessible to English tourists. He afterwards pub- 
 lished " Northern Summer, or Travels around the Baltic," 
 a " Tour through Holland," and a few other works. He 
 was knighted about 1806. Died in 1832. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807. 
 
 Carr, (Joseph B.,) an American officer, born at Albany 
 about 1825, served in the campaigns of 1861-62, and was 
 made a brigadier-general in 1862. 
 
 Carr, written also Carre or Ker, (Robert,) Earl of 
 Somerset, a Scottish courtier, born about 1589. In 1610 
 his handsome person attracted the notice of the king, 
 James I., of whom he soon became the prime favourite. 
 "" James created him Viscount Rochester," says Hume, 
 "... and bestowed on him the supreme direction of 
 all his business and political concerns." In 1613 Carr 
 married Lady Frances Howard, lately divorced from 
 the Earl of Essex, and was created Earl of Somerset. 
 He was for some time on very intimate terms with Sir 
 Thomas Overbury ; but they afterwards quarrelled, 
 and in 1616 Somerset and his wife were convicted cf 
 procuring the death of Overbury by poison, but, through 
 the favour of the king, they esc'ape'd the just penalty of 
 their crime. After an imprisonment of several years, he 
 was released, and died in obscurity. 
 
 See Gardiner's " Historv of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. ii. 
 chaps, x., xi., and xiii. ; Hume's " History of England," chap, xlvii. 
 
 Carr, (Sir Robert,) one of the royal commissioners 
 of New England, appointed in 1664 by Charles II. In 
 conjunction with Nicolls, he* took New Amsterdam from 
 the Dutch, and changed the name of that city to New York, 
 in honour of the Duke of York, afterwards James II. 
 
 Carr, (Rev. William Hoi.weli.,) an English patron 
 of the fine arts, born in 1759. He bequeathed many 
 pictures to the National Gallery. Died in 1830. 
 
 5. e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, 8, T. o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
CARRA 
 
 527 
 
 CARREL 
 
 Carra, kfrf, (Jean Louis,) a French revolutionist, 
 born at Pont-de-Vesle in 1743. He went to Paris in 17S9, 
 and became tlie editor ot" a journal called "Annates 
 Patriotiques," which was very radical in politics. He 
 was elected to the Convention in 1792, and, having joined 
 the Girondists, was proscribed by Robespierre, and exe- 
 cuted in October, 1793. " He took refuge in the Giromte," 
 fjays Laniartine, "to oppose the excesses of the people." 
 He had published several historical and scientific works. 
 
 See Lam aktink, " History of the Girondists.*' 
 
 Carra Saiut-Cyr, kf'ri" saN'seii', (Jean Francois,) 
 Count, a French general, born in 1756. As general of 
 brigade, he contributed to the victories of Marengo and 
 Hohenlindeu, (1801.) He became a general of division 
 in 1S01, and commanded the army of occupation in 
 Naples in 1S05. He was Governor of French Guiana 
 in kS 17-19. Died in 1834. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Carracci. See Caracci. 
 
 Carrach, kar'raK, (Johann Tobias,) a Prussian jurist, 
 born at Magdeburg in 1702: In 1763 he was chosen 
 rector of the University of Halle, in which he had pre- 
 viously been professor of law. He published many legal 
 treatises. Died in 1775. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allcemeine Encyklopaedie ;" KOnig, 
 "Leben und Schrifteu des Herrn J. T. Carrach," 1776. 
 
 Carrache. See Caracci. 
 
 Carradori, kar-ra-do'ree, (Gioachino,) an Italian 
 physician, born at Prato, in Tuscany, in 1758. AbpUt 
 1802 he wrote a prize essay "On Fertility of Land," 
 which is regarded as a classic work. He contributed 
 able scientific articles to the journals of Milan and l'avia, 
 and published a treatise on Galvanism. Died in 1S18. 
 
 See Su.vkstri, " Elngio de G. Carradori," 1818 ; Tipai.do, " Bio- 
 grafia degli Italian! illustii." 
 
 Carraiiza, kar-ran'tha, (Bartolome.) a Spanish pre- 
 late, born at Miranda in 1503. Charles V. sent him to 
 the Council of Trent in 1546. He accompanied Philip 
 II. to England, where he became confessor to Queen 
 Mary and displayed a fanatical zeal against the Prot- 
 estants. About 1556 he was appointed Archbishop of 
 Toledo. This promotion appears to have excited the 
 envy of his enemies, who obtained from the Inquisition 
 a censure of a Catechism which he published, and ac- 
 cused him of perverting the mind of Charles V. in his 
 last illness. He was confined in prison ten years or 
 more, and soon after his release he died, in 1576. 
 
 See Sai.azar dp. Mendoza, " Vida y Sucesos de R. de Carranza 
 y Miranda," 1788 : Prkscott, " History of Philip II.," vols. i. andii. 
 
 Carrara, (Giovanni Michei.f. Alberto,) an Italian 
 physician and author, born at Bergamo, was one of the 
 Bloat learned and prolific writers of his time. Among 
 his works are a " History of Italian Affairs in his Own 
 Times," and a Latin poem "On the Venetian War." 
 In 1488 the emperor Frederick III. made him a count 
 palatine. Died in 1490. 
 
 See \ '■■- Historicis Latinis;" A. Suardi, "Vitadi G. 
 
 M. A. Carrara," 1784. 
 
 Carrara, (Piktro Antonio,) a native of Bergamo, 
 published, in 1701, a version of Virgil's "/Eneid" in 
 uttava rami. 
 
 Carrara, (Ubertino,) an Italian poet and Jesuit, born 
 at Sora about 1640. He was for many years professor 
 of belles-lettres in the Roman College, and wrote a 
 heroic poem called " Voyage of Columbus," of which the 
 invention is more poetic than the style. Died in 1715. 
 
 Carrara, da, da kar-ra'ra, a noble family of Italy, 
 which ruled over Padua in the middle ages and adhered 
 to the Guelph party. 
 
 Jacopo da Carrara, after commanding the army in 
 the war against Can della Scala, was elected Lord of 
 Padua in 1318. Died in 1324. His nephew, Marsilio, 
 who succeeded, made an alliance with Can della Scala, 
 of Verona, to whom in 1328 he transferred the title of 
 Lord of Padua ; but he continued to be the actual ruler. 
 The heirs of Della Scala were expelled in 1337. Mar- 
 silio died in 1338, and was succeeded by his nephew, 
 Uiikrti.no. During his government hostilities were 
 renewed with the Lord of Verona, and were terminated 
 by a peace in [343. He died, without issue, in 1345. 
 FRANCESCO I., a grand-nephew of Jacopo, above no- 
 ticed, obtained the chief power in 1355, and at the same 
 
 time was chosen to command the army of the league 
 formed by Ferrara, Mantua, Verona, and Padua against 
 the Visconti of Milan. After several indecisive battles, 
 peace was made in 1358. In 137S he joined the Geno- 
 ese in a war against Venice, which brought the latter 
 state to the brink of ruin. About 1387 he was deposed 
 bv Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and confined in prison until 
 his death in 1393. 
 
 See SlsMONDi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Carrara, da, (Francesco II.,) called Novkllo, (no- 
 vel'lo,) the son of Francesco I., noticed above, recovered 
 the lordship of Padua in 1390, by the favour of the Vene- 
 tians. He waged war against the Visconti, and, by 
 seizing Verona in 1404, involved himself in war with 
 Venice. Having been vanquished by that power, he was 
 taken prisoner and put to death, with his sons, in 1406, 
 after which Padua was annexed to Venice. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Carre. See Carr. 
 
 Carre orCarree, kS'ra', (Francois,) a Dutch painter, 
 father of Hendrik, noticed below, was born in Fricsland 
 in 1636; died in 1669. 
 
 Carre, ki'ra', (Guillaume Louis Julien,) a French 
 jurisconsult, born at Rennes in 1777. He became pro- 
 fessor of law in the Faculty of Rennes in 1806, and 
 gained a high reputation as a lecturer. He published 
 " Laws of Civil Practice," (1824,) and other works of 
 merit. Died in 1832. 
 
 See A. Chauveau, Notice sur Carre\" 1841. 
 
 Carr6, (Hendrik,) a Dutch landscape-painter, born 
 about 1656, was a pupil of J. Jordaens. He became a 
 resident of Amsterdam, where he worked many years 
 with success. Descamps praises his colour and touch. 
 Died in 1721. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands." etc. 
 
 Carre, (Jean Baptiste Louis,) a French writer and 
 tactician, born at Varennes in 1749. Besides other works, 
 he published one entitled " Panoply," (Panoplie," 1795,) 
 a treatise on armour, weapons, and military affairs in 
 general. Died in 1835. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Carre, (Louis,) a French geometer, born at a village 
 in Brie in 1663. After having served Malebranche as 
 amanuensis, he became a teacher of mathematics and 
 philosophy. In 1697 he was admitted into the Academy 
 of Sciences. His principal work is a " Method for the 
 Measurement of Surfaces, Solids," etc., which was once 
 highly prized. Died in 1 711. 
 
 See Fontenelle, " E*!oge de Carre 1 ;" Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Carre, (Michael,) a brother of Hendrik, born about 
 1658, was a pupil of N. Berghem, and a skilful painter. 
 He was employed by Frederick I. of Prussia, after whose 
 death he returned to Amsterdam. Died in 1728. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Carre, (Narcisse Epaminondas,) a French jurist, 
 born in Paris in 1794, was councillor in the Cour Impe- 
 riale of Paris. He published an edition of the works of 
 Domat, (9 vols., 1822,) and a "Code des Femmes,"(i828.) 
 
 Carre, (Pierre Laurent,) a French litterateur, born 
 in Paris in 1758, obtained the chair of rhetoric at Tou- 
 louse, where he lectured with iclat. He wrote an epistle 
 to his friend Delille the poet. He left many odes, epis- 
 tles, and other poems. Died in 1825. 
 
 Carrel, ki'rel', (Nicolas Armand,) a celebrated 
 French journalist and publicist, was born at Rouen in 
 1800. He entered the army as sub-lieutenant about 1820, 
 with sentiments of hostility to the dynasty restored by 
 foreign troops. When the government sent an army to 
 Spain to support the cause of absolutism, he resigned 
 in 1S23, and joined the army of Spanish liberals. Hav- 
 ing been made prisoner, he was sentenced to death by a 
 council of war ; but, on account of informalities in the 
 process, he was released. Finding himself destitute of 
 resources except in his literary talents, he became secre- 
 tary of the historian Augustin Thierry. He soon quitted 
 this service, which imposed too much constraint on his 
 independent spirit, and began to write for the "Constitu- 
 tionnel," the " Revue Francaise," and other journals and 
 reviews of Paris. About 1828 he published a " Resume 1 
 of the History of Modern Greece," and a " History of 
 
 * as t; 9 as s; g hard; g as/,- G, H, K, guttural '; N, natal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, r . 23.) 
 
CAR RENO 
 
 528 
 
 CJRRO 
 
 the Ciunter-Revolution in England," which is highly 
 esteemed. " The reigns of the last two Stuarts," says 
 the "Edinburgh Review," "have been written with the 
 mind of a statesman and the hand of a vigorous writer, 
 by Armand Carrel." In 1830 Thiers and Carrel became 
 chief editors of the " National," a daily journal, which 
 the latter first projected, and which was the organ of 
 the liberal opposition. After the revolution of 1830, (in 
 which Carrel took a prominent part,) Thiers entered the 
 new ministry, and left the chief control of the journal to 
 his late colleague, whose eloquence and judgment soon 
 raised the " National" to the highest point of influence 
 and popularity. He gained much applause by the utter- 
 ance of his indignant abhorrence of the execution of 
 Marshal Ney, while he was pleading a cause before the 
 Chamber of Peers, the majority of which had pronounced 
 the sentence in that case. He was imprisoned by the 
 government of Louis Philippe on account of his writings, 
 although lie was the moderator as well as the champion 
 of the popular party. He was killed in a duel by Emile 
 de Girardin, editor of the " Presse," in July, 1836. " His 
 sterling honesty," says Brougham, "was only exceeded 
 by his brilliant talents." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale;" Carl Boelsche, "Zwei 
 Republikaner," (containing the life of Carrel and L. Borne, 1850;) C. 
 Nisard's article in the " Revue des Deux Mondes" for October 1, 
 '837. 
 
 Carreno de Miranda, kar-ran'yo da me-ran'da, 
 (Don Juan,) a skilful Spanish painter of history and 
 portraits, was born in Asturias in 1614. In 1669 Philip 
 IV. gave him the title of First Painter to the King, 
 which he retained under Charles II. His works, which 
 illustrate scriptural subjects, are at Madrid, Toledo, etc. 
 Died in 1685. He was an excellent colorist, in which 
 respect he is ranked by Spaniards between Titian and 
 Van Dyck. 
 
 See Quilliet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols;" Bryan, 
 " Dictionary of Painters ;" Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Carrer, kar-raV, (Luigi,) an Italian lyric poet, born 
 at Venice in 1801, wrote, besides other poems, "The 
 Ring of Seven Gems." Died in 1850. 
 
 Can-era, kar-ra'ra, (Pietro,) an Italian antiquary, 
 born in Sicily in 1571, wrote "Ancient Syracuse illus- 
 trated," and other works. Died in 1647. 
 
 Carrera, kar-ra'ra, (Rafael,) a statesman, of Indian 
 extraction, born at Guatemala about 1814. In the civil 
 war (1837-39) he fought with success against the Fede- 
 ral government, and became commander-in-chief of the 
 insurgents. He was elected President of Guatemala in 
 1847, and re-elected in 1851. 
 
 Carreras, kar-ra'ras, (Jose Miguel, Juan, and Luis,) 
 three brothers, citizens of Chili, who were noted as 
 patriots, and took part in the war of independence 
 against Spain in the early part of the present century. 
 Juan and Luis were put to- death in 1818, and Jose 
 Miguel in 1822. 
 
 Carrere, ki'raiR', (Joseph Barthelemi Francois,) a 
 French physician, born in 1740 at Perpignan. In 1773 he 
 settled in Paris, and was appointed inspector-general of 
 the mineral waters of Roussillon, and royal censor. He 
 published many professional works, among which are 
 " A Manual for the Service of the Sick," a " Treatise on 
 Inflammatory Diseases," (1774,) and a "Biographical 
 Dictionary of Medical Writers," (2 vols., 1776,) which 
 was continued only to "Coivart." Died in 1802. 
 
 See £i.oy, "Dictionnaire de la M^decine;" " Biographie M^di- 
 cale ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Carrere, (Thomas,) a French physician, father of the 
 preceding, born at Perpignan in 1714; died in 1764. 
 
 Carreri, kar-ra'ree, (Giovanni Francesco Gemelli,) 
 an Italian, born in Naples, visited Asia in 1693, and 
 published "Tour of the World," (1699.) 
 
 Carrero, kar-ra'ro, (Pedro Garcias,) a skilful Span- 
 ish physician, born at Calahorra, lived about 1600, ac- 
 ?uired a high reputation, and became. physician to Philip 
 II. His commentaries on Galen and Avicenna prove 
 him to have been a man of extensive learning. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Carretto, del, d£l kar-ret'to, (Francesco Saverio,) 
 Marquis, a Neapolitan minister of state, born at Sa- 
 lerno. In his youth he served in the army with distinc- 
 
 tion, and rose to a high rank. He was chosen minister 
 of police in 1831, and rendered himself odious by the 
 severe and tyrannical measures with which he suppressed 
 popular revolts. In consequence of a transient success 
 of the popular party in 1848, he was banished by Fer- 
 dinand II.; but he was soon recalled, and loaded with 
 favours, by that king. 
 
 Carrier, ki're-i', almost kiR'yi', (Jean B.,) a French 
 Jacobin of infamous memory, was born in 1756. He was 
 elected to the Convention in 1792, and in the next year 
 was sent to Nantes, to execute the bloody will of the 
 dominant party. He sacrificed great numbers of prison- 
 ers and citizens without trial, and spared neither women 
 nor children. Multitudes were crowded into boats and 
 sunk in the river Loire, and others were shot or guillo- 
 tined. The first mode of destruction was called republi- 
 can baptism. Soon after the fall of Robespierre the public 
 voice called for justice against Carrier, who, after a trial 
 by the tribunal at Paris, was executed in 1794. 
 
 See De Barante, " Melanges ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^- 
 rale." 
 
 Carriera. See Rosalba. 
 
 Carriere, ki're-aiR', (Denis Desire,) a French poet, 
 born at Nancy in 1813 ; died in 1853. 
 
 Carriere, (Joseph,) a French theologian, born in 
 1795. He became professor of theology in the seminary 
 of Saint-Sulpice, Paris. He has published an esteemed 
 work on theology, written in Latin, comprising the fol- 
 lowing subjects: "On Matrimony," "On Justice and 
 Law," and "On Contracts." 
 
 Carriere, ki're-aiR', (MoRiTZ,)a German philosophi- 
 cal writer, was born at Griedel, in Hesse, in 1817. He was 
 appointed professor of philosophy at Giessen in 1849. 
 Among his principal works are a treatise "On Aristotle 
 the Friend of Plato," in Latin, (1837,) "The Philosophic 
 Contemplation of the World at the Time of the Refor- 
 mation," (1847,) and a poem, "The Last Night of the 
 Girondists," ("Die letzte Nachtder Girondisten," 1849.) 
 
 . See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Carrieres, de, deh ki're-aiR', (Louis,) a French bib- 
 lical commentator, born near Angers in 1662. His com- 
 mentary was inserted in the French version of the Bible 
 by Sacy. Died in 1717. 
 
 Carrillo, kar-ril'yo, (Martin,) a Spanish historian, 
 born at Saragossa; died about 1630. 
 
 Car'ring-ton, (Noel Thomas,) an English poet, born 
 at Plymouth in 1777. After serving a short time in the 
 royal navy, which he left about 1797, he taught school 
 at Maidstone and Devonport. He wrote several didactic 
 poems of some merit, among which are " The Banks of 
 Tamar," (1820,) " Dartmoor," (1826,) and "My Native 
 Village." " Dartmoor," which is called his best work, 
 was received with great favour. Died in 1830. 
 
 See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap, ii. 
 
 Carrion, kf ' re'6.N', (Louis,) a Flemish critic, born at 
 Bruges about 1547. He became professor of civil law 
 and of canon law at Louvain, where he died in 1595. 
 Among his works are an edition of the "Attic Nights" 
 of Aulus Gellius, and " Commentaries on Ancient Read- 
 ings," ("Antiquarum Lectionum Commentarii.") 
 
 Carrion, de, da kar-re-6n', (Manuel Ramirez,) a 
 learned Spaniard, born about 1590. He attained great 
 success in the instruction of deaf-mutes, and is said to 
 have been the first who, in Spain, taught letters to that 
 class. 
 
 Carrion-Nisas, ki're-ON' ne'za', (Antoine Henri 
 Francois,) a French author, born at Lezignan in 1794. 
 He has published a "Roman History from the Foun- 
 dation of Rome to the Reign of Constantine," (1815,) 
 "Principles of Political Economy," (1824,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Carrion-Nisas, de, deh ki're-AN' ne'za', (Marie 
 Henri Francois,) Marquis, a French politician and 
 military officer, born at Montpellier in 1787, was the 
 father of tne preceding. Died in 1841. 
 
 Cairo, de, deh ki'ro', (Jean,) a Swiss physician, born 
 at Geneva in 1770. He practised many years in Vienna, 
 and was noted for his zealous efforts to propagate vac- 
 cination, on which he published a work, (1801.) He lived 
 at Carlsbad from 1825 until his death in 1857. 
 
 See Weitenweber, " Biographie des Dr. J. de Can-o," 1844. 
 
 i,e,I,6, u,j long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, $, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CARROLL 
 
 $29 
 
 CARTE 
 
 Car'rolL, (Charles,) of Carrollton, an American pa- 
 triot, born at Annapolis, Maryland, in 1737. He was 
 educated as a Roman Catholic in France, and studied 
 law in Paris and London. Having returned to America 
 about 1764, he inherited a very large estate in land in his 
 native province, and was reputed to be the richest man 
 in Maryland. Before the Revolution began, he defended, 
 by his writings, the rights of the colonies against the 
 oppressive measures of the British ministry. He was 
 elected a delegate to the Provincial Convention in 1775, 
 and a delegate to Congress in July, 1776. He signed 
 the Declaration of Independence, and, in order to iden- 
 tify himself more fully with the danger as well as honour 
 resulting from that manifesto, wrote his name Charles 
 Carroll of Carrollton, after some one had remarked 
 that there were several persons named Charles Carr ill. 
 He was elected a Senator of the United States for Mary- 
 land in 1788. In 1810 he retired from public life. He 
 was the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence. Having attained the age of ninety-five years, 
 he died in 1832. 
 
 See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence ;" " National Portrait-Gallery," vol. i., 1839. 
 
 Carroll, (John,) a Roman Catholic prelate, born 
 in Maryland in 1735, was a cousin of the preceding. 
 He joined the order of Jesuits. In 1776 he went to 
 Canada, at the request of Congress, in company with 
 Benjamin Franklin and two others, who were sent on a 
 political mission. He was appointed Bishop of Baltimore 
 in 1789, and afterwards received the title of Archbishop. 
 Died in 181 5. 
 
 See " Encyclopedia Americana." 
 
 Carroii, ki'rdx', (Gui Toussaint Julien,) Abbe, a 
 French priest and moralist, noted for his works of cha- 
 rity and benevolence, was born at Rennes in 1760. Re- 
 fusing to take the prescribed oath in 1 791, he was exiled 
 to Jersey, and thence removed to London. In each of 
 these places he founded schools, hospitals, etc. In 1814 
 he returned to Paris, and took part in various benevolent 
 enterprises. He published "Christian Thoughts," " Lives 
 of the Just," " The Confessors of the Faith in France," 
 and many other works. Died in 1821. 
 
 See " Notice sur Carron," prefixed to his works. 
 
 Carroza, kar-rod'za, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician, 
 born at Messina in 1678; died after 1730. 
 
 Carrucci. See Pontormo. 
 
 Cars, kiR, (Laurent,) a skilful French engraver, 
 born at Lyons in 1703, was a pupil of Lemoyne in Paris. 
 He was received into the Royal Academy in 1733. 
 " Hercules and Omphale" is one of his master-pieces. 
 Died in 1771. 
 
 Car'son, (Christopher,) commonly known as Kit 
 Carson, a famous trapper and mountain-guide, born in 
 Kentucky in 1809, passed a large portion of his time in 
 the Rocky Mountains and the adjacent territories. He 
 rendered important services as a guide to Fremont in his 
 explorations. In 1847 he was made lieutenant in the 
 rifle-corps of the United States army. Died in 1868. 
 
 Car'stairs or Car'stares, (WILLIAM,) a Scottish 
 theologian and negotiator, born at Cathcart in 1649. 
 Having received a good education and studied theology 
 at Utrecht, he became chaplain and private secretary to 
 William, Prince of Orange, who sent him to England on 
 a secret mission in the reign of Charles II. As acces- 
 sary to the conspiracy of Monmouth's friends, he was 
 arrested and put to the torture, which he bore with for- 
 te, and confessed nothing important. After the 
 Prince of Orange became King of England, in 1688, 
 I his confidence, and had great influence 
 in the affairs of Scotland. It is stated that by strenuous 
 efforts he dissuaded the king from severe and impolitic 
 measures against the Scottish Presbyterians. In 1704 
 he was chosen principal of the University of Edinburgh, 
 and became minister of the Grey-Friars' Church in that 
 city. Died in 171 5. 
 
 '•William had," says Macaulay, "one Scottish adviser 
 alii deserved and possessed more influence than any of 
 the ostensible ministers. This was Carstairs, one of the 
 most remarkable men of that age. He united great 
 scholastic attainments with great aptitude for civil busi- 
 ness, and the firm faith and ardent zeal of a martyr urith 
 
 the shrewdness and suppleness of a consummate politi- 
 cian." 
 
 See Macaulav, "History of England," vol. ii. chap, ix., and vol. 
 iii. chap. xiii. : Chambers " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen;" McCormick, "Life of W. Carstairs," 1774. 
 
 Carstares. See Carstairs. 
 
 Carstens, kaR'stens, (Adolf Gothard,) a Danish 
 writer and critic, born at Copenhagen in 1713; died in 
 "795- 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Carstens, (Asmus Jakob,) an excellent Danish his- 
 torical painter, born near Sleswick in 1754. After he 
 left school he was compelled to serve an apprenticeship 
 of five years to a wine-merchant, and on obtaining his 
 liberty went to Copenhagen, in the Academy of which 
 he studied painting a few years. In 1783 he performed 
 a pedestrian journey to Milan, intending to visit Rome ; 
 but want of funds compelled him to return before he 
 reached that point. He worked in Lubeck about five 
 years, during which he supported himself by painting 
 portraits, and thence removed to Berlin, where he pro- 
 duced " The Fall of the Angels." The merit of this 
 procured his appointment as professor in the Academy 
 of that city. In 1792 he went to Rome, where he studied 
 with fond admiration the works of Michael Angelo and 
 Raphael and acquired a wide reputation by his com- 
 positions. Among his master-pieces are " The Visit of 
 the Argonauts to the Centaur Chiron," and "Gidipus 
 Tyrannus." Died in Rome in 1798. His subjects were 
 mostly taken from the great poets, ancient and modern. 
 
 See Fernow, " Leben des Kunstler Carstens," 1806 ; Nagler, 
 " Neues Allgemeines Kiinsller-Lexikon." 
 
 Carsughi, kaR-soo'gee, (Raniero,) an Italian Jesuit 
 and Latin poet, born in Tuscany in 1647; died at Rome 
 in 1709. 
 
 Cartagena, de, da kaR-ta-ha'na, (Alonso,) a Spanish 
 poet, who became Archbishop of Burgos. Died in 1456. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Cartajo, kaR-ta'yo, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian 
 poet, lived about 1530. 
 
 Cartari, kaR-ta'ree, (Vincenzo,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Reggio, lived about 1550. little is known of 
 his life, except that he was in the service of Cardinal 
 Ippolito d'Este. He wrote a popular work, entitled 
 " Images of the Gods of the Ancients," etc., (" Le Im- 
 magini degli Dei degli Antichi," 1556.) 
 
 See Ginguene, "Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie." 
 
 Cartaud de la Vilate, ktR'to' deh IS ve'lSt', (Fran- 
 cois,) a French author and priest, born at Aubusson 
 about 1700. He published in 1736 a " Historical and 
 Philosophical Essay on Taste," an ingenious and elo- 
 quent work, which attracted much attention. He dis- 
 played a fondness for paradox in his "Thoughts on 
 Mathematics." Died in Paris in 1737. 
 
 Cartaux or Cai teaux, ktR'to', (Jean Francois,) a 
 French general, born in Franche-Comte in 1 75 1. In 
 1793 he defeated the royalists at Orange, for which ser- 
 vice he was made on the same day general of brigade 
 and of division. He commenced the siege of Toulon, 
 where Bonaparte served under his orders, but was de- 
 prived of the command before the place was taken, in 
 1793. During the empire he was not in active service. 
 Died in 1813. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire de la Revolution Francaise." 
 
 Carte, kart, (Samuel,) an English divine and anti- 
 quary, born at Coventry in 1653, became prebendary of 
 Lichfield. He published a "Chronological Table of 
 Archiepiscopal and Episcopal Sees in England and 
 Wales," also several sermons. Died in 1740. 
 
 Carte, (Thomas,) an English historian, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Clifton in 1686. Having entered 
 into holv orders, he became reader in the Abbey Church, 
 Bath. From his partiality to the house of Stuart, he 
 refused to take the oaths on the accession of George I. 
 In 1 71 5 orders were issued to arrest him as a party to 
 the rebellion ; but he escaped to France, where he re- 
 mained about twelve years. After his return to England, 
 he published a " History of the Life of James, Duke of 
 Ormond," which, says Dr. Johnson, " is considered as a 
 book of authority ; but it is ill written. There is no ani- 
 mation, no compression, no vigour." He also wrote 
 
 7 9 as /;g *<;>••</,• gas/; G,w,Y.,guttural; N, natal; v., tiilleJ ; last; th as in thit. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 34 
 
 r.isi 
 
CARTE AUX 
 
 53° 
 
 CARTICETA 
 
 a "History of England," (4 vols., 1747-55,) which was 
 coldly received. Hume refers to Carte as an "author 
 of great industry and learning, but full of prejudices." 
 Died in 1754. 
 
 Carteaux. See Cartaux. 
 
 Cartellier, kiR't&'le-i', (Pierre,) an eminent French 
 sculptor, born in 1757 in Paris, was a pupil of C. A. 
 Bridan. His reputation was established by the figure 
 of War which adorns the palace of the Luxembourg. 
 His statues of Aristides and Vergniaud were greatly 
 admired, but exist only in plaster models. In 1810 
 he was elected a member of the Institute, and about 
 that time produced statues of Napoleon and of Louis 
 Bonaparte. He executed many other excellent works. 
 Several distinguished artists were formed in his school. 
 Died in 1831. 
 
 See Quatremere de Quincy, " Notice historique sur la Vie de 
 Carlellier." 
 
 Car'ter, (Elizabeth,) an English lady, distinguished 
 as a profound classical scholar and an authoress, was 
 born at Deal, Kent, in 1717. Her father, Nicholas Car- 
 ter, D.D., curate of Deal, was a good classical scholar, 
 and instructed her in the learned languages. She also 
 made herself mistress of Italian, German, French, and 
 Spanish. In 1738 she published anonymously a small 
 volume of poems, and the next year acquired reputation 
 by translating a work on Newton's philosophy from the 
 Italian of AlgarOtti. Her "Ode to Wisdom" (1746) is 
 one of her best poems. At an early period of her author- 
 ship she became a friend of Dr. Johnson, for whom she 
 wrote Nos. 44 and 100 of the " Rambler." He once 
 remarked "f some eminent scholar, "Sir, he is the best 
 Greek scholar in England except Elizabeth Carter." 
 Her translation of Epictetus from the Greek (1758) ex- 
 tended her celebrity beyond the limits of her own coun- 
 try. Warton expressed the opinion that " it excels the 
 original." She was never married. Her character was 
 adorned by modesty, piety, and other Christian graces. 
 Several volumes of her letters have been published. 
 Died in London in 1806. 
 
 See Pennington, "Memoirs of E. Carter;" Mrs. Elwood, 
 " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," etc., vol. i., 1843. 
 
 Carter, (Francis,) an English writer, who resided 
 some yeaxs in Spain, and published "A Journey from 
 Gibraltar to Malaga," (1777.) He left a work in manu- 
 script, entitled " Historical and Critical Account of Early- 
 Printed Spanish Hooks." Died in 1783. 
 
 Car'ter, (Jamks Gordon,) an American educationist, 
 born at Leominster, Massachusetts, in 1795, graduated 
 at Harvard in 1820. He furnished some valuable con- 
 tributions on the subject of education to the " Boston 
 Patriot" in 1823. As chairman of the committee on edu- 
 cation, in the Massachusetts legislature, he did much to 
 promote the interest of free schools. He drafted the bill 
 establishing the Massachusetts Board of Education, of 
 which he was appointed chairman by Governor Everett. 
 Died in 1849. 
 
 Carter, (John,) an eminent architect and antiquary, 
 born in London in 1748. From 1780 to 1794 he issued, 
 in numbers, " Specimens of Ancient Sculpture now re- 
 maining in England," which was followed by " Views of 
 Ancient Buildings in England." He was employed 
 more than twenty years on an important national work, 
 entitled "The Ancient Architecture of England," (1795 
 -1816,) which is highly prized by students of that art. 
 Died in 1817 or 1818. 
 
 Carter, (John,) a silk-weaver, born at Coggeshall, 
 England, in 1815. By injuries received in falling from 
 a tree, his body below his neck became paralyzed. He 
 lived for eighteen years in this condition, and learned 
 to draw with wonderful skill, holding the brush in his 
 mouth. His chief work is a " Rat-Catcher and his Dogs," 
 the design and execution of which have been full of 
 interest to the leading artists ; and all his productions 
 exhibit great aesthetic powers. Died in 1850. 
 
 See William James Dampier, "Memoir of John Carter." Lon- 
 don, 1850; Frederick J. Mills, "Life of John Carter," New 
 York, :868. 
 
 Carter, (Nathaniel H.,) an American writer, born 
 at Concord, New Hampshire, in 1787 or 17S8. He be- 
 came, about 1820, editor of the New York " Statesman," 
 which supported De Witt Clinton. He published, after 
 
 a visit to Europe, "Letters from Europe," (2 vols., 1827.) 
 Died at Marseilles in 1830. 
 
 Carter, (Samuel P.,) an American general, born in 
 East Tennessee in 1819, served in the navy in his youth. 
 He was appointed a brigadier-general about May, 1862. 
 He commanded a division under Schofield, in North 
 Carolina, in February, 1865. 
 
 Car'ter, (Thomas,) an Irish musician and composer 
 of vocal music, born about 1768; died about 1S02. 
 
 Car'ter-et, (Sir George,) an English naval officer, 
 born about 1600, was an adherent of Charles I. and 
 Charles II. in the civil war. Died in 1679. 
 
 Carteret, (John,) Viscount Carteret and Earl Gran- 
 ville, an able English statesman and orator, born in 1690, 
 was the son of George, Lord Carteret, of Bedfordshire. 
 He graduated with high honours at Oxford, and in 171 1 
 entered the House of Lords, where he soon became 
 prominent as a speaker and a supporter of the Whig 
 ministry. He represented England at the Congress of 
 Cambrai in 172c, and was made secretary of state in 
 1721. Between 1724 and 1730 he was lord lieutenant 
 of Ireland, and after the latter date he acted with the 
 opposition. "Of all the members of the cabinet," says 
 Macaulay, " Carteret was the most eloquent and accom- 
 plished. His talents for debate were of the fiist order ; 
 and his knowledge of foreign affairs superior to that of 
 any living statesman. But there was not room in the 
 government for him and Walpole, and Carteret retired." 
 After the defeat of Walpole (1741) he became secretary 
 of state, and for some months was chief minister, — or 
 sole minister. In 1544 he was removed by the influence 
 of the Pelham party. About 1750 he was appointed 
 president of the council. The historian above named 
 says, " His knowledge of modern languages was prodi- 
 gious. No public man had such profound and extensive 
 learning." His temper was bold, open, and impetuous. 
 Died in 1763. 
 
 See Macaulay, " Essay on Walpole's Letters to Sir Horace 
 Mann," 1833; also his article entitled "Thackeray's History of the 
 Earl of Chatham," 1834. 
 
 Carteret, (Philip,) Captain, an English navigator, 
 who, in 1766, commanded one of the two vessels sent 
 out to make discoveries in the South Sea, under the 
 orders of Captain Wallis. Having discovered numerous 
 small islands, one of which bears his name, Captain Car- 
 teret returned home in 17.69, after which Havvkesworth 
 published an account of the voyage. 
 
 Carteromacho. See Forteguerri. 
 
 Cartesius, or Cartes. Ees. See Descartes. 
 
 Carthaeuser. See Carthauser. 
 
 Car'tha-lo or Car'tha-lon, a Carthaginian general 
 of the first Punic war. He commanded a fleet which 
 was sent against the Romans in 249 n.c. Before any 
 general action was fought, the Roman fleet was destroyed 
 by a storm, from which the superior skill of the Cartha- 
 ginians saved therrx 
 
 Carthalon, a commander of the cavalry of Hannibal 
 in his invasion of Italy, and at Cannae in 216 B.C. Soon 
 after that action he was sent to Rome to negotiate for 
 the ransom of prisoners, but was ordered by a lictor to 
 quit the Roman territory before sunset. He was taken 
 prisoner in 208 B.C., and killed by a Roman soldier. 
 
 Carthauser, Carthaeuser, 'or Cartheuser, pro- 
 nounced alike kaRt'hoi'zer, ( Friedrich August,) a 
 German physician, son of Johann Friedrich, noticed be- 
 low, was born at Halle in 1734. He became professor of 
 medicine and surgery at Giessen in 1766. He published 
 "Elements of Mineralogy," " Rudiments of Hydrology," 
 (both in Latin,) and other works. Died in 1796. 
 
 Carthauser, Carthaeuser, or Cartheuser, (Johann 
 Friedrich,) a learned German physician, born at Hayn 
 in 1704. He experimented on many plants and medica- 
 ments, and made a reform in the materia medica. In 
 1740 he was chosen professor of chemistry, pharmacy, 
 etc. in the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He 
 published (in Latin) " Elements of Experimental Chem- 
 istry, etc.," (1736,) "Elements of Materia Medica, Gene- 
 ral and Special,'" (1749,) and other works. Died in 1777. 
 See £loy, " Dictionnaire de la MfMecine;" "Biographie Miii- 
 cale." 
 
 Carticeya or Cartikeya. See Kartikeya. 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, it, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
 
C ARTIER 
 
 53' 
 
 CARVAJAL 
 
 Cartier, kiR'te-A', (Jacques,) a French navigator, 
 the first discoverer of the Saint Lawrence River, was 
 born at Saint-Malo in 1494. Being sent by Francis I. to 
 explore North America in 1534, he entered the Gulf of 
 Saint Lawrence, advanced as far as Gaspe Hay, and re- 
 turned to France. He renewed the enterprise in 1535, 
 and ascended the river as far as the site of Montreal. 
 Being kindly treated by the natives, he passed the winter 
 in Canada, and arrived at Saint-Malo in July, 1536. A 
 narrative of the voyage was published. 
 
 See " Voyage de Decouvertes au Canada, etc.," Quebec, 1843. 
 
 Cartier, (Louis Vincent,) a French physician and 
 writer on surgery, born in Dauphine in 1768: died at 
 Lyons in 1839. 
 
 Car-tl-mancVu-a or Car-tis-man'du-a, Queen of 
 the Brigantes in Britain, lived about 50 a.'d. She be- 
 trayed Caractacus to the Romans. 
 
 Cartouche, kii<'toosh',(Louis Dominique,) a French 
 robber of extraordinary skill and audacity, born in l'aris 
 in 1693, was executed in 1721. 
 
 Cart'wright, (Christopher,) a learned Englishman, 
 born in 1602, is said to have been the first who applied 
 the more ancient uninspired writings of the Jews to the 
 illustration of the Bible. He published several theolo- 
 gical works, including one on the Targum, (1648.) Died 
 in 1658. 
 
 Cartwright, (Edmund,) the inventor of the power- 
 loom, was born at Marnham, England, in 1743. Having 
 taken orders, he obtained the living of Brampton, and 
 afterwards that of Goadby-Marwood. He wrote a num- 
 ber of poems, among which were " The Prince of Peace" 
 and " Armina and Elvira." The latter, a poetical legend, 
 passed through nine editions. About 1785 he invented 
 the power-loom, the use of which was opposed by the 
 weavers, who destroyed five hundred of his machines. 
 He obtained patents for many other inventions. In 1809 
 Parliament voted him ,£10,000 for the service he had 
 rendered the public by the invention of the power- 
 loom. Died in 1823. 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Mechanical Inventions 
 of Edmund Cartwright." London, 8vo, 1843: "Pursuitof Knowledge 
 under Difficulties," vol. ii., 1839. 
 
 Cartwright, (George,) an English traveller, born at 
 Marnham in 1739. In the Seven Years' war he served 
 in Germany and obtained the rank of captain. He after- 
 wards made several voyages to Labrador, and in 1792 
 published a "Journal of a Residence of Sixteen Years 
 on the Coast of Labrador." "The annals of his cam- 
 paigns among the foxes and beavers," savs Coleridge, 
 "interested me more than ever did the exploits of Marl- 
 borough or Frederick." Died in 1819. 
 
 Cartwright, (John,) Major, a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Marnham in 1740, and passed some 
 years in the royal navy previous to the American war. 
 Prompted by his love' of liberty, he refused to fight 
 against the United States, and wrote " Letters on Ameri- 
 can Independence," (1774,) besides other political tracts. 
 He was a zealous advocate of parliamentary reform and 
 universal suffrage. Charles!. Fox thought him "one 
 whose enlightened mind atW profound constitutional 
 knowledge placed him in the highest rank of public 
 character, and whose purity of principle and consistency 
 of conduct commanded the most respectful attention to 
 his opinions." He was a coadjutor of Tooke, Hardy, 
 etc. in the cause of reform. Died in 1824. 
 
 See F. D. Cartwric;ht, " Life of Major J. Cartwright," 1826. 
 
 Cart'wright,( Peter.) an eminent Methodist preacher, 
 born in Amherst county, Virginia, in 1785. While he 
 was still a child, his parents removed with him to Ken- 
 tucky. When scarcely sixteen years old, he was con- 
 verted, and joined the Methodist' Episcopal Church. At 
 an early age he began to preach, and continued to labour 
 in the cause with great zeal and success for more than 
 fifty years. It is estimated that he preached in all not 
 fewer than fifteen thousand sermons. 
 
 See "Autobiography of Peter Cartwright. the Backwoods 
 Preacher," edited by W. P. Strickland, New York, 1856. 
 
 Cartwright, (Thomas,) an English Puritan divine, 
 eminent for learning and talents, was born in Hertford- 
 shire about 1535. He became a Fellow of a college at 
 Cambridge in 1560, and professor of divinity there in 
 
 1570. A few years later he was deprived of these offices, 
 and imprisoned several times, for his Puritanism. He 
 published a " Body of Divinity," (1616,) a " Directory for 
 Church Government," commentaries on several books 
 of the Bible, and other works. Died in 1603. 
 
 See B. Brook, "Memoir of the Life of T. Cartwright," 1845. 
 
 Cartwright, (Thomas,) born in 1634, is supposed to 
 have been a grandson of the preceding. He became 
 Bishop of Chester in 1686, and was one of the commis- 
 sioners who seconded James II. in his despotic attempt 
 to impose a Roman Catholic president on the Fellows 
 of Magdalen College. Died in 16S9. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vols. ii. and iii. 
 
 Cartwright, (WILLIAM,) an English poet, born at 
 Northway in 161 1. He graduated at Oxford, took orders 
 in 1638, and became an eloquent preacher. Wood calls 
 him "the most florid and seraphical preacher in the 
 university." He was chosen junior proctor of Oxford 
 University, and reader in metaphysics in 1643, and died 
 the same year. He left tragi-comedies and other poems, 
 which were greatly admired by his contemporaries, but 
 are now neglected, except some of his dramas, one of 
 which is entitled "The Ordinary." 
 
 See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" Baker,"B1o- 
 graphia Dramatica;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ix., 1824. 
 
 Cams, ka'rus, (Friedrich August,) a Protestant 
 German theologian, born at Bautzen in 1770. He ac- 
 quired distinction as professor of philosophy in the 
 University of Leipsic, (1796 to 1807.) He published, 
 besides other works, a " History of Psychology," and a 
 I' History of the Psychology of the Hebrews," which 
 is said to be a profound and well -written work. Died 
 in 1S07. 
 
 See Schwarze, "Zum Andenken des Professor Cams;" Schott, 
 "Recitatio de F. A. Cari Virlutibus," etc., 1S08. 
 
 Carus, (Karl Gustav,) an eminent German physi- 
 ologist and physician, born at Leipsic in 1789. He was 
 appointed assistant professor of anatomy in his native 
 city in 181 1, and professor of obstetrics at Dresden in 
 1 81 5. In 1827 he became physician to the King of 
 Saxony, with the title of privy councillor. He also 
 practised painting with success. Among his principal 
 writings are an "Essay on the Nervous System," (1 814,) 
 a "Manual of Zootomy," (1818,) "Principles of Com- 
 parative Anatomy and Physiology," (3 vols., 1S28,) and 
 a "System of Physiology," (3 vols., 1838-40.) 
 
 See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Ca'rus, (Marcus Aurelius,) a Roman emperor, born 
 at Narbo, (now Narbonne.) Under the emperor Probus 
 he held the high office of prefect of the praetorium. At 
 the death of Probus in 282 A.D., Carus was elected his 
 successor by the army. In 283 he marched against the 
 Persians, leaving his son Carinus to govern Italy. Having 
 taken Seleucia and Ctesiphon, he was about to pursue 
 his conquests, when he died suddenly, (283,) or, as some 
 report, was killed by lightning. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Vopiscus, 
 
 " Carus." 
 
 Caruso, ka-roo'so, or Carusio, ka-roo'se-o, (Giovan- 
 ni Battista,) an Italian historian, born near Palermo 
 in 1673. He published "Historical Memoirs of Sicily," 
 (3 vols., 1716-45.) Died in 1724. 
 
 Caruso, (LuiGl,)a popular Italian composer of operas, 
 born in Naples about 1750. He was living in 1800. 
 
 Carvajal, kaR-va-naf', or Carbajal, kau-na -nil', 
 (Tomas JoslS Gonzalez,) a Spanish writer and states- 
 man, born at Seville in 1753. He was chosen president 
 of the junta of finances in 1812. At the restoration in 
 1814 he was imprisoned for political reasons. In 1S19 
 he produced a Spanish version of the Psalms, which is 
 greatly admired. He afterwards held several high civil 
 offices, among which was that of a member of the Coun- 
 cil of the Indies, and became a peer in 1834. He died 
 the same year. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Carvajal, de, di kaR-va-nal', or Carbajal, kaR-Ba- 
 Hal', (Bernardino,) born at Palencia, in Spain, about 
 1456, wasmadeacardin.il in 1493 In 1511 he supported 
 the interest of Louis XII. of France against Pope Julius 
 
 asi; 93s j; ghard; gas J; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sas*; th as in Mm. (J[^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CARVAJAL 
 
 S3* 
 
 CASABIANCA 
 
 II., for which offence he was excommunicated. Having 
 confessed his fault, he obtained pardon in 1513. Died 
 in 1523. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita Leonis X. ;" Paolo Giovio, "Elogia." 
 
 Carvajal, de, or Carbajal, (Francisco,) a famous 
 Spanish captain, born about 1464, was conspicuous for 
 courage at the battle of Pavia in 1535, and at the sack 
 of Rome in 1527. He afterwards went to Mexico and 
 Peru, and in 1542 became a major-general. He joined 
 the party of Gonzales Pizarro in his revolt against the 
 King of Spain, and gained several victories over the 
 royalists about 1546. In 1548 he was made prisoner 
 a .id hung. He was notorious for cruelty. 
 
 See Robertson, "History of America." 
 
 Carvajal, de, or Carbajal, written also Caravajal, 
 de, (Juan,) an eminent Spanish prelate, born at Truxillo, 
 was made a cardinal in 1446. He gained a high reputa- 
 tion by his missions as papal legate in Germany and 
 Hungary. Died at Rome in 1469. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Carvajal or Carbajal, de, (Lorenzo Galindez,) 
 was born at Placencia in 1472. He was professor of 
 law at Salamanca, was a councillor of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella, and held high offices under Charles V. He 
 left unfinished a " History of Spain," which, with other 
 works, remained in manuscript. Died in 1527. 
 
 See Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. iii. 
 chap. xxv. 
 
 Carvalho. See Freire de Carvalho. 
 
 Carvalho, kaR-val'yo, (Antonio Nunez,) a Portu- 
 guese bibliographer, born about 1790, was living in 1855. 
 
 Carvalho, (jozt da Sii.va,) a Portuguese minister 
 of state, born in 1782; died in 1845. 
 
 Carvalho d'Acosta, kaR-val'yo da-kos'ta, (Anto- 
 nio,) a Portuguese geographer and priest, born in Lis- 
 bon in 1650. He published in 1706 a "Topographical 
 Description of Portugal," which treats of the natural 
 and civil history of the principal places, and is esteemed 
 the best work on that subject. He also wrote a " Com- 
 pend of Geography," and other works. Died in 1715. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lnsitana." 
 
 Carvalho e Mello. See Pombal. 
 
 Carvallo, kaR-val'yo, (Manuel,) a South American 
 jurist and diplomatist, born at Santiago, in Chili, in 1808, 
 was charge-d affaires at Washington. 
 
 Carvaxal. See Carvajal, 
 
 Car'ver, (John,) the first governor of Plymouth col- 
 ony, was born in England. He was one of a company 
 of Puritans who emigrated to Holland, and came over 
 in the Mayflower in 1620. He is said to have been a 
 prudent and able governor. Died in 1621. 
 
 Carver, (Jonathan,) an American traveller, born in 
 Connecticut in 1732, served as captain in the war against 
 the French in Canada. lie passed about three years 
 (1766-68) in the exploration of North America, which 
 he crossed to the Pacific Ocean, and published in 177S 
 " Travels through the Interior Parts of North America." 
 Died in London in 1780. 
 
 Ca'rjf, (Alice,) an American authoress, born near 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, about 1822. She first attracted atten- 
 tion by her contributions to the "National Era," under 
 the title of Patty Lee; and she afterwards published 
 several volumes of poems and other works, including 
 three novels, — " Hagar, a Story of To-Dav," "Married 
 not Mated," and " Hollywood." Her sketches of West- 
 ern life, entitled "Clovernook," have obtained extensive 
 popularity both in America and Europe. Died in 1871. 
 
 Phceisf. Cary, a sister of Alice, has also contributed 
 to periodical literature, and in 1854 published a volume 
 entitled " Poems and Parodies." 
 
 See Griswold's "Female Poets of America;" Cleveland's 
 " Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Cary, (Colonel Archibald,) a Virginian patriot, born 
 about 1730. He favoured the cause of independence, 
 and took a prominent part in the Convention of 1776 
 which framed the constitution of Virginia. He was 
 afterwards a member of the Senate of Virginia. Died 
 in 1786. 
 
 Cary, Earl of Monmouth. See Carey, (Henry 
 and Robert.) 
 
 Cary, kf 're', (Felix,) a French antiquary and numis- 
 matist, born at Marseilles in 1699, formed a fine collec- 
 tion of antique medals. His principal production is a 
 " History cf the Kings of Thrace and of the Cimmerian 
 Bosphorus," which is regarded as a classic work. In 
 1752 the Academy of Inscriptions chose him as a corre- 
 spondent. Died in 1754. 
 
 Ca'ry, (Rev. Henry,) an English scholar and writer, 
 son of Henry F. Cary the translator of Dante. He has 
 published "Testimonies of the Fathers," (Oxford, 1835,) 
 and " Memorials of the Great Civil War in England 
 from 1646 to 1652," (1842.) He has also edited his 
 father's version of Dante, "Early French Poets," etc. 
 
 Cary, (Rev. Hknry Francis,) an English poet, emi- 
 nent as the translator of Dante, was born at Birmingham 
 in 1772. While a student at Oxford, he gave much at- 
 tention to Greek, Latin, French, and Italian, and before 
 he left college he had published a number of sonnets and 
 odes. In 1797 he was appointed vicar of Bromley Ab- 
 bot's. He produced in 1806 an excellent translation, in 
 blank verse, of Dante's " Inferno," and in 1814 completed 
 the other portions of the " Divina Commedia." This 
 version is highly applauded by the most eminent judges, 
 including Southey, who said it was "a translation of 
 magnitude and difficulty, executed with perfect fidelity 
 and admirable skill." He afterwards published "The 
 Early French Poets, a Series of Notices and Transla- 
 tions," and other works. Died in 1844. 
 
 See " Memoir of H. F. Cary," by his son, Henry Cary, 2 vols., 
 1847; "Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1847. 
 
 Cary, (John,) of Bristol, an Englishman, published, 
 between 1695 anc ' r 745> "Treatises on Political Econo- 
 my, etc." His "Discourse on Trade," a work of little 
 merit, was made the basis of a better work, published in 
 French, at Paris, 1 755. 
 
 Cary, (Lorr,) an African preacher, was born a slave 
 in Virginia, and accompanied the first emigrants sent 
 to Liberia by the American Colonization Society in 
 1821. He officiated as pastor, physician, and soldier to 
 the colony, was elected vice-agent in 1826, and on the 
 withdrawal of Mr. Ashmun, whose entire confidence he 
 enjoyed, discharged for about six months the duties of 
 governor. He was killed in November, 1828, by the 
 accidental explosion of a magazine. 
 
 Cary, (Lucius.) See Falkland, Lord. 
 
 Cary, (Robert.) See Carey, (Robert.) 
 
 Cary, (Robert,) a learned English clergyman, born 
 in Devonshire about 1615. He became Archdeacon of 
 Exeter in 1662, and wrote an esteemed work entitled 
 " Palseologia Chronica." Died in 1688. 
 
 Car'yl, (John,) of Sussex, an English dramatic wri- 
 ter, was intimate with Pope the poet. He wrote " The 
 English Princess," a tragedy, and a few other works. 
 He was secretary to Mary, queen of James II., whom 
 he followed into exile in 16S8, and who gave him the 
 empty title of Earl Caryl. 
 
 Caryl, (Joseph,) an English divine of the sect of 
 Independents, born in London in 1602, was ejected for 
 nonconformity in 1662. His principal work is an "Ex- 
 position of Job," (in 12 v#s.,) which is much praised. 
 Died in 1673. 
 
 See Nral's " History of the Puritans." 
 
 Caryophilus. See G arofalo, (Blaise.) 
 
 Casa, della, del'la ka'sa, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 poet and priest, born near Florence in 1503, was one of 
 the most elegant writers of his time. He became a re- 
 sident of Rome, and in 1544 Archbishop of Benevento. 
 Paul IV. on his election to the papal see made Casa his 
 secretary of state. He wrote lyric poems in Italian, 
 which were much admired, and were compared to those 
 of Bembo for purity of style. The first edition appeared 
 in 1558. His most popular prose work is "Galateo, 
 ovvero de' Costumi," which treats of the rules of polite- 
 ness. He translated Plato into Latin, and wrote Latin 
 "Carmina," and other works. Died at Rome about 1556. 
 
 See " Life of Della Casa," prefixed to his works, by G. B. Casotti, 
 (edition of 1707 ;) Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Fi- 
 lm' r<> liKKARDi," Biografia di Giovanni della Casa," 1836; GlNGVZNK, 
 "Histoire I.itteraire d'halie:" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine 
 Encyklopaedie;" Niceron, " Memoires. " 
 
 Casabianca, ka'sa-be-an'ka, (Louis,) a naval officer, 
 born at Bastia about 1755. He was sent as a deputy to 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; m<5Sn; 
 
CASABIANCA 
 
 533 
 
 CASAUBON 
 
 the French National Convention in 1792, and voted for 
 the detention of the king. In 1798 he was captain of 
 L'Orient, the flagship of the fleet which conveyed Bona- 
 parte and his army to Egypt. At the battle of the Nile, 
 August I, 1798, after he was mortally wounded, he made 
 a heroic defence of the burning ship, which finally was 
 destroyed by a terrific explosion. 
 
 Casabianca, (Raphael,) a French general, brother 
 of the preceding, was born in Corsica in 1738, and be- 
 came general of division in 1794. In 1806 he was made 
 a count. Died in 1825. 
 
 See De Courcelles, " Histoire des GeneYaux Francais." 
 
 Casa-Irujo, de, da ka'si e-roo'no, (Carlos Maria 
 Martinez,) Marquis, a Spanish statesman, born at 
 Cartagena in 1765. From 1795 to 1808 he was minis- 
 ter to the United States, where he married the daughter 
 of Thomas McKean. He was plenipotentiary at the 
 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, and ambassador 
 to Paris in 1821. In 1823 he was appointed minister 
 of foreign affairs, and president of the council. Died 
 in 1824. 
 
 Casal, kl-sal', (Gaspar,) Bishop of Leiria, in Portugal, 
 born at Santarem in 1 5 10. He became counsellor and 
 confessor of John III., whose preceptor he had once 
 been. He wrote a treatise " On the Justification of Man," 
 (in Latin,) and other works. Died about 1580. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Casal, de, di ka-sal', or Cazal, ka-zal', (Manuel 
 Ayres,) a Portuguese geographer, who emigrated to 
 Brazil in his youth, explored parts of that region, and 
 lived for some time in Rio Janeiro. In 1817 he published 
 a valuable "Historical and Geographical Description of 
 Brazil." He died in Lisbon many years after 1817. 
 
 Casali, ka-sa'lee, (Giovanni Battista,) a Roman 
 antiquary, who published a treatise " On the Sacred and 
 Profane Rites of the Ancients," "The Splendour of 
 Rome and the Roman Empire in Ancient Times," (1650,) 
 and other esteemed works. 
 
 Casali, (Giuseppe,) an antiquary and priest, born in 
 Rome in 1 744. He formed a rich collection of medals and 
 antique remains, was a liberal patron of artists, and wrote 
 a few treatises on numismatics. Died in 1797. 
 
 Casanova, ki-sa-no'va, (Francesco,) a painter, born 
 of Italian parents, in London, about 1728. At the age 
 of twenty-five he went to Paris, where he gained a high 
 reputation for his battle-pieces and landscapes, and was 
 admitted into the Royal Academy. He afterwards 
 worked in Vienna, where the Empress of Russia em- 
 ployed him to illustrate her victories over the Turks. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Casanova, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Venice about 
 1725. He was a pupil of R. Mengs, and professor in the 
 Academy of Fine Arts of Dresden. He gained dis- 
 tinction by his "Dissertations on Ancient Monuments of 
 Art." Died in 1798. 
 
 Casanova, (Giovanni Giacomo de Seingalt — deh 
 sTn'galt or deh sas'gilt',) a celebrated Italian adven- 
 turer, remarkable for his wit, accomplishments, learning, 
 and intrigues, was born in Venice in 1725, and was a 
 brother of the preceding. His parents were play-actors. 
 For many years he led a wandering and dissipated life 
 in the various capitals of Europe, frequenting the most 
 aristocratic society, and having no regular business. He 
 was confined about two years in the dungeon of Venice, 
 (1755-57,) and escaped by stratagem. In the course of 
 his life he fought several duels. He became librarian to 
 Count Waldstein, a Bohemian grandee, with whom he 
 paused the last fourteen years of his life, and (lied in 
 1803, leaving "Memoirs of his Life," which are sprightly 
 and entertaining. He translated the "Iliad" into ottava 
 rima, and wrote a few other works. 
 
 See Casanova, " Memoirs," in German and French. 8 vols., 1830; 
 
 Barthold, "Die geschichtlichen PersonUchkeiUn in J. Casanova's 
 Memoiren," Berlin, 2 vols., 1846; see, also, " Nouvelle 
 G^n^rale." 
 
 Casanova, (Marcantonio,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Rome in 1476. He wrote epigrams against Clement VII. 
 Died about 1527. 
 
 Casar. See Caesar. 
 
 Casaregi, ka-SS-ra'jee, [Lat. Casare'gis,] (Giovanni 
 Bartolommeo,) an Italian poet, born at Genoa in 1676, 
 was a brother of the jurist noticed below. He lived at 
 Rome and afterwards at Florence, and was a member of 
 the Academy dellaCrusca. He wrote elegant lyric poems, 
 " Sonnetti e Canzoni," and translated the Proverbs of 
 Solomon into verse. Died,in 1755. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe.' 
 
 Casaregi, [Lat. Casare'gis,] (Giuseppe Lorenzo 
 Maria,) a distinguished Italian jurist, born at Genoa in 
 1670. He was reputed a high authority in questions of 
 commercial law, on which he wrote several treatises,— 
 " 1 liscttrsus legales de Commercio." Died in 1737. 
 
 Casaregis. See Casaregi. 
 
 Casas, de las, da las ka'sas, (Bartolome,) a be- 
 nevolent Spanish missionary, noted for his zeal in behalf 
 of the oppressed Indians, was born at Seville in 1474. 
 In 1493 ne accompanied Columbus in his second voyage 
 to America. Some years later, having become a Domin- 
 ican friar, he went to Hispaniola as a missionary, preach- 
 ing the gospel to the natives, and humanity to the Spanish 
 conquerors who had enslaved them. His efforts to ame- 
 liorate the condition of this class having been opposed 
 and frustrated, he visited the court of Spain in 15 16, 
 and afterwards repeatedly crossed the ocean to plead 
 their cause. He also addressed to Charles V. several 
 letters or treatises on the subject. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Chiapa, in Mexico, some years before 1550. 
 In 1551 he returned to Spain, where he died in 1566, 
 leaving a " History of the Indies," still in manuscript. 
 The charge that he advised the importation of negro 
 slaves as a substitute for Indians appears to be without 
 foundation: "it has," says the "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale," "been completely refuted by M. Gregoire." 
 
 See Arthur Helps, " Life of Las Casas," 1868; Raynal, " His- 
 toire nhilosophique des Deux Indes;" Gregoire, "Apologie de Las 
 Casas," (published in the " M^moires" of the Institute ;) Morbri, 
 " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Michael Pio, " Viede Las Casas," 1618. 
 
 Casati, ka-sl'tee, (Paolo,) a learned Italian Jesuit, 
 born at Piacenza in 161 7. He taught mathematics and 
 theology at Rome, and is said to have converted Queen 
 Christina of Sweden to the Catholic faith. He wrote 
 treatises on Mechanics, on Optics, and on Fire. The last 
 is commended. Died at Parma in 1707. 
 
 See Niceron, " M^moires." 
 
 Ca-sau'bpn, [Fr. pron. ki'zo'bfW; Lat. Casaubo'- 
 nus, I (Isaac,) one of the most eminent critics and scholars 
 of his time, was born of French Protestant parents, at 
 Geneva, on the 8th of Febuary, 1559. In 1582 he became 
 a professor of Greek in the College of Geneva, and soon 
 after began to publish the editions of Greek authors 
 which caused his celebrity as a critic. His "Athenscus" 
 (1600) "has always been deemed," says Hallam, "a noble 
 monument of critical sagacity and extensive erudition. 
 In conjectural emendation of the text, no one hitherto 
 had been equal to Casaulxm." He married Florence, a 
 daughter of the eminent scholar Henry Etienne, about 
 1585. He was professor of Greek at Montpellier from 
 1596 to 1599. In 1600 Henry IV. invited him to Paris 
 to give lessons in Greek, and appointed him royal libra- 
 rian. He published an excellent edition of Polybius in 
 1609. In 1610 he removed to England, where he was 
 received with favour by James I., who made him pre- 
 bendary of Canterbury. Joseph Scaliger once said of 
 Casaubon, " He is the most learned man now living," 
 although he himself was equal to Casaubon in .general 
 learning, but not in a critical knowledge of Greek. Ca- 
 saubon died in London in 1614. He was a moderate 
 Protestant, and wrote a treatise " De I.ibertate eccle- 
 siastica," ("On Ecclesiastical Liberty.") Among his 
 productions were editions of Aristotle! Works, (1550,) 
 and of the "Characters" ofTheophrastus, (1592.) 
 
 See Almblovken, " Vie de Casaubon :" C. Nisard, "LeTrtim- 
 
 virat Iittcraire, Juvt, iljgw et Casaulxm. '' 1831: Wolf, 
 
 ubonlana, Hamburg, 1710; Niceron, " M<*moiv<_-s;" '• Nmi- 
 
 1 1 :. I [iographifl G^n^rale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for October, 
 
 1853. 
 
 Casaubon, (Mei'.ic,) the son of the preceding, was 
 born at Geneva in 1599. He took orders in the Anglican 
 Church, and obtained the living of Iclcham, and in 1628 
 a prebend in the chord) of Canterbury. During the civil 
 war he was deprived of these places, and, it is laid, 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this, (ijy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CASAUBONUS 
 
 534 
 
 CAS PARI 
 
 declined the proffered gifts and patronage of Cromwell, 
 who desired him to write a history of the war. At the 
 restoration of 1660 he recovered his benefices. He was 
 a writer of moderate ability, and published a variety of 
 works, among which are a "Treatise on Enthusiasm," 
 and one "On Credulity and Incredulity." Died in 1671. 
 
 See Wood, "Athense Oxonienses;" Niceron, "Meinoires." 
 
 Casaubonus. See Casaubon. 
 
 Cas'ca, (P. Servilius,) a Roman conspirator, was a 
 tribune of the people when he assisted at the assassina- 
 tion of Caesar in 44 B.C. He fought at the battle of 
 Philippi, (42 B.C.,) and died shortly afterwards. 
 
 . Cas-cel'H-ua, (Aulus,) an eminent and eloquent 
 Roman jurist, was a contemporary of Cicero and Tre- 
 batius. lie was a firm and consistent republican, and 
 sh.jwed his independent spirit bv refusing, in 41 B.C., to 
 sa action by legal forms the spoliations of the triumvirs. 
 Horace (in "De Arte Poetica," 1. 371) speaks of Cascel- 
 lius as a jurisconsult of rare learning. 
 
 S^-e GkOTIUS, "Vitae Jurisconsultorum ;" Laghmans, "Disser- 
 tatio de A. Cascellio," 1823. 
 
 Case, (John,) M.D., born at Woodstock, England, 
 was noted as a disputant and philosopher. He taught 
 philosophy at Oxford, and published the " Mirror of 
 Moral Questions according to the Ethics of Aristotle," 
 (" Speculum Moralium Questionum in Ethicam Aristo- 
 telis,") and other works. Died in 1600. 
 
 Case, (John.) a famous English astrologer and quack, 
 born at Lyme-Regis. He flourished in the reign of Queen 
 Anne, (1 701-14,) and was the successor of Lilly in astro- 
 logy. He inscribed on his sign, 
 
 " Within this place 
 Lives Doctor Case," 
 
 and is said to have made more money by that distich 
 than Dryden received for all his works. He published 
 "Compendium Anatomicum," and a few other works. 
 
 Case, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist minister, 
 born in Kent about 1598, was ejected from Erpingham, 
 Norfolk. He was afterwards rector of Saint Giles-in- 
 the-Fields. Died in 1682. 
 
 Casearius, ka-se-a're-us, (Jan,) a Dutch botanist, who 
 lived in India about 1670, and was one of the authors 
 of the " Hortus Malabaricus." 
 
 Casel. See Caselius. 
 
 Caselius, ka-za'le-us, [Ger. Casei., ka'zel ; Fr. Ches- 
 sel, shi'seY,] (Johannes,) an eminent German philolo- 
 gist and writer, born at Gottingen in 1533. He was 
 professor of philosophy in the University of Helmstedt 
 from 1590 to 1613. He wrote Latin with elegance, and 
 was author of many works on philosophy and other 
 subjects. The most generally known of his productions 
 were Letters, (in Latin,) which were addressed to his 
 eminent contemporaries, and which are admired for 
 ingenious thoughts and graces of style. Died in 1613. 
 
 See M. Adam, "Vitas Eruditorum;" J. Sigfried, "De Vita et 
 Obitu J. Caselii," 1613. 
 
 Caseneuve, de, deh ktz'nuv', [Lat. Caseno'va,] 
 (Pierre.) a French priest and philologist, born at Tou- 
 louse in 1591. He wrote a "Treatise on Freehold," and 
 a dictionary, entitled " Origin of the French Language," 
 ("Origines de la Langue Francaise.") Died in 1652. 
 
 See Medon, "Vita Viri illustris Casenovae," 1656. 
 
 Cases, kSz, (Pierre Jacques,) a skilful French painter 
 of history, born in Paris in 1670. Among his master- 
 pieces is a " Holy Family." Died in Paris in 1754. 
 
 Cases, Las. See Las Cases. 
 
 Ca'sey, (Silas,) an American general, born in Rhode 
 Island in 1807, graduated at West Point in 1826. lie 
 served as captain' in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and 
 became a lieutenant-colonel in 1855. He was appointed 
 a brigadier-general of volunteers in August, 1861, and a 
 colonel of the regular army in October, and commanded 
 a division at Fair Oaks, May 31, 1862. 
 
 Cas'I-mir [Polish, Kazimierz, ka'ze-me-aRzh'] I. of 
 Poland, surnamed the Pacific, was still an infant when 
 liis father, Micislaus (Mieczislaw) II., died in 1034. His 
 mother carried him to France, where he took the mo- 
 nastic vows in the abbey of Cluny. Having been invited 
 by the Poles to reign over them, he was crowned in 1041, 
 and married the sister of Yaroslaf, Duke of Russia. His 
 
 reign promoted the prosperity and civilization of Poland 
 Died in 1058, leaving the throne to his son, Boleslaus II. 
 
 Casimir II., King of Poland, born about 1 137, was a 
 younger son of Boleslaus HI. In 1 1 77 his brother Micis- 
 laus was deposed, and Casimir was chosen king. He is 
 said to have ruled with wisdom, and to have gained the 
 favour of the people. He waged a successful war against 
 the Prussians, who procured peace by paying tribute. He 
 died in 1194, and was succeeded by his son, Lesko V. 
 
 Casiruir III., surnamed the Great, became King 
 of Poland at the death of his father, Vladislaus, (or Ladis- 
 laus,) in 1333. He married Anne, daughter of the Duke 
 of Lithuania. About 1345 he defeated the King of Bo- 
 hemia, and in 1366 subdued Red Russia. He founded 
 hospitals, colleges, etc. He died in 1370, and was the 
 last of the royal line of Piast. His nephew, Louis of 
 Hungary, was his successor. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GiSne'rale." 
 
 Casimir IV. of Poland, born about 1425, was the 
 second son of Vladislaus IV. or V., (who before his ac- 
 cession was Yagello, Duke of Lithuania.) He succeeded 
 his elder brother, Vladislaus, in 1445, and married the 
 daughter of the emperor Albert II. He waged a long 
 war against the Teutonic knights, who were finally de- 
 feated in 1466, when Casimir became master of a great 
 part of Prussia. In this reign the constitution of the 
 Diet was changed by the admission of deputies who were 
 not nobles. He died in 1492, leaving five or six sons, 
 three of whom became successively kings of Poland, 
 — John Albert, Alexander, and Sigismund. 
 
 Casimir V. of Poland, second son of Sigismund III. 
 and Constance of Austria, was born in 1609. About 1645 
 he was made a cardinal. In 164S he was elected king on 
 the death of his brother Vladislaus. He was involved 
 in a war with the allied Cossacks and Russians, whom 
 he defeated. Poland was afterwards invaded by Charles 
 Gustavus of Sweden, who took Warsaw after a victory 
 over the Poles ; but his progress was arrested by a coali- 
 tion of several powers, and peace was concluded in 1660. 
 Weary of contending against his foreign and domestic 
 enemies, he abdicated in 1668, and died in France in 1672. 
 
 See " Lebensbeschreibung Casimiri V., weyland Kbnigs in Polen," 
 Nuremberg, 16S0; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Histoire 
 generale de Pologne, d'apres les Historiens Polonais." 
 
 Cas'I-mir Sar-bl-e'vl-us, a Latin lyric poet and 
 Jesuit, born in Poland in 1595, lived some years at Rome. 
 His verses were praised by Rapin the poet. According 
 to Hallam, he obtained a much higher reputation than 
 Sidonius Hoschius. Died about 1640. 
 
 Casiri, ka-see'ree, (Michael,) a learned Orientalist 
 and Maronite, born at Tripoli, in Syria, in 1710. He 
 removed to Spain in 1748, and became chief librarian 
 of the Escurial in 1763. His principal work is "Biblio- 
 theca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis," ("Arabic-Spanish 
 Library of the Escurial,") which is said to be an in- 
 dispensable treasure to students of Oriental literature. 
 Died in 1791. 
 
 See Zenker, "Bibliotheca Orientalis." 
 
 Cas'ley, (David,) an English bibliographer, published 
 a "Catalogue of the MSS. in the King's Library," 1734. 
 
 Cas'lon, (William,) an English letter-founder and 
 engraver, born at Hales-Owen in 1692; died in 1766. 
 
 Casmami, kas'man, (Otho,) a German theologian, 
 who was rector at Stade, in Hanover. Died in 1607. 
 
 Casolaui, ka-so-la'nee, (Alessandro,) an eminent 
 Italian painter, born at Sienna in 1552. He excelled in 
 design and composition. Died in 1606. 
 
 Casotti, ka-sot'tee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Prato, in Tuscany, in 1669. He was pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and history in Florence, and author 
 of several learned works, among which was " Historical 
 Notices of the Life and Works of Giovanni della Casa." 
 Died in 1737. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian] illustri." 
 
 Caspari, kas'pl-ree, (Karl Paul,) a learned German 
 biblical critic, born at Dessau in 1814. He became lector 
 and member of the faculty in the University of Chris- 
 tiania. He has published, besides other works, " Studies 
 of Biblical Theology and Apologetic Criticism," (1842,) 
 and an "Introduction to the Book of Isaiah and the 
 History of his Time," (1S48.) 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, Q, y, short; a, %, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon- 
 
 
CASPER 
 
 535 
 
 CASS E RIO 
 
 Casper, kis'per, (Johann Ludwig,) a distinguished 
 German physician, born in 1796. He became assistant 
 professor in the University of Berlin in 1825, and ge- 
 ktim mediciimlrath in 1834. In 1833 he began to edit 
 the *" Weekly Journal of Medicine." He was appointed 
 prof> ssor of medicine in the University of Berlin In 1839. 
 He is regarded as one of the most renowned practitioners 
 of Germany. Among his works is "Essays on Medical 
 Statistics and Officinal Medicine," (1825-37.) 
 
 Cass, (JnNvni \N,) an American officer in the war of 
 the Revolution, was born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, in 
 1753. He entered the armv in 1775, obtained the rank 
 of captain, and served until the end of the war. Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 Cass, (LEWIS,) an American patriot and statesman, a 
 son of the preceding, was born at Exeter, New Hamp- 
 shire, in October, 1782. He studied law at Marietta, 
 Ohio, and began to practise at Zanesville about 1802. In 
 1812 he became colonel of a regiment which, under the 
 command of General Hull, invaded Canada. The cam- 
 paign was ended by the disgraceful surrender of Hull at 
 Detroit in August, l8r2. Colonel Cass was promoted 
 to the rank of brigadier-general about March, 1813, and 
 was appointed Governor of Michigan in 1814. While 
 he governed that unsettled territory, he was also for 
 many years Superintendent of Indian Affairs, and nego- 
 tiated many treaties with the Indians. He resigned the 
 office of Governor in 1831, and was appointed by Presi- 
 dent Jackson secretary of war the same year. In 1836 
 he was sent as ambassador to France, and published in 
 1840 a work entitled " France, its King, Court, and Gov- 
 ernment." He returned to the United States in 1842, 
 and was elected a Senator of the United States by the 
 legislature of Michigan in the winter of 1S44-45. In 
 his letter to Mr. Nicholson, dated December, 1847, he 
 opposed the Wilmot Proviso, and questioned the power 
 of the Congress to exclude slavery from the territories. 
 "This letter," says Mr. Greeley, "is notable as the first 
 clear enunciation of the doctrine termed " Popular (other- 
 wise Squatter) Sovereignty." ("American Conflict.") 
 Cass was nominated as the Democratic candidate for 
 the Presidency by the Baltimore Convention in 1848, but 
 was defeated in the ensuing election by General Taylor, 
 the Whig candidate, who received one hundred and sixty- 
 three electoral votes, General Cass receiving one hun- 
 dred and thirty-seven. About 185 1 he was again elected 
 to the Senate of the United States for six years. He 
 voted for Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854. He 
 was appointed secretary of state by President Buchanan, 
 March, 1857. He resigned this office in December, i860, 
 on account of his dissatisfaction with the do-nothing 
 policy of Buchanan, who, even after the secession of 
 South Carolina, declined to reinforce the garrison of 
 Fort Sumter. Died in June, 1866. 
 
 See H. R. Schoolcraft, "Life of General Cass," 1848; W. L. 
 G. Smith, "The Life and Times of Lewis Cass," 1856. 
 
 Cassagnes, kS'sSfi', or Cassaigne, ki'sin',(jACQUES,) 
 a French writer and priest, born at Nimes in 1636. His 
 early poems opened for him the French Academy in 1662. 
 He was afterwards librarian of the Royal Library, and one 
 of the four first members of the Academy of Inscriptions. 
 He published a translation of Sallust, and a few other 
 works. Died in 1679. 
 
 Cassaigne. See Cassagnes. 
 
 Cassana, kas-sa'na, (Giovanni Agostino,) called 
 Abbe Cassana, a successful Italian painter of portraits 
 and animals, born about 1658 ; died at Genoa in 1720. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cassana, (Giovanni Francesco,) a historical painter 
 of the Genoese school, father of the preceding, was born 
 at Cassana in 161 1. He worked in Venice and Miran- 
 dola, and gained a high reputation. Died in 1691. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cassana, (Niccol6,) a portrait-painter, born at Venice 
 about 1656, was the son and pupil of the preceding. 
 Having acquired a high reputation, he was invited to 
 England by Queen Anne, whose portrait he painted, and 
 who appointed him her first painter. Died in 1 7*3- 
 
 Cas-san'der, [Gr. Kuotmvdpoc ; Fr. Cassandre, 
 ki'sosdR',] a Macedonian prince, was the son of An- 
 tipater, who, at the death of Alexander the Great, ob- 
 
 tained the regency or government of Macedonia. In 318 
 B.C. Antipater died, having appointed Polysperchon his 
 successor, in preference to his own son. A war ensued 
 between these two parties, and Cassander, aided by An- 
 tigonus, soon became master of Athens, where he re- 
 stored the aristocracy under Demetrius Phalereus about 
 316. Cassander then invaded Macedonia with success, 
 obtained possession of the infant son of Alexander the 
 Great, and married Thessalonice, the sister of the latter 
 prince. In 311, Antigonus and other generals signed a 
 treaty stipulating that Cassander should be regent of 
 Macedonia and Greece until the young prince should 
 attain his majority. In 309 he put to death that prince 
 and his mother Roxana, and usurped the throne. He 
 died in 297 B.C., and was succeeded by his son Philip. 
 See Arrian, "Anabasis;" TmkLWALL, " History of Greece." 
 
 Cassander, kas-san'der, [Fr. CASSANDRK.kt'sSNdR',] 
 (George,) a learned theologian, born in the isle of Cad- 
 sand, Flanders, about 1 515. The emperor Ferdinand 
 referred to him as a mediator the chief points in the 
 controversy between the Reformers and the Catholics ; 
 and, with a view to reconcile them, Cassander wrote his 
 famous "Consultation on the Articles of Faith contro- 
 verted between Papists and Protestants," ("Consultatio 
 de Articulis Fidei inter Papistas et Protestantes con- 
 troversis.") He was one of the most moderate of the 
 Catholic writers of that time. Died in 1566. 
 
 See Arnold, "Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie;" Nice'ron, "Me"- 
 moires;" Moreri, " Uictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Cas-san'dra, [Gr. Kaoouvfipa ; Fr. Cassandre, kt'- 
 soNdR',] a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, was celebrated 
 for her prophetic powers ; but, according to tradition, 
 Apollo had ordained that her prophecies, though true, 
 should be disbelieved. During the siege of Troy she 
 predicted the impending calamities, but was treated as 
 a lunatic by Priam and others. Agamemnon became 
 enamoured of her, and took her to Mycenae, where she 
 was killed by Clytemnestra. 
 
 Cassandre. See Cassander and Cassandra. 
 
 Cassandre, kS'sfiN'dR', (Francois,) a French writer, 
 principally known by his excellent translation of Aris- 
 totle's " Rhetoric," which was highly prized by Boileau. 
 He wrote several other works, in prose and verse. Died 
 in 1695. His whole life was passed in poverty, — which 
 Voltaire ascribes to his morose temper and unsocial 
 habits. 
 
 Cassard.kt'sf r',(Jacques,) abrave and skilful French 
 naval officer, was born at Nantes in 1672. As captain of a 
 privateer, he took many prizes from the English. Having 
 obtained command of a small squadron, he reduced the 
 Cape Verd Islands and captured Surinam in 1 7 12. After 
 the peace of 1 713 he presented claims for money which 
 he had advanced ; but they were disregarded, and he was 
 confined in the castle of Ham for offensive language to 
 the minister. Died at Ham in 1740. 
 
 See Graincourt, "Homnies illustres de la Marine Francaise;'* 
 "Nouvelle Biographic GeneYale." 
 
 Cassas, kt'sas', (Louis Franqois,) an eminent French 
 landscape-painter and architect, born in the department 
 of Indie in 1756. He accompanied to Constantinople 
 the ambassador Choiseul-Gouffier, who employed him 
 to illustrate his "Travels in Greece." He afterwards 
 visited and sketched the monuments of Baalbec, Palmyra, 
 and the Holy Land. In 1799 he began to publish these 
 sketches, in his " Voyage pittoresque de la Syrie, de la 
 Palestine et de la Basse-Egypte." He' also published 
 " Picturesque Views of the Principal Sites and Monu- 
 ments of Greece, of Sicily, and of the Seven Hills of 
 Rome," (1813.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See Nagi.er, "Neues Ailgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon," 
 
 Cassel, kas'sel, (Johann Philipf,) a German philolo- 
 gist, born in 1707 at Bremen, where he became professor 
 of eloquence. He published " Historical Notices and 
 Documents of Bremen," (1766,) and other works. Died 
 in 1783. 
 
 See Charles, "Vie de Cassel;" Meusel, "Gelehvtes Deutsch- 
 land." 
 
 Cassentino. See Casentino. 
 
 Casserio, kas-sa're-o, (Giui.io,) an eminent Italian 
 physician, born at Piacenza in 1556. He became a resi- 
 dent of Padua, where he acquired a high reputation, and 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; % 3&j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; sas t; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CASSIAN 
 
 53° 
 
 CASSIUS 
 
 tn 1609 was appointed professor of surgery in the uni- 
 versity. He left, besides other works, a treatise on the 
 anatomy and physiology of the senses, and " Anatomical 
 Plates." Died in 1616. 
 
 See Thomasini, "Elogia." 
 
 Cassian,kash'e-an, [Fr. Cassien, ki'se'aN'; Lat. Cas- 
 sia'nus,] (John,) a monk, born probably in Provence 
 about 350 a.d. In 415 A.D. he went to Marseilles, where 
 he founded the monastery of Saint-Victor. He wrote an 
 esteemed work on" Monastic Institutions," and a" Treat- 
 ise on the Incarnation." His doctrines on grace were 
 opposed by Saint Augustine, as a modified I'elagianism. 
 Died about 433. 
 
 SeeVossius, "De Historicis Latinis ;" Photius, "Bibliotheca;" 
 Louis F. Meyer, "J. Cassien; sa Vie et ses Fxrits," 1840. 
 
 Cassiani, kas-se-a'nee, (Giuliano,) an Italian lyric 
 poet, born at Modena in 1 712, became professor of elo- 
 quence in the university of his native city. He wrote 
 sonnets and other verses, which were much admired, 
 especially "The Rape of Proserpine," ("II Ratto di 
 Proserpina.") Died in 1778. 
 
 Cas r sl-a'iius Bas'sus, a Greek writer of the third or 
 fourth century, was a native of Bithynia. He is supposed 
 to have been the author of an extant work on agriculture 
 and rural economy, entitled " Geoponica," (printed in 
 Greek in 1539.) 
 
 Cassibelan. See Cassivelaunus. 
 
 Cassibelaunus. See Cassivelaunus. 
 
 Cassien. See Cassian. 
 
 Cas'sin, (John,) an American ornithologist, born in 
 Delaware county, Pennsylvania, in 1813. He resided 
 many years in Philadelphia, and was a member of the 
 Academy of Natural Sciences. He published " Illus- 
 trations of the Birds of California, Texas, Oregon, British 
 and Russian America," (1855,) " Mammalogy and Orni- 
 thology of the United States Exploring Expedition under 
 Lieutenant Wilkes," and " American Ornithology : A 
 General Synopsis of North American Ornithology ; con- 
 taining Descriptions and Figures of all North American 
 Birds not given by former American Authors, etc.," 
 (1856.) Died in January, 1869. 
 
 Cassini, Hs-see'nee, [Fr. pron. kf'se'ne',] (Cesar 
 FRANCOIS,) usually called Cassini de Thury, (deh 
 lii're',) born in Paris in 1714, was the son of Jacques, 
 noticed below. As an astronomer, he was received into 
 the Academy of Sciences at the age of twenty-one, and 
 in 1756 he became director of the Observatory. His 
 most important contribution to science was the trian- 
 gulation or geometrical description of France, accom- 
 panied with an excellent map of France. This is said 
 to be the greatest piece of topography ever executed. 
 He published "The Meridian of Paris verified, etc.," in 
 1744; and the records of the Academy contain many 
 of his writings. Died in 1784. 
 
 See Condorcet, " FJoge de C. F. Cassini ;" Montucla, " His- 
 toire des Mathimatiques ;" Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Cassini, kas-see'nee, (Giovanni Domknico, or J fan 
 Dominique,) a celebrated astronomer, born near Nice 
 on the 8th of June, 1625. After leaving college in Genoa, 
 he pursued the study of astronomy with success, and in 
 1650 became professor of that science in Bologna. In 
 1665 he made the important discovery that the rotation 
 of Jupiter is performed in nine hours and fifty-six min- 
 utes, and' soon after ascertained the diurnal periods of 
 Mars, Venus, and the Sun. He published in 1668 his 
 Ephemerides of the satellites of Jupiter, which Biot 
 calls " an immense and admirable work." Colbert 
 wished to enlist the talents of Cassini in the service 
 of the new Academy of Sciences in Paris, whither the 
 latter removed in 1669. For more than one century 
 subsequent to that date, Cassini and his descendants of 
 three generations presided over the Observatory of Paris. 
 His celebrity was extended in 1684 by the discovery of 
 four satellites of Saturn, of which Huyghens had before 
 discovered one. A royal medal was struck to comme- 
 morate this event. He was more remarkable for his 
 activity and success as an observer than for his power 
 as a philosopher, and appears to have been the most 
 popular astronomer of his time, because his discoveries 
 were level to the most common capacity. In the latter 
 part of his life he was employed for several years in the 
 
 measurement of an arc of the meridian. He is reputed 
 the discoverer or first observer of the zodiacal light. 
 His writings on astronomy are numerous. Died in 1712. 
 See "Vie de J. D. Cassini, dcrite par lui-meme ;" FoNTBNBLLB, 
 " E*loge de J. D. Cassini ;" Niceron, " M^moires ;" and Dr. Hoe- 
 ikk-'s article in the " Nouvelle liiographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Cassini, (Jacques,) an astronomer, and a son of the 
 preceding, was born in Paris about 1670. lie was 
 chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1694, 
 and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1696. 
 In 1712 he succeeded his father as director of the ' >b- 
 servatory in Paris, where he made some discoveries re- 
 specting the orbits of the moons of Saturn, the obliquity 
 of the ecliptic, etc. He is principally known by his 
 efforts to determine the figure of the earth. About 1700 
 he co-operated with his father in measuring the arc of 
 the meridian southward to Canigou, and in 1718 he alone 
 continued the work northward to Dunkirk. He pub- 
 lished in 1720a treatise "On the Magnitude and Figure 
 of the Earth," containing results which have since been 
 corrected by La Caille and Delambre. He died in 1756, 
 leaving a few other works, among which is " Elements 
 of Astronomy." His son Cesar Francois, noticed above, 
 was his successor in the Observatory. 
 
 See Delambre, " Histoire de l'Astronomie moderne ;" Fouchy, 
 " Fjoge de J. Cassini," in " Histoire de l'Academie des Sciences." 
 
 Cassini, de, deh ki'se'ne', (Alexandre Henri Ga- 
 hriel,) Count, a French botanist, born in Paris in 1784, 
 was the son of Count J. D. Cassini, astronomer royal. 
 Having studied law, he was made in 1810 a judge of one 
 of the Parisian tribunals. In 1816 he became a judge 
 of the royal court. In 1827 he was chosen. a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences, as a botanist. He wrote 
 several botanical treatises. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Gossin, " Notice snr A. H. G. de Cassini," 1832. 
 
 Cassini, de, (Jacques Dominique,) Count, a French 
 astronomer, son of Cassini of Thury, was born in Paris in 
 1 748. He was elected a member of the Academy in 1 770, 
 and succeeded his father as director of the Observatory 
 in 1 784. He was the first of the family that fully adopted 
 the physical principles of Newton. In 1793 the Conven- 
 tion decreed that the direction of the Observatory should 
 be committed to four persons, who should officiate in ro- 
 tation. Cassini was one of the newly-chosen directors j 
 but, being displeased with this innovation, he resigned 
 in September, 1793. He was imprisoned for several 
 months by the terrorists in the next year, and thenceforth 
 renounced the pursuit of astronomy. Died about 1845. 
 
 See Devic, " Histoire de la Vie et des Travaux de J. D. Cassini," 
 1851 ; Querard, "La France Littdraire." 
 
 Cas-sl-o-do'rus, [Fr. Cassiodore, kt'se'o'doR',] 
 (Magnus Aurelius,) a Latin historian and minister of 
 state, born at Scylacium, (Squillace,) in Italy, about 470 
 A.D. He held a high office under Odoacer, who was 
 deposed and killed by Theodoric the Goth in 493, and 
 he afterwards became secretary or chief minister of Theo- 
 doric. He resigned his office in 524, but was again in 
 the public service under the successor of Theodoric, and 
 left the reputation of an eminent scholar and wise min- 
 ister. He wrote a " History of the Goths," of which 
 only an abridgment is now extant, treatises on grammar, 
 logic, arithmetic, music, and other works. He died about 
 the age of one hundred, at the monastery of Viviers, 
 which he had founded. 
 
 See Sainte-Marthe, "Vie de Cassiodore," 1694 : A. Oli.eris 
 " Cassiodore, Conservateur des Livres de l'Antiquite Latine," 1841. 
 
 Cas-sI-o-pe'I-a, Cas-sI-e-pe'I-a, or Cas-si'o pe 
 [Gr. Kaamoireia, Kaoaienaa, or Kaooivirij ; Fr. CaSSIOPE 
 or Cassiopee, kt'se'o'pi',] the wife of Cepheus, and 
 mother of Andromeda. According to classic mythology, 
 she was placed among the stars, forming the constellation 
 which bears her name. 
 
 Cassito, kas-see'to, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 jurist and litterateur, born at Bonito in 1763 ; died in 1822. 
 
 Cassius. See Cassius Longinus. 
 
 Cassius, kash'e-us, an ancient Roman physician, who 
 practised in Rome under the reign of Tiberius and was 
 employed professionally by that emperor. Celsus calls 
 him "the most ingenious physician of his age ;" and Galen 
 also highly praises him. Some scholars have ascribed 
 to him the authorship of a medical work called " Medi- 
 cinales Quasstiones," etc. 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a. e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CASSIUS 
 
 537 
 
 CAST EL 
 
 Cassius, kash'e-us, [Ger. pron. kas'se-us,] (Andreas,) 
 a German chemist and physician, born at Slcswick. He 
 graduated as doctor of medicine in 1668, and practised 
 at Hamburg with much success. He invented the mode 
 of producing the oxide of gold, which bears his name 
 (purple of Cassius) and affords a fine purple colour to 
 painters on porcelain. 
 
 See Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Cassius, (Avidius,) a Roman general, noted for au- 
 dacity and severity of discipline. He gained several 
 victories over the Parthians in the reign of Marcus 
 Aurelius, against whom he rebelled in 175 a.d. He was 
 proclaimed emperor by his army, but a few months later 
 lie was killed by some soldiers who conspired against him. 
 
 Cassius, (Christian,) brother of Andreas, noticed 
 above, was chancellor of the Bishop of Lubeck, and a 
 friend of Grotius. He performed several diplomatic mis- 
 sions with honour. Died in 1676. 
 
 Cassius Chaerea. See Chorea. 
 
 Cassius Dion. See Dion Cassius. 
 
 Cas'sius Fe'lix, surnamed Iatrosophis'ta, a Greek 
 medical writer, supposed to have lived in the first century. 
 
 Cassius Hemina. See Hemina. 
 
 Cas'sius Lon-gi'nus, (Caius,) a Roman, elected con- 
 sul in 171 B.C., and censor in 154. He erected a theatre 
 which was demolished by the senate. 
 
 Cassius Longinus, (Caius,) a Roman jurist of high 
 reputation, flourished about 50 A.I)., and wrote " De Jure 
 Civili." He was banished by Nero in 66 A.D. 
 
 Cassius Longinus, (Caius,) a famous Roman patriot 
 and general, who conspired with Brutus against Caesar. 
 His early zeal for liberty was manifested at school, where 
 he struck Faustus, the son of Sulla, for boasting of his 
 father's absolute power. He married a sister of his 
 friend M. Brutus. He acted as quaestor of Crassus in 
 his disastrous expedition against the Parthians in 53 B.C., 
 and, after the defeat of the Romans, saved the remains 
 of the army by a skilful retreat. Having resumed the 
 offensive, he signally defeated the Parthians in Syria. 
 In the civil war he commanded a fleet for Pompey, and, 
 after the battle of Pharsalia, (48 B.C.,) surrendered to 
 Caesar. After the fatal event of the Ides of March, 44 
 B.C., (see Caesar and Brutus,) he commanded in Syria 
 with success against Dolabella, captured Rhodes, then, 
 effecting a junction with the army of Brutus, was finally 
 defeated at Philippi by Antony, and killed himself in 42 
 B.C. Brutus is said to have called him "the last of the 
 Romans." Cassius forms a conspicuous character in 
 Shakspcare's "Julius Caesar." 
 
 See Plutarch, " Life of Brutus ;" Dion Cassius, " History of 
 Rome:" Drumann, "Geschichte Roms." 
 
 Cassius Longinus, (Lucius,) a Roman judge, noted 
 for his strictness or severity. He became consul in 625 
 A.U.C., or 127 B.C., and censor two years later. Having 
 been chosen praetor, he was sent in 641 to Numidia, to 
 bring Jugurtha to Rome, in which he was successful. 
 Rigid judges were called, after him, Cassiani judices. 
 
 Cassius Longinus, (Quintus,) a rapacious Roman 
 officer, was quaestor in Spain in 54 B.C., and tribune of 
 the people in 49 B.C. He was a partisan of Caesar in 
 the civil war. Died about 46 B.C. 
 
 Cas'sius Par-men'sis, a Latin poet, whose name is 
 sometimes written Ca'ius Cas'sius Seve'rus, was pro- 
 bably born at Parma. By some critics he has been 
 confounded with Cassius Etruscus, who was ridiculed by 
 Horace, (Serm. i. 10, 61.) He was one of the conspira- 
 tors who killed Caesar the Dictator, and in the war that 
 ensued fought under Brutus. After the defeat and death 
 of Brutus he entered the service of Antony, and fought 
 against Octavius, by whose order he was put to death 
 about 30 B.C. He wrote epigrams and elegies of some 
 merit, of which only small fragments are extant. 
 
 See A. Nicolas, " De Cassio Parmensi Poeta," 1852; A. Wei- 
 chert, " Commentationes II. de Cassio Parmensi Poeta," 1834. 
 
 Cas'sius Se-ve'rus Lon-gu-la'nus, a Roman orator, 
 born at Longula about 50 B.C., was noted for his libels 
 against patricians. He introduced a new style of oratory. 
 It is supposed that the sixth epode of Horace is diracted 
 against him. 
 
 Cas'sius Vis-cel-li'nus,(SpuRiu.s,) a Roman general, 
 who was thrice chosen consul, and proposed an agrarian 
 
 law. On a charge of aspiring to supreme power, he wau 
 put to death in 485 B.C. 
 
 Cas-sl-ve-lau'nus or Cas-sl-be-lau'nus.sometimes 
 Anglicized as Cas-sib'e-lan, a British chief, who ruled 
 the country which lies on the north side of the Thames. 
 He was commander-in-chief of the Britons when Caesar 
 invaded their island in 54 B.C.; and he made a brave re- 
 sistance. Having obtained information from the Trino- 
 bantes, Caesar made a successful attack on the capital 
 of Cassivelaunus, which was surrounded with forests, 
 and compelled him to submit and pay tribute. 
 
 See Cesar, "De Bello Gallico." 
 
 Castaglione, kas-tal-yo'na, or Castiglione, kas-tel- 
 yo'na, (Giuseppe,) an Italian antiquary, born at Ancona ; 
 died in 1616. 
 
 Castagniza, de, da kSs-tag-nee'tha, or Castaniza, 
 kas-ta-nee'tha, (Juan,) a Spanish monk, who became 
 almoner of Philip II., censor of theology, etc., and wrote 
 "The Perfection of the Christian Life," which is said 
 to be the original of a famous work called " Spiritual 
 Conflict." Died in 1598. 
 
 Castagno, del, del kas-tan'yo, (Andrea,) a celebrated 
 Florentine painter, born at Castagno about 1408. He 
 adorned several churches of Florence with his works, the 
 best of which have been destroyed. He learned from 
 Domenico of Venice the process of oil-painting, which 
 had recently been invented, and then murdered that artist 
 in the dark. This crime was confessed by him on his 
 death-bed. He excelled most of his predecessors in per- 
 spective and foreshortening. Died about 1480. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Mrs. Jameson, "Me- 
 moirs of Early Italian Painters." 
 
 Castaldi, kas-tal'dee, (Cornelio,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Feltre in 1480 ; died in 1536. 
 
 Cas-ta'11-o or Caseation, kis'tt'le'6N', sometimes 
 written Castellio, (Sebastien,) a liberal Protestant 
 divine, whose family name was ChAteillon, (shS't.V- 
 y6.N',) born in Dauphine about 1515. He became inti- 
 mate with Calvin, who procured for him a chair in the 
 College of Geneva about 1542. Dissenting from Calvin 
 in relation to reprobation, etc., he resigned or was de- 
 prived of this place, and went to Bale, where he taught 
 Greek. He is said to have written a tract against the 
 persecution of heretics. He published a new Latin ver- 
 sion of the Bible, ( 1 55 1,) which is censured for its devia- 
 tion from the simplicity of the original. He also wrote 
 " Sacred Dialogues for the Instruction of Youth," and 
 other esteemed works. Died at Bale in 1563. 
 
 See Sainte-Marthe, " Elogia Gallorum ;" Bayle, "Historical 
 and Critical Dictionary ;" Arnold, " Kirchen- und Ketzer-Histoiie ;" 
 J. C. Fuessli, " Lebensgeschichte S. Castellio's," 1775. 
 
 Castaiion. See Castalio. 
 
 Castanheda, kas-tan-ya'da, (Fernando Lopez,) a 
 Portuguese historian, born about 1500. He went to 
 India while young, and spent many years in collecting 
 materials for a history which he published in 1551, viz., 
 "A History of the Conquest of India by the Portuguese." 
 It is esteemed for fidelity. 
 
 Castaniza. See Castagniza. 
 
 Castanos, de, di kas-tan'y6s, (Francisco Xavif.r,) 
 Duke of Baylen, (bl-lSn',) an able Spanish general, born 
 at Madrid or in Biscay about 1755. He became a lieu- 
 tenant-general in 1798, soon after which he was exiled 
 from Madrid by Godoy, whom he had opposed. In 
 1808 he obtained command of a corps, and defeated the 
 French under Dupont at Baylen, where he took about 
 18,000 prisoners. He was appointed general-in-chief of 
 the fourth corps of the army in 181 1, and displayed great 
 skill at the battle of Vittoria, June, 1813. He became 
 captain-general in 1823, and councillor of state in 1825, 
 and favoured a policy of moderation. After the fall of 
 Espartero, in 1843, he was guardian of Queen Isabella. 
 Died in 1852. 
 
 Casteels, kas'tals, (Pieter,) a Flemish painter and 
 engraver, born at Antwerp in 1684, went to England in 
 1708. He painted birds, flowers, etc. Died in 1749. 
 
 Castel, kts'tel', (Louis Bertrand,) a French mathe- 
 matician and Jesuit, born at Montpellier in 1688. He 
 became a resident of Paris in 1720, and acquired repu- 
 tation by his writings, among which are a "Treatise 
 on Universal Gravity," (1724,) and "Universal Mathe- 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K,guttitral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CAST EL 
 
 538 
 
 CASTELNAU 
 
 matics," (1728.) The latter gained for him admission 
 into the Royal Society of London. He wrote many 
 articles for the " Journal de Trevoux," and invented a 
 machine named "ocular harpsichord." Died in 1757. 
 
 See Abbe de la Pokt, " Esprit et Singularity de L. B. Castel," 
 ■ 763- 
 
 Castel, (Rene Richard Louis,) a French poet and 
 botanist, born at Vire in 1758, was educated in a Parisian 
 college. He was a moderate member of the Legislative 
 Assembly, ( 1 791.) About 1797 he published a descrip- 
 ti /e poem on plants, (" Des Plantes,) which was much 
 a Jmired and gained the decennial prize. He was pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric in the Imperial Lyceum of Paris about 
 ten years, and inspector-general of the university from 
 1808 to 1814. He wrote a poem entitled "The Forest of 
 Fontainebleau," and a few other works. Died in 1832. 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 Castel-Cicala. See Ruffo, (Fabrizio.) 
 Castel-Melhor, de, dl kas-tel-mel-yor', (Joao Ro- 
 dr,>;o de Vasconcellos — di vas-kon-sel'l6s,) Count, 
 a Portuguese general, who repulsed the Spanish army in 
 1643, and was commander-in-chief in 1645. Died in 1658. 
 His son, Luis Souza, was the favourite of Alfonso VI., 
 and prime minister from 1663 to 1667. 
 
 Casteleyn, de, deh kas'teh-lln', (Mathiku,) a Flem- 
 ish poet, born at Oudenarde, lived about 1550. He wrote 
 an " Art of Poetry," (." De Konst van Rhetoriken," etc., 
 
 IS55-) 
 
 Cas'tell, (Edmund,) an English Orientalist, was born 
 in Cambridgeshire in 1606. After graduating at Cam- 
 bridge, he resided there many years, while compiling his 
 great work, a "Lexicon of the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, 
 Arabic, Samaritan, Persian, and Ethiopian Languages," 
 (1669,) on which he spent ,£12,000, to the ruin of his for- 
 tune. "This work," says Dibdin, " has long challenged 
 the admiration and defied the competition of foreigners." 
 In 1666 he was appointed chaplain to the king, and pro- 
 fessor of Arabic at Cambridge. Died in 1685. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Castellan, kis'ti'lSN', (Antoine Louis,) a French 
 landscape-painter and architect, born at Montpellier in 
 1772. Having visited Italy and Greece, he published 
 several interesting works, illustrated by himself, among 
 which are "Letters on the Morea," (1808,) " Manners 
 and Customs of the Ottomans," (1812,) and "Letters 
 on Italy," (1819.) He wrote numerous articles for the 
 "Biographie Universelle," and "Studies on the Chateau 
 of Fontainebleau, considered as one of the Types of the 
 Renaissance of the Arts in France," (1840,) which is 
 called an excellent work. Died in 1838. 
 
 See Heinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Castellane, de, deh kts'ti'ltn', ( Esprit Victor 
 Elisabeth Boniface,) Count, a French marshal, born 
 in Paris in 17S8. He entered the army as a private in 
 1804, fought at Eckmtihl, Essling, and Wagram, (1809,) 
 and distinguished himself in the Russian campaign, 
 (1812.) After the restoration he served in Spain, became 
 marechal-de-campin 1824, and lieutenant-general in 1833. 
 He was raised to the peerage in 1837. Amidst the agi- 
 tation which followed the revolution of 1848, he main- 
 tained order in Rouen by his firmness. He was created 
 a marshal of France in 1852. At the beginning of the 
 war against Austria in Italy, April, 1859, Castellane was 
 appointed commander of the army of Lyons. Died in 
 September, 1862. 
 
 See Charras, " Les trois Marechaux, Saint-Arnaud, Magnan et 
 Castellane," 1853. 
 
 Castellani,kas-tel-la'nee, (Luigi Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian medical writer, born near Mantua, lived about 1770. 
 
 Castellanus. See Duchatel, (Pierre.) 
 
 Castelle3i, kas-tel-la'see, (Adrian or Adriano,) an 
 Italian prelate and accomplished Latin writer, born in 
 Tuscany. He published. treatises, in Latin, "On True 
 Philosophy," (1507,) and "On the Latin Language," 
 (1513.) He entered into a conspiracy against Leo X., 
 and was detected and fined. 
 
 Castelli, the Italian of Chasteau, which see. 
 
 Castelli, kas-tel'lee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian phy- 
 sician, born at Messina, published a " Lexicon Medicum 
 Graeco-Latinum," (1607,) often reprinted. 
 
 Castelli or Castellio, kas-tel'le-o, (Benedetto,) an 
 Italian monk, and an eminent disciple of Galileo in 
 philosophy, was born at Brescia in 1577. He taught 
 mathematics with honour at Pisa, and at the college di 
 Sapienza, in Rome. He is regarded as the author of a 
 new branch of hydraulics, the theory of running waters. 
 Pope Urban VIII. applied to him for an improved plan 
 of confining the rivers which damaged his territories, 
 on which occasion he wrote a valuable treatise "On 
 the Mensuration of Running Waters," (" Delia Misura 
 dell' Acque correnti.") He left other scientific works. 
 Died at Rome in 1644. 
 
 See "Vita Benedict! Castelli," Dresden, 1746; Tanfoglio, 
 " Elogio di B. Castelli," 1819. 
 
 Castelli or Castello, kas-tel'lo, (Bernardo,) an 
 eminent painter, born at Genoa in 1557. He became a. 
 resident of Rome, where the pope employed him to paint 
 a picture for Saint Peter's. He was a friend of Tasso, 
 for whose great poem he made some designs, which were 
 engraved by Agostino Caracci. Died in 1629. 
 
 SeeMoscniNi, " Memoria sulla Vita del Pittore B. Castelli," 1810. 
 
 Castelli or Castello, (Gabriello Lancelotto,) an 
 Italian antiquary, born at Palermo in 1727; died about 
 1792. 
 
 Castelli, (Giovanni Battista.) See Castello. 
 
 Castelli, kas-tel'lee, (Ignaz Friedrich,) a popular 
 German dramatic author, born in Vienna in 1781. He 
 produced a great number of comedies, some of which 
 are said to be imitations of Eugene Scribe. Jn 1809 he 
 composed war-songs for the Austrian army, which were 
 distributed by the government and were very popular. 
 Died in 1862. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gdnerale." 
 
 CasteUi, (Pietro,) a learned physician and botanist, 
 born at Messina. He became a professor of medicine in 
 a college of Rome, and afterwards professor of botany ill 
 Messina. He wrote several popular works on medicine, 
 chemistry, and botany. Died about 1656. 
 
 Castelli, (Valerio,) born in 1625, was a son of Ber- 
 nardo, noticed above, and was a successful painter, espe- 
 cially of battle-pieces. He worked in Genoa, the palaces 
 and churches of which he adorned. His works were in 
 request among the French and English. His design and 
 colour are praised. Died in 1659. 
 
 See Ratti, " Vite de' Pittori Genovesi." 
 
 Castellio, (Benedetto.) See Castelli. 
 
 Castellio, (Sebastien.) See Castalio. 
 
 Castello. See Castelli. 
 
 Castello, kas-tel'lo, or Castelli, kas-tel'lee, (Gio- 
 vanni Battista,) a skilful Italian painter and architect, 
 born at or near Bergamo about 1506, was surnamed il 
 Bergamasco, (el beR-ga-mis'ko.) He is said to have 
 been a pupil of Michael Angelo. He studied in Rome, 
 where he formed a friendship with Luca Cambiaso, and 
 he worked with that artist in Genoa. After he had 
 painted some admirable frescos in Genoa, he went to 
 Madrid, and became painter to the king. He died at 
 Madrid about 1575. His design was correct, and his 
 colouring excellent. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario." 
 
 Castelnau, de, deh kSs'tel'no', (Jacques,) Marquis, 
 a French general, born in 1620, served with distinction in 
 many campaigns against the Spaniards and Imperialists. 
 At Friburg he received six wounds without leaving his 
 post. In 1655 he commanded with success in Hainault, 
 and, in the absence of Turenne, in 1656, commanded the 
 army of Flanders. He obtained a marshal's baton in 
 1658, and was killed at Dunkirk the same year. 
 
 Castelnau, de, (Michel,) an able French diplomatist 
 and general, grandfather of the preceding, was born in 
 Touraine about 1520. In the reign of Henry II. he per- 
 formed missions to several foreign courts. In the civil 
 wars that began about 1560 he fought against the Prot- 
 estants at Rouen, Dreux, etc. He was minister to Eng- 
 land from 1574 to 1584. After the accession of Henry 
 IV. he obtained a high command in the army. He died 
 in 1592, leaving "Memoirs" of the events from 1559 to 
 1570, (3 vols., 1 73 1,) which are said to be impartial and 
 trustworthy. 
 
 See Le Laboureur, " Vie de Michel de Castelnau," 1659 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gdn^rale." 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nit; good; moon; 
 
CASTELVETRO 
 
 539 
 
 CASTILLO 
 
 Castelvetro, kas-tel-va'tRO, (Ludovico,) a celebrated 
 Italian critic, born at Modena in 1505. His severe criti- 
 cism on a canzone of Caro about 1555 occasioned a noto- 
 ri< us and acrimonious controversy between the poet and 
 the critic. About 1558 he was imprisoned in Koine on 
 suspicion of favouring the doctrines of the Reformers. 
 Having escaped by night, he was condemned as a contu- 
 macious heretic in 1561, and took refuge in Lyons and 
 Geneva. His greatest work is a commentary on the 
 "Poetics'' of Aristotle, (1570,) which, though marred by 
 sophisms and minute subtleties, "may justly claim re- 
 spect," says Hallam, "not only as the earliest exposition 
 0? the theory of criticism, but for its acuteness, erudition, 
 and independence." ("Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe.") Died in 1571. 
 
 See Mi'ratori, "Vie de Castelvetro," prefixed to his "Opera 
 varie critiche," 1727: J. B. Venturi, " Elogio di L. Castelvetro," 
 1778; GiNG'fENB, "Histoire LittiSraire d'ltalie;" Lebret, "Anec- 
 dota de L. Castelvetro ejusque Scriptis," J763; Niceron, " Me'- 
 tnoires." 
 
 Castex, kts'tSks', (Bertrand Pierre,) Baron, a 
 French general, born in Languedoc in 1771; died in 
 
 Casta, kas'tee, (Giovanni Battista, or Giambat- 
 tista,) a popular Italian poet and priest, born in the 
 Roman States in 1721. In his early years he was a pro- 
 fessor in an academy at Montefiascone. About 1769 he 
 was presented to Joseph II. of Austria, who was pleased 
 witli his witty conversation. Casti accompanied embas- 
 sies from Vienna to several courts of Europe, and, having 
 returned to Austria, was appointed court poet in 1782. 
 In 1793 he published "Novelle galanti," poetical tales, 
 which are admired for vivacity, originality, and elegance. 
 Between 1790 and 1796 he left Vienna, and became a 
 resident of Florence and Paris. His most celebrated 
 work is a poem called " Speaking Animals," ("Animali 
 parlanti," 1802,) a political satire, which Mr. Rose trans- 
 lated or imitated in his " Court and Parliament of Beasts." 
 He also wrote burlesque dramas, and an amusing poem 
 entitled " The Three Groats," (" I tre Giulj,") which was 
 translated into English, (London, 1826.) Died in Paris 
 in 1803. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri;" " Narrative and 
 Romantic Poetry of the Italians," in the " London Quarterly Review" 
 for April, iSi-j. 
 
 Castiglione, kas-tel-yo'na, (Baldassare,) one of the 
 most elegant Italian writers of his time, was born at 
 Casatico, near Mantua, in 1478. In early life he became 
 one of the ornaments of the polished court of the Duke 
 of Urbino, by whom in 1505 he was sent as ambassador 
 to England. He was several times employed on mis- 
 sions to Popes Leo X. and Clement VII. In 1525 the 
 latter sent him as ambassador to Charles V. at Madrid. 
 He died at Toledo in 1529. His principal work is "The 
 Courtier," (" II Cortegiano," 1528,) which is regarded as 
 excellent in thought and style. He wrote several small 
 poems in Latin and Italian, which are esteemed models 
 of elegance. 
 
 See Serassi, "Vita del Castiglione," in an edition of his poems, 
 Rome. 1 760 : Givguene, " Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie ;" P. Giovio, 
 "Elogia:" Niceron, "M^moires;" Girolamo Ferri, "De Vita et 
 Scriptis B. Castiglionis," 1780. 
 
 Castiglione or Castiglioni, kas-tel-yo'nee, (Carlo 
 Ottavio,) Count, an eminent Italian linguist and an- 
 tiquary, born at Milan about 1790. He directed his 
 attention to languages and numismatics, and published 
 in 1819 a "Description of the Cufic Coins of the Mu- 
 seum of Milan." In the same year Angelo Mai and 
 Castiglione published fragments of a Gothic version of 
 the New Testament, by Bishop Ulphilas, which Mai had 
 recently found in palimpsests. Castiglione produced in 
 1826 a valuable work entitled " Geographical and Numis- 
 matical Memoir on the Part of Barbary called by the 
 Arabs Afrikiah." 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 Castiglione, (Giovanni Benedetto,) an excellent 
 Italian painter and engraver, surnamed 11. Grecid 1 TO, 
 (il gRa-kct'to,) was born at Genoa in 1616. He was 
 a pupil of G. B. Paggi and of G. Andrea de' Ferrari. He 
 worked at Florence, Genoa, Venice, Rome, and Mantua, 
 and excelled in history, portraits, landscapes, and ani- 
 mals. As a painter of animals he was not surpassed by 
 
 any artist of Italy. Among his master-pieces is a " Na- 
 tivity," in a church of Genoa. He produced numerous 
 admirable etchings, among which are " Diogenes with 
 his Lantern," and "The Entrance of the Animals into 
 the Ark." He died at Mantua in 1670. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Soprani, " Vite 
 de' Pittori Genovesi ;" Brvan, " Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Castiglione, (Valerio,) an Italian scholar and wri- 
 ter, born at Milan in 1593. He wrote "Clio," a poem, 
 (1616,) a " History of the Revolution of Piedmont," and 
 other works. ' Died in 1668. 
 
 Castiglione, de, Due. See Augereau. 
 
 Castiglioni. See Castiglione. 
 
 Castil-Blaze. See Blaze. 
 
 Castilho, de, da kas-tel'yo, (Antonio Ff.liciano,) a 
 popular Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon in 1800, is some- 
 times called "the Blind Poet of Portugal." About 1820 
 he published " Letters from Echo to Narcissus," a poem, 
 which had great success. Among his other works are 
 "Day in the Spring," (1822,) "Night at the Castle," 
 ("Noite do Castello," 1830,) and "Poetical Medita- 
 tions." He is considered the most pure and harmonious 
 of modern Portuguese poets. He has written several 
 prose works, one of which is " Historical Portraits of 
 Portugal," (" Quadros historicos de Portugal.") 
 
 Castilhon or Castillon, kts'te'yiN', (Jean Louis,) 
 a French litterateur, born at Toulouse in 1720. He 
 wrote for many periodicals, and published numerous 
 works, among which are a " History of Philosophic 
 Dogmas and Opinions from Ancient Times to the Pres- 
 ent," (3 vols., 1769,) and "The Last Revolutions of the 
 Globe." Died about 1793. 
 
 Castilla, kas-tel'ya, (Don Ramon,) a Peruvian gen- 
 eral and statesman, born at Tarapaca about 1795. He 
 fought against the King of Spain in the war of inde- 
 pendence which began in 1821. He was made a gen- 
 eral of brigade in 1834, and served in the civil war that 
 ensued. In 1845 he was elected President of Peru. He 
 has the credit of restoring order and peace to that coun- 
 try. In 1851 he transmitted the government to his suc- 
 cessor, Jose Rufino Echeniqite. In 1855 he usurped or 
 obtained the chief power. He was re-elected President 
 in 1858. Died in 1867. 
 
 Castille, kis'tel' or kis'le'ye, (Charles Hippolyte,) 
 a French political writer anctTTovelist, born at Montreuil- 
 sur-Merin 1820. He published "The Chase after Chime- 
 ras," (1854,) and other novels, and wrote political articles 
 for several journals. His most considerable work is a 
 " History of the Second French Republic," (1855,) in 
 which absolutism and the Revolution are represented 
 as natural allies. 
 
 Castillejo, de, da kas-tel-ya'Ho, (Cristoval,) a 
 Spanish poet, born at Ciudad Rodrigo in 1494. He 
 passed much of his life at the court of Don Ferdinand, 
 brother of Charles V. He wrote canzones of a playful 
 and witty character, and satires. Died in 1556. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Castillo, de, da kSstel'yo, (Augustin,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Seville in 1565 ; died in 1626. 
 
 Castillo, de, (Enriquez,) a Spanish historian, born 
 at Segovia, was chaplain and historiographer to Henry 
 IV., and a member of his privy council. He wrote a 
 "Chronicle of the Reign of Henry IV.," which was re- 
 cently published by Don J. M. de Flores, secretary of 
 the Spanish Academy of History. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i 
 
 part i. 
 
 Castillo, de, (Fernando,) a Spanish Dominican, born 
 at Granada about 1529, wrote a "History of San Do- 
 mingo and his Order," (1584.) Died in 1593. 
 
 Castillo, del, del kas-t'el'yo, (Bernal Diaz,) a Span- 
 ish officer, born at Medina del Campo. lie assisted 
 Cortez in the conquest of Mexico.whither he went about 
 1520, and afterwards settled in that country. He wrote 
 a " History of the Conquest of New Spain," which is 
 said to have some merit, though the style is far from 
 elegant. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Bernal Dial del Castillo," by himself, trans- 
 lated by J. Ingraham Lockiiart, 1844; Prescott, "History of 
 the Conquest of Mexico," vol. ii. book v. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy'; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 1; th as in this, (fog See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CASTILLO 
 
 540 
 
 CASTRO 
 
 Castillo, del, (Jose Maria,) a South American jurist, 
 was appointed by Bolivar president of the council of 
 state, (1828.) 
 
 Castillo, del, (Juan,) a Spanish historical painter, 
 brother of Augustin, noticed above, was bom in Seville 
 in 1584, and was the master of Murillo and Alonzo Cano. 
 Died in 1640. 
 
 Castillo Solorzano, del,d£l kas-tel'yo so-loR-tha'no, 
 (Alonzo,) a famous Spanish romance-writer and poet 
 of the seventeenth century, who was highly praised by 
 Lope de Vega. He produced numerous works in prose 
 and verse, among which are " La Garduiia de Sevilla," 
 and the " Hall of Recreation," (" Sala de Recreacion," 
 1629,) a novel. 
 
 See Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Castillo y Saavedra, del, del kas-tel'yo e st-va'- 
 DRa, (Antonio,) a Spanish painter of history, portraits, 
 and landscapes, born at Cordova in 1603, excelled in 
 design and composition. In 1666 he visited Seville, where 
 the works of Murillo appeared to him so inimitable that 
 he gave up in despair, and died in less than a year. 
 
 See Quilliet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Castillon. See Castilhon. 
 
 Castillon, de, deh kis'tel'yoN' or kfe'te'ydN', (Gio- 
 vanni Francesco Salvemini,) an able geometer, born 
 at Castiglione, in Tuscany, in 1709, became professor of 
 philosophy at Utrecht in 1751. Frederick the Great in- 
 vited him to Berlin, and made him a professor of mathe- 
 matics. In 1787 he succeeded La Grange as director of 
 the mathematical class in the Academy of Berlin. He 
 translated into French Locke's " Elements of Physics," 
 Cicero's " Academics," ("Academicae Questiones,") and 
 other works. Died in 1 791. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Castillon, de, deh kis'te'yAN', (Jean Francois 
 Andre Le Blanc,) a French lawyer, eminent for his 
 learning, eloquence, and philosophic spirit, born at Aix 
 in 1719. He became attorney-general of the parliament 
 of Provence. Died in 1800. 
 
 Castlemain, kas's'1-man', (Roger Palmer,) Earl 
 of, was the husband of the Duchess of Cleveland, and 
 ambassador from James II. of England to the pope about 
 1686. He wrote, besides other works, "An Account of 
 the Present War between the Venetians and Turks," 
 (1666.) Died in 1705. 
 
 Castlereagh, kas's'1-ra', (Robert Stewart,) Lord 
 Viscount, Marquis of Londonderry, a British statesman, 
 born in the county of Down, Ireland, in 1769, was the 
 eldest son of Robert Stewart, first Marquis of London- 
 derry, and Sarah F. Seymour, daughter of the Marquis 
 of Hertford. In 1794 he entered the British House of 
 Commons, with a strong tendency to Toryism. By the 
 promotion of his father in 1796, he became Viscount 
 Castlereagh. He was chosen keeper of the privy seal 
 for Ireland in 1797, and secretary to the lord lieutenant 
 in 1798. He performed a prominent part in the suppres- 
 sion of the Irish rebellion of the latter year. " The union 
 of Ireland with Great Britain," ( 1800,) says Alison, " was 
 carried in the Irish Parliament chiefly through the power- 
 ful abilities of Lord Castlereagh." ("History of Europe.") 
 In 1802 he was appointed by Pitt president of the board 
 of control, and in 1805 secretary of state for the depart- 
 ment of war and the colonies. The failure of the Wal- 
 cheren expedition in 1809 exposed him to censure, and 
 occasioned a duel between him and Canning, his col- 
 league in the ministry. Just before the duel the parties 
 resigned office. In February, 1812, Lord Castlereagh be- 
 came secretary of state for foreign affairs, (in the ministry 
 of Lord Liverpool,) and the leader of the Tory party, in 
 preference to his rival Canning. He represented Eng- 
 land at the peace of Paris and the Congress of Vienna in 
 1814, at the Congress of Paris in 1815, and at that of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle in 1818. He was one of the master-spirits 
 of the coalition against Bonaparte. In 1821, by the death 
 of his father, he became Marquis of Londonderry. After 
 showing symptoms of insanity, he committed suicide in 
 August, 1822. Ashe left no issue, the title passed to his 
 half-brother Charles. (See Londonderry.) His success 
 as a statesman is ascribed to great talents for business, 
 invincible firmness or moral courage, and adroitness in 
 
 the management of men. As he had obtained nobility 
 only in the Irish peerage, his parliamentary services were 
 confined to the House of Commons. His " Memoirs and 
 Correspondence" (8 vols., 1848) forms a very valuable 
 contribution to modern history. 
 
 See Alison, " History of Europe;" Harriet Martineau, "His- 
 tory of the Thirty Years' Peace ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GdneYale ;" 
 " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1848, and January, 1S62 ; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1862 ; " Foreign Quarterly" for July, 
 1831; "Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1862; " Eraser's Maga- 
 zine" for December, 1848. 
 
 Cas'tor and Pol'lux or Pol-jf-deu'ges, [Gr. Kaarup, 
 and noAurSrf'/oyc,] heroes of the Greek mythology, called 
 also Dioscu'ri, ("sons of Jove,") were, according to one 
 account, twin-brothers, sons of Leda andTyndareus, and 
 brothers of Helen, whence they were called Tyndar'idae. 
 According to another legend, they were the sons of Leda 
 and Jupiter. Castor was an expert horseman and cha- 
 rioteer, and Pollux a renowned pugilist. They took part 
 in the Calydonian hunt, in the Argonautic expedition, 
 and other famous enterprises. The ancient poets feigned 
 that Pollux was immortal, and that when Castor was 
 killed in a fight Pollux offered to share his fate. It was, 
 therefore, permitted that the boon of immortality should 
 be divided between them, and that they should exchange 
 places every day, dying and reviving alternately. 
 
 See Keightley's "Mythology." 
 
 Castor [Kiwrup] of Rhodes, a Greek grammarian, 
 who is supposed to have lived about 150 B.C. 
 
 Castor, (Antonius,) a Roman or a Greek physician, 
 who lived at Rome one hundred' years, from the reign 
 of Augustus to that of Titus, (80 a.d.) Pliny speaks of 
 his high reputation, and of his botanic garden, which is 
 the first mentioned in history. 
 
 Castracani. See Castruccio. 
 
 Castrejon, kas-tRa-Hon', (Antonio,) a Spanish 
 painter, born in Madrid in 1625. He was an excellent 
 colorist, and had great facility of invention, which en- 
 abled him to succeed equally in heroic subjects and in 
 domestic or familiar scenes. His "Michael contending 
 with the Dragon" is one of his master-pieces. Died in 
 1690. 
 
 See Quilliet, "Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Castren, kas-tran' or kas-trlTn', (Matthias Alex- 
 ander,) an eminent philologist, born in the province of 
 Uleaborg, Finland, in 1813. He was a diligent student 
 of the Finnish language and literature, in the illustration 
 of which he spent his life. In 1838 he travelled through 
 Lapland on foot to obtain information about the ancient 
 mythology and language of that region. In 1841 he 
 produced a Swedish translation, in verse, of the popu- 
 lar Finnish poem " Kalevala," which attracted much 
 admiration. Between 1844 and 1849 he pursued his 
 researches among the Samoieds on the Arctic Sea. In 
 185 1 he was appointed- professor of the Finnish lan- 
 guage at Helsingfors, where he died in 1852 from the 
 effects of his last journey. He left grammars of several 
 dialects of Northern Russia, and other works. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1854. 
 
 Castries, kis'tRe', (Charles Eugene Gabriel de 
 la Croix — deh If kRwa,) Marquis of, an able French 
 general, born in 1727. Having distinguished himself in 
 many campaigns, he was made lieutenant-general in 
 1758, and gained an important victory at Wesel in 1760. 
 He was afterwards Governor-General of Flanders, minis- 
 ter of marine in 1780, and marshal of France in 1783. 
 In the Revolution of 1789 he emigrated, found an asylum 
 with the Duke of Brunswick, and died in 1801. . 
 
 Castriot, (George.) See Scander-Beg. 
 
 Castro, kas'tRo, (Jose Rodrigo,) a Portuguese Jew 
 and physician, born about 1545, settled in 1596 in Ham- 
 burg, where he became professor of philosophy and medi- 
 cine. He published several valuable works. Died in 1627. 
 
 Castro, da, da kas'tRo, (Paolo,) an eminent juriscon- 
 sult, born at Castro, in Italy. He professed Roman law 
 at Padua, Florence, Bologna, etc., and wrote treatises on 
 the Digest and Code. Died about 1450. 
 
 Castro, de, da kas'tRo, (Alfonso,) a noted Span- 
 ish theologian and pulpit orator, born at Zamora about 
 1495, entered the order of Saint Francis. He accompa- 
 nied Philip II. to England when he went to marry Queen 
 Mary. In the latter part of his life he resided in the 
 
 5, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, S, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
CASTRO 
 
 54» 
 
 CATALDI 
 
 Low Countries. His principal work is a Latin treatise 
 on "Heresies," (1534,) which was very successful, and 
 passed through ten editions in twenty-two years. Died 
 in 1558. 
 
 Sec N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Castro, de, (Don Alfonso Nunes,) a Spanish his- 
 torian, who lived about 1670. He was historiographer 
 to Philip IV., and wrote a "Chronicle of the Goths, 
 Castilians, and Austrians," ("Coronica Gothica, Cas- 
 tillana y Auslriaca," 1708.) 
 
 Castro, de, (Alvarez Gomez,) a Spanish writer, 
 born in the diocese of Toledo in 1521. He became 
 professor of Greek in Toledo, and wrote, in prose and 
 verse, numerous works, among which are " The Life of 
 Francis Ximenes," (1569.) Died in 1586. 
 
 Castro, de, da kas'tRo, (Estkban Rodrioo,) a re- 
 nowned Portuguese physician, born at Lisbon about 
 1560. He emigrated to Italy, and was professor of me- 
 dicine in the University of Pisa for twenty-two years. 
 He composed, in Latin, many works, among which are 
 " De Complexu Morborum," (1624,) " Posthuma Varie- 
 tas," (1639,) and "Medical Consultations,'' ("Medici 
 Consultationes," 1644.) He was styled "the Phcenix 
 of Medicine." Died in 1637. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova ;" Van der Lin- 
 den, " De Scriptoribus medicis." 
 
 Castro, de, (Felipe,) an eminent Spanish sculptor, 
 born at Noya (Galicia) in 171 1. He studied in Rome, 
 and gained the first prize of the Academy of Saint Luke 
 in 1739. He afterwards worked in Madrid, and was 
 ranked among the greatest Spanish sculptors of the age. 
 Died in 1775. 
 
 Castro, de, (Gabriel Pereira,) a Portuguese poet 
 asd jurist, born at Braga. He became a senator at 
 Lisbon, and wrote, besides other works, a heroic poem 
 called " Ulisea," (1636.) He has been ranked among 
 the fine geniuses of Portugal. Died in 1630. 
 
 Castro.de, (Guillem,) a Spanish dramatist, born at 
 Valencia about 1569. He was for some time commander 
 of a citadel in the kingdom of Naples, and passed the 
 latter years of his life in Madrid, where he enjoyed the 
 friendship of Lope de Vega. He acquired a European 
 celebrity by his " Spanish Cid," a drama, which was the 
 original of Corneille's tragedy of the same name. Cor- 
 neille acknowledged that he owed part of the beauty of 
 his piece to Castro. The latter wrote " Dido and .Eneas," 
 " Payar en propria Moneda," and other dramas, a vol- 
 unie'of which was printed in 1621. Died in 1631. Some 
 account of his life was published by Lord Holland in 
 
 1817. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Castro, de, (Inez.) See Inez df. Castro. 
 
 Castro, de, (J0X0,) a celebrated Portuguese general 
 and navigator, bom at Lisbon in 1500. He studied ma- 
 thematics under Pedro Nunez, and became profoundly 
 versed in that science, as well as in ancient languages. 
 About 1538, as commander of a vessel, he made a voy- 
 age to India with the viceroy Garcia de Noronha. He 
 accompanied the expedition which, under Estevao da 
 Gama, explored the Red Sea in 1540. He wrote an 
 exact scientific description of that sea, of which he also 
 made charts. The results of these hydrographic labours 
 were first published in 1833, with the title of "The Log- 
 Book of Don John de Castro on the Voyage which the 
 Portuguese made to the Red Sea," (" Roteiro de.Dom 
 Joam de Castro da Viagem que fizeram os Portuguezes 
 ao Mar roxo.") He was appointed Governor of India 
 in 1545, and gained a great victory over the Moors at 
 Diu, after performing prodigies of valour. He received 
 the title of Viceroy of India in 1547, and died in 1548, in 
 the arms of Saint Francis Xavier. He left in manuscript 
 a " Journal of a Voyage from Lisbon to Goa." 
 
 See J. Freyre de Andrada, " Vida de loam de Castro," 1651, 
 and English version of the same, 1664; Faria v Souza, "Asia 
 Pmtugneia ;" LlNDAU, " Juan de Castro ; GemSlde ernes Helden- 
 lebens," 1813: Jo*o de Karros, "Decada secunda da Asia;' 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Castro, de, (Jose Rodrioo,) a Spanish Orientalist 
 and bibliographer, born in Galicia in 1739. He wrote 
 three poems, (1759,) in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, on the 
 accession of Charles III., to whom he became librarian. 
 
 In 1781 he published the first volume of "Bibliotheca 
 Espanola," (" Spanish Library,") which had great success. 
 The second volume appeared in 1786. Died about 1798. 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopnedie." 
 Castro, de, (Pedro,) a Spanish painter of still life, 
 excelled in colouring and perspective. Died in 1663. 
 
 Castro, de, (Vaca,) a Spanish officer, born at Leon, 
 became a judge of the royal court at Valladolid. In 
 1540 Charles V. sent him as governor to Peru, which 
 was then disturbed by the rebellion of Almagro. In 
 1542 a battle was fought at Chupas, in which Almagro 
 was defeated and made prisoner. By the order of Cas- ' 
 tro, he was executed on the spot. Castro was superseded 
 in 1544, and returned to Spain, where he was imprisoned 
 several years. Died in 155S. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. i. 
 Castro-Sarmento, de, da kas'tRo saR-nieVto,( jAr.o,) 
 a Portuguese physician, born about 1692, practised in 
 London, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society. He 
 wrote "Letters on the Diamonds of Brazil," and "Ma- 
 teria Medica," etc., (1758.) Died in 1762. 
 
 Castrucci, kas-tRoot'chee, (Pietro,) an Italian com- 
 poser, born at Rome about 1690, served Hogarth as the 
 model of his "Enraged Musician." Died in London in 
 1769. 
 
 Castruccio-Castracani, kas-tRoot'cho kis-tua-ka'- 
 nee, a chief of the Ghibeline party, born in Lucca about 
 1282. His family name was Antelminelli or Inter- 
 minei.li. In consequence of a revolution in 1316, he be- 
 came master or seigneur of Lucca, from which he expelled 
 the Guelphs. He waged a successful war against the 
 Florentines, (1320-25,) gained a great victory over their 
 general, Raymond de Cardona, in 1325, and by his cour- 
 age and political talents became a powerful prince. The 
 emperor Louis recognized him as Duke of Lucca, Pistoia, 
 Volterra, and Lunigiano, and created him a count pala- 
 tine. He died in 1328, leaving several minor sons, who 
 did not inherit any share of his power. Macchiavelli has 
 written a romance purporting to be a life of Castruccio, 
 but in which historic truth is not respected. " He joined 
 craft and duplicity," says Sismondi, "to the most bril- 
 liant valour and to extraordinary talents." 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Repub'.iques Italiennes:" Nrgrini, 
 "Vita Castruccii Castracani." 1496; Macchiavelli, "Vita di Cas- 
 truccio-Castracani," 1534, and French translation of the same, by 
 Drf.ux du Radier, 1753: Aldo Manucci, " Azioni di Castruccio- 
 Castracani," 1590 and 1820. 
 
 Cas'well, (Richard,) an American lawyer and gene- 
 ral, born in Maryland in 1729, removed to North Caro- 
 lina in his youth. He was chosen Governor of North 
 Carolina in 1777, and was re-elected several times. He 
 was a member of the convention which formed the 
 Federal Constitution in 1787. Died in 1789. 
 Caswini. See Cazwf.fm I 
 
 Casy, kit'ze', (Joseph Gregoire,) born in 1787, be- 
 came vice-admiral of France in 1845, and senator in 1852. 
 Casyapa. See KAsyapa. 
 Cat, Le. See I.f. Cat. 
 
 Catalan, kS'tS'los', (Eugene Charles,) a French 
 geometer, born in 1814. He acquired distinction as a 
 teacher, and published several approved works, among 
 which are " Elements of Geometry, "(1843,) and "Manual 
 for Candidates for the Polytechnic School," (1858.) 
 
 Catalani, ka-ta-la'nee, (Angelica,) a famous Italian 
 vocalist, born at Sinigaglia about 1782. She made her 
 debut at Rome in 1802 with immense success, which was 
 repeated in the principal cities of Italv. Her concerts 
 were applauded with the greatest enthusiasm in Paris 
 and London. She was married to a Frenchman named 
 Valabregue, and passed many years in England and 
 Paris. She retired from the stage about 1830, after which 
 she resided at Florence. Her merit consisted principally 
 in a voice of extraordinary volume and power. Died in 
 Paris in 1849. 
 
 See Frtis, "Biosraphie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 Catalan!, (Michf.le,) an Italian antiquary, born at 
 Fermo, in the March of Ancona, in 1750; died after 1800. 
 Catalano, ki-tl-la'no, (Antonio,) a skilful Italian 
 painter, born at Messina in 1560 ; died in 1630. 
 
 Cataldi, ka-tal'dee, Cataldo, ka-tal'do, written also 
 Catuldi, (Pietro Antonio,) an able Italian mathema- 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard: g as j; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. (JCJ-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CATALDO 
 
 5+2 
 
 CATHERINE 
 
 tician, born at Bologna about 1548. He was for many 
 years professor of mathematics in Bologna, and wrote 
 several works, which display an inventive genius and 
 extensive learning. One of them is entitled "Algebra 
 Applicata," (1622.) Died in 1626. 
 
 Cataldo. See Catai.di. 
 
 Cataneo. See Cattaneo. 
 
 Cat'cott, (Alexander,) an English theologian, pub- 
 lished in 1762 a "Treatise on the Deluge," and a volume 
 of sermons. He was one of the most eminent of the 
 Hutchinsont.m philosophical school. 
 
 Catel, ka'tel', (Charles Simon,) a French musical 
 composer, born at L'Aigle (Orne) in 1773, became pro- 
 fessor of harmony in the Conservatory of Paris in 1795. 
 He composed the music of "Semiramis," (1802,) " Wal- 
 lace," (1817,) an*d other operas; also a "Traite de Har- 
 monic," (1802.) In 1815 he was chosen a member of the 
 Institute. Died in 1830. 
 
 See F^tis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens " 
 
 Catel, ka'tel, ( Franz,) a German painter of landscapes, 
 history, and genre, born at Berlin in 1778; died in 1856. 
 
 Catel, (Guii.laume,) a French historian, born at 
 Toulouse in 1560. He was a councillor in the parliament 
 of Toulouse, and author of an esteemed history of Lan- 
 guedoc. Died in 1626. 
 
 Catel, (Samuel Heinrich,) a German scholar, born 
 at Halberstadt in 1758. He was professor of Greek in 
 the French gymnasium of Berlin. He published Bion, 
 Moschus, Anacreon, and Sappho, in German verse, and 
 other works. Died about 1835. 
 
 Catelan, kit'ld.v', sometimes written Catalan, (Lau- 
 rent,) a French pharmacist, published a "Discours sur 
 la Theriaque," (1614.) Died after 1639. 
 
 Catelinot. See Cathei.inot. 
 
 Catellan-Cauraont.de, deh ki't<t'16N'ko'mAN',(jEAN 
 Antoine,) Marquis, a meritorious French judge, born 
 at Toulouse in 1759 ; died in 1834. 
 
 Catellan de la Masquere, ki't£'13N' deh If mis'- 
 kaiR', (Claire Priscille Marguerite,) a French poet- 
 ess, born at Narbonne in 1662; died in 1745. 
 
 Catellano, ka-tel-la'no, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Leghorn; lived about 1750. He produced a 
 version of Anacreon, (1753.) 
 
 Catena, ka-ta'na, (Pietro,) an Italian mathematician, 
 born in Venice, wrote several works. . Died in 1577. 
 
 Catena, (Vincenzo,) a distinguished Italian painter 
 of history, born at Venice in 1470. Several of his works 
 are preserved in Venice. His style resembles that of 
 Giorgione. Died in 1530. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Caterino, ka-ti-ree'no, (Luigi,) an Italian scholar, 
 born at Saint Cyprian in 1786; died at Naples in 1834. 
 
 Catesby, kats'be, (Mark,) F.R.S., an eminent Eng- 
 lish naturalist and artist, born about 1680. He visited 
 Virginia in 1712, and returned home in 1719. Sir Hans 
 Sloane and others persuaded him in 1722 to go to Caro- 
 lina to delineate its plants and animals. He returned 
 to England in 1726, and in 1731 began to publish his 
 "Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama 
 Islands," with coloured figures drawn and etched by 
 himself, — the finest work of the kind that had appeared 
 in England. He wrote " Hortus Britanno-Americanus," 
 and a few other works. Died in London in 1749. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Catesby, (Robert,) an English Roman Catholic and 
 conspirator, who originated the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. 
 He is called "a gentleman of good parts" by Hume, 
 who says he " first thought of a most extraordinary method 
 of revenge, and opened his intention to Percy." W.hen 
 Fawkes was arrested, Catesby and his accomplices hur- 
 ried down to Warwickshire, where they resolved to make 
 a desperate stand. Catesby was killed in the act of re- 
 sisting the officers who came to arrest him, in November, 
 1605. (See Fawkes, Guy.) 
 
 Cathala-Coture.de, deh ki'tait'ko'tuR', (Antoine,) 
 a French antiquary and jurist, born at Montauban in 
 1632. He wrote a " History of Quercv," (3 vols., 1785.) 
 Died in 1724. 
 
 Cathalan, ki'ti'lSN', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit, dis- 
 tinguished as a pulpit orator, was born at Rouen in 1671 ; 
 died in 1757. 
 
 Catharin. See Catharinus. 
 
 Ca-tha-ri'nus, [Fr. Catharin, kS'ti'raN',] (Amisro- 
 sius,) an Italian theologian, born at Sienna in 1483. 
 His original name was Lancelot Politus or Poi.rn, 
 (po-lee'tee,) which he changed when he became a monk. 
 He acquired celebrity by his numerous writings, among 
 which are "Treatises on Original Sin," and "On Grace." 
 He affected to forsake the beaten routes, and disowned 
 the authority of Saint Thomas and the Fathers. In 1552 
 he was appointed Archbishop of Conza. Died in 1553. 
 
 See Nickron, "Memoires;" Touron, " Homines illustres de 
 l'Ordre de Saint-Dominique." 
 
 Cath'cart, (Charles Murray,) second Earl or, a 
 British general, eldest son of William, the first Earl, 
 born in 1783. In the Peninsular war he distinguished 
 himself at Salamanca and Vittoria, (June, 1813.) He 
 led a regiment of cavalry at Waterloo, (1815.) He was 
 Governor of Canada some time between 1840 and 1846. 
 
 Cathcart, (Hon. Sir George,) a brave English gene- 
 ral, born in London about 1790, was the third son of the 
 Earl of Cathcart, noticed below. He went to Russia in 
 
 1812 as aide-de-camp of his father, who was ambas- 
 sador to that country. He made the campaigns of 
 
 1813 and 1814 with the allied army, and witnessed the 
 battles of Lutzen, Dresden, Leipsic, etc. In 1S15 he 
 became aide-de-camp to the Duke of Wellington, whom 
 he attended at Waterloo. He served several years with 
 honour in Jamaica, Canada, etc. In 1852 he was Gov- 
 ernor of Cape Colony, and the next year, having obtained 
 the rank of lieutenant-general, he was sent to the Crimea. 
 He was killed at Inkerman, November 5, 1854. His 
 "Commentaries on the War in Russia and Germany in 
 1812-13" are highly commended. 
 
 Cathcart, (William Shaw,) first Earl of, a British 
 general and diplomatist, born at Petersham in 1755. 
 He took part in the American war, and in 1778 became 
 aide-de-camp of Sir Henry Clinton. In 1788, and at 
 several subsequent periods, he was chosen one of the 
 representatives of the Scottish peerage. He was made 
 major-general in 1794, and served against the French in 
 Holland, etc. In 1807 he commanded the expedition 
 which captured the fleet and capital of Denmark, and 
 was created a British peer, with the title of Viscount 
 Cathcart. He was ambassador to Saint Petersburg in 
 1813, and became an earl in 1814. Died in 1843. 
 
 Cathelineau, kit'le'no', (Jacques,) a French peasant, 
 born near Saint-Florent about 1760, was one of the 
 leaders of the royalist insurrection which broke out in 
 La Vendee in 1793. By his virtue, eloquence, and talent 
 for command he acquired great influence over the in- 
 surgents. Just after the Vendeans had gained a great 
 victory at Saumur, (June, 1793,) where they took eighty 
 pieces of cannon, Cathelineau was crrosengeneral-in-chief. 
 A few days later he was killed in an attack on Nantes. 
 
 See Muret, "Vie populaire de Cathelineau," 1845 ; " Nouvelle 
 Biograpliie GthieVale." 
 
 Cathelinot or Catelinot, kit'le'no', (Dom Ilde- 
 fonse,) a French monk, noted for learning, was born in 
 Paris in 1670. He left many works in manuscript. Died 
 in 1756. 
 
 Catherine, kath'er-in, [in Russian, Ecatarina, a-ka- ■ 
 ta-ree'na,] I., Empress of Russia, was born, of poor 
 parents, at Marienburg, in Livonia, about 1688. Several 
 contradictory versions of her romantic story have been 
 published. She was taken captive at Marienburg by the 
 Russians in 1702, after having been married to a subal- 
 tern Swedish officer. Her beauty attracted the notice 
 of Peter the Great, who in 171 1 recognized her as his 
 wife. She accompanied him in a campaign against Tur- 
 key in 171 1, and rendered him an important service by 
 negotiating a treaty when the Russian army was in a 
 critical position. Peter caused her to be crowned in 
 
 1724. She was proclaimed empress at his death in 
 
 1725, and died in 1727. She had several children by 
 her second marriage, one of whom became the empress 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Histoire de Russie," and " Histoire de Charles 
 XII ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate," 
 
 Catherine [in Russian, Ecatarina] II., Empress of 
 Russia, born at Stettin in 1729, was the daughter of the 
 Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. Her original name was Sophia 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u,y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall lit; met; not; good; moon, 
 
CATHERINE 
 
 5+3 
 
 CATILINE 
 
 OTA. In 1745 she was married to the nephew of 
 Elizabeth, Empress ol Russia, and then took tin Bans 
 
 therine Alexievna Her husband, who was much 
 inferior to her in abilities, became emperor in 1762, under 
 the title of l'eter III. lie had long been estranged 
 front In t, ami now proposed to rtpn. liai t kei ; Wilt, by 
 
 a conspiracy of her friends, he was deposed i" July, 1762, 
 
 when slut became mistress of the empire. (Sec I'KTKR 
 III.) Though extremely profligate and cruel, she had 
 too strong a mind to be enslaved by her passions 01 
 to allow thtin to interfere with her ambitious policy. 
 She promoted agriculture, commerce, and education, and 
 liberally patronized scientific men, such as Diderot and 
 Euler. Ii> 1772 she became a party to the infamous 
 partition of Poland, by which she obtained Polotsk 
 and Mohiielev, (Mohilev.) She waged a successful war 
 against the Turks, and extended her dominions on the 
 Black Sea, In 1793, by a new partition of Poland, she 
 acquired Volhynia and I'odolia. She died in 1796, and 
 was succeeded by her son, Paul I. " Her capacity," 
 says llrougham, " was of an exalted order. Her judg- 
 ment was v:lejr and sure; her apprehension extraordi- 
 narily quick ; her sagacity penetrating ; her providence 
 and circumspection comprehensive. There have been 
 few abler monarch! in any part of the world ; and the 
 history of princts affords few examples of such talents 
 and such force of character on a throne, perverted to 
 the working of so much mischief." She wrote " In- 
 structions to the Commission for composing a Code of 
 Laws," and various other works. 
 
 See Castera, "Vie de Catherine II," 1796; Struve, "Vita 
 Catherine II.," 1798; Tooke, "History of Catherine II.," 1803; 
 TannbnbbbG, " I.eben Catherinens II.," 1797: C.J. OR Ligne, 
 41 Portrait de Catherine II," 1797 ; Segur, " History;" Brougham, 
 •'Statesmen of the Time of George III.," vol. ii.; Auguis, " His- 
 toire de Catherine IletdePaul I," 1813; N. Karamzin, "Lob- 
 red- 1 a"f Catherine II.," translated into German from the Russian 
 by J. G. Richter, 1820; Johann R. Forster, " Kurze Uebersicht 
 des Lebens der Kaiserin von Russland Catharina II.," 1797. 
 
 Catherine (or Catharine) of Aragon, written also 
 Katharine, Queen of England, born in i486, was the 
 daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. She was 
 married in 1501 to Arthur, the eldest son of Henry \ 11. 
 of England. Arthur died in 1502, and the next year she 
 was affianced to his brother, Prince Henry, who was six 
 years younger than herself. Soon after he ascended the 
 throne (1509) the marriage was solemnized. In I5i6she 
 gave birth to a daughter, Mary, who afterwards became 
 queen. In 1527 Henry raised the question of divorce, 
 which was pending several years. (See Hk.nky VIII.) 
 She died in 1536, much respected for her many virtues. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England ;" Lingard, "History of Eng- 
 land;" Strickland, "Queens of England;" Froude, "History 
 of England;" Shakspeare, "Henry VIII." 
 
 Catherine of Bourbon, (boor'bon,) [Fr. Cathe- 
 RINI DE ItoURHON, kSt'ren' deh booR'boN',] Princess 
 of Navarre and Duchess of Bar, born in Paris in 1558, 
 was a sister of Henry IV. of France. She was married 
 to the Due de Bar in 1599. Died in 1604. 
 
 Catherine, of France, Queen of England, born in 
 1401, was the daughter of Charles VI. of France and 
 Isabella of Bavaria. In 1420 she was married to I kin y 
 V. of England, and became the mother of Henry VI. 
 Soon after the death of Henry V. (1422) she became the 
 wife of a Welsh gentleman, Owen Tudor ; and from this 
 union descended Henry VII. and the house of Tudor. 
 Died in 1438. 
 
 Catherine, of Portugal or Braganza, Queen of 
 England, the daughter of John IV. of Portugal, was born 
 in 1638. She was married to Charles II. of England in 
 1661,. but did not succeed in gaining his affection. In 
 1693, after Charles's death, she returned to Lisbon, and 
 in 1704 was appointed Regent of Portugal by her brother 
 Pedro. (See Charles II.) Died in 1705. 
 See Macaulav's "History of England," vol. i. 
 Catherine, Saint, of Alexandria, supposed to have 
 suffered martyrdom under the reign of Maximin, about 
 307 A.n., was regarded as the patroness of philosophy, 
 learning, and eloquence ; and her history has been illus- 
 trated by many artists of the middle ages. 
 See Mks. JausBOH, "Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 Catherine, jit. Caterina, ka-ta-ree'na,] Saint, OF 
 Genoa, born about 1448, was the daughter of Giacopo 
 
 1' it si hi, who was Viceroy of Naples. She became the 
 wife of Julian Adoruo, a dissolute and prodigal patrician, 
 whom, after many years of sorrow, she converted from 
 ■ <r ol his ways. She devoted her latter years to 
 the si nice of the sick in the hospital of Genoa, and died 
 in 1 5 10, leaving two works which were esteemed by the 
 mystics. 
 
 Sm Miratoli, "Vita della B. Caterina di Genova," 1580. 
 
 Catherine, Saint, of Sienna, born at Sienna in 1347, 
 took the habit of a nun about 1366, and became distin- 
 guished for her fervent charity and devotion. She medi- 
 ated a peace between the Florentines and Pope Urban 
 VI. in 1378. She favoured the same pope when his autho- 
 rity was contested by Clement VII., and made strenuous 
 efforts to terminate the scandalous schism. She died 
 in 13S0, and was canonized in 1461. "Her letters, and 
 other writings, are admired. 
 
 See Chavan.de Mai.an, " Histoire de S. Catherine de Siennr, ' 
 2 vols., 1846: Raymond de Capoue, "Vie de S. Catherine dc 
 Sienne," 1853. 
 
 Catherine (or Catharine) HSw'ard, Queen of 
 Henry VIII., was the daughter of Edmund, Lord How- 
 ard, who was a son of the Duke of Norfolk. She was 
 married to Henry in August, 1540, and was executed in 
 February, 1542, on the charge of unchastity before her 
 marriage, and adultery afterwards. 
 
 See Froude, " History of England," vol. iv. chap, xix.; Strick- 
 land, "Queens of England." 
 
 Catherine de' Medici, (da mM'de-chee,) [Fi. Ca- 
 therine he Medicis, kft'rin' deh ma'de'sess',] born 
 at Florence in 1519, was the daughter of Lorenao de' 
 Medici, Duke of U rhino, who was a nephew of Leo X. 
 In 1533 she was married to Henry of France, who in 
 1547 became King Henry II. She had five sons, three 
 of whom became kings of France, — namely, Francis II., 
 Charles IX., and Henry III. The death of Francis II., 
 in 1560, rendered her mistress of the kingdom, with the 
 title of regent for Charles IX., who was a minor. She 
 was artful, perfidious, and cruel. To increase her po- 
 litical influence, she corrupted the morals of her sons. 
 She fomented civil war among her subjects, and insti- 
 gated the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, August, 1572. 
 (See Charles IX.) The palace of the Tuilcries is a 
 monument of her munificence as a patron of art, — per- 
 haps the only respectable trait of her character. Died 
 in 1589. 
 
 See Motley, "History of the United Netherlands." vol. i. p. 
 44. and vol. ii. pp. 426 and 559 : also his " Rise of the Dutch Repub- 
 lic," vol. iii. pp. 577 and 57S ; Eugenio Ai.beri, "Vita di Caterina 
 de' Medici," 1834; German version of the same, by BkCJC. 1847; J. 
 F. Dfstignv, "Histoire mysterieuse de Catherine de MeMicis," 
 1847 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1840. 
 
 Catherine (or Catharine) Parr, the sixth and last 
 wife of Henry VIII. of England, was the widow of Lord 
 Latimer when, in 1543, she was married to that king. 
 She once offended him, it is said, by dissenting from his 
 opinions in theology, so that her life was in peri I ; but she 
 dexterously averted the storm by feigning that she did 
 this to afford him the pleasure of refuting her, and to 
 render their conversation more animated. " Is it so, 
 sweet-heart ?" said the king : " then we are perfect friends 
 again." She survived Henry, and in 1548 married Tho- 
 mas, Lord Seymour, Admirat of England. I lied in 1548. 
 
 See Strickland, "Queens of England." 
 
 Catherine Paulowna, [Ger. pron. kS-teh-ree'neh 
 pow-lov'n3,l Queen of Wiirtcnibeig, daughter of Paul, 
 Emperor of Russia, was born in 1788. In 1809 she was 
 married to the Duke of Oldenburg, who died in 1812. 
 She was a favourite sister of the Czar Alexander, and is 
 said to have been endowed with noble and amiable quali- 
 ties. She was married in 1816 to the Prince of \Vur- 
 teniberg, who became King William I. Died in 1819. 
 
 Catherinot, kSt're'no', (Nicolas,) a French anti- 
 quary, born near Bourges in 1628; died in 1O.S8. 
 
 Cat'I-line, [Lat. Catili'na,! (Lucius Sm;gius,) a 
 famous Roman demagogue and conspirator, born of a 
 patrician lamily about 108 B.C. He first appears in his- 
 tory as a partisan of Sulla in the civil war, and rendered 
 himself infamous by his complicity in the murders and 
 robberies that followed the success of his party. In 68 
 B.C. he was chosen pra:tor at Rome. Four years later 
 he began to canvass for the consulship, and to organize a 
 
 e as A; 5 as s; g hard; g as /; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; i.,4rilUd; s as z; th as in this. (Jf^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CATINAT 
 
 544 
 
 CATO 
 
 faction of desperate and profligate men like himself. A 
 remarkable union of audacity and craft, joined with elo- 
 quence and other popular qualities, rendered him a fit 
 leader of sucli a party. Defeated in the election for con- 
 sul, he formed a conspiracy against the republic in 63 B.C., 
 (690A.U.C.) Our knowledge of this affair is derived chiefly 
 from the partial statements of Cicero and from the his- 
 tory of Sallust, who, however, agree in representing that 
 Catiline designed nothing less than a general massacre 
 and conflagration. Cicero, who was then consul, having 
 received notice of the plot from Curius, denounced the 
 treason of Catiline to the senate in October, and the 
 consuls were invested pro tempore with absolute power 
 for the emergency. On November 8, Cicero uttered in 
 the senate an oration of great power against Cataline, 
 who attempted to reply ; but the senate refused to hear 
 him. He then hastily left Rome and joined the army 
 of his partisans, which had been mustered in Etruria, 
 leaving Lentulus and other conspirators in-Rome. Cer- 
 tain deputies from Gaul, who had been tampered with, 
 aided Cicero in obtaining more positive evidence, by 
 which Lentulus and others were convicted and executed. 
 The army of the senate overtook the rebels near Pis- 
 toria (now Pistoia) in 62 B.C. Catiline animated his men 
 with an eloquent harangue, and fought the battle with 
 skill and determined valour, but was defeated, and fell in 
 the thickest of the fight, with about three thousand of 
 his partisans. 
 
 See Sallust, " Belluni Catilinarium ;" Cicero, "Orationes, in 
 Catilinam;" Dion Cassius, "History of Rome;" H. Wolf, "Cati- 
 linae Conjuratio ex Fontibus narrate," 1803; Rose, "History of 
 Catiline's Conspiracy," 1813; G. F. Sidney, " History of Catiline's 
 Conspiracy," 179s; Mursinna, "Catilina; historisches Gemalde," 
 1797- 
 
 Catinat de la Fauconnerle, ki'te'ni' deh It fo'- 
 kon're', commonly called simply Catinat, (Nicolas,) a 
 marshal of France, eminent for talents, integrity, and 
 generosity, born in Paris in 1637. He distinguished 
 himself in the campaigns against the Spanish and Aus- 
 trians in Flanders between 1667 and 1678, and was 
 wounded at Seneffe in 1674. Having been made lieu- 
 tenant-general, he commanded the army which invaded 
 Savoy, and gained the battle of Staffarda in 1690. In 
 1693 he received a marshal's baton. Louis XIV., in 
 reading a list of the marshals, exclaimed, at the name 
 of Catinat, " Here is Virtue crowned I" In 1701 he was 
 placed at the head of the army of Italy, as antagonist to 
 Prince Eugene, but was soon superseded by Villeroi. 
 Died in 17 12. 
 
 See " Me'moires pour servir a la Vie de Catinat," par M. D. C, 
 Paris, 1775: Guibert, "filoge de Catinat;" La Harpe, " Eloge de 
 N. de Catinat," 1775; Lebouyer de Saint-Gervais. "Me'moires 
 et Correspondance de Catinat," 3 vols., 1818; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^ne'rale." 
 
 Catineau - Laroche, kf'te'no' li'rosh', (Pierre 
 Marie S6isastien,) a French civil officer, born at Saint- 
 Brieuc in 1772. After holding several offices, he was 
 appointed chief clerk in the bureau of commerce and the 
 colonies in 1826. He published a " Portable Vocabulary 
 of the French Language," (1797,) and an "Account of 
 French Guiana," (1822.) Died in 1828. 
 
 Catius, ka'she-us, an Epicurean philosopher, born in 
 Gaul, (Transpadane.) Died about 45 B.C. 
 
 Cat'lin, (George,) an American traveller and artist, 
 born in Pennsylvania. He acquired distinction by his 
 adventures and studies among the North American 
 Indians, with whom he passed about eight years. He 
 represented the character and life of the red men in a 
 series of paintings, and published " Illustrations of the 
 Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North Ameri- 
 can Indians," with engravings, (2 vols., 1841,) which, 
 according to the London " Athenaeum," " is a book of 
 extraordinary interest and value." Having exhibited 
 his Indian Gallery and collection in Europe, he pub- 
 lished "Notes of Eight Years' Travel and Residence in 
 Europe," (2 vols., 1848.) 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists ;" " Edinburgh Review" 
 for January, 1842. 
 
 Ca'to, (Dionysius,) a Latin moralist, for whose bio- 
 graphy no materials exist, and respecting whom many 
 conflicting opinions have been adopted. His name is 
 connected with a small work entitled "Disticha de 
 Moribus ad Filium," which was extensively employed 
 
 as a catechism of morals in the schools of the middle 
 ages, and was commended for its literary merit by Eras- 
 mus and Scaliger. It consists mostly of moral precepts, 
 each of which is expressed in two hexameter verses. 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Latina." 
 Cato, [Gr. Koruv ; Fr. Caton* kS't6N'; It. Catone, 
 ka-to'na,] (Marcus Porcius,) often called Ca'to Cen- 
 so'rius, (or Cknsori'nus,) i.e. "Cato the Censor," also 
 sumamed THE Elder, an eminent Roman patriot and 
 statesman, was born of a plebeian family at Tusculum in 
 234 B.C. At the age of seventeen he served in the army 
 against Hannibal, and in 209 he took part in the siege of 
 Tarcntum under Fabius. He contributed to the victory 
 over Hasdrubal on the Metaurus in 207. In the intervals 
 of war he worked on his Sabine farm, and accustomed 
 himself to a hardy, simple mode of life, disciplined in aus- 
 tere virtues and in all branches of practical and useful 
 knowledge. By pleading causes for the poor, he had 
 become an oracle among his rustic neighbors, when Va- 
 lerius Flaccus, a liberal patrician, recognized his merit, 
 and persuaded him to seek in the Forum of Rome an 
 ampler sphere of usefulness. He soon gained eminence 
 as an orator, and became a candidate for office. He 
 was elected quaestor (paymaster) in 204, and prxtor in 
 198 B.C., when he obtained Sardinia as his province. 
 In 195 he was raised to the consulship, with his early 
 patron, V. Flaccus, for his colleague, and commanded 
 the army in Spain with ability and success, for which he 
 received a triumph on his return. Elected censor in 184, 
 he reformed many abuses, and enforced his principles 
 of economy and sobriety with a severity which pro- 
 cured him many enemies. He was one of the chief ad- 
 visers of the third Punic war, and author of the phrase 
 (which he often repeated in the senate) Delenda est Car- 
 thago, ("Carthage must be destroyed.") He wrote a 
 treatise on agriculture, (" De Re rustica,") which is 
 extant. His son, M. Porcius Cato, became an eminent 
 jurist. Died in 149 B.C. In Plutarch's parallels, Cato 
 the Censor is the counterpart of Aristides. Few names 
 occur in the Latin classics oftener than that of Cato, 
 who was venerated as a model of pristine Roman virtue. 
 See Plutarch, " Lives ;" Livy, " History of Rome ;" Corne- 
 lius Nepos, "Cato;" Cicero, "Cato Major, sen de Senectute ;" 
 Drumann, " Geschichte Roms ;" E. Schop.er, "De M. P. Catone 
 Censorino," 1825 ; Weber, " Programma de M. P. Catonis Vita et 
 Moribus," 1831. , 
 
 Cato, (Marcus Porcius,) a Roman general, was an 
 uncle of Cato of Utica. He was tribune of the people 
 in 100 B.C., and in that office opposed Apuleius Satur- 
 ninus. He defeated the Etruscans in the year 90, and 
 was consul in 89 B.C. He was killed in a skirmish with 
 the Marsians. 
 
 Cato, (Marcus Porcius,) surnamed the Younger, 
 and Uticen'sis, (i.e. "of Utica,") a celebrated Roman 
 Stoic philosopher and patriot, born in 95 B.C., was a great- 
 grandson of Cato the Censor, whom he took for his model 
 in private and public life. He studied the doctrines of the 
 Stoics under Antipater, and inured himself to hardships 
 and privations. His first campaign was in the servile war 
 against Spartacus, (72 B.C.,) in which he gave proof of 
 courage ; but martial pursuits did not prove congenial to 
 his taste. After performing the duties of quaestor with 
 honour, he was elected tribune of the people in the same 
 year that Cicero was consul. He appears to have been 
 the only eminent Roman that heartily seconded Cicero 
 in opposing the traitorous designs of Catiline, 690 A.u.C. 
 His sincere devotion to liberty prompted him to strenu- 
 ously oppose the ambitious coalition of Caesar, Pothpey, 
 and Crassus ; but his success was perhaps hindered by 
 his inflexible and uncompromising policy. In 54 B.C. he 
 was elected praetor, and, by his efforts to prevent bri- 
 bery at elections, gave great offence to the politicians. 
 He'failed in his candidacy for the consulship, because he 
 would not resort to corrupt means to procure his elec- 
 tion. When the rivalry of Pompey and Caesar, whom 
 he vainly attempted to reconcile, ripened into civil war 
 in 49 B.C., Cato joined the party of the former as the 
 lesser evil, and, after the death of Pompey, commanded 
 an army in Africa. He resigned the command to Scipio, 
 
 * The manuscripts of Chaucer have Caton and Catoun. (See the 
 "Tale of Melibeus," and the " Nonnes Prestes Tale.") 
 
 a. e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure, -fir, fall, fat; m£t; n5t; good; moon; 
 
CATO 
 
 545 
 
 CATULLE 
 
 *ho was defeated in the year 46. Cato then wished to 
 defend Utica against the victor; but other counsels pre- 
 vailed. Unwilling to survive the ruin of the republic, 
 which he had predicted and opposed with all his power, 
 he died at Utica by his own hand, in his forty-ninth year. 
 Caesar, on hearing of the event, exclaimed, "Cato, I envy 
 thee thy death, since thou hast deprived me of the honour 
 of saving thy life." Cato has generally been regarded as 
 one of the purest and noblest of all the Romans. His 
 lofty and spotless virtue (as virtue was then understood) 
 teemed almost to justify that fine though somewhat ex- 
 travagant line of Lucan's " Pharsalia :" 
 
 " Victrix causa Deis placuit, sed victa Catoni. "• 
 Plutarch makes a comparison between Cato and Pho- 
 cion, whose virtues, he says, were perfectly similar in 
 form and colour. It may be said, however, that the 
 former excelled in active, the latter in passive', virtues. 
 Cato's son Marcos was killed at Philippi, fighting for 
 Brutal and Cassius. 
 
 See Tacitus, "Hisiory," iv. 8; Valerius Maximus, vi. ; Dru- 
 mann, "Geschichte Konm," vol. v. 
 
 Cato, (Valerius,) a Roman poet and grammarian, 
 who flourished at Rome in the first century B.C. He had 
 a high reputation for his skill as a teacher, and wrote 
 several treatises on grammar. His poems entitled 
 " I.ydia" and " Diana" were his most celebrated works ; 
 but they have not come down to us. There is extant, 
 under his name, a small poem called "Dirae," which 
 some persons ascribe to Virgil. 
 
 See Suetonius, "De Grammaticis illustribus ;" Burmann, "An- 
 thologia." 
 
 Cato Censorius or Censorinus. See Cato (M. 
 Porcius) the Censor. 
 
 Ca'to Ll-cm-I-a'nus, (Caius Porcius,) a son of 
 Marcus Pbrcius, noticed below, became consul in the 
 year 1 14 B.C., and commanded an army in Thrace, where 
 he was defeated. He was afterwards employed as legate 
 in Africa, and was charged with a dishonourable intrigue 
 with Jugurtha. 
 
 Cato Licinianus, (Marcus Porcius,) an eminent 
 Roman jurist, was the son of Cato the Censor by his first 
 wife, and was esteemed a wise and virtuous man. He 
 entered the army in his youth, and distinguished himself 
 at the battle of Pydna in 168 B.C., soon after which he 
 devoted himself to the law. He wrote several legal 
 works. Hied in 152 B.C. 
 
 Cato Uticensis. See Cato (M. Porcius) the 
 Younger. 
 
 Caton, the French of Cato, which see. 
 
 Catone, the Italian of Cato, which see. 
 
 Catrou, kS'tRoo', (Francois,) a French Jesuit and 
 writer, born in Paris in 1659. He edited the "Journal 
 de Trevoux" about twelve years, (1 701-12,) with a fair 
 reputation as a critic. He published, besides other works, 
 a "History of Aurung-Zeb," (1702,) and a "Roman 
 History," in twenty-one volumes, which was popular at 
 the time. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Catrufo, ka-tRoo'fo, (Giuseppe,) an Italian composer, 
 born at Naples in 1771. He composed comic operas. 
 
 Cats, kits, (JAKOB,) sometimes spelled Catz, [Lat. 
 Cat'sius/] an eminent and popular Dutch poet, born at 
 Brouwershaven, in Zealand, in 1577, holds a conspicuous 
 place among the creators of Dutch poetry and literature. 
 He studied law, which he practised with success ; and 
 he performed with credit the highest functions in the 
 public service. He was ambassador to England in 1627 
 and in 1651. From 1636 to 1651 he served as grand 
 pensionary of Holland. He wrote a poem entitled 
 "Country Life," ( " Buitenleven,") and numerous "Mo- 
 ral Emblems," fables, allegories, songs, etc., which are 
 admired for ease, simplicity, and clearness of style, and 
 display a deep knowledge of the human heart. Bilder- 
 dijk, one of the greatest of Dutch poets, says, 
 
 "Dear Father Cats, 
 What endless treasures dost thou not contain !"t 
 
 " His imagination," says Hallam, " is gay, his morality 
 
 • "The victorious cause was favoured by the gods, but the con- 
 quered by Cato." 
 
 ♦ " Dierbre Vader Cats, 
 Wat bebelst ge niet al scbats." 
 
 popular and useful. No one was more read than Father 
 Cats, as the people call him ; but he is often trifling and 
 monotonous." Died in 1660. 
 
 See L0NOFEM.0W, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Alsche, 
 "Commentatio de J. Catsio," 1828; Sibgbnrkek, " Over de Ver- 
 diensten van T. Cats als Staatsman," 1836 : Foppens, " Bibliotheca 
 Belgica;" " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1854. 
 
 Cattaneo, kat-tl'na-o, (Carlo,) an Italian economist 
 and able writer on philosophy, statistics, and politics, 
 born at Milan about 1815. He is a republican, and took 
 a prominent part in the revolution at Milan in 1848. 
 Among his works are "The Insurrection at Milan in 
 1848," and " Natural and Political Account of Lom- 
 bardy," (" Notizie naturali e civili della Lombardia.") 
 
 Cattaneo, (Danese,) an Italian sculptor and poet, 
 born at Carrara about 1500. He worked in Venice and 
 Verona, and was eminent as an artist and poet. He 
 was author of a poem called "The Love of Marrisa," 
 (" L'AmoT di Marlisa.") 
 
 Cattaneo, (Felice,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Milan, lived about 1730. 
 
 Cattaneo or Cataneo, ka-ta-na'o, (Giovanni Ma- 
 ria,) a learned Italian writer, born at Novara, became a 
 resident of Rome. In early youth lie composed a com- 
 mentary on Pliny the Younger, which was admired, and 
 was printed in 1500. He left an unfinished poem on the 
 "Conquest of Jerusalem by the Crusaders." Died about 
 1528. ' 
 
 Cattani, kat-til'nee, (Gaetano,) an Italian missionary, 
 born at Modena in 1696. He went to Paraguay in 1729, 
 and afterwards wrote three long letters on that country, 
 which Muratori inserted in his collection with high and 
 merited praise. Died in 1733. 
 
 Cattani da Diacceto, kat-ta'nee da de-at-cha'to, 
 (Francesco,) an Italian philosopher and writer, born at 
 Florence in 1446. He succeeded Marsilio Ficino as 
 professor of philosophy. Died in 1522. 
 
 See B. Varchi, "Vita di F. Cattani da Diacceto," 1561 and 1843 
 
 Cattapane, kat-ti-pa'ni, (Luca,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Cremona, lived about 1500. 
 
 Catteau-Calleville, ki'to' kil'vel', (Joiiann Peter 
 Wilhelm,) a historian and geographer, of French origin, 
 born at Angermunde, in Prussia, in 1759. He became 
 minister of the French -Protestant church at Stockholm 
 in 1783, and settled in Paris in 1810. He published a 
 "General Description of Sweden," (1789,) "Travels in 
 Germany and Sweden," (1810,) a "History of Christina, 
 Queen of Sweden," (1815,) and other works. Died in 
 1819. 
 
 See Qu^rard, " I.a France Litte'raire." 
 
 Cattenburg, van, vin kat'ten-biiRO, (Adriaan,) a 
 Dutch theologian, born at Rotterdam in 1664. He was 
 one of the chief men of the sect of Remonstrants or Ar- 
 minians, and author of several works, among which were 
 a "Life of Hugo Grotius," (1727,) and "Treatise on the 
 Wisdom of Moses," (" Syntagma Sapiential Mosaicae," 
 1737.) Died about 1737. 
 
 See Fei.i.er, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Cat'ter-mole, (George,) an eminent English painter, 
 born at Dickleburgh, Norfolk, in 1800. His works are 
 mostly paintings, in water-colours, of subjects derived 
 from history or from the imaginations of Shakspeare and 
 Scott. Among his capital productions is a large picture 
 of " I.uther at the Diet of Spire." At the Exposition 
 of Paris in 185=; he received a first-class medal. After 
 that date he painted chiefly in oil. Died in 1868. 
 
 Cattermole, (Rev. Richard,) an English author, bro- 
 ther of the preceding, became vicar of Little Marlow, in 
 the county of Bucks. He published "The Literature 
 of the Church of England," (2 vols.,) "Illustrated His- 
 tory of the Great Civil War of the Times of Charles I. 
 and Cromwell," (2 vols., 1846-52,) and other valuable 
 works. 
 
 Cattho or Catto, kSt-to', (Ancei.o,) a learned bish? \ 
 born at Taranto, became chaplain to Louis XI. of Frar;e. 
 He was reputed to be skilful in astrology and the pre- 
 diction of future events. Died in 1494. 
 
 Cattier, ki'te-4', (Isaac,) a French medi'.al writer, 
 born in Paris, liver) about 1640. 
 
 Catnldi See Cataldi. 
 
 Catulle. See Catullus. 
 
 € as k; c as s; f hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; § as 1; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 35 
 
CATULL US 
 
 546 
 
 CAULAINCOURT 
 
 Ca-tul'lus, [Fr. C atuli.e, kt'tiil',] (Catus Valerius,) 
 an eminent Latin poet, born at or near Verona about 
 77 B.C., (some authorities say 87 B.C.) He went to Rome 
 at an early age, and by bis literary merit obtained ad- 
 mission into the society of Cicero, Caesar, Pollio, and 
 others. His indulgence in vicious and expensive pleas- 
 ures soon reduced him to poverty, which, however, did 
 not subdue his hilarity. His superior genius as a poet is 
 generally admitted by ancient and modern critics. He 
 wrote numerous poems, which are still extant, including 
 odes and epigrams of great beauty and pathos. He also 
 excelled in heroic verse, and was the first Roman that 
 cultivated lyric poetry with success. His longest poem 
 is "The Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis," in hexameter 
 verse. Some critics estimate the "Atys" as the great- 
 est of his works. "His ' Atys,' " says Professor William 
 Ramsay, " is one of the most remarkable poems in the 
 whole range of Latin literature. Rolling impetuously 
 along in a flood of wild passion, bodied forth in the 
 grandest imagery and the noblest diction, it breathes in 
 every line the fiery vehemence cf the Greek ditnyramb. 
 . . . We admire by turns, in the lighter efforts/ of his 
 muse, his unaffected ease, playful grace, vigorous sim- 
 plicity, pungent wit, and slashing invective." He imi- 
 tated Greek models, and seemed like a Greek poet 
 writing in Latin. He is supposed to have died about 
 45 B.C. ; though Scaliger maintains that he lived about 
 thirty years after that date. 
 
 See Sellar, "Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. xii. ; Fa- 
 rRicius, " Bibliotheca Latina ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" 
 'Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1842; " Fraser's Magazine" 
 for March, 1849. 
 
 Cat'u-lus, {Caius Lutatius,) a Roman commander, 
 was chosen consul for the year 242 B.C., when the first 
 Punic war had been waged more than twenty years. 
 The Roman navy had been defeated in several battles, 
 and was nearly annihilated. Catulus took command of 
 a new fleet, and gained a decisive victory over Hanno in 
 241 B.C. He then terminated the war on terms favour- 
 able to Rome. 
 
 Catulus, (Quintus Lutatius,) a Roman general and 
 scholar, noted for the purity and grace with which he 
 spoke and wrote Latin. After several repulses, he was 
 elected consul with C. Marius for the year 102 B.C., when 
 Italy was threatened by the victorious Cimbri. - Two 
 Roman armies, commanded by Catulus and Marius, 
 united and defeated the Cimbri in a great battle near 
 Vercelli in 101 B.C. Plutarch says the whole honour of 
 the day was ascribed to Marius, although the chief brunt 
 of the battle fell on the army of Catulus. He became 
 a partisan of Sulla in the civil war, was proscribed by 
 Marius in 87 B.C., and killed himself. He left a his- 
 torical work on the Cimbrian war, and several poems. 
 Except two epigrams, none of his works are extant. 
 
 See Appian, "Bellum Civile;" Plutarch, "Marius" and 
 " Sulla;" Cicero, "De Oratore." 
 
 Catulus, (Quintus Lutatius,) a son of the preceding, 
 was a prominent leader of the aristocracy, and one of the 
 most moderate „nd pure of the statesmen of his time. 
 He was consul .11 78 B.C., and censor in 65. He was called 
 "illustrious" (" vir clarissimus") by Cicero in his oration 
 "pro Lege Manilia." Catulus was a strong supporter of 
 Cicero in his efforts to defeat the conspiracy of Catiline 
 in 63 B.C. According to Sallust, he urged Cicero to 
 include Caesar among the conspirators. Died in 60 B.C. 
 
 See Sallust, "Bellum Catilinarium;" Tacitus, "Historia." 
 
 Cauche, kosh, (Francois,) a French traveller, born 
 at Rouen, lived about 1650. He passed several years 
 in Madagascar. On his return to France, he published 
 "An Account of the Voyage of F. Cauche to Madagas- 
 car," (165 1,) which was commended by I)u Petit-Thouars. 
 
 Cauchois -Lemaire, ko'shwa' leh-m5R', (Louis 
 Franqois Auguste,) a French journalist, born in Paris 
 in 1789. He wrote for the "Constitutionnel" from 1820 
 to 1832, and was noted for his bold and sarcastic political 
 articles. In 1832 he became chief editor of the "Good 
 Sense," ("Bon Sens,") a democratic journal. He was 
 imprisoned several times for his writings between 1820 
 and 1830. He wrote a "History of the Revolution of 
 1830," and other works, mostly political. Died in 1862. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Cauchoix, ko'shwa', (Robert Aglae,) a French op- 
 tician, born in Seine-et-Oise in 1776. His telescopes are 
 said to be among the best in use. 
 
 Cauchon, kS'slfoN', (Pierre,) Bishop of Beauvais, 
 in the fifteenth century, was a fanatical partisan of the 
 English. He rendered his memory infamous as judge of 
 Joan of Arc (1431) by the perfidious means he used to 
 effect her condemnation and by the atrocious sentence 
 which he pronounced upon her. Died in 1443. 
 
 See Sismonui, " Histoire des Francais ;" J. des Ursins, " His- 
 toire de Charles VII." 
 
 Cauchy, ko'she', (Augustin Louis,) a French mathe- 
 matician, son of Louis Francois, noticed below, was born 
 in Paris in 1789. After gaining the first prize for Latin 
 poetry in the Central School, he entered the Polytechnic 
 School as second scholar in 1805. He passed from that 
 to the School of " Ponts et Chaussees," and was after- 
 wards employed as engineer at the port of Cherbourg. 
 In his youth he was distinguished for his. researches into 
 difficult questions, and demonstrated Euclid's celebrated 
 theorem respecting polyhedra. In 181 5 the Institute 
 awarded him the grand prize for his " Memoir on the 
 Theory of Waves," which was destined to become the 
 basis of an admirable theory of light. He was chosen a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences and professor of 
 mechanics in the Polytechnic School in 1816. He pub- 
 lished for his pupils a "Course of Analysis," (1821,) 
 " Lectures on the Differential Calculus," (1826,) and 
 other works. Refusing to swear allegiance to Louis 
 Philippe in 1830, he lost his professorship. In 1833 he 
 became tutor to the Duke of Bordeaux at Prague. He 
 returned to Paris in 1838, and resumed his place in the 
 Academy of Sciences, for which he wrote many ingenious 
 memoirs. In 1849 he succeeded Biot as professor of 
 physical astronomy in the Faculty of Science's. Among 
 his later works was a " Memoir on the Dispersion of 
 Light," (1836.) He displayed considerable poetic power 
 in his verses "On Charles V. in Spain," (1834.) Died 
 in 1857. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeheYale ;" Querard, " La France 
 Litteraire." 
 
 Cauchy, (Louis Francois,) a French poet, father of 
 the preceding, was born at Rouen in 1755. He com- 
 posed an "Ode to the First Consul," (1802,) and "The 
 Battle of Austerlitz," (1806,) both in Latin. He was 
 successively archivist of the senate and of the Chamber 
 of Peers. Died in 1847. 
 
 Caulaincourt, kS'laN'kooR', (Auguste Jean Ga- 
 briel,) a French general, brother of Armand Augustir 
 Louis, noticed below, born in the department of Somme 
 in 1777. He was wounded at Marengo in 1800, and 
 fought in the Peninsula as general of brigade. For his 
 services in the passage of the Tagus in 1809 he was made 
 a general of division. He was killed at the battle of 
 Borodino, September 7, 1812. He was equally distin- 
 guished for courage and talents. 
 
 See Segur, " Histoire de la Campagne de Russie." 
 
 Caulaincourt, de, deh k5'l&N'kooR', (Armand Au- 
 gustin Louis,) Duke of Vicenza, (ve-chen'za,) a French 
 diplomatist, born of an ancient family of Picardy in 
 1773. He entered the army as a private soldier, became 
 colonel in 1799, and made the campaign of 1800 under 
 Moreau with distinction. Bonaparte sent him on a mis- 
 sion to Russia in 1801, and after his return employed 
 him as aide-de-camp and grand equerry of the palace, 
 (1804.) In the latter function he acquitted himself with 
 dignity. About 1808 he was appointed minister to Rus- 
 sia, where he performed his duties with loyalty and 
 address until 181 1, when he asked to be recalled. He 
 appears to have warned his infatuated master against 
 the invasion of Russia, in which he took part. The 
 emperor signified his continued confidence by choosing 
 Caulaincourt as his companion in his humeri return to 
 Paris in December, 1812. In 1813 he was chosen min- 
 ister of foreign affairs, which were in such a desperate 
 state that no diplomacy could avail ; but he shared the 
 fortunes of Napoleon to the last, and, after the battle of 
 Waterloo, retired with honour to private life. He had 
 been made Duke of Vicenza in 1808. Died in 1827. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 i, i, T, 6, u, y long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 11, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; g(56d; moon 
 
CAULET 
 
 547 
 
 CAVAIGNAC 
 
 Caulet. de, deh ko'li', (Etienne Francois,) a French 
 bishop, (of 1'amiers,) born in 1610 ; died in 1680. 
 
 Caulfield. See Charlemont, Earl of. 
 
 Caul'field, (James,) an English writer, born in Lon- 
 don about 1764, became a dealer in engravings. He 
 published " Portraits and Memoirs of Remarkable Per- 
 sons," (1794,) a " Gallery of British Portraits," and other 
 illustrated works. 
 
 Cauliac. See Chauliac. 
 
 Cauls. See Caus, (Salomon.) 
 
 Caulvin. See Calvin. 
 
 Caumartin, de, deli ko'maVtaN', (Jean Francois 
 Paul Lefevrf,) born at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1668, 
 became Bishop of Vannes and of Blois. He was ad- 
 mitted into the French Academy in 1694. Died in 1733. 
 
 See Morert, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Caumartin, de, (Louis Urbain Lefevrf.,) a French 
 statesman, brother of the preceding, born in 1653, was 
 successively rrtaster of requests, intendant of finances, 
 and councillor of state. At his chateau of Saint-Ange, 
 Voltaire first formed the idea of his " Henriade." Died 
 in 1720. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Me'moires." 
 
 Caumont See Force, (Marshal,) and Lauzun. 
 
 Caumont, de, deh ko'm6N', (Arcisse,) a French anti- 
 quary, born at Bayeux (Calvados) in 1802. He founded 
 about 1833 the Scientific Congress, a reunion of savants, 
 who meet annually in different cities of France, and a 
 " Society for the Conservation of Monuments." He has 
 published several important works, among which are 
 " Lectures on Monumental Antiquities," (10 vols., 1830,) 
 and a" History of Art in the West of France," (1831-40.) 
 
 See Richelet, " Notice sur M. de Caumont." 
 
 Caumont, de, (Joseph de Seytres — deh sJtR or 
 setR,) Marquis, a French antiquary, born at Avignon 
 in 1688. His various and extensive acquirements caused 
 him to be chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of 
 London, and correspondent of the French Academy of 
 Inscriptions. Died in 1745. 
 
 Caurroy, du, dii ko'rwa', (Francois Eustachf,) a 
 French musician and famous composer, born in Picardy 
 in 1549 ; died in 1609. 
 
 Caus, ko, (Isaac,) a French engineer, a relative of 
 Salomon Caus, noticed below, was born at Dieppe. 
 He published an interesting work, in French, entitled a 
 " New Invention to raise Water higher than its Source," 
 (London, 1644.) 
 
 Caus, Cauls, or Caux, de, deh ko, (Salomon,) a 
 celebrated French engineer and architect, born in Nor- 
 mandy. He was in the service of Charles, Prince of 
 Wales, in London in 1612. From 1614 to 1620 he lived 
 at Heidelberg as engineer of the Elector Palatine Frede- 
 rick. In 1615 he published a work on motive powers, 
 " Les Raisons des Forces mouvantes avec diverses Ma- 
 chines," etc., which contains a theorem on the expansion 
 and condensation of steam. The French maintain that 
 the Marquis of Worcester derived from Caus the dis- 
 covery of the utility of steam as a motive power. Arago 
 calls him "a man whom posterity will perhaps regard as 
 the first inventor of the machine a feu," (steam-engine.) 
 Caus is supposed to have died in France about 1630. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Causeur, ko'zUR', (Jean,) a French peasant, noted 
 for longevity, was born at Lanfenot in 1638, and died in 
 1775, at tne a K e °' one hundred and thirty-seven. His 
 habits were temperate. 
 
 Caussidiere, ko'se'de-aiV, (Marc,) a French radical 
 politician, born at Lyons about 1809. He fought on the 
 side of the revolutionists of Paris in February, 1848, 
 was appointed prefect of police by the provisional gov- 
 ernment which was then formed, and was afterwards 
 elected to the Constituent Assembly. In August, 1848, 
 the Assembly passed a vote of accusation against him in 
 relation to the revolt of May 15, which he was suspected 
 of secretly favouring. He escaped to London. " His 
 heart was honest and generous," says Lamartine : "one 
 could confide in his nature, if not in his opinions." Died 
 in 1861. 
 
 Caussin, ko'saN', (Nicolas,) a French writer and 
 priest, born at Troyes about 1582, joined the Jesuits in 
 
 1607. His success as a preacher attracted the notice of 
 Richelieu, who made him confessor to Louis XIII. For 
 attempting to supplant Richelieu in the favour of the 
 king, he was dismissed nine months after his appoint- 
 ment. He published, besides other devotional works, 
 "The Holy Court," (5 vols.,) which had an immense 
 circulation. Died in 1651. 
 
 See Kavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 Caussin de Perceval, ko'sa.N' deh peRs'vil', (Ar- 
 mand Pierre,) a French Orientalist, son of Jean Jacques 
 Antoine, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1795. He 
 studied and travelled in Turkey and Syria several years, 
 and about 1822 was appointed professor of Arabic in 
 the College of France. In 1824 he became Arabic in- 
 terpreter to the ministry. He published an "Arabic 
 Grammar," and " Essays on the History of the Arabs 
 before Islamism, during the Time of Mohammed, and 
 down to the Reduction of all the Tribes under his Do- 
 minion," (1847.) He became a member of the Academy 
 of Inscriptions in 1849. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte>aire." 
 
 Caussin de Perceval, (Jean Jacques Antoine,) a 
 French scholar, father of the preceding, was born at 
 Montdidier in 1759. In 1783 he became professor of 
 Arabic in the College of France, Paris, and in 1809 a 
 member of the Institute. He translated from the Arabic 
 a "Sequel to the Thousand and One Nights," and other 
 works. He published a good edition of the Fables of 
 Lokman. Died in 1835. 
 
 Cauvin. See Calvin. 
 
 Cau'vin, (Joseph,) an English scholar, chiefly known 
 as an assistant editor of Brande's " Dictionary of Science, 
 Literature, and Art," (1842.) (See Brande, YV. T.) He 
 published an improved edition of " Lempriere's Classical 
 Dictionary," (1845.) 
 
 Caux. See Caus, (Salomon.) 
 
 Caux, de, deh ko, (Gilles,) a French poet, born about 
 1682, was a descendant of the great Corneille. His best 
 works are the tragedy of " Marius," (171 5,) and "The 
 Hour-Glass," a small poem. Died in 1733. 
 
 Caux de Cappeval, ko deh kSp'vtl , a mediocre 
 French poet, born near Rouen. He published " Par- 
 nassus, or an Essay on the Campaigns of the King," 
 (1752,) and other poems, and produced a Latin version 
 of Voltaire's "Henriade." Died in 1774. 
 
 See Grimm, "Correspondance." 
 
 Cavacci, ka-vat'chee, (Jacopo,) a historian and monk, 
 born at Padua in 1567; died in 1612. 
 
 Cavaceppi, kS-va-chep'pee, (Bartolommeo,) a Ro- 
 man sculptor, who flourished about 1770. 
 
 Cavagna, ka-van'ya, (Giovanni Paolo,) a skilful 
 Italian painter, born at Bergamo about 1560. He took 
 Paul Veronese for his model. Died in 1627. 
 
 Cavaignac, ki'vAn'ySk', (Godefroy,) a French re- 
 publican chief, brother of General Louis Eugene Cavai- 
 gnac, was born in Paris in 180 1. He fought on the side of 
 the revolutionists in the three days of July, 1830, was one 
 of the founders of the " Society of the Friends of the Peo- 
 ple," and became one of the most popular leaders of his 
 party. In 1834 he was imprisoned for political reasons, 
 but escaped in 1835 and went into exile. He returned to 
 Fiance in 1841, and became assistant editor of the journal 
 called "La Reforme." He died in 1845. "Godefroy 
 Cavaignac," says Lamartine, "was a name equal to the 
 name of Carrel in republican estimation. lie had died 
 before the triumph (ave'tiement) of his idea, and thai idea 
 rendered homage to him [in 1848] in the person of his 
 brother." He published a work called "Cardinal Du- 
 bois ; or, Every Road leads to Rome." 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litleraire." 
 
 Cavaignac, (Jean Baptists,) a French revolutionist, 
 born at Gordon in 1762, was the father of General Louis 
 Eugene Cavaignac. In 1792 he represented Haute-Ga- 
 ronne in the Convention, and voted for the death of the 
 king. In the insurrection of the sections of Paris against 
 the Convention, October, 1795, he was chosen to co-ope- 
 rate with Barras in directing the army of the Convention. 
 He was one of the Council of Five Hundred in 1796. 
 The fall of his friend Barras, in 1799, injured his political 
 prospects. He was afterwards councillor of state under 
 
 € as t; 5 as s; g hard; g as// G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. Oy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CAVAIGNAC 
 
 548 
 
 C AVAIL UCCI 
 
 Murat, King of Naples. He was exiled from France as 
 a regicide in 1816, and died in Brussels in 1829. 
 
 See Gonon, " Biographie de J. B. Cavaignac," 184S. 
 
 Cavaignac, (Louis Eugene,) a distinguished French 
 general and republican statesman, a son of the preceding, 
 was born in Paris in 1802. He entered the Polytechnic 
 School in 1820. In 1828 and 1829 he served in the Morea 
 as captain of engineers. He was sent to Africa in 1832, 
 and soon became eminent for the best qualities of a 
 soldier and an officer. In 1836 he was selected for the 
 perilous post of commander of the garrison of Tlemcen, 
 which he defended with success for more than a year. 
 He became a lieutenant-colonel of zouaves in 1840, and 
 colonel in 1841. For his services at Isly in 1844 he 
 obtained the r!ink of marechal-de-camp. He was ap- 
 pointed governor of the province of Oran in 1847, and 
 was in Algeria when the revolution of 1848 occurred. 
 In March of that year the provisional government ap- 
 pointed him Governor-General of Algeria, with the rank 
 of general of division. In April, Lamartine, through the 
 mediation of Madame Cavaignac, (who was called "the 
 mother of the Gracchi,") invited General Cavaignac to 
 come to Paris for the defence of the government against 
 the mob. He arrived in Paris on the 17th of May, two 
 days after a great insurrection had begun, and was ap- 
 pointed minister of war when that office was generally 
 considered an unenviable position. As commander-in- 
 chief of the army and of the national guard, he defeated 
 the insurgents in a great battle in Paris which began on 
 the 23d of June and continued three days. He was ap- 
 pointed dictator by the Assembly on the 24th, and dis- 
 played great skill and energy on that occasion. Having 
 resigned the dicrr*-orship, he was recalled to power on 
 the 28th of June, with the title of chef du pouvoir execu- 
 tif or President of the republic. 
 
 He maintained order in the capital, and pursued a 
 moderate policy, by which many ultra-republicans were 
 alienated from his support. The Assembly on the 25th 
 of November declared that he had deserved well of the 
 country. About this time an election for President by 
 universal suffrage resulted in the choice of Louis Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte, who received about 6,000,000 votes, 
 while Cavaignac received 1,448,302. On the 20th of 
 December, 1848, Cavaignac retired from power, and 
 took his seat in the Assembly among the moderate re- 
 publicans. He was arrested in December, 1851, and 
 detained a few days. In 1852 he was elected a deputy 
 by the voters of Paris; but, as he refused to swear alle- 
 giance to the emperor, he did not obtain the seat, and 
 retired from political life. He was again elected a 
 deputy from Paris to the corps legislatif, but died a few 
 weeks later, in October, 1857. He had published in 
 1839 a work entitled "De la Regence d' Alger." Few 
 men who have possessed the chief power in difficult 
 circumstances have preserved so pure a reputation. 
 
 See Henri Montfort, " Biographie du General Cavaignac," 
 1848 : " Lebensbeschreibung des Generals Cavaignac," Strasburg, 
 1848 : " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Cavaignac, de, deli kS'vin'ySk', (Jacques Marie,) 
 Vicomte, a French general, born at Gordon in 1773, 
 was an uncle of the preceding. He served with distinction 
 in the. armies of the republic in Italy, and in 1806 was 
 nominated by Napoleon commandant of the legion of 
 honour at the battle of Austerlitz. As general of brigade, 
 he took part in the expedition to Moscow in 1812. He 
 was afterwards raised to the rank of lieutenant-general. 
 The date of his death is unknown. 
 
 Cavalca, ka-val'ka, (Domenico,) an Italian ascetic 
 writer, born in Tuscany, was contemporary with Dante. 
 He wrote "The Fruits of the Tongue," and other 
 works, which are cited by the Academy Delia Crusca as 
 authority. Died about 1340. 
 
 Cava'lcabo-Baroni, ka-vai-ka'bo ba-ro'nee, (Gas- 
 Paro Antonio,) a painter of the Venetian school, born 
 near Roveredo in 1682 ; died in 1759. 
 
 Cavalcanti, ka-val-kan'tee, (Bartoi.ommeo,) an Ital- 
 ian writer, born of a noble family at Florence in 1503. 
 Having removed to Ferrara, he was sent by Cardinal Ip- 
 politoH. on a mission to the French court. Pope Paul III. 
 also employed him as a negotiator. He wrote a " Treatise 
 on Rhetoric," (1559,) and other works: Died in 1562. 
 
 Cavalcanti, (Gumo,) a Florentine poet, was a friend 
 of Dante, and an ardent Ghibeline. He was one of the 
 poets of that age who made the nearest approach to a 
 good style. His canzone on " Love" was the most popu- 
 lar of his works. Died in 1300. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Cavaleri. See Cavalieri. 
 
 Cavalier, kS'vl'le-a', (Jean,) a French peasant, born 
 at Ribaute in 1679, was the most able and popular chief 
 of the Camisards, (persecuted Protestants of Cevennes,) 
 who revolted in 1702. By his courage and skill he foiled 
 the generals of the king and obtained an honourable 
 treaty from Villars, (1704.) He afterwards entered the 
 service of the English, fought at Almanza in 1707, and 
 became a general in the English army. Died in 1740. 
 
 See Antoine Court, " Histoire des Camisards." 
 
 Cavaliere, ka-va-le-a'ri, or Cavalieri, ka-va-le-a'ree, 
 an Italian composer, born about 1550, made some im- 
 provements or inventions in music. Died about 1600. 
 
 Cavalieri, ka-va-le-a'ree, or Cavaleri, ka-va-la'ree, 
 (Bonaventura,) an eminent Italian geometer, born in 
 Milan in 1598, was one of the few whose discoveries 
 form an epoch in the history of geometry. He entered 
 the order of Hieronymites or Jesuates, and became a 
 pupil of Galileo at Pisa. Having devoted himself to 
 researches respecting the proportions of different solids, 
 he discovered, about 1626, his method of indivisibles. 
 He conceived that a line is formed of an infinite number 
 of points, a surface of an infinity of lines, etc., and pub- 
 lished in 1635 his " Geometry of Indivisibles." A few 
 years earlier he had been chosen professor of mathe- 
 matics at Bologna. He wrote a "Treatise on Conic 
 Sections," and several other works. Died at Bologna 
 in 1647. 
 
 See Montuci-a, "Histoire des Mathematiques;" Paolo Frisi, 
 " Elogio di Galileo Galilei e di B. Cavalieri," 1776; G. Piola, 
 " Elogio storico di B. Cavalieri," 1844. 
 
 Cavallerii, da, da ka-val-la're-ee, (Giovanni Bat- 
 tista,) a mediocre Italian engraver, born at Lagherino 
 about 1530, engraved many works after Raphael, Michael 
 Angelo, and Titian. Died in 1597. 
 
 Cavallero. See Carallero. 
 
 Cavallero, ka-val-ya'ro, or Caballero, ka-Bal-ya'ro, 
 (Don Juan,) a Spanish general, born in Naples in 1712, 
 commanded the engineers at the siege of Gibraltar in 
 1779. Died in 1791. 
 
 Cavalli, ka-val'lee, (Francesco,) born at Venice, was 
 an organist, and one of the first composers of his time. 
 He became chapel-master of the church of Saint Mark, 
 and was one of the first who composed grand operas. 
 Between 1637 and 1669 he produced thirty-eight success- 
 ful operas. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Mus'ciens." 
 
 Cavallini, ka-val-lee'nee, (Pietro,) a celebrated 
 painter and sculptor, born in Rome about 1270, is said 
 to have been a pupil of Giotto. He adorned with frescos 
 the churches of Rome, Florence, and Assisi, where some 
 of them may still be seen. His "Crucifixion" at Assisi 
 is well preserved, and is called his master-piece. Died 
 about 1350. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Vasari, "Lives ot 
 the Painters," etc. 
 
 Cavallino, ka-val-lee'no, (Bernardo,) a historical 
 painter, born in Naples about 1620. His works are ad- 
 mired for grace, colouring, and charming expression. He 
 excelled most in pictures of small proportions. Died 
 in 1656. 
 
 Cavallo, ka-val'lo, (Tirerio,) a philosopher, distin- 
 guished for his experiments in electricity, was born at 
 Naples in 1749. In 1771 he went to London, where he 
 passed the most of his mature years. Having made dis- 
 coveries or inventions in electricity and magnetism, he 
 was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1779. He 
 invented a micrometer, an electrometer, and a condenser 
 of electricity, and made interesting experiments with a 
 kite in relation to the electric state of clouds. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "A Complete Treatise on Elec- 
 tricity," and a "Treatise on the Nature and Properties 
 of Air." Died in 1809. 
 
 Cavallucci, ka-val-loot'chee, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 historical painter and excellent colorist, born at Sermo- 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m?t; nSt; good; moon; 
 
CAVAM 
 
 549 
 
 CAVENDISH 
 
 neta in 1752. A picture of "Saint Bona taking the Veil," 
 at Pisa, is called his master-piece. Died in Rome in 1 795. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cavam-(or Cawam-)ed-Dowlah, ki-vlm'ed-dow'- 
 lah, originally Ket-bo'ga, Prince of Mosul, a Turkish 
 general, defeated by the crusaders at Antioch in 1098. 
 
 Cavauilles, ka-va-nel'yes, (Antonio Jose,) a Spanish 
 priest and eminent botanist, was born at Valencia in 1 745. 
 He was professor of philosophy at Murcia, when he was 
 chosen preceptor of the children of the Duke del In- 
 fantado, ambassador to Paris. He passed twelve years 
 in Paris, (1777 to 1789,) in which time he produced his 
 dissertations on the class Monadelphia. Having re- 
 turned to Spain, he published "Icones et Descriptiones 
 Plantarum," etc., an excellent description of Spanish 
 plants, with fine engraving! drawn by himself, (6 vols., 
 1791.) This was followed by "Observations on the 
 Natural History, Geographv, etc. of Valencia," (2 vols., 
 1795-97,) which is said to be the most useful work of 
 that kind ever published in Spain. In 1801 he was 
 chosen director of the royal botanic garden of Madrid. 
 He adhered to the artificial or Linnaean system of botany. 
 Died at Madrid in 1804. 
 
 See Ersch und Ghuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale. w 
 
 Cavarazzi, ka-va-rat'see, (Bartolommeo,) called 
 Crescknzi, (kRa-shen'zee,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Viterbo about 1590; died in 1625. 
 
 Cavazzi, ka-vat'see, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 monk, born at Montecuculo. He was sent as a missionary 
 to Congo in 1654. In 1670 he was chosen superior-gen- 
 eral of the missions in Congo, Angola, etc., where he 
 laboured many years. He published a "Description of 
 Congo, Angola, and Matamba." Died at Genoa in 1692. 
 
 Cave, (Edward,) an English printer, born at Newton 
 in 1691, is memorable as the founder of "The Gentle- 
 man's Magazine," first issued in January, 1731, under 
 the name of Sylvanus Urban. It was very successful in 
 his hands until his death, and still flourishes, with a high 
 reputation. He patronized Dr. Johnson when the latter 
 was a young and needy author ; and Johnson wrote a 
 biography of Cave. Died in 1754. 
 
 See Dr. Johnson's Works. 
 
 Cave, (William,) D.D., a learned English divine and 
 scholar, born in Leicestershire in 1637, became vicar of 
 Islington in 1662, canon of Windsor in 1684, and vicar 
 of Isleworth in 1690. He devoted much attention to 
 ecclesiastical antiquities, and wrote many esteemed 
 works, among which are "Primitive Christianity," 
 (1672,) " History of Christ and the Apostles," (1675,) 
 "Lives of the Fathers of the Church in the Fourth 
 Century," (1682,) and "Literary History of Ecclesiastic 
 Writers from the Birth of Christ to the Fourteenth 
 Century," ("Scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Historia lit- 
 teraria," 2 vols., 1688-89.) The three first named are 
 said to be the best works on those subjects. Died in 1713. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica ;" Wood, "Athena: Oxonienses." 
 
 Cavedone, ka-va-do'na, (Giacomo,) an eminent Ital- 
 ian painter, born at Sassuolo, near M6dena, in 1577. 
 He studied under the Caracci and Guido, and worked at 
 Bologna, both in oil and fresco. He excelled in design 
 and colouring, and had great facility of execution. Among 
 his master-pieces are a "Nativity," a "Virgin and Child 
 borne upon the Clouds," a " Holy Family," and "The 
 Adoration of the Magi." Died at Bologna in 1660. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Caveirac, de, deh kS'vJt'rSk', (Jean Novi,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Ninics in 1713. He wrote, besides 
 other works, "An Apology for Louis XIV. and his 
 Council in Relation to the Revocation of the Edict 
 of Nantes, with Observations on Saint Bartholomew," 
 (1758.) Voltaire designated this work an "Apology for 
 Saint Bartholomew." Died in 1782. 
 
 Cavelier. See I.asai.i.e, (Robert.) 
 
 Cavelier, kSv'le^', (Pierre Jules,) an eminent 
 French sculptor, born in Paris in 1814, was a pupil of 
 David of Angers and of Doiaroche. He obtained in 
 1842 the grand prize of sculpture, and passed the five en- 
 suing years in Rome. In 1849 he produced "Penelope 
 Asleep," which was greatly admired, and in 1853 a 
 
 statue of "Truth," which was placed in the palace of 
 Luxembourg. His works are remarkable for elegance 
 of form and grace of attitude. 
 
 Cav'en-dish, (Charles,) a younger son of the sec- 
 ond Earl of Devonshire, born in London in 1620, was a 
 royalist general in the civil war. He defeated the army 
 of Parliament at Donnington in 1643, and was killed 
 soon after in an engagement with Cromwell near Gains- 
 borough. 
 
 Cavendish, (Lord Frederick,) a British general, 
 born about 1730, was a younger son of the third Duke 
 of Devonshire. Died in 1S03. 
 
 Cavendish, (George,) of Glemsford, an English 
 writer, a brother of Sir William Cavendish, noticed be- 
 low. He is said to have been the author of a well-written 
 " Life of Cardinal Wolsey," which was once ascribed to 
 Sir William. It was first printed in 1641. 
 
 Cavendish, (Henry,) an eminent English chemist 
 and natural philosopher, born at Nice in 1730 or 1731, 
 was the younger son of Lord Charles Cavendish, and 
 grandson of the Duke of Devonshire. Having been 
 educated at Cambridge, he devoted himself exclusively 
 to scientific pursuits, renounced society, and was re- 
 markable for his eccentric habits. He was a profound 
 mathematician, and ranks among the first of chemical 
 philosophers. He first discovered the distinctive prop- 
 erties of hydrogen gas, laid the foundation of pneumatic 
 chemistry, and demonstrated the proportions of oxygen 
 and nitrogen in common air, (1783.) By burning oxy- 
 gen and hydrogen in a tight glass vessel, he made the 
 brilliant discovery of the composition of water, in 1784. 
 The results of his experiments (which had never been 
 surpassed in accuracy) were published in the "Philo- 
 sophical Transactions" from 1766 to 1809. He was 
 "chosen an associate of the French Institute in 1803. 
 About 1773 he had inherited an immense fortune from 
 an uncle. He was never married. Died in London 
 in 1810. " Whatever he accomplished," says Sir Hum- 
 phry Davy, " was perfect at the moment of its pro- 
 duction. His processes were all of a finished nature. 
 . . . The accuracy and beauty of his earliest labours 
 have remained unimpaired amidst the progress of dis- 
 covery, and their merits have been illustrated by discus- 
 sion and exalted by time." ("Chemical Philosophy.") 
 "He was well versed in high geometry," says liiot, "and 
 made a happy application of this knowledge in a very 
 important question of physics, — the determination of 
 the mean density of our globe." 
 
 See G. Wilson, " Life of H. Cavendish ;" F. Hoefer, " Histoire 
 de la Chimie," totne ii. ; " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Cavendish, (Lord John,) an English Whig states- 
 man, brother of Frederick, noticed above. He was an 
 opponent of Lord North, whom he succeeded as chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer in 1782. Died in 1796. 
 
 Cavendish, (Margaret,) an English authoress, was 
 the daughter of Sir Charles Lucas, and wife of William 
 Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle. She wrote various 
 works, among which are poems and plays, remarkable 
 for absurdity and bad grammar. She became a maid of 
 honour to the queen of Charles I. in 1643, and was 
 married in 1645. Horace Walpole calls her "a fertile 
 pedant, with an unbounded passion for scribbling." Died 
 in 1673. 
 
 Ste Rev. Ai.rxandeh Dvch, "Sjiecimens of British Poetesses ;" 
 Sin K. Bkvdcbs, "Imaginative Biography;" and " Retrospective 
 Review," vol. i., 1853. 
 
 Cavendish, (Sir Robert Spencer,) an English naval 
 officer, born in 1791. He served against the French and 
 the Americans, 1812-14. Died in 1830. 
 
 Cavendish or Can'dish, (Thomas,) an English 
 navigator, born in Suffolk in 1564, was the second of his 
 nation that circumnavigated the globe. In July, 158(1, 
 he sailed with three small ships, chiefly fitted out at his 
 e xpense, with the design to plunder the Spaniards in 
 Peru, Chili, etc. Having taken rich prizes, among which 
 was the Spanish galleon laden with silver, he crossed 
 the Pacific, and, returning by the Cape of Good Hope, 
 reached England in September, 1588. He rendered some 
 services to the sciences of geography and hydrography. 
 Died in 1593. 
 
 See J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen 
 F.li/.ideth's Reign," 1845. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,gultural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2: th as in this. (J5JT"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CAVENDISH 
 
 55° 
 
 CAKTON 
 
 Cavendish, (William,) Duke of Newcastle, an Eng- 
 lish general and author, born in 1592. He was raised to 
 the peerage about 1620, as Baron Ogle, and in 1643 be- 
 came Marquis of Newcastle. In the civil war he com- 
 manded the king's army in the north, and gained several 
 battles in 1643, especially at Atherton Moor. In 1644 
 Prince Rupert effected a junction with the army at York, 
 and, pretending positive orders from the king, involved 
 the royalists in a decisive defeat at Marston Moor, against 
 the advice of Newcastle. The latter then abandoned the 
 cause and went to France. He returned home in 1660, 
 and was nlade a duke in 1664. He wrote a treatise on 
 horsemanship, several bad comedies, and other works. 
 Hume represents him as " the ornament of the court and 
 of his order, polite and elegant in his taste." Died in 
 1676. 
 
 See Clarendon's " History of the Great Rebellion." 
 
 Cavendish, (William,) first Duke of Devonshire, an 
 eminent English statesman, eldest son of the third Earl 
 of Devonshire, was born in 1640. In the reign of Charles 
 II. he represented Derby in the Commons, with the title 
 of Lord Cavendish, and opposed the measures of the 
 court. In 1679 he was chosen one of the new privy 
 council. On the death of his father, in 1684, he became 
 Earl of Devonshire. He promoted the accession of 
 William III., who appointed him lord steward of the 
 royal household in 1689, and created him a duke in 1694. 
 He wrote an " Ode on the Death of Queen Mary," which 
 Dryden is said to have praised, and other works. His 
 mansion at Chatsworth is an admired monument of art 
 and taste. Died in 1707. 
 
 See Macaulay's " History of England." 
 
 Cavendish, (Sir William,) the founder of the Eng- 
 lish house of Devonshire, was born about 1505. After, 
 he had served Cardinal Wolsey as gentleman-usher, he 
 became a privy councillor of Henry VIII. about 1546. 
 He is the reputed author of a "Life of Wolsey." (See 
 Cavendish, George.) Died in 1557. 
 
 Cavendish, (William Charles.) See Bentinck. 
 
 Caventou, ki'v&N'too', (Joseph Bienaime,) a French 
 chemist, born at Saint-Omer in 1797, became a resident of 
 Paris. He published a "New Chemical Nomenclature," 
 (1816,) and an "Elementary Treatise on Pharmacy," 
 (1819.) He was associated with Pelletierin the discovery 
 of sulphate of quinine about 182J, for which the Institute 
 awarded them a prize of 10,000 francs in 1827. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteiaire." , 
 
 Caviceo, ka-ve-cha'o, (Jacopo,) an Italian priest, born 
 at Parma in 1443. He wrote "II Peregrino," a romance. 
 Died in 1511. 
 
 Cavino, ka-vee'no, (Giovanni,) a skilful Italian en- 
 graver, surnamed "the Paduan," and "the prince of for- 
 gers." Antique medals being sought for with avidity by 
 students in his time, he employed his talents in counter- 
 feiting them with success. About 1565 he and Bassiano 
 fabricated a great number of spurious medals, which 
 were bought by the antiquaries as genuine. 
 
 Cavoie, de, deh ki'vwa', (Louis d'Oger,) Marquis, 
 a French courtier, born in 1640. He was celebrated for 
 his bravery, honour, and politeness, and was admired at 
 court as "the glass of fashion and the mould of form." 
 He accompanied Louis XIV. in his campaigns, and 
 shared his bounty. He was the friend of Turenne and 
 of Racine. Died in 1716. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Memoires." 
 
 Cavolini, ka-vo-lee'nee, (Filippo,) an Italian natu- 
 ralist, born at Naples in 1756. He became professor of 
 zoology in the University of Naples, and was distinguished 
 for his researches in marine polypi. He wrote a " Treat- 
 ise on Marine Polypi," one on the " Generation of Fish," 
 (1787,) and other works. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Monticelli, "Vita Philippi Cavolini," 1812; Tipaldo, 
 " Biografia degli ltaliani illustri." 
 
 Cavour, di, de ka-vooR', (Camillo Benso,) Count, 
 an illustrious Italian statesman, born at Turin on the 
 10th of August, 1810, was a son of the Marquis Michele 
 Giuseppe Benso di Cavour, a merchant of Nice, who ac- 
 quired a large fortune in trade and was ennobled by King 
 Charles Alberts His mother was a Swiss or French lady 
 of Geneva, named Adelaide Sellon. The French was the 
 
 language of his infancy. In his youth he assisted his 
 father in the grain-trade, and passed several years in 
 foreign travel. In 1847 ne founded, with Count Balbo, 
 a liberal journal, "II Risorgimento," ("The Uprising,") 
 which was very successful. During the war against 
 Austria in 1848-49, he defended the cause of Italian in- 
 dependence in his speeches and editorial articles. He 
 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1849, proved 
 himself to be a powerful debater, and succeeded in uni- 
 ting the moderate democrats and liberal conservatives 
 in a party of which he became the leader. He was ap- 
 pointed minister of commerce in 1850, and minister of 
 finance in 1851. In 1852 he became president of the 
 council, or prime minister of Sardinia. He secured the 
 liberty of the press, and favoured religious toleration and 
 free trade. Among the important measures of his admin- 
 istration were his rebellion against papal domination, and 
 his alliance with France and England in the war against 
 Russia in 1855. After the close of that war he devoted 
 his efforts to the liberation and unity of Italy, undismayed 
 by the angry fulminations of the Vatican. 
 
 With the aid of the French emperor, he waged, in 
 1859, a war against Austria, which resulted in the an- 
 nexation of Lombardy, Tuscany, Parma, and Modena to 
 Sardinia. Cavour resigned in July, 1859, because he was 
 displeased with the treaty of Villa- Franca. He resumed 
 the place of premier in January, i860, and, after the con- 
 quests of Garibaidi in Sicily and Naples, was the first 
 minister of the kingdom of Italy. In the new parliament, 
 which met about the beginning of.1861, his policy and 
 ascendency were fully maintained. A serious disagree- 
 ment occurred between Cavour and Garibaldi on the 
 question of the attack on Venetia which the latter pro- 
 posed ; but they were reconciled by the mediation of 
 Victor Emmanuel. Cavour died, after an illness of a few 
 days, on the 6th of June, 1861. His death was generally 
 deplored as an irreparable loss to Italy. On the next day 
 after his death, Lord Palmerston, in the House of Com- 
 mons, paid the following tribute to his memory : " The 
 moral which is to be drawn from the life of Count Cavour 
 is this, — that a man of transcendent talents, of indomi- 
 table energy, and inextinguishable patriotism, may, by 
 the impulses which his own single mind may give to his 
 countrymen, aiding a righteous cause, and seizing favour- 
 able opportunities, notwithstanding difficulties that at 
 first sight appear insurmountable, confer on his country 
 the greatest and most inestimable benefits." " His great- 
 ness," says the " Edinburgh Review" for July,i86i, " wore 
 the unassuming garb of common sense, — but a common 
 sense of colossal proportions, exalted by perpetual direc- 
 tion to the pursuit of what was great and lofty." He was 
 never married. 
 
 See IL Reminiscences of the Life and Character of Cavour," trans- 
 lated from the French by Edward Romilly; "Cavour, a Me- 
 moir," by Edward Dicey: "Cavour, sein Leben and Wirken," in 
 the " Jalirbuch zum Conversations- Lexikon" for 1859. (published by 
 Bkockhaus, Leipsic ;) "London Quarterly Review," July, 1861. 
 
 Caw'thorne, (James,) an English poet, born at Shef- 
 field in 1719, became master of Tunbridge School about 
 1744. Among his poems is "The Perjured Lover." 
 Died in 1761. 
 
 Caw'ton, (Thomas,) an English Puritan divine and 
 Orientalist, born in' Norfolk in 1605. He assisted Wal- 
 ton in his " Polyglot Bible," and Castell in his " Lexicon." 
 He preached for some time in London. Died in 1659. 
 
 His son Thomas, born in Essex in 1637, was a cler- 
 gyman, and was learned in Oriental languages. He wrote 
 a " Dissertation on the Use of the Hebrew Tongue in 
 Philosophy." Died in 1677. 
 
 See Wood, " Athens Oxonienses." 
 
 Caxes or Cajes, ka'iiSs, (Eugf.nio,) a Spanish paint- 
 er, was born at Madrid in 1577. He obtained the title of 
 painter to the king in 1612. Died in 1642. 
 
 Cax'ton, (William,) an English scholar and printer, 
 celebrated as the first who introduced printing into Eng- 
 land, was born in Kent about 141 2. He was a prominent 
 merchant of London, and about 1442 visited the Low 
 Countries as a commercial-agent. In 1464 he was em- 
 ployed by Edward IV. to negotiate a treaty of commerce 
 with the Duke of Burgundy. He received an appoint- 
 ment in the court of the Duchess of Burgundy in 1468, 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CAT 
 
 55« 
 
 CEAN-BERMUDEZ 
 
 and by her order translated from the French a " History 
 of Troy," which he printed about 1474. This was the 
 first book printed in the English language. The time 
 of his return to England is supposed to have been be- 
 tween 1474 and 1476. He established a printing-office 
 in Westminster Abbey, and printed .sixty-lour different 
 books, many of which were translated by himself. An 
 attempt was made by Richard Atkyns (1664) to deprive 
 Caxton of the honour of being the first to introduce 
 priming into England ; but the documents on which that 
 writer relies to establish his point are, beyond all reason- 
 able question, either erroneous or spurious. Died in 1492. 
 
 See Jf. Lewis, " Life of Caxtou," 1738 ; Charles Knight, " W. 
 Caxton: .1 Biography," 1844. 
 
 Cay. See Caius. 
 
 Cayet, kf y&', (Pierre Victor Palma,) a French 
 theologian, born in Touraine about 1520. He was a 
 Protestant in his youth, and was employed as chaplain 
 by Catherine de Bourbon, who took him to court about 
 1590. He abjured Calvinism in 1595, and in the next 
 year was chosen professor 0/ Hebrew in the College of 
 Navarre, Paris. He wrote many polemical and other 
 works, among which is a " History of the War under 
 Henry IV. from 1589 to 1598." Died in 1610. 
 
 See Nicekon, "M^moires;" Bavle, "Historical and Critical 
 Dictionary." 
 
 Cayla, IcJ'li'i (Jean Mamert,) a French litterateur 
 and journalist, born at Vigan (Lot) in 1S12. He pub- 
 lished, among other works, a volume of " European Cele- 
 brities," and a " History of the City of Constantinople." 
 
 Cay'ley, (Arthur,) an English writer, published 
 "The Life of Sir Walter Raleigh," (1805,) and a "Me- 
 moir of Sir Thomas More," (1808.) 
 
 Cayley, (Arthur,) an English mathematician, born 
 at Richmond, Surrey, in 1821, became a Fellow of 
 Trinity College, Cambridge. Having studied law, he 
 was called to the bar in 1849, a f' er which he devoted 
 much time to pure mathematics. In 1852 he was chosen 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society. Among his works is a 
 treatise "On the Theory of Linear Transformations." 
 
 Cayley, (Sir Gkorgk,) an English scientific writer, 
 born about 1773. He wrote on aerial navigation, and 
 other subjects. Died in 1857. 
 
 Caylus, de, deh ki'luss', (Anne Claude Philippe 
 de Tubieres, (deh tii'be-aiR',) de Grimoard, (gRe'mo- 
 tR',) de Pestels, (pes'teT^,) de LeVi, (la've',)) Count, 
 Marquis of Esternay, (es'teVni',) a French author, born 
 in Paris in 1692. He applied himself with success to 
 the study of antiquities and fine arts, of which he was a 
 liberal patron. In 1742 he was admitted into the Acad- 
 emy of Inscriptions, for which he wrote many valuable 
 antiquarian treatises. Among his principal works are a 
 "Collection of Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek, Roman, and 
 Gallic Antiquities," (7 vols., 1752-67,) "Tableaux drawn 
 from the Iliad, Odyssey, and >Eneid," (1757,) and a 
 "Collection of Ancient Paintings after the Designs of 
 Bartoli," with beautiful coloured engravings. Some of 
 his works are illustrated with fine plates engraved by 
 himself. He wrote " Fairy Tales," and other works of 
 fiction. Died in 1765. 
 
 See Serieys, " Souvenirs du Comte de Caylus," 1805 : C. Le 
 Beau, " filoge historique de M. le Comte de Caylus," 1766. 
 
 Caylus, de, (M arthk Marguerite de Vii.lette,) 
 Marquise, an accomplished French lady, mother of the 
 preceding, born in Poitou in 1673. She was educated at 
 court as the protegee of her aunt, Madame de Maintenon, 
 and in 1686 was married to the Marquis de Caylus, who 
 died in 1704. She left a work, which was edited by Vol- 
 taire in 1 770, entitled " Souvenirs de Madame de Caylus," 
 in which she relates what she had witnessed, with great 
 candour and naivete" and in an agreeable style. Died 
 in 1729. 
 
 See SAiNTE-BF.uvE,"Causeriesdu Lundi :" and a Notice prefixed 
 to an edition of her " Souvenirs" by L. S. Aucer, 1803. 
 
 Cayot-Delandre, ki'yo' da'loNdR', (Francois Ma- 
 rie,) a French antiquary, born at Rennes in 1796. He 
 wrote on French history and antiquities. Died in 1848. 
 
 Cayx, H, (Remi Jean Baptistf. Charles,) a French 
 historian, born at Cahors about 1795. He published a 
 "History of Fiance in the Middle Ages," (1835,) and an 
 "Epitome of the History of Alexander's Successors," 
 
 which were approved by the council of the university 
 and used in colleges. About 1840 he was elected to the 
 Chamber of Deputies, and in 1845 was appointed in- 
 spector-general of studies. 
 
 Cazal. See Casal, (MaMVXL Ayres.) 
 
 Cazales, de, deh k^'zi'les', (Edmond,) a French 
 writer and ecclesiastic, son of Jacques Cazales, noticed 
 below, was born at Grenade-sur-Garonne in 1804. He 
 became professor of history at Louvain in 1835, and a 
 deputy to the National Assembly in I848. He con- 
 tributed articles on political history and literary criticism 
 to the " Revue des Deux Mondes," and published " His- 
 torical Studies on Contemporary Germany," (1853.) 
 
 Cazales, de, (Jacques Antoine Marie,) an eloquent 
 French royalist, was born at Grenade-sur-Garonne in 
 1752. In 1789 he was deputed by the noblesse to the 
 States-General, and soon became one of the ablest 
 champions of monarchy. He had never made a public 
 speech in his life until the chance which raised him upon 
 the tribune disclosed to him that he was an orator. He 
 refused to follow his order when it joined the Tiers-Etat 
 in the National Assembly, but afterwards obeyed the 
 command of that body to take part in its deliberations. 
 His speech in defence of the clergy was one of his most 
 brilliant efforts. "The character of his eloquence," says 
 Lamartine, " was that of a desperate cause. He pro- 
 tested more than he debated; he opposed to the violent 
 triumphs of the Left (gauche) his ironical defiance, his 
 bitter indignation." ("History of the Girondists.") He 
 emigrated in 1792, travelled in Italy, England, etc., and 
 returned to France in 1801. Died in 1805. 
 
 See M. Chare, " Notice sur la Vie de Cazales," prefixed to his 
 speeches. 1821 ; Thiers, " History of the French Revolution ;" 
 Nouvelle Biographie G«5nerale." 
 
 Cazalet, ki'zl'IJ', (Jean Andre,) a French chemist, 
 born in Medoc in 1750 ; died in 1821. 
 
 Caze, kSz, (Jean Francois,) a French publicist, born 
 at Montauban in 1781; died at Madrid in 1851. 
 
 Cazes, kjtz, (Pierre Jacques,) a French historical 
 painter, born in Paris in 1676, was a pupil of Ijoullongne 
 the elder. He was admitted into the Academy in 1704, 
 and acquired a high reputation, though he did not attain 
 the first rank. He adorned many of the churches of 
 Paris with his works, among which are an " Adoration 
 of the Magi," and "Tabitha raised from the Dead." 
 His composition, design, and colouring are praised. 
 Died in 1754. 
 
 See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Cazotte, kS'zot', (Jacques,) a French poet, born at 
 Dijon in 1720. His principal works are "OHivier,"a 
 poem, and the " Lord Impromptu," which were success- 
 ful. His verses entitled "The English Brunette" were 
 ascribed to Voltaire. As a royalist, he was executed by 
 the terrorists in 1792. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve. " Causeries du Lundi." 
 
 Cazweenee or Cazwini, kaz-wee'nee, written also 
 Cazouyny, Cazwyny, or Caswini, (Zacharia ben 
 MoHam'med,) an Arabian naturalist, born atCasbin, (or 
 Cazwin, whence he derived his name,) in Persia, is called 
 "the Pliny of the Orientals." He wrote an important 
 treatise entitled " The Wonders of Nature," designed 
 to be a resume or summing up of all the best previous 
 works on natural science. This plan is executed in 
 such a philosophic spirit that the work is preferred to 
 the originals which treat of the same subjects. Died in 
 1283. 
 
 See Haji-Khalpa, " Bibliographical Dictionary." 
 
 Cean-Bermudez, tha-an' beR-moo'i)Cth, (Juan Au- 
 GUSTIN,) a Spanish writer on art, born at Gijon, in As- 
 turias, in 1749. He became a resident of Madrid, and 
 a student of architecture and design. Having devoted 
 himself to the history of Spanish art, he published a 
 " Dictionary of the most Eminent Professors of the Fine 
 Arts in Spain," (" Diccionario Historico," etc., 6 vols., 
 1800,) a " Dialogue on the Art of Painting," " Notices of 
 Spanish Architects and Architecture," (4 vols., 1829,) 
 and other works. He founded an Academy of Painting 
 at Seville. Died about 1830. 
 
 See Sebastian de MiRano," Viede Cean-Bermudez :" Ticknor, 
 " History of Spanish Literature ;" " London Quarterly Review" for 
 March, 1846. 
 
 «• as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (JfJ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CEBA 
 
 552 
 
 CELAKOfVSKT 
 
 Ceba, cha'bi, (Ansaldo,) an Italian writer, born at 
 Genoa in 1565, published many mediocre works in prose 
 and verse, and two popular tragedies, entitled " Alcippo" 
 and "Gemelle Capuane." Died in 1623. 
 
 Ce'beii, [Gr. Ke^r/c ; Fif Cebes, si'bis',] sometimes 
 written Kebes, a Greek philosopher, born at Thebes, 
 was the disciple and friend of Socrates. He is introduced 
 by Plato as one of the interlocutors in the " Phaedon." 
 He wrote several works, one of which is extant, namely, 
 " Pinax," ("The Tablet," or "Picture,") a dialogue on 
 human life, its trials, etc., and which has been often re- 
 printed. Its spirit and style are said to be worthy of a 
 disciple of Socrates. 
 
 See A. Knoll, " Kebes des Thebaners Gemalde;" Flade, 
 *' Ueber den Cebes." 
 
 Cecchi, chek'kee, (Giovanni Maria,) an eminent 
 Italian comic poet and lawyer, born at Florence in 151 7. 
 He wrote ten comedies, which were printed, and a mul- 
 titude of dramas, (in manuscript.) Among his published 
 plays are "II Corredo," ("Trie Feast,") and "II Don- 
 zello," ("The Bachelor.") Died in 1587. " This author," 
 says Ginguene, "is worthy to be placed nearly in the 
 same rank as Machiavel and Ariosto, for truth of cha- 
 racter, vivacity of dialogue, and comic power." 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire Litteiaire d'ltalie ;" Negri, " Istoria 
 degli Scrittori Fiorentini." 
 
 Cecchini, chek-kee'nee, (Pietro Maria,) an Italian 
 comic author and actor, born at Ferrara, lived about 
 1620-50. 
 
 Cecco d'Ascoli, chek'ko das'ko-lee, a learned Italian 
 astrologer, originally named Francesco Stahili, (sta'- 
 be-lee,) was born at Ascoli. He taught astrology at Bo- 
 logna, from which he removed to Florence in 1325. He 
 wrote a Latin commentary on Sacrobosco's "Sphaera 
 Mundi," and a poem called "Acerba," which passed 
 through many editions. It treats of natural science, 
 philosophy, astrology,- etc. He was condemned as a 
 heretic by the Inquisition, and was burnt alive in 1327. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storiadella Letteratura I4aliana;" Bernini, 
 "Storie degli Eretici," 1707. 
 
 Cecil, ses'il or sls'il, (Richard,) an English clergy- 
 man, born in London in 1748, was ordained a priest m 
 1777. He became eminent as a preacher, and in 1780 
 accepted a call to Saint John's, in London. In 1800 he 
 1 was presented to the livings of Chobham and Bislev, in 
 Surrey. He wrote a "Life of the Rev. John Newton," 
 one of "John Bacon the Sculptor," and a collection of 
 sermons. Died in 1810. 
 
 Cecil, (Robert,) Earl of Salisbury, (saulz'ber-e,) an 
 able English statesman, born about 1560, was the 
 second son of Lord Burleigh, and first-cousin of Lord 
 Bacon. He was appointed second secretary of state in 
 1596, after having been initiated in the mysteries of diplo- 
 macy and court intrigue. At the death of his father, in 
 1598, he succeeded him as prime minister. James I., 
 who asceuded the throne in 1603, retained Cecil as prime 
 minister, and created him Viscount Cranborne in 1604, 
 and Earl of Salisbury in 1605. In 1608 he succeeded 
 Lord Dorset as lord treasurer of TJngland. He was an 
 adroit negotiator, and was regarded as one of the ablest 
 statesmen of his time. His disposition is said to have 
 been cold and selfish. He is censured for promoting the 
 ruin of Raleigh and Essex, who were his rivals. He is 
 charged with having received a pension from the Span- 
 ish government on the conclusion of the peace between 
 England and Spain in 1604. He wrote the " State and 
 Dignity of a Secretary of State." Died in 1612. 
 
 See Motley, "History of the United Netherlands," vol. ii. chap, 
 xviii. p. 350 et sea. ; Gardner, " History of England from 1603 to 
 1616," particularly chaps, ii. and x. 
 
 Cecil, (Lord Robert.) See Cranborne, Lord. 
 
 Cecil, (William,) Baron Burleigh or Burghleigh, 
 (biir'le,) an eminent English statesman, who was prime 
 minister of England for about forty years, was born at 
 Bourne, in Lincolnshire, in 1520. After graduating at 
 Cambridge, he studied law at Gray's Inn, and married 
 Mildred; daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, director of the 
 king's studies. He was appointed master of requests in 
 1547, and secretary of state in 1548 by Lord- Protector 
 Somerset. He refused to co-operate in the exclusion of 
 Mary and Elizabeth from the throne, but signed as a 
 
 witness an instrument to that effect. On the accession 
 of Mary in 1553 he retired frdm office and entered Par- 
 liament, where he opposed the measures of the court. 
 When Elizabeth became queen, in 1558, she appointed 
 Cecil secretary of state ; and from that time until his 
 death he was the principal director of the government. 
 "Sir William Cecil," says Hume, "was the most vigi- 
 lant, active, and prudent minister ever known in Eng- 
 land ; and, as he was governed by no views but the in- 
 terests of his sovereign, his authority over her became 
 every day more predominant." He was created Baron 
 Burleigh in 1571. and lord treasurer in 1572. He died 
 in 1598, leaving two sons, Thomas, Earl of Exeter, and 
 Robert, Earl of Salisbury ; also three hundred distinct 
 landed estates. "Lord Burleigh," says Macaulay, "can 
 hardly be called a great man. He was not one of those 
 whose genius and energy change the fate of empires. 
 Nothing that is recorded either of his words or actions 
 indicates intellectual or moral elevation. But his talents, 
 though not brilliant, were of an eminently useful kind. 
 He had a cool temper, a sound judgment, great powers 
 of application, and a constant eye to the main chance. 
 He never deserted his friends until it was very inconve- 
 nient to stand by them, and was an excellent Protestant 
 when it was not very advantageous to be a papist." In 
 sagacity and foresight he seems to have been far inferior 
 to Walsingham and other statesmen of that age. Lord 
 Burleigh left numerous state papers, letters, etc., many 
 of which have been published. 
 
 See Motley, " History of the United Netherlands," especially 
 chaps, vi., viii., and xviii. : Froude, "History of England," vol. v. 
 chap. xxv. : Arthur Collins, "Life of William Cecil," 1732; Ed- 
 ward Nares, "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of W. Cecil," 3 vols., 
 182S-32; also Hume, "History of England." 
 
 Cecile. See Cecilia. 
 
 Ce-cil'I-a, [Fr. Cecile, si'sel',] Saint, is supposed to 
 have been a Roman virgin who suffered martyrdom in 
 the second or third century. Fortunatus of Poitiers, the 
 most ancient author that speaks of her, states that she 
 died in Sicily about 180 a.d. She is regarded as the 
 patroness of musicians, and is the subject of celebrated 
 paintings by Raphael and Domenichino. 
 
 See Baillet, "Vies des Saints;" Mrs. Jameson, "Sacred and 
 Legendary Art." 
 
 Cecilianus. See Donatus, Bishop. 
 
 Cecilius. See C^ecilius. 
 
 Cecille, si'sel', (Jean Baptiste Thomas Medee,) a 
 French vice-admiral, born at Rouen in 1787. He was 
 raised to the rank of senator in 1852. 
 
 Ceciua. See C/ECINA. 
 
 Ce'crops or Ke'krops, [Gr. KeKpuip ; Fr. Cecrops, 
 si'kRops',] a hero of the Pelasgian race, who, according 
 to ancient legends, was the first king and legislator of 
 Attica. He was regarded as the author of the earliest 
 civilized customs and institutions of the Athenians, whom 
 he instructed in marriage, agriculture, navigation, and the 
 worship of Jupiter. The people of Attica were some- 
 times called Cecrop'ida2. 
 
 See Thiri.wall's " History of Greece." 
 
 Cedmon. See C^edmon. 
 
 Ce-dre'nus, (Georgius,) [r«5py(of S Keipyvoc,] a 
 Greek monk, supposed to have been the author or com- 
 piler of a chronicle from the creation to 1057 A.D., en- 
 titled 2iwoi/j(C ioTopiuv, "A Synopsis of History." It is 
 written without judgment and in a barbarous style. 
 
 Cei, cha'ee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, was born 
 at Florence. His contemporaries ranked him with Pe- 
 trarch, but his fame has since declined. He wrote 
 sonnets, canzone, etc. He died in or after 1523. 
 
 Ceillier, si'ye-i', (Remi,) a French Benedictine monk, 
 born at Bar-le-Ducin 168S. He became titular prior of 
 Flavignv, and wrote a "History of Sacred and Ecclesi- 
 astic Authors," (23 vols., 1729-63,) which is esteemed 
 for accuracy, and is more complete than that of Dupin. 
 Died in 1761. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Celakowsky, chi-Ia-kov'skee, (Frantisek Ladls- 
 law,) a Bohemian poet and philologist, born at Strako- 
 nice, or Strakonitz, in 1799. He became an enthusiastic 
 student of the Slavonic languages, and in 1822 began to 
 publish a collection of Slavonic national songs. A few 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, S, $*, short; a, ?, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
CELER 
 
 553 
 
 CELSIUS 
 
 {ears later he was professor of Bohemian literature in the 
 hiiversity of Prague. About 1832 he was deprived of this 
 place for having censured the Czar Nicholas in one of his 
 writings. He translated some Russian national songs, 
 and published popular original poems, one of which is 
 "The Hundred-Leaved Rose." From 1842 to 1848 he 
 was professor at Breslau. He died at Prague in 1852. 
 
 Ce'ler, a Roman architect of the first century, em- 
 ployed by Nero. Celer and Severus were the architects 
 of the famous palace called the Golden House, built by 
 order of Nero on Mounts Palatine and Esquiline. Its 
 site was afterwards occupied by the Coliseum. 
 
 Celeste, sa'list', or Celeste-Elliot, (Madame,) a 
 famous daiiseuse and actress, born in Paris about 1814. 
 At the age of fifteen she made a successful debut in the 
 United States, where she was married to Mr. Elliot. She 
 next visited England, and performed in London with 
 applause. Since 1837 she has lived in London, and lias 
 taken a part in the dramas at Drury Lane and other 
 theatres. 
 
 Celesti, chi-les'tee, (Andrea,) Cavaliere, an emi- 
 nent painter, born at Venice in 1637. He painted history, 
 landscapes, and genre, (at Venice,) and excelled in rich- 
 ness of colouring and in design. Among his works arc 
 "The Pool of Bethesda," and an "Adoration of the 
 Magi." His landscapes are highly prized. Died in 1706. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Celestin. See Celestine. 
 
 Cel'es-tine or Cel-es-ti'nus, [Fr. Celestin, sa'les'- 
 taN'; It. Celestino, cha-les-tee'no,] a Roman by birth, 
 was chosen pope in 422 A.D. as successor to Boniface I. 
 By his influence a council was called at Ephesus, and 
 Nestorius was there deposed. He died in 432, and was 
 succeeded by Sixtus III. 
 
 Celestine II, Pope, was originally called Guido Di 
 Casteli.o, from his birthplace, Citta di Castello, in 
 Tuscany. He succeeded Innocent II. in September, 
 1 143, and died in March, 1 144. 
 
 Celestine III, (Giacinto Orsini — oR-see'nee,) suc- 
 cessor of Clement III., was elected pope in 1 191, at the 
 age of eighty-five. He crowned the emperor Henry VI., 
 stimulated the princes of Europe to join the crusade, 
 and excommunicated Leopold, Duke of Austria, for de- 
 taining in prison Richard Coeur de Lion. Died in 1 198. 
 
 Celestine IV, a native of Milan, was elected as suc- 
 cessor to Gregory IX. in September, 1241, but died about 
 three weeks later, before he had been crowned. His 
 original name was GoFFREDO CASTIGLIONE, (gof-fRa'do 
 kas-tel-yo'na.) 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 
 Celestine V. (Pietro da Murrone (di moor-ro'na) 
 or Morone) was born in Apulia in 1215. After the 
 death of Nicholas IV. the cardinals failed to unite on a 
 successor for twenty-seven months. In 1294 they chose 
 an ignorant monk or hermit, who took the name of Cel- 
 estine. A few months after his election, he abdicated 
 his office, which was too heavy a burden for hiin. He 
 was succeeded by Boniface VIII., who confined him in 
 prison until he died, in 1296. 
 
 See V. Spinki.i.i, "Vita del S. Pietro del Morone Papa," 1664: 
 L. Marino, " Vita di S. Celestino V.," 1637. 
 
 Celestino or Celestinus. See Celestine. 
 
 Ce-les'tl-us, written also Ccelestius or Cselestius, 
 a friend and coadjutor of Pelagius. He went from 
 Rome to Carthage in 409 A.D., soon after which he was 
 condemned by the Council of Carthage for denying the 
 dogma of original sin, and other doctrines. He appealed 
 to the pope, Zosimus, who at first recognized that his con- 
 fession of faith was Catholic, but afterwards concurred 
 with the Council of Carthage. ' He found a protector in 
 Nestorius, at Constantinople, and presented himself at 
 the Council of Ephesus in 430 A.D., but was not received. 
 
 (See Pelagius,) 
 
 Celio Magno, cha'le-o man'yo, aa eminent Italian 
 lyric poet, who flourished about 1600. 
 
 Celius. SeeC/ELIUS. 
 
 Cellamare, chel-la-ma'rl, (Antonio Giudice,) Duke 
 of Giovenazzo, (jo-vi-nat'so,) Prince of Cellamare, a dis- 
 tinguished politician, born in Naples in 1657. In the 
 war of the Spanish successions/which began in 1701, he 
 fought for Philip V., and in ,,1712 was made a cabinet 
 
 minister. He was sent in 1715 as ambassador to Fiance, 
 where he was the master-spirit of a conspiracy against 
 the regent Orleans. Having been detected, he was sent 
 home in 1718, and became captain-general of Old Castile. 
 Died in 1733. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "Memoires ;" Vatout, "La Conspiration de 
 Cellamare, episode de la R^gence," 1832. 
 
 Cellarius, s21-la're-us, (Andreas,) a German geo- 
 grapher and mathematician, originally named Keller, 
 (kel'ler,) became rector of the College of Horn. He 
 published "Military Architecture," (1656,) and a "De- 
 scription of Poland," (1659.) 
 
 Cellarius, (Christoph,) an eminent German phi- 
 lologist and author, whose proper name was Keller, 
 (kel'ler,) born at Schmalkalden in 1638, was appointed 
 rector of the College of Weimar in 1673, and professor 
 of eloquence and history in the University of Halle in 
 1 693. He published good editions of many Latin classics, 
 and several original works. His "Antibarbai us Latinus," 
 on the Latinity of the middle ages and subsequent period, 
 appeared in 1695. His most celebrated work is " An- 
 cient Geography," ("Notitia Orbis Antiqui," 1 701,) which 
 was more complete and extensive than any previous 
 work on that subject. " The merit of this work," says 
 Walckenaer, "does not respond to its celebrity." Died 
 at Halle in 1707. 
 
 See August Hkrmann Franckk, " Leichenpredigt auf C. Cel- 
 larium, nebst dessen Lebenslauf," 1708. 
 
 Cellarius, (Johann,) a German Protestant scholar, 
 born at Kundstadt in 1496, was professor of Hebrew 
 at Louvain, Tubingen, and Wittenberg. He became 
 eminent as a preacher at Leipsic, and wrote several 
 works on theology. Died at Dresden in 1542. 
 
 See Jocher, "Allgerneines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Cellini, chel-lee'nee, (Benvenuto,) a celebrated Ital- 
 ian artist, born at Florence in 1500. He learned music 
 in obedience to his father's will ; but he preferred the 
 arts of gold-worker, engraver, and sculptor, in which he 
 excelled. Having wounded a man in a quarrel, he fled 
 from Florence to Rome, and fought in defence of that 
 city in 1527, when it was stormed by Constable Bourbon, 
 whom he boasted of having killed on that occasion. He 
 was employed by Pope Clement VII. as engraver to the 
 mint, and lie engraved medals with great success. He 
 afterwards worked in Paris for Francis I., and in Flor- 
 ence for Cosimo de' Medici. Among his master-pieces 
 is a bronze group of "Perseus and Medusa." He died 
 at Florence in 1570, leaving an entertaining and curious 
 autobiography, ("Vita di B. Cellini," 1720,) which was 
 translated into German by Goethe, (181 1,) into French 
 by Farjasse, (1833,) and into English by Roscoe, (1822.) 
 
 See, also, B. Gamba, " Raccordi di B. Cellini," 1831 ; Ersch und 
 Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Celnart, sel'niR', (Elisabeth Felicie,) a French 
 writer of educational works, born at Moulins in 1796. 
 
 Cels, sel, (Jacques Martin,) a French botanist, born 
 at Versailles in 1743. He formed a fine botanic garden 
 near Paris, which furnished Ventenat the subject of his 
 book entitled " Jardin de Cels." He was a member of 
 the Institute, had a large part in the preparation of the 
 rural code, and published "Instructions" on agriculture. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 See Silvestre, " Notice sur Cels," 1806. 
 
 Celse. See Cf.i.sus. 
 
 Celsius, s£l'se-us or s?l'she-us, (Anders,) a Swedish 
 astronomer, a grandson of Magnus, noticed below, was 
 born at Upsal in 1701. He was chosen professor of astro- 
 nomy at Upsal in 1730. In 1736 he was selected by the 
 French government to assist Maupertuis and other! in 
 the measurement of the length of a degree in Lapland. 
 He afterwards erected an observatory at Upsal, where 
 he extended his reputation by his observations and by his 
 writings on astronomy. He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 S01 <iy of London, and a member of other learned socie- 
 ties or institutions. Died in 1744. 
 
 See Hoepken, " Aminnelse-Tal iifver A. Celsius," 1745. 
 
 Celsius, (Magnus Nils,) a Swedish savant, born in 
 Hclsingland in 1621. He became professor of mathe- 
 matics in Upsal, and wrote a treatise on Fish, and an- 
 other on the Plants of Upsal. Died in 1679. 
 
 •e as 4; 9 as s; g hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this. (jy*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CELSIUS 
 
 554 
 
 CENTO RIO 
 
 Celsius, (Olaus,) a Swedish botanist and divine, born 
 at Upsal in 1670, was the son of the preceding, and the 
 father or uncle of Andrew, above noticed. He became 
 professor of theology and Oriental languages in Upsal, 
 and gained distinction by his researches to identify plants 
 mentioned in the Bible. His capital work, " Sacred Bo- 
 tany," (" Hierobotanicon," 1745,) contains the results of 
 those labours, and displays great erudition. He is re- 
 garded as the founder of natural history in Sweden, 
 and had the honour of directing the early studies of 
 Linnaeus, whom lie received into his family. He pub- 
 lished a " Flora of Upsal," and several works on theo- 
 logy, antiquities, etc. Died in 1756. 
 
 See A. Baeck, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver O. Celsius," 1758. 
 
 Celso. See Celsus. 
 
 Cel'sus, [Fr. Cklse, sels ; It. Celso, chel'so,] an 
 Epicurean philosopher, who lived in the second cen- 
 tury, in the reign of the Antonines, and was probably a 
 Roman. He was a friend of Lucian. He is supposed 
 to be the author of the attack on Christianity called 
 " Ao;oc ufajOr/r" (a " True Discourse,") which was ably 
 confuted by Qrigen, and which has not come down to 
 us. Some have regretted that the early Christians in 
 their zeal destroyed the work of Celsus, which might 
 now be used to refute some arguments of infidels. He 
 is said to have been the first pagan author that wrote 
 against the Christian religion, and to have used the 
 weapons of sophistry and irony with formidable power. 
 
 See Origen, "Adversus Celsum ;" Neander, " Geschichte der 
 Christliche Kirche." 
 
 Celsus, (Aurklius Cornelius,) a celebrated Latin 
 writer on medicine, of whose history little is known. 
 It is supposed that he lived in Rome in the reigns of 
 Augustus and Tiberius. Of numerous works which he 
 wrote on rhetoric, agriculture, medicine, etc., only one 
 has been preserved, — namely, his excellent treatise "De 
 Medicina," in eight books. His style is elegant, con- 
 cise, clear, and equal in purity to that of the classic 
 authors of the Augustan age. He adopts mostly the 
 doctrines of Hippocrates and Asclepiades, (of Bithy- 
 nia,) and treats impartially the prevailing sects of his 
 time, the Empirics, Methodists, and Dogmatics. His 
 treatise has been much used as a text-book in modern 
 times. Fifteen editions were issued in the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 See C. Kisser "Celsus, eine historische Monographie," 1844; 
 M. W. Schilling, "Quajstio A. C. Celsi Vita," 1824; F. Valori, 
 "Dissertatio de A. C. Celso," 1835; Haller, "Bibliotheca Medica 
 Practica." 
 
 Celsus, (Minos,) [It. Minio Celsi, mee'ne-ochel'see,] 
 a learned Italian Protestant, was born at Sienna about 
 1500. He resided at Bale as corrector of the press, and 
 published a Latin treatise against the capital punishment 
 of heresy, (1577.) 
 
 Celsus, (P. Jiiventius,) a Roman jurist of the second 
 century, was the son of Juventius Celsus, who was also a 
 jurist, mentioned by Ulpian. Celsus the Younger was 
 a favourite of Nerva and of Trajan, and was consul the 
 second time in 129 A.D. He wrote a work entitled 
 "Digesta," fragments of which are preserved in the 
 compilation of Justinian. 
 
 Celsus, (P. Marius,) a Roman general, who became 
 consul in 62 A.D. In the year 68 he obtained command 
 of an army under Galba, after whose death he gained the 
 favour of Otho, whom he served with fidelity in the war 
 against Vitellius. He was one of the generals defeated 
 by Cajcina and Valens at Bedriacum in 69 a.d. 
 
 Cel'sus Al-bin-o-va'nus, a Roman poet, was a friend 
 of Horace, who addressed to him one of his Epistles. 
 
 Celtes, tsSI'tes, (Conrad,) a German poet and scholar, 
 surnamed Protucius, (pRo-tdot'se-ils,) was born at Wip- 
 feld in 1459. His family name was MeisseLv (mTs'sel) 
 He received the title of imperial poet, or poet-laureate, 
 about 1487. He was afterwards professor of eloquence 
 in Vienna. He wrote the "Art of Making Verses," ("Ars 
 Versificandi,") a volume of Odes, a poem on the customs 
 of Germany, (" De Situ et Moribus Germanise,") and 
 other works. Died in 1508. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis;" Melchior Adam, "Vitje 
 Eruditorum ;" P. Ekerman, "Dissertatio deC. Celte ejnsque Sodali- 
 tate hteraria." 1763 ; Kluepfel, "ProgrammataII.de Vita etScriptis 
 C. Celtis Protucii," 1827. 
 
 Cenci, chen'chee, (Beatrice,) a Roman lady of patri- 
 cian birth, famous for her beauty and tragical fate. Her 
 father was an infamous person, who treated his family 
 with such cruelty that several of them conspired and 
 caused him to be assassinated. She was executed for 
 that crime at Rome in 1599. Her story has been dra- 
 matized by Shelley. 
 
 See Muratohi, " Annales;" "Vita de B. Cenci tratta dal Mano- 
 scritto antico," Rome, 1849. 
 
 Cennini, chen-nee'nee, (Bernardo,) a Florentine 
 goldsmith, is reputed to have been the first who intro- 
 duced the art of printing into Florence. A "Commen- 
 tary of Servius on Virgil" (1471) is the only extant work 
 printed by him. 
 
 See F. Fantozzi, " Memorie biografiche di B. Cennini," 1839. 
 
 Cennini, (Cennino,) an old Italian painter, born at 
 Colle, in Tuscany, about 1360. He wrote an esteemed 
 "Treatise on Painting," first printed in Rome in 1821. 
 He was living in 1437. 
 
 Cen-so-ri'nus, a Latin grammarian, who lived in the 
 reigns of Alexander Severus and Gordian, and wrote, 
 about 238 A.D., a small work, entitled "On the Natal 
 Day," (" De Die natali,") which is useful in chronology. 
 It displays learning and good judgment. 
 
 Censorinus, (Ai'Pius Claudius,) was chosen by the 
 army Emperor of Rome in 269 a.d., after having been 
 twice consul. He was killed by his mutinous soldiers a 
 few days after his elevation. 
 
 Censorinus, (C. Marcius,) a Roman general, was a 
 partisan of Marius in the civil war. He killed the con- 
 sul Octavius in 87 B.C., and commanded an army which 
 was defeated by Pompey in the year 82, soon after which 
 he was taken prisoner and killed. 
 
 Cen-tau'ri, [Eng. Cen'taurs; Fr. Centaures, 
 s&.N'toR'; Gr. Kevravpoi, supposed to be derived from 
 Kevrscj, to "pierce" or "goad," and ravpoQ, a "bull," in 
 allusion, perhaps, to their driving off the cattle of the 
 neighbouring districts,) a fabulous race of animals, half 
 men and half horses, said to have been the offspring of 
 Ixi'on and a cloud, (see Ixion,) and to have lived in Tlies- 
 saly. The battle of the Centaurs and the Lapithae was 
 a favourite subject with the ancient Greek artists. In the 
 "Iliad" the Centaurs are called <t>^pci, i.e. Of/pec, or "wild 
 beasts 1" the idea of their compound nature — of their being 
 half men and half horse — was the invention of a later age. 
 It has been conjectured that the fable of the Centaurs 
 originated among a people who had never seen men on 
 horseback, and who mistook the horse and rider for one 
 animal. (See Palajphatus, "De Incredibilibus.") 
 
 Centenera, then-ta-na'ra, (Martin del Barco,) a 
 mediocre Spanish poet, born in Old Castile. He took 
 part in a military expedition to South America in 1573, 
 and wrote a description of the same in Spanish verse. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Centeno, then-ta'no, (Diego,) a Spanish officer, born 
 in Castile in 1505, obtained command of an army in Peru, 
 and was defeated at Guarina (or Huarina) by Gonzalo 
 in 1547. Died in 1549. 
 
 Centlivre, sent-liv'er or sent-Iee'ver, (Susanna,) an 
 English dramatic writer, born about 1675, was the daugh- 
 ter of Mr. Freeman, of Lincolnshire. She was thrice 
 married, and her third husband was J. Centlivre, chief 
 cook to Queen Anne. She wrote numerous successful 
 comedies, among which were "The Busybody," "The 
 Wonder," "A Bold Stroke for a Wife," also "The Per- 
 jured Husband," a tragedy. She was noted for wit and 
 beauty. Died about 1723. 
 
 See CmnER, " Lives of the Poets;" Baker, "Biographia Dra- 
 matica ;" " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by Louisa S. 
 Costkllo, 1844. 
 
 Centofanti, chen-to-fan'tee, (Silvestro,) an Italian 
 professor and writer, born at Calci, near Pisa. He 
 published a poem "On Perfect Sovereignty," (1814,) 
 in honour of Ferdinand III., "CEdipus," a tragedy, 
 (1830,) "Stanzas on Dante," and other minor works. 
 He acquired a high reputation as professor of history 
 and philosophy in the University of Pisa from 1842 to 
 1848, and in the latter year was deprived of the chair 
 on account of his liberal political principles. 
 
 Centorio degli Ortensi, ch£n-to're-o dal'yee or- 
 tSn'see, (Ascagno,) an Italian writer, born at Rome, 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CEO 
 
 555 
 
 CERESOLA 
 
 served in the army many years with honour. He wrote 
 a volume of verses, ("Amorose Rime,") and two esteemed 
 works, entitled " Memoirs of the War of Transylvania," 
 (1565,) and "Memoirs of the Affairs of Europe, (1569.) 
 See GlNGUENtf, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Ceo,do,dosa'o,[Fr. DuCiEL,duse-el',](ViOLANTE,) 
 a Portuguese poetess, born at Lisbon in 1601, was called 
 " the Tenth Muse." She produced the " Portuguese Par- 
 nassus of Divine and Human Poetry," (" Parnaso Lusi- 
 taneo de divinos et humanos Versos,") and other admired 
 poems. At the age of sixteen she entered a convent. 
 Died in 1693. 
 
 See ISowring, "Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain ;" Long- 
 fki.i >\v, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Ceolfrid, chol'frid, (?) or Ceolfirth, an Anglo-Saxon 
 writer, born in Northumbria about 642 A.D.; died in 716. 
 
 Cephale. See Ckphalus. 
 
 Ce-phaTI-on or Ceph-a-lae'on, [KeQaMuv or Kf^o- 
 Aoi'uv,] a Greek historian, supposed to have lived in the 
 second century. He wrote an epitome of general history 
 from the time of Ninus to that of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Ceph'a-lua, [Gr. KecViaoc ; Fr. Cephai.k, sA'fll',] a 
 personage of the Greek mythology, was the husband of 
 .Procris. Incited by jealousy, she watched him when he 
 was hunting, and he killed her by accident. 
 
 Cephalus, [Kf^aAoc,] an eminent Athenian orator, 
 who flourished about 400 u.c. and contributed largely to 
 the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants. According to some, 
 he was the father of I.ysias the orator. 
 
 Cephisodore. See Cephisodorus. 
 
 Ce-phis-o-do'rus, [Gr. Ktf&o-odupoc; Fr. Cephiso- 
 dore, si'fe'zo'doR',] an eminent Athenian orator, was a 
 disciple of Isocrates, for whom he wrote an apology against 
 Aristotle. He was perhaps the same with Cephisodorus, 
 author of a " History of the Sacred War." 
 
 Cephisodorus, a celebrated Greek painter, men- 
 tioned by Pliny, is supposed to have lived about 420 B.C. 
 " Cephisodote. See Cephisodotus. 
 
 Ceph-I-sod'p-tus, [Gr. K^ioodoroc; Fr. Cephiso- 
 DOTE, si'fe'zo'dot',] a celebrated Athenian sculptor, who 
 flourished about 370 B.C. His sister was the wife of 
 Phocion. Pliny speaks with admiration of his works, 
 among which was a group of the nine Muses. His style 
 was more graceful and less majestic than that of Phidias. 
 
 Cephisodotus, an Athenian general, whose talent 
 for oratory is praised by Demosthenes. He was sent 
 to negotiate a peace with Sparta about 370 B.C. 
 
 Cephisodotus the Younger, an excellent sculptor 
 of Athens, son of the famous Praxiteles, lived about 
 300 B.C. In his youth he worked with his brother Ti- 
 marchus in Athens and Thebes. His statues of Latona, 
 Diana, and Venus were among his master-pieces. He 
 was also distinguished in portrait-sculpture. His works 
 are all lost ; but some critics consider the group of two 
 wrestling youths at Florence an imitation of his "Sym- 
 plegma." 
 
 See Winckelmann, " Geschichte der Kunst." 
 
 Ce-phis'o-phon, [Kt/ipiao^Civ,] a Greek actor, was a 
 friend of Euripides, in whose dramas he performed im- 
 portant rSles. He is said to have aided Euripides in the 
 composition of his works. 
 
 Ce'pl-o, [Fr. Cepion, si'pe'oN',] (Quintus Servi- 
 LlUS,)a Roman genera], defeated by the Cimbri, 105 B.C. 
 
 Ceracchi, chi-rak'kee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian sculp- 
 tor, born about 1760. When Bonaparte invaded Italy 
 in 1796, he made a statue of the French general. In 
 1800, having formed, with Arena and others, a design to 
 assassinate the First Consul, he proposed to make an- 
 other statue ; but the plot was detected, and the con- 
 spirators were executed, in 1802. 
 
 See Montana™, " Eloglo storico della Vita di G. Ceracchi," 1841. 
 
 Cerano. See Crespi, (Giovanni Battista.) 
 
 Cerasola. See Ceresola. 
 
 Ceratinus, sa-ra-tee'iiiis, (Jacob,) a Dutch scholar 
 and Hellenist, born at Hoorn.was professor of Greek at 
 Tournay and Louvain, and wrote, besides other works, 
 a "Lexicon Graeco-Latinum," (1524.) Died in 1530. 
 
 Cer'ber-us.lGr. Kep«cpoc;Fr.CERHERE,seR'baiR'; It. 
 Cekbero, cheVbi-ro,] the name of the triple-headed dog 
 which guarded the entrance to Hades. (See Pluto.) 
 
 Cerceau. See Androuet. 
 
 Cerceau, du, dii sSr'so', (Jean Antoine,) a French 
 poet and Jesuit, born in Paris in 1670. He produced 
 successful dramas, among which were the "Prodigal 
 Son," and the "Inconveniences of Greatness." He in- 
 creased his reputation by epistles, fables, tales, and vari- 
 ous poems. " These poems," says Voltaire, " are of a 
 mediocre quality." His " Conspiracy of Rienzi" (in prose) 
 is commended. He was killed by the accidental discharge 
 of a gun in 1 730. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Cerda, de la, di la seR'da, (Dona Bernarda Fer- 
 reira — fer-ra^e-ra,) a Portuguese poetess, born at Oporto, 
 was learned in languages, philosophy, etc., and music. 
 Philip HI. of Spain employed her to teach Latin to the 
 princes Charles and Ferdinand. She wrote " Spain liber- 
 ated," ("Espafia libertada,") and other poems. Died 
 about 1644. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Cerda, de la, di la theVda, (Juan Luis,) an eminent 
 Spanish critic and Jesuit, born at Toledo about 1560, 
 became professor of theology, logic, and eloquence at 
 Toledo. He wrote a voluminous and learned commen- 
 tary on Virgil, which has many defects. Among his best 
 works is " Sacred Note-Books," ("Adversaria Sacra," 
 1626,) in which he explains many passages of Scripture. 
 Died at Madrid in 1643. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Cerda y Rico, theit'di e ree'ko, (Don Francisco,) 
 a Spanish scholar, born about 1730. He rendered a ser- 
 vice to Spanish literature by making good editions of 
 Lope de Vega, and other old authors. He was one of the 
 principal compilers of the "Cronicas de Castilla." Died 
 in 1792. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Cer'dic, a Saxon chief, invaded Britain, and, after 
 gaining several victories over the natives, founded the 
 kingdom of Wessex about 519 a.d. Died about 534. 
 
 Cer'don or Cer'do, [Gr. Kepiuv,] a heresiarch or 
 dissenter of the second century, the master of Marcion, 
 was a native of Syria. He is said to have rejected 
 the Old Testament, and to have held other doctrines of 
 the Marcionites. Saint Augustine regarded him as the 
 precursor of the Manicha:ans. 
 
 Cere, si'ri', (Jean Nicolas,) a meritorious French 
 naturalist, born in the He de France in 1737, finished 
 his studies in Paris. In 1775 he was chosen director of 
 the royal botanic garden in his native isle, where he 
 propagated the clove-, cinnamon-, and nutmeg-trees with 
 success. He also widely extended the cultivation of 
 these spices in other islands, and wrote scientific treatises 
 which he sent to Buffon and others. Napoleon con- 
 firmed him in his office by a decree dated at Austerlitz, 
 1805. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Jean Coudray, " Notice sur M. J. N. CeVeV' 1819. 
 
 Ce'-re-a'lis or Ce-rl-a'lis, (Pettlius,) a Roman 
 general, a near relative of Vespasian, became a general 
 in the army of that emperor in 69 A.D. In the year 
 70 he commanded the army sent against Civilis, the 
 renowned chief of the Batavi, who were aided by the 
 Germans. Cerealis defeated Civilis on the Moselle, and 
 in another battle near Cologne, and soon suppressed the 
 revolt. In 71 a.d. he was appointed governor or con- 
 sular legate of Britain, where he gained several victories 
 over the natives. 
 
 See Tacitus, " History." 
 
 Ce'reS, [Fr. Ceres, si'ress' or si'rjs',] the Roman 
 name of trje goddess of agriculture, and especially of corn 
 or breadstuff's, was the reputed daughter of Cronos 
 (Saturn) and Rhea. The Greeks called her Deme'ter, 
 (Ari/iiinip.) She was the mother of Proserpine, (and, ac- 
 cording to some authorities, of Dionysus.) The most 
 remarkable part of the myth of Ceres is the rape of her 
 daughter by Pluto. (See Proserpine.) 
 
 See Stockmann, "Dissertatio de Cerere legifera," 1782; Gui- 
 cniaut, "Religions de I'Antiqnit^," Paris, 1825-29, vol. ii. book v. 
 chap. ii. ; Kbightley, "Mythology." 
 
 Ceresola, chi-ri-so'ia, or Cerasola, chi-ra-so'la, 
 (Do men ico,) an Italian versifier, born at Bergamo in 
 1683, imitated with facility the style of Petrarch, and had 
 an excellent talent for improvisation. Died in 1746. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,gttttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (8^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CEREZO 
 
 556 
 
 CERF ANTES 
 
 Cerezo, thi-ra'tho, ( Mateo, ) a skilful Spanish 
 painter, born at Burgos in 1635, was a pupil of Juan 
 Carreno de Miranda, whom he imitated and perhaps 
 equalled. He worked at Madrid, excelled in colour and 
 design, and was distinguished for his facility. Among his 
 master-pieces are a " Visitation of Saint Elizabeth," and 
 the "Miracle at Emmaus." Died, in 1685. 
 
 See Quilliet, " Dictionnaiie des Peintres Espagnols.' 
 
 Cerialis. See Cerealis. 
 
 Cerini, cha-ree'nee, or Cerrini, cher-ree'nee, (Gio- 
 vanni Domenico,) sometimes called il Cavauere 
 Perugino, (el ka-va-le-a'ra pa-roo-jee'no,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Perugia in 1606, was a pupil of Guido 
 and Domenichino. Died in 1681. 
 
 Cerini, (Giuseppe,) an Italian poet and lawyer, born 
 at Solferino in 1738. He became a resident of Milan,' 
 where in 1772 he produced "Clary," a drama, which 
 was acted with brilliant success. His reputation was 
 widely extended by a volume of lyric verses, displaying 
 a gay and genial imagination. Died in 1 779. 
 
 Cerinthe. See Ckrinthus. 
 
 5e-rin'thus, [Gr. Kr/pwdoc; Fr. Cerinthe, sa'raNt',] 
 a distinguished heretic of the first century, the founder 
 of a sect called Cerinthians, lived mostly in Asia Minor 
 or Syria. But little is known of his history. He taught 
 that the world was created by angels, and that the pre- 
 siding spirit among them was so inferior to the Supreme 
 Being as to be ignorant of his character ; that Jesus was 
 the son of Joseph and Mary by ordinary generation, and 
 selected to be the Messiah on account of his wisdom and 
 piety; that the righteous would arise from the grave to 
 inherit an earthly paradise or millennium. Irenaeus con- 
 siders him a thorough Gnostic, and states that Saint 
 John wrote his Gospel for the purpose of counteracting 
 the errors of Cerinthus. 
 
 See Neander, " History of the Church ;" Lakdnek, " History 
 of Heretics;" Paulus, "Historia Cerinthi," 1799; Matter, " His- 
 toire du Gnosticisme," 2d edition, 1838. 
 
 Cerisantes, si're'zoNt', (Marc Duncan,) a French 
 officer and Latin poet, born at Saumur about 1600, was 
 a son of Mark Duncan, a Scottish physician, noticed in 
 this work. Having gained distinction by his Latin poems, 
 he went to seek his fortune at the court of Sweden, and 
 about 1642 was sent by Oxenstiern as envoy to the court 
 of France. He was soon recalled for sending a challenge 
 to the Duke of Candale. He fought for the Neapolitan 
 insurgents under the Duke of Guise, and was killed in 
 battle at Naples in 1648. His poetry is highly praised 
 by the poet Rapin, who says, " his odes combine eleva- 
 tion and purity of style," ("il a joint dans ses odes ele- 
 vation et purete.") 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Cerisier, seh-re'ze-a', (Antoine Marie,) a French 
 historian, who was bora at Chatillon-les-Dombes in 1749. 
 He was secretary of legation at the Hague, and afterwards 
 published a " History of the United Provinces," (r778,) 
 which is said to be the best French work on that sub- 
 ject. About 1790 he began to issue in Paris the "Gazette 
 Universelle," of which he and Michaud were the editors. 
 He was imprisoned in the reign of terror, and released 
 on the 9th Thermidor, 1794. He wrote several political 
 works, one of which was "The Destiny of America," 
 (1782.) Died in 1828. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Lilteraire." 
 
 Cerisiers, de, deh seh-re'ze-a', (Ren£,) a French 
 writer and Jesuit, born at Nantes about l6»5, became 
 almoner to Louis XIV. He wrote numerous historical 
 and religious works, and a kind of spiritual romance, 
 called "The Life of Saint Genevieve of Brabant," (1640.) 
 Died about 1662. 
 
 Cerisy. See HAiiF.RT. 
 
 Cerito, cha-ree'to, (Francesca,) a celebrated Italian 
 opera-dancer, born at Naples in 1823. 
 
 Cermenati. de, da cheR-mi-na'tee, (Giovanni,) an 
 Italian, who lived about 1310, and wrote a "History of 
 Milan." 
 
 Cernitori, ch?R-ne-to'ree, (Giuseppe,) an Italian bib- 
 liographer, born at Rome in 1746; died in 1816. 
 
 Ceroui, cha-ro'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian poet, born 
 al Verona in 1773, wrote a poem "On the Capture of 
 Tarragona," (181 1.) Died in 18 14. 
 
 Cerquozzi, cheR-kwot'see, (Michelangelo,) an 
 Italian painter and engraver, born in Rome in 1602, was 
 called Michelangelo delle Battaglie, (" of battles.") 
 He excelled in battle-pieces and in the familiar scenes 
 called bambochades. He is said to have surpassed Laer 
 in figures, and left some etchings, which are highly prized. 
 Died at Rome in 1660. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cerrato, chSr-ra'to, [Lat. Cerra'tus,] (Paolo,) a 
 Latin poet, born in Montferrat, Italy, is said to equal 
 Vida in majesty of style and purity of language. His 
 poem "On Virginity" ("De Virginitate") is one of his 
 principal works. Died about 1538. 
 
 Cerretti, cher-ret'tee, or Ceretti, cha-ret'tee, (Luigi,) 
 a popular Italian poet, born at Modena in 1738, became 
 professor of history and eloquence in his native city, 
 where he lectured with brilliant success. He favoured 
 the Cisalpine republic in 1796, and went to France in 
 1799. In 1804 he obtained the chair of eloquence in 
 the University of Pavfa. He wrote admired odes, epi- 
 grams, and satires, among which is an ode to Posterity, 
 ("Alia Posterita.'") Died in 1808. 
 
 SeeTlPALDO, " Biografiadegli Italian! illustri;" Fattori, " Elogic 
 stoiico di L. Cerretti, 1808. 
 
 Cerrini See Cerini, (Giovanni Domenico.) 
 
 Certon, seR't6.N', (Salomon,) a French poet, born at 
 Gien about 1550, became royal secretary. He produced 
 in 1604 a poetical version of the "Odyssey" of Homer, 
 which was favourably received. The Abbe Terrasson 
 published a revised edition of it, with a version of the 
 " Iliad," in 1615. Certon is supposed to have originated 
 the verses called " topograms," in which a certain letter 
 of the alphabet is omitted by design. Died about 1610. 
 
 Ceruti, cha-roo'tee, (Frederico,) an Italian scholar 
 and critic, born at Verona 1111541 ; died in 1579. 
 
 Cerutti, cha-root'tee, (Giuseppe Antonio Gioa- 
 chimo,) an ingenious writer and Jesuit, born at Turin in 
 1 738. 1 le resided mostly in France, and wrote in French. 
 About 1 761 he wrote an anonymous essay on ancient and 
 modern republics, which was ascribed to Rousseau, and 
 an "Apology for the Order of the Jesuits," which attracted 
 much notice. He was in Paris in 1789, and, having 
 warmly espoused the popular cause, he was chosen a 
 member of the Assembly in 1791. He was intimate with 
 Mirabeau, whom he assisted in his political labours. He 
 wrote " The Gardens of Betz," and other mediocre poems, 
 and many prose works. Died in 1792. 
 
 See CimiERKs de Pai.mkzeaux, "Coup-d'ceil rapide sur J. A. J. 
 Cerutti," 1792; Querard, "La France Litufraire." 
 
 Cervantes, ser-van'tes, [Sp. pron. then-van'tfs,] or, 
 more fully, Cervantes Saavedra, de, da theR-van'tes 
 si-va'DRa, (Miguel,) the celebrated author of "Don 
 Quixote," was bora at Alcala de Henares, in Spain, on the 
 Qth of October, 1547. He studied in the Universities of 
 Salamanca and Madrid, and cultivated poetry in his youth 
 without much success. About 1570 he entered as a vol- 
 unteer the papal army under Marcantonio Colonna, and 
 in 1571 he signalized his courage at the famous battle of 
 Lepanto, where he was wounded. In 1575 he was taken 
 by an Algerine corsair and carried as a slave to Algiers. 
 After risking his life in gallant efforts to liberate his fel- 
 low-captives, and after terrible sufferings, he was ransomed 
 in 1580 for five hundred ducats, and returned to Madrid. 
 In 1584 he published "Galatea," a pastoral romance of 
 some merit. The same year he married Catalina de Pala- 
 cios Salazar y Vozmediano. He wrote numerous dramas, 
 which, he informs us, were performed with success ;.but 
 neither these nor his other earlier works sufficed to relieve 
 him from poverty. At length, in 1605, he published the 
 first part of the inimitable " Don Quixote de la Mancha," 
 which soon became immensely popular, and ran through 
 four editions in the first year. From this time he con- 
 tinued to reside in Madrid until his death. He produced 
 in 1613 his "Novelas exemplares," ("Moral Tales,") 
 which were much admired, and in 1614 his " Viaje al 
 Parnaso," ("Journey to Parnassus,") a poem which some 
 regard as a master-piece. The second part of " Don 
 Quixote" appeared in 1615. Cervantes died on the same 
 day as Shakspeare, April 23, 1616. 
 
 "'Don Quixote,'" says Hallam, "is the only book in 
 the Spanish language which can now be said to possess 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CERF ANTES 
 
 557 
 
 CESIO 
 
 much of a European reputation. ... It is to Europe in 
 general what Ariosto is to Italy, and Shakspeare to Eng- 
 land, — the one book to which the slightest allusions may 
 be made without affectation, but not missed without dis- 
 credit. Numerous translations, and countless editions 
 of them, in every language, bespeak its adaptation to 
 mankind; and no critic has been found paradoxical 
 enough to withhold his admiration. . . . Few books of 
 moral philosophy display as deep an insight into the 
 mechanism of the mind as 'Don Quixote.' And when 
 we look also at the fertility of invention, the general 
 probability of the events, and the great simplicity of the 
 story, we shall think Cervantes fully deserving of the 
 glory that attends this monument of his genius." 
 
 See T. Roscoe, "Life and Writings of Cervantes," 1830: Lock- 
 HAkT. " Lite of Cervantes," 1822 : Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe:" Prescott, "Miscellanies." article "Cervantes;" Pkl- 
 lickr, "Vida de Cervantes," 1S00; Mavans v Clscak, " Yid.t da 
 Cervantes," 1750; Fern. l>e Nav arete, " Vidade Cervantes," 1 s 1 . j ; 
 Mbrimrk, "Notice snr Cervantes," 1806; Viardot, "Notice snr 
 la Vie de Cervantes." Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature," 
 vol. 11. ; L. S. AutiKK, " Essai snr la Vie de Cervantes," 1S25. 
 
 Cervantes de Salazar, theR-van'tes da sa-la-thait', 
 (Francisco,) a Spanish litterateur, for whose biography 
 we have no materials. He wrote moral works, which 
 were praised by A. Morales, and were published in 1546. 
 
 Cervetto, chcR-vet'to, (Jacopo Bassevi,) a famous 
 Italian musician, born about 1680, performed in London. 
 Died in 1783. 
 
 Cervole or Cervolle, de, deh seVvol', (Arnaui.d,) 
 a famous French warrior, born in Perigord, was wounded 
 at Poitiers in 1356. He became a chief of brigands, and 
 ■emetines fought for the dauphin. Died in 1366. 
 
 Cervolle. See Cervole. 
 
 Cervoni, chCR-vo'nee or sdR'vo'ne', (Jean Baptiste,) 
 an able general in the French service, born in Sardinia in 
 1 768. As general of brigade, he distinguished himself at 
 Lodi in 1796, and in 1799 became a general of division. 
 He was appointed chief of the staff of Marshal Lannes 
 in 1809, and was killed at Eckmuhl in that year. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Cesaire. See C/F.sarius. 
 
 Cesalpino, cha-sal-pee'no, f Lat. C^esalpi'nus ; Fr. 
 Cesai.pin, sa'zSI'pa.N', often Anglicized as C^esai.pin 
 or Cesalpine, ses-al'pin,] (Andrea,) a distinguished 
 Italian physiologist, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, in 
 1519. He applied himself particularly to the study of 
 medicine, but was also learned in various sciences, and 
 especially in the philosophy of Aristotle. After having 
 been professor of medicine and botany at Pisa for many 
 years, he became first physician to Pope Clement VIII., 
 (about 1595.) He published " Quaistiones Peripateticae," 
 (1569,) a treatise on metaphysics, founded professedly 
 on Aristotle's principles, with a tendency to pantheism, 
 and several medical works, one of which is entitled " Ars 
 Medica," (1601.) His most important service to science 
 consists in an improved system of botany, which was 
 developed in his great work "On Plants," ("De Plantis," 
 1583.) He was the first who attempted to establish a 
 natural order of classification on philosophical principles. 
 1 le founded it chiefly on the number, figure, and position 
 of the organs of fructification. He announced several 
 new ideas in physiology, including the circulation of the 
 blood, the truth of which was not recognized until a long 
 time afterwards. Died in 1603. 
 
 See Fuchs, "Andreas Ca:salpinus, de ejus Ingenio,"etc, Marburg, 
 179S ; Bavi e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, " Mi- 
 moires;" Sprengel, "Historia Rei herbaria." 
 
 Cesar, the French of Caesar, which see. 
 
 Cesare, the Italian of C«sar, which see. 
 
 Cesare, di, dee cha'sa-ra, (Giuseppe,) Cavai.iere, 
 an Italian historian, born in Naples in 1783. In 1837 he 
 produced his chief work, "The History of Manfred, King 
 of Sicily and Apulia," which had great success. He pub- 
 lished " Roman Letters," an " Essay on the Philosophy 
 of History," and many other works. Died in 1856. 
 
 Cesari, cha'sa-ree, (Ai.essandro,) surnamed the 
 Greek, a skilful Italian engraver, who lived about 1500- 
 40. He worked in Rome, and was employed by several 
 pontiffs to engrave medals and gems. Vasari considers 
 the cameo representing the head of Phocion as his mas- 
 ter-piece. 
 
 Cesari, (Antonio,) an able Italian critic and ecclesi- 
 astic, born at Verona about 1750. He published good 
 editions of Dante's great poem, of the " Dictionary Delia 
 Ci usca," and other works. His translations of the Odes 
 of Horace and of the Letters of Cicero are admired. 
 He also wrote popular tales or novels. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Manuzzl " Cennisulla Vitaesulle Opere di A. Cesari," 1829; 
 G. Bonfanti, "Vita di A. Cesari," 1832; F. Villardi, "Vita del 
 P. A. Cesari," 1832; F. Mordani, " Elogio del P. A. Cesari," 1842. 
 
 Cesari, (Giuseppe,) a celebrated Italian historical 
 painter, sometimes called il Cavaliere d'Akpino, (41 
 ka-vi-le-a'ra daR-pee'no,) or Giuseppino, (joo-sJp-pee'- 
 no,) and by the French le Josepin, (leh zho'zi'paN',) 
 born at Arpino or Rome about 1565, (some say 1560.) 
 He was patronized by Pope Gregory XIII. and by seve- 
 ral of his successors, and was for many years the most 
 fashionable painter of Rome. He is said to have neg- 
 lected nature and skimmed the surface of art, thus pro- 
 moting the depraved taste of the time. His works have 
 an appearance of grandeur and animation in composition, 
 but want correctness of design. He once challenged 
 Annibal Caracci to fight; but that artist replied, "My 
 weapon is the pencil, and not the sword." Among his 
 works are frescos in the Capitol at Rome, representing 
 events of ancient Roman history. Died in 1640. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Ttcozzi," Dizionario." 
 
 Cesarini, chi-sa-ree'nee, (Giuliano,) an Italian car- 
 dinal and negotiator. Died in 1444. 
 
 Cesarini, [Lat. C/esari'nus,] (Virginio,) an Italian 
 poet, born probably at Rome in 1595. He was remark- 
 able for the universality of his scholarship, and was an 
 eloquent orator. Pope Urban VIII. gave him an office 
 in the pontifical chamber. His Latin and Italian poems 
 were published in 1662. Died in 1624. 
 
 See A. Favorinus, " Vita V. Cjesarini," 1677 ; Rycquius, " Do 
 Vita V. Cacsarini," 1629. 
 
 Cesarion, the French of C/esarjon, which see. 
 
 Cesarotti, cha-sa-rot'tee, (Mf.lchior,) one of the 
 most celebrated Italian poets and litle'rateurs of his time, 
 was born at Padua in 1730. He became professor of 
 rhetoric in Padua about 1750. In 1762 he removed to 
 Venice, where he produced an admirable translation of 
 Ossian into Italian verse, (1763,) and versions of several 
 tragedies of Voltaire. He was chosen professor of Greek 
 and Hebrew in the University of Padua in 1768. After 
 this date he published a good translation of Demosthenes, 
 and the " Death of Hector." He also made a literal prose 
 version of Homer with notes, which is said to be one of 
 the most complete and exact works by which that poet 
 has been illustrated. Among his best critical works is 
 an " Essay on the Philosophy of Language, applied to 
 the Italian Language," (1785.) His style is remarkably 
 spirited and powerful, but lacks purity and is marred by 
 neologisms. The version of Ossian is regarded by some 
 critics as his master-piece. Died in 1808. 
 
 See G. Barbikri, "Memorie sullaVita esugli Studj dell'Abbate 
 M. Cesarotti," 1810. 
 
 Cesena, sa'zl'na", (Sebastien Gayet — ga'yi',) sur- 
 named RufiAL, a French litterateur, born at Beaujeu in 
 1815. His most important work is a French translation 
 of the complete works of Dante, (1843-53.) 
 
 Cesi, cha'See, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Bologna in 1557. He painted after nature, and 
 acquired a high reputation at Bologna and Rome. His 
 subjects were mostly scriptural. Died in 1629. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cesi, (Fedf.rigo,) Prince, Duke of Acqua-Sparfa, an 
 eminent Italian naturalist, born in Rome in 1585. At 
 the age of eighteen he founded in Rome the renowned 
 Lincean Academy for the promotion of natural history 
 and philosophy. During his life he defrayed the ex- 
 penses of this academy. He first discovered the spores 
 of ferns. He wrote able scientific treatises, among 
 which were "The Theatre of Nature," (" Natura; Thea- 
 trum,") and an " Explanation of Natural Prodigies or 
 Phenomena." Died in 1630. 
 
 See B. Ouescai.ciii, "Memorie istorico critiche dell'Accademia 
 dei Lincci e del Principe F. Cesi," 1S06 ; Tiraboschi, " Storia della 
 Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Cesio, cha'Se-o, (Carlo,) an Italian painter and en- 
 graver, born near Rome in 1626, was a pupil of Pietro 
 
 «asA7cas s;%hard;%s&j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled ; sass; thasin this. (JrySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CESPEDES 
 
 558 
 
 CHABAUD 
 
 da Cortona. He painted frescos in several churches of 
 Rome, and, in the gallery of the Quirinal, a picture of 
 the " judgment of Solomon." He was a correct designer 
 and a skilful etcher. Among his works in this branch 
 of art is the "Gallery of the Farnese Palace" at Rome. 
 Died in 1686. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cespede3, de, di thes-pa'ngs, (Pablo,) an eminent 
 Spanish painter, scholar, and writer on art, was born at 
 Cordova in 1538. He was learned in Greek, Latin, 
 Hebrew, and Arabic. Having studied art in Rome, he 
 returned to Cordova about 1576, and adorned the 
 churches of that city and of Seville with paintings. He 
 excelled in colour, invention, and composition. A "Last 
 Supper," at Cordova, is one of his most admired works. 
 He wrote a poem on Painting, a "Comparison between 
 Ancient and Modern Art," and a few other works. Died 
 at Cordova in 1608. 
 
 See Quintana, "Tesoro del Parnaso Espanol." 
 
 Cessac, de. See Lacue>., Count. 
 
 Cessart, de, deh si'sin', (Louis Alexandre,) a 
 French engineer, born in Paris in 1719. In 1781 he was 
 chosen to direct the great naval works at Cherbourg, 
 where he invented a valuable process of hydraulic archi- 
 tecture. He wrote a treatise on hydraulic works, which 
 is highly prized. Died in 1806. 
 
 Cessoles, de, deh s&'sol', (Jacques,) a French monk 
 and moralist, who lived about 1280, and wrote, in Latin, 
 "The Game of Chess moralized," which was once very 
 popular. An English version was printed by Caxton, 
 
 (I474-) 
 
 Cesti, ches'tee, (Marcantonio,) one of the most cele- 
 brated musicians of his time, was born at Arezzo or 
 Florence about 1620. He was a pupil of Carissimi, 
 whose cantatas (composed for the church) he adapted or 
 transplanted to the theatre. He produced on the theatre 
 of Venice, between 1649 and 1669, "Titus Argenne," 
 and six other operas, which were very successful. Died 
 about 1680. 
 
 Cestoni, chSs-to'nee, (Giacinto,) an Italian natural- 
 ist, born in the March of Ancona in 1637. He wrote 
 several treatises on natural history, which were the re- 
 sults of his own observations, and were printed with the 
 works of his friend Vallisnieri. Died in 1718. 
 
 See Sangiorgio, "Elogio di G. Cestoni," 181 1. 
 
 Ce-the'gu3, (Caius,) a Roman senator, and accom- 
 plice in Catiline's conspiracy, was a person of infamous 
 character. Convicted on the evidence of his letter to the 
 Allobroges, and of numerous deadly weapons found in 
 his house, he was executed by Cicero in 690 A.u.c, 
 (63 B.C.) 
 
 Cethegus, (Marcus Cornelius,) a Roman general 
 and orator, was chosen censor in 209 B.C., and consul in 
 204. In the next year, as proconsul, he commanded in 
 Cisalpine Gaul, where, with the aid of Varus, he de- 
 feated Mago, the Carthaginian general. He had a high 
 reputation for eloquence, and was called by Ennius 
 "the Marrow of Persuasion," ("Suadae Medulla.") 
 
 Cetina, de, da tha-tee'na, (Gutierrez,) a Spanish 
 poet and ecclesiastic, born at Seville, wrote madrigals 
 and anacreontic poems. He is praised by Velasquez 
 and Herrera, the latter of whom compares him to Gar- 
 cilasso for elegance. Many of his verses appear to have 
 been lost. 
 
 Cetti, chet'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian naturalist 
 and Jesuit, born at Como in 1726. He published several 
 treatises on the Quadrupeds, the Fish, and other Animals 
 of Sardinia, (1774-77.) Died about 1780. 
 
 Cetti, (Giovanni,) an Italian litterateur, born at Lu- 
 gano, made several translations from the Russian of 
 Karamzin into Italian. Died in 1817. 
 
 Ceulen. See Keuxen. 
 
 Ceva, cha'va, (Giovanni,) an Italian geometer, born 
 probably at Milan. He published several Latin works 
 of merit, entitled " Opuscula Mathematical' (1682,) "The 
 Geometry of Motion," (" Geometria Motus," 1692,) " Hy- 
 drostatica," (1728,) etc. 
 
 Ceva, (ToMMASO,) an Italian poet and distinguished 
 geometer, brother of the preceding, was born at Milan 
 in 1648, and entered the order of Jesuits in his youth. 
 He invented an instrument to perform the trisection of 
 
 an angle, (1695,) anc ' published mathematical writings, 
 ("Opuscula Mathematical') Among his Latin poems 
 is " Philosophia novo-antiqua," which is extolled by 
 Corniani. Died in 1736. 
 
 Cevallos, tha-val'yds, (Pedro,) a Spanish politician, 
 born at Santander in 1764, became minister of foreign 
 affairs under Charles IV. About 180S he was sent to 
 London on a political mission by the Junta, and pub- 
 lished there a work which is said to have had great 
 influence in exciting the Spaniards against Bonaparte. 
 He was successively secretary of state and minister to 
 Vienna between 1814 and 1820, after which he was ex- 
 cluded from political employment. Died about 1838. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Cezelli, sa'z,\'Ie', (Constance,) a French lady, noted 
 for her heroic and successful defence of Leucate in 1590. 
 
 Chabannes. See Palice, de la. 
 
 Chabannes, de, deh shS'ban', (Antoine,) Comte de 
 Dammartin, (deh di'mSR'ti.N',) an able and successful 
 French general, brother of Jacques, noticed below, born 
 about 1410. He distinguished himself at the siege of Or- 
 leans in 1428, and fought under the banners of Joan of 
 Arc in other battles. He became a favourite of Charles 
 VII., who died in 1461 ; he was then disgraced and im- 
 prisoned by Louis XI. In 1468 he was pardoned, and 
 gained the favour of Louis, who appointed him grand 
 master ( grand-maitre ) of France. He was commander- 
 in-chief in the war against Charles the Bold in 1471. 
 Died in 1488. 
 
 See Dc Plessis, " Les Vies de Jacques et Antoine de Chabannes," 
 161 2; " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Chabannes, de, (Jacques,) Seigneur de la Palice, 
 (deh U pS'less',) a French general, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born about 1400. He served with distinction in 
 the wars against the English, and became grand master 
 (grand-maitre) of France, (1451.) He was mortally 
 wounded at the battle of Castillon in 1453. 
 
 See Du Plessis, " Les Vies de Jacques et Antoine de Chabannes." 
 
 Chabannes, de, (Jean,) Seigneur de Vandenesse, 
 a brave general, was a nephew of the preceding, and a 
 brother of Marshal de la Palice. (See Palice.) He 
 was a companion of Bayard, and was surnamed THE 
 Little Lion. He contributed to the victory of Ma- 
 rignano in 15 15, and commanded the artillery when he 
 was killed with Bayard near the Sesia in 1524. 
 
 See Brantome, "Vies des grands Capitaines." 
 
 Chabannes, de, (Jean Baptists Marie,) Marquis, 
 a French politician, born in 1770, was a descendant of 
 Marshal de la Palice. He became a royalist emigrant 
 about 1790. At the restoration in 181 5 he was ad- 
 mitted into the Chamber of Peers. He published many 
 political pamphlets, among which was "The Deceitful 
 Beacon," (" Le Phare trompeur, ou la Chartomanie," 
 1821.) Died in 1835. 
 
 Chabannes-la-Palice, de, deh sht'bSn' li pi'less', 
 (Alfred Jean Eginhard,) Count, a French general, 
 born in 1799. He served several campaigns in Algeria, 
 was appointed aide-de-camp to the king about 1838, and 
 a general of brigade in 1840. In 1848 he retired from 
 the service, and went into exile with Louis Philippe. 
 
 Chabanon, de, deh shS'bi'n6.N', (Michel Paul 
 Gui,) an able French writer, born in the island of Saint 
 Domingo in 173Q, became a resident of France. Among 
 his best works are a "Life of Dante," (1773,) and a 
 "Treatise on Music considered in itself and in its Re- 
 lations with Language, Poetry, etc.," (1785.) His version 
 of the Pythic Odes of Pindar was praised by Voltaire. 
 He also made a good prose version of Theocritus, and 
 left Memoirs of his own life, (1795.) Died in 1792. 
 
 See his Autobiography, entitled "Tableau de quelques Circon- 
 stances de ma Vie," 1795; Fontanes, "Notice sur Chabanon;" 
 Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Chabans, de, deh shi'bflN', (Louis du Maine — clii 
 min,) Baron, a French writer on morals, lived about 
 1610. He was killed in a duel by the father of Ninon 
 Lenclos. 
 
 Chabaud, shi'bo', (Antoine,) a French engineer, 
 born at Nimes in 1727. He projected a canal in Pirardy, 
 which was approved by Turgot, but, owing to the removal 
 of that minister, it was not made. He published a "Me- 
 moir on Volcanoes and Earthquakes." Died in 1791. 
 
 a, e, I, 0, u, y, long; i, 4, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
CHABAUD 
 
 559 
 
 CHACON 
 
 Chabaud de la Tour, shi'bo' deh 13 tooR, (An- 
 tihnk Gkorge Francois,) Baron, a French Protestant 
 legislator, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1767,' 
 was an officer in the army when the Revolution began. 
 He was chosen one of the Council of Five Hundred in 
 1797, a member of the Tribunat about 1800, and of the 
 legislative body in 1807. From 1817 to 1828 he served 
 with credit in the Chamber of Deputies. Died in 1832. 
 
 Chabaud-Latour, de, deh shi'bo' li'tooR', (Fran- 
 cois ERNEST Henri,) Baron, a French general, son of 
 the preceding, was born at Nimes in 1804. He chose 
 the profession of military engineer, and became a cap- 
 tain in 1827. He was a member of the Chamber of 
 Deputies from 1827 to 1848, and obtained the rank of 
 general of brigade in 1853. 
 
 Chabert, shi'baiR', (J. Xavier,) a French adventurer, 
 known as "the Fire King," exhibited himself in London 
 and the United States about 1830. He is said to have 
 entered an oven heated to 380'' Fahr. 
 
 Chabert, (Theodore,) a French general, born at 
 Villefranche in 1 75S. He served in Germany and Italy, 
 and in 1808 commanded the vanguard at Baylen, where 
 the French, under Dupont, were dcfeated*with dishonour 
 by the Spaniards, for which he was dismissed from the 
 service. In 1814 he took sides with Bonaparte, who made 
 him a lieutenant-general. Died about 1830. 
 
 Chabert, de, deh shS'baiR', (Joseph Bernard,) 
 Marquis, an eminent French naval officer, savant, and 
 hydrographer, born at Toulon in 1723. He entered the 
 navy in his youth, and, after important services, became 
 vice-admiral in 1792. His "Account of a Voyage made 
 on the Coasts of North America in 1750" forms part of 
 the records of the Academy of Sciences. He prepared 
 charts of the coasts of the Mediterranean, and made 
 other improvements in hydrography. He was an asso- 
 ciate of nearly all the great Academies of Europe. He 
 emigrated in the reign of terror, returned home in 1802, 
 and was chosen a member of the bureau of longitudes 
 in 1803. Died in 1805. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Chabot, shi'bo', ( Francois, ) a fanatical French 
 Jacobin and demagogue, born in Rouergue in 1759, be- 
 came a Capuchin monk noted for his vicious morals and 
 shabby attire. About 1790 he was deputed to the Con- 
 stituent Assembly, in which he acquired influence by 
 his audacity and facility of speech. He was one of the 
 instigators of the massacres of August and September, 
 1792. The adoption of the term "Montagnards" by 
 his party is said to have been suggested by him. He 
 became obnoxious to Robespierre, by whose orders he 
 was executed in 1794. 
 
 See De Barante, " Histoire de la Convention Nationale." 
 
 Chabot, (Louis Francois Jean,) a French general, 
 born atNiortin 1757, served in Flanders and La Vendee, 
 and became a general of division in 1794. Died in 1837. 
 
 See J. Richard, " Memoire biographique sur le GeneVal Chabot," 
 1844- 
 
 Chabot, de, deh shi'bo',(Pmi.iPPE,) Comtede Charni, 
 (deh shiR'ne',) sometimes called "Admiral de Brion," a 
 French general, born of a noble family of Poitou. He was 
 a rival of Constable Montmorency, and the head of a party 
 at court in the reign of Francis I. He was made prisoner 
 at the battle of Pavia in 1525, and succeeded Bonnivet 
 (who was killed in that action) as admiral of France. In 
 1535 he had the chief command in the war against the 
 Duke of Sav"y, and was so successful that Turin and 
 nearly all Piedmont submitted. The colony of Canada 
 was planted under his auspices by Cartier. Died in 1543. 
 
 See Bkant6me, "Vies des grands Capitaines." 
 
 Chabot de l'Allier, shi'bo' deh li'le-4', (Georges 
 Antoinf,) a French jurist, born at MonTTucon in 1758. 
 He became a member of the Convention in 1794, and 
 of the Council of Elders in 1799. Being a member of 
 the Tribunat when the treaty of Amiens was announced, 
 in 1802, he moved that Bonaparte be appointed consul 
 for life. He afterwards served in the legislative body, 
 and was chosen a judge in the court of cassation in 1809. 
 He wrote an esteemed work " On the Law of Succes- 
 sions," (1804.) Died in 1819. • 
 
 See Moulin, "Notice biographique sur Chabot." 
 
 Chabran, shi'bR&N', (Joseph,) a French general, 
 born at Cavaillon in 1763. He fought at Marengo in 
 1800, after which he had the command in Piedmont. He 
 was created a count in December, 1814. Died in 1843. 
 
 ChabrtSe, shi'bRa', (Dominique,) a French botanist, 
 born at Geneva, practised medicine at Yverdun about 
 1650. He supervised the publication of J. Bauhin's " His- 
 tory of Plants,"( 165 1,) which the author left in manuscript; 
 and fifteen years later he published in his own name an 
 abridgment of the same, " Stirpium icones et sciagraphia," 
 (1666.) He is supposed to have died in 1667. 
 
 ■Cha'brl-as, |Xa/3piac,] an able Athenian general, who 
 first appears in history as the commander of the army 
 of Athens at Corinth in 392 B.C. He rendered efficient 
 services to Evagoras of Cyprus against the Persians in 
 388. In a campaign against Agesilaus in 378 he ac- 
 quired celebrity by the invention of a new manoeuvre. 
 He ordered his men to await the charge of the enemy 
 with presented spears, and with the left knee sup- 
 ported against the shield. In 376 he gained a decisive 
 naval victory over the Spartans at Naxos. In the Social 
 war, which began in 357 B.C., he commanded a fleet co- 
 operating with an army under Chares. Having exposed 
 himself rashly at the siege of Chios, he was killed in the 
 same year. 
 
 See Carl Rehdantz. "Vita; Iphicratis, Chabrije et Timothei 
 Atheniensiiim," 1845; Plutarch, "Life of Phocion;" Cornelius 
 Nepos, "Chabrias." 
 
 Chabrit, shi'bRe', (Pierre,) a French jurist, born 
 about 1740, was an advocate in the Parliament of Paris. 
 He published a work " On the French Monarchy and 
 Laws," (1783,) for which he received from the French 
 Academy a prize founded by Valbelle for the most useful 
 work. Died in 1785. 
 
 Chabrol de Crouzol, shi'bRol' deh kRoo'zol' , 
 (Andre Jean,) Count, a French minister of state, born 
 at Riom in 1771, was prefect of the Rhone, at Lyons, 
 from 1814 to 181 7. He was appointed minister of the 
 marine in 1824, and was minister of finances from August, 
 1829, till May, 1830. Died in 1836. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Chabrol de Volvic, sha'bRol' deh vol'vek', (Gil- 
 bert Joseph Gaspard,) Count, a French civil officer, 
 brother of the preceding, born at Riom in 1773. He ac- 
 companied the expedition to Egypt in 1798, as a member 
 of the commission of arts and sciences. On his return 
 he published a volume "On the Manners and Customs 
 of the Modern Egyptians." He was appointed in 1812 
 prefect of the department of the Seine, and held that im- 
 portant office eighteen years, during which he constructed 
 in Paris many bridges, markets, churches, schools, and 
 the Bourse. Died in 1843. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litt^raire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gene>ale." 
 
 Chabroud, shi"bRoo', (Charles,) a French lawyer 
 and republican, born at Vienne in 1750, was deputed to 
 the States-General in 1789. He took an active, part in 
 the National Assembly, of which he was chosen presi- 
 dent in April, 1791. From 1794 to 1797 he was a judge 
 of the court of cassation in Paris. Died in 1816. 
 
 Chabry, shi'bRe', (Marc,) a French painter and sculp- 
 tor, born at Lyons in 1660, worked with success in his 
 native city. The king, after seeing his statue of Hercu- 
 les, appointed him his sculptor at Lyons. Died in 1727. 
 
 Chacaton, shi'ki'tAN', (Jean Nicolas Henri,) a 
 French painter of history and landscapes, born at Chezy 
 in 1813. Among his productions are "The Prisoner ci 
 Chillon," (1835,) and "Souvenirs of Smyrna," admitted 
 into the great Exposition of Paris in 1855. 
 
 Chacon, cha-k6n', [It. Ciacone, cha-ko'na ; I.nt. Cia- 
 co'nius,] (Alonzo,) a Spanish priest, born in the king- 
 dom of Granada in 1 540, was very learned in ecclesiastical 
 history and antiquities. He lived some years in Rome, 
 and was apostolic penitentiary undet Gregory XIII. 
 His principal work is a " History of the Popes and Car- 
 dinals," (1601.) Died in 1599. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Chacon, [Lat. Ciaco'nius,] (Pedro,) a Spanish 
 priest, eminent for his learning, and called " the Varro 
 of his age," was born at Toledo in 1 525. He became 
 a resident of Rome, and was employed by Gregory XIII, 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (23^""See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHADERTON 
 
 560 
 
 CHALLAN 
 
 to revise the Bible and the Fathers. He annotated Isi- 
 dore, Tertullian, Sallust, Varro, Pliny, etc., and wrote a 
 treatise on the Roman manner of reclining at table, (" De 
 Triclinio Romano,") and other works. His immense eru- 
 dition was extolled by Vossius, De Thou, and Casaubon. 
 Died in Rome in 1581. 
 
 See Dupin, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs ecclesiastiques," etc 
 
 Ckad'er-ton, (Lawrence,) D.D., an English divine, 
 born in Lancashire in 1546. In 1584 he was chosen first 
 master of Emanuel College, Cambridge. He assisted 
 in the version of the Bible made by order of James I., 
 and wrote a "Treatise on Justification." Died in 1640. 
 
 See Dillingham, "Vita L. Chadertoni," 1700. 
 
 Chadidscha. See Khadijah. 
 
 Chaduc, shS'duk', (Louis,) a French antiquary, born 
 at Riom in 1560. He formed a collection of two thou- 
 sand engraved gems. Died in 1638. 
 
 Chad'wick, (Edwin,) an English reformer and sta- 
 tistician, whose life has been devoted to sanitary reform 
 and the prevention of pauperism, was born in the en- 
 virons of Manchester in 1801. He removed to London 
 in his youth, and became a student in the Inner Temple. 
 In 1828 he published in the " Westminster Review" an 
 important article "On Life Assurance," and in 1829 in 
 the "London Review" a paper "On Preventive Police," 
 which procured him the friendship of Jeremy Bentham. 
 He was appointed in 1834 secretary to the poor-law 
 commission, and continued in that office until 1847. 
 From masses of evidence collected for this commission 
 he prepared a " Report on the Sanitary Condition of 
 the Labouring Population of Great Britain," (1842,) 
 which produced a great sensation. In consequence of 
 this sanitary movement a public-health act was passed 
 in 1848, and a general board of health was appointed, 
 of which board Mr. Chadwick was a member from 1848 
 to 1854, "No public man of the present day," says the 
 "North British Review," (1850,) "is more justly an ob- 
 ject of general attention and interest than Edwin Chad- 
 wick. It would be difficult to mention another public 
 man possessing so pre-eminently the passion and genius 
 of rectification." 
 
 See "Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles; "North British 
 Review" for May, 1850. 
 
 Chaerea, kee're-a, (C. Cassius,) a Roman tribune of 
 the praetorian cohort in the reign of Caligula. Having 
 been insulted or ridiculed by that tyrant, and perhaps 
 impelled by the love of liberty, he formed a conspiracy 
 and assassinated Caligula in 41 A.D. Within a few days 
 after this event he was executed by Claudius. 
 
 See Tacitus, "Annales." 
 
 Chaeremon, ke-ree'mori, [Gr. Xaipq/zuv; Fr. Cherf.- 
 MON, ka'ra'm6N',] an Athenian tragic poet, who is sup- 
 posed to have flourished between 400 and 350 B.C. He 
 imitated the defects of Euripides, and displayed the bad 
 taste which belongs to an age of decadence. He excelled 
 in the description of sensuous beauty. Fragments of 
 his plays have come down to us. 
 
 See Bartsch, "De Chseremone, Poeta tragico." 
 
 Chaeremon, a Stoic philosopher and historian, lived 
 in the first century of our era. He was librarian of the 
 great Alexandrian Library, and afterwards a preceptor of 
 Nero in Rome. His chief work was a "Sacred and Profane 
 History of Egypt,", of which only a fragment is extant. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grxca. " 
 
 Chaerephon, kJr'e-fon, [Gr. Xatpe<f>£>v; Fr. Cherf.- 
 phon, ka / ra'f6\',] a Greek philosopher, born about 480 
 H.C., was a friend of Socrates, and is often noticed favour- 
 ably in the works of Plato. 
 
 Chafei, (Mohammed-Ben-Idrys.) See Shafey-Ibn- 
 Idrf.es. 
 
 Chah. See Shah. 
 
 Chahyn-Gherai. See Shaheen. 
 
 Chaillu. See Du Chaillu. 
 
 Chais, sh&, (Pierre,) a Swiss divine and pulpit orator, 
 born at Geneva in 1701, became minister at the Hague 
 in 1728. He founded a hospital or almshouse at the 
 Hague, and published, besides other works, a "Com- 
 mentary on the Old Testament," (7 vols.,) and "Theology 
 of the Bible," (1752.) Died at the Hague in 1785. 
 
 Chaise, La. See La Chaise. 
 
 Chaixd'Est-Auge,sh£'da't6Nzh',(ViCTOR Chari.es,) 
 an eloquent French advocate, born at Rheims in 1800, 
 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1831, 1837, 
 and 1844. About the end of 1857 he became procureur- 
 general at the imperial court of Paris. 
 
 Chalais, de, Prince. See Talleyrand, (Henri de.) 
 
 Chalbos, shil'bo', (Francois,) a French general, born 
 at Cubieres; died in 1803. 
 
 ■Chal-cid'I-us, a Platonic philosopher, of whose na- 
 tivity and life nothing is known. He is supposed to 
 have lived between the beginning of the fourth and the 
 end of the sixth century. He produced a Latin version 
 of the first part of Plato's "Timasus," with a learned 
 commentary on the same. It is doubtful whether he was 
 a Christian or a pagan. 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 Chalcondylas. See Chalcondyles. 
 
 -ehal-con'djMas, [Fr. Chalcondyle, kSl'koN'del'] 
 (DEMETRIUS,) a learned Greek, born at Athens aboi t 
 1424. Invited by Lorenzo de' Medici, he went to Flor- 
 ence about 1480, and there taught Greek until the death 
 of that prince in 1492. He then became professor ot 
 Greek in Milan, where he died about 15 10. The first 
 edition of Homer ever printed was edited by Chalcon- 
 dylas in 1488. 
 
 See P. Giovio, "Elogia;" C. F. Bokner, " Programma de D. 
 Chalcondyle," 1711. 
 
 Chalcondyle. See Chalcondylas. 
 
 ■ehal-con'djMes or -Chal-con'djMas, (Laon'icus 
 or Nicola'us,) [Gr. AaoviKos or NocoAuof Xah<ovdv?a/c,] 
 an able Byzantine historian and statesman, was a native 
 of Athens, and a relative of Demetrius, noticed above. 
 In 1446 he was ambassador from John VII. Palseologus 
 to Sultan Murad II. He wrote a "History of the Turks 
 and of the Byzantine Empire from 1298 to 1463," which 
 is an important work and considered reliable. His name 
 is sometimes written Chalcocondyles. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grjeca;" Von Hammer, "Histoira 
 de l'Empire Ottoman." 
 
 Chales. See Challes, (Claude F. Millet de.) 
 
 Chales. See Chasles. 
 
 Chalgrin, shaTgRaN', (Jean Francois Therf.se,) an 
 eminent French architect, born in Paris in 1739. Hav- 
 ing gained the grand prize of the Academy, he went to 
 Italy with a royal pension. Among his principal works 
 are the College *of France, many hotels of Paris, th' 
 restoration of the Luxembourg Palace, and the " Arc 
 de l'Etoile," a magnificent triumphal arch at Paris. He 
 was a member of the Institute. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Viei., "Notice sur J. F. T. Chalgrin," 1814. 
 
 Chalier, shi'le-S', (Marie Joseph,) a violent French 
 Jacobin, born near Suza, Piedmont, in 1747. He was a 
 merchant in Lyons when the Revolution began. He 
 became the leader of the Jacobins of that city, and a fa- 
 natical admirer of Marat. A plot which he had formed 
 to massacre the aristocrats having been detected, he was 
 guillotined at Lyons in 1793. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire de la Revolution." 
 
 Chalkhill, chauk'il, (John,) the supposed author of a 
 pastoral poem published in J683 by Izaak Walton, with 
 the title of "Thealma and Clearchus." Some critics 
 believe this work was written by Walton, as his state- 
 ment respecting the authorship is not supported by other 
 evidence. 
 
 Chalkley, chauk'le, (Thomas,) a minister of the So- 
 ciety of Friends, born in London in 1675, removed to 
 Pennsylvania about 1700. He resided at Frankford, 
 near Philadelphia. While on a religious visit to the 
 West Indies, he died in Tortola about 1742, leaving an 
 interesting journal of his life, which was published in 
 
 1747- 
 
 Challamel, shi'lt'meV, (Jean Baptiste Marie Au- 
 gustin,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1818, 
 published "A Summer in Spain," (1843,) a "Popular 
 History of France, the Revolution, and Napoleon," 
 (1851,) and other works. 
 
 Challan, sh$'ldN',(ANroiNE Didier Jean Baptiste,) 
 a French lawyer, born at Meulan in 1754. He was 
 elected to the Council of Five Hundred in 1798, was 
 president of the Tribunat in 1802, and served in the 
 legislative body from 1807 to 1814. He was the author 
 
 i, S, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ti, y, short ; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mhl; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CHALLE 
 
 5 6i 
 
 CHALONER 
 
 or ridacteur of the act by which the latter declared that 
 Bonaparte was deposed in 1814. Died in 1831. 
 
 Challe, shil, (Chaki.es Michel Ange,) a painter 
 and architect, born in Paris in 17 18. He became pro- 
 fessor of perspective in the Academy, (1753,) and de- 
 signer for the cabinet of the king. His fine taste and 
 skill in antique monuments procured for him also the 
 direction of public festivals. Died in 177s. 
 
 Clialles, de, deli sh.31, (Claude Francois Milliet,) 
 a French mathematician, born at Chambery in l62i,was 
 professor of mathematics in the Jesuits' College at Lyons. 
 His principal work is a "Course of Mathematics," (1674,) 
 which was highly prized at the time. Died in 1678. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 ChaTlis, (Rev. James,) an English divine, born in 
 1803, became professor of astronomy in the University 
 of Cambridge about 1836. He published a work entitled 
 "Creation in Plan and Progress," (1861.) 
 
 Chal'lon-er, (Richard,) an English Catholic writer, 
 born at Lewes, Sussex, in 1691. He was made coadjutor 
 to Petre, the titular Bishop of London, in 1741, and suc- 
 ceeded him in 1758. He wrote a "Church History," 
 the "Grounds of the Old Religion," and other works 
 against the Protestants. Died in 1 781. 
 
 See J. Barnard, "Life of R. ChaUe-ner," 1784. 
 
 Chalmel, shil'meT, (Jean Louis,) a French repub- 
 lican and historian, born at Tours in 1756; died in 1829. 
 
 Chalmers, chil'merz or chaw'merz, (Alexander,) a 
 British editor and critic, born at Aberdeen in 1 759. About 
 1778 he came to London, where he wrote for literary 
 periodicals, and edited the " Spectator," " Tatler," and 
 various other works. His edition of Shakspeare (1809) 
 is commended. He edited a "General Biographical 
 Dictionary," (32 vols., 1812-17.) Died in 1834. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for February, 1835; Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) 
 
 Chalmers, (George,) a Scottish writer and lawyer, 
 born at Fochabers in 1742. He resided many years in 
 London, and was a clerk of the board of trade from 1786 
 until his death. He wrote "Political Annals of the United 
 Colonies," a " Life of Mary Queen of Scots," and various 
 other works. He devoted many years to a great topo- 
 graphical and historical account of Great Britain, called 
 "Caledonia," (1807-24,) which is said to be more elabo- 
 rate and copious than any work on British history or 
 antiquities which ever came from one author. (" London 
 Quarterly Review" for November, 1810.) Died in 1825. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Chal'rners, [Scottish pron. chaw'merz,] (Rev. Tho- 
 mas,) the most eminent Scottish divine of the present 
 century, was born at Anstruther, in Fifeshire, on the 
 17th ol March, 1780. He was a son of John Chalmers, a 
 dyer, ship-owner, and general merchant. He entered the 
 University of Saint Andrew's in 1791, and acquired great 
 proficiency in mathematics, which was his favourite sci- 
 ence. Even after he had been enrolled as a student of 
 divinity, (1795,) he gave more attention to geometry than 
 to theology. He was licensed as a minister of the Scot- 
 tish Church in 1799; after which he passed two winters 
 in attending the lectures of Dugald Stewart, Robison, 
 Playfair, and Hope in Edinburgh. At this time his thirst 
 for literary distinction was greater than his interest in 
 vital religion. In the autumn of 1802 he became assistant 
 professor of mathematics at Saint Andrew's, and " threw 
 himself into the duties of the mathematical classes," says 
 Mr. Manna, "with all the fervour of an overflowing enthu- 
 siasm." Me was ordained minister of Kilinany in 1803. 
 
 In 1807 he published an " Inquiry into the Extent and 
 Stability of the National Resources," which was received 
 with favour, and in 1809 became a contributor to the 
 "Edinburgh Encyclopaedia," for which he wrote an ex- 
 cellent article "On Christianity." About this time a 
 great change was effected in his spiritual life, and in his 
 religious principles, which had been anti-Evangelical. 
 He married Miss Grace Pratt in 1812. Having acquired 
 a wide reputation for eloquence and wisdom, he was 
 elected minister of the Tron Church in Glasgow, to which 
 he removed in 1815. In 1816 he delivered, on Astronomy 
 in its Connection with Religion, a series of discourses, 
 which were greatly admired. They were published in 
 181 7, and ran through nine editions within the first year. 
 
 "To this day," says his biographer, "they command a 
 larger sale than any other portion of Dr. Chalmers's writ- 
 ings." He became the most celebrated pulpit orator 
 of Scotland, or probably of Great Britain, during the 
 eight years which he passed in Glasgow. He appears to 
 have wisely estimated the popular applause which he so 
 largely shared, the dangers of which lie thus described : 
 "There is a far-sounding popularity, which is a most 
 worthless article, . . . which, by elevating man above 
 his fellows, places him in a region of desolation, where 
 he stands a conspicuous mark for the shafts of malice, 
 and envy, and detraction, — a popularity which, with its 
 head among storms and its feet on the treacherous 
 quicksands, has nothing to lull the agonies of its totter- 
 ing existence but the hosannas of a drivelling generation." 
 In 1819 he was translated to the parish of Saint John's, 
 Glasgow. He accepted in 1823 the chair of moral philo- 
 sophy at Saint Andrew's, where he remained about five 
 years. From 1828 to 1843 ne was professor of theology 
 in the University of Edinburgh. During this period he 
 produced many important works, among which are his 
 " Political Economy," (1832,) and the Bridgewater treat- 
 ise " On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral 
 and Intellectual Constitution of Man," (1833.) Dr. Chal- 
 mers was the principal chief of the "Evangelical" party 
 in the controversy which resulted in the disruption of 
 the Church of Scotland in 1843. He and his. friends 
 then seceded from the Established Church, and organized 
 what is known as the " Free Church." He was a cor- 
 responding member of the French Institute. Died in 
 Edinburgh in May, 1847. 
 
 See "Memoirs of his Life and Writings," 4 vols., 1S50-52, pub- 
 lished by his son-in-law, Mr. HANNA.who has also edited hisposthu* 
 nious works ; Francis Wavland, " Memoirs of the Christian La- 
 bours of Thomas Chalmers ;" " North British Review" for August, 
 1847, February, 1848, May, 1852, and November, 1856; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for October, 1S32; "London Quarterly Review" for Oc- 
 tober, 1852; "Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1853; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for August, 1847, and July, 1852; Rev. Robert Steel, 
 "Burning and Shining Lights." 
 
 Chal'on, (Alfred Edward,) an English portrait and 
 historical painter of the present century. He painted 
 the portrait of Lady Russell, and designed some of the 
 figures of Finden's "Gallery of the Graces," (London, 
 1832.) He has also designed illustrations for the works 
 of Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 Chal'on or Char'lpn, (John James,) an English 
 painter of genre, brother of the preceding, born about 
 1785 ; died in 1854. 
 
 Chal'pn-er, (Edward,) D.D., son of Sir Thomas, 
 born at Chiswick in 1590, became chaplain to James I., 
 and principal of Alban Hall, Oxford. Died in 1625. 
 
 Chaloner, (James,) a brother of the preceding, wrote 
 a " Description of the Isle of Man." He was a member 
 of the Long Parliament, and one of the judges who tried 
 Charles I. Died in 1661. 
 
 Chaloner, (Thomas,) a brother of Edward and James, 
 noticed above, became a member of the Long Parlia- 
 ment, and sat as judge in the trial of Charles I. At the 
 restoration (1660) he was excepted as a regicide from 
 the amnesty, and escaped to Holland, where he died, it 
 is supposed, about 1662. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Chaloner, (Sir Thomas,) an eminent English states- 
 man and author, born in London about 15 15. About 
 1 541 he accompanied Charles V. in his disastrous expe- 
 dition against Algiers, and nearly perished by shipwreck. 
 For his gallant conduct at Musselburgh in 1547 he was 
 knighted. Soon after the accession of Elizabeth (1558) 
 he was employed with credit as ambassador to Ferdinand 
 I. of Germany, and a few years later became minister at 
 the court of Spain. He wrote, in Latin, a work "On 
 the Right Ordering of the English Commonwealth," and 
 some Latin verses. Died in 1565. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Chaloner, (Sir Thomas,) a son of the preceding, and 
 father of Edward, James, and Thomas, noticed above, 
 was born in 1559. He became a favourite of James I., 
 who appointed him, in 1603, director of the education 
 and household of Prince Henry, which position he held 
 until the death of Henry. He was author of a treatise 
 on the virtue of Nitre. Died in 161 5. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, vasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. ly.) 
 
 36 
 
CH A LOT A IS 
 
 562 
 
 CHAMBERS 
 
 Chalotais, de la, deh IS shi'lo'tV, (Louis Rene de 
 Caradeuc, deh kt'rt'duk',) a French lawyer and magis- 
 trate, born at Rennes in 1701, became attorney-general 
 at that place. He contributed to the suppression of the 
 Jesuits by a compte-reudu which he read before the par- 
 liament at Rennes in 1761. It produced much excitement. 
 For his part in a quarrel between the court and parliament 
 he was imprisoned in 1765, and, after a long and famous 
 trial, was exiled to Saintes. He wrote an " Essay on 
 National Education," which was praised by Voltaire and 
 Grimm. Died in 1785. 
 
 Chalvet, shil'vi', [Lat. Calven'tihs,] (Mathieu,) 
 a French scholar, born in Auvergne in 1528, produced 
 a translation of Seneca. Died in 1607. 
 
 Chalybaeus. See Chalybaus. 
 
 Chalybaus or Chalybaeus, Ka-le-ba'us, (Heinrich 
 Moritz,) a German philosopher, born at Pfaffroda, in 
 Saxony, in 1796. He published in 1836 a "History of 
 the Development of Speculative Philosophy from Kant 
 to Hegel," which was well received. In 1839 he became 
 professor of philosophy in the University of Kiel. His 
 principal work is a " System of Speculative Ethics, or 
 Philosophy of the Family, of the State, and of Morality 
 as connected with Religion," (1850, 2 vols.) 
 
 Cham. See Ham. 
 
 Chambard, shfiN'btR', (Louis Leopold,) a French 
 sculptor, born at Saint-Amour (Jura) about 1812, gained 
 the grand prize in 1837. Among his works are "A Girl 
 listening to the Murmur of a Shell," and a "Cupid 
 Chained," (1857.) 
 
 Chambarlhac, de, deh shoN'bi R'ltk', (Jean Jacques 
 Vital,) a French general, born in 1754; died in 1826. 
 
 Cham'ber, (John,) an English physician, who prac- 
 tised in London about 1520. He became physician to 
 Henry VIII., and was one of the founders of the College 
 of Physicians. Died in 1549. 
 
 Chamberet, sh6N'bR& , (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Limoges in 1779. He was one 
 of the editors of the " Dictionary of Medical Sciences," 
 and of the " Encyclopedie Methodique." 
 
 Chamberlain. See Chamberlen, (Hugh.) 
 
 Chamberlain or Chamberlayne, cham'ber-lin, 
 (Robert,) an Flnglish poet, wrote epigrams, comedies, 
 pastorals, etc. Died in 1637. 
 
 Chamberlain or Chamberlayne, (William,) an 
 English poet and physician, born in Dorsetshire in 1619. 
 He wrote "Love's Victory," a tragi-comedy, (1658,) and 
 " Pharronida, a Heroic Poem," (1659.) Southey calls 
 him " a poet who has told an interesting story in uncouth 
 rhymes, and mingles sublimity of thought and beauty 
 of expression with the quaintest conceits and most 
 awkward inversions." Died in 1689. 
 
 See Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Chamberlaine or Chamberlayne, cham'ber-lin, 
 (Edward,) an English writer, born in Gloucestershire 
 in 1616, was tutor to the Duke of Grafton. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "The Present State of England," 
 (1668,) partly statistical, (often reprinted.) Died in 
 
 '7°3- 
 
 Chamberlaine, (John,) F.R.S., a son of the preced- 
 ing, was an excellent linguist. He translated several 
 works from the Dutch and French, among others, "The 
 Lives of French Philosophers," by Fontenelle ; and he 
 continued the publication of his father's work, above 
 named. Died in 1723. 
 
 Chamberlayne. See Chamberlain and Cham- 
 berlaine. 
 
 Cham'ber-len or Chamberlain, (Hugh,) an Eng- 
 lish physician, born in 1664, was the inventor of an 
 obstetric forceps, and practised in London with success. 
 He was noted for his skill as an accoucheur. He wrote 
 several treatises, one of which is named " Practice of 
 Physic." Died in 1728. 
 
 Cham'bers, (David,) a Scottish historian, born about 
 1530. He was an adherent of Queen Mary, who in 1564 
 created him a privy councillor and lord of session, with 
 the title of Lord Ormond. About 1568 he was removed 
 from office, and retired to France, where he published, in 
 French, a " History of the Kings of France, England, and 
 Scotland," and a few other works. Died in 1592. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Cham'bers, (Epiiraim,) the author of Chambers's 
 "Cyclopaedia," was born at Kendal, in England. He 
 served an apprenticeship with Senex, a globe-maker of 
 London. In 1728 he produced the first edition of his 
 "Cyclopaedia," in two volumes, which was very success- 
 ful and speedily procured him a Fellowship in the Royal 
 Society. It was the most complete and extensive work 
 of the kind that had appeared, and suggested the idea 
 of the great French "Encyclopedie" of Diderot. The 
 most of the articles were written by the editor himself, 
 who was a learned and very industrious compiler. The 
 sixth edition was enlarged by Dr. Rees, (1785,) who also 
 made Chambers's work the basis of a more extensive one, 
 called " Rees's Cyclopaedia." Died in 1740. 
 
 Chambers, (George,) an English painter, who ex- 
 celled in marine views, was born at Whitby about 1780. 
 Having learned the trade of house-painter, he went to 
 London, where he worked seven years on Horner's 
 Panorama of London. He painted battle-scenes, which 
 were much admired, and was appointed marine painter 
 to William IV. and to his queen. Among his works is 
 the "Bombardment of Algiers in 1816." Died in 1840. 
 
 Chambers, (Robert,) LL.D., a well-known Scottish 
 writer and publisher, born at Peebles in 1802. He be- 
 came in his youth a bookseller in Edinburgh, and pub- 
 lished, in 1824, "Traditions of Edinburgh," which was 
 followed by several popular works on Scottish history. 
 In 1832 he entered into partnership with his brother 
 William in the publication of "The Edinburgh Journal," 
 (published weekly,) which was very successful. (See 
 Chambers, William, 2d.) They subsequently issued 
 popular books, entitled "Information for the People," 
 " Chambers's Miscellany," " Papers for the People," etc. 
 Nearly two hundred thousand copies of " Information for 
 the People" have been sold in England and the United 
 States. Robert published a valuable " Biographical Dic- 
 tionary of Eminent Scotsmen," with portraits, (1835.) He 
 was principal editor of the " Cyclopaedia of English Lit- 
 erature : Selections from the Works of English Authors, 
 connected by a Critical and Biographical History," 
 (1844,) which obtained a large circulation. Died in 1871. 
 
 Chambers, (Sir Robert,) an eminent English lawyer, 
 born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1737. In 1762 he suc- 
 ceeded Sir William Blackstone as Vinerian professor of 
 law at Oxford. He was appointed a judge of the supreme 
 court of judicature in Bengal in 1774, and chief justice 
 of the same in 1791. He returned home in 1799, and 
 died in 1803. 
 
 Chambers, (Sir William,) an eminent architect, of 
 Scottish descent, born at Stockholm, Sweden, -in 1 726. 
 At an early age he settled in London, where he was suc- 
 cessful in his profession. George III., who had received 
 lessons in drawing from Chambers, employed him to lay 
 out the royal gardens at Kew. His principal works are 
 Somerset House, in London, Milton Abbey in Dorsetshire, 
 and the Marquis of Abercorn's mansion, near Edinburgh. 
 The first of these, begun about 1775, is greatly admired. 
 He published a "Treatise on Civil Architecture," (1759,) 
 which, says Horace Walpole, "is the most sensible book 
 ever written on that science," and a " Dissertation on 
 Oriental Gardening," (1774.) Died in 1796. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," March, 1796. 
 
 Chambers, (William,) a Scottish editor, brother 
 of Robert Chambers, noticed above, distinguished for 
 successful enterprise in the publication of cheap and useful 
 literature, was born at Peebles in 1800. In 1830 he pro- 
 duced "The Book of Scotland," a description of the 
 customs, laws, and institutions of that country. In 1832 
 William and Robert Chambers began to edit "Cham- 
 bers's Edinburgh Journal," which obtained a circulation 
 of fifty thousand in 1S34. Having entered into partner- 
 ship, they established a publishing-house, which has 
 become one of the most extensive in Scotland. They 
 have compiled and published numerous works which 
 are well adapted to the wants of the masses. (See 
 Chambers, Robert.) Among the most important of 
 their recent publications is "Chambers's Encyclopaedia 
 for the People," begun in 1859 and completed in 1868. 
 William is the author of a volume called "Things as 
 they are in America." In 1865 he was made lord pro- 
 vost of Edinburgh. 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, ft, y, long; a, e, 6. same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nSt; good; m67>n; 
 
CHAMBERT 
 
 563 
 
 CHAMORIN 
 
 Chambert, shftN'baiR', (Germain,) a French en- 
 graver, bom in Languedoc in 1784; died in 1821. 
 
 Chambolle, sh&.N'bol', (ADOLPHE,) a French jour- 
 nalist, born at LaChataigncraye in 1802, was chief editor 
 of the "Siecle" from 1837 to 1848. He was elected to 
 the Chamber of Deputies in 1838, and to the Constituent 
 and Legislative Assemblies of 1848. Havingvoted against 
 President Napoleon, he was exiled for a few months in 
 1852. 
 
 Chambon, sh5N'b6N', (Antoine BenoTt,) a French 
 republican, who was deputed from Correze to the Con- 
 vention in 1792. He was one of the proscribed Girond- 
 ists who escaped from the Convention on the 3 1st of May, 
 1793. Having been declared a traitor by the terrorists, 
 he was arrested near Lubersac, and executed, in 1793. 
 
 Chambon de Montaux, sho.s'boN' deh mdN^o', 
 (NICOLAS,) a French physician, and mayor of Paris, was 
 born at Brevannes, in Champagne, in 1748. Before the 
 Revolution he had been first physician of the army, and 
 inspector-general of the military hospitals. Having be- 
 come a politician, and a moderate partisan of the new 
 regime, he was elected mayor of Paris in place of Petion 
 in the autumn of 1792. He resigned his office early in 
 1793. He published numerous medical treatises, and 
 wrote articles for the " Encyclopedic Methodique." 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Chambord, Comte. See Bordeaux, Due de. 
 
 Chambray, de, deh sh&N'bRi', (Georges,) Mar- 
 quis, a French officer and historian, born in Paris in 1783, 
 served in several campaigns in Germany, and in the 
 Russian campaign of 1812, when he was taken prisoner 
 at YVilna. He returned to France in 1815, and, having 
 been made marechal-de-camp, he retired from service 
 about 1830. He published an important work, entitled a 
 " History of the Expedition to Russia," (1833,) which 
 was received with great favour in France and foreign 
 countries. Died about 1850. 
 
 See Raymond-Bordeaux, " Notice biographique sur le General 
 de Chambray," 1850. 
 
 Chambray, de, (Jacques Francois,) born at fivreux, 
 in France, in 1687, became grand-cross of the order of 
 Saint John, and commandant of the troops of Malta. He 
 was one of the ablest naval officers of his time, and often 
 fought against the Turks and Algerines. Died in 1756. 
 
 See Hennequin, "Biographie maritime." 
 
 Chambray or Chambrai, de. (Roland Freard,) 
 Siei'R, a learned French artist and writer on art, born at 
 Mans. He translated into French Palladio's work on 
 Architecture, and published a "Comparison between 
 Ancient and Modern Architecture," (1650,) which had 
 great success. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Bi.ondeau, "Les Hommes ilhistres de Maine." 
 
 Chambre, de la, deh IS shflNbR, (Marin Cureau— 
 kii'ro',) a French physician and philosophic writer, born 
 at Mans in 1594. Having gained a brilliant reputation 
 by his talents and attainments, he was chosen in 1635 a 
 member of the French Academy. He was afterwards 
 physician to Louis XIV., who often consulted him in 
 physiognomy. He published, besides other works, a 
 very successful one, called "The Characters of the 
 Passions," (5 vols., 1640-62,) and another entitled "The 
 Art of Judging Men," (1659.) Died about 1670. 
 
 Chambure, de, deh sho.N'biiR', (Augustf. Lepelle- 
 tier— leh-pel'teji',) a French officer, noted for his daring 
 actions, was born at Vitteaux in 1789 ; died in 1832. 
 
 Chamfort, shoN'foR', (Sebastien Roch Nicolas,) 
 a successful and satirical French author, born near Cler- 
 mont in Auvergne in 1741, lived mostly in Paris. In 
 1769 his "Eloge" on Moliere gained the prize of the 
 French Academy. About 1776 he published a " Drama- 
 tic Dictionary," and a tragedy named "Mustapha and 
 Zeangir," which was performed with applause before the 
 court. His eulogy on La Fontaine gained a prize for 
 which La Harpe competed. He was admitted into the 
 French Academy in 1781, and soon after was appointed 
 reader or secretary to Madame Elizabeth, the king's sister. 
 He favoured the Revolution in its first stages, and was a 
 personal and political friend of Mirabeau, who addressed 
 a series of letters to him. In 1 790 he commenced a large 
 collection or book called "Tableaux of the Revolution," 
 
 and was chosen librarian of the National Library. Having 
 been arrested in the reign of terror, he died in 1794, 
 after having failed in an attempt to commit suicide. His 
 "Maxims and Thoughts" is part of an unfinished work 
 which Ginguene thinks would have placed him among 
 the great painters of manners. Mirabeau called him 
 unt tlte Uectrique. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Vie et ficrits de Chamfort." prefixed to an edi- 
 tion of his works, 4 vols., 1795; Al'CUls, "Notice sur la Vie de 
 Chamfort," prefixed to his collected works, 5 vols., 1S25; Arsbne 
 Houksayk, " Philosophers and Actresses," vol. ii. ; " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for September, 1852. 
 
 Chamier, shi'me-a', (Daniel,) a French Protestant 
 theologian, born at Montelimart about 1570, was a very 
 learned and staunch champion of his creed. After preach- 
 ing some years at Montpellier, he became professor of 
 theology at Montauban in 1612. He was killed in the 
 civil war at the siege of Montauban in 1621. He had 
 written several polemical works, and, according to Va- 
 rillas, was the chief ridacteur of the edict of Nantes. His 
 learning excited the admiration of Scaliger. 
 
 See "Memoir of D. Chamier, Minister of the Reformed Church," 
 etc.. London, 1852; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" 
 MM. Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Cham'ier, (Frederick,) an English novelist, born in 
 London in 1796. He wrote several popular novels, 
 among which are " Hen Brace," (1835,) "The Arethusa," 
 (1836,) and "Trevor Hastings," (1841.) Died in 1870. 
 
 Chamillard, shi'me'yiR', (Michel,) a French min- 
 ister of state, born in 1651. He was appointed controller- 
 general of finances in 1699, when his modesty prompted 
 him to decline the honour; but Louis XIV. urged him, 
 saying, " I will second you." In 1701 he became min- 
 ister of war, probably through the influence of Madame 
 de Maintenon. He proved to be incompetent for that 
 office, and was driven by the force of public opinion to 
 resign the ministry of finances in 1 708, and that of war 
 in 1709. Died in 1 721. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "Memoires." 
 
 Chamillart, shi'me'yiR', or Chamillard,(ETiENNE,) 
 a French Jesuit and antiquary, born at Bourges in 1656, 
 edited Prudentius "ad usum Delphini." Died in 1730. 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 Chamilly, de, deh shi'me'ye', (Noel Bouton,) 
 Marquis, an able French general, born at Chamilly in 
 1636. After passing through all the grades, he greatly 
 distinguished himself in 1675 by the defence of Grave, 
 the siege of which lasted four months. He surrendered 
 at last to the Prince of Orange. In 1703 he obtained a 
 marshal's baton. Certain love-letters addressed to him 
 by a Portuguese nun added to his celebrity, and were 
 often printed. (See Alcaforada.) Died in 1 7 1 5. 
 
 His brother HERARD, Count de Chamilly, served 
 under the Prince of Conde in many campaigns, and be- 
 came lieutenant-general. Died in 1673. 
 See Saint-Simon, " Memoires." 
 
 Chamisso, von, fon shi'me'so', ( Adelhert,) or more 
 properly Louis Charles Adelaide de Chamisso, a 
 popular poet and naturalist, was born in Champagne, in 
 France, in 1781. About 1790 he emigrated with the 
 family to Berlin, where he became a page to the Queen 
 of Prussia, and made himself master of the German lan- 
 guage, in which his works are written. Having served 
 several years in the Prussian army, he quitted the pro- 
 fession of arms about 1808, and applied himself to natu- 
 ral sciences. He wrote numerous popular lyric poems, 
 and "Peter Schlemihl," (1814,) a singular ami interesting 
 story of a man who lost his shadow. In 1814 he was se- 
 lected by Count Romanzoff to accompany, as naturalist, 
 a scientific expedition round the world, ol which he wrote 
 a valuable account, "Observations during a Voyage round 
 the World," (1827.) He was a member of the Academy 
 of Sciences of Berlin, and author of a "Survey of the 
 Plants of Northern Germany," (1827.) Died in 1838. 
 
 See J. E. Hitzig, "I.eben and Briefe von A. v. Clianiisso," a 
 
 vols., 1830 ; Ami-ekr. article in the "Revue des linix MoneW'fbr 
 
 Miv 15, 1840; (,liH«t>, "La France Lillerairc." (Supplement:) 
 
 i u.nw, " Pneis and Poetry of Europe :" " Foreign Quarterly 
 
 Review" for January, 1846. 
 
 Chamorin, shi'mo'raN', (Vital Joachim,) Baron, 
 a French general, born at Bonnelles (Seine-et-Oise) in 
 1773. He had two horses killed under him at Marengo 
 
 e as*; 9 as j; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas 1; th as in this. (Jl^-Sec Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHAMORRO 
 
 56+ 
 
 CHAMPIONNET 
 
 in 1800. As major he made the campaigns of 1805, '06, 
 and '07, and distinguished himself at Jena and Eylau. 
 He became general of brigade in 181 1, and was killed 
 at Campo-Mayor, in Spain, the same year. 
 
 See " Notice historique sur le General Chainorin," Paris, 1844. 
 
 Chamorro, cha-mor'ro, (Fruto,) a Central American 
 statesman and general, born at Guatemala in 1806, was 
 elected supreme director, or president, in 1853. Died 
 in 1855. 
 
 Chamousset, de, deh shi'moo'si', (Claude Hum- 
 bert Piarron,) Chevalier, 1 Frenchman, noted for 
 practical philanthropy, was born in Paris in 1717. He 
 turned his house into a hospital for the poor, for whose 
 benefit he employed physicians, and was instrumental 
 in reforming the public hospital, (Hotel-Dieu.) He wrote 
 several humanitarian treatises, first proposed fire-insu- 
 rance companies, and became intendant-general of the 
 military hospitals. Died in 1773. 
 
 Champagne, shoN'ptft', (Jean Baptiste,) a Flemish 
 painter, born at Brussels in 1643, was a nephew and 
 pupil of Philippe, noticed below, whom he assisted in 
 many works at Paris. He was employed by Louis XIV. 
 at Versailles. Died in 1688. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Champagne, (Jean Francois,) a French professor, 
 born at Semur in 1 751. He was principal of the Col- 
 lege of Louis le Grand, in Paris, for about fifteen years, 
 beginning in 1791. A translation of Aristotle's " Politics" 
 opened to him the Institute in 1797. Died in 1813. 
 
 Champagne, de, deh sh&N'pin', or Champaigne, 
 sh5N'pin', (Philippe,) an eminent Flemish painter of 
 history, born at Brussels in 1602, was a pupil of Fou- 
 quieres. At the age of nineteen he went to Paris, where 
 he was instructed by Nicholas Poussin, became painter 
 to the queen, Anne of Austria, and acquired a high 
 reputation. He worked with great facility, and adorned 
 the royal palaces and the churches of Paris with many 
 works, of which a " Mary Magdalene in the House of 
 Simon the Pharisee" is one of the best. He made 
 excellent portraits of Louis XIII., Cardinal Richelieu, 
 Mazarin, and others. Died in 1674. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. : Felibien, 
 " Entretiens sur \ez plus celebres Peintres." 
 
 Champagne, de, (Thibaud.) See Thiisaud. 
 
 Champagney, de, deh shdN'ptn'yi', (Frederic Per- 
 renot — pi'reh-no',) a "Flemish statesman, a younger 
 brother of Cardinal Granvelle, was born about 1530. 
 He was appointed Governor of Antwerp, and head of 
 the Council of Finance in Flanders. Died in 1595. 
 
 See Motley, " United Netherlands," vol. i. chap. i. et seg. 
 
 Champagny, de, deh sh&N'pin'ye', (Francois Jo- 
 seph Marie Therese',) Count, born at Vienna in 
 1804, was a son of the Due de Cadore. He is, or. was, 
 attached to the political and religious school of Monta- 
 lembert, and has contributed to the " Correspondant" 
 and other periodicals. His chief work is a " History of 
 the Caesars," (1843.) 
 
 Champagny, de, (Jean Baptiste Nompere — n6N'- 
 paiR',) Due de Cadore, (kt'doR',) a French courtier and 
 negotiator, was born in 1756. He was deputed by the 
 noblesse of Forez to the States-General in 1789, and, 
 uniting with the Tiers-Etat, became a prominent and mo- 
 derate member of the National Assembly. As chairman 
 of the marine committee, he rendered valuable services in 
 1790 and 1791. Having passed several years in private, 
 he became in 1800 councillor of state, and in 1801 ambas- 
 sador to Vienna. He gained the favour of Napoleon by 
 his address in negotiation and his pliability of character. 
 In 1804 he was appointed minister of the interior, count 
 of the empire, and grand officer of the legion of honour. 
 He succeeded Talleyrand as minister of foreign affairs 
 in 1807, and the next year was made Due de Cadore. In 
 the campaign of 1809 he attended Bonaparte in Austria, 
 and negotiated the treaty of Vienna. He ceased to be 
 foreign minister in 181 1. During the absence of the 
 emperor in 1812 and 1813, he was secretary of state. In 
 1819, after passing a few years in private life, he was 
 restored to the Chamber of Peers, where he voted with 
 the Right Centre. Died in 1834. 
 
 See his "Souvenirs," 1846; " Memoires de Mirabeau;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GtSnerale." 
 
 Champaigne. See Champagne. 
 
 Champe, champ, (John,) an American officer, noted 
 for his daring attempt to capture the traitor Arnold, was 
 born in Loudon county, Virginia, about 1752. In 1780 
 he was sent by Washington to New York, in the guise 
 of a deserter, for the purpose of bringing off Arnold in 
 time, if possible, to save Andre. He formed a plan to 
 seize him while walking in his garden, and drag him as a 
 drunken soldier, between two men, to a boat on the Hud- 
 son. The plan failed in consequence of Arnold's moving 
 his quarters the day preceding. Died about 1795. 
 
 Champeaux, de, deh sho.Vpo', [Lat. Campei.len'- 
 sis,] (Guillaume,) a celebrated French professor and 
 scholastic philosopher, born at Champeaux. He taught 
 rhetoric, logic, etc., in Paris, with great success, but was 
 eclipsed by his pupil Abelard, who became his rival. In 
 1 1 13 he became Bishop of Chalons-sur-Marne. He died 
 in 1 121, and left some works on theology. 
 
 See B. Haureau, "De la Philosophie scolastique ;" " Histoire 
 Litteraire de France." 
 
 Champein, shoN'paN', (Stanislas,) a French com- 
 poser, born at Marseilles in 1753. He composed suc- 
 cessful operas. Died in 1830. 
 
 Champfleury, shS.N'fluh're', the assumed name ol 
 Jules Fleury, (zhiil fluh're',) a French writer of fiction, 
 born at Laon in 1821. He has published several dramas 
 and many novels, among which we may name "Les 
 Bourgeois de Molinchart." 
 
 Champier, shfiN'pe-a', (Symphorien,) an eminent 
 French physician, born in the Lyonnais in 1472. Having 
 graduated as M.D., he settled at Lyons, where he founded 
 a medical college and other useful institutions. He 
 received or assumed the title of physician to Louis 
 XII., and wrote many works on medicine and history, of 
 which the former are the best, especially his " Hortus 
 Gallicus." Died in 1539. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" "Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Champigny, de, deh shoN'pen'ye', (Jean,) a French 
 litterateur, published a " History of England," (1777,) 
 and several other historical works, and translated 
 Schlegel's "History of Danish Kings." Died about 
 17S7. 
 
 Champin, shoN'paN', (Jean Jacques,) a French 
 landscape-painter, born at Sceaux, near Paris, in 1796. 
 He executed numerous fine lithographs, and paintings in 
 water-colours. In conjunction with Regnier, he published 
 " The Homes of Celebrated Persons," illustrated. 
 
 Cham'pl-on, (Anthony,) an English writer, born at 
 Croydon in 1724-25. He was elected to Parliament in 
 1754, and again in 1761. A volume of his Miscellanies, 
 in prose and verse, was published by his friend Lord 
 Lyttleton in 1801. Died in 1801. 
 
 Champion, sh6N'pe-6N', (Edme,) a French philan- 
 thropist, born in Yonne in 1764; died in 1852. 
 
 See C. L. Chassin, " La Legende historique du Petit Manteau 
 Bleu," {i.e. E. Champion,) 1852. 
 
 Champion de Pontalier, sh6N'pe-6N' deh p6N'tS'- 
 le-i', (Fra.nc.ois,) a French priest, born at Rennes in 
 1 73 1, resided in Paris and Orleans. He wrote, besides 
 other works, " Pious Readings, adapted to all States," 
 (4 vols., 1804,) which issaid to be excellent. Died in 1812. 
 
 His brother, Charles Francois Champion de Ni- 
 lon, (ne'ldN',) born in 1724, was professor of theology at 
 the Jesuits' College of La Fleche. He wrote an approved 
 catechism, and a few other works. Died in 1794. 
 
 Championnet, shfiN'pe-o'ni', (Jean Etienne,) an 
 able French general, born at Valence in 1762. About 
 1790 he obtained command of a battalion, and, having 
 distinguished himself in the Palatinate in 1793, he was 
 made general of division. From 1794 to 1797 he took 
 part in the principal actions on the Lower Rhine. In 
 1798 he obtained the chief command of the army sent 
 to defend the Roman republic against Naples. Having 
 defeated General Mack, he entered Naples in triumph in 
 January, 1799, and organized the Parthenopean repub- 
 lic. In August he succeeded Joubert as commander of 
 the armv of Italy, and was defeated by a superior force 
 of Austrians at Genola in November. He died of an 
 epidemic in December, 1799, or January, 1800. 
 
 See "Victoires et Conquetes des Francais ;" Chatealineuf, 
 "Histoire du General Championnet," 1806; Henri DoURILLE, 
 " Histoire de Championnet," 1S39. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long ; a, e. o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, ti, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; n5t; good; moon; 
 
CHAMP10NNIERE 
 
 565 
 
 CHANDLER 
 
 Championniere, shrjN'peVne-aiR', (Paul Lucas,) a 
 French jurist, born at Nantes in T798 ; died in 185 1. 
 
 Champlain, sham'plan', [Fr. pron. sh&N'pla.N',] 
 (Samuel,) the founder of Quebec, and first Governor of 
 Canada, was born at Brouage, in France. For his services 
 in the navy in the war against the Spaniards he was pen- 
 sioned by Henry IV., under whose auspices he made 
 his first voyage to Canada in 1603. Renewing the en- 
 terprise in 1608, he ascended the Saint Lawrence to the 
 site of Quebec, where he planted a colony. In 1610 he 
 discovered the lake which bears his name, and spent 
 several ensuing years in fostering the fur-trade and in 
 exploring the region of the great lakes. In 1620 he was 
 appointed Governor of Canada. The English captured 
 Quebec about 1628, but restored it to the French soon 
 alter the treaty of peace which was made in 1629 or 
 1630. Champlain returned to Quebec in 1633, and died 
 there in 1635. History represents him as brave, honour- 
 able, and capable. He wrote several narratives of his 
 voyages and discoveries, which were published in 1632. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Charlevoix, " Histoire 
 de la Nouvelle France." 
 
 Champmesle, sh6Vm4'la', (Marie Desmares — 
 dJ'ma'R',) a popular French actress, born at Rouen in 1644. 
 She acted in Paris with great success from 1670 to 1698, 
 and is said to have created many rSUs, among which were 
 Berenice, Iphigenia, Monimia, and Medea. Her features 
 were radiant with sensibility, and her voice excelled in 
 the expression of pathos. She was very intimate with 
 thepoet Racine. Died in 1698. 
 
 Champmesle, de, deh shoN'mi'la', (Charles Che- 
 villet — sheh've'lj',) Sieur, the husband of Marie Des- 
 mares, noticed above, was an actor of moderate ability, 
 and author of several dramas, of which "Crispin Cheva- 
 lier" is called the best. Died in 1701. 
 
 Champollion, shampol'le-on, [Fr. pron. sh&n'po'- 
 le-6N',] (Jean Francois,) a French savant and linguist, 
 celebrated as the interpreter of the symbols by which 
 ancient Egypt sought to eternize its annals and its in- 
 stitutions, was born at Figeac, in the department of 
 Lot, in December, 1791. In 1807 he went to Paris, 
 where he studied Oriental languages and antiquities. 
 He was appointed assistant professor of history in the 
 Academy of Grenoble in 1809, and then began his re- 
 searches into the history and language of ancient Egypt. 
 In 1812 he became principal professor of historv at 
 Grenoble. He published in 1814 a "Geographical De- 
 scription of Egypt under the Pharaohs." From the 
 inscriptions of the famous Rosetta stone he derived a 
 key to the hieroglyphic writing, and discovered that the 
 symbols are occasionally used as phonetic signs, and 
 each phonetic sign represents the initial sound of the 
 object signified by the hieroglyphic. Thus, the mouth is 
 the sign of r, because in Coptic the mouth is called Ro. 
 Having obtained the equivalents of twenty-one letters 
 of the Greek alphaljet, he announced his discovery to 
 the Academy of Inscriptions in 1822. It produced a 
 great sensation, and its importance was highly ap- 
 preciated. In 1824 he published a " Precis du Systeme 
 nieroglyphique des anciens Egyptiens," ("Summary of 
 the Hieroglyphic System of the Ancient Egyptians,") in 
 which he proves that the phonetic alphabet was used in 
 the royal legends of all epochs and is the key to the 
 whole hieroglyphic system. In 1826 he was appointed 
 director of the Royal Egyptian Museum of Paris, and in 
 1828 was employee! at the expense of the government in an 
 expedition to Egypt, whose monuments he explored for 
 sixteen months in company with Kosellini, who was Sent 
 by the Duke of Tuscany. He was admitted into the 
 Institute (Academy of Inscriptions) in 1830, and a chair 
 of Egyptian antiquities was founded for him in the Col- 
 lege of France. He died in March, 1832, while preparing 
 to publish the results of his researches in Egypt. This 
 great work, in which Rosellini co-operated, has since 
 appeared, with the title of " Monuments of Egypt and 
 Nubia, considered in Relation to History, Religion, etc," 
 I1835-45.) Among his most important productions are 
 an " Egyptian Grammar" and a " Hieroglyphic Diction- 
 ary," (published since his death,) which are said to place 
 him in the highest rank of Egyptologists. But little pro- 
 gress has been made in this department of learning since 
 
 the death of Champollion. The English claim that his 
 great discovery was anticipated by Dr. Young, but admit 
 that the crude notions of Young were corrected by the 
 French savant. Chevalier Bunsen has written in favour 
 of Champollion, and calls his discovery of the Egyptian 
 alphabet the greatest discovery of the century. 
 
 See Silvestre de Sacy, " Notice sur Champollion lue a la Seance 
 publique de I'lnstitut," 1833; Rosellini, "Tributo di Kicono- 
 scenza alia Memoria di G. F. Champoiiion," 1832. 
 
 Champollion-Figeac, shoVpo'le-AN' fe'zhik', (Jean 
 Jacques,) a French linguist and antiquary, brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Figeac in 1778. He became in 
 his youth professor of Greek at Grenoble, and published, 
 in 1807, "Antiquities of Grenoble." His "Annales des 
 Lagides" ("Chronicles of the Greek Kings of Egypt") 
 obtained a prize from the Institute in 1819. From 1828 
 to 1848 he was keeper of the manuscripts of the Royal 
 Library, in Paris. He published a " Treatise on Archaeo- 
 logy." ('843.) and various other works, and edited sev- 
 eral posthumous works of his brother. From 1849 he 
 was librarian to Napoleon III. Died in May, 1867. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte>aire;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale." 
 
 Champs. See Deschamps. 
 
 Chancel. See La Grange, (Joseph de Chancel.) 
 
 Chan'cel-lpr, (Richard,) an English navigator, who 
 made an exploring voyage to the White Sea in 1553. 
 He was drowned on the coast of Scotland in 1556. 
 
 Chandieu,shoN / de-uh', or Sadeel. si'dal', (Antoine 
 la Roche,) an eminenf Protestant minister, bom in the 
 Maconnais, in France, about 1534. He began to preach 
 in Paris at the age of twenty, and became Rioted for his 
 zeal and eloquence. He officiated in the army of Henry 
 IV. in 1587, and became professor of Hebrew at Geneva 
 in 1589. Died in 1591. 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" J. Lectius, 
 "Vita A. Sadeelis," prefixed to his works. 
 
 Chand'ler, (Ariel,) a Boston merchant, born in Con- 
 cord, New Hampshire, about 1778. He graduated at 
 Harvard in 1806. Died in 1851. He bequeathed fifty 
 thousand dollars to Dartmouth College for founding a 
 scientific department of instruction, and the remainder of 
 his estate to the New Hampshire Asylum for the Insane. 
 
 Chand'ler, (Edward,) D.D., an English bishop, born 
 in Dublin. He was nominated to the see of Lichfield in 
 1717, and translated to Durham in 1730. He published 
 a learned " Defence of Christianity from the Prophecies 
 of the Old Testament," (1725.) Died in 1750. 
 
 Chandler, (Elizabeth Margaret,) an American 
 poetess and philanthropist, born near Wilmington, Dela- 
 ware, in 1807. She wrote " The Slave-Ship," and other 
 poems on moral and religious subjects. Died in Michi- 
 gan in 1834. A volume of her poems, with a memoir of 
 her life, appeared in 1836. 
 
 See Griswold's " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Chandler, (Mary,) an English poetess, born in Wilt- 
 shire in 1687, became a resident of Bath. She published 
 a " Description of Bath," and other poems. Died in 1745. 
 
 See Cibber's " Lives of the Poets," etc. 
 
 Chandler, (Richard,) D.D., an English antiquary 
 and writer of travels, born at Elson, in Hampshire, in 
 1738. In 1764, as an agent of the Dilettanti Society, he 
 visited and explored Asia Minor and Greece in company 
 with the artists Revett and Pars. The results of their 
 enterprise appeared in " Ionian Antiquities, or Ruins of 
 Famous Buildings in Ionia," (1769.) He afterwards pub- 
 lished "Travels in Asia Minor," (1775,) and "Travels 
 in Greece," (1776,) which are highly esteemed, and other 
 works. He became rector of Tylehurst in 1800, and 
 died in 1810. 
 
 Sec Walckenaer, "Vies de plusieurs Personnes calibres; 
 Ekscii unci Gkubkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Chandler, (Samuel,) D.D., an eminent English dis- 
 senting minister, born at Hungerford in 1693. In 1716 
 he became pastor of a Presbyterian church at Peckham. 
 He afterwards removed to London, where he preached 
 many years at the Old Jewry, and gained a wide reputa- 
 tion by his religious writings. His "Critical History of 
 the Life of David" (1766) is regarded by some as his 
 best work. Died in 1766. 
 
 See n Biographia Britannica." 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gutturaJ; N, tmsal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in Ms. (g^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHANDLER 
 
 566 
 
 CHANNING 
 
 Chandler, (Thomas Bradbury,) an Episcopal cler- 
 gyman and writer, born at Woodstock, Connecticut, in 
 1726, preached at Elizabethtown, New Jersey. Having 
 joined the royalist party in the Revolution, he retired 
 for safety to England in 1775, but returned to his former 
 post in 1785. Died in 1790. 
 
 Chan'dos, (John,) after the Black Prince, the most 
 famous English captain of his time, was lieutenant-gen- 
 eral of all the provinces of France which were subject 
 to the English. In 1364 he gained a decisive victory 
 over Du Guesclin at Auray. Chandos and the Black 
 Prince defeated the same able general at Navarette in 
 1366. He was killed in battle at Leusac in 1369. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran^ais." 
 
 Chan'dra, [common Hindoo pron. chiin'dra or chun'- 
 der,] called also So'ma, in Hindoo mythology, the god 
 or regent of the moon. He is usually represented as 
 riding in a car drawn by antelopes, (or an antelope,) his 
 head being adorned with a crescent. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon ;" Coleman, " Hindu Mythology." 
 
 Chandragupta or Cbandragoupta. See Sandro- 
 
 COTTUS. 
 
 Chanfary. See Shanfaree. 
 
 Chaugarnier, shov'giR'ne-A', (Nicolas AnneTheo- 
 dule,) a celebrated French general, was born at Autun 
 in 1793. He distinguished himself as lieutenant in Spain 
 in 1823, and joined the expedition to Algeria in 1830, with 
 the rank of captain. After several remarkable exploits 
 in Africa, he was made a colonel in 1838, and a marechal- 
 de-camp in 1840. He was wounded near Medeah in 184 1, 
 and for his important services in the expedition to the 
 mountains of Ouarencenis he was raised to the rank of 
 general of division in 1843. In 1847 he was appointed 
 by the Due d'Aumale commander of the division of 
 Algiers. He returned to France soon after the revo- 
 lution of 1848, and was nominated minister to Berlin, 
 but was detained at Paris by the dangers that menaced 
 the government, and in May went to Algeria as Governor- 
 General in place of Cavaignac. Before the end of 1848 
 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the national 
 guard of Paris, and of the first military division. He 
 acquired great political influence, and strenuously sup- 
 ported the administration of Louis Napoleon in 1849 
 and 1850. He is said to have been opposed to the re- 
 publican form of government, or, at least, to a French 
 republic. In January, 185 1, he was deprived of the 
 command of the army by Napoleon, who appears to 
 have regarded him as his rival. His efforts and designs 
 to support the National Assembly were defeated by 
 the coup d'etat of December 2, 1851. He was arrested on 
 that day, and exiled in January, 1852, since which he has 
 resided mostly in Belgium. 
 
 See "Le GeWral Chaiigarnier," Paris, 1S48; Lamartine, "His- 
 toire de la Revolution de 1848 ;" " Nouvelle Hiographie Gendrale." 
 
 Chaugeux, sh&N'zhuh', (Pierre Jacques,) a French 
 savant, born at Orleans in 1740. He cultivated the exact 
 sciences, made improvements in the barometer, and wrote 
 numerous works, of which the most remarkable is an 
 ingenious "Treatise on Extremes, or Elements of the 
 Science of Reality," (2 vols., 1767.) Died in iSoo. 
 
 Chan'ning, (Edward Tyrrel,) an American scholar 
 and writer, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1790, 
 graduated at Harvard. He studied law with his brother, 
 Francis D. Channing. About 181 5 he aided to found 
 the "North American Review," which he edited for a 
 short time in 1819 and to which he contributed many 
 critical and biographical articles. He was appointed pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric and oratory in Harvard University in 
 the latter year, and continued to fill this position about 
 thirty-two years, with much ability. Died in 1856. 
 
 Charming, (Walter,) an American physician, brother 
 of the preceding, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1786. 
 He entered Harvard in 1804, graduated as M.D. in the 
 University of Pennsylvania, studied afterwards in Edin- 
 burgh, and began to practise in Boston in 1812. He was 
 professor of obstetrics and medical jurisprudence at Har- 
 vard from 1815 to 1854. He published "Etherization 
 in Childbirth," (1848,) "Miscellaneous Poems," (1851,) 
 and other works. 
 
 Channing, (William Ellery,) D.D., a distinguished 
 Unitarian divine, and one of the most eloquent writers 
 
 America has produced, was born at Newport, Rhode 
 Island, April 7, 1780. Both his parents are said to 
 have possessed rare moral worth as well as superiot 
 intellectual powers, and the early influences of his home 
 appear to have been eminently favourable to the de- 
 velopment of that delicacy, purity, and elevation of sen- 
 timent which formed perhaps the most striking feature 
 of his character. Even as a child he was remarkable 
 for a certain moral dignity which caused his playfellows 
 always to look up to him with respect. Before he had 
 completed his thirteenth year, his father died. The im- 
 pression made upon his mind by this solemn event, 
 strengthened as it was by the influence of a " revival" 
 which occurred about the same time, may be said to 
 mark the commencement of his religious life. In 1794 
 he entered Harvard, where he was distinguished for 
 his varied acquirements as well as for the versatility of 
 his powers. At his graduation, the English' oration, 
 regarded as the highest honour, was assigned to him. 
 His effort on this occasion was brilliantly successful, 
 and was received by the audience with enthusiastic and 
 tumultuous acclamation. 
 
 The range of Channing's studies was very extensive. 
 His mind, indeed, was powerfully attracted by every form 
 of moral beauty or moral grandeur, wherever found, 
 — whether in the stern virtue of the Stoics, the lofty 
 and heroic morality of Fichte, or the divine purity and 
 sublime simplicity of the teachings of the gospel. His 
 favourite poets were Shakspeare and Wordsworth. He 
 appears especially to have sympathized with the power 
 of the latter poet to detect beauty in the simplest of 
 Nature's works, and to recognize greatness under every 
 disguise and in the lowliest situations. 
 
 Soon after leaving college, he accepted an invitation 
 to become tutor in a family residing in Richmond, Vir- 
 ginia. He seems to have been very painfully impressed 
 with what he saw of slavery, and declared in a letter 
 that this alone would prevent him from ever settling in 
 the South. During this period his views of the great 
 importance -of religion appear to have acquired addi- 
 tional distinctness and force ; for he says, in one of his 
 letters, " Religion is the only treasure worth pursuing. I 
 consider the man who recommends it to society as more 
 useful than the greatest sage and patriot who adorns 
 the page of history." In the same letter he says, also, 
 " I long most earnestly to be such a minister as Fene- 
 lon describes." The foregoing sentences seem clearly 
 to indicate the purpose of his life. In July, 1800, he 
 returned to Newport. The vessel in which he sailed was 
 damp and leaky, and manned by a drunken captain and 
 crew. From the exposure and hardships of that voyage 
 may be dated that permanent physical derangement with 
 which the remainder of his life was one long unceasing 
 struggle. Having pursued his studies for more than a 
 year at Newport, he removed in the beginning of 1802 
 to Cambridge. While here, he filled the office of regent 
 in the college, carrying on at the same time his theolo- 
 gical studies. He was installed in the Federal Street 
 Church in Boston in 1803. At what time he definitely 
 adopted the theological views which he subsequently 
 taught, it is impossible to say : there is but little ques- 
 tion, however, that they were developed gradually, 
 through years of examination and reflection. On one 
 point, indeed, we are not left in doubt ; for he expressly 
 tells us that he was "never in any sense a Trinitarian. 
 
 His first efforts as a preacher attracted much attention ; 
 and it was not long before he was generally acknowledged 
 to be the most eloquent minister and most influential 
 leader among the Unitarians. In 1814 he delivered a 
 discourse on the fall of Napoleon, and "the goodness 
 of God in delivering the Christian world from military 
 despotism," which is regarded as among the most splen- 
 did of all his efforts as a pulpit orator. The same year 
 he was married to Miss Gibbs, of Newport. In 1820 
 he received from Harvard College the degree of doctor 
 of divinity. At the request of his friends, who were 
 anxious that he should have some respite from his ar- 
 duous and unremitting labours, he sailed for Europe in 
 1822; and after making in England many interesting 
 acquaintances, among whom were Wordsworth and 
 Coleridge, and visiting France, Switzerland, and Italy, 
 
 X, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ti, J, short; a, ?, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CHANNING 
 
 567 
 
 CHANTONAT 
 
 he returned home in the autumn of 1823. Coleridge said 
 of him, " He has the love of wisdom, and the wisdom 
 of love." Dr. Channing took a deep interest in every 
 enterprise having for its object the relief of suffering or 
 the promotion of knowledge and virtue among mankind. 
 He gave his earnest sympathy and support to the peace- 
 movement inaugurated by Noah (afterwards Doctor) 
 Worcester, and in 1816 preached a sermon on war be- 
 fore the Convention of the Congregational ministers of 
 Massachusetts. It was published and extensively cir- 
 culated, and contributed much to prepare the way for 
 the formation of peace societies in different parts ot the 
 United States. He did not, however, take the ground 
 of absolute non-resistance ; he did not maintain that 
 war could be wholly dispensed with, in the present con- 
 dition of the world ; but he believed that by dissipating 
 the false ideas of national glory which now prevail, — by 
 enlightening and elevating the minds of the people, — wars 
 must of necessity become less and less frequent as well 
 as less cruel. 
 
 In 1828 he published, in the "Christian Examiner," 
 " Remarks on the Life and Character of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte." Probably none of his writings has contributed 
 so much as this to spread his fame to every part of the 
 civilized world. His lectures on "Self-Culture" and on 
 the " Elevation of the Labouring Classes" had an exten- 
 sive circulation, and were republished in England. Dr. 
 Channing sympathized deeply with the temperance cause 
 and with the anti-slavery movement. Having visited 
 the West Indies for his health in the autumn of 1830, 
 he remained there until the following spring, and during 
 this period he commenced a work on slavery, which was 
 published some years later. In 1837 he addressed a 
 public letter to Henry Clay against the annexation of 
 Texas, the acquisition of which was earnestly advocated 
 by many Southern politicians* on the ground that it 
 would afford fresh territory for the extension of slavery. 
 His last public address was delivered, August 1, 1842, 
 at Lennox, Massachusetts, in commemoration of the 
 abolition of slavery in the British West Indies. He died 
 the 2d of October of the same year. He was buried at 
 Mount Auburn, where his grave is marked by a monu- 
 ment designed by his friend Washington Allston. 
 
 As a writer, Dr. Channing's merits are of a very high 
 order. His stvle, always clear, forcible, and elegant, not 
 unfrequently rises into a strain of lofty and spirit-stirring 
 eloquence. A critic in"Fraser's Magazine" remarks, 
 " Channing is unquestionably the finest writer of the age. 
 From his writings may be extracted some of the richest 
 poetry and richest conceptions, clothed in language, un- 
 fortunately for our literature, too little studied in the 
 day in which we live." Among his theological discourses, 
 his lecture on the "Evidences of Christianity," delivered 
 at Harvard in 1821, is perhaps the most remarkable. 
 It would, we think, be difficult to point out anything 
 more admirable on the same subject in the whole com- 
 pass of English literature. Of his character as a man 
 there can be among candid judges but one opinion. A 
 writer, well qualified to form a just estimate of his rare 
 qualities, observes, " Perhaps that which gives the high- 
 est idea of his character was the fact that he occupied a 
 constantly growing place in your respect as you knew 
 him more intimately. . . . His writings were not excep- 
 tions to his life,.but the natural, unforced, and often inci- 
 dental expression of his ordinary state of mind. His 
 common conversation was more genial and varied, but 
 it was pitched on the same moral key with his writings. 
 . . . His life was a public one ; but he had no sensitive- 
 ness to public opinion so far as it affected himself. I do 
 not believe there is a line in all his writings which ever 
 received a different colouring from any thought of its 
 influence on his own reputation. . . . He wrote, not for 
 himself, but as one dedicated to truth." (See Letter from 
 Dr. Peabody, in Sprague's "Annals of the American 
 Pulpit," vol. viii. pp. 376-378.) One of the most beau- 
 tiful and admirable traits in Dr. Channing's character 
 was his anxiety not to allow the spirit of controversy or 
 pride of opinion to .hinder in any way the reception of 
 new truth. For this reason he not only avoided contro- 
 versy as much as possible, lest it might in some sense 
 "commit" him to the support of certain opinions, but 
 
 he was most anxious to avoid that personal influence 
 (whether arising from his acknowledged intellectual 
 power, or from his superior power of expression) which 
 might interfere with the perfect freedom of those with 
 whom he conversed. He desired, not that they should 
 adopt his thoughts and convictions, but be true to their own. 
 So great was his sense of the sacredness of the human 
 heart and conscience, that he would not willingly force 
 them, even with the gentle force of irresistible persuasion. 
 For illustrations of his extraordinary gentleness, fairness, 
 and magnanimity towards those who were opposed to 
 him, the reader is referred to the " Memoir," by his 
 nephew, (vol. ii. pp. 88-90.) 
 
 In addition to his merits as a writer and orator, Dr. 
 Channing is said to have possessed rare taste and judg- 
 ment in regard to works of art. Washington Allston 
 once said that he valued no one's opinions of his pictures 
 so much as Dr. Channing's. 
 
 Channing's collected works have been published in six 
 l2mo vols., (Boston, 1846,) and republished in London, 
 in crown 8vo, (1855.) Several of his essays and othei 
 writings have been translated into French and German. 
 A notice of Dr. Channing, from the eloquent pen of M. 
 Laboulaye, appeared in the "Journal des Debats" in 
 1852. 
 
 See " Memoirs of William Ellery Channing, with Extracts from 
 his Correspondence and .Manuscripts," by his nephew, the Rev 
 William H. Channing, Boston, 1848; Sprague, "Annals of the 
 American Unitarian Pulpit," 1 vol. 8vo, New York, 1S65 ; also 
 "North American Review" for October, 1835, (!>}' Alexander H. 
 Everett:) " Fraser's Magazine" for May and September, 1838, 
 (vols. xvii. and xviii. ;) "Channing, sa Vie et ses CEuvres, avec line 
 Preface de M. Charles de Re'musnt," Paris, 1857 ; " Foreign Quar- 
 terly Review" for January, 1840; "Westminster Review" for January, 
 1849, vol. 1. ; Griswoi.d, "Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Channing, (William Henry,) an eloquent Unitarian 
 minister, a nephew of William Ellery Channing, and a 
 son of Francis D. Channing, was born in Boston in 1810. 
 He graduated at Harvard College in 1829, after which 
 he studied divinity. He officiated as minister in New 
 York Citv, Cincinnati, Boston, and Liverpool, England. 
 He contributed articles to the " Christian Examiner," 
 the " North American Review," and other periodicals. 
 Among his works are a " Memoir of William Ellery 
 Channing," (3 vols., 1848,) and a work "On the Chris- 
 tian Church and Social Reform." 
 
 Chantal, de.dehsh&N'tSl', (Jeanne Franchise Fre- 
 miot — frehme-o',) a French lady, and a saint of the 
 Roman Church, born at Dijon in 1572, became the wife 
 of Baron de Chantal. She founded and superintended 
 many convents of the order of Visitation, between 1610 
 and 1630. Died in 1641. Her son was the father of 
 Madame de Sevigne. 
 
 See Beaufils. " Vie de J. F. Fremiot de Chantal," 1752: Mau- 
 pas Dti Tour, " Viede J. F. Fremiot de Chantal." 1753: Jannart, 
 "Abre^e' de la Vie de Sainte-Chantal," 1752; Marsollier, "Vie 
 de la Mere de Chantal," 1715 : William H. Coombes, " History of 
 the Life of S. J. F. Chantal," 2 vols., 1830. 
 
 Chanteclair, de, deh sh&Nt'kl&R', [Lat. Cantoci. a'- 
 rus,| (Charles,) a French jurist and distinguished Latin 
 scholar, died in Paris in 1620. 
 
 Chantelauze, de, deh sh&Nt'loz', (Jean Claude 
 Balthazar Victor,) a French politician, born at Mont- 
 brison (Loire) in 1787. He was elected to the Chamber 
 of Deputies in 1827, and in May, 1830, was appointed 
 keeper of the seals, or minister of justice. Having 
 shared with Polignac the responsibility of the measures 
 which provoked the revolution of 1830, he was tried by 
 the peers and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He 
 was released by the king about 1838. 
 
 See Lamartine, " Histoire de la Rcstauration " 
 
 Chantereau-Lefebvre, sh5Nt'ro' leh-f?vR', (Louis,) 
 a learned French antiquary, born in Paris in 1588, wrote 
 on the genealogy of the house of Lorraine. Died in 1658. 
 
 Chantonay, de, deh shoN'to'nJ', (Thomas I'krkk- 
 NOT,) a courtier, born at Besancon in 1514, was a son of 
 Chancellor Granvelle. He was sent as ambassador by 
 Philip II. of Spain to Paris, in order to watch the designs 
 of Catherine de Medicis. Supported by the Guises, he 
 assumed the part of a minister of state at the French 
 court. Catherine requested that he should be recalled, 
 (1563 ;) but he remained two years longer. Died in 1575. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 € as i; 9 as s; g hard; g ssj; G, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (fJJ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHANTREAU 
 
 568 
 
 CHAPMAN 
 
 Chantreau, shiN'tRo', (Pierre Nicolas,) a French 
 litllnitatr, born in Paris in 1741. Besides other works, 
 he published a Spanish- French Grammar, and "The 
 Science of History," (1803,) containing directions for the 
 study of history. Died in 1808. 
 
 Chan'tiey, (Sir Francis,) an eminent English sculp- 
 tor, born at Norton, Derbyshire, in 1782. Having learned 
 the trade of carver in Sheffield, he went to London about 
 1804, and became a sculptor. Nollekens was among the 
 first to recognize his merit and to promote his success, 
 which soon became brilliant, especially in portraits and 
 monumental sculpture. In 1816 he was chosen an asso- 
 ciate, and in 1818 a member, of the Royal Academy. He 
 visited Italy in 1819. He was knighted about 1836. 
 Among his most admired works are a bronze statue of 
 William Pitt, London; a statue of Bishop Heber, at 
 Calcutta ; of Canning, at Liverpool ; of Washington, at 
 Boston, Massachusetts; and "The Sleeping Children," 
 in Lichfield Cathedral. His busts of eminent contem- 
 poraries are very numerous. He died in 1841, leaving 
 a wife, but no children. 
 
 See George Jones, "Life of F. Chantrey," 1850; John Hol- 
 land, " Memorials of Sir F. Chantrey," 1851 ; " Men I have 
 known," by William Jerdan, 1S66; " Eraser's Magazine" for 
 April, 1850. 
 
 Chanut, shS'nii', (Pierre,) an able French diploma- 
 tist, born at Riom in 1600, was a friend of Descartes. 
 Died in 1662. 
 
 Chanvalon, de, deh shSN'vS'foN', (Jean Baptists 
 Thihaut,) a French savant, born at Martinique about 
 1725, was educated in Paris, by Jussieu, Reaumur, etc. 
 He published in 1763 a description of his native island, 
 entitled " Voyage a la Martinique." Died in 1785. 
 
 Chao-Hao. See Shao-Hao. 
 
 Chao-Kang. See Shao-Kang. 
 
 •Gha'os, [Gr. Xdoc,] a name originally applied to the 
 infinite void which the ancients supposed to have ex- 
 isted before the creation of the world. Ovid represents 
 it as a confused heterogeneous mass, containing the 
 primitive elements out of which all the subsequent ma- 
 terial creations were formed. According to Hesiod, 
 Chaos was the parent of Erebus and Nox. Some of 
 the poets personified Chaos as the monarch or ruler of 
 the primeval void. 
 
 Chapelain, ship'laN', (Andre,) a French priest of 
 the twelfth or thirteenth century, wrote " De Arte 
 amatoria." 
 
 Chapelain, (Jean,) a French poet and critic, born in 
 Paris in 1595. He was one of a small company of 
 literati who in 1635 organized themselves under the 
 auspices of Richelieu with the title of the " French Acad- 
 emy." The Dictionary of the Academy was planned by 
 him. He was regardeel as an oracle in the literary world. 
 His epic poem "La Pucelle" was extolled in advance as 
 the greatest triumph of human genius ; but its glory 
 quickly faded under the sarcastic wit and ridicule of 
 Boileau, and it sank into merited neglect. " He began 
 by being the oracle of authors," says Voltaire, "and 
 ended by being their shame." Died in 1674. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XIV." 
 
 Chapelier, le, leh shtp'le-4', (Isaac Rene Gui,) an 
 eminent French lawyer, born at Rennes in 1754, was 
 deputed to the States-General in 1789. He was among 
 the ablest orators of this body, in which he often pre- 
 sided. As a member and reporter of the committee on 
 the first constitution, he drafted the decree which abol- 
 ished nobility. His political affinities were with the 
 Feuillants, or the friends of the constitution. He was 
 condemned to death on a charge of having conspired in 
 favour of royalty, and executed in 1794. 
 
 Chapelle, shS'pel', (Claude Emmanuel Luillier — 
 lii-e'ye-4',) a witty French versifier, born at Chapelle, 
 near Paris, in 1626. Gassendi, who frequented his father's 
 house, gave him lessons in philosophy, to which Moliere, 
 the future dramatic poet, was admitted. Chapelle is said 
 to have aided Moliere, Racine, and Boileau in the compo- 
 sition of their poems. He wrote some pieces of verse 
 which were much admired. He was one of a famous 
 supper-party of Auteuil who, after copious potations, 
 moralized so eloquently on the miseries of life that they 
 resolved to take their quietus at the bottom of the river. 
 
 They were diverted from the instant execution of that 
 purpose by Moliere's suggestion that broad daylight 
 should shine upon and witness so noble an action. Died 
 in 1686. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XIV;" D'Alembert, " £loge 
 de Chapelle." 
 
 Chapelle, La. See La Chapelle. 
 
 Chaperon, ship'rAN', (Nicolas,) a skilful French 
 engraver, born at Chateaudun in 1596. He wtnt to 
 Rome, where he etched the pictures in the Vatican 
 which are known by the name of the " Bible of Raphael." 
 These engravings (fifty-two in number) were published 
 in 1638, and are called good copies. He afterwards 
 worked in Paris, where he died in 1647. 
 
 Cha'pin, (Calvin,) D.D., an American divine, for 
 upwards of thirty years secretary to the American Board 
 of Missions, born at Springfield, Massachusetts, about 
 1764; died at Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1851. He 
 was a zealous advocate of temperance, and author of an 
 essay recommending the substitution of water for wine 
 in the Lord's Supper. 
 
 Chapin, (Edwin Hubbeli.,) D.D., an American Uni- 
 versalist divine and distinguished orator, was born in 
 Washington county, New York, in 1814. He preached 
 for several years at Charlestown, near Boston, and about 
 1848 removed to the city of New York. As a popular 
 and eloquent preacher he is unrivalled among the min- 
 isters of his own denomination, and has few if any su- 
 periors among those of any class in our country. He 
 has also the reputation of being one of the ablest and 
 most attractive lecturers in the United States. He has 
 published, besides several volumes of sermons and 
 discourses, "The Crown of Thorns," and "Humanity 
 in the City," (1854.) 
 
 See "Golden Age of American Oratory," by E. G. Parker, Bos- 
 ton, 1857. 
 
 Chapin, (Stephen,) an American Baptist minister, 
 born in Milford, Massachusetts, in 1778, graduated at 
 Harvard in 1804. He was president of Columbian Col- 
 lege, at Washington, from 1828 to 1 841. Died in 1845. 
 
 Chapin, (William,) an American teacher of the 
 blind, born in Philadelphia in 1802. He became prin- 
 cipal of the Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind in 
 
 lS 49- . . ' , 
 
 Chap'lin, (Jeremiah,) an American Baptist minister, 
 born at Rowley, Massachusetts, in 1776. He was presi- 
 dent of Waterville College, Maine, from 1820 till 1832. 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 Chapman, chSp'man, (?) ( Frederick Henry, ) a 
 Swedish vice-admiral and skilful naval architect, born in 
 1721. He published a "Treatise on Naval Architec- 
 ture," (1775,) which was translated into many languages. 
 Gustavus III. appointed him to direct the construction 
 of vessels for his navy. Died in 1808. 
 
 See Hallstroem, "Minneofver F. H. Chapman," 1817. 
 
 Chap'man, (George,) an English dramatic poet, and 
 the earliest English translator of Homer, was born in 1557, 
 at what place is not known. Having become a resident 
 of London, and an author by profession, he enjoyed 
 the society and friendship of Spenser and Shakspeare. 
 His most memorable production is the translation of 
 Homer into English verse. The "Iliad" appeared in 
 1598, the "Odyssey" in 1614. These versions were ad- 
 mired by Dr. Johnson, Pope, and Coleridge. " A daring, 
 fiery spirit," says Pope, " animates his translation, which 
 is something like what one might imagine Homer to have 
 written before he had arrived at years of discretion." 
 He wrote many comedies and tragedies, which arc now 
 forgotten. "The drama," says Campbell, "owes him 
 very little." " His ' Bussy d'Amboise' is a piece of frigid 
 atrocity." Died in London in 1634. 
 
 See Cibber, "Lives of the Poets," etc.: "Minor Elizabethan 
 Dramatists," in the '"Atlantic Monthly" for December, 1867; "Re- 
 trospective Review" for 1821. vol. iv. 
 
 Chapman, (George,) a Scottish school-master, born 
 at Alvah in 1723, taught in Dalkeith and Dumfries, and 
 wrote a " Treatise on Education," which was often re- 
 printed. Died in 1806. 
 
 See a " Sketch of the Life of G. Chapman," London, 1808. 
 
 Chapman, (John,) a learned English divine, born in 
 1704. He published a work called "Eusebius," (1739,) 
 
 a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CHAPMAN 
 
 569 
 
 CHARB0NN1ERES 
 
 in answer to Morgan and Tindal. In 1 741 he became 
 Archdeacon of Sudbury. He subsequently published 
 numerous sermons, several antiquarian treatises, and a 
 letter to Dr. Middleton, (1744,) in which he corrected 
 some errors committed by that author in his " Life of 
 Cicero." Died in 1784. 
 
 Chapman, (John Gadsby,) an American painter, 
 born in Alexandria, Virginia. He became a resident of 
 Rome about 1848, before which date he had painted 
 "The Baptism of Pocahontas" for the Rotunda of the 
 Capitol at Washington. He has also published a " Draw- 
 ing-Hook" of great merit. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Chapman, (NATHANIEL,) an American physician, 
 bom in Fairfax county, Virginia, in 1780, graduated at 
 the University of Pennsylvania in 1800. He began to 
 practise in Philadelphia in 1804, and obtained the chair 
 of materia medica in the University of Pennsylvania in 
 1813. In l8i6hewas appointed professor of the theory 
 and practice of medicine in the same institution. He 
 published, besides other works, "Elements of Thera- 
 peutics and Materia Medica." He was president of 
 the American Philosophical Society from 1846 until his 
 death. He died January 1, 1853. 
 
 See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography;" "Discourse 
 commemorative of Nathaniel Chapman," by Dr. S. Jackson, 1854. 
 
 Chapman, (Thomas,) an English scholar, born in 
 Durham county in 1717, became master of Magdalen 
 College, Cambridge, in 1746. He published an "Essay 
 on the Roman Senate," (1750.) Died in 1760. 
 
 Chapone, sha-pon', (Hester.) an English authoress 
 of great merit, born in Northamptonshire in 1727, was 
 the daughter of Thomas Mulso. In 1760 she was mar- 
 ried to Mr. Chapone, who died ten months after the 
 union. She was the intimate friend of Elizabeth Carter 
 and Mrs. Montague. She contributed to the "Adven- 
 turer" the story of " Fidelia," ( 1 753,) and wrote an " Ode 
 to Peace," and other admired poems. Her " Letters 
 on the Improvement of the Mind" (1773) are highly 
 esteemed. She also published " Miscellanies in Prose 
 and Verse," and a few other works. Died in 1801. 
 
 See Mrs. Ei.wood, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England 
 from the Commencement of the Last Century," 1843. 
 
 Chapour, (a king of Persia.) See Sapor. 
 
 Chappe, ship, (Claude,) an inventor of a telegraph, 
 born at Brfilon, in France, in 1763, was a nephew of 
 Abbe Chappe d'Auteroche. In 1791 he conceived the 
 project of communicating with his absent friends by 
 means of signals. In 1792 he presented to the National 
 Assembly a machine which he called a telegraph, which 
 was tried with success between Paris and Lille, where 
 a dispatch was transmitted through forty-eight leagues 
 in thirteen minutes and forty seconds. The importance 
 of the invention was immediately recognized, and the 
 telegraph soon came into general use. Chappe is re- 
 garded as the first who operated successfully with the 
 telegraph, although the idea did not originate with him. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 Chappe d'Auteroche, ship dot'rosh', (Jean,) Abbe, 
 a French astronomer, born at Mauriac in 1722. In 1760 
 the Academy of Sciences, of which he was a member, 
 sent him to Tobolsk to observe the transit of Venus 
 which occurred in June 6, 1761. On his return he pub- 
 lished a "Narrative of his Journey in Siberia." He 
 went to California to observe another transit of Venus, 
 and died there in 1769. 
 
 Chap'pel, (William,) a learned English divine, born 
 in Nottinghamshire in 1582, became provost of Trinity 
 College, Dublin, in 1637, and Bishop of Cork in 1638. 
 He published "The Use of the Holy Scripture," (1653,) 
 and other works, and was one of those to whom " The 
 Whole Duty of Man" has been ascribed. Died in 1649. 
 
 See "Vita seipsoconscripta," (Autobiography.) 1715. 
 
 Chap-pe'low, (LEONARD,) an eminent English Ori- 
 entalist, born in 1683, became professor of Arabic at 
 Cambridge in 1720, and promoted the study of Oriental 
 literature in England. Among his works are " Ele- 
 ments of the Arabic Language," and a translation of 
 the "Traveller," an Arabic poem. Died in 1768. 
 
 Chappuzeau, ship'pu'zo', (Samuel.) a Swiss littira- 
 teur, born at Geneva about 1625 ; died in 1701. 
 
 Chapsal, ship'sil', (C. P.,) a French grammarian, 
 born about 1790, published "Lessons of Logical Analy- 
 sis," (14th edit., 1842,) and a "New French Grammar," 
 in which he was aided by M. Noel. The latter work is 
 said to have made the fortune of the authors. 
 
 Chaptal, ship'til', (Jean Antoine,) Comte de 
 Chanteloup, (shftNt'loo',) a distinguished French che- 
 mist and statesman, born at Nogaret (Lozere) in June, 
 1756. Having graduated as a physician at Montpellier 
 in 1777, he went to Paris, where he pursued the study of 
 chemistry and other sciences. In 1781 he was appointed 
 professor of chemistry at Montpellier, where he at the 
 same time rendered valuable services to the state by the 
 manufacture of certain chemicals for which Fiance had 
 previously been indebted to foreigners. He favoured 
 the popular cause in the Revolution, but was imprisoned 
 by the dominant party in 1793. After a brief detention, 
 he was called to Paris by the government to superintend 
 the manufacture of saltpetre, in which he was very suc- 
 cessful. About 1796 he became a member of the Insti- 
 tute, just founded. Bonaparte appointed him a council- 
 lor of state in 1800, and minister of the interior in 1801. 
 It is said that this department was never administered 
 more efficiently for the prosperity of France than during 
 the four years of Chaptal's ministry. In 1805 he was 
 made grand officer of the legion of honour, and a senator. 
 A few years later he became a count. He opposed the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, and retired from public 
 service in 1815, but was restored to the Chamber of 
 Peers in 1819. In 1806 he had published " Chemistry 
 applied to the Arts," ("La Chimie applique aux Arts,") 
 an excellent work, which was translated into all the lan- 
 guages of Europe and is still much consulted. He also 
 wrote " Elements of Chemistry," a " Treatise on the 
 Culture of the Vine and the Art of making Wine," and 
 other works. Died in Paris in 1832. 
 
 See F1.0URENS, " Eloge historique de Chaptal," 1835 ; J. S. Jui.ia- 
 Fontenelle, " Eloge de J. A. Chaptal," 1833 ; Thiers, " Histoire 
 du Consulat et de l'Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Chapuis, shi'pii-e', (Gabriel,) a French writer, born 
 at Amboise in 1546. He succeeded Belleforest as his- 
 toriographer of France, and in 1596 became Spanish 
 interpreter to the king. He translated from the Spanish 
 into French "Amadis de Gaul," and other works. Died 
 in 161 1. 
 
 Chapus, shi'piis', (Eugene,) a French writer on hunt- 
 ing, horse-racing, etc., was born in Paris about 1800. 
 Among his works are "The Turf," (1853,) and "Le Sport 
 a Paris," (1854.) 
 
 Chapuys de Montlaville, shi'pii-e' deh moN'lt'vel', 
 (Benoit Marie Louis,) a French writer, born at Tournus 
 in 1801. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies 
 from 1832 to 1848, and was appointed a senator in 1853. 
 He has written a " History of Dauphiny," (1827,) a "Life 
 of Lamartine," (1843,) and other works. 
 
 Charas, shifris', (MolSE,) an eminent French phy- 
 sician and Protestant, born at Uzes in 1618. He taugfit 
 chemistry for nine years in the Royal College of Paris. 
 The revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685) forced him 
 to emigrate. After practising in England and Holland, 
 he went to Spain to attend Charles II., and was induced 
 by the terrors of the Inquisition to turn Catholic. He 
 returned to Paris about 1692, and died there in 1698. 
 He had published in 1676 a "Pharmacopoeia," which 
 was extensively used. Voltaire says, " he was the first 
 who wrote well on Pharmacy." 
 
 See eYoy, " Dictionnaire de la M^decine ;" Cap, " E)oge de MoTse 
 Charas," 1840. 
 
 Charbonnel, shiR'bo'nel', (Joseph Claude Mar- 
 guerite,) Count, a French general, born at Dijon in 
 1775. He displayed skill and courage at Jena in 1806, 
 and in various actions in Prussia, Spain, and Russia. 
 As general of division, he took part in the battles of 
 I.utzen and Bautzen, (1813.) He became a peer of Fiance 
 in 1841. Died in 1846. 
 
 Charbonnet, shiR'bo'nl', (Pierre Matthias,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Troves in 1733. In August, 
 1792, he was intrusted with the surveillance of the royal 
 family confined in the Temple. Died in 1815. 
 
 Charbonnieres, de, deh shiR'bo'ne'aiR', (Alexis,) 
 Chevalier, a French litterateur, born in Auvergne about 
 
 « as*; casj; ghard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; Y.,trilled; 8as«;th as in this. (2y=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHARD IN 
 
 570 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE 
 
 1778. He composed "The Battle of Austerlitz," a drama, 
 a poem entitled an " Essay on the Sublime," and other 
 works. Died in 1819. 
 
 Chardin, shtR'daN', (Jean Baptiste Simeon,) a 
 skilful French painter, born in Paris in 1697. He repre- 
 sented familiar scenes with admirable beauty and fidelity, 
 and was employed to decorate the salon of the Louvre. 
 Many of his works have been engraved. Died in 1779. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Chardin, shar'din or shfe'daN', (Sir John,) a cele- 
 brated trateller, born in Paris in 1643, was a jeweller by 
 trade, and a Protestant. In 1664 he made a journey to 
 India and Persia, partly on account of business, and re- 
 mained six years at Ispahan, where he diligently studied 
 the language, history, politics, customs, etc. of Persia. 
 He was employed by the Persian king as an agent for 
 the purchase of jewels. In 1670 he revisited Paris; but, 
 finding that his religion was an insuperable obstacle to 
 his preferment, he resolved in 1671 to return to the 
 East. He passed the ensuing ten years mostly in Per- 
 sia, and in 1681 became a resident of London. He was 
 knighted by Charles II., chosen a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and was sent on a diplomatic mission to Hol- 
 land about 1682. In 1686 he published the first part 
 of his " Travels in Persia and the East Indies," (3 vols. 
 4to, 16S6— 171 1,) which, says Sir William Jones, "is the 
 best account of Mohammedan nations ever published." 
 " The faculty of seizing by a rapid and comprehensive 
 glance the character of a country and people," says Sir 
 James Mackintosh, " was possessed in the highest degree 
 by Chardin, and secures him an undisputed supremacy 
 in that department of literature." Died near London 
 in 1713. 
 
 See I. angles, " Voyage du Chevalier Chardin en Perse :" Nice- 
 ron, " Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Chardon de la Rochette, shiR'doN' deh IS ro'shet', 
 (Simon,) a French philologist and Hellenist, born in Ge- 
 vaudan in 1753, was one of the principal contributors to 
 the '* Magasin Encyclopedique" of Milan, for which he 
 wrote many able critical dissertations. His most im- 
 portant work is a " Greek Anthology," which cost the 
 labour of twenty-five years and was left unfinished. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 Charenton,shi'r6N't6N',(JoSEPHNicoi.AS,) a French 
 writer and Jesuit, born at Blois in 1649. He was a mis- 
 sionary in Persia for fifteen years. By order of Philip V. 
 of Spain, he made a good French translation of Mari- 
 ana's " History of Spain," (1725,) with a supplement. 
 His version was so successful that it prevented the pub- 
 lication of two others that were in progress. Died in 
 Paris in 1735. 
 
 ■Cha'res, [Xup^c,] an Athenian general, whose extor- 
 tions provoked the social war which began in 358 B.C. 
 By party influence and corruption, he was chosen general- 
 in-chief in this war, and besieged Chios without success. 
 
 Chares, a Greek statuary, born at Lindas, lived about 
 300 B.C., was a pupil of Lysippus, and the chief founder 
 of the Rhodian school of sculpture. He constructed, 
 near the port of Rhodes, the famous Colossus, one of 
 the Seven Wonders of the World. It was a bronze statue 
 of Apollo, seventy cubits in height, (about one hundred 
 English feet,) and was thrown down by an earthquake 
 about 224 B.c.,fifty-six years after its erection. The frag- 
 ments remained on the spot more than nine hundred years. 
 
 Chares of Mitylene was master of ceremonies, or 
 gentleman-usher, to Alexander the Great. He recorded 
 facts and anecdotes in the life of that prince, in a work 
 of which only small fragments are extant. In 340 he 
 commanded an army sent to aid Byzantium against 
 Philip of Macedon ; but he failed to effect hisobject, and 
 was superseded by Phocian. He was one of the com- 
 manders of the Athenians at the battle of Chxronxa, 
 338 B.C., the loss of which was ascribed to his incapacity. 
 He survived that event five years or more. His char- 
 acter was extremely profligate and corrupt. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Phocion." 
 
 Charette de la Contrie, shi'ret' deh IS kAN'tRe', 
 (Athanase,) a French royalist chief, nephew of Francois 
 Athanase, noticed below, was born at Nantes in 1796. 
 He fought for the Bourbons in the west of France in 
 1815. He went into exile with Charles X. in 1830, and 
 
 in 1832 raised an unsuccessful revolt in the west. He 
 published a "Military Journal," (1842.) Died in 1848. 
 See Louis Blanc, " Histoire de dix Ans." 
 
 Charette de la Contrie, (Francois Athanase,) 
 a brave Vendean general, born in Bretagne in 1763. He 
 was chosen as their leader by the insurgent peasants in 
 1793, and displayed remarkaBle talents for guerilla war- 
 fare. He gained several victories over the republicans 
 in 1793-94, and maintained the contest after the other 
 Vendean chiefs had fallen. " All the princes of Europe," 
 says Alison, "looked to him as the only man capable of 
 restoring the royal cause." In April, 1795, he signed a 
 treaty of pacification, which he soon violated. " The re- 
 newal of hostilities," says Alison, "was owing to the 
 delusive hopes held out by, and ill-judged assistance of, 
 Great Britain." At the request of Count d'Artois, Cha- 
 rette resumed the command, but was unable to resist 
 General Hoche, who is said to have offered him a mil- 
 lion francs to leave the country in peace. He refused 
 these terms, was taken prisoner, and shot in March, 1796. 
 
 See Le Bouviek-Desmortiers, "Vie de Charette;" T. Muret, 
 "Vie populaire de Charette," 1845. 
 
 Chariderne. See Charidemus. 
 
 ■Char-I-de'mus, [Xapidijfioc,] a Greek general, born 
 in Euboea about 400 B.C., became the leader of an army 
 of mercenaries. He entered the service of Cotys, King 
 of Thrace, and opposed the Athenians in their attempt 
 to conquer Chersonesus. He obtained command of an 
 Athenian army in 349 B.C. 
 
 Charidemus, [Fr. Charideme, kS're'd&m',] an Athe- 
 nian orator, born about 390 B.C., was a political friend 
 of Demosthenes. He was ambassador to the court of 
 Macedon when Philip was killed in the year 336, and was 
 one of the eight orators whom Alexander required to 
 be delivered to him after the reduction of Thebes. To 
 escape this danger, he fled to Persia, where he was put 
 to death by Darius in 333 B.C. 
 
 See Thirlwall, " History of Greece." 
 
 Charis. See Charites. 
 
 Charisi. See Charizi. 
 
 Charisius, ka-rish'gjis, (Aurelius Arcadius,) a 
 Roman jurist, supposed to have lived about 350 A.D. He 
 wrote " De Testibus," (" On Witnesses,") and other legal 
 works, extracts of which are preserved in the "Digest." 
 
 Charisius, (FlaVius Sosip'ater,) a Latin gramma- 
 rian, born in Campania, lived about the fifth century. 
 
 •ehar'I-tes, singular -Cha'ris, [Gr. XufKf, Xt'ipirec; Fr. 
 Les Graces, la gRiss; Lat. Gra'tI/E,] the Graces of 
 classic mythology, were the daughters of Jupiter. They 
 were supposed to bestow grace, beauty, and refinement, 
 and to preside over social enjoyments, dances, and festi- 
 vals. They were also patrons of poetry and art. They 
 were three in number, — namely, Aglaia, Euphrosyne, 
 and Thalia. 
 
 See Keightley's " Mythology." 
 
 •Char'I-ton, [Gr. Xapiruv,] author of a Greek romance 
 entitled "The Loves of Chsereas and Callirrhoe," was 
 a native of Aphrodisias, in Caria. His epoch is unknown ; 
 but he lived, it is supposed, in or after the fourth century 
 of our era. The chief merit of his work is in the style. 
 
 Charizi, cha-ree'thee, ( ?) (Judah,) a Spanish poet and 
 Jewish rabbi, born at Xeres ; died about 1235. 
 
 Charke, chark, (Charlotte,) an English actress, 
 was a daughter of Colley Cibber. Died in 1760. 
 
 See " Narrative of the Life of Mrs. Charlotte Charke," by herself, 
 London, 1S27. 
 
 Charlemagne, \har'le-man', [Fr. pron. shSRl'mtn'; 
 Ger. Carl (or Karl) der Grosse, kaRl deR gRSs'seh ; 
 It. Carlo Magno, kaR'lo man'yo ; Lat. Car'olus Mag'- 
 nus, i.e. "Charles the Great,"| or Charles I., King of 
 France and Emperor of the West, born at the castle of 
 Salzburg, in Bavaria, in 742 A.D., was the son of Pepin le 
 Bref, King of the Franks. At the death of Pepin, in 768, 
 Charlemagne became King of Austrasia, Neustria, etc., 
 while his brother Carloman obtained the rest of his father's 
 dominions. In 771 Carloman died, and Charlemagne be- 
 came master of the whole. His kingdom then included 
 France and a large part of Germany. He married Desiree 
 or Desiderata, a daughter of Desiderius of Lombardy. In 
 772 he began a war against the Saxons, who, after a long 
 arid obstinate resistance, were finally subdued about 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CHARLEMONT 
 
 57« 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 thirty years later. Having defeated Desiderius, King of 
 the Lombards, he was crowned King of Lombardy in 
 774. Having divorced his first wife, he married Hilde- 
 garcie or Ildegerda. Returning from an invasion of 
 Spain in 778, he suffered a reverse at Roncesvalles, 
 where Roland and other famous paladins fell by the hands 
 of the Saracens. The revolts of his subjects gave him 
 many opportunities for the successful exercise of his 
 military talents. In Soo he was crowned at Rome by Pope 
 Leo III. as Emperor of the West, with the title of Caesar 
 Augustus. His son Pepin, whom he had made King of 
 Italy, died in 810. In 813 he associated his son, Louis 
 le I tebonnaire, with himself in the empire. He died at 
 Aix-Ia-Chapelle, his capital, in January, 814, leaving a 
 great reputation as a statesman, legislator, and founder 
 of the Germanic Empire. He established churches, 
 monasteries, and schools, and promoted learning, arts, 
 and civilization. He was the most powerful monarch of 
 his time. His empire comprised all the region between 
 the Elbe and the Ebro, extending eastward to Hungary 
 and southward to Calabria. By his will, made in Soo, 
 he divided the empire l>etween his three sons, Charles, 
 Pepin, and Louis, the last of whom only survived Char- 
 lemagne, and became his successor. His descendants 
 are denominated Carlovingians, constituting the second 
 dynasty of French kings. 
 
 See Haureau, "Charlemagne et sa Cour," 1854; Gaillaro, 
 "Histoire de Charlemagne," 1782; Arn. Scheuffer, "Caroli Magni 
 Vita togata;" G. P. R. James, "Life of Charlemagne," 1832; Do- 
 natus AcclAjeoLt, " De Vita Caroli Magni Commentarius :" Reine- 
 rts Kkinkoius. "Annates de Gestis Caroli Magni ;" Eginhard, 
 "Vita Caroli Magni," first published in 1521 ; Capefigue, "Charle- 
 magne," 1S40; Theodore Nisakd, "Histoire de Charlemagne," 
 1843: Heinrich C. von Gagern, "Carl der Grosse," 1845: Ere- 
 dow, "Carl der Grosse," 1814; Schroeder, "Geschichte Carls des 
 Grossen," 1S50; Dippold, " Leben Kaiser Carl's des Grossen," 18:0; 
 Sporschil, "Carl der Grosse, sein Reich und sein Haus," 1846. 
 
 Char'le-mont, (James Caulfiei.d,) Earl of, a lite- 
 rary and patriotic Irish nobleman? born in Dublin in 
 1728, was the son of Viscount Charlemont, and a friend 
 of Edmund Burke. He was president of the Royal Irish 
 Academy, and author of a " History of Italian Poetry." 
 He had great influence in the public affairs of Ireland. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 See Francis Hardy, "Memoirs of the Political and Private Life 
 of James Caulfield, Earl of Charlemont," 1810 ; "Edinburgh Review" 
 for November, 1811; "London Quarterly Review," October, 1811. 
 
 JjyThe following order has been adopted in regard 
 to rulers or princes having the name of Charles : first, 
 Emperors ; secondly, Kings, (arranged according to the 
 alphabetical order of their respective countries, England 
 being placed first, France next, and so on ;) thirdly, Arch- 
 dukes ; fourthly, Dukes. 
 
 Charles I., Emperor. See Charlemagne. 
 
 Charles IT, Emperor. See Charles the Bald, 
 King of France. 
 
 Charles III., or the Fat, [Fr. Charles le Gros, 
 shiRl leh gRo,] Emperor of the Franks, born about 832 
 A.D., was the third son of Louis II., (le Germanique,) 
 and among the German emperors is reckoned Charles 
 III. Louis II., at his death in 876, divided the empire 
 among his sons, Carloman, Louis, and Charles. The 
 first and second having died without lawful issue within 
 six years ensuing, Charles inherited their portions. In 
 884 he became King or Regent of France, the legitimate 
 heir of which was a minor. His dominions were much 
 too large fir his capacity, and his power was little more 
 than nominal. He was unable to relieve Paris from the 
 besieging Normans in 886, except by paying them to 
 transfer their ravages to another part of France. He 
 was deposed by his nephew, Arnulph or Arnolph, in 
 888, and died the same year. 
 
 Charles IV., of the house of Luxembourg, born in 
 1316, was a son of John de Luxembourg, King of Bo- 
 hemia. He was elected Emperor of Germany in 1346, 
 as successor to Louis V., whom the pope had excom- 
 municated, and who died in 1347. He is reproached 
 for his subservience to the pope. About 1356 he issued, 
 at Nuremberg, the Golden Bull, which was the funda- 
 mental law of the empire for more than four hundred 
 years. This Bull determined that the election of empe- 
 ror should be made by seven electors, viz., four seculal 
 
 princes and three ecclesiastics. He died in 1378, and 
 was succeeded by his son Wenceslaus. 
 
 See Pklzel, "Geschichte Kaiser Karls IV.," 178a 
 
 Charles V., [Ger. Karl (or Carl) der FOnfte, 
 kaRl deR funfteh ; Fr. Charles Quint, shiRl kiN ; It. 
 Carlo Quinto, kaR'lo kwen'to,] Don Carlos I. of 
 Spain, afterwards Emperor of Germany, was the eldest 
 son of the archduke Philip of Austria, and grandson of the 
 emperor Maximilian I. and Mary, Duchess of Burgundy. 
 His mother was Joanna, the daughter and sole heiress of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Aragon and 
 Castile. He was born at Ghent in February, 1500, and 
 educated in Flanders, under the care of William de Croy 
 as governor and Adrien of Utrecht as preceptor. He in- 
 herited from his father, who died in 1506, the Low Coun- 
 tries and Franche-Comte. The death of Ferdinand of 
 Spain in January, 1516, rendered Charles master of an 
 empire more vast than any monarch had ruled since 
 Charlemagne. He removed his court from Flanders to 
 Spain in 15 17, and dismissed Cardinal Ximenes from the 
 regency. In 1519 Charles was elected Emperor of Ger- 
 many, as successor to Maximilian, after a long contest 
 with Francis I. of France. Having appointed Adrien 
 of Utrecht Regent of Castile, he departed from Spain, 
 and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in October, 1520. 
 In order to concert measures to check the progress of 
 the Lutheran doctrines, he assembled a Diet at Worms 
 in 1521. (See Luther, Martin.) 
 
 Foreseeing that a war was impending between himself 
 and the French king, Charles made a secret alliance with 
 Pope Leo X. and Henry VIII. of England. In his 
 absence the people of Castile, led by Juan de Padilla, re- 
 volted against the regent, and were successful in several 
 battles in 1520 and 1521. Charles returned to Spain in 
 1522, and by a wise moderation ended the civil war. In 
 the mean time hostilities had commenced between the 
 allies and the French, who were driven out from the 
 Milanese in 1522 by Colonna. An imperialist army 
 which invaded Provence in 1524 was repulsed by Fran- 
 cis, who again marched into Italy, and was defeated and 
 made prisoner at the battle of Pavia in 1525. The war 
 was suspended by the treaty of Madrid in 1526. (See 
 Francis I.) In 1526 he married Isabella of Portugal, 
 a daughter of King Emmanuel. A league having been 
 formed by Francis I. and the pope, Clement VII., against 
 Charles, the war was renewed in 1527, when the impe- 
 rial army, under Constable Bourbon, took Rome by as- 
 sault, made the pope a prisoner, and committed great 
 outrages on the citizens. This event excited general 
 horror in Europe, and influenced Henry VIII. to join 
 the league against the emperor. Peace was restored by 
 the treaty of Cambrai in 1529. 
 
 In 1530 Charles attended the Diet of Augsburg, which 
 he had appointed to oppose the progress of the Refor- 
 mation, and which decreed that severe penalties should 
 be enforced against the Protestants. The emperor, how- 
 ever, after the Protestant chiefs had united in the League 
 of Schmalkalden for a common defence, granted them 
 favourable terms of peace or compromise in 1 531. In 
 1535 he acquired great renown by the defeat of Barba- 
 rossa and the conquest of Tunis, with a large armament 
 which he commanded in person. He invaded France 
 from the south in 1536, and besieged Marseilles; but, 
 foiled by the cautious and defensive policy of Montmo- 
 renci, he was forced to retreat, alter he had lost half of 
 his army. A truce of ten years having been negotiated 
 in 1538, Charles asked and received a safe-conduct to 
 pass through France in 1539. In 1541 he conducted 
 against Algiers an enterprise which, in consequence of 
 a storm at sea, and disease in the army, resulted disas- 
 trously. 
 
 The truce between Charles and Francis having been 
 broken in 1 542, the former courted the favour of the 
 Protestants, from whom he obtained material aid for the 
 war. In 1544 the French gained a decisive victory at 
 Cerisoles, soon after which Charles and Francis made 
 a treaty of peace at Crespy, (Crepy,) and secretly agreed 
 to exterminate heresy in their respective dominions. In 
 1546 he published the ban of the empire against the 
 Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse, the 
 chiefs of the Protestant league, who promptly declared 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gutlural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as t; th as in this. (Jf^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHARLES 
 
 57* 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 war against him. Their offer of battle having been de- 
 clined by Charles, their armies were dispersed or dis- 
 banded in 1547. He then obtained an easy conquest, 
 and subjected the Protestants to cruel oppression and 
 exactions. Maurice of Saxony, who had hitherto fought 
 for Charles, took the field against him in 1552, at the 
 head of a powerful league and supported by Henry II. 
 of France. Surprised by this sudden danger, and un- 
 able to resist, his army fled in confusion from Innspruck, 
 and Charles, in August, 1552, signed the memorable 
 treaty of Passau, "which," says Robertson, "overturned 
 the vast fabric in erecting which Charles had employed 
 so many years, and established the Protestant Church 
 upon a firm and secure basis." To the great astonish- 
 ment of Europe, he resigned with imposing ceremonies 
 the sovereignty of the Netherlands, Spain, and his other 
 hereditary dominions to his son Philip in the autumn of 
 1555. He assigned as his motive that his vigour was 
 exhausted by an incurable distemper, the gout. He re- 
 signed the imperial crown to his brother Ferdinand, and 
 retired to the monastery of Saint Yuste, near Plasencia, 
 in Spain. " He was particularly curious," says Robert- 
 son, " with regard to the mechanism of clocks and 
 watches ; and having found, after repeated trials, that he 
 could not bring any two of them to go exactly alike, he 
 reflected, it is said, with a mixture of surprise and regret 
 on his own folly in having bestowed so much time and 
 labour on the more vain attempt of bringing mankind 
 to a precise uniformity of sentiment concerning the pro- 
 found and mysterious doctrines of religion." Unfor- 
 tunately, this passage, so full of interest and instruction, 
 rests upon no trustworthy foundation, and is inconsistent 
 with the views which Charles is known to have held a 
 little before his death. He died September 21, 1558. 
 ~ See Robertson, "History of the Reign of Charles V.," 1769; 
 Prescott, " History of Philip 1 1., King of Spain," vol. i. chaps, i. and 
 ix.; Ulloa, " Vita di Carolo V.," 1559: G. Leti, "Vita del Imperatore 
 Carolo V.," 4 vols., 1700; Luigi Dolce, "Vitadi Carolo V.," 1561 ; 
 Sandoval, " Historia de la Vida de Carlos V.," 1606; Masenius, 
 "Historia Caroli V.," 1672: A. Pichot, "Charles Quint," 1854; 
 Stirling, "The Cloister Life of the Emperor Charles V.," 1852; 
 French version of G. Leti's work, above noticed, 1704; Johann 
 Gustav Droysen, "Zwei Verzeichnisse, Kaiser Kails V., seiner 
 Landc und seiner grossen Einkiinfte," etc., 1854; F. A. A. Mh;nkt, 
 "Charles V; son Abdication, son Sejour et sa Mort au Monastery 
 de Yuste," 1S54; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1853: 
 " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1855 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" 
 for July, 1857. 
 
 Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, born in 1685, 
 was the second son of the emperor Leopold I. Leo- 
 pold claimed a right to. succeed Charles II. of Spain, 
 who was his first-cousin, and who had no issue ; but he 
 waived his pretensions in favour of the subject of this 
 article. By the will of the Spanish king, who died in 
 1700, the French Duke of Anjou was appointed his heir. 
 In the war of the Spanish succession which followed, the 
 claim of Charles was enforced by Austria, England, Por- 
 tugal, etc., while the French and a majority of the Span- 
 iards fought for his rival, Philip V. Charles entered 
 Madrid with an army in 1706, but was soon driven out of 
 that citv. The French gained a decisive victory at Al- 
 manza in 1707, and Philip remained master of Spain. In 
 1711 he succeeded his brother, Joseph I., as Emperor of 
 Germany and King of Hungary. He renounced his claim 
 to Spain, by the treaty of Rastadt, in 1714. He was the 
 last descendant in the male line of the house of Austria, 
 (Hapsburg,) and had no issue except a daughter, Maria 
 Theresa, for whom and her heirs he wished to secure his 
 crowns. With this view, he promulgated iiv 1 724 a new 
 law of succession, the famous " Pragmatic Sanction." 
 In the ensuing years of his reign, all the plans of his 
 cabinet were directed to the settlement of the succession 
 according to the Pragmatic Sanction. A war which Aus- 
 tria waged against France and Spain was terminated in 
 1735 by a treaty in which Charles ceded Naples to Don 
 Carlos of Spain. He died in October, 1740, and was 
 succeeded by Maria Theresa. 
 
 See Schirach, " Biographie Kaiser Karls VI.," 1778 ; Zschack- 
 witz, "Leben und Thaten Kaiser Caroli VI.," 1723; Pierre Mas- 
 suet, " Histoire de l'Empereur Charles VI," 1742. 
 
 Charles VII., (Charles Albert,) Emperor of Ger- 
 many, born at Brussels in 1697, was a son of Maximilian 
 Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria. He married a daughter 
 of the emperor Joseph I. in 1722, and succeeded his 
 
 father as Elector of Bavaria in 1726. In 1740 he became 
 a competitor of Maria Theresa for the throne of Austria, 
 (or part of the dominions attached to it,) and was sup- 
 ported by France, Prussia, and other powers in the war 
 of the Austrian succession. He was elected emperor 
 in 1742. His armies were defeated by the Austrians, 
 and he was driven from Bavaria for a time. He died in 
 1745, leaving a son, Maximilian Joseph, who succeeded 
 him as Elector. 
 
 See J. J. Moser, " Staatshistorie Deutschlands unter der Regie- 
 rung Karls VII.," 2 vols., 1743. 
 
 Charles I., (Charles Stuart,) King of England, the 
 third son of James I. and Anne of Denmark, was born 
 at Dunfermline, Scotland, on the 19th of November, 
 1600. At the death of his elder brother Henry in 1612, 
 he became heir-apparent to the crown, having previously 
 been styled Duke of York and Cornwall. He suc- 
 ceeded his father March 27, 1625, and in the same year 
 married Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of 
 France. His father's favourite, the unpopular and in- 
 competent Buckingham, was retained as chief minister, 
 and acquired an ascendency over Charles which involved 
 him in a long series of errors and disasters. The 
 growing spirit of liberty rendered it difficult to govern 
 by the former arbitrary methods, to which the king ad- 
 hered with fatal obstinacy. In the first year of his reign 
 he was involved in a contest with Parliament, which re- 
 solved not to grant supplies without obtaining a redress 
 of grievances, or concessions in favour of liberty. Be- 
 tween June, 1625, and March, 1629, three Parliaments 
 were successively assembled and dissolved. He then 
 resolved to govern without Parliaments, and resorted to 
 new and tyrannical measures for raising money. Patents 
 of monopoly were granted. The Petition of Rights, to 
 which he had given his assent, was violated. The Puri- 
 tans were imprisoned, whipped, and mutilated for their 
 opinions. Buckingham having been assassinated in 1628, 
 Laud and the Earl of Strafford became his chief advisers. 
 A war with Spain, which had added nothing to British 
 glory, wasended by peace in 1630. In 1637 John Hamp- 
 den gained celebrity by his resistance to the illegal levy 
 of ship-money. By his attempt to impose the Episcopal 
 liturgy, etc. on the Scottish people, Charles provoked a 
 rebellion and civil war in Scotland in 1638. A new Par- 
 liament was assembled in April, 1640, and was violently 
 dissolved in the following May. In August, England was 
 invaded by a victorious Scottish army. Defeat, financial 
 distress, and general disorganization compelled the king 
 to call another Parliament, which met in November, 1640, 
 and became the famous Long Parliament. In 1641 Charles 
 reluctantly consented to the execution of the Earl of 
 Strafford, by which he made himself liable to the charge 
 of ingratitude. In January, 1642, he failed in a rash at- 
 tempt to seize five members of the Commons, which 
 attempt was the proximate cause of the civil war. (See 
 CROMWEi.Land Hampden.) " From that moment," says 
 Macaulay, " it must have been evident to every impartial 
 observer, that, in the midst of professions, oaths, and 
 smiles, the tyrant was constantly looking forward to an 
 absolute sway and a bloody revenge." In the first and 
 second years of the war the royalists gained numerous 
 victories ; but the tide was turned at Marston Moor in 
 1644, and the royal army was again defeated in 1645, at 
 the decisive battle of Naseby, where Charles commanded 
 in person. In 1646 he gave himself up to the Scottish 
 army, which delivered him to the English Parliament 
 in 1647. Having been subjected to a form of legal pro- 
 cess by the Parliament, he was condemned, and beheaded 
 on January 30, 1649. " It would be absurd to deny," 
 says Macaulay, " that he was a scholar and a gentleman, 
 a man of exquisite taste in the fine arts, a man of strict 
 morals in private life. He was as good a writer and 
 speaker as any modern sovereign has been." 
 
 See Macaulay, Review of Hallam's "Constitutional History;" 
 Hume, "History of England," chaps. 1. to lix.: Macaulay, " His- 
 tory of England, vol. i. chap. i. ; Peter Heylin, " Life of Charles 
 I.," 1658; William Harris, " Life of Charles I.," 1758; Disraeli, 
 "Life and Character of Charles I.," 1828; Sir Philip Warwick, 
 " Memoirs of the Reign of Charles I.;" Lucy Aikin, "Memoirs 
 of the Court of King Charles I." 
 
 Charles IX, King of England, the eldest surviving 
 son of Charles I., was born on the 29th of May, 163a 
 
 a,e, 
 
 , 1, 6 u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, slwrt; a, e, j, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
CHJRLES 
 
 571 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 After the decisive triumph of the Parliament at Naseby, 
 in June, 1645, ne retired to Jersey, and the next year he 
 Joined his mother in Paris. In 1649 he was proclaimed 
 king by the Scottish Parliament, "on condition of his 
 good behaviour." Having received an invitation from the 
 Covenanters and signed the Covenant, he landed in Scot- 
 land in June, 1650, and was crowned at Scone about the 
 first of the next year. The austere religionists of Scot- 
 land required him to sign "articles of repentance," and 
 treated him as a captive rather than a king. Cromwell 
 having defeated the royalist army at Dunbar and re- 
 duced a great part of Scotland, Charles marched with 
 his Scottish army into England, closely pursued by the 
 enemy. His hopes that the English would rally to his 
 standard were disappointed, and the enterprise termi- 
 nated in his signal defeat at Worcester, September 3, 
 165 1. Charles escaped by flight, and, after many ad- 
 ventures in various disguises, he embarked in October 
 and found safety in France. 
 
 The restoration of Charles to the throne is ascribed to 
 the loyalty and prudence of General Monk, seconded by 
 the favour of the people and the law of reaction. Charles 
 entered London in May, 1660, with ample demonstrations 
 of popular joy. He appointed Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, 
 prime minister. In 1662 he married Catherine of Bra- 
 ganza, daughter of the King of Portugal. Episcopacy 
 was restored, and the Presbyterian clergy were ejected. 
 In 1665 Charles declared war against the Dutch, who, 
 after losing several naval battles, entered the Thames 
 and burned some ships of war at Chatham. Peace was 
 restored by the treaty of lireda in 1667. The next year, 
 England, Holland, and Sweden formed against Louis 
 XIV. of France a coalition, called the Triple Alliance, 
 which was very popular with the English. The counsels 
 of the ministry called the Cabal (a word which the initial 
 letters of their names happened to compose) soon effected 
 a change of policy and a secret treaty with Louis XIV., 
 who supplied Charles with revenues, so that he might 
 reign more absolutely and be independent of Parliaments. 
 War was again declared against the Dutch in 1672, and 
 several doubtful battles were fought at sea. Public opin- 
 ion in England compelled the court to make peace in 
 February, 1674. 
 
 The popularity with which Charles had begun his reign 
 had long been expended. He was suspected of leaning 
 towards popery, and he had actually in secret entered 
 the Catholic communion, which he avowed at the hour 
 of death. A rumoured popish plot in 1678 convulsed the 
 nation with fear and furious excitement. The Parliament, 
 Which had existed since 1661, became so insubordinate 
 that the king dissolved it in 1678. In 1679 the habeas- 
 corptis act was passed. About this time the words whig 
 and tory originated, and were applied respectively to the 
 opponents and the partisans of the court. Charles died in 
 February, 1685, without lawful issue, and was succeeded 
 by his brother, James II. His reign was remarkable as 
 an era of libertinism in morals and of servility in politics. 
 He was sensual, indolent, unambitious, and good-tem- 
 pered. " Honour and shame, to him," says Macaulay, 
 " were scarcely more than light and darkness to the 
 blind." 
 
 See Hume, " History of England," chaps, lxiii. to Ixix.; Mac- 
 aulay, "History of England," vol. L; William Harris, "Life 
 of Charles II.," 1765: MoRLEY, "Character of King Charles II.," 
 1660; McCormick, "History of King Charles II.," 1740; Lord 
 Halifax, "Character of Charles II.," 1750; Count Grammont, 
 "Memoirs of the Court of Charles II. ;" Armani) Carrel, " His 
 toire de la Contre revolution en Angleterre sous Charles II et 
 James II," 1827; George Brodie, " History of the British Empire 
 from the Accession of Charles I. to the Restoration of Charles II.," 
 1822. 
 
 Charles the Bald, [Fr. le Chauve, leh sh5v,J or 
 Charles L, King of France, the fourth son of Louis le 
 nnaire, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 823 
 a.r His father died in 840, after dividing his empire 
 among his sons, Lothaire, Louis, and Charles, the last 
 of whom had all of France lying west of the Rhone. 
 Lothaire having claimed the pre-eminence, the other two 
 united against him, and defeated him at the great battle 
 of Fontenai, in 842. In the reign of Charles the Bald, 
 France was ravaged by the Normans, who took Paris, 
 Rouen, and other cities. Charles, being unable to expel 
 them by arms, was twice reduced to purchase peace from 
 
 them, in 845 and 861. On the death of Louis II. of Italy 
 without issue, Charles invaded Italy in 875, and was 
 crowned emperor by Pope John VIII., after defeating 
 the army of his brother, Louis le Germanique. He was 
 continually at war with his neighbours or subjects. His 
 empire comprised Italy and all France except Lorraine, 
 Alsace, and part of Burgundy. He died in 877, leaving 
 the throne to his son, Louis le Begue. As emperor, he 
 is reckoned Charles II. ; as King of France, Charles I. 
 
 See Michelet, " Histoire de France;" Sismondi, "Histoire des 
 Francais." 
 
 Charles IJX of France, called the Simtle, [Fr. Ll 
 SlMPUt, leh sA.vip],] born in 879 A.D., was a younger sort 
 of Louis le Begue, who died in that year. Two elder 
 brothers having died before he had attained his majority, 
 Eudes, Count of Paris, was chosen king by the nobles in 
 888. Charles was crowned by his partisans in 893, and 
 at the death of Eudes, in 898, he became nominally sok 
 king ; but his power was greatly restricted by the growing 
 spirit of feudality. The remarkable event of his reign 
 was the treaty by which Rollo, a Norman chief, acquired 
 the sovereignty of Neustria, (Normandy.) About 920, 
 Robert, Duke of Prance, aspired to the crown, and a 
 civil war ensued, in which Robert was killed ; but his 
 party gained the victory, and elected Raoul or Rodolph 
 of Burgundy king in 923. Charles was treated as a 
 captive until his death in 929. He left a son, Louis 
 Outremer. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais;" A. Borgnet, " Sur le 
 Regne de Charles le Simple," 1843. 
 
 Charles IV. of France, sumamed le Bel, (leh bel,) 
 "the Handsome," was the third son of Philippe le Bel, 
 and was Count de la Marche when, on the death of his 
 brother, Philippe le Long, in 1322, he became king. He 
 married Marie, daughter of the emperor Henry VII. 
 He was involved in war with Edward II. of England, 
 from whom he claimed homage for the duchy of Gui- 
 enne. Edward's queen Isabella, who was the sister of 
 Charles, went to France to negotiate the question, and 
 there obtained the means by which her husband was 
 deposed. The efforts of Charles to procure his election 
 as Emperor of Germany were not successful. He died, 
 without male issue, in 1328, and Philippe of Valois be- 
 came king. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais;" Michelet, "Htsto : re 
 de France." 
 
 Charles V., called the Wise, [Fr. LE Sage, leh sizh,] 
 King of France, born at Vincennes in 1337, was the son 
 of John II., who was made prisoner by the Black Prince 
 at Poitiers. He acted as regent while his father was a 
 captive from 1356 to 1360, and at the death of his father, 
 in 1364, became king. He frequently summoned the 
 States-General to obtain subsidies for the war which he 
 waged against the English invaders. This war, after a 
 truce of several years, was renewed in 1370. Charles 
 resolved not to lead his armies in person, and ordered 
 his generals to avoid a general action. This policy was 
 very successful. The French general Du Guesclin gained 
 frequent advantages, and expelled the English from Poi- 
 tou, Saintonge, and other provinces. Before his death, 
 Charles had recovered nearly all the territory which had 
 been conquered by Edward III., except Calais and Bor- 
 deaux. He had married Jeanne de Bourgogne, and had 
 several sons, one of whom succeeded him as Charles VI. 
 He patronized learning, and founded the Royal Library 
 of Paris. Died in 1380. 
 
 See E. Rov, " Histoire de Charles V," 1849; Michelet, " His- 
 toire de France;" La Harpe, "filoge de Charles V," 1767 ; Jean 
 Svi.vain Baii.lv, "Fjoge de Charles V," 177a 
 
 Charles VI, called the Well-Beloved, [Fr. le 
 Bien-aime, leh dc'sn' 4'rni',] King of France, bom at 
 Paris in 1368, was the son of Charles V. He was the first 
 French prince that bore the title of Dauphin, which he 
 derived from the province of Dauphine, given to him as 
 an apanage. His reign nominally began in 1380, when his 
 uncles, the Dukes of Anjmi, Burgundy, and Berry, dis- 
 puted with each other for the power of regent. Charles 
 married Isal>clle, daughter of the Duke of Bavaria, in 
 1385, and in the next year he fitted out a great arma- 
 ment against the English. The number of vessels of his 
 fleet is stated at 1287. The designed invasion, however, 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHARLFS 
 
 574 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 was quickly abandoned. In 1388 he assumed the func- 
 tions of royalty, which had before been shared by his 
 uncles. Charles became deranged in 1392, and the 
 prosperity of the kingdom was sacrificed to the rivalry 
 of the Duke of Burgundy and the Duke of Orleans, the 
 king's brother. The former had the ascendency for 
 several years preceding his death, in 1404. His son Jean, 
 inheriting his title and ambition, caused Orleans to be 
 assassinated in 1407, and provoked a civil war which 
 raged between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. In 
 1413 the dauphin Louis seized, or attempted to seize, 
 the throne. Henry V. of England, taking advantage of 
 these intestine troubles, invaded France, and in October, 
 1415, won the great battle of Agincourt. The dauphin 
 having died in 1415, his brother Charles, who favoured 
 the Armagnac faction, became dauphin. The civil war 
 still continued. The Burgundians, supported by Queen 
 Isabelle, with a shameful disregard of the claims of their 
 country, made, in 1420, a treaty with Henry V., which 
 stipulated that he should be King of France on the death 
 of Charles VI. The latter died in 1422. 
 
 See Duval-Pineu, " Histoire de France sous le Regne de Charles 
 VI," 2 vols., 1842; Juvenal des Ursins, "Histoire de Chailes 
 VI," 1614; Le Laboureur, "Histoire de Charles VI," 1663; De 
 Lussan, (Baudot de Juillv,) "Histoire de Charles VI ;" Saint- 
 Remy, " Histoire de Charles VI," 1663. 
 
 Charles VII., the Victorious, [Ft. le Victo- 
 rieux, leh vek'to're'uh',] born in 1403, was the son 
 of Charles VI. He became dauphin in 1416, and king 
 in October, 1422, when "malice domestic and foreign 
 levy" grievously afflicted France. (See Charles VI.) 
 Death had just removed his most formidable rival, Henry 
 V. of England ; but the son of the latter was recognized 
 by a powerful French faction, who were masters of the 
 capital. In 1428 the English besieged Orleans, which 
 was bravely defended by the citizens, who were loyal 
 Armagnacs, and, after a long siege, was delivered in 1429 
 by the heroism of Joan of Arc, the "Maid of Orleans." 
 The enthusiasm which she inspired into the French 
 armies rendered them victorious in many succeeding 
 encounters. Charles was crowned again at Rheims in 
 1429, made peace with the Duke of Burgundy in 1435, 
 and entered Paris without opposition in 1436. Nor- 
 mandy was reconquered in 1450, and Guienne in 1451, 
 and a few years later Calais was the only place in France 
 which the English retained. In the early part of his 
 reign he had married Marie of Anjou. He displayed 
 much political ability in the various difficulties which 
 beset his reign, and is reckoned among the kings to 
 whom France owes great obligations. By the " Prag- 
 matic Sanction" (1438) he protected the liberties of the 
 Gallican Church against papal usurpation. He also 
 made an important reform in the army, which before 
 his time was a scourge to the citizens and peasants of 
 France. He died in 1461, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Louis XI. 
 
 See Baudot de Juilly, "Histoire de Charles VII," 1697 and 
 '1754; P. Clement, "Jacques Cceur et Charles VII; ou la France au 
 XVe Siecle," 1853. 
 
 Charles VTH, King of France, surnamed the 
 Affable, was the son of Louis XI. and Charlotte of 
 Savoy, and was born at Amboise in June, 1470. He 
 ascended the throne in 1483. During his minority his 
 sister Anne of France was invested with the chief power. 
 In 1491 he married Anne, Duchess of Brittany, who was 
 previously affianced and married by proxy to Maxi- 
 milian of Austria. The latter, resenting this affront, 
 declared war, and formed a coalition with Henry VII. 
 of England. Charles hastened to settle this difficulty 
 by negotiation, in order that he might be at liberty to 
 pursue his favourite design of the conquest of Naples, 
 which was ruled by a prince of the house of Aragon. 
 In 1494, with an army of 30,000 men, he marched into 
 Italy, found an ally in Ludovico Sforza, and in February, 
 1495, took Naples without serious resistance. Ferdinand 
 of Spain, the emperor, and several Italian powers, com- 
 bined against Charles, who, after staying a few months 
 in Naples, marched homeward with 8000 men, and 
 defeated a much larger army of the allies at Fomovo. 
 The small army which he had left in Naples was soon 
 expelled by the Spaniards. Charles is represented as 
 having been amiable and gracious in the highest degree. 
 
 He died in 1498 ; and, as he left no children, the crown 
 passed to the Duke of Orleans, Louis XII. 
 
 See T. Godefroy, "Histoire de Charles VIII;" Philippe d« 
 Segur, "Histoire de Charles VIII," 1835: Antoine Varillas, 
 "Histoire de Charles VIII," 1691 ; Philippe de Comines, " Me- 
 moires." 
 
 Charles IX., King of France, the second son of 
 Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, was born at Saint- 
 Germain-en-Laye in 1550. Succeeding his brother, 
 Francis II., he ascended the throne in December, 1560. 
 During his minority his mother was the master-spirit 
 of the government, and Antoine de Bourbon, King of 
 Navarre, was lieutenant-general. Before his accession 
 the question of religious reform had arrayed against 
 each other two powerful parties, the Catholics and the 
 Huguenots, the latter of whom had been persecuted in 
 the preceding reign and were determined to assert by 
 force their religious liberty. The Duke of Guise was 
 the leader of the Catholic partv, which was supported 
 by the court and the people of Paris. The Protestants, 
 led by the Prince of Conde, by Coligni, etc., formed the 
 majority in the south and west of France. 
 
 Catherine, who was jealous of the influence of the 
 Guise family, adopted the subtle policy of holding the 
 balance of power ; and her intrigues tended rather to 
 foment the civil war, which began in 1562.' The King 
 of Navarre, who commanded the Catholic army, was 
 killed at the siege of Rouen, in the same year. In Feb- 
 ruary of the next year the Duke of Guise was assas- 
 sinated while pressing the siege of Orleans ; and a few 
 weeks later a treaty of peace was signed between the 
 two factions. Charles was declared of age in 1563 ; but 
 he remained under the control of his mother, who had 
 infused into him her perfidious principles. The war was 
 several times renewed, and suspended by treaties in 
 which neither party had confidence. The Protestants 
 were defeated at Saint-Denis, (1567,) and Jarnac, (1569,) 
 where the Prince of Conde was killed. 
 
 In 1570 Charles married Elizabeth, the daughter of 
 the emperor Maximilian II., and made overtures which 
 resulted in a treaty of peace with the Huguenots. The 
 term's were favourable to the latter; but it is generally 
 believed that the treaty was part of a scheme of deeply- 
 meditated treachery, on the part of Catherine at least. 
 If Charles was accessary to the plot, he must have acted 
 the part of a consummate dissembler. He invited Co- 
 ligni and the other chiefs of that party to court, treated 
 them with favour and apparent cordiality, and succeeded 
 in allaying their suspicions, especially after he had con- 
 tracted a marriage between his sister Margaret and 
 Henry of Navarre, which was celebrated in August, 1572. 
 While the Protestant chiefs were sharing the nuptial 
 festivities in Paris, on the night of August 24, ("Saint 
 Bartholomew's Day,") the signal for the massacre was 
 given. The fanatical populace of Paris, instigated by 
 princes, nobles, and the high officers of the court, be- 
 came willing agents in the murderous work. The mas- 
 sacre continued several days in Paris, where the number 
 of victims was computed at about ten thousand ; and 
 similar scenes were enacted in the provinces. Charles 
 admitted that he had consented to this enormous crime, 
 but sought to palliate it by affirming that a conspiracy 
 against his life had been detected. His brother, the 
 Duke of Anjou, appears to have been one of the prime 
 managers of the plot. After suffering the agonies of 
 remorse, Charles died, without issue, in 1574, and was 
 succeeded by the Duke of Anjou as Henry III. 
 
 See Varillas, " Histoire de Charles IX," 16S3; Sismondi and 
 H. Martin, " Histoire de France ;" Walter Anderson, " History 
 of France during the- Reigns of Francis II. and Charles IX.," 5 
 vols., 1769-82. 
 
 Charles X., King of France, born at Versailles in 
 October, 1757, was the son of the dauphin, (who was 
 eldest son of Louis XV.,) and was the youngest brother 
 of Louis XVI. He received at birth the name of Charles 
 Philippe and the title of Comte d'Artois. In 1773 he 
 married Maria Theresa of Savoy, daughter of the King 
 of Sardinia, by whom he had two sons, the Due d'An- 
 gouleme and the Due de Berry. He constantly opposed 
 all concessions to the Revolution from the first, and was 
 one of the foremost to join in the royalist emigration of 
 1789. In the ensuing years he visited several courts of 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u. y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
:harles 
 
 575 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 Europe, soliciting aid and levying war against the French 
 republic. After the death of Louis XVI. he received 
 the title of Mousiair. Having persuaded Charette, the 
 Vendean chief, to renew the civil war, and having ob- 
 tained .111 army in England, he commanded the expedition 
 of Quiberon in 1795, which was a disastrous failure. 
 Without landing on the soil of France, he returned to 
 England; and Charette wrote to Louis XVIII., "The 
 cowardice of your brother has ruined all." 
 
 Bonaparte having ceased to reign, the Count d'Artois 
 entered Paris with the allied army in April, 1814, and 
 exclaimed, " There is nothing changed in France : there is 
 only one Frenchman the more!"* He ascended the throne, 
 September 16, 1824, under favourable circumstances, and 
 his accession was attended with general rejoicing. Vil- 
 lele and other ministers of the late king were retained ; 
 but a conclave of ecclesiastics obtained an ascendency in 
 the royal council, to which the misfortunes of his reign 
 are ascribed. In 1825 the sacerdotal party procured the 
 passage of a law against sacrilege, punishing with death 
 the profanation of "sacred vases" and "holy wafers." 
 This excited much indignation. In 1827 Charles dis- 
 banded the national guard, which had shown symptoms 
 of disaffection. In January, 1828, the ministry of Villele 
 was superseded by that of M. de Mai tignac, which was 
 formed by a compromise between the extreme royalists 
 and the liberals, and did not enjoy the confidence of the 
 king, who said to them, " Villele's system was mine ; and 
 I hope you will conform yourselves to it." The ministers 
 having been defeated in the Chamber of Deputies, Charles 
 dismissed them in August, 1829, and formed an extreme 
 royalist ministry, at the head of which was the Prince 
 de Polignac, who was also the confidant of the king. 
 The Chamber, which met in March, 1830, voted an ad- 
 dress hostile to the ministers, who, having appealed to 
 the country by a new election, were defeated by a large 
 majority. The king and cabinet then resolved on a coup 
 d'etat. On the 25th of July, 1830, they issued the ordi- 
 nances which infringed the charter and caused an ex- 
 plosion of the monarchy. After a bloody contest of three 
 days' duration in the streets of Paris, between the people 
 and the army under Marmont, the revolution was com- 
 pleted, on the 30th of July, and the Bourbon dynasty 
 ceased to reign. Charles abdicated in favour of his 
 grandson, the Due de Bordeaux, retired to England, 
 and died at Goritz in October, 1836. The qualities of 
 his heart are eulogized by Lamartine and others; but 
 his intellectual capacity was small. Lord Brougham 
 represents him as a furious bigot and a declared enemy 
 of liberty. 
 
 See Vaula belle, " Histoire des deux Restaurations ;" Mont- 
 bel, "Derniere Epoque de l'Histoire de Charles X ;" Lamartine, 
 "History of the Restoration ;" Baillecl, "La France sous le Regne 
 de Charles X," 1824; Lorieux, "Histoire du Regne de Charles 
 X" .834. 
 
 Charles I. of Anjou, King of Naples, Count of An- 
 jou and Provence, bom' about 1220, was the youngest 
 son of Louis VIII. of France. He married Beatrice, 
 daughter of Raimond Berenger, Count of Provence, who 
 appointed him the heir of his dominions. He joined 
 his brother, Saint Louis of France, in a crusade against 
 the Saracens of Egypt, about 1250. Instigated by Pope 
 Urban IV. and his successor, Clement IV., he attacked 
 Manfred, King of Naples, defeated him in 1266, and ob- 
 tained his throne. (See Manfred.) He was an able but 
 tyrannical ruler, and was the head of the Guelph party. 
 His cruelties or extortions provoked the people of Sicily, 
 who revolted, and massacred several thousand French- 
 men at Palermo, on the 30th of March, 1282. This event 
 is called "the Sicilian Vespers." He died in 1285, after 
 he had failed to repress the rebellion in Sicily. 
 
 See Saint Priest, "Histoire de la ConquSte de Naples par 
 Charles d'Aiijuu." 
 
 Charles II., King of Naples, the son of the preceding, 
 was bom in 1248. He was more humane and just than 
 his father. He married Mary, daughter of the King of 
 Hungary ; and their eldest son, Charles Martel, obtained 
 the crown of Hungary in 1290. Charles II. died in 1309, 
 leaving the throne to his son Robert. 
 
 See Sis.moniji, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 • This famous saying was the suggestion of Talleyrand. 
 
 Charles ITX, sometimes called Durazzo, (doo-rat'so,) 
 King of Naples, was a descendant of Charles II. In 
 1378 he commanded the army which Louis of Hungary 
 sent against the Venetians. The pope, Urban, invited 
 him to conquer Naples, which was then ruled by Joanna 
 (or Joan) I. He entered Naples with an army in 1381, 
 and, having put Joanna to death, made himself master 
 of the kingdom. About 1385 a party in Hungary offered 
 him the crown of that country, which he accepted. Soon 
 after he had taken possession of his new kingdom, he 
 was assassinated, in 1386. 
 
 Charles IX, surnamed the Bad, [Fr. le Mauvais, 
 leh mo'vj',] King of Navarre, born in 1332, was the son 
 of Philip, third King of Navarre, and Jeanne of France, 
 who was a daughter of Louis X. He became king in 
 1350, and married the daughter of King John. He was 
 distinguished for talents, courage, and address. Having 
 allied himself with the King of England, he waged war 
 against Charles V. of France. His life was nearly all 
 passed in wars and plots, which, though not successful, 
 inflicted great calamities on France. Died in 1387. 
 
 See Secousse, " Histoire de Charles le Mauvais." 
 
 Charles III., King of Navarre, surnamed THE Noisle, 
 born about 1360, was the son of Charles the Bad, whom 
 he succeeded in 1387. In 1404 he signed a treaty with 
 the French court, by which he renounced his claims to 
 Champagne, Brie, and Evreux, and obtained Nemours, 
 with the title of duke. Died in 1425. 
 
 Charles IV., King of Navarre, bom in 1421, was a 
 son of John II. His mother, Blanche, was a daughter 
 of Charles III. He was a good scholar, and translated 
 the "Ethics" of Aristotle into Spanish. Died in 1461. 
 
 Charles (Carlos) 1 of Spain. See Charles V. 
 
 Charles (or Carlos) II., King of Spain, the son of 
 Philip IV., was born in November, 1661. He was pro- 
 claimed king in October, 1665, under the regency of his 
 mother, Anne of Austria. A war between Spain and 
 France was terminated by the treaty of Nymwegen in 
 1678, when Charles married Louise d'Orleans, a niece 
 of Louis XIV. He was a feeble and indolent ruler, and 
 left the direction of affairs to his ministers. In 1689 he 
 joined a coalition of the great powers against Louis XIV., 
 his brother-in-law. The peace of Ryswick in 1697 ended 
 this war, in which the Spanish armies had been unfortu- 
 nate. As he was childless, and as distempers of body and 
 mind foreboded his early death, he became anxious about 
 the succession to his crown. He made a will in favour 
 of the Prince of Bavaria; but the will had scarcely been 
 signed when that prince died. The principal claimants 
 now were Philip of France, Duke of Anjou, and the 
 Archduke Charles of Austria. The court of Madrid 
 was divided, and the dying king was distracted by a long 
 contest between their partisans. At last he signed, in 
 41700, the memorable testament which recognized the 
 claim of the Bourbon prince, who became Philip V., and 
 caused the long European war of the Spanish succession. 
 Died in November, 1700. 
 
 See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iv.; John Dunlop, 
 " Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II., 
 2 vols., 1834; "Spain under Charles IL: Extracts from the Corre- 
 spondence of Alexander Stanhope," edited by Philip Henry Ma- 
 hon, 1840; "Leben S. M. Caroli II. Kbnigsin Spanien," Leipsic, 1708. 
 
 Charles III., King of Spain, the second son of Philip 
 V. and Elizabeth Farnese, was born in January, 1716. 
 His father ceded to him the crown of the Two Sicilies 
 in 1734. He married Amelia, a Saxon princess. His 
 reign in Naples was rather prosperous and peaceful until 
 he ascended the throne of Spain, left vacant by the death 
 of his elder brother, Ferdinand VI., in August, 1759. He 
 became the ally of France in the war against England in 
 1762, in accordance with the Family Compact which had 
 been formed between the branches of the house of Bour- 
 bon. He directed his attention to the improvement of 
 the condition of his subjects, by promoting industry, 
 arts, and education, in which he was seconded bv his 
 ministers Florida, Blanca, and Campomanes. When 
 his reforms excited a sedition among the populace of 
 Madrid, Charles said, "My subjects are like infants, that 
 cry when one goes to wash them." He restricted the 
 power of the Inquisition, and expelled the Jesuits en 
 masse from Spain and all his dominions, in 1767. In 
 
 . " --«.- -,-~ — x — — — — , ... •/•'/. «■! 
 
 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (Jiy*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 « as k, 
 
CHARLES 
 
 576 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 1779 Charles declared war against England, which was 
 then involved in a contest with France. The combined 
 fleets and armies of France and Spain failed to capture 
 Gibraltar, after a long siege ; but Spain recovered Mi- 
 norca and Florida from the English. He died in 1788, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Charles IV. His reign 
 appears to have been beneficial to Spain. He possessed 
 a good disposition and sound judgment. 
 
 See Bkccatini, "Storia del Regno di Carlo III.,*' 1796; Cabar- 
 rus, " Eloj*io de Carlos III.," 1789; Coxe, " Memoirs of the Kings 
 of Spain of the House of Bourbon," 1813. 
 
 Charles IV., King of Spain, the second son of Charles 
 III. and Maria Amelia of Saxony, was born in Naples 
 in November, 1748. He followed his father to Spain in 
 1759, and then received the title of Prince of the Asturias. 
 In 1765 he married his cousin, Maria Louisa Theresa 
 of Parrpa, a woman of very vicious morals. He became 
 king in December, 1788, and retained Florida Blanca as 
 prime minister. In 1792 the latter was disgraced by the 
 influence of the queen, and his place was supplied by 
 her unworthy favourite, the upstart Godoy. In March, 
 1793, the French republic declared war against Charles, 
 who had shown his hostility by expelling French resi- 
 dents from Spain. The French defeated the Spanish in 
 many battles, and reduced them to sue for peace, which 
 was concluded in July, 1795, when the French conquests 
 in Spain were restored. Charles testified his joy at this 
 result by creating Godoy Prince of Peace, generalissimo, 
 etc. Through the influence of French diplomacy, the 
 Spanish court declared war against England in 1796, and 
 Charles gave up the direction of the government to the 
 queen and her favourite. His son and heir, Ferdinand, 
 in 1807, wrote to Bonaparte complaining of Godoy's 
 misrule and asking protection. After scandalous dis- 
 sensions in the royal family, Charles resigned the throne 
 in favour of his son in March, 1808. Bonaparte then 
 procured an interview with Charles and his son at 
 Bayonne, and extorted from both a renunciation of the 
 Spanish crown. Charles received a liberal pension, 
 became a resident of Rome in 181 1, and died in 1819. 
 
 See Thisrs, "Histoire du Consulat et del'Empire;" Scott, 
 " Life of Napoleon Buonaparte." 
 
 Charles [Sw. Karl or Carl, kaRl] VII., King of 
 Sweden, ought perhaps to have been designated Charles 
 the First. Historians generally agree that the first six 
 Charleses, mentioned by Magnus, are imaginary per- 
 sonages ; yet they have followed usage in recognizing 
 their existence. Charles VII. was the son of Sverker I., 
 King of Gothland. King Eric IX. having been assas- 
 sinated in 1 160, the Swedes elected Charles as his suc- 
 cessor. He married Christina, a niece of the King of 
 Denmark. Canute, a son of Eric IX., supported by a 
 faction of Swedes, killed Charles in 1 168 and reigned in 
 his stead. 
 
 Charles VIII., King of Sweden, called Canutson or 
 Knutson, (knoot'son,) was the son of Canute Bonde, and 
 descended from Eric IX. At the age of twenty-seven 
 he became marshal of the kingdom. Eric XIII. having 
 been dethroned about 1438, Charles was chosen admin- 
 istrator of Sweden in 1440. On the death of Christo- 
 pher, in 144S, he was elected his successor. Christian, 
 King of Denmark, by the aid of his partisans in Sweden, 
 expelled Charles in 1457. and usurped the throne. 
 Charles was restored in 1467, and reigned until his death 
 in 1470. His successor was Stenon Sture, his nephew. 
 
 See Geyer, " Histoire de la Suede." 
 
 Charles IX., King of Sweden, born in 1550, was the 
 fourth son of Gustavus Vasa. About 1568 he co-oper- 
 ated with his brother John and other nobles in dethron- 
 ing Eric XIV. When John died, in 1592, Charles be- 
 came a competitor for the crown against Sigismund, (the 
 son of John,) who was a Catholic and had been chosen 
 King of Poland. In 1593 the legislature decreed that 
 Lutheranism only should be tolerated in Sweden. Charles 
 gained a victory over the army of Sigismund in 1598, and 
 was soon after declared regent. In 1604 he was elected 
 king by the States. He waged war against Russia with 
 success, and founded Gothemburg and other cities. He 
 died in 161 1, leaving the throne to his son, Gustavus 
 Adolphus. 
 
 See Anders Fryxell, "Carl IX.," 1S31. 
 
 Charles X,(or Charles Gusta'vus,)King of Sweden, 
 born at Nykoping in 1622, was the son of John Casimir, 
 Prince of Deux-Ponts, and Catherine, a daughter of 
 Charles IX. In his youth he learned the art of war 
 under Torstenson, commander of the Swedish army. 
 The Estates of the kingdom, in 1649, in accordance with 
 the will of Christina, the queen-regnant, declared him 
 the heir-apparent. On the abdication of Christina, in 
 June, 1654, he began his enterprising and eventful reign. 
 The genius of his uncle Gustavus Adolphus had raised 
 Sweden to a high rank among European powers. The 
 pretensions made by the King of Poland to the Swedish 
 crown having provoked a war, Charles, in 1655, invaded 
 Poland, took Warsaw, the capital, and in three months 
 became master of the whole kingdom. While he was 
 absent, the Danes attacked Sweden. He then made a 
 rapid march against the new enemy, and, crossing the 
 ice in January, 1658, dictated to the vanquished Danes s 
 treaty of peace, by which he acquired Scania and othei 
 provinces. He died in February, 1660, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Charles, whose mother was Hedwige 
 Eleonor of Holstein-Gottorp. 
 
 See S. Puffendorf, "De Rebus gestis Caroli Gustavi," 1696; 
 Lundblad, " Konung Carl X. Gustaf s Histona," 2 vols., 1823-29. 
 
 Charles XI., King of Sweden, the son of Charles X., 
 was born in December, 1655. In 1660 a treaty of peace 
 was made with the restored King of Poland, by which 
 the Swedes retained their conquests on the east shore 
 of the Baltic. Charles began to exercise royal power in 
 1672, and made an alliance with Louis XIV. of France, 
 which in 1674 involved him in a war with Prussia and 
 other powers. Charles defeated the Danes, who invaded 
 Sweden in 1677, but suffered reverses in his German 
 provinces. In 1679 he concluded a peace, and married 
 Ulrica Eleonora, sister of the King of Denmark. He 
 then resolved to observe neutrality in the wars of Europe, 
 and the rest of his reign was peaceful and prosperous, 
 though rather despotic. He promoted manufactures, 
 commerce, sciences, and arts, subverted the power of 
 the senate, and when he died, in 1697, left a flourishing 
 kingdom to his son, Charles XII. 
 
 See John Robinson, "Account of Sweden," 1717; E. Puffen- 
 dorf, "Anecdotes de Suede." 
 
 Charles XII., KingofSweden.a celebrated conqueror, 
 born at Stockholm, June 27, 1682, was the eldest son of 
 Charles XI. and Ulrica Eleonora of Denmark. He was 
 invincibly obstinate from childhood. The only way of 
 moving his will was through the sentiment of honour. 
 He made himself master of Latin, French, and German. 
 He succeeded his father in April 15, 1697, and followed 
 the counsels of Count Piper, who was in fact, though 
 not in name, the prime minister. An opportunity to 
 exert and develop his extraordinary martial genius was 
 soon presented by the cupidity of three kings, who pro- 
 posed to take advantage of his youth and to partition his 
 dominions among themselves. ' These were Peter I. of 
 Russia, Frederick IV. of Denmark, and Augustus, King 
 of Poland, who, in 1700, formed a league against him. 
 With intrepid alacrity he prepared for the unequal 
 contest. He became extremely frugal in his dress, food, 
 and mode of living. His body, by severe exercise, was 
 made proof against fatigue. Denmark having begun the 
 war by attacking the Duke of Holstein, Charles, at the 
 head of his well-disciplined army, left Stockholm (to 
 which he never returned) in May, 1700. Having effected 
 a descent on the isle of Zealand, he besieged Copen- 
 hagen until the Danish king sued for peace, which was 
 concluded in August, 1700. Without delay he marched 
 with 20,000 Swedes against the Czar Peter, who, with 
 about 80,000 men, was besieging Narva. Before the 
 arrival of his main army, Charles began the attack with 
 8000 men, and gained in November, 1700, a complete 
 victory, which filled his adversaries with consternation. 
 
 In the next campaign he invaded Poland, and, after 
 several victories, formed the design of deposing Augustus, 
 which, by the aid of a strong domestic faction, he easily 
 effected. He designated for his successor Stanislas 
 (or Stanislaus) Leczinski, who began to reign in 1704. 
 Augustus having retired to Saxony, of which he was 
 Elector, Charles invaded that country, fixed his camp 
 near Leipsic, and in 1707 dictated conditions of peace 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t; not; good; moon; 
 
CHARLES 
 
 577 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 to the Elector, who then renounced the crown of Poland. 
 He received here the ambassadors of various powers, 
 and among them the Duke of Marlborough, who came 
 to sound his intentions. In September, 1707, with an 
 army of 43,000 men, he marched towards Moscow to 
 dethrone the Czar, whose armies, in the absence of 
 Charles, had seized Ingria and invaded Poland. In 
 June, 1708, he crossed the Berezina, the passage of 
 which Peter disputed without success, and soon after 
 gained some advantages over the Russians. About this 
 time, according to Voltaire, Peter made overtures for 
 peace, to which Charles answered, " 1 will treat with the 
 Czar at Moscow." 
 
 At Smolensko he changed his course, and marched 
 southward, to the Ukraine, where he found an ally in 
 Mazeppa, hctman of the Cossacks. In this march many 
 of his men perished from cold and want of provisions. 
 His operations were suspended in the winter of 1708-09, 
 which was more severe than usual. In the spring his 
 army was reduced to 18,000 Swedes and about as many 
 Cossacks ; but he persisted in his design. While he was 
 pressing the siege of Pultowa, and just after he had re- 
 ceived a wound in the foot, the Czar, with 70,000 men, 
 came to the relief of the city. In the decisive battle of 
 Pultowa, July 8, 1709, Charles was defeated, with a loss 
 of 9000 killed and 6000 prisoners. With a small body 
 of men he retreated to Turkey, where he was received 
 hospitably by the Sultan, who gave him an asylum at 
 Bender. The agents of Russia urged the Sultan to drive 
 him out of Turkey. When the Turks attempted to re- 
 move him, in February, 1 713, he fought madly and des- 
 perately in resistance, was made prisoner, and taken to 
 Demotica. There, feigning to be sick, he kept his bed 
 about ten months. At last he quitted Turkey, and, pass- 
 ing through Hungary and Germany incognito, arrived with 
 one attendant at Stralsund in November, 1714. The 
 Danes, Prussians, and Russians besieged Stralsund, 
 which Charles was forced to surrender in December, 
 1715. While Sweden was threatened with invasion by 
 the allies, Charles invaded Norway, and was killed by a 
 ball at the siege of Frederikshall on the nth of Decem- 
 ber, 1718. He was never married. His sister, Ulrica 
 Eleonora, the wife of Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, was 
 chosen as his successor. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Life of Charles XII. ;" Adlhrfeld, "Histoire 
 de Charles XII," 1740; Nordberg, "Karls XII. Historia," 1740; 
 Samuel Faber, " Ausfulirliche Lebensbeschreibung Konig Karls 
 XII. von Sclnveden," 10 vols., 1705-19; Lundblad, Konung Carls 
 XII. Historia," 2vols., 1830; Jacob le Long, "Leven van de held- 
 haftigen Karel XII.," 6 vols., 1722; Posselt, "Geschichte Carl's 
 XII.," 1804; Frederick II. of Prussia, " Reflexions sur les Talents 
 militaires et sur le Caractere de Charles XII," 1786. 
 
 Charles XIII., King of Sweden, born October 7, 
 1748, was the second son of King Adolphus P'rederick 
 and of Louisa Ulrica, who was a sister of Frederick the 
 Great of Prussia. He was educated for the navy, having 
 been made titular grand admiral in his infancy. In 1772 
 he seconded his brother, Gustavus 1 1 1., in the revolution 
 by which he depressed the aristocracy and initiated a 
 more liberal constitution. For this service he was made 
 Duke of Sudermania. He commanded the fleet in the 
 war against Russia, 1788-90, and fought several indeci- 
 sive battles. In 1792 he was chosen regent during the 
 minority of his nephew, Gustavus IV. He favoured the 
 French Revolution, and refused to join a coalition against 
 France. In 1796 he resigned the government to Gusta- 
 vus IV. By his insane and fanatical conduct the latter 
 prove ked the States of Sweden to dethrone him, and 
 Charles was chosen king, June 5 or 6, 1809. As Charles 
 had no heir, the Swedish Diet in 1810 designated as his 
 successor the French general Marshal Bernadotte, who 
 accepted the dignity of crown-prince and was adopted 
 as a son by Charles XIII. In 1812 the King of Sweden 
 acquired Norway by a treaty with Russia and with the 
 assent of several other powers. Died in February, 1818. 
 
 See Gever, "Histoire de Suede;" Lindgren, "Memoria divi 
 Caroli XIII.," 1818. 
 
 Charles XIV. of Sweden. See Bernadotte. 
 
 Charles (or Carl) XV., (Louis Eugene,) the son 
 of Oscar I., King of Sweden and Norway, was born in 
 1826. He married Wilhelmina, a daughter of Prince 
 Frederick of the Netherlands, in 1850, and succeeded 
 his father in July, 1859, 
 
 Charles, (or Karl,) Archduke of Austria, a celebrated 
 general, born at Florence in I77i,was a younger son of 
 Leopold II., Emperor of Germany. He joined the army 
 in 1793, fought against the French in Flanders, and coin- 
 manded a wing at the battle of Neerwinde. In the spring 
 of 1796 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army 
 of the Rhine. In this campaign he defeated the French 
 under Jourdan at Wurtzburg and other places, and, by 
 nis skilful generalship, forced Moreau to repass the 
 Rhine. He commanded the Austrians and their allies 
 in Germany and Switzerland in 1799. In 1800 he retired 
 from service on account of ill health. He was command- 
 ing in Italy when Bonaparte invaded Austria in 1805, 
 and, on learning the successes of the French, marched 
 his army of 80,000 men to cover Vienna, but did not 
 arrive until after the capture of that city and after the 
 battle of Austerlitz. In 1806 he became chief of the 
 Aulic Council and generalissimo of the Austrian armies. 
 In 1809 he invaded Bavaria, where he encountered Na- 
 poleon and was defeated at Eckmiihl in April. He was 
 compelled to retreat into Bohemia, while the French army 
 entered Vienna in triumph. He commanded at the bat 
 tie of Aspern, (May, 1809,) which, says Alison, "was the 
 first great action in which Napoleon had been defeated." 
 He maintained his reputation at the great battle of Wa- 
 gram, (July, 1809,) where the loss was nearly equal, but 
 the French remained masters of the field. Soon after 
 that event he obtained an armistice from the victor, and 
 resigned the command. He wrote two excellent works, 
 namely, " Principles of Strategy," (1814,) and a " His 
 toryofthe Campaign in Germany and Switzerland in 
 ■799." (1819.) Died in 1847. His son, Archduke Al 
 bert, has also distinguished himself as a general. 
 
 See Thiers, "Histoire du Consulat et de TEmpire;" Eduari 
 Duller, " Erzherzog Carl," 1845 ; Scott, " Life of Napoleon Buona- 
 parte :" Schneidawind, "Carl Erzherzog von Oesterreich," 1840; 
 "Erzherzog Carl, sein Leben," etc., Berlin, 1847; "London Quar- 
 terly Review" for March, 1820. 
 
 Charles de Bi.ois, shiRl deh blwa, or de Chatillon, 
 deh shi'te'ydN', Duke of Bretagne, (breh-ttn',) was a 
 nephew of Philip of Valois, King of France. Having 
 married Jeanne of Bretagne, he claimed the dukedom of 
 Bretagne at the death oi" Duke Jean III., (1340.) This 
 claim was disputed by Count de Montfort, a brother 
 of the late duke, and occasioned a war of twenty-three 
 years, in which De Montfort was aided by Edward III. 
 of England. The army of Charles, commanded by Du 
 Guesclin, was defeated in 1364, at the battle of Aurai, in 
 which Charles was killed. 
 
 See Froirsart, "Chronicles." 
 
 Charles, Duke of Brunswick. See Brunswick. 
 
 Charles the Bold, [Fr. Charles le Hardy, (or 
 Hardi,) shSRl Ieh htR'de'; Ger. Karl (or Carl) der 
 Kuiine, kaRl deR kii'neh ; Lat. Car'olus Pug'nax, i.e. 
 " Charles the Quarrelsome" or " Warlike,"] sometimes 
 called Charles the Rash, [Fr. Charles le Teme- 
 raire, leh ta'ma'rSR',] Duke of Burgundy, born at Dijon 
 in 1433, was the son of Philippe "the Good" and Isa- 
 bella of Portugal. He was styled Count de Charolais 
 before the death of his father. In 1467 he succeeded his 
 father, and the next year married Margaret, the sister 
 of Edward IV. of England. His violence and ambition 
 rendered him the scourge of adjoining nations. He 
 waged war against Louis XI. of France, and Rene, Duke 
 of Lorraine. Having invaded Lorraine, he was defeated 
 and killed in battle near Nancy, in 1477, by Rene and his 
 Swiss allies. His daughter Mary was the heiress of his 
 dominions, (which included the Low Countries,) and 
 became the wife of the emperor Maximilian I. She was 
 a grandmother of the emperor Charles V. 
 
 See Kirk. " History of Charles the Bold," 1863; Comines, " Mi- 
 moires;'* Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais ;" Jules Michelet, 
 "Louis XI et Charles le IMmeraire," 1853; Becker, "Karl der 
 Kiihne, Herzog von Burgund," 1792. 
 
 Charles (de Franck.JsIiSrI deh fRftNss, Charles I. of 
 Lorraine, (lo'rin',) second son of Louis IV. Outremer, 
 was born in 953, and became Duke of Lorraine. He 
 waged war with Hugh Capet for the throne of France, 
 was made prisoner and confined until his death in 993. 
 
 Charles II., Duke of Lorraine, born at Toul about 
 1364, was the son of Jean I., whom he succeeded in 1390. 
 About 1396 he fought for the Teutonic knights against 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 37 
 
CHARLES 
 
 578 
 
 CHARLES 
 
 the King of Prussia, whom he took prisoner. He fought 
 at Agincourt in 141 5, after which he was chosen Con- 
 stable of France. He died in 143 1. His daughter and 
 heiress was married to Rene of Anjou. 
 
 Charles III, called the Great, Duke of Lorraine, 
 born at Nancy in 1543, was the son of Francis I., who 
 died in 1545. He married Claude, the daughter of Henry 
 II. of France, in 1559. He died in 1608, leaving the duchy 
 to his son Henry. 
 
 Charles I, (01 Charles Frederick,) Duke of Hol- 
 stein-Gottorp, (hol'stin got'toRp,) born at Stockholm in 
 1700, was the son of Frederick IV., whom he succeeded 
 in 1 702. He married, in 1725, Anne of Russia, a daughter 
 of Peter the Great. He lost Sleswick, which was con- 
 quered by the Danes. Died in 1739. 
 
 Charles of Anjou, Count of Maine (min) and Duke 
 of Calabria, a French prince of the fifteenth century, was 
 the son of Charles, Count of Maine, and was a nephew 
 of Rene, King of Sicily, by whose will, in 1480, he be- 
 came Count of Provence. Charles died In 1481, and 
 bequeathed Provence to Louis XI. of France. 
 
 Charles of Dkn.mark, Count of Flanders, was the 
 son of Canute, King of Denmark. At an early age he 
 distinguished himself in the crusade against the Saracens 
 of Palestine, and in 1 1 19 became Count of Flanders, at the 
 death of Baldwin, who chose him for his heir. His repu- 
 tation for piety and virtue was such that the throne of Jeru- 
 salem was offered to him during the captivity of Baldwin 
 II.; but he declined it. He was assassinated in 1127. 
 
 Charles of Lorraine. See Lorraine. 
 
 Charles (Carlo) II., (Louis de Bourbon — deh 
 booR'bdN',) Prince of Parma, etc., born in 1799, is a son 
 of Louis, King of Etruria, and of Maria Louisa of Spain. 
 • He inherited the duchy of Lucca in 1824, and ceded the 
 same to Tuscany in 1847. At the death of Maria Louisa 
 (ex-Empress of France) in 1847, he became Archduke 
 or Prince of Parma. He abdicated in favour of his son, 
 Carlo III., in 1849. 
 
 Charles (Carlo) III., (Ferdinand Joseph Victor 
 Balthasar de Bourbon,) Duke of Parma, the son of 
 the preceding, was born in 1823. He became duke in 
 1849, before which he had married a French princess, 
 daughter of the Due de Berry, and granddaughter of 
 Charles X. He was assassinated in Parma in 1854. 
 
 Charles (Carlo) I, Duke of Sav'oy, born in 1458, 
 succeeded his brother, Philibert I., about 1472. Died 
 in 1489. 
 
 Charles (Carlo) II, a son of the preceding, born in 
 1489 ; died in 1497. 
 
 Charles (Carlo) HZ, Duke of Savoy, was born in 
 Bugey in i486, and succeeded his brother, Philibert II. 
 He was an uncle of Francis I. of France. In 1521 he mar- 
 ried Beatrix, a daughter of Emmanuel, King of Portugal. 
 She was a sister of the queen of the emperor Charles V., 
 and influenced her husband to become the ally of Charles 
 in the war against Francis I. The army of the latter 
 overran Savoy in 1 535, and Geneva shook off the yoke 
 of the duke, who thus lost the greater part of his do- 
 minions. Died in 1553. He was succeeded by his son, 
 Emanuel Philibert. 
 
 See Vincent, " Histoire de Savoie." 
 
 Charles, shiRl, (Claude,) a French painter, born at 
 Nancy in 1661 ; died in 1747. 
 
 Charles, (Jacques Alexandre Cesar,) a French 
 savant, noted for his experiments in electricity and bal- 
 looning, was born at Beaugency in 1746. lie acquired 
 a wide reputation by repeating Franklin's experiments 
 which proved the identity of lightning with the electric 
 fluid, and became a popular lecturer on physical science 
 in Paris. He made a great improvement in the balloon 
 which Montgolfier invented, by substituting hydrogen 
 gas for heated air. He and M. Robert were the first 
 persons who ventured to ascend in a balloon. They 
 ascended from the Tuileries in December, 1783, to the 
 height of 7000 feet, and came down safely nine leagues 
 from the place of ascent. He was a member of the In- 
 stitute, and was pensioned by Louis XVI. Died in 1823. 
 
 Charles, (Elizabeth Rundle,) a popular English 
 writer, the only child of the late John Rundle, formerly 
 member of Parliament for Tavistock, Devonshire, was 
 born about 1826. She was married about 185 1 to Andrew 
 
 P. Charles, Esq., of London. She has published a num- 
 ber of fictitious works, which have enjoyed an extensive 
 and deserved popularity. Among the most important 
 of these are the "Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta 
 Family," (1863,) and the " Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevylyan," 
 (1864.) She has also written "The Martyrs of Spain 
 and Liberators of Holland," and other works. 
 
 Charles Al'bert,[ It. Carlo Alberto, kaR'lo 51 -beR'- 
 to,] King of Sardinia, born in 1798, was a son of Prince 
 Charles Emanuel of Savoy-Carignan. He married in 1817 
 Maria Theresa, a daughter of the grand duke Ferdinand 
 of Tuscany. In 1829 he was appointed Viceroy of the 
 island of Sardinia. He succeeded Charles Felix as king 
 in April, 183 1, and made some liberal reforms in the 
 government. About the time of the electioji of Pope 
 Pius IX. he granted a constitution to his subjects, and 
 rendered himself popular. He put himself at the head 
 of the movement for Italian independence in the spring 
 of 1848. After gaining several victories over the Aus- 
 trians, his army was entirely defeated at Novara, March, 
 1849. He abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Eman- 
 uel, and died in July, 1849. 
 
 See Akdreozzi, "Vitadi Carlo Alberto," 1850: Martini, " Me- 
 morie intorno alia Vita del Re Carlo Alberto," 1850. 
 
 Charles Au-gus'tus, (of Sleswick Holstein Sonder- 
 burg,) Prince-Royal of Sweden, and Prince of Augusten- 
 burg, was born about 1766. He commanded a Danish 
 army against the Swedes in 1808, and gained the esteem 
 of the latter. In 1809 he was adopted as son by Charles 
 XIII., and designated as the heir to the throne by the 
 States of Sweden. Died in 1810. 
 
 Charles d'Orleans, sIiSrI doR'la'SN', Comte d'An- 
 gouleme, (do.N'goo'le'uv',) born in Paris in 1391, was the 
 son of Louis, Duke of Orleans, who was the brother of 
 Charles VI. of France. In the civil war of the Arma- 
 gnacs and Burgundians he was a leader of the former. 
 At the battle of Agincourt, in 1415, he was made prisoner, 
 and as such detained in England until 1440. He com- 
 posed numerous verses admired for elegant simplicity, 
 and is said to have been one of the best writers of his 
 time. He died in 1465, leaving a son, who became King 
 Louis XII. 
 
 Charles deValois.shtRl deh vt'lwa', Count of Maine 
 and Anjou, born in 1270, was the third son of Philip III. 
 of France. He was reputed one of the greatest captains 
 of his time. He drove out of Florence the Ghibelines, 
 including Dante, waged war against Frederick of Aragon, 
 and conquered part of Sicily. He commanded with suc- 
 cess against the English in Guienne a short time before 
 his death, which occurred in 1325. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Charles Ed-ward Stuart, called the Pretender, 
 born at Rome in 1720 or 1721, was a grandson of James 
 II. of England. His father James having resigned his 
 clajm to the throne in favour of Charles Edward, the 
 latter passed from France to Scotland, with a few attend- 
 ants, in July, 1745. His standard was joined by a large 
 body of Highlanders, and he entered Edinburgh on the 
 17th of September. A few days later they encountered 
 at Preston Pans a royal army, which was seized with a 
 panic and fled in disorder. The Pretender marched south 
 as far as Derby, then retreated to Scotland, pursued by 
 the Duke of Cumberland, who defeated the rebels at 
 Culloden in April, 1746. Charles Edward concealed 
 himself in the Western Isles, had many romantic adven- 
 tures, and, by the aid of Flora Macdonald, escaped from 
 his pursuers to France in September, 1746. He passed 
 the latter part of his life at Rome, became intemperate, 
 and died in 1788. His wife was afterwards married to 
 Alfieri. 
 
 See Amt£di£e Pichot, " Histoire de Charles Fldouard," etc. 
 
 Charles Emaii'uel I, Duke of Sav'oy, surnamed 
 theGreat, born in 1562, succeeded his father, Philibert 
 Emanuel, in 1580. He married Catherine, the daughter 
 of Philip II. of Spain. He was ambitious and warlike, 
 and waged a long war against Henry IV. of France. 
 Died in 1630. 
 
 His son, Victor Amadeus I., succeeded him. Another 
 son, Thomas, Prince of Carignano, was a distinguished 
 general. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, f Jt; met; not; good; moon - 
 
CHARLES 
 
 579 
 
 CHARLOTTE 
 
 Charles Emanuel H., Duke of Savoy, born about 
 1633, was the son of Victor Amadeus 1 whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 1638. His reign was mostlj l-acific. Died in 
 1675. 
 
 Charles Emanuel TJX, King of Sardinia, the son 
 of Victor Amadeus II., was born at Turin in 1701, and 
 succeeded his father in September, 1730. In 1733 he 
 joined France and Spain in a war against Austria, and, 
 at the head of the allied armies, conquered the Milanese. 
 In the general war which began in 1741 he declared for 
 Maria Theresa of Austria, and fought against the French 
 and Spaniards, who defeated him at Coni in 1744. He 
 died in 1773, with the reputation of a wise and able ruler, 
 and left the throne to his son, Victor Amadeus III. 
 
 See Semeria, "Storia del Re di Sardegna Carlo Emmanuele," 
 2 vols., 1831. 
 
 Charles Emanuel IV., King of Sardinia, the eldest 
 son of Victor Amadeus III., was born at Turin in May, 
 1751. In 1775 he married Marie Clotilde, a sister of 
 Louis XVI. of France. In 1792 Savoy and Nice were 
 conquered by the French, who, in 1796, dictated the 
 terms of peace. Charles Emanuel became king in Oc- 
 tober, 1796, and found the kingdom in a miserable con- 
 dition. His reign was disturbed by insurrections proba- 
 bly fomented by the French Directory. His fortresses, 
 arsenals, etc. having been seized by French troops, he 
 was compelled to abdicate in December, 1798, when he 
 retired to the island of Sardinia. In 1802 he abdicated 
 in favour of his brother, Victor Emanuel I. Died at 
 Rome in 1819. 
 
 See Bettoli, " Elogio storico di Sua Maesta Carlo Emmanuele." 
 1S.4. 
 
 Charles Fe'lix [It. Carlo Felice, kaR'lo fa-lee'- 
 cha] 1, King of Sardinia, born at Turin in 1765, was the 
 fourth son of Victor Amadeus III., and was styled Due 
 de Genes, (or Genoa.) In 1807 he married Maria Chris- 
 tina, daughter of the King of Naples. When his brother, 
 Victor Emanuel, recovered Piedmont in 1814, Charles 
 Felix remained in the island of Sardinia as viceroy. In 
 March, 1821, a revolution occurred in Piedmont, and 
 Victor Emanuel, rather than accept the constitution of- 
 fered by the insurgents, abdicated the crown, to which 
 Charles Felix, as the lawful heir, succeeded. He sup- 
 pressed the revolt by vigorous measures, and reigned in 
 peace until his death in 1831. He left no issue, and was 
 the last king of the elder branch of the house of Savoy. 
 The crown then passed to Charles Albert, Prince of 
 Carignano. 
 
 Charles Gustavus. See Charles X., King of 
 Sweden. 
 Charles le Chauve. See Charles I. of France. 
 Charles le Gros. See Charles III., Emperor. 
 Charles le Hardy, (or Hardi.) See Charles the 
 Bold, page 577. 
 
 Charles le Mauvais. See Charles the Bad, King 
 of Navarre. » 
 
 Charles le Sage. See Charles V. of France. 
 Charles le Simple. See Charles III. of France. 
 Charles le Temeraire. See Charles the Bold. 
 Charles Mar'tel', [Ft. pron. shiRl mtR'tel',) King 
 of the Franks, and grandfather of Charlemagne, was born 
 about 694 a.d. lie was the son of Pepin d'Heristal, 
 Duke of Austrasia, and mayor of the palace under the last 
 Merovingian kings. About 715 he succeeded his father as 
 mayor of the palace, and king in reality, while Chilperic 
 II. was only the phantom of royalty. A large army of 
 Saracens from Spain having invaded his kingdom, he 
 gained an important victory over them near Poitiers in 
 732. He received his surname of Martel (hammer) in 
 consequence of this victory, which gave a fatal blow to 
 the power of the Saracens. He was successful in wars 
 against the Saxons and other German tribes. He died 
 in 741 a.d., and was succeeded by his sons Carloman 
 and Pepin le Bref. 
 
 See Eduard Cauer, "Dissertatio de Karolo Martello," 1848; 
 Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais;" Baron de Nilinse, "Charles 
 Martel: Histoire des Maires du Palais," 1851. 
 
 Charles Martel of Hungary, was a son of Charles 
 TI. of Naples, and Mary, Princess of Hungary. He ob- 
 tained the crown of Hungary in 1290, and died in 1295, 
 leaving it to his son Charobert. 
 
 Charles Phil'ip, Duke of Suderma'nia, etc., born at 
 Revel in 1601, was the son of Charles IX. and brother 
 of Gustavus Adolphus. The Swedish army having con- 
 quered many provinces of Russia, the regency of Novo- 
 gorod offered the throne to Charles Philip in 161 1. 
 After a long delay, he went to Viborg to accept the offer; 
 but Michael Romanow was proclaimed king at Moscow. 
 Charles formally renounced the crown in 1614, and died 
 in 1622. 
 
 Charles Quint. See Charles V., Emperor of Ger- 
 many. 
 Cnarles Robert See Charobert. 
 Charles the Rash. See Charles the Bold, 
 Duke of Burgundy, page 577. 
 
 Charlet, shaVii', (Nicolas Toussaint,) a French 
 painter, designer, and lithographer, born in Paris in 1792. 
 His painting of an " Episode of the Russian Campaign" 
 is highly praised. Died in 1845. 
 
 See Jules Janin, " N. T. Charlet, Artiste," 1847. 
 Charle'ton, (Lewis,) an English bishop, (of Here- 
 ford,) noted for learning. Died in 1369. 
 
 Charle'ton or Charl'ton, (Robert M.,) an American 
 lawyer and poet, born at Savannah, Georgia, in 1807. 
 He published a volume of poems in 1838, and was elected 
 United States Senator in 1852. Died in 1854. 
 
 Charleton or Charlton, (Walter,) F.R.S.,an emi- 
 nent and learned English physician, born at Shepton- 
 Mallet in 1619. Having graduated in 1642, he became 
 phvsician to Charles I., and practised some years in 
 London. After the restoration (1660) he was physician- 
 in-ordinary to Charles II. In 1689 he was chosen pres- 
 ident of the College of Physicians. He wrote, besides 
 professional works, " Epicurus his Morals," " Chorea 
 Gigantum," a treatise on Stonehenge, and " Onomasti- 
 con Zoicon," a valuable work, in which he attempts to 
 determine the class, order, genus, and species of animals 
 vaguely designated by authors under diverse names. 
 Died in 1707. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Elov, " Dictionnaire de la Mide- 
 cine." 
 
 Charleval, de, deh shiRl'vil', (Charles Faucon 
 de Ris — fo'koN' deh re,) Seigneur, a French versifier, 
 born in Normandy about 1612. " He was one of those," 
 says Voltaire, " who acquired celebrity by the delicacy 
 of their wit, without devoting themselves (se livrer trop) 
 to the public." He wrote fugitive poems, and the famous 
 " Conversation of Marshal d'Hocquincourt with P. Ca- 
 naye," printed in the works of Saint-Evremond. Died 
 in 1693. 
 
 See Feller, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 Charlevoix, de, deh shSR-leh-vwa' or shiRl'vwa', 
 (Pierre Francois Xavier,) a French Jesuit and author, 
 born at Saint-Quentin in 1682. He went to Canada as 
 a missionary in 1720, explored Lakes Huron and Michi- 
 gan, descended the Mississippi to its mouth, and re- 
 turned to France by way of Saint Domingo in 1722. He 
 wrote many years for the "Journal de Trevoux," and 
 compiled a " History and Description of Japan," (1715,) 
 and a "History of Canada," (3 vols., 1744,) the latter 
 containing a journal of his travels. These works are 
 valuable, though not free from partiality and credulity. 
 Died in 1761. 
 
 See Feller, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 Charlier, shSR'le-A', (Charles,) a French Jacobin, 
 born at Laon, was a member of the National Conven- 
 tion in 1792. Died in 1797. 
 Charlier, (Jean.) See Gerson. 
 Charlotte'(shar'lot) of Cyprus, was the daughter of 
 John III. of Lusignan, King of Cyprus. She was married, 
 in 1459, to Louis of Savoy. She failed in her attempt 
 to obtain the throne of Cyprus, of which she was the 
 legal heiress. Died in 1487. 
 
 See E. de Lusignan, " Histoire de Chypre." 
 Char'lotte Au-gus'ta, Princess of Wales, commonly 
 known as Princess Charlotte, the daughter of George 
 IV. of England and his queen Caroline, was born at 
 Carlton House in 1796. When a final separation took 
 place between the king and queen, she was regarded 
 as the future queen of England. The English court 
 favoured a marriage between Charlotte and the Prince 
 
 z as*, 5 as s; | hard; g as/; G, H, K,gtittural; N, nasal, *, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHARLOTTE 
 
 580 
 
 CHARPENTIER 
 
 of Orange ; but she preferred Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, to 
 whom she was married in 1816. She died in childbirth 
 in November, 1817, universally regretted by the British 
 people. 
 
 See " Memoir of the Life of the Princess Charlotte," by Robert 
 Huish, London, 1818; " Autobiography of Miss Cornelia Knight," 
 London, 1861 ; " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1862. 
 
 Charlotte Elizabeth. See Tonna, Mrs. 
 
 Charlton. See Charleton. 
 
 Charma, shtR'mf, (Antoine,) a French writer, born 
 in the department of Nievre in 180 1, became professor of 
 philosophy at Caen about 1830. He published "Lessons 
 of Social and Logical Philosophy," (1840,) an "Essay 
 on Oriental Philosophy," (1842,) and other works. 
 
 Charmeil, shSR'mil' or shaVini'ye, (Pierre Marie 
 Joseph,) a French surgeon, born in 1782 ; died in 1830. 
 
 Charmetton, shiR'mi'tdN', (Jkan Baptiste, ) a 
 French surgeon, born at Lyons in 1710; died in 1781. 
 
 See Figuet, "Vie de M. Charmetton," 1781. 
 
 ■ehar'mi-dea, [Xap/u(h)c,] an Athenian philosopher, 
 born about 450 B.C., was a maternal uncle of Plato, and 
 first-cousin of Critias, one of the Thirty Tyrants. He was 
 a pupil of Socrates. Having been appointed one of the 
 ten tyrants whom Lysander established in the Piraeus, 
 he was killed in battle by the army of Thrasybu'lus about 
 404 B.C. 
 
 See Plato, "Charmides;" Xenophon, "Memorabilia." 
 
 ■Char'mis, a physician, born at Marseilles, settled at 
 Rome in the reign of Nero. His favourite remedy was 
 the cold bath. 
 
 Charnace, de, deh shSR'nt'sa', (Hercui.e Girard,) 
 Baron, an able French diplomatist, born in Anjou or, 
 according to some authorities, Bretagne. Through the 
 influence of Richelieu, he was appointed ambassador to 
 Sweden in 1628, and negotiated an important alliance 
 with Gustavus Adolphus. He was killed at the siege 
 of Breda, (1637,) where he fought, with the rank of 
 colonel, for the Prince of Orange. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Charnage. See Dunod. 
 
 Charnes, de, deh shinn, (Jean Antoine,) a French 
 abbe, born at Avignon in 1641, was preceptor of the son 
 of Louvois in Paris. He published a "Life of Tasso," 
 abridged from the Italian of G. B. Manso. Died in 1728. 
 
 Char'nock, (John,) an English writer, born in 1756. 
 After leaving Oxford, he studied naval and military 
 tactics, and served some time in the navy. He wrote 
 several esteemed works, viz., " Naval Biography," (" Bio- 
 graphia Navalis," 6 vols., 1796,) a " History of Marine 
 Architecture," (1800,) and a "Life of Nelson," (1806.) 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Charnock, (Stephen,) an eminent English noncon- 
 formist divine, born in London in 1628. After preaching 
 some time in Dublin, he was ejected for nonconformity 
 in 1662. For about fifteen years he was a popular min- 
 ister of a dissenting congregation in London. He wrote 
 " Discourses on the Existence and Attributes of God," 
 (1682,) a powerful and original work, highly commended 
 by competent critics, and a " Discourse on the Salvation 
 of Sinners." Two volumes of his sermons were pub- 
 lished in 1682-83. His st y le is a model of sententious 
 brevity. Died in 1680. 
 
 Chamois, de, deh shtR'nwa', (Jean Chari.es Leva- 
 cher — leh-vt'sha',) a French journalist and litterateur, 
 born in Paris about 1750. He was executed in Septem- 
 ber, 1792. 
 
 Charobert, shS'ro'baiR', Caribert, kf're'baiR', or 
 Charles Robert, King of Hungary, was a son of King 
 Charles Martel, and a grandson of Charles II., King of 
 Naples. He began to reign in 13 1 2, and raised Hungary 
 to a high degree of power and splendour. He died in 
 1342, leaving the throne to his son, Louis I. 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Charolais, Count de. See Charles the Bold. 
 
 ■eha'ron, [Gr. Xapuv,] the ferryman who conveyed 
 the souls of the dead across the rivers of Hades. The 
 poets represent him as the son of Erebus and Nox. 
 
 See VjRjIi.'s "jEneid," book vi. 
 
 Charon [Xupuv] of Lampsacus, an ancient Greek 
 historian, who was anterior to Herodotus, and lived 
 
 probably about 500 B.C. He wrote a " History of Persia," 
 and several other histories, of which only small fragments 
 are extant. 
 
 Charon of Thebes was a prominent actor in the con- 
 spiracy or revolution which, under the direction of Pelo- 
 pidas, subverted the power of the aristocratic party in 
 Thebes in 379 B.C. Pelopidas, Charon, and Melon were 
 then chosen chief magistrates of that state. 
 
 Charon, sht'roN', (Viala,) a French general and 
 senator, born in Paris in 1794. He served in Algeria as 
 officer of engineers with distinction from 1835 to 1845, and 
 after the fall of Louis Philippe, in 1848, became general 
 of division. He was afterwards chosen president of the 
 committee of fortifications, and a senator. 
 
 ■Cha-ron'das, \Xapuvdac,\ an eminent Greek legisla- 
 tor, born at Catania, in Sicily, lived about 650 B.C. His 
 laws, which were in verse, were adopted by the Athe- 
 nians and other nations. 
 
 See Aristotle, " Politica ;" Cicero, " De Legibus." 
 
 Charost, de, deh sht'ro', (Armand Joseph de Be- 
 thune — deh ba'tim',) Due, an opulent French philan- 
 thropist and economist, born at Versailles in 1728, was 
 a descendant of the statesman Sully. He served in the 
 army from 1745 to 1763, and became a lieutenant-general, 
 He founded hospitals and other benevolent institutions. 
 and made improvements in agriculture, on which he pub- 
 lished several treatises. Louis XV. once said, pointing 
 to him, "There is a man who vivifies three of my pro- 
 vinces." In the reign of terror he was imprisoned for 
 six months, ending on the 9th Thermidor, 1794. Died 
 in 1800. 
 
 See De Saint-Amand, " Biographie du Due de B^thune-Cha- 
 rost;" "Nouvelle Biographie Genirale." 
 
 Charpentier, shlR'pfiN'te-i', (Francois,) a French 
 author, born in Paris in l62oT He became in 165 1 a 
 member of the French Academy, of which he was also 
 perpetual director. He was one of the first members of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions, and the principal designer 
 of the medals struck in 1702 to commemorate the events 
 of the reign of Louis XIV. Among his numerous works, 
 which display talents and learning, are " A Life of Socra- 
 tes," (1650,) "The Excellence of the French Language," 
 (1695,) and "A Journey to the Tranquil Valley," a tale. 
 Died in 1702. He warmly maintained that inscriptions 
 on monuments in France should be in French rather 
 than in Latin. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Charpentier, (Francois Philippe,) an ingenious 
 French mechanician, born at Blois in 1734, invented a 
 process for making coloured engravings from paintings, 
 which procured him the title of mechanician to the king ; 
 also, a fire-engine, which was generally used. Died in 
 1817. 
 
 Charpentier, (Henri Franqois Marie,) a French 
 general, born at Soissons in 1769, entered the army in 
 1 791. For his services at Marengo in 1800 he was made 
 general of division. He made the campaign of Austria 
 in 1809, and contributed to the victories of Lutzen and 
 Bautzen in 1813. Soon after the restoration he was made 
 a grand officer of the legion of honour. Died in 1831. 
 See De Courcelles, "Dictionnaire des Ge'neVaux Francais." 
 
 Charpentier, [Lat. Carpenta'rius,] (Jacques,) a 
 French physician, born at Clermont in 1524. He be- 
 came professor of mathematics in the College Royal, 
 Paris, in 1566, and physician to Charles IX. As a par- 
 tisan of Aristotle, he wrote several discourses against 
 Ramus. He published, in Latin, a "Description of 
 Nature, after Aristotle," and other works. Died in 1574. 
 
 See'MoRERi, "Dictionnaire Historique;" Jean Papire Masson, 
 "Vita J. Carpentarii," 1574. 
 
 Charpentier, (Jean Pierre,) a learned and accom- 
 plished French critic, was born at Saint-Prest (Eure-et- 
 Loire) in 1797. He was professor of eloquence in the 
 Faculty of Paris for many years. He published, besides 
 other works, an "Essay on the Literary History of the 
 Middle Ages," (" Moyen Age,") (1833,) a " History of the 
 Renaissance of Letters in Europe in the Fifteenth Cen- 
 tury," (1843,) and a translation of Virgil's "Bucolics" 
 and "Georgics." 
 
 Charpentier, (Marc Antoine,) an excellent French 
 musician and composer, born in Paris in 1634. After he 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; net; n6t; gocd: moon; 
 
CHARPENTIER 
 
 58i 
 
 CHASE 
 
 had gained a high reputation in Italy, he returned to Paris, 
 where he became a rival of Lully, and director of the 
 music of the Duke of Orleans. He composed the music 
 of "Medea" and other operas. Died in 1702. 
 See Fins, "Biographie Uuivereelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Charpentier, [Lat. Carpenta'rius,] (Pierre,) a 
 French jurist, born at Toulouse. He became a Calvin- 
 ist, and lectured on law at Geneva. Having quarrelled 
 with Beza, he removed to Paris just before the massacre 
 of 1572, during which he found refuge in the house of 
 Bellievre. He published in 1572 an apology for the 
 Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, and was rewarded with 
 the office of royal advocate. 
 
 See De Thou, " Histoire." 
 
 Charras, shfras', (Jean Baptiste Adolphe,) a 
 French officer and military writer, born at Puy-de-Dome 
 in 1808. He was a republican member of the Constituent 
 Assembly in 1S4S-49. He wrote a masterly strategic 
 work — " Histoire de la Campagne de 1815 — Waterloo," 
 (j vols. S.o, 1S5S; 5th edition, 1863.) Died in 1865. 
 
 Charrier de la Roche, shi're-A' deh IS rosh, (Louis,) 
 a French bishop, born at LyonsTn 1738, was elected to 
 the States-General in 1789. He became first almoner 
 of Napoleon in 1804. Died in 1827. 
 
 Charriere, shS'ie-iiR', (Ernest,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Grenoble in 1805, published "Saint Helena," a 
 lyric poem, (1826,) and a work on political history, 
 entitled "La Politique de 1'Histoire," (1842.) 
 
 Charriere or Charrieres, de, deh shi're-aiR', (Ma- 
 dame Saint-HyaCINTHE,) a novelist, who was born in 
 Holland about 1746. She married M. de Charriere, and 
 settled near Neufchatel, about 1766. She was a friend 
 of Madame de Stael, and was highly gifted, morally and 
 intellectually. She wrote several works of fiction, among 
 which "Calliste" (1786) is said to be the most remarka- 
 ble. Her pictures of life are faithful and very diversified. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuvh, "Portraits des Femmes," 1844. 
 
 Charrieres. See Charriere. 
 
 Charriu, shi'raN', (Pierre Joseph,) a French drama- 
 tist and litterateur, born at Lyons in 1784, wrote melo- 
 dramas, songs, etc. 
 
 Charron, shS'rdN', (Pierre,) a French philosopher 
 and Catholic priest, born in Paris in 153 1. He became 
 eminent as a preacher, and was successively theologal, or 
 lecturer, at Lectoure, Agen, Bordeaux, Cahors, and Con- 
 dom. He was an intimate friend of Montaigne, from 
 whose Essays he has borrowed largely. In 1594 he pub- 
 lished a religious book, called " Treatise on the Three 
 Truths," (" Traitedes trois Verites.") His principal work 
 is a " Treatise on Wisdom," (" Traite de la Sagesse," 
 1601,) which was censured as irreligious or skeptical by 
 the Jesuits and others, but had great popularity. Died 
 in Paris in 1603. " It becomes difficult," says Hallam, 
 "to estimate the place of Charron as a philosopher, 
 because we feel a good deal of uncertainty whether any 
 passage be his own. He appears to be a man formed 
 in the school of Montaigne, — not much less bold in 
 pursuing the novel opinions of others, but less fertile 
 in original thoughts, . . . with more reading than his 
 model, with more disciplined habits, as well of arranging 
 and distributing his subject as of observing the sequence 
 of an argument ; but, on the other hand, with far less of 
 ingenuity in thinking and of sprightliness of language." 
 ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See NicERON, " Memoires ;" Luchkt, "Analyse raisonnee de 
 la Sagesse de Charron," 1763 ; Brucker, " Historia Philosophise." 
 
 Chartier, shtR'te-i', (Alain,) a French poet of great 
 celebrity in his time, was born in Normandy about 1385. 
 He was confidential secretary to Charles VI. and to 
 Charles VII., and appears to have been idolized by cul- 
 tivated men of that age. A majority of French critics 
 agree that their language owes great obligations to him ; 
 and he appears to have contributed to the moral and 
 political reformation of his country. Among his French 
 poerns are the " Breviary of the Nobles," and the " Book 
 of the Four Ladies," (" Le Livre des quatre Dames.") 
 He wrote " Le Curial," and other prose works. Died 
 about 1455. 
 
 SeeG Mancel, "Alain Chartier: £tude bibliographique," 1850 ; 
 Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 € as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23, 
 
 Chartier, (Guii.i.aume,) brother of the preceding, 
 born at Bayeux about 1400, became Bishop of Paris in 
 1447. Died in 1472. 
 
 Chartier, (Jean,) a brother of the preceding, received 
 from Charles VII. the title of historiographer. He pub- 
 lished "Chronicles of France," and a "History of the 
 Reign of Charles VII.," both of which are esteemed. 
 Died in or after 1461. 
 
 Chartier, (^£an,) a son of Rene, noticed below, born 
 in Paris in 1600, graduated in 1634, and became physi- 
 cian to the king. Died in 1662. Philippe, a younger 
 brother of Jean, was also physician to the king, and pro- 
 fessor in the College Royal. Died in 1669, aged thirty-six. 
 
 Chartier, (Rene,) [Lat. Kena'tus Charte'rius,] a 
 French physician, born at Vendome in 1572. He gradu- 
 ated at Pans in 1608, was appointed physician-in-ordinary 
 to the king in 1613, and professor of surgery at the Col- 
 lege Royal in 161 7. He acquired a high reputation by 
 an excellent edition, in Greek, of Hippocrates and Galen, 
 with a Latin version and notes, (1639-79.) Died in 1654. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Chartou, tbtfc'tta', (Edouard,) a French litUrateur, 
 bom at Sens in 1807. He established in 1833 the " Pic- 
 torial ( Pittoresque ) Magazine," which he conducted more 
 than twenty years. In 1848 he was elected to the Na- 
 tional Assembly. He contributed to several journals 
 of Paris, and published, besides other works, "Ancient 
 and Modern Voyagers," (1855.) 
 
 Chartran, shaVtR&N', (J. H. S.,) a French general, 
 born at Carcassonne in 1779. He was made a general of 
 brigade for his services at Culm in 1813, and was put on 
 half-pay by the Bourbons in 18 14. He took the field for 
 Bonaparte in 1815, and distinguished himself at Waterloo. 
 He was tried by a military court, and executed in 1816. 
 
 Chartres, Duke of. Several French princes have 
 borne this title. (See Louis Philippe; and Orleans, 
 Philippe, Duke of.) 
 
 Chartres, de, deh shiRtR, (Renaud or Reginald,) 
 Archbishop of Rheims, was born about 1380. He was 
 appointed chancellor of France in 1428, and acquired 
 great influence with the king, Charles VII. He was 
 jealous of Joan of Arc, whose bold and extraordinary 
 measures did not accord with his mean and tortuous 
 policy, and made no effort to prevent her tragical death. 
 Died in 1444. 
 
 Chas, shas, (J.,) a prolific French writer and compiler 
 of history, biography, etc., was born at Nimes about 
 1750; died about 1830. 
 
 Chase, (IraH,) D.D., a Baptist divine and theologian, 
 born in Stratton, Vermont, in 1793. He was the prin- 
 cipal founder, in 1825, of the Baptist Theological Semi- 
 nary at Newton, Massachusetts, and professor in that 
 institution until 1845. Died in 1864. 
 
 Chase, (Philander,) an American Episcopal bishop, 
 born in Cornish, New Hampshire, in 1775, graduated at 
 Dartmouth College in 1795. He became rector of a 
 church at Hartford, Connecticut, about 1812, and in 
 1817 began to labour as a missionary in Ohio, where he 
 planted the Episcopal Church. In 1819 he was elected 
 Bishop of Ohio, and in 1835 became Bishop of Illinois. 
 He founded Kenyon College, in Ohio, and Jubilee Col- 
 lege, in Illinois. Died in 1852. 
 
 See "Reminiscences of Bishop Chase: an Autobiography." 
 
 Chase, (Salmon Portland,) an eminent American 
 statesman, a nephew of the preceding, was born at 
 Cornish, New Hampshire, on the 13th of January, 1808. 
 He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1826, taught a 
 classical school at Washington, District of Columbia, 
 from 1826 to 1829, studied law under William Wirt, and 
 settled at Cincinnati about 1830. He attained eminence 
 as a lawyer, supported General Harrison in the Presi- 
 dential election of 1840, and took a prominent part in 
 the formation of the Liberty party about 1841. He was 
 one of the chief promoters of the convention of Free- 
 soilers which met at Buffalo in 1848 and nominated 
 Martin Van Buren for the Presidency. He acted as 
 counsel for the defence of several fugitive slaves. 
 
 In February, 1849, he was elected a Senate! of the 
 United States by the Democratic members of the legis- 
 lature of Ohio. He made in the Senate a speech against 
 the Compromise Bill in 1850. On the nomination ot 
 
 ) 
 
CHASE 
 
 582 
 
 CHJSSELOUP 
 
 Mr. Pierce in 1852, he separated from the Democratic 
 party, which was then committed to the support and ex- 
 tension of slavery. He opposed the Nebraska-Kansas 
 Bill, by which the Missouri Compromise was repealed 
 in 1854, and offered several amendments to' the same. 
 He proposed to add a clause that "the people of the 
 territory, through their appropriate representatives, may, 
 if they see fit, prohibit the existence of slavery therein." 
 This amendment was rejected by a vote St ten yeas and 
 thirty-six nays. He advocated the Homestead Bill, and 
 maintained that the Federal Government should aid in 
 the construction of a railroad to the Pacific. 
 
 He was elected Governor of Ohio for two years by 
 the Republicans in October, 1855, and supported J. C. 
 Fremont for the Presidency in 1856. In 1857 he was 
 re-elected Governor. At the National Republican Con- 
 vention which met in Chicago in May, i860, Governor 
 Chase received forty-nine votes for the office of Presi- 
 dent on the first ballot. Having been appointed a mem- 
 ber of the Peace Conference which met at Washington 
 in February, 1861, he there made a speech on the subject 
 of fugitive slaves, and proposed that the Northern States 
 should compensate their masters for them. " We cannot 
 surrender [them,"] said he, "but we can compensate." 
 He was appointed secretary of the treasury in the cabinet 
 of Lincoln, March 4, 1861. In January, 1862, he recom- 
 mended that the notes of the United States should be 
 made a legal tender. When he accepted the office of 
 secretary, the public credit was low, and the public reve- 
 nue was scarcely sufficient to support the government 
 even in a state of peace. He raised money by the issue 
 of treasury notes, called "greenbacks," which bore no 
 interest, and by loans which were taken at moderate 
 rates, mostly by the people of the United States. 
 
 His services as a financier are eulogized by Horace 
 Greeley in these terms: "Governor Chase had filled in 
 the public service, through years of doubt, depression, 
 and disaster, the second place in importance, and the 
 first in the magnitude of its requirements, and had dis- 
 charged its duties with pre-eminent ability, energy, and 
 courage." ("American Conflict.") He resigned his office 
 on the 30th of June, 1864, about which time his friends 
 made a movement to procure his nomination as candidate 
 for the Presidency, but without success. He was re- 
 garded with special favour by the radical Republicans. 
 He supported the re-election of President Lincoln, who 
 appointed him chief justice of the supreme court of 
 the United States, in the place of Roger B. Taney, who 
 died in October, 1864. In the controversy about the 
 reconstruction of the seceded States he did not take a 
 decided or prominent part ; but in 1865, after the end of 
 the civil war, he made a tour of observation in several 
 of the Southern States, and made speeches to the freed- 
 men. He identified himself with the Radicals on the 
 question of impartial suffrage. He presided over the 
 court of impeachment (March, 1868) for the trial of Presi- 
 dent Johnson. He is understood to have favoured the 
 acquittal of the President, and by his course on that 
 occasion gave much offence to the radical Republicans. 
 He was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic 
 nomination for President in Julv, 1868. 
 
 See Mrs. Stowe's " Men of our Times." 
 
 Chase, (Samuel,) an American judge and eloquent 
 lawyer, born in Somerset county, Maryland, in 1741. He 
 became a leader of the patriots of Maryland in the Revo- 
 lution, was a delegate in Congress from 1774 to 1778, 
 and signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. In 
 1 791 he was appointed chief justice of the general court 
 of Maryland, and in 1796 was nominated an associate 
 justice of the supreme court of the United States. He 
 was impeached in 1804 for misdemeanour in relation 
 to certain political trials. John Randolph of Roanoke 
 instigated and conducted this impeachment, which re- 
 sulted in the acquittal of Judge Chase in March, 1805. 
 Died in 181 1. 
 
 See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. ; "Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Chasles or Chales, shal, (Louis,) a French Jacobin 
 and priest, born at Chartres in 1754, was a member of 
 the Convention, (1792-95,) and voted for the death of the 
 king. Died in 1826. 
 
 Chasles, (Michel,) an eminent French geometer, born 
 at Epernon (Eure-et-Loire) in 1793. He entered the 
 Polytechnic School in 1812. In 1837 he published a 
 resume of his previous works, in a volume entitled " His- 
 torical View ( Apercu) of the Origin and Development of 
 Methods in Geometry," followed by a " Memoir on two 
 General Principles of the Science, Duality and Homog- 
 raphy." In this work he established the basis of a new 
 theory of conic sections and of surfaces of the second 
 order. He was appointed professor of astronomy and 
 mechanics in the Polytechnic School in 1841. He was 
 very successful in researches in pure geometry, several 
 important theories of which he extended and simplified. 
 In 1846 he obtained the chair of higher geometry in the 
 Faculty of Sciences, Paris, and in 1852 published a 
 "Treatise on Higher Geometry," ("Traite de Geometric 
 superieure.") He was admitted into the Institute in 
 1851. By an ingenious algorithm he has introduced the 
 principle of signs into pure geometry, and has created 
 anew branch of mathematics, characterized by uniformity 
 of method. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Chasles, (Victor Euphemion Philarete,) a suc- 
 cessful French litterateur, a son of Louis Chasles, noticed 
 above, was born near Chartres in 1799. He has been for 
 more than twenty years an editor of the "Journal des 
 Debats," and has contributed to the " Revue des Deux 
 Mondes." His principal articles, written for these and 
 other periodicals, have appeared under the general title 
 of "Studies on Comparative Literature," (in 11 vols.,) 
 among which are " Studies on Spain," " Studies on Ame- 
 rica," etc. He is, or was recently, professor of foreign 
 languages and literature in the College of France. He 
 has shown himself an able critic of English literature, 
 and ha"s reproduced for the " Revue Britannique" many 
 articles from English reviews. He published, in 1862, 
 "Galileo, sa Vie, son Proces et ses Contemporains." 
 
 See Qukkard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Chasles or Challes, de, deh shil, (Gregoirf.,) a 
 French writer, born in Paris in 1659. He was the author 
 of "Illustrious Frenchwomen," ("Les illustres Fran- 
 chises," 1 7 13,) often reprinted. Died about 1720. 
 
 Chasles de la Touche, sh51 deh It toosh, (Theo- 
 dore Gaston Joseph,) a French historical writer, born 
 at Le Teil in 1787; died in 1848. 
 
 Chassaignac, sht's&n'yik', (E ....,) a French phy- 
 sician, born at Nantes in 1805, published several works 
 on anatomy. 
 
 Chasse, shi'sa', (David Hendrik,) Baron, a brave 
 Dutch general, born at Thiel in 1765, entered the French 
 service about 1790. He distinguished himself in the 
 Prussian campaign of 1806, and displayed great bravery 
 in Spain in 1808-09. He was created a baron about 
 1811, and became a general of division in 1814. He 
 fought for the allies at the battle of Waterloo, (1815,) 
 after which he became governor of Antwerp. His reso- 
 lute defence of Antwerp against the French in 1832 was 
 much admired. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Campo, "Life of ChasseV 
 
 Chassel, sht'seY, (Charles,) a French sculptor, born 
 at Nancy in 1612, became a resident of Paris. He re- 
 ceived the title of sculptor to Louis XIV., for whom he 
 made a mimic army when that prince was a boy. 
 
 Chassel, (Remi Francois,) a grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Metz in 1666, worked at Nancy, and was 
 successful in monumental sculpture. Died in 1752. 
 
 Chasseloup-Laubat, de, deh shaVloo' lo'bj', 
 (Franqois,) Marquis, a French general, born near 1 
 Marennes in 1754. As chief engineer, he served with 
 applause under Bonaparte in Italy in 1796 and 1797. In 
 1799 he was raised to the rank of general of division. 
 He was employed for several years in fortifying Mantua, 
 Alessandria, and other cities of Italy. In 1812 he ob- 
 tained for the seventh time the chief command of the 
 engineers of the grand army. After the restoration he 
 received the title of Marquis. Died in 1833. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francois." 
 
 Chasseloup-Laubat, de, (Justin Prudent,) Mar- 
 quis, a French general, son of the preceding, born in 
 Paris in 1800. He became a captain of cavalry in 1830, 
 
 i, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; mSon; 
 
CHASSENEUX 
 
 583 
 
 CHATEAUBRIAND 
 
 and a few years later accompanied General Maison as 
 aide-de-camp in an embassy to Vienna. From 1837 
 to 1848 he was a member of the Chamber of Deputies. 
 He was made a general of division in 1853. 
 
 His brother, Count Justin Napoleon, a lawyer and 
 a Bonapartist politician, was born in 1805. He was a 
 member of the Assembly in 1849, a,1( ' afterwards of the 
 Corps Legislatif. In November, i860, he was appointed 
 minister of state for the marine and the colonies. 
 
 Chasseueux, shis'nuh', (Barthf-Lemi.) a learned 
 French judge and legal writer, born near Autun in 1480. 
 He was appointed president of the parliament of Pro- 
 vence in 1532. He wrote, among other works, "Con- 
 silia," and "Catalogus Gloriae Mundi," a work designed 
 to explain and determine questions of rank, precedence, 
 etc. Died in 1541. 
 
 Chasseriau, sht'sa're-o', (Theodore,) a French 
 painter, born at Saniana, in Hayti, in 1819, worked in 
 "Paris, where he received several medals between 1836 
 and 1855. His works, among which is "The Supper of 
 Macbeth," are said to display a fine imagination. Died 
 in 1856. v 
 
 Chassignet, de, deh shi'sen'yi', (Francois,) Baron, 
 was bom at Besancon, France, in 1651. Having entered 
 the Austrian service, he quickly rose to a high rank in 
 the army. He became the preceptor of the emperor I^eo- 
 pold's eldest son, (Joseph I.) In 1700 he was sent to 
 Naples to manage a conspiracy against the Spanish 
 government. He failed in this attempt, was arrested 
 and confined in the F'rench Bastille until 1 714. 
 
 Chassiron, de, deh sht'se'roN', (Pierre Charles 
 Martin,) Baron, a French economist, noted for his im- 
 provements in agriculture, was born at La Rochelle in 
 1753. He wrote several esteemed letters qn agriculture, 
 and articles for Rozier's " Cours d' Agriculture." Died 
 in 1825. 
 
 See Silvestre, " Notice sur le Baron Chassiron," 1826. 
 
 Chasteau, sha'to', [It. Casteixi, kas-tel'lee,] (Guil- 
 LAUME,) a French engraver, born at Orleans in 1635. 
 He studied and worked in Italy, and afterwards removed 
 to Paris, where he was patronized by Colbert. He en- 
 graved after Poussin, Annibale Caracci, and other mas- 
 ters. Died in 1683. 
 
 See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Chastel. See Chatku 
 
 Chastel, sha'teY, (Pierre Louis Aime,) Baron, a 
 French general, born at Vergi, in Chablais, in 1774. 
 While serving in the army of Egypt, in 1798, he dis- 
 covered the zodiac of Denderah. He displayed courage 
 and capacity in the campaigns of Austerlitz and Jena, 
 and, as general of division, distinguished himself at Boro- 
 dino in 1812. After the campaign of 1815 in Belgium, he 
 retired to private life. Died at Geneva in 1826. 
 
 See " Victoires et ConquStes des Francais." 
 
 Chastel, du. See Duchatel. 
 
 Chastelain, shat'laN', (Claude,) a French liturgist, 
 born in Paris about 1640 ; died in 1712. 
 
 Chastelain, shat'laN', (Georges,) a celebrated Flem- 
 ish chronicler, born in Flanders in 1403. He lived at 
 the court of Philip, Duke of Burgundy, and of his son, 
 Charles the Bold. His chief work is a " General Chroni- 
 cle of Events from 1420 to 1474." Died in 1475. 
 
 Chastelard, de, deh shat'lf r', (Pierre de Bosco- 
 sel — deh bos'ko'ziM',) a French poet, born about 1540. 
 He became enamoured of Mary Queen of Scots, con- 
 cealed himself in her bedchamber, and was detected. 
 Having repeated the offence, he was executed at Edin- 
 burgh in 1563. 
 
 See Mignet, "Histoire de Marie Stuart;" Brant&mk, "M^- 
 moires." 
 
 Chasteler, du, dii shat'li', (Jean Gabriel,) Mar- 
 quis, an eminent general in the Austrian service, born 
 at Mons in 1763. He entered the army at the age of 
 fifteen, and, after serving several campaigns in Flanders 
 and Italy, was made quartermaster-general in 1799. In 
 1805 he was chief of the staff of the Archduke Charles 
 in Italy. In 1808 he commanded in the Tyrol against 
 the French, and in 1813 became general of artillery. 
 About 1815 the emperor appointed him governor of 
 Venice, where he died in 1825. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Chastelet or Chatelet, du, dii shat'lj', (Paul Hay,) 
 Sieur, an eloquent French lawyer, born in Bretagnc 
 in 1592, became attorney-general at Rennes, and coun- 
 cillor of state. He was the first secretary of the French 
 Academy, and wrote, besides other works, a " Life of Du 
 Guesclin." Died in 1636. 
 
 Chastellet, du, dii sha'ti'lj', or Chatelet-Lomont, 
 du,dii shat'li' lo'm6N', (Florent Louis Marie,) Due, 
 the son of the following, was born at Semur, France, 
 in 1727. He served with distinction in the army, was 
 created a duke in 1777, and afterwards became colonel 
 of the French guards. In the States-General of 1789 
 he was a moderate royalist. He was proscribed in the 
 reign of terror, and executed in December, 1793. 
 
 Chastellet, du, or Chatelet, shat'li/, (Gabrielle 
 EMii.iEle Tonuelier de Breteuil — leh ton'le-i' deh 
 bKeh-tuI' or bKeh-tu'ye,) Marquise, a ceiebratedTrench 
 savante, born in 1706. She was learned in mathematics 
 and other sciences, and in Latin, English, and Italian. 
 In 1740 she published a work on Physical Philosophy, 
 entitled " Institutions de Physique." She afterwards 
 made a good French translation of Newton's " Prin- 
 cipia," which was revised by Clairaut. In early youth 
 she was married to the Marquis du Chastellet-Lomont. 
 She lived some years with Voltaire at Cirey between 
 1735 am ' '747- H er liaison with Voltaire injured her 
 reputation, and will probably be remembered after her 
 writings are forgotten. Died in 1749. 
 
 Chastellux, de, deh sha'ti'luks', (Francois Jean,) 
 Marquis, a French general and author, born in Paris in 
 1734. He wrote an admired "Essay on Public Happi- 
 ness," ("De la Felicite publique," 1772,) which Voltaire 
 preferred to Montesquieu's "Spirit of Laws." In 1775 
 he was admitted into the French Academy. In 1780 he 
 went to the United States, where he served with honour 
 as major-general in the army of Rochambeau for three 
 years. He published, among other works, "Travels in 
 North America," (2 vols., 1786.) He was a personal 
 friend of Washington. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Grimm, " Correspondance Litteraire ;" Alfred de Chas- 
 tellux, " Notice sur le Marquis de Chastellux," 1822. 
 
 Chastillon. See ChAtillon. 
 
 Chastillon, de, deh sha'te'yiN', (Alexis Madeleine 
 Rosalie,) Due, born in 1680, was a descendant of 
 Gaucher, noticed below, and became marechal-de-camp 
 in 1719. As lieutenant-general, he commanded the cav- 
 alry at Guastalla in 1734. In 1735 he was appointed 
 governor of the dauphin, the son of Louis XV. Died 
 in 1754. 
 
 Chastillon, de, (Eudes.) See Urban II., Pope. 
 
 Chastillon, de, (Gaucher,) Count of Crecy, a French 
 general, born in 1250, fought bravely at Courtray in 
 1302, and was made Constable of France in the same 
 year. He gained a victory at Cassel in 1328. Died 
 in 1329. 
 
 Chateau. See Chasteau, (Guii.laumf.) 
 
 Chateaubriand, de, deh sha'to'bRe'fiN', (Francois 
 Augustf.,) Viscount, the most celebrated of the French 
 authors who wrote during the first empire, was born of 
 a noble family, at Saint-Malo, in September, 1768. He 
 was educated at Dol and at Rennes, where he made great 
 progress in the ancient languages and in mathematics. 
 His youth was passed mostly on the shore of the ocean, 
 where his imagination was nourished by lonely reveries 
 among the winds and waves. " A divine breath," says 
 he, "passed over me. I began to lisp forth verses as if 
 they had been my natural language. I wrote for a long 
 time in verse before attempting prose." He was des- 
 tined for the church, but preferred the army, which he 
 entered as sub-lieutenant in 1786. He was in Paris and 
 a spectator of the capture of the Bastille in 1789, but did 
 not partake of the popular enthusiasm. " I had neitjier 
 adopted nor rejected the new opinions," says he. " I 
 wished neither to emigrate nor to follow the military pro- 
 fession. I retired." Impelled by a desire to travel, he 
 sailed for the United States in 1 791, ostensibly in search 
 of a Northwest passage. He dined in Philadelphia with 
 Washington, of whom he says, "There is virtue in the 
 look of a great man. I felt myself warmed and refreshed 
 by it during the rest of my life." Having traversed the 
 primeval forests from Niagara to Florida, he returned 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this, (j!^ - " .5ee Explanations, p. 23. 
 
CRATE AUBRI ANT 
 
 584 
 
 CHATELET 
 
 to France in 1792. He had not found a Northwest pas- 
 sage, but he had discovered the germs of a new and 
 romantic literature. To please his sister, he married 
 Mademoiselle de Lavigne, whom he appears not to have 
 found a very congenial companion. In 1792 he joined 
 the army of royalist emigrants, was wounded at Thion- 
 ville, and left for dead in a ditch. From 1793 until 1800 
 he was an exile in England, where he was reduced to 
 extreme poverty, and partly supported himself by trans- 
 lations for the booksellers. 
 
 Having been converted from skepticism by the death 
 of his mother, in 1798, he began to compose his celebrated 
 work, "The Genius of Christianity," ("Genie du Chris- 
 tianisme.") He returned to Fiance in 1800, and pub- 
 lished in 1S01 his romance of "Atala," a picture of abori- 
 ginal American life, which extorted from Europe a general 
 exclamation of surprise and admiration. In 1802 ap- 
 peared his " Genie du Christianisme," to which " Rene," 
 a romance, was attached as an episode. The publication 
 of these brilliant works made a revolution in French 
 literature, and caused him to be recognized as the 
 literary glory of his age. He performed, in 1806 and 
 1807, a tour through Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine, and 
 Spain, partly with a view to familiarize himself with the 
 regions in which he proposed to lay the scene of a new 
 work. This was a prose epic, entitled "The Martyrs, 
 or the Triumph of the Christian Religion," which ap- 
 peared in 1809. 
 
 In 181 1 he was elected a member of the French Acad- 
 emy, and published his " Itinerary from Paris to Jerusa- 
 lem." His long and implacable enmity to the emperor 
 found utterance in his famous and eloquent pamphlet, 
 "Bonaparte and the Bourbons," (1814.) Under the resto- 
 ration, from 1814 to 1824, he showed himself an ultra- 
 royalist. He was ambassador to Berlin in 1820, and to 
 London in 1822, after he had fiercely and effectively op- 
 posed the Liberal minister Decazes, whose feet, he said, 
 " had slipped in blood." He was appointed minister of 
 foreign affairs in 1823, and dismissed by his rival, Vil- 
 lele, in June, 1824, after which he became a formidable 
 assailant of the ministry in the "Journal des Debuts." 
 In 1828 he was sent as ambassador to Rome by Mar- 
 tignac ; but he resigned the embassy on the accession of 
 Polignac as prime minister. After the revolution of 
 1830 he refused to take the oath to Louis Philippe, and 
 defended the exiled Bourbons in several tracts, for which 
 he was prosecuted and imprisoned a short time in 1832. 
 His waywardness and inconsistency in politics were thus 
 indicated in his own words: "I am a Bourbonist by 
 honour, a royalist by reason and conviction, and a repub- 
 lican by taste and character." He died on the 4th of 
 July, 1848, after seeing the advent of the second repub- 
 lic. He left posthumous memoirs, (" Memoires d'Outre- 
 Tombe,") 1849, which attracted general attention as a 
 rare combination of genius and egotism. He had no 
 children. His last years were passed in retirement and 
 in a despondency which even the charming society and 
 devoted attentions of Madame Recamier could not ex- 
 hilarate. 
 
 See Viu.emain," M. de ChJteaubriand, sa Vie, ses ficrits, son In- 
 4uence," etc., 1858; Count de Marcellus, " Chateaubriand et 
 5on Temps," 1859: L. de Lombnib, " Galerie des Contempnrains 
 .llustres," tome i.; Scipion Marin, " Histoire de la Vie et des Ou- 
 vrages de Chateaubriand," 1833; Cesare Cant(j, "Chateaubriand, 
 Discorso," Milan, 1835: F. Z. Collombet, "Chateaubriand, sa 
 Vie et ses ficrits," 1851 ; Ancei.ot, "Vie de Chateaubriand," 4to, 
 1853; Sainte-Beuve, "Causeriesdu Lundi," tomes i. and ii.: Prbs- 
 cott, " Miscellanies ;" " London Quarterly Review" for July. 1816; 
 "Blackwood's Magazine" for June. 1S37, September, 1849, and July, 
 1850: " Fore.gn Quarterly Review" for October. 1831, October, 1832, 
 and April and January, 1837 ; " North British Review" for August, 
 1858: "Memoirs and Correspondence of Madame Recamier," 
 translated from the French and edited by Miss Luvster, Boston, 
 1867. 
 
 Chateaubriant, de, deh sha'to'bRe'ftN', (Francoise,) 
 CdUNTF.ss, a beautiful French lady, born in 1475, was 
 the daughter of the Count de Foix, and sister of Marshal 
 Lautrec. After her marriage with Seigneur de Chateau- 
 briant, she became an ornament of the court of Francis 
 I., who said that a court without ladies "is like a year 
 without spring and a spring without roses." The current 
 rumour that she was the mistress of Francis is denied 
 Dy some writers. Died in 1537. 
 
 See Varillas. " Histoire de Francois I." 
 
 Chateaubrun, de, deh sha'to'buuN', (Jean Baitiste 
 Vivien,) a French dramatist, born at Angouleme in 1686. 
 He composed dramas, which for many years he refused 
 to present on the stage, through fear of displeasing the 
 Due d'Orleans, to whom he was attached as maitre- 
 d'hStel, (steward.) He was received into the French 
 Academy in 1753. The next year his tragedy "The 
 Trojan Women" was performed, and was received with 
 great favour. Died in 1775. 
 
 Chateauneuf, de, deh sha'to'nuf', (L'Epine,) a 
 French diplomatist, born about 1753, was a cousin of 
 General Dumouriez. He was consul-general at Tunis 
 in 1787, and minister to Geneva a short time about 1792. 
 He translated the " Idyls" of Theocritus into French 
 verse. Died in 1800. 
 
 Chateauneuf-Randon, de, deh sha'to'nuf rfiN'doN', 
 (Alexandre,) Count, a French Jacobin and regicide, 
 born probably in Gevaudan. In 1789 he was deputed 
 by the noblesse of Mende to the States-General, and in ' 
 1792 to the Convention, in which he voted for the exe- 
 cution of the king. He made himself notorious for his 
 cruelty and crimes at Lyons, whither he was sent by the 
 Convention in 1793. Died in obscurity in 1816. 
 
 Chateau-Regiiaud, de, deh sha'to' reh-n6', also 
 written Chateau-Renaud aiid Chateau-Regnard, 
 (Francois Louis de Rousselet,) Count, a French vice- 
 admiral and marshal, born in 1637. As chef-d'escadre, or 
 commodore, he defeated the Dutch fleet under De Ruyter 
 in 1673. In 1678 he gained a victory near Cadiz over 
 Eversen, a Dutch admiral. He defeated the English in 
 the Bay of Bantry, and was appointed lieutenant-general 
 of the naval armies, in 1688. In 1701 Philip V. of Spain 
 gave him the title of Captain-General of the Ocean. He 
 received a marshal's baton in 1703. Died in 1716. 
 
 Chateauroux, sha'to'roo', (Marie Anne,) Duchess 
 of, was born of the noble family of Nesle. After the 
 death of her husband, the Marquis de la Tournelle, she 
 became the favourite of Louis XV. of France, who gave 
 her the title of Duchess. She retained influence over 
 him until her death in 1744. 
 
 Chatel. See Duchatel. 
 
 Chatel or Chastel, sha'tel', (Jean,) a Frenchman, 
 born in Paris about 1575. In December, 1594, he en- 
 tered the Louvre and attempted to kill Henry IV. with 
 a knife, but only inflicted a slight wound. He was ar- 
 rested, and, when questioned respecting his motive, said 
 that he had been taught at a college of Jesuits that it 
 was lawful to kill a heretical king. He was executed, 
 and the Jesuits were expelled from Paris. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Chatel, du, du sha'tel', (Francois,) a skilful Flemish 
 historical painter, born at Brussels in 1626. He was a 
 pupil of Teniers, whose style he imitated with success ; 
 and he excelled in design and colouring. A picture of 
 the King of Spain receiving the Oath from the Estates 
 of Flanders in 1666 is one of his most admired works. 
 He often chose for his subject a festival, a social assem- 
 bly, or a family group. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Chatel, du, (Tanguy or Tanneguy,) a French gene- 
 ral, who served at Agincourt in 1415, and was chief of 
 the Armagnac party. He was appointed Governor of 
 Provence by Charles VII. in 1446. He died at the age 
 of ninety. 
 
 Chatelain, shat'eh-lan', ( ? ) (John Baptist,) a skilful 
 designer and engraver, born in London in 1710. He was 
 reckoned among the best engravers of landscapes, many 
 of which he executed after Gaspard Poussin, N. Pous- 
 sin, and Cortona. He also engraved his own designs. 
 Died in London in 1771. 
 
 See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Chatelain, (Rene Th£ophile,') a French writer, 
 born at Saint-Quentin in 1790, served in the army from 
 1808 to 1815. In 1819 he became chief editor of the 
 "Courrier Francais," a paper of liberal politics, and 
 acquired a high reputation as a journalist. His princi- 
 pal work is entitled " Letters of Sidi Mahmoud," (1825.) 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 Chatelet. See Chastellet and Chastelet. 
 
 Chatelet-Lomont. See Chastellet. 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less pro'onged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mlt; nftt; good; moon; 
 
CHATHAM 
 
 585 
 
 CHAUDRUC 
 
 Chatham, chat'am, (John Pitt,) Earl of, born in 
 1756, was the eldest son of the great Earl of Chatham. 
 He was first lord of the admiralty in the ministry of his 
 brother, William Pitt, and commanded the unfortunate 
 expedition against Walcheren in 1809. He died, without 
 issue, in 1835. 
 
 Chatham, Lord. See Pitt, (William.) 
 
 Chatillon. See Chastillon and Charles de Blois. 
 
 Chatillon, sha'te'y6.\', (ANDRlt Marie,) a French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1782, gained the grand prize 
 (de Rome) in 1809. 
 
 Chatillon or Chastillon, (Nicolas Claude,) born 
 at Chalons, in Champagne, in 1547, was reputed one of 
 the ablest engineers of France. He was employed as 
 engineer by Henry IV. and Louis XIII. He built the 
 Pont- Neuf (New Bridge) in Paris, and left a work entitled 
 "French Topography," containing views of castles, cities, 
 etc. Died in 1616. 
 
 Chat'ter-ton, Lady, a British authoress of the pres- 
 ent century. She has published " Rambles in the South 
 of Ireland," (1838,) "A Good Match," a novel, (1839,) 
 "The Reigning Beauty," (1858,) and other works. 
 
 Chatterton, (Thomas,) an English poet, celebrated 
 for his genius, precocity, and literary impostures, was 
 born at Bristol in 1752. His father was sexton of Red- 
 cliffe Church. In childhood he was averse to study, and 
 was pronounced by his teacher a dull boy. After he 
 attained the age of eight, he made rapid progress, and 
 became fond of antiquarian pursuits. About the age of 
 twelve he wrote verses which evinced talent. In 1767 
 he was apprenticed to an attorney of Bristol. When the 
 new bridge was opened in 1768, Chatterton published 
 a " Description of the Friars first passing over the 
 Old Bridge," which he professed to derive from ancient 
 manuscripts found in the muniment-room of Redchffe 
 Church. He soon produced poems, which he ascribed 
 to Rowley, a monk of the fifteenth century, and other in- 
 genious fabrications, which excited among literary men 
 no little sensation. A long and animated controversy 
 ensued respecting the authenticity of the Rowleian 
 poems, which the majority pronounced to be forgeries. 
 In April, 1 770, he went to London in search of literary 
 employment, and was at first successful. He was em- 
 ployed by several booksellers, and, in letters to his 
 mother, represented his prospects as extremely brilliant. 
 He wrote sermons, songs, and political articles for the 
 public journals. He soon became despondent, was re- 
 duced to a state of starvation, and in August, 1770, was 
 found dead, probably by suicide. It appears that he had 
 shown symptoms of insanity for some years before his 
 death. His principal poems are " The Tragedy of Ella," 
 "The Battle of Hastings," "Ode to Ella," "The Tour- 
 nament," and a " Description of Canynge's Feast." 
 '• This youth," says T. Warton, " was a prodigy of genius, 
 and would have proved the first of English poets had 
 he reached a mature age." " No English poet," says 
 Thomas Campbell, "ever equalled him at the same 
 age. Tasso alone can be compared to him as a juvenile 
 prodigy. His thirst for knowledge was that of a being 
 taught by instinct to lay up materials for the exercise 
 of great and undeveloped powers." 
 
 See Warton. " History of English Poetry;" Camprbll, " Speci- 
 mens ofthe British Poets :" John Dix. " LifeofT. Chatterton," 1837^ ; 
 George Gregory, "Life of T. Chatterton," 1789; " Biographia 
 Britannica ;" H. Puettmann. "Chatterton," Barmen, 2 vols.. 1840; 
 Gary, "Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke White;" 
 "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1804, (by Sir Walter Scott.) 
 
 Chau'cer, [Lat. Chauce'rus,] (Geoffrey,) the 
 father of English poetry, was born in London in 1328. 
 The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge both claim 
 him as their alumnus. He enjoyed the favour of Edward 
 III., and passed much time at court. About 1358 he 
 served in the army which invaded France, where he was 
 made prisoner. In 1373 he was employed on an em- 
 bassy to Genoa, where perhaps occurred the interview 
 with Petrarch which he mentions in his works. Soon 
 after his return he was appointed comptroller of customs 
 in London, lie was elected a knight of the shire for 
 Kent in 1386, and about that time is said to have been 
 persecuted as a Wickliffite. He received an annual pen- 
 sion from 1367 until his death, excepting a few years 
 when he was out of favour. In the latter part of his life 
 
 he wrote his principal work, the celebrated "Canterbury 
 Tales," in a language so different from modern English 
 that few persons can now enjoy their beauties. The plot 
 is thought to be taken from the " Decameron" of Boc- 
 caccio ; and the work purports to be a series of stories 
 told by pilgrims travelling in company to Canterbury. 
 Among his other poems are " The Court of Love," " The 
 Legend of Good Women," " The House of Fame," and 
 "Troilus and Cresseide." He died in 1400. 
 
 "Our greatest poet of the middle ages, beyond com- 
 parison," says Hallam, "was Chaucer; and I do not 
 know that any other country except Italy produced one 
 of equal variety in invention, acuteness of observation, 
 or felicity of expression." ("Introduction to the Litera- 
 ture of Europe.") " I take unceasing delight in Chaucer," 
 says Coleridge. "His manly cheerfulness is especially 
 delicious to me in my old age. How exquisitely tender 
 he is, yet how free from the least touch of sickly melan- 
 choly or morbid drooping !" " Chaucer stands in the 
 first rank," says Southey, " with Spenser, Shakspeare, 
 and Milton." He had a son, Sir Thomas, who became 
 Speaker of the House of Commons, and a daughter Alice, 
 who married the Duke of Suffolk. The poet himself had 
 married Philippa Rouet, a maid of honour to the queen, 
 and sister-in-law of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. 
 
 See W. Godwin," Life of Chaucer," 1804; Todd, " Lives of Gower 
 and Chaucer," 1810; H. Nicholas, "Life of Chaucer," 1843; H. 
 Gomont, "G. Chaucer, Poete Anglais," 1847; Villemain, "Cours 
 de Literature , ' " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1815 ; "Retrospective 
 Review," vol. ix., 1824, and vol. xiv., 1826; article on Chaucer (by 
 Sir Walter Scott) in the " Edinburgh Review" for January, 
 1804; " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1856. 
 
 Chaucerus. See Chaucer. 
 
 Chaudesaigues, shod'z&g', (Charles Barthelemi,) 
 a French writer of songs, born in Paris in 1799. 
 
 Chaudet, sho'dA', (Antoine Denis,) an eminent 
 French sculptor, born in Paris in 1763, was a pupil of 
 Stouf. In 1784 he gained the grand prize of the Acad- 
 emy for a bas-relief of " Joseph sold by his Brethren." 
 Having studied several years in Rome, he returned to 
 Paris in 1789, and soon acquired the reputation of one of 
 the first of modern sculptors. About 1805 he was chosen 
 a member of the Institute, and one of the committee on 
 the "Dictionary of the Language of the Fine Arts." 
 Among his master-pieces are an " CEdipus," a statue of 
 "Napoleon," "Paul and Virginia," and " Cincinnatus." 
 He was also a skilful painter. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Nagler," Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;""Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Chaudet, (Jeanne Elisabeth,) a French painter, 
 wife ofthe preceding, born in 1767 ; died about 1830. 
 
 Chaudon, sho'doN', (Esprit Joseph,) a French lit- 
 tirateur, born at Valensole (Lower Alps) in 1738. He 
 became a priest of the Oratory, and taught in several 
 colleges of that order. He published a useful work, 
 called "The Library ( ' Bibliothique) of a Man of Taste, 
 or Advice on the Choice of the Best Books in our Lan- 
 guage," (1772,) and a "Dictionary of the Latin Names 
 in Ancient and Modern Geography," (1778.) Died in 
 1800. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Chaudon, (Louis Ma'ieul — mS'yul',) a brother ofthe 
 preceding, born at Valensole, near Riez, in 1737, was emi- 
 nent as a biographer. He was a monk of the fraternity 
 of Cluny, and is usually called Don Chaudon. In 1766 
 he produced a "New Historical Dictionary," which was 
 superior to any work of that kind, and was very success- 
 ful. The ninth edition, enlarged to twenty volumes, 
 appeared about 1810. He afterwards published anony- 
 mously the "Anti-Philosophic Dictionary," (2 vols., 
 1769,) to refute the skeptical doctrines of Voltaire, "Lec- 
 tures on History and Chronology," (2 vols., 1781,) and 
 other works. He assisted his brother in the " Library of 
 a Man of Taste," (1772.) Died in 1817. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte'raire;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gene'rale." 
 
 Chaudron-Rousseau, sho'dRoN' roo'so', (Pierre 
 Guii.I.aumf.,) a French general, bom in 1775, was killed 
 at Chiclana in 181 1. 
 
 Chaudruc de Crazannes, shS'dRiik' deh kRi'zin', 
 (Jean Cesar Marik,) a French antiquary, born near 
 Saintcs in 1782. 
 
 € as k: c as s ■ g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this. ($y~Sec Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHAVFFARD 
 
 586 
 
 CHAUNCT 
 
 Chauffard, sho'fiR', (Marie Denis Etienne,) a 
 Frenoh medical writer, born at Avignon in 1796. He 
 published " Works (CEuvres) of Practical Medicine," 
 (3 vols., 1848,) which were received with favour. 
 
 Chauffepie, de, deh shofpe-i', (Jacques George,) a 
 Dutch Protestant minister, of~French descent, born at 
 Leeuwarden in 1702. He preached at Flushing and Delft 
 for some years. From 1743 until his death he was em- 
 ployed in Amsterdam. He published in 1750 "A New 
 Historical and Critical Dictionary, supplementary to that 
 of Bayle," (4 vols.,) a valuable work, in which he gives 
 proof of much erudition. He translated, from the Eng- 
 lish, part of a " Universal History" (46 vols.) composed 
 by a society of literary men. Died at Amsterdam in 1786. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteYaire." 
 
 Chauliac, de, deh sho'le-Sk', (Gui, ) an eminent 
 French surgeon, born at Chauliac. He lived in Avignon, 
 where he was successively physician to Popes Clement 
 VI., Innocent VI., and Urban V, between 1340 and 1370. 
 He wrote, in Latin, an excellent treatise on Surgery, 
 (" Inventarium Partis chirurgicalis Medicinae," 1363,) 
 which for about two centuries was considered a classic 
 and standard work. A French writer, Chaumeton, 
 says he did more than any one to render surgery a regu- 
 lar art. The great Haller observes that " his work may 
 be regarded as an excellent historical sketch of surgery 
 down to his epoch." 
 
 See £loy, "Dictionnaire de la Me'decine. " 
 
 Chaulieu, de, deh sho'le-uh', (Guillaume Amfrye,) 
 a French lyric poet, was born at Fontenay, in Normandy, 
 in 1639. He was patronized by the Dukes of Vendome, 
 who caused him to be appointed Abbe d'Aumale and 
 procured him other rich benefices. He became distin- 
 guished for his wit, fine taste, and Epicurean morals, and 
 was called the " Anacreon of the Temple." " Chaulieu," 
 says Hallam, "was an original genius. His poetry is 
 a happy mixture of a gentle and peaceable philosophy 
 with a lively imagination. His verses flow from the soul, 
 and, though often negligent through indolence, are never 
 in bad taste or affected." (" Introduction to the Litera- 
 ture of Europe.") Voltaire praises him in his "Temple 
 du Gout," the presiding genius of which advises Chaulieu 
 not to estimate himself as the first of good poets, but the 
 first of negligent poets, (poites nlgliges.) He wrote an 
 " Ode to Inconstancy," " Stanzas on the Solitude of 
 Fontenay," "La Goutte," and other poems. Died in 
 1720. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte'raire ;" Sainte-Beuve, "Cause- 
 ries du Lundi ;" Voltaire, "Correspondance." 
 
 Chaulnes, de, deh shon, (Honore d' Albert — dil'- 
 baiR',) Due, a French general, a brother of Luynes, 
 the favourite of Louis XIII., became a marshal of 
 France in 1619, and was created Due de Chaulnes in 
 162 1. He was made Governor of Picardy in 1633, and 
 commanded against the Spaniards in Artois in 1635. 
 Died in 1649. 
 
 Chaulnes, de, (Louis Augusts d' Albert d'Ailly 
 — dtVbaiR' dS'ye',) Due, a French general, born in 
 1676, was the father of Michel Ferdinand, noticed below. 
 Died in 1744. 
 
 Chaulnes, de, (Marie Joseph Louis,) Due, a French 
 savant, son of Michel, noticed below, born in 1741, cul- 
 tivated the physical sciences with success, and became 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1793. 
 
 Chaulnes, de, ( Michel Ferdinand d'Ai.bert 
 d'Aii.ly,) Due, a French general, born in 1714. He 
 was noted as a patron and votary of physical science, 
 and spent a large revenue in constructing apparatus and 
 forming collections. In 1743 he was chosen an honorary 
 member of the Academy of Sciences. He wrote several 
 ingenious treatises, which were published by that acad- 
 emy. Died in 1769. 
 
 Chaumeix, de, deh sho'mi', (Abraham Joseph,) a 
 French critic, born near Orleans about 1730, was noted 
 for his zeal against the skeptical philosophers. He pub- 
 lished a refutation of the " Encyclopedic," and was 
 satirized by Voltaire in "The Poor Devil," ("Le pauvre 
 Diable.") Died in 1790. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Chaumeton, shom'tdN', ( Francois Pierre, ) a 
 French physician, eminent as a writer and a critic, born 
 
 at Chouze, on the Loire, in 1775. He devoted much 
 attention to the literary history of medicine, and wrote 
 many able articles for the " Magasin Encyclopedique," 
 the " Bibliotheque Medicale," and other scientific jour- 
 nals. For the "Biographie Universelle" he furnished 
 notices of many eminent physicians. He undertook the 
 " Medical Flora," of which he composed the text as far 
 as the letter G. Died in 1819. 
 
 See Virey, " Notice sur la Vie, etc. de Chaumeton." 
 Chaumette, sho'mJt', (Pierre Gaspard,) a French 
 demagogue and Jacobin of infamous memory, born at 
 Nevers in 1763. In 1789 he joined the Cordeliers Club 
 in Paris, and acquired influence over the populace by 
 his violent harangues. As procureur of the commune, 
 (1792,) he was accessary to the worst crimes of that 
 period. He was one of the chiefs of the atheistical 
 faction called Hebertists, and was the author of the 
 Festivals of Reason. As chief priest, he officiated at the 
 profane orgies by which the worship of Reason as the 
 only national religion was inaugurated in the cathedral 
 of Notre-Dame, December, 1793. He was proscribed 
 by Robespierre, and executed in 1794. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Chaumonot, sho'mo'no', (Pierre Marie Joseph,} 
 a French Jesuit, born in 161 1, laboured as a missionary 
 among the Indians of Canada. Died in 1693. 
 
 Chaurnont, de, deh sh6'm6N',(CHARLES d'Amboise 
 — dSN'bwaz',) Seigneur, a French general, nephew of 
 the Cardinal d'Amboise, was born in 1473. He was 
 appointed governor of Milan in 1500, and distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Agnadello. In 1510 he invested 
 Pope Julius II. in Bologna, and would have captured 
 him if he had not resorted to negotiations. Died in 151 1. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Chaurnont, de, (Paul Philippe,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and author, succeeded his father as keeper of the 
 books of the king's cabinet, (1667.) In 1654 he was 
 admitted into the French Academy, and in 1671 became 
 Bishop of Apt. He wrote an esteemed work entitled 
 " Reflections on the Christianity taught in the Catholic 
 Church," (1693.) Died in 1697. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires." 
 
 Chauncey or Chauncy, chan'se or chawn'se, 
 (Charles,) a distinguished lawyer, born at Durham, 
 Connecticut, in 1747. He taught jurisprudence for many 
 years, and became a judge of the superior court of Con- 
 necticut in 1789. Died in 1823. 
 
 Chauncey, (Charles,) an eminent American lawyer, 
 a son of the preceding, was born at New Haven, Con- 
 necticut, in 1777. He removed about 1798 to Philadel- 
 phia, where he soon rose to distinction, although he had 
 among his competitors several of the most accomplished 
 lawyers in the United States. Died in 1849. 
 
 See an interesting notice of his character as a lawyer and a man, 
 by Horace Binnev, in "Wallace's Reports," vol. li., 1854, p. xii. 
 et seq. 
 
 Chauncey, (Isaac,) an American commodore, born in 
 Connecticut about 1772. He obtained the rank of cap- 
 tain about 1806, and was appointed commander of the 
 naval forces on the northern lakes in 1812. His squadron, 
 aided by a land army under General Pike, took York 
 (Toronto) in April, 1813. He defeated the British fleet 
 on Lake Ontario in September, 1813, and gained a high 
 reputation for ability. Died in 1840. 
 
 Chauncy, (Charles.) See Chauncey, (Charles.) 
 
 Chauncy or Chauncey, chan'se or chawn'se, 
 (Charles,) an English Puritan, born in Hertfordshire 
 in 1592, became professor of Greek at Cambridge, and 
 vicar of Ware. He emigrated to Massachusetts in 1638, 
 preached some years at Scituate, and became president 
 of Harvard College in 1654. Died in 1672. 
 
 Chauncy, (Charles,) a writer on theology, a de- 
 scendant of the preceding, was born in 1705. He was 
 minister of a church in Boston, Massachusetts, formally 
 years. Died in 1787. 
 
 Chauncy, (Sir Henry,) a British antiquary and law- 
 yer, born in 1632, became reader and treasurer of the 
 Middle Temple, and published " Historical Antiquities 
 of Hertfordshire," (1700.) In 1688 he was made a Welsh 
 judge. Died in 1 719. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; me 1 1; not; good; nr. 18i». 
 
CHAUPT 
 
 587 
 
 CHAZELLES 
 
 Chaupy, de, deh sho'pe', (Capmartin Bkrtrand,) 
 a French antiquary and priest, born near Toulouse in 1720. 
 In 1756 lie removed to Rome, where he spent ten years 
 in collecting materials for a "Description of Ancient 
 Italy," a part of which was published. Died in 1798. 
 
 Chaussard, sho'saV, (Pierre Jean Bapiiste,) an 
 ingenious and prolific French writer, born in Paris in 
 1766. He was an ardent partisan of the Revolution, and 
 obtained the important place of chef des bureaux of the 
 committee of public safety about 1792. In 1805 he was 
 appointed professor of literature at Nimes, and two years 
 later he was authorized by Fontanes to reside in Paris 
 as directoi of classical studies, retaining his title and 
 Mary. He wrote an admired ode "On Industry and 
 Arts," "Theory of Criminal Laws," (1789,) " Esprit de 
 Mirabeau," (2 vols., 1797,) and various other works. In 
 his youth he adopted the name of Publicola. Died in 
 Paris in 1823. 
 
 See Hereau, "Notice sur Chaussard." 
 
 Cbausse. See La Chausse. 
 
 'Chausse, de la, d?h IS shoss, (Michel Ange,) a 
 French antiquary, born in Paris about 1660, became a 
 resident of Rome. He gained a high reputation by his 
 antiquarian works, among which are "Romanum Mu- 
 seum," an illustrated treatise on ancient gems, images, 
 insignia, etc., (1690.) Died after 1738. 
 
 Chaussee, de la, deh IS sho'sa', (Pierre Claude 
 NlVELLE,) a French dramatic author, born in Paris in 
 1692. In 1732, in partnership with La Faye, he wrote an 
 "Epistle from Clio," ("Epitre de Clio,") in verse. His 
 pathetic or sentimental comedy "Prejuge a la mode" 
 ("Prejudice a la mode," in verse, 1735) obtained a tri- 
 umph which time has confirmed. La Chaussee first 
 introduced what the French call the genre larmoyant, 
 (pathetic comedy.) He wrote other popular dramas, 
 among which we may name " False Antipathy." He was 
 a member of the French Academy. Died in 1754. 
 
 See La Harpe, "Cours de Litterature." 
 
 Chaussier, sho'se-i', (Francois,) a celebrated French 
 phvsician, was born at Dijon in 1746, and graduated in 
 1780. He had taught anatomy and chemistry at Dijon for 
 some years, when the government called him to Paris, in 
 1794, to aid Fourcroy in reorganizing the medical insti- 
 tutions. The result was the "Ecole de Sante," in which 
 he obtained the chair of anatomy. In 1804 he became 
 professor of chemistry in the Polytechnic School, where 
 he lectured until 1815. He wrote many medical and 
 scientific treatises, which were inserted in various peri- 
 odicals, and rendered important services to legal medi- 
 cine and physiology. Among his most useful works is a 
 series of " Synoptical Tables on Zoonomy," (1799-1826.) 
 Died in Pans in 1828. 
 
 See QuiRARD, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Chauveau, sho'vo', (Adoi.phe,) a French jurist, born 
 about 1790, became professor of law in Toulouse in 1821. 
 He published a "Theory of the Penal Code," (1834-43,) 
 and a "General Formulary," (1853.) In the former work 
 M. Helie co-operated. 
 
 Chauveau, (Franqois,) a skilful French designer and 
 engraver, born in Paris about 1620. He engraved works 
 of Raphael, Poussin, Giulio Romano, etc. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Chauveau, (Rene,) an ingenious French sculptor and 
 architect, son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1663. 
 Louis XIV. employed him in various works for the de- 
 coration of his palaces. Died in 1722. 
 
 Chauveau-Lagarde,sho'vo' )3'gSRd',(CLAur>E Fran- 
 cois,) an eloquent and courageous French lawyer, born 
 at Chartres about 1760. After having gained reputation 
 by defending Miranda and Brissot in times when the 
 advocate shared the peril of the accused, he was desig- 
 nated by the judge to be counsel for Charlotte Corday. 
 He was one of the counsel chosen by the queen Mane 
 Antoinette, for whom he made an unavailing plea, in 
 October, 1793. Soon after this date he was committed 
 to prison, and detained until July, 1794. In the reign of 
 Napoleon he was advocate of the Council of State. He 
 published a " Narrative of the Trial of Marie Antoinette," 
 (1816.) Died in 1841. 
 
 See Louis Aims' Martin, "Quelques Esquisses sur la Vie de 
 Chauveau-Lagarde," 1S41. 
 
 Chauvelln, shov'laN', (Henri Philippe,) AbbS, a 
 French lawyer, son of Germain Louis, noticed below, 
 acquired reputation by his bold and successful attacks on 
 the Jesuits, which resulted in the suppression of the 
 order about 1762. He was canon of Notre-Dame, and 
 a counsellor in the Parliament of Paris. Died in 1770, 
 aged fifty-four. 
 
 Chauvelin, de, deh shov'laN', (Francois Bernard,) 
 an able French politician, born in 1766. He favoured 
 the popular party in 1789, and in 1792 he was sent as 
 ambassador to London in company with Talleyrand, who. 
 though not formally accredited, was the real director 
 of the negotiations. When the death of Louis XVI. 
 became known in England, Chauvelin was ordered to 
 leave the island within eight days. Under the regime of 
 Bonaparte he served as member of the Tribunal, and 
 prefect of Lys, and received the title of Count. After the 
 restoration (1816) he was for about ten years a prominent 
 member and speaker in the Chamber of Deputies, in 
 which he acted with the Liberals. Died in 1832. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Chauvelin, de, (Germain Louis,) an able French 
 minister of state, born in 1685. In 1727 he became 
 keeper of the seals and secretary of foreign affairs. He 
 was thenceforth the second and confidant of Cardinal 
 de Fleury, the prime minister, to whom he is said to have 
 been superior in political talent He was removed from 
 office in 1737, and died in 1762. 
 
 Chauvin, sho'vaN', (Stienne,) a learned French 
 Protestant divine, born at Nimes in 1640. He became 
 an exile about 1685, and went to Rotterdam, where in 
 1688 he taught philosophy in place of Bayle during the 
 long illness of the latter. He published the results of 
 his studies in the history of philosophy, in a work called 
 " Rational Lexicon, or Philosophical Treasury," (" Lexi- 
 con Rationale, sive Thesaurus Philosophicus, 1692.) In 
 1695 he obtained the chair of philosophy in the royal 
 French College of Berlin. Died in Berlin in 1725. 
 
 See MM. Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Chauvin, (Jean.) See Calvin. 
 
 Chavagnac, de, deh shS'v3n'y3k',(GASPARD,)CoMTE, 
 a French officer, born in 1624, published a volume uf 
 Memoirs, (1699.) 
 
 Chav^e, shS'va', (Honore Joseph,) a Belgian lin 
 guist, born at Namur in 1815. He attempted to dis- 
 prove the unity of the human race in his "Lexicologie 
 Indo-Europeenne," or Essay on the Knowledge of San- 
 scrit, Greek, Latin, French, and Russian Words, (1849.) 
 
 Chaves, de, da sha'ves, (Manuel de Silveyra 
 Pinto de Fonseca — da sel-va^e-ra pen'to da fon-sa'- 
 ka,) Marquis, and Count of Amarante, ( a-ma-ran'ta, ) 
 a Portuguese general, born at Villareal. He served in 
 the Peninsular war from 1809 to 1814. In the civil war 
 of 1823 he was a prominent partisan of Don Miguel and 
 the absolutists, for whom he gained a victory. He again 
 raised the standard of absolutism in 1827, and was 
 defeated by Villaflor near Coimbra and Oporto. Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 Chavignard. See Chavigny. 
 
 Chavigny, shS'ven'ye', or Chavignard, shS'ven'ySR', 
 (Theodore,) a French diplomatist, and one of the most 
 able negotiators of his time, born at Beaune, in Bur- 
 gundy, was an uncle of Count de Vergennes. He rep- 
 resented France at the Congress of Ratisbon, and was 
 minister to England in 1731. About 1745 he negotiated, 
 at Frankfort, the treaty of alliance between the emperor 
 Charles VII., the King of Prussia, and other powers. 
 Died in 1771. 
 
 Chazal, shS'zSl', (Antoine,) a French painter and 
 designer, born in Paris in 1793, was one of the most 
 eminent painters of the Museum of Natural History 
 of Paris. He designed the plates for the " Flore Pitto- 
 resque," and for several scientific works. 
 
 Chazelles, de, d?h shS'zel', (Jean Mathieu,) a 
 French mathematician and hydrographer, born at Lyons 
 in 1657, became, in 1685, professor of hydrography at 
 Marseilles, where he made a chart of the coast of Pro- 
 vence. In 1693 he visited Greece and Egypt, where he 
 measured the Pyramids and observed that the sides of 
 one faced the cardinal points. In 1695 he became an 
 Associate of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1710. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,gvttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (jg^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHEATHAM 
 
 588 
 
 CHEMNITZER 
 
 . Cheatham, cheet'am, (Benjamin F.,) an American 
 general, born at Nashville, Tennessee. He took arms 
 against the Union in 1861, commanded a division at 
 Perryville, October, 1862, at Stone River, December 
 31, 1862, to January 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga, Sep- 
 tember 19 and 20, 1863. 
 
 Chedeaux, sheh-do', (Pierre Joseph,) a French 
 economist, born at Metz in 1767; died in 1832. 
 
 Chedel, sheh'del', (Quentin Pierre,) a French en- 
 graver, born at Chalons, in Champagne, in 1705. He 
 etched landscapes after the best Dutch painters. His 
 works are numerous and much admired. Died in 1762. 
 
 See Heinecken, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Chee'ver, (Ezekiel, ) an eminent New England 
 teacher, born in London in 1615. Having received a 
 superior classical education, he came to America in 1638, 
 and assisted in founding the colony in New Haven, of 
 which he was a teacher for twelve years, and in 1646 was 
 a representative in the General Assembly. He was 
 subsequently for eleven years a teacher in Ipswich, 
 Massachusetts, nine years in Charlestown, and thirty- 
 eight years in Boston, where he died in. 1708. 
 
 Cheever, (George B.,) an American author and 
 preacher, born at Hallowell, Maine, in 1807, graduated 
 at Bowdoin College in 1825. He was ordained minister 
 of a Congregational church at Salem, Massachusetts, in 
 1832. About 1835 he wrote a satirical allegory called 
 " Deacon Giles's Distillery," for which he was prosecuted 
 on a charge of libel and sentenced to imprisonment for 
 thirty days. He became a resident of New York City in 
 1839, and preached in the Allen Street Church. He 
 published "Studies in Poetry," (1830,) "Lectures on Pil- 
 grim's Progress," (1843,) " Wanderings of a Pilgrim in 
 the Shadow of Mont Blanc," (1846,) and other works. 
 Since 1846 he has been pastor of the Congregational 
 Church of the Puritans, New York. He has particularly 
 distinguished himself as an opponent of slavery and an 
 advocate of temperance. 
 
 See Griswold, "Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Cheever, (Henry T.,) an author and Congregational 
 minister, brother of the preceding, has published, besides 
 other works, "The Island-World of the Pacific," (1851.) 
 
 CheSbntaines, de, deh shi-fAN'tin', (Christophe,) 
 a French theologian, born in Brittany about 1532, be- 
 came Archbishop of Csesarea about 1586. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " Defence of the Faith of our An- 
 cestors," (1570,) and a " Treatise against certain Dogmas 
 of Scholastic Theology," (1586.) Died at Rome in 1595. 
 
 Chegaray, sha'ga"YV, (Michel Charles,) a French 
 advocate and legislator, born at Bayonne in 1802. He 
 became a judge of the court of cassation in 1853. 
 
 Cheiron. See Chiron. 
 
 Cheke or Cheeke, (Sir John,) an eminent English 
 scholar and Hellenist, born at Cambridge in 1514. He 
 became in 1540 the first professor of Greek in the uni- 
 versity of that city. In 1544 he was appointed Latin 
 tutor to Prince Edward. About 1550 he was knighted by 
 his former pupil, Edward VI., and in 1553 was chosen 
 secretary of state. As a zealous Protestant, he favoured 
 the attempt to raise Lady Jane Grey to the throne. After 
 the accession of Mary he retired to the continent, to es- 
 cape persecution. In 1556, by order of Philip II. of Spain, 
 he was arrested in Flanders and conveyed to the Tower 
 of London. Being required to choose between death by 
 fire and conversion to the Catholic faith, he accepted the 
 latter. Remorse for this act hastened his death, which 
 occurred in 1557. He had translated several religious 
 works into elegant Latin, and contributed much to the 
 revival of learning in England. 
 
 See Strypf, "Life of Cheke," 1705. 
 
 Chelard, sheh-liR', (Hippolyte Andre Jean Bap- 
 TISTE,) a French musician and composer, born in Paris 
 in 1789. His opera "Macbeth" (with words by Rouget 
 de Lisle) was very successful, and procured for him the 
 place of chapel-master to the King of Bavaria. He pro- 
 duced other operas, cantatas, etc. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Chelius, Ka'le-us, (Maximilian Joseph,) a German 
 physician, born at Manheim in 1794, was appointed pro- 
 fessor of medicine in the University of Heidelberg in 
 
 1819, and privy councillor in 1826. His principal work 
 is a " Manual of Surgery," which has been extensively 
 used. The seventh edition appeared in 1851. 
 
 Chelmsford, cheWibrd, (Sir Frederick Thesiger 
 — th&'e-jer,) Lord, an eminent English lawyer, born 
 in London in 1794. He was returned to Parliament in 
 1840, after practising some years as leader of the home 
 circuit, became solicitor-general in 1844, and attorney- 
 general under Sir Robert Peel in 1845. ^ e resigned 
 his office in 1846, and was reappointed in 1852. On 
 the accession of the Conservative party in 1858, he was 
 appointed (by Lord Derby) lord chancellor of England, 
 and was raised to the peerage as Lord Chelmsford. He 
 resigned, in consequence of the defeat of the Derby min- 
 istry, in June, 1859, and was lord chancellor again from 
 July, 1866, to February, 1868. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. 
 
 Chel'sum, (James,) an English clergyman, born in 
 Westminster in 1740, published " Remarks on Gibbon's 
 History," (1772.) Died in 1801. 
 
 Chemin, du, dii sheh-maN', (Catherine,) a French 
 flower-painter, born in Paris in 1630 ; died in 1698. 
 
 Cheminais de Montaigu, sheh-me'n.V deh moN'- 
 ti'gii', (Timoleon,) a French Jesuit, distinguished as a 
 pulpit orator, was born in Paris in 1652. He preached 
 in several pulpits of Paris and Versailles until he was 
 disabled by ill health, but for which he would probably 
 have become one of the greatest orators of his age. 
 Died* in 1689. "Many persons," says Bayle, "esteem 
 his sermons as highly as those of Bourdaloue." 
 
 Chemineau, sheh-me'no', (Jean,) a French general, 
 born inLaCharente in 1775. He lost a leg at the battle 
 of Lutzen in 1813, and in the same year became a general 
 of division, and governor of Strasbourg. Died in 1852. 
 
 See General Foy, "Histoire de la Guerre de la Peninsule." 
 
 Chemnitius, (Martin.) See Chemnitz. 
 
 Chemnitz, KSm'nits, (Johann Jerome,) of Magde- 
 burg, a German naturalist and divine, born in 1730. He 
 published, in German, several works which contributed 
 to the progress of natural history, especially of concho- 
 logy. His " Systematic Cabinet of Shell-Fish," (12 vols. 
 1776-1800,) says Du Petit-Thouars, "is one of the most 
 beautiful and complete works of that kind." Died in 1800. 
 
 Chemnitz, [Lat. Chemnit'ius,] (Martin,) an emi- 
 nent German Protestant divine, born at Treuenbrietzen, 
 in Brandenburg, in 1522. He studied mathematics, as- 
 tronomy, and theology at Wittenberg, and about 1550 
 was chosen librarian to Duke Albert of Prussia. In 
 15^4 he became minister of a church at Brunswick. He 
 published in 1565 "ExamenConcilii Tridentini,"a sound 
 and acute argument against the doctrines asserted by 
 the Council of Trent. He took a prominent part in 
 the formation of the doctrinal system of the Protestant 
 Church. Chemnitz and Morlin composed the " Corpus 
 Doctrinae Prutenicae,"* (1566.) He was chosen superin- 
 tendent at Brunswick in 1567, and wrote a confession of 
 faith, which was adopted by the churches of Lower Sax- 
 ony in 1571. His "Theological Topics" ("Loci Theo- 
 logici," 1591) was esteemed high authority among his 
 contemporaries, and regarded as superior to all similar 
 works in learning and method. He died at Brunswick 
 in 1586, leaving unfinished a " Harmonia Evangelica," 
 which was published about 1600. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" Johann H. Wolff, 
 " Programma, M. Chemnitius ipsiusque in Ecclesiam Lutheranan; 
 Merita," 1719; Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Chemnitz, von, fon Kem'nits, (Phii.ipp Bogislav — 
 bo'gis-lav,) a historian, grandson of the preceding, born 
 at Stettin in 1605. He entered the service of Christina 
 of Sweden, who ennobled him and gave him the office 
 of councillor. He wrote, in German, a valuable history 
 of the war waged by Gustavus Adolphus in Germany, 
 (1648-52,) and a political work on the theory or method 
 of government in the German Empire. Died in 1678. 
 
 Chemnitzer, KSm'nit-ser, (Ivan Ivanovitch,) a Rus- 
 sian fabulist, of German descent, born in Saint Petersburg 
 in 1744. After serving for some time in the army, he 
 retired about 1778 from the service, in order to indulge 
 
 * " Body of Prussian doctrine;" so called because it was prepared 
 under the auspices of the Duke of Prussia, 
 
 5, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon, 
 
CHEMNIZER 
 
 589 
 
 CHE RON 
 
 his taste for literature, and then published a part of his 
 fables, which the Russians compare to those of La Fon- 
 taine. He excels in vivacity of dialogue and nawete of 
 expression. He was appointed consul-general to Smyrna 
 in 17S2, and died there in 1784. 
 
 See Otto, "Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur.'* 
 
 Chemnizer. See Chemnitzer. 
 
 Chenard, sheh-naV, (Simon,) a French actor and 
 sinner, born at Auxerre in 1758; died in 183 1. 
 
 Chenavard, sheh-ni'vaV, ( Paul,) an eminent French 
 painter of history, born at Lyons in 1808. He studied 
 some years in Italy, and acquired a reputation by his 
 picture of " Mirabeau replying to the Marquis de Dreux- 
 BrezeV' After the. revolution of 1848 he received a com- 
 mission to paint fifty large compositions for the decora- 
 tion of the Pantheon. Among these are "The Deluge" 
 and "The Passage of the Rubicon." The Pantheon 
 having been restored to the Catholic worship, he was 
 not permitted to finish the task* 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues AHgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Chenedolle, de, deh shin'do'la', (Charles Julien 
 Pioult — pe'oo',) a French poet, born at Vire in 1769. 
 He emigrated in 1791, served in the royalist army, and 
 returned to France about 1800, before which date he had 
 composed several odes. He became intimate with Fon- 
 tanes and Chateaubriand. In 1807 he produced "The 
 Genius of Man," ("Le Genie de "'Homme,") a poem, 
 which is admired for elevated thought and brilliant style. 
 He was appointed professor at Rouen in 1810. In 1820 
 he published a volume of his early odes, with some new 
 poems, among which were " The Last Day of Harvest" 
 and " Moonlight in May," containing fine descriptions 
 of nature. He was chosen inspector-general of the 
 university in 1830. Died in 1833. 
 
 See I.OU1S Blanc, " Histoire de dix Ans:" Chateaubriand, 
 Memoires d'Outre-Tombe ;" Longfeli.ow, " Poets and Poetry of 
 Europe;" Sainte-Beuve, "Revue des Deux Mondes" for June, 
 1849. 
 
 Cherr'e-vix, (Richard,) an Irish writer, noted for 
 versatility of talents. He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Societies of London and Edinburgh. He published 
 various esteemed works, among which are " Chemical 
 Nomenclature," (1802,) an "Essay on National Charac- 
 ter," (published after his death,) and " Henry Seventh," a 
 tragedy, (1812,) "which," says the " Edinburgh Review," 
 "is the most successful imitation of the general style, 
 taste, and diction of our elder dramatists, that has ap- 
 peared in the present times." Died in 1830. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812. 
 
 Chenier, sha'ne-A', (Marie Joseph,) a popular French 
 poet and dramatist, born at Constantinople in 1764, was 
 a brother of Andre Chenier. He was educated in Paris, 
 where he also resided. He produced in 1789 "Charles 
 IX.," a tragedy, which had prodigious success, especially 
 with the popular party. In 1792 he became a prominent 
 republican member of the Convention. He served the 
 interests of liberty and order in the several Legislative 
 Assemblies of the ensuing ten years. His tragedy of 
 "Timoleon," in verse, (1-794,) a ft er being performed once 
 with applause, was prohibited by the ruling powers. He 
 Composed other tragedies, and admirable odes, satires, 
 and songs, in which he displayed a great variety of 
 talent. His patriotic "Song of Departure" ("Chant 
 du Depart," 1794) was said to be more popular than 
 any other except the " Marseillaise." He wrote, besides 
 other prose works, an excellent " Historical Treatise ( Ta- 
 bleau) on the State and Progress of French Literature 
 since 1789," (1808.) He was a member of the Institute. 
 Died in 1811. 
 
 See Lingav, " E*loge de M. J. Chenier ;" Arnault, " Sur J. 
 Chenier;" Daonow, " Notice sur Nf. J. Chenier," in his Complete 
 Works, 8 vols., 1823-26; Fiux Pvat, "M. J. Chenier et le Prince 
 des Critiques, (Jules Janin,)" 1844. 
 
 Chenier, de, deh sha'ne-i', (Andre,) an admirable 
 French poet, born in Constantinople in October, 1762, 
 was the son of Louis Chenier, noticed below. He was 
 educated in Paris, and became an excellent classical 
 scholar. He began his literary career by beautiful 
 eclogue; of antique simplicity, and elegies admired for 
 sensibility. In 1787 he went to England as secretary 
 of legation. In the Revolution he pursued a moderate 
 course. Some letters which he published in the "Jour- 
 
 nal de Paris" rendered him obnoxious to the dominant 
 party ; and he was committed to prison as a Girondist 
 " There," says Lamartine, " his ideal reveries found their 
 reality in Mademoiselle de Coigny, confined in the same 
 prison. He addressed to her those immortal verses, 
 'The Young Captive,' ('La jeune Captive,') the most 
 melodious sigh that ever issued from the crevices of a 
 dungeon." He was executed in July, 1794, two days be- 
 fore the fall of Robespierre. He left unfinished poems, 
 entitled " Hermes," and "America," and a completed 
 poem, " LTnvention," which is praised by Villemain. 
 
 See H. dbLatouche, " Notice sur Andre 1 Chenier ;" Bibliophile 
 Jacob, ''Notice sur Andre 1 Chenier;" Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries 
 du Lundi," tome iv., and " Portraits contemporains," totne iii. 
 (Sainte-Beuve estimates Andre 1 Chenier as "the greatest French 
 classic in verse since Racine and Boileau ;'') article by Leo Jou- 
 bert, in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Chenier, de, (Louis,) a French historian, born at 
 Montfort, in Languedoc, in 1723, was the father of the 
 two poets Andre and M. J. Chenier. He was consul- 
 general at Constantinople from 1753 to 1764. For several 
 years preceding 1784 he was charge-d'affaires at Morocco. 
 He composed two works of merit, — viz., " Researches 
 in the History of the Moors," and "Revolutions of the 
 Ottoman Empire," (1789.) Died in 1796. 
 
 Chenier, de, (Louis Joseph Gabriel,) a French 
 military writer, a nephew of the poet Andre Chenier, 
 was born in 1800. He published a "Manual for Coun- 
 cils of War," (1831,) and other works on the criminal 
 legislation for the army. 
 
 Chenot, sheh-no', (Claude Bernard Adrien,) a 
 French engineer, born at Bar-sur-Aube in 1803. In 1832 
 he invented an apparatus for the fabrication of metallic 
 sponges. About ten years later he began a series of 
 important researches relative to a new system of metal- 
 lurgy, the first results of which appeared at the Industrial 
 Exhibition of 1849. Died in 1 855. 
 
 Chenu, sheh-nu', (Jean Charles,) a French physi- 
 cian and naturalist, born at Metz in 1808. He published 
 "An Essay on the Action of Mineral Waters," (1841,) 
 " Illustrations of Conchology," (1842-45,) and an " Ency- 
 clopaedia of Natural History," (14 vols., 1858.) 
 
 ■Che'ops, [Gr. Xeof,] King of Egypt, is supposed to 
 have begun his reign about 1178 B.C. " He changed the 
 government," says Herodotus, " into a despotism, and 
 oppressed his subjects with forced labour in the construc- 
 tion of the great pyramid which bears his name." He 
 was succeeded by his brother, Cephren or Chephren. 
 
 Cherbonneau, sheVbo'no', (Jacques Auguste,) a 
 French Orientalist, born in Indre-et-Loire in 1813. He 
 has published " The Fables of Lokmin," ( 1 846,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Cherbuliez, sheVbU'le_-i', (Victor,) a French writer, 
 born at Geneva in 1832, has produced several popular 
 romances, among which are " Le Comte Kostia," " Le 
 Prince Vitale," "Paul Mere\" and "Le Roman d'une 
 honnete Femme." 
 
 Cherea, the French of Ch/Erea, which see. 
 
 Chereau, sha'ro', (Francois,) a skilful French en- 
 graver, born at Blois .in 1680, executed portraits and 
 historical subjects. He became engraver of the royal 
 cabinet. Died in 1729. 
 
 Cheremon. See Ch/EREmon. 
 
 Cherephon. See Ch/erephon. 
 
 Cherile. See Chcerilus. 
 
 Cherin, sha'raN', (Louis Nicolas Henri,) a French 
 general, born in Paris in 1762. He was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the guard of the Directory in Sep- 
 tember, 1797, and chief of the staff of the army of the 
 Danube in 1799. He was killed at Zurich in that year. 
 
 See De Courcelles, "Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais." 
 
 Cherler, sheVla', (Jean Henri,) a physician and 
 botanist, was a citizen of Bale. He married trie daughter 
 of J. Bauhin, the eminent botanist, whom he aided in the 
 composition of his "General History of Plants," which 
 appeared in 1650, some years after the death of Cherler. 
 
 See Cloy, "D'ctionnaire de la Me'decine." 
 
 Cheron, sha'tAx', (Charles,) a skilful French en- 
 graver, born at Luneville in 1635. He was invited to 
 Paris by Louis XIV., who gave him a pension, and 
 employed him to engrave the medals which were struck 
 to commemorate his actions. Died in 1698. 
 
 *: as t; 9 as s; g hard: g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JfJ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHER ON 
 
 59° 
 
 CHESTERFIELD 
 
 Chercm, (Elisabeth Sophie,) a skilful French artist 
 iud poet, born at Paris in 1648. She excelled in music, 
 painting, and engraving, and wrote agreeable verses. 
 She was very successful in portraits and in history. The 
 exact likeness, it is said, was the least merit of her por- 
 traits. In 1672 she was admitted into the Academy of 
 Painting. She executed a series of engravings called 
 "Gems drawn from the Principal Cabinets of France." 
 Died in 1711. 
 
 See Fontenay, "Dictionnaire des Artistes;" FERMELHtns,"£loge 
 de fi. S. Cheron," 1712. 
 
 Charon, (Francois,) a French writer, born in Paris 
 in 1764. He became director of the "Mercure" in 1815. 
 He composed an ode entitled " Napoleon, ou le Corse 
 devoile," ("The Corsican unveiled," 1814,) and a few 
 other works. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Quekard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Chercm, (Louis,) a French painter and engraver, 
 brother of Elisabeth Sophie, noticed above, born in Paris 
 in 1660. Compelled to leave Fiance as a Protestant about 
 1690, he went to England, where he was successful as a 
 painter of history and a designer. Died in 1723. 
 
 See Heinecken, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Charon, (Louis Claude,) a French writer of prose 
 and verse, a brother of Francois, noticed above, was 
 born in Paris in 1758. In 1791 he was elected to the 
 Legislative Assembly, where he supported moderate 
 measures. In 1805 he was chosen prefect of the depart- 
 ment of Vienne. He produced, besides other dramas, 
 an imitation of Sheridan's " School for Scandal," entitled 
 " Le Tartufe des Moeurs," which was successful, and 
 translated, from the English, Fielding's "Tom Jones." 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 See Qubrard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Cherrier, de, deh sh,i're-4', (Charles Joseph,) a 
 French officer and writer, born at Neufchateau (Vosges) 
 in 1785. He published in 1841 a "History of the Con- 
 test between the Popes and the Emperors of the House 
 of Suabia." 
 
 ChSr'rjf, (Andrew,) an Irish actor and comic writer, 
 born in 1762. He produced "The Soldier's Daughter," 
 and other comedies. Died in 1812. 
 
 ■Cher'sl-phroii, [Gr. Xepai<ppwv,] a famous Cretan 
 architect, whose name is sometimes written Ctesiphon, 
 flourished about 600 B.C. He was the first architect and 
 designer of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, one of the 
 Seven Wonders of the World. After his death, the un- 
 finished work was directed by his son Metagenes, and 
 others. This temple was adorned by one hundred and 
 twenty-seven Ionic columns of solid marble, sixty feet 
 high. Its length was four hundred and twenty-five 
 Roman feet, and its breadth two hundred and twenty. 
 It is said that two hundred years elapsed during its 
 construction. The roof was burned by the agency of 
 Erostratus in 356 B.C. ; but the edifice was soon restored 
 to its former splendor. 
 
 See Hirt, "Tempel der Diana von Ephesus," 1807. 
 
 Cherubin, sha'rii'baN', Le Pere, a Capuchin friar 
 of Orleans, France, noted as a geometer and optician, 
 lived in the reign of Louis XIV. He made an improve- 
 ment in the binocular telescope, and wrote a valuable 
 treatise on "Ocular Dioptrics," (1671.) 
 
 Cherubim, ka-roo-bee'nee, ( Maria Luigi Carlo 
 Zenobi Salvador,) a celebrated Italian musical com- 
 poser, born at Florence in 1760. He was instructed in 
 in .31 : b;' the Felicis and by Bizzari and Sarti. About 
 the age of fourteen he began to attract attention by his 
 productions. He visited London in 1784, and there pro- 
 duced the successful operas " The Pretended Princess" 
 ("La finta Principessa") and "Giulio Sabino." After 
 1786 he resided mostly in Paris, where his opera " Lo- 
 doiska" was performed with great applause in 1791. 
 Soon after that date he produced "Elisa," "Medee," 
 " Anacreon," etc. As a composer of sacred music he 
 attained the highest rank. Among his best works in 
 this department are his " Requiem," and his mass i. 
 trbis voix. He was a member of the Royal Academy, 
 and a professor in the Conservatory, of which he was 
 director for twenty years. His last dramatic work was 
 the opera "Ali Baba," (1833.) Died in 1842. Haydn 
 
 and Beethoven pronounced him the first dramatic com- 
 poser of his time. 
 
 . See Lours de Lomenie," M. Cherubini, parun Homme de Rien," 
 1841 ; Miel, "Notice sur la Vie de Cherubini," 1842; Raoul- 
 Rochette, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Cherubini;" L. 
 Picchianti, " Notizie sulla Vita e sulle Opere di L. Cherubini," 
 1843 ; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Cheruel, sha'rii'el', (Augusts,) a French historian, 
 born at Rouen in 1809, published a " History of Rouen," 
 and a "Historical Dictionary of the Institutions, Man- 
 ners, and Customs of France," (1855.) 
 
 Chervin, sheVvaN', (Nicolas,) a French medical 
 writer, born near Lyons in 1783 ; died in 1843. 
 
 Chery, sha're', (Philippe,) a skilful French painter 
 of history, born in Paris in 1759, was a pupil of Vien. 
 He was admitted into the Academy in 1791, when he 
 exhibited the " Death of Alcibiades." In a concourse for 
 the representation of the peace of Amiens, he obtained 
 the prize in 1803. He was patronized by Napoleon, who 
 charged him to paint a scene on the battle-field of Jena. 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 Cheryf-Ed-Dyn-Aly. See Shereef-ed-Deen. 
 
 Cheseaux, de, deh sha'zo', (Jean Philippe Loys,) 
 a Swiss savant, born at Lausanne in 1718. He wrote 
 "Essays on Physics," (1743,) "Treatises on Natural 
 History," and several memoirs on astronomy, (1764.) 
 Died in Paris in 1 751. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Chesebro', cheez'bro, (Caroline,) an authoress, born 
 at Canandaigua, New York. Among her works is 
 "Dream-Land by Daylight," (1851,) and anovel entitled 
 "Victoria, or the World Overcome," (1856.) 
 
 ChSs'el-den, (William,) an eminent English surgeon 
 and anatomist, born in Leicestershire in 1688. He was 
 a pupil of the great anatomist Cowper. About 171 1 he 
 began to lecture on anatomy in London, and was chosen 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society before he was twenty-five, 
 (one account says at thirty-three.) He published in 
 1 713 "The Anatomy of the Human Body," which was 
 generally used as a text-book for many years. After 
 that date he was appointed chief surgeon of Saint 
 Thomas's Hospital, consulting surgeon to Saint George's 
 and to the Westminster Hospital, and surgeon to Queen 
 Caroline. He was one of the most skilful operators of 
 his time, and excelled especially in lithotomy. His fame 
 was extended, in 1728, by an operation which restored 
 sight to a young person, whose novel sensations afforded 
 to Locke and Diderot a subject of metaphysical obser- 
 vations. He published in 1733 his "Anatomy of the 
 Bones," a valuable work. Died at Bath in 1752. Pope, 
 who was his intimate friend, says, " He is the most 
 noted and most deserving man in the whole profession 
 of chirurgery." 
 
 See Hutchinson, " Biographia Medica;" E*loy, "Dictionnaire 
 historique de la M^decine." 
 
 Chesnaye-Desbois, de la, deh li sh&'ni' di'bwl', 
 (Francois Alexandre Aubert,) a French writer, born 
 in Maine in 1699. Of all the compilers of the eighteenth 
 century, he published the greatest number of diction- 
 aries. Among these is a "Military Dictionary," and a 
 "Genealogical and Historical Dictionary," (7 vols., 1 757— 
 65.) All his works are mediocre. He died in a hospital 
 at Paris in 1784. 
 
 Chesne. See Duchesne. 
 
 CheVney, (Francis Rawdon,) an officer distin- 
 guished for his explorations in the East, was born in 
 Ireland in 1789. About 1830 he began to explore a route 
 from Europe by the Red Sea to India. Having received ' 
 aid from the government, and having been appointed 
 commander of an expedition, he descended the Eu- 
 phrates in a steamer, in 1836, from Beer (Bir) to its 
 mouth. In 1850 he published "The Expedition for the 
 Survey of the Euphrates and Tigris," (4 vols.) He ob- 
 tained the rank of major-general in 1855. He wrote a 
 work on "The Russo-Turkish Campaigns of 1828-29." 
 
 Chessel. See Casei.ius. 
 
 Ches'ter-field, (Philip Dormer Stanhope,) fourth 
 Earl of, an English courtier, orator, and wit, renowned 
 as a model of politeness and an oracle of taste. He was 
 born in London in September, 1694, and was the eldest 
 son of Philip, third Earl of Chesterfield, and Elizabeth 
 Saville, who was daughter of the Marquis of Halifax. 
 
 a, i,\,b,u,y,long; a, 1, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u,y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t;good; moon 
 
CHETARDIE 
 
 59 ■ 
 
 CHEVREVL 
 
 Having graduated at Cambridge, he made the tour of 
 Europe in 1714, during which he contracted an invete- 
 rate passion for gaming. In 1715, through the influence 
 of his uncle, General Stanhope, he was appointed a gen- 
 tleman of the bedchamber to the Prince of Wales, and 
 was elected to Parliament. He supported the party of 
 the heir-apparent in the quarrel between the latter and 
 his father, George I. He was one of the most brilliant 
 and effective debaters of that period. Walpole says 
 that on one occasion Chesterfield made "the finest 
 oration he ever heard." On the death of his father, in 
 1726, he passed into the House of Lords, and in 1728 
 was ambassador to Holland. A few years later George 
 II. appointed him lord steward of the household. "He 
 was at the head of ton" says Macaulay, "in davs when 
 in order to be at the head of ton it was not sufficient to 
 be dull and supercilious." In 1733 he married Melasma 
 Schulemburg, Countess of Walsingham. Though a Whig 
 in politics, he was dismissed from office by Walpole in 
 1734, and joined the opposition. In 1745 he was lord 
 lieutenant of Ireland, where his conduct was discreet 
 and very popular. He accepted the office of principal 
 secretary of state in April, 1746, which he resigned in 
 1748. He was intimate with Pope, Swift, Voltaire, Mon- 
 tesquieu, etc. His intercourse with Dr. Johnson was 
 abruptly closed by a well-known indignant letter from 
 the lexicographer. Chesterfield's fame as an author is 
 founded chiefly on his " Letters to his Son," which ap- 
 peared in 1774 and were admired for the beauty of the 
 style and prized for the knowledge of the world which 
 they teach. " Take out the immorality," says Dr. John- 
 son, "and it should be put into the hands of every 
 gentleman." Lord Chesterfield wrote two numbers of 
 "The World," and other brief productions, which were 
 published under the title of " Miscellanies" in 1777. He 
 died in 1773. His only son had died in 1768. 
 
 See M*ty, " Life of the late Earl of Chesterfield," London, 2 
 vols., 1774: for a very interesting notice of Chesterfield, see " Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for May, 186S ; see also " Edinburgh Review" for 
 October, 1S45 ; " London Quarterly Review" for September, 1845. 
 
 Chetardie, de la, deh 15 sha'tiR'de', (Joachim 
 Jacques Troth,) Marquis, a French diplomatist, born 
 in 1705. He was sent as ambassador to Russia in 1739, 
 and became the favourite of the empress Elizabeth. In 
 1744 she dismissed him abruptly and ordered him to 
 leave the country. He afterwards had a command in 
 the French army. Died in 1758. 
 
 See Levesque, " Histoire de Russie." 
 
 Chgt'ham, (Humphrey,) an English merchant, noted 
 as the founder of a college and public library at Man- 
 chester, was born about 1580; died in 16^3. 
 
 Chet'tle, (Henry,) an English dramatist, who was a 
 contemporary of Shakspeare, and flourished about 1600. 
 He wrote numerous plays, of which only four have been 
 preserved. One of these is " Hoffman," a tragedy. 
 
 Chgt'wood, (Knightly,) born at Coventry in 1652, 
 became Dean of Gloucester about 1707. He wrote seve- 
 ral biographies and small poems. Died in 1 720. 
 
 Chetwood, (William Rueus,) an English drama- 
 tist. Died in 1766. 
 
 Chet'wjfnd, ( ? ) (John,) an English divine, born in 
 Somersetshire in 1623, published "Anthologia Historica," 
 (1674.) Died in 1692. 
 
 Chevalier. See Lechevalier. 
 
 Chevalier, sheh-vlt'le-i', almost shvi'le^A', (Antoine 
 RODOLPHK,) a noted French Protestant^and Hebraist, 
 born near Vire in 1507. While he was an exile in England 
 he gave French lessons to Queen Elizabeth before her 
 accession. He was afterwards professor of Hebrew at 
 Geneva, and was employed by Calvin as interpreter of 
 books In that language. He published a Hebrew Gram- 
 mar. Died in 1572. 
 
 Chevalier, (Charles Louis,) a French optician, born 
 in Paris in 1804. He invented and improved instruments 
 used in optics and natural philosophy. Died in 1859. 
 
 Chevalier, (Etienne,) born about 1410, became trea- 
 surer of France in 1452. Died in 1474. 
 
 Chevalier, (Michel,) a celebrated French economist, 
 born at Limoges in 1806. About 1833 he was sent by 
 M. Thiers on a mission to the United States to examine 
 the subject of railroads. In 1836 he published " Letters 
 
 on North America," which were highly commended. He 
 produced in 1838 an important work "On the Material 
 Interests of France," ("Des Interets materiels en 
 France,") which was often reprinted. About 1840 he was 
 chosen a councillor of state, professor of political economy 
 in the College of France, and chief engineer of mines. 
 His " History and Description of the Ways of Commu- 
 nication in the United States" appeared in 1840. He 
 has greatly contributed to the triumph of free trade in 
 France. In 1851 he was elected to the Institute, (class 
 of moral and political sciences.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Chevalier, (Nicolas,) a French antiquary and Prot- 
 estant minister, born at Sedan, emigrated to Holland 
 after the edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685. He was 
 the author of a "History of William III. of England," 
 and other works. Died about 1740. 
 
 Chevalier, (Paul.) See Gavarni. 
 
 Chevallier, sheh'vS'le-i, (Jean Baptiste Al- 
 phonse,) a chemist, was born at Langres, in Fiance, in 
 1793, and was for many years editor of the "Journal of 
 Medical Chemistry." He has given special attention to 
 questions relative to public hygiene, and has published a 
 "Dictionary of Adulterations of Alimentary, Medicinal, 
 and Commercial Substances," (1852.) 
 
 Chevanes, sheh-vin', (Jacques Auguste,) a French 
 jurisconsult, born at Dijon in 1624; died in 1690. 
 
 Chevert, de, deh sheh-vaiR', (Franqois,) a successful 
 French general, born at Verdun, on the Meuse, in 1695, 
 distinguished himself at Prague in 1 742, and was made 
 lieutenant-general in 1748. The victory at Hastembeck, 
 in 1757, was ascribed to him. Died in 1769. 
 
 Cheverua, sheVe-nis, [Fr. de Cheverus, deh sheh- 
 vRiis',1 (Jean Louis Anne Madeleine Lefebvre,) a 
 French cardinal and philanthropist, born at Mayenne in 
 1768. He visited the United States as a missionary in 
 1795, and, having spent some time among the Indians 
 of Maine, was made first Bishop of Boston by Pius VII. 
 in .1808. During the prevalence of the yellow fever in 
 Boston he was conspicuous for his efforts in behalf of 
 the sufferers. He afterwards returned to France, and 
 became Archbishop of Bordeaux in 1826, and a cardinal 
 in 1836. He died the same year. 
 
 See Huen-Dubourg, "Vie du Cardinal de Cheverus," (1838,) 
 and an English translation, by Mr. Walsh, Philadelphia, 1839. 
 
 Cheves, cheevz, (Langdon,) an American statesman, 
 born in Abbeville district, South Carolina, in 1776. He 
 studied law, and became eminent in that profession. He 
 was elected a member of Congress about 1 81 1 , and served 
 two or more terms in that body. He was Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives in the second session of the 
 Thirteenth Congress, (1814—15,) and gave a casting vote 
 against the re-charter of the United States Bank in 1815. 
 The bank having been re-chartered in 1816, he afterwards 
 became its president, which position he held for about 
 three years. Died in 1857. • 
 
 Chevillard, sheh-ve'yiR', (Francois,) a French poet, 
 born at Orleans. He excelled in elegiac verse. Died in 
 1678. 
 
 Chevillier, sheh-ve'ye-a', (Andr£,) a learned French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Pontoise in 1636. He wrote a " Criti- 
 cal Dissertation on the Origin of Printing in Paris," (1694.) 
 Died in 1700. 
 
 Chevreau, sheh-vRo', (Urbain,) an ingenious French 
 writer, born at Loudun in 1613. He was versed in many 
 languages and sciences, and travelled extensively. About 
 1652 he was secretary to Christina of Sweden, and after- 
 wards was councillor to the Elector Palatine at Heidel- 
 berg. His " History of the World,"(i686,) poems, dramas, 
 and " Chevra;ana," had a transient popularity. Died in 
 1701. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires." 
 
 Chevret, shehvR^', (Jean,) a French moralist and 
 writer, born at Meulan in 1747 ; died in 1820. 
 
 Chevreul,sheh-vRUl', (Michel Eugene,) an eminent 
 French chemist, born at Angers in 1786, studied under 
 Vauquelin in Paris. He became successively professor 
 in the College Charlemagne, examiner at the Polytechnic 
 School, and professor of special chemistry at the Gobe- 
 lins. In 1823 he published an analytical treatise, called 
 "Chemical Researches on Fat Substances of Animal 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (jJ^^See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
CHE '/REUSE 
 
 592 
 
 CHICHELE 
 
 Origin," which established his reputation, and announced 
 discoveries that produced important results in the arts. 
 He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1826, 
 and succeeded Vauquelin as professor of applied chem- 
 istry in tiie "Jardin des Plantes" in 1829. In 1831 he 
 published " Lectures on Chemistry applied to the Art of 
 Dyeing/' and in 1839 a remarkable work "On the Law 
 of the Simultaneous Contrast of Colours, and on the 
 Distribution (Assortment) of Coloured Objects," which 
 is highly esteemed. He contributed many memoirs to 
 the "Annales de Chiinie," and to the collections of the 
 Institute. In 1852 the Societe d'Encouragement awarded 
 him a prize of 12,000 francs for his work on " Fat Sub- 
 stances," ("Corps gras,") above noticed. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^rale." 
 
 Chevreu3e, de, deh sheh-vRuz', (Marie de Rohan 
 — deh ro'&N',) Duchesse, a fascinating French lady, 
 noted for her political ambition and influence, was born 
 in 1600. She was married to Claude, Duke of Chev- 
 reuse, about 1622. Having intrigued against Richelieu, 
 she was sent into exile, from which she returned at his 
 <leath. During the troubles of the Fronde she acted 
 with the enemies of Mazarin. Died in 1679. 
 
 See Rrtz, "M^moires." 
 
 Chevrier, sheh-vRe-4', (Francois Antoine,) a 
 French writer, born about 1720 at Nancy. He removed 
 to Paris in his youth, and indulged too freely his pro- 
 pensity to satire in several pamphlets, by which he made 
 many enemies. He published a libellous book called 
 "Le Colporteur," which had some success, and various 
 other works. Died at Rotterdam in 1762. 
 
 See Grimm, "Correspondance." 
 
 Cheyne, chan or cheen, (George,) an eminent Scot- 
 tish physician, born about 1670, was a pupil of Dr. A. 
 Pitcairn. About the year 170c he settled in London. 
 His treatise on Fluxions (1705) procured his election as 
 Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote a work called 
 " Philosophical Principles of Natural Religion." In 1725 
 he produced his " Essay on Health and Long Life," 
 which was successful, and was followed by a popular 
 work on nervous diseases, entitled "The English Mal- 
 ady," (1733.) His writings are pervaded with a sincerely 
 religious spirit. Died in 1742. 
 
 See his Autobiography, "Dr. Cheyne's own Account of Himself," 
 1743; " Biographia Britannica ;" Chambers, "Biographical Diction- 
 ary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Cheyne, (James,) a learned Scottish philosopher, 
 born in Aberdeenshire. He was professor of philosophy 
 in the Catholic College of Douay, France, and author 
 of several scientific works. Died in 1602. 
 
 Cheyne, (John,) a Scottish physician, born at Leith 
 in 1777. He settled in Dublin in 1809, and there prac- 
 tised with great success until 1830, when his health 
 failed. From 1820 to 1830 his annual receipts amounted 
 to about five thousand pounds. He published "Treatises 
 on the Diseases of Children," (1801,) and other medical 
 works. Died in 1836. 
 
 Chey'nell, (Francis,) an English nonconformist di- 
 vine, born at Oxford in 1608. He became rector of 
 Petworth in 1643, and published "The Rise, Growth, 
 and Danger of Socinianism," (1643,) in which he accused 
 Chillingworth of heresy. He rendered himself notorious 
 by his animosity towards Chillingworth, at whose funeral 
 he made a violent speech. He also threw into the grave 
 a book of the deceased author. Died in 1665. 
 
 See Dr. Johnson's Works. 
 
 Chezy, sha'ze', (Antoine,) an eminent French civil 
 engineer, born at Chilons-sur-Marne in 1718. The canal 
 of Burgundy was one of his works. Died in 1798. 
 
 Cheizy, de, deh sha'ze', (Antoine Leonard,) son of 
 the preceding, born at Neuilly in 1773, was an eminent 
 Oriental scholar, and a pupil of De Sacy. He spoke 
 Persian and Arabic with facility, and understood Hebrew, 
 Syriac, Sanscrit, Greek, etc. A violent illness prevented 
 him from accompanying the expedition to Egypt in 1798, 
 which Bonaparte had invited him to join. Students of 
 all European countries resorted to Paris to receive from 
 him lessons in Sanscrit, which he esteemed the most 
 beautiful and perfect language of the world. In 1815 a 
 chair of Sanscrit was founded for him at Paris. W. 
 Humboldt and A. Schlegel were among his pupils. He 
 
 published admirable translations of "Medjnoun and 
 Leila," and of the Sanscrit poem " Sakoontala," by Cali- 
 dasa, (1830.) He also left in manuscript an "Analysis 
 of the Ramayana," a " Persian Anthology," a Sanscrit 
 grammar, and other works. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Silvestre DE SacV, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de 
 M. de Chizy," 8vo, 1835; Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Ch^zy, von, ton sha'ze', (Wit.helm,) a German 
 author, born in 1806, wrote "The Travelling Student," 
 ("Der fahrende Schiiler," 1835,) and other novels. 
 
 Chezy, von, (Wii.hki.mine Christine,) a German 
 authoress, born in Berlin in 1783, was the mother of the 
 preceding. She was married to the French Orientalist 
 above noticed, about 1803, and separated from him in 
 181 1. She produced, in German, successful romances, 
 tales, and lyric poems, among which were " Euryanthe," 
 (1823,) and " Stundenblumen," (1824.) 
 
 Chiabrera, ke-a-bRa'ra, (Gabriello,) a celebrated 
 lyric poet of Italy, born at Savona, near Genoa, June S, 
 1552, was the founder of a new school of poetry. lie 
 was educated in Rome, where he resided some years, in 
 the service of Cardinal Cornaro. His poetical genius was 
 not developed early. An admiration of Pindar rendered 
 him an imitator of that great model, after which he 
 formed a style which distinguishes him from other 
 Italian lyric poets. His sublime odes and canzoni soon 
 extended his fame throughout Italy. After he became 
 an author he resided chiefly in Florence and Genoa, and 
 received many honours from several Italian rulers. In 
 allusion to his innovations in style, he compared himself 
 to Columbus, and said, " I resolved to discover a new 
 world or perish in the attempt." He wrote much, and 
 in many varieties of verse. Died at Savona in October, 
 1637. " He borrowed from Pindar," says Hallam, "that 
 grandeur of sound, that pomp of epithets, that rich swell 
 of imagery, that unvarying majesty of conception, which 
 distinguish the odes of both poets." (" Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe.") He rivalled Anacreon in his 
 lighter odes, which are exceedingly beautiful, graceful, 
 and spirited. 
 
 See Larcher. "Lives of Literary and Scientific Men of Italy ;" 
 Longfellow. "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Lives of the Italian 
 Poets," by Rev. Henry Stebbing, London, 1831; "Vita di G. 
 Chiabrera," (written by himself,) Milan, 8vo, 1821 ; Tiraboschi, 
 " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Chiaramonti, (B. Luigi.) See Pius VII. 
 
 Chiaramonti, ke-a-ra-mon'tee, (Giovanni Bat- 
 TISTA,) an agreeable Italian writer, born at Brescia in 
 1731, published an "Essay on the Paternal Power of the 
 Ancient Romans," (1754,) and other works. Died in 1796. 
 
 Chiaramonti, (Scipione,) an Italian astronomer, 
 born at Cesena in 1565, became professor of philosophy 
 at Pisa. He wrote against Tycho Brahe a treatise on 
 comets, entitled "Anti-Tycho," (1621,) a Latin " History 
 of Cesena," (1641,) and other works. Died in 1652. 
 
 See Niceron, "M^moires." 
 
 Chiari, ke-a'ree, (Fabrizio,) an Italian painter and 
 engraver, born at Rome in 1621; died in 1695. 
 
 Chiari, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at Rome 
 in 1654, was a pupil of Carlo Maratta, whose style he 
 imitated successfully. Many of his easel-pictures are dis- 
 persed in Italy and England. His frescos in the Barberini 
 palace and the Colonna Gallery at Rome are commended. 
 Died in 1727. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Chiari, (Pietro,) an Italian comic poet and priest, 
 born at Brescia. He produced, in rivalry with Goldoni, 
 many mediocre comedies, among which was " The Chi- 
 nese Slave." Died about 1788. 
 
 Chiarini, ke-a-ree'nee, (Luigi,) an Italian ecclesiastic 
 and philologist, born in Tuscany in 1789. He published 
 a "Theory of Judaism applied to the Reform of the Is- 
 raelites," etc. Died at Warsaw in 1832. 
 
 Chiaverini, ke-a-va-ree'nee, (Luigi,) an Italian phy- 
 sician, born at Palena in 1777 ; died at Naples in 1834. 
 
 Chiavistelli, ke-a-ves-tel'lee, (Jacopo,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Florence in 1618; died in 1698. 
 
 Chichele or Chichely, chitch'e-le, (Henry,) an emi- 
 nent English prelate, born about 1362, was noted as the 
 founder of All Souls' College, Oxford. He performed 
 several diplomatic missions to France. About 1414 he 
 was chosen Archbishop of Canterbury. He opposed the 
 
 a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, 3?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mJt; ndt; good; morjn; 
 
CHICHESTER 
 
 593 
 
 CHILD ERIC 
 
 growing pretensions of the court of Rome, and also the 
 principles of Wickliffe. Died in 1443. 
 
 See Arthur Duck, "Life of H. Chichele," 1609: O. L. Spencer. 
 "Life of H Chichele," 1783; W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Arch- 
 bishops of Canterbury," vol. v. chap, xviii. 
 
 Chich'es-ter, (Arthur,) an English military officer, 
 born near Barnstaple. He was appointed lord deputy 
 of Ireland al>out 1604, and received the title of Baron of 
 Belfast in 1612. Died in 1624 or 1625. 
 
 Chichester, Eari. of. See Pklham, (Thomas.) 
 
 Chick'er-ing, (Jonas,) an American manufacturer 
 of piano-fortes, born at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, 
 in 1798, lived in Boston ; died in 1853. 
 
 Chicoyneau, she'kw j'no', (FkANQOIS,) a French phy- 
 sician and botanist, born at Montpellier in 1672, was a 
 son-in-law of Pierre Chirac. He became a professor in 
 his native city, and in 1720 was honoured for his services 
 in Marseilles during the prevalence of the plague. He 
 was first physician to the king from 1732 to 1752, and 
 author of a work on the plague. Died in 1752. 
 
 Chicoyneau, (Francois,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born in 1699. He succeeded his father as professor 
 of medicine at Montpellier. Died in 1740. 
 
 Chiesa, ke a'sri, (Silvkstro,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Genoa in 1625 ; died in 1657. 
 
 Chievres, she'&vR', (Guillaume de Croy — deh 
 kRwa,) Lord of, a Flemish courtier and general, born 
 about 1458. He distinguished himself under Charles 
 VIII. and Louis XII. of France in the conquest of Naples 
 and Milan. About 1508 he was appointed governor of 
 the prince, afterwards Charles V. He gained the favour 
 of his pupil, and was his prime minister from his acces- 
 sion, in 1516, until 1521. He offended the Spaniards by 
 his avidity for money, and by the preference which he 
 showed for the Flemings. He attended Charles V. to 
 Germany in 1520, and died in 1521. 
 
 Chifflet, she'ni', (Jean Jacques,) a learned phvsician, 
 born at Besancon, in France, in 1588. Having become 
 eminent in his profession, he was invited to Spain by 
 Philip IV., whom he attended as his first physician. 
 He wrote a " History of Besancon," political tracts 
 against France, a "Treatise on the Tomb of Childeric 
 I.," discovered in 1653, and other works. He was the 
 most eminent of a family which produced many learned 
 men. Died in 1660. 
 
 Chifflet, (Philippe,) a brother of the preceding, borr. 
 at Besancon in 1597. He published "Notes on the 
 Council of Trent," and translated "The Imitation of 
 Christ" into French. Died about 1658. 
 
 Chifflet, (Pierre Francois,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1592, was professor of Hebrew, and 
 keeper of the medals of the King of France. He wrote 
 some religious works. Died in 1682. 
 
 Child, (Sir Josi mi,) an English merchant, eminent as 
 a writer on commerce and political economy, was born 
 in London about 1630. He became very wealthy, and 
 was one of the directors of the East India Company. 
 In 1668 he published " Observations concerning Trade 
 and the Interest of Money," in which he argues that the 
 rate of interest should be reduced or kept low by legal 
 restrictions. About that time he became chairman and 
 autocrat of the East India Company. He afterwards 
 wrrote a " Treatise on the East India Trade," and a few 
 other works. "Some of the principles advanced by 
 Child," says McCulloch, "are so sound, and so forcibly 
 and concisely expressed, that they assume the shape of 
 maxims." Died in 1699. He left several children, who 
 intermarried with various noble families of England. 
 
 Child, (Mrs. Lydia Maria,) a popular American 
 writer, whose maiden name was Francis, was born at 
 Medford, Massachusetts, in 1802. Her first publication 
 was "Hobomok, an Indian Story," (1824,) which was 
 followed by "The Rel>els: a Tale of the Revolution," 
 (1825.) In 1826 she became editor of the "Juvenile 
 Miscellany," which she conducted with ability and suc- 
 cess for eight years. She was married in 1828 to Mr. 
 David Lee Child, an able lawyer of Massachusetts. 
 Soon after the commencement of the anti-slavery agita- 
 tion she published an "Appeal in behalf of that Class 
 af Americans called Africans," esteemed one of the 
 most valuable works on that subject. She was editor 
 
 of the "National Anti-Slavery Standard" (New York) 
 from 1841 to 1843, during which she wrote her "Letters 
 from New York," (published in 2 vols., 1844.) Among 
 her other productions may be named "The Mother's 
 Book," "The Oasis," "Flowers for Children," "Fact 
 and Fiction," and "Philothea: a Grecian Romance." 
 She has also published " Progress of Religious Ideas," 
 (3 vols. 8vo, 1855,) which, though giving proof of some 
 learning and of great diligence, is a work of doubtful 
 merit.* 
 
 See Griswoi.d's " Prose Writers of America;" " North American 
 Review" for July, 1833, to January, 1837. 
 
 Child, (William,) an English musical composer, 
 born at Bristol in 1607 ; died in 1697. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Chll'de-bert [Fr. pron. shel'deh'baiR'] I, King of 
 the Franks, was the third son of Clovis and Clotilde. 
 He inherited the kingdom of Paris, and began to reign 
 in 511 a.d. In league with his brothers Clotaire and 
 Clodomir, he conquered Sigismund, King of Burgundy. 
 He died in 558; and, as he left no male issue, Clotaire 
 became sole King of the Franks. This was the first 
 precedent in French history of a custom or regulation 
 which w;»s afterwards recognized as the " Salic law." 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Childebert II., King of Austrasia, born in 570 A.D., 
 succeeded his father Sigebert in 575. His mother, 
 Brunehaut, was regent during a part of his minority. 
 By the will of his uncle Gontran, he acquired Orleans 
 and Burgundy. He died in 596, leaving an infant heir, 
 Thierri, whose kingdom was usurped by Clotaire II. 
 
 See Michelet, "Histoire de la France." 
 
 Childebert III., the son of Thierri III., was born 
 about 683 A.D. In 695 he succeeded his brother, Clovis 
 III., as nominal King of France, the real power being 
 exercised by the mayor of the palace, Pepin le Gros. Ue 
 died in 711, leaving a son, Dagobert III., who was, like 
 his father, one of the rois faintonts, (idle or mimic kings.) 
 
 ChU'de-brand, [Fr. pron. shel'deh'bRoN',] a Prank- 
 ish prince, whose history is very obscure, and on whom 
 much has been written by modern historians and gene- 
 alogists. He is supposed to have been a son of Pepin 
 le Gros, and a brother of Charles Martel, whom he ac- 
 companied in 737 A.D. in an expedition against the 
 Saracens. 
 
 See Sainte-Marthe, " Histoire genealogique de la France." 
 
 Childeric, chil'der-ik, [Fr. pron. shel'di'rek',] L, 
 King of the Franks, is reckoned the fourth king of the 
 Merovingian race. He succeeded his father Merovee 
 (or Merovaeus) in 458 A.D. We have little authentic 
 history of his reign. He is said to have died about 480, 
 leaving the kingdom to his son, Clovis I. His tomb, 
 found near Toumai in 1653, contained his seal, medals, 
 arms, etc., an account of which was published by J. T. 
 Chifflet, (1655.) 
 
 Childeric II. was the second son of Clovis II. He 
 inherited the kingdom of Austrasia, and began to reign 
 in 660, at the age of seven. At the death of his elder 
 brother, Clotaire III., he annexed to his realm Neustria 
 and Burgundy. He was assassinated in 673, when his 
 eldest son was also killed. His younger brother, Thierri, 
 then became king. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Childeric III., the son of Chilperic II., was the last 
 King of France of the first race, (Merovingians.) He 
 is called Childeric II. by some historians. He was per- 
 
 * The imaginative and philanthropic writings of Mrs. Child, uniting 
 as they do with fine powers of delineation a most genial, kindly, and 
 liberal spirit, command our heartfelt respect and sympathy. We regret 
 all the more that she should have expended so much time and labour 
 on a work affording little or no opportunity for the exercise of those 
 gifts which have been the delight of so many readers, but demanding 
 qualifications of a totally different kind. To render such a work as 
 the "Progress of Religious Ideas" of any real value, the writer should 
 possess not only accurate, profound, and varied learning.but also a 
 sound critical judgment ; because in such an undertaking it is no less 
 important to reject what is false than to present what is true. The 
 work, as we now have it, contains, along with a great deal of correct 
 information, much that is totally untrustworthy : and this intermixture 
 vitiates the whole. As the authorities on which the various statements 
 rest are given only occasionally, the ordinary reader is without the 
 means of forming any correct judgment as to their comparative value, 
 and is quite as likely to accept the false as the true. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as a; th as in this. 
 
 38 
 
 (Jl^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CIIILDERS 
 
 594 
 
 CHIPMAN 
 
 mitted, in 742 A.D., to assume the name and form of roy- 
 alty by Pepin le Bref and Carloman, but was deposed by 
 them about 750, and died in a monastery a few years later. 
 
 Chil'ders, (Hugh Culling Eardi.ey,) born in Lon- 
 don in 1827, graduated at Cambridge in 1850. He was 
 returned to Parliament for Pontefract in i860, became a 
 lord of the admiralty in 1864, and in 1865 financial secre- 
 tary to the treasury. In December, 1868, he was ap- 
 pointed first lord of the admiralty. 
 
 CMl'dren, (John George,) an English chemist and 
 electrician, born at Tunbridge in 1777. He was chosen 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1807. He constructed 
 a galvanic battery, with plates of extraordinary size, 
 (four feet long by two wide,) by which he'demonstrated 
 that the quantity of electricity is in proportion to the 
 size of the plates, while its intensity depends on the 
 number of plates. Among the results of his interesting 
 experiments with the battery was the formation of steel 
 by the combination of iron with diamond. Died in 1852. 
 
 CMl'drey, (Joshua,) an English clergyman and natu- 
 ral philosopher, born in 1623; died in 1670. 
 
 CbJlds, (George W.,) an American publisher, distin- 
 guished for his liberality and enterprise, was born in 
 Baltimore, Maryland, in 1829. He came to Philadelphia 
 at an early age, and about 1849 became a member of a 
 publishing firm afterwards known as that of Childs & 
 Peterson. In 1864 he became the proprietor of the 
 " Public Ledger," which has been very successful under 
 his able management. 
 
 Chil'llng-wprth, (William,) a celebrated English 
 writer and divine of the Arminian school of theology, 
 was born at Oxford in 1602. His father, of the same 
 name, was mayor of Oxford. At college he was noted 
 for his subtlety and acuteness as a disputant in theology. 
 About 1630 he was converted to the dogmas of the 
 Roman Catholic Church by a Jesuit, John Fisher, alias 
 John Perse, and entered the Jesuit College at Douay. 
 But by the agency of Laud, then Bishop of London, he 
 was restored to the Protestant communion, and he re- 
 turned to Oxford in 1631. In 1637 he published his great 
 work, " The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Sal- 
 vation," in answer to a Jesuit named Knott. Although 
 he had scruples against some of the Thirty-Nine Articles, 
 he was induced to subscribe to that creed as a bond of 
 peace and union, and was made chancellor of Salisbury 
 and prebendary of Brixworth. He was a zealous roy- 
 alist in the civil war. In 1643 he was taken prisoner, 
 and, while thus detained, died, in January, 1644. Lord 
 Mansfield esteemed Chillingworth "a perfect model 
 of argumentation." Tillotson styled him " the incom- 
 parable Chillingworth, the glory of this age and nation." 
 " His chief excellence," says Hallam, " is the close rev 
 soiling which avoids every dangerous admission," etc. 
 " His work may be understood and appreciated without 
 reference to any other, — the condition perhaps of real 
 superiority in all productions of the mind." (" Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Des Maizeaux, "Life of Chillingworth," 1725; Dr. Birch, 
 "Life of Chillingworth,' 1 prefixed to his works, 1742 ; " Retrospective 
 Review," vol. vti., 1823: August Neander, " Erinnerung an den 
 evangelischen Gottesgeiehrten W. Chillingworth," Berlin, 4to, 1832; 
 Kippis, " Biographia Britannica." • 
 
 Chll'mead, (Edmund,) an English scholar, born in 
 Gloucestershire about 1610. He was chaplain of Christ 
 Church, Oxford, from 1632 to 1648. He wrote a Latin 
 treatise "On Ancient Greek Music," and translated 
 several works from the French and Spanish into English. 
 Died in 1653. 
 
 ■Chi'lo or ■ehl'lon, [Gr. X'lkuv or XdXcyv,] a Spartan, 
 who is reckoned as one of the Seven Wise Men of 
 Greece. He became one of the ephori of Sparta in 
 556 B.C., and died of joy caused by the victory of his 
 son at the Olympic games. His recorded maxims jus- 
 tify his reputation for wisdom. 
 
 See Diogenes Laertius; J. F. Buddeus, "Dissertatiode Ethica 
 Chilonis," Halle, 1699. 
 
 Chilperic, ch!l'per-ik, [Fr. pron. shel'pa'rek',] I., King 
 of the Franks, was the youngest son of Clotaire I. After 
 the death of his father he obtained the kingdom of Sois- 
 sons in 561 A.D. He married the ambitious and wicked 
 Fredegonde, and waged war with his brothers Sigebert 
 and Gontran. Ancient writers called him the Nero and 
 
 Herod of his times. He was assassinated in 584, at the 
 age of forty-five, and left an infant son, Clotaire II. 
 
 Chilperic II., King of France, the son of ChildericII., 
 was born about 670 A.D. After passing his youth in a 
 monastery, he was proclaimed king in 715. He was de- 
 feated in battle in 718 by his rival, Charles Martel, who 
 permitted him to act the part of roi faineant until he 
 died in 720. He left a son, who was Childeric HI. 
 
 See Augustin Thierry, " Recits des Temps MeVovingiens." 
 
 Chimaera, ke-mee'ra, [Gr. Xi[iaipa; Fr. Chimere, 
 she'maiR',] a fire-breathing monster of the Greek my- 
 thology, having the head of a lion, the body of a goat, 
 and the tail of a dragon. According to Hesiod, she was 
 a daughter of Typhon, and was killed by Bellerophon. 
 
 Chiniay, de, deh she'mi', (Jeanne Marie Ignace 
 Therese de Cabarrus — deh kS'bi'riis',) Princess, 
 born at Madrid or Saragossa in 1773, was the daughter 
 of Count Cabarrus, noticed in this work. She was mar- 
 ried in 1789 to the Marquis de Fontenay, a French lawyer. 
 Having parted from hiin, she was going to Spain, to 
 live with her father, in 1793, but at Bordeaux was im- 
 prisoned by the terrorists. There her dazzling beauty, 
 her grace and wit, fascinated Tallien, the dreaded repre- 
 sentative of the Convention, the arbiter of life and death. 
 Her influence over him rescued many persons from the 
 scaffold and the prisons. In 1794 she herself was im- 
 prisoned in Paris, where Josephine Beauharnais was her 
 fellow-captive. Tallien, who then owned her as his wife, 
 stimulated by her peril, conspired with success against 
 Robespierre. On the fall of the latter she was released. 
 Madame Tallien became the friend of Madame Bona- 
 parte, and her salon was one of the most fashionable in 
 Paris. She was divorced from Tallien in 1802, and mar- 
 ried, in 1805, Count de Caraman, who soon after became 
 Prince de Chimay. She had children by each of her 
 husbands. Died in 1835. 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" Madame 
 d'Abrantes, " MiSmoires." 
 
 Chimay, de, deh she'mi', (Joseph Philippe Fran- 
 cois Riquet de Caraman — re'ki' deh kS'ri'moN',) 
 Prince, a distinguished Belgian diplomatist,born in 1808. 
 
 Chimere. See Chimera. 
 
 Chiminello, ke-me-nel'lo, (Vincenzo,) an Italian 
 natural philosopher, born at Marostica in 1741, lived at 
 Padua. Died in 181 5. 
 
 Chinard, she'nSR , (Joseph,) a French sculptor, born 
 at Lyons in 1756, studied in Italy, and in 1786 won a 
 prize offered at Rome for a " Perseus liberating Andro- 
 meda." He returned to Lyons about 1790. Among his 
 works are admired busts of General Desaix, of Napo- 
 leon, etc. He had much facility, richness of imagination, 
 and good taste. Died in 1813. 
 
 See Jean Baptists Dumas, "Notice sur J. Chinard," 1814. 
 
 Chinchon, chen-ch6n', commonly but incorrectly 
 written Cinchon, Countess of, was the wife of the 
 Spanish Viceroy of Peru. On her return to Spain, in 
 1632, she introduced the Peruvian bark, which she had 
 found to be efficacious in fevers. To perpetuate the 
 remembrance of this important service, Linnaeus gave 
 to that plant the name of Cinchona. 
 
 See Sebastian Badus, "Anastasis Corticis Peruviani, seu Chinje 
 Defensio." Genoa, 1661. 
 
 Chingiz. See Jengis. 
 
 Chiniac de la Bastide-Duclaux, she'ne'aV deh IS 
 bis'ted' dii'klo', (Pierre,) a French writer and lawyer, 
 born at Alassac in 1741. He published an "Essay on 
 Moral Philosophy," (5 vols., 1802.) Died soon after 1800. 
 
 Chin-Koung. See Shin-Koong. 
 
 Chiocco, ke-ok'ko, (Andrea,) an Italian physician, 
 born at Verona, wrote a work on natural history, called 
 "Museum Francisci Calceolarii Junioris," (1622,) and 
 " Philosophical and Medical Inquiries." Died in 1624. 
 
 Chiodini. See Claudini. 
 
 ■ehl'on, |X«ji>,] a Greek philosopher of Heraclea, lived 
 about 350 B.C., and was a disciple of Plato. 
 
 Chip'man, (Daniel,) a jurist, born in Salisbury, 
 Connecticut, in 1762. He wrote an "Essay on the Law 
 of Contracts," (1822.) Died in 1850. 
 
 Chipman, (Nathaniel,) a jurist, a brother of the 
 preceding, was born in Salisbury, Connecticut, in 1752. 
 He became chief justice of Vermont in 1789, judge of 
 
 r, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Q, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon. 
 
CHIRAC 
 
 595 
 
 CHOATE 
 
 the District Court of the United States in 1791, and a 
 Senator of the United States in 1797. He published 
 "Principles of Government," 1833. Died in 1843. 
 
 See D. Chipman, "Lite of N. Chipman," 1846. 
 
 Chirac, she'rik', (Pikrre,) an eminent French physi- 
 cian, born at Conques in 1650, became a professor at 
 Montpellier in 1687. In 1715 he was chosen first phy- 
 sician to the Duke of Orleans. He was made a free 
 associate of the Academy of Sciences, and director of 
 the royal garden about 1718. In 1731 he received the 
 title of chief physician to Louis XV. Died in 1732. He 
 left several medical works, of which the most remarkable 
 is a "Treatise on Malignant Fevers," (1742.) 
 
 See Fontenelle, " Notice sur Chirac," in the " Memoires de 
 1'Academie des Sciences," 1732; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Chirinos, de, da che-ree'n6s, (Juan,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Madrid about 1565 ; died in 1620. 
 
 -Chi'ron or -Chei'ron, [Gr. Xripw,] the most cele- 
 brated of the Centaurs, said to be a son of Saturn, or 
 Cronos. He was renowned for his skill in surgery, medi- 
 cine, music, and hunting, and was the instructor of 
 Achilles, Hercules, and /Esculapius. 
 
 Chischkof. See Shishkov. 
 
 Chisholni, chiz'om, (Mrs. Caroline,) a philanthro- 
 pic Englishwoman, born in Northamptonshire in 1810. 
 About 1830 she became the wife of Captain Chisholni, 
 of the army, whom she accompanied to Madras and in 
 1838 to Australia. She devoted herself to the welfare 
 of young women who arrived at Sydney in search of em- 
 ployment, established the "Female Immigrants' Home," 
 ancf made journeys into the interior to provide places 
 for them. About 1846 she visited England, and founded 
 there " The Family Colonization Society," to encourage 
 emigration by families. She returned with her husband 
 to Australia in 1854. 
 
 SeeS. Smiles, "Brief Biographies." 
 
 Chisholm, chiz'om, (James,) an Episcopal clergy- 
 man, born in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1815. He gradu- 
 ated at Harvard in 1836, and in 1842 became rector of a 
 parish in Berkeley county, Virginia. In 1850 he removed 
 to Portsmouth, and during the terrible ravages of the 
 yellow fever in 1855 his church was the only one kept 
 open. While attending a funeral, he himself was attacked 
 with the disease, of which he died in September, 1855. 
 
 Chla'hull, (Edmund,) an English antiquary, born in 
 Bedfordshire. He was chaplain to the English factory 
 at Smyrna from 1698 until 1702, and became rector of 
 South Church, Essex, in 1731. He wrote, besides other 
 works, "Asiatic Antiquities," (1728.) Died in 1733. 
 
 Chit'ten-den, (Martin,) a son of the following, was 
 born in Connecticut in 1776. He was a member of 
 Congress from 1803 to 1813, and was Governor of Ver- 
 mont in 1813 and 1814. Died in 1840. 
 
 Chittenden, (Thomas,) an American statesman, born 
 at East Guilford, Connecticut, in 1730. He removed to 
 Vermont in 1774, and was one of the principal founders 
 of that State, of which he was chosen the first Governor 
 in 1778. He was re-elected several times, and held that 
 office (except one year) until his death. He was a man 
 of superior talents and virtues. Died in 1797- 
 
 Chit'ty\ (Joseph,) an eminent English legal author 
 and special pleader, born in 1776. He published nume- 
 rous highly-esteemed legal works, among which are 
 "Pleadings and Parties to Actions," (1808,) "Law of 
 Nations relative to Belligerents and Neutrals," (1812,) 
 a "Practical Treatise on the Criminal Law," (1818,) 
 "Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence," (1834,) said to 
 be an indispensable book, and "General Practice of the 
 J .aw in all its Departments," (3d edition, 1837-42.) " The 
 last," says Warren, "is well calculated to become a 
 companion to Blackstone's 'Commentaries.' " He was 
 called to the bar by the Society of the Middle Temple in 
 1816. Died in 1841. 
 
 Chiverny, de, deh she'veR'ne', (Philippe Hurault 
 — hii'r5',) Count, a French statesman, born at Chiverny 
 in 1528. Having rendered services to Henry IV. in the 
 subjection of his revolted capital in 1594, he was rewarded 
 with the office of chancellor, and enjoyed the constant 
 favour of the king. He died in 1599, leaving memoirs, 
 which were published in 1636, under the title of "Me- 
 moires d'Estat," and often reprinted. 
 
 Chivot, she'vo', (Marie Antoine Francois,) a 
 French linguist, born in Picardy in 1752. He became 
 eminent as professor of humanities in Paris, and devoted 
 his attention chiefly to the study of languages. He died 
 prematurely in 1786, after he had commenced a work 
 entitled "De l'Esprit ou de la Filiation des Langues." 
 
 Chladni, Klad'nee, (Ernst Florens Friedrich,) 
 a distinguished philosopher and inventor, born at Wit- 
 tenberg in 1756. He studied natural philosophy and 
 mathematics, by the aid of which he perfected the 
 theory of sound. He gained a wide reputation by his 
 "Discoveries on the Theory of Sound," (1787,) and 
 his "Treatise on Acoustics," (1802.) He also wrote a 
 "Treatise on Fiery Meteors," (1819,) and other works. 
 He invented the musical instruments called "euphone" 
 and "clavicylinder." Died at Breslau ir. 1827. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Chlapowski, Kla-pov'skee, (Desiderius,) a Polish 
 general, born in the duchy of Posen in 1788. He fought 
 with distinction for Napoleon in Spain, Austria, and 
 Russia. Having joined the Polish army in 1830 and 
 obtained a high command, he gained some successes in 
 Lithuania in 1831, and was received as a liberator by 
 the people. Through the incapacity of Gielgud, who 
 assumed the command, the Polish army was defeated, 
 and Chlapowski retired to Prussia in 1831. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 ■Chlo'e, [Gr. XA017,] a surname given to Ceres by the 
 Athenians, signifies "verdant, or blooming." 
 
 Chlopicki, Klo-pits'kee, (Joseph,) a Polish general, 
 born in Podolia in 1772. He entered the French army 
 about 1796, and commanded four regiments in the Rus- 
 sian campaign of 1 81 2. After the fall of Bonaparte he 
 entered the Russian service (1814) as general of division, 
 but resigned in 1818. At the beginning of the Polish 
 Revolution, in December, 1830, he was chosen dictator. 
 He preferred negotiation to active hostilities, was ac- 
 counted deficient in zeal, and, on the approach of the 
 Russian army, resigned the dictatorship in January, 1831. 
 He was severely wounded in a battle in February, 1831, 
 and then retired from the service. Died in 1854. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 ■Chlo'riB, [XXupi'c,] the goddess of flowers in the Greek 
 mythology, was identical with the Roman Flora. She 
 was the wife ofZephyrus, (the west wind.) See Flora. 
 
 Chloris, a daughter of Amphi'on and Ni'obe, is said 
 to have escaped when her brothers and sisters were 
 massacred. Another Chloris was the mother of Nestor, 
 the Pylian sage. 
 
 Chniel, Kmel, (Joseph,) a German historian, born at 
 Olmutz in 1798, was appointed first archivist of Vienna 
 in 1840. He published "Materials for the History of 
 Austria," (1832-40,) and a " History of Frederick IV.," 
 (1843.) Died in 1858. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Chmelnitzky, Kmf l-nits'kee,(NiC0LAi Ivanovitch,) 
 a Russian comic poet, born at Saint Petersburg in 1789. 
 He was Governor of Smolensk, and afterwards of Arch- 
 angel. He produced successful comedies, among which 
 are "Castles in Spain" and "The Quarantine." Died 
 in 1846. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Chmielnicki, Kme-?l-nits'kee, (Bogdan or Theo- 
 PHILUS,) a Cossack chief, born in 1593, induced the Cos- 
 sacks to revolt against the King of Poland. Died in 1657. 
 
 Choate, chot, (Rufus,) the most eminent advocate 
 of New England, — if we should say of America, perhaps 
 the claim would not be disputed, — was born in what was 
 then called Ipswich, (now Essex,) Massachusetts, October 
 I, 1799. Both his father and mother were noted for 
 quickness of mind as well as for weight of character. 
 Rufus was the second son, and the fourth of six children. 
 As a boy, besides possessing unusual quickness, elastic- 
 ity, and vigour, he was remarkable for a love of reading, 
 and, before he was ten years old, had about exhausted 
 the village library, though it contained some pretty pon- 
 derous works. He entered Dartmouth College in 1815, 
 and soon took his place at the head of what proved to 
 be an able and studious class. No one ever occupied 
 such a position more free from the shafts of envy or with 
 
 « as k; c as s %hard;%isj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (gy"Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHOATE 
 
 596 
 
 CHOISEUL 
 
 the more hearty votes of his classmates. After gradu- 
 ating, he spent a year at the college as tutor, and then 
 entered upon the study of his profession in the law school 
 at Cambridge, from which he went to the office of Mr. 
 Wirt, then attorney-general of the United States, in 
 Washington. He here enlarged his knowledge of pub- 
 lic affairs and fixed his standard of professional excel- 
 lence. He saw Marshall upon the bench, and heard 
 Pinkney in the Senate and in the court. 
 
 After such preparation, he entered upon the practice 
 ot the law at Danvers, Massachusetts, from which he 
 removed to Salem, and subsequently to Boston. Before 
 leaving Salem, however, he was chosen to represent the 
 Essex south district in Congress, which he did for one 
 term and part of a second. On taking up his residence 
 in Boston, he devoted himself assiduously to his profes- 
 sion, and soon gained the highest position as a powerful 
 advocate. In 1841 he was chosen Senator in place of 
 Mr. Webster, who had accepted the office of secretary 
 of state under President Harrison. While in the Senate 
 he spoke with great freedom and power on most of the 
 important questions which came before that body. Among 
 the most able of his speeches were those on the M'Leod 
 case, the Fiscal Bank Bill, Oregon, the Tariff, and the 
 Smithsonian Institution. On leaving the Senate in 1845, 
 he returned again to his profession, and thenceforward 
 resisted all temptations to public life. Often solicited, 
 the pressure of his private business compelled him to 
 decline office, though he always gave great attention and 
 interest to questions affecting the country, and especially 
 the welfare of the Union. After Mr. Webster's death, he 
 was acknowledged to be the leader of the Massachusetts 
 bar, and was regarded, especially by the younger members 
 of the profession, with a love equal to their reverence. 
 
 During the year 1858 Mr. Choate's health became 
 much impaired, and early the next year he was obliged 
 to withdraw from active business. A voyage was advised 
 by physicians, and he sailed for Europe, accompanied 
 by his son. On reaching Halifax it became evident that 
 he could proceed no farther. He therefore took lodgings, 
 hoping to recover so far as to be able to return to Boston. 
 He seemed to rally, was able to enjoy reading, and was 
 hopeful of soon leaving for home, when he suddenly died, 
 m the 13th of July. 
 
 In person, Mr. Choate was tall and commanding, with 
 a countenance capable of uncommon power of expression. 
 In speaking, his voice was rich, musical, and sympathetic, 
 his action often intense, his gestures full of variety and 
 force. Few men had a quicker insight into the character 
 of those he addressed, or a more instinctive knowledge 
 of the methods by which the mind is moved. His speech, 
 often close and exact in argument, was marked by extra- 
 ordinary amplitude, exuberance, and brilliancy, and was 
 "wonderfully persuasive. Whether he addressed a jury 
 of twelve men, or a crowded audience, he seemed to bend 
 their minds almost at will. Mr. Choate's studies were 
 extensive and various. Literature in all its departments 
 was his unfailing solace and delight. Political philosophy, 
 especially as illustrated in history and in the unwritten 
 annals of our own country, was the subject of his constant 
 meditation. A high and unselfish patriotism, the love of 
 the Union, the dangers to which he foresaw, a thorough 
 belief in the future greatness of our national power, pro- 
 vided that passion could be kept obedient to reason and 
 law, and a hope that conciliatory counsels might prevail 
 till the sentiment of union should become so strong that 
 nothing could destroy it, — these were the controlling ideas 
 of his life, especially of the latter years of it. Of gracious 
 and winning manners and a most affectionate temper, he 
 drew tc himself his associates with a strange attraction, 
 and his death seemed to almost all who knew him like 
 the loss of a personal friend. With his large and sound 
 learning, his exuberant imagination, the magnetism of 
 his address, his fertility and prodigious resources, there 
 needed only the larger sphere, the graver and more ex- 
 citing questions of civil commotions, to place him as an 
 advocate and as an orator quite on a level with the most 
 distinguished masters of modern eloquence. # % 
 
 See "Works of Rufus Choate, with a Memoir of his Life," by 
 Samuel Gilman Brown, Boston, 1862; "Life of Rufus Choate;' 
 "Golden Age of American Oratory," by E. G. Parker, Boston, 
 1857; "North American Review" for January, 1863. 
 
 Chodowiecki, Ko-do-ve-?ts'kee, (Daniel Niko- 
 laus,) an excellent engraver and miniature-painter, born 
 at Dantzic in 1726. He went to Berlin in 1743, and was 
 employed some time as a tradesman's assistant. A few 
 years later he studied design, and became one of the 
 most skilful etchers of his time. He designed most of 
 the figures of Lavater's "Physiognomy," and etched a 
 great number of engravings, frontispieces, vignettes, etc. 
 for the booksellers. His designs display great origi- 
 nality and a satirical genius, on account of which he has 
 been called "the Hogarth of Germany." Died in Berlin 
 in 1801. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Chodzko, Kodz'ko, (Alexander,) a Polish Oriental- 
 ist and poet, born at Krzywicze In 1804. He resided in 
 Persia from 1829- to 1841, as consul and dragoman. He 
 afterwards passed some years in France. He published 
 " Specimens of the Popular Poetry of Persia," (translated 
 by him into English, 1842,) "The Theatre in Persia," (in 
 French, 1845,) and a " Persian Grammar," (1852.) 
 
 Chodzko, (Jacques Leonard,) a Polish historian, 
 who was born in 1800. He became a resident of Paris 
 in 1826, and was an aide-de-camp of La Fayette in 1830. 
 He was afterwards librarian of the ministry of public 
 instruction. He has published, in French, several useful 
 works, among which are "The Poles in Italy," (1829,) 
 "Tableau of Poland, Ancient and Modern," (1830,) and 
 "Poland, its History, Literature, Monuments, etc.," 
 (" La Pologne, historique, litteraire, monttmentale, pit- 
 toresque et illustree," 1834-47.) 
 
 Chcerilus, ker'e-lus, [Gr. Xoifi'doe or Xoip'Mjog ; Fr. 
 Cherile, kYrel',] an Athenian tragic poet, who flou- 
 rished between 525 and 475 B.C. He gained the prize 
 thirteeh times, and composed one hundred^ and fifty 
 dramas, none of which are extant. He was a competitor 
 with /Eschylus in a tragic contest, and is supposed to 
 have been the first author of written tragedies. 
 
 See Meineke, " Fragmenta Comicorum Grxcorum." 
 
 ChceriluB, a Greek bard of little merit, who followed 
 Alexander the Great, and flattered him in bad verses, 
 which Horace intimates were received with favour. 
 
 See Brunch:, "Analecta." 
 
 Chcerilus of Samos, a Greek epic poet of high repu- 
 tation, who lived about 450 K.c. He was an intimate 
 friend of Herodotus, with whom he resided some time. 
 Mis last days were spent at the court of Archelaus, King 
 of Macedon. He wrote, an epic poem on the wars of 
 the Greeks against Xerxes and Darius, of which small 
 fragments are extant. 
 
 See Suidas, "Chcerilus." 
 
 Choffaid, sho'fiR', (Pierre Philippe,) a French 
 artist, born in Paris in 1730, designed and engraved 
 charming vignettes, etc. for the works of Rousseau, La 
 Fontaine, and others, and wrote a " Historical Notice 
 of the Art of Engraving," (1805.) Died in 1809. 
 
 Choffm, sho'faN', (David Etienne,) a French littera- 
 teur, born at Hericourt in 1703; died in 1773. 
 
 Choiseul, de, deh shwa'zul', (Cesar,) Duke, Sieur 
 du Plessis-Praslin, (dti pl^'se' pitis'UN',) a French gene- 
 ral, born in Paris in 1598, distinguished himself at the 
 siege of Rochelle in 1628. After gaining several vic- 
 tories over the Spaniards in Italy and Spain, he was made 
 a marshal of France in 1645. During the war of the 
 Fronde he commanded the king's army, and defeated 
 Turenne at Rethel about 1650. He was created duke in 
 1663. Died in 1675. 
 
 Choiseul, de, (Charles,) Count of Plessis-Praslin, 
 an able F'rench general, born in 1563, was the son of 
 Ferri de Choiseul, and an uncle of the preceding. After 
 fighting for the League, he was one of the first Catholic 
 chiefs that recognized Henry IV., who made him captain 
 of his guards in 1594. He became marshal of France 
 in 1619, after which he commanded with success against 
 the rebels. Died in 1626. 
 
 See Bazin, "Histoire du Regne de Louis XIII." 
 
 Choiseul, de, (Claude Antoine Gabriel,) Due, 
 born in 1760, was a relative of the eminent statesman 
 of that name. He became colonel of the royal dragoons 
 in 1789, and in 1791 was chosen to guard the king in his 
 escape to the frontier ; but he did not arrive at Varenne* 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; mooni) 
 
CHOISEUL 
 
 597 
 
 CHORIS 
 
 until after the king was arrested. He emigrated about 
 1793, and returned to France about 1804. After the 
 restoration of 1815 he entered the Chamber of Peers, 
 in which he supported constitutional principles. Died 
 in 1838. 
 
 See Lamartine, "History of the Restoration." 
 Choiseul.de, (Ei iknnk Francois,) Ducde Choiseul 
 et d'Amboist, (dAN'bwaz',) an eminent French states- 
 man, born in 1719. In his youth he served in the army, 
 and, before he left it, obtained the rank of lieutenant- 
 general. He was appointed ambassador to Vienna in 
 1756, and minister of foreign affairs in 1758. By the 
 influence of Madame de Pompadour, he soon became 
 the favourite and chief minister of Louis XV., and was 
 created a duke. In 1761 he negotiated with the Bourbon 
 King at Spain a secret treaty called the "Family Com- 
 pact," which was considered a master-piece of diplo- 
 macy. About 1762 he suppressed the order of Jesuits, 
 who were banished from France. In the Seven Years' 
 war (1756-63) the French fought for Maria Theresa 
 against the King of Prussia. By the treaty of Paris, in 
 1763, he terminated a war with England, which had 
 been disastrous to the French. Though he was popular 
 with the nation, a party at court, aided by Madame du 
 Barry, procured his dismissal from office in 1770. He 
 died in 17S5, and left no posterity. He was a liberal 
 patron of literary men. 
 
 See " M&noires tie M. le Due de Choiseul, ecrites par hii-meme," 
 2 vols., 1790; Soulavie, "M^moires de M. le Due de Choiseul;" 
 Voltaire. " Siecle de Louis XV;" Paulin de Champrobert, 
 " Notice historitjue sur le Due de Choiseul," 1836 ; Sismondi, " His- 
 Soire des Francais." 
 
 Choiseul, de, (Gilbert,) Bishop of Tournai, born 
 in 1613, was a brother of Cesar, noticed above. In 1682 
 he co-operated with Bossuet in the celebrated declaration 
 of the clergy of France. Died in 1689. 
 
 Choiseul-d'Aillecourt, de, deh shwa'zul' dS'ye'- 
 kooK',(AN'NE Maxime Uriiain, (Count, a French writer, 
 nephew of Choiseul-Gouffier, born about 1782. He pub- 
 lished in 1809 a work " On the Influence of the Crusades 
 on the Condition of European Nations." Died in 1854. 
 
 Choiseul-Francieres.de, deh shwa'zul' fRdN'se-aiR', 
 (Claude,) Count, a distinguished French generaiTWn 
 in 1632. Having served under Turenne and Conde in 
 Flanders, he was made lieutenant-general in 1676. He 
 commanded with success against the Elector of Bavaria 
 in 1689, and was rewarded with a marshal's baton in 
 1693. He died, without issue, in 1711. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Choiseul-Gouffier, de, deh shwa'zul' goo'fe-i', 
 (Marie Gauriei. Florent Auguste,) Count, a French 
 scholar and traveller, born in Paris in 1752. Having 
 married a rich heiress, he annexed her name (Gouffier) 
 to his own family name. In 1776 he visited Greece and 
 Asia Minor, and on his return published his magnificent 
 work entitled " Picturesque Journey in Greece," ("Voy- 
 age pittoresque en Grece," 1782,) elegantly illustrated. 
 He was chosen a member of the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions in 1779, and of the French Academy, as successor 
 to D'Alembert, in 1784. In the latter year he was ap- 
 pointed ambassador to Constantinople, and took with 
 h.::_ several artists and savants and the poet Delille. 
 He returned to France in 1802, and produced, a few 
 years later, a second volume of his " Voyage pitto- 
 resque," which describes Greece and Asia Minor. After 
 the restoration of 1816 he became a peer and a minister 
 of state. Died in 181 7. 
 
 See Bon Joseph Dacier, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. le 
 Comte Choiseul Gouffier," 1819. 
 
 Choisy, de, deh shwa'ze', (Francois Timoi bon,) 
 Abbe, a French priest and author, born in Paris in 
 1644. He published, in 1684, " Dialogues on the Im- 
 mortality of the Soul," etc, which had much success. 
 He afterwards went to Siam, and made an unsuccessful 
 attempt to convert the king of that country. He pub- 
 lished a " History of the Church," (11 vols., 1727.) He 
 was Dean of the French Academy. Died in 1724. 
 
 Sec Abbe d'Oi.ivkt, "Vie de M. VAbbi de Choisy;" D'Alem- 
 bert, "' Eloge de l'Abbe de Choisy;" Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du 
 Lundi." 
 
 Chokier, sho'ke-i', (John Ernest,) a Flemish author 
 ar.d ecclesiastic, born at Liege in 1571, wrote "Treasury 
 
 of Political Aphorisms," ("Thesaurus Aphoiismorum 
 Politicorum," 1610,) and other works. Died in 1650. 
 
 Chomel, sho'm^l', (Auguste Francois,) a French 
 physician, born about 1788. He became eminent as a 
 practitioner in Paris, and in 1827 succeeded Laenncc as 
 professor in the Ecole de Medecine. Among his works 
 is a "Treatise on Fevers and Pestilential Diseases." 
 (1821.) Died in 1858. 
 
 See " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Chomel, (Jacques Francois,) a French physician 
 and •writer, born in Paris, lived between 1700 and 1750. 
 
 Chomel, (Jean Baptiste Louis,) a French physician, 
 born about 1700, was a son of Pierre Jean Baptiste, no- 
 ticed below. He wrote several esteemed works, among 
 which is a " Historical Essay on Medicine in France," 
 (1762.) Died at Paris in 1765. 
 
 See "Biographie Medicale;" Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Chomel, (Pierre Jean Baptiste,) a French phy- 
 sician and botanist, born in Paris in 1671, was a pupil 
 and friend of Tournefort. In order to assist the latter in 
 a projected history of plants, Chomel in 1700 traversed 
 Auvergne, Bourbonnais, etc. in search of new plants. 
 In 1707 he was appointed by Louis XIV. midecin de 
 auariier. His principal work is an "Abrege de Plantes 
 usuelles," ( 1 7 1 2, ) a popular treatise on medicinal plants, 
 with directions for their use. He was chosen a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences in 1720. Died in 1740. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire;" "Biographie Miidicaje." 
 
 Chomiakov or Chomiakow. See Khomiakov. 
 
 Chompre, sh6N'pRa', (Nicolas Maurice,) a French, 
 scientific writer, bom in Paris in 1750. He composed 
 "Elements of Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry," and 
 other esteemed works. Died in 1825. 
 
 Chompre, (Pierre,) a French teacher, born near 
 Chalons-sur-Marne in 1698; died in 1760. 
 
 Chopart, sho'paV, (Francois,) a French surgeon, 
 born in Paris about 1750, and graduated in 1770.' He 
 and Desault published, in 1789, a "Treatise on Surgical 
 Maladies." Died in 1795. 
 
 Chopin, Ko'pin '(Frederick,) a distinguished Polish 
 pianist and composer, born near Warsaw in 1810. He 
 became a resident of Paris about 1832. He composed 
 concertos, waltzes, mazurkas, etc., and was very popular 
 as a performer. Died in Paris in 1849. 
 
 See Franz Liszt, "F. Chopin," 1852. 
 
 Chopin, sho'paN', (J. N.,) a French litterateur, brother 
 of a distinguished painter who writes his name Schopin, 
 was born about 1800. He published, besides other works, 
 one "On the Present State of Russia," (1822.) 
 
 Chopin or Choppin, sho'paN', (Rene,) an eminent 
 French jurist, born near La Fltche in 1537. He united 
 a solid judgment to a prodigious memory. In the reign 
 of Henry III. he was an ardent partisan of the League ; 
 but he changed sides when Henry IV. became master 
 of Paris. Among his works are a " Commentary on the 
 Common Law of Anjou," and a "Traite du Domaine." 
 Died in 1606. 
 
 See J. Papirb Masson, 
 "Homines illuslres. " 
 
 ' K. Chopini Vita," 1606; Nicehon, 
 
 Choppin. See Chopin, (Rene.) 
 
 Choque, shok, (Pierre,) called Bretagne, a French 
 writer, flourished about 1500, and was chief herald and 
 kiug-at-arms to Amu- of Brittany. 
 
 Choricius, ko-rish'g-us, [Xop'iKcos,] a Greek Sophist, 
 born at Gaza, lived about 520 A.D, He composed ora- 
 tions, some of which were printed at Paris in 1846. 
 
 Chorier, sho're-J', (Nicolas,) a mediocre French 
 writer, born at Vicnrfe in 1609, wrote a " History of Dau- 
 phine," (1661,) and other works. Died in 1692. 
 
 Choris, Ko'ris, (Louis,) an eminent Russian painter 
 and traveller, born at Ekaterinoslav in 1795. He accom- 
 panied as artist Count Romanzof's expedition under 
 Captain Kotzebue, round the world, 1815—18. Chamisso 
 the author was his companion in this voyage. After his 
 return he worked some years in Paris, where he pub- 
 lished, in French, his "Picturesque Voyage round the 
 World," (1821.) It is accompanied with descriptions of 
 manvmifera by Cuvier, and illustrated with faithful pic- 
 tures of human figures, landscapes, etc. by himself. He 
 also published "Views and Landscapes of the Equinoc- 
 
 c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as t; th as in this. (£3f=See Explanations, p. 23.J 
 
CHORLEr 
 
 598 
 
 CHRISTIAN 
 
 tial Regions," (1826.) In 1827 he visited America. On 
 the way from Vera Cruz to Mexico, he was killed by 
 robbers in March, 1828. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Chor'ley, (Henry F.,) an English author of the pre- 
 sent century. He has published, besides other works, 
 "Music and Manners in France and Germany," ( 1 84 1 , ) 
 " Pomfret," (3 vols., 1845,) " Memorials of Mrs. Hemans," 
 and "The Authors of England." 
 
 Chorluli Ali Pasha. See Alee-Chori.eelee. 
 
 Chorcm, sho'roN', (Alexandre Etienne,) a French 
 musician and writer on music, born at Caen in 1771. He 
 made such progress in mathematics that Monge chose 
 him in 1793 as assistant professor of descriptive geometry 
 in the Normal School. In 1808 he produced his chief 
 work, "Principles of Composition of the Schools of 
 Italy." Died in 1834. Choron and Fayolle published a 
 " Historical Dictionary of Musicians," (1810.) 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" L. E. Gau- 
 tier, "FJoge d'A. E. Choron," Paris, 1846. 
 
 Chosroes. See Khosroo. 
 
 Chouaii, shoo'fiN', a word signifying " owl," was ap- 
 plied as a surname or nickname to the family of Cotte- 
 reau, (kot'ro',) and adopted by the royalist insurgents of 
 Maine, Bretagne, etc., after Jean Cottereau became their 
 chief. He was a peasant, born in Mayenne in 1757, and 
 became a smuggler. In 1792 he took arms against the 
 French Convention, and was chosen as chief of the un- 
 disciplined rustics called "La Chouannerie." He united 
 his troops with the Vendeans after the latter passed the 
 Loire, and he shared their defeat at Mans, December, 
 1793. He was killed in a fight or retreat in July, 1794 
 
 Choudieu, shoo'de^uh', (Pierre,) a French regicide 
 and Jacobin, born at Angers ; died in 1840. 
 
 Choudja-ed-Doulah. See Suja-Dowlah. 
 
 Chouet, shoo'i', (Jean Robert,) born at Geneva in 
 1642, became professor of philosophy in his native city 
 in 1669, and was the first who taught the doctrines of 
 Descartes in Switzerland. He wrote a " History of 
 Geneva," and other works. Died in 1 73 1. 
 
 Choul. See Duchoul. 
 
 Choulant, sIioo'ISn', (Ludwig,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man physician, born at Dresden in 1791. He was ap- 
 pointed professor of medicine at Dresden in 1828, and 
 director of the Academy of Medicine in 1842. He was 
 successful as a practitioner and professor, and published 
 many approved works, among which are a "Manual 
 of Special Pathology and Therapeutics," (1831,) and an 
 "Introduction to Practical Surgery," (1836.) 
 
 See Calusen, "Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon," (Supple- 
 ment.) 
 
 Choules, cholz, (John Overton,) a writer and Baptist 
 minister, born at Bristol, England, in 1801. He came to 
 the United States in 1824, and settled in New York City 
 in 1841. He edited Neal's "History of the Puritans," 
 and wrote several works. Died at New York in 1856. 
 
 Choumara, shoo'mf'ri', ( Pierre Marie Theodore,) 
 a French military writer, born in 1787, published "Me- 
 moirs on Fortifications," and other works. 
 
 Chouteau, shoo'to', (Auguste,) a citizen of New 
 Orleans, who, in conjunction with his brother Pierre, 
 founded the city of Saint Louis, in Missouri, (1764.) 
 Auguste died in 1829, and Pierre in 1849. A son of 
 P. Chouteau, of the same name, born in 1789, became 
 a prominent merchant in the fur-trade at Saint Louis. 
 
 Chouvaloff. See Shoovalof. 
 
 Chrestien. See Chretien. 
 
 Chrestien de Troyes, kRi'te-aN'deh tRwa, a French 
 poet, wrote a number of romantic tales and poems, some 
 of which are extant. Died about 1196. 
 
 Chretien, kRa'te-aN', sometimes written Chrestien, 
 (Florent,) a French poet, born at Orleans in 1541, was 
 educated a Protestant. He learned Greek of Henry 
 Estienne, and became the tutor of the Prince of Beam, 
 (Henry IV.) He wrote an " Ode on the Birthday of the 
 Count de Soissons," the " Judgment of Paris," and part 
 of the " Satire Menippee." He translated into Latin 
 verse Epigrams selected from the Greek Anthology and 
 other Greek works. Died in 1596. 
 
 Chretien, (Gilles Louis,) a French musician, born 
 at Versailles in 1754; died in 181 1. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Christ, kRlst, (Johann Friedrich.) a German 
 scholar, born at Coburg in 1700. He became protessor 
 of history at Jena about 1730, and professor of poetry 
 at Leipsic in 1740. He wrote able dissertations on phi- 
 lology, and other works. Died in 1756. 
 
 Christian, krls'che-an, or Christiern, kRls'te-jRn', I_ 
 King of Denmark, born in 1425, was the son of Theodo- 
 ric, Count of Oldenburg, and Hedwige, who was heiress 
 of Sleswick and Holstein. Christopher III. having 
 died without issue in 1448, Christiern was chosen his 
 successor. He attempted to acquire by force the crown 
 of Sweden, from which he expelled his rival, Charles 
 Canutson, in 1456. The latter was recalled by the Swedes 
 about 1465, and, after a war of several years, Christiern 
 renounced his claim to Sweden. Historians give him 
 credit for liberality and humanity. He died in 1481, and 
 was succeeded by his son John. 
 
 See Huitfeld, " Historiske Beskrivelse af Konung Christiern I.," 
 ■599- 
 
 Christian (or Christiern) II., King of Denmark, bom 
 in 1481, was the son of John, whom he succeeded in 15 13. 
 He married Isabella, sister of the emperor Charles V., in 
 1515. In 1520 he invaded Sweden, then distracted by 
 intestine dissensions, and made himself master of that 
 kingdom. He disgraced himself by the execution of 
 numerous nobles and senators of Stockholm who were 
 innocent, and by other acts of cruelty, for which he was 
 called " the Nero of the North." Gustavas Vasa liberated 
 Sweden about 1522. Near the close of that year the 
 Danes deposed their tyrant, and elected as his successor 
 his uncle, Frederick I. Christiern retired to Flanders 
 in 1523. He returned with an army in 1 531, and, having 
 failed in an attempt to recover the throne, was taken 
 prisoner, and kept in prison until his death in 1559. 
 
 See Behrmann, "Kong Christiern II. Historie," 1815; C. F. 
 Allen, " Commentatio de Rebus Christiani II.," 1844. 
 
 Christian (or Christiern) III., King of Denmark, the 
 son of Frederick I., was born in 1503, and was educated 
 as a Protestant. Soon after the death of his father, in 
 1533, he was proclaimed king. He adopted severe 
 measures to suppress the Catholic religion. In 1543 
 he terminated a war with Charles V. by the treaty of 
 Spire, after which he reigned in peace. He is regarded 
 as a humane and wise ruler. He died in 1559, leaving 
 his throne to his son, Frederick II. 
 
 See Pontanus, "Vita Christiani III.," 172a. 
 
 Christian (or Christiern) IV., King of Denmark, 
 born in 1577, was the son of Frederick II., whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 1588. He was declared of age in 1596, and 
 married Anne Catherine of Brandenburg in 1598. In 
 161 1 he declared war against Sweden, with which he made 
 peace in 1613. He was chosen, in 1625, commander 
 of the army of the allies in a war against Austria. In 
 1626 he was defeated by the Austrians, under Tilly, at 
 Lutter, and peace was restored in 1629. From 1641 
 to 1645 he waged war against Sweden, without decisive 
 results. He displayed superior talents for war and civil 
 affairs, and acquired the favour of his subjects in a high 
 degree by his magnanimity and other qualities. Died in 
 1648. His son, Frederick III., was his successor. 
 
 See Rasmus Nyerup, " Charakteristik af Kong Christian IV..'- 
 1816; Niels SLANGEor Slangen, "Kong Christiern IV. Histories*' 
 1749; H. Nyerup, "Kong Christiern IV. Dagboger," 1825; F. H. 
 Jahn, "Christiern IV. Krigshistorie," 1822. 
 
 Christian (or Christiern) V., King of Denmark and 
 Norway, born in 1646, was the son of Frederick III., 
 whom he succeeded in 1670. In 1673 he made a treaty 
 of alliance with the Dutch against France and Sweden. 
 After a war with Sweden, in which he was victorious in 
 Pomerania and was defeated in Scania, peace was con- 
 cluded in 1679. He published in 1693 a code which 
 bears his name. He died in 1699, of a wound received 
 in hunting, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick IV. 
 
 See Friedenreich, "Kong Christiern V. Krigshistorie," 1738 to 
 1765. 
 
 Christian (or Christiern) VI., King of Denmark and 
 Norway, born in December, 1699, succeeded his father, 
 Frederick IV., in 1730. In 1734 he made a defensive 
 alliance with Sweden, which lasted many years. He 
 improved the condition of the country, promoted in- 
 dustry and commerce, and by his zeal for Protestantism 
 
 e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 8, fi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far; ail, fat, met; not; good; moon; 
 
CHRISTIAN 
 
 599 
 
 CHRISTINE 
 
 acquired the surname of Pious. Alarmed by the eleva- 
 tion of the house of Holstein-Gottorp on the thrones 
 of Sweden and Russia, he formed in 1745 a defensive 
 alliance with France. He died in 1746, leaving the 
 throne to his son, Frederick V. 
 
 See Riegei-s "Account of the Reign of Christian VI.," 1798. 
 
 Christian (or Christiern) VII., King of Denmark, 
 born in January, 1749, was the son of Frederick V., 
 whom he succeeded in January, 1766. His mother was 
 Louisa, daughter of George II. of England. He married 
 in 1766 his cousin Caroline Matilda, a sister of George 
 III. of England. His physician, Struensee, who acquired 
 a paramount influence over him, became chief minister 
 in 1770, but was deprived of power and life by a hostile 
 party in 1772. The king, whose reason was impaired 
 by disease, had no part in the government for many years 
 before his death. In 1784 his son Frederick became 
 regent. Christian died in 1808, and was succeeded by 
 the son just named. (See Struensee, and Caroline 
 Matilda.) 
 
 See G. I.. Baden, "Christiern VII. Regierings Aarbog," 1833; 
 Mvnstkk, " Sorgetale over Kong Christian VII.," 1814. 
 
 Christian (or Christiern) VIII., King of Denmark, 
 the son of the hereditary Prince Frederick, was born in 
 1786. About 1812 he was appointed Governor or Vice- 
 roy of Norway. The King of Denmark was obliged to 
 cede Norway to Sweden in 1814 ; but the people of Nor- 
 way protested against that act, and chose Prince Chris- 
 tian as their king. On the approach of Bernadotte 
 with an army, he abdicated, in October, 1814. He suc- 
 ceeded his cousin, Frederick VI., in 1839, and took 
 measures to prepare Denmark for the free institutions 
 which were established in the next reign. He died in 
 January, 1848, leaving the throne to his son, Frederick 
 VII. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Christian (or Christiern) IX., King of Denmark, 
 son of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm of Sleswick-Holstein, 
 etc., was born in 1818. He ascended the throne in No- 
 vember, 1863. In the early part of 1864 he waged a 
 very unequal war against Austria, Prussia, and other 
 German powers which claimed Sleswick and Holstein as 
 part of Germany. In August, 1864, he signed a treaty 
 of peace, and ceded Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg 
 to the victors. 
 
 Christian, (Andrew,) a Danish medical writer, born 
 at Ripen in 1551 ; died in 1606. 
 
 Christian or Christien Reisen, (Charles,) an 
 excellent engraver of gems, born in London, of Danish 
 parents, about 1695. He is ranked among the first mod- 
 ern engravers of precious stones, and executed many 
 works, which are in great request. Among them is a 
 portrait of Charles XII. of Sweden. Died in 1725. 
 
 Chris'tian, (Edward,) professor of the laws of Eng- 
 land in the University of Cambridge. He published an 
 edition of " Blackstone's Commentaries," with notes, 
 (1795,) "Origin of the Two Houses of Parliament," 
 (1810,) "Bankrupt Laws," and other legal works. Died 
 in 1823. 
 
 Christian Augus'tus, [Ger. Christian August, 
 kRls'tean ow'goost,) Duke of Sleswick-Holstein-Son- 
 derburg-Augustenburg, was born at Copenhagen in 1798. 
 He succeeded his father, Frederick Christian, in 1814, 
 and became the chief of a party which attempted to 
 separate Sleswick and Holstein from Denmark about 
 1848. After the victories of the Danes (1850) he was 
 banished. 
 
 Christian von Hamle, KRis'te-in fon ham'leh, a 
 German minnesinger, who lived about 1250. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Christiani, kRis-te-a'nee, (William Ernest,) a Dan- 
 ish historian, born at Kiel in 173 1. He was professor 
 of eloquence and public law at Kiel, and author of a 
 " History of Sleswick and Holstein," which is highly 
 commended. Died in 1793. 
 
 Christie, krls'te, (James,) an English antiquary and 
 auctioneer of London. He published in 1806 a treatise 
 on Etruscan Vases, and in 181 5 an "Essay on the 
 Earliest Species of Idolatry, the Worship of the Ele- 
 ments." Died in 183 1. 
 
 Christie, (Samuel Hunter,) F.R.S., an English 
 magnetist, born in London in 1784. He became pro 
 fessor of mathematics in the Royal Military Academy, 
 Woolwich, about 1838. He contributed many papers on 
 magnetism to the " Philosophical Transactions." Died 
 in 1865. 
 
 Christie, (Thomas,) an ingenious Scottish writer, 
 born at Montrose in 1761, lived in London and Paris. 
 As an adversary of Burke, he wrote "Letters on the 
 French Revolution," (1791.) He also published " Mis- 
 cellanies, Philosophical, Medical, and Moral," and edited 
 the "Analytic Review," founded by him in 1788. For 
 commercial purposes, he went to Surinam, where he died 
 in 1796. 
 
 Christiern. See Christian, (of Denmark.) 
 
 Christin, kRes'tiN', (Charles Gabriel Frederic,) 
 a French jurist, born at Saint-Claude in 1744; died in 
 1799. 
 
 Christina, Queen of Spain. See Maria Christina. 
 
 Christina, kRls-tee'na, [Fr. Christine, kues't6n',] 
 Queen of Sweden, born on the 8th of December, 1626, 
 was the only surviving child of Gustavus Adolphus and 
 Maria Eleonora, Princess of Brandenburg. She received 
 a careful, solid, and masculine education. At the death 
 of Gustavus, in 1632, she was proclaimed queen, and the 
 regency was confided to Oxenstiern and four other digni- 
 taries, who directed her education in accordance with the 
 plan of her father. She learned Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
 history, politics, and other sciences, neglecting the usual 
 feminine accomplishments. Her favourite recreations 
 were horseback-riding and the chase. Her mind was 
 strong, her character eccentric and impatient of the 
 etiquette of courts. In 1644 she assumed the direction 
 of the government, and, pursuing a pacific policy, took 
 part in the important treaty of Westphalia in 1648, by 
 which Sweden acquired Pomerania, Bremen, and Verden. 
 Her subjects were proud of her, as the worthy daughter, 
 of a hero, and desired that she would choose a husband ; 
 but she evinced a constant aversion to the conjugal yoke. 
 The States of Sweden, with the assent of Christina, in 
 1649 designated as her successor her cousin Charles 
 Gustavus, who had aspired to her hand. Soon after 
 .this event she proposed to abdicate, but was induced by 
 her ministers to change her purpose or postpone its 
 execution. Her eccentricity appeared in the extravagant 
 patronage of literary men, pedants, buffoons, artists, etc. 
 Among the eminent persons whom she attracted to her 
 court were Descartes, Grotius, Salmasius, Naude, Vos- 
 sius, and Bochart. In June, 1654, she gave, while still 
 in the bloom of youth, a remarkable example of contempt 
 for a throne, by a formal abdication, which is variously 
 ascribed to vanity, levity, or magnanimity. According 
 to Voltaire, "she preferred to live with men who think, 
 rather than reign over men without learning or genius." 
 Some suppose she was ambitious to make a sensation 
 by an extraordinary act of self-denial. She abjured the 
 Protestant for the Catholic religion, and, followed by a 
 numerous suite, became a resident of Rome, where she 
 busied herself in the promotion of arts and in political 
 affairs. On the death of the King of Sweden m 1660, 
 she visited Stockholm, and, it is said, wished to recover 
 the crown; but, receiving no encouragement, she soon 
 returned to Rome. She had reserved the power of life 
 and death over the persons who remained in her service. 
 Her memory is stained with the charge of cruelty to 
 Monaldeschi, her grand-equerry, whom she accused of 
 treason and caused to be put to death, in Paris, in 1656. 
 She founded an academy in Rome, and made rich col- 
 lections of medals and productions of art. Her superior 
 mind and cultivation did not preserve her from chi- 
 merical projects and the vain dreams of astrology. She 
 composed a volume of " Maxims and Sentences," and 
 other works. Died in 1689. 
 
 See Lacombe, •' Histoire de Christine," 1762 ; Catteau-Calle- 
 villk, "Histoire de Christine Reine de Swede," 1815; AltCHBN- 
 holz, " Memoirs of the Life of Christina," Stockholm, 4 vols., 1751, 
 in French; John Burbf.rv, " History of Christina, Queen of Swede- 
 land," 165S; Anders Frvxei.l, "Drottning Christinas forniyn- 
 dare," 1S38 ; Henry Woodhead, " Memoirs of Christina of Sweden," 
 1803- 
 
 Christine de Prance, kRes'ten' deh fRoNss, Duchess 
 of Savoy, and daughter of Henry IV. of France, was 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (jr^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHRISTINE 
 
 600 
 
 CHROSCIENSKI 
 
 married in 1619 to Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy. At his 
 death, in 1637, she became regent and governess of the 
 princes. The brothers of the late king rebelled, and 
 drove her out of Turin, to which she was restored by 
 the French in 1640. Died in 1663. She was a very 
 accomplished lady. 
 
 Christine de Pisan, kRes'ten' deh pe'z&N', a poetess, 
 born at Venice about 1363, was daughter of Thomas de 
 Pisan, who was in the service of Charles V. of France 
 as astronomer. She was educated at the French court, 
 married Ftienne du Castel, and lived mostly in France. 
 She gained renown by her poems, ballads, lays, and 
 rondeaux, and wrote some prose works. 
 
 See R. Thomassy, " Essai sur les ficrits politiques de Christine 
 de Pisan:" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 ■Chrls'tl-sou, (Robert,) a Scottish physician, son of 
 Professor Alexander Christison, borrt at Edinburgh about 
 1798. He was appointed "professor of medical jurispru- 
 dence in the University of Edinburgh about 1823, and 
 professor of materia medica in the same in 1832. He 
 attained a high reputation as a teacher of medicine and 
 as a practitioner. In 1829 he published a "Treatise on 
 Poisons," a standard work of the highest authority. 
 He has also published a "Dispensatory," (1842,) and 
 several other works. 
 
 Christman, kRlst'man, (Jakob,) a learned German 
 philologist and mathematician, born near Mentz in 1554. 
 He was successively professor of Hebrew, of logic, and 
 of Arabic in the College of Heidelberg between 1592 
 and 1613. He composed several treatises on Chronology, 
 and other Latin works, among which were " Solar Ob- 
 servations," and a "Theory of the Moon," (1611.) Died 
 in 1613. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Mathematicis;" M. Adam, "Vitae Philoso- 
 phorum Gennanoruni." 
 
 ■Chrlst'mas, (Rev. Henry,) an English writer, born 
 in London in i8ti. Among his various works are 
 "Christian Politics," "Echoes of the Universe," and 
 " Universal Mythology." 
 
 Christophe, the French of Christopher, which see. 
 
 Christophe, kRes'tof , (Henri,) a negro king of Hayti, 
 born in 1 767. In the insurrection which began about 1 790 
 he fought against the French, and by his courage and tal- 
 ents attracted the notice of Toussamt L'Ouverture, who 
 made him a general of brigade. After Toussaint had been 
 transported to France, Christophe fought under Dessa- 
 lines, who assumed the title of emperor in 1804. When, 
 in October, 1806, Dessalines was assassinated, Chris- 
 tophe became ruler of the northern part of the island. 
 A rivalry between him and Pethion, who favoured a 
 representative system, led to civil war. After several 
 indecisive battles, Pethion retained the southwest part of 
 the island, and Christophe in 181 1 was crowned King of 
 Hayti, as Henri I. He established the Catholic religion, 
 and, in mimicry of European courts, created a nobility, 
 with such titles as Duke of Marmalade and Count of 
 Lemonade, these names having formerly been those of 
 different plantations. In 1814, Louis XVIII. of France 
 sent emissaries to Hayti with a design to recover that 
 island, but without success. His cruelties having ren- 
 dered him unpopular, Christophe was unable to suppress 
 a revolt, and shot himself in October, 1820. Boyer 
 then became President of Hayti. 
 
 See DeVastey, "Memoires;" General P. La Croix, " His- 
 toire de 1'Expedition de Saint-Dominique." 
 
 Christophe, kRes'tof, (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 historical writer, born at Amplepuis (Rhone) in 1809. 
 He became curate of a parish near Lyons, and published 
 in 1852 a " History of the Papacy during the Fourteenth 
 Century," which is said to be a work of merit. 
 
 Christophe or Christoph, kitis'tof, (Joseph,) a 
 Dutch painter, born at Utrecht in 1498, was a pupil of 
 Antonio Moro. He painted history and portraits with 
 equal success, and excelled most artists of his time in 
 perspective. He worked some time for John III. of 
 Portugal, at Lisbon, where he died in 1557. 
 
 Chris'to-pher, Emperor of the East, Was a son of 
 Romanus Lecapenus, and a brother-in-law of Constan- 
 tine Porphyrogenitus. He was associated with his father 
 in the empire in 920 a.d. He died in 931, leaving a son, 
 Michael, who became a priest. 
 
 ■Chris'to-pher, [Gr. Xpmro^opoc ; Lat. Chris toph'- 
 orus; Fr. Christophe, kRes'tof',] Saint, a native of 
 Syria or Palestine, supposed to have suffered martyrdom 
 in the third century. 
 
 See Siegmund Meyer, "Dissertatio de magno Christophoro," 
 16SS ; Mrs. Jameson, " Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 ■Chris'to-pher I., King of Denmark, was the son of 
 Waldemar II. He began to reign about 1250, as suc- 
 cessor to his brother Abel, and soon became involved 
 in a contest with rebellious bishops, who owned alle- 
 giance to the pope alone. He died in 1259, leaving the 
 kingdom to his son, Eric VII. 
 
 Christopher II., King of Denmark, born in 1276, 
 was the son of Eric VI. He succeeded his elder brother, 
 Eric VII., who died in 1319. His subjects revolted and 
 dethroned him in 1326. After fighting for the throne 
 several years against Gerhard of Rendsborg, he died in 
 1333. His son Waldemar became his successor. 
 
 Christopher IU. of Denmark was the son of John, 
 Duke of Bavaria, and Catherine, sister of Eric XIII., 
 who reigned over Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. The 
 latter having been deposed in 1439, Christopher was 
 elected his successor in 1440 by the Danes, and soon 
 afterwards by the Swedes and Norwegians. He chose 
 Copenhagen as his capital. His reign was mostly peace- 
 ful. He published a code of laws which were in force 
 in Sweden until the eighteenth century. He died, with- 
 out issue, in 1448, and was succeeded by Christian I. 
 
 See Holberg, " Danemarks Riges Historie;" Mallet, " His- 
 toire de Danemarck." 
 
 ■Chris'to-pher, [Ger. Christoph, KRls'tof,] Duke of 
 Wurtemberg, born in 1515, was a son of Duke Ulric, 
 who was deprived of his dominions in 1519 or 1520. 
 The efforts to restore Ulric were opposed by the em- 
 peror Charles V. with success, until the Austrians were 
 defeated at Laufen by the Landgrave of Hesse in 1534. 
 Christopher succeeded his father in 1550, and established 
 the Protestant religion in the duchy about 1552. He is 
 entitled to credit for appropriating the property of the 
 old church to the support of schools and of the clergy, 
 while other Protestant princes converted the church 
 revenues to their own use. Died in 1568. 
 
 See J. C. Pfister, " Herzog Christoph zu Wiirteniberg," 2 vols., 
 1818-20; J. F. Roeslin, "Leben Herzogs Christoph von Wurtem- 
 berg," 1739. 
 
 ■Chris'to-pher-son, (John,) an English bishop and 
 scholar, translated into barbarous English the ecclesias- 
 tical histories of Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, etc. On 
 the accession of Mary, in 1552, he became Bishop of 
 Chichester. Died in 1558. 
 
 Christophorus, the Latin of Christopher, which 
 see. 
 
 Christopoulos, Kres-to-poo'los, (Athanasius,) a 
 modern Greek lyric poet, born at Castoria about 1772. 
 He published a "Grammar of Modern Greek" about 
 1805, and afterwards his popular lyric and erotic poems, 
 which are his chief title to fame. He lived mostly in 
 Constantinople and Moldavia. Died in 1847. 
 
 Christovab de Lisboa, kRes-to-vowN' da les-bo'J, 
 (Frky,) a Portuguese ecclesiastic, who in 1623 went as a 
 missionary to South America. 
 
 Christyn, kRls-tln' or kRes'ta.N', (Jean Baptiste,) 
 a Flemish jurist, born at Brussels in 1622, became a privy 
 councillor of the King of Spain, whom he represented at 
 the Congress of Nymwegen in 1678. He wrote able 
 works on heraldry, one of which is called " Jurisprudent 
 tia heroica," and " Les Delices des Pays Bas," ("The 
 Delights of the Low Countries.") Died in 1690. 
 
 Christyn, (Jean Baptiste,) a Flemish jurist, born 
 at Brussels in 1635; died in 1707. 
 
 Chronicle, kron'e-k'l, (William,) an American sol- 
 dier of the Revolution, born in South Carolina in 1755, 
 became a major in 1780, and was killed the same year at 
 the battle of King's Mountain. 
 
 Chroscienski, KRo-she-eVskee, written also Chro- 
 scinsky, (Adalbert Stanislas,) secretary of Prince 
 James Sobieski, was reputed the best Polish poet of his 
 time. He translated Lucan's " Pharsalia" into verse, 
 and composed poems entitled "Esther," "Joseph De- 
 livered," and "The Victory over the Turks at Vienna," 
 (1684.) -Died about 1737. 
 
 i, e !, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fi, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, All, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CHR TSANDER 
 
 60 1 
 
 CHURCH 
 
 Chrysander, kRe-san'der or kRe-zin'der, or Gold- 
 mann, golt'man, (Wilhelm Christian,) a German 
 professor of Oriental languages, philosophy, etc., born 
 at Halberstadt in 1718. Among his works is a poem on 
 the "Memorable Events of 1740," ("Memorabilia Anni 
 1740.") Died in 1788. 
 
 Chrysippe. See Chrysippus. 
 
 ■Chry-sip'pus [Gr. XfimiirKos ; Fr. Chrysippe, kRe'- 
 zep'] of Cnidos, a Greek physician, often quoted by 
 Galen, lived in the fourth century B.C. He was a pupil 
 of Eudoxus of Cnidos, and the teacher of Erasistratus. 
 
 Chrysippus, an eminent Stoic philosopher, born at 
 Soli, in Cilici.i, in 280 B.C., was a son of Apollonius of 
 Tarsus, and was a pupil of Cleanthes. He was noted 
 for his skill in dialectics and his subtlety as a reasoner, 
 and used to say to Cleanthes, "Teach me only your doc- 
 trines, and I will find the arguments to defend them." 
 There was a common saying " that, if the gods use any 
 logic, it is doubtless that of Chrysippus." He was par- 
 tial to the Sorites, which he is said to have invented. 
 He wrote on various subjects several hundred volumes, 
 none of which are extant. Chrysippus was the most emi- 
 nent philosopher of his sect except Zeno, and was re- 
 garded as an oracle by the later Stoics. Died in 207 B.C. 
 
 See Diogenes Laertius; Ritter, " Geschichte der Philoso- 
 phic;" J. F. Richter, " Dissertatio de Chrysippo Stoico," 1738; F. 
 N. G. Hagukt, " Commentatio de Chrysippi Vita et Doctrina," 1822 ; 
 C. Petersen, " Philosophise Chrysippea? Fundamenta," 1827. 
 
 Chrys-o-coc'ces, (George,) [Gr. Yeupyiog 6 Xpvoo- 
 /swi/njf,] a learned physician, who lived at Constanti- 
 nople about the middle of the fourteenth century. He 
 composed, in Greek, a treatise on the astronomy of the 
 Persians, which exists in manuscript in the Imperial 
 Library of Paris, and is a work of some value. 
 
 Chrysologue, kRe'zo'Iog', (Noel Andre,) a French 
 friar and geographer, born in Franche-Comte in 1728. 
 He published a "Celestial Planisphere," (1778,) which 
 was approved by the Academy, and a very correct "Map 
 of the World." In 1806 he produced " Researches on 
 the Time and Agent of the Actual Arrangement of the 
 Earth's Surface," commended by Cuvier. Died in 1808. 
 
 ■Chrys-o-lc/ras, (Demetrius,) [Af^rpjoc 6 Xpvoo?tu- 
 pac,] a Greek theologian and philosopher of superior 
 talents, was a native of Thessalonica, and flourished 
 about 1400. He was employed by the emperor Manuel 
 II. in important affairs of state, and was sent on several 
 foreign embassies. One hundred letters from him to 
 Manuel are extant in manuscript. He wrote several 
 works on theology, among which is a "Treatise on the 
 Procession of the Holy Spirit." 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graca." 
 
 Chrysoloras, (Emanuel or Manuel,) a Greek scho- 
 lar, memorable as the restorer of Greek literature in 
 Italy, was born of a noble family in Constantinople. 
 After having performed an embassy from the Byzantine 
 emperor to the Western Powers, he became a public 
 teacher of Greek in Florence about 1395. He also 
 taught in Milan, Pavfa, Venice, etc., and had many 
 eminent pupils. His Greek grammar was for a long 
 time the only one in use. Died in 141 5. 
 
 His nephew John', a professor of Greek, died in Con- 
 stantinople about 1426. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grsca." 
 
 Chrysostom, (Dion.) See Dion. 
 
 ■ehrys'os-tom, [Gr. XpvaooTOfioc, (i.e. "Golden- 
 mouthed;") I.at. Chrysos'tomus; Fr. Chrysostome, 
 kRe'zos'tom',] (John,) a pre-eminent Greek Father of the 
 Church, was born at Antioch, in Syria, about 350 A.D. His 
 father, Secundus, was commander of the imperial army 
 in Syria. He studied eloquence under the famous orator 
 Libanius, whom he soon surpassed, and subsequently 
 received lessons in philosophy at Athens. At an early 
 age he devoted himself to religion, and in a monastery 
 near Antioch inured himself to a severe ascetic discipline. 
 It is said that he passed two years alone in a damp, un- 
 wholesome cavern in committing the Bible to memory. 
 
 In 381 he was ordained deacon by Meletius of Antioch, 
 where he soon Ijecame noted as an eloquent preacher 
 and writer. He was admitted to the station of priest in 
 386 by Bishop Flavian, who a few years later appointed 
 him his vicar. 
 
 In 397 A.D. he was chosen Archbishop of Constanti- 
 nople. There he founded hospitals, converted many 
 pagans, and made zealous efforts to reform the morals 
 of the clergy. Socrates the historian represents him as 
 "temperate, sincere, and simple, but peevish, intolerant, 
 and extremely ready to excommunicate." As the style 
 of his preaching was declamatory, and the tenor of his 
 theology practical, he made many enemies at court and 
 among the higher classes. By the influence of the em- 
 press Eudoxia and Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria, 
 a synod was assembled at Chalcedon in 403, and Chrvs- 
 ostom was deposed on trivial charges, one of which was 
 that he favoured Origenism. He was exiled first to 
 Nicasa and then to Cucusus. The common people, among 
 whom he was very popular, raised a sedition on his ac- 
 count, and burned the church of Saint Sophia. He died 
 at Comana in 407. His voluminous works consist of 
 commentaries, homilies, epistles, and doctrinal treatises. 
 He has great merit as an expositor of Scripture. His 
 works are also prized for the light they shed on the man- 
 ners and social condition of the times in which he lived. 
 By Augustine and many others he was regarded as the 
 most illustrious orator and doctor of the early Church. 
 Among the ancient biographers of Chrysostom are Pal- 
 ladius, Photius, and Sozomen. 
 
 See, also, Godefroi Hermant, "Vie de Saint J. Chrysostome," 
 1664; J. A. W. Neander, "Life of Chrysostom," (in German, 2 
 vols., 1821 ;) Menard, "Vie de Saint-Chrysostome," 1665; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate;" Perthes, " Life of Chrysostom," 1854. 
 
 Chrysostome. See Chrysostom. 
 
 Chrysostomus. See Chrysostom. 
 
 Chrzanowski, kzha-nov'skee, (Adalbert,) a Polish 
 general, born in the palatinate of Cracow in 1788, entered 
 the Russian army about 1820. He rendered important 
 services to the Poles in their revolt against Russia in 
 1830 and 1831. His retreat to and from Zamosc was 
 regarded as a masterly movement, and procured him the 
 rank of general of division in 1831. After the capture 
 of Warsaw by the Russians in that year, he went into 
 exile. He commanded the Sardinian army which was 
 defeated by the Austrians at Novara in 1849. Died in 
 1861. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Chubb, (Thomas,) an English Unitarian writer and 
 controversialist, born near Salisbury in 1679. Among 
 his numerous works are "The Supremacy of the Father 
 asserted," (1715,) "Discourse on Reason as a Guide in 
 Religion," and "The True Gospel of Jesus asserted." 
 He was for some time steward of Sir Joseph Jekyl in 
 London. Died in 1746. His books were answered by 
 Caleb Fleming and others. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Chudleigh, chiid'le, (Lady Mary,) an English author- 
 ess, whose maiden name was Lee, born in Devonshire 
 in 1656, became the wife of Sir George Chudleigh. She 
 published "Essays in Prose and Verse," (1710,) which 
 are commended, and composed tragedies and other 
 works which remain in manuscript. Died in 1710. Her 
 writings indicate piety and good sense. 
 
 See Ballard, "Learned Ladies ;" Cibber, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Chumacero, choo-ma-tha'ro, (Juan,) a Spanish jurist, 
 born in Estremadura about 1610, became president of 
 the supreme council of Castile. Died in 1660. 
 
 ■Chum'nus, (Nicephorus,) a renowned Byzantine 
 writer and statesman, held high offices under the emperor 
 Andronicus Pala;ologus at Constantinople. He wrote 
 several works on philosophy and religion, among which is 
 "De Mundi Natura," ("On the Nature of the World,") 
 and letters which possess historic interest. He is sup- 
 posed to have died about 1330. 
 
 Chun. See Shun. 
 
 Chuii-Chi. See Shiin-Tchee. 
 
 Chund or Chand, a Hindoo poet, called the " Homer 
 of the Rajpoots." The time when he lived is unknown. 
 
 Chuudra or Chundur. See Chandra. 
 
 Chungiz. See Jengis. 
 
 Chuug-Ne, written also Tchourig-Ni, a name some- 
 times applied to Confucius, which see. 
 
 Church, (Benjamin,) an American soldier, born at 
 Duxbury, Massachusetts, in 1639, served with distinction 
 as an officer in the Indian wars. Died in 1718. 
 
 € as t; 5 as s; g hard; g as,/'; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. ($&~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CHURCH 
 
 602 
 
 CI AM PI 
 
 Church, (Benjamin,) a physician and active Whig 
 j/olitician of Boston, was convicted of a treasonable cor- 
 respondence with Governor Gage in 1775, and was im- 
 prisoned for that offence, but was released in 1776. 
 
 Church, (Frederick Edwin,) an eminent American 
 'andscape-painter, born at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1826, 
 was a pupil of Thomas Cole. His earliest productions 
 were views of the Catskill Mountains, among which he 
 resided, and a view of East Rock, near New Haven, 
 which attracted very favourable notice. In 1853 he visited 
 South America, and found in the magnificent scenery of 
 that country materials for several of his most admired 
 pictures. After his return he executed his " View of 
 Niagara Falls from the Canadian Shore," regarded by 
 many as the most successful representation of the great 
 cataract. " In the rush of water, and the fine atmos- 
 pheric effects," says a foreign critic, " it realizes the idea 
 of sound as well as of motion." Among his other works 
 are "The Heart of the Andes," "Cotopaxi," "Morning 
 on the Cordilleras," " Under Niagara," "The Icebergs," 
 and " Sunrise on Mount Desert Island." 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Kook of the Artists." 
 
 Church, (John Hubbard,) an American Congrega- 
 tional divine, born at Rutland, Massachusetts, in 1772, 
 preached at Pel ham, New Hampshire. Died in 1840. 
 
 Church, (Sir Richard,) an English general, born 
 about 1785, served in the British army in his youth. In 
 1827 he was chosen by the insurgent Greeks commander 
 of their land army ; but peace was made before he had 
 performed any very important actions. He was ordered 
 to leave Greece in 1830 by Capo d'Istrias, whose enmity 
 he had incurred. After the death of Capo d'Istrias, in 
 1831, he was again for a short time at the head of the 
 army. Died in 1850. 
 
 Church, (Samuel,) a jurist, born in Salisbury, Con- 
 necticut, in 1785. He became a judge of the superior 
 court in 1833, and chief justice of Connecticut in 1847. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Church, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born in 
 1707 ; died in 1756. 
 
 Church'ill, (Charles,) a popular English poet and 
 satirist, born at Westminster in 1731. At school he 
 was the fellow-student and friend of William Cowper. 
 He married a Miss Scott privately when he was about 
 seventeen, and soon after applied for a studentship at 
 Oxford, but was rejected. Against his own inclination, 
 he unwisely adopted the profession of his father, who 
 was a curate. In 1756 he was ordained priest, and began 
 to officiate at Rainham. Two years later he succeeded 
 his father as curate and lecturer of Saint John's, West- 
 minster. It is usually stated that a sudden or total 
 change occurred in his habits at this period, after which 
 he became dissipated and licentious. Macaulay, who 
 dissents from this opinion, thinks he never was or pro- 
 fessed to be religious, and intimates that, " with violent 
 recoil from the hypocrisies, he outraged the proprieties 
 of life," because his youth had been misdirected to a 
 profession from which his heart was estranged. 
 
 Resolving to abandon that profession, he produced, 
 about 1760, two poems, "The Bard" and "The Con- 
 clave." His " Rosciad," a pungent satire on the per- 
 formers and managers of the stage, appeared in 1 761, 
 and was successful beyond his most sanguine hopes. 
 He vindicated himself against the malice of the " Critical 
 Reviewers" by the " Apology," a poem, which is much 
 admired. He became very intimate with John Wilkes, 
 the profligate pseudo-patriot, whom he assisted in " The 
 North Briton." In 1763 he produced "The Prophecy 
 of Famine," a political satire on the Scotch, which was 
 immensely popular. " The Conference," a poem, is 
 one of his master-pieces. While on a visit to France, 
 he died in 1764. "His vices were not so great as his 
 virtues," says Macaulay. Besides the works already 
 noticed, he wrote " The Author," " Gotham," and other 
 poems. Cowper was a warm admirer of his poetry, 
 and said that " he well deserved the name of ' the great 
 Churchill.'" 
 
 See Tooke, " Life of Churchill ;" Macaulay's Essay entitled 
 "Charles Churchill," 1845; John Forster, "Historical and Bio- 
 graphical Essays," vol. ii. ; " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1845 
 
 Churchill, (John.) See Marlborough. 
 
 Church'ill, (Sylvester,) an American officer, born 
 at Woodstock, Vermont, about 1783. He became in- 
 spector-general of the army about 1841. 
 
 Churchill, (Sir Winston,) born in Dorsetshire, Eng- 
 land, in 1620, was the father of the Duke of Marlborough. 
 He was a royalist in the civil war, and was knighted by 
 Charles II. about 1662. He wrote a work of little merit 
 on the lives of British kings, entitled " Divi Britannici." 
 Died in 1688. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 Church'man, (William H.,) a blind man, born in 
 Baltimore in 1818, was educated in the Pennsylvania 
 Institution for the Blind. He has been successively 
 superintendent of similar institutions in Tennessee, In- 
 diana, and Wisconsin. 
 
 Church'yard, (Thomas,) an English versifier, born 
 at Shrewsbury about 1520, became a domestic of the 
 Earl of Surrey, after whose death he served in the army. 
 He wrote a " Legend of Jane Shore," and other poems. 
 Died in 1604. 
 
 See Cibber, "Lives of the Poets;" Disraeli, "Calamities of 
 Authors." 
 
 Churruca y Elorza, de, da choor-roo'ka e i-loR'- 
 tha, (C. DAMlAN,)an able and meritorious Spanish naval 
 officer, was born in Guipuzcoa in 1761. He was em- 
 ployed in an expedition sent to survey the Straits of 
 Magellan, and wrote a valuable "Diary of the Explora- 
 tion of Terra del Fuego," which was published in 1793. 
 He commanded an exploring expedition to the Gulf of 
 Mexico in 1791, from which resulted numerous charts of 
 the coasts. He was killed at the battle of Trafalgar,(i8o5.) 
 
 ChQr'tpn, (Edward,) an English theologian and 
 writer, son of Rev. Ralph Churton, born about 1800. 
 
 Churton, (Ralph,) an English clergyman, born in 
 Cheshire in 1 754. He was appointed Archdeacon of Saint 
 David's in 1805, and published sermons, and several 
 well-written biographies. Died in 1831. 
 
 Chyr-Shah. See Sher-Shah. 
 
 Chytraus, Ke-tRa'us, [Fr. Chytree, she'tki'; Lat. 
 Chytr^e'us,] (David,) a German Protestant theologian 
 and scholar, whose proper name was Kochhaff, (koK'- 
 haf,) was born at Ingelfingen, Suabia, in 1530. He was 
 a favourite disciple of Melanchthon, and became pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Rostock in 1551. He published 
 a large number of Latin works, among which are a 
 " History of the Augsburg Confession," (1578,) and a 
 "Chronicle of Saxony," (1593.) Died in 1600. 
 
 See Ulrich Chytraus, "Vita D. Chytrjei," 1601. 
 
 Chytraus or Chytraus, (Nathan,) a brother o( 
 the preceding, was born at Menzingen in 1543. He was 
 professor of Latin and of poetry at Rostock, and author 
 of "Iter Italicum et Gallicum," ("Journey to Italy and 
 France,") and other poems in Latin. Died in 1598. 
 
 Ciacone and Ciaconius. See Chacon. 
 
 Cialderi, chal-da'ree, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Urbino in 1593. 
 
 Cialdini, chat-dee'nee, (Enrico,) an able Italian gen- 
 eral, born at Modena absut 1814. He served in the 
 campaign of 1848 against the Austrians, and fought by 
 the side of Charles Albert at Novara in 1849. As gen- 
 eral of division, he gained an advantage over the Aus- 
 trians at Palaestro in June, 1859. He defeated the papal 
 army under Lamoriciere at Castelfidardo in i860, and 
 commanded the Sardinians at the siege of Gaeta, which 
 he took in February, 1861. In June, 1861, he was ap- 
 pointed lieutenant-general of Naples, then disturbed by 
 brigands and rebels. He commanded one of the armies 
 operating against the Austrians in 1 866, and became chief 
 of the royal staff in August of that year. 
 
 Ciamberlani, cham-b§R-la'nee, or Ciamberlano, 
 cham-bSR-la'no, (Luca,) an Italian painter and skilful 
 engraver, born at Urbino about 1580; died in 1641. 
 
 Ciampelli, cham-pel'lee, (Agostino, ) an Italian 
 painter, born at Florence in 1578. He was employed 
 by Clement VIII. in the Vatican, and was successful in 
 fresco and oil. His style is noble and his design correct. 
 Died at Rome in 1640. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Ciampi, chan/pee, (Sebastiano,) an Italian littera- 
 teur, born at Pistoia in 1769. Among his works are 
 " Memoirs of Cino da Pistoia," and " Carteromaco." 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 a, e, I, 5 u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mlt; not; good; moon; 
 
C1AMPINI 
 
 603 
 
 CICERO 
 
 Ciampini, cham-pee'nee, (Giovanni Giustino,) a 
 learned Italian writer and antiquary, born at Rome in 
 1633. He obtained an office in the apostolic chancery. 
 He studied sciences and belles-lettres with success, and, 
 under the auspices of Christina of Sweden, founded at 
 Rome, in 1677, an academy of natural and exact sciences. 
 He composed several esteemed works, among which are 
 "The Sacred Edifices built by Constantine," (1693,) and 
 "Vetera Monumenta," a treatise on ancient buildings, 
 mosaics, and rites. Died in 1698. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires ;" Fabiani, "Vita di G. G. Ciampini." 
 
 Ciampoli, cham'po-lee, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian lyric poet, born at Florence in 1589. He studied 
 philosophy under Galileo at Padua. His youthful essays 
 in poetry procured for him the favour of Cardinal Bar- 
 berini. Having removed to Rome, he was appointed 
 secretary of briefs by Pope Gregory XV. His poems, 
 which appeared in 1628, though marred by inflation and 
 affectation, were received with applause. As an adherent 
 of Galileo, he was disgraced and exiled from Rome in 
 the pontificate of Urban VIII. Died in 1643. 
 
 See Crasso, " Elogi d'Uomini letterati." 
 
 Cianchettini, chln-ket-tee'nee, (Pio,) a musical com- 
 poser, of Italian extraction, born in London in 1799. 
 
 Cianci, chan'chee, (Ignazio,) a Neapolitan poet and 
 theologian, lived about 1720-60. 
 
 Cianfaniui, chan-fa-nee'nee, (Benedetto,) an Italian 
 painter, who was esteemed one of the best pupils of Fra 
 Bartolommeo di San Marco. 
 
 Ciarpi, chaR'pee, (Baccio, bat'cho,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Florence in 1578; died in 1642. 
 
 Ciassi, chas'see, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian bota- 
 nist, born at Treviso in 1654. He advanced some sound 
 opinions on the phenomena of germination in his " Me- 
 ditations on the Nature of Plants," (" Meditationes de 
 Natura Plantarum," 1677.) Died in 1679. 
 
 Cib'ber, (Caius Gabriel,) a successful sculptor, born 
 in Holstein, (Denmark,) became a resident of London a 
 short time before the restoration of 1660. He executed 
 the bas-reliefs of the London Monument, and the two 
 figures of Madness in Bethlehem Hospital. He was 
 the father of Gibber the dramatist. Died about 1700. 
 
 Cib'ber, (Coli.ey,) a witty English dramatic author 
 and actor, son of the preceding, was born in London in 
 167 1. He became a comic actor in 1689. In 1695 he 
 produced his first play, "Love's Last Shift, or the Fool 
 in Fashion," which was very successful. " The Careless 
 Husband," which is considered his best production, was 
 performed with great applause in 1704, Cibber himself 
 enacting a principal rile. His comedy the "Nonjuror," 
 (1717,) an imitation of Moliere's "Tartuffe," procured 
 him a pension of ^200 from George I. He was one of 
 the managers of Drury Lane for many years. In 1730 he 
 was chosen poet-laureate. He wrote an amusing "Apo- 
 logy for the Life of Colley Cibber," which Dr. Johnson 
 pronounced " very well done." Cibber is a prominent 
 hero of the "Dunciad." Died in 1757. 
 
 See Pope's "Dunciad," books i., ii., iii. ; "Retrospective Re- 
 view," vol. L, 1820. 
 
 Cibber, (Susanna Maria,) a celebrated English ac- 
 tress, born probably in London in 1716, was the sister 
 of Dr. Arne the musician. She became the wife of 
 Theophilus Cibber in 1734. She made herde'put in 1736, 
 and was very successful in tragedy. Died in 1766. 
 
 Cibber, fTHEOPHLLUS,) an English comedian, son of 
 Colley Cibber, born in London in 1703. He was a suc- 
 cessful actor, but a very immoral and prodigal man. He 
 altered several plays from Shakspeare, and published in 
 1753 "Lives of the British Poets," said to have been 
 chiefly written by Robert Shiels. Cibber perished by 
 shipwreck in a voyage to Ireland in 1758. 
 
 See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Cibo. See Cybo. 
 
 Cibot, se'bo', ( Francois Barthelemy Michel 
 Eij'iuaRD,) a French painter of history and genre, born 
 in Paris in 1799. He obtained a first medal in 1843. 
 
 Cibot, (I'ikrre Martial,) a French missionary and 
 Jesuit, born at Limoges in 1727, was learned in the 
 sciences and languages. From 1760 to 1780 he was em- 
 ployed at Pekin, where he wrote valuable treatises on 
 the arts, manners, etc. of the Chinese. Died in 1780. 
 
 Cibrario, che-bRa're-o, (Luigi,) an Italian historian 
 and jurist, born at Turin in 1802, was employed by King 
 Charles Albert as a diplomatist. Among his works 
 are a " History of the Princes of Savoy," (1825,) a "His- 
 tory of the Monarchy of Savoy," (1840,) and "Novels," 
 ("Novelle," 1836.) 
 
 Ciccarelli, chek-ka-rel'lee, (Alphonso,) an Italian 
 physician, born at Bevagna. lie was put to death for 
 forgery in 1580. • 
 
 Cicci, chet'ehee, (Maria Luisa,) an Italian poetess, 
 born at Pisa in 1760; died in 1794. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Ciccione, chet-cho'na, (Andrea,) an eminent Italian 
 sculptor and architect, born at Naples ; died about 
 1440. 
 
 Ciceri, ses're', (Pierre Luc Charles,) a French 
 scene-painter of wide reputation, was born at Saint- 
 Cloud in 1782. He worked in Paris and other places. 
 
 Cic'e-ro, [Gr. Kwcepuv; It. Cicerone, che-cha-ro'ni ; 
 Fr. Ciceron, se'sa'rdN'; Ger. Cicero, tsits'J-ro; Sp. 
 Ciceron, the-thA-r6n',] (Marcus Tullius,) often called 
 Tully by English writers, an illustrious Roman orator, 
 philosopher, and statesman, was born at Arpinum, (now 
 Arpino,) about seventy miles east-southeast of Rome, 
 on the 3d of January, 106 B.C., (647 A.u.C) He was a 
 son of Marcus Tullius Cicero, an opulent citizen of the 
 equestrian order, who owned an estate near Arpinum and 
 devoted much time to literary pursuits. His mother's 
 name was Helvia. His early education was directed by 
 Archias the Greek poet, Q. yElius the grammarian, and 
 other teachers, at Rome. During his minority he com- 
 posed a number of poems, among which was " Pontius 
 Glaucus," which is lost. His disposition was genial and 
 amiable. He learned to speak Greek fluently, and was 
 profoundly versed in Greek literature and philosophy. 
 Having assumed the manly gown (toga virilis) in his 
 sixteenth year, (91 B.C.,) he applied himself to the study 
 of law under Mucius Scaevola the Augur, an eminent 
 jurist and statesman. 
 
 In the year 89 B.C. he served a campaign under Cneius 
 Pompeius Strabo in the Social war, in obedience to the 
 law which then required every citizen to perform military 
 service. During the six ensuing years after this cam- 
 paign he passed his life in studious retirement, and took 
 no part in the bloody civil war between Marius and 
 Sulla. He attended the lectures of the Greek philoso- 
 pher Philo, the chief of the New Academy, studied logic 
 with Diodotus the Stoic, and was instructed in rhetoric 
 by Apollonius Molo of Rhodes. " He had," says Plu- 
 tarch, " both the capacity and inclination to learn all the 
 arts, nor was there any branch of science that he de- 
 spised : yet he was most inclined to poetry. ... In 
 process of time he was looked upon as the best poet as 
 well as the greatest orator in Rome. His reputation for 
 oratory still remains; . . . but, as many ingenious poets 
 have appeared since his time, his poetry has lost its 
 credit and is now neglected." In his admirable oration 
 " Pro Archia," Cicero informs us that Archias the poet 
 exerted great influence over the formation of his taste 
 and the development and direction of his genius. Among 
 his early productions was a heroic poem entitled "Ma- 
 rius," which is not extant : also a treatise on rhetoric, 
 entitled " De Inventione Rhetorica." 
 
 Having laid a solid foundation for his fame by the 
 severe and systematic discipline of his rare talents, and 
 by assiduous efforts to perfect his elocution by the prac- 
 tice of declamation, he began, at the age of twenty-five, 
 his career as a pleader in the Forum. An argument 
 which he made in 81 B.C. for his client P. Quinctius, in a 
 civil suit, is still extant. The first important criminal 
 trial in which he was employed was that of Sextus Roscius 
 Amerinus, who was accused of parricide by an agent of 
 the dictator Sulla, the dread of whose power and cruelty 
 was so great that all the other advocates declined to ap- 
 pear for the defence. Cicero defended him with success, 
 denounced the malice and iniquity of the prosecutor, and 
 gained great applause by his courage and eloquence. 
 This event occurred in the twenty-seventh year of his 
 age. His physical constitution in his youth was so deli- 
 cate that his medical friends advised him to abandon 
 the bar. "My body," says he, "was very weak and 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CICERO 
 
 604 
 
 CICERO 
 
 emaciated, my neck long and small, which is a habit 
 thought liable to great risk of life, if engaged in any 
 fatigue or labour of the lungs." He therefore resolved 
 to improve his health by travel, and to finish his educa- 
 tion by visits to the famous seats of learning and art in 
 Greece and Asia. Having departed from Rome in 79 
 B.C., he spent about six months in Athens, where ne 
 pursued his favourite studies with Antiochus of Ascalon, 
 Zeno the Epicurean,, and Demetrius Syrus. He also 
 enjoyed in Athens the society of Pomponius Atticus, 
 with whom he formed a lasting and memorable friend- 
 ship, lie afterwards travelled extensively in Asia Minor. 
 "He came back again to Italy," says Middleton-, "after 
 an excursion of two years, extremely improved, and 
 changed, as it were, into a new man : the vehemence of 
 his voice and action was moderated, the redundancy of 
 his style and fancy corrected, his lungs strengthened, 
 and his whole constitution confirmed." 
 
 In 76 B.C. he was elected quaestor (paymaster) by 
 the unanimous suffrage of all the tribes. The quaestors 
 were sent annually into the several provinces, one with 
 every proconsul or governor, to whom he was next in 
 authority. The office of quaestor was the first step in the 
 gradation of public honours, and entitled him to an ad- 
 mission into the senate for life. He officiated as quaestor 
 in Sicily, and performed his duties with such integrity, 
 moderation, and humanity that he won, it is said, the 
 love and admiration of all the Sicilians. As he was re- 
 turning to Rome (74 B.C.) somewhat elated with his suc- 
 cess, and entertaining the idea that the great capital was 
 resounding with his praises, he met one of his acquaint- 
 ances, a person of eminence, and inquired what they said 
 and thought of his actions in Rome. The answer was, 
 " Why, where have you been, then, Cicero, all this time ?" 
 He then perceived that the reports of his conduct and 
 services had been lost in Rome, as in an immense 
 sea, and had added little or nothing to his reputation. 
 About 76 B.C. he married a rich heiress, named Terentia. 
 The law prescribed that five years should elapse after his 
 election to the quaestorship (or that he must attain the 
 age of thirty-eight) before he could hold the office of 
 aedile, which was the next in the ascending scale. The 
 orations which he pronounced during this period have 
 not been preserved. His principal rival in forensic elo- 
 quence was Hortensius, whom he soon surpassed. Ac- 
 cording to Plutarch, " it was not by slow and insensible 
 degrees that he gained the palm of eloquence : his fame 
 shot foi th at once, and he was distinguished above all 
 the orators of Rome." He excelled in sarcasm and 
 witty repartees, with which he often seasoned his forensic 
 arguments. All the resources of his genius, his art, his 
 learning and influence were freely devoted to the defence 
 of those whose lives or dignity or reputations were 
 judicially assailed. He received no pay for his services 
 as an advocate. He deviated from his general rule and 
 practice of pleading for the defendant, in the case of the 
 infamous Caius Verres, who in 70 B.C. was impeached 
 by the Sicilians for atrocious acts of cruelty and rapine, 
 but was supported by the most powerful families of 
 Rome, including the Metelli. At the urgent request of 
 the Sicilians, Cicero conducted the prosecution of Ver- 
 res, who employed Hortensius to defend him ; but the 
 evidence against the accused was so overwhelming that 
 his counsel declined to plead, or had nothing to say, the 
 defence suddenly collapsed, and Verres himself, antici- 
 pating his sentence, went into exile. Cicero, therefore, 
 actually spoke only two of his seven celebrated orations 
 against Verres ; but the others were published, and re- 
 main a noble and imperishable monument of his versatile 
 and almost universal genius. 
 
 Having acquired great popularity, he was elected to 
 the aedileship, in 70 B.C., by a majority of the voters of 
 every tribe. As aedile, he had the care of the sacred 
 edifices, and was required by law or usage to gratify the 
 people with public games and shows and costly page- 
 ants, partly at his own expense. In the year 67 he 
 offered himself as a candidate for the office of praetor, 
 which was one grade higher than that of aedile, and next 
 in dignity to the consulship. Although he had several 
 eminent competitors, he was elected the first praetor 
 urbanus by the suffrages of all the centuries. The duty 
 
 of the praetors was to preside as judges in the highest 
 courts, and their jurisdictions were assigned to them by 
 lot, which decided that Cicero should judge in cases of 
 extortion and rapine of which governors of provinces 
 were accused. " As a president in the courts of justice, 
 he acted with great integrity and honour." (Plutarch's 
 "Life of Cicero.") While he held the office of prxtor 
 (66 B.C.) he made an important and famous political ora- 
 tion for the Manilian Law, (" Pro Lege Manilia,") the 
 design of which was to appoint Pompey commander- 
 in-chief in the war against Mithridates the Great. This 
 was the first occasion on which Cicero ever mounted 
 the rostrum. The Manilian Law, although strenuously 
 opposed by the nobles, or optimates, and many powerful 
 senators, was adopted. In the same year he defended 
 A. Cluentius, (who was accused of poisoning his father- 
 in-law,) in a plea which is still extant. 
 
 At the expiration of his praetorship, Cicero would not 
 accept the government of a foreign p'rovince, which, says 
 Middleton, " was the usual reward of that magistracy, 
 and the chief fruit which the generality proposed from 
 it. . . . The glory which he pursued was to shine in the 
 eyes of the city as the guardian of its laws, and to teach 
 the magistrates how to execute, the citizens how to obey 
 them. But he was now preparing to sue for the consul- 
 ship, the great object of all his hopes." The most for- 
 midable obstacle to his ambition was the jealousy of the 
 nobles or aristocrats, who regarded the highest office as 
 their birthright, and who would oppose the election of a 
 " new man," (novus homo,) as they called all men whose 
 ancestors were mere private citizens. He offered him- 
 self as a candidate for the consulship in his forty-third 
 year, 64 B.C., with six competitors, among whom were 
 P. Sulpicius Galba, C. Antonius, and L. Sergius Catilina. 
 The last two formed a coalition against Cicero, and were 
 favoured by Caesar and Crassus. During the canvass 
 Cicero uttered a severe invective on the habits and char- 
 acters of Catiline and Antonius, in his oration "In Toga 
 Candida." The election resulted in the choice of Cicero 
 andC. Antonius, the former of whom received the votes 
 of all the centuries, and was the only " new man" that 
 had been chosen consul in forty years. Among the 
 events of this year was the birth of his only son. He 
 had also a daughter, Tullia, who was born several years 
 earlier and was the object of his warmest affection. She 
 was a very amiable and accomplished woman. 
 
 He entered upon the office on the 1st of January, 63 
 B.C., and found the republic in a very critical and peril- 
 ous condition, distracted by pestilent laws and seditious 
 harangues and undermined by pervading corruption and 
 traitorous conspiracies. The difficulty was increased by 
 the fact that his colleague Antonius was a man of bad 
 (though feeble) character and was opposed to the policy 
 of Cicero. The latter, however, secured the co-opera- 
 tion, or at least the neutrality, of Antonius, by a bargain 
 that he should have the best and most lucrative of the 
 provinces which were to be assigned to the consuls at 
 the expiration of their term. He promoted the cause 
 of liberty and order by another capital stroke of policy 
 when he induced the senators and the equites (knights) 
 to form a political alliance and unite in a common party. 
 " He was," says Middleton, "the only man in the city 
 capable of effecting such a coalition, being now at the 
 head of the senate, yet the darling of the knights." By 
 an artful and powerful speech he persuaded the people 
 to reject an agrarian law proposed by Rullus, a tribune 
 of the people. According to Niebuhr, this was " one of 
 the most brilliant achievements of eloquence." He de- 
 fended Kabirius, (accused of the murder of L. Satuininus, 
 who had been dead about forty years,) in an oration which 
 is extant. 
 
 The most memorable part of his administration ap- 
 pears in the ability, courage, and elastic energy with 
 which he detected and baffled the nefarious designs of 
 Catiline and his accomplices. Catiline was a candidate 
 for the consulship in the election of 63 B.C., and hired 
 assassins to kill Cicero in the Campus Martius when he 
 should come to preside at the election ; but, as the con- 
 sul came guarded by armed men, the plot failed, and 
 Catiline was not elected. This second repulse rendered 
 him furious. He conspired to seize the chief power by 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; £, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
 
CICERO 
 
 6qj 
 
 CICERO 
 
 the burning of the city and a general massacre of the 
 senators and the Hand* of order. His capacity and 
 resources for such an enterprise were very great, and 
 he was abetted by vast numbers of disaffected and des- 
 perate men, some of whom were of high rank and great 
 influence. The leaders of this plot met on the 6th of 
 November, and arranged the immediate execution of 
 the same ; but their plans were revealed to Cicero by 
 Fulvia, the mistress of one of the conspirators, and when 
 two of then went to his house next morning to assas- 
 sinate the consul they found it well guarded. On the 
 8th <it November, Cicero delivered in the senate the first 
 of his famous oratior.s against Catiline, who was present, 
 and, at the end of that grand explosion of indignant 
 eloquence, rose to speak ; but his voice was drowned by 
 cries of "Traitor!" and " 1'arricide !" Catiline hastily 
 quitted Rome in the ensuing night, to join his army in 
 Etruria, and Cicero on the next day addressed to the 
 assembled people his second Oration " In Catilinam." 
 
 After he had delivered two more orations on the sub- 
 ject, Lentulus, Cethegus, and several other conspirators 
 were condemned to death by the senate, and executed 
 by the older of the consul, who was censured by many 
 tor putting citizens to death without a trial. During 
 this perilous crisis, and before Catiline was defeated 
 and killed, Cicero defended Murena against a charge 
 of bribery, in an oration remarkable for wit and good- 
 humoured raillery. For his preservation of the state 
 from this conspiracy Cicero received unbounded hon- 
 ours. He was saluted as the father of his country by 
 Catulus and Cato, and hailed as the saviour of Rome by 
 the people : 
 
 "Roma Patrem Patriae Ciceronem libera dixit." 
 
 Juvenal, Sat. viii. 
 
 When lie ceased to be consul at the end of the year, 
 he declined the government of a province, and remained 
 at Rome as a private senator. He now purchased an 
 elegant mansion on the Palatine Hill. His favourite 
 country residence was the Tusculan Villa, a few miles 
 from Rome. He also owned villas near Arpinum, For- 
 miae, Cumae, and other places. 
 
 When 1'. Clodius was tried for polluting the mysteries 
 of the Bona Dea by his presence, Cicero appeared as a 
 witness against him, and thus incurred his bitter enmity. 
 Soon after this event, Cicero defended the poet Archias, 
 his teacher, in an oration which is much admired. About 
 the end of the year 6o, Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus 
 united to form the first Triumvirate, which Cicero was 
 urged to join by one or more of the parties ; but he 
 declined, as he regarded the coalition of the triumvirs 
 as dangerous to the public liberty. He was on friendly 
 terms with Pompey, who he hoped would prove loyal. 
 Forsyth, who thinks that Cicero always distrusted Pom- 
 pey, ami that Pompey disliked Cicero, states that the 
 latter " held aloof, determined to temporize." His enemy 
 Clodius, who became tribune of the people in December, 
 59 B.C., and who was supported by Caesar and Pompey, 
 now manifested his vindictive malice against Cicero by a 
 law which he proposed, " that whoever has put to death 
 a Roman citizen without due form of trial shall be in- 
 terdicted from fire and water." According to custom, 
 Cicero put on mourning and appealed to the compassion 
 of the people. It is said that 20,000 young nobles and 
 equites expressed their sympathy with him by a change 
 of dress ; but, as the consuls were his enemies, he an- 
 ticipated the passage of the law, and retired into exile 
 in April, 58 B.C. Several writers censure him for the 
 abject spirit which they say he now exhibited in adver- 
 sity. He was banished by law, his property was confis- 
 cated, and his house on the Palatine Hill was burned bv 
 Clodius. He chose Greece as his place of exile, which 
 he did not endure with the fortitude or apathy of a stoic ; 
 on the contrary, he appears from his letters of this 
 period to have been extremely dejected. In a letter to 
 his wife, Terentia, he wrote, " It is not my crimes, but 
 my virtue that has crushed me." 
 
 The violence and excessive insolence of Clodius soon 
 produced a reaction : the tribunes who entered office in 
 the year 57 were mostly friends of Cicero, whose recall 
 was demanded by the senate, by Pompey, and by the 
 new consuls. In August a bill for his restoration was api 
 
 proved by the almost unanimous suffrage of the people 
 of all Italy, voting by centuries. "There had never 
 been known so numerous and solemn an assembly of 
 the Roman people as this." (Middleton.) His return 
 to Rome in September, 57 B.C., was like a triumphal 
 progress, and was hailed with almost universal enthu- 
 siasm. That day, he said, seemed to him like immortality : 
 " unus ille dies mihi quidem immortalitatis instar fuit, 
 quo in patriam redii." ("Oratio in Pisoncm.") 
 
 Dining the period of five years that followed his re- 
 turn, he pleaded a number of causes and wrote two im- 
 portant political works, entitled " De Republic^," ("On 
 the Republic, or the Principles of Government,") and 
 " De Legibus," a philosophical treatise on the origin, 
 principles, and perfection of law. The former of these 
 treats on the best form of government and the duties of 
 the citizen. This work, which was one of his greatest 
 productions, is lost, except a large fragment discovered 
 by Angelo Mai on a palimpsest about 1820. He also 
 wrote, about 55 B.C., his "De Oratore," a systematic 
 work on oratory, which is extant. In 52 ti.e. he com- 
 posed a celebrated oration jn defence of T Annius Milo, 
 who was tried for killing P. Clodius ; but this oration was 
 not actually delivered in the court. He wrote a history 
 of his consulship, in verse, which has not come down to us. 
 
 About the end of the year 52 Cicero was appointed pro- 
 consul or governor of Cilicia, Pisidia, etc. lie accepted 
 this office with reluctance, regarding it as a kind of hon- 
 ourable exile. He had under his command in his province 
 an army of about fourteen thousand men, which he di- 
 rected in successful operations against some predatory 
 tribes, and was saluted by his soldiers with the title of 
 "Imperator." His administration is extolled as a rare 
 model of purity, moderation, and clemency. Having 
 governed that province for one year, he returned to Rome 
 about the end of 50 B.C., and found the country on the 
 verge of civil war between the senate and Julius Caesar. 
 He offered himself as a mediator, advising the senate 
 to make concessions to Caesar ; but after the latter had 
 crossed the Rubicon he joined the army of Pompey and 
 the senate, not without much hesitation. "He fluc- 
 tuated greatly," says Plutarch, "and was in the utmost 
 anxiety; for he says in his letters, 'Whither shall I 
 turn ? Pompey has the more honourable cause ; but 
 Caesar manages his affairs with the greatest address, and 
 is most able to save himself and his friends. In short, I 
 know whom to avoid, but not whom to follow.' " Whec 
 Pompey asked him, "Where is your son-in-law ?" (Dola- 
 bella,) Cicero answered, " He is with your father-in-law." 
 To one who reproached him for coming late to the camp 
 of Pompey, he said, " By no means late ; for I find nothing 
 ready here." He wrote almost daily to Atticus, with 
 whom he always corresponded frequently, (except when 
 they lived at the same place,) and expressed his opinions 
 without reserve. 
 
 After the battle of Pharsalia, (August, 48 B.C.,) in which 
 he took no part, Cicero returned to Italy and submitted 
 to the power of Caesar, who treated him with much 
 clemency and respect. He devoted himself to studious 
 retirement and composition, and produced in the next 
 four years numerous important works on philosophy and 
 rhetoric, which demonstrate his immense intellectual 
 activity and his vast learning, as well as the versatility 
 of his mind. The following works are preserved entire : 
 " De Finibus Libri v.," ("An Inquiry into the Supreme 
 Good,") " Cato Major, sen De Senectute," ("Kssayon 
 Old Age,") " Brutus, seu De Claris Oratoribus," (a 
 critical history of Roman orators, in the form of a dia- 
 logue,) "De Naturi Deorum Libri iii.," ("On the Na- 
 ture of the Gods,")"De AmicitiaV' ("A Dialogue on 
 Friendship,") " Tusculanarum Disputationum Libri v.," 
 (Discussions on various questions in Philosophy,) "Ora- 
 tor, seu de optimo Genere Dicendi," ("The Orator, 
 or on the Best Manner of Speaking,") " De Partitione 
 Oratoria 1 ," ("Analysis of Oratory," or Rhetorical Cate- 
 chism,) " De optimo Genere Oratorum," " De Divina- 
 tione Libri ii.," (" On Divination,") and " De Officiis Libri 
 iii.," ("On Duties,") an excellent treatise on ethics. He 
 also wrote "Academicoi urn Libri iv.," and " De Fato," 
 ("On Fate,") both of which remain in a mutilated state. 
 His treatises " De Gloria"' ("On Glory") and " De Virtu- 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; %hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sass; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CICER 
 
 606 
 
 C1C0GNINI 
 
 tibus" ("On the Virtues") are lost, except small frag- 
 ments. In philosophy he preferred the principles of the 
 New Academy. 
 
 In the year 47 he uttered in the senate a beautiful oration 
 for Marcus Marcellus, and in the next year he defended 
 Ligarius with success before Caesar, who is said to have 
 trembled and changed colour as he heard this speech. 
 Cicero divorced his wife Terentia in 46 B.C., and married a 
 young lady named Publilia, who was his ward ; but he re- 
 pudiated her also in the year 45. He was not an accom- 
 plice in the assassination of Caesar, (March, 44 B.C. ;) 
 but he afterwards applauded that action, which he had 
 witnessed. He boldly denounced the ambitious and cor- 
 rupt conduct of Mark Antony, in a series of fourteen 
 orations, called Philippics, the first of which was spoken 
 in the senate in September, 44, and is considered one 
 of his master-pieces. The second Philippic was not in- 
 ferior to the first, but it was not spoken. His favour was 
 courted by young -Octavius, with whom he co-operated 
 after Antony had fled from the capital. Between the 
 months of December, 44, and May, 43, B.C., he delivered 
 the last twelve Philippics, which were greatly applauded. 
 "His power at this time," says Plutarch, "was at its 
 greatest height ; he carried every point that he desired." 
 The coalition of Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus, which 
 was formed in November, rendered his patriotic efforts 
 unavailing. He was proscribed by the triumvirs, and 
 was killed by the soldiers of Antony, near his Formian 
 villa, on the 7th of December, 43 B.C. It appears that he 
 made little effort to escape, and met death with fortitude. 
 Cicero was tall in stature, with features regular and well 
 formed. His gestures were natural and graceful, his pres- 
 ence manly and commanding. No greater master of com- 
 Dosition and of the music of speech has ever appeared 
 among men. He invented a style which adapts itself 
 with rare felicity to every class of subjects, and which 
 has been the model of succeeding ages. In his " Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe," Mr. Hallam ex- 
 presses his admiration of the "consummate grace and 
 richness which enchants every successive generation in 
 the periods of Cicero." His orations display a profound 
 knowledge of human nature, as well as a consummate 
 art in the use of words. His diction is copious and 
 flowing, his periods are sonorous, and the structure of 
 his sentences is eminently ingenious and exact. He 
 amplifies everything, and is more diffuse than Demos- 
 thenes. His chief foible was his vanity, manifested in a 
 habit of self-laudation, which he indulged to an excess- 
 ive degree. But there is a certain grace and charm 
 even in these exhibitions of his vanity. " How shocking 
 soever," says Addison, "this great man's talking of him- 
 self might have been to his contemporaries, I must con- 
 fess I am never better pleased than when he is on this 
 subject." (" Spectator," No. 562.) According to Niebuhr, 
 "the predominant and most brilliant faculty of his mind 
 was his wit. In what the French call esprit — light, un- 
 expected, and inexhaustible wit — he is not excelled by 
 any among the ancients." About fifty of his orations are 
 extant, besides fragments of many others. The titles of 
 those which have not been already named in this article 
 are the following : " Pro Scamandro," " Pro C. Mustio," 
 "In Q. Caecilium," "Pro A. Caecina," "De Lege Agra- 
 ria," "Pro P. Cornelio SullS," "Pro Scipione Nasica," 
 " Pro L. Valerio Flacco," " Post Reditum in Senatu," 
 "Post Reditum ad Quirites," " Pro Domo Sua," "Pro 
 P. Sextio," "Pro M. Ccelio Rufo," "Pro L. Cornelio 
 Balbo," " De Provinces Consularibus," " In L. Pisonem," 
 " Pro Cn. Plancio," and " Pro Rege Dejotaro." Among 
 his extant works are more than eight hundred letters on 
 politics, literature, domestic affairs, etc., which are con- 
 sidered as equal in value to any of his productions, and 
 are rich in materials for a history of his time. They are 
 also highly prized as models of exquisite Latinity, and as 
 exhibiting a freshness and vivid reality which are seldom 
 if ever found in a historical narrative. William Melmoth 
 published an English version of about four hundred and 
 twenty " Letters of Cicero to several of his Friends ;" and 
 his letters to Atticus have been translated by William 
 Heberden, M.D. Among the best editions of his com- 
 plete works are those of Ernesti, Halle, 5 vols. 8vo, 
 1774-77; Elzevir, Leyden, 10 vols., 1642 ; Olivet, Paris, 
 
 9 vols. 4to, 1742 ; Schiitz, Leipsic, 20 vols. 8vo, 1814-23 , 
 and Orelli, Zurich, 9 vols. 8vo, 1826-37, which is said to 
 surpass them all. 
 
 See Conyers Middleton,"" History of the Life of Cicero," 1741; 
 Plutarch, " Life of Cicero;" F. Fabricius, " Historia Ciceronis," 
 1563; Facciolati, "Vita Ciceronis Literaria," 1760; Meierotto, 
 "Ciceronis Vita, ex ipsius ejus Scriptisexcerpta," Berlin, 17S3; Orelli, 
 " Onomasticum Tnllianum ;" Pericaud, "Ciceroniana," 1812; Dru- 
 mann, "GeschichteRoms;" Niebuhr, " Roman History ;" Abeken, 
 "Cicero in seinen Briefen," 183s, (one of the best works on the sub- 
 ject ;) English version of the same, 1854; William Forsyth, "Life 
 of M. T. Cicero," 2 vols., 1864 ; Mommsen, " Romische Geschichte," 
 2 vols., 1854; J. Morabin, "Histoire deCiceron," 3 vols, 1745; Db 
 Quincey, "Historical and Critical Essays," vol. i. ; Peter Kker- 
 man, "Dissertatio de Cicerone," 1758; A. F. Gautier, "Cicerone! 
 son Siecle," 1842; Linsen, "Momenta Vita; M. T. Ciceronis," 1839; 
 Lamartine, "CiciSron," 1852; Holi.incis, "Life of Cicero." 1839; 
 "Memoirs of Celebrated Characters," (1856,) by Lamartine; 
 also the article " Ciceron" in the " Biosraphie Universale," (irom the 
 masterly pen of M. Vii.lemain ;) " Westminster Review" for Octo- 
 ber, 1855. 
 
 Cicero, (Marcus Tullius,) the only son of the great 
 orator and Terentia, born in 65 B.C. He served in the 
 army of Pompey in the year 49, after which he studied 
 at Athens under Cratippus. After the death of Caesar 
 he was appointed military tribune by Brutus, and de- 
 feated C. Antonius. In the year 30 B.C. he became con- 
 sul as colleague of Octavius. He is said to have been 
 dissipated and intemperate. 
 
 Cicero,' (Quintus Tullius,) a brother of the great 
 Roman orator, was born about 100 B.C. He was elected 
 praetor about the year 62, and obtained the government 
 of Asia, which he held for three years. As legate or lieu- 
 tenant, (legatus,) he accompanied Caesar to Britain in 55. 
 While commanding a legion in winter quarters (54 B.C.) 
 he defended his camp with great courage and skill against 
 the forces of the Gauls under Ambiorix until the arrival 
 of Caesar. (See Caesar, "De Bello Gallico," lib. v.) In' 
 the year 51 he served as legate to his brother Marcus in 
 Cilicia. He fought on the side of Pompey in the civil 
 war, and made his peace with Caesar in 47 B.C. Having 
 been proscribed by the triumvirs, he was killed, by the 
 orders of Antony, in 43 B.C. He had composed several 
 tragedies, which are lost, and a few small poems. 
 
 Cicero, (Q. Tullius,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born about 66 B.C. His mother was a sister of Pompo- 
 nius Atticus. He served under his uncle, the great 
 orator, in Cilicia, in the year 51. After the battle of 
 Pharsalia (48 B.C.) he violently denounced his uncle, 
 with the design, it is supposed, of courting the favour of 
 the victor, by whom he was pardoned. Having joined 
 the party of Brutus and Cassius, he was proscribed by 
 Antony, and put to death in 43 B.C. 
 
 Cicogna, che-kAn'ya, (Emmanuel Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian litterateur, born at Venice in 1789. He published, 
 besides other works, "Venetian Inscriptions," ("Iscri- 
 zioni Veneziani," 10 vols.) 
 
 Cicogna, (Pasquale,) Doge of Venice, succeeded 
 Nicholas da Ponte in 1585. In his reign Henry IV. of 
 France was recognized king by the Venetians, the Rialto 
 was built, and the superb edifices on the Piazza of Saint 
 Mark were finished. Died in 1595. 
 
 See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Cicognara, da, da che-k6n-ya'ra,(LEOPOLDO,) Count, 
 an eminent Italian antiquary and writer on art, was born 
 at Ferrara in 1767. He studied the fine arts in Rome, 
 and settled at Modena about 1795. Between that date 
 and 1808 he was minister from the Cisalpine republic to 
 Turin, and councillor of state. He published in 1808 
 "Del Bello Ragionamenti," (a "Treatise on the Beauti- 
 ful.") About this time he was appointed president of the 
 Academy of Fine Arts at Venice, over which he pre- 
 sided many years. His capital work is a " History of 
 Sculpture from the Renaissance of that Art to the Pres- 
 ent Century," (" Storia della Scultura dal suo Risorgi- 
 mento in Italia," 3 vols., 1813-18,) which procured him 
 a European reputation. He afterwards produced two 
 splendidly illustrated volumes of the "Remarkable Edi- 
 fices of Venice," (" Le Fabbriche pin conspicue di Vene- 
 zia," 1815-20,) and other works. Died at Venice in 1834. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" Becchi, " Elogio 
 del L. Cicognara," 1837; Zanetti, "Cenni puramente biografici 
 di L. Cicognara," 1834. 
 
 Cicognini, che-k6n-yee'nee, (jACOPO,)an Italian poet, 
 bom at Florence about 1610. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, it, y", short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mlt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CID 
 
 607 
 
 CIMON 
 
 Cid, sld, [Sp. pron. theD,] the Moorish appellation 
 of a celebrated Castilian hero, who was born at Burgos 
 about 1040, and whose proper name was Rodrigo or 
 Ruy Diaz de Bivar. He was also surnamed Cam- 
 }'Kaihik, (the "Champion.") After he had fought with 
 distinction under Sancho II. of Castile, he was excluded 
 from the favour of his successor, Alphonso VI., who 
 banished him from court. He gained a victory over five 
 Moorish kings who invaded Rioja, and was recalled to 
 court. He afterwards performed many martial exploits, 
 which are celebrated in poems and chronicles and em- 
 bellished by fabulous inventions. These have furnished 
 Comeille»the subject of an admired tragedy. A poem 
 of which the Cid is the subject, composed by " the Ho- 
 mer of Spain," an author whose name is unknown, is 
 thought to be the oldest poem in the Spanish language. 
 Died in 1099. 
 
 See "Vie du Cid," 1837, translated from the Spanish of M. J. 
 Quintana, whose original work is found in his "Vidas de Espa- 
 fioles celebres," 1807; Belokado, "Coronica del famoso Cavallero 
 Cid," 1498: Robert Southev, "Chronicles of the Cid," 1808; 
 " London Quaiterly Review" for February, 1807; TlCKNOK, " His- 
 tory of Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. ii. 
 
 Cieca de Leon. See Cieza. 
 
 del. See Cko. 
 
 Cienfuegos, Me-en-fwa'gds, (Alvarez,) a Spanish 
 Jesuit, born in Asturias in 1657. He was employed in 
 negotiations by the emperors Joseph I. and Charles 
 VI., and was made a cardinal in 1720. He wrote "The 
 Life of Francis Borgia," and other works. Died in 1739. 
 
 Cienfuegos, (Bernardo,) a Spanish botanist, born 
 at Tarragona in the sixteenth century. He was a pro- 
 fessor in the University of Alcala, and left in manuscript 
 a " History of Plants," with excellent figures. 
 
 Cienfuegos, de, da itfe-en-fwa'gds, (Nicasio Alva- 
 rez,) a Spanish poet and dramatist of brilliant promise, 
 was born at Madrid about 1764. He was a friend and 
 imitator of Melendez. In 1798 he published a volume 
 of poems, among which were odes, epistles, elegies, etc. 
 His drama " Pitaco" was successful, and opened to him 
 the Spanish Academy. He was editor of the official 
 gazette in Madrid when Spain was invaded by the 
 French in 1808; and, as he refused to comply with the 
 directions of Murat, he was condemned to death. This 
 sentence was commuted into transportation to France, 
 where he died in 1809. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature," vol. iii. chaps, v., 
 vi. 
 
 Cieza or Cieca de Leon, Me-a'tha da la-An', (Pedro,) 
 a Spanish historian, born at Seville about 1520. He 
 served under Pizarro in the West Indies, and resided 
 many years in Peru. He was the author of a "Cronica 
 del Peru," (1553,) which is commended by Prescott. It 
 is said to be more geographical than historical. 
 
 See Prescott, "Conquest of Peru," vols, i., ii. 
 
 Cifra, chee'fRa, (Antonio,) an Italian composer, born 
 about 1575; was living in 1629. 
 
 Cigna, chen'ya, (Giovanni Francesco,) an eminent 
 Italian physician and anatomist, born at Mondovi in 1734, 
 was a nephew of Beccaria the jurist. In 1770 he became 
 professor of anatomy at Turin. He published treatises 
 on Electricity, Respiration, etc. Died in 1790. 
 
 Cignani, chen-ya'nee, (Carlo,) Count, an eminent 
 Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1628, was a pupil of 
 Albano, whom in some respects he surpassed. He worked 
 in fresco and oil at Bologna, Parma, and Forll. In design 
 he almost rivalled Correggio. He was a good colorist, 
 and excelled in chiaroscuro. In 1708 he was chosen 
 president of the Clementine Academy. His master- 
 piece is a large fresco at Forll of the "Assumption of 
 the Virgin." Died at Forll in 1719. 
 
 See Zanetti, " Vita del trran Pittore C. Cignani," 1722; Ersch 
 und Grubrr, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Tardini, " Vita di C. 
 Cignani," 1722. 
 
 Cignani, (Felice,) an able painter of Bologna, a son 
 of the preceding, was born about 1660 ; died in 1724. 
 
 Cignani, (Paolo,) an Italian painter, nephew of Carlo, 
 was born at Bologna in 1709; died in 1764. 
 
 Cignaroli, chen-ya-ro'lee, (Giovanni Bettino,) one 
 of the most renowned Italian painters of his time, born 
 near Verona in 1706, was a pupil of Balestra. He painted 
 almost exclusively in oil. Among his master-pieces are 
 
 a " Flight to Egypt," at Parma, and a "Transfiguration,'' 
 at Verona. He declined the invitations of several sove- 
 reigns, and passed most of his life at Verona. He com- 
 posed verses, and wrote short essays on art, which proved 
 him to be a good critic and scholar. Died in 1770. 
 
 See Bevilacqua, " Memoriedella Vitadi Cignaroli," 1771 ; Lanzi, 
 "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cigoli, da, da chee'go-lee, (Ludovico Cardi,) Cava- 
 LIERE, sometimes called Civoli, a celebrated painter, 
 born at Cigoli, in Tuscany, in 1559. He was a pupil of 
 Santo di Titi, and a successful imitator of Correggio. 
 He worked at Florence, Rome, etc., and was patronized 
 by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. As a colorist he ranks 
 with Rubens and Van Dyck. His subjects are mostly 
 scriptural. Among his most admired productions are 
 " The Lame Man healed by Saint Peter," at Rome ; an 
 " Ecce Homo," and " The Martyrdom of Stephen," both 
 at Florence. He was also an architect, and wrote a treat- 
 ise on Perspective. He has been called " the Florentine 
 Correggio." Died in 1613. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cilano, de, da se-la'no, (George Christian Mar- 
 tenus,) a physician, born at Presburg, in Hungary, in 
 1696. He published Latin treatises on natural philo- 
 sophy, Roman antiquities, etc. Died in 1773. 
 
 Cima, chee'ma, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 painter, called le Conegliano, (la ko-nal-ya'no,) was 
 born at Conegliano, in the March of Treviso, about 1460. 
 He is said to have been a pupil of Bellini, whom he re- 
 sembles in manner. Among his works are several Ma- 
 donnas and saints at Venice, Milan, etc. He was living 
 in 1517. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cimabue, che-ma-boo'a, (Giovanni,) a historical 
 painter, celebrated as the restorer of painting in modern 
 times, was born in Florence in 1240. He received his 
 first lessons in design from two Greeks who worked at 
 Florence. Having acquired reputation by his reforms, 
 which tended to a natural style, he was employed to 
 adorn the church of Saint Francis at Assisi. At Flor- 
 ence he painted a Madonna which excited general en- 
 thusiasm. He worked in fresco and distemper, and 
 excelled in design and composition, but was ignorant of 
 perspective. A few of his works are still extant. Giotto 
 was his pupil. A noble style, a severe and correct de- 
 sign, and a natural expression are thj chief merits of 
 Cimabue. Died about 1300. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters :" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy ;" Mrs. Jameson, *' Memoirs of Early Italian Painters." 
 
 Cimaline, che-ma-Iee'na, (Giovanni,) a Florentine 
 painter, who flourished about 1300. 
 
 Cimarosa, che-ma-ro'sa, (Domenico,) a celebrated 
 Italian composer, born in Naples in 1755, was a pupil of 
 Durante. Before he was twenty-five he had obtained 
 many successes on the principal theatres of Italy. His 
 comic operas are especially remarkable for verve and 
 originality. " The Secret Marriage" (" II Matrimonio 
 segreto") is still popular. He also produced admired 
 serious operas, among which are " The Horatii and 
 Curiatii," and "L'Olimpiade." He passed several years 
 at Saint Petersburg, whither he was invited by Cathe- 
 rine II. in 1787. Died at Venice in 1801. 
 
 See Fktis, " Biographie Universale des Musiciens;" Arnold, 
 "D. Cimarosa's kurze Biographic" 1809. 
 
 Cim'ber, (L. Tillius,) a Roman, who was a partisan 
 of Caesar in the civil war which began in 49 B.C. He en- 
 tered into the conspiracy against the dictator, and gave 
 the signal for his assassination by seizing Caesar's robe. 
 
 Qi'mon or Ki'mon, [Ki/uw,] an eminent Athenian 
 general and statesman, born about 500 B.C., was the son 
 of Miltiades the victor of Marathon, and Hegesipyle, a 
 Thracian princess. He paid the fine imposed on his father, 
 who died in prison about 489. He distinguished himself 
 at the battle of Salamis. Cimon and Aristides commanded 
 the forces which Athens sent to co-operate with other 
 Greeks againsUhe Persians, 476 B.C. These two Athe- 
 nians were elected to the chief command by the allies in 
 preference to Pausanias of Sparta ; and, as Aristides soon 
 returned to Athens, Cimon became sole general-in-chief. 
 He defeated the Persians on the Strymon, and in 466 
 
 € as£;cas.i;g hard; gas j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sass; ih as in this. (jrjp*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
C1M0N 
 
 608 
 
 CINQ-MJRS 
 
 B.C. gained another great victory, at the mouth of the 
 Eurymedon, in Pamphylia, where he sunk or captured 
 two hundred ships. On the same day he defeated an 
 army on land, and thus effectually humbled the power 
 of Persia. At home he made a munificent use of his 
 riches, and improved Athens by planting trees, building 
 walls from the city to the Piraeus, etc. He opposed the 
 attempts of Themistocles and Pericles to increase the 
 power of the people. In the year 461 he was exiled by 
 ostracism for ten years, but was recalled in 456, with the 
 concurrence of his rival Pericles. In 449 he obtained 
 command of a large fleet destined for Egypt ; but he first 
 besieged Citium, in Cyprus, where he died in that year. 
 According to most authors, he died a natural death. He 
 was a liberal conservative in politics, and left the reputa- 
 tion of an honest and able statesman. His life has been 
 written by Plutarch, who draws a comparison between 
 him and Lucullus. 
 
 See, also, Grote, "History of Greece:" Thirlwall, " History 
 of Greece ;" Cornelius Nepos, " Cimon ;" Diodorus Siculus, 
 books xi. and xii. ; C. T. H. Lucas, " Versuch einer Charakteristik 
 Cimon's," 1835. 
 
 Cimon [Kifiuv] of Cleonae, a celebrated Greek painter, 
 who lived about 700 B.C. Pliny attributes to him an 
 invention which he calls "catagrapha," and which he 
 explains by these words: "hoc est, obliquae imagines." 
 By this some understand foreshortening. 
 
 Cm'a-don, [Gr. Kivtukw,] the leader of a conspiracy 
 against the Spartan oligarchy, was put to death by the 
 ephori in 397 B.C. 
 
 Cinamus. See Cinnamus. 
 
 Cinchon. See Chinchon. 
 
 Cincinato. See Cincinnati. 
 
 Cincinnato, chen-chen-na'to, or Cincinato, chen- 
 che-na'to, (Romui.o or Romolo,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Florence about 1525. He was employed many years 
 by Philip II. of Spain, for whom he painted beautiful 
 frescos in the Escurial. His "Circumcision," at Cuenca, 
 is a celebrated picture. Died in Madrid about 1600. 
 
 His son, Diego Romui.o, was a successful portrait- 
 painter. Died in Rome in 1626. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cin-cin-na'tus, (Lucius Quintus,) a celebrated 
 Roman patriot, patrician, and dictator, born about 520 
 B.C. Having reduced himself to poverty by paying a 
 fine for his son, he was cultivating with his own hands a 
 small farm, when he was chosen consul in 457 B.C. He 
 was a strenuous opponent of the plebeian party. At 
 the end of his official term he returned to his former 
 employment. The Romans, having been unfortunate 
 in war with the /Equi, chose Cincinnatus dictator about 
 the year 456 B.C. He gained a decisive victory, and 
 then abdicated the dictatorship, which he had held only 
 fifteen days. About the age of eighty he again reluc- 
 tantly acted as dictator, on the occasion of the treason 
 of Spurius Melius, who was promptly defeated and slain. 
 Niebuhr is skeptical as to the cause of his poverty above 
 assigned. 
 
 See Livv, " History of Rome;" Niebuhr, "History of Rome." 
 
 Cincius Alimentus, (Lucius.) See Alimentus. 
 
 Cin'e-as, [Gr. Ktveae,] a Thessalian orator and nego- 
 tiator, studied rhetoric under Demosthenes, and was re- 
 nowned for eloquence. He visited Epirus, and became 
 a favourite minister of King Pyrrhus, with whom he 
 held a well-known conversation respecting his ambitious 
 projects. After Pyrrhus had gained a victory over the 
 Romans (280 B.C.) he sent Cineas to Rome to negotiate 
 an alliance with them ; but his art was baffled by Appius 
 Claudius. On his return he reported to Pyrrhus that 
 the senate appeared to him like an assembly of kings. 
 He was living in 278 B.C., after which he is not mentioned 
 in history. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Pyrrhus." 
 
 Cinelli Calvoli, che-nel'lee kal-vo'lee, (Giovanni,) 
 an Italian physician, born at Florence in 1625. Having 
 free access to the library of the grand duke, he made 
 researches in literary history, the results of which ap- 
 peared in his " Kiblioteca Volante," (1678-82,) which 
 consists of the titles of rare and fugitive works, with 
 notes by the editor. Died in 1706. 
 
 See Cagi.iardi, "Vita di G. Cinelli Calvoli," 1736. 
 
 Cl-ne'sl-as, [Kivrjoiac,] an Athenian dithyrambic poet, 
 lived about 400 B.C. 
 
 Cingaroli, chen-gl ro'lee, (Martino,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Verona in 1667, produced admirable 
 landscapes with figures. Died in 1729. 
 
 Ciu-get'o-rix, a chief of the Treviri, noticed in Caesar'* 
 "Commentaries," ("Bello Gallico," lib. v.) 
 
 Cini, chee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian writer 
 of dramas, poems, etc., born at Florence about 1530. 
 
 Cin'na, (C. Helvius,) a Roman poet, was a com- 
 panion and friend of Catullus, who admired his poetry. 
 He is supposed to be the China favourably mentioned 
 by Virgil in his ninth Eclogue. His chief wijrk was an 
 epic poem called " Smyrna," of which only a few lines 
 are extant. We are not informed what the subject of 
 this poem was. On the day of the funeral of Julius 
 Caesar, (44 B.C.,) China, though a friend of the dictator, 
 was killed by a Roman mob which met him in the street 
 and mistook him for L. Cornelius China, an accomplice 
 of Brutus. 
 
 See Suetonius, " De illustribus Grannnaticis ;" Appian, " B<-lhtm 
 Civile;" August Weichert, "Commentationes II. de C. H. Cinna 
 Poeta," 1822-23. 
 
 China, (Lucius Cornelius,) a Roman demagogue 
 of patrician rank, who, as the partisan of Marius, acted 
 a prominent part in the civil war between the latter 
 and Sulla. Having been elected consul (665 a.u.c.) in 
 86 or 87 B.C., he attempted to reinstate Marius, who was 
 in exile. A fight between the two parties resulted in 
 the expulsion of Cinna from the city. While Sulla was 
 absent in Asia, Cinna raised an army and besieged Rome 
 in concert with Marius, who had just returned from Africa. 
 Having become masters of the city, they massacred a 
 large number of the opposite party. Cinna was again 
 chosen consul with Marius, and was about to lead an 
 army against Sulla returning from the Mithridatic war, 
 when he was killed by his mutinous soldiers in 668 A.U.C., 
 or 84 B.C. His daughter Cornelia became the wife of 
 Julius Caesar. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome :" Plutarch, "Pompey," "Ma- 
 rius," and " Sylla." 
 
 Cinna, (L. Cornfxius,) a son of the preceding, was 
 a brother-in-law of the dictator Caesar, and a son-in-law 
 of Pompey the Great. He was chosen praetor in 44 B.C., 
 and was privy to the conspiracy against Caesar in that 
 year. His son Cn. Cornelius Cinna was a partisan of 
 Antony in his contest with Octavius, but was pardoned 
 by the latter, and was chosen consul in 5 B.C. 
 
 Cin'na-mus, written also Cinamus or Sinnamus, 
 (Joannes,) [Gr. 'luuvvtn Kivvafios or 2ivva/io(; Fr. Cin- 
 N -a me, se'nim',] an able Byzantine historian and states- 
 man, who flourished between 1140 and 1180. He was 
 an imperial notary of Manuel Comnenus, whom he ac- 
 companied in his military expeditions. As a historian 
 he is considered to have surpassed all his contemporaries. 
 His History (in Greek) comprises the reigns of Calo- 
 Joannes and his successor, Manuel Comnenus and the 
 period from 11 18 to 1 176. It displays great political 
 knowledge and considerable critical ability. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grseca." 
 
 Cino da Pistoia, chee'no da pes-to'ya, a noted Ital- 
 ian jurist and poet, whose family name was Sinihaldi, 
 was born at Pistoia in 1270. He published in 1314 a com- 
 mentary on the Code, which had a great reputation, and 
 afterwards professed civil law at Perugia and Florence. 
 He wrote verses in praise of a lady named Selviggia, 
 and was reputed one of the best poets of his time. He 
 was a friend of Dante. Died about 1326. 
 
 See Ginguknh, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" S. Ciampi, " Me- 
 moria della Vita di Cino da Pistoja," 180S. 
 
 Cinq-Arbrea or Cinquarbres, saNk'SubR', (Jkan,) 
 a French Orientalist, born at Aurillac. He translated 
 some works of Avicenna into Latin, (2 vols., 1572,) and 
 taught Hebrew in Paris. Died in 1587. 
 
 Cinq-Mars, de, deh saNk'miRss',(HENRY Coiffier de 
 Ruze' — kwa'fe-a' deii rii'za',) Marquis, a French cour- 
 tier, a son of Antoine, Marquis d'Effiat, (dj'fe'f,) born 
 in 1620. He became a favourite of Louis XIII., and was 
 made grand equerry of France at the age of nineteen. 
 Richelieu, hoping to find in him a compliant instrument, 
 favoured his promotion at first ; but they soon became 
 
 i, e, T, o, 0, y, long-; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; nftt; good; mrJ&nj 
 
CINQUJRBRES 
 
 609 
 
 CIVITALI 
 
 rivals and enemies. On a charge of complicity in the 
 treasonable designs of Gaston, the king's brother, Cinq- 
 Mars was executed in 1642. 
 
 See Alfred be Vigsv " Cinq-Mars, ou une Conjuration," 1826; 
 Cai'Kfiuuh, "Richelieu, Mazarin, la Fronde," etc., 8 vols., 1836; 
 .Mini's .Magazine" for February, 1820. 
 
 Cinquarbres. See Cinq-Arbres. 
 
 Cintra, de, da sen'tRa, (Goncalo,) a Portuguese 
 navigator, discovered the Bay of Cintra, on the coast of 
 Africa. Died in 1445. 
 
 Ciofano, cho-fa'no, (Ercolf.,) an Italian poet and 
 Critic, born at Sulmona, wrote admired "Commentaries 
 on the Works of Ovid," (1575,) and other short works. 
 
 Cionacci, cho-nat'ehee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Florence in 1633; died in 1714. 
 
 Cione, (Andrea,) See Orcagna. 
 
 Cipelli. See Egnazio. 
 
 Cipierre, de, deh se'pe^aiR', (Philibf.rt de Mar- 
 silly — deh mJR'se'ye',) Seigneur, a French general 
 wiiu served in the Catholic army in the civil war, (1562.) 
 He was governor of the king's son, who became Charles 
 IX. De Thou represents him as an able general and a 
 good man. Died in 1566. 
 
 See De Thou, "Histoire Universelle." 
 
 Cipriani, che-pRe-a'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) a 
 skilful Italian artist, born at Florence about 1730. He 
 removed to London about 1755, after which he devoted 
 himself principally to engraving. He was one of the 
 first members of the Royal Academy of London. His 
 paintings are not numerous. His designs, engraved 
 partly by himself and partly by Bartolozzi, are admired 
 for correctness and grace. Among his engravings are 
 "The Death of Cleopatra," after Cellini, and a "De- 
 scent from the Cross," after Van Dyck. Died in 1785. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cir'fe, [KipKri,] a sorceress of the Greek mythology, 
 celebrated for her skill in magic arts, was said to be a 
 daughter of the Sun. She lived on the island /Eaea, and 
 tempted voyagers with a beverage which transformed 
 those who drank it into swine. (See the " Odyssey," 
 book x.) 
 
 Circignano, cheR-chen-ya'no, or Circignani, cheR- 
 chen -ya'nee, (Niccoi.6,) a painter, born at Pomerance, 
 in Tuscany, in 1 5 16, was called IL PoMERANCIO. He 
 painted some halls of the Vatican. His manner was 
 grand, his design pure and correct. Died about 1590. 
 
 His son, Anionic, was an able painter. He worked 
 at Rome with his father. Died about 1620. 
 
 Cirillo, che-rel'lo, (Domf.nico,) an Italian physician 
 and savant of great merit, born at Grugno in 1 734. In 
 his youth he accompanied Lady Walpole to England, 
 and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don. On his return to Italy he became professor of 
 medicine and an eminent practitioner in Naples. He 
 published an excellent work on botanical philosophy, 
 "Fundamenta Botanica," (1771,) which displays great 
 knowledge of physiology ; a Flora of the Kingdom 
 of Naples, (" Plantarum rariorum Regni Neapolitani," 
 1788-93,) and several other scientific and medical treat- 
 ises. In 1799 he was chosen a legislator in the new 
 Parthenopean republic; but the royalists recovered 
 power, and he was put to death in the same year. The 
 king offered him his life if he would beg for pardon ; but 
 this lie refused, saying that he did not fear death. 
 
 See "NpuveUe Blographie Generale." 
 
 Cirillo, (Niccoi.6,) born in Naples in 167 1, became 
 professor of medicine in that city in 1706. He wrote a 
 "Memoir on Earthquakes," published in the Loudon 
 "Philosophical Transactions." Died in 1734. 
 
 Ciro, the Italian of Cvkus, which see. 
 
 Ciro Ferri. See Ferri, (Ciro.) 
 
 Ciruelo, the-roo-a'lo, (Pedro,) a Spanish mathema- 
 tician and writer, born in Aragon, was one of the pre- 
 ceptOTS of Philip II. Died about 1550. 
 
 Cisinge, de, deh se'zi.Nzh', (Jean,) commonly called, 
 in Latin, Ia'hUS Panno'nius, a Latin poet, born in 
 Hungary in 1434. At the nge of twenty-six he was 
 chosen Bishop of Fiinfkirchen. His poems have passed 
 through many editions. Died in 1472. 
 
 Cisner, tsis'ner, (Nicholas,) a German historian, born 
 at Morbach in 1529. He became professor of law at 
 
 Heidelberg, and was afterwards councillor of the im- 
 perial court at Spire for fourteen years. He wt jte good 
 Latin verses, and published historical works, among 
 which is an edition of Krantz's " History of Saxony." 
 Died in 1583. 
 
 See Nickron, "Me'moires." 
 
 Cisneros. Sec Ximenes, Cardinal. 
 
 Citois, se'twa', [Lat. Cito'sius,](Francois,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Poitiers in 1572; (lied in 1652. 
 
 Citolini, che-to-lee'nee, (Alessandro,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Seravalla about 1520. 
 
 Citri de la Guette, se'tue' deh IS ge>, an author 
 whose nationality is unknown, lived about 1680-1700. 
 He published in Paris several esteemed works, viz., 
 "History of the Conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin," 
 (1679,) "History of the Two Triumvirates," (1681,) and 
 "History of the Conquest of Mexico," translated from 
 the Spanish, (1691.) 
 
 Cittadella. . See Lombardi, (Alfonso.) 
 
 Cittadella, chet-ta-del'lS, (Giovanni,) Count, an 
 Italian historian, born at Padua in 1806. His principal 
 work is a " History of the Domination [of the family] of 
 Carrara," ("Storiadella Dominazione Carrarese," 1842.) 
 
 Cittadini, chet-ta-dee'nee, (Celso,) one of the most 
 learned Italian writers of his time, born in Rome in 1553, 
 published a "Treatise on the Origin and Progress of 
 our Language," "Rime Platoniche del Celso Cittadini," 
 (" Platonic Rhymes," etc.,) and other works. Died in 1627. 
 
 See "Vita di C. Cittadini," prefixed to his works by G. Gicli, 
 Rome, 1721. 
 
 Cittadini, (Pif.tro Francesco,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Milan about 1615, and surnamed 11. Milanese, 
 was a pupil of Guido. After painting a few historical 
 pieces, which gave promise of high excellence, he re- 
 nounced that branch of art, and confined himself to easel- 
 pictures of animals, flowers, fruit, etc. Died in 1681. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 8iva. See Siva. 
 iverchio, che-veVke-o, (Vincenzo,) an Italian 
 painter and engraver, called IL Vecchio di Crema, (el 
 vek'ke-o dee kRa'ma,) was born at Crema, and flourished 
 about 1500-30. He worked mostly at Milan. 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Civiale, se've'il', (Jean,) a French physician, born 
 at Thiezac (Cantal) in 1792. He distinguished himself 
 by discoveries or improvements in the operation of li- 
 thotrity, and published several works on that specialty, 
 among which is a "Treatise on the Calculous Disease," 
 ("Traite de 1'Affection calculeuse," 1838.) He was 
 elected to the Institute in 1847. Died in June, 1867. 
 
 CI-vi'lis, (Claudius,) a chief of the Batavi, who served 
 twenty-five years in the Roman army, and was converted 
 into an enemy of Rome by the unjust execution of his 
 brother, Julius Paulus, ana the ill treatment of himself. 
 His remarkable heroism and exploits are elaborately 
 described by Tacitus, who devotes to the subject a large 
 part of the last two books of his history. While Vifel- 
 lius and Vespasian contended for the empire of Rome, 
 some partisans of the latter persuaded Civilis to make a 
 show of insurrection, in order to detain in Gaul the 
 Roman army, which was mostly favourable to Vitellius. 
 Having raised a large force, 69 A.D., he rebelled in 
 earnest, was joined by many Germans and Gauls, gained 
 several victories, anci was nailed as the liberator of his 
 country. Vespasian sent another army, under Cerealis, 
 who, after defeating Civilis in battle, induced him, by a 
 promised amnesty, to desist from hostilities, in 70 a.d. 
 The history of Tacitus ends abruptly in the midst of a 
 speech of Civilis, in his interview with Cerealis, on a 
 bridge across the Vahalis or Nabalia. " There is," says 
 Motley, "more than a fanciful resemblance between 
 Civilis and William the Silent, — two heroes of ancient 
 German stock." ("Rise of the Dutch Republic," vol. i.) 
 
 See, also, " Levensgeschiedenis van C. Civilis," ihc Hague, 1841: 
 J. Marchal, " Notice sur rlnsurrection de Civilis," 1846. 
 
 Civitali, che-ve-ta'lee, (Mattf.o,) an eminent Italian 
 sculptor, born at Lucca about 1435. He was a barber 
 until he had attained the age of thirty, after which he 
 became so skilful in art that his works were compared 
 to those of Michael Angelo. He worked in Lucca and 
 
 e as k: c as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilU-d; s as 5; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 39 
 
CIVOLI 
 
 610 
 
 CLAPPERTON 
 
 Genoa, the cathedral of which contains several statues 
 by him. Died about 1500. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." 
 
 Civoli. See Cigoli. 
 
 Claesson, klis'son, (Arnold,) a Dutch painter, born 
 at Leyden in 1498; died in 1564. 
 
 Clag'ett, (Nicholas,) D.D., an English divine, born 
 in 1654, became Archdeacon of Sudbury in 1693. He 
 published "Truth Defended," in answer to Whiston, 
 and other works. Died in 1726. 
 
 Clagett, (William,) D.D., born in 1646, wrote many 
 theological works, chiefly controversial. Died in 1688. 
 
 Clag'gett, (John Thomas,) born in Prince George 
 county, Maryland, in 1742, became in 1792 the first 
 Episcopalian bishop in that State. Died in 1818. 
 
 Clai or Clay, klT, [Lat. Cla'jus,] (Johann,) a Ger- 
 man poet and philologist, born at Herzberg, Saxony, 
 about 1533. He was professor of Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew in several colleges in Saxony and Silesia. 
 Among his chief works are a "Grammar of the German 
 Language," the best that had then appeared, and "Al- 
 kumistica," (1586,) a poem against the alchemists, prized 
 as a monument of early German poetry. Died in 1592. 
 
 See Gottsched, "Kritische Beitrage. " 
 
 Claiborne, kla'burn, (William C. C.,) an American 
 statesman, born in Virginia, became Governor of Mis- 
 sissippi Territory in 1801, and In 1803 Governor-General 
 and Intendant of Louisiana. Diedin 181 7, aged forty-two. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Clairac, de, deh kli'raV, (Louis Andre de la Ma- 
 mil,) a French writer and engineer, born about 1690. 
 He wrote a " History of the Revolutions of Persia," and 
 a "Treatise on Fortification." Died in 1750. 
 
 Clair ault. See Clairaut. 
 
 Clairaut or Clairault, kl&'ro', (Alexis Claude,) an 
 eminent French geometer, born in Paris in 1713. About 
 the age of ten he mastered L'HopitaPs analysis of " In- 
 finitesimals," (" Infiniment Petits,") and in his thirteenth 
 year presented to the Academy of Sciences a Memoir 
 on Four Remarkable Curves. In 1731 he produced his 
 "Researches on Curves of Double Curvature." Though 
 under the regular age, he was admitted into the Academy 
 of Sciences in the same year. He assisted Maupertuis 
 in measuring a degree of the meridian in Lapland in 
 1735, and published in 1743 his "Theory of the Figure 
 of the Earth." His " Theory of the Moon derived from 
 the Simple Principle of Attraction" (1750) is another of 
 his titles to celebrity as the successor of Newton. He 
 was the first who applied the theory of Newton to esti- 
 mate the perturbing influence of planets on the motions 
 of comets. Aided by Lalande and others in his immense 
 calculations of the action of Jupiter and Saturn, he pre- 
 dicted the return of Halley's comet in 1759, and missed 
 the exact time by about twenty-two days, — part of this 
 error being caused by the action of Uranus, then un- 
 known. For this grand demonstration he had prepared 
 the formulas with the simplicity and clearness which 
 characterize all his works. He published in 1760 a 
 "Theory of the Motion of Comets." In addition to the 
 books which we have named, he published two admirable 
 works, entitled " Elements of Geometry" and " Elements 
 of Algebra." Died in 1765. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Littdraire;" "Biographie Univer- 
 selle ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^ne>a.e." 
 
 Claire, klVri', (Martin,) a French poet, born in 
 1612, wrote elegant Latin hymns. Died in 1690. 
 
 Clairfait. See Clkrfayt. 
 
 Clairfontaine, de, deh kliR'foN'tin', (Pierre Andre 
 Peloux — peh-loo',) a French dramatist, born in Paris 
 in 1727. He composed about 1750 the tragedy of " Hec- 
 tor," the style of which is admired. Died in 1788. 
 
 Clairou, kli'reW, (Mademoiselle Claire Josephe 
 Leyris de la Tude, l.Vre' deh It tiid,) a famous French 
 actress, born near Concle (Flanders) in 1723. She made 
 her debut at the Opera of Paris in 1 743, and before the end 
 of that year at the Comedie Francaise, where her success 
 was complete. She retired from the stage in 1765, and 
 died in 1803, leaving a volume of "Memoirs," (1799.) 
 
 See Lemontky, "Notice sur Mile. Clairon," 1823; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gene>a!e ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1853. 
 
 Clairval, kl&R'vil', the assumed name of Jean Bap- 
 tiste Guignard, (zIion bip'test' gen'yaV,) a popular 
 French actor, born at Etampes in 1735. He performed 
 in Paris from 1758 to 1792. Died in 1795. 
 
 Clairville, klftR'vel', (Louis Francois Nicolaie,) a 
 French dramatist, born at Lyons in 181 1. He has pro- 
 duced a great number of successful farces, vaudevilles, 
 etc., among which are "Clarissa Harlowe," (1846,) "The 
 Bourgeois of Paris," (1850,) and "The Side-Scenes (Cou- 
 lisses) of Life," (1852.) 
 
 Claissens, klA/soN', (Antoine,) a Flemish painter 
 who lived about 1490, was a pupil of Quentin Matsys of 
 Antwerp. He painted two pictures of the " Judgment o." 
 Cambyses." They were taken to the Museum of Paris 
 in the reign of Napoleon I. 
 
 Clajus, the Latin of Clai, which see. 
 
 Clamenges, de, deh klS'm&Nzh', or Clemangis, kla'- 
 moN'zhess', (Mathieu Nicolas,) a French theologian, 
 was born at Clamenges, near Chalons, about 1360. He 
 was chosen rector of the University of Paris in 1393. 
 Among his works (in Latin) is one "On the Corrupt 
 State of the Church." He wrote an elegant style, and 
 had as high a reputation as any writer of that age. 
 Died about 1440. 
 
 See Adoi.phe Muntz, " N. de Clemangis ; sa Vie et ses ficrits," 
 1846; Cave, "Scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Literaria Historia. " 
 
 Clam-Martinitz or Clam-Martinicz, klam-maK- 
 tee'nitz, (Karl Joseph,) Count, an Austrian general, 
 born at Prague in 1792. He accompanied Napoleon 
 to Elba in 1814, and was called to take part in the Con- 
 gress of Vienna, (1815.) About 1824 he was sent on a 
 diplomatic mission to St. Petersburg. He became first 
 aide-de-camp to the Austrian emperor in 1835, and 
 field-marshal-lieutenant in 1837. Died in 1840. 
 
 Clan'cy, (Michael,) M.D., an Irish dramatist, wrote 
 "The Sharpers,"(i737,)andotherplays. Died about 1760. 
 
 Clanricarde, klan're-kard, (Ulick,) Marquis op, 
 and Earl of Saint Alban's, born in London in 1604, 
 was the chief of the noble family of Burgho or De Burgh. 
 He was appointed governor of Galway in 1641. In the 
 civil war he supported Charles I. and held a high com- 
 mand in Ireland. He died about 1658, leaving "Memoirs 
 respecting the Rebellion in Ireland," (1737.) 
 
 Clap, (Thomas,) a clergyman, born in Scituate, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1703. In 1739 he was elected president 
 of Yale College, to which he rendered important ser- 
 vices. Died in 1767. 
 
 Claparede, kli'pt'rAd', Count, a French general, 
 born at Gignac (Herault) in 1774. He commanded a 
 brigade at Austerlitz, (1805,) and at Jena, (1806.) About 
 1808 he was made a general of division. He distinguished 
 himself at Ebersberg, Essling, and Wagram, in 1809, and 
 was wounded at the passage of the Berezina in 1812. 
 He became inspector-general of infantry about 1816, and 
 was raised to the peerage by Louis XVIII. Died in 1841 
 or 1842. 
 
 See De Courceli.es, "Dictionnaire des Ge'neraux Francais;" 
 "Notice sur le Ge^ieVal Claparede," 1843. 
 
 Clapisson, klt'pe's6N', (Louis,) a French composer 
 of successful operas, was born at Naples in 1809. 
 
 Clapp, (Theodore,) an eloquent Unitarian minister, 
 born in Easthampton, Massachusetts, in 1792, graduated 
 at Yale College in 1814. In 1822 he became pastor of 
 a church in New Orleans, where he preached about 
 thirty-five years, during the prevalence of many fatal 
 epidemics. He published, in 1858, "Autobiographical 
 Sketches." Died in 1866. 
 
 Clapp, (William W.,) Jr., an American journalist, 
 born in Boston in 1826, succeeded his father in 1847 as 
 editor of the Boston "Saturday Evening Gazette." 
 
 Clap'per-ton, (Hugh,) Captain, a Scottish traveller 
 and explorer of Africa, was born at Annan, Dumfries- 
 shire, in 1788. He served some years in the British navy. 
 In 1822, under the auspices of Lord Bathurst, he was 
 associated with Dr. Oudney and Dixon Denham in an 
 expedition to Timbuctoo. They arrived in February, 
 1823, at Lake Tchad, where Clapperton parted from 
 Denham and pursued his journey until he reached Sac- 
 catoo. From that point he returned homeward by the 
 same route, and arrived in England in 1825. (See Den- 
 ham, Dixon.) In the same year he was raised to the 
 
 a. e, T. n, u. v, Ion?: A, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; 3. e, T, 6, ti, X; , short: a. e, i, o. obsrtire: fir. fall, fat: m£t: nflt: good: nioTin; 
 
CLARAC 
 
 6n 
 
 CLARENDON 
 
 rank of captain, and renewed the perilous enterprise 
 with a more numerous party, among whom was his 
 faithful servant. Richard Lander. Approaching this time 
 from the west, he penetrated the Bight of Benin to Sac- 
 catoo in the spring of 1826. There he was detained 
 about 1 year by the native prince ; and he died of dys- 
 entery near that town in April, 1827. An interesting 
 journal of his second expedition was published in 1829. 
 Dcnham and Clapperton made important contributions 
 to the geography of Africa, though they failed in the 
 chief object of their expedition, — to discover the course 
 and termination of the Niger. 
 
 See Lander," Records of Captain Clapperton," 1830; Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary or" Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Clarac, de, deh kli'rik', (Charles Othon Frederic 
 Jean H.U'TisiK,) Count, a French antiquary and artist, 
 born in Paris in 1777. After a visit to South America, 
 from which he brought many designs, he was appointed 
 keeper of the Museum of Antiques in the Louvre about 
 i.SKx His must important work is called "Museede 
 Sculpture," (1826-52,) in which avast number of antique 
 statues, etc. are reproduced by engravings. Died in 1S47. 
 
 See Hsricart de Thury, " Notice sur le Comte de Clarac," 1848. 
 
 Claramoute, de, di k la-ra- mon'ta, ( A N dres,) a Span- 
 ish dramatist, whose reputation was founded chiefly on 
 a comedy called " The Brave Negro in Flanders," (" El 
 Negro valiente en Flandes.") Died at Murcia in 1610. 
 
 Clare, (John,) an English peasant and poet, born in 
 Northamptonshire in 1793, was a son of a poor labourer. 
 A " Sonnet to the Setting Sun" (1818) was the first of 
 his works that attracted public attention. He published 
 in 1S20 " Poems descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery," 
 which have considerable merit. A small annuity was 
 settled on him by subscription ; but he failed to support 
 his increasing family, and fell into a state of despondency, 
 followed by mental derangement. Died in 1864. 
 
 See Samuel Smii.es, "Brief Biographies;" "London Quarterly 
 Review" for May, 1820. 
 
 Clare, (John Hollis,) Earl of, a learned nobleman 
 of the seventeenth century, was father-in-law of the 
 famous Earl of Strafford. He wrote comments on 
 Bacon's "Essay on Empire," and other works. 
 
 Clarence, Duke ok. See \V 1 i.liam IV. of England. 
 
 Clar'en-don, (Edward Hyde,) first Earl of, an 
 eminent English historian and statesman, born at Dintcn, 
 Wiltshire, in 1608, was the third son of Henry Hyde, of 
 that place. After leaving Oxford University he studied 
 law. under the direction of his uncle, Nicholas Hyde, 
 who was afterwards chief justice. In 1632 he married 
 Frances Aylesbury, by whom he had several children. 
 In his youth he made it a rule to associate only with 
 persons eminent for rank, fortune, or other advantages. 
 He was elected to Parliament in the spring of 1640, 
 and again to the Long Parliament, which met near the 
 end of that year. During the first year of his political 
 course he acted with the popular party in their efforts 
 for reform, and in the impeachment of Strafford ; but in 
 the great crisis of 1642 he espoused with zeal the royalist 
 cause. He soon became one of the confidential advisers 
 of the king, who requested him, with two others, to con- 
 duct his affairs in the House of Commons. He was the 
 author of the able state papers issued by the king about 
 the beginning of the civil war, (1642.) In 1643 he was 
 appointed chancellor of the exchequer, and privy coun- 
 cillor. He was selected in 1645 as a counsellor to the 
 Prince of Wales, whom he followed in his flight to Jersey 
 in 1646. Remaining there when Prince Charles went 
 to France, Hyde began his great work, the " History of 
 the Rebellion and Civil Wars." After the execution of 
 the king he received the title of lord chancellor, and was 
 employed in the service of Charles II., and became his 
 chief adviser while he was an exile in France, Holland, etc. 
 
 At the restoration of 1660 Hyde became prime minis- 
 ter of Charles II., lord chancellor of England, and in 
 1661 Earl of Clarendon. Soon after his promotion it 
 was announced that his daughter, Anne Hyde, was rec- 
 ognized as the wife of the king's brother, the Duke of 
 York. " For some time," says Hume, " no minister was 
 ever possessed of more absolute authority, and all the 
 counsels which he gave the king tended equally to pro- 
 mote the interest of prince and people." In the opinion 
 
 of Macaulay, " the circumstance that he had long been 
 an exile completely disqualified him for the supreme 
 direction of affairs. . . . His virtues and vices alike con- 
 tributed to his ruin." By opposing popery he lost the 
 favour of Charles, and by various measures he ruined 
 his popularity with the nation. He was deprived of the 
 great seal in August, 1667, and was impeached by the 
 Commons; but before the case was decided he retired 
 to France, and was doomed by act of Parliament, De- 
 cember, 1767, to perpetual exile. After passing four 
 years at Montpellier, he died at Rouen in December, 
 1674, leaving his title to his son Henry, noticed below. 
 Two of his granddaughters, Mary and Anne Stuart, be- 
 came queens of England. His celebrated History was 
 published in 1702. "His majesty and eloquence," says 
 Horace Walpole, " his power of painting characters, his 
 knowledge of the subject, rank him in the first class of 
 writers : yet he has both great and little faults." " His 
 style is prolix and redundant," says Hume, "but it dis- 
 covers imagination and sentiment, and it pleases us at 
 the same time that we disapprove of it." "He was 
 wise," says the " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1839, 
 "neither for himself nor for his country. Belonging 
 to the past rather than the future, he associated himself 
 with causes which must fail and with parties whom he 
 despised." 
 
 See " Life of Edward, Earl of Clarendon," by himself. 1759 ; T. 
 H. Lister, " Liie of Lord Clarendon," 3 vols., 183S ; Macaulay, 
 " History of England ;" Hume, " History of England ;" George A. 
 Ellis, " Historical Inquiries respecting the Character of Edward 
 Hyde," etc. ; Campbell, " Lives of the Chancellors ;" Foss, "The 
 Judges of England;" "Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot. 
 
 Clarendon, (George William Frederick Vil- 
 i.if.ks,) fourth Earl OF, an eminent English statesman, 
 the eldest son of the Hon. George Villiers, who was 
 a younger son of the Earl of Clarendon, was born in 
 January, 1800. He was minister plenipotentiary at the 
 court of Madrid about five years, (1833-38.) In 1838 
 he succeeded, by the death of his uncle, to the title of 
 Earl, and in 1840 was appointed lord privy seal in the 
 Whig ministry. He married in 1839 a sister of the Earl 
 of Verulam. He retired from office on the formation of 
 a new ministry by Sir Robert Peel in 1841, and became 
 president of the Board of Trade on the return of the 
 Whigs to power in 1846. He was lord lieutenant of 
 Ireland from May, 1847, until February, 1852. His 
 administration of that country, then greatly agitated 
 displayed a union of moderation, energy, and prudence. 
 In January, 1853, he accepted the office of secretary 
 of foreign affairs in the ministry of Lord Aberdeen. He 
 maintained his high reputation as a diplomatist in the 
 negotiations which resulted in a coalition against Russia, 
 and was retained in the foreign department when a new 
 ministry was formed by Lord Palmerston in February, 
 1855. He was the principal negotiator on the part of 
 Great Britain at the Congress of Paris by which peace 
 was concluded between the allies and Russia in 1856. 
 Lord Clarendon resigned office with Palmerston on the 
 defeat of the latter in 1858. He succeeded Earl Russell as 
 secretary of foreign affairs, November 3, 1865. In conse- 
 quence of the defeat of the Reform Bill, he resigned, with 
 his colleagues, in June, 1866, and refused to take office 
 in the coalition ministry which Lord Derby attempted 
 to form. He was appointed secretary of foreign affairs by 
 Mr. Gladstone in December, 1868. Died in 1870. 
 
 Clarendon, (Henry Hyde,) second Earl of, the 
 eldest son of the historian, was born in 1638. After the 
 banishment of his father, he opposed the court party. 
 In 1685 his brother-in-law, James II., appointed him 
 lord privy seal, and, a few months later, lord lieutenant 
 of Ireland. His brother, the Earl of Rochester, ra 
 then prime minister ; but because he refused to nmounce 
 his religion he was dismissed in 1687, and Clarendon, 
 though a very obsequious courtier, was involved in his 
 fall. "The dismission of the two brothers," savs Mac- 
 aulay, "is a great epoch in the reign of lame*." In 
 December, 1688, he deserted James, and joined the 
 party of the Prince of Orange. The next year he re- 
 fused to take the oath to William III., and in 1690, for 
 complicity in a Jacobite plot, was confined in the Tower 
 about six months. He died in 1709, leaving a son I lenry, 
 who was Lord Cornbury. In 1828 was published "The 
 
 € as k: c as s: g hard; g as/; o. h. K, guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z: th as in this, (jJjy"See Explanations, p. 23 
 
CLARET 
 
 61: 
 
 CLARKE 
 
 Clarendon Papers," a work of great historical value, 
 consisting of the correspondence of Henry Hyde with 
 his brother, the Earl of Rochester. 
 
 See Macaulay, "History of England," especially vols. ii. and 
 iii. ; and "Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot. 
 
 Claret de Fleurieu. See Fleurieu. 
 
 Clari, kla'ree, (Gian Carlo Maria,) an Italian mu- 
 sician and composer, born at Pisa in 1669. He com- 
 posed vocal duets and trios, published in 1720. 
 
 Clarici, kla're-chee, (Paolo Bartolommeo, ) an 
 Italian botanist and priest, born at Ancona in 1664. He 
 died at Padua in 1724, leaving unfinished works on his- 
 tory and geography, and a valuable treatise on botany, 
 entitled " History and Culture of Plants which are most 
 desirable for the Flowers," etc., (1726.) 
 
 Clar'idge, (Richard,) an eminent writer and minister 
 1.1 the Society of Friends, born at Farmborough, Eng- 
 land, in 1649. Having graduated at Oxford, he took 
 orders, and became rector of Peopleton in 1673. In 
 1697 he joined the Society of Friends, among whom he 
 became an esteemed minister. He published several 
 religious works, one of which was entitled "Gospel 
 Light," ("Lux Evangelica.") Died in 1723. 
 
 See Joseph Besse, " Life of R. Claridge," 1726. 
 
 Clarisse, kla-ris'seh, (Jan,) a Dutch theologian, born 
 in 1770 ; died in 1846. 
 
 Cla'ri-us or Clario, kla're-o, (Isidore,) a learned 
 Italian, born near Brescia in 1495, was Bishop of Foligno. 
 He distinguished himself by his talents and eloquence at 
 the Council of Trent, (1546,) which followed his advice 
 in recognizing the Vulgate version of Scripture as the 
 most authentic. He published a revised edition of the 
 Vulgate. Died in 1555. 
 
 See Niceron, "Mdmoires;" De Thou, "Etoges." 
 
 Clark, (Ahraham,) an American patriot, born at 
 Elizabethtown, New Jersey, in 1726. He was elected 
 in 1776 a delegate to the Continental Congress, in 
 which he signed the Declaration of Independence. He 
 was re-elected to Congress several times. Died in 1794. 
 
 Clark, (Alvan,) an American portrait-painter and 
 mechanician, born in Ashfield, Massachusetts, in 1804. 
 He distinguished himself as a fabricator of telescopes 
 and achromatic object-glasses. 
 
 Clark, (Davis W.,) a Methodist minister, born on the 
 island of Mount Desert, Maine, in 1812. He was elected 
 editor of books at the " Methodist Book Concern" in Cin- 
 cinnati in 1852. He wrote several works on theology, etc. 
 
 Clark or Clarke, (George Rogers,) an American 
 general, born probably in Virginia about 1752. He took 
 a British fort and garrison at Vincennes in 1779, and 
 built Fort Jefferson, on the Mississippi River. In 1780 
 he fought against Benedict Arnold in Virginia. He was 
 raised to the rank of brigadier-general in 1781, and, after 
 the end of the war, settled in Kentucky. He died in 
 1808, or, as some say, 181 7. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Clark, (Sir. James,) a distinguished British physician, 
 born at Cullen, Banffshire, in 1788. He was educated 
 at Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and London, practised eight 
 years in Rome, between 1818 and 1826, and settled in 
 London about 1828. In 1829 he published his valuable 
 work "On the Sanative Influence of Climate," which is 
 perhaps the most philosophical treatise on that subject. 
 He was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1832, 
 and became physician to the Duchess of Kent and the 
 Princess Victoria in 1835. His "Treatise on Pulmonary 
 Consumption and Scrofulous Diseases" (1835) is highly 
 commended. On the accession of Victoria, in 1837, he 
 was appointed her physician-in-ordinary. He was made 
 a baronet in 1838. Died in 1870. 
 
 Clark, (John.) See Clarke. 
 
 Clark, (John,) a Scottish physician, born at Roxburgh 
 in 1744. He was for some years surgeon in the service 
 of the East India Company, and also practised at New- 
 castle. He published a " Treatise on Fevers," and other 
 professional works. Died in 1805. 
 
 Clark, (John,) an English critic and scholar, was 
 master of a grammar-school at Hull. He published an 
 "Essay on Study," and edited several Latin authors. 
 Died in 1734. 
 
 Clark, (Jonas,) a patriotic clergyman, born at New- 
 ton, Massachusetts, in 1730. He preached for many 
 years at Lexington, in that State. Died in 1805. 
 
 Clark, (Lewis Gaylord,) an American writer, born 
 at Otisco, New York, in 1810. He became in 1834 
 editor of the " Knickerbocker Magazine," which he con- 
 ducted many years with ability and success. He pub- 
 lished, in 1852, " Knick-Knacks from an Editor's Table." 
 
 Clark, (Sheldon,) born at Oxford, Connecticut, in 
 1785. He gave to Yale College a large sum of money, 
 with directions that twenty thousand dollars should be 
 applied to found a professorship of moral philosophy. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Clark, (William,) an American general and explorer, 
 born in Virginia in 1770, was a brother of George Rogers 
 Clark. Captain M. Lewis and he were the leaders of an 
 exploring expedition which by order of the government 
 crossed the continent from Saint Louis to the mouth of 
 the Columbia River in 1804. He was afterwards ap- 
 pointed a brigadier-general, and was Governor of Mis- 
 souri Territory from 1813 to 1820. Died at Saint Louis 
 in 1838. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1815. 
 
 Clark, (William Tiernky,) F.R.S., an English civil 
 engineer, born at Sion House, Somerset, in 1783. In 
 181 1 he became engineer of West Middlesex Water- 
 works. He built a suspension bridge over the Thames 
 at Hammersmith, finished about 1827. The principal 
 monument of his skill is the suspension bridge across 
 the Danube between Buda and Pesth, finished about 
 1850. Died in 1852. 
 
 Clark, (Willis Gaylord,) an American poet, born 
 at Otisco, New York, in 1810, was a twin-brother of 
 Lewis Gaylord, noticed above. He produced in 1833 
 "The Spirit of Life," his longest poem, and about that 
 time became associate editor of the " Columbian Star." 
 He contributed to the "Knickerbocker Magazine" a 
 series of amusing papers called " Ollapodiana." During 
 the last years of his life he was editor and owner of the 
 " Philadelphia Gazette." Died in 184.1. 
 
 See Griswold's "Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Clarke, (Adam,) LL.D., an eminent Methodist min- 
 ister, particularly distinguished as a biblical commen- 
 tator, was born near Londonderry, Ireland, in 1762. He 
 was educated in the principles of the Methodists, and, by 
 the favour of John Wesley, was admitted into a school at 
 Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he became an itinerant 
 preacher, and for more than twenty years he continued 
 to preach with acceptance in various parts of England. 
 About 1805 he settled in London, and began his princi- 
 pal work, a "Commentary on the Holy Bible," which was 
 published between 1810 and 1826, and is a wonderful 
 monument of his learning and industry. Some persons, 
 however, think that he is too fond of innovations, and 
 that many of his comments are exceptionable. He was 
 the author of other esteemed works, among which are a 
 "Bibliographical Dictionary," (1802,) "The Succession 
 of Sacred Literature," (1807,) "Memoirs of the Wesley 
 Family," and " The Eucharist." He had been from child- 
 hood eager in the pursuit of knowledge, and had acquired 
 extensive Oriental learning, although he never had the 
 advantage of a systematic or collegiate education. Died 
 of cholera in London in 1832. 
 
 See J. B. Clarke, " Religious and Literary Life of Adam Clarke,' 
 1833; James Everett, "Adam Clarke Portrayed," 3 vols., 1S50. 
 
 Clarke, (Ai.ured,) an English clergyman, born in 
 1696, was Dean of Exeter. Died about 1740: 
 
 Clarke, (Sir Arthur,) an English or Irish medical 
 writer and philanthropist, born in 1773. He wrote an 
 "Essay on Bathing," "Diseases of the Skin," and other 
 works. He founded a hospital in Dublin. Died in 1857. 
 
 Clarke, (Edward,) an English clergyman, born in 
 1730, became rector of Pepperharrow in 1758. Having 
 visited Spain as chaplain to an embassy, he published 
 "Letters concerning the Spanish Nation," (1765,) which 
 treat of antiquities and literature. Died in 1786. 
 
 Clarke, (Edward Daniel,) LL.D., a distinguished 
 English traveller, son of the preceding, was born at Wil- 
 lingdon, in Sussex, in 1769. In 1790 he became tutor to 
 a nephew of the Duke of Dorset, with whom he made 
 the tour of Great Britain. As companion to Lord Ber- 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
CLARKE 
 
 613 
 
 CLARKE 
 
 wick, he visited France, Switzerland, and Italy in 1792. 
 About 179S he was elected a Fellow of Jesus College, at 
 Cambridge. In 1799, in company with Mr. Cripps, he 
 started on the extensive tour by the description of which 
 he has acquired such merited and durable celebrity. 
 They were absent more than three years, during which 
 they traversed Northern Europe, Asia Minor, Syria, 
 Palestine, Egypt, Greece, Turkey, etc. He published 
 in kSio the first volume of his "Travels in Various 
 Parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa," (6 vols.,) one of the 
 most delightful and popular books of travel that have 
 ever In 1808 Cambridge University founded 
 
 for him a professorship of mineralogy, in which he was 
 well versed, and on which he published a treatise, "The 
 Mineral Kingdom." Having taken orders, he obtained 
 the living of Yeldham about 1810. Died in 1822. 
 
 See William Otter. "Life and Remains of Edward Daniel 
 Clarke," London, 1S24; "London Quarterly Review" for August, 
 1810, and March, 1813; "Edinburgh Review" for August, 1810, and 
 lune, 1826. 
 
 Clarke, (Elijah,) an American general, born in North 
 Carolina. He served in the Revolutionary war. Died 
 about 1800. 
 
 Clarke, (George Rogers.) See Clark. 
 Clarke, klSRk, (Henri Jacques Guillaumk,) Due 
 de Feltre, (feltR,) an able French general and minister 
 of state, was born at Landrecies in 1765. As lieutenant- 
 colonel he served in the campaign of 1792, and had be- 
 come general of brigade, when the Convention in 1793 
 deprived him of his command on account of his being a 
 noble. In 1 794, by the influence of Carnot, he was placed 
 at the head of the topographical bureau in the ministry 
 of war. For his important services in this office he was 
 made general of division in 1795. The next year the 
 Direetory, alarmed at the success of Bonaparte in Italy, 
 sent Clarke to negotiate with Austria, and to oversee 
 or control the victorious general, who soon won him 
 over to his interest. About 1804 Bonaparte appointed 
 him councillor of state, and employed him in his cabinet 
 as secretary. On the capture of Vienna by the p'rench, 
 (1805,) he was appointed governor of that city and of 
 several Austrian provinces, which he ruled with probity 
 and moderation. In 1806--07 he was governor of Berlin. 
 From 1807 to i8i4he performed the functions of minister 
 of war with such success that he received the title "of 
 Due de Feltre in 1809. Having concurred in the depo- 
 sition of Napoleon in 1814, he was created a peer by 
 Louis XVIII., whom he served as minister of war in 
 1815 and 1816, and who made him a marshal of France. 
 Died in 1818. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetesdes Francais ;" " Nouvelle Biograpliie 
 Ge'nerale." 
 
 Clarke, (Henry,) an English mathematician, born at 
 Salford, near Manchester, in 1745. After he had lec- 
 tured on mathematics and natural philosophy at Man- 
 chester, he was chosen professor in the Royal Military 
 College at Marlow about 1802. He published "The 
 Summation of Series," " Practical Perspective," and 
 other works. Died in 1818. 
 
 Clarke, (HENRY Hyde,) an English philologist and 
 writer, born in London in 1815, became a civil engineer. 
 He published in 1855 a " New Dictionary of the English 
 Tongue," which is very complete. He has written va- 
 rious scientific works. 
 
 Clarke, (James Freeman,) an American writer and 
 Unitarian minister, born in 1810. He has preached for 
 many years in Boston, and has distinguished himself as 
 an opponent of slavery. Among his works are "The 
 Christian Doctrine of Forgiveness," (1852,) and "The 
 Christian Doctrine of Prayer," (1854,) also several poems. 
 
 Clarke, (James Si'anii K.lan English writer, a brother 
 of Edward D. Clarke, noticed above. He attended Lord 
 Nelson as chaplain at Trafalgar, and was afterwards do- 
 mestic chaplain of George IV., and canon of Windsor. 
 He published "The Progress of Maritime Discovery," 
 "The Life of James II.," and other works. He assisted 
 Dr. McArthur in a "Life of Lord Nelson." Died in 
 1834. 
 
 Clarke, (Jeremiah,) an English composer of church- 
 music. He became organist of Saint Paul's Cathedral 
 a few years before 1700. He published "Lessons for 
 the Harpsichord," and composed the admired anthems 
 
 " I will love thee," and " Bow down thine tar." 1 laving 
 been unfortunate in love, he killed himself in 1707. 
 
 Clarke, (John.) See Clark, (John.] 
 
 Clarke, (John,) one of the founders of Rhode Island, 
 was born in England. He emigrated to Rhode Island 
 about 163S, and founded at Newport a Baptist church, 
 of which he was pastor. In 165 1 he was sent to Eng- 
 land with Roger Williams as an agent of the colony, for 
 which he procured a new charter. Died in 1676. 
 
 Clarke, (John,) a Scottish engraver of portraits, 
 born about 1650, worked in Edinburgh. Died in 1721. 
 
 Clarke, (John,) D.D., an English divine, born at 
 Norwich, was a brother of Dr. Samuel Clarke, (born in 
 1675.) H e became chaplain-in-ordinary to the king, and 
 finally Dean of Sarum. He published "Sermons at the 
 Boyle Lecture," and translated into English Rohault's 
 "Physics" and Grotius on the "Truth of the Christian 
 Religion." Died in 1759. 
 
 Clarke, (John,) an American officer, a son of Elijah, 
 noticed above, was born in 1766. He served in the 
 Revolutionary war, and became Governor of Georgia 
 after 1816. Died in 1832. 
 
 Clarke, (MacDonald,) an American writer, known 
 for many years in New York as " the Mad Poet," was born 
 in 1798. He published in 1820 his " Review of the Eve 
 of Eternity, and other Poems," which was followed by 
 "The Elixir of Moonshine: a Collection of Prose and 
 Poetry, by the Mad Poet," in 1822. Died in 1842. 
 
 Clarke, (Mary Cowden,) an English authoress, born 
 in London in 1809, was a daughter of Vincent Novello, 
 the composer. She was married in 1828 to Charles 
 Cowden Clarke, the associate of Lamb, Keats, Shelley, 
 etc., and soon after began "The Complete Concordance 
 to Shakspeare," (1846.) This work, on which she spent 
 the labour of sixteen years, was very successful. She also 
 published "World-Noted Women, New York, 1858. 
 
 Clarke, (Richard,) an Episcopalian divine, born in 
 England, became rector of Saint Philip's, Charleston, 
 South Carolina, about 1750. He wrote several theolo- 
 gical works. 
 
 Clarke, (Samuel,) an English theological writer, born 
 at Woolston in 1599. He preached successively at War- 
 wick, Alcester, and in London. In 1662 he was ejected 
 for nonconformity, and thenceforward ceased to appear 
 in the pulpit. He published a " Mirror for Saints and 
 Sinners," (1645,) a "General Martyrology," (1651,) and 
 "Lives of Sundry Eminent Persons," (1683,) which are 
 considered valuable works. Died in 1682. 
 
 Clarke. (Samuel,) an English scholar and Oriental- 
 ist, was born at Brackley in 1623. About 1655 he was 
 master of a boarding-school at Islington, and at the same 
 time assisted Walton in his "Polyglot Bible." He pub- 
 lished " Various Readings and Notes on the Chaldaic 
 Paraphrase," and other works. Died in 1669. 
 
 Clarke, (Samuel,) an English divine, son of Samuel, 
 (1599-1682,) born in 1626, was a Fellow of Pembroke 
 Hall, Cambridge. He expended the labour of many 
 years on "Annotations on the Scriptures," (1690,) a 
 work which has been recommended by Owen, Baxter, 
 Howe, and Calamy. Died about 1 700. 
 
 Clarke, (Dr. Samuel,) a celebrated English philoso- 
 pher, metaphysician, and divine, bom at Norwich in 
 October, 1675, was the son of Edward Clarke, alderman 
 of that city. In 1691 he entered Caius College, Cam- 
 bridge, where he made great progress in mathematics, 
 and about the age of twenty-one, by an ingenious strata- 
 gem, substituted the Newtonian for the Cartesian phi- 
 losophy. He effected this change by producing a more 
 classical Latin version of Rohault's " Physics," (the text- 
 book used at Cambridge,) with notes that virtually re- 
 futed the text. Having diligently studied theology and 
 the ancient languages, and been ordained, he became 
 chaplain to More, bishop of Norwich, in 1698. The next 
 year he published three essays on Confirmation, Baptism, 
 and Repentance, which were followed by his " Paraphrase 
 on the Four Gospels," (1701.) About this time he be- 
 came rector of Drayton. In 1705 appeared his celebrated 
 "Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of Clod," 
 consisting of eight sermons preached at the Boyle 1 •< - 
 ture, Oxford, and designed as a confutation of Hobbes 
 and Spinoza by the argument a priori. The merit of 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CLARKE 
 
 614 
 
 CLAUDE 
 
 this performance is variously estimated by orthodox 
 divines ; and Pope thus alludes to it in the " Dunciad :" 
 
 11 We nobly take the high priori road, 
 And reason downward till we donbt of God." 
 
 He translated Newton's "Optics" into Latin in 1706. 
 Through the patronage of Bishop More, he became, about 
 1709, rector of Saint James's, London, and chaplain to 
 Queen Anne. In 1712 he produced a good edition of 
 Caesar's " Commentaries," and " The Scripture Doctrine 
 of the Trinity," which occasioned a long controversy and 
 exposed him to the charge of Arianism. He wrote In 
 defence of the Newtonian philosophy against Leibnitz, 
 with whom he had a discussion on Philosophical Liberty 
 and Necessity. In 1724 he was chosen master of Wigs- 
 ton Hospital, and published a volume of sermons. He 
 contributed mathematical treatises to the " Philosophical 
 Transactions" in 1 728, and published in 1729 an edition 
 of Homer, with a Latin version and notes, which long 
 enjoyed a high reputation, and is still used by students of 
 Homer. He died in May, 1729. 
 
 Addison calls Dr. Clarke "one of the most accurate, 
 learned, and judicious writers this age has produced." 
 Voltaire regarded him as a mere reasoning-machine, (un 
 ntoulin h raisonnemmt.) " With a mind," says Dugald 
 Stewart, " far inferior to that of Locke in comprehensive- 
 ness, originality, and fertility of invention, he was never- 
 theless the more wary and skilful disputant of the two." 
 
 See Hoadly, " Life of S. Clarke ;" William Whiston, " His- 
 torical Memoirs of Samuel Clarke," 1748; D. Sthwart, " Prelimi 
 nary Dissertation" in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," 
 
 Clarke, (Samuel,) D.D., a grandson of Dr. Samuel 
 Clatke of Norwich, was pastor to a congregation of dis- 
 senters at Saint Alban's. * He published a "Collection 
 of the Promises of Scripture under their Proper Heads." 
 Died in 1769. 
 
 Clarke, (Sarah J.) See Lippincoit. 
 
 Clarke, (William,) an English priest and antiquary, 
 born in Shropshire in 1696. He became rector of Bux- 
 ted in 1724, and prebendary of Chichester in 1738. He 
 published " The Connexion of the Roman, Saxon, and 
 English Coins." Diedini77i. Edward Clarke, author 
 of " Letters on the Spanish Nation," was his son. 
 
 Clark'son, (David,) an eminent nonconformist di- 
 vine, born at Bradford, England, in 1622. He was ejected 
 from the living of Mortlake in 1662, and succeeded Dr. 
 Owen in 16S3. Baxter calls him "a divine of extraor- 
 dinary worth." He published sermons and other theo- 
 logical treatises. Died in 1686. 
 
 Clarkson, (Thomas,) an English philanthropist, 
 whose name is memorably identified with the abolition 
 of the slave-trade, was born at Wisbeach, Cambridge- 
 shire, in 1760. He gained the first prize for a Latin dis- 
 sertation in Saint John's College, Cambridge, in 1784. 
 In the next year his interest was first excited in the 
 question of slavery, when the vice-chancellor announced 
 that the senior bachelors would compete for the prize 
 by Latin essays on this subject : " Is involuntary ser- 
 vitude justifiable ?" He composed an essay, which was 
 successful ; and he was so deeply impressed with the 
 iniquity and miseries of the slave-trade that he con- 
 tinued to meditate on and investigate the subject, until, 
 from a sense of duty, he resolved to devote himself en- 
 tirely to the cause of the slaves. His essay led him into 
 communion with William Dillwyn, George Harrison, 
 and a few other " Friends" of London, who as early as 
 1783 had formed themselves into an anti-slavery com- 
 mittee. The Society of Friends had been the earliest 
 pioneers in this reform, having in 1760 refused the privi- 
 leges of fellowship to all who took part in the "guilty 
 traffic." Clarkson collected and diffused information on 
 the subject with unwearied zeal and diligence, and never 
 quailed before the violence and threats of those whom 
 self-interest made his enemies. He found a powerful 
 coadjutor in Wilberforce, who in May, 1789, made an 
 eloquent speech in the House of Commons against the 
 traffic. In 1790 he spent several months in Paris, where 
 he conferred with Mirabeau, who asked and received 
 from him ample assistance in composing a speech on 
 the subject. The immense efforts of Clarkson and his 
 friends were often defeated in Parliament ; and the tri- 
 umph of the cause was reserved to the ministry of Fox. 
 
 In March, 1807, the "Magna Charta of Africa was com 
 pleted." In 1808 he published "The History of the 
 Abolition of the Slave-Trade," (2 vols.) He was chosen 
 in 1823 vice-president of the Anti-Slavery Society, just 
 formed, and lived to witness the abolition of slavery 
 in the West Indies in 1838. He was the author of a 
 " Portraiture of Quakerism," and of " Memoirs of the 
 Life of William Penn," (1813.) Died in 1846. 
 
 See Thomas Taylor, "Life of T. Clarkson; fhomas Clark- 
 son: a Monograph," by James Elmes, London, 1854. 
 
 Clams, kla'rus, (Johann Christian August,) a 
 German physician, born at Buch-am-Forst, in Franconia, 
 in 1775. He was professor of medicine at the University 
 of Leipsic for nearly forty years, beginning in 1810. He 
 published " Views on the Progress of the Cholera," 
 (1 83 1,) and other works. 
 
 Cla'son, (Isaac,) an American poet and actor, born 
 in New York in 1789. He produced a continuation of 
 Byron's " Don Juan," (1825,) and a collection of poems, 
 entitled " Horace in New York," (1826.) He committed 
 suicide in London in 1834. 
 
 See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Clauberg, klow'b^RG, (Johann,) a Cartesian philo- 
 sopher, born at Solingen, in Westphalia, in 1622. He 
 taught at Herborn and Duisburg. He was one of the 
 most profound disciples of Descartes. His works were 
 published under the title of "Opera Philosophica," (2 
 vols., 1691.) Died in 1665. 
 
 See Morhof, "Polyhistor Literarius." 
 
 Claude, the French of Claudius, which see. 
 
 Claude, kl6d, (Jean,) an eminent French Protestant 
 minister, born at La Sauvetat, near Agen, in 1619. He 
 preached at Nimes and Montauban, and in 1666 became 
 pastar of Charenton, near Paris. His eloquence and 
 wisdom rendered him one of the most influential leaders 
 of the Protestant cause in France. He had several dis- 
 putes with Bossuet and Arnauld on theology. When 
 the edict of Nantes was revoked, (1685,) he retired to 
 the Hague, where he died in 1687. " Bossuet," says 
 Hallam, "was the acknowledged champion of the Roman 
 Church in France ; Claude was in equal pre-eminence 
 on the other side." He was the author of a " Defence 
 of the Reformation," (1673,) and many other works. 
 
 See Abel Rodolphe DE Ladekizk, " Abrttge - de la Vie de M. 
 Claude," 1687; Kayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Nice- 
 ron, " M^moires." 
 
 Claude, (Jean Jacques,) a grandson of the preceding, 
 was born at the Hague in 1684. He became pastor of 
 the French church in London in 1710, and died in 1712. 
 
 Claude de France, klod deh fRdNss, the daughter 
 of Louis XII., was born at Romorantin in 1499. She 
 was married to Francis I. in 1514. Historians praise 
 her eminent virtues. Died in 1524. 
 
 Claude de Turin. See Claudius of Turin. 
 
 Claude IiOrrain* klaud (or kl5d) lor-ran', [Fr. pron. 
 klod lo'raN',] the prince of landscape-painters, was born 
 at the Chateau de Chamagne, in Lorraine, in 1600. His 
 proper name was Claude Gelee, (zheh-la'.) He went 
 to Home in early youth, and studied utder G. Waals at 
 Naples about two years. He then became a pupil of 
 Agostino Tassi, a landscape-painter of Rome. There 
 is a doubtful tradition that he served Tassi as cook, 
 also that he was originally an apprentice to a pastry- 
 cook. He observed with constant attention the Italian 
 scenery, and the phenomena of nature :is modified by 
 the ever-changing hours and seasons. After a tour of 
 two years in France and Germany, he returned to Rome 
 in 1627, was patronized by Urban VIII., and rose rapidly ' 
 to pre-eminence in his department of art. His works are 
 not exact transcripts of real nature, but combinations 
 of picturesque scenes, selected with taste and idealized 
 with inimitable art. " Every period of the day, with all 
 its elemental vicissitudes, has been successfully embodied 
 by his magic pencil." His colouring is rich, delicate, and 
 harmonious. His aerial perspective has probably never 
 
 * The last part of this name is often incorrectly written Lorraine. 
 It should be remembered that it is an adjective, agreeing with Claude, 
 in the masculine gender, which is always without the final e. The 
 whole name signifies " Claude the Lorrainer." In case we should 
 say Claude of Lorraine, it should then be written with the e, as refer- 
 ence is made to the province of Lorraine, which is feminine. 
 
 a, e, l, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, t, 6, it, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; not; gofid; moon; 
 
CLAUDER 
 
 615 
 
 CLAUDIUS 
 
 been equalled. Among his master-pieces are "Esther 
 and A has uc r us," "A Seaport at .Sunset,'' and "The 
 Embarkation of Saint Ursula." Died in Rome in 1682. 
 In respect to the meritof Claude, Kuskin, the " Magnus 
 Apollo" of art and prince of parodox, dissents from the 
 great majority of critics. " Claude's capacities," says he, 
 "wcte of the most limited kind; but he had tenderness 
 of perception and sincerity of purpose, and he effected 
 a revolution in art. This revolution consisted mainly 
 in setting the sun in heaven. Till his time, no one had 
 seriously thought of painting the sun but conventionally. 
 . . . Claude made the sun his subject, and painted the 
 efleets ol misty shadows cast by his rays over the land- 
 scape, and other delicate aerial transitions, as no one 
 had ever done before, and, in some respects, as no one 
 has done in oil-colour since. There was a certain fool- 
 is.h elegance in his work; but it resembled nothing that 
 ever existed in the world." Reynolds used to say that 
 "there would be another Raphael before* there was an- 
 other Claude." 
 
 See RtistciN, " Modern Painters ;" Bryan, " Dictionary of 
 Painters;" Dcssieux, " Les Artistes Francais a l'£tranger." 
 
 Clauder, klow'der, (Gabriel,) a German medical 
 writer, bom at Altenburg in 1633 ; died in 1691. 
 
 Clau'dl-a Gens, a patrician house of Rome, which 
 produced many dictators, consuls, censors, etc., and 
 from which the emperors Tiberius and Claudius were 
 nded. The surnames of the patrician Claudii were 
 Caucus, Crassus, I'ulcher, Sabinus, etc. They were dis- 
 tinguished for their pride and despotic character. 
 
 Clau'dl-an, [It. Claudia.no, klow-de-a'no; Fr. 
 Claudien, klo'de-as',] (Claudius Claudianus,) a dis- 
 tinguished Latin epic poet, born at Alexandria about 365 
 a.d. He became a resident of Rome, and a favourite of 
 Stilicho. who was regent during the minority of Awadius 
 and Honorius. He acquired by his poems such celebrity 
 that a statue was erected to him in the Forum of Trajan 
 by the emperor and the senate. His principal works 
 are " The Rape of Proserpine," a " Eulogy of Stilicho," 
 ("De Laudibus Stilichonis,") "The War against the 
 Gets," (" De Hello Getico,") and satires against Eutro- 
 pius and Rufinus. Some portions of these have been 
 lost. He has a rich imagination, a picturesque style, 
 and harmonious versification. In his religious opinions 
 he appears to have been a pagan. The date of his death 
 is unknown ; but he was living in 408 A.D. He is regarded 
 as the last of the Latin classic poets. 
 
 SeeT. Mazzo, "Vita di Claudiano," 166S ; Gibbon, "Decline and 
 Fal! of the Roman Empire," chap. xxx. ; Eksch und Gruber, 
 "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," and the prefatory remarks in J. M. 
 GunftK*s edition of Claudian's Works, 1759. 
 
 Claudiano. See Claudian. 
 
 Claudien. See Claudian. 
 
 Claudini, klovv-dee'nce, or Chiodini, ke-o-dee'nee, 
 (Giui.io Cksare,) an Italian physician, bom at Bologna, 
 won a high reputation by his writings, among which are 
 "Crises and Critical Days," (1612,) and " Rational Prac- 
 tice," (" Empirica rationalis," 1653.) Died in. 1618. 
 
 Clau'dl-us, [Kr. Claude, klod,] or, more fully, Tibe- 
 rius Claudius Drusus Nero, fourth Emperor of 
 Rome, born at Lyons in 10 i:.c, was the son of Drusus 
 Nero by Antonia Minor, (who was a daughter of Mark 
 Antony,) and was a nephew of the emperor Tiberius, 
 Being feeble in mind and body, he took no part in pub- 
 lic affairs during the reign of Tiberius. Caligula, who 
 was his nephew, gave him the office of consul in 37 
 A.i>. On the death of Caligula, in 41, Claudius was pro- 
 claimed emperor by the mutinous soldiers ; and the sen- 
 ate, though they preferred a republic, acquiesced in the 
 choice of the army. His accession, as usual, was sig- 
 nalized by acts of justice and clemency. He recalled 
 exiles, diminished taxes, and built an aqueduct in Rome. 
 The principal military event of his reign was his success- 
 ful invasion of Britain in person. His wife, the infamous 
 Messalina, acquired an ascendency over him, and caused 
 senators and other innocent persons to be put to death. 
 After she became so shameless as to marry Caius Silius, 
 she was executed, by the order or permission of Clau- 
 dius. He afterwards married his niece, Agrippina the 
 Younger, who by a former husband had a son, L. Do- 
 mitius. Having persuaded him to adopt this son, she 
 
 poisoned Claudius in 54 A.D., when her son, assuming 
 the name of Nero, became emperor. 
 
 See Suetonius, "Claudius;" Tacitus, "Annates;" Dion Cas- 
 
 sius, " Hisuiry." 
 
 Claudius, (Ari'ius,) surnamed Crassus, a Roman 
 decemvir of patrician rank, was elected consul in 451 
 i;.c, soon after which he became one of the decemviri. 
 He was notorious for his nefarious attempt to enslave and 
 dishonour Virginia, who was rescued from his power bv a 
 tragical death. (See Virginia.) Appius was imprisoned, 
 and, according to Livy, committed suicide. 
 
 Claudius, (Marcus Aurklius,) surnamed Goth'i- 
 cus, an emperor of Rome, was born in Illyricum in 214 
 a.d. After having a high command under Valerian, he 
 was proclaimed emperor by the army at the death of 
 Gallicnus, in 268. The senate confirmed this choice. 
 The same year he defeated the rebel Aureolus in battle. 
 In 269 he gained a decisive victory over the Goths or 
 Scythians near Nissa, in Servia, and assumed the name of 
 Gothicus. He died of an epidemic disease at Sirmium 
 in 270, leaving a good reputation for virtue and talents. 
 His brother, Quintilius, was proposed as his successor ; 
 but the army preferred Aurelian. 
 
 Seel'REBKU.ius Pollio, " Claudius." in the" Historia Augusta;" 
 Tii.i.HMnNT, "'Histoire des Emjjereurs." 
 
 Claudius, klow'de-us, (Matthias,) surnamed Asmus, 
 and 1 -he M essenger of Wandsbeck, a popular German 
 poet and prose writer, born at Rheinfeld, near Lubeck, 
 in 1743. He was appointed controller (revisor) of the 
 Bank of Altona in 1778, and resided mostly at Wands- 
 beck. His works consist of essays, fables, epigrams, 
 humorous and serious poems, etc. He was the author 
 of the famous "Rhine- Wine Song," ("Rheinweinlied.") 
 Died at Hamburg in 1815. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate ;" Hennings, " Asmus : lieitrag zur Geschichte 
 der Literatur," etc., 1798. 
 
 Clau'dl-us of Turin [Lat. Clau'dius Tauri'nus; 
 Fr. Claude de Turin, klod deh tu'raN'] was born 
 in Spain towards the close of the eighth century. He 
 became the chaplain of Louis le Debonnaire, who ap- 
 pointed him Bishop of Turin. He was very zealous in 
 his efforts to reform the abuses which had gradually crept 
 into the Church, and vehemently opposed the worship of 
 images and of the cross ; in consequence of which he has 
 been styled "the Protestant of the ninth century." He 
 was a man of great learning, and wrote commentaries on 
 various portions of Scripture. He was publicly charged 
 with heresy ; but his death, which occurred about 840, 
 saved him, probably, from a determined persecution. 
 
 See Hodgson, " Reformers ami Martyrs before and after Luther," 
 Philadelphia, 1S67 ; Neandek, "Church History." 
 
 Claudius Albinus. See Ai.kinus. 
 
 Clau'dius Cse'cus, (see'kus,) (Appius,) a Roman 
 patrician, who was censor from 312 to 308 B.C. During 
 this period he constructed the Appian Way from Rome 
 to Capua. He was afterwards consul, and interrex, (or 
 regent,) and became blind, as his surname indicates.' 
 He wrote a poem, and a legal work in prose. 
 
 Claudius Civilis. See Civilis. 
 
 Claudius Claudianus. See Claudian. 
 
 Claudius Herodes. See Hekodes, (Atticus.) 
 
 Claudius Marius Victor. See Victor. 
 
 Claud'I-us Pul'cher, (Appius,) a son of Publius 
 Claudius Pulcher, was chosen praetor in 215 B.C., and in 
 the next year was legate under Marcellus in Sicily. He 
 was elected consul in 212, and commanded an army in 
 the second Punic war. He was killed in a battle with 
 Hannibal at Capua about 210 B.C. 
 
 Claudius Pulcher, (Appius,) a brother of the Clodius 
 killed byMilo, waspraetorin 57 B.C. andconsul in 53, aftei 
 which he misgoverned Cilicia about two years. On his 
 return he was prosecuted by Dolabella, but was acquitted 
 by the influence of Pompey and Hortensius. He became 
 censor in the year 50, and in the exercise of that office ex- 
 pelled Sallust and others from the senate. Having taken 
 the side of Pompey against Caesar, he obtained command 
 in Greece, where he died about 48 B.C. 
 
 Claudius Pulcher, (Puiilius,) a Roman general, son 
 of Appius Claudius Caecus, noticed above, was distin- 
 guished for his insolence and pride. He was elected 
 
 e as k ; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gvttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (jjy See Explanations, p. 23.} 
 
CLAUDIUS 
 
 616 
 
 CLAXTON 
 
 consul in 249 H.c, during the first Punic war. He took 
 command of the fleet, and, though the auspices were 
 unfavourable, attacked the Carthaginians, who gained a 
 decisive victory. Soon after this event he was deprived 
 of office and disgraced. 
 
 Claudius Taurinus. See Claudius of Turin. 
 
 Claugh'ton, (Rev. Thomas Legh,) an English -clas- 
 sical scholar, born about 1808. He was professor of 
 poetry at Oxford from 1852 to 1857. 
 
 Clausade, de, deli klo'zSd', (George Jacques Ame- 
 dee,) a French lawyer and writer, born in 1809. Among 
 his works is a " Voyage to Stockholm." Died in 1847. 
 
 Clausberg, klows'beitG, (Chris tlieh,) a German 
 mathematician, born in 1689, was preceptor of the prince- 
 royal at Copenhagen, and published a "Treatise on the 
 Law of Commerce, " and an excellent "Demonstrative 
 Arithmetic," (1732.) Died in 1 75 1. 
 
 Ciausel, klo'zel', (Bektrand,) Count, a French 
 marshal, born at Mirepoix (Ariege) in 1772. He be- 
 came general of brigade in 1799, and general of division 
 about 1804. He served with distinction in Austria in 
 1809, and commanded with eclat at Salamanca (where 
 he was severely wounded) in 1812. Having fought for 
 Napoleon during the Hundred Days, he was forced to 
 fly for his life, and went to the United States in 1815. 
 He returned to France in 1820, obtained command of 
 the army in Africa in 1830, received a marshal's baton 
 in 183 1, and became Governor-General of Algeria in 1835. 
 For his ill success in an expedition against Constantine, 
 he was recalled in 1837. Died in 1842. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Ciausel de Coussergues, klo'zel' deh koo's^Rg', 
 (Jean Claude,) a French politician, noted for intoler- 
 ance, was born in Aveyron in 1759. He emigrated about 
 1790, and returned about 1800. After the restoration he 
 became an ultra-royalist, and was chosen a judge of the 
 court of cassation in 1815. Died in 1846. 
 
 Clausen, klow'zen, (Henrik Georg,) an eminent 
 Danish preacher, born in Sleswick in 1759. He became 
 pastor of a church of Copenhagen in 1797, and con- 
 tinued to preach there about forty years. Died in 1840. 
 
 See Erslew, " Foi fatter- Lexicon." 
 
 Clausen, (Henrik Nicoi.ai,) a Danish theologian and 
 statesman of great ability and influence, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Maribo, on the island of Laaland, in 
 1793. He became professor of theology in the Univer- 
 sity of Copenhagen in 1820, and developed his rational- 
 istic doctrines in many works remarkable for learning 
 and eloquence. Among them are "Augustin of Hippo 
 the Interpreter of Scripture," ("Augustinus Hipponensis 
 Sacra; Scriptural Interpres," 1826,) " Popular Discourses 
 on the Reformation/' (1836,) and "The Augsburg 
 Confession explained Historically and Dogmatically," 
 ^both in Danish, 1851.) In politics he is a champion of 
 liberal principles and Danish nationality. He was elected 
 a deputv to the States in 1840, and was the leader of the 
 movement which resulted in the constitutional reform of 
 1848. About the end of that year he was appointed privy 
 councillor and minister without a portfolio. He re- 
 signed office in 1851. 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." 
 
 Clausewitz, von, fon klow'zeh-wits', (Karl,) a dis- 
 tinguished Prussian general and writer on war, born at 
 Burg in 1780. He entered the service of Russia in 1812, 
 served on the staff in the Russian army in 1813, and 
 published in 1814 an "Account of the Campaign of 
 1813," which was favourably received. He was ap- 
 pointed director of the Military Academy (tUlgemehu 
 Kriegschule) of Prussia in 1818, with the title of major- 
 general. He died in 1831, after which appeared his 
 "Posthumous Works," (to vols., 1832-37.) Among these 
 is a treatise entitled " On War," (" Vom Kriege,") which 
 is said to be a work of extraordinary merit. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Clavena, kla-va'na, (Niccolo,) an Italian botanist, 
 born at Belluno, lived about 1600. 
 
 Claver, kla-vaiit', (Pedro,) a Spanish missionary, 
 born about 1582. He laboured in the West Indies, and 
 was noted for his kindness to the slaves. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Suarez, "Vida del P. P. Claver," 1657: Fleuriau, "Viedu 
 R. P. Claver," 1751. 
 
 Clayeret, klSv'ri', (Jean,) a French dramatist, born 
 at Orleans in 1590; died in 1666. 
 
 Claverhouse. See Graham, (John.) 
 
 Clavier, kli've-i', (Etienne,) a French Hellenist 
 and judge, was bom at Lyons in 1762. He was judge of 
 the criminal court in Paris under the Directory and under 
 the empire until 181 1. When the judges were urged to 
 condemn Moreau to death, and were assured by Murat 
 that the executive would pardon him, Clavier repelled 
 the idea, saying, "But who will pardon us?" In 1809 
 he was admitted into the Institute. He contributed to 
 the "Biographie Universelle," and published several 
 works, among which is " Pausanias, Description de la 
 Grece," (6 vols.,) an edition of the Greek text, with a 
 good Fiench version. Died in 1817. 
 
 Claviere, kla've-aiR', (Etienne,) a Swiss financier 
 and author, was born at Geneva in 1735. He removed 
 to Paris, where, before the Revolution, he was engaged 
 in banking. A*bout 1789 he became a political associate 
 of Mirabeau, who had a high opinion of his talents, and 
 who availed himself of those talents in composing his 
 speeches, essays, etc. In 1791 he was chosen deputy 
 suppliant to the National Assembly, and was the Giron- 
 dist minister of finance from March to June in 1792. 
 Having been thrown into prison by the Jacobins, and 
 doomed to die, he killed himself in December, 1793. He 
 wrote treatises on Finance. " He was," says Duniont, "a 
 man of superior intellect, and was the author of almost 
 all Mirabeau's works on finance." ("Recollections of 
 Mirabeau.") 
 
 See Villaume, " Histoire de la Revolution." 
 
 Clavigero, kla-ve-na'ro, (Francisco Saverio,) a 
 Mexican historian, born at Vera Cruz about 1720. He 
 was employed about thirty years as a Jesuit missionary 
 among the Indians of Mexico, whose history and tra- 
 ditions he diligently studied. In consequence of the 
 suppression of the Jesuit order about 1767, he went to 
 Europe, and found an asylum at Cesena, Italy, where he 
 published, in Italian, his "Ancient History of Mexico," 
 (1780.) It is the most complete account that has been 
 written of the history, religion, customs, arts, and natural 
 history of that country. Died in 1793. 
 
 See Feller, "Biographie Universelle;" Pkescott, "Conquest 
 of Mexico," vol. i. book 1. 
 
 Clavijo, de, da kla-vee'no, (Ruy Gonzalez,) a Span- 
 iard, who in 1403 was sent by Henry III. of Castile as 
 ambassador to Tamerlane, whom he found at Samarcand. 
 Having returned home in 1406, he published a " History 
 of Tamerlane," with an account of the journey, which 
 is said to be veracious and valuable. 
 
 See Mariana, " Historia de Espaiia." 
 
 Clavijo y Fajardo or Faxardo, kla-vee'no e fa- 
 HaR'do, (Jose,) a Spanish writer, born in one of the 
 Canary Islands iii 1726. He published in Madrid a 
 successful periodical, "The Thinker," ("El Pensador,") 
 and was appointed officer or keeper of the archives in 
 the department of state. It appears that about 1764 he 
 was guilty. of a breach of promise to Marie Caron, a 
 French lady, whose brother, the famous Beaumarchais, 
 appealing to the code of honour, obtained some revenge 
 or satisfaction and published his version of the affair. 
 This story has been dramatized by Goethe. Clavijo was 
 editor of the " Mercurio," a political journal, from 1773 
 to 1793. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Beaumarchais, "Fragment de mon Voyage d'Espagne en 
 1764." 
 
 Clavius, kla've-us, (Christoph,) a learned German 
 mathematician and Jesuit, born at Bamberg in 1537. 
 Having visited Rome, he was employed in 1581 by Gre- 
 gory XIII. to reform the calendar. He enjoyed a great 
 reputation in his time ; though he was criticised with 
 much acrimony by Scaliger. I Ic published many works, 
 which were often reprinted, and among which were 
 " Geometria Practical" (1604,) and an "Explanation 
 of the Roman Calendar of Gregory XIII.," in Latin, 
 (1603.) Died in 1612. 
 
 See Bailly, "Histoire de l'Astronomie moderne;" Bavle, 
 " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Clax'ton, (Alexander,) a commodore in the United 
 States navy, born in Maryland about 1790; died on the 
 coast of Chili in 1841. 
 
 i, e, \, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CLAY 
 
 617 
 
 CLAY 
 
 Clay, (Cassius Makceli.us,) an American statesman, 
 a son of General Green Clay, noticed below, was born 
 in Madison county, Kentucky, in 1810. He studied law, 
 and was elected a member of the legislature of Kentucky 
 several times between 1835 and 1841. His acknowledged 
 abilities and rare force of character seemed to anticipate 
 a distinguished political career ; but his anti-slavery prin- 
 ciples prevented the brilliant success he might other- 
 wise have achieved. He raised his voice boldly against 
 slavery, and opposed the annexation of Texas to the 
 Union. 1 le advocated the election of Henry Clay to the 
 Presidency in 1844 by speeches in the Northern States. 
 In 1845 he began to edit "The True American," an 
 ami -slavery paper, published at Lexington, Kentucky. 
 He encountered violent opposition, and defended him- 
 self courageously against the mob in several bloody con- 
 flicts, lie served as captain in the Mexican war with 
 distinction, (1846-47.) About 1850 he separated from 
 the Whig party. He favoured the election of Abraham 
 Lincoln to the Presidency in i860, and received a com- 
 mission as general of volunteers in 1861. In 1862 or 
 1863 he was appointed minister to Russia, which position 
 he held until the spring of 1869, when Governor Curtin, 
 of Pennsylvania, was appointed in his place. His writings 
 and Speeches were edited and published by Horace 
 Greeley in 1848. 
 
 Clay, (CLEMENT C.,)an American lawyer and Senator, 
 born in Halifax county, Virginia, in 1789, removed to 
 Alabama about 1812. He was elected Governor of Ala- 
 bama by the Democrats in 1835, and a Senator of the 
 United States in 1837. Died in 1866. 
 
 Clay, (< 'i.'jm i:n r C.,) Jr., a son of the preceding, born 
 in Madison county, Alabama, in 1819. He practised 
 law, was elected to the Senate of the United States in 
 1853 by the Democrats, and re-elected about 1857. He 
 w.:s .1 zealous disunionist in 1860-65. 
 
 Clay, (GREEN,) GENERAL, a pioneer and legislator, 
 born in Powhatan county, Virginia, in 1757. He mi- 
 grated to Kentucky about 1776, and served many years 
 in the legislature of that State. In 1813 he defended 
 Fort Meigs with success against a strong force of British 
 and Indians. Died in 1826. 
 
 Clay, (HENRY,) an eminent American statesman and 
 orator, born in a district called "the Slashes," in Hanover 
 county, Virginia, on the 12th of April, 1777. He was a 
 son of John Clay, a Baptist minister, who died about 
 1782, and who left but little property to his children. 
 Having acquired the rudiments of education in a com- 
 mon school, Henry became, in 1792, a copying clerk in 
 the court of chancery at Richmond, and there attracted 
 the notice of the eminent judge George Wythe, from 
 whose counsels and influence he derived much benefit. 
 He .studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1797, and 
 removed in the same year to Lexington, Kentucky, where 
 his practice was crowned with a rapid and brilliant suc- 
 cess. In 1799 he married a daughter of Colonel Thomas 
 Hart, of Lexington. When the people of Kentucky were 
 about to adopt a State Constitution, in 1799, Mr. Clay, 
 by his writings and speeches, advocated the gradual 
 abolition of slavery. He began his political career as a 
 Jeffersonian Democrat, was elected to the legislature 
 of his State about 1804, and was sent in 1806 to fill for a 
 short term a seat in the Senate of the United States, 
 made vacant by the resignation of a Senator. Having 
 been again chosen a Senator in 1809, he made a speech 
 in favour of the protection of American manufactures, 
 and one against the United States Bank. His term in 
 the Senate having expired in 181 1, he was then chosen 
 a member of the House of Representatives, and was 
 elected Speaker of the House in November of that year. 
 He was a zealous advocate of the war of 1812, and pro- 
 bably contributed more than any other man to the suc- 
 cess of the war partv. He was re-elected Speaker of 
 the House in May, 1813, resigned that office in January, 
 1814, and was then sent to Europe as a commissioner to 
 treat for peace with Great Britain. The treaty of Ghent 
 having been signed by Mr. Clay and his colleagues in 
 December, 1814, he returned home in September, 181 5. 
 In December, 181 5, (and thrice afterwards,) he was again 
 elected Speaker of the House of Representatives. He 
 supported in 1816 the bill to charter a Bank of the 
 
 United States, on which question he acknowledged that 
 he had changed his opinions. In 1818 he made a great 
 speech for the recognition of the South American re- 
 publics. He was one of the most prominent supporters 
 of the Missouri Compromise, by which, in 1821, after a 
 long and exciting contest, Missouri was admitted into the 
 Union witfi slavery, and slavery was prohibited in the 
 territories north of 36 30' north latitude. Before this 
 time he had acquired great popularity as a statesman 
 and an orator. "At thirty," says Parton, "he was, to 
 use the language of the stump, 'Kentucky's favourite 
 son,' and incomparably the finest orator in the Western 
 country. Kentucky had tried him, and found him per- 
 fectly to her mind. ... In familiar conversation he used 
 language of the most Western description ; and he had 
 a singularly careless, graceful way with him, that was in 
 strong contrast with the vigour and dignity of his public 
 efforts. During the thirteen years of his Speakership 
 not one of his decisions had been reversed, and he had 
 presided over the turbulent and restive House with that 
 perfect blending of courtesy and firmness which at once 
 restrains and charms." 
 
 Mr. Clay was one of the four candidates for the Presi- 
 dency of the United States in 1824, and received thirty- 
 seven electoral votes. When the election of President 
 devolved on the House of Representatives, he preferred 
 Mr. Adams to General Jackson, and his influence de< 
 cided the result. He thus gave the partisans of Jackson 
 some pretext for the calumnious charge of " bargain and 
 corruption" which impaired his popularity for a time. 
 In March, 1825, he was appointed secretary of state. 
 In April, 1826, he fought a bloodless duel with John 
 Randolph, who had spoken of the coalition of Mr. Adams 
 and Mr. Clay as a "combination of the Puritan and the 
 blackleg." He was elected a Senator of the United States 
 for six years, 1831-37, and was the candidate of the anti- 
 Jackson party in the Presidential election of 1832. He 
 received the votes of only six States, viz., Massachusetts, 
 Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, and 
 Kentucky. Mr. Clay was the author of the Compromise 
 Tariff of 1832-33, occasioned by the danger of a violent 
 collision between the nullifiers of South Carolina and 
 the Federal government. Although he was the favourite 
 leader of the Whig party recently organized, he declined 
 to be a candidate for the Presidency in 1836. About the 
 end of that year he was re-elected a Senator of the United 
 States. He supported General Harrison as a candidate 
 for the office of President in 1840. In the Senate he ad- 
 vocated a national bank and the distribution of the pro- 
 ceeds of the public lands among the States. He resigned 
 his seat yi the Senate early in 1842, and retired to his 
 residence at Ashland, near Lexington. The Whig Na- 
 tional Convention of May, 1844, with great unanimity, 
 nominated him for the Presidency. He opposed the an- 
 nexation of Texas, (which was advocated by Mr. Polk, 
 the Democratic candidate,) and declared that no earthly 
 power should ever induce him to consent to the addition 
 of one acre of slave territory to the United States. Mr. 
 Clay received one hundred and five electoral votes, cast 
 by Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Vermont, 
 New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, Ohio, 
 Kentucky, and Tennessee ; but he was not elected. 
 
 He joined the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1847. 
 In December, 1848, he was again elected to the national 
 Senate, in which he afterwards made numerous speeches, 
 especially on the controversy occasioned by slavery. The 
 Compromise of 1850, which postponed for ten years the 
 conflict between freedom and slavery, was chiefly his 
 work. In one of his speeches on the Compromise Bill 
 he said, "I owe a paramount allegiance to the whole 
 Union, — a subordinate one to my own State." He died 
 at Washington, June 29, 1852. He had five sons and 
 six daughters. "Take him for all in all," says Parton, 
 " we must regard him as the first of American orators ; 
 but posterity will not assign him that rank, because pos- 
 terity will not hear that matchless voice, will not see those 
 huge gestures, those striking attitudes, that grand man- 
 mi, which gave to second-rate composition first-rate 
 effect. . . . His speeches will long be interesting as the 
 relics of a magnificent and dazzling personality, and for 
 the light they cast upon the history of parties ; but they 
 
 e as /; v as s; g hard; g as_/'; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (B3^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CLAY 
 
 618 
 
 CLEEF 
 
 add scarcely anything to the intellectual property of the 
 nation." 
 
 See Parton, " Famous Americans of Recent Times," 1867 ; Epes 
 Sargent, " Life of Henry Clav," 1844; Calvin Colton, '* Lite of 
 Henry Clay," 2 vols., 1846; National Portrait-Gallery of Distin- 
 guished Americans," vol. i.; " North American Review" for October, 
 1827, October, 1831, (by A. H. Everett,) and January l# i866; "Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for December, 1840; Edward G. Parker, 
 "Golden Age of American Oratory," Boston, 1857. 
 
 Clay, (James B.,) a son of Henry Clay, was born in 
 181 7. He joined the Democratic party, and was elected 
 a member of Congress in 1857 to represent a district in 
 Kentucky. He was a secessionist in 1861. Died in 1864. 
 
 Clay, (Johann.) See Clai. 
 
 Clayborne, kla'born, (William,) an early settler and 
 explorer of Virginia, occupied Kent Island, in Chesa- 
 peake Bay, about 1631. He was involved in disputes 
 and violent conflicts with Lord Baltimore and Leonard 
 Calvert. He became secretary of state about 1652. 
 
 Clay'ton, (Augustin Smith,) born at Fredericks- 
 burg, Virginia, in 1783, became a judge of the superior 
 court of Georgia in 1819, and a member of Congress 
 about 1832. Died in 1839. 
 
 Clay'ton, (John,) an English botanist, born in Kent 
 about 1690. lie emigrated in 1705 to Virginia, where 
 he practised medicine and botanized extensively. He 
 wrote articles on the natural history of Virginia, which 
 were published by the Royal Society of London. In 
 1739 Linnaeus and Gronovius published a "Flora of 
 Virginia, exhibiting the Plants which J. Clayton has 
 collected." A genus of herbaceous plants was named 
 C/ay/onia in his honour by Gronovius. Died in 1773. 
 
 Clayton, (John Middleton,) an American states- 
 man, born in Sussex county, Delaware, in 1796. He 
 graduated at Yale College in 1815, and studied law, 
 which he practised with success in Delaware. He 
 gained a high reputation as a pleader. In 1829 he was 
 elected a Senator of the United States for Delaware. 
 Having joined the Whig party, he was re-elected to the 
 Federal Senate in 1835. He was chief justice of Dela- 
 ware from 1837 to 1839, and represented that State in 
 the United States Senate from 1845 to 1849. In March, 
 
 1849, he was appointed secretary of state by President 
 Taylor. He negotiated with the British government 
 in 1850 the celebrated " Clayton-Bulwer treaty." He 
 resigned office on the death of President Taylor, July, 
 
 1850, and was again elected a Senator of the United 
 States for six years, 1851-57. He married in early life, 
 and had several children, whom he survived. He died 
 in November, 1856, leaving a fair reputation for ability 
 and integrity. 
 
 Clay'ton, (Robert,) F.R.S., a learned Irish divine, 
 born in Dublin in 1695. He became Bishop of Killala 
 in 1730, of Cork in 1735, and of Clogher in 1745. He 
 published an "Introduction to the History of the Jews," 
 and other works. His " Essay on Spirit" (1751) gave 
 much offence to the Anglican Church by its advocacy 
 of Arian or Unitarian doctrines. Died in 1758. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Cle-an'der, [Gr. KfouvtSpoc; Fr. Cleandre, kla'- 
 6.NdR',] a corrupt prime minister of Commodus, Em- 
 peror of Rome, was originally a Phrygian slave. He 
 was put to death about 189 a.d. 
 
 Cle-a'nor, [Kfeuvup,] a Greek officer, born in Arcadia, 
 lived about 400 B.C. He entered the service of Cyrus 
 the Younger, and was one of the chiefs of that army of 
 10,000 whose famous retreat is described by Xenophon. 
 
 Cleanthe. See Cleanthes. 
 
 Cle-an'thes, [Gr.KMavdrjr ; Fr. CLEANTHE,kla'5Nt',] 
 a Greek Stoic philosopher, born at Assos, in Asia Minor, 
 about 300 B.C. He became a resident of Athens, and a 
 pupil of Zeno, with whom he studied many years, sup- 
 porting himself by drawing water and other hard labour. 
 At the death of Zeno, about 260 B.C., he became his suc- 
 cessor as head of the Stoic school. He wrote many 
 works, which are nearly all lost, except a hymn to Jupi- 
 ter, remarkable for elevation and grandeur of thought. 
 Chrysippus was his pupil and successor. The original oc- 
 cupation of Cleanthes was that of athlete. He was solid 
 rather than brilliant, practical rather than speculative. 
 
 See Diogenes Laertius : W. T. Krug, " Dissertatio de Cle- 
 anthe," 1819; Cicero, "De Natura Deorum." 
 
 Cle-ar'€hus, [Gr. Kteapxoc; Fr. Ci.earque, kli'2Rk',' v 
 a Spartan general, who, having been condemned to death 
 for crimes committed while he commanded at Byzan- 
 tium, escaped, and entered the service of Cyrus the 
 Younger. He commanded a body of Greeks in the war 
 between Cyrus and his brother Artaxerxes. After the 
 battle of Cunaxa, in which Cyrus was killed, the King 
 of Persia by treachery obtained possession of Clearchus 
 and the other Grecian generals, and put them to death 
 about 400 B.C. New generals were then chosen, under 
 whose direction the Greeks successfully accomplished 
 the famous retreat known as " the Retreat of the Ten 
 Thousand." 
 
 See Xenophon, " Anabasis." 
 
 Clearchus, tyrant of Heraclea, a Greek city of Pon- 
 tus, had been a pupil of Plato at Athens. After he 
 had reigned twelve years, and committed many acts of 
 cruelty, he was assassinated by Chion and others, about 
 352 B.C. 
 
 Clearchus, an Athenian comic poet, lived probably 
 in the third century B.C. 
 
 Clearchus of Soli, a Greek philosopher, and a pupil 
 of Aristotle, wrote on various subjects numerous works 
 which have not come down to us. Among the titles 
 were " On Friendship," (" Philia,") " On Paintings," " On 
 Anatomy," and "On Sleep." 
 
 See Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Vossius, "De Historicis 
 Grsecis. " 
 
 CltSarque. See Clearchus. 
 
 Cleaveland, Cleveland, or Clieveland, kleev'land, 
 (John,) an English poet, born at Loughborough in 1613. 
 He was once a tutor at a college in Cambridge. In the 
 civil war he fought for the royal cause. He wrote the 
 " Rustic Rampant," " The King's Disguise," and other 
 poems, which were greatly admired by many in his own 
 time, but are marred by perverse conceits, and are now 
 neglected. Died in 1659. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," .vol. xii., 1825. 
 
 Cleaveland, kleev'land, (Parker,) LL.D., an emi- 
 nent American mineralogist, was born in Massachusetts 
 in 1780. He graduated at Harvard in 1799, and from 
 1805 till his death was professor of chemistry, mineral- 
 ogy, etc. in Bowdoin College, Maine. His work on 
 " Mineralogy and Geology," (2 vols. 8vo,) issued in 1S16, 
 introduced him to the notice of Sir Humphry Davy, 
 Cuvier, and other illustrious scientific men, with several 
 of whom he corresponded. At his death he was an 
 honorary member of the principal scientific associations 
 in Europe. Died in 1858. 
 
 Cleaver, klee'ver, (William,) an English divine, 
 born in 1742, became successively Bishop of Chester, 
 (1787,) of Bangor, (l8co,) and of Saint Asaph, (1806.) 
 He was editor of an Oxford edition of Homer, and 
 published, besides other works, Sermons, and "De 
 Rhythmo Graecorum Liber," (1789.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Cle'burn or Cle'burne, (Patrick,) a general, born 
 in Ireland about 1828. He was a lawyer in Arkansas 
 before the civil war, in which he fought against the Union. 
 He commanded a division at Stone River, December 
 31, 1862-January 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga, Sep- 
 tember, 1863. He was killed at the battle of Franklin, 
 November 30, 1864. " The loss of Patrick Cleburne — 
 the ' Stonewall Jackson of the West,' " — says Greeley, 
 "would of itself have been a rebel disaster." ("Ame- 
 rican Conflict.") 
 
 Cleef, van.vfn klaf, or Cleeve, kla'veh, (Hendrik,) 
 a skilful Flemish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp 
 about 1510. He spent some years in Italy. Died in 1589. 
 
 I lis brother Martin, born about 1520, was a historical 
 painter of merit, and was employed by several landscape- 
 painters to paint the figures of their works. The two 
 brothers sometimes worked on the same piece of canvas. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Cleef, van, (Jan,) an eminent Flemish painter, born 
 at Venloo in- 1646, was a pupil of Gaspar de Crayer, 
 He became one of the most skilful Flemish artists of his 
 time, and adorned the churches of Antwerp, Ghent, etc 
 He excelled many or all Flemish painters in the treat- 
 ment of drapery. Among his master-pieces is "The 
 Redemption of the Captives." Died in Ghent in 1716. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; " Nouvella 
 Biographic Ge'neYale." 
 
 a. e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, i, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fSr, fill, fat; mlt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CLEEF 
 
 619 
 
 CLEMENT 
 
 Cleef, van, (Joost,) a Flemish painter, born at Ant- 
 werp about 1490. He was an excellent colorist In 
 the latter part of his life he worked in Madrid, and is 
 said to have become insane. 
 
 His father, Willem, was a skilful historical painter. 
 
 Cleeve. See Clkef. 
 
 Cleg'horn, (George,) an able Scottish physician, 
 born in Edinburgh in 1716. Having passed thirteen 
 years in Minorca, he published "The Diseases of Mi- 
 norca," ( 175 1,) which Dr. Fothergill calls "a just model 
 for future writers." It treats on the botany, climate, etc. 
 of that island. In 1 75 1 he settled in Dublin, where he 
 practised with success, and became professor of anatomy 
 in the university. Died in 1787. 
 
 See Chambers " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Cleisthenes. See Clisthenes. 
 
 Cleitarchus. See Clitarchus. 
 
 Cleitus. See Ci.rrus. 
 
 Cle'land, (John,) an English writer, born about 1710, 
 was the son of Colone! Cleland, the original of the Spec- 
 tator's " Will Honeycomb." In his youth he was consul 
 at Smyrna. Beside.) other works, he wrote "The Man 
 of Honour," and "The Way to Things by Words, and 
 to Words by Things." Died in 1789. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes," etc. 
 
 Cle'land, (Lieutenant-Colonel William,) a Scottish 
 poet, born about 1660, was a zealous Covenanter. He 
 was lieutenant-colonel of Lord Angus's regiment, and 
 was killed in battle at Dunkeld in 1689. His poems 
 were published in 1697. 
 
 See Macaulay's " History of England," vol. iii. chap. xiii. 
 
 Clemangis or Clemangius. See Clamenges. 
 
 Clemence Isaure, kla'mfixss' e'zoR', a French lady, 
 who lived at Toulouse about 1470. She reanimated the 
 literary spirit of her countrymen by instituting or en- 
 dowing the Floral Games, (Jeux floranx,) which were 
 held annually on the 1st of May at Toulouse. She 
 bequeathed a fund, part of which was to be paid in 
 prizes for the best poems. Her death is supposed to 
 have occurred soon after 1500. 
 
 See Salvan, "C. Isaure, fitude historique," 1853;.!. B. Noulet, 
 "Dame Clemence Isaure," etc, 1852; Longfellow, "Poets and 
 Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Clemencet, kla'm6N's&', (Charles,) a French Bene- 
 dictine, born at Painblanc in 1703. He published, be- 
 sides other works, a " History of Port-Royal," (10 vols., 
 1756,) and "The Art of Verifying Dates," (1750,) which 
 displays great erudition. Died in 1778. 
 
 Clemenein, kla-men-then', (Diego,) a Spanish states- 
 man and author of merit, born at Murcia in 1765. Soon 
 after he left college he was employed as tutor in the 
 family of the Duke of Osuiia, and became a resident 
 of Madrid. He was editor of the Official Gazette in 
 Madrid in 1808, and a member of the Cortes of Cadiz 
 in 1S12. When the Constitutional party, with which he 
 was identified, prevailed in 1820, he was elected to the 
 Cortes, of which he became president. In 1823 he was 
 banished from Madrid by the Absolutists. About 1833 
 he was appointed librarian to the queen and was made 
 a peer of the kingdom. Among his principal writings 
 are a "Eulogy on Isabella of Castile," (1821,) which 
 was then the best work on the subject, and an excellent 
 "Commentary on Don Quixote," (1833.) Died in 1834. 
 
 Clemens, kla'mens, (Friedrich,) a German poet, 
 born in Westphalia about 1800. Among his works 
 are "The Eccentric People," and "The Manifesto of 
 Reason," ("Manifest der Vernunft," 1836.) 
 
 Cle'mens, (T. Flavhjs,) a Roman consul, was a 
 tousin-german of the emperor Domitian, and his col- 
 league in the consulship, 95 A.D. He is reckoned among 
 the Christian martyrs, having been put to death by order 
 of Domitian on a charge of impiety towards the heathen 
 gods. 
 
 Clemens Romanus. See Clement I. 
 
 Clem'ent [Lat. Cle'mens, or, more fully, Titus Fla- 
 vhjs Clemens; Fr. Clement, kli'moN'] of Alexan- 
 dria, an eminent Father of the Christian church, born 
 about the middle of the second century. According to 
 some writers, he was a native of Athens, and in his 
 youth a disciple of the Platonic philosophy. After 
 studying with various pagan teachers, he became a 
 
 « as k 
 
 disciple of Panttenus, who was master of a Christian 
 school in Alexandria. He succeeded Pantaenus, and was 
 ordained a presbyter in the church of that city. It is 
 stated that in 202 A.D., to escape from persecution, he 
 retired to Syria, and preached in Antioch and other 
 cities. A few years later we find him again employed 
 as teacher of catechumens in Alexandria. He died about 
 the year 220. Eusebius, Chrysostom, and others extol 
 his learning, wisdom, and virtue. Origen was the most 
 eminent of his pupils. Clement left several esteemed 
 works, written in Greek, which are still extant, and which 
 afford various information on religion, history, and phi- 
 losophy, viz., "Exhortation to the Greeks," " Paedago- 
 gus," and "Stromata," (Gr. 2Tpu,uaT«c.) The last is a 
 medley of Christian thoughts, maxims of philosophy, 
 anecdotes, etc., without methodical arrangement. He 
 is more addicted to speculation, and more favourable to 
 the ancient Greek philosophy, than many of the other 
 Christian Fathers. 
 
 See Eusebius, " Ecclesiastical History ;" Kaye, "Account of the 
 Writings, etc. of Clement of Alexandria," London, 1835; Matter, 
 " Essai historique stir l'E*cole d'Alexandrie;" NeanDek, "History 
 of the Church ;" Cave, " Historia Literaria ;" Reinkens, " De Cle- 
 niente Presbytero Alexandrino," 1851. 
 
 Clement I., (or Cle'mens Roma'nus,) a bishop of 
 Rome, of whom we have little positive information. Ac- 
 cording to various authorities, he succeeded Linus in 67 
 A.D., or Anacletus in the year 91. He is supposed to be 
 the Clement whom Saint Paul calls his fellow-labourer, 
 (Philip, iv. 3.) Eusebius states that he died in 100 a.d., 
 having been bishop nine years. He is reckoned among 
 the martyrs ; but there is some doubt whether he died 
 a violent or a natural death. On the occasion of a dis- 
 sension in the church of Corinth, Clement wrote to that 
 church an excellent epistle, which is still extant, and is 
 highly prized as a monument of antiquity and memorial 
 of the primitive Church. It was often read publicly in 
 the churches as late as the fourth century. Eusebius 
 informs us that the other works ascribed to Clement are 
 not genuine. His epistle is divided into more than fifty 
 chapters. His authority tends to prove the genuineness 
 of certain books of the New Testament which he quotes, 
 viz., Matthew, Luke, and several epistles. 
 
 See Neander, "History of the Church;" Tillemont, "M£- 
 moires." 
 
 Clement II., a native of Saxony, whose name was 
 Suid'ger, was elected pope in 1046 as successor to 
 Gregory VI. He crowned as emperor Henry HI. in the 
 same year, and died in October, 1047, when Benedict 
 IX. was chosen pope. 
 
 Clement III., a Roman by birth, was elected pope 
 at Pisa in December, 1187, after the death of Gregory 
 VIII. Jerusalem having just fallen into the power of 
 Saladin, Clement made successful efforts to enlist the 
 Christians in another crusade against the Saracens, 
 which was led by Richard I. of England and Philip of 
 France. He died in March, 1191, and was succeeded 
 by Celestine III. 
 
 Clement IV. (Guy Foulques, or Guido Fulcodi) 
 was born at Saint-Gilles, in Fiance. He had been secre- 
 tary to Louis IX., whom he served many years in im- 
 portant affairs. In February, 1265, he succeeded Urban 
 IV. He favoured Charles of Anjou in his conquest of 
 Naples, which was then ruled by Manfred, and which the 
 last pontiff had granted or given to Charles. He died in 
 1268, and was succeeded by Gregory X. 
 
 Clement V., Pope of Rome, succeeded Benedict XI. 
 in June, 1305. He was a Frenchman, named Bertrand 
 de Got. In 1299 he had been made Archbishop of 
 Bordeaux. He was crowned as pope at Lyons, and to 
 gratify his patron, Philippe le Bel, he chose Avignon 
 as his residence and the capital of the popedom. This 
 innovation caused great discontent, and was tile origin 
 of a long division in the Church. He co-operated with 
 Philippe le Bel in his cruel persecution of the Templars. 
 He is represented as immoral and venal. He died in 
 1314. John XXII. was chosen as his successor in 1316. 
 
 See De Guasco, " Histoire du Pape Clement V," 2 vols., 1736. 
 
 Clement VI., elected pope in 1342, succeeded Bene- 
 dict XII. at Avignon. He was a native of Limousin, in 
 France, and was named Pierre Roger, (ro'zhi'.) He 
 
 ; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CLEMENT 
 
 620 
 
 CLEMENT 
 
 purchased from Joanna of Naples the sovereignty of 
 Avignon. During his pontificate the famous Rienzi 
 attempted to effect a revolution in Rome, but failed. 
 Clement ordained the celebration of a jubilee every fifty 
 years. He died in 1352, and was succeeded by Innocent VI. 
 See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 Clement VII., (Giui.io de' Medici — m§d'e-chee,) a 
 natural son of Giuliano de' Medici, and a cousin of Leo 
 X., succeeded Adrian VI. in November, 1523. In the 
 pontificate of Leo X. he had been made Archbishop of 
 Florence, and received a cardinal's hat. Alarmed at 
 the growing power of Charles V., he made a league 
 against him with the Venetians and Francis I. of France. 
 The army of Charles V., commanded by Constable 
 Bourbon, took Rome by assault in 1527, treated the 
 citizens with great cruelty, and made the pope a prisoner. 
 His dispute with Henry VIII. of England respecting the 
 divorce of Queen Catherine produced results of great 
 political importance. He issued a famous bull against 
 Henry in 1534. He died in September of that year, and 
 was succeeded by Paul III. 
 
 See Guicciardini, "Historia d'ltalia," 1564; Ranke, "History 
 of the Popes." 
 
 Clement VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini— il-do- 
 bRan-dee'nee) succeeded Innocent IX. in January, 1592. 
 He was a native of Fano, in Italy, and became cardinal 
 in 1585. He negotiated with Henry IV. of France with 
 respect to his abjuration of Protestantism, which occurred 
 in 1595. During his pontificate commenced the dispute 
 on the doctrine of grace, which caused the long and angry 
 controversy between the Molinists and the Jansenists in 
 the seventeenth century. Clement appears to have been 
 neutral in this question. He annexed the duchy of 
 Ferrara to the Papal States. He died in 1605, and was 
 succeeded by Leo XI. 
 
 See Cicarella, "De Vita Clementis VIII.;" Luc Wadding, 
 "Vita dementis VIII.," 1723 ; De'I'hou, " Historia sui Temporis." 
 
 Clement IX., elected pope in June, 1667, succeeded 
 Alexander VII. He was born at Pistoia in 1600, and was 
 originally named Giulio de Rospigliosi, (ros-pel-yo'- 
 see.) He was made a cardinal by Alexander VII. One 
 of the principal events of his short pontificate was a com- 
 promise or transient peace which he made between the 
 Jesuits and Jansenists of France. He died in Decem- 
 ber, 1669, regretted on account of his probity and other 
 virtues. His successor was Clement X. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 
 Clement X. (Etfn.io Altieri — al-te-a'ree) succeeded 
 Clement IX. in 1670, at the age of eighty. He was an Ital- 
 ian, and probably a native of Rome. He had been made 
 a cardinal by the preceding pontiff. Cardinal Paluzzi 
 Altieri had the chief control of affairs in this pontificate, 
 the events of which were not very important. Clement 
 died in 1676, and was succeeded by Innocent XI. 
 
 Clement XI. (Gian Francesco Albani— al-bd'- 
 nee) was born at Pesaro, in Central Italy, in 1649. He 
 was made a cardinal in 1690, and elected pope in No- 
 vember, 1700, after the death of Innocent XII. About 
 1707 he was involved in war with the Emperor of Austria, 
 whose army entered the States of the Church and com- 
 pelled the pope to sue for peace. In his pontificate the 
 Jansenist controversy was renewed in P'rance by the bull 
 Vineam Domini, which denounced the Jansenist doctrines 
 as heretical. In 1713 he raised a great commotion among 
 the French religionists by the famous bull Unigenitus, 
 which condemned one hundred and one propositions of 
 a book, written by Pere Quesnel, on Grace and Predes- 
 tination. This bull was supported by the Jesuits and 
 the court, and opposed by the Jansenists. The book of 
 Quesnel had been approved by De Noailles, Archbishop 
 of Paris. Clement assisted the Pretender in his attempt 
 to obtain the British crown in 1715, and after his failure 
 received him with regal honours at Rome. He died in 
 March, 1721, leaving a fair reputation for morality and 
 learning. He was a liberal patron of art and literature. 
 His successor was Innocent XIII. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor. " Histoire des souverains Pontifes ;" 
 Lafitau, "Vie de CleVnent XI," 1752; Battelli, "Vita Cle- 
 mentis XI.," 1723. 
 
 Clement XII. (Lorenzo Corsini — koR-see'nee) 
 was born at Florence in 1652, and received a cardinal's 
 
 hat in 1706, before which he had been treasurer of the 
 apostolic chamber. He succeeded Benedict XIII. in 
 July, 1730. He failed in an attempt to make himself 
 master of Parma and, Piacenza. He died in 1740, and 
 was succeeded by Benedict XIV. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes 
 Romains;"A. Fabroni, "De Vita et Rebus gestis Clementis XI I.," 
 1760. 
 
 Clement XIII. (Carlo Rezzonico — ret-so-nee'- 
 ko?) succeeded Benedict XIV., July, 1758. He was born 
 in Venice in 1693, and became a cardinal in 1737. In 
 1762 he formally condemned Rousseau's "Emile" as 
 heretical. By impolitic attempts to assert his prerogatives 
 he provoked the hostility of France, Spain, and other 
 powers. After the Jesuits had been proscribed in P'rance 
 and Spain, about 1767 he issued a bull in their favour 
 and for their full justification. He was deprived of 
 Avignon by the French and of Benevento by the King 
 of Naples, and the papal authority in his reign was 
 greatly reduced. His private character is said to have 
 been virtuous. He died in 1769, and was succeeded by 
 Clement XIV. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes," 
 
 Clement XIV. (Giovanni Vincenzo Antonio 
 Ganganelli— gan-ga-nel'lee) was born at Saint Arcan- 
 gelo, near Rimini, in 1705. Having become eminent for 
 his learning, he was made a cardinal by Clement XIII., 
 whom he succeeded in May, 1769. The Catholic powers 
 watched with great interest this election, which was 
 protracted for several months by party intrigues. He 
 took prompt measures to conciliate the various courts 
 which Clement XIII. had offended, and adopted a more 
 moderate policy. The most memorable act of his pon- 
 tificate was the suppression of the order of the Jesuits, 
 which, after weighing the subject in the "balance of the 
 sanctuary" for several years, he formally decreed in July, 
 1773- H e died so soon after this event, in September, 
 1774, that suspicion of poison was excited; but no evi- 
 dence of the crime was discovered. He had respectable 
 abilities, and was more liberal and enlightened than 
 many of the popes. His habits were moral and simple. 
 The Clementine Museum is an evidence of his munifi- 
 cence and taste for the arts. 
 
 See Caraccioli, "Vie de Clement XIV," 1775; Theiner, 
 "Geschichte des Pontificats Clements XIV.," 3 vols., 1853. and 
 French version of the same, " Histoire du Pontificat de Clement 
 XIV ;" " London Quarterly Review" for June, 184S. 
 
 Clement VII., Anti-Pope, was elected by a party 
 of cardinals, as a rival of Urban VI., about 1378. 
 
 Clement, a learned Irish ecclesiastic, was one of the 
 scholars whom Charlemagne invited to his' court and 
 employed as a teacher. Died after 800 A.D. 
 
 Clement, kla'mo.N', (Amisroise,) a French economist, 
 born in Paris in 1805. He published in 1846 a work 
 entitled "Researches into the Causes of Indigence," 
 which is highly commended. He was one of the chief 
 authors or compilers of the " Dictionary of Political 
 Economy," (1852-53.) Died in September, 1862. 
 
 Clement, kla'ment, (David,) a bibliographer of great 
 erudition, was born at Hofgeismar, Hesse, in 1701. He 
 became pastor of a church in Hanover in 1743. He pub- 
 lished, in French, a work called "Catalogue raisonne of 
 Books Difficult to Find," (9 vols., 1750-60.) Died in 1760. 
 
 See Sax, " Onomasticon." 
 
 Clement, (Dora Franqois,) a learned French Bene- 
 dictine, born near Dijon in 1714. He was called by his 
 superiors to Paris to work at the continuation of the 
 " Literary History of France." He afterwards published 
 the twelfth and thirteenth volumes of "The Collection 
 of the Historians of France," and "The Art of Veri- 
 fying Dates," which was very successful. In 1783-87 
 he produced an improved edition of the latter work, (in 
 3 vols.,) which Jourdain calls "the finest monument 
 of erudition of the eighteenth century." He was a 
 "free associate" of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died 
 in 1793. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Clement, (Jacques,) a fanatical French monk and 
 regicide, born at Sorbonne about 1566. When Henry III. 
 was besieging Paris, then occupied by the forces of the 
 Catholic League, Clement conceived a design to assassi- 
 
 *> e» ', °. u, J, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n8t; good; moon,- 
 
CLEMENT 
 
 621 
 
 CLEOMENES 
 
 nate him in which he was encouraged by his superiors 
 and bv the Duke of Mayenne. Having been admitted 
 to the palace as the bearer of a letter to the king, he 
 stabbed him with a knife, on August I, 1589. The as- 
 sassin w.is killed on the spot by the king's attendants. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francis;" Dk Thou, " Histoire." 
 
 Clement, (Jean Marie Bernard,) a French Iftttrtl- 
 ton- and critic, born at Dijon in 1742. He was noted 
 for the severity of his criticisms and for his attacks on 
 Voltaire, who surnamed him " Inclement." Among 
 his best winks are an " Essay on Tragedy," and an 
 v on the Manner of Translating Poets into Verse." 
 He also wrote satires and poems. Died in 1812. 
 
 See Grimm, " Correspundance." 
 
 Clem'ent, (John,) a learned English physician, born 
 1490. In 1529 he was sent by Henry VIII. to 
 attend Cardinal Wolsey, who was then sick. He trans- 
 lated some Latin epigrams, and the "Letters of Gregory 
 Nazianzen." Died in 1572. 
 
 Clement, (Jii.ikn,) a French surgeon and accoucheur, 
 born at Arks, was patronized by Louis XIV. Died at 
 Paris in 1 729. 
 
 Clement, kla'ment, (Knut Jungiiohn,) a Danish 
 linguist, born in the isle of Amram in 1803, settled in 
 it Kiel, where he lectured several years. Among 
 his works are one "On the Origin of the Teutons," 
 (1836,) a "Journey through Holland and Germany," 
 (1847,) mul "'he French and their Language," (1848.) 
 
 Clement, (Margaret,) an English lady and Latin 
 scholar, born in 1508, was a niece of Sir Thomas More. 
 Died in 1570. 
 
 Clement, (Nicolas,) born at Toul, in France, in 
 1647, was assistant librarian in the Royal Library. Died 
 in 1712. 
 
 Clement, kli'mdN', (Pierre,) a critic and dramatist, 
 born at Geneva in 1707, was a preacher in Paris in his 
 youth. In 1748 he began to issue a critical review, called 
 "Nouvelles litteraires de France," which he continued 
 about five years. His criticisms are said to be judicious 
 and liberal. He was the author of" Merope," a tragedy. 
 Died in 1767. 
 
 See Senebier, "Histoire litteraire tie Geneve." 
 
 Clement, (Pierre,) a French advocate of free trade, 
 and a member of the Institute, was born in the depart- 
 ment of Var in 1809. He published in 1846 a " History 
 of the Life and Administration of Colbert," which was 
 crowned by the French Academy and followed by other 
 successful works on French history and finances. 
 
 Clementi, kla-mSn'tee, (Muzio,) a celebrated pianist 
 and composer, born in Rome in 1752. At the age of 
 nine or ten his skill was such that he obtained a place 
 as organist in Rome. After this period he became a 
 pupil of Santarelli and Carpini. About the age of thir- 
 teen he went to England with Mr. P. Beckford, who made 
 to his father a generous offer in respect to his education. 
 He learned ancient and modern languages and various 
 sciences, without neglecting music. At the age of eigh- 
 teen he surpassed all his contemporaries on the piano, 
 and composed his "Opera 2," which is regarded as " the 
 basis on which the whole fabric of modern sonatas for 
 the piano has been founded." In 1780 and 1781 he 
 performed with great applause in Paris and Vienna. He 
 played alternately with Mozart before the Austrian em- 
 peror. In 1800 he became the head of a firm which was 
 successful in the publication of music and the fabrication 
 of pianoa in London. He wrote " Practical Harmony" 
 and " Gradus ad Parnassum," and composed one hundred 
 anil six Sonatas. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Fetis, " Bioe.raphie Universelle des Musiciens;" Tipai.do, 
 "Biografia degli Italian! ilhistri." 
 
 Clementi, (Prosi-ero,) an eminent Italian sculptor, 
 born at Keggio. Several of the family were noted as 
 sculptors before him. Many of his works are at Reg- 
 gio, Parma, and Mantua. A monument to Bishop An- 
 dreassi is called his master-piece. Died in 1584. He 
 was styled "the Correggio of Sculpture" by Algarotti. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Clementone. See Bocciardo. 
 
 Clenard, kla'naV, Cleynaerta or Kleinarts, kll'- 
 nints, (Nicholas,) a Flemish grammarian, born in Bra- 
 bant in 1495. After he had been professor of Hebrew 
 
 and Greek in Louvain, he was employed by John lit. 
 of Portugal to finish the education of his brother, who 
 was afterwards Henry I. Died in 1542. His Greek 
 Grammar (1530) had great success. 
 
 Clen'nell, (Luke,) an English painter and engraver, 
 born near .Mnipeth in 1781, was a pupil of Bewick the 
 engraver, lie worked in London, and painted history, 
 landscapes, etc. Died in a lunatic-asylum in 1840. 
 
 Cle'o-bis and Bi'ton [Gr. K/>o jig and licrdn] were 
 sons of the priestess of Juno at Argos, and once drew 
 her chariot to the temple. Their mother having prayed 
 that the goddess would reward them with the greatest 
 of blessings, they fell asleep and never awoke. 
 
 Cl^obule. See CLEOBULUS. 
 
 Cle-o-bu'lus, [Gr. KAnioWoc; Fr. Ci.Eobui.e, kli'o'- 
 bul',1 one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, was King 
 of Lindus, in Rhodes, in the sixth century B.C. He 
 claimed a descent from Hercules. His favourite maxim, 
 'Aptorov /icrpov, inculcates "Moderation in all things." 
 Another of his sayings was. " Be swift to hear, and slow 
 to speak." His daughter Cleobuline was celebrated for 
 her skill in enigmas and in poetry. 
 
 See Fabricius. " Hibliotheca Grseca." 
 
 Cleombrote. See Cleomrrotits. 
 
 Cle-om'bro-tus or Kle-om'bro-tus, [Gr. K?.e6p- 
 /3poroc; Fr. Cleombrote, kli'oN'bRot',] the fourth son 
 of Anaxandrides, King of Sparta, was the brother of 
 Leonidas, the hero of Thermopylae. He commanded the 
 army after the death of Leonidas, 480 B.C. Pausanias, 
 the victor at Plataea, was his son. 
 
 Cleombrotus I., King of Sparta, was the son of Pau- 
 sanias, and grandson of the preceding. He ascended the 
 throne at the death of his brother Agesipolis, 380 B.C. 
 In 371 B.C. he commanded the Spartans at the battle of 
 Leuctra, where he was defeated and killed by the The- 
 bans under Epaminondas. He left two sons, Agesipolis 
 II. and Cleomenes II. 
 
 Cleombrotus II. was the son-in-law of Leonidas II., 
 King of Sparta. By the aid of Agis and Lysander, he 
 succeeded in deposing Leonidas about 243 B.C., and 
 reigned for a short time in his place. Leonidas was 
 restored, and his rival was exiled, about 240. 
 
 Cleombrotus of Ambracia, a Greek Academic phi- 
 losopher, drowned himself in the sea after reading the 
 " Phaadon" of Plato, in his eagerness to verify the doc- 
 trine of a future state. 
 
 Cleomede. See Cleomedes. 
 
 Cle-o-me'deS, [Gr. KXeo/ir/AiK; Fr. Cleomede, kli' 
 o'm&d',] a Greek astronomer.whose birthplace, residence, 
 and era are unknown. He is the author of an interesting 
 treatise on astronomy and cosmography, entitled "The 
 Circular Theory of the Heavenly Bodies," ("Kvk'aik7) 
 Oeup'm fUTeupuv.") He maintains that the form of the 
 earth is spherical, that the number of the fixed stars is 
 infinite, and that the moon's rotation on its axis is per- 
 formed in the same time as its synodical revolution. 
 The refraction of light is noticed in this work for the 
 first time. He ridicules the physical theories of the 
 Epicureans, and often quotes from' Posidonius, who lived 
 in the first century B.C. His work has been printed 
 several times. 
 
 SeePEt.AMHRE,"Hi*toirederAstronomie ancienne ;" Fabricius, 
 "Bibliothcca Grseca;" "Nonvelle Biographic GdneVale." 
 
 Cleomene. See ClEOMTNES. 
 
 Cle-om'e-neB or Kle-om'e-neS [Gr. Kfco/itvvc ; Fr. 
 Cleomene, kla'o'min'] I., King of Sparta, was the son 
 
 of Anaxandrides, whom he succeeded about 518 B.C. 
 Demaratus at the same time reigned jointly with him. 
 Jn 510 he liberated Athens from the rule of the Pisis- 
 tratidae, whom he expelled by arms ; but he afterwards 
 made an abortive attempt to restore Hippias. In 500 he 
 refused a large bribe offered to induce him to aid the 
 Ionian* against Persia. About 491 the Spartans sent 
 him to punish the people of /Egina for giving earth and 
 water as signs of homage to Darius. By tampering with 
 the priestess of Delphi, he caused Demaratus to be de- 
 throned. Herodotus says that he killed himself, in a 
 fit of insanity, in 489 B.C. His half-brother Leonidas 
 succeeded him. 
 
 See Herodotus, "Hi'tory:" Grote, "History of Greece;' 
 Thirlwai.l. " History of Greece." 
 
 «as*vcas.f;g,4ff>-!/;gas/; G,H,K.,gtittural; N, nasal; R, trilled, sas«; thasin this. (£^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CLEOMENES 
 
 622 
 
 CLERC 
 
 Cleomenes II., King of Sparta, of the elder branch, 
 succeeded his brother Agesipolis II. in 370 B.C. He died 
 in 309 B.C., and left the throne to his grandson Arens. 
 
 Cleomenes III., King of Sparta, of the Agidae line, 
 succeeded his father Leonidas II. in 236 B.C. He had 
 before married Agiatis, the widow of Agis IV., and 
 daughter of Gylippus. Having formed a design to re- 
 store the ancient Spartan virtue and discipline, he de- 
 clared war against the Achaean League, with the idea 
 that war was conducive to his purpose. He gained a 
 signal victory over Aratus near Megalopolis in 226 B.C. 
 Finding the powers of the ephori an obstacle to his 
 design, he put them all to death except Agesilaus, who 
 escaped. He then made a new division of property or 
 land, restored the old social system, abolished the office 
 of ephorus, and made his brother Euclidas his partner 
 in the throne. He afterwards defeated the Achaeans in 
 several battles, until the latter were reinforced by Anti- 
 gonus, King of Macedon, who obtained a decisive victory 
 over Cleomenes at Sellasia in 222 B.C. He then fled to 
 Egypt, where he killed himself in the year 220. Plutarch 
 extols his magnanimity, and says, " he showed himself 
 in all respects the great man." He may be justly ac- 
 counted the last great man of Sparta. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Cleomenes" and "Aratus:" Franz van Cap- 
 PHI.I.K, " Dissertatio de Cleomene Lacedajmoniorura Rege," 1S45 ; 
 Drovsen, "Geschichte der Hellenen." 
 
 Cleomenes, [Fr. Cleomene,] a Greek sculptor, is 
 mentioned by no ancient author except Pliny, who says 
 the group of Muses placed by Pollio in his house in 
 Rome was the work of Cleomenes. His name would 
 perhaps have been forgotten if it had not been carved on 
 chat exquisite type of grace and beauty, the Venus de Me- 
 dici, thus : KAEOMENH2 AnOAAOAflPOT A6HNA10S 
 EriftiHSEN, "Cleomenes, son of Apollodorus, an Athe- 
 nian, made [this.]" He is supposed to have lived about 
 200 or 300 B.C. 
 
 See Visconti, " Notice critique sur les Sculpteurs Grecs qui ont 
 porte" le Noin de Cleomenes." 
 
 Cleomenes, a Greek of Naucratis, in Egypt, was 
 appointed by Alexander the Great receiver-general of 
 tribute in Egypt, and was notorious for his rapacitv. 
 He was also employed to superintend the building of 
 Alexandria. He was put to death by King Ptolemy about 
 322 B.C. 
 
 Cle'on or Kle'on, [Kteuv,] an Athenian demagogue, 
 noted for his insolence, venality, and facility of speech, 
 first appears in history about 428 B.C. He was a favour- 
 ite and leader of the popular party, or lower classes, while 
 Nicias was the chief of the opposite party. He conducted 
 a successful expedition against the Spartans at Pylos in 
 425, which raised his credit and filled him with presump- 
 tion. Though he was ignorant of the military art, he 
 again obtained command of an army sent against the 
 Spartan general Brasidas, by whom he was defeated at 
 Amphipolis in 422 B.C. Cleon and Brasidas both fell in 
 this action. 
 
 See Grotk, "History of Greece:" Thucydides, "History;"' 
 Plutarch, " Pericles" and " Nicias." 
 
 Cleon, a Greek sculptor, born at Sicyon, was a pupil 
 of Antiphanes. He flourished about 388 B.C. Pliny 
 speaks of a statue of Admetus as his master-piece. Cleon 
 made two bronze statues of Jupiter for the temple at 
 Olympia. 
 
 Cle'o-pas or Cle'o-phas, one of the primitive and 
 immediate disciples of Christ. (See Luke xxiv. 18; John 
 xix. 25.) 
 
 Cle-o-pa'tra, [Gr. KleoiraTpa,] the daughter of Philip 
 of Macedon and Olympias, was the sister of Alexander 
 the Great. In 336 B.C. she became the wife of Alexander,, 
 King of Epirus, her maternal uncle. After the death of 
 her brother she was assassinated by order of Antigonus. 
 
 Cleopatra, the daughter of Antiochus the Great, was 
 married to Ptolemy Epiphanes of Egypt in 193 B.C. 
 
 Cleopatra, an ambitious queen of Syria, was the 
 daughter of Ptolemy Philometor. She was the wife of 
 three successive kings of Syria, — Alexander Balas, De- 
 metrius Nicator, and Antiochus Sidetes. It is said that 
 she caused the second to be killed. 
 
 Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, a daughter of Ptolemy 
 Epiphanes, was married first to Ptolemy Philometor, and 
 next to Ptolemy Physcon. 
 
 Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, a daughter of the pre- 
 ceding, was married to Ptolemy Physcon. Died 89 B.C. 
 She had a daughter Cleopatra, who became the queen 
 of Ptolemy Lathyrus. 
 
 Cleopatra, [Gr. K7.emu.rpa: Fr. CleopAtre, kli'o'- 
 patK.',] a queen of Egypt, celebrated for her personal 
 charms, her various accomplishments, and her dramatic 
 history, was the daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, and was 
 born in 69 B.C. Her father died in the year 51, leaving 
 the throne to her in partnership with her brother Ptol- 
 emy. She was richly endowed with mental qualities and 
 captivating graces, and was mistress of many languages 
 besides the Greek, her mother-tongue. In 48 B.C., Julius 
 Caesar, who had entered Egypt with a small army, having 
 been caught " in her strong toils of grace," restored her 
 to the throne, from which her brother had expelled her. 
 War ensued between Caesar and Ptolemy, who was de- 
 feated and killed. She then became the actual sovereign., 
 though her young brother nominally shared the throne. 
 She followed Caesar to Rome in the year 46, and was an 
 inmate of his palace until his death in 44 B.C., when she 
 returned to Egypt. Her brother, above mentioned, was 
 killed about this time, — it is said, by her order. In the 
 year 41 she formed a liaison with the triumvir Mark An- 
 tony, who became her devoted admirer, and offered, as 
 Plutarch says, at her shrine of luxury the sacrifice of his 
 precious time. The great modern dramatist has described 
 his infatuation and his dalliance with the voluptuous and 
 dusky Egyptian while the empire of the world was passing 
 into the hands of Octavius. Cleopatra was present at 
 the naval battle of Actium, in 31 B.C., and was the first 
 to order a retreat, in which Antony followed. After An- 
 tony had killed himself, she became the prisoner of Octa- 
 vius, with whom she had an interview, and whose favour 
 she failed to gain. Intending to lead her as a captive in 
 his triumph in Rome, he took strict measures to secure 
 her from suicide ; but, according to Plutarch, she effected 
 her purpose by means of an asp, which was conveyed to 
 her in a basket of fruit, and died in 30 B.C., leaving a 
 son, Caesarion, (whose reputed father was Julius Caesar,) 
 besides several other children. She was the last of her 
 dynasty that reigned in Egypt. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Antony;" C^5sar, " Bellum Civile;" Guti.io 
 Landi, "Vita di Cleopatra," 1551 ; J. F. Kinderling, "Hekubaund 
 Cleopatra," 1804 : Dion Cassius, books xlii., xliii., xlviii., and xltx. 
 
 Cleopatra surnamed Sei.e'ne, the daughter of Mark 
 Antony and Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, was taken to 
 Rome at the death of her parents, 30 B.C. She became 
 the wife of Juba, King of Mauritania. 
 
 Cleopatre. See Cleopatra. 
 
 Cle-o-phan'tus, [KAeo^avrog,] a Corinthian, whom 
 Greek tradition commemorates as the first who applied 
 colour to designs. Respecting the time in which he lived 
 we have nothing but conjecture. 
 
 Cle'o-phon or Kle'o-phon, [KAeo<^ii>,] an Athenian 
 demagogue, who dissuaded the people from accepting 
 the terms offered by the Lacedemonians after the battle 
 of Arginusae. He was condemned and executed by the 
 senate in 405 B.C. 
 
 Cleostrate. See Cleostratus. 
 
 Cle-os'tra-tus or Kle-os'tra-tus, [Gr. KAeoorparoc; 
 Fr. Cleostrate, kla'o'stRft',) a Greek astronomer, born 
 in Tenedos, is supposed to have lived about 500 B.C. 
 He is said to have divided the zodiac into signs. 
 
 Clerc,- klaiR, (Nicolas Gabriel,) a French physician, 
 born in Franche-Comte in 1726. He became first phy- 
 sician of the French army in Germany in 1757. A few 
 years later he went to Russia, where he had the title of 
 chief physician to the grand duke. He published seve- 
 ral medical works, one of which was very successful, 
 namely, "Medicine restored to its First Simplicity," and 
 a " History of Russia, Ancient and Modern," (6 vols., 
 1783-94,) which, says M. Weiss, (in the "Biographie 
 Universelle,") "is still the most complete work we have 
 on that subject." Died at Versailles in 1798. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte'taire :" Exoy, " Dictionnaire de 
 la Medecine." 
 
 Clerc de la Forrest, le, leh klaiR deh IS fo'ri'. 
 (Antoine,) a French scholar, noted for his beneficence, 
 was born at Auxerre in 1563. Among his works are 
 "Letters and Maxims," (1644.) Died in 1628. 
 
 See his life, entitled "The Perfect Layman," (in French,) 1644. 
 
 a.' T .~. o, ii. v. 'oif: V \ h.99rr.p, lew .ny-Or..-.?,.-!. 5 x.r.n.'j. v. ■'/,>>•.'.• -i.e. \ o»*4ftw.«r; Sri Hill. ftemSt: 11 fit: rood: moon: 
 
CLERC 
 
 6*3 
 
 CLE FES 
 
 Clero, Lo. See Le Ci.erc. 
 
 Clerc, le, leh klaiR, (Jean,) surnamed le Chevalier, 
 (leh sheh-vi'lc-A',) a French painter, a pupil of Carlo 
 Vciu/i.ino, ww born at Nancy in 1587. He worked for 
 many years at Venice. Died in 1633. 
 
 Clerck, klenk, (Karl,) a Swedish entomologist, and 
 pupil of l.iniuvas, was the author of esteemed works, 
 entitled "Swedish Spiders," ("Aranei Suecici," 1757,) 
 and " Figures of Rare Insects," (" Icones Insectornm 
 rariorum,") which was highly praised by Linnaius in a 
 note to his " Systema Naturae." 
 
 Clerembault, de, deh kla'rfiN'bd', (Philippe,) Count 
 de 1'allu.ui, (pa'lu'6',) a marshal of France, bom in 1606 ; 
 died in 1665. 
 
 Clerfayt or Clairfait, de, pron. alike deh kleVfJ', 
 (Francois Seha.stien Charles Joseph de Croix — deh 
 Utwa,) Count, an eminent Austrian general, born near 
 Binche, in Flanders, in 1733. He fought against the Prus- 
 sians in the Seven Years' war, (1755-62,) and became 
 general-major in 1773. For his victory over the Turks, 
 near Korammcck, he was promoted to the rank of gen- 
 eral of artillery in 1790. He commanded a division at 
 the battle of Jemmapes, (November, 1792.) The victory 
 of the Austrians at Neerwinden, (1793,) where he com- 
 manded the left wing, is attributed to him. He was de- 
 feated near Tournay in 1794. He received the baton of 
 field-marshal, with the command of the armyof the Rhine, 
 in 1795, forced Jourdan to repass the Rhine, and gained 
 a victory over another French army at Mentz. In 1796 
 he was superseded by the Archduke Charles, and became 
 a member of the council of war in Vienna. Died in 1798. 
 
 See Jomini, "Histoire critique, etc. desGuerresde la Revolution." 
 
 Clerion, kla're'o.s', (Jacques,) a French sculptor, 
 born near Aix in 1640. His principal works are in the 
 park of Versailles. Died in 1714. 
 
 Clerisseau, kl&'re'so', (Charles Louis,) a successful 
 French painter and architect, born in 1720, built the 
 Hotel of the Government at Metz, and published "An- 
 tiquities of France." Died in 1820. 
 
 Clerjon, kleVzh6N', (Pierre,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Vienne in 1800, wrote a "History of Lyons," 
 ( 1 83 1 , ) and other works. Died in 1832. 
 
 Clerk, (John,) a Scottish naval tactician, born at 
 Eldin about 1730. He is the reputed inventor of the 
 manoeuvre in naval tactics called "breaking the line," 
 which was first tried with success by Sir George Rod- 
 ney in April, 1782, when he defeated De Grasse in the 
 West Indies. He published, in 1782, an " Essay on 
 Naval Tactics." Died in 1812. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Clerk, (John,) Lord Eldin, a Scottish judge and 
 eloquent advocate, son of the preceding, born about 
 1757. He lived in Edinburgh. Died in 1832. 
 
 Clerke, (Charles,) an able English navigator, born 
 in 1741. He accompanied Captain Cook in his voyages 
 around the world between 1768 and 1776, and upon the 
 death of Cook he became commander of the expedition. 
 He died at sea in 1779. 
 
 See Cook, " Voyages ;" W. Smith, " Voyages around the World." 
 
 Clermont, de, deh kleVmoN', (Louis de Bourbon 
 Conde — deh booR'boN' k6.N'da',) Comte, a French 
 prince, born in 1709. He displayed courage and ability 
 in several campaigns between 1733 and 1750. About 1754 
 he was admitted into the French Academy. He com- 
 manded the army in Hanover in 1758, and was defeated 
 at Crevelt. Died in 1770. 
 
 Clermont-Tonnerre, de, deh kleVm6N r to'naiR', 
 (Aime Marie Gaspard,) Due, a French minister of 
 state, born in Paris in 1780, was a son of Gaspard Paulin, 
 and nephew of the cardinal. He entered the Chamber 
 of Peers in 1815, was appointed minister of the marine 
 in 1S21. and was minister of war from 1823 until 1827. 
 
 Clermont-Tonnerre, de, (Anne Antoine Jui.es,) 
 Cardinal, born in Paris in 1749, was a son of Jules 
 Charles Henri, noticed below. He became Bishop of 
 Chalons in 1782, and acted with the royalists in the 
 States-General of 1789. In 1820 he was made Archbishop 
 of Toulouse, and a cardinal in 1822. Died in 1S30. 
 
 Clermont-Tonnerre, de, (Francois,) a Frenchman, 
 born in 1629, became Bishop and Count of Noyon. He 
 was admitted into the French Academy in 1694, and 
 
 founded the annual prize of poetry offered by that insti- 
 tution. Died in 1701. 
 
 See Saint-Simon. " M(!moires." 
 
 Clermont-Tonnerre, de, (Gaspard,) Marquis, a 
 French general, born in 1688. He commanded the left 
 wing at Fontenoy, and had a prominent part in the battle 
 of Laufeld in 1746. In the same year he was made 
 marshal of F'rance. Died in 1781. 
 
 Clermont-Tonnerre, de,(Si'ANisi.AS,)CovTE, grand- 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1 747. He was elected by 
 the noblesse of Paris to the States-General in 1789. He 
 was liberal in politics, and was one of those nobles who 
 joined the Tiers-fitat. By his eloquence and other talents 
 he acquired much influence in the Assembly, but was too 
 moderate to please the party which became dominant. 
 He advocated the absolute veto, and the civic equality 
 of Protestants with all other Frenchmen. He perished 
 in the massacre of August 10, 1792. "Clermont-Ton- 
 nerre and Malhouet," says Lamartine, "were statesmen 
 rather than orators : their sure and deliberate speech 
 impressed the reason only. They sought an equilibrium 
 between liberty and monarchy, and believed they had 
 found it in the English system of two chambers." (" His- 
 tory of the Girondists.") 
 
 Clerselier, kleR'sa'le-A', written also Clersellier, 
 (Claude,) a French metaphysician, born in 1614, was a 
 partisan of the Cartesian philosophy. He edited the 
 " Principles of Philosophy" and other works of Descartes. 
 Bayle calls hiin the "ornament and pillar of Cartesian- 
 ism." Died in 1684. 
 
 Clery, kla're', (Jean Baptiste Cant Hanet,) the 
 last servant of Louis XVI. of France, was born at Ver- 
 sailles in 1759. He served that king as valet-de-chambre 
 in prison, and published a "Journal of the Captivity of 
 Louis XVI. in the Temple." Died near Vienna in 1809. 
 
 See Madame Campan, "Memoires;" Vigee le Bkun, "Sou- 
 venirs." 
 
 Clesinger, kleh-zaN'zha', (Jean Baptiste Auguste,) 
 a successful French sculptor, born at Besancon about 
 1S20. His statue of a "Woman bitten by a Serpent" 
 (1847) is called one of his best works. About 1856 he 
 exhibited in Paris an equestrian statue of Francis I. 
 
 Cleve, van, vSn kl&v, (Cornelius,) a French sculp- 
 tor, of Dutch extraction, born in Paris in 1645. After 
 studying at Rome six years, he returned home in 1677, 
 and worked in Paris with success. He was a member 
 of the Royal Academy, Died in 1732. 
 
 Cleveland. See Cleaveland. 
 
 Cleveland, kleev'Iand, (Charles Dexter,) an Ame- 
 rican scholar and writer, born in Salem, Massachusetts, 
 in 1802. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1827, and in 
 1830 was appointed Latin and Greek professor in Dick- 
 inson College, Pennsylvania. In 1834 he established a 
 Young Ladies' Seminary in Philadelphia, which soon 
 acquired a high reputation. He has published, besides 
 other works, "A Compendium of Grecian Antiquities, 
 with Maps and Illustrations |" "Compendium of Knglish 
 Literature from Sir John Mandeville to William Cow- 
 per," (1850;) "English Literature of the Nineteenth 
 Century," (1851 ;) a critical edition of Milton's Poetical 
 Works, (1853;) a "Compendium of American Litera- 
 ture," (1858;) and a "Compendium of Classical Litera- 
 ture," (1861.) All the last-named works have enjoyed an 
 extensive and deserved popularity. Died in 1869. 
 
 Clev'en-ger, (Shobal L. Vail,) an American sculp- 
 tor, born at Middletown, Ohio, in 1812. He learned 
 the trade of a stonecutter, which he followed in Cincin- 
 nati. Having attracted attention, he removed to Boston, 
 where he made busts of Webster, Clay, and others, 
 which were much admired. He afterwards studied for 
 several years in Italy, and died at sea, while on his 
 passage home, .in September, 1843. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists;" "Democratic Review" 
 for February, 1844. 
 
 Cleves, de, deh kllv, (Marie,) Duchess of Orleans, 
 bom in 1426, was a daughter of Adolphus IV., Duke of 
 Cleves, and a niece of Philip the Good of Burgundy. 
 She was married in 1440 to Charles d'Orleans the poet. 
 She wrote ballads and other verses. Her son became 
 Louis XII., King of France. Died in 1487. 
 
 See " Nouvclle Biographic GineVale." 
 
 «3« /fj C is s: g hiirt/- g as;': c„ H, K. guttural: N. tttuait R. IriUrJ: fas ».' th as in this, (^"See Exnlanntions. p, 31.) 
 
CLETER 
 
 624 
 
 CLINTON 
 
 Cleyer, kll'er, (Andreas,) a German botanist, born 
 at Cassel, passed some years in Java, and enriched the 
 science of botany with his observations and memoirs. 
 Du Petit-Thouars say* he visited China and Japan and 
 returned to Europe about 1680. 
 
 Cleyn, kiln, (Franz,) a Danish painter, born at Ros- 
 tock, worked in England, and received a pension from 
 James I. Died in 1658. 
 
 Cleynaerts. .See Ci.enard. 
 
 Clichtove, kllK'to'veh, (Jossk,) a Flemish theologian, 
 born at Nieuwpoort. He became professor of theology 
 in Paris, and acquired a high reputation as a preacher and 
 writer. His most popular work was an argument against 
 Luther's doctrines, called " Anti-Lutherus," (1524.) His 
 writings were commended by Erasmus as "uberrimus 
 rerum optimarum fons," (" an abundant fountain of the 
 best things.") Died in 1543. 
 
 Clicquot de Blervache, kle'ko' deh bleVvtsh', 
 (Simon,) a meritorious French economist, born at Rheims 
 in 1723, became inspector-general of commerce in 1765. 
 He wrote an " Essay on the State of Commerce in France 
 from Hugh Capet to Francis I.," (1756.) Died in 1796. 
 
 Clieveland. See Cleaveland. 
 
 Clifford. See Cliffort. 
 
 Clifford, (Anne,) Countess of Dorset, an English 
 lady, eminent for her virtue, intelligence, and high spirit, 
 born at Skipton Castle in 1589, was the daughter of 
 George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland. She was married 
 first to the Earl of Dorset, and then to Philip Herbert, 
 Earl of Pembroke. She built two hospitals and several 
 churches. In the reign of Charles II. Sir Joseph Wil- 
 liamson nominated to her a candidate whom he wished 
 to be returned to Parliament for Appleby. In reply 
 she wrote this famous letter: "I have been bullied by 
 an usurper, I have been neglected by a court, but I will 
 not be dictated to by a subject : your man sha'n't stand." 
 Died in 1676. 
 
 See "Autobiographic Memorials ;" L. S. Costeli.o, " Memoirs 
 of Eminent Englishwomen," London, 1844; Hartley Coleridge, 
 " Lives of Distinguished Northerns," vol. ii. 
 
 Clifford, (Arthur,) an English writer, born of a noble 
 family in 1778. He was author or editor of several works, 
 among which are " Carmen Seculare,"and " State Papers 
 and Letters of Sir Ralph Sadler." Died in 1830. 
 
 Clifford, (George,) third Earl of Cumberland, born 
 in England in 1558, was famous for his gallantry. He 
 was often the champion of Queen Elizabeth in tourna- 
 ments. In 1588 he fought as captain against the In- 
 vincible Armada. He afterwards commanded several 
 expeditions against the Spaniards. Died in 1605. 
 
 See J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen 
 Elizabeth's Reign," 1845; Campbell, "Lives of the British Ad- 
 mirals." 
 
 Clifford, (John,) Lord, called Black Clifford, an 
 English warrior, notorious for cruelty, fought for the 
 house of Lancaster in the war of the Roses. He was 
 killed in 1461. See Shakspeare's "Henry VI." 
 
 Clifford, (Martin.) an English writer, published 
 " Observations on Human Reason," and other works. 
 Died in 1677. 
 
 Clifford, (Thomas,) eighth Lord, an English Lancas- 
 trian chief, performed an important part in the war of 
 the Roses. He was the father of the " Black Clifford" 
 noticed above. He was killed at the battle of Saint 
 Alban's in 1455. (See Shakspeare's " Henry VI.") 
 
 Clifford, (THOMA8,) Lord, an English politician, born 
 in 1630, became in 1660 a member of Parliament, in which 
 he distinguished himself. In 1668 he was chosen a com- 
 missioner of the treasury, and in 1671 he with four others 
 formed the notorious cabinet called the Cabal because 
 the initial letters of their names happened to form that 
 word. He was created Baron in 1672, and was lord 
 treasurer for a short time, but resigned office in 1673. 
 Macaulay calls hit t the most respectable member of the 
 Cabal. Died in 1673. 
 
 See Macaulay's "History of England." 
 
 Cliffort, klif'fort, or Clifford, (George,) a rich banker 
 of Amsterdam, whose name is rendered memorable by 
 nis connection with Linnaeus. Having a taste for natural 
 history, he formed near Amsterdam a fine garden, with 
 a rich collection of objects in natural history. When Lin- 
 naeus was a poor student, he was employed to arrange and 
 
 direct this museum and garden, which he described in his 
 " Hortus Cliffortianus," (1737,) a richly-illustrated work. 
 
 Clift, (William,) F.R.S., an English naturalist, born 
 near Bodmin in 1775, was employed as artist and clerk 
 by the great John Hunter. He became conservator of 
 the Hunterian Museum about 1800. Died in 1849. 
 
 Crif'ton,( Francis,) F.R.S., an English physician, prac- 
 tised in London with a high reputation, and became 
 physician to the Prince of Wales. He translated several 
 treatises of Hippocrates, and wrote " The State of Physic, 
 Ancient and Modern," (1732.) 
 
 Clifton, (William,) an American poet, born in 
 Philadelphia in 1772. He left an unfinished poem, called 
 "The Chimeriad," a " Poetical Epistle to William Gif- 
 ford," and other poems. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Griswold's " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Climaque. See Climacus. 
 
 Clirn'a-cus, (Joannes,) [Gr. 'Iouvwk ° KAi'/wwoc; Fr. 
 CLIMAQUE, kle'mtk',]a monk, noted for his learning and 
 ascetic writings, was born about 525 A.D., and received 
 the surname of Scholasticus. He passed many years 
 as a hermit in the deserts of Sinai. In 600 he was 
 chosen abbot of the monastery of Mount Sinai. He 
 wrote (in Greek) several works, one of which is called 
 " Climax, or the Ladder of Paradise," and has often been 
 reprinted. Died in 605. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grasca." 
 
 Clinchamp, klaN'shd.N', (Francois F/itenne Vic- 
 tor,) a French writer and historical painter, born at 
 Toulon in 1787. He published a "Complete Course of 
 Perspective, Linear and Aerial," (1840,) and " The Id ; om 
 of Painting," etc. 
 
 Cline, (Henry,) an English surgeon, born in London 
 about 1750, wrote an esteemed " Essay on the Form and 
 Breeding of Domestic Animals," (1815.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Cliiig'man, (Thomas L.,) born in Surry county, 
 North Carolina, was elected a member of Congress in 
 1843, as a Whig, and was re-elected several times. 
 Having joined the Democratic party, he was elected to 
 the Senate of the United States in 1858. 
 
 Clin'i-as, the father of Alcibiades, was killed at the 
 battle of Coronea in 447 B.C. 
 
 Clinias, a Pythagorean philosopher, and friend of 
 Plato, born at Tarentum, lived about 400 H.C. 
 
 Cll-nom'a-ehus, [Fr. Clinomaque, kle'no'mfk',] a 
 philosopher of the school of Megara, was born at Thu- 
 rium, and lived about 350 B.C. 
 
 Cliii'ton, (Charles,) Colonel, the father of Gov- 
 ernor George Clinton, was born in 1690 in Longford, Ire- 
 land. He emigrated to America in 1729, and settled in 
 Ulster county, New York. He was judge of the county 
 court, and a lieutenant under Bradstreet at the capture 
 of Fort Frontenac. Died in 1773. 
 
 Clm'toii, (Charles John Fynes,) an English clergy- 
 man, born in 1799, edited or published "The Literary 
 Remains of Henry Fynes Clinton," (1854.) 
 
 Clin'ton, (De Witt,) an eminent American states- 
 man, born at Little Britain, Orange county, New York, 
 March 2, 1769, was a son of General James Clinton 
 and Mary De Witt. He was a nephew of George Clin- 
 ton who was chosen Vice-President of the United States 
 in 1804. He graduated at Columbia College, New York, 
 in 1786, and studied law, but never practised it to much 
 extent. About 1790 he became private secretary of his 
 uncle, George Clinton, then Governor of New York. 
 "The life of Clinton," says Renwick, "was from. this 
 moment one of political strife, into which he threw all 
 the force of his ardent temperament and brilliant talents." 
 He began his career as a Republican or Anti- Federalist. 
 He married, about 1796, Maria Franklin, of New York 
 City. In 1797 he was elected a member of the legisla- 
 ture, and in 1798 a Senator, of the State of New York. 
 Among other pursuits, he applied himself with ardour to 
 the study of natural history and other sciences. 
 
 Having become the most influential leader of the 
 Democrats of New York, he was elected a Senator of 
 the United States in 1801 or 1S02. He made a powerful 
 speech on the navigation of the Mississippi, and opposed 
 a war against Spain, which disputed the right of the 
 Americans to navigate that river. He possessed in high 
 perfection the gift of commanding eloquence. Accord- 
 
 a, e, T, 0, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, ?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n3t; go6d;,mo5n; 
 
CLINTON 
 
 62c 
 
 CLINTON 
 
 ing to Professor Renwick, " he was on all sides looked 
 up to as the most rising man in the Union," when he 
 was appointed mayor of the city of New York in 1803. 
 This office was then more important than it is at the 
 present time ; for the mayor was also the president of 
 the council and chief judge of the common pleas and of 
 the criminal court. He continued to serve as mavor 
 until 1807, was again appointed in 1809, and removed in 
 1810. He filled the same office from 181 1 to 1814 in- 
 clusive, and by his wise and efficient administration con- 
 tributed much to the prosperity of the city. Under his 
 auspices the Historical Society and the Academy of Fine 
 Arts were established. He also served as Lieutenant- 
 Governor for two years, 1811-13. He was one of seven 
 commissioners appointed in 1809 to examine and survey 
 a route for a canal from the Hudson to the lakes. 
 
 De Witt Clinton and Aaron Burr were political rivals ; 
 and, after the iatter fell into disgrace, Daniel D. Tomp- 
 kins became a competitor for the leadership of the New 
 York Democracy. Tompkins excelled in the art of 
 gaining the favour of the people, while Clinton was 
 deficient in popular arts and found it more difficult to 
 ingratiate himself with strangers. His popularity was 
 impaired by his disagreement with President Madison 
 in relation to the war of 1812, for which he thought the 
 country was not well prepared. He was nominated for 
 the office of President of the United States in 1812, and 
 received eighty-nine electoral votes, cast by New Hamp- 
 shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New 
 York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, but was 
 defeated by James Madison. 
 
 He was the first president of the Literary and Philo- 
 sophical Society, founded about 1814. According to Mr. 
 Renwick, "the charge of being opposed to a war with 
 Great Britain, which has been so often urged against 
 him, is devoid of foundation." In 1815 he gave a new 
 impulse to internal improvement by an able memorial in 
 favour of the immediate construction of the Erie Canal. 
 The merit of this memorial, together with his subsequent 
 services, was such as to entitle him to stand first in the 
 list of the promoters of this vast and beneficent enter- 
 prise, on which his political prospects and reputation 
 were staked. In the spring of 181 7 a bill authorizing 
 the construction of the Erie Canal passed the legislature. 
 Mr. Clinton was almost unanimously elected Governor 
 of New York about May, 1817; but his opponents soon 
 formed against him a powerful party, called " Bucktails," 
 who denounced the projected canal as visionary and 
 impracticable. The canal policy was the chief point at 
 issue in the election of 1820, and Governor Clinton 
 was then re-elected in preference to his old rival, Daniel 
 D. Tompkins ; but the opponents of Clinton obtained 
 majorities in both branches of the legislature. 
 
 He was pre-eminent among statesmen for his compre- 
 hensive views and his liberal patronage of learning and 
 schools. In a message to the legislature he affirmed, 
 " It cannot be too forcibly inculcated, nor too generally 
 understood, that in promoting the great interests of moral 
 and intellectual cultivation there can be no prodigality 
 in the application of the public treasure." While he 
 filled the office of Governor he was also president of the 
 Board of Canal Commissioners. Having lost his first 
 wife in 1818, he married Catherine Jones about 1820. 
 He declined to be a candidate for Governor in 1822, and 
 the election of that year resulted in the success of his 
 adversaries, who removed him from the office of canal 
 commissioner in 1824. This act excited the just indig- 
 nation of the people, who elected him Governor in the 
 autumn of 1824 by a majority of about 16,000, a greater 
 majority than any candidate had ever received. The 
 Erie Canal was completed in 1825, and Governor Clinton 
 lived to witness the unexampled prosperity which it pro- 
 duced. The opening of the canal was celebrated with 
 pomp in October, 1825, when the Governor was conveyed 
 In a barge through a triumphal progress from Lake Erie 
 to the city of New York. He was re-elected Governor 
 for two years in 1826. In 1825 he declined the position 
 of minister to England, offered to him by President 
 Adams. He wrote several short treatises on natural his- 
 tory, which were published in the "Transactions" of the 
 Literary and Philosophical Society, (of New York,) and 
 
 contributed to the Historical Society a valuable discoursi 
 on the history of the Indians of New York. He died 
 at Albany in February, 1828, leaving several sons and 
 daughters. His stature was tall, his person well formed, 
 his manners dignified, and his presence majestic. 
 
 See James Rknwick, " Life of De Witt Clinton," 1S40: "National 
 Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. ; " Life of 1 >c 
 Witt Clinton, by William W, Campbkli., 1849; " Memoir of De 
 Witt Clinton," by Daviu Hosack, 1829; " North American Review" 
 for October, 1829. 
 
 Clinton, (Edward.) See Lincoln, Earl of. 
 
 Clinton, (George,) fourth Vice-President of the 
 United States, youngest son of Colonel Charles Clinton, 
 was born in Ulster county, New York, in 1739. He 
 practised law with success, and became the head of the 
 Whig party in the Colonial Assembly of New York. 
 Elected to the Continental Congress in 1775, ne voted 
 for the Declaration of Independence ; but, being called 
 shortly after to take command of a brigade of New York 
 militia, his name does not appear among the signers of 
 that instrument. Chosen Governor of New York at the 
 first election under the State Constitution in 1777, he 
 held the office, by successive re-elections, for eighteen 
 years. In 1788 he was chosen president of the conven- 
 tion called to adopt or reject the Federal Constitution, 
 which he opposed, as giving too much power to the cen- 
 tral government and too little to the States. Governor 
 Clinton was thenceforth the leader of the Republican 
 party in New York, and at the close of Washington's 
 first term, in 1792, received fifty electoral votes for Vice- 
 President. He was again chosen Governor of New 
 York in 1801, and in 1804 he was elected Vice-President 
 of the United States, with Jefferson as President. Ii> 
 the national canvass of 1808 he was re-chosen Vice-Presi 
 dent, James Madison being President. As President of 
 the Senate by virtue of this office, he gave the casting 
 vote against the re-charter of the United States Bank in 
 181 1. Died at Washington in April, 1812. 
 
 See "Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Clinton, (Sir Henry,) an English general, born about 
 1738, was a grandson of Francis Clinton, sixth Earl of 
 Lincoln. He became a captain in the Guards in 1758, 
 and rut! risen to the rank of major-general in 1775, when 
 he took a prominent part in the battle of Bunker Hill. 
 In January, 1778, he was appointed commander-in-chief 
 instead of General Howe, who was recalled. He evacu- 
 ated Philadelphia in June, and retired through Jersey 
 to New York City. He sent an expedition against 
 Savannah, which was successful, in 1779, and he led an 
 army against Charleston, South Carolina, which he cap- 
 tured in May, 1780. In the same year he negotiated 
 with General Arnold, and co-operated with him in his 
 treasonable project. He was superseded by General 
 Carleton in 1781, and returned to England in 1782. Died 
 at Gibraltar in 1795. 
 
 See Bancroft, "History of the United States;" "Encyclopaedia 
 Americana." 
 
 Clinton, (Sir Henry,) an English general, born about 
 1765. In 1798 he acted as aide-de-camp of Lord Corn- 
 wallis in Ireland. He was made adjutant-general in 1S02, 
 and served in the East Indies until 1805. He obtained 
 the rank of major-general in 1810, and served with dis- 
 tinction in several campaigns in the Peninsula under Wel- 
 lington. As lieutenant-general, he commanded a division 
 at Waterloo in 1815. For his conduct on this occasion 
 he was rewarded with the title of knight of various orders. 
 Died about 1830. 
 
 Clinton. (Henry Fynes,) an eminent English clas- 
 sical scholar and writer, born at Gamston, Notting- 
 hamshire, in 1 781, was a descendant of the second 
 Earl of Lincoln. He graduated at Oxford in 1805. He 
 represented Aldborough in Parliament for about twenty 
 years previous to 1826. After long and close application 
 to the study of Greek and Roman authors, he produced 
 in 1834 an' important work, entitled "Fasti Hellenic!: 
 the Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece," which 
 is indispensable to students of ancient history. His 
 " Chronology of Rome" ("Fasti Romani," 1845-50) is 
 also highly prized. Died in 1852. 
 
 See " Literary Remains of H. F. Clinton," by C. J. F. Clinton, 
 1854- 
 
 ; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. ( J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 40 
 
 easx 1 
 
CLINTON 
 
 626 
 
 CLOD I US 
 
 Clinton, (Henry Pelham.) See Newcastle, Duke 
 
 guished success. She was married early to a Mr. Clive, 
 from whom she soon separated. Died in 1785. 
 
 Clive, (Robert,) Lord, the founder of the British 
 empire in India, an able and successful general and 
 statesman, was born, of rather poor parents, near Market 
 Drayton, Shropshire, in 1725. At school he made little 
 progress in study, and was noted for his fiery passions 
 and propensity to mischief. In his eighteenth year he 
 went to Madras, as a writer in the service of the East 
 India Company, then merely a trading corporation own- 
 ing but a few acres of Indian ground. As his pay was 
 small and his health was impaired bv the cliinate. he 
 became so weary of life that he attempted to kill himself; 
 but his pistol twice missed fire. About that time war 
 began between the English and French in India ; and 
 Clive entered the service of the Company as ensign in 
 '747- By his courage and sagacity he lose rapidly to 
 distinction. The brilliant successes of the French gov- 
 ernor Dupleix alarmed the English, and produced a crisis 
 in the politics of India. Captain Clive, having obtained 
 command of a few hundred men in 1750, turned the tide 
 of fortune at Arcot, and gained several victories over the 
 French and native armies combined. Having married 
 Miss Maskelyne, a sister of the astronomer-royal, he 
 returned to England for his health in 1753, and found 
 himself an object of general favour and applause. 
 
 In 1755 tne directors sent him back as governor of 
 Fort Saint David. The next year Surajah Dowlah, Na- 
 bob of Bengal, captured the British garrison of Fort 
 William, and smothered them in the "Black Hole" of 
 Calcutta. Clive was sent to avenge this outrage. He 
 recovered Calcutta, and compelled the nabob to sue for 
 peace in 1757. But the war was quickly renewed, and 
 in June, 1757, the fate of India was decided at the battle 
 of Plassey, where Clive with 3000 men defeated about 
 60,000 of the enemy. Surajah was deposed, and was 
 put to death by order of Meer Jaffier, who had been 
 raised to the throne of Bengal in place of Surajah Dow- 
 lah. In the negotiations which preceded the battle of 
 Plassey, Clive is censured for a breach of faith, which is 
 not denied by his friends. The directors, on receiving 
 news of his victory, appointed Clive Governor of Bengal, 
 ii 1759 he defeated a Dutch armament which had en- 
 tered the Hoogly. In the next year he returned to Eng- 
 land, immensely rich, and was raised to the Irish peerage 
 as Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey. He was elected to 
 Parliament, where he acquired great influence. In 1764 
 he was again sent to India, with supreme command, and 
 remained about a year and a half. He returned home 
 in ill health in 1767. His enemies arraigned his official 
 conduct, and Burgoyne in 1773 accused him in the House 
 of abusing his power in the acquisition of riches. The 
 result of the inquest was that they "tempered a gentle 
 censure with a liberal eulogy." From his youth he had 
 been subject to fits of constitutional gloom, which were 
 now aggravated by physical maladies. He resorted to 
 the use of opium for relief, and gradually became enslaved 
 by its insidious power. In November, 1774, he died by 
 suicide. " His name," says Macaulay, in a strain of some- 
 what exaggerated eulogy, "stands high on the roll of 
 conquerors. But it is found in a better list, — in the list 
 of those who have done and suffered much for the hap- 
 piness of mankind." 
 
 See Macaulay, "Essays;" Sir John Malcolm, "Life of Lord 
 Clive," 3 vols., 1S36: G. R. Gleig, "Life of Lord Clive," 1848; 
 "Biographls Britannica ;" C. Caraccioli, "Life of Lord Clive,' 
 4 vols., 1776. 
 
 Clodion, klo'de'c-N', (Claude Michel,) a French 
 sculptor, born at Nancy about 1745 ; died ill 1814. 
 
 Clodius, kio'de-as, (Christian August,) a German 
 poet and professor, born at Annaberg, in Saxony, in 1738, 
 was a son of Christian Clodius, who published several 
 works in prose and verse. He obtained the chair of 
 philosophy at Eeipsic in 1 764, and that of logic in 1 778. 
 He became professor of poetry in the same city in 1782. 
 His writings display a brilliant imagination, good taste, 
 and extensive knowledge of the ancients. Among his 
 chief works are " Essays on Literature and Morality," 
 (1769,) "Latin Poems," (1787,) and " New Miscellanies," 
 (" Neue vermischte Schriften.") Died at Leipsic in 1 784. 
 
 See Ernesti. "Elotjium C. A. Clodius:" Meuski.. "I.exiko del 
 vom Jahr 1750 bis 1S00 verstorbenen Deutschen Schriftsteller." 
 
 i, e, T, 0, ft, j , hag; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; m<5on; 
 
 OF. 
 
 Clinton, (James,) a distinguished officer in the Ameri- 
 can Revolution, fourth son of Colonel Charles Clinton, 
 and father of De Witt Clinton, was born in Ulster county, 
 New York, in 1736. He greatly distinguished himself 
 in the English and French war, was appointed by Con- 
 gress a colonel at the breaking out of the Revolution in 
 1775, a,K ' tne same year accompanied Montgomery in 
 his expedition to Canada. In 1777 he commanded, as 
 brigadier-general, under his brother George, noticed 
 above, at the defence of Fort Clinton against Sir Henry 
 Clinton, with a force of 3000. He afterwards rendered 
 valuable service in Sullivan's expedition against the In- 
 dians, and was for a longtime stationed, in command of 
 the Northern department, at Albany. In 1781 he assisted 
 at the siege of Yorktown. After the war he filled various 
 important civil offices in New York. Died in 1812. 
 
 See "Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Cli'o, [Gr. KA«<J,] one of the nine Muses, presided 
 over history, and was represented as holding in one hand 
 a half-opened roll, and in the other a harp, (cithara.) 
 See Mi;s,«. 
 
 Clisson, de, deh kle'sdN', (Olivier,) a famous French 
 captain, born in Bretagne about 1335. He became in 
 1370 a companion-in-arms of Du Guesclin, and in 1380 
 was made Constable of France. In 1382 he commanded 
 the vanguard at the battle of Rosbecq. He was deprived 
 of the command in 1 391, and died in 1407, leaving a repu- 
 tation tarnished by an unscrupulous avidity for money. 
 
 See La Fontenelle de Vauxdore, " Histoire d'Olivierde Clis- 
 son," 1S25. 
 
 Clisthene. See Clisthenes. 
 
 Clis'the-ues, a tyrant of Sicyon, waged war against 
 Argos, and prohibited his subjects from singing the 
 poetry of Homer. Died about 580 B.C. 
 
 Clisthenes, Cleis'the-nes, or Kleisthenes, [Gr. 
 Kteiottevijc; Fr. Clisthene, kles't&n',] an Athenian states- 
 man, who flourished about 500 B.C., was the grandfather 
 of Pericles, and grandson of the preceding. He made im- 
 portant changes in trie constitution, tending to increase 
 the power of the commons, and thus became very popular. 
 He changed the number of tribes of Attica from four to, 
 ten. After his rival Isagoras was exiled, Clisthenes was 
 for some time the foremost man in the state. It is said 
 that the mode of banishing by ostracism was instituted 
 by him. 
 
 See Herodotus, " History," books v. and vi. ; Grote, " History 
 of Greece ;" Thirlwall, " History of Greece." 
 
 Cll-tar'chus or Clei-tar'eaus, [Gr. KMrapxoc; Fr. 
 CUTARQUE, kle'tiuk',1 a son of Dinon the historian, 
 jived about 330 B.C. He followed Alexander the Great 
 in his expedition to Asia, and wrote a history of the 
 same, which has not come down to us. The veracity of 
 this work is discredited by Quintilian and Cicero. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Graects." 
 
 Clitarque. See Clitarchus. 
 
 Cll-torn'a-ehus, [Gr. Kletrdfiaxoc,] a Carthaginian 
 philosopher, who about 150 B.C. became a resident of 
 Athens and a disciple of Carneades. At the death of 
 the latter, in 130 B.C., he succeeded him as the head of 
 the Academy. He wrote numerous works, which are 
 not extant. Cicero often quotes him with respect. 
 
 See Brucker, " History of Philosophy." 
 
 Clit'o-phon, [KlaT(xjiuv,\ a Greek historian of an 
 uncertain epoch, was born at Rhodes. Plutarch quotes 
 or borrows from several of his works. 
 
 Cli'tus or Clei'tus, [Gr. KIhItoc,} a Macedonian offi- 
 cer, who accompanied Alexander in the invasion of 
 Persia. He saved the life of that prince at the battle of 
 the Grani'cus, (334 B.C.,) and afterwards obtained com- 
 mand of a division of the royal guards. In the year 32S 
 he was appointed Satrap of Bactria. At a feast given 
 in honour of the Dioscu ri in that year, an angry dispute 
 arose between Clitus and Alexander, who, being excited 
 with wine, killed the former with a spear. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Alexander." 
 
 Clive, (Catherine,) an eminent English actress, born 
 in 171 1, made her debut at Drury Lane about 1730. She 
 performed in comedy for about thirty years, with distin- 
 
CLODIUS 
 
 627 
 
 CLOUET 
 
 Clodius, (Johann Christian,) a German Orien- 
 talist, who became professor of Arabic at Leipsic in 1 724. 
 He published a work on the Arabic language, entitled 
 "Theoria et Praxis Linguae Arabicae," and a "Hebrew 
 Lexicon," (1744.) Died in 1745. 
 
 Clodius, (Juliana Stolzel,) the wife of Christian 
 August, noticed above, born at Altenburg in 1755, was 
 eminent for her literary talents and attainments. Died 
 in 1805. 
 
 Clo'dl-us, (LiciNius.^a Roman historian, who lived 
 probably about 100 B.C., wrote a work called 'EAeyxoi 
 Xpovuv, (" Trial of the Times.") 
 
 Clodius, (Puki.ius.) surnamed Pul'cher, a Roman 
 demagogue of very profligate character, was descended 
 from the patrician house of Claudia, and was a brother 
 of Appius Claudius Pulcher, noticed in this work. In 
 his vouth he served in Asia under Lucullus, his brother- 
 in-law. In 62 B.C. he committed an act of sacrilege by 
 procuring admission to the mysteries of Bona Dea in the 
 disguise of a woman. For this he was tried, but ac- 
 quitted by means of bribery; and he became a violent 
 enemy of Cicero, who had appeared in evidence against 
 him. He was chosen tribune of the people in 59, and 
 in the next year caused Cicero to be proscribed and 
 driven into exile. (See Cicero.) He raised several 
 bloody riots against the friends of Cicero when they 
 proposed and passed the decree for his restoration, 57 
 B.C. Milo, who succeeded Clodius as tribune, and was 
 a partisan 0/ Cicero, had several conflicts with the former. 
 While Clodius was a candidate for the praetorship, and 
 Milo for the consulship, they casually encountered each 
 other with their armed retainers, and Clodius was killed, 
 in the year 52 B.C. 
 
 Se% Cicero, "Oratio pro Milone;" Drumann, "Geschichte 
 Roms." 
 
 Clo'dl-us Ma'cer, (Lucius,) a Roman general, who, 
 on the death of Nero, raised the standard of revolt in 
 Africa, and aspired to the power of emperor. He was 
 put to death by order of Galba in 68 a.d. 
 
 Clo'do-mir, [Fr. pron. klo'do'meR',] the second son 
 of Clovis, King of the Franks, became King of Orleans 
 in 51 1 A.D. He was killed in battle with the Burgundians 
 in 524. He left three sons, two of whom were put fc>. 
 death by their uncles, and the third, Clodoald, (Saint- 
 Cloud,) became a monk. 
 
 Clodovaeus. See Clovis. 
 
 Clodwig. See Clovis. 
 
 Clonard, de, deh klo'niR', (Joseph Ernest,) a 
 French dramatist, born in 1765, wrote numerous come- 
 dies. Died in 1816. 
 
 Clon-cur'ry, (Valentine Lawless,) Lord, an Irish 
 politician, born at Dublin in 1773, was a member of the 
 Society of United Irishmen, and a friend of Emmet and 
 Grattan. He wrote "Thoughts on the Projected Union 
 between Great Britain and Ireland," (1797.) Died in 1853. 
 
 See " Personal Recollections of the Life and Times of Lord Clon- 
 curry." 
 
 Clootz, de, deh klots, (Anacharsis,) Baron, a Prus- 
 sian enthusiast, born near Cleves in 1755, was a nephew 
 of Cornelius de Pauw. Having inherited a large fortune, 
 he became a resident of Paris, and a fanatical partisan of 
 the Revolution. Assuming the title of the " orator of the 
 human race," he appeared at the bar of the Assembly 
 in 1790, at the head of a pretended deputation from 
 foreign nations. In 1792 he was elected to the Con- 
 vention by the dominant party. He was proscribed by 
 Robespierre, and executed in March, 1794. 
 
 See '" Nouvelle Biogt^iphieGeneVale;" " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 ClopineL See Meun. 
 
 Cloquet, klo'kj', (Hippolyte,) a distinguished pro- 
 fessor of anatomy, was born in Paris in 1787. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a "Treatise on Descriptive Ana- 
 tomy," (1815.) Died about 1840. 
 
 Cloquet, (Jules Germain,) an eminent French phy- 
 sician and surgeon, a brother of the preceding, was 
 born in Paris in 1790. He acquired a high reputation 
 as professor, writer, and practitioner. In 1831 he was 
 appointed professor of clinical surgery in the Faculty 
 of Paris. He wrote "Human Anatomy," ("Anatomic 
 de rHomme," 5 vols., 1821-30,) and other professional 
 works. He was elected a member of the Institute in 1855. 
 
 Clos. See Laclos. 
 
 Close, (Francis,) an eloquent English preacher, born 
 about 1798, was for many years vicar of Cheltenham. 
 He published "Discourses on Genesis," (1826,) several 
 volumes of sermons, and other works, which maintain 
 the doctrines of the Evangelical school. He was ap- 
 pointed to the deanery of Carlisle about 1856. 
 
 Closs, klos, or Clossius, klos'se-us, (Johann Fried- 
 rich,) a German physician and poet, born at Marbach 
 in 1735. He wrote several Latin poems on medical 
 subjects. Died in 1787. 
 
 Closterman, klos'ter-man', (Johann,) a German 
 portrait-painter, born at Osnaburg in 1656, worked in 
 England. Died in London in 1710. 
 
 Clostermann. See Klostermann. 
 
 Clot, klo, or Clot-Bey, klo ba, (Antoine,) a French 
 physician, born near Marseilles about 1796. He became 
 chief surgeon of Mehemet AH, Viceroy of Egypt, about 
 1823, and founded a medical school in that country. He 
 published " Observations on Egypt," (2 vols., 1840.) In 
 1849 he returned to France. Died in 1868. 
 
 See "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1841. 
 
 Clot-Bey. See Clot, (Antoine.) 
 
 Clotaire, klp'taV, [Lat. Clota'rius,] I., the fourth 
 son of Clovis, King of the Franks, was born in 497 a.d. 
 At the death of Clovis, in 511, he became King of Sois- 
 sons. He extended his dominions by murdering his 
 nephews, the heirs of the kingdoms of Orleans and 
 Austrasia, and before his death he became ruler over all 
 the territory which Clovis had divided among his sons. 
 Paris was his capital after 558. He died about 560 A.D,, 
 leaving four sons, — Caribert, Gontran, Sigebert, and 
 Chilperic I. 
 
 See Jean Bouchet, " Histoire et Clironique de Clotaire I," 1584; 
 Sls.MONDl, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Clotaire IL, the son of Chilperic I. and of Frede- 
 gonde, was an infant when he became heir to the king- 
 dom of Soissons in 584 A.D. His mother was regent 
 until her death in 597. By dethroning Brunehaut, Queen 
 of Austrasia, whom, with her song, he put to death, he 
 made himself master of all France about 615. He was 
 the first who conceded to the mayor of the palace a ten- 
 ure of office for life. His abilities and success procured 
 him the surname of "the Great." He died in 628, and 
 was succeeded by his son Dagobert. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Clotaire ITT., the eldest son of Clovis II., King of 
 the Franks, was a minor when his father died, in 655 
 A.D. ; and, the kingdom being divided into two portions, 
 he inherited Neustria and Burgundy. He died, without 
 issue, about the age of eighteen. 
 
 Clotaire IV., King of Austrasin, was raised to the 
 throne in 717 A.D. by the policy of Charles Martel, but 
 was only a nominal king. It is not known who was his 
 father. Died in 720. 
 
 See Augustin Thierry, "Recits MeVovingiens." 
 
 Clotho. See Paroe. 
 
 Clo-til'da, [Fr. Clotii.de, klo'teld',] Saint, Queen 
 of France, the daughter of Chilperic, King of Burgundy, 
 became the wife of Clovis I. in 493 A.D. By her beauty 
 and virtue she acquired much influence over Clovis, and 
 was instrumental in converting him to the profession 
 of Christianity. She adhered to the Catholic creed in 
 opposition to Arianism, which was then very prevalent. 
 Died in 545. 
 
 See Renaud de Rouvrav, " Histoire de Sainte-CIotilde," 1840; 
 J. Desmay, "Viede Sainte-CIotilde," 1613; Madame de Rennb- 
 ville, "Vie de Sainte-CIotilde," 1809. 
 
 Clotilde. See Clotilda. 
 
 Clotilde de Vallon-ChaUa Set Survii.le. 
 
 Clotz. SeeKi.cnz. 
 
 Cloud kloo, or Clo'do-ald, Saint, youngest son of 
 Clodomir, became an ecclesiastic, and founded a monas- 
 tery at Nogent-sur-la-Riviere, since called by his name. 
 Died about 560. 
 
 Clouet, kloo'.V, an able French chemist, born at 
 Singly, near Mezieres, in 1751, became professor of 
 chemistry at Mezieres. He discovered the important 
 secret of making cast steel, which the English had 
 found out before. Having gone to Cayenne to make 
 some scientific inquiries, he died of fever in 1801. 
 
 e as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; S, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jf^-Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CLOUET 
 
 628 
 
 CLUVER 
 
 Clouet, (Francois,) an eminent French painter, called 
 Janet, (zhS'ni',) born about 1510, was valet-de-chambre 
 and painter to the king. His works are extolled by 
 Ronsard and other poets. Died about 1580. iiis por- 
 trait of Henry II. is regarded as a master-piece. His 
 father, Jean, (1485-1545,) was also distinguished as a 
 painter. 
 
 Clouet, klow'St, written also Clowet, Clouvet, kloo'- 
 vk', or Clovet, (Peter,) a Flemish engraver, born at 
 Antwerp in 1606. He engraved history, landscapes, and 
 portraits with success, and worked mostly in his native 
 city. The works of Rubens employed much of his time 
 and talent, and the " Death of Saint Anthony" is called 
 his master-piece. Died about 1670. His nephew, Al- 
 bert, born at Antwerp in 1624, was a skilful engraver. 
 He worked in Rome and Florence. Died in 1687. 
 
 See Naci.er, "Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Clough, kluf, (Arthur Hugh,) an English poet, born 
 in Liverpool in 1819 or 1820. He was educated at 
 Rugby and Oxford, and was a tutor in Oriel College. He 
 produced in 1848 "Bothie of Tober-na-yuolich : a Long 
 Vacation Pastoral," (2 vols.,) which is much admired. 
 Between 1849 and 1852 he was professor of English lite- 
 rature in University College, London. In 1852 he visited 
 the United States, where he gained the friendship of 
 Longfellow and other poets. Among his works are a 
 version of Plutarch's "Lives," (Boston, 5 vols., 1859,) 
 and poems called " Ambarvalia." Died at Florence in 
 November, 1861. The "Long Vacation Pastoral," says 
 the " Spectator," " belongs to a class of poems of 
 which Goethe's ' Hermann and Dorothea' is perhaps the 
 most perfect specimen ; though in vigour and breadth 
 of imagination Mr. Clough's pastoral is certainly not 
 inferior. . . . Here we must close our notice of a truly 
 noble poem — not without threads of unhealthy sentiment, 
 but still broad, bright, buoyant, and tender." 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1S62 ; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for January, 1849 : *' North American Review" for Octo- 
 ber, 1867. 
 
 Clouvet. See Ci.ouet. 
 
 Clovet. See Clouet. 
 
 Clovio, klo've-o, (Don Giulio,) an eminent Italian 
 painter, born in Croatia in 1498, was a pupil of Giulio 
 Romano. He is considered the most excellent minia- 
 ture-painter that Italy has produced. He also painted 
 some historical works, among which is a "Descent from 
 the Cross." "His portraits," says Landon, "may be 
 compared to those of Titian for vigour and nature/." 
 Died in 1578. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Clo'vis [Fr. pron. klo'vess' ; Lat. Clodov,<e'us] I, 
 called also Chlodwig and Hlodwig, (which is said to 
 have become corrupted into Ludwig, Ludovicus, Louis, 
 etc.,) King of the Franks, was born about 466 A.D., and 
 educated as a pagan. In 481 he succeeded his father 
 Childeric, who reigned over the Saltan Franks at Tour- 
 nay. By a victory over the Romans and Gauls in 4S6 he 
 became master of Soissons, which he chose for his capital. 
 In 493 he married Clotilda, a fair Christian princess, 
 and in 496 he became a convert to her religion. This 
 change induced the cities of Armorica to place themselves 
 under his dominion and protection. In 507 he fixed his 
 court at Paris. Alaric, King of the Visigoths, then pos- 
 sessed the region between the Loire and the Pyrenees. 
 Clovis defeated and killed him in a great battle near Poi- 
 tiers in 507, and added Aquitaine to his kingdom. He died 
 in 511, leaving four sons, Thierri, Clodomir, Childeric, 
 and Clotaire, among whom France was divided. " With 
 the reign of Clovis," says Walckenaer, "commence the 
 glory, empire, religion, laws, and usages of the French." 
 His glory, however, was tarnished by many acts of cruelty. 
 His descendants are called Merovingians, from Merovig, 
 '(in Latin, Merovaeus,) the grandfather of Clovis. 
 
 See Viallon, "Clovis le grand premier Roi chre'lien," 3 vols., 
 1788; Aug. Thikhky, "Recits Merovingiens f SlSMONDI, "His- 
 toire ties Francais;" "Biographic Universelle ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Geherale." 
 
 Clovis II., the second son of Dagobert I., King of the 
 Franks, was born about 633 A.D., and became King of 
 Neustria and Burgundy in 638. Jittle is known of his 
 reign, except that by revolts against the royal family of 
 
 Austrasia he became sole ruler of the heritage of Clovis 
 I. He died in 655, leaving two sons, Clotaire III. and 
 Childeric II. 
 
 Clovis III, son of Thierri I., King of France, suc- 
 ceeded his father in 691 A.D., at the age of nine. Pepin 
 le Gros was in reality king, under the title of Mayor of 
 the palace. Clovis died in 695, leaving the title to his 
 brother, Childebert III. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoiie des Francais." 
 
 Clowes, klouz, (John,) ai» English Swedenborgian 
 writer, born at Manchester in 1743. He was rector of 
 Saint John's in Manchester about sixty years. He trans- 
 lated Swedenborg's "Celestia Arcana," and published 
 several works, one of which is " Restoration of the Pure 
 Religion." Died in 1831. 
 
 See De Quincey, "Autobiographic Sketches," and "Literary 
 Reminiscences," vol. i. 
 
 Clowes, (William,) an eminent English surgeon, 
 who practised in London between 1570 and 1600, and 
 was for some years chief surgeon of Bartholomew's 
 Hospital. He published several professional treatises, 
 the principal of which is " The Approved Practice for all 
 Young Surgeons," (1591.) 
 
 Clowes, (William,) an enterprising English printer, 
 born at Chichester in 1779. He became a master-printer 
 in London about' 1804, and twenty years later began to 
 print by steam. His establishment eventually became, 
 it is said, the largest and most complete in the world. 
 Among the productions of his presses were. the " Penny 
 Magazine" and the " Penny Cyclopaedia." He operated 
 more than twenty steam-presses at once. Died in 1847. 
 
 Clowet. See Clouet. 
 
 Clubbe, kliib, (John,) an English clergyman, born in 
 1703, was rector of Wheatfield. He published, b*>ides 
 other works, a " History and Antiquities of the Ancient 
 Villa of Wheatfield or Whatfield," (1758,) an excellent 
 piece of satire, directed against modern antiquaries 
 Died about 1772. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes," etc. 
 
 Clubbe, (William,) a son of the preceding, was vicai 
 of Brandeston. He published a translation of six Satires 
 of Horace, (1795,) "The Epistle of Horace on the Art 
 of Poetry, translated into English Verse," (1797,) and 
 other works. Died in 1814. 
 
 Clugny de Nuis, kliin'ye'deh nii-e', (Jf.an Etiknne 
 Bernard,) a French financier, succeeded Turgot as 
 controller-general of finances in April, 1776. He coun- 
 teracted the policy of Turgot, and resorted to a royal 
 lottery as a source of revenue. He died in office in 
 October, 1776. 
 
 Clu'ny, (Alexander,) was the author of the "Ame- 
 rican Traveller," London, 1769, said to have been pub- 
 lished under the auspices of Lord Chatham. It excited 
 much interest in England and America at the time. 
 
 Cluseret, klu'zeh-ri', (Gustave Paul,) a French 
 general, born in Paris in 1823. He served in the Cri- 
 mean war, and gained the rank of captain. In 1859 he 
 enlisted in the army of Garibaldi, under whom he fought 
 with the rank of major. He offered his services to the 
 United States, and became a colonel in the Union army 
 about January, 1862. He commanded the advance of 
 Fremont's army at Strasburg and Cross Keys, June, 1862. 
 
 Clusius. See Lecluse. 
 
 Clutius. See Ci.uyt. 
 
 Clut'ter-buck, (Robert,) an eminent English an- 
 tiquary, born in Hertfordshire in 1772. He published 
 a complete "History and Antiquities of the County of 
 Hertford," (1815-27,) with excellent plates. He resided 
 mostly at Watford, his native place. Died in 1831. 
 
 Cluver, kloo-vaiR', or Cluwer, [Fr. Ci.uviek, klii'- 
 ve-A'; Lat. Cluve'rius,] (Philip,) a learned linguist and 
 geographer, was born at Dantzic in 1580. He visited 
 England, France, Germany, and Italy in pursuit of in- 
 formation, and of materials for his works, among which 
 are "Germania Antiqna" and "Italia Antiqua," (1624.) 
 The latter is commended for accuracy. Died in 1623. 
 "His works," says Hallam, "form a sort of epoch in 
 ancient geography." ("Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe.") 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Daniel Heinsius, "Oratio in P 
 Cluverii Obitum," 1623. 
 
 a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, t, o, ii, )?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon 
 
CLUPERIUS 
 
 629 
 
 COBBETT 
 
 Cluveriua. See Cluver. 
 
 Cluvier. See Cluver. 
 
 Cluyt, kloit, (Auger,) a Dutch botanist, a son of 
 Theodore, noticed below, was born at Leyden about 1590. 
 After making botanical researches in several countries, 
 he became director of the botanical garden at Leyden. 
 1 le wrote " Instructions for packing and conveying Trees, 
 Plants, etc to a Distance," (1631,) and a few other works. 
 
 See "Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Cluyt, [Lat. Clu'tius,] (Theodore Auger,) a Dutch 
 botanist, was director of a public botanical garden 
 founded at Leyden in 1577, which became, under his 
 charge, one of the best that then existed. He wrote a 
 "History of Bees," (1598.) 
 
 Clym'e-ne, [Gr. K'Avpevy; Fr. Climene or Clymene, 
 kle'min',] an ocean nymph, regarded as a daughter of 
 Oceanus, the wife of Japetus, and the mother of Atlas, 
 Prometheus, and Epimetheus. 
 
 Cly'nier, (George,) an American statesman, born in 
 Philadelphia in 1739. He became about 1773 an active 
 supporter of the popular cause, was chosen a member 
 of Congress in 1776, and signed the Declaration of In- 
 dependence. In 17S0 he was re-elected to Congress. He 
 was a member of the convention which framed the 
 Federal Constitution in 1787, and was the founder of 
 the Pennsylvania Agricultural Society. Died in 1813. 
 
 See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence. " 
 
 Cl$ft-e ni-neVtra, [Gr. KAvTat^arpa ; Fr. Clytem- 
 nestre, kle'teWnestR',] the wife of Agamemnon, and 
 the sister of Castor. Having formed a guilty connection 
 with .Lgisthus during the absence of her husband, she 
 murdered the latter on his return from Troy. She was 
 killed by her son Orestes. 
 
 Clytemnestre. See Clytemnestra. 
 
 ClytT-a or Ciyt'I-e, [Gr. lUtiria or KXvrin,] a nymph 
 beloved by Apollo, (the sun :) having been deserted by 
 her lover, she was changed into a heliotrope. 
 
 See Ovid, " Metamorphoses," book iv. 
 
 Cuut See Canute. 
 
 Cuutzen. See Rnutzen. 
 
 Coad, kod, (John,) an English carpenter, who was 
 
 engaged in the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth in 
 
 ifi»5, for which he was transported to Jamaica. He 
 
 wrote a curious narrative of his adventures. 
 
 See " Memorandum of the Wonderful Providences of God," etc., 
 by John Load. 
 
 Cobad. See Cabades. 
 
 Cobb, (Howell,) an able American politician, born 
 in Jefferson county, Georgia, in 1815. He was elected a 
 member of Congress by the Democrats in 1843, and tw 'ce 
 re-elected. In December, 1849, he was chosen' Speaker 
 of the House of Representatives. He was Governor of 
 Georgia in 1851 and 1852, and was appointed secretary 
 of the treasury by President Buchanan in March, 1857. 
 He resigned before the end of i860, was president of the 
 Congress of secessionists which met in February, 1S61, 
 and became a major-general in the Confederate service. 
 Died in 1868. 
 
 Cobb, (Howell,) an American lawver, born at Sa- 
 vannah, Georgia, in 1795. He published, in 1845, a 
 work on legal forms. 
 
 Cobb, (JaMKS,) an English dramatic poet, born in 
 1756. He was employed as clerk or secretary by the 
 East India Company about 1772. He composed "The 
 Humorist," "The Strangers at Home," (1786,) and other 
 dramas. Died in 1813. 
 
 See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Cobb, (Joseph Beckham,) son of Thomas W., no- 
 ticed below, was born in Oglethorpe county, Georgia, in 
 1819. He was a contributor to the "American Review," 
 and wrote, among other works, a novel entitled "The 
 Creole." Died in 1858. 
 
 Cobb, (Nathaniel R.,) a philanthropic merchant of 
 Boston, was born in Falmourh, Maine, in 1798; died 
 in 1834. 
 
 Cobb, (Samuel,) an English poet, who graduated at 
 Cambridge in 1702. He published a volume of poems, 
 (1707,) "The Oak and Brier," a tale, and the "Female 
 Reign." Died in 1713. 
 
 Cobb, (Thomas R. R.,) a lawyer, born in Jefferson 
 county, Georgia, in 1820, published in 1851 a "Digest 
 of the Laws of Georgia." He became a general in the 
 Confederate service, and was killed at Fredericksburg in 
 December, 1862. 
 
 Cobb, (Thomas W.,) born in Columbia county, 
 Georgia, in 1784. He was elected to Congress in 1816, 
 and became a Senator of the United States in 1824. In 
 1828 he was made a judge of the superior court. Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 Cobbe, kob, (Frances Power,) a rationalistic writer 
 on religion and morals, a descendant of Charles Cobbe, 
 Archbishop of Dublin, was born in that city in 1822. In 
 early youth Miss Cobbe seems to have been left very 
 much to herself. She read not only the Bible and "Pil- 
 grim's Progress," but also some books of a very different 
 character. Shelley appears to have been a special favourite 
 with her. We need not be surprised that, with such com- 
 panions for her solitude, her mind should sometimes 
 become a prey to universal doubt. As she was one day 
 musing on the great problem of existence, she said to 
 herself that, although she knew nothing of God, or of 
 any law beyond her own soul, she would at least be true 
 to that ancl merit the approbation of her own conscience. 
 This resolution, we are told, brought almost immediately 
 a renewed faith in God, — "a sense that somehow such 
 an effort must be pleasing to her Creator, who had given 
 her that inner law." From that hour she was a theist. 
 Meeting not long afterwards with some of Theodore 
 Parker's writings, she read them with great avidity and 
 delight. Her mother's death having vividly presented 
 to her mind the great question of a future life, she wrote 
 to Mr. Parker, asking him why he believed in immor- 
 tality. His "Sermon of the Immortal Life" was his 
 reply. (See Parker, Theodore.) 
 
 Among the most important of Miss Cobbe's produc- 
 tions are her "Intuitive Morals," (London, 1855,) and 
 her "Religious Duty," both of which works evince 
 strong powers of reasoning, joined with great earnest- 
 ness of character. Miss Cobbe has been pronounced the 
 best interpreter of the views of Theodore Parker ; and 
 "since his death," says Mr. Chadwick, "no one has done 
 more to perpetuate his influence and increase his fame." 
 See "Christian Examiner" for November, 1867. 
 Cob'bett, (John Morgan,) a son of William Cobbett, 
 noticed below. He published a selection of his father's 
 political works, in 6 volumes, (1842.) In 1852 he was 
 elected a Liberal member of Parliament for Oldham. 
 
 Cobbett, (William,) a popular and vigorous poli- 
 tical writer, born at Farnham, England, in 1762. He 
 was the son of a farmer, and was self-educated. About 
 1784 he enlisted in the army, and served with honour in 
 North America until 1791. Having left the service, he 
 emigrated to the United States in 1792, and became a 
 resident of Philadelphia, where he issued "Peter Porcu- 
 pine's Gazette," a Federalist paper. He was fined $5000 
 for a libel on Dr. Rush. In 1800 he returned to Eng- 
 land, and established in London "The Weekly Poli- 
 tical Register," which at first was a Tory paper ; but 
 after the lapse of several years he became a strenuous 
 opponent of Pitt and of the Tories. For his political 
 libels or satires on members of government he was 
 several times fined heavily, and in 1810 was sentenced 
 to imprisonment for two years. He continued to issue 
 the "Register" for thirty-three years. After two unsuc- 
 cessful attempts to enter Parliament for Oldham, he was 
 finally returned in 1832, and again in 1834. He died in 
 1835. He was the author of many successful works, 
 among which are "The Emigrant's Guide," "Cottage 
 Economy," "Advice to Young Men and Women," and 
 "Rural Hides." His style is described as "the perfec- 
 tion of the rough Saxon English." He was remaikable 
 for his mastery of the weapons of sarcasm and the re- 
 sources of common sense, and had great powers of ob- 
 servation and description. "Cobbett," sayit Ilazlitt, 
 "is a very honest man, with a tola) want of principle. 
 I mean, he is in downright earnest in the part he takes 
 at the time ; but in taking that part he is led entirely 
 by headstrong obstinacy, caprice, novelty, pique, or 
 personal motive of some sort. He has no comfort in 
 fixed principles. As soon as anything is settled in his 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this. (Jf^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
COBDEN 
 
 630 
 
 CO CC EJUS 
 
 own mind, he quarrels with it. If nobody else can argue 
 against him, he is a very good match for himself." 
 
 See the piquant but not ill-natured article on Cobbett, in Haz- 
 litt's " Miscellaneous Works," vol. v. ; " Life of William Cobbett," 
 Philadelphia, 1831 ; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1807, and Febril- 
 \ry 1823 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for September, 1823 ; " Fraser s 
 Magazine" for August and Ociober, 1835 ; " Westminster Review' 
 for October, 1835; Sir H. L. Bulwer, "Historical Characters, 
 London, 1868 
 
 Cob'den, (Edward,) D.D., an English divine, who 
 became prebendary of Saint Paul's, and obtained several 
 livings in London. He published Sermons, Poems, and 
 Essays. Died in 1764. 
 
 Cobden, (Richard,) an eminent English Liberal 
 statesman and economist, was born at Dunford, near 
 Midhurst, Sussex, in June, 1804. He was the son of a 
 farmer who owned a small estate in land. After having 
 been initiated in business in the warehouse of his uncle 
 in London, lie removed to Manchester and established 
 a manufactory of fine cotton goods, (prints,) in which he 
 was successful. Between 1834 and 1838110 visited Egypt, 
 Greece, the United States, France, and Germany. He 
 published, about 1836, a pamphlet entitled "England, 
 Ireland, and America," and another on Russia. He be- 
 came in 1838 a prominent advocate of the free importa- 
 tion of bread-stuffs, and was soon known as the principal 
 champion and orator of the National Anti-Corn-Law 
 League, a powerful political organization, formed in 1839. 
 In 1841 he was elected member of Parliament for Stock- 
 port. On this new arena he acquired great influence by 
 his extensive information, oratorical talents, and indomi- 
 table energy. He also addressed many public meetings 
 of the Anti-Corn-Law League, until the contest ended 
 in the repeal of the Corn-Laws in June, 1846. On this 
 occasion Sir Robert Peel made a remarkable speech, in 
 which he generously declared that the merit of this im- 
 portant reform belonged to Mr. Cobden more than to 
 any other man. After the close of the session he per- 
 formed an extensive journey on the continent, and during 
 his absence (1847) was returned to Parliament for the 
 West Riding of Yorkshire, including Leeds and Shef- 
 field. He was an active member of the Peace Congress 
 of Paris in 1849, and of that held at Frankfort in 1850. 
 
 Mr. Cobden and John Bright were the leaders of the 
 Manchester party or school, which holds an independent 
 position with respect to the Whigs and Tories. He was 
 in favour of the vote by ballot, of electoral reform, of 
 the French alliance, of a pacific foreign policy, and of 
 non-intervention in foreign quarrels. He opposed the 
 war against Russia, (1854,) and the Chinese policy of 
 Palmerston in 1857, with such a loss of popularity that 
 he was defeated at the election of 1857 as candidate for 
 Huddersfield. He was, however, elected by the voters 
 of Rochdale in 1859. While he was absent on a visit to 
 the United States, in 1859, a new ministry was formed 
 by Lord Palmerston, who offered him a seat in the 
 cabinet, (as president of the Board of Trade,) which he 
 declined. As British commissioner, he negotiated, in 
 i860, an important commercial treaty with the French, 
 which has greatly increased the trade between England 
 and France. Referring to this treaty, Mr. Gladstone 
 (August, 1866) said, "I don't believe that the man 
 breathed upon earth at that epoch, or now breathes upon 
 earth, that could have effected that great measure, with 
 the single exception of Mr. Cobden." He was one of 
 the few British statesmen who cordially favoured the 
 cause of liberty and humanity in the United States 
 during the civil'war. Died April 2, 1865. 
 
 See I.ouis DE Lomrnie, " R. Cobden, par un Homme de Rien," 
 1S44; " Life of Richard Cobden," by J. McGilciikist, 1865: JOSEPH 
 Garnier, "R. Cobden, les Ligueurs et la Ligue," 1846; " Brief Bio- 
 graphies," by Samuel Smiles; "British Quarterly Review for 
 January, 1866 ; " North British Review" for March, 1867. 
 
 Cobenzl, von, fort ko-bent'sl, or Cobentzel, ko- 
 
 bent'sel, (Johann Philipp,) Count, a diplomatist, born 
 at Laybach in 1741 ; died in 1810. 
 
 Cobenzl or Cobentzel, von, (Kari.,) Count, an 
 Austrian diplomatist, born at Laybach in 1712. He was 
 placed in 1753 at the head of the government of the 
 Austrian Netherlands. Died in 1770. 
 
 Cobenzl or Cobentzel, von, (Louis,) Count, an 
 Austrian diplomatist, son of the preceding, was born at 
 
 andsigned the treaty of Campo Formioin 1797. In 1801 
 he negotiated the treaty of Luneville with the French, and 
 became a minister of state at Vienna. Died in 1808. 
 See Segur, "Memoires." 
 
 Cobham, kob'am, (Sir John Oi.dcasti.e,) Lord, an 
 English nobleman, was the head of the sect of Lollards, 
 whom the Catholics stigmatized as heretics. " His high 
 character, and his zeal for the new sect," says Hume, 
 " pointed him out as the proper victim of ecclesiastical 
 severity." He was condemned to the flames in 1413, but 
 escaped, and instigated his friends to an open rebellion. 
 Hume states that lie designed to seize the king at Eltham. 
 The insurgent Lollards were overpowered in 1414 ; but 
 Cobham escaped until 1418, when he was hanged. (Set: 
 Lollard.) 
 
 See T. Gapsey, "Life and Times of the Good Lord Cobham, •' 
 London, 1844. 
 
 Cobo, ko'BO, (Barnab*;,) a Spanish missionary, born 
 at Lopera in 1582, passed fifty years in Peru, Mexico, 
 etc. He wrote a work on the natural history of those 
 countries, (still in manuscript.) Died in 1657. 
 
 Cobo, (Juan,) a Spanish monk and missionary, born 
 near Toledo. He went to Manilla in 1586, learned the 
 Chinese language, and compiled a dictionary of the 
 same. In 1592 he was sent on a mission to Japan, with 
 the ruler of which he negotiated a treaty favourable to 
 the Spaniards. On his return the ship was wrecked at 
 Formosa, and he was massacred by the natives, in 1592, 
 Cobourg. See Cobukg. 
 
 Co'burg, written also Cobourg,[Ger.pron. ko'booRG,] 
 (Josias,) Prince, an Austrian general, born in 1737. 
 He commanded the Austrian army which, with the aid 
 of Suwarrow, defeated the Turks iii 1789. In the spring 
 of 1793 he was appointed generalissimo of the army 
 of the allies, and gained a victory over the French at 
 Neerwinden. He invaded France the same year, and 
 took Conde and Valenciennes. Having been defeated by 
 Jourdan at Wattignies in October, 1793, he resigned the 
 command. Died in 1815. " He belonged," says Alison, 
 " to the old methodical school of Lacey, and was des- 
 titute of either decision or character." ("History of 
 Europe.") 
 
 Coccaie, (Mf-RLIN.) See Folf.ngo. 
 Coccapani, kok-ka-pa'nee, (Sigismondo,) an Italian 
 painter and architect, born at Florence in 1585. He was 
 one of the architects employed on the facade of the 
 Duomo of Florence. Died in 1642. 
 Cocceius. See Coccejus, (John.) 
 Coc-ce'ius, (kok-see'yus,) (Nf.r'va,) an eminent Ro- 
 man jurisconsult, who was chosen consul in 22 A.D. He 
 was the grandfather of the emperor Nerva. He obtained 
 the favour and confidence of Tiberius, whose measures, it 
 seems, he did not approve. His legal learning is highly 
 extolled by Tacitus, and he is often cited in the Digest. 
 He died by voluntary starvation about 33 A.D. His son, 
 of the same name, was a distinguished jurist, the author 
 of several treatises, and is supposed to have been the 
 father of the emperor Nerva. 
 Cocceji. See Cocckjus. 
 
 Coccejus, von, fon kot-sa'yfls, or Cocceji, kot-sa - 
 yee, (Heinrich,) Baron, a German jurist.born at Bremen 
 in 1644. He was professor of law at Heidelberg and at 
 Utrecht, and wrote, besides other works, a commentary 
 on Grotius "De Jure Belli et Pads," published by his 
 son, (1744-48.) Died in 1 719. 
 
 See Lucanus, " Lebensbeschreibung des H. von Cocceji," 1741. 
 
 Coccejus, Cocceius, or Cock, (John,) an emi- 
 nent theologian, born at Bremen in 1603. He became 
 professor of Hebrew at Franeker in 1636, and from 1649 
 to 1669 was professor of theology at Leyden. He was 
 the founder of a school of theologians which became 
 numerous in the United Provinces under the name of 
 "Coccejans." He carried the system of figurative in- 
 terpretation to the extreme. His fundamental rule of 
 interpretation was that we should understand the words 
 and phrases of Scripture in all the senses of Which they 
 are susceptible, and that almost every passage, in addi- 
 tion to its literal meaning, had a figurative signification. 
 "Two natives of Holland," says Hallam, "opposite in 
 character, in spirit, and principles of reasoning, and 
 
 Brussels in 1753. He was ambassador to Russia in 1780, consequently the founders of opposite schools ot dis- 
 , e, 1, 5,'u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; n5t; grjod; moon- 
 
COCCEJUS 
 
 6n 
 
 COCKBURN 
 
 ciplcs, stand out from the rest, — Grotius and Coccejus." 
 (''Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Me pub- 
 lished "Sumina Doctrina; de Fcedere et Testamento," 
 (1648,) and other works. Died in 1669. 
 
 See Joncoukt, " Entretiens sur les Cocceieus;" Niceron, " M£- 
 moires;" Mushkim, " Ecclesiaslical History." 
 
 Coccejus or Cocceji, (Samuel,) a German jurist, a 
 son of Heinrich, noticed above, was born at Heidelberg 
 in 1679. He was appointed by the King of Prussia min- 
 ister of state and of war in 1727, and grand chancellor 
 in 1746. His reputation is founded chiefly on the new 
 code of laws which he composed, by order of Frederick 
 the Great, about 1746. Died in 1755. 
 
 Sec Mki'ski., " Lexikon der verstorbeuen Gelehrten." 
 
 Cocchi, kol-.'kee, (Antonio,) a learned Italian phy- 
 sician, born at liencvento in 1695, was professor of 
 medicine at I'isa, and sulwequently of philosophy at 
 Florence, lie published several works on medicine 
 and other subjects. Died in 1758. He had been a 
 regular correspondent with Sir Isaac Newton. 
 
 See Falkoni, "Vice Italorum doctrina excellentiuni." 
 
 Coccia, kot'cha, (Carlo,) an Italian composer, born 
 at Naples in 1789. Among his most popular works are 
 the operas " Clotilde" and "Maria Stuart." 
 
 Coccopani, kok-ko-pa'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 artist, born at Florence in 1582, was versed in many 
 sciences and arts. In 1622 he was invited to Vienna 
 by the emperor, who employed him as a military engi- 
 neer. He afterwards designed the palace called Villa 
 Imperiale at Florence. Hied in 1649. 
 
 Cochard, ko'shaV, (Nicolas Francois,) a French 
 liltcraltur, born near Lyons in 1763; died in 1834. 
 
 Cochereau, kosh'ro', (M.vihieu,) a F'rench painter 
 of genre, born at Montigny, became a pupil of David in 
 1807. He died at the age of twenty-seven. 
 
 Cochet, ko'shi', (Jean,) born at Faverges, in Savoy, 
 became professor of philosophy in the College Mazarin 
 of Paris. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise on 
 Logic, said to have been the best elementary work on 
 that subject that had appeared in F'rench. Died in 1 77 1. 
 
 Cochin, ko'shA.\', (Ciiari.ks Nicolas,) a skilful 
 French artist, born in Paris in 1688. He engraved with 
 the burin and point his own designs, and some works 
 of l.emoine, Coypel, and Watteau. Died in 1 754. 
 
 Cochin, (Charles Nicola's,) an eminent F'rench 
 designer and engraver, born in Paris in 1 71 5, was the 
 son and pupil of the preceding. He was chosen keeper 
 of the designs of the king's cabinet in 1752. In 1756 
 he published an excellent work, entitled " Picturesque 
 Journey in Italy," (" Voyage pittoresque d'ltalie,") 
 which was often reprinted. Louis XV. granted to him 
 letters of nobility. Cochin etched a great number -of 
 his own designs, and some works of Vernet and other 
 masters. The numlier of his designs and engravings 
 is about fifteen hundred. Died in 1790. 
 
 See Hasan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Cochin, (Henri,) an eminent French advocate and 
 orator, born in Paris in 1^87, was admitted to the bar in 
 1706. Though very eloquent in public, he was taciturn 
 and timid in conversation. Several volumes of his pleas 
 have been published. Died in 1747. 
 
 See C. Lenormand, " Ejoge de Cochin," 1825. 
 
 Cochin, (JACQUES Dents,) a F'rench priest, writer, 
 and founder of the hospital which bears his name, was 
 born in Paris in 1726; died in 1783. 
 
 Cochlaeus. See CoeHLius. 
 
 Cochlaus, koK la'us, [Fr. Cochi.ee, kok'li'; Lat. 
 M (Joiiann,) a German theologian and con- 
 troversialist, born near Nuremberg in 1479. He became 
 a canon of Worms, Mcntz, and lireslau. He was a zeal- 
 ous opponent of the Pmtcstant Reformation, and wrote 
 " Remarks ( Commentaria ) on the Actions and Writings 
 of Luther," (1549,) and other works. Died in 1552. 
 
 See SSCKSHPORF, " Histnria Lntheranismi :" Bayle, " Historical 
 and Critical Dictionary;" I)e Thou, "History." 
 
 Cochlee. See Cochlaus. 
 
 Cochon de Lapparent, ko'sh6N' deh li'pi'rftN', 
 (Count Charles,) a F'rench politician, born in 1749. 
 He was a deputy from Poitiers to the States-General 
 in 1789, and afterwards a prominent republican member 
 
 of the Convention. He was appointed prefect at Ant- 
 werp in 1804, and a member of the senate in 1809. 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 Coeh'ran, (William,) a Scottish painter of history 
 and portraits, born at Strathaven in 1738; died at Glas- 
 gow in 1785. 
 
 Cochrane. See Dundonald, Earl of. 
 
 Cochrane, kok'ran, (Alexander Du.ndas Baii.lie,) 
 a British writer, son of Admiral Sir Thomas John Coch- 
 rane, born in 1814, became a member of Parliament in 
 1841. He published "The Morea, with Remarks on 
 Greece," (1841,) "Young Italy," (1850,) and "Ernest 
 Vane," a novel. 
 
 Cochrane, (Sir Alexander Inglis,) a British admi- 
 ral, brother of Archibald, noticed below, born in 1758. 
 He was made a post-captain in 1782, and rear-admiral 
 in 1804. For his services in a battle against the French 
 in 1806, near Hayti, he was knighted. In 1809 he 
 obtained the rank of vice-admiral, and in 1815 assisted 
 the British land-forces in the attack on New Orleans. 
 He became admiral of the blue in 1819. Died in 1832. 
 
 Cochrane, (Akchihald,) Earl of Dundonald, a Brit- 
 ish chemist, born in 1749, was the son of Thomas, Earl 
 of Dundonald, whom he succeeded in 1778. He pub- 
 lished a "Treatise on Coal-Tar," a "Treatise on the 
 Connexion of Agriculture and Chemistry," (1795,) and 
 a valuable work on "The Application of Chemistry 
 to Agriculture." Died in 1831. His son was a distin- 
 guished admiral, Lord Cochrane. (See Dundonald, 
 Earl of.) 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Coch'rane, (John,) an American general, born in 
 Montgomery county, New York, about 1813. He was 
 elected a member of Congress by the voters of New 
 York City in 1856 and 1858. He was appointed a bri- 
 gadier-general about July, 1862. 
 
 Cochrane, (John Dundas,) Captain, an eccentric 
 British naval officer, surnamed "the Pedestrian Travel- 
 ler," was born about 1780. In 1820 he resolved to per- 
 form a journey around the world on foot, in pursuance 
 of which design he traversed Russia and Siberia as lar 
 as Kamtchatka. Having married a native of that region, 
 he changed his mind, and returned by way of Russia 
 to England in 1823. Of this journey he published a 
 narrative, which is said to be curious and amusing. Died 
 in South America in 1825. 
 
 Cochrane, (Sir Thomas John,) a British admiral, 
 son of Admiral Sir Alexander Inglis Cochrane, born 
 about 1790, served as captain under his father in the war 
 against the United States in 1814. He was elected to 
 Parliament in 1837. Having been made a rear-ad- 
 miral, he commanded on the East India station from 1842 
 to 1846, and became a vice-admiral about 1850. 
 
 Cock, kok, (Jerome,) a Flemish engraver and dealer 
 in prints, was born at Antwerp about 1510. He pub- 
 lished several collections of his engravings, among which 
 are many portraits of historical personages. Some of 
 his works are highly prized. Died in 1570. 
 
 Cock, (John.) See Coccejus. 
 
 Cock or Cocke, (Matthew,) a landscape-painter 
 of Antwerp, born about 1500, was a brother of Jerome, 
 noticed above. He was one of the first Flemish painters 
 that abandoned the Gothic style. Died in 1554. 
 
 Cockaine. See Cokaine. 
 
 Cockburn, ko'bern, (Catherine,) an English dra- 
 matic writer, whose maiden name was Trotifr, was 
 born in London in 1679. She became in 1708 the wife 
 of the Rev. Patrick Cockburn. She composed suc- 
 il tragedies, entitled "Agnes de Castro," "laid 
 Friendship," etc. In 1747 she produced "Remarks 
 on the Nature and Obligations of Virtue," which was 
 praised by Warburton. I >icd in 1749. 
 
 See CimtKK, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Cockburn, ko'liem, (Sir George,) G.C.B., a British 
 admiral, bom about 1772, was a relative of Lord Cock- 
 burn, noticed below, lie entered the navy in early youth, 
 and about 1812 obtained the rank of rear-admiral. He 
 took part in the capture of Washington City in 1814, and 
 conveyed Napoleon to Saint Helena in 1815. He was 
 a lord of the admiralty from 1818 to 1828, and sat in 
 Parliament for many years. Died in 1853. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (JQ^See Explanatic ns, p. 23,) 
 
COCKBURN 
 
 632 
 
 CO E HORN 
 
 Cockburn, (Henry Thomas,) Lord, an able Scot- 
 tish judge, born in 1779. He was appointed solicitor- 
 general for Scotland in 1830, and became one of the 
 Lords of Session in 1834. He wrote articles for the 
 "Edinburgh Review," and published "The Life and 
 Correspondence of Lord Jeffrey," (1S52.) Died in 1854. 
 
 See " North British Review" for November, 1856 ; " London 
 Quarterly Review" tor July, 1S52 ; " Edinburgh Review" tor January, 
 1S57 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for September and October, 1852. 
 
 Cockburn, (Patrick,) a Scottish linguist, born at 
 Langton, was for some years professor of Hebrew and 
 Syriac in the University of Paris. Having become a 
 Protestant, he returned to Scotland, and preached at 
 Haddington. He was reckoned one of the first scholars 
 of his time, and wrote several religious works in Latin, 
 one of which is " The Utility and Excellence of the Word 
 of God." Died in 1559. 
 
 Cockburn or Cockburne, (William,) an English 
 medical writer, born about 1650; died about 1736. 
 
 Cocke, kok, (Philip Saint Gkorge,) a general, 
 born in Virginia about 1808, graduated at West Point 
 in 1832. He took arms against the Union, and became 
 a brigadier-general in 1 861. He killed himself in De- 
 cember of the same year. 
 
 Cock'er, (Edward,) an English teacher and educa- 
 tional writer, born in 1632, was a resident of London. 
 His "Arithmetic" obtained a very large circulation, and 
 passed through fifty-five editions between 1677 and 1758. 
 Died about 1677. 
 
 Cock'er-ell, (Charles Robert,) an eminent English 
 architect, born in London in 1788. He was elected a 
 Royal Academician in 1836, and became professor of 
 architecture in the Royal Academy in 1840. He de- 
 signed the New Library at Cambridge in 1840, the Uni- 
 versity Galleries at Oxford, the College of Lampeter, 
 and other public edifices. He was for some years chief 
 architect of the Rank of England, in which he made 
 considerable alterations. Mr. Cockerell was partial to 
 the classic style of architecture. He was a foreign asso- 
 ciate of the Institute of France. Died in 1863. 
 
 Cock'er-ill, (John,) a Belgian engineer and machinist, 
 noted for his enterprise and talents, was born of English 
 parents in 1790. He fabricated steam-engines, etc. at 
 the great iron-foundry of Seraing, in which King William 
 of Holland was once a partner. Died in 1840. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Cock'spn, (Thomas,) an English engraver of por- 
 traits, flourished about 1620-30. 
 
 Cock'ton, (Henry,) an English writer, born about 
 1808. He' published, besides other works, "The Ven- 
 triloquist : being the Life and Adventures of Valentine 
 Vox," (1840.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Co'cles, (Horatius,) a Roman hero, who acquired 
 renown, about 500 B.C., by the defence of the Sublician 
 bridge against the army of Porsena while the Romans 
 were cutting off the communication with the opposite 
 shore. When the bridge had been made impassable, he 
 plunged into the river and saved himself by swimming. 
 This legend forms the basis of Macaulay's spirited 
 ballad in his "Lays of Ancient Rome." 
 
 See Niebuhr, "History of Rome." 
 
 Coco, ko'ko, (Vincenzo,) an Italian writer, born at 
 Campomarano in 1770, lived mostly in Naples. He pub- 
 lished a philosophic romance called " Plato in Italy," 
 (3 vols., 1806,) which was very successful, and a " History 
 of the Revolution of Naples." Died at Naples in 1823. 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Cocoli, kok'o-lee, (Domenico,) an Italian geometer, 
 born at Brescia in 1747, was for thirty years professor 
 of natural philosophy and mathematics in his native city. 
 He published " Elements of Geometry and Trigonome- 
 try," and other works. Died in 1812. 
 
 Cocquard, ko'ktR', (Franqois Bernard,) a French 
 poet and prose-writer, born at Dijon in 1700; died in 1772. 
 
 Coda, ko'da, (Benedetto,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Ferrara about 1460 ; died about 1520. 
 
 His son, Bartolommeo, bonvat Ferrara, was a painter 
 of good reputation. He was living in 1558. 
 
 Codagora, ko-da-go'ra, (Viviano,) an Italian painter, 
 who lived about 1650, excelled in perspective and in pic- 
 tures of ruined buildings. 
 
 Codazzi, ko-dat'see, (Agostino,) an Italian engineer 
 and geographer, born at Lugo in 1792. He emigrated 
 to Santa Fe de Bogota, in South America, about 1826, 
 and was afterwards employed in the survey of Venezuela. 
 The results of his labours were published in a work on 
 the "Geography of Venezuela," with maps, (" Resumen 
 de la Geografia de Venezuela," 1841.) 
 
 Cod'ding-ton, (William,) the founder of the colony 
 of Rhode Island, was born in Lincolnshire, England, in 
 
 1601. He emigrated to Massachusetts in 1630, and, in 
 consequence of a disagreement with Governor Winthrop 
 on religious subjects, removed with a party of settlers to 
 Rhode Island in 1638. In 1640 he was chosen governor 
 of that colony, which position he held for seven years. 
 He was a member of the Society of Friends. Died in 
 1678. 
 
 Co-di'nus, (Georgius,) [Teupyioe KMivog 6 Kvpoira/ld- 
 T7jc] surnamed Curopala'tes, a Greek compiler, who 
 lived at Constantinople about 1450. He compiled two 
 works, which treat of the public offices in church and 
 state, and of the antiquities of Constantinople. 
 
 Codomannus. See Darius HI. 
 
 Co-dra'tus, [Kodparaf,] a Greek physician and Chris- 
 tian martyr, born at Corinth, was put to death about 
 258 A.D. 
 
 Cod'ring-ton, (Christopher,) a British officer, born 
 at Barbadoes in 1668, wrote some Latin verses, and gave 
 ,£10,000 to form a library at Oxford. Died in 1710. 
 
 Codrington, (Sir Edward,) G.C.B., an English ad- 
 miral, born in 1770. He was made a captain in 1794, 
 and received a medal for his conduct at Trafalgar in 1805. 
 He was raised to the rank of rear-admiral in 1814, and 
 served at the battle of New Orleans in 1815. In 1821 
 he became vice-admiral. He commanded the fleet of 
 the English, French, and Russians which defeated the 
 Turks at Navarino in 1827. He obtained the rank of 
 full admiral in 1837. Died in 1851. 
 
 See Campbell's " Lives of British Admirals." 
 
 Codrington, (Robert,) an English writer, born in 
 
 1602, wrote a " Life of Robert, Earl of Essex," and made 
 translations from the Latin and French. Died in 1665. 
 
 Codrington, (Sir William John,) K.C.B., an Eng- 
 lish general, son of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, 
 bom in 1800, entered the army in 1821, became colonel 
 in the Coldstream Guartls in 1846, and major-general in 
 June, 1854. He distinguished himself at the Alma and 
 at Inkerman, (1854,) and was promoted to the command 
 of the light division. He directed the attack on the 
 Redan of Sevastopol in September, 1855. In November 
 of the same year he succeeded General Simpson as com- 
 mander-in-chief of the British army in the Crimea, and 
 was appointed governor of Gibraltar in 1859. 
 
 Codronchi, ko-dRon'kee, (Battista,) an eminent 
 Italian physician and writer, born at Imola about 1550. 
 
 Co'drusorKo'drus, [Koripoc,] the last king of Athens, 
 is supposed to have reigned about 1060 B.C. An oracle 
 having declared that the Dorians would be victorious 
 in war against the Athenians provided they spared the 
 life of the Athenian king, CodAis went in disguise to the 
 Dorian camp and provoked a quarrel, in which he was 
 killed. His son, Medon, became archon of Athens. 
 
 Codrus, a Roman poet, was a contemporary of Virgil, 
 who mentions him in his seventh Eclogue. 
 
 Coeberger. See Koeherger. 
 
 Coeck, (Peter.) See Koeck. 
 
 Coeffeteau, ko'ef'to', (Nicolas,) a French Dominican 
 and theologian, born in Maine in 1574. Henry IV. gave 
 him the title of his preacher. At the request of Gregory 
 XV., he wrote a work to refute A. de Dominis, who had 
 attacked the papal power. In 1617 he became titular 
 Bishop of Dardania. His version of the history of Floras 
 was highly praised as a master-piece of French style. 
 Died in 1623. 
 
 See Niceron, "Hommes illustres." 
 
 Coehorn or Cohorn, ko'horn, [Fr. pron. ko'oRn',] 
 (Louis,) a French general, bora at Strasburg in 1771, was 
 a relative of Menno van Coehorn, noticed below. He was 
 made a general of brigade in 1807, was wounded at Fried- 
 land, and displayed great bravery at Ebersberg in 1809. 
 He took part in the battles of Aspern, Wagram, and 
 Lutzen, and was mortally wounded at Leipsic in 1814. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far; fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CO E HORN 
 
 633 
 
 COHEN 
 
 Coehorn, van, vtn koo'horn, written also Cohorn, 
 (MKNNOor Mennon,) Baron, a famous Dutch engineer 
 and general, born in Friesland in 1632, or, as some say, 
 in 1641. Having acquired skill in mathematics, he en- 
 tered the army as captain at an early age, and served 
 with distinction in the campaigns of 1673 and 1674. At 
 the siege of Namur, (1692,) which city he had fortified, 
 he was opposed to the French engineer Vauban. Three 
 years later he was employed as engineer in the recapture 
 of Namur. Among his master-pieces are the fortresses 
 of Nymwegen, Breda, Namur, and Bergen-op-Zoom. 
 He became lieutenant-general in 1703, and published 
 his "New Method of Fortification," an excellent work. 
 According to some biographers, this was published in 
 1685. Died at the Hague in 1704. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Macau- 
 i.ay, " History of England," vol. iv. ; Nicolaus Ypky, "Narratiode 
 Rebus gestis Meunonis Cohorni," 1771 ; Dutch version of the same, 
 1772. 
 
 Ccelestinus, Pope. See Celestine. 
 
 Ccelestius. See Celestius. 
 
 Coelius. See Rufus Ccei.ius. 
 
 Cos'11-us or Cae'11-us (see'le-us) An-tip'a-ter, (Lu- 
 cius,) a Roman historian and jurist, who wrote, about 
 125 B.C., a " History of the Second Punic War," which 
 was highly esteemed until it was surpassed by Livy. 
 Only fragments of it are extant. Ccelius was the first 
 Roman historian that aimed at the ornaments of style. 
 Marcus Brutus valued his work so highly that he made 
 an abridgment of it. 
 
 Coello, ko-el'yo, (Alonzo Sanchez,) a skilful Spanish 
 painter, born in 1515. He studied at Rome in the school 
 of Raphael, and was afterwards employed by Philip SI. 
 of Spain to adorn the Escurial. He also painted por- 
 traits of that king and his courtiers. Died in 1590. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Coello, (Claudio,) a celebrated Spanish painter, born 
 at Madrid in 1621. He was a pupil of Ricci. About 
 1680 he was chosen painter to the king, (Charles II.) 
 His master-piece is the "Collocation of the Host," 
 which adorns the sacristy of the Escurial, and which is 
 sufficient to immortalize his name. He is said to equal 
 Cano in design, Murilloin colour, and Velasquez in effect. 
 Died at Madrid in 1693. 
 
 See Quili.iet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Coelmans, kool'mans, (Jacques,) a Flemish engraver, 
 born at Antwerp in 1670 ; died at Aix, France, in 1735. 
 
 Coelu. See Coln. 
 
 Ccelus. See Uranus. 
 
 Coen, koon, (John Peterson or Pieterzon,) a Dutch 
 colonial governor, born at Hoorn about 1587. He founded 
 Batavia in 1619, and was chosen president of Bantam. 
 Died in 1629. 
 
 Coenrads. See Conrad, (Abraham.) 
 
 Qosiiub, see'nus, [Gr. Koevor,] an able Macedonian 
 general, a son-in-law of Parmenio, accompanied Alex- 
 ander the Great in the invasion of Persia, 334 H.c. He 
 distinguished himself at the battle of Issus, and, when 
 Alexander proposed to march beyond the Hyphasis, he 
 1 on returning. He died in India in 327 H.C. 
 
 Coessin, ko'A'saN', (F. G.,) a French ultramontane 
 religionist, born at Lisieux in 1782, was noted for his 
 eccentric mysticism. Died about 1842. 
 
 Coetlogon, de, deh ko'et'lo'go.N', (Alain Emma- 
 huki.,) Marquis, a French admiral and marshal, born 
 in 1646 ; died in 1730. 
 
 Coetlogon, de, (Jean Baptists Felicite,) Count, 
 a French poet, born at Versailles in 1773. He wrote 
 an epic poem, entitled "David," (1820,) which the royal 
 council of instruction judged worthy to be given as a 
 prize to students. Died in 1827. 
 
 Coetlosquet, de, deh ko'et'los'kj', (Jean Gii.les,) a 
 French priest, born at Saint-Pol-de-Leon in 1700. He 
 became Bishop of Limoges in 1739, and preceptor of 
 the Duke of Burgundy in 1758. He was also preceptor 
 of the Duke of Berry, afterwards Louis XVI., and a 
 member of the French Academy. Died in 1784. 
 
 Cceur, kuR, (Jacques,) a French merchant and able 
 financier, born at Bourges, acquired an immense fortune. 
 Charles VII. appointed him director of his finances. In 
 1448 he lent that king 200,000 crowns of gold. It is 
 
 stated that he transacted more commerce than all the 
 other merchants of France. He was falsely accused of 
 various crimes, and in 1453 was fined 400,000 crowns 
 and banished. He went to Rome, and received from 
 Calixtus III. the command of part of a fleet which he 
 sent against the Turks. He died at Scio about 1456. 
 
 See Baron TrouvA, " Histoirede Jacques Cceur," 1N40; Louisa 
 S. Costello, "Jacques Cceur, the French Argonaut, and his Times." 
 
 Cosur^PiERRE Louis,) a French bishop and eloquent 
 preacher, born at Tarare (Rhone) in 1805. He removed 
 to Paris in 1835, and became a fashionable pulpit orator. 
 He was appointed Bishop of Troyes in 1848. His ser- 
 mons are compared to those of Massillon. 
 
 Cceur de Lion. See Richard I. 
 
 Coffin, ko'faN', (Charles,) a French scholar and 
 poet, born at Buzancy in 1676. He succeeded Rollin 
 in the College of Beauvais, at Paris, in 1712, and was 
 chosen rector of the University of Paris in 1718. His 
 " Ode on the Wine of Champagne" was admired. He 
 gained much reputation by the hymns which he com- 
 posed for the Breviary of Paris. Died in 1749. 
 
 See I.englet, " Eloge de Coffin," prefixed to his works. 
 
 Coffin, (Sir Isaac,) an English admiral, was born at 
 Boston, Massachusetts, in 1750. He was raised to the 
 rank of admiral about 1814. Died in 1839. 
 
 Coffin, (ROBERT S.,) a printer and poet, called "the 
 Boston Bard," born at Brunswick, Maine, in 1797. He 
 served as a sailor in the war of 1812. Died in 1827. 
 
 Coffinhal, ko'fe'nSl', (Jean Baptisti:,) a French Ja- 
 cobin, born at Aurillac in 1754. He became a judge of 
 the Revolutionary Tribunal in Paris in 1793, and a par- 
 tisan of Robespierre. He was a party to many acts of 
 cruelty, and fought resolutely for Robespierre on the 9th 
 Thermidor, 1794. A few days later he was executed. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire de la Revolution Francaise." 
 
 Co'gan, (Thomas,) an English physician, born in 
 Somersetshire. He practised at Manchester, and wrote 
 " The Haven of Health," and a few other treatises. Died 
 in 1607. 
 
 Cogan, (Thomas,) an English physician and writer, 
 born at Rowell in 1736. He practised in Leyden, Am- 
 sterdam, and London. About 1774 he and Dr. Hawes 
 instituted the Humane Society of London. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, " The Rhine, a Journey from 
 Utrecht to Frankfort," (1794,) a "Philosophical Treatise 
 on the Passions," (1800,) and an "Ethical Treatise on 
 the Passions," (1807,) which are works of considerable 
 merit. Died in 1818. 
 
 Cogels, ko'zhel',(JosEPH Charles,) a Belgian painter, 
 born at Brussels In 1785 ; died in 1831. 
 
 Coggeshalle, kogz'al, ? (Ralph,) an English monk, 
 who was wounded at Jerusalem when that city was be- 
 sieged by Saladin. He wrote a " History of the Holy 
 Land," and several other works. Died about 1228. 
 
 Coghetti, ko-get'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Bergamo in 1804. He painted at Rome, for 
 Prince Torlonia, several pictures, among which is "The 
 Parnassus of Illustrious Men of all Ages." His fresco 
 which decorates the Basilica of Savona is much admired. 
 
 Coglioni. See Colkoni. 
 
 Cognatus, the Latin of Cousin, which see. 
 
 Cogniet, kon'ye-a', (Leon,) a French painter of his- 
 tory and portraits, was born at Paris in 1794. He was 
 elected a member of the Institute in 1849.- 
 
 Cogs'well, (William,) an American divine, born in 
 New Hampshire in 1789. He became professor of his- 
 tory in Dartmouth College, of which he was a graduate, 
 in 1841, and professor of theology at Gilmanton in 1844. 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Cohausen, ko'how'zen, (Johann Hkinrich,) a Ger- 
 man physician, born at Hildesheim about 1670. He 
 wrote several professional works, among which was 
 "Hermippus Redivivus," (1742.) Died in 1750. 
 
 Cohen, Won', (Anne Jean Philippe Louis,) a 
 French littirateur, of Dutch descent, was born at Amers- 
 foort in 1781. Among his works are a " Life of Cheva- 
 lier Bayard," (2d edition, 1825,) and "Jacqueline de 
 Baviere," (4 vols., 1821.) He translated several works of 
 Washington Irving, Bulwer, and other English authors. 
 Died in 1848. 
 
 See Qukrard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (Sy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
COHEN 
 
 6.H 
 
 COLBERT 
 
 Cohen Atthar. See Kohen AttAr. 
 
 Cohon, ko'd.N', (Anthyme Denis,) born at Craon, 
 in France, in 1 594, became Bishop of Nimes. Died 
 in 1670. 
 
 Cohorn. See Coehorn. 
 
 Coictier. See Coitier. 
 
 Coignard, kwan'yiR', (Louis,) a French painter of 
 landscapes, born at Mayenne about 1812. He obtained 
 a first medal in 1848. 
 
 Coignet, kwan'yi', (Gilles,) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Antwerp in 1530. He studied in Italy, and returned 
 to Antwerp, where he painted landscapes and figures 
 with success. Died at Hamburg in 1600. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Coigny, de, deh kw4n'ye',(FRANCois de Franquetot 
 — deh tRoNk'to',) Duke, a French marshal, born in 1670, 
 gained in 1734 a decisive victory over the Austrians at 
 Parma, and another at Guastalla. In fhe next year he 
 commanded in Germany, where his adversary, Prince 
 Eugene, would not risk a battle ; and the campaign was 
 closed by a treaty of peace. He was created marshal 
 of Fiance in 1741. Died in 1759. 
 
 See " La Cainpagne de Marechal de Coigny en Ailemagne en 
 1743," Amsterdam, 1761. 
 
 Coigiiy.de, (Marie Franqois Henri de Franque- 
 tot,) Duke, a French general, grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in Paris in 1737. Having entered the 
 service of Portugal in 1791, he attained the rank of 
 captain-general. He returned to France in 1814, and 
 was made marshal of France in 1816. Died in 1821. 
 
 Coimbra, ko-em'bka, (Don Pedro,) Duke of, a Por- 
 tuguese prince and poet, born in 1392, was a younger 
 son of King John I. His mother was a daughter of 
 the English Duke of Lancaster, John of Gaunt. He 
 travelled in Palestine and in many other foreign coun- 
 tries, and was chosen Regent of Portugal in 1439. He 
 was killed in battle against Alphonso V. in 1449, and 
 left a number of admired poems. 
 
 See Harbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana;" H. Schoef- 
 fer, " Histoire de Portugal." 
 
 Coin-Delisle, kwaN deh-lel', (Jean Baptiste Cesar,) 
 a French jurist, born in Paris in 1789. 
 
 Coindet, kwAN'di', (Jean Francois,) a Swiss phy- 
 sician, born at Geneva in 1774. For his discovery of the 
 action of iodine on the goitre (1820) he received a prize 
 of 3000 francs from the Academy of Sciences at Paris. 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 Cointe, Le, leh kwaNt, (Charles,) a French historian 
 and priest of the Oratory, born at Troyes in 1611. As 
 chaplain to the French ambassador, he passed several 
 years at Minister, and rendered important services in 
 preparing the treaty of Westphalia in 1648. He after- 
 wards became a resident of Paris, and published his 
 " Ecclesiastical Annals of France," (8 vols., 1665-80,) a 
 work of much erudition. Died in 1681. 
 
 See Nicekon, "Memoires." 
 
 Cointre. See Lecointke. 
 
 Coiny, kwS'ne', (Jacques Joseph,) a French en- 
 graver, born at Versailles in 1761 ; died in 1809. 
 
 Coislin, de, deh kwa'laN', (Henri Charles de Cam- 
 boust — deh kdN'boo',) Duke, a French theologian, born 
 in Paris in 1664. He became Bishop of Metz in 1698, 
 chief almoner of the king, and a member of the French 
 Academy. Died in 1732. 
 
 Coiter, koi'ter, (Volcher,) an eminent Dutch anato- 
 mist, born at Groningen in 1534. He studied in Italy 
 under Fallopius and Eustachio, and was for some years 
 surgeon or physician in the French army. He was called 
 one of the creators of pathologic anatomy, and made 
 improvements in osteology and myology. He published 
 several professional treatises. Died about 1600. 
 
 See M. Adam, "Vitse Eruditorum ;" £loy, "Dictionnaire de la 
 Me'decine." 
 
 Coitier or Coictier, kwa'te-i', (Jacques,) a French 
 physician, born at Poligny, became first physician to 
 Louis XL, over whom he is said to have had great in- 
 fluence. Died about 1505. ' 
 
 Cokaine or Cokayn, ko-kan', written also Cock- 
 aine, (Sir Aston,) an English Catholic, born in Derby- 
 shire in 1608, was a royalist in the civil war. He com- 
 posed some worthless plays and doggerel poems, which 
 
 are only worthy of notice on account of the anecdotes 
 which they furnish of contemporary authors or actors. 
 Died in 1684. 
 
 See Cibber, "Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Cokayn. See Cokaine. 
 
 Coke or Cook, [always pronounced kook in his own 
 time, and at present by the members of the English bar,] 
 (Sir Edward,) one of the most eminent of English judges 
 and jurists, was born at Mileham, in Norfolk, in 1552. 
 After graduating at Cambridge, he studied law in the 
 Inner Temple, London, and was called to the bar in 1578. 
 He rapidly acquired a very extensive practice, was ap- 
 pointed solicitor-general in 1592, and attorney-general 
 in 1594, although the Earl of Essex strenuously urged 
 the appointment of Francis Bacon to the last office. In 
 1593 he was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons. 
 He is justly censured for his insolence to Raleigh at the 
 trial of the latter in 1603, and for his cruelty in applying 
 torture to persons charged with crimes. In 1606 he was 
 appointed chief justice of the common pleas, and in 1613 
 chief justice of the king's bench. .From this office he 
 was removed in 1616, because he was not sufficiently ob- 
 sequious to the court or king. In 1622 he was confined 
 in the Tower many months for his opposition to the 
 court party. He was elected to Parliament in 1625, and 
 again in 1628, when he zealously opposed the arbitrary 
 measures of the court, and was one of the leaders of the 
 popular party. About 1628 he produced his celebrated 
 work called "Coke upon Littleton," or the "First In- 
 stitute," being the first part of the " Institutes of the Laws 
 of England." It is a work of the highest authority on 
 English law, and a rich mine of legal learning. " He hath 
 thrown together," says Blackstone, "an infinite treasure 
 of learning in a loose desultory order." Died in 1633. 
 
 See Charles W. Johnson, "Life of Sir Edward Coke," 2 vols., 
 1837; E. Foss, "The Judges of England;" Bkiugeman, "Legal 
 Biography ;" Gardiner, " History of England from the Accession 
 of James I. to the Disgrace of Chief-Justice Coke," 2 vols. 8vo, Lon- 
 don, 1863; "Retrospective Review," vol. viii., 1823; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1838. 
 
 Coke, (Thomas,) a zealous Wesleyan missionary, 
 born at Brecon, South Wales, in 1747. About 1780 he 
 was appointed by John Wesley superintendent of the 
 London district, and a few years later was ordained a 
 bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He made 
 nine voyages to North America between 1784 and 1814, 
 and incurred danger of violence by preaching against 
 slavery. He died at sea, on a voyage to Ceylon, in 
 1814. His principal work is a " Commentary on the Old 
 and New Testaments." 
 
 See S. Drew, "Life of the Rev. Thomas Coke ;" Rev. Robert 
 Steel, " Burning and Shining Lights," London, 1864. 
 
 Coke, (Thomas William.) See Leicester, Earl of. 
 
 Cola, di, de ko'15, (Gennaro,) an Italian painter, born 
 in the kingdom of Naples in 1320; died about 1370. 
 
 Colalto, ko-!al'to, or Collalto, kol-lal'to, (Antonio 
 Mattiuzzi — mat-te-oot'see,) an Italian actor and dra- 
 matic author, born at Vicenza about 1717. His comedy 
 of the "Three Venetian Twins" (1773) was very suc- 
 cessful at Paris. Died at Paris in 1778. 
 
 Colantonio, di, dee ko-lan-to'ne-o, (Marzio,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Rome in 1662 ; died in 1701. 
 
 Colardeau, ko'ltK'do', (Charles Pierre,) a French 
 poet, born at Janville in 1732. In 1758 he produced his 
 " Letter from Heloise to Abelard," imitated from Pope, 
 which was very successful. Among his best works are 
 "The Men of Prometheus," "Epistle to M. Duhamel," 
 and " Astarbe," a tragedy. He was admitted into the 
 French Academy in 1776. His merit consists in the 
 charm and harmony of his versification, rather than in 
 the force or originality of his thoughts. Died in 1776, 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale ;" " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Colardeau, (Julien,) a French poet, born in Poitou 
 about 1590, wrote a poem on the victories of Louis XIII. 
 
 Colas de Rienzl See Rienzi. 
 
 Colaud, ko'15', (Claude Silvestre,) Count, a 
 French general, born at Briancon in 1754. In 180 1 he 
 was made a senator by the First Cciisul, on account of 
 his military services. Died in 1819. 
 
 Colbert, kol'baiR', (Auguste Marie Francois,) a 
 French general, born in Paris in 1777. He went to Egypt 
 as aide-de-camp of Murat in 1798, and, returning with 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; m£t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
COLBERT 
 
 63 J 
 
 COLE 
 
 Desaix, distinguished himself at Marengo in 1800. For 
 his conduct at Austerlitz in 1805 he was made general 
 of brigade, and was employed to carry to the emperor 
 Alexander the ultimatum of the victor. He was killed 
 in a battle near AstOTga, Spain, in 1809. 
 
 See " Victoires et CmiquStes des Francais." 
 
 Colbert, (CHARLES,) Marquis de Croissy, (kRwi'se',) 
 brother of the great Colbert, was born in Paris in 1629. 
 He was successively councillor of state, first president of 
 the parliament of Metz, and ambassador to England. He 
 had a prominent part in the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 
 m 1668, and was afterwards secretary of state. Died 
 in 1696. 
 
 Colbert, (Jean BAPTISTS,) an eminent French states- 
 man and financier, born at Kheims on the 29th of Au- 
 gust, 1619, was the son of Nicolas Colbert, a person of 
 moderate fortune. In his youth he travelled through 
 many provinces of France, giving special attention to 
 the state of commerce and the means of improving it. 
 In 164S he was introduced to Cardinal Ma/.arin, who, 
 discerning his merit, took him into his service and con- 
 fidence, as intendant of his estate. He became a coun- 
 cillor of state at the age of twenty-nine, and secretary to 
 the queen in 1654. In 1661 Mazarin died, commending 
 Colbert to the confidence of Louis XIV. Fouquet, su- 
 perintendent of the finances, aspired to succeed Mazarin 
 as prime minister; but the king, resolving to be the actual 
 ruler, suppressed the office of prime minister, and that 
 of superintendent. Colbert, having given him proof 
 that the finances were verging to a state of ruin and 
 chaos, was appointed controller-general of finances in 
 1661. He reduced the laille, (land- and income-tax,) and 
 established strict order and economy in all the branches 
 of the revenue and public expenses. Though the people 
 paid more than eighty millions annually, in 1660 only 
 thirty-two millions were received into the treasury ; but 
 at tlie death of Colbert eighty-three millions were re- 
 ceived out of a total revenue of one hundred and fifteen 
 millions. Under his auspices the commerce and manu- 
 factures of France were so efficiently promoted, and 
 acquired so great prosperity, that, as Voltaire says, "he 
 may l>e regarded as the founder of commerce and pro- 
 tector of all the arts." He formed a chamber of com- 
 merce, opened canals, chartered two companies to trade 
 in the East and West Indies, and planted colonies in 
 Canada, etc. In 1669 he was appointed minister of the 
 marine, in which he made great reforms. The manufac- 
 tures of glass, silk, woollen stuffs, and other commodities 
 were either originated or much enlarged by him. He also 
 patronized letters and science by founding the Academy 
 of Inscriptions, the Academy of Sciences, (1606,) the 
 Observatory, and other institutions. He was a member 
 of the French Academy. He opposed without success 
 the system of loans proposed by Louvois during the war 
 which began in 1672, and constantly favoured the tole- 
 ration of Protestants. His austere probity found little 
 Sympathy at the court of Louis XIV.; and he was at last 
 supplanted (at least partially) by the more obsequious 
 Louvois, who was minister of war. He died, however, 
 in office in September, 1683, leaving several sons, noticed 
 in this work. His manners were rather cold and reserved, 
 his morals regular. Louis XIV. said he always retained 
 at court the tone and manners of a bourgeois. Probably 
 no minister ever rendered so great services to France as 
 Colbert. 
 
 Sec D'Auvignv, "Vie de Colbert;" Neckkr, "filoge de J. B. 
 Colbert:" Pierre Ci.huknt, " Histoire de Colbert," 1846; A. de 
 Skkvikz, " Histoire de Colbert," 1842; Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis 
 XIV" Cmari.es Perrault, "Memoires;" W. Seelig, "Disser- 
 tatio tie Colberti Adniinistratione Aerarii," 1S44. 
 
 Colbert, (Jean Baptiste,) Marquis de Seignelay, 
 (sin'yeh-lj',) the eldest son of the great financier, was 
 born'iii Paris in 1651. He inherited a good share of his 
 father's talents and firmness. In 1676 he was appointed 
 secretary of the navy, or minister of the marine, which, 
 under his direction, became one of the most powerful in 
 the world. He was chosen a minister of state in 1689, 
 and died in 1690. His brother, Jacques Nicolas, born 
 in Paris in 1654, became Archbishop of Rouen. He was 
 admitted into the French Academy in 1678. He left a 
 fair reputation for talents and conduct. Died in 1707. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Colbert,(jEAN Baptiste,) Marquis deTorcy,(toR'se',) 
 a French negotiator, son of the Marquis de Croissy, born 
 in Paris in 1665. About the age of twenty he was sent on 
 a mission to Denmark, and in 1687 performed another to 
 London. Between 1690 and 1700 he was appointed secre- 
 tary for foreign affairs. He negotiated a separate peace 
 with England about 17 12, and took part in the general 
 pacification of Utrecht in 1713. About 1715 he retired 
 from office. He was a member of the Academy of Sci- 
 ences, and wrote a treatise on the negotiations horn the 
 treaty of Ryswick to the peace of Utrecht. Died in 1746. 
 
 Colbert, (Jules Akma.nd,) a French general, a son 
 of the eminent statesman, was mortally wounded at the 
 battle of Blenheim in 1704. 
 
 Colbert, (Pierre David,) a French general, born in 
 Paris in 1774. He made the campaign of Austerlitz (1805) 
 as aide-de-camp to Berthier, and became a general of 
 division in 1813. He fought for Napoleon at Waterloo, 
 but entered the service of Louis XVIII. in 1816. In 
 1838 he was made a peer of France, Died in 1853. 
 
 See "Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Colborne, (Sir John.) See Seaton, Lord. 
 
 Col'burn, (Warren,) a mathematician, born at Ded- 
 ham, Massachusetts, in 1793, graduated at Harvard in 
 1820. He became a school-teacher in Boston, and pub- 
 lished in 1821 his "Mental Arithmetic," which had an 
 immense circulation in Europe as well as in the United 
 States. He also published a Sequel to the above work. 
 Died in 1833. • 
 
 Colburn, (Zerah,) a mathematical prodigy, born at 
 Cabot, Vermont, in 1804. Before he was seven years old 
 he displayed such wonderful experlness in mental arith- 
 metic that his father began, in 1810, to exhibit him in 
 public. He could solve with accuracy and rapidity the 
 most difficult questions in involution, evolution, etc., 
 without the use of figures. Being asked the number of 
 seconds in 1813 years, 7 months, and 27 davs, he quickly 
 answered, 57,234,384,000. About 1825 he became a 
 Methodist preacher. He lost his faculty of computation 
 as he grew up to manhood. Died in 1840. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," 1833. 
 
 Col'bjf, (or kfll'be,) (Thomas,) an English engineer, 
 was born at Rochester in 1784. In 1802 he was appointed 
 assistant in the Ordnance Survey, with which his history 
 is inseparably connected. He was raised to the rank of 
 captain in 1807. He evinced great energy and endurance 
 in the survey of Scotland, 1813-17. In 1820 he was 
 chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, a member of the 
 Board of Longitude, and succeeded General Mudge as 
 superintendent of the survey. He next pursued the 
 same task in Ireland, where he used with advantage the 
 "compensation-bars" invented by himself. The maps 
 engraved under his direction are said to be more accu- 
 rate than any previously made. He was raised to the 
 rank of major-general in 1846. Died in 1852. 
 
 Col'ches-ter, (Charles Abbot,) Lord, an English 
 peer and vice-admiral, born in 179S, was postmaster- 
 general during the ministry of Lord Derby in 1858-59. 
 
 Colchester, Lord. See Abbot, (Charles.) 
 
 Col'den, (Cadwai.LADER,) a physician, born at Dunse, 
 Scotland, in 1688, emigrated to America about 1708. He 
 wrote a " History of the Five Indian Nations of Canada." 
 He was a correspondent of Linnaeus, to whom he sent 
 several hundred American plants. He was lieutenant- 
 governor of New York from 1761 until his death in 1776. 
 
 Golden, (Cadwallader D.,) a grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in Queen's county, Long Island, in 
 1769. He practised law in New York, was elected mayor 
 of that city in f8l8, and a member of Congress in 1822. 
 He wrote a "Life of Robert Fulton." Died in 1834. 
 
 Coldore, kol'do'ra', a F'rcnch engraver of precious 
 stones, appears to have been the same as Julien DE 
 FONTENAY, whom Henry IV., in his letters-patent of 
 1608, entitles his valet-de-chambre and engraver of gems. 
 His portraits of Henry and others are prized almost as 
 highly as antique gems. He engraved a portrait of 
 Queen Elizabeth, which she preferred to all others. 
 
 Cole, (CHARLES NELSON,) an English legal antiquary, 
 born in 1722; died in 1804. 
 
 Cole, (Sir Galbraith Lowrv,) an officer of the British 
 army, born in 1772, was a son of the Earl of Enniskillen. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as z; th as in this. ( J^"See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
COLE 
 
 636 
 
 COLERIDGE 
 
 He became colonel in 1801, and served with distinction 
 in the Peninsular war, (1808-14.) Died in 1842. 
 
 Cole, (Henry,) an English Catholic theologian, be- 
 came Fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1523. He was 
 chosen provost of Eton in 1554, and had a disputation 
 with Cranmer in that year. He wrote " Letters to 
 Bishop Jewel," and a few other works. Died in 1579. 
 
 Cole, (Henry,) CIS., an English art-critic and editor, 
 noted as the promoter of " Art-Manufactures," was born 
 at Bath in 1808. In his youth he became assistant keeper 
 of the public records, and by his writings caused the 
 establishment of a general record office. He was one of 
 the executive committee of the Exhibition of the Crystal 
 Palace in 1851, the success of which is in great measure 
 ascribed to him. Mr. Cole was the British commissioner 
 for the Universal Exposition of Paris in 1855. 
 
 Cole, (Thomas,) an eminent landscape-painter, born 
 in Lancashire, England, in 1801, at an early age ac- 
 companied his parents to Ohio. Having had no instruc- 
 tions in art except what he received from an itinerant 
 portrait-painter, he set out in 1822 to seek his fortune. 
 After a short sojourn in Western Pennsylvania and Phila- 
 delphia, he arrived in New York City, where his works 
 soon attracted the notice of artists and connoisseurs. 
 His reputation was now established, his landscapes, in- 
 cluding views of the Catskills and the White Mountains, 
 were eagerly sought for, and he was soon enabled to 
 visit Europe. He set out in 1829, and, after a residence 
 of two years in London, repaired to Florence and Rome. 
 He returned to New York in 1832, bringing with him a 
 number of Italian landscapes, which, though perhaps no 
 improvement on the style of his previous works, are 
 highlv esteemed by many amateurs. Cole, who in one 
 of his letters had said, " Neither the Alps nor the Apen- 
 nines, nor even Etna itself, have dimmed in my eyes the 
 beauty of our own Catskills," now again devoted him- 
 self to his favourite subjects. The result of these labours 
 were his "Cross in the Wilderness," "The Hunter's 
 Return," "Home in the Woods," "Mountain Ford," 
 and other admirable illustrations of American scenery. 
 His great allegorical series (in four pictures) of " The 
 Voyage of Life" is ranked among his master-pieces. 
 Among his other pictures may be named "The Course 
 of Empire," (in 5 parts,) "View of Mount Etna, taken 
 from Taormina," "Kenilworth Castle," and "Dream of 
 Arcadia." Died in 1848. 
 
 See L. Noble, "Life of T. Cole;" Tuckerman, "Book of the 
 Artists;" "North American Review" for October, 1853; "Oration 
 on tlte Death of Thomas Cole," by W. C. Bryant, New York, 1848. 
 
 Cole, (Rev. Thomas,) an English dissenter and reli- 
 gious writer, was one of the teachers of John Locke. 
 Died in 1697. 
 
 Cole, (William,) an English botanist, born at Adder- 
 bury in 1626. His works are "The Art of Simpling," 
 and "Adam in Eden." Died in 1662. 
 
 Cole, (William,) an English physician, whograduated 
 in 1666, and practised at Bristol. He published treatises 
 on Fevers, on Animal Secretions, etc. 
 
 Cole, (William,) an English antiquary and divine, 
 born in Cambridgeshire in 1714. He became rector of 
 Bletchley in 1767, and vicar of Burnham in 1774. He 
 contributed to the antiquarian works of Grose, Ducarel, 
 Gough, etc., and collected manuscripts for an account 
 of Cambridge scholars in imitation of Wood's "Athenae." 
 Died in 1782. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes," etc. 
 
 Colebrooke, kol'brdok, (Henry Thomas,) an emi- 
 nent Oriental scholar, born in England in 1765. He 
 went to India in 1782, and held several high positions 
 in the service of the East India Company. He published 
 a "Grammar" and a "Dictionary of the Sanscrit Lan- 
 guage," (1808,) and " Remarks on the Husbandry and 
 Internal Commerce of Bengal," which, says McCulloch, 
 " is by far the best and most trustworthy work on the 
 subject." He was chosen professor of Sanscrit at the 
 College of Fort William soon after the same was founded, 
 and was at one time a member 6f the supreme council of 
 Bengal. He wrote valuable treatises, which were inserted 
 in the Transactions of the Asiatic Society. He returned 
 to England before his death, which occurred in 1837. 
 
 See Walckenaer, " Notice stir la Vie et les Ouvrages de Cole- 
 brooke." 
 
 Cole'man, (William,) an American journalist and 
 lawyer, born in Boston in 1766. He settled in New 
 York about 1794, and became in 1801 editor of the 
 " Evening Post," the organ of the Federalists, which 
 he edited with ability for about twenty years. He was 
 intimate with Alexander Hamilton. Died in 1829. 
 
 Co-len'so, (John William,) an English theologian, 
 born in 1814, graduated at Cambridge in 1836. He be- 
 came Bishop of Natal, in South Africa, in 1854. He 
 published, besides other works, "The Pentateuch and 
 Book of Joshua critically examined," (1862,) which was 
 condemned by both houses of Convocation of the pro- 
 vince of Canterbury in 1864. He denies the inspiration 
 and historical accuracy of several books of the Old Tes- 
 tament. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1863; "Westminster 
 Review" lor January, 1863 ; " British Quarterly Review" for January, 
 1863. 
 
 Coleoni, ko-li-o'nee, or Coglioni, k61-yo'nee, (Bar- 
 Tolommeo,) an Italian general, .born near Bergamo in 
 1400. In the war between the Venetians and Milanese 
 he fought for and betrayed both by turns. He was gen- 
 eralissimo of the Venetian state from 1454 until his death 
 in 1475. ^ e passed for the best tactician of that age. 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 Co'ler, (Johann Christoph,) a German theologian, 
 born near Langensalza in 1691, published a journal called 
 "Auserlesene theologik Bibliolhek," (1724-36,) in which 
 he gave an analysis of recent works on theology. Died 
 in 1736. 
 
 See Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 Coleridge, kol'rij, (Rev. Derwent,) a son of the 
 celebrated poet S. T. Coleridge, was born at Keswick 
 in 1800, and educated at Cambridge. He was ordained 
 about 1826, and became a prebendary of Saint Paul's, 
 London. In 1839 he published "The Scriptural Char- 
 acter of the English Church considered." He succeeded 
 his sister (Sara H.) as editor of his father's unpublished 
 works. His " Memoir of Hartley Coleridge" is highly 
 praised. He is, or was recently, principal of Saint 
 Mark's College, Chelsea. 
 
 Coleridge, (Hartley,) an English poet and prodigy, 
 born at Clevedon, near Bristol, in 1796, was the eldest 
 son of the eminent poet. In 1800 his father removed to 
 Keswick, in the Lake region. Hartley was a deep thinker 
 in childhood, ami was in all periods of his life dreamy, 
 wayward, and fantastic. While he was a "baby in his 
 mother's arms," he exclaimed, on seeing the lamps of 
 London, " Oh, now I know what the stars are : they are 
 the lamps that have been good on earth and have gone 
 up to heaven." When he was six years old, Wordsworth 
 addressed to him these lines : 
 
 'O thou ! whose fancies from afar are brought. 
 
 Who of thy words dost make a mock apparel, 
 And fittest to unutterable thought 
 The bree/.e-like motion and the self born carol," etc 
 
 He graduated at Oxford with honour in 1818, and was 
 elected a Fellow of Oriel College. About a year after 
 that event he forfeited the Fellowship by intemperance, 
 which became habitual. The formation of this habit is 
 partly ascribed to physical deformity and a morbid sen- 
 sitiveness on that subject. His personal appearance is 
 said to have been very grotesque, and his conversational 
 powers most extraordinary. The latter half of his life 
 was passed at Grasmere and Rydal Water, with no occu- 
 pation but literary pursuits. He wrote articles for " Black- 
 wood's Magazine," and " The Worthies of Yorkshire and 
 Lancashire," which is highly esteemed. A volume of his 
 poems, published in 1833, contains Sonnets which are 
 greatly admired. He also left Essays on various subjects. 
 Southey in one of his letters wrote, "It is impossible to 
 give you any adequate idea of his oddities ; for he is the 
 oddest of all God's creatures, and grows quainter every 
 day." Died in 1849. 
 
 See a " Memoir of Hartley Coleridge," prefixed to his " Poems," 
 by his brother, Rev. D. Coleridge : "Brief Biographies," by Sam- 
 uel Smiles, i860; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1851; " r raser's 
 Magazine" for June, 1851. 
 
 Coleridge, (Henry Nelson,) an English lawyer and 
 distinguished scholar, born about 1800, was the son of 
 Colonel Coleridge, and a nephew of the celebrated poet. 
 He was a graduate of King's College, Cambridge. In 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
COLERIDGE 
 
 637 
 
 COLETTI 
 
 1825 he made a voyage to Barbadoes with his uncle, 
 Bishop Coleridge, and published " Six Months in the 
 West Indies," which was favourably received. Having 
 been called to the bar in 1826, he acquired extensive 
 practice. In 1830 he published an " Introduction to the 
 Study of the Greek Classic Poets," which was followed 
 by the ''Table-Talk of Samuel T. Coleridge." He ren- 
 dered valuable services to the public as editor of his 
 uncle's writings, viz., " Literary Remains of S. T. Cole- 
 ridge," (1836,) "The Friend," "Biographia Literaria," 
 etc. Died in 1843. 
 
 Coleridge, (John Dukk,) an English orator, son of 
 Sir John T. Coleridge, noticed below. As a Liberal mem- 
 ber of Parliament for Exeter, he made an able speech for 
 the Reform Bill in April, 1S66. In December, 1868, he 
 became solicitor-general. 
 
 Coleridge, (Sir John Taylor,) an English lawyer, a 
 nephew of the eminent poet S. T. Coleridge, was born 
 at Tiverton in 1 790. He published an edition of " Black- 
 stone's Commentaries" in 1825, and was appointed a 
 judge of the court of king's bench in 1835. In 1858 he 
 was admitted to the privy council. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. 
 Coleridge, (SAMUEL Taylor,) an eminent English 
 poet, critic, and speculative genius, was born at Ottery 
 Saint Mary, in Devonshire, on the 21st of October, 1772. 
 He was the youngest among many children of John Cole- 
 ridge, vicar of that parish, and did not inherit the favours 
 of fortune. Before he was fifteen he was deeply interested 
 in metaphysics. He entered Jesus College, Cambridge, 
 in 1 791, gained high distinction by his classical attain- 
 ments, but abruptly left the university without a degree 
 in 1793, in consequence of the rejection of his addresses 
 by a young lady of Cambridge. In a reckless state of 
 mind, and with an empty purse, he enlisted in a regiment 
 of dragoons, under the assumed name of Silas Tom- 
 ken Comberback ; but his friends soon procured his 
 discharge. In 1794 he became intimate with Rol)ert 
 Southey, whose politics and creed were then, like his 
 own, democratic and Socinian. They resolved to emi- 
 grate to America and to found on the Susquehanna a 
 Utopian republic or pantisocracy, with a community of 
 goods, the idea of which originated with Coleridge. This 
 romantic reverie, however, was never realized, as they 
 had not sufficient capital even for the outfit. 
 
 Coleridge had already begun to write poetry, and to 
 display bis marvellous aptitude and passion for lecturing 
 in all places and on all occasions. In 1794 he sold to 
 his generous friend Mr. Cottle, of Bristol, for thirty 
 guineas in advance, the first volume of his poems, which 
 were printed in 1796. Early in 1795 he gave lectures on 
 political and moral subjects at Bristol, and was warmly 
 applauded. In the same year he married Sarah Fricker, 
 a sister of Southey's wife, and took a cottage at Cleve- 
 don, whence, after a few months, he removed to Bristol. 
 He formed many literary projects, among which was 
 "The Watchman," a weekly periodical, of which he 
 issued ten numbers in 1796, but it did not pay expenses. 
 For two or three years he lived at Nether Stowey, where 
 he wrote the "Ancient Mariner," a poem, and "Osorio, or 
 Remorse," a tragedy, both of which are greatly admired ; 
 also "Lyrical Ballads," in conjunction with Wordsworth, 
 and other poems. He made some essays in preach- 
 ing for the Unitarians ; but his absence of mind, insta- 
 bility, and want of punctuality disqualified him for the 
 regular duties of the pulpit. In 1798 he visited Germany 
 with Wordsworth, and studied German literature, etc. 
 at Gottingen. In 1800 he removed to Keswick, in the 
 Lake district, where Southey and Wordsworth also 
 resided, and from which charming locality the three 
 friends received the appellation of " Lake Poets." About 
 1805 he renounced Unitarianism for the creed of the 
 Anglican Church. He lectured on Shakspeare and the 
 Fine Arts at the Royal Institution in 1808, and in 1809 
 published a periodical entitled "The Friend." About 
 1810, leaving his wife and daughter dependent on 
 Southey, he departed from Keswick, and resumed his 
 wandering habits. Between 1816 and 1825 he produced 
 "Christabel," a "Lay Sermon," (1817,) "Zapoyla," a 
 drama, (1818,) "Biographia Literaria," and "Aids to Re- 
 flection," (1825.) His health having failed, he contracted 
 
 a habit of using opium in excess, (a pint of laudanum 
 per day,) which increased his natural infirmities and 
 caused much remorse. Some years before his death he 
 was enabled to overcome that pernicious habit. In 1816 
 he was kindly received in the house of Mr. Gillman, a 
 physician of London, with whom his last years were 
 passed. He died in 1834, after which appeared his 
 "Literary Remains," "Table-Talk," and other works. 
 "liom aiike poet and orator, he might in either walk, or 
 In both, have left a fame of the highest rank, but for the 
 disease implanted in his fabric, and an indulgence which 
 operated until the day was far spent in tarnishing the 
 rightful glory of his gifts and acquisitions." ("London 
 Quarterly Review.") " He displays," says John Foster, 
 " more of what we mean by the term genius than any 
 mortal I ever saw." The eloquence and affluence of his 
 conversation, or rather monologues, have perhaps never 
 been equalled. As a poet he was one of the most ima- 
 ginative of modern times, and as a critic his merits are 
 of the highest order. 
 
 See Joseph Cottle, " Reminiscences of Coleridge and Southey," 
 '847: James Gillman, "Life of S. T. Coleridge," 1838; LoRO |kf- 
 fkey, critique on Coleridge's " Biographia Literaria," in the " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for August, 1817: and "Edinburgh Review" lor 
 April, 184S, on Coleridge and Southey ; " Quarterly Review" for July, 
 1868; De Quincev, "Literary Reminiscences," vol. i. 
 
 Coleridge, (Sara Henry,) the only daughter of the 
 preceding, whose genius she inherited, was born at Kes- 
 wick in 1803. Her early years were passed in the home 
 of her uncle, Robert Southey, at Keswick, where she 
 enjoyed the society of Wordsworth the poet. In 1822 
 she produced an excellent version of Dobrizhoffer's Latin 
 work on the Abipones, an equestrian people of Para- 
 guay. She was married in 1829 to her cousin, Henry 
 N. Coleridge, whom she assisted in editing her father's 
 works. She was sole editor of the "Aids to Reflection," 
 and a few others. Her imaginative faculty is displayed 
 in her " Phantasmion," a tale, which is much admired, 
 and has all the charms of a beautiful poem except the 
 form and colour of verse. Died in 1852. 
 
 Coleridge, (William Hart,) D.D., an uncle of 
 Henry Nelson, noticed above, was born in 1790. He 
 was appointed, in 1824, Bishop of Barbadoes, which 
 office he resigned in 1841. Died in 1850. 
 
 ColeS, (Captain Covvper Puipps,) an English naval 
 officer, born in 1819, was noted as the inventor of shot- 
 proof rafts or floating batteries, and claimed the invention 
 of the turret system first used in the American Monitor. 
 He was lost at sea in 1870. 
 
 Coles, (Elisha,) an English teacher, born in North- 
 amptonshire about 1640.- He taught school in London, 
 and published, besides other educational works, one on 
 "Short-Hand," an "English Dictionary," and a "Dic- 
 tionary English-Latin, Latin-English," which passed 
 through eighteen editions between 1677 and 1772. 
 
 Col'et, (John,) an eminent scholar, born in London 
 in 1466, and educated at Oxford. He became rector of 
 Dennington in 1485, and Dean of Saint Paul's in 1505. 
 His lectures are said to have contributed to the Refor- 
 mation, which occurred in the following generation. A 
 few years before his death he founded and endowed 
 Saint Paul's School, London. He published "Daily De 
 votions," a "Latin Grammar," and other works. Colet 
 was an intimate friend of Erasmus, and was persecuted 
 for his liberal opinions. Died in 1519. 
 
 See Samuel Knight, "Life of Colet," 1724; "Biographia Bn- 
 tannica." 
 
 Colet, ko'lj', (Louise,) a popular French poetess, 
 born at Aix, in Provence, in 1815. Her maiden name 
 was Revoil. She gained three prizes at the Academic 
 P'rancaise for three poems, ''Le Musee de Versailles," 
 (1839,) "The Monument of Moliere," (1843,) and "The 
 Acropolis of Athens," (1854.) Among her chief pro- 
 ductions is a poem on Woman, (" Le Poeme tie la 
 Femme,") designed to develop the various phases of the 
 life of woman, in six parts. The first of these, called 
 "La Paysanne," appeared in 1853. 
 
 See Cuvilhek Fleukv, "Etudes Imtoriques et litteraires." 
 Coletti, ko-let'tcc, (Giovanni Domknico,) an Italian 
 Jesuit, born in 1727, published a "Geographical Die. 
 tionary of South America," (2 vols., 1771,) and othei 
 works. Died in 1797. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as 7; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; \ as *; th as in this. (jrySee Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
COLFAX 
 
 638 
 
 COLINS 
 
 Col/fax, (Schuyler,) an American statesman, born 
 in the city of New York on the 23d of March, 1823, a 
 short time after the death of his father. He was a grand- 
 son of General William Colfax, who commanded Gen- 
 eral Washington's life-guards throughout the Revolu- 
 tionary war. Owing to the limited circumstances of his 
 widowed mother, he had scarcely any opportunities for 
 obtaining a school education. In 1836 he removed with 
 his mother to Northern Indiana. Not long alter he was 
 appointed deputy auditor for Saint Joseph county. He 
 employed his leisure hours in reading law, in which he 
 made great proficiency, although he appears not to have 
 taken up the study with any view of adopting it as a 
 profession. About 1845 he established at South Bend, 
 Indiana, a weekly paper, called the " Saint Joseph Valley 
 Register," which he edited for many years, and which 
 was an able organ of the Whig party. He was secretary 
 of the National Convention which nominated General 
 Taylor for the Presidency in 1S48. As a member of the 
 Convention which framed the Constitution of Indiana in 
 1850, he opposed the clause which prohibited free col- 
 oured men from settling in that State. He was the Whig, 
 candidate for Congress in 1851, but was defeated by a 
 small majority. In 1854 he was elected a member of 
 Congress by the voters of the ninth district of Indiana, 
 which he represented until he entered upon his duties as 
 Vice-President. Soon after his entrance into Congress 
 he made an eloquent speech on the Kansas question, of 
 which, according to the New York "Tribune," five hun- 
 dred thousand copies were printed and circulated. 
 
 He was elected Speaker of the House of Representa- 
 tives by the Republicans in December, 1863 ; and he was 
 afterwards twice re-elected to the same position, each 
 time with an increased majority. In 1867 he was chosen 
 Speaker of the Fortieth Congress. During the civil war 
 he was an intimate friend and confidential adviser of 
 President Lincoln. In 1865 he made an excursion across 
 the continent to California. 
 
 " As a presiding officer," says " Putnam's Magazine," 
 " Mr. Colfax is the most popular the House has had 
 since Henry Clay. . . . He is eminently representative. 
 A glance at his broad, well-balanced, practical brain 
 indicates that his leading faculty is the sum of all the 
 faculties, — judgment. His talents are administrative and 
 executive rather than deliberative. He would make a 
 better President, or Speaker of the House, than Senator." 
 (See "Putnam's Magazine" for June, 1868.) In person 
 he is not above middle stature. His hair is brown, and 
 his eyes blue. His moral character is represented as 
 irreproachable. On the 21st of May, 1868, he was nomi- 
 nated as the Republican candidate for the office of Vice- 
 President of the United States, General Grant being the 
 nominee for President. They were triumphantly elected, 
 receiving 214 electoral votes against 80 which were given 
 to Seymour and Blair. His peculiar fitness for the office 
 and rare popularity induced the Convention to disregard 
 those geographical considerations which usually require 
 that the President and Vice-President shall not De taken 
 from the same section of the country. 
 
 See Harriet Beecher Stowe, "Men of our Times," 1868; 
 Moore, " Lite of Schuvler Colfax," 186S ; " Life and Public Services 
 of Schuyler Colfax," by E. M. Martin, 1868; "Grant and Col- 
 fax," bv C. A. Phelps. 
 
 Coli, ko'lee, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Lucca in 1634, was a pupil of P. Cortona. Died in 1681. 
 
 Coligni, (Francois.) See Dandelot. 
 
 Coligni or Coligny, de, deh ko'len'ye', (FitANgois,) 
 a son of the admiral, was born in 1557. Having escaped 
 the massacre in which his father perished, he took refuge 
 in Geneva in 1572. Two years later he returned, and 
 took part in the war which was renewed between Catho- 
 lics and Protestants. He was chosen colonel-general 
 b) Henry IV. while the latter was fighting against the 
 League. Died in 1591. 
 
 Coligni or Coligny, de, (Gaspard,) a French gen- 
 eral, the father of Admiral Coligni. After the battle of 
 Marignan, (1515,) where he commanded a corps, he was 
 made marshal of France. He married Louise, a sister 
 of the Constable Montmorenci. He had just been ap- 
 pointed commander of the army sent against Spain, when 
 he died, in 1522. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Coligni, ko-leen'ye or ko'len'ye', or Coligny, de, 
 [Lat. Colin'ius,] (Gaspard,) a renowned Huguenot 
 chief and French admiral, son of the preceding, was born 
 at Chatillon-sur-Loing, February 16, 151 7. He served 
 first in the campaign of 1543, and was knighted by Conde 
 on the field of Cerisoles in 1544. A few years later he was 
 appointed colonel-general of infantry, and in 1552 ad- 
 miral of France. He was taken prisoner by the Spaniards 
 at Saint-Quentin in 1557. Soon after this date he was 
 converted to the Reformed religion. When the civil 
 war began in 1562, Coligni was chosen second in com- 
 mand of the Protestant army under the Prince of Conde. 
 He succeeded to the chief command at Jarnac in 1569, 
 after Conde had been killed, and was defeated at Mon- 
 contour in the same year. In 1570 the court granted 
 the Protestants peace on terms so favourable that they 
 suspected it to be treacherous. These suspicions, how- 
 ever, were artfully dispelled, and Coligni went to Paris 
 to attend the marriage of Henry of Navarre with the 
 king's sister, in August, 1572. After he had been warmly 
 caressed by the king, he was wounded in the arm, as he 
 passed along the street, by a partisan of the Duke of 
 Guise. Two days later occurred the Massacre of Saint 
 Bartholomew, in which Coligni was killed in his cham- 
 ber in the presence of the Duke of Guise. (See Charles 
 IX.) Though not fortunate as a general, his prudence, 
 firmness, and ability rendered him formidable even after 
 defeat 
 
 See Brant&me, "Discours sur l'Amiral de Chatillon ;" P^raui.t, 
 " Vie de Coligni ; De la Ponneraye, " Histoire de l'Amiral de 
 Coligni," 1830; Jean de Serres, "Gasparis Colinii Vita," 1575; 
 Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais;" Dufey, "Coligny, Histoire 
 Francaise," 4 vols., 1824; " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Coligni, de, (Gaspard,) a French general, called Mar- 
 shal de Chatillon, a son of Francois, noticed above, was 
 born in 1584. He obtained at an early age the rank of 
 colonel-general of infantry. He became a marshal in 
 1622, and gained several victories over the Spaniards in 
 Flanders and Piedmont between 1630 and 1640. Died 
 in 1646. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Coligni, de, (Henriette,) Countess de la Suze, (deh 
 lSsiiz,) a French poetess, daughter of the preceding, was 
 born in 1618. She became the wife of the Count de la 
 Suze, from whom she was divorced in 1653. She acquired 
 considerable renown by her elegies, odes, songs, etc., 
 and was admired for her personal and mental graces. 
 Died in 1673. 
 
 Coligni, de, (Odet,) Cardinal de Chatillon, (sha'te'- 
 y6N',) a brother of the admiral, born in 1515, became a 
 cardinal in 1533. About 1560 he made an open profes- 
 sion of the Reformed religion. After the battle of Saint- 
 Denis (1567) he retired to England, where he died in 1571. 
 
 See Bhantomk, "Memoires." 
 
 Coliguon, ko'len'yAN', (Francois,) a distinguished 
 French engraver, born at Nancy about 1621; died in 1671. 
 
 Coligny. See Coligni. 
 
 Colin, kol'in or ko'laN', (Alexander,) an eminent 
 Flemish sculptor, born at Mechlin in 1526. Invited by 
 Ferdinand I., he went to Innspruck in 1563, and executed 
 a magnificent monument to the emperor Maximilian I. 
 It is composed of numerous marble figures in alto-relievo, 
 and is a very admirable specimen of art. He was ap- 
 pointed sculptor to the emperor Ferdinand I., and exe- 
 cuted other monuments in Innspruck. Died in 1612. 
 
 Colin, ko'laN', (Jacques,) a French poet, born at 
 Auxerre, was secretary to Francis I. He composed 
 verses in Latin and French. His "Dialogue between 
 Venus and Cupid" is an ingenious poem, in French. 
 Died in 1547. 
 
 Colines, de, deh ko'len', (Simon,) an eminent French 
 printer of the sixteenth century. He became a partner 
 in Paris of Henry Estienne, whose widow he subsequently 
 married. He published many editions remarkable for 
 correctness and elegance. Died about 1546. 
 
 Colini. See Collini'. 
 
 Colinius. See Coligni. 
 
 Colitis, ko'laN', (Pierre,) Lord of Heetvelde, a 
 Flemish soldier and historian, born at Enghien in 1560. 
 served under Alexander Farnese from 1581 to 1583. He 
 wrote a " History of the most Memorable Events from 
 1 130 to the Present Time," (1634.) Died in 1646. 
 
 i, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, B, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
COLLADO 
 
 639 
 
 COLLETET 
 
 Collado, kol-ya'Do, (Diego,) a Spanish missionary, 
 born in Eslremadura, went to Japan in 1619, and preached 
 there many years. He published in Rome a valuable 
 "Japanese Grammar" and a " Dictionary of the Japanese 
 Language." Died at sea in 1638. 
 
 Collado, (Luis,) a skilful Spanish anatomist, born at 
 Valencia, lived about 1550. He made discoveries in 
 the structure of the ear, and wrote several professional 
 works. 
 
 Collado, (Luis,) a Spanish military engineer of the 
 first part of the sixteenth century, was the author of a 
 "Practical Manual of Artillery," (1586.) 
 
 Colladon, kol'li'd6N', (Theodore,) a Genevese phy- 
 sician and medical writer, lived about 1610-40. 
 
 Collaert, kol'lirt', (Adrian,) an eminent Flemish 
 engraver, born at Antwerp about 1520. He studied in 
 Italy, where he formed the grand manner which cha- 
 racterizes his works. He published many engravings 
 designed by himself, and others, among which is "The 
 Annunciation." Died at Antwerp in 1567. 
 
 His son John, born about 1545, was a skilful engraver, 
 and worked with his father. He executed many admired 
 engravings after kubens and other masters. 
 
 Collaito, kol-lal'to, (Antonio,) an Italian mathe- 
 matician, born at Venice about 1750. He obtained the 
 first chair of mathematics at Padua about 1808. He pub- 
 lished a work on "Analytic Geometry," (1802.) Died 
 in 1820. 
 
 Collaito, (Antonio Mattiuzzi.) See Colalto. 
 
 Col'la-mer, (Jacob,) LL.D., an American statesman 
 and Senator, son of Samuel Collamer, a patriot of the 
 Revolution, was born in Troy, New York, in 1792. At 
 an early age he accompanied his father to Burlington, 
 Vermont, and graduated at the university in that town 
 in 1810. He served as a lieutenant in the first campaign 
 of the second war with Great Britain, was admitted to 
 the bar in 1813, and rose to eminence in his profession. 
 He was from 1833 to 1841 judge of the supreme court 
 of Vermont. Elected to Congress in 1842, he was re- 
 elected in 1844, and again in 1846, and in March, 1849, 
 was appointed by President Taylor postmaster-general 
 of the United States. On the death of the President, 
 in July, 1850, Judge Collamer resigned, with the other 
 members of the cabinet, and in the following autumn 
 was again elected judge of the supreme court of Vermont, 
 to which office he was annually re-elected till chosen 
 United States Senator in 1854. He was re-elected to 
 the Senate in i860. Died in 1865. 
 
 Collanges, de, deh kol'16Nzh / , (Gabriel,) a French 
 mathematician, born in Auvergne in 1521. He wasvalet- 
 de-chambre to Charles IX., and, though a Catholic, was 
 killed in the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew in 1572. 
 He published a work on cabalistic writing. 
 
 Collantes, kol-yan'tes, (Francisco,) a skilful Spanish 
 painter of landscape and history, was born in Madrid in 
 1599. He composed with great facility. Among his 
 chief productions are a " Saint Jerome" and a " Resur- 
 rection." Died in 1656. 
 
 Collard. See R0YFR-C01.I.ARD. 
 
 Collaa, ko'lSs', (AciUlXE,) born in Paris in 1795, 
 
 .invented about 1836 a machine by which statues can 
 
 be copied or reproduced on a smaller scale. Died in 
 
 1859. 
 
 Collas, Le Peke, a French Jesuit, born at Thion- 
 ville about 1730, was well versed in the exact sciences. 
 In 1767 he went as missionary to Pekin, where he was 
 employed by the emperor as mathematician. Died in 
 Pekin in 1 781. 
 
 Col-la-ti'nua, [Fr. Coi.latin, ko'lt-taN',] (L. Tar- 
 quiniusJ) was a relative of Tarquin, the last King of 
 Rome, and was the husband of Lucretia, whose tragical 
 fate occasioned a revolution in 509 B.C. Collatinus and 
 J. Brutus were the first consuls of the new Roman state. 
 Before the end of the year he resigned, or was deposed. 
 
 See Livy, books i. and ii. : Nirbuhr, "Commentary on the Story 
 of the I..i»t T.irqtiii.his," in his "History of Rome." 
 
 Col-la'tiuB, (Pf.trus Apoli.onius,) or Collazio, 
 kol-lit'se-o, (Pietro Apou.onio,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Novara in the fifteenth century. He wrote a poem 
 "On the Destruction of Jerusalem," (" De Eversione 
 Urbis Jerusalem," 1481,) and several other works. 
 
 « as *; 9 as /; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, 
 
 Colle, ko'la', (Chari.es,) a French comic poet, born 
 in Paris in 1709. He became reader to the Duke of 
 Orleans, and received a pension for his song on the cap- 
 ture of Port Mahon. In 1763 he produced the comedy 
 " 1 Hipuis et Desronais," which was very successful. His 
 "Hunting-Party of Henry IV.," and "Truth in Wine," 
 were much admired. He wrote other dramas and songs. 
 Died in 1783. 
 
 See his "Journal Historique," 3 vols., 1805-07 ; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie General*." 
 
 Colle, kol'la, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician, born 
 at Belluno in 1558. He practised with success in Venice, 
 and lectured at Padua, where he died in 1630, leaving 
 several able Latin treatises on medicine. 
 
 Colle, kol'leh, or Colli, kol'lee, (Hippot.yte,) written 
 also CollibuB, a Swiss jurist, born at Zurich in 1561, 
 was professor of law at Heidelberg. Died in 1612. 
 
 Colle, kol, (Jean Theodore,) a French general, born 
 in the department of Metirthe in 1734, served in the 
 Seven Years' war, and subsequently in several campaigns 
 of the Revolution. Died in 1807. 
 
 Colle, dal, dSl kol'la, (Raffaei.lino or Raphael,) 
 an eminent Italian painter, born at Colle, in Tuscany, 
 about 1490. He was a pupil of Raphael and of Giulio 
 Romano. The latter had so high an opinion of his skill 
 that he employed his pencil on his own works. Colle's 
 style was noble, his design correct, and his colouring 
 warm and brilliant. He painted frescos in the Vatican, 
 where he is said to have worked under the direction of 
 Raphael. Among his master-pieces is a picture of the 
 Deluge. Died in 1530. 
 
 Collenuccio, kol-la-noot'cho, (Pandoi.ph or Pan- 
 DOLFO,) a learned Italian historian and jurist, born at 
 Pesaro in the fifteenth century. He was chosen podesta 
 of several towns, and was employed with honour as a 
 negotiator. His principal work is a "History of the 
 Kingdom of Naples," (1539.) He was strangled in prison 
 by John Sforza about 1500. 
 
 Colleoni or Colleone, (Bartolommeo.) See Co- 
 leoni. , 
 
 Colleoni, kol-la-o'nee, (Geronimo,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Correggio in 1742, was learned in languages, 
 history, and philosophy. He was employed in several 
 high offices, and wrote "Notices of the Authors who 
 were Natives of Correggio," (1776.) Died in 1777. 
 
 Colleoni, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Bergamo about 1490, went to Madrid, and was patronized 
 by the king. 
 
 Colles, kol'lis, (Christopher,) a philosophic Irish 
 inventor and projector, born about 1738. He emigrated 
 to Pennsylvania before the Revolution, and devised va- 
 rious plans and projects for the public welfare, but nevei 
 obtained much success. It is stated that he was the first 
 person who proposed to connect the Hudson River with 
 the lakes by a canal. Died in 1821. 
 
 Collet. See Colet. 
 
 Col'let, (John,) an English humorous painter, born 
 in London about 1725 ; died in 1 780. 
 
 Collet, ko'lj', (Joseph,) born in the Isle of Bourbon 
 in 1768, entered the French navy, and distinguished 
 himself at the siege of Antwerp in 1814. He was made 
 rear-admiral in 1828, and died the same year. 
 
 Collet, (Phii.ibert,) a French writer, born at Cha- 
 tilhm-les-Dombes in 1643. He became an advocate at 
 the parliament of Burgundy, and was author of works on 
 various subjects, among which are a " History of Reason," 
 (in Latin,) and an "Essay on Botany." Died in 1718.. 
 
 Collet, (Pierre,) a French theologian, born near 
 Montoire in 1693, wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise 
 on the Holy Mysteries," (1768.) Died in 1770. 
 
 Colletet, kol'ti', (Guili.aumf,) one of the first mem- 
 bers of the French Academy, was bom in Paris in 1598. 
 Richelieu having persuaded him to write for the theatre, 
 he produced " Cyminde," a tragi-comedy. He composed 
 some admired epigrams, an able " Kssay on the Epigram," 
 (1653,) a "Treatise on Pastoral Poetry," (1658,) and other 
 works. He was a royal advocate. Died in 1659. 
 
 His son Francois, born in Paris in 1628, was a poet 
 of inferior merit, whom Boileau ridiculed in his satires. 
 He wTOte, besides other works, " La Muse coquette," 
 and a " Treatise on Foreign Languages." 
 
 trilUd; s as z; th as in this, (By"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
COLLETON 
 
 640 
 
 COLLINGWOOD 
 
 Col'le-ton, (James,) Governor of South Carolina from 
 1686 to 1690, came from the Barbadoes, and in 1687 
 procured a change in the fundamental laws of the colony. 
 His unpopular measures resulted in his final expulsion 
 from the office of Governor. 
 
 Colletta, kol-leVta, (Pietro,) an Italian historian and 
 general, born in Naples in 1 775. He was appointed a 
 general in 1812, and director-in-chief of the military en- 
 gineers in 1 81 3. He was a warm partisan of the French 
 regime. The revolution of 1820 raised him for a short 
 time to the post of minister of war. Having been exiled 
 in 1821, he retired to Florence, and wrote a "History 
 of the Kingdom of Naples," (from Charles VII. to Fer- 
 dinand IV.,) (1834,) which passed through four or more 
 editions. Died in 1833. 
 
 See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1835. 
 
 Colli, kol'lee, Baron, a Piedmontese general, born at 
 Alessandria in 1760, was made a lieutenant-general in 
 1792, and gained a victory over the French in 1793. In 
 1794 he obtained the chief command of the Sardinian 
 army. He was defeated at Mondovi by Napoleon in 1796. 
 Died in 1812. His wife was a sister of the poet Alfieri. 
 
 Collier, kol'yer, (Arthur,) an English philosopher, 
 born near Sarum, in Wiltshire, in 1680. He obtained 
 the living of Langdorf-Magna about 1704. His reputa- 
 tion is founded on a metaphysical work called "Clavis 
 Universalis, or a New Inquiry after Truth," (1713,) in 
 which he proposes to demonstrate the non-existence of 
 the material world. Died in 1732. 
 
 Collier, (Henry Watkins,) an American jurist, born 
 in Virginia in 1801. He rose to eminence as a lawyer 
 in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, was many years chief justice 
 of that State, and Governor from 1849 to 1853. 
 
 Collier, ([eremy,) a famous English theologian and 
 non-juring bishop, born at Stow-Quy, in Cambridgeshire, 
 in 1650. He was educated at Cambridge, and ordained a 
 priest in 1677. In 1685 he obtained the office of lecturer 
 at Gray's Inn, London. His talents and attainments 
 were of a high order. In politics he was an ultra-Tory ; 
 his religious opinions were nearly identical with modern 
 Puseyism. In 1688 he was so zealous a Jacobite that he 
 renounced his preferments rather than take the oaths 
 to William III. ; and he wrote several works against the 
 new regime. In 1696 he gave absolution to Freind and 
 Parkins, as they were about to be executed for treason 
 and attempt to minder. To escape prosecution for this, 
 he absconded, and was outlawed, but continued to re- 
 side in London and to write with impunity. In 1698 he 
 published his celebrated work, a •' Short View of the Pro- 
 faneness and Immorality of the English Stage," which, 
 says Macaulay, " threw the whole literary world into 
 commotion. . . . There is hardly any book of that time 
 from which it would be possible to select specimens of 
 writing so excellent and so various. He was complete 
 master of the rhetoric of honest indignation. The spirit 
 of the book is truly heroic." Congreve appeared in de- 
 fence of the stage, but his answer was a complete failure ; 
 and a great reform in the English drama was the result 
 of Collier's work. Between 1697 and 1705 he published, 
 in 3 vols., " Essays on Several Moral Subjects," which 
 have great merit. He also translated Moreri's " His- 
 torical Dictionary." In 1713 he was consecrated as a 
 bishop by Dr. Hickes, a non-juror. Died in 1726. Re- 
 specting Collier's character Macaulay says, " We believe 
 him to have been as honest and courageous a man as 
 ever lived." 
 
 See "Comic Dramatists of the Restoration," in Macaulay's 
 " Essays." 
 
 Collier, (John Payne,) an eminent English critic 
 and antiquary, born in London in 1789. He produced 
 in 1820 "The Poetical Decameron, or Ten Conversa- 
 tions on English Poets and Poetry," which is highly 
 prized. In 1831 he published an excellent "History of 
 English Dramatic Poetry to the Time of Shakspeare, 
 and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration," (3 vols.,) 
 and in 1844 an edition of "The Works of Shakspeare, 
 the Text formed from a New Collation of the Old Edi- 
 tions," (8 vols.) His collection entitled "Shakspeare's 
 Library" (1848) is accounted valuable. Great excite- 
 ment was produced among critics and antiquaries by the 
 publication, in 1852, of his "Notes and Emendations to 
 
 the Text of Shakspeare's Plays." These Emendations 
 he had found in the margin of a copy of Shakspeare 
 printed in 1632. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, September, and October, 
 1853; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1856. 
 
 Collier, (Sir Robert Porrett,) an English lawyer, 
 born in 1817, was called to the bar in 1843. He was 
 returned to Parliament for Plymouth in 1852, was soli- 
 citor-general from October, 1863, to July, 1866, and was 
 appointed attorney-general in December, 1868. 
 
 Collin, kol-leen', (Heinrich Joseph,) a German phy- 
 sician, born at Vienna in 1731, was the father of the poet 
 Heinrich Joseph von Collin, noticed below. He was 
 chief physician of the hospital of Vienna, and wrote 
 several medical works. Died in 1784. 
 
 Collin, kol'lin, (Jonas,) a distinguished Danish states- 
 man and economist, born at Copenhagen in 1776. He 
 became chief secretary or first commissioner of the treas- 
 ury in 1841. He took a prominent part in many public 
 affairs and benevolent institutions, and wrote discourses 
 on rural economy, geography, and statistics, one of which 
 is entitled "For Historie og Statistik isaer F'aedrelan- 
 dets," (1825.) 
 
 Collin, (Matthaus,) a poet and critic, born at Vienna 
 in 1779, was a brother of Heinrich Joseph von Collin, 
 noticed below. He became professor of aesthetics at 
 Cracow in 1808, and, when that city was taken by the 
 Russians, he obtained a chair of philosophy in Vienna. 
 He was chosen preceptor of the Duke of Reichstadt (son 
 of Napoleon I.) in 1815. He wrote "Marios," and othet 
 dramas. Died in 1824. 
 
 Collin, ko'laN', (Nicolas,) a French theologian, born 
 in the early part of the eighteenth century. He wrote a 
 number of religious works. Died in 1788. 
 
 Collin, von, fon kol-leen', (Heinrich Joseph,) a 
 German dramatic poet, born at Vienna in 1772. After 
 filling several civil offices with credit, he became aulic 
 councillor, and held a high position in the ministry of 
 finances. He produced six tragedies in verse, among 
 which are " Regulus," (1802,) "Coriolanus," and "Bal- 
 boa." He also composed several patriotic war-songs, 
 which were much admired. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Collin d'Ambly, ko'laN' dSiu'ble', (Francois,) a 
 French writer, born at Ambly-sur-Meuse in 1759, was the 
 author of many educational works. Died about 1830. 
 
 Collin de Bar, ko'laN' deh biR, (Alexis Guii.i.aeme 
 Henri,) a French historical writer, born at Pondicherry, 
 India, in 1768, was president of the superior court at the 
 capture of that place in 1803, and then removed to 
 France. He wrote a "History of Ancient and Modern 
 India," (1814,) a work of some merit. Died in 1820. 
 
 Collin de Plancy, ko'laN' deh ploN'se', originally 
 Collin Danton, (d6N'toN',) (Jacques Albin Simon,) a 
 French litterateur, a nephew of the famous Danton, was 
 born at Plancy in 1793. Having written several heretical 
 works, among which was " The Infernal Dictionary," he 
 changed his course about 1837, and produced "Legends 
 of the Holy Virgin," "Legends of the Wandering Jew," 
 and other books of a so-called religious character. 
 
 Collin-Harleville, ko'laN' haRl'vel', (Jean F'ran- 
 (jois,) a French comic poet, born at Maintenon, near, 
 Chartres, in 1755.. He produced in 1786 his first drama 
 (in verse,) the '' Inconstant," (" Inconstant Lover,") 
 which obtained great success. His master-piece is the 
 "Old Bachelor," which was received in 1792 with gen- 
 eral applause. He was admitted into the second class 
 of the Institute. La Harpe thought his "Optimistc" 
 superior to the " Inconstant." Died in Paris in 1806. 
 
 Col'lings or Collinges, (John,) an English non- 
 conformist minister, born in 1623. His sermons and 
 other theological works are highly commended by Cotton 
 Mather and Calamy. Died in 1690. 
 
 Col'ling-wood^ (Cuthbert,) Admiral Lord, an 
 eminent English admiral, born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne 
 in 1750. Having entered the navy in I76l,he served at 
 Bunker Hill in 1775, and was made a post-captain in 
 1780. He contributed to Lord Howe's victory over 
 the French, June I, 1794, and displayed great skill and 
 •courage in the action off Cape Saint Vincent in 1797. 
 In 1799 he obtained the rank of rear-admiral, and in 
 1804 that of vice-admiral. He was second in command 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
COLLINGWOOD 
 
 64. 
 
 COLLOREDO 
 
 at the battle of Trafalgar, (1805,) and when Nelson was 
 killed he succeeded to the chief command. Soon after 
 this event he was raised to the peerage. He com- 
 manded far several yens with honour in the Mediterra- 
 nean, and died at sea near Port Mahon in 1810. He 
 m greatly distinguished as a naval tactician. The 
 memoir of his life published by G. L. N. Collingwood 
 is highly esteemed. 
 
 See, aiso, Campbell, " Lives of the British Admirals ;" " Edin- 
 burgh Review" li.r Mav, 1828. 
 
 Collingwood, (Thomas,) an English physician, noted 
 for his learning and versatile talents, was born near 
 Berwick-on Tweed in 1751. He practised in Norham, 
 Sunderland, and London. He published "The Hermit," 
 and other poems, and left in manuscript some mathe- 
 matical works, etc. Died in 1831. 
 
 Colliiii, kol-lee'nee, (Cosimo Alessandro,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Florence in 1727. About 1750 he went 
 to Berlin, where he met Voltaire, whom he served as 
 secretary from 1752 to 1756. In 1759 he became secre- 
 tary of the Elector Palatine, and director of the Cabinet 
 of Natural History at Manheim. He wrote "My Resi- 
 dence with Voltaire," (1807, in French,) and several his- 
 torical and scientific treatises. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Correspondance." 
 
 Col'liiiB, (Anthony,) an English writer on theology, 
 born of a rich family at Heston, in Middlesex, in 1676, 
 was an intimate friend of John Locke. He studied law, 
 but did not practise it. He published an " Essay on 
 Reason," (1707,) "Priestcraft in Perfection," (1709,) a 
 "Vindication of the Divine Attributes," and a "Dis- 
 course on Free-Thinking," (1713.) These works gave 
 offence to the orthodox, and were attacked by several 
 able divines, among whom was Bentley. In 1718 he 
 was chosen treasurer of the county of Essex. His 
 "Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the Chris- 
 tian Religion" (1724) excited great commotion among 
 the clergy, some of whom treated him as an infidel. He 
 was a subtle disputant, and a writer of much ability. 
 Died in 1729. 
 
 See " Biographia Britaiinica ;" Thorschmidt, " Kritische Le- 
 bensgeschichte A. Collins," 1755; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Collins, (Arthur,) an English antiquary, born in 
 1682. He published, besides other works, the " Peer- 
 age of England," (3 vols., 1 709,) " English Baronage," 
 and "The Lite of Lord Burleigh," (1732.) The first 
 work, augmented by Sir E. Brydges to nine volumes, 
 (1812,) is highly prized. Died in 1760. 
 
 Collins, (David,) a grandson of the preceding, was 
 born in 1756. He became an officer in the British army, 
 and Governor of Van Diemen's Land. He wrote a 
 curious and interesting " Account of the English Colony 
 of New South Wales," (1 798-1802.) Died in 1810. 
 
 Col'lins, (Isaac,) an American publisher, born in 
 Delaware in 1746, lived at Burlington, New Jersey, at 
 Trenton, and New York. He published an octavo Bible, 
 the text of which was very correctly printed. Died in 1817. 
 
 See " Memoir of Isaac ^Collins of Burlington," 1848. 
 
 Collins, (John,) an eminent English mathematician, 
 born at Wood Eaton, near Oxford, in 1624. He pub- 
 lished good elementary works on geometry, arithmetic, 
 and navigation, and contributed papers to the Koyal So- 
 ciety, of which he was chosen a Fellow in 1667. He 
 was a correspondent of Sir Isaac Newton. Died in 1683. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Collins, (SAMUEL,) an English physician, who gradu- 
 ated at Oxford in 1659. Soon after that date he went to 
 Russia, and practised nine years at the court of the tzar. 
 He published in London, in 2671, "The Present State 
 of Russia," and a "Treatise on Anatomy, Physiology, 
 etc.," (1685.) He became physician to the queen, and 
 died about 1 700. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Collins, (William,) an eminent English lyric poet, 
 born at Chichester in 1720. Having graduated at Ox- 
 ford, he went to London about 1744, with little resources 
 except his poetical genius. There he became the friend 
 of Dr. Johnson, who speaks well of his character, and 
 adds that "his great fault was irresolution." His ex- 
 cellent odes on "The Passions," "To Mercy," "To 
 Evening," etc. appeared in 1747, but were treated with 
 
 unmerited neglect. In 1749 he received a legacy of 
 .£2000 from his uncle, Colonel Martin. The latter part 
 of his short life was darkened by melancholy, and he 
 was for some time an inmate of a lunatic-asylum. He 
 died in 1756. Besides the above-named pieces, he wrote 
 " The Dirge in Cymbeline," and a few other short poems. 
 T. Campbell, comparing them with Milton's early works, 
 remarks, " If they have rather less exuberant wealth ot 
 genius, they have more exquisite touches of pathos." 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets;" Mrs. Bakbaui.d, "Essay 
 on Collins;" L)KAKE, "Literary Hours;" Campbell, "Specinienl 
 of the KriiiA Poets." 
 
 Collins, (William,) an English landscape-painter, 
 born in London in 1787, was a pupil of Morland. He 
 was elected a Royal Academician in 1820, and visited 
 Italy in 1836. He represented homely rural scenery and 
 views on the sea-coast with great success, and acquired an 
 extensive reputation. Among his most admired pictures 
 are "Cromer Sands," " Prawn-Fishers," and a " Frost 
 Scejie," the last of which he sold for five hundred 
 guineas. His works are finely finished, and are admired 
 for fidelity to nature. (See a "Memoir" published by 
 his son, W. Wilkie Collins, 1848.) Died in 1847. 
 
 His son, Charles Alston, born about 1828, is also a 
 painter. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1850. 
 
 Collins, (William Wilkie,) an English novelist, 
 born in London in 1824 or 1825, is a son of the landscape- 
 painter above noticed. He published a well-written 
 "Life of William Collins," (his own father, 1848,) 
 "Rambles beyond Railways," (1851,) and several suc- 
 cessful novels, among which are " Antonina," (2d edition, 
 1850,) "Basil," (1852,) "The Dead Secret," (1857,) and 
 "The Woman in White," published in "All the Year 
 Round," (1859-60.) 
 
 Col'lin-spn, (John,) an English writer, published, in 
 1791, the "History and Antiquities of the County of 
 Somerset." Died in 1793. 
 
 Collinson, (Peter,) an English merchant and natu- 
 ralist, who rendered great services to science, especially 
 to botany, was born in Westmoreland in 1693. He 
 lived in London, and availed himself of his mercantile 
 connections to procure seeds and plants from foreign . 
 lands. He was a member of the Royal Society, for 
 which he wrote several memoirs, and was a liberal pa- 
 tron of the Philadelphia Library, whose commissions he 
 executed gratis for thirty years. " He was the means," 
 says Southey, "of procuring national advantages for his 
 country, and possessed an influence which wealth cannot 
 purchase. Franklin's first essays on electricity were 
 originally communicated to this good man. They were 
 read in the Royal Society, 'where they were not thought 
 worth so much notice as to be printed in their Transac- 
 tions;' and his pjper in which the sameness of lightning 
 with electricity \vas first asserted, was laughed at by the 
 connoisseurs." (See Franklin, Benjamin.) Collinson 
 was a member of the Society of Friends. Linnaeus 
 named the genus Collinsonia in honour of him. Died 
 in 1768. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica ;" Fothergill and Collinson, 
 "Account of the Late Peter Collinson ;" and "Tribute to the Mem- 
 ory of Peter Collinson," by William Dillingham. 
 
 Col'11-us, (Francesco,) an Italian theologian, born 
 near Milan about 1590, was the author of two learned 
 works, remarkable for singularity of opinions, one of 
 which is entitled "On the Souls of the Heathens," (" De 
 Animabus Paganorum.") He decides adversely to the 
 salvation of Aristotle. Died in 1640. 
 
 Colin or Coelln, von, fon koln, (Daniel Georg 
 Conrad,) a German rationalistic theologian, born in 
 Lippe-Detmold in 1788; died in 1833. 
 
 Collombet, ko'16N'l>i', (Francois Zenon,) a French 
 Catholic writer, born at Sieges (Jura) in 1808, published 
 a " History of Saint Jerome," (1844,) and other works. 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 Colloredo, kol-lora'do, (Franz G.,) born in 1731, 
 was Austrian ambassador to Spain in 1767, and became 
 vice-chancellor of the empire in 1789. Died in 1807. 
 
 Colloredo, (RUDOLPH,) Count of Waldsee, a general 
 of the Imperialist army, born in 1585, distinguished him- 
 self in the Thirty Years' war, and in 1648 defended Prague 
 with success against the Swedes. Died in 1657. 
 
 tisk 
 
 5 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as t; th as in this. (J[^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 4' 
 
COLLOT 
 
 642 
 
 COLO MB r 
 
 Collot, ko'lo', (Jean Francois Henri,) a French 
 writer, born near Charleville in 1716, was a contributor 
 to the " Encyclopedia" of Diderot, and published other 
 works. Died in 1 804. 
 
 Collot. See Colot. 
 
 Collot-d'Herbois, ko'lo' deVbwa', (Jean Marie,) a 
 notorious French Jacobin, born about 1750, was a stroll- 
 ing player before the Revolution, and author of several 
 comedies. He was deputed by the people of Paris to 
 the Convention in 1792, became a partisan of Robes- 
 pierre, and was one of the Committee of Public Safety 
 in 1793. He rendered himself infamous by li|s cruelties 
 at Lyons, where many hundred persons perished by his 
 order, in 1793. In this he is said to have been actuated 
 by revenge, having once been hissed on the stage of 
 Lyons. He presided over the Convention on the 9th 
 Thennidor, 1794, and contributed to the ruin of Robes- 
 pierre. In 1795 he was transported to Cayenne, where 
 he died miserably in 1796. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution;" " Noiwelle 
 Biographie Gene'rale;" " Biographie UniverselJe." 
 
 Collucio. See Coluccio. 
 
 C611'yer, (Joseph,) an English engraver, born in 
 London in 1748, was a son of Mary Collyer, the suc- 
 cessful translator of Gesner's " Death of Abel." He ex- 
 celled in the stippled style of engraving. Died in 1827. 
 
 Collyer, (William Bengo,) an English divine, was 
 minister of the Independent Chapel, Peckham. He 
 published several volumes of lectures "On Scripture 
 Facts," "On Scripture Prophecy," "On Scripture Doc- 
 trine," etc., (1807-22.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Col'man, (Henjamin,) an American clergyman, born 
 in Boston in 1673. He became pastor of a church in his 
 native city about 1700, and published sermons, poems, 
 etc. Died in 1747. ■ 
 
 Col'man, (George,) an eminent English dramatic 
 author, was born about 1733 at Florence, where his 
 father was British minister. He was a graduate of Ox- 
 ford. In 1760 he produced "Polly Honeycomb," a 
 drama, which was warmly applauded, and in 1761 "The 
 Jealous Wife," which was also very popular. He made 
 an excellent translation of Terence into verse in 1764. 
 Between 1767 and 1775 he was acting manager of Covent 
 Garden Theatre, and was afterwards proprietor of the 
 Haymarket Theatre. He published a translation of 
 Horace's " Art of Poetry," and several other works. In 
 1789 he Ipst his reason. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Colman, (George,) "the Younger," a son of the 
 preceding, was born in 1762. He inherited his father's 
 dramatic taste and talent, and succeeded him as director 
 of the Haymarket Theatre in 1785. He wrote many 
 popular comedies and farces, among which are " The Iron 
 Chest," (1796,) "John Bull," "Inkle and Varico," and 
 " Heir at Law." Fot " John Bull" he received the largest 
 sum that had ever been paid for any drama. He also 
 composed comic tales, called " Broad Grins" and " Poetic 
 Vagaries," (1812,) and memoirs of his own life, entitled 
 "Random Recollections," (2 vols., 1830.) Died in 1836. 
 
 See Bakkr, " Biographia Dramatica;" R. B. Peake, "Memoirs 
 of the Colman Family;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1841. 
 
 Colman, (Henry,) a Unitarian minister, and writer 
 on agriculture, born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1785. 
 He was pastor at Salem from 1825 to 1831, after which 
 he was appointed agricultural commissioner for the State 
 of Massachusetts. He went to Europe in 1842, and pub- 
 lished " European Agriculture and Rural Economy," and 
 other works. Died in London in 1849. 
 
 Colman, (Samuel,) an American landscape-painter 
 of the present century. Among his best works are 
 " Lake George," " Barges on the Hudson," and an 
 "Autumn Landscape." 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Colmar, kol'maR, (Johann,) a German educational 
 writer, born at Nuremberg in 1684; died in 1737. 
 
 Colmeiro, kol-ma^e-ro, (Manuel,) a Spanish writer 
 on political economy, was born at Santiago de Galicia 
 in 1818. He became professor of political economy at 
 Madrid in 1847. 
 
 Colmenar.de, da kol-ma-naR', (Juan Alvarez,) a 
 historian and compiler, who was the reputed author of 
 
 two esteemed French works, viz., "Annals of Spain and 
 Portugal," (174.1,) and a " Description of Spain and Por- 
 tugal," (5 vols., 1707.) It is suspected that J. A. de Col- 
 menar was an assumed name of the French compiler. 
 
 Colmenarea, de, da kol-mi-na'rSs, (Diego,) born at 
 Segovia, in Spain, in 1586, wrote a " History of Segovia 
 and Compendium of the Histories of Castile," (1634.) 
 Died in 1651. 
 
 Coin or Coeln, von, fan koln, (Wilhelm,) called 
 Meister Wilhelm, an excellent German painter, lived 
 at Cologne about 1370. He painted religious subjects 
 in distemper. 
 
 Colnet, de, deh kol'nj', (Charles Joseph Algustb 
 Maximilien,) often called Colnet de Ravel, a French 
 satirical poet and journalist, born in Picardy in 1768. He 
 became a bookseller at Paris in 1797. In 1810 he pro- 
 duced an ingenious poem, entitled " The Art of Dining 
 Out-, (en ville,) for the Use of Authors." He wrote 
 editorials for the "Journal de Paris" and the "Gazette 
 de France" between 181 1 and 1832. Died in 1832. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Colocci, ko-lot'chee, [Lat. Colo'tius,] (Angelo,) an 
 Italian poet, born near Ancona in 1467, became a resi- 
 dent of Rome and secretary of Leo X. He lived in grand 
 style, and had a fine library, which was burned when Rome 
 was sacked in 1527. He gained a temporary reputation 
 by his Latin poems. Died in 1549. 
 
 Colocotroni. See Koi.ocotroni. 
 
 Cologne, de, deh ko'lon', (Peter,) a Protestant di- 
 vine, was a native of Ghent. Died in 1558. 
 
 Coloma, ko-lo'ma, (Don Carlos,) a Spanish general 
 and historian, born at Alicante in 1573. He rose to 
 the highest rank in the army, and became Governor of 
 the Milanese. He received from Philip IV. the title of 
 Marquis of Espina, and wrote a history of the war in Flan- 
 ders from 1588 to 1599, ("Las Guerras de los Estados 
 Baxos," 1625,) a work of considerable merit. Died in 
 l°37- 
 
 Colomb. See Columbus. 
 
 Colomb, ko'loN', written also Columb, (Michel,) 
 a French sculptor, born in Bretagne in the fifteenth 
 century. His master-piece is the tomb of Francis II. 
 (Duke of Bretagne) at Nantes, which is much admired. 
 
 Colomba. See Columba. 
 
 Colomban. See Columhan. 
 
 Colombe, ko'loMb', (Marie Therese,) a famous 
 actress, born at Venice in 1757, made a successful debut 
 in Paris in 1772. She retired from the stage in 1788, and 
 died in 1837. 
 
 Colombel, ko'lAN'bSl', (Nicolas,) a French painter 
 of history, born near Rouen in 1646, was the most emi- 
 nent pupil of Le Sueur. He studied in Rome, and after- 
 wards worked in Paris with success. Died in 1717. 
 
 Colombier, ko'ldN'bc-4', (Jean,) an able French 
 physician, born at Toul in 1736, became inspector-general 
 of the hospitals of the kingdom in 17S0, and of the mili- 
 tary hospitals a few years later. He died in 1789, leaving, 
 besides other medical treatises, one entitled " Precepts 
 on the Health of Soldiers, or Military Hygiene," (1775.) 
 
 Colombiere, de la, deh IS ko'loN'be-aiR', (Claude,) 
 a French Jesuit, born near Lyons in 1641; died in 1682. 
 
 Colombiere, de la, (Vulson.) See Vulson. 
 
 Colombo, ko-lom'bo, (Domenico,) an Italian pas- 
 toral poet, born at Gabiano in 1749. He published pas- 
 toral Poems, and an " Essay on the Drama and Tragedy 
 of Italy," (1794.) Died in 1813. 
 
 Colombo, (Realdo,) [Lat. Real'dus Coi.um'isus,] 
 a distinguished Italian anatomist, born at Cremona, suc- 
 ceeded Vesalius, in 1544, as professor at Padua. He 
 afterwards taught in the Universities of Pisa and of 
 Rome. He is said to have first discovered the pulmo- 
 nary circulation. His reputation is founded on his work 
 " De Re Anatomica," (1559,) a most important contribu- 
 tion to anatomy for that period. Died about 1576. 
 
 See Hali.er, " Bibliotheca Anatomica;" Sprengel, "Geschichte 
 der Arzneikunde. " 
 
 Colomby, de, deh ko'16N'be', (Franqois Cauvigny 
 — ko'ven'ye',) Sieur, a French writer, born at Caen about 
 1588. He was one of the first members of the French 
 Academy, and published a translation of Justin's " His- 
 tory." Died about 1648. 
 
 . e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 11, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
COLO MIES 
 
 643 
 
 COLOT 
 
 Colomies, ko'lo'me-eV, (Paul,) a French Protestant 
 writer on biography, theology, etc., was born at Rochelle 
 in 1638. He removed to England in 168 1, and became 
 librarian to Archbishop Sancroft at Lambeth. He pub- 
 lished, besides many other learned works, " Eastern 
 Gaul," ("Gallia Orientalis," 1665,) "Protestant Rome," 
 ("Rome protestante," 1675,) and "Historical Miscella- 
 nies," ("Melanges historiques,") reprinted with the title 
 "Colomesiana." Died in 1692. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 ires." 
 
 Coloni, ko-lo'nee : (Adam,) the Old, a Dutch painter, 
 born at Rotterdam in 1634, worked in London. He 
 painted landscapes and rural subjects. Died in 1685. 
 
 Coloni, (Henry Adrian,) called the Young, a 
 painter, son of the preceding, born in 1668; died in 
 1701. 
 
 Colonia, de, deh ko'lo'ne'a", (Dominique,) a French 
 Jesuit, born at Aix in 1660, became professor of rhetoric 
 and theology in Lyons. He composed a "Literary His- 
 tory of Lyons," and several tragedies. Died in 1741. 
 
 Colonna, ko-lon'ni, the name of an illustrious Roman 
 family, which acquired distinction as early as the twelfth 
 century. They were adherents of the Ghibeline party, 
 and rivals of the Orsini. Giovanni Colonna was made 
 a cardinal in 1216, and took part in the fifth crusade. 
 Died in 1245. His nephew, of the same name, became 
 Archbishop of Messina in 1255. He wrote a "Chronicle, 
 or History of the World," to the time of Louis IX. of 
 France. Cardinal Giacomo Colonna was chief coun- 
 cillor of the court of Rome during the pontificate of 
 Nicholas IV., which ended about 1292. He died in 1318. 
 Sciarra Colonna was one of the chiefs of a successful 
 conspiracy against Boniface VIII. in 1303. He died in 
 exile about 1328. Stephen, a brother of Sciarra, was 
 created Count of Romagna about 1290, and was for many 
 years chief of the Guelphs at Rome. In a conflict with 
 Kienzi he was killed about 1350. Otho Colonna was 
 elected pope in 1417. (See Martin V.) Antonio, a 
 nephew and favourite of Martin V., was made Prince of 
 Salerno and Duke of Amalfi in 1419. In 1431 Pope Eu- 
 gene IV. declared war against Antonio and his brothers, 
 who had seized the treasury of the late pontiff. Antonio 
 was the father of Prosper Colonna. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire ties R^publiques Italiennes;" O. di 
 Agostjno, " Istoiia della Famiglia Colonna." 
 
 Colonna, (Angf.lo Michei.e,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Ravenna in 1600, was invited to Spain by Philip 
 IV., for whom he painted in the Escurial. Among his 
 master-pieces are " Fortune" and " Prometheus." He 
 died at Bologna in 1687. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Colonna, (Ascagno,) an Italian cardinal, born about 
 1560, became Viceroy of Aragon. He wrote, in Latin, a 
 treatise "On the Sicilian Monarchy." Died in 1608. 
 
 Colonna, (Eqidio,) [Lat jEgid'ius Roma'nus; Fr. 
 Gillf.s de Colonne, zhel deh ko'lon',] a theologian and 
 writer, born at Rome, studied under Thomas Aquinas 
 in Paris. I le became preceptor to the Dauphin of France, 
 Philippe le Bel, for whom he wrote a treatise entitled 
 "De Regimine Principis." Died in 1316. 
 
 See Angelo Roccha, " Vita j*Egidii," prefixed to Colonna's work 
 called "' Defensorium," Naples, 1644. 
 
 Colonna, (Faisio.) See Coi.umna. 
 
 Colonna, (Fabrizio,) an Italian general, was first- 
 cousin to Prospero, and son of Edoardo, Duke of Amalfi. 
 He served successively Frederick, King of Naples, and 
 Ferdinand the Catholic, who in 1507 appointed him grand 
 constable of the kingdom of Naples. Having passed into 
 the service of the pope, Julius 1 1., he was taken prisoner 
 by the French at Ravenna in 1512. Died in 1520. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Re>ubliques Italiennes.'" 
 
 Colonna, (Fra Francesco,) an Italian writer, Ixirn 
 at Venice about 1435, or, according to another account, 
 in 1449. He became a Dominican monk, and professor 
 of theology at Padua. He acquired celebrity by a fan- 
 tastic and' singular work, entitled " Hypnerotomachia 
 Poliphili," (Venice, 1499,) in which he teaches that all 
 human passions are but dreams. (For a more particular 
 account of this strange prodnction, see " Nouvelle Kio- 
 graphie Generale.") The language is a mixture of Italian, 
 
 Greek, Latin, Hebrew, etc. Tiraboschi designates the 
 work " a confused melange of fables, history, architecture, 
 and antiquities." Died in 1527. 
 
 Colonna, (Francesco Maria Pompeo,) an Italian 
 alchemist, born about 1650. He lived many years in 
 Paris, and published numerous works, among which 
 was a "Natural History of the Universe," (1734.) He 
 perished by a fire which consumed his lodgings in Paris 
 in 1726. 
 
 See F. Hoefer. " Histoire de la Chiinie." 
 
 Colonna, (Giovanni Paolo,) one of the most emi- 
 nent Italian composers of his time, was born at Brescia. 
 He composed only sacred music. His science was pro- 
 found and his style brilliant. Died in 1695. 
 
 See FgTls, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Colonna, (Marcantonio,) Duke of Palliano, an 
 Italian general, who obtained in 1570 command of the 
 twelve galleys which the pope sent to aid the Venetians 
 in defence of Cyprus. The chief command of the allies 
 was claimed by Colonna, Doria, and Zeno, neither of 
 whom would yield. To obviate the difficulty and danger 
 arising from this dispute, Philip of Spain gave the com- 
 mand of his ships to Don John of Austria, from whom 
 Colonna consented to receive orders ; and they defeated 
 the Turks at Lepanto in October, 1571. "He had the 
 fortune," says Sismondi, " to attach his name to the 
 greatest exploit of the sixteenth century, the battle of 
 Lepanto." He was afterwards appointed Viceroy of 
 Sicily by Philip II. Died in 1584. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Re'publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Colonna, (Pompeo,) an Italian prelate, nephew of 
 Prosper Colonna, noticed below. He was a turbulent 
 and violent character, and was hostile to Leo X., by whom 
 he had been made a cardinal. After having decided the 
 election in favour of Clement VII., he quarrelled with 
 him, and attempted to seize him with a troop of soldiers. 
 But he served the same pope efficiently when the latter 
 was held in durance by the army of Constable Bourbon. 
 Died in 1532. 
 
 See Aubery, " Histoire des Cardinaux." 
 
 Colonna, (Prosper or Prospf.ro,) the son of Anto- 
 nio, above noticed, was one of the greatest generals that 
 Italy has produced. In 1494 he fought for the French 
 king Charles VIII. in his invasion of Naples. After the 
 expulsion of the French he served under Gonsa'.vo de 
 Cordova against France. In 1513 he won for Ferdinand 
 of Spain a great victory over the Venetians near Vicenza. 
 He was taken prisoner by the French at Villa Franca 
 by a surprise in 15 15. He took Milan in 1521, and de- 
 feated Lautrec, a French general, at Bicoque in 1522. 
 Died in 1523. 
 
 See Brant&me, " Grands Capitaines ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des 
 R^publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Colonna, (Vittoria,) daughter of Fabrizio, above 
 noticed, was illustrious as a poetess and as a woman. 
 She was born in 1490, and was married in 1507 to the 
 Marquis of Pescara, who became a celebrated general. 
 She was extolled as the most eminent of her sex in Italy 
 for beauty, virtue, and talents. After the death of her 
 husband, in 1525, she wrote poetical laments on that 
 subject, and also religious verses. In 1541 she retired 
 into a convent, first at Orvieto and then at Viterbo. 
 She is reputed one of the most successful imitators of 
 Petrarch. "The rare virtues and consummate talents 
 of this lady," says Hallam, "were the theme of all Italy 
 in that brilliant age of her literature." ("Introduction 
 to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1547. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poetsand Poetry of Europe ;" Mrs. Henry 
 Roscoh. "Vittoria Colonna: her Life and Poem*." iSf.S; "Lives of 
 the Italian Poets," by Rev. H. Stubbing, London, 
 
 Colonne, de, (Gili.es.) See Colonna, (Kcidio.) 
 Colot, ko'lo', or Collot, the name of seveial French 
 lithotomists. Germain Colot, a French surgeon, who 
 lived about 1480, was the first of his countrymen who 
 practised lithotomy. Laurent settled in Paris in 1556, 
 and was patronized by Henry II. PHILIPPE, a descend- 
 ant of Laurent, born in 1593, had a high reputation, and 
 was employed at court. Died in 1656. Francois, a son 
 or grandson of Philippe, lived about 1690. "His repu- 
 tation attracted patients from foreign countries. He left 
 a "Treatise on Lithotomy." 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (8Qf*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
COLOTES 
 
 644 
 
 COLUMBUS 
 
 Co-lo'tes, [KoAwnfc,] a Greek sculptor, a native of 
 Paros, lived about 450 B.C. He assisted Phidias in the 
 colossal statue of Jupiter at Olympia. His master-piece 
 was an ivory statue of /Esculapius. 
 
 Colpani, kol-pa'nee, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Brescia in 1738; died in 1822. 
 
 Colquhoun, ko-hoon', ? (Lady Janet,) an Irish au- 
 thoress, born in 1781, was the daughter of Sir John Sin- 
 clair of Ulster, and the wife of Sir James Colquhoun. 
 Besides other religious works, she wrote " Impression of 
 the Heart," (1825.) and "The World's Religion con- 
 trasted with Christianity," (1839.) Died in 1846. 
 
 See James Hamilton, " Memoirs of Lady Colquhoun," 1849. 
 
 Colquhoun, ko-hoon', (Patrick,) a Scottish political 
 economist and practical reformer, born at Dumbarton 
 in 1745. He became a Glasgow merchant about 1768, 
 and lord provost of Glasgow in 1782. He promoted the 
 fabrication of muslin in Scotland, and developed other 
 resources. In 1789 he removed to London, where he 
 initiated reforms in the police. He published a valuable 
 "Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis," (1796,) a 
 " Treatise on the Population, Power, and Resources of 
 the British Empire," (1814,) and other works on manu- 
 factures, trade, and education. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Col'quitt, (Walter T.,) an American lawyer and 
 Senator, born in Halifax county", Virginia, in 1799. He 
 settled in Georgia, and was elected a member of Con- 
 gress in 1838 and in 1840. In 1842 he was elected to 
 the Senate of the United States by the Democrats. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Col'rane, (Henry Hare,) Lord, an English scholar 
 and collector of prints, books, and antiquities, born in 
 Surrey in 1693 ; died in 1749. 
 
 Colson, kol's6N', (Guillaume Francois,) a French 
 historical painter, born in Paris in 1785, was a pupil of 
 David. 
 
 Colson, (Jean Francois Gille,) a French painter 
 and architect, born at Dijon in 1733 ; died in 1803. 
 
 Col'son, (John,) an English mathematician, who was 
 chosen professor of mathematics in Cambridge in 1739, 
 before which he taught school at Rochester. He trans- 
 lated from the Latin Newton's " Fluxions." Died in 1 760. 
 
 Col'ston, (Edward,) an opulent English merchant 
 and philanthropist, born at Bristol in 1636, was noted for 
 his munificence. He founded and endowed a number 
 of charitable institutions in Bristol. Died in 1721. 
 
 C51t, (Samuel,) an American inventor, born at Hart- 
 ford, Connecticut, in 1814. He went to sea as a sailof- 
 boy about the age of fifteen. In 1835 he took out a 
 patent for a pistol, called a revolver, which he had in- 
 vented. About 1848 he began to manufacture revolvers 
 on a large scale at Hartford, where he built one of the 
 most extensive armories in the world. His revolvers 
 have a high reputation in every part of the world. Died 
 in 1862. 
 
 Coltellini,kol-t?l-lee'nee, (Ac,0STrN0,)an Italian poet, 
 born at Florence in 1613. He founded in his own house, 
 in 1631, the celebrated academy of Apatisti at Florence. 
 Died in 1693. 
 
 Col'ton, (Caleb C.,) an English clergyman, vicar of 
 Kew and Petersham. He wrote " Hypocrisy," a Poem, 
 (1812,) and other works, the most remarkable of which 
 was " Lacon,"(i820,) an excellent collection of apothegms 
 and sententious precepts. In consequence of his addic- 
 tion to the vice of gaming, he absconded to America in 
 1828. He killed himself at Fontainebleau in 1832. 
 
 Col'ton, (CALVlN,)an Episcopal clergyman and writer, 
 born in Longmeadow, Massachusetts, in 1789, graduated 
 at Yale College in 1812. He published, besides other 
 works, " Four Years in Great Britain," and a " Life of 
 Henry Clay," (3 vols., 1844.) He also wrote "Junius 
 Tracts" in support of the Whig party about 1840-44. 
 Died in 1857. ' 
 
 Colton, (George Hooker,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born in Otsego county, New York, in 1818. He 
 wrote a poem entitled "Tecumseh, or the West Thirty 
 Years Since," (1842.) In 1845 he became editor of the 
 "American Whig Review." Died in 1847. 
 
 Colton, (Walter,) an American clergyman and wri- 
 ter, born in Rutland, Vermont, in 1797. He became a 
 
 chaplain in the navy in 1831, and published, besides other 
 works, "Ship and Shore in Madeira, Lisbon, etc.," (1835,) 
 "Deck and Port," (1850,) and "Three Years in Cali- 
 fornia," (1850.) He established the first newspaper in 
 California, now called the " Alta California." Died in 
 1851. 
 
 See Griswold's " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Coluccio, ko-loot'cho, (Salutato,) an Italian writer 
 and friend of Petrarch, bom at Stignano in 1330. He 
 became secretary to Pope Urban V. and to the republic 
 of Florence. He acquired renown as a Latin poet, and 
 translated part of Dante's " Divina Commedia" into 
 Latin verse. Died in 1406. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Columb. See Colomb. 
 
 Co-lum'ba, Saint, called "the Apostle of the High- 
 landers," was born in Ireland about 520 a.d. He is re- 
 garded as the first who preached Christianity in Scotland, 
 which he visited about 565. He founded in Iona, one 
 ot the Hebrides, an abbey and college, which became a 
 renowned seat of learning. Died in 597 a.d. 
 
 See Burton's " History of Scotland," vol. i. chap. vii. ; Butler, 
 "Lives of the Saints;" Dr. Johnson, "Journey to the Hebrides." 
 
 Co-lum'ban, written also Colomban, [Lat. Co- 
 lumba'nus,] Saint, an eminent Irish monk, born in 
 Leinster about 540 A.D. He preached in France, founded 
 a monastery at Luxeuil, near Besancon, and acquired 
 celebrity as the teacher and author of a monastic rule. 
 " He was the man," says Montalembert, "who gave the 
 greatest impulse to the monasticism of the seventh cen- 
 tury." Died in Italy in 615 A.D. 
 
 See A. Gianelli, " Vita di S. Colombano," Turin, 1844. 
 
 Columbanus. See Coi.umban, Saint. 
 
 Co-lum'bus, (Don Bartholomew,) a younger 
 brother of the great navigator, who in 1488 sent him 
 to solicit the patronage of Henry VII. of England. In 
 1493 he accompanied his brother in the second voyage 
 to America, and was appointed adelantado, or governor, 
 of Hispaniola. On this island he founded, in 1496, the 
 town of Saint Domingo. He displayed much ability in 
 subduing the revolts of the natives. (See Columbus, 
 Christopher.) " He united in a singular degree," says 
 Irving, "the sailor, the soldier, and the legislator. His 
 portrait has been suffered to remain too much in the 
 shade : it is worthy of being brought into the light as a 
 companion to that of his illustrious brother." He died 
 in Saint Domingo in 1514. 
 
 See Irving, " Life of C. Columbus." 
 
 Columbus, (Christopher,) [Lat. Christoph'orus 
 Coi.um'bus; It. Cristok'oro Colom'bo; Sp. Cristo- 
 val Colon, l<Res-to'val ko-16n'; Fr. Christophe Co- 
 lomb, kRes'tof ko'16N'; Ger. Christoph Columbus, 
 kRis'tof ko-loom'biis,] the most illustrious of navigators 
 and discoverers, was born of poor parents, at Genoa, . 
 about 1440. His birth is variously dated between 1435 
 and 1445, (Irving prefers 1435,) and his early history is 
 involved in obscurity. The family name Colombo was 
 Latinized into Columbus by the subject of this article, 
 who afterwards adopted the Spanish form, Cristoval 
 Colon. At an early age he evinced a fondness for geo- 
 graphy, and a strong attraction towards the sea and the 
 mysterious regions which his imagination suggested be- 
 yond its horizon. At the University of Pavia he pursued 
 for a short time the congenial studies of geometry, as- 
 tronomy, navigation, etc. According to his own state- 
 ment, he entered on a nautical life at the age of fourteen. 
 During many years* he was employed in the Mediter- 
 ranean, sometimes in commercial adventures and some- 
 times in warlike enterprises. 
 
 About 1470 he removed to Lisbon, which, under the 
 auspices of Prince Henry, was then the chief seat of nau- 
 tical science, and there married a lady of Italian extrac- 
 tion, — Felipa Monis de Palestrello. He sailed with several 
 Portuguese expeditions to the west coast of Africa, and 
 when on shore supported his family by the construction 
 of maps and charts. Amidst a general excitement about 
 maritime discovery, attended with various fanciful theo- 
 ries and fabulous rumours, he gradually matured the idea 
 of his own sublime enterprise. A lofty and religious en- 
 thusiasm sustained him in surmounting the difficulties and 
 repulses which he was destined to meet. He expected 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon 
 
 
COLUMBUS 
 
 6+5 
 
 COL UMNA 
 
 that by sailing westward he would reach Cipango, (Japan,) 
 or the eastern part of Asia, after a voyage of moderate 
 length. According to Irving, he meditated the discovery 
 of a western route to India as early as the year 1474. He 
 made a northern voyage, of which we have no memorial 
 except this passage in one of his letters: "In 1477 I 
 navigated one hundred leagues beyond Thule," (sup- 
 posed to be Iceland.) 
 
 Soon after the opportune application of the astrolabe 
 to navigation, he solicited the patronage of John II. of 
 Portugal in the execution of his favourite project. That 
 king, while he protracted the negotiation, secretly sent a 
 vessel to explore the Atlantic ; but the timid pilots, after 
 a voyage of a few days, returned to Lisbon. Indignant 
 at this treatment, Columbus left Portugal in 1484, and 
 applied to the court of Spain fur assistance. He was then 
 so poor that he begged some bread at the convent near 
 Palos while he was on his way to the court. His project 
 was referred to a council, and by them disapproved. Al- 
 though tantalized, neglected, and repulsed by the min- 
 ions of office, he continued to urge his claims with ardour 
 and eloquence. At length, after the capture of Granada, 
 which lie witnessed, in 1492, Queen Isabella was induced 
 to furnish him with two small vessels : a third was added 
 by himself or his friends. On the 3d of August, 1492, he 
 sailed from Palos with one hundred and twenty men, in 
 the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nina. 
 
 After passing the Canaries, the propitious trade-wind 
 wafted them swiftly over a tranquil sea for many days. 
 The variation of the needle, then first observed, alarmed 
 his crew, who were also dismayed by the idea of being 
 lost in a shoreless ocean. About the 20th of September 
 they were cheered by the visits of several birds of song; 
 but the farther they advanced the more their impatience 
 increased. Their heroic chief, however, was resolute in 
 " pursuing his dim and perilous way." A few days before 
 the discovery of land his crew became openly mutinous, 
 and talked of throwing him overboard. On the morning 
 of October 12, 1492, his voyage was crowned with triumph 
 by the discovery of San Salvador, (or Cat Island,) one 
 of the Bahama Isles, which he found inhabited. Sup- 
 posing it to be on the coast of India, he called the natives 
 Indians ; and they received their visitants as citizens and 
 messengers of heaven. Having visited Cuba and Hayti, 
 (Hispaniola,) he sailed homeward, and arrived at Palos 
 in March, 1493. In his progress through Spain he was 
 received with rapturous demonstrations and more than 
 regal homage. In accordance with a previous contract, 
 he obtained the titles of Admiral and Viceroy of the 
 New World. "Thus honoured by the sovereigns," 
 Irving, "and idolized by the people, Columbus for 
 a time drank the honeyed draught of popularity." " His 
 discovery burst with such sudden splendour upon the 
 world as to dazzle envy itself." 
 
 In the autumn of 1493 he made a second voyage across 
 the Atlantic, with seventeen ships, and, after the dis- 
 covery of Jamaica, Porto Rico, etc., returned to Spain in 
 June, 1496. He sailed again in May, 1498, with six ves- 
 sels, and discovered Terra Firma at the mouth of the 
 Orinoco. Envy and malice had at last produced an ebb 
 in the tide of his popularity, so that in 1500 Ferdinand 
 appointed Francisco de Bobadilla governor in place of 
 Columbus, who was sent to Spain in chains. It has been 
 questioned whether the king had authorized the infamous 
 conduct of Bobadilla ; for he pretended to disavow it, 
 after the indignation of the Spanish public had been 
 loudly expressed. Columbus was received with smiles 
 and favour by the king and queen, but was not reinstated 
 in his high office. In May, 1502, he sailed on his fourth 
 voyage, hoping to find a more direct passage to India 
 than that just discovered by Vasco da Gama. He ex- 
 plored the coasts of Honduras, Costa Rica, etc., and, 
 after suffering from famine, mutiny, and other disasters, 
 he returned to Spain in 1504. He died in poverty and 
 neglect, at Valladolid, in 1506. 
 
 Columbus was tall in stature, with blue eyes, and an 
 aquiline nose. He possessed a commanding presence 
 and a fluent elocution. His temper was impetuous, 
 though benevolent, and his mind was highly imaginative 
 and poetical. He left two sons, noticed below. He died 
 in ignorance of the real grandeur of his discovery, sup- 
 
 posing that Cuba, Terra Firma, etc. were only remote 
 parts of Asia. 
 
 See Ikving, "Life of Columbus :" Prhscott, "Ferdinand and 
 Isabella," chaps, xvi. and xviii. of Part First, and viii. and xviii. of 
 Part Second; Fernando Colon, " Historia del Almirante ;" Her- 
 kera, " Historia de las Indias Occidentals ;" Navarrete, "Colec- 
 cion de Viages :'* Oviedo, "History of the Indies;" Bernaldez, 
 " Reyes Catolicns;" MliNOZ, "Historia del NuevoMundo;" Ben- 
 zoni, " Novi Orbis Historia;" Boss!, "Vita di Colombo," 1818; 
 F< IRSSTBK, "Christoph Columbus," (in German,) 1842; Keta. "Vita 
 di Colombo," 1846; Arthur Helps, "Life of Columbus," 1869; 
 A. de Lamartine, "C. Colomb," 1853; H. Roscoe Saint-John, 
 "Life of Columbus," 1850; Bonnakoux, "Viede C. Colomb," 
 1853; Schneidawind, " C Columbus America's Entdecker," 1843; 
 A. Sanguinetti, "Vitadi C. Colombo," 1846. 
 
 Columbus, (Diego or Giacomo,) was a priest, and a 
 brother of the great navigator. He governed Saint Do- 
 mingo for a short time in 1500, and soon after that date 
 was sent to Spain, with his brother, in chains. In 1509 
 he embarked again for the New World with his nephew 
 Diego. 
 
 Columbus, (Don Diego,) the eldest son of the great 
 admiral, was born probably at Lisbon about 1472. He 
 was in early youth a page in the court of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella. At the death of his father he urged his claim 
 to the office of viceroy which was promised to Christo- 
 pher Columbus and his heirs, and about 1509 he obtained 
 the office of Governor of the West Indies. He had 
 married Dona Maria de Toledo, whose father and uncle 
 were the most powerful grandees of Spain. Charles V., 
 about 1520, recognized his right fo the office of viceroy. 
 He died in Spain in 1526, leaving two sons. "Heap- 
 pears to have been," says Irving, "a man of great in- 
 tegrity, of respectable talents, and of a generous nature." 
 
 See Irving, "Life of Christopher Columbus." 
 
 Columbus, (Fernando,) born at Cordova about 
 1488, was the son of Christopher Columbus and Beatriz 
 Enriquez. He was educated at the court of Isabella of 
 Castile, whom he served as a page. In 1502 he accom- 
 panied his father in his fourth voyage to America. He 
 resided some years at Seville, where he formed a rich 
 library and devoted himself to study and authorship. 
 His most important work is a "History of Admiral C. 
 Columbus," ("Vida y Hechos del Almirante D. C. 
 Colon," Madrid, 1530.) Died in 1539. 
 
 See Irving, "Life of C. Columbus;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate." 
 
 Columbus, (Realdus.) See Colombo. 
 
 Col-u-mel'la, [Fr. Columeli.e, ko'lu'mel',] (Lucius 
 Junius Moderatus,) the author of the most important 
 Latin work on ancient agriculture, was born probably 
 at Cadiz, (Ga,des,) and wrote in the first half of the first 
 century. He resided at or near Rome, after having 
 travelled over many parts of the Roman empire. He 
 was the owner of a large estate, and was a practical cul- 
 tivator. His work entitled " De Re Rustics?' is a volu- 
 minous and systematic treatise on rural affairs, in twelve 
 books, of which the tenth is in verse. His Latinity is 
 nearly as pure as that of the Augustan age, and his pre- 
 cepts have much intrinsic value. He is cited by Seneca 
 and eulogized by Pliny. 
 
 See Farricius, " Bibliotheca Latina ;" Schobll, "Histoire de la 
 Literature Romaine;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemcine Encyklo- 
 paedie." 
 
 Columelle. See Columella. 
 
 Co-lum'ua, (Fabius,) [It. Fabio Colonna, fa'be-o 
 ko-lon'na,] one of the greatest botanists of his time, was 
 born of a noble family at Naples in 1567. He received 
 a classical education, and attained skill in music, design, 
 painting, etc From early childhood he manifested a taste 
 for botany. His first work, "Touchstone of Plains," 
 (" Phytobasanos," 1592,) was remarkable for the accuracy 
 of the descriptions and the correctness and beauty of 
 the figures. He was the first to use copper plates to 
 delineate plants. In 1606 he produced the first part of 
 his "Ecpluasis," a history of rare plants, in which he 
 laid down the true basis of the science by recognizing 
 and employing the distinction of genera. About 1616 
 be went to Koine, and assisted in founding the Academy 
 of I.yncei, which had great influence on the revival of 
 natural philosophy. In his aottl to the work of Her- 
 nandez he sti'l further developed the principles of 
 botany with great cleimeaa. He appears (o bave been 
 the only botanist of his time who appreciated the lumi- 
 
 ■e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as «; th as in this. (fc^-See Explanations, p. 2 ,.) 
 
 
COLUMN A 
 
 646 
 
 COMES TOR 
 
 nous ideas which Cesalpino had previously presented. 
 Died in Naples in 1650. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Eloy, 
 u Dictionnaire de la Medecine;" "Biographie Uuiverselle." 
 
 Columna, de, (Guido,) or Guido de Columnis, the 
 name of a celebrated Italian chronicler. See Guido 
 DKI.LE COLONNE. 
 
 Co-lu'thus, [KoXovDog,] a Greek poet, who lived about 
 the end of the fifth century, was born at Lycopolis, in 
 Egypt. His works are all lost except " The Abduction 
 of Helen," a small poem of little merit. 
 
 Col'ville, (Sir Chakles,) a British general, a younger 
 son of Lord Colville, born in 1770, served in Spain for 
 several years, and was wounded at Vittoria. He com- 
 manded a division at Waterloo in 1815, and was made a 
 general in 1837. Died in 1843. 
 
 Colville, (John,) a Scottish politician, became mas- 
 ter of requests about 1580. In 1591 and 1592 he was an 
 adherent of the Earl of Bothwell in an unsuccessful re- 
 bellion against the king. He published, in 1600, "The 
 Palinode," and, having become a Catholic, he wrote 
 several treatises against Protestantism. Died in 1607. 
 
 Col'vi-us, (Andrew,) a learned Dutch divine, born 
 at Dort in 1594. He was a friend of Paul Sarpi, whose 
 " History of the Inquisition" he translated into Latin. 
 
 Col'well, (STEPHEN,) an American writer on trade 
 and finance, born in Brooke county, Virginia, in 1800. 
 He practised law several years, and afterwards became 
 a merchant of Philadelphia. Died in 1871. 
 
 Comazzi, ko-mat'see, (Giovanni Battista, ) an 
 Italian moralist, of whom nothing is known except that 
 he wrote an able essay "On the Morals of Princes." An 
 English version appeared in 1729. 
 
 Cornbalot, k6.N'bi'lo', (Theodore,) a French abbe 
 and eloquent preacher, was born at Chatenay ([sere) in 
 1798. From 1830 to 1840 he was the principal rival of 
 Lacordaire in the pulpits of Paris. He published "The 
 Dogma of the Incarnation regarded as the Final Reason 
 of all that Exists," (1841,) and other works. 
 
 Combalusier, kAN'bi'lu'ze-i', (Francois de 
 Paule,) a French physician, born in Vivarais in 1713. 
 He published " Pneumatic Pathology," (1747,) and other 
 works. Died in 1762. 
 
 Combe, koom, (Andrew,) M.D., an eminent Scottish 
 writer, born in Edinburgh in 1797. He began to prac- 
 tise medicine in that city in 1823, having previously be- 
 come a believer in phrenology. He acquired distinction 
 as a writer on physiology and other scientific subjects. 
 His " Principles of Physiology applied to the Preserva- 
 tion of Health" (1834) has been very successful, having 
 passed through about sixteen editions. In 1836 he was 
 appointed consulting physician to the King of Belgium. 
 Among his principal works are "Observations on Men- 
 tal Derangements" and "The Physiology of Digestion." 
 Died in 1847. He was a brother of George Combe. 
 
 See " Life of Andrew Combe," by G. Combe, 1850: Chambers, 
 "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Smii.es, "Brief 
 Biographies," i860; "Westminster Review" for July, 1850. 
 
 Combe, koom or kom, (Charles,) M.D., an English 
 antiquary, born in London in 1743. He published a 
 " Description of the Ancient Medals in the Cabinet of 
 Dr. William Hunter," and another work on numismatics. 
 Died in 181 7. 
 
 Combe, (George,) an eminent phrenologist, born in 
 Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1788, was a brother of Andrew, 
 noticed above. He studied law, and practised in his 
 native place about twenty-five years. In 1816 he heard 
 Spurzheim on the subject of phrenology, in which he 
 soon became a firm believer. He published in 1819 
 " Essays on Phrenology," a later edition of which was 
 entitled " System of Phrenology." His principal work, 
 "The Constitution of Man considered in Relation to 
 External Objects," (1828,) passed through eight or more 
 editions. He married a daughter of the actress Mrs. 
 Siddons in 1833, and about that time delivered in sev- 
 eral places " Lectures on Popular Education," which 
 were published, (3d edition, 1848.) In 1838 he visited 
 the United States, in which he passed two or three years 
 and gave many lectures on phrenology. HlPafterwards 
 published " Notes on the United States of America," 
 (1841,) and other works. Died in 1858. George Combe 
 
 has been called the ablest writer that ever advocated the 
 peculiar doctrines of Phrenology. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for September, 1826; "North British 
 Review" for May, 1852 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 184a 
 
 Combe, k<iN, (Michel,) Colonel, a brave French 
 officer, born at Feurs in 1 787. He was killed at Con- 
 stantine, m Africa, where he led an assault, in 1837. 
 
 Combe, (Taylor,) an English antiquary, son of 
 Charles Combe, noticed above, born in 1774. He was 
 chosen keeper of the antiquities and coins of the British 
 Museum in 1807, and published, besides other works, 
 "Ancient Marbles in the British Museum," (7 vols., 
 1812-35.) Died in 1826. 
 
 Combe, La. See Lacombe. 
 
 Combefis, koMb'fe' or k6.Vbeh-fe', (Francois,) a 
 French Dominican friar and Hellenist, born at Mar- 
 mande in 1605. He undertook to restore the text of the 
 Fathers to its purity, and spent nearly filly years in this 
 task. He published man) learned works. Died in 1679. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Combelle, k6N'bel', (Jean Antoine Francois,) a 
 French general, born at Pouzat in 1774, served with dis- 
 tinction in Syria and Spain. He was killed at Dresden 
 in September, 1813. 
 
 Comber, kum'ber, ? (Thomas,) D.D., a learned Eng- 
 lish theologian, born in Kent in 1644. He obtained 
 the living of Thornton in 1678, and was chosen Dean 
 of Durham in 169 1. He wrote a "Companion to the 
 Temple," (3 vols., 1672-75,) and other esteemed works. 
 Died in 1699. 
 
 Comber, (Thomas,) a grandson of the preceding, 
 became rector of Morborne and Buckworth. He wrote 
 a " Vindication of the Revolution of 1688," and a few 
 other works. Died in 1778. 
 
 Com'ber-mere, (Stapleton Cotton,) Viscount, 
 an English general, born in 1773, was a son of Sir R. S. 
 Cotton. He served several campaigns in India, joined 
 the army in Spain in 1808, and distinguished himself in 
 many actions. He was second in command at the battle 
 of Salamanca, (1812,) where he was severely wounded. 
 He was appointed commander-in-chief of the army in 
 India in 1822, and received the title of Viscount for his 
 services in that country about 1825. In 1855 he was 
 made a field-marshal. Died in 1865. 
 
 See "Memoirs and Correspondence of Viscount Combenneve," 
 by Lady Combermere and Captain W. W. Knollys, London, 
 1866; "Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1866. 
 
 Combes, koMb, (Charles Pierre Mathieu, } a 
 French engineer, born in 1801. He became a member 
 of the Institute, and inspector-general and professor in 
 the Ecole des Mines. He published a "Treatise on the 
 Exploitation of Mines," (3 vols.,) and other works. 
 
 Cornelia, ko-mel'ya, (Luciano Francisco,) a popu- 
 lar Spanish dramatic poet, born in 17 16; died in 1779. 
 
 Comenius, ko-ma'ne-us, (John Amos,) an eminent 
 German philologist, born at Komna, in Moravia, in 1592. 
 His family name is lost, having been superseded by the 
 above name, derived from Komna or Comna. He became 
 a minister of the Moravan sect at Fulnek, whence he was 
 driven by persecution in 1621. He retired to Lesna, in 
 Poland, where he taught school, and published, in Latin 
 and Bohemian, his " Janua Linguarum reserata," ("The 
 Gate of Languages Unlocked, or a New Method of 
 Learning Languages," 1631,) which procured for him a 
 great reputation and was soon translated into twelve 
 or more languages. He was invited to several foreign 
 countries for the purpose of reforming the methods of 
 public instruction. He went to England in 1638, and to 
 Sweden about 1642. In 1648 he returned to Lesna, which 
 was pillaged and burnt in 1657, when he lost his books 
 and manuscripts. }le then settled in Amsterdam, and 
 published " Opera Didactica," (1657,) and "Orbis Sensu- 
 alium Pictus," (1658,) a kind of encyclopaedia with wood- 
 cuts. He was author of other works. Died in 1671. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Ersch und 
 Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Adelung, " Geschichte der 
 menschlichen Narrheit." 
 
 Comes Natalis. See Conti, (Noel.) 
 
 Co-mes'tor, [Fr. pron. ko'meVtoR',] (or Dkvourer,) 
 (Pierre,) (thus surnamed because he devoured many 
 books,) a French theologian, born at Troves, became 
 master of the school of theology in Paris in 1164, and 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
 
COMET 
 
 647 
 
 COMNENUS 
 
 wrote " Scholastica Historia." It was received with great 
 favour, and was for about three centuries esteemed an 
 excellent body of positive theology. Died in U78or 1 185. 
 
 Comet, ko'tn.Y, (CHARi.ES Jean Baitisi «,) ■ French 
 physician, born in Paris in 1796, published many medical 
 works. 
 
 Co-me'tas, called Scholas'ticus, a poet, who lived 
 probably in the ninth century, was the author of six 
 epigrams in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Comiers, kc'.ne-A', (Claude,) a French priest, born 
 at Embrun a<U professor of mathematics in Paris for 
 BOOte ytari and an.editor of the "Journal des Savants" 
 in 1676-78. He wrote treatises on astronomy, theology, 
 language, etc. Died in 1693. 
 
 Coniine3, de, deli ko'min', (PHILIPPE,) Lord of Ar- 
 genton, an eminent historian, was born near Menin, in 
 Flanders, in 1445. He became a confidential adviser of 
 Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and acquitted 
 himself with ability in negotiations. In 1472 he passed 
 into the service ot Charles's rival, Louis XI. of France, 
 who loaded him with favours and made him Seneschal 
 of l'oitou. After the death of Louis, Comines favoured 
 the party of the Duke of Orleans, and in 1488 was sen- 
 tenced to banishment. He attended Charles VIII. in 
 his invasion of Italy in 1494, and served him in a diplo- 
 matic capacity. Soon after that date he began to write 
 his " Memoirs," which narrate the historical events from 
 1464 to 1498. This work, which was printed in 1523, is 
 highly prized for its fidelity, candour, sound judgment, 
 agreeable style, and deep insight into men and things. 
 "Comines," says Macaulay, "was one of the ntost en- 
 lightened statesmen of his time." Died in 1509. 
 
 See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. i. ; Vili.kmain, 
 lis de Litterature ;" Saintk-Bkuve, "Causeries du Lundi ;" 
 Felix van Hui.st, "P. de Comines," Liege, 1845 :" Nouvelle Bio- 
 graplne Gentfrale;" "Retrospective Review," vol. vii., 1823. 
 
 Coniitolo, ko-me-to'lo, (Paolo,) an Italian Jesuit and 
 casuist, born at Perugia In 1545 ; died in 1626. 
 
 Coalman dine. See Commandino. 
 
 Commandino, kom-man-dee'no, written also Com- 
 mandine or Commandin, (Federigo,) an eminent 
 Italian mathematician, born at Urbino in 1509. In 1535 
 he went to Padua, where he studied medicine; but he 
 renounced that profession for mathematics. The latter 
 part of his life was passed at Verona, where he taught 
 mathematics to the Duke of Urbino. He published good 
 editions and Latin translations of many ancient geome- 
 ters, including Euclid and Archimedes. Montucla calls 
 him the model of commentators for the pertinence and 
 sufficiency of his notes. Died in 1575. 
 
 See Montucla. "Histoiredes Math&natiques;" Bayle, "His- 
 torical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Commelin. See Commelyn. 
 
 Commelin, kom'laN', written also Commelyn, (JE- 
 Romt.) a French printer, born at Douai. Having be- 
 come a Protestant, he removed to Geneva. Some years 
 later he was chosen librarian to the Elector Palatine at 
 Heidelberg. There he published Greek and Latin edi- 
 tions which were noted for correctness. Scaliger and 
 Casaubon praise him highly. Died in 1598. 
 
 Commelyn, kom'meh Hn', written also Commelin, 
 (Caspar,) a Dutch botanist, born at Amsterdam in 1667, 
 was the nephew of John, noticed below. He became 
 professor of botany in his native city, and developed a 
 great knowledge of that science in several works. He 
 published, with fine plates, the second volume of his 
 uncle's work on the "Plants of the Botanic Garden of 
 Amsterdam," and a Flora of Malabar, (1696.) The genus 
 Commelina was named in honour of these botanists. 
 Died in 1731. 
 
 See Haller, " Bibltotheca Botanica." 
 
 Commelyn or Commelin, [Lat. Commeli'nus,| 
 (ISAAC,) a Dutch historical writer, born in Amsterdam 
 in 1598. He published a " History of the Dutch East 
 India Company," a " Life of William I.," and other 
 works. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Moberi, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Commelyn or Commelin, (John,) an eminent bo- 
 tanist, born in Amsterdam in 1629, was the son of the 
 preceding. He contributed to the advancement of 
 botany as professor in the botanic garden of his native 
 
 city, and as author of several treatises, among which are 
 a "Catalogue of the Indigenous Plants of Holland," 
 (1683,) and a " Description of the Plants of the Botanic 
 Garden of Amsterdam," (1697.) Died in 1692. 
 
 See Hallek, " Bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 Commendoni, kom-men-do'nee, [Fr. Commendon, 
 ko'ni&.N'dii.N',! (Gian Francesco,) Cardinal, born at 
 Venice in 1524, was an able negotiator, and was sent 
 by the pope on a secret mission to England in 1553. 
 About 1561 he was employed as nuncio in Germany in 
 order to check the progress and defeat the designs of 
 the Protestants, lie persuaded the King of Poland to 
 accept the decrees of the Council of Trent, and was 
 made a cardinal in 1565. Died in 1584. 
 
 See Flechier, "Vie do Cardinal Commendon," 1671 ; A. M. 
 Graziani, " De Vita J. F. Commendoni Catdinalis," 1609. 
 
 Commerson, ko'nieVsoN', (Piiii.iuekt,) an excellent 
 French botanist, born at Chatillon-les-Donibes in 1727. 
 He formed a rich botanic garden at his native place. In 
 1764 he removed to Paris, and soon after that date was 
 chosen naturalist of the exploring expedition of Bougain- 
 ville, which sailed in 1767. Having visited South Ame- 
 rica, and many islands of the South Sea, he explored the 
 Isle of France and Madagascar, where he remained a 
 long time. He died in the Isle of France in 1773, be- 
 fore he was ready to publish the results of his researches. 
 "Commerson," says Cuvier, "was a man of profound 
 science. If he had published his observations, he would 
 hold one of the foremost ranks among naturalists." His 
 manuscripts and collections were deposited in the Jardin 
 des Plantes. 
 
 See Cuvier, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Commire, ko'meR', (Jean,) a modem Latin poet and 
 Jesuit, born at Amboise, in France, in 1625. He was for 
 many years professor of theology, and gained distinction 
 by his Latin poems, consisting of odes, fables, epigrams, 
 etc., published collectively in 1678. They are remarka- 
 ble for elegance and correctness of style. Died in Paris 
 in 1702. 
 
 Commode. See Commodus. 
 
 Commodi, (Andrea.) See Commodo. 
 
 Com-mo-dl-a'nus, [Fr. Commodien, ko'mo'de-aN',] 
 (Gaz.EUS, ga-zee'us,) a Christian poet, who lived proba- 
 bly in the third or fourth century. The place of his 
 birth is not known. He wrote a Latin poem entitled 
 "Instructions against the Gods of the Gentiles," (1650.) 
 
 See Cave, "Historia Literaria." 
 
 Commodien. See Commodianus. 
 
 Commodo, kom'mo-do, or Comodi, kom'o-dee, 
 (Andrea,) an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1560. 
 He had a remarkable talent for copying the most beau- 
 tiful paintings with such fidelity that it was almost im- 
 possible to distinguish the original from the copy. He 
 worked in Florence. The "General Judgment" is called 
 his master-piece. Died in 1638. 
 
 Com'mo-dus, [Fr. Commode, ko'mod',] (Lucius 
 /Ei.ius Aurelius,) a Roman emperor, born in 161 A.D., 
 was the son 0/ Marcus Aurelius and Faustina. He suc- 
 ceeded his father in 180, and found the empire prosper- 
 ous. Though he had been carefully educated, he soon 
 exhibited a character which inspires unmixed detestation. 
 He resigned the direction of the government to his 
 favourites Perennis and others, and indulged his cruel 
 temper and evil passions without restraint. He ordered 
 his wife Crispina to be put to death, and took a concu- 
 bine named Marcia. His subjects were required to offer 
 homage to him as Hercules. Many senators and others 
 were doomed to death by his cruelty. His officers Lae- 
 tus and F.clectus having conspired with Marcia against 
 him, he was poisoned and strangled in 192 A.D., and Per- 
 tinax then became emperor. 
 
 See Tillfmont, "Histoire des Empereurs :" Dion Cassiu.% 
 " History of Rome :" Lampridius, "Commodus." 
 
 Comnene. See Comnenus. 
 
 Com-ne'nus, [Gr. Kauvgnfr; Fr. Comnenk, kom'- 
 iiJn',] the name of an illustrious Byzantine family of 
 Italian origin, which first acquired historical importance 
 in the tenS century, and from which descended six em- 
 perors of the East, all the emperors of Trebizond, and 
 many generals, statesmen, etc. (See Alexis I., Andro- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; gaard; gas>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 ass; th as in Mm. (jySee ICxplanations, p 23.) 
 
COMNENUS 
 
 648 
 
 COMTE 
 
 nicus I., David Comnenus, Isaac I., Manuel I., and 
 Anna Comnena.) 
 
 Comnenus, (Demetrius,) born in Corsica about 
 1750, claimed to be a descendant of David, the last em- 
 peror of Trebizond. He was a captain in the French 
 service, and emigrated as a royalist about 1792. He 
 returned to France about 1800, and died in 1820. 
 
 Comodi. See Commodo, (Andkea.) 
 
 Comonfort, ko'mon-foRt' or kom'on-fort', (Ign acio,) 
 a Mexican general and President, was born at Puebla 
 about 1S10. He served in several civil wars in his youth, 
 was elected a member of the Mexican Congress in 1842, 
 and a senator about 1848. In 1854 he joined Alvarez 
 in a revolutionary movement against Santa Anna, who 
 was forced to abdicate in 1855. Alvarez having retired 
 or abdicated in December, 1855, Comonfort then obtained 
 the chief power as provisional President. The clergy 
 and conservatives raised a revolt, which was suppressed 
 by an army in March, 1856, soon after which he issued 
 a decree to confiscate the property of the Church. In 
 December, 1857, he was declared constitutional Presi- 
 dent. The disaffection of the army and the hostility of 
 the clergy rendered his position untenable. The capital 
 was taken by the rebels in January, 1858, and Comonfort 
 went into exile. In 1863 he commanded an army which 
 fought for the Liberal cause against the French. He was 
 murdered by bandits in November of that year. 
 
 Comontes, de, da ko-mon'tes, (Francisco,) a Span- 
 ish painter, born at Toledo ; died in 1564. 
 
 Compagni. See Domenico degli Camei. 
 
 Compagni, kom-pan'yee, (Dino,) an Italian magis- 
 trate, born at Florence, wrote a " History of Florence 
 from 1270 to 1312," which is praised for veracity and 
 elegance. He held the office of prior of Florence in 
 1289 and in 1301. 
 
 Compagnon, k6N'pin'y6N', a French traveller, who 
 in 1716 was factor of the French company at Senegal. 
 He ascended the Senegal, and explored Galam and Ham- 
 book, which had not then been visited by Europeans. 
 The narrative of his journey was published by Labat. 
 He died in Paris about 1750. 
 
 Compagnoni, kom-pan-yo'nee, (Giuseppe,) an able 
 Italian litterateur, born at Lugo in 1754, lived at Venice, 
 Milan, etc. He published an " Essay on the Hebrews 
 and Greeks," "The Evenings of Tasso," (" Le Veglie 
 del Tasso,") a " History of America," and various other 
 works. He was a republican, and held several high 
 offices under the French regime, among which was that 
 of councillor of state at Milan. Died in 1834. 
 
 See his Autobiography, "Vita letteraria di G. Compagnoni," 
 1834; TiPALDO, " Biograna degli Italian] illustri." 
 
 Compans, k6N'poN', (Jean Dominique,) Count, a 
 French general, born at Salies (Haut-Garonne) in 1769. 
 lie served several campaigns among the Alps and in 
 Italy during the republic. He was chief of the staff of 
 Lannes at Austerlitz in 1805, and became a general of 
 division in 1S06. In the campaign of Saxony, 1813, his 
 conduct was highly praised by Napoleon. He was taken 
 prisoner at Waterloo, 181 5. Died in 1845, 
 
 Comparetti, kom -pa-ret'tee, (Andrea,) an eminent 
 Italian naturalist and physician, born in Friuli in 1746. 
 He was for many years professor of medicine in the 
 University of Padua. In 1787 he published, in Latin, 
 "Observations on the Refraction of Light," and in 1789 
 " Observations on the Anatomy of the Ear," which is 
 much esteemed. He produced a celebrated work entitled 
 " Medical Comparisons or Collations of Masked Period- 
 ical Fevers," (" Riscontri medici delle Febbri larvate 
 periodiche," 1795,) and an Italian treatise "On the 
 Animal Dynamics of Insects," (1S00,) which Cuvier 
 designates as " very curious, instructive, and full of new 
 views on the organs of locomotion." Died in iSot. 
 
 See D. Palmaroli, "Saggio sopra la Vita, etc. di Andrea Com- 
 paretti," 1802; " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Compte, Le. See Lecompte. 
 
 Comp'ton, (Henry,) an eminent English prelate, 
 born at Compton in 1632, was the youngest son of 
 Spencer Compton, Earl of Northampton. He became 
 Bishop of Oxford in 1674, and of Londorf' in 1675. 
 Charles II. confided to him the education of his nieces 
 Mary and Anne. For his zeal against popery he was 
 
 suspended from the episcopal office in 1686. On the 
 accession of William III. (at whose coronation he sup- 
 plied the place of the primate Sancroft) he was restored 
 to the bishopric and admitted to the privy council. He 
 wrote a " Treatise on the Communion," " Letters to the 
 Clergy," and other works, and nade great efforts to unite 
 the Dissenters with the Anglican Church. Died in 1713. 
 See Burnet, " History of his Own Times ;" Macaulay, "His- 
 tory of England ;" " Life of Dr. Compton, Lord Bishop of London," 
 London, 1716. 
 
 Compton, (Spencer,) second Earl of Northampton, 
 the son of William Compton, the first Earl, was born in 
 1601. He attended Prince Charles to Spain in 1622 as 
 master of his robes. In the civil war which began in 
 1642 he fought for the king, and was killed in 1643 at 
 Hopton Heath, refusing to give or take quarter. 
 
 Comstock, kum'stok, (John Lee,) M.D.,a compiler 
 of school-books, born in Lyme, Connecticut, in 1789. 
 He published, besides other works, a " System of Natu- 
 ral Philosophy," (1831,) and "Elements of Chemistry," 
 which had a large circulation. Died in 1858. 
 
 Comte, kost, (Achille Joseph,) a French naturalist, 
 born at Grenoble in 1802, became professor of natural 
 history in the College Charlemagne. He published 
 several popular educational works, among which are 
 "Physiology for Colleges," (1834,) and a "Complete 
 Treatise on Natural History," (1844-48.) His wife Ara- 
 bella, formerly Madame Laya, has written "Julien," 
 (1841,) a comedy called " Veuvage," ("Widowhood,") 
 and several other works. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Comte, ( Auguste,) a French philosopher, the founder 
 of the system called Positivisme, or Positive Philosophy, 
 was born at Montpellier in January, 1798. His father 
 was a treasurer of taxes. He entered the Polytechnic 
 School in 1814, and gave much attention to mathematics 
 and the physical sciences. About 1818 he became a dis- 
 ciple and coadjutor of Saint-Simon, whose doctrines he 
 undertook to expound in a work entitled "System of 
 Positive Politics," (" Systeme de Politique positive," 
 1822.) His connection with Saint-Simon continued about 
 six years, and they separated in 1824, mutually disgusted 
 and completely estranged. Before 1824 he had discov- 
 ered his law of Social Evolution. He formed a new 
 system, which is described as a combination of the 
 doctrines of Fourier, Saint-Simon, and Hegel, and was 
 developed in his "Cours de Philosophic positive," 
 (6 vols., 1830-42,) a work which exhibits intellectual 
 powers of a high order. 
 
 He married in 1825 ; but the union proved to be un- 
 happy. Soon after this event he was seized with an 
 acute attack of insanity, and attempted to commit sui- 
 cide by drowning ; but he was rescued by a soldier. He 
 rapidly recovered, and was entirely restored to sanity 
 before the end of 1827. His new system of philosophy 
 attracted great attention and was adopted by numerous 
 disciples. In 1832 he was appointed a professor or tutor 
 in the Polytechnic School of Paris. About 1842 he was 
 finally separated from his wife, and two years later he 
 formed a " passionate friendship" with Clotilde de Vaux. 
 He speaks of her as "having inspired him with a happi- 
 ness of which he had always dreamed, but which he had 
 never hitherto experienced." 
 
 He published, besides other works, " Discours sur I'Es- 
 prit positive," (1844,) a " Philosophic Treatise on Populai 
 Astronomy," (1844,) "Catechisme positiviste, on Sora- 
 maire Exposition de la Religion universelle," (1S52,) and 
 "Systeme de Politique positive, oil Traite de Socio]')-:.-, 
 instituant la Religion de l'Humanite," (4 vols., [851-54.) 
 According to Comte, all the knowledge which man can 
 possibly acquire is comprised in six pure sciences, viz., 
 mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology or 
 physiology, and sociology or social science. He proposed 
 to introduce and propagate a new religion, — the worship 
 of humanity, — and assumed the title of chief priest of 
 that religion. "To himself and a few followers," says 
 the "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1868, "he appeared 
 the philosopher of the age, who had summed up the 
 course of past thought, the legislator of a new era, the 
 author and chief minister of a new religion, which was 
 to supersede all religions. . . . No one who has studied 
 
 i, e. i, 6, Q, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, Q, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
COMTE 
 
 649 
 
 CONDE 
 
 u 
 
 his great work can be insensible to his services. His 
 undoubted influence lies in certain great conceptions 
 with which he has enriched and illuminated the modern 
 mind. .' . . He not only took up the Baconian method, 
 but he purified and extended it. He has at once given 
 it a wider application than any previous thinker, and far 
 more clearly understood its import." Died in Paris in 
 September, 1857. 
 
 See George H. Lewes, "Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences," 
 1853; Harriet Martineau, "The Positive Philosophy of Auguste 
 Comte," freely translated and condensed, 2 vols., 1854 ; John Stuart 
 Mill, "Auguste Comte and Positivism," 1865 ; E. Littre, "Auguste 
 Comte et la Philosophic positive," 1863; "Edinburgh Review for 
 T uly, 1S38 ; " Westminster Review" for 1865 ; " British Quarterly 
 \eview" for July, 1866; " North British Review" for May, 1854. 
 
 Comte, (Francois Charles Louis,) a French publi- 
 cist, born in the department of Lozere in 1782. He pub- 
 lished, in 1826, a "Treatise on Legislation," for which 
 he received the Montyon prize of the Institute. In 1831 
 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies. He was 
 perpetual secretary of the Academy of Moral and Politi- 
 cal Sciences. Died in 1837. 
 
 See F. A. A. Mignet, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. 
 Comte," 1846. 
 
 Comyns, ktim'ins, ? (Sir John,) a British jurist, who 
 became lord chief baron of the exchequer, and was author 
 of a " Digest of the Laws of England," (1762-67,) which 
 is considered high authority. Died about 1740. 
 
 Conaeus, the Latin of Cone, which see. 
 
 Co'nant, (Hannah O'Brien Chaplin,) an American 
 linguist and writer, born at Danvers, Massachusetts, 
 about i8ii. She married Thomas J. Conant, a He- 
 braist, about 1833. She translated some of Neander's 
 commentaries, and published, besides other works, a 
 "History of the English Bible," (1859.) Died in Brook- 
 lyn in 1865. 
 
 Co'nant, (John,) an English divine, born in Devon- 
 shire in 1608. He became professor of divinity at 
 Oxford in 1654, Archdeacon of Norwich in 1676, and 
 prebendary of Worcester in 1681. Several volumes of 
 his sermons were published. Died in 1693. 
 
 Conant,(THOMAS J.,) D.D., an eminent biblical scholar, 
 born in Vermont in 1802. He graduated at Middlebury, 
 Vermont, in 1823, and has since filled professorships in 
 Waterville College, Maine, and in the Baptist Theologi- 
 cal Seminaries at Hamilton and Rochester, New York. 
 For many years he has been engaged on a translation 
 of the Bible, of which the book of Job was published by 
 the American Bible Union in 1857. His "Gesenius's 
 Hebrew Grammar" is one of the most popular text- 
 books of the kind in use. 
 
 Couca, kon'ka, (Sebastiano,) a skilful Italian painter 
 in oil and fresco, was born at Gaeta about 1678. He 
 studied under Solimena of Naples for sixteen years, and 
 then removed to Rome, where he worked with great 
 success. Clement XI. employed him to adorn the church 
 of Saint Clement. His renown extended beyond the 
 limits of Italy ; but modern critics think his merit was 
 overrated. Among his master-pieces is a " Piscina Pro- 
 batica," (" Pool of Bethesda,") at Sienna. Died in 1764. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Conc'a-nen, I Matthew,) an Irish writer, who came 
 to London in his youth. He published a volume of 
 poems in 1724. In a public journal he attacked Pope, 
 who took revenge in the "Dunciad." In 1732 he was 
 appointed attorney -general of Jamaica. Died in 1749. 
 
 Concha, de la, da li kon'cha, (Don Jose,) a Spanish 
 general, born in Madrid about 1800, served against the 
 Carlists in several campaigns of the civil war. He was 
 twice appointed Captain-General of the island of Cuba. 
 In 1862 he was sent as minister to France. He was 
 appointed nominal prime minister by the queen just 
 after the revolution broke out in Spain, in September, 
 1868. 
 
 Concha, de la, (Manuel,) a Spanish general, brother 
 of the preceding, was born in Madrid in 1 794. He served 
 with the rank of general against Don Carlos, (1834-40.) 
 In 1844 he was appointed Captain-General of Catalonia. 
 He was banished for political reasons in January, 1854, 
 but on the return of Espartero to power, in July of the 
 same year, he was restored, and promoted to the rank 
 of marshal. 
 
 Conchillos-Falco, kon-chel'yds fal'ko, (Juan,) a 
 Spanish painter, born at Valencia in 1641 ; died in 1711. 
 
 Conchylius. See Coquille. 
 
 Concilia, kon-chee'na, (Daniele,) an Italian theolo- 
 gian, born in Friuli about 1686, entered the Dominican 
 order. He gained eminence as a preacher and as author 
 of several works, (in Latin,) one of which is called 
 "Christian Theology, Doctrinal and Practical," (1749.) 
 Died in 1756. 
 
 See "Vita di D. Concini." 1768. 
 
 Concini. See Ancre, d', Marshal. 
 
 Condamine, La, li kiN'di'men', (Charles Marie,) 
 an eminent French savant and author, born in Paris in 
 1 701. He travelled in the Levant in his youth. Under 
 the auspices of the Academy of Sciences, he went in 
 1736 with Bouguer to Peru, to determine the size and 
 figure of the earth. He returned in 1745, and published 
 an "Account of a Journey in South America," (1745,) 
 "The Figure of the Earth Determined," (1749,) "Jour- 
 nal of an Expedition made by Order of the King to the 
 Equator," (1 751,) and other works. In 1760 he was ad- 
 mitted into the French Academy, in consideration of his 
 high reputation as a traveller and of his literary merit. 
 He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. His 
 gayety, courage, and curiosity are said to have never 
 failed. M. Biot praises the elegant facility of his style. 
 Died in Paris in 1774. 
 
 See Condorcet, "filoge de La Condamine ;" Voltaire, "Dic- 
 tionnaire Philosophique," article " Curiosity ;" L. Brightwell, 
 "By-Paths of Biography." 
 
 Conde, kon'da, (Antonio Jostf,) a Spanish historian 
 and Orientalist, born about 1760. He gave special atten- 
 tion to Hebrew and Arabic, and collected many historical 
 documents in Arabic. He was for many years one of 
 the keepers of the Royal Library, and during the reign 
 of Joseph Bonaparte was chief librarian. In 1814 he 
 became an exile in France. It appears that he returned 
 to Madrid about 1 81 8, and died in 1820 or 1821. His 
 principal work, a " History of the Dominion of the 
 Arabs in Spain," (" Historia de la Dominacion de los 
 Arabes en Espana," 3 vols., 1820-21,) has acquired a 
 European reputation. 
 
 See Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. 
 part i. 
 
 Conde, de, deh k6N'di', (Henri I. de Bourbon — 
 deh booR'b6N',) Prince, the son and heir of Louis I., 
 Prince of Conde, was born in 1552. He escaped the 
 massacre' of August, 1572, (Saint Bartholomew,) by a 
 promise to abjure Calvinism, and fled to Germany. He 
 afterwards joined the Protestant army, was excommu- 
 nicated (with his cousin, Henry of Navarre) by the pope 
 in 1585, and died by poison, administered by his domes- 
 tics, in 1588. "He was," says Brantome, "a libera], 
 gracious, and eloquent prince, and promised to be as 
 great a captain as his father." (" Vies des Homines 
 illustres.") 
 
 Conde, de, (Henri II. de Bourbon,) Prince, born 
 at Saint-Jean-d'Angely in 1588, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding, and father of "the great" Conde. He was the 
 first prince of the blood, and was educated at court as 
 a Catholic. During the minority of Louis XIII. he put 
 himself at the head of the malcontents, for which he was 
 arrested by the regent and imprisoned three years aj Vin- 
 cennes. He afterwards obtained command of an army, 
 and took several places from the Spaniards. Died in 
 1646. 
 
 See Renaudot, "Abnige' de la Vie du Prince de Conde," 16471 
 Sinmondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Conde, de, (Henri Jules de Bourbon,) ' rim k. 
 the only son of the great Conde, was born in 1643. He 
 distinguished himself at the siege of Tournay in 1665, 
 and in 1674 took part in the battle of Seneffe, where he 
 is said to have saved his father's life. Saint-Simon gives 
 an unfavourable view of his character. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "M^moires." 
 
 Conde, de, (Louis I. de Bourbon,) Prince, a famous 
 French general, born at Vendome in 1530, was the 
 youngest son of Charles de Bourbon, Due de Vendome, 
 and uncle of Henry IV. His promotion was retarded 
 by the enmity of the Guises. About 1560 he openly 
 avowed himself a Calvinist, and soon became the general- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as 1; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CONDE 
 
 650 
 
 CONDOR CET 
 
 in-chief of the Protestant army in the civil war. He 
 was defeated and made prisoner at Dreux in 1562, and 
 released the next year. After the war had been sus- 
 
 E ended a few years, Conde fought, in 1 567, the indecisive 
 attle of Saint-Denis, where his army was greatly inferior 
 in number to that of the enemy. At Jarnac, in 1569, he 
 lost another battle, was wounded, and then killed after 
 he had surrendered. 
 
 See De Thou, " Histoire Universelle ;" Desormeaux, " Histoire 
 de ]a Maison de CondeV* 
 
 Conde, de, (Louis II. de Bourhon,) Prince, styled 
 "the great Conde," a celebrated French general, born 
 in Paris on the 8th of September, 1621, was the first 
 prince of the blood, and the son of Henri II., above 
 noticed, and Charlotte de Montmorenci. He made his 
 first campaign at the age of seventeen, with the title of 
 Due d'Enghien. In 1641 he married Claire Clemence 
 de Maille-Breze, a niece of Cardinal Richelieu. In May, 
 1643, he gained a great victory over the Spaniards at 
 Rocroi, and in 1645 defeated the Germans, commanded 
 by Mercy, at Nordlingen. He was equally successful at 
 Lens in 1648, where the once invincible Spanish infantry 
 was ruined. During the civil war of the Fronde he 
 commanded the royalists at first, (1649;) but he was 
 arrested by the queen or Mazarin in January, 1650, and 
 imprisoned one year. Burning for revenge, he raised an 
 army and attacked the royalists under Turenne, at Paris, 
 in 1652. Having been sentenced to death in 1653, he 
 entered the service of Spain, and commanded in several 
 campaigns in Flanders, where he was opposed by Tu- 
 renne, and was far less successful than he had been 
 when he fought for his own country. The treaty between 
 France and Spain in 1659 procured an amnesty for his 
 offences, and he returned to France. In 1672 he received 
 command of an army against Holland, and in 1674 he 
 defeated William of Orange at Seneffe. The next year 
 he retired from the service on account of the gout. " He 
 was born a general," says Voltaire: "the art of war 
 seemed in him a natural instinct." Died in 1686. He 
 possessed an ardent temperament, an admirable coup- 
 d'an'/, and abundant resources. His education is said to 
 have been brilliant and complete. His funeral oration 
 was pronounced by Bossuet. 
 
 See Macaulav, " History of England," vol. ii. ; Desormeaux, 
 " Histoire de Louis Prince de Conde 1 , " 4 vols., 176S ; " Memoires du 
 Cardinal de Retz ;" "Memoires du Comte de Grammont ;" "Me- 
 moires de La Rochefoucauld ;" Cousin, " Histoire de Madame de 
 Longueville :" Lord Mahon, "Life of the Prince of Conde," 1840; 
 Coste, "Histoire de Louis Prince de Conde\" 1693; Voltaire, 
 "Steele de Louis XIV;" Adrien LemercIER, " Histoire du grand 
 Conde\" 1844; Voivreuii., " Histoire du grand Conde," 1847 ; " Lives 
 of the Warriors of the Civil Wars of France and England," by Sir 
 Edward Cust. London, 1867. 
 
 Conde, de, (Louis Henri Joseph,) styled Duke of 
 Bourbon and Prince of Conde, born in 1756, was the 
 last of the line of Conde. He fought in several cam- 
 paigns against the French Republic between 1792 and 
 1800. After the restoration, his chief occupation was the 
 chase. He was found dead in 1830, with circumstances 
 that indicated either suicide or assassination. He was 
 the father of the Due d'Enghien executed in 1804. 
 
 See Albert de Calvimont, "Le dernier des Conde", " 1832. 
 
 Conde, de, (Louis Joseph de Bourbon,) Prince, 
 born in Paris in 1736, was the only son of the Duke of 
 Bourbon who became prime minister about 1724. In 
 the Seven Years' war he signalized his courage at Has- 
 tembeck in 1757, and was successful at Johannisberg in 
 October, 1762. Having become obnoxious'to the popular 
 party in 1789, he emigrated, and became commander of 
 the emigrants who took arms against the new regime in 
 1792. He gained a victory at Berstheim in 1793, and 
 shared the defeats of the Austrians in 1796 and 1799. 
 In 1801 he disbanded his carps and retired to England. 
 He returned to France in 1814, and died in 1818, leaving 
 a son, Louis Henri Joseph. 
 
 See Chambelland, " Vie du Prince de CondeV' 3 vols., 1820. 
 
 Con'der, (John,) an English dissenting minister, who 
 was lorn in 1714, and preached in London. He pub- 
 lished an "Essay on the Ministerial Character," and 
 several sermons between 1755 and 1768. Died in 1781. 
 
 Conder, (Josiah,) an English author, born in London 
 in 1789, became a bookseller in that city. From 1814 to 
 
 1837 he edited the "Eclectic Review," to which Robert 
 Hall, Dr. Chalmers, and other eminent writers contrib- 
 uted. He published many learned works, among which 
 are "The Modern Traveller," (33 vols.,) a "History 
 of Italy," and a " View of All Religions." In the latter 
 part of his life he edited "The Patriot," the organ of the 
 Baptists and Congregationalists. Died in 1855. 
 
 See E. R. Conder, "Life of Josiah Conder," 1857. 
 
 Condillac, de, deh kAN'de'ySk', (Etienne Bonnot 
 — bo'no',) Abbe de Mureaux, (mu'ro',) an eminent French 
 philosopher and metaphysician, born at Grenoble in 
 1715. In his youth he was intimate with J. J. Rousseau 
 and Diderot ; but this friendship declined or ceased in 
 his mature years. In 1746 appeared his first work, an 
 " Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge," (" Sur 
 l'Origine des Connaissances humaines,") in which he ad- 
 vanced new and ingenious ideas. He produced in 1749 
 his "Treatise on Systems," ("Traite des Systemes,") 
 and in 1754 his "Treatise on Sensations," ("Traite des 
 Sensations,") a luminous and admirable work, which 
 extended his celebrity throughout Europe. Soon after 
 this date he was chosen preceptor of the Duke of Parma, 
 for whose use he composed "The Art of Writing," 
 "The Art of Thinking," and other works, forming a 
 series entitled "Cours d'Etudes." He was admitted into 
 the French Academy in 1768. He has been much praised 
 for his discoveries in relation to the progress and in* 
 flttence of language. According to him, man owes the 
 development of his faculties to the use of signs, and we 
 are able to reflect only because we are able to speak. 
 He was a brother of the Abbe de Mably. Died near 
 Beaugency in 1780. His moral character was virtuous 
 and discreet, — at least according to the French standard. 
 An edition of his works, in 32 vols. l2mo, was published 
 in 1803. 
 
 See La Harpe, "Cours de LitteVature :" Tennemann, "Ge- 
 schichte der Philosophic;" Sacchi, " Elogio di Condillac," 1819; 
 " Nouvelle liiographie G&ieYale." 
 
 Condivi, kon-dee'vee, (Ascanio,) an Italian painter, 
 born in the March of Ancona about 1520, was a pupil 
 of Michael Angelo, whom, it is said, he never quitted. 
 He wrote a "Life of Michael Angelo," (1553,) which is 
 accounted valuable. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Condorcet, de, deh koN'doR'si', (Marie Jean An- 
 toine Nicolas Caritat — ki 're'ti',) Marquis, a cele- 
 brated French mathematician and philosopher, born at 
 Ribemont, in Picardy, on the 17th of September, 1743. 
 His parents were noble, but not rich. After leaving 
 the College of Navarre he became a resident of Paris 
 in 1762. His "Essay on the Integral Calculus," and 
 that on the " Problem of Three Bodies," opened to him 
 in 1769 the Academy of Sciences, of which a few years 
 later he was chosen perpetual secretary. He was an 
 intimate friend of D'Alembert, and an admirer of Vol- 
 taire. In 1782 he was elected a member of the French 
 Academy in preference to Bailly. He wrote in favour 
 of American independence, and sowed in his works the 
 germ of republican principles. He embraced with ardour 
 the popular cause in 1789, published many able political 
 treatises, and was deputed by Paris to the Legislative 
 Assembly in 1791. In the Convention he was one of 
 the most popular and prominent members, and voted 
 generally with the Girondists, but did not vote for the 
 death of Louis XVI. 
 
 He was chosen a member of the Committee of Public 
 Safety in 1792. Proscribed as a Girondist in May, 1793, 
 he remained secreted in the house of Madame Vernet, 
 in Paris, for eight months, during which he wrote his 
 treatise " On Human Perfectibility," in which he was a 
 believer. Impelled by a longing to enjoy the open air 
 and the vernal season, he imprudently departed from his 
 asylum in April, 1794. In a few days he was arrested 
 on suspicion, and thrown into prison at Bourg-la-Reine, 
 where he ended his life by poison. His wife was a 
 sister of General Grouchy. (See following article.) As 
 a geometer he stands high in the second rank. He 
 composed admired eulogies on Buffon, D'Alembert, 
 Franklin, and others. His "Historical Sketch of the 
 Progress of the Human Mind" ("Esquisse d'un Tableau 
 historique des Progres de l'Esprit humain," 1795) is 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; not; good; moon; 
 
CONDOR CET 
 
 651 
 
 CONFUCIUS 
 
 called his greatest work. His character was noble and 
 benevolent. "Thus died," says Lamartine, "this Seneca 
 of the modern school. Placed between two camps to 
 combat the old world and moderate the new, he per- 
 ished in the shock without regret. The day of recog- 
 nition (reconnaissance) has not come for him ; but it 
 will come, and will exculpate his memory from reproach." 
 The best edition of his works is that published in Paris, 
 in 12 vols., 1847-49. 
 
 See Arago, " Notice sur Condorcet," read before the Academy of 
 Sciences in December, 1841 ; Lamartine, "History of the Giron- 
 dists;" "Quarterly Review" for July, 1850, vol. lxxxvii. ; I). F. Arago, 
 " Biographie de M. J. A. N. C. de Condorcet," 410, 1849 : S. F. 
 Lackoix. "Notice historique sur !a Vie de Condorcet," 8vo, 1813; 
 UAMBKRT, Notice in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale :" " Lives 
 of the Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. ShkllbY! "Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for September, i855,#vol. xcvii. 
 
 Condorcet, de, (Sophie de Grouchy — deh gRoo'- 
 she',) Marquise, born in 1765, was a sister of Marshal 
 Grouchy, and was one of the most beautiful women of 
 her time. In 1786 she became the wife of the Marquis 
 de Condorcet. In the first years of the new regime she 
 shared with Madame de Stael the homage of the Parisian 
 salons. She made a good French translation of Adam 
 Smith's "Theory of Moral Sentiments." Died in 1822. 
 Her daughter married General O'Connor. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^rale." 
 
 Condreii, de, deh k6.N'dR6.N', (Charles,) an emi- 
 nent French ecclesiastic, born near Soissons in 1588. 
 He entered the society of the Oratory in 161 7, and was 
 elected general of the same in 1629. He modestly refused 
 the rank of cardinal and archbishop. When he died, 
 (1641,) the king exclaimed, "The most holy and dis- 
 interested man in the realm is dead." He left a few 
 religious treatises. 
 
 See Amelotte, " Vie du Pere Condren," 1643. 
 
 Cone or Cowne, [Lat. Conve'us,] sometimes writ- 
 ten Conei, (George,) a Scottish Roman Catholic writer, 
 resided at Rome. He wrote a " Life of Mary Stuart, 
 Queen of Scots," (1624.) Died in 1640. 
 
 Cone, (Spencer Houghton,) an eloquent Baptist 
 minister, born at Princeton, New Jersey, in 1785. He 
 was in early life a popular play-actor, and began to preach 
 about 1814. He was pastor of a Baptist church in the 
 city of New York from 1823 till 1841, and was the prin- 
 cipal founder of the American Bible Union. Died in 1855. 
 
 See "Life of S. H. Cone," by his sons, 1856. 
 
 Conecte or Connecte, ko'n£kt', (Thomas,) a French 
 Carmelite monk and popular preacher, born at Rennes. 
 He declaimed against the disorders of the clergy, and 
 maintained that they should be permitted to marry. He 
 was condemned as a heretic at Rome, and was burnt to 
 death in 1434. 
 
 Conegliano^ See Cima. 
 
 Conegliano^ Due de. See Moncey. 
 
 Conei. See Cone. 
 
 Co'ney, (John,) an English engraver, born in London 
 in 17S6. He published "Ancient Cathedrals of France, 
 Holland, and Germany," with fine engravings, "English 
 Ecclesiastic Edifices of the Olden Time," and other 
 works. Died about 1833. 
 
 Conflans, de, deh koN'flS.N', (Hubert de Brienne 
 — deh bRe'en',) Count, a French marshal, born about 
 1690. He was made a captain in 1734, lieutenant-gen- 
 eral in 1752, and vice-admiral in 1756, and afterwards 
 obtained the rank of marshal of France. In 1759 he 
 was defeated with great loss by the English near Quibe- 
 ron. Died in 1777. 
 
 Conflans, de, (Louis de Brienne,) Marquis d'Ar- 
 mentieres, (cltR'moN'te'aiR',) a French general, born in 
 171 1, was made marshal of France in 1768. Died in 1774. 
 
 Confucius, kon-fu'she-us, [the Latinized form of 
 Kong-foo-tsf. or Kong-FTj^tsf, kong'foot'seh' or kong- 
 foot'suh', or Khoong-Foo-tse,* written also Koung- 
 
 * The initial letter of this .name (K)is followed by something simi- 
 lar to the aspirate which occurs so frequently in Hindoo words, as 
 Shorn a " horse," (pronounced almost g'ho ra, but in two syllables 
 >nly.) To indicate this peculiar sound, some writers use an apostrophe 
 lfter the K,— K'ung. The tseit in the French selling, Khoung Fou- 
 fSEU, is used to indicate a sound expressed by the Germans with /se, 
 that is, tsrh or tstih. See remarks on Chinese pronunciation in 
 ihe Introduction. 
 
 Fou-tse, Kung-Foo-tsze, and Khoung -Fou-tseu, 
 k'hoong-foo'tsuh', sometimes simply Khoong-tse or 
 Khoung-tsku. Khoong-Foo-tsze signifies "the master 
 Khoong," Khoong or K'ung being the name of the 
 family: he was also called Ne, (or Nl,) and Chung-Ne, 
 (or Tchoung-Ni,)] the most illustrious of Chinese phi- 
 losophers, was born, according to the best authorities, 
 551 B.C., in the kingdom or state of Loo, (included in 
 the modern province of Shan-toong.) His father, Shuh- 
 Liang-Heih, (in French, Chou-liang-he,) a soldier of ex- 
 traordinary strength as well as bravery, was descended 
 from a long line of illustrious ancestors. I le had had by 
 his first wife nine daughters, but no son. Having become 
 a widower, he married in his old age a young lady of rare 
 virtues, whose only son, the subject of this notice, was 
 destined to acquire a renown scarcely paralleled in the 
 history of the human race. It is related among the 
 legends concerning Confucius that just before his birth 
 the Kilin, a supernatural being, who never appeared 
 among men except to announce some extraordinary 
 event, left in the garden of the house of Shuh-Liang- 
 Heih a piece of precious stone, on which was written, 
 "A child is about to be born, pure as the crystal wave : 
 he shall be a king, but without any [territorial! domain." 
 The young Confucius was commonly called Kew, or 
 K'ew, (in French, Kieou,) because, as Pauthier informs 
 us, his mother soon after her marriage visited a neigh- 
 bouring hill, (called Ne-Kew, or Ni-Kieou, — that is, the 
 "hill Ne,") in order to offer her prayers to Heaven that 
 she might be blessed with children. Hence also, as it 
 appears, the sage was called Ne, (or Ni.)* "The vener- 
 able Ne" was a title often applied to him after his death. 
 
 As a child, Confucius was remarkable for his entire 
 obedience to his mother, for the respect which he always 
 showed to elderly people, and especially for a careful 
 observance of all the requisite ceremonies in honour 
 of the living and the dead. While other children found 
 their diversion in childish sports, it was his favourite 
 pastime, the Chinese historians tell us, to go through 
 all the various forms of politeness observed among per- 
 sons of "high education. At school he was distinguished 
 for his obedience, gentleness, and modesty, as well as for 
 a marvellous quickness of intellect. He acquitted him- 
 self with particular credit as a monitor ; (for the moni- 
 torial system of instruction, commonly supposed to be 
 a modern invention, appears to have been practised in 
 China from a very early period.) At the age of nineteen 
 he married, and about this time he was made a man- 
 darin, though of a subordinate grade. In fulfilling the 
 duties of his office he exhibited extraordinary industry, 
 faithfulness, and intelligence. He superintended the pub- 
 lic markets, and took care that nothing should be sold 
 as food that was injurious to the health of the people, 
 and that the poor should not have to pay an unreasona- 
 ble price for the necessaries of life. He was afterwards 
 put in charge of the public fields and lands, with the 
 care of the sheep and cattle. Through his diligence 
 and sagacity the most extraordinary improvements in 
 agriculture were introduced, so that in a few years the 
 face of the country presented a totally different appear- 
 ance. Scarcity was followed by abundance, penury by 
 affluence, among the cultivators of the soil. 
 
 When about twenty-two, Confucius came forward for 
 the first as a public teacher. He never refused his in- 
 struction, however small the fee his pupils were able to 
 pay him. All he required was an earnest desire to learn, 
 joined to a respectable capacity. After he had shown 
 his pupils the paths which lead to wisdom, he expected 
 them to pursue the same, without continually looking to 
 him for further instruction. " When I have presented," 
 he said, "one corner of a subject to any one, and he can- 
 not from it learn the other three, I do not repeat my 
 lesson." When he was only twenty-four years of age, 
 his mother died. After the appropriate ceremonies were 
 performed, he caused her remains to be buried by those 
 of his father, observing that " those who had been united 
 in life should not be parted after death." Following the 
 
 •According to Pauthier, the name of Tchounq Ni was given in 
 allusion to the hill Ni, (visited by his mother after her marriage,) and 
 to the fact of his being the heir (or eldest son) of his father. See 
 Legge's "Life and Teachings of Confucius, ' chap. v. p. 58. 
 
 eas^ 
 
 ;cas s;% Aard; gas/;G, H, K, guttural '; ti, tiasal; H, trilled; las t; th as in this. (3^™See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CONFUCIUS 
 
 652 
 
 CONFUCIUS 
 
 usag' of his country, he mourned for his mother three 
 year*, during which lime he filled no public office. When 
 in his thirtieth year, he is said to have taken lessons in 
 music under the celebrated master Siang, (or Seang.) 
 The following story will serve to give us some idea of 
 the estimation in which music was held by Confucius 
 and the Chinese of that age, as well as to show us the 
 enthusiastic wonder with which his talents were re- 
 garded by his followers. Siang spoke to Confucius of 
 music as the most precious gift conferred by Heaven 
 upon men, on account of its power not only to calm the 
 tumultuous passions, but also to purify and exalt the 
 nobler sentiments of the heart. The master played a 
 piece composed by a former Chinese musician of mar- 
 vellous skill. Confucius listened as if his very soul would 
 pass into the instrument. Some days afterwards the 
 teacher repeated the same lesson, and his pupil continued 
 to study it with unremitting application. At length 
 Siang told Confucius that, as he had already attained in 
 that particular piece a skill equal to his master's, he had 
 better pass on to something new. But Confucius begged 
 that he might be allowed to study the same lesson a few 
 days longer. At last he told his teacher why he desired 
 to dwell so long on that one piece. After playing it a 
 number of times, he had caught, as he believed, a glimpse 
 of the design and spirit of the composer. As he con- 
 tinued to play, he seemed to be penetrated with the same 
 spirit as that which inspired the author while composing 
 it. At length he seemed not only to hear the voice, but 
 to see the person, of the gifted but unknown musician. 
 Confucius then described his general figure, the expres- 
 sion of his eyes, and even his very features. He was 
 not mistaken. It was the celebrated Wen-Wang, an 
 illustrious sage as well as musician. Siang, astonished 
 beyond measure at his pupil's marvellous powers, pros- 
 trated himself before him, saying that he could teach him 
 no longer, but that he himself must in future become 
 the pupil of Confucius. (See Pauthier's "Chine," pp. 
 128-9.) 
 
 Passing over some of the less important events of 
 his life, we find Confucius in 499 B.C. one of the chief 
 ministers of the King or Prince of Loo. The forces of 
 the neighbouring King of Tsi (or Ts'e) had upon some 
 frivolous pretext taken possession of three frontier 
 towns belonging to the King of Loo. In order to settle 
 the dispute, it was agreed between the two princes that 
 (hey should have a friendly interview on the common 
 frontier of their respective states. Confucius, who is 
 described as possessing a wonderful power of reading 
 the characters of men, suspected the King of Tsi of a 
 design to seize the person of the King of Loo. He 
 therefore ordered that a very strong military force 
 should advance and occupy a position where it would 
 be out of sight and yet within signalling-distance of the 
 place appointed for the interview. The result showed 
 a deep-laid scheme of treachery on the part of the King 
 of Tsi and his ministers ; but the foresight, vigilance, and 
 resolute courage of Confucius baffled all their plans, 
 and they were fain to restore the disputed tjwns to their 
 lawful ruler. (For a particular account of this extraor- 
 dinary interview, see Pauthier's "Chine," pp. 152, 153, 
 and 154.) 
 
 Confucius held for some time the office of minister of 
 crime. A father having brought an accusation against 
 his son, Confucius kept them both in prison for three 
 months. One of the chief men objected that the min- 
 ister did not act consistently with his own teachings, for 
 he had always taught that filial duty was among the first 
 of human obligations. Confucius replied, "When supe- 
 riors foil in their duty, and yet go to put their inferiors 
 to death, they are not just. This father has not taught 
 his son to be filial : to listen to his charge would be to 
 slay the guiltless."* After the three months had elapsed, 
 the minister called both father and son before him. The 
 father acknowledged his fault. Confucius said to him, 
 kindly, "Go, and instruct your son in his duties." To 
 ♦he young man he said, "Do not forget that filial piety 
 is the first of all your obligations." 
 
 * It appears that, according to the old Chinese law, every serious 
 offence against a parent was punishable with death. Even at the 
 present day, to strike a parent is a capital crime. 
 
 But the King of Loo found the precepts of the sage 
 too high and difficult for his feeble virtue ; and Con- 
 fucius, perceiving that his services had ceased to be in 
 request, retired from public life, and spent his time in 
 travelling and study. The following passage may serve 
 to show his manner of making any remarkable occur- 
 rence the occasion of imparting instruction to those 
 around him. " As he was journeying, one day, he saw 
 a woman weeping and wailing by a grave. Confucius 
 inquired the cause of her grief. 'You weep as if you 
 had experienced sorrow upon sorrow,' said one of the 
 attendants of the sage. The woman answered, ' It is so : 
 my husband's father was killed here by a tiger, and my 
 husband also; and now my son has met the same fate.' 
 'Why do you not remove from the place?' asked Con- 
 fucius. On her replying, 'There is here no oppressive 
 government,' he turned to his disciples, and said, ' My 
 children, remember this : — Oppressive government is 
 more cruel than a tiger.' " 
 
 After leaving the service of the King of Loo, he ap- 
 pears to have spent the greater part of his time in dis- 
 seminating his doctrines while travelling from one pro- 
 vince to another, on which occasions he was always 
 attended by some of his disciples. On one of these 
 journeys their provisions became exhausted, and they 
 were unable to procure a fresh supply. The disciples 
 were overcome with hunger ; and one of them said to 
 the master, " Must the superior man indeed suffer in 
 this way ?" The sage replied, " The superior man may 
 indeed have to suffer want ; but the mean man, when he 
 is in want, gives way to unbridled license." The last five 
 years of his life were passed in Loo, his native state, in 
 teaching, and in finishing the works which he had before 
 commenced. 
 
 Among the pupils of Confucius there were a number 
 who gave promise of becoming distinguished lights of 
 philosophy ; but all the warmest affections and fondest 
 hopes of the Chinese sage appear to have been centred 
 in his favourite and gifted disciple, Yen-Hoei, (or Hwuy,) 
 to whom he looked, when he himself should be no more, 
 to uphold and extend those lofty principles of wisdom 
 and virtue which had constituted the one supreme object 
 of his life-long pursuit. All these bright hopes were, 
 however, destined to be crushed by the death of his 
 beloved pupil, cut off in the very flower of his life. In 
 the anguish of this unutterable sorrow, he could only 
 exclaim, from time to time, "Heaven has destroyed me ! 
 Heaven has destroyed me !" On this occasion some of 
 his disciples said to him, " Master, your grief is excess- 
 ive."" " Is it excessive ?" said he. " If I am not to mourn 
 bitterly for this man, for whom should I mourn ?" 
 
 The great stress laid by Confucius upon the external 
 forms of politeness and propriety might naturally sug- 
 gest the idea that he was deficient in the spontaneous 
 affections of the heart. But we have sufficient evidence 
 that this was not the case. He appears, indeed, to have 
 considered the observance of external forms to be not 
 only directly beneficial to society, but also indirectly 
 useful, through their influence upon the minds of those 
 who practised them, on the same general principle that 
 the practice of outward acts of morality tends to give 
 strength and vitality to our moral convictions. We have 
 just seen, in the case of Yen-Hoei, that his affections 
 were so strong that he found the greatest difficulty in 
 conforming his conduct to those principles of propriety 
 which he had always so strongly inculcated. The fol- 
 lowing anecdote may show how his views of propriety 
 were sometimes modified by the feelings of his heart. 
 Once, as he passed by a house where he had formerly 
 been lodged, learning that the master was dead, he went 
 in to condole with the family. On coming out, Jie told 
 a disciple to take one of the horses from his carriage 
 and give it as a contribution towards the expenses of 
 the funeral. The disciple remonstrated that the gift was 
 too great for the occasion. The sage replied that, when 
 he entered, his presence caused a fresh burst of grief 
 from the chief mourner, with whose tears he mingled 
 his own. "I dislike," he said, "the thought of my tears 
 not being followed by anything. Do it, my child." 
 (Legge's "Confucius," chap. v. sect, i.) 
 
 As he drew near the close of his career, he appears to 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, it, J?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CONFUCIUS 
 
 653 
 
 CONFUCIUS 
 
 have felt at times bitterly disappointed that, after all his 
 earnest efforts to reform abuses and exalt the standard 
 of virtue, so little had been accomplished. He seemed 
 to leave society in much the same condition as he found 
 it. Everywhere the rulers and higher dignitaries were 
 devoted to the pursuits of pleasure or ambition, paying 
 little or no regard to the rights or happiness of the peo- 
 ple. He once expressed this feeling of disappointment 
 to Ven-Hoei, but modestly suggested that the fault might 
 be in himself, and that perhaps his gifted disciple might 
 be more successful than he had been. In one respect 
 Confucius was more fortunate than many other great 
 benefactors of the human race. Although he frequently 
 experienced ingratitude and neglect, he appears never to 
 have suffered from persecution. It is related that a few 
 days before his death he chanted, sorrowfully, — 
 
 "The great mountain must crumble, 
 The strong trees must break, (or fall,) 
 The wise man must wither away like a plant." . . . 
 
 He died 478 B.C., or about eight years before the birth 
 of Socrates. 
 
 Confucius had one son, named Pe-yu, (or Pih-yu,) com- 
 monly called Le, (or Li,) from the name of a fish which 
 the King of Loo sent the sage as a congratulatory pres- 
 ent on the birth of his child. Le died before his father, 
 leaving one son, K'ung Keih, called also Tse-sse, (or 
 Tsze-sze,) who was a distinguished philosopher, and was 
 the author of a celebrated work called "Chung-Yung," 
 (for an account of which see Legge's "Life and Teach- 
 ings of Confucius," chap, iv.) 
 
 If to exert a great and permanent influence on millions 
 of intelligent minds* through many successive ages is 
 a proof of greatness, we can scarcely deny to the Chinese 
 sage the name of great. If extent of renown constitutes 
 greatness, he was the greatest of the human race ; for of 
 all the men that ever lived upon the earth he has en- 
 joyed the widest fame and received the greatest honours. 
 Even the fame of Alexander the Great has not been 
 sounded in the ears of so many millions as that of Con- 
 fucius. Amid all the changes of dynasty that have taken 
 place in the Celestial Empire, whether caused by foreign 
 conquest or domestic rebellion, his posterity have always 
 been treated with a peculiar respect ; and they constitute 
 at this clay the only hereditary nobilityt in China. His 
 male descendants at the present time number more than 
 eleven thousand persons. Ever since the days of Con- 
 fucius his writings have formed the chief object of study 
 in all the schools of China. " In many school-rooms," 
 says Dr. Legge, "there is a tablet or inscription on the 
 wall, sacred to the sage ; and every pupil is required, on 
 coming to school on the morning of the first and fifteenth 
 of every month, to bow before it the first thing, as an 
 act of worship." 
 
 In all that Confucius did or taught, the useful and 
 practical (using these words in an extended sense) formed 
 the sole object of his labours and his thoughts. The end 
 and scope of his philosophy were limited to the present 
 world. There is none of his recorded sayings, either 
 uttered near the close of his life or at any previous time, 
 indicating that he had any distinct belief in a state of 
 existence after death. Dr. Legge inclines to the opinion 
 that, in regard to the belief in a God, Confucius came 
 short of the faith of the older sages. Trie term Shang-Te 
 (i.e. "supreme divine Ruler") was anciently used as the 
 name of the Divine Being. Confucius preferred to speak 
 of Heaven. His influence, according to the view of the 
 above writer, has been unfavourable to the development 
 of true religious feeling among the Chinese. (See Legge's 
 '' Life and Teachings of Confucius," p. 100.) 
 _ The most valuable and trustworthy source of informa- 
 tion respecting the character and genius of the Chinese 
 sage is to be found in his " Analects," called in Chinese 
 Lun- Yu, — that is, the " digested conversations" of Con- 
 fucius. The whole of the "Analects" are well worthy 
 of a perusal by every one who wishes to understand the 
 
 • In regard to the high intellectual character of the Chinese, and 
 the peculiarity of their civilization, see some excellent remarks in 
 Whitney's " Lectures on Language," pp. 332-334. 
 
 1 The descendants of Mencius should perhaps form an exception 
 to this statement : they do not. however, rank with the posterity of 
 Confucius. (See Leggf's "Chinese Classic.*' vol. ii" p. 40.) 
 
 spirit and scope of the Confucian philosophy.* The» 
 seem fully to justify the high eulogiums that have been 
 pronounced upon the wisdom of Confucius. It may well 
 be doubted whether among all the pagan writers of the 
 Western nations anything can be found superior, or even 
 equal, to many of these sayings, in respect either to 
 practical wisdom or high morality. 
 
 The following are some of his remarkable sayings : 
 
 " He who exercises government by means of his virtue 
 may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps 
 its place, and all the [other] stars turn towards it." " In 
 the book of poetry are three hundred pieces; but the 
 design of them all may be embraced in that one sen- 
 tence, ' Have no depraved thoughts' " " Learning without 
 thought is labour lost ; thought without learning (or 
 knowledge) is perilous." Which perhaps may be para 
 phrased thus : The knowledge of facts, without the intel- 
 lect necessary to apply them wisely, is useless ; on the 
 other hand, speculation or thought, however powerful, 
 without a basis of positive knowledge to rest on, or with- 
 out facts to serve as landmarks to direct its course, is in 
 imminent danger of going astray. " I do not know how 
 a man without truthfulness is to get on." "He who 
 offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray." 
 " When we see men of worth, we should think of equal- 
 ling them ; when we see men of a contrary character, 
 we should turn inwards and examine ourselves." "Good 
 government obtains when those who are near are made 
 happy and those who are far off are attracted." lieing 
 asked what were the essential requisites of government, 
 he replied, " Sufficiency of food, military equipment, and 
 confidence of the people in their ruler." When asked 
 which, incase of necessity, could best be dispensed with, 
 he answered, "The military equipment." When again 
 asked which of the remaining two might best be dis- 
 pensed with, he said, " Part with the food : from of old, 
 death has been the lot of all men ; but if the people 
 have no faith in their rulers there is no standing for the 
 state." 
 
 We have in one place a negative statement of the 
 golden rule : " What you do not like when done to your- 
 self, do not do to others." In another place he says, 
 "The man of perfect virtue, wishing to be established 
 himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be 
 enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others. To be 
 able to judge of others by what is nigh, [i. e. in ourselves^ 
 this may be called the art of virtue." "I am not con- 
 cerned that I have no place, (or office ;) I am concerned 
 how I may fit myself for one. I am not concerned that 
 I am not known ; I seek to be worthy to be known." 
 " When the accomplishments and solid qualities are 
 equally blended, we then have the man of complete vir- 
 tue." "The superior man thinks of virtue ; the small 
 man thinks of comfort. The superior man thinks of the 
 sanctions of law ; the small man thinks of the favours 
 which he may receive." "The superior man is affable, 
 but not adulatory; the mean man is adulatory, but not 
 affable." 
 
 One of the disciples of Confucius said of him, "There 
 were four things from which the master was entirely free. 
 He had no foregone conclusions, no arbitrary predeter- 
 minations, no obstinacy, and no egoism." He appears to 
 have held that mankind are naturally good, or, at least, 
 that under favourable circumstances they readily become 
 good. (See Mkncius.) He taught that if rulers were 
 virtuous the people would be virtuous as a matter of 
 course. He said, " If good men were to govern a country 
 for a hundred years, they would be able to transform the 
 violently bad, and dispense with capital punishment." 
 Again, " If a superior man love righteousness, the peo- 
 ple will not dare to refuse to submit to his example. If 
 he love good faith, the people will not dare to be in- 
 sincere." Confucius was very bold in reproving men 
 in power. To a usurping ruler who complained of the 
 multitude of thieves, he said, " If you, sir, were not 
 covetous, although you should reward them to do it, they 
 would not steal." He justly attached great importance 
 to the power of example ; but his own later experience 
 
 * These have been presented to the English reader in a convenient 
 form in the excel'eiit version made by the accomplished Chinese 
 scholar, Dr. James Legge, published by Trubner& Co., London, 1S67. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; f hard; g as/,- G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (SJP'See Explanations, p. 2\.) 
 
CONFUCIUS 
 
 654 
 
 CONGREFE 
 
 might have convinced him that he overestimated its in- 
 fluence. As we have already seen, he bitterly lamented, 
 near the close of his life, that all his teachings, though 
 enforced — if we may trust the unvarying testimony of 
 Chinese writers — by an admirable example, had availed 
 so little towards promoting true virtue among his coun- 
 trymen. He once said, doubtless in a moment of great 
 discouragement, " [ have not seen a person who loved 
 virtue, or one who hated what was not virtuous." 
 
 There is a total difference in kind between the philoso- 
 phy of Confucius and the philosophies of Plato, Aris- 
 totle, Bacon, and Locke. The Chinese sage did not aim 
 to investigate the mysteries of the universe, or even the 
 hidden laws of nature or of the human mind. His great 
 object was to lay down such rules as would best promote 
 the happiness and virtue of the community at large. And 
 it must be acknowledged that in the practical wisdom of 
 his precepts, both to rulers and subjects, he has never 
 been surpassed by any philosopher of any age or nation. 
 That wise and beautiful thought which is the basis of 
 Chinese government — that the ruler or officer should be 
 as a father, and the people as children — dates, there is 
 reason to believe, from a very remote antiquity. Confu- 
 cius did not originate this idea ; but he did everything in 
 his power to give it practical efficacy. 
 
 But if, on the one hand, he never wasted his thoughts 
 on subjects too high or too profound for the human in- 
 tellect, it must, on the other, be confessed that his maxims 
 are often deficient in depth and comprehensiveness. 
 While his writings everywhere abound with admirable 
 practical precepts, they rarely contain the statement of 
 any profound principle. He did not pretend or aim to 
 improve upon the wisdom of the ancient Chinese sages, 
 — to attempt which he would have deemed the height 
 of folly and presumption, — but only to expound and 
 enforce those maxims and doctrines which, with the 
 lapse of ages, had become neglected or misunderstood. 
 In explaining and enforcing the teachings of antiquity, 
 he was indeed admirable. In the clearness, simplicity, 
 power, and poetic beauty of his expressions, as well as 
 in the practical wisdom of his views, he excelled all his 
 countrymen, either before or since his time. The great 
 defect of his philosophy is that it does not contain within 
 itself any elements of progress or expansion : hence it 
 is not only immeasurably inferior, even as a practical 
 system, to Christianity, but is in the point above referred 
 to far below most of the philosophies of the Western 
 nations. His moral precepts, having no root in any 
 definite religious faith, are wanting in vitality and power. 
 Confucius was undoubtedly great and noble in his way, 
 — far superior to his system. We need not hesitate to 
 admit what his disciples claimed for him, that "from the 
 birth of mankind till now there has never been [among 
 the Chinese] one like our master." But his intellect 
 appears to have been sagacious and penetrating, rather 
 than comprehensive or profound in the highest sense of 
 these terms. He did not shed any new light upon the 
 great problems respecting the condition and destiny of 
 man. " He did not," says Dr. Legge, "speculate on the 
 creation of things or the end of them. He was not 
 troubled to account for the origin of man, nor did he 
 seek to know about his hereafter. He meddled neither 
 with physics nor metaphysics." (Legge's "Confucius," 
 p. 99.) He was content to follow in the wake of the 
 sages of antiquity : he sought neither to rise above nor 
 to change the course of their teachings. It appears to 
 have never once occurred to him to cail in question the 
 wisdom of his ancestors. If he modified at all any of 
 the doctrines or precepts handed down to him, he seems 
 to have done so unintentionally. Even his very virtues — 
 his reverence and humility — contributed, it would seem, 
 to mislead him. Otherwise a man of his rare sagacity 
 and insight could scarcely have failed to see the insuffi- 
 ciency and poverty of that stereotyped conservatism 
 which durst not advance one step beyond the teaching 
 of a remote antiquity, but which required the wheels of 
 civilization to run for all time in the well-worn grooves 
 of the past. A very little force, as is well known, is 
 sufficient to keep a train of cars in motion on a smooth 
 and level or descending track. This may suggest one 
 of the essential points of difference between the system 
 
 of Confucius and Christianity. The one never ran 
 counter to, nor ever rose much above, the general ten- 
 dency of the national character. The other, beginning 
 at a period which was confessedly one of the darkest and 
 most corrupt known in history, moving, not in accord- 
 ance with, but against, the most cherished prejudices of 
 the people among whom it rose, instead of finding a 
 track ready made and rendered smooth by the attrition 
 of ages, had to make its own way, ever upwards, and 
 over countless obstacles, any one of which would have 
 been insuperable to anything less than divine power. 
 
 The influence that Confucius has exerted upon nearly 
 one-third of the human race, during so many successive 
 centuries, in addition to his own inherent greatness, and 
 the fact that, since the opening of the ports of the Celes- 
 tial Empire to an intercourse with other countries, a new 
 and more general interest in all that relates to China is 
 felt among the nations of the West, must constitute our 
 apology — if any apology be needed — for extending this 
 notice to so great a length. 
 
 See, in addition to the works referred to in the foregoing article, 
 P. Regis, " Auticjuissimus Sinarum Liber." Stuttgart, 1839; Med- 
 hurst's translation of the "Shoo- King;" Collie's translation of 
 the Chinese classical works commonly called "The Four Books," 
 Malacca, 1S2S ; " Menciuset Confucius ; Lesquatre Livresde Philoso- 
 phic morale et politique de la Chine," translated from the Chinese by 
 G. Pauthier, Paris, 1851 : Remusat, " L'invariable Milieu," Paris, 
 1817; Amiot. "Memoires concernant les Chinois;" "Confucius and 
 the Chinese Classics," by Rev. A. W. Loomis," San Francisco. 1867; 
 Olof Celsius, " Exercitatio histories Confucium Sir.arum Philoso- 
 phum adumbrans," 1710; Cortin, "Disputatio de Confucio," 1743 : 
 Dressler, "Compendium Confucii Sinensuun Phi.osophi principis 
 Vitas et Doctrinal," 1701 ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1S60. 
 
 Congletoa, kong'gl-ton, (Henry Brooke Parnell,) 
 Lord, a British statesman, son of Sir John Parnell, born 
 in 1776. He married Lady Dawson, a granddaughter 
 of the Earl of Bute. In 1806 he became lord treasurer 
 of Ireland. When the Whig party obtained power in 
 1 83 1, he was appointed secretary at war. From 1835 
 to 1841 he was paymaster of the forces. He published 
 several treatises on currency, exchange, trade, etc. His 
 principal work is entitled " On Financial Reform," (1830.) 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Congreve, kong'grev, (William,) a popular, witty, 
 and original English dramatic poet, was born near Leeds 
 in 1670. On leaving college he entered the Middle 
 Temple as a student of law, but devoted himself to lite- 
 rature and society. He produced in 1693 "The Old 
 Bachelor," which was performed with brilliant success, 
 and the next year the "Double-Dealer," which was 
 highly extolled by Dryden. "Love for Love," (1695,) 
 and "The Mourning Bride," a tragedy, (1697,) were 
 received with great applause, and rendered Congreve 
 the most popular dramatist of his time. "We believe," 
 says Macaulay, "that no English writer, except Lord 
 Byron, has at so early an age stood so high in the esti- 
 mation of his contemporaries." Montagu, a member of 
 the ministry, bestowed on him several lucrative offices. 
 For the licentiousness and immorality of his works he 
 received a severe and merited castigation in Collier's 
 " View of the Profaneness, etc. of the English Stage," 
 (1698,) which produced an immense effect. Congreve's 
 defence was admitted to be a complete failure. In 1700 
 he produced " The Way of the World," which, though 
 brilliantly written, was so coldly received that he re- 
 nounced the drama in disgust. In I7i4he was appointed 
 secretary of Jamaica. Pope dedicated to him his " Iliad," 
 about 1 7 1 5, — an evidence that he was still held in high 
 estimation. Johnson praises the magnanimity of Pope 
 in thus preferring Congreve to peers and statesmen, 
 who would have been proud of the honour. Congreve's 
 ambition to pass for a man of fashion caused him to 
 disclaim the character of poet, saying that his plays were 
 trifles produced in an idle hour. "The peculiar excel- 
 lence of Congreve," says Hallam, "is his wit, incessantly 
 sparkling from the lips of almost every character. 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 
 1729. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets ;" Macaulav, " Essay 
 on the Comic Dramatists of the Restoration ;" " Biographia Britan- 
 nica :" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Cibfer, 
 " Lives of the English Poets:" Charles Wilson, " Memoirs of the 
 Life of W. Congreve," 1730; "Lives of British Dramatists," by 
 Camfbell, Gifford, etc. 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mJt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
CONG R EVE 
 
 655 
 
 CONRAD 
 
 Congreve, (Sir William,) an English officer and 
 engineer, born in Middlesex in 1772, inherited a baronetcy 
 from his father, of the same name, who was a general. 
 He rose in the army to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, 
 and distinguished himself in l8o8bythe invention of the 
 rocket which bears his name. He was elected to Parlia- 
 ment several times. In 1816 he was selected to attend 
 the grand duke Nicholas of Russia in a tour through 
 England. He published a "Treatise on the Mounting 
 of Naval Ordnance," (1812,) and other works. Died at 
 Toulouse in 1828. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale. " 
 
 Coninck, ko'nink, (Solomon,) a Dutch painter of his- 
 tory and portraits, born at Amsterdam in 1609. Among 
 his works, which are highly prized, is " David and Bath- 
 sheba." 
 
 Coninck, de, deh ko'nink, (David,) a skilful Flemish 
 painter of animals, flowers, and fruit, born at Antwerp 
 in 1636; died in Rome in 1689. 
 
 Coningsloo. See Cooninxloo. 
 
 Co'ning-ton, (John,) an English classical scholar, 
 born at lioston in 1825, was educated at Oxford. He 
 became professor of Latin at Oxford in 1854. He made 
 a poetical version of Horace's " Odes" in 1863, and trans- 
 lated Homer's " Iliad" into verse, (1S66.) Died in 1869. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1867 ; " North British 
 Review" for December, 1S66. 
 
 Conk'ling, (Roscoe,) an American Senator and law- 
 yer, son of Judge Alfred Conkling, was born at Albany 
 in 1828. He settled at Utica about 1846, was elected 
 a member of Congress by the Republicans of Oneida 
 county in 1S58, and was re-elected in i860. He repre- 
 sents the State of New York in the Senate of the United 
 States for the term extending from 1867 to 1873. He is 
 distinguished as a debater. 
 
 Conneau, ko'no', (Henri,) a French physician, born 
 at Milan about 1802. He removed to Marseilles about 
 1832, and subsequently became the physician of Hortense 
 Bonaparte, who obtained from him a promise that he 
 would never abandon her son, Louis Napoleon. In 1840 
 he followed the latter to the prison of Ham, and shared 
 his captivity until 1846, when the prince escaped. He 
 has continued in the service of Louis Napoleon, and in 
 1852 received the title of first physician to the emperor. 
 
 Connecte. See Conecte. 
 
 Con'ner, (David,) an American naval officer, born in 
 Mifflin county, Pennsylvania, about 1792. He served 
 with distinction as lieutenant in the war against Eng- 
 land, 1812-14, and became a captain about 1835. Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 Connor. See O'Connor. 
 
 Con'nor, (Bernard,) F.R.S., an Irish physician, born 
 in Kerry in 1666. He became physician to King John 
 Sobieski of Poland about 1694, and returned to England 
 in 1695. He lectured with success at Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge, and published, besides other works, " Evange- 
 lium Medici," (1697,) an effort to explain on natural 
 principles the miraculous cures performed by Christ. 
 Died in 1698. 
 
 Co'non or Ko'non, [Kovuv,] an eminent Athenian 
 general, the son of Timotheus. He first appears in history 
 in 413 B.C., when he commanded a fleet. In 407 he was 
 chosen one of the ten generals, and in 405 was defeated 
 by Lysander at ^Egospotami. He then took refuge with 
 Evagoras in Cyprus. Having obtained command of a 
 fleet of allied Persians and Athenians, he defeated the 
 Spartans near Cnidos in 394 R.C., with important results, 
 among which was that Sparta lost the empire of the 
 sea. On his return to Athens he rebuilt the long walls, 
 and afterwards went as ambassador to Persia, where he 
 was imprisoned. Historians differ about the time and 
 manner of his death. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Artaxerxes;" Xf.vophon, " Hellenica ;" Cor- 
 nelius Nh'iis, ' Conon '" Diodorus Sicui.us, hooks xiii. and xiv. 
 
 Conon, born in Eastern Europe, was elected pope in 
 686 A.D., as successor to John V. He died in 688, and 
 was succeeded by Sergius II. 
 
 Conon OF Samos, a celebrated Greek geometer and 
 astronomer, who lived at Alexandria about 250 B.C., and 
 was a friend of Acchimedes. The latter expresses in one 
 of his works a high admiration of his sagacity and attain- 
 
 ments. The works of Conon are entirely lost. He was the 
 inventor of the curve called the "Spiral of Archimedes." 
 Seneca informs us that he collected the observations of 
 solar eclipses made in Egypt; and Virgil mentions hiir. 
 in his third Eclogue. His name is commemorated in 
 the ode of Callimachus "De Coma Berenices." 
 
 See Delambre, " Histoire de I'Astronotnie ancienne." 
 
 COn'rad [Ger. proa, kon'rat ; Fr. pron. k6N'rid'; Lat. 
 Conra'dijs; It. Cokrado, kor-ri'do] I., Emperor of 
 Germany, was elected to the imperial throne in 911, 
 before which date he was Count of Franconia. He 
 waged war against Henry the Fowler, Charles the 
 Simple, and Arnulf of Bavaria. He was killed in battle 
 in 918, and was succeeded by Henry the Fowler. 
 
 See Schwartz, "Konig Conrad I. der Franke," 1850. 
 
 Conrad II., called the Sai.'ic, was a son of Henry, 
 Duke of Franconia. He was elected King of Germany 
 in 1024, after which he marched into Italy, and was 
 crowned as emperor by the pope at Rome in 1027. He 
 became master of Burgundy at the death of Rodolph, 
 who was an uncle of Conrad's wife. Conrad is regarded 
 as the author of the written feudal law of Germany. He 
 died in 1039, and was succeeded by his son, Henry III. 
 
 See Luden. " Histoire de I'AUemagne ;" Venningen, " Disser- 
 tatio de Conrado Salico," 1783. 
 
 Conrad IIL of Germany, born in 1093, was a son of 
 Frederick of Hohenstaufen. His mother was a daugh- 
 ter of Henry IV. He was elected emperor in 1 138; 
 but his title was disputed by Henry the Proud, Duke of 
 Saxony. A civil war ensued between these competitors. 
 Welf, a brother of Henry the Proud, commanded one 
 of the armies in the battle of Weinsberg, which is memo- 
 rable as the origin of the party names of Guelph and 
 Ghibeline. The battle-cry of the Saxons was Welf, and 
 that of Conrad's men was Weiblingen, a town connected 
 with the origin of the Hohenstaufen family. Ghibeline 
 is the Italian version or modification of Weiblingen. 
 Conrad gained a victory at Weinsberg, (1140,) and the 
 war then ended. In 1 147 he conducted a large army 
 of crusaders to Palestine. He besieged Damascus, but 
 failed to take it, and returned in 1149. He died in 1 152, 
 and was succeeded by Frederick Bai barossa. 
 
 See Mascovius, "Commentarius de Rebus Imperii sub Con- 
 rado III.," 1753; Luden, "Histoire de l'Allemague ;" Gundi.ing, 
 ''Geschichte und Thaten Kayser Conrads III.." 1720. 
 
 Conrad IV., born in Apulia in 1228, was a son of 
 Frederick II., Emperor of Germany and King of Italy. 
 He was crowned King of the Romans in 1237. At the 
 death of his father, in 1250, he took the title of emperor, 
 which was also claimed by William of Holland. The 
 latter was favoured by the Guclphs and by Pope Inno- 
 cent IV., who excommunicated Conrad, the chief of the 
 Ghibelines. Conrad led an army into Italy in 1251, 
 and took Naples and other places. He died in 1254, 
 leaving a son, Conrad V., or Conradin. 
 
 See Von Raumer, "Geschichte der Hohenstaufen;" Gundling, 
 "Geschichte und Thaten Conrads IV.," 1719. 
 
 Conrad V., or Con'ra-din, [Lat. Conradi'nus; It. 
 Conradino, kon-ra-dee'no,l born in 1252, was the son 
 and heir of Conrad IV. The kingdom of Naples was 
 usurped by his uncle Manfred, and was offered by the 
 pope to Charles of Anjou, who defeated Manfred in 1265 
 and made himself master of Naples and Sicily. Con- 
 radin attempted to enforce his rights, but was defeated at 
 Tagliacozzo in 1268, taken prisoner, and put to death. 
 
 See Von Raumer, " Geschichte der Hohenstaufen ;" W. Jaeger, 
 "Geschichte Conradins II. Konigs beider Sicilien," 1785: C. M. Ric- 
 ClO, "Alcuni Studii storici intorno a Manfredi e Conradino," 1850. 
 
 Conrad, Marquis of Tyre and Montferrat, was a fa- 
 nous captain ot the crusaders. He defended Tyre against 
 Saiadin about 1 188. and compelled him to raise the siege. 
 He had just been elected King of Jerusalem, when he 
 was assassinated, at Tyre, in 1192. 
 
 Conrad of Kirchberg, a German minnesinger, was a 
 native of Suabia, and lived about 1150-90. 
 
 See LoNGR IXOW, " Poets and Poetry of Curopf." 
 
 Conrad of Wurtzburg, an eminent German minne- 
 singer or troubadour, of whose life little is known. He 
 wrote, liesides other works, an epic poem on the Trojan 
 war. Died in 1287. 
 
 See Gr^vinus, " Geschichte der Altdcutschen Poesie ;" Long- 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ' ; s as *; th as in this. (Jry~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CONRAD 
 
 6$6 
 
 CONSTANCE 
 
 Conrad, kon'rat, or Coenrads, koon'rats, (Abra- 
 ham,) a skilful Dutch designer and engraver, flourished 
 about 1650. His works are mostly portraits. 
 
 Con'rad, (Chari.es M.,) a lawyer, born at Winchester, 
 Virginia, about 1804, removed in his youth to Louisiana. 
 He was appointed secretary of war by President Fillmore 
 in August, 1850, and held that office till March, 1853. He 
 was a member of the Confederate Congress in 1862-64. 
 
 Conrad, (Robert T.,) an American dramatist, orator, 
 and judge, born in Philadelphia about 1809. He pro- 
 duced two tragedies, entitled "Conrad of Naples," and 
 "Aylmere," which were performed with success. About 
 1840 he became a judge of the court of general sessions 
 in Philadelphia. He published a volume of poems in 
 1852. In 1854 he was elected mayor of Philadelphia by 
 the American party. "His 'Aylmere,'" says R. W, 
 Giiswold, "has proved the most successful American 
 drama yet written." Died in 1858. 
 
 See Grirwoi.d's " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Conrad, (Timothy Abbott,) an American concho- 
 logist and palaeontologist, born in New Jersey about 
 1804. He published, besides other works, " Fossil 
 Shells of the Tertiary Formations of North America," 
 (1832,) and " Palaeontology of the State of New York," 
 (1838-40.) He was one of the naturalists employed by 
 the State of New York about 1838. He is a member 
 of the Imperial Society of Natural History of Moscow, 
 and of other learned societies. 
 
 Conradi, kon-ra'dee,(JoHANN Wilhei.m Heinrich,| 
 a German physician, born at Marburg in 1780, became 
 in 1837 professor of medicine at Gottingen. He wrote 
 a "Manual of General Therapeutics," (1833,) and other 
 medical works. 
 
 Conrart, koN'riV, (Valentin,) born in Paris in 1603, 
 was one of the founders of the French Academy, which 
 first met in his house, and which was chartered in 1635. 
 He was then chosen its perpetual secretary. He was a 
 councillor and secretary to the king. Died in 1675. 
 
 Conring, kon'ring, (Elisa Sophia,) a German poet- 
 ess, was a diughter of Hermann Conring, noticed below, 
 and wife of the Baron von Reichenbach. She trans- 
 lated into German verse the " Wisdom of Solomon," 
 and wrote other poetry. Died in 1 718. 
 
 Her sister, Maria Sophia, was also a poetess. 
 
 Conring, kon'ring, [Lat. Conrin'gtus,] (Hermann,) 
 a very learned writer on history, law, medicine, etc., was 
 born at Norden, in East Friesland, in 1606. He was 
 chosen professor of natural philosophy at Helmstedt 
 in 1632. In 1650 he received the title of Physician to 
 Christina of Sweden. He was soon after appointed 
 professor of law at Helmstedt, and by his lectures and 
 writings acquired such renown that he was consulted by 
 several kings on important questions. He published, in 
 Latin, many excellent works, among which are a " Com- 
 mentary on the Origin of German Law," (1643,) " On the 
 Causes of the Physical Constitution (corporis haliilit) 
 of the Ancient and Modern Germans," (1645,) and "On 
 the Limits of the German Empire." Died in 1681. 
 
 See A. Froeung, " Leichenpredigt auf H. Conringium nebst 
 seinem Lebenslauf," 1682; Ersch una Gruber, " Allgemeine En- 
 cyklopaedie;'' Nicbron, "Me^noires." 
 
 Conringius. See Conring. 
 
 Con'rjf, written also Conroy, [Lat. Con'rius,] (Flo- 
 rence,) an Irish theologian, born at Gal way in 1560. 
 He became Roman Catholic Archbishop of Tuam, and 
 published a "Compendium of the Doctrines of Saint 
 Augustine," (1634.) Died at Madrid in 1629. 
 
 Consalvi, kon-sal'vee, (Ercolk,) Cardinal, an emi- 
 nent Italian statesman, born in Rome in 1757. At an early 
 age he obtained the office of auditor ds Rota, a member 
 of the highest civil court. In 1800 he was appointed 
 secretary of state, or first "minister, of Pius Vlt., and in 
 1801 negotiated the Concordat with Bonaparte in Paris. 
 In compliance with the wish of the French emperor, he 
 was dismissed from office in 1806, and exiled from Rome 
 about 1810. From 1814, when he was reinstated in the 
 office of secretary, to 1823, the Papal States experienced 
 the benefits of his liberal and humane policy. Capital 
 punishment for heresy, and the torture, were abolished, 
 and new codes of law were enacted. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Bartholdi, "Ziige aus di.ij Leben des Cardinal Consalvi," 
 1825; " Cenni biografici sul Cardinale Consalvi," Venice, 1824. 
 
 M 
 
 Consbruch, kons'bRooK, (Georg Wiliielm Chris- 
 TOPH,) a German medical writer, born in Westphalia in 
 1764. 
 
 Conscience, kAN'se'6Nss', (Henri or Hendrik,) a 
 popular Flemish novelist, born at Antwerp in 1812. He 
 entered the army in 1830, but retired from that service 
 a few years later, after composing some popular songs. 
 In 1837 he produced, in Flemish, a successful romance, 
 "The Year of Miracles, 1566," (" In het Vonderjaer,") 
 and another entitled " Phantasia." His reputation was 
 confirmed by "The Lion of Flanders," (1838.) He was 
 appointed a professor in the University of Ghent in 1845. 
 Among his numerous works are a " History of Belgium," 
 (1845,) "Pages from the Book of Nature," (1846,) and 
 "The Poor Gentleman," (1851.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Consentius, kon-sen'she-us, a Greek grammarian, 
 lived at Constantinople in the fifth century. 
 
 Consetti, kon-set'tee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Modena in 1686; died in 1766. 
 
 Considerant, k6N'se'da'roN', (Victor,) a French 
 socialist, born at Salins in 1805. He became a disciple 
 of Fourier about 1831, and on the death of the latter, in 
 1837, was recognized as the chief apostle of Fourierism. 
 In 1845 he began to issue in Paris the " Democratic Pa- 
 cifique," a daily political journal. After the revolution 
 of 1848 he was elected to the Assembly, in which he 
 acted with the party called the " Mountain." About 1854 
 he founded a colony in Texas. He wrote, besides other 
 works, "Destinee sociale," (3 vols., 1834-44.) 
 
 See Blanqui, "Histoire de l'Fxonomie politique." 
 
 Con'sta-ble, (kiin'sta-b'l,) (Archibald,) an eminent 
 Scottish publisher, born at Kellie in 1776. He opened 
 a shop in Edinburgh in 1795, and in 1802 began to pub- 
 lish the " Edinburgh Review," which he managed twenty- 
 four years. He published Scott's first original work in 
 1805, and gave that author one thousand pounds for 
 " Marmion" in 1807. Constable & Company also pub- 
 lished Scott's prose works, (1813-26.) In consequence 
 partly of his generosity and want of prudence, he failed 
 in 1825 for about ^250,000, in which failure Sir Walter 
 Scott was largely involved. Died in 1826. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Con'sta-ble, (Henry,) an English poet, who gradu- 
 ated at Cambridge about 1580. He published a volume 
 of sonnets, which were commended by Ben Jonson and 
 others. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry." 
 
 Constable, (John,) an eminent English landscape- 
 painter, born at East Bergholt, Suffolk, in 1776, was the 
 son of a miller. His early love of art was encouraged 
 by Sir George Beaumont. In 1799 he became a student 
 in the Royal Academy. He exhibited in 1819 a large 
 picture of a " Scene on the River Stour," usually called 
 "The White Horse," which is among his best works. 
 The public and the artists were slow to appreciate his 
 simplicity of style, fidelity to nature, and contempt of 
 conventionalities. He was elected a Royal Academician 
 in 1829. Among his master-pieces are "The Corn- 
 Field," (1826,) and "The Valley Farm," (1835.) Died 
 in 1837. " His early associations," says Ruskin, "induced 
 in him a morbid preference of subjects of a low order. 
 His works are eminently wanting in both rest and refine- 
 ment. Yet, with all these deductions, they are to be 
 deeply respected as thoroughly original, honest, free 
 from affectation, and manly in manner." (" Modern 
 Painters.") 
 
 See C. R. Leslie, "Life of John Constable." 
 
 Constance. See Constantius. 
 
 Con'stance, Empress of Germany, was a daughter 
 of Roger, King of the Two Sicilies, and was born in 
 1 155. She was married in 1 185 to the emperor Henry 
 VI., and became the mother of Frederick II. In 1194 
 she inherited the throne of her father. Died in 1 198. 
 
 See Muratori, " Annali d'ltalia." 
 
 Constance, Queen of Sicily, was the daughter of 
 King Manfred. She became the wife of Pedro of Aragon 
 in 1261. She reigned in the island of Sicily from 1283 
 until her death, in 1298. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Re"publiques Italiennes." 
 
 e,T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, J*, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
CONSTANCE 
 
 657 
 
 CONSTANTINE 
 
 Con'stance, (Faulcon, Faulkon, or Phaulkon,) 
 an ambitious Greek adventurer, whose proper name wis 
 Con'stan-tin, was born in Cephalonia about 1648. After 
 having been a trader in the East Indies, he went to Siam, 
 where about 16S0 he became prime minister. He made 
 an alliance with Louis XIV. of France, who sent a body 
 of troops to Siam. Having attempted to establish there 
 the Roman Catholic religion and the French domination, 
 he was killed by some natives, who conspired against 
 him, about t688. 
 
 See P. d'Ori.bans, "Vie de M. Constance;" " Biographie Uni- 
 versale;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Constance Chlore. See Constantius I. 
 
 Coustancio, kon-stan'se-o, (Francisco Solano,) a 
 Portuguese physician and writer on science, born at Lis- 
 bon in 1777. From 1820 to 1829 he was minister from 
 Portugal to the United States. Died in Paris in 1846. 
 
 Con'stana [Fr. Constant, k&N'st6.N'] I., (Fi.avius 
 Julius,) the third son of the emperor Constantine the 
 Great and Fausta, was born about 320 A.D. At the death 
 of his father, in 337, he inherited the sovereignty of Italy, 
 Africa, and Western Illyricum. His brother Constan- 
 tine, having invaded his dominions, was defeated and 
 killed in battle in 340, when the victor became master 
 of the whole Western Empire. He was indolent, weak, 
 and depraved. He favoured Athanasius, who had been 
 proscribed by the Arians. Magnentius having revolted 
 in Gaul, Constans fled towards Spain, but was overtaken 
 near the Pyrenees, and killed, in 350 A.D. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le 
 Beau, "Histoire du Bas- Empire." 
 
 Constans II., (Flavius Hf.raclius,) born at Con- 
 stantinople in 630 A.D., was the son of Constantine III., 
 Emperor of the East, whom he succeeded in 641. He 
 waged unsuccessful war against the Saracens, who con- 
 quered Egypt and Rhodes from him. He favoured the 
 Monothelites, and issued an edict which prohibited the 
 discussion of religious questions. In 655 he was signally 
 defeated by the Arabs at sea. His cruelty, avarice, etc. 
 rendered him generally detested. He was assassinated 
 at Syracuse in 668, and was succeeded by his son, Con- 
 stantine IV., (Pogonatus.) 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire :" Abooi.- 
 feua, " Annales ;" Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire." 
 
 Constant. See Constans. 
 
 Constant de Rebecque, k6N'st6N' deh reh-beV, 
 (Benjamin,) commonly called simply Bf.njamin Con- 
 stant, a French publicist, orator, and politician, was 
 born of French Protestant parents at Lausanne in 1767. 
 He was a fellow-student of Erskine and Mackintosh at 
 Edinburgh. In 1795 he entered Paris as a protege of 
 Madame de Stael, (of whom he was a life-lor.g admirer,) 
 and in 1799 became a member of the Tribunate. His 
 opposition to the First Consul resulted in his removal 
 and banishment in 1801. He visited several courts of 
 Europe during the ensuing years. In 1813 he composed 
 his celebrated pamphlet "On the Spirit of Conquest and 
 Usurpation," which procured him the favour of the allied 
 powers. As an editor of the "Journal des Debars," he 
 denounced Napoleon in 1S1 5, but was persuaded to 
 accept a place in his council during the Hundred Days. 
 After the second restoration he became a popular chief 
 of the opposition, and in 1S19 was chosen a deputy for 
 La Sarthe. He was one of the most powerful and witty 
 debaters of that period, and was for some time the leader 
 and moderator of the Liberal party. Just after the revo- 
 lution of 1830, in which he was not an actor, he was 
 appointed president of the council of state. He died in 
 Paris in December, 1830, leaving, besides many political 
 works, a featise "On Religion, considered in its Source, 
 its Forms and its Developments," (5 vols., 1823-31.) lie 
 ha I great facility in composition. His letters are models 
 of grace and finesse, but seem very deficient in heart. 
 He has been called a second Voltaire, and was reputed 
 the most brilliant converser among the men of his age. 
 Though a professor of the Protestant religion, he appears 
 to have been profoundly skeptical. 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Restoration:" Louis BLANC, 
 " Histoire de dix Ans;" Sainte-Beuvk, articles in the " Revue des 
 Deux Monde*" lor 1844 and 1845 ; Di Cormknin, " Le Livre des 
 Oratenrs:" J. Pharaon, "Notice sur B. Constant," 1830; Louis de 
 Lomenie, " B. Constant," 1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Constant de Rebecque, (David,) great-grandfather 
 of Benjamin Constant, was born in 1638. He was a 
 Protestant minister, and lived in Geneva and Lausanne. 
 He wrote an " Epitome of Politics," and edited some of 
 the works of Cicero, Florus, and Erasmus. Died in 1 733. 
 
 Constant-Prevost. See Prevost. 
 
 Constantia, kon-sian'she-a, (Fi.avia Valeria,) a 
 half-sister of Constantine the Great, born about 300 a. I)., 
 was married in 313 to the emperor Licinius. The mu- 
 tual attachment between her and Constantine appears 
 to have continued even after Licinius was killed by his 
 order. She used her influence in favour of the Arian 
 creed. Died about 330. 
 
 Constantin. See Constantine. 
 
 Constantin, k6N'stdN'taN', (Abraham,) a skilful 
 Swiss painter on porcelain, born at Geneva in 1785, 
 worked in Paris. He copied some pictures of Raphael 
 on porcelain. 
 
 Constantin, koN'stoN'ta.N', (Robert,) a French scho- 
 lar and eminent linguist, born at Caen. He graduated 
 as a physician in 1564, and practised at Montauban. For 
 the sake of religious freedom he retired to Germany, 
 where he died in 1605. He had compiled a " Lexicon 
 Graeco-Latinum," (1562,) which was highly esteemed. 
 
 See NtcERON, "Memoires." 
 
 Con'stan-tine, [Lat. Constanti'nus ; Gr. Kuvaruv- 
 twoc ; Fr. Constantin, k6N'st6.N'taN' ; Ger. Constan- 
 tin, kon-stan-teen'; It. Constantino, kon-stan-tee'no; 
 Dutch, Konstantijn, kon-stan-tin',] (Flavius Vale- 
 rius Aurelius,) surnamed the Great, the first Chris- 
 tian emperor of Rome, born in 272 A.D., was the son of 
 the emperor Constantius Chlorus and his wife Helena. 
 Before his accession, his talents, courage, and martial ser- 
 vices had rendered him a favourite of the army, and an 
 object of jealousy to Galerius, one of the two emperors 
 then reigning. He was at York when his father died 
 there, in July, 306, and was proclaimed emperor by the 
 legions under his command. Galerius accorded to him 
 only the title of Caesar, and conferred the rank of Au- 
 gustus on his own son, Severus. At Rome, Maxentius 
 and his father Maximim, in the absence of Galerius, 
 raised a successful revolt, (307,) after which six emperors 
 and Caesars at one time ruled the provinces of Rome. 
 About 307 Constantine married Fausta, daughter of 
 Maximian ; but a war soon ensued between these em- 
 perors, and Maximian, having been defeated, was put to 
 death in 309. Galerius died in 311, after which Licinius 
 and Maximin remained masters of the provinces east of 
 Italv. In 312, Constantine, who reigned in Gaul, marched 
 against Maxentius, who was defeated and killed near 
 Rome in that year. About this time, according to tra- 
 dition, he was converted to Christianity by a miraculous 
 vision, in which he saw in the heavens the sign of a cross, 
 with this inscription, "Thou shalt conquer by *.his sign," 
 (" In hoc signo vinces.") 
 
 Having obtained undisputed supremacy over the West, 
 including Italy and Africa, he began to favour more 
 openly the Christians, and displayed wisdom in the 
 promotion of order and prosperity among his subjects. 
 In 314 he fought in Thrace an indecisive battle against 
 Licinius, his only remaining rival, and then made a 
 peace, which lasted nine years. During this period he 
 was employed in political reforms, and adopted a more 
 humane code of laws, by which Christianity was recog- 
 nized as the religion of the state, but the pagan worship 
 was still tolerated. 
 
 In 323 he gained a complete victory over Licinius 
 near Adrianople, and another opposite Byzantium, after 
 which he was the sole emperor. He assembled at Nicaea 
 in 325 the first general council, in which Arianism was 
 condemned and a famous Catholic creed was adopted. 
 In the next year he was guilty of an act which has left 
 a deep stain on his memory, the execution of his eldest 
 son, Crispus, falsely accused of a crime by Fausta, who 
 was his step-mother. About 328 he transferred his court 
 to Byzantium, which he enlarged, and the name of which 
 he changed to Constantinople, — "City of Constantine." 
 The duration of the Eastern Empire so many centuries 
 after the fall of the Western seems to approve the wisdom 
 of his policy in this affair. A few years before hi* death 
 he favoured the Arians, and recalled some banished 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (2^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 4 2 
 
CONSTANTINE 
 
 658 
 
 CONSTANTINE 
 
 bishops of that party. He died at Nicomedia 111337 A.D., 
 having divided the empire between his three sons, Con- 
 stantine, Constantius, and Constans. His character is 
 variously estimated ; but it is admitted that he had many 
 of the qualities of a great statesman and general. He 
 was far from being a saint, and in the opinion of Niebuhr 
 was not even a Christian, though he permitted himself 
 to be baptized just before his death. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Euse- 
 BIUS, "Vita Constantini ;" Vogt, "Historia Constantini Magni," 
 1720; Tii.i.k.mont, "Histoire des Empereurs ;" Joseph Fletcher, 
 "Life of Constantine the Great," 1S52 ; J. C. F. Manso, " Leben 
 Constantin's des Grossen," 1817; Jakob Burckhardt, "Die Zeit 
 Constantin's des Grossen," 1853. 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) II., (Flavius 
 Claudius,) a Roman emperor, the eldest surviving son 
 of the preceding, was born at Arelatum (now Aries) 
 in 312 a.d. In 335 he was intrusted with the adminis- 
 tration of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, and at the death of 
 his father, in 337, inherited the sovereignty of the same 
 provinces, with a part of Africa. Having invaded the 
 dominions of his brother Constans, he was defeated and 
 killed in battle near Aquileia in 340. He left no issue. 
 
 See Eusebius, "Vila Constantini;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall 
 of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) III., (Flavius 
 Heraclius,) called No'vus, Emperor of the East, born 
 in 612 A.D., was the son of the emperor Heraclius and 
 Eudoxia. At the death of his father, in 641, he became a 
 partner in the empire with his half-brother Heracleonas. 
 After a reign of three months, he died, or was poisoned 
 by Martina, his step-mother. He left a son, Constans II. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) IV., surnamed 
 Pogona'tus, a Roman emperor of the East, succeeded 
 his father, Constans II., in 668 a.d. A powerful Arabian 
 fleet in 672 blockaded Constantinople, his capital, which 
 was defended by the Greek fire newly invented. After 
 fighting several years, the Arabs purchased peace by the 
 payment of an annual tribute. In 680 he assembled a 
 council at Constantinople, by which the Monothelites 
 were condemned. He died in 685, and left the throne to 
 his son, Justinian II. 
 
 See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas- Empire." 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) V., surnamed Co- 
 PRON'ymus, [6 Kon-puvu^oc,] Emperor of the East, born 
 in 719 A.D., was the son of Leo III., (Isaurus,) whom he 
 succeeded in 741. In 743 he defeated Artavasdes, who 
 had rebelled and had made himself master of the capital. 
 He was a zealous iconoclast and a persecutor of the 
 orthodox. In 754 he assembled a council which con- 
 demned the worship of images. He appears to have 
 been unprincipled and superstitious. He died in 775, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Leo IV. 
 
 See Cedrbnus, "Compendium;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of 
 the Roman Empire." 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) VI., (Flavius,) 
 born in 771 A.D., was the son of Leo IV. At the 
 death of his father, in 780, he became emperor at Con- 
 stantinople, under the regency of his mother, the am- 
 bitious Irene. (See Irene.) A council held at Nicaea in 
 787 restored the worship of images. After the end of 
 his minority, Irene, who still wished to rule, was kept 
 in confinement. In 797 she conspired against him with 
 success, and injuries were inflicted on him which caused 
 his death. Irene then became his successor. 
 
 See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire." 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) VH., Emperor of 
 the East, surnamed Porphyrogen'itus, [Gr. 6 Uop<pvpo- 
 yevvijTog, i.e. "Horn in Purple, "J the son of the emperor 
 Leo VI., was born in 905 a.d. His father died in 911, 
 soon after which Romanus Lecapenus usurped the gov- 
 ernment and ruled as emperor until 944. The popular 
 favour then restored Constantine, who in his long se- 
 clusion from public life had cultivated learning and 
 science with success. He gained the affection of his sub- 
 jects by his humanity and love of justice, and composed 
 several valuable works, among which is a " Treatise on 
 the Government of the Empire." He was poisoned 
 in 959 by his son and successor, Romanus II. 
 
 See Leichius, " De Vita et Rebus gestis Constantini I'orphyro- 
 geniti," 1746; Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grseca." 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) VIII was the son 
 of Romanus Lecapenus the usurper. He and his brother 
 Stephen reigned a few months between the deposition 
 of Romanus Lecapenus and the restoration of Constan- 
 tine VII., 944 a.d. Died about 946. 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) IX., Emperor of 
 the East, born in 961 \.D., was the second son of Ro- 
 manus II. In 976 his brother Basil II. and he were 
 proclaimed emperors. He took no part in the affairs of 
 state until the death of Basil, in 1025. His reign was 
 disgraced by cruelty and other vices. He died in 1028, 
 without male heir, and was succeeded by Romanus 
 Argyrus. 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) X., surnamed Mo- 
 nom'achus, [o Movo/uixos,] became Emperor of the East 
 in 1042 by marriage with Zoe, the daughter of Constan- 
 tine IX. His surname was given on account of his 
 courage in war. A memorable event of his reign was 
 the schism between the Greek and Roman Churches, 
 which began in 1054 and has continued to the present 
 time. Hied, without issue, in 1054. 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) XI., surnamed 
 Du'cas, [Gr. i Aoi'/tac,] Emperor of the East, was chosen 
 as his successor by Isaac Comnenus, who abdicated in 
 1059 a.d. He had obtained a high reputation as a gen- 
 eral, but proved rather incompetent as a ruler. He died 
 in 1067, leaving three minor sons, Michael, Androni'cus, 
 and Constantine ; but Romanus Diogenes was his suc- 
 cessor. The youngest of the three sons was styled 
 Constantine XII., about 107 1; but his reign was only 
 nominal. 
 
 Constantine (or Constantinus) XIII., surnamed 
 PaL/Eologus, (pa-le-ol'o-gus,) the last Emperor of Con- 
 stantinople, was the fourth son of Manuel II., and was 
 born in 1394. He succeeded his brother, John VII., in 
 1448. By the encroachments of the Turks the empire 
 had been reduced within a very small compass. In 1453 
 Mahomet II. besieged the capital with 250,000 men, 
 and, after an obstinate contest of several weeks, took it 
 by storm. Constantine was killed in the fight just as 
 the Turks entered the walls. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Von 
 Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Constantine, (or Constantinus,) surnamed the 
 African, was a native of Carthage, and was one of the 
 most learned men of his time. He studied at Babylon, 
 visited India, and afterwards lived at Salerno. He pub- 
 lished works on medicine and other sciences, and trans- 
 lated into Latin some of the best Greek and Arabic books. 
 Died in 1087. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Constantine, (or Constantinus,) Pope, a native of 
 Syria, succeeded Sisinnius in 708 A.D. He is said to 
 have approved the worship of images, in opposition to 
 the Patriarch of Constantinople. He died in 714, and 
 was succeeded by Gregory II. 
 
 Con'stan-tine, (Nikoi.aevitch,) Grand Duke of 
 Russia, the second son of the emperor Nicholas, was 
 born September 21, 1827. During his childhood he re- 
 ceived the title of Grand Admiral of the Fleet. Under 
 the instructions of Admiral Ltitke, he acquired great 
 proficiency in naval science. His talents and disposition 
 rendered him a favourite, especially with the old Russian 
 party. He married the Princess Alexandra of Saxe- 
 Altenburg in 1848. He was a strenuous supporter of 
 the late war against France and England, and commanded 
 the fleet in the Baltic in 1854-55. By his cautious de- 
 fensive operations he prevented the British from gaining 
 any decisive victories over his fleet. He was appointed 
 Viceroy of Poland in the spring of 1862. 
 
 Constantine, (Pavlovitch,) Grand Duke, the 
 second son of the emperor Paul of Russia, was born a' 
 Saint Petersburg in 1779. In 1796 he married Juliana, 
 Princess of Saxe-Coburg, an aunt of Queen Victoria. 
 His martial conduct was applauded at Austerlitz, (1805,) 
 where he commanded a corps. In several ensuing cam- 
 paigns he maintained his reputation for courage. He 
 was appointed generalissimo of Poland in 1814. In 1820, 
 having obtained a divorce from his first wife, he married a 
 Polish lady named Grudzinska, by which he appears to 
 have injured his prospects or forfeited his claim as heir- 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
COKSTANTINE 
 
 659 
 
 CONTESSA 
 
 presumptive to the throne. At the death of Alexander 
 without issue in 1S25, Constantine renounced his right in 
 favour of his younger brother Nicholas, who had offered 
 to acknowledge him as Czar. He became Viceroy of 
 Poland, where his tyranny provoked a revolt in 1830. 
 In the war which ensued he acted an inferior part, and 
 died of cholera in 1831. 
 
 See Harro Harring, "Der Grossftirst Constantin wie er war," 
 .83... 
 
 Constantine Manasses. See Manassks. 
 
 Constantino, the Italian of Constantine, which 
 see. 
 
 Constantino, kon-stan-tee'no, (Manoel,) a Portu- 
 guese historian, born at Funchal, in Madeira, became 
 professor of theology in Rome, and wrote a "History 
 of the Kings of Portugal," (1601.) Died in 1614. 
 
 Constantiiius, the Latin of Constan tine, which see. 
 
 Con-stan-ti'nus, a Greek or Roman jurist, was one 
 of those whom Justinian selected, in 528 a.d., to frame 
 the tirst Code. 
 
 Coustantinus, (Julius Celsus,) the author of a well- 
 written commentary on the " Life of Caesar," which first 
 appeared as an appendage to " Caesar's Commentaries" 
 in 1473. Walckenaer has endeavoured to prove that he 
 wrote in the tenth century and lived in Constantinople. 
 
 Cou-stan'tl-us (kon-stan'shg-iis) X, commonly called 
 Constantius -ehlo'rus, [Fr. Constance Chloke, 
 koN'stoNs' kloR.j (Flavius Valerius,) a Roman em- 
 peror, born about 250 A.D., was the son of Eutropius, 
 and father of Constantine the Great. In 292, Diocle- 
 tian and Maximian, in order to divide the labours of the 
 administration, chose Galerius and Constantius, each of 
 whom received the title of Caesar. Gaul, Spain, and 
 Britain were allotted to the latter, who was required to 
 repudiate Helena and marry Theodora, the daughter 
 of Maximian. He became emperor in 305, on the ab- 
 dication of Diocletian, and died at York in 306, leaving 
 the reputation of a just and humane ruler. His son 
 Constantine was his successor. 
 
 See Eutropius; Aurelius Victor, "Csesares." 
 
 Constantius [Fr. Constance, k6N'stdNs'] H., (Fla- 
 vius Julius,) the third son of Constantine I., Emperor 
 of Rome, was born at Sirmium in 317 A.D. By his father's 
 will he inherited the Asiatic provinces and Egypt in 337. 
 It is said that he ordered or permitted the massacre of 
 his father's nephews, brother, etc. at the time of his ac- 
 cession. During nearly all his reign he was at war with 
 the Persians, by whom he was often defeated. In 350 
 the revolt of Magnentius resulted in the death of Con- 
 stans, Emperor of the West. Constantius turned his 
 arms against Magnentius, whom he defeated at Mursa, on 
 the Drave, in 351, and in Gaul in 353, after which he was 
 master of the whole empire. In 355 he appointed his 
 cousin Julian, Caesar and commander in Gaul, and in 
 357 visited Rome for the first time. He favoured the 
 Arians, and banished the orthodox bishops. Julian 
 having been proclaimed emperor by his army in Gaul, 
 Constantius was marching to attack him, when he died 
 near Tarsus in 361, and was succeeded by Julian. His 
 reputation is not high either for talents or for virtue. 
 
 See Eusebius, " Vita Constantii :" Tiixemont, "Histoire des 
 Empereurs ;" Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Constantius III., Emperor of the West, a native of 
 Illyria. His merit had raised him to the rank of gen- 
 eral in 411 A.D. He married Placidia, sister of Hono- 
 rius, who in 421 gave him the title of Augustus and 
 received him as a partner in the empire. He died in 
 421, leaving a son, who became Valentinian IH. 
 
 See Tillkmont, "Histoire des Empereurs;" Le Beau, "His- 
 toire du lias- Empire." 
 
 Constanzo, (Angei.o.) See Costanzo, di. 
 
 Contades.de, deh k6N'tid',( Louis George Erasiue,) 
 Marquis, born in 1704, became a marshal in 1758, and 
 commanded in Germany, where he took several fortified 
 towns, but was defeated at Minden in 1759, and was soon 
 recalled. Died in 1795. 
 
 See De Courceli.es, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais." 
 
 Contamine, deh, deh kiN'ti'men', (Theodore,) Vi- 
 comte, a French general, born at Givet (Ardennes) in 
 1773. He took part in the battle of Trafalgar, (1805.) 
 Died in 1845. 
 
 Contant, k6N't&N', (Paul,) a French botanist and 
 poet, born about 1570, established a botanic garden a 
 Poitiers. He described the plants and animals which 
 he had collected, in a poem called "Jardin et Cabinet 
 put'-iique," (1609.) Died in 1632. 
 
 Contant d'lvry, koN'toN'dev're', (Pierre,) an emi- 
 nent French architect, born at Ivry-sur Seine in 1698, 
 studied design under Watteau. He designed the church 
 of Condi in Flanders, that of Saint- Waast at Arras, and 
 the greater part of the Palais Royal of Paris. His plans 
 for the church of the Madeleine were adopted ; but he 
 died before it was finished, in 1777. 
 
 Contant d'Orville, koN'f&rr' doR'vel', (Andre Guil- 
 I.AtiMI".,) a French litterateur, bom in Para about 1730. 
 He published an " Account of the Different Nations, "etc, 
 (6 vols., 1772,) and other works. Died about 1800. 
 
 Contarini, kon-ta-ree'nee, a noble family of Venice, 
 which has produced many doges, senators, etc. Do- 
 mkmco was doge from 1043 to 1071. Giacomo was doge 
 from 1275 to 1280. Andrea Contarini was chosen to 
 that office in 1367. About 1380 the Genoese, having 
 taken Chiozza, threatened the existence of the Venetian 
 state, which Contarini saved in that year by a decisive 
 victory. He died in 1382, aged about eighty. Domenico 
 II. became doge in 1659, when the republic was at war 
 with the Turks for the possession of Candia. The cele- 
 brated siege of Candia ended in the capitulation of the 
 Venetians in 1667, after the Turks had lost 100,000 men. 
 Died in 1674. 
 
 See Daru, " Histoire de Venise ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Re^ 
 pubiiques italiennes." 
 
 Contarini, (Ambrogio,) a Venetian senator and tra- 
 veller, was sent in 1473 as ambassador to the King of 
 Persia. Passing through Poland, Russia, etc., he found 
 the king at Ispahan and made a treaty with him. Having 
 returned to Venice in 1477, he published a curious jour- 
 nal of his mission. 
 
 Contarini, (Gasparo,) Cardinal, born of a noble 
 family at Venice in 1483. He was employed as nego- 
 tiator in important missions, and was made a cardinal 
 in 1535. He wrote treatises on the "Immortality of the 
 Soul," and other works. Died in 1542. 
 
 See Daru, "Histoire de Venise;" L. Beccatelli, "Vita de 
 Cardinale G. Contarini," 1746. 
 
 Contarini, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter of history 
 and portraits, born at Venice in 1549, was an imitator 
 of Titian. He excelled in the adornment of arches 
 and ceilings. He worked in Germany for the emperor 
 Rodolph II. Died in 1605. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Contarini, (Vincenzo,) born at Venice in 1577, be- 
 came professor of eloquence at Padua at the age of 
 twenty-six He published a volume of "Various Read- 
 ings of Classic Authors," and a few other works. Died 
 in 1617. 
 
 Contat, k6N'ta", (IxnnsE,) a popular French actress, 
 born in Paris in 1760; died in 1813. 
 
 Conte. See Leconte. 
 
 Conte, kd.N'ta', (Nicolas Jacques,) a French painter, 
 chemist, and mechanician, born in Normandy in 1755. 
 In 1798 he followed the French army to Egypt, where 
 he rendered great services, as artist and savant, in the 
 invention or fabrication of arms, tools, machines, etc. 
 Having returned to France, he was selected to direct 
 the execution of the great work on Egypt published by 
 the Egyptian Commission. He invented a machine 
 by which he engraved with surprising facility. Died 
 in 1803. 
 
 See E. F. Jomard, "Vie, Travaux et Services de N. J. Conlrf," 
 1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Conte, del, del kon'ta, (Jacopino,) a skilful portrait- 
 painter, born at Florence in 1502, worked in Rome, where 
 he painted several popes and princes. Died in 1598. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Contessa, kon-tes'sS, (Kaki. Wii.iifi.m Sai.ice,) a 
 German novelist, born at Hirschberg in 1777, wrote, 
 besides other novels, "The Talisman," (1810.) Died 
 in 1825. 
 
 His brother Christian, born in 1767, was the author 
 of several tales and dramas in verse. He died in Berlin 
 in 1825. 
 
 < as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J[^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CONTI 
 
 660 
 
 COOK 
 
 Conti, kon'tee, (Antonio Schinella,) Abbe, an 
 Italian poet and philosopher, born at Padua in 1677, 
 removed to Venice in 1699, and became a priest. In 1715 
 he was admitted, through the influence of Newton, into 
 the Royal Society of London. He studied sciences and 
 philosophy in Paris for several years. He was one of the 
 Italian authors who contributed most to impress a phi- 
 losophic character on the literature of his country. In 
 1739 he published the first volume of his works, which 
 were designed to form a grand treatise on the Beautiful, 
 conformed to the doctrine of Plato. It comprised a 
 philosophic poem, entitled "The Sphere of Venus," (" II 
 Globo di Venere.") Died at Padua in 1749. 
 
 See Mazzuchelli, " Biografia degli Uomini illustri ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Conti, (Giovanni Francesco,) sometimes called, in 
 Latin, Quintia'nus Sto'a, an Italian author, born at 
 Quinzano, near Brescia, in i486. He wrote many and 
 "arious works. Died in 1557. 
 
 See Cossando, "Vitae Quintiaiii Stose," 1694; Nicsron, "MiS- 
 moires. " 
 
 Conti, (M. Antonio.) See Majoragio. 
 
 Conti, [Lat. De Comit'ibus,] (NiccoiA) an Italian 
 traveller, born in Venice, travelled twenty-five years, 
 between 1419 and 1444, in India, China, and the Asiatic 
 islands. The narrative of his travels in Ramusio's col- 
 lection is commended. 
 
 Conti, (Noel,) [Lat. Nata'lis Co'mes,] a learned 
 Italian writer, born at Milan, lived in Venice. He was 
 the author of Latin odes and epigrams, a "Treatise on 
 Mythology," and a general history of his own time. 
 Died about 1582. 
 
 Conti, de, deli k6N'te', ( Armand de Bourbon— deh 
 booR'bd.N',) Prince, a brother of the great Conde, was 
 born in Paris in 1629. In the frivolous civil war of the 
 Fronde he commanded an army in opposition to Conde. 
 He married a niece of Cardinal Mazarin. In 1654 he 
 commanded in Guienne, and took two towns from the 
 Spaniards. He wrote a tract against stage-plays. " He 
 ought rather," says Voltaire, "to have written against 
 civil wars." Died in 1666. 
 
 See Cardinal de Retz, "M^inoires;" La Rochefoucauld, 
 " M^inoires." 
 
 Conti, de, (Francois Louis de Bourbon,) Prince, 
 a French general, son of the preceding, was born in Paris 
 in 1664. He became so renowned for his courage and his 
 admirable personal and mental endowments that he was 
 elected King of Poland in 1697 ; but Augustus of Saxony, 
 chosen by another party, obtained possession. He dis- 
 tinguished himself at Steenkerke in 1698. In consequence 
 of the jealousy or prejudice of the king, he did not obtain 
 command of an army until 1709. He died in the same 
 year, as he was about to open the campaign in Flanders. 
 Saint-Simon, who is sparing of praise, represents him 
 as "the delight of the world and the court, the idol of 
 the soldiers, and the hero of the officers." 
 
 See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XI V ;" Saint-Simon, " M6- 
 raoires ;" "Journal de Dangeau." 
 
 Conti, de, (Louise Marguerite de Lorraine — deh 
 lo'rjn',) Princess, a French lady, distinguished for her 
 wit and talents, born in 1577. She was a daughter of 
 Henry, Duke of Guise, and became the wife of a Prince 
 of Conti, after whose death (1614) she was married se- 
 cretly to Marshal Bassompierre. She wrote a " History 
 of the Amours of Henry IV." Died in 163 1. 
 
 See Bassompierre, " Journal :" Tallemant des Reaux, " His- 
 to-iettes de la Princesse de Conti." 
 
 Conti, de', da kon'tee, (Giusto,) an Italian poet and 
 orator, surnamed DA Val Montone, (da val mon-to'na,) 
 from the place of his birth, near Rome, is considered one 
 of the most faithful imitators of Petrarch. Died in 1449. 
 A volume of his poems, entitled "The Beautiful Hand," 
 (" Labella Mano,") in honour of the beautiful hand of the 
 lady whose praises the poet sang, was published in 1472. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire Litte>aire d'ltalie." 
 
 Contile, kon-tee'la, (Luca,) an Italian writer, born 
 at Cetone, near Sienna, in 1506. He published a volume 
 of poems, ("Rime," 1560,) several comedies in prose, 
 and other works. Died in 1574. 
 
 Contreras, de, da kon-tRa'ras, (Hif.ronimo,) a Span- 
 ish poet and novelist, born in Andalusia, lived about 
 
 1600. He was appointed historiographer by Philip IL 
 Among his works is "Selva de Aventuras." 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Contri, kon'tRee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter of 
 landscapes and flowers, born at Ferrara about 1680, 
 settled at Cremona. He is the reputed inventor of the 
 art of transferring frescos to canvas. Died in 1732. 
 
 Contucci, kon-toot'chee, (Andrea,) called also San- 
 sovino, (san-so-vee'no,) an eminent Italian sculptor and 
 architect, born at Sansovino, in Tuscany, in 1460. He 
 worked at Florence and Rome, and became one of the 
 first sculptors of his age. His figures of the Virgin and 
 Child, in Rome, were much admired. He built a palace 
 for the King of Portugal, and other edifices. Died in 1529. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters, Sculptors," etc. 
 
 Con'way, (Henry Seymour,) Field-Marshal, an 
 English general and statesman, second son of the first 
 Lord Conway, was born in 1720. He was aide-de-camp 
 to the Duke of Cumberland at Culloden in 1746. As 
 lieutenant-general, he commanded in Germany in 1761. 
 From 1765 to 1768 he was secretary of state in the Whig 
 cabinet. In 1782 he became commander-in-chief of the 
 army, and made in Parliament a motion to terminate 
 hostilities against the United States, in allusion to which 
 Burke remarked, "All England, all America, joined in his 
 applause." " He was," says Macaulay, " versed in the 
 learning of his profession, and personally courageous, 
 but wanted vigour and capacity." Died in 1795. Mrs. 
 Darner the artist was his only child. His state papers 
 have been published. 
 
 Con'way, (Thomas,) a native of Ireland, removed in 
 1777 to America, and served a short time in the repub- 
 lican army. He was a partisan of General Gates, and a 
 secret enemy of Washington. 
 
 Conybeare, kiin'e-bair, (John,) an eminent English 
 theologian, bom near Exeter in 1692. He became Dean 
 of Christ Church in 1732, and Bishop of Bristol in 1750. 
 He published an admired " Defence of Revealed Reli- 
 gion," in answer to Tindal, and a number of sermons, 
 which had a high reputation. Died in 1755. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Conybeare, (John Josias,) an English antiquary 
 and clergyman, born in London in 1779. He obtained 
 the professorship of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford in 1807, and 
 that of poetry in 1812. He was a canon in the cathe- 
 dral of York. He published "Illustrations of Anglo- 
 Saxon Poetry," and other learned works. Died in 1824. 
 
 Conybeare, (Rev. William Daniel,) Dean of Llan- 
 daff, a distinguished English geologist and divine, born 
 near London in 1787. He graduated at Oxford in 181 1, 
 and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1S19. 
 He discovered the Plesiosaurus, an antediluvian mon- 
 ster, and rendered important services to the science of 
 geology by his writings on the coal-fields and other strata 
 of Britain. He published, in conjunction with W. Phil- 
 lips, "Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales." 
 In 1839 he preached the Bampton Lectures. He was 
 appointed Dean of Llandaff in 1845. Died in 1857. 
 
 Conybeare, (Rev. W. J.,) a son of the preceding, 
 was a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and prin- 
 cipal of the Collegiate Institution, Liverpool. In 1850- 
 54 he and J. S. Howson produced the " Life and Epistles 
 of Saint Paul," which is highly esteemed. He is said to 
 have translated nearly all the Epistles in this book. He 
 also published some Essays, and Sermons preached in 
 the Chapel Royal, Whitehall, in 1844. Died in 1857. 
 
 See " North British Review" for February, 1854. 
 
 Conz or Konz, konts, (Karl Piiilipp,) a German 
 poet, born in Wiirtemberg in 1762, was professor at Tu- 
 bingen. Among his works is "Conradin," a tragedy. 
 Died in 1827. 
 
 Cooghen or Kooghen, van der, vin der kS'iren, 
 (I.Kos'AKi),) a Dutch painter and engraver, born at Haar- 
 lem in 1610: died in 1681. 
 
 Cook, kook, (Charles,) a British missionary in France 
 who laboured with great zeal and success, and became 
 president of the French Weslevan Conference. Died 
 in 1858. 
 
 Cook, (ELIZA,) a popular English poetess, born in 
 Southward, London, in 181 7. At an early age she be- 
 came a contributor to the " New Monthly Magazine" and 
 
 5, e. T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, 11, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m hi; n8t; good; moon; 
 
COOK 
 
 66 1 
 
 COOKESLET 
 
 other periodicals. A volume of her poems and songs 
 published in 1840 was received with favour. In 1849 she 
 began to publish " Eliza Cook's Journal," which was con- 
 tinued several years. Among her popular productions 
 are "The Old Arm-Chair" and "Home in the Heart." 
 
 Cook, (George,) a Scottish historical writer and theo- 
 logian, born at Saint Andrew's about 1 780, published 
 a " History of the Reformation in Scotland," (3 vols., 
 181 1,) a " History of the Church of Scotland," (3 vols., 
 1S15,) and other works. Died in 1845. 
 
 Cook, (Captain James,) a celebrated English circum- 
 navigator, born of poor parents at Marton, Yorkshire, in 
 1728. He followed the sea, in the coal-trade, for several 
 Ware, and had attained the position of mate, when in 
 1755 he entered the royal navy as a volunteer. He served 
 as master of a sloop at the capture of Quebec by Wolfe 
 in 1759, and displayed great skill in the formation of a 
 chart of the river from Quebec to the sea. In 1764 he 
 was chosen marine surveyor of Newfoundland. Four 
 years later he was selected to command a vessel sent by 
 government to the South Pacific to observe the transit 
 of Venus and make discoveries in geography and other 
 sciences. He sailed in August, 1768, stopped at Tahiti 
 to observe the transit, explored the east coast of Aus- 
 tralia, and, returning by the Cape of Good Hope, reached 
 home in June, 1771, having performed his mission with 
 ability and success. In 1772 he was again sent, in the 
 Resolution and Adventure, to search for a Southern con- 
 tinent. He circumnavigated the globe in high southern 
 latitudes without finding the Terra Australis ; but he dis- 
 covered a large island, which he named New Caledonia. 
 The most southern point he reached was 71 , where his 
 progress was arrested by ice. He arrived at Portsmouth 
 in July, 1775, and published a Journal of his voyage, (2 
 vols., 1777,) which is a model of simplicity and precision. 
 He had given proof of remarkable courage, sagacity, and 
 nautical skill in this enterprise. In 1776 he was chosen 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, which gave him the Copley 
 Medal for his services in preserving the health of his crew. 
 He sailed the same year on a third voyage, in search of 
 a northern passage between the Atlantic and Pacific. In 
 1 778 he discovered the Sandwich Islands, explored Beh- 
 ring Strait, and advanced northward as far as the 70th 
 degree. He returned to winter in the Sandwich Islands. 
 One of the ship's boats having been stolen by the natives 
 of Hawaii, Captain Cook went ashore with a few of his 
 men to recover it. The violent resistance of the natives 
 caused him to retreat towards his boat ; and, after firing 
 in self-defence, he and four of his men were killed on the 
 shore, February 14, 1779. 
 
 See A. Kippis, "Life of Captain James Cook," 1788; George 
 Young. "Life and Voyages of Captain J. Cook," 1836; Hartley 
 Coleridge, " Lives of Distinguished Northerns," vol. iii. ; Van 
 Tknac, " Histoire ge'ne'rale* de la Marine;" J. H. Wieumann, 
 "Leben und Schicksale des Capitans J. Cook," 2 vols., 1789-90. 
 
 Cook, (John,) an American officer, born in Saint 
 Clair county, Illinois, in 1825. He commanded a brigade 
 at Fort Donelson, and became a brigadier-general in 1862. 
 
 Cooke, kook, (Sir Anthony,) an English scholar, 
 grandfather of Lord Bacon, born about 1506, was emi- 
 nent for learning and virtue. He was appointed tutor 
 of Edward VI. As a Protestant, he was exiled during 
 the reign of Mary, and returned home about 1558. Died 
 in 1576. His daughters were noted for their classical 
 acquirements. Mildred was married to Lord Burleigh, 
 Anne to Sir Nicholas Bacon, the father of Lord Bacon, 
 and Elizabeth to the son of the Earl of Bedford. 
 
 Cooke, (lii.NiAMiN,) an English musical composer 
 and organist, born in London in 1739, was a pupil of 
 Pepusch. From 1752 to 1789 he was conductor of the 
 Academy of Ancient Music. In 1762 he was appointed 
 organist of Westminster Abbey. He composed antliems 
 and other admired pieces of sacred music, and several 
 popular glees, among which are " How Sleep the Brave," 
 " In the Merry Month of May," etc. Died in 1793. 
 
 Cooke, (Elizabeth.) See Russrxi., Lady. 
 
 Cooke, (GEORGE,) a skilful English engraver, born 
 in London in 1781. He engraved numerous landscapes 
 and scenes on the coast of England, and in partnership 
 with his brother, William B., published several illustrated 
 works, among which is " The Southern Coast of Eng 
 land." Died in 1834. 
 
 Cooke, (Sir George,) a British officer, born in 1767, 
 served in the Peninsula in 181 1, 1812, and 1813, and 
 became a major-general. He commanded a division of 
 the Guards at Waterloo, where he lost his right arm. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Cooke, (George Frederick,) a popular English 
 actor, was born in Westminster in 1 755. He made his 
 debut At the Haymarket, in London, in 1778, soon after 
 which he went to Dublin, where he performed with great 
 success for many years. In 1800 he returned to London, 
 and acted Richard III., Iago, etc. with great applause. 
 For several years Cooke and J. Kemble were the chief 
 favourites of the London stage. In 1810 he crossed the 
 ocean to New York, where he died in 1812. His death 
 was hastened by intemperance. 
 
 See "Memoirs of the Life of George Frederick Cooke," by Wil- 
 liam Dunlap, 1813. 
 
 Cooke, (George Wingrove,) a British lawyer and 
 writer, born in 1814, edited a "Life of Lord Shaftes- 
 bury," (1836,) and wrote " Memoirs of Lord Bolingbroke," 
 (2 vols., 1835,) a " History of Party," (2d edition, 1840,) 
 which is commended, and several legal treatises, (1844- 
 52.) After a visit to China in 1857, he published " China 
 and Lower Bengal." Died in 1865. 
 
 Cooke or Cook, (Henry,) an English painter, born 
 in 1642, was a pupil of Salvator Rosa. He was em- 
 ployed by the king to restore the cartoons of Raphael. 
 Died in 1700. 
 
 See Walpole, " Anecdotes of Painting in England." 
 
 Cooke, kook, (John Esten,) a novelist and lawyer, 
 son of John Rodgers Cooke, noticed below, was born 
 at Winchester, Virginia, in 1830. He contributed to 
 several periodicals, and published, besides other works, 
 "Leather Stocking and Silk," (1854,) "The Virginia 
 Comedians," (1854,) and "The Last of the Foresters," 
 (1856.) 
 
 Cooke, (John Rodgers,) an American lawyer, born 
 in Bermuda in 1788. He practised with distinction in 
 Virginia for many years. In 1829 he was associated 
 with John Marshall and Ex-President Madison in the 
 committee which drafted the Constitution of Virginia. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Cooke, (Philip Pendleton,) an American poet, son 
 of the preceding, was born at Martinsburg, Virginia, 
 in 1816. He graduated at Princeton, New Jersey, and 
 studied law. He wrote, besides other poems, " Florence 
 Vane," "Rosa Lee," and "Chevalier Merlin." He con- 
 tributed to the "Southern Literary Messenger." Died 
 in 1850. 
 
 Cooke, (Philip Saint George,) an officer, a brother 
 of John Rodgers, noticed above, was born in Virginia 
 in 1809. He defeated the Comanches in New Mexico 
 in 1855, and had a high command in Kansas about 
 1857. He afterwards served in the expedition against 
 the Mormons. 
 
 Cooke, (Thomas,) an English poet, born at Braintree 
 about 1705. He composed the "Battle of the Poets," a 
 poem, and translated Hesiod and Plautus. Pope, whom 
 he had offended in his writings, avenged himself on him 
 in the " Dunciad." Died in 1756. 
 
 See J. Mawbey, " Life of Thomas Cooke." 
 
 Cooke, (William,) a poet of considerable merit, born 
 at Cork, became a resident of London and adopted the 
 profession of author. His poem entitled the "Art of 
 Living in London" was received with favour, and was 
 followed by a prose "Essay on the Elements of Dra- 
 matic Criticism." In 1796 he produced an admired 
 didactic poem, entitled "Conversation," which is his 
 principal work. Died in 1824. 
 
 Cooke, (William,) an eminent English lawyer and 
 writer on law, born in London in 1757. About 1786 he 
 published a "System of Bankrupt Laws," which was 
 long the standard upon the subject, but is now obsolete. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 Cooke, (William Fothergill,) an Englishman, 
 born in Middlesex in 1806, was a partner of Professor 
 Wheatstone, and constructed the first magnetic tele- 
 graph in England, in 1838-39. 
 
 Cookesley, kooks'le, (Rev. William Gifford,) an 
 English classical scholar, born in Kent in 1802. He 
 edited Pindar, (1842-49,) and published some essays. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Ey*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
COO KM AN 
 
 66 z 
 
 COOPER 
 
 Cookinan, kook'man, (George G.,) an eloquent 
 Methodist divine, born in Kingston-upon-Hull, England, 
 in 1800, came to America in 1821. He was twice elected 
 chaplain to Congress. In March, 1841, he embarked for 
 Europe in the ocean-steamer President, which was never 
 afterwards heard of. 
 
 Cookson, kook'son, (George,) an English general, 
 born in Hampshire in 1760. He directed the artillery 
 at the siege of Aboukir about 1798, and took part in 
 the Walcheren expedition in 1809. In 1830 he was pro- 
 moted to the rank of lieutenant-general. Died in 1835. 
 
 Coo'ley, (Thomas,) an Irish architect, born in 1740. 
 He designed the Royal Exchange of Dublin, one of the 
 noblest edifices of that city, erected about 1770. He was 
 the first architect of the " Four Courts," which he did 
 not live to finish. Died in 1784. 
 
 Coolhaas, kSl'hiss, (Caspar,) a German Protestant 
 theologian, born at Cologne in 1536 ; died in 161 5. 
 
 Coomans, ko'mans or ko'mfi.N , (Jean Baptists Ni- 
 colas,) a Belgian writer, born at Brussels in 1813. He 
 edited the "Journal of Brussels" from 1841 to 1845, and 
 the "Courier of Antwerp" from 1845 to 1848. He pub- 
 lished a "History of Belgium," (1836,) and other works. 
 
 His brother, Pierre Olivier Joseph, born in 1816, 
 gained distinction as a painter of history, genre, etc. 
 
 Coornbe, koom, (William,) an ingenious English 
 writer, born at Bristol in 1741. Having spent a hand- 
 some fortune in fashionable dissipation, he was reduced 
 to the necessity of writing for t a subsistence. He excelled 
 in humour and satire, and published several successful 
 works, namely, "The Diaboliad," a poem, "The Dance 
 of Life," "Tour of Dr. Syntax in Search of the Pictu- 
 resque," and " Tour of Dr. Syntax jn Search of a Wife." 
 The last two are in verse. Died in 1822. 
 
 See R. Hawker, "Life of William Coonibe," 1802. 
 
 Cooninxloo, de, deh ko'ninks-lo', written also Co- 
 nigsloo and Coningsloo, (Gili.es,) an eminent Flemish 
 landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in 1544. After work- 
 ing some years in Paris, he settled in Antwerp, and was 
 patronizecl by the King of Spain and the emperor. " 1 le 
 was," says the "Biographie Universelle," "the greatest 
 landscape-painter of his time." 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Cooper, (Anthony Ashley.) See Shaftesbury, 
 Earl of. 
 
 Coo'per, (Sir Astley Paston,) a celebrated English 
 surgeon, was born at Brooke, in Norfolk, in 1768. He 
 went in 1784 to London, where he studied under Mr. 
 Cline, who in 1791 employed him as assistant in his 
 lectures. In 1792 he attended lectures in Paris. He 
 was chosen surgeon of Guy's Hospital in 1800, and a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society in 1805. His reputation 
 was greatly extended by the publication of his work on 
 Hernia, (1804-07,) and a few years later he had acquired 
 an immense practice. His annual income is said to have 
 amounted to ^21,000. He was employed by George IV. 
 in 1S20, and was made a baronet in 1821. In 1822 he 
 published an important work "On Dislocations and 
 Fractures." He was appointed surgeon to the king in 
 1828. He published the "Anatomy and Diseases of the 
 Breast," and other works. Died in 1841. 
 
 See B. B. Cooper, " Life of Sir Astley P. Cooper." 1843 ; " Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for March, 1843; "Blackwood's Magazine" 
 for April, 1849; G. Coen, " Biografia scientifica di Sir A. Cooper," 
 Venice, 1S41; " Nouvelle Biographie GdneVale." 
 
 Cooper, (Bransby B.,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 born about 1792, was for many years surgeon to Guy's 
 Hospital. He published "Lectures on Anatomy," and 
 "The Principles and Practice of Surgery," (1851,) and a 
 "Life of Sir Astley P. Cooper," (1843.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Coo'per, (James,) an American general and Senator, 
 born in Frederick county, Maryland, about 1810. He 
 studied law, settled in Pennsylvania, and was elected to 
 Congress as a Whig about 1840. He represented Penn- 
 sylvania in the Senate of the United States from 1849 
 to 1S55. He became a brigadier-general of the Union 
 army in 1861, and served in several actions. He died at 
 Columbus, Ohio, in March, 1863. 
 
 Cooper, (JAMES Fenimore,) a popular American 
 novelist, born at Burlington, New Jersey, in September, 
 1789, was a son of Judge William Cooper. His mother's 
 
 maiden name was Fenimore. About 1790 his father set 
 tied at Cooperstown, which he founded on the shore of 
 Lake Otsego, New York, where he owned a large tract 
 of land, then covered with forests and lying on the fron- 
 tier of civilization. He entered Yale College in 1802, 
 remained there about three years, and became a midship- 
 man in the navy in 1806. Having retired from the navy 
 in 181 1, he married Susan De Lancey, of New York, 
 a sister of Bishop De Lancey. His first literary pro- 
 duction was "Precaution," a novel, (1819,) which was 
 inferior to his later works. He published next "The 
 Spy, a Tale. of the Neutral Ground," founded on inci- 
 dents connected with the Revolutionary war, which 
 was very successful and was republished in many parts 
 of Europe. It was translated into several languages. 
 "He has the high praise," says the "North American 
 Review," " and will have, we may add, the future glory, 
 of having struck into a new path, — of having opened a 
 mine of exhaustless wealth. In a word, he has laid the 
 foundations of American romance." In 1823 he pro- 
 duced " The Pioneers" and " The Pilot," which were also 
 very popular. His next novels were " Lionel Lincoln" 
 ami " The Last of the Mohicans," (1826,) in which Indian 
 life and character were well represented. During a visit 
 to Europe he published "The Prairie," (1827,) "The 
 Red Rover," (1847,) "The Wept of Wish-ton-Wish," 
 (1829,) "The Bravo," (1831,) and other works. Alluding 
 to his admirable delineations of life at sea in the " Pilot" 
 and the " Red Rover," the " Edinburgh Review" says, 
 "The empire of the sea has been conceded to him by 
 acclamation." He satirized the foibles of his own coun- 
 trymen in "The Monikins," (1835,) " Homeward Bound," 
 (1838,) and "Home as Found," (1838,) which were not so 
 popular as his former works. In 1839 he published a "His- 
 tory of the Navy of the United States," which is a work 
 of much labour and some merit. Among his later works 
 are "The Pathfinder," (1840,) "The Deerslayer," (1841,) 
 " Wing and Wing," (1842,) " Wyandotte," (1843,) "Afloat 
 and Ashore," (1844,) "The Chain-Bearer," (1845,) "Oak 
 Openings," (1848,) and " The Ways of the Hour," (1850.) 
 He died at Cooperstown in September, 1851. "His 
 writings," says William H. Prescott, "are instinct with 
 the spirit of nationality. In his productions every Ameri- 
 can must take an honest pride. For surely no one has 
 succeeded like Cooper in the portraiture of American 
 character, or has given such glowing and eminently truth- 
 ful pictures of American scenery." "The same sort of 
 magical authority over the spirit of romance," says the 
 " North American Review" for July, 1826, " which belongs 
 in common to Scott, Radcliffe, Walpole, and our coun- 
 tryman Brown, is, for us at least, possessed by this writer 
 in an eminent degree." " We consider Mr. Cooper," says 
 the same authority, (April, 1831,) "as possessing in a very 
 high degree the first qualification to which we have ad- 
 verted, — that of power in description. ... It is, however, 
 most strikingly displayed in one department, in which no- 
 body has preceded him or has yet attempted to become 
 his rival. Whatever opinion may be entertained of his 
 success in other respects, all will agree that his boldest 
 and most triumphant march is on the mountain wave. 
 He treads the deck with the same conscious pride with 
 which the Highland outlaw stood upon his native 
 heath." " He wrote for mankind at large," says W. C. 
 Bryant: "hence it is that he has earned a fame wider 
 than any [American] author of modern times. The 
 creations of his genius shall survive through centuries to 
 come, and only perish with our language." 
 
 See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America :" " London Quarterly 
 Review" tor October, 1816 and 1837; "North American Review" for 
 July, 1822, July, 1826, July, 1828, January, 1838, January, 1852, and 
 October, 1859; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ameri- 
 cans," vol. 1.; Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors;" "Atlantic 
 Monthly," January, 1862. 
 
 Cooper, (John Gilbert,) an English writer, born in 
 Nottinghamshire in 1723, was educated at Cambridge. 
 His principal works are "The Power of Harmony," a 
 poem, (1745,) a " Life of Socrates," (1749,) and "Letters 
 on Taste," (1754,) which are commended for splendour 
 of style and imagery. Died in 1769. 
 
 Cooper, (Peter,) a benevolent and enterprising 
 American manufacturer, born in the city of New York 
 in 1791. He conducted with success various industrial 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; nflt; good; moon; 
 
COOPER 
 
 663 
 
 COPE 
 
 '&& 
 
 enterprises on a large scale. He founded in his native 
 city the "Cooper Institute," devoted to the instruction 
 and improvement ot' the working-classes, at a cost of 
 $500,000 or more. 
 
 Cooper, (Richard,) a painter, called "the British 
 Poussin," studied in Italy, and excelled in landscapes. 
 Died after 1S06. 
 
 Cooper, (Richard,) an English designer and en- 
 graver, bom in 1730, studied in Paris under Le Has. 
 Among bis works is a "View of Saint Peter's, at Rome." 
 Died about 1820. 
 
 Cooper, (SAMUEL,) an eminent English miniature- 
 painter, born in London in 1609. He was a pupil of his 
 uncle, John Hoskins. He surpassed all the artists in 
 his line during the Commonwealth and the reign of 
 Charles II., and painted an admirable portrait of Crom- 
 well, which was engraved by Vertue. He visited France, 
 ■here he painted many celebrated men. His works are 
 still highly prized. Died in 1672. 
 
 See Wauols, ''Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Cooper, (S ami 1 x, ) D.D., an eminent American divine, 
 born in Boston in 1725, graduated at Harvard in 1743, 
 and in 1746 succeeded his father as pastor of the church 
 in Brattle Street, Boston. He soon became known as 
 one of the most accomplished orators and scholars in 
 New England. He was intimate with Franklin and 
 Adams, and an influential patriot in the Revolution. 
 He was active in establishing in Boston the American 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences, of which he was chosen 
 the first vice-president in 17S0. Died in 1783. 
 
 Cooper, (SAMUEL,) an American general, born in the 
 State of New York about 1795, graduated at West Point 
 in 1815. He obtained the rank of captain in 1836, and 
 served in the Mexican war as assistant adjutant-general, 
 1846-47. In 1852 he became adjutant-general, with the 
 rank of colonel. He resigned his commission in March, 
 1861, and offered his services to Jefferson Davis, who 
 appointed him adjutant-general. He held throughout 
 the civil war the rank of full general, — the highest in the 
 Confederate army. 
 
 See "Southern Genefals," (anonymous,) New York, 1865. 
 
 Cooper, (SamVKL,) a distinguished surgeon and 
 medical writer of London, was born about 1780. He 
 published, in 1807, " First Lines of the Practice of Sur- 
 gery," which passed through seven or more editions. He 
 afterwards produced a " Dictionary of Practical Surgery," 
 (1809,) and other professional works. Died in 1848. 
 
 Cooper, (Susan Fenimore,) an American authoress, 
 a daughter of James Fenimore Cooper, was born about 
 1825. In iSjOshe published atvattractive and popular 
 work entitled " Rural Hours." Among her other pro- 
 ductions is "Rhyme and Reason of Country Life," (1854.) 
 
 Cooper or Cou'per, (Thomas,) a learned English 
 divine and eminent preacher, born at Oxford about 1517, 
 became Bishop of Lincoln in 1570, and of Winchester 
 in 1584. He published some sermons, an "Epitome of 
 Chronicles," and a valuable "Latin Dictionary." Died 
 in 1594. 
 
 Cooper, (Thomas,) a natural philosopher and lawyer, 
 born in London in 1759, emigrated with his friend Dr. 
 Priestley to America about 1792. He was a zealous and 
 active Democrat, and wrote political essays, etc. In 
 1820 he became president of Columbia College, South 
 Carolina, where he was also professor of chemistry. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Cooper, (Thomas Abthorpe,) an English tragedian, 
 born in 1776, performed with success in England and 
 America. Died in Pennsylvania in 1849. 
 
 Cooper, (Thomas Sidney,) an English painter of 
 animals, was born at Canterbury in 1803. He rose from 
 a humble position, and acquired the art of drawing 
 almost without the aid of masters. About 1820 he been 
 to paint scenery for the theatre of Canterbury. Having 
 studied the works of the Dutch and Flemish schools, he 
 devoted himself to animal-painting with great success. 
 His favourite subjects are cattfe and sheep, in the 
 representation of which he is perhaps unrivalled by any 
 British artist. He was chosen an associate of the Royal 
 Academy in 1845. 
 
 See " Autobiographic Memoir" m the "Art Journal" for Novem- 
 ber, 1849. 
 
 Coopmaiis, kdp'mans, (Gadso,) a Dutch physician, 
 son of George, noticed below, born in 1746, was pro- 
 fessor at Franeker, Kiel, and Copenhagen. He wrote a 
 Latin poem of merit on the small-pox, " Varis, sive 
 Carmen de Variolis." Died at Amsterdam in 1S10. 
 
 Coopmans, (GEORGE,) a distinguished Dutch physi- 
 cian, born at Makkum in 1717, published a work entitled 
 " Neurologia," (1789.) Died in 1800. 
 
 Coornhert. See Cornhert. 
 
 Coote, koot, (Sir Chaki.ks,) an Irish judge, who pro- 
 moted the restoration of Charles II. in 1660, and was 
 made Earl of Montrath. Died in 1661. 
 
 Coote, (Sir F.yrk,) a British general, born in Ireland 
 in 1726. He distinguished himself at the battle of 
 I'lassey, in India, in 1757. Returning to England in 
 1762, he was thanked by the Commons for the capture 
 of Pondicheriy. In 1780 he was appointed a member 
 of the supreme council, and commander-in-chief of the 
 army in Bengal. In that year he completely defeated 
 Hyder All at Porto Novo. Died near Madras in 1783. 
 
 Cootwyk, kot'wlk, sometimes written Cootwich, 
 (John,) a Dutch traveller, born at Utrecht. He travelled 
 in Fiance, Italy, Syria, Palestine, etc., and published in 
 1619 an account of those countries. 
 
 Cop, kop, (Guii.i.aumk,) a Swiss physician, born at 
 Bale, finished his studies in Paris, and graduated in 1495. 
 1 le was successively chief physician of Louis XII. and of 
 Francis I. Though he published no original work, he 
 rendered great services to medical science by his trans- 
 lations of Hippocrates, and of Galen's " Treatise on the 
 Causes and Differences of Diseases and Symptoms." 
 Died in 1532. 
 
 See M. Adam, "Vitae Eruditorum." 
 
 Cope, (Sir Anthony,) an English scholar, was the 
 author of a " History of Annibal and Scipio," (1544.) 
 Died in 1551. 
 
 Cope, (Charles West,) an English historical painter, 
 born at Leeds about 1812, was the son of a drawing- 
 master. He studied in the Royal Academy, in which 
 he began to exhibit in 1831. His cartoon of "The 
 First Trial by Jury" gained a prize of three hundred 
 pounds awarded by the Royal Commission of the Fine 
 Arts in 1843. After that date he painted with success 
 several frescos in the House of Lords. Among his chief 
 oil-paintings are "Lear and Cordelia," (1850,) and 
 "Othello relating his Adventures," (1853.) He was 
 elected Royal Academician in 1848. 
 
 Cope, (Henry,) an Irish physician, who lived about 
 1690-1740, studied under Boerhaave at Leyden, and 
 practised with success in Dublin. 
 
 Cope, (Sir John,) a British general, the time and 
 place of whose birth are unknown. He was commander- 
 in-chief of the army in Scotland when the rebellion of 
 1745 began. At the first approach of the Pretender's 
 army, Cope retired from the Highlands southward. The 
 rebels took Edinburgh, and a few days later routed the 
 king's army at Prestonpans, September, 1745. General 
 Cope was much censured for hi:; conduct on this oc- 
 casion, and was superseded in the command. Died 
 in 1760. 
 
 Cope, (Thomas Pym,) a distinguished merchant of 
 Philadelphia, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, 
 August 26, 1768. His parents were *Friends," and he 
 was educated in the principles of that society. He 
 commenced business in Philadelphia in 1790. In 1807 
 he built his first ship, which he named in honour of his 
 native county. Lancaster. In 1821 he established the 
 first regular line of packet-ships between Philadelphia 
 and Liverpool. This line, we may remark in passing, 
 was sustained through all those adverse circumstances 
 which for a time threatened the destruction of the foreign 
 commerce of Philadelphia, and continued in full vigoar 
 until the breaking out of the civil war. When Thomas P. 
 Cope retired from business, it passed into the hands 
 of his sons, (Henry and Alfred Cope,) and afterwards 
 into those of the Cope Brothers, (Francis and Thomas P., 
 sons of Henry Cope.) 
 
 To the foresight, liberality, and indefatigable energy 
 of Thomas P. Cope, Philadelphia was principally in- 
 debted for her first abundant supply of pure water from 
 the Schuylkill, before her increasing population rendered 
 
 e ask; 9 as/; g hard; gas /; g,h,k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; th as in Mir. (Jjy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
COPELAND 
 
 664 
 
 COQUILLE 
 
 the present extensive water-works a necessity. The 
 water was pumped from the river by means of a steam- 
 engine, and conveyed to a reservoir in a building at the 
 intersection of Broad and High Streets, whence it was 
 distributed by pipes to different parts of the city. This 
 plan was first carried into operation in 1801. Mr. Cope 
 was for many years president of the Board of Trade of 
 Philadelphia; he was also one of tlie originators and 
 principal promoters of the Mercantile Library, of which 
 he was president for more than a quarter of a century. 
 He closed his long and useful life November 22, 1854, 
 leaving a high character for spotless integrity as well as 
 for commercial ability. Edward D. Cope, an eminent 
 naturalist, author of the "Origin of Genera," "Extinct 
 Batrachia and Keptilia of North America," etc., is a 
 grandson of Thomas P. Cope, and a son of Alfred Cope. 
 See Hunt's "Lives of American Merchants," vol. i. 
 
 Copeland, kop'land, (Thomas,) an English surgeon, 
 born about 17S0, practised in London, and published 
 several professional works. Died in 1855. 
 
 Copernic. See Copernicus. 
 
 Co-per'111-cus or Koper'nicus, the Latinized form 
 of Kopernik or Copernic, [Kr. proa ko'peVnek',] 
 written also Zepemic and Zopemic, (Nicholas,) a 
 celebrated astronomer, the author of the Copernican Sys- 
 tem, was born, according to the best authorities, at Thorn, 
 in Prussia, in February, 1473. After learning Greek and 
 Latin at home, he pursued his studies at Cracow, where 
 he gave attention to philosophy, medicine, mathematics, 
 design, and astronomy. At the age of twenty-three he 
 visited Italy, formed an intimacy with Regiomontanus, 
 and obtained at Rome a chair of mathematics, which 
 he filled with high reputation for a few years. Having 
 returned to his native land, he was appointed canon of 
 Frauenburg by his uncle, the Bishop of Warmia. Thence- 
 forth his time was spent in his religious services, in 
 astronomical studies, and in gratuitous visits to the poor 
 who required medical aid. 
 
 Observing the complexity and discordance of the 
 systems of astronomy then received, he began to com- 
 pare them with each other and with the celestial pro- 
 cesses of nature, in order to found a system more simple, 
 symmetrical, and stable. He knew that the Pythagoreans 
 favoured the theory that the sun was the centre of the 
 system, and that Philolaus had given the earth a rotation 
 on its axis in addition to its motion around the sun ; but 
 these sublime paradoxes were combated by ancient pre- 
 judices, and were apparently negatived by the dictates 
 of common sense. After he had adopted his own system, 
 he spent many years in proving it by observations and 
 calculations, and he then expounded his beautiful theory 
 and discoveries, in a work entitled "The Revolutions of 
 the Celestial Orbs," ("De Orbium Celestium Revolu- 
 tionibus,") which appears to have been finished about 
 1530. Although he was assured that he had solved the 
 grandest problem which pertains to astronomy, he de- 
 layed to publish his work, probably from a presentiment 
 of the persecution which is reserved for great reformers 
 and innovators. His theory, which he was careful to 
 propound as a hypothesis, was accepted as true by sev- 
 eral astronomers, and, after much persuasion on the part 
 of his friends, he consented to print the work in 1543, 
 with a dedication to the pope. While it was in the press 
 at Nuremberg, he approached the end of his career; and 
 he died on the same day that he received the first copy, 
 (May 24, 1543,) having only strength sufficient to touch 
 it with his hand. The progress of his system, even 
 among astronomers, was extremely slow, and the clergy 
 and the masses were generally hostile to it. "The whole 
 weight of Aristotle's name,' says Hallam, "which in 
 the sixteenth century not only biassed the judgment but 
 engaged the passions, connected as it was with general 
 orthodoxy and preservation of established systems, was 
 thrown into the scale against Copernicus. ' It must be 
 confessed that the strongest presumptions in favour of 
 his system were not discovered by himself. One of the 
 most remarkable passages in Copernicus is his conjecture 
 that gravitation was not a central tendency, but an 
 attraction common to matter, and probably extending to 
 the heavenly bodies." (" Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe.") It is proper to observe that the system 
 
 which bears his name has received important modifica- 
 tions since his time by the genius of Galileo, Newton, etc. 
 See Gasshndi, "Vita Copernici," 1654; Percy, "Notice bio- 
 graphique sur Copernic," 1824; Sniadecki, "Discours sur N. 
 Coperuik," Warsaw, 1803; D. Szule, "Biographie do Kopernik,' 1 
 1855; L. Prowe, "Zur Biographie von N. Copernicus," 1853: Whst- 
 phal, "N. Copernicus," Constance, 1822; Czvnski, "Kopernik et 
 ses Travaux," 1846; F. Arago, " Eloge de Copernic." 
 
 Cop'land, (James,) an eminent Scottish physician, 
 born at Deerness, in one of the Orkney Isles, in 1792, 
 settled in London about 1818. He published, besides 
 other works, an excellent " Dictionary of Practical Medi- 
 cine," (3 vols., 1833-58,) a work of great labour and 
 research. Died in 1870. 
 
 Copleston, kop'el-ston, (Edward,) D.D., an English 
 bishop, born in Devonshire in 1776. He became a Fel- 
 low of Oriel College, Oxford, in 1795, and professor of 
 poetry in the university in 1802. In 1813 he published, 
 in elegant Latin, his "Academic Lectures," (" Prxlec- 
 tiones Academical,") which were much admired. He 
 wrote an " Enquiry into the Doctrines of Predestination," 
 (1821.) In 1827 he was appointed Bishop of Llandaff, 
 and Dean of Saint Paul's, London. Died in 1849. 
 
 See William James Copi.eston, " Memoir's of E. Copleston, 
 with Selections from his Diary," etc., 1851 ; Richard Whately, 
 "Remains of the late Edward Copleston," etc., 1854; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for September, 1851 : " North British Review" for Feb- 
 ruary, 1852. 
 
 Cop'ley, (John Singleton,) an eminent historical 
 painter, born at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1737. He is 
 said to have had no instructor except nature. He exhibited 
 at the Royal Academy of London, in 1760, a picture of 
 a " Boy and Tame Squirrel," which was greatly admired. 
 In 1774 he visited Italy, and in the next year became a 
 resident of London, where he painted portraits and his- 
 torical subjects with success. He was elected a member 
 of the Royal Academy in 1783. "The Death of Lord 
 Chatham" is one of his chief productions. He died in 
 1815, leaving a son, who became Lord Lyndhurst, and 
 chancellor of England. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Copley, (John S.) See Lyndhurst. 
 
 Coppetta. See Beccutl • 
 
 Coq. See Lecoq. 
 
 Coqueau or Cocqueau, ko'ko', (€laude Phili- 
 BERT,) a French architect, born at Dijon in 1755. He 
 was guillotined in 1794. 
 
 Coquebert de Montbret, kok'baiR' deh md.N'bR^', 
 (Charles Ettenne,) Baron, a French mineralogist 
 and botanist, born in Paris in 1755; died in 1S31. 
 
 See Silvestre, " Notice sur le Baron Coquebert de Montbret," 
 1S32. 
 
 Coquelin, kok'la.N', (Charles,) a French economist, 
 born at Dunkirk in 1803, wrote, besides other works, 
 one on "Credit and Banks," (1848.) Died in 1852. 
 
 See Molinari, "Notice sur C. Coquelin," 1S53. 
 
 Coquereau, kok'ro', ( Felix, ) a popular French 
 preacher, born in 1808, published "Souvenirs of Saint 
 Helena." 
 
 Coquerel, kok'ref', (Atiianase Laurent Charles,) 
 a French Protestant divine, born in Paris in 1795. He 
 began to preach in Paris about 1830, and became eminent 
 as a pulpit orator. He was elected in 1848 to the Con- 
 stituent Assembly, in which he voted with the moderate 
 republicans. His religious opinions were liberal, lie 
 published, besides other works, "Sacred Biography," 
 (1837,) "Modern Orthodoxy," (1842,) and many volumes 
 of sermons. Died in 1868. 
 
 SeeQuBRARD, "La France Litteraire;" "Blackwood's Magazine" 
 for May, 1838. 
 
 Coquerel, (Charles Augustin,) a brother of the 
 preceding, born in Paris in 1797. lie was one of the 
 founders of the " Revue Britannique," and wrote a " I lis- 
 tory of English Literature," (1828.) Died in 1851. 
 
 Coques, kok, ( Gonzales, ) a Flemish miniature- 
 painter, born at Antwerp in 1618. He imitated Van 
 Dyck with success, and acquired a high reputation by his 
 portraits. He was employed by Charles I. of England, 
 and other princes. Died about 1684. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Coquille, ko'kel' or ko'ke'ye, [Lat. Conchyl'ius,] 
 (GUI,) Sieur de Romenay, a meritorious French jurist. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
CORAM 
 
 665 
 
 CORDAY 
 
 born at Decize about 1524. He advocated civil and re- 
 ligious liberty in liis writings, among which are a " Treat- 
 ise on the Liberties of the Gallican Church," and several 
 Latin poem*. He was a friend of Lord Bacon and of 
 Brantome. Died in 1603. 
 
 See Taisand, "Vies des Jurisconsultes." 
 
 Co'ram, (Thomas,) a benevolent Englishman, born 
 about 1668, was bred to the sea, and became captain 
 of a merchant-vessel trading to the West Indies. He 
 founded "in 1740 a "Hospital for Exposed and Deserted 
 Children." In 1756 Parliament voted j£io,ooo to the in- 
 stitution. The result was a great increase of the number 
 of infants exposed. Died in 1 75 1. 
 
 Corancez, de, deh ko'r&N'sa', (Louis Alexandre 
 QUVIKR,) a French litterateur and savant, born in Paris 
 in 1770, was sent in 1802 as consul-general to Aleppo. 
 He published a " Description of the Northern Part of 
 Syria," and other esteemed works. Died in 1832. 
 
 Coras, de, deh ko'ras', (Jacques,) a French poet, 
 born at Toulouse in 1630, wrote "Jonas, or the Repent- 
 ance of Nineveh," (1663.) Died in 1677. 
 
 Coras, de, (Jean,) an eminent French jurist, born at 
 Toulouse or Realmont in 1 5 13. He became chancellor 
 to the Queen of Navarre, and judge in the parliament 
 of Toulouse. Having joined the Protestants, he was 
 killed at the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew in 1572. 
 Among his works is one entitled " Miscellanies of Civil 
 Law," ("Miscellanea Juris Civilis.") 
 
 Co'rax, [Gr. K»f>a£,] a famous Sicilian orator, who 
 flourished about 470 B.C. He was called the creator of 
 the rhetorical art, and wrote a treatise on that subject, 
 (not extant.) 
 
 Coray, ko'ra', written also Koray, and Korais, (Di A- 
 MANT,) [Gr. Ada/uivTioiKopai/c,] an eminent modern Greek 
 philologist and patriot, born at Smyrna in 1748. He made 
 himself master of Greek and other languages. In 1782 
 he began to study medicine in Montpellier, and six years 
 later removed to Paris. Resolving to devote himself to 
 the freedom and regeneration of Greece by means of 
 education, he published good editions of old Greek au- 
 thors, with notes and translations, and some original 
 political tracts. About 1802 the First Consul employed 
 him to translate. Strabo's "Geography." He died in 
 1833, with the reputation of one of the best Hellenists 
 of his time, and one of the influential restorers of Greek 
 nationality. (See his "Autobiography," entitled "B<oc 
 > AiafLavriov Kopar/ jmpu tov idiuv," Paris, 1833.) 
 
 Corazzi, ko-rat'see, (Ekcole,) an Italian mathemati- 
 cian and scientific writer, born at Bologna in 1689. He 
 was professor of mathematics in Turin. Died in 1726. 
 
 Corbaux, kor-bo', (Fanny,) an English painter and 
 author, born in 1812. She became a self-taught artist, 
 with a view to support her parents, and painted por- 
 traits and historical subjects with success. In 1830 she 
 received the gold medal for a miniature portrait. She 
 has written dissertations on Hebrew archaeology or 
 Biblical literature. 
 
 Corbeil, (Giii.es.) See /Egidius Corboliensis. 
 
 Cor'bet, (John,) an English nonconformist minister, 
 born at Gloucester in 1620 ; died in 1680. 
 
 Corbet, (Richard,) an English poet and pulpit ora- 
 tor, born in Surrey in 1582, became a chaplain of James 
 I. He was appointed Bishop of Oxford in 1629, and of 
 Norwich in 1632. Though he was a partisan of the High 
 Church, and required by Laud to act against the Puri- 
 tans, he was respected for his moderation. He composed 
 humorous poems, among which were a "Journey to 
 France" and " Farewell to the Fairies." Died in 1635. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. xii., 1825. 
 
 Corbet, (William,) a general, born in Ireland in 
 1781, served some years in the French army. He went 
 to Greece in 1828, fought against the Turks, and obtained 
 command of the Greek army. Died in 1842. 
 
 Corbiere, koR'be-aiR', (Edouard,) a French novelist, 
 born at Brest in 1793, was a nava! officer in his youth. 
 He published "The Banian," (1835,) "The Slaver," and 
 other marine stories. 
 
 Corbiere, de, deh koR'be-aiR', (Jacques Joseph 
 Gun i.ai.me Pierre,) CouNT^a' French politician, born 
 near Rennes about 1767. In 1820 he was appointed a 
 minister of state, and in December, 1821, minister of the 
 
 interior. He retired from office with Villele in January, 
 1828. Died in 1853. 
 
 See Lamartinh, "History of the Restoration." 
 
 Corbiere, di, de koR-be-a'ri, (Pietro,) an Italian* 
 priest, who, by the authority of the emperor Louis of 
 Bavaria, was elected anti-pope in 1328 as a rival to John 
 XXII. He assumed the title of Nicholas V. Failing to 
 obtain popular support, he abjured his usurpation in 
 1330, was imprisoned, and died in 1336. 
 
 Corbineau, koR'be'no', (Claude Louis,) a French 
 general, born at Laval in 1772, became a general of 
 brigade in 1806, and was killed at Eylau in 1807. 
 
 Corbineau, (Jean Baptiste Juvenal,) a French 
 general, brother of the preceding, born at Marchiennes 
 in 1776. For his services in Russia in 1812 he was 
 made aide-de'eamp general to Bonaparte. He became 
 general of division in 1813, and is said to have saved 
 the life of Napoleon at Montmirail, 1814. He directed 
 the arrest of Louis Napoleon at Boulogne in 1840. Died 
 in 1848. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 CorbinelTi, koR-be-nel'lee, (Jean,) a French writer, 
 of Italian descent, born about 1615, became secretary to 
 Queen Marie de Medicis. He published "The Old Latin 
 Historians reduced to Maxims," and a few other works. 
 Died in 1716. 
 
 Corbould, kor'bold, (Edward Henry,) an English 
 painter in water-colours, born in London in 181 5. His 
 subjects are mostly historical. His " Plague of London" 
 (1843) obtained a prize of ,£100. Among his best pro- 
 ductions are " The Fair Rosamond," and " The Eglinton 
 Tournament," (1839.) 
 
 Cor'bu-lo, [Ft. CoRBULON,koR'bu'16N',] (Cn. Domi- 
 tius,) a celebrated Roman commander, who flourished 
 under Claudius and Nero. He commanded with success 
 in a war against the Pai thians under Tiridatcs, and ex- 
 cited the jealousy of Nero, who ordered him to be put 
 to death in 67 a.d. He was reputed the ablest general 
 of his time. 
 
 See Pliny, "Natural History," books ii., vi., and vii. ; Tacitus, 
 " Annales," books iii. and ix. 
 
 Corbulon. See Corbulo. 
 
 Cor'co-ran,(MicHAEL,) an officerin the United States 
 army, born m Ireland in 1827. Having acquired dis- 
 tinction in the campaign of 1861, in Virginia, he was 
 made a brigadier-general in 1862. Died in 1863. 
 
 Cordaire. See Lacordaire. 
 
 Cordara, koR-di'ra, (Giulio Cesare,) an Italian 
 Jesuit, born in Piedmont in 1704. He was chosen to 
 continue Orlandini's "History of the Jesuits," of which 
 he published one volume, (Rome, 1750.) The style of 
 this work (in Latin) is pure and elegant. He wrote also 
 Latin and Italian poems. Died in 17S4. 
 
 See Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italian; illustri." 
 
 Corday d'Armaiis, de, deh koR'dJ' diR'moN', 
 (Marie Anne Charlotte,) usually called simply 
 Charlotte Corday, born of a noble family, in Nor- 
 mandy, in 1768, was a descendant of the celebrated 
 poet Corneille. She passed several years in a convent 
 at Caen, where, says Lamartine, " she was a model of 
 piety." Her disposition was thoughtful and imagina- 
 tive. In person she was tall, her face serenely beauti- 
 ful, her air dignified and commanding. She adopted 
 with enthusiasm the principles of the new regime, and 
 sympathized deeply with the Girondists proscribed in 
 May, 1793. The infamous Marat being then at the 
 zenith of his political influence, she formed a secret reso- 
 lution to sacrifice herself for the liberties of her country. 
 Once, in spite of the watchful reserve under which she 
 veiled a deep and terrible purpose, a few rears chanced 
 to escape from her. To her aunt, who inquired the 
 cause, she said, " I weep for my country. ... So long 
 as .Marat lives, no one's life is secure for a single day." 
 Soon after, her aunt, accidentally entering Charlotte's 
 chamber, found a Bible open at the tenth chapter of the 
 apocryphal book of Judith, and the passage marked 
 which contains the prayer of the ancients of the city 
 that God would prosper the enterprise of Judith for the 
 deliverance of Israel. Confirmed in her resolution by 
 such meditations, she came to Paris. But Marat, sus- 
 picious of attempts against his life, could not readily be 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (KF^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CORDEIRO 
 
 666 
 
 COR ILL A 
 
 approached. She therefore, though with extreme reluc- 
 tance, resorted to a stratagem, pretending that she was 
 the bearer of important information from the provinces. 
 • He received her while in his bath ; and, as he was fore- 
 telling to her the speedy doom of the surviving Giron- 
 dists, she stabbed him to the heart, with a knife which 
 she had concealed in her bosom. In prison she wrote 
 an eloquent letter to Barbaroux, manifesting in every line 
 that courageous and lofty spirit which never left her, 
 even on the scaffold. She was executed in July, 1793. 
 "There are deeds," says Lamartine, "so mingled with 
 puic intentions and culpable means, that we know not 
 whether to pronounce them criminal or virtuous." " In 
 beholding her act of assassination, history dares not 
 applaud ; nor yet, while contemplating her sublime self- 
 devotion, can it stigmatize or condemn." 
 
 See Cheron de Villiers, "M. A. Charlotte de Corday d'Ar- 
 mans, sa Vie, son Temps, ses Ecrits," etc., Paris, 1865 ; Lamartine, 
 " History of the Girondists," book xliv.; and the article " Corday" 
 in the "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Cordeiro or Cordeyro, koR-da'e-ro, (Antonio,) a 
 Portuguese historian and priest, born in the isle of Ter- 
 ceira in 1641. He wrote a " History of Madeira, Ter- 
 ceira," etc., ( 1 7 1 7, ) which is commended. Died in 1740. 
 
 Cordemoy, de, deli koRd'mwa', (Geraud,) a French 
 historian, born in Paris, became a member of the French 
 Academy. Bossuet employed him as reader to the dau- 
 phin, and persuaded him to write a " History of Charle- 
 magne," which is a work of merit, though not attractive 
 in style. He left a few other minor essays. Died in 1684. 
 
 See Niceron, " Menioires." 
 
 Corder, koK'der, or Cordier, koR'de-4', [Lat. Corde'- 
 rius,] (Balthasar,) a Flemish JesuftT'theologiafi, and 
 Hellenist, born at Antwerp in 1592, became a professor of 
 theology at Vienna. He published several works. Died 
 in 1650. 
 
 Corderius, (Balthasar.) See Corder. 
 
 Cor-de'rl-us, [Fr. Cordier, koR'de-i',](MATHURlN,) 
 a celebrated Protestant school-teacherTborn in France 
 in 1479. He was the preceptor of Calvin, who dedicated 
 to him one of his works; and he published several popular 
 school-books, among which is " Scholastic Colloquies," 
 ("Colloquia scholastica," 1564,) a work which was long 
 very extensively used. He lived some years in Geneva. 
 Died in 1564. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Cordes, koitd, or Cor-de'sl-us, (Jean,) a learned 
 French ecclesiastic, born at Limoges in 1570, collected a 
 library of 8300 volumes. Died in 1642. 
 
 Cordeyro. See Cordeiro. 
 
 Cordier, (Balthasar.) See Corder. 
 
 Cordier, (Mathurin.) See Corderius. 
 
 Cordier, koit'de-i', (Nicolas,) a French sculptor of 
 high reputation, born in Lorraine in 1561, worked in 
 Rome. He made a bronze statue of Henry IV. for the 
 church of Saint John de Lateran. Died in 1612. 
 
 Cordier, (Pierre Louis Antoine,) a French geolo- 
 gist and mineralogist, born at Abbeville in 1777. As 
 engineer, he accompanied the expedition to Egypt in 
 1798, and obtained the grade of engineer-in-chief in 
 1808. In 1819 he was chosen professor of geology in 
 the Museum of Natural History at Paris, and in 1822 
 was admitted into the Institute in place of Haiiy. He 
 published an able "Essay on the Internal Temperature 
 of the Earth," (1827,) and other scientific memoirs. He 
 was made a peer about 1840. Died in March, 1861. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G&ieVale." 
 
 Cor'dl-iier, (Charles,) a British antiquary and to- 
 pographer, born about 1746; died in 1794. 
 
 Cordova. See, Gonsalvo. 
 
 Cordova, koR'do-va, (Jos£,) a South American gen- 
 eral, born at Antioquia, New Granada, in 1797. He 
 fought under Bolivar about 1820, and contributed to the 
 victory of Ayacucho, (1824,) after which he was made 
 general of division. In 1829 he revolted against Bolivar, 
 but was defeated and killed the same year. 
 
 Cordova, de, da koR'do-va, (Adriano,) a Spanish 
 historical painter and monk ; died about 1630. 
 
 Cordova, de, (Fernando Fernandez,) a Spanish 
 general, born in Madrid in 1792. He opposed Espartero 
 
 in i84i,and afterwards joined the moderate Progresistas. 
 In 1850 he was appointed Captain-General of New Cas- 
 tile, and in 1851 Captain-General of Cuba. He was 
 driven into exile by the revolution of July, 1854, and 
 returned to Spain in 1856, on the fall of Espartero. 
 
 Cordova, de, (Francisco Hernandez,) a Spanish 
 navigator, commanded a small expedition which sailed 
 from Havana in 15 17, discovered Yucatan, and, in re- 
 turning, touched at Florida. He died in Cuba, a few 
 days after his return, in 1518. 
 
 Cordova, de, (Luis Fernandez,) a Spanish geneial, 
 a brother of Fernando Fernandez, noticed above, was 
 born at Cadiz in 1799. He was a favourite of Ferdinand 
 VII., and was sent as ambassador to Berlin about 1828. 
 In the civil war which began in 1833 he was a partisan 
 of Isabella. Having been an unsuccessful rival of Espar- 
 tero, he retired to Portugal about 1838, and died in 1840. 
 
 Cor'dus, (Aulus Cremutius,) a Roman historian, 
 who wrote a " History of the Civil War of Rome and of 
 the Reign of Augustus," (not extant.) He was accused 
 of treason by Sejanus because he had praised Brutus 
 and Cassius in his history. Being assured that his death 
 was resolved on, he ended his life by starvation in 25 A.D. 
 
 See Tacitus, " Annales," book iv. ; Seneca, "Suasoria." 
 
 Cordus, koR'dus, (Eurich or Euricius,) a German 
 poet and physician, born at Simtshausen, in Hesse, about 
 1480. He became professor of medicine at Marburg 
 about 1527. He corresponded with the most distin- 
 guished men of his time, and composed Latin 'poems 
 (1614) and prose works, among which is " Botanologicon, 
 a Dialogue on Plants," (1534.) Died in 1535. 
 
 See Kahler, "Vita E. Cordi," 1744 : Ersch und Gruber, "All- 
 gemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Niceron, "Me"moires." 
 
 Cordus, (Valerius,) an eminent botanist, son of the 
 preceding, born at Simtshausen in 1 515. He explored 
 the botanical riches of Germany, and proved himself a 
 good observer. In 1535 he published a valuable "Dis- 
 pensatory," (" Dispensatorium Pharmacorum,") and in 
 1542 visited Italy on a botanical excursion. He died 
 prematurely, in Rome, in 1544. The results of his labours 
 appeared in 1561, in a work which was edited by Conrad 
 Gesner and entitled a " History or Description of Plants," 
 etc., (" Historian Stirpium Libri quatuor a Conrado Ges- 
 nero collects.") His merit as a botanist is highly eulo- 
 gized by Gesner. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Niceron, 
 "Me"moires." 
 
 Coreal, ko-rk-al', (Francisco,) a Spanish traveller, 
 born at Cartagena in 1648. He spent about thirty years 
 in the West Indies and South America between 1666 
 and 1697, and left an interesting narrative, which was 
 published in French, in 3 vols. 1722. This purported to 
 be a translation from the Spanish. 
 
 Corella, de, da ko-rel'ya, (Alfonzo,) a Spanish 
 medical writer, born at Corella, Navarre, lived about 
 1550. 
 
 Corelli, ko-rel'lee, (Arcangelo,) a famous Italian 
 musical composer and performer, born at Fusignano, 
 near Imola, in 1653. He published in Rome, in 1683, 
 his first work, "Twelve Sonatas for two Violins and a 
 Bass." In 1686 he was leader of an orchestra of one 
 hundred and fifty musicians in an opera performed at 
 Rome under the auspices of Christina of Sweden. His 
 reputation had then extended over Europe. He was 
 patronized by Cardinal Ottoboni, who appointed him 
 director of his music. Among his most popular pro- 
 ductions is"Concerti Grossi,"(l7i2.) Died in 1713. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" Favolle, 
 " Notices sur Corelli, Tartini," etc., 1810. 
 
 Corenzio, ko-reVze-o, (Belisario,) a skilful painter, 
 born in Greece, was a pupil of Tintoretto, and settled 
 in Naples about 1590. He was noted for his invention 
 and facility of execution, and worked mostly in fresco. 
 Among his chief productions is "The Feeding of the 
 Five Thousand." His memory is branded with the 
 charge of tyrannical treatment of Guido and other foreign 
 artists at Naples. Died in 1643. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Corilla, ko-rel'la, (Maria Maddalena Fernandez,) 
 an Italian improvisatrice, born in 1740. She was pub- 
 licly crowned at Rome about 1775. Died in 1800. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far; fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moonj 
 
COR INN A 
 
 667 
 
 CORN AR OS 
 
 Co-iin'na. [C.r. Kupima; Fr. Corinne, ko'ren',] a 
 celebrated Greek lyric poetess, born at Tanagra, in Bce- 
 otia, lived about 500 n.c. Contemporary with Pindar, 
 she is said to have instructed him in poetry, and was 
 five times victorious in competition with him. Pausa- 
 nias ascribes her triumph partly to her beauty. She was 
 surname il Miki, ("The Fly.") Only a few fragments of 
 her poems are now extant. 
 
 See S 1. una:" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Gncca;" J. B. 
 
 Schufp, " Curiun.i die ehrbarc und scheinbare Hure," 1660. 
 
 Coiimie. See Corinna. 
 
 Corio, ko're-o, (Bernardino,) an Italian historian, 
 born at .Milan in 1459. Under the patronage of I.udovico 
 Sfor/a. he wrote, in Italian, the "History of Milan," 
 (1503.) Died in 1519. 
 
 Coriolan. See Coriolano and Coriolanus. 
 
 Coriolano, ko-re-o-la'no, or Coriolan, ko-re-o-lin', 
 (BaRTOLOMMEO,) Cavaliere, a skilful Italian designer 
 and engraver, son of Cristoforo, noticed below, was born 
 at Bologna in 1590. He was a pupil of Guido. He 
 dedicated to Pope Urban VIII. many wood-cuts in chia- 
 roscuro, after Guido and the Caracci. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Hubkr, "Manuel du Graveur." 
 
 Coriolano,ko-re-o-la'no,[Fr.CoRiOLAN,ko're'o / loN / ,] 
 (CRISTOFORO,) an eminent wood-engraver, born at Nu- 
 remberg about 1550. His original name was Lederer, 
 (la'der-er.) He removed to Venice, where he engraved, 
 besides other works, the portraits of Vasari's biographical 
 work. Died at Bologna about 1600. 
 
 Coriolano, (GlAMBAI tista,) a son of the preceding, 
 born at Bologna in 1595, was a painter, and engraver on 
 copper and wood. He engraved many pictures by Guido, 
 the Caracci, and other masters. Died in 1649. 
 
 Co-rl-o-la'nus, [Fr. Coriolan, ko're'o'lfiN'; Ger. 
 Coriolan, ko-re-o-lan', or Coriolanus, ko-re-o-Ia'nus,] 
 (Caius (or Cneius) Marcius,) the hero of an early 
 Roman legend,* was said to be a descendant of King 
 Ancus Marcius. According to the poetical traditions on 
 the subject, he obtained the surname Coriolanus for 
 his victory over the Volscians at Corioli about 490 H.c. 
 During a famine he advised that corn should not be dis- 
 tributed gratis to the commons unless they gave up their 
 tribunes. For this offence he was banished ; and, having 
 obtained command of a Volscian army, he besieged Rome. 
 The Romans were unable to resist him or to avert his 
 ang< 1 . until his stern purpose yielded to the tears of Ve- 
 turia his mother and of Volumnia his wife, who led a de- 
 putation of Roman matrons to his tent. He is supposed 
 to have passed the rest of his life among the Volsci, 
 (Smith's " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography ;") 
 but, according to the popular tradition, he was killed by 
 the Volsci immediately after he abandoned his purpose 
 of taking Rome. This legend is the subject of Shak- 
 speare's drama of "Coriolanus." 
 
 See Plutarch's " Lives ;" Nikbuhr, " History of Rome ;" Fr. 
 Rocmlitz, "He-Men des alien Roms und des neuen Frankreichs, 
 Coriolan und Dumouriez," ,796. 
 
 Coriolis, ko'reVless', (GaspardGustave,) a French 
 mechanician, born in Paris in 1792; died in 1843. 
 
 Co-rip'pus, (Fi.avils Cresconius,) a Latin poet of 
 the sixth century, who is supposed to have been born in 
 Africa and to have been a bishop. He wrote several 
 works, which have some merit and are still extant. 
 Among them is an epic poem called "Johanneis," and 
 a panegyric on the emperor Justin, ("De Laudibus Jus- 
 tini minoris.") 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Latina;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gen^rale." 
 
 Cork, Earl of. See Boylk, (Richard.) 
 Cormenin, de, deh koRm'naN', (Louis,) Baron, a 
 French journalist, son of Louis Marie, noticed below, born 
 in Paris in 1826. In 1852 he supported the government, 
 and obtained the direction of the "Moniteur Officiel." 
 
 Cormenin, de, (Louis Marie de la Haye — deh li 
 hj,) VlCOMTE, an eminent French political writer and 
 jurist, born in Paris in January, 1788. He was appointed 
 auditor of the council of state in 1810, and master of 
 requests (by Louis XVIII.) in 1815. In 1828 he was 
 elected deputy for Orleans. He was often re-elected by 
 the Liberal party, became a popular pamphleteer, and 
 exercised great influence on political affairs. His pamph- 
 
 lets appeared under the pseudomyn of "Timon." He 
 -ed the government of Louis Philippe. In 1838 he 
 published a work called "Studies on Parliamentary 
 Orators," ("Etudes sur les Orateurs parlementaires/' 
 17th edition, 1854.) He was president of the committee 
 which framed a new constitution in 1848. After the 
 coup d' J /at of December, 1851, he deserted the Liberal 
 party and became a member of Louis Napoleon's council 
 of state. He was admitted into the Institute in 1855. 
 Among his important works are his "Administrative 
 Law," ("Droit administratif," 1822,) and "Letters on 
 the Civil List," (1831,) which passed through twenty- 
 five editions. M. Cormenin also distinguished himself 
 as a practical philanthropist, and took part in founding 
 numerous charitable institutions. Died in May, 1868. 
 
 See Lomenie, "Galerie des Contemporains;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generate ;" Chapuis-Montlaville, "Fitude sur Timon," 
 184S. 
 
 Cormontaingne, de, deh koR'm6N'taNfi', (Louis,) 
 an eminent French military engineer, born about 1695. 
 Between 1734 and 1745 he directed the sieges of Menin, 
 Ypres, Tournay, etc. The great works added in the 
 reign of Louis XV. to the fortifications of Metz and 
 Thionville were constructed on his plans. He obtained 
 the rank of mar^chal-de-camp. He made improvements 
 in the art of fortification, on which he also wrote several 
 esteemed treatises. Died in 1752. 
 
 Cornacchini, koR-nak-kee'nee, (Marco,) an Italian 
 medical writer, flourished at Pisa about 1610. His father, 
 Tommaso, was professor of medicine at Pisa, and author 
 of "Tabulae Medicae,-" 1605. 
 
 Cornariua. See Cornarus. 
 
 Cornaro, (Angelo.) See Gregory XII. 
 
 Cornaro, koR-na'ro, (Caterina,) Queen of Cyprus, 
 was born in Venice about 1454. She became the wife of 
 James de Lusignan, King of Cyprus, and was adopted as 
 daughter of Saint Mark by the senate of Venice. At 
 the death of the king, in 1473, she ascended the throne, 
 which she abdicated in 1489, when the Venetians became 
 masters of Cyprus. Died in 15 10. 
 
 See Daru, "Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Cornaro, or Cornelio, koR-na'le-o, sometimes writ- 
 ten Corner, (FlamiHio,) a Venetian senator, eminent 
 for learning, born in Venice in 1693. He published a 
 " History of the Churches of Venice," (1758,) and several 
 religious works. Died in 1778. 
 
 Cornaro, (Giovanni I.,) Doge of Venice, succeeded 
 Francis Contarini in 1625. He waged a war against 
 Austria, which he left unfinished when he died in 1629. 
 
 Cornaro, (Giovanni II.,) was elected Doge of Venice 
 in 1709. During his administration the Turks made war 
 on Venice, and took the Morea about 1715. He obtained 
 peace in 1718. Died in 1722. 
 
 See Daru, "Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Cornaro, (Luigi,) a Venetian gentleman, born about 
 1463, gained distinction by his successful experiments on 
 diet and by his writings on the preservation of health. 
 In his youth, by intemperance and sensuality, he ruined 
 his health, which was naturally delicate. About the age 
 of forty he reformed his habits, became very abstemious, 
 and found the results of his change highly satisfactory. 
 After he was eighty years old he published a "Treatise 
 on a Temperate Life," which had a wide circulation, 
 and was translated into English and French. He died, it 
 is said, in his 103d year. Addison, in his " Spectator," 
 No. 195, says Cornaro passed his hundredth year, and 
 commends the good sense and cheerful spirit of his book. 
 
 See " Biographie Me'dicale." 
 
 Cornaro-Pisoopia, koR-na'ro p4s-ko'pe-a, (Elena 
 Lucrezia,) an illustrious Italian scholar and writer, born 
 at Venice in 1646, was a relative of the preceding. Her 
 attainments in languages, philosophy, etc. spread her 
 fame throughout Europe. She made a vow of celibacy, 
 and observed the rules of a monastic order. She com- 
 posed admired verses and academic discourses. Died 
 in 1684. 
 
 See Niceron, " Me'moires :" M. Dekza, "Vila di E. L. Cornaro- 
 ," 16S6; Antonio Lupis, " L'F.roina Veneta, ovvero la Vita 
 di E. L. Cornaro Piscopia," 1689. 
 
 CornaroB, koR-nl'ros, (Vincent,) a Greek poet of 
 the sixteenth century, born in the island of Crete. His 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as z; th as in this. (jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CORNARUS 
 
 668 
 
 CORN ELI E 
 
 life is involved in obscurity. He is styled "the Homer of 
 modern Greece," and wrote a poem in rhymes entitled 
 "Erotocritos," which is admired, and is an interesting 
 monument for the history of the Greek language. 
 See Bkandis, " Mittheilungen iiber Griechenland." 
 Cor-na'rua or Cornarius, koR-na're-us, the Latinized 
 name of Johann Hac.enuutt, (ha'gen-boot,) a German 
 physician, born at Zwickau, Saxony, in 1500. He prac- 
 tised at Frankfort and Zwickau, and was professor of 
 medicine at Marburg and Jena. He gained a wide repu- 
 tation by his Greek edition of Hippocrates, (1538,) and 
 a Latin version of the same, (1546.) He translated some 
 works of Plato, Saint Basil, and other Greek writers into 
 Latin, and wrote several medical treatises. Died in 1558. 
 See M. Adam, " Vitae Eruditorum ;" Eloy, " Dictionnaire de la 
 M^decine." 
 
 Cornazzani, koR-n&t-sa'nee, or Cornazzano, koR- 
 nat-sa'no, (Antonio,) 'an Italian poet, born at Piacenza 
 or Ferrara, lived about 1500. He wrote lyric poems 
 (printed in 1502) and some prose works. 
 
 Cornbury, korn'ber-e, (Edward Hyde,) Lord, son 
 of the second Earl of Clarendon, was one of the first of 
 James II.'s officers to desert his standard in 1688 and 
 go over to the Prince of Orange, (afterwards William 
 III.,) who in return for this service appointed him Gov- 
 ernor of New York, where he arrived in 1702. His 
 avarice, despotic measures, and frivolous character soon 
 drew upon him the execration of the people, and in 1708 
 procured his removal from office. Died in 1723. 
 
 Cornbury, (Henry Hyde,) Lord, eldest son of the 
 Earl of Clarendon, wrote a comedy called "The Mis- 
 takes, or the Happy Resentment," which was printed in 
 1758. He was killed by a fall from a horse in France in 
 '753- 
 
 Corne, koRn, (Hyacinthe,) a French publicist, born 
 at Arras in 1802, was elected to the Chamber of Deputies 
 in 1837. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on 
 Civil Courage." 
 
 Corneille, koR'nil' or koR'n^'ye, (Jean Baptiste,) a 
 French historical painter and engraver, born in Paris in 
 1646, was a son of Michel, noticed below. He received 
 the grand prize in 1668. Died in 1695. 
 
 Corneille, (Michel,) a Frencli painter and engraver, 
 born at Orleans in 1601, was a pupil of Vouet. He 
 painted religious subjects, and was one of the first mem- 
 bers of the Academy of Paris. Died in 1664. 
 
 Corneille, (Michel,) a skilful French painter, son of 
 the preceding, born in Paris in 1642. He studied in Italy, 
 and on his return, in 1663, was received into the Royal 
 Academy. He was employed by the king, and adorned 
 several churches of Paris with his works. Died in 1708. 
 
 Corneille, kor'nal', [Fr. pron. fcoR'njr or koR'n.Vye,] 
 (Pierre,) a celebrated French dramatic author, 'the 
 founder of the French drama, and the writer who has 
 perhaps contributed most to the development of the 
 national genius, was born at Rouen on the 6th of June, 
 1606. He studied law, which he practised a few years 
 without success. His first work, a comedy called " Me- 
 lite," (1629,) and others which quickly followed, were 
 performed with applause, which they owed partly to 
 the vicious taste of the public. His "Medea" (1635) 
 gave a new tone of grandeur and dignity to the French 
 tragedy, though it contained much bombast and vain 
 declamation. In 1636 he astonished and enraptured the 
 public with the tragedy of "The Cid," (an imitation of a 
 Spanish drama of that name,) which, by nervous eloquence 
 and mastery of dramatic resources, eclipsed everything 
 that had hitherto appeared on the French stage. To 
 silence his detractors, who called him a mere imitator, 
 he produced, in 1639, "Les Horaces," and " China," 
 which were admired for invention and style. Many 
 persons consider " China" as his master-piece ; while 
 others prefer "Polyeucte." "A deeper interest," says 
 Hallam, "belongs to 'Polyeucte;' and this is his only 
 tragedy wherein he affects the heart. The beautiful 
 character of Pauline would redeem much greater defects 
 than can be ascribed to this tragedy. It is the noblest, 
 perhaps, on the French stage, and conceived with ad- 
 mirable delicacy and dignity." (" Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe.") His "Menteur" ("Liar," 1642) 
 was the first comedy of character and intrigue which was 
 
 an honour to France. His subsequent efforts indicate a 
 decline of his power; but his opera called the "Golden 
 Fleece" (" Toison d'Or") was performed with success in 
 1661. He had been admitted into the French Academy 
 in 1647. He died in Paris in October, 1684, leaving 
 several children. The French call him the "grand Cor- 
 neille," not only to distinguish him from his brother 
 Thomas, but from the rest of mankind. Fontenelle, 
 who was his nephew, preferred him as a poet to Racine ; 
 but Voltaire, La Harpe, and other critics reverse that 
 judgment. It is generally admitted that in impressive 
 declamation, in dignity, in sublime thoughts, in condensed 
 and noble style, he has not been equalled by any succeed- 
 ing dramatist. In private life his manners were simple 
 and his conversation rather dull. He is represented as a 
 man of pure morals and amiable character. "It is diffi- 
 cult," says a recent French critic, "to draw the portrait 
 of Corneille and to do justice to the subject. His must 
 magnificent eulogy is perhaps in this verse of Voltaire : 
 " ' Le grand Conde 1 pleurant aux vers du grand Corneille.' "* 
 
 " When the Academy was endeavouring to correct the 
 language which Pascal was destined to fix and Racine to 
 polish, Corneille formed and created it, by giving it force 
 and precision in reasoning, energy and profoundness in 
 discourse, elevation and sublimity in sentiment, dignity 
 and majesty in the utterances of kings and heroes. 
 ("Nouvelle Biographie Generate. ") 
 
 See Fontenelle, " Fjoge de Corneille ;" Sainte-Beuve, " Por- 
 traits litte'raires," tome i. ; Guizot, "Corneille et son Temps," 1852; 
 Taschereau, " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de Corneille," 
 1S29: Jean Sylvain Bailly, "Fjoge de Corneille." 1 7 r,s : M. J. J. 
 Victorin-Fabre, " Eloge de Corneille," 1808; Loots Simon Augek, 
 " Eloge de Corneille," 180S; "Biographie Universelle ;" Longfel- 
 low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Lives of the Most Eminent 
 French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley, London, 1840; "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for October, 1852. 
 
 Corneille, (Thomas,) a popular French dramatist, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Rouen in 1625. 
 On leaving college he became a resident of Paris. His 
 first play, " Engagements du Hasard," appeared in 1647. 
 In the ensuing eight years he produced several other 
 comedies. In 1656 he composed "Timocrate," a tra- 
 gedy, which was very popular, and was performed eighty 
 times in six months. It was followed by " Darius," " Still- 
 con," and many other tragedies, which had a transient 
 success. His tragedies "Ariane" and "Earl of Essex" 
 obtained more durable favour, and still keep their place 
 on the stage. He succeeded his brother in the French 
 Academy in 1685. "He was," says Voltaire, "a man 
 of great merit and of vast learning; and, if we except 
 Racine, he was the only French author of his time worthy 
 to be ranked next to his brother." Died in 1709. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires;" La Harpe, " Guirsde Litterature." 
 
 Cornejo, koR-na'Ho, (Pedro,) a Spanish historian, 
 who-lived about 1550-80, wrote, among other works, a 
 "Summary of the Civil Wars in Flanders," (1577.) 
 
 Cor-ne'll-a, [Fr. Cornelie, koit'na'le' ; It. Curni- 
 oi.ia, koR-nel'ya,] a noble Roman matron, the daughter 
 of P. Scipio Africanus, and the wife of T. Sempronius 
 Gracchus. She was eminent for virtue and mental cul- 
 tivation. After the death of her husband she refused an 
 offer of marriage from Ptolemy, King of Egypt. As the 
 daughter of Scipio and the mother of the Gracchi, she 
 had as high a position as any woman in Roman history. 
 A Campanian dame, having displayed to her the jewels 
 with which she was adorned, expressed her curiosity to 
 see those of Cornelia. The latter, pointing to her sons, 
 Tiberius and Caius, exclaimed, "These are my jewels 
 and ornaments." 
 
 See Plutarch, "T. Gracchus" and "Caius Gracchus;" L. 
 MSRCKUN, " Programma de Cornelias, Gracchorum M.itiis, Via, 
 Moribus et Epistolis," 1844. 
 
 Cornelia, the daughter of China, was the first wife 
 of Julius Caesar the dictator, to whom she was married 
 in 83 B.C. She died young, leaving a daughter, Julia, who 
 became the wife of Pompey the Great. 
 
 Cor-ne'11-a Gens, a patrician family or tribe, which 
 produced more illustrious men than any other in Rome. 
 Among them were the Cinnas, Lentulus, Rufinus, the 
 Scipios, and Sulla. 
 
 Cornelie. See Cornelia. 
 
 'The great Conde" weeping at the verses of the great Corneiile." 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
CORNEL 10 
 
 669 
 
 CORN IV ALUS 
 
 Comelio, (Flaminio.) See Cornaro. 
 
 Cornelia, koR-na'lis, [Fr. Corneille, koR-n&F, (or 
 koK-nJ'ye,) or Cornille; Ger. Cornelius, koR-na'le- 
 i\-.\ .1 famous Dutch painter of history and portraits, was 
 born at Haarlem in 1562. He studied under Porous and 
 let at Antwerp, and settled in Haarlem. He ex- 
 celled in design and colouring, and imitated nature with 
 fidelity. Among his master-pieces is a large picture of 
 "The Deluge." Died in 1638. His brother, Henry, 
 was a sculptor and painter. He was most successful in 
 landscapes and marine views. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Cornelisz, koR-na'lis, (Jacob,) a Dutch painter of 
 history, born at Oost-Sanen about 1471, worked at 
 Amsterdam, where he died in 1567. 
 
 Cornelisz, (Lucas,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden 
 about 1492, removed to England, and was patronized by 
 Henry VIII. Died in 1552. 
 
 Cor-ne'll-us, Bishop of Rome, succeeded Fam'amis 
 iti 251 ,\. i). He was a Roman by birth. Novatian, having 
 refused to recognize him, was chosen Bishop of Rome by 
 his partisans ; and thus arose the schism of the Novatians. 
 Cornelius was banished to Civita Vecchia by Callus in 
 352, and died the same year. 
 
 Cor-ne'11-us, (Elias,) an American clergyman, born 
 in 1795. He became secretary of the American Educa- 
 tion Society in 1826. Died in 1832. 
 
 Cornelius Nepos. See Nrpos. 
 
 Cor-ne'll-us Se-ve'rus, (Puhlius,) a Latin epic poet, 
 of whose life but little is known. He lived in the reign 
 of Augustus, and died prematurely, leaving unfinished a 
 poem called "The Sicilian War,"' (" Bellum Siculum,") 
 which is praised by Quintilian. A beautiful fragment on 
 the death of Cicero has been preserved. 
 
 Cornelius, von, fon koK-na'le-us, (Peter,) the 
 greatest German painter of his time, born at Dusseldorf 
 on the 16th of September, 1787, was a son of the in- 
 spector of the Dusseldorf gallery of paintings. At the 
 age of nineteen his genius revealed itself in painting the 
 cupola of the old church of Neitss. From 181 1 to 1819 
 he studied and worked in Rome, where he formed an 
 intimate friendship with the artist Overbeck, who sym- 
 pathized with his enthusiasm for the old Italian masters. 
 About 1814 he finished his " Illustrations of Faust," one 
 of his most remarkable productions. His original genius 
 was also displayed in a series of designs illustrating the 
 " Xiebelungen-Lied." After the completion of these he 
 devoted himself to fresco-painting, which had been long 
 neglected. He is considered the restorer of this art 
 among the Germans. In 1819 he removed from Rome 
 to Munich, whither he had been invited by the crown- 
 prince, (afterwards King Ludwig,) and was appointed 
 director of the Academy of Dusseldorf. He was com- 
 missioned by Prince Ludwig to adorn the Glyptothek 
 of Munich with frescos. In the Hall of Heroes of that 
 edifice he painted on a large scale a series of subjects 
 from the " Iliad" of Homer. Among his grandest produc- 
 tions is a picture of the " Last Judgment," in the church 
 of Saint Louis, in Munich. It is about sixty feet high, 
 and more than thirty feet wide. In the Pinakothek of 
 Munich he illustrated, in a series of frescos, the "His- 
 tory of Painting," with that profoundness of conception 
 which characterizes his genius. At the invitation of the 
 King of Prussia, he went to Berli" in 1841, and painted 
 in the Campo Santo several frescos, among which are 
 "Tin Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse." Died at 
 Berlin in 1867. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Gene'rale." 
 
 Corner. See Cornaro, (Flaminio.) 
 
 Cor'ner, (Julia,) an English authoress, born about 
 1815. She published "The Baronet," a novel, (1835,) 
 "Edward Castleton," "Questions on the History of 
 Europe," and several useful books for children. 
 
 Cornet, de, deh kor/nj', (Mathieu ACGUSTIN,) 
 Count, a French politician, born at Nantes in 1750. 
 He promoted the revolution of the 18th Brumaire, 1799, 
 was made a senator the same year, and in 1804 received 
 the title of count. Under the restoration he entered the 
 Chamber of Peers. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Thip.ks, " History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Cornhert, koRn'h?Rt, written also Coornhert, (Die- 
 drik,) a Dutch author and Reformer of great merit, born 
 at Amsterdam in 1522. He was a zealous promoter of 
 the Protestant Reformation, although he was never a 
 sectarian, and dissented from the doctrines of Calvin. 
 He rendered important services to the Prince of Orange 
 in his contest with Spain. He composed, besides other 
 works, a poem " On the Use and Abuse of Fortune," and 
 a " Treatise against the Capital Punishment of Heretics." 
 The national air of " William of Nassau," which was very 
 popular with several generations, is commonly attributed 
 to him ; though Motley and some other writers ascribe 
 it to Marnix de Saint Aldegonde. He sometimes sup- 
 ported himself, at Antwerp and Cleves, by his skill as an 
 engraver. In 1572 he was appointed secretary of state 
 in 1 Iolland. " He formed with Spiegel and Visscher," 
 says the " Biographie Universelle," "the triumvirate 
 that restored the Dutch language and poetry." Died 
 at Gouda in 1590. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gene'rale;" " Fraser's Magazine" for February, 1854. 
 
 Corniani, koR-ne-a'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 eminent Italian litterateur, born at Orzi-Nuovi in Feb- 
 ruary, 1742, obtained an office in the magistracy. He 
 wrote, besides various other works, an " Analysis of Taste 
 and Morality," (1790,) and a " History of Italian Litera- 
 ture," (9 vols., 1804-13.) The latter contains critical no- 
 tices of authors who wrote between the eleventh century 
 and the middle of the eighteenth, and is a work of high 
 reputation. " His erudition appears to me considerable," 
 says Hallam, "and his judgments generally reasonable." 
 ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died at 
 Brescia in November, 1813. 
 
 .See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" G. Labus, " No- 
 tizie intonio alia Vita di G. B. Corniani," 1814; Cahillo Ugoni, 
 " Elogio storico di G. B. Corniani," 1S18. 
 
 Oornic-Duchdne, koR'nek' dii'sheV, (Charles,) a 
 French naval officer, born at Morlaix in 1 731; died in 
 1809. 
 
 Cornificius, kor-ne-fish'e-us, (Quintus, ) a Latin 
 poet, who lived about 50 B.C., was a friend of Catullus. 
 
 Cornificius, (Quintus,) a Roman who supported the 
 party of Caesar in the civil war, and became governor 
 of Syria. Died about 40 B.C. 
 
 Corniglia, the Italian of Cornelia, which see. 
 
 Cornille. See Cornklis. 
 
 Cornille, kor-neel', or Corneille, otherwise called 
 Cornelius Engelbrechtsen, (?ng'hel-bR?Kt'sen,) a 
 Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1468. He painted 
 in oil and fresco with success. The famous Lucas van 
 Leyden was his pupil. 
 
 His son, Cornille Kunst, born at Leyden, inherited 
 his father's talent for painting. He worked at Leyden 
 and at Bruges. Among his best works is a " Descent 
 from the Cross." He died in 1544, aged fifty-one. 
 
 Cornu, koR'nii', (Sebastien Mei.chior,) a French 
 painter, born at Lyons in 1804, obtained at Paris a 
 medal of the first class in 1845. 
 
 Cornuole, delle, del'la koR-noo-o'li, or Carniole, 
 kaR-ne-o'li, (Giovanni,) an Italian engraver of gems, 
 who worked in Florence about 1580. His productions 
 compare favourably with those of the ancient Greeks. 
 His portrait of Savonarola was celebrated. 
 
 Cornut. See Cornuti. 
 
 Cornuti, koR'nu'te', or Cornut, koR'nii', (Jacques 
 Philippe,) a French botanist and physician, born in 
 Paris. He published a " Description of the Plants of 
 Canada," (1635,) with numerous figures. Died in 1651. 
 
 Cor-nu'tus, (Lucius Ann/eus,) a Roman philoso- 
 pher, born at Leptis, in Africa. He taught the Stoie 
 philosophy in Rome, and counted among his pupils the 
 poets l.nian and Persius. Nero banished him about 
 68 a.d. He wrote, in Greek, a commentary on Aristotle 
 and other philosophical works. 
 
 See Suidas, " Comutus :" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" G 
 J. uk Martini, " Disputatio de L. A. Cornuto," 1825. 
 
 Cornwall, (Harry.) See Procter, (Bryan W.) 
 Cornwallis, korn-w81'lis, (Caroline Frances,) ai 
 English writer on philosophy, religion, etc., was born it 
 1786. She produced anonymously a series of twenty- 
 two essays, entitled "Small Books on Great Subjects," 
 
 € as <• 
 
 •' '. as /; g hard; g as/'; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as »; th as in this. (JT^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CORN W ALUS 
 
 670 
 
 CORREA 
 
 the last of which, " The State of Man subsequent to the 
 Promulgation of Christianity," was published in 1854. 
 These works are highly esteemed. Died in 1858. A 
 volume of her letters and poems was published in 
 1864. 
 
 See "Selections from the Letters of Caroline F. Cornwallis." 
 
 Cornwallis, (Ciiari.es,) Earl and Marquis, a Brit- 
 ish general, commonly known as Lord Cornwallis, 
 born in 1738, was the eldest son of the first earl, before 
 whose death he was styled Lord Brome or Broome. 
 He served on the continent as aide-de-camp of the Mar- 
 quis of Granby in 1761, and inherited his father's earl- 
 dom in 1762. Though he was an aide-de-camp and 
 favourite of the king, he opposed the measures which 
 caused the American war. He joined the army in 1776, 
 and, as major-general, took part in the battles of Brandy- 
 wine and Germantown in 1777, after being foiled at Tren- 
 ton by Washington. In 1780 he commanded an army 
 in Carolina, and defeated General Gates at Camden. 
 The next year he gained an unimportant advantage 
 over General Greene at Guilford, and invaded Virginia. 
 He marched to Yorktown, intending to embark there, 
 but was prevented by a French fleet, while the army 
 of Washington attacked him by land. He surrenderee!, 
 with about 8000 men, on the 19th of October, 1781. 
 
 In 1786 he was appointed Governor-General of Ben- 
 gal, and commander-in-chief of the army in India. The 
 principal event of his administration was the war against 
 Tippoo Saib. Cornwallis in person took Bungalore in 
 1 79 1, and defeated the enemy at Seringapatam in 1792. 
 Tippoo then obtained peace by ceding half of his domi- 
 nions to the British and their allies. Lord Cornwallis, 
 having returned to England in 1793, was made a mar- 
 quis, and appointed master-general of the ordnance. In 
 1798 he became lord lieutenant of Ireland, which was 
 then in rebellion, and which he pacified by a moderate 
 policy. He negotiated the treaty of Amiens in 1802. 
 In 1805 he was again appointed Governor-General of 
 India, and died the same year at Ghazapore. Without 
 brilliant talents, he filled with credit a prominent place 
 on conspicuous stages in several trying epochs of British 
 history. He is generally admitted to have been by far 
 the ablest British general who took part in the war of 
 the American Revolution. 
 
 See Adoi.phus and Bissett, " History of the Reign of George 
 III.;" J. W. Kave, "Lives of Indian Officers," 1S67 ; "London 
 Quarterly Review" for January, 1859. 
 
 Cornwallis, (Sir Charles,) an English gentleman, 
 whom James I. sent as ambassador to Spain. He wrote 
 the Life of Henry, Prince of Wales. Died about 1630. 
 
 His son, Sir William, published "Discourses upon 
 Seneca," and essays on various subjects, (1600-32.) 
 
 Cornwallis, (Frederick,) a son of the Earl of Corn- 
 wallis, became Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1749, 
 and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1768. He published 
 several volumes of sermons. Died in 1783. 
 
 Cornwallis, (William,) an English admiral, brother 
 of Lord Cornwallis, born in 1744. After serving in the 
 American war, he commanded a squadron in the East 
 Indies from 1789 to 1793, and was made vice-admiral 
 in 1795. In that year he received the thanks of Par- 
 liament for his conduct in an action with the French. 
 From 1S01 to 1806 he was commander-in-chief of the 
 Channel fleet. He died in 1819, with a fair reputation 
 for talents and courage. 
 
 See " Annual Register." 
 
 Corona, koro'na, (Leonardo,) an Italian painter of 
 the Venetian school, was born at Murano in 1561. His 
 manner is said to resemble that of Tintoretto. Among 
 his admired works is a "Crucifixion." Died in 1605. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Coronado. See Vasquez. 
 
 Coronelli, ko-ro-nel'lee,(MARCO Vincenzo,) a learned 
 Italian geographer and monk, born at Venice about 1650. 
 He passed some years in Paris, where he made globes 
 twelve feet in diameter, (1683.) In 1685 he was chosen 
 cosmographer of the Venetian state. He published 
 many maps and volumes on geography, among which 
 were a "Description of the Morea," (1685,) and "An- 
 cient and Modern Rome," (1716.) Died in 1718. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Coronini-Cronberg, von, fon ko-ro-nee'nee kRon'- 
 b?RG, (Johann,) Count, an Austrian general, born at 
 Goritz in 1794. He was chosen preceptor to Francis 
 Joseph (the present emperor) in 1836, and obtained the 
 rank of field-marshal in 1849. In 1854 he was appointed 
 commander of the army which occupied the Danubian 
 principalities. 
 
 Corot, ko'ro', (Jean BaptisteCamille,) a successful 
 French landscape-painter, born in Paris in 1796. Among 
 his works are "The Roman Campagna," (1827,) a "Sou- 
 venir of the Environs of Florence," (1839,) " Homer and 
 the Shepherds," (1845,) and a " Sunset Scene," (1857.) 
 
 Corr, (Erin,) a Belgian engraver of high reputation, 
 born at Brussels in 1803, was a son of an Irishman. He 
 engraved "The Descent from the Cross," after Rubens, 
 and several works of Van Dyck and Da Vinci. Died in 
 Paris in 1862. 
 
 Corradi. See Ghirlandaio. 
 
 Coiaadi, kor-ra'dee, (Ottavio,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Bologna. He copied the works of great masters 
 with success. Died in 1643. 
 
 Corradini, kor-ra-dee'nee, (Pietro Marcf.i.lino,) an 
 Italian antiquary and jurist, born at Sezza in 1658. He 
 was made a cardinal in 1712. Among his works is 
 " Ancient Latium, Sacred and Profane," (" Vetus Latium 
 profanum et sacrum," 1704.) Died in 1743. 
 
 See TlPAt.DO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Corrado, the Italian of Conrad, which see. 
 
 Corrado, kor-ra'do, (Carlo,) an Italian painter, born 
 in Naples in 1693, was employed for some years by the 
 King of Spain at Madrid. Died in 1768. 
 
 Corrado, (Sehastiano,) an Italian scholar and writer, 
 born in the duchy of Modena. He became professor 
 of eloquence at Reggio in 1540, and professor of Greek 
 and Latin in the University of Bologna in 1545. He 
 published in 1537 an interesting work, entitled "Quaes- 
 tnra," in which the life of Cicero is related, and his 
 character vindicated from unjust charges. Died in 
 ■556. 
 
 See Fm.ippo Re, " Elogio di S. Corrado," 1812; A. Fappani, 
 "Elogiodi S. Corrado," 1820;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale.'* 
 
 Correa, kor-ra'a, (D. Payo Perez,) a renowned Por- 
 tuguese general, was chosen grand master of the order 
 of Santiago in 1242. He gained many victories over the 
 Moors, and was reputed the greatest captain of his time. 
 The old Spanish writers assert that he once arrested the 
 course of the sun, like Joshua. Died in 1275. 
 
 See Laclede, " Histoire de Portugal." 
 
 Correa, (Caspar,) a Portuguese historian, served in 
 several expeditions in the East Indies, and wrote a 
 valuable "History of India," (" Historia da India," in 
 manuscript.) Died at Goa about 1560. 
 
 Correa, (Thome,) an eloquent Portuguese orator, 
 poet, and grammarian, born at Coimbra in 1537. He 
 professed rhetoric at Rome and Bologna with great suc- 
 cess, and wrote treatises on eloquence, grammar, etc., 
 among which was a commentary on Horace's "Art of 
 Poetry." Died in 1595. 
 
 Correa de Saa, kor-ra'a di si, (Salvador,) a dis- 
 tinguished Portuguese admiral, born about 1594. He 
 was for many years Governor of Brazil, where, between 
 1625 and 1640, he gained several victories over the Dutch. 
 In 1648 he commanded an expedition to Africa, and 
 conquered Benguela and Angola. Died in 1680. 
 
 Correa de Serra, kor-ra'a da sSr'ra, (Jose Fran- 
 cisco,) a distinguished Portuguese botanist and savant, 
 born at Serpa in 1750. He was chosen perpetual secre- 
 tary of the Academy of Sciences of Lisbon about 1780. 
 To escape persecution for religion, he retired to France 
 in 1786 and to England in 1796. About 1814 he sup- 
 plied the place of Mr. Barton as professor of botany in 
 Philadelphia. From 1816 to 1821 he was minister from 
 Portugal to the United States. He was the author of 
 some treatises on vegetable physiology arid other sub- 
 jects, and wrote several articles for the " Biographie 
 Universelle." Died in 1823. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Correa Garcab, kor-ra'a gaR-sowN', (Pedro Anto- 
 nio,) a Portuguese poet, born about 1750, was the author 
 of lyric poems which are in style excellent imitations of 
 
 i, T, 6, "j, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
 5,e 
 
CORREGGIO 
 
 67. 
 
 CORTEZ 
 
 Horace. " No one," says Longfellow, " since Ferreira 
 had approached so near the ancient prototype." 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Correggio, da, di kor-red'jo, [Fr. Le Correge, leh 
 koR'R&zh': it may lie observed that in French he is nearly 
 always called Lk Corrkge, in Italian Ii. Correggio, 
 i.e. "the Correggio,"] (Antonio Allegri— al-l&'gRee,) 
 an illustrious Italian painter, the founder of a new and 
 original style of art, was born at Correggio (whence his 
 surname) in 1494. We have little positive information 
 respecting him. Vasari and others state that his origin 
 was humble and that his life was passed in poverty ; but 
 there is good reason to believe that he enjoyed a com- 
 fortable subsistence. Among his supposed teachers in 
 art were his uncle, Lorenzo Allegri, and Francesco 
 Bianchi ; but he was the sole former of his own style. 
 He probably never saw Rome or Venice. He worked 
 at his native city and at Parma. He died in 1534. 
 
 Correggio not only surpassed all former artists in the 
 magic of the chiaroscuro, but he was also distinguished 
 by his admirable skill in foreshortening. His forms 
 are exquisitely soft and beautiful ; his colours are as 
 pure and as delicate as those of Titian. The art which 
 Angelo exalted to sublimity, which Titian enriched with 
 the magic of colouring, and which Raphael inspired with 
 the soul of expression and grace, may be said to have 
 received its complement of perfection in the softness, 
 tenderness, and harmony of Correggio. One of his master- 
 pieces is the Assumption of the Virgin, — a fresco in the 
 Cathedral of Parma. Among his admired oil-paintings 
 are a Holy Family, known as " La Vierge au Panier ;" an 
 " Ecce Homo;" a picture of the Nativity, at Dresden, 
 called "Xotte," or "Night;" and a Saint Jerome, which 
 Annibal Caracci preferred to Raphael's Saint Cecilia, 
 One of his most remarkable productions is a " Penitent 
 Magdalen," in the gallery at Dresden : for this picture, 
 only about eighteen inches square, one of the Saxon 
 kings is said to have paid 6000 louis-d'ors, (30,000 dol- 
 lars.) His representations of women and children are 
 especially admirable. Many of his female countenances 
 possess an ineffable and almost divine beauty. Correggio 
 is said to have been remarkably modest. After gazing 
 on a production of Raphael, he exclaimed, exultingly, 
 Ancltio son' pittorti ("I also am a painter!") "The 
 harmony of Correggio," says Fuseli, "though assisted 
 by exquisite hues, was entirely independent of colour : 
 his great organ was chiaro oscnro in its most extensive 
 sense. The bland light of a globe gliding through lucid 
 demi-tints into rich reflected shades, composes the spell 
 which pervades all his performances." The celebrated 
 Danish poet Oehlenschlager has made Correggio the 
 subject of one of his most successful tragedies. 
 
 See " Memorie istoriche di A. Allegri detto il Correggio," Parma, 
 1817; Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. : "Lives of Correggio 
 and Parmegiano," London, 1823 ; " Biographie Universale ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Corregio, kor-ra'jo, (Giberto,) an able chief of the 
 Guelph party, who in 1303 obtained the sovereignty of 
 Parma. He was expelled in 1316. Died in 1321. 
 
 Cor're-us, a chief of the Bellovaci, a tribe of Gaul, 
 who, at the head of an army, encountered Caesar, and, 
 after a brave resistance, was killed. 
 
 Cor'rie, (Daniel,) an English clergyman, born about 
 1776, became Bishop of Madras in 1834. He translated 
 part of the Bible into Hindostanee. Died in 1837. 
 
 See "Memoirs of Daniel Corrie," by his brothers, 1S47. 
 
 Corrodi, kor-ro'dee, (Henry,) a learned Swiss writer, 
 born at Zurich in 1752. He published (in German) a 
 number of works on philosophy and theology, among 
 which isa" History of Millenarism,"(l78i.) Died in 1793. 
 
 See L. Meister, " Lebensbeschreibung H. Corrodi's," 1703. 
 
 Corse, (John M.,) an American general, who, in Oc- 
 tober, 1864, defended Allatoona with success against a 
 superior force of Confederate troops, while General 
 Sherman, from the top of Kenesaw Mountain, signalled 
 that he should hold out to the last. lie commanded a 
 division of Sherman's army in its march through Georgia 
 and Carolina. 
 
 Corsettj, koR-set'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Sienna about 1700 ; died in 1774. 
 
 Corsignani, koR-sen-yi'nee, (Pietro Antonio,) an 
 Italian historian, born at Celano in 1686; died in 1751. 
 
 Corsini, koR-see'nee, (Andrea,) born at Florence in 
 1302, was renowned for his piety and ascetic life. He 
 became Bishop of Fiesole about 1360. Died in 1373. 
 
 See F. Vknturi, "Vita di S. A. Corsini," 1620; Angulo, " Vida 
 di S. A. Corsini," 1630. 
 
 Corsini, (Edoardo,) an eminent Italian antiquary and 
 monk, born at Eanano in 1702. In 1735 ne became 
 professor of logic, and in 1746 of moral philosophy, at 
 Pisa. He published "Fasti Attici," (1744-56, 4 vols.,) 
 a capital work on Grecian chronology and history, and 
 other antiquarian treatises. Died at Pisa in 1765 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian] illustri." 
 
 Corsini, (Lorenzo.) See Clement XII. 
 
 Cort, koRt, (Cornelius,) a skilful Dutch designet 
 and engraver, born at Horn about 1530. After visiting 
 Venice about 1566, and engraving some works of Titian, 
 he settled in Rome, where he opened a school of engra- 
 ving. He produced many prints after various masters, 
 among which is "The Transfiguration of Raphael." 
 Died in Rome in 1578. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines KUnstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Cort, (Henry,) an English mechanician, who effected 
 great improvements in the manufacture of iron, was born 
 at Lancaster in 1740; died in 1800. 
 
 See Smiles, "Industrial Biography." 
 
 Cortambert, koR'tfiN'baiR', (Pierre Francois Eu- 
 gene,) a French geographer and writer, born at Toulouse 
 in 1805. 
 
 Corte, (Cesare and Valerio.) See Corti. 
 
 Corte, de la, da la koR'ta, (Juan,) a skilful Spanish 
 painter of landscapes and battles, born at Madrid in 
 ■597 ! died in 1660. His son, Gabriel, (1648-94,) was 
 a painter of flowers. 
 
 Corte-Murari, della, del'la koR'ta moo-ra'ree, 
 (Girolamo,) Count, an Italian poet, born at Mantua in 
 1747 ; died in 1832. 
 
 Cortenaer or Cortenaar, koR'teh-naV, (Egbert,) 
 a famous Dutch admiral. He distinguished himself as 
 captain in a battle against the Swedes in 1658, and was 
 killed near Lestoff in 1665. 
 
 Cortenovis, koK-ta-no'vess, (Angelo Maria,) an 
 Italian antiquary, born at Bergamo in 1727, wrote a 
 treatise "On the Purple of the Ancients." Died in 1801. 
 
 Corte-Real or Cortereal, koR-ta-ra-51', (Gaspar,) 
 a Portuguese navigator, commanded in 1500 an exploring 
 expedition to the region since called Canada. In 1501 
 he again sailed from Lisbon towards the Arctic regions, 
 and was never afterwards heard of. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Corte-Real, (Jeronymo,) a Portuguese poet, com- 
 posed several admired poems, of which the "Shipwreck 
 of Sepulveda" (1594) is the most popular. Died in 1593. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire de la Litterature du Midi de l'Europe." 
 
 Cortes. See Cortez. 
 
 Cortes, (Donoso.) See Donoso Cortes. 
 
 Cortes, koR-tes', (Martin,) a Spanish geographer, 
 who lived at Cadiz, published in 1561 an excellent work 
 on geography and navigation, called "Breve Compendio 
 de la Esfera y de la Arte de navegar." 
 
 Cortese. See Cortez. 
 
 Cortese, koR-ta'sa, (Giui.io Cesare,) an Italian poet, 
 born in the kingdom of Naples about 1570. He wrote 
 several facetious and satirical poems, one of which, called 
 the " Vajasseide," (1604,) passed through sixteen editions 
 in fourteen years. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire Litte'raire d'ltalie." 
 
 Cortesi. See Courtois, (Jacques.) 
 
 Cortesius. See Cortez. 
 
 Cor'tez, [Sp. Cortes, koR-tes'; It. Cortese, k)R- 
 ta'si ; Eat. Corte'sius,] (Hernando (or Hernan) or 
 Fernando,) the conqueror of Mexico, was born at Medel- 
 lin, a village of Estremadura, in Spain, in 1485. Resolving 
 to seek his fortune in the New World, he sailed to His- 
 paniola in 1504, and became a planter. He displayed 
 courage and ability in the conquest of Cuba, which Velari- 
 quez began in 1 5 1 1, and was rewarded with an estate in 
 that island. In I5i8he wasappointed by Velasquez com- 
 mander of an expedition sent against Mexico, which had 
 just been discovered, and which presented a most bril- 
 liant theatre for ambition and enterprise. The armada, 
 
 ^ 1 — — 1 
 
 « as -(■; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CORTI 
 
 672 
 
 CORWIN 
 
 which consisted of eleven vessels, ten cannon, and about 
 seven hundred men, sailed from Cuba in February, 1519, 
 its primary ostensible object being the conversion of the 
 infidels. This process he initiated by a battle at Tabasco, 
 where he defeated a native army. He next landed on 
 the site of the present Vera Cruz, where he made friendly 
 demonstrations and learned that he had entered the wide 
 empire of Montezuma. The Aztec artists by their pic- 
 ture-writing informed the monarch of the arrival of the 
 Spaniards. Having destroyed his ships, in order that 
 his soldiers might be forced to conquer or perish, Cortez 
 marched to Mexico, or Tenochtitlan, the capital of Ana- 
 huac, which, after several bloody victories over the Tlas- 
 calans, he entered in November, 15 19, without resistance. 
 Montezuma, after receiving them with due hospitality, 
 was made prisoner_by his audacious guests in his own 
 palace. Me was induced to swear allegiance to the em- 
 peror Charles V., and to pay an immense tribute in gold 
 and silver ; but he refused to profess the creed of the 
 Spaniards. In the mean time, Velasquez, jealous of the 
 success of Cortez, whom he regarded as a rival or rebel, 
 sent against him an army of about 1000 men, under Nar- 
 vaez, who arrived in Vera Cruz in April, 1520. Leaving 
 a small garrison in the capital, Cortez marched with 
 about 250 men against Narvaez, whom he defeated and 
 took prisoner near Zempoalla in 1520. Having per- 
 suaded the soldiers of Narvaez to join his standard, 
 Cortez returned to Mexico, which he found in revolt 
 against him. After several days of severe fighting, in 
 which Montezuma was mortally wounded by the natives, 
 the Spaniards were expelled from the city of Mexico, 
 with a loss of several hundred men. The great victory 
 at Otumba in July, 1520, restored the ascendency of 
 Cortez, and in 1521 he again became master of the capi- 
 tal, where he committed acts of infamous atrocity, and 
 the conquest of Mexico was completed. In 1522 he was 
 appointed by the Spanish court Governor and Captain- 
 General of New Spain, (Mexico.) In 1525 he executed 
 Guatemozin, the last emperor of the Aztecs. To vindi- 
 cate himself from the accusations of his enemies, he re- 
 turned in 1528 to Spain, where he was graciously received 
 by Charles V. ; but when he went again to Mexico, 
 in 1530, he no longer had the supremacy there. An 
 exploring expedition which he fitted out discovered 
 California in 1535. He revisited Spain in 1540, and 
 took part in the disastrous invasion of Algiers in 1541. 
 Died at Seville in 1547. His virtues and vices are thus 
 summed up by Prescott : " He was avaricious, yet libe- 
 ral ; bold to desperation, yet cautious and calculating in 
 his plans ; magnanimous, yet very cunning ; lax in his 
 notions of morality, yet a sad bigot. The great feature 
 in his character was constancy of purpose." 
 
 See Robertson, " History of America;" Prescott, "History 
 of the Conquest of Mexico; "Despatches of Hernando Cortes," 
 New York, 1843; Antonio de Sot.is y Ribauenevra, "Historia 
 de ia Conquista del Mexico," 1684 ; English version of the same, by 
 Thomas Townsend. 1724; Gomara, "Historia de F. Cortez, ' 
 Rome, 1556; Cari. Curths, "F. Cortez der Eroberer Mexiko's," 
 iSt8; "Lives of Nunez de Balboa, Hernan Cortes, and Francis 
 Pizarro," 1847. 
 
 Corti, koR'tee, or Corte, koR'ta, (Cesare,) a painter 
 of portraits and history, a son of Valerio, noticed below, 
 was born at Genoa about 1554; died about 1612. 
 
 Corti, [Lat. Cur'tius,] (Matteo,) an Italian medical 
 writer, born at Pavia in 1475; cnec l m '54 2 - 
 
 Corti or Corte, (Valerio,) an Italian portrait-painter 
 of merit, born at Venice in 1530, was a pupil of Titian. 
 Died at Genoa about 1580. His son Marcantonio was 
 an excellent designer. 
 
 Corticelli, koR-te-chel'lee, (Salvadore,) an eminent 
 Italian philologist, born at Piacenza in 1690. He pro- 
 duced an excellent Italian grammar, (1745.) which, says 
 Roquefort, "is the best in the language." Died in 1758. 
 
 See Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Cortona, da, da koR-to'na, (Piktro BERRETTiNi,)[Fr. 
 Pierre de Cortone, pe-aik'deh koR'ton',] an eminent 
 Italian painter, born at Cortona about 1600. He painted 
 some pictures in the Pitti palace, Florence, and afterwards 
 settled in Rome, where he worked with success. He 
 excelled in composition, and had a certain freedom and 
 facility of style. Mengs, however, says that he neglected 
 the study of principles founded on reason, and aimed 
 
 only to gratify the eye of the spectator. He was also 
 architect of several Roman edifices. Died in Rome in 
 1669. Among his oil-paintings is "The Conversion of 
 Saint Paul." The Barberini palace, Rome, contains one 
 of his principal frescos. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Bryan, "Dictionary 
 of Painters." 
 
 Cortone, de. See Cortona. 
 
 Cortot, koR'to', (Jean Pierre,) a French sculptor, 
 born in Paris in 1787, won the first prize of the Institute 
 in 1809. Among his finest works are "The Soldier of 
 Marathon" and the bas-relief which adorns the Chamber 
 of Deputies. Died in 1843. 
 
 Cortusi, koR-too'see, (Giacomo Antonio,) an Italian 
 botanist, and director of the botanic garden at Padua. 
 He published a description of the plants growing in that 
 garden, (1591.) Died in 1593. 
 
 Cor-uu-ca'nl-us, (Tiberius,) an eminent Roman 
 jurist and senator, was elected consul in 280 B.C., and 
 pontifex maximus about 254. He was the first plebeian 
 who attained the latter dignity. His talents and virtues 
 are highly praised by Cicero. He was appointed dic- 
 tator in 246 B.C., soon after which he died. 
 
 See Cicero, " De Legibus," and " De Oratore ;" Wuerffkl, 
 " Commentatio de T. Coruncanio," 1740. 
 
 Corvetto, di, de koR-vet'to, (Luigi Emmanuele,) 
 Count, a financier, born at Genoa in 1756. In 1805 he 
 became a member of Bonaparte's council of state. From 
 1815 to 1818 he was minister of finance in France. Died 
 in 1822. 
 
 See Solari, "Elogio storico del Conte L. E. di Corvetto," 1824. 
 
 Corvi, koR'vee, (Domenico,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Viterbo in 1623, excelled in nocturnal scenes. Died 
 in 1703. 
 
 Corvin. See Corvinus. 
 
 Corviiius, koR-vee'nus, (Johann August,) a Ger- 
 man engraver, born about 1682, worked for booksellers 
 of Augsburg. Died in 1738. 
 
 Cor-vi'nus, |Fr. Corvin, koR'vaN',] (Matthias,) 
 King of Hungary, born at Klausenburg in 1443, was the 
 son of John Huniades. He was elected king in 1458. His 
 reign was marked by a series of wars with the emperor 
 Ferdinand III., the Turks, and the Kings of Poland and 
 Bohemia. In the intervals of peace he promoted the arts 
 and sciences. He was eminent for military talents, and 
 made himself master of Austria and Vienna in 1485. He 
 died at Vienna in 1490, leaving the reputation of a wise 
 ruler. Vladislaus, King of Bohemia, was his successor. 
 
 See Turotz, "Chronica Hungavia;" Galeottus Martius, "De 
 Dictis et Faclis Regis Matthias;" Fesslkr, "Matthias Kbnig von 
 Hungarn," 1793; Wenzel, "Matthias Corvinus," 1810. 
 
 Corvisart-Desmarets, kor've'zaV di'mS'ri', (Jean 
 Nicolas,) an eminent French physician, born in Cham- 
 pagne in 1755. Having attended the lectures of Petit, 
 Desault, and others, he was received as docleur-regent of 
 .the faculty in 1782. In 1788 he was chosen professor of 
 clinic at the hospital La Charite, and in 1797 professor 
 of practical medicine in the College of France. He was 
 very successful as a lecturer, and had a rare sagacity in 
 diagnosis. About 1800 he was appointed chief physician 
 to Bonaparte, and a few years later received the title of 
 Baron. He published an "Essay on the Diseases and 
 Organic Lesions of the Heart," (1808,) and other works. 
 Bonaparte once said he " was an honest and able man, but 
 rather blunt," (brusque.) Died in 182 1. 
 
 See Frrrus, "Notice sur Cnrvisart," 1821; "Biographie MeMi- 
 cale;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Cor'vus, (M. Valerius,) a famous Roman general, 
 born about 370 B.C. He was chosen consul in 348, and 
 was re-elected five times. In 343 he gained two im- 
 portant victories over the Samnites near Gaurus and 
 Suessula. He was chosen dictator in 342. Again sum- 
 moned to the dictatorship in 301 B.C., he defeated the 
 Marsi and Etruscans. He was elected consul the sixth 
 time in 299. Died about 270 B.C. 
 
 See Valerius Maximus; Niebuhr, "History of Rome." 
 
 Cor'win, (Thomas,) an American statesman and 
 orator, born in Bourbon county, Kentucky, in July, 1794. 
 His parents removed to Ohio while he was a boy. He 
 studied law, was admitted to the bar about 1818, and 
 soon acquired celebrity as a lawyer and an orator. He 
 
 i, i, I, 0, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
COR YAT 
 
 673 
 
 C OSS US 
 
 supported John Quincy Adams for the Presidency in 
 1S2S, w.is elected a member of Congress by the voters 
 of the Warren district in 1830, and acted with the Whig 
 party. In 1840 he advocated the election of General 
 Harrison by numerous speeches at mass-meetings, for 
 Which his popular style of oratory was especially adapted. 
 He was elected Governor of Ohio for two years in Octo- 
 ber, 1S40, and represented that State in the Senate of 
 the United States from 1S45 to 1850. He opposed the 
 an war, on which he made an able speech in 1846. 
 In July. 1850, he was appointed secretary of the treas- 
 ury by President Fillmore. On his retirement from office, 
 March, 1S53, he resumed the practice of law at Lebanon, 
 Ohio. He was elected a member of Congress for the 
 seventh district of Ohio in October, 1858, and again in 
 1S60; but soon after the latter date (in 1861) he -.vas 
 sent as minister to Mexico. He returned home in 1864, 
 and died at Washington in December, 1865. 
 
 Cor'^-at or Cor'f -ate, (George,) an English clergy- 
 man, noted as a writer of Latin verse, became rector of 
 Odcombe about 1570. Died in 1606. 
 
 Coryat or Coryate, (Thomas,) an eccentric Eng- 
 lishman, a son of the preceding, was born at Odcombe 
 rectory in 1577. In 1608 he traversed France, Italy, and 
 Germany on foot, and published, in 161 1, "Crudities 
 hastily gobbled up in Five Months' Travel, etc." This 
 work was accompanied by numerous pieces of humorous 
 or ironical verse by Jonson, Drayton, Chapman, and 
 many other poets. In his youth he appears to have 
 officiated as court jester, or king's fool, in the service of 
 Henry, Prince of Wales. Between 1612 and 161 7 he 
 journeyed on foot through Palestine and Persia to Hin- 
 dostan. Died at Sural in 1617. 
 
 See "Retrospective Review," vol. vi., 182*. 
 
 Cor-y-ban'teS, [Gr. Kopi'/Javrec,] the priests of Cy- 
 bele, sometimes called also Galli. They celebrated the 
 festivals ol Cybele with orgiastic dances and loud cries, 
 beating on timbrels, clashing cymbals, and cutting their 
 flesh with knives. 
 
 Cosa, de la, di la ko'sa, (Juan,) a Spanish navigator, 
 who served Columbus as pilot in his second voyage to 
 America. He was skilful in the construction of maps 
 or charts. He was killed by some natives at Tabasco 
 in 1509. 
 
 Cosimo, kos'e-mo, (Jacopo or Giacomo,) a celebrated 
 engraver of gems and cameos, was born at Trezzo, in the 
 Milanese. He worked at Madrid for Philip II. 
 
 Cosimo, (Pietro,) an Italian painter of high reputa- 
 tion, also called RossF.M.l, was born at Florence in 1441. 
 He excelled in bacchanalian scenes. Died about 1525. 
 
 Cosimo de' Medici. See Medici. 
 
 Cosin or Cozen, kuz'en, (John,) an Knglish divine, 
 born at Norwich in 1594. He became Dean of Peter- 
 borough in 1640. During the civil war he retired to 
 Paris, where he preached several years. About 1660 he 
 returned, and was appointed Bishop of Durham. He 
 published "A Scholastic History of the Canon of Holy 
 Scripture," and other works. Died in 1672. 
 
 Cosini, ko-see'nee, (Silvio,) an able sculptor, a pupil 
 of Michael Angelo, born near Florence, lived about 1550. 
 
 Cos'mas, [Gr. Koauwi,] an Egyptian geographer, sur- 
 named InDICQPLXUS'tes, ("Indian navigator,") lived 
 about 540 A.I). In his youth he was a merchant, and 
 made voyages to India and other countries. He after- 
 wards became a monk at Alexandria, and wrote, in Greek, 
 several works, one of which, entitled "Christian To- 
 pogTaphy," tTmrirypofia Xi>umavuai,) is still extant. He 
 argues that the earth is not spherical. 
 
 See FAnmclus, "Bibliotheca Grieca;" Mannert, "GiSographie 
 del Anciens." 
 
 Cosmas of Jerusalem, a poet and monk of the eighth 
 century, wrote thirteen Greek hymns, which are extant. 
 
 Cosmas | Fr. Cosme, korn] OF Prague, born in 1045. 
 was the earliest historian of Bohemia whose work has 
 come down to us. He was a priest, and secretary to 
 Henry IV. of Germany. About. 1 125 he finished' his 
 "Bohemian Chronicle," ("Chronicon Bohemorum.") 
 Died in 1126. 
 
 Cosme of Prague. See Cosmas. 
 
 Cosme, kom,(jKAN Baseiijiac,) called Frere Cosme, 
 a French surgeon, born in the diocese of Tarbcs in 1703, 
 
 lived mostly in Paris. He was reputed one of the first 
 lithotomists of his time in France, and invented an in- 
 strument used in lithotomy. Died in 1 781. 
 
 Cosmico, kos'me-ko, (Niccol6 Helio,) aLatin poet, 
 born at Padua about 1440 ; died in 1489. 
 
 Cosmo (or Cosimo) de' Medici. See Medici. 
 
 Cosnac, de, deh kos'naV, (Daniel,) a French bishop, 
 noted for his address, vivacity, and talent for intrigue, 
 was born in Limousin about 1630. He became Arch- 
 bishop of Aix in 1687. Died in 1708. He left "Me- 
 moires," which were published in 1852. 
 
 See Abbe Choisv, "M^moires," liv. viii.; Saint Simc«, " M^- 
 moires;" Sainte-Beuve, "'Causeries du Lundi," tomevi.; " Nou- 
 velle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Cospeau, de, deh kos'pi'oN'', sometimes incorrectly 
 written Cospeau, (Philippe,) a Flemish prelate, born in 
 Hainaut in 1568, was eminent as a preacher. Moreri 
 gives him credit for purging the pulpit of quotations from 
 profane authors. He became Bishop of Nantes in 1622. 
 Died in 1646. 
 
 See Rene Lemee, " Le PnJIat accompli, ou la Vie de P. de Cos- 
 peau," 1646; R. Bordeaux, " Notice relative a P. Cospeau," 1S52. 
 
 Cospeau. See Cospean. 
 
 Cosroes. See Kiiosroo. 
 
 Cossa. See John XXIII., (Pope.) 
 
 Cossale, kos-sa'ii, or Cozzale, kot-sa'li,' (Orazio,) 
 an Italian painter, lived at Brescia about 1600. 
 
 Cossali, kos-sa'lee, (Pietro,) an Italian geometer and 
 Theatin friar, born at Verona in 1748, was professor oi 
 natural philosophy and astronomy at Parma, and after- 
 wards of mathematics at Padua. He wrote, besides 
 other works, a "Critical History of Algebra," (2 vols., 
 '779.) which was highly prized. Died in 1815. 
 
 SeeTlPALDO, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." , 
 
 Cossart, ko'siR', (Gabriel,) a learned French Jesuit, 
 born at Pontoise in 161 5 ; died in 1674. 
 
 Cosse, de, deh ko'sa', (Arthur or Artus,) Comte 
 de Secondigny, (seh-kiN'den'ye',) a French general, born 
 about 1 5 12. He became a marshal of Fiance in 1567, 
 after which he served in the civil wars against the Cab 
 vinists. Died in 1582. 
 
 See Brant8me, " Vies des grands Capitaines." 
 
 Cosse, de, (Charles,) Comte de Brissac, (bite'sSk',) 
 an able French general, brother of the' preceding, born 
 in Anjou about 1505. Having served in several cam- 
 paigns in Italy and Flanders, he was made grand mastei 
 oi artillery in 1547. In 1550 he became a marshal of 
 France, after which he fought successfully in Piedmont 
 against the Spaniards. He died about 1564, with the 
 reputation of one of the greatest captains of his age. 
 
 See De Thou, "Me'moires:" Brantome, "Vies des grands 
 Capitaines." 
 
 Cosse, de, (Charles,) Due de Brissac, a son of the 
 preceding, was a partisan of the League against Henry 
 III., and was the first who employed the Barricades in 
 Paris, (1588.) He was appointed'by the Duke of May- 
 enne governor of Paris, which he surrendered to Henry 
 IV. in 1594. He was afterwards made a marshal and a 
 duke. Hied in 1621. 
 
 See P^refixe, "Vie de Henri IV." 
 
 Cosse, de, (Louis Hercule Timoi.eon,) Due de 
 Brissac, a French royalist, born in 1734. He was ap- 
 pointed commandant of the royal guard in 1791, and 
 was massacred in September, 1792. 
 
 Cossiers, ko'se-i', (Jean,) a Flemish historical 
 painter, bom at Antwerp in 1603, was patronized by 
 the King of Spain. Among his best works is a " Pre- 
 sentation in the Temple." Died in 1652. 
 
 Cossigny de Palma, ko'scn'ye' deh pSl'mf ', (Josi rn 
 Francois,) a French naturalist, born at Palma, in the 
 Isle of France, in 1730. He published a "Treatise on 
 the Fabrication of Indigo," (1779,) and other esteemed 
 scientific works. Died in Paris in 1809. 
 
 Cossin, ko'.-aN', (Louis,) a French engraver, bom at 
 Trove* in 1633; died at Paris in 1682. 
 
 Cos'sus, (Aui.us Cornelius,) a patrician Roman 
 general, who was appointed dictator in 385 B.C., during 
 the Volscian war. He gained a decisive victory over 
 the Volscians soon after that date, and on his return to 
 Rome committed Manlius Capitolinus to prison. 
 
 See Livv, "History of Rome." 
 
 € as t; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 43 
 
cossus 
 
 674 
 
 COTELIER 
 
 Cossus, (Servius Cornklius,) a Roman warrior, who 
 killed in single combat Lar Tolumnins, King of the Veii, 
 about 437 B.C. He was the second person among the 
 Romans that obtained the spolia opima. He was chosen 
 consul in 428 B.C. 
 
 See Niehuhk, " History of Rome." 
 
 Cossutius, kos-su'she-us, a Roman architect of high 
 reputation, lived about 170 B.C. He was the first Roman 
 who built in the Greek manner. He rebuilt the grand 
 temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. 
 
 See Pliny, "Natural History,*' book xxxvi.; Felibien, "Vies 
 des plus celjbres Architectes." 
 
 Costa, kos'ta, (Lorenzo,) the Elder, an Italian 
 painter, born at Ferrara about 1450 ; died about 1530. 
 
 Costa, (Michele,) an Italian composer, born in Na- 
 ples in 1810. Among his chief works are "Don Carlos," 
 an opera, and "Eli," an oratorio. 
 
 Costa, (Paolo,) an Italian writer, born at Ravenna in 
 177 1, was one of the editors of the "Great Dictionary 
 of the Italian Language," (1819-26.) He published two 
 editions of Dante, (1819 and 1830,) and wrote various 
 works, among which is a novel called " Demetrio di 
 Modone." Died in 1836. 
 
 See Rambeli.i, " Elogio di P. Costa," 1837; Filippo Mordani, 
 " Biograiia di P. Costa," 1840. 
 
 Costa, da. See Da Costa. 
 
 Costa, da, da kos'ta, (Antonio Rodriguez,) a Por- 
 tuguese historian, born at Setuval in 1656 ; died in 1732. 
 
 Costa, da, da kos'ta, (Claudio Manoel,) a Brazilian 
 poet, born in 1729. He was educated at Coimbra, and 
 returned to Brazil. He wrote "Villarica," and other 
 poems, which are commended. Died in 1789. 
 
 Costa-Cabral, da, da kos'ta ka-bRal', (Antonio 
 Bernardo,) Count de Thomar, (to-maR',) a Portuguese 
 politician, born in 1803, was several times prime minister 
 between 1838 and 1851. 
 
 Costa de Beauregard, de, deh kos'tS' deli bor'gaR', 
 (Joseph Henri,) Marquis, ageneral and historian, born 
 in Savoy in 1752, was educated at Paris. He fought 
 against the French between 1792 and 1800. He pub- 
 lished (in French) " Historical Memoirs of the House 
 of Savoy." Died in 1S24. 
 
 Costa e Sylva, da, da kos'ta a sel'va, (Joze Maria,) 
 a Portuguese poet and critic, born in 1788. He wrote 
 "The Sepulchre of Mary," and other poems. His prin- 
 cipal work is a "Biographical and Critical Essay on the 
 Best Portuguese Poets," ("Ensaio biographico-critico 
 sobre os melhores Poetas Portuguezas," 7 vols., 1850-54,) 
 which he did not live to finish. Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Costanzi, kos-tan'zee, (Carlo,) a skilful engraver on 
 precious stones, born in Naples in 1703, worked in Rome. 
 He copied antique gems with great success, and engraved 
 on diamonds a Leda, and a head of Antinoiis. " Few 
 artists," says the "Biographie Universelle," "have re- 
 ceived from their contemporaries so many testimonials 
 of admiration." 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines KUnstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Costanzi, (Placido,) an Italian painter, • born at 
 Rome in 1688; died in 1759. 
 
 Costanzo, di, de kos-tan'zo, (Angelo,) a popular 
 Italian historian and lyric poet, born at Naples about 
 1507. He published in 1582 a " History of the Kingdom 
 of Naples from 1250 to 1489," which, says Ginguene, 
 " is regarded as one of the best works on that subject." 
 As a poet he held a high rank among his contempora- 
 ries. The Academy of Arcadians, near the close of the 
 seventeenth century, selected him as the best model for 
 imitation. Died about 1590. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Long- 
 fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Cos'tard, (George,) an English clergyman, noted as 
 an Oriental and classical scholar, was born in 1710. He 
 became Fellow and tutor of Wadhain College, Oxford, 
 about 1733, and vicar of Twickenham in 1764. His 
 principal work is a "History of Astronomy," (1767,) 
 which obtained a wide reputation. Died in 1782. 
 
 Coste. See Lacoste. 
 
 Coste, kost, (Jean Francois,) an eminent French phy- 
 sician, born at Ville (Ain) in 1741. He was chief physician 
 
 of the French army which fought for the United States in 
 1778-83. In 1790 he disphyed courage and firmness as 
 mayor of Versailles. He was physician-in-chief of the 
 grand army in the campaigns of Austerlitz, Jena, and 
 Eylau, (1805-09.) He published a treatise on "Military 
 Hospitals," and other able works. Died in 1819. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" 
 RbGNAULT, " Notice sur J. F. Coste," 1819. 
 
 Coste, (Jean Jacques Cyprien Victor,) a French 
 naturalist, born at Castries in 1807, was professor of 
 embryology ( ' emhryogenie ) in Paris, and became a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Sciences in 1851. He published 
 a " Voyage of Exploration on the Coasts of France and 
 Italy," (1855,) and other works. 
 
 Coste, (Pierre,) a" French litterateur and Protestant, 
 born at Uzes in 1668, took refuge in England about 1700. 
 He translated into French Locke's great work, and 
 Newton's " Optics," and edited several French authors. 
 Died in Paris in 1747. 
 
 Coste, kost, (Xavier Pascal,) a French architect, 
 born at Marseilles in 1787, was employed by the Viceroy 
 of Egypt from 1818 to 1827. He published a magnifi- 
 cent work entitled "Arabian Architecture, or Monuments 
 of Cairo," (1827.) 
 
 Costello, (Louisa Stuart.) a popular authoress, was 
 born in Ireland in 1815. She wrote, among other works, 
 "Summer amongst the Bocages and Vines," (1840,) a 
 "Pilgrimage to Auvergne," (1842,) "Memoirs of Emi- 
 nent Englishwomen," (i vols., 1844,) and "The Rose 
 Garden of Persia," an admired translation from the Per- 
 sian poets, (1845.) Died in 1870. 
 
 Costeo, kos-ta'o, [Lat. Cost^e'us,] (Giovanni,) an 
 Italian physician and writer, born at Lodi ; died at 
 Bologna in 1603. 
 
 Cos'ter, [Lat. Coste'rus,] (Bernard,) a Dutch his- 
 torical writer, born at Woerden in 1645 ; died in 1735. 
 
 Coster, kos'ta', (Joseph Francois,) a meritorious 
 French economist and financier, born at Nancy in 1729, 
 filled the position of chief clerk (premier comtnis) of the 
 finances under eleven successive ministers. He wrote 
 an " Eloge de Colbert," and other works. Died in 1813. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Blau, "FJoge de M. Cos- 
 ter," 1S08. 
 
 Coster or Costar, (Laurent Janszoon.) See 
 Koster. 
 
 Coster, (Samuel,) M.D., an eminent Dutch dramatic 
 poet, called the founder of the theatre of Amsterdam, 
 was born about 1580 or 1590. He produced five come- 
 dies and six tragedies between 1615 and 1644. His 
 "Iphigenia," a tragedy, (1626,) was perhaps the most 
 popular of his works. " His characters," says the " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle," "are well sustained, and his style 
 is often noble and energetic." 
 
 See Jocher, " Allgemehies Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Costha-Ben-Louka. See Kosta-Irn-Looka. 
 
 Cos'way, (Richard,) a successful English painter, 
 born at Tiverton in 1740, was a pupil of Hudson. He 
 had great skill in miniature-painting, in which he was 
 employed by persons of the highest rank. Died in 1821. 
 His wife, Maria Hadfield, was an excellent portrait- 
 painter and musician. Her musical parties in London 
 were frequented by the noble and fashionable, attracted 
 partly by the paintings and other works of art with which 
 the house was profusely adorned. 
 
 Cota, ko'ta, (Roderigo,) a Spanish poet, born at 
 Toledo; died in 1470. He was the reputed author of 
 the famous tragi-comedy "Calisto and Melibea," (some- 
 times called "Celestina,") and of "Mingo Rebulgo," a 
 satire. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Cotan, ko-tan', (Juan Sanchez,) a Spanish painter 
 of flowers and fruit, born at Alcazar de San Juan in 
 1561 ; died in 1627. 
 
 Cotelerius. See Cotelier. 
 
 Cotelier, kot'le-a', [Lat. Cotele'rius,] (Jean Bap- 
 TISTE,) a French {Tellenist of great merit, born at Nimes 
 in 1627. As professor of Greek in the Royal College 
 of Paris, he officiated with great distinction. He pub- 
 lished " Monuments of the Greek Church," (3 vols., 
 1677-86,) and other works. Died in 1686. 
 
 See Nrc^RON, " Memoires." 
 
 a, e, T. o, u. v. long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
COTES 
 
 675 
 
 COTTLE 
 
 Cotes, (Francis,) an English artist, born in London 
 in 1725, was one of the founders of the Royal Academy. 
 He was very successful as a portrait-painter, both in oil 
 and in crayon. Died in 1770. 
 
 Cotes, (Roger,) an eminent English mathematician, 
 born at Burbage in 1682. He became Fellow of Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, in 1705, and Plumian professor of 
 astronomy in 1706. In 1713 he took orders, and pub- 
 lished the second edition of Newton's "Principia," with 
 a preface which was greatly admired. His premature 
 death, in 1716, was deeply lamented by the learned. 
 Newton exclaimed, "If Cotes had lived, we should have 
 known something." He left a mathematical work, — 
 " Harmonia Mensurarum," ("Harmony of Measures.") 
 
 Cotignola, da, di ko-ten-yo'U, (Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian painter, lived at Parma about 1520. 
 
 See Vasari, '* Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Cotin, ko'taN', (Charles,) a French author, born in 
 Paris in 1604, owed the publicity of his name in a great 
 measure to the satires of Boileau and Moliere. He 
 was almoner to the king, and a member of the French 
 Academy. He was author of a volume of verses and 
 of several prose works. Died in 1682. 
 
 Mena^iana. " 
 
 Cot'man, (John Sell,) an able English artist, born 
 at Norwich in 1780. He gained a high reputation in en- 
 graving and architectural drawing. He published "Archi- 
 tectural Antiquities of Norfolk," (1812,) "Architectural 
 Antiquities of Normandy," (1820,) and other works. His 
 etchings are highly prized. Died in 1843. 
 
 Cotolendi, ko to'lo.N'de', (Charles,) a French litti- 
 r'aliiir, born at Aix or Avignon ; died about 1710. He 
 wrote a "Life of Saint Francis de Sales," (1689,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Coton. See Cotton. 
 
 Cotta, kot'ta, (Bernhard,) a distinguished German 
 geologist, born in Thuringia in 1808. He became pro- 
 fessor in the school of mines at Freiberg in 1842. He 
 wrote, besides other works, " Letters on the Cosmos of 
 Humboldt," (1848-51,) and " Geological Letters from the 
 Alps," (1850.) His theory of the production of organic 
 bodies may be regarded as a refined and improved 
 exhibition of Epicurean philosophy. He maintains that 
 the higher organisms are developed from the lower. 
 
 Cot'ta, (Caius Aurelius,) a Roman general, noted 
 foi his strict discipline, became consul in 252 B.C. He 
 commanded with success against the Carthaginians in 
 Sicily, and was elected consul again in 248. 
 
 Cotta, (Caius Aurelius,) a Roman orator, born 
 about 125 B.C. He obtained the consulship in 75 B.C., 
 and the province of Gaul was allotted to him in the 
 year 74. He was one of the most eminent orators of 
 his time, and was one of the interlocutors in Cicero's 
 " De Orators. " Died about 70 B.C. 
 
 Cotta, kot'ta, (Giovanni,) an Italian poet, born near 
 Verona about 1480. He was for some time in the ser- 
 vice of the Venetian general Alviano. " He acquired," 
 says Ginguene, "by a small number of verses (in Latin) 
 a high and merited reputation." Died in 1510. His 
 " Carmina" were published with the poems of Sannazar 
 in 1527. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Cotta, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian poet and 
 pulpit orator, born at Tende, near Nice, in 1668. He 
 became professor of logic at Florence in 1693, and com- 
 posed sonnets, hymns, and other poems. Died in 1738. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Giacinto 
 Della Torre, " Elogio storico di G. B. Cotta," 1738. 
 
 Cotta, (Heinrich,) a German naturalist, father of 
 Bernhard, noticed above, was born in 1763. He pub- 
 lished "Principles of the Science of Forests," (1832,) 
 and other scientific treatises. Died in 1844. 
 
 Cotta, (Johann Friedrich,) an eminent German 
 theologian, born at Tubingen in 1701. He was professor 
 of Oriental languages at Gbttingen, and subsequently of 
 theology at Tubingen, (1740.) He wrote many works, 
 among which was " Plan of a Complete Church History," 
 (" Entwurf einer ausfuhrlichen Kirchenhistorie," 1768,) 
 and published an edition of Gerhard's " Loci Theologici," 
 (1762-77.) Died in 1779. 
 
 See Meusei., "Gelehrtes Deutschland. " 
 
 Cotta, (Johann Friedrich,) Baron von Cottendorf, 
 (kot'ten-doRf,) a distinguished publisher, born at Stutt- 
 gart in 1764, was a grandson of the preceding. In 1793 
 he founded at Tubingen the "Allgemeine Zeitung," an 
 important daily journal, since published at Augsburg 
 He became intimate with Goethe and Schiller, whose 
 works he published, and with many other authors, of 
 whom he was a liberal patron. He established a steam- 
 press at Augsburg in 1824, and introduced steam-navi- 
 gation on the Rhine about 1825. Died in 1832. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic GeWrale." 
 
 Cotta, (L. Aurelius,) a brother of C. Aurelius, noticed 
 above, became praetor in 70 B.C., and then procured the 
 passage of the "lex Aurelia," which deprived the senate 
 of the exclusive right to dispense justice. He was consul 
 in the year 65, and supported Cicero against Catiline in 
 63. Cotta made the first motion in the senate for the 
 recall of Cicero from exile. He sided with Caesar in the 
 civil war, 49 B.C. 
 
 See Cicero, "In Pisonem," Philippic II. 
 
 Cotta, (L. Auruncui.eius,) a Roman officer, who 
 distinguished himself in Gaul as legate of Julius Caesar. 
 In 54 B.C. he and Sabinus commanded a body of troops 
 encamped for the winter among the Eburones. He was 
 killed during that winter, in a fight with the Gauls, who 
 attacked his camp. 
 
 Cotta, (Marcus Aurelius,) a Roman general, was 
 a brother of Caius Aurelius Cotta the orator. He be- 
 came consul with L. Lucullus in 74 B.C., and obtained 
 for his province Bithynia, then the seat of war against 
 Mithridates, by whom he was defeated with great loss 
 at Chalcedon. 
 
 Cotte, kot, (Ixmtis,) an eminent French meteorologist, 
 born at Laon in 1740. He was one of the first in France 
 who made and recorded observations on the weather 
 three times a day ; and he began to publish the results in 
 1765. He wrote a "Treatise on Meteorology," (1774,) 
 and other works. Died in 1815. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Cotte, de, deh kot, (Robert,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1656. He was appointed first architect 
 of the king in 1708. Among his works are the colonnade 
 of the .Grand Trianon, and the gallery of the Hotel de la 
 Vrilliere, now the Bank of' France. Died in 1735. 
 
 See Pingeron, " Vies des Architectes." 
 
 Cottenham, kot'ten-am, (Charles Christopher 
 Pepys,) Earl op, an English statesman, born in 1781. 
 He was appointed solicitor-general in 1833, and lord 
 chancellor in the Whig ministry in 1836. Having been 
 superseded in 1841, he again obtained the same office 
 in August, 1846. He was raised to the peerage, as Baron 
 Cottenham, in 1836, and created an earl in 1850, when 
 he retired from office. Died in 1851. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Foss, 
 " The Judges of England," vol. ix. 
 
 Cottereau, (Jean.) See Chouan. 
 
 Cot'ter-el, (Sir Charles,) an English scholar, was 
 master of requests to Charles II. He translated from 
 the French La Calprenede's romance of "Cassandra," 
 and from the Italian Davila's " History of the Civil Wars 
 of France," (1647.) 
 
 See Wood, "Athena Oxonienses. " 
 
 Cottin, ko'taN', ( Sophie Ristaud, ) a Protestant 
 French authoress, born at Tonneins in 1773. She was 
 married at the age of seventeen to M. Cottin, a banker 
 of Paris, and was left a widow after the lapse of three 
 years. Gifted with a vivid imagination, she amused her 
 solitude with composition, without aspijing to literary 
 fame. Her first production was a romance named " Claire 
 d'Albe," which was much admired. She afterwards wrote 
 "Malvina," (1800,) "Amelie Mansfield," (1802,) and 
 other popular novels, of which the best-known is "Eli- 
 zabeth, or the Exiles of Siberia." Died in 1807. 
 
 See Auguis, "Notice historique sur la Vie. etc. de Madame Cot- 
 tin :" A. Prtitot, " Notice sur la Vie de Madame Cottin," 1817 ; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1808 ; Sainte-Becvb, " Biogra- 
 phie portative des Contemporains." 
 
 Cot'tle. (Amos,) an English poet, brother of Joseph 
 Cottle, noticed below, translated the Icelandic " Edda" 
 into English verse, and wrote some original poetry. 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( jySee Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
COTTLE 
 
 676 
 
 COULOMB 
 
 Cottle, (Joseph,) an English poet, born in 1770 or 
 1774, was a kind friend to Coleridge and Southey in 
 their early adversities, — 
 
 " When friends were few, and fortune frowned." 
 In his youth he was a bookseller and publisher in Bris- 
 tol. He published the first poems of the authors just 
 named, in 1 796. Southey, many years later, expressed his 
 gratitude and esteem for his benefactor. Cottle was the 
 author of " Malvern Hills," " Alfred," " The Fall of Cam- 
 bria," and other poems, also of interesting " Reminis- 
 cences of Coleridge and Southey," (1847.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Cot'toii, (Charles,) an English translator and hu- 
 ff.orous poet, born in Staffordshire in 1630, was an 
 adopted son of Izaak Walton. He wrote an addition 
 to the "Complete Angler," made an approved transla- 
 tion of Montaigne's "Essays," and composed several 
 poems, among which are "The Wonders of the Peak," 
 a " Voyage to Ireland," and " Virgil Travestie." The 
 latter is a coarse and disgusting parody. Died in 1687. 
 
 See Sir J. Hawkins, " Life of Cotton ;" Gibber, "Lives of the 
 Poets:" " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Cotton, (George,) an English divine of the present 
 century, became Bishop of Calcutta in 1858. He was 
 conspicuous for his zeal in discharging the duties of his 
 office, and for his exertions in the cause of education. 
 He was drowned in the Ganges in 1867. 
 
 See "British Quarterly Review" for January, 1S67. 
 
 Cotton, (John,) a learned English Puritan minister, 
 born at Derby in 1585. He became vicar of a church 
 at Boston (England) about 1612, and emigrated to Mas- 
 sachusetts in 1633. He afterwards preached at Boston, 
 where he acquired great influence, and was an antagonist 
 of Roger Williams, in reply to whom he asserted the 
 right of magistrates to interfere in religion. Died in 1652. 
 
 See Norton and Mather, " Life of J. Cotton." 
 
 Cotton, (NATHANIEL,) an English poet and physician, 
 born in 1707, was noted for his skill in the treatment of 
 insanity. The poet Cowper, who was an inmate of his 
 private lunatic-asylum at Saint Alton's, afterwards spoke 
 of him in very favourable terms. He wrote "Marriage, 
 a Vision," and other works, in prose and verse. Died 
 in 1788. 
 
 See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Cotton, ko'tAs', or Coton, (Pierre,) an eminent 
 French Jesuit, born at Neronde in 1564, became a popu- 
 lar preacher, and is said to have converted many Prot- 
 estants. He was confessor of Henry IV. for some years 
 before the death of that king, whose favour he enjoyed 
 in a high degree. Somebody remarked that Henry " had 
 cotton in his ears." He officiated as confessor to Louis 
 XIII. from 1610 to 1617. Died in 1626. 
 
 See Pbre d'Ori.eans, "Vie de Cotton," 16SS. 
 
 Cotton, (Sir Robert Bruce,) an eminent English 
 antiquary, the founder of the Cottonian Library, born at 
 Denton, in Huntingdonshire, in 1570, graduated afCam- 
 bridge in 1585. He gave special attention to antiquarian 
 researches, and to the collection of historical records and 
 documents. At the accession of James I. (1603) he was 
 knighted. He was often consulted and employed by the 
 king and ministers, by whom he was regarded as an ora- 
 cle. In 1628 he was a member of Parliament. He died 
 in 1631, leaving to his heirs his valuable library, which 
 was increased by his son, Sir Thomas, and was deposited 
 :n the British Museum about 1755. Sir Robert wrote a 
 ' Life of Henry III. of England," and many political and 
 historical treatises. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica ;" " Life of Sir R. Cotton," prefixed 
 to Dr. Smith's Catalogue of Cotton's Library, 1696. 
 
 Cotton, (Stapi.eton.) See Comkermere. 
 
 Cotton, (Sir Sydney,) an English general, born in 
 1792, served in India during the mutiny of 1857-58, and 
 was knighted for his services in that crisis. 
 
 Cottret, ko'tKi', (Pierre Marie,) a French bishop 
 and writer, born at Argenteuil in 1768; died in 1841. 
 
 Cotugno, ko-toon'yo, (Domenico,) an eminent anato- 
 mist, born at Ruvo, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1736. 
 He became surgeon of the Hospital of Incurables in 
 Naples in 1754, and professor of anatomy in the Univer- 
 sity in 1766. He was afterwards employed by the royal 
 family. Among his most important works are a "Treat- 
 
 ise on the Anatomy of the Internal Ear," (1761,) and 
 one on "Sciatica," (1765.) He made some discoveries 
 in anatomy. Died at Naples in 1822. 
 
 See " Biographie M^dicale;" Folinea, " Elogio del Cavaliere D. 
 Cotugno," 1823. 
 
 Co'tjfs, [Gr. Koroc,] a king of Thrace, waged war 
 against the Athenians. Died about 356 B.C. 
 
 Couailhac, koo'k'ltk', (Louis,) a French dramatist 
 and journalist, born at Cahors in 1810. 
 
 Couch, (Darius N.,) an American general, born in 
 Putnam county, New York, about 1822, graduated at 
 West Point in 1846. He was appointed a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers about August, 1861. He com- 
 manded a division at Fair Oaks, May 31-June I, became 
 a major-general in July, 1862, and directed a corps at 
 Chancellorsville, May 3-5, 1863. He commanded the 
 Department of the Susquehanna from June, 1863, to 
 December, 1864. 
 
 Couch, (Richard Quillar,) an English naturalist 
 and surgeon, born in Cornwall in 1816. He practised 
 at Penzance, and wrote a number of essays on marine 
 animals, and on the geology of Cornwall. Died in 1863. 
 
 Coucke, kow'keh, (Jean,) a Belgian landscape- 
 painter of the present century, was born at Ghent. His 
 works are dated from 1808 to 1834. 
 
 Coucy, de, deh koo'se', (Raoul or Renaud,) a 
 French minstrel, who went to Palestine as a crusader, 
 and was killed in battle in 1192. He wrote a number 
 of songs, which were once popular. 
 
 See La Borde, " Me'moires historiques sur Raoul de Coucy," 
 etc., Paris, 1781. 
 
 Coucy, de, (Robert,) a famous French architect, 
 born at Rheims (or Coucy, according to some authori- 
 ties.) He was chief architect of the cathedral of Rheims, 
 a master-piece of the Gothic style, and of the church 
 of Saint-Nicaise, in the same city, both of which had 
 been begun by Libergier. Died in 1311. 
 
 See D. Marlot, " Histoire de la Ville de Reims," 1846. 
 
 Couder, koo'daiR', (Louis Charles Auguste, ) a 
 French historical painter, born in Paris about 1790, was 
 a pupil of David. He established his reputation by the 
 " Levite of Ephraim," (1817.) His "Soldier of Mara- 
 thon" is admired for grandeur of style. Among his 
 later productions are "The Battle of Laufeld," (1836,) 
 and "The Oath at the Tennis-Court," (1848.) He was 
 admitted into the Institute in 1839. 
 
 Coudray, du. See Troncon. 
 
 Coudrette.koo'diteY, (Christophf.,) a French priest, 
 born in Paris in 1701. He became an adversary of the 
 order of Jesuits, and wrote, besides other works, a " His- 
 tory of the Rise and Progress of the Jesuits," ( 1 761.) 
 Died in 1774. 
 
 Coulanges, koo'ldNzh', (Marie AngElique du Gue 
 Bagnoles — dti ga btn'yol',) a French lady, born in 1641, 
 became the wife of the Marquis de Coulanges, noticed 
 below. She was a friend of Madame de Sevigne, and 
 author of letters which were published. Died in 1723. 
 
 Coulanges, de, deh koo'16Nzh', (Philippe Ema- 
 nuel,) Marquis, a French song-writer, born in Paris 
 in 1631, was noted for his wit and bon-mots. He was 
 cousin-german to Madame de Sevigne. Died in 1716. 
 
 See Madame de Sevigne, "Lettres." 
 
 Coulet, koo'l.V, (Anne Philiherte,) a French en- 
 graver, born in Paris in 1736. She engraved after Vernet 
 and other masters. 
 
 Coulomb, de, deh koo'16N', (Charles Augustin,) 
 a French savant, eminent for his discoveries in experi- 
 mental physics and electricity, was born at Angouleme 
 in 1736. His "Theory of Simple Machines" (1779) 
 gained the prize offered by the Academy of Sciences, 
 and opened to him the doors of that Institution. In 
 1784 he was appointed intendant of the waters and 
 springs of France. At an early stage of the Revolution 
 he retired from public service. He wrote for the Acad- 
 emy many able treatises on mechanics, electricity, etc. 
 He invented the Torsion Balance, which he used in suc- 
 cessful experiments on the laws of magnetic and electric 
 attraction and repulsion. By the same means he de- 
 termined the laws of the distribution of electricity on 
 the surface of bodies, and of magnetism in the interior. 
 He was admitted into the Institute about 1796. Died 
 
 a, e, I, o, ti, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; nfit ; good; moon; 
 
COULON 
 
 677 
 
 COURT J IS 
 
 in 1S06. M. Kiot remarks that the labours of Poisson 
 have iUustnted the admirable sagacity of Coulomb as 
 an observer, as well as the accuracy of his experiments. 
 
 See Qcekaru, "La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Grfnerale " 
 
 Coulon, koo'l6.N', (Louis,) a French geographer, born 
 at l'oitiers in 1(105. He published a "Treatise on the 
 Rivers ol France," (2 vols., 1644,) and several historical 
 compilations. Died in 1664. 
 
 Coulon de Theveuot, koo'lo.N' deh tav'no', (A.,) 
 the inventor of French taihygraphi,; or short-hand, was 
 born about 1754. In 1792 he served \ja Kavette in the 
 army as chief secretary. He published "The Art of 
 Writing as rapidly as One speaks," (1794.) Diedin 1S14. 
 kk \ki>. " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Coupe, koo'pa', (Jean M \txt Louis,) a French ////<•'■ 
 r, bom at l'cronnc in 1732. Among his works are 
 "Lit. "Us" ("Soirees litteraires," 20 vols., 
 
 1795-180!,) and "(Knvres d'Hesiode." Died in 1818. 
 
 Couperin, koop'raN', (Francois,) a French organist 
 ailed "le Grand," was born in Paris in 
 ; died in 1 733. 
 
 Couplet, koo'plj', (Pi[it.ippK,)a Flemish missionary, 
 born at Marines about 1628. He went to China in 1659, 
 and became deeply versed in the language and history of 
 that empire. He and several of his colleagues published 
 a Latin version of the works of Confucius. Died at sea 
 in 1692. 
 
 Courayer, le, leh koo'rS'ya', orCourrayer, (Pierre 
 Francois,) a French Cathoiic priest, born at Rouen in 
 1681. He published in 1723 a work in favour of the va- 
 lidity of ordinations in the Anglican Church. In conse- 
 quence of the persecution to which this subjected him. 
 he retired to England, where he died in 1776, without 
 having renounced the Roman Catholic communion. He 
 left a good French version of Sarpi's " History of the 
 Council of Trent," (2 vols., 1736,) and other works. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1S11. 
 
 Courbes, de, deh kooRb, (Jean,) a French engraver, 
 born about 1592, engraved a portrait of Sir Philip Sidney. 
 
 Courbet, kooR'bi', (GuSTAVE.) a French painter, 
 born at Ornans (Doubs) in 1819. His works are chiefly 
 landscapes and portraits. 
 
 Courbiere, de, deh kooR'be-aiR', (Wilhelm Rene,) 
 Baron de Homme, a Prussian general, born at Gronin- 
 gen in 1733 ; died in 181 1. 
 
 Courbon, de, deh kooR'bdN', Marquis, a French 
 officer, noted for his ability and romantic adventures, 
 was born in 1650. He obtained a high rank in the 
 Venetian army, and was killed at Negropont in 1688. 
 
 See Aimar, "Vie du Marquis de Courbon," 1692. 
 
 Courcelles, de, deh kooR'sel', [[.at. Curcklt..t.Vs,| 
 (Eitenne,) an eminent Protestant divine, born at Ge- 
 neva in 1586. After preaching at Amiens, he removed 
 to Amsterdam, where he succeeded Simon Episcopius 
 as professor of theology. He translated into Latin the 
 Philosophy of Descartes, and published several theolo- 
 gical works. Died about 1660. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Courcelles, de, deh koon'sel', (EtiennkChardon,) 
 a French physician, born at Rheims in 1705. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " Manual of Surgical Operations," 
 (1756.) Died in 1775. 
 
 Courcelles, de, 1 Jean Rapttste Pierre Jui.ien,) 
 Chevalier, a French writer, born at Orleans in 1759. 
 He was the author of a " Historical Dictionary of French 
 Generals since the Eleventh Century," (Paris, 1820- 
 23,) a "Genealogical History of the Peers of France," 
 etc., (1830,) and other works. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Courcelles, de, (Thomas,) a French theologian, born 
 in 1400, was one of the judges who condemned Joan of 
 Arc to death. Died in 1469. 
 
 Courcillon. See Dangeau. 
 
 Couretde Villeneuve, koo'ri'deh vel'nuv', (Louis 
 Pierre,) a French litterateur anA printer, born at Orleans 
 in 1749. He Vrote and translated many works, in prose 
 and verse. He was drowned in the Lvs in 1806. 
 
 Courier, koo're-i', (or Courier de Mere — deh rai'- 
 ri,') (Paul Louis, i an ingenious and popular French 
 
 author and pamphleteer, born in Paris in 1772 or 1773, 
 was liberally educated, and was an excellent Greek scho- 
 lar. He entered the army as engineer in 1792, became 
 a captain in 1705, and fought in the campaign of Rome 
 in 1798. In 1803 he obtained the brevet ol chef d'esca- 
 dron, (major.) During the intervals when active service 
 •ras BOSpendedi he pursued his literary studies and trans- 
 lated from Cicero, Isocrates, etc. His last campaign 
 was that ol Austria in 1809, after which he resigned 
 his commission. He published an excellent edition and 
 ■ n of I.ongus, (1810,) and translated Xenophon 
 "On the Command of Cavalry," and other classics. (See 
 Loxecs.) In 1S14 he married a daughter of Etienne 
 Clavier. He produced numerous political pamphlets and 
 letters which display much humour and satirical power. 
 In politics he was liberal or independent. He was as- 
 sassinated by one or two of his servants on his own 
 estate in Touraine in 1825. "The merits of his works," 
 says Lord Brougham, " are of a very high order. They 
 abound in strong masculine sense, illustrated with clas- 
 sical allusions and seasoned with wit more brilliant than 
 is almost anywhere alse to be found ; for it has the keen 
 edge of Swift's satire, and the easy playfulness of Vol- 
 taire, without his pertness and flippancy. He is truly a 
 writer of extraordinary powers; and nothing could have 
 prevented him from attaining a very eminent place among 
 the literary men of his age, but his never having com- 
 posed a work of considerable magnitude on a subject of 
 permanent importance." ("Edinburgh Review.") Ar- 
 mand Carrel pronounced his " Pamphlet des Pamphlets" 
 (1824) "the most finished work in respect to taste, and 
 the most wonderful in respect to art, in the language." 
 
 See A. Carrei., " F.ssai sur la Vie et les CEuvres de P. L. Cou- 
 rier," 1S3S : Saintb-Beuve, " Causeriesdu Lundi ;" Querard, "[.a 
 France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale ;" " Edinburgh 
 Review" for March, 1829; "Westminster Review" for April, 1S66. 
 
 Cournot, kooR'no', (Antoine Augustin,) a French 
 mathematician, born in 1801. He published, besides 
 other works, an " Exposition of the Theory of Chances 
 and Probabilities," (1843,) and a French version of Sir 
 J. Herschel's "Treatise on Astronomy." 
 
 Courrayer. See Courayer. 
 
 Courson, de, deh kooR's6.\', (Aureuf.n,) a French 
 historian, born at Port Louis, He de France, in 181 1, be- 
 came librarian of the Louvre, Paris. Among his works 
 is a " History of the Breton Peoples of Gaul and the 
 British Isles/' (1846.) 
 
 Court, kooR, (Antoine,) a French Protestant divine, 
 born in Vivarais in 1696. He laboured with success 
 to reorganize the Protestant churches after the civil war, 
 and discouraged a factious resistance to the government. 
 He was president of a theological seminary at Lausanne 
 from 1730 to 1760, and wrote a " History of the War of 
 the Camisards.'* Died in 1760. 
 
 See De Faliac " Histoire des Protestants de France ;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Court. (Joseph Desire,) a French historical painter, 
 bom at Rouen in 1797, won the grand prize in 1821. 
 I lis reputation was established by the " Death of Caesar." 
 (1827,) which is placed in the Luxembourg Gallery. 
 
 Court de Gebelin, I<oor deh zhab'laN 7 , (Antoine,) 
 a French scholar and Protestant, son of Antoine Court, 
 noticed above, was born at Nimes in 1725. He became 
 a resident of Paris about 1760, and devoted much time 
 to the study of antiquity, mythology, the filiation of lan- 
 guages, etc. Between 1773 and 1784 he published nine 
 volumes of his "Primitive World Analyzed and Com- 
 pared with the Modern," a work of great learning, which 
 was never completed. The French Academy twice 
 awarded to him the annual prize founded lor the most 
 useful work. He co-operated with Dr. B. Franklin and 
 others in editing a periodical called "The Affairs of 
 England and America," (15 vols., Paris, 1776 et sea. 
 Died in 1784. 
 
 S«-e Rabaud Saint fi-riRNNr., " Lettres sur la Vie, etc. de f tirt 
 in," 1 -1 Theodore Focrnier, "Notice sur A. Court de 
 Gebelin," 184S; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale " 
 
 Courtais, de, deh kooR'tJ', (A.mabi.e Gaspard 
 Henri,) a French general, born at Moulins in 1786, 
 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1842. Soon 
 after the revolution of 1848 he was appointed commander 
 of the national guard of Paris. He was censured and 
 
 « asxV c as s; g hard; g as./; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; K, hilled; 3 as *; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
COURT AN VAUX 
 
 678 
 
 COUSIN 
 
 removed because he failed to prevent the invasion of 
 the Chamber by the mob in May, 1848. 
 
 Courtanvaux, de, deh kooR'tdN'vo', (Francois 
 Cesar Letellier — leh-tj'le-a',) Marquis, a French 
 savant, was born in Paris in 17 18. He was admitted in 
 1764 to the Academy of Sciences, for which he wrote 
 memoirs on chemistry, etc. Died in 1781. 
 
 Cour'teu, kiu'ten, ? (William,) an English naturalist, 
 born in London in 1642. He made a rich collection of 
 medals, etc. Died in 1702. 
 
 Courteu, (Sir William,) an eminent merchant of 
 London, of Flemish descent, born about 1570, made 
 large loans to James I. and Charles I. Died in 1636. 
 
 Courtenay or Courtnay, kurt'ne, (John,) an Irish 
 politician and writer, born about 1740. He was elected 
 in 1780 to the British Parliament, in which he sat many 
 years, and voted with the Whigs. In 1806 he was ap- 
 pointed commissioner of the treasury, and a few months 
 later retired from the public service. He wrote tracts 
 on the French Revolution, "Manners, Arts, and Politics 
 of France and Italy," in verse, and a few other works. 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 Courtenay, de, deh kooRt'n^', (Pierre,) a French 
 count, who succeeded his father in 1 183, was one of the 
 most powerful princes of his time. He joined a crusade 
 to Palestine in 1190. In 1216 he was chosen Emperor 
 of Constantinople. He was defeated, made prisoner, and 
 put to death about 1220, by Theodore, a Greek prince. 
 
 See MlCHAUD, " Histoire des Croisades." 
 
 Courtenay, (lion. Thomas Peregrine,) M.P., an 
 English scholar and writer of the present century, of 
 whose life we have no details. He published a "Life 
 of Sir William Temple," (1836,) which Macaulay com- 
 mends for "diligence, good sense, and impartiality." 
 
 See Macaulay's Essay on "Sir William Temple " 
 
 Courtilz de Sandras, de, deh kooR'telz' deh s6n'- 
 dRfs', (Gaiien,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 
 1644. He published, anonymously, a " Life of Coligny," 
 a " History of the War in Holland," (1672-77,) and many 
 mediocre works, which purport to be memoirs, historical 
 or biographical, but contain much fiction or falsehood. 
 He was imprisoned in the Bastille nine years, (1702-11.) 
 His style is praised by Bayle. Died in 1712. 
 
 See Nic^ron, "Mt*moires." 
 
 Courtin, kooR'taN', (Antoine,) a French negotiator 
 and moralist, born at Riom in 1622. He became private 
 secretary of Christina of Sweden in 1651, and after her 
 abdication was ambassador from Sweden to France. 
 About 1662 he was employed by Louis XIV. in a nego- 
 tiation with England. He published a number of moral 
 essays. Died in 1685. 
 
 See Qurrard, "La France Litt^raire." 
 
 Courtin, (Eustache Marie Pierre,) a French law- 
 yer and editor, born at Lisieux in 1768, became advo- 
 cate-general in the imperial court, Paris, in 181 1. Be- 
 tween 1824 and 1832 he published the "Encyclopedic 
 Moderne," (24 vols.,) a work of merit. Died in 1839. 
 
 Courtivron, de, deh kooR'te'vR6.\', (Gaspard le 
 Compasseur de Crequi-Montfort — leh k6N'pi'sUR' 
 deh kRa'ke' m6N'foR',) Marquis, a French scientific 
 writer, born in Burgundy in 1715. He became an officer 
 in the army, and saved the life of Marshal Saxe in 1 742. 
 He wrote a "Treatise on Optics," (1752,) and other 
 works. Died in 1785. 
 
 See Condorcet, " Eloge'de M. le Marquis de Courtivron." 
 
 Courtnay. See Courtenay. 
 
 Courtney or Courtenay, kurt'ne, the name of a 
 noble English family, to which the Earls of Devonshire 
 belong, and which came from Normandy with William the 
 Conqueror. One of this name was made Earl of Devon- 
 shire by Queen Mary about 1554. He was " nearly allied 
 to the crown," says Hume, and received overtures of mar- 
 riage with the queen, which he neglected, from his partial- 
 ity to her sister Elizabeth. (See Devonshire, Earl of.) 
 
 Courtney, (William,) a younger son of Hugh Court- 
 ney, Earl of Devonshire, born about 1340, became chan- 
 cellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1381. 
 He persecuted the disciples of Wickliffe. Died in 1396. 
 His mother, Margaret, was a daughter of Edward I. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. iv. chap. xvi. 
 
 Courtois, kooR'twa', (Edme Bonaventure,) a French 
 politician, born at Arcis-sur-Aube about 1755, became 
 a member of the National Convention in 1792, and .1 
 political friend of Danton. He favoured the triumph of 
 Bonaparte in November, 1799, and became a member of 
 the Tribunate. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Qurrard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Courtois, [It. Cortesi, kor-ta'see,] (Guillaume,) a 
 distinguished French painter, born in 1628, was a pupil 
 of Pietro da Cortona. He worked mostly in Rome, and 
 was patronized by Pope Alexander VI. "The Miracle 
 of Joshua suspending the Motion of the Sun" is one of 
 his master- pieces. He aided his brother Jacques in some 
 of his works. Died in Rome in 1679. 
 
 Courtois or Curtois, (Jacques,) [It. Jacopo Cor- 
 tesi, yd'ko-po koR-ta'see,] an eminent painter of battles 
 and history, often called II Borgognone, (el boR-gon- 
 yo'ni,) or Le Bourguignon, (leh booR'gen'y6N',) born 
 at Saint-Hippolyte, in Franche-Comte, in 1621, was a 
 brother of the preceding. He studied with Guido at 
 Bologna, and worked some time in Florence. About 
 1658 he became a Jesuit or monk, and settled in Rome, 
 where lie painted many works, among which are the 
 " Battle of Arbela," and some sacred subjects. He ex- 
 celled in freedom of design, facility of execution, and in 
 the disposition, variety, and movement of the figures. 
 Died in Rome in 1676. 
 
 See Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters;" Nagler, "Neues Allge- 
 meines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Courtois, kooR'twa', (Richard Joseph,) a Belgian 
 naturalist, born at Verviers in 1806, was the author of 
 a "Compendium Florae Belgicae," (3 vols., 1827-36.) 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 Courtonne, kooR'ton', (Jean,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris about 1670 ; died about 1740. 
 
 Courvoisier, kooR'vwa'ze-4', (Jean Bapttste,) a 
 French jurist, born at Arbois in 1749 ; died in 1803. 
 
 Courvoisier, (Jean Joseph Antoine,) a French 
 lawyer and politician, son of the preceding, born at Be- 
 sancon in 1775. He emigrated as a royalist about 1790, 
 and became minister of justice in 1829. He resigned in 
 May, 1830, and died in 1835. 
 
 See LaMartine, " History of the Restoration. " 
 
 Cousin, koo'zaN', [Lat. Cogna'tus,] (Gilbert,) a 
 classical scholar and writer, born at Nozeroy, in Franche- 
 Comte, in 1506. He lived about five years with Erasmus, 
 who employed him as secretary or amanuensis and 
 treated him as a companion and friend. He afterwards 
 opened a school in his native place. Conrad Gesner 
 states that he was the first who caused learning to flourish 
 in Burgundy. Cousin wrote notes on Lucian, Aristotle, 
 Ovid, etc., and Latin works on theology and other sub- 
 jects. Suspected of Protestantism, he was imprisoned, 
 and during his trial died at Besancon in 1567. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Cousin, (Jacques Antoine Joseph,) a French geo- 
 meter, born in Paris in 1739. He was for many years 
 professor of physics in the College of France. In 1795 
 he became a member of the Institute, and senator in 
 1799. He published a "Treatise on the Differential and 
 Integral Calculus," and other works. Died in 1800. 
 
 See Qurrard, " La France Littdraire." 
 
 Cousin, (Jean,) an eminent French painter and sculp- 
 tor, born at Souci, near Sens, about 1500, worked many 
 years in Paris. He is regarded as the first Frenchman 
 who gained distinction by painting history. The most 
 celebrated of his works was "The Last Judgment," 
 a large oil-painting. His correctness of design was 
 his chief merit. He painted on glass more than in oil. 
 He also wrote able treatises on perspective, geometry, 
 and the proportions of the human body. Died about 
 1590. 
 
 See F^libien, " Entretiens sur les Vies des Peintres." 
 
 Cousin, (Louis,) a French lawyer and learned trans- 
 lator, born in Paris in 1627, became president of the court 
 des monnaies. In 1697 he was admitted into the French 
 Academy. He published a " History of the Church," 
 (1675,) a "History of the Empire of the West," (1683,) 
 and other works, all of which are translations from Greek 
 and Latin authors. Died in 1707. 
 
 See Nichron, " Me'nioires." 
 
 .. m 
 
 ,, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
COUSIN 
 
 679 
 
 COUTTS 
 
 Ccusin, [VlCTORj a celebrated French philosopher 
 and metaphysician, born in Paris on the 28th of Novem- 
 ber, 1 792, was the son of a clockmaker. He gained the 
 first prize of honour at the Lycee Charlemagne in 1810, 
 after which he attended Laromiguiere's lectures on phi- 
 losophy. In 181 5 he succeeded Royer-Collard as sub- 
 stitute professor of philosophy at the Sorbonne, where 
 he delivered eloquent and popular lectures on the history 
 of philosophy. He was deprived of the professorship by 
 the government in 1820 or 1821 for his liberal principles, 
 and then commenced a translation of Plato. He pub- 
 lished in 1826 an edition of Descartes, in eleven volumes, 
 and " Philosophic Fragments," (" Fragments philoso- 
 phiques,") an important original work. After being im- 
 prisoned six months in Berlin on suspicion of liberalism, 
 he was again appointed professor of philosophy at the 
 Sorbonne in 1828. His lectures displayed an admirable 
 combination of sensibility, imagination, and reason, and 
 he shared with his colleagues, Guizot and Villeniain, an 
 immense popularity. The revolution of 1830 opened to 
 him a new career. Retiring from the chair of philosophy, 
 he became councillor of state, and a member of the coun- 
 cil of public instruction. He was elected to the French 
 Academy in 1830 in place of Fourier, and was made a 
 peer of France in 1832. M. Cousin was minister of 
 public instruction about eight months in the cabinet 
 formed by M. Thiers in March, 184.0. He displayed 
 superior oratorical powers in his speeches in the Cham- 
 ber of Peers. After the revolution of 1848 he took no 
 part in public affairs. Among his principal works are an 
 excellent French translation of Plato, (13 vols., 1825-40,) 
 a "Treatise on the Metaphysics of Aristotle," (1838,) a 
 "Course of Moral Philosophy" ("Cours de Philosophie 
 morale") from 1816 to 1820, (5 vols., 1840,) a new series 
 of " Philosophic Fragments," (1838-40,) "Lectures on 
 the Philosophy of Kant," (1842,) a "Biography of Jac- 
 queline Pascal," (1845,) and "The True, the Beautiful, 
 and the Good," ("Du Vrai, do Beau et du Bien," 1853.) 
 He published a collective edition of his works, in 22 
 vols. 181110, (1847.) His system of philosophy may be 
 briefly characterized as eclecticism, or a union of sen- 
 sualism and idealism. He is regarded as one of the first 
 philosophical writers of his time. Died in January, 1867. 
 
 See Marbach, "Schelling, Hegel und Cousin ;" C. Fuchs, "Die 
 Philosophie von Victor Cousin," 1847; Sainte Beuve, "Causeries 
 du Lundi;" Sir William Hamilton, critique in the "Edinburgh 
 Review," vol. 1.; Louis de Lomenie, "M. V. Cousin, par un 
 Homme de Rien," 1842 ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" " North 
 British Review" for March, 1867. 
 
 Cousin d'Avallon, koo'zaN' dS'vt'16N', (Charles 
 Yves,) a French compiler, born in 1769, published many 
 collections of anecdotes with titles ending in ana. His 
 " Pii oniana" ran through eleven editions. Died about 
 1840. 
 
 Cousin-Despreaux, koo'zaN' d2)'pRa'6', (Louis,) a 
 French writer, bom at Dieppe in 1743, published two 
 esteemed works, viz., a " History of Greece," (16 vols., 
 1780-89,) and "Lessons on Nature," (1802.) Died in 
 1818. 
 
 Cousinery, koo'ze'na're', (Esprit Marie,) a French- 
 man noted for his skill in medals, born at Marseilles in 
 1747, wrote "Letters on the Rosetta Stone," "Travels 
 in Macedonia," (1831,) and several treatises on medals. 
 He was a memlier of the Institute. Died after 1830. 
 
 Cousiuet, koo'ze'n^', (Elisabeth,) a French en- 
 graver, born about 1 726. 
 
 Cousinot, koo'ze'no', (Guillaume,) a French poet 
 and historian, born about 1400 ; died about 1484. 
 
 Coussemaker, de, deh koos'uii'kaiK.', (Charles 
 EDMOND Henri,) a F*rench antiquary, born at Bailleul 
 (Nord) In 1805. He wrote a prize essay "On the Har- 
 mony of the Middle Ages." 
 
 Coustant, koo'stSir, (Pierre,) a French Benedictine 
 monk, bom at Compiegne in 1654. He aided in revising 
 and editing the works of Augustine, and published an 
 edition of Saint-Hilaire, (1693,) in which he showed 
 much critical judgment. Died in Paris in 1721. 
 
 Coustou, koos'too', (Guillaume,) an able French 
 sculptor, born at Lyons in 1678, was a pupil of his uncle 
 Coysevo.v. After studying in Rome, he settled in Paris. 
 Among his best productions are two groups, each of 
 which is composed of a horse prancing and a groom. 
 
 a bronze figure of the river Rhone, and the bas-relief 
 which adorns the entrance of the Hotel des Invalides. 
 Died in 1746. 
 
 His son Guillaume, born in Paris in 1716, was also a 
 skilful sculptor. He became in 1746 a professor in the 
 Academy of .Arts, of which he was afterwards rector. 
 He made statues of Mars and Venus for the King of 
 Prussia. Died in 1777. 
 
 See D'Aroenvili.e, "Vies des Architectes et des Sculpteure;" 
 Nagler. " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Coustou, (Nicolas,) an eminent sculptor, a brother 
 of Guillaume the elder, was born at Lyons in 1658. 
 Having gained the grand prize, he went to Rome with 
 a pension about 1682. He afterwards settled in Paris, 
 where he was patronized by Louis XIV. Among his 
 most admired works are a group of the junction of the 
 Seine and Maine, the " Berger Chasseur," ("Shepherd 
 Huntsman,") and a "Descent from the Cross." Died 
 
 'n 1733- 
 
 See Cousin de Contamine, " £loge historique de N. Coustu 
 PAineV' 1837; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Cousturier or Couturier, koo'tu're-4', (Pierre,) 
 [Lat. Pe'trus Su'tor,] a French monk7"who had a dis- 
 pute with Erasmus respecting the version of the New 
 Testament published by the latter. Died in 1537. 
 
 Coutan, koo'tdN', (Amahle Paul,) a French painter 
 of history, born in Paris in 1792. He gained the first 
 prize in 1827. Died in 1837. 
 
 Coutelle, koo'tel', (Jean Marie Joseph,) a French 
 engineer and balloonist, born at Mans in 1 748; died 
 in 1835. 
 
 Couthon, koo'tA.N', (Georges,) a French Jacobin, 
 born at Orsay, in Auvergne, in 1756. He was a lawyer 
 before the Revolution, and entered the Convention in 
 1792. He voted for the death of the king, and became 
 a partisan of Robespierre. He has been accused of the 
 crimes and cruelties committed at Lyons, whither he was 
 sent as commissioner in 1793 ; but Lamartine asserts that 
 he restrained the excesses of his party on that occasion. 
 After the committee of public safety was divided into two 
 parties, Robespierre, Couthon, and Saint-Just formed a 
 triumvirate, which for some time controlled the govern- 
 ment. He was involved in the fall of Robespierre on 
 the 9th Thermidor, and was guillotined July 28, 1794. 
 
 See De Barante, "Histoire de la Convention Nation.ile." 
 
 Coutiuho, ko-ten'yo, (Dom Francisco,) Count of 
 Redondo, a Portuguese officer, was appointed Viceroy 
 of India in 1561. He was a friend of Camoens, who 
 commemorated, in verse, his virtues and benefactions. 
 Died in 1564. 
 
 See Laclede, " Histoire de Portugal." 
 
 Couto, de, da ko'to, (Dioco or Diego,) a Portu- 
 guese historian, born in Lisbon in 1542. He went to 
 India about 1556, served in the army several years, and 
 settled at Goa. He received from Philip II. of Spain 
 the title of historiographer of India, and between 1602 
 and 1616 published a continuation of Barros's valuable 
 work entitled "Decades of Asia," ("Decadas da Asia,") 
 containing an account of the discoveries and conquests 
 of the Portuguese in the East Died at Goa in 161b. 
 
 See S. de Farm, " Vida de Diogo de Couto:" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GineVale." 
 
 Couto-Festaua, do, do ko'to pes-ti'na, (JozE,) a 
 Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon in 1678. He became 
 controller of the treasury at Lisbon, and wrote a poem 
 entitled "Quiteria la Santa." Died in 1735. 
 
 Coutts, koots, (Angela Georgiana Burdett,) an 
 English lady noted for wealth and munificence, a daugh- 
 ter of Sir F'rancis Burdett, was born in 1814. Having 
 become the heiress of a vast fortune left by her grand- 
 father, Thomas Coutts, a banker, she assumed his name. 
 She has given large donations to benevolent and reli- 
 gious societies, and built a fine church in Westminster, 
 
 (I847-) 
 
 Coutts, (Thomas,) an eminent banker of London, 
 born at Dundee about 1733, acquired a very large for- 
 tune. Died in 1821 or 1822. lie left three daughters, 
 Frances, married to the Marquis of Bute, Sophia, married 
 tn Sir Francis Burdett, and Susan, married to the Earl 
 of Guilford. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 € as x; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as zi th as in this. ( 2^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
COUTURE 
 
 680 
 
 COlVLEt 
 
 Couture, koo'tiiR', (Guillaume,) a French architect, 
 born at Rouen in 1732. He was chief architect of the 
 church de la Madeleine, Paris, which he left unfinished 
 at his death, in 1799. It has since been completed, with 
 some variations from his design. 
 
 Couture, (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer, born at 
 Saint-Aubin in 1651. He was professor of eloquence 
 in Paris, and a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. 
 He wrote an "Abridged History of the Assyrian, Per- 
 sian, Macedonian, and Roman Empires," (1699,) and 
 some minor works. Died in 172S. 
 
 Couture, (Thomas,) a French painter of history and 
 genre, was born at Senlis in 1815. He produced "The 
 Love of Gold" in 1844, and in 1847 a picture of "The 
 Romans of the Decadence," which obtained the gold 
 medal at the Salon. 
 
 Coutures, des, d.\ koo'tiiR', (Jacques Parrain — 
 pS'rax',) Baron, a French translator, born at Avranches. 
 He published a French version of Lucretius, (1685,) with 
 notes, and several other works. Died in 1702. 
 
 Couvay, koo'v£', (Jean,) a skilful French artist, born 
 at Aries in 1622. He engraved after Raphael, Guido, 
 Poussin, and other masters. "The Martyrdom of Saint 
 Bartholomew," after Poussin, is his chef-i 'osuvre. 
 
 Couvreur. See Le Couvreur. 
 
 Covarruvias, ko-var-roo've-as, or Covarrubias, 
 (Don An/onio,) an eminent Spanish jurist and Hellenist, 
 born in 1524. He was professor of law at Salamanca, 
 and member of the royal council of Castile. He wrote 
 a "Commentary on the Politics of Aristotle." Lipsius 
 calls him " Hispaniae magnum lumen." Died in 1602. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Uibliptheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Covarruvias y Horozco, ko-var-roo've-as e o-roth'- 
 ko, (Don Juan,) a nephew of the preceding, was born 
 at Toledo. He became Canon of Seville, and after- 
 wards Bishop of Girgenti, Sicily, where he established a 
 printing-press. He was author of "Moral Emblems," 
 (1591,) "Christian Paradoxes," (1592,) and other works, 
 (in Spanish.) Died in 1608. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Covarruvias y Leyva, ko-var-roo've-as e la'e-vi, 
 (Diego,) a brother of Antonio, noticed aboveT'was 
 born at Toledo in 1512. He became Bishop of Segovia 
 in 1565, president of the council of Castile in 1572, and 
 of the council of state in 1574. He was reputed one of 
 the first jurists or canonists of his time, and wrote seve- 
 ral legal works. Died in 1577. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Co'vel or Co'vell, (John,) an English divine, born 
 in Suffolk in 1638, wrote an "Account of the Greek 
 Church," (1722.) Died in 1722. 
 
 Covelli, ko-vel'lee, (Niccolo,) an Italian chemist 
 and mineralogist, born at Cajazzo in 1790. He investi- 
 gated the phenomena of Vesuvius by chemical analysis, 
 and published, besides other works, " Prodromo clella 
 Mineralogia Vesuviana," (1825.) Died in 1829. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Coventry, kuv'en-tre, (Henry,) an English scholar, 
 a Fellow of Magdalene College, was one of the authors 
 of the "Athenian Letters." (See Yorke, CHARLES.) 
 He published " Letters of Philemon to Hydaspes," (on 
 "False Religion,") 1736-44. Died in 1752. 
 
 Coventry, (Thomas,) Baron, an English lawyer, 
 born in Worcestershire in 1578. He became attorney- 
 general in 1621, and lord keeper of the great seal in 1625. 
 He was also made a baron, with the title of Lord Coven- 
 try. Died in 1640. 
 
 Coventry, (Sir William,) M.P., the youngest son 
 of the preceding, was born in 1626. He filled seve- 
 ral civil offices with credit, and published "England's 
 Appeal from the Cabal, etc." The "Character of a 
 Trimmer," commonly attributed to Lord Halifax, is by 
 some ascribed to Coventry. Died in 1686. 
 
 Cov'er-dale, (Mii.es,) an English bishop and Re- 
 former, was born in Yorkshire in 1487. He became an 
 Augustine monk, and entered holy orders in 15 14. 
 He was one of the first Englishmen that embraced the 
 Reformed religion, which he zealously promoted. In 
 '535 he published, with the royal sanction, the first 
 entire Bible which appeared in the English language, 
 
 translated by himself. He also edited the Cranmer or 
 " Great Bible," in 1539. He was appointed Bishop of 
 Exeter in 1551. In the reign of Mary he was imprisoned 
 two years and then exiled. He returned about 1558, but 
 was not reinstated in the bishopric. Died about 1568. 
 
 See " Memorials of the Right Rev. Myles Coverdale, Bishop of 
 Exeter." 
 
 Covilham or Covilhao, da, da ko-vel-yowN', (Don 
 Pedro,) a Portuguese explorer, was born about 1450. He 
 was sent by John II. in 1487 to search for Prester John 
 and to explore a route to India. He visited India, and 
 obtained about commerce and geography important in- 
 formation, which he sent home. About 1492 he visited 
 Abyssinia, the prince of which induced or constrained 
 him to remain in his service. He was living there in 1525. 
 
 See J0A0 de Barkos, "Asia," vol. i. ; "Nouvelle Biogri.pi.it 
 Generate " 
 
 Covilhao. See Covii.ham. 
 
 Covillard, ko've'yaV, written also Couillard, 
 (Joseph,) a French surgeon, born in Dauphine, was 
 noted for his skill in lithotomy. He lived about 1630. 
 
 Cow'ard, (William,) an English physician, born in 
 1656, published, besides some medical works, " Second 
 Thoughts concerning the Human Soul," (1702,) which 
 favoured materialism and excited much indignation. It 
 was burned by order of Parliament. Died in 1725. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Cow'din, (Robert,) an American officer, born at Ja- 
 maica, Vermont, in 1805. He fought in the campaigns 
 of 1861, and became a brigadier-general of volunteers 
 in 1862. 
 
 Cow'ell, (John,) an English jurist, born in Devon- 
 shire in 1554,'wrote "The Interpreter." Died in 161 1. 
 
 CSw'ley, [formerly pronounced and sometimes writ- 
 ten Coo'ley,] (Auraham,) a celebrated English poet, 
 was born in London in 1618. At the age of fifteen he 
 published a volume of poems, called " Poetic Blossoms," 
 and in 1636 entered Trinity College, Cambridge, from 
 which he was ejected as a royalist in 1643. In 1646 he 
 went to Paris with the queen, and was employed as 
 agent of a correspondence in cipher between her and 
 Charles I. He produced in 1647 "The Mistress," a 
 series of poems replete with frigid conceits which then 
 passed for wit. "It is the most celebrated perform- 
 ance," says Hallam, "of the miscalled metaphysical 
 poets." Having returned to England about 1656, he 
 published an edition of poems, including " Pindaric 
 Odes," "Miscellanies," and "The Davideis," an epic. 
 By his contemporaries he was more admired than any 
 other poet of his age. At the restoration he failed to 
 receive the expected reward of his loyalty, and, retiring 
 from the world in disgust, settled at Chertsey as a farmer 
 in 1665. He died in 1667. "His 'Pindaric Odes,'" 
 says Hallam, "contain very beautiful lines ; but his sen- 
 sibility and good sense — nor has any poet more — are 
 choked by false taste. Cowley, perhaps, on the whole, 
 has had a reputation more above his deserts than any 
 English poet." "It may be affirmed," says Dr. John- 
 son, "that he brought to his poetic labours a mind re- 
 plete with learning, and that his pages are embellished 
 with all the ornaments which books can supply; that he 
 was the first who imparted to English numbers the en- 
 thusiasm of the greater ode and the gayety of the less ; 
 and that he was equally qualified for sprightly sallies and 
 for lofty flights." His prose essays are perspicuous and 
 unaffected in style, and are among the earliest English 
 models of good writing. 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets;" Dr. Sprat, "Life 
 of A. Cowley," 1700 ; " Biographia Britannica ;" Camphkli., " Speci- 
 mens of the British Poets;" " North British Review" lor February, 
 1S47 ; " Retrospective Review," vol. i., 2tl Series, 1S27. 
 
 Cowley, (Mrs. Hannah,) whose maiden name was 
 Parkhouse, an English dramatist, born at Tiverton in 
 1743, was married to Captain Cowley, an officer of the 
 East India Company/ She composed, besides other 
 plays, two successful comedies, called "The Runaway' 1 
 and "The Belle's Stratagem." She also wrote "The 
 Maid of Aragon," and other poems. Died in 1809. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica ;" "Gentleman's Magazine," 
 1809. 
 
 Cowley, (Henry Richard Wei.i.esley,) Lord, a 
 British diplomatist, eldest son of Sir Henry Wellesley, 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged) a, ?, 1, 6, it, J>, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mit; ndt; good; moon; 
 
COW LET 
 
 681 
 
 COW PER 
 
 fiist Lord Cowley, and nephew of the Duke of Welling- 
 ton, was born in 1804. fie was appointed secretary of 
 legation to Constantinople in 1831, minister to Switzer- 
 land in 1848, and ambassador to Paris in 1852. Lords 
 Clarendon and Cowley represented England in the Con- 
 gress of Paris which in 1856 concluded peace with Russia. 
 
 Cowley, (HENRY Wkli.ksi.ky,) the first Lord, an 
 English diplomatist, born in 1773, was a brother of the 
 Duke of Wellington. He was ambassador at Paris and 
 other courts for many years. Died in 1847. 
 
 Cow'per, (EDWARD,) an Englishman distinguished 
 as an inventor and improver of printing-machinery, was 
 born in 1790. We have little information respecting his 
 life. He was for some time a partner in an extensive 
 printing-office in London. In his later years he was 
 professor 0/ mechanics, etc. in King's College, London, 
 where his lectures were highly popular. He contributed 
 to the " Penny Cyclopaedia." Died in 1852. 
 
 Cowper, (SPENCER,) an English lawyer, was a younger 
 brother of the first Earl Cowper, (1664-1 723,) and grand- 
 father of the great poet. After being tried for the mur- 
 der of Sarah Stout, and acquitted, he became a judge in 
 the court of common pleas, and a member of Parliament. 
 Macaulay, " History of England," vol. v. ; " Blackwood's 
 ine" for July, 1861. 
 
 Cowper, (WILLIAM,) a British divine, born in 1566. 
 He preached about twenty years at Perth, after which 
 he became Bishop of Galloway. He published Sermons, 
 and other works on theology, which are commended. 
 Died in 1619. 
 
 Cowper, (YV11.1 i-\m,) an eminent English surgeon 
 and anatomist, born in Hampshire in 1666. He settled 
 in London, and became a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 He published a treatise on Muscles, entitled " Myotomia 
 Reformata," (1694,) and the "Anatomy of the Human 
 Body." His name has been applied to certain. glands 
 of the urethra. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Thompson, " History of the Royal Society." 
 
 Cowper, (William,) Lord, an eminent English judge 
 and orator, born in the castle of Hertford in 1664, was 
 the son of Sir William Cowper, and a great-uncle of the 
 poet of that name. He entered the Middle Temple in 
 his eighteenth year, and was called to the bar in 1688. 
 Few men have had finer endowments for that profession ; 
 and it appears that in a short time he was the leader of 
 the home circuit. In 1695 he was elected to Parliament, 
 where he acted with the Whig party. "The younger 
 Cowper," says Lord Campbell, "like the younger Pitt, 
 is a rare instance of a member of the House of Com- 
 mons being considered from his maiden speech a con- 
 summate debater." He was appointed king's counsel, 
 and became the leader of the Whig party in the House 
 of Commons. He was made lord chancellor, or keeper 
 of the great seal, in 1705, and was raised to the peerage, 
 as Baron Cowper, in 1706. The Tories having come 
 into power in 17 to, he resigned the great seal, which 
 was again confided to him on the accession of George 
 I. in 1 7 14. For some years he was the. king's chief 
 adviser in political affairs, in which capacity he appears 
 to have acted with wisdom and moderation. He re- 
 signed the office of chancellor in 1 718, and was created 
 an earl. He died in 1723, leaving several sons. He 
 had a high reputation for integrity. 
 
 See Loki) CA.M1-BEI.L, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Foss, 
 "The Judges of Kn^lam!." 
 
 Cowper, (William,) an English clergyman and geo- 
 meter, born In London in 1 7 13, became Dean of Durham. 
 He was a younger son of Earl Cowper. Died in 1772. 
 
 Cow'per, (or koo'per,) (William,) one of the most 
 eminent and popular of English poets, was born at 
 Great Berkhamstead, In Hertfordshire, ori the 26th of 
 mber, 1731. His father, John Cowper, a nephew 
 ■■rl Cowper, was rector of that parish, and chaplain 
 to George II. Having lost his mother, whose maiden 
 name was Donne, at the age of six years, he was then 
 placed at the boarding-school of Dr. Pitman at Market 
 Street, on the line between Bedford and Hertford coun- 
 ties. Here his sensitive spirit and delicate organization 
 suffered much from the cruelty of a larger boy. Between 
 the ages of ten and eighteen he was a student of West- 
 minster School, and became a good classical scholar. 
 
 He entered the Middle Temple about 1752, and was % 
 called to the bar in' 1754, but had little if any practice. 
 While he was a student in the Temple, " he was struck," 
 he says, "with such a dejection of spirits, as none but 
 they who have felt the same can have the least con- 
 ception of. To this moment I had felt no concern of 
 a spiritual kind. Ignorant of original sin, insensible of 
 the guilt of actual transgression, I understood neither 
 the law nor the gospel." Thus it appears that religion 
 was not, as some assert, the original cause of his terrible 
 mental malady. He was tenderly attached to his cousin, 
 Theodora Cowper, who favoured his suit, but whose 
 parents forbade their union, — 
 " With a little hoard of maxims preaching down a daughter's heait." 
 
 In 1763, when his funds were nearly exhausted, he 
 accepted the offer of the place of clerk of the journals 
 of the House of Lords ; but, when required to pass an 
 examination before the bar of that House, his morbid 
 nervousness was such that he could not endure the 
 ordeal. After vain and agonizing efforts to brace him- 
 self for the trial, he made abortive attempts to commit 
 suicide, and his miseries produced insanity, which, he 
 says, he had ardently wished for, and during which his 
 dominant idea was despair of his salvation. Under the 
 skilful treatment of Dr. Cotton, at Saint Alban's, he 
 recovered in 1765, and became an inmate in the family 
 of the Unwins at Huntingdon. After the death of Mr. 
 Unwin, in 1767, Cowper and Mrs. Unwin removed to 
 Olney, than which it would be difficult to select a worse 
 locality for an invalid. The adjacent land was low, damp, 
 and miasmatic, and there was no genial society within 
 their reach. Then came a nervous fever, followed by a 
 renewal of his insanity or delusion, which began about 
 1773, abated in 1776, but did not cease entirely until 
 several years later. He was nursed in this period, as in 
 other times of need, by his constant friend, Mary Unwin. 
 
 About 1780 his friends persuaded him to cultivate his 
 poetical powers. " Encompassed by the midnight of 
 absolute despair," says he, "I first commenced as an 
 author." In 1782 he published a volume of didactic 
 poems, entitled "Truth," "Table-Talk," " Hope," "Cha- 
 rity," "Conversation," etc. At the suggestion of Lady 
 Austen, he wrote "John Gilpin," and "The Task," which 
 appeared in 1785 and speedily obtained great and uni- 
 versal favour. It was more popular than any other poem 
 of equal length in the language. He spent about a year 
 in its composition. In 1784 he began the translation of 
 Homer into blank verse, — a labour of six years which 
 were among the happiest of his life. In 1786 he was 
 visited by his cousin, Lady Hesketh, with whom he had 
 corresponded many years, and removed to Weston, a 
 pleasant village about two miles from Olney. Lady 
 Hesketh and others were very assiduous in providing 
 for his comfort. But the last six years of his life were 
 passed in a state of hopeless dejection. He died April 
 25, 1800. " His familiar letters sparkle with playful hu- 
 mour. They are the pleasantest and most genial ever 
 written." ("North British Review.") "I have always 
 considered the letters of Cowper," says Robert Hall, 
 "as the finest specimen of the epistolary style in our 
 language. To an air of inimitable ease and carelessness 
 they unite a high degree of correctness, such as could 
 result only from the clearest intellect combined with the 
 most finished taste." His version of Homer, considered 
 with respect to fidelity to the original, is perhaps the best 
 that has appeared in English. Besides the works above 
 named, he composed numerous minor poems, and some 
 of the " Olney Hymns," of which his friend John Newton 
 was the principal author. His "Lines on his Mother's Por- 
 trait" are exquisitely beautiful and touching. The chief 
 characteristics of his poetry are originality, good sense, 
 simplicity, piety, and warmth of heart. He was emphati- 
 cally a Christian poet. No English poet, except Shak- 
 speare, is more frequently quoted. "The great merit of 
 this writer," says Lord Jeffrey, "appears to us to consist 
 in the boldness and originality of his composition, and 
 in the fortunate audacity with which he has carried the 
 dominion of poetry into regions that had bun considered 
 as inaccessible to her ambition. . . . The great variety and 
 truth of his descriptions, the minute and cOl rect paintings 
 of those home scenes and private feelings with which 
 
 * as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, II, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. (JtySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
COW PER 
 
 682 
 
 COZZA 
 
 uyery one is internally familiar, the sterling weight and 
 'sense of most of his observations, and, above all, the 
 great appearance of facility with which everything is exe- 
 cuted, and the happy use he has so often made of the 
 most common and ordinary language, all concur to stamp 
 upon his poems the character of original genius, and 
 remind us of the merits that have secured immortality 
 to Shakspeare." ("Edinburgh Review" for April, 1803.) 
 See T. S. Gkimsiiaw, "Life of Cowper," 1835; Southey, "Life 
 of W. Cowper," 2 vols., 1838 ; Hayley, " Life of W. Cowper," 4 
 vols., 1N03-09; Thomas Taylor, "Life of W. Cowper," 1833; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1804. 
 
 Cowper, (William Francis,) M.P., an English poli- 
 tician, a younger son of the fifth Earl Cowper, was born 
 in Hertfordshire in 181 1. He became a lord of the trea- 
 sury in 1837, and served under Lord John Russell as lord 
 of the admiralty from 1846 to 1852. He was a step-son 
 of Lord Palmers ton, who appointed him president of the 
 Board of Health in 1855, and vice-president of the Board 
 of Trade in 1859. 
 
 Cox, (David,) an English landscape-painter, born at 
 Birmingham in 1793. He has attained distinction in 
 painting in water-colours, chiefly British scenery. His 
 works, though rather rough and not minutely finished, 
 represent the phenomena of nature and of the weather 
 with eminent success. He published a "Treatise on 
 Painting in Water-Colours"' (1814.) Raskin praises 
 "the purity and felicity of some of the careless, melting, 
 water-colour skies of Cox," and says, " His foliage is alto- 
 gether exquisite in colour, in its impressions of coolness, 
 shade, and mass." ("Modern Painters.") 
 
 Cox, (Francis Augustus,) D.D., an English theolo- 
 gian, born about 1783, published, besides other works, 
 a "Life of Melanchthon," (181 5,) and "Our Young Men," 
 a prize essay, (1838.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Cox, (Jacoh D.,) an American general, born at Mon- 
 treal about 1828, was a lawyer before the civil war. He 
 was appointed a brigadier-general in May, 1861, soon 
 after which he commanded a force in Western Virginia. 
 In the autumn of 1862 he became a major-general. He 
 served under General Sherman in the campaign against 
 Atlanta, May-September, 1864, and commanded a divi- 
 sion at the battle of Nashville in December of that year. 
 He was elected Governor of Ohio by the Republicans in 
 October, 1865, and appointed by President Grant secre- 
 tary of the interior, in March, 1869. 
 
 Cox, (John Edmund,) an English clergyman, born 
 at Norwich in 1812, wrote a " Life of Cranmer," a " Life 
 of Luther," and other works. 
 
 Cox, (Leonard,) an English classical scholar, who 
 wrote several works in Greek and Latin. Died in 1549. 
 
 Cox, (Richard,) an English prelate, born in the 
 county of Bucks in 1499. He was employed as tutor to 
 Prince Edward, after whose accession as Edward VI. 
 he was almoner to the king, and Dean of Westminster. 
 In 1559 he became Bishop of Ely. He translated for 
 the " Bishops' Bible" the four Gospels, the Acts, and 
 the Epistle to the Romans. Died in 1581. 
 
 Cox, (Sir Richard,) an Irish writer, born in the 
 county of Cork in 1650. He <vas made lord chancellor 
 of Ireland in 1703. He published a " History of Ireland," 
 and a few other works. Died in 1733. 
 
 See Croker, "Researches in the Sout4i of Ireland." 
 
 Cox, (Samuel Hanson,) D.D., a Presbyterian theo- 
 logian, born at Leesville, New Jersey, in 1793. He was 
 pastor of a church in Brooklyn, New York, from 1837 
 to 1854. He wrote "Quakerism not Christianity," and 
 other works. 
 
 Cox, (William Sands,) F.R.S., an eminent English 
 surgeon and writer, born at Birmingham in 1802. He 
 founded Queen's College, and the Queen's Hospital, 
 both in Birmingham. 
 
 Coxcie. See Coxie. 
 
 Coxe, koks, (Arthur Cleveland,) an American 
 Episcopal clergyman, a son of Dr. S. H. Cox, noticed 
 above, was born at Mendham, New Jersey, in 1818. He 
 published, besides other works, "Christian Ballads," 
 (1840,) "Saul, a Mystery," and "Impressions of Eng- 
 land," (1856.) In 1859 he became rector of Grace Church, 
 in the city of New York, and in 1865 became Bishop of 
 Western New York. 
 
 See Griswold's " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Coxe, koks, (Richard CHARLF.s,).an English theolo- 
 gian and poet, born in 1799, was Archdeacon of Lindis- 
 farne. Died in 1865. 
 
 Coxe, (Tench,) an American writer on political econ- 
 omy, commerce, manufactures, etc., was born in 1756; 
 died in 1824. 
 
 Coxe, (William,) a successful English historian and 
 writer of travels, born in London in 1747. He became 
 curate of Denham in 1771, after which he travelled on 
 the continent as tutor of the Marquis of Blandford and 
 other young members of the nobility. He published 
 "Travels in Russia, Poland, Sweden, and Denmark," 
 (1784,) which are highly prized and interesting, and 
 "Travels in Switzerland," (1789.) He was appointed 
 chaplain to the Tower about 1796, and Archdeacon of 
 Wilts in 1805. Among his most important works are a 
 "History of the House of Austria," (1792,) "Memoirs 
 of Sir Robert Walpole," (3 vols., 1798,) "Memoirs of the 
 Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon, 1700-1788," 
 (3 vols., 1813,) and "Memoirs of the Duke of Marlbo- 
 rough," (1817-19.) Died in 1828. 
 
 See article on the "Life and Works of Archdeacon Coxe," in 
 the "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1833; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for April, 1S08. 
 
 Cox'e-ter, (Thomas,) an English critic and collector 
 of rare books, was born in Gloucestershire in 1689. He 
 assisted Ames in his "Typographical Antiquities," and 
 Warton in his " History of English Poetry." He was 
 making a collection of old English poets for publication 
 when he died in 1747. 
 
 Coxie or Coxcie, kok'see, (Michael,) a celebrated 
 Flemish painter, born at Mechlin in 1497, was a pupil 
 of Van Orley. After studying the works of Raphael in 
 Rome, he returned home, and acquired a large fortune 
 by his art. He had a fertile invention, a correct design, 
 and a brilliant colouring. Among his best-known works 
 is a copy of Van F^yck's " Adoration of the Lamb," which 
 Coxie made for Philip II. of Spain. He was killed by a 
 fall in 1592. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Coyer, kwa'va',(GABRiEL Francois,) Ahise, a French 
 writer, born in Franche-Comte in 1707, published" Moral 
 Bagatelles," a "History of John Sobieski," "The Com- 
 mercial Noblesse," and other works. Died in 1782. 
 
 Coyne, koin, (Joseph Sterling,) a dramatist, born 
 in King's county, Ireland, in 1805, produced many suc- 
 cessful farces. Died in 1868. 
 
 Coypel, kwa'pei', (Antoine,) an eminent French 
 painter, born in Paris in 1661, was the son and pupil of 
 Noel Coypel, with whom he studied in Rome. About 
 1680 he returned to Paris, where he acquired a high 
 reputation. In 1715 he received the title of first painter 
 to the king. His style, though affected and artificial, 
 was much admired by his contemporaries. He was a 
 skilful engraver. Died in 1722. 
 
 His son Charles, born in 1694, though an' inferior 
 artist, became first painter to the king. Died in 1752. 
 
 See Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Coypel, (Noel,) a successful French painter, born in 
 Paris in 1628. In 1655 he was employed by the king to 
 adorn the Louvre and other edifices, and was received 
 into the Royal Academy in 1663. Louis XIV. appointed 
 him director of the Academy at Rome in 1672. His 
 ordontumce and colouring are admired. To distinguish 
 him from his sons Antoine and Noel Nicolas, he was 
 sometimes called "Coypel le Poussin." Died in 1707. 
 
 Coypel, (Noel Nicolas,) the son and pupil of the 
 preceding, was born in Paris in 1688. He obtained a 
 high reputation as a historical painter, but his works are 
 now less prized than in his own time. Died in 1734. 
 
 Coysevox, kwaz'voks',( ANTOLNE,)an eminent French 
 sculptor, of Spanish origin, born at Lyons in 1640. He 
 studied under Lerambert in Paris, of which he became 
 a resident, and was admitted into the Academy in 1676. 
 Among his celebrated works are two statues of Louis 
 XIV., the tomb of Colbert, and two winged horses sur- 
 mounted by Fame and Mercury, at the Tuileries. He 
 excelled in busts and portraits. Died in 1720. 
 
 Cozen. See Cosin. 
 
 Cozza, kot'sa, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born 
 in Calabria in 1605 ; died in 1682. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, <?, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
COZZA 
 
 683 
 
 CRAIG 
 
 Cozza, (Giovanni Haitista,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Milan in 1676; died in 1742. 
 
 Cozzens, kuz'enz, (Frederick Swartwou t,) an 
 American writer, born in New York in 181S. A volume 
 entitled " Prismatic*," made up of his contributions to 
 the " Knickerbocker Magazine, appeared in 1853. He 
 published, also, " Sparrowgrass Papers," in 1856, (ori- 
 ginally contributed to "Putnam's Magazine,") besides 
 other works in prose and Verse. Died in 1869. 
 
 Craanen, kkfnen, (Diedkik,) a Dutch medical 
 writer, lived at leydcn; died in 1688. 
 
 Crabb, (George,) an English philologist, born about 
 1778, was a graduate of Oxford. He published a number 
 of useful woi ks, among which are " English Synonymes," 
 (1816; 10th edition, 1852,) a "Universal Historical Dic- 
 tionary," ('825,) and "Mythology of All Nations," (1847.) 
 Died in 1S54. "As an etymologist, Mr. Crabb seems to 
 have some dictionary knowledge of many languages, but 
 to be unacquainted with the philosophy, or history even, 
 of language in general." ("London Quarterly Review," 
 vol. -\ . 
 
 Crabbe, krab, (George,) a popular English poet, 
 born at Aldborough, in Suffolk, in 1754. His father 
 filled the humble office of collector of salt-duties. He 
 learned the profession of surgeon, which, however, he 
 abandoned at an early age. Conscious of talents above 
 the common order, he resolved to seek his fortune as an 
 author, and in 1780 went to London with five pounds 
 which he had borrowed. After his first productions had 
 been rejected by the booksellers, he published, on his own 
 account, "The Candidate," a poem, which brought him 
 neither fame nor profit. In great pecuniary distress, he 
 asked and received the generous patronage of Edmund 
 Burke, who gave him a room in his own house, intro- 
 duced him to Fox, Thurlow, and others, and enabled 
 . him, in 1781, to publish "The Library," which was re- 
 ceived with favour. He was ordained a priest in 1782, 
 and soon after became chaplain to the Duke of Rutland 
 at Belvoir Castle. He published in 1783 "The Vil- 
 lage," which confirmed his reputation as a powerful and 
 original poet. At this period he married Sarah Elmy, 
 the object of his early affections. Between 1785 and 
 1813 he officiated as curate or rector successively at 
 Strathem, Muston, and Parham. After an interval of 
 more than twenty years since his last appearance as a 
 poet, he produced "The Parish Register," (1807,) "The 
 Borough," (1810,) and "Tales in Verse," (1812.) In 
 1813 he was presented to the living of Trowbridge, Wilt- 
 shire, where he passed his last years. About 1819 he 
 received ^3000 for his "Tales of the Hall," and for the 
 unexpired term of former copyrights. Died in 1832. His 
 moral character was amiable and excellent. As a poet 
 he is remarkable for vigour, truth in description, and a 
 "Chinese accuracy" of observation. "Mr. Crabbe," says 
 Lord Jeffrey, " is the greatest mannerist, perhaps, of all 
 our living poets. The homely, quaint, prosaic style, 
 the eternal full-lengths of low and worthless characters, 
 with their accustomed garnishing of sly jokes and fami- 
 liar moralizing, are all on the surface of his writings. 
 ... An unrivalled and almost magical power of ob- 
 servation, — an anatomy of character and feeling not less 
 exquisite and searching, . . . are interspersed by fits and 
 strangely interwoven with the most minute and humble 
 of his details. Add to all this the sure and profound 
 sagacity of the remarks with which he every now and then 
 startles us ; the weight and terseness of the maxims which 
 he drops like oracular responses; and that sweet and 
 seldom-sounded chord of lyrical inspiration, the lightest 
 touch of which instantly charms away all harshness from 
 his numbers and all harshness from his themes." 
 
 Sec " Life of George Crabbe," by his son, 1838, new edition, 1847: 
 Jhfprrv, "Miscellanies;" "Quarterly Review" for November, 
 1810; '• Edinburgh Review" for April, 1810, and November, 1813; 
 " Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1819. 
 
 Crabet. See CRABE1 h. 
 
 Crabeth or Crabet, kKa'bet, (Thierry or Dirk and 
 Vautiek,) excellent Dutch painters on glass, are sup- 
 posed to have been born in Gouda. They were brothers. 
 They executed (between 1560 and 1570) on the glass 
 windows of the church of Gouda pictures which were 
 considered inimitable. Dirk died in 1601. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Crab'tree, (William,) an English astionomer, who 
 was associated with Jeremiah Horrox in scientific pur- 
 suits. His observations were printed by Wallis in 1672. 
 He died at an early age in 1641. 
 
 Cradock (John Francis.) See Howden, Baron. 
 
 Crad'ock, (Joseph,) an English gentleman and au- 
 thor, born at Leicester in 1742, inherited an easy fortune, 
 and lived in London. He published " Village Memoirs," 
 a work of fiction, "Zobeide," (1771,) a tragedy, which 
 was performed with success, "Literary Memoirs," (4 
 vols., 1S26,) and other works. Died in 1826. 
 
 Cradock, (Luke,) ah English painter of birds, etc. 
 Died in 171 7. 
 
 Cradock, (Samuel,) an English nonconformist di- 
 vine, born in 1620. He became rector of North Cad- 
 bury, from which he was ejected in 1662. Besides other 
 works, he published "Knowledge and Practice," "The 
 Harmony of the Four Evangelists," and "Apostolical 
 History," which were highly esteemed. Died in 1706. 
 
 Cradock, (Zachary,) a brother of Samuel, noticed 
 above, was born probably in England in 1633. He left 
 two sermons which have been greatly admired, the 
 subjects of which are Providence and the Design of 
 Christianity. Died in 1695. 
 
 Craesbeke, van, vin kRis'ba'keh or kRls'b&k', 
 (Joseph,) a skilful Flemish painter, born at Brussels in 
 160S, was a pupil of Brauwer, whom he imitated. He 
 preferred low and sordid subjects, such as drunken 
 brawls and parties of smokers. Died in 1668. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Craft. See Crato. 
 
 Crafts, (Samuel C.,) born at Woodstock, Connecticut, 
 in 1768, was a member of Congress from 1816 to 1824, 
 and was chosen Governor of Vermont in 1828,^829, and 
 1830. Died in 1853. 
 
 Crafts, (William,) a lawyer and poet, born at Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, in 1787; died in 1826. 
 
 See S. Oilman, "Memoir of W. Crafts," 1828. 
 
 Craggs, (James,) an English politician, was a friend 
 of Addison, whom he succeeded as secretary of state in 
 1718. " He was a young man," says Macaulay, "whose 
 natural parts were quick and showy, whose graceful per- 
 son and winning manners had made him generally 
 acceptable in society, and who if he had lived would pro- 
 bably have been the most formidable of all the rivals of 
 Walpole." ("Essay on the Life and Writings of Addi- 
 son.") Died in 1720. 
 
 Cragius. See Craig, (Nicholas.) 
 
 Craig, (James,) a Scottish divine, born in East Lothian 
 in 1682, became one of the most popular preachers of 
 Edinburgh. He published several volumes of sermons 
 and religious poems. Died in 1744. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Craig, (James,) an American officer, born in Pennsyl- 
 vania about 1820, served in the Mexican war, and was 
 made a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. 
 
 Craig, (John,) a Scottish Reformer, born about 15 12, 
 was a monk in early life. He visited Italy, where he 
 was employed as teacher and rector in a school. Having 
 been converted to the Protestant faith and made an open 
 profession, he was sentenced at Rome to die by fire; but 
 in consequence of the death of the pope his prison was 
 broken open by a mob, and he escaped from that doom, 
 and returned to Scotland. Fie became a prominent 
 coadjutor in the work of reformation in Scotland, and 
 was chosen minister of Aberdeen in 1574. In 1577 he 
 removed to FMinburgh, was appointed chaplain to James 
 VI., and in 1580 composed the "National Covenant." 
 Died in 1600. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Craig, (John,) a Scottish mathematician, the dates of 
 whose birth and death are unknown. He contributed 
 to the "Philosophical Transactions," (1698-1712,) and 
 published a work on fluxions, entitled " De Calculo Flu- 
 entiutn," (1718,) and a few other treatises. He first made 
 known in England the differential calculus discovered by 
 Leibnitz. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Craig, krag, [Lat. Cra'gius,] (Nicholas,) a Danish 
 writer, probably of British extraction, born at Ripen in 
 
 € as A; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (ijy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CRAIG 
 
 684 
 
 CRANACH 
 
 '549i became professor of Greek in Copenhagen, and 
 »eetor of the university. He published a book on the 
 Republic of Sparta, (1593,) which was highly esteemed, 
 and a few other Latin works. In 1598 he was sent on a 
 political mission to England. He was a friend of Scali- 
 ger. Died in 1602. 
 
 See Kraft og Nvekup, " Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Craig, (Sir Thomas,) of Kiccarton, an eminent Scot- 
 tish lawyer and antiquary, born in Edinburgh about 1540, 
 was a relative of John Craig; (1512-1600.) After pur- 
 suing his studies in Paris, he passed advocate in Edin- 
 burgh in 1563, and became a judge (justice depute) in 1564. 
 He wrote several admired Latin poems, one of which is 
 on the birth of James VI. In 1603 he completed his 
 celebrated work on " Feudal Law," (" Jus Feudale,") 
 which was not published until 1655, and which is re- 
 garded as an authority all over Europe. He was emi- 
 nent for modesty and other virtues. Died in 1608. 
 
 See P. F. Tytler, "Life of Sir Thomas Craig," 1823; Cham- 
 bers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Craig, (William,) a Scottish minister, bom at Glas- 
 gow in 1709 ; died in 1784. 
 
 Craig, (William,) a literary Scottish judge, born in 
 1745, succeeded Lord Hailes as judge in 1792. He con- 
 tributed numerous papers to the " Mirror." Died in 1813. 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Craik, (GEORGE Lii.i.ie,) an able historical and criti- 
 cal writer and editor, born in Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1799. 
 He became a resident of London about 1824, and pro- 
 duced "The Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," 
 (1831.) He contributed many historical and biographi- 
 cal articles to the "Penny Cyclopaedia." Mr. Craik 
 and C. Macfarlane were the principal editors or authors 
 of the '^Pictorial History of England" published by 
 Knight, (1840-49.) He wrote the chapters on religion, 
 commerce, industry, and literature in that work, and 
 other useful works, among which are "Bacon: his Wri- 
 tings and his Philosophy," (3 vols., 1846,) "Romance 
 of the Peerage," (1848-50, 4 vols.,) and a " History of 
 English Literature," (2 vols.) In 1S49 he was chosen 
 professor of English literature in Queen's College, Bel- 
 fast. Died in June, 1866. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for August, 1866. 
 
 Craik, (James,) a physician, born in Scotland in 1731. 
 He accompanied Washington in an expedition against 
 the French and Indians in 1754, and served as physician 
 under General Braddock in 1755. After the Revolution- 
 ary war he settled near Mount Vernon, and became the 
 family physician of Washington. Died in 1814. 
 
 Craik, Mrs. See Mijloch. 
 
 Crak'an-thorp or Crakanthorpe, (Richard,) an 
 English divine, born in Westmoreland in 1567. He was 
 an eloquent Puritan preacher, and author of several 
 works, among which is " Defence of the English Church," 
 ("Defensio Ecclesiae Anglicanse.") Died in 1624. 
 
 Cramail, de, deh kRi'maTor kuS'mS'ye, (Adrien dk 
 Moutluc — mo.N'luk',) Count, a French writer, born in 
 1568, was a grandson of Marshal de Montluc. He was 
 imprisoned in the Bastille from 1630 to 1642 for alleged 
 intrigues against Richelieu. His farce called "LaCo- 
 medie des Proverbes" (1616) was much admired. Died 
 in 1646. 
 
 Cramer, kRa'mer, (Andreas VVii.iillm,) a Danish 
 professor, sun of J. Andreas Cramer, the eminent poet, 
 was born at Copenhagen in 1760. He became professor 
 of law in his native city, and wrote several esteemed 
 treatises on law and philology. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Nietzsch, " Memoria A. W. Crameri." 
 
 Cramer, kRa'mer, (Carl Fkikdrich,) a litlSrateur, 
 born at Kiel about 1750, was a son of Johann Andreas, 
 noticed below. He was for some time professor of 
 ancient literature in Copenhagen, and removed to Paris 
 about 1795. tle translated Schiller's "Joan of Arc," 
 and other German works, into French, and published a 
 good German-French Dictionary, (1805.) Died in Paris 
 in' 1 80S. 
 
 See "Conversations Lexikon ;" Querard, " La France LitteVaire. " 
 
 Cramer, kRa'mer, (Daniel,) a German Protestant 
 
 theologian, born at Reetz in 1568. He was professor at 
 
 Wittenberg and Stettin, and author of several works, 
 
 among which is " Schola Prophetica," (1606-12.) Died 
 in 1637. 
 
 Cramer, (Franz,) a German composer of instrumental 
 music, born at Munich in 1772; died in 1848. 
 
 Cramer, kRa'mer, (GABRIEL,) an eminent Swiss geo- 
 meter, born at Geneva in 1704. He cultivated many 
 sciences with success, and in 1750 was appointed pro- 
 fessor of philosophy in his native city. He was a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society of London. One of his most im- 
 portant works is "An Analysis of Algebraic Curves." 
 Died in 1752. 
 
 See Senhmer, " Histoire litte>aire de Geneve." 
 
 Cramer, (Jean Jacques,) a Swiss Protestant professor 
 nf Hebrew and theology, was born near Zurich in 1673. 
 He wrote, in Latin, "Theology of Israel," (1705.) Died 
 in 1702. 
 
 Cramer, (Johann Andreas,) a German mineralogist, 
 born at Quedlinburg in 1710, made important discoveries 
 in metallurgy. He published, in Latin, " Elements of 
 the Docimastic Art," (1739,) and in German, " Principles 
 of Metallurgy," (1774-77,) both valuable works. Died 
 in 1777. 
 
 See Adelung, Supplement to Jocher, " Allgemeines Gelchrlen- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Cramer, (Johann Andreas,) an eminent German 
 poet and prose-writer, born at Jdhstadt, in Saxony, in 
 1723. He was invited to Copenhagen by Frederick V., 
 and appointed preacher to the court in 1754. In 1765 
 he became professor of theology in the university of that 
 city. He translated Bossuet's " Universal History" into 
 German, published "The Northern Spectator," (1759 
 -70,) a series of essays which was successful, and three 
 volumes of poems, "SammtlicheGedichte,"(i783.) The 
 Germans reckon him among their best lyric poets. In 
 1774 he obtained the chair of theology at Kiel. Died 
 in 1788. 
 
 See Christiani, " Oration {GedHchinksrede\ in Honour of J. A. 
 Cramer,'* 1788; Hirsching, " Historisch-hterarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Cramer, (Johann Baptist,) an excellent German 
 composer and pianist, was born at Manheim in 1771, and 
 taken to London in infancy. He passed most of his 
 life in England. His "Studies for the Piano" are said to 
 be unsurpassed in richness and harmony. Died in 1858. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Cramer, (Johann Frikdricii,) a German jurist, was 
 preceptor of the prince-royal of Prussia. Died in 1715. 
 
 Cramer, (Johann Rudolph,) a Swiss theologian and 
 Hebraist, born near Zurich in 1678; died in 1737. 
 
 See J. Zimmermann, " Vie de J. R. Cramer." 
 
 Cra'mer, (John Antony,) an eminent scholar, born 
 at Mitlodi, Switzerland, in 1793, removed to England in 
 his youth. He became pastor of Binsey in 1S22, and 
 professor of modern history at Oxford in 1842. He pub- 
 lished a "Description of Ancient Italy," (1826,) a "De- 
 scription of Asia Minor," (1832,) "Anecdota Grasca," 
 (1S57,) and other able works. Died in 184S. 
 
 Cramer, kRa'mer, (Nicolaas, ) a Dutch portrait- 
 painter, born at Leyden in 1670, was a pupil and imitator 
 of Karl Moor. Died in 1710. 
 
 Cramp'ton, (Sir Philip,) a naturalist and physician, 
 born in Dublin in 1777. He wrote several professional 
 treatises. Died in 1858. 
 
 Cranach or Kranach, von, fon kran'ak or kRa'nAK, 
 (Lucas,) a celebrated German painter and engraver, born 
 at Cranach, near Bamberg, in 1472. His family name 
 was SUNDER. He painted history and portraits, and 
 worked about fifty years at Wittenberg in the service of 
 three Electors of Saxony, the last of whom was John 
 Frederick. He was an intimate friend of Luther and 
 Melanchthon, whose portraits he painted and engraved. 
 Among his master-pieces are "The Preaching of John 
 the Baptist," and a "Crucifixion." His works are said 
 to be more admirable for thought or invention than for 
 execution. He was a good colorist, but very deficient 
 in design. Died at Weimar in 1553. 
 
 See Schuchardt. " L. Kranachs des Aettem Leben ttnd Werke," 
 1851 ; Heller, " Versuch Uber das Leben, etc. L. Cranachs," Bam- 
 berg, 1821. 
 
 Cranach, von, (Lucas,) a son of the preceding, born 
 in 1515, was also an eminent painter. He was a burgo- 
 master of Wittenberg. Died in 1586. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ti, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CRAK BORNE 
 
 68c 
 
 CRAS 
 
 Cran'borne or Cran'bourne, (Rohert Artih/r 
 Talbot Gascok.nl Ckcil,) Lord, a younger son of ihe 
 Marquis of Salisbury, born in 1S30. He was formerly 
 Lord ROBERT Cecil. In 1853 he was elected to 
 uncut by the voters of Stamford, which he repre- 
 d for many years. He is one of the foremost de- 
 baters of the Conservative party. Me became secretary 
 for India in the cabinet of Lord Derby in July, 1S66, 
 and resigned in March, 1867. Me inherited the title of 
 Marquis of Salisbury in the spring of 1868, and then 
 passed into the Mouse of Lords. 
 
 Cranbourne. See Cranborne. 
 
 Craiich, (Christopher P.,) a poet and landscape- 
 painter, a son of William Cranch, noticed below, was born 
 at Alexandria, Virginia, in 1813. He visited Italy about 
 ■848, after which he resided many years in Paris. He 
 wrote "The Last of the Huggermuggers," (1856.) 
 
 See Grisutoi.d, " Poets and Poetry of America ;" Tuckerman, 
 It of the Artists." 
 
 Cranch, (William,) LLD., an eminent American 
 jurist, born at Weymouth, Massachusetts, in 1769, gra- 
 duated at Harvard in 1787. In 1801 he was appointed 
 by President Adams an associate judge of the United 
 States circuit court for the District of Columbia, of 
 which he was made chief justice by Jefferson in 1805. 
 The duties of these two positions Judge Cranch dis- 
 charged with unwearied assiduity until his death ; and, 
 during this period of more than half a century, it is said 
 that only two of all his decisions were overruled by the 
 United States supreme court and sent back for amend- 
 ment. His legal attainments were varied and profound, 
 and his industry and powers of application were extra- 
 ordinary. He made careful reports of cases decided in 
 the circuit court for the District of Columbia from 1S01 
 to 1 S41 , published in 6 octavo vols., and, as reporter to 
 the supreme court of the United States, issued 9 vols. 
 from 1S01 to 1815, and others in 1835. Hied in Sep- 
 tember, 1 S55. 
 
 Crane, ( Thomas,) an English nonconformist minister 
 of Lancashire, wrote a " Prospect of Divine Providence," 
 (1672.) Died in 1714. 
 
 Crane, (William M.,) an American commodore, 
 bom at Elizabethtown, New Jersey, in 1776. He served 
 with distinction in the war of 1812. In 1827 he was ap- 
 pointed commander of a squadron in the Mediterranean, 
 and in 1842 became chief of the bureau of ordnance. 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 Cran'mer, (Thomas,) Archbishop of Canterbury, an 
 sh statesman, divine, and Reformer, was born at 
 Aslacton, in Nottinghamshire, in 1489. He became a 
 Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge, and was learned in 
 Greek, Hebrew, and theology. In 1529 he obtained the 
 favour of Henry VIII. by proposing that the question 
 of his divorce should be referred to the universities. 
 The king appointed him his chaplain, and sent him to 
 Rome to procure the assent of the pope to the divorce. 
 Having failed in this mission, he returned home in 1530, 
 and infringed the rule of his church by marriage with 
 a niece of Osiander. He was appointed Archbishop of 
 Canterbury in 1533, and became Henry's favourite ad- 
 viser, or prime minister. He had secretly adopted the 
 principles of the Reformers, and he used his influence to 
 subvert the power of the pope in England and to abolish 
 the monasteries. A few years after his elevation to the 
 primacy he openly favoured the Reformation, assisted in 
 compiling the "Bishops' Book," and in 1538 opposed 
 without success the law of the Six Articles, or "Bloody 
 Statutes." Though he resisted the royal will on this 
 and other occasions, he was protected by Henry when 
 the Catholic courtiers conspired to ruin him in 1544. In 
 1547 he was chosen one of the regency during the mi- 
 nority of Edward VI. He was the head of a commission 
 which composed the English Liturgy in 1548. 
 
 "The man who took the chief part," says Macaulay, 
 "in settling the conditions of the alliance which produced 
 the Anglican Church, was Thomas Cranmer. He was 
 the representative of both the parties which at that time 
 needed each other's assistance. In his character of divine, 
 he was ready to go as far in the way of change as any 
 Swiss or Scottish Reformer. In his character of states- 
 man, he was desirous to preserve that organization which 
 
 had served the purposes of the bishops of K..me and 
 might be expected to serve equally well the ptirpi s< 9 of 
 the English kings and their ministers. His temper and 
 his understanding eminently fitted him to act as media- 
 tor." Notwithstanding his general moderation, he went 
 so far as to condemn two persons to death for heresy. 
 By the entreaties of King Edward VI. he was induced in 
 1553 to sign the patent which settled the crown on Lady 
 Jane Grey, and in the same year was committed to the 
 Tower for treason against Queen Mary. His enemies, 
 in order to subject him to a more cruel punishment, 
 withdrew the charge of treason, and prosecuted him for 
 heresy. He was excommunicated in 1555. Temptid 
 with the hopes of life, and overcome by the fear of tor- 
 ture, he agreed to subscribe to the doctrines of the papa' 
 supremacy and the real presence. Repenting of this 
 lapse, which would not have saved him from the stake, 
 he suffered with fortitude martyrdom by fire in 1556. 
 
 "Me was undoubtedly," says Hume, " a man of merit ; 
 possessed of learning and capacity, and adorned with 
 candour, sincerity, and all those virtues which were fitted 
 to render him useful and amiable in society. His moral 
 qualities procured him universal respect, and the courage 
 of his martyrdom made him the hero of the Protestant 
 party." Others, including Macaulay, form a less favour- 
 able estimate, and call him an unscrupulous time-server. 
 For Fronde's view of the character of Cranmer, formed, 
 as it appears, from a very careful examination of his 
 life and acts, see the first six volumes of his " History 
 of England," but more particularly chap, xxxiii. Cran- 
 mer was author of many theological treatises. 
 
 See Archdeacon Toud, "Life of Cranmer," 1831 ; Strvph, 
 " Memorials of Cranmer :" " Lives of Eminent British Statesmen," 
 in " Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia ;" ^Macaulay, " History of Eng- 
 land,"vol. i.; LlNGARD, " History of England ;" W. F. HaoK, "Lives 
 of the Archbishops of Canterbury ;" A. van Dkinse, " I^even van T. 
 Cranmer," Amsterdam, 1843; Shakspearb's " Henry VI 1 1.'' 
 
 Cran'tor, [Kpuvrup,] a Greek Academic philosopher, 
 born at Soli, or Soles, in Cilicia, lived about 300 11. c. 
 After he had become distinguished in his own country, 
 he went to Athens, and studied in the school of Xeno- 
 crates. He is cited by Horace as an eminent moralist. 
 He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on Afflic- 
 tion," {Tlepl Tlcvdovg,) which was highly praised, and from 
 which Cicero borrowed largely in his "Consolatio." 
 
 See Diocknks Lakktius; Kavser, "Dissertatio de Crantort 
 Academico," 1S41. 
 
 Crautz, (ALBERT.) See Krantz. 
 
 Crantz, k Rants, (Heinrich Johann Nf.pomucf.nus,) 
 a German botanist", born in 1722, was a professor of 
 medicine at Vienna. 
 
 Cran'worth, (Robert Monsey Roi.ff.,) Baron, an 
 English judge, born at Cranworth, in Norfolk, in 1790. 
 He was elected to Parliament by the Liberals in 1832, 
 appointed solicitor-general in 1834, and a baron of the 
 exchequer in 1839. In 1850 he became vice-chancellor, 
 and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Cranworth. On 
 the formation of a ministry by Lord Aberdeen in Decem- 
 ber, 1S52, he was appointed lord chancellor of England. 
 He retired from office when Lord Derby came into power, 
 in February, 1858, was again appointed lord chancellor 
 in July, 1865, and resigned with his colleagues in Line, 
 1866. Died in July, 1868. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. 
 
 Cranz, k Rants, (David,) a Moravian missionary and 
 historian, born at Neugarten, Pomerania, in 1723. He 
 became secretary of Count Zinzendorf in 1747, after 
 which he laboured in Greenland. He wrote a "History 
 of Greenland," ( 1 765,) and a " History of the Moravians, 
 (1771.) Died in Silesia in 1777. 
 
 Crapelet, kRSp'14', (Georges Adrien,) a French 
 publisher and writer, born at Paris in 17S9. He trans- 
 lated into French verse "The Marriage of Thetis and 
 Pelt us," by Catullus, (1S09,) and wrote "Souvenirs of 
 London," (1817.) Died in 1842. 
 
 Ciapone, de, deh kRt'pon', (Adam,) a French en- 
 gineer, born at Salon in 1519, was skilled in hydraulic 
 architecture. He constructed the most ancient canal in 
 France, called the "Canal of Crapone," finished about 
 1560. Died in 11559. 
 
 Cras. kRSs, (Hlndrik Constantin,) a Dutch jurist, 
 born at Wageningen in 1739; died in 1820. 
 
 See M. Kemper, "Memoria H. C. Cras," 1825. 
 
 « as i: 9 as*; %hard; gzsj; C,H,K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sasi; th as in this. (Jr^=-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CRASH AW 
 
 686 
 
 CRATO 
 
 Crash'aw, (Richard,) an English poet and priest, 
 born in London. He became a Fellow of Peterhouse, 
 Cambridge, in 1637, before which he had published some 
 Latin poems in one of which occurs this much-admired 
 line on the my-acle at Cana : 
 
 " Lympha pudica Deum vidit et erubuit."* 
 He was ejected from the university in 1644 for refusing 
 to take the Covenant, and went to France, where he was 
 converted to the Roman Catholic faith. In 1646 he 
 published "Steps to the Temple," "Sacred Poems," etc., 
 which display a rich imagination. He was a canon of 
 the church of Loretto, Italy, when he died about 1650. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. i., 1820. 
 
 Crasset, kui's^', (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born at 
 Dieppe in 1618, lived many years in Paris. He published 
 several ascetic works, and a " History of the Church of 
 Japan," (1689.) Died in 1692. 
 
 Crasso, kuas'so, (Francesco,) an Italian jurist of high 
 reputation, lived at Milan in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Crasso, (Lorenzo,) an Italian author, of whose life 
 we have no details, was born at Naples. His works, in 
 prose and verse, display talent, but are marred by the 
 bad taste of that time. Among the principal of them are 
 "Heroic Epistles," (1655,) and "Eulogies on Literary 
 Men," (1656.) 
 
 Crasso, (N : iccol6,) a Venetian historian, born in the 
 sixteenth century, wrote, besides other Latin works, 
 " Eulogies of Illustrious Venetians, "(1612,) and a treatise 
 "On the Form of the Venetian Government," ("De 
 Forma Reipublicae Venetae.") 
 
 Cras'sus, (Lucius Licinius,) a famous Roman orator 
 and lawyer, born about 140 B.C., (612 A.U.C.) He was 
 elected consul in 95 B.C., and censor about two years later. 
 He wa* considered the most excellent orator of his time, 
 and was highly praised by Cicero, who assigned to Cras- 
 sus a part of the dialogue in his treatise " De Oratore." 
 His orations are not extant. Died in 90 or 91 B.C. 
 
 See Cicero, "Brutus" and "De Oratore;" Drumann, "Ge- 
 schichte Routs;" Meyer, "Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta." 
 
 Crassus, (Marcus Licinius,) a Roman triumvir, 
 noted for his great wealth, was born about 108 B.C. He 
 was chosen praetor in 74 B.C., (680 A.u.C.,) and defeated 
 Spartacus, the leader of a servile revolt. In the year 
 71 he was chosen consul with Pompey, and a few years 
 later he united with Pompey and Caesar to form the 
 first triumvirate, which ruined the power of the senate. 
 Crassus and Pompey were elected, consuls in 56 B.C., 
 and, while Caesar commanded in Gaul, Crassus obtained 
 command of Syria for five years. He is said to have 
 manifested extravagant joy at the prospect of increasing 
 his fortune in the East. Having resolved to invade Par- 
 thia, he crossed the Euphrates, and, after taking a town in 
 the year 54, returned to Syria, where he passed the winter. 
 The next season he entered Mesopotamia, and was 
 defeated with great loss by the Parthian general Surena 
 near Carrliae, (the Haran of the Bible.) He was then 
 compelled by his mutinous troops to meet in conference 
 with Surena, who had made overtures for peace, and was 
 there treacherously killed in 53 B.C. His ruling passion 
 was avarice. He was a man of great industry, a keen 
 speculator, and a large dealer in slaves. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Crassus;" Drumann, " Geschichte Roms;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Crassus, (Publius,) a son of the triumvir Crassus, 
 served as legate of Caesar in Gaul in 58 B.C. He fought 
 bravely against the Parthians, and was killed at the battle 
 near Carrhae in 53 B.C. 
 
 Crassus, (P. Licinius,) a Roman general, who was 
 chosen pontiiex maximus in 212 B.C. In 205 he became 
 consul with Scipio Africanus, and gave proof of military 
 talents in the war against Hannibal. Died in 183 B.C. 
 
 Crastoni, kRas-to'nee, or Crestoni, kRes-to'nee, 
 (Giovanni,) an Italian Hellenist and monk, born at 
 Piacenza, is said to have compiled the first Greek-Latin 
 Dictionary, printed about 1478. 
 
 Cratere. See Craterus. 
 
 Crat'e-rus, [Gr. Kparepoc; Fr. Cratere, kRt'taiR',] 
 one of the most eminent of the generals and successors of 
 Alexander the Great, whom he followed in the invasion 
 
 * " The modest water saw its God and blushed." 
 
 of Persia. He was a rival of Hephaestion in the royal 
 favour. His character is said to have been noble and 
 highly esteemed by the king. In 324 B.C. he was selected 
 to conduct the veterans back to Macedonia. At the 
 death of Alexander (323) he was associated with An- 
 tipater in the government of Macedonia and Greece. 
 He commanded an army in Cappadocia, where he was 
 defeated by Eumenes, and killed in battle, in 321 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Alexander," and "Phocion." 
 
 Cra'tes [Kpunjc] of Athens, an excellent Greek comic 
 poet, who flourished about 450 B.C. In his youth he was 
 the principal actor in the plays of Cratinus. He indulged 
 in personalities less than other writers of the old comedy. 
 Among the titles of his plays are "The Neighbours," 
 (r«'roi>£c,) and "The Games," (tlauitai.) The fragments 
 of his works which have come down to us are admired 
 for purity and elegance of style. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Gra?ca;" Meineke, " Quasstiones 
 Scenica;, " and his "Fragmenta Comicorum Grsecorum." 
 
 Crates of Athens, a philosopher of the old Academy, 
 flourished about 280 B.C. He was a pupil and intimate 
 friend of Polemo, whom he succeeded in the chair of the 
 Academy. His writings are lost. 
 
 Crates of Thebes, a famous Cynic philosopher, was a 
 son of Ascondas. He became a disciple of Diogenes, 
 at Athens, probably about 330 B.C., and was highly 
 esteemed for his probity and wisdom. He was noted for 
 his self-control, abstinence, and preference of poverty to 
 riches. He wrote essays on philosophy, tragedies, which 
 were praised by Diogenes Laertius, and small poems, all 
 of which are lost. Crates was living in 307 B.C. 
 
 See Brucker," Historia Philosophise ;" Posthumus," Dissertatio 
 de Cratete Cynico," 1S23 ; Fabricius, " Bibhotheca Grasca." 
 
 Crates, an eminent grammarian and Stoic, born at 
 Mallus, in Cilicia, left, besides many other works, a cor- 
 rected or annotated edition of Homer, fragments of which 
 are extant. He lived at Pergamos, and about 156 B.C. 
 was sent by the king of that country as ambassador to 
 Rome, where he gave lectures on grammar. He founded 
 a flourishing school of grammar at Pergamos. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graca;" Suetonius, "De illustri- 
 bus Grammaticis." 
 
 Cra-te'vas, [Kparevaf,] a Greek botanist, who lived 
 about 80 B.C., is often quoted by Pliny and Dioscorides. 
 He wrote on Materia Medica. 
 
 Cra-tl'nus, [Kpanvoc,] a celebrated Athenian poet 
 of the old comedy, born about 519 B.C., was a son of 
 Callimedes, and a rival of Aristophanes. He was the 
 first comic writer who made the drama an instrument 
 of personal satire, and was noted for the audacity of his 
 sarcasms. Pericles was often the object of his unsparing 
 invective. He produced numerous plays, nine of which 
 gained prizes. None of his works exist in a complete state. 
 In 423 B.C. he obtained a triumph over Aristophanes for 
 his "Wine-Flask." He died in 422, aged about ninety- 
 six. The extant fragments of Cratinus were edited by 
 Runkel, 1827. 
 
 See Meineke, " Historia Critica," and " Fragmenta Comicorum 
 Gnecorum ;" C. W. Lucas, " Cratinus et Eupohs," 1826. 
 
 Cratippe. See Cratippus. 
 
 Cra-tip'pus, [Kpunmroc,] a Greek historian, who lived 
 about 400 B.C., and continued the work of Thucydides. 
 
 Cratippus, [Gr. Kpunirnoc ; Fr. Cratippe, kni'tep',] 
 a Greek Peripatetic philosopher of Mitylene. He was 
 a teacher and friend of Cicero, who estimated him as the 
 first philosopher of that age. When Pompey, retreat- 
 ing from Pharsalia, passed through Mitylene, Cratippus 
 conversed with him on Providence. About 48 B.C. he 
 opened a school at Athens, to which Cicero sent his son 
 Marcus. Brutus attended his lectures at Athens in 44 
 B.C. Cratippus appears to have left only one work, a 
 " Treatise on Divination by Dreams." The date of his 
 death is unknown. 
 
 See Cicero, "De Officiis" and " De Divinatione;" Plutarch, 
 " Pompey" and " Cicero ;" Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dic- 
 tionary." 
 
 Crato, kRa'to, or Craton, kRi'ton, (Johann,) a Ger- 
 man physician, originally named Craft or Crafft, was 
 born at Breslau in 1519. He studied under Luther and 
 Melanchthon at Wittenberg, and was the favourite pupil 
 of Montano in medicine. He practised many years at 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less -olonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; gofxl; moon; 
 
CRATTLVS 
 
 687 
 
 CREBILLON 
 
 Augsburg, and became chief physician of the emperors 
 Ferdinand [.and Maximilian II. Me published " Intro- 
 duction to Medicine," (" Isagoge Medicinal," 1560,) and 
 other medical works. Died in 1585. 
 
 See NiciftON, " Mlmotre* :" Adam. " Vita* Germanorum Medi- 
 coruni;" Mukeri, " Dictioimaire Histnrique." 
 
 Crat'y-lus, [Kpurv/.oc,] a Greek philosopher, who lived 
 in the tilth century B.C., and professed the doctrines of 
 Heraclitus. He was one of the teachers of Plato. 
 
 Crauford. See CRAWFORD and Craufurd. 
 
 Crau'furd or Craw'furd, (John,) a British officer and 
 writer of the present era, published several valuable 
 works on Oriental affairs, among which are a " History 
 of the Indian Archipelago," (1820,) "Siam and Cochin 
 China," (1828,) and a "Grammar and Dictionary of the 
 Malay Language," (1852.) 
 
 Craufurd, Crau'fprd, or Craw'ford, (Quintin,) a 
 Scottish author, born in Ayrshire in 1743, went to India 
 in his youth, served the Company as military and civil 
 officer, and about 17S0 returned to Europe with an easy 
 fortune. He lived some years in Paris, where he had 
 intimate relations with the queen Marie Antoinette and 
 the empress Josephine. He published "Sketches of the 
 History, Religion, and Manners of the Hindoos," (1790,) 
 "Melanges of History and Literature," (1809,) and other 
 works, which are commended. Died in 1819. 
 
 Clause. See Krause. 
 
 Cra'ven, (CHARLES,) became Governor of South Caro- 
 lina in 1712. He successfully defended the colony against 
 the Yemassee Indians in 1715. 
 
 Craven, (Thomas T.,) an American rear-admiral, 
 born in the District of Columbia, entered the service in 
 1822. He distinguished himself as commander of the 
 Brooklyn in the victory by which Farragut captured New 
 Orleans in April, 1862. 
 
 Craven, (Tunis Augustus,) an American naval 
 officer, born in New Hampshire, entered the navy about 
 1829. He became a lieutenant in 1841, and afterwards 
 a captain. He was captain of the iron-clad Tecumseh, 
 and was drowned when it was sunk by a torpedo in the 
 attack on the defences of Mobile, August 5, 1864. 
 
 Cra'ven, (William,) an English clergyman, born in 
 1731, was professor of Arabic in Cambridge, and pub- 
 lished "Sermons on a Future State," and "Discourses 
 in Answer to Hume," (1802.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Craveta, kRa-va'ta, (Aimone,) an Italian jurist, born 
 in Piedmont in 1504; died in 1569. 
 
 Craw'ford, (Adair,) F.R.S., an eminent British 
 chemist and physician, born in 1749. He was professor 
 of chemistry at Woolwich, and a member of the Philo- 
 sophical Society of Philadelphia. He acquired reputa- 
 tion by an ingenious work entitled "Experiments and 
 Observations on Animal Heat," (1779.) Died in 1795. 
 
 Crawford, Earl OF. See Lindsay, (John.) 
 
 Craw'ford, Crau'ford, or Craw'furd, (David,) 
 a Scottish historian, born in 1665. He was appointed 
 historiographer royal for Scotland by Queen Anne, and 
 in 1706 published "Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland, 
 1566-81," which is charged with partiality. Died in 1726. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Craw'ford, (George W.,) an American lawyer, born 
 in Columbia county, Georgia, in 1798. He was elected 
 Governor of Georgia in 1843, and re-elected in 1845. 
 He was appointed secretary of war by President Taylor 
 in March, 1849, and resigned, in consequence of the death 
 of the President, in July, 1850. 
 
 Crawford, (NATHANIEL Macon,) an American Bap- 
 tist minister, born near Lexington, Georgia, in 181 1, was 
 a son of William H. Crawford, noticed below. He was 
 chosen president of Mercer University, Georgia, in 1854, 
 resigned in 1856, and was re-elected about 1858. He is 
 distinguished as .1 pulpit orator. 
 
 Crawford, (Quintin.) See Craufurd. 
 
 Crawford, ( ROBERT,) a Scottish poet, acquired repu- 
 tation by the admired lyrics of "Tweedside," and "The 
 Bush aboon Traquair." Died in 1733. 
 
 Crawford, (Samuel W.,) an American general, born 
 in Franklin county, Pennsylvania, in 1829. He became 
 a surgeon in the army about 1851, and was one of the 
 garrison of Foit Sumter in April, 1861. In the spring of 
 1862 he was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers. 
 
 He commanded a division at Antietam, September 17, 
 1862, and at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. 
 
 Crawford, (Thomas,) an eminent American sculp- 
 tor, born in New York in 1814. He visited Italy about 
 1835, and studied under Thorwaldsen at Rome, where 
 he worked many years. About 1840 he produced a statue 
 of " Orpheus," which was much admired. He received 
 in 1849 a commission from the State of Virginia to exe- 
 cute a colossal equestrian statue of Washington, which 
 is at Richmond. Among his numerous works are several 
 religious and mythological subjects, and a colossal statue 
 of the Genius of America for the Capitol at Washington. 
 Died in London in 1857. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Hook of the Artists :" " Democratic Review" 
 for May, 1S43; "Atlantic Monthly" tor July, 1S60. 
 
 Crawford, (William,) a Scottish divine, born at 
 Kelso in 1676, wrote a work entitled " Dying Thoughts." 
 Died in 1742. 
 
 Crawford, (William Harris,) an American states- 
 man, born in Amherst county, Virginia, in 1772, re- 
 moved with his father to Georgia in his childhood. He 
 studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1798, and set- 
 tled at Lexington, Georgia. In 1807 he was elected a 
 Senator of the United States by the Democrats, and in 
 1813 he was appointed minister to France. He became 
 secretary of war in 1815, and secretary of the treasury 
 in 1816. He continued to hold this position throughout 
 the administration of President Monroe, which ended in 
 March, 1825. In 1824 he was nominated for the Presi- 
 dency by the Congressional caucus, the right of which 
 to select a candidate was disowned by the majority of 
 the party. His competitors were General Jackson, John 
 Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay. Crawford received 
 only forty-one electoral votes. He was afterwards a 
 circuit judge in Georgia. Died in 1834. 
 
 See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Crawfurd, (David.) See Crawford. 
 
 Craw'furd, (George,) a British historian, of whose 
 life we have no details, born probably in Scotland. He 
 published an esteemed "History of the Family of the 
 Stuarts," (1710,) and the "Peerage of Scotland," (1716.) 
 
 Crawfurd, (John.) See Craufurd. 
 
 Crayer, de, deli krl'yer or kut'ya', (Caspar or Gas- 
 pard,) a celebrated Flemish historical painter, was born 
 at Antwerp in 1582. He worked for a time at Brussels, 
 and afterwards for many years at Ghent. He adorned the 
 cities of Flanders with many large altar-pieces and other 
 pictures. His design is generally correct, and his colour- 
 ing good. He nearly equalled Van Dyck in portraits. 
 Among his master-pieces are " Saint Catherine passing 
 up to Heaven," and the " Martyrdom of Saint Blaise," 
 painted in his eighty-sixth year. Died at Ghent in 1669. 
 
 See Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters;" Dkscamps, "Viesdes 
 Peintres Flamauds," etc. 
 
 Crayon, (Geoffrey.) See Irving, (Washington.) 
 
 Crea'sy, (Sir Edward Shepherd,) an English his- 
 torian and lawyer, bom at Bexley, in Kent, in 1812. He 
 was called to the bar about 1837, and appointed pro- 
 fessor of history in University College, London, in 1850. 
 He published in 1852 "Fifteen Decisive Battles of the 
 World," which has passed through nine or more edi- 
 tions, and in 1856 "The Rise and Progress of the Eng- 
 lish Constitution," which is commended. In i860 he was 
 appointed chief justice of Ceylon. The first volume of 
 his " History of England" (in 5 vols.) appeared in 1869. 
 
 Crebillon, de, deh kRa'be'y6N', (Claude Prosper 
 Jolyot — zho'lc-o',) a French novelist, son of Prosper 
 Jolyot, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1707. He wrote 
 several licentious novels which were once in vogue. His 
 own conduct is said to have been strictly moral. Died 
 in 1777. 
 
 See Grimm, " Correspondancc ;" Abhe de Voisbnon, "Anec- 
 dotes litteYaires et critiques," etc 
 
 Crebillon, de, (Prosper Jolyot,) an eminent French 
 dramatic poet, born at Dijon in 1674. He was sent to 
 Paris to study law with a M. Prieur, an amateur of the 
 theatre, who persuaded him to compose tragedies. His 
 " IdomeneV' was successful in 1705, and his "Atrc$e" 
 (" Atreus," 1707) added to his reputation. In 171 1 he 
 produced his " Rhadamiste," which is pronounced ^y 
 
 €as*V 9 as s; %hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K,trilled; sasj; th as in this. (Jl^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CRED1 
 
 688 
 
 CREQUI 
 
 La Harpe and others not only his master-piece, but 
 one of the finest tragedies which have appeared on the 
 French stage. His " Pyrrhus" (1726) was much admired. 
 During the twenty-two years which followed, he wrote 
 nothing. In 1731 he was admitted into the French 
 Academy, on which occasion he pronounced a poetical 
 address, in which occurs this applauded line : 
 
 " Aucun fiel n'a jamais empoisonne ma plume."* 
 He produced in 1749 his "Catilina," which had been long 
 expected, and in reference to which the public exclaimed, 
 with Cicero, " How long, O Catiline, wilt thou abuse our 
 patience?" It was performed with immense applause; 
 though critics think it betrays a decline in power. He 
 died in 1762, having won a place among the dramatists 
 of the first crder next to Corneille and Racine. He 
 preferred to live in liberty and poverty rather than cringe 
 for favour at the feet of power. 
 
 See D'Alembert, " filogede Crebillon ;" La Harpe, " Lycee ;" 
 Abbe dk la Purte, " Biographie de Crebillon;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale ;" Amanton, "Revelations sur les deux Crebil- 
 lon," 1S35 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1851. 
 
 Credi, di, de kRa'dee, (Lorenzo Sciarpelloni— 
 
 shaR-p§l-lo'nee,) an excellent Italian painter, born at 
 Florence in 1453. He imitated with success Leonardo 
 da Vinci, his fellow-pupil. A " Nativity" at Florence, 
 and a "Madonna and Child" in the Louvre, are reck- 
 oned among his best productions. He died at Florence 
 about 1535. His name is sometimes written Lorenzo 
 Andrea di Credi. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Credner, kRed'ner or kuet'ner, (Karl August,) a 
 German theologian, born near Gotha in 1797, became 
 professor of theology at Giessen in 1832. Among his 
 works are an " Introduction to Biblical Studies," (1832- 
 38,) and a " History of the New Testament," (1852.) 
 
 Creech, (Rev. Thomas,) an -English scholar, eminent 
 as a translator, was born at Blandford, Dorsetshire, in 
 1659. He was educated at Oxford, and became a Fellow 
 of All Souls' College. In 1682 he published his trans- 
 lation of Lucretius, in verse, which is much admired. 
 He also translated Horace, Theocritus, and portions of 
 other classic authors. He committed suicide in 1701. 
 "Creech is a much better translator," says Dr. Warton, 
 " than he is usually supposed to be. He is a nervous 
 and vigorous writer." 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Creech, (William,) a Scottish bookseller of Edin- 
 burgh, noted for his facetious talents and penuriousness, 
 Was born in 1745 ; died in 1815. 
 *See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Cregut, kRa'goot, (Friedrich Christian,) a German 
 medical writer, born at Hanau in 1675 ; died in 1758. 
 
 Creighton, kra'tQn, ? or Creichtou, (John,) an Irish- 
 man, who was born in 1648, fought against the Scottish 
 Covenanters, and wrote "Memoirs" (1731) of events 
 which he witnessed. Died in 1733. 
 
 Creighton, kra'ton, (John Orde,) an American com- 
 modore, born in New York City ; died in 1846. 
 
 Creighton or Crighton, krl'ton, (Rohkrt,) Bishop 
 of Bath and Wells, was born at Dunkeld in 1593. He 
 was chaplain to Charles II. during his exile. Died in 1672. 
 
 Creighton, (Robert,) an English clergyman, son of 
 the preceding, born in 1639. He had great skill in chin ch- 
 music, and composed the admired anthem for four voices, 
 "I will arise and go to my Father." Died in 1736. 
 
 Crell, kuel, (Christoph Ludwig,) a distinguished 
 German jurist, born at Leipsic in 1703. He was pro- 
 fessor of law at Wittenberg, and wrote many legal dis- 
 sertations. Died in 1758. 
 
 See Sperbach, " Merita et Memoria C L. Crellii," 1758. 
 
 Crell, (Johann.) See Crellius. 
 
 Crell, (Ludwig Christian,) a German classical 
 scholar, father of Christoph Ludwig, noticed above, was 
 born at Neustadt in 167 1. He became professor of 
 philosophy at Leipsic. Died in 1733. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Crell, (Nikolaus,) born in Leipsic about 1550, be- 
 came prime minister of Christian I., Elector of Saxony. 
 
 * " I ne'er in gall dipt my envenomed pen." 
 1,8,1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, J?, short; a, e, j, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
 He was imprisoned and put to death by order of Frede- 
 rick William, the successor of Christian, in 1601. 
 
 Crelle, kRel'leh, (August Leopold,) a German mathe- 
 matician, born at Eichenwerder, Prussia, in 1780. In 1S28 
 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences 
 of Berlin. Among his works are an " Essay on a Genera] 
 Theory of Analytic Functions," (1826,) and a "Manual 
 of Geometry," (1827.) He edited the "Journal of 
 Mathematics," (Berlin, 1826-51.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Crellius, kRel'le-Os, or Crell, kRel, (Johann,) a Ger- 
 man Socinian theologian, born near Nuremberg in 1590. 
 He became rector of a Socinian school at Cracow, where 
 he died in 1633. His most important work is a "Vindi- 
 cation of Religious Liberty," ("Vindiciae pro Reiigionis 
 Libertate," 1637.) 
 
 See J. F. Mayer, "Programma de J. Crellio," 1706. 
 
 Cremieux, kRa'me-yh', (Isaac Adolphe,) a French 
 politician and eloquent advocate, was born at Nimes in 
 1796. He removed to Paris about 1830, and became 
 advocate to the court of cassation. In 1842 he was 
 elected to the Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted 
 with the radical party, (extreme gauche.) On the abdi 
 cation of Louis Philippe, February, 1848, he declared in 
 favour of a republic, and became minister of justice in 
 the provisional government. He retired from office June 
 7, 1848, and favoured the election of Louis Napoleon 
 to the Presidency. In 1849 and 1850 he was an orator 
 of the opposition in the Assembly. Since the coup d'etat 
 of December, 1 851, he has lived as a private citizen. 
 
 See Lamartine, " Histoire de la Revolution de Fevrier." 
 
 Cremonese dei Paesl. See Bassi, (Francesco.) 
 Cremonini, kRa-mo-nee'nee, (Cesarf.,) an Italian 
 Peripatetic philosopher, born at Cento in 1550. For 
 forty years he taught philosophy in the University of 
 Padua, and was one of the chiefs of the rigid Aristote- 
 lians. He was widely renowned in his day, but his 
 works are now neglected. Died in 1631. 
 
 See Gincuene, " Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie ;" Bayi.e, " Histori 
 cal and Critical Dictionary :" Ritter, " History of Philosophy." 
 
 Crernonini, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian paintei 
 of perspective and of sacred history, born at Cento about 
 1560, worked at Bologna, and was the master of Guer- 
 cino. Died in 1610. 
 
 Cremutius. See Cordus. 
 
 Crenius, kRa'ne-iis,(THOMAS,) a German writer, whose 
 proper name was Crusius, (kRoo'ze-us,) was born in 
 Brandenburg in 1648. He was employed as corrector 
 of the press at Leyden, and published several mediocre 
 Latin works, among which was " Historical and Critical 
 Dissertations," (10 vols., 1691.) Died in 1728. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Cre'on, [Gr. K/ieuv,] a fabulous king of Thebes, was 
 a brother of Jocasta. He succeeded Laius, and gave 
 the throne to CEdipus to reward him for liberating 
 Thebes from the Sphinx. He became king again after 
 CEdipus went into exile. 
 
 See Sopuoci.es. "CEdipus" and "Antigone." 
 
 Cre-o-phy'lus, [Kpeu<pv?.oc t ] an ancient Greek epic 
 poet, who is supposed to have been a contemporary 
 and friend of Homer. 
 
 Crepin, kRa'pa.N', (Louis Philippe,) a French painter 
 of marine views, born in Paris in 1772 ; died about 1845. 
 
 Crepu, kreh-pti', (Nicolas,) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Brussels in 1680. He painted flowers, camps, and 
 other subjects with success, in Brussels. Died in 1761. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Crequi, de, deh kita'ke', (Antoinf.,) Seigneur de 
 Pont de Remi, (ptiN deh ra'me',) a famous French cap- 
 tain, who for a time defended Therouane against Henry 
 VIII. of England, (1513.) He was killed about 1525. 
 
 Crequi, de, (Francois de Bonne,) Due de Lesdi- 
 guieres, (l^'de'ge'aiR',) an able French general, born about 
 1624, was made a marshal of France in 1668. After 
 Turenne died, in 1675, Crequi was the senior of the 
 marshals. He gained victories over the Duke of Lor- 
 raine, in Lorraine and Alsace, in 1677 and 1678. Died 
 in 16S7. "He had the reputation," said Voltaire, "of 
 one who was destined to supply the place of Turenne." 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais;" Voltaire, "Sieclede 
 Louis XIV." 
 
CREQUI 
 
 689 
 
 CREUTZ 
 
 Crequi de Blanchef ort, de, deh kRi'ke' deh bloNsh'- 
 fok', (Charles,) Marquis, afterwards Due de Lesdi- 
 guieres, a French general, who became marshal of France 
 in 1622. He defeated the Duke of Feria in Piedmont in 
 1625. He was killed at the siege of Brema in 1638. 
 
 See N. Chorier, "Hisloire de la Vie de C. de Crequi," 1683: 
 Sis.mundi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Crequi de Blanchefort, de, (Chari.es,) Due, a 
 French general, brother of Francois, noticed above, born 
 about 1624. He served in several battles in Flanders, 
 and was sent as ambassador to Rome, where he was in- 
 sulted by the papal guards in 1662. Louis XIV. forced the 
 court of Rome to apologize for this insult. Died in 1687. 
 
 Crescence. See Crescentius. 
 
 Crescentini, kRa-shen-tee'nee, (Girolamo,) a famous 
 Italian singer, born at Urbania in 1769, made his debut 
 at Naples in 1788. In 1809 Napoleon appointed him first 
 singer of his court. Died in 1846. 
 
 bee Fans, " Biographie Universelle des M usiciens. " • 
 
 Crescentius, kres-sen'she-us, [Fr. Crescence, kR&'- 
 so.vss',] a Roman chief, who obtained the title of con- 
 sul in Rome in 980 A.r>. He attempted, says Sismondi, 
 to restore to Rome its liberty and former glory. His 
 designs, however, were thwarted by Pope Gregory V. 
 and the emperor Otho III., who entered Rome with an 
 army in 998. Crescentius, having capitulated to Otho, 
 was put to death. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Crescenzi, (Bartoi.ommeo.) See Cavarazzi. 
 
 Crescenzi, kRa-shSn'zee, (Giovanni Battista,) a 
 skilful Italian painter and architect, born in Rome about 
 1595. He went to Spain in 161 7, and was employed by 
 Philip III., for whom he designed the beautiful Pantheon 
 of the Escurial, begun about 1620. He received from 
 Philip IV. the title of Marquis de la Torre. Died at 
 Madrid in 1660. 
 
 See Na(;i.kk, " N'eues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Crescenzi, Crescenzo, kRa-shen'zo, or Crescen- 
 zio, kka-shei/ze-o, (Niccolo,) a physician of Naples, 
 lived about 1700, and wrote some valuable medical works. 
 
 Crescenzi, de', di kRa-shen'zee, (Pietro,) an Italian 
 senator, called "the restorer of agriculture," was born 
 at liologna in 1230. He wrote, in Latin, a "Treatise 
 on Rural Economy," ("Opus ruralium commodoruin,") 
 — a remarkable monument, says Du Petit-Thouars, " in 
 the history of agriculture." It obtained a great circu- 
 lation, and was translated into many languages. He be- 
 came a senator at the age of seventy. Died about 1320. 
 
 See Gincuenk, "Histoire LittcSraire d'ltalie;" Fiuppo Re, 
 "Elogiostorico di P. de' Crescenzi," 1813. 
 
 Crescimbeni, kRa-shem-ba'nee, (Giovanni Maria,) 
 a distinguished Italian poet and critic, born at Macerata, 
 in the March of Ancona, in 1663. He was received as 
 doctor of law at the age of sixteen, and in 1681 began 
 to practise law in Rome. He founded there in 1690 the 
 celebrated Academy of Arcadians. After composing a 
 number of lyric poems, he published in 1698 a "History 
 of National Poetry," (" Istoria della volgar Poesia,") a 
 learned and valuable work. In 1719 he took orders, 
 and received several benefices in Rome. Died in 1728. 
 "Crescimbeni," says Hallam, "has made an honourable 
 name by his exertions to purify the national taste." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" F. M. 
 Manoirii, "Vita di G. M. Crescimbeni," 1729: Nicekon, "Me- 
 moires." 
 
 Cresconius. See Corippus. 
 
 Cres'I-las, \KpeoiXac,] an Athenian sculptor, spoken 
 of by Pliny, was a contemporary of Phidias. The name is 
 sometimes improperly written Cf'ESILASor Ctesilaus. 
 
 Crespi, kRes'pee, (Daniele,) a historical painter, 
 born in the Milanese about 1590. His works are ad- 
 mired for expression and vigour of colour. He painted 
 at Milan, in fresco, "The Resurrection of Saint Bruno," 
 which is called his master-piece. Died at Milan in 1630. 
 
 Crespi, (Giovanni Battista,) called II Cerano, 
 (el chi-ra'no,) an Italian painter and architect, born at 
 Cerano in 1557. He worked at Milan, and was presi- 
 dent of the Academy of that city. Died in 1633. 
 
 Crespi, (Giuseppe Maria,) Cavaliere, a skilful 
 Italian painter and engraver, born at Bologna in 1665, 
 
 was a pupil of Cignani. He was surnamed Spagnuolo, 
 (span-yoo-o'lo,) (the "Spaniard,") on account of the 
 magnificence of his dress. He imitated Correggio antf 
 the Caracci with success, and had great facility of execu- 
 tion. Among his admired works are an "Ecce Homo," 
 and " Seven Sacraments." He was a capricious artist, 
 and produced many bizarre compositions. Died in 1747. 
 His sons Luiciand Antonio were painters of a different 
 style. Luigi was a writer on Art. Among his works is 
 the "Lives of Bolognese Painters." Died in 1779. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Crespin, kRes'paN', or Crispin, kR&s'paN', (Dan iki.) 
 a Swiss philologist, who lived at Lausanne about 1690. 
 He edited Sallust and Ovid (1681) "ad usum Delphini." 
 
 Crespin, (Jean,) a French Protestant writer, born at 
 Arras. He removed to Geneva in 1548 with Theodore 
 de Beza, and established there a printing-press, from 
 which many excellent editions were issued. He was 
 author of " The Book of Martyrs," (" Le Livre des Mar- 
 tyrs," 1554.) Died in 1572. 
 
 See Baylh, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" M. Adam, 
 " Vitae Eruditorum." 
 
 Cres'sey or Cres'sy, de, (Hugh Paulin,) an Eng- 
 lish Catholic writer, born at Wakefield in 1605. He wits 
 chaplain to Lord Wentworth and to Lord Falkland. 
 During a visit to Rome in 1646 he became a Roman 
 Catholic, and afterwards changed his name to Serems 
 de Cressey. After the restoration of 1660 he was chap- 
 lain to the Queen of England. He wrote a "Church 
 History of England," (unfinished,) and several treatises 
 in defence of the Roman Church. Died in 1674. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Cres'spn, (Ei.i.iorr,) president of the Pennsylvania 
 Colonization Society, was born in 1796; died in 1854. 
 
 Cress'well or Cres'well, (John A. J.,) an American 
 lawyer and Senator, born at Port Deposit, Maryland, in 
 1828. He was elected a member of Congress in 1862, 
 and a Senator of the United States for a short term 
 in 1865. He supported the Radical policy.- In March, 
 1869, he was appointed postmaster-general of the United 
 States. 
 
 Cressy. See Cressey. 
 
 Cresti. See Passignano. 
 
 Crestoni. See Crastoni. 
 
 Cresus. See Crcesus. 
 
 Creswell. See Crf.sswell. 
 
 Cres'wick, (Thomas,) an eminent English landscape- 
 painter, born at Sheffield in 181 1. He became a student 
 of the Royal Academy, London, in 1828, and an asso- 
 ciate of the same in 1842, and afterwards exhibited many 
 admired views of British scenery. Among his principal 
 works are a " London Road a Hundred Years ago," 
 (1847,) "The Weald of Kent," '• Home by the Sands," 
 (1848,) a "Shady Glen," and "Wind on Slime," (1850.) 
 His pictures are mostly faithful transcripts of nature. 
 Died January 1, 1870. 
 
 Cretet, kna'tS', (Emmanuel,) Comte de Champmol, 
 (shoN'mol',) born in Dauphine, France, in 1747, was 
 minister of the interior from 1807 to 1809. Died in 1809. 
 
 Creti, kRa'tee, (Donato,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Cremona in 1671. His master-piece is a Saint Vincent. 
 Died in 1749. 
 
 Cretin or Chrestin, kRa'taN', (Guili.aume,) a French 
 poet, whose proper name was Dubois. Died about 1525. 
 
 Cretineau-Joly, kRa'te'116' zho'le', (Jacques,) a 
 French historian, born at Fontenay- Vendee in 1S03. 
 Among his works is a " History of the Jesuits," (6 vols., 
 1844-46.) 
 
 Crette de Palluel, kRi'ta' deh pt'lu'el', (Francois,) 
 a French writer on agriculture, born near Paris in 1 741. 
 He invented several farming-implements. Died in 1798. 
 
 Cre-u'sa, |Gr. Kpeovaa ; Fr. Cr£use, kRa'iiz',] a 
 daughter of Priam, and wife of >*Eneas. When Troy 
 was captured by the Greeks, she fled with her husband 
 by night, but was separated from him in the confusion, 
 and mysteriously disappeared. 
 
 See Virgil's " JEne'id," book ii. 738-794. 
 
 Creuse. See Creusa. 
 
 Creutz, (F. K. C) See Creuz. 
 
 Creutz, kRe/66ts, (Gustavus Philip,) Count of, a 
 Swedish poet and statesman, born in Finland in 1726. 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. 
 
 44 
 
 O^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CREUTZFELDER 
 
 690 
 
 CRINESIUS 
 
 He wrote two admired poems, " Atys and Camilla,'' and 
 an " Epistle to Daphne." For twenty years he resided as 
 minister at Paris, where he was intimate with Dr. Frank- 
 lin, with whom he negotiated a treaty in 1783. In that 
 year he became minister of foreign affairs in Sweden. 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 See Schroederheim, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver Riks Radet Grefve 
 Creutz," 17S7; Makmontel, "Memoires." 
 
 Creutzfelder, kRoits'feTder,(JoHANN Georg,) a Ger- 
 man portrait-painter, born at Nuremberg in 1570 ; died 
 in 1633. 
 
 Creutziger, kRoit'sio-er, [Lat. Cru'ciger,] (Gas- 
 Pard,) a German theologian, born at Leipsic in 1504. 
 He became a professor at Wittenberg, and aided Luther 
 in his translation of the Bible into German. He wrote 
 (in Latin) " On the Dignity of Theological Studies," 
 and a few other treatises. Died in 1548. 
 
 Creuz or Creutz, kRoits, (Frikdkich Karl Casi- 
 mir,) a German didactic poet, born at Homburg-vor- 
 der-ltohe in 1724. His reputation is founded chiefly 
 on "The Tombs," ("Die Graber," 1760,) a pnilosophic 
 poem, which is much esteemed. He wrote " Essays on 
 Man," and other prose works. He contributed to the 
 reformation of the style of German literature. Died 
 in 1770. 
 
 See " Nouvelle BiographieGene'rale." 
 
 Creuze de Lesser, kRjjh'zi' deh lj'si', (Auguste 
 Francois,) Baron, a F'rench poet and dramatist, born in 
 Paris in 1771. He was a member of the legislative body 
 for six years, (1800-06,) and after the restoration was 
 prefect of Herault. He published poems entitled "The 
 Knights of the Round Table," (1812,) "Roland," (1814,) 
 and "The Last Man," (1832,) and also several dramas, 
 among which is "The Revenge," (1815.) His "Travels 
 in Italy" (1806) passed through three editions. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Creuzer, kRoit'ser, (Georg Frif.drich,) a learned 
 and ingenious German philologist and antiquary, was 
 born at Marburg in 1771. He became professor of phi- 
 lology and ancient history at Heidelberg in 1804. He 
 acquired a European reputation by his "Symbolism and 
 Mythology of Ancient Peoples, especially the Greeks," 
 (" Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Volker, besonders 
 der Griechen," 1810-12, 4 vols. 8vo; 2d edition, 6 vols., 
 1820-23.) ' ne opinions and method of this work were 
 attacked by G. Hermann in " Letters on Homer and 
 Hesiod," and by other critics. In 1826 he was appointed 
 privy councillor to the Grand Duke of Baden, and in 
 1848 he resigned his chair at Heidelberg. He was the 
 author of numerous antiquarian treatises. Died in 1858. 
 A masterly French translation of his " Symbolik" was 
 published by J. D. Guigniaut, 1825-36. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Aus dem Leben eines alien Professors," 
 1847; "Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." 
 
 Crevecoeur, de, deh kR&v'kiiR', (Hector Saint- 
 Jean,) a French writer, born at Caen in 1731. He emi- 
 grated to America in 1754, and settled on a farm near 
 New York. In 1782 he published a flattering descrip- 
 tion of the United States, in "Letters of an American 
 Farmer," and was appointed consul for France at New 
 York. He enjoyed the friendship of Washington and 
 Franklin. Died in France in 1813. 
 
 Crevecoeur, de, (Philippe,) an able French general 
 in the service of Louis XI., commanded the French at 
 the battle of Guinegate (or battle of the Spurs) in 1479. 
 He became marshal of France in 1492. Died in 1494. 
 
 See Comines, " Memoires." 
 
 Crevier, kni've-i', (Jean Baptiste,) a French his- 
 torian, born in Paris in 1693, was a pupil of Rollin. He 
 filled the chair of rhetoric in the College of Beauvais 
 for twenty years with success. He wrote eight volumes 
 in continuation of Rollin's "Roman History." Besides 
 other works, he published a " History of the Roman 
 Emperors down to Constantine." He has merit; but 
 his style is less agreeable than that of Rollin. Died 
 in 1763. 
 
 Crew or Crewe, kRti, (Nathaniel,) an English 
 divine, born at Stean in 1633, became Bishop of Dur- 
 ham, and an abettor of the arbitrary policy of James II. 
 Died in 1721. 
 
 Crichna. See Krishna. 
 
 Crichton, kRl'ton, (James,) commonly styed "the 
 Admirable Crichton," a Scottish prodigy, born at the 
 castle of Cluny, Perthshire, about 1560, was the son of 
 Robert Crichton, lord advocate of Scotland. At the age 
 of fourteen he graduated as A.M. in the University of 
 Saint Andrew's, and before he was twenty could speak 
 ten languages. He was handsome in form and feature, 
 and excelled in drawing, fencing, dancing, music, and 
 other accomplishments. In the course of a continental 
 tour, about 1580, he challenged the doctors and scholars 
 of Paris to dispute with him, at an appointed time, on 
 any question and in any one of twelve specified lan- 
 guages. Having by this means assembled a numerous 
 company of professors and others, he acquitted himself 
 to the general admiration. Proceeding thence to Italy, 
 he repeated his exhibition, and obtained similar triumphs 
 in Rome, Venice, and Padua. Aldus Manutius describes 
 theer/at with which he sustained for three days a contest 
 in philosophy and mathematics at Padua. The Duke 
 of Mantua employed Crichton as tutor to his son Vin- 
 cenzo, a dissolute youth. One night, about 1582, he was 
 attacked by six persons in masks, whom he repulsed. 
 Having disarmed one of them and found it was his 
 pupil, he returned the sword to Vincenzo, who plunged 
 it into the heart of Crichton. He left four short Latin 
 poems, which, says Dr. Kippis, "will not stand the test 
 of a rigid examination." " He was a man of very wonder- 
 ful genius," says Scaliger, "more worthy of admiration 
 than esteem. He had something of the coxcomb about 
 him, and only wanted a little common sense." 
 
 See P. F. Tvtler, " Life of the Admirable Crichton," 1823: F. 
 Douglas, "The Life of J. Crichton," 1760; D. Irving, "Lives 
 of the Scottish Writers," 1S39: Sir Thomas Urqi/hart, "Life 
 of J. Crichton ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary oi Eminent 
 Scotsmen." 
 
 Crillon, de, deh kRe'yoN', (Louis Athanase des 
 Balbes de Berton — di'bilbdeh beVt6N',) a brother 
 of the Due de Crillon-Mahnn, was born in 1726. He 
 became a priest, and wrote " Philosophic Memoirs of 
 the Baron de * * * ," (2 vols., 1779,) said to be a work 
 of merit. Died at Avignon in 1789. 
 
 Crillon, de, (Louis des Balbes (or Balms) de Ber- 
 ton,) a famous French warrior, born in Provence in 1 541. 
 He fought against the Protestants in the civil wars, sig- 
 nalized his courage at Lepanto in 1571, and had a high 
 command in the army of Henry HI. during the war of 
 tl»e League, (1580-89.) After the death of that king, 
 he entered the service of Henry IV., who called him 
 the "bravest of the brave." He took part in the battle 
 of Ivry, and commanded in Savoy in 1600. The king 
 wished to make him a marshal, but was dissuaded by 
 the Duchess de Beaufort. Died in 1615. 
 
 See Mademoisei.lk ok Lussan, "Vie de Balbes de Crillon," 
 1757: Skrvikz. " Histoire du brave Crillon," 1S44; Montrond, 
 •' Histoire du brave Crillon," 1S45 ; Abb£ de Crillon, "Vie de L. 
 de Ralbis de Berton de Crillon," 3 vols., 1S26; De Thou, " Historia 
 sui Temporis." 
 
 Crillon-Mahon, de, deh kRe'yiN' mt'oN', (Louis 
 Antoine Francois de Paul — deh pol,) Due, a Spanish 
 general, the grandson of the following, born in Paris in 
 1775. He obtained command of a division in 1801, and 
 was chosen Captain-General of Guipuscoa, Alava, and 
 Biscay in 1808. Soon after this he took an oath to Joseph 
 Bonaparte, who appointed him lieutenant-general, and 
 Viceroy of Navarre. Died in 1832. 
 
 See FoY, " Histoire des Guerres de la P^ninsule." 
 
 Crillon-Mahon, de, (Louis de Berton des Bm.tses 
 de Quiers— deh ke'ain',) Due, a French general, born 
 in 1718, contributed to the victory of Fontenoy in 1745. 
 Having obtained the rank of lieutenant-general in the 
 Seven Years' war, (17^5-62,) he passed into the ser- 
 vice of Spain. He took Minorca in 1782, was made 
 Captain-General of Spain, and received the title of Duke 
 of Mahon. He commanded without success in the 
 famous siege of Gibraltar, about 1782. Died in 1796. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV." 
 
 CrI-nag'o-ras, \Kpivay6pac,'] a Greek poet, who was 
 born at Mitylene and lived in the reign of Augustus. 
 
 Crinesius, kri-nee'she-us or kRe-na'ze-us, (Christo- 
 pher,) born in Bohemia in 1584, became professor of 
 Oriental languages at Wittenberg and Altdorf. He 
 published "Gymnasium Syriacum," (1611,) a work on 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ft, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CRIN1T0 
 
 691 
 
 CROCUS 
 
 the Syriac language, a "Syriac Lexicon," (1612,) and a 
 "Treatise on the Confusion of Tongues," ("l)e Con- 
 fusione Linguaruin," 1629.) Died in 1629. 
 
 Crinito, kRe-nee'to, [l.at Crini'tus,] (Pietro,) an 
 Italian litterateur, born at Florence about 1465. lie 
 wrote Latin verses, which approach the elegance of 
 Politian, and two popular prose works, " De honesta 
 Disciplina," (" On Honest (or Honourable) Instruction," 
 1500,) and " Vitae Poetarum I.atinorum," (" Lives of the 
 I-atin Poets.") Died about 1504. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Lelteratnra Italian*." 
 
 Crinitns. See Crinito. 
 
 Crishna. See Krishna. 
 
 Crisp, (STEPHEN,) an eminent minister of the Society 
 of Friends, born at Colchester about 1628. He was con- 
 verted to the principles of the Friends in 1655. As a 
 minister of the gospel, he travelled many years in Great 
 Britain, Holland, and Germany. He published a " Plain 
 Pathway Opened," "A Faithful Warning to Friends," 
 several Epistles, and other works. Died in 1692. 
 
 See Samuel Tuke, " Memoirs of the Life of S. Crisp," 1824. 
 
 Crisp, (Tobias,) an English theologian, noted as a 
 chief of the Antir.otnians, was born in London in 1600. 
 He became rector of Brinkworth in 1627. In 1642 he 
 was engaged in a great controversy, on the subject of 
 free grace, with fifty-two opponents. His sermons have 
 been published. Died in 1642. 
 
 Crispin. See Crespin. 
 
 Cris'pin, (GILBERT,) a Norman of noble rank, was 
 Abbot of Westminster. Died about 1 1 15. 
 
 Crispo, kRes'po, [Lat. Cris'pus,] (Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian medical writer, born at Trapani, in Sicily, in 1600; 
 died in 1688. 
 
 Crispo, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian writer and 
 priest, born at Gallipoli, (Naples,) was a friend of Tasso 
 and Annibal Caro. Among his works is a "Life of 
 Sannazaro," (1383.) Died in 1595. 
 
 Cris'pus, (Flavius Julius,) the eldest son of the 
 Roman emperor Constantine I., was born about 300 a.d. 
 He served in the wars against the Franks and against 
 Licinins, and gave proof of courage and abilities. Being 
 falsely accused by his step-mother Fausta of an attempt 
 to seduce her, he was put to death, by his father's order, 
 in 326 a.d. 
 
 Cristiani, kRes-te-a'nee, (Bertrando,) Count of, an 
 Italian statesman of high reputation, born at Genoa in 
 1702. He was appointed by the empress Maria Theresa 
 grand chancellor of the Milanese. Died in 1758. 
 
 Cristofori, kRes-tofo-ree, (Pietro Paolo,) a cele- 
 brated Italian painter in mosaic, adorned the church 
 of Saint Peter at Rome. Died at an advanced age in 
 1740. 
 
 Critias, krish'e-as, [Kprn'nc.l or Critios, krish'e-os, 
 a celebrated Athenian statuary, who flourished about 470 
 B.C. Among his master-pieces were statues of Harmo- 
 dius and Aristogi'ton. 
 
 Critias, an Athenian orator and poet, and one of the 
 Thirty Tyrants, was a relative of Plato and a pupil of 
 S. crates. Having been exiled from Athens for an un- 
 known cause about 406 B.C., he returned with the Spartan 
 general Lvsander in 404, and became one of the thirty 
 who tyrannized over the state. He put Theramenes and 
 others to death. He was killed in battle when Thrasy- 
 bu'Ius liberated Athens in 404 B.C. His eloquence was 
 hi.ii'y praised by Cicero. He wrote elegies and other 
 works. 
 
 See W. E. Wkber, ''Dissertatin de Critia Tyranno," 1824: Pl.M- 
 i. " Alcibiades :" Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" 
 e, " History of Greece ;" Xenophon, " Hellenica." 
 
 Critios. See Critias. 
 
 Crito. See Criton. 
 
 Crlt-o-la'us, [KfuroXaof,] a Greek philosopher, was 
 a native of Phaselis, in Lycia. He studied at Athens 
 under Ariston of Ceos, l>ecame after his death the head 
 of the Peripatetic school in Athens, and acquired a high 
 reputation as a philosopher and orator. About 155 B.C. 
 he was sent to Rome on an important embassy with 
 Carneades and Diogenes. He wrote a treatise to prove 
 the eternity of matter. 
 
 See Fabricius, " BiWiotheca Grxca;" Vossics, "De Historim 
 Grx-< 
 
 Critola'us, an Achaean general and demagogue, was 
 one of the chief authors of the war against Rome which 
 resulted in the destruction of Corinth and the subjugation 
 of Greece. In 146 B.C. he was defeated by Metellus 
 in Ix>cris. As he was never heard of after this action, 
 it was supposed he died by poison. 
 
 Cri'tou or Crito [Kpirwv] of Athens, was a friend and 
 disciple of Socrates. He tried to persuade Socrates to 
 escape from prison, and attended him in his last hour. He 
 wrote seventeen dialogues on philosophy, which are not 
 extant. Plato gave the name of Criton to one of his books. 
 
 See Hermann, "Geschichte und System der Platonischen Philo- 
 sophic." 
 
 Criton, a Roman physician, who attended the em- 
 peror Trajan. He wrote a book " On Cosmetics." 
 
 Crit'ten-den, (George B.,) an American general in 
 the Confederate service, a son of John ]. Crittenden, 
 noticed below. He commanded as major-general at 
 the battle of Somerset in 1862, where he was defeated 
 by General Thomas. 
 
 Crittenden, (John Jay,) an American statesman, 
 born in Woodford county, Kentucky, in 1 787. He studied 
 law, gained distinction as an advocate, and was elected 
 to the Senate of the United States in 1 81 7. His term 
 having expired in 1819, he practised law at Frankfort 
 from that time until 1S35, when he was again elected to 
 the Senate for six years by \be Whigs. He was a warm 
 friend of Henry Clay, and a constant supporter of his 
 principal measures. He was appointed attorney-general 
 of the United States by President Harrison in March, 
 1841 ; but he resigned in the ensuing September because 
 he disapproved the policy of Tyler. In 1843 he was 
 re-elected to the national Senate, and in 1848 was chosen 
 Governor of Kentucky. He was attorney-general in the 
 cabinet of President Fillmore from July, 1850, until 
 March, 1853, after which he was in the Senate of the 
 United States from 1855 to 1861. On the dissolution 
 of the Whig party he joined the American party. He 
 opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise in 1854, 
 and the disunion movement of i860. In the session of 
 1860-61 he performed a prominent part as a mediator 
 and as the mover of a series of resolutions called the 
 Crittenden Compromise, which were not adopted. Died 
 in 1863. 
 
 Crittenden, (Thomas L.,) an American general, a 
 son of the preceding, was born at Russellville, Kentucky, 
 about 1819. He became a brigadier-general of volun- 
 teers in the Union army in 1861, commanded a division 
 at Shiloh, April, 1862, and was promoted to the rank 
 of major -general in the summer of the same year. He 
 commanded a corps at the battle of Stone River, 
 which ended January 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga, in 
 Septemljer of that year. 
 
 Crittenden, (Thomas T.J an American general, a 
 nephew of John J. Crittenden, noticed above, was born 
 in Alabama about 1828. He lived in Indiana before 
 the civil war. He was appointed a brigadier-general of 
 volunteers in the Union army about April, 1862. 
 
 Crivellari, kRe-veTla'ree, (Bartoi .kmmi EO,) an able 
 Italian engraver, born at Venice in 1725 ; died in 1777. 
 
 Crivelli, kRe-vel'lee, (Angelo Maria,) sometimes 
 called " II Crivellone," an Italian painter of animals and 
 hunting-scenes, was born at Milan. Died about 1730. 
 
 Crivelli, (Carlo,) a Venetian painter of the fifteenth 
 century, was living in 1475. 
 
 Croce, kRo'chi,(BALDASSARE,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Bologna in 1553, worked in Rome. Died in 1628. 
 
 Croce, della, del'li kRo'chi, | Lat. Cru'cius,] (Vin- 
 cenzo Ai.sario,) an Italian physician and medical writer, 
 born near Genoa about 1570, lived at Rome. 
 
 Crocifissajo. See Macchietit, (Girolamo.) 
 
 Crock'ett, (David,) an American hunter, noted lor 
 his adventures and eccentric habits, was born in Ten- 
 nessee in 1786. He was elected a member of Congress 
 in 1827, 1829, and 1831, and began his public life as a 
 friend of General Jackson ; but he changed sides about 
 1830. Having joined the Texans in their revolt against 
 Mexico, he was taken prisoner at Fort Alamo, and mas- 
 sacred, by Santa Anna, in 1836. 
 
 See his " Autobiography," i^H- 
 
 Crocus. See Croke, (Richard.) 
 
 f as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as *; th as in this. (fty See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CROESE 
 
 692 
 
 CROMWELL 
 
 Croese, kRoo's^h, (Gerard,) a Dutch clergyman, born | 
 at Amsterdam in 1642, was the author of a " History 
 of the Quakers," (" Historia Quakeriana," 1695,) and ■ 
 other works. Died in 1710. 
 
 Croeser, kRoo'ser, (Jacques Henri.) a Flemish phy- 
 sician, born at Grave in 1691; died in 1753. 
 
 Croesus, kree'sus, [Gr. Kpolooc; Fr. Cr£sus, kRa'- 
 ziiss',] a king of Lydia, proverbial for his great wealth, 
 born about 590 B.C., succeeded his father Alyattes in 
 560. He subjugated the /Eolians, Ionians, and other 
 peoples of Asia Minor, and about 554 formed an alliance 
 with the Spartans and the King of Egypt against Cyrus 
 of Persia. In the year 546 Crcesus was defeated by Cyrus 
 near Sardis, his capital, and taken prisoner. According 
 to Herodotus, whose story is discredited by some, he was 
 doomed to be burned alive, but was saved by his recalling 
 a saying of Solon, which Cyrus desired him to explain, 
 and afterwards not only delivered him from death, but 
 bestowed upon him distinguished marks of favour. 
 
 See " History of Croesus, King of Lydia," London, 1756; Cr.iN- 
 ton, "Fasti Hellenici;" Herodotus, " History ;" JDiodorus Sicu- 
 lus, books ix. and xvi. 
 
 Croft, (Herbert,) an English prelate, born in Oxford- 
 shire in 1603, was educated as a Catholic. He was 
 converted to the Anglican Church in 1622, and became 
 Dean of Hereford in 1644, and Bishop of Hereford in 
 1661. He published "The Naked Truth, or the True 
 State of the Primitive Chufch," (1675,) which tended to 
 a union of the Protestants and produced much sensation. 
 Died in 1691. 
 
 Croft, (Sir Herbert,) an English writer, of the same 
 family as the preceding, born in 1751. He took orders 
 in 1782, after which he succeeded to a baronetcy. He 
 published " Love and Madness," and other works, and 
 wrote the Life of Young for Dr. Johnson's "Lives of 
 the Poets." About 1792 he issued a prospectus of an 
 improved edition of Johnson's Dictionary, which was 
 never completed. Died in 1816. 
 
 Croft, (Sir James,) an English statesman, born about 
 1530, was appointed lord deputy of Ireland by Edward 
 VI. in 1 55 1. Under the reign of Elizabeth he became 
 comptroller to the household. Died in 1591. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. i., 2d Series, 1827. 
 
 Croft, (William,) a celebrated composer of cathedral 
 music, born in Warwickshire in 1677. He became com- 
 poser to the Chapel Royal and organist of Westminster 
 Abbey in 1708. He published "Divine Harmony," (1712,) 
 and his admirable " Musica Sacra" in 1724. Died in 1727. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Crof'tou, ( Zachary, ) an English nonconformist 
 minister of London. Died about 1672. 
 
 Croghan, kro'gan, (Colonel George,) an American 
 officer, born near Louisville, Kentucky, in 1791. He 
 became inspector-general in 1825, and served in the 
 Mexican war, (1846-47.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Croi, de, deh kito'e', [Eat. Croi'us,] (Jean,) a French 
 Protestant minister, born at Uzes. He preached at Be- 
 ziers and Uzes, and wrote, besides other works, " Notes 
 on Origen, Irenaeus, and Tertullian," (in Latin, 1652.) 
 Bayle represents him as well versed in languages, criti- 
 cism, and ecclesiastic antiquities. Died in 1659. 
 
 See Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Croiset, kRwa'zi', (Jean,) a French Jesuit and popu- 
 lar writer, born at Marseilles about 1650, published " The 
 Christian Year," ("Annee Chretienne," 18 vols.,) and 
 "Meditations," 4 vols., both often reprinted. Died in 1738. 
 
 Croius. See Croi. 
 
 Croix. See I.acroix, Cruz, and Crock. 
 
 Croix, (Francois Petis.) See Petis de la Croix. 
 
 Croix, (Juan.) See Cruz. 
 
 Croix du Maine. See La Croix du Maine. 
 
 Croke, krook, ? (Sir Alexander,) an English civilian 
 and miscellaneous writer, born at Aylesbury in 1800 ; 
 died in 1842. 
 
 Croke, krook, or Crook, (Sir George,) an English 
 judge, born in the county of Bucks in 1559. He was 
 appointed justice of the king's bench in 1628, and took 
 side with Hampden in the Ship-money case in 1636, His 
 " Reports of Select Cases" acquired a high and durable 
 reputation. Died in 1641. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Croke, [Lat. Cro'cus,] (Richard,) an English scho- 
 lar, born in London, taught Greek at Oxford about 1520. 
 His Latin orations have been published. Died in 1558. 
 
 Cro'ker, (Rt. Hon. John Wilson,) an author, critic, 
 and politician, was born in Galway, Ireland, in 1780. 
 He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and chose 
 the profession of the law. He was elected to Parliament 
 in 1807, and appointed secretary to the admiralty in 1809. 
 In this year Scott, Croker, and others founded the " Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review." He gained literary distinction 
 by a satire called "An Intercepted Letter from Canton," 
 (1807,) "The Songs of Trafalgar," a poem on the battle 
 of Talavera, and other works. His talent for satire and 
 sarcasm was displayed in the "Quarterly Review," to 
 which he frequently contributed tot about thirty years 
 or more. He became a member of the privy council in 
 1828. He opposed the Reform Bill in several able 
 speeches, declared he would never sit in a Reformed 
 House of Commons, and after the passage of the bill 
 in 1832 retired from Parliament. His most important 
 work is his edition of Boswell's "Life of Johnson," (5 
 vols., 1831,) which is praised by many critics, but was 
 severely criticized by Macaulay, ("Edinburgh Review," 
 1831,) who exposes many instances of his "scandalous 
 inaccuracy." Died in 1857. 
 
 Croker, (Thomas Crofton,) a popular Irish writer, 
 born at Cork in 1798. Having served an apprenticeship 
 to a merchant of Cork, he obtained a clerkship in the 
 admiralty about the age of twenty-one. He published 
 "Researches in the South of Ireland," (1824,) "Fairy 
 Legends," "Legends of the Lakes, or Sayings and Do- 
 ings at Killarney," (1829,) and other works. He was a 
 frequent contributor to " Fraser's Magazine," and was for 
 about thirty years a clerk in the admiralty. Died in 1854. 
 
 Croll, kuol, (Oswald,) a German alchemist, born at 
 Wetter, in Hesse. He became physician to Prince 
 Christian of Anhalt, and a partisan of Paracelsus. He 
 published a curious work, called "Basilica Chymica," 
 (1609,) which was often reprinted. Died in 1609. 
 
 See F. HoiiFER, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Cro'ly, (George,) a popular poet and voluminous 
 author, born in Dublin in 1780. He was for many years, 
 beginning in 1835, rector of Saint Stephen's, Wallbrook, 
 London, and was eminent as a pulpit orator. Besides 
 numerous sermons, he published "The Angel of the 
 World," a tale, (1820,) "Salathiel, a Story of the Past, 
 the Present, and the Future," (1827,) which is admired 
 by many, "Poetical Works," (2 vols., 1830,) a "Personal 
 History of George IV.," (1830,) "Catiline," a tragedy, a 
 "Life of Edmund Burke," (1840,) " Marston," a novel, 
 (1846,) "Scenes from Scripture, with other Poems," 
 (1851,) and various other works. "There can be no 
 doubt that his 'Catiline,' whether considered as a poem 
 or a drama, is a splendid performance." (" Blackwood's 
 Magazine," vol. xi.) Died in i860. 
 
 Cromarty, Earl of. See Mackenzie, (George.) 
 
 Crorne, (John,) an English landscape-painter, born 
 at Norwich in 1769; died in 1821. 
 
 Cro'mer, (Martin,) born at Biecz, in- Poland, in 1512, 
 held a distinguished place among the historians of his 
 time. His principal work, a Latin " History of Poland," 
 (1558,) was highly esteemed for style and other merits. 
 He became Bishop of Warmia in 1579. Died in 1589. 
 
 Cronvp'ton, (Samuel,) an English artisan, born in 
 Lancashire in 1753, was the inventor of the spinning- 
 jenny or mule which was brought into use about 177S. 
 Died in 1827. 
 
 See G. French, "Life, etc. of Samuel Cronipton," London, 
 1S59: Henry Howe, "Lives of Eminent American and European 
 Mechanics," 1847. 
 
 Cromvele or Cromuelos. See Cromwei.i.,(Oi.iver.) 
 Crom'well, (or krum'wel,) (Henry,) a younger son 
 of Oliver, was born at Huntingdon in 1627, and entered 
 the armv at the age of twenty. In 1649, with the rank 
 .if colonel, he accompanied his fatherto Ireland, where he 
 displayed courage in several actions. He was chosen a 
 member of Parliament in 1653. In 1657 he was appointed 
 lord deputy of Ireland, where he became popular by his 
 moderate policy. Soon after his brother Richard ceased 
 to be Protector, April, 1659, Henry resigned his office, 
 and lived as a private citizen in England. Died in 1674. 
 
 i. e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fi, y\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon 
 
CROMWELL 
 
 693 
 
 CROMWELL 
 
 Cromwell, knmi'wel or krom'wel, (formerly almost 
 universally called krum'eU lit. Cromvkle, kRom-va'la ; 
 Sp. Cromi kujs, kKoni-wa 16s,] (Oliver,) one of the 
 most extraordinary men that ever lived, was born at 
 Huntingdon, England, on the 25th of April, 1599. He 
 was the eldest surviving son of Robert Cromwell and 
 Elizabeth Steward. Robert was the son of Sir Henry 
 Cromwell, had sat in Parliament, and owned an estate 
 in land, which Oliver inherited. On April 23, 1616, the 
 day of Shakspeare's death, Oliver entered Sidney Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, where he remained until his father's 
 death, in June, 1617. It appears that he studied law in 
 London ; but we have no authentic record of this part of 
 his career. In 1620 he married Elizabeth Bouchier, with 
 whom he settled on the hereditary estate in Huntingdon, 
 and passed several years employed in farming and social 
 duties. During this period he lived in intimate fellowship 
 with the Puritans, who were very numerous among the 
 various ranks of society, and he appears to have given 
 his serious and earnest attention to the great questions 
 of religion. In 1628 Oliver represented the borough 
 of Huntingdon in Parliament, which, after passing the 
 Petition of Right, was dissolved in March, 1629, and 
 the leaders of the popular party were committed to 
 prison. In this session he made his first speech against 
 Popery, which was significant of the great idea of his 
 public life. This was the last Parliament that met in 
 England for eleven years, during which period the 
 measures of the government seemed to become every 
 day more arbitrary and tyrannical. In 1637 Cromwell 
 and his cousin Hampden, the great Commoner, resolved 
 to leave their native land, and had actually embarked 
 for North America ; but the ship, when about to sail, 
 was* arrested by an order of council. They therefore 
 remained in England ; and " with them remained," to use 
 the language of Macaulay, " the evil genius of the House 
 of Stuart." In the next Parliament, which met in April, 
 1640, Cromwell, who then resided at Ely, represented 
 the town of Cambridge, and also in the famous Long 
 Parliament, which met near the end of that year. Sir 
 Philip Warwick describes his first impressions of Crom- 
 well, whom he saw at this period in the House, and whom, 
 judging by his unfashionable dress and rusticity, he was 
 inclined to regard with contempt. " But," he adds, " I 
 lived to see this gentleman, by multiplied successes and 
 by more converse with good company, appear in my own 
 eye of a comely presence and a great and majestic de- 
 portment." One day, as he rose to address the House, 
 Lord Digby asked Hampden who the "sloven" then 
 speaking was. Hampden replied that it was Oliver 
 Cromwell, adding, "That sloven whom you see before 
 you has no ornament in his speech ; but, if we should 
 ever come to a breach with the king, that sloven, I say, 
 will l>e the greatest man in England." On November 
 22, 1641, after a stormy debate, the Grand Remonstrance 
 passed the House, by a small majority of the popular 
 party. 
 
 In January, 1642, Charles I. having failed in an attempt 
 to arrest five members of the House, affairs came to 
 a crisis, and both sides appealed to arms. Cromwell 
 entered the army as captain of cavalry, and soon dis- 
 tinguished himself by his strict discipline, his military 
 talents, and his invincible courage. After the affair at 
 Edgehill he perceived the necessity of having men of 
 high principle, or enthusiasm of some kind, to contend 
 against men of honour such as the Cavaliers ; and he used 
 his personal influence in enlisting numerous companies 
 of yeomen among the Puritans of the Eastern counties. 
 Although when he entered the army he was over forty, 
 he never lost a battle ; and his victories were always 
 decisive, even when the enemy had a great superiority 
 in numbers. On July 2, 1644, he commanded the left 
 wing at the battle of Marston Moor, which was won 
 chiefly by the irresistible charge of Cromwell's Iron- 
 sides. In 164;, as lieutenant-general under Fairfax, he ' 
 led the right wing at the decisive victory of Naseby, 
 where the king lost his artillery, his private papers, and 
 about 5000 men. 
 
 There were two parties among the Parliamentarians, 
 which became more and more widely divergent as the 
 foyal cause declined, — namely, the Presbyterians, who 
 
 had a majority in the Parliament, and the Independent*, 
 who controlled the army and owned Cromwell as their 
 leader. At length, in 1647, these came to an open rup- 
 ture. On June 2, one of Cromwell's officers seized the 
 person of the king and transferred him from the custody 
 of Parliament to that of the army. In August, 1648, at 
 the battle of Preston, Cromwell, with about 8000 men, 
 defeated the royal forces under the Duke of Hamilton, 
 consisting of about 20,000, most of whom were Scotch. 
 Near the close of this year, the majority of the He use 
 seeming inclined to treat with the king and restore him 
 to the throne, forty-one members were picked out as 
 they were entering the House, and placed under aritst 
 by the agency of Colonel Pride, one of Cromwell's 
 officers. Cromwell was a member of the court which 
 tried the king in January, 1649, and signed the warrant for 
 his execution. The part taken by Cromwell in the death 
 of Charles has left a shadow on his fame which must 
 always remain unless it can be clearly shown that such an 
 act of severity was necessary to the safety of the cause 
 of liberty. "The murder of the king," says Hume, " the 
 most atrocious of all his actions, was to him covered under 
 a mighty cloud of republican and fanatical illusions." 
 Having been sent as lord lieutenant to Ireland, which 
 was then in a state of riot and anarchy, he defeated the 
 royalists at Drogheda and Wexford, and in less than a 
 year the enemy were generally subdued, though not 
 without the exercise of extreme and perhaps indefensible 
 severity. 
 
 In 1650, the Scotch having raised an army with a view 
 to restore Charles II. to the throne, and having induced 
 him to co-operate with them, Cromwell was appointed 
 commander-in-chief, vice Lord Fairfax, who resigned his 
 commission. The armies met at Dunbar on September 
 3, where the Scotch were totally defeated and 10,000 
 of them taken prisoners. Charles, having recruited his 
 army, marched into England, and was followed by Crom- 
 well to Worcester, where, September 3, 1651, a battle 
 was fought which resulted in the complete overthrow of 
 the royal cause and rendered the victorious general vir- 
 tually dictator. And who could be more competent for 
 a crisis so difficult, which required the greatest resolution, 
 vigour, and sagacity? At this period there was observed 
 a change in his manner, — "an indescribable kind of exal- 
 tation." Clarendon remarks "that his parts seemed to 
 be raised, as if he had concealed his faculties till he had 
 occasion to use them." In 1653 he entered the House 
 of Commons, now reduced to a small remnant, and 
 dissolved it vi et armis, exclaiming, " You are no longer 
 a Parliament." At a council of the army in the early 
 part of 1654 he was formally proclaimed Protector of 
 the Commonwealth. The government of the Protector 
 commanded the respect of foreign powers, many of 
 whom vied with each other in courting his alliance. He 
 made liberty of conscience, one of the fundamental prin- 
 ciples of his policy, and defended the Protestant cause in 
 foreign countries. When Spain solicited his alliance, he 
 required two conditions, one of which was the suppres- 
 sion of the Inquisition. He employed Milton, who had 
 previously served the Parliament in the same capacity, 
 as his Latin secretary. In 1656 a new Parliament was 
 assembled, which voted supplies for the war with Spain 
 and offered the crown to Cromwell ; but, though urged 
 by various parties to accept the insignia of royalty, he 
 persisted in refusing it. 
 
 Southey, though a Tory, admits that Cromwell's "good 
 sense and good nature would have led him to govern 
 equitably, to promote literature, to cherish the arts, to 
 pour wine and oil in the wounds of the nation ;" but 
 the mutinous spirit of his opponents partially frustrated 
 these designs. It is usually affirmed that he became very 
 suspicious near the end of his career, and took extreme 
 precautions against assassination. He died of fever on 
 September 3, 1658, the anniversary of his greatest vic- 
 tories, those of Dunbar and Worcester. He left two 
 sons, Richard and Henry, and four daughters. 
 
 It is admitted by all that Cromwell, as a statesman, as a 
 reformer, and as a military leader, displayed abilities of 
 the very highest order. His memory has been subjected 
 to a severe ordeal by the enmity of two opposite parties 
 whose policy he frustrated, one of which denounced him 
 
 5^;9asj;g htirn'. j> as/; g,h,k, guttural, N, nasal, v., trilled; sasz; th as in this. (Jry^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CROMWELL 
 
 694 
 
 CROSBY 
 
 
 as unfaithful to liberty, and the other found him guilty of 
 tre.son against the divine right of kings. Many, while 
 admitting his intellectual ability, impeach the sincerity 
 of his motives and deny his claim to any noble or esti- 
 mable moral qualities. But, after the lapse of two cen- 
 turies, an impartial public begins to appreciate his meri- 
 torious services and moral integrity, as well as his political 
 wisdom and invincible valour. It is acknowledged that 
 under his direction England was prosperous, powerful, 
 and well governed, that his foreign policy was enlightened, 
 magnanimous, and successful. Macaulay has remarked 
 that, " though constantly attacked and scarcely ever de- 
 fended, the character of Cromwell had yet always con- 
 tinued popular with the great body of his countrymen." 
 Again he says, "Cromwell was emphatically a man. 
 Never was any ruler so conspicuously born for sove- 
 reignty. The cup which has intoxicated almost all others 
 sobered him. His spirit, restless, from its buoyancy, in 
 a lower sphere, reposed in majestic placidity as soon 
 as it had reached the level congenial to it. Rapidly as 
 his fortunes grew, his mind expanded more rapidly still. 
 Insignificant as a private citizen, he was a great general ; 
 he was a still greater prince." 
 
 See Carlvle, " Letters and Speeches of Cromwell ;" John Foh- 
 ster, " Life oi Cromwell," in his " Statesmen of the Commonwealth 
 of England," 7 vols., 1840; Robert Southev, "Life of O. Crom- 
 well," 1844; Vili.emain, " Histoire de Cromwell," 1X19; Guizot, 
 " Histoire de la Revolution d'Angleterre," and his " Histoire de la 
 Refuiblique d'Angleterre et de Cromwell," 1854 ; (and English version 
 of the same ;) J. H. Merle d'Aubigns, "The Protector: a Vindi- 
 cation," New York, 1848; Philarbte Chasles, "O. Cromwell; sa 
 Vie privee," etc., 1S47; Gregorio Leti, " Histnria e Memorie re- 
 condite sopra la Vita di O. Cromvele," 1692 ; William Harris, 
 "Historical and Critical Account of the Life ofO. Cromwell," 1762; 
 Karl Sebald, " Leben O. Cromwells," 1815; Daniel Wilson, 
 " O. Cromwell and the Protectorate," 184S ; J. T. Headley," Life of 
 O. Cromwell," 1S48; Macaulay, " Essays," (Review of " Hallam's 
 Constitutional History ;") Clarendon," History of the Rebellion ;" 
 Hume, "History of England ;" Noble, "Memoirs of the Protecto- 
 rate House of Cromwell," 2 vols., 1784; Lamartine, "Memoirs of 
 Celebrated Characters," vol. ii,, 1856; " London Quarterly Review" 
 for July, 1821 : " Eraser's Magazine" for December, 1847 ; " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for January, 1856. 
 
 Cromwell, (Oi.ivkr,) said to be the last male de- 
 scendant of the Protector, was the author of " Memoirs 
 of Oliver Cromwell, and of his Sons Richard and Henry," 
 published in 1820. 
 
 Cromwell, (Richard,) the eldest surviving son of 
 the Protector Oliver, was born at Huntingdon in 1626. 
 He was admitted into Lincoln's Inn in 1647, but appears 
 to have been an indolent student. In 1649 he married 
 Dorothy Major, with whom he passed several years in 
 rural retirement at Hursley, Hampshire. He had a mild, 
 virtuous, and unambitious character, and inherited little 
 or nothing of his father's mental power. In 1654 Oliver 
 brought him to court and appointed him first lord of 
 trade and navigation, privy councillor, etc. He suc- 
 ceeded his father, September 3, 1658, without open op- 
 position, and was proclaimed Protector by General Monk 
 and the army. A general disaffection, however, was 
 soon apparent, and the republicans and royalists united 
 in hostility to his power. Fleetwood, Lambert, Des- 
 borow, and other officers, having formed a cabal against 
 him, demanded the dissolution of Parliament, which was 
 effected in April, 1659. "By the same act," says Hume, 
 " he was considered as effectually dethroned. Soon after, 
 he signed his demission in form." "Thus fell, suddenly 
 and from an enormous height, but, by a rare fortune, 
 without any hurt or injury, the family of the Cromwells." 
 About 1660 he retired to the continent, and resided some 
 years in Paris and Geneva. He returned to England in 
 1680, and passed the rest of his life in Obscurity and peace. 
 Died in 171 2. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England ;" Lingard, " History of Eng- 
 land;" ViLt.EMAiN, " Histoire de Cromwell." 
 
 Cromwell, (Thomas,) Earl of Essex, an ambitious 
 English courtier and minister of state, born of humble 
 parentage at Putney about 1490. In early life he was a 
 servant or agent of Cardinal Wolsey, whom he defended 
 with spirit and honour in th,e House of Commons in 1629. 
 A few years later he entered the service of the king, 
 whose confidence he gained, and by whom he was rapidly 
 promoted. He had become an adherent of the Refor- 
 mation, when, about 1535, he was appointed principal 
 secretary of state and keeper of the privy seal. In 1536 
 
 the king's supremacy over the Church was delegated 
 to Cromwell, with the title of Vicar-General. Many 
 monasteries were suppressed, and other reforms were 
 effected, by his agency and that of Cranmer, who was 
 his friend. He was made Earl of Essex in 1539 or 1540, 
 and obtained precedency over all the officers of state. 
 His sudden fall was hastened by his agency in the mar- 
 riage of Henry VIII. to Anne of Cleves, whom the king 
 quickly resolved to divorce. After a trial for treason 
 and heresy, he was beheaded in July, 1540. " He was," 
 says Hume, "a man of prudence, industry, and abilities, 
 worthy of a better master and of a better fate." Froude 
 gives Cromwell a very high character both for ability 
 and honesty of purpose ; but some other historians, 
 including Lmgard, accuse him of rapacity, servility, and 
 selfish ambition. 
 
 See Froude, " History of England," chaps, vi.-xvii. ; Lingard, 
 " History of England," vol. iv. chaps, viii. et seq.; Michael Dray- 
 ton, " Historie of the Life and Death of Lord Cromwell," London, 
 1609; also Shakspeare, " Henry VIII.,*' Act Third. 
 
 Cronaca, II, el kRo'na-ka or kRon'a-ka, the surname 
 of Simoue Pollaiolo (pol-li-o'lo) or Pollajuolo, an 
 Italian architect, born at Florence in 1454. He acquired 
 celebrity by his design of the Strozzi palace, one of the 
 most magnificent edifices of Florence, and of the church 
 of Saint Francis. He was a zealous partisan or disciple 
 of Savonarola. Died in 1509. 
 
 Cronegk, von, fon kRo'nek, (Johann Friedrich,) 
 Baron, an excellent German poet, born at Anspach in 
 1 73 1. He was versed in many languages, and had 
 travelled in France and Italy. He wrote elegies, odes, 
 didactic poems, hymns, and several dramas in verse, 
 which display a fine imagination. His tragedy of "Co- 
 drus" (1758) abounds in beauties of the first order, and 
 is called his master-piece. He died prematurely in 1758. 
 
 See Buockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Cronholm, kRon'holm, (Abraham,) a Swedish his- 
 torian, born at Landscrona in 1809. Among his works 
 are "Memorials of the Ancient North," (2 vols., 1835,) 
 and "Political History of Scania," (2 vols., 1846-51.) 
 
 Cro'nos, [Kfjuvoi,] a god of the Greek mythology, 
 represented as the son of Uranus, and the father of 
 Jupiter, Neptune, Ceres, and Juno. He was identified 
 with the Saturn of the Romans. 
 
 Cronstedt, IcRon'stet, (Axel Fredrick,) a Swedish 
 mineralogist, born in Sudermania in 1722. He discov- 
 ered about 1754 a new metal, which he named "nickel," 
 and published a valuable " Essay on Mineralogy, or 
 on the Classification of the Mineral Kingdom," (1758,) 
 which was translated into German by Werner. Died 
 in 1765. 
 
 See Gezelius, "Biographiskt-Lexicon." 
 
 Crook. See Croke. 
 
 Crook, krook, (George,) an American genera!, born 
 near Dayton, Ohio, about 1828, graduated at West Point 
 in 1852. He became a captain in 1861, and a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers about September, 1862. He com- 
 manded a corps of Sheridan's army at the battle of 
 Winchester or Opequan Creek, September 19, 1864, and 
 at that of Cedar Creek, October 19 of the same year. 
 He was commander of the department of West Virginia 
 from August, 1864, to February, 1865. 
 
 Crooks, ( George K., ) an American Methodist 
 preacher, born in Philadelphia in 1822. He became 
 adjunct professor of ancient languages in Dickinson 
 College in 1846. In conjunction with Professor Schem, 
 he published a " Latin-English Lexicon," (1S58.) 
 
 Croon or Croune, kroon, (William,) M.D., an 
 English scholar, born in London, was the founder of the 
 Croonian Lectures. He became professor of rhetoric in 
 Gresham College, and founded a course of lectures on 
 algebra at Cambridge. He published a "Treatise on 
 Muscular Motion." Died in 1684. 
 
 Crop'sey, (Jasper Frank,) an American landscape- 
 painter, was born at Westfield, Richmond county, New 
 York, in 1823, and became a resident of England in 1S56. 
 Among his works are "The Sibyl's Temple," "Peace" 
 and " War," and "Niagara Falls." 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Cros'bjf, (Brass,) an English politician, born at Stock- 
 port-on-Tees in 1725. He was elected lord mayor of 
 
 a, e, I, o. u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CROSBT 
 
 695 
 
 CR U IKS HANK 
 
 I/ondon in 1770, and opposed the ministry, who confined 
 him in the Tower. Died in 1793. 
 
 Crosby, (Thom it,) was author of a " History of Eng- 
 lish Baptists from the Reformation to the Reign of George 
 I.," (1740,) said to be the best work on that subject. He 
 was a Baptist minister of London. 
 
 Cros'land, Mks., whose maiden name was Camilla 
 Toulmin, an English authoress, born in London about 
 1S14. She published a volume of poems, "Stratagems, 
 a Tale," "Toil and Trial," (1849,) "Lydia, a Woman's 
 Book," (1852,) and other works of fiction, which are 
 praised for their moral tendency. 
 
 Cross, |J. is nil.) a Methodist minister, born in Somer- 
 setshire, England, in 1813, removed to the United States 
 about 1S25. He published, besides other works, " Head- 
 lands of Faith." 
 
 Cross or de la Crux, (Michael,) an English painter, 
 flourished between 1640 and 1680. He was patronized 
 by Charles I. 
 
 Crosse, kross, (ANDREW,) an English gentleman, 
 noted for his successful experiments in electricity, was 
 bom near Taunton, in Somersetshire, in 1784. He in- 
 herited an easy fortune, and lived in retirement. He gave 
 special attention to the formation of crystals by means 
 ot a voltaic battery, and spent many years in search of 
 new facts and phenomena, without regard to theories. 
 He obtained numerous mineral crystals similar in form 
 to those produced by nature ; also a subsulphate of 
 copper which was entirely new. About 1816 he pre- 
 dicted that, by electrical agency, human thought would 
 be conveyed instantaneously to the farthest parts of the 
 earth. His discoveries were not made public until he 
 explained them before the British Association for the 
 Advancement of Science, in 1836. On introducing him 
 to the Association, Dr. Buckland said, "This gentleman 
 has actually made no less than twenty-four minerals, and 
 even crystalline quartz. He [Dr. Buckland | did not know 
 how he had made them, but he pronounced them dis- 
 coveries of the highest order." A great sensation was 
 excited in England in 1836 by the apparent generation 
 of insects during his experiments with voltaic action, 
 — a strange phenomenon, which has not yet been satis- 
 factorily explained. Died in 1855. 
 
 See " Memorials of Andrew Crosse," 1857, (containing a number 
 ofhis poems and letters.) by his wife. 
 
 Cros'well, (Edwin,) an American politician and 
 journalist, Iwrn at Catskill, New York, about 1795. He 
 became, about 1824, editor of the "Albany Argus," a 
 Democratic journal of great influence, which he con- 
 tinued to edit until 1854. He was a prominent member 
 of the Albany Regency. 
 
 Croswell, (Harry,) an American journalist and 
 clergyman, an uncle of the preceding, was born at West 
 Hartford, Connecticut, in 1778. He edited several 
 Federalist papers. Died in 1858. 
 
 Croswell, (William,) an Episcopalian clergyman 
 and poet, a son of the preceding, was born at Hudson, 
 New York, in 1804. He was settled in Boston from about 
 1844 until his death in 1851. 
 
 See "Memoir of the Rev. William Croswell," 1854: "North 
 American Review" for April, 1834; Griswold, "Poets and Poetry 
 of America." 
 
 Crotch, (William,) a skilful English musical com- 
 poser, born at Norwich in 1775. " e played on the 
 harpsichord marvellously when he was about three years 
 old. In 1797 he was chosen professor of music in the 
 University of Oxford. He published "Styles of Music 
 of all Ages," and composed music for the organ and 
 piano, and for the ode entitled " Mona on Snowdon 
 calls." Died in 1847. 
 
 Croune. See Croon, (W.) 
 
 Ciousaz, de, deh kRoo'za",(jF.AN Pif.rrk,) a prolific 
 and mediocre Swiss writer, born at Lausanne in 1663. 
 He was professor of philosophy, etc. at Lausanne and 
 Groningen, and published an "Essay on Logic," (1712,) 
 a "Treatise on Pyrrhonism, Ancient and Modern," 
 (1733,) and other works. Died in 1750. 
 
 Crouzet, kRoo'z.y, (Pif.rrk,) a French poet and pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric, born in Picardy in 1753 ; died in 181 1. 
 
 Crowe, (Mrs. Catherine,) an English authoress, 
 vyhose maiden name was STEVENS, was born at Borough 
 Green, Kent, about 1802. She became the wife of Lieu- 
 
 tenant-Colonel Crowe in 1822. She produced in 1847 
 " Lillie Dawson," a novel. Her "Night Side of Nature" 
 (1848) treats of the spiritual or supernatural world. 
 Among her later works is "Light and Darkness, or the 
 Mysteries of Life," (185a) 
 
 See "Blackwood's Magazine" for September, 1850. 
 
 Crowe, (Evrk Evans,) an English writer of the pres- 
 ent century, published a " History of France," (in 5 vols., 
 1858-68,) and other works. Died in March, 1868. 
 
 Crow'ley, (Robert,) an English Protestant divine 
 and poet, became a Fellow of Magdalene College in 
 1542. He composed many epigrams, and was the first 
 editor of " Piers Plowman's Vision." In 1558 he became 
 prebendary of Saint Paul's, London. Died in 1588. 
 
 Cr6wne, (John,) an English dramatist of inferior 
 order, born in Nova Scotia. He removed to England, 
 wrote several successful plays, and obtained some favour 
 at the court of Charles II. Among his works are "City 
 Politiques," (1675,) and "Sir Courtly Nice," a comedy. 
 
 See Cibbek, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Crowquill See Forrester. 
 
 Crox'all, (SAMUEL,) an English writer, born at Wal- 
 ton-upon -Thames. He became prebendary of Hereford 
 and Archdeacon of Salop, and published, besides other 
 works, "Scripture Politics," (1735,) and a popular Eng- 
 lish version of "/Esop's Fables. Died in 1752. 
 
 Croy, de, deh kRwa, (Emmanuel,) Duke, and Prince 
 de Solre, a French general, bom at Conde in 1718, was 
 made marshal of France in 1782. Died in 1784. 
 
 Croy, de, (Guillaume.) See Chievres. 
 
 Crozat, kRo'zt', (Louis Francois,) Marquis du Cha- 
 tel, a French general, born in 1695; died in 1750. 
 
 Croze. See La Crozk. 
 
 Crozier, kro'zher, (Captain Francis Rawdon 
 Moira,) F.R.S., the second officer of Sir John Frank- 
 lin's last expedition, born at Banbridge, Ireland, about 
 1795. In 1845 he sailed with Franklin in search of a 
 Northwest passage, after which nothing was heard of 
 the party until 1859, when Captain McClintock found on 
 King William's Island a record, dated April 25, 1848, 
 signed by Captain Crozier, stating that the ships had 
 just been abandoned, and that the crews, under com- 
 mand of Crozier, were about to start for Great Fish River. 
 (See F'ranklin, Sir John.) 
 
 Cruciger, the Latin of Creutziger, which see. 
 
 Cruciger, kRoot'sioer, (Gf.org,) a German philolo- 
 gist, burn in 1575. He was professor of philosophy at 
 Marburg, and wrote " Harmony of Languages," (" Har- 
 monia Linguarum.") Died in 1636. 
 
 Crucius. See Croce, Dfli.a. 
 
 Crucy, de, deh kRu'se', (Mathurin,) a French ar- 
 chitect, born at Nantes in 1748, gained the grand prize 
 in 1774. He was a member of the Institute. Died in 
 1826. 
 
 Cru'den, (Alexander,) an eccentric Scottish book- 
 seller, born at Aberdeen in 1700. He studied for the 
 church ; but symptoms of insanity prevented his ordina- 
 tion. In 1732 he became a resident of London, where 
 he opened a bookstore and received the title of book- 
 seller to the queen. He styled himself "Alexander the 
 Corrector," imagining that he had a mission to reform 
 the manners of the age. In 1737 he published his 
 "Concordance of the Old and New Testaments," the 
 result of his unassisted industry. It was the most 
 complete Concordance that had appeared, and is still 
 esteemed indispensable to biblical scholars. His mental 
 disease manifested itself in whimsical and extravagant 
 actions and writings. He showed his zeal for good 
 morals by effacing with a sponge indecent inscriptions 
 in public places. Died in 1770. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. x., 1824. 
 
 Cruger. See Kruger. 
 
 Cru'ger, (John Harris,) born in New York in 1738, 
 became mayor of that city in 1764. In the Revolutionary 
 war he fought on the side of the royalists. Died in Lon- 
 don in 1807. 
 
 Cruikshank, krdok'shank, (George,) an English 
 artist, distinguished for his comic humour and skill in 
 caricature, was born in London about 1794. He ac- 
 quired popularity about 1820 by designs for William 
 
 € as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (2y"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CR U IKS HANK 
 
 696 
 
 CUB1ERES 
 
 Hone's satirical works, among which is the " Political 
 House that Jack built." His humorous genius and fer- 
 tile imagination were displayed in illustrations of" Peter 
 Schlemihl," "The Comic Almanac," "Oliver Twist," 
 " My Sketch-Book," and many other books. His series 
 of plates called "The Bottle," in which he illustrated the 
 miseries of intemperance, had great success. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1863 ; " Westminster 
 Review" tor June, 1840. 
 
 Cruik'shank, (William,) F.R.S., an eminent Scot- 
 tish anatomist, born in Edinburgh in 1745. At an early 
 age he went to London, where he was successively the 
 assistant and partner of Dr. William Hunter. He ac- 
 quired reputation by his lectures, and by his work on 
 "The Anatomy of the Absorbent Vessels," (1786.) Died 
 in 1800. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Crumpe, kriimp, (Samuel,) a physician, born in 1766, 
 practised at Limerick, in Ireland. He wrote an able 
 "Treatise on the Properties and Use of Opium," and a 
 prize " Essay on the Means of Providing Employment 
 for the People." Died in 1796. 
 
 Cruquius. See Crusque, de. 
 
 Crusenstolpe, kRoo'zen-stol'peh, (Magnus Jakob,) 
 a popular Swedish novelist and political writer, born at 
 Jonkoping in 1795. He published a " Historical Picture 
 of the First Years of Gustavus IV.," (1837,) and a poli- 
 tical work called " Stallningar och Forhallanden," (" Posi- 
 tions and Relations,") for which he was imprisoned three 
 years, (1838-40.) His historical romance of "Morianen" 
 (6 vols., 1840-44) was very popular. He also wrote an 
 interesting romance entitled "Charles John [Bernadotte] 
 and the Swedes," (1845,) a "d other works. 
 
 Crusius. See Ckenius. 
 
 Crusius, kRoo'ze-iis or kRoo'zhe-us, (CHRISTIAN 
 August,) a German philosopher, born at or near Mer- 
 seburg about 1714. He became professor of theology 
 at Leipsic, and published many works, among which is 
 " Logic, or the Way to Certainty and Confidence re- 
 specting Human Knowledge," (1747.) He zealously 
 opposed the philosophy of Wolf. Died in 1775. 
 
 See Tennemann, " Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie :" 
 Buhle, " Lelirbuch der Geschichte der Philosophie ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Crusius, (Martin,) a German philologist and histo- 
 rian, born near Bamberg in 1526, became in 1559 pro- 
 fessor of Greek at Tubingen. He published valuable 
 works, among which are a "History of Suabia," ("An- 
 nales Suevici," 1594,) and a "Commentary on Homer's 
 Iliad," (1612.) Died in 1607. 
 
 See Miji-LER, "Oratio de Vitaet Obitu M. Crusii," 160S ; Moreri, 
 "Dictionnaire Hislorique." 
 
 Crusque, de, deh kRiisk or kRiisk, [Lat. Cru'quius,] 
 (James,) a Flemish scholar, born near Ypres, became 
 professor of Greek and Latin in Bruges in 1544, and pub- 
 lished a valuable edition of Horace, with notes, (1578.) 
 
 Crut'well, (Clement,) an English divine, born in 
 Berkshire about 1745. He published, besides other 
 works, an elaborate and valuable "Scripture Harmony, 
 or Concordance of Parallels," (1790.) Died in 1808. 
 
 Cruveilhier, kiut'v.Yle-V, (Jean,) a distinguished 
 French anatomist, born at Limoges about 1 790, became 
 professor of anatomy in Paris in 1825. In 1835 he ob- 
 tained the chair of pathological anatomy founded by 
 Dupuytren. His principal works are his " System of 
 Anatomy," (American edition, 1844,) and "Pathologic 
 Anatomy of the Human Body," (1829-40.) 
 
 Cruvelli, kRoo-vel'lee, (Sophie,) a German vocalist, 
 originally named Cruwell, born at Bielefeld in 1830. 
 She was married in 1856 to Baron Vigier. 
 
 Cruyl, kRoil, (Levinus,) a Flemish designer and 
 engraver, born at Ghent about 1640, produced views 
 of Roman scenery. 
 
 Cruz. See La Cruz and Diniz da Cruz. 
 
 Cruz, da, da kRooz, (Agostinho,) a Portuguese poet 
 and monk, born at Ponte da Barca in 1540, was a brother 
 of the poet Diogo Bernardes. His family name was Pl- 
 menta. He wrote eiegies, odes, and religious poems, 
 which were first printed in 177 1. They are ranked 
 among the Portuguese classics. Died in 1619. 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Cruz, da, (Caspar,) a Portuguese missionary, born 
 at Evora, is stated to have been the first monk that 
 preached the Catholic faith in China, which he visited 
 in 1556. After his return to Portugal he published an 
 account of his voyage. Died in 1570. 
 
 Cruz, da, (Marcos,) an eminent Portuguese painter, 
 born about 1649; died about 1678. 
 
 Cruz, de la, (Juan.) See Pantoja. 
 
 Cruz, de la, da la kRooth, [Fr. de la Croix, deh It 
 kRwa,] (Juan,) a Carmelite friar and ascetic writer, born 
 in Old Castile in 1542. He founded several monasteries, 
 and wrote, among other works, the " Dark Night of the 
 Soul," ("Noche obscuta del Alma.") Died in 1591. 
 
 See Dositheede Saint-Alexis, " Vie de Saint Jean de la Croix." 
 
 Csanyi, chan'yee, (Laszlo,) a Hungarian statesman, 
 born in 1790, took an active part in the revolution of 
 1848. He was executed in 1849, by order of the Aus- 
 trian government. 
 
 Csaplovics, chop'Io-vitch, (JAnos, ) a Hungarian 
 writer, born about 1780, published "Topographical and 
 Statistical Archives of the Kingdom of Hungary," (1821.) 
 
 Csokonai, cho'ko-ni', (MihAly Vitez,) a Hungarian 
 poet, born at Debreczin in 1773. At the age of twenty 
 he became professor of poetry at his native place, but 
 was expelled two years later for his irregular habits. 
 He wrote popular love-poems, and other works, mostly 
 comic. He passed his life in poverty. Died in 1805. 
 
 Csoma, cho'nio, (Alexander,) of Koros, an eminent 
 Hungarian traveller and Orientalist, born at Koros about 
 1790. In early youth it became the cherished purpose 
 of his life to discover the origin of his race, the Magyars, 
 who were generally supposed to have come from Asia. 
 He visited Thibet about 1822, and studied the Thibetan 
 language for four years (1827-30) at Kanam. He went 
 to Calcutta in 1830, and published an excellent Thibetan- 
 English Dictionary (1834) and a Thibetan Grammar. 
 Having undertaken another journey to Thibet, he died at 
 Darjeeling in 1842, without having solved the question 
 of the origin of the Magyars. 
 
 Ctesias, tee'she-as, [Kr/;o-mc,] a Greek historian and 
 physician, who flourished about 400 B.C., was a native 
 of Cnidos, in Caria. He was for many years physician 
 to Artaxerxes Mnemon, King of Persia, and afterwards 
 returned to his native place. He wrote tlepaim, (a " His- 
 tory of Persia,") and a " Description of India." Of these 
 works we have only abridgments in Photius, and extracts 
 preserved by other writers. His accuracy and veracity 
 have been questioned by ancient and modern critics. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliolheca Graeca ;" Plutarch, "Artaxerxes ;" 
 Suidas, "Ctesias:" Rettig, "Ctesias Vita," 1827; K. L. Blum, 
 "Herodotus und Ctesias," 1836. 
 
 Ctesibius, te-sib'e-us, [Kt77oy&oc,1 a famous Greek 
 mechanician, who lived in Alexandria about 130 B.C. 
 He invented the clepsydra, a pump, and other machines. 
 Pliny and Vitruvius express admiration for his talents 
 and works. Hero the Elder was his pupil. 
 
 Ctesidemus, t?s-e-dee'mus, [Fr. Ctesideme, ta'ze'- 
 d&m',] a Greek painter, lived about 350 B.C. 
 
 Ctesilas. See Cresilas. 
 
 Ctesiphon. See ChEksiphron. 
 
 Ctesiphon, teVe-phon, [Kr)]ai<pCiv } ] an Athenian, who 
 obtained a notice in history by proposing that a crown 
 of gold should be decreed to Demosthenes for his public 
 services. For this he was prosecuted by jEschines, and 
 successfully defended by Demosthenes in his famous 
 oration " On the Crown," 330 B.C. 
 
 Ctesiphon, a Greek historian of an uncertain epoch, 
 wrote a " History of Bceotia." 
 
 Cubero, koo-Ba'ro, (Pedro,) a Spanish priest, born 
 near Calatayud in 1645. He is said to have been the 
 first who made the tour of the world from west to east, 
 and in part by land, (1670-79.) He published a short 
 account of his voyage, (1680.) 
 
 Cubieres, de, deh kii'be-aiR', (Amedee Louis Des- 
 pans — da'pflfj',) a French general and peer, born in Paris 
 in 1786, was a son of Simon Louis Pierre, noticed below. 
 He fought at Austerlitz, (1805,) and at Essling and 
 Wagram, (1809.) He became a colonel in 1813, mare- 
 chal-de-camp in 1829, and lieutenant-general in 1835. 
 He was made a peer in 1839, and was for a short time 
 minister of war in 1839-40. Died in 1853. 
 
 a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; meT; nit; good; moon; 
 
CUB IE RES 
 
 697 
 
 CVLANT 
 
 Cubieres, de, (Marie Agla£ Buffaut— buffo',) the 
 wile of the preceding, born in 1794, wrote "Leonore 
 de Biran," and other novels. The French Academy 
 •warded the Montyon prize to her "Trois Soufnets, 
 (tgjj 
 
 Cubieres, de, (Simon Louis Pierre,) Marquis, a 
 French naturalist, born at Roquemaure in 1747. At- 
 tached to the person of the king as equerry, he served 
 him at the risk of his life in the Revolution. He pub- 
 lished a "Description of Shell-Fish and their Habits," 
 and other treatises on natural history. Hied in 1821. 
 
 See Challan, " Notice sur la Vie du Marquis de Cubieres," 1822. 
 
 Cubillo, koo-Bel'yo, (Alvaro de Aragon,) a Spanish 
 dramatic poet, born at Granada about 1590. 
 
 Cu'bitt, (Thomas,) an eminent English architect, born 
 at Buxton, Norfolk, in 1788. He was chief architect of 
 Bclgravia, and erected several fine buildings in London 
 and other places. He was employed by the queen to 
 rebuild Osborne on the Isle of Wight, and took an active 
 part in the sanitary improvement of London. Died in 
 1855. 
 
 See " Men I have known," by William Jeedan, London, 1866. 
 
 Cubitt, (Sir William,) an English civil engineer, 
 distinguished as an inventor of machinery, was born at 
 Dilham, Norfolk, in 1785. He invented a treadmill for 
 prisons, and removed to London about 1826, after which 
 he was engineer of the Southeastern Railway. He 
 superintended the erection of the Crystal Palace of 
 Hyde Park in 1851. Died in October, 1861. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for November, 1861. 
 
 Cucheval - Clarigny, kiisli'val' kla"ren'ye', (Nar- 
 cisse,) a French journalist, born at Rennes in 1820, 
 became an editor of the "Constitutionnel" in 1845. 
 
 8uddh6daiia. (Suddhodaaa.) See Gautama. 
 udeua, koo-Da'na, (Pedro,) a Spanish traveller, who 
 lived about 1630, wrote a "Description of Brazil." 
 
 Cud'worth, (Ralph,) an eminent English philoso- 
 pher and Arminian divine, born at Aller, in Sornerset- 
 shire, in 161 7, was a graduate of Cambridge. He became 
 master of Clare Hall in 1644, professor of Hebrew in 
 1645, master of Christ College in 1654, and prebendary 
 of Gloucester in 1678. He was one of the chiefs of 
 those who were called "Latitudinarians" in divinity. In 
 167S he produced the first part of his celebrated work, 
 "The True Intellectual System of the Universe," which 
 he left unfinished. "By this," says Hallam, "he placed 
 himself between the declining and rising schools of 
 philosophy, — more independent of authority and more 
 close, perhaps, in argument than the former, but more 
 prodigal of learning and less conversant with analytical 
 and inductive processes of reasoning than the latter. . . . 
 Hobbes is the adversary with whom he most grapples." 
 "The Intellectual System," says Dugald Stewart, "will 
 forever remain a precious mine of information to those 
 whose curiosity may lead them to study the spirit of the 
 ancient theories." "The Intellectual System, his great 
 production," says Mackintosh, "is directed against the 
 atheistical opinions of Ilobbes : it touches ethical ques- 
 tions but occasionally and incidentally. It is a work of 
 stupendous erudition, of much more acuteness than at 
 first appears ; . . . and it is distinguished, perhaps, be- 
 yond any other volume of controversy, by that best 
 proof of the deepest conviction of the truth of a man's 
 principles, — a fearless statement of the most formidable 
 objections to them ; a fairness rarely practised but by 
 him who is conscious of his power to answer them." He 
 left several manuscripts, one of which, entitled a "Treat- 
 ise concerning Eternal and Immutable M'orality," has 
 been published. His daughter was the well-known Lady 
 Masham, the friend of John Locke. Died in 1688. 
 
 See Jannet, "De Cudworthii DnctrinaV' 1849: Mackintosh, 
 "View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy;" Allibone, "Dic- 
 tionary of Authors :" " Retrospective Review," vol. vi., 1822. 
 
 Cuellar, kwel-yak', (Gkronimo,) a Spanish dramatic 
 poet, born in 1608 ; died in 1669. 
 
 Cuerenhert, van, vin ku'ren-hert, (Theodore,) a 
 Dutch engraver and writer, born at Amsterdam in 1522 ; 
 died in 1590. 
 
 Cuesta, de la, da la kweVta, (Greoorio Garcia,) a 
 Spanish general, born in Old Castile in 1740, was de- 
 feated by the French, near Medellin, about 1809. He 
 
 afterwards became Captain-General of Old Castile, and 
 united his force to that of Wellington. He resigned his 
 command about 1810, and died in 1812. 
 
 Cueva, de la, (Alfonso.) See Bedmar. 
 
 Cueva, de la, da II kwa'va, (Beltram,) a Spanish 
 grandee, who passed for the most gallant and handsome 
 man in Spain. In consequence of the favouritism shown 
 to him by Henry IV., many of the nobles revolted against 
 that prince. Cueva commanded for Henry at the inde- 
 cisive battle of Medina del Campo, (1464,) soon after 
 which peace was restored. HeJ embraced the party of 
 Isabella about 1475, and fought against Joanna, who was 
 supposed to be his natural daughter. Died in 1492. 
 
 Cueva, de la, (Juan,) an eminent Spanish poet, born 
 at Seville about 1550. He composed dramas, lyric poems, 
 and an epic poem called " Betica," (1603,) which Ticknor 
 regards as a failure. A volume of his poems was pub- 
 lished in 1582. His " Egemplar Poetico" (1605) was the 
 earliest didactic poem of Spain. "The Spaniards place 
 him," says Villenave, "in the first rank of their poets." 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" N. Antonio, 
 "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Cuevas, de las, di las kwa'vas, (Eugenio,) a Spanish 
 portrait-painter, born at Madrid in 1613 ; died in 1667. 
 
 Cliff, (Henry,) an English scholar, born about 1560. 
 He 'became professor of Greek in the University of 
 Oxford, and afterwards secretary to the Earl of Essex. 
 During the trial of Essex for treason, he accused Cuff 
 of having been the first adviser of his rash measures. 
 Cuff was executed in 1601. He left a work called "The 
 Difference of the Ages of Man's Life," (1607.) 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses;" Fuller, "Worthies." 
 
 Cuf'fee, (Paul,) a negro philanthropist, a member of 
 the Society of Friends, was born near New Bedford, 
 Massachusetts, in 1759. He accumulated a fortune as a 
 sea-captain, commanded his own vessel, and had a crew 
 composed entirely of negroes. In the latter part of his 
 life he took a deep interest in the subject of African 
 colonization, corresponded with prominent friends of the 
 enterprise in Great Britain, and in 181 1 visited Sierra 
 Leone. Died in 1818. 
 
 Cugnet de Montarlot, kiin'yi' deh m6N'ttR'lo', 
 (Claude Francois,) a French politician and journalist, 
 bom in Franche-Comte in 1778; died in Spain in 1824. 
 
 Cugnieres, kiin'ye-aiR', written also Gugnieres or 
 Cougnieres, (PIERRE DE,) a French jurist, became royal 
 advocate under Philip VI. about 1325. 
 
 Cugnot, kiin'yo', (Nicolas Joseph,) a French en- 
 gineer, born in Lorraine in 1725; died in 1804. 
 
 Cujacius. See Cujas. 
 
 Cujas, ku'zhas', [Lat. Cuja'cius,] (Jacques,) a French 
 jurist of pre-eminent merit, was born at Toulouse in 152a 
 Having learned Latin and Greek without a teacher, he 
 studied law in Toulouse, and in 1555 became professor 
 at Bourges, the chief seminary of Roman law in F'rance. 
 About 1567 he removed to Valence, where his lectures 
 were extremely popular. After several changes, he re- 
 turned in 1577 to Bourges, where he passed the rest of 
 his life. His lectures were attended by students from all 
 nations of Europe. His works, published in 1577, made 
 an epoch in the annals of jurisprudence. He was loyal 
 to Henry IV., and took no part in the civil or religious 
 discords of the times. Died in 1590. "This greatest of 
 all civil lawyers," says Hallam, "pursued the track that 
 Alciat had so successfully opened, avoiding all scholastic 
 subtleties of interpretation, for which he substituted a 
 general erudition that rendered the science more intel- 
 ligible and attractive." ("Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe.") Among his numerous works are com- 
 mentaries on Justinian's Institutes, on the Pandects and 
 Decretals, and " O bse r vat i ones et Kmendationes." 
 
 See "Vie de Cujas," by Papire Masson. 1500; HernMSDI, 
 " Eloge de Cujas," 1775; J. Bkrkiat Saint Prix, " Hisioire de 
 Cujas," (in his" Histoiredu Droit Konmin.") 1R21 jTAISAND, "Vies 
 del luriscniisultes," 1721; BkUNQWLL, " Hisluri.i Juris," 1738 : 
 Niceron. "Memoires;" Sp ANcivMsKK,,, " I. Cujas and seine Zeit- 
 genossen," 1822; " Nouvelie Biographic Generate." 
 
 Culant, de, deh kii'loN', ( I'll 1 1.1 ii-k,) a French gene- 
 ral, esteemed one of the first captains of his time. He 
 became a marshal in 1441, and took a prominent part 
 in the reduction of Normandy and the expulsion of the 
 English from France. Died in 1453. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g zsj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this. (ftySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CULLEN 
 
 698 
 
 CUMMING 
 
 Cttl'len, (Paul,) a Roman Catholic prelate, born in 
 Ireland about 1805. He became Archbishop of Armagh 
 and Primate of Ireland in 1850. A few years ago he was 
 translated to the diocese of Dublin. He is the reputed 
 author of a treatise designed to prove that the earth does 
 not move. 
 
 Cfll'len, (William,) one of the most celebrated phy- 
 sicians of the eighteenth century, was born In Lanark- 
 shire, i.i Scotland, in 1 712. Having studied surgery and 
 pharmacy at Glasgow, he went to London in 1729, and 
 sailed thence to the Wast Indies as surgeon of a mer- 
 chant-vessel. About 1732 he returned to Scotland, and 
 pursued his medical and literary studies in Edinburgh. 
 In 1736 he began to practise at Hamilton, where he 
 formed a friendship and partnership with William Hun- 
 ter, the eminent surgeon. The course of events soon 
 dissolved their partnership ; but they continued to be 
 friends for life. In 1741 he married Anna Johnstone, 
 and removed to Glasgow in 1745. He became professor 
 of chemistry in the Glasgow University in 1746, and of 
 medicine in 1 751. There he developed a remarkable 
 talent for giving science an attractive form, and for treat- 
 ing abstract subjects clearly. In 1756 he obtained the 
 chair of chemistry in Edinburgh. " He claims," says 
 Dr. Thomson, " a conspicuous pkice (in the history of 
 chemistry) as the true commencer of the study of scien- 
 tific chemistry in Great Britain." He became professor 
 of theoretical medicine in 1766, and of practical medi- 
 cine in 1773. He raised the medical celebrity of that 
 university to a great height, and founded a new and 
 ingenious system, which was promptly and generally 
 adopted. His most important works are " First Lines 
 of the Practice of Physic," (1777,) " Synopsis of Metho- 
 dical Nosology," (" Synopsis Nosologiae Methodicae," 2 
 vols., 1785,) and a "Treatise of the Materia Medica," 
 (2 vols., 1789.) Died in 1790. 
 
 See John Thomson, "Life and Writings of William Cullen," 
 1832; Lives of British Physicians," London, 1857; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1832; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of 
 Eminent Scotsmen ;" Sprengel, "Geschichte der Arzneikunde." 
 
 Cfll'lum, (George W.,) an American general and 
 engineer, born in the city of New York about 181 2, 
 graduated at West Point in 1833. He superintended 
 the construction of many forts before the civil war, and 
 became chief of staff to General Halleck about Novem- 
 ber, 1861. He published a "Biographical Register of 
 the Graduates of West Point," (2 vols., 1868.) 
 
 Cfll'lum, (Rev. Sir John,) an English antiquary, born 
 in 1733, published "The Antiquities of Hawstead and 
 Hardwick," (2d edition, 1813.) Died in 1785. 
 
 Cttl'pep-per, (John,) a surveyor-general and popular 
 leader in the provinces of North and South Carolina, 
 was the head of an insurrection which, in 1678, deposed 
 and imprisoned the royal president and deputies in North 
 Carolina and established a new government. 
 
 Cfll'pep-per,(NiCHOLAS,) an English astrologer, born 
 in 1616, published, besides other works, "The English 
 Physician," (1652,) which passed through many editions. 
 Died in 1654. 
 
 Culpepper, (Thomas,) Lord, Governor of Virginia 
 from 1680 to 1683, was one of the persons to whom King 
 Charles II. granted the territory of Virginia about 1673. 
 He was noted for covetousness. Died in 1719. 
 
 Cul'vert, (George,) a Choctaw Indian chief, born in 
 1744. He served under Washington in the Revolutionary 
 war, and under General Jack?on in the Seminole war in 
 1814, when he became a colonel. 
 
 Cumberland, Duke of. See Ernest Augustus of 
 Hanover. 
 
 Cum'ber-land, (Richard,) an eminent English moral 
 philosopher, born in London in 1632. Having graduated 
 at Cambridge, he became rector of Brampton in 1658, 
 and obtained the living of Allhallows, Stamford, in 1667. 
 In 1672 he published, in Latin, a work designed as 
 a refutation of the system of Hobbes, and entitled a 
 "Philosophic Inquiry into the Laws of Nature," ("I)e 
 Legibus Naturae Disquisitio Philosophica.") "This 
 was of great importance," says Hallam, "in the annals 
 of ethical philosophy, and was, if not a text-book in 
 either of the universities, the basis of the system therein 
 taught, and of the books which had most influence in 
 this country. . . . He seems to have been the first 
 
 Christian writer who sought to establish systematically 
 the principles of moral right independently of revelation. 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") He after- 
 wards produced "Origines Gentium Antiquissimae," or 
 "Attempts for discovering the Times of the First Plant- 
 ing of Nations," and other works. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Peterborough in 1691. Died in 1718. 
 
 See S. Payne, "Life and Writings of R. Cumberland," 1720; 
 "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Cumberland, (Richard,) an eminent English dra- 
 matic author and essayist, born at Cambridge in 1732, 
 was the great-grandson of the preceding, and, grandson 
 of Bentley, the renowned critic. He was chosen a F'el- 
 low of Trinity College about 1750, and became private 
 secretary to the Earl of Halifax, in whose service he 
 remained many years. About 1776 he was appointed 
 secretary to the board of trade, and in 1 780 was sent on 
 a secret mission to Madrid. After his return he devoted 
 himself to literary pursuits, and produced a great variety 
 of works, in prose and verse, among which are several 
 popular comedies, including "The West Indian," "The 
 Wheel of Fortune," etc. In 1785 he published a series 
 of essays under the title of "The Observer," which, says 
 Dr. Drake, "in literary interest and fertility of invention 
 may be classed with the ' Spectator' and 'Adventurer.' 
 . . . I consider it as superior in its powers of attrac- 
 tion to every other periodical composition except those 
 papers just mentioned." Died in 181 1. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Richard Cumberland," by himself, 2 vols., 1S06 ; 
 Sir Walter Scott, "Miscellaneous Prose Works;" "Edinburgh 
 Review" for April, 1806. 
 
 Cumberland, (William Augustus,) Duke op, the 
 third son of George II., King of England, was born in 
 1721. He commanded the English and allies at the 
 great battle of Fontenoy in 1745, where he was defeated 
 by the French. At the end of this campaign he was 
 recalled to England to resist the Pretender, whom he 
 defeated at Culloden in 1746. He was justly reproached 
 for his cruelty on that occasion, when not only the flying 
 troops of the Pretender, but many spectators, were mer- 
 cilessly slaughtered ; and he became in consequence ex- 
 tremely unpopular. In the Seven Years' war he took 
 command of the English army on the continent, and, 
 after losing a battle at Hastembeck in 1757, disbanded 
 his army and retired from the service. In 1765, at the 
 request of the king, he formed a new Whig ministry, of 
 which he was the main support, when he died suddenly 
 the same year. " With great courage," says Macaulay, 
 " he had the virtues which are akin to courage. He 
 spoke the truth, was open in enmity and friendship, and 
 upright in all his dealings ; but his nature was hard, and 
 what seemed to him justice was rarely tempered with 
 mercy." 
 
 See "Historical Memoirs of his Royal Highness William Au- 
 gustus, Duke of Cumberland," 1767; Andrew Henderson, "Life 
 of the Duke of Cumberland," 1766. 
 
 Cflm'ing, (Hugh,) an English naturalist, born in 
 Devonshire in 1 791. He passed many years on the 
 coasts of South America and among the islands of the 
 Pacific, where he obtained a rich collection of shells and 
 of plants. Died in London in 1865. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for October, 1865. 
 
 Cum'ming, (John,) D.D., a popular British preacher 
 and theological writer, was born in Aberdeenshire, Scot- 
 land, in 1810. In 1832 he became minister of the Scottish 
 church in Crown Court, Covent Garden, London. He 
 has distinguished himself as an adversary of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, and as an opponent of the party which 
 under Dr. Chalmers established the Free Church in 
 1843. Among his numerous works are "Lectures on 
 the Parables," " The Great Sacrifice," " Discourses on 
 the Revelations," and "The Great Tribulation," (i860.) 
 
 Cumming, (Roualkyn Gordon,) of Altyre, a Scot- 
 tish sportsman, born about 1820. Between 1843 and 
 1849 he spent about five years in South Africa, where 
 his principal employment was hunting lions, elephants, 
 etc. He published in 1850 a " Hunter's Life in South 
 Africa." "We give entire credit to the truthfulness of 
 the book, which is assuredly one of extraordinary interest 
 after its kind. ... In fact, the narrative has the charm 
 of vivid romance ; and the professed novelist may study 
 
 5, e, T, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, \,q,obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; mfJon: 
 
CUM MINGS 
 
 699 
 
 CUNO 
 
 with envy the native spring of his sinewy style " ("Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for January, 1851.) Died in 1866. 
 
 Cum'miiigs, (JOSEPH,) a Methodist minister, born at 
 Falmouth, Maine, in 1817. He became president of the 
 Wesleyan University of Middletown, Connecticut. 
 
 Cummings, (Maria,) an American authoress of the 
 present age. She produced "The Lamplighter," (1854,) 
 of which about 70,000 copies were issued in the first 
 year, and "Mabel Vaughan," a novel, (1857.) Died in 
 1866. 
 
 Cunaeus, ku-na'os, or Van der Kim, vin der kin, 
 (ri thus,) a Dutch scholar, born at Flushing in 1586, 
 was reckoned among the most learned men of his time, 
 and was the associate of Grotius and Scaliger. In 161 1 
 he was appointed professor of Latin at Leyden, and he 
 afterwards obtained the chair of law in addition. He 
 wrote, in Latin, a "Treatise on the Hebrew Republic," 
 (1617,) which was often reprinted, a number of able 
 orations, and other works. Died at Leyden in 1638. 
 
 See Morbri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" Bukmann, "Trajectum 
 Eruililum;" A. Vorstius, '*Oratio Fuuebris recitata in Exequiis P. 
 Cunaei," 1638. 
 
 Cuuc-ta'tor, a surname of Q. Fabius Maximus, 
 the Roman general. (See Fabius.) 
 
 Cuuego, koo-na'go, (Domenico,) an excellent Italian 
 engraver, born at Verona in 1727. He worked in Rome 
 the greater part of his life, and engraved many of the 
 productions of Michael Angelo and Raphael, including 
 •'The Last Judgment" and "La Fornarina." Gavin 
 Hamilton's " Schola Italica" contains twenty-two en- 
 gravings of Cunego, after the Italian masters. He worked 
 in lierlin four years, from 1785 to 1789. Died in 1794. 
 
 Cu'ne-gonde, [Ger. Kunigu.ndk, koo'ne-goon'deh,] 
 Saint, was the wife of Henry II., Emperor of Germany. 
 According to the legend, she was delivered from a sus- 
 picion of conjugal infidelity by passing unhurt through 
 an ordeal of fire. Died in 1040. 
 
 See J. Rion,"" Leben und Thaten des heiligen Heinrichs und der 
 heiligen Kunigunde," 1832. 
 
 Cunha, da, da koon'yS, (Joze Anastasio,) a Por- 
 tuguese, born at Lisbon in 1744, became professor of 
 mathematics at Coimbra in 1774. Died in 1787. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Literature du Midi de rEurope." 
 
 Cunha, da, (Nuno,) a Portuguese, born in 1487, was 
 appointed Governor-General of India in 1528. After 
 several successful enterprises, he was removed from office 
 about 1538, and died at sea during the voyage home- 
 ward. His exploits have been sung by Camoens. 
 
 Cunha, da, (Dom Rodrigo,) a patriotic Portuguese 
 prelate, born in Lisbon in 1577. He became Archbishop 
 of Braga and of Lisbon in 1635. He contributed greatly 
 to the success of the revolution of 1640, and wrote His- 
 tories of the Churches of Braga and of Lisbon. Died 
 in 1643. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, "Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Cunha, da, (Tristam,) a Portuguese navigator, the 
 father of Nuno, noticed above, commanded a fleet sent 
 in 1508 to make explorations and conquests. He dis- 
 covered in the South Sea three small islands, one of 
 which bears his name, and gained a victory over the King 
 of Calicut. In 1515 he was ambassador at Rome. 
 
 Cunha Barbosa, da, da koon'yl baR-bo'sa, (Janu- 
 ARIO,) a Brazilian priest and journalist, born in 1780. 
 He founded the " Reverbero Constitucional," a journal 
 which, about 1821, advocated the independenceofBraz.il. 
 He became canon of the imperial chapel in 1824, and 
 afterwards director of the national library. He founded 
 the Geographical and Historical Institute of Rio Janeiro. 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biograpnie Ge"ne>ale." 
 
 Cunha Mattos, da, da koon'ya mat'tos, (Raymundo 
 JozE,)a Portuguese general, bom at Faro in 1776. About 
 1820 he became commandant of the province of Goyaz, 
 and afterwards obtained the highest rank in the army. 
 He published a valuable work, called "Itinerary fmm 
 Rio Janeiro to Para and Maranham," etc., (1836.) Died 
 in 1840. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Cunich, koo'nik, (Raimondo,) a Jesuit, noted as a 
 Latin poet, was born at Ragusa in 1719; died at Rome 
 in 1794. 
 
 Cunin-Gridaine, ku'naN'gRe'dJn', (Laurent,) born 
 at Sedan, in France, in 1778, was minister of commerce 
 in several cabinets between 1837 and 1848. Died in 1859. 
 
 Cuuitia. See Cunitz. 
 
 Cunitz, koo'nits, or Cunitia, (Maria,) a learned Ger- 
 man lady, born at Schweidnitz, in Silesia. After learning 
 several languages, she gave special attention to astro- 
 nomy. She was married in 1630 to M. Lewen. Having 
 undertaken to render the tables of Kepler more con- 
 venient in practice, she published, in 1650, astronomical 
 tables, under the title of" Urania Propitia." Died in 1664. 
 
 Cunningham, kun'ning-am, (ALEXANDER,) a Scot- 
 tish historian, born near Selkirk in 1654. From 1715 to 
 1720 he was British envoy to Venice. He wrote, in Latin, 
 a " History of Great Britain from 1688 to 17 14," which is 
 said to be valuable, and has been translated into English. 
 Died about 1737. 
 
 See "Biographa Britannica;" Chambers "Biographical Dic- 
 tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Cunningham, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish classical 
 scholar, born about 1650. He became professor of law 
 in Edinburgh, and afterwards removed to the Hague, 
 where he published an edition of Horace, (1721,) which 
 is much esteemed. Died about 1730. 
 
 Cunningham, (Allan,) a successful Scottish author 
 and critic, born at Blackwood, Dumfriesshire, in 1785. 
 In early youth he was apprenticed to a stone-mason. In 
 1810 he went to London, where he was employed as re- 
 porter for newspapers. From 1814 to 1S41 he held the 
 desirable position of clerk or foreman of Sir F. Chan- 
 trey's studio. He published an admired dramatic poem, 
 "Sir Marmaduke Maxwell," (1822,) and the popular 
 romances "Lord Roldan" and "Paul Jones." In 1829- 
 33 he produced a valuable work entitled " Lives of the 
 Most Eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and Archi- 
 tects." He also composed several songs, and a " Critical 
 History of the Literature of the Last Fifty Years." Died 
 in 1842. Sir Walter Scott, who was his friend, described 
 him as a "man of genius, who only requires the tact of 
 knowing when and where to stop, to attain the universal 
 praise that ought to follow it." 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement:) De Quincey, "Literary Reminiscences," vol. ii.: 
 "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1S28; " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 September, 1832. (with a portrait.) 
 
 Cunningham, (Edward Francis,) a distinguished 
 Scottish painter, born at Kelso about 1742. After study- 
 ing in Rome, he worked with success in London, Pans, 
 Saint Petersburg, and Berlin. He painted portraits of 
 several royal personages, and other admired works. His 
 habits were very dissipated. Died in 1793. 
 
 Cunningham, kun'ning-am, (George Godfrey,) an 
 English historian, published a " Biographical History 
 of England, or a History of England in the Lives of 
 Englishmen," (8 vols., 1853.) 
 
 Cunningham, (John,) an Irish actor and poet, born 
 in Dublin in 1729. He performed some years in Edin- 
 burgh and the north of England, and composed pastoral 
 and other poems, which were received with favour. Died 
 
 in 1773- 
 
 Cunniugham, (John William,) Vicar of Harrow, an 
 English writer, born about 1780, published "The Velvet 
 Cushion," (1814,) which passed through many editions, 
 " De Ranee," (a poem,) and other works. Died in 1861. 
 
 Cunningham, (Peter,) an English author and critic, 
 a son of Allan Cunningham, the poet, was born in Pirn- 
 lico, London, in 1816. He became chief clerk in the 
 Audit Office in 1854, and published a "Life of Inigo 
 Jones," (1848,) and a good edition of Oliver Goldsmith's 
 Works, (1854.) He also edited Johnson's "Lives of 
 the Poets," (1854.) 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for April and October, 1854. 
 
 Cunningham, (William,) an English engraver and 
 physician, born at Norwich about 1520; died in 1577. 
 
 Cunningham, (William,) D.D., a Scottish minister 
 of the Free Church, was bom al Hamilton in 1805. He 
 six. ceded Dr. Chalmers as principal of the New College, 
 Edinburgh, in 1847. Died in 1861. 
 
 Cuno, koo'no, (Joiiann Christian,) a German poet 
 and botanist, born at Berlin in 1708. He wrote, in Ger- 
 man, an "Ode on his Garden," (1750,) and "Letters on 
 Moral Subjects," (inverse; 3d edition, 1766.) Linnaeus 
 
 « a* i; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 9 as z; «h as in this. (iJ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
CUP 
 
 700 
 
 CURSOR 
 
 named the genus Cunonia in honour of him. Died 
 about 1780. 
 
 See Adelung, Supplement to JQcher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Cup, kilp, (Willem,) a Dutch jurist, born at Bommel 
 in 1604; died in 1667. 
 
 Cupani, koo-pa'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian botanist, 
 born in Sicily in 1657. He became a monk in 1681, 
 after which he published two catalogues of the rare or 
 newly-found plants of Sicily. At his death in Palermo, 
 in 171 1, he was about to publish an extensive work, 
 called "Description of All the Plants of Sicily," ("Pan- 
 phytum Siculum.") In 171 5 Bonani, who became pos- 
 sessor of his papers, published a volume of this work 
 and claimed it as his own. 
 
 See Moncitore, " Bibliotheca Sicula." 
 
 Cuper, ku'per, [Lat. Cupe'rus,] (Gisbert,) a Dutch 
 critic and philologist, born at Hemmendem in 1644. 
 He was for many years professor of history at Deventer, 
 and published several valuable works, among which are 
 " Observations in which many Passages of Authors are 
 Explained," (1670,) and a "History of the Three Gor- 
 dians," (Emperors of Rome,) (1697.) Died in 1716. 
 
 See Nicbron, " Mdmoires ;" Bosscha, " Oratio de G. Cupero," 
 1816. 
 
 Cu'pid, [Lat. Cupi'do, (or A'mor ;) Fr. Cupidon, 
 kii'pe'dAN'; It. Cupidine, koo-pee'de-na,] the name of 
 the god of love in the Roman mythology, corresponding 
 exactly to the E'ros ["Epur] of the Greeks. He is usually 
 regarded as the son of Venus ; though respecting his 
 parentage there is considerable diversity among the an- 
 cient authors. He is represented as a winged boy armed 
 with a bow and arrows. He is often pictured with a 
 bandage over his eyes, to indicate the blindness or 
 unreasonableness of love. The corresponding Hindoo 
 deity is called KAmadeva or KAmadeo, which see. 
 
 See Keightley's "Mythology." 
 
 Cupidon or Cupido. See Cupid. 
 
 Curadi. See Ghiri.andaio. 
 
 Curaeus. See Curaus. 
 
 Curaudau, kii'ro'do', (Francois Rene,) a French 
 practical chemist and inventor, born at Seez in 1765. 
 He improved the processes of tanning leather, of making 
 soap, beet-sugar, invented stoves, etc. Died in 1813. 
 
 CurSus or Curaeus, koo-ra'us, (Joachim,) a German 
 historian and physician, born at Freystadt, in Silesia, in 
 1532, was a friend of Melanchthon. He published, be- 
 sides several theological treatises, an important work on 
 the " History of Silesia," (" Annales Silesiae ab Origins 
 Genti," 1 5 7 1 . ) Died in 1573. 
 
 Curcellaeus, (Stephen.) See Courcelles, (Eti- 
 
 ENNK DE.) 
 
 Cureau. See Chambre. 
 
 Cur6e, kii'ra', (Jean Francois,) a French politician, 
 born near Lodeve in 1756. He was elected to the 
 Convention in 1792. As a member of the Tribunate in 
 1804, he first proposed to declare Napoleon emperor. 
 He afterwards obtained the office of senator and the title 
 of Count. Died in 1835. 
 
 Curio, koo're-o, [Fr. Curion, ku're'6N',] (Craxius 
 Secundus,) a Protestant theologian, born in Piedmont 
 in 1503. He was professor of belles-lettres at Bale from 
 1547 to 1569, and published, besides other works in 
 Latin, "The Amplitude of the Kingdom of Heaven," 
 (1554,) and "Pasquillus Ecstaticus," an ingenious and 
 satirical work of a controversial character. About 1540 
 he was confined in various prisons of Italv by the Inqui- 
 sition, but he escaped by stratagem. Died in 1569. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Criiical Dictionary;" Nicbron, 
 " Mt^moires ;" Stupani, " Oratio de C. S. Curionis Vita," 1570. 
 
 Cu'ri-o,[Fr. Curion, kii're'6N',](CAius Scribontus,) 
 a Roman general, a friend of Cicero, was a son of an 
 orator of the same name. He became tribune of the 
 people in 90 B.C., praetor in 82, and consul in 76. He 
 afterwards commanded in Macedonia, and defeated the 
 Dardanians and Moesians. In 57 B.C. he was chosen 
 pontifex maximus. Died in 53 B.C. 
 
 Curio, (Caius Scribonius,) a son of the preceding, 
 was a profligate politician. He had great natural talents 
 for oratory. He became tribune in 50 B.C., soon after 
 which he deserted the cause of the senate and became a 
 
 partisan of Caesar. He is considered as one of the prin- 
 cipal instigators of the civil war between Poinpev and 
 Caesar. In the year 49 he obtained command in Sicily, 
 from which he expelled the troops of Pompey. Having 
 led an army into Africa, he was defeated by Juba and 
 killed in battle about 48 B.C. 
 
 See Okeli.i, "Onomasticon Tullianum ;" Appian, " Bellum Ci- 
 vile :" Tacitus, " De Claris Oratoribus." 
 
 Curion. See Curio. 
 
 Curius Dentatus. See Dentatus. 
 
 Curl or Curll, (Edmund,) an English bookseller 
 of London, to whom Pope has given notoriety in his 
 "Dunciad." He lost his ears by publishing licentious 
 books. Died in 1748. 
 
 Curne, La. See Sainte-Pai.aye. 
 
 Curopalates. See Codinus. 
 
 Curradi. See Currado and Ghiri.andaio. 
 
 Currado, koor-ra'do, or Curradi, koor-ra'dee, (Fran- 
 cesco,) Cavauf.re, a skilful Italian painter, bom at 
 Florence in 1570, was a pupil of B. Naldini. Among 
 his works, which are mostly of small dimensions, is 
 "The Three Marys." Died in 1661. 
 
 See T.anzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Cur'ran, (John Philpot,) a famous Irish orator and 
 barrister, born of Protestant parents at Newmarket, near 
 Cork, in 1750. His mother, whose name was Philpot, 
 was witty and highly gifted. In 1769 he entered Trinity 
 College, Dublin, where he acquired an extensive know- 
 ledge of the classics. He began the study of law in the 
 Middle Temple, London, in 1773, and was called to the 
 Irish bar in 1775. His eloquence, humour, and mastery 
 of sarcasm soon procured him a large practice. In cross- 
 examination he was inimitable: "he argued, he cajoled, 
 he ridiculed, he mimicked, he played off the various 
 artillery of bis talent upon the witness." In 1783 he 
 entered Parliament, where he acted with the opposition, 
 of which Grattan was the leader ; but he was not so suc- 
 cessful there as in the forum. " He had all the qualities," 
 says Phillips, "by which his countrymen are attracted. 
 His imagination was wonderful, his eloquence copious, 
 rapid, and ornate, his powers of mimicry beyond all 
 description. . . . He had another quality, apart from 
 intellect, which the times demanded, — indomitable cour- 
 age." Among his greatest efforts was the defence of 
 Rowan, indicted for a seditious libel in 1794. He was 
 counsel for Theobald Wolfe Tone and other persons 
 implicated in the rebellion of 179S. He strenuously 
 opposed the union of Ireland and England, which was 
 effected in 1800. On the formation of a Whig ministry 
 in 1806, Curran was appointed master of the rolls in 
 Ireland, a position for which he was not well adapted, 
 and which was quite repugnant to his habits. In his 
 latter years he was subject to great and habitual dejec- 
 tion of spirits. Died in 1817. Among many recorded 
 instances of his ready wit is this anecdote : When a 
 tobacconist desired a Latin motto for his new carriage, 
 Curran proposed "Quid Rides."* 
 
 See "Life of J. P. Curran," bv his son, W. H. Curran, 1810: 
 Charles PhuMPS, "Curran and his Contemporaries." 1S50; W. 
 O. Regan, " Life of Curran," 1N17 ; T. Davis, " Life of Curran," 
 1X46 : " Edinburgh Review" for May, 1820. 
 
 Currer Bell. Sec Bronte, (Charlotte.) 
 
 Cur'rie or Cur'rjf, (James,) a Scottish physician, 
 born in Dumfriesshire in May, 1756. Having passed a 
 few years in Virginia in mercantile pursuits, he returned 
 home in 1776, and studied medicine. In 1780 he set- 
 tled in Liverpool, where he practised with success. His 
 principal professional work is "Medical Reports on 
 the Effects of Water, Cold and Warm, as a Remedy 
 for Fever," (1797.) He acquired literary reputation by 
 an edition of Burns's Works, with a memoir of his life. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 See " Life and Writings of James Currie." by his son, W. \V*. 
 Currie, 1831 : " Edinburgh Review" for October, i8o<;, January, 
 1814. and April, 1832: Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of 
 Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Cur'ry\ (Daniel,) an American writer and Methodist 
 minister, born at Peekskill, New York, in 1809. He 
 wrote, besides other works, a " Life of Wycliffe." 
 
 Curry, (James.) See Currie. 
 
 Cursor. See Papirius Cursor. 
 
 * I.e. "Why do you laugh?" (See Horace's First Satire, 1. 60.) 
 
 , e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 5, it, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m8t; not; good; moon; 
 
CURTEIS 
 
 701 
 
 CUSHING 
 
 Cur'teis, (Thomas,) an English divine and poet, born 
 about 1690, wrote essays and sermons. Died in 1747. 
 
 Curti, kooR'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter and 
 engraver, born at Bologna in 1603. 
 
 Curti, (Girolamo.) See Dentone, (Giroi.amo.) 
 
 Cur'tin, (Andrew G.,) an American politician, born 
 at Bellefonte, Centre county, Pennsylvania, in 1817. He 
 studied law, became an active supporter of the Whig 
 party, and was appointed secretary of state in 1855. He 
 was elected Governor of Pennsylvania by the Republicans 
 in October, i860. In 1863 he was again elected Governor 
 of the same State for a term of three years. He was 
 appointed minister to Russia in April, 1869. 
 
 Cur'tis, (Benjamin R.,) an American lawyer, born 
 in Watertown, Massachusetts, about 1810. He was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1832, soon after which he began to 
 practise in Boston. He was appointed a judge of the 
 supreme court of the United States in 1851, and re- 
 signed in 1857. He was one of the counsel that defended 
 President Johnson in his trial before the Senate in April, 
 1868. He published " Reports of Cases in the Circuit 
 Courts of the United States," 1854. 
 
 Curtis, (George Ticknor,) an American lawyer and 
 eminent legal writer, brother of the preceding, was born 
 at Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1812. He graduated 
 at Harvard in 1832. His "Treatise on the Rights and 
 Duties of Merchant Seamen," (1841,) says Judge Story, 
 "is written with great ability, accuracy, and learning." 
 Among his other works may be mentioned his valuable 
 treatise on the law of Copyright, (1847,) and his "Com- 
 mentaries on the Jurisdiction, Practice, etc. of the Courts 
 of the United States," (2 vols., 1854.) 
 
 Curtis, (George William,) a popular American 
 author and lecturer, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 
 1824. He visited Europe about 1846, studied for some 
 time in the University of Berlin, and made an extensive 
 tour in the Levant, after which he returned home in 1850. 
 He published in 1851 an attractive work entitled "Nile 
 Notes of a Howadji," and in 1852 "The Howadji in 
 Syria." He acquired a high reputation as an orator 
 and lecturer on various subjects. In 1856 he advocated, 
 in numerous public speeches, the election of John C. 
 Fremont to the Presidency. Among his works are 
 "Lotus- Eating," (1852,) and "The Potiphar Papers," 
 reprinted from "Putnam's Monthly Magazine," (1854.) 
 
 See Cleveland's "Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Curtis, (Samuel R.,) an American general, born in 
 Ohio about 1807, graduated at West Point in 1831. He 
 served as colonel in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) after 
 which he settled in Iowa. He represented the first 
 district of Iowa in Congress, 1856-61, and voted with 
 the Republicans. In May, 1861, he became a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers. He gained an important victory 
 at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, March 7 and 8, 1862. He was 
 speedily promoted to the rank of major-general, and took 
 command of the district of Missouri in September, 1862. 
 Died in December, 1866. 
 
 Curtis, (William,) an English botanist, born at Alton, 
 Hampshire, in 1746, was proprietor of botanic gardens 
 at Bermondsey, Lambeth Marsh, and Brompton. In 1777 
 he began to publish a splendid "Flora Londir.ensis," 
 with coloured plates, which was continued by Sir W. J. 
 Hooker, (1835.) He originated the "Botanical Maga- 
 zine," and was author of a useful work entitled " Obser- 
 vations on British Grasses," (1790.) He also left two 
 treatises on insects. Died in 1799. 
 
 Curtius. See Curtz. 
 
 Curtius, kdoRt'se-us, (Ernst,) a German antiquary, 
 boir at Lubeck in 1814. He visited Athens in 1837, 
 and aecame preceptor of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of 
 Prussia about 1844. He published "The Acropolis 
 of Athens," (1844,) "Peloponnesus," (1852,) and other 
 works on Greece. He was appointed professor of Greek 
 and Latin at Gottingen in 1856. 
 
 Curtius, kur'she^us, (Lancinus,) a mediocre Latin 
 poet, born at Milan ; died in 1511. 
 
 Curtius, kur'she-us, (Marcus,) a Roman youth, 
 celebrated for his patriotic devotion. According to tra- 
 dition, a gulf opened in the Forum of Rome about 360 
 B.C., and the soothsayers declared it could not be filled 
 except by the sacrifice of the principal strength of the 
 
 Roman people. Curtius asked his fellow-citizens if their 
 courage and arms were not the most worthy offerings. 
 Then, having devoted himself to the Dii Manes, he 
 mounted his horse and plunged into the abyss, which 
 immediately closed up. 
 
 See Livv, "History of Rome;" Plutarch, "Romulus." 
 
 Curtius, (Matthew.) See Corti, (Matteo.) 
 
 Curtius, (Mettus,) a Sabine hero, who fought against 
 the Romans in the war caused by the abduction of the 
 Sabine women, and killed Hostus Hostilius in single 
 combat. Having been attacked by Romulus, he took 
 refuge in a marsh which occupied the site of the future 
 Forum of Rome, and which was called Lacus Curtius in 
 memory of that event. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome;" Plutarch, "Romulus." 
 
 Curtius, (Michael Conrad,) a German historian, 
 born in Mecklenburg in 1724, was professor of history 
 at Marburg. He wrote (in Latin) a good "Commentary 
 on the Roman Senate under the Emperors," (176S.) 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 See G. F. Creuzer, " Memoria M. C. Curtii," 1802. 
 
 Curtius, (Quintus.) See Qui.ntus Curtius. 
 
 Curtois. See Courtois. 
 
 Curvo, kooR'vo, (Joao Semmedo,) a Portuguese phy- 
 sician and medical writer, born in 1635 ; died in 17 19. 
 
 Curtz or Kurtz, kdoRts, [ Lat. Cur'tius,] ( Al- 
 brf.cht,) a German astronomer, born at Munich in 1600 ; 
 died in 1671. 
 
 Cur'wen, (John C.,) an English agriculturist, who 
 represented Cumberland in Parliament for many years. 
 He made improvements in agriculture, and published 
 " Observations on the State of Ireland," (1818.) Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Curzon, de, deh kuR'zdN', (Paul Alfred,) a French 
 landscape-painter, born near Poitiers in 1820. He ob- 
 tained a second medal in 1857. 
 
 Cusa. See Cusa.nus. 
 
 Cu-sa'nus, or de Cu'sa, written also Cuss and Cusel, 
 (Nicholas,) a pious and learned prelate, born at Cusa, 
 in the diocese of Treves, in 1401. His family name was 
 Krebs. He was one of the most liberal men of his 
 time, and was at the head of the progressive movements 
 in religion and science. About 1448 he was made a car- 
 dinal. He wrote a work in favour of a reform in the 
 Church, and others on mathematics and astronomy. 
 He is said to have been the first modern who favoured 
 the theory of the earth's motion. Died in 1464. 
 
 See Hartzheim, " N. Cusse Vita," 1730; F. J. Clemens, " Gior- 
 dano Bruno und Nicol. von Cusa," 1847: " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Ge'neVale;" Ritter, " History of' Philosophy;" R. ZlMMSRMANM, 
 "Der Cardinal N. Cusanus ais Votliiufer Leibuitzens," 1852. 
 
 Cusel. See Cusanus. 
 
 Cushing, kdosh'ing, (Caleb,) a distinguished Ameri- 
 can jurist, politician, and scholar, was born in Essex 
 county, Massachusetts, in 1800. Having graduated at 
 Harvard College, he studied law at Cambridge. He was 
 elected to the State Senate in 1826, and in 1829 visited 
 Europe. He published, soon after, " Reminiscences of 
 Spain," and a " Historical and Political Review of the 
 Revolution in France," (1830.) He represented the 
 North Essex district in Congress for four terms, 1835-43. 
 He acted with the Whigs until 1841, when he united 
 with President Tyler in his hostility to the Whig meas- 
 ures, and went over to the Democratic party. He was 
 nominated by the President in 1843 as secretary of the 
 treasury ; but he was not confirmed by the Senate, He 
 was soon after appointed commissioner to China, and in 
 1844 negotiated the first treaty of the United States with 
 the government of that country. On his return he be- 
 came an advocate of the Mexican war, then in progress, 
 and equipped a regiment of volunteers at his own ex- 
 pense. As colonel of this regiment, he went to Mexico 
 in 1847, and was appointed brigadier-general. During 
 his absence he was nominated by the Democratic party 
 as their candidate for Governor ; but he was not electee!. 
 He was appointed in 1852 a justice of the supreme court 
 of Massachusetts, and was attorney-general of the United 
 States from March, 1853, to March, 1857. 
 
 See Livingston's " Portraits of Eminent Americans, 1854." 
 
 Cushing, (Luther Stearns,) an American jurist, 
 born in Lunenburg, Massachusetts, in 1803. He was 
 
 i k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j> G, h, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as *; th as in this. (£y~See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
CUSHING 
 
 702 
 
 CUV1ER 
 
 reporter to the supreme court of his State, and published 
 8 vols, of Reports. Among his works is "The Law and 
 Practice of Legislative Assemblies in the United States," 
 (1855.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Cashing, (Thomas,) an American patriot, born in 
 Boston in 1725. He was a member of the first and 
 second Congress, and was afterwards for several years 
 Lieutenant-Governor of Massachusetts. Died in 1788. 
 
 Cushing, (William,) a jurist, born in Scituate, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1733. He became chief justice of the 
 superior court of Massachusetts in 1777, and a justice 
 of the supreme court of the United States in 1789. Died 
 in 1810. 
 
 Cushing, (William B.,) a brave naval officer, born 
 in Wisconsin about 1842. He performed several daring 
 exploits in the civil war. Among these was the destruc- 
 tion of the iron-clad ram Albemarle in the Roanoke 
 River, on a dark night of October, 1864. Aided by 
 thirteen men, he exploded a torpedo-boat under the 
 Albemarle, while the enemy poured a destructive fire 
 into his little craft. All of his party, except one besides 
 himself, were either killed or captured. He jumped 
 into the river, swam to the shore, and escaped. He 
 was promoted to the rank of commander. "No man in 
 our navy," says J. T. Headley, " at his age has ever won 
 so brilliant a reputation." 
 
 See Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867. 
 
 Cushman, koosh'man, (Charlotte S.,) a distin- 
 guished American actress, born in Boston about 1816. 
 She made her debut about 1835, and performed tragic 
 parts with success in New York and other cities of 
 the Union. In 1845 she went to England, where she 
 performed with success for several years. Her sister 
 Susan was also a popular actress. 
 
 Cushman, (Robert,) one of the founders of Plymouth 
 colony, was born in England about 1580. He emigrated 
 to Plymouth in 1621, before which year he had acted as 
 agent of the colony. He preached, in December, 1621, 
 the first sermon that was printed in America. Died in 
 1625 or 1626. 
 
 Cushman, (Thomas,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born about 160S. He became in 1649 an elder of the 
 Church of Plymouth. Died in 1691. 
 
 Cuspinian, koos-pee'ne-an, [Lat. Cuspinia'nus; Fr. 
 Cuspinien, kiis'pee'ne'aN',] (Johann,) a German writer, 
 born in Franconia in 1473. His German name was Spies- 
 hammer, (speess'ham-mer.) He was privy councillor to 
 Maximilian I., and wrote, besides other works, a valua- 
 ble "History (Commentarius) of the Emperors from 
 Julius Caesar to Maximilian I.," (1540.) Died in 1529. 
 
 See Gerbelius. "Vita J. Cuspiniani," 1540; M. Adam, "Vita? 
 Eruditorum ;" P. Giovio, Elogia." 
 
 Cuspinianus. See Cuspinian. 
 
 Cuspinien. See Cuspinian. 
 
 Cuss. See Cusa. 
 
 Cusson, ku'sAN', (Pierre,) M.D., a skilful French 
 botanist, born at Montpellier in 1727. He was employed 
 in Spain as a botanist by B. de Jussieu in 1754, after 
 which he practised medicine in Montpellier. He wrote 
 a treatise on the family of Umbelliferae, which was his 
 speciality, but did not live to publish it. Died in 1783. 
 
 Cust, (Sir Edward,) an English general, born in 
 London in 1794, served under Wellington, and was after- 
 wards a member of Parliament. He published " Lives 
 of the Warriors of the Civil Wars of France and Eng- 
 land," (1867,) and other works. 
 
 Cust'er, (George A.,) an American general, born in 
 Harrison county, Ohio, in 1839, graduated at West Point 
 in 1861. He commanded a brigade of cavalry in North- 
 ern Virginia in May, 1864, and a division of the army 
 of General Sheridan in the spring of 1865. He took 
 part in the pursuit and capture of General Lee's army, 
 April, 1865. 
 
 Custine, de, deh kiis'ten', (Adam Philippe,) Count, 
 an eminent French general, born of a noble family at 
 Metz in 1740. He entered the army very young, and 
 became a colonel about 1760. For his conduct at York- 
 town, Virginia, in 1781, he was made marechal-de- 
 camp. In 1789 he was deputed to the States-General, 
 in which he advocated with ardour the cause of reform. 
 Having command of an army on the Rhine in 1792, he 
 
 conducted bold and successful expeditions against Spire, 
 Mentz, and Frankfort, which he took almost without 
 resistance, and suddenly obtained great popularity. In 
 the campaign of 1793 he failed in an attempt to relieve 
 Mentz, which was recovered by the allies. He was then 
 denounced by the violent Jacobins as a counter-revolu- 
 tionist, was arrested at the head of his army by a member 
 of the Convention, and taken to Paris, in the beginning 
 of the reign of terror. The popularity acquired bv his 
 success, his eloquence and affable manners, excited the 
 jealousy of the Jacobin chiefs. Accordingly, he w:is 
 condemned and executed in August, 1793. 
 
 See Lamartine's " History of the Girondists," book xlvi.; " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle." 
 
 Custine, de, (Astolphe,) Marquis, a French trav- 
 eller and writer, grandson of the preceding, was born in 
 Paris in 1793. Between 1811 and 1822 he travelled in 
 England, Switzerland, and other countries. He published 
 an account of this tour, entitled " Memoires et Voy- 
 ages," (1830,) a successful work called "Russia in 1839," 
 and several novels. 
 
 Custine, de, (Renaud Philippe,) a son of Adam 
 Philippe, noticed above, was born in 1760. For his 
 intimacy with Condorcet, and his spirited conduct during 
 his father's trial, he was proscribed by Robespierre, and 
 suffered death in January, 1794. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire de la Revolution." 
 
 Cus'tis, (George Washington Parke,) an adopted 
 son of Genera] Washington, was born in Maryland in 
 1 781. He was a grandson of Mrs. Martha Washington 
 and her first husband. He was the author of several 
 plavs and orations. Died in 1857. 
 
 Ciis'tos, (Dominic,) a Flemish engraver, born at 
 Antwerp in 1560, was a son of a painter named Battens. 
 He settled in Augsburg, and published several series of 
 portraits engraved by himself. Died in 1612. 
 
 Ciith'bert, Saint, an P2nglish or Anglo-Saxon monk 
 of the seventh century. He was prior of the monastery 
 of Lindisfarne or Holy Isle, near Berwick, and for some 
 time was Bishop of Durham. His memory was greatly 
 venerated, and marvellous legends of his miracles were 
 circulated. He is sometimes styled the "Thaumaturgus 
 of Britain." Died about 686 a.d. 
 
 Another Cuthbert, Archbishop of Canterbury, was 
 a disciple of Bede, of whose life and death he wrote an 
 account. Died about 760. 
 
 Cut'ler, (Manasseh,) an American botanist and 
 preacher, born at Killingly, Connecticut, in 1744. He 
 examined and described three hundred and fifty species 
 of plants of New England, and was called the pioneer 
 of botany in that region. He was a leader of a party 
 which settled at Marietta, Ohio, in 1788. Died in 1823. 
 
 Cutler, (TIMOTHY,) an American clergyman, born in 
 Massachusetts in 1685. He was chosen president of 
 Yale College in 1719. joined the Episcopal Church in 
 1722, and became rector of a church in Boston about 
 1724. Died in 1765. 
 
 Cutts, (Lord John,) a brave English general, born 
 in Essex. His gallantry at Buda in 1686 was applauded 
 by Addison in a Latin poem. He served with distinction 
 under William III. at the battle of the Boyne and at the 
 siege of Namur, (1695.) Before the latter date he was 
 rewarded with an Irish peerage and made a major-gen- 
 eral. He sat in several Parliaments between 1695 and 
 1707, and wrote a poem on the death of Queen Mary. 
 Died in 1707. 
 
 Cuvelier de Trye, kuv'le^i' deh tRe, (Jean Guil- 
 Laume Antoine,) a mediocre French dramatist, born 
 at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1766 ; died in 1824. 
 
 Cuvera. See Kuvera. 
 
 Cuvier, ku've-4', (Clementine,) was a daughter of 
 the celebrated Baron Cuvier. She died in 1828, aged 
 about twenty- two. 
 
 Cuvier, (Frederic,) a French naturalist, born at 
 Montbeliard in 1773, was a brother of the celebrated 
 Cuvier. He removed to Paris about 1797, and devoted 
 himself to the study of natural history. A few years 
 later he became director of the menagerie at the Jardin 
 des Plantes, and professor of comparative anatomy. He 
 published an able treatise on the teeth of Mammalia, 
 (1822.) His most popular and extensive work is a "Natu- 
 
 i, i, 1, 6, u, v, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, faU, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CUflER 
 
 7°3 
 
 CT AX ARES 
 
 rai History of the Mammals," (" Histoire naturelle des 
 Mammitercs," (1824,) in which he gives a graphic de- 
 scription of the habits and instincts of those animals, with 
 many curious anecdotes. Died at Strasburg in 1838. 
 See Flourens, " fitoge de F. Cuvier." 
 
 Cuvier, ku've-a' or ku've-er, (Gkorge Chretien 
 Leopold Frederic Dagohert,) Baron, an illustrious 
 philosopher, statesman, and author, and one of the 
 greatest naturalists of modern rimes, was born on the 
 23d of August, 1769, at Montbeliard, then a part of the 
 German Empire, now in Doubs, a department of France. 
 His parents were Protestants, of French origin, who were 
 driven from their native land by religious persecution. 
 His father was an officer in the French service. His 
 early training was directed by an accomplished mother. 
 The favourite amusement of his childhood was to copy 
 and colour the figures of animals in Buffon's works. He 
 was educated at the Academia Carolina of Stuttgart, 
 which he left in 1788 with a very extensive general in- 
 struction and the reputation of a prodigious memory. 
 He then became tutor to the son of Count d'Hericy, of 
 Caen, in the vicinity of which he passed in peaceful 
 studies the stormy period of the Revolution. His early 
 es>ays on natural history attracted the notice of Jussieu 
 and Geoffroy; and when he arrived in Paris in March, 
 1795, he was looked upon as one destined to give a new 
 impulse to science. He read to the Society of Natural 
 History an essay on the formation and use of methods, 
 and a memoir on the organization of white-blooded ani- 
 mals. On the formation of the central schools he was 
 chosen professor of natural history in Paris, and in July, 
 1795, became assistant professor of comparative anatomy 
 in the Museum of Natural History. He immediately 
 to form his great cabinet of comparative anatomy. 
 In December, 1795, he was chosen a memlwr of the 
 Institute, then just founded. In 1798 Cuvier published 
 his "Tableau elementaire des Animaux," in which he 
 begin to apply his principles on the subordination of 
 characters, and to display his genius for classitii ation. 
 He succeeded Daubenton as professor of natural history 
 in the College of France in 1800, and then commenced the 
 publication of his "Lectures on Comparative Anatomy," 
 which proved very successful. 
 
 About 1802 he was chosen perpetual secretary of the 
 Academy of Sciences, and married Madame Duvaucel, 
 the widow of a farmer-general. He contributed to the 
 "Annales du Museum" a series of memoirs on basil 
 bones, with plates skilfully designed and engraved by 
 himself. In 1808 he was appointed councillor to the 
 Imperial University, and in several ensuing years pre- 
 sided over commissions charged to visit and organize 
 academies or colleges in Italy, Holland, etc. He pub- 
 lished in 1812 a collection of his treatises on fossil bones, 
 with an admirable preliminary " Discourse on the Revo- 
 lutions of the Surface of the Globe." In this important 
 work he propounds the theory of the correlation of forms 
 in organized beings, and arrives at the following conclu- 
 sions : that the career of man on this planet began about 
 five or six thousand years ago ; that no vestiges of the 
 human species are found among fossil remains; that the 
 present form of the continents was produced by a great 
 revolution which occurred before the origin of existing 
 animal species. Cuvier was appointed by Napoleon mas- 
 ter of requests in 1813, and councillor of state in 1814. 
 
 He produced fn 1817 his celebrated "Animal King- 
 dom," (" Regne animal distribue d'apres son Organisa- 
 tion," in 4 vols.,) by which he made a new arrangement 
 of animals into four divisions, the Vertebrata, the Mol- 
 lusca, the Articulata, and the Radiata. This work im- 
 mediately took the highest rank among books of the 
 kind, and became generally the basis or guide of zoo- 
 logical studies throughout Europe. The introduction is 
 a rapid and profound summary of the animal functions, 
 and a clear expose of the natural method which he first 
 applied to zoology. He was admitted into (he French 
 Academy in 1818, and received the title of Baron in 1820. 
 In 1822, as a member of the Lutheran Church, he was 
 appointed superintendent of the Faculties of Protestant 
 Theology. In 1823 he began the publication of his 
 splendid "Natural History of Fishes," of which eight 
 volumes were finished during his life. He wrote many 
 
 admirable notices of scientific men for the " Biographic 
 Universelle." From 1S19 until his death he was presi- 
 dent of the committee of the interior, and rendered 
 important civil services to the state. He was made a 
 peer of France in 1831. His great activity was unabated 
 by age, and he died peacefully in May, 1832. He is con- 
 sidered the founder of the science of comparative anato- 
 my, in which he attained such skill that, with a small 
 fragment of a characteristic part of an animal, he could 
 determine the class, order, and even genus to which it 
 belonged. Cuvier also made great improvements in 
 geology. He left unfinished a philosophic work of high 
 order on the history of the natural sciences, which he 
 began in 1830 to develop in a course of lectures in the 
 College of France. As a professor he equalled or sur- 
 passed his predecessors in facility of elocution, in clear- 
 ness of ideas, and in the art of sustaining the attention 
 in philosophic or historical digressions, which revealed 
 the great variety and extent of his attainments. In 
 respect to this almost universal aptitude and excellence, 
 he has been compared to Aristotle ; and the comparison 
 would have been more remarkable if the fall of Napo- 
 leon had not frustrated a design to confide to Cuvier the 
 direction of the education of the heir of the empire. 
 His head was large, his features regular, and his expres- 
 sion noble and dignified, and indicative of great force. 
 His disposition was social and amiable, and his moral 
 character eminently high-toned. 
 
 See Parisot, " Eloge de Cuvier;" A. de Candoub, " Notice 
 sur la Vie et les Ourrages de G. Cuvier ;" R. Lee, " Memoir of Karon 
 Cuvier," 1833; Uuvkrnoy, " Notice hislorique sur les Ouvrages et 
 la ViedeG. Cuvier," 1*33; Kofis dp. I.omkmk, "G. Cuvier, par un 
 Homme de Rien, " 1S41 ; Klourens, » Cuvier, Histoire de ses Tra- 
 vanx," 1X45; " F.diuburgh Review" for May, itSii-Januarv, 1S36; 
 " Foreign Quarterly Review" for December, "1834-Octuber, 1S3S. 
 
 Cuvillier-Fleury. See Flkury. 
 
 Cuyp or Kuyp, koip, (Albert,) a celebrated Dutch 
 landscape-painter, born at Dort in 1606, was the son and 
 Dupil of Jacob Gcrritsc Cuyp, a painter of much merit. 
 II. painted with great success landscapes, cattle, views 
 of rivers, moonlight-scenes, frost-pieces, flowers, etc. 
 No painter perhaps has surpassed him in harmony of 
 colour and in the purity of his aerial tint. He represented 
 by the appropriate tone the different periods of the day, 
 and gave his productions the merit of fidelity to nature. 
 His works are highly prized in England, where as much 
 as two thousand guineas have frequently been paid for 
 one of them. He is said to have lived as late as 1683. 
 Ruskin calls him the principal master of pastoral land- 
 scape, and says, "Cuyp can indeed paint sunlight, the 
 best that Holland's sun can show. He is a man of large 
 natural gifts, and sees broadly, nay, even seriously, finds 
 out that there are reflections in water. A brewer by 
 trade, he feels the quiet of a summer afternoon, and his 
 work will make you marvellously drowsy. It is good 
 for nothing else that I know of." ("Modern Painters.") 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamanda," etc.; Bkvan, 
 "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Cuyp or Kuyp, (Jacob Gerritse,) the Old, a 
 Dutch landscape-painter, father of the preceding, born 
 at Dort about 1575, was a pupil of A. Bloemaert. Died 
 about 1650. 
 
 Cyaxare. See Cyaxares. 
 
 Qy-ax'a-res,|Gr. K«nf«pr/f;Fr.CYAXARE, se'Sks'SR',] 
 a warlike king of the Medes, the son of Phraortes, 
 ascended the throne about 634 B.C. According to Hero- 
 dotus, he was defeated by the Scythians, and became 
 tributary to them for many vears. A war which he waged 
 for five years against the King of Lydia was teiminated 
 about 610 by the terror caused by a total eclipse of the 
 sun, predicted by Thales. The Scythians were driven out 
 of Media in 607 B.C. About 606 he took Nineveh, with 
 the aid of the King of Babylon. He died in 594 li.c, 
 leaving the throne to his son Astyages. 
 
 See Volnev, " Nouvelles Recherches sur 1'Hi.stoire ancienne." 
 
 Cyaxares II., King of the Medes, was the son of 
 Astyages, and uncle of Cyrus the Great. According to 
 Xenophon, he became king about 560 B.C. j but Herodo- 
 tus does not mention him. He is probably identical 
 with Darius the Mede of the Scriptures, who succeeded 
 Belshazzar on the throne of Babylon by conquest about 
 538 B.C. (See Daniel vi.) He was succeeded by Cyrus. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as *; th as in this. (£fjf See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 [tflXTW 
 
CTBEBE 
 
 704 
 
 CYRIL 
 
 Cybebe. See Cybele. 
 
 Cyb'e-le or Cy-be'le* [Gr. Kv^ckq or KvjifiXri : Fr. 
 Cyhei.e, (se'bil*)] called also £y-be'be [Gr. Kv^lSti] 
 and Rhe'a, [Gr. Tela, 'Pea, or 'Pdy ; Fr. Rek, r4,] a god- 
 dess of classic mythology, supposed to be the daughter 
 of Uranus and Terra, (Ge,) was distinguished by the 
 appellation of "Mother of the Gods," or "Great Mother." 
 She was the wife of Saturn, (Cronos,) and mother of 
 Jupiter and the other principal gods. One of the chief 
 places of her worship was Pessinus, a town of Galatia, 
 above which rose Mount Dindymus, whence her surname 
 of Dindyme'ne. She was also called " Berecynthia," 
 or "Berecynthia Mater," (the "Berecynthian Mother,") 
 from the hill Berecynthus, where she had a temple. 
 She is often represented as riding in a chariot drawn by 
 lions, and always has a crown of towers on her head. 
 Her priests were called Corybantes. 
 
 See Keightlbv's "Mythology." 
 
 Cyb6 or Cib6, che-bo', (Arano or Aaron,) the 
 ancestor of a noble Genoese family, was born of Greek 
 origin at Rhodes in 1377. He was Viceroy of Naples 
 about 1442, and died in 1457, leaving a son, who became 
 Pope Innocent VIII. in 1485. Innocent Cybo was a 
 grandson of that pope, a nephew of Clement VII. and 
 of Leo X. At the age of twenty-two he was made a 
 cardinal, and he afterwards obtained four archbishoprics. 
 His merit is extolled by historians. Died in 1550. Al- 
 berico Cybo Malaspina inherited the sovereignty of 
 Massa and Carrara in 1553, and died about 1620. 
 
 Cyclopes. See Cyclops. 
 
 Qy'clops, [Gr. KvicXuip,] plural, ^y-clo'pes, a fabu- 
 lous race of giants, having each one eye in the middle of 
 the forehead. According to the theogony of Hesiod, they 
 were the sons of Uranus and Gsea, were named Brontes, 
 Steropes, and Arges, and their business was to forge 
 thunderbolts for Jupiter. Homer represents them as a 
 gigantic and lawless race of shepherds and cannibals 
 who lived in Sicily. According to a later tradition, they 
 were assistants of Vulcan, in whose workshop they fabri- 
 cated armour for gods and heroes. 
 
 See the "Odyssey," book ix., and Virgil's "JEneid," book iii. 
 627-681, and book viii. 370-448. 
 
 5yc'nus, [Gr. Kvkvot,] a son of Neptune, and the 
 father of Tenes. He fought against the Greeks in the 
 Trojan war, and, though invulnerable by iron, was choked 
 to death by Achilles, and changed into a swan. 
 
 C,yd'I-as, [Gr. Kvdiac,] a Greek painter, born in the 
 isle of Cythnus, lived about 360 B.C. 
 
 C,y'don, a Greek sculptor, mentioned by Pliny, lived 
 in the time of Phidias. 
 
 Cygne, du, dii sen, (Martin,) a Flemish scholar and 
 writer, born at Saint-Omer in 1619. He taught rhetoric 
 in various colleges with much celebrity. ' He published 
 " The Art of Rhetoric," (" Ars Rhetorica," 1659,) "The 
 Art of Poetry," (" Ars Poetica,") and other works, which 
 were often reprinted. Died in 1669. 
 
 Cyl-le'nI-us, a surname of Mercury, which see. 
 
 Cyna. See Cynane. 
 
 Cynaegeirus, sin-ee-jl'rus, [Kwaiyapoc,] an Athe- 
 nian, remarkable for his courage, was the brother of 
 ./Eschylus the poet. At the battle of Marathon, 490 B.C., 
 he pursued the Persians to the sea, and seized a ship 
 with his hand, "which," says Herodotus, "was cut off." 
 Other writers add that, having lost both hands, he seized 
 the vessel with his teeth. 
 
 Cynaethus or Cinaethus, se-nee'thus, [Kt'vmfloc or 
 Kivaidoc,] a Greek rhapsodist, born at Chios (Scio) at 
 a date which is not ascertained. He was the reputed 
 author of the " Hymn to Apollo" sometimes attributed 
 to Homer. According to Eustathius, he was the first 
 who collected and arranged the poems of Homer. 
 
 * The best scholars seem to be agreed that the penultimate vowel 
 in Cybele ought to be short; although the fact that Cvbkbe, another 
 form of the same name, always has the penultima long, might well 
 suggest the strong probability that the ancients themselves were not 
 uniform in their pronunciation of the vowel. Byron, who is generally 
 extremely accurate in the accentuation of ancient as well as modern 
 names, taking advantage doubtless of this uncertainty, has adopted 
 the more euphonious pronunciation — Cybe'le. Speaking of Venice, 
 he says: 
 
 " She looks a sea Cybele, fresh from ocean, 
 Rising with her tiara of proud towers." 
 
 Chil.de Harold, canto iv. stanza 2. 
 
 Cy-na'ne, Qiyn'na, or Cy'na, [Gr. Kwiivr/, Kvvva, 
 or Kvva,\ a daughter of Philip of Macedon, and half- 
 sister of Alexander the Great. She was married to her 
 cousin Amyntas, who died in 336 B.C. About 322 B.C. 
 she was put to death by order of Perdiccas. 
 
 Cynna. See Cynane. 
 
 Cjfn-o-su'ra, [Gr. Kwooovpu; Fr. Cynosure, se'no'- 
 zur' ; Eng. Cyn'osure,] a nymph of Ida, said to have 
 been one of the nurses of Jupiter, who placed her among 
 the stars. The name is applied to Ursa Minor, which 
 includes the North Star. 
 
 Cynosure. See Cynosura. 
 
 §yn'tlii-a, [Gr. Win,] a surname of Diana. 
 
 Qyn'thi-us, [Gr. KvvBior,] a surname of Apollo. 
 
 Cyp'il-an, [Lat. Cypria'nus; Fr. Cyprien, se'- 
 pKe-a.N'',] Saint, Bishop of Carthage, an eminent Latin 
 Father, who was often called Thas'cius Caecil'ius 
 Cypria'nus, was probably born at Carthage about 200 
 a.d. In early life he gained distinction as a teacher of 
 rhetoric. He had been converted only a few years when 
 he was chosen Bishop of Carthage, in 248 a.d. About 
 250 the emperor Decius commenced a persecution, during 
 which Cyprian retired from Carthage and remained in 
 concealment, for which he was censured. In 251 a.d. 
 he assembled a council on the question of reinstating apos- 
 tates who had lapsed under the pressure of persecution, 
 and he favoured a moderate course. His decision, that 
 baptism performed by heretics and schismatics is null and 
 void, caused a violent controversy between him and the 
 pope, Stephen. He suffered martyrdom under Valerian in 
 258 a.d. Cyprian was eminent for learning, eloquence, and 
 ascetic zeal, and has left numerous epistles and tracts, 
 which are extant, and afford valuable information on the 
 views and discipline of the early Church. Among them 
 are treatises "On the Unity of the Church," "On Mor- 
 tality," and "On the Grace of God." 
 
 See Gervalse, " Vie de Saint-Cyprien," 1717; Poole, "Life and 
 Times of Saint Cyprian," 1840: Cave, "Scriptorum Ecclesiaslico- 
 rum Histuria :" F. W. Rettberg, " C. Cyprianus, dargestellt nach 
 seinem Leben," etc., 1831. 
 
 Cypriani. See Cipriani. 
 
 Cyprianus or Cyprien. See Cyprian. 
 
 Qyp'se-lus, [Gr. Kii/iehK,] tyrant of Corinth, a semi- 
 fabulous person, who is supposed to have reigned thirty 
 years, and to have died about 625 B.C. 
 
 Cyrano. See Bergerac. 
 
 (Jy-re'ne, [Gr. Kvpr/vTi,] a mythical nymph, beloved by 
 Apollo, by whom she became the mother of Aristauis. 
 
 See Virgil, "Georgica," book iv. 321-548. 
 
 C/yr'il or Qy-ril'lus, [Gr. KtpiX^of ; Fr. Cyrii.le, 
 se'rel',] Saint, Bishop of Jerusalem, is supposed to 
 have been born in that city in 315 a.d. He was chosen 
 Bishop or Patriarch of Jerusalem in 351. In that year, 
 it is reported, a great luminous cross appeared in the sky 
 over Golgotha. He had a controversy with Acacius, an 
 Aiian bishop of Caesarea, who caused him to be deposed 
 in 358. After this he was twice banished, and finally 
 restored about 380 a.d. He predicted the failure of 
 Julian's attempt to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem in 
 363, which attempt was frustrated by eruptions of fire, 
 etc., as stated by Aniniianus Marcellinus. Died in 386 
 a.d. His works consist chiefly of eighteen catecheses, 
 or lectures to catechumens, which have great value and 
 interest in the eyes of theologians and antiquaries. 
 
 See Socrates, ''Historia Ecciesiastica ;" Ceillier, " Histoire 
 des Auteurs sacres ;" Fabricius, " Hibliotheca Graeca;" Cave, 
 "Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia." 
 
 Cyril or Cyrillus, Saint, an arrogant and turbulent 
 prelate, born in Alexandria, Egypt, became Archbishop 
 of that place in 412 a.d. He manifested his fanatical 
 zeal by driving the Jews out of the city, and quarrelled 
 with Orestes, the governor. He instigated his monks or 
 partisans to murder the celebrated and accomplished 
 Hypatia, whose influence perhaps excited his envy. On 
 the subject of the Incarnation he maintained a long 
 controversy with Nestorius, and presided in 431 over the 
 Council of Ephesus, by which Nestorius was condemned 
 as a heretic. A council convoked by the Patriarch of 
 Antioch in that year excommunicated Cyril. He wrote, 
 in Greek, numerous works, chiefly controversial, which 
 are still extant. Died in 444 A.D. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grajca ;" Cave, "Scriptorum Ec- 
 e'esiasticorum Historia;" Tillemont, "Me'moires eccl^siastiques." 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
CTRIL 
 
 705 
 
 CZARTORTSKI 
 
 Cyril, Saint, also called Constant! nk, was born at 
 Thessalonica. About 848 A.D. he propagated the gos- 
 pel among the Slaves and Uulgarians with great success. 
 He had a brother, Method (or Methud) or Methodius, 
 who co-operated with him. He invented the Slavonian 
 alphabet, and translated the Bible, or part of it, into 
 that language. Died about 868 a.d. 
 
 See J. Dobrowsky, "Cyrill und Methud der Slawen Apostel," 
 1823; Jan Holy, "Cyrillo-Methodiada," 1837. 
 
 CyVil-Lu'car, [Fr. Cyrille-Lucar, se'rel' lii'kiR' ; 
 Lat. Cyril'lus Luca'ris.1 a Greek Protestant prelate, 
 born in Candia in 1572. In his youth he visited Ger- 
 many, and adopted, or at least studied, the Reformed 
 doctrines. Having been chosen Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople in 1621, he made an effort to spread Protestant 
 principles in the Greek Church, but was deposed and 
 <xiled to Rhodes. He recovered his see, was again 
 expelled, and was strangled, it is said, about 1637. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" J. Aymon, "Lettres 
 anecdotiques de Cyrille-Lucar," etc 
 
 Cyrille, the French of Cyril, which see. 
 
 Cyrillo. See Cirillo. 
 
 Cyrillus. See Cyril. 
 
 Cyr-nae'us, (Pietro,) an Italian historian, born in 
 Corsica in 1474, wrote a "History of Corsica," (1506.) 
 
 Cy'rus, [Gr. Ktipoc* or Kfpoc 6 ira?.ai6c or dp^aioo, (i.t. 
 "Cyrus the ancient" or "elder;") It. ClRO, chee'ro ; 
 Persian, Kai-Khosroo or -KhosrO,] surnamed THE 
 Great, the second prince of the Kaianian dynasty, the 
 founder of the Persian empire, and the greatest of the 
 Persian kings and heroes, was the son of Cambyses, a 
 Persian nobleman, and Mandane, the daughter of As- 
 tyages, King of Media. His history is supposed to 
 be much embellished with fabulous tales. Herodotus 
 informs us that in his time there were three different 
 versions of that history. According to the account which 
 Herodotus adopted, Astyages, being warned in a dream 
 that his daughter's son would become king, commanded 
 an officer, named Harpagus, to kill the infant. Harpagus, 
 however, ordered one of the herdsmen of Astyages to 
 expose the child on the mountains ; but he spared its life, 
 and the future hero was educated as a shepherd. Cyrus 
 was afterwards restored to his parents, and, having in- 
 cited the Persians to revolt, defeated Astyages, and 
 ascended the throne in 559 B.C. According to Xeno- 
 phon, he succeeded Cyaxares, his mother's brother. 
 Ecbatana was one of his capitals. He extended his do- 
 minions by the conquest of Crcesus, King of I.ydia, in 
 546, and of several princes or states. He marched with 
 a large army against Babylon, the capital of Assyria, 
 whose king was the Belshazzar of the prophet Daniel. 
 Having diverted the course of the Euphrates, after a 
 long siege, he entered the city by the dry channel of the 
 river, while the impious king and court were feasting, in 
 538 B.c. The capture of Babylon is the epoch at which 
 sacred and profane history form their first connection. 
 (See Daniel v., and Ezra i.-vi.) It was foretold in the 
 remarkable prophecy of Isaiah xlv. I, "Thus saith the 
 Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I have 
 holden, to subdue nations before him," etc. (See also 
 Isaiah xlvi. and xlvii.) About 536 Cyrus issued an edict 
 that the Jewish captives of Babylon should return home 
 and rebuild the temple of their holy city, and proclaimed, 
 "The Lord God of heaven hath given me all the king- 
 doms of the earth ; and he hath charged me to build him 
 an house at Jerusalem." eta His next important enter- 
 prise appears to have been the invasion of the country of 
 the Massagetae, a Scythian nation who lived north of the 
 A raxes (Arras) and were ruled by Queen Tomyris. After 
 gaining several battles, (says Herodotus,) he was drawn 
 into an ambush, defeated, and killed, in 529 B.C. Accord- 
 ing to Xenophon and Ctesias, Cyrus died a natural death 
 at Pasargadae. He was succeeded by his son, Cambyses. 
 See Xenophon. " Cyropiedia ;" Diodorus Siculus, books ii., ix , 
 x., xvii., and xxxi. ; Schubart, "Programma de Cyro," 1743; F. 
 Hansen, "Disputatio de Cyro majore," 1781 : Wetzke, "Cyrus del 
 Grlinder des Persischen Reiches," 1849 ; Gerhard, " Dissertatio cie 
 Cyroprimo Persarum Monarcha," 1653; Arrhenii's, " Dissertatio 
 de Cyro Monarcha," 1693; J. L. Frey, "Dissertatio histonca de 
 Cyro," etc., 1706. 
 
 • This name is said to be derived from Kohr, a Persian word sig- 
 nifying "sun." 
 
 Cyrus the Younger was the second son of Darius 
 Nothus, King of Persia, and of Parysatis. During the 
 reign of his father he was appointed (in 407 B.C.) Satrap 
 of Lydia, Phrygia, etc. At the death of Darius, in 404, 
 the eldest son, Artaxerxes Mnemon, succeeded to the 
 throne. Cyrus, having formed a design to dethrone his 
 brother, employed Clearchus, a Spartan, to raise a large 
 body of Greek mercenaries. In the year 401 B.C. he 
 marched from Sardis with an army who were at first 
 kept ignorant of their destination. At Cunaxa, in the 
 province of Babylon, he met the immense army of Arta- 
 xerxes. The Greeks of Cyrus gained the advantage in 
 the first attack, until Cyrus, who rashly exposed himself 
 in the front rank, was killed, after wounding his rival. 
 His character is highly praised by Xenophon, who ac- 
 companied the army of Cyrus, and who ascribes to him 
 great generosity, and other qualities adapted to win the 
 popular favour. 
 
 See Grote, "History of Greece;" Thirlwall, "History ol 
 Greece:" Xenophon, "Hellenica," and "Anabasis;" Pi.utakch, 
 " l.ysander" and "Artaxerxes;" James Rennell, " Illustrations of 
 the History of the Expedition of Cyrus the Younger from Sardis to 
 Babylon." etc.. 1816. 
 
 Cyrus, (Flavius,) a Greek or Byzantine poet, born 
 at Panopolis, in Egypt, flourished about 450 A.D. 
 
 Cysat, se-sat' or se'zi', [Lat. Cysa'tus,] (Jean Bap- 
 tists,) a Swiss astronomer, born at Lucerne in 1588; 
 died in 1657. 
 
 Cy-the'ra, Cy'th-e-re'a, Cytherei'a, or Cf-the' 
 rl-as, [Gr. Kvdfjpa, KvSepcia, or Kv8iijiui( ,] a surname of the 
 goddess Venus, which see. 
 
 Czacki, chats'kee, (Thaddeus,) Count, a patriotic 
 Polish statesman and writer, born in Volhynia in 1765. 
 He was for many years a professor in the University ol 
 Cracow, and was appointed a member of several com- 
 missions by Stanislas Augustus. About 1800 the Czat 
 of Russia made him a privy councillor. He zealously 
 promoted education, by opening primary schools, and 
 other means. He published, besides other works, one 
 on "The Laws of Poland and Lithuania," (1801.) Died 
 in 1813. 
 
 See Alois Orinski, "Histoire de la Vie de T. Czacki," 1816; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Czajkowski, chi-koy'skee, written also Czaykow- 
 ski, (MICHAEL,) Sadik Pasha, a Polish novelist and 
 general, born in Podolia about 1808. He fought against 
 Russia in 183 1, and a few years later removed to Con- 
 stantinople. To avoid being given up on demand of the 
 Russian court, he adopted the Moslem religion, (1851,) 
 and assumed the name of Mohammed Sadik. During 
 the war against Russia (1853-55) ne hac * tne ranli of 
 pasha, and commanded an army. 
 
 Czarniecki, chaun-ySts'kee, (Stephen,) a famous 
 Polish general, born in 1599. He performed many 
 daring and successful exploits in the war against Charles 
 X. of Sweden between 1655 and 1660, and was saluted 
 as the ]il>erator of Poland. Polish writers compare him 
 to the French Du Guesclin. He also defeated the Cos- 
 sacks, (1661,) and had attained the highest rank in the 
 army when he died in 1665. 
 
 See M. Kraiewski, " Histoire de Czarniecki." 
 Czartoryski, chaR-to-ris'kee, (Adam Casimir, ) 
 Prince, a Polish nobleman, born at Dantzic in 1731, was 
 the first-cousin of King Stanislas. His rank, fortune, and 
 talents gave him great influence in the affairs of Poland. 
 He became starost-general of Podolia, and afterwards 
 marshal or master of the ordnance in the Austrian army. 
 In 1812 he was president or marshal of the Diet which 
 met to establish a new confederation. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Chodzko, "La Pologne illustree ;" Lomenie, "Galerie des 
 Contemporains." 
 
 Czartoryski, (Adam George,) Prince, an eminent 
 Polish statesman, son of the preceding, was born at War- 
 saw in 1770. Having fought against Russia in 1792, he was 
 taken to Saint Petersburg as a hostage, and acquired the 
 favour of the grand duke Alexander, who, soon after his 
 accession to the throne, (about 1802,) appointed him 
 minister of foreign affairs. He attended the Czar at the 
 battle of Austerlitz in 1805, and retired from office about 
 1808. From 1803 to 1821 he was curator of the Univer- 
 sity of Wilna. He supported the popular cause in the 
 revolution of 1830, and in January, 1831, was elected 
 
 € as i ■ 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. (JiySee Explanations, p. 23 ) 
 
 45 
 
CZARTORYSKI 
 
 706 
 
 DA COSTA 
 
 president of the new government, which he directed with 
 ability, until the victories of the Russians compelled him 
 to resign, in August, 1831. He then became an exile, 
 and resided in Paris until his death, in July, 1861. 
 
 See J. B. Ostrowski, " A. G. Prince Czartoryski, *' Paris, 1845 ; 
 "Gentleman's Magazine" for August, 1S61. 
 
 Czartoryski, (Isabella or Elizabeth,) the daughter 
 of Count Flemming of Saxony, born in 1743, became the 
 wife of Adam Casimir Czartoryski, noticed above. She 
 gained celebrity and much political influence by her 
 beauty and mental endowments. Died in 1835. 
 
 Czartoryski, (Michael Frederick,) a noble Pole, 
 born about 1695. By his wealth, energy, and talents, he 
 acquired great political power, and in 1752 was chosen 
 grand chancellor of Lithuania. In his efforts to reform 
 the constitution of Poland, he applied for assistance to 
 the Russian court, and thus unintentionally contributed 
 to the partition of the kingdom which followed in 1772. 
 Died in 1775. 
 
 See Ferkand, " HistoiredestroisDemembrementsdelaPologne." 
 
 Czaykowski. See Czajkowski. 
 
 Czechowicz, cheK'o-vitch, (Simon,) a Polish painter, 
 born at Cracow in 1689; died in 1775. 
 
 Czecz, tsets, (JAnos,) a Hungarian general, born in 
 1822, served in the battles of 1848, and published in 1850 
 an account of the campaign of Bern in Transylvania. 
 
 Czelakowski, (a Bohemian poet.) See Celakowski. 
 
 Czerni-(cheVnee) George,orKara-(ka-ra') George, 
 (i.e. "Black George,") a Servian chief, born about 1766, 
 was originally a peasant. Having distinguished himself 
 by his courage, he was chosen leader of the Servians 
 in a revolt against the Turks, from whom he liberated 
 Servia in 1807. He ruled that province with rigour 
 until 1813, when, abandoned by his ally the Czar, he was 
 compelled by a Turkish army to fly from Servia. He 
 returned in 1817, was arrested, and put to death. 
 
 Czoeruig. See Czornig. 
 
 Czornig or Czoeruig, choR'm'g, (Karl,) Baron, a 
 statistician, born at Czernhausen, Bohemia, in 1804. In 
 1840 he was chosen director of the bureau of statistics in 
 Vienna, and afterwards became an imperial councillor. 
 In 1852 he published his "Ethnographic Chart uf the 
 Austrian Monarchy," with several volumes of text. 
 
 Czuczor, tsoot'soR', (George,) a popular Hungarian 
 poet and prose-writer, born at Andod, in the county of 
 Neutra, in 1800. In his youth he was a Benedictine 
 monk. He expressed liberal and national ideas in epic 
 poems entitled "The Battle of Augsburg" (1824) and 
 "John Huniade," and other poems, which exposed him 
 to persecution from his ecclesiastical superiors. In 
 1844 the Hungarian Academy confided to him the impor- 
 tant task of compiling a national dictionary, — not yet 
 finished, (1870.) Having united with Kossuth in the 
 revolution of 1848, he was confined in prison until 1850. 
 
 D. 
 
 Daa, dau, (Ludvig Kristensen,) a Norwegian writer, 
 born in Saltdalen, Nordland, in 1809. Among his works 
 is a " Swedish-Norwegian Hand-Dictionary," (" Svensk- 
 Norsk Haandordbog," 2 vols., 1841.) 
 
 Dach, daK, (JoHAnn,) a German painter, born at Co- 
 logne about 1560. He was patronized by the emperor 
 Rudolph II., who sent him to Italy to design antique 
 models. He afterwards worked in Vienna, where he 
 painted many fine pictures for the court. Died about 
 1650. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Dach, (Simon,) a German poet, born at Memel in 
 1605, became professor of poetry at Konigsberg about 
 1638. His hymns were for a long time popular. He 
 also wrote odes and other poems. Died in 1659. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Gebauer, 
 "S. Dach und seine Freunde als Kirchenlieder-Dichter," 1828. 
 
 Daciano, da-cha'no, (Giuseppe,) an Italian physician, 
 born in Friuli in 1520; died in 1576. 
 
 Dacier, di'se-k , (Andre,) an eminent French scholar 
 and critic, born at Castres in 165 1, was the husband of 
 Madame Dacier, still more famous as a classical scholar. 
 He studied at Saumur tinder Tannegui-Lefevre, father 
 of the lady just named. Having removed to Paris, he 
 was employed as one of the collaborators on the editions 
 of the classics for the use of the dauphin. He edited 
 Pomponius Festus, (1681,) Horace, (16S9,) and the " Re- 
 flections of M. Antoninus," and translated into French 
 Aristotle's " Poetica," Plutarch's "Lives," (1721,) and 
 other works. He was a member of the French Academy 
 and of the Academy of Inscriptions, and librarian to the 
 king. Died in 1722. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Dacier, (Anne Lefevre,) universally known as 
 M\L-rtME Dacier, the wife of the preceding, born at 
 Saumur in 1654, was instructed by her father, and was 
 a fellow-student with M. Dacier. It is related that while 
 still a child she used to overhear the lessons given to her 
 brother while she was engaged in embroidering, and that 
 even under these disadvantages she greatly surpassed 
 him in learning. One day, as she whispered to him the 
 answer (which he was unable to give) to a question that 
 had been put to him, her father first discovered her 
 extraordinary aptitude for learning, and from that time 
 afforded her the fullest opportunity for cultivating her 
 mind. In 1672, when she was about eighteen, she went 
 to Paris with such a reputation for learning that she was 
 engaged by the Duke of Montausier to edit, for the educa- 
 
 tion of the dauphin, the following Latin authors : Aurelius 
 Victor, Florus, (1674,) and Eutropius, (1683.) She was 
 married in 1683. In 1685 her husband and herself re- 
 nounced the Protestant for the Catholic religion. She 
 made French versions of Anacreon, (1681,) of Terence, 
 Plautus, Homer's" Iliad," (1699,) and of the " Odyssey," 
 (1708.) Her essays in defence of Homer against LaMothe 
 and Hardouin display an enthusiasm which some thought 
 extravagant ; but her zeal for the ancient classics was 
 seconded by Boileau, who took a prominent part in that 
 famous controversy which she began, and who estimated 
 her as a critic far higher than her husband. She was 
 designated to succeed M. Dacier as librarian to the king 
 in case she survived him ; but this contingency was not 
 realized, as she died in 1720. She appears to have main- 
 tained her fidelity to domestic duties, and the modesty 
 indispensable to her sex, amidst all the homage and 
 celebrity which she merited and won. Although the 
 editions and versions of the Daciers have since been 
 surpassed, they must ever be entitled to honour and 
 gratitude as the first who enriched the French literature 
 with the immortal productions of Greek and Roman 
 genius. Voltaire, who calls her one of the prodigies of 
 that age, says, " No woman has ever rendered greater 
 services to literature." 
 
 See Burette, " FJoge de Madame Dacier ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Gene'rale;" Sainte-Beuve. "Causeries du Lundi." 
 
 Dacier, (Bon Joseph,) a French savant, born at Va- 
 logne, in Normandy, in 1742, went to Paris in early 
 youth. . He became a member of the Academy of In- 
 scriptions in 1772, and in 1782 was chosen perpetual 
 secretary of that institution, which he enriched with 
 numerous historical dissertations. Though he favoured 
 the cause of the Revolution, Louis XVI. offered him 
 about 1791 the portfolio of finance, which he declined. 
 At the creation of the Institute, in 1795, he was chosen 
 a member of the class of moral and political sciences. 
 He was a useful member of the Tribunate from 1S02 
 until its suppression. In 1822 he was admitted to the 
 French Academy. Dacier composed eulogies on one 
 hundred and fifty Academicians from 1782 to 1826, and 
 translated the "Cyropjedia" of Xenophon. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Silvestre de Sacv, " Notice sur Dacier," 1834 ; Querard, 
 " La France LitleTaire." 
 
 Da Costa, (Ci.audio Manoel.) See Costa, da. 
 
 Da Costa, da kos'ta, (Eman uel Mendkz,) was foreign 
 secretary of the Royal Society of London, and author of 
 a "Natural History of Fossils," (1757,) and other scien 
 tific works. Died about 1788. 
 
 5, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; melon 
 
DA CVNHA 
 
 707 
 
 D AH LB ERG 
 
 Da Cunha, da koon'yi, (J. A.,) a Portuguese mathe- 
 matician and poet, lived about 1790. 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Daddi, dad'dee, (Bernardo,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Arezzo ; died in 1380. 
 
 Daddi, (Cosimo,) a painter of the Florentine school, 
 lived about 1600. 
 
 Dadin or Dadine. See Haute-Serre. 
 
 Dadouville, difdoo'vel', (Jacques,) a satirical and 
 facetious French poet of the sixteenth century, 
 
 Daedalus, d£d'a-lus, [Gr. AaiAafoc; Fr. Dedai.e, 
 di'dil',] an artist and inventor, celebrated in the Greek 
 mythology, is said to have excelled in sculpture and in 
 architecture, and mav be regarded as a personification of 
 artistic ingenuity. Tradition ascribes to him the Laby- 
 rinth of Crete, and the invention of the saw, auger, etc. 
 It is said that he made wings, by which he was enabled 
 to fly from Crete to Sicily, and that his son Icarus, who 
 wis his companion in this aerial vovage, fell into that 
 sea which has since been named the Icarian Sea. 
 
 See Pausanias, i., ii., iii., v., vii., viii., ix. ; Hvoi.vus " Fabula;." 
 
 Dael, van, vin dill, (John Francis,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1764; died in 1840. 
 
 Daele, van, vin dS'leh, (John,) a Flemish landscape- 
 painter, flourished about 1560. 
 
 Daendels, dan'dels, (Hermann Willem,) an able 
 Dutch general, born at Hattem in 1762. He entered 
 the French army about 1792, and as general of brigade 
 served under Pichegru in Holland in 1794. He became 
 a general ot division in the service of the Batavian re- 
 public about 1796, and exercised great influence in the 
 state until 1803, when he resigned. He was restored to 
 his rank by King Louis, who made him marshal of Hol- 
 land in 1807. From 1808 to 181 1 he was Governor- 
 General of the Dutch colonies in the East Indies, which 
 he ruled with ability. He commanded a division in 
 Russia in 1812. Died in 1818. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Raffles, " History of 
 Java," 1817. 
 
 Dagar, dfgiR', (Jacques,) a French painter, born in 
 Paris in 1640; died in Denmark in 1715. 
 
 Dag'gett, (David,) LLD., an eminent American law- 
 yer and judge, born at Attleborough, Massachusetts, in 
 1764, graduated at Yale College in 1783. He was United 
 States Senator from 1813 to 1819. He became instructor 
 in the law school of Yale College in 1824, and was ap- 
 pointed Kent professor of law in 1826. In 1832 he was 
 made chief justice of the State. Died in 1851. 
 
 Daggett, (Naphtai.i,) an American theologian, born 
 at Attleborough, Massachusetts, in 1727. He was ap- 
 pointed professor of theology at Yale College in 1755, 
 and was president of the same pro tempore in 1 766. Died 
 in 1780. 
 
 D'Agincourt, di'zhlN'kooR', (Jean Baptiste Louis 
 Sf.roux,) a French antiquary, born at Beauvais in 1730, 
 obtained the office of farmer-general. In pursuing the 
 study of archaeology, he visited various countries of 
 Europe, and at length settled in Rome, where he em- 
 ployed his time in composing an extensive and valuable 
 work, entitled "History of Art by Monuments from its 
 Decadence in the Fourth Century to its Restoration 
 in the Sixteenth," (6 vols, folio, 325 plates.) The last 
 volume appeared in 1823. Died at Rome in 1814. 
 
 Dagnan, din'ydN', (Isidore,) a skilful French land- 
 scape-painter, born at Marseilles in 1794, won a gold 
 medal of the first class at Paris in 1831. Among his 
 works are a " View of Lake Geneva," and " The Bridge 
 of Nice," (1843.) 
 
 Dagobert. See DAiMnFRT. 
 
 Dag'o-bert (or di'go 'baiR') [Lat. Dagober'tus] I, 
 King of the Franks, born about 602 A.D., was the son 
 of Clotaire II., whom he succeeded in 628. He died in 
 638, leaving two minor sons, Sigebert, King of Austrasia, 
 and Clovis II., King of Netistria. 
 
 Dagobert IT, King of Austrasia, was the son and 
 heir of Sigebert II., who died in 656 A.D. Grimoald, 
 mayor of the palace, sent the infant Dagobert to Scot- 
 land, reported that he was dead, and proclaimed his own 
 son as king. Dagobert returned in 674, and recovered 
 the kingdom, but was assassinated in 679. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Dagobert m., King of the Franks, succeeded his 
 father, Childebert III., in 711 A.D. Like several of his 
 predecessors, he had only the name of king, the real 
 power being usurped by Pepin, mayor of the palace, who 
 died in 714. Dagobert died in 715, leaving an infant 
 son, Thierry IV., whom Charles Martel invested with the 
 form of royalty. 
 
 See Berain, " Memoires historiques sur le Regne des trois Dago- 
 bert," 1717: Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Dagobert, di'go'baiR', (Luc Simeon Auguste,) a 
 French general, born at or near Saint-I.o in 1736. He 
 distinguished himself in the campaign of Italy in 1792, 
 and in 1793 was appointed general-in-chief of the army 
 of the Pyrenees. He defeated the Spaniards near Olette, 
 and took Urgel after a decisive victory, in which he was 
 mortally wounded, in 1794. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Dagoty. See Gauthier. 
 
 Dagoumer, di'goo'ma', (Guii.laume,) a French 
 philosopher, born at Pont-Audemer, was the author of 
 a "Course of Philosophy," (in Latin, 1701-03.) Died 
 in 1745. 
 
 Daguerre, di'gaiR', (Louis Jacques Mande,) a 
 French artist, whose name has been rendered memora- 
 ble by the invention of the Daguerrotype, — a picture 
 formed on a metallic plate by the chemical action of 
 light, — was born at Conneilles in 1789. After acquiring 
 great skill as a scene-painter in Paris, he co-operated 
 with Bouton in the invention of the diorama, about 1822, 
 which they exhibited with decided success in Paris and 
 London until 1839, when their building and its contents 
 were destroyed by fire. About 1830 he began to make 
 researches and experiments in photography in conjunc- 
 tion with Niepce, who died in 1833. His patience and 
 ingenuity at length perfected the grand desideratum of 
 rendering indelible the authentic image and'signature 
 of nature. The invention announced by Arago in the 
 Academy of Sciences, in 1839, produced a profound 
 sensation. A pension of 6000 francs was granted by 
 the Chamber of Deputies to Daguerre, on condition 
 that the process should be made public. Talbot, in 
 England, also, by independent experiments, obtained 
 photographic pictures by a different process ; but the 
 honour of priority is conceded to M. Daguerre. He 
 continued to make improvements in the art as long as 
 he lived, and published two short treatises on the sub- 
 ject. Died in 1851. 
 
 See Lerbbours, "Traits de Photographic ;" A. Gaudin, "Traite 
 pratique de Photographic ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" 
 " British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1866. 
 
 Daguesseau. See Aguesseau. 
 
 Dahl, dil, (JOHN Christian Clausen,) a Norwegian 
 landscape-painter, born at Bergen about 1780, settled in 
 Dresden in 1 81 8, and acquired a high reputation. He 
 chose the subjects of his master-pieces among the grand 
 and sombre scenery of Northern Europe. His marine 
 views are much admired. Died in 1857. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Dahl, dil, (Mikael,) a Swedish portrait-painter, born 
 at Stockholm in 1656, studied in Paris and in Italy, and 
 settled in London in 1688. He became a fashionable 
 artist, and was patronized by the royal family. Died in 
 
 1743- 
 
 Dahl, dil, (Vladimir Ivanovitch,) a popular Rus- 
 sian novelist of the present century, was born at Saint 
 Petersburg. He has published, under the name of" Ko- 
 sak Luganski," several novels, among which is "The 
 Dream and the Awaking." He served some years in 
 the army, from which he retired about 1835. He excels 
 in the delineation of the characters and manners of the 
 lower classes. 
 
 Dahlberg, dll'beRg, (Eric,) an eminent Swedish 
 engineer and general, born in 1625, became director- 
 general of all the fortresses. He planned the success- 
 ful expedition of Charles Gustavus when the latter 
 marched over the ice against the Daves in 1658. In 
 the reign of Charles XI. he was made Governor-General 
 of Livonia, field-marshal, and count, lie formed the 
 plan and drew the designs of the work entitled " Ancient 
 and Modem Sweden," (" Suecia antiqua et hodierna," 
 1700.) Died in 1703. 
 
 € as A 1 ; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, h, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (J(y~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DAHLBOM 
 
 708 
 
 DALBT 
 
 Dahlbom, dil'bom, (Anders Gustaf,) a distin- 
 guished Swedish entomologist, born at Forssa, in East 
 Gothland, in 1806. He is the author of numerous Latin 
 works on insects, among which is " The Hymenoptera of 
 Northern Europe," (" Hymenoptera Europea praecipue 
 Borealia," 2 vols., 1845-52.) He became professor of 
 natural history at Lund about 1844. 
 
 Dahlgren, dal'gren, (John A.,) a rear-admiral, of 
 Swedish extraction, born in Philadelphia in 1809. He 
 became a lieutenant about 1838. He devoted several 
 years to experiments under the direction of the bureau 
 of ordnance, made important changes in naval armament, 
 and invented the shell-gun which bears his name. In 
 1855 he obtained the rank of commander. He took com- 
 mand of the navy-yard at Washington in May, 1S61, and 
 was appointed chief of the bureau of ordnance in July, 
 1862. In June, 1863, he became commander of the South 
 Atlantic squadron, employed in the siege of Charleston. 
 He attacked Fort Sumter by night in September, 1863, 
 and attempted to take it by storm, but was not successful. 
 Died in 1870. 
 
 Dahlgren, dal'gR?n, (Karl Johan,) a Swedish poet, 
 born near Norrkjdping in I79i,was minister of a church 
 in Stockholm. He published "Juvenile Writings," 
 ("Ungdomskrifter," 1829,) and "Collected Writings or 
 Works," ("Samlade Skrifter," 1834.) Died in 1844. 
 
 See Brockhaus. "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Dahlgren, (Colonel Ul.Ric,) an American officer, born 
 in 1842, was a son of Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, noticed 
 above. He became aide-de-camp successively to Generals 
 Sigel, Burnside, and Hooker, and distinguished himself 
 by heroic courage in several actions. In July, 1863, he 
 led a charge at Hagerstown, where he lost a leg. He com- 
 manded a body of cavalry in a raid against Richmond, 
 the outer works of which he assaulted, but was repulsed. 
 He was killed in his retreat, March 4, 1864. 
 
 Dahlmann, dal'man, (Frikdrich Christoph,) a 
 German historian, born at Wismar, in Mecklenburg, in 
 1785. He became professor of political science at Got- 
 tingen in 1829, and published an important work called 
 "Original Documents for German History," (" Quellen- 
 kunde der Deutschen Geschichte," 1S30.) Having pro- 
 tested boldly against the subversion of the constitution 
 of Hanover in 1837, he was deprived of his chair at Got- 
 tingen. In 1840-43 he published his excellent " History 
 of Denmark," (3 vols.) He was appointed professor of 
 history and political science at Bonn in 1842. In 1848 
 he was elected to the Parliament of Frankfort. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Dahm, dSm, (Johann Michael,) a German jurist, 
 who was professor at Mentz. Died about 1772. 
 
 Daignan, d&n'yS.N', (Guillaume,) a French phy- 
 sician, born at Lille in 1732. Under the republican 
 regime he became first physician to the armies. He 
 published many able medical works. Died in 1S12. 
 
 Daigue, dig, (Etienne,) a French naturalist, born 
 about 1490, wrote on Tortoises, Frogs, Snails, etc. Died 
 about 1560. 
 
 Daille, di'yi', [Lat. Dall^'us,] (Jean,) an eminent 
 French Protestant divine, born at Chatellerault in 1594. 
 From 1626 to 1670 he ministered at the church of Cha- 
 renton, near Paris. He was one of the most learned 
 and eloquent Protestants of his time, and published 
 several works on theology, among which are a celebrated 
 "Treatise on the Right Use of the Fathers in De- 
 ciding Religious Disputes," (1628,) and an "Apology 
 for the Reformed Churches," (1633.) The former is 
 called by Hallam "a well-timed and important book." 
 " He was the first who boldly attacked the new school 
 of historical theology in their stronghold." Died in 1670. 
 
 See "Abrege^ de la Vie de DaiI16," by his son Andre prefixed to 
 a volume of his Sermons, 167a 
 
 Daillon, di'yAN', (Jacques,) a French Protestant 
 minister, born at Anjou in 1645 ; died in London in 1726. 
 
 Dailly. See Aiu-Y. 
 
 Daimbert, da.s'baiR', or Dagobert, dS'go'baiR', 
 commanded the Pisan and Genoese army in the first 
 crusade, and arrived in Palestine soon after the con- 
 quest of Jerusalem, (1098,) of which he became the first 
 Latin patriarch. He aspired to the throne at the death 
 
 of Godfrey ; but his rival, Baldwin I., was preferred. 
 Died in Sicily in 1 107. 
 
 See Michaud, "Histoire des Croisades." 
 
 Daire, daR, (Louis Francois,) a French writer and 
 monk, born at Amiens in 1713, wrote a "History of 
 Amiens," and other works. Died in 1792. 
 
 Dairval. See Baudelot. 
 
 Daitya, dlt'ya, (English plural, Daityas,) in Hindoo 
 mythology, the sons of Dm, (which see.) They are 
 regarded as evil beings or demons, and, according to 
 some writers, are the same as the Asuras. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Da'kins, (William,) one of the English translators 
 of the Bible in the time of James I., was employed on 
 the Epistles of Paul, and other Epistles. Died in 1607. 
 
 Dak'sha, [common Hindoo pron. duk'sha,] a Hindoo 
 deity, usually regarded as an avatar (but by some as a 
 son) of Brahma. Daksha having offended Siva, the latter 
 killed him by cutting off his head : he afterwards restored 
 him to life, but the head, having accidentally been burnt 
 up, was replaced by that of a goat. This explains why 
 Daksha is usually represented with a goat's head. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon ;" Coleman, " Mythology of the 
 Hindus." 
 
 Dalayrac, di'l&'rik', (Nicolas,) a skilful French 
 musician and composer, born at Muret in 1753, went to 
 Paris in 1774, and worked twenty-eight years for the 
 Comic Opera. He was very successful in various kinds 
 of music. Among his master-pieces are "The Little 
 Savoyards," "Camille," and "Nina." Died in 1809. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Dalberg, (Johann Frikdrich Hugo,) a canon at 
 Worms, wrote on music, and a Work on Oriental religions, 
 called a "History of a Druse Family." Died in 1512. 
 
 Dalberg, dal'b^RG, (Nils,) a Swedish physician, was 
 president of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm. 
 The genus Dalbergia was named in honour of him by 
 Linnaeus. Died in 1820, aged about eighty. 
 
 Dalberg, von, fon dal'bg rg, (Emeric Joseph,) Duke, 
 a German diplomatist, born at Mentz in 1773, was a son 
 of Wolfgang Heribert. He was made* a peer of Fiance 
 and councillor of state by Napoleon in 1810. Died in 1833. 
 
 Dalberg, von, (Johann Ca.merkr,) a German bishop, 
 was born at Oppenheim in 1445. ^ e became Bishop 
 of Worms in 1482, two years before which he founded 
 at Heidelberg the most ancient academy of Germany, 
 called "Societas Literaria Rhenana." He contributed 
 much to the progress of learning among the Germans. 
 Died in 1503. 
 
 Dalberg, von, (Karl Theodor Anton Maria,) an 
 eminent German author and prelate, was born of a noble 
 family at Herrnsheim in 1744. He was appointed governor 
 of Erfurt by the Elector of Mentz in 1772. In 1802 he 
 became Archbishop of Mentz, and arch-chancellor of 
 the empire. He received from Napoleon the titles of 
 Prince Primate of the Confederation of the Rhine, (1806,) 
 and Grand Duke of Frankfort in 1810. On the fall of 
 Napoleon he was deprived of these dignities, but retained 
 the archbishopric of Ratisbon. He was author of several 
 popular works, among which are " Contemplations on 
 the Universe," ("Betrachtung iiber das Universum," 
 1777,) and "The Influence of the Sciences and Fine 
 Arts on the Public Tranquillity," (1793.) Died in 1817. 
 
 SeeZAPF, " Dalberg Grossherzog von Frankfurt," 1810: Cramer, 
 "Karl Theodor von Dalberg," 1S21 ; Brockhaus, "Conversations- 
 Lexikon ;" " Nouvelie Biographic G^nerale." 
 
 Dalberg, von, (Wolfgang Heribert,) Baron, a 
 German poet, born in 1750, was a brother of the pre- 
 ceding. He was a liberal patron of arts and sciences. 
 He wrote dramas entitled "Cora," (1780,) and "Mon- 
 tesquieu," (1787,) and others translated or imitated from 
 Shakspeare. Died in 1806. 
 
 Dalborgo, dal-boR'go, (Flaminio,) an Italian jurist 
 and historian, born at Pisa in 1706, was for many years 
 professor of Roman law in the university of that city. 
 His principal work is a volume of "Essays on the His- 
 tory of Pisa." Died in 1768. 
 
 D'Albret See Ai.bret. 
 
 Dal'by, (Isaac,) an English mathematician, born in 
 Gloucestershire in 1744, received a very defective edu- 
 cation, and is numbered among the self-taught men who 
 
 i,e,i, o, u, y,lotig ;a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o, ti, J, short; a.,e,\,Q,o6saire; far, fall, fat; met; ndt;go6d; moon; 
 
DALE 
 
 709 
 
 DALLAS 
 
 have attained eminence under great disadvantages. He 
 went to London in 1772, and engaged as a teacher in 
 Archbishop Tenison's school. From 1787 to 1790 he 
 assisted General Roy in a trigonometrical survey for the 
 purpose of connecting the meridians of Greenwich and 
 Paris. He was appointed professor of mathematics in 
 the Royal College of High Wycombe in 1799. He pub- 
 lished a valuable "Course of Mathematics," (2 vols., 
 1805.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Dale. See Van Dale. 
 
 Dale, (David,) a Scottish philanthropist, born at 
 Stewarton in 1739, was the first proprietor of the Lanark 
 Mills, well known as the scene of experiments in social 
 economy, made by Robert Owen, who married the 
 daughter of Mr. Dale. The latter was noted for his 
 benevolence to his operatives. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 vol. v. 
 
 Dale, (Richard,) an American commodore, born near 
 Norfolk, Virginia, in 1756. He served with distinction 
 in the Revolutionary war, and obtained the rank of 
 captain in 1794. He resigned his commission in 1802. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. 
 
 Dale, (Samuel,) F.R.S., an English physician and 
 botanist, born in 1659, practised medicine at Hocking. 
 He published a work on "Materia Medica," (1693,) the 
 "Antiquities of Harwich and Dover Court," (1730,) and 
 treatises on botany, etc. Died in 1 739. 
 
 Dale, (Thomas,) an English divine and poet, born in 
 London in 1797. lie produced in 1818 "The Widow 
 of Xain," and in 1824 a version of Sophocles. He be- 
 came canon of Saint Paul's in 1843, anc ' vicar of Saint 
 Pancras, London, in 1846. Several volumes of his ser- 
 mons have been published. He wrote other popular 
 religious works, among which is the "Sabbath Com- 
 panion," (2d Series,*i844.) Died in 1870. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1S24; "Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for November, 1820. 
 
 Dale, (Sir Thomas,) an English magistrate, who was 
 sent to Virginia in 161 1 with a number of colonists, and 
 founded the town of Henrico, on the James River. 
 
 Dalechamps, daTshftN', (Jacques,) a learned French 
 physician and botanist, born at Caen in 15 13. In 1552 
 he settled at Lyons, where he practised with success 
 until his death. He formed a project to unite in a single 
 work all previous acquisitions in botanical science, and, 
 after expending thirty years on it, left the completion of 
 it to Desmoulins. The result was .1 "General History 
 of Plants," (1586,) a work of much merit, containing 
 2731 figures. He also published editions of Pliny and 
 Athenaeus, and several medical treatises. Died in 1588. 
 
 See Sprhngei., "Historia Botanica ;" Haller, "Bibliotheca 
 Botanica. " 
 
 D'Alembert See Alembekt, D\ 
 
 Dal-e-mi'lus, written also Dalemile, was born at 
 Mezritsch, in Bohemia, and wrote in verse a historv of his 
 country, which was finished in 1314, and is said to be 
 the oldest monument of the Bohemian language. 
 
 Dalen, van, vin di'len, (Cornelis,) a skilful Dutch 
 engraver, born at Haarlem in 1640. He engraved his- 
 torical pictures after Rulwns and other masters, and 
 portraits of eminent persons. 
 
 Dalens, van, vSn da'lens, (Dirck or Thierry,) a 
 Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1659, painted 
 landscapes with success. Died in 1688. 
 
 Dal-gar'no, (George,) born at Aberdeen about 1626, 
 taught a private grammar-school in Oxford for about 
 thirty years. In 1661 he published his "Art of Signs," 
 ("Ars Signorum," etc.,) from which, it appears, Bishop 
 Wilkins derived the idea of his "Essay toward a Real 
 Character." He wrote also "The Deaf and Dumb Man's 
 Tutor," (1680,) and has the credit of inventing the first 
 manual alphabet. Died in 1687. 
 
 See Chambers. " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1835. 
 
 Dalgas, dil'gas, (Carl Frederic Isaac,) a Danish 
 writer on agriculture, born at Fridericia in 1787. 
 
 Dalhouaie, Earl of. See Panmure, Lord. 
 
 Dalhousie, dil-hoo'ze, (George Ramsay,) ninth 
 Earl OF, a Scottish general, born in 1770, was a son 
 
 of the Earl of Dalhousie. He fought under Wellington 
 in the Peninsular war, was made a major-general in 
 1813, and distinguished himself at Waterloo. He was 
 appointed Governor-General of Canada in 1819, and 
 commanded the army in India from 1829 to 18^2. Died 
 in 1838. 
 
 Dalhousie, (James Andrew Ramsay,) first Marquis 
 of, a British statesman, son of the preceding, was born 
 near Edinburgh in 1812. He was returned to Parliament 
 for Haddington in 1837. On the death of his father, in 
 1838, he became tenth Earl of Dalhousie, and entered 
 the House of Lords. His political principles are desig- 
 nated as Liberal-Tory. About 1845 he was appointed, 
 by Sir Robert Peel, president of the Board of Trade, in 
 which department he displayed so much practical ability 
 that when a new Whig ministry wgs formed, in 1846, he 
 was retained in office. He was appointed Governor- 
 General of India in 1847. His administration appears 
 to have been generally approved by the British. He 
 waged a successful war against the Sikhs, annexed the 
 Punjab, Pegu, Oude, etc. to the British dominions, and 
 developed the resources of Hindostan. In 1849 ne was 
 created Marquis Dalhousie. He constructed railroads, 
 promoted manufactures, and made various public im- 
 provements. He returned to England in 1856, and died, 
 without male issue, in December, i860. His cousin, 
 Lord Panmure, succeeded to the earldom of Dalhousie. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1863; "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for August, 1856; "Eraser's Mayaziue" for August, 1855. 
 
 Dalibard, di'le'baV, (Thomas Francois,) a French 
 botanist, born at Crannes about 1703. He published in 
 1749 a work on the plants growing near Paris, — " Florae 
 Parisiensis Prodromus," — and was the first botanical 
 writer of France that adopted the system of Linnaeus, 
 who named in honour of him the Ruins Dalibarda. He 
 was the first Frenchman who employed the lightning-rod, 
 the idea of which he obtained from Franklin's writings. 
 He erected at Marly an iron rod, with which he drew 
 the electric fluid from the sky in May, 1752, one month 
 before Franklin's experiment with the kite. Died in 
 Paris in 1779. 
 
 See B. Haureau, "Histoire litteiaire du Maine;" " Biographic 
 Medicale." 
 
 Dalibray or Dalibrai, di'le'bRj', (Charles Vion.) 
 Sieur, a French poet, born in Paris about 1590. He 
 made poetical versions of Tasso's "Aminta"and "Toris- 
 mena," and of other Italian and Spanish works. He 
 also wrote some original verses. Died in 1654. 
 
 Dalin, von, for d.Vlin, (Olof,) an eminent Swedish 
 historian and poet, born at Winberga in 1708. He be- 
 came librarian to the king in 1737, and acquired repu- 
 tation by a poem on Swedish liberty in 1743. He was 
 soon after employed by the Diet to write a history of 
 Sweden, which was issued from 1747 to 1762 and was 
 received with favour. About 1750 he was appointed 
 preceptor to the heir of the crown, afterwards Gus- 
 tavus III. He received a title of nobility and the order 
 of the Polar Star, and in 1763 was appointed chancellor 
 of the court. His writings, among which are several 
 odes, and a tragedy named "Brunehikle," form a new 
 era in Swedish literature, which before his time was 
 almost uncultivated. ' Died in 1763. 
 
 See Brockhaus, '• Coin c-rstlions-I.exikon ;" Oi.of Celsius 
 "Aminnelse Tal ofver O. af Dalin," 1764. 
 
 Dallaeus. See Daii.i e. 
 
 Dallamano, dal-la'ina'no, (Giuseppe,) an Dalian 
 painter, born at Modena in 1679; died in 1758. 
 
 Dal'lans, (Ralph,) an English organ-builder; died 
 about 1672. 
 
 Dal'las, (Alexander James,) an American states- 
 man and lawyer, born in the island of Jamaica in 1759. 
 He emigrated to Philadelphia in 1783, acquired distinc- 
 tion as a lawyer, and became an active supporter of the 
 Republican party. In 1801 he was appointed distiicl 
 attorney of the United States by President Irtinsnn. 
 He became secretary of the treasury in the cabinet of 
 Madison in October, 1814, when, in consequence of the 
 war against Great Britain, the financial condition of the 
 country was extremely depressed. Mr. Dallas at once 
 recommended to Congress, in a report which is still re- 
 garded as one of the ablest ever issued from the treasury 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. (Jf^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DALLAS 
 
 710 
 
 DALRTMPLE 
 
 department, the establishment of a national bank. The 
 energy which he brought to his branch of the public ser- 
 vice enabled him in a few months to procure a loan on 
 favourable terms, and in January, 1815, United States 
 treasury notes were negotiable at par with interest added. 
 Iii March he undertook the additional trust of secretary 
 of war. In November, 1816, Mr. Dallas retired from 
 public life, and resumed his profession in Philadelphia. 
 Died in 1817- He edited for some time the "Columbian 
 Magazine," and in 1790 published "Reports of Cases in 
 the Courts of the United States and Pennsylvania," (4 
 vols. 8vo,) which, says Lord Mansfield, "do credit to the 
 court, the bar, and the reporter." He also published the 
 "Laws of Pennsylvania from 1700 to 1801," (4 vols. 8vo,) 
 " Exposition of the Causes and Character of the Late 
 War," (1815,) and various other works. 
 
 Dal'las, (Alexander Robert Charles,) an English 
 clergyman, first-cousin of George M. Dallas, and a son 
 of Robert Charles, noticed below. After serving as an 
 officer in the army for some years, he became a priest 
 of the Anglican Church at Wonston. He published, 
 besides other works, "The Pastor's Assistant," (1842,) 
 and "The Cottager's Guide to the New Testament," 
 (6 vols., 1839-45.) He distinguished himself as a mis- 
 sionary in the west of Ireland between 1844 and 1852. 
 
 Dallas, (Sir George,) M.P., an English political 
 writer, brother of Sir Robert, noticed below, was born 
 in London in 1758. About 1776 he went to India as a 
 clerk in the service of the East India Company, where 
 he published the "India Guide," a poem. Having re- 
 turned home, he wrote a pamphlet in defence of Warren 
 Hastings, (1789,) and "Remarks on the Policy of a War 
 with France," (1793.) His "Letters to Lord Moira on 
 Ireland," published in the "Anti-Jacobin," attracted 
 much attention, and were approved by Mr. Pitt. He 
 was knighted in 1798. Died in 1833. 
 
 Dallas, (George Mifflin,) an American statesman, 
 a son of Alexander J. Dallas, was born in Philadelphia 
 in July, 1792. He graduated at Princeton College in 
 1810, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1813. 
 In 1831 he was elected by the Democrats to the Senate 
 of the United States, in which he advocated a protective 
 tariff and the recharter of the United States Bank. In 
 1837 he was appointed minister to Russia, from which he 
 returned in 1839". He was elected Vice-President of the 
 United States when James K. Polk was chosen President 
 in 1844. In 1846 he gave in the Senate a casting vote for 
 a new tariff-bill, which was obnoxious to the protectionists 
 and was designed merely for revenue. In February, 1856, 
 he was appointed minister to England, and was recalled 
 in 1861. Died in December, 1864. 
 
 See "Democratic Review" for February, 1842; "Letters from 
 London," by G. M. Dallas, Philadelphia, 1869. 
 
 Dallas, (Sir Roisert,) M.P., an English judge, was 
 the eldest son of Robert Dallas of Kensington. Having 
 gained reputation as a lawyer, he was employed as counsel 
 for Warren Hastings in 1785. He was first returned to 
 Parliament in 1802, and appointed president of the court 
 of common pleas in 1818. Died in 1824. ' 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Dallas, (Roisert Charles,) a brother of A. J. Dallas, 
 noticed above, a British author, born in Jamaica in 1754, 
 was educated in London. He eventually settled in Eng- 
 land, where he published many able works on various 
 subjects, among which are " Miscellaneous Writings," 
 (1797,) a "History of the Maroons," (1804,) " Percival, 
 a Novel," and " Recollections of the Life of Lord Byron." 
 He was intimate with Byron, (whose uncle had married 
 a sister of Mr. Dallas,) and is said to have persuaded 
 him to expunge some offensive passages of "Childe 
 Harold." He was the father of A. R. C. Dallas, noticed 
 above. Died in 1824. 
 
 Dal'la-way, (James,) an English divine and author, 
 born a/ Bristol in 1763, became vicar of Leatherhead 
 in 1801. He published an essay on the "Origin and 
 Progress of Heraldry," (1793.) Having accompanied 
 an embassy to Turkey as chaplain, he produced, on his 
 return, "Constantinople, Ancient and Modern," (1797.) 
 He wrote an esteemed work on "English Architecture," 
 a "Treatise on Ancient Sculpture," (1816,) and other 
 antiquarian works. Died in 1834. 
 
 Dallemagne, dal'mtfi', (Claude,) Baron, a French 
 general, born at Perieux in 1754, served in the Lnited 
 States about 1778-82. He subsequently distinguished 
 himself at Castiglione and Roveredo, and in 1798 took 
 command of the army of Rome. Died in 1813. 
 
 Dallery, daTre', (Charles,) a French organ-builder, 
 born at Amiens in 1710; died in 1780. 
 
 His nephew, Pierre Dallery, born in 1735, was an 
 eminent organ -builder. Among his works was the organ 
 of Notre-Dame, Paris. Died in 1800. 
 
 Dallery, (Thomas Charles Auguste,) an ingenious 
 French mechanician, son of Charles, noticed above, was 
 born at Amiens in 1754. He constructed a steamboat 
 in 1803, and ruined his fortune by experiments in steam 
 navigation. Died in 1835. 
 
 Dal'ling-ton, (Sir Robert,) an English writer, born 
 at Geddington about 1560, became secretary to the Earl 
 of Rutland. He wrote a " Survey of Tuscany," (1604,) 
 a " Method for Travel," and otherworks. Fuller, in his 
 "Worthies," says " he had an excellent wit and judgment ; 
 witness his most accurate aphorisms on Tacitus." Died 
 in 1637. 
 
 Dalloz, di'loz', (Victor Alexis Desire,) a French 
 advocate and jurist, born at Septmoncel (Jura) in 1795, 
 practised with eclat at the bar of Paris. He published 
 an important "Methodical and Alphabetical Repertory 
 of General Jurisprudence," (2d edition, 40 vols., 1845,) 
 which has been translated into other languages. 
 
 Dalmasio, dal-ma'se-o, (Lippo,) an Italian painter, 
 who worked at Bologna between 1376 and 1410. 
 
 Dalmatia, Duke of. See Soult, Marshal. 
 
 Dalmatin, dal -ma-teen', ? (George,) born in Slavo- 
 nia, became a Lutheran minister at Laybach. He made 
 a Slavonian translation of the Bible, which the Archduke 
 Charles in 1580 forbade him to publish in the Austrian 
 dominions; but it was printed at Wittenberg in 1584. 
 He was exiled for his religion in 1598. 
 
 Dalmatius, dal-ma'she-us, (Flavius Julius,) a Ro- 
 man prince, born in Gaul, was the nephew of the em- 
 peror Constantine, who invested him with the title of 
 Caesar in 335 A.D. Soon after this date he commanded 
 in Thrace and Macedonia. He was killed in 338 by his 
 soldiers, who, it is said, were instigated by Constantius. 
 
 Dal'rym-ple, (dal'rim-pl,) (Alexander,) F.R.S., an 
 eminent Scottish hydrographer, born at New Hailes in 
 1737, was a brother of Lord Hailes, and seventh son of 
 Sir James Dalrymple. He entered the service of the 
 East India Company at Madras, as writer, at the age of 
 sixteen. In 1759 he resigned his clerkship, made a voy- 
 age of observation from Madras to the Eastern Archi- 
 pelago for the promotion of commerce, and returned to 
 England in 1765, after which he published charts of the 
 Eastern seas. In 1779 he was appointed hydrographer 
 to the East India Company, and in 1795 obtained a simi- 
 lar office from the admiralty. He published an "Ac- 
 count of the Discoveries in the Southern Ocean," (1767,) 
 and other valuable works on navigation and geography. 
 Died in 1808. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dalrymple, (Sir David,) a Scottish lawyer, theyoung- 
 est son of Viscount Stair, was created a baronet in 170a 
 He was appointed lord advocate of Scotland in 1709, 
 and died in 1721, leaving a son James, who was the 
 father of David, (Lord Hailes.) 
 
 Dalrymple, (Sir David,) afterwards Lord Hailes, an 
 eminent British judge and anti (uary, born in Edinburgh 
 in 1726, was the son of Sir James, and a great-grandson 
 of the first Viscount Stair. He was admitted as an ad- 
 vocate at the Scottish bar in 1748, and became a judge of 
 the court of session in 1766, when the title of Lord Hailes 
 was conferred on him. Ten years later he was appointed 
 a lord of justiciary. He published a number of able 
 works on history and antiquities, of which the most im- 
 portant and popular is his "Annals of Scotland," (1779,) 
 a "book which," says Dr. Johnson, "will always sell ; it 
 has such a stability of dates, such a certainty of facts, and 
 such punctuality of citation." His " Remains of Christian 
 Antiquity," a work of great erudition, was also admired. 
 He left no issue, except two daughters. Died in 1792. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 " Encyclopedia Britannica." 
 
 a, e, I, o, it, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
DALRTMPLE 
 
 7" 
 
 DALTON 
 
 Dalrymple, (Sir IIkw,) a Scottish judge, born in 1652, 
 was the third son of the first Viscount Stair. He was 
 admitted an advocate in 1677, and was appointed presi- 
 dent of the court of session in 1698. Died in 1737. 
 
 His son, Hew Dalrymii.k, was made a lord of ses- 
 sion in 1 726, with the title of Lord Drummore. Died 
 in 1755- 
 
 Dalrymple, (Sir Hew Whiteford,) of Highmark, 
 a British general, born in 1750, was a descendant of Sir 
 Hew Dalrymple, noticed above. After several campaigns 
 in the war against France, he was appointed in 1808 to 
 command the liritish army in Portugal, where he entered 
 into the convention of Cintra with Junot. He was made 
 a general in 1S12, and a baronet about 1815. He wrote 
 a Memoir of his proceedings in Portugal. Died in 1830. 
 
 Dalrymple, (James,) first Viscount Stair, an eminent 
 Scottish statesman and jurist, born at Dumniurchie, 
 Ayrshire, in 1619, was the son of James Dalrymple of 
 Stair, and was the ancestor of many distinguished men. 
 In 1641 he obtained a chair of philosophy in the Uni- 
 versity of Glasgow. He studied law, was admitted an 
 advocate in 1648, and became eminent in the profession. 
 In 1657 Cromwell appointed him a judge of the court 
 of session, and in 1661 Charles II. made him one of the 
 lords of session. He was president of the court of ses- 
 sion from 1671 to 1681. In the latter year he published 
 " Institutions of the Law of Scotland," an excellent and 
 authoritative work, which is still the great text-book of 
 Scottish lawyers. In consequence of his refusal to take 
 the test-oath in 1681, he was deprived of office.and suffered 
 so much persecution that he preferred exile, and retired 
 to Holland in 1682. Returning with the Prince of Orange 
 in 16S8, he again became president of the court, and in 
 1690 was raised to the peerage, as Viscount Stair. He 
 died in 1695, leaving four sons, — John, James, Hew, and 
 David. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Macaulay, "History of England," vol. ill. chap. xiii. ; "Encyclo- 
 paedia Britannica." 
 
 Dalrymple, (John,) first Earl of Stair, a son of the 
 preceding, born in 1644, was admitted an advocate in 
 
 1672, and appointed lord advocate of Scotland in 1685. 
 After the lapse of a year he exchanged this office for that 
 of lord of session, but in 1690 resumed the former func- 
 tion. From 1691 to 1695 he was secretary of state, and 
 incurred great odium by his complicity in the massacre 
 of Glencoe, of which he was regarded as the chief author. 
 He inherited his father's title in 1695, and was made an 
 earl in 1703. He died in 1707, leaving a son, John, the 
 great general. 
 
 Respecting the guilt of the Earl of Stair in relation to Glencoe, see 
 Macaulay. '' History of England," vol. iv. chap, xviii. ; " London 
 Quarterly Review" for April, 1868; J. Paget, "New Examen," 
 London, 1861. 
 
 Dalrymple, (John,) second Earl of Stair, an able 
 general, a son of the preceding, born in Edinburgh in 
 
 1673, entered the army in 1692. In 1702 he served as 
 aide-de-camp to the Duke of Marlborough in Flanders. 
 He inherited his father's title in 1707, and was chosen 
 one of the representative peers in the first British Parlia- 
 ment. He commanded the Scottish Greys at the battles 
 of Oudenarde, Malplaquet, (1709,) and Ramillies, where 
 his conduct was much applauded. On the accession of 
 George I. { 1 7 1 5) he was made a privy councillor, and 
 was appointed commander-in chief in Scotland. He per- 
 formed with credit a diplomatic mission to Paris, whence 
 he returned in 1720 and lived many years in retirement. 
 In 1743 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 forces in Great Britain. He died without issue in 1747, 
 when a son of his brother William became heir to the 
 earldom. 
 
 See Andrew Henderson, "Life of John, Earl of Stair," 1748; 
 Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dalrymple, (Sir John,) of Cranston, a Scottish law- 
 er and author, born in 1726, was a great-grandson of 
 "iscount Stair. He was a baron of exchequer in Scot- 
 land from 1776 to 1807. He gained much reputation as 
 a historian by his " Essay towards a General History of 
 Feudal Property," (1757,) and his admirable " Memoirs 
 of Great Britain and Ireland from 1681 to the Battle off 
 La Hogue," (1771.) From the records of the French 
 foreign office lie obtained evidence which convinced him 
 
 V 
 
 that Algernon Sidney and other Whigs were in the 
 pay of Louis XIV. Died in 1810. He had a son who 
 became Earl of Stair. 
 
 Dal'rym-ple, (John,) an English surgeon and oculist, 
 born at Norwich in 1804, began to practise his profession 
 in London in 1827. He published in 1834 an excellent 
 treatise on the " Anatomy of the Human Eye," and in his 
 later years gave his attention chiefly to ocular surgery. 
 He wrote a treatise on the " Eye of Fishes," and other 
 papers on natural history, which procured his election 
 as F.K.S. in 1850. Died in 1852. 
 
 Dal'ton, (John,) an English divine, born in Cumber- 
 land in 1709, became prebendary of Worcester and rec- 
 tor of Saint Mary-at-Hill, London. He adapted Milton's 
 " Comus" for the stage, and wrote a number of sermons, 
 (1745-55,) and some short poems. Died in 1763. 
 
 Dalton, (John,) an English chemical philosopher, cele- 
 brated as the author of the atomic theory, was born at 
 Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth, September 5, 1766. He 
 was the son of Joseph Dalton, a farmer. From 1781 to 
 1793 he was employed as usher in a school at Kendal, 
 where he was assisted in his scientific studies by Mr. 
 Gough, a blind philosopher. Through the influence of 
 this triend he obtained in 1793 the chair of mathematics 
 in New College, Manchester, which thenceforth was his 
 permanent residence. He devoted his leisure to obser- 
 vations and experiments in "various branches of physics, 
 published "Meteorological Essays," (1793,) and an ac- 
 count of a singular defect in his vision, in consequence 
 of which certain colours — red, blue, and green — appeared 
 to him alike. This peculiarity of vision has since been 
 termed "Daltonism." After the New College was re- 
 moved to York, (1799,) Dalton taught mathematics and 
 philosophy in private schools, and gave public lectures 
 on physical science at Manchester, London, and other 
 cities. In 1S02 he propounded his important theory of 
 "The Constitution of Mixed Gases," (in a contribution 
 to the " Transactions of the Manchester Society,") which 
 is now universally adopted. In 1803 he began to develop 
 the most important and fundamental principles of chem- 
 ical philosophy, in connection with the atomic theory, 
 which Jie announced in a lecture in London in 1804, 
 and explained in the first volume of his " New System 
 of Chemical Philosophy," (1808.) This discovery con 
 tributed immensely to perfect the processes of chemical 
 analysis and synthesis, which have since attained almost 
 mathematical precision. From this theory, which sup- 
 poses that each body is composed of atoms of definite 
 size and weight, he deduced the following laws of com- 
 bination : 1, each compound consists invariably of the 
 same constituents ; 2, the elements of every compound 
 unite in definite and constant proportions ; 3, when ele- 
 ments combine in more proportions than one, those 
 proportions are multiples, etc. About 1821 Dalton was 
 elected Fellow of the Royal Society; and in 1826 that 
 body unanimously awarded him one of two gold medals 
 which the king ordered to be given to those who had 
 most distinguished themselves by discoveries in science. 
 He was a foreign associate of the French Institute. An 
 annual pension of ^300 was settled on him in 1836. In 
 1827 he published the third volume of his "System of 
 Chemical Philosophy." Besides the works above men- 
 tioned, he wrote many which were inserted in the " Philo- 
 sophical Transactions," " Nicholson's Journal," etc. He 
 died in July, 1844. He excelled in generalization, and 
 had an extraordinary sagacity in tracing the relations 
 of natural phenomena. His moral character was excel- 
 lent, his disposition unassuming and rather reserved. 
 He never married. He was a member of the Society of 
 Friends, whose meetings he constantly attended The 
 citizens of Manchester testified their high estimate of his 
 merit by a magnificent public funeral. " Dalton," says the 
 "Edinburgh Review," "first gave clear declaration to 
 the principle [of definite proportions] and illustrated its 
 applications, mighty in their universality, with a limple 
 sagacity belonging to the genius and habits of the man." 
 
 See Dr. Henry, "Life of Dalton," 1S54; Krsch and < '.ruber, 
 "Allgemetne Encyclopaedic ;" " Edinburgh Review" for Julv. 1S58 ; 
 "Quarterly Review" for January, 1855; "Ii.< e" for 
 
 NovemlMT, 1S54; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1854; 
 " North British Review" for October, 1857 ; " Westminster Revicu " 
 for March, 1846. 
 
 e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttnral; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as t; th as in this. (JiySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
D ALTON 
 
 712 
 
 DAMER 
 
 Dal'tpn, (John C.,) a distinguished American physi- 
 ologist, born at Chelmsford, Massachusetts, February 2, 
 1825, graduated at Harvard in 1844, and in 1847 took the 
 degree of M.D. in the medical department of that uni- 
 versity. His "Essay on the Corpus Luteuin," &c. (1851) 
 won the prize of the American Medical Association. His 
 "Treatise on Human Physiology" (1st edition, 1859; 4th 
 edition, revised and enlarged, 1867) placed him at once in 
 the first rank of American physiologists. He has since 
 written, besides other works, a "Treatise on Physiology 
 and Hygiene for Schools, Families, and Colleges," (1868.) 
 
 Dalton, (Michael,) M.P., an English lawyer, born 
 in 1554, was chiefly noted as the author of " The County 
 Justice," a standard legal work. Died about 1620. 
 
 Dalton, (Richard,) an English artist, was a brother 
 of the Rev. John Dalton, (1709-63.) He studied painting 
 in Rome, travelled in the Levant, and, on his return, 
 became keeper of the medals and pictures of George 
 III. He published "Antiquities and Scenery in Greece 
 and Egypt," (1791.) Died in 1791. 
 
 Dalyell, da-el', ? ( Sir John Graham, ) a Scottish 
 naturalist and author , born in 1777. lie published, 
 besides other works, " Fragments of Scottish History," 
 (1798,') "Monastic Antiquities," (1809,) and " Rare and 
 Remarkable Animals of Scotland," (1847.) The last is 
 highly commended. Died in 185 1. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Dalzell, di-el', (Andrew,) F.R.S., a Scottish pro- 
 fessor, eminent as a Greek scholar, born at Katho, near 
 Edinburgh, about 1750. He was professor of Greek in 
 the Edinburgh University, and secretary of the Royal 
 Society of that city. He published selections from Greek 
 authors, with the titles of "Anaiecta Gra:ca Minora" and 
 "Collectanea Graeca Majora," (1802,) which were, and 
 still are, extensively used in schools. He also translated 
 Chevalier's " Plains of Troy," (1791.) Died in 1806. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of- Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 "London Quarterly Review" for October. 1822. 
 
 Daniain, di'maN', (Jacques,) a French Catholic 
 priest, born at Orleans about 1530, wrote an "Account 
 of the Events, at Orleans during the Massacre of Saint 
 Bartholomew" in 1572. His humanity was conspicuous 
 in that dreadful crisis. Died in 1596. 
 
 Damas, di'mas', (Ange Hyacinthe Maxence,) 
 Baron, a French general and statesman, born in Paris 
 in 1785, was minister of war in 1823, and afterwards of 
 foreign affairs from 1824 to January, 1828. Died in 1862. 
 
 Damas, (Francois Etienne,) a French general, born 
 in Paris in 1764. As general of brigade, he distinguished 
 himself at the passage of the Rhine in 1795. He served 
 as chief of the staff of Kleber in Egypt in 179S-99, and 
 as general of division at the battle of Heliopolis. He 
 returned to France in 1801, and was appointed military 
 commandant of the grand duchy of Berg in 1807. He 
 maintained his reputation in the Russian campaign of 
 1812, and after the restoration of 1815 was employed as 
 inspector in the army. Died in 1828. 
 
 See "Victoires et Conquetesdes Francais." 
 
 Damas, de, deh di'mas', (Joseph Francois Louis 
 Charles Cesar,) Due, a French peer, bom in 1758. 
 As colonel of dragoons, he was charged with the impor- 
 tant duty of expediting the passage of the royal family 
 in their attempt to escape to the frontier in 1791. On 
 this occasion he was deficient in energy and presence of 
 mind. He emigrated about 1792, and became aide-de- 
 camp of the» Count d'Artois, (Charles X.) After the 
 restoration, Louis XVIII. made him a peer and lieu- 
 tenant-general. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Chastellux, "E*loge du Ge'ne'ral de Damas," 1829. 
 
 Damas, de, (Roger,) Comte, a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1765. As France was at peace with all 
 nations, he indulged his martial passion in the service 
 of Russia against the Turks. He fought with the royalists 
 against the French republic from 1793 to 1797. In 1798 
 he entered the service of (lie King of Naples, and ob- 
 tained command of a division. In 1814 he returned to 
 France, and recovered his titles. Died in 1823. 
 
 Damascene. See Damascenus. 
 
 Dam-as-ce'nus, (Joannes,) [Gr. 'Iuuwtk &a/iaoKT)v6e ; 
 Fr. Jean Damascene, di'mas'sjn', or de Damas, deh 
 
 di'mas',] a noted theologian, born in Damascus about 
 700. He succeeded his father in the office of councillor 
 to the caliph. In the prime of life he retired to the 
 monastery of Saint Saba, near Jerusalem, where he be- 
 came well versed in dialectics, philosophy, and theology, 
 and gained a great reputation by his writings, of which 
 the principal is entitled "Summary of the Orthodox 
 Faith." This served as a model to several generations 
 of Schoolmen. He also wrote a treatise against Icono- 
 clasts. He first applied to scholasticism the philosophy 
 of Aristotle. Died about 760, though some say 780 A.D. 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 Damascenus, (Nicolaus,) [Nowi/tooc Aa/iaoftrii'oc,] a 
 Greek historian and philosopher, born in Damascus in 
 74 B.C., was a contemporary of the emperor Augustus, 
 and a friend of Herod, King of Judea, at whose court 
 he lived. He wrote a " Universal History," of which 
 fragments are extant, and other works, including poems. 
 His History is praised for its style and other merits. 
 
 Damascius, da-mash'c>us, [Gr. Aa/iuoKtogA a pagan 
 philosopher, born in Damascus about 480 A.D. He studied 
 under Isidorus and others, at Athens, where he afterwards 
 taught the Neo-Platonic philosophy. Justinian having 
 in S29 prohibited the pagans from teaching, Damascius 
 retired to the court of Chosroes, King of Persia. He 
 wrote a work called " Doubts and Solutions of the First 
 Principles," which is still extant, and is accounted an 
 important contribution to the history of philosophy. 
 
 See Photius, " Bibliolheca ;" Ritter, " History of Philosophy." 
 
 Damase. See Damasus. 
 
 Damas-Hinard, di'mas' he'niR', (Jean Joseph Sta- 
 nislas,) a French litternteur, born at Madrid in 1805, pro- 
 duced French versions of Calderon, (1841-44.) of Lope 
 de Vega, (1842,) and of "Don Quixote," (1847.) He 
 became private secretary of the empress Eugenie in 1853. 
 
 Da-mas'tes [Aa/iuarric] of Siceum, a Greek histo- 
 rian, who lived in the fifth century B.C. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Graecis." 
 
 Dam'a-sus [Fr. Damase, di'miz'] I., a Spaniard 
 by birth, was elected Bishop of Rome, as successor to 
 Liberius, in 366 A.D. A competitor named Ursinus was 
 also chosen by a party of the clergy ; and this double 
 election gave rise to violent tumults, in which many 
 persons were killed. Damasus was recognized by the 
 bishops and by the emperor Valentinian, who exiled Ur- 
 sinus. He called councils at different times to oppose 
 the Arians and other schismatics. Saint Jerome, who 
 was his secretary, speaks favourably of his character. 
 He died in 384, and was succeeded by Siricius. 
 
 See Cave, "Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia;" Tillemont, 
 " Memoires eccl^siastiques." 
 
 Damasus II., Poppo or Poppon, Bishop of Brixen, 
 was elected pope in 1048 in place of Benedict IX. He 
 died about three weeks after his election. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 
 Damaze de Raymond, di'miz' deh rJ'mAN', a 
 French journalist, born at Agen in 1770; died in 1813. 
 
 Dambourney, d&N'booR'n£', (Louis Auguste,) a" 
 French chemist and botanist, born at Rouen in 1722, 
 was intendant of the botanic garden of that place. He 
 made useful experiments and discoveries in vegetable 
 dyes, and wrote a treatise on the "Colours which In- 
 digenous Plants of France impart to Wool," which was 
 printed at the expense of the state, (1789.) Died in 1795. 
 
 Dambray, do.VbRi', (Charles Henri,) chancellor 
 of France, born at Rouen in 1760, removed to Paris ir 
 1779. Having acquired distinction as an eloquent advo- 
 cate, he was appointed in 1788 attorney-general in the 
 Parliament of Paris. He favoured the royalist cause, 
 and during the reign of terror lived in retirement. In 
 1814 he was appointed chancellor of France by Louis 
 XVIII., and was raised to the rank of a peer. The seals 
 were taken from him in 1815, after which tie was president 
 of the Chamber of Peers for some years. His character 
 is represented as excellent. Died in 1829. 
 
 See De Laporte-Lat.anne, "Notice sur Charles Henri Dambray, 
 etc.," Paris, 1830: Lamartine, "History of the Restoration." 
 
 Da'me-as, [Aa/ieac t ] written also Damias, a Greek 
 statuary, born in Arcadia, lived about 410 B.C. 
 
 Da'mer, (Anne Seymour,) an English lady, eminent 
 as a sculptor, born in 1748, was the daughter of General 
 
 a, e, I, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 11, f, short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon, 
 
DAMER 
 
 7'3 
 
 DAMPE 
 
 Conway, and the friend of David Hume and Horace 
 Walpole. In 1767 she became the wife of Hon. John 
 Darner, who killed himself in 1776. She then devoted 
 her time to sculpture, and produced a statue of George 
 III., a bust of Nelson, and other works. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Cunningham's " Lives of Painters, Sculptors," etc. 
 
 Darner, Hon. Mrs., an English writer of the present 
 age, and a descendant of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, 
 published an interesting " Diary of her Tour in Greece, 
 Turkey, and the Holy Land," (1S41.) 
 
 Daniery, dim're', (Walter,) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Liege in 1614. His "Translation of Elijah" is highly 
 commended. Died in 1678. 
 
 Damesme, dt'mim', (Edouard Adolphe Marie,) 
 a French general, born in 1807, was killed in June, 1848. 
 
 Damiani, da-me-a'nee, (Felice,) called Felice da 
 GuiiKio, (goob'be-o,) a painter of the Roman school, 
 bom at Gubbio about 1550 ; died after 1606. His picture 
 of the "Decapitation of Saint Paul" is highly praised. 
 
 Damiani, da-me-a'nee, (JAnos,) of Tuhegli, a Hun- 
 garian Catholic theologian, born at Tuhegli in 1710. He 
 published "Doctrine of the True Church of Christ," 
 ("Doctrinaverae Christi Ecclesiae," 1762.) Died in 1768. 
 
 Damiani, [Fr. Damien, di'me'i.N',] (Pietro,) an 
 Italian prelate, born at Ravenna about 988 A.D. In 
 1057 the pope appointed him Cardinal Bishop of Ostia. 
 He made zealous efforts to reform the evil practices of 
 the clergy, especially simony, and, as legatcof the pope, 
 performed several missions with success, and had great 
 influence in the Church. He wrote several religious 
 works. Died in 1072. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Baronius, " Annates ;" 
 Ladekchi, "Vita S. P. Damiani," 3 vols.. 1702. 
 
 Damianics or Damjanics, dam-ya'nitch, (JAnos,) 
 a Hungarian general, born in 1804. In the insurrection 
 of 1848 he obtained a command, and gained several vic- 
 tories. Having been raised to the rank of general, he 
 distinguished himself at Nagy Sarlo and Comorn in 
 April, 1849. He surrendered to the Russians at Arad, 
 and was hung by the Austrians in August, 1849. 
 
 See Bali.eydier, "Histoire de la Guerre de Hongrie." 
 
 Da-ml-a'nus, [Gr. Aa/uavos,] a celebrated rhetorician 
 of Ephesus, lived about 200 A.D., and was a pupil of 
 zElius Atistides. 
 
 See Suidas, "Damianus." 
 
 Damiaiius, a physician, said to have been born in 
 Arabia. In company with his brother Cosmas, he suf- 
 fered martyrdom about 310 A.D. 
 
 Damien, the French of Damiani, which see. 
 
 Damiens, dS'me'aN', [Anglicized pron. da'me-enz,] 
 (Robert Francois,) a French fanatic, born in the diocese 
 of Arras about 17 14, became a domestic in Paris. He was 
 repeatedly dismissed by his employers for vicious con- 
 duct. He became violently excited on the subject of a 
 controversy between the pope and the Jansenists, which 
 then distracted the Church. In January, 1757, as Louis 
 XV. was entering a coach, Damiens darted through the 
 guards and wounded him slightly with a knife. He was 
 teized and put to the torture, but persisted in denying 
 that he had any accomplice. On his trial he said he did 
 not wish to kill the king, but to induce him to do right. 
 He was condemned to be broken alive by horses, which 
 doom was carried into effect. 
 
 See "Vie de R. F. Damiens," 1757: Voltaire, "Siccle de 
 Louis XV." 
 
 Damilaville,di'me'li'v61',(ETiENNE Noel,) a French 
 infidel writer, born about 1721, was a correspondent of 
 Voltaire. He wrote "Christianity Unveiled," which pro- 
 voked even the censure of Voltaire, who called it "Im- 
 piety Unveiled." Died in 1768. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Correspondance." 
 
 Damini. See Damino, (Pietro.) 
 
 Damino, da-mee'no, or Damini, da-mee'nee, (Gior- 
 gio,) an Italian portrait-painter, was a brother of Pietro, 
 noticed below. Died about 1630. 
 
 Damino or Damini, (Pietro,) a Venetian painter 
 and self-taught artist, born at Castel-Franco in IJ92. He 
 worked in Padua and Venice, and acquired a wide repu- 
 tation, but died prematurely in 1631. His "Crucifixion," 
 in a church of Padua, is considered his master-piece. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, 
 
 Damiron, di'me'r6N', (Jean Philibert,) a French 
 philosopher, born at Belleville (Rhdne) in 1794, studied 
 in Paris under Cousin. About 1830 he became professor 
 of philosophy in the Faculty of Letters, Paris. He was 
 chosen a member of the Institute in 1836. He published 
 an " Essay on the Histoiy of Philosophy in France in the 
 Nineteenth Century," (1828,) and an "F^ssay on the 
 History of Philosophy in France in the Seventeenth 
 Century," (2 vols., 1846.) Died in Paris in 1862. 
 
 See Louandre et Bourquelot, " Literature Francaise ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Damjanics. See Damianics. 
 
 Damm, dim, (Christian Tobias,) a German scholar, 
 born near Leipsic in 1699. He was rector of the gym- 
 nasium of Berlin for about twenty years, ending in 1764. 
 He published a valuable Greek Lexicon, (1765,) and 
 translated into German the poems of Homer, (1769-71,) 
 and other classics. Died in 1778. 
 
 See Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 
 Dammartin. See Chabannes, de, (Antoine.) 
 
 Da'mo, [Gr. Aa/iu,] a daughter of Pythagoras, to 
 whom he intrusted the writings containing the secrets 
 of his philosophy. Though suffering from extreme 
 poverty and tempted with liberal offers of money, she 
 adhered to her father's injunctions, and handed down 
 the precious documents inviolate to her daughter Bistalia. 
 
 Dam'o-cles, [Gr. Aa/ioKAys,] a Syracusan courtier, 
 whose admiration of the luxury and pomp of royalty is 
 said to have been cured by Dionysius, who invited him to 
 a sumptuous repast, over which a sword was suspended 
 by a hair. This anecdote is related by Cicero. 
 
 Da-moc'ra-tes or De-moc'ra-tes, [Gr. Aa/ioKpanjc 
 or Ai/fiOKparift,] a Greek physician, who lived at Rome 
 about 50 A.D., was commended by Pliny. 
 
 Damoiseau, di'mwa'zo', (Marie Charles Theo- 
 dore,) a French astronomer, born at Besancon in 1768. 
 He was a member of the Academy of Sciences, and 
 wrote on the Lunar theory. Died in 1846. 
 
 Da'mon [Au/«jv] of Athens, an eminent Greek musi- 
 cian, was the teacher of Pericles and Socrates, both of 
 whom respected him highly. His penetration and finesse 
 are praised by Plato in his " Republic." Plutarch inti- 
 mates that he was a " politician who, under the pretence 
 of teaching music, concealed his great abilities from the 
 vulgar." He was ostracised in the latter part of his 
 career, from jealousy of his political influence. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Pericles;" Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 Damon and Fyth'I-as or Phin'tl-as were two 
 Syracusans, and disciples of Pythagoras, who exhibited 
 a remarkable instance of faithful friendship. It is said 
 that Pythias was condemned to death by Dionysius, and 
 obtained leave to go and settle his affairs, while Damon 
 remained as a hostage for his return. Pythias, having 
 returned punctually, was pardoned by the astonished 
 king, who desired to be admitted into their friendship. 
 
 See Diodorus Siculus; Jamblichus, " Vita Pythagorae." 
 
 Da-mophl-lus [Gr. Aa/iotpuog; Fr. Damophile, 
 dt'mo'fel'j or De-moph'I-lus, a Greek painter and 
 sculptor of uncertain date, who adorned the temple of 
 Ceres, in Rome. 
 
 Dam'o-phon, [Aa/Mxpim,] a Greek sculptor, born in 
 Messenia or Messene, flourished probably between 300 
 and 400 B.C. He was the only famous sculptor that 
 Messenia produced. After he had gained a high repu- 
 tation, he was chosen to restore or repair the ivory s'.tue 
 of Jupiter which was the master-piece of Phidias. 
 
 See Pausanias, iv. and viii. 
 
 Damoreau, dS'mo'ro', (Laure Cinthie,) originally 
 named Montalant, (moN'ti'loN',) a French vocalist, 
 called in Italian Mademoiselle Cinti, (chen'tee,) born 
 in Paris in 1801, became a public favourite about 1822. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Damours, di'mooR', (Louis,) a FVench jurist :.rn 
 at Lude about 1720; died in 1788. 
 
 Dampe, diim'pejh, (JvcoB Jacobson,) a Danish phi- 
 losopher, born at Copenhagen in 1790. He became 
 principal of a school in his native city, and wrote, be- 
 sides other works, one " On the Harmony of Liberty with 
 the Spirit of Christianity," (1819.) He was imprisoned 
 for his liberal doctrines from 1821 to 1841. Died in 1850. 
 See Eksi.rw, "Forfatter- Lexicon." 
 
 trilled; s as t; th as in this. (jg^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DAMPIER 
 
 714 
 
 DANA 
 
 Dam'pier, (William,) an enterprising English navi- 
 gator, born in Somersetshire in 1652, served in the navy 
 in the war with Holland about 1673. Me afterwards 
 sailed with an expedition to Campeachy to cut logwood, 
 and in 1678 returned to London with a journal of his 
 observations. In 1679 he joined a party of filibusters, 
 who cruised about the Isthmus of Darien and infested 
 the Spanish settlements for several years. About 1685 
 he made a voyage to the East Indies, in which he had 
 some perilous adventures. Returning to England in 
 1691, he published an interesting narrative of his "Voy- 
 age round the World." In 1699 the admiralty gave him 
 command of a vessel, and sent him to make discoveries 
 in the South Sea. He explored the western coast of 
 Australia, the coasts of New Guinea and other islands, 
 and passed through the straits which bear his name. He 
 returned home in 1 701, and published the results of his 
 voyage. He went to sea again, but not in the service 
 of government. A remarkable faculty for observation and 
 description renders his writings valuable and attractive. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale;" "Retrospective Review," 
 vol. ix. f 1824. 
 
 Dampierre, d&N'pe-aJR', (Jean,) a French poet, born 
 at Blois; died in 1550. 
 
 Dampierre, de, deh dSN'pe-aiR', (Auguste Henri 
 Marie Picot,) a French general, born in Paris in 1756. 
 In 1 791 he was aide-de-camp to Marshal Rochambeau. 
 He commanded a division at Jemmapes, (1792,) the vic- 
 tory of which was attributed partly to his bravery and skill. 
 He distinguished himself in several other actions under 
 Dumouriez. When he learned the defection of that gene- 
 ral, (April, 1793,) he decided in favour of the republic, 
 and was made commander-in-chief in place of Dumouriez. 
 He was killed in battle near Vicogne in May, 1793. 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" De Cour- 
 CBLLKS, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais." 
 
 Dampierre, de, (Gin,) Count of Flanders, was born 
 in 1225, and began to reign in 1280. He became involved 
 in war with Philip V. of France, who conquered Flanders 
 about 1300 and kept Gui in prison. The Flemings re- 
 volted, and gained a victory at Courtrai in 1302. Gui 
 died in prison in 1305. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Dampmartin, de, deh d8N'mSi<'tJN', (Anne Henri,) 
 a French litterateur, born at Uzes in 1755, served in the 
 army as colonel before the Revolution. He returned from 
 the emigration about 1800, and in 1810 was appointed 
 imperial censor of books. In 1813 he was a deputy to 
 the legislative body/and in 1814 was reinstated in the 
 office of censor by Louis XVIII. He wrote a "History 
 of the Rivalry between Carthage and Rome," (1789,) 
 essays on education, and other works. Died in 1825. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Damremont. See Danremont. 
 
 Dan, [Heb. p,] a son of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob, 
 was born, it is supposed, about 1788 B.C. 
 
 See Genesis, chaps, xxx., xxxv., and xlix. 
 
 Dan, a prince who, according to Malte-Brun, founded 
 the kingdom of Denmark about the end of the third 
 century, and from whose name are derived the words 
 "Dane" and "Danemark," (i.e. country of Dan.) 
 
 See Mallet, " Histoire de Danemarck." 
 
 Da'na, (Francis,) LL.D., an American statesman and 
 jurist, son of Judge Richard Dana, was born at Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts, in 1743. He graduated at Harvard in 
 1762, was admitted to the bar in 1767, and was engaged 
 as counsel in many of the most important trials of that 
 stirring period. As a member of the " Sons of Liberty," 
 he took a prominent part in the discussions on the Stamp 
 Act and other aggressive measures that produced the 
 Revolution. He served in the first provincial Congress 
 of Massachusetts in 1774. From 1776 to 1780 he was 
 a member of the Massachusetts council, at that time the 
 supreme authority in the State. He was a delegate in 
 the Congress which formed the Confederation in 1777, 
 and in the Congress of 1778 was chairman of the com- 
 mittee charged with the responsible duty of reorganizing 
 the army. In November, 1779, he embarked for Europe 
 as secretary to John Adams in his embassy to negotiate 
 a treaty of peace and commerce with Great Britain. 
 Having been appointed minister to Russia, Mr. Dana, 
 
 in July, 1 781, proceeded to Saint Petersburg; but, failing 
 to obtain a recognition of the claims of America, he re- 
 turned to Boston in 1783. He was again a delegate to 
 Congress in 1784. In January, 1785, he was appointed 
 by Governor Hancock judge of the supreme court of 
 Massachusetts, and from 1791 to 1806 was chief justice 
 of the State. Mr. Dana was in the National Convention 
 which met at Annapolis in 1786, and was chosen a delegate 
 to the convention that framed the Federal Constitution in 
 1787 ; but ill health and judicial duties prevented his at- 
 tendance. He served in the Massachusetts convention 
 for ratifying the Federal Constitution in 1788, and was 
 among its most prominent supporters. Died at Cam- 
 bridge in 181 1. Judge Dana combined eminent talents 
 with thorough attainments and rare excellence of charac- 
 ter. He was throughout a zealous Federalist. 
 
 Dana, (James Dwight,) a distinguished American 
 naturalist, born at Utica, New York, in February, 1813, 
 graduated at Yale College in 1833. He was appointed 
 the geologist and mineralogist of the exploring expedition 
 sent out by the United States government about 1S38 
 under Captain Wilkes. In 1837 he published a " System 
 of Mineralogy," (5th edition, 1858. In 1868 appeared 
 the first volume of a new and greatly improved edition of 
 this work.) He married a daughter of Professor Benjamin 
 Silliman in 1844. Since 1846 he has been one 01 the 
 editors of the "American Journal of Science," and has re- 
 sided at New Haven. In connection with the exploring 
 expedition above mentioned, he wrote a " Report on 
 Zoophytes," (1846,) a "Report on the Geology of the 
 Pacific," (1849,) "Repoft on the Crustacea," (1852-54,) 
 etc. He was elected to the chair of natural history and 
 geology at Yale College about 1850, but did not enter 
 immediately upon the duties of that position. One of 
 his most important works, and that on which his reputa- 
 tion chiefly rests, is his excellent "Manual of Geology," 
 (1862.) Professor Dana combines with the faculty of 
 close and accurate observation so necessary to every 
 student of nature, intellectual powers which place him 
 in the very highest rank of philosophic naturalists. He 
 is a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and 
 of other learned societies. 
 
 See " North American Review" for October, 1863. 
 Dana, (James Freeman,) born at Exeter, New 
 •Hampshire, in 1793, studied medicine, and was appointed 
 professor of chemistry at Dartmouth College about 
 1819. He published an "Epitome of Chemical Philos- 
 ophy," (1825.) Died at New York in 1827. 
 
 Dana, (Napoleon J. T.,) an American general, born 
 in Maine in 1822, graduated at West Point in 1842. He 
 became a brigadier-general about February, 1862, and 
 served in several battles near Richmond in June of that 
 year. He was wounded at the battle of Antietam, Sep- 
 tember 17, 1862, and disabled. In July and August, 
 1863, he commanded the defences of Philadelphia. He 
 resigned in May, 1865. 
 
 Dana, (Richard,) an able American lawyer, the father 
 of Francis Dana, noticed above, was born at Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts, in 1699. He practised law with great 
 distinction at Boston, and, as a supporter of the cause of 
 liberty, took a prominent part in the movements which 
 preceded the Revolution. Died in 1772. 
 
 Dana, (Richard Henry,) an American poet and 
 essayist, born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in No- 
 vember, 1787, was a son of Chief-Justice Francis Dana. 
 He was educated at Harvard College, which he left 
 without a degree in 1807, after which he studied law, 
 and was admitted to the bar of Boston in 181 1. In 1S14 
 he began to contribute to the " North American Review," 
 of which he became associate editor in 1818. He pro- 
 duced the "Dying Raven," a poem, (1821,) and "The 
 Buccaneer," (1827,) which was highly commended by 
 Professor Wilson in "Blackwood's Magazine" of 1S35. 
 "We pronounce it," says he, "by far the most powerful 
 and original of American poetical compositions. The 
 power is Mr. Dana's own ; but the style — though he 
 has made it his own too — is coloured by that of Crabbe, 
 of Wordsworth, and of Coleridge. He is no servile fol- 
 lower of those great masters, but his genius has been 
 inspired by theirs, and he almost places himself on a 
 level with them by this extraordinary story, — we mean 
 
 4, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 4, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, p, obscure; far, fall, fat; mlt; not; good; moon 
 
DANA 
 
 715 
 
 DAN COURT 
 
 on the level on which they stand in such poems as the 
 'Old Grimes' of Crabbe, the ' Peter Bell' of Wordsworth, 
 and the 'Ancient Mariner' of Coleridge." In 1833 he 
 published an edition of his poems and prose writings, 
 including "The Buccaneer," with some new poems and 
 essays, which originally appeared in "The Idle Man," a 
 periodical issued in IS2I-22. " The Idle Man," says W. 
 C. Bryant, "notwithstanding the cold reception it met 
 with from the public, we look upon as holding a place 
 among the first productions of American literature." 
 ("North American Review" for January, 1828.) He de- 
 livered a course of ten lectures on Shakspeare in Boston, 
 New York, and Philadelphia in the winter of 1839-40. 
 
 See Griswold, "Poets of America," and "Prose Writers of 
 America;" Alubone, "Dictionary of Authors;" Duyckinck, "Cy- 
 clopaedia of American Literature;" "North American Review" for 
 January, 1851. 
 
 Dana, (Richard Henry,) Jr., an American lawyer 
 and author, a son of the preceding, was born at Cam- 
 bridge, Massachusetts, in August, 1815. He was edu- 
 cated at Harvard, which he entered in 1832. Having 
 been compelled to suspend his studies by an affection 
 of the eyes in 1834, he performed as a common sailor a 
 voyage to California, of which he wrote an admirable 
 narrative in his "Two Years before the Mast," (1840J 
 which obtained a wide celebrity. He graduated at Har- 
 vard in 1837, studied law under Judge Story, and was 
 admitted to the bar of Boston in 1S40. He has since 
 attained eminence as an advocate. In 1841 he published 
 "The Seaman's Friend, containing a Treatise on Practi- 
 cal Seamanship, etc." Mr. Dana was one of the founders 
 of the " Free-Soil party," and acted with the Republicans 
 in the Presidential election of 1856. 
 
 Dana, (Samuel Luther,) an American chemist and 
 writer on agriculture, born at Amherst, New Hampshire, 
 in 1795. He became chemist of the Merrimac Print 
 Works at Lowell in 1833, and invented a mode of 
 bleaching cotton goods, which was generally adopted. 
 He acquired distinction as a writer on agriculture, and 
 discovered that phosphate of soda has the property of 
 fixing mordants. Died in March, 1868. 
 
 See "American Journal of Science," May, 1S68. 
 
 Dan'a-e, [Gr. Aavu7j,] a daughter of Acrisius, King of 
 Argos, who confined her In a brazen tower or cell because 
 an oracle had declared her son would kill her father. 
 In spite of his precaution, she became the mother of 
 Perseus by Jupiter, who is fabled to have obtained access 
 to her apartment in the form of a golden shower. 
 
 Danasus. See Daneau. 
 
 Da-na'I-des, [Gr. Aawu'cfec,] the fifty daughters of Da- 
 naus, were married to their cousins, the sons of /Egyptus. 
 By the order of their father, each of them killed, on the 
 wedding-night, her bridegroom, except Hypermnestra, 
 who spared her husband, Lynceus. (See next article.) 
 
 Dan'a-us, a son of Bel'us, after his father's death 
 reigned conjointly with his brother /Egyptus on the 
 throne of Egypt. Jealous of the power of the fifty sons 
 of .Egyptus, or, as some say, terrified by an oracle, he 
 gave his fifty daughters in marriage to the sons of his 
 brother, with a secret command that they should kill 
 their husbands on the wedding-night. (See Danaides.) 
 Danaus is said to have reigned fifty years. 
 
 See Keightley, "Mythology." 
 
 Danava, da'na-va, (Hindoo Myth.,) a demon or evil 
 spirit, one of the children of Dana. 
 
 Danby, Earl of. See Danvers. 
 
 Dan'by, (Francis,) an eminent landscape-painter, 
 born near W'exford, Ireland, in 1793. He became a 
 resident of England in his youth, and about 1824 pro- 
 duced a " Sunset at Sea after a Storm," which was much 
 admired. Between 1825 and 1829 he gained a high re- 
 putation by historical landscapes, among which was the 
 "Embarkation of Cleopatra on the Cydnus," (1827.) 
 Among his later works are "The Deluge," "Departure 
 of Ulysses from Ithaca," and "Caius Marius amidst the 
 Ruins of Carthage," (1848.) He is regarded by some as 
 unrivalled in historical or poetic landscapes among the 
 English artists. 
 
 His son Thomas is a successful landscape-painter. 
 
 Dan'by, (Thomas Osborne,) Eari, of, Marquis of 
 Caermaithen, Duke of Leeds, an English statesman, born 
 in 163 1. He entered Parliament about 1660, supported 
 
 the measures of the court, and acquired the favour of the 
 king. In 1673 he obtained the chief direction of affairs, 
 as lord treasurer, and in 1674 was created Earl of Danby 
 Having been accused of treason, he was committed to 
 the Tower by the Commons in 1678, and was detained 
 there five years. In 1689 he was appointed president 
 of the council by William III. "In practical ability and 
 official experience," says Macaulay, "he had no superior 
 among his contemporaries. . . . Yet the Whigs regarded 
 him with unconquerable distrust and aversion. Even 
 in becoming a rebel he had not ceased to be a Tory." 
 (" History of England," vol. iii. chaps, xi., xv., and xvi.) 
 He was made Duke of Leeds in 1694. Died in 1712. 
 
 Dancarville. See Hancarville. 
 
 Dance, (George,) an English architect, who held the 
 office of city surveyor of London. He was the architect 
 of the Mansion House, built about 1740, and of several 
 churches in London. Died in 1768. 
 
 Dance, (George,) Jr., an English architect, son of the 
 preceding, born probably in London in 1 740, succeeded 
 his father as city surveyor. He was one of the fust mem- 
 bers of the Royal Academy, in which he was professor 
 of architecture. His reputation is founded chiefly on 
 the erection of Newgate prison, which was begun in 
 1770. He also designed the front of Guildhall, and other 
 buildings in London. Died in 1825. 
 
 Dance, (Sir Nathaniel,) an English painter, brother 
 of the preceding, was born in 1729. After acquiring some 
 reputation as a painter, he married a rich Mrs. Dummer, 
 and assumed the name of Holland. He was made a 
 baronet in 1800. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Dan'cer, (Daniel,) a notorious English miser, born 
 about 17 15, subjected himself to extreme privations while 
 he had large sums of money hoarded. Died in 1 774. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Celebrated Misers." 
 
 Danchet, do.\''sh4', (Antoine,) a French dramatic 
 poet, born at Riom in 1671, studied in Paris, where he 
 resided after 1696. He wrote four tragedies, one of 
 which is entitled "Cyrus," and numerous operas, which 
 were more successful, especially " Hesione," which is 
 ranked by La Harpe above those of Duche and Fonte- 
 nelle. Danchet was a member of the French Academy 
 and of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1748 
 
 See Sabatier, " Les trois Siecles de la LitteYature." 
 
 Danckehnann. See Dankelmann. 
 
 Dauckert, drink'keRt, almost dink'keRt, or Danc- 
 kerts, dank'keRts, (Cornei.is,) a Dutch engraver, born 
 in Amsterdam in 1 561, treated with success portraits, 
 landscapes, and history. He settled in Antwerp as a 
 dealer in engravings, and was the head of a family who 
 were long eminent in the same art. 
 
 Danckert, (Peter,) a son of the preceding, born in • 
 Antwerp in 1600, surpassed his father as an engraver, 
 and used the burin and the etching-point together. He 
 engraved after Berghem and Wouwerman, and also his 
 own designs. Died about 1660. Peter left two sons, 
 Henry and John, who were skilful artists, and settled 
 first in Amsterdam. John afterwards went to England, 
 where he engraved in partnership with Hollar. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgeineines Kiinstler Lexikon ;" Basak, 
 " Dictionuaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Danckerts. See Danckert. 
 
 Danckerts de Ry. See Dankers. 
 
 Dancks or Danks, danks, almost dinks, (Francis,) 
 a Dutch painter of history and portraits, born at Amster- 
 dam in 1650; died about 1700. 
 
 Dancourt, di.VkooR', (Florent Carton,) a popular 
 French comic author, born at Fontainebleau in 1661. 
 He chose the profession of law, in which he acquired 
 some reputation, but, falling in love with an actress, I, a 
 Thorilliere, he exchanged the bar for the stage in 1685, 
 as one of the king's comedians. He was successful both 
 as an actor and an author. Having a mind fertile in 
 invention, he produced " Le Chevalier 4 la Mode," and 
 about sixty other plays, — chiefly farces, in which the 
 dialogue is spirited, humorous, and piquant. Voltaire 
 observed, " What Regnard was in respect to Moliere 
 in the high comedy, Dancourt was in the farce." Died 
 in 1726. 
 
 See Grimm. "Correspondance ;" Hippocyte Lucas, "Moliere 
 et Dancourt ;" "Nouvelle Biographic GrfneVale." 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jjy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DANDELIN 
 
 716 
 
 DANGEAU 
 
 Dandelin, dSs'd'laN', (Germinal Pierre,) a French 
 Bngineer and scientific writer, born near Paris in 1794, 
 became a citizen of Belgium in 1816. Died in 1847. 
 
 Dandelot, cl6.Nd'lo', (Francois de Coligny — ko'- 
 len'ye',) an able French general, born at Chatillon-sur- 
 Loing in 1521, was a brother of the admiral Coligny. 
 For his conduct at Cerisoles he was knighted on the 
 field. As general of infantry he took a prominent part 
 in the battle of Saint-Quentin in 1557. He was a warm 
 adherent of the Reformed Church, and in the civil war 
 between Protestants and Catholics which began about 
 1562, he fought at Dreux, at Chartres, and at Jamac, 
 (1569,) a few days after which battle he died of fever. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Dandini, dan-dee'nee, (Cesare,) a painter, born at 
 Florence about 1595 ; died in 1658. 
 
 Dandini, (Ercole Francesco,) an Italian jurist and 
 legal writer, born at Ancona in 1695, became professor 
 of law at Padua, where he died in 1 747. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vitse ltalorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Dandini, (Girolamo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Ce- 
 sena in 1554, professed philosophy in Paris, and theology 
 at Padua. In 1596 he was sent by the pope on a mis- 
 sion to the Maronites of Mount Lebanon, of which he 
 published an account. Died in 1634. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Dandini, (Pietro,) a skilful Italian painter, born at 
 Florence in 1647, was the son of Vincenzo. He painted 
 with equal success in fresco and in oil, (at Florence,) and 
 acquired distinction by the brilliancy of his colouring and 
 the richness of his composition. Died in 1712. 
 
 Dandini, (Vincenzo,) a successful painter, born at 
 Florence about 1607, was a pupil of Cortona, and a 
 brother of Cesare, noticed above. He was patronized 
 by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Died in 1675. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Dandolo, dan'do-lo, (Andrea,) a Venetian historian 
 and doge, born about 1306. Having acquired a high 
 reputation for ability and virtue, he was elected doge in 
 1342. He was a friend of Petrarch, and was author of 
 a valuable Latin Chronicle of Venice, terminating in 
 the year 1339. He waged war against the Genoese for 
 several years between 1348 and 1354. Died in 1354. 
 
 See Marino Sanuto, " Vite de' Duchi." 
 
 Dandolo, (Enrico,) a renowned Venetian statesman 
 and general, who greatly increased the maritime power 
 of Venice, was born about 1 105. He was elected doge 
 in 1 192, before which he had become nearly blind. At 
 this period the Venetian state was the greatest commer- 
 cial and naval power in the world. In 1201 the leaders 
 of the fourth crusade applied for means of transport to 
 the Venetians, who, through the influence of the doge, 
 furnished ships and made an alliance with the crusaders. 
 Their combined forces, commanded by Dandolo, reduced 
 Zara, which had revolted against Venice, and next at- 
 tacked Constantinople, which was ruled by a usurper. 
 That city was taken by storm in 1204, and the throne 
 was offered to Dandolo, who declined it, but accepted 
 the office of despot of Romania. He obtained the cession 
 of several islands and ports of the Levant to the Venetian 
 state. He died in 1205. Byron calls him 
 
 " blind old Dandolo, 
 Th' octogenarian chief, Byzantium's conquering foe." 
 
 Child* Harold, canto iv. 
 See Michaud, "Histoire des Croisades;" Daru, "Histoire de 
 Venise ;" Marino Sanuto, "Vite de' Duchi;" A. Dandolo, 
 "Chronicon," in the "Collection" of Muratori. 
 
 Dandolo, (Francesco,) was Doge of Venice from 
 1328 to 1339. During his administration the Venetians 
 extended their dominion over the adjacent terra firma, 
 by annexing Treviso, etc. 
 
 Dandolo, (Giovanni,) was Doge of Venice from 1280 
 to 1289, during which period the cities of Pirano and 
 Isola were added to the republic, and Trieste shook off 
 its allegiance. 
 
 See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Dandolo, (Vincenzo,) Count, an Italian chemist 
 and economist, born in Venice in 1758. He united and 
 digested the recent discoveries of French chemists, in 
 a work called " Fondamenti della Fisico chimica," etc., 
 (" Principles of Physical Chemistry," 1796.) When Venice 
 
 was annexed to Austria (1797) he removed to Milan, and 
 was there appointed a member of the grand council. 
 From 1804 to 1809 he was governor or proveditor of Dal- 
 matia under Napoleon. He wrote valuable treatises on 
 the production of wine, wool, and silk, and on other sub- 
 jects of rural economy. Died in Venice in 1819. 
 
 See Eksch und Gruher, "Allgemeine Encyclopaedie ;" M. Bona- 
 fous, " Eloge historique de V. Dandolo," 1839; " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale. " 
 
 D'Andrada. See Andrada, d'. 
 
 Dandre, d6.N'dRa', (Antoine Balthasar Joseph,) 
 born at Aix in 1759, was appointed in 1814 by Louis 
 XVIII. director of the police and s{eward (iiit'cndant) 
 of his domains. Died in 1827. 
 
 See Vaulabelle, "Histoire des deux Restaurations." 
 
 Dandre-Bardon,d&N'dRa'biR'd6N',(MlCHEL Fran- 
 cois,) a French painter and writer on art, born at Aix 
 in 1700, founded an academy of painting at Marseille*. 
 He published a "Treatise on Painting and Sculpture, 
 with a Catalogue Raisonne of the Most Famous Artists 
 of the French School," also an illustrated work on the 
 costumes of ancient nations. Died in 1783. 
 
 Dane, (Nathan,) an American jurist, born in Ips- 
 wich, Massachusetts, in 1752, graduated at Harvard in 
 1778. He was one of the most eminent lawyers in New 
 England. He was a member of the Continental Con- 
 gress in 1785-S7. In the last-named year he framed the 
 important ordinance for the government and organiza- 
 tion of the Northwest Territory, and inserted a clause 
 prohibiting slavery. He published "An Abridgment 
 and Digest of American Law," (9 vols., 1823-29.) Died 
 in 1835. 
 
 Daneau, dS'no', [Lat. Dan/E'us,] (Lambert,) a 
 French Calvinistic divine, born at Beaugency in 1530, 
 preached at Geneva, Castres, and other places. He 
 published many treatises on theology, which were once 
 esteemed. Died at Castres in 1596. 
 
 See Mei.chior Adam, "Vita; Theologorum Exterorum;" Nice- 
 ron, "Memoires;" Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Danedi, da-na'dee, (Giovanni Stefano,) an Italian 
 historical painter, called Montalto, born at Treviglio 
 in 1608. He adorned many edifices of Milan with his 
 works, which display a rich imagination. Died in 1689. 
 
 Danedi, (Giuseppe,) brother of the preceding, born 
 in 1618, was also a skilful painter, and a pupil of Guido. 
 He worked in Milan and Turin, sometimes in company 
 with Giovanni Stefano, his brother. Died in 1689. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Danes, di'neV, (Pierre,) a French scholar, born in 
 Paris in 1497. In 1530 Francis I. appointed him first 
 professor of Greek in the Royal College, and in 1545 
 ambassador to the Council of Trent. In the reign of 
 Henry II. he was preceptor to the dauphin, afterwards 
 Francis II., and in 1557 he was made Bishop of Lavaur. 
 He published an edition of Pliny, a few letters, etc. Died 
 in 1577. 
 
 See De Thou, "Fjoges, avec les Additions de Teissier;" P. H. 
 Danes, "Vie de P. Danes," 1731. 
 
 Daiiet, dl'ni', (Pierre,) a learned French priest, born 
 in Paris about 1650. The Duke of Montausier selected 
 him, with others, to edit classic authors for the use of 
 the dauphin, and assigned Phaedrus to him. He gained 
 more reputation by his " Latin and French Dictionary, 
 for the Use of the Dauphin," (1685.) Died in 1709. 
 
 See Feller, " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Dangeau, de, deh doN'zh5', (Louis de Courcillon 
 — deh kooR'se'y6N',) Abhe, a brother of the Marquis 
 of Dangeau, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1643. 
 Descended from Du Plessis-Mornay, he was educated 
 a Protestant, but was converted by Bossuet. He was 
 employed as reader to Louis XIV. from 1671 to 1687, 
 and was admitted into the French Academy in 1682. 
 "He was," says Voltaire, "an excellent academician." 
 He was a candidate for the office of preceptor to the 
 Duke of Burgundy ; but Fenelon was preferred. He 
 wrote several treatises on grammar, and some other 
 works. Died in 1723. 
 
 See D'Alembert, " Fjoges ;" Saint-Simon, "M&noires." 
 
 Dangeau, de, (Philippe de Courcillon,) Marquis, 
 an accomplished French courtier and officer, born in 1638. 
 
 a, e, I, o, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
DANGER 
 
 7>7 
 
 DANIELL 
 
 He became a favourite of Louis XIV., and colonel of 
 the king's regiment in 1655. In 1667 he was governor 
 of Touraine. He afterwards attended the king as aide- 
 de-camp in several campaigns. He was elected to the 
 French Academy in 1068, partly in consideration of his 
 facility in composing verses, (vers de sociJte.) He died in 
 1720, leaving in manuscript a voluminous "Journal of 
 the Court of Louis XIV.," (comprising the period from 
 1684 to 1 720,) said to contain much important and curious 
 matter. It has since been published, (1854.) 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Me'moires ;" Madame de Genlis, " Abregi 
 du Journal de M. de Dangeau," 4 vols., 1817 ; Voltaire, " Journal 
 delaCour:" Sainte-Beuve, "Causeriesdu Lundi ;" "Edinburgh 
 Raview" for January, 1864. 
 
 Danger, d6.N'zha', (E. P.,) a French chemist, born 
 about 1800, has gained distinction by experiments on 
 arsenic and. mercury. 
 
 Dangeville, d6.\zh'vel', (Marie Anne Botox,) a 
 French actress, born in Paris in 1 7 14; died in 1796. 
 
 Danhaver, dan'ha'ver, a German portrait-painter of 
 great merit, born in Suabia, settled in Saint Petersburg, 
 where he was patronized by Peter the Great. He died in 
 Saint Petersburg about 1735. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 Danhawer or Danhower. See Dannhauer. 
 
 Danican, dfne'kdN', (Francois Andre,) surnamed 
 Phil'idor, a French composer and famous chess-player, 
 born at Dreux in 1727. In early youth he was a choris- 
 ter in the chapel of Louis XV. He wrote for the Comic 
 Opera of Paris with success. About 1777 he visited 
 London, where he published a "Treatise on the Game 
 of Chess," to which in his later years he was almost 
 exclusively addicted. He found no equal in the chess- 
 clubs of Paris and London, and was the victor in three 
 simultaneous games which he played blindfolded against 
 skilful opponents. Died in 1795. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens ;" George 
 Allen, " Life of Philidor," 1866. 
 
 Daniel, dan'yel, [Heb. 7N'J1,| one of the four greater 
 Hebrew prophets, was a member of the tribe of Judah. 
 In his childhood, about 605 B.C., he was carried cap- 
 tive to Babylon, where he was educated at the court of 
 Nebuchadnezzar and became proficient in learning and 
 wisdom. (See Daniel i. 17.) Having by divine inspira- 
 tion interpreted an important dream of the king, he was 
 promoted to be ruler of the province of Babylon and 
 chief of the Magi. About 580 he interpreted another 
 dream of Nebuchadnezzar. The next event recorded of 
 Daniel is that he read and explained the handwriting on 
 the wall at Belshazzar's feast, (chap, v.,) about 538 H.C. 
 Shortly after that date he obtained the favour of Darius 
 the Mede, (Cyaxares,) and became the first of three 
 presidents who had authority over the one hundred and 
 twenty princes or satraps of the empire. For an account 
 of his miraculous preservation in the lions' den, see 
 Daniel, chap. vi. After the death of Darius, Daniel 
 " prospered in the reign of Cyrus the Persian," (chap. 
 vi. 28,) and saw his last recorded vision in 534 B.C. He 
 is generally believed to have been the author of the book 
 which bears his name, and which has been designated 
 " the last form of prophecy and the first philosophy of 
 history." His high character as a prophet appears to be 
 attested by the Saviour, in Matthew xxiv. 15. 
 
 See, also. Ezekiel xiv. 14, and xxviii. 3; Bittelmaier, "Dispu- 
 tatio de Vila Danielis," 1676. 
 
 Daniel, da'ne-el, (Christian Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man physician, born at Halle in 1753, published several 
 medical works. Died in 1798. 
 
 Daniel, di'ne'lY, (Gabriel,) a French author and 
 Jesuit, born at Rouen in 1649, lived in Paris, and ob- 
 tained from Louis XIV. a pension of 2000 francs, with 
 the title of historiographer of -France. He wrote a 
 " Reply to Pascal's Provincial Letters," which was ad- 
 mired by the Jesuits, and many other works, of which 
 the most important is his " History of France," (1713.) 
 Walckenaer thinks this is justly celebrated ; buthe admits 
 that there is some foundation for the severe criticisms 
 of Voltaire and others, who charge him with being par- 
 tial and inaccurate. Died in 1728. 
 
 See Lambert, "Histoire litteraire du Regne de Louis XIV;" 
 Joly, " E"loges de quelques Auteurs Francais." 
 
 Daniel, dan'yel, (George,) an English poet and anti- 
 quary, born about 1790. He published "The Modern 
 Dunciad, and other Poems," (1835,) and "Merry England 
 in the Olden Time," (2 vols., 1842.) Died in 1864. 
 
 Daniel, (Joseph Henri,) a French sculptor, born at 
 Nantes in 1804. He obtained several gold medals for 
 his works, among which are a marble statue of Cleopatra, 
 (1847,) and a group representing Music, ordered for the 
 Louvre. 
 
 Daniel, dan'yel, (Peter V.,) a lawyer, born in Staf- 
 ford county, Virginia, about 1785. He was a member 
 of the privy council from 1812 to 1830, and became an 
 associate justice of the supreme court of the United 
 States in 1840. 
 
 Daniel, (Pierre,) a French antiquary and scholar, 
 born at Orleans in 1530; died in 1603. 
 
 Daniel, (Samuel,) a meritorious but neglected Eng- 
 lish poet, born at Taunton in 1562, was educated at 
 Oxford. He became tutor to Anne Clifford, who was 
 afterwards the Countess of Pembroke, and he lived some 
 years in London, where he associated with Shakspeare, 
 Marlowe, and other poets. The report that he succeeded 
 Spenser as poet-laureate is doubted by some ; but it is 
 evident that he was highly appreciated by his contempo- 
 raries. He wrote "The Tragedy of Cleopatra," (1594,) 
 a "History of England," (1613-18,) a historical poem 
 on "The Civil Wars of York and Lancaster," (1595,) 
 " Musophilus," (1599,) and other poems. "Though very 
 rarely sublime," says Headley, "he has skill in the pa- 
 thetic ; and his pages are disgraced by neither pedantry 
 nor conceit." Hallam thinks "his English is eminently 
 pure, free from affectation and pedantic innovation, with 
 very little that is now obsolete." ("Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe.") Died in 1619. 
 
 See Baker, "Biogrnphia Dramatica:" Fuller, "Worthies of 
 England ;" " Life of S. Daniel," prefixed to his " Poetical Works," 
 2 vols., 1718; Headley, "Beauties of Ancient English Poetry;" 
 " Retrospective Review," vol. viii., 1823. 
 
 Daniel, (William Barker,) an English clergyman 
 and writer, produced a work on " Rural Sports, or 
 Treatises on Hunting," etc., (2 vols., 1801.) Died in 1833. 
 
 Daniel de Volterra. See Volterra. 
 
 Daniele, da-ne-a'la, or Danieli, da-ne-a'lee, (Fran- 
 cesco,) a Neapolitan antiquary, born near Caserta in 
 1740. Having written a work called "Codice Frederi- 
 ciano," he was appointed historiographer royal in 1778. 
 In 1 787 he became perpetual secretary of the Herculanean 
 (or Ercolanese) Academy, founded for the publication 
 of discoveries made at Herculaneum and Pompeii. He 
 was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society of London. 
 Among his works are a "Dissertation on the Caudine 
 Forks," (1778,) and one on the " Ancient Coins of Capua," 
 (1802.) Died in 1812. 
 
 See Castaldi, " Vita di Francesco Daniele," 1812 ; Ciampitti, 
 "De Vita 1\ Danielis Commentarius," 1818. 
 
 Danieli. See Daniki.k. 
 
 Dan'iell, (John Frederick,) an eminent English 
 natural philosopher, born in London in 1790. He was 
 elected Fellow of the Royal Socrety in 1814. In 1816 
 he was associated with Professor Brande as joint editor 
 of the "Quarterly Journal of Science," twenty volumes 
 of which were edited by them. He produced an im- 
 portant work entitled "Meteorological Essays," (1823,) 
 and an "Essay on Artificial Climate," (1824.) He was 
 professor of chemistry in King's College from 1831 
 until his death. For his invention of the pyrometer, the 
 Royal Society in 1832 awarded him the Rumford medal, 
 and in 1837 he received the Copley medal for an im- 
 provement in the Voltaic battery. In 1839 he published 
 his admirable " Introduction to Chemical Philosophy." 
 He wrote several smaller treatises on chemistry and 
 other sciences, and obtained in 1842 another foya] medal. 
 He is said to be the only person who has ever received 
 all the three medals in the gift of the Royal Society. 
 Died in 1845. 
 
 Danieli, (Samuel,) an English artist, born in 1777. 
 He spent a few years at the Cape of Good Hope, and 
 after his return home published " African Scenery and 
 Animals," (1808.) He also visited Ceylon, and illus- 
 trated its scenery and animals. Died in Ceylon in 181 1. 
 
 Danieli, (Thomas,) R.A., an eminent landscape- 
 painter and engraver, born about 1750, was an uncle of 
 
 e as h; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in this. (JL^ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DANIELL 
 
 718 
 
 DANTE 
 
 William Daniell, noticed below. He was a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society and of the Antiquarian Society. Died 
 in 1840. (See next article.) 
 
 Daniell, (William,) R.A., an English landscape- 
 painter and engraver, born in 1769, went to India with 
 his uncle Thomas in 1784, and spent ten years in sketch- 
 ing the magnificent scenery of that region. They en- 
 graved a great number of views, which were published 
 in several volumes, entitled "Oriental Scenery," (1808.) 
 He also painted in oil several Indian landscapes. From 
 1814 to 1825 he was employed in drawing and engraving 
 views for a great work entitled " Voyage round Great 
 Britain." Died in 1837. 
 
 Daniello, da-ne-el'lo, (Bernardino,) an Italian critic, 
 who wrote "La Poetica," (1536,) translated Virgil's 
 "Georgics" into verse, (1556,) and wrote a "Commen- 
 tary on Dante," (1568.) Died in 1565. 
 
 Danilevski, da-ne-lev'skee, (Mikhaelovski,) a Rus- 
 sian general, served in several campaigns against the 
 French, and against the Poles in 1831. He wrote "An 
 Account of the Campaigns of 1812," (1834,) and other 
 similar works. Died in 1848. 
 
 See "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1839. 
 
 Danish-war or Danischvar, da'nish-vaR', a Persian 
 poet and historian, born about 600 A.D., was celebrated 
 as the compiler or author of poetical traditions connected 
 with Persian history. 
 
 Dankelmann, dank'el-man, or Danckelmann, 
 dank'kel-man, (Erhard Christoph Balthasar,) a 
 Prussian minister of state, born in Lingen in 1643. He 
 became in 1663 preceptor to Prince Frederick, son of the 
 Elector. His pupil, having ascended the throne in 1688, 
 appointed Dankelmann prime minister. He founded the 
 Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and the University of 
 Halle. By the intrigues of the courtiers, he was dis- 
 missed in 1697, and unjustly imprisoned until 1713. Died 
 in 1722. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgeraeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Dankers (dank'ers) orDanokerts(orDanckaerts) 
 de Ry, dank'keRts deh rl, (Cornelis,) a Dutch archi- 
 tect, born at Amsterdam in 1561. He held for forty years 
 the office of architect of his native city, where he erected 
 many public buildings. The most remarkable of these 
 is the Exchange, finished in 1613. Died in 1634. 
 
 See Pingeron, "Vies des Architectes." 
 
 Danks. See Dancks. 
 
 Daiiloux, d&N'loo', (Pierre,) a French historical 
 painter, born in Paris in 1745. During the Revolution he 
 retired to England, where he painted history and por 
 
 traits, among which is a portrait of the poet Delille, who 
 complimented him in his poem on " Pity." Died in Paris 
 in 1809. 
 
 Dannecker, von, fon dan'nek-ker, (Johann Hein- 
 RICH,) a celebrated German sculptor, born at or near 
 Stuttgart in 1758. He was educated in the school of 
 design at Ludwigsburg with Schiller, who became his 
 friend. About 1780 he was appointed sculptor to the 
 Duke of Wiirtemberg-. He studied in Paris under Pajou 
 in 17S3 and 1784. In 1785 he visited Rome, where he 
 remained about five years and associated with Goethe, 
 Herder, and Canova. On his return to Stuttgart in 1790 
 he was chosen professor of plastic arts in the Academy 
 of that place. He made admirable busts of Schiller, 
 
 Governor-General of Algeria. He was killed in October 
 of <hat year, at the siege of Constantinc, where he was 
 commander-in-chief. 
 
 See " Revue des Deux Mondes" for August 15, 1845. 
 
 Dansse. See Villoison. 
 
 Dantal, d&N'ttl', (Pierre,) a French grammarian, 
 born at La Souchere in 1781 ; died in 1820. 
 
 Dantan, do.N'toN', (Antoine Laurent,) a French 
 statuary, born at Saint-Cloud in 1798. Having gained 
 the first prize in 1828, he went to Rome as a pensioner. 
 He returned in 1833, and worked in Paris with success. 
 Among his works are a bas-relief of Silene, and a bust 
 of Josephine of France. 
 
 Dantan, (Jean Pierre,) a distinguished sculptor, 
 brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1800. He 
 displayed a remarkable talent for caricature in grotesque 
 figures of celebrated contemporaries, and attained pre* 
 eminence in this novel branch of art. He has produce.! 
 busts of Cherubini, (1847,) Maine de Biran, (1850,) Rosa 
 Bonheur, and other persons, which are good likenesses 
 without caricature. 
 
 Dan'te, [It. pron. dan'ti ; Fr„ Dante, doNt or daNt,*] 
 or, more fully, Durantet Allighieri, (or Alighieri,) 
 doo-ran'ti a-le-ge-a'ree, [Lat. Dan'tes Alige'rius,] an 
 illustrious Italian poet, regarded as the greatest poetical 
 genius that flourished between the Augustan and the 
 Elizabethan age, was born in Florence in May, 1265. 
 He was instructed in liberal studies and arts by Brunetto 
 Latini and other eminent scholars, and became well 
 versed in Latin, philosophy, and theology. He also 
 acquired skill in music, painting, and other accomplish- 
 ments. He is said to have studied at Padua, Bologna, 
 and Paris. In early youth (1274) his spiritual life and 
 imaginative faculty were awakened bv his love for Bea- 
 trice Portinari. This passion inspired his first poetic 
 efforts, and exerted on his mind a profound and lasting 
 influence. In his "Vita Nuova," a beautiful reverie, 
 written about 1290 in alternate prose and verse, he has 
 commemorated this tender passion, which, it appears, 
 was not unrequited, though, for some unknown reason, 
 they were not united. The tradition that she married 
 another is not confirmed by any passage in his writings. 
 After her death (in 1290) his friends persuaded him to 
 marry Gemma Donati, a lady of a noble family; but the 
 parties were so uncongenial that they finally separated. 
 She>complained of his unsocial habits. 
 H Florence and Italy were then distracted by the impla- 
 cable feuds of the Guelphs and Ghibelines. Dante's family 
 being Guelphs, he espoused their cause with character- 
 istic ardour, and fought for it at Campaldino, in 1289, 
 with signal bravery. His eloquence and address were 
 displayed in several political missions to foreign courts. 
 In 1300 he was elected to the high office of Prior of Flo- 
 rence, where the Guelph party was divided between two 
 factions, called Bianchi and Neri, (Whites and Blacks.) 
 The Donati were the leaders of the Neri, and Dante 
 favoured the Bianchi. The Neri prevailed, and in 1302 
 condemned Dante, with many others, to perpetual ban- 
 ishment, and the confiscation of his estate, on a charge 
 of peculation. From this time he wandered without a 
 home, and suffered much from poverty in addition to his 
 other afflictions. It appears that his wife and children 
 did not follow him in exile. 
 
 statue of Ariadne, which is highly commended. Among 
 his greatest works are a colossal statue of Christ, finished 
 in 1824, and a statue of John the Baptist. Died in 1841. 
 
 See "Life of Dannecker," published at Hamburg in 1S41 ; Nag- 
 ler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle liiographie Gene- 
 rate ;" Mrs. L. M. Child's "Looking towards Sunset," p. 279. 
 
 Dannemayer, dan'neh-ml'er, (Matthaus,) a German 
 theologian, born in Suabia in 1741 ; died in 1805. 
 
 Dannhauer, dan'how'er, written also Danhawer or 
 Dauhower, (Johann Conrad,) a German Lutheran 
 divine, born at Kendring in 1603. He was professor of 
 eloquence and theology at Strasburg. Died in 1666. 
 
 Danremont, de, deh d5N'ra'm6N', (Charles Marie 
 Denis,) Count, a French general, born at Chaumont 
 (Haute-Marne) in 1783. He entered the army in 1804, 
 became a lieutenant-general in 1830, and was made a peer 
 of France in 1835. In February, 1837, he was appointed 
 
 Lavater, Gluck, and others. In 1809 he commenced a The events of his life subsequent to his banishment 
 
 are mostly involved in uncertainty. Like his fellow-ex- 
 iles, he joined the Ghibeline party, and made unsuccess- 
 ful attempts to recover his rights. Among the princes 
 whose hospitality he enjoyed in his exile were Cane 
 Grande de la Scala, of Verona, and Guido Novello, of 
 Ravenna, to the former of whom he dedicated his " Pa- 
 radise" About 13 16 the privilege of returning to Flo- 
 rence was offered to him, on condition that he would pay 
 a fine and confess his guilt. This offer he rejected with 
 indignation ; though he expressed a desire to be restored 
 on any terms "consistent with the fame and honour of 
 Dante." He died at Ravenna, September 14, 1321. The 
 
 * Chaucer has Daunt or Daunte, (Wyf of Bathes Tale,) which 
 seems to be merely an English representation of the French pronun- 
 ciation. 
 
 t Durante, his original name, was contracted in popular parlance 
 into Dante. 
 
 5, e, !, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon,- 
 
DANTE 
 
 719 
 
 DANTZ 
 
 following lines inscribed on his tomb are supposed to be 
 his own composition : 
 
 " Hie claudor Dantes patriis extorris ab oris, 
 Quem genuit parvi Florentia mater anions. "* 
 
 Soon after his death appeared his sublime and unique 
 poem, the " Divina Commedia," which is supposed to 
 have Ixren written during his exile; but the time and place 
 of its origin are not ascertained. It was first printed in 
 1472. The subject of this poem is the author's own ex- 
 perience, real or imaginary, and the scene is laid in the 
 infernal regions, purgatory, and paradise. It is certainly 
 a surprising phenomenon to appear in that dark period 
 of transition between ancient and modern literature. 
 
 "Dante," says Hallam, "is among the very few who 
 have created the national poetry of their country. Of all 
 writers he is the most unquestionably original. . . . No 
 poet ever excelled him in conciseness and in the rare 
 talent of finishing his pictures by a few bold touches, — 
 the merit of Pindar in his better hours. . . . The great 
 characteristic excellence of Dante is elevation of senti- 
 ment, to which his compressed diction and the emphatic 
 cadences of his measure admirably correspond." (" In- 
 troduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 "I suppose," says Ruskin, "that the powers of the 
 imagination may always be tested by accompanying ten- 
 derness of emotion ; and thus (as Byron said) there is no 
 tenderness like Dante's, neither any intensity nor serious- 
 ness like his, — such seriousness that it is incapable of 
 perceiving that which is commonplace or ridiculous, but 
 fuses all down into its white-hot fire." 
 
 "Ah, from what agonies of heart and brain, 
 What exultations trampling on despair, 
 What tenderness, what tears, what hate of wrong, 
 What passionate outcry of a soul in pain, 
 Uprose this poem of the earth and air, 
 This medieval miracle of song 1" 
 
 Longfellow's "Divina Commedia." 
 
 Dante was taciturn, inclined to solitude, and familiar 
 with but few. Voltaire, who did not appreciate his genius, 
 wittily says, "His reputation will go on increasing, be- 
 cause scarcely anybody reads him." To this it may be 
 replied that he is read, if not by ordinary readers, at 
 least by all those who can appreciate originality and 
 power in the expression of human passion. Dante wrote, 
 in Latin prose, a political work "On Monarchy," (" De 
 Monarchia,") and " De Vulgari Eloquio," a treatise on 
 the structure of the Italian language ; also, in Italian 
 prose, " II Convito," a mystical commentary on three of 
 his odes. The style of his prose is pure, elegant, and 
 nervous ; that of his verse is still more admirable. Two 
 of his sons, Pietro and Jacopo, had literary tastes, and 
 wrote valuable commentaries on their father's poem. 
 Cary's translation of the "Commedia" into English blank 
 verse is highly commended. 'We have also an excellent 
 English version of the "Divina Commedia" by Long- 
 fellow, remarkable for its literalness. 
 
 See Boccaccio, "Vita di Dante," 1544; Chabanon, "Vie de 
 Dante," 1773 ; Fabroni, " Elogj di Dante, di PolizianO," etc., 1800; 
 Artal-d de Montor, " Histoirede Dante," 1841 ; R. de Vericour, 
 " Life and Times of Dante," 1858 ; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry 
 of Kurope;" Faurirl, " Dante et les Originesde la Langue et la Lit- 
 terature Italiennes," 2 vols., 1854; Ampere, "Voyage Dantesqne" 
 in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," 1839: Macaulav, "Essay on 
 Milton;" F. X. Wf.gele, " Dante's Leben und Werke," 1852 ; C'E- 
 sare Halbo, " Vita nuova di Dante," 1839; English version of the 
 same, by Hlnvan, 1852; Missikini, "Vita di Dante Alighieri," 
 1840; Emil Roth, "Studien iiber Dante Alighieri," 1853; Uc;o 
 0, '"Discorso Mil Teste di Dante," 1825: Rev. Henry 
 Stekhing, "Lives of the Italian Poets," London, 1831. 
 
 Dante, dan'la, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 mathematician, born at Perugia, lived about 1500. lie 
 attempted to fly with artificial wings, but fell, and broke 
 his leg, 
 
 Dante or Danti, dan'tee, (Giroi.amo,) a Venetian 
 painter of the sixteenth century, was a pupil of Titian. 
 
 Dante or Danti, (IgnaZIO,) an Italian geometer, 
 bom at Perugia in 1537, entered the Dominican order. 
 Cosimo I. invited him t<> Florence to teach mathem 
 In 1583 he was made Hishop of Alatri. I It wrote several 
 treatises on astronomy and mathematics, and was the 
 first modern who made a gnomon by which the equity ttei 
 and solstices could be determined. His " Mathematical 
 
 • literally, " Here [IJ Dante, whom Florence, a mother of little 
 lore, bore, am enclosed, an exile from my native country." 
 
 Science reduced to Tables" is a work of great erudition, 
 Died in 1586. 
 
 Dante or Danti, (Pietro Vincf.N7x>,) an Italian poet 
 and mathematician, born at Perugia, wrote a tonmien- 
 i.u\ nn the Sphere of Sacrabosco, (1544,) and verses in 
 imitation of the great poet Dante. Died : n 1512. 
 
 Dante or Danti, (Vinctnzo,) an eminent Italian 
 architect and sculptor, born at Perugia in 15.7c, wag 
 employed by the grand duke Cosimo de' Medici. His 
 statue of Julius III. at Perugia is esteemed a rraster- 
 piece. He was a near relative of Ignazio, noticed above, 
 lie made for the Escurial designs which Cosimo I. sent 
 to Philip II. of Spain. Died in 1576. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc 
 
 Dantes Aligerius. See Dante. 
 
 Danti. See Dante. 
 
 Dantine, dftN'ten', or D'Antine, (Francois,) a 
 French Benedictine monk, born in the diocese of Liege 
 in 1688, lived some years in Paris. He was one of the 
 editors of Du Gauge's "Glossary," (1733,) and the first 
 principal editor of the " Art of Verifying Dates," a valua- 
 ble work on chronology. Died in 1746. 
 
 Danton, dan'ton orcloN't6.\', (Georges Jacques,) an 
 arch-demagogue of the French Revolution, born at Arcis- 
 sur-Aube in 1759, was a lawyer by profession. With 
 a large, muscular frame, a passionate temperament, an 
 audacious spirit, and the voice of a Stentor, he was well 
 constituted for a political agitator. " Nature has given 
 me," said he, " the athletic form and the harsh expres- 
 sion of liberty." He instituted the club of Cordeliers, 
 perhaps even more intemperately radical than that of the 
 Jacobins, and became the chief orator of the Parisian 
 populace. He instigated and directed the sanguinary 
 insurrection of the 10th of August, 1792, which subverted 
 the French monarchy. The supreme power then fell 
 into the hands of Danton, Marat, and Robespierre, the 
 first of whom, obtaining the office of minister of justice, 
 had the chief control of the capital. 
 
 In the alarm caused by the invasion of France by the 
 Prussians, he spoke with confidence, and urged the 
 adoption of a bold and resolute policy. He appears 
 to have been responsible for the massacre of the im- 
 prisoned royalists in September, 1792, as he made little 
 or no effort to protect them. On his election to the 
 Convention he resigned the office of minister of justice, 
 became the leader of the Mountain, and voted for the 
 death of the king. His power soon declined, as his 
 crimes disgusted the honest republicans and his success 
 excited the jealousy of Robespierre. He used to say, 
 "All will go well as long as men say, ' Robespierre and 
 Danton ;' but woe to me if ever they should say, ' Dan- 
 ton and Robespierre.'" In 1793 he was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the committee of public safety. At the crisis of 
 his struggle with Robespierre, Damon's decision tailed. 
 Though he knew his death was resolved on, he declined 
 to fly or to strike the first blow. In March, 1794, he 
 was arrested with Lacroix and others, and taken before 
 the fatal tribunal which he had himself instituted. Little 
 formality was observed at his trial, — or rather his con- 
 demnation ; for the judges refused to hear his defence. 
 When the judge asked him his name, residence, etc., he 
 answered, " My name is Danton ; my dwelling will soon 
 be in annihilation; but my name will live in the I'anlheon 
 of history." He maintained his usual assurance and 
 lofty heaving at the scaffold, where he perished April 5, 
 1794. According to Lamartine, " Nothing was wanting 
 to make Ihtnl.-n .1 meat man, CXOSpt viilue." 
 
 See Tiiifrs, " Hi-'" 1 ' 'I :li ■ trench Revolution ;" Lamartink, 
 
 ' MittiKLF 1 -volti- 
 
 ." Vn.LAt'ME " Hisloiic de In I 1 ,Kn 
 
 fi am, "Statesmen of the Time of George ill.:" Hafantk, 
 
 " Hlttoin 1831 ; 
 
 .ickwood's M.t 
 ary, 1823; " Foreign Quarterly" lor April, 1844; " British (Ju.trterly" 
 . 1866. 
 
 Danton, (Joseph ArsEnf.,) a French editor, nephew 
 of the preceding, was born at Plancy (Aube) in 1814. 
 In 1^40 he was employed by M. Villemain, minister of 
 public instruction, as chef de cabinet. He edited in 1839 
 " Cousin'* Lectures OH Philosophy delivered in 1819-20." 
 
 Dantz or Danz, dints. (Joiiann Andreas,) a German 
 Orientalist, born near Gotha in 1654, was professor of 
 
 «M/r, 9 as s; %hard; gas,/; c,H,K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; 5asi; th as in this. (2^~Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DANTZIC 
 
 720 
 
 DARCET 
 
 Oriental languages, and afterwards of theology, at Jena. 
 He published grammars of the Hebrew and Syriac lan- 
 guages, and many works on the history and antiquities 
 of the Jews. Died in 1727. 
 
 Dantzic, Duke of. See Lefebvre, (Francois 
 Joseph.) 
 
 Danu, [Hindoo pron. dun'oo,] in Hindoo mythology, 
 a daughter of Daksha, and the mother of the Danavas. 
 (See Danava.) 
 
 Dan'vers, (Henry,) Earl of Danby, an English offi- 
 cer and courtier, born in Wiltshire in 1573, served as 
 captain in the army which Elizabeth sent to aid Henry 
 IV. of France, and was knighted for his conduct in that 
 war. He was afterwards major-general under the Earl 
 of Essex in Ireland. Charles I. created him Earl of Danby 
 and a member of the privy council. He founded a botanic 
 garden for the University of Oxford. Died in 1644. 
 
 Danville. See Anville, d\ 
 
 Dana. See Dantz. 
 
 Danz, dints, (Ferdinand Georg,) a German phy- 
 sician, born in the duchy of Darmstadt in 1761, pub- 
 lished several useful medical works. He was professor 
 at Giessen, where he died in 1793. 
 
 Danzer, dint'ser, (Jakob,) a German Catholic theo- 
 logian, born at Langenfeld in 1743 ; died in 1796. 
 
 Danzi, dant'see, (Franz,) a German composer of 
 operas and church-music, was born at Manheim in 1763 ; 
 died in 1826. 
 
 Daph'ne, [Gr. Aa^Kj;,] a nymph of classic mythology, 
 beloved by Apollo. According to the poetical legend, 
 she fled from Apollo, who pursued her, and was trans- 
 formed into a laurel-tree, which was afterwards sacred 
 to Apollo. 
 
 Daph'nis, [Gr. Aa^vi'c,] a shepherd and hero of Sicily, 
 the reputed inventor of pastoral poetry, was called a son 
 of Mercury. The poets relate that he was the favoured 
 lover of a Naiad, who punished him with blindness for 
 his infidelity to her. 
 
 See the First Idyl of Theocritus and the Fifth Eclogue of Virgil. 
 
 Da Ponte, da pon'tk, (Lorenzo,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Ceneda in 1749. Having been banished from 
 Venice fbr some satirical verses, he went to Vienna, 
 where he became Latin secretary to Joseph II. Here 
 he wrote several operas for the Italian theatre. After 
 the death of Joseph II. he passed some years in Lon- 
 don, whence, in 1805, he emigrated to New York. About 
 1829 he was appointed professor of Italian in Columbia 
 College. He wrote " Don Giovanni" (or " Don Juan") 
 and other dramas, and sonnets. 
 
 Da Ponte, (Lorenzo,) a son of the preceding, born 
 in London in 1805, became professor of belles-lettres in 
 the University of New York. He wrote a " History of 
 the Florentine Republic," (1833.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Dapper, dap'per, (Olivkr or Oi.fert,) a Dutch 
 physician and geographer, published several extensive 
 and interesting works, among which are a "Description 
 of Africa," (1668,) a "Description of the Chinese Em- 
 pire," and a " Description of Asia." His works contain 
 many maps and excellent plates. Died in 1690. 
 
 Daquiii or D'Aquin. See Aquin, d'. 
 
 Daquin, da'kaN', (Joseph,) a noted physician, born 
 at Chambery in 1757, wrote, besides other works, "La 
 Philosophie de la Folie," ("The Philosophy of In- 
 sanity," 2d ed., 1804.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Dara or Darab, the Persian of Darius, which see. 
 
 Dara-Shik6h, da'ri shT-koh', written also Dara- 
 Chekouh, a Hindoo prince, born in 1616, was the 
 favourite son of Shah Jehan. He was defeated in battle 
 by his brother Aurung-Zeb, and put to death by his order 
 in 1643. 
 
 Daran, dfro.N', (Jacques,) a skilful French surgeon, 
 born at Saint-Frajon in 1701, practised with success in 
 Milan, Turin, and Messina. At the last place he gained 
 credit by his professional services and humanity during 
 the plague. He was settled at Marseilles, when the fame 
 of his skill in disorders of the urethra induced the king 
 to invite him to Paris, where he resided until his death. 
 The king granted him letters of noblesse in 1755. Daran 
 invented the bougies which bear his name, and wrote a 
 few professional works. Died in 1784. 
 
 See "Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 D'Arblay, dar*bla or dtu'ljlj', Madamh, (originally 
 Frances Bur'ney,) a celebrated English novelist, born 
 at Lynn-Regis in 1752, was the daughter of Dr. Charles 
 Bumey, an eminent musician and author of the " History 
 of Music." She was a shy and silent child, and at the 
 age of eight did not know her letters. Her mother having 
 died when Frances was about ten, no teacher or governess 
 was provided for her ; but her fond father's negligence 
 was compensated by her own efforts in self-education. 
 In 1760 Mr. Burney removed to London, where he 
 gained admission into the highest literary society, and 
 his house was frequented by Johnson, Burke, Garrick, 
 and many others. His concerts, at which the greatest 
 Italian vocalists performed gratis, attracted a throng of 
 the most noble as well as the most fashionable of the 
 metropolis. By such social influences, rather than by 
 books and schools, was her mind trained and matured; 
 though she seldom performed any part on this scene but 
 that of a silent and diffident observer. About 1776 her 
 novel "Evelina" — commenced some years before — was 
 ready for the press. Observing a strict secrecy respect- 
 ing the authorship of the book, she sent the manuscript 
 to Dodsley without her name; but he refused to publish 
 it on such conditions. After much delay, it was sold 
 for twenty pounds, and appeared anonymously in 1778. 
 The admiration and applause with which it was received 
 were much increased when the secret transpired that the 
 author was a reserved, obscure young woman. Her 
 book was warmly eulogized by Burke, Johnson, Gibbon, 
 and Sheridan, the first of whom sat up all night to read 
 it, and the second pronounced her superior to Fielding. 
 "She found herself," says Macaulay, "on the highest 
 pinnacle of fame." Her second book, "Cecilia," (1782,) 
 did not disappoint the high expectations of the public. 
 "It was placed," says Macaulay, "by general acclama- 
 tion, among the classical novels of England." In 1786 
 she had the misfortune to be appointed second keeper 
 of the robes to Queen Charlotte, with a salary of two 
 hundred pounds. This situation was peculiarly and 
 extremely irksome to a person of her fine sensibility, as 
 she was debarred from all congenial society and subject 
 to the constant restraints of despotic etiquette. For five 
 years, in deference to her father's wishes, she sacrificed 
 lier health and domestic happiness for the privilege of 
 standing in the presence of royalty. In 1793 she married 
 Count D'Arblay, an amiable and estimable French officer, 
 then an exile. From 1802 to 1816 she resided with her 
 husband in France. She died at Bath in 1840. Besides 
 the above-named works, she wrote "Camilla," and other 
 fictions. Her "Diary and Letters" (7 vols., 1842-46) is 
 a work of rare interest. 
 
 See Macaulay, " Essay on Madame D'Arblay." 
 
 Dar'bjf, (William,) an American geographer, born 
 in Pennsylvania. He published a valuable and interesting 
 work, entitled a "View of the United States," with a 
 particular account of the various river-basins, and other 
 information. Died in 1854. 
 
 Dare, (Joan.) See Joan of Arc. 
 
 Darcet, diR'si', (Jean,) a distinguished French che- 
 mist and physician, born at Doazit, in Guienne, in 1727. 
 About 1742 he acquired the friendship of Montesquieu, 
 who employed him as tutor to his son in Paris. After 
 the death of that patron, Darcet devoted himself to 
 chemical researches in concert with Count de Laugarais. 
 He made successful experiments in the fabrication and 
 improvement of porcelain, the components of which he 
 discovered by analysis about 1766. At the death of 
 Macquer (1784) he was chosen in his place a member of 
 the Academy of Sciences, and director of the manu- 
 factory of Sevres. He was also inspector-general of the 
 assay-office, and a professor in the College of Fiance. 
 He demonstrated that the diamond is combustible, and 
 invented the metallic alloy which bears his name, and 
 which is fusible at the temperature of boiling water. 
 He was the author of several chemical treatises. Died 
 in 1S01. 
 
 See J. J. Dize, " Precis historique sur la Vie de J. Darcet," 1802 ; 
 *' Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Darcet, (Jean Pierre Joseph,) an eminent chemist, 
 son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1777. He was 
 appointed assayer of the mint in 1801, and afterwards 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m3t; net; good; moon; 
 
DARCON 
 
 721 
 
 DARLING 
 
 founded or directed several manufactories of chemical pro- 
 ducts which he improved, and among which were soda 
 and soap. In 1823 he succeeded Berthollet as chemist 
 in the Academy of Sciences. He wrote many useful 
 treatises on sanitary and economical questions, one of 
 which is "On the Principal Salt-Mines of Europe," 
 (1824.) Died in 1844. 
 
 See " Notice sur J. P. J. Darcet," Paris, 1844. 
 
 Darcon. See Arcon, d\ 
 
 D'Ar'cy, (Patrick,) Count, an Irish engineer and 
 Bcientific author, born at Galloway in 1725, removed to 
 France in early youth, and served in the French army in 
 1744. He was skilled in mechanics and other sciences, 
 and wrote an "Essay on Artillery," a "Memoir on the 
 Duration of the Sensation of Sight," and other works. 
 Condorcet composed his eulogy in the Academy of Sci- 
 ences. Died in Paris in 1779. 
 
 Dar'da-ims, [Gr. Aupctooc,] a mythical or semi-fabu- 
 lous personage, who is represented as a son of Jupiter 
 and Electra, and the ancestor of the Trojans. Homer 
 reckons five generations between Dardanus and Priam. 
 
 Dardel, diR'deV, (Robert Guillaume,) a French 
 sculptor, born in Paris in 1749; died in 1821. 
 
 Dardi, daR'dee, (Bembo,) an Italian Hellenist, born 
 at Venice about 1560, translated the works of Plato into 
 Italian. Died about 1640. 
 
 Dareau, da'ro', (Francois,) a French jurist, born 
 near Guevet in 1736 ; died about 1783. 
 
 Daremberg, di'r&N'baiR', (Charles Victor,) a 
 French physician, born at Dijon in 1817. He published 
 (in French) "Select Works of Hippocrates," (1843,) an 
 edition of Galen, (1854,) and other works. In 1849 he 
 became librarian of the Mazarin Library. 
 
 Da'res [Gr. A(ip>/c; Fr. Dares, dt'reV] of Phrygia, a 
 priest of Vulcan, is mentioned in the " Iliad" of Homer, 
 who praises his wisdom. He is supposed to have been 
 present at the siege of Troy. There existed in the early 
 ages a history of the destruction of Troy, which was re- 
 garded as the work of Dares, and as older than Homer's 
 " Iliad." A prose work in barbarous Latin has come down 
 to us which purports to be a version of that of Dares. It 
 was popular in the fifteenth century, and was often printed 
 with the work of Dictys Cretensis. 
 
 See J. G. Eck, "Dissertatio de Darete Phrygio," 1768. 
 
 Dareste, di'rJst', (Antoine Elisabeth Ci.eophas,) 
 a French historical writer, born in Paris in 1820. 
 
 Daret, dfr&'i (Pierre,) a French engraver, born in 
 Paris in 1610, published a collection of the portraits 
 of eminent persons of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries, which was highly prized, also a "Life of 
 Raphael, translated from the Italian," (1651.) Died 
 in 1675. 
 
 Dar'gan, (William,) an eminent Irish engineer and 
 contractor, born in Carlow county about 1800. He super- 
 intended the construction of several railways and canals 
 in Ireland. He was the chief promoter of the Dublin 
 Exhibition of 1853, on which he expended many thou- 
 sand pounds of his own money. 
 
 Dargaud.dtR'go', (J. M.,) a French writer, a friend and 
 imitator of Lamartine, born at Paray-le-Monial in 1800, 
 published, among other works, "Solitude," (1838,) a 
 " History of [Queen] Mary Stuart," (1850,) and poetical 
 versions of Job and the Psalms of David. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi." 
 
 D'Argenson. See Argenson, d'. 
 
 D'Argental. See Argental, d\ 
 
 D'Argentrei. See Argentre, d'. 
 
 D'Argenville. See Dezallier. 
 
 D'Argonne. See Argonne, d\ 
 
 Daiies, di're-es. or Darjes, daR'yes, (Joachim 
 Georg,) a German jurist and philosopher, born at Giis- 
 trow in 1714. He began in 1738 to teach philosophy at 
 Jena, and in 1763 was appointed by Frederick the Great 
 professor of law at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, with the title 
 of privy councillor. He published many able works, 
 among which are "The First Principles of Finance," 
 (in German, 1756,) and "Institutes of Universal Juris- 
 prudence," (in I^atin, 1766.) Died in 1791. 
 
 See J. H. Fichte, " Beitritge zur Charakteristik der Neueren 
 Philosophen ;" C. R. Hausen, 
 rer gescnildert," 1791. 
 
 G. Daries ais academischer Leh- 
 
 Da-ri'us* [Gr. Aapeioc; It, Dario, dl-ree'o ; Persian, 
 Dara, da'rl, or Darab, da-rab'] I, or Da-ri'us Hys- 
 tas'pis, (known as Gushtasp (g66sh-tlsp') in the legend- 
 ary history of Persia,) King of Persia,was the son of Hys- 
 taspes, a member of the noble family of Achaemenidae. In 
 521 B.C., having killed the usurper Smerdis, he ascended 
 the throne recently vacated by the death of Cambyses. 
 He first organized the extensive empire which Cyrus 
 and Cambyses had acquired by conquest, and divided it 
 into twenty grand satrapies. After suppressing a revolt 
 of the Babylonians, he led a great expedition against the 
 nomadic Scythians of Europe, which was not success- 
 ful. To chastise the Athenians for aiding some Ionian 
 insurgents, he sent Datis and Artaphernes with a large 
 army, which was completely routed at Marathon in 490 
 B.C. He was preparing to renew the contest, when he 
 died in 485, and was succeeded by his son Xerxes. 
 Darius was a ruler of superior ability. 
 
 See Herodotus; Gbote, " History of Greece ;" Thiriavall, 
 "History of Greece;" Carl L Struve, '' Feldzug des Darius 
 gegen die Scythen," 1S12; Justin, books L, ii., and vii. 
 
 Darius II, called Da-ri'us O'chus or No'thus, 
 was the natural son of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who gave 
 him in marriage his daughter Parysatis. Having deposed 
 Sogdianus, who had killed Xerxes II., the lawful heir, he 
 became king in 424 B.C. He died in 405, leaving two 
 sons, Artaxerxes Mnemon and Cyrus the Younger, the 
 former of whom was his successor. 
 
 See Xenophon, " Hellenica" and "Anabasis." 
 
 Darius III. or Cod-o-man'nus, the last king of the 
 ancient Persian monarchy, was a descendant of Darius 
 Nothus. He began to reign at the death of Arses, in 
 336 B.C. In the second year of his reign Persia was 
 invaded by Alexander of Macedon, who gained a victory 
 at the river Grani'cus. Darius, having taken command 
 of his army, was defeated at Issus in 333, and at Arbela 
 in 331 B.C. He then retreated towards Bactriana, pursued 
 by the Macedonians, who were on the point of taking him 
 prisoner, when he was killed by Bessus, one of his own 
 satraps, in 330. With his expiring breath he expressed 
 his thanks to the victor for his humane treatment of 
 the royal captives, his wife and daughters. Alexandei 
 married his daughter Statira. 
 
 See the Histories of Arrian, Justin, and Quintus Curtius. 
 
 Darius Hystaspes. See Darius I. 
 Darius Ochus. See Darius II. 
 Darius the Mede, of the Bible, is supposed to be 
 the Cyaxares II. of profane history. 
 See Daniel vi. 
 
 Darjes. See Daries. 
 
 Darke, dark, (William,) an American officer, born 
 in Pennsylvania in 1736. He served with distinction in 
 the Revolutionary war. Died in 1801. 
 
 Dar'ley, (Felix O. C.,) an eminent American de- 
 signer, born in Philadelphia in 1822. He removed to 
 New York about 1848. He has illustrated Irving'* 
 " Sketch-Book," " Knickerbocker's New York," " Rip 
 van Winkle," and other humorous works, with success ; 
 also the novels of J. Fenimore Cooper, and the works 
 of Dickens. His outline illustrations of Judd's "Mar- 
 garet" are greatly and justly admired. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Dar'ley, (George,) a poet and mathematician, born 
 in Dublin in 1785, removed to London in 1825. He 
 gained distinction by his critical contributions to the 
 " Literary Gazette" and " Athenaeum," and wrote several 
 poems, one of which is called " Sylvia, or the May Queen," 
 (1827,) and treatises on geometry and algebra. Died 
 in 1849. 
 
 Dar'ling, (Grace,) an English heroine, born at Barn- 
 borough in 181 5, was the daughter of the keeper of the 
 Longstone light-house, on one of the Fame Islands. The 
 Forfarshire steamer having been wrecked in that vicinity, 
 September 6, 183S, she went out in a small boat, at the 
 imminent peril of her life, and rescued nine persons who 
 were clinging to a rock. A public subscription of about 
 ^700 was raised by the people of the United Kingdom 
 as a testimonial to her heroic conduct. Died in 1842. 
 
 • Darius, in Persian Dara or Darab, and in Hebrew Daryavesh, si^- 
 ni6es "prince," or "lord;" hence Daritu UyuaipM wonJd signify the 
 "lord or king [son ofj Hystaspes or Gushitop." (.^t:c GushtAsP.) 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; gas/; g, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as »; th as in this. 
 
 46 
 
 (jy^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DARLING 
 
 722 
 
 DARWIN 
 
 Darling, (James,) an English bibliographer, born in 
 1797, was for many years a bookseller in London. He 
 published (1852-57) a valuable work, entitled "Cyclo- 
 paedia Bibliographica : a Library Manual of Theological 
 and General Literature," (2 vols.) Died in 1862. 
 
 Dar'ling-ton, (William,) M.D., an eminent Ameri- 
 can botanist, born in Birmingham, Chester county, Penn- 
 sylvania, in 1782. He practised medicine at West Ches- 
 ter, and was elected a member of Congress in 1814 by the 
 voters of his native county, which he also represented for 
 two other terms, (1819-23.) He published a valuable 
 work on the plants of Chester county, entitled "Flora 
 Cestrica," (1837,) which was commended by eminent 
 botanists of Europe ; also, " Memorials of John Bartram 
 and Humphrey Marshall," (1849.) Died in 1863. 
 
 See "Obituary Notice of William Darlington," read before the 
 American Philosophical Society, February 19, 1S64, by T. P. Jamhs. 
 
 Darluc, dSR'Hik', (Michel,) a French physician and 
 naturalist, born at Grimaud in 1707 or 1717, obtained the 
 chair of botany in the University of Aix. He wrote the 
 "Natural History of Provence," (3 vols., 1782-86,) and 
 several medical works. Died in 1783. 
 
 Darmagnac, daVmin'yik', (Jean Barthelemi,) 
 Vicomte, a French general, born at Toulouse in 1 766, 
 distinguished himself at Austerlitz in 1805, and, as gen- 
 eral of division, rendered important services at Vittoria 
 (June, 1813) and Toulouse, (1814.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Darmaing, diR'maN', (Jean Jerome Achille,) a 
 French journalist, born at Pamiers in 1794, began in 1825 
 to publish the " Gazette des Tribunaux," which was very 
 successful. About 1832 he became chief editor of the 
 "Constitutionnel." Died in 1836. 
 
 Darnau, din'iio', (Jacques,) Baron, a French gen- 
 eral, born in Loiret in 1768; died in 1830. 
 
 DarnTey, (Henry Stuart,) Lord, a Scottish noble, 
 born in England about 1545, was the son of the Earl of 
 Lenox and Margaret Douglas, a niece of Henry VIII. 
 of England. His father was descended from the house 
 of Stuart, and his mother was a half-sister of James V. 
 His relation to the royal family and his comely person 
 caused him to be selected in 1565 as the husband of 
 Queen Mary. She treated him at first with much kind- 
 ness, but was soon disgusted by his stupidity, insolence, 
 and profligacy. He instigated the murder of Rizzio, which 
 she deeply resented and resolved to revenge. During a 
 fit of illness Damley lodged in an isolated house called 
 the Kirk in the Field, which was blown up by gunpowder, 
 Darniey being killed, February 9, 1567. Respecting the 
 responsibility of this crime, see Mary Stuart. 
 
 See Burton. " History of Scotland," vol. iv. chaps, xliii.-xlviii.; 
 Robertson, " History of Scotland ;" Froudr," History of England," 
 vol. viii., chaps, viii., ix., x.; Mignet, "Histoire de Marie Stuart." 
 
 Darondeau,dt'rd.N'd6',(STANlSLAS.) a French painter 
 of genre and religious subjects, born about 1800; died in 
 1842. 
 
 Darquier de Pellepoix, daVke-4' deh peTpwa', 
 (Augustin,) a French astronomer, born at Toulouse in 
 1 718, had an observatory at his own house, and hired 
 persons to calculate. He wrote a "Uranography," 
 (1771,) which Lalande commended, "Astronomical Ob- 
 servations," (1777-82,) and a few other scientific works. 
 He was an associate of the Institute. Died in 1802. 
 
 Darracq, dt'rSk', (Francois Balthasar,) a French 
 legislator, born at Mont-de-Marsan about 1750, was a 
 member of the Council of Five Hundred, (1795-99.) 
 Died about 1808. 
 
 Darrigol, dS're'gol', (Jean Pierre,) a French priest, 
 born in 1790. He wrote an able "Critical Dissertation 
 on the Basque Language." In 1829 he won a prize from 
 the French Academy for his "Analysis Raisonnee of the 
 Grammatical System of the Basque Language," when 
 William Humboldt was a competitor. Died in 1829. 
 
 Darriule, da're'ul', (Jean,) Baron, a French general, 
 born at Arudy in 1774; died in 1850. 
 
 Dart, (John,) an English antiquary, flourished about 
 1725, and wrote "Antiquities of Westminster Abbey," 
 (2 vols., 1723.) 
 
 Darthe, dSu'ta', (Augustin A. J.,) a French Jacobin, 
 born at Saint-Pol in 1769. He was executed as an ac- 
 complice of Babeuf in 1797. 
 
 Dartmouth, Lord. See Legge, (George.) 
 
 Dartois de Bournonville, dSR'twa' deh booR'n6N'- 
 vel', (Francois Victor Armand,) a French dramatist, 
 born at Beauvais in 1788, wrote many vaudevilles. 
 
 Daru, dj'rti', (Martial Noel Pierre,) Baron, born 
 in Paris in 1774, was a brother of Count Pierre Antoine 
 Noel. He was commissary of war during the republic, and 
 gained distinction as an able administrator under Napo- 
 leon I., who appointed him intendant of Vienna in 1809, 
 and intendant of the crown at Rome in 1811. He left in 
 manuscript an unfinished "History of Rome durii g the 
 French Occupation." Died in Paris in 1827. 
 
 Daru, (Napoleon,) Count, a son of the statesman 
 noticed below, was born in Paris about 1804. He entered 
 the army, and served as captain in Algeria. In 1832 he 
 became a member of the Chamber of Peers. He acted 
 with the moderate republicans in the Assembly of 1848-49. 
 
 Daru, (Pierre Antoine Noel Bruno,) Count, an 
 eminent French statesman and author, born at Mont- 
 pellier in 1767. About 1790 he wrote "Washington," an 
 epic poem. He favoured the Revolution, and in 1791 
 became a commissary in the army of Brittany. While 
 imprisoned during the reign of terror, he translated 
 into French verse the Odes and Epistles of Horace. 
 About 1800 he was appointed secretary of war, and in 
 1802 a member of the Tribunate, in which he advocated 
 the cause of public instruction. Between 1804 and 1806 
 Bonaparte made him a councillor of state, a count of the 
 empire, and intendant-general of the imperial household. 
 In the campaigns of 1806 and the ensuing years he ac- 
 companied Bonaparte, who had much confidence in his 
 ability and employed him as commissary-general, finan- 
 cier, and negotiator. Having become chief minister of 
 state in 181 1, he opposed the Russian expedition, but, 
 when other counsels prevailed, made extraordinary exer- 
 tions to meet its exigencies. In 1815 he was chosen presi- 
 dent of the French Academy, an office for which he was 
 well adapted by his dignity, his good taste, his sonorous 
 voice and lucid diction. As an author his merit is con- 
 spicuous. His "History of Venice" (1819) is esteemed 
 the best work on that subject, and his poems and eulo- 
 gies on Volney and others are admired. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Sainte-Heuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" Lamartine, " Eloge 
 du Conite Daru ;" Viennet, " Notice sur Daru," prefixed to his 
 " Histoire de Venise ;" Armand Marrast, " Notice sur M. Daru," 
 1829: "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1825. 
 
 Darvieux. See Arvieux. 
 
 Dar'win, (Charles,) a son of Erasmus Darwin the 
 poet, was born at Lichfield in 1758. While a student 
 of medicine at Edinburgh, he gained a first-prize medal. 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 Darwin, (Charles,) F.R.S., an eminent English 
 naturalist and geologist, a grandson of the poet Dr. 
 Darwin, was born at Shrewsbury, February 12, 1809. 
 He accompanied Captain Fitzroy in the Beagle in a 
 voyage of exploration, 1831-36, and recorded his obser- 
 vations respecting geology, etc. in his " Voyage of a 
 Naturalist round the World," which obtained great 
 popularity. " The author," says the " London Quai terly 
 •Review" for December, 1839, "is a first-rate landscape- 
 painter with the pen, and the dreariest solitudes are 
 made to teem with interest." In 1839 he published a 
 "Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural 
 History of Countries visited by H.M.S. Beagle." His 
 "Monograph of the Family Cirripedia," (which includes 
 the Barnacle,) published in 1851-53, is a remarkable and 
 excellent work. He produced arguments against the 
 immutability of species, in a work entitled "The Origin 
 of Species by means of Natural Selection," (1859,) 
 "which," says the "Edinburgh Review" for April, i860, 
 " was perused with avidity not only by professional natu- 
 ralists, but by the far wider intellectual class which m.w 
 takes interest in the higher generalizations of all the sci- 
 ences. The same pleasing style which marked his earliest 
 work, and a certain artistic disposition and sequence of 
 arguments, have recalled the attention of thinking men 
 to the hypothesis of the inconstancy and transmutation 
 of species." Among* his works are a treatise "On the 
 Fertilization of Orchids," (1862,) and "The Variation of 
 Animals and Plants under Domestication," (1868.) 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for July, i860: "Westminster 
 Review" for April, 1S60; "Darwin and his Reviewers," in "Atlan- 
 tic Monthly," October, i860. 
 
 i, e, T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
DARWIN 
 
 723 
 
 DAUBENTON 
 
 Darwin, (Erasmus,) M.D., an ingenious English poet 
 and physiologist, born at Elton, near Newark, in 1731- 
 Having graduated at Cambridge, he settled at Lichfield, 
 where he married, and practised with success until 1 781, 
 when he removed to Derby. His principal poem, "The 
 Botanic Garden," (1 791,) had a great popularity among 
 his contemporaries, which has since rather declined. It 
 was composed on an original plan, and displayed great 
 powers of description ; but the style is too ornate. His 
 " Phytologia" (1800) presented many novel ideas and 
 analogies in physiology, some of which are now received 
 as true. He also wrote " Zoonomia, or the Laws of Or- 
 ganic Life," "The Temple of Nature," a poem, and other 
 works. A writer in the "Edinburgh Review" for 1803 
 savs of the " Botanic Garden," "The novelty of its plan, 
 an imposing air of boldness and originality in his poetical 
 and philosophical speculations, and a striking display of 
 command over the sources of poetical embellishment, 
 were sufficient to secure him the approbation of even 
 fastidious readers." Died in 1802. 
 
 See Anne Seward, "Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Darwin;" 
 Cary, " Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke White ;" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1803, and April, 1804. 
 
 Darwin, (Robert Waring,) an English physician, 
 brother of the preceding. He published " Principia 
 Botanica, or an Introduction to the Sexual System of 
 Linna=us," (3d edition, 1810.) 
 
 Daschkow or Daschkoff. See Dashkof. 
 
 Da'sent, (George Webbe,) a British writer, born 
 about 1818, published "The Norsemen in Ireland,") 1855,) 
 " Popular Tales from the Norse," (1859,) and other simi- 
 lar works. 
 
 See "Blackwood's Maga2ine" for March, 1859; "Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for October, 1861. 
 
 Dashkof or Daschkow, dash'kof, written also 
 Dashkov, (Ekaterina Romanovna,) a Russian prin- 
 cess, eminent for her talents and achievements, born in 
 1744, was the daughter of Count Roman Woronzof. 
 About the age of sixteen she was married to Prince 
 Dashkof. In 1762 she was the master-spirit of the con- 
 spiracy which dethroned Peter III. and made his wife 
 autocrat as Catherine II. Having lost the favour of 
 the empress, she travelled several years in foreign coun- 
 tries, and returned in 1782, when she was appointed 
 president of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Peters- 
 burg. Under her auspices was founded the Russian 
 Academy, (literary,) of which she became the first presi- 
 dent in 1784. She planned and in part compiled the 
 Dictionary published by this academy, and wrote several 
 plays, etc. On the accession of the emperor Paul, in 
 1796, she was deprived of her offices and banished from 
 the capital. Died in 1810. She left "Memoirs of her 
 Life," which were published (in English) in 1840. 
 
 See Otto, "Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur;" Voltaire, 
 " Correspoudance. ' ' 
 
 Dassdorf, dls'doRf, (Carl Wilhelm,) a German 
 scholar, born at Staubitz, Saxony, in 1750; died in 1812. 
 
 Dassier, dfse-i'. (John,) a Swiss engraver of medals, 
 was born at Geneva in 1677. The medals which he 
 e'xecuted of many eminent persons in the age of Louis 
 XIV. have been used as models by other artists. Died 
 in 1763. 
 
 His son, Jacob Anthony, born at Geneva in 171 5, was 
 also a skilful engraver, and was employed about 1740 in 
 the London Mint as second engraver. He then removed 
 to Saint Petersburg, where he worked for some time. He 
 engraved medals of the most illustrious men of science, 
 which are highly prized. Died in 1759. 
 
 Dassouci, drsoo'se', (Charles Covpeau,) a French 
 burlesque poet and musician, born in Paris about 1604 ; 
 died after 1675. 
 
 Dat'a-mes, [Gr. Aara/ii/f; Fr. Datame, di'ttm',] a 
 Persian general, distinguished for his military talents, 
 revolted against Artaxerxes Mnemon, and was killed 
 about 362 B.C. 
 
 See Cornelius Nrpos, " Lives of Eminent Commanders." 
 
 Dathe, da'teh, (Lat. Da'thius,] (Johann August,) 
 an able German Orientalist and theologian, born at Weis- 
 senfels, Saxony, in 1731, obtained the chair of Oriental 
 language* at Leipsic in 1762. His capital work is a 
 Latin version of the Old Testament, (published in sepa- 
 
 rate parts from 1773 to 1789,) which is commended for 
 fidelity and for elegance of style. Died in 1 791. 
 
 See August W. Ernesti, " Elogium J. A. Dathii," 1792. 
 
 Datheen,di-tan', [Lat. Dathe'nus,] (Peter,) a Dutch 
 poet, born at Ypres, became a Protestant minister at 
 Frankfort in 1555, and returned to the Low Countries 
 about 1566. He acquired great celebrity as a preacher, 
 and composed a Dutch poetical version of the Psalms, 
 which was used in the churches of Holland for about two 
 centuries. In consequence of his seditious speeches 
 against the Prince of Orange, he exiled himself, took 
 the name of P. Montanus, and practised medicine with 
 success at Stade and Elbing from 1585 until his death 
 in 1590. 
 
 See Motley, " Rise of the Dutch Republic," vol. i. ; De Vrips, 
 " Histoire de la Poe'sie Hollandaise." 
 
 Dati, da'tee, (Agostino,) an eminent Italian orator 
 and writer, was born at Sienna in 1420. He opened a 
 school of rhetoric in that city, and was often chosen to 
 make public orations in Latin by his fellow-citizens, who 
 also raised him to high offices in the republic. He wrote, 
 in Latin, a " History of Sienna," and other works, his- 
 torical and religious, among which is a " Treatise on the 
 Immortality of the Soul." Died in 1478. 
 
 See N. Bandiera, "De Augustino Datho," Rome, 1733; Nl- 
 cekon, " Memoires ;" Morhri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Dati, (Carlo Roberto,) usually called simply Carlo 
 Dati, an eminent Italian scholar, born at Florence in 
 1619, was a descendant of Goro Dati. He studied geom- 
 etry under Galileo. In 1638 he formed an intimate friend- 
 ship with Milton, who visited Florence in that year, and 
 who has commemorated their friendship in Latin epistles. 
 Dati was one of the most learned of Italian philologists. 
 He was appointed professor of Greek and Latin literature 
 at Florence in 1648. He published, besides other works, 
 a "Discourse on the Necessity of Speaking one's own 
 Language correctly," (1657,) and "The Lives of Ancient 
 Painters," ("Vite de' Pittori antichi," I vol., 1667,) 
 " which," says Ginguenl, " is one of the best works on 
 ancient painting." Died in 1676. 
 
 See G. Negri, " Istoria degli Scrittori Fiorentini ;" Niceron, 
 " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"ne>ale ;" F. Fontani, 
 " Elogio di C. R. Dati," 1794. 
 
 Dati, (Giuliano,) an Italian writer, born at Florence 
 in 1445 ; died in 1524. 
 
 Dati, (Giulio,) an Italian poet, born at Florence 
 about 1560, wrote "La Contessa di Parione," (1596.) 
 Died about 1630. 
 
 Dati, (Goro di Staggio,) a noble Florentine, born in 
 1363, was one of the priors of the republic in 1425, and 
 gonfalonier in 1428. He wrote, in Latin, a " History of 
 Visconti, First Duke of Milan," which was not printed 
 until 1735. Died in 1436. 
 
 Dati, (Leonardo,) an. Italian ecclesiastic of high re- 
 putation, brother of the preceding, was born at Florence 
 about 1360. He was employed by the republic of Flo- 
 rence as ambassador to various courts between 1409 and 
 1422. Died in 1425. 
 
 Da'tis, [Gr. Aunc,] a Persian general, who, in con- 
 junction with Artaphemes, commanded the army which 
 was defeated at Marathon, 490 B.C. 
 
 D'Attaignant. See Attaignant. 
 
 Daub, dowp, (Karl,) a German theologian, born at 
 Cassel in 1765, became professor of theology at Hei- 
 delberg about 1795. He published volumes of lectures 
 entitled "Daub's Vorlesungen," (1838,) "Prolegomena 
 to Moral. Theology and the Principles of Ethics," (1839,) 
 and "The System of Christian Dogmatics," (1841,) and 
 other works. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Rosenkranz, " Erinnerungen an C. Daub," 1837 
 
 Daubanton, do'b6N't6N', (Antoine GrEgoire,) a 
 French judge and jurist, born in Paris in 1752, wrote 
 a "Dictionary of the Civil Law," a " Dictionary of the 
 Commercial Code," and other legal works. Died in 1813. 
 
 Daubasse, do'btss', (Armand,) a French poet, born 
 in Quercy in 1664. His works were all improvised. 
 Died in 1727. 
 
 Daubenton, do'bcW'tdN', (Gun iaimf.) a French 
 Jesuit, born at Auxerrein 1648. About 1700 Louis XIV. 
 appointed him confessor to his grandson, Philip V. of 
 Spain, over whom he acquired a great influence. Ac- 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asj; g, h, Y.,gultural; N, nasal; K, trilUd; % as 1; *h as in this. ($g~- See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DAUBENTON 
 
 7H 
 
 DAUMER 
 
 cording to Voltaire, Daubenton revealed, in a letter to 
 the French regent, the secret of Philip's intended abdi- 
 cation, and the regent sent the letter to Philip. The latter 
 then showed it to his confessor, who fainted, and soon 
 after expired, in 1723. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV." 
 
 Daubenton, (Louis Jean Marie,) a celebrated 
 French naturalist, born at Montbar on the 29th of May, 
 1716, was sent to Paris by his father to study theology; 
 but he preferred medicine. Having graduated as M.D. 
 in 1 741, he returned home with the intention to practise. 
 Buffon, who was also a native of Montbar, and his former 
 schoolmate, having been chosen intendant of the Jardin 
 du Roi at Paris, (now Jardin des Plantes,) engaged Dau- 
 benton in 1742 to assist him in his projected scientific 
 works. By his sound judgment, invincible patience, and 
 unerring accuracy, he was admirably qualified for such 
 a task. In 1745 he was appointed curator and demon- 
 strator of the cabinet of natural history. He enriched 
 BufTon's "Natural History" with an immense number 
 of facts and descriptions, cautiously avoiding the bold 
 hypotheses to which Buffon was rather prone. In 1778 
 he obtained a chair of natural history in the College 
 of France. He wrote many articles on that science for 
 the first " Encyclopedic," and for the "Memoirs of the 
 Academy of Sciences." He made great improvements 
 in the cabinet of natural history, of which he had charge 
 fifty years. About 1794 the Jardin du Roi was converted 
 into a school, styled the Museum of Natural History, 
 in which he was appointed professor of mineralogy. He 
 merited public favour by promoting the propagation 
 of Spanish sheep, and wrote several popular treatises 
 on the subject, one of which is entitled " Instruction for 
 Shepherds." In 1799 he was elected a senator. He 
 died January 1, 1800. 
 
 See Cuvikr, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Daubenton," 
 in the " Memoires de l'Institut," tome iii. ; Lacepedr, " filoge his- 
 torique de Daubenton," 1790; " Nouvelle Biograpliie G&ie'rale." 
 
 Daubenton, (Marguerite,) cousin and wife of the 
 preceding, born at Montbar in 1720, was married in 1749. 
 Her romance of "Zelie in the Desert" is written in a 
 natural style, and was received with favour. Madame 
 Buffon was her niece. Died in 181 8. 
 
 Daubeny, dob'ne or dawb'ne, (Charles,) D.D., an 
 English divine, born in 1744, became prebendary of 
 Salisbury in 1784, and Archdeacon of Sarum in 1804. 
 He published a " Guide to the Church," and other works 
 on theology. Died in 1827. 
 
 Daubeny, (Charles Giles Bridle,) an English 
 chemist and naturalist, born at Stratton in 1795, was for 
 many years professor of botany and rural economy in the 
 University of Oxford. In 1824 he published an " Essay 
 on the Geology and Chemical Phenomena of Volcanoes." 
 He wrote an important work called " Description of the 
 Active and Extinct Volcanoes, with Remarks on their 
 Origin," (1826,) treatises on the Geology of North Ame-. 
 rica and Italy, and several memoirs on chemistry, lie 
 was president of the British Association in 1856. Died 
 in December, 1867. 
 
 D'Aubigne, do'ben'ya', (Jean Henri Merle,) a 
 Swiss divine and popular historian, was born at or near 
 Geneva in 1794. His father, Louis Merle, was descended 
 from the French Calvinist family of D'Aubigne. He was 
 educated for the church, and was pastor of a French 
 church in Hamburg for five years. Between 1823 and 
 1830 he preached at Brussels. About 1830 he became 
 professor of Church history in a college at Geneva. He 
 published in 1835 the first volume of his capital work, 
 a " History of the Reformation in the Sixteenth Cen- 
 tury," (" Histoire de la Reformation au seizieme Siecle,") 
 which obtained a great popularity, especially in England 
 and the United States. Among his other works are 
 "The Protector, (Cromwell,) a Vindication," (1848,) and 
 "Germany, England, and Scotland," (1848.) 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante ;" Charles de Remusat, 
 "Melanges de LitteVature et Philosophic" 
 
 D'Aubigne, (Theodore Agrippa.) See Aubigne, d'. 
 
 Daubigny,d6'ben'ye',(CHARLES Francois,) a French 
 landscape-painter, born in Paris in 1817. He has pro- 
 duced many pictures of French scenery, some of which 
 have been purchased by the emperor and the ministers I 
 
 of state. Among his works are a " View of the Seine at 
 Charenton," and a "Sunset," (1851.) 
 
 Daubigny, (Pierre,) a French painter in miniature, 
 an uncle of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1793. 
 
 Daubree, do'bRa', (Gabriel Auguste,) a French 
 geologist, born at Metz in 1814. 
 
 Daubus, do'biis', written also Daubuz, (Charles,) 
 a French Protestant, born at Auxerre, lived about 1025, 
 and was for a long time minister at Nerac. He published 
 "L'Echelle de Jacob," ("Jacob's Ladder," 1626,) and 
 "Bellarmin reforme," ("Bellarmin Reformed," 1631.) 
 
 Daubuz. See Daubus. 
 
 Daubuz, do'biiz', (Charles,) a French Protestant 
 divine, born about 1670, removed to England on the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes, (1685,) and became 
 vicar of Brotherton. He was author of a "Commentary 
 on Revelation," (1712,) which is much esteemed. Died 
 about 1740. 
 
 Daucourt, do'kooR', (Bonaventure,) a French ge- 
 ologist, who lived about 1630, and wrote a treatise on 
 volcanoes, deluges, etc. 
 
 Daude, dow'deh, (Adrian,) a German historian, born 
 in Franconia, wrote a " Universal History," (4 vols., 
 1748-58.) Died in 1755. 
 
 Daude, do'di', (Pierre,) a French Protestant min- 
 ister and writer, born in 1681 ; died in England in 1754. 
 
 Daudet, do'd£', (Robert,) a French engraver, born 
 at Lyons in 1737; died in 1824. 
 
 Daudiguier. See Audiguier, d\ 
 
 Daudin, do'daN', (Francois Marie,) a French natu- 
 ralist, born in Paris about 1774, was in childhood afflicted 
 with an infirmity which almost entirely deprived him of 
 the use of his legs. His wife assisted him in the com- 
 position of his works, for which she designed the figures. 
 His principal works are a "Treatise on Ornithology," 
 (1800,) which was never finished, and a " Natural History 
 of Reptiles," (1802.) The latter, according to Cuvier, 
 was the most complete work on that class of animals 
 which had then appeared. Died in 1804. 
 
 Daugier, do'zhe-4', (Francois Henri Eugene,) 
 Count, a noted French admiral, born at Courtezon in 
 1764. He commanded one of the four grand corps of 
 the flotilla destined for the invasion of England in 1804, 
 and distinguished himself at the battle of Baylen in 1808. 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 Daulle, do'll', (Jean,) a skilful French engraver with 
 the burin, born at Abbeville about 1705. He removed 
 to Paris, and engraved portraits and history with a high 
 reputation. Among his master-pieces are a portrait of 
 the Countess of Feuquieres, and a " Magdalene," after 
 Correggio. Died in 1763. 
 
 Daum, dowm, [Eat. Dau'mius,] (Christian,) an emi- 
 nent German teacher, born at Zwickau, Saxony, in 1612. 
 He became regent of the College of Zwickau in 1642, 
 and rector of the same in 1662. He published editions of 
 several Latin authors, and left, in manuscript, unfinished 
 works, among which was a " History of the Poets." 
 Died in 1687. 
 
 See Winter. "C. Daumii Poetaeclarissimi,"etc, 168S ;Loercher, 
 " Memoria C. Daumii renovata," 1701 ; Nic^ron, "Me'moires." 
 
 D'Aumale. See Aumale, d'. 
 
 Daumas, do'mas', (Melchior Joseph Eugene,) a 
 French general and writer, born in 1803. He went to 
 Algeria in 1835, and learned the Arabic language. About 
 1841 he was placed by General Bugeaud at the head of 
 the political affairs (affaires indiglnes) of Algeria, which 
 he managed with credit. He published an "Expose of 
 the Actual State of Arab Society and Government, "(1845,) 
 " Manners and Customs of Algeria," and other works 
 of merit. In 1850 he was chosen director of affairs of 
 Algeria in the ministry of war. He obtained the rank 
 of general of division in 1853. 
 
 Daumat. See Domat. 
 
 Daumer, dow'mer, (Georg Friedrich,) a German 
 pantheist, born at Nuremberg in 1800. He was pro- 
 fessor at Nuremberg a few years between 1822 and 1830. 
 He published a "System of Speculative Philosophy," 
 (1831,) "Philosophy, Religion, and Antiquity," (1833,) 
 translations from the Persian poet Hafiz, (1846,) and 
 other works. His system resembles the pantheism of 
 Hegel. 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; nftt; good; moon; 
 
DAVMESNIL 
 
 725 
 
 DAVID 
 
 Daumesnil, do'mj'nel', (Pierre,) a brave French 
 general, born at Perigueux in 1777, served in Italy and" 
 Egypt from 1795 to 1800, and became chef d'escadron 
 about 1806. He lost a leg at VVagram in 1809. In 1812 
 he was made general of brigade and governor of Vin- 
 cennes castle, which he defended obstinately against the 
 allies in 1814 and 1815. He obtained the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-general in 1831. Died in 1832. 
 
 See " Vie du General Daumesnil," Paris, 1832. 
 
 Daumont. See Aumont, d'. 
 
 Daun, von, fon d5wn, (Leopold Joseph Maria,) 
 Count, an able Austrian general, born at Vienna in 
 1705. He made his first campaign against the Turks. 
 About 1748 he obtained the rank of field-marshal. He 
 commanded at the battle of Kolin, June 18, 1757, where 
 Frederick the Great was defeated with great loss. In 
 the same year the Austrians, under Charles of Lorraine 
 and Daun, lost a great battle at Leuthen. Having sur- 
 prised the Prussian king at Hochkirchen, (1758,) Daun 
 gained a victory, for which he was rewarded with 300,000 
 florins, a sword from the pope, and many honours. He 
 was defeated in turn by Frederick at Torgau in 1761. 
 After the peace of 1763 he became president of the Aulic 
 Council, and enjoyed great favour at court until his death 
 in 1766. 
 
 See Archenholz, " History of. the Seven Years' War," 1793; 
 " Memoirs of Count Von Daun," by A. Henderson, London, 
 • 757- 
 
 Daunou, do'noo', (Pierre Claude Francois,) a 
 meritorious French statesman and author, born at Bou- 
 logne in 1 761, entered the order of Oratorians. In 1792 
 he was elected to the National Convention, in which he 
 supported moderate measures, opposed the proscription 
 of the Girondists, and was one of the framers of the con- 
 stitution of the year III., (1795.) He was the first presi- 
 dent of the Council of Five Hundred, and a member of 
 the committee appointed to frame the constitution of the 
 year VIII., (1800.) In 1807 he was chosen keeper of the 
 archives of France. He was chief editor of the "Jour- 
 nal des Savants" from l8l6to 1838, and about 1818 ob- 
 tained a chair of history in the College of France. He 
 contributed many articles to the "Biographie Univer- 
 selle." In 1838 he was chosen perpetual secretary of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1839 was created a 
 peer. Among his numerous useful works are an " Essay 
 on the Temporal Power of the Pope," (1810,) and a 
 "Course of Historical Studies," in 20 vols., the first 
 of which was published in 1842. Died in 1840. "He 
 was so simple, so modest, so firm and consistent," says 
 Villenave, " that envy was compelled to pause, and criti- 
 cism reduced to silence, before the renown of his talents 
 and his virtues." 
 
 See A. H. Taillandier, "Documents biographiques sur Dau- 
 nou," 1841; Victor Leclerc, "Notice sur Daunou;" Sainte- 
 Bhuve, " Portraits contemporains;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^n^- 
 rale ;" Walckenaer, " Notice sur la Vie, etc. de M. Daunou," 1841. 
 
 Daunt 01 Daunte. See Dante. 
 
 Dauphin, do'faN', (Augustin Anne,) a mediocre 
 French poet, born at Niort about 1759; died in 1822. 
 
 Daurat. See Dorat. 
 
 Dausque, dosk, (Claude,) a learned French Jesuit, 
 born at Saint-Omer in 1566; died in 1644. 
 
 Dauvergne. See Auverone, d\ 
 
 Dauvigny. See Auvigny, d'. 
 
 Dauxhon. See Auxiron, d'. 
 
 Dauz, dowts, (Johann Andreas,) a German Orien- 
 talist, born near Gotha in 1654, is known as the author 
 of a system of Hebrew grammar. Died in 1727. 
 
 Dauzats, d5'za", (Adrien,) a French painter and 
 lithographer, born at Bordeaux in 1808. As a painter 
 of genre, he obtained medals of the first class in 1835, 
 1848, and 1855. 
 
 Daval, da-vtl', ? (Peter,) an English mathematician, 
 was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1763. 
 
 DavanzatiBostichi, da-van-za'tee bos-tee'kec,( Ber- 
 nardo,) an Italian writer and merchant, born at Florence 
 in 1529. He cultivated literature with success, and filled 
 several civil offices with credit. The perfection of the 
 Tuscan language was his favourite pursuit. His most 
 remarkable work is an Italian version of Tacitus, (1658,) 
 which, says Ginguene, "is a master-piece of purity of 
 style, of vigour, precision, and elegance." It is said to 
 
 be more concise than the original. He also wrote a 
 treatise on "The Tuscan Cultivation of the Vine and 
 other Trees," (1600.) Died in 1606. 
 
 See G. Negri, " Istoria degli Scrittori Fiorentini ;" Tiraboschi, 
 "Stotia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Dav'^n-ant, (Charles,) LLD., an English writer 
 on finance and political economy, a son of Sir William 
 Davenant, was bom in 1656. In 1685 he was returned 
 to Parliament, and appointed inspector of plays. In 1695 
 he gained reputation by his " Essays on the Ways and 
 Means of Supplying the War," which was followed by 
 several treatises on the revenues, hades, etc., the merit 
 of which was variously estimated. In 1703 he was ap- 
 pointed inspector-general of exports and imports. Died 
 in 1 7 14. 
 
 See Macaulav, " History of England," vol. i. chap. iii. ; " Bio- 
 graphia Britannica. 
 
 Davenant, (John,) an English prelate, born in Lon- 
 don in 1576. In 1618 James I. sent him to attend the 
 Synod of Dort, and in 1621 appointed him Bishop of 
 Salisbury. He had previously been professor of divinity 
 in Cambridge University. He published an excellent 
 "Exposition of Paul's Epistles," (in Latin, 1627,) and 
 several other works. Died in 1641. 
 
 Davenant, (Sir William,) an English dramatic poet, 
 born at Oxford in 1605. Having written "Albovine" 
 and another tragedy, he was chosen poet-laureate in 1637 
 as successor to Ben Jonson. He was a royalist in the 
 civil war, and was knighted by Charles I. in 1643. He 
 was confined in the Tower about two years for political 
 reasons, and owed his safety to Milton. His principal 
 production is "Gondibert," an unfinished epjc poem, 
 which was much admired by Cowley, Waller, and others, 
 but is now negjected. He was associated with Dryden 
 in an alteration of Shakspeare's "Tempest." He died 
 in 1668, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 See Southey, " British Poets ;" Campbell, " Specimens of the 
 British Poets;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1S20. 
 
 Davenant, (William,) a son of the preceding, trans- 
 lated La Mothe le Vayer's work on the Greek and Latin 
 historians. He was drowned near Paris in 1681. 
 
 Dav'en-port, (Christopher,) an English Catholic 
 friar, born at Coventry in 1598, assumed the name of 
 Sancta Clara, and was chaplain to Queen Henrietta. 
 He wrote several theological works. Died in 1680. 
 
 Davenport, (John,) an English Puritan, born at Cov- 
 entry in 1598, emigrated to Massachusetts in 1637. He 
 was the first minister of New Haven, Connecticut, where 
 he preached about thirty years, and had much influence 
 in the civil affairs of the colony. Died in 1670. 
 
 Davenport, (Richard Alfred,) an English editor 
 and biographer, born about 1780, published, besides 
 other works, a " Dictionary of Biography," (1 vol. i2mo, 
 1831.) Died about 1852. 
 
 Daverhoult, da'ver-howlt', [Fr. pron. da'veVhoo',1 
 (Jean Antoine,) a native of Holland, was a member of 
 the French Legislative Assembly in 1791-92. He was 
 one of the founders of the club of Feuillants. Died in 
 1792. 
 
 Da'vid, [Heb. 1H or Til; Gr. AaS«! or Anwrf; Ara- 
 bic, DXooDor DAOd, da'ood',] a celebrated Hebrew poet, 
 prophet, and king, a son of Jesse, was born at Bethlehem 
 about 1090 B.C. He was a shepherd in his youth, and 
 an excellent musician. About the age of twenty-two he 
 entered the service of King Saul, whose morbid spirit he 
 soothed by playing on the harp, and he was anointed by 
 the prophet Samuel as king in the place of Saul. Soon 
 after this event he killed, in single combat, Goliath, a 
 Philistine giant, and married Michal, a daughter of Saul. 
 The king, however, regarded him with jealous malignity, 
 and made several attempts against his life. David, there- 
 fore, fled for safety to Achish, King of Gnth, where he 
 feigned insanity. After many perilous adventures, he 
 ascended the throne about 1055 11.C. He reigned seven 
 years at Hebron as King of Judah, and on the death of 
 Saul's son was recognized as king by all the tribes of 
 Israel. By victories over the Philistines, the Moabites, 
 the Syrians, the Kdomites, etc., he greatly extended the 
 boundaries of his kingdom, which, under his rule, at- 
 tained a high degree of prosperity and power. His reign 
 was disturbed by a rebellion of his son Absalom, and by 
 
 Biyie, 01 vigour, precision, anu elegance. n is saiu iu w<i* uoiuiucu uy .1 11.01 mm mi u, ma »un rvusaiom, .oiu uy 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as y; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. ( jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DAVID 
 
 726 
 
 DAVID 
 
 conspiracies of other sons. He died about 1015, and was 
 succeeded by his son Solomon. David was the author of 
 many of the Psalms which bear his name, and which give 
 proof of poetical genius of the highest order. Though 
 not without human infirmities, by which he was more 
 than once betrayed into great sins, he was, on the whole, 
 distinguished for magnanimity and a tenderness of heart 
 rare in one so constantly engaged in the pursuits of war. 
 (See I. Samuel xxvi. 7-12, and I. Chronicles xi. 13, 14.) 
 
 See also I. Samuel, chap. xv. ; II. Samuel, passim ; I. Chronicles, 
 chaps, xi. -xxix. ; Chandler, " History of the Life of David," 175S: 
 Kwald, "Geschichte des Volkes Israel ;" Droste, " Leven van Ko- 
 n.ng David," 1716; Hansen, "Historia Davidis," 1780; Delany, 
 " Life and Reign of David, King of Israel," 3 vols., 1742. 
 
 Da'vid, a Christian emperor of Abyssinia, born about 
 15CO, succeeded his father Nairn in 1507. His realm was 
 invaded and partly conquered about I5i4by the Turkish 
 Sultan Selim I. David formed an alliance with Portugal 
 about 1520. Died about 1540. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Da'vid III., a celebrated king of Georgia, was the 
 son of George II., whom he succeeded in 1089. The 
 Turks had subjected the greater part of Georgia, and even 
 Teflis, the capital, was in their power. David raised an 
 army, defeated the Turks, and recovered Teliis in 1 121. 
 Several battles were fought afterwards, in which the 
 Georgians were victors. He died in 1124, and left the 
 throne to his son, Demetrius II. 
 
 See Saint-Martin, " Me^uoires sur 1'Armenie." 
 
 David, King of Eastern Armenia, began to reign about 
 980 A.D. He defeated the Sultan Togrul and other Mus- 
 sulman chiefs. Died in 1046. 
 
 David, an Armenian philosopher. See David ok 
 Nerken. 
 
 Da'vid I., King of Scotland, sixth son of Malcolm III., 
 succeeded his brother, Alexander I., in 1 124. Before this 
 event he had married Maud, the great-niece of William 
 the Conqueror, and obtained Northumberland as her 
 dowry. Having refused to acknowledge Stephen as King 
 of England, and supported the claim of Matilda, who 
 was his niece, he was involved in war with that prince. 
 In 1 137 David invaded England, and was defeated at 
 Northallerton. He died in 1153, and was succeeded by 
 his grandson, Malcolm IV. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. ii. chap. xiii. ; Buch- 
 anan, H History of Scotland." 
 
 David II. or David Bruce, King of Scotland, was 
 the son of Robert Bruce, and was a minor when his 
 father died in 1329. In 1332 Edward Baliol invaded 
 Scotland, defeated an army commanded by the regent 
 Mar, and was crowned at Scone. David then took refuge 
 in France. His subjects maintained the contest against 
 Baliol and his English ally, and in 1342 he recovered the 
 throne. In 1346 he invaded England, was defeated and 
 taken prisoner, and did not obtain his liberty until 1357. 
 Died in 1371, and was succeeded by his nephew, Robert 
 Stuart, or Robert II. 
 
 See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap. xxv. 
 
 David, dt'ved', (Chari.es,) a French engraver, born 
 in Paris about 1600 ; died about 1660. 
 
 His brother Jerome was a skilful etcher with aqua- 
 fortis. 
 
 David, da'vid, (Christian Georg Nathan,) a popu- 
 lar Danish journalist and statesman, born at Copenhagen 
 in 1793. He wrote some successful works on political 
 economy, became a leader of the Liberal party, and was 
 a member of the Diet from 1848 to 1853. 
 
 See J. B. Schick, " Professor David und sein Vaterland," 1835. 
 
 David, (F^licien,) a French musical composer, born 
 at Cadenet (Vaucluse) in 1810. He became in 1830 a 
 pupil of Lesueur, Fetis, and Reber, in the Conservatoire 
 of Paris. In 183 1 he quitted the Conservatoire and joined 
 the Saint-Simonians, by whom he was employed to set 
 hymns to music. On the dispersion of that society he 
 visited the Levant, where he collected popular melodies, 
 etc., and returned to Paris in 1835. He produced "The 
 Rebel Angel," "The Swallows," and other melodies, 
 which failed to render him famous. His "ode-symphonie" 
 called "The Desert," performed in 1844, first revealed 
 to the public his superior talent, and procured for him 
 a European reputation. In 1847 he produced "Chris- 
 
 topher Columbus," an "ode-symphonie," which was very 
 Successful. 
 
 See Sylvain Saint- £tienne, "Biographie de Felicien David;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 David, da'vit, (Ferdinand,) a German composer 
 and violinist, born at Hamburg in 1810. He became 
 concertmeister at Leipsic about 1836. 
 
 David, (Francois Anne,) a French engraver, born 
 in Paris in 1741, was a pupil of Le Bas. In youth he 
 became engraver of the cabinet of Monsieur, (Louis 
 XVIII.) He published "The Antiquities of Hercula- - 
 neum," and illustrated works on the history of England 
 and other nations. Died in 1824. 
 
 David, di'ved' or da'vid, (Jacques Louis,) a cele- 
 brated French historical painter, born in Paris in 1748, 
 was a pupil of Vien. Having obtained the grand prize 
 of the Academy for his "Antiochus and Stratonice," in 
 1775, he went to Rome with Vien, and was affected to 
 tears by the superiority of the classical antique style, and 
 the conviction that he must begin anew the study ot his 
 art. When Vien saw his " Triumph of Paulus /Emilius," 
 he exclaimed, "You are destined to ruin or regenerate 
 the school." He returned to Paris in 17S0, composed 
 his " Belisarius," and was received as academician in the 
 Royal Academy, with the title of painter to the king, in 
 1783. The next year he again visited Rome, where he 
 produced the " Horatii," which was highly applauded 
 and made a great sensation among the Parisians. He 
 had become the chief of the French painters when the 
 Revolution began. Elected to the Convention in 1792, 
 he voted for the death of the king, and disgraced him- 
 self by complicity in the crimes of Robespierre. On thn 
 fall of this leader, (1794,) David was imprisoned several 
 months. He was the chief manager of the great national 
 festivals and spectacles of the republic. About 1795 lw 
 produced his "Rape of the Sabines," which is called hii 
 master-piece, and was sold for 60,000 francs. Napoleoi: 
 patronized him, and appointed him his first painter. Al 
 the restoration he was exiled as a regicide, and lived ii: 
 Brussels until his death, in 1825. He was a member of 
 the Institute. He had a vivid imagination, an ardent and 
 susceptible temperament, and was not devoid of mag 
 nanimity. As an artist he was deficient in colouring, Inn 
 attained the highest rank by his design, which, in ttu 
 opinion of his admirers, is inimitably beautiful and true 
 See Miette de Vii.lars, " M^moires de David Peintre," etc... 
 1850; CoupiN, " Essai sur Jacques Louis David," 1S27; Mutt 
 "Notice sur J. L. David,'* 1834; Delecluze, " David et son 
 £cole," 1S55; Nagi.kr. "Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon ;" Antoinv 
 Thome, " Vie de David," 1826. 
 
 David, (Jean Pierre,) a French surgeon, born at 
 Gex in 1737. He obtained prizes for several treatises, 
 one of which was " On the Mechanism of Respiration," 
 (1766.) He shared the labours of the surgeon Lecat, 
 who chose him as his successor. Died in 17S4. 
 
 David, (MaXIME,) a French miniature-painter, born 
 at Chalons-sur-Marne in 1798. He obtained a medal of 
 the first class in 1S41. 
 
 David, (Pierre,) a French poet and diplomatist, born 
 near Falaisein 1 771. As consul at Smyrna, he saved the 
 lives of many Greeks during an insurrection. Among his 
 poems is "The Siege of Athens," (1827.) Died in 1846. 
 
 David, (Pierre Jean,) an eminent French sculptor, 
 born at Angers in 1789. He went to Paris in 180S, and, 
 having won the first prize (with a pension) in 181 1, was 
 enabled to pursue his studies in Rome. About 1824 he 
 established his reputation by a statue of the Prince of 
 Conde. He was elected to the Institute in 1826, and in 
 1831 was ordered by the government to adorn the Pan- 
 theon with sculptures. He preferred to exercise his 
 talent on republican subjects and on persons who have 
 been useful to society. Among his works are busts of 
 Washington, La Fayette, Lamartine, Arago, Lamennais, 
 and Goethe. He produced statues of Jefferson, (at New 
 York,) Cuvier, Racine, and many others. He was a re- 
 publican member of the Assembly in 1848. Died in 1856. 
 
 See Gustave Pi.anche, "Portraits d' Artistes;" Adrien MaH> 
 lard, " fitude sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de David d' Angers," 1839. 
 
 Da'vid, Saint, the patron of Wales, born in Cardi- 
 ganshire about 490 A.D., founded several monasteries, 
 for which he composed rules. He was the author of 
 Homilies, and other works. Died in 544. 
 
 *,e 
 
 :, 1, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m8t; nSt; good; moon; 
 
DAVID 
 
 727 
 
 DAVIES 
 
 Da'vid ap Gwil'lum, a famous Welsh bard of the 
 fourteenth century, is said to have courted the favour of 
 the fair Morvid in one hundred and forty-seven poems. 
 Notwithstanding these demonstrations, or perhaps in 
 consequence of them, she married another. 
 
 David Bruce. See David II. 
 
 Da'vid Com-ne'nuB, the last emperor of Trebizond, 
 usurped the throne at the death of his brother John. 
 When his capital was attacked by Mahomet II. in 1461, 
 he surrendered on condition that this Sultan should 
 marry his daughter Anna. David and his sons were 
 reduced to choose between death and the Moslem re- 
 ligion, and preferred the former, in 1462. 
 
 Da'vid de Po'mis, a Jewish rabbi and physician, 
 born at Spoleto, in Italy, in 1525. He produced a 
 Hebrew Lexicon, (15S7.) Died about 1600. 
 
 David de Saint-George, di'ved' deh sa.N'zhoRzh', 
 (JEAN Joseph ALEXIS,) a French philologist, born in 
 Franche-Comte in 1759. He produced a version of 
 Ossian. Died in 1809. 
 
 Da'vid-George, a noted fanatic and impostor, born 
 at Delft about 1500, had some natural eloquence and 
 cunning. After associating with the Anabaptists, he 
 formed a new sect, called Davidists, and, according to 
 some accounts, professed that he was the Messiah. To 
 escape persecution, he fled about 1542 to Hale, where he 
 lived in disguise eleven years. In 1553 he endeavoured 
 to save Servetus, and wrote in favour of toleration. He 
 published a " Wonderbook," and other works. Mosheim 
 thinks he had more virtue than his opponents give him 
 credit for. Died in 1556. 
 
 David of Nerken, an eminent Armenian philoso- 
 pher of the Platonist school, lived about 460-490 A.I). He 
 studied at Athens under Syrian us, the master of Proclus, 
 and wrote a number of works, among which is "The 
 Foundations of Philosophy." He is said to have trans- 
 lated into Armenian the works of Plato and Aristotle. 
 
 See Fr. Neumann, "Memoire sur la Vie de David," 1829. 
 
 David Rubeni, da'vid roo-ba'nee, a Jewish fanatic, 
 lived towards the end of the fifteenth century, and pre- 
 dicted that the Messiah would come in 1500. He pre- 
 tended that he had a mission to conduct the Jews of 
 Europe to Palestine. 
 
 Davide,da've-da,(LuiGi ANTONio,)an Italian painter, 
 born at Lugano in 1648 ; died about 1730. 
 
 Dav'I-dis, (Fkanz,) a Socinian minister, born in Hun- 
 gary about 1510; died in 1579. 
 
 Davidof da-vee'dof, Davydow, or Davuidof, dav- 
 wee'dof, (Dknis Vasii.ievitch,) a Russian general and 
 poet, born at Moscow in 1784; died in 1839. 
 
 Da'vids, (Arthur Lumlev,) an English Orientalist, 
 born in Hampshire in 181 1. He published a Turkish 
 Grammar, (1832.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Da'vid-son, (John,) an English traveller, born in 
 London. He was killed in Northern Africa by some 
 natives in 1836. 
 
 Da'vid-son, (John W.,) an American general, born 
 in Fairfax county, Virginia, about 1824. He graduated 
 at West Point in 1845, became a captain in 1855, and a 
 brigadier-general of Union volunteers early in 1862. He 
 served in Missouri and Arkansas in 1862 and 1863. 
 
 Davidson, (Lucretia Maria,) an American poetess, 
 born at Plattsburg, New York, in 1808. She wrote verses 
 before she was six years old, and composed with great 
 facility. It is stated that she wrote two hundred and sev- 
 enty-eight poems, besides many which were destroyed. 
 Died in August, 1825. A collection of her poems was 
 published, with a Memoir by S. F. B. Morse, in 1829. 
 
 See a "Life of L. M. Davidson," by Catherine Sedgwick, 1843, 
 and a review of her poems, by Robert Southev, in the " London 
 Quarterly Review" for 1829, vol. xli. ; Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of 
 American Literature." 
 
 Davidson, (Margaret Miller,) a sister of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1823, was also a poetess, and a child of 
 equal precocity. Her poems were praised by Washington 
 Irving, who wrote a biography of her about 1843. She 
 is said to have been "angelic" in her disposition. Died 
 in 1838. 
 
 See Griswold's "Female Poets of America;" Duyckinck, 
 "Cyclopaedia of American Literature." 
 
 Da'vid-spn, (Rev. Samuel,) an Irish dissenter and 
 biblical critic, born at Ballymena about 1808. He pub- 
 
 lished, besides other works, " Sacred Hermeneutics De- 
 veloped," (1843,) a "d " Biblical Criticism," (2 vols., 1852.) 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1863; "Westminster 
 Review" for July, 1862. 
 
 Davidson, (William,) an American general, lxim 
 in Pennsylvania in 1746. He was killed in battle at 
 Cowan's Ford, in North Carolina, in 1781. 
 
 Da'vie, (William Richardson,) bom in England 
 in 1756, came to America about 1762. He served as 
 colonel under Generals Greene and Sumter in the Revo- 
 lutionary war, was a member of the convention which 
 formed the Federal Constitution in 1787, and was chosen 
 Governor of North Carolina in 1799. He was sent as 
 envoy to France in 1799 or 1800. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Sparks, "American Itiography," vol. xv., Second Series ; 
 "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. 
 
 Daviel, dl've'el', (Jacques,) a skilful French oculist, 
 born in Normandy in 1696. He settled in Paris in 1746, 
 and received the title of oculist to the king in 1749. He 
 invented a method to cure cataract by extraction, which 
 was successful. Died in 1762. 
 
 Davies, da'v6z, (Charles,) an American mathemati- 
 cian, born in Litchfield county, Connecticut, in 1798. He 
 became professor of mathematics at West Point about 
 1824. He published "Elementary Algebra," (1839,) 
 "Elementary Geometry and Trigonometry," (1840,) 
 " Practical Mathematics," (1852,) and other works, which 
 have been extensively used as text-books in colleges and 
 academies. Having resigned his chair at West Point, 
 about 1837, he visited Europe, and subsequently was 
 appointed a professor in Columbia College, New York. 
 
 Da'vies, (Edward,) a Welsh divine, born in 1756, 
 was rector of Bishopston and chancellor of Brecon. He 
 wrote, besides other works, " Celtic Researches, or the 
 Origin, Traditions, and Language of the Ancient Britons," 
 (1804,) and a treatise on Druidism, which is commended. 
 Died in 1831. 
 
 Da'vies, (Lady Eleanor,) born in 1603, was the 
 daughter of the Earl of Castlehaven, and wife of Sir John' 
 Davies. She gained notoriety as a prophetess, and pub- 
 lished some strange predictions in 1649. Died in 1652. 
 
 Davies, (John,) a learned Welsh divine, who gradu- 
 ated at Oxford in 1593, and became a canon of Saint 
 Asaph's. He was well versed in the antiquities of his 
 nation, and published a work on "Ancient British Lan- 
 guages." Died in 1644. 
 
 Davies, (John,) a Welsh writer, born in 1625, trans- 
 lated several works from the French. Died in 1693. 
 
 Davies, (John,) D.D., an English philologist, burn in 
 London in 1679, was appointed prebendary of Ely in 
 171 1. He edited the works of Cicero, Caesar, and other 
 Latin authors. Died in 1732. 
 
 Davies, (Sir John,) an eminent English poet and 
 judge, born in Wiltshire in 1570, graduated at Oxford. 
 In 1599 he acquired reputation by his poem entitled 
 "Nosce Teipsum," ("Know Thyself.") In 1603 he was 
 appointed solicitor-general of Ireland, and soon after 
 attorney-general. He was knighted in 1607. In 1612 
 he published an excellent work on the political state of 
 Ireland. He was returned to the English Parliament in 
 162 1, and obtained the dignity of lord chief justice in 
 1626, but died suddenly the same year. In reference to 
 the poem above noticed, Hallam remarks, "Perhaps no 
 language can produce a poem, extending to so great a 
 length, of more condensation of thought, or in which 
 fewer languid verses will be found." 
 
 See Johnson, "Livesof the English Poets;" G. Chalmers, "Life 
 of Davies;" Foss, "The Judges of England;" " Biographia liri- 
 tannica ;" " Retrospective Review," vol. v., 1823. 
 
 Davies, (Myi.es,) a Welsh writer or compiler, lived 
 about 1715. He published "Athena: Britannic*," (3 
 vols., 1716.) 
 
 Davies, (Rohert,) a Welsh poet, born in 1770, was 
 the author of a good Welsh grammar, and of some 
 admired poems. Died in 1836. 
 
 Davies, (Samuel,) D.D., an American divine and 
 distinguished pulpit orator, born at New Castle, Dela- 
 ware, in 1724. He was instrumental in founding the 
 College of New Jersey, and in 1758 succeeded Jonathan 
 Edwards as president of that institution. Died in 1761, 
 leaving several volumes of sermons, which have passed 
 through many editions, both in America and England. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; 8 as ay th as in this. (J5^r~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DAVIES 
 
 728 
 
 DAVIS 
 
 Davies, (Sneyd,) Archdeacon of Derby, an English 
 poet, wrote some imitations of Horace in Duncombe's 
 edition, (1767,) and poems in Dodsley's collection. Died 
 in 1769. 
 
 Davies, (Thomas,) an English actor and bookseller, 
 born about 1712. He made his debut on the stage about 
 1736, and soon after opened a bookstore in London, 
 where he acquired the friendship of Dr. Johnson. Re- 
 turning again to the stage, he married Miss Yarrow, a 
 beautiful actress. The satire of Churchill in the " Ros- 
 ciad" induced him to quit the theatre and resume the 
 book-trade. He wrote a "Life of Garrick," (1780,) 
 which procured for him both fortune and reputation, and 
 was author of several other biographies. Died in 1785. 
 Johnson and Boswell met for the first time in his house. 
 
 See Boswell's "Life of Johnson." 
 
 Davies, (Thomas Alfred,) born in Saint Lawrence 
 county, New York, in 1809, served in the campaigns of 
 1861, and was made brigadier-general of volunteers in 
 1862. 
 
 Davies, (Rev. Walter,) a British author, born in 
 1761, wrote an esteemed treatise on the "Agriculture 
 and Domestic Economy of Wales," (181 1,) and other 
 works. Died about 1848. 
 
 Daviess, da'vis, (Joseph Hamilton,) U. S. attorney 
 for Kentucky, volunteered in an expedition against the 
 Indians in 181 1, and was killed at the battle of Tippe- 
 canoe, November 7 of that year. His wife was a sister 
 of Chief-Justice Marshall. 
 
 Davila. See Avila. 
 
 Davila, da've-la, (FRANcrsco,) a Spanish theologian, 
 born at Avila, was a Dominican. Died in 1604. 
 
 Davila, da've-la, (Enrico Caterino,) a celebrated 
 Italian historian, born at Sacco, near Padua, in 1576, was 
 the son of Antonio Davila, who, like several of his an- 
 cestors, had been Constable of Cyprus. About the age 
 of seven he was taken to Paris, where he was educated, 
 and became a page at the French court. From 1594 to 
 '1598 he served with distinction in the army of Henry IV., 
 and collected materials for his history. In 1599 he re- 
 turned to Padua. About 1606 he engaged in the service 
 of the Venetian senate, and commanded several military 
 expeditions with success. In 1630 he produced his 
 " History of the Civil Wars of France from 1559 to 1598," 
 (" Historia delle Guerre civili," etc.,) which is unani- 
 mously regarded as authentic, and generally impartial, 
 excepting his favouritism towards Catherine de Medicis, 
 to whom his family was indebted. His style is graphic, 
 spirited, and concise, and free from the prevalent defects 
 of his time. The narration is remarkably varied and 
 picturesque. In 1631 Davila was appointed governor of 
 Crema. As he was performing the journey thither, he 
 was involved- in a dispute with an insolent official, who 
 refused to furnish accommodations that Davila had a 
 right to demand. Davila was shot dead by this person, 
 who was instantly killed by the son of the historian. 
 
 See "Life of Davila, "prefixed toan edition of his works published 
 by Apostolo Zeno, Venice, 1733 ; Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire 
 d Italic;" Tiraboschi, "Storm della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Davila, (Don Pedro Franco,) a Spanish naturalist, 
 born at Guayaquil, removed about 1748 to Paris, where 
 he formed an extensive cabinet. In 1767 he sold this 
 for 800,000 reals, and in 1769 went to Madrid, and was 
 chosen perpetual director of the cabinet of natural history, 
 which he made one of the richest in Europe. Died in 1 785. 
 Davila y Fadilla, da've-la e pa-Del'ya, (Augustin,) 
 a Spanish or Mexican monk, became Bishop of Saint 
 Domingo. He wrote a " History of the Province of 
 Santiago de Mexico," (1596.) Died in 1604. 
 
 Davin, dS'vaN', (Felix,) a French novelist, born at 
 Saint-Quentin in 1807; died in 1836. 
 Da Vinci. See Vinci. 
 
 Davini, da-vee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 physician, born at Camporgiano in 1562 ; died in 1633. 
 
 Da'vis, (Andrew Jackson,) a clairvoyant and spirit- 
 ualist, born in Orange county, New York, in 1826, pub- 
 lished " Principles of Nature, her Divine Revelations," 
 etc., (1845,) and several other works, including "The 
 Great Harmonia," (in 4 vols.,) advocating the doctrines 
 of Spiritualism. 
 
 See "The Magic Staff: an Autobiography of A. J. Davis;" "Era- 
 ser's Magazine" for February, 1848. 
 
 Davis, (Charles Henry,) an American naval com- 
 mander, born in Boston in 1807. He entered the navy in 
 1823, was appointed superintendent of the " Ephemeris" 
 and "Nautical Almanac" about 1850, and gained the 
 rank of commander in 1854. He served as chief of staff 
 and captain of the fleet at the capture of Port Royal by 
 Dupont in November, 1861. In May, 1862, he took 
 command of the Mississippi flotilla. He gained a 
 victory over the ram Louisiana and several gunboats 
 on the 10th of May, and another near Memphis in June. 
 He was raised to the rank of rear-admiral in February, 
 1S63, and was appointed superintendent of the National 
 Observatory in May, 1865. His services in relation to 
 the " Nautical Almanac" are highly commended. 
 
 Da'vis, (David,) a skilful physician, born in South 
 Wales about 1777, practised in London. He published 
 "Elements of Obstetric Medicine," (new edition, 1842.) 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Da'vis, (EDWAilD,) an English buccaneer, was a com- 
 panion of Dampier. He became the chief of a band of 
 filibusters who plundered the Spanish colonies in Peru 
 about 1684. 
 
 Davis, (Edward,) an English painter and engraver, 
 born in Wales in 1640. His engraved portraits are highly 
 praised. 
 
 Davis, (Edwin Hamilton,) M.D., an American phy- 
 sician and archaeologist, for many years professor of ma- 
 teria medica and therapeutics in the New York Medical 
 College, was born in Ross county, Ohio, in 1811. His 
 principal work is his "Monuments of the Mississippi 
 Valley," published by the Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 Davis, ( H en ry,) D. D., an American divine and scholar, 
 born at East Hampton, New York, in 1770. He gradu- 
 ated at Yale College in 1796, was appointed professor of 
 Greek in Union College in 1806, and in 1809 was chosen 
 president of Middlebury College, Vermont. He was 
 president of Hamilton College, New York, from 181 7 
 to 1833. Died in 1S52. 
 
 Davis, (Rev. Henry Edwards,) an English clergy- 
 man, born at Windsor in 1756, became a Fellow and 
 tutor of Baliol College, Oxford. At the age of twenty- 
 one he published an Examination of Gibbon's History, 
 charging him with misrepresentation. Gibbon published 
 a Vindication against this charge. Died in 1784. 
 
 Davis, (Henry Winter,) an eloquent American 
 statesman, born at Annapolis, Maryland, about 1817, 
 graduated at Hampden-Sidney College. He was elected 
 a member of Congress for the third district of Maryland 
 (i.e. a part of Baltimore) in 1854, and again in 1856. 
 After the dissolution of the Whig party he joined, the 
 "American" party. He was re-elected to Congress in 
 1858. In the crisis of 1861 he gave proof of ardent loyalty 
 to the Union, and became a radical Republican. He 
 represented a part of Baltimore in the thirty-eighth Con- 
 gress, (1863-65,) in which he served as chairman of the 
 Committee on Foreign Affairs. In the summer of 1865 
 he made a public speech at Chicago in favour of negro 
 suffrage. His intellect was keen, inventive, and capable 
 of long-continued effort. Died in December, 1865. 
 
 Davis, (Iekkkrson,) an American statesman and mili- 
 tary leader j born in Christian county, Kentucky, in 1808. 
 He studied at Transylvania College, and subsequently at 
 the Military Academy of West Point, where he graduated 
 in 1828. He served in the Black Hawk war on the North- 
 west frontier, 1831-32, and in the campaigns against the 
 Pawnees and other Indian tribes, 1833 to 1835. Having 
 settled in Mississippi, he was elected to Congress by the 
 Democratic party in 1845. On the breaking out of the 
 Mexican war in 1846, he resigned his seat in Congress, 
 and as colonel of a regiment of volunteers joined Gen- 
 eral Taylor on the Rio Grande. He took a prominent 
 part in the engagements of Monterey and Buena Vista, 
 and his conduct on the latter occasion was noticed in 
 General Taylor's dispatch of March 6 in high terms 
 of commendation. He was appointed to fill a vacancy 
 in the United States Senate in 1847, and in 1848 elected 
 to the same office for the remainder of the term. It is 
 said that John Quincy Adams, on hearing Mr. Davis's 
 first speech in the Senate, observed to his friends, "That 
 young man, gentlemen, is no ordinary man : he will make 
 his mark yet." While in the Senate he was one of the 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
DAVIS 
 
 729 
 
 DAVY 
 
 most prominent among the advocates of slavery and 
 State rights. As Democratic candidate for Governor 
 of Mississippi in 1851 he was defeated by H. S. Foote, 
 the Union candidate. He was secretary of war during 
 Mr. Pierce's administration, from March, 1853, till March, 
 1857. At the latter date he again became a Senator of 
 the United States. Having taken a prominent part in the 
 secession movement in 1860-61, he resigned his seat in 
 the Senate of the United States in February of the latter 
 year, and was soon after elected President of the pro- 
 visional government formed by the secessionists. In 
 November, 1861, he was elected without opposition Pre- 
 sident (for six years) of the Confederate States, and was 
 inaugurated February 22, 1862. There seems no reason 
 to doubt that the Southern leaders made a wise selection 
 in placing Davis at the head of their perilous, not to say 
 wild and desperate, enterprise ; and he appears to have 
 done all that any man in his position could do to bring 
 it to a successful issue. The war was at last terminated 
 by the capture of Richmond by General Grant In April, 
 1865, alter which event President Davis retreated south- 
 ward, lie was taken prisoner in Southern Georgia in 
 May, 1865, was confined in Fortress Monroe two years, 
 and was then released on bail. He was included m the 
 general amnesty of December 25, 1868. 
 
 See E. A. Pollard, " Life of Jefferson Davis;" Livingston, 
 "Portraits of Eminent Americans;'' Dk. ].). Cravrn, "Prison-Liie 
 otjcl! '1 866 ;" Lifeand Imprisonmentof Jefferson Davis, 
 
 with th Military Career of Stonewall Jackson," New York, 
 
 1S66; "Lift! of Jefferson Davis," by F. H. Alfrienu, :868. 
 
 Davis, (JefFEBSON C.,) an American general, born 
 in Clarke county, Indiana, in 1828. He served in the 
 Mexican war, 1846-47. He was one of the garrison of 
 Fort Sumter when it was bombarded by the rebels in 
 April, 1861. He served at Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and 
 commanded a division at the battle of Stone River, De- 
 cember 31, 1862-January 2, 1863, and at the battle of 
 Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. He led a 
 corps of the army of Sherman in the march from Atlanta 
 to the sea, in December, 1864. 
 Davis, (John.) See Davies, (John.) 
 Davis, (jOUN,) an eminent English navigator, born at 
 Sandridge, in Devonshire. Between 1585 and 1587 he 
 made three voyages for the discovery of a Northwest 
 passage, in which he discovered the strait that bears 
 nis name, and advanced as far as the 72d degree of north 
 latitude. In 1591 he served as captain in Cavendish's 
 expedition to the South Sea, and afterwards made five 
 royages to the East Indies. He was killed by the 
 Japanese in 1605. He had published an account of his 
 Northwestern discoveries, and a work entitled "The 
 World's Hydrographical Description," 1595. 
 
 See Haki.uvt, "Navigations;" A. Saint John, "Lives of Cele- 
 brated Travellers ;" J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies 
 of Qneen Elizabeth's Reign," 1845. 
 
 Davis, (John,) an American jurist, born at Plymouth, 
 Massachusetts, in 1761, graduated at Harvard in 1781. 
 He was appointed comptroller of the treasury of the 
 United States in 1795, and in 1801 a judge of the district 
 court, which office he held for forty years. Died in 1847. 
 Davis, (John,) an American Senator, born in North- 
 borough, Massachusetts, in 1787, graduated at Yale Col- 
 lege. He was elected a member of Congress in 1824, 
 and re-elected several times. In 1834 he was chosen 
 Governor of Massachusetts. He represented his State in 
 • the United States Senate from 1835 to 1841. He acted 
 with the Whig party, and was a prominent advocate of a 
 protective tariff. He became Governor of Massachusetts 
 again in 1841 or 1842. His reputation for integrity was 
 such that he was commonly called " Honest John Davis." 
 He was again elected a Senator of the United States 
 about 1845. Died at Worcester in April, 1854. 
 
 Davis, (JOHN A. G.,) professor of law in the Univer- 
 sity of Virginia, was born iq Middlesex county, in that 
 Stat.-, in 1801. He was educated at William and Mary 
 College. He was the author of a " Guide to Justices of 
 the Peace," and other legal works. Died in 1840. 
 
 Davis, (Sir John Francis,) an English officer and 
 writer on China, was born in London in 1795. lie was 
 attached to Lord Amherst's embassy to China in 1816, 
 and afterwards became chief superintendent at Canton. 
 He is one of the few Europeans who have mastered the 
 
 language and literature of China. On his return to 
 England he published "The Chinese: a General De- 
 scription of China and its Inhabitants," (1836, 2 vols.,) 
 which is one of the best English works on that subject 
 He was governor of Hong-Kong from 1841 to 1847. In 
 1841 he produced "Sketches of China." 
 
 Davis, (Matthew L.,) an American writer, born in 
 1766, was an intimate friend of Aaron Burr. He wrote, 
 besides other works, " Memoirs of the Life of Aaron 
 Burr," (2 vols., 1836-37.) Died in 1850. 
 
 Da'vis, (Thomas,) an Irish poet and political writer, 
 born at Mallow in 1814. He was a leader of the party 
 called " Young Ireland," and in favour of a repeal of the 
 Act of Union. Died in 1S45. 
 
 Da'vl-son, (Francis,) an English poet, son of Wil- 
 liam, noticed below. He published in 1602 "The Poet- 
 ical Rhapsody," which contains, besides his own verses, 
 selections from the writings of contemporary poets. 
 
 Davison, (William,) an English statesman in the 
 service of Queen Elizabeth. After having performed 
 embassies to Holland and Scotland, he was appointed 
 privy councillor, and one of the principal secretaries of 
 state, about 1586. Hume says, " He was a man of parts, 
 but easy to be imposed on, and who for that very reason 
 had been made secretary." The queen ordered him 
 privately to draw a warrant for the execution of Mary 
 Stuart, which she signed. After the execution (1587) 
 she disowned the act, and threw the odium on Davison, 
 who was confined in the Tower a number of years. 
 
 See Sir N. H. Nicholas, "Life of William Davison," 1823; 
 Motlev, "History of the United Netherlands," vol. i. chap. iii. 
 
 Davoust or Davout, dS'voo', (Louis Alexandre 
 Edme F'rancois,) Baron, a French officer, brother of 
 .Marshal Davoust, was born at fitivey (Yonne) in 1773. 
 He served at the battles of Saint-Jean-d'Acre and of the 
 Pyramids, and became aide-de-camp to his brother in 
 1800. For his services at Austerlitz, Jena, and Wagram 
 he was made a baron in 1809, and general of brigade 
 in 181 1. Died in 1820. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Davoust, more correctly Davout, pronounced alike 
 dS'voo', (Louis Nicolas,) Duke of Auerstadt and Prince 
 of Eckmiihl, an able and successful French marshal, 
 born near Noyers (Yonne) in 1770, was a fellow-student 
 with Bonaparte at Brienne. In 1791 he became a colonel, 
 or chef-de-bataillon, in the republican army, and in 
 1793 made a daring attempt to seize Dumouriez, the 
 general-in-chief. In the same year he obtained the rank 
 of general of brigade. He accompanied Bonaparte to 
 Egypt in 1 798, fought several battles under Desaix, and 
 contributed to the victory of Aboukir, 1799. The next 
 year he returned to France, and was promoted to the 
 grade of general of division by Bonaparte, of whom he 
 was an ardent admirer. He commanded the cavalry of 
 the army of Italy in 1800. In 1804 he was made major- 
 general of the imperial guard, and marshal of the em- 
 pire. He led the right wing of the army at Austerlitz in 
 
 1805, where his services were very conspicuous, and de- 
 feated the Prussians at the great battle of Auerstadt, which 
 was fought on the same day as that of Jena, October 14, 
 
 1806. "This last success," says Alison, "put the keystone 
 to the arch of Marshal Davoust's fame." He was created 
 Prince of Eckmiihl in 1809 for his success at the village 
 of that name. After taking part in the Russian cam- 
 paign, 1812, and being wounded at Borodino, he defended 
 Hamburg against the allies for several months, and ex- 
 cited loud complaints by his extortions and severity to 
 the inhabitants. He was Napoleon's minister of war 
 during the Hundred Days, 1815, and after the battle of 
 Waterloo was appointed by the provisional government 
 general-in-chief of the French armies ; but he retired from 
 the command in the same year. In 1819 he was a mem- 
 ber of the Chamber of Peers. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Cheniek, " Vie- du Marechal Davont," 1866; "Davoust 
 desTyrannen, Leben undThaten." Leipsic, 1815 ; Jciurdan, " Eloge 
 funebre de M. !e Marechal Davoust," 1823; Thiers, " Histoire du 
 Consulat et de l'Empire." 
 
 Davout See Davoust. 
 
 D'Avrigny. See Avrigny. 
 
 Da'vjf, (Sir Humphry,) one of the most eminent che- 
 mists that Great Britain has produced, was born at Pen- 
 zance, in Cornwall, December 17, 1778. His father was 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DAVY 
 
 730 
 
 DAW IS ON 
 
 a carver of wood. Endowed by nature with an ardent 
 and fertile imagination, he early manifested a decided 
 taste for works of fiction, and especially for poetry. It 
 is stated that when about eleven years old he commenced 
 an epic poem, of which Diomede, the son of Tydeus, was 
 the hero : whether the work was ever fully completed, 
 we are not informed ; but enough, at least, was written 
 to prove the soaring fancy and inexhaustible invention 
 of the youthful poet. He appears subsequently to have 
 limited his efforts to fugitive poetry, of which he has left 
 some very respectable and interesting specimens. When 
 he was sixteen (1795) he lost his father. Not long after, 
 Gregory Watt, son of the celebrated James Watt, visit- 
 ing the west of England for his health, became a lodger 
 in the house of Mrs. Davy, the mother of Humphry. A 
 warm friendship, the result of congenial tastes, sprang 
 up between the young men, and appears to have had an 
 important influence in directing the studies and deter- 
 mining the subsequent career of Davy. But the cause 
 of science is especially indebted to Mr. Davies Gilbert 
 for the early encouragement which he afforded to Davy, 
 and afterwards for introducing him to the notice of the 
 Royal Institution in London. In 1798 he became asso- 
 ciated with Dr. Beddoes in the "Pneumatic Institution" 
 which the latter had founded at Bristol. In the follow- 
 ing year the young chemist gave to the world his first 
 contributions to science, — viz., "Essays on Heat and 
 Light, with a New Theory of Respiration," etc., (these 
 essays forming part of a volume published by Dr. Bed- 
 does.) His " Researches, Chemical and Philosophical, 
 chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide and its Respiration," 
 appeared in. 1800, and attracted great attention in the 
 scientific world. He was not only the first to discover 
 and make known the peculiar exhilarating or intoxicating 
 properties of nitrous oxide gas, but his " Researches" 
 contain also the results of a number of most interesting 
 though hazardous experiments on the respiration of car- 
 buretted hydrogen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbonic acid, 
 and nitrous gases. In 1801 he gave his first lecture be- 
 fore the Royal Institution, (London,) in which he was the 
 following year appointed professor. As a lecturer he 
 was eminently successful. " His youth, his simplicity, 
 his natural eloquence, his chemical knowledge, his happy 
 illustrations and well-conducted experiments, excited 
 universal attention and unbounded applause." (" Life of 
 Sir Humphry Davy," by Dr. Paris, p. 90.) In his second 
 Bakerian lecture before the Royal Society in 1807, he 
 announced his great achievement, — the decomposition 
 by galvanism of the fixed alkalies, — whereby he demon- 
 strated that these alkalies are simply metallic oxides. 
 Davy's account of this grand discovery has been justly 
 pronounced the most important contribution made to the 
 "Philosophical Transactions" (of the Royal Society) 
 since the time of Sir Isaac Newton. It is to be regretted 
 that one possessing such rare intellectual endowments 
 should not have been proof against the intoxication of 
 success. It is, however, too true that, after his sudden 
 rise to distinction, Davy occasionally betrayed a spirit of 
 arrogance, especially towards younger aspirants to fame, 
 unworthy of a great man, and certainly not to have been 
 expected in one who had himself owed so much to the 
 generous patronage of men of science. In 1812, Davy 
 was knighted; and shortly afterwards he married Mrs. 
 Apreece, — a widow who possessed, with many accom- 
 plishments, a considerable fortune. He was made in 
 1818 a baronet, in consideration of the great services 
 which he had rendered his country and mankind, — 
 among which one of the most important was his inven- 
 tion of the safety-lamp. In 1820 he was chosen presi- 
 dent of the Royal Society, and for seven successive years 
 was elected to the same office, — which, however, in 1827 
 he was compelled to resign on account of his health. 
 He died at Geneva in May, 1829. 
 
 Our limits will permit us to mention only a very few 
 of Davy's numerous and important publications. Among 
 the principal are his " Elements of Chemical Philoso- 
 phy" (1812) and his "Elements of Agricultural Chemis- 
 try," (1813 ;) to which may be added his papers relating 
 to " Fire-Damp," etc., and those giving an account of his 
 researches concerning "Oxymuriatic Acid" (chlorine) 
 and "Fluoric Compounds." His "Consolations in 
 
 Travel," published after his death, consists principally 
 of speculations and reflections on religious subjects. 
 
 Davy has been styled by Dumas " the greatest chemi- 
 cal genius that ever appeared." He seems, indeed, to 
 have possessed in the largest measure all the endow- 
 ments requisite for a profound and successful investigator 
 of nature. To an intellect in the highest degree pene- 
 trating and comprehensive, he joined an invention in- 
 exhaustible in resources, and an enthusiasm for science 
 which no difficulties or discouragements could repress. 
 "Davy," says Cuvier, "when not yet thirty-two years 
 old, occupied, in the opinion of all those who could judge 
 of such labours, the first rank among the chemists of this 
 or any other age." A writer in the " Edinburgh Review" 
 for April, 1836, observes that, "since the age of Sir 
 Isaac Newton, the history of British science has recorded 
 no discoveries of equal importance with those of Sir 
 Humphry Davy." 
 
 See *' Life of Sir Humphry Davy," by Dr. J. A. Paris," 1831 , 
 "Memoirs of the Life of Sir Humphry Davy," by his brother, Dr. 
 John Davy, 1S36; J. Ayrton, "Life of Sir H. Davy," 2 vols., 
 1831 ; H. C. van der Boon Mesch, " Redevoering over H. Davy," 
 1837; Kireevskv, " Histoire des L^gislateurs-chimistes: Lavoisier 
 — Berlhollet — H. Davy," 1845 ; " Edinburgh Review" for January, 
 1S14, and April, 1836; "London Quarterly Review'" for September, 
 1812. 
 
 Davy, (John,) an English musician and composer, 
 born near Exeter about 1770.; died in 1824. 
 
 Davy, (John,) M.D., an English chemist and phy- 
 siologist, was a younger brother of Sir Humphry Davy. 
 He served as surgeon in the army for manv years in 
 the East Indies, etc. In 1821 he published in London 
 an excellent "Account of the Interior of Ceylon." He 
 wrote numerous able works on various subjects, among 
 which are "Researches, Physiological and Anatomical," 
 (1839,) a "Life of Sir Humphry Davy," (1840,) "Notes 
 and Observations on the Ionian Islands and Malta," 
 (1842,) and "Lectures on the Study of Chemistry," etc., 
 (1849.) Died in 1868. 
 
 Davydow or Davuidof. See Davidof. 
 
 Dawe, dau, (George,) an eminent English portrait- 
 painter, born about 1775, acquired a European reputa- 
 tion. The Royal Academy received him as associate 
 about 1809, and as academician in 1814. In 1819 the 
 emperor Alexander invited him to Saint Petersburg, 
 where he passed ten years, with the titie of first painter. 
 He executed portraits of nearly all the sovereigns of 
 Europe. His "Andromache" proves that he was also 
 skilful as a historical painter. He wrote a "Life of 
 George Morland." Charles Lamb, who was his friend, 
 mentions him in his "Essays." Died in London in 1829. 
 
 Dawes, dauz, (Henry L.,) a lawyer, born in Hamp- 
 shire county, Massachusetts, in 1816. He represented a 
 district of Massachusetts in Congress from 1857 to 1869, 
 acting with the Republicans. He is also a member of 
 the forty-first Congress, (1869-71.) 
 
 Dawes, dauz, (Manasseh,) an English writer on law, 
 morals, and political economy. Died in 1829. 
 
 Dawes, (Richard,) an English critic, eminent as a 
 Greek scholar, born at Market Bosworth in 1708, became 
 a Fellow of Emanuel College, Cambridge. From 1738 
 to 1749 he was master of a grammar-school in Newcastle. 
 In 1745 he published "Miscellanea Critica," which was 
 at one time a high authority. Porson thought it "second 
 only to Bentley's 'Phalaris.'" Died in 1766. 
 
 Dawes, (Rufus,) an American poet, born in Boston 
 in 1803, studied law, but never practised it. In 1839 he 
 published "Geraldine, Athenia of Damascus, and Mis- 
 cellaneous Poems." 
 
 See Griswoi.d's " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Dawes, (Sir William,) an English prelate, born near 
 Braintree, Essex, in 1671, was the son of Sir John Dawes, 
 and was educated at Oxford. He was chaplain to Wil- 
 liam III. about 1698, and to Queen Anne some years 
 later, and had great popularity as a preacher. He was 
 appointed Bishop of Chester in 1707, and Archbishop of 
 York in 17 14. He wrote the "Anatomy of Atheism," 
 a poem, and published several sermons. Died in 1724. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Dawison, da've-son, ? (Bogumil,) a popular actor, 
 born at Warsaw in 1818. In 1866 he came to the United 
 States. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, C, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moBo; 
 
DAWSON 
 
 73* 
 
 DEBAY 
 
 Daw'son, (George,) an English writer on law, pub- 
 lished "The Origin of Laws," ("Origo Legum," 1694.) 
 Died in 170a 
 
 Daxenberger, dik'sen-WRG'er, (Sebastian Franz,) 
 a German poet, bom at Munich in 1809, assumed the 
 name of Karl Fernau. 
 
 Day, (J eremi \H,) president of Yale College, was born 
 in New Preston, Connecticut, in 1773. He graduated 
 at Yale College in 1795, studied theology, and became in 
 I&OI professor of mathematics and natural philosophy 
 at that college. He succeeded Dr. Dwight as president 
 in 1817, and continued to hold that position until 1846. 
 He published, besides other works, "An Introduction 
 to Algebra," (1814,) and "Navigation and Surveying," 
 (181 7,) which were highly esteemed. Died in 1867. 
 
 Day or Daye, (John,) an English printer, born at 
 Dumvich in 1522, established a printing-office in London 
 in 1544. He perfected the Greek types, and was the 
 first who printed with Saxon characters in England. By 
 his editions of the Bible and other books he promoted 
 the Reformation. Died in 1584. 
 
 See Ames and Dibuin, "Typographical Antiquities of Great 
 Britain." 
 
 Day or Daye, (John,) son of the preceding, born in 
 1566, became a popular preacher, and published nume- 
 rous sermons and lectures. Died in 1627. 
 
 Day, (John,) an English poet and comedian, lived 
 about 1600-20. Among his works is "The Isle of Guls," 
 (1606.) 
 
 Day, (Stephen,) an English printer, born in 161 1, 
 removed to Massachusetts in 1638, and established at 
 Cambridge the first printing-press in New England. 
 Died in 1668. 
 
 Day, (Thomas,) an English author and philanthropist, 
 born in London in 1748, inherited an ample fortune. 
 He studied law, but did not practise at the bar. In 1773 
 he attacked the slave-trade in a poem entitled "The 
 Dying Negro." He expressed his sympathy with the 
 American patriots by two poems, " The Devoted Le- 
 gions," and "The Desolation of America," (1777.) The 
 following may serve to illustrate his eccentric habits 
 and peculiar opinions on education. He selected from 
 a foundling-hospital two girls about twelve years old, 
 with the intention of educating them rationally on the 
 system of Rousseau and taking one of them as his wife. 
 But the experiment did not succeed ; and he married 
 Miss Milnes in 1778. One of his protegees, however, did 
 honour to his system of education, and became the wife 
 of his friend Bicknell. His most popular work is "Sand- 
 ford and Merton," (1783,) a juvenile tale, of which Leigh 
 Hunt says, "The pool of mercenary and time-serving 
 ethics was first blown over by the fresh country breeze 
 of ' Sandford and Merton,' a production that I shall ever 
 be grateful for." He wrote several other minor works. 
 He was killed by a kick from a horse in 1789. 
 
 See "An Account of the Life and Writings of Thomas Day," 
 by himself; " Biographia Britannica;" J. Blackman, "Life of T. 
 Day;" Timaeus, "T. Day's Leben," 1798. 
 
 Daye. See Day. 
 
 Day'ton, (Elias,) an American officer, born in 1737, 
 was a native of New Jersey. He fought in the American 
 Revolution, obtained the rank of colonel in 1778, and 
 afterwards became a general. Died in 1807. 
 
 Dayton, (John,) born about 1760, was elected Gov- 
 ernor of South Carolina in 1800, and again in 1808. He 
 afterwards became judge of the United States district 
 court of that State. He was author of " A View of South 
 Carolina," " Memoirs of the Revolution," etc. Died in 
 1822. 
 
 Dayton, (Jonathan,) an American statesman, born 
 at Elizabethtown, in New Jersey, in 1760. He was a 
 member of the convention which framed the Federal 
 Constitution in 1787, and was elected to Congress by 
 the Federalists of New Jersey in 1791. He was Speaker 
 of the House of Representatives for two terms between 
 1793 and 1797, and was elected to the Senate of the 
 United States in 1799. Died in 1824. 
 
 Dayton, (William Lewis,) an American statesman, 
 born at Baskingridge, Somerset county, New Jersey, 
 in 1807. He was liberally educated, studied law, and 
 was admitted to the bar about 1830. He was appointed 
 in 1842 a Senator of the United States by the Governor 
 
 of New Jersey, to fill a vacancy. He also represented 
 New Jersey in the national Senate for a full term of six 
 years, (1845-51,) during which he acted with the Whig 
 party and opposed the extension of slavery. He also 
 disapproved the Fugitive Slave bill. In 1851 he returned 
 to the practice of law at Trenton. In 1856 he was nomi- 
 nated as Republican candidate for Vice-President by the 
 convention which nominated J. C. Fremont for the Presi- 
 dency. They received the votes of the New England 
 States, and of New York, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
 and Iowa. In 1857 he became attorney-general of New 
 Jersey. He was appointed minister to France in the 
 spring of 1861. He died in Paris in December, 1864. 
 
 Dazille, di'zel' or dt'ze/ye, (Jean Barthelemy,) a 
 French physician, became honorary physician to the king 
 in Saint Domingo in 1776. He wrote a "Treatise on 
 the Diseases of Warm Climates," and other valuable 
 medical works. Died in Paris in 1812. 
 
 Dazzi, dit'see, (Andrea,) bom in Florence about 
 1470, was professor of ancient literature in his native 
 city, and wrote a number of Latin poems. Died in 1548. 
 
 Deageant, di'zhd.N', a French courtier and writer, 
 born at Saint-Marcellan, was author of historical "Me- 
 moires," printed in 1668. Died in 1639. 
 
 Deak, da Ik', (Francis,) a Hungarian orator and 
 statesman, born at Kehida in 1803. He was elected to 
 the Diet about 1830, and became a leader of the mode- 
 rately liberal party. In 1848 he was appointed minister 
 of justice; but he retired from that office when Kossuth 
 obtained the ascendency in September, 1848. On the 
 approach of General Windischgratz in 1849, Deak was 
 selected to negotiate with him. The important address 
 or manifesto of the Diet in answer to the imperial rescript 
 in the summer of 186 1 was drawn by Deak. He is said 
 to be the most popular man in Hungary. 
 
 Deane, deen, (James,) M.D-, an American physician 
 and naturalist, and one of the first discoverers of the 
 fossil footprints in the valley of the Connecticut, was 
 born in Coleraine, Massachusetts, in 1801 ; died in 1858. 
 He was author of numerous papers on fossil footprints 
 and other scientific subjects. 
 
 Deane, (Silas,) an American diplomatist, born at 
 Groton, Connecticut. He was a member of Congress 
 in 1774, and was sent to France as a political and finan- 
 cial agent in 1776. He deviated from his instructions, 
 and by profuse promises induced so many French officers 
 to enter the service of the United States, that Congress 
 was dissatisfied with his conduct, and recalled him in 
 1777. Died in England in 1789. 
 
 Deani, da-a'nee, (Marcantonio,) a popular Italian 
 preacher, commonly called "Padre Pacifico," born at 
 Brescia in 1775; died in 1824. 
 
 See Gambara, "Elogio storico del P. Pacifico," 1825. 
 
 Dear'born, (Henry,) an American general, born in 
 Hampton, New Hampshire, in 1 75 1. He served as 
 captain at the battle of Bunker Hill, and as major at 
 the capture of the army of Burgoyne in 1777. In 1781 
 he took part in the capture of the British army at York- 
 town. He was secretary of war for eight years, (1801- 
 09.) In the spring of 1813 he captured Yorktown, in 
 Canada. He was sent as minister to Portugal in 1822, 
 and returned in 1824. Died in 1829. 
 
 Dearing. See Dering, (Edward.) 
 
 Debacq, deh-bik', (Charles Alexandre,) a French 
 painter of history and portraits, was born in Paris in 
 1804. Among his works are "Mary Stuart departing 
 from France," and "The Death of Moliere." Died in 1850. 
 
 Debay, deh-b4', (Augi/ste Hyacinthe,) a French 
 painter and sculptor, born at Nantes in 1804. He gained 
 the first prize for painting in 1823, since which he has 
 won several medals of the first class. Among his paint- 
 ings is "Lucretia in the Forum of Collatia," (1831.) As 
 a sculptor he has produced an admired group called 
 "The Primitive Cradle, or Eve and her Two Infants." 
 
 Debay, (Jean Baptiste Joseph,) the father of the 
 preceding, born at Malines in 1779, was a skilful sculptor. 
 He worked at Nantes and Paris. Among his works are 
 a group of the "Three Parcae," (1828,) and a statue of 
 Pericles, (1833.) 
 
 Debay, (Jean Baptiste Joseph,) a French sculptor, 
 a son of the preceding, was born at Nantes in 1802. He" 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^p^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DEBELLE 
 
 732 
 
 DECEBALUS 
 
 gained the first prize in 1819. He produced a statue of 
 Cambronne, (1846,) and other works. 
 
 Debelle. See Belle, de. 
 
 Debelloy. See Belloy, de. 
 
 Debonnaire, da'bo'naR', (Louis,) a French theolo- 
 gical writer, born at Ramerupt-sur-Aube ; died in 1752. 
 
 Deb'o-rah, [Heb. m2"1,] a Hebrew prophetess and 
 judge, who lived in the thirteenth century before Christ. 
 She was instrumental in delivering the people from Jabin, 
 King of Canaan, and his captain Sisera. (See Judges, 
 chap, iv.) She is supposed to have been the author of 
 the sublime hymn or lyric poem which forms the fifth 
 chapter of Judges. 
 
 De Bow, (James Dunwoody Brownson,) an Ame- 
 rican writer and statistician, born at Charleston in 1820. 
 He graduated at Charleston College in 1843, was admit- 
 ted to the bar in 1844, and the same yea* took charge of 
 the " Southern Quarterly Review," published at Charles- 
 ton. Near the close of 1845 he removed to New Orleans, 
 and established " De Bow's Commercial Review," of 
 which he was for many years the editor and proprietor. 
 He was chosen professor of political economy and sta- 
 tistics in the University of Louisiana in 1847. I' 1 1 %$1 
 appeared his " Industrial Resources of the South and 
 West," (3 vols. 8vo.) Died in 1867. 
 
 Debratus, deh-bRo', (Paul Emile,) a popular French 
 song-writer, born at Ancerville in 1798, published "La 
 Colonne," " Prince Eugene," and other songs, which 
 had great success. Died in 1831. 
 
 Debret, deh-bRi', (Jean Baptiste,) a French painter, 
 born in Paris in 1768, removed to Rio Janeiro some time 
 after 1815, and received the title of first painter to the 
 imperial family of Brazil, for whom he painted several 
 historical pieces and portraits. Died in Paris about 1845. 
 
 De Brosses. See Brosses, de. 
 
 Debry, deh-bRe', (Jean Antoine Joseph,) a French 
 lawyer, born at Vervins about 1760, was elected to the 
 Legislative Assembly in 1791, and was a prominent sup- 
 porter of the moderate republican party. He was one 
 of the committee of public safety in 1793, and became 
 a member of the Council of Five Hundred in 1796. In 
 1798 he was sent, with two others, as minister plenipo- 
 tentiary to Rastadt, As they were departing from that 
 place, in 1799, on their return home, a party of Austrian 
 soldiers massacred his colleagues ; but he escaped by 
 favour of the darkness. He was prefect of Doubs from 
 1801 till 1814. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gthrerale." 
 
 Debure, deh-biiR', written also De Bure, (Guil- 
 I.aume,) a French publisher and bibliographer, born in 
 Paris in 1734; died in 1820. 
 
 Debure, (Guillaume Franqois,) a French book- 
 seller and bibliographer, born in Paris in 1731. He 
 published a "Bibliographie Instructive," (7 vols., 1763- 
 68,) which was the most important work on the subject 
 of rare books that had then appeared. Died in 1782. 
 
 Decaen, deh-kdN', written also De Caen, (Charles 
 Mathieu Isidore,) a French count, born near Caen in 
 1769, became general of brigade in 1796. As general of 
 division, he contributed to the victory of Hohenlinden in 
 1800. In 1802 he was appointed captain-general of the 
 French possessions in India. He defended with ability 
 the Isles of France and of Bourbon against the English 
 for eight years, and returned home in 181 1. For his suc- 
 cess against the Spaniards he was created count in 1813. 
 In 1S15 he commanded at Bordeaux for Louis XVIII., 
 but joined the army of Napoleon when he returned from 
 Elba. After the restoration of 1815 he was excluded 
 from the service. Died in 1832. 
 
 See M. L. E. Gautier, " Biographie du General Decaen," 1S50. 
 
 Decaisne, deh-kin', (Henri,) a historical painter of 
 much merit, born at Brussels in 1799. Many of his works 
 are in the Musee of Versailles, and in various public 
 buildings of Paris. Died about 1852. 
 
 Decaisne, (Joseph,) an eminent botanist and horti- 
 culturist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Brus- 
 sels in 1808. He removed to Paris in his youth, and in 
 1830 became aide-naturaliste under Adrien de Jussieu 
 in the Museum of Natural History. In 1850 he suc- 
 ceeded Mirbel as professor of culture and director of the 
 
 famous botanical garden of Paris. He wrote treatises 
 on Madder, the Chinese Yam, Rice, etc., and published 
 a valuable work entitled "Asiatic Plants collected by 
 V. Jacquemont." He is a member of the Institute. 
 
 Decamps, deh-k&N', (Alexandre Gabriel,) an emi- 
 nent French painter of landscapes, history, and genre, 
 was born in Paris in 1803. He studied nature in Italy 
 and in the Levant. His style is regarded as original. 
 Among his principal works are "The Defeat of the Cim- 
 bri," a " Souvenir of Turkey in Asia," and other pictures 
 of Oriental scenes and customs. At the Exposition in 
 Paris in 1855 he divided the public favour with Vernet 
 and Delacroix. His pictures display great vigour of 
 colouring and mastery of the effects of light. 
 
 Decamps, (Franqois.) See Camps, de. 
 
 Decamps, (J. B.) See Descamps, (J. B.) 
 
 De Candolle. See Candolle, de. 
 
 De Castro. See Castro, de. 
 
 De-ca'tur, (Stephen,) a celebrated Americjh com- 
 modore, born at Sinnepuxent, Marylaijttr"in January, 
 1779. He entered the navy in 1798, and obtained the 
 rank of lieutenant in 1799. In February, 1804, he com- 
 manded a small party which entered the harbour of 
 Tripoli and burned the American frigate Philadelphia, 
 which had been captured. For this dariirg exploit he was 
 promoted to the rank of captain. At the beginning of 
 the war of 1812 he commanded the frigate United States, 
 forty-four guns, with which he captured the British frigate 
 Macedonian in October of that year. He was blockaded 
 by a superior force in the harbour of New London for 
 several months, 1813-14. In January, 1815, he sailed 
 from New York in the President, which, after being 
 injured by striking a bar, was pursued by four British 
 vessels and forced to surrender. In May, 1815, he took 
 command of a squadron sent against the Algerines, who 
 had committed hostile acts on the commerce of the 
 United States. He captured two Algerine war-vessels, 
 and dictated a treaty of peace to the Dey of Algiers, in 
 June, 1815. He was renowned for extraordinary reso- 
 lution and cool intrepidity. He was killed in a duel near 
 Bladensburg, Maryland, by Commodore James Barron, 
 in March, 1820. 
 
 See "Life of S. Decatur," in Sparks's "American Biography," 
 vol. ii., second series ; S. Putnam Waldo, " Life and Character of 
 S. Decatur," 1821, 2d edition; "National Portrait Galleryof Distin- 
 guished Americans," vol. iii. ; " Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Decazes, deh-kiz', (Elie,) a French statesman and 
 peer, born at or near Libourne (Gironde) in 1780. He 
 became a resident of Paris under the regime of Napoleon, 
 and was banished thence because he was a royalist during 
 the Hundred Days. On the restoration of 1815 he was 
 appointed minister of police instead of Fouche. By his 
 address and tact he was well qualified for that office, 
 which was highly important in those critical times. He 
 gained the confidence of the king, so that when the min- 
 isters resigned, in December, 1818, and the king resolved 
 to have a Liberal ministry, he consulted Decazes, by 
 whose advice General Dessolles was appointed premier ; 
 and the subject of this article became minister of the 
 interior. In the next year he became prime minister. 
 In February, 1820, he resigned in consequence of calum- 
 nies which had obtained currency and which charged 
 him with complicity in the death of the Duke of Berryi 
 The king, whose favourite he remained to the last, then 
 gave him the title of duke, and appointed him ambassador 
 to London. "M. Decazes," says Lamartine, " won his 
 political fortune by his courage, confirmed it by his ur- 
 banity, merited it by the sagacity of his views, and lost 
 it finally by a tragical event of which he was innocent. 
 He was the statesman of concord, of impartiality, and of 
 the charter." In 1834 he was chosen grand referendari 
 of the Chamber of Peers. Died in October, i860. 
 
 See Lamartine, "History of the Restoration;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate;" Louis dk LomENIe, "M. Decazes, par un 
 Homme de Rien," 1844. 
 
 Dece, the French of Decius, which see. 
 
 Decebale. See Dkcehalus. 
 
 De-ceb'a-lus, [Gr. Aeicefiatoc; Fr. Decehale, di'si'- 
 bSl',] King of the Dacians, born in the first century, was 
 for a long time a formidable enemy of the Romans. He 
 waged a successful war against the emperor Domitian, 
 wiiu was compelled to become tributary to him about 90. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
DECEMBRIO 
 
 733 
 
 DEFER MON 
 
 When Trajan became master of the empire, (98 A.D.,) he 
 refused to pav tribute, and in the war which ensued De- 
 Wblllin was defeated. He killed himself in 105 A.D. 
 
 See Tillf.mont, " Histoire des Empcreurs. " 
 
 Decembrio, di-che'm'bRe-o, (Angelo,) an Italian 
 writer, born in the duchy of Milan ; died about 1500. 
 
 Decembrio, (Pietro Candido,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Pavia in 1399, was a brother of Angelo. He was 
 elected president of the Milanese republic in 1447. When 
 Milan had been conquered by Francis Sforza, he went 
 to Rome, where Pope Nicholas V. made him apostolic 
 secretary. He wrote numerous works, among which are 
 a " Life of Francis Sforza" and a " Life of Petrarch," and 
 translated some of the works of Plato, Aristotle, and 
 others. Died in 1477. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Dechalles or Dechasles. See Chai.i.f.s, de. 
 
 Dechamps, deh-sh&N', (Adolphe,) a Belgian states- 
 man and orator, bom at Melle in 1807. In 1845 ' le De " 
 came minister of foreign affairs. He was removed from 
 office in 1847, a f' er which he united himself with the 
 Catholic opposition. 
 
 De Charmes, de charmz, (Richard,) an American 
 author and Swedenborgian minister, born in Philadel- 
 phia in 1796. He graduated at Yale College in 1826. 
 His principal publications are the " New Churchman 
 Extra," devoted to polemics and church history, and 
 several volumes of sermons. 
 
 Dechazelles. See Chazelles, de. 
 
 Decio, da'cho, [Lat. De'cius,| (Fii.ippo,) an emi- 
 nent Italian jurist, born at Milan in 1454. He professed 
 civil and canon law with great reputation at Pisa, Pavia, 
 Sienna, and Rome. Having been excommunicated by 
 Julius II., he went to France, and was chosen professor 
 at Valence. After Leo X. became pope, Decio returned 
 to Italy, and died in 1535. He wrote a legal work en- 
 titled "Consilia." 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" P. Giovio, 
 " Elogia." 
 
 Decius. See Decio. 
 
 Decius, dee'sbe-us, [Fr. Dece, dis,] (Caius Messius 
 Quintus TrajanusJ a Roman emperor, born in Panno- 
 nia about 200 a.d. He was Governor of Mcesia, under 
 Philip, when his army proclaimed him emperor. A 
 battle follower! between the two rivals, in which Philip 
 was defeated and killed, 249 a.d. Decius persecuted the 
 Christians with great cruelty. In a battle with the Goths, 
 who had invaded his dominions, he was killed in 251. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 De'cius Ju-bel'11-us, a general sent by the Roman 
 senate to guard the city of Rhegium during the invasion 
 of Italy by Pyrrhus. He treacherously massacred the 
 male citizens of that city, and revolted against the 
 Roman republic. Died about 270 n.C. 
 
 De'cius Mus, (Puklius,) a Roman consul, celebrated 
 for his patriotic devotion. In a battle against the Latins, 
 337 B.C., he devoted himself formally to the Dii Minus, 
 then, rushing into the midst of the enemy, was instantly 
 killed. His son, P. Decius Mus, also a consul, imitated 
 his example in 296 B.C. 
 
 Decker, deVker, Dekker, or Deckers, dek'k?rs, 
 (John,) a Dutch chronologist and theologian, born at 
 Haasbroek about 1555 ; died in 1619. 
 
 Decker, (Sir Matthew,) a writer on political eco- 
 nomy, born in Amsterdam. In 1702 he settled in Lon- 
 don, where he became an eminent merchant, was made 
 a baronet in 1716, and elected to Parliament in 1719. 
 He published "Serious Considerations on the Several 
 High Duties which the Nation labours under," (1743.) 
 A work on the "Cause* of the Decline of the Foreign 
 Trade" is by some ascribed to him. Died in 1749. 
 
 Deck'er, Dek'kar, or Dek'ker, (Thomas,) an Eng- 
 lish dramatist, who lived in the reign of James I. He 
 wrote several plays in partnership with Ford, Rowley, and 
 others. Among the works which he composed alone 
 Ttre " F01 -tunatus, or the Wishing-Cap," and " The Gull's 
 Horn-Book," the latter of which presents a curious pic- 
 tare of the manners of his time. Died about 1638. 
 
 See DlBDlN, "History of the English Stage;" "Minor Eliza- 
 bethan Dramatists," in the "Atlantic Monthly' for December, J867. 
 
 Decker, van. See Dfkker, de. 
 
 Decker, von, fon dek'ker, (Karl,) a German writer 
 on war and tactics, was born in Berlin in 17S4. lie 
 served some years in the Prussian army, and row to the 
 rank of general-major, (1842.) He wrote many works, 
 among which are " Bonaparte's Campaigns in Italy," and 
 "Tactics," etc., (1834.) Died in 1844. 
 
 De Columnis. See Guido delle Colonne. 
 
 Decomberousse, deh koN'bkooss',( Francois Isaac 
 HYAClNTHE,)a French dramatist, born at Vienne in 1786. 
 He wrote a successful comedy, called " The Present of 
 the Prince," (1821,) and "Judith," a tragedy, in verse, 
 (1825,) which is commended. Died in 1856. 
 
 Decres, deh-kRa', (Denis,) Due, a French naval 
 officer, born at Chaumont, in Champagne, in 1761, en- 
 tered the navy at the age of seventeen, and obtained the 
 rank of rear-admiral in 1798. For his conduct in a fight 
 with the English near Malta in 1800, he received a sabre 
 of honour from the First Consul. In 1801 he was ap- 
 pointed minister of the marine, which he directed with 
 ability for thirteen years. In 1815 he retired from the 
 service. In 1820 he was killed by his valet, who designed 
 to rob him. 
 
 See " Nouvelle BiogAphie Gene'rale." 
 
 Dedale, the French of D.«dalus, which see. 
 
 Dedecker, da'dek'ker, (Pierre Jacques Francois,) 
 a leader of the Catholic or clerical party in Belgium, 
 was born at Zele in 1812. He entered the Chamber of 
 Deputies in 1839, and was one of the chief editors of 
 the "Revue de Bruxelles" from 1837 to 1851. In 1855 he 
 formed a new ministry, which was dissolved in 1857. 
 
 Dedekind, da'deh-klnt', (Constantine Christian,) 
 a German poet, born at Rheinsdorf, wrote dramas on 
 scriptural subjects, and other works. Died in 1713. 
 
 Dedekind, (Friedrich,) a German poet, born at 
 Neustadt about 1530. He was inspector of the Protest- 
 ant churches of the diocese of Lubeck. He wrote, besides 
 other works, a humorous satire in Latin verse, entitled 
 "Grobianus, de Morum Simplicitate," (1549,) which was 
 often reprinted. An English version appeared, with 
 the title of " Grobianus, or the Compleat Booby." Died 
 in 1598. 
 
 See Hegel, " Geschichte der komischen Literatur." 
 
 Dedelay. See De Delley. 
 
 De Delley, deh-d&'li', written also Dedelay,(O.AUDE 
 Pierre,) a meritorious French economist, born at Ro- 
 mans (Dauphine) in 1750. He wrote valuable treatises 
 on agriculture and the public revenue, and founded a 
 hospital and free school. He became a senator in 1800, 
 and was made a count under the empire. Died in 1827. 
 
 De Dominis. See Dominis. 
 
 Dee, (Arthur,) M.D., an English alchemist, son of 
 John Dee, noticed below, born at Mortlake in 1579, 
 became physician to Charles I., and wrote a treatise 
 on alchemy, called " Fasciculus Chymicus," (1631.) Died 
 in 1651. 
 
 Dee, (John,) a famous English astrologer and mathe- 
 matician, remarkable for his versatile talents and learning, 
 was born in London in 1527. He was educated at Cam- 
 bridge, where he made great progress in astronomy and 
 other sciences. About 1550 he lectured on geometry in 
 Paris or Rheims, and returned to London in 1551. In 
 the reign of Mary he was imprisoned on a charge of 
 magic. He was patronized by Queen Elizabeth, who is 
 said to have employed him as her secret agent or " intel- 
 ligencer." In 1564 he produced his " Monas Hiero- 
 glyphica," and some years later wrote an able treatise on 
 the reformation of the calendar. Having associated with 
 himself Edward Kelley and a Polish noble named l.:iski, 
 for the purpose of conversing with spirits, they passed 
 some years in Bohemia and Poland. In 1595 the queen 
 appointed him warden of Manchester College. He died 
 in 1608, leaving many curious works, some of which are 
 still in manuscript. 
 
 See Disraeli, "Amenities of Literature;" Dibdin, "Biblio- 
 mania;" Thomas Smith, "Vita J. Dee," London, 1707. 
 
 Deering, deer'ing or da'ring, (Karl,) a German phy- 
 sician and botanist, born in Saxony, emigrated to Eng- 
 land. He published a catalogue of the plants growing 
 near Nottingham. Died about 1750. 
 
 Defermon des Chapelieres, deh-f2R'm6N'd& ship- 
 le-aiR', (Joseph,) COUNT, an able French n inister of 
 
 1 *; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; H, nasal; R, trilled; Sas *; th as in this. (Jfy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 f&&~*<£? 
 
 Taj* 0' 
 
DEFFAND 
 
 734 
 
 DEIOTARUS 
 
 state, born at Rennes in 1756, was educated for the law. 
 As a member of the National Assembly, he favoured a 
 moderate reform, and was chosen president of that body 
 in 1 791. In the Convention he voted against the death 
 of the king, and in 1795 passed into the Council of Five 
 Hundred. Bonaparte appointed him councillor of state 
 in 1800, and minister of state in 1807. Soon after this 
 date he was made a count of the empire, and one of the 
 directors of the finances. Died in 1831. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'n^rale." 
 
 Deffand or Defiant, du, dii d^'ffiN', (Marie de 
 Vichy-Chamroud — deh ve'she'sh&N'roo',) Marquise, 
 a literary French lady, born in 1697. She became at 
 an early age the wife of the Marquis du Deffand, from 
 whom she soon separated. Though intelligent, witty, 
 beautiful, and accomplished, she was much disposed to 
 ennui. Her house in Paris for fifty years was frequented 
 by authors and statesmen of the highest eminence, and 
 the most noble and fashionable were attracted to her 
 parties. She corresponded many years with Horace 
 Walpole, D'Alembert, and Voltaire. She became nearly 
 blind at the age of fifty-four. She was inclined to skep- 
 ticism, and was remarkable for egbtism. Her letters 
 are much admired for literary merit and soundness of 
 criticism. (See her "Letters to Walpole and Voltaire," 
 published in 4 vols., 1810.) Died in 1780. (See Espi- 
 nasse, Mademoiselle.) 
 
 See Marmontel, "M^moires;" Voltaire, " Correspondance ;" 
 Grimm, " Correspondance ;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1810, 
 February, 1811, and October, 1859. 
 
 Defiant. See Deffand. 
 
 De Foe or Defoe, (Daniel,) a popular English author 
 and original genius, born in London in 1661, was the son 
 of James Foe, a butcher. The particle De was prefixed 
 to the name by Daniel himself. He was educated for the 
 ministry among the dissenters, but did not pursue that 
 vocation. In 1685 he enlisted in the service of the Duke 
 of Monmouth in rebellion against James II., and on the 
 failure of that attempt became a merchant or tradesman. 
 He produced an "Essay on Projects" in 1697, and a 
 poetical satire entitled "The True-Born Englishman," 
 (about 1700,) which had a very large sale and procured 
 him the favour of the king. For the publication of his 
 ironical pamphlet entitled "The Shortest Way with the 
 Dissenters," (1702,) he was condemned by the House 
 of Commons to be fined, pilloried, and imprisoned two 
 years. During his confinement and after his release he 
 produced works on various subjects with great industry 
 and rapidity. In 1706 he was sent to Scotland by the 
 queen's, ministers to promote the Union, and in 1709 
 published his admired "History of the Union." His 
 political works, in which he defended the principles of 
 the Whigs and dissenters, exposed him to much suffering 
 and pecuniary loss, which he summed up in this couplet : 
 " No man has tasted differing fortunes more ; 
 And thirteen times I have been rich and poor." 
 
 The number of his works amounts to about two hundred 
 and ten, among which the principal are "Adventures 
 of Robinson Crusoe," (1719,) "Memoirs of a Cavalier," 
 "The History of the Plague of 1665," "The Fortunes 
 of Moll Flanders," " Religious Courtship," (1722,) "Ad- 
 ventures of Roxana," "Captain Singleton," a "Treatise 
 on Apparitions," and a " Plan of English Commerce." 
 The above are chiefly fictitious, but produce a lively 
 impression of truth and reality. De Foe was a pithy 
 writer, an accurate observer ot social phenomena, and 
 was remarkable for his versatility of mind and fertility 
 of invention. "Perhaps there exists no work in the 
 English language," says Sir Walter Scott, "which has 
 been more generally read and more universally admired 
 than the Adventures of Robinson Crusoe." Died in 1731. 
 
 See "Life of Defoe," by Walter Wilson, 1S30; J. Forstf.k, 
 "Essay on Defoe;" Sir Walter Scott, " Biography" prefixed to 
 De Foe's Works; W. Hazlitt, "Memoirs of De Foe," 1843; 
 George Chalmers, "Life of Defoe," London, 1790; William 
 Lee, " Life of Daniel Defoe," 3 vols., 1869, including a portion of 
 his unpublished writings; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1845; 
 " Retrospective Review," vols. iii. ana vi., 1821-22 ; also, an elaborate 
 article on " Defoe," in the " British Quarterly" for October, 1869. 
 
 Deforis, deh-fo'ress', (Jean Pierre,) a French priest, 
 born at Montbrison in 1732, wrote in 1762 a Refutation 
 of Rousseau's "Emile," and published an edition of Bos- 
 suet's works. He was guillotined in 1794. 
 
 Defremery, deh-fR&m're', (Charles,) a French Ori- 
 entalist, born at Cambrai in 1822. 
 
 Degen, da'gen, (Carl Ferdinand,) a Danish mathe- 
 matician, born at Brunswick in 1766; died in 1825. 
 
 Degenfeld, von, fon da'gen-felt', (Christoph Mar- 
 tin,) Baron, a German general, fought for Gustavus 
 Adolphus, and for the Venetians against Pope Urban 
 VIII. Died in 1653. 
 
 Deger, da'ger, (Ernst,) an eminent German historical 
 painter of the Dusseldorf school, born near Hildesheim 
 in 1809. His subjects are mostly scriptural. 
 
 De Gerando. See Gerando. 
 
 Degrave. See Grave. 
 
 De Grey and Rip'on,(GEORGE Frederick Samuel 
 Rob'inson,) Earl, a British statesman, the eldest son of 
 the first Earl of Ripon, was born in London about 1827. 
 Before the death of his father in 1859 he was called Lord 
 Goderich. He represented the West Riding of York- 
 shire from 1857 to 1859. In April, 1863, he succeeded 
 Sir George Cornewall Lewis as secretary of war. In the 
 ministry formed or reconstructed by Earl Russell he was 
 appointed secretary for India in February, 1866. He 
 resigned this office with the other members of the cabinet 
 in June of the same year, and became lord pre= ; de"t of 
 the council in December, 1868. 
 
 Deguerle, deh-gkRl', (Jean Nicolas Marie,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Issoudun in 1766, became 
 professor of eloquence at Paris in 1809. He translated 
 the "/Eneid" into prose, and wrote several admired 
 poems. Died in 1824. 
 
 De Ha'ven, (Edwin J.,) an American naval officer, 
 born in Pennsylvania in 1819. He commanded an ex- 
 pedition sent out from New York in search of Sir John 
 Franklin in 1850. Died in 1865. 
 
 Deheem, deh-ham', (John David,) a Dutch painter 
 of flowers, fruit, etc., born at Utrecht about 1604; died 
 in 1674. 
 
 Dehn, dan, (Siegfried Wilhelm,) a German writer 
 on music, born at Altona in 1799. 
 
 Deianira or Deianeira. See Dfjanira. 
 
 Deidier, di'de-a', Abb6, a French mathematician, 
 was born at Marseilles in 1696. He published in 1739 
 "New Elements of Mathematics," and "The Theory 
 and Practice of Geometry," both of which are praised 
 for clearness and precision. Died in 1746. 
 
 Deidier, (Antoine,) a French physician, born at 
 Montpellier. He became professor of chemistry in that 
 city in 1696. In 1732 he removed to Marseilles. He 
 published many works on medicine, chemistry, and phy- 
 siology, abounding in paradoxical ideas. Died in 1746. 
 
 Deiman, cll'man, or Deimaun, (John Rodolph,) a 
 Dutch physician and chemist, born in 1743. He was the 
 soul of the reunion known as " the Dutch Chemists," by 
 whom the olefiant gas was discovered. The academic 
 collections of Holland are filled with memoirs on chemis- 
 try, etc. which attest the extent and soundness of his 
 knowledge. About 1806 he became physician to the king, 
 Louis Bonaparte. Among his works is a "Treatise on 
 Medical Electricity." Died in 1808. 
 
 See Jerome de Bosch, " Lofrede op J. R. Deiman," 1808; 
 Doornik, "J. R. Deiman gedacht in eene Redevoering," 1808; 
 Ersch und Gkuber, "Aligemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Deimier, de, deh di'me-i', (Pierre,) a French lit- 
 terateur and critic, was born at Avignon about 1570; 
 died about 1618. 
 
 Deinarchus. See Dinarchus. 
 
 Deinhardstein, din'haRt-stTn', (Johann I udwig,) 
 a German dramatist, born in Vienna in 1794. He was 
 professor of aesthetics iivthe University of Vienna in 1827 
 -32. His dramas " Floretta," " Hans Sachs," and others 
 were received with favour. He published a volume of 
 Poems, (1844,) and two volumes entitled "Dramas of 
 Artists," ("Kunstlerdramen," 1845.) 
 
 Deinocrates. See Dinocrates. 
 
 De-I-ot'a-rus 01 De-jot'a-rus, [Gr. Arjtorapoc,] King 
 of Galatia, was the ally of the Romans in their war against 
 Mithridates, and was involved in the vicissitudes of the 
 civil wars which followed. He fought for Pompey at the 
 battle of Pharsalia, 48 B.C., and was successfully defended 
 by Cicero in an oration (" Pro Rege Deiotaro") against 
 the charge of a design to assassinate Caesar. In the civil 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, 5, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
DEJANIRA 
 
 735 
 
 DELAHAYE 
 
 war between Octavius and Antony, Deiotarus aided the 
 foimer. He lived to a great age; but the year of his 
 death is not known. 
 
 See Ai'Pmn, "Helium Civile;" Dion Cassius, "History of 
 Rome:" Lucan, " Pharsalia. " 
 
 Dej-a-ni'ra, Deianira, or Deianeira, [Gr. Aji'iavetpa 
 or tojaxapa; Ft. Dejamre, da'zht'neR',1 a daughter >>t 
 
 CEncus, King of /Etolia, and the wife of Hercules. She 
 was persuaded by the dying centaur Nessus to preserve 
 some of his blood as a love-charm, and applied it to a 
 tunic of Hercules, who was fatally poisoned by it. 
 
 Dejanire. See Uejantra. 
 
 Dejaure, deh-zhoR', (Jkan fii.iE Kedenc,) a French 
 dramatist, born in 1761. He composed several success- 
 ful comedies and operas, among which are "The Shade 
 (Ombre) of Mirabeau," (1791,) "Lodoiska," an opera, 
 (1791,) and " Montano and Stephanie," an opera, (1799.) 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 Dejazet, deh-zhi'z|', (Marie Virginie,) a popular 
 French actress, born in Paris in 1797. 
 
 Dejean, deh-zhON', (Jean Francois Aime,) Count, 
 a French general, born at Castelnaudary in 1749. In 
 1800 he became a councillor of state, and performed a 
 mission to Genoa with ability. He was chosen minister 
 of war in 1802, and first inspector-general of engineers 
 in 1S08. In 1814 he was created by the Bourbons a peer 
 of France, and governor of the Polytechnic School. In 
 1815 he served Napoleon as aide-de-camp. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Haxo, " Notice historique sur le Conite Dejean," 1824. 
 
 Dejean, (Pierre Francois Auguste,) Count, a son 
 of -the preceding, was born at Amiens in 1780. He be- 
 came general of division in 1 814, and distinguished him- 
 self at Waterloo in 1815. He acquired distinction as an 
 entomologist, and published a "History of Coleoptera," 
 (7 vols., 1S25-39.) Died in 1845. 
 
 Dej'o-ces, [Gr. Ai/iomK,] the first king of the Medes, 
 reigned about 700 or 650 li.c. He is said to have been 
 a wise and just ruler. 
 
 Dejotarus. See Deiotarus. 
 
 Dejoux, deh-zhoo', (Claude,) an eminent French 
 sculptor, born near Arbois (Jura) in 1731, was appren- 
 ticed to a carpenter. About 1756 he went to Palis, and 
 became the pupil of G. Coustou the younger. After 
 studying at Rome from 1768 to 1774, he returned to 
 Paris, where he executed admired statues of Catinat, 
 Desaix, Achilles, and others. He was chosen a member 
 of the Institute about 1796. Died in 1816. 
 
 De Kalb, (John,) Baron, a German general, born 
 in Alsace about 1732, became an officer in the French 
 service. He came to America with La Fayette in 1777, 
 was appointed a major-general by Congress in the same 
 year, and served in the army of Washington in Penn- 
 sylvania and New Jersey. In 1780 he was second in 
 command under General Gates in Carolina. He was 
 killed at the battle of Camden, August, 1780. 
 
 De Kay, (James E.,) an American physician and natu- 
 ralist, born about 1792. Having made a tour of Europe 
 in 1831-32, he published on his return "Sketches in Tur- 
 key." He also wrote the five volumes of the "Natural 
 Hist >ry of New York" devoted to Zoology. Died in 1851. 
 
 Deken, da'ken, (Agatha,) a popular Dutch authoress, 
 born near Amsterdam in 1741. She associated herself 
 in literary pursuits with Marie Bosch, and afterwards 
 with Madame Wolff, nie Bekker. They exercised much 
 influence on the national character by the publication of 
 popular works, among which are "Letters on Various 
 Subjects," (1780,) " Sara Burgerhart," a romance, (1782,) 
 " I list 01 y of William Leevencl," (8 vols., 1784,) and " Pro- 
 menades in Burgundy," in verse, (1789.) A. Deken also 
 wrote "Songi for Country-people," (" Liederen voor 
 den Boerenstand.") Died in 1804. 
 
 See Jam Konijnenburg, " Lofrede op E. Wolff en A. Deken," 
 1805; Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1854. 
 
 Dekkar, (Thomas.) See Decker. 
 
 Dekker. See Decker. 
 
 Dekker, de, deh deVker, or Van Decker, vin dek'- 
 ker, (Jkrkmias,) an eminent Dutch poet, born at Doit 
 about 1610, passed his life in mercantile pursuits in his 
 native city, and wrote poetry for recreation. In 1656 a 
 collection of his verses was published, among which are 
 numerous epigrams, " Good Friday," and " The Morning 
 
 Dawn." His style is pure, and his sentiments devout 
 "The Praise of Avarice," a satire which is compared 
 to Erasmus's " Praise of Folly," is one of his last and 
 principal productions. It is much admired, and indicates 
 great knowledge of human nature. Died in 1666. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Jeronimo 
 dk Vkiks, "J. de Dekker als Meusch en als Dichter," 1807. 
 
 De la Beche, deh If bash, (Sir Henry Thomas,) 
 F.R.S., an eminent English geologist, born near London 
 in 1796. In 1817 he became a member of the Geological 
 Society, of which he was chosen president about 1847. 
 lie explored the geology of Wales, Devonshire, and 
 Jamaica, on which he produced several works. He 
 published a "Geological Manual," (1832,) and "How 
 to Observe Geology," (1835.) He was appointed chief 
 director of the geological survey of England ordered 
 by the government, and president of the Museum of 
 Practical Geology, now the School of Mines. He was 
 knighted in 1848, and became a correspondent of the 
 Institute of France in 1853. Died in 1855. 
 
 Delaborde. See Laborde. 
 
 Delaborde or De Laborde, d'li'boRd' or deh lif- 
 boud', (Henri,) a French historical painter, son of 
 Henri Francois, noticed below, was born at Rennes in 
 181 1. He obtained a' medal of the first class in 1847. 
 Among his works is "Hagar in the Desert." 
 
 Delaborde, (Henri Francois,) Count, a French 
 general, born at Dijon in 1764, was made a peer by Bona- 
 parte during the Hundred Davs. Died in 1833. 
 
 Delacepede. See Lacepede. 
 
 Delacour, dgl-a-koor', (James,) an Irish poet, born 
 near Blarney in 1709, studied for the clerical profession. 
 He wrote "Abelard and Eloisa," a poem in imitation 
 of Pope, and "The Prospect of Poetry," (1733.) Died 
 in 1781. 
 
 Delacroix. See Lacroix. 
 
 Delacroix or De Lacroix, d'la"kRwa' or deh li'- 
 kRwa', (Ferdinand Victor Eugene,) a celebrated 
 French historical painter, born at Charenton, near Paris, 
 in 1799. He was a son of Charles Delacroix, a repub- 
 lican member of the Convention, and minister of foreign 
 affairs in 1797. He was a pupil of P. Guerin, but soon 
 renounced the principles of the classic school taught by 
 that artist. In 1822 he exhibited a picture of "Dante 
 and Virgil," which produced a great sensation and was 
 severely criticised. His reputation was increased by the 
 " Massacre of Scio," (1824,) after which he was regarded 
 as the chief of the romantic school. He displayed 
 original genius and energy in "Mephistopheles appear- 
 ing to Faust," "Sardanapalus Dying," "The Prisoner 
 of Chillon," (1835,) and "Medea," (1838.) Among his 
 master-pieces is the " Women of Algiers," (1834,) which 
 procured him a high reputation as a colorist ; but his 
 colouring is powerful rather than harmonious. He has 
 decorated one of the halls of the Palais Bourbon, and 
 some interior portions of the Louvre, the Luxembourg, 
 and other public buildings. He was admitted into the 
 Institute in 1857. Died in 1863. 
 
 See L. de Lomenie, " Galerie des Contemporains ;" Gustave 
 Planche, " Portraits des Artistes contemporains." 
 
 Delacroix, (Jacques Vincent,) a distinguished 
 French lawyer and voluminous writer, born in Paris in 
 1743. He revived the "Spectateur Francais," founded 
 by Marivaux, of which he issued many volumes, (1771- 
 1820.) During the Revolution he was professor of public 
 law in the Lycee, and published t successful work on the 
 "Constitutions of Europe," (1790.) He wrote political 
 tracts and moral essays, and a " History of fiance from 
 Clovis to Louis XIV.," (3 vols., 1813.) Died in 1832. 
 
 See Quehard, " La France Littcraire." 
 
 Delacroix, (Nicolas,) a French antiquary and de- 
 puty, born in Meuse in 1785. He wrote a work called 
 "Statistics of the Department of Dn'mu," which gained 
 the Montyon priM medal in 1835. Died in 1843. 
 
 Delafosse. Sec Lakosse. 
 
 Delafosse, d'U'fos', (Gamriel,) a French natu- 
 ralist, a member of the Institute, born about 1795, has 
 written several scientific works. 
 
 Delahaye, d'li'hj', (Guillaume Nicolas,) a French 
 map-engraver, born in Paris in 1725, engraved all the 
 works of D'Anville. Died in 1802. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DELAISTRE 
 
 736 
 
 DELAROCHE 
 
 Delaistre, deh-l&tR', (Louis Jean Desire,) a suc- 
 cessful French engraver of history and portraits, born in 
 Paris in 1800. 
 
 Delalande. See Lalande. 
 
 Delalande, d'li'loNd', (Pierre Antoine,) a French 
 naturalist, born at Versailles in 1787. He accompa- 
 nied Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire as assistant in his journey 
 to Portugal in 1808, and in 1816 went to Brazil, where 
 he collected rare objects of natural history. From 1818 
 to 182 1 he explored the country of the Hottentots and 
 Caffres, and returned home with an immense zoological 
 collection. He published in 1822 a brief "Account 
 of his Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope," and was 
 prevented by his early death from finishing a more 
 complete work on the subject. Died in 1823. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^ntSrale." 
 
 Delamalle, d'lt'mil', (Gaspard Gilbert,) a French 
 advocate and orator, born in Paris in 1752. As an 
 opponent of the Revolution, he was proscribed and 
 imprisoned in 1793. He was appointed by Bonaparte 
 counsellor to the University in 1808, and councillor 
 of state in 181 1. He retained these offices under the 
 Bourbons. In 1820 he obtained the prize offered by 
 the French Academy for an essay on eloquence. He 
 wrote a work on Oratory, entitled "Essai destitutions 
 oratoires," (1816,) and other works. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Richomme, " itloge de M. Delamalle," 1834. 
 
 Delamarche, d'IS'mf Rsh', (C. F.,) a French geogra- 
 pher, born at Paris in 1740; died in 1817. 
 
 Delambre, deh-lftinbR' or deh-16N'b'R, (Jean Bap- 
 tiste Joseph,) a celebrated French astronomer and 
 author, born at Amiens on the 19th of September, 1749, 
 was a pupil of the poet Delille, at the College of Amiens. 
 Having gained the highest prizes, and attained great pro- 
 ficiency in the classics, he pursued the study of rhetoric 
 and philosophy in Paris. When he left college he was 
 destitute of resources, and suffered much privation. He 
 supported himself for several years by teaching, and 
 employed his leisure in the study of Greek and mathe- 
 matics, which he had neglected at college. Having ac- 
 quired command of the resources of ancient and modern 
 learning, he began, about 1780, to devote himself to 
 astronomy, and received lessons from Lalande, who be- 
 came his friend and soon employed him as an assistant. 
 In 1787 he resolved to calculate the observations of 
 Jupiter and Saturn, and two years later produced tables 
 of those planets, which were remarkable for precision. 
 His "Tables of the Orbit of Uranus" were crowned by 
 the Academy in 1790, and have since been used for half 
 a century. In 1792 he was elected to the Academy of 
 Sciences, which in the same year awarded him a prize 
 for his " Tables of Jupiter's Satellites," respecting which 
 La Place had just offered a new theory. Between 1792 
 and 1799 Delambre and Mechain were employed to 
 measure the arc of the meridian from Dunkirk to Barce- 
 lona; and the former published the results in his "Basis 
 of the Decimal System of Measure." On presenting 
 this work to Bonaparte, the latter said, "Conquests pass 
 away, but these operations remain." He was admitted 
 into the Institute at its formation in 1795, and was chosen 
 perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 1803. 
 His eulogies on departed members were admired for an 
 elegant simplicity of style. He married Madame Pom- 
 mard in 1804. In 1807 he succeeded Lalande as pro- 
 fessor of astronomy in the College of France. He wrote 
 for the "Biographie Universelle" the articles on Hip- 
 parchus, Kepler, and other great astronomers. In 1814 
 he produced an important work, entitled "Theoretical 
 and Practical Astronomy," ("Astronomie theorique et 
 pratique," 3 vols.) After the immense labours of thirty 
 years devoted to observations and calculations, he began 
 to write the " History of Astronomy" from the earliest 
 times, of which he completed five volumes. This ex- 
 cellent work was issued in three parts, viz. : " History 
 of Ancient Astronomy," (1817,) " History of Mediaeval 
 Astronomy," (1819,) and "History of Modern Astro- 
 nomy," (1821.) His character was virtuous, sincere, and 
 disinterested. He presents a remarkable instance of the 
 union of high literary attainments with an extraordinary 
 capacity for the abstract sciences. Died in Paris in 
 
 August, 1822. The celebrated naturalist Cuvier pro- 
 nounced a discourse over his tomb. 
 
 See Fourier, "Eiogede Delambre;" Ch. Dupin, "Notice sur 
 Delambre," in the "Revue Encyclope'dique ;" V. J. F. Wakme, 
 " E"loge bistorique de M. Delambre," 1824; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge'nerale." 
 
 Delamet. See Lamet. 
 
 De Lan'cey, (William Heathcote,) an American 
 Episcopalian bishop, born in Westchester county, New 
 York, in 1797. He was ordained a priest in 1822, was 
 provost of the University of Pennsylvania from 1828 to 
 1833, and became rector of Saint Peter's Church in 
 Philadelphia about 1836. In 1838 he was chosen Bishop 
 of the diocese of Western New York. Died in 1865. 
 
 Delandine, d'lfiN'den', (Antoine Francois,) a 
 French litterateur, born in Lyons in 1756, was a royalist 
 member of the Constituent Assembly in 1790-91, and 
 was imprisoned during the reign of terror. In 1803 he 
 was chosen keeper of the Library of Lyons. He pub- 
 lished, in conjunction with Chaudon, the eighth edition 
 of the "New Historical Dictionary," improved and 
 enlarged, (1804,) and wrote numerous works, among 
 which are "Academic Crowns," and a "History of the 
 National Assemblies of France," (1788.) Died in 1820. 
 
 See J. B. Dumas, "Notice historique sur la Vie de Delandine," 
 1820. 
 
 De-lane', (John T.,) an English lawyer, editor ot 
 the London "Times," was born about 1818. He was 
 educated at Oxford. In 1841 he became manager or 
 chief editor of what has been called the leading journal 
 of Europe. 
 
 Delaiie, (William Augustus Frederick,) an Eng- 
 lish journalist, father of the preceding, born about 1795, 
 was for many years the chief editor or manager of the 
 London "Times." It is said that he wrote but little 
 himself, but displayed judgment in directing the talents 
 of others, and was an able and successful administrator. 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 Delangle, d'loNgl, (Claude Alphonse,) a French 
 advocate and senator, born at Varzy (Nievre) in 1797. 
 He became advocate-general in the court of cassation 
 in 1840, and attorney-general in the cour royale in 1847. 
 After the revolution of 1848 he supported Louis Napo- 
 leon, who appointed him in 1852 first president of the 
 imperial court of Paris, and added the dignity of senator. 
 He wrote a "Treatise on Commercial Companies," (let 
 Societis commentates,) and became minister of the interior 
 in 1858, and minister of justice in 1859. Died in 1869. 
 
 See " Biographie des Secateurs." 
 
 Del'a-110, (Amasa,) an American traveller, born at 
 Duxbury, Massachusetts, in 1763. He died in 1817, 
 leaving a " Narrative of Voyages and Travels in the 
 Northern and Southern Hemispheres, comprising Three 
 Vovages around the World," etc., (Boston, 1817.) 
 
 De-la'njf, (Mary,) originally Granville, an English 
 lady, born in Wiltshire in 1700, was the daughter of Lord 
 Lansdowne. She was married to Alexander Pendarves, 
 who died in 1724, and afterwards to Dr. Delany, noticed 
 below. She corresponded with several eminent literary 
 persons, and her published letters were much admired. 
 Died in 1788. 
 
 See " Life of Mary Delany," by herself and Lady Li.anover, 1S62 ; 
 Mrs. Elwood, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," etc., 
 vol. i., 1843 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1862 ; " Westminster 
 Review" tor April, 1862. 
 
 De-la'irjr, (Patrick,) a learned Irish divine, born 
 about 1686, was a Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, 
 and in 1744 became Dean of Down. He was an intimate 
 friend of Dean Swift. In 1743 he married Mary, daughter 
 of Lord Lansdowne. He published, besides other works, 
 " Revelation examined with Candour," (3 vols., 1732-63,) 
 which is commended by Adam Clarke, and a "Life of 
 David, King of Israel," (3 vols., 1740-42.) Died in 1768. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Delaram, (Francis,) a skilful engraver, born in Lon- 
 don about 1590. He engraved portraits of many eminent 
 persons of the time, among which is "John, Bishop of 
 Lincoln." Died in 1627. 
 
 Delarbre, d'liRbR, (Antoine,) a French botanist, born 
 at Clermont about 1724; died about 1810. 
 
 Delaroche or De Laroche, d'li'rosh', (Paul,) an 
 excellent French historical painter, born in Paris in 1797. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, S, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 11, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mgt; not; good; moon; 
 
DELARUE 
 
 111 
 
 DELETRE 
 
 lie was a pupil of Baron Gros, and formed for himself 
 a mined style between the classic and the romantic. In 
 1.S24 he produced "Joan of Arc interrogated in Prison," 
 and in lS26"The Death of Queen Elizabeth." He ac- 
 quired great popularity in the early part of his career, 
 and became the recognized chief of a school called the 
 Eclectic. In 1832 he was elected to the Institute. His 
 "Cromwell gazing on the Corpse of Charles I." (1832) is 
 greatly admired. In 1837 he was ordered to decorate the 
 hemicycle of the Palais des Beaux-Arts, where he repre- 
 sented the artists of all ages, in a large and admirable 
 composition. Among his other maslcr-pieces are "The 
 Death of the Duke of Guise," (1835,) "Napoleon at Fon- 
 tainebieau," (1840,) " Bonaparte at Saint-Bernard,"( 1850,) 
 and "The Girondists in Prison," (1855.) His colouring 
 is brilliant and harmonious, and his design correct. He 
 married a daughter of Horace VerneL Died in 1856. 
 See L. de Lomknif, "Galerie des Conteniporains." 
 Delaxue, d'li'ru', (Gervais,) Abke, an eminent 
 French antiquary, born at Caen in 1751. Having been 
 driven into exile in 1793, he went to London, and made 
 extensive researches in the literary history of the middle 
 ages. In 1808 he became professor of history at Caen. 
 He published in 1834 " Historical Essays on the Norman 
 Bards and Trouveres," (3 vols.) Died in 1835. 
 Delatour. See Latour. 
 
 Delatour, dli'tooit', (Lotus Francois,) a French 
 writer, born in Paris in 1727, published "Essays on the 
 Architecture of the Chinese, their Gardens, Manners, 
 Customs, etc.," (1803.) Died in 1807. 
 
 Delaudun, d'lo'duN', (Pierre,) a French poet and 
 critic, born at Uzes in 1575 ; died in 1629. 
 
 Delaulne, d'lon, (Etienne,) a French designer and 
 engraver, born at Orleans in 1520; died about 1595. 
 Delauuay. See Launay. 
 
 Delauuay, d'lo'na', (Chari.es,) a French mathema- 
 tician, and member of the Institute, born at Lusigny 
 (Aube) in 1816. 
 
 Delaunay, (Louis,) a mineralogist and advocate, born 
 about 1740, practised in the courts of Brussels. He was 
 living in 1805. 
 
 De-lauue', (Thomas,) an English theologian, wrote 
 "A Plea for Nonconformists," (1684,) and other works. 
 He was punished for his writings by the loss of his ears, 
 and died in prison. 
 Delauney. See Entraigues, Comte n\ and Launey. 
 Del-a-val', (Edward Hussey,) an English chemist 
 and philosopher, born in 1729, was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society. He wrote an " Experimental Inquiry into the 
 Cause of the Change of Colour in Opaque anel Coloured 
 Bodies," (1744,) and several other treatises. Diedin 1814. 
 Delaval, d'li'vil', (Pierre Louis,) a French histori- 
 cal painter, born in Paris in 1790, won a gold medal in 
 1817, when he exhibited "Clotilde exhorting Clovis." 
 Among his works are "Saint Louis carrying the Ori- 
 flamme," (1840,) and a portrait of Chateaubriand. 
 
 Delavigne or De Lavigne, d'li'ven', (Germain,) a 
 French dramatist, brother of the poet noticed below, was 
 born at Givemy (Eure) in 1790. He assisted Scribe in 
 many successful plays and operas. Among these are 
 "The Somnambulist," (1819,) "The Old Bachelor," 
 (1822,) and "The Diplomate," (1827.) Died in 1868. 
 
 Delavigne, (Jean Francois Casimir,) a popular 
 French poet and dramatist, born at Havre on the 4th 
 of April, 1793, was the son of a merchant, and was edu- 
 cated at Paris. In 181 1 he wrote a poem on the birth 
 of Napoleon's son, which procured him the patronage 
 of Francois de Nantes. Soon after the restoration of 
 1815 he successfully invoked the spirit of French nation- 
 ality by his admirable Messcnicnnes* — the general title 
 of »*r".-a] poems, one of which was on the subject of 
 Watcii:o The government appointed him librarian 
 of the cl incery, although his political opinions were 
 those of the liberal opposition. His next performance 
 was an elegy on Joan of Arc. In 1819 he produced "The 
 Sicilian Vespers," a drama, which was performed with 
 
 freat applause. In 1825 he was elected a member of the 
 'rench Academy, and refused the offer of a pension of 
 
 • Named in allusion to the verses in which the people of ancient 
 Messenia deplored the disasters of their country. 
 
 1200 francs. On the occasion of the revolution of 1830 
 he wrote a song, "La Parisienne," which was received 
 with extraordinary favour. Besides the above-named, 
 he is the author of numerous dramas, of which the most 
 important are " The School of Old Men," (" L'Ecole des 
 Vieillards," 1823,) " Marino Faliero," (1829,) and " Louis 
 XI.," (1832.) He died at Lyons in December, 1843. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Notice 
 surC. Delavigne," prefixed to his works by his brother Germain; 
 Louis de Lombnie, "M. C. Delavigne, par un Homme de Rien." 
 1841; Giacomo Calvi, "C Delavigne, Notizia bibliograficonecro- 
 logica," 1844: G. Vekenet, " Eloge de C. Delavigne," 1844; Krusk, 
 " Ueber C. Delavigne als Vermittier, etc.," 1847. 
 
 Delbene, del-ba'ni or del'bjn', ( Alphonse.) a French 
 historian and bishop, born about 1540; died in 1608. 
 
 Delbene, del-ba'na, (Benedetto,) an Italian savant, 
 born at Verona in 1749. He wrote essays on the "Cul- 
 ture of Olives," on the "Manufacture of Wine," etc., 
 and translated Columella, Virgil's "Georgics," and other 
 Latin works. Died in 1825. 
 
 Delbriick, del'bRiik, (Johann Friedrich Ferdi- 
 nand,) a German philosophic writer, born at Magde- 
 burg in 1772. He became counsellor of the regency and 
 professor of eloquence at Konigsberg in 1809. In 1818 
 he was appointed to similar functions at Bonn. Among 
 his principal works are "Xenophon, a Defence of his 
 Reputation against Niebtthr," (1829,) and "Discourses," 
 ("Reden," 1831.) Died in 1848. 
 
 See Nicoi.ovius, "J. F. F. Delbriick's Leben," 1848. 
 
 Delbriick, (Johann Friedrich Goitlieb,) a brother 
 of the preceding, born at Magdeburg in 1768, became 
 professor of theology in Magdeburg. Between 1800 and 
 1809 he superintended the education of the two princes 
 of Prussia, sons of Frederick William III. Died in 1830. 
 
 Delean, d'lo, (Nicolas,) a French physician, born at 
 Vezelise in 1797. He published "Researches on the 
 Diseases of the Ear," etc., (1834,) and other works. 
 
 Delecluse, d'la'kliiz', (Etienne Jean,) an able French 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1781. He wrote editorial 
 articles on art for the "Moniteur" and the "Journal des 
 Debats" for many years, and published, besides several 
 novels, a "Treatise on Painting," (1828,) and " Roland, or 
 Chivalry," (" Roland, ou la Chevalerie," 2 vols., 1845.) 
 
 See Louandre, "La LitteVature contemporaine." 
 
 Delen, van, vtn da'len, (Dirck or Thierry,) a Dutch 
 painter, born at Heusden in 1635, was a pupil of F. 
 Hals. He preferred to paint churches, public edifices, 
 and interiors, and excelled in perspective and colouring. 
 Among his works is a "Game of Foot-Ball," in the 
 Louvre. Died at Arnemuyden about 1700. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Delessert, d'l&'saiR', (Benjamin,) a French financier 
 and philanthropist, born in Lyons in 1773. He was 
 chosen regent of the Bank of France about 1802. Soon 
 afterthat date he established a model spinning-mill for the 
 fabrication of cotton stuffs. He founded saving-funds, 
 and contributed largely to other provident instilutions. 
 Having cultivated botany and collected 86,000 species, 
 he associated with DeCandolle in the publication of "Se- 
 lect Figures of Plants," ("Icones selects Plantarum," 
 5 vols., 1820-46.) He sat in the Chamber of Deputies 
 (centre gauche) from 1827 to 1843. Died in 1847. 
 
 See Alphonse Decanoolle, "Notice sur B. Delessert," 1847 j 
 Charles Dt pin, "Travaux et Bienfaits de B. Delessert," 1848 : 
 " Nuuvelle Biographie Gendrale." 
 
 Delessert, (Francois,) a brother of the preceding, 
 born in 1780, was an eminent banker, regent of the Bank 
 of France, a member of the Institute, and a liberal patron 
 of arts and sciences. 
 
 Deleuze, d'luz, (Joseph Philippe Francois,) a 
 French naturalist, born at Sisteron in 1753. He was 
 chosen aide-naturaliste to the Museum of Natural His- 
 tory in 1795, and librarian to the same in 1828. He 
 translated Thomson's "Seasons" into French, and wrote 
 several other works. Died in 1835. 
 
 Deleyre, d'liR, (Alexandre,) a French writer, born, 
 near Bordeaux in 1726. On the suppression of the order 
 of Jesuits, with which he was connected, he went to 
 Pans, where he associated with Diderot, Rousseau, etc 
 He published an "Analysis of Bacon's Philosophy," 
 ('755.) which is said to be written with ability, and was 
 
 « M> k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; C, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as z; th as in this. 
 
 *7 
 
 (Jty~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DELFAU 
 
 738 
 
 DELITZSCH 
 
 one of the editors of the " Encyclopedic" He was one 
 of the first Members of the Institute. In 1793 he was a 
 republican member of the Convention, and voted for the 
 death of the king. Died in 1797. 
 
 See J. Lebreton, " Notice sur la Vie d'A. Deleyre," 1797. 
 
 Delfau, deTfo', (Dom Francois,) a French Benedic- 
 tine monk, born in Auvergne in 1637, was charged by his 
 order to edit the works of Saint Augustine. Died in 1676. 
 
 Delfico, del'fe-ko, (Melchior,) an Italian statesman 
 and able writer on political economy, bom in the Abruzzo 
 in 1744. During the political troubles that followed the 
 French Revolution he found refuge in the republic of San 
 Marino. From 1806 to 1815 he was councillor of state 
 at Naples, and acquired a high reputation for ability and 
 integrity. The restored king Ferdinand in 1815 made 
 him president of the commission of the archives of the 
 kingdom. His most important works are a " History 
 of San Marino," " Researches into the True Character 
 of Roman Jurisprudence," (1791,) and "Thoughts on 
 the Uncertainty and Inutility of History," etc., (" Pen- 
 sieri su' la Storia e su' la Incertezza ed Inutiliti della 
 medesima," 1806.) He also wrote an Essay in favour 
 of Free Trade. Died at Teramo in 1835. 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri;" F, Mozzetti, 
 "Ricordanza degli Studii e delle Opere di M. Delfico," 1835; F. 
 Ranald, "Elogio di M. Deifico," 1836: G. F. Delfico, "Delia 
 Vita e delle Opere di M. Delfico," libri ii., 1836. 
 
 Delfiuo, del-fee'no, (Giovanni,) Doge of Venice, 
 elected in 1356, was previously procurator of Saint 
 Mark. He found the republic at war with Louis, King 
 of Hungary, who obtained the advantage and imposed 
 the conditions of peace in 1358. Died in 1361. 
 
 Delfmo, (Giovanni,) an Italian cardinal and poet, 
 born about 1618 of a patrician family in Venice. He 
 wrote "Cleopatra," and other tragedies, in verse, the 
 style of which is praised by Ginguene. Died in 1699. 
 
 Delfosse, del'foss', (Noel Joseph Augustk,) a Bel- 
 gian advocate, born at Liege about 1810, was president 
 of the Chamber from 1852 to April, 1855. 
 
 Delft, (Gili.es de.) See Delphus. 
 
 Delft, delft, or Delff, delf, (Jacob Willem,) a Dutch 
 portrait-painter, lived at Delft; died in 1601. 
 
 Delft, (Jacob Wii.lemszoon,) a skilful Dutch por- 
 trait-painter, a grandson of the preceding, was born at 
 Delft in 1619; died in 1661. 
 
 Delgado, dfl-ga'Do, (Juan Pinto,) a Spanish Jew 
 and poet, wrote poems on Ruth and Esther, (1627.) 
 
 De l'Huys. See DroUyn de l' Hires. 
 
 Delia, a name of Diana, which see. 
 
 Deliberatore, da-le-ba-ra-to'ra, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Foligno, flourished about 1460. 
 
 Delille or De Lille, deh-lel' or d'lel, (Jacques,) 
 L'Abbe, an eminent French didactic poet, born at Aigue- 
 perse, near Clermont in Auvergne, in 1738, was educated 
 in Paris. Soon after leaving college he became professor 
 of humanities at Amiens, where he began his translation 
 of the "Georgics" of Virgil, which he published in 1769. 
 It was deemed a wonderful performance in respect to the 
 magnitude of the difficulties that had been overcome ; 
 and the French were enraptured to learn that their lan- 
 guage was so capable of reproducing the grace, harmony, 
 and variety of Virgil. Voltaire was so well pleased with 
 the work that he wrote to the Academy in favour of the 
 election of Delille. He was received into the French 
 Academy in 1774, in the place of Condamine. In 1780 
 he produced "The Gardens," (" Les Jardins,") a poem 
 abounding with picturesque descriptions : it was received 
 with great favour, and translated into many languages. 
 For several years before the Revolution he was pro- 
 fessor of belles-lettres in the University of Paris, and 
 of Latin poetry in the College of France. To escape 
 from the anarchy of the new regime, he retired in 1794 
 to Saint-Die, and afterwards to Switzerland, where he 
 found the calm seclusion most congenial to the spirit of 
 poetry. During this period of absence, part of which 
 was passed in London, he meditated or matured several 
 poems worthy of his high reputation. Returning to Paris 
 in 1801, he published in rapid succession a poem on Pity, 
 (1803,) "Virgil's Eneid translated into French Verse," 
 (1804,) a poetical version of "Paradise Lost," (1805,) 
 and "Imagination," a poem, (1806.) The last three are 
 
 among the most successful of his works. His version 
 of the "Eneid" is regarded as the best in the language. 
 " No French work," says the " Biographie Universelle," 
 "presents a greater number of rich and beautiful images, 
 or more harmonious and ingenious verses, than his poem 
 on the Imagination." He had a perfect mastery of the 
 art of ennobling words by their application, of giving 
 a brilliant colour to thoughts and a sustained harmony 
 to language. Died in Paris in May, 1813. 
 
 See Lingay, "FJoge de Delille," 1814; Campenon, " filoge di 
 Delille," 1813; Bervii.lb, " Fjoge de J. Delille," iSrz; Fiut'pa 
 Mordani, "Elogio storico di G. Delille," 1845; "Nouvelle Bio* 
 graphie Generale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1806. 
 
 Deliniers, deh-le'ne-aiR', (Jacques Antoine Marie,) 
 Viceroy of Buenos Ayres, was born at Niort, France, in 
 1756. He entered the French navy, became a captain, 
 and was sent on a mission to South America. Having 
 taken command of a Spanish army, he captured Buenos 
 Ayres from the British in 1807, gained great popularity, 
 and became viceroy. About 1809 the Junta of Spain 
 sent Cisneros to supersede him. In a revolutionary 
 movement which followed, Deliniers supported the 
 royalist cause, was made prisoner, and shot in 1810. 
 
 See F. Denis, " Buenos Ayres et le Paraguay." 
 
 Delisle or De Lisle, deh-lel' or d'lel, (Claude,) a 
 French writer on history and geography, born at Vau- 
 couleurs in 1644. After practising law some years, he 
 removed to Paris, where he gave lectures on history. He 
 published a "Historic Relation of Siam," an " Introduc- 
 tion to Geography," and a few other works. Several of 
 his sons became eminent in science. Died in 1720. 
 
 Delisle, deh-lel', [sometimes anglicized in pronun- 
 ciation de-UI',J (Guii.laume,) a French geographer of 
 great celebrity, born in Paris in 1675, was the son of the 
 preceding. In early youth he conceived the project of 
 reforming the svstem of geography; and, having accom- 
 plished this difficult task, he published, in 1700, a map 
 of the world, celestial and terrestrial globes, and other 
 valuable works, which procured his admission into the 
 Academy of Sciences. According to Walckenaer, he is 
 the principal author of the modern system of geography. 
 He published afterwards numerous maps, ancient and 
 modern, which obtained a European reputation ; and he 
 wrote many memoirs on geography, which were inserted 
 in the Collection of the Academy. Louis XV. received 
 lessons from Delisle, and rewarded him with the title 
 of first geographer to the king. He died in 1726, and 
 Fontenelle composed his eulogy. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Delisle, (Joseph Nicolas,) an eminent French as- 
 tronomer, born in Paris in 1688, was the son of Claude, 
 noticed above. In 1710 he obtained permission to oc- 
 cupy the dome of the Luxembourg, which he used as an 
 observatory. Received into the Academy of Sciences in 
 1714, he communicated to it his observations. In 1724 
 he visited London, and by the influence of Newton was 
 chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. About 1725, at 
 the solicitation of the empress Catherine, he went to 
 Saint Petersburg to found a school.of astronomy, and 
 wrote several elementary treatises for his pupils. He 
 returned to Paris in 1747, and resumed his observations. 
 Among his principal works is a " Historical Essay on 
 • the Progress of Astronomy and Geography," (1738.) 
 Died in 1768. 
 
 See Lalande, " Notice sur De Lisle," in the " Necrologe et 
 Kbliographie Astronomiaue ;** "Nouvelle Biographie Gtfneralef" 
 " Biographie Universelle.* 
 
 Delisle, (Louis,) a brother of the preceding, was an 
 astronomer and a member of the Academy of Sciences. 
 He accompanied his brother Joseph to Saint Petersburg 
 in 1725. Having traversed Siberia, he embarked in 1741 
 with Captain Behring on an exploring voyage, but died 
 the same year. He had written a " Treatise on the Proper 
 Motion of the Fixed Stars," and other works. 
 
 De Lisle, (Rouget.) See Rouget De Lisle. 
 
 Delisle de la Dre>etiere, deh-lel' deh IS dniv'« 
 te-aiR', (Louis Francois,) a French dramatic author, 
 born in Dauphine ; died in 1756. 
 
 Delitzsch, da'litsh, (Franz,) a German theologian, 
 born at Leipsic in 1813, published a "History if Jewish 
 Poetry," (1836,) and other works. 
 
 i. e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 6, $*, short; ?, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
DELIUS 
 
 739 
 
 DELPHVS 
 
 Delius, a name of Apollo, which see. 
 
 Delius. da'le-us, (Christoph Traugott,) a German 
 mineralogist, born in Saxonv about 1730, became coun- 
 sellor for the department ot' mines and of the mint in 
 Vienna. He published " Directions for the Working of 
 Mines," (1773.) l )ie d '" 1779- 
 
 Delius, (H kin rich Krikdrich,) a German physician 
 and naturalist, born at Wernigerode, Saxony, in 1720 ; 
 died in 1791. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Dell, (William,) an English nonconformist minister, 
 who became master of Caius College, Cambridge. In 
 1662 he was ejected for nonconformity. 
 
 See Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. 
 
 Delia Maria, del'll ma-ree'a, (Dominique,) a com- 
 poser of operatic music, was born at Marseilles in 1768; 
 died in Paris in 1S00. 
 
 Delliug or Dellingr. See Norvi. 
 
 Dello, del'lo, a Florentine painter, born in 1372, re- 
 sided for some time in Spain, where he obtained a high 
 reputation. Died in 1421. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc.; Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Dellon, di'16N', (C.,) a French physician and travel- 
 ler, born about 1650, made a voyage to the East Indies 
 in 1668. He was persecuted and imprisoned for two 
 years by the Inquisition at Goa. He returned home in 
 1677, and published a "Narrative of his Voyage," (1685,) 
 a work of some merit. 
 
 Delmas, dJI'mas', (Antoine Guili.aume,) an able 
 French general, born near Tulle in 1768. He became 
 general of brigade in 1793, and took command of a 
 division, with which he obtained several successes in 
 1794. He served a few years in Italy, where he was the 
 second in command under Joubert in 1799. In 1802 
 he offended the First Consul, and was dismissed from 
 service. The cause of this disgrace was supposed to 
 be a reply which he made when Bonaparte asked him 
 what he thought of the ceremony performed in honour 
 of the Concordat. " A piece of mummery," (capuciuade,) 
 said Delmas: "nothing is wanting but the million of 
 men who have perished in order to overthrow what you 
 have now re-established." In 1813 he again commanded 
 a division, and was killed at the battle of Leipsic. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conqnetes des Francais." 
 
 Delmas, (Jean Francois Bertrand,) a French 
 Jacobin, born near Toulouse in 1754, entered the Legis- 
 lative Assembly in 1 791. In the Convention he voted 
 for the death of the king, (1792,) and for the destruction 
 of Robespierre in 1794. He was afterwards chosen presi- 
 dent of the Jacobins. Died in 1798. 
 
 Delmas, Pere, a French priest and poet, born in 
 Rouerguein 1733, professed rhetoric, etc. in the College 
 of Toulouse. He published an admired Latin poem on 
 the pastoral office, entitled "Art of Arts," etc., ("Ars 
 Artium," etc.) Died in 1790. 
 
 Delmatius, [Fr. Dei.mace.] See Dalmatius. 
 
 Delminio. See Camillo. 
 
 Delmont, del'miN', (DeoDAT,) a Flemish historical 
 painter, born at Saint-Trbn in 1581, is said to have been 
 a pupil and friend of Rubens. Descamps praises his 
 design, composition, and colouring. Among his works is 
 an "Adoration of the Kings." Died at Antwerp in 1634. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flaniands," etc. 
 
 Delmotte, deTmot', (Henri Florent,) a Belgian 
 litterateur, born at Mons in 1779, was a member of the 
 Academy of Brussels, and author of a great number of 
 Aorks on different subjects. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Hennebert, " Notice sur la Vie de H. F. Delmotte," 1837. 
 
 De Lolme, deh-lolm', (John Louis,) a Swiss lawyer 
 and author, born at Geneva in 1740. Having offended 
 the government by a political pamphlet, he consulted his 
 safety by emigrating to England, where he lived many 
 years. He became very indigent, and received aid from 
 the literarv fund. In 1771 he published "The Consti- 
 tution of England," originally written in French, which 
 was much celebrated, and often reprinted. A few years 
 later he published an English edition of this work. It 
 was commended by Lord Chatham and Chief-Justice 
 Story. The author of "Junius" called it "a performance 
 
 deep, solid, and ingenious." De Lolme wrote a few other 
 minor works. Died in Switzerland in 1806. 
 
 See Charles Coote. ''Notice of De Lolme," prefixed to lis 
 work, "The Constitution of England," 1807. 
 
 Delord, d'loR, (Taxii.e,) a French editor, born at 
 Avignon in 1815. He became chief editor of the "Cha- 
 rivari," a satirical paper of Paris, in 1842. He also 
 contributed to the "Siecle" and other journals. 
 
 Delorme, d'loRm, (Charles,) born at Moulins, 
 France, in 1584, succeeded his father, Jean, as physician 
 to Louis XIII., and was very eminent in his profession; 
 He acquired the friendship of Richelieu and Chancellor 
 Seguier, who granted him a pension. Died in 1678. 
 
 Delorme, (Jean,) a French physician, born at Mou- 
 lins in 1547, was the father of the preceding. He was 
 for some time professor at Montpellier. He became 
 physician to Henry IV. in 1606, and afterwards to his 
 successor, Louis XIII. He resigned his office in 1626, 
 and died in 1637. 
 
 Delorme, (Marion,) a famous French beauty and 
 courtesan, born at Chalons, in Champagne, about 1612. 
 She is said to have been extremely witty and intelligent. 
 Her salon was the rendezvous of princes, courtiers, etc., 
 including Richelieu,De Grammont, and Saint-Evremond. 
 Died in 1650. 
 
 See Grammont, " Memoires ;" "Vie de M. Delorme," Paris, 
 1805. 
 
 Delorme, (Phii.ibert,) an eminent French architect, 
 born at Lyons about 15 18, studied art in Rome, and re- 
 turned home in 1536. After erecting several fine edifices 
 in Lyons, he went to Paris, where he was patronized by 
 Catherine de Medici's, for whom, about 1564, he designed 
 the palace of the Tuileries, which is regarded as his best 
 production. She appointed him almoner to the king, and 
 gave him several benefices in the church. He was archi- 
 tect of the Chateau de Meudon and the Chateau d'Anet, 
 which were much admired. He published a work on 
 architecture, and a treatise entitled "New Inventions 
 for Building well at Little Expense," (1561.) " He di- 
 vested his art of Gothic habiliments," says Milizia, "and 
 arrayed it in those of ancient Greece." Died in 1577. 
 
 See Milizia, "Memoires sur les Architectes;" Pingeron, 
 "Vies des Architectes anciens et modernes;" Collet, "Notice sur 
 P. Delorme ;" Flacheron, "E°loge de P. Delorme." 
 
 Delorme, (Pierre Claude Francois,) a French his- 
 torical painter, born in Paris in 1 783. Among his works 
 are "The Death of Hero and Leander," (1814,) " Eve 
 Plucking the Forbidden Fruit," (1834,) and a " Repose 
 in Egypt," (1850.) 
 
 Delort, d'loR, (Jacques Antoine Adrien,) Baron, 
 a French general, born at Arbois in 1773. He com- 
 manded with iclat in 1812 at the battle of Castalla, 
 and became general of division in February, 1814. He 
 distinguished himself at Waterloo in 1815, and in 1837 
 was made a peer. Died in 1846. 
 
 Delort, (Joseph,) a French historian, born at Mirande 
 (Gers) in 1789. Among his works is a " History of the 
 Man in the Iron Mask," (1825.) 
 
 Deloy, d'iwa, (Jean Baptiste Aime,) a French poet, 
 born near Lure in 1798 ; died in 1834. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits contemporains." 
 
 Delpech, deTpSsh', (Francois Seraphin,) a skilful 
 French designer, born in Paris in 1778; died in 1825. 
 
 Delpech, (Jacques Mathiku,) a French physician 
 and skilful surgeon, born at Toulouse about 1775. H6 
 was chosen professor of clinical surgery in the faculty 
 of Montpellier, (1812,) where he lectured with success, 
 and published several treatises on surgery, among which 
 is an important work, entitled "Summary of Diseases 
 called Surgical," (" Precis des Maladies reputees chi- 
 rurgicales," 1815.) He was murdered in 1832 by a man 
 named Duceptos. 
 
 See F. ButssoN, " Parallele de Delpech et Dupuytren," 1S4: , 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Delphinus. See Df.i.fino. 
 
 Del'phus, (^Egidius,) sometimes called Gilles de 
 Delft, was professor of theology in Paris in 1507. Eras- 
 mus praised his talent for Latin poetry. Among his works 
 are a Latin poetical version of Saint Paul's Epistle to thr 
 Romans, and a commentary on Ovid's " De Remediu 
 Amoris." 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. ( J^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DELPON 
 
 740 
 
 DEMETRIUS 
 
 Delpon de Livernon, deTp6.N' deh le'veVn6N*', 
 (Jacques Antoine,) a French writer and antiquary, 
 born in 1778, wrote an "Essay on Liberty of Worship," 
 and other works. Died in 1833. 
 
 Delporte, deTpoRt', (Francois,) a French agricultu- 
 rist, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1746; died in 1819. 
 
 Delrieu, deTre-uh.', (Etienne Joseph Bernard,) a 
 French dramatic author, born in 1761, was for a long 
 time regent of rhetoric at Versailles. He wrote nume- 
 rous dramas, which had a moderate success, and gained 
 a durable reputation by his tragedy of " Artaxerxes," 
 (1808,) which procured him a pension of two thousand 
 francs. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Qubrard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Delrio,del-ree'o,(MARTiN Antoine,) a learned Jesuit, 
 born at Antwerp in 155 1, was master of ten or more 
 languages. He became procureur-general of Brabant 
 in 1578, removed to Valladolid in 1580, and obtained 
 the chair of philosophy at Douay in 1589. He wrote 
 "Notes on Claudian's Poems," and other critical works. 
 His "Essay on Magic" (1599) was once popular. Died 
 in 1608. 
 
 See NiciRON, "Memoires." 
 
 Delta. See Moir, (David Macbeth.) 
 
 Deluc, d'liik, (Guillaume Antoine,) a brother of 
 the celebrated geologist noticed below, born at Geneva 
 in 1729, was associated with his brother in his geolo- 
 gical excursions and other scientific labours. He wrote 
 numerous treatises on mineralogy and geology, which 
 were inserted in the "Journal de Physique" and other 
 periodicals. They indicate accurate observation and a 
 philosophic mind. Died in 1812. 
 
 Deluc or De Luc, deh-look', [Fr. pron. d'liik,] (Jean 
 Andre,) an eminent natural philosopher, born at Geneva 
 in 1727. In early life he was engaged in commerce, and 
 employed his leisure in the study of geology and other 
 sciences. He improved the thermometer, and measured 
 the height of mountains more exactly than any one had 
 previously done, by means of the portable barometer 
 which he invented. In 1772 he published his " Researches 
 on the Modifications of the Atmosphere," an excellent 
 work, which was then the most complete on that sub- 
 ject. About 1773 ne visited England, and was chosen 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, and reader to the queen, 
 who gave him a lodging in Windsor Castle. In 177S he 
 produced his great work on geology, " Letters, Physical 
 and Moral, on the History of the Earth and of Man," in 
 which he maintains the accordance of the Mosaic history 
 with the facts of geology. The theories advanced in this 
 excited much opposition, but were supported at one time 
 by Cuvier. He ascribed the formation of the present 
 continents to causes no longer operative, to a great and 
 sudden revolution which occurred four or five thousand 
 years ago. His " Letters to Blumenbach on the Physical 
 History of the Earth" (1798) increased his reputation 
 as a geologist. He wrote a large number of works, 
 (in French,) among which are a "Summary of Bacon's 
 Philosophy," and " Geological Journeys in Northern 
 Europe," (1810.) Died at Windsor in 1817. 
 
 See Senebier, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve," tome iii. ; Qui- 
 hard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Delvaux, del'vo', [Lat. Vallen'sis,] (Andre,) a Bel- 
 gian jurist and canonist, born in 1569; died in 1636. 
 
 Delvig, dSl'viG, a Russian poet, born in 1798; died 
 in 1 83 1. 
 
 Delvincourt, dSl'vas'kooR', (Claude Etienne,) a 
 French jurist, born in Paris in 1762. When the schools 
 of law were reorganized, in 1805, he obtained a chair in 
 the capital, and began the first public course on the new 
 civil code. In 1810 he became dean of the faculty in 
 the University. At the restoration in 1814 he retained 
 this place, and was chosen royal censor. He published 
 in 1808 "Institutes of French Law," which is highly 
 commended. Died in 1831. 
 
 See De Portets, "Notice sur la Vie, etc. de M. Delvincourt," 
 1.832. 
 
 Delzons, deTz6N', (Alexis Joseph,) a brave French 
 general, born at Aurillac in 1775, joined the expedition 
 to Egypt, (1798,) where he obtained the rank of general 
 of brigade in 1801. As general of division, he commanded 
 the army of Illyria in 181 1. In 1812 he fought at Boro- 
 
 dino, and was killed in battle during the retreat from 
 Moscow in the same year. 
 
 See Seg-ur, "Campanile de la Russie." 
 
 Demabuse. See Mabusk, de. 
 
 Demachy, d'mt'she', (Jacques Francois,) a French 
 chemist, born in Paris in 1728. He wrote, among other 
 works, "Elements of Chemistry," (2 vols., 1766,) and 
 refused to adopt the theories of Lavoisier. Died in 1803. 
 
 Demade. See Dkmades. 
 
 De-ma'des, [Gr. Ari[ttu5ri{- ; Fr. Demade, da'mid',] an 
 Athenian orator and demagogue, noted for his witticisms, 
 venality, and profligacy. He entered public life about 
 350 B.C., became an opponent or enemy of Demosthenes, 
 and acquired great influence by his eloquence, wit, and 
 other talents. He usually spoke extempore. After the 
 battle of Chseronea he acted with the party of the King 
 of Macedon, by whom he was bribed ; and he was one 
 of the chief authors of the peace between Philip and the 
 Athenians. He was convicted of receiving a bribe from 
 Harpalus, and for a subsequent offence was sentenced 
 to exclusion from political functions; but a few years 
 later he was sent on an embassy to Antipater. He was 
 put to death by the order of Antipater, (or, according to 
 Plutarch, of Cassander,) in 318 B.C. 
 
 See Diodorus Sicui.us, books xvi., xvii., and xviii. ; Pn 1 - 
 takch, "Demosthenes;" Suidas, ATj>ia57)5 ; Ruhnken, "Histyiia 
 critica Oratorum Gracorum ;" Frevtag, " De Demade," 1752; II, 
 Lhardy, "Dissertatio de Demade Oratore," Berlin, 1834. 
 
 De Maistre. See Maistre. 
 
 Demaiite, deh-moNt', (Antoine Marie,) a French 
 jurist, and professor of civil law at Paris, was born in 
 that city in 1789. He published an excellent work en- 
 titled " Programme du Cours de Droit civil Francais," 
 (3 vote., 1830.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Demarate. See Demaratus. 
 
 Dem-a-ra'tus, [Gr. AT/fiapurog,'] a native of Corinth, 
 emigrated to Etruria about 650 B.C., and became a prince. 
 He was the father of Aruns and Lucumo. 
 
 Demaratus, [Fr. Demarate, da'mi'rit',] King of 
 Sparta, began to reign jointly with Cleomenes about-5io 
 B.C. He quarrelled with his colleague, who caused him 
 to be deposed about 491, on the ground that he was not 
 a son of the late king Ariston. He retired to Persia, 
 where he was favourably received by Darius I. He gave 
 wise counsels to Xerxes on the invasion of Greece, and 
 is said to have secretly informed the. Spartans that such 
 an event was impending. 
 
 See Herodotus, books v., vi., vii. ; Xenophon, " Hellenica." 
 
 Dembarrere, d&N'bfraiV, (Jean,) Count, a French 
 general and engineer, born at Tarbes in 1747, became a 
 general of division in 1794, and obtained the chief com- 
 mand of the engineers in Italy. In 1805 he was chosen 
 a senator, and retired from the 'army. Died in 1828. 
 
 Dembinski, dim-bin'skee, (Henry,) a Polish gene- 
 ral, born in the palatinate of Cracow in 1791. In 1S30 
 he took arms for Polish independence, obtained com- 
 mand of a brigade, and distinguished himself in several 
 actions. He made a masterly retreat from Lithuania in 
 July, 1831, and went into exile in the autumn of that 
 year. In February, 1849, he was appointed by Kossuth 
 commander-in-chief of the Hungarian army; but in con- 
 sequence of the refusal of Gorgei, and other officers, to 
 serve under a Pole, he was soon superseded. He ac- 
 cepted the post of quartermaster-general under Mesza- 
 ros, and commanded at Temesvar, (August, 1849,) where 
 the Hungarians were finally defeated. Died in 1864. 
 
 Dembowski, d2m-bov'skee, (Edward,) a Polish 
 writer, born in Plock about 1810; died in 1846. 
 
 Dembowski, (Louis Mathieu,) Baron, a general 
 in the French army, born at Gora in 1769 ; died in 1812. 
 
 Demeste, deh-mest', (Jean,) a Flemish surgeon and 
 chemist, born in 1743, lived at Liege; died in 1783. 
 
 De-me'ter, [Ai//^ri7p,] the name of one of the prin- 
 cipal Greek divinities, identified with the Ceres of the 
 Roman mvthology. (See Ceres.) 
 
 De-me'trl-us, [Ai^rprac,] an Athenian poet ot the 
 old comedy, lived in the fifth century B.C. 
 
 Demetrius, a Greek sculptor, flourished about 350 
 B.C. Among his chief works was a statue of Minerva, 
 called " Musica," because the motion of the serpents 
 on the Gorgon's head produced a musical sound. 
 
 i,e, T, 6. u, y,/««f; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 5, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mit; not; good; moon. 
 
DEMETRIUS 
 
 74' 
 
 DEMETZ 
 
 Demetrius I. See Demetrius Poliorcetf.s. 
 
 Demetrius H., son of Antigonus Gonatas, became 
 King of Macedon in 243 B.C., as successor to his father. 
 He married first a daughter of Antiochus Theos, and 
 then l'hthia, a daughter of the King of Epirus. After a 
 reign of ten years, he died, and left the throne to his son, 
 Philip IU. 
 
 Demetrius, a Macedonian prince, grandson of the 
 preceding, born in 207 B.C., was the second son of Philip 
 III., and brother of Perseus, (Perses.) When Philip was 
 defeated by the Romans, Demetrius was delivered to the 
 victors as a hostage. Having returned home, he was 
 sent as an ambassador by Philip to defend him against 
 certain charges before the Roman senate, whose favour 
 he gained by his ingenuous modesty. Perseus, by false 
 accusations, induced his father to put Demetrius to' death 
 about 1 80 B.C. 
 
 See Pulvbius, "History,'* books xviii., xx., xxiii., and xxiv. 
 
 Demetrius I. and II., (Kings of Syria.) See DEME- 
 TRIUS SOW, and DEMETRIUS NlCATOK. 
 
 De-me'trl-us II., King of Georgia, succeeded his 
 
 father, David III., in 1126. He waged a long war with 
 
 . the Turks, who fought lor the possession of Armenia 
 
 and sometimes invaded Georgia. He died in 1158, and 
 
 left the throne to his son, David IV. 
 
 Demetrius IU., King of Georgia, the son and suc- 
 cessor of David V., reigned from 1272 to 12S9, and was 
 succeeded by his son, David VI. 
 
 De-me'trl-us, [Russ. Dmitri, dmee'tRee,] Czar of 
 Russia, usually styled "the False Demetrius," claimed 
 to be the son of Ivan IV. The latter, at his death, left 
 a minor son, who was reported to have died, or to havs 
 been killed, in 1591. During the reign of Boris in Russia, 
 about 1603, Demetrius raised an army of Poles, invaded 
 Russia, and fought several battles with various success, 
 until Boris died, in 1605, when Demetrius obtained the 
 throne without further opposition. His subjects, offended 
 by his partiality to foreign customs, and by the insolence 
 of his Polish soldiers, revolted and put him to death in 
 1606. Prince Shuisky (or Schuiskoi) was then proclaimed 
 Czar, as Basil III. 
 
 See De Thou, " Histoire Universelle ;" Karamzin, " Histoire de 
 PEmpire de Russie;" Prosper Meki.mbe, "fipisode de l'Hisloire 
 de Russie; les faux D^meTrius," 1852. 
 
 Demetrius, [Russ. Dmitri,] the False, the second 
 of that name who made pretensions to the Russian crown. 
 Soon after the accession of Shuisky, this person asserted 
 that he was the Czar Demetrius. He found many par- 
 tisans, was recognized by the wife of the late Czar, 
 and was enabled to besiege Moscow with an army, but 
 was killed in 1610 by some Tartars who served in his 
 guard. Schiller and Pushkin have dramatized the story 
 of these impostors. 
 
 See Prospkk Mekimee, "Episode de l'Histoire de Russie; les 
 faux Demetrius," 1S52. 
 
 Demetrius of Alexandria, a Peripatetic philosopher, 
 lived about 150 B.C. 
 
 Demetrius of Apamea, a Greek physician of un- 
 known date, who is often cited by Coelius Aurelianus. 
 
 Demetrius of Byzantium, a Greek historian, lived 
 about 280 B.C. 
 
 Demetrius of Magnesia, a Greek grammarian, who 
 flourished about 60 B.C. He was author of an important 
 critical and historical work which treated of authors that 
 bore the same name, ("Peri homonymon Poieton kai 
 suggrapheSn.") 
 
 Demetrius of Scepsis, a Greek grammarian, who 
 lived about 150 B.C. 
 
 Demetrius of Suniam, a Greek Cynic philosopher, 
 who acquired celebrity as a teacher in the first century. 
 He lived some time at Corinth, visited Rome in the reign 
 of Nero, and was banished from Italy by Vespasian. 
 He is eulogized by Seneca, who quotes his maxims. 
 
 De-me'trl-us Qy-do'ul-us, a Greek or Byzantine 
 theologian and writer, held high offices under John Can- 
 tacuzene. He entered a cloister in 1355. 
 
 De-me'trl-us Mos'-ehus, a Greek poet, who lived 
 about 1450, and wrote a poem on the " Marriage of Paris 
 and Helen," printed in 1510. 
 
 De-me'trl-us Ni-ca'tor, [Suturup,] King of Syria, 
 was the son of Demetrius Soter, and ascended the throne 
 in 146 B.C., after defeating the usurper Balas. He mar- 
 
 ried Cleopatra, an Egyptian princess. In a war with the 
 Parthians he was taken prisoner, and in his absence his 
 brother, Antiochus Sidetes, usurped the throne. On his 
 release from captivity, he again obtained the kingdom ; 
 but his misgovernment provoked a general revolt of his 
 subjects, and he was assassinated at Tyre in 126 B.C. 
 
 See Justin, books xxxv., xxxvi., and xxxviii. 
 
 De-me'trl-us Pep-a-gom'e-nus, [A^rptoc Tlexayo- 
 jUtrof,] a Greek physician, who lived in the thirteenth 
 century, composed a work on the gout, which has some 
 merit. It was printed in Greek in 155S. He was phy- 
 sician to the emperor Michael Palseologus, who reigned 
 from 1260 to 1282. 
 
 De-me'trl-us Pha-le'reiis, (or fa-lee're-us, ) (Fr. 
 Demetrius de Phalere, da'ma'tRe'iis' deh fS'lain',] 
 a distinguished Grecian orator and philosopher, born 
 at Phale'rum, in Attica, about 345 B.C., was a pupil of 
 Theophrastus in philosophy. It is said that he was 
 condemned to death with Phocion, tut saved himself 
 by flight. About 316 B.C. Cassander appointed him gov- 
 ernor of Athens, which for ten years enjoyed prosperity 
 under his wise and popular administration. Three 
 hundred and sixty statues were erected to him by the 
 Athenians. When Athens was taken by Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes, in 306, he retired to the court of Ptolemy, 
 King of Egypt. He died in Egypt about 284 B.C. He 
 wrote historical and philosophical works, which are all 
 lost Cicero and other ancient writers extol his merit 
 as an orator and a statesman. 
 
 See Diogenes Laertius ; Cicero, " Brutus," and " De Oratore ;" 
 H. Doiirn. " De Vita et Rebus Demetrii Phalerei," 1S25 ; Hunamv, 
 " Vie de Demetrius de Phalere," in the "Me'moires de l'Acade^nie 
 des Inscriptions," tome vtii. 
 
 De-me'trl-us Pol-I-or-ce'tes, [Gr. A^rpmc Uohop- 
 airfc; Fr. Demetrius Poliorcetk, da'toa tRe'iis' po'le'- 
 oR's&t',] born about 335 B.C., was the son of Antigo- 
 nus, one of Alexander's generals and successors. From 
 his great success as a commander, he was surnamed 
 POLIORCETES, or " taker of cities." He delivered Athens 
 from the dominion of Cassander, and commanded his 
 father's army in the war against Ptolemy. About 306 
 he gained a great naval victory over Ptolemy, and took 
 Cyprus. At the siege of Rhodes he displayed great skill 
 as engineer, but was baffled in his attempt to take the 
 city. After his father was killed at the battle of Ipsus, 
 (299 B.C.,) he formed an alliance with Seleucus, and again 
 made himself master of Athens. Having been invited 
 to mediate in a dispute between two claimants to the 
 throne of Macedon, he killed one, and usurped the throne 
 himself, in 294. Pyrrhus and Lysimachus declared war 
 against him, and ex]>elled him from Macedon. He died 
 about 283, leaving a son, Antigonus Gonatas. Demetrius 
 possessed military talents of a high order. Plutarch 
 draws a parallel between him and Mark Antony. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Demetrius," and " Pyrrhus :" Appian, passim ; 
 Rollin, "Ancient History;" Diodorus Sicui.us. books xix., xx., 
 and xxi. ; Justin, books xv. and xvi. ; J. C. de Wit, "Disserlalio 
 de Demetno Poliorcete," 1840. 
 
 De-me'trl-us So'ter, [Aij/o/t/moc Zwn)p,] King of 
 Syria, was the son of Seleucus Philopator, and was born 
 about 185 B.C. At the age of ten he was sent to Rome 
 as a hostage, where he was detained many years, while 
 his uncle Antiochus Epiphanes obtained the throne at 
 the death of Seleucus in 175 B.C. In 161 Demetrius 
 escaped from Rome, and was proclaimed king by the 
 Syrians. The Maccabees bravely and successfully main- 
 tained the cause of the Jews against the army of this 
 prince. Alexander Balas, pretending to be the son of 
 Antiochus, entered Syria with an army, and, in a battle 
 that followed, Demetrius was killed, 150 B.C. His sop, 
 Demetrius Nicator, became king a few years afterwards. 
 
 See Polvrius, " History," books xxxi., xxxii., and xxxiii. ; At* 
 pian, "Syriaca ;" Justin, "book xxxv. 
 
 Demetz, deh-mjs', (Frederic Aucuste,) a French 
 philanthropist, born in 1796, became a judge in Patis. In 
 1836 he visited the United States with De Tocqueville, 
 to examine the prisons of that country. He founded 
 about 1840, at Mettray, near Tours, an institution for the 
 reformation of juvenile offenders, which lias been very- 
 successful and has become the model after which others 
 are formed. His system is very popular in England, 
 where it has been tried near London. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as s; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DEME ULEMEESTER 
 
 742 
 
 DEMOLOMBE 
 
 Demeulemeester, d;h-muh'leh-rnas'ter, ? (Joseph 
 Charles,) a Belgian engraver, born at Bruges in 1 771. 
 He engraved some frescos of biblical subjects painted 
 by Raphael in the Vatican. Died in 1836. 
 
 Derneuuier, da'muh'ne^', or Desmeunier, d&'- 
 muh'ne-a', (Jean Nicolas,) an able French writer, born 
 atNozeroyin 1751. He was secretary of Monsieur (after- 
 wards Louis XVIII.) when the Revolution began, was 
 elected to the States-General in 1789, and became a 
 senator in 1802. He translated several histories and 
 voyages of discovery from the English, and wrote, be- 
 sides other works, an "Essay on the United States," (of 
 North America,) (1786,) and a "Treatise on the Customs 
 of Various Nations, ("Esprit des Usages," etc., 1776,) 
 which induced Voltaire to write him a flattering letter. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 Demidof, dem -e-dof or d£m'e-dof, Demidov, or 
 Demidow, the founder of the noble and wealthy Rus- 
 sian family of Demidof, was a native of Toola, (Tula.) 
 He became skilful in the manufacture of arms, and 
 gained the favour of Peter the Great. He established 
 the first iron-foundry in Siberia. His descendants, about 
 172^, discovered the gold-mines of Kolyvan. 
 
 Demidof, Demidov, or Demidow, ( Anatoli, ) 
 Count, a rich Russian capitalist, a son of the following, 
 was distinguished as a patron of science and literature. 
 He was born at Florence about 1812. In 1839 he pub- 
 lished, in French, "Travels in Southern Russia and the 
 Crimea, through Hungary," etc , the result of an explor- 
 ing expedition performed by him in company with several 
 artists and savants. He married in 1840 Mathilde, a 
 daughter of Jerome Bonaparte. Died in 1870. 
 
 Demidof, Demidov, or Demidow, (Nikolai,) 
 Count, a learned Russian noble, noted for benevolence, 
 born near Saint Petersburg in 1774, inherited from his 
 father a fortune in mines and forges. He studied the 
 sciences, and travelled in pursuit of knowledge, which 
 he applied in the promotion of the industrial arts. He 
 made great improvements in the processes of mining 
 and in the manufacture of iron, and established for his 
 vassals an academy of fine arts. He died at Florence 
 in 1828, leaving two sons, Paul and Anatoli. He had 
 been chosen a privy councillor by the emperor Paul I. 
 
 See V. MUller, " Notice sur la Vieprivee de N. Demidof," 1830. 
 
 Demidof, Demidov, or Demidow, (Paul,) of the 
 same family as the preceding, was born at Revel about 
 1738. He cultivated natural history, and made a rich 
 collection of specimens, which he presented to the Uni- 
 versity of Moscow. He founded the Demidof Lyceum 
 at Yaroslav about 1800. Died in 1826. 
 
 Demidof, Demidov, or Demidow, (Prokop,) born 
 in Moscow about 1730, was the proprietor of gold-mines 
 jn the Ural Mountains, the product of which, it is said, 
 made him the richest subject of Russia. He was the 
 uncle of Count Nikolai, noticed above. 
 
 Demidow or Demidov. See Demidof. 
 
 De Missy, de-mis'see, (C/esar,) a learned German 
 divine, born in Berlin in 1703, removed about 1731 to 
 London, where he preached in a French chapel. Died 
 in 1775. 
 
 Demme, dem'meh, (Hermann Christoph Gott- 
 fried,) a popular German moralist and novelist, born 
 at Muhlhausen in 1760. His nom-de-plutne was Karl 
 Stille, (stil'leh.) He became superintendent-general at 
 Altenburg in 1801. Among his works are " The Farmer 
 Martin and his Father," (2 vols., 1793,) and "Abend- 
 stunden," (2 vols., 1804.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Democede. See Democedes. 
 
 Dem-o-ce'des, [Gr. Ar//ioKf/iric ; Fr. Democede, dl'- 
 mo's&d',] an eminent Greek physician of Crotona, born 
 about 550 H. C. He was taken prisoner at Samos by the 
 Persians, and carried to Darius Hystaspes, whose favour 
 he gained by his medical skill. The king rewarded him 
 richly, but refused him permission to return home. The 
 queen Atossa, who had been cured by him, promised to 
 aid him in escaping from captivity, and persuaded Darius 
 to send him with a small party of Persians to explore 
 the coasts of. Greece with hostile designs. When they 
 arrived at Tarentum, the Persians were arrested, and 
 Democedes escaped to Crotona. 
 
 See Herodotus, book iii. 
 
 De-mo-eh'a-res, [Gr. &>ifu>xup r K ! Fr. Demochares, 
 da'mo'ki'res',] an Athenian orator, was a nephew of 
 Demosthenes. His public career began about 32a 
 B.C., soon after which he became one of the leaders of 
 the anti-Macedonian party. After the restoration of 
 democracy in Athens by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 307, 
 Demochares was the chief of the patriotic party. He 
 was exiled about 295, but returned in 287 or 286 B.C., 
 and managed the finances with ability and success. He 
 was living in 280 B.C. He left a history of his own time, 
 which has not come down to us. 
 
 See Plutarch," Demosthenes" and " Demetrius ; " " Vita? Decern 
 Oratorum;" Drovsen, "Geschichte der Nachfolger Alexanders." 
 
 Democrate. See Democrates. 
 
 De-moc'ra-tes, [Gr. A;///o/cpur?/c; Fr. Democrate, 
 da'mo'kRSt',] an Athenian orator, who lived about 350 
 B.C., was a contemporary of Demosthenes. Aristotle has 
 preserved one of his orations. 
 
 Democrite or Democrito. See Democritus. 
 
 De-moc'rl-tus, [Gr. A^/akpiroc ; Fr. Democrite, 
 di'mo'ki<et'; It. and Sp. Democrito, da-mok're-to,] 
 a celebrated Greek philosopher, born at Alxlera, in 
 Thrace, was the son of a man of large fortune. The 
 date of his birth is variously given between 490 and 460 
 B.C. He received early lessons from some Chaldean 
 Magi left by Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, and is 
 thought to have been a disciple of Leucippus. H?.v,ng 
 inherited one hundred talents upon the division j' his 
 father's estate, he travelled in Egypt, Greece Persia, 
 and India, in pursuit of knowledge. When t .'■ patri- 
 mony was spent, he returned to Abdera, an' read in 
 public one of his works, which, according tu '.liogenes, 
 Laertius, procured him a large present of f oney and 
 great honours from the people. His 1qv> of study 
 and of solitude induced him to decline the p litical pre- 
 eminence which the citizens of Abdera offeied to nun. 
 There is a prevalent tradition that he was habitually 
 laughing at the follies of mankind. 
 
 Democritus possessed a profound and original genius 
 for philosophy. He was versed in geometry, logic, 
 physics, natural history, and ethics, and wrote many 
 works on these subjects ; but none of them has come 
 down to us. Cicero informs us that his style was as 
 charming as that of Plato. His atomic philosophy pre- 
 sents in some respects a great analogy to that which 
 prevails in the present time. He supposed that the 
 universe is composed of empty space and of indivisible 
 atoms, which are infinite in nuivlber, and which by their 
 different motions and affinities produce the various phe- 
 nomena of nature. He taught that matter is eternal, and 
 that the mind or soul is the motion of round fiery atoms. 
 He ascribed sensation to images or emanations flowing 
 from its objects. Many of his theories were adopted by 
 Epicurus, and illustrated by Lucretius in his poem "De 
 Rerum Natura." Democritus lived to the age of one 
 hundred years or more. He is not mentioned in any 
 work of Plato, who was his contemporary. 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Philosophy ;" G. H. Lewes, "Bio- 
 graphical History of Philosophy;" Diogenes Laertius; Te.nne- 
 mann, "Geschichte der Philosophie ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca 
 Grasca;" Burchard, " Commentatio critica de Democriti de Sens'- 
 bus Philosophia," 1830; F. G. A. Mullach, "Democriti Operuni 
 Fragmenta," or "De Philosophi Vita Scriptis et Placitis," 1S43; 
 Jenichen, "Programma de Democrito Philosopho," 1720. 
 
 Demoivre, deh-mwavit', (Abraham,) an eminent 
 mathematician, born at Vitry (Champagne) in 1667, was 
 the son of Protestant parents. In consequence of the 
 revocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685, he emigrated to 
 London, where he taught mathematics, and acquired the 
 friendship of Newton. He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and an Associate of the Academy of Sciences in 
 Paris. His reputation was so high that he was one of a 
 committee appointed to decide on the claims of Newton 
 and Leibnitz to the invention of the method of fluxions. 
 He published in 1730 "Analytical Miscellanies," ("Mis- 
 cellanea Analytica," etc.,) which presented ingenious and 
 original ideas on the subject, also "The Doctrine of 
 Chances," and "Annuities on Lives." Died in 1754. 
 
 See Maty, "M^moire sur la Vie de Abraham Demoivre;" Mon- 
 tucla, " Hisloire des Mathematiques." 
 
 Demolombe, deh-mo'16Mb', (Jean Charles Flo- 
 rent,) a French jurist, born in 1804. 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6 same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; not; good; moon : 
 
DEMON 
 
 743 
 
 DEMOSTHENES 
 
 De'mon, [Ai/fiuv,] an Athenian orator, who lived about 
 330 B.C., was a nephew of Demosthenes. 
 
 De-mo'nax, [Aj;//<ji'a{,] a Cynic philosopher, born in 
 Cyprus, lived at Athens about 150 .\.I>., and was inti- 
 mate with I.ucian. The latter esteemed him as one of 
 the beat or wisest philosophers of that time. 
 
 Demons, di'moV, (Claudk,) a French poet, born at 
 Ainien: in 1591 ; died after 1628. 
 
 Deruout, deh-m6.N', Count, a French general, born at 
 Courbevoie. He obtained the rank of general of division 
 for his conduct at Austerlitz. Died in 1826. 
 
 De-moph'a-ues, [Gr. Aji/uxpanK ; Fr. Demophane, 
 di'mo'fin',] a Greek Platonic philosopher of Megalo- 
 polis, aided Aratus to restore liberty to Sieyon. 
 
 Demophilus. See Damophilus. 
 
 De-moph'I-lus, [A;/jU«><Aoc,] a Greek historian, lived 
 about 320 B.C. He wrote a continuation of the history 
 of Ephorus, who was his father. 
 
 Demophilus, [Fr. Demophile, da'mo'ftl',] a Pytha- 
 gorean philosopher of uncertain epoch. He left a work 
 on morality called " Biov f^'pitireta," of which fragments 
 are extant. 
 
 Demophon. See Damophon. 
 
 Dem'o-phon or De-moph'o-on, [Gr. Anpofytji- or \t/- 
 uapotji',] a son of Theseus and Phaedra, was betrothed to 
 Phyllis. (See PlIYLLts.) Having become King of Athens, 
 he aided the Heraclidae in war against Eurystheus. 
 
 Demophoon. See DBMOMtON. 
 
 De Mor'gan, (Augustus,) an English mathematician, 
 bom in the isle of Madura, near Java, in 1806. About 
 1828 he became professor of mathematics in the Uni- 
 versity of London, (now University College, London.) 
 He contributed largely to the "Penny Cyclopaedia," 
 the " North British Review," and other periodicals, and 
 obtained a high reputation by many mathematical works, 
 among which are "Elements of Algebra," an "Essay 
 on Probabilities," (1838.) " Formal Logic, or the Calculus 
 of Inference Necessary and Probable," (1847,) and 
 "Arithmetical Books from the Invention of Printing to 
 the Present Time," (1847.) Died in 1871. 
 
 Demostene or Demosthene. See Demosthenes. 
 
 Demosthenes, de-mos'the-nez, [Gr. ArjiwcOcvr/c ; Lat. 
 Demos'the.nes j Fr. Demosthene, da'mos'tain'; It. 
 Demostene, da-mos'ta-na; Sp. Demostenes, da-mos'- 
 ti-n£s,] regarded by almost universal consent as the 
 greatest orator that ever lived, was born in the demos 
 ("district") of Paeania, near Athens, in Greece, about 382, 
 or, according to some authorities, 385 H.c. His father, 
 whose name was also Demosthenes, was a cutler and 
 cabinet-maker : he died when his son was seven years 
 old, leaving a fortune of fifteen talents (above 15,000 
 dollars) to be shared between him and his sister. His 
 guardians converted to their own use a large part of 
 his property, and neglected to improve the remainder. 
 Demosthenes studied rhetoric with Isaeus, and, according 
 to some accounts, received lessons in philosophy from 
 Plato. Cicero states that Demosthenes was the pupil 
 of the orator Isocrates ; but this is discredited by many 
 critics. 
 
 When about eighteen years old, Demosthenes prose- 
 cuted his unfaithful guardians, and pleaded his own 
 cause. The case was decided in his favour ; but he 
 recovered only a part of his just claim. Some years 
 previously, it is said, his emulation had been excited by 
 the forensic triumphs of Callistratus, and he resolved to 
 devote all his energies to the study of eloquence, although 
 he laboured under great physical disadvantages. His 
 constitution was delicate, his breath short, his voice feeble 
 and stammering. It is said that he remedied these de- 
 fects by running up-hill and speaking with pebbles in his 
 mouth ; that he declaimed on the sea-shore, in order to 
 accustom himself to the noise and tumult of popular 
 assemblies ; and that he usually spoke his orations before 
 a mirror, in order, to discover and correct any awk- 
 wardness of gesture. According to Plutarch, his first 
 address before a popular assembly was a failure. The 
 people laughed at his ungraceful gestures, his confused 
 periods, and his defective elocution. But Satyrus the 
 actor encouraged him, and gave a proper direction to his 
 indomitable resolution, by showing him the importance 
 of appropriate action and of a distinct and well-modu- 
 
 lated utterance. Demosthenes then shut himself up in 
 a subterranean study, and laboured with unremitting 
 diligence in order to perfect himself as an orator. He is 
 said to have shaved one side of his head, that he might 
 be absolutely prevented from going into society. He 
 improved his style by transcribing Thucydides, the con- 
 centrated thought and energy of whose writings were the 
 objects of his especial emulation. Some writers state 
 that he copied the history of Thucydides no less than 
 eight times. 
 
 At the age of about twenty-seven (355 B.C.) he again 
 came forward to compete for the palm of eloquence in 
 his oration against Leptines, and was completely success- 
 ful. Soon afterwards he appeared on a more conspicu- 
 ous stage, and became one of the principal actors in the 
 history of that period. " He had a glorious subject for 
 his political ambition," says Plutarch, — " to defend the 
 cause of Greece against Philip. He soon gained great 
 reputation both for eloquence and for the bold truths 
 which he spoke." Amidst the general venality of the 
 Grecian orators, Demosthenes alone was proof against 
 the seductions of Macedonian gold ; and his political 
 foresight was not inferior to his integrity or patriotism. 
 Had the watchful sagacity with which he penetrated the 
 deep-laid schemes of Philip been ably seconded by the 
 other Athenian leaders, and had their armies been led by 
 competent generals, the liberties of Greece would, in all 
 probability, never have succumbed to the arts or arms of 
 the King of Macedon. Between the years 352 and 340 
 B.C. Demosthenes pronounced his eleven (or, as some 
 say, twelve) celebrated orations against Philip. Four 
 of these are especially denominated "Philippics." In 
 338 B.C. Demosthenes was one of the fugitives from the 
 disastrous battle of Chaeronea ; but he still preserved his 
 controlling influence in the state ; and Ctesiphon pro- 
 posed that the people should confer upon him a crown 
 of gold as the reward of his eminent public services. 
 This measure caused between him and his rival /Eschines 
 a contest which, after the lapse of several years, resulted 
 in the triumph of Demosthenes in 330 B.C., when he made 
 his famous speech "On the Crown," (Ilffii Sre^uvw,) re- 
 garded by many critics as the greatest of all his achieve- 
 ments as an orator. 
 
 When Harpalus, the unfaithful steward of Alexander, 
 sought refuge in Athens, Demosthenes was accused by 
 his enemies of having received a bribe from the Mace- 
 donian, and was condemned to pay a heavy fine. In the 
 opinion of the best historical critics, however, his guilt 
 is very far from having been established. Unable to pay 
 the penalty imposed, he retired to jEgina. He remained 
 in exile till the death of Alexander, when he returned in 
 triumph to Athens. His last efforts for liberty having 
 failed, and his death having been decreed by the victo- 
 rious Antipater, he took poison and died in 322 B.C. 
 
 Sixty orations and about sixty-five introductions (i.e. 
 exordial fragments of speeches) ascribed to Demosthenes 
 have been preserved ; but of these several are considered 
 to be spurious. There is no reason to suppose that all 
 the orations were spoken in the exact form in which 
 they have come down to us: it is, indeed, probable that 
 many of them were revised after they were delivered. 
 Demosthenes seldom spoke in public without careful 
 preparation ; and he appears to have been extremely 
 averse to extemporaneous speaking, although, according 
 to some authorities, his unpremeditated speeches were 
 superior in spirit and boldness to his more elaborate 
 efforts. The extraordinary success of his oratory was 
 due in no small measure to the steadfastness with whic h 
 he kept the attention of his hearers riveted on the one 
 great object which he had in view. Nothing super- 
 fluous, nothing which did not contribute to that object, 
 was admitted into his discourse. There was no striving 
 after ornament, no effort at mere display. " He uses 
 language," says Fenelon, "as a modest man uses his 
 dress, — simply to cover him. We think not of his words: 
 we think only of the things which he says. He lighten:., 
 he thunders, he is a torrent which sweeps everything 
 before it. We can neither criticise nor admire, because 
 we have not the command of our own faculties." " His 
 style," observes Hume, "is rapid harmony exactly ad- 
 justed to the sense; it is vehement reasoning without 
 
 •eas 
 
 t; 9 as s; g hard; g as /'; G, H, K., guttural ; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JQp^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DEMOSTHENES 
 
 /44 
 
 DENIS 
 
 any appearance of art ; it is disdain, anger, boldness, 
 freedom, involved in a continued stream of argument; 
 and of all human productions his orations present the 
 models which approach the nearest to perfection." " Such 
 was the first of orators," says Lord Brougham : "at the 
 head of all the mighty masters of speech, the adoration 
 of ages has consecrated his place, and the loss of the 
 noble instrument* with which he forged and launched his 
 thunders, is sure to maintain it unapproachable forever." 
 
 See Grote, "History of Greece," vol. xi. chap, lxxxvii. ; Thikl- 
 wali., " History of Greece ;" Plutarch, "Lives;" Fhnelon, "Let- 
 ter lo the Flench Academy on Rhetoric, Poetry," etc.; Hume, 
 "Essay on Eloquence ;"t Brougham, "Dissertation on the Elo- 
 quence of the Ancients;" Cicero, "De Oratore," iii. ; H. }H6u', 
 "Vita Demosthenis et /Eschinis," 1572; Aime Bouli.ee, 'I* le de 
 Demosthene," 1834; F. Theremin, "Demosthenes und Mafc.illon," 
 1845; P. Ekerman, "Demosthenes Oratorum Princep'," 1740; 
 Rene Rapin, " Comparaison de Demosthene et de Cicertfo," 167G; 
 E. Pistor, "Demosthenes a!s Staatsbiirger, Redner/*tc," 1830; 
 F'abricius, "Bibliotheca Graica;" "Edinburgh RevirfV ' for Janu- 
 ary, 1820, and February, 1822; " Nouvelle Biographie Cenerale." 
 
 Demosthenes, an able Athenian general, who was 
 a conspicuous actor in the Peloponnesian war. In 425 
 K.c. he defended Pylos against the Spartans with skill 
 and success, and compelled the enemy to capitulate ; 
 but Cleon, who had assumed the command, claimed the 
 honour of this exploit. In the year 413 he and Eury- 
 medon commanded the army sent to reinforce Nicias at 
 Syracuse. Demosthenes disapproved the dilatory con- 
 duct of Nicias, and attacked the heights of Epipolas by 
 night, but was repulsed with loss. After another defeat 
 in the harbour, the Athenians raised the siege, and re- 
 treated by land; but they were compelled to surrender, 
 and Demosthenes was put to death, 413 11. c. 
 
 See Thucydides, books v., vi., and vii. ; Grote, "History of 
 Greece;" Thiri.wall, "History of Greece;" Plutarch, " Alci- 
 biades," and "Nicias." 
 
 De-mos'the-nes Phil-a-le'thes, a Greek physician, 
 who lived probably about the beginning of the Christian 
 era, and was a skilful oculist. 
 
 Demours, deh-mooR'or d'mooit, (Antoinf. Pierre,) 
 a French surgeon, son of Pierre, noticed below, was 
 born in Paris in 1762. He directed his attention chiefly 
 to ocular surgery, in which he became very expert. He 
 received the title of oculist to the king from Louis XVIII. 
 and from Charles X. In 1818 he published the results 
 of his multiplied researches and long experience, in a 
 "Treatise on Diseases of the Eyes," (3 vols.,) which 
 was the most complete work that had appeared on that 
 subject. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Demours, (Pierre,) a French oculist, born at Mar- 
 seilles in 1702. In 1730 he obtained the place of demon- 
 strator and curator of the cabinet of natural history in 
 the Royal Garden. He assisted Antoine Petit in his 
 anatomical researches, and acquired skill in diseases of 
 the eye. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don, of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, royal censor, 
 and oculist to che king. He wrote a few treatises on 
 ocular surgery. Died in 1795. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Demoustier, deh-moos'te-i', (Charles Albert,) a 
 French writer, born at Villers-Cotterets in 1760, was de- 
 scended by his father from Racine, and by his mother 
 from La Fontaine. His "Letters to Emilia on Mytho- 
 logy" (1786) had a great temporary popularity; but the 
 style is pretentious and offends against good taste. He 
 wrote several comedies and operas, which were success- 
 ful, but are now neglected. Among these are "Alceste," 
 and "Les Femraes," ("Women,") both comedies in 
 verse. Died in 1801. 
 
 Demp'ster, (George,) a Scottish lawyer, born at 
 Dundee in 1736, was a member of Parliament from 1762 
 to 1790, and was a political friend of Fox. He published 
 the " Magnetic Mountains of Cannay," " Letters on Agri- 
 culture," and a few other works. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dempster, (Thomas,) a Scottish writer, noted for his 
 learning and violent temper, was born at Muiresk in 
 
 * The Greek language. 
 
 t The passage above cited is found only in the later editions of 
 Hume's " Essays." 
 
 1579, and studied at Paris and Rome. It is said that he 
 
 was regent of the College of Navarre in Paris at the 
 
 age of seventeen ; he was afterwards professor of law 
 
 and belles-lettres at Toulouse, Nimes, Pisa, and Bologna. 
 
 His quarrelsome temper often involved him in scenes of 
 
 armed violence. He wrote numerous works, of which 
 
 the best-known is " Historia Gentis Scotorum," which 
 
 is a biographical dictionary of Scottish authors. Baillet 
 
 accuses him of literary forgery. Died in 1625. 
 
 SeeCHAMBERS, "Biographical Diclionaryof Eminent Scotsmen; ; 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Denesle, deli-nil', a mediocre French author, born 
 atMeaux; died in 1767. 
 
 Deneux, deh-nuh', (Louis Charles,) a French medi- 
 cal writer, born at Heilly (Somme) in 1767 ; died in 1S46. 
 
 Denham, den'am, (Colonel Dixon,) a British officer 
 and traveller, born in London in 1786, served in the 
 Peninsular war in 1811, and in Belgium in 1815. In 
 1821 he accompanied Clapperton and Oudney in an ex- 
 pedition to Timbuctoo. In February, 1823, they arrived 
 at Kouka, on Lake Tchad, where they were kindly re- 
 ceived. There Denham parted from his companions, and 
 joined a party of natives on an expedition to Manclara, 
 in which he met with perilous adventures. Returning 
 homeward, he arrived in England in June, 1825, and pub- 
 lished a valuable narrative of the enterprise, in which he 
 had displayed great energy and courage. This narrative 
 was written chiefly by Denham, and contained some small 
 contributions from Clapperton. Having been appointed 
 Governor of Sierra Leone, he died there in 1828. 
 
 Denham, den'am, (Sir John,) a British poet, born in 
 Dublin in 1615, was the only son of Sir John Denham, 
 baron of the exchequer, who brought him to London 
 while in his infancy. He studied law; but his success 
 was hindered by an extravagant passion for gaming. In 
 1641 he produced "The Sophy," a tragedy, which was 
 very successful, and which drew from Waller the following 
 expression, — " He broke out like the Irish rebellion, 
 threescore thousand strong, when nobody was aware or in 
 the least suspected it." His reputation was increased by 
 his poem of "Cooper's Hill," (1643,) which was praised 
 by Dryden and Pope. Dr. Johnson says, "Denham is 
 deservedly considered as one of the fathers of English 
 poetry. Denham and Waller, according to Prior, im- 
 proved our versification, and Dryden perfected it." He 
 died in 1668, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the Poets;" Wood, " Athena? Oxoni- 
 enses;" Chalmhrs, "General Biographical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Deniua, da-nee'na, (Giacommaria Carlo,) an emi- 
 nent Italian historian and priest, born at Kevello, in 
 Piedmont, in 1 73 1. Having written an approved work 
 on the "Study of Theology," about 1758, he was chosen 
 professor of humanities and rhetoric in the Superior 
 College of Turin. In 1769 he published the first volume 
 of his " History of the Revolutions of Italy," (" Istoria 
 delle Rivoluzioni d'ltalia,") which was received with 
 favour and is his principal work. Two other volumes 
 of it appeared soon after. In 1782 he went to Berlin, by 
 invitation from Frederick II., and there wrote numerous 
 works on history, etc. In 1804 he was appointed li- 
 brarian to the emperor Napoleon, and resided in Paris 
 from that time until his death. In 1809 he produced a 
 " History of Western Italy." He was author of an im- 
 portant work entitled "The Vicissitudes of Literature," 
 (" Vicende della Letteratura," 1760, I vol. ; 2d ed., 17S5, 
 in 2 vols.; 3d ed., 181 1, in 4 vols.) Died in 1813. 
 
 See Tii'Aldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" Scarrone, 
 "Meroorie intorno alia Vita dell'Abale Denina," 1798; Carlo G. 
 Reina, "Vita di C. Deniua," 1820. 
 
 Denis, (King of Portugal.) See Diniz. 
 
 Denis, deh-ne' or d'ne, (Ferdinand,) a French littf- 
 rateur, born in Paris in 1 798. I le made a voyage to Brazil, 
 and on his return published "Brazil, or the History, 
 Manners, and Customs of the Inhabitants of that Re- 
 gion," (1822, 6 vols.) He also wrote "A Compendium 
 of the Literary History of Portugal and Brazil," (1826,) 
 "The Travelling Brahmin, or Popular Wisdom of all 
 Nations," (1832,) and many other works. He has con- 
 tributed to the " Nouvelle Biographie Generate" most 
 of the notices of eminent Portuguese. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, till, fat; ntit; not; good; moon; 
 
DENIS 
 
 745 
 
 DEKON 
 
 Denis, (Jean Baptiste,) a French physician, born in 
 Paris, obtained the title of consulting physician to Louis 
 X I V. In 1673 he was invited by Charles II. to England, 
 where he remained but a short time. He published in 
 1672 a "Collection of Memoirs and Conferences on the 
 Arts and Sciences presented to the Dauphin." He 
 practised the transfusion of blood. Died in 1704. 
 
 See Eloy, " Dictionnaire de la Miidecine." 
 
 Denis, da'nis, (Johann Michael Cosmus,) a German 
 poet and bibliographer, born at Scharding, Bavaria, in 
 1729. He published a learned "Introduction to the 
 Knowledge of Books," comprising bibliography and lite- 
 rary history, (1777.) In 1791 he was appointed chief 
 librarian of the Imperial Library, Vienna. He rendered 
 important services by his efforts to reform and polish 
 the German language and poetry, and took Ossian and 
 the Northern bards as his models. He wrote, in German 
 verse, an "Epistle to Klopstock," (1764,) odes on public 
 events, Souvenirs, (1794,) and other admired poems, 
 among which is a version of Ossian. Died in 1800. 
 
 See "M. Denisii Commentariorimi de Vita sua libri v.," in Ger- 
 man, 1802; Carl Anton von Gruber, "Sineds Tod," Vienna, 
 1S00. 
 
 Denis, (Louis,) a French geographer and engraver, 
 published, among other works, a " Physical, Political, 
 and Mathematical Map of the World," (1764.) 
 
 Denis, (Nicolas.) See Denys. 
 
 Denis, .Saint, (JPoPE.) See Dionysius. 
 
 Denis or Denys, Saint, the patron saint of France, 
 and the first bishop of Paris, was sent from Rome about 
 the middle of the third century to evangelize the Gauls. 
 It is said that he converted numerous idolaters, and built 
 a church in Paris. He suffered martyrdom during the 
 persecution of Valerian, about 272 A.l). 
 
 See Vercelly, " ViedeS. Denis, premier £veque de Paris," 1854; 
 TlLLEMONT, " M emoires ecclesiastiques r" Mrs. Jameson, "History 
 of Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 Den'i-son, (John Evelyn,) an English legislator, 
 and a member of the Liberal party, born in 1800. lie 
 has represented Newcastle, Hastings, and Malton in 
 Parliament. He was elected Speaker of the House of 
 Commons in 1857, in 1859, in 1866, and in 1868. 
 
 Den'is-toun or Deii'nis-toun, (Jamks,) a Scottish 
 biographer and writer on art, born about 1802. He 
 published, besides other works, "Memoirs of the Dukes 
 of Urbino," (London, 1850.) Died in 1S55. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1851. 
 
 Den'man, (Thomas,) an English physician, born in 
 Derbyshire in 1733, was a surgeon in the royal navy, 
 and afterwards practised with success in London. He 
 published, besides other able treatises on obstetrics, an 
 "Introduction to the Practice of Midwifery." Died 
 in 1818. 
 
 Denman, (Thomas,) first Lord Denman, an English 
 judge, born in London in 1779, was the son of the pre- 
 ceding. He was educated at Cambridge, and was called 
 to the bar in 1806. Having attained eminence in his 
 profession, he was returned to Parliament for Wareham in 
 1818. From 1820 to 1831 he represented Nottingham, 
 and supported electoral reform and other liberal meas- 
 ures. In 1820 he was employed as solicitor-general for 
 Queen Caroline, and was associated with Brougham in 
 her defence. He became attorney-general in 1830, and 
 chief justice of the king's bench in 1832. In 1834 he 
 was raised to the peerage, and in the upper house advo- 
 cated the abolition of slavery. Having discharged the 
 duties of judge with credit, he resigned his office in 1850, 
 and died in 1854. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Denne, din, (John,) an English divine and antiquary, 
 born at Little-bourne, in Kent, in 1693, became Arch- 
 deacon of Rochester in 1728, and rector of Lambeth 
 in 1731. He contributed to Lewis's "Life of Wicklit," 
 and published a volume of sermons. Died in 1767. 
 
 Denne, (Samuel,) a son of the preceding, born at 
 Westminster in 1730, became vicar of Daren t in .1767. 
 He wrote the " History and Antiquities of Rochester/' 
 and other antiquarian treatises. Died in 1799. 
 
 Denne-Baron, Ain'bi'rbs', (Piekke Jacques Rene,) 
 a French poet, born in Paris in 1780, wrote " Hero and 
 Leander," an epic poem, (1806,) and made translations 
 from other languages. Died in 1854. 
 
 Denne-Baron, (Rene Dieudonne,) a musical com- 
 poser, son of the preceding, was born in 'Paris in 1804. 
 He has contributed to Didot's " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale" most of the notices of musicians, and has 
 been engaged on a history of music in France. 
 
 Denuer, den'ner, (Baltiiasar,) an eminent German 
 portrait-painter, born at Hamburg in 1685. He worked 
 in several countries, gained a brilliant reputation, and 
 painted many portraits of kings and princes. His works 
 are chiefly remarkable for extreme minuteness of finish. 
 Died in 1747. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Leaner, (Johann Christoph,) a maker of musical 
 instrtf nents, born at Leipsic in 1655. He made flutes 
 of supi'-ior quality, and is said to have invented the 
 clarionet 1 ' Died in 1707. 
 
 Denne t, den'Re', (Adolphe Philippe,) a French 
 dramatist, torn in Paris in 1812, composed successful 
 dramas, vaudevilles, and comic operas, among which are 
 "The Market of London," (1845,) and "The Bohemians 
 of Paris." 
 
 Den'nie, (Joseph,) an American critic, author, and 
 journalist, born in Boston in 1768. He studied law, 
 but did not practise it. He edited "The Farmers' 
 Museum" at Walpole, New Hampshire, 1795-98, and 
 wrote the "Lay Preacher" in that periodical. He re- 
 moved to Philadelphia in 1799, and founded "The Port- 
 folio," a literary magazine, which he edited from 1801 till 
 1812. He had a high reputation as a writer among his 
 contemporaries. Moore, the poet, in a note to one of 
 his " Poems relating tp America," speaks in terms of 
 high commendation of Dennie's taste and literary attain- 
 ments. Died in Philadelphia in 1812. 
 
 See Duyckinck, " Cyclopsedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Den'nie, (William Henry,) a British officer, who 
 served with distinction in the Burmese war (1826-27) 
 and in the Afghan war. He was killed at Jellalabad in 
 April, 1842. 
 
 Dc-umee, dj'ne^i', (Antoine,) Baron, a French 
 officer, born at Versailles in 1754. Under the empire 
 he was made secretary of the war department. Died 
 in 1829. 
 
 Dennis. See Diniz. 
 
 Den'nis, (John,) an English writer and critic, born in 
 London in 1657, acquired notoriety as a politician, pam- 
 phleteer, and dramatist. His habits were improvident, 
 and his temper quarrelsome, if not malevolent. He 
 made many enemies by his defamatory or satirical at- 
 tacks on authors and public functionaries. The most 
 successful of his dramas were "Liberty Asserted," and 
 "A Plot and No Plot." lie published some offensive 
 criticisms on Pope, who took his revenge in the " Dun- 
 ciad." His vanity and hatred of the French caused him 
 to imagine that the French king would not make peace 
 with England except on the condition that the latter 
 power should deliver him up to the former. The pro- 
 verbial expression of "stealing one's thunder" is said to 
 owe its origin to Dennis. Having invented a new arti- 
 ficial thunder for one of his own plays, he found the 
 managers of Drury Lane employing it in "Macbeth," 
 when he exclaimed, "These rascals have stolen my 
 thunder!" Died in 1734. 
 
 See Disraeli, "Calamities of Authors;" " Biographia Britan- 
 n:ca :" Ldmusd Curlu " Life of J. Dennis," 1734 ; " Relrospec- 
 tive Review," vol. i., 1820. 
 
 Dennistoun. See Denistoun. 
 
 Den'njf, (Sir Anthony,) an English courtier and 
 favourite of Henry VIII., who appointed him a privy 
 councillor and one of the executors of his will. Died in 
 1550. Sir John Cheke honoured his memory by a poem. 
 
 Denoii, <!eh-n6N', (Dominique Vivant,) an eminent 
 French artist and author, remarkable for his various 
 accomplishments, was born at Chalons-sur-Saone in 
 1747. In early youth he obtained a place in the retinue 
 of the ambassador to Russia. About 1774 he was pa- 
 tronized by the Count de Vergennes, minister of state, 
 who employed him on a mission to Switzerland. On his 
 way thither he visited Voltaire at Ferncy, and drew his 
 portrait. From 1782 to 1787 he was charge-d'affaires at 
 Naples, and after the latter date exchanged diplomacy 
 for the arts of design. He became a member of the 
 
 «as/t; qass; g/iard; gasj; G, H, K., guttural; a, nasal; v., trilled; sas2; th as in this. (JT^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DENORES 
 
 746 
 
 DE PETSTER 
 
 Royal Academy in 1787, and during the Revolution re- 
 ceived from Robespierre a commission to design repub- 
 lican costumes. In 1798 he was invited by Bonaparte 
 to join the expedition to Egypt, and eagerly embraced 
 an opportunity which afforded him so rich a field for 
 artistic studies. He made drawings of the monuments 
 and other objects of interest in that country. Me was 
 one of the favourite attendants whom Bonaparte selected 
 when he returned to France, and was the first to gratify 
 the public curiosity by a description of what he had wit- 
 nessed, which appeared in 1802 with the most flattering 
 success. About 1802 he was appointed director-general 
 of the museums. He accompanied Bonaparte in several 
 of his campaigns, displayed intrepidity by making de- 
 signs in the midst of battles, and had great influence in 
 deciding questions relative to works of art and public 
 monuments. Denon was made a baron, an officer of the 
 legion of honour, and member of the Institute. The title 
 of his principal work, above referred to, is "Travels in 
 Upper and Lower Egypt during the Campaigns of Gene- 
 ral Bonaparte," (" Voyage dans la haute et la basse 
 Egypte pendant lesCampagnesdu General Bonaparte.") 
 He also contributed to the great work published by the 
 Commission of Egypt. Died in 1825. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" Coupin, " Notice sur De- 
 non," 8vo, 1825 ; Amedee ds Pastoret, " filoge historique de M. 
 le Baron Denon," 1851. 
 
 Denores. See Nores. 
 
 Dens, dens or doN, (Peter,) a Flemish Roman Catho- 
 lic theologian, born near Antwerp about 1690. He pub- 
 lished several religious works. Died in 1775. 
 
 Dent, (John H.,) a naval officer, born in Maryland, 
 entered the United States navy in 1798. He commanded 
 a vessel of the squadron under Commodore Preble in 
 the war with Tripoli in 1804, and became a captain in 
 181 1. Died in 1823. 
 
 Den-ta'tus, (Lucius Sicinius,) a Roman tribune, 
 noted for his bravery and extraordinary services. He 
 took part in one hundred and twenty battles, received 
 about forty wounds in the breast, and obtained fourteen 
 civic crowns, besides other honours. Appius Claudius 
 the decemvir, whom he had offended, caused him to be 
 assassinated about 450 B.C. 
 
 Dentatus, (Manius Curius,) a Roman consul, re- 
 nowned for his military exploits and frugal mode of life. 
 He was surnamed Dentatus, it is said, because he 
 was born with teeth. He was consul in 290 B.C., and 
 terminated a long war against the Samnites by a signal 
 victory. In 275 B.C. he gained a decisive victory over 
 Pyrrhus near Beneventum. He was consul for the third 
 lime in 274, and, after the expiration of his term, retired 
 to his farm, where he once proved his integrity by re- 
 fusing rich presents from a Samnite embassy. While 
 holding the office of censor, in 272, he supplied Rome 
 with water from the Anio by an aqueduct. Died about 
 470 B.C. 
 
 See R01.LIN, " Roman History ;" Niebuhr, " History of Rome ;" 
 Polvbius, book ii. 
 
 Den'ton, (John,) an English nonconformist minister 
 and writer, born in 1625, became prebendary of York. 
 Died in 1708. 
 
 Denton, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born in 
 Cumberland in 1724, published two poems in imitation 
 of Spenser, viz., "Immortality," and "The House of 
 Superstition," (1762.) Died in 1777. 
 
 Denton, (William,) an English physician, born at 
 Stowe, in Bucks, in 1605. He was appointed physician 
 to Charles I. in 1636, and after the restoration served 
 Charles II. in the same capacity. He wrote a few dis- 
 courses against the Catholics. Died in 1691. 
 
 Dentone, den-to'na, (Antonio,) an Italian sculptor, 
 lived in Venice about 1470. 
 
 Dentone, II, el den-to'na, (Girolamo Curti — kooR'- 
 tee,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1576. He 
 was skilful in vertical perspective, and was distinguished 
 as a painter of theatrical decorations. His works were 
 adorned with figures by Antonio Caracci and Guercino. 
 Died in 1631. 
 
 See Malvasia, " Felsina pittrice." 
 
 Dentrecolles, dSNtR'kol', (Francois Xavier,) a 
 French Jesuit, born at Lyons in 1664, went as missionary 
 
 to China, where he laboured many years, became supe- 
 rior-general of the mission, and published many religious 
 books in the Chinese language. Died in Pekin in 1741. 
 
 Denuelle, deh-nii'eV, (Dominique Alexandre,) a 
 French painter, born in Paris in 181 8. 
 
 Den'ver, (James W.,) an American general, born at 
 Winchester, Virginia, in 1818. He emigrated to Cali- 
 fornia about 1850, was elected a member of Congress in 
 1854, and was Governor of Kansas from December, 
 1857, to August or November, 1858. He was appointed 
 a brigadier-general in 1861. 
 
 Denys. See Denis and Dionysius. 
 
 Denys, deh-ne', (Jacques,) a Flemish painter, born al 
 Antwerp about 1645. He studied in Rome and Venice, 
 and acquired the noble style of the Italian masters. He 
 painted historical pictures, at Mantua, for the Duke of 
 Mantua, and was successful in portraits. After a resi- 
 dence of fourteen years in Italy, he returned to Antwerp, 
 where he soon after died. Among his works, which are, 
 nearly all in Italy, is an " Ecce Homo." 
 
 SeeDESCAMPs, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc; Nauler, 
 " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-L-exikon." 
 
 Denys or Denis, deh-ne', (Nicolas,) a Frenchman, 
 born at Tours, was appointed Governor of Canada and 
 Acadia in 1632. He wrote a "Description of the Coasts 
 of North America," etc., (2 vols., 1672.) 
 
 Denys, Saint. See Denis, (Saint.) 
 
 Denys d'Halicarnasse. See Dionysius of Hali- 
 
 CARNASSUS. 
 
 Denys l'Ancien. See Dionysius the Elder. 
 
 Denys le Jeune. See Dionysius the Younger. 
 
 Denys le Periegete. See Dionysius Periegetes, 
 
 Deodati. See IOiodatl 
 
 D'fion. See Eon, d\ (Chevalier.) 
 
 Deparcieux, da'paVse-uh', sometimes written De 
 Parcieux, (Antoine,) an~able French mathematician, 
 born near Nimes in 1703, went to Paris, where he sup- 
 ported himself by tracing sun-dials, in which he was very 
 skilful. He had much mechanical talent, and invented 
 several useful machines. He became royal censor, and 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences, to which he 
 contributed sixteen treatises. By his zeal for the public 
 good he merited the title of citizen-philosopher which 
 Voltaire gave him. He published an " Essay on the 
 Probability of the Duration of Human Life," (1746,) 
 "Astronomical Tables," and other works. Died in 1768. 
 
 See Gkandjean de Fouchv, "filoge de A. Deparcieux." 
 
 Deparcieux or De Parcieux, (Antoine,) a nephew 
 of the preceding, born at Cessoux-le-Vieux in 1753, ac- 
 quired distinction as a writer and lecturer on mathe- 
 matics and physical sciences. On the formation of the 
 central schools he was chosen professor of chemistry and 
 physics at the Pantheon. He published a "Treatise on 
 Annuities," (1781,) and left in manuscript an able work 
 called a "Complete Course of Physics and Chemistry," 
 in which he demonstrated the intimate connection of 
 chemistry with other sciences. Died in 1 799. 
 
 See Mahbrault, "Notice sur la Vie du Citoyen Deparcieux," 
 1800. 
 
 Depaulis, d$h-po'less', (Alexis Joseph,) a French 
 engraver of medals, born in Paris in 1792, received a 
 medal of the first class in 1831. 
 
 Deperthes, deh-p&ut', (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 artist and writer on art, born at Rheims in 1761, lived in 
 Paris. In 1818 he published his "Theory of Landscape- 
 Painting," ("Theorie du Paysage,") which was followed 
 by a "History of the Art of Landscape-Painting from the 
 Renaissance of Art to the Eighteenth Century." Both 
 of these works are highly appreciated. Died in 1833. 
 
 De Peyster, de pis'ter, (Abraham,) an eminent New 
 York merchant, son of Johannes de Peyster, was born 
 in 1658. He was mayor of New York, chief justice of the 
 province, and president of the king's council, in which 
 capacity he officiated as governor in 1691. Died 1111728. 
 
 De Peyster, (A. Schuyler,) grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in New York in 1736. He served in 
 the French war of 1755 under his uncle, Colonel Peter 
 Schuyler, and held various commands in the royal army 
 during the Revolution. It was largely through his efforts 
 that the Indians were detached from the American cause 
 and allied with the British. Died in 1832. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
DE PETSTER 
 
 747 
 
 DERBT 
 
 De Peyster, (Johannes,) one of the early settlers 
 of New York, was born at Haarlem, in Holland. He 
 became mayor of New York after it had passed into the 
 power of the English. Died in 1685. 
 
 Deplace, deh-plis', (Guy Marie,) a French writer, 
 born at Roanne (Loire) in 1772; died in 1843. 
 
 Sec C01.LO.MBET, "Notice sur G. M. Deplace," 1843; Saintb- 
 Rel-ve, " Portraits litteVaires," vol. ii. 
 
 Deponthon, deh-pd.N'to.N', (Charles Francois,) 
 Baron, a French general, born at Eclaron in 1777, served 
 at the battles of Moskwa, l.utzen, and Bautzen, (1813.) 
 He became a peer of France in 1846. Died in 1849. 
 
 Dep'ping, (George Bernard,) an eminent scholar 
 and litterateur, born at Minister in 1784, became a resi- 
 dent of Paris about 1803, and was afterwards naturalized. 
 He pursued the vocation of author and translator with 
 industry and success, and produced some popular juve- 
 nile works, among which is "Les Soirees d'Hiver," or 
 "Evening Entertainments," (3d edition, 1832.) He ob- 
 tained the prize offered by the Institute for his excellent 
 work on "The Maritime Expeditions of the Normans 
 in the Tenth Century," (1826,) which was followed by 
 a " History of Normandy," (1835,) and other historical 
 works. He wrote several important articles for the 
 "Biographie Universelle," and was associated with 
 Malte-lirun in the "Annates des Voyages." Died in 1853. 
 
 See Depping's Autobiography, entitled " Erinnerungen aus dem 
 Leben tines Deutschen in Paris," 1S32; Alfked Macky, "Notice 
 sur la Vie et les Travaux de G. B. Depping," 1854. 
 
 Deprea. See Despres, (Josquin.) 
 
 De Quiu'cey, (Thomas,) an eminent English author, 
 sometimes called "The English Opium-Eater," was born 
 in a suburb of Manchester on the 15th of August, 1785. 
 He was a younger sou of a rich merchant, who died 
 about 1792, leaving to his widow and six children a clear 
 fortune of ,£1600 a year. His childhood was passed in 
 rustic solitude. He thanked Providence that "his infant 
 feelings were moulded by the gentlest of sisters, instead 
 of horrid pugilistic brothers." About the age of twelve 
 he was sent to the grammar-school of Bath, where he 
 attained such proficiency in Greek that his teacher said 
 he could harangue an Athenian mob. In July, 1802, he 
 eloped from the Manchester Grammar-School, and, after 
 a pedestrian tour in Wales, went to London, resolving 
 to hide himself from his guardians until they should 
 cease to have any control over his actions. He passed 
 several months in London in abject poverty and strange 
 adventures, of which he has given an almost incredible 
 narrative in his "Confessions of an English Opium- 
 Eater." "It is probable," says the "London Quarterly 
 Review" of July, 1861, "that the story, as we now have 
 it, represents the exaggerated shape In which his remi- 
 niscences came back upon him under the influence of 
 the favourite drug." He entered in 1S03 the University 
 of Oxford, (Worcester College,) where he remained about 
 five years, during which he contracted a habit of eating 
 opium. He was noted at this period for his rare con- 
 versational powers and for his vast and varied stock of 
 information. In 1808 or 1809 he formed an intimate 
 acquaintance with Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey, 
 and took up his abode at Grasmere Cottage, recently 
 vacated by Wordsworth. He relieved the embarrass- 
 ments of Coleridge by a present of ^500. He continued 
 to reside at Grasmere about twenty years, married in 
 1816, and devoted his time to literary pursuits. He pro- 
 duced good translations from Lessing and Tean p au l 
 Richter, and contributed many articles on biography, 
 philosophy, and metaphysics to several periodicals, in- 
 cluding "Blackwood's" and "Tait's Magazine." After 
 he had indulged in the excessive use of opium for many 
 years, he overcame the habit, by a desperate and long- 
 continued effort, about 1820. In 1821 he produced a great 
 sensation by the "Confessions of an English Opium- 
 Eater," which purports to be an autobiography. After 
 he quitted Grasmere he resided in Glasgow and Edin- 
 burgh, in which city he passed the latter years of his life. 
 
 De Quincey, though a voluminous writer, published 
 few books under his own name. He projected a great 
 work to be entitled "On the Improvement of the Human 
 Intellect," ("De Emendatione Humani Intellectus," ) 
 which he never finished. "He himself," says the " Lon- 
 
 don Quarterly Review," "never finished anything except 
 his sentences, which are models of elaborate workman- 
 ship. But many of his essays are literally fragments. . . . 
 He left us his most precious ideas in the condition of the 
 Sibyl's leaves after they had been scattered by the wind. 
 Hence those who approach him with any serious purpose 
 are only too likely to come away disappointed. ... It 
 is in the region of pure speculation that he is most at 
 home. . . . The authors about whom he has written 
 most are Milton, Pope, Wordsworth, and Coleridge. Of 
 the first, third, and fourth he was a devoted admirer and 
 champion. But the second seemed to him the very in- 
 carnation of the worst epoch of our literature." Accord- 
 ing to the same critic, " We might search in vain for a 
 writer who, with equal powers, has made an equally 
 slight impression upon the general public. His style is 
 superb, his powers of reasoning unsurpassed, his imagi- 
 nation is warm and brilliant, and his humour both mas- 
 culine and delicate. Yet, with this singular combination 
 of gifts, he is comparatively little known outside of that 
 small circle of men who love literature for its own sake." 
 (See "Quarterly Review" for July, 1 86 1 . ) 
 
 The first edition of his collected works was that pub- 
 lished in Boston by Ticknor & Fields, (18 or 20 vols., 
 1851-58.) Volume I. contains "Confessions of an Eng- 
 lish Opium-Eater" and "Suspiria de Profundi*;" II., 
 "Biographical Essays on Shakspeare, Pope, Lamb, 
 Gbthe, and Schiller;" III., "Miscellaneous Essays ;" IV., 
 "The Caesars;" V,, "Life and Manners," "Early Days," 
 "London," "Ireland," "Premature Manhood," etc.; 
 VI. and VII., "Literary Reminiscences ;" VIII. and IX., 
 "Narrative and Miscellaneous Papers;" X., "Essays 
 on the English Poets;" XI. and XII., "Historical and 
 Critical Essays on the Philosophy of Roman History, 
 the Essenes, Plato's Republic, Cicero," etc.; XIII. 
 and XIV., "Essays on Philosophical Writers and other 
 Men of Letters ;" XV., " Letters to a Young Man whose 
 Education had been neglected;" XVI. and XV II., 
 "Theological Essays, and other Papers;" XVIII., 
 "The Note-Book of an English Opium-Eater." It is 
 stated that this edition of his works was published with 
 the concurrence of the author, who also began about 
 1855 to issue another edition or selection in Great Britain. 
 He died in Edinburgh on the 8th of December, 1859. 
 
 See the excellent article on De Quincey in the " London Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1861 ; " Westminster Review" for April, 1854 ; 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1852, and January, iS6i ; "Ihitish 
 Quarterly" for July, 1863; and "Atlantic Monthly" for September, 
 1863. 
 
 Der'by, (or dar'be,) (Charles Stanley,) Earl of, 
 the son of James, the seventh earl, was Lord of Man and 
 of the Isles. He wrote a work entitled "The Protestant 
 Religion is a Sure Foundation of a True Christian and a 
 Good Subject," etc., (1669.) 
 
 Derby, (Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley,) four- 
 teenth Earl of, an eminent liritish statesman ami orator, 
 the eldest son of Edward, Lord Stanley, (afterwards the 
 thirteenth Earl of Derby,) was born in Lancashire in 
 March, 1799. He was educated at Oxford, and in 1820 
 was elected to Parliament, in which he soon attaL.cd 
 great eminence as a debater, and represented successively 
 Stockbridge, Preston, Windsor, and North Lancashire. 
 He married, in 1825, Emma Caroline, a daughter of Lord 
 Skelmersdale. From 183010 1833 he was chief secretary 
 for Ireland, with a seat in the cabinet of Lord Grey. On 
 the succession of his father to the earldom, in 1834, he 
 received the title of Lord Stanley. Having served as 
 colonial secretary a short time, he retired from office 
 in 1834, and joined the Tory or Conservative party. 
 On the accession of Sir Robert Peel to power, in 1841, 
 Lord Stanley was appointed secretary for the colonies. 
 He was created Baron Stanley, and entered the House 
 of Lords, in 1844. He resigned in the autumn of 1845, 
 because he would not support Sir Robert in the repeal 
 of the Corn-Laws; and when the Conservative party 
 was divided into two parts — the Peelites and the Protec- 
 tionists — about 1846, he became the leader of the latter, 
 and directed the opposition to the ministry of Russell, 
 1846-51. On the death of his father, in June, 1851, he 
 succeeded to the earldom. After the de-feat of Russell 
 in the House, in February, 1852, Lord Derbv formed 
 a ministry, in which he was first lord of the treasury; 
 
 t as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DERBY 
 
 748 
 
 DERWENTWATER 
 
 but, failing to obtain the support of a majority for his 
 financial measures, lie resigned in December, 1852, and 
 was succeeded by Lord Aberdeen. He was "sent for" 
 by the queen, in 1855, to construct a Conservative min- 
 istry; but he declined, thinking probably that he could 
 not command a sufficient number of votes in the House 
 of Commons. He maintained a general opposition to 
 the ministry of Palmerston, who was compelled to resign 
 in February, 1858. Lord Derby then accepted the place 
 of premier. Among the important measures of his ad- 
 ministration was the reorganization of the government 
 of India. He manifested more sympathy with Austria 
 in the Italian question than was conducive to his popu- 
 larity. The agitation of the question of electoral reform 
 also tended to make his position untenable, and, by a 
 combination of Liberals, Peelites, and the Manchester 
 party, he was driven from power in June, 1859. (See Dis- 
 raeli.) In June, 1866, the Liberal ministry resigned, 
 because the Reform bill was rejected by the House of 
 Commons, and Lord Derby again became prime minister. 
 He attempted to form a coalition with certain Whig lead- 
 ers, among whom was Lord Clarendon ; but his overtures 
 were coldly received, and he was compelled to appoint 
 an exclusively Tory cabinet. During his administration 
 a Reform bill, giving the right of suffrage to all house- 
 holders in boroughs, became a law, and was signed by 
 the queen in August, 1867. He resigned on the 25th of 
 February, 1868, and was succeeded by Disraeli. Lord 
 Derby produced a translation of Homer's "Iliad" in 
 blank verse, (1865.) This version, says the "Edinburgh 
 Review," "is far more closely allied to the original, and 
 superior to any that has yet been attempted in the blank 
 verse of our language." Died in October, 1S69. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1S65 ; " Blackwood's Ma- 
 gazine" for April, 1865. 
 
 Der'by, (Elias Hasket,) an American merchant, 
 born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1739, made important 
 improvements in shipbuilding. At the commencement 
 of the Revolution he loaned to the government a large 
 portion of the supplies for the army, and took a con- 
 spicuous part in equipping the 158 private armed ships 
 fitted out at Salem during the war. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Hunt's "Lives of American Merchants," 1858. 
 
 Derby, (Henry,) Earl of, the title of Henry IV. of 
 England in his early life. (See Henry IV.) 
 
 Derby, (James Stanley,) seventh Earl of, an Eng- 
 lish nobleman, born about 1600, was the nephew of the 
 fifth earl, and son of William Stanley. He fought for 
 Charles I. in the civil war, and was eminent for bravery 
 as well as loyalty. After the ruin of the royal cause he 
 retired to the Isle of Man, of which he was proprietor. 
 He afterwards joined the standard of Charles II., was 
 taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, and executed 
 in October, 165 1. His wife, Charlotte de Tremouille, was 
 the last person in the three kingdoms who submitted to 
 the Parliament. She died about 1660. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England;" Hartley Coleridge, 
 M Lives of Distinguished Northerns." 
 
 Der'9e-to, Der'ke-to, or Der'9e-td8, a Syrian god- 
 dess, supposed to be the same as Astartk, (which see.) 
 She was worshipped under the form of a fish. 
 
 See Pihrer, " Universal- Lexikon." 
 
 Der-cyl'H-das, [Aep/ruAAiriac,] a Spartan general, who 
 in 399 B.C. was appointed commander of an army em- 
 ployed to protect the Asiatic Greeks against the Per- 
 sians. He took nine cities of /Eolia in eight days, and 
 reduced Atarneus in 398. He was recalled in 396 B.C. 
 
 Der-cyi'lu3 or Der'gjf-lus, [Gr. Afp/cu/lAoc or At-pro- 
 /luf,] an Athenian orator, was one of the ten ambassadors 
 sent in 347 B.C. to negotiate a peace with King Philip. 
 
 Derffliiiger, von, fon d§Rf fling-er, or Dbrfling, doR'- 
 fling, (Georg,) a German general, born in Bohemia in 
 1606. He served in the army of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 after whose death he entered the service of the Elector 
 of Brandenburg. He commanded with success against 
 the Swedes about 1675-78. Died in 1695. 
 
 Derham, der'am or dur'tim, (Samuel,) an English 
 physician, born in Gloucestershire in 1655 ; died in 1689. 
 
 Derham, (William,) D.D., an eminent English di- 
 vine and philosopher, born near Worcester in 1657, 
 became rector of Upminster in 1689, and canon of Wind- 
 
 sor in 1716. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, to 
 which he contributed several able scientific treatises. 
 His principal works are " Physico-Theology," ( 1 7 1 3, ) 
 "Astro-Theology," (1714,) and "Christo- Theology," 
 (1730,) (consisting of sermons which he had delivered at 
 the Boyle Lecture,) which are highly commended, and 
 have been translated into other languages. He edited 
 the works of Ray the naturalist, and published the philo- 
 sophical experiments of Robert Hook. Died in 1735. 
 
 Derick, deR'ik, sometimes written Deryck, (Peter 
 Cornelis,) a skilful Dutch landscape-painter, born at 
 Delft in 1568; died in 1630. 
 
 De'ring or Dear'iiig, (Edward,) an English Puritan 
 divine, eminent for his eloquence, born in Kent, became 
 professor of divinity at Cambridge in 1567. He obtained 
 the rectory of Pluckley in 1569. In 1573 he was sus- 
 pended from the ministry for his opposition to episco- 
 pacy. He published " Lectures on the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews." Died in 1576. 
 
 Deriag, (Sir Edward,) an English politician, born 
 in Kent about 1598. He became about 1640 a member 
 of the Long Parliament, in which he acted at first with 
 the popular party, but in the civil war he was a royalist. 
 Died in 1644. 
 
 Deriot, deh-re'o', (Albert Francois,) Baron, a 
 French general, born in 1766, was appointed chamber- 
 lain to Napoleon in 1813. Died in 1836. 
 
 Derivaux, deh-re'vo', (Achille,) a French general, 
 born at Senones in 1776; died in 1843. 
 
 Derjavine. See Derzhavin. 
 
 Der'mo-djf, (Thomas,) an Irish poet, born at Ennis 
 in 1775, wrote poems about the age of twelve, which 
 were printed in 1792. When young, he enlisted in the 
 army; but his promotion was hindered by intemperance. 
 He published two volumes of poems about 1802, also 
 "The Battle of the Bards," a poem. Died in 1S02. 
 
 See }. (i. Raymond, " Lite of T. Dermody," 2 vols., 1S06. 
 
 Derodon, deh-ro'do.N', (David,) a French writer, born 
 in Dauphine about 1600, was eminent for his skill in dia- 
 lectics. He taught philosophy at Orange, Nimes, and 
 Geneva, and was a zealous opponent of the doctrines of 
 Descartes. In 1630 he was converted from Calvinism 
 to the Catholic faith, and afterwards returned to Calvin- 
 ism. He wrote treatises on " Metaphysics," " Logic," 
 " Philosophy," and other subjects. His "Tombeau de 
 la Messe" (1654) caused his banishment, and was often 
 reprinted. Died in 1664. 
 
 Sue Haag, "La France protestante;" De Gerando, "Histoire 
 de la Philosophic modeme :" Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dic- 
 tionary." 
 
 Derosne, deh-ron', (Charles,) a French chemist, 
 born at Paris in 1780; died in 1846. 
 
 Derossi, di-ros'see, (Giovanni Ghf.rardo,) an Ital- 
 ian poet, born in Rome in 1754. He wrote a "Treatise 
 on the Dramatic Art," " Memoirs on the Fine Arts," 
 (1792,) and numerous comedies, fables, and epigrams. 
 He was chosen a correspondent of the French Institute 
 in 1812. Died in 1827. 
 
 Deroy, deh-rwa', (Bernard Erasmus,) a German 
 general, born at Manheim in 1743. He commanded a 
 corps of Bavarians in the service of Napoleon I., and 
 was killed at Potolsk in August, 1812. 
 
 See " Eriunerungen an den General von Deroy," Augsburg, 185Z 
 
 Derrand, di'r6N', (Francois,) a French Jesuit and 
 architect, born in 1588, designed the church of Saint- 
 Louis, Paris. Died in 1644. 
 
 Der'rick, (Samuel,) an Irish author, born in 1724, 
 came to London about 1 75 1. In 1761 he succeeded Beat) 
 Nash as master of ceremonies at Bath and Tunbridge. 
 His habits were extravagant and dissolute. He wrote "\ 
 View of the Stage," and other works. Died in 1769. 
 
 Derschawin. See Derzhavin. 
 
 De Ruyter. See Ruyter. 
 
 Der'went-wa-ter, (James Radcliffe,) Earl ok, 
 an English Catholic, born in Northumberland in 16S9, 
 inherited his title from his father. He was a zealous ad- 
 herent of the house of Stuart, and a leader of those who 
 fought for the Pretender in 1715. With a small army of 
 insurgents under the command of Forster, he marched 
 to Preston, where they were defeated and taken prisoners. 
 After trial for treason, he was executed in March, 1716. 
 
 See his " Life," by Sydney Gibson. 
 
 sL e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, fl, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mht; n&t; good; m<55n; 
 
DERZAVIN 
 
 749 
 
 DESBOROPT 
 
 Derzavin. See Derzhavin. 
 
 Derzhavin, deu-zha'vin, written also Derzavin, 
 Derjaviiie,orDerschawiii,(GABKiKLlioMAX<>vrrcii,) 
 a celebrated lyric poet of Russia, bom at Kazan in 1743. 
 He entered the army as engineer in 1760, and became a 
 colonel about 1778. In 1784 he was made a councillor 
 of state, and in 179 1 secretary of state. He was suc- 
 cessively advanced to the dignity of senator in 1793, im- 
 perial treasurer in 1800, and minister of justice in 1802. 
 Before this date he had produced a number of admirable 
 odes one of which is an "Ode to the Deity," ("Oda 
 Bog - .") This sublime and original poem has been trans- 
 lated into Latfh and Chinese. Four volumes of his works 
 were published in 1810. He also wrote an excellent 
 treatise on lyric poetry, and a few other prose works. 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 See Otto, " Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur." 
 
 De Saoy. See Sacv. 
 
 Desaguliers, d&'zS'gu'le-V, (John Thf.ophii.us,) an 
 eminent natural philosopher, born at Rochelle, France, 
 in 1683, was the son of a Protestant who emigrated to 
 London about 1685. Having studied at Oxford, and 
 entered into orders, he settled in London, and began 
 about 1712 a course of lectures on natural philosophy, 
 which, on account of their novelty and other, merits, were 
 very successful. In 1714 he was elected a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society. He obtained the living of Edgeware, and 
 was for some time chaplain of the Prince of Wales. He 
 wrote a "System of Experimental Philosophy," ( 1719,) 
 besides other works. Died in 1744. 
 
 See Weiss, " Histoire des ReTugi^s Francais." 
 
 Desaix* de Veygoux, deh-s<V cleh v&'goo', com- 
 mon ly called simply Desaix, ( Louis Charles Antoine,) 
 an eminent and gallant French general, born of a noble 
 family at Saint-Hilaire-d'Ayat, near Riom, in Auvergne, 
 in 1768, entered the army at the age of fifteen. He 
 favoured the Revolution, but not the crimes which its 
 more violent partisans committed. In 1792 he was chosen 
 aide-de-camp by General Victor de Broglie. During 
 the reign of terror he was imprisoned, and narrowly 
 escaped death. His military talents were displayed in 
 several campaigns on the Rhine, and procured for him 
 a rapid promotion. As general of division, he contrib- 
 uted to the good order of the famous retreat made by 
 Moreau in 1796. In 1798 he was quartermaster-general 
 or chief of the staff under Bonaparte when the latter 
 proposed the invasion of England. Having received 
 command of a division in the expedition to Egypt, he 
 pursued Mourad Bey into Upper Egypt, and gained 
 a decisive victory at Sidiman, October 7, 1798. He 
 governed that conquered province with such wisdom and 
 moderation that the natives gave him the title of "the Just 
 Sultan." When Bonaparte embarked on his homeward 
 voyage, he left orders that Desaix should follow him; 
 and the latter arrived at the armv in Italy in June, 1800, 
 a few days before the battle of Marengo. The French 
 were retiring in disorder at four o'clock, when Desaix 
 brought up his reserve, and by an impetuous charge 
 converted defeat into a signal victory. In this charge he 
 received a mortal wound, and almost instantly expired. 
 One account, which is rather apocryphal, represents him 
 as saying, "Tel! the First Consul that my only regret in 
 dying is to have perished before having done enough to 
 live in the recollection of posterity." His grave was 
 made at Saint-Bernard, near the summit of the Alps, 
 and two monuments were erected to his memory in 
 Paris. "The tomb of Desaix," said Napoleon, "shall 
 have the Alps for its pedestal, and the monks of Saint- 
 Bernard for its guardians." 
 
 See_ Thiers, "Histoire du Consulat;" De Courceli.es, "Dic- 
 tionnaite des GdneYaux Francais;" J. Lavall^e, " filoge historique 
 du Ge^ieVal Desaix," 1801 ; Cousin d' Avai.lon, " Histoire des G^n<$- 
 raux Kleber et Desaix," 1801; Allemand, " Essai sur le G^nlral 
 Desaix." 1S45; Becker, Cohte de Mons, "Le G^neVal Desaix, 
 Etude historique," 1852; " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Desani, da-sa'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Bologna in 1595; died in 1657. 
 
 Desargues, deh-zaRg', (Gaspard,) an able French 
 geometer, born in Lyons in 1593. He fought at the siege 
 
 • In Scott's " Life of Napoleon" this name is everywhere erro- 
 neously spelled Dessaix. 
 
 of Rochelle, where he formed a friendship with Descartes. 
 After the peace he quitted the army, and resided in Paris, 
 where he associated with Gassendi and Pascal. He was 
 the author of a "Treatise on Perspective," (1636,) and a 
 "Treatise on Conic Sections," (1639.) Died in 1662. 
 
 Desaugiers, di'zo'zhe-i', (Marc Antoine,) a French 
 composer of songs, born at Frejus in 1752 j died in 1793. 
 
 Desaugiers, (Marc Antoine Madeleine,) a French 
 song-writer, son of the preceding, was born at Frejus in 
 1772. He composed, besides many popular songs, suc- 
 cessful theatrical pieces or vaudevilles. He was for a long 
 time the foremost among French chansonniers, until 
 Beranger appeared. He died, greatly regretted, in 1827. 
 
 See Drcour, "Notice sur M. A. M. Ddsaugiers," 1827. 
 
 Desault, deh-so', (Pierre,) a French physician, born 
 in Beam in 1675 ; died about 1740. 
 
 Desault, (Pierre Joseph,) an eminent French sur- 
 geon, born near Lure, in Franche-Comte, in 1744. After 
 passing a few years in the military hospital of Bel'ort, he 
 went to Paris in 1764, and received lessons from Antoine 
 Petit. He gained a high reputation by his lectures on 
 anatomy, and made improvements in surgery, before he 
 was admitted into the College of Surgery in 1776. In 
 1782 he was chosen chief surgeon of the hospital La 
 Charite. On the appointment of chief surgeon of the 
 Hotel-Dieu, in 1788, he was preferred to many eminent 
 competitors. His reputation and practice increased, 
 until he had the treatment of almost all the important 
 cases in the capital. He continued to lecture, and the 
 school founded by him was frequented by students from 
 many foreign countries. In 1794 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of clinic surgery in the Ecole de Sante, then just 
 instituted. The French estimate him the most skilful sur- 
 geon of his time. Bichat published " Surgical Works" 
 which contain the doctrines of Desault. Died in 1795. 
 
 See Pktit.^ "Eloge de Desault," 1795 ; Caii.i.au, "Notice sur la 
 Vie et les Ecrits de Desault," 1S00: Bichat, "Notice sur Desault," 
 in the " Magasin Encyclop^dique." 
 
 De Saussure. See Saussure, de. 
 
 Desbarreaux. See Barreaux, des. 
 
 Desbarres, dl-baR', ? (Joseph Frederick,) an Eng- 
 lish hydrographer, of French descent, born in 1722. He 
 rose to the rank of colonel in the army, was aide-de-camp 
 to General Wolfe at Quebec, and was made governor of 
 Prince Edward's and Cape Breton Islands about 1784. 
 He published, at the expense of the government, "The 
 Atlantic Neptune," (1777,) which is said to be the finest 
 collection of charts, plans, and views ever issued. He 
 taught navigation to Captain Cook. Died in 1824, aged 
 one hundred and two years. 
 
 Desbillons, d&'be'yoN', (Francois Joseph Ter- 
 Rasse,) a French Jesuit, born in Berry in 1711, excelled 
 in Latin poetry. He professed rhetoric at Nevers, Caen, 
 and La Fleche, and wrote (in Latin verse) numerous 
 fables, (" Fabuloe iEsopicae,") the "Art of being Well," 
 (or "Art of Preserving Health,") ("A is bene Valendi,") 
 and other poems. After the dissolution of his order he 
 retired to Manheim. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Qubrahd, "La France LitteYaire ;" Feller, " Dictionnaire 
 Historique." 
 
 Desboeufs, d&'buf, (Antoine,) a French sculptor 
 and engraver on gems, born in Paris in 1795, was a pupil 
 of Cartellier. He obtained a medal of the first class in 
 1843. He produced statues of History and Science for 
 the Chamber of Peers, one of Voltaire, and other works. 
 
 Desbois. See Chesnaye. 
 
 Desbois de Rochefort, dj'bwa' deh tosh'foR', 
 (Louis,) born in Paris in 1750, became physician to the 
 hospital La Charite, where he lectured to a large class 
 with eminent ability. He left a work on "Materia Med- 
 ica," (1789,) which was for a long time the best on that 
 subject. Died in 1786. 
 
 Desbordes-Valmore, da'boRd' vSl'moR', (Madame 
 Marceline,) a popular French writer, born at Douai in 
 1787; died in 1859. She has left romances, and several 
 beautiful poems indicating true poetic feeling and deep 
 religious sentiment. 
 
 Desborough. See Desrorow. 
 
 Desborow or Desborough, dez'btir-uh/an English 
 republican general in the time of Charles I., was a 
 brother-in-law of Oliver Cromwell. He strenuously 
 opposed the project to make the Protector king, in 1657. 
 
 «aSA t ,cas.f;gA<zttz';gas/; G, H, K, giMttral ; N, «<"<'/; v., trilled; sasa; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DESB ROSSES 
 
 7 50 
 
 DESCHAMPS 
 
 Soon after the death of Oliver, he joined the cabal of 
 the Wallingford House, and by threats induced Richard 
 Cromwell to dissolve the Parliament in 1659. The suc- 
 ceeding Parliament cashiered him soon after that date. 
 
 Desbrosses, d&'bRoss', (Marie,) a French comic 
 actress, born in Paris in 1764; died after 1855. 
 
 Desbureaux, di'bu'ro', (Charles Francois,) a 
 French general, born at Rheims in 1755 ; died in 1835. 
 
 Descamps, d&'k&N'', (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 painter and writer, born at Dunkirk in 1714. He was 
 chosen director and professor of a free school of design 
 at Rouen, and a member of the Royal Academy of 
 Paris. He was moderately successful as a painter of 
 familiar scenes, but derives his reputation chiefly from a 
 work entitled " Lives of Flemish, German, and Dutch 
 Painters," (" Vies des Peintres Flatnands, Hollandais, 
 et Allemands," 4 vols., 1753-63,) which, however, is 
 incomplete and often inaccurate. He also published a 
 "Picturesque Journey in Flanders and Brabant," (1 
 vol., 1769.) Died at Rouen in 1791. 
 
 See Descamps, " Notice sur J. B. Descamps, Peintre du Roi,"i8o7. 
 
 Descartes, dA'ktin', (Rene,) [l.at. Rena'tus Car- 
 Te'sius,] an illustrious French philosopher and mathe- 
 matician, born at La Haye, in Touraine, March 31, 
 1596. He was educated at the College of La Fleche, 
 where he formed a lasting friendship with Mersenne, 
 and cherished a partiality for mathematical science, in 
 which he was destined to make most important dis- 
 coveries. On leaving college, at the age of nineteen, 
 his first step was to renounce all his books, to efface 
 from his mind all scholastic dogmas and prejudices, and 
 then to admit nothing that could not bear the test of 
 reason and experiment. It is difficult to realize at the 
 present day how bold was such an attempt, how arduous 
 such a task, at a time when the philosophy of Aristotle 
 still maintained despotic sway, and when to question 
 his decisions was generally deemed by learned men the 
 height of arrogance. To perfect his education, he re- 
 solved to travel ; and, as it was usual in that age to make 
 the military profession subservient to such a design, he 
 entered the Dutch army in 1616, and passed into the 
 service of the Duke of Bavaria in 1619. He gave proof 
 of courage at the battle of Prague in 1620, but soon after 
 renounced a profession that was not congenial to his 
 favourite studies. He continued his travels for several 
 years in France, Italy, etc., and in 1629 settled in Hol- 
 land, (where he hoped to find more freedom and seclusion 
 than in France,) to meditate on metaphysics, chemistry, 
 mathematics, and astronomy. Some years passed before 
 he published any extensive work on mathematics ; but 
 his genius for this science had often been manifested by 
 the facility with which he resolved the most difficult 
 questions. In 1637 he produced his celebrated "Dis- 
 course on the Method of Reasoning well, and of inves- 
 tigating Scientific Truth," (" Discours sur la Methode 
 pour bien conduire sa Raison, et chercher la Verite 
 Jans les Sciences,") which contains treatises on meta- 
 physics, dioptrics, and geometry. The last treatise 
 announced important discoveries in algebra and geo- 
 metry, among which are the employment of algebraic 
 formulae in the construction of curves, and the appli- 
 cation of the notation of indices to algebraic powers. 
 "One man," says Hallam, "the pride of France and 
 wonder of his contemporaries, was destined to flash light 
 upon the labours of the analyst and point out what those 
 symbols, so darkly and painfully traced, might represent 
 and explain. The theory developed by Descartes in this 
 short treatise displays a most consummate felicity of 
 genius." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 His treatise on Dioptrics affords ingenious geometric 
 applications, and announces the first discovery of the law 
 of the refraction of light. His style is so admirably pure, 
 clear, and concise that he is entitled to a high rank among 
 the creators and reformers of the French language. 
 
 In 1641 he published, in Latin, his great metaphysical 
 work, " Meditationes de Prima Philosophia," the specu- 
 lations of which gave a wonderful impulse to philoso- 
 phical inquiry in his own and succeeding times. They 
 manifest an original, daring, and independent genius, 
 endowed with great force and subtlety of thought. He 
 performed '.he same service in the philosophy of mind 
 
 that Bacon performed in natural science. Taking his 
 departure from universal doubt, he found the basis of 
 all positive knowledge in self-consciousness expressed by 
 this enthymem, " Cogito; ergo sum," " I think ; there- 
 fore I exist." His bold innovations and brilliant para- 
 doxes excited much hostility as well as admiration. His 
 book was condemned by the College of Cardinals at 
 Rome ; and Voet, a professor of Utrecht, accusing Des- 
 cartes of atheism, instigated the civil power to persecute 
 him, but his malice was partially frustrated. Cartesian- 
 ism became modified by his admirers into systems quite 
 dissimilar or opposite. Thus, Spinoza derived from it 
 his pantheism, and Berkeley his pure idealism. 
 
 He published in 1644 " Principles of Philosophy," 
 (" Principia Philosophia;,") in which he propounds his 
 theory ot the world, and the doctrine of Vortices. He 
 supposed that the sun is the centre of a vortex of an all- 
 pervading ethereal fluid, whose whirling motion produces 
 the revolution of the planets. In 1647 the French court 
 granted him a pension of 3000 livres. Soon after this 
 date Christina, Queen of Sweden, offered him an asylum 
 at her court, which he accepted. There he was treated 
 with much honour ; but the change in his habits, together 
 with the rigour of the climate, was too much for his con- 
 stitution, which was always delicate. He died at Stock- 
 holm in February, 165c. He was never married. His 
 works, including some not named above, were pub- 
 lished in nine volumes, (1690,) with the title of "Opera 
 Omnia." His influence, which was almost universal in 
 the seventeenth century, has declined since Gassendi 
 reformed the philosophy of mind and Newton demon- 
 strated his more simple physical principles. But he .-till 
 has just and various claims to celebrity, in the noble 
 thoughts, the precious truths, the wise maxims, which, 
 along with some brilliant errors, he has transmitted to 
 posterity. "He worked a more important change in 
 speculative philosophy," says Hallam, "than any who 
 had preceded him since the revival of learning; for 
 there could be no comparison in that age between the 
 celebrity and effect of his writings and those of Lord 
 Bacon." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Bruckkr, " Historia Philosophise ;" G. H. Lewes, " Bio- 
 graphical History of Philosophy;" Mercier, " E*loge de Descartes;" 
 Thomas, "Eloge de Descartes," 1765; Adrien Baii.let, "Viede 
 Descartes," 2 vols., 1691 ; Pierre Borel, " Vita? Ren. Cartesii Com- 
 pendium," Paris, 1656: G. H. Gaiixard, "filoge de Descartes," 
 1765 ; Bordas-Dumouun, " LeCartesianisme," 2 vols., 1S43 ; IIhuil- 
 i.ier, "Sur la Philosophic Carufsienne, " 2 vols., 1854; Garnier, 
 "Descartes :" D. Nizard, " Descartes et son Influence," etc., in the 
 "Revue des Deux Mondes," December 1, 1S44; Carl F. Hock, 
 " Canesius und seine Gegner," 1835 ; " Edinburgh Review" for Jan- 
 uary, 1852. 
 
 Descemet, dis'ffli' or d&'seh'mi/, (Jean,) a learned 
 French physician and anatomist, born in Paris in 1732, 
 discovered the internal lamina of the cornea. He prac- 
 tised medicine with success. Died in 1810. 
 
 Deschamps, d&'sh&N', (Antoine,) a French poet, 
 brother of Emile, noticed below, was born in Paris in 
 1800. He published a translation of Dante's " Divina 
 Commedia," (1829,) and several volumes of poems. 
 
 Deschamps, (Claude Franqois,) a French priest, 
 bom at Orleans in 1745, devoted his talents and fortune 
 to the instruction of deaf-mutes, in which he followed 
 the system of Pereira. He published an "Elementary 
 Course of Education for Deaf-Mutes," (1779,) and a few 
 other treatises on that subject. Died in 1791. 
 
 Deschamps, (Emii.e,) a popular French poet and 
 dramatist, born at Bourges in 1791. He produced in 
 1818 two comedies, called " Selmours et Florian," and 
 " Le Tour de Faveur," both of which had great success. 
 With Victor Hugo and others, he founded the "Muse 
 Francaise" in 1827. He published a collection of poems 
 entitled "French and Foreign Studies," ("Etudes fran- 
 caises et etrangeres," 1828,) which contains some trans- 
 lations, and a volume of "Poesies completes," (1S40,) 
 which were received with favour. He also wrote several 
 tales and critical articles for the journals. Died in 1871. 
 
 Deschamps, (Eustache,) sometimes called Morel, 
 a French poet, born about 1320. Among his works is 
 the " Miroir du Manage." Died about 1400. 
 
 Deschamps, (Jean Marie,) a French litterateur, born 
 in Paris in 1750, was secretary to the empress Josephine, 
 and remained in her service until her death, (1814.) He 
 
 S, e, 1, 6, 0, y, 'ong; i, i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, «W«r*; far, fill, fit; mJt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
DESCHJMPS 
 
 751 
 
 DESHAl'S 
 
 was tlie author of " Piron with his Friends," and other 
 dramatic pieces, and published a translation, in verse, of 
 Monti's " Hard of the black Forest." Died in 1826. 
 
 Deschanips, (Joseph Francois Louis,) a French 
 physician, born at Chartres in 1740. He succeeded De- 
 sault as surgeon-in-chief of the hospital La Charite in 
 1788. When Corvisart became first physician to Na- 
 poleon, Deschamps was chosen one of his consulting 
 surgeons. In 181 1 he became a member of the Institute. 
 He published a "Treatise on Cystotomy." Died in 1824. 
 
 See "Biographic Medicale." 
 
 Deschizeaux, di'she'zo', (Pierre,) a French bota- 
 nist, born at Macon in 1687; died about 1730. 
 
 Deseine, deh-sAn', (Francois,) a French bookseller 
 and writer, born in Paris, became a resident of Rome. 
 He was author of a work entitled " Home, Ancient and 
 Modem," (10 vols., 1 7 13,) which is prized for its accuracy. 
 Died at Rome in 1 7 1 5. 
 
 Deseine, (Louis Pierre,) a French sculptor, born 
 in Paris in 1750 ; died in 1S27. 
 
 Desenne, deh-sen', (Alexandre Joseph,) an eminent 
 French designer, born in Paris In 1783. After the death 
 of Moreau, in 1814, he occupied perhaps the first place 
 in his art. He embellished the works of Rousseau, 
 Delille, lioileau, Voltaire, etc. Died in 1827. 
 
 Deseiicius. See Deseriz. 
 
 Deseriz or Deseritz.da'zeh-rits, [Lat. Deseric/ius,1 
 (Joseph Innocent,) a Hungarian cardinal, born at Nitra 
 in 1702, was the author of several works, of which the 
 principal treats on the origin and early history of the 
 Hungarians, " De Initiis ac Majoribus Hungarorum," 
 (1748.) Died in 1765. 
 
 See Horasvi, " Memoria Hungarorum." 
 
 Desessarts, di'zi'saV, (Nicolas Lenioyne — leh'- 
 rrwan',) a French litterateur, born at Coutances in 1744, 
 lived in Paris. He published, besides other works, 
 "Celebrated Trials," ("Causes celebres," 196 vols., 
 1773-89,) and a " Dictionary, Historical and Critical, of 
 all French Writers to the End of the Eighteenth Cen- 
 t. iy,'' ("Siecles litteraires de la France, ou Nouveau 
 Fictionnaire historique, critique et bibliographique," 
 e'e, 6 vols. 8vo, 1800.) Died in 1810, 
 
 See Qceirard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Deseze. See Seze, de. 
 
 Desfaucherets, d&'fosh'Ri', (Jean Louis Brousse,) 
 a French dramatic writer, born in 1742 ; died in 1808. 
 
 Desfontaines, di'f6N'tin', (Guillaume FRANgois 
 I ouques Deshaves,) a French dramatist, born at Caen 
 in 1733, became librarian of Monsieur, (Louis XVIII.) 
 He produced numerous successful comedies, among 
 vhich were "The Marriage of Scarron," and the "Tra- 
 veller Incog.," (" Le Voyageur inconnu.") Died in 1825. 
 
 Desfontaines, (Pierre Francois Guyot,) Atmi, 
 9 French critic, born in Rouen in 1685. In 1724 he was 
 invited to Paris to write for the "Journal des Savants," 
 to which he imparted new vitality. Devoting his pen 
 t«j polemic criticism, he issued successively several pe- 
 riodicals, such as "Le Nouvelliste du Parnasse," (1731,) 
 and "Judgments on New Works," (1745.) His critiques 
 involved him in a quarrel with Voltaire, which was prose- 
 cuted with much rancour. Desfontaines published a 
 "Neologic Dictionary," (1726,) and other works. His 
 version of the "/Eneid" (1743) is said to be the best 
 prose version in the French language. Died in 1745. 
 
 See De la Pokte, " L'Esprit de 1'AbW Desfontaines," 4 vols., 
 1757; Charles Nisard, " I_.es Ennemis de Voltaire; Desfontaines, 
 I reron et Beaumelle," 1853. 
 
 Desfontaines, (Rene Louiche,) an eminent French 
 botanist, born at Tremblay, in Bretagne, about 1752. 
 He studied medicine in Paris, and made such progress in 
 botanv that he was received into the Academy of Sciences 
 in 1783. Through the influence of Lemonnier, the gov- 
 ernment furnished him with means to make a botanical 
 excursion in Barbary, from which, after two years' ab- 
 sence, he returned in 1785. He was appointed by Buffon 
 professor of botany in the Jardin des Plantes in 1786. 
 About 1795 he was admitted into the Institute. In 1798 
 he published his most important work, the result of his 
 researches in Africa, entitled " Flora Atlantica," (2 vols. 
 4to.) Vegetable physiology is indebted to him for the 
 valuable discovery of the difference in the growth and 
 
 structure of monocotyledons and dicotyledons. He pub- 
 lished " Lectures on Botany," a " Description of the 
 Trees and Shrubs of France," (1809,) and numerous 
 treatises on new genera which he discovered. Died in 
 November, 1833. 
 
 See "Biographic des Naturalistes, " in the " Dictionnaire univer- 
 selle des Sciences naturelles;" A. P. de Candoli.e, "Notice his- 
 torique sur la Vie et les Travaux de M. Desfontaines," 1834 ; Pikrkr 
 Flourens, " EJoge historique de R. L. Desfontaines," 1S37 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Genei.ile." 
 
 Desforges, dJ'foRzh', (Pierre Jean Baptists Chou- 
 DARD,) a French dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1746, 
 was a comic actor in his, youth. He retired from the 
 stage in 1782, and then produced "Tom Jones at Lon- 
 don," a comedy in verse, of which La Harpe says, "The 
 situations are interesting, the dialogue is rapid and 
 animated, and the style ingenious and easy." He was 
 author of many other comedies, and of successful operas, 
 among which is "Joconde." Died in 1S06. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Desfourneaux, d&'fooR'no',(EDME Etienne Borne,) 
 a French general, born in 1767, commanded an expedition 
 to Saint Domingo, from which he expelled the British in 
 1796 or 1797. In 1802 he was sent back to that island, 
 though not as general-in-chief, and gained some advan- 
 tages over the negro insurgents. Died in 1849, 
 
 Desgallards, di'gi'laV, (Nicolas,) a Protestant 
 theologian, born about 1520, became minister in Geneva 
 about 1552, and planted a French church in London in 
 1560. He was much esteemed by Calvin, and was ap- 
 pointed preacher to the Queen of Navarre in 1571. He 
 translated several of Calvin's works into French, and 
 published an edition of Saint Irena.us, (1570.) 
 
 Desgenettes, djzh'net' or di'zheh-net', (Nicolas 
 Rene Dueriche,) Baron, an eminent French physician, 
 born at Alencon in 1762. He became chief physician of 
 the army of Italy about 1794, and in 1798 served in the 
 same capacity in Egypt, where he displayed great skill 
 and courage. He attended the grand army during the 
 empire, and at Waterloo in 1815. On the restoration of 
 Louis XVIII. he lost his position in the. army, and in 
 1823 he was dismissed from a chair of medicine which 
 he had obtained in Paris about 1800. He was Chosen 
 chief physician of the Invalides in 1832. He published, 
 besides other medical works, " The Medical History of 
 the Army of the East," (1802,) and wrote articles for 
 the "Biographie Universelle." Died in 1837. 
 
 See Pariset, " filoge du Baron R. Desgenettes," 8vo, 1838; 
 Desgenettes, " Souvenirs de la Fin du .Nine Siecle et des Com- 
 mencements du igme, ou M^moires de R. D. G.," 2 vols., 1S36; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie G-ineVale." 
 
 Desgodets, di'go'di', ( Antoine,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1653, was chosen pensioner of the king 
 at the Academy of Rome in 1674. On his return he 
 published, by order of Colbert and at the public expense, 
 "The Ancient Edifices of Rome, designed and measured 
 accurately," a work of considerable merit. Died in 1 728. 
 
 Desgoffe, di'gof, (Alexandre,) a French historical 
 and landscape painter, born in Paris in 1805. Among 
 his works are "The Roman Campagna," and "The Sleep 
 of Orestes," (1857.) 
 
 Desgranges, di'gRjNzh', (Jean Baptistf.,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Macon in 1751 ; died in 1831. 
 
 Desbauterayes, di'zot'ri', (Michel Ange Andr4 
 le Roux,) a French linguist, born near Pontoise in 1724, 
 was a nephew and pupil of Etienne Fourmont, who 
 taught him Hebrew, Arabic, Chinese, etc. From 1752 
 to 1784 he was professor of Arabic in the College Royal, 
 Paris. He wrote a "Life of Fourmont," and published 
 some letters on Oriental languages. Died in 1795. 
 
 Deshayes, di'zi' or di'hi', (Louis,) Baron of Conr- 
 memin, a French diplomatist, bom about 1590. lie 
 was sent by Louis XIII. on a mission to the Levant in 
 1621, and on his return published a "Journey to ihe 
 Levant," an interesting and valuable work. Having 
 joined in some intrigues against Richelieu, he was 
 beheaded in 1632. 
 
 Deshays, di'zi', (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent French 
 historical painter, born at Rouen in 1729, He studied 
 under Vanloo, and afterwards visited Rome. In 17158 he 
 was admitted to the Royal Academy of Paris, on which 
 occasion he exhibited his "Venus embalming the Body 
 
 e as a 1 ; 9 as j; %hard; gisj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sass; thas in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
DESHOULIERES 
 
 752 
 
 DESMJRS 
 
 of Hector." This established his reputation as one of the 
 best painters of his time. His " Saint Benedict Dying" 
 is also much admired. Died in 1765. 
 
 See C. N. Cochin, " Lettres sur la Vie de Deshays," 1765. 
 
 Deshoulieres, dJ'zoo'le-aiR', Madame, {nie Antoi- 
 nette du Ligier de la G-arde — dii le'zhe-i'd'lSgSiul,) 
 a French poetess, born in Paris about 1634. She was 
 beautiful, graceful, and learned. In 165 1 she became 
 the wife of Seigneur Deshoulieres, an officer in the army. 
 She was much caressed and complimented by the poets, 
 who called her the tenth Muse. Voltaire said that "she 
 was the most successful of all the French ladies who have 
 cultivated poetry." Her idyls, one of which is entitled 
 " Les Moutons," are said to be the best in the language, 
 and are more admired than her other poems, among 
 which are eclogues, odes, elegies, etc. Her " Moral 
 Reflections" are also much esteemed. A pension of two 
 thousand francs was granted her in 1688. Her works 
 were often read in the public sessions of the French 
 Academy. She was a faithful wife and mother, and did 
 not sacrifice her domestic duties to literary fame. She 
 wrote a tragedy, "Genseric," which was so unsuccessful 
 that some one, alluding to her pastoral above named, 
 applied to her the popular proverb, " Retournez & vos 
 moutons," (" Return to your sheep.") Died in 1694. 
 
 See Voltaikk, "Siecle de Louis XIV," and " Le Temple du 
 G ut ;" A. Pekicaud, "Les deux Deshoulieres," 1S53: P. E. Le- 
 montev, " Notice sur Madame Lafayette et Mesdemoiselles Des- 
 houlieres," 1S22. 
 
 Deshoulieres, (Antoinette Therese,) the daughter 
 of the above, born in Paris in 1662, was also a poetess. 
 In 1687 she gained the prize of the French Academy for 
 her ode on the following subject : "The Care which the 
 King bestows on the Education of the Nobility." M. 
 Caze, her accepted lover, having been killed in battle in 
 1692, she composed elegiac verses to his memory. She 
 also wrote songs and epistles. Died in 1718. 
 
 Desideri, di-se-da'ree, (Ippolito,) an Italian mission- 
 ary, born at Pistoia in 1684, went to Thibet about 1 7 1 5, 
 and passed ten years in Lassa. He translated into Latin 
 the " Kangiar," the sacred book of Thibet. Died at 
 Rome in 1733. 
 
 Desiderio da Settignano, da-se-da're-o da set-ten- 
 ya'no, an eminent Italian sculptor, born in Tuscany in 
 1457. Among his works is a mausoleum of Carlo Mar- 
 suppini in the Santa Croce at Florence. Died in 1485. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Ticozzt, " Dizionario." 
 
 Des-i-de'rl-us, [Fr. Didier, de'de-i',] the last king 
 of the Lombards, was Duke of Istria at the death of 
 Astolph, whom he succeeded in 757 A.D. In 770 Charle- 
 magne married his daughter ; but he repudiated her the 
 next year. In 772 Desiderius was involved in war with 
 Pope Adrian, in whose defence Charlemagne marched 
 an army into Italy and besieged Desiderius in Pavia. 
 The latter surrendered in 774, and was confined in a 
 monastery, where he ended his days. 
 
 See Mukatori, "Annali d'ltalia;" Sismondi, "Histoire des 
 Francais." 
 
 Desjardins, dj'zhf r'cIAn', (Jacques,) a French gen- 
 eral, born at Angers in 1757. He served as general of 
 division in 1794 under Pichegru in Holland. He was 
 mortally wounded at Eylau in 1807. 
 
 Desjardins, [Lat. Hortf.n'sius,] (Jean,) born near 
 Laon, in France, became one of the physicians of Francis 
 I., and had so great a reputation that it was believed he 
 could cure all diseases, provided the fatal hour had not 
 arrived. Some punster applied to him this proverb : 
 " Contra vim mortis, non est medicamen in hortis." 
 Died in 1549. 
 
 Desjardins, dJ'zhtR'daN', (Martin van den Bo- 
 gaert — bo'glrt,) a skilful Dutch sculptor, born at Breda 
 in 1640, removed to Paris, where he made a colossal 
 group in honour of Louis XIV., which was destroyed in 
 the Revolution. Died in 1694. 
 
 Deslandes, dJ'l&Nd', (Andre Francois Boureau — 
 boo'ro',) a skeptical French writer, born at Pondicherry, 
 in India, in 1690, came to France in his youth. His 
 "Critical History of Philosophy" (1737) had great suc- 
 cess. V Mtaire criticised the style of this, and called 
 the author " un vieux e'colier precieux, un bel-esprit 
 provinciel," ("an affected pedant, a provincial witling.") 
 
 Deslandes also wrote " Reflections on Great Men who 
 have died jestingly," and other works. Died in 1757. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Deslyons, di'le-dN', (Jean,) a French theologian, 
 born at Pontoise in 161 5 ; died at Senlis in 1700. 
 
 Deslys, di'less', (Charles,) a French littfrattur,bora 
 in Paris about 1820. 
 
 Desmahis, di'mt'e', (Joseph Francois Edouard 
 de Corsembleu — deh koR'sd.N'bluh',) a French poet, 
 born at Sully-sur-Loire in 1722. At the age of eighteen 
 he went to Paris, and by the favour of Voltaire obtained 
 access to the society of the Rite. He wrote " Le Voyage 
 de Saint-Germain," and other fugitive poems, which had 
 considerable popularity, and several comedies, one of 
 which, "The Impertinent," (1750,) was performed with 
 success. " It sparkles with wit," says La Harpe, " but at 
 the expense of naturalness," (nature!.) Died in 1761. 
 
 See Desessarts, "Siecles litt^raires." 
 
 Desmaiseaux, d<i'mA'z5', (Pierre,) a learned writer, 
 born in Auvergne, France, in 1666, emigrated to England 
 in his youth, and there associated with eminent authors. 
 He was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote, 
 in English, a "Life of Boileau," (1712,) and a "Life of 
 Bayle," (1722,) and translated into English Bayle's " Dic- 
 tionary," FenelonVTelemachus," and other works. His 
 writings are said to be valuable for literary history. 
 Little is known of the events of his life. Died in Lou- 
 don in 1745. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Desraarais. See Rkgnier-Desmarais. 
 
 Desmares. See Champmesle. 
 
 Desmares, dJ'mfR', (Toussaint Gut Joseph,) 3 
 French Jansenist preacher and writer, born at Vire in 
 1599; died in 1687. 
 
 Desmarets. See Maii.lebois, Marshal de. 
 
 Desmarets or Desmarais, (Francois Seraphin 
 Reonier.) See Regnif.r-Desmarais. 
 
 Desmarets, di'mt'rA', (Nicolas,) a French states- 
 man and financier, was the nephew and pupil of Colbert. 
 He became director of finances in 1702. The resources 
 of France were exhausted by long wars, and the finan- 
 cial fabric raised by the skill of Colbert was falling to 
 ruin, when Desmarets was appointed controller-general 
 in 1708. His administration was wise, honest, and par- 
 tially successful. On the death of Louis XIV., in 1715, 
 he was deprived of office. Died in 1721. His son be- 
 came distinguished as the Marshal de Maillebois. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, " MiJ- 
 moires." 
 
 Desmarets, (Nicolas,) a French natural philosopher 
 and geologist, born at Soulaines in 1725. In 1753 he 
 wrote a prize essay on the ancient junction of Great 
 Britain with the continent. He was admitted to the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1 77 1. He was one of the editors 
 of the " Encyclopedic Methodique." His " Treatise on 
 the Origin and Nature of Basalt," in the opinion of 
 Cuvier, who wrote his eulogy, should secure for him a 
 durable reputation. Died in 1815. 
 
 Desmarets, [Lat. Mare'sius,] (Roland,) born in 
 Paris in 1594, was a brother of Jean Desmarets de Saint- 
 Sorlin. He wrote " Latin Letters" in verse, (1625,) often 
 reprinted. Died in 1653. 
 
 Desmarets, (Samuel,) a French Protestant divine, 
 born at Oisemont in 1599, preached at Laon, Sedan, 
 Bois-le-Duc, Groningen, etc. He wrote many works on 
 theology, which are praised by Bayle. Died in 1673. 
 
 Desmarets de Saint-Sorliri, dj'mi'rj' deh s4n'- 
 sor'I&n', (Jean,) a French poet, born in Paris in 1595, 
 was one of the first members of the French Academy. 
 He wrote successful dramas, entitled "Aspasia," and 
 " The Visionaries ;" and "Clovis," an epic poem, (1657,) 
 which was justly ridiculed by Boileau. Desmarets was 
 prominent in the party that studiously depreciated the 
 ancients, and was a fanatical opponent of the Jansenists. 
 He pretended to be inspired, and wrote some visionary 
 devotional works. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Bayt.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, 
 "M^moires." 
 
 Desmars, di-mSn', a French writer on medical to- 
 pography and natural history, lived at Boulogne-sur-Mer. 
 Died in 1767. 
 
 i, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, oAsrare; far, fill, fat; m£t; nftt; good; moon; 
 
DESMJSURES 
 
 753 
 
 D ESP ARTS 
 
 Desmasures, di'ml'zuV, (Louis,) a mediocre French 
 poet, bom at Tournay about 1516, made a translation of 
 the ".Eneid" into French verse. Died about 1580. 
 
 Desmeunier. See Demeunier. 
 
 Desmichels, dj'me'shel', (Louis Alexis,) Baron, 
 a French genera), born at Digne in 1779, fought as cap- 
 tain at Austerlitz, (1805,) and as colonel at Waterloo, 
 (1815.) He became lieutenant-general in 1835, and was 
 afterwards Governor of Corsica. Died in 1845. 
 
 Desmichels, (Ovide Chrysanthe,) a French his- 
 torian, born in the department of Var in 1793, was 
 professor of history in Paris from 1818 to 1831. His 
 " Histon of the Middle Ages" (1825 ; 12th edition, 1S46) 
 is regarded as a classic work. 
 
 Desmolets, dj'mo'li', (Pierre Nicolas.) a learned 
 French compiler, born in Paris in 1678, became a priest 
 of the Oratoire. He was employed as editor or com- 
 piler of many useful works, among which were a new 
 and improved edition of Lami's "Apparatus Biblicus," 
 (1723,) and " The Continuation of Memorials of History 
 and Literature, by Sallengre," (11 vols., 1726-31.) Died 
 in 1760. 
 
 See Qu^rard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Desmonceaux, dS'moN W, Abhe, a French oculist, 
 born in Paris in 1734, wrote a "Treatise on Diseases of 
 the Eyes and Ears," and other works. Died in 1806. 
 
 Des'mond, (Catherine Fitzgerald,) Countess of, 
 an Irish lady, the wife of James XIV., Earl of Desmond, 
 was born in the county of Waterford. She was presented 
 at the court of Edward IV., danced with his brother, 
 Richard III., and lived through five subsequent reigns. 
 It is said that she reached the age of one hundred and 
 forty, and died after the accession of James I., (1603.) 
 
 See "Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," bv Louisa S. Cos- 
 tbllo, London, 1844 ; " London Quarterly Review" for March, 1853. 
 
 Desmoulins, d^'moo'laN', (Antoine,) a French nat- 
 uralist, born at Rouen in 1796. He wrote a "Natural 
 History of the Human Races of Northern Europe and 
 Asia," etc., (1826,) and published in a short treatise the 
 results of researches in the nervous system, (1824.) 
 Died in 1S28. 
 
 Desmoulins, (Camii.lf.,) a prominent French demo- 
 crat and political writer, born at Guise, in Picardy, in 
 1762, was educated in Paris, where Robespierre was his 
 schoolmate. An enthusiastic partisan of the Revolution, 
 he took an active part in the storming of the Pastille, 
 became a devoted follower of Danton, and acquired dis- 
 tinction by his pamphlets, which were written with great 
 ability. He assumed or received the title of " Attorney- 
 General of the Lamp-post," for his share in the death 
 of those who were hung by the mob in the street. He 
 had an impediment of speech, which prevented his suc- 
 cess as an orator. In 1 791 he married an amiable lady 
 named I.ucile Duplessis. Some writers accuse him of 
 complicity in the massacre of September, 1792, but add 
 that on that occasion he saved the lives of several worthy 
 persons. He was elected to the Convention in 1 792, and 
 voted for the death of the king and the destruction of 
 the Girondists, but subsequently advocated milder mea- 
 sures, for the promotion of which he began to issue the 
 " Vieux Cordelier," a periodical which had much cele- 
 brity and is still admired for its literary merit. He in- 
 curred the implacable enmity of the fanatical Saint-Just 
 by saying that this demagogue "carried his head like 
 the holy sacrament," and was involved in the proscrip- 
 tion of his friend Danton, with whom he was executed, 
 April 5, 1794. His wife soon after shared the same fate. 
 "The talent which he displayed as a writer," says Lord 
 Brougham, " may not be of the highest order, were we 
 considering the merit of one who was a mere author. 
 But he also played a great part among the actors in the 
 scenes of the time, and of those he stands certainly 
 highest as a master of composition." " No one," says 
 Lamartine, "could so well personify the populace, with 
 its tumultuous movements, its mobility, its inconstancy, 
 and its quick transitions from fury to pity for its victims. 
 A man at once so ardent and so volatile, so trivial and 
 so inspired, so undecided between blood and tears, must 
 have influence over an insurgent people in proportion as 
 his nature is congenial with theirs." (" History of the 
 Girondists.") " A fellow of endless wit and soft lambent 
 
 brilliancy," says Carlyle ; "a man for whom art, fortune, 
 or himself would never do much, but to whom Nature 
 had been very kind." 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" Carlyle, 
 " French Revolution ;" E. Fleury, " Hiographie de C. Desmoulins," 
 1850, and enlarged edition, entitled " E°tudes revolutionnaires," etc., 
 2 vols., 1851 ; Carlyle, "Miscellanies;" Brougham, "Statesmen 
 of the Time of George III." 
 
 Desnoiresterres, d&'nwaR'taiR.', (Gustave le Bri- 
 soys — leh bKe'zwa',) a French novelist and critic, born 
 at Bayeux in 1817. He wrote several novels, one of 
 which is entitled "Entre deux Amours," (1845.) 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Desnoyer, d.Vnwa'ya', (Louis Franqois Charles,) 
 a prolific French dramatist, born at Amiens in 1806; 
 died in 1858. 
 
 Desnoyers, d&'nwa'ya', (Auguste Gaspard Louis 
 Boucher,) Baron, a celebrated French engraver and 
 designer, was born in Paris in 1779. He studied under 
 Lethiere and Darcis, and gained distinction by a copper- 
 plate engraving of "La belle Jardiniere" of Raphael, 
 (1804,) which he afterwards surpassed in works after 
 various masters. He produced in 1808 a portrait of 
 Napoleon, by Gerard, and in 1814 one of Raphael's 
 Madonnas, ("Vierge a la Chaise.") In 1816 he was 
 elected to the Institute. He afterwards devoted his 
 burin chiefly to the works of Raphael, with a success 
 which perhaps has never been surpassed. Among his 
 master-pieces is "The Transfiguration," (1840.) He 
 received the title of baron in 1828. Died in 1857. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Archives des M usees 
 Imp&riaux." 
 
 Desnoyers, (Jules Pierre Francois Stanislas.) 
 a French geologist and antiquary, born at Nogent-le- 
 Rotrou (Eure-et-Loir) in 1800. He was chosen librarian 
 of the Museum of Natural History at Paris in 1834. He 
 has written, besides other works, "Observations on the 
 Tertiary Formations of the West of France," (1832,) and 
 "Ecclesiastic Topography of France," (1853.) 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gc'nerale." 
 
 Desnoyers, (Louis Claude JosF.ru,) a French lit- 
 tlrateur, born at Replonges (Ain) in 1805. He founded 
 in 1832 the "Charivari," which he edited with success 
 until 1836, in which year he became one of the proprietors 
 of the " Siecle" in Paris. He also wrote several popular 
 tales, among which are "The Adventures of Jean P. 
 Choppart,"^i836,) and "Gabrielle, or Every Road leads 
 to Rome," (1846.) 
 
 Desorgues, d^'zoRg', (Joseph Theodore,) a satirical 
 French poet, born at Aix in 1764; died in 1808. 
 
 Desormeaux, d&'zoR'mo', (Joseph Louis Ripault,) 
 a French historian, born at Orleans in 1724, lived in 
 Paris. He wrote a " Historv of Spain and Portugal," 
 (1758,) and a "Life of the Marshal de Luxembourg," 
 (1764,) which were very successful. He was admitted 
 into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1771. Died in 
 1793. (See Dinge, Antoine.) 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Desormeaux, (Marie Alexandre,) a French physi- 
 cian and professor of obstetrics, born in Paris in 1778; 
 died in 1830. 
 
 De Soto, da so'to, (Hernando or Fernando,) a 
 Spanish explorer, born in Estremadura about 1500, 
 served with distinction under Pizarro in Peru. He con- 
 ducted an expedition from Spain to Florida in 1539, 
 discovered the Mississippi River, and died in Louisiana 
 in 1542. 
 
 See Lambert A. Wilmer, "Life, Travels, and Adventures of 
 Ferdinand de Soto," Philadelphia, 1858; Bancroft, " History of 
 the United States," vol. i. 
 
 Des'pard, ? (Edward Marcus,) an Irish conspirator, 
 born in Queen's county. He became a colonel in the 
 British army, but was afterwards suspended or disgraced. 
 He formed a conspiracy to kill the king, for which he 
 was executed in 1803. 
 
 Despars or Desparts, d^'piV, (Jacques,) a French 
 physician, born at Tournay, graduated in Paris in 1409, 
 and practised there with great reputation. He became 
 first physician to Charles VII., founded and endowed a 
 medical school in Paris, and wrote a " Commentary on 
 Avicenna." Died in 1457. 
 
 Desparts. See Despars. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; *h as in this. 
 
 48 
 
 (fr^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DESPAUTERE 
 
 754 
 
 DESSA1X 
 
 Despautere, di'po'taiR', (Jean,) a noted Flemish 
 grammarian, born at Ninove about 1460, was the author 
 of a Latin work on grammar, ("Commentarii Gram- 
 matici,") which was very popular, and was used in the 
 schools of France. "Too long," says Boinvilliers, "it 
 caused the despair of youth, who shed many tears over 
 its obscurities." His Flemish name was Van Pau- 
 TERKN. Died in 1520. 
 
 Despaze, d^'piz', (Joseph,) a French satirical poet, 
 born at Bordeaux in 1776, lived in Paris. Died in 1814. 
 
 Despeisses, d&'p&ss', (An toine,) an eminent French 
 jurisconsult, born near Alais in 1594, was one of the 
 authors of a " Treatise on Successions." Died in 1658. 
 
 See Mokeri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Despence. See Espence, d'. 
 
 Despencer, le, (Huqh.) See Spenser. 
 
 Desperiers, d& 'peh-re-i', or Desperriers, d&'p£'- 
 re-a', (Bonaventure,) a French skeptic, born at Amay- 
 le~TJuc, was valet-de-chambre of Marguerite, sister of 
 Francis I. He wrote, in French, a work called "Cymbal 
 of the World," ("Cymbalum Mundi,") the object of 
 which was to throw ridicule on revealed religion. He 
 also wrote poems and tales — " New Recreations," (" Nou- 
 velles Recreations") — which were admired. Died in 1544. 
 
 See " Les vieux Conteurs Francais," 1840: Bayle, " Historical 
 and Critical Dictionary;" Chaki.es Nodier, " B. Desperriers et 
 Cyrano tie Bergerac," 1841 ; " Nouvelle Biugraphie Generale. " 
 
 Desperriers. See Desperiers. 
 
 Desplaces, d^'pliss', (Louis,) a skilful French en- 
 
 f raver, born in Paris in 1682. He engraved after Rubens, 
 aul Veronese, and other Italian masters. Died in 1739. 
 
 Despois, d&'pwa', (Eugene,) a French litterateur, 
 born in Paris in 1818. He contributed able articles to 
 the "Revue des Deux Mondes." 
 
 Desport, d&'poR', (Francois,) a French surgeon, 
 born about 1700. Having practised with success in the 
 army for several years, he was chosen surgeon-in-chief 
 of the army of Corsica in 1738. He passes for one of 
 the greatest military surgeons that France has produced. 
 He wrote a "Treatise on Gun-Shot Wounds," (1749,) 
 which was then the most complete on the subject. Died 
 about 1760. 
 
 Desportes, d&'poRt', (Auguste,) a French poet, born 
 at Aubenas (Ardeche) in 1798. He made a good poetical 
 version of the "Satires" of Persius, (1841,) and wrote 
 "Moliere at Chambord," a comedy, (1843.) 
 
 Desportes, (Charles Edouard Boscheron — 
 bosh'ro.N',) a French lawyer and litterateur, born in Paris 
 in 1753. He embraced the royal cause in the Revolu- 
 tion, for which he suffered in prison and in exile. In 
 1 8 14 he became president of the imperial court of Orleans. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 See Buzonniere, " Notice sur C. E. Boscheron Desportes," 1S32. 
 
 Desportes, (Claude Francois,) a French painter, 
 a son of the following, whom he imitated, died in 1774. 
 
 Desportes, (Francois,) an eminent French painter, 
 born in Champagne in 1661, resided in Paris. He was 
 received into the Royal Academy in 1699, when the king 
 gave him a pension. He painted portraits with skill ; 
 but he excelled in representing dogs and other animals. 
 He executed many works of this kind for Louis XIV. 
 and for his successor. Died in 1743. 
 
 Desportes, (Jean Baptiste Poupee,) a French phy- 
 sician, born in Bretagne in 1704, practised in Saint 
 Domingo. Me wrote a "History of the Diseases of 
 Saint Domingo," in 3 vols., (1770,) one of which is de- 
 voted to botany. Died in 1748. 
 
 Desportes, (Philippe,) a French poet, bornatChar- 
 tres in 1545 or 1546, was an uncle of the satirist Regnier. 
 He enjoyed the favour of Henry lit., who gave him rich 
 benefices and chose him for reader in his cabinet. He 
 wrote elegies and erotic poems, and excelled in Ana- 
 creontic verse. " Desportes wrote more purely than 
 Ronsard," says La Harpe, "and removed the rust which 
 covered our versification." " He rejected," says Hallam, 
 "the pedantry and affectation of his predecessors, and 
 gave a tenderness and grace to the poetry of love." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 
 1606. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Tableau de la Poe"sie Francaise an sei- 
 tieme Siecle ;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Despreaux. See Boileau. 
 
 Despreaux, di'pRa'6', (Jean Ettenne,) a popular 
 French dramatist and song-writer, born in Paris in 1748 ; 
 died in 1820. 
 
 Desprem6nil. See Espremesnil. 
 
 Despres, dk'pua', (Jean Baptiste Denis,) an accom- 
 plished French writer, born at Dijon in 1752. In 1805 
 he became secretary of Louis, King of Holland, who 
 made him a councillor of state. About 1810 he was 
 chosen a member of the council of the University of 
 Paris. He wrote several dramas, among which are the 
 " Alarmiste" and the " Satiric Poet." Died in 1832. Des- 
 pres and Campenon made an elegant version of Horace. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Despres, d&'pu&', or Depres, written also Desprez, 
 d&'pka', (Josquin,) a famous Flemish musician, born in 
 Hainault about 1450 or 1460. He was a singer in the 
 pontifical chapel under Pope Sixtus IV., after whose 
 death he was attached to the court of Louis XII. of 
 France. He composed masses, motets, and songs. Died 
 about 1530. " Many poems and epitaphs," says Denne- 
 Baron, "attest the regret caused by the death of this 
 musician, whom all Europe proclaimed the greatest com- 
 poser of his time." 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Despretz, d&'pR&', (Cesar Mansuete,) a French 
 savant, born at Lessines (Hainault) in 1792. He taught 
 physical sciences in the College Henri IV., Paris, and 
 was appointed professor in the Sorbonne about 1837. 
 He published an " Elementary Treatise on Physics," 
 (1825,) which was adopted by the Council of Public 
 Instruction, and " Elements of Chemistry," (1830.) lie 
 produced from carbon or charcoal minute black crystals, 
 said to be a good substitute for diamond-dust in polishing 
 precious stones. Died in 1863. 
 
 Desprez, (Josquin.) See Despres. 
 
 Desprez, d£'pRa', (Louis,) a French sculptor, born 
 in Paris in 1799. He obtained the grand prize in 182S 
 for "The Death of Orion." Among his other works are 
 a statue of General Foy and a bronze statue of Diana, 
 
 (I845-) 
 
 Desprez, (Louis Jean,) a French artist, born in 
 Lyons about 1745, was appointed painter and archi- 
 tect to Gustavus III. of Sweden. He displayed a rich 
 imagination as a painter. The " Battle of Suenskund" 
 is one of his master-pieces. Died in 1804. 
 
 Desprez de Boissy. See Boissy. 
 
 Desrenaudes, d&'reh-nod', (Martial Borve,) an 
 able French litterateur, born at Tulle in 1755, became 
 grand vicar of the Bishop of Autun, (Talleyrand,) whom 
 he served as secretary. He is the reputed author of 
 the famous report on public instruction presented by 
 Talleyrand in 1791. He was imperial censor under 
 Napoleon I. Died in 1825. 
 
 Desrochers, d&'ro'sha', (Etienne Jehandier — 
 zhdN'de-a',) a French engraver of portraits, was born 
 at Lyons ; died in Paris in 1 741. 
 
 Desroches, d&'rosh', (Jean,) a learned historian of 
 Belgium, born at the Hague in 1740. In 1783 he pub- 
 lished a well-written Latin "Epitome of Belgian His- 
 tory," (2 vols.,) and left (unfinished) an "Ancient History 
 of the Austrian Netherlands," (1787.) Died in 1787. 
 
 Desroches de Farthenay, di'rosh' deh ptiu'ni', 
 (J. B.,) a French historian, born at La Rochelle, pub- 
 lished, besides other works, a " History of Denmark," 
 (6 vols., 1730,) and a "History of Poland under Augustus 
 II.," (4 vols., 1734.) Died in 1766. 
 
 Desrotours, d&'ro'tooit', (Noel Francois Mathieu 
 Angot — o.N'go',) a French numismatist and writer, born 
 at Falaise in 1739, was chief clerk of the administration 
 of the mint before the Revolution. Died in 1821. 
 
 Dessaix, dl's.Y, (Joseph Marie,) a French general, 
 born at Thonon, Savoy, in 1764.. As major he served 
 in Italy in 1796, was a deputy to the Council of Five 
 Hundred in 1798, and became a general of division in 
 1809. For his conduct at Wagram (1809) he was made 
 a count of the empire. He was chosen grand officer 
 of the legion of honour in 181 1. He joined the army 
 of Napoleon in March, 1815, and was in consequence 
 excluded from office after the restoration. Died in 1834. 
 
 See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des GiineVaux Francais." 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
DESSJIX 
 
 755 
 
 DEUTSCH 
 
 Dessaix, (de Veygoux.) Sec Dksaix. 
 
 Dessalines, d&'si'len', (Jean Jacques,) a negro em- 
 peror of llayti, born in or near Guinea about 1760, was 
 brought to Hayti as a slave. In the servile war which fol- 
 lowed the Krench Revolution he was distinguished for his 
 courage and cruelty, and became first lieutenant of Tous- 
 saint L'Ouverture. He massacred all the whites and 
 mulattoes who fell into his power. In 1802 he made a 
 desperate resistance to the French army under Leclerc, 
 especially at Saint-Marc. After Toussaint was trans- 
 ported to France, Dessalines became general-in-chief of 
 the blacks, and expelled the French from the island 
 in 1803. He ordered a general massacre of the white 
 residents, who had remained under a promise of protec- 
 tion. In October, 1804, he assumed the title and power 
 of emperor. Two of his officers, Christophe and Petion, 
 conspired against him and assassinated him in 1806, when 
 the former became President of Hayti. 
 
 See Louis Dubroca, " Vie de J. J. Dessalines," 1804. 
 
 Dessalles, d&'sil', (Jean Leon,) a French philologist, 
 born at Le Bugue (Dordogne) in 1803. 
 
 Dessau, des'sow, (Prince Leopold Anhalt,) a Ger- 
 man general, born in 1676, distinguished himself in the 
 war of the Spanish succession, and was made field-mar- 
 shal in 1712. He obtained command of an army of 
 Frederick II. of Prussia, with which he invaded Silesia 
 in 1744 and repulsed the Austrians in 1745. He after- 
 wards defeated the Saxons near Dresden. Died in 
 
 1747- 
 
 Dessen van Cronenburg. See Di.ssknius. 
 
 Des-se'nl-us, [Ger. pron. des-sa'ne-us,] or Dessen 
 van Cronenburg, des's?n vin kRo'nen-biiRG, (Ber- 
 nard,) a skilful Dutch physician, born at Amsterdam in 
 1 5 10, practised at Cologne. He published a work "On 
 the Compounding of Medicines," (" De Compositione 
 Medicamentorum," 1555,) and another on the Plague. 
 Died in 1574. 
 
 Dessolles, d&'sol', (Jean Joseph Paul Augustin,) 
 Marquis, an able French general and statesman, born 
 at Auch in 1767, served several campaigns under Bona- 
 parte in Italy between 1793 and 1797, and in 1799 be- 
 came general of division. He served under Moreau in 
 1800, and contributed to the victory of Hohenlinden, 
 (1801.) In this year he was made councillor of state and 
 secretary of war. From 1808 to 1810 he commanded 
 a division in Spain. In 1814 he was appointed by the 
 provisional government general-in-chief of the national 
 guard of Paris, with command of the first military 
 division. On the first restoration of Louis XVIII. he 
 became minister of state and a peer of Fiance. He 
 was appointed minister of foreign affairs and president of 
 the council, or premier, on the formation of the Liberal 
 ministry in December, 1819. The ultra-royalists, whose 
 policy he opposed, procured his dismissal from power in 
 1820. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Restoration :" De Courcru.es, 
 "Dictionnaire des Gen^raux Francais ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 De Stael. See Stael, de. 
 
 D Estaing. See Estaing, l>\ 
 
 Destaing, des'taN', (Jacques,) a French general, born 
 at Aurillac in 1764, commanded the light infantry at the 
 battle of Aboukir, and was made a general of division 
 in 1801. He returned to France, and was killed in a 
 duel by General Reynier in 1802. 
 
 Destandoux. See Cailhava. 
 
 Destouches, dj'toosh', (Philippe Nericault — na'- 
 re'ko',) a popular French dramatic writer, born at Tours 
 in 1680, is said to have been an actor in his youth. His 
 comedy "Le Curieux impertinent" was performed in 
 1710 with success. He was sent on a mission to Eng- 
 land in 1717, and married an English lady. In 1723 he 
 was received into the French Academy. He gained 
 great eminence among comic authors by his "Married 
 Philosopher," (1727,) which is his master-piece, "The 
 Boaster," ("Le Glorieux,") and many other comedies. 
 Died in 1754. 
 
 See Viu-Ehaiw, "Tableau de la LitteVature au dix-huitieme 
 Siecle;" D'Alembert, " FJoge de Destouches," 175s; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gine'raie." 
 
 D'Estrees. See Estrees, d'. 
 
 Destutt de Tracy. See Tracy. 
 
 Des Vergers. See Noel des Vergers. 
 
 Desvignoles, dj'ven'yol', ( Alphonse, ) a French 
 Protestant minister, born in Langucduc in 1649, preached 
 at Lausanne, Berne, Berlin, and Brandenburg. He be- 
 came a member of the Royal Society of Berlin in 1701, 
 and one of the editors of the " Bibliotheque Germanique" 
 in 171 1. In 1738 he published a "Chronology of Sacred 
 History," which was esteemed one of the best works on 
 that subject. Died in 1744. 
 
 See Haag, " La France prolestante." 
 
 Desyveteaux or Des Yveteaux, d&'zev'to', (Nico- 
 las Vauquelin — vok'Un',) Seigneur, a Frenchman, 
 born near Falaise about 1560, was preceptor to the Duke 
 of Vendome, and to the dauphin, (Louis XIII.,) for the 
 former of whom he wrote a poem called " The Education 
 of a Prince." In 161 1 he was dismissed from court on 
 account of his immoral habits. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Rathery, "Vauquelin des Yveteaux," 1854: J. Travers, 
 "Addition a la Vie et aux CEuvres de V. des Yveteaux," 1856 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Detharding, det'haR'ding, [Lat. Dethardin'gius,] 
 (GeoRG,) a learned German physician, born at Stralsund 
 in 167 1. He became professor of medicine at Rostock 
 in 1697, and at Copenhagen in 1732. He gave evidence 
 of a philosophic and ingenious mind in numerous works, 
 (in Latin,) among which are a "Guide to Long Life," 
 (" Dissertatiode Manuductionead Vitam longam," 1724,) 
 "Principles of Semiology," (1740,) and "Principles of 
 the System or Art of Healing," ("Fundamenta Methodi 
 Medendi," 1743.) Died in 1747. 
 
 See Kampfer, " Publicum Virtutis et Eruditionis Monumentum 
 G. Dethardingio erectum." 
 
 Detharding, (Georg Christoph,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Rostock in 1699, was professor of medi- 
 cine at Copenhagen from 1747 to 1760. He wrote many 
 dissertations on medicine. Died in 1784. 
 
 See "Biographie Me'dicale." 
 
 Detmold, det'molt, (Johann Hermann,) a German 
 statesman, born at Hanover in 1807, was elected to the 
 National Assembly in 1848, and was in 1849 for a short 
 time minister of justice and of the interior for the em- 
 pire. He wrote several satirical works. 
 . See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 De Tocqueville. See Tocqueville, de. 
 
 Detroy, deh-tRvva', (Francois,) a French portrait- 
 painter, born at Toulouse in 1645, worked in Paris. Died 
 in 1 730. 
 
 Deu-ca'li-on, [Gr. AracaA<uv,] a personage of the 
 Greek mythology, was said to be a son of Prometheus. 
 According to popular tradition, he escaped in a ship 
 with his wife Pyrrha from a general deluge, and landed 
 on Parnassus ; after which they threw stones behind 
 them, which were transformed into men and women. 
 
 See Ovid's " Metamorphoses," book i. 
 
 Deurhoft. duVhof, (Willem,) a Dutch writer on 
 theology, born at Amsterdam in 1650; died in 1717. 
 
 Deusdedit. See Dieudonne. 
 
 Deusing, doi'zing, (Anton,) a learned German phy- 
 sician, born at Meurs, in Westphalia, in 1612. He was 
 versed in Oriental languages, philosophy, etc. In 1646 
 he became first professor of medicine at Groningen. He 
 published, in Latin, "The Universal Theatre of Nature," 
 (1645,) a " Synopsis of Medicine," (1649,) "The Economy 
 of the Animal System," (1660,) and other works. Died 
 in 1666. 
 
 See Nickron, "Me"moires;" Samuel Marerius, "C'ratio in 
 Obilum A. Deusingii," 1666; "Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Deusing, (Hermann,) born in 1654, was a son of the 
 preceding, and a partisan and admirer of Cocceius, He 
 wrote an "Allegorical History of the Bible," (1690,) and 
 other works on theology. Died in 1722. 
 
 Deutsch, doitsh, (Nicolas Emanuel,) a Swiss painter 
 and engraver, born at Berne in 1484. His engravings 
 are more prized than his paintings, and both are rare. 
 His most remarkable work is a series of six engravings 
 representing the Wise and Foolish Virgins. Died in 
 
 '53°- 
 
 His son, Jean RoDol.rHF, produced engravings which 
 are valued as showing the picturesque state of the great 
 cities of Europe in the sixteenth century. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as./'; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (JS^-See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
DEVA 
 
 756 
 
 DEFOS 
 
 DEVA, da'va,* a Sanscrit word signifying "god," 
 and forming part of several compound names in the 
 Hindoo mythology, as Kamadeva, the "god of love," 
 Mahadeva, the "great god," (one of the many names 
 applied to Siva,) etc. The feminine of Deva is Devi, 
 (da'vee,) which signifies simply a "goddess," but is more 
 usually applied to Parvati, the consort of Siva. 
 
 Devaines, deh-vJui', (Jean,) a French littlratnir, 
 born before 1750, was chief clerk of the treasury under 
 Turgot. Died in 1803. 
 
 Devaris, da-va'ris, or Devarius, da-va're-us, (Mat- 
 THKW,) a Greek scholar, born in Corfu, lived about 1540, 
 and became, under Paul III., corrector of Greek manu- 
 scripts in the Vatican. His chief work is a "Treatise 
 on the Particles of the Greek Language," (1588.) 
 
 Devarius. See Devaris. 
 
 Devaux. See Vaux, de. 
 
 Devaux, deh-vo', (Francois Antoine,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Luneville in 1712, enjoyed the con- 
 stant friendship of Voltaire. In 1752 he produced a 
 successful comedy, " Rash Promises," (" Engagements 
 indiscrets.") Died in 1796. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Correspondance de 1739 a 1761 ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate." 
 
 Devaux, (Gabriel Pierre Francois Moisson — 
 .nwa's6N',) a French botanist, born at Caen in 1742, 
 formed near Bayeux a garden which became well known 
 as the "Jardin Devaux." Died in 1802. 
 
 See Lair, " Notice historique sur Moisson- Devaux," 1S03. 
 
 Devaux, (Jean,) a skilful French surgeon, born in 
 Paris in 1649, practised in that cityVor sixty years with 
 a high reputation. He was author of a popular treatise 
 on the "Art of Preserving Health by Instinct," (16S2,) 
 and other able professional works. He also translated 
 several foreign medical books. Died in 1729. 
 
 See Sue, "filoge historique de Devaux," etc., Amsterdam, 1772. 
 
 Devaux, deh-vo', (Paul Louis Isidore,) a Belgian 
 statesman, born at Bruges in 1801. He was one of the 
 leaders of the party called "Doctrinaire" before the 
 revolution of 1830. In the congress which met soon 
 after that event, he took an important part in framing 
 the constitution of Belgium, and promoted the election 
 of Leopold. He exercised great influence as editor of 
 the " Revue Nationale." 
 
 Devaux, (Pierre,) Baron, a French general, born 
 at Vierzon in 1762. He distinguished himself at Lutzen 
 in 1813. Died in 1818. 
 
 Dev'ens, (Charles,) an American officer, born at 
 Charlestovvn, Massachusetts, in 1820, distinguished him- 
 self at the battle of Ball's Bluff, and became brigadier- 
 general of volunteers in 1862. 
 
 Deventer, van, vfn dev'en-ter or da'vSn-ter, (Hen- 
 drik,) an eminent Dutch physician, born at Deventer 
 in the second half of the seventeenth century. He 
 was repeatedly called to attend the King of Denmark, 
 Christian V. He published some esteemed works on 
 obstetrics. Died in 1739. 
 
 See E\oy, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine." 
 
 De Vere, de veer, (Aubrey,) an English poet and 
 dramatist. He published "The Song of Faith," (1842,) 
 "The Waldenses," (1842,) "Mary Tudor," a drama, 
 (1847,) and other works. Died in 1846. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for May, 1843. 
 
 De Vere, (Edward.) See Vere. 
 
 De Vere, (Maxim ilian Schele,) a writer and scholar, 
 bora in Sweden in 1820. He came to the United States, 
 and in 1844 was appointed professor of modern languages 
 and belles-lettres in the University of Virginia. His prin- 
 cipal works are his "Outlines of Comparative Philology," 
 and " Stray Leaves from the Book of Nature." 
 
 Devereux. See Essex, Earl ok 
 
 Devergie, deh-veVzhe', ( Marie Guillaume Al- 
 PHONSE,) an eminent French physician, born in Paris in 
 1798, became professor of chemistry, etc. in 1825. His 
 most important work is "Legal Medicine, Theoretical 
 and Practical," (3 vols., 1836.) 
 
 * This word is etymologically related to the Latin Dens and Dams ; 
 in some of the popular dialects it is changed to Deo: hence we have 
 Kamadeo and Mahadeo, instead of Kamadeva, Mahadeva, etc. 
 
 Deveria, deh-vi're'a', (Eugene Francois Marie 
 Joseph,) a French historical painter, born in Paris in 
 1805. Among his works are "Marco Bozzaris at Misso- 
 longhi," (1827,) and "The Flight into Egypt," (1838.) 
 
 Deveria, (Jacques Jean Marie Achille,) a P'rench 
 painter and lithographer, brother of the preceding, was 
 born in Paris in 1800. He produced, among other 
 historical paintings, a " Repose of the Holy Family," 
 and a "Visitation." About 1849 he became keeper of 
 engravings in the Imperial Library. Died in 1857. 
 
 Deveze, deh-v^z', (Jean,) a French physician, born 
 at Rabastens in 1753, went to Hayti in 1775. He escaped 
 from massacre in 1793 by going to Philadelphia, where 
 he had charge of a hospital during the prevalence of the 
 yellow fever. Returning to France, he became physi- 
 cian-in-ordinary to the king. Died in 1829. He wrote 
 able "Treatises on the Yellow Fever." 
 
 Devi, da'vee, [the feminine form of the Sanscrit Deva, 
 a "god,"] a common Hindoo word, signifying "goddess," 
 but usually applied to Parvati (or Kali) par excellence. 
 (See PArvatl) 
 
 Devienne, deh-ve'gn', (Francois,) a French musi- 
 cian and composer, born at Joinville in 1759 ; died in 180;. 
 
 De Vigny. See Vigny. 
 
 Deville, deh-vel', (Antoine,) an eminent French en- 
 gineer, born at Toulouse in 1596, passed some years, in 
 the service of the Duke of Savoy. He wrote an im- 
 portant treatise on fortifications. Died about 1656. 
 
 Devillers.deh-ve'yi', (Charles,) a French naturalist, 
 born in 1724, lived at Lyons. His chief production is an 
 edition of Linnaeus's" Entomology." Died in 1809. 
 
 Dev'is, (Arthur William,) an English historical 
 painter, born in 1762; died in 1822. 
 
 Devonshire, first Duke of. See Cavendish, Wil- 
 liam. 
 
 Dev'on-shire, (Edward Courtney or Courten ay,) 
 Earl of, an accomplished English nobleman, born about 
 1526, was the son of Henry Courtenay, Earl of Devon- 
 shire, whose mother was a daughter of Edward IV. I Ie 
 was confined in the Tower from 1538 till 1553, for fear 
 that he might avenge his father, who had been unjustly 
 executed. Queen Mary released him and restored to 
 him the earldom. According to several historians, she 
 was inclined to marry him, but he treated her advances 
 with indifference, because he was attached to her sister 
 Elizabeth. He was again confined for a short time in 
 the Tower during Mary's reign, and then obtained leave 
 to go abroad. He died at Padua in 1556. 
 
 Devonshire, (Elizabeth Hervey,) Duchess of, a 
 beautiful and accomplished English lady, born in 1759, 
 was the daughter of the Earl of Bristol. She married as 
 her second husband W. Cavendish, Duke of Devonshire, 
 who died in 1814. After this event she resided in Italy, 
 and published an elegant edition of the Fifth Satire of 
 Horace, and other works. Died at Rome in 1824. 
 
 Devonshire, (Georgiana,) Duchess of, an English 
 lady, eminent for her beauty, talents, and accomplish- 
 ments, born in 1757, was the daughter of Earl Spencer. 
 In 1774 she was married to William Cavendish, Duke 
 of Devonshire. She wrote some admired poetical effu- 
 sions, one of which is "The Passage of Mount Saint 
 Gothard." She was a personal and political friend of 
 Charles James Fox, for whom, it is said, she purchased 
 votes by granting electors the privilege of kissing her. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Devonshire, (William Spencer Cavendish,) sixth 
 Duke of, born in 1790, was the only son of the fifth duke 
 and Georgiana Spencer. He was styled Marquis of 
 Hartington before the death of his father, in 181 1. • He 
 favoured the Whig party, and was sent as ambassador to 
 Russia in 1826. Died in 1858. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Devos or De Vos, deh-vos', or Van Vos, vSn vos, 
 (Martin,) a skilful Flemish painter, born at Antwerp 
 about 1534. He studied at Rome and Venice, and co- 
 operated with Tintoretto, who employed him to paint 
 the landscapes of his pictures. He returned to Antwerp 
 about 1559, and produced historical paintings and por- 
 traits of great merit. Among his works is a picture of 
 the great rivers of Asia and Africa. Died in 1604. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nit; good; moon; 
 
DEFOSGES 
 
 7S7 
 
 DE WITT 
 
 Devosges, deh-vozh', (Francois,) a French designer, 
 born at Gray in 1732. He founded at Dijon a free school 
 of design, which was successful with aid from the govern- 
 ment " He ought to share with Vien," says M. Weiss, 
 " the honour of contributing to the study of the antique 
 and the imitation of nature." Died in 1S1 1. 
 
 Devoti, di-vo'tee, (Giovanni,) an Italian prelate, 
 born in Rome in 1744, became eminent as professor of 
 canon law in the college di Sapienza. About 1804 he 
 was made Bishop of Carthage. He published a work 
 on canon law, (" Institutiones Canonical") Died in 1820. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Devrieut, dev're-oN', (Gustav Emit.,) an eminent 
 German actor, of French extraction, nephew of Ludwig 
 Devrient, was born in Berlin in 1803. He made his 
 debut at an early age, and performed in Berlin and other 
 cities of Germany with great success, both in tragedy 
 and comedy. 
 
 Devrieut, (Karl August,) born in 1798, made his 
 deluit in 1S19, and became a popular comic actor. He 
 married the famous singer Wilhelmine Schroeder, from 
 whom he was divorced in 1828. 
 
 Devrieut, (Ludwig,) a popular German actor, uncle 
 of the preceding, born in Berlin in 1784. He became 
 the chief favourite of the public of Berlin, where he first 
 performed in 1815, and received the surname of "the 
 German Garrick." He excelled both in tragedy and 
 comedy, and performed many parts in the tragedies of 
 Shakspeare. Died in 1832. 
 
 See H. Schmidt, "L. Devrient, erne Denkschrift," 1S33; Carl 
 F. Kunz, "Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler ; inlands und De 
 vrients," 183S. 
 
 Devrient, (1'hii.ipp Eduard,) an actor and dramatic 
 writer, brother of Gustav Emil, noticed above, was born 
 in Berlin in 1801. Among his works are the comedies 
 of "The Little Gray Man" and "The Favour of the 
 Moment," (" Die Gunst des Augenblicks,") and a " His- 
 tory of the Dramatic Art in Germany," (1S48-51.) 
 
 Devrieut, (Wii.helmine.) See Schroeder. 
 
 Devuez, deh-vu'a', (Arnould,) an excellent painter 
 of history, born near Saint-Omer in 1642. He worked 
 in Rome, and afterwards in Paris, where he was patron- 
 ized by Louvois. " His compositions are in the manner 
 of Raphael," says the " Biographie Universelle," "and 
 his design is correct." Died at Lille in 1724. 
 
 Dew, (Thomas R.,) an American writer, born in 
 Virginia in 1802, became professor of political economy, 
 history, and metaphysics in William and Mary College 
 in 1827, and president of that institution in 1836. His 
 principal works are "The Policy ot the Government," 
 (1829,) an "Essay in Favour of Slavery," (about 1833,) 
 and a " Digest of the Laws, Customs, etc. of Ancient 
 and Modern Nations." Died in 1846. 
 
 DewaaL See Waf.l, de. 
 
 Dewaiily. See Waiu.y, dr. 
 
 De-wees', (William Pons,) an American physician, 
 born at Pottsgrove, Pennsylvania, in 1768. He practised 
 in Philadelphia for many years, and was chosen professor 
 of obstetrics in the University of Pennsylvania in 1834. 
 He published a "System of Midwifery," and other works. 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 DTwes, duz, (Sir Symonds,) an English antiquary, 
 born at Coxden in 1602, was elected to Parliament 111 
 1640, and was made a baronet in 1641. In the civil 
 war he was a moderate opponent of the royal cause, and 
 was one of the members who were expel fed from Par- 
 liament by Colonel Pride's "purge" in 1648. He was a 
 laborious collector of historical records, medals, etc., 
 and compiled a useful work, entitled "Journals of all 
 the Parliaments during the Reign of Elizabeth," which 
 was published after his death. Died in 1650. His 
 "Autobiography and Correspondence" was published 
 in 1845 bv J. O. Halliwell. 
 
 De Wette. See Wette, de. 
 
 Dewey, dii'e, (Chester,) an American botanist, born 
 at Sheffield, Massachusetts, in October, 1784. He was 
 professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Wil- 
 liams College for seventeen years, and became in 1836 
 principal of the Collegiate Institute at Rochester, New 
 York. He was eminently successful as a teacher, lie 
 contributed to the "American Journal of Science" a 
 
 series of papers on Cartography, (or the Carices of North 
 America,) which was continued, with few interruptions, 
 for forty-two years. Died in December, 1S67. 
 
 Dewey, (Orvii.li:,) D.D., a distinguished Unitarian 
 divine, born in Sheffield, Massachusetts, in 1794, gradu- 
 ated at Williams College in 1814. He became an assistant 
 of Dr. Charming, in whose pulpit he preached about two 
 years, was pastor at New Bedford from 1823 to 1833, 
 and in the city of New York from 1835 to 1848. In 1858 
 he became pastor of the New South Church, Boston. 
 Among his writings are " Discourses on Human Life," 
 and "The Unitarian Belief." He has contributed to the 
 "North American Review" and "The Christian Exami- 
 ner." Dr. Dewey is a strong and original thinker. 
 
 Dewez, deh-va', (Louis Dieudonne Joseph,) ?. Bel- 
 gian writer, born at Namur in 1760. In 1821 he was 
 chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy of Brussels. 
 He wrote a "General History of Belgium," (1805-07,) 
 and other historical works. Died in 1834. 
 
 De Winter. See Winter, de. 
 
 De Witt, de wit, (Cornelius or Kornelis,) a Dutch 
 naval officer and statesman, born at Dort, was an elder 
 brother of John de Witt. At an early age he was chosen 
 burgomaster of Dort and governor of Putten. In 1666 
 he held a high command under De Ruytcr when the 
 latter burned the English shipping in the Thames. He 
 displayed skill and courage in the great naval battle of 
 Solebay in 1672, soon after which he returned home, 
 sick. A man of infamous character accused him of at- 
 tempting to bribe him to poison the Prince of Orange. 
 Though no proof was found to convict him, the judges 
 condemned him to banishment. The populace then 
 assembled round his prison, and he fell a victim to 
 their rage. (See De Witt, John.) 
 
 See Josselin, " J£er en I.eer van wijlen den Heer C. de Witt ver- 
 dedigt," 1774; J. A. Oostkamf, " Leven voornaamste ltaden en 
 lotgevallen van C. de Witt," 1831. 
 
 De Witt, (Emanuel,) a Dutch painter, born at Alk- 
 maar in 1607, excelled in perspective and architectural 
 views. Died in 1692. 
 
 De Witt or Wit, (Jakoh,) a Dutch painter of history, 
 born at Amsterdam in 1695; died in 1744. 
 
 De Witt, (John,) one of the most eminent statesmen 
 that the Dutch nation has produced, was born at Dort 
 in 1625. His father, Jacob, was a burgomaster of Dort 
 and a deputy to the States of Holland. At the age 
 of twenty-three he wrote a "Treatise on Curve Lines, " 
 which evinced his profound knowledge of mathematics. 
 About 1650 he was chosen pensionary of Dort. 1 1 is 
 political principles were republican, and hostile to the 
 encroachments of the house of Orange. He opposed 
 without success the war against the English which began 
 in 1652. The great losses of the Dutch in this war ren- 
 dered his pacific policy so popular that in 1653 he was 
 elected (for a term of five years) Grand Pensionary of 
 Holland, by virtue of which office he became the presi- 
 dent or most influential member of the States-General. 
 He was now the leader of the republican or anti-Orange 
 party, and had the chief direction of the government in 
 the United Provinces. The Stadtholder had died, and 
 his heir (William III.) was then an infant. In 1654 De 
 Witt negotiated a treaty of peace with Cromwell, which 
 contained a secret article that no member of the Orange 
 family should ever be made Stadtholder. At the expira- 
 tion of his term of office he was re-elected in 1658, and 
 again unanimously in 1663. Having failed in his efforts 
 to prevent the renewal of war with England in 1664, he 
 conducted it with energy and ability. When the Dutch 
 admiral Opdam was defeated and killed, De Witt took 
 command of the fleet, and gave proof of great capacity 
 for naval affairs. In 1666 the Dutch fleet under De 
 Ruyter entered the Thames and burned several English 
 ships of war, soon after which peace was restored. 
 About this time the young Prince of Orange placet! 
 himself tinder the tuition of De Witt. When Louis 
 XIV. in 1667 began to assert his claim to Flanders, De 
 Witt formed an alliance with England and Sweden to 
 resist him. But the French king, having seduced Charles 
 II. to favour his design, invaded Holland in 1672 with a 
 large army, which the Dutch could not effectually resist, 
 and several towns were taken by the invaders. The 
 
 « as k; 9 as r; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DE WITTE 
 
 758 
 
 D1AG0RAS 
 
 fickle populace imputed the blame of these disasters to 
 De Witt, and William of Orange was chosen captain- 
 general of the army, and Stadtholder. The pensionary 
 thereupon resigned his office. 
 
 His brother Cornelius, charged with a conspiracy 
 against the life of the Prince of Orange, had been ac- 
 quitted. The pensionary visited him in his prison, on 
 which occasion the infuriated mob, probably instigated 
 by the dominant party, burst into the prison and mur- 
 dered them both, August 20, 1672. Hume represents 
 John de Witt as "a minister equally eminent for great- 
 ness of mind, for capacity, and for integrity." 
 
 See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. i. chap, ii.; Pikter 
 Simon, " J. de Witt en zijn Tijd," 3 vols., 1832-35 ; F. A. van Hall, 
 *' Lofrede op J. de Witt," 1827; E. van der Hoeven, " Leven 
 bedrijf en Dood der doorglugtigte Heeren Gebroeders C. en J. de 
 Witt," 1705; French version of the same, by Zoutelandt, 1709. 
 
 De Witte, (Pieter.) See Candido. 
 
 Dews'bur-jf, (William,) an eminent English minis- 
 ter of the Society of Friends, was born at Allerthorpe, 
 in Yorkshire, probably about 1620. In order to obtain 
 relief from spiritual conflicts, and actuated by a zeal for 
 religious liberty, he entered the army of the Parliament 
 in 1642, but soon, from a sense of duty, renounced the 
 use of carnal weapons. In 165 1 he met George Fox, 
 whose doctrines he recognized as the true gospel which 
 had been already revealed to himself, and of which he 
 soon became a powerful preacher. He was imprisoned 
 in Warwick jail nearly eight years, ending in 1671, and 
 again in the same place from 1678 to 1685 on the charge 
 of being a Jesuit. " I entered prisons," said he, " as joy- 
 fully as palaces, telling my enemies to hold me there as 
 long as they could." In 1688 he preached in London 
 an impressive sermon, which is preserved in Sewel's 
 "History of the Quakers." Died in 1688. 
 
 See 'Edward Smith, "Life of W. Dewsbury," 1836; and the 
 same reprinted in " Friends' Library," Philadelphia, vol. fa., 1838. 
 
 Dex-ip'pua or Di-ox-ip'pus, [Gr. Afj(;r-oc or A«jf- 
 miroc; Fr. Dexippe, dSk'sep', or Dioxippe, de'ok'sep',] 
 a Greek physician of Cos, lived in the fourth century 
 B.C., and was a disciple of Hippocrates. 
 
 Dexippus, [At-£<jnroc,] a Greek philosophic writer of 
 the fourth century of our era. He composed a com- 
 mentary on the " Categories" of Aristotle, which is 
 extant, and is said to be interesting. 
 
 Dexippus, (Publius Herennius,) a Greek historian, 
 born in Attica, flourished in the third century of our era. 
 He wrote "Chronike Historia," a history from the fabu- 
 lous times to Claudius Gothicus, and " Zicvducu," a history 
 of the invasion of the Scythians or Goths, fragments of 
 which are extant. Died about 280 A.D. 
 
 See Fabricius, "BibliothecaGraca." 
 
 Dex'ter, (Samuel,) an American jurist, born in Bos- 
 ton in 1761, graduated at Harvard in 1781, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1784. He joined the Federalist 
 party, and was chosen a Senator of the United States in 
 1798. He was appointed secretary of war in 1800, and 
 Secretary of the treasury about January, 1801. In 1801 
 or 1802 he retired from political life, and resumed the 
 practice of law in Boston. He was highly distinguished 
 as a lawyer and as an advocate before the supreme court 
 at Washington. In 1812 he supported the war against 
 Great Britain, disagreeing with the Federalists on that 
 question. Died in 1816. 
 
 Deyeux, di'yuh', (Nicolas,) a French chemist and 
 apothecary, born in Paris in 1753 ; died in 1837. 
 
 Deyling, dl'ling, (Salomon,) a German Orientalist, 
 born at Weida in 1677. He wrote " Observationes 
 Sadie," (4 vols., 1708-36.) Died in 1755. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Deyns. See Denys, (Jacques.) 
 
 Deynuni, van, vin dl'nuni, (Jean Baptists,) a Flem- 
 ish miniature-painter, born at Antwerp in 1620. 
 
 Deyster, dl'ster, (Anne,) a painter, born at Bruges, 
 was a daughter of Louis de Deyster, whose works she 
 copied skilfully. Died in 1746. 
 
 Deyster, de, deh dl'ster, (Louis,) a Flemish historical 
 painter, born at Bruges in 1656. He studied in Rome 
 and Venice, and worked in his native place, painting 
 mostly scriptural subjects, among which is " The Appa- 
 rition of Christ to the three Marys." This is praised by 
 
 Descamps, who considered Deyster as equal to the great 
 Flemish masters in chiaroscuro. Died in 1711. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Deyverdun, d&'veVdUN', (George,) a Swiss writer, 
 born at Lausanne about 1735. He was a friend of 
 the historian Gibbon, whom he assisted in his literary 
 labours. He wrote "Literary Memoirs of Great Britain 
 for the Years 1767 and 1768." Died in 1789. 
 
 Dezallier d'Argenville, deh-zt'le-a' diR'zhoN've!', 
 (Antoine Joseph,) a mediocre French writer, born in 
 Paris in 1680, published a "Treatise on Gardening," 
 another on "Conchology,"and "The Lives of Celebrated 
 Painters," with portraits, (1745.) This contains the lives 
 of one hundred and eighty painters. He was a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1765. 
 
 His son, A&TOINE Nicolas, published " Lives of 
 Architects and Sculptors," (1787,) which is said to be 
 incomplete and inexact. Died in 1794. 
 
 Dezobry, deh-zo'bRe', (Charles Louis,) a French 
 writer, born at Saint-Denis (Seine) in 1798. He pub- 
 lished in 1835 a historical and antiquarian work called 
 "Rome in the Augustan Age, or A Journey of a Gaul 
 to Rome," (4 vols.,) which is accounted a very successful 
 representation of the life and manners of the ancient 
 Romans. He edited a "General Dictionary of Biography 
 and History," (2 vols., 1857.) 
 
 Dezoteux, deh-zo'tuh', (Francois,) a French physi- 
 cian and surgeon, born at Boulogne-sur-Merin 1724. He 
 was a zealous promoter of inoculation. He wrote with 
 Valentin an able " Historical Treatise on Inoculation." 
 Died in 1803. 
 
 Dhaher, da'her, a famous Arab sheik of Palestine, 
 who at first possessed only the little town of Safed, to 
 which he added Tiberias and Acre. For thirty years 
 he waged war against various parties, and extended his 
 power by courage and policy. In 1771 Dhaher and AM 
 Bey defeated the Turkish pasha of Damascus. He was 
 afterwards defeated and killed about 1775. 
 
 See Volney, "Voyage en Egypte et en Syrie. " 
 
 Dharmasoka, Dharmajoka, or Dharmashoka 
 
 See Asoka. 
 
 D'Hilliers. See Hii.liers, d'. 
 
 D'Hozier, do'ze^i', (Charles Rene,) a son of Pierre, 
 noticed below, was born in 1640. He was well versed 
 in heraldry, and wrote several works by order of Louis 
 XIV. Died in 1732. 
 
 D'Hozier, (Pierre,) a French genealogist, born at 
 Marseilles in 1592, was noted for his knowledge of 
 heraldry. He was appointed judge of arms of France 
 in 1641, steward of the king's household in 1642, and 
 councillor of state in 1654. He wrote "The Genealogy 
 of the Principal Families of France," (in 150 vols.,) 
 and several other works. Died in 1660. Boileau wrote 
 a few verses under his portrait, one of which is, 
 " Ses talents surprendront tons les ages suivants."* 
 
 D'Huxatime, diik'sf tern', a French poet, born in 
 Dauphine, lived about 1470. 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Di-a-du-me-nl-a'iius, [Fr. Diadumenien, de'i'du'- 
 mi'ne'aN', or Diadume.ne, de'i'du'min',] (Marcus 
 Opilius Antoninus,) was the son of the Roman 
 emperor Macrinus, who began to reign in 217 A.D., 
 and then conferred the title of Caesar on the subject of 
 this article, at Antioch. After a reign of about a year, 
 Macrinus was defeated by Elagabalus, and the son, 
 who was still a minor, was put to death in 218. He 
 is sometimes reckoned among the emperors, as some 
 of his medals bear the title of Augustus. 
 
 Diago, de-a'go, (Francisco,) a Spanish historian and 
 friar, born at Bibel, in Valencia. He received from Philip 
 III. the title of historiographer, and wrote, besides other 
 histories, "Annals of the Kingdom of Valencia," (1613.) 
 Died in 1615. 
 
 Di-ag'o-ras,[A(a;«pac,] a Greek poet and philosopher, 
 born in the island of Melos, lived about 420 B.C. lie is 
 said to have been a disciple of Democritus of Abdera, 
 and was commonly stigmatized as an atheist, because he 
 dissented from the popular notions about the gods. He 
 
 ' His talents (or attainments) will surprise all succeeding ages.' 
 
 a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y; short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
DIAMANTE 
 
 759 
 
 DIBDIN 
 
 fled from Alliens about 411 B.C., to avoid prosecution 
 for impiety, and a reward was offered to any one who 
 should kill him. His moral character appears to have 
 been good. His works are not extant. 
 
 Sec Kabricius, " Bibliotheca Grxca ;" Reuthen, " De Atheismo 
 Diagora-." 1S12: P.ayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary; J. 
 L. Mounier. "Dissertatio de Diagora Melio," 1838. 
 
 Diamante, de-a-man'ti, an Italian painter and Car- 
 melite monk, born at Prato, in Tuscany, was a pupil of 
 Filippo Lippi. He was esteemed a good artist by his 
 contemporaries, and promoted the renaissance of art in 
 Italy. Died about 1440. 
 
 Sec Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 Diamante, de-a-man'ti, (Juan ISautista.) a popular 
 Spanish dramatist, lived about 1640. Among his works 
 are "The Siege of Zamora," (" El Cerco de Zamora, ) 
 and "The Jewess of Toledo," ("La Judia de Toledo.") 
 See Ticknor's " History of Spanish Literature." 
 Diamantini,de-a-man-tee'nee.(GioVANNi Giuseppe,) 
 an Italian painter and engraver, born in the Roniagna 
 about 1650. He settled in Venice, where he painted 
 many works, among which is an " Adoration of the 
 Magi." He left many fine engravings after his own 
 designs. He died about 1715. 
 
 Di'au, a poetical form of Diana. See Diane. 
 Dl-an'a, [Fr. Diane, de'Sn',] the Roman name of the 
 goddess of the chase, corresponding to the Ar'te-mis 
 ["A/m/uol of the Greeks. She is often called Delia, from 
 the island Delos, her birthplace. She was represented 
 as the daughter of Jupiter and I^atona, and the counter- 
 part of her brother Apollo, like whom she appeared armed 
 with a bow and arrows. She was also the goddess of the 
 moon, in which character she is called Phcebe, Cynthia, 
 and other names. She was regarded as the patroness of 
 chastity; and all her attendants were virgins. There was 
 at Ephesus a magnificent temple of Diana, which was 
 regarded as one of the wonders of the world. 
 
 See Gt'lGNIAUT, "Religions de 1'AntiquiteV' Paris, 1825-29, vol. 
 ii book iv. chap. iv. ; A10.01.nl, " Commentatio de Diana Lphesia, 
 1708: Mkvhx, "Dissertatio de Diana Taurica et Anaitide, 1835; 
 UtaRTUV, " Mythology." 
 
 Diana/de-a'na, (Benedetto,) a painter of the Vene- 
 tian school, lived in the fifteenth century. 
 
 Dl-an'a of France, [Fr. Diane de France, de an' 
 deli t'RONss',] a daughter of Henry II. anil Philippa 
 Due, was born in 1538, and became in 1557 the wile of 
 Francois de Montmorency, afterwards marshal. She had 
 much influence with her brother, Henry III., and in 
 1558 mediated successfully between him and the King 
 of Navarre, who was then recognized as the heir to 
 the French crown. Davila praises her prudence and 
 political ability. Died in 1619. 
 
 See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis." 
 
 Diane, (Anglicized as Di'an.) See Diana. 
 
 Diane de France. See Diana ov France. 
 
 Diane de Poitiers, de'Sn' deh pw.Vte^', a beautiful 
 French lady, born in 1499. Having been left a widow 
 in 1 53 1, she soon after gained the affection of the king's 
 son, who in 1547 ascended the throne as Henry II. and 
 gave her the title of Duchess of Valentinois. She had 
 a complete ascendency over the king, who allowed her 
 to exercise royal power and to control even the foreign 
 policy of the government. De Thou attributes to her 
 the misfortunes of Henry'* reign and the persecution of 
 the Protestants. By her graces and talents she retained 
 her influence over Henry until his death in 1559. Died 
 in 1566. 
 
 See De Thou. " Historia sui Temporis ;" Brant6me, " Femmes 
 galantes." 
 
 Diaa. See Diaz. 
 
 Dias Gomes, dee'ls go'mes» (Francisco,) a Portu- 
 guese poet, born in Lisbon in 1745, wrote odes, elegies, 
 tragedies, etc., some of which are commended for cor- 
 rectness and classic taste. Died in 1795. 
 
 Diaz, dee'az or dee'is, or Dias, (A. Gonqalve/.,) a 
 Brazilian poet, born in the province of Maranham in 
 1823. He published a volume of poems in 1846, and 
 "Segundos Cantos" in 1848. 
 
 Diaz, dee'Ss or dee'az, or Dias, (Balthazar,) a Por- 
 tuguese poet, bom in the island of Madeira, lived about 
 1550. He wrote plays called "Autos sacramcntales." 
 
 Diaz or Dias, (Bar tolomeu,) a Portuguese navigator, 
 was sent in i486 to explore the west coast of Alrica, 
 and, sailing southward, was driven by violent winds as 
 far as Great Fish River, without being aware that he had 
 doubled the cape of which he was in search. On his 
 return he discovered in 14S7 this cape, which he named 
 Tormentoso ; but this was subsequently changed to 
 Cabo de boa Esperanca, (or " Cape of Good Hope.") 
 In 1500 he sailed for India, as captain of a ship, in the 
 fleet commanded by Cabral, and perished by shipwreck 
 during the voyage the same year. 
 
 See J0A0 de Uarros, "Asia, Decada I. ;" Ramusio, " Voyages ; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Diaz, dee'ath, or Dias, dee'ds, (Diego Valentin,) 
 a Spanish painter, born at Valladolid ; died in 1660. 
 
 Diaz or Dias, (Francisco,) a Spanish missionary, 
 born in Old Castile, went to the Philippine Isles in 1632. 
 He afterwards preached in China, and was killed in 1646. 
 Diaz, (Caspar,) a Portuguese painter, who flourished 
 about 1530, was a pupil of Raphael. But little informa- 
 tion can be found respecting him. He was called "the 
 Portuguese Raphael." In the estimation of Boissonade, 
 he was a great painter and expressed the passions ad- 
 mirably. His subjects were mostly religious. 
 
 Diaz or Dias, (Juan Martin,) a Spanish general, 
 surnanied EL Empecinado, el em-pa-the-na'uo, (a word 
 which literally signifies "covered with pitch" or "shoe- 
 maker's wax/'— supposed to have been applied to him 
 because most of the inhabitants of his native village 
 were shoemakers,) was bom at Castrillo in 1775. He 
 became in 1808 the leader of a band of guerillas, and 
 fought against the French invaders with such success 
 that he obtained the rank of general under the regency. 
 In 1814 he was deprived of his command by Ferdinand. 
 He favoured the Constitution of the Cortes in 1820, for 
 which he fought against the absolutists. He commanded 
 a division of the army of Placencia in 1823. After the 
 triumph of the absolutists, he was executed for treason, 
 
 in 1825. .-,',•.. 
 
 See " Military Exploits, etc. of Don Juan Martin Diaz, London, 
 1823; "Nouvelle Biographie Geneiale. 
 
 Diaz or Dias, (Miguel,) a Spanish captain, born in 
 Aragon, was a companion of Columbus. He discovered 
 a gold-mine in Hayti. Died about 1 5 14. 
 
 Diaz or Dias, (Pedro,) a Spanish missionary, born 
 near Toledo in 1546 ; died at Mexico in 1618. 
 
 See Machado, " Vida del P. P. Diaz," 1632. 
 
 Diaz de Bivar. See Cid. 
 
 Diaz de la Pefia, dee'ath da IS pan'ya, (Narcisse,) 
 a French historical painter, of Spanish extraction, born 
 at Bordeaux in 1809, gained the first medal in 1848. 
 Among his works are "The Nymphs of Calypso," (1840,) 
 and "The Dream," (1841.) 
 
 Diaz de Lugo, dee'ath di loo'go, (Juan Bernardo,) 
 a Spanish jurist, born at Seville, was appointed a mem- 
 ber of the grand council of the Indies by Charles V., and 
 became Bishop of Calahorra. Died in 1556. 
 
 Diaz (or Dias) de Novaes, dee'as da no-va'es, 
 (Paulo,) a Portuguese general, was a grandson of Bar- 
 tolomeu, and commanded an expedition sent in 1574 to 
 Angola, where he planted a colony. Died in 1589. 
 
 Diaz del Castillo. See Castillo. 
 
 Dib'din, (Charles,) an English bard, actor, and 
 dramatist, born at Southampton in 1745, went to Lon- 
 don about the age of sixteen. His essays as a performer 
 on the stage were not successful. About 1778 he became 
 musical manager of Covent Garden Theatre. In 1789 
 he began to give musical entertainments in which he 
 was the sole performer, and which were accompanied by 
 popular songs of his composition. The success of this 
 enterprise enabled him to open the Sans-Souci Theatre 
 in 1796. His fame is derived chiefly from his songs, 
 which amount to one thousand or more. His sea-songs 
 especially have obtained durable popularity, and "have 
 been the solace of sailors in long voyages, storms, and 
 battles." "Tom Bowling" and " Poor Jack" are two of 
 his most popular ballads. Died in 1814. 
 
 See "The Professional Life of C. Dibdin," bv himself 4 vols., 
 1803: William Jp.rdan. "Men I have known," London, i»r6. 
 
 Dibdin, (Thomas,) son of the preceding, born in 
 1 77 1, was also an actor and a dramatic writer. About 
 
 1 791 he joined a company of strolling players, and after 
 
 « as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K. guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Jr^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
D1BDIN 
 
 760 
 
 DICKINSON 
 
 Ihe lapse of several years returned to London. He 
 then performed in Covent Garden, and wrote numerous 
 comedies, farces, etc., some of which were successful. 
 In 1828 he published " Reminiscences," (of the Theatre.) 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 Dibdin, (Thomas Frognali.,) D.D., an eminent 
 English bibliographer, born in Calcutta in 1776, was the 
 nephew of Charles Dibdin, noticed above, lie was edu- 
 cated at Oxford, and entered the priesthood in 1804. In 
 1809 he produced his amusing work entitled " Biblio- 
 mania," which was favourably received. The next year he 
 began to issue a new and improved edition of " Ames's 
 Typographical Antiquities of Great Britain," which is 
 perhaps his most important performance. He instituted 
 in 1S12 the Roxburghe Club, devoted to bibliography, 
 of which he was chosen vice-president. In 181 7 ap- 
 peared his " Bibliographical Decameron, or Ten Days' 
 Pleasant Discourse on Illuminated MSS.," which is 
 greatly admired by amateurs. Another admirable and 
 costly specimen of typography was furnished by his 
 " Bibliographic, Antiquarian, and Picturesque Tour in 
 France and Germany." Died in 1847. 
 
 See Dibdin's "Reminiscences of a Literary Life," 2 vols., 1S36; 
 " Quarterly Review," vol. xxxii. ; William Jkkdan, "Men I have 
 known," London, 1866. 
 
 Dl-bu'ta-des [Fr. Dihutade, de'bii'ttd'] of Sicyon, 
 a Greek artist of uncertain epoch, is said to have invented 
 the art of modelling bas-reliefs. 
 
 Dicsearchus, di-se-ar'kus, [Gr. Amaiapxoc ; Fr. Dice- 
 ARQUE, de'sa'iRk',] an eminent Greek Peripatetic philo- 
 sppherand writer, born at Messina, in Sicily, was a disciple 
 of Aristotle, and lived about 300 l).c. He wrote numerous 
 works on geography, history, etc., which are lost except 
 small fragments. It is said he denied the immortality or 
 existence of the soul. Cicero highly praises him as asage, 
 an excellent citizen, a great man, an able historian, and 
 one of the most eloquent disciples of Aristotle. Among 
 his principal works was a treatise on Greek geography, 
 history, institutions, and politics, entitled "The Life of 
 Greece," (" 'EAAudoc /3<oc.") 
 
 See Vosslus, " De Historicis Glacis ;" Brucker, " Historia Phi- 
 losophise." 
 
 Dicearque. See DiC/Earchus. 
 
 Dic'e-to, de, (Ralph,) an English historian, was Dean 
 of Samt Paul's, London. He wrote, in Latin, a " History 
 of the Kings of Britain." Died in 1283. 
 
 Dick, (Sir Alexander,) a Scottish physician, born 
 in 1 703, wrote a treatise on Epilepsy, (" De Epilepsia," 
 1725.) Died in 1785. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dick, (John,) D.D., a Scottish divine, born at Aber- 
 deen in 1764, was a minister of the United Secession 
 Church. He wrote an esteemed work on the " Inspira- 
 tion of the Scriptures," " Lectures on Theology," and 
 other religious books. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dick, (Thomas,) LL.D., a Scottish author, born near 
 Dundee in 1772, was in early life a minister of the Se- 
 cession Church at Stirling. He exchanged this avocation 
 for that of a school-teacher, which he pursued at Perth 
 for a number of years. He devoted much attention to 
 physical sciences, and wrote many popular scientific and 
 religious works, viz.: "The Christian Philosopher," 
 "The Philosophy of Religion," "The Philosophy of a 
 Future State," " Celestial Scenery," " The Solar System," 
 and other works. Died in 1857. 
 
 Dick'ens, (Charles,) one of the most popular of 
 English novelists, born at Landport, Portsmouth, in 
 February, 1S12, was a son of John Dickens, who served 
 in the navy pay department and afterwards became a 
 reporter of Parliamentary debates. Young Dickens was 
 designed for the profession of the law, and was placed 
 in the office of an attorney, after he had studied in a col- 
 lege near Rochester. Finding the pursuit of law uncon- 
 genial to his taste, he soon abandoned it, and became a 
 reporter for the daily press »f London. He began his 
 literary career by " Sketches of Life and Character," 
 which first appeared in the "Morning Chronicle," and 
 were published collectively as " Sketches by Boz," (2 
 vols., 1836.) These exhib.'t great acuteness of observa- 
 tion, and were received by the public with much favour. 
 
 In 1837 he produced a work called "The Posthumous 
 Papers of the Pickwick Club," which in a certain de- 
 partment of humour is probably unrivalled by anything 
 in the English language. The success of this work was 
 almost without example ; and it is still perhaps the most 
 popular of all Mr. Dickens's productions. In 1S38 he 
 married a daughter of George Hogarth, a musical critic. 
 He published in rapid succession "Oliver Twist," a 
 novel, (3 vols., 1838,) "The Life and Adventures of 
 Nicholas Nickleby," (3 vols., 1839,) "Master Hum- 
 phrey's Clock," (1840-41,) and "Bainaby Rudge," (2 
 vols., 1841.) Having visited the United States in 1841, 
 he published in 1842 " American Notes for General Cir- 
 culation." His next work was the " Life and Adventures 
 of Martin Chuzzlewit," (3 vols., 1843-44.) About the 
 end of 1845 he became the chief editor of the " Daily 
 News" of London, a Liberal paper, then just founded ; 
 but he held this position for a short time only. Among 
 his later works (most of which were first issued as serials) 
 are " Dombey and Son," (1847-48,) "The Personal 
 Historv of David Copperfield," (4 vols., 1850,) "Bleak 
 House?' (1852,) " Hard Times," (1854,) " Little I )orrit," 
 (1857,) "A Tale of Two Cities," (i860,) "Great Expecta- 
 tions," (1862,) and "Our Mutual Frie,nd," (1864-65.) 
 
 In 1850 he began to issue, weekly, a periodical called 
 "Household Words," which had a large circulation. 
 In 1859 he began to publish "All the Year Round," a 
 weekly literary paper. He revisited the United States in 
 1867, and gave in the principal cities of the Union public 
 readings which attracted crowded audiences. He died 
 of apoplexy in 1870, leaving an unfinished work, entitled 
 "The Mystery of Edwin Drood." 
 
 "One of the qualities we most admire in him," says 
 the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1838, "is his 
 comprehensive spirit of humanity. The tendency of his 
 writings is to make us practically benevolent, — to excite 
 our sympathy in behalf of the aggrieved and suffering in 
 all classes, and especially in those who are most removed 
 from observation. . . . We think him a very original 
 writer, well entitled to his popularity, and not likely to 
 lose it, and the truest and most spirited delineator of 
 English life, amongst the middle and lower classes, since 
 the days of Smollett and Fielding." 
 
 The following strictures, however, are not without 
 justice, at least as regards many of the actors in Mr. 
 Dickens's works: "The good characters of Mr. Dick- 
 ens's novels," says the " North British Review," (vol. iv.,) 
 "do not seem to have a wholesome moral tendency. The 
 reason is that many of them — all the author's favourites — 
 exhibit an excellence flowing from constitution and tem- 
 perament, and not from the influence of moral or religious 
 motive. They act from impulse, not from principle." 
 
 "He [Dickens] has revived," says Mr. Whipple, "the 
 novel of genuine practical life, as it existed in the works 
 of Fielding, Smollett, and Goldsmith ; but at the same 
 time he has given to his materials an individual colouring 
 and expression peculiarly his own. . . . Dickens's eye for 
 the forms of things is as accurate as Fielding's, and his 
 range of vision more extended ; but he does not probe 
 so profoundly into the heart of what he sees, and he is 
 more led away from the simplicity of truth by a tricksy 
 spirit of fantastic exaggeration." ("North American 
 Review" for October, 1849.) 
 
 See "London Quarterly" for October, 1837: "Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for October, 1838, June, 1839, and March, 1843; "Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for April, 1855; "British Quarterly" for July, 
 1862: " Westminster Review" for October, 1864: "Atlantic Monthly' 
 for May, 1867. 
 
 Dick'in-son, (ANNA,) an American female orator, 
 born in Philadelphia, October 28, 1842, was originally a 
 member of the Society of Friends. She gained great 
 distinction during the civil war by her public speeches 
 against slavery and disunion. She is one of the most 
 popular public lecturers in the United States. She is 
 author of a novel entitled " What Answer?" (1868.) 
 
 See " Eminent Women of the Age," 1868. 
 
 Dickinson, (Daniel Stevens,) an American Sena- 
 tor, born in Goshen, Connecticut, in September, 1800 
 He was educated in Central New York, whither his 
 parents removed when he was a child. He studied law, 
 became an active Democrat, and in 1836 was elected to 
 the Senate of New York. In 1842 he was chosen Lieu- 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y tmg; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
DICKINSON 
 
 761 
 
 DIDEROT 
 
 tenant-Governor of New York for two vears. He repre- 
 sented that State in the Senate of the United States t'10111 
 December, 1844, to March, 185 1, during which period lie 
 voted with the Democratic party on the Witraot proviso, 
 the slavery question, etc. He gained distinction .is a de- 
 bater, and was recognized as the leader of the " 1 1 iinkei •" 
 Democrats in New York. He resided at Hinghamton 
 in the latter part of his life. In 1861 he was elected 
 attorney-general of the State of New York. During the 
 civil war he cordially supported the Federal government 
 in its efforts to suppress the rebellion, and acted with 
 the Union Republican party. Me was appointed district 
 attorney for the southern district of New York by Presi- 
 dent Lincoln about March, 1865. Died in April, 1866. 
 
 See " Speeches, Correspondence, eic. of Daniel S. Dickinson, 
 with .1 Biographical Sketch," by his brother, John R. Dickinson, 
 
 3 vols.. ' 
 
 Dick'in-son, (Edmund,) an eminent English physi- 
 cian, born at Appleton in 1624, gained reputation by the 
 publication of " Delphi Phcenizicantes ;" but it appears 
 that the real author was Henry Jacob. He settled in 
 London in 1684, practised there many years, and became 
 physician to Charles II. and James II. Died in 1707. 
 
 See " Account of the Life, etc. of Edmund Dickinson," London, 
 '730 
 
 Dickinson, (JOHN,) an English author, born about 
 1554. Among his works is "Speculum Tragicum." Died 
 in 1606. 
 
 Dickinson, (John,) an American statesman and law- 
 yer, born in Maryland in 1732. He was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the Continental Congress in 1774, and wrote 
 several important state papers issued by that body. 
 In June, 1776, he opposed the Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence, which he thought premature. Having declined 
 to sign that declaration, he impaired his popularity, and 
 lost his election to the next Congress. He afterwards 
 served as a private soldier against the British. In 1779 
 he was again elected to Congress from Delaware. He 
 was President of Pennsylvania about three years, 17S2- 
 85. He was an able debater, and distinguished for his 
 elegant manners and superior culture. Died in 1808. 
 
 See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. ; Bancroft, "History of the United States," vol. viii. 
 
 Dickinson, (Jonathan,) a Presbyterian minister, 
 born in Hatfield, Massachusetts, in 1688, graduated at 
 Yale College in 1706. He preached for many years at 
 Elizabethtown, New Jersey, and acquired distinction as 
 a writer on theology. He was elected president of the 
 College of New Jersey in 1746. Died in 1747. 
 
 Dickinson, (Philemon,) a patriot of the American 
 Revolution, was born in New Jersey about 1740. He 
 took an active part in the struggle for independence, 
 and at the battle of Monmouth displayed great spirit 
 and gallantry in command of the New Jersey militia. He 
 was a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1782 and 
 1783, and a United States Senator from 1790 to 1793. 
 Died in 1S09. 
 
 Dick'ons, Mrs., an English singer, whose maiden 
 name was Pooi.k. Died in 1833. 
 
 Dick'son, (Adam,) a Scottish clergyman, born in 
 East Lothian. From 1750 to 1770 he was minister of 
 Dunse. He wrote a valuable "Treatise on Agriculture," 
 and "The Husbandry of the Ancients," (1788,) which, 
 says McCulloch, "is the best work on the subject in the 
 English language." Died in 1776. 
 
 Dickson, (Uavid,) an eloquent Scottish preacher, 
 born at Glasgow in 1583, became professor of divinity 
 at Glasgow in 1643, and afterwards in the University 
 of Edinburgh. He published an "Exposition of all 
 the Epistles," an "Exposition of the Gospel of Saint 
 Matthew," and other works, which were received with 
 favour. Died in 1663. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dick'son, (James,) an English botanist, born in 1738. 
 He published, besides other works, a "Collection of 
 Dried Plants," (1788.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Dick'son, (SaMUEI. Henry,) an American physician 
 and writer, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1798, 
 graduated in the University of Pennsylvania in 1819. In 
 1858 he was appointed professor of the practice of medi- 
 cine in the Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia. 
 
 See Ali.ibone's "Dictionary of Authors. 
 
 Dicquemare, dek'maV, (Jacques Francois,) a 
 French naturalist and priest, born at Havre in 1733, 
 became professor of natural history in that city. He 
 made discoveries in the nature and habits of Radiata 
 and other marine animals, on which he wrote many treat- 
 ises inserted in the "Journal de Physique." He also 
 published "The Knowledge of Astronomy rendered 
 Easy." Died in 1789. 
 
 Dic'tys Cre-ten'sis, f Fr. Dictys de Crete, dek'tess' 
 deh knit,] a Greek, who is said to have followed Idotne- 
 neus to the siege of Troy, and to have written a narrative 
 of the same. There exists in Latin prose a " History of 
 the Trojan War," which purports to be a version of the 
 work of Dictys, and has little literary merit. The works 
 of Dictys and Dares were the chief channels through 
 which the heroic legends of the Greeks and Troja.is 
 passed into the literature of the middle ages, and wet e 
 often printed in the fifteenth century. 
 
 See Pkkizonius, " Dissertatio" prefixed to Smids's edition of the 
 poem of Dictys Cretensis, 1702. 
 
 Dictys de Crete. See Dictys Cretensis. 
 
 Dic'uil, an Irish monk and geographer, wrote, about 
 825 A.D., a treatise "On the Measurement of the Earth," 
 ("De Mensura Orbis Terra;,") which was published by 
 Walckenaer in 1807. 
 
 Diday, de'd&', (Francois,) a Swiss painter, born at 
 Geneva in 1812, has exhibited 'several Alpine landscapes. 
 He obtained a medal of the first class in 1841. 
 
 Diderot, ded'ro', (Denis,) an eminent French phi- 
 losopher and savant, born at Langres, in Champagne, in 
 1712 or 1 713, was the son of a cutler, who gave him a 
 good education. Having quitted the study of law in dis- 
 gust, he went to Paris in his youth, with a ruling passion 
 for literary pursuits. He was obliged to support him- 
 self by teaching and translating, and passed many years 
 in poverty and obscurity, but contented in his ample 
 intellectual resources. About the age of thirty he mar- 
 ried a Miss Annette Champion. In 1746 he published 
 "Philosophic Thoughts," (" Pensees philosophiques,") 
 which produced considerable sensation. The book was 
 condemned to the fire by Parliament, its doctrines being 
 thought unsound. A few years before this period he 
 had formed a friendship with J. J. Rousseau and with 
 D'Alembert. He was imprisoned a few months in 1749 
 for the publication of his " Letter on the Blind, for the 
 Use of those who see." 
 
 In partnership with D'Alembert, he commenced the 
 great work on which his reputation is founded, the "En- 
 cyclopedic, ou Dictiounaire raisonne des Sciences, des 
 Arts et Metiers." The project was one of immense 
 labour and difficulty, and was accomplished chiefly by 
 the ardent zeal and resolution of Diderot. He wrote 
 the articles on ancient philosophy and on the arts and 
 trades, (ariset metiers,) and, in conjunction with D'Alem- 
 bert, supervised the other parts of the work. The first 
 volume was issued in 175 1, and attracted great attention. 
 Its publication was suspended several times by govern- 
 ment, and D'Alembert retired from the enterprise in 
 1759; but it was completed about 1765. Much complaint 
 was made, and not without reason, of the infidel tendency 
 of the work, and its partiality to the new philosophy. 
 It has also other defects, arising from the incompetence 
 and haste of some of the contributors. Catherine II. 
 of Russia settled a handsome pension on Diderot in 
 1765, and invited him to her capital, which he visited in 
 1773 ; but he soon returned to Paris. He is the author 
 of numerous works, among which are two novels, "The 
 Nun," and "James the Fatalist," ("Jacques le Fataliste,") 
 and two dramas, entitled "The Father of a Family," and 
 "The Natural Son." 
 
 His " Essay on the Reigns of Claudius and Nero," 
 chiefly devoted to the vindication— or rather eulogy — 
 of Seneca, is esteemed by some as one of his ablest 
 productions. He also contributed largely to some of the 
 must popular F tench works of his time, such as Raynal's 
 "Philosophic History," "L'Esprit," by Helvetius, and 
 "The System of Nature," by D'Holbach. As a writer 
 he displays talent and eloquence, but is deficient in 
 judgment and taste. " He has written fine passage*," 
 says Marmontel, "but could not produce a good book." 
 Grimm thought " he had perhaps the most encyclopedical 
 
 Bee ALI.IBONE S LUCUOnary OI AUUlOrS. '-" »"»"» nn;u(,in. w,. itavi [-»*., nawa mc un »i cneycojucuiciu 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as >v G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (Jty-See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
DIDIER 
 
 762 
 
 DIE CM AN 
 
 head that ever existed." He is regarded as the chief 
 of the skeptical school known as Encyclopedists; and 
 it is asserted that he was a professed atheist. But F. 
 Genin ("Nouvelle Biographie Generale") defends him 
 from this charge. It is said that he taught his daughter to 
 read the Bible. In reference to this fact, Voltaire wrote, 
 in 1767, "I am displeased with 'Tonpla,'" (anagram of 
 Platon, (Plato:)) "they say he permits his daughter to 
 be educated in the principles which he detests." The 
 doors of the Academy were kept closed against him, 
 although Voltaire solicited his election. He died in 
 Paris in July, 1784. 
 
 See De Vandeul, " Notice sur Diderot;" Naigeon, "Me'moires 
 sur Diderot," 1821 ; Grimm, " Correspondance ;" "Vie de Diderot," 
 prefixed to his "Select Works," (" CEuvres choisies," 2 vols.;) 
 Carlvle, " Essay on Diderot;" Damiron, " Mdmoire sur Diderot," 
 1852; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1833. 
 
 Didier, (King of the Lombards.) See Desiderius. 
 
 Didier, de'de-A', (Charles,) a French writer and 
 traveller, was born at Geneva in 1805. He has published, 
 besides other works, "Helvetian Melodies," (1830,) and 
 "Subterranean Rome," ("Rome souterraine," 1833; 10 
 editions in France.) 
 
 Did'I-us, (Julianus Severus,) a Roman emperor, 
 born at Milan in 133 A.D., was the son of Petronius Di- 
 dius Severus. He served in the army with distinction, 
 and was made consul with Pertinax. After the murder 
 of this emperor, in 193, the Prsetorians offered the em- 
 pire at public auction to the highest bidder. The chief 
 competitors were Sulpitianus and Didius, who was im- 
 mensely rich. The latter made the highest bid, (6250 
 drachmas for each soldier,) and was proclaimed emperor. 
 But Septimius Severus and other generals refused to 
 recognize him, and, after a reign of about two months, 
 he was killed by the soldiers in his palace. Severus 
 was his successor. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome ;" Tillemont, "Histoire 
 des Empereurs." 
 
 Didius, (Trrus,) a Roman general, was consul in 98 
 B.C., after which he gained some victories in Spain. 
 
 Di'do, [Gr. A«Jci; Fr. Didon, de'dA.N',] called also 
 E-lis'sa or E-li'sa, [Fr. Elise, i'lez',] a Phoenician 
 princess, celebrated as the founder and queen of Car- 
 thage. Her story forms a beautiful episode in the 
 "/Eneid" of Virgil, who commits an anachronism when 
 he represents her as a contemporary of /Eneas. Tra- 
 dition teaches that she was a sister of Pygmalion, 
 King of Tyre, who put to death her husband, Acerbas or 
 Sichaeus. After this event she embarked secretly with 
 a party of friends, and founded Carthage, in the ninth 
 century before Christ. 
 
 See Virgil, "jEneid," books i., ii., and iv. 
 
 Didon. See Dido. 
 
 Didot, de'do', (Ambroise Firmin,) a son, of Firmin, 
 noticed below, was born in Paris in 1790. He was a 
 printer, engraver, and type-founder, and became in 1827 
 the head of the great publishing-house of Firmin Didot 
 Freres. He published many important works, among 
 which are the " Dictionary of the French Academy," 
 Estienne's "Thesaurus Linguae Graecae," (improved,) 
 and a " New General Biography," (" Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale," 46 vols., 1857-66.) The processes and 
 specimens of this house obtained the first medal in 
 many annual expositions. 
 
 See Erscu und Gruber, " AUgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Didot, (Firmin,) a celebrated French publisher, ty- 
 pographer, and engraver of types, son of Francois Am- 
 broise, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1764. In 
 1794 he invented or improved the process of stereotype 
 printing, which differs from that now used. He issued 
 beautiful editions of Virgil and of Horace, and many 
 other works, and translated into French verse the " Bu- 
 colics" of Virgil and the " Idyls" of Theocritus. These 
 versions have considerable merit. He was a chevalier 
 of the legion of honour, and became a member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies in 1827. He was for some time 
 in partnership with his elder brother Pierre. His sons 
 Ambroise, Firmin, and Hyacinthe are celebrated printers 
 and publishers of Paris. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Didot, (Francois Ambroise,) an eminent French 
 printer and type-founder, born in Paris in 1730, was the 
 son of Francois Didot, the first printer of this name. He 
 brought the art of printing to a high degree of perfection, 
 and produced correct and elegant editions of various 
 works. Louis XVI. employed him to print a series of 
 French classics for the dauphin. He was succeeded in 
 his business by his sons Pierre and Firmin. Died in 1804. 
 
 Didot, (Pierre,) a son of Francois Ambroise, born in 
 1760. He published magnificent editions of the Latin 
 classics, called "du Louvre," ("of the Louvre.") His 
 " Racine" was pronounced by a jury " the most perfect 
 typographic production of all ages." He translated into 
 verse the fourth book of Virgil's epic, and the first book 
 of the Odes of Horace. Died in 1853. 
 
 Didron, de'di<6N', (Adolphe Napoleon,) an emi- 
 nent French archaeologist, born at Hautvillers (Marne) in 
 1806. He began in 1844 to issue a periodical devoted 
 to mediaeval art and antiquities, with the title of "An- 
 nates archeologiques." His most important work is 
 "Christian Iconography," (" Iconographie chretienne," 
 1843,) which is highly prized. 
 
 Didyme. See^DiDYMUS. 
 
 Did'y-mus, [Gr. M&vfiog; Fr. Didyme, de'dem',] a 
 celebrated grammarian of Alexandria, surnamed Chal- 
 cen'terus, born about 62 B.C., was remarkable for his 
 fecundity as a writer. According to Seneca, he wrote 
 four thousand treatises on various subjects, mostly frivo- 
 lous, among which were inquiries respecting the native 
 place of Homer, the mother of /Eneas, and the morals 
 of Anacreon. None of his works are extant. There 
 were several other ancients of this name, one of whom 
 was an Academic philosopher who wrote-a work on the 
 " Solution of Probabilities." 
 
 See Suidas, "Didymus;" W. M. Schmidt, "De Didumo Chal- 
 centero," 1S52. 
 
 Didymus of Alexandria, [Fr. Didyme d'Alexan- 
 DRIE, de'dem' dt'tek'sfiN'dRe',] a teacher of the Alex- 
 andrian Church, born about 308 A.D., lost his sight in 
 childhood, but became eminent for his attainments in 
 theology, philosophy, and in various sciences, and num- 
 bered among his disciples Saint Jerome, Isidore, and 
 Rulinus. He was the author of numerous works, of 
 which four have been preserved, viz. : " On the Trinity," 
 "On the Holy Spirit," "Against the Manicheans," and 
 "On the Canonical Epistles." Died about 395. 
 
 See^ Socrates. " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Cave, " Scriptorum 
 Ecclesiaslicorum Historia;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca." 
 
 Diebitsch, dee'bitch, or, more fully, Diebitsch- 
 Sabalkanski, dee'bitch sa-bal-kan'skee, (Hans Karl 
 Fkiedrich Anton,) a Russian count and field-marshal, 
 born at Grossleippe, in Silesia, in 17S5, was the son of 
 a major-general in the Russian service, which he also 
 entered at an early age. In 1805 he was wounded at the 
 battle of Austerlitz. Attached to the staff of Count Witt- 
 genstein in 1812, he performed important services, and 
 was raised to the rank of major-general. He gave proof 
 of skill at the battles of Dresden and Leipsic, and was 
 made a lieutenant-general at the age of twenty-eight. In 
 1814 he urged the advance of the allies to Paris. About 
 1820 he was appointed chief of the imperial staff, and 
 was a constant attendant on the emperor in his journeys 
 until the death of the latter in 1825. He took Varna 
 from the Turks in 1828, and in the next year, being 
 appointed general-in-chief, gained several victories, and 
 performed the famous passage of the Balkan, which pro- 
 cured him the title Sabalkanski ("Trans-Balkanian") 
 and the rank of field-marshal. A treaty of peace was 
 soon after signed at Adrianople. In January, 1831, he 
 commanded the army sent to subdue the revolted Poles, 
 with whom he fought indecisive battles near Praga and 
 Ostrolenka. His success was hindered by bad weather, 
 sickness, etc. ; and he died of cholera in June, 1831. 
 
 See Schuembhrg, "Graf Diebitsch-Sabalkanski," Dresden, 1S30; 
 Sturmer, "Der Tod des Grafen Diebitsch," 1832. 
 
 Diebolt, de'a'bol', ? (Georges,) a French statuary, 
 born at Dijon in 1816, gained the grand prize at Paris in 
 1841. Died in 1861. 
 
 Diecman, deek'man, (Johann,) a German divine 
 and philologist, born at Stade in 1647, was professor 
 of theology at Kiel. He wrote good prefaces to five 
 
 5, e, T, o, it, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, ?, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mgt; not; good; :t6br\; 
 
DIEDERICHS 
 
 763 
 
 DIETRICH 
 
 editions of Luther's version of the Bible, and many 
 dissertations, one of which is " On Naturalism," (" De 
 Naturarismo," 1683.) Died in 1720. 
 
 Diederichs,dee'deh-riKs',( Johann Christian Wil- 
 helm,) a distinguished German Orientalist, born at Pyr- 
 mont in 1750, became professor of Oriental languages at 
 Konigsberg in 1780. He published a Hebrew grammar, 
 and ofher works. Died in 1781. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubeh, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. " 
 
 Diedo, de-a'do, (Giacomo,) an Italian historian, born 
 in Venice in 1684, published a "History of the Republic 
 of Venice," ( 1751,) which is esteemed for its style and 
 just reflection* Died in 1748. 
 
 Diefenbach, dce'ten-bdK', (Lorenz,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born at Ostheim (Hesse) in 1806, published 
 works entitled "On Life, History, and Language," (1835,) 
 " Celtica," (5 vols., 1839-42,) a " Comparative Lexicon of 
 the Indo-Germanic Languages," (1846-51,) and several 
 small poems. 
 
 Dieffenbach, deef fen-baK', (Ernst,) a German natu- 
 ralist, born at Giessen in 181 1, visited New Zealand, and 
 wrote "Travels in New Zealand," (1843.) 
 
 Dieffenbach, (Johann Fkiedkich,) a skilful Prus- 
 sian surgeon, born at Konigsberg in 1792. He graduated 
 in 1822, and settled in Berlin, where he practised surgery 
 and soon acquired a wide reputation. About 1832 he be- 
 came professor in the University of Berlin. He was very 
 skilful in the formation of artificial noses, lips, etc., and 
 in the cure of strabismus. His chief work is "Operative 
 Surgery," (" Die operative Chirurgie," 1844-48.) Died 
 in 1847. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Diego de Yepes, de-a'go da ya'pes, a Spanish his- 
 torian and prelate, born near Toledo in 1 53 1, was con- 
 fessor to Philip II. Died in 1614. 
 
 Diel, deel, (August Fkiedrich Adrian,) a German 
 pomologist and physician, born at Gladenbach in 1756. 
 He wrote a " Systematic Nomenclature or Description 
 of the Finest (vorziiglichsten) Fruits of Germany," (1818,) 
 and other works on pomology. Died in 1833. 
 
 Diel du Parquet, (Jacques.) See Duparquet. 
 
 Dielhelra, deel'helm, (Johann Hermann,) a German 
 antiquary, bom at Frankfort-on-the-Main. 1 Ie published 
 "The Antiquary of the Rhine," (1739,) and a " Diction- 
 ary of all the Rivers of Germany," (1 741.) Died in 1764. 
 
 Diemen, van, vin dee'nien, (Anthony,) a Dutch 
 officer, born at Kuilenburg in 1593, went to India as a 
 cadet, and rose rapidly from grade to grade. In 1 631, 
 as admiral, he conducted the fleet to Holland, and in 
 1636 was appointed Governor-General of the Dutch East 
 Indies, which he governed with ability until his death. 
 In 1642 he sent out an exploring expedition under 
 Abel Tasman, who discovered the island of Van Diemen. 
 Died at Batavia in 1645. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Diemerbroeck,van,vindee'iner-bRdok',(IsBRANr>,) 
 a skilful Dutch physician, born at Montfort in 1609, be- 
 came professor of medicine and anatomy in the Univer- 
 sity of Utrecht, of which he was twice chosen rector. 
 He published able treatises on Anatomy, on the Plague, 
 and other diseases. His "Anatome Corporis Humani" 
 appeared in 1672, and was often reprinted. Died in 1674. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicate." 
 
 Dien, de'lN', (Claude Marie Francois,) a French 
 engraver, born in Paris in 1787, obtained the first medals 
 in 1838 and 1848. Among his works are a " Holy Fam- 
 ily," after Raphael, and a "Madonna," after Munllo. 
 
 Diepenbeck, van, vin dee'pen-bcV, written also 
 Diepenbeke, (Abraham,) an eminent Dutch historical 
 painter, born at Bois-le-Duc about 1606, was one of the 
 best scholars of Rubens. He was chosen director of 
 the Academy of Antwerp in 1641, and acquired a high 
 reputation by his skill in composition and colouring. 
 He also excelled in painting on glass, and made many 
 designs for the booksellers. Among his chief works is 
 a series of fifty-eight designs, called " The Temple of the 
 Muses," a " Life of Saint Paul," on glass, at Antwerp, 
 and a " Virgin and ChilrJ," in oil, at Berlin. Died in 1675. 
 
 See Dkscamps, " Vies de* Peintres Klamands," etc 
 
 Diepenbeke. See Diepenbeck. 
 
 Diereville, de^aiR'v.el', a French traveller, born in 
 Normandy, made a voyage in 1699 to Acadia, (Nova 
 Scotia,) and, alter his return in 1700, published a De- 
 scription of that region. Tournefort, the botanist, named 
 the genus Dierevilla in honour of him. 
 
 Dieringer, dee'ring-er, (Franz Xaver,) a German 
 Catholic theologian, born at Rangendingen in 181 1, be- 
 came professor of theology at Bonn about 1843. 
 
 Dies.deess, ( Ai.iiki.cht,) a German landscape-painter, 
 born at Hanover in 1755, studied in Rome, and settled 
 in Vienna. Died in 1822. 
 
 Dies, (Caspar.) See Diaz. 
 
 Diesbach, von, fon decs'bSK, (Johann Friedrich,) 
 an Austrian genera*, bom at Frcyburg in 1677, was made 
 a lield-niarshal in 1723. Died in 1751. 
 
 See Ersch mid Oklthkk, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Diesbach, von, (Nicholas,) an able Swiss states- 
 man, born at Heme in 1430, was employed about 1470 to 
 negotiate with Louis XI. of France. Died in 1475. 
 
 Dieskau, von, ton dees'kow, (I.udwig August,) a 
 German officer in the French service, went in 1755 to 
 Quebec as inarechal-de-camp. He was wounded and 
 taken prisoner by the British and colonial troops near 
 Far! Iulward, in Washington county, New York. Died 
 near Paris in 1767. 
 
 Di-es'pl-ter, a surname of Jupiter, which see. 
 
 Diest, deest, (Heinrich,) a German theologian and 
 Hebrew scholar, born at Altena in 1595 ; died in 1673. 
 
 Diest, van, vin deest, (Adrian,) a Dutch landscape- 
 painter, bom at the Hague in 1655, worked in England. 
 Died in 1704. 
 
 Diesterweg, dees'ter-weo', (Friedrich Adolph 
 Wilhelm,) a German teacher, born at Siegen in 1790, 
 taught at Berlin, and wrote many educational works. 
 
 Dieterich. See Dietrich. 
 
 Dieterichs, dee'teh-riKs', (Joachim Friedrich 
 Christian,) a German writer on veterinary science, 
 born at Stendal in 1792. 
 
 Dieterici, dee'tehreet'see, (Karl Friedrich Wil- 
 helm,) a Prussian economist and statistician, born in 
 Berlin in 1790. He entered the civil administration 
 about 1815, and became a privy councillor in 1831. In 
 1834 he obtained a chair of political economy in Berlin, 
 and in 1844 was appointed director of the national bu- 
 reau of statistics. He published, among other works, 
 " Statistics of the Principal Objects of Commerce and 
 Consumption in Prussia," etc., (1842-51,) and a work 
 called "Public Welfare in the Prussian States," ("Der 
 Volkswohlstand iffl Preussischen Staate," 1846.) 
 
 Dietmar, deet'maR, or Dietmar von Ast, deet'maR. 
 fon ast, a German minnesinger of great merit, lived about 
 1 180. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Dietrich, dee'tRiK, ( Albrecht,) a German botanist of 
 the present age, became professor of botany in the Uni- 
 versity of Berlin. He published a " Flora of the King- 
 dom of Prussia," ("Flora Regni Borussici," 1833-44.) 
 
 Dietrich, written also Ditrich and Dietricy, de- 
 tReet'see, (Christian Wilhelm Ernst or Johann 
 Wilhelm Ernst,) an excellent German painter, born at 
 Weimar in 1712. He was a pupil of Alexander Thiele, 
 and was patronized in the early part of his career by 
 Augustus, King of Poland, who enabled him to visit 
 Rome about 1744. Having returned to Dresden, he 
 gained a high reputation by his skill in imitating various 
 masters in history and landscape. His touch is broad 
 and mellow, and the verdure of his landscapes rivals 
 that of Claude. Among his finest works is an "Ado- 
 ration of the Magi." He also produced many etchings 
 of historical subjects. He was chosen professor in the 
 Academy of Dresden in 1763. Died at Dresden in 1774. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler- Lexikon ;" J. Y. 
 Linck, "Mortomphle tier von dem vormals kttniglich Polnischen 
 Hofmaler, C. W. K. Dietrich," etc., Berlin, 1846. 
 
 Dietrich, (David Nathanael Eriedrich,) a Ger- 
 man botanist, and director of the botanic garden of 
 Jena, was born near Jena in 1800. Among his works 
 are a " Flora of Germany," (7 vols., 1833-51,) and an 
 "Encyclopaedia of Plants, with engravings, { 1841—5 1.) 
 
 Dietrich, (Friedrich GOTTLrra,) a German horti- 
 culturist, born in 1768. He published a "Dictionary of 
 
 « as i; 9 as 1; g hard; g as/; o, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (|^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DIETRICH 
 
 764 
 
 DIGGES 
 
 Botany and Gardening," (10 vols., 1802-10,) and other 
 works. Died at Eisenach in 1850. 
 
 Dietrich or Dieterich, dee'teh-uiK, (Johann Con- 
 rad,) a German philologist and historian, eminent for 
 learning, was born at Butzbach in 1612. He became 
 professor of Greek at Giessen in 1653, and wa s author 
 of numerous Latin works, among which are a " History 
 of the German Emperors of Saxon Race," (1666,) and 
 "Greece in Exile," ("Grascia exulans.") Died in 1669. 
 
 Dietrich, de, deh dee'tidK, (Philippe Frederic,) 
 Baron, a mineralogist, born at Strasburg in 1748, held 
 several civil offices, among which was that of mayor of 
 his native city. He translated into French Scheele's 
 chemical treatise on air and fire, and wrote a valuable 
 " Description of the Deposits of Ore and the Forges 
 of France," (3 vols., 17S6-1800.) He was guillotined at 
 Paris by the Jacobins in 1793. Rouget de Lisle lodged 
 in the house of Dietrich when he wrote the " Marseillaise" 
 hymn. 
 
 See Qu^rard, "La France LitteYaire." 
 
 Dietrichstein, von, fon dee'tRiK-sfTn', (Adam,) a 
 German diplomatist, born in 1527, was employed by the 
 emperor Maximilian. Died in 1590. 
 
 Dietrichstein, von, (Franz,) Prince, a son of the 
 preceding, was born at Madrid in 1570. He became a 
 cardinal, and president of the council of state of the 
 Emperor of Germany. Died in 1636. 
 
 See his Life, by Voigt, 1792; Ersch uud Gruber, " Allgemeine 
 Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Dietricy. See Dietrich. 
 
 Dietzsch, deetsh, (Johann Christoph,) a German 
 landscape-painter, born at Nuremberg in 1710; died in 
 1769. 
 
 Dieu, de, deh de-uh', (Louis,) a Dutch Protestant 
 minister and Orientalist, born at Flushing in 1590. In 
 1619 he became assistant professor in the Walloon Col- 
 lege, Leyden. He wrote a " Grammar of the Hebrew, 
 Syriac, and Chaldaic Languages," (1628,) "Rudiments 
 ot the Persian Tongue," (1639,) and several commenta- 
 ries on Scripture, ("Critica Sacra," 1693.) His Persian 
 Grammar was for a long time the only one existing in 
 Europe. Died in 1642. His father, Daniel, was an 
 eloquent minister of Brussels and Flushing, and a good 
 linguist. 
 
 S« Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Polyander, 
 L. de Dieu Oratio funebris," 1643. 
 
 Dieu, de, deh de-uh', ? (Saint-Jean,) a devout Por- 
 tuguese, born at Monte-Major-el-Novo in 1495, was a 
 shepherd at the age of forty, when he consecrated him- 
 self to works of charity. In 1540 he opened a house in 
 Granada for the reception of the indigent sick, which 
 was the origin of the order of charity since widely 
 propagated. He died in 1550, and was canonized by 
 the pope in 1690. 
 
 Dieudonne, de-uh'do'nV, [Lat. A De'o Da'tus or 
 De'us De'dit,] X, was elected pope in 614 a.d. as suc- 
 cessor to Boniface IV. He was a native of Rome. He 
 died in 618 or 617, and was succeeded by Boniface V. 
 
 Dieudonne II., elected pope in 672, was a Roman 
 by birth. He died in 677. 
 
 Dieudonne, de-yh/do'na', (Jacques Augustin,) a 
 French sculptor and engraver of medals, born in Paris 
 in 1795. 
 
 Dieulafoy, de-yh'lt'fwa', (Joseph Marie Armand,) 
 a French dramatist, born at Toulouse in 1762, wrote suc- 
 cessful comedies, etc. Died in 1823. 
 
 Dieve, van, vJn dee'reh, (Peter,) a Flemish histo- 
 rian, born at Louvain in 1536; died in 1591. 
 
 Diez, deets, (Friedrich Christian,) a German pro- 
 fessor, regarded as the founder of Romance (Romanisch) 
 philology, was born at Giessen in 1 794. He produced in 
 1825 a work on Provencal poetry, "Beitrage zur Kennt- 
 niss der Romantischen Poesie,' and in 1829 "The Life 
 and Works of the Troubadours." He was appointed 
 professor of modern literature in Bonn in 1830, and 
 published a "Grammar of the Romance Language," 
 ("Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen," 1842.) 
 Diezel or Diez. See Tetzkl. 
 
 Dig'bjr, (Sir Everard,) an English Catholic, born in 
 1581, inherited a fortune from his father, Everard Digby, 
 who was author of " Theoria Analytica" and other learned 
 
 works. The son was knighted in 1603. Hume says 
 "he was as highly esteemed and beloved as any man 
 in England." In 1605 he was induced by mistaken zeal 
 to become an .accomplice in the Gunpowder Plot, to 
 which he contributed largely in money, arms, etc. For 
 this crime he was tried and executed in 1606. 
 See Hume's " History of England." 
 
 Digby, (George,) Earl of Bristol, son of John Digbv, 
 noticed below, was born in Madrid in 161 2. He was 
 remarkable for his inconsistency in politics. At the 
 trial of Strafford he deserted from the popular party 
 to that of the court. As a royalist he was exiled, and 
 went to France and Spain, where he became a Catholic. 
 After the restoration he returned home, and sat in the 
 House of Lords, having inherited his father's title of earl. 
 Among his rash and violent actions was his impeach- 
 ment ot Lord Clarendon, in 1663, which impaired his own 
 credit. He published several letters, and "Elvira," a 
 comedy. Died in 1676. Horace Walpole speaks of him 
 as "a singular person, wliose life was contradiction." 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Digby, (Sir Henry,) an English admiral, born about 
 1770; died in 1843. 
 
 Di gby, (John,) F,arl of Bristol, born in 15S0, was 
 descended from a Warwickshire family. He was knighted 
 111 1606, sent as ambassador to Spain in 1611, and To the 
 Emperor of Germany in 1621. The next year he was 
 employed by James I. to negotiate a marriage between 
 the king's son Charles and the Infanta of Spain, and was 
 created Earl of Bristol. His efforts for the Spanish match 
 were frustrated by the Duke of Buckingham. Hume 
 represents Digby as an able negotiator. He was the 
 author of several minor poems. He favoured the cause 
 of Charles I. in the civil war, was exiled, and died in 
 Paris in 1653. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England;" Gardiner, "History of 
 England Irom 1603 to 1616," chaps, x., xi. 
 
 Digby, (Sir Kknelm,) F.R.S., an English courtier 
 and author, son of Sir Everard, noticed above, was born 
 in Buckinghamshire in 1603. In the reign of Charles I. 
 he was gentleman of the bedchamber, and filled other 
 high offices. He married the famous beauty Venetia 
 Anastasia Stanley. In the civil war he favoured the 
 royalist cause, and retired to France, where he associated 
 with Descartes and other learned men. He was reputed 
 to be versed in occult philosophy, on which and other 
 subjects he wrote numerous treatises. Among these are 
 a "Treatise on the Nature of Bodies," (1644,) " Insti- 
 tutiones Peripateticae," (1651,) "The Body and Soul of 
 Man," and " Chemical Secrets." " He possessed," says 
 Lord Clarendon, " all the advantages which nature and 
 art and an excellent education could give him." After 
 the restoration he returned to England, where he died 
 in 1665. 
 
 See " Private Memoirs of Sir Kenelm Digby," by himself 1827 ■ 
 " Hiographia Britannica. " ' 
 
 Digeon, de'zh6N',(Ai.KXANDRE Elisabeth Michel,) 
 a French general and viscount, born in Paris in 1771. 
 For his conduct at Austerlitz he received the badge of 
 the legion of honour in 1805. As general of brigade he 
 was sent to Spain in 1808, and in 1812 was appointed 
 commandant of Cordova and Jaen. He became a gene- 
 ral of division in 1813. Died in 1826. 
 
 Digges, digz, (Sir Dudley,) a son of Sir Thomas 
 Digges, born in 1583, was eminent as a politician and 
 a writer. He went as ambassador to Russia in K.18. 
 and in 1621 was elected to Parliament, where he dis- 
 played talents and zeal for the rights of the people. He 
 wrote a "Defence of the East India Trade," (1615,) 
 "Political Discourses," and "The Complete Ambassa- 
 dor," (1655,) a collection of diplomatic letters respecting 
 the marriage between Elizabeth and the Duke ol'Anjou. 
 Died in 1639. 
 
 Digges, (Dudley,) a son of the preceding, born about 
 1612, wrote a tract on "The Unlawfulness of Subjects 
 taking Arms against their Sovereign." Died in 1643. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Digges, (Leonard,) an eminent English mathema- 
 tician, born at Barham, Kent, was educated at Oxford. 
 He wrote "Tectonicum," (a work on mensuration, 1556,) 
 
 a.e, 
 
 1, 0, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y. short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
DIGGES 
 
 76? 
 
 DINARCHUS 
 
 a military treatise named " Stratioticos,"and a few other 
 ingenious works. Died about 1574. 
 
 Sec Wood, " Alhen* Oxonienses." 
 
 Digges, (Leonard,) grandson of the- preceding, and 
 son of Thomas Digges, born in 1588, translated from 
 the Latin Chuidian's " Rape of Proserpine," and from 
 the Spanish a work named "Gerardo." The author of 
 " Athena; Oxonienses" says he was "a great master of 
 the English language, a good poet, and no mean orator." 
 Died in 1635. 
 
 Digges, (Thomas,) the son of Leonard, (the first of 
 that name,) and father of Sir Dudley Digges, was one 
 of the greatest geometers of his time. After graduating 
 at Oxford, he was appointed commissary-general of the 
 troops sent by Queen Elizabeth to aid the Dutch. He 
 edited his father's works, and wrote several original 
 treatises, viz., a " Description of the Celestial Orbs," 
 (1592,) a "Treatise on Military Arithmetic," (1599,) and 
 "England's Defence." Died in 1595. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Dilherr, dil'hCR, (Johann Michael,) a German phi- 
 lologist and Protestant divine, born at Themar (Saxe- 
 Meiningen) in 1604. He wrote many learned works on 
 sacred philology and ethics. Died in 1669. 
 
 Dilke, dilk, (Charlks Wentworth,) an English 
 editor and critic, born in 1789. He edited in 1814 a 
 collection of old English plays, (6 vols.) About 1830 he 
 purchased the "Athenaeum," of which he became editor, 
 and which he rendered a flourishing and able literary 
 journal. He retired from that position in 1846, and was 
 manager of the " Daily News" until 1849. Died in 1864. 
 
 Dilke, (CHARLES Wentwokth,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1810. As a member of the executive 
 committee, he rendered important services in the Great 
 Exhibition Qf (851. Died in May, 1869. Hisson, Charles 
 \V in t worth, wrote a valuable work entitled "Greater 
 Britain," (1868.) 
 
 Dilkes, dilks, (William Thomas,) a British general, 
 born in 1765; died in 1841. 
 
 Dil'leu, ILat. Dille'nius,] (Johann Jakob,) an emi- 
 nent botanist, born at Darmstadt in 1687, was a graduate 
 in medicine. In 1719 he gained a wide reputation by his 
 "Catalogue of Plants growing near Giessen," with plates. 
 Having been invited by William Sherard, a rich amateur 
 of botany, he went to London in 1721, and prepared a 
 new edition of Ray's " Synopsis of British Plants," which 
 appeared in 1724. In 1732 he produced his " Hortus 
 Elthamensis," with figures drawn and engraved by him- 
 self. This was one of the most excellent botanical works 
 that had then appeared, both in respect to the text and 
 the figures, and was highly commended by Linnaeus. 
 His reputation was raised still higher by his " History 
 of Mosses," (1 741,) which, says Du Petit-Thouars, "is a 
 fundamental work, and will always be consulted." Dillen 
 obtained the chair of botany in Oxford, founded by his 
 friend Sherard, about 1728. Died in 1747. Linnaeus 
 gave the name Dillenia to a genus of Indian trees. 
 
 See "Vie de Linnee," Paris, 1832; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'- 
 rale." 
 
 Dillen, (Philipp Everhard,) a German physician, 
 born at Darmstadt in 1644, was the father of Johann 
 Jakob, noticed above. Died in 1720. 
 
 Dilleniua. See Dillen. 
 
 Dillens, dil'lens, (Henri,) a Belgian painter of history 
 and genre, born at Ghent in 1812. 
 
 Dillis, von, fon dil'lis, (Georg,) a German artist, 
 born in Upper Bavaria in 1759, became teacher of land- 
 scape-painting in the Academy at Munich, (1805.) Died 
 in 1841. 
 
 Dil'lon, (Arthur,) Count, born in Roscommon 
 county, Ireland, in 1670, was the third son of Theobald, 
 Lord Dillon, who fought for James II. in the civil war 
 of 1688. He entered the service of Louis XIV. of France, 
 as colonel, at the age of twenty, gained a rapid promotion 
 by his brilliant conduct, and became a lieutenant-general 
 at thirty-six. He was employed under Marshal Villars 
 in 1708, and under Marshal Berwick in 1709. In the 
 last year he commanded in chief a corps, and gained a 
 victory near Briancon. He died in 1733. 
 
 His son James was killed at the battle of Fontenoy in 
 1745. Another son, Edward, fell at Laufeld. Arthur 
 
 Richard, the youngest, became Archbishop of Toulouse, 
 and then of Narbonne, and was twice president of the 
 General Assembly of the French clergy. 
 See "Nouvelle Biographic G^neVale." 
 
 Dillon, de'16N', (Arthur,) Count, a French general, 
 born in 1750, was the grandson of Count Arthur, noticed 
 above. He commanded a regiment in the West Indies 
 in 1777, and took part in the capture of Grenada, Tobago, 
 and Saint Christopher. He was governor of Tobago 
 when he was chosen a deputy to the States-General in 
 1789. In 1792 he was appointed to the command of a 
 corps-d'arme'e under Dumouriez, and, although he was 
 disaffected towards the new regime, he consented to 
 defend France from foreign invasion, and obtained some 
 successes in the forest of Argonne. He was recalled 
 in 1793, imprisoned, and perished on the scaflbld in 
 April, 1794. 
 
 See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Gen^raiix Francais." 
 
 Dillon, (Jacques Vincent Marie de Lacroix,) 
 born at Capua, in Italy, in 1760, was of Irish descent, 
 Having studied engineering, he was appointed professor 
 of arts and trades in Paris. He displayed his skill as 
 an engineer in the construction of the Pont des Arts, the 
 first iron bridge made in France, and was chosen chief 
 engineer of bridges and roads. Died in 1807. 
 
 Dil'lon, (John Talbot,) an English traveller, resided 
 many years in Vienna, where he was created a baron of 
 the empire. He wrote "Travels through Spain," (1780.) 
 Died in 1S06. 
 
 Dil'lpn, (Peter,) a British navigator, who, in 1827, 
 visited Vanikoro and found evidence that La Perouse 
 was wrecked there. Died in 1847. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Dillon, (Roger Henri,) Ark£, born at Bordeaux in 
 1762, was a brother of Arthur, noticed above. He 
 published a "Universal History," (10 vols., 1S22,) and 
 other works. Died in 1829. 
 
 Dillon, de, deli de'l6N', (Theobald,) Count, a bro- 
 ther of Arthur Dillon, was born in Dublin about 1744. 
 He entered the French army at an early age, and obtained 
 the grade of marechal-de-camp in 1783. He favoured 
 the popular cause in the Revolution, and served under 
 Rochambeau on the frontier of Flanders. While moving 
 his division from Lille to Tournay, in April, 1792, he 
 met a division of the enemy, and, in obedience to the 
 orders of his superiors, declined a battle. A panic seized 
 his soldiers, who ascribed his conduct to treachery and 
 fled in confusion to Lille, abandoning their cannon. 
 During this retreat, or on the arrival at Lille, he was 
 massacred by his own mutinous troops. 
 
 See De Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des Ge'ne'raux Francais." 
 
 Dillon Wentworth. See Roscommon, Earl of. 
 
 Dill'wjrn, (Lewis W.,) an English naturalist, born in 
 1778. He published a " Synopsis of British Conferva;," 
 (1802-09,) and (with D.'Turner) "The Botanist's Guide 
 through England and Wales." Died in 1855. 
 
 Dil'worth, (Thomas,) an English schoolteacher of 
 Wapping, published several popular school-books, among 
 which were an "Arithmetic" and a " Spelling- Bpok." 
 Died in 1780. 
 
 Dima'dale, (Thomas,) M.D. and F.R.S., an eminent 
 English physician, born in Essex in 1 712, praatised at 
 Hertford. Having gained distinction by inoculation for 
 the small-pox, he was invited to Russia about 1768 by 
 the empress Catherine, who rewarded his professional 
 services to her by the titles of baron and first physician 
 and a pension of ^500 per annum. He returned to 
 England, and published, in 1776, a treatise on "Inocu- 
 lation." He afterwards became a London banker, and 
 a member of Parliament. Died in 1800. 
 
 See " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Di-nar'«hus or Dei-nar'chus, [Gr. teivapxoc; Fr. 
 Dinarque, de'niKk',] a Greek orator, born at Corinth 
 about 360 B.C. About the year 335 he removed to 
 Athens, and connected himself with the Macedonian 
 party and Demetrius Phalereus. He gained a high repu- 
 tation for eloquence by writing arguments, especially 
 when Demosthenes and other orators were in exile. 
 Accused in 307 of an attempt to subject Athens to the 
 Macedonian yoke, he fled to Chalcis, where he remained 
 
 casi; 9 asj; g hard; g zsj; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; lis 2; th as in this. (S^~See Explanations; p. 2;.) 
 
DINAR QUE 
 
 766 
 
 DIOCLETIAN 
 
 fifteen years, and then returned to Athens, 292 B.C. He 
 is reckoned the last of the ten Athenian orators. Three 
 only of his orations are extant, of which one is against 
 Demosthenes for his transactions with Harpalus. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Plutarch, "Vitae Decern 
 Oratorum;" J. G. Aulkk, " Dissenatio de Dinarchi Oratoris Vita 
 et Dictione." 
 
 Dinarque. See Dinarchus. 
 
 Dinaux, de'no', (Arthur Martin,) a French anti- 
 quary and writer, born at Valenciennes in 1795. He 
 published, among other works, "The Trouveres, Jug- 
 glers, and Minstrels of the North of France," (1833-43,) 
 and furnished articles for Michaud's "Biographie Uni- 
 verselle." 
 
 Dindorf; din'doRf, (Ludwig,) a German philologist, 
 born in 1805. He published good editions of Xenophon, 
 Diodorus Siculus, and other Greek authors. He assisted 
 his brother Wilhelm as editor of the series of Greek 
 classics published by Firmin Didot, Paris. 
 
 Dindorf, (Wii.helm,) a distinguished German phi- 
 lologist, born at Leipsic in 1802, was a son of a professor 
 of Oriental languages. From 1828 to 1833 he was pro- 
 fessor of literary history in Leipsic, after which he was 
 associated with his brother Ludwig and M. Hase in 
 the renovation of Stephanus's Greek "Thesaurus." He 
 produced an excellent edition of Demosthenes for the 
 University of Oxford, (1849,) and commentaries on Ms- 
 chylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Dinez da Cruz. See Diniz da Cruz. 
 
 Dinge\ daN'zhi', (Antoine,) a French litterateur of 
 great learning, born at Orleans in 1759. According to 
 Villenave, he was the author of several popular works 
 which appeared under the name of J. R. Desormeaux, 
 viz., "History of the House of Bourbon," "Life of 
 Conde," etc. He published several poems, one of 
 which is called "Henry IV. on the Pont-Neuf," (1818.) 
 He left voluminous manuscripts, among which are a 
 " Universal Biography," numerous poems, and various 
 other works. Died in 1832. 
 
 Dingelstedt, ding'el-stet', (Franz,) a German poet, 
 born at Halsdorf, in Hesse, in 1814. He acquired much 
 popularity among the German Liberals by his political 
 poems called "Lieder ernes kosmopolitischen Nacht- 
 wachters," (" Songs of a Cosmopolitan Night- Watch," 
 1840.) In 1843 he received from the King of Wiirtem- 
 berg the title of councillor, and the office of librarian at 
 Stuttgart. He published several novels, one of which 
 is called " Heptameron," (1841,) and a successful tragedy, 
 entitled "The House of Barneveldt," (1850.) Among 
 his later poems is "Night and Morning," (1851.) 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Weber, 
 "Geschiclite der Deutscben Literatur." 
 
 Ding'ley, (Robert,) an English writer and Puritan 
 minister, born about 1620 ; died in 1659. 
 
 Dini, dee'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian scholar and pre- 
 late, born at Florence about 1570 ; died in 1625. 
 
 Diniz, de-nez', anglicized as Den'nis or Den'is I., 
 King of Portugal, born in 1261, was the son of Alfonzo 
 HI. He ascended the throne at the age of eighteen, 
 and married Elizabeth of Aragon in 1282. The king- 
 dom prospered under his wise government. In 1290 
 he founded the University of Lisbon. He built many 
 cities and fortresses, and planted the forest of Lein'a, 
 which, two centuries later, furnished materials for the 
 naval power of Portugal. He was reputed the most 
 liberal and magnificent prince of his time. He died 
 in 1325, and was succeeded by his son, Alfonzo IV. 
 
 See Faria v Souz'a, " Europa Portugueza ;" Schoeffer, " His- 
 tory of Portugal," (in German,) 5 vols. 
 
 Dilliz (de-nez') or Dinez da Cruz, de-nez' da kRooz, 
 (Antonio,) a Portuguese lyric poet and lawyer, born at 
 Castellode Vide in 1730. He was a good classical scholar, 
 and associated himself with some friends to form the 
 Society of Arcadians in Lisbon, which made successful 
 efforts to improve the language and literary taste of the 
 nation. In 1759 he composed an admired ode on the 
 subject of an attempt against the life of the king. He 
 afterwards wrote epistles, sonnets, idyls, and a mock- 
 heroic poem entitled "Goupillon." Some critics esti- 
 mate him the greatest Portuguese poet of the eighteenth 
 
 century. He was a member of the supreme council of 
 the colonies. He died at Rio de Janeiro about 1798. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Din'niei, (Anna Pkyre,) an American poetess, a 
 daughter of Judge Shackleford, of South Carolina, was 
 married in 1830 to J. C. Dinnies. She published a 
 volume of poems called "The Floral Year," (1846.) 
 Her nom-de-plume was " Moina." 
 
 See Griswold's " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Dino, dee'no, [Lat. Di'nus,] a famous Italian jurist, 
 born at Mugello. He was professor of law in Bologna, 
 and was employed by Boniface VIII. in the compilation 
 of the sixth book of " Decretals." Died in 1303. 
 
 Dinocourt, de'no'kooii', (Pierre Theophile Ro- 
 bert,) a French writer, was born at Doullens in 1791. 
 His "Cours de Morale sociale" ("Lectures on Social 
 Morality") obtained the Montyon prize in 1840. Died 
 in 1862. 
 
 Dinocrate. See Dinocrates. 
 
 Di-noc'ra-tes or Dei-noc'ra-tes, [Gr. Arawpanjc ; 
 Fr. Dinocrate, de'no'knat',1 an eminent Greek archi- 
 tect, who lived in the time of Alexander the Great, and 
 proposed to cut Mount Athos into a statue of that prince 
 which should hold in one hand a large city. Alexander 
 employed him in the building of Alexandria, about 332 
 B.C. It is said that he rebuirt the temple of Ephesus, 
 burnt by Erostratus. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Alexander." 
 
 Dinocrates, a profligate Messenian politician, was an 
 enemy of Philopcemen, for whose death he was chiefly 
 responsible. He killed himself in 182 u.cf 
 
 Di'uon, [Aeivuv or Aivuv,] a Greek historian, lived in 
 the fourth century B.C. He wrote a " History ^>f Persia." 
 
 Di-nos'tra-tus, [Gr. Aeivoorparoc; Fr. Dinostrate, 
 de'no'stRf t',] a Greek geometer, who lived about 400 ii.c. 
 His works are all lost. According to Proclus, he was a 
 pupil of Plato. 
 
 Dinoth, de'not', (Richard,) a French Protestant 
 historian, born at Coutances, wrote "De Bello Civili 
 Gallico," (1582.) Died about 1590. 
 
 Dinouar't, dee'noo-tR', (Joseph Antoine Tous- 
 saint,) a mediocre French compiler and translator, 
 born at Amiens in 1 716; died in 1786. 
 
 Dinter, din'ter, (Gustav Friedrich,) a meritorious 
 German teacher and writer on education, was born at 
 Born*, in Saxony, in 1760. He became minister of a 
 church at Gornitz in 1807, and professor of theology in 
 Konigsberg in 1822. He laboured zealously to promote 
 reforms in popular instruction, and published ninny 
 popular books, among which are "Malvina, a Book for 
 Mothers," (1819,) and a "Bible for the Use of School- 
 masters," ("Schullehrerbibel," 1825-28.) Died in 1831. 
 
 See his Autobiography, "G. F. Dinter's Leben," 1829. 
 
 Dinus. See Dino. 
 
 Din-wid'die, (Robert,) born in Scotland about 1690, 
 was Governor of Virginia from 1752 to 1758. He was 
 incompetent and unpopular. Died in 1770. 
 
 Dio Cassius. See Dion Cassius. 
 
 Di'o-cles, [AuiK/.r/c] a Syracusan, celebrated for his 
 code of laws, lived about 410 B.C., and was a leader of 
 the democratic party of Syracuse. 
 
 Diodes, a Greek poet of the old comedy, lived in 
 the fifth century B.C. 
 
 Diocles, a Greek geometer, of whom nothing is 
 known except that he solved the problem of the dupli- 
 cation of the cube. Eutocius has preserved this solution, 
 which consists in describing in a circle a curve called 
 the " cissoid." 
 
 DI'o-cle§ Ca-rjfs'tl-us, [AiokIw 6 Kapiorioc,] an 
 eminent Greek physician, born in Euboea, lived in the 
 third century before Christ, and belonged to the sect of 
 Dogmatics. He was ranked by the ancients next to 
 Hippocrates. He wrote several works, of which some 
 fragments are extant. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" A. RiviNus/'Programma 
 de Diocle Carystio," 1655. 
 
 Diocletian, dl-o-kle'she-an, [Lat. Diocletia'nus ; 
 Fr. Diocletien, de'o'kla'te^aV,] or, more fully, Cai'ua 
 Vale'rius Aure'ljus Diocletia'nus, a Roman empe- 
 ror, was born of obscure parents at Dioclea, in Dalmatia, 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6. u. v. short; a. e, j, 9, obscure; far. fill, fat; met; nAt: good; moon; 
 
DI0CLET1EN 
 
 767 
 
 DIOGENES 
 
 about 245 A.D. He entered the army young, served under 
 Aurelian, and obtained a high command under Probus. 
 He accompanied Carus in his expedition against Persia, 
 and at the death of that prince, in 283, he became com- 
 mander of the imperial guards of his successor, Niime- 
 rianus. The latter having been assassinated by Aper, 
 the army at Chalcedon proclaimed Diocletian emperor 
 in 284. In 286 he adopted Maximian as his colleague 
 in the empire, and gave him the title of Augustus. They 
 were successful in suppressing revolts in Gaul and other 
 parts of the empire. About 292 they nominated two 
 Csesars to divide the labours of the administration, — 
 namely, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus. Diocletian 
 reserved to himself Asia and Egypt, and fixed his court 
 at Nicomedia. He assigned Italy and Africa to Maxi- 
 mian, Gaul and Spain to Constantius, and Thrace and 
 lllyricum to Galerius. The supremacy of Diocletian 
 was recognized by the other three, and general pros- 
 perity resulted from this arrangement. One design of 
 this policy was to prevent the revolt of the armies in 
 favour of their commanders, by which so many emperors 
 had been ruined. After this division the Roman arms 
 were successful in Egypt, Persia, and Britain. In 297 a 
 peace was made with Persia, which was maintained forty 
 years. The Christians had enjoyed the favour and pro- 
 tection of Diocletian ; but in 303 Galerius, by false accu- 
 sations, persuaded him to issue an edict against them. 
 This persecution, to which he unwillingly assented, is 
 the chief error of a reign otherwise honourable and 
 happy. In 304 he had a long attack of sickness, and 
 in the next year he abdicated in favour of Galerius, and 
 retired to Salona, where he turned his attention to the 
 cultivation of a vegetable-garden, and died in 313. His 
 political talents were superior, and entitle him to a place 
 among the most eminent Roman emperors. 
 
 See Tillemont, "Histoiredes Empereurs:" Gibbon, "Decline 
 and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Ai'kelius Victor, "De Cjesari- 
 bus ;" J. C. Sickel, "Dioclelianus et Maximums," 1792. 
 
 Diocletien. See Diocletian, 
 
 Diodati, de-o-di'tee, or Deodati, (Chaki.es,) born 
 in London about 1608, was of Italian extraction, and a 
 nephew of John Diodati. He was Milton's most inti- 
 mate companion at school, and his correspondent in later 
 years. He became a physician, and practised in Cheshire. 
 On hearing of his death, in 1608, Milton wrote, in Latin, 
 "Epitaphium Damonis." 
 
 Diodati, de-o-da'tee, (Domenico,) an Italian anti- 
 quary, born at Naples in 1736. His principal work 
 is an ingenious essay, "De Christo Graxe loquente," 
 (1767,) in which he endeavoured to prove that Greek 
 was the vernacular language of Christ and the apostles. 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 See "Vita <U D. Diodati," Naples, 1815; Tipaldo, "Biografia 
 degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Diodati, de-o-da'tee, (John,) a Protestant theologian, 
 of Italian extraction, born at Geneva in 1576. He made 
 so great progress in the study of ancient languages that 
 Beza thought him qualified, at the age of twenty-one, 
 to fill the chair of Hebrew in the University of Geneva. 
 In 1609 he was chosen professor of theology, and in 1618 
 was deputed by the Church of Geneva to the Synod of 
 Dort, in which he performed an important part. He 
 made Italian and French translations of the Bible, (1644,) 
 and a French version of Sarpi's " History of the Council 
 of Trent," (1621.) He also wrote several treatises against 
 the doctrines of the Roman Church, and "Annotations 
 on the Bible," (1607.) Died in 1649. 
 
 See Brandt, " History of the Reformation :" Senerjer, " His- 
 toire litte>aire de Geneve;" Liresius, " Bibliotheca Theologica," 
 1685; Schotel, "J. Diodati," 1844. 
 
 Diodore de Sicile. See Diodorus Siculus. 
 
 Di-o-do'rus [Gr. biodupoc ; Fr. Diodore, de'o'doR'] 
 of Aiuioch, a Christian bishop and writer of high repu- 
 tation, was appointed to the see of Tarsus about 375 A.D. 
 He wrote commentaries on the Scriptures, and other 
 works, which are all lost. 
 
 Diodorus surnamed Pf.riege'tes, a Greek historian, 
 lived about 320 B.C. He wrote " Uepl ir/fiuv." 
 
 Diodorus of Sinope, an Athenian poet of the new 
 comedy, lived about 350 B.C. 
 
 Diodorus of Tyre, a Peripatetic philosopher, flou- 
 rished about 130 b!c. He succeeded Critolaus as the 
 bead of the Peripatetic school at Athens. 
 
 Di-o-do'rus Cro'nus, a Greek logician and philoso- 
 pher of the school of Megara, lived about 300 B.C., and 
 was one of the masters of Zeno the Stoic. His skill 
 in dialectics is praised by Cicero. I le was the reputed 
 author of a famous sophism against motion. 
 
 Di-o-do'rus Sio'u-lus, (Fr. Diodore de Sicile, 
 de'o'doR' deh se'sel',] often called simply Diodorus zn 
 eminent historian, was born at Agyriuni, in Sicily, and 
 lived in the first century B.C. He travelled many years 
 in Europe and Asia to collect materials for a universal 
 history, and then settled in Koine, where he produced his 
 "Historical Library," in Greek, (" MiS'hoOijitri lorofiuti),") 
 which contained, in forty books, the history of the world 
 from the earliest times to 60 B.C. Only fifteen of these 
 books have been preserved entire. He is supposed to 
 have finished this history about 10 B.C. His merit as a 
 historian is not estimated very highly, but his work sup- 
 plies many important facts which would otherwise have 
 been lost to posterity. He is very deficient in criticism 
 and judgment. 
 
 _ See Fabricr's, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Schoei.i., " Histoire de la 
 Literature Gi'tcque ;" Heyne," DeFontibua Hisioiiarum Diodori," 
 1782; Daunol', article on "Diodorus Siculus" in the " Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 DI-od'o-tus, [Gr. A160V0C ; Fr. Diodote, de'o'dot',] 
 a Stoic philosopher, lived at Rome, and taught dialectics 
 to Cicero. Died in 59 B.C. 
 
 Diogene. See Diogenes. 
 
 Diogene d'Apollonie. See Diogenes of Apol- 
 lonia. 
 
 Diogene Laerce. See Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 Di-og'e-nei, [Gr. Aioy<rv7jc,- Fr. Diogene, de'o'zhjn'; 
 It. Diogkne, de-o'ji-na,] a Cynic philosopher, born at 
 Sinope, in Asia Minor, lived for some time at Athens, 
 where he was a disciple of Antisthenes. He affected an 
 extravagant contempt for the comforts of life and for 
 the customs of society, and inured himself to severe 
 privations, relying on alms for the supply of his simple 
 wants. It is said that he lodged in a cask or tub. He 
 was noted for witty and sarcastic sayings. When Alex- 
 ander the Great visited him, and inquired, " What can I / 
 do for you?" Diogenes replied, "Stand from between 
 me and the sun." Alluding to this interview, Juvenal 
 thus moralizes : 
 
 " Sensit Alexander testa quum vidit in ilia, 
 Magnum habitatorem, quanto felicior hie qui 
 Nil cuperet, quani qui totum sibi posceret orbem."* 
 
 Sat. xiv. 
 Plato having defined man as a featherless biped, the 
 Cynic plucked a fowl, and exclaimed, "Behold the man 
 of Plato !" It is stated that he was taken by pirates 
 and exposed for sale in the market of Crete, and, being 
 asked what he could do, he replied, " I can govern men : 
 therefore sell me to some one who needs a master." He 
 was purchased by Xeniades, a rich citizen of Corinth, 
 by whom he was kindly treated. He is said to have 
 died in 323 B.C., aged about ninety. If he wrote any 
 works, as some assert, they have not been preserved. 
 
 See LuciAN,_"Cynicus," and "Dialogues of the Dead;" Gri- 
 mai.di, "La Vita di Diogene Cinico," 1777; Rittkr, "History 
 of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Biographical History of Philo- 
 sophy." 
 
 Diogenes of AroU.ONiA, [Fr. Diogene d'Apol- 
 lonie, de'o'zh&n' di'po'lo'ne',] a Greek philosopher, 
 born in Crete, was a disciple of Anaximenes, and was 
 probably born about 500 B.C. He taught philosophy 
 at Athens, and wrote a work on cosmology, of which 
 Diogenes Laertius has preserved a fragment. Like his 
 teacher, he considered air as the first principle oi all 
 things. 
 
 See G. H. Lewes, " Biographical History of Philosophy ;" Rit- 
 ter, " History of Philosophy." 
 
 Diogenes the Babylonian, an eminent Stoic phi- 
 losopher, was a native of Seleucia. He studied under 
 Chrysippus at Athens, and became the master of the 
 Stoic school in that city. He was associated with Car- 
 neades in a memorable embassy to Rome in 155 B.C. He 
 wrote on various subjects, but his works are not extant. 
 
 See C. F. Thikrri, "Dissertatiode Diogene Babylonico," 1830. 
 
 • Literally, "When Alexander beheld the noble dweller in that 
 tub, \i.e. the tub of Diogenes.] he perceived (or felt) how much hap- 
 pier [was] he who desired nothing, than he who demanded for himself 
 the whole world." 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; a, H, K.gtMural; n, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DIOGENES 
 
 768 
 
 DIONTSIUS 
 
 Diogenes of Tarsus, a Greek Epicurean philosopher, 
 is supposed to have lived in the first or second century 
 before Christ. His works are lost. 
 
 Di-og'e-nei La-er'tl-ua, (la-er'she-us,> [Gr. Aan-rw7C 
 6 Aaeimoe; Fr. Dloc.ENE Laerce, de'o^shjn' 14'&rss',] a 
 Greek author, who was so called because he was born at 
 Laertes, in Cilicia. Some suppose that he lived in the 
 reign of Severus or Caracalla, 21 1-235 A - D -> but nothing 
 is known of his history, except that he wrote a very im- 
 portant work on the lives and doctrines of the ancient 
 philosophers. He evidently lacked the critical ability 
 and judgment to do justice to such an enterprise ; but at 
 the same time he has collected and preserved valuable 
 contributions to the history of philosophy. The title 
 of it is " Bi'ot tcai Tvujiat tuv £v fyiAoooipip EvooKiftfjouvTuv." 
 He appears to have been a mere compiler, who knew 
 little about the principles of philosophy. His work is 
 neither well planned nor well digested; but it contains 
 valuable extracts from works which are lost. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Gneca ;" Ki.ippel, " De Diogenis 
 Laertii Vita et Scriptis," 1831 ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Dlogo Bernardes. See Bernardes. 
 
 Diomed and Diomede. See Diomkdks. 
 
 Di-o-me'deS, often anglicized Di'o-rnede and Di'- 
 o-med, [Gr. Ato/ii/Sric ; Fr. Diomede, de'o'm&d',] a hero 
 of the early Grecian legends, was a son of Tydeus, and 
 is hence called Tydi'des. He became King of Argos, 
 and acted a prominent part in the siege of Troy. He 
 was accounted the bravest of the Grecian chiefs next to 
 Achilles, and was a favourite of Minerva. According to 
 Homer, he was so audacious as to attack Mars himself. 
 His adventures after the capture of Troy are variously 
 related. 
 
 Diomedes, [Eng. Di'omede,] a king of the Bistones, 
 in Thrace, is said to have fed his horses on human flesh. 
 He was killed by Hercules. 
 
 Dx-om'e-don, [Amfieduv,] an able Athenian general, 
 who appears first in history in 412 B.C. He then com- 
 manded a fleet which defeated the Chians and recovered 
 Lesbos. In 411 he declared for the democracy, and pro- 
 moted the recall of Alcibiades from exile. He was one 
 of the ten generals appointed in place of Alcibiades in 
 407, and contributed to the victory at Arginusae. Soon 
 after this event he was unjustly put to death, in 405 B.C. 
 
 See Xenophon, " Hellenica." 
 
 Di'on [Gr. Aiuv] of Syracuse, an eminent statesman 
 and patriot, born about 410 B.C., inherited from his father 
 Hipparinus an immense fortune. His sister Aristomache 
 having become the wife of King Dionysius, Dion through 
 this connection and his own merit acquired much influ- 
 ence at court. The lessons of Plato, who was then teach- 
 ing in Syracuse, made so deep an impression on him that 
 he became an intimate friend and one of the most emi- 
 nent disciples of that philosopher. Soon after the acces- 
 sion of Dionysius the Younger, Dion persuaded him to 
 invite Plato again to the Syracusan court. The courtiers 
 of the young king, the companions of his vicious plea- 
 sures, who were jealous of Dion's influence and were 
 reproved by his pure example, prevailed on their master 
 to banish him. Dion retired to Athens, where he was 
 received with the greatest honour. When he learned 
 that Dionysius had confiscated his estate and forced 
 his wife to marry another man, he resolved to avenge 
 himself and to liberate Syracuse by an appeal to arms. 
 I" 35 7> against the advice of Plato, he led a small body 
 of soldiers to Syracuse, which he entered without resist- 
 ance, seconded by the popular favour. By the intrigues 
 of Heraclides, an unscrupulous demagogue, Dion was 
 expelled for a time ; but he was soon recalled. He was 
 assassinated by Calippus about 354 B.C. Plutarch has 
 thought him worthy to be the subject of a comparison 
 with Marcus Brutus, the noble Roman. 
 
 See Grote, "History of Greece," part ii. chap, lxxxiv. ; Plu- 
 tarch, "Lives;" Cornelius Nepos, "Dion;" Diodorus Sicu- 
 lus, books xv. and xvi. 
 
 Dion or Dio surnamed Chrys'ostom, ("Golden- 
 mouthed,") born at Prusa, in Bithynia, about the middle 
 of the first century, was a Greek sophist or rhetorician. 
 He was living in Moldavia when Domitian was killed, 
 and by his eloquent harangue persuaded the army to 
 remain loyal to the senate. This act procured for him 
 
 the favour of Nerva and Trajan, the latter of whom gave 
 him a seat in his chariot when he made a triumphal entry 
 into Rome. About eighty of his orations are extant, the 
 chief merit of which is beauty and simplicity of style. 
 
 See L. £tiennb, "Dio Philosophus," 1S49; Brecqutgny, "Vies 
 des Orateurs Grecs ;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grajca;" Piiilos- 
 tkatus, " Vita; Philosophorum." 
 
 Di'on Cas'sl-us (kash'e-us) or Dio Cassius, or, more 
 fully, Cas'sius Di'on Cocceia'nus, (kok-se-ya'nus,) an 
 eminent historian, born at Nicasa, in Bithynia, about 155 
 A.D., was the son of a Roman senator, and descended by 
 his mother from Dion Chrysostom. He lived in Rome, 
 was a senator in the reign of Commodus, and governor 
 of Smyrna and Pergamos under Macrimts. By the favour 
 of Alexander Seve'rus, he was elected consul with that 
 emperor in 229 a.d. He wrote in Greek several works, 
 the principal of which is his " History of Rome" (" 'Pu, 
 /uuk)/ 'Icropia") from the arrival of /Eneas in Italy to the 
 year 229 A.D., in eighty books, of which the first thirty-five 
 are lost except fragments, and the last twenty exist only 
 in the abridgment of Xiphilinus. As a historian he is 
 esteemed for elegance of style, accuracy in dates, and 
 diligence in search of the truth, for which his official 
 position afforded him facilities. His work is a rich 
 collection of documents on the later years of the re- 
 public and the first ages of the empire. His knowledge 
 of Roman institutions was more exact and extensive 
 than that of previous historians. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graca;" Reimarus, " De Vita el 
 Scriptis Cassii Dionis," 1752; Schlosser, "Dissertation on Dim) 
 Cassius," prefixed to Lorknz's German version of Dion, 1826; Nik* 
 buhr, "Lectures on Roman History." 
 
 Di-o'ne, [Gr. Aiuvr/,] a female Titan, according to some 
 authorities a daughter of Uranus, according to others 
 of Oceanus or /Ether. The poets feigned that she was 
 beloved by Jupiter, by whom she became the mother of 
 Venus. 
 
 Dionigi, de o-nee'jee, (Marianna,) an Italian artist, 
 born in Rome in 1756. She acquired skill in painting, 
 and gave much attention to archaeology, especially to 
 the researches of Cyclopean walls. She wrote a suc- 
 cessful work, entitled "On the Five Cities of Latium 
 said to have been founded by Saturn," ("Sulle cinque 
 Citta del Lazio che diconsi fondate da Saturno.") Died 
 in 1S26. 
 
 Dionis, de'o'ness'. (Pierre,) an eminent French sur- 
 geon, born In Paris, became first surgeon to the queen 
 Maria Theresa and the dauphin. Louis XIV. appointed 
 him professor of anatomy in the Jardin des Plantes. He 
 possessed great learning, and wrote several excellent 
 works, among which are a "Treatise on Operations,'' 
 and a Treatise on Anatomy, ("Anatomic de 1'Homme, 
 suivant la Circulation du Sang," 1690.) Died in 171S. 
 
 See Jli.oy, "Dictionnaire de la Mddecine." 
 
 Dionis du Sejour, de'o'ness' dii sa'zhooR', (Achii.ie 
 Pierre,) a French geometer, born in Paris in 1734. In 
 1765'he was admitted to the Academy of Sciences, which 
 he enriched with many treatises on eclipses, comets, on 
 Saturn's ring, etc. He afterwards published these col- 
 lectively, with the title of "Analytical Treatise on the 
 Apparent Motions of the Heavenly Bodies," (1786,) 
 "which," says Nicollet, "is a monument raised to the 
 glory of astronomy, and will form an epoch in the his- 
 tory of that science." Died in 1794. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G«?ne>ale." 
 
 Dionisi, de-o-nee'see, (Fiuppo Lorenzo,) an Italian 
 antiquary and priest, born at Rome in 1712; died in 
 1789. 
 
 Dionisi, (Giovanni Giacomo,) an Italian philologist, 
 born at Verona in 1724. He published an edition of 
 Dante's "Divina Commedia," 1795.) Died in 1808. 
 
 Dionysius, dl-o-nish'e-us, [Gr. Akwi'otocJthe Elder, 
 [Fr. Denys l'Ancien, d?h-ne' ldN'se'aN',] a celebrated 
 tyrant of Syracuse, was born about 430 B.C. The Car- 
 thaginians having invaded Sicily and threatened Syra- 
 cuse, (which was then a republic,) he was appointed 
 one of the generals; and in 405, by his artful policy, he 
 persuaded the people to invest him with the supreme 
 direction of the government. He confirmed his power 
 by increasing the pay of the troops, suppressed several 
 revolts, and in 397 declared war against Carthage, which 
 
 a, e, I, 0, ii, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, 11, y, short; a, ?, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
D10NTSIUS 
 
 769 
 
 DIOPHANTUS 
 
 held some cities in Sicily. The fleet of Dionysius was 
 defeated, and the victorious army of Himilco or Imilkon 
 encamped under the walls of Syracuse ; but a pestilence 
 broke out in the besieging army, and a successful attack 
 from the Syracusans completed their ruin. Dionysius 
 then subjected several towns of Sicily, made some con- 
 quests on the Italian peninsula, and became one of the 
 most powerful princes of his time. Many anecdotes are 
 related to show how suspicious he was, and what pre- 
 cautions he observed against personal danger, as that his 
 bedchamber was surrounded by a wide ditch crossed 
 by a drawbridge. His brother-in-law, Dion, persuaded 
 him to invite' Plato to his court; but the king was so 
 offended by the philosopher's lectures that he soon 
 sent him away, directing the captain of the ship to sell 
 him as a slave in the first port which he should enter. 
 Ambitious of literary fame, he sent some verses to the 
 Olympic games; but his offerings were rejected with 
 contempt. One of his tragedies, however, gained a 
 prize at Athens, by which he was much elated ; and, 
 during a feast which he gave on the occasion, he died 
 suddenly, in 367. His death was ascribed by some to 
 intemperance, by others to poison. 
 
 See Grote, " History of Greece," part ii. chaps. Ixxxi.-lxxxiii. ; 
 Diodorus Siculus; Th.irkil Baden, "Res gestae Dionysii Syra- 
 cusii recognita:," 1795; F. W. Roloff, " Dissertationes de Dionysiis 
 Siciliae Tyrannis," 1736. 
 
 Dionysius the Younger, [Fr. Denys le Jeune, 
 deh-ne' leh zhuN',] a son of the preceding, succeeded 
 him without opposition in 367 B.C. He was inferior to 
 his father in political ability, and was early addicted 
 to licentious habits, from which Dion endeavoured to 
 reclaim him. Dion also prevailed on Plato to exert his 
 eloquence for this purpose. The latter was received with 
 honour, and for a time seemed to exercise a beneficial 
 influence ; but evil counsels effected the banishment of 
 Dion, and Plato soon followed him. The capricious 
 prince, it is said, induced Plato to return to Syracuse, on 
 condition that his friend should be restored from exile ; 
 but this promise was not fulfilled. In 357 Dion led a 
 successful expedition against Dionysius, who, not being 
 supported by his subjects, was expelled from Syracuse 
 and retired to Locri. (See Dion.) After tyrannizing over 
 the Locrfans several years, he recovered possession of 
 Syracuse about 346. To assist them in expelling Dio- 
 nysius and in repelling a threatened invasion of the 
 Carthaginians, the Syracusans invoked the aid of the 
 Corinthians, who sent Timoleon with an army in the 
 year 344. Dionysius was again deposed, and banished 
 to Corinth, where, it is said, he employed himself in 
 teaching school. 
 
 See Grote, " History of Greece," part ii. chaps, lxxxiv.-lxxxv. ; 
 Plutarch, ■" Lifeof Dion ;" Diodorus Siculus, books XV., xvi. : P. 
 Ekerman, " Dissertatio de Tyrannide Dionysii utriusqtie Syracu- 
 sani," Upsal, 1757. 
 
 Dionysius the Areopagite is said to have been a 
 judge of the Areopagus in Athens when the Apostle 
 Paul appeared before that tribunal. (See Acts xvii. 19.) 
 He was converted to Christianity by Paul, (Acts xvii. 34.) 
 Tradition adds that he was appointed firs'- Bishop of 
 Athens, and that he suffered martyrd >m about 95 a.d. 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Christian Philosophy;" Baumgar- 
 ten-Crusius, " Programma de Dionysio Areopagita," Jena, 1823; 
 Utienne Binet, " Vie de S. Denys l'Ar^opagile," 1624. 
 
 Dionysius of Byzantium, a Greek writer, of whom 
 little is known. He is supposed to have lived before 200 
 A.D., and is mentioned by Suidas as the author of the 
 "Voyage of the Bosphorus," {"Avun?jrvc Boonopov.") 
 
 Dionysius [Fr. Denys] the Carthusian, a monk, 
 born near Liege, was eminent for learning. He entered 
 a. monastery at Ruremonde in 1423, and wrote a large 
 number of works. His "Mirror of the Conversion of 
 a Sinner" (1473) ' s 8a 'd to be ,ne first book printed in 
 Belgium with a date. Died in 1471. 
 
 Dionysius surnamed Chal'cus, [A Xa/txot>c, ] an 
 ancient Attic poet and orator, flourished about 450 11. c. 
 He was surnamed Chalcus because he advised the 
 Athenians to coin brass money. His poems (including 
 elegies) are quoted or noticed by Aristotle and other 
 critics. 
 
 Dionysius of Colophon, a celebrated Greek painter 
 of the age of Pericles, lived about 450 B.C. He excelled 
 
 in portraits, and imitated the style of his contemporary 
 Polygnotus with success. " Polygnotus," says Aristotle, 
 " painted portraits more beautiful than the originals, 
 Pauson made them worse, and Dionysius painted exact 
 likenesses." Another Dionysius flourished as a painter 
 at Rome in the first century before Christ, and is favour- 
 ably mentioned by Pliny. 
 
 Dionysius of Hai.icarnassus, [Gr. Aioitotoc 6 'AAi- 
 Kapvaoaeic; Lat. Dionys'ius Halicarnas'seus or Hali- 
 carnassen'sis; Fr. Denys d'Halicarnasse, deh-ne' 
 di'le'kaVniss',] a Greek historian and critic of high 
 reputation, born at Halicarnassus, in Cam, about 70 is.c 
 All our knowledge of him is derived from his writings, 
 which inform us that he came to Rome in 30 B.C. and 
 spent more than twenty years there in studying Latin 
 and composing his history (in Greek) entitled " Roman 
 Antiquities," (" 'Pu/Minij ' ki>x au '^ J0 y' ia -") It embraces the 
 period from the origin of Rome to the year 265 H.c. The 
 greater part of this work is extant. He is accused of 
 partiality to the Greeks, and is not esteemed a high 
 authority as a historian. He also wrote a " Treatise on 
 Rhetoric," another on the eloquence of Demosthenes, a 
 " Criticism on the Style ( iSiu/jutuv ) of Thucydides," and 
 other critical works, which are highly appreciated. Some 
 persons assign him a place in the first rank of ancient 
 critics. 
 
 See article by Jacobs, in Ersch und Gruber's "Allgemeine 
 Encyklopaedie ; Niebuhr, " Lectures on Roman History;" C. J. 
 Weismann, "De Dionysii Halicarnassensi Vita," 1837; Busse, 
 " De Dionysii Halicarnassensi Vita," 1848 ; P. F. Schui.in, " De Dio- 
 nysio Halicarnassensi historico," 1821 ; F. Matthai, " De Dionysio 
 Halicarnassensi." 1770. 
 
 Dionysius of Hf.raclea, [Fr. Denys d'Heraclee, 
 deh-ne' da'i S'kli',] a Greek philosopher, lived about the 
 end of the third century B.C. He was a Stoic in his 
 youth, and afterwards an Epicurean. 
 
 Dionysius surnamed Iam'bus, a Greek poet, lived 
 about 300 B.C. 
 
 Dionysius of Miletus, an early Greek historian, 
 who wrote about 500 B.C. Among his principal works, 
 which are all lost, was a " History of Darius I. of Persia." 
 
 Dionysius, [Fr. Denys,] Saint, a disciple of Origen, 
 was a native of Alexandria, and in the year 248 a.d. was 
 made patriarch of that city. During the persecution of 
 the Christians by Valerian in 257 he was exiled to Libya, 
 whence he was restored in 260. He wrote numerous 
 letters and treatises against various errors in doctrine 
 that prevailed; but they have not been preserved. Died 
 in 265 a.d. 
 
 Dionysius surnamed Thrax, or "the Thracian," an 
 eminent Greek grammarian, was a disciple of Aristarchus. 
 He taught rhetoric at Rome with great distinction about 
 80 B.C., and composed many works on grammar, etc. 
 His "Tex v V yfa/ijia-uifi" ("Art of Grammar,") which has 
 come down to us, was a standard work for centuries, and 
 served as a basis to many other treatises. 
 
 Dionysius Cato. See Cato, (Dionysius.) 
 
 DI-o-nyVI-us (dl-o-nish'e-us) Pe-ri-tj-ge'tes [Fr. 
 Denys lk Periegete, deh-ne' l?h pl're'i zh&t'] is the 
 author of a Greek poem entitled " llcpii/yyaic r>/c I%," 
 ("Journey round the Earth.") Nothing is known re- 
 specting the time and place of his birth ; but he proba- 
 bly lived between the Augustan age and the fourth 
 century. His poem was once popular, and has been 
 often reprinted and translated. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grasca;" Ukert, "Geographie der 
 Griechen ;" Matthai, " De Dionysio Periegeta," 1788. 
 
 Di-o-ny'sus, [AkShkjoc or Awivwroc,] the original name 
 in Greek mythology of the god of wine, afterwards called 
 Bacchus, which see. 
 
 Di-oph'a-nes, [Gr. bmfKivric ; Fr. Diophane, de'o'- 
 fin',] a Greek orator, born at Mitylene. He taught at 
 Rome, where Tiberius Gracchus was his pupil. 
 
 Diophante. See Diophantus. 
 
 Di-o-phan'tus [Gr. AtixpavToc ; Fr. Diophante, de'- 
 o'foNt'] of Alexandria is the author of the most ancient 
 treatise on algebra which is extant. The time in which 
 he lived is very uncertain. The question has been much 
 discussed whether he was the inventor of algebra, or 
 whether he derived it from the Hindoos. Lagrange 
 favoured the former opinion. Hypatia, who lived about 
 400 A.D., wrote a commentary on Diophantus. Of the 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. 
 
 49 
 
 ($3y"*See Explanations, p. 23.1 
 
DIOPHANTUS 
 
 770 
 
 DISRAELI 
 
 thirteen books which composed his remarkable work, 
 seven have been lost. 
 
 See Montucla, " Histoire des Mathematiques." 
 
 Diophantus, an Athenian orator, a contemporary of 
 Demosthenes, lived about 350 B.C. 
 
 Di-o-pi'thes, [btoTiuOTic,] an Athenian general, the 
 father of the poet Menander, lived about 344 B.C. 
 
 Dioscore. See Dioscorus. 
 
 Dioscoride. See Dioscorides. 
 
 Dioscorides, (a Greek artist.) See Dioscurides. 
 
 Di-os-cor'I-des, [Fr. Dioscoride, de'os'ko'red',] a 
 Greek historian, a disciple of Isocrates, lived in the fourth 
 century B.C. He wrote " 01 nap'Onqpu vo/ioi.," a treatise 
 on the customs and laws recognized in the Homeric 
 poems. 
 
 Dioscorides of Alexandria, a Greek poet of an un- 
 known epoch. He is author of numerous epigrams 
 preserved in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Di-os-cor'I-des Pe-da'nJ-us, [AiooKovpidijcHeduvwc,] 
 a Greek botanist, born at Anazarbus, in Cilicia, lived 
 about the first century A.D., and is the author of a cele- 
 brated Greek work on Materia Medica, in which more 
 than five hundred plants are described or named. A 
 passage of his book informs us that he traversed Asia 
 Minor, Greece, and a part of Italy, to qualify himself 
 for such a task. For sixteen centuries this book was 
 considered the highest authority, and was universally 
 studied by medical students and botanists. It is com- 
 posed without regard to order in the arrangement of the 
 matter, and is defective in other respects, but is still 
 highly prized as a memorial of the state of science in 
 that age. Galen speaks of Dioscorides in very high 
 terms, and says that he surpassed all who wrote before 
 him on plants. His work became the basis of modern 
 treatises on botany, which science derives nearly all its 
 nomenclature from him. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grseca ;" Sprengel, "Geschichte 
 der Botanik ;" Hai.ler, " bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 Di-os'co-rus [Gr. AiooKopor ; Fr. Dioscore, de'os'- 
 koR'] was chosen Patriarch of Alexandria in 444 A.D., 
 as successor to Cyril. Having sided with Eutyches, who 
 was deposed for heresy by Flavian of Constantinople, 
 he obtained the convocation of a council at Ephesus in 
 449. Dioscorus was president of this council, by which 
 Flavian was condemned, and which was conducted with 
 6uch violence that it was stigmatized as a scene of rob- 
 bery, ( Latrochuum Ephesinum.) A schism resulted, and 
 Pope Leo decided against Dioscorus, who was exiled in 
 451, and died in 454 A.D. 
 
 Di-os-cu'ri, [Gr. AiooKovpoi; Fr. Dioscures, de'o'- 
 skiiR',] i.e. "sons of Jupiter," a name applied to Castor 
 and Pollux, which see. 
 
 Di-os-cu'rl-des or Di-os-cor'i-des, a Greek artist, 
 who lived at Rome in the reign of Augustus, was re- 
 puted the greatest gem-engraver of ancient times. He 
 engraved the portrait of Augustus, which was one of his 
 master-pieces. 
 
 Diotallevi, de-o-tal-la'vee, (Alessandro,) an Italian 
 pulpit orator and religious writer, born at Rimini in 
 1648; died in 1721. 
 
 Dl-o-tl'mus, [Gr. Aton/ioc; Fr. Diotime, de'o'tem',] 
 a Greek poet of uncertain epoch, author of numerous 
 epigrams preserved in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Diotisalvi, de-o-te-sal'vee, a celebrated Italian archi- 
 tect, designed the beautiful baptistery of Pisa, commenced 
 about 1 1 52 and finished in 1161. It is one of the earliest 
 examples of the renaissance of the art in Italy. 
 
 Diphile. See Diphilus. 
 
 Diph'Mus, [Gr. AidOoc; Fr. Diphile, de'fel',] an 
 eminent Athenian comic poet of the new comedy, was 
 a native of Sinope, and flourished about 300 B.C. He 
 produced about one hundred comedies, of which some 
 fragments remain. His style is admired for simplicity 
 and elegance. 
 
 Diplovatazio,de-plo-va-tat'se-o, (Tommaso,) a jurist, 
 bom at Corfu in 1468. He published " Synopsis Juris 
 Graeci," and other works. Died at Pesaro in 1 541. 
 
 Dippel, dip'pel, (Johann Conrad,) a German alche- 
 mist, noted for his aberrations and vagaries, was born 
 near Darmstadt in 1673. He studied medicine, and pro- 
 fessed to be an adept in the hermetic arts. He was ad- 
 
 dicted to wandering habits and to theological controversy, 
 and was imprisoned at various places. By accident he 
 discovered the valuable pigment prussiate of potash, or 
 Prussian blue. About 17 10, to escape the power of the 
 law, he took refuge in Holland, and practised medicine 
 for several years. After many adventures in Denmark, 
 Sweden, etc., he died in 1734. 
 
 See " Biographie Me'dicale ;" Hoffmann," Leben und Meinungen 
 J. C. Dippers," 1783. 
 
 Dirae. See Eumf.nides. 
 
 Dirichlet, de'resh'li/, (Gustav Lejeune or Peter 
 Gustav,) an eminent German geometer, born at Diiren, 
 in Rhenish Prussia, in 1805. He became professor of 
 mathematics in Berlin in 1828, and a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1832. He wrote dissertations on 
 the most difficult parts of mathematics, and was esteemed 
 one of the first mathematicians of the age. In 1855 he 
 succeeded Gauss as professor at Gottingen. Died in 
 May, 1859. 
 
 Dirk or Dirck, (dirk,) a Dutch painter, born at Haar- 
 lem, was living in 1462. He was one of the ablest artists 
 of his time. 
 
 Diroys, de'rwa', (Francois,) a French theologian, 
 born in 1620, became canon of Avranches. He wrote 
 " Proofs and Presentiments ( Prijuges) in favour of the 
 Christian and Catholic Religion," (1683.) Died in 1691. 
 
 Discepoli, de-shep'o-lee or de-sha'po-lee, (Giovanni 
 Battista,) an Italian painter, born at Lugano in 1590; 
 died in 1660. 
 
 Disdier, de'de-4', (Henri FRANgois Michel,) a skil- 
 ful French surgeon, professor of anatomy, and writer, 
 was born at Grenoble in 170S; died in 1781. 
 
 Dis'ney, (John,) a learned English divine, born at 
 Lincoln in 1677, studied law, and for many years dis- 
 charged the duties of magistrate with much credit. In 
 1719 he was ordained a priest of the Anglican Church, 
 and in 1722 became Vicar of Saint Mary, Nottingham. 
 He wrote " Essays on Laws against Immorality and 
 Profaneness," and other works. Died in 1730. 
 
 Disraeli, diz-ra'el-e, (Benjamin,) a distinguished Eng- 
 lish statesman and author, a son of Isaac, noticed below, 
 was born in London in December, 1805. He produced 
 in 1826 his first work, "Vivian Grey," a fashionable 
 novel, which was received with great favour : it was 
 followed by "The Young Duke," (1830,) and "Contarini 
 Fleming," (1832.) In 1829 and 1830 he visited Greece, 
 Egypt, Syria, and other parts of the Levant. He com- 
 menced his political life as a radical, and was an unsuc- 
 cessful candidate for Parliament in 1831. Having become 
 a Tory candidate for Taunton, he was again defeated in 
 1835; but he was returned by the Conservatives of Maid- 
 stone in 1837. His ambitious or pretentious maiden 
 speech was a complete failure, and excited the ridicule 
 of the House. On this occasion he exclaimed, " I shall 
 sit down now, but the time will come when you will hear 
 me !" In 1839 he married the rich widow of Wyndham 
 Lewis. He has represented Buckinghamshire in Parlia- 
 ment since 1847. He gradually attained success as a 
 parliamentary debater, and about 1841 became the leader 
 of the " Young England" party. Among his most bril- 
 liant efforts were his speeches against the Free-Trade 
 measures of Sir Robert Peel in 1845 and 1846, in which 
 he displayed great powers of invective and sarcasm. In 
 1844 he published "Coningsby, or the New Genera- 
 tion," a political novel, which was very successful. He 
 became about 1848 the recognized leader of the Protec- 
 tionist party in the House of Commons. He was chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer in the Tory ministry of Lord 
 Derby, which lasted from March to December of 1852. 
 On the defeat of Palmerston in February, 1858, power 
 passed into the hands of the Tories, and Disraeli again 
 became chancellor of the exchequer in the Derby'-Dis- 
 raeli ministry. (See Derby, Eari. OF.) He introduced 
 an electoral Reform bill, which was rejected by the 
 House in March, 1859, and resigned with his colleagues 
 in June of that year. A Tory writer in the " London 
 Quarterly Review" for April, 1S60, ascribes to Disraeli 
 " unrivalled powers for conducting his party into the 
 ditch," and adds, his Reform bill "had that fatal and 
 damning defect, that the complication of its details ex- 
 posed it to the suspicion of stratagem and finesse. It 
 
 a, e, T, 6, it, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
DISRAELI 
 
 77» 
 
 DIX 
 
 was not statesmanlike : it was only ingenious." He is 
 said to have annoyed his party by voting for the admis- 
 sion of Jews into the House of Commons. " Gradually, 
 almost imperceptibly," says the London " Times," "Mr. 
 Disraeli has weaned his party from their most flagrant 
 errors. He has taught them to profess, at any rate, and 
 probably to feel, a sympathy for the great body of their 
 countrymen." He opposed the bill for electoral reform 
 which Russell and Gladstone introduced, and which was 
 defeated in June, 1866. In consequence of this defeat the 
 Liberal ministers resigned, and Disraeli again became 
 chancellor of the exchequer. Derby and Disraeli then 
 exhibited a surprising change of front on the subject of 
 electoral reform, and supported a more liberal or radical 
 bill than that which they opposed in 1866. As leader 
 of the House of Commons, Disraeli was the chief author 
 and manager of the Reform bill of 1867, which extends 
 the right of suffrage to every householder in a borough, 
 every forty-shilling freeholder, etc. This bill was signed 
 by the queen, August 15, 1867. 
 
 Much admiration has been expressed at the dexterity 
 with which he induced his party to abandon their preju- 
 dices or principles in the support of this measure. " His 
 triumph," says Goldwin Smith, "is a triumph over pub- 
 lic morality and over the self-respect of the nation." 
 He became premier about February 25, 1868. He and 
 his party opposed the resolutions which Mr. Gladstone 
 moved to abolish or disendow the Irish Church as a 
 state establishment On this important question he was 
 defeated in the House by a majority of fifty-six votes, 
 April 3, 1868, and again on the 1st of May by a majority 
 of sixty-four. It was expected that he would resign or 
 appeal to the country '; but, after a visit to the queen at 
 Osborne, he and his colleagues made statements which 
 resolved themselves into the simple proposition that 
 they had determined neither to resign nor to dissolve 
 Parliament. The Liberal party having gained a decisive 
 victory in the general election of November, Disraeli 
 and his colleagues resigned on the 2d of December, 1868. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1853: "Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for March, 1854 : " Fraser's Magazine" for January and Feb- 
 ruary, 1847, and February, 1852; "Westminster Review for Sep- 
 tember, 1844 ; Samuel Smiles, " Brief Biographies." 
 
 Disraeli, (Isaac,) an English litterateur, born at En- 
 field, near London, in 1766, was the son of a Venetian 
 merchant of Jewish extraction, who left him a large 
 fortune. He preferred literature to all other professions 
 or pursuits, and, directing his attention to literary history 
 and anecdotes, he produced in 1790 the first volume of 
 "Curiosities of Literature," which was received with 
 favour and followed by several other volumes of the 
 same work. He published "Calamities of Authors," 
 (1812,) "Quarrels of Authors," (1814.) "The Life and 
 Reign of King Charles I.," (1828,) "Amenities of Lite- 
 rature," (1841,) and a few other works. "The numerous 
 editions which have been printed of the ' Curiosities of 
 Literature,'" says T. H. Home, "amply attest the value 
 of this instructive and amusing work." Lord Byron de- 
 nominates him "that most entertaining and searching 
 writer, whose works in general I have read oftener than 
 perhaps those of any other English writer whatever." 
 Died in 1848. He was the father of the eminent states- 
 man Benjamin Disraeli. 
 
 See B. Disraeli, "Notice of I. Disraeli," prefixed to his "Curi- 
 osities of Literature," Boston, 4 vols., 1858; "London Quarterly 
 Review" for September, 1812. 
 
 Dissen, dis'sen, (Georg Ludolf,) a distinguished 
 German philologist, born near Gottingen in 1784, studied 
 philology under Heyne, and became professor of classical 
 literature at Gottingen in 1813. He published good edi- 
 tions of Pindar (1830) and of Tibullus, (1835.) He gave 
 especial attention to the philosophy of the ancients, and 
 wrote a work on the moral philosophy of Socrates, as 
 handed down to us in the writings of Xenophon. Died 
 in 1837. 
 
 Distelmeyer, dis'tel-ml'er, (Lambf.rt,) a German 
 jurist, born at Leipsic in 1522, was appointed chancellor 
 by the Elector of Brandenburg in 1558. Died in 1588. 
 
 See Gundling, " Distelmeyer's Leben," 1722. 
 
 Dithmar or Ditmar, dit'maR, a German chronicler, 
 born about 978, was chosen Bishop of Merseburg in 1009. 
 
 He wrote a Latin chronicle of the reigns of the emperors 
 Henry I., Otho I., Otho II., Otho III., and Henry II., 
 which was edited by Leibnitz, who calls it a valuable 
 work. Died in 1018. 
 
 See Ersch und Grurer, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Dithmar or Ditmar, (Justus Christoph,) a German 
 historical writer, born at Rottenburg (Hesse) in 1677, 
 became successively professor of history and of natural 
 law at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He published a " Life of 
 Pope Gregory VII.," (1710,) "Tacitus's Germany, with 
 a Commentary," (1725,) and other works. Died in 1737. » 
 
 DM, dit'i, in the Hindoo mythology, the mother of 
 the Daityas, or demons. She was one of the wives of 
 Kasyapa, (or Kacyapa,) and would seem to be opposed 
 to Aditi, whose children, the Adityas or Suras, are in 
 eternal antagonism to the Daityas of Asuras. 
 
 See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Ditmar. See Dithmar. 
 
 Ditmar, dit'maR, (Theodor Jakob,) a Prussian his- 
 torian, born in Berlin in 1734, was professor of history 
 in his native city, and wrote a "Method of Teaching 
 Universal History," and other works. Died in 1791. 
 
 Ditmer, dit'mer, or Ditmar, (Jan,) a Dutch en- 
 graver, born about 1538; died in 1603. 
 
 Ditrich. See Dietrich. 
 
 Ditters von Dittersdorf, dit'ters fon dit'ters-doRf, 
 (Kari.,) a celebrated German composer, born in Vienna 
 in 1739. He formed a friendship with Metastasio, and 
 compoied the music of four oratorios of that poet, viz., 
 " Isaac," "David," "Job," and "Esther." He composed 
 many successful operas, symphonies, etc. His master- 
 pieces are "Esther," an oratorio, (1785,) and "The Doc- 
 tor and Apothecary," (1786,) a comic opera. Died in 1799. 
 
 See his Autobiography, (" Selbstbiognaphie,") 1801 ; Fetis, " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle des Musiciens. " 
 
 Ditt'mer, (ordefrnaiR',) (Adolphe,) a French littira- 
 teur, born in London in 1795. He wrote, with M. Cave, 
 " Les Soirees de Neuilly," dramatic and historic sketches, 
 (1827,) which had great success. Died in 1846. 
 
 Dit'tpn, (Humphrey,) an eminent English mathema- 
 tician, born at Salisbury in 1675, became minister of a 
 dissenting church atTunbridge. Having attained great 
 proficiency in mathematics, he attracted the notice of Sir 
 Isaac Newton, by whose influence he was chosen mathe- 
 matical master of Christ's Hospital. He gained a high 
 reputation by his writings, among which are " Laws of 
 Nature and Motion," (1705,) a "Treatise on Fluxions," 
 (1706,) "Synopsis Algebraica," (1709,) a "Treatise on 
 Perspective," (1712,) and a "Discourse on the Resur- 
 rection of Christ." Died in 1715. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica ;" Whiston. " Memoirs." 
 
 Divilli, de-vee'nee, (Eustachio,) an Italian optician, 
 born at San Severino about 1620, excelled in the fabri- 
 cation of telescopes. 
 
 Divino, El. See Morales, (Luis.) 
 
 Divitiac. See Divitiacus. 
 
 Div-I-ti'a-cus, [Fr. Divitiac, de've'te'Sk',] a chief 
 of the /Edui, a tribe of Gaul, was the friend of Caesar, 
 and the brother of Dumnorix. His tribe, being attacked 
 by the Germans, sent him to Rome to solicit aid. He 
 rendered services to Csesar in his war against Ariovistus 
 and against the Belga;. 
 
 See Cbsar, " De Bello Gallico;" A.Thierry, " Histoire des 
 Gaulois." 
 
 Dix, (Dorothea L.,) an American philanthropist, was 
 born in Worcester, Massachusetts. In her youth she 
 supported herself by teaching school, but about 1830 in- 
 herited sufficient property from a relative to relieve her 
 from the necessity of daily toil. Previous to this she had 
 become deeply interested in the condition of criminals, 
 lunatics, and paupers. She has \isited almost every State 
 in the Union in her efforts to relieve the unfortunate and 
 the wretched. Her exertions have contributed largely 
 towards the establishment of lunatic-asylums in New 
 York, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and several other 
 States ; and, by her heroic persistency hi memorializing 
 Congress, a bill was finally passed in 1854, appropriating 
 10,000,000 acres of the public lands to endow hospitals 
 for the indigent insane. But the bill was vetoed by Presi- 
 dent Pierce. Besides tracts for prisoners, memorials to 
 legislatures, etc., she has published several works anony- 
 
 c as k, 9 as j; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
D1X 
 
 772 
 
 DOBNER 
 
 mously, among which maybe mentioned the "Garland 
 of Flora," issued in 1829, " Evening Hours," etc 
 
 Dix, (John A.,) an American general and statesman, 
 born at Boscawen, New Hampshire, in 1798. He be- 
 came a lawyer, and a resident of Cooperstown, New 
 York. Having joined the Democratic party, he was 
 elected secretary of state in 1833, and represented the 
 State of New York in the Senate of the United States 
 from 1845 to March, 1849. From December, i860, to 
 March, 1 861, he held the position of United States 
 secretary of the treasury. In May, 1861, he was appointed 
 a major-general, and took command at Fortress Monroe 
 in July, 1862. In June, 1863, he moved an army up the 
 York River, threatened Richmond, and cut Lee's com- 
 munications. He commanded the department of the 
 East in 1864. He was. sent as minister to France early 
 in 1867. General Dix is the author of two works of 
 travel, — "A Winter in Madeira," (185 1,) and "A Sum- 
 mer in Spain and Florence," (1855.) 
 
 Dixmerie, de la, deh It dez'meh-re', (Nicolas Bri- 
 Caire,) a French litterateur, born in Champagne in 1730, 
 resided in Paris. He was the author of "The Two Ages 
 of Taste and Genius under Louis XIV. and Louis XV.," 
 (1769,) and other works. Died in 1791. 
 
 Dix'on, (Archibald,) an American lawyer, born in 
 North Carolina in 1802. Having removed to Kentucky, 
 he was in 1843 elected by the Whig party Lieutenant- 
 Governor. On the resignation of Mr. Clay, in 1852, he 
 was chosen to fill the vacancy. He afterwards,became 
 a pro-slavery Democrat. 
 
 See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Dix'on, (George,) Captain, a British navigator, who 
 discovered a number of small islands near the northwest 
 coast of America, and a strait called Dixon's Entrance. 
 He published a "Voyage round the World, 1785-88." 
 Died about 1800. 
 
 See F. Denis, "G^nie de la Navigation." 
 
 Dix'on, (James,) an English Methodist minister of 
 the present century. He wrote, about 1842, "Methodism, 
 its Origin, Economy, and Present Position," and other 
 works. 
 
 Dixon, (William Hep'worth,) an able and popular 
 English writer and critic, born in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire in 1821. He became a resident of London 
 about 1845, a,1 d published a "Life of John Howard," 
 (1850 ; 5th edition, 1854,) a work of decided merit. " Wil- 
 liam Penn, a Historical Biography," in which Penn is 
 ably and successfully defended against the charges of 
 Macaulay, appeared in 1851. "His style is good and 
 easy," says the "Edinburgh Review:" "there is life in 
 his narrative and vigour in his descriptions." Since 
 1853 he has been chief editor of the "Athenaeum." In 
 addition to the works mentioned above, Mr. Dixon has 
 written a "Personal History of Lord Bacon," (1861,) 
 "The Holy Land," (1865,) "New America," (1867,) 
 " Spiritual Wives," (1868,) and "The Tower of London," 
 (1869.) "Mr. Dixon," says the London "Star," referring 
 to " Spiritual Wives," " has, on the whole, treated a very 
 difficult and delicate subject with great refinement and 
 'udgment." It has been objected to his "New America" 
 ly some critics, and not altogether without reason, that 
 a reader who had little acquaintance with the condition 
 of society in the United States would be apt to suppose 
 many things to be of common occurrence in this country 
 which are in fact so rare as to be unknown even to the 
 most intelligent and best-informed Americans, except a 
 few who have made them the subject of especial inves- 
 tigation. 
 
 Dix'well, (John,) Colonel, an English republican, 
 born in 1608. He was one of the judges of Charles I. 
 When his party lost power, he escaped to New England 
 and changed his name. Died in 1689. 
 
 Diziani, det-ze-a'nee, (Gasparo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Belluno in the seventeenth century; died in 1767. 
 
 Djaafar or Djafar. See Mansoor. 
 
 Djami or Djamy. See Jamee. 
 
 Djannaby. See Jannauee. 
 
 Djayadeva. See Tayadeva. 
 
 Djehan-Guir, (or -Guyr.) See JahAn-Geer. 
 
 Djehan-Guire. See Jahan-Geer. 
 
 Djelal-Eddin-Roumi. See JelXl-ed-Df.en. 
 
 t 
 
 Djem. See Jem. 
 
 Djemchyd or Djemchid. See Jemsheed. 
 
 Djemlah. See Ji/mlah. 
 
 Djemschid or Djemschyd. Sea Jemsheed. 
 
 Djenghiz or Djenghis. See Jengis Khan. 
 
 Djenguiz or Djenguyz. See Jengis Khan. 
 
 Djerir. See Jereer. 
 
 Djevhery. See Jevhery. 
 
 Djezzar. See Jezzar. 
 
 Djihanguire. See Jahan-Geer. 
 
 Djihan-Guyr, (or -Guir.) See Jahan-Geer. 
 
 Djordjani. See JorjAnee. 
 
 Dlugosz, dloo'gosh, [Lat. Longi'nus,] (Jan,) an emi- 
 nent Polish historian, born at Brzesnica in 141 5. He 
 was employed by Casimir IV. as ambassador to several 
 foreign courts, and as preceptor of his sons. He opened 
 a new era in Polish historical literature by his Latin 
 "History of Poland," a work of much merit, which con- 
 sists in the matter rather than the style. It was not all 
 printed until 171 1. He died in 1480, soon after he had 
 been chosen Archbishop of Lemberg. 
 
 See Islkmbiowski, "Les Historiens Polonais," 1826; "Nouvelle 
 Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Dmitri See Demetrius, Czar of Russia. 
 
 Dmitrief or Dmitriev, dmee'tre-Sf, (Ivan Ivano- 
 vitch,) a Russian poet, born in Simbeersk (Simbirsk) 
 in 1760, served some years in the army, and passed into 
 the civil service. In the reign of Alexander he became 
 minister of justice and privy councillor. He cultivated 
 literature in the intervals of his public employments, and 
 produced popular odes, poetical tales, satires, and fables. 
 His fables are among the best in the language. Died at 
 Moscow in 1837. 
 
 See Otto, "Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur." 
 
 Dmochowski, dmo-Kov'skee, (Francis Xavier,) a 
 Polish poet and historian, born in 1762. He translated 
 the "Iliad" and "Paradise Lost" into Polish. Died in 
 1808. 
 
 Doane, don, (George Washington,) an American 
 poet and ecclesiastic, born at Trenton, New Jersey, in 
 1799. He was ordained an Episcopalian priest in 1821, 
 and preached for several years in New York City and 
 Boston. In 1832 he was elected Bishop of New Jersey. 
 He founded Burlington College in 1846. He published 
 several theological works, and a volume of poems, (1824.) 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 See Griswold's "Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Dob'bin, (James Cochrane,) an American statesman 
 of the Democratic party, born in Fayetteville, North 
 Carolina, in 1814. He graduated at the University of 
 North Carolina, and in 1845 represented the Raleigh 
 district in Congress. He was a delegate to the Baltimore 
 Convention in 1852, and was active in promoting the 
 nomination of Franklin Pierce, who in 1853 appointed 
 him secretary of the navy. Died in 1857. 
 
 See Livingston's " Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Dob'bin, (Thomas,) a native of Ireland, who removed 
 to Baltimore in 1790 and published the Baltimore "Tele- 
 graph," the first daily newspaper of that city. 
 
 Do-bell', (Sydney,) an English poet, born in Kent, 
 or in a suburb of London, in 1824, was first known as 
 Sydney Yendys. He was employed for some years 
 in the counting-house of his father, who was a wine- 
 merchant at Cheltenham. He produced in 1850 "The 
 Roman," a poem, and in 1854 "Balder," which were 
 admired by some and censured as spasmodic by others. 
 Mr. Dobell and Alexander Smith published in 1855 a 
 volume entitled "Sonnets on the War." Among his 
 other poems is "England in Time of War," (1856.) 
 
 DobereinerorDoebereiner, do'beh-n'ner,(JoiiANN 
 Wolfgang,) an eminent German chemist, born at Ilof, 
 in Bavaria, in 1780. He became professor of chemistry 
 at Jena in 1810, and, aided by Goethe, made some useful 
 and curious discoveries, among which is the property 
 of spongiform platinum to inflame hydrogen. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, " Essays on Physical Chem- 
 istry," (1824-36,) and " Principles of Genera] Chemistry," 
 (3d edition, 1S26.) Died in 1849. 
 
 See August Vogel, " Deukrede auf J. W. Dbbereiner," 1849. 
 
 Dobuer, dob'ner, (FELIX Jon, otherwise called Ge- 
 LASE,) a Bohemian historian and monk, born at Prague 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; m Jt; not; good; moon ; 
 
DOBREE 
 
 111 
 
 DODDRIDGE 
 
 in 1719. He taught in the colleges of his order in Vienna, 
 Prague, etc., and left works on the history of Bohemia 
 and Moravia which are prized for extensive research 
 and judicious criticism. The most important of these 
 is "Historical Monuments of Bohemia," ("Monumenta 
 historica Bohemias," 6 vols., 1764-86.) Died in 179a 
 See Ersch und GrUber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Do-bree', (Peter Paul,) an English critic, born in 
 Guernsey in 1782, was a Kellow of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, and a friend of Porson. He superintended the 
 \ publication of the notes on some Greek authors, which 
 Porson left at his death, and l>ecame professor of Greek 
 at Cambridge about 1823. He left an edition of De- 
 mosthenes unfinished at his death in 1825. 
 
 Dbbrentei, do'bRen-ti', or Dobrentey, do'bken-tl', 
 (GAbor,) an eminent Hungarian author, born at Nagy 
 Szollos in 1786, became about 1820 a resident of Pesth, 
 where he held several public offices. He edited a valuable 
 magazine called the "Transylvanian Museum," ("Er- 
 delyi Muzeum,") wrote odes, elegies, and other poems, 
 and translated several of Shakspeare's dramas. His 
 principal work, "Ancient Monuments of the Magyar 
 Language," is highly commended. Four volumes of it 
 were published between 1825 and 1850. He was engaged 
 on this work when he died in 1851. 
 
 Dobrentey. See Dobren tki. 
 
 Dobrizhoffer, do'bRits-hoffer, (Martin,) a Jesuit 
 missionary, born at Gratz, in Styria, in 17 17. He went 
 to Paraguay in 1749, and laboured about eighteen years 
 among the natives, one tribe of whom were called A bi- 
 pones. In 1784 he published at Vienna, in Latin, a 
 "History of the Abipones, an Equestrian and Warlike 
 Nation, (3 vols.,) a work of some interest for history 
 and geography. It was translated into English by Sara 
 Coleridge. Died in 1791. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Dobrowski, do-brov'skee, (Joseph,) an eminent Bo- 
 hemian author and philologist, born near Raab in 1753, 
 was the most learned of those who have cultivated 
 Bohemian literature. He was educated at Prague, and 
 joined the Jesuits. He assisted Pelzel in his "Biogra- 
 phies of Bohemian Authors and Artists," and gained 
 distinction by his researches into the language and lite- 
 rature of the Slavonic nations. He wrote numerous 
 works, of which the most important are a "Grammar of 
 the Bohemian Language," a " History of the Bohemian 
 Language and Literature," (1792,) a" German and Bo- 
 hemian Dictionary," and " Principles of the Old Slavic 
 Dialect," ("Institutiones Linguae Slavicae Dialecti Vete- 
 ris," 1822,) which is highly prized by the Russians. He 
 was subject to frequent attacks of insanity, and in 1801 
 was in a lunatic-asylum. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon ;" F. Palacky, "J. 
 Dobrowski's Leben und Wirken," 1833. 
 
 Dob'son, (Matthew,) F.R.S., an English physician, 
 who practised at Liverpool and Bath. He wrote a 
 " Medical Commentary on Fixed Air," and some other 
 scientific treatises. Died in 1784. 
 
 Dob'son, (Thomas,) a bookseller and writer of Phila- 
 delphia, republished the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," 
 (21 vols. 4to, 1 798-1803,) and wrote "Letters on the 
 Character of the Deity, and the Moral State of Man." 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 Dobson, (William,) a successful English painter 
 of portraits and history, born in London in 1610, was 
 apprenticed to a picture-dealer. Van Dyck introduced 
 him to Charles I., whose portrait he painted. After the 
 death of Van Dyck, Dobson succeeded him as court 
 painter, and was considered the most excellent English 
 portrait-painter of his time. Died in 1646. 
 
 Docampo, do-kam'po, (Florian,) a Spanish his- 
 torian, born at Zamora in 1513, became canon of the 
 metropolitan church of Granada. At the request of 
 Charles V., he undertook to write a history of Spain, 
 and published in 1578 "The First Five Books of a 
 General Chronicle of Spain," which throws much light 
 on the origin and antiquities of that nation. It appears 
 that he left the work unfinished when he died in 1590. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Doccum, van, vin dok'kiim, or Doccom, (Jan,) a 
 Dutch jurist, born at Doccum ; died in 1540. 
 
 Docbe, dosh, (Joseph Denis,) a French composer 
 of airs, etc., born in Paris in 1766; died in 1825. 
 
 Dod, (Albert Baldwin,) D.D., an American divine, 
 son of Daniel Dod, noticed below, was born in Mend- 
 ham, New Jersey, in 1805. He graduated at Princeton 
 in 1822, and became tutor in that college in 1827, and 
 professor of mathematics in 1830. Died at Princeton in 
 1845. l^ r - Dod was an eloquent preacher, and one of 
 the ablest contributors to the "Biblical Repertory and 
 Princeton Review." A collection of his writings hi is been 
 published. 
 
 Dod, (Charles Roger,) an English journalist born 
 in 1793. For about twenty years he was connected with 
 the London "Times," for which he wrote notices of 
 eminent men who died in that period, and reported 
 debates in Parliament. He published an annual called 
 "The Peerage, Baronetage, and Knightage of Greal 
 Britain," (1840-56.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Dod, (Daniel,) an American machinist, born in Vir- 
 ginia in 1788. He built the engine for the Savannah, 
 which in 1819 made the first voyage across the Atlantic 
 ever accomplished by steam. He was killed by a boiler- 
 explosion on the East River, New York, in 1823. 
 
 Dod, (John,) an English Puritan divine, born at Shot- 
 ledge, in Cheshire, in 1547, ministered at Hamvell for 
 about twenty years, and was suspended for noncon- 
 formity about 1598. He excelled in the knowledge of 
 Hebrew, and is often called "the Decalogist," from his 
 "Commentaries on the Decalogue," (1606.) In 1624 he 
 became rector of Fawesley. Fuller, in his " Worthies," 
 says, "John Dod was by nature a witty, by industry a 
 learned, and by grace a godly divine." Died in 1645. 
 
 Dodart, do'dSu', (Claude Jean Baptiste,) a son 
 of Denis, noticed below, was chosen first physician to 
 Louis XV. in 1718, and died in 1730, aged sixty-six. 
 
 Dodart, (Denis,) an eminent French physician, born 
 in Paris in 1634, became physician to Louis XIV. He 
 was chosen a professor of pharmacy in 1666, and was 
 admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1673. He 
 contributed to this institution several treatises on natural 
 history, medicine, etc., and made many experiments on 
 insensible perspiration, the results of which were pub- 
 lished in a work called " Statica Medicina Gallica," ( 1 725.) 
 He wrote the preface of a work which the Academy pub- 
 lished on the " History of Plants." Died in 1707. 
 
 See Fontenelle, " Fjoge de Dodart," 1707. 
 
 Dodd, (Charles,) the assumed name of an English 
 Catholic priest, who resided at Harvington and wrote 
 "The Church History of England, 1500-1688," said to 
 be rare and curious. It was intended as an antidote to 
 Burnet. Died about 1745. 
 
 Dodd, (Ralph,) an English engineer, born in North- 
 umberland about 1756, resided in London. He was the 
 first projector of the Thames Tunnel, which, however, 
 was not made in his time. He also planned the Surrey 
 Canal, Vauxhall Bridge, and other works of public utility, 
 and wrote an "Account of the Principal Canals in the 
 World." Died in 1822. 
 
 Dodd, (Robert,) a skilful English painter of marine 
 views, born in 1748. Among his works is "The Storm 
 which sunk the Jamaica Fleet in 1782." Died about 
 1810. 
 
 Dodd, (William,) D.D., an English clergyman, born 
 at Bourne, in Lincolnshire, in 1729, was ordained in 
 1753, and became an eloquent and fashionable preacher 
 of London. He was appointed chaplain to the king and 
 preceptor to Philip Stanhope (Earl of Chesterfield) about 
 1764. He gained reputation by his writings, among which 
 are "Reflections ou Death," "The Visitor," "Sermons," 
 "The Beauties of Shakspeare," and "Commentaries on 
 Scripture." In 1777 he was convicted of forging the 
 signature of Lord Chesterfield to a bond for /4000, for 
 which he was executed. While confined for this offence, 
 he wrote a poem entitled "Thoughts in Prison." 
 
 See " Memoirs of Dodd," prefixed to his " Thoughts in Prison ;" 
 Georg Forster, " Leben Dr. W. Dodd's," Berlin, 1779. 
 
 Dodd'rldge, written also Doderidge, (Sir John,) 
 an eminent English lawyer, born at Barnstaple in 1555. 
 He was appointed the king's principal sergeant-at-law 
 in 1607. From 1613 until his death he was a judge of 
 the court of king's bench. He was a good scholar and 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (jry*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DODDRIDGE 
 
 77+ 
 
 DODWELL 
 
 a learned antiquary, and author of several works, among 
 which are "The Lawyer's Light," "The English Law- 
 yer," and "The Laws of Nobility." Died in 1628. 
 
 See Foss, " The Judges of England." 
 
 Doddridge, (Philip,) an eminent English dissenting 
 minister, born in London in 1702, was a relative of the 
 preceding, and was the twentieth child of a London 
 merchant. After finishing his studies in a theological 
 seminary at Kibworth, he began to preach at the same 
 p.ace in 1722. In 1729 he opened an academy for the 
 ed jcation of candidates for the ministry at Northampton, 
 where he was also employed as the minister of a dissent- 
 ing church from that date until his death. He married a 
 Miss Maris in 1730. As a minister, he was remarkable 
 for his earnestness, fidelity, and fervent devotion. He 
 wrote a large number of excellent and popular religious 
 works, of which the most important are "The Rise and 
 Progress of Religion in the Soul," (1744,) and "The 
 Family Expositor," (3 vols., 1738,) which is an exposi- 
 tion of the Bible. These have been translated mto 
 many languages. The Rev. Robert Hall, in one of his 
 letters, says, " Doddridge is now my prjme favourite 
 among divines." His work on the " Evidences of Chris- 
 tianity" has long been used as a text-book at Cambridge, 
 England. He composed some of the best hymns which 
 are used in the dissenting churches. In 175 1 he visited 
 Lisbon for his health ; he died there the same year. 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of P. Doddridge," by 
 Job Orton; "Life of Doddridge," by Rev. Dr. Kippis: D. A. 
 Harsha, " Life of Philip Doddridge ;" Schmidt, " Leben des Dr. 
 P. Doddridge," 1830. 
 
 Dodd'ridge, (Philip,) an American lawyer, born in 
 Brooke county, Virginia, in 1772. He acquired distinc- 
 tion as an advocate in trials by jury. In the Constitu- 
 tional Convention of 1829-30 he represented several 
 counties of western Virginia, and was the leader of the 
 party which preferred a white basis of representation. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 Doderidge. See Doddridge. 
 
 Doderlein, do'der-lin', (Johann Alexander,) a 
 German historian and antiquary, born in Franconia in 
 1675 ; died in 1745. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Doderlein or Doederlein, (Johann Christoph,) 
 an eminent German Protestant divine and critic, born 
 at Windsheim, in Bavaria, about 1746, was versed in the 
 Oriental languages. He was chosen professor of the- 
 ology at Altdorf in 1772. He made from the Hebrew 
 text a Latin version of Isaiah, with notes, (1775,) which, 
 says Silvestre de Sacy, "is written in an elegant style." 
 Among his chief works are a "Summary of the Instruc- 
 tion of a Christian Theologian," ("Summa Institutionis 
 Theologi Christian!," 1782,) and (in German)" The Chris- 
 tian Doctrine adapted to the Wants of our Time," (1785.) 
 He contributed to introduce a new theological system 
 opposed to the doctrines of the first Reformers. 11^1782 
 he became professor of theology at Jena. Died in 1792. 
 
 Doderlein or Doederlein, (Ludwig,) a son of the 
 preceding, born at Jena in 1 791, was a distinguished 
 philologist. He became professor of philology at Er- 
 langen in 1827. He published " Latin Synonyms and 
 Etymologies," (6 vols., 1826-38,) a " Manual of Latin 
 Synonymy," (1839,) an edition of "Tacitus," (1847,) and 
 other works. Died in 1863. 
 
 Dodge, (Grknville M.,) an American general, born 
 at Danvers, Massachusetts, in 1831. He commanded a 
 brigade at Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and a corps in the 
 army of General Sherman in the campaign against At- 
 lanta, May to September, 1864. 
 
 Dodge, (Mary Abigail,) a popular and piquant Ame- 
 rican writer, born in Hamilton, Massachusetts, about 
 1838. She has written on a variety of subjects under the 
 pseudonym of Gail Hamilton, (composed of the last 
 syllable of her Christian name and the name of her birth- 
 place.) Among her works maybe mentioned "Coun- 
 try Living and Country Thinking," (1862,) "Gala Days," 
 (1863,) "A New Atmosphere," (1864,) and " Woman's 
 Wrongs : a Counter-irritant," (1868.) No inconsider- 
 able portion of her writings originally appeared as con- 
 tributions to the "Atlantic Monthly." 
 
 Dod'ing-ton, (George Bubh,) Lord Melcombe, an 
 English courtier and politician, born in 1691. He was 
 
 elected to Parliament in 1715, and sent as ambassador 
 to Spain. In 1720 he inherited a large fortune horn his 
 uncle, George Dodington, whose name he then assumed. 
 In 1724 he became a lord of the treasury and a partisan 
 of Walpole, whom he deserted in 1740. In 1761 he was 
 raised to the peerage, as Lord Melcombe. He wrote 
 some poetical pieces, and left a Diary, which gives an 
 insight into the cabals and intrigues of his time, together 
 with a candid exposure of his own venality and egotism. 
 He was the patron of Young, Thomson, and Fielding. 
 Died in 1762. 
 
 Dodoens, do-doons', [Lat. DodoN/«'us; Fr. Dodo- 
 nee, do'do'na',] (Rembert,) an eminent botanist and 
 physician, was born at Malines, or, according to some 
 authorities, in Friesland, about 1518. He was one of 
 those who contributed most to the progress of botany 
 in the sixteenth century. He became physician to the 
 emperor Maximilian II. in 1570, and to Rodolph II. in 
 1576. About 1580 he was chosen professor of medicine 
 at Leyden. Before that date he had published several 
 works on botany, with fine figures. The plates of some 
 of these were lent to him by L'Ecluse. In 1583 he 
 summed up his previous labours in a " History of Plants," 
 ("Stirpium Historian Pemptades,") a work of great eru- 
 dition, illustrated with 1300 engravings. He was author 
 of " Praxis Medica," and other works. Died in 1585. 
 
 See Foppens, "Bibliotheca Belgica ;" Niceron, '* Memoires 1" 
 Van Meerbeck, " Recherches sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Do- 
 doens," 1841 ; Avoine, " E*loge de R. Dodoens." 
 
 Do-do-nae'us, a surname of Jupiter, which see. 
 
 Dodonee or Dodoiiceus. See Dodoens. 
 
 Dods'ley, (Robert,) a noted English bookseller and 
 author, born near Mansfield in 1709, lived in London. 
 He was a footman in early life, and in 1732 published a 
 volume of verses entitled "The Footman's Miscellany." 
 His drama " The Toyshop" gained him the friendship 
 of Pope, and was performed with great success in 1735. 
 He then opened a bookstore in Pall Mall, which was 
 much frequented by authors and literary amateurs. He 
 prospered in business, and became one of the principal 
 booksellers in London. In 1737 he produced the farce 
 of "The King and the Miller of Mansfield," which was 
 greatly applauded. The popular and ingenious " Econ- 
 omy of Human Life," which appeared anonymously in 
 1750, is generally ascribed to him. His tragedy of 
 "Cleone" was performed in 1758 with complete success. 
 Dr. Johnson said, " If Otway had written it, no other of 
 his pieces would have been remembered." He published 
 a "Select Collection of Old Plays," which is highly 
 prized. He purchased Dr. Johnson's poem of " Lon- 
 don" (1738) for ten guineas, and his " Vanity of Human 
 Wishes" for fifteen guineas. Dodsley was the author of 
 other works, not named above, and was the projector 
 of literary enterprises in which the most eminent talents 
 of the time were enlisted. Died in 1764. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica;" Johnson, " Lives of the English 
 Poets." 
 
 Dod'spn, (James,) an English mathematician, pub- 
 lished various works on mathematics. Died in 1757. 
 
 Dods'worth, (Roger,) an English antiquary, born 
 in Yorkshire in 1585, wrote 122 volumes on antiquities, 
 which remain as manuscripts in the Bodleian Library. 
 He co-operated with Dugdale in the " Monasticon Angli- 
 canum." Died in 1654. He was patronized by General 
 Lord Fairfax, who bequeathed the above-mentioned 
 manuscripts to the Bodleian Library. 
 
 Dodvens. See Doudyns. 
 
 Dod'well, (Colonel Edward,) a British antiquary 
 and artist, produced in 1818 a "Classical and Topo- 
 graphical Tour through Greece," richly illustrated, which 
 is esteemed one of the best works on that subject. It 
 was followed by a costly volume, entitled "Thirty Views 
 in Greece," (1821.) From 1800, when he left college, 
 until his death, he passed the most of his time on the 
 continent. He died in Rome in 1832, leaving drawings 
 of " Cyclopean or Pelasgic Remains in Greece and Italy," 
 which have since been published. 
 
 Dodwell, (Henry,) a theologian and chronologist, 
 born in Dublin about 1642, settled in London in 1674, 
 and adopted the profession of author and critic, in which 
 he displayed great learning and industry. In 1688 he 
 was chosen Camden professor of history at Oxford ; but, 
 
 i, e, T, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, |, q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon. 
 
DODWELL 
 
 775 
 
 DOLET 
 
 refusing to take tlie oath of allegiance to William III., he 
 was removed about 1091. He wrote several works un 
 theology and chronology, among which are " Annals of 
 Thucyd'idcs and Xcnophon," (1696,) "Annotations on 
 the Greek Geographers," " Dissertations on the Ancient 
 Cycles of the Greeks and Romans," etc., (1 701,) and a 
 discourse proving that the soul is naturally mortal, and 
 that the bishops have the power of giving immortality, 
 (17C6.) The last work excited much controversy, and 
 naturally gave especial offence to the dissenters. Died 
 111 171 1. 
 
 See Bkokesby, "Life of Henry Podwell," 1715; Macaulay, 
 'History of England," vol. iii. 
 
 Dodwell, (William,) a son of the preceding, born 
 in 1 709, became prebendary of Salisbury and Archdeacon 
 of Berks. lie published sermons and treatises on 
 theology, among which is "The Sick Man's Companion." 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 Doebereiner. See Dobereiner. 
 
 Doederlein. See Doderlein. 
 
 Doelliuger. See Dollincer. 
 
 Doenniges. See Donniges. 
 
 Doerfel. See Dorfkl. 
 
 Doerflingeror Doerfling. See Derfflinger. 
 
 Doeiingk. See Doringk. 
 
 Does, van der. See Dousa. 
 
 Does, van der, vSn der doos, (Antoon,) a Dutch 
 engraver, born at the Hague in 1610 ; died about 1680. 
 
 Does, van der, (Jacob,) called the Elder, a Dutch 
 landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam about 1620, was 
 a pupil of N. Moyaert. He finished his studies in Rome, 
 and settled at the Hague. He imitated Van der Laer 
 with success, and painted animals and figures with skill. 
 Died in 1673 at Amsterdam. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Does, van der, (Jacob,) the Younger, a Dutch 
 painter of history, son of the preceding, was born at 
 Amsterdam in 1054. He studied under Dujardin and 
 Lairesse. Died in Paris in 1693. 
 
 Does, van der, (Peter,) a Dutch admiral, who acted 
 a brilliant part in the war which liberated the Dutch 
 from Spanish domination. About 1598 he obtained com- 
 mand of a large fleet, with which he attacked the coast 
 of Spain and pillaged several colonies. Died in the island 
 of Saint Thomas, in the West Indies, in 1599. 
 
 See Van der Aa, " Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden." 
 
 Does, van der, (Simon,) a son of Jacob the elder, born 
 at Amsterdam in 1653, was a skilful landscape-painter. 
 He worked at the Hague, Antwerp, and other places. His 
 works have found their way into the cabinets of various 
 foreign countries. Died about 1700. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 Doeveren, van, vin doo'ver-en, (Wouter,) a Dutch 
 medical writer, born in Zealand in 1730, became pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Leyden in 1 771. Died in 1783. 
 
 Dog'gett or Dog'get, (Thomas,) an Irish actor, born 
 in Dublin ; died in 1721. 
 
 Dogiel, d6g'y£l, (Matthew,) a Polish historian, born 
 about 1715, became rector of a college at Wilna. He 
 wrote an important work on Polish diplomacy, "Codex 
 Diplomaticus Regni Poloniae," (1758.) Died in 1760. 
 
 Doglioni, dil-yo'nee, (Giovanni Niccol6,) a Vene- 
 tian historical writer, born at Udine, published in 1598 
 a "History of Venice from its Origin to 1 597." 
 
 Dohrn, dom, (Christian Wilhelm,) a German diplo- 
 matist and historical writer, born at Lemgo in 1751. He 
 entered the civil service of Prussia about 1778, became 
 privy councillor in 1783, and was employed in several 
 missions. He represented Prussia in the Congress 
 of Rastadt in 1797. In 1807 he entered the council of 
 state of Jerome Bonaparte. He wrote, besides other 
 works, "Memoirs of my Time," (1814—19, 5 vols.,) which 
 is regarded as an important work. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Gronau, "Dohms Biographie," 1824; Ersch und Gruber, 
 "Allgemeine Encyklujiaedie." 
 
 Dohna, von, fon do'na, (Alexander,) Count, a 
 Prussian general, born in 1661, was governor of the 
 prince Frederick William who became King of Prussia. 
 He was afterwards appointed first minister of Frederick 
 I. and Frederick William II. Died in 1728. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie.* 
 
 Dohna, von, (Christoph,) born in Prussia in 1702, 
 was made lieutenant-general in 1 75 1, and served with 
 distinction in the Seven Years' war. He commanded 
 the right wing at the battle of Zorndorf, and defeated 
 Haddik in 1758. Died in 1762. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Doig, (David,) a Scottish writer and classical scholar, 
 born in 1 719, taught school at Stirling. He contributed 
 several articles to the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," and 
 addressed to Lord Karnes two " Letters on the Savage 
 State," (1792.) Died in 1800. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Doigny du Ponceau, dwan'ye' dii poN'so', a French 
 poet, born in Maine about 1750; died in 1830. 
 
 Doissin, dwa'saN', (Louis,) a French Jesuit, born in 
 America in 1721, excelled in Latin poetry. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "Sculptura, Carmen," (1752,) a 
 poem on sculpture, and " Scalptura," a poem on en- 
 graving. Died in Paris in 1753. 
 -Dokkalfar. See Elves. 
 
 Dol-a-bel'la, (Publius Cornelius,) a Roman of pa- 
 trician rank and profligate habits, born about 70 B.C. He 
 married Cicero's daughter Tullia. He was an adherent 
 of Caesar in the civil war, and fought for him at Phar- 
 salia. He obtained the consulship soon after the death 
 of Caesar, 44 B.C. At first he favoured the senate against 
 Antony; but he soon went over to the interest of the 
 latter, who probably gave him a large bribe. He com- 
 manded an expedition to Syria, where he was defeated 
 by Cassius, and, being besieged in Laodicea, committed 
 suicide, 43 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Antony ;" Dion Cassius, " History of Rome." 
 
 Dolabella,do-la-bel'la,(ToMMASO,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Belluno in 1570, worked in Cracow. Died in 1650. 
 
 Dol'ben, (John,) an English prelate, born at Stan- 
 wick in 1625. He fought for the king at Marston Moor 
 and at York in the civil war. In 1656 he was ordained, 
 and officiated at Oxford several years. He was rewarded 
 with several benefices at the restoration, (1660,) became 
 Bishop of Rochester in 1666, lord high almoner in 1675, 
 and Archbishop of York in 1683. A few of his sermons 
 were printed. Died in 1686. 
 
 Dolce, dol'cha, or Dolci, dol'chee, (Carlo,) an emi- 
 nent Italian painter, born at Florence in 1616, was a 
 pupil of Jacopo Vignali. He confined his talents to re- 
 ligious subjects, except a few portraits. The Emperot 
 of Germany invited him to his court, where he painted 
 several portraits of the imperial family. Among his 
 master-pieces are "Christ on Mount Olivet," and a 
 " Holy Family." His works have an exquisite finish, a 
 soft and harmonious colouring, and are remarkable for 
 a tender and sentimental expression. His pictures are 
 prized as ornaments in many well-chosen collections. 
 Died at Florence in 1686. "Three pen-strokes of Raf- 
 faelle," says Raskin, "are a greater and better picture 
 than the most finished work that ever Carlo Dolci pol- 
 ished into inanity." 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Dolce, (Luigi,) an Italian litterateur, born in Venice 
 in 1508. He translated Cicero's Orations, and other 
 ancient authors, and wrote, among other works, "Jo- 
 casta," a tragedy, (1549,) a "Life of Charles V.," (1551,) 
 and a Dialogue on Painting, called "Aretino," (1 557.,' 
 Died about 1568. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Dolci. See Dolce, (Carlo.) 
 
 Dolendo, do-len'do, (Bartholomeus,) a Dutch en- 
 graver, born at Leyden about 1560. He was a pupil ot 
 Goltzius. 
 
 Dolendo, (Zacharias,) an able engraver, born at 
 Leyden, was a pupil of Jacob von Ghein. He was living 
 in 1590. 
 
 Dolet, do'lj', (Etiennf.,) a learned Frenchman, born 
 at Orleans in 1509, gained a wide reputation by his 
 writings on theology, literature, etc., which also exposed 
 him to persecution. He lived for some time at Lyons, 
 where he established a printing-press and published 
 some of his own works, for which he was imprisoned. 
 In 1543 the Parliament condemned his books to be 
 burned, as too favourable to the new doctrines. About 
 
 eas 
 
 k; 9 as j, g hard; g as>; G, H, K,gutlural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as e; th as in this. ( J^— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DOLGOROUKI 
 
 776 
 
 DO MAT 
 
 1546 the author himself, on a false charge of atheism, 
 suffered death by fire. Among his works, in Latin, are 
 a "Dialogue on the Imitation of Cicero," written against 
 Erasmus, a " Commentary on the Latin Language," 
 (1536,) and " Summary of the Acts of Francis I.," (1540.) 
 He was a friend of Bonaventure Desperiers. " The 
 French language," says A. F. Didot, " owes him much 
 for his treatises, translations, [from Cicero and Plato,] 
 and poesies." 
 
 See Bay LE, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" A. F. Didot, 
 " Essai sur la Typographic" 
 
 Dolgorouki. See Dolgoruki. 
 
 Dolgoruki or Dolgorouki, dol'go-roo'kee, (Ivan 
 Mikhailovitch,) Prince, a Russian poet, born at Mos- 
 cow about 1760, attained high dignities in the public ser- 
 vice. From 1802 to 1812 he was Governor of Vladimir. 
 He wrote many articles for literary journals, and gained 
 a high reputation by his poetical epistles and satires. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 See Otto, " Lehrbuch der Russischen Literatur." 
 
 Dolgoruki, (Vassili Vladimirovitch,) a Russian 
 prince and field-marshal, born in 1667. He was sent as 
 ambassador to France and Germany by Peter the Great. 
 In 1726 Catherine I. appointed him general-in-chief, and 
 sent him on an expedition against Persia. Peter II. 
 raised him to the rank of field-marshal in 1728. Soon 
 after this date he lost the favour of the court, and was 
 imprisoned, but was restored in 1741. Died in 1746. 
 
 Dolgoruki, (YaKof Feodorovitch,) a Russian 
 prince, born in 1639. He distinguished himself in the 
 campaigns of 1696 and 1697 against the Turks, and ob- 
 tained the rank of general. In 1700 he was made prisoner 
 at Narva by the Swedes, who detained him ten years. 
 He was made a senator by Peter I. Died in 1720. 
 
 Doligny, do'len'ye', (Louise Adelaide,) afterwards 
 Madame Dudoyer de Gastels, dii'dwa'yi' deh gaV- 
 tel', a French comic actress, born in Paris in 1746; died 
 in 1823. 
 
 Dolivar, do-le-vaR', (Juan,) a Spanish engraver, born 
 at Saragossa in 1641 ; died in Paris in 1701. 
 
 Doll or Doell, dol, (Friedrich Wilhei.m,) a German 
 sculptor, born at Hildburghausen in 1750; died in 1816. 
 
 Dollinger or Doellinger, dbl'ling'er, (Ignaz,) a 
 German physiologist, born at Bamberg in 1770. In 1826 
 he became professor of anatomy at Munich. Among his 
 principal works are "Elements of Physiology," (1835,) 
 and " On the Importance of Comparative Anatomy." 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 See P. F. von Walther, "Rede zum Andenken an Dr. I. Dbl- 
 linger," 1841. 
 
 Dollinger or DoeUinger, (Johann Joseph Ignaz,) 
 a learned Catholic theologian, son of the preceding, bom 
 at Bamberg in 1799. He became professor of ecclesias- 
 tical history and canon law at Munich in 1826. He has 
 published a "Treatise on the History of the Church," 
 (1838,) "Origin of Christianity," and other works. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1862; "British Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1862. 
 
 Dol'lond, (John,) an eminent English optician, born 
 in London in 1706, was descended from French refugees. 
 He learned the trade of a silk-weaver, and followed the 
 same for many years, improving his leisure in the study 
 of sciences and languages. He thus became a profound 
 mathematician and a good linguist. About 1752 John 
 Dollond retired from the trade of weaver, and became 
 a practical optician in partnership with his son. They 
 made improvements in the art, and became celebrated 
 for the fabrication of telescopes. About 1757 he made 
 an important discovery respecting the dispersion (or 
 aberration) of light, and wrote a treatise on the subject, 
 for which the Royal Society awarded him the Copley 
 medal. The result of this discovery was the achromatic 
 telescope. In 1761 he was chosen a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and became optician to the king. Died 
 about 1761. 
 
 See John Kelly, " Life of J. Dollond." 
 
 Dollond, (Peter,) a son of the preceding, born about 
 1730, was a worthy successor of his father, under whose 
 tuition he attained great proficiency in mathematics. 
 From 1766 until 1804 he and his brother John were 
 partners, and maintained a high reputation by their skill 
 
 as opticians. In 1804 John died, and Peter took as a 
 partner his nephew, George Huggins, who then changed 
 his name to Dollond. Peter died in 1820. George died 
 in 1832. The former had improved Hadley's quadrant, 
 and written a treatise on telescopes. 
 
 Dolomieu, de, deh do'lo'me-y,h',(DEODAT Gui Svl- 
 vain Tancrede de Gratet^gRS'ti',) a celebrated 
 French geologist and mineralogist, born at Dolomieu, in 
 Dauphine, in 1750, was the son of the Marquis of Do- 
 lomieu. He was admitted into the order of Malta, in 
 which he remained until about 1770, when he killed one 
 of his companions in a duel. While confined for this 
 offence, he became a student of the natural sciences. After 
 his release he formed a friendship with La Rochefou- 
 cauld, by whose influence he was chosen a correspondent 
 of the Academy of Sciences. About 1777 he returned to 
 Malta, where he was promoted to some offices in the 
 order. From Malta he made scientific excursions to 
 Sicily and Italy for several years, during which he wrote 
 treatises on volcanoes. He returned to France in 171)1, 
 composed some important articles on geology for the 
 "Journal de Physique," and traversed on foot all parts 
 of that country, with the geologist's hammer in his hand. 
 
 In 1796 he was appointed professor' in the School 
 of Mines, and was chosen a member of the Institute. 
 He was one of the savants selected to attend Bonaparte 
 in his expedition to Egypt in 1798, and was delighted 
 with such an opportunity to pursue his favourite studies 
 in a new field of inquiry. After a hasty survey of a part 
 of Lower Egypt, he sailed for France in March, 1799, and 
 was taken prisoner by the Neapolitans, (then at war 
 with the French,) who kept him in a dungeon and treated 
 him with great cruelty. Efforts were vainly made by 
 several sovereign powers for his release, which could 
 not be obtained until the victory of Marengo compelled 
 Naples to make a treaty in which his liberation was 
 positively stipulated. He arrived at Paris in March, 
 1801, and found that he had been appointed professor 
 of mineralogy in the Museum of Natural History. He 
 delivered one course of lectures, then made a journey 
 to the Alps, and died in November, 1S01. 
 
 "Dolomieu," says Cuvier, "seemed to be born for 
 geology. To a decided passion for that study he joined 
 all the physical and moral faculties requisite for success." 
 Though adverse fortunes did not permit him to fully 
 develop his powers as the author of any system of 
 geology, yet the science is much indebted to his treatises. 
 During his imprisonment, though deprived of pen and 
 ink, he wrote a "Treatise on Mineralogical Philosophy" 
 and a " Memoir on Mineral Species," using the smoke 
 of his lamp as a substitute for ink. 
 
 See notice, by Cuvier, in the " Biographie Universelle;" Lace- 
 pede, " Notice historique sur la Vie de Dolomieu," 1802 ; " Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1804. 
 
 Dolscius, dols'tse-us, (Paul,) a German Hellenist, 
 born at Plauen in 1526, was a friend of Melanchthon. 
 Died in 1589. 
 
 Domairon, do'm^'r6N', (Louis,) a French Jesuit, born 
 at Beziers in 1745, wrote "The General Principles of 
 Belles-lettres," (1785,) and other works. Died in 1807. 
 
 Domard, do'miR', (Joseph Francois,) a French 
 engraver of medals and gems, born in Paris in 1792; 
 died in 1858. 
 
 Doniat, do'mi', or Daumat, do'mt', (Jean,) an emi- 
 nent F'rench jurist, born at Clermont in Auvergne in 
 1625. He had intimate relations with the recluses of Port- 
 Royal, especially with Pascal, who at his death intrusted 
 to him his private papers. The details of his virtuous 
 and useful life have not been recorded. His reputation 
 is founded on a great systematic work entitled " The 
 Civil Laws in their Natural Order," (1689.) Many per- 
 sons had attempted to systematize the confused and ill- 
 digested materials of Roman law ; but no one succeeded 
 so perfectly as Doinat, who is considered the most emi- 
 nent jurist of his age. He received a pension from Louis 
 XIV. DAguesseau, a most competent judge, spoke of 
 him with profound respect. Domat was for many years 
 king's advocate in the presidial court of Clermont. Died 
 in Paris in 1695. 
 
 See Eugene Cauchy, "Etudes sur Domat," 1852; Victor 
 Cousin's article in the "Journal des Savants," 1843; Sainte-Beuvk, 
 " Port-Royal ;" Carre, " Notice historique sur Domat," prefixed to 
 his works, Paris, 1822. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, Jf, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
DOMBAT 
 
 777 
 
 DOMINICI 
 
 Dombay, von, fon dom'bl, (Franz,) an Austrian 
 Orientalist, born in Vienna in 1758, was appointed inter- 
 preter to the court for Oriental languages in 1792. He 
 published "Geschichte der Scherifen," a "History of 
 the Shereefs," (princes of Morocco,) (1801,) a " Persian 
 Grammar," (1804,) and other works, which are com- 
 mended by Silvestre de Sacy. Died in 1810. 
 
 Dombey, d6.N'b&', (Joseph,) a French botanist and 
 physician, born at Macon in 1742, studied botany at 
 Paris under Jussieu. He received a commission lrom 
 Turgot, the prime minister, to visit South America and 
 collect such useful plants as could be profitably culti- 
 vated in France, and arrived at Callao in 1778. He 
 traversed Peru, Chili, etc., discovered mines of gold 
 and quicksilver, and had many romantic adventures. 
 Returning home, he landed at Cadiz in 1785 with an 
 immense collection, of which, it is stated, the Spanish 
 officials confiscated half and damaged the other half. 
 Buffon procured for him a pension of six thousand 
 livres. Dombey was living at Lyons when it was be- 
 sieged in 1793, after which he obtained a mission to the 
 United States. On the voyage thither he was taken 
 by privateers, and imprisoned in Montserrat, where he 
 died about 1794. The French regard him as one of 
 the most enterprising and successful explorers of the 
 domain of botany in the eighteenth century. As he was 
 unable to defray the expense of publishing the results 
 of his researches in Peru, he placed his herbal. in the 
 hands of L'Heritier, who prepared a Flora of Peru, 
 which he left in manuscript. 
 
 See Deleuze, "Notice sur Dombey," in the "Annates du 
 Museum d'Histoire naturelle;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Dombrowski, dom-brov'skee, (John Henry,) an 
 able Polish general, born in the palatinate of Cracow in 
 1755. In the effort for independence which the Poles 
 began about 1791, he took a prominent part, and ob- 
 tained the rank of general. He was compelled to sur- 
 render to Suwarrow in November, 1794, when his nation 
 ceased to exist. In 1797 he entered the service of the 
 Cisalpine Republic, for which he formed and commanded 
 a Polish legion. He displayed great valour and ability 
 at Trebbia, (1799,) where he commanded a wing of the 
 French army. After the battle of Jena (1806) Bona- 
 parte called him to Poland, where he raised an army 
 of 30,000 Poles. As general of division, Dombrowski 
 gained victories at Dirschau and at Bromberg in 1809. 
 He was wounded at Berezina in 1812, but continued to 
 fight for Bonaparte until 1814. Died in 1818. 
 
 See L. Chodzko, " Histoire des Legions Polonaises en Italie," 
 1829; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Domenichi, do-meVe-kee or do-ma'ne-kee, (Luigi,) 
 an Italian litterateur, born at Piacenza, lived at Venice 
 and at Florence, where he was patronized by Duke Co- 
 simo I. He translated into Italian Plutarch's "Lives," 
 (1555,) Pliny's "Natural History," (1561,) and other 
 works. He also wrote several original works, among 
 which are "The Nobility of Women," ("La Nobilita 
 delle Donne,") and " The Court Lady," (" La Donna di 
 Corte.") Died in 1564. 
 
 See TiRABoscm, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 Domenichi, da, di do-men'e-kee or do-ma'ne-kee, 
 (Domenico,) a learned prelate, born in Venice in 1416, 
 lived many years in Rome. He was made referendary 
 by Calixtu's III., nuncio by another pope, and Bishop 
 of Brescia by Paul II. He wrote a "Treatise on the 
 Episcopal Dignity," and many other works on theology. 
 Died in 1478. 
 
 Domenichino, do-men-e-kee'no, [Fr. Dominiquin, 
 do'me'ne'ka.s',] an eminent Italian painter, whose proper 
 name was Domenico Zampieri, do-men'e-ko dzam-pe- 
 a'ree, was born at Bologna in 1581. He studied under 
 Annibal Caracci in Rome, where he remained some 
 years and was patronized as a painter and architect by 
 Gregory XV. He afterwards worked in Naples, where 
 he died in 1641. He painted in oil and in fresco, was 
 a good colorist, and excelled both in history and land- 
 scapes. Among his master-pieces are " The Martyrdom 
 Of Saint Agnes," and the "Communion of Saint Je- 
 rome," finished about 1612, which is to be seen in the 
 Vatican opposite Raphael's "Transfiguration." Some 
 judges, as Caracci and N. Poussin, estimate him as 
 
 scarcely inferior to any painter except Raphael, Cor- 
 reggio, and Titian. 
 
 Set Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Malvasia, " Felsina 
 Pittrice ;" Bolognini AMORINl, " Vitadi Domenico Zampieri," 1839; 
 Bellori," Vitede' Pittori ;" Nagler," Neues Allgemeines Kunstlet- 
 Lexikon ;" Lecarpentier, " Notice sur D. Zampieri," 181a. 
 
 Domenici, do-men'e-chee or do-ma'ne-chee, (Fran- 
 cesco,) an Italian painter, born at Treviso, lived about 
 1530, and died at the age of thirty-five. He is called 
 one of the best pupils of Titian. 
 
 Domenico. See Dominic, Saint. 
 
 Domenico, do-men'e-ko, (Alexis,) [Fr. Dominique 
 le Grec, do'me'nek' leh gRek,] called il Greco, (el 
 gRa'ko,) an artist, born in the Greek Archipelago about 
 1547, was a pupil of Titian in Venice. He excelled in 
 painting, sculpture, and architecture, and imitated the 
 manner of Titian with success. In his later years he 
 worked in Toledo and other cities of Spain, where he 
 produced many admired paintings and formed some able 
 pupils. He designed a church in Toledo, and adorned it 
 with sculptures and pictures. Died in 1625. 
 
 See Nagi.er, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Domenico d'Asciano. See Bartolo, (Domenico.) 
 
 Domenico de' Barbieri, do-men'e-ko da baR-be- 
 a'ree, or Domenico Fiorentino, (fe-o-ren-tee'no,) a 
 painter, sculptor, and engraver, born at Florence in 
 1506; died in 1560. 
 
 Domenico degli Camei, do-men'e-ko dil'yee ka- 
 ma'ee, an Italian artist, born at Milan, derived his sur- 
 name from his skill in engraving gems in relief, or cameos. 
 His family name was Compagni. Vasari speaks with 
 admiration of his portraits of Ludovico Sforza and other 
 princes, which are among the most precious monuments 
 of modern iconography. Died about 1490. 
 
 Domenico veneziano, do-men'e-ko vi-net-se-i'no, 
 or Domenico of Venice, an Italian painter, born about 
 1408, is said to have been the first who painted in oil at 
 Florence. He was assassinated by Castagno, the painter, 
 about 1462. (See Castagno.) 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Domergue, do'miRg', (Franqois Urbain,) a French 
 grammarian, born at Aubagne in 1745, settled in Paris 
 about 1790, and a few years later was chosen a member 
 of the Institute. He was the author of " Orthographic 
 Exercises," and other grammatical works. Died in 1810. 
 Dom'ett, written also Domott, (Sir William,) an 
 English admiral, born in Devonshire about 1754, served 
 under Rodney and Nelson against the French. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Domingo, do-meng'go, (Luis,) a Spanish painter and 
 sculptor, born at Valencia in 1718; died in 1767. 
 Domingo de Guzman. See Dominic, Saint. 
 Dom'I-nic, [So. Domingo de Guzman, do-meng'go 
 di gooth-min' ; Fr. Dominique, do'me'nek'; It. Dome- 
 nico, do-men'e-ko,] Saint, the founder of the order 
 of Dominicans, was born at Calahorra, in Old Castile, 
 in 1170. Having become noted for his zeal and elo- 
 quence as a preacher, he was admitted in 1198 into the 
 chapter of the Bishop of Osma, whom he assisted in his 
 efforts to convert the Albigenses in France. According 
 to the Catholics, he performed many miracles, and offered 
 to sell himself as a slave in order to raise money for 
 charitable purposes. He appears to have been one of 
 the instigators of the crusade against the Albigenses about 
 1212, in which many thousands of those people perished. 
 In 1215 he founded the order of Preaching Friars, or 
 Dominicans, which was approved by the pope in 1216 
 and was rapidly multiplied in Christendom. Their rules 
 exact rigorous fasting and total abstinence from flesh. 
 The design of the founder was to make the conversion 
 of heretics their special pursuit. In France they were 
 often called Jacobins. Dominic became the first general 
 of the order. The pope created in his favour the office 
 of Master of the Sacred Palace, which is always filled 
 by a Dominican. He died in 1221, and was canonized 
 by Gregory IX. in 1234. 
 
 SeeTouRON, "Vie de Saint-Dominique," 1739: Castillo, "His- 
 toria del Santo Domingo," 1612-22; Lacordaire, " Vie de Saint- 
 Dominique," 1S40; Bottoni, "Vita di San Donx:iiico,"3vols.,i789. 
 
 • Dominici, da, di do-mee'ne-chee, (Bernardo,) a 
 Neapolitan artist, published "The Lives of Neapolitan 
 Painters, Sculptors, and Architects," (3 vols., 1742-45.) 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, %,gutturai; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as t; th as in this. (By See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DOMINIKUS 
 
 77* 
 
 DON ATI 
 
 Dominikus, do-.mee'ne-kus, (Jakob,) a German his- 
 torian, born at Rheinbergen in 1764. Among his works, 
 which are highly commended, are " Ferdinand, Duke 
 of Alva," (1796,) and "Henry IV. of France," (2 vols., 
 
 1 797-) 
 
 Dominique. See Domenico and Dominic, Saint. 
 
 Dominique Barriere, do'me'nek' bf're-aiR', a 
 French engraver, born at Marseilles in 1622, worked at 
 Rome. 
 
 Dominique le Grec. See Domenico, (Alexis.) 
 
 Dominiquin. See Domenichino. 
 
 Dominis, de, di dom'e-ness, (Marcantonio,) an 
 Italian theologian, born in the isle of Arba, near Dal- 
 matia, in 1566. He gained early distinction as professor 
 of philosophy and mathematics at Padua, and became 
 Archbishop of Spalatro. Before this promotion he wrote 
 a curious treatise on light, " On the Rays of Light and 
 Vision in Perspective Glasses and in the Rainbow," 
 (" De Radiis Visus et Lucis in Vitris perspectivis et 
 Iride," i6ii,) in which the phenomenon of the rainbow 
 was explained for the first time. About 1615 he removed 
 to England, turned Protestant, and was appointed Dean of 
 Windsor by James I. He published arguments against 
 Popery in his work " On the Ecclesiastical Republic," 
 ("De Republica Ecclesiastica," 1617.) He returned to 
 Italy in 1622, and abjured the doctrines of that work. 
 On a suspicion that he was about to recant again, he 
 was imprisoned at Rome, and died in prison in 1624. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Lettres philosophiques ;" Limborch, " Historia 
 Inquisitionis." 
 
 Domitian, do-mish'e-an, [Lat. Domitia'nus; Fr. 
 Domitien, do'me'se'aN 7 ^ or, more fully, Ti'tua Fla'- 
 vius Domitia'nus, a Roman emperor, the second son 
 of Vespasian, born in 51 A.D., succeeded his brother 
 Titus in 81. Though his character was depraved and 
 cruel, he at first affected a zeal for public virtue and jus- 
 tice. He was defeated by the Dacians, and made a dis- 
 graceful treaty, by which he bound himself to pay them 
 tribute. His armies were generally unsuccessful, except 
 in Britain, which was conquered by Agricola. He mar- 
 ried Domitia Longina, to whom he gave the title of 
 Augusta. Many innocent persons fell victims to his 
 suspicions, his cruelty, or his rapacity. He banished the 
 philosophers and literati, among whom was Epictetus. 
 One of his favourite pastimes was hunting and killing 
 flies. A conspiracy was formed among his guards and 
 courtiers, and he was killed in his palace in 96 A.D., when 
 the senate chose Nerva as his successor. 
 
 See Tacitus, " Historia ;" SuETONlus,"Domitianus ;" Niebuhr, 
 " Rbmische Geschichte," vol. ii. ; J. Arrhenius, " Vita Imperatoris 
 Domitiani," 1696. 
 
 Domitianus. See Domitian. 
 
 Domitianus, do-mish-e-a'nus, (Lucius Domitius,) a 
 Roman general, who assumed the title of emperor in 
 the reign of Diocletian. He was put to death in 288 A.D. 
 
 Doiii-1-til'la or Domitia, do-mish'e-a, the wife of 
 the emperor Vespasian, was the mother of Titus and 
 Domitian. She died before the accession of Vespasian. 
 
 Domitius Afer. See Afer. 
 
 Domitius Ahenobarbus. See Ahe.nobarbus. 
 
 Dommartin, do'mtK'taN', (Elz^ard Augusts,) a 
 French general, born in 1768, distinguished himself at 
 the battle of the Pyramids and at El Arish. He was 
 killed at Rosetta in 1799. 
 
 Domnus. See Donus. 
 
 Don, (David,) a Scottish botanist, born at Forfar in 
 1800. He went to London in 1819, and gained repu- 
 tation by a " Monograph on the Genus Saxifraga." In 
 1822 he was appointed librarian of the Linnaean Society, 
 to which he contributed several able botanical treatises. 
 In 1825 he produced a valuable work on the plants of 
 Nepaul, " Prodromus Flora; Nepalensis." He became 
 professor of botany in King's College, London, in 1836. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Don, (George,) father of the preceding, born about 
 1770, was proprietor of a nursery and botanic garden at 
 Forfar, and was a good botanist. Died in 1814. 
 
 Don, (Sir George,) a British general, born in 1756; 
 died in 1832. 
 
 Don, (George,) a botanist, born in 1798, was a brother 
 of David Don, noticed above. He made scientific ex- 
 
 cursions to Africa and South America, and published 
 an excellent " System of Gardening and Botany," (4 
 vols., 1831-38.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Don'ald I„ King of Scotland, is said to have been 
 the first Christian king of that country. Died about 
 2l6 A.D. 
 
 Donald II., King of Scotland, reigned about four 
 years, and died about 864 A.D. 
 
 Donald IV. or VI., King of Scotland, reigned from 
 892 to 904 A.D. 
 
 Donald VII. See Duncan. 
 
 Donald VIII., sometimes called Donald Bane, 
 usurped the throne of Scotland in 1093. He was de- 
 posed by Edgar Atheling in 1098. ' 
 
 Don'ald-son, (John,) a skilful Scottish portrait- 
 painter, born in Edinburgh in 1737, lived some years in 
 London. He published an " Essay on the Elements of 
 Beauty," and a volume of poems. He was a very suc- 
 cessful artist, especially in miniature. Died in 1801. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Don'ald-son, (Professor John,) an eminent British 
 agriculturist of the present age. He published a " Treat- 
 ise on Manures and Grasses," (1842,) "Cultivated Plants 
 of the Farm," (1847,) an d "Agricultural Biography," 
 (London, 1854,) which is said to be an excellent work. 
 
 Don'ald-son, (Rev. John William,) an English 
 philologist, born in 1812, published Greek, Latin, and 
 Hebrew grammars, and other works. Died about 1861. 
 
 Donaldson, (Thomas Leverton,) an English archi- 
 tect, born in London about 1795. He published a 
 " Collection of Doorways from Ancient and Modern 
 Buildings in Greece and Italy," (1833.) In 1843 ne De " 
 came professor of architecture in University College, 
 London. He was architect of All-Saints Church, Lon- 
 don, and of other churches in or near that city. 
 
 Donaldson, (Walter,) a Scottish writer, born at 
 Aberdeen about 1575, published " Synopsis GJconomica." 
 
 Donat. See Donatus. 
 
 Donatello, do-na-tel'lo, ( Donato di Belto di 
 Bardo,) an eminent sculptor, born in Florence in 1383, 
 worked in Florence, Venice, Rome, and Padua, and was 
 highly successful. He was patronized by the famous 
 Cosimo de' Medici. Among his best productions are 
 bronze figures of Saint George, of Saint Mark, and of 
 "Judith holding the Head of Holofernes." He excelled 
 in the representation of historical events by bas-reliefs. 
 His character was noble and liberal. Died in 1466. His 
 works are commended for correctness of form, for pro- 
 priety of attitude, and for power and truth of expression, 
 sometimes reaching the pathetic and sublime. 
 
 See Andrea Francioni, " Elogio di Donatello," 1837; Nagi.er, 
 " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Donatello, (Simone,) a Florentine sculptor, brother 
 of the preceding. He was invited to Rome in 143 1 by 
 Pope Eugene, and spent about twelve years in adorning 
 one of the doors of Saint Peter's with bas-reliefs. 
 
 Donati, do-na'tee, a noble and powerful Guelph 
 family of Florence, which flourished about the end of 
 the thirteenth century. Gemma Donati, the wife of 
 Dante, was a member of this family. 
 
 Donati, (Alessandro,) an Italian Jesuit, poet, and 
 antiquary, born at Sienna in 1584, professed rhetoric in 
 Rome with distinction. He wrote, in Latin, a poem on 
 the "Poetic Art," an epic poem named " Constantinus," 
 (1640,) and an excellent work on the edifices of Rome, 
 ("Roma vetus et recens," 1633,) which was perhaps 
 superior to anything previously written on the antiquities 
 of that city. Died in 1640. 
 
 Donati, (Antonio,) a Venetian naturalist, born in 
 1606 ; died in 1659. 
 
 Donati, do-na'tee, (Bindo,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Florence, wrote in the Tuscan language. He was ranked 
 by Crescimbeni among the first writers of his time. Died 
 about 1300. 
 
 Donati, (Corso,) a Florentine noble, who was a leader 
 of the Guelphs. By his talents and rank he acquired great 
 influence in public affairs. About 1300 the people of 
 Florence were divided into two factions, the Neri and 
 Bianchi, (Blacks and Whites.) Corso Donati was the 
 chief of the former party, which, by the aid of foreign 
 troops under Charles de Valois, obtained power in 1301, 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m£t ; not good; moon; 
 
DO NAT I 
 
 779 
 
 DON I 
 
 when they banished or killed their principal rivals, of 
 whom Dante was one. Donati soon lost his influence 
 with his own party, was accused of tyrannical designs, 
 and, failing to appear at the trial, was condemned in 
 1308, and destroyed himself. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Ripubliques Italiennes." 
 
 Donati or Donato, do-na'to, (Marcello,) Count di 
 Fonzano, (de pon-za'no,) an Italian physician, bom at 
 Correggio in 1538. He wrote "De Medica llistoria 
 Ecirabili," (1586.) Died in 1602. 
 
 See Castellani, "Vita del celebre Medico M. Donati," 1788. 
 
 Donati, (Vitaliano,) an Italian physician, eminent 
 as a naturalist, was born at Padua in 1 713. Prompted by 
 a passion for botany and other natural sciences, he tra- 
 versed Italy for about eight years, and was employed by 
 Pope Benedict XIV. to make collections for his college. 
 He then explored Illyria, and undertook a description 
 of the productions of the Adriatic. In 1750 an outline 
 of his intended work on the "Natural History of the 
 Adriatic" was published. He also visited Syria and 
 Egypt for scientific purposes, and sent home many ob- 
 jects of natural history. On his voyage homeward he 
 perished by shipwreck In 1763. 
 
 See Gennari, "Elogio di V. Donati," 1839. 
 
 Donato. See Donatello. 
 
 Donato, do-na'to, (Bernardino,) an Italian philolo- 
 gist, was born at Zano, near Verona. He was professor 
 of Greek at Padua about 1532. He translated Xeno- 
 phon's book "On Economy," and other Greek works. 
 He was the first editor of " Chrysostom on Saint Paul" 
 in Greek. Died about 1550. 
 
 Donato, (Francesco,) Doge of Venice, was elected 
 in 1545, and died in 1553, leaving a good reputation for 
 eloquence and wisdom. He maintained the neutrality 
 of Venice in the war between Charles V. and Henry II. 
 of France. 
 
 See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Donato or Donati, (Geronimo,) a Venetian states- 
 man, negotiated a peace between the pope and Venice 
 in 1510. His abilities were extolled by Erasmus. Died 
 in 1 5 13. 
 
 Donato, (Leonardo,) was Doge of Venice from 1606 
 to 1612. He firmly resisted Pope Paul V., who wished 
 to deprive the republic of its jurisdiction over the clergy, 
 and who laid the state under an interdict in 1606. This 
 was finally removed without any concession on the part 
 of Venice. Died in 1612. 
 
 See Andrea Morosini, "Vita Leonardi Donati," 1628; Pierre 
 Marcel, " Vitae Donatorum." 
 
 Donato, (NiccoLd,) -a Venetian diplomatist, born in 
 1705. He wrote "L'Uomo di Governo," ("The States- 
 man,'') which was translated into French by Robinet; 
 (1767.) Died in 1765. 
 
 Donato, (Zeno,) an Italian painter, born at Verona, 
 flourished about 1500. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc 
 
 Do-na'tus, [Fr. Donat, do'ni',] Bishop of Casae 
 Nigrae, in Numidia, the chief author of the schism of 
 Donatists, which began about 305 A.D., disturbed the 
 church for more than a century, and filled Africa with 
 dire calamities. With an affected zeal for discipline, he 
 formed a party against Cecilianus, Bishop of Carthage, 
 as being identified with some who, through fear of per- 
 secution, had given up the sacred books and were hence 
 called "Tradkores." He taught that the Church was 
 not infallible ; but it does not appear that he made inno- 
 vations in doctrine. This patty became very numerous 
 in Africa, and, it is said, burned the churches of the 
 Catholics and massacred the members of that party. 
 At the Council of Aries, in 314, the question was decided 
 in favour of Cecilianus. The Donatists, however, in- 
 creased until 410, when the emperor Honorius convoked 
 a council at Carthage, which condemned them as here- 
 tics. This result is ascribed chiefly to the efforts of Saint 
 Augustine. They became divided into several sects, and 
 about the sixth century had sunk into insignificance. 
 
 See Saint Augustine, "De Hajreticis;" Tillemont, "Mi- 
 moires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gine>ale." 
 
 Donatus, the second of this name, was elected Bishop 
 of Carthage in 316 a.d. by the Donatists, of whom he 
 
 became the master-spirit. He is said to have been 
 learned and eloquent, but haughty. His partisans gave 
 him the surname of Magnus, (the "Great.") He died 
 in exile about 355. The Donatists in his time were 
 nearly as numerous in Africa as the Catholics. 
 
 See Plu^uet, "Diclionnaire des HeVesies." 
 
 Donatus, [Fr. Donat, do'nS',] (/Elius,) a celebrated 
 Latin grammarian, born about 333 a.d. He taught 
 rhetoric in Rome, and was a teacher of Saint Jerome, 
 who speaks highly of his talents. His "Elements of 
 Grammar" ("Ars Grantmatica") served as the basis of 
 nearly all subsequent elementary works on that subject, 
 and was generally used in the schools of the middle ages. 
 He also wrote an able commentary on Terence, which 
 is extant. 
 
 See L. Schopfen, "De Tereutio et Donato," 1824. 
 
 Donckers. See Donkers. 
 
 Dondi, don'dee, (Giacomo,) born at Padua, was emi- 
 nent as a philosopher and physician. He wrote "Store- 
 house of Medicine," (" Promptuarium Medicine,") and 
 made a famous clock in Padua in 1344. 
 
 Dondi, (Giovanni,) a son of the preceding, born in 
 1318, was a physician and mathematician, and the friend 
 of Petrarch, who addressed to him several letters. He 
 invented a celebrated clock, which was placed in Pavia 
 and procured for him and his descendants the surname 
 of Horologius, or. Dall' Orologio. Died in 1389. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Dondi dall' Orologio, don'dee dll-lo-ro-lo'jo, 
 (Carlo Antonio,) Marquis, an Italian naturalist, was 
 born of a noble family of Padua about 1750. He de- 
 voted his life chiefly to natural history and chemistry. 
 He wrote an "Introduction to the Natural History of 
 the Euganean Hills," (1780,) and a few other scientific 
 works. Died in 1801. 
 
 Dondini, don-dee'nee, (Gugliei.mo,) an Italian poet 
 and Jesuit, born at Ancona in 1606, was professor of 
 eloquence in Rome for many years. Among his works are 
 a Latin poem "On the Birth of the Dauphin of France," 
 (1639,) and a " History of the Actions, in France, of Far- 
 nese, Prince of Parma," (1673.) 
 
 Douducci, don-doot'ehee, (Giovanni Andrea,) an 
 Italian painter, sumamed IL Mastelletta, el mas-tel- 
 let'ta, was born at Bologna in 1575. "He had a rich 
 imagination," says Auguis, "a pure design, and vigorous 
 colour." His reputation was high in his own time, but 
 has since declined. He died in 1637, or, according to 
 another account, in 1655. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Doneau, do'no', [Lat. Donel'lus,] (Hugues,) an 
 able French jurist and Protestant, born at Chalons- 
 sur-Saone in 1527. He was teaching jurisprudence at 
 Bourges in 1572, when, by the aid of his scholars, he 
 escaped the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew and fled 
 from France. He afterwards professed law at Heidel- 
 berg, Leyden, and Altorf, where he died in 1591. He is 
 the author of voluminous and esteemed commentaries 
 on civil law. 
 
 See Taisand, "Vies des Jurisconsultes :" Mori£ri, "Diction- 
 naire Historique;" Zhidlbr, "Spicilegium Observationum Vitam 
 H. Donelii illustrantium," 1766. 
 
 Donellus. See Doneau. 
 
 Don'el-ljf, (Sir Ross,) a British admiral, who entered 
 the navy at an early age. He fought with distinction 
 under Lord Howe in June, 1794, and commanded the 
 squadron before Toulon in 1803. For his conduct at 
 Montevideo in 1807 he received the thanks of Parlia- 
 ment. He was made rear-admiral in 1814, and full 
 admiral in 1838. Died in 1841. 
 
 Dongelberge, de, deh dong'el-b?RG'eh, (Henri 
 Charles,) a Belgian historian, born probably at Brussels 
 in 1593 ; died in 1660. 
 
 Dongois, ddN'gwa', (Nicolas,) a French jurist, born 
 in Paris about 1634, was a nephew of the poet Boileau, 
 and an acquaintance of Voltaire. Died in 1717. 
 
 Doni, do'nee, (ADONi',)an able painter of the Roman 
 school, born at Assisi, worked about 1540. He is re- 
 puted the greatest painter that Assisi ever produced. 
 
 Doni, (ANTONIO FRANCMCO,) an Italian litterateur, 
 born at Florence about 1 c,o8. He lived a wandering life, 
 and gained a scanty subsistence by his writings, some of 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DON I 
 
 780 
 
 DONZELLI 
 
 which were facetious, humorous, or satirical, and had a 
 temporary vogue. Among his works is a treatise tin 
 painting and sculpture, entitled "Disegno partito in piu 
 Ragionamenti," "The Gourd," (" La Zucca," 1 551,) "The 
 Marbles of Doni," (1552,) and "La Libraria del Doni," 
 (1550,) a bibliographical work, which passed through 
 many editions, but is very defective. Died in 1574. 
 
 See Tikaboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Negri, 
 "Istoriade' Fiorentini Scrittori ;" Nxcekon, "Memoires." 
 
 Doni, (Giovanni Battista,) an eminent Italian scho- 
 lar and antiquary, born in Florence in 1593. The study 
 of antiquities became his ruling passion, and he made an 
 immense collection of rare objects. In 1623 he removed 
 to Rome, where he was patronized by Cardinal Barberini 
 and was made secretary of the Sacred College. He re- 
 turned to Florence in 1640, and was chosen professor of 
 eloquence. He wrote several Latin poems, ("Carmina," 
 1628,) and treatises on ancient music, one of which is 
 named ."Lyra Barberina," (1773.) Died in 1646. 
 
 See Bandini, "De Vita et Scriptis J. B. Donii," 1755. 
 
 Doni d'Attichi, do'ne' dt'te'she', ? (Louis,) a French 
 bishop and biographer, born in 1596; died in 1664. 
 
 Donini, do-nee'nee, (Girolamo,) a skilful Italian 
 painter, born at Correggio in 1681, was a pupil of Carlo 
 Cignani, and worked at Bologna. He excelled in design 
 and colour, and is said to have finished his works with 
 greater care and delicacy than any eminent painter ex- 
 cept Carlo Dolce. Died about 1740. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Donis, do'nis, (Nikolaus,) a German monk and geo- 
 grapher, lived in the monastery of Keichenbach about 
 1450. He produced a Latin version of Ptolemy's Geo- 
 graphy, to which he added graduated maps, and an ori- 
 final treatise (in Latin) " On the Wonders of the World." 
 le presented a copy of this work to the pope in 1471. 
 
 Donizetti, don-e-zet'tee or do-nid-zet'tee, (Gaetano,) 
 an excellent Italian musical composer, born at Bergamo 
 in 179S, studied music under Mattei at Bologna. He 
 served several years in the army, which he quitted about 
 1822. After many essays, he produced in 1830, at Milan, 
 his opera "Anna Bolena," which was much admired. It 
 was followed by many other operas, which were very suc- 
 cessful and still retain their popularity, among which are 
 "Lucrezia Borgia," (1833,) "Lucia di Lammermoor," 
 (1835,) and "Linda di Chamouni," (1842.) In the latter 
 part of his life he was professor of counterpoint in the 
 Royal College of Naples, and chapel-master and com- 
 poser to the court of Vienna. Died at Bergamo in 1848. 
 
 See A. DE Lafage, " Notice sur Donizetti ;" Scudo, " Donizetti 
 etl'ficole Italienne depuis Rossini ;" Fetis, " Biographie Universelle 
 des Mnsiciens." 
 
 Donkers, donk'ers, or Donckers, (Jan or Pieter,) 
 a Dutch painter, born at Gouda about 1610, died pre- 
 maturely. His works are highly praised. 
 
 Donkers, Donckers, or Doncker, (Pieter,) a 
 Dutch painter of history and portraits, born at Gouda 
 about 1612. He worked at Rome. Died in 1668. 
 
 Donn or Donne, don, (Abraham,) an English mathe- 
 matician, born at Bideford in 1718 ; died in 1746. 
 
 Donnadieu, do'nS'de-uh', (Gabriel,) a French gene- 
 ral, born at Nimes in 1777; died in 1849. 
 
 Donne, do'na', (Alphonse,) a French savant, born 
 at Noyon in 1806. He wrote treatises on the physiology 
 of milk, blood, mucus, and saliva. 
 
 Donne, don, or Donn, (Benjamin,) an English mathe- 
 matician of Bideford, born in 1729, published several 
 treatises. Died in 1798. 
 
 Donne, (John,) an eminent English poet and divine, 
 born in London in 1573, was educated in the Catholic 
 religion, which he renounced in favour of the Church of 
 England. He was secretary to Lord-Chancellor Eger- 
 ton, when he privately married a niece of that nobleman 
 and consequently lost his office. In 1610 he wrote the 
 " Pseudo-Martyr," which procured him the favour of 
 James I., who persuaded him to take holy orders about 
 1614, and made him one of his chaplains. He gained 
 celebrity for his eloquence as a preacher, and in 1621 
 was appointed Dean of Saint Paul's. Donne was the 
 first and Cowley the second of the school which John- 
 son denominates "metaphysical poets," who laboured 
 after conceits and novel turns of thought. " Donne," says 
 
 Hallam, " is the most inharmonious of our versifiers. Of 
 his earlier poems many are very licentious ; the later are 
 chiefly devout. Few are good for much ; the conceits 
 have not even the merit of being intelligible." Dryden 
 styles him "the greatest wit, though not the greatest 
 poet, of our nation." He wrote satires, elegies, and other 
 poems. His Sermons, published in 1640, are much ad- 
 mired for learning and subtlety. He died in 1631. His 
 life was written by Izaak Walton, (1640.) 
 
 See, also, H. Alford, "Life of Donne," 1839; "Retrospective 
 Review," vol. viii., 1823. 
 
 Donneau de Vize, do'no' deh ve'za', (Jean.) a 
 French critic and journalist, born in Paris in 1640. He 
 wrote several successful comedies, and founded about 
 1680 the " Mercure galante," a monthly review, in which 
 he attacked Racine and Moliere and published news 
 of the court, etc. This was probably the earliest French 
 journal or newspaper. Died in 17 10. 
 
 Donner, don'ner, (Georg Raphael,) a skilful German 
 sculptor, born at Essling in 1695; died in 1741. 
 
 Donnet, do'nj', (Ferdinand Francois Auguste,) a 
 French prelate, born at Bourg Argental in 1795, became 
 Archishop of Bordeaux in 1837, and a cardinal in 1852. 
 
 Donniges or Doenniges, don'niG-es, (Wiliielm,) a 
 German publicist, born near Stettin in 1814. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " History of the German Empire 
 in the Fourteenth Century," (1842.) 
 
 Donnino, don-nee'no, (Agnolo,) a painter, born at 
 Florence, lived about 1500. He is praised by Vasari. 
 
 Donnissan, de, deh do'ne'sfiN', Marquis, a French 
 royalist officer, who took a prominent part in the civil war 
 of La Vendee in 1793. He died on the scaffold about the 
 end of 1793. 
 
 Dono, (Paolo di.) See Uccello, (Paolo.) 
 
 Donoli, do-no'lee, (Alfonso Francesco,) an Italian 
 medical writer, born in Tuscany in 1635 ; died in 1724. 
 
 Donoso, do-no'so, (Jose,) a Spanish painter, born in 
 New Castile in 1628, worked in Madrid, several churches 
 of which he adorned with paintings. His manner is said 
 to resemble that of Paul Veronese. Died in 1686. 
 
 Donoso Cortes, do-no'so koR-tes', (Juan,) Marquis 
 de Vaklegamas, (val-da-ga'mas,) a Spanish statesman and 
 writer, born in Estremadura in 1809. He was a classical 
 scholar, and displayed poetical talents at an early age. 
 He at first favoured the Liberal party in politics. At the 
 death of Ferdinand VII. (1833) he supported the cause 
 of Isabella and her mother, Christina, against Carlos. 
 About 1840 he was secretary to the queen-mother Chris- 
 tina, then an exile in France. In 1844 he was chosen 
 secretary to the queen Isabella, and was made Marquis 
 of Valdegamas. In his later years he became conserva- 
 tive, and wrote political works which are admired for 
 their literary merit. In his "Essay on Catholicism, 
 Liberalism, and Socialism" (1851) he appears as a zeal- 
 ous champion of the Catholic Church. He was sent as 
 minister to Berlin in 1848, and was Spanish minister at 
 Paris when he died in 1853. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Donoughmore. See Hutchinson,(Richard Hkly.) 
 
 Dou'o-van, (Edward,) an English naturalist, author 
 of an esteemed " Natural History of British Insects," (t6 
 vols., 1 792-1816.) About 1797 he produced a "Natural 
 History of British Birds." Between 1798 and 1805 he 
 issued a series of works on the insects of China, India, 
 and other parts of Asia, which were favourably received. 
 "A great number of species," says Swainson : ' are here 
 delineated for the first time." He also wrote ' Descrip- 
 tive Excursions through South Wales," and edited a 
 periodical called "The Naturalist's Repository." Died 
 in 1837. 
 
 Do'nus I., or Dom'uus, a native of Rome, was chosen 
 pope in 677 A.D., as successor to Dieudonne II., (Adeo- 
 dat.) Died in 678. 
 
 Donus XL, or Domnus, elected pope in 974, accord- 
 ing to some authorities was the successor of Benedict VI. 
 He is supposed to have died in December, 975. 
 
 Dony, do'ne', (Jean Jacques Daniel,) a Belgian 
 metallurgist, born at Liege in 1759 ; died in 1819. 
 
 Donzelli, don-zel'lee, (Ippolito and Pietro,) Italian 
 painters, who were brothers, and worked at Naples about 
 1460-90. 
 
 :, 1, Q, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ti, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
 M 
 
DONZELLINI 
 
 781 
 
 DOR I A 
 
 Donzellini, don-zel-Iee'nee, (Giroi.amo,) an Italian 
 medical writer, born in the province of Brescia; died at 
 Venice about 1560. 
 
 Donzello. See Donzelu. 
 
 Doo, (George Thomas,) an eminent English his- 
 torical engraver, was born in Surrey in 1800. He was 
 elected Royal Academician about 1857, having previously 
 received the title of historical engraver to the queen. 
 Among his works, which are mostly line engravings, 
 are the " Ecce Homo," after Correggio, the " Infant 
 Christ," after Raphael, and "Italian Pilgrims coming 
 in Sight of Rome," after Eastlake. 
 
 Doo'djf, (Samuel,) an English botanist, born in Staf- 
 fordshire, was director of a botanic garden at Chelsea. 
 He made discoveries in cryptogamous plants, and con- 
 tributed to the " Synopsis" of Ray, who was his friend. 
 Died in 1706. 
 
 Doo'lit-tle, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist 
 minister, was born at Kidderminster in 1630. He wrote 
 "The Complete B;>dy of Practical Divinity," and other 
 approved works. Died in 1707. 
 
 Doo'ry, (John Mitchell,) an American judge, was 
 born in Georgia about 1 772. He embraced the profes- 
 sion of law, and became judge of the Western Circuit 
 of Georgia in 1816. He was afterwards twice elected 
 judge of the Northern Circuit of Georgia. Died in 1827. 
 Judge Dooly was a noted wit and humorist. 
 
 Doorree, Dourri, or Durri (door're) Effendi, (Ah- 
 med,) a Turkish diplomatist and writer, born in Erzroom, 
 was sent as ambassador to Persia in 1720. Died in 1722. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Doppelmayr, dop'pel-miR', written also Doppel- 
 maiei and Doppelmayer, (Johann Gabriel,) a Ger- 
 man mathematician, born at Nuremberg in 1671. He 
 was professor of mathematics at Nuremberg from 1704 
 until 1750. In 1713 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal 
 Society of London. He was skilful in polishing mirrors 
 and grinding lenses for telescopes. Among his principal 
 works are an "Introduction to Geography," (1714,) a 
 "Celestial Atlas," in Latin, (1742,) and "Electric Phe- 
 nomena recently discovered," (1744.) Near the end of 
 his life he distinguished himself by his electrical experi- 
 ments. Died in 1750. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Doppert, dop'peRt, (Johann,) a German scholar, 
 born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1671 ; died in 1735. 
 
 Doppet, do'p&', (Francois Amedee,) a physician 
 and general, born at Chambery in 1753. He entered the 
 army of the French republic about 1792, became general- 
 in-chief of the army of the Alps, and directed the siege 
 of Lyons in 1793. He exerted his power to prevent 
 carnage and pillage at the capture of this city, and after- 
 wards commanded in Spain. On account of ill health, 
 he retired from service in 1794. He wrote medical and 
 political treatises, romances, and memoirs of his own 
 life. The last is his best work. Died about 1800. 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ginerale." 
 
 Dop'ping, (Anthony,) Bishop of Meath, was born 
 in Dublin about 1642; died in 1697. 
 
 Doppler, dop'pler, (Christian,) a German mathe- 
 matician, born at Salzburg in 1803, became professor of 
 experimental physics at Vienna in 1851. 
 
 Do'ran, (John,) an English author, born in London 
 in 1807. He was tutor of several young members of the 
 English nobility, and passed some years in France. In 
 1822 he produced " The Wandering Jew," a melodrama. 
 He contributed many articles in prose and verse to the 
 periodicals, and wrote, among other works, " Table 
 Traits," (1854,) " Habits and Men," "Knights and their 
 Days," and "Monarchs Retired from Business," (1857,) 
 which were favourably received. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1855. 
 
 Dorange, do'roNzh', (Jacques Nicolas Pierre,) a 
 French poet, born at Marseilles in 17S6; died in 181 1. 
 
 Dorat, do'ri', (Claude Joseph,) a French poet, born 
 in Paris in 1734, inherited an easy fortune, and had no 
 profession but that of author. He wrote " Zulica," and 
 other tragedies, some of which were moderately successful, 
 several comedies, and numerous odes, poetical tales, and 
 fugitive verses, which were favourably received. His 
 
 " Theatrical Declamation" is considered his best poem. 
 He was severely criticised by contemporary writers for 
 his mannerism and persiJUige. Died in 1780. 
 
 See Grimm, " Correspondence ;" Madame ue Genus, " M^- 
 moires;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Dorat or Daurat, do'ri', [Lat. Aura'tus,] (Jean,) a 
 French poet, born at Limoges, in Limousin, about 1500. 
 In 1560 he was appointed professor of Greek in the 
 Royal College at Paris. Scaliger thought him a judicious 
 critic. Dorat was one of the celebrated poetic " Pleiade," 
 i.e. one of the seven most admired poets of the age. He 
 wrote, in Latin, epigrams, odes, anagrams, etc. Charles 
 IX. gave him the title of poet-royal. Died in 1588. 
 
 See " M^nagiana ;" J. B. Vitrac, m £loge de J. Dorat," 1775. 
 
 Dorat, (Madeleine,) a daughter of the preceding, 
 born in 1548, was versed in Greek, Latin, and other 
 languages. Died in 1636. 
 
 Dorbay, doR'bJ', (Francois,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris, was a pupil of L. Levau. He directed 
 the execution of his master's designs for the College of 
 Quatre-Nations, and was employed as architect on the 
 Louvre and the Tuileries. He also gave the designs of 
 several churches of Paris. Died in 1697. 
 
 Dordoni, doR-do'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian artist, 
 born at Busseto, near Parma, in 1528, was one of the 
 most excellent gem-engravers of his time. His works 
 are very rare. Died in Rome in 1584. 
 
 Dore, do'ri', (Gustave,) a French engraver and de- 
 signer, born at Strasbourg about 1833, has acquired great 
 popularity as an illustrator of the Bible and other works, 
 among which are Tennyson's "Idylls," "Don Quixote," 
 Dante's " Inferno," Rabelais, La Fontaine's " Fables," and 
 " Paradise Lost." Dore is remarkable for the power and 
 richness of his imagination, but is, generally speaking, 
 more distinguished for the strength than for the delicacy 
 or refinement of his conceptions. 
 
 See " North British Review" for September, 1867. 
 
 Dore, (Pierre,) [Lat. Pe'trus Aura'tus,] a French 
 theologian, born at Orleans about 1500, was a violent 
 adversary of Protestantism. Died in 1559. 
 
 Doreid. See Ibn-Doreid. 
 
 Dorfel or Doerfel, dbVfel, (Georg Samuel,) a 
 German astronomer of the latter half of the seventeenth 
 century, was minister at Plauen, in Saxony. He wrote 
 "Observations on the Comet of 1680," and discovered 
 that the orbit of each comet is a parabola, of which the 
 sun occupies the focus. 
 
 DorfeuiUe, doR'ful' or doR'fuh'ye, (Antoine, ) a 
 French Jacobin, born about 1750, rendered himself in- 
 famous by the massacre of a multitude of people at 
 Lyons in 1793. He was killed in 1795. 
 
 Dorfling. See Derfflinger. 
 
 Dorfling or Doeifling, von, fon doR'fling, (Georg,) 
 a German general, born at Dorf, in Bohemia, in 1606. 
 He fought for the Elector of Brandenburg, distinguished 
 himself in many campaigns against the Poles, Swedes, 
 and French, and was raised to the rank of field-marshal 
 in 1670. Died in 1695. 
 
 Doria, do're-d, one of the four most noble and power- 
 ful families of Genoa. The Dorias and Spinolas were 
 Ghibelines, and the Grimaldi and Fieschi were Guelphs. 
 The family of Doria was distinguished in the twelfth 
 century. In 1339 these four families, which had long 
 disturbed the state by their rivalry, were all exiled, and 
 the nobles were excluded from power. 
 
 I.AMiiA Doria was admiral of the Genoese fleet in 
 1298, when he gained a decisive victory over the Vene- 
 tians near Corzola. 
 
 Paganino Doria, a famous admiral, commanded in 
 the third war against Venice. In 1352 a great naval 
 battle was fought near Constantinople, between Admiral 
 Doria and the Venetian admiral Pisani, in which the 
 former was the victor. Doria gained another victory 
 over Pisani in 1354. 
 
 Pietro Doria commanded the fleet in 1379, when he 
 attempted to take Venice, but was defeated and killed in 
 January, 1380. 
 
 Doria, (Andrea,) known in English Histories as 
 Andrew Doria, the restorer of Genoese liberty, born 
 at Oneglia in 1468, was of the same family as the preced- 
 ing. After serving several years in the armies of France 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 1; th as in this. (jg^**See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DOR I A 
 
 782 
 
 DORPIUS 
 
 and Naples, he entered the French navy about 1490, and 
 soon acquired the reputation of the first admiral of his 
 time. He commanded the fleet of Francis I. in his war 
 with Charles V., and gained an advantage over the Im- 
 perialists at Marseilles. In 1528, suspecting the French 
 court of treacherous designs against his country and him- 
 self, he made a treaty with Charles V., and stipulated for 
 the liberation of Genoa, which was subject to the misrule 
 of two rival factions, — the Adorni and Fregosi. He en- 
 tered Genoa, was received with joy by the citizens, and 
 gave them a free constitution, which has lasted, without 
 any important change, until the present century. The 
 senate voted to him the title of " P'ather of his Country." 
 He declined the office of doge, that he might serve 
 Charles V. as admiral against the Turks. In 1541 he 
 commanded the fleet in Charles's unfortunate expedition 
 against Algiers. That emperor rewarded him with the 
 order of the Golden Fleece, and the titles of Prince of 
 Melfi and Marquis of Tursi. At the age of eighty-five he 
 conducted his fleet to the relief of Corsica, invaded by the 
 French, from whom he took the sea-port of San Fiorenzo. 
 He died, without issue, at Genoa, in November, 1560. 
 
 See Capei.loni, "Vita del Principe Doria,"i565 ; Carlo Sigonio, 
 "De Vita et Gestis Andreae Dorias," 15S6; Andre Richer, "Vie 
 d' Andre" Doria," 1789; J. B. Giraldi, "De Gestis Andreas Donas," 
 1696; Antonio Bianchini, " Elogio del Principe Andrea Doria," 
 1781. 
 
 Doria, (Antonio,) a Genoese officer, who served with 
 distinction under Charles V. He wrote an account of 
 events which occurred in his time, "Compendio d'A. 
 Doria," (15,71.) 
 
 Doria, (Oherto,) a Genoese admiral, commanded the 
 fleet which gained a decisive victory over the naval force 
 of Pisa in 1284. 
 
 Doria, (Paolo Matteo,) a philosopher, born at Naples 
 in 1675, wrote, besides other works, "The Idea of a Perfect 
 Republic," (suppressed by government.) Died in 1743. 
 
 Dorigny or Dorigni, do'ren'ye', (Louis,) a French 
 painter and engraver, born in Paris in 1654, was the son 
 of Michel, noticed below, and was a pupil of Le Brun. 
 He studied in Rome, and painted with success in Venice 
 and Verona. In 171 1 he was invited to Vienna, where 
 he adorned the palace of Prince Eugene. His frescos 
 in the cathedral of Trent are much admired. Died 
 about 1742. 
 
 Dorigny or Dorigni, (Michel,) a painter and en- 
 graver, born at Saint-Quentin in 161 7, was the pupil and 
 son-in-law of Simon Vouet. He engraved with aqua-fortis, 
 after Vouet and other masters. He died in 1663, leaving 
 two sons, Louis and Nicolas, who were artists. 
 
 Dorigny, (Sir Nicolas,) an eminent French engraver, 
 born in Paris in 1657, was the son of the preceding. 
 He studied his art in Rome, where he remained twenty- 
 eight years and engraved many master-pieces, among 
 which are "The Transfiguration," by Raphael, and "The 
 Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian," by Domenichino. In 
 171 1 he was invited to England, where he engraved the 
 Cartoons of Raphael in Hampton Court, and was knighted 
 by George I. In 1725 he was chosen a member and 
 professor of the Academy of Painting in Paris. Died 
 in 1746. He was perhaps second only to G. Audran 
 among French engravers of history. He is praised as 
 a "noble artist" in Addison's "Spectator," No. 226. 
 
 See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Dorimon, do're'm6N', a French comic author and 
 actor, flourished between 1650 and 1690. 
 
 Doring or Doering, do'ring, (Georg Christian 
 Wilhelm Asmus,) a German novelist, born at Cassel in 
 1789 ; died in 1833. 
 
 Doringk or Doeringk, written also DSring and 
 Dorink, do'rink, ( Matthaus, ) a German theologian, 
 born in Thuringia. He wrote a Chronicle of Misnia and 
 Thuringia. Died about 1464. 
 
 Doriole or Doriolle, do're'ol', (Pierre,) a French 
 statesman, born'at La Rochelle in 1407, was employed 
 by Louis XI. in important missions. He became chan- 
 cellor, of France in 1472. Died in 1485. 
 
 Doriolle. See Doriole. 
 
 Dorion, do're'dN', (Claude Augusts,) a French 
 poet, born at Nantes about 1770. He produced in 1809 
 " The Battle of Hastings," an epic poem, which obtained 
 an honourable mention in the report on the decennial 
 
 prizes. He also Wrote " The Conquest of Palmyra," a 
 poem, and several odes and idyls. Died in 1829. 
 
 Do'ris, [Gr. Aup^'c,] a goddess of the sea,was a daughter 
 of Oceanus and Tethys, and the wife of Nereus. The'name 
 was sometimes applied by the poets to the sea itself. 
 
 Dorislaus, do'ris-la'us, (Isaac,) a Dutch lawyer, who 
 removed to England and in the civil war acted with the 
 republicans. He was employed by them at the trial of 
 Charles I., and in 1649 was sent as minister to Holland. 
 Soon after his arrival at the Hague he was murdered by 
 some English royalists, in 1650. 
 
 Dorival, do're'vtl', (Claude Francois,) surnamed 
 Plume d'Or, (pliim doR,) a French jurist, born at P«- 
 sancon in 1656; died in 1733. 
 
 Dorleans, doR'la'fiN', or D'Orleans, (Louis,) a 
 Frenchman, born in Paris in 1542, was a partisan of the 
 League, and wrote libels against Henry IV. Died in 1629. 
 
 Dorleans or D'Orleans, (Pierre'Joseph,) a French 
 historian, born at Bourges in 1644. He professed belles- 
 lettres in various colleges of the Jesuits, and was employed 
 in preaching. Voltaire has remarked that he was the first 
 historian who chose revolutions as his special subject. 
 He produced in 1693 a " History of the Revolutions of 
 England," which was esteemed even by fastidious critics, 
 and was followed by a " History of the Revolutions of 
 Spain." He had the art of discerning what events were 
 most worthy of notice, and of narrating them in an agree- 
 able manner. Died in 1698. 
 
 Dorleans de la Mothe, doR'la'SN' deh It mot, 
 (Louis Francois Gabriel,) Bishop of Amiens, was born 
 at Carpentras in 1683 ; died in 1774. 
 
 Dormans, de, deh doR'mfiN', (Jean,) a French car- 
 dinal, born at Dormans. He was Bishop of Beauvais 
 when Charles V., about 1364, appointed him chancellor 
 of France and keeper of the seals. In 1368 he was made 
 a cardinal. He founded the College of Beauvais at Paris 
 in 1370. Died in 1373. 
 
 Dorn, doRn, (Johann Christoph,) a German biblio- 
 grapher, born at Schleusingen. He published " Biblio- 
 theca theologico-critica," (2 vols., 1721.) Died in 1752. 
 
 Dornau, dou/now, (Caspar,) a German physician and 
 writer, born in Thuringia in 1577; died in 1632. 
 
 Dorner, doR'ner, (Isaac August,) a German Prot- 
 estant theologian, born at Neuhausen-ob-Eck, in Wur- 
 temberg, in 1809, became in 1849 professor of theology 
 at Bonn. He wrote a "History of the Development of 
 the Doctrine of the Person of Christ," (1839,) an excel- 
 lent and exhaustive work, and a " History of Protestant 
 Theology, particularly in Germany," ("Geschichte der 
 Protestantischen Theologie, besonders in Deutschland," 
 etc., 1867,) which displays not only profound learning, but 
 great critical ability. 
 
 Dommeyer, doRn'mi'er, (Andreas Julius,) a Ger- 
 man critic and philologist, born at Lauenstadt in 1674. 
 His chief work is "Philologia Sacra." Died in 1 71 7. 
 
 Dor-o-the'a, [Fr. Dorothee, do'ro'ta',] Saint, a 
 Christian virgin of Alexandria, lived about 310 A.D. She 
 is said by some writers to have suffered martyrdom ; but 
 Eusebius states that she was deprived of her property 
 and banished. Her life has furnished the subject of 
 Massinger's drama of "The Virgin Martyr." 
 
 See Eusebius, "Ecclesiastical History;" Mrs. Jameson, "His- 
 tory of Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 Dorothea. See Dorothea and Dorotheus. 
 
 Do-ro'the-us, [Gr. Aw^offeoc ,• Fr. Dorothee, do'rc'- 
 ta',] a Greek author, of whom little is known. He 
 wrote a " History of Alexander the Great," which is 
 quoted by Athenaeus. 
 
 Dorotheus, an eminent jurist, lived at Ber'ytus, and 
 was one of the compilers of Justinian's "Digest." He 
 flourished about 533 A.D. 
 
 Dorotheus of Sidon, a Greek poet, lived probably 
 before the Christian era. 
 
 Dorow, do'ro, (Wilhelm,) a German antiquary, born 
 at Konigsberg in 1790. He visited Italy in 1S27, and 
 made a large collection of Etruscan antiquities, which 
 are now in the museum of Berlin. He published " Monu- 
 ments of Ancient Art and Language," (1824,) "Etruria 
 and the Orient," (1829,) and other works. Died in 1846. 
 
 Dorpius, doR'pe-us, (Martin,) a Dutch scholar, born 
 at Naeldwyck about 1480. He professed eloquence and 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, S, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n8t; good; moon; 
 
DORR 
 
 783 
 
 DOSITHEUS 
 
 philosophy at Lille, and was the head of a college in 
 Louvain when he died in 1525. He was highly esteemed 
 by Erasmus, who wrote his epitaph. Dorpius left a dis- 
 course in praise of Aristotle, and a few other small works. 
 
 See Koppbns, " Bibliotheca Beltica." 
 
 Dorr, (Thomas W.,) an American politician, horn at 
 Providence, Rhode Island, in 1805. He became the 
 leader of the suffrage party, which in 1841 framed a new 
 Constitution, under which he was elected Governor. 
 These movements were treated as seditious by the gov- 
 ernment acting under the old charter, and both parties 
 appealed to arms, (1842.) Dorr was arrested, convicted 
 of treason, and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He 
 was pardoned in 1847. Died in 1S54. 
 
 See "Democratic Review" for August, 184*. 
 
 Dorsanne,doR's4n', (ANToiNE,)a French priest, born 
 at Issoudun, was a friend of Cardinal De Noailles, 
 Archbishop of Paris, who appointed him a canon of his 
 church. He took a prominent part against the Jesuits 
 and the bull Unigenitus, and was employed by Cardinal 
 de Noailles in the negotiations with which he amused the 
 court of Rome and France. Dorsanne left a "Journal of 
 what passed at Rome and in France on the Subject of 
 the Bull Unigenitus." Died in 1728. 
 
 Dorsch, doRsh, (Everard,) a German engraver of 
 gems, born at Nuremberg in 1649 ; died in 1712. 
 
 Dorsch, (Johann Christoph,) a German gem-en- 
 graver, son of the preceding, born in 1676 ; died in 1732. 
 
 Dorsenne, doR'sen', (Jean Marie Francois,) a 
 French officer, born at Ardres (Pas-de-Calais) in 1773. 
 In 1S09 he became a general of division, and in 181 1 
 commanded an army in the north of Spain. Died in 181 2. 
 
 Dor'set, (Charles Sackviu.e,) sixth Earl of, son 
 of Richard, Earl of Dorset, born in 1637, was a distin- 
 guished courtier, wit, and patron of letters. In youth 
 he bore the title of Lord Buckhurst, and was a decided 
 libertine ; but his courage, good nature, and other re- 
 deeming qualities rendered him a general favourite. He 
 had too little ambition, or too much indolence, to raise 
 himself to the highest political positions to which his 
 talents were adequate. "He became," says Macaulay, 
 "an intellectual voluptuary, and a master of all those 
 pleasing branches of knowledge which can be acquired 
 without severe application. . . . Such a patron of letters 
 England had never seen. His bounty was bestowed 
 with equal judgment and liberality. Dryden owned that 
 he had been saved from ruin by his princely generosity." 
 In 1665 he served as volunteer in the naval war against 
 the Dutch, during which he wrote the admired song 
 beginning "To all you ladies now on land." He became 
 Earl of Dorset at the death of his father in 1677, after 
 which he married the daughter of the Earl of North- 
 ampton. At the accession of William III. (1689) he 
 accepted the office of lord chamberlain, which he re- 
 signed in 1697. Died in 1706. He was the author of a 
 few songs and satires, which, says Macaulay, "sparkle 
 with wit as splendid as that of Butler." Pope wrote his 
 epitaph, which contains these lines, — 
 
 " Bless'd courtier, who could king and country please, 
 Yet sacred keep his friendships and his ease." 
 
 See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. ii. chap, viii., vol. 
 iii. ciiap. i., and vol. iv. chap. xxii. 
 
 Dorset, (Edward Sackvii.le,) fourth Earl of, born 
 in 1590, was the grandson of the first earl. He was sent 
 on an embassy to France in 1621. In 1624, by the death 
 of his brother Richard, he became Earl of Dorset. He 
 was chosen president of the council in 1641. In the 
 civil war he was a royalist, and fought bravely at Edge- 
 hill. He died in 1652, leaving his title to his son Rich- 
 ard. A number of his speeches were published between 
 1620 and 1644. He was an excellent master of speech 
 and composition. Clarendon says " his wit was pleasant, 
 sparkling, and sublime." (" History of the Rebellion.") 
 
 See, also, Eksch und Gruber, " AHgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Dorset, (Richard Sackvili.e,) third Earl of, the 
 eldest son of Robert, Earl of Dorset, was born in Lon- 
 don in 1589. In 1609 he married Anne Clifford, who 
 was eminent for her noble spirit, attainments, and munifi- 
 cence, and was afterwards known as the Countess of Dor- 
 set and Pembroke. (See Clifford, Anne.) He died in 
 1624, when the title passed to his brother Edward. 
 
 Dorset, (Richard Sackvili.e,) fifth Earl of, born 
 in 1622, was the father of Charles, the celebrated courtier 
 and patron, and the son of Edward, Earl of Dorset, 
 noticed above. He wrote a " Poetical Address to the 
 Jiemory of Ben Jonson." Died in 1677. 
 
 Dorset, (Thomas Sackvii.le,) first Earl of, an 
 English statesman and poet, born at Buckhurst in 1536, 
 was the son of Sir Richard Sackville. He was a gradu- 
 ate of Cambridge, and a lawyer by profession. In his 
 youth he cultivated poetry with success. He wrote the 
 much-admired " Induction to the Mirror for Magistrates," 
 (see Baldwin, William,) and the tragedy of " Gorbo- 
 duc, or Ferrer and Porrex," (1565,) which, says Sir 
 Philip Sidney, "is full of stately speeches ana well- 
 sounding phrases, climbing to the height of Seneca's 
 style, and as full of notable morality." It was the first 
 regular or respectable tragedy that appeared in the Eng- 
 lish language. He was created Lord Buckhurst in 1566, 
 and was minister to France in 1570. In 1587 he was 
 sent to the Netherlands to inquire into the difficulties 
 between the States and Leicester, the governor-general. 
 He fulfilled this mission with great sagacity and impar- 
 tiality ; but, having expressed a judgment unfavourable 
 to Leicester, he was banished from court and imprisoned 
 in his own house till the death of that favourite. (See 
 Motley's " United Netherlands," chaps, xv. and xvi.) 
 In 1598 he succeeded Lord Burleigh as lord treasurer 
 of England, which office he retained with honour until 
 his death, in 1608. He had been created Earl of Dorset 
 by James I., and left the title to his son Robert. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Dor'sey, (John Syng,) M.D., an eminent physician 
 and surgeon of Philadelphia, was born in that city in 
 1783. He studied in London, where he attended the 
 lectures of Humphry Davy, the distinguished chemist ; 
 he afterwards attended the medical schools of Paris. In 
 1813 he was appointed to the chair of materia medica in 
 the University of Pennsylvania, and in 1818 succeeded 
 Wistar as professor of anatomy, but died the same year. 
 His "Elements of Surgery" (1813) had a European 
 reputation, and was long popular in this country. Dr. 
 Dorsey was a nephew of the celebrated Dr. Physick. 
 
 See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography," 
 
 Dorsteu, doR'sten, (Johann Daniel,) a German 
 medical writer, born at Marburg in 1643 ; died in 1706. 
 
 Dorthes, doRt, (Jacques Ansei.me,) a French ento- 
 mologist, born at Nimes in 1759; died in 1794. 
 
 Dot toman, doR'to-man', (NtCOLAAS,) a physician, 
 born at Arnheim, in Holland, became professor of medi- 
 cine at Montpellier, and afterwards physician-in-ordinary 
 to Henry IV. of France. Died in 1596. 
 
 Dortous. See Mai ran. 
 
 Do'rus, [Gr. Aiipoc,] a mythical person, from whom 
 the Dorians claimed their descent. He was commonly 
 regarded as a son of Hellen. 
 
 Dorval, doR'vil', (Marie Amelie Thomas Delau- 
 nay,) Madame, a popular French actress, born at Lo- 
 rient in 1801 ; died in 1849. 
 
 Dorvigny, doR'ven'ye', (Louis,) a French comic 
 writer, born at Versailles in 1743. His comedy of "Janot, 
 ou les Battus payent l'Amende," (1779,) obtained great 
 success. Died in 1812. 
 
 Dorville. See Contant d'Orville. 
 
 Dorvo, doR'vo', (Hyacinihe, ) a French poet and 
 dramatic writer, born at Rennes in 1 769. He wrote 
 many popular comedies. Died in 1851. 
 
 Dbsi, do'see, (Girolamo,) an eminent Italian archi- 
 tect, born at Carpi in 1695, was a pupil of Fontana. He 
 went to Rome, and became the architect of Pope Clement 
 XII. He displayed his talents on the Villa Cil ->, the 
 Lazaretto of Ancona, the basilica of Santa Maria Mag- 
 giore, and other edifices. Died in 1775. 
 
 Do-si'a-das of Rhodes, a Greek poetaster of an 
 unknown epoch, is mentioned by Lucian. He wrote a 
 poem in the figure of an altar, which is extant. 
 
 Dosio, do'se-o, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 spulptor, bom in 1533. He made statues and bas-reliefs 
 for the Belvedere palace, Rome. Died about 1600. 
 
 Do-sith'e-us of Colone, a Greek geometer, lived 
 about 220 B.C. Archimedes dedicated to him several 
 treatises. 
 
 «aSA\cas.r;g.4«rd , ;gas/; G,H,K., guttural N, nasal; R, trilled; sass; thasin/^M. (U^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
D0S1THEVS 
 
 784 
 
 DOUGLAS 
 
 Dositheus, [Fr. Dosithee, do'ze'ta',] a Jewish im- 
 postor or magician of Samaria, lived in the first century. 
 He pretended to be the Messiah. 
 
 Dositheus surnamed Magis'ter, a Greek gram- 
 marian, lived about 300 A.D. 
 
 See Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and 
 Mythology." 
 
 Dosma-Delgado, dos'ma del-ga'Do, (Rodrigo,) a 
 Spanish theologian and linguist, born at Badajos in 1533 ; 
 died in 1607. 
 
 D'Ossat. See Ossat. 
 
 Dossi, dos'see, (Dosso,) an Italian painter, born at 
 or near Ferrara in 1474, was the friend of Ariosto, who 
 has commemorated him among the eminent artists of 
 that age. He painted an admirable portrait of Ariosto. 
 He had a brother Giobattista, who worked with him in 
 Ferrara and was an excellent landscape-painter. As 
 Dosso excelled in the human figure, they were often em- 
 ployed on the same picture. Dosso died in 1558. Among 
 their master-pieces is an oil-painting of the four Fathers 
 Ambrose, Augustine, Gregory, and Jerome consulting 
 together. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Dos'sie, (Robert,) an English apothecary or chemist, 
 who lived in London, published " Institutes of Experi- 
 mental Chemistry." Died in 1777. 
 
 Dost- (dost) Mo-ham'med, Emir of Cabool, an 
 Affghan chief, was born about 1798. He began to reign 
 at Cabool about 1826, was expelled by a British army in 
 1840, and was restored in 1843. He was an ambitious 
 and warlike ruler. Died about 1857. 
 
 See Mohun Lal, "Life of Dost-Mohammed," 2 vols., 1S46. 
 
 Dotteville, dot'vel', (Jean Henri,) a French trans- 
 lator, born at Palaiseau in 1716, produced a translation 
 of Sallust, (1749,) which is commended, and aversion 
 of the "Annals" of Tacitus, (1774.) Died in 1807. 
 
 Dotti, dot'tee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian satirical 
 poet, born at Valcanonico in 1642, lived some years in 
 Venice. His personal satires gave great offence. He 
 published a volume of verses called "Rime e Sonnetti," 
 ("Verses and Sonnets,") and wrote "The Carnival" and 
 other satires. He was assassinated in 1712. 
 
 Dottori, di, de dot-to'ree, (Carlo,) Count, an Italian 
 poet, born at Padua in 1624, wrote " Aristodemo," a 
 tragedy, often reprinted, and other poems. Died in 1686. 
 
 Dou, (Gerard.) See Dow. 
 
 Douaren, doo'i'roN', or Duaren, du'i'roN', [Lat. 
 Douare'nus,] (Francois,) a French jurist, born in 
 Bretagne about 1509. He professed law at Bourges for 
 some years, and in 1548 began to practise in Paris. He 
 was reputed one of the most learned jurists of his time, 
 particularly in civil law, and published many legal works. 
 He also wrote a curious treatise on Plagiaries. Died at 
 Bourges in 1559. 
 
 See Zeidler, "Vita Douareni," 1768: Bayle, "Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Double, doobl, (Francois Joseph,) a French phy- 
 sician, born at Verdun-sur-Garonne in 1776, practised in 
 Paris with success. He had a share in the discovery and 
 application of quinine by Pelletier, his brother-in-law. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Doub'le-day, (dub'l'da), (Abner,) an American gen- 
 eral, born in Saratoga county, New York, about 1820, 
 fraduated at West Point in 1842. He was a captain 
 efore the civil war, and was one of the garrison of Fort 
 Sumter, April, 1861. He commanded a division at the 
 battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862, and a corps at 
 Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863. In September, 1867, he 
 obtained the rank of colonel in the regular army. 
 
 Doub'le-day, (Edward,) an English naturalist, born 
 in 1810. He visited the United States for scientific pur- 
 poses. After his return home he was one of the curators 
 of the British Museum, where he gave much attention 
 to the study of insects. His principal work is "On the 
 Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera," which he continued to 
 issue in parts until his death. He also published a 
 treatise on the "Nomenclature of British Birds," and 
 other works. Died in London in 1849. 
 
 Doublet, doo'blS', (Francois,) a French physician, 
 born at Chartres in 1751. In 1794 he was appointed 
 professor of pathology in the Ecole de Santi, Paris. He 
 
 wrote medical articles for the " Encyclopedie Metho- 
 dique," a treatise on " Reform in Prisons," and one on 
 "Puerperal Fever." Died in 1795. 
 
 See Doublet de Boisthibault, "Notice sur la Vie de F. Dou- 
 blet," 1826. 
 
 Douce, dowss, (Francis,) an English antiquary, born 
 in 1762. He was a diligent collector of rare and curious 
 books, prints, coins, etc., was a Fellow of the Antiqua- 
 rian Society, and at one time keeper of the manuscripts 
 in the British Museum. He wrote several papers for the 
 " Archaeologia," and published "Illustrations of Shak- 
 speare," (1807.) Died in 1834. 
 
 See William Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866. 
 
 Doucet, doo's^', (Charles Camille,) a French 
 dramatist, born in Paris in 1812. 
 
 Douciu, doo'saN', (Louis,) a French Jesuit, bcrn at 
 Vernon in 1652. He gained a reputation by his writings, 
 among which are a "History of Nestorianism," (1693,) 
 and a "History of Origenism," (1700.) These are said 
 to be interesting and well written. He took a prominent 
 part as the supporter of the bull " Unigenitus" against 
 Jansenism. Died in 1726. 
 
 Doudeauville, de, deb doo'do'vel', (Amhroise Poly- 
 carpe de la Rochefoucauld, deli li rosh'foo'ko',) 
 Due, a philanthropic nobleman, born in Paris in 1765; 
 died in 1841. 
 
 Doudyns, dow'dlns, or Dodvens, ( Willem, ) a 
 Dutch painter, born at the Hague in 1650. He studied 
 in Rome for twelve years, after which he returned to 
 the Hague and worked with great success. Descamps 
 praises his composition, design, and colour. One of 
 his works represents " Time, which discovers Truth 
 and Deception." Died in 1697. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Doueli-al-Basri. See Duai.i-al-Basree. 
 
 Douffet or Douneit. See Dufi-et. 
 
 Dougados, doo'gS'dos', (Jean Francois,) a French 
 poet, bofn at Carcassonne in 1763. In his youth he 
 turned monk, and assumed the name of Pere Venance. 
 He entered the army in 1791, rose to the rank of adju- 
 tant-general, and was executed by the Jacobins in 1794. 
 He was author of a "Christmas Hymn," and of other 
 verses. 
 
 Doughty, dow'te, (Thomas,) an American landscape- 
 painter, born in Philadelphia in 1793. He learned the 
 trade of a tanner and currier, but relinquished that 
 business about 1820 for landscape-painting, which he 
 followed many years in the United States, and afterwards 
 in London and Paris. Died in New York m 1856. 
 
 See Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists." 
 
 Douglas, dug'lass, an ancient noble family of Scot- 
 land, which traces its ancestry as far back as the twelfth 
 century. The Earls of Douglas, the Earls of Angus, 
 and the Earls of Morton belonged to this family. Sir 
 James Douglas, surnamed the Good, was the founder 
 of their fame and grandeur. He commanded the left 
 wing at Bannockburn in 1314, and was killed by the Sa- 
 racens in Spain about 1330, in a pilgrimage to Palestine, 
 whither he was going to deposit the heart of Robert 
 Bruce. As he left no lawful issue, he was succeeded by 
 his brothers Hugh and Archibald. The latter, who was 
 killed at the battle of Halidou Hill in 1333, left a son 
 William, who became the first Earl of Douglas and mar- 
 ried for his third wife the heiress of the Earl of Angus. 
 He died in 1384, leaving two sons, James, second Earl 
 of Douglas, and George, Earl of Angus. James, second 
 Earl, married Margaret, a daughter of King Robert II. 
 He was a famous warrior, and was killed at the battle 
 of Otterburn in 1388 As he left no male issue, the earl- 
 dom passed to Archibald the Grim, third Earl, who 
 fought for the French at Poitiers and died about 1400. 
 He was succeeded by his son Archibald, fourth Earl, who 
 married a daughter of King Robert III. He displayed 
 great courage at the battle of Shrewsbury, (1403,) where 
 he fought against Henry IV., and rendered important 
 military services to Charles VII. of France, who rewarded 
 him with the duchy of Touraine. He was killed at the 
 battle of Verneuil, in France, in 1424. His son Archi- 
 bald, the fifth Earl of Douglas, was chosen a member of 
 the regency at the death of James I., (1437.) He died in 
 1438, leaving his title to his son William, the sixth Earl, 
 
 a, e, I, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 0, obscure; far, fill, fit; mit; not; good; moon; 
 
DOUGLAS 
 
 7*5 
 
 DOUGLAS 
 
 who was born about 1425. William, charged with am- 
 bitious designs or contempt for the authority of the 
 infant king, was beheaded in 1440, or, as some say, in 
 1437. The earldom of Douglas then passed to James, 
 an uncle or grand-uncle of William. James was suc- 
 ceeded by William, eighth Earl. (See separate article.) 
 
 See Robertson, "History of Scotland." 
 
 Douglas, (Archibald,) fifth Earl of Angus, grand- 
 son of George, above named, was lord chancellor about 
 the end of the fifteenth century. He was a powerful, am- 
 bitious, and lawless subject He was called "the Great 
 Earl of Angus," and also surnamed " Bell-the-Cat." He 
 had several sons, one of whom was Gavin, the poet and 
 bishop. (See separate notice below.) Died about 15 14. 
 Archibald VI., grandson of the fifth Earl of Angus, and 
 son of George, was lord chancellor about 1527. He 
 married in 1514 Margaret, queen-dowager of James IV. 
 and sister of Henry VIII. He died in 1567, leaving a 
 daughter, who was the mother of Lord Darnley. George, 
 a nephew of the sixth Earl, inherited his title, and had 
 a younger brother, who became Earl of Morton, after- 
 wards Regent Morton in the time of Queen Mary Stuart. 
 William, the son of the tenth Earl of Angus, in 1633 was 
 created Marquis of Douglas, and his son Archibald was 
 created Earl of Ormond by Charles II. 
 
 Douglas, (Sir Charles,) a Scottish naval officer, the 
 father of General Sir Howard Douglas. He commanded 
 a squadron in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in 1775. In 
 1781 he was appointed first captain to Admiral Rodney, 
 and contributed to the victory gained by him over the 
 French in the West Indies, April 12 of that year. In 
 1787 he was made rear-admiral. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionaryvf Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Douglas, (David,) an eminent Scottish botanist, born 
 at Scone, in Perthshire, in 1 798. He served an apprentice- 
 ship as a gardener, and worked in the botanic garden of 
 the University of Glasgow. About 1823-24 he was em- 
 ployed by the London Horticultural Society as a botanical 
 collector in the United States, and extended his re- 
 searches as far as Oregon and California. He returned 
 in 1827 with many valuable acquisitions for English 
 flower-gardens. A few years later he sailed for America 
 on a similar mission, and visited the Sandwich Islands, 
 where he was killed, in 1834, by a wild bull which had 
 been entrapped in a pit, he himself having soon after 
 accidentally fallen into the same pit. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Douglas, dug'lass, ( Frederick, ) a distinguished 
 American orator, originally a mulatto slave, born in Tal- 
 bot county, Maryland, about 1817. He escaped from 
 his master in 1838, and went to New Bedford, Massa- 
 chusetts. About 1841 he began to deliver lectures against 
 slavery, which attracted much attention throughout the 
 Northern States. He published his Autobiography in 
 1845, after which he visited England, where he made 
 anti-slavery speeches and drew large audiences by his 
 earnest and brilliant eloquence. He edited at Rochester, 
 New York, a paper called "The North Star." "His 
 glow and fervour," says Mr. T. W. Higginson, "are 
 extraordinary, and so is his dramatic power ; and he 
 surpasses in his perception of the finer felicities of the 
 English language all other self-made men whom I have 
 ever known." 
 
 See "My Bondage and my Freedom," by Frederick Douglas. 
 
 Douglas, (Gavin or Gawin,) a Scottish poet, born 
 about 1474, was the third son of Archibald, fifth Earl of 
 Angus. He finished his education in the University of 
 Paris, and entered the Church. In 1515 he was appointed 
 Bishop of Dunkeld. His reputation as a poet is founded 
 chiefly on his translation of Virgil's "./Eneid" into Scottish 
 verse, (1513,) which was the first version of a classic into 
 any British language. "This translation," says Warton, 
 "is executed with equal spirit and fidelity. The several 
 books are introduced with metrical prologues, which arc 
 often highly poetical." His principal original poem is 
 "The Palace of Honour." Died in 1522. 
 
 See Irving, " Lives of the Scottish Poets;" Chambers, "Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Douglas. See Morton, Earl of, and Ormond, 
 Earl of. 
 
 Douglas, dug'lass, (Sir Howard,) a British general, 
 born at Gosport, in Hampshire, in 1776, was a son of 
 Admiral Sir Charles Douglas. He served in the Pen- 
 insula from 1808 to 1812, and published an "Essay 
 on Military Bridges," (1816.) His "Treatise on Naval 
 Gunnery, approved by the admiralty, was published 
 in 1819, (4th edition, 1855.) He was Governor ,of New 
 Brunswick from 1823 to 1829, was elected to Parliament 
 in 1842, and obtained the rank of general in 185 1. Died 
 in November, 1861. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1863. 
 
 Douglas, (James,) ninth and last Earl of, a brother 
 of William the eighth Earl, raised an army against the 
 king, but was taken prisoner, and confined until his death 
 in 1488. 
 
 Douglas, (James,) M.D., an eminent Scottish anato- 
 mist, born in 1675, resided and practised in London. 
 He gained a high reputation as a surgeon and a writer 
 on anatomy, and became physician to the king. He lec- 
 tured many years on anatomy and surgery. Haller, who 
 visited him, calls him a " learned and skilful person,." He 
 published a "Description of the Peritonaeum," "Myogra- 
 phiae comparatae Specimen," (1707,) and other works. 
 Died in 1742. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Douglas, (John,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 surgeon to the Westminster Infirmary. He was distin- 
 guished as a lithotomist, and was the author of several 
 professional works, among which is a " Treatise on the 
 Utility of Bark as a Remedy for Mortification." 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Douglas, (John,) F.R.S., a Scottish bishop, born in 
 Fifeshire in 1721. He was eminent for learning and 
 literary ability. In 1750 he published a "Vindication 
 of Milton from Lauder's Charge of Plagiarism,"'and in 
 1754 "The Criterion of Miracles," in which he refuted 
 the sophistries of Hume. He was appointed one of 
 the king's chaplains in 1761, Bishop of Carlisle in 1787, 
 and of Salisbury in 1791. As a member of Dr. John- 
 son's Club, he is noticed in Goldsmith's "Retaliation" 
 in these terms : 
 
 " Here Douglas retires, from his toils to relax, 
 The scourge of impostors, the terror of quacks." 
 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 See a " Memoir of Bishop Douglas," prefixed to his Select Works, 
 by W. Macdonald, 1820. 
 
 Douglas, (Stephen Arnold,) an American politician, 
 born at Brandon, Rutland county, Vermont, in April, 18 13. 
 He studied in an academy at Canandaigua, New York, 
 from 1830 to 1833. He adopted the profession of law, 
 removed to Illinois in 1833, and began to practise at 
 Jacksonville. He soon became an active politician and 
 a popular orator of the Democratic party, who, in allu- 
 sion to his small stature, gave him the name of " the 
 Little Giant." He was nominated for Congress in 1S38, 
 but was defeated by a small majority. In the canvass tor 
 President in 1840 he distinguished himself as a "stump 
 speaker." He was elected a judge of the supreme court 
 of Illinois in February, 1841. In 1843 he was elected a 
 member of Congress, in which he advocated the annex- 
 ation of Texas to the Union. He represented Illinois 
 in the Senate of the United States from March, 1847, to 
 1853, during which term he was chairman of the 1 
 mittee on territories. He married a Miss Martin in. 1847. 
 
 He supported Clay's "Compromise measures" of 
 1850, and in relation to the extension of slavery in the 
 territories maintained that Congressi shpuld not initr- 
 fere, but that the people of each territory should be 
 permitted to decide whether it should be a free State or 
 a slave State. This was called the doctrine of " Popular 
 Sovereignty," of which Douglas was the reputed author. 
 He was re-elected a Senator of the United States for 
 a term of six years, 1853-59. In January, 1854, he re- 
 ported from the committee on territories an important 
 bill to organize the territories of Nebraska and Kansas. 
 This bill, which was afterwards passed, and by which the 
 Missouri Compromise was repealed, produced a great 
 excitement, and was denounced by many Northern Demo- 
 crats, who on this account separated from their party. 
 
 In the National Democratic Convention of 1856, Buch- 
 anan and Douglas were rival candidates for the nomina- 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jy-See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
 5° 
 
DOUGLAS 
 
 786 
 
 DOVFILLE 
 
 tion, which the former obtained. Douglas opposed the 
 admission of Kansas in 1857 under the Lecompton Con- 
 stitution, and was thus invojved in a controversy with 
 President Buchanan and a majority of his party in the 
 Senate. This affair caused a division in the Democratic 
 party, and those who acted with Douglas were styled 
 Anti-Locompton Democrats. Henceforth Buchanan and 
 Douglas were bitter enemies. In 185S Illinois was the 
 arena of a memorable contest between Douglas and 
 % Abraham Lincoln, who were competitors for the office 
 of Senator of the United States, and canvassed the State 
 in joint discussions at various places. (See Lincoln, 
 Abraham.) Douglas gained his election as Senator, 
 receiving 54 votes'out of 100. 
 
 He was supported by a majority of Northern Demo- 
 crats as candidate for President at the National Con- 
 vention which met at Charleston in April, i860. This 
 Convention adopted a platform which was in accordance 
 with his policy and was not satisfactory to the extreme 
 Southern politicians. The delegations of Alabama, Mis- 
 sissippi, South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Arkansas, 
 and Florida then withdrew from the convention. On the 
 first ballot Douglas received 145 votes, and no other 
 candidate received more than 42. Having taken more 
 than titty ballots without effecting- a nomination, the 
 convention adjourned, to meet in Baltimore in June. He 
 received 181 votes at Baltimore, and was declared the 
 regular nominee. The seceders nominated John C. Breck- 
 inridge, and thus rendered the election of Douglas almost 
 hopeless. The latter, however, advocated his cause by 
 many public speeches in the Northern and Southern 
 States. At the end of the contest Douglas received 
 only twelve electoral votes. After the rebellion began, 
 he supported the government in efforts to suppress it. 
 On the 25th of April, 1861, he made a patriotic speech 
 at Springfield, Illinois, before the legislature. He died 
 at Chicago in June, 1861, leaving several children. 
 
 See J. VV. Sheahan, " Life of Stephen A. Douglas," i860. 
 
 Douglas, (Sylvester,) Lord Glenbervie, a Scottish 
 lawyer, born at Ellon in 1743, lived in England. He 
 attained eminence in his profession, and published " Re- 
 ports in King's Bench," which are high authority. He was 
 appointed secretary for Ireland in 1793, was made Lord 
 Glenbervie in 1800, and held several high civil offices. 
 His wife was a daughter of the celebrated Lord North. 
 He was repeatedly elected to Parliament. Died in 1823. 
 
 Douglas, (William,) Lord of Nithsdale, called "the 
 Black Douglas," was a formidable enemy to the English. 
 He was assassinated by Lord Clifford, about 1390. 
 
 Douglas, (William,) eighth Earl of, was an im- 
 perious and turbulent person. Having defied the royal 
 authority, he was killed by King James II. during a 
 conference in 1452. 
 
 Douglas, (William,) first Marquis of, the son of 
 the tenth Earl of Angus, was created a marquis in 1633. 
 His son Archibald became Earl of Ormond ; his second 
 son, William, was made Earl of Selkirk, and, after his 
 marriage with the Duchess of Hamilton, obtained the 
 title of Duke of Hamilton. (See Hamilton.) The 
 third Marquis of Douglas was made Duke of Douglas, 
 and died in 1761, when the dukedom became extinct, 
 and the marquisate devolved on the seventh Duke of 
 Hamilton. The Dukes of Queensberry are also a branch 
 of the house of Douglas. 
 
 Douglas, (Sir William,) Knight of Liddesdale, was 
 a natural son of " the good Sir James," and was called 
 " England's scourge and Scotland's bulwark." He was 
 assassinated in 1353. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Douglas, (Sir William,) of Glenbervie, a son of 
 Archibald "Bell-the-Cat," was killed at the battle of 
 Flodden, (15 13.) His brother George, Master of Angus, 
 was also killed in the same battle. 
 
 Douglass, diig'lass, (David Bates,) LL.D., an Ame- 
 rican engineer, born in Pompton, New* Jersey, in 1790. 
 He was for many years professor of natural philosophy, 
 engineering, etc. at West Point. He was chief engineer 
 in projecting the New York Croton Aqueduct in 1833 
 -34, and president of Kenyon College, Ohio, from 1840 
 to 1844. Died in 1849. 
 
 Doujat, doo'zhS', (Jean,) an eminent French scholar 
 and jurist, born at Toulouse in 1606. In 1650 he was 
 received in the French Academy, and in 1655 was ap- 
 pointed doctor-regent of the P'aculty of Law in Paris, 
 and afterwards historiographer of France. He wrote a 
 " History of Canon Law," (1677,) and other works, and 
 • edited Livy "ad usum Delphini." Died in 1688. 
 
 See Taisand, "Viesdes Juriscnnsultes." 
 
 Doulcet. See Pont£coulant. 
 
 Doulet-Shah or Douletschah, dow'let-shah', a 
 Persian of the fifteenth century, who wrote "Memoirs 
 of Persian and Arabian Poets," (1487.) 
 
 Doultreman. See ( )ui.trkman, d\ 
 
 Dotinot, il.io'iio', a French mathematician and jurist, 
 born at Bar-le-Duc, produced the first complete French 
 version of "Euclid," (1610.) He was highly esteemed 
 by Descartes. . Died in :64c 
 
 Dourga. See Duuga. 
 
 Douri, doo're', (Fremin,) a French scholar and poet, 
 born in Normandy in 1512 ; died in 1578. 
 
 Dourri. See Doorree. 
 
 Dousa, dow'sa, (Georg,) a Dutch scholar, son of Jar. 
 Dousa, noticed below, was born about 1574. He wrote 
 verses in Greek and Latin, and translated a work of 
 Codinus. In 1597 he visited Constantinople, where he 
 collected old manuscripts and inscriptions. After his 
 return he published a " Letter on a Journey to Con- 
 stantinople." Died about 1600. 
 
 Two younger brothers of the preceding, Francis and 
 Theodore, were literary men, and editors of several 
 works. 
 
 Dousa, or Van der Does, vSn der doos, written 
 also Douza, (Jan^ Lord of Noordwyck, a distinguished 
 Dutch Protestant statesman and scholar, born at Noord- 
 wyk in 1545. He concurred in the efforts to liberate 
 Holland from Philip II. of Spain, and was governor of 
 Leyden in 1574 when it was besieged by the Spaniards. 
 He displayed wisdom and firmness in this memorable 
 siege. After the siege was raised, the University of 
 Leyden was founded by his agency, and he was chosen 
 first curator. In 1585 he was appointed keeper of the 
 archives of Holland. Dousa and his son John wrote 
 the " Annals of Holland," in Latin verse and prose, 
 (1601,) which added to his high reputation. He was 
 a diligent student of history, and wrote Latin odes for 
 recreation. He also published notes on Horace and 
 other classics. Died in 1604. 
 
 See Motley, '* Rise of the Dutch Republic," part iv. chap. ii. ; 
 Daniel Heinsius, " Laudatio J. Dousa;," 1605. 
 
 Dousa, (Jan,) a son of the preceding, born in 1571, 
 was proficient in the languages and sciences. He was 
 chosen librarian of the University of Leyden in 1591, 
 assisted his father in the " Annals of Holland," and-wrote 
 the first part of an admired Latin poem on astronomy, 
 (" Return Ccelestium Liber,") which was not finished 
 when he died prematurely in 1596. Joseph J. Scaliger 
 lamented his death in an "Epicedium." 
 
 See Veruel, " Redevoeringen over J. Dousa en over J. Bellamy," 
 1791 ; M. Siegenuekk, " Laudatio J. Dousas," 1812. 
 
 Doussin-Dubreuil, doo'saN'du'bRul' ordu'bRuh'ye, 
 (Jacques Louis,) a French physician, bom at Saintes in 
 1762 ; died at Paris in 1831. 
 
 Douven, dow'ven or doo'ven, (John Francis,) a 
 skilful portrait-painter, born at Roermont, near Cleves, 
 in 1656. Fie removed to Dusseldorf about 1684, and 
 afterwards worked in Vienna, Denmark, and Florence. 
 He received the title of first painter to the emperor 
 Leopold, and is said to have painted three emperors, 
 five kings, and seven queens. Died at Prague in 1710. 
 
 See Dbscamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Douville, doo'vel', (Jean Baptistk,) a French tra- 
 veller, born in Manche in 1794. He returned to France 
 in 1831, after an absence of some years, with an accoant 
 of pretended discoveries in Congo, and published a book 
 called "Travels in Congo," (1832,) which was at first 
 received with favour by the learned, who were soon con- 
 vinced that they had been deceived. He visited in 1833 
 the valley of the Amazon, where he is supposed to have 
 been killed. 
 
 See Dnuvn.i.E, " Trente Mois de ma Vie," etc., 1S33 ; "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for August, 1832. 
 
 a, 6, 1 o u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, f, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moTJQ; 
 
DOUVRE 
 
 7«7 
 
 DOYLE 
 
 Douvre, de, deh doo'ver, (Thomas,) born in 1027, 
 became Archbishop of York in 1070. Died in 1100. 
 Douw, See Dow. 
 Douza. See Dousa. 
 
 Dovalle, do'vil', (Chari.es,) a distinguished French 
 poet, born at Montreuil-Mlay in 1807, wa6 the author of 
 an admired poem, entitled "L'Oratoire du Jardin," and 
 a song on Liberty, which was commended by Beranger. 
 He was killed in a duel by M. Mira in 1829. 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 Dove, do'veh, (Heinkich Wilhki.m,) an eminent 
 German meteorologist, born at Liegnitz, in Silesia, in 
 1S03, became professor of physics in the University of 
 Berlin in 1829. He made extensive observations and 
 researches into the laws of climate and atmospheric 
 phenomena, and published many works, among which 
 are "Meteorological Researches," (1837,) a "Treatise 
 on the Electricity of Induction," (1843,) a »d "On Elec- 
 tricity," (1848.) 
 
 Dover, Lord. See Ellis, (George J. Wellbore 
 Agar.) 
 Dovizi or Dovizio. See Bibbiena. 
 D6w, (Alexander,) Colonel, a Scottish writer, born 
 at Crieff, became secretary to the Governor of Bencoolen. 
 He published a "History of Hindostan," (1767,) from 
 the Persian of Ferishta, preceded by an "Inquiry into 
 the State of Bengal," and an "Essay on the Origin and 
 Nature of Despotism in Hindostan," which are works 
 of merit and display much acquaintance with Oriental 
 literature. Died in 1779. 
 
 Dow or Douw, d6w, (Gerard,) a celebrated Dutch 
 painter, was born at Leyden in 1613. In the school 
 of Rembrandt he made himself expert in colouring and 
 chiaroscuro. He sought the ideal perfection in minute 
 precision and exquisite delicacy of finish, which he be- 
 stowed on all the most trivial accessories of the picture. 
 It is said that he spent three days in finishing a broom- 
 handle. It is only by the aid of a microscope that one 
 can appreciate his exact imitation of nature in all its 
 minutiae. His works are marvels of technical skill, but 
 not of inventive genius. He chose his subjects from the 
 scenes of common life. Among his master-pieces are 
 "The Dutch Cook," "The Dropsical Woman," "The 
 Charlatan," and "The Village Grocer." His paint- 
 ings, though of small dimensions, command high prices. 
 Mieris was his most noted pupil. Dow resembled Rem- 
 brandt in harmony of colour, and is said to have obtained 
 Rembrandtesque effects notwithstanding his excessive 
 elaboration. Died at Leyden in 1680. 
 See Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." 
 D8w, (Lorenzo,) an eccentric Methodist preacher, 
 born in Coventry, Connecticut, in 1777. He preached in 
 many parts of the United States and in England. He 
 was noted for his earnestness and courage, as well as for 
 some singularities of dress and expression. He died in 
 1834, leaving a journal of his life and travels. 
 
 Dow, (Neal,) the originator of the celebrated " Maine 
 Law," was born at Portland, Maine, about 1803. He 
 was elected a member of the legislature of Maine, in 
 which he procured the passage of a law to prohibit the 
 sale of ardent spirits. He was twice mayor of Portland. 
 He became a brigadier-general of volunteers about April, 
 1862, and served under General Butler in Louisiana. 
 
 Dowd'all, (George,) was appointed Archbishop of 
 Armagh by Henry VIII. in 1543. The pope refused to 
 confirm this nomination; but Dowdall occupied the see 
 for some years. Died in 1558. 
 
 DSw'land, (John,) an English musician, born in or 
 near London in 1562, was a friend of Shakspeare. He 
 composed songs, airs, etc., and wrote several treatises 
 on music. Died after 1625. 
 
 Dow'ler, (Bennkt,) an American physician, born in 
 Ohio county, Virginia, in 1797, graduated in the Univer- 
 sity of Maryland in 1827. He settled in New Orleans 
 about 1835, and, by his numerous experiments on the 
 human body soon after death, made discoveries in rela- 
 tion to muscular contractility, capillary circulation, etc. 
 Downame. See Downham. 
 
 Downe, down, (John,) an eminent English divine, 
 was a nephew of Bishop Jewel. He published sermons, 
 (1633,) and other works. 
 
 Downes.downz, [Lat. Dun,*/us,](Andrew,) an Eng- 
 lish scholar, born in Shropshire about 1550, became 
 professor of Greek at Cambridge in 1586, and was one 
 of the translators of the Bible. He published " Prelec- 
 tions on Lysias," (1593.) Died in 1627. 
 
 Dowries, downz, (John,) an American naval officer, 
 born at Canton, Massachusetts, in 1 786. He served as 
 lieutenant in the Essex, under Captain Porter, in the war 
 against Great Britain, (1812-14,) after which he fought 
 with distinction against the Algerines. About 1817 he 
 became a captain. He obtained in 1832 command of a 
 squadron in the Pacific Ocean, and destroyed Quallah 
 Batoo, in Sumatra, in retaliation for an outrage com- 
 mitted on an American vessel. Died in 1855. 
 
 Downham, down'am, or Down'ame, (George,) 
 an English theologian, born at Chester. He professed 
 logic at Cambridge, was chaplain to James I., and was 
 appointed Bishop of Derry in 1616. He wrote "The 
 Pope the Antichrist," ("Papa Antichristus," 1603,) a 
 "Treatise on Justification," (1623,) and other works. 
 Died in 1634. 
 
 Downham, (John,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 a clergyman, and author of several approved religious 
 works, one of which is "The Christian Warfare," (1609- 
 18.) Died in 1644. 
 
 DBwn'ing, ( Andrew Jackson, ) a distinguished 
 American landscape-gardener and pomologist, born at 
 Newburg, New York, in October, 1815. He was the 
 son of a nurseryman, and his tastes early led him to the 
 study of botany, rural architecture, and kindred pursuits. 
 About 1841 he published an excellent "Treatise on the 
 Theory and Practice of Landscape-Gardcning," which 
 was received as a standard work on the subject of which 
 it treats. His "Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America" 
 (1845) was very successful, and had passed through four- 
 teen editions in 1852. He also produced a work called 
 "Cottage Residences," and was editor of "The Horti- 
 culturist," a monthly published at Albany, from 1846 
 until his death. He was a passenger on the North River 
 steamboat Henry Clay on the 28th of July, 1S52, and 
 was drowned while attempting to escape from the burn- 
 ing vessel. In 1854 a collection of his " Rural Essays" 
 was published, with a Memoir of the author by George 
 W. Curtis. As a landscape-gardener Mr. Downing stood 
 pre-eminent among his countrymen ; and he probably 
 had few superiors in this department even in Europe. 
 His writings have contributed greatly to the introduction 
 and diffusion of a taste for rural architecture and other 
 rural improvements in America. 
 
 DSwn'man, (Hugh,) M.D., an English poet, born 
 near Exeter in 1740. He was a graduate of Baliol Col- 
 lege, and practised medicine at Exeter. He wrote several 
 dramas, and "Infancy, a Poem," (1774-88,) which ran 
 through seven editions in his lifetime. Died in 1809. 
 
 Dowse, douz, (Thomas,) an American book-collector, 
 born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1772. lie was a 
 leather-dresser by trade, and enjoyed few advantages of 
 education. He became the owner of a library of 5000 
 volumes, which, a short time before his death, he pre- 
 sented to the Massachusetts Historical Society. He also 
 obtained by lottery a choice collection of engravings after 
 the old masters, which he gave to the Boston Athenaeum. 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 Doyen, dwa'yoN', (Gabriel Francois,) a French 
 historical painter, born in Paris in 1726, was a pupil of 
 Vanloo. He gained the grand prize of painting in 1746, 
 studied in Rome about seven years, and returned to Paris, 
 where he produced a successful picture of the " Death 
 of Virginia," and was admitted into the Academy in 1758. 
 His reputation was increased by the picture of "Sainte- 
 Genevieve des Ardents," which is called his master-piece. 
 About 1790 he went to Saint Petersburg, where the 
 empress Catherine employed him to adorn her palaces. 
 Died in Saint Petersburg in 1806. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres." 
 Doyere, dwl'yatR', (Louis,) a French naturalist, born 
 in Calvados in 1S11, has written on anatomy and phy- 
 siology. 
 
 Doyle, doil, (Sir Ciiaki.es William,) a general, born 
 in Ireland, entered the British army about 1793. He dis- 
 tinguished himself in Spain between 1808 and 1S12, and 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J[y=See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
DOYLE 
 
 788 
 
 DRAKE 
 
 obtained the rank of general in the Spanish army. For 
 his conduct at Valenciennes and Lannois he was made a 
 knight-commander of the Guelph in 1819. He became 
 a major-general in 1815, and lieutenant-general in 1837. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Doyle, (James,) a learned Irish Catholic priest, born 
 about 1786, was appointed Bishop of Kildare in 1819. 
 He wrote a " Letter to Daniel O'Connell on the Poor- 
 Laws of Ireland," a "Vindication of the Religious and 
 Civil Principles of the Irish Catholics," (1823,) and 
 several polemical treatises. Died in 1834. 
 
 See W. J. Fitzpatrick, "Life of Bishop Doyle," 1862. 
 
 Doyle, (Sir John,) a British general, born in Dublin 
 about 1756. He made several campaigns in America. 
 In 1796 he was made a colonel, and soon after was 
 secretary-at-war in Ireland. He served as brigadier- 
 general in Egypt in 1800. He was made a lieutenant- 
 general in 1808, and obtained the rank of full general 
 several years later. Died in 1834. 
 
 Doyle, (Richard,) an English artist, distinguished 
 in caricature, was born in London in 1826. He is a son 
 of Mr. Doyle, an artist, whose political sketches, signed 
 " H. B.," obtained much popularity. He contributed 
 humorous and satirical designs to the London " Punch" 
 for some years. His skill in design, and his moral 
 tendency, are highly praised. 
 
 D'Oyly, doi'le, (George,) D.D., an English clergy- 
 man, born in 1778. He became rector of Buxted in 181 5, 
 of Lambeth and Sundridge in 1820. He contributed to 
 the " London Quarterly Review," and published several 
 volumes of sermons. Dr. D'Oyly and the Rev. R. 
 Mant prepared an annotated Bible, published in 1814 by 
 the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, which 
 had a large sale. Died in 1846. 
 
 Dozy, do'ze, ? (Reinhart,) a Dutch Orientalist, born 
 at Leyden in 1820. He became professor of history at 
 Leyden in 1850, and wrote several works which attest 
 his extensive attainments and critical judgment. Among 
 these is "Researches into the Political and Literary His- 
 tory of Spain during the Middle Ages," (1849.) 
 
 Drabicius, dRa-bit'se-us, ( Nikolaus, ) a German 
 visionary or impostor, born in Moravia in 1587, pretended 
 to be a prophet. He was executed at Presburg in 1671. 
 
 Dra'co or Dra'con, [Gr. Apanuv ; Fr. Dracon, dRa'- 
 k6N',] an Athenian legislator, celebrated for his sangui- 
 nary penal code, wasarchon in the 39th Olympiad, about 
 624 B.C. He was the author of the first written laws 
 among the Athenians, and made even the least theft a 
 capital ciime, so that, as Demades remarked, " his laws 
 seemed to be written with blood instead of ink." 
 
 See Grote, "History of Greece;" Thirlwali., "History of 
 Greece;" Carl F. Hermann, " Disputatio de Dracone Legislatore 
 Attico," 1849. 
 
 Dracon. See Draco. 
 
 Draoouites, dRa-ko-nee't2s, (Johann,) a German 
 Lutheran divine, born at Carlstadt in 1494 ; died in 1566. 
 
 Dracontius, dra-kon'she-us, a Latin poet of Spain, 
 wrote a poem called " Hexaemeron," describing the crea- 
 tion of the world. Died about 450 A.D. 
 
 Draeseke. See Draseke. 
 
 Draexler-Manfred, dReks'ler man'fRet, (Carl Fer- 
 dinand,) a German novelist and poet, born at Lembergin 
 1806. Among his novels is " Gruppen und Puppen,"(i836.) 
 
 Draghi, dRa'gee, (Antonio,) an Italian composer of 
 dramatic music, born at Ferrara in 1642, was noted for 
 prolific talent. Died in 1707. 
 
 Draghi, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Genoa; died in 1712. 
 
 Dragoncino, dRl-gon-chee'no,(GiovANNi Battista,) 
 an Italian poet, flourished about 1500. 
 
 Dragonetti, dRa-go-net'tee, (Luigi,) an Italian liter- 
 ary journalist, born at Aquila about 1800. 
 
 Dragut, dra'gut, a Turkish corsair, born in Natolia, 
 rose to high command in the navy under Barbarossa. 
 He committed many piracies against the Spaniards and 
 Italians, and was once taken prisoner by the Genoese 
 admiral Doria, but was liberated after a few years' deten- 
 tion. He gained a victory over the Spaniards at Gerbes 
 in 1560, and was killed at the siege of Malta in 1565. 
 
 See Von Hammer, " GeschichtedesOsmanischen Reichs;" Bran- 
 t6me, " Vie de Dragut;" Prescott, " History of Philip II.," vol. ii. 
 
 Drake, (Daniel,) M.D., an American physician and 
 author, was born at Plainfield, New Jersey, in 1785. He 
 took the degree of M.D. at the University of Pennsylva- 
 nia in 1816. He was connected at different periods with 
 the schools of medicine in Cincinnati, Lexington, Louis- 
 ville, and Philadelphia. It was chiefly through his efforts 
 that the Medical College of Ohio was founded at Cin- 
 cinnati in 1819. Dr. Drake was distinguished as a 
 lecturer. He edited for many years the " Western Jour- 
 nal of Medical Science," published at Cincinnati. He 
 was also author of various medical and other works, the 
 most important of which is his " Systematic Treatise on 
 the Principal Diseases of the Interior Valley of North 
 America, as they appear in the Caucasian, African, In- 
 dian, and Esquimaux," (2 vols. 8vo, 1850-54.) Died at 
 Cincinnati in 1852. 
 
 See E. D. Mansfield, " Life of D. Drake," 1855 ; S. D. Gross, 
 "American Medical Biography." 
 
 Drake, (Sir Francis,) a celebrated English navigator 
 and naval hero, born in Devonshire about 1540. After 
 learning navigation in the coasting-trade, he commanded 
 a vessel in Sir John Hawkins's disastrous expedition 
 to the Spanish Main in 1567, in which he lost all his 
 property. In 1570, with a commission from the queen, 
 he cruised with some success against the Spaniards 
 in the West Indies. In 1572 he sailed with two vessels 
 on a marauding expedition against the Spanish shipping 
 and settlements of America, from which he returned 
 next year with prizes of great value. From the Isthmus 
 of Darien he had obtained a view of the Pacific Ocean. 
 With five small vessels, in December, 1577, he embarked 
 on a buccaneering enterprise to the Pacific through the 
 Straits of Magellan. He obtained immense treasures by 
 plunder on the coast of Chili and Peru, and, in the hope of 
 finding a passage to the Atlantic, sailed northward as far 
 as 48 degrees north. Failing in this design, he returned 
 to San Francisco, and thence steered across the ocean to 
 the Moluccas, and came home by the Cape of Good Hope 
 in 1579, having circumnavigated the globe. Drake was 
 knighted by Queen Elizabeth, who dined on board his 
 vessel at Deptford and directed the ship to be preserved 
 as a monument of his memorable achievement. He was 
 appointed commander of a fleet in 1587, and sent to 
 "singe the King of Spain's beard," — that is, to bum his 
 ships in the Spanish harbours. In the port of Cadiz he 
 burnt, sunk, or captured one hundred vessels destined 
 for the invasion of England. In the next year, as vice- 
 admiral, he contributed to the victory of the English 
 over the Invincible Armada. He was elected to Par- 
 liament in 1592. In 1595 an expedition was fitted out 
 against the West Indies, and the command was divided 
 between Drake and Hawkins, who disagreed and conse- 
 quently failed. After losing many men by disease, Drake 
 died near Puerto Bello in 1595. 
 
 See Barrow, " Life, Voyages, etc. of Sir Francis Drake," 1843 ; 
 Samuel Clarke, "Life of Sir Francis Drake," 1671 : Campbki.l, 
 "Lives ot British Admirals;" Motley, "United Netherlands," 
 vol. ii. chap. xi. ; Samuel Johnson, " Life of Sir Francis Drake," 
 London, 1767; J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of 
 Queen Elizabeth's Reign ;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1844. 
 
 Drake, (Francis,) an English surgeon and antiquary 
 of York. He published "The History and Antiquity of 
 the City of York," (1736.) Died in 1770. 
 
 Drake, dRa'keh, (Friedrich,) a celebrated German 
 sculptor, born at Pyrmont in 1805. He became a pupil 
 of Rauch in Berlin. One of his early works, a " Ma- 
 donna and Child," was purchased by the Empress of 
 Russia. His reputation was increased by his allegorical 
 group of the "Eight Provinces of Prussia," (1844,) ant ' 
 by marble statues, busts, and statuettes of eminent Ger- 
 mans, among which are the Humboldts, Rauch, Oken, 
 and Frederick William III. 
 
 Drake, (James,) M.D., an English physician and po- 
 litical writer, born at Cambridge in 1667. He published 
 in 1702 "The History of the Last Parliament," and soon 
 after " Historia Anglo-Scotica," which gave great offence 
 to the Scots and was burnt by the hangman. He wrote 
 several other works in favour of Toryism ; also a " New 
 System of Anatomy," a work of merit. Died in 1707. 
 
 Drake, (Joseph Rodman - ,) an American poet, born 
 in the city of New York in August, 1795, was educated 
 at Columbia College. He studied medicine, and mar- 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y\ short ; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m£t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
 ■i S 
 
DRAKE 
 
 789 
 
 DRAYTON 
 
 ried Sarah Eckford about 1816. In 1819 he wrote hu- 
 morous and satirical verses which were published in the 
 "Evening Post" under the signature of "Croaker." He 
 was an intimate friend of Fitz-Greene Halleck. His 
 principal works are "The Culprit Fay," a beautiful ima- 
 ginative poem, and the much-admired verses on " The 
 American Flag,"* (1819.) He died prematurely in Sep- 
 tember, 1820, in New York, leaving one daughter, who 
 afterwards became the wife of Commodore De Kay. 
 Halleck wrote a poetical tribute to his memory. 
 
 See Gkiswold. "Poets and Poetry of America;" Duyckinck, 
 " Cyclopaedia of American Literature." 
 
 Drake, (Nathan,) M.D., an English critic and essay- 
 ist, born at York in 1766. From 1792 until his death he 
 practised medicine at Hadleigh, in Suffolk, and produced 
 numerous excellent literary works, among which are 
 "Literary Hours," (1 798,) "Essays illustrative of the 
 Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian," (1805,) and "Shak- 
 speare and his Times," (1817.) Of the last, Archdeacon 
 Nares says, " No work has hitherto appeared in which 
 so much of agreeable and well-digested information on 
 this subject will be found, as in this masterly production. 
 It may be considered as a magnificent temple dedicated 
 to the genius of Shakspeare." He published some pro- 
 fessional treatises. Died in 1836. 
 
 Drake, (Samuel Gardner,) an American writer, 
 born at I'ittsfield, New Hampshire, in 1798, became a 
 bookseller in Boston. He published "Indian Biography," 
 (1832,) "The Book of the Indians, or History and Bio- 
 graphy of the Indians of North America," (1833,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Drakenberg, dRa'ken-beRg', (Christian Jacohsen,) 
 a Norwegian, remarkable for longevity and strength, 
 born at Blomsholm in 1626. He served as a common 
 sailor about fifty years, and was held as a slave by the 
 Algerines and others about sixteen years. At the age 
 of one hundred and ten he married, and several years 
 later was able to perform long journeys on foot. Died 
 in 1772, aged one hundred and forty-five. 
 
 Drakenborch, clKa'ken-l)0KK',( Arnold,) an eminent 
 Dutch scholar, born at Utrecht in 1684. He was educated 
 at Utrecht and Leyden. In 1704 he wrote " De Praefectis 
 Urbis," a treatise on the office of prefect in Rome, by 
 which he gained a high reputation. In 1716 he became 
 professor of history and eloquence in Utrecht, where he 
 remained till his death. He published an edition of 
 Silius Italicus, and one of Livy, which is a master-piece 
 of accuracy and erudition. Died in 1747. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Dran, Le. See Ledran. 
 
 Drant, (Thomas,) D.D., an English divine, known as 
 the first English metrical translator of Horace, in 1567. 
 He published sermons and other works. Died about 1578. 
 
 Draparnaud, dRf pSr'ho', (Jacques Philippe Ray- 
 mond,) a French naturalist and linguist, born at Mont- 
 pellier in 1772. He was professor of natural history at 
 Montpellier, and wrote many scientific memoirs, some 
 of which were commended by the Institute of France. 
 Among his principal works is "The Natural History of 
 Mollusks." Died in 1805. 
 
 See "Biographie Medicate ;" Jacques Poitevin, "Notice sur la 
 Vie de M. Draparnaud," 1805. 
 
 Dra'per, (Eliza,) Mrs., an English lady, was a friend 
 and correspondent of Laurence Sterne, who addressed 
 to her the "Letters of Yorick to Eliza." 
 
 Dra'per, (John William,) M.D., a distinguished 
 chemist and physiologist, was born in Liverpool, Eng- 
 land, in 181 1. He came to America in 1833, and in 1836 
 graduated at the medical department of the University of 
 Pennsylvania. In 1839 he accepted the chair of chem- 
 istry in the University of New York. He took a promi- 
 nent part in establishing the medical department of the 
 New York University in 1841, and has since been a pro- 
 fessor in that institution. Professor Draper has devoted 
 much attention to the chemical action of light, and written 
 able treatises on this subject. He has made numerous 
 contributions to the "Edinburgh Scientific Journal." 
 Among his most important works are his " Human 
 
 
 • The last four lines of "The American Flag" were written by 
 Fitz-Greene Halleck. 
 
 Physiology, Statistical and Dynamical, or the Conditions 
 and Course of Life in Man," (8vo, 1856,) and his " His- 
 tory of the Intellectual Development of Europe," (1863,) 
 a work which has attracted much attention, having been 
 as warmly praised by some as it has been severely criti- 
 cised by others. He has also written "Thoughts on the 
 Future Civil Policy of America," (1865,) and a "History 
 of the American Civil War," (2 vols., 1S67-68.) 
 See "North American Review" for October, 1867. 
 
 Draper, (Sir William,) a British officer, born at 
 Bristol in 1721, commanded as colonel at the capture of 
 Manilla from the Spaniards in 1763. He is best known 
 by his controversy with Junius, against whom he under- 
 took to defend the Marquis of Granby in 1769. Four of 
 the letters of Junius were addressed to Draper, who, 
 being foiled by the keen wit and sarcasm of his oppo- 
 nent, endeavoured to provoke him to a duel. The intem- 
 perate and somewhat scurrilous letters of Draper are 
 published with those of his antagonist. Died in 1787. 
 
 Drapiez, dRS'pe^i', (Auguste,) a Belgian savant, 
 born at Brussels in 1790, published several works on 
 mineralogy and other sciences. 
 
 Draseke 01 Draeseke, dRa'zeh-keh, (Johann Hein- 
 rich Bernhard,) a distinguished German pulpit orator, 
 born at Brunswick in 1774. He became first preacher 
 of the cathedral of Magdeburg in 1832. He published 
 numerous sermons, and " Faith, Love, and Hope," (1813; 
 6th edition, 1834.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Draud, dRowt, (Georg,) a German bibliographer, 
 born at Dauernheim in 1573, published " Bibliotheca 
 Classica," (1611,) the most complete and methodical 
 bibliography of printed books that had then appeared. 
 Died about 1630. 
 
 Dray'ton, (Michael,) an English poet, born at Harts- 
 hill, in Warwickshire, in 1563. The events of his early 
 life are nearly all unknown. He was patronized in youth 
 by Sir Walter Aston, and in the decline of life he found 
 a comfortable home at the seat of the Earl of Dorset. 
 About 1596 he published historical poems, entitled "The 
 Barons' Wars" and "England's Heroical Epistles." His 
 principal production, "The Poly-Olbion," (1613,) is 
 greatly admired, and is regarded as good authority in 
 reference to English antiquities. It is a poetical descrip- 
 tion of all the rivers, tracts, mountains, forests, etc. of 
 Great Britain, with notices of traditions and stories 
 connected with them. " Drayton is a sweet poet," says 
 Coleridge, "and Seidell's notes to the earlier part of 
 the ' Poly-Olbion' are well worth your perusal." He 
 received the title of poet-laureate in 1626. The next 
 year he published several short poems, among which is 
 his admirable "Nymphidia," a fairy poem. Died in 1631. 
 
 " There is probably," says Hallam, " no poem of this 
 kind in any other language comparable together in ex- 
 tent and excellence to the ' Poly-Olbion ;' nor can any 
 one read a portion of it without admiration for its learned 
 and highly-gifted author." (" Introduction to the Litera- 
 ture of Europe.") 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets;" Sir S. E. Brydces, 
 "Imaginative Biography;" Disraeli, " Amenities of Literature ; 
 Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Dray'ton, (Percival,) an American naval officer, 
 born in South Carolina about 1812, entered the navy 
 about 1828. He obtained the rank of commander in 
 1855, and maintained his loyalty to the Union in the civil 
 war. He was promoted to the rank of captain in 1862, 
 and commanded the monitor Passaic in the attack on 
 Fort Sumter in April, 1863. He was highly esteemed by 
 Admiral Farragut, who selected him to command his 
 flag-ship in his operations against the defences of Mobile 
 Bay, August, 1864. Died in August, 1865. 
 
 Drayton, (William,) a judge, born in South Carolina 
 in 1733. He became, after the Revolution, an associate 
 justice of his native State, and a judge under the Federal 
 government. Died in 1790. 
 
 Drayton, (William,) an American politician, born 
 in South Carolina. He was from 1825 to 1833 a repre- 
 sentative in Congress. Originally a Federalist, he was 
 the leader of the Union party in the nullification move- 
 ment of South Carolina in 1830. He succeeded Nicholas 
 Biddle as president of the United States Bank in 1839, 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g asy,- G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (j!^"See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
DRAYTON 
 
 790 
 
 DRINKER 
 
 Drayton, (William Henry,) an American patriot 
 and judge, born on Ashley River, in South Carolina, in 
 1742. He became chief justice of South Carolina in 1776, 
 and delivered to the grand jury an able charge, which 
 gave an impulse to the popular cause. He was an active 
 and prominent member of Congress, when he died sud- 
 denly in Philadelphia in 1779, in the thirty-sixth year of 
 his age, and left historical memoirs of the Revolution, 
 published by his son, (in 2 vols., 1821.) 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Drebbel, van, vSn dReb'bel, (Cornelis,) a Dutch 
 philosopher, born at Alkmaar in 1572. The latter part 
 of his life was passed in England, where he was patron- 
 ized by James I. and is said to have invented an air 
 tli ;rmometer and some curious machines. He published, 
 in Dutch, a work " On the Nature of the Elements," and 
 one on " Quintessence." He pretended that he had dis- 
 covered a perpetual motion. Died in 1634. 
 
 See F. Hoefer, "Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Drelincourt, dReh'laN'kooR', (Charles,) an eminent 
 French Protestant minister, born at Sedan in 1595. He 
 became minister of Charenton, near Paris, in 1620, and 
 acquired great popularity as a preacher. He wrote 
 against the Church of Rome a number of polemical 
 treatises, which had great influence in confirming his 
 fellow - professors. His work entitled "Consolations 
 against the Fear of Death" (1651) was translated into 
 English and German, and often reprinted. He also 
 published " Charitable Visits," etc., (" Les Visites charita- 
 bles pour toutes Sortes de Personnes affligees," 5 vols., 
 1669.) His sermons were especially remarkable for their 
 unction. Died in Paris in 1669. 
 
 See Haag, " La France protestante." 
 
 Drelincourt, (Charles,) a son of the preceding, born 
 in Paris in 1633, was a physician and author of high 
 reputation. He took his degree as doctor in 1654, soon 
 after which he was appointed first physician to the army 
 of Turenne. In 1663 he became physician-in-ordinary to 
 Louis XIV., and in 1668 obtained the chair of medicine 
 at Leyden. He was an eloquent and learned writer. 
 Amonghis works are " Piseludium Anatomicum," (1670,) 
 and " Homericus Achilles," (1693.) He was employed 
 as physician by William Prince of Orange, and was the 
 precepter of Boerhaave. He died in 1697, leaving a son 
 Charles, who was a physician. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 " Memoires ;" " Nonvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Drelincourt, (Laurent,) a brother of the preceding, 
 born in Paris in 1626, became minister at Rochelle and 
 Niort, and was distinguished as a preacher. He pub- 
 lished Sermons, and "Christian Sonnets." Died in 1680. 
 
 Dren'nan, (William,) M.D., an Irish poet and politi- 
 cal writer, born at Belfast in 1754; died in 1820. 
 
 Dre-pa'nl-us, (Lati'nus Paca'tus,) a poet and ora- 
 tor, born at Bordeaux or Agen, in France, was deputed 
 to Rome, in 388 A.D., to congratulate Theodosius on his 
 victory over Maximus, and then pronounced a panegyric 
 on that emperor, which is still extant. His poems, 
 which are praised by Ausonius, have not been preserved. 
 
 Drepanius Florus. See Florus. 
 
 Dresig, dua'ziG, (Sigismond Friedrich,) a German 
 scholar and writer, born in 1700, lived at Leipsic; died 
 in 1742. 
 
 Dres'ser, [Lat. Dresse'rus,] (Matthaus,) a learned 
 German professor, born at Erfurt in 1536, was a disciple 
 of Luther, and studied at Wittenberg. He succeeded 
 Justus Lipsius as professor of history at Jena in 1574. 
 In 1581 he became professor of humanities at Leipsic, 
 where by his influence the Confession of Augsburg was 
 adopted in the University. He wrote, besides other 
 Latin works, a "Treatise on Rhetoric," (1585,) and a 
 "Life of Luther," (1598.) Died in 1607. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Dresserus. See Dresser. 
 
 Dressier, dKes'ler, (Ernst Christoph,) a German 
 musician and writer of songs, was born at Greussen in 
 1734; died in 1779. 
 
 Dreux du Radier, dRUh dii rS'de-4', (Jean Fran- 
 cois,) a French lawyer and writer, born at Chateauneuf- 
 en-Thymerais in 17 14. He wrote a "Historical and 
 
 Critical Library of Poitou," (1754,) which is regarded as 
 an excellent work, " Historical and Critical Memoirs and 
 Anecdotes of France," (1764,) and "Recreations, His- 
 torical, Critical, and Moral," (1767.) Died in 1780. 
 
 See Ersch, " La France Litteiaire," 5 vols.,. 1797-1806; Lastic- 
 Saint-Jal, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. F. Dreux du 
 Radier," 1842. 
 
 Dreux et de Breze, de, deh dRUh a deh bRa'za r , 
 (Henri Evrard,) Marquis, was grand master of cere- 
 monies when the States-General met in 17S9. An order 
 which he conveyed from the king, that this body should 
 disperse, provoked a famous reply from Mirabeau. Died 
 in 1829. 
 
 Drevet, dReh-v^', (Pierre,) an excellent French en- 
 graver, bom in Lyons in 1664. After receiving lessons 
 from Germain Audfan, he went to Paris,where he devoted 
 his talents to portraits. Among his best works are por- 
 traits of Louis XIV., Cardinal Fleury, the dauphin, and 
 Boileau. He was perhaps unrivalled by any engraver of 
 his time except his son, who surpassed him. Died in 1 739. 
 
 See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Drevet, (Pierre,) a son and pupil of the preceding, 
 born in Paris in 1697. ^ e engraved a number of por- 
 traits, which are master- pieces, and treated subjects of 
 history with nearly equal success. His portrait of Bos- 
 suet, after Rigaud, (1733,) is called his best work. It is 
 said that he was able to imitate articles of dress and fur- 
 niture so that the various colours, textures, and other 
 qualities of those accessories can be recognized by the 
 least practised eyes. He was a member of the Academy 
 of Painting. Died in 1739. 
 
 See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Drew, (Samuel,) an English writer, born in Cornwall 
 in 1765, was a shoemaker, and supplied the defects of 
 his education by studying in the intervals of labour. He 
 was converted trom infidelity in early life, and joined the 
 Methodist Church. He published "The Immateriality 
 and Immortality of the Soul," (1802,) which is highly 
 praised, and other re-ligious works. He became editor of 
 the " Imperial Magazine" in 1819. Died in 1833. 
 
 See " Life, Character, and Literary Labours of Samuel Drew," 
 by his son, 1S34. 
 
 Drex-e'H-us, [Ger. pron. dRek-sa'Ie-ils,] (Jekkmias,) 
 a German Jesuit and pulpit oiator, born at Augsburg in 
 1581, wrote some ascetic works. Died in 1638. 
 
 See Eksch und Gruher, " Allgeineine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Dreyer, diu'er, (Johann Matthias,) a German poet, 
 born at Hamburg in 1716 ; died in 1769. 
 
 Dreyschock, ditl'shok, (Alexander,) a celebrated 
 pianist, born in Bohemia in 1818. He has acquired 
 distinction by his concerts in the principal capitals of 
 Europe. 
 
 Dreyse, von, fon dui'zeh, (Johann Nikolaus,) the 
 inventor of the celebrated " needle-gun," was born at 
 Sommerda, in Prussia, November 20, 1787. He was the 
 son of a locksmith, and he himself followed the same 
 trade. His attention having been directed to the extra- 
 ordinary clumsiness of the muskets used by the Prussians 
 at the battle of Jena, he was convinced that, until she 
 was provided with better arms, his country could never 
 become a first-rate military power. His invention was 
 made in the early part of 1828, but was not put to the 
 proof until the war of 1866. The great improvement of 
 his gun is his new contrivance for igniting the cartridge, 
 which is still a secret. Died December 9, 1867. 
 
 See " London Examiner" for September 8, 1866. 
 
 Driander. See Dryanijer. 
 
 Dridoens. See Driedo. 
 
 Driedo, dRe'do', or Dridoens, dRee'doons, (Jan,) a 
 Flemish theologian and prominent adversary of Luther- 
 anism. He was a canon of the church of Louvain, and 
 wrote several works, one of which is "On the Writings 
 and Doctrines of the Church," ("De Sctipturis et Dog- 
 matibus ecclesiasticis.") Died in 1535. 
 
 See Possevin, "Apparatus Sacer." 
 
 Driesche. See Drusius. 
 
 Driuk'er, (Anna,) an American poetess, who wrote 
 under the assumed name of EDITH May, was born in 
 Pennsylvania. She published a volume of poems, (185 1,) 
 which were commended by N. P. Willis. 
 
 See Griswoi.d's "Female Poets of America," 
 
 I, e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, tj, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, ail, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
DR1VERE 
 
 79' 
 
 DROrSEN 
 
 Drivere, dRe'vaiR', [Lat. Thrive'rus,] (Jeremias,) 
 burn at Braeckel, in 1' landers, in 1504, became professor 
 of medicine at Louvain. He wrote many medical works, 
 besides commentaries on Hippocrates. Died in 1554. 
 
 See P. J. Haan, "Notice sur la Vie de H. Thriverus," 1846; 
 Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Drobiscll, dko'bish, (Moritz Wilhki.m,) a Gennan 
 philosopher, born in 1802 at Leipsic, where he became 
 professor of mathematics in 1842. 
 
 Di oiling, dRo'liN' or dRol'ling, (Martin,) a French 
 painter, born at Oberbergheim (Haut-Khin) in 1752. He 
 painted familiar scenes, interiors, etc. with success, ami 
 was a good colorist. Died in 1817. 
 
 Drolling, (Michel Martin,) a skilful historical 
 painter, son of the preceding, born in Paris in 17S6. He 
 grined the first prize in 1S10 for a picture of " The Wrath 
 of Achilles." Among his best productions is "Orpheus 
 losing Eurydice," (1817.) He also painted many por- 
 traits. Died in 185 1. 
 
 See Saint-Maurice-Cabany, " M. M. Drolling, Peintre," 1851. 
 
 Drollinger, di<ol'ling-er, (Karl Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man poet, was born at Durlach in 1688. His odes 
 on "The Immortality of the Soul," and "On Divine 
 Providence," were much admired. Died in 1742. 
 
 See Buxtorp, *' Brevis Historia Vita; et Obitus C. F. Drollingeri," 
 1742; Adklung, Supplemeut to Jocher's "Allgejneines Gelehrten- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Dro'mon, [-Vojuoiv,] an Athenian comic poet, lived 
 in the fourth century B.C. 
 
 Drooch-Sloot, dRoK'slSt, (J. C.,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at Gorcum about 1600. Among his works are 
 views of Holland and of village festivals. 
 
 Drossander, dRos-san'der, (Anders,) a Swedish 
 physician and philosopher, born at Upsal in 1648. He 
 wrote several scientific works. Died in 1696. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Drost, dRost, a skilful Flemish painter, and a pupil 
 of Rembrandt, was living in 1670. 
 
 Droste-Hiilshoff, von, fon dRos'teh hiils'hof, (An- 
 nette Elisabeth,) a German lyric poetess, born near 
 Minister in 1798; died in 1848. 
 
 Droste zu Vischering, von, fon dRos'teh tsoo 
 fish'er-ing, (Clemens August,) Freiherr, a German 
 Catholic prelate, born near Munster in 1773. He be- 
 came Archbishop of Cologne in 1835. Died in 1845. 
 
 See Stoeveken, "C. A. Droste zu Vischering in seinem Leben," 
 etc., 1846. 
 
 Drouais, dRoo'4', (Hubert,) a French painter, born 
 in Normandy in 1699, was a grandfather of Jean Ger- 
 main, noticed below. He excelled in portraits. Died at 
 Paris in 1767. 
 
 Drouais, (Jean Germain,) an eminent French painter, 
 born in Paris in 1763, was the son of Henri Drouais, a 
 portrait-painter, who died in 1775. In 1780 he be- 
 came a pupil of David. About the age of twenty-one 
 he gained by a unanimous vote the grand prize of the 
 Academy by his picture of the " Woman of Canaan at 
 the Feet of Christ," which established his reputation. 
 He then went to Rome, where he painted " Marius at 
 Minturnae," and died prematurely in 1788. Goethe, in 
 one of his works, expresses his admiration of the last- 
 named picture. 
 
 See Chaussard, " Notice sur Drouais;" Nagler, "Neues All- 
 gemeines Kuustler-Lexikon." 
 
 Drouet, dRoo'4', (Etienn£,) a French editor and 
 compiler, born in Paris in 1715. He published the last 
 and l>est edition of Moreri's Dictionary, (10 vols., 1759,) 
 and a new edition of Lenglet-Dufresnoy's " Method for 
 the Study of History," (15 vols., 1772.) Died in 1779. 
 
 Drouet, (Jean Baetiste,) a French revolutionist, 
 born at Sainte-Menehould in 1763, was the son of the 
 postmaster of that town. He acquired notoriety by his 
 agency in the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes in 1791. 
 In 1792 he was elected a member of the Convention, in 
 which he voted for the death of the king and the destruc- 
 tion of the Girondists. Soon after Bonaparte obtained 
 the chief power, Drouet was appointed sub-prefect of 
 Sainte-M ene hould. In 1807, as he gave him the cross of 
 the legion ot honour, the emperor said to him, " You 
 have changed the face of the world." Died in 1824. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Drouet de Maupertuy, dRoo'4' dsh mo'pek'tu-e', 
 (Jean Bai'TISTE,) a French writer and priest, born in 
 Paris in 1650; died in 1730. 
 
 Drouet d'Erlon, cIkoo'4' deVlA.N', (Jean Bai'i is te,) 
 Count, and Marshal of France, born at Rheims in 1765. 
 He entered the army as a private in 17S2, served under 
 Hoche in 1797, and was made a general of brigade in 
 1799. He became a general of division in 1800, and 
 contributed by a skilful movement to the victory at Jena, 
 (1806.) In March, 1 815, he was arrested on a charge 
 of lieing an accomplice of Lefebvre-Desnouettes in his 
 design to seize the Bourbon family, and in the ensuing 
 June he was created a peer by Napoleon, for whom he 
 commanded a corps at Waterloo, He passed ten years 
 in exile, returned to France in 1825, and was restored to 
 his rank in the army in 1830, He was chosen Governor- 
 General of Algeria in 1834, and obtained the rank of 
 marshal in 1S43. Died in 1844. 
 
 See " Notice sur la Vie militaire de Drouet d'Erlon," by himself, 
 1844; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale " 
 
 Drouineau, dRoo'e'no', (Gustave,) a French drama- 
 tist and novelist, born at La Rochelle in 1800. He pro- 
 duced "Rienzi," (1826,) a tragedy, and " Ernest," (1829,) 
 a novel, both of which were popular. About 1830 he 
 became one of the editors of the "Constitutionnel." He 
 was author of other dramas and tales. Died in 1835. 
 
 Drouot, dRoo'o', (Antoine,) Count, an able French 
 general of artillery, born at Nancy in 1774. He fought 
 as captain at Hohenlinden in 1800, and gave proof of 
 courage and skill at Wagram, (1809,) and at Borodino, 
 (1812.) For his conduct at Lutzen and Bautzen, (1813,) 
 where he commanded the artillery of the imperial guard, 
 he was made a general of division and aide-de-camp to 
 Napoleon, whom he followed to Elba, of which he was 
 chosen governor. He was at the side of Napoleon at 
 the battle of Waterloo, June, 1815, soon after which he 
 was commandant of the imperial guard at Paris. After 
 the restoration he lived as a private citizen. Died in 
 1847. " France was astonished in 1814 to learn," says 
 C. Hequet, "that she had possessed for a long time the 
 best officer of artillery in Europe." ("Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale.") He was sumamed by Napoleon "the 
 sage of the grand army," ("le sage de lagrandearmee.") 
 
 See J. Nollet-Fabert, " Biographie du General Drouot," 1^50 : 
 Henri Lb Page, "Le General Drouot," 1S47; Lacordaire, " Jl.oge 
 du General Drouot," 1847. 
 
 Drouyn de Lhuys, dRoo'aN' deh lii-e', (Edouard,) 
 a French diplomatist and minister of state, was born 
 in Paris in 1805. He became in 1833 charge-d'affaires 
 at the Hague, where he gave proof of high diplomatic 
 ability. In 1840 he was appointed director of commer- 
 cial affairs in the ministry of foreign affairs. He was 
 brought into frequent contact with Guizot, whose policy 
 he disapproved. As a member of the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties, he voted against the ministry in 1845, alK ' was *•" 
 missed from office. He was elected to the National 
 Assembly in 1848, and became minister of foreign affairs 
 in the first cabinet of President Louis Napoleon. In 
 June, 1849, he was sent as ambassador to London. He 
 was a conservative member of the National Assembly in 
 1851, and again became foreign minister in July, 1852. 
 His diplomatic letters on the occasion of the estab- 
 lishment of the empire added to his reputation. He 
 represented France at the Conference of Vienna in 
 1855, at the close of which he retired from office because 
 he differed from his colleagues on the Eastern question. 
 In October, 1862, he was again appointed minister of 
 foreign affairs. He was removed from this office about 
 September, 1866. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Drovetti, dRo-vet'tee, (Bernardino,) an Italian an- 
 tiquary, born at Leghorn in 1775. He was consul in 
 Egypt, where he formed two rich collections of antique 
 objects. The King of F'rance purchased one of these 
 collections for 250,000 francs. Died in 1852. 
 
 Droysen, dRoi'zen, (Johann Gustav,) a German 
 historian, born at Treptow, in Pomerania, in 1808. He 
 obtained the chair of history at Kiel in 1840, before which 
 he had been professor in Berlin. In 1851 he became 
 professor of history at Jena. His " History.of Prussian 
 Politics" ("Geschichte der Preussischen Politik," 2 vols 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in Ms. ( JJp-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DROZ 
 
 792 
 
 DRURT 
 
 1855) is called his most important work. He has also 
 published a " History of Alexander the Great," (1833,) a 
 " History of Hellenism," (" Hellenismus," 2 vols., 1836— 
 43,) and a " Life of Field-Marshal Graf York von War- 
 tenburg," (1851.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Droz, dRo, (Francois Xavier Joseph,) a French 
 writer and moralist, born at Besancon in 1773. Heserved 
 in the republican army from 1792 to 1796, and became 
 a resident of Paris in 1803. After several unsuccessful 
 attempts as an author, he published in 1806 an " Essay 
 on Happiness," (" Essai sur l'Art d'etre heureux,") 
 which was received with more favour. He became a 
 contributor to several journals. In 1824 he gained the 
 Montyon prize for his treatise "On Moral Philosophy," 
 and in the next year was admitted to the French Acad- 
 emy. His " History of the Reign of Louis XVI." (3 
 vols., 1839-42) is esteemed his most important'work. 
 "A mild solemnity of tone," says SainteBeuve, "was 
 the habitual rhythm of his thoughts." In conjunction 
 with Picarcl, he wrote "Memoirs of Jacques Fauvel," 
 (1823,) which is represented as a Gil Bias less witty but 
 more moral than that of Le Sage. He became in 1832 
 a member of the class of Moral and Political Sciences 
 in the Institute. Died in 1850. 
 
 See F. A. Mignkt, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Droz," 
 1852; Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi." 
 
 Droz, dRo, (Henri Louis,) a son of Pierre Jacquet, 
 noticed below, born in 1752, inherited his mechanical 
 and inventive talent. He produced an automaton in 
 the form of a girl, which played tunes on the harpsichord 
 and at the end of the performance would rise and salute 
 the company. He also made artificial hands. He lived 
 some years at Geneva, where he was much esteemed 
 for his character as well as his talents. Died in 1791. 
 
 Droz, (Jui.es Antoine,) a sculptor, a son of Pierre 
 Jean, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1807. Among 
 his works are the marble statues of Winter and Summer 
 which adorn the palace of the Luxembourg. 
 
 Droz, (Pierre Jacquet,) a skilful mechanician and 
 watchmaker, born in Neufchatel in 1721. He improved 
 the pendulum by using two metals of unequal expansi- 
 bility, and made a writing automaton which displayed 
 great ingenuity. Died in 1790. 
 
 ■ Droz, (Pierre Jean,) a Swiss engraver of coins and 
 medals, bom at Chaux-de-Fond in 1746. He settled in 
 Paris in 1766, and invented a method to engrave stamps 
 for the coinage of money with celerity. About 1790 Watt 
 and Boulton took him into their service, and his skill 
 was exercised in the fabrication of English coins. He 
 returned to France, and during the empire was the chief 
 engraver of public medals and coins. His portraits of 
 Napoleon are praised. Died in 1823. 
 
 Druey, dRii'4', (Charles,) a Swiss politician, born 
 about 1S00, was a leader of the radicals, or the party of 
 progress. In 1845 he was chosen president of the pro- 
 visional government formed after the resignation of the 
 council of state. Under the new constitution adopted 
 in 1848, he was one of the chiefs of the executive power. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Drumann, dkoo'man, (Karl Wilhelm,) a German 
 historian and philologist, born near Halberstadt in 1786, 
 became professor of philology at Kdnigsberg in 181 7. 
 His capital work is a "History of Rome," ("Geschichte 
 Roms," 6 vols., 1834-44,) which is highly commended. 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 Driimel or Druemel, duti'mel, (Johann Heinrich,) 
 a German writer, born at Nuremberg in 1707; died in 1770. 
 
 Drum'mpnd, (Alexander,) a British traveller, who 
 was consul at Aleppo in 1744, and published " Travels in 
 Germany, Greece, and Asia," (1754.) Died in 1769. 
 
 Drum'mond, (George,) a Scottish officer, noted for 
 public spirit, was born in 1687. He fought against the 
 Pretender at Sheriffmuir in 1 715. He was chosen lord 
 provost of Edinburgh in 1725 and at several subsequenf 
 periods. The Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh was founded 
 chiefly by his efforts in 1736. Died in 1766. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Diclionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Drum'mpnd, (Henry,) M.P., an English writer on 
 theology and politics, born in 1786. He was a disciple 
 of Edward Irving. 
 
 Drummond, (James,) Earl of Perth, was appointed 
 lord chancellor of Scotland in 1684. He was a cruel per- 
 secutor of the Covenanters. On the expulsion of James 
 II. from the throne he was exiled. Died in 17 16. 
 
 Drummond, (Maurice,) the ancestor of the Scottish 
 family of that name, was a grandson of Andrew, King 
 of Hungary. He was a resident of England at the Nor- 
 man conquest, (1066,) and he followed Edgar Atheling 
 to Scotland about 1068, and was made seneschal of 
 Lennox. Annabella Drummond, his descendant, was 
 married to Robert III., King of Scotland. 
 
 Drummond, (Robert Hay,) a British prelate, born 
 in London in 171 1, was the second son of the Earl of 
 Kinnoul, and a grandson of Harley, Earl of Oxford. In 
 1737 he was appointed chaplain-in-ordinary to George II. 
 He became Bishop of Saint Asaph in 1748, of Salisbury 
 in 1 761, and Archbishop of York in the same year. 
 Some of his sermons have been published. Died in 1776. 
 
 His son Robert became ninth Earl of Kinnoul. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Drummond, (Thomas,) Captain, known as the in- 
 ventor of the " Drummond Light," was born in Edin- 
 burgh in 1797. In 1813 he entered, as cadet, Woolwich 
 Military Academy, where he displayed superior talents 
 for mathematics and mechanics. He became one of the 
 royal engineers, and was employed in the trigonometrical 
 survey of Scotland about 1824, when he conceived the 
 idea of using the incandescence of lime, instead of the 
 argand lamp, for rendering distant stations visible. The 
 experiment was very successful. In 1825 he invented the 
 heliostat, and, through the influence of Lord Brougham, 
 received a pension of ^300 a year. In 1835 he was made 
 under-secretary for Ireland. Died in 1840. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Drummond, (William,) of Hawthornden, an emi- 
 nent Scottish poet, born of a noble family in 1585. He 
 studied civil law at Bourges, in France, but soon re- 
 nounced that profession for literature. In 1610 his father, 
 Sir John, died, and left him his beautiful seat at Haw- 
 thornden, remarkable for picturesque scenery. He was 
 of a melancholy temperament, and inclined to retirement. 
 In 1619 Ben Jonson performed a journey of several hun- 
 dred miles for the purpose of visiting Drummond, who 
 has preserved some curious and famous notes of the 
 conversation which passed between them. These were 
 published after his death, and are perhaps more known 
 and read than any of his works. Drummond has been 
 censured for leaving these notes and betraying the con- 
 fidence of his guest ; but his friends say he did not intend 
 them for publication. Southey represents Drummond as 
 the first Scottish poet who wrote well in English. Among 
 his most admired productions are "The River Forth 
 Feasting," "The Praise of a Solitary Life," and his son- 
 nets. " The sonnets of Drummond," says Hallam, " are 
 polished and elegant, free irom conceit and bad taste, 
 in pure, unblemished English." In his forty-fifth year he 
 married Elizabeth Logan. Died in December, 1649. 
 
 See P. Cunningham, "Life of W. Drummond;" Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Campbell," Speci- 
 mens of the British Poets;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ix., 1824; 
 "Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Drummond, (Sir William,) of Logie Almond, a 
 British scholar and ingenious writer, was returned to 
 Parliament for Saint Mawes in 1795, and a few years later 
 was minister to Naples. About 1802 he was ambassadoi 
 to the Ottoman Porte. He published, besides other 
 works, a good translation of Persius's Satires, (1798,) 
 "Academical Questions," (1805,) "Odin," a poem, and 
 " Origines, or Remarks on the Origin of Several Empires, 
 States, and Cities," (4 vols., 1824-29,) a critical work of 
 considerable merit. Died at Rome in 1828. 
 
 See Chambers. " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1S05; " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Drum'mond de Mel'fort, (Louis Hector,) Count 
 of, born in 1726, was the descendant of Maurice Drum- 
 mond, noticed above. He served with distinction in 
 the French armies as colonel, inspector-general, and 
 lieutenant-general. He published in 1776 a valuable 
 "Treatise on Cavalry." Died in 1788. 
 
 Dru'ry, (Drew,) an English naturalist, published a 
 work on entomology called " Illustrations of Natural 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fi\r, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
DRURT 
 
 793 
 
 DR TDEN 
 
 History," (1770,) which was commended by Linnaeus 
 and others. "The exquisite work of Drury," says Sir 
 James Edward Smith, " displays the complete insect in 
 a degree of perfection that leaves nothing to be desired." 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 Drury, (Kev. Joseph,) an English scholar, born in 
 London in 1750, was head-master of Harrow from 1785 
 to 1805. Lord Byron, who was his pupil, has expressed 
 in his works gratitude and respect for him. Died in 1834. 
 
 Drury, (Robert,) an English sailor, born about 1687. 
 He was shipwrecked in 1702 on the coast of Madagas- 
 car, where he was kept a captive fifteen years. He re- 
 turned to England and published (1722) a journal of his 
 adventures, and an account of Madagascar, regarded as 
 authentic. 
 
 Dru-sil'la, a daughter of Herod Agrippa, King of 
 Judea, became the wife of Felix, the Roman governor 
 of Judea. She was present when Saint Paul preached 
 before Felix, in 60 A.D. (See Acts xxiv. 24.) Tacitus 
 says that Drusilla the wife of Felix was a granddaughter 
 of the famous Cleopatra. 
 
 Drusilla, (Livia.) See Livia Drusilla. 
 
 Drusius, dRu'se-us, (Jan,) a Flemish Protestant 
 scholar and eminent biblical critic, whose proper name 
 was Van den Drifsche, (dRees'keh,) was born at Oude- 
 narde in 1550. He professed Oriental languages at 
 Oxford, in England, from 1572 to 1576, and obtained a 
 similar chair at Leyden in 1577. He was professor of 
 Hebrew at Franeker from 1585 until his death, in 1616. 
 He wrote commentaries on Scripture, and several treat- 
 ises on grammar, one of which is a Hebrew Grammar, 
 entitled "Grammatica Lingua; sanctae nova." 
 
 See Abel Curiander, "Vita J. Drusii," 1618; Bayle, "His- 
 torical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Drusius, (Jan,) a son of the preceding, born at Ley- 
 den in 1588, was a prodigy of learning and of precocity. 
 At the age of nine he could read Hebrew without points, 
 and at seventeen he addressed the King of England in 
 a Latin oration. Scaliger thought he excelled his father 
 in Hebrew. Died in 1609. 
 
 Dru'sus, a Roman prince, was the second son of 
 Germanicus and Agrippina, and a brother of the emperor 
 Caligula. His disposition, according to Tacitus, was 
 violent and unruly. He appears to have been a victim 
 of the ambitious intrigues of Sejanus. Having been 
 condemned to death by the senate, he was confined by 
 Tiberius, who permitted him to die by starvation in 
 33 a. a 
 
 Drusus, (Claudius Nero,) a Roman general, born 
 38 B.C., was the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and 
 Livia, whose second husband was the emperor Augustus. 
 He married Antonia, the daughter of Mark Antony. In 
 the year 13 B.C. he commanded an army on the Rhine, 
 and defeated several German tribes. Horace composed 
 an admired ode in honour of this victory, (lib. iv. 4.) In 
 the ensuing campaigns he extended his conquests as far 
 as the Elbe, after which the senate gave him the surname 
 Germanicus. He died at the age of thirty, leaving a 
 fair reputation for talents and virtue. The emperor Tibe- 
 rius was his brother. It is said that Augustus intended 
 to give a portion of the empire to Drusus, who was born 
 a few months after the marriage of the former with 
 Livia.. Drusus left two sons, Germanicus, and Claudius 
 who became emperor. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, books xlviii. and liv. ; Tacitus, "Annals;" 
 Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Drusus, (Marcus Livius,) a Roman tribune, was a 
 colleague of Caius Gracchus in the tribuneship in 122 
 B.C. The senate, alarmed at the innovations of Gracchus, 
 procured the election of Drusus because he was popular 
 and eloquent, in order to undermine the influence of 
 Gracchus. Drusus founded many colonies, and courted 
 the popular favour with success, at the same time pro- 
 moting the interests of the optimates. He was chosen 
 consul for 112 B.C., obtained Macedonia as his province, 
 and defeated the Thracian Scordisci. 
 
 See. Plutarch, "Caius Gracchus;" Livv, "Epitome," book 
 Ixiii. : Niebuhr, "History of Rome." 
 
 Drusus, (Marcus Livius,) a son of the preceding, 
 and uncle of Cato Uticensis, was called Drusus Junior. 
 He was an ambitious politician, and a champion or 
 
 patronus of the senate, which at that period was involved 
 in a contest with the equites respecting the judicial 
 power. In 91 B.C. he was chosen tribune of the people, 
 whose favour he gained by largesses and agrarian laws. 
 The consul Philippus was arrested by his order, and 
 the senate voted that the laws of Drusus were null. He 
 became the leader of a conspiracy or party which de- 
 signed to give the right of citizenship to the Italiotes 
 and to make other changes. He was assassinated by an 
 unknown hand in 91 or 90 B.C. 
 
 See Niebuhr, " History of Rome ;" Cicero, " Brutus," " De Offi- 
 ces." and "Pro Milone;" Appian, "De Bello Civili;" Bemmel, 
 " Dissertatio de M. L. Drusis Patre et Filio," 1826. 
 
 Dru'sus Cae'sar, (see'zar,) sometimes called Drusus 
 Junior, a son of the emperor Tiberius, married Livia, a 
 sister of Germanicus. His character was depraved by 
 cruelty and other vices. Died in 23 A.D., from poison. 
 
 See Tacitus, "Annals." 
 
 Druth'mar' or dRoot'mSr', (Christian,) a monk and 
 grammarian, who lived at Corbie, France, about 850 a.d. 
 
 Dry'ad, [Or. dfjuuc, plural dpvddeg, (from 6pv$, an "oak" 
 or any "tree ;") Lat. Dry'ades ; Fr. Dryades, dRe'Sd'.] 
 The dryads, in classic mythology, were nymphs or god- 
 desses presiding over woods and groves. The Ham'a- 
 dry'ads [from the Greek ttfia, " together with"] were 
 supposed to be attached to some particular tree, with 
 which they lived and died. 
 
 See " Biographie Universelle," (Partie mythologique.) 
 
 Dryades. See Dryad. 
 
 Dryauder.dRe-an'der, (Johann,) or Eichmann, Ik'- 
 mln, a German astronomer, born at Wetteren, in Hesse. 
 He published esteemed works, among which are "De 
 Cylindro" and "The Terrestrial Globe." Died in 1560. 
 
 Dryander, dKe-an'der, (Jonas,) a Swedish naturalist, 
 born in 1748, was a pupil of Linnasus. About 1780 he 
 removed to England, where he made an excellent Cata- 
 logue of Sir Joseph Kanks's Library, (1798.) He wrote 
 some botanical treatises, and was one of the founders 
 of the Linnaean Society. Died in London in 1810. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Dry'den, (Charles,) the eldest son of the great poet, 
 was educated as a Catholic. In 1692 he obtained an 
 office in the palace of Pope Clement XI., but resigned 
 it to his brother John, and returned to England. He 
 was the author of some fugitive poems. He was 
 drowned, while swimming in the Thames, in 1704. 
 
 Dryden, (John,) a celebrated English poet, born at 
 Aldwinckle, in Northamptonshire, on the 9th of August, 
 1631. He was the eldest son of Erasmus Driden, a rigid 
 Puritan of gentle birth. After passing under the disci- 
 pline of Dr. Busby at Westminster, he entered Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, in 1650. He left college in 1657, 
 and became a citizen of London. One of his first poetic 
 essays' was " Heroic Stanzas on the Death of Cromwell," 
 (1658,) of whom he was at that time an admirer. He 
 hailed with alacrity the restoration of 1660, in a poem 
 named "Astraea Redux." In 1662 he produced his first 
 drama, "The Wild Gallant," which did not make much 
 impression on the public mind. About 1663 he married 
 Lady Howard, the daughter of the Earl of Berkshire. In 
 1667 appeared his " Annus Mirabilis," or " Year of Won- 
 ders," and a tragi-comedy entitled "The Indian Empe- 
 ror." He succeeded Davenant as poet-laureate in 1668, 
 and published his excellent prose "Essay on Dramatic 
 Poesy," which entitled him, as Dr. Johnson observed, to 
 be considered the father of English criticism. He after- 
 wards produced many successful comedies and tragedies, 
 among which are " Marriage a-la-Mode," "All for Love," 
 (1678,) "Aurengzebe," and "Don Sebastian," (1690.) 
 His dramas are eminent examples of genius perverted, 
 and abound in passages of disgusting indecency. He 
 also acquired great celebrity in satire and in lyric poetry. 
 His "Absalom and Achitophel" (1681) is a ■poetical satire 
 agairjst the party of which Lord Shaftesbury was the 
 master-spirit and the Duke of Monmouth the nominal 
 head. It had a prodigious success. In reference to 
 this poem, Hallam remarks, " The spontaneous ease of 
 expression, the rapid transitions, the general elasticity 
 and movement, have never been excelled." About 1686 
 he avowed himself a convert to the Roman Catholic 
 Church, which was then favoured at court, and wrote 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jiy*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DR TDEN 
 
 794 
 
 DUBOIS 
 
 " The Hind and the Panther," an allegory in verse. The 
 subject is the controversy between the Romish Church 
 (the Hind) and the Church of England, represented by 
 the Spotted Panther. 
 
 In the latter part of his life he gradually ceased to 
 write for the stage, and acquired with a purer taste a 
 more natural style. " He had turned his powers in a 
 new direction," says Macaulay, "with success the most 
 splendid and decisive. His taste had gradually awakened 
 his creative faculties. The first rank in poetry was be- 
 yond his reach, but he secured the most honourable 
 place in the second. . . . His command of language was 
 immense. With him died the secret of the old poetical 
 diction of England, — the art of producing rich effects 
 by familiar words. . . . Dryden was an incomparable 
 reasoner in verse." 
 
 Among his later productions are translations of Juvenal 
 and Virgil, (1697,) and the celebrated "Ode for Saint 
 Cecilia's Day," (about 1700,) which Macaulay pronounces 
 "his greatest work, and a master-piece of the second 
 class of poetry." Some critics esteem it the finest ode 
 in the language. "His translation of Virgil," says Pope, 
 "is the most noble and spirited translation I know in 
 any language." Brougham speaks of his prose as "the 
 matchless prose of Dryden, rich, various, natural, ani- 
 mated, pointed," etc. He died on the 1st of May, 1700, 
 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the Poets ;" Sir Walter Scott, " Life 
 of Dryden," prefixed to an edition of Dryden's works, 18 vols., 1808; 
 Macaulay, Essays," articles " Dryden" and " Comic Dramatists 
 of the Restoration ;" also, " History of England," vol. ii. chap, 
 vii. and vol. iv. chap. XX. ; Malone, "Life of Dryden;" Vii.lk- 
 main, " Tableau de la Literature audix-huitiemeSiecle;" Prof. John 
 Wilson, "Critique on Dryden," in "Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 February, March, and April, 1845 ; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 
 1855: "Retrospective Review," vol. i., 1820; " Fraser's Magazine" 
 for August, 1854, and August, 1865 ; " Westminster Review" for 
 April, 1S55. 
 
 Dryden, (John,) son of the preceding, born about 
 1668. He translated the 14th Satire for his father's ver- 
 sion of Juvenal, and wrote a comedy, "The Husband his 
 own Cuckold," (1696.) Died at Rome in 1701. 
 
 Erasmus Henry, the third son of the great poet, in- 
 herited the title of baronet from a kinsman of his father, 
 and died in 1710. 
 
 Drys'dale, (John,) D.D., a Scottish divine and elo- 
 quent preacher, born at Kirkaldy in 1718. In 1766 he 
 was appointed one of the ministers of the Tron Church 
 in Edinburgh. Died in 1788. His sermons were pub- 
 lished in 1793. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dschafer or Dschaafar. See Mansoor. 
 
 Dschami. See Jamee. 
 
 Dschehan- or Dschahan-Ghir. See Jaha\n-Geer. 
 
 Dschelal-EddLu. See Jelal-ed-Deen. 
 
 Dschemschid. See Jemshked. 
 
 Dschengis. See Jengis Khan. 
 
 Dsckihan-Ghir. See JahAn-Geer. 
 
 Dschingis. See Jengis Khan. 
 
 Duali- (or Douali-1 al-Basree, (or -Basri,) doo-al'e 
 31 bas'ree, written alsoDueli- (Doueli-) and Duwali-el- 
 Basri, ( AbooKor Abu-1-) Aswed-Zalim- (or Salini-) 
 Ibn-Amroo-Ibn-Sofyan, a'bool as'wed za'lim Ib'n 
 am'roo Ib'n so-fe-an',) an eminent Arabian grammarian 
 and miser, born at Bassora (Basra) about 600 A.D., (or 
 630, according to some authorities ;) died at the age of 
 eighty-two. 
 
 See Hammer-Purgstall, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber;" 
 Ibn-Khallikan, " Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 Du-aae', (William,) an American politician, born 
 near Lake Champlain, New York, in 1760. He learned 
 the trade of printer, and went to India about 1784. He 
 afterwards passed several years in England. Having re- 
 turned to the United States about 1795, he became editor 
 of "The Aurora," a Democratic paper which was pub- 
 lished at Philadelphia, and acquired much influence. 
 He edited "The Aurora" for many years. Died in 1835. 
 Parton, in his "Life of Jackson," says that "Jackson 
 formed a very high idea of his character and talents." 
 
 Dtt-ane', (William J.,) an eminent lawyer and states- 
 man, born at Clonmel, Ireland, in 1780, was a son of the 
 preceding. He was admitted to the bar in 1803, and 
 practised in Philadelphia. About 1821 he represented 
 
 that city in the legislature of Pennsylvania. He was the 
 legal adviser of Stephen Girard, whose last will he wrote 
 in 1831. He was appointed secretary of the treasury in 
 January or June, 1833, and was ordered by President 
 Jackson to remove the deposits of public money from 
 the Bank of the United States. Having refused to 
 comply with this order, he was removed from office in 
 September, 1833. He passed the rest of his life as a 
 private citizen. He published "The Law of Nations 
 Investigated in a Popular Manner," (1809.) Died in 
 Philadelphia in 1865. 
 
 Duaren, See Douaren. 
 
 Duarte I., King of Portugal. See Edward. 
 
 Duault, dii'6', (Francois Marie Guillaume,) a 
 French poet, born at Saint-Malo in 1757, translated 
 "The Vicar of Wakefield," and wrote elegiac poems 
 which are commended. Died in 1833. 
 
 Duban, du'bdN', (Felix Louis Jacques,) a French 
 architect, and member of the Institute, born in Paris 
 about 1798. He finished the Palace of Fine Arts, com- 
 menced by Debret, and was chosen architect of the 
 Louvre in 1848. 
 
 Du Bartas. See Bartas. 
 
 Dubayet. See Aubert du Bayet. 
 
 Dubellay. See Bellay. 
 
 Dubeux, du'buh', (Louis,) an Orientalist, born of 
 French parents in Lisbon about 1795. He wrote a work 
 entitled "Persia," ("La Perse," 1841,) and became pro- 
 fessor of Turkish in Paris in 1848. 
 
 Diibner or Duebner, dub'ner, (Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man philologist, born in 1802, published an edition of 
 Justin, (1831.) He afterwards edited for Firmin Didot's 
 "Bibliotheca Graeca" several authors, among whom are 
 Arrian and Maximus of Tyre. 
 
 Duboccage. See Boccage. 
 
 Dubois, du'bwa.', (Antoine,) an eminent French sur- 
 geon and physician, born at Gramat (Lot) in 1756. He 
 was chosen royal professor in the School of Surgery in 
 Paris in 1790, and in 1802 surgeon-in-chief of the hospital 
 which bears his name, the Hospice Dubois. He possessed 
 rare sagacity and dexterity, and was regarded by the 
 French as one of the first physicians of Europe. He 
 attended the empress Maria Louisa on the occasion of 
 the birth of her son. His medical principles have been 
 published by several of his pupils. Died in 1837. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biogvaphie G^ne>ale." 
 
 Dubois, du-bois' or dii'bwa', (Edward,) an English 
 satirical writer, born about 1775, published, besides other 
 works, "The Wreath," (1799,) an edition of Boccaccio's 
 "Decameron," (in English, 1804,) and "My Pocket- 
 Book," a satire, (1807.) Died in 1850. 
 
 Dubois, (Francois,) a French painter of historv, 
 born in Paris in 1790. He gained the grand prize in 
 1819, and a first-class medal in 1831. 
 
 Dubois, (Francois Noel,) a French botanist, born 
 at Orleans in 1752 ; died in 1824. 
 
 Dubois, (Frederic,) an able French medical writer, 
 born at Amiens about 1796, succeeded Pariset in 1847 as 
 perpetual secretary of the Academy of Medicine, Paris. 
 Among his works is a " Treatise on General Pathology," 
 (2 vols., 1837.) 
 
 Dubois, (Fr£d£ric,) a Swiss naturalist and traveller, 
 born in 1798, published "Travels in the Crimea, Cojchis, 
 and Georgia," and became professor of archaeology at 
 Neufchatel in 1843. Died in 1849. 
 
 Dubois, (Girard,) a French priest, born at Orleans 
 in 1628, wrote, in I^atin, a " History of the Church of 
 Paris." Died in 1696. 
 
 Dubois, (Guillaume,) a French troubadour, sur- 
 named Cretin, wrote a " History of France" in French 
 verse, (still in manuscript.) A collection of his songs, 
 etc. was published in 1527. Died in 1525. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Dubois, (Guillaume,) a French cardinal and minis- 
 ter of state, born at Brive-la-Gaillarde, in Limousin, in 
 1656. In the reign of Louis XIV. he was appointed 
 preceptor to the Due de Chartres, (afterwards Duke of 
 Orleans and Regent of France,) whose favour he gained 
 by pandering to his baser passions and appetites. The 
 appointment of his pupil to the regency in 1715 favoured 
 the ambitious designs of Dubois, who was then made a 
 
 a, e, I, o, ii, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
DUBOIS 
 
 795 
 
 DVBUFE 
 
 councillor of state, although the regent's mother entreated 
 him not to employ one whom she stigmatized as a most 
 arrant knave. He displayed great address and astute- 
 ness in political intrigues, and had an important part in 
 the triple alliance of 1717. Soon after this he became 
 minister of foreign aff.iirs, and, in spite of his scandalous 
 life, Archbishop of Cambray. After much opposition, he 
 obtained a cardinal's hat in 1721, and was made prime 
 minister the next year. He exiled all who resisted his 
 will, and he retained power until his death in 1725. 
 
 See Saint- Simon, " Me'moires;" Duclos, " Memoires secrets sur 
 Ies Kegues de Louis XIV et XV ;" Paul Lacroix, "Memoires du 
 Cardinal Dubois," 4 vols., 1829. 
 
 Dubois, [Lat. Syl'vius,] (Jacques,) a learned Frencli 
 physician, born at Amiens in 1478. He lectured on 
 medicine in Paris, and in 1550 became a professor of 
 medicine in the College Royal. He wrote several able 
 professional treatises. Died in 1555. 
 
 See Rene Morbau, "Vita Sylvii," prefixed to an edition of his 
 works; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Dubois, (Jean,) a Flemish or French medical writer, 
 born at Lille ; died at Douai in 1576. 
 
 Dubois, (Jean,) a French sculptor, born at Dijon in 
 1626, was a grandfather of the poet Alexis Firou. Died 
 at Dijon in 1694. 
 
 Dubois, (Jean Antoine,) Abbe; a French missionary, 
 who laboured many years in Hindostan, was born in 
 Ardeche in 1765. He wrote, in English, "The Charac- 
 ter, Manners, Customs, and Institutions of the People 
 of India," which was published by the East India Com- 
 pany in 1816. It is said to be one of the best works on 
 that subject. Died in Paris in 1S4S. 
 
 Dubois, (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer, born in 
 Burgundy in 1753, resided for a time in Poland, where 
 he became a councillor at court. Having returned to 
 Paris, he became the friend and assistant of Malesherbes. 
 After the reign of terror he held a high office in the 
 ministry of the interior. He wrote a " Notice of the 
 Life and Labours of Malesherbes," and other works. 
 Died in 1808. 
 
 Dubois, (Louis FRANgois,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Lisieux in 1773, published a voluminous treatise on 
 Agriculture, entitled "Cours complet d'Agriculture," 
 (1825-32,) and* a French version of Orderic Vital's 
 "History of Normandy," (1827.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Dubois, (Paul,) a French surgeon, son of Antoine, 
 noticed above, was born in Paris in 1795. He published 
 in 1849 the first part of a "Complete Treatise on the 
 Art of Accouchements." He was accoucheur to the 
 empress Eugenie. Died in October, i860. 
 
 Dubois, (Paul Alexis,) a French general, born about 
 1754, was killed at Alia, in the Tyrol, in 1796. 
 
 Dubois, (Paul Francois,) a French journalist and 
 professor, born at Rennes in 1795. He was one of the 
 editors of the " Globe," a liberal daily journal of Paris, 
 for several years, ending in 1830, and sat in the Chamber 
 of Deputies from 1831 to 1848. He became professor 
 of French literature in the Polytechnic School in 1834, 
 and succeeded Victor Cousin as director of the Normal 
 School in 1840. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Dubois, (Philippe Goibaud — gwl'bo',) a French 
 writer, born at Poitiers in 1626, was tutor of the Due de 
 Guise, (Louis Joseph.) He made translations of the 
 works of Saint Augustine, and of Cicero "De Officiis," 
 " De Senectute," etc., which procured his admission into 
 the French Academy in 1693. Died in 1694. 
 
 Dubois, du'bwa', (Simon,) a Flemish painter of por- 
 traits and animals, born in Antwerp after 1622, worked 
 in England. Died in 1708. 
 
 Dubois-Crance. See Dubois de Crance. 
 
 Dubois de Crance, du'bwa' deh kuoN'si', or Du- 
 bois-Crance, (Ei)M(jnd Louis Alexis,) a French gen- 
 eral and Jacobin, born at Charleville in 1747. He was 
 elected to the Convention in 1792, became a partisan of 
 Danton, and was one of the first members of the com- 
 mittee of public safety. He directed the siege of Lyons, 
 from which he was recalled by the Convention on the 
 charge of moderantisme in 1793. He was inspector-gen- 
 eral and minister of war in 1799, but lost all his offices 
 when Bonaparte obtained power. Died in 1814. 
 
 Dubois de Jaucigny, dii'bwa' deh zho.N'sen'ye', 
 (Adoi.phk Philikkrt,) a French writer, a son of Jean 
 Baptiste Dubois, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1795. 
 He spent many years in British India, and was sent on 
 a mission to China in 1841. He wrote several books on 
 India, China, etc. Two of these, namely, " India," (1845,) 
 and "China and the Birman Empire," (1850,) form part 
 of Firmin Didot's series entitled " L'Univers." 
 
 Dubois [Lat. Syl'vius] de la Boe, dii'bwa' deh IS 
 bo'a', (Franciscus,) a German or Dutch physician, of 
 French extraction, eminent for learning and eloquence, 
 was born at Hanau in 1614. He practised about fifteen 
 years at Amsterdam, and obtained the chair of practical 
 medicine at Leyden in 1658. He gave an impulse to 
 the study of chemistry by his zeal and eloquence. "It 
 is to Dubois," says Fournier, " that we owe the first 
 idea of clinic instruction and the initiative in the study 
 of pathologic anatomy." He published several works, 
 among which is " Disputationum Medicarum decas," 
 (1663.) Died in 1672. 
 
 See £loy, "Dictiounaire historique de la Medecine." 
 
 Dubois-Fontanelle, dii'bwa' foN'ti'nel', (Jean Gas- 
 pard,) a French dramatist and litterateur, born at Greno- 
 ble in 1737; died in 1812. His drama of "Ericie," against 
 monastic vows, was prohibited by the censor. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Dubos, dii'bo', (Charles Francois,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and writer, born in 1661 ; died at Lucon in 1724. 
 
 Dubos, (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer and nego- 
 tiator, born at Beauvais in 1670. He studied public law, 
 and was employed in many important and secret negoti- 
 ations with foreign courts by De Torcy and Dubois. He 
 wrote, besides other works, the " History of the League 
 of Cambray," (1712,) which Voltaire said was "profound, 
 politic, and interesting," and "Critical Reflections on 
 Poetry and Painting," (1719,) which the same critic 
 praised as " the most valuable book ever written on those 
 subjects in any nation of Europe." He was chosen in 
 1722 perpetual secretary of the French Academy, into 
 which he had been admitted in 1720. Died in 1742. 
 
 See Que'rard," La France Litteraire ;" Auguste Morel," Etude 
 sur l'Abbe 1 Dubos," 1851 ; V. Tremblay, "Notice sur l'Abbe Du- 
 bos," 1S48. 
 
 Dubosc. See Bosc, du. 
 
 Duboscq, du'bosk', (Jules,) a French optician, bom 
 in 181 7, invented or improved several instruments, 
 among which is the stereoscope. 
 
 Duboulay. See Boulay, du. 
 
 Dubouloz, du'boo'lo', or Dubouleau, du'boo'lo', 
 (Jean Auguste,) a French painter of history, born in 
 Paris in 1800. 
 
 Dubourcq, dii'booRk', (Pieter Lodewijk,) a Dutch 
 painter of landscapes and genre, born at Amsterdam in 
 1815. 
 
 Dubourg-Butler, dii'booR' biit'laiR', (Frederic,) a 
 French general, born in Paris in 1778. He took an active 
 part against Charles X. in July, 1830. Died in 1850. 
 
 Duboury, du'boo're', (Lodewijk Fabricius,) a skil- 
 ful Dutch painter and engraver, born at Amsterdam in 
 1691. H is tableaux de boudoir are highly prized. Died 
 in 1775. 
 
 Dubraw, doo'bRiv, (Johann,) a Bohemian historian, 
 born at Pilsen. His family name was Skala. He be- 
 came Bishop of Olmutz, and wrote, in Latin, a " History 
 of Bohemia," (1552,) which is accounted accurate. Died 
 
 •n 1553- 
 
 Dubreton, diilweh-tiN', (Jean Louis,) Baron, a 
 French general, born in Bretagne in 1773 ; died in 1855. 
 
 DubreuiL dii'bRuI' or dii'bRuh'ye, (Ai.phonse,) a 
 French horticulturist, born at Rouen in 181 1. He 
 founded at Rouen the £cole d'Arbres fruitiers, the first 
 of the kind. In 1846 he published a work on the culture 
 of trees, entitled "Cours d'Arboriculture," (2 vols.,) 
 which has been often reprinted and translated. 
 
 Dubreul, du'bKul', (Jacoues,) a French antiquary, 
 born in Paris in 1528, wrote on the Antiquities of Paris. 
 Died in 1614. 
 
 Dubufe, dii'buf, (Claude Marie,) a French painter 
 of history and portraits, born in Paris in 1790. He was 
 a fashionable portrait-painter for many years. Died iu 
 1864. 
 
 eas k; 9 as*; %hard; gasy; c,H,K., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DVBUFE 
 
 796 
 
 DVCHATEL 
 
 Dubufe, (Edouard,) a successful French portrait- 
 painter, son of the preceding, born in Paris about 1818. 
 
 Dubuisson, du'bu-e's6.N', (Francois Ren£ Andre,) 
 a French naturalist, born at Nantes in 1763. He became 
 in 1810 director of the Museum of Natural History at 
 Nantes, where he made a rich collection of minerals. 
 He published an "Essay of a Geological Method," 
 (1819.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Dubuisson, (Paul Ulrich,) a mediocre French 
 writer of dramas, etc., was born at Laval in 1746.- He 
 was guillotined in 1794. 
 
 Duby, dii'be', (PIERRE Ancher Tobiesen — 5n'- 
 shaiR' to'be'zdN',) a Swiss linguist and medallist, born 
 in the canton of Soleure in 1721, received the title of 
 interpreter to the Royal Library of Paris. He wrote a 
 treatise on Medals relating to Sieges, entitled "Recueil 
 de Pieces obsidionales." Died in 1782. 
 
 Duo. See Leduc and Ducq. 
 
 Due, diik, (Joseph Louis,) a French architect, born 
 in Paris in 1802, gained the grand prize in 1825. In 
 1854 he was selected to enlarge the Palais de Justice. 
 
 Due, du, du' diik, (Fronton,) a French Jesuit, born 
 at Bordeaux in 1558, was professor of theology at the 
 College of Clermont in Paris. He published a good 
 edition of the works of Chrysostom, (1609-24,) edited the 
 works of some other Fathers, and wrote a curious book 
 on the Maid of Orleans, entitled "The Tragical History 
 of the Pucelle de Domremy, newly divided into Acts and 
 represented by Personages," (1581.) Died in 1624. 
 
 See Niceron, " M^moires." 
 
 Duca, del, del doo'ka, (Giacomo,) an Italian archi- 
 tect of the sixteenth century, born in Sicily, was a pupil 
 of Michael Angelo. Among his works are the Palazzo 
 Panfili, Palazzo Strozzi, and the Villa Mattei, all at Rome. 
 
 Du Camp or Ducamp, dii'kSN', (Maxime,) a French 
 writer and artist, a son of Theodore J., noticed below, 
 was born in Paris in 1822. Having twice visited Asia 
 Minor, Greece, etc., he published "Souvenirs et Pay- 
 sages d'Orient," and an elegant work entitled "Egypt, 
 Nubia, Palestine, and Syria," (1852,) with photographic 
 illustrations. 
 
 DuCamp, (Theodore Joseph,) a skilful French sur- 
 geon, born at Bordeaux in 1793, improved the method 
 of treating diseases of the urinary organs. Died in 1824. 
 
 Duoancel, dii'koN'sSl', (Charles Pierre,) a French 
 dramatist and lawyer, born in 1766 ; died in 1835. 
 
 Du Cange or Ducange, dii'koNzh', (Chaki.es du 
 Fresne — du'fRihi',) Sieur du Cange, a French historical 
 writer, born at Amiens in 1610. He was educated for the 
 law, but did not practise it long. He was learned in the 
 languages, history, geography, law, antiquities, etc., and 
 wrote agreat number of works, among which are a" His- 
 tory of the Empire of Constantinople under the French 
 Emperors," "Byzantine "History Illustrated," and "Glos- 
 sary of Latin Words used in the Dark and Middle Ages," 
 ("Glossarium ad Scriptores mediae et infimae Latinita- 
 tis,") which is highly prized. He left many manuscripts 
 on various subjects. In 1668 he became a resident of 
 Paris. "One is appalled," says Voltaire, "at the im- 
 mensity of his learning and his labours." Died in 1688. 
 
 See Dufresne d'Aubigny, "M^moires historiques pour servir 
 a l'Histoire de C. du Fresne du Cange [" Hardouin, " Essai sur la 
 Vie, etc. de Du Cange;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Ducange or Du Cange, (Victor Henri Joseph 
 Brahain — bRSt'aN',) a French novelist and dramatist, 
 born at the Hague in 1783. For the liberal political 
 opinions expressed in his novel of "Valentine," (1821,) 
 he was imprisoned six months. He wrote, among other 
 works, two novels, entitled "Leonide" (1823) and "La 
 Lutherienne," (1825,) and many dramas. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Que>ard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Ducarel, du'ka-rSl' or du'ki'rgl', (Andr£ Coltee — 
 kol'ta',) a learned antiquary, born at Caen, in Normandy, 
 about 1 7 14. He passed his mature life in England, and was 
 appointed commissary of Saint Catherine's and commis- 
 sary of Canterbury abou* 1755. He was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society. Besides other works, he wrote a " Treatise 
 on the Anglo-Gallic Medals of the Ancient Kings of Eng- 
 land," (1757,) and "Anglo-Norman Antiquities," (1767,) 
 which is esteemed valuable. Died in London in 1785. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Ducarla-Bonifas, du'kaVia' bo'ne'fas', (Marc,) a 
 French physicist, born at Vabre in 1738; died in 1816. 
 
 Du Cart, du kaM, or Ducart, (Izaak,) a Dutch 
 painter of flowers, born at Amsterdam in 1630. He 
 painted flowers on satin and vellum with a fidelity at 
 that time unequalled. His productions are still prized 
 by amateurs. Died in 1694. 
 
 Ducas. See Constantine Ducas. 
 
 Du'cas, (Michael,) [Mi^A 6 AoSkoc,] a Greek his- 
 torian, who was descended from the imperial family of 
 Ducas, and flourished about 1450. He wrote a " History 
 of the Decadence of the Byzantine Empire, 1355 to 
 1453," which forms part of the collection called " His- 
 toria Byzantina." It is esteemed judicious and impartial, 
 but is written in a barbarous style. He was living at 
 Lesbos in 1462. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Ducasse, dii'ktss', (Francois,) a French doctor of 
 theology, eminent as a canonist; died in 1706. 
 
 Ducasse, (Jean Baptiste,) a successful French naval 
 officer, born in Beam. He was a captain in the marine 
 when he was appointed Governor of Saint Domingo in 
 1691. He defended that island against the English and 
 Spaniards, and defeated Admiral Benbow in 1702, near 
 Sainte-Marthe. In 1703 he was made chief of a squad- 
 ron, and retired from the office of governor. He was 
 raised to the grade of lieutenant-general, and commanded 
 the fleet which invested Barcelona in 1714. Died in 1715. 
 
 See Van Tknac, "Histoire de la Marine;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Ducasse, (Jean Marie Auguste,) a skilful French 
 physician and writer, born at Toulouse in 1786. 
 
 Ducaurroy de la Croix, du'ko'rwa' deh It kRwi, 
 (Adoi.i-he Marie,) a French jurist, born in Normandy 
 in 1788. He published "The Institutes of Justinian 
 newly explained,'"(4 vols., 1835; 8th edition, 1851,) which 
 had a great and durable success. Died in 1850. 
 
 Duccio di Buoninsegna, doot'cho de boo-611-en- 
 san'ya, an eminent Italian painter, born in or near Sienna, 
 flourished between 1280 and 1340. He was a pupil of 
 Segna or Boninsegna, and was one of the most famous 
 artists of his time. About 13 10 he produced his great 
 work, the altar-piece of the Sienna cathedral, which 
 represents the Virgin and many saints. * 
 
 See Vasari. " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Ducerceau. See Androuet du Cerceau. 
 
 Du Chaillu, du shS'yii', (Paul,) a French traveller, 
 born about 1830, became a citizen of the United States. 
 He travelled in the interior of Africa in 1855-56, and 
 published in 1861 his "Explorations and Adventures in 
 Equatorial Africa." His veracity has been questioned by 
 some clitics. He was the first European that discovered 
 and described the gorilla. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1861. 
 
 Duchal, du-shal', ? (James,) an Irish Protestant writer 
 on theology, born at Antrim in 1697; died in 1761. 
 
 Duchalais, du'shS'lV, (Adolphe,) a French anti- 
 quary and numismatist, born at Beaugencyin 1814; died 
 in 1854. 
 
 Duchange, du'shSNzh', (Gaspard,) a skilful French 
 engraver, born in Paris in 1662, was a pupil of Jean 
 Audran. He was especially successful in reproducing 
 the works of Correggio, after whom he engraved " Leda" 
 and"Danae." Died in 1756. 
 
 Duchanoy, du'shS'nwa', (Claude Francois,) a 
 French physician and writer, born at Vauvilliers in 1 742 ; 
 died in 1827. 
 
 Duchat, lie, leh dii'shi', (Jacob,) a French critic and 
 editor, born at Metz in 1658. He became a Protestant 
 exile in 1700, and retired to Berlin, where he was ap- 
 pointed a judge. He published valuable editions of the 
 works of Rabelais, (171 1,) of the "Apologv for Herodo- 
 tus" by Stephanus, (1735,) and of other old French 
 works. Died in 1735. 
 
 See J. H. S. Formey, "Ducatiana," 2 vols., 1738; Niceron, 
 "M^inoires." 
 
 Duchatel, dii'ghl'tfl', (Charles Marie Tanneguy 
 — tfn'ge',) Comte, a French minister of state, born in 
 Paris in 1803, was a son of a peer of France. In Sep- 
 tember, 1836, he became minister of finance, and in April, 
 
 a, e, T, 5, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, ii, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
DUCHATEL 
 
 797 
 
 DUCKER 
 
 1837, retired with Guizot, whose political opinions he ap- 
 proved. He was minister of the interior from October, 
 1840, until the revolution of 1848. 
 
 Duchatel, (Francois.) See ChAtel, du. 
 
 Duchatel, (Gaspard,) a French Girondist, born in 
 1766, was a deputy from Poitou to the National Con- 
 vention in 1792. In the trial of the king he voted for 
 banishment, as the most practicable mode of saving his 
 life. He was one of the twenty-two Girondists pro- 
 scribed by the Jacobins and executed in 1793. 
 
 Duch&tel, [Lat. Castella'nus,] (Pierrk,) a French 
 bishop and scholar, born at Arc, in the diocese of Langres. 
 In his youth he worked with Erasmus at Bale on editions 
 of Greek authors. Curiosity led him to visit Egypt, 
 Palestine, and Syria. On his return he became reader 
 to Francis I., who said, " He is the only man of letters 
 that I have never exhausted in discourse." He was ap- 
 pointed Bishop of Macon in 1544, grand almoner in 1547, 
 and Bishop of Orleans in 1551. He died in 1552, leaving 
 the reputation of a virtuous and tolerant prelate and one 
 of the most learned and eloquent men of his age. He op- 
 posed the persecution of the Vaudois and Protestants. 
 
 See Galland, "Vita Castellani," 1674; Bayi.e, "Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Duchatel, (Tanneguy.) See ChAtel, du. 
 
 DuChatelet. SeeCHASTELLET,(GABRIELLErAMILIE.) 
 
 Duche, du-sha', (Jacob,) D.D., an Episcopal clergy- 
 man, distinguished for his talents and eloquence, was 
 born in Philadelphia about 1 739. He graduated at the 
 College of Philadelphia in 1757. On the assembling of 
 the first Continental Congress, in 1774, he was elected 
 chaplain ; and his opening prayer was remarkable for its 
 earnestness and pathos, and contributed much towards 
 reconciling the discordant elements of that body. He 
 was subsequently chosen chaplain of several successive 
 Congresses. Yet, when the British had taken Philadel- 
 phia, he not only made his peace with England, but wrote 
 a letter to Washington urging him to follow his example. 
 This letter Washington laid before Congress. Duche was 
 declared a traitor, and fled to England. He afterwards 
 returned to Philadelphia, and died in 1798. 
 
 Duche de Vancy, du'sha' d?h v6N'se',( Joseph Fran- 
 cois,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1668. He was 
 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and a friend 
 of Jean Baptiste Rousseau. Among his best produc- 
 tions are the tragedy of " Absalom," which La Harpe 
 pronounced a work of merit, and the opera "Iphigenia 
 in Tauris," of which Voltaire said, "It recalls a grand 
 idea of what was most excellent in the Greek tragedy." 
 Died in December, 1704. 
 
 Duchemin. See Duclos. 
 
 Duchenius. See Duchesne. 
 
 Duchesne, du'shSn', [Lat. Duchf/nius or Querce- 
 ta'nus, I (Andre,) one of the most learned historians of 
 France, was born in Touraine in 1584. After finishing 
 his studies in Paris, he became geographer and histo- 
 riographer to the king. His numerous and valuable 
 works have procured for him the title of " the father of 
 French history." Among them are "The Antiquities 
 and Researches of the Grandeur of the Kings of France," 
 (1609,) "Ancient Historians of the Normans," in Latin, 
 (1619,) and "Contemporary Writers of the History of 
 the Franks," ("Historiae Francorum Scriptores coe- 
 tanei," 1636-49.) He was run over by a carriage and 
 killed, near Paris, in 1640. 
 
 See Niceron, "M^moires;" Lelong, "Bibliotheqtte Histo- 
 rique." 
 
 Duchesne, (Antoine Nicolas,) a learned French 
 naturalist, born at Versailles in 1747, wrote a " Manual 
 of Botany," (1764,) and other works. Died in 1827. 
 
 Duchesne, (Francois,) a son of Andre, noticed above, 
 born in Paris in 1616, cultivated history with zeal, and 
 obtai ned the title of historiographer. He wrote a " History 
 of the Chancellors of France," (1680,) and published 
 editions of several works of his father, viz. : "The Anti- 
 quities of the Cities and Castles of France," (1647,) and 
 "The History of the Popes," (1653.) Died in 1693. 
 
 Duchesne, (Henri Gabriel,) a French naturalist, 
 born in Paris in 1739, published, conjointly with M. Mac- 
 quer, a " Naturalist's Manual," (177 1,) and a " Dictionary 
 of Industry," (3 vols., 1776.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Duchesne, (Joseph,) a French physician and chemist, 
 born in Armagnac about 1544. In 1593 he went to Paris, 
 where he became physician-in-ordinary to Henry IV 
 He published " Pharmacopoeia dogmaticorum restituta," 
 and other medical works. Died in 1609. 
 
 See Eloy, " Dictionnaire de la Me'decine." 
 
 Duchesne de Gisors, dii'shin' deh zhe'zoR', (Jean 
 Baptiste Joseph,) a French miniature-painter, born at 
 Gisors (Eure) in 1770. He became court painter during 
 the restoration, and painted on ivory the portraits of the 
 royal family. In 1840 he was employed to continue for 
 the Louvre a collection of enamels begun by Petitot. 
 Among his master-pieces are miniatures of Napoleon I. 
 and of the Duchess of Berry. Died in 1856. 
 
 Duchesnois, du'shi'nwa', (Catherine Josephine,) 
 a popular French tragic actress, whose proper name was 
 Rafin, was born near Valenciennes in 1777. She made 
 her dlbut at the Theatre Francais in 1803, with complete 
 success, and continued to be a favourite actress until she 
 retired in 1820. Died in 1835. 
 
 See A. Dinaux, " Notice biographique sur Mademoiselle Du- 
 chesnois." 1SJ16. 
 
 Duchoul, dii'shool', [Lat. Cau'lius,] (Guillaume,) 
 a French antiquary, born at Lyons, lived about 1550. 
 He wrote a " Discourse on the Religion of the Ancient 
 Romans," (1555.) His son Jean was a naturalist, and 
 published several treatises. 
 
 Ducis, du'sess', (Jean Francois,) an eminent French 
 dramatic poet, born at Versailles in August, 1733. He 
 produced in 1769 a version of Shakspeare's " Hamlet," 
 which was very successful. His " Romeo and Juliet" 
 (1772) was received with equal favour. He succeeded 
 Voltaire in the French Academy in 1778, after which he 
 produced imitations of "King Lear" and "Macbeth," 
 (1784.) He favoured the Revolution of 1789, but took 
 no active part in it. His " Othello" was performed by 
 Talma with great success in 1792. In 1795 he composed 
 an original drama, " Abufar, or the Arab Family," which 
 is called his master-piece. He refused a pension offered 
 to him by Bonaparte. "Ducis," says Villemain, "was 
 one of those men most adapted to impress the imagina- 
 tion and to leave a long remembrance. Amidst that sort 
 of uniformity which involves the secondary minds of 
 an epoch, he had something rare and original. . . . He 
 meddled not with the petty affairs of the world, nor was 
 his life infested with petty ambitions. A distinctive trail 
 in his character was a noble independence. He submitted 
 to no yoke, not even to that of his age ; for in that skep- 
 tical age he was very religious. His taste and solitary 
 choice was the reading of the Bible and Homer. This 
 explains how he resisted the influence of the eighteenth 
 century, and was an original thinker compared with his 
 contemporaries." Died at Versailles in March, 1816. 
 
 See Vii.lemain, "Coursde Litterantre :" M. O. Leroy, " Etudes 
 sur Ducts," 183* ; Campenon, " Essais de M^moires, ou Letties sur 
 la Vie et les Ecrits de J. F. Ducis," 1824; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Ducis, (Louis,) a French historical painter, nephew 
 of the preceding, was born in 177s. He was a pupil of 
 David, and was one of the artists employed in 1814 to 
 restore pictures in the palace of Versailles. About 1817 
 he produced " Francis I. knighted by Bayard," which is 
 in the palace of Compiegne, and " The Death of Tasso." 
 He painted portraits of Napoleon I., Talma, and many 
 others. His uncle once said to him, "I have sought to 
 be a painter in verse ; I see with pleasure that you aim 
 to be a poet on canvas." Died in 1847. 
 
 See Guyot de Fere, " Biographie des Artistes Francais." 
 
 Duck, (Arthur,) an eminent English civilian, born 
 near Exeter in 1580. He became chancellor of London, 
 and master of requests. In the civil war he adhered to 
 the royal cause. He wrote a treatise on the Civil Law 
 of the Romans. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Duck, (Stephen,) an English peasant-poet, born at 
 Charlton, in Wiltshire. He was self-taught, became a 
 clergyman, and published rude specimens of poetry. 
 In a fit of insanity, he drowned himself in the Thames 
 in 1756. 
 
 See Joseph Spence, "Life of S. Duck." 
 
 Ducker. See Duker. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as./; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (jry~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DUCKWITZ 
 
 798 
 
 DUDITH 
 
 Duckwitz, dook'wits, (Arnold,) a German political 
 economist, born at Bremen in 1802, has written on the 
 commerce and customs of Germany. 
 
 Duck'worth, (Sir John Thomas,) an English admi- 
 ral, born at Leatherhead, in Surrey, in 1748. He entered 
 the navy in 1759, and became post-captain in 1780. In 
 June, 1794, he won great distinction by his skill and cour- 
 age in Lord Howe's victory over the French. About 1800 
 he was made rear-admiral, and two years later was com- 
 mander-in-chief at Jamaica. In 1806 he defeated the 
 French near Saint Domingo, for which Parliament voted 
 him thanks and a large pension. As vice-admiral, he 
 performed a daring exploit by entering the Dardanelles 
 1111807. He was knighted in 1813. Died in 1817. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire ;" Van Tenac, 
 "Histoire ge"nerale de la Marine;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Duclerc, dii'klaiR', (Charles Theodore Eugene,) 
 a French financier and writer on political economy, was 
 born in Hautes- Pyrenees in 1812. 
 
 Duclercq, dii'klaiR', (Jacques,) a French chronicler, 
 born in 1420, wrote on the events of his own time. Died 
 after 1467. 
 
 Duclos, dii'klo', (Charles Pineau — pe'no',) a witty 
 and ingenious French writer, born at Dinan in 1704, 
 was liberally educated in Paris. He acquired reputation 
 by his romances "The Baroness of Luz," (1741,) and 
 "Confessions of Count * * *," a series of tableaux and 
 satirical portraits. He was admitted into the Academy 
 of Inscriptions in 1739, and into the French Academy in 
 1747, and was chosen perpetual secretary of the latter 
 in 1755. His most admired work is a series of moral 
 essays, entitled "Considerations sur les Mceurs de ce 
 Siecle," (1750.) He wrote a "History of Louis XL," 
 (about 1744,) and obtained the title of historiographer 
 of France. D'Alembert said of him, " He has more wit 
 in a given time than any man I know." Rousseau 
 designated him as one who was at the same time droit 
 et adroit, ("upright and adroit.") His "Secret Memoirs 
 of the Reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV." are highly 
 praised. Died in 1772. 
 
 See Auger, "Notice sur Duclos;" Villenave, "Notice sur 
 Duclos," prefixed to his works, published by Belin, 1821 ; Sainte- 
 Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi," tome ix. ; "M^moires sur la Vie de 
 Duclos, e'crites par lui-meme;" Rousseau, "Confessions." 
 
 Duclos, (Jean Francois,) a French poet, born at 
 Toulouse in 1705, wrote an ode on Enthusiasm, and 
 translated portions of Tibullus and Horace into verse. 
 Died in 1752. 
 
 Duclos, afterwards Duchemin, dii'sheh-maN', (Ma- 
 rie Anne,) a French actress, born in 1664. She mar- 
 ried an actor named Duchemin. Died in 1748. 
 
 Duclos, (Samuel Cotreau — kot'ro',) a French phy- 
 sician, born in Paris, was chosen a member of the Academy 
 •)f Sciences in 1666, and was at one time physician-in- 
 ordinary to the king. He wrote " Observations on' the 
 Mineral Waters of France." Died in 1715. 
 
 Ducloz-Dufresnoy, dii'klo' du'fRi'nwa', (Charles 
 Nicolas,) a French financier, born at Montcornet in 
 1734. He was elected alternate deputy to the States- 
 General by the citizens of Paris in 1789. He wrote seve- 
 ral able treatises on the public finances, (1790.) He 
 perished on the scaffold in 1794. He was the putative 
 father of the savant Walckenaer, who wrote an article 
 on him in the "Biographie Universelle." 
 ' Ducornet, du'koR n4', (Louis Cesar Joseph,) a 
 French painter, born at Lille in 1S06. Having been 
 born without arms, he learned to paint with his feet, and 
 received a pension of 1200 francs in 1824. Among 
 his works, which have gained several prizes, are "The 
 Parting of Hector and Andromache," and " Saint Louis 
 dispensing Justice." 
 
 Ducos, dii'ko', (Jean Franqois,) a French repub- 
 lican, born at Bordeaux in 1765. He was a deputy to 
 the Convention from the department of Gironde in 1792, 
 and voted for the death of the king. When the Girondist 
 leaders were proscribed in May, 1793, lie was at first 
 omitted from the list ; but, having bravely asserted their 
 innocence in the Convention, he was consigned to the 
 same prison with them. He suffered death, with his 
 brother-in-law Fonfrede and others, in October, 1793. 
 
 See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists." 
 
 Ducos, (Nicolas,) a French general, brother of Roger 
 Ducos, noticed below, was born at Dax in 1756. He 
 fought bravely at Areola, etc. in 1796, and obtained the 
 rank of general of brigade in 1802. He served with klat 
 in the campaigns from 1805 to 1S08. Died in 1823. 
 
 Ducos, (Roger,) a French lawyer and politician, born 
 at Dax about 1750. Deputed to the Convention by the 
 department of Landes in 1792, he was a moderate parti- 
 san of the new regime, and sat with the members of the 
 Plain. He voted, however, for the death of the king. In 
 1796 he was elected to the Council of Elders, and in 1799 
 was chosen a member of the Directory. He appears to 
 have favoured Sieyes in his intrigues against their col- 
 league Barras, and he co-operated with Bonaparte in the 
 coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire, (November 9,) 1799, 
 after which Ducos became Third Consul ; but he soon 
 resigned this office, and was made a senator. He was 
 exiled as a regicide in 1816, and died the same year. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GtSnerale." 
 
 Ducos, (Theodore,) a French minister of state, a 
 nephew of the preceding, born at Bordeaux in 1S01. He 
 was elected in 1834 to the Chamber of Deputies, in which 
 he acted with the opposition. In the Constituent Assem- 
 bly of 1848 he opposed socialism, and caused to be in- 
 serted in the constitution this phrase : " The republic is 
 based on the family, property, and public order." He 
 supported Louis Napoleon, and was minister of marine 
 from December, 1851, until his death in April, 1855. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Ducq or Due, Le, leh dirk or duk, (Jan,) a Dutch 
 painter and engraver, born at the Hague in 1636, was a 
 pupil and imitator of Paul Potter. His subjects are 
 mostly animals, robbers, and guard-rooms. In 1671 he 
 became director of the Academy at the Hague. Died 
 about 1695. 
 
 See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Duoq, duk or .diik, (Joseph Franqots,) a Belgian 
 painter, born at Ledeghem in 1762. He gained several 
 prizes at the expositions of Paris, where he lived many 
 years. In 1815 he became court painter to the King of 
 the Netherlands. Among his master-pieces is "Venus 
 rising from the Sea." Died at Bruges in 1829. 
 
 Ducray-Duminil, dii'kRJi' dii'me'nel', (Francois 
 Guili.aumk,) a popular French novelist, born in Paris 
 in 1761 ; died in 1819. 
 
 Ducrest, dii'lvRi', (Charles Louis,) bom near Autun 
 in 1747, was a brother of Madame de Genlis. He be- 
 came a colonel in the army, and wrote on political econ- 
 omy. Died in 1824. 
 
 Ducrest de Villeneiwe, dii'kRi' deh vel'nuv', 
 (Alexandre Louis,) a French admiral,, born near Vitre 
 in 1777 ; died in 1852. 
 
 See Salvandv, "Notice sur Ducrest de Villeneuve," 1852. 
 
 Ducreux, du'kRUh', (Francois,) a French historian, 
 born at Saintes in 1596, wrote a "History of Canada," 
 (" Historia Canadensis," 1664.) Died in 1666. 
 
 Ducreux, (Gabriel Marin,) a French priest, born 
 at Orleans in 1743, wrote a history of Christianity, en- 
 titled "Siecles Chretiens," (10 vols., 1775.) Diedini790. 
 
 Ducreux, (Joseph,) a French portrait-painter, born 
 at Nancy in 1737; died in 1802. 
 
 Ducros, du ki<o', (Pierre,) a Swiss painter and en- 
 graver, born in 1745. He removed to Rome, where, with 
 the assistance of Volpato, he produced fine views of 
 Roman scenery and monuments. In partnership with 
 Montagnani, he published admirable views of Sicily and 
 Malta. Died in 1810. 
 
 Du Deffand. See Deffand, du. 
 
 Dudevant, Madame. See Sand, (George.) 
 
 Dudinck, du'dink, (JosSE,) a learned Dutchman, pub- 
 lished a work on bibliography, entitled " Palatium Apol- 
 linis et l'alladis," ("The Palace of Apollo and Minerva.") 
 
 Dudith, doo-deet', (Andrew,) a Hungarian Reformer, 
 born at Buda in 1533. About 1560, Ferdinand II. gave 
 him the bishopric of Tina. In 1562 he was sent by that 
 emperor and the clergy of Hungary to the Council of 
 Trent, in which he spoke eloquently in favour of the mar- 
 riage of priests and other reforms. He married Reyna 
 Strazzi, resigned his bishopric, was excommunicated, and 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good, moon- 
 
DUDLET 
 
 799 
 
 DUER 
 
 became an avowed Protestant. He was learned in lan- 
 guages and sciences, and wrote numerous Latin works 
 on theology, etc. Among them are a treatise on comets, 
 and several poems. He translated Dionysius of Hali- 
 carnassus into Latin. Died at Breslau in 1589. 
 
 See Reutbr, " Vita Dudithi," prefixed to his Orations, 1610; 
 Samchlfv, '"Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptis A. Dudithi," 1743; 
 NlCBRON, "Memoires." 
 
 Dudley, (Ambrose,) Earl of Warwick, a son of the 
 Duke of Northumberland, was born about 1530. He 
 was condemned to death as an accomplice in his father's 
 treason in 1553, but was pardoned. In 1557 he fought 
 with distinction for the Spaniards at Saint-Quentin. 
 After the accession of Elizabeth he was created Earl 
 of Warwick, and held several high offices. Died in 1589. 
 
 Dud'ley, (Benjamin Winslow,) M.D., an American 
 surgeon, born in Virginia in 1785. He took the degree 
 of M.D. at the University of Pennsylvania in 1806, and 
 afterwards pursued his professional studies in London 
 and in Paris. On his return to America, in 1814, he 
 established himself as a surgeon in Lexington, Kentucky. 
 He was successtul in a multitude of difficult operations 
 in surgery, and contributed various essays to medical 
 journals. Died in 1870. 
 
 Dudley, (Charles Edward,) a Senator of the United 
 States, born in Staffordshire, England, in 1780. He be- 
 came a resident of Albany, New York, about 1812, and 
 represented New York in the Federal Senate from 1828 
 to 1833. He erected at Albany the Dudley Observatory, 
 to which his widow gave seventy thousand dollars or 
 more. He died in 1841. 
 
 Dudley, (Edmund,) an English lawyer, notorious as 
 the minister employed by Henry VII. in extorting money 
 from his subjects, was born in 1462. He was chosen 
 Speaker of the Commons in 1504. Soon after the acces- 
 sion of Henry VIII., Dudley and Empson were tried on 
 a charge of treason, and, to appease the popular clamour, 
 were executed in 1510. His son John became Duke 
 of Northumberland. 
 
 Dudley, (Lord Guilford,) the fourth son of the Duke 
 of Northumberland, married Lady Jane Grey in 1553. 
 He was beheaded, with his wife, in February, 1554. 
 
 Dudley, (Sir Henry Bate,) an English clergyman, 
 eminent as a magistrate and journalist, born at Fenny 
 Compton in 1745. He established the " Morning Post," 
 (1775,) and the "Morning Herald," (1780,) and wrote 
 "The Rival Candidates," (1775,) and other plays. He 
 became rector of Willingham in 181 2, and prebendary 
 of Ely in 1816. In :8r2 he was rewarded for his services 
 as magistrate by a baronetcy. Died in J824. 
 
 Dudley, (Lady Jane.) See Grey. 
 
 Dudley, (John,) Duke of Northumberland, born in 
 1502, was the son of Edmund Dudley, noticed above. 
 He was created "Viscount Lisle in 1542, and was after- 
 wards appointed by Henry VIII. lord high admiral of 
 England. On the accession of Edward VI. (1547) he 
 became Earl of Warwick. Two years later he formed a 
 successful conspiracy against the Protector Somerset, 
 obtained the chief control of the government, and was 
 made Duke of Northumberland in 1551. He persuaded 
 Edward VI. to appoint Lady Jane Grey successor to the 
 crown. At the death of Edward (1553) he vainly resisted 
 the accession of Mary, and was executed for treason. 
 Robert, Earl of Leicester, was his son. 
 
 See Froude, " History of England," vols. v. and vi. ; also Hume's 
 and!: Fiona* «f England. 
 
 Dudley, (John William Ward,) a son of Viscount 
 Dudley Ward, was bom about 1781. He was elected 
 to the Ib.ns. of Commons in 1802, and distinguished 
 himself by his talents for business. At the death of his 
 father, in 1823, he entered the House of Lords. He was 
 secretary of state for a few months in the ministry of 
 Canning formed in April, 1827. He was a friend of the 
 poet Byron, and author of a "Life of Home Tooke." 
 I >i' d in 1833. 
 
 Dudley, (Joseph,) born in Massachusetts in 1647, 
 was a son of f honias, noticed below. He became chief 
 justice of Massachusetts in 1686, chief justice of New 
 York in 1690, and was governor of his native province 
 from 1702 to 1715. Died in 1720. 
 
 Dudley, (Paul,) F.R.S., chief justice of Massachu- 
 setts, a son of the preceding, was born in 1675. He 
 
 graduated at Harvard College in 1690, and, having com- 
 pleted his law studies at the Temple in London, was 
 attorney-general of Massachusetts from 1702 to 17 18. 
 In 1745 he was appointed chief justice of Massachusetts. 
 Died in 1 75 1 . He was a man of eminent talents and 
 powerful eloquence. Upon a bequest of his was founded 
 the Dudleian Lecture at Harvard. 
 
 Dudley, (Robert,) Earl of Leicester, a son of John 
 Dudley, noticed above, was born about 1532. He married 
 Amy Robsart about 1550. Soon after the accession of 
 Queen Elizabeth, 1558, he became her chief favourite. 
 This partiality is attributed to his handsome person, po- 
 lite address, and skill in the arts of a courtier. She made 
 him Earl of Leicester and privy councillor, and bestowed 
 on him titles and estates with a lavish hand. His wife 
 died in 1 560, not without the strongest suspicions that she 
 perished by violence and that Leicester was privy to her 
 murder. (See Robsart.) In 1578 he married the widow 
 of the first Earl of Essex, by which act he excited the 
 violent anger of the queen. He was suspected by many 
 of having hastened the death of Essex. In 1585 the 
 Earl of Leicester commanded an army sent to aid the 
 Low Countries, which gave him' the title of Governor. 
 His operations there were not successful, and proved his 
 incapacity as a general. When England was threatened 
 by the Spanish Armada, in 1588, he was appointed lieu- 
 tenant-general. He died in the same year. According 
 to Hume, " he was proud, insolent, ambitious, without 
 honour, without generosity, without humanity, and atoned 
 not for these bad qualities by such abilities or courage 
 as could fit him for that high trust and confidence with 
 which she [the queen] had honoured him." Motley, 
 while admitting that Leicester was vain, arrogant, and 
 often unjust, says he was "always generous as the sun." 
 
 See Motley's " United Netherlands," chaps, vi. to xvi., par- 
 ticularly chap. vii. vol. i., and chap. x. vol. ii. ; also Fkouue's "His- 
 tory of England," vols, vii., viii., ix., x. 
 
 Dudley, (Sir Robert,) born in Surrey in 1573, was 
 the illegitimate son of the Earl of Leicester and Lady 
 Douglas Sheffield. Me was knighted for his conduct at 
 the capture of Cadiz in 1596. Having been outlawed 
 for the abduction of Miss Southwell, he settled at Flor- 
 ence, where he lived in grand style, assumed the title 
 of Earl of Warwick, and was made a duke of the Holy 
 Roman Empire. He wrote a treatise on navigation, en- 
 titled " Dell' Arcano del Mare," and a few other works, 
 and improved the harbour of Leghorn. Died in 1639, 
 or, according to some authorities, in 1649. 
 
 See Campbell's "Lives of British Admirals." 
 
 Dudley, (Thomas,) one of the. early governors of 
 Massachusetts, was born in Northampton, England, in 
 1576. He served for some time in the army, but, having 
 joined the nonconformists, came to America in 1630 as 
 deputy-governor of Massachusetts. He was zealous in 
 promoting the temporal and religious interests of the 
 colony, and was governor from 1634 to 1640, and again 
 from 1645 to 1650. Died in 1652. 
 
 Dudoyer. See Doligny. 
 
 Duebner. See DCbner. 
 
 Duelli, doo-el'lee, (Raimond,) a German priest and 
 antiquary, born about 1670, published, besides other 
 works, a " History of the Teutonic Knights Hospitalers 
 of Jerusalem," (1727.) Died in 1740. 
 
 Duentzer. See Duntzer. 
 
 Du'er, (John,) LI..1)., an eminent American jurist 
 and legal writer, born at Albany, New York, in 1782. 
 His father, Colonel William Duer, was a soldier of the 
 Revolution. After serving two years in the army, he 
 embraced the profession of law, and commenced pnetice 
 in Orange county, but removed to New York! City about 
 1820. He was appointed one of the commissioners lo 
 revise the statutes of the State in 1825. In 1849 he was 
 elected judge of the superior court of the city of New 
 York, and in 1857 succeeded Chief-Justice Oakley as 
 presiding judge. Died August 8, 1S5S. His "Law and 
 Practice of Marine Insurance," (2 vols. 8vo,) published 
 in 1845-46, says the "London Magazine and Quarterly 
 Review of Jurisprudence,'' "so far as it has gone, is the 
 most complete and able treatise on the subject which 
 has ever appeared in our language." He was also author 
 of other legal works. 
 
 « asX- 
 
 cas;/g hard; %■»&]; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sass; th as in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DUER 
 
 800 
 
 DVFRENOT 
 
 Duer, (William Alexander,) a jurist, brother of 
 the preceding, was born in Dutchess county, New York, 
 in 1780. He was admitted to the bar in 1802, became a 
 judge of the supreme court of New York in 1822, and 
 was elected president of Columbia College in 1829. He 
 wrote a " Treatise on the Constitutional Jurisprudence 
 of the United States," (1856.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Duernhoffer. See Durnhoffer. 
 
 Du Fail, dii'fil' or duTS'ye, (Noel,) a French writer 
 of tales, lived about 1550. 
 
 Dufau, du'fo', (Fortune,) a French historical painter, 
 born in Saint Domingo. He became a pupil of David 
 in Paris, and a partisan of the Revolution. Among his 
 most admired works is " Ugolino in Prison." Died in 
 1821. 
 
 Dufau, (Pierre Armand,) a French author, born at 
 Bordeaux in 1795. He wrote, with Guadet, a "History 
 of France from Charles IX. to Henry IV.," (7 vols., 1821,) 
 and other historical works. He also published a "Treat- 
 ise on Statistics," which was crowned by the Academy 
 of Sciences in 1841, and several works on political econ- 
 omy. From 1840 to 1855 he was director of the Royal 
 Institution for the education of the blind in Paris. 
 
 Dufaure, dii'foR', (Jules Armand Stanislas,) a 
 French orator and minister of state, born at Saujon 
 (Charente-Inferieure) in 1798. He practised law in Bor- 
 deaux, and in 1834 was elected to the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties, in which he acted with the opposition. In 1839 he 
 became minister of public works in the coalition ministry 
 of Soult, which was dissolved in March, 1840. He after- 
 wards exerted much influence in the Chamber as the 
 chief of a third party. Under the republic of 1848 he 
 was a leader of the moderate democrats, became minister 
 of the interior in October, and resigned in December of 
 that year. He filled the same office for five months in 
 1849. Since the coup d'etat of December, 1851, he has not 
 held office, but has attained great eminence at the bar. 
 
 See Vicomte dk Cormenin, (Timon,) "Etudes sur les Orateurs 
 parlementaires." 
 
 Dufay, dii'fj', (Charles Francois de Cisternay — 
 d?h ses't?K'n|',) a French savant, born in Paris in 1698, 
 served for a time in the army. Having been admitted 
 into the Academy of Sciences, he retired from the service, 
 and wrote treatises on chemistry and five other sciences, 
 which the Academy thought worthy to be published. He 
 originated the theory of two kinds of electricity, namely, 
 vitreous and resinous. About 1 732 he was chosen director 
 of the Jardin des Plantes, which he greatly enlarged and 
 rendered the finest in Europe. Died in 1739. 
 
 See Fontenelle, " Eloge de Dufay." 
 
 Dufay, (Guii.laume,) a French or Flemish composer, 
 lived about 1400, and made important improvements in 
 the art of music. 
 
 Duff, (Alexander,) D.D., a Scottish Presbyterian mis- 
 sionary, born in Perthshire about 1806. In the service 
 of the Church of Scotland he went to India in 1830, 
 and laboured zealously as a missionary. He published, 
 besides other essays, a volume entitled " On India and 
 India Missions," (1839,) which is highly esteemed. He 
 adhered to the Free Church, organized in 1843, since 
 which he has been the chief agent of the mission sus- 
 tained by that church at Calcutta, where he laboured as 
 a missionary for many years with devoted zeal and emi- 
 nent success. He visited the United States in 1854, 
 sailed a second time for India in 1855, and returned to 
 England in 1863. 
 
 Duff, (MOUNTSTUART El.PHtNSTONE GRANT,) Called 
 
 Grant Duff, a British politician, born in 1829. He 
 published " Studies in European Politics." In 1857 he 
 was elected to Parliament, as a Liberal, for Elgin. He 
 was appointed under-secretary for India in December, 
 1868. 
 
 Duf'fer-in, Lady, a granddaughter of Richard Brins- 
 ley Sheridan, and a sister of Mrs. Norton. Her maiden 
 name was Sei.ina Sheridan. She composed a number 
 of popular ballads, among which is " The Irish Emigrant's 
 Lament." She was married in 1825 to Baron Dufferin, 
 (Price Blackwood,) who died in 1841. 
 
 Dufferin, (Frederick.Temple Blackwood,) Lord, 
 a British peer, author, and scholar, only son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Florence about 1826. He published, 
 
 in 1856, "Letters from High Latitudes, being some 
 Account of a Voyage to Iceland and Spitzbergen," which 
 is highly praised. 
 
 Duffet, dii'fi', Douffet, or Douffeit, doo'ft', (Ge- 
 rard,) an eminent Flemish painter of history and por- 
 traits, born at Liege about 1600. He studied and worked 
 some years in Rome, and returned to Liege, where he 
 acquired a high reputation. Among his master-pieces 
 are a "Discovery of the Holy Cross," (at Dusseldorf,) 
 and a picture of himself and B. Flemael employed in 
 painting each other's portraits. His works are admired 
 for originality of composition, boldness of design, beauty 
 of colour, and variety of expression. Died about 1660. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Duffy 1 , (Charles Gavan,) an Irish journalist, and 
 a leader of Young Ireland, was born in Ulster in 1816. 
 In 1842 he founded in Dublin a journal called "The 
 Nation," which supported the policy of O'Connell. 
 
 Dufieu, du'fe-uh', (Jean Ferapied — fRi-pe-A',) a 
 French writer on physiology, born at Tence in 173^ died 
 in 1769. 
 
 Duflos, dii'flo', (Claude,) a French engraver with 
 the burin, born in Paris in 1678, was the most skilful 
 rival of Francois Poilly. His works, after various Italian 
 and French masters, are engraved with great neatness. 
 Among them is "The Pilgrims of Emmaus," after Paul 
 Veronese. Died in 1747. 
 
 Du Fosse. See Fosse. 
 
 Dufouart, du'foo'iR', (Pierre,) a skilful French sur- 
 geon, born in the department of Bigorre in 1737, was 
 chosen in 1791 inspector-general of the hospitals of 
 Paris. He published an excellent treatise on gun-shot 
 wounds, entitled "Analyse des Blessures d'Armes-a-feu, 
 et de leur Traitement," (1801.) Died in 1813. 
 
 See "Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Dufour, du'fooR', (Gabriel Michel.) a French jurist, 
 born at Moulins (Allier) in 1811. His "Treatise on 
 Administrative Law Applied" (4 vols., 1844) is said to 
 be the most complete on that subject. 
 
 Dufour, (Georges Joseph,) a French general, born 
 in Burgundy in 1758; died in 1820. 
 
 Dufour, du'fooR', (Guillaume Henri,) a Swiss gen- 
 eral, born at Constance in 1787, entered the French army 
 in 1809. He wrote a "Manual of Tactics," (1842,) and 
 other military works. The unity and integrity of the 
 Swiss republic having been menaced bv the Sonderbund, 
 a Catholic faction, he was appointed in 1847 commander- 
 in-chief of the Swiss federal army. He quickly sup- 
 pressed the rebellion, after giving proof of his modera- 
 tion as well as military skill. 
 
 Dufour, (Leon,) a French naturalist, born about 1782, 
 practised medicine at Saint-Sever. He published " Ana- 
 tomical and Physiological Researches on the Hemiptera," 
 (1833,) and other works. 
 
 Dufour, (Louis.) See Longuerue. 
 
 Dufour, (PHILIPPE,) a French Protestant antiquary, 
 born at Manosque in 1622. His family name was Syl- 
 vestre, which he exchanged for Dufour, his mother's 
 name. He formed a cabinet of medals, and corresponded 
 with many eminent literati. He wrote, among other 
 works, " Moral Instructions of a Father for his Son," 
 (often reprinted.) Died in 1687. 
 
 Dufrenoy, dii'fKa'nwa', (Adelaide,) an eminent 
 French poetess, whose maiden name was Gillette- 
 Billet, born in Paris in 1765. She lived mostlv in Paris, 
 where her soirees were frequented by Condorcet, La 
 Harpe, etc. Her husband having lost his fortune, she 
 resorted to authorship for a living, and wrote several 
 poems which entitle her to a place in the first rank of 
 the female poets of France. Her poem "The Last 
 Moments of Bayard" was crowned by the Institute in 
 1815. Among her works are odes, elegies, tales, dramas, 
 etc., whose merit consists in the genuine expression of 
 a loving and suffering heart. Died in 1825. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeNeVale." 
 
 Dufrenoy, (Charles Alphonse.) See Dufresnoy. 
 
 Dufrenoy, (Pierre Armand,) an eminent French 
 geologist, a son of Adelaide, born at Sevran (Seine-et- 
 Oise) in 1 792. In conjunction with Elie de Beaumont, 
 he was ordered in 1823 to make a geological survey of 
 France, the important result of which was a large geo- 
 
 a, S, 1, 5, u, p, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fi, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
DUFRESNE 
 
 80 1 
 
 DUGUA 
 
 logical map, with three volumes of explanatory text, 
 (1841.) This text develops the theories of the two 
 authors, which are entirely accordant. He published, 
 besides other works, an excellent "Treatise on Mineral- 
 ogy," (4 vols., 1847.) A new theory propounded in his 
 memoir "On the Volcanic Formations of the Vicinity 
 oi Naples" has become one of the laws of geology. 
 He was a member of the Institute, inspector-general of 
 mines, and for many years professor of mineralogy in 
 the Museum of Natural History. Died in March, 1857. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Dufresne. See Franchkvili.e and Quinault. 
 
 Dufresne, du'fKeV, (Bertrand,) a French financier, 
 born in Beam in 1736. He was chief clerk of finance 
 under Necker, who made him director of the public 
 treasury about 1790. During the reign of terror he was 
 imprisoned by the Jacobins. He was elected to the 
 Council of Five Hundred in 1795, and in 1S00 was ap- 
 pointed director -general of the treasury, which prospered 
 under his skilful management. Died in 1801. 
 
 Dufresnoy. See Dufresny. 
 
 Dufresnoy. See I.KNGLET-DuFRESNOYand Ducloz. 
 
 Dufresuoy, dii'fRj'nwa', (Andre Ignace Joseph,) 
 a French physician, born at Valenciennes in 1733. He 
 was appointed physician-in-chief of the army of the North 
 ' n '793> but was soon discharged for an act of humanity 
 to a royalist. He was the first who cultivated in France 
 the Rhus radicans, and in one of his letters he ex- 
 pressed his impatience to see his dear >■/««. This letter 
 was intercepted by certain officious patriots, who de- 
 nounced him to the Tribunal for a traitorous correspond- 
 ence with the Russians. He was arrested on this charge, 
 but was released from danger by the revolution of the 
 9th Thermidor. Died in iSoi. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Dufresnoy, written also Dufrenoy, (Charles Al- 
 PHONSE,) a French historical painter and poet, born in 
 Paris in 161 1, was the son of an apothecary. Having 
 received lessons from Perrier and Vouet, he visited Rome 
 and studied the works of Raphael. He went to Venice 
 in 1653, and returned to France in 1656. He had a fair 
 reputation for correctness of design, and was a good 
 colorist. He wrote, in Latin verse, a critical treatise 
 on painting, "De Arte Graphica," which was much ad- 
 mired, and was translated into English by Dryden. Died 
 in 1665. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire ;" Lecarpentier, " Notice 
 sur A. DutYesnoy," 1X12. 
 
 Dufresny, du'lKj/ne', or Dufresnoy, dii'fRj'nwa', 
 (Charles Riviere,) a witty French dramatist and artist, 
 born in Paris in 1648, was a great-grandson of Henry 
 IV., and a valet-de-chambre of Louis XIV. He had a 
 natural talent for music and painting, excelled in land- 
 scape-gardening, and was appointed controller of the 
 royal gardens. He wrote several successful comedies, 
 among which are "The Spirit of Contradiction," in prose, 
 (1700,) "The Village Coquette," in verse, (1715,) and 
 "Le Faux-sincere." "He sparkles with wit," says La 
 Harpe, "and his wit is perfectly original." ("Cours de 
 Litterature.") Died in 1724. 
 
 See Voltaire, "ficrivains dti Siecle de Louis XIV;" Querard, 
 "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale. 
 
 Dufres3e, du'fuAss', (Sim'>n Camille,) Baron, a 
 French general, bom at La Kochelle in 1762; died in 1833. 
 
 Dufriche-Valaze. See Valaze. 
 
 Dufrische. See Frisciie. 
 
 Duganne, du-gan', (Augustine Joseph Hickey,) an 
 American poet and litterateur, born in Boston in 1823, 
 published, among other works, a "Comprehensive Sum- 
 mary of General Philosophy," (1845,) and "Class-Book 
 of Governments and Civil Society," (1859.) His principal 
 poetical works are "Home Poems," (1844,) "The Iron 
 Harp," (1847,) and "The Lydian Queen," a tragedy. 
 
 Du-gard', (William,) an eminent Knglish teacher, 
 born in Worcestershire in 1605, became master of the 
 Merchant-Tailors' School, London, about 1642. He 
 published a Greek grammar, a "I-exicon Grseci Testa- 
 ment!," and other school-books. Died in 1662. 
 
 Dugae-Montbel.du'gls'miN'bcl', (Jean BAPTISTS,] 
 an excellent French Hellenist, born at Saint-Chamond 
 in 1776, was a merchant of Lyons in early life. At the 
 
 age of thirty he began to study Greek, and settled in 
 Paris in 1810. He produced a translation of Homer, 
 (1815-18,) which is regarded as the best prose version in 
 the French language. A copious commentary accom- 
 panies it. He was a free associate of the Academy of 
 Inscriptions. He represented Lyons in the Chamber of 
 Deputies in 1831-33. Died in 1834. 
 
 See J. B. Dumas, " Eloge de Dugas-Moutbel," 1835; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Dugazon, dii'gi'zoN', (Jean Baptiste Henri Gour- 
 gault — gooR'go',) a popular FTench comedian, born at 
 Marseilles in 1743; died in 1S09. 
 
 His wife, Louise Lekevre, born at Berlin in 1755, 
 was a successful actress. Died in 1821. 
 
 Dug'dale, (Sir William,) an eminent English anti- 
 quary, born at Shustoke, in Warwickshire, in 1605. He 
 became a resident of London in 1638, and was appointed 
 a pursuivant-at-arms, by the name of Blanch Lyon. In 
 1640 he was made rouge-croi.x pursuivant-in-ordinary. 
 He was a royalist in the civil war. In 1655 Dugdale and 
 Dodsworth published the first volume of their great and 
 celebrated work on English monasteries, "Monasticon 
 Anglicanum," (3 vols., 1655-73.) This contains a record 
 of the history and descent of the greater part of the landed 
 property of England. He wrote several other valuable 
 works, among which are "The Antiquities of Warwick- 
 shire," (1656,) "Origines Juridiciales," (1666,) and "The 
 Baronage of England," (1675.) I" the re 'S" °f Charles 
 II. he was knighted, and obtained the office of Norroy 
 king-at-arms. Died in 1686. 
 
 See " Life, Diary, and Correspondence of W. Dugdale," edited 
 by Hamper, 1327; "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Duges, dii'zhj', (Antoine Louis,) an eminent French 
 physician, bom at Mezieres (Ardennes) in 1797. He 
 became professor of pathology and operative medicine 
 at Montpeliier about 1825, and published, besides other 
 works, a "Manual of Obstetrics," (1826,) and an able 
 "Treatise on the Comparative Physiology of Man and 
 Animals," (3 vols., 1838.) He was a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences. Died in 1838. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Dughet, dii'gl', (Gaspard,) a distinguished landscape- 
 painter, sometimes called Le Guaspre, (leh gSspR,) ot 
 Gaspre Poussin, (poo'saN',) was born of a French 
 family at Rome in 1613. He was a pupil of the famous 
 Nicolas Poussin, who married his sister. It is stated 
 that he hired four houses at the same time near Rome and 
 Tivoli, that he might observe a great diversity of scenes. 
 He had great executive facility, and a vague, agreeable 
 manner. His works present a great variety of compo- 
 sition and of effects. He painted many real scenes in 
 the vicinity of Rome, enriched with details of his own 
 invention. He excelled in the treatment of clouds and 
 the foliage of trees, which he represented in their char- 
 acteristic forms. Among his master-pieces is " Abraham 
 and Isaac going to the Sacrifice." Died in Rome in 1675. 
 
 See Pascoli, "Vile de' Pittori e Scullori inoderni," 1730-36; 
 Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Dughet, (Giovanni,) a younger brother of the pre- 
 ceding, bom about 1615, was also a pupil of N. Poussin. 
 He renounced painting at an tally age, and devoted him- 
 self to engraving with the burin and point. He worked 
 in Rome, and engraved many works of N. Poussin, among 
 which is "The Seven Sacraments." 
 
 Dugommier, dii'go'me-a', (Jean Francois Co- 
 quille — ko'ke'ye,) a French general, born in the isle of 
 Guadeloupe in 1736. He favoured the popular cause in 
 the Revolution, and went to Paris in 1792. As general of 
 division, he commanded at the successful siege of Toulon 
 in 1793, where Bonaparte acted under his orders. The 
 next year he was appointed to command the army of 
 the Eastern Pyrenees, and gained advantages over the 
 Spaniards at Saint-Elme and other places, lie was killed 
 in Novcml>er, 1794, at the battle of Sierra Negra, near 
 Figuieres, where the Spaniards were defeated. Bona- 
 parte mentioned him in his last will, honoris aiusA, and 
 left a legacy to his son. 
 
 See Lamartinh, " History of the Girondists." 
 
 Dugua, dii'gii't', (Charles Francois Joseph,) a 
 French general, born at Valenciennes in 1744. For his 
 
 € as*/ 9 as s; %hard; gas/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sass; th as in this. (2Ly~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 5' 
 
DUGUAY-TROUIN 
 
 802 
 
 DVHESME 
 
 services at the siege of Toulon in 1793 he was made a 
 general of division. In 1798 he accompanied Bonaparte 
 to Egypt. In the absence of Kleber, who had been 
 wounded, Dugua commanded his division at the battle 
 of the Pyramids. He went to Saint Domingo in 1801 
 as chief of the staff of Leclerc, and died there in 1802. 
 'See A. Dumege, " M^moires du General Dugua," 4 vols., 1S38. 
 
 Duguay-Trouin, du'gi' tRoo'aN', (Rene,) a brave 
 and successful French admiral, born at Saint-Malo in 
 1673. Having obtained command of a privateer frigate 
 in 1691, he performed several daring exploits, and took 
 many prizes from the English. In 1694 he was taken 
 prisoner by an English squadron and carried into port, 
 but soon escaped, and returned to France. He entered 
 the royal marine in 1697, and displayed great skill and 
 prudence as captain in the war of the Spanish succession, 
 which began in 1702. Between 1703 and 1705 he cruised 
 on the coasts of England, defeated a Dutch fleet, and 
 captured several ships. In 1707 his squadron, united to 
 that of Forbin, intercepted a large English convoy and 
 took three of the ships of war by which it was escorted. 
 He gained great glory by the capture of Rio Janeiro 
 in 171 1. In 1715 he was appointed vice-admiral, and 
 lieutenant-general in 1728. His disposition was modest 
 and generous. He died in 1736, leaving Memoirs of his 
 life, which were published in 1740 and translated into 
 English in 1742. 
 
 See, also, M. ue la Landelle, " Histoire de Duguay-Trouin," 
 1844: Adrian Richer. "Viede R. Duguay-Trouin," 1784 and 1835; 
 Antoink Thomas, " Eloge de Duguay-Trouin," 1761 ; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GdneVale." 
 
 Duguernier, du'geVne4/, (Louis,) a French por- 
 trait-painter, born about 1550, acquired celebrity in min- 
 iatures, which he painted on vellum. He painted the 
 portraits of the most distinguished personages of his 
 time. 
 
 Duguernier, ( Louis, ) a son of the preceding, was 
 a skilful portrait-painter, and worked in Paris. Nagler 
 states that he was exiled on the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantes, ( 16S5 ;) but, according to another account, 
 he died in Paris in 1659. He left three sons who were 
 painters, one of whom, named Pierre, was reputed the 
 best painter on enamel of his time. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues AUgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Du Guesclin or Duguesclin, dii'gi'klaN', (Ber- 
 TRAND,) a famous French captain, born near Rennes 
 about 1314. He distinguished himself in fighting against 
 the English, who then held many places in France. In 
 1356 he defeated the Duke of Lancaster at Rennes, and 
 forced him to raise the siege. About 1364 Charles V. 
 gave him command of an army, with which he defeated 
 the King of Navarre. The next year he led a large 
 army against Pedro the Cruel of Castile, who was unable 
 to resist him until the English Black Prince came to his 
 assistance. In a battle that followed in 1367 the Black 
 Prince was the victor, and took Du Guesclin prisoner, but 
 soon released him. In 1369, when the war was renewed 
 between the French and the English, he was appointed 
 Constable of Fiance. After he took the command the 
 English ceased to conquer, and in 1374 he had expelled 
 them from nearly every province of France. Died in 
 1380. " He seems to have been," says Hume, " the first 
 consummate general that had yet appeared in Europe." 
 
 See Froissart, "Chronicles;" Claude Menard, "Histoire 
 de B. Duguesclin," 1618; Guvard de Berville, "Vie de Dugues- 
 clin," 1767; .Jamison, "Life of Duguesclin," 1864; Fkeminville, 
 " Histoire de Bertrand Duguesclin," 1841. 
 
 Duguet, dii'gi', (Jacques Joseph,) a French theolo- 
 gian, born at Montbrison in 1649. He became a priest 
 of the Oratory in 1667, and was attached to the principles 
 of the Jansenists. lie published many esteemed works 
 on religion and morality, among which are " Conduct 
 of a Christian Lady," (1725,) " The Work of Six Days," 
 (1732,) and a "Treatise on the Principles of the Chris- 
 tian Faith," (1736.) Died in 1733. < 
 
 See Andre, "L'Esprit de J. J. Duguet," etc., Paris, 1764. 
 
 Du Haillan. See Haiixan, d\ 
 
 Duhalde, dii'hf Id', (Jean Baptiste,) a French Jesuit, 
 born in Paris in 1674. He was employed by his supe- 
 riors to digest and edit the letters received from the 
 foreign missionaries of the Society. The result of his 
 
 labours is a work entitled "Lettres ediliantes et curi- 
 euses eciites des Missions etrangeres," which contains 
 much interesting and valuable information. In 1735 he 
 published a "Historical, Geographical, and Physical 
 Description of the Chinese Empire," the first work in 
 which China had been described with such detail and 
 exactness by a European. Died in 1743. 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Dubamel or Du Haruel, du'hfmel', (Jean Bap- 
 tiste,) a F'rench philosopher and savant, born at Vire 
 in 1624, became curate of Neuilly-sur-Marne. He was a 
 diligent student of natural philosophy and other sciences, 
 and gained reputation in 1660 by a treatise on Astro- 
 nomy, ("Astronomia Physica.") At the formation of the 
 Academy of Sciences (1666) he was chosen perpetual 
 secretary. He published an interesting " HistoVy of 
 the Royal Academy of Sciences," (1698,) a "Treatise on 
 the Old and New Philosophy," for the use of colleges, 
 (1678,) and other scientific works, which were once highly 
 prized, but are not much read at present. Died in 1706. 
 The above-named works are all in Latin, which he wrote 
 with great purity and elegance. 
 
 See Nickron, " M^moires ;" Fontenelle, "Eloges des AcadtS- 
 miciens;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gi2ne>ale." 
 
 Du Hamel, (Jean Marie Constant,) a French 
 mathematician, born in 1797, became in 1851 professor 
 in the Faculty of Sciences. He succeeded Poisson as 
 member of the Institute in 1840. He wrote a work on 
 analysis, ("Cours d'Analyse de l'Ecole Polytechnique," 
 1841.) 
 
 Duhamel or Du Hamel, (Jean Pierre Francois 
 Guillot — ge'yo',) a French savant and metallurgist, 
 born at Nicorps in 1730. He made improvements in 
 the art of mining and working metals ; and, when the 
 School of Mines was founded, about 1787; he was chosen 
 professor of metallurgy, etc. In 1786 he was received 
 into the Academy of Sciences. About 1795 he was chosen 
 a member of the Institute and inspector-general of mines. 
 He was a savant of the old school, — profound, practical, 
 unassuming. He wrote, besides other works, a manual 
 for miners, entitled "Subterranean Geometry," (1788,) 
 "which," says Cuvier, "is an indispensable work, and 
 is at the present time the manual of all who practise the 
 art of mining in France." Died in 1816. 
 
 See Cuvier, " E*loges histoviques," tome iii. ; " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 pliie G&ieVale." 
 
 Duhamel du Monceau, dU'hi'mel' dii nfo.N'so', 
 (Henri Louis,) an eminent economist and botanist, born 
 in Paris in 1700, was one of the most remarkable French 
 savants of the eighteenth century, in respect to the extent, 
 variety, and utility of his researches in botany, phy- 
 siology, agriculture, etc. He was admitted into the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1728, after which he wrote 
 more than sixty memoirs, nearly all on important sub- 
 jects. He published, besides other works, a "Treatise 
 on the Culture of Land," (1751,) a "Treatise on the 
 Trees and Shrubs which grow in France in the Open 
 Ground," (1755,) and one entitled "De la Physique des 
 Arbres," (1758,) treating of the structure, anatomy, and 
 physiology of plants. This is regarded as his most 
 important work. 
 
 See Cuvier, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles;" "Biographie 
 Universelle ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" "Encyclopaedia 
 Brilannica." 
 
 Duhan, dii'hoN', (Charles Gilles,) a French Prot- 
 estant, born in Champagne in 1685, removed to Bet in, 
 where he became preceptor to the prince-royal, (Frede- 
 rick the Great.) After the accession of that prince (1 740) 
 Duhan was made a privy councillor. Died in 1746. 
 
 Duhan, (Laurent,) a French philosopher, born at 
 Chartres about 1656, published " Philosophus in utram- 
 que Partem," (1694.) Died in 1726. 
 
 Duhem, dii'oN' or clii-h8m',(Pj erre JosEPH,)a French 
 Jacobin, born at Lille in 1760, was a member of the Con- 
 vention, 1792-95. Died in 1807. 
 
 Duhesme, du'htra', (Philippe Guillaume,) Count, 
 a F'rench general, born in Burgundy in 1766. He was 
 made general of division in 1794 for his services at Gran- 
 jean and Maestricht. His passage of the Rhine at 
 Diersheim, in 1797, was much applauded. He afterwards 
 commanded in Italy and Spain, where he gained several 
 
 i, e, 1, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
DUIGEN4N 
 
 803 
 
 DULON 
 
 victories, and received the title of count in 1814. In the 
 Hundred Days he took arms for Napoleon, and was 
 wounded and taken prisoner at Waterloo, where he was 
 massacred by a Prussian soldier, June iS, 1815. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'neVale." 
 
 Duigenan, d6"6g'e-nan, (Patrick,) an Irish civilian, 
 born in 1735, in the county of Leitriin. He was a judge, 
 privy councillor, and member of Parliament, and wrote 
 several political pamphlets. He promoted the Union, 
 and opposed Catholic emancipation. Died in 1816. 
 
 Du-U'I-us or Du-il'11-us, (C.uus,) a Roman general, 
 elected consul in 261 n.c, is noted as the first Roman 
 who obtained a naval victory over the Carthaginians. In 
 the first Punic war he built a rtumberof ships after the 
 model of one captured from the enemy. This fleet under 
 his command defeated that of Carthage, near the Lipari 
 Islands, in 260, on which occasion the Romans used with 
 
 frcat advantage the new invention of grappling-irons, and 
 oarded the ships of the enemy. He afterwards com- 
 manded the land-army, and defeated the Carthaginians 
 in Sicily. 
 
 See Polybius, book i. ; Diodorus Siculus. book xxiii. 
 
 Duilius, (Marcus,) a Roman tribune, who, about 
 450 B.C., persuaded the people to assume an attitude of 
 determined hostility to the decemvirs by withdrawing to 
 Mons Sacer. 
 
 Duisburg, doo'is-booRG, written also Duisbourg, 
 (Peter,) a German chronicler, lived about 1320. He 
 wrote a " History of Prussia." 
 
 Duiven, doi'ven, (Jan,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born 
 at Gouda in 1610; died in 1640. 
 
 Dujardin, dii'zhaR'd&N', (Benigne,) a French author 
 who assumed the name of Boispreaux, (bwa'pui'o',) 
 flourished about 1740. 
 
 Dujardin, (Felix,) a French naturalist, born at Tours 
 in 1801. He cultivated geology, botany, and zoology, and 
 became professor of mineralogy at Toulouse in 1839. 
 Among his chief works are a "Natural History of Infu- 
 soria," (1841,) and a "Manual of the Observer with the 
 Microscope," (1843.) Died in April, i860. 
 
 Dujardin, du'zhaVdaN', sometimes written De Jar- 
 dyn,' (Karei.,) an eminent Dutch painter, was born in 
 Amsterdam about 1640. He is called the most excellent 
 pupil of Berghem. He studied and worked in Rome, 
 and returned to his native place, where he was very suc- 
 cessful. He painted history, animals, pastoral scenes, 
 and other familiar subjects. He excelled in colour, 
 expression, and chiaroscuro. Some of his works are 
 regarded as master-pieces, and bring high prices. His 
 "Charlatan" is said to be one of the most highly-prized 
 tableaux of that kind which the gallery of the Louvre 
 contains. Having visited Italy a second time, he died at 
 Venice in 1678. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Duke, (Richard,) an English clergyman, born in 
 Devonshire, was a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 and prebendary of Gloucester. He wrote several medi- 
 ocre poems, ayd published sermons which are com- 
 mended. He co-operated with others in the translation 
 of Ovid and Juvenal. Died in 171 1. 
 
 Duker, doo'ker, (Karl Andreas,) a German scholar, 
 born at Unna, Prussia, in 1670. He studied under 
 aiius at Franeker. In 1716 he was associated with 
 Drakenborch in the chair of history and eloquence at 
 lit vacated by Burmann. His principal work is an 
 edition of Thticydidcs, (1731,) which attests his profound 
 knowledge of Greek and was for a long time the best 
 edition of that author. He also edited Florus, (1722.) 
 He resigned his chair in 1734. Died at Mydrccht in 
 1752. 
 
 See Ersch und GRUBP.R."AlIgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" C. Saxius, 
 "Laudatio C. A. Dukeri," 8vo, 1788. 
 
 Duker, doo'ker, (Karl Gustavus,) a Swedish gen- 
 eral, distinguished in the wars of Charles XII. He 
 fought at Pultowa in 1709, when he was made prisoner. 
 In 1712, as lieutenant-general, he commanded a corps 
 in the isle of Riigen, and surrendered Stralsund after a 
 brave defence in 171 5. He was afterwards made a field- 
 marshal, senator, and count. Died in 1732. 
 
 See Ersch und GRUBKR,"Allgemcine Encyklopaedie;" Voltaire, 
 " Histoire de Charles XI I." 
 
 Dulac. See Ai.leon. 
 
 Dulard, dit'laV, (Paul Alexandre,) a French poet 
 born at Marseilles in 1696; died in 1760. 
 
 Dulauloy. See Randon. 
 
 Dulaure, dii'lou', (Jacques Antoine,) a French re- 
 publican, known as an able and prolific writer, was born 
 at Clermont-Ferrand in 1755. In 1788 he published tne 
 first volumes of a " Description of France." Elected to 
 the Convention in 1792, he voted for the death of the 
 king. He wrote many political pamphlets, was pro- 
 scribed as a Girondist in 1793, and saved his life by 
 flight. He was one of the Council of Five Hundred in 
 1796-98. He produced a "History of Paris from the 
 Earliest Times," ( 10 vols., 1821, ) and " Historical 
 Sketches of the Revolution," (6 vols., 1825.) Died in 
 
 ■835- 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale:" Taiu.andier, "Notice 
 snr J. A. Dulaure." 
 
 Du Laurens or Dnlaurens, dii'lo'roN', (Andre,) a 
 learned French physician, born at Aries about 1550, 
 became first physician to Henry IV. in 1606. He pub- 
 lished several professional works in Latin, one of which 
 was very successful, viz., "Anatomical Description of the 
 Human Body," (1595.) Renauldin praises the elegance 
 of its style. Died in 1609. 
 
 See H. Rodrigues, " Notice sur Dulaurens," etc., Montpellier, 
 1842. 
 
 Dulaurens, (Henri Joseph,) a French writer and 
 abbe, born at Douai in 1719. Among his works are a 
 "Satire against the Jesuits," (1761,) and "The Evangile 
 of Reason." In 1767 he was sentenced to perpetual 
 imprisonment as author of anti-religious works. Died 
 in 1797. 
 
 Dulaurier, dii'lo're-A', (Edouard,) a French Orien- 
 talist, born at Toulouse in 1807, became professor of 
 the Javanese and Malay languages at Paris in 1841. 
 
 Dulcino, dool-chee'no, [Lat. Dulci'nus,] an Italian 
 theologian, and leader of a sect called Dulcinists, was 
 born at Novara. He was put to death in 1307. 
 
 Dulcis, duTsess', (Catherin,) a Protestant noted as 
 a linguist, was born in Savoy in 1540. He was professor 
 of modern languages at Wittenberg and at Cassel, and 
 wrote "Principles of the Italian Languages," and other 
 works. 
 
 Dulin, dii'laN', (Pierre,) a French painter of history, 
 born in Paris in 1670, gained the grand prize in 1696, 
 and died in 1748. 
 
 Du Lis, du less, or Dulis, (Charles,) a Frenchman 
 descended from a brother of Joan of Arc, was born 
 about 1560. He was a privy councillor of Henry IV. 
 He wrote a valuable notice of the genealogy, actions, 
 and arms of Joan of Arc, (1610.) Died about 1632. 
 
 Dulk,dd"6lk, (Fkiedrich Philipp,) a German chemist, 
 born at Schirwindt, in Prussia, in 1788, became professor 
 of chemistry at KSnigsberg. He published a "Manual 
 of Chemistry," (1834,) and other works. 
 
 Dullaert, dtil'laiu, (Heyman,) a skilful Dutch painter 
 of history and portraits, bom at Rotterdam in 1636. He 
 was a pupil of Rembrandt, whose manner he imitated 
 with such success as to puzzle Houbraken and other 
 connoisseurs. His " Hermit Kneeling" is an instance 
 of this imitation. In consequence of feeble health, he 
 did not produce a great number of pictures. He was 
 skilled in many languages, wrote verses with facility, 
 and translated Tasso's epic poem. Died in 16S4. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 Duller, dool'ler, (Eduard,) a popular German poet 
 and historian, born in Vienna in 1S09. He produced a 
 successful drama, "Master Pilgrim," (1828,1 and "The 
 Prince of Love," a poem, (1842.) He settled in Mental 
 (Mayence) in 1849, alter which be devoted himself to 
 history. Among his works are a " Histoi v ol the ( iernian 
 People," (2 vols., 1840,) and a continuation of Schiller's 
 "History of the Revolt of the Netherlands," (3 vols., 
 1841.) lie published a volume of poems, "Gcsammelte 
 Gedichte," (1845.) Died in 1853. 
 
 See Urockh aiis, "Conversations-Lexikon;" Weber, "Geschicbte 
 der Deutschen Literatur." 
 
 Dulon, doo'lon, (Ludwig,) a Prussian performer on 
 the flute, born in 1769, became blind in infancy. He 
 composed music for the flute. Died in 1826. 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Jf^" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DULONG 
 
 804 
 
 DUMAS 
 
 Dulong, dii'15N', (Pierre Louis,) a French chemist 
 and natural philosopher, born at Rouen in 1785. He 
 studied chemistry with Berthollet, and discovered the 
 chloride of nitrogen in 1812. In co-operation with Ber- 
 zelius, he analyzed water, and made researches in the 
 animal heat produced by respiration and the combustion 
 of carbon in the lungs. He succeeded Petit as professor 
 of physique in the Polytechnic School, and in 1823 was 
 admitted into the Academy of Sciences, for which he 
 wrote memoirs on the theory of heat, the elastic force 
 of steam, etc. Died in Paris in 1838. 
 
 See EVienne Arago, " Dictionnaire de la Conversation ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generaie." 
 
 Dulong de Rosnay, dii'l&N' deh ro'ni', (Louis 
 Henri,) Comte, a French general, born in Champagne 
 in 1780; died in 1828. 
 
 Du Lorens, dii io'rSN', (Jacques,) a French satirical 
 poet, born at Chateauneuf in 1583 ; died about 1650. 
 
 Duniatiiant, du'm3'ne'&N',( Antoine Jean,) a French 
 comic author, whose family name was Bourlin, (booR'- 
 laN',) born at Clermont in Auvergne, or Clermont-Fer- 
 rand, in 1754. He lived in Paris, where for some time 
 he performed on the stage. He wrote many comedies, 
 some of which were successful, especially his " Open 
 War, or Ruse against Ruse," (1786.) Died in 1828. 
 
 Duniaiioir,du'mt'nwaR',( Phi LIPI'E,) a French drama- 
 tist, born in Guadeloupe in 1808. 
 
 Dumanoir le Pelley, du'mt'nwaR' leh pi'li', 
 (Pierre Etienne Rene Marie,) Count, a French 
 admiral, born at Granville in 1770. As chef-de-division 
 he conducted the convoy attached to the army which 
 invaded Egypt in 1798. The next year he commanded 
 one of the two ships which escorted Bonaparte back to 
 France, and was made a rear-admiral. At the battle 
 of Trafalgar, in 1805 he commanded the vanguard, and 
 escaped with four ships, which were taken a few days 
 later. He was made a count in 1814, and vice-admiral 
 in 1819. Died in 1829. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G&ie'rale." 
 
 Dumaresq, du-mt-resk', (Henry,) a brave British 
 officer, born in 1792, served in the Peninsula, was se- 
 verely wounded at Waterloo, and obtained the rank of 
 lieutenant-colonel in 181 7. Died in 1838. 
 
 Dumarest, dii'mS'ri', (Ramhert,) a skilful French 
 engraver of medals, born at Saint-fitienne, in Forez, in 
 1750. He resided in Paris, and became a member of 
 the Institute. About the time of the Revolution his 
 medal of J. J. Rousseau gained the first prize. He en- 
 graved the medal which the Institute gives to each of 
 its members, and one for the Peace of Amiens. Died 
 in 1806. 
 
 Dumarsais, dii'mi R'si', (Cesar Chesneau,) an emi- 
 nent French grammarian, born at Marseilles in 1676, 
 became a citizen of Paris about 1702. His works are 
 more highly appreciated by posterity than they were by 
 his contemporaries, and his "Treatise on Tropes or 
 Figures" is especially commended. He also wrote a 
 "Treatise on Logic," and "Principles of Grammar." 
 "He was," says Voltaire, "one of those obscure sages 
 who judge soundly of all," etc. Died in 1756. 
 
 See De Gerando, " Eloge de Du Marsais," 1805 ; D' Alembert, 
 "filoge de Du Marsais," in the " Encyclopedic," tome vii. 
 
 Dumas, dii'mi', (Adoi.phe,) a French poet, cousin 
 of Alexandre, noticed below, born at Bompas (Vaucluse) 
 in 1806 ; died in 1861. 
 
 Dumas, (Alexandre,) a celebrated French novelist 
 and dramatist, born at Villers-Cotterets (Aisne) in 1803. 
 His early education was very defective. At the age of 
 twenty he went to Paris to seek his fortune, and by the 
 favour of General Foy obtained a clerkship in the bureau 
 of the Duke of Orleans. He produced in 1828 " Henri 
 III," a drama, the great success of which was a triumph 
 of the new romantic school over the classic. He wrote 
 many other successful dramas, among which are "An- 
 tony," a tragedy," ( 1831, ) and "Mdlle. de Belle Isle," a 
 comedy, (1837.) The immorality of "Antony" was pro- 
 nounced scandalous even by the French. He excels in 
 the construction of plots, and exhibits a marvellousexam- 
 ple of literary fecundity. Dumas also obtained great 
 popularity as a novelist. Among his principal romances 
 are "The Three Musketeers," ("Les trois Motisque- 
 
 taires," 1844-45, 30 vols.,) and "The Count of Monte- 
 Christo," ("Le Comte de Monte-Christo," 1845, 12 vols.) 
 These are much admired for the vcv. and faculty of 
 improvisation which they display. He made, it is said, 
 a free use of the assistance of other writers in the com- 
 position of his works. Died in December, 1870. 
 
 See L. de Lomenie, " Notice sur M. A. Dumas," 1845; Alex- 
 andre Dumas, "Mdmoires," Paris, 10 vols., 1S50-52; Eugene db 
 Mirecourt, " Fabrique de Romans: Maison A. Dumas et Com- 
 pagnie," 1846; Cuari.es Robin, " Notice sur A. Dumas," 1848. 
 
 Dumas, (Alexandre,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in Paris in 1824, and is widely known as a romancer 
 and comic author. Among his romances are " Cesarine," 
 (1848,) and "Trois Honynes forts," (4 vols., 1850.) He 
 produced in 1852 "La Dame aux Camelias," a comedy, 
 which was highly applauded. His comedy "Demi- 
 Monde" (1855) was also very successful. His works 
 are censured as immoral. 
 
 Dumas, (Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie — 
 pt'yeh-tre',) a French general, born at Jeremie in 1762, 
 was the father of Alexandre, noticed above. His mother 
 was a negress, named Dumas. He was made a general 
 of brigade in July, 1793, and general of division in Sep- 
 tember of that year. He defeated Wurmser at Mantua 
 in 1796, and for his services in the Tyrol in 1797 was 
 saluted by Bonaparte with the title of "the Horatius 
 Codes of the Tyrol." In 1798 he commanded the cavalry 
 in Egypt, and was at the battle of the Pyramids. He 
 died in 1806, having been disabled by ill health for several 
 years. 
 
 See "Victoires et Conquetes des Francais ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generaie." 
 
 Dumas, (Charles Louis,) an eminent French phy- 
 sician, born in Lyons in 1765, graduated at Montpellier. 
 In 1795 he obtained the chair of anatomy and physiology 
 in that city. He was afterwards chosen professor of clinic 
 medicine, dean of the Faculty, a corresponding member 
 of the Institute, member of the legion of honour, etc. 
 He wrote many learned works, of which the most im- 
 portant are "Principles of Physiology," (4 vols., 1800,) 
 "The Future Progress of the Science of Man," (1S04,) 
 and "Doctrine of Chronic Diseases," (1812.) The last 
 is highly praised. Died at Montpellier in April, 1813. 
 
 See Prunki.t.e. " Eloge de C. L. Dumas," 1814; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^ne"rale." 
 
 Dumas, (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent French chem- 
 ist and senator, born at Alais (Gard) in July, 1800. He 
 went about 1814 to Geneva, where he studied chemistry 
 and botany and became the scientific associate of. Pre- 
 vost. Having removed to Paris in 1821, he was chosen 
 tutor of chemistry in the Polytechnic School in 1823. 
 He married the daughter of the celebrated chemist A. 
 Brongniart. He acquired a wide reputation by his re- 
 searches on isomerism, the law of substitutions, the 
 atomic weights of elements, and other parts of chemical 
 philosophy. His labours have contributed greatly to 
 simplify the study of organic chemistry. He was elected 
 to the Institute in 1832, and became professor of organic 
 chemistry in the School of Medicine in 4834. He pub- 
 lished many important works, among which are a " Treat- 
 ise on Chemistry applied to the Arts," (8 vols., 1828-45,) 
 and " Lectures on Chemical Philosophy," (" Leconssurla 
 Philosophic chimique,"( 1837.) His works are remarkable 
 for elegance of style. From October, 1849, to January, 
 1851, he was minister of agriculture and commerce. He 
 was nominated senator and vice-president of the council 
 of public instruction about the end of 1851. France is 
 indebted to him for the organization of a system of in- 
 struction in agriculture, and the institution of a European 
 sanitary congress. 
 
 See "Galerie hislorique des Membres du Senat;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generaie. " 
 
 Dumas, (Lours,) a French musician, born at Nimes in 
 1676. He wrote "The Art of Music, taught and prac- 
 tised by the Method of the Typographic Bureau," and 
 "La Bibliotheque des Enfants." He was tutor of the 
 Marquis de Montcalm who fell at Quebec. Died in 1744. 
 
 Dumas, (Matiiiku,) Count, a French general and 
 historian, born at Montpellier in 1753. He was aide-de- 
 camp of Count de Kochambeau in the United States, 
 where he served three campaigns, 17S0-S2. In the 
 revolution of 1789 he was identified with the party of La 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
DUMAS 
 
 805 
 
 DUMONT 
 
 Fayette, and was charged with several important missions. 
 In 1 79 1 Colonel Dumas commanded the troops which 
 guarded Louis XVI. on his return from Varennes, and 
 was raised to the rank of marechal-de-camp. He was 
 a moderate member of the Legislative Assembly in 1 791 
 and 1792, and was condemned to death in the reign of 
 terror, but escaped to Switzerland. About 1800 he ob- 
 tained the rank of general of brigade, and was appointed 
 councillor of state. He became a general of division in 
 1805, and, as aide-major-general of Napoleon, made the 
 campaigns of Ulm and Austerlitz, and that of Austria 
 in 1S09. He accompanied the grand army to Moscow 
 (1812) as intendant-general of the administrative service. 
 In 1814 he entered the service of Louis XVIII., and in 
 the Hundred Days accepted a command from Napo- 
 leon. He published a narrative of the French campaigns 
 from 179S to 1807, entitled " Precis des Evenements mili- 
 taires," (19 vols., 1816-26,) which is highly prized. He 
 co-operated with La Fayette in the revolution of 1830, 
 after which he was created a peer of France. Died in 
 Paris in October, 1837. 
 
 See his autobiographic memoirs, entitled "Souvenirs," 3 vols., 
 1839, and English version of the same ; " Histoire des Generaux 
 Francais;" " Nuuvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Dumas, (Rene Francois,) a French Jacobin, born at 
 Lons-le-Saulnier in 1757, was notorious for cruelty as 
 president of the Revolutionary Tribunal in 1793. As a 
 partisan of Robespierre, he was guillotined, July 28, 1794. 
 
 Dumay, du'mi', (Louis,) a French publicist, bom in 
 the first part of the seventeenth century. He published, 
 besides other works, "The Science of Princes, or Con- 
 siderations on Coups d'Etat by Naude, with Reflections," 
 (1673,) which was greatly esteemed. Died in 1681. 
 
 Dumay, (Paul,) a French poet, born at Dijon in 
 1626, associated or corresponded with the most eminent 
 scholars, and wrote admired Latin verses. His poem 
 in honour of the Ducd'Enghien, entitled "Enguinneis," 
 (1643,) was praised by Gronovius. Died in 171 1. 
 
 Dumee, dii'ma', (Jeanne,) a French astronomer, born 
 in Paris in the seventeenth century. She published a 
 "Discourse on the Opinion of Copernicus respecting 
 the Mobility of the Earth," which has some merit. 
 
 Dumerbion, du'meVbe'oli', (Pierke J.,) a French 
 general, born at Montmeillant in 1734; died in 1797. 
 
 Dumeril, du'ma'rel', (Andre Marie Constant,) a 
 French physician and naturalist of high reputation, born 
 at Amiens on the 1st of January, 1774, was a pupil of 
 Cuvier. He was chosen professor of anatomy <i la fa- 
 ailte in Paris in 1800, and admitted into the Institute 
 about 1815. For four years he supplied the place of 
 Cuvier as professor of natural history in the Ecole Cen- 
 trale. In 1822 he exchanged his chair of anatomy for 
 that of physiology, and in 1S25 succeeded Lacepede as 
 professor at the Jardin des Plantes. He published in 
 1803 a "Treatise on Natural History," a fourth edition 
 of which was entitled " Elements des Sciences natu- 
 relles," (2 vols., 1846.) His greatest work is a "Natural 
 History of Reptiles," ("Erpetologie generale," 9 vols., 
 1834-54,) in which ISibron co-operated. About 1830 he 
 became professor of medical pathology in the Faculty of 
 Medicine at Paris. 
 
 Dumesiiil, (Jean Baptiste.) See Gardin-Dumes- 
 
 NIL. 
 
 Dumesnil, du'm&'nel', (Louis Alexis Lemaitrf.,) a 
 French litterateur, bom at Caen in 1783, wrote a " His- 
 tory of Philip II. of Spain," (1822,) and other historical 
 works. Died in 1858. 
 
 Dumesnil, (Marie Franchise,) a celebrated French 
 actress, born near Alencon in 1711. She made her debut 
 in Paris in 1737. She was most successful in tragedy, 
 and in the expression of fierce or sublime passions. It 
 has been said that she created the rile of Metope in Vol- 
 taire's tragedy of that name. Voltaire, La Harpe, and 
 other poets have paid tributes of admiration to this 
 actress. Dorat, in his poem "Theatrical Declamation," 
 speaks of her in high terms. She retired from the stage 
 in 1776, and died about 1802. 
 
 See Voltairr, " Correspondance ;" Marmontel, "Memoires." 
 
 Dum'mer, (Jeremiah,) an American writer, born in 
 Boston about 1680. He was sent to England as an agent 
 of Massachusetts, and became a friend of Ixtrd Boling' 
 
 broke. He wrote an able defence of the charters of 
 New England, (1721,) and other works. Died in 1739. 
 Dum'no-rix, an ambitious chieftain of the /Edui, a 
 nation of Gaul, was the brother of Divitiacus. He 
 figures largely in the "Commentaries'' of Caesar, who, 
 for the sake of Divitiacus, once pardoned Dumnorix for 
 a conspiracy against the Romans. Having subsequently 
 disobeyed the order to follow Caesar in the invasion of 
 Britain, he was killed by Caesar's soldiers about 59 B.C., 
 exclaiming, with his latest breath, "I am a free citizen 
 of a free state." 
 
 See Cssar, "De Bello Gallico." 
 
 Dnmolard, dii'mo'liR', (Joseph Vincent,) a French 
 politician, born in Dauphine in 1766; died in 1820. 
 Dumolin. See Dumoulin. 
 
 Dumolinet, du'mo'le'nj', (Claude,) a French priest 
 and antiquary, born at Chalons-sur-Mame in 1620, wrote 
 a " History of the Popes by their Medals," and disserta- 
 tions on several points of antiquity. Died in 1687. 
 
 Dumon,du'mAN', (Pierre Sylvain,) a French states- 
 man, born at Agen in 1797, became minister of finance 
 in 1847. 
 
 Dumonceau, dii'm6N'so', (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 general, born at Brussels in 1760. He entered the French 
 army in 1792, and in 1794 fought in Holland under Piche- 
 gru, who gave him command of the Hague. He became 
 general-in-chief in the service of the Batavian republic 
 in 1S05, obtained a marshal's baton in 1806 or 1807, and 
 repulsed the English at Walcheren in 1809. In 1813 he 
 gained a victory over the Russians at Pima. Died in 182 1. 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 Dumont, dil'mftn', (Andre,) a French Jacobin, born 
 in Picardy in 1764, was a member of the Convention, 
 1792-95. He took side against Robespierre on the 9th 
 Thermidor. Died in 1836. 
 
 Duniont,( Augustin Alexandre,) a French sculptor, 
 born in Paris in 1801. He gained the grand prize in 1823, 
 and went to Rome with a pension. He executed marble 
 statues of Poussin, (for the Institute,) Saint Louis, (for the 
 Luxembourg,) and of several other Frenchmen. In 1838 
 he was chosen a member of the Institute. Among his 
 later works are figures of Glory and Immortality, for the 
 new Louvre, (1857.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Dumont, (Charles Henri Frederic,) a French 
 writer, born near Abbeville in 1758, was the author of a 
 " Manual for Mayors," a " Dictionary of Forests," (" Dic- 
 tionnaire forestier," 1802,) and other useful works. Died 
 in 1830. 
 Dumont, CoMTE de Gages. See Gages. 
 Du-m5nt' , (Kbene/.er,) an American general, born 
 at Vevay, in Southern Indiana, about 1815, was a lawyer 
 before the civil war. He became a brigadier-general 
 about September, 1861, and gained a victory at Lebanon, 
 Kentucky, in May, 1862. He represented the sixth dis- 
 trict of Indiana in Congress in 1863-65, having been 
 elected by the Republicans. 
 
 Dumont, (Francois,) a sculptor, born in Paris in 
 1688. He gained the first prize of the Academy at an 
 early age, and was received as a member ot the same in 
 1712, when he produced in marble his "Thunderstruck 
 Titan," ("Titan foudroye.") Died in 1726. 
 
 Dumont, (Gabriel,) a learned Protestant minister 
 and Orientalist, born in Dauphine in 1680; died in 1748. 
 Dumont, (Gabriel Martin,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris about 1720. He was living in 1790. 
 
 Dumont, (George,) a statistical writer, born in Paris 
 in 1725 : died in 1788. 
 
 Dumont, (Jacques Edme,) a French sculptor, born 
 in Paris in 1761, was a grandson of Franyois Dumont, 
 noticed above, and the father of Augustin Alexandre. 
 He adorned the Louvre, Luxembourg, and other public 
 edifices with statues and bas-reliefs, among which are 
 statues of Marceau, Colbert, (1808,) and Malesherbes, 
 (1829.) Died in 1844. 
 
 Dumont, (Jean,) a historian, born in France about 
 1650, became a resident of Vienna. The Emperor of 
 Germany appointed him historiographer, and gave him 
 the title of baron. He wrote a "History of the Treaties 
 of Peace of the Seventeenth Century," ("Corps univer- 
 sel diplomatique du Droit des Gens," 8 vols., 1726,) a 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal- R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this. (Sy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
D UMONT 
 
 806 
 
 DUMOURIEZ 
 
 "Collection of Treaties made from the Time of Charle- 
 magne to the Present Time," and other works. Died 
 in 1726. 
 
 Dumont, (Jean,) a French historical painter, called 
 "the Roman," was born in Paris in 1700, and studied 
 in Rome. "His talent," says Auguis, "was not equal 
 to his reputation." He was admitted into the Academy 
 of Paris in 172S. Died in 1781. 
 
 Dumont, dii'tnoN', (Pierre Etienne Louis,) an 
 eminent Swiss author, born of a French family at Geneva 
 in 1759. He was ordained minister of a Protestant church 
 in Geneva in 1781. In consequence of the defeat of the 
 Liberal party in the Swiss state, he emigrated about 
 1782, and went to Saint Petersburg. There he gained 
 reputation as an eloquent preacher ; but, after a residence 
 of eighteen months, he accepted an invitation from Lon- 
 don to become the tutor of the sons of Lord Shelburne. 
 He became intimate with Bentham and Romilly. In 17S9 
 and 1790 he was in Paris, where he was patronized by 
 Mirabeau, whom he assisted in composing his speeches 
 and reports. About 1792 he returned to England, and, 
 as secretary or coadjutor of Bentham, he began the im- 
 portant task of polishing and popularizing his great 
 works on legislation, which were then in a rude and con- 
 fused state. "M. Dumont was admirably qualified," 
 says Macaulay, "to supply what was wanting in Mr. 
 Bentham. In the qualities in which the French writers 
 surpass those of all other nations, — neatness, clearness, 
 precision, condensation, — he surpassed all French wri- 
 ters." Among the works of Bentham edited by Dumont 
 (in French) are "Traites de Legislation," (1802,) and 
 "Theoriedes Peinesetdes Recompenses," (1810.) From 
 1814 until 1829 he lived in Geneva, where he became a 
 member of the representative council. He died in Milan 
 in 1829, leaving "Recollections of Mirabeau," ("Sou- 
 venirs sur Mirabeau,") since published, which, remarks 
 Macaulay, "is a very amusing and instructive book, 
 and a relic of a wise and virtuous man." 
 
 See Macaulay, Review of Dumont's "Recollections of Mira- 
 beau;" A. P. Decandolle, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ecrits de M. 
 Dumont," 1829; Simondk dr Sismondi, " Notice necrologique sur 
 M. Dumont," 1829; " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Duniont de Courset, du'm6N' deh kooR-si', 
 (Georges Louis Marie,) Baron, a French botanist, 
 born near Boulogne in 1746. At his chateau De Courset 
 he formed gardens famous for their extent and beauty. 
 He wrote a successful work entitled "Le Botaniste- 
 Cultivateur," (1798, 5 vols.,) containing a description of 
 8700 foreign and indigenous plants. Died in 1824. 
 
 Dumont d'Urville, dii'moN' dJU'vel', (Jules Seijas- 
 tien Cesar,) a celebrated French navigator and bota- 
 nist, born at Conde-sur-Noireau, Normandy, in 1790, 
 entered the navy in 1807. Having been raised to the 
 rank of captain,' he commanded the corvette Astrolabe, 
 which was sent in 1826 to obtain tidings of La Perouse 
 and to make hydrographic observations. In this voyage 
 he made coast-surveys of New Zealand, New Guinea, 
 New Britain, etc., and found evidence that La Perouse 
 had been wrecked on one of the Solomon Islands named 
 Vanikoro. The results of the expedition, which made 
 rich contributions to natural history, were published 
 under the title of " Voyage de Decouvertes autour du 
 Monde," (22 vols., 1832-34.) In 1837 he sailed with the 
 Astrolabe and Zelee on a voyage of Antarctic discovery. 
 In January, 1840, he discovered land, which he named 
 Terre Adelie, situated in latitude 66° 30' south and lon- 
 gitude 138 21' east. On his return in November, 1840, 
 he was made a rear-admiral, and began the publication 
 of his " Voyage au Pole sud et dans l'Oceanie," (24 vols., 
 1841-54. Eleven volumes of this work were written by 
 the other naturalists of the expedition. He was killed 
 by a railway-accident near Versailles in May, 1842. 
 
 See De B a kins. " Vie et Voyages de l'Amiral Dumont d'Urville," 
 1844; Lesson, "Notice historique sur Dumont d'Urville," 1846; 
 Isidore Lebrun, " Uiographie de Dumont d'Urville," in the"An- 
 naies maritimes." 
 
 Dumortier, dii'moR'te-i', (Barthei.emy Charles,) 
 a Belgian botanist, was born at Tournay In 1797. 
 
 Dumoulin, du'moo'laN', or Dumolin, dii'mo'laN', 
 [Lat. Moi.in/e'us,] (Charles,) an eminent French jurist, 
 bom in Paris in 1500, was a relative of Queen Anne 
 Boleyn. He embraced the Protestant religion, for which 
 
 he was often persecuted and was once driven out of 
 France by violence. He resided at Paris, Orleans, 
 Lyons, etc. In 1564 he published a work against the 
 acts of the Council of Trent, which made a great sen- 
 sation. The French estimate him as one of the greatest 
 jurisconsults and most learned men of his time. "His 
 name," says De Thou, "was venerated not only for his 
 solid judgment and profound learning, but also for his 
 probity and purity of character." He died in December, 
 1566, leaving several volumes of legal works. 
 
 See Brodeau, "Vie de Dumoulin," prefixed to his works, dated 
 16S1, 5 vols, folio; notice by Dupin aine in " Encyclopedic des Geus 
 du Monde;" Henriun de Pansev, " E"ioge de C. Dumoulin," 1769; 
 Niceron, "M^moires;" Hello, " Essai sur In Vie et les Ouvr;ige» 
 de C. Dumoulin," 1S39; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Dumoulin, (Evariste,) a French journalist, born in 
 the Gironde in 1776, favoured the popular cause in the 
 Revolution. In 1815 he removed to Paris and became 
 one of the editors of the " Constitutionnel," a new 
 journal which opposed the government. His articles 
 contributed greatly to the popularity of this journal. 
 Next to Thiers he took the most prominent part in the 
 protest of the journalists against the ordinances of July, 
 1830. Died in 1833. 
 
 Dumoulin, (Pierre.) See Moulin. 
 
 Dumouriez, dii'moo're-i', (Anne Francois Du- 
 perier — du'pa're^i',) a French poet, born in Paris in 
 1707. He was appointed commissary of war in 1732, 
 and intendant of the army of De Broglie in 1759. He 
 wrote " Richardet," a poem in imitation of Forteguerri, 
 (1766,) and other poems. Died in 1769. 
 
 Dumouriez, (Charles Francois,) a celebrated 
 French general and statesman, born at Cambrai in 1739, 
 was a son of the preceding. In early youth he was 
 initiated in the arts of diplomacy by an uncle who was 
 in the foreign office. At the close of the Seven Years' 
 war (1763) he had obtained the rank of captain and re- 
 ceived twenty-two wounds. He served with distinction 
 as quartermaster-general in the expedition against Cor- 
 sica in 176S. About 1770 the Duke of Choiseul sent 
 him on a secret political mission to Poland, whence he 
 was soon recalled in consequence of the dismissal of 
 that minister. He was then confined nearly a year in 
 the Bastille for some political reasons or pretexts, and 
 was released in 1774. Before the Revolution he was fat 
 more than ten years commandant of Cherbourg, where 
 he ably directed the construction of the port and the 
 great naval works which he had planned. 
 
 In 1790 he favoured the moderate or constitutional 
 party, and became intimate with the Girondist leaders, 
 who discerned in him a rare combination of the qualities 
 requisite for those critical times, both as a general and 
 a diplomatist. His mind was at once powerful, flexible, 
 and resolute. He possessed, besides, a spontaneous, 
 direct, and captivating eloquence. In March, 1 792, he was 
 appointed minister of foreign affairs, and became the 
 master-spirit of the government. He gained the confi- 
 dence of the king, to whom he appears to have been 
 loyal. A few weeks after Dumouriez became minister, 
 war was declared against Austria. In June, 1792, he 
 resigned his office, and in August of the same year be- 
 came general-in-chief of the army in place of La Fayette. 
 He defended the passes of the forest of Argonne against 
 a superior Prussian force which was marching in triumph 
 towards Paris. It is now admitted that the dilatory 
 movements of the Prussian general were caused by 
 secret negotiations pending between him and Dumouriez 
 for the restoration of Louis XVI. 
 
 The Prussians having abandoned the invasion of 
 France in October, Dumouriez undertook a campaign 
 against Flanders with about 100,000 men. In November, 
 1792, he defeated the Austrians at the battle of Jemmapes, 
 (the first pitched battle that had been gained by the 
 republican army,) which was followed by the speedy 
 conquest of Belgium. At this period, as Lamartine says, 
 Dumouriez "was the virtual dictator of all parties," and 
 such he might have continued if he had not striven 
 against the tide which impelled him on to fortune." But, 
 from loyalty to the Bourbons, hostility to the Jacobins, 
 or some' other cause, he paused in the career of victory, 
 and plotted a counter-revolution in concert with the 
 Austrians. Rumours of his defection having reached 
 
 si, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
DUMOUSTIER 
 
 807 
 
 DUN COMBE 
 
 Paris, the Convention sent four commissioners, in April, 
 1793, to summon him to their bar. On his refusal to 
 obey this summons, they ordered his soldiers to arrest 
 him. "This is too much |" exclaimed Dumouriez. " It 
 is time to resist such audacity !" and the deputies were 
 instantly seized hy his hussars and taken as prisoners 
 to the Austrian camp. His army, however, refusing to 
 join in his designs, he was compelled to escape with a 
 few adherents, and passed the rest of his life in exile. 
 He was pensioned by England, and died near llenley-on- 
 Thames, in Buckinghamshire, in 1S23, leaving memoirs 
 of his lite and several political treatises. 
 
 See "Memoires de Dumoiuiez," written by himself, 2 vols., 1794, 
 and .111 Euglisll translation of the same, by John Fenwick ; also, 
 Lbdibv, " Dumouriez et la Revolution Francaise," 1826; Thiers, 
 " History 01 the French Revolution;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Dumoustier, du'moos'te-a', (Pikrkk, ) Count, a 
 French general, who was born at Saint-Quentin in 1 77 1. 
 For his conduct at Pultusk he was made general of bri- 
 gade about 1806. After he had served several campaigns 
 in Spain, he became general of division in 1S11. He took 
 part in the battle of Lutzen, (1813.) Died in 1831. 
 
 Dunioutier,dii'moo'te-4', (Daniel,) a skilful French 
 portrait-painter, was born in l'aris about 1550. He holds 
 a high rank among the early French artists, and has left 
 portraits of several kings, from Henry II. to Louis XIII. 
 Died in 1631. 
 
 Dun, LORD. See Erskine, (David.) 
 
 Duiiceus, the Latin of Downes, which see. 
 
 Dun-bar', (George,) a Scottish scholar, born in 1774. 
 lie was professor of Greek in the University of Edin- 
 burgh from 1805 until 1851. He published several use- 
 ful educational works, of which the most important is an 
 excellent "Greek and English Lexicon," (1840.) Died 
 in 1857. 
 
 Dunbar, (William,) one of the greatest of the early 
 Scottish poets, was born at Salton about 1465. He be- 
 came a Franciscan friar and itinerant preacher. He was 
 afterwards employed by James IV., probably as clerk or 
 secretary of embassy, and in 1500 he received the grant 
 of a small pension, which was eventually increased to 
 £So. In 1503 he produced "The Thistle and the Rose," 
 an allegory in honour of the marriage of James IV., which 
 is one of his best works. He excels in allegory and in 
 didactic and humorous poetry. Sir Walter Scott thought 
 him "unrivalled by any poet that Scotland had yet pro- 
 duced." Among his principal poems are "The Golden 
 Terge or Targe," "The Merle and Nightingale," and 
 "The Jousts between the Tailor and Souter." Died 
 about 1530. 
 
 See Warton, "History of English Poetry;" Ellis, "Specimens 
 of Early English Poetry ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of 
 Eminent Scotsmen ;" Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets;" 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Dtiuc'an I., King of Scotland, was the son of Iieatrix, 
 who was a daughter of King Malcolm II. After a reign 
 of a few years' duration, he was murdered at Elgin about 
 1040 by Macbeth, whose story has been dramatized by 
 Shakspeare. Duncan's son, Malcolm III., became king. 
 
 Dtiuc'an, (Adam,) Viscount of Camperdown, an able 
 British admiral, born at Dundee in 173 1. He entered 
 the navy about 1746, and was made a post-captain in 
 1761. lie distinguished himself at Cape Saint Vincent 
 in 1780, and was made a rear-admiral in 1789, and vice- 
 admiral in 1795, when he commanded in the North Sea. 
 During the war against the Dutch, an alarming mutiny 
 broke out in the English navy in 1797, and Duncan was 
 deserted by nearly all his ships. The mutineers having 
 returned to their duty, he gained a decisive victory over 
 the Dutch near Camperdown in October, 1797, for which 
 he was created Viscount Duncan of Camperdown. Died 
 in 1804. He had married the daughter of Lord-Presi- 
 dent Dundas, and left two sons. 
 
 See Campbell, "Lives of the British Admirals;" Chambers, 
 "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica." 
 
 Duncan, (Andrew,) a Scottish physician, born in 
 Edinburgh in 1745. He delivered clinical lectures in the 
 University of Edinburgh from 1773 to 1776, and wrote 
 sonic medical treatises. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dtiuc'an, [Fr. pron. duN'k&N',] (Daniel,) an eminent 
 French physician, of Scottish descent, born at Montau- 
 ban in 1649. After graduating about 1673, he lived some 
 years in Paris. In 1685, to escape persecution as a Prot, 
 estanl, he retired to Geneva, and thence to Berne, where 
 he was professor of anatomy. He practised a number 
 of years at the Hague, and about 1714 settled in London, 
 where he died in 1735. He was author of "La Chimie 
 naturelle," (1680,) and of several other works. 
 
 Duncan, (HENRY,) D.D., a Scottish minister and 
 author, born near Dumfries in 1774, was presented to 
 the church of Ruthwell in 1799. He was the founder 
 of .-avings-banks, and author of several works, among 
 which are "The Cottage Fireside," and "The Sacred 
 Philosophyof the Seasons," (4 vols., 1836.) Died in 1846. 
 
 See a "Memoir of Dr. Duncan," published by his son in 1848; 
 Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminem Scotsmen." 
 
 Duncan, (John,) D.D., grandson of Daniel, noticed 
 above, was born in 1720. lie published an "Essay on 
 Happiness," a poem, and other works. Died in 1808. 
 
 Dtiuc'an, (Johnson K.,) an American general, born 
 in Pennsylvania, graduated at West Point in 1S49. He 
 took arms against the Union, and commanded Forts 
 Jackson and Saint Philip, below New Orleans. He 
 surrendered those forts about April 29, 1862, after tho 
 Union Meet had passed them. Died in 1S63, aged about 
 thirty-six years. 
 
 Duncan, (Joseph,) an American general and politician, 
 born in Kentucky about 1790. He served with credit in 
 the second war with Great Britain, and at its close settled 
 in Illinois. While in the legislature of that State, he 
 was chiefly instrumental in the passage of the law estab- 
 lishing common schools. He was afterwards Governor 
 of Illinois, and from 1827 to 1835 a representative in 
 Congress. Died in 1844. 
 
 Duncan, (Mark,) a Scottish physician, was the an- 
 cestor of Daniel, noticed above. He became principal 
 of the Calvinist college at Saumur, France, and wrote 
 a treatise on Logic, (" Institutiones Logica;," 1612.) Died 
 in 1640. 
 
 His son Mark was a distinguished poet and soldier. 
 (See Cerisantes.) 
 
 Duncan, (Philip Bury,) an English scholar and 
 philanthropist, born in South Warnborough in 1772. He 
 lived mostly at Oxford and Bath, was a Fellow of New 
 College, Oxford, and keeper of the Ashmolean Museum. 
 He contributed largely to charitable purposes. He wrote 
 " Essays on Various Subjects," and other works. Died 
 near Bath in 1863. 
 
 Duncan, (Thomas,) a Scottish artist, born in Perth- 
 shire in 1807. He painted subjects of Scottish history 
 Died in Edinburgh in 1845. 
 
 Duncan, (William,) a Scottish writer, born at Aber- 
 deen in 1717. He became a resident of London about 
 1740. His translation of Cicero's "Select Orations," 
 with notes, and his "Elements of Logic," (1748,) were 
 esteemed and often reprinted. In 1752 he was chosen 
 professor of philosophy in Marischal College, Aberdeen. 
 Died in 1760. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Duucker, doonk'ker, or Dunker, (Balthasar An- 
 toine,) a painter and engraver, born at Saal, in Pome- 
 rania, in 1746. He studied and worked some years in 
 Paris, where he painted history and landscapes. He 
 also made etchings of paintings in the cabinet of the 
 Due de Choiseul. Died at Berne in 1807. 
 
 Duncker, (Maximilian Wolkoam!,) a German his- 
 torian, born in Berlin in 1812. He became professor of 
 history at Halle about 1840, and was a prominent mem- 
 ber of the National Assembly of Frankfort in 184S. He 
 has published " Origin** Germanics;," (1840,) a " History 
 of Antiquity," ("Geschichte des Alterthums," 1852,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Dun'cconbe, (Rev. John,) an English writer, born in 
 1730, became vicar of Heme. He published a few 
 sermons, " The Feminead," a poem, and a version of 
 the emperor Julian's works. Under the signature of 
 "Crito," he contributed to the "Gentleman's Magazine" 
 for many years. Died in 1785. 
 
 Duncombe, (Thomas Si.ingshy,) an English radical 
 legislator, born in 1796. He was elected to Parliament 
 
 « as h; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DUNCOMBE 
 
 808 
 
 DUNGLJSON 
 
 3 1826, and represented Finsbury (London) from 1834 
 until his death. He was a witty and fluent speaker, and 
 very popular with the voters. No man ever sat so long 
 for any metropolitan borough. He constantly advocated 
 the vote by ballot, extended suffrage, and other reforms. 
 In 1858 he carried an important motion, which resulted 
 in the relief of the Jews from political disabilities. Died 
 in November, 1861. 
 
 See a "Life of Thomas S. Duncombe," by his son Thomas, 2 
 vols., 186S. 
 
 Duncombe, (William,) an English writer, father of 
 the Rev. John Duncombe, noticed above, was born in 
 London in 1690. He published several successful works, 
 among which are a translation of Racine's "Athalie," 
 a poetical version of Horace, (in which he was assisted 
 by his son,) and "L. J. Brutus," a tragedy. Died in 
 1769. 
 
 Dun-das', (Sir David,) a British general, born in or 
 near Edinburgh about 1 735. He entered the army in 
 1752, was aide-de-camp to General Elliott in 1761, and 
 obtained the rank of colonel in 1781. In 1788, after 
 studying tactics in Prussia, he wrote " Principles of 
 Military Movements," which were adopted as rules for 
 the royal army. He obtained the grade of major-general 
 in 1790, and distinguished himself at Tournay in 1794. 
 In 1804 he was made governor of Chelsea Hospital and 
 knight of the Bath, and in 1809 he succeeded the Duke 
 of York as commander-in-chief of the British army. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dundas, (Henry,) Lord Melville, a Scottish lawyer 
 and statesman, born about 1740. He was appointed 
 lord advocate of Scotland in 1775, and treasurer of the 
 British navy in 1783. He was one of Pitt's most useful 
 and steadfast supporters. He became a member of the 
 cabinet as secretary of state for the home department in 
 1791, and a few years later exchanged that office for the 
 place of secretary at war. Having resigned this office at 
 the dissolution of Pitt's ministry, he was raised to the 
 peerage, as Viscount Melville, in 1802. Lord Brougham 
 says "he was an admirable man of business, and a skil- 
 ful debater." In 1804 he was appointed first lord of the 
 admiralty. The next year the Commons impeached him 
 for misapplication of the public money, for which he was 
 tried by the Lords and acquitted. Died in 181 1, leaving 
 the title to his son, Robert Saunders. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Orougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George III." 
 
 Dundas, (Sir James Whitley Deans,) a British ad- 
 miral, born in 1 785, was a son of Dr. James Deans. He 
 assumed the name of Dundas about 1808. He became 
 rear-admiral in 1841, and commanded the fleet which 
 operated against Russia in the Black Sea in 1S54, but 
 did not perform any important action. He resigned, or 
 was recalled, about the end of 1S54, and Sir E. Lyons 
 succeeded to the command. Died in 1862. 
 
 Dundas, (Richard Saunders,) a British admiral, 
 born at Melville Castle, Scotland, in 1802, was a son of 
 the third Viscount Melville. He entered the navy in 
 1817, and became a post-captain in 1824. About 1840 
 he served with distinction in the Chinese war. He 
 obtained the rank of rear-admiral in 1853, and the com- 
 mand of the fleet in the Baltic, vice Sir Charles Napier, 
 in February, 1855. His principal exploit was the very 
 effective bombardment of Sweaborg in 1855. He was 
 made a vice-admiral in 1858. Died in 1S61. 
 
 Dundas, (Robert,) an eminent Scottish lawyer, born 
 in 1685, was the father of Lord Melville. He was ap- 
 pointed lord advocate of Scotland in 1720, and lord 
 president of the court of session in 1748. Died in 
 1753- 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dundas, (ROBERT,) a Scottish lawyer, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1713. After filling other high offices, 
 he was appointed president of the court of session in 
 1760. Died in 1787. 
 
 Dundee. See Graham, (John.) 
 
 Dundonald, Earl ok. See Cochrane, (Archi- 
 bald.) 
 
 Dun-don'ald, (Thomas Cochrane,) tenth Earl of, 
 a distinguished British admiral, born in 1775, was the 
 
 eldest son of Archibald, Earl of Dundonald. (See CocH 
 rane, Archibald.) He entered the navy in 1793, and 
 obtained the rank of post-captain in 1S01, after capturing 
 many prizes from the French. In 1809 he commanded 
 the fire-ships that destroyed the French fleet in the 
 Basque Roads, and was rewarded with knighthood for 
 that daring and successful exploit. About this time he 
 was elected by the Whigs to Parliament, where he was 
 an active opponent of the ministry. In 1814 he was 
 accused of spreading a false report of Napoleon's death, 
 which caused a great rise in the funds, and by the influ- 
 ence of party spirit was convicted, fined ^iooo, sen- 
 tenced to imprisonment for one year, and dismissed from 
 the naval service. Before the expiration of his term of 
 imprisonment, his constituents, believing him to be inno- 
 cent, re-elected him to Parliament. The injustice of his 
 condemnation was recognized many years before his' 
 death. He commanded the fleet of Chili from 181S to 
 1822, and that of Brazil in 1822 and 1823. In 1827 he 
 distinguished himself as admiral of the Greeks in their 
 revolt against Turkey. He inherited the earldom in 1831, 
 and was restored to his rank in the navy in 1833. He 
 was made vice-admiral of the white in 1851, and full ad- 
 miral about 1854. Died in i860. His "Autobiography of 
 a Seaman" has since appeared. " He pet formed greater 
 actions with smaller means," says the " North British 
 Review" for February, 1861, "than any other captain 
 or commander recorded in history. He combined the 
 chivalrous audacity of Sir Sydney Smith and the cal- 
 culated dash of Nelson, with an originality of conception 
 to which neither of them so much as approximated." 
 See, also, " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, i860. 
 
 Dunfermline, Baron. See Adercromby, (James.) 
 
 Dungal, dun-gaul', a scholar and teacher, supposed 
 to have been a native of Ireland, became a resident of 
 France. Charlemagne having consulted him respecting 
 an eclipse of the sun which occurred in 810, he an- 
 swered in a long letter, which is extant. 
 
 Dunglison, diing'gli-son, (Roblf.y,) M.D., a physi- 
 cian and author, distinguished for his profound and varied 
 learning, as well as for his numerous valuable contribu- 
 tions to medical literature, was born at Keswick, county 
 of Cumberland, England, January 4, 1798. His medical 
 education, begun at Keswick, was carried on in London. 
 He subsequently attended a course of lectures at the 
 University of Edinburgh, and also a course at the Ecole 
 de Medecine of Paris. He graduated in medicine in 1823 
 at the University of Erlangen, in Germany. In 1824 he 
 was engaged by the University of Virginia, then newly 
 established, to fill a chair of medicine (including anatomy 
 and physiology) in that institution, and, in accordance 
 with this arrangement, he came to America in the autumn 
 of the same year. He held this position until October, 
 1833, when he accepted the professorship of materia 
 medica, therapeutics, etc. in the University of Maryland. 
 In the summer of 1836 he was appointed professor of 
 the institutes of medicine in the Jefferson College of 
 Philadelphia, that chair having been newly created for 
 him. He. continued to fulfil the duties of this position 
 with the highest credit to himself and to the institution 
 until within a year of his death. It was owing in a great 
 measure to his talents, reputation, and personal influence 
 that the Jefferson College rose rapidly, from the inferior 
 position "which it had held before his accession to its 
 faculty, to the very first rank among the medical schools: 
 of America. He died the 1st of April, 1869. 
 
 Dr. Dunglison enjoyed the friendship and confidence 
 of the ex-Presidents Jefferson and Madison, both of 
 whom he attended in the capacity of medical adviser. 
 To Mr. Madison he dedicated his first important work, — 
 his " Human Physiology." Although assiduous _in the 
 cultivation of the sciences more immediately connected 
 with his profession, he found time to give a share of his 
 attention to a great variety of subjects, including philo- 
 logy and general literature. Among the many objects of 
 his benevolence, he took a particular and deep interest 
 in the Philadelphia Institution fot the Blind, and gave 
 liberally of his time and services, that he might lighten 
 the privations and enhance the enjoyments of that un- 
 fortunate class for whose sake it had been established. 
 
 As a man, Dr. Dunglison was distinguished for his free- 
 
 st, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a f e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
DUNHAM 
 
 809 
 
 DUNS SCOTUS 
 
 dom from prejudice, for a dispassionate fairness in alt his 
 judgments of men and things, as well as for a liberal and 
 Kindly spirit which constantly prompted him to acts of 
 courtesy and beneficence. His character commanded the 
 universal respect, esteem, and confidence of that large 
 circle who enjoyed the privilege of his friendship. 
 
 Among his numerous works we may name his " Hu- 
 man Physiology," (2 vols. 8vo, 1832 ; 8th edition, 1856,) 
 his " Dictionary of Medical Science," of which the first 
 edition appeared in 1833, " Elements of Hygiene," (1835 > 
 2d edition, published under the title of " Human Health," 
 1844,) "General Therapeutics, or Principles of Medical 
 Practice," (1836; 6th edition, iS57,)"New Remedies," 
 (1839; 7th edition, 1856,) "Medical Student," (1837; 2d 
 edition, 1844,) and his " Practice of Medicine," (2 vols., 
 1842 ; 3d edition, 1848.) 
 
 He made numerous contributions not only to the prin- 
 cipal medical and surgical journals published in the 
 United States, but also wrote articles for several of the 
 scientific and literary periodicals of Great Britain. Of 
 all his works his " Medical Dictionary" is probably the 
 most widely known : its success has scarcely had a 
 parallel in this department of literature. The number 
 of copies sold, from the date of its first publication up 
 to the present time, (1869,) has reached nearly 60,000. 
 (For a particular account of Dr. Dunglison's various 
 publications, the reader is referred to Allibone's " Dic- 
 tionary of Authors.") 
 
 See the notice of Dr. Dunglison in the "American Journal of 
 the Medical Sciences" for July, 1869, by Dr. S., H. Dickson : and 
 "Memoir of Dr. Robley Dunglison," by his son, Dk. R. J. Dun- 
 1870. 
 
 Dunham, diin'am, (S. Astley,) LL.D., an English 
 author of the present century. He wrote the following 
 able works: "History of Poland," (1830,) "History of 
 Spain and Portugal," (1832,) "History of Europe during 
 (he Middle Ages," and " History of the Germanic Em- 
 pire," (1S37.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Duni, doo'nee, (Egidio,) a Neapolitan composer, born 
 at Matera in 1709. He settled in Paris, and composed 
 successful operas. Died in 1775. 
 
 Dunker. See DuNCKER. 
 
 Dunk'in, (Rev. William,) an Irish poet, was a friend 
 of Dean Swift. He published a volume of Epistles in 
 1741. After his death his Poetical Works were pub- 
 lished in 2 vols., (1774.) 
 
 Dtin'lap, (William,) an American painter and au- 
 thor, was born at Perth Amboy, New Jersey, in 1766. 
 He was a pupil of Sir Benjamin West in London. On 
 his return to America he devoted himself to portrait- 
 painting and dramatic composition in New York, and 
 was manager of the Park Theatre from 1798 till 1805. 
 Thenceforth his efforts were variously directed to his 
 profession as an artist, to literature, to the career of a 
 theatrical manager, etc. In 1821, when Dunlap was in 
 his fifty-fifth year, appeared his first great painting, 
 "Christ Rejected," (18 feet by 12,) after the plan of 
 West's picture on the same subject, and in 1828 he 
 painted "Calvary," (18 feet by 14,) both of which were 
 exhibited with success in the principal cities of the 
 United States. His "History of the American Thea- 
 tre" was published in 1833, and his "History of the 
 Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in the United 
 States" appeared in 1834. He also wrote a "Life of 
 Charles Brockden Brown." Died in 1839. 
 
 Dun'lop, (ALEXANDER,) a distinguished scholar, of 
 Scottish extraction, born in 1684. He was appointed 
 professor of Greek in the University of Glasgow in 1720. 
 His Greek Grairuiiar was long used in the Universities 
 of Scotland. Died in 1742. 
 
 Dunlop, (John,) a British author, born probably in 
 Scotland. He published a " History of Fiction," (Lon- 
 don, 1814,) which passed through several editions, a 
 " History of Roman Literature," and " Memoirs of Spain 
 during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II.," (1834,) 
 said to be a work of merit. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for November, 1814; "Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1815. 
 
 Dunlop, (William,) a brother of Alexander, noticed 
 above, was born at Glasgow in 1692. He was an eloquent 
 preacher, and became professor of divinity in the Uni- 
 versity 0/ Edinburgh in 1716. He published a valuable 
 
 " Collection of Confessions of Faith, Catechisms, Books 
 of Discipline," etc. Died in 1720. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Dunn, (Samukl,) an English mathematician, born at 
 Crediton. He taught mathematics at Crediton and 
 Chelsea, and published several works on astronomy and 
 navigation, (1759-93.) Died in 1792. 
 
 Dun'ning, (John,) Lord Ashburton, an eminent 
 English lawyer, born at Ashburton in 1731. He was 
 called to the bar in 1756, and a few years later was re- 
 corder of Bristol. In 1767 he was appointed solicitor- 
 general, and soon after was returned, by the borough of 
 Calne, to Parliament, in which he acted with the Whigs. 
 He was very successful in his profession, and was re- 
 garded by many as the first advocate in England at that 
 time. His style of oratory was brilliant, witty, and 
 sarcastic ; but his gestures were not graceful, and his per- 
 son was the reverse of imposing. In 1780 he married 
 Elizabeth Baring. He was raised to the peerage, as 
 Baron Ashburton, in 1 782, and was appointed chancellor 
 of the duchy of Lancaster. Died at Exmouth in 1783. 
 
 See Sir William Jones's Eulogy on Dunning, in his Works, vol. iv. 
 
 Dunod, du'no', (Pierre Joseph,) a French antiquary, 
 born near Saint-Claude in 1657; died in 1725. 
 
 Dunod de Charnage, dii'no' deh shSR'nfch', (Fran- 
 cois Ignace,) a French jurist, born at Saint-Claude in 
 1679. He was appointed professor of law at Besancon 
 in 1720. He wrote a "History of Burgundy," (1735,) 
 which was much esteemed, and several able legal works. 
 Died in 1752. 
 
 Dunod de Charnage, (Sophie Edouard,) a French 
 administrator, born at Besancon in 1783; died in 1826. 
 
 Dunois, du'nwa', (Jean,) the "Bastard of Orleans," 
 a famous French captain, born in Paris in 1402, was a 
 natural son of Louis, Duke of Orleans, who was a 
 brother of the king, Charles VI. He defeated the Eng- 
 lish at Montargis in 1427, and shared with Joan of Arc 
 the honour of raising the siege of Orleans in 1429. In 
 1436 he made himself master of Paris. Having obtained 
 the chief command, with the title of lieutenant-general, 
 he conquered Normandy from the English about 1448, 
 and expelled the same enemy from Guienne in 1453. In 
 reward for these services, Charles VII. declared him a 
 prince of the blood, with the title of Count of Orleans. 
 Dunois is one of the most popular names among the 
 national heroes of France. Died in 1468. 
 
 He left a son Francois, Count of Dunois and Longue- 
 ville, ancestor of the celebrated Due de Longueville. 
 
 See Aime Cha.mpollion, "Louis et Charles d'Orleans ;" An- 
 selme, " Historre g&ie'alogique ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>alc." 
 
 Dunoyer, du'nwa'ya', (Anne Marguerite Petit,) 
 Madame, a French writer of fiction, born at Nimes 
 about 1663, was a Protestant, and became an exile. She 
 wrote "Lettres historiques et galantes," (7 vols., 1704.) 
 Died in 1720. 
 
 Dunoyer, (Charles Barthelemi Pierre,) a French 
 economist, born at Carennac (Lot) in 1786. During the 
 restoration he edited (with Charles Comte) the "Cen- 
 seur," an able and liberal periodical. He was admitted 
 into the Institute in 1832, and was prefect of La Somme 
 from 1833-37. His chief work is "On the Liberty of 
 Labour," (3 vols., 1845.) 
 
 Duns Escoto. See Duns Scotus. 
 
 Duns-Scot. See Duns Scotus. 
 
 Diins Sco'tus, [Fr. Duns-Scot, duN'sko' ; It. Duns 
 Escoto, doons 8s-ko'to,] (John,) surnamed the Sub- 
 tle Doctor, a famous theologian and metaphysician, 
 supposed to have been born about 1265 at Dunse, in 
 Scotland. The Irish and English, however, claim him 
 as their countryman. He was a Fellow of Merton Col- 
 lege, Oxford, and a Franciscan friar. In 1301 he was 
 chosen professor of theology at Oxford, where he is said 
 to have lectured to an immense class. About 1307 he 
 professed theology in Paris. He wrote many works on 
 metaphysics, theology, etc., and was reputed one of the 
 greatest doctors of his time. He founded a new school, 
 the Scotists, which for several centuries maintained a 
 rivalry with the Thomists, or disciples of Aquinas. Died 
 at Cologne in 1308. "The greatest of the Schoolmen," 
 says Dallam, "were Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus. 
 They were founders of rival sects, which wrangled with 
 
 «as*vcas.r;g/W</,gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; th as in Mw. (!jy"See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
DUNSTABLE 
 
 810 
 
 DVPERRET 
 
 each other for two or three centuries." (" Introduction 
 to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See J. Colgan, " Tractatus de Vita Joannis Scoti," 1655 ; Cham- 
 bers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Alonzo de 
 Guzman, " Vida de J. Duns Scoto," 1671 ; Lucas Wadding, "Vita 
 J. Duns Scoti," Lyons, 1644. 
 
 Dunstable, dtin'sta-b'l, or Dunstaple, (John,) an 
 English musical composer, born at Dunstable about 
 1400 ; died in 1458. 
 
 Dun'stan, Saint, an eminent and ambitious English 
 prelate and statesman, born at Glastonbury in 925 a.d. 
 He became noted for monkish austerity, and obtained 
 the chief power in the reign of Edred, which began in 
 946. King Edgar made him Bishop of London, and in 
 959 .Archbishop of Canterbury. Dunstan exerted his 
 paramount influence in this and the next reign to secure 
 the papal supremacy. He exalted and enriched the 
 monks at the expense of the secular clergy, who were 
 expelled from their livings. On the accession of Ethelred 
 II., in 978, Dunstan lost his political power. Died in 988. 
 
 See W. Robinson, " Life of Saint Dunstan," 1844 ; Eadmer, 
 " Life of Dunstan ;" William of Malmesbuky, "History;" W F. 
 Hook, " Live;; of the Archbishops of Canterbury," vol. i. chap. vii. 
 
 Duu'ster, (Charles,) an English clergyman, was for 
 many years rector of Petworth. He published " Notes 
 on Paradise Regained," and other works. Died about 
 18 1 6. 
 
 Duii3ter, (Henry,) an English divine, who on his 
 arrival in Massachusetts in 1640 was chosen the first 
 president of Harvard College. He was an excellent 
 Oriental scholar, but was compelled to resign in 1654 
 for preaching against infant baptism. Died in 1659. 
 
 Dun'ton, (John,) an eccentric English author and 
 bookseller, born at Grafifham in ,1659. Having served 
 an apprenticeship to a London bookseller, he opened a 
 shop of his own in London about 1685. He married an 
 aunt of the celebrated John Wesley. He failed in busi- 
 ness once, or oftener. He wrote a great number and 
 variety of curious books, among which are " The Athe- 
 nian Mercury," (20 vols., 1690-96,) "The Dublin Scuffle," 
 (1699,) and "The Life and Errors of John Dunton, 
 with the Lives and Characters of a Thousand Persons," 
 (1705.) He was a dissenter, a supporter of the Whig 
 party, and a person of great fertility in projects. Died 
 
 ■ 1733- 
 
 Duntzer, dunt'ser, or Duentzer, (Johann Hein- 
 rich Joseph,) a German writer and philologist, born 
 at Cologne in 1813. Among his numerous works are 
 "The Faust of Goethe," (2 vols., 1836,) " Homer and the 
 Epic Cycle," (1839,) and a " Commentary on the Poems 
 of Horace," (5 vols., 1840-44.) 
 
 Dunz, doonts, (Johann,) a skilful Swiss painter of 
 portraits and flowers, was born at Berne in 1645 ; died 
 in 1736. 
 
 Dupain-Montesson, dii'paN' mdN'ti's6N', a French 
 geometer and writer on military tactics, born about 1720 ; 
 died about 1790. 
 
 Du Pan. See Mallet du Pan. 
 
 Dupanloup, du'pdN'loo', (Felix Antoine Phili- 
 BERT,) a distinguished French bishop, born at Saint- 
 Felix, Savoy, in 1802. He was naturalized in 1833, and 
 made Bishop of Orleans in 1849. In 1854 he was elected 
 to the French Academy. Among his works is a popular 
 treatise on Education, ("De l'Education," 3 vols., 1855-57.) 
 
 See Lavkdan, "Monseigneur Dupanloup," 1849; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge'ndrale." 
 
 Duparquet, du'piR'k^', (Jacques Diel,) a French 
 officer, was appointed Governor of Martinique in 1638. 
 In 1650 he planted a colony in Grenada, and soon after 
 purchased those two islands, together with Saint Lucia, 
 from the King of France, who gave him the title of lieu- 
 tenant-general. He is praised for his kind and generous 
 treatment of the aborigines. Died in 1658. 
 
 Dupasquier, dii'pSs'ke-4', (Gaspard Alfonse,) a 
 French chemist, born at CTTassy (Rhone) in 1793; died 
 in 1848. 
 
 Dupaty, dii'pS'te', (Charles Marguerite Jean 
 Baptiste Mercier,) a French litterateur and magistrate, 
 born at Rochelle in 1746. He was successively advo- 
 cate-general and president & mortier in the parliament 
 of Bordeaux. He wrote a valuable work called "His- 
 torical Reflections on the Criminal Laws," (1788,) and 
 
 "Letters on Italy," (1788,) which had a brilliant success 
 and were often reprinted. La Harpe designated the latter 
 as "a melange of good sense and false wit." Died in 
 1788. Two of his sons became eminent, one as sculptor 
 and the other as author. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Correspondance." 
 
 Dupaty, (Chaki.es Mercier,) an eminent French 
 sculptor, born at Bordeaux in 1 77 1, was a son of the 
 preceding. He was a pupil of Lemot in Paris, where 
 in 1799 he gained the grand prize for sculpture for his 
 " Pericles visiting Anaxagoras." He studied several 
 years at Rome, and adopted the antique style with great 
 success. In 1816 he was chosen a member of the Insti- 
 tute. He was patronized by the government, for which 
 he executed a statue of Louis XIII. His " Ajax pursued 
 by Neptune" is considered his principal work. Died in 
 November, 1825. 
 
 See Coupin, "Notice sur Charles Dupaty," 1825; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Dupaty, (Louis Emmanuel Charles Mercier,) a 
 French poet, brother of the preceding, was born in the 
 Gironde in 1775. He produced a successful comedy, 
 "The Military Prison," (1803,) several comic operas, 
 and a poem entitled the "Informers," ("Delateurs," 
 1819.) He was elected to the French Academy in 1835. 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 Duperao, dii'pa'rSk', (Ettenne,) a French architect 
 and painter, born in Paris, published a work "On the 
 Antiquities of Rome," which is highly prized. Died in 
 1601. 
 
 Duperche, du'pjRsh', (J. J. M.,) a French dramatist 
 and able translator, born about 1775. He produced 
 many successful dramas and novels. Died in 1829. 
 
 Duperier, dii'pa're-i', (Charles,) a French poet, 
 born at Aix, in Provence, became a resident of Paris. 
 His verses in honour of the king gained the prizes of the 
 Academy in 1681 and 1683, and he acquired still higher 
 reputation by his Latin poems. He excelled most in the 
 ode. Menage calls him the prince of the lyric poets of 
 his age. Died in 1692. 
 
 See "M^nagiana." 
 
 Duperray, dii'pj'rj', (Michel,) a French jurist and 
 advocate of high reputation, born at Mans about 1640; 
 died in 1730. 
 
 Duperre, du'pi'ra', (Victor Guy,) Baron, an able 
 French admiral, born at La Rochelle in 1775. He was 
 made captain of a frigate in 1806, and in 1808 defended 
 himself with success against two English ships near 
 L'Orient. In 1809 he was sent to India with one frigate, 
 and captured several vessels of the enemy. He became 
 baron and rear-admiral in 1810, and vice-admiral in 1826. 
 He commanded the fleet of one hundred and three ves- 
 sels of war which Charles X. sent in 1830 to attack 
 Algiers. ( See Bourmont. ) For his services in the 
 capture of Algiers he was raised to the peerage and to 
 the rank of admiral in 1830. Died in 1846. 
 
 See F. Chasseriau, " Viede 1'Amiral Duperrf;" L. dbLombn-ie, 
 "Galerie des Contemporains;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Duperret, du'pi'r^', (Claude Romain Laus,) a 
 French republican, born about 1746. In the Convention 
 of 1792 he acted with the Girondists, and voted for the 
 banishment of the king. He was elected as deputy, 
 says Lamartine, as the most honest man, against his own 
 wish. He shared the proscription of his party, and was 
 executed in October, 1793. 
 
 Duperrey, du'pi'ri', (Louis Isidore,) a French navi- 
 gator and savant, born in Paris in 1786. He served as 
 hydrographer in the Uranie, under De Freycinet, who 
 made explorations in the North Pacific, 1817-20. He 
 commanded an expedition sent out in 1822 to explore the 
 hydrography and natural history of the islands in the 
 Pacific. He surveyed parts of Australia, New Zealand, 
 New Guinea, etc., discovered several groups of islands, 
 one of which received the name of Duperrey, and re- 
 turned, without the loss of a man, in April, 1825. His 
 "Voyage around the World in the Corvette LaCoquille" 
 (1826-30) is considered a very valuable contribution to 
 the sciences. Duperrey wrote the historical part of this 
 work, and the volumes on hydrography and physical 
 science. He was elected to the Institute in 1842. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale;" " Notice sur les Travaux 
 de M. L. I. Duperrey," etc., Paris, 1842. 
 
 i, e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
DUPERRON 
 
 811 
 
 DUP1N 
 
 Duperron. See Anisson-Duperron. 
 
 Duperron. See Anquktil-Dupkrron. 
 
 Duperron, dii'pJ'rON', (Jacquks Davy,) a learned 
 and eloquent French cardinal, was born at Saint-Lo, in 
 Normandy, (or, as some assert, near Berne, in Switzer- 
 land, I in 1556. He was educated as a Protestant, but 
 became a Catholic in his youth. He acquired the favour 
 of Henry IV., who appointed him Bishop of Evreux in 
 1 59 1 ; and he was the chief agent in the conversion of 
 that king to the Roman communion. He was very 
 skilful in disputation, and in 1600 gained an advantage 
 over D11 Plessis-.Mornay in a famous conference. (See 
 Mornay.) He obtained a cardinal's hat in 1604, and 
 died in Paris in 1618, leaving several theological works 
 and short poems. 
 
 See Pelletier, "Vie du Cardinal Duperron," 1618; " Perro 
 niai>a," by C. Dupuv, 1669; Sully, " M&noires ;" Levesque de 
 Buxic;nv, " Vie du Cardinal Duperron," 1768; Sismondi, "His- 
 toire des Francais." 
 
 Dupetit-Thouars, dii'peh-te' too'aV, (AnF.L Au- 
 bert — 5'baiR',) a French admiral, born about 1792. In 
 1837 he commanded the Venus, sent on a voyage of cir- 
 cumnavigation, at the end of which in 1839 he was made 
 a rear-admiral. He obtained command of the naval forces 
 in the Pacific Ocean. Having received some provocation 
 from the natives of Tahiti, he seized that island in 1842, 
 but he was recalled by Guizot, who disavowed his act. 
 He afterwards published a "Voyage round the World 
 in the Frigate Venus," (10 vols.) He was appointed a 
 member of the board of admiralty in 1848. 
 
 See "L'Amiral Dupetit-Thouars," Paris, 1844. 
 
 Dupetit-Thouars, (Aristide Aukert,) a French 
 naval officer, born near Sauinur in 1760. In 1792 he 
 commanded a vessel sent out in search of La Perouse, 
 but was taken prisoner by the Portuguese, and the en- 
 terprise failed. He passed about three years in the 
 United States, (1794-97.) I" Bonaparte's expedition to 
 Egypt he was captain of the Tonnant, which carried 
 his friend Dolomieu the geologist. He displayed heroic 
 courage at the battle of the Nile, in which he was killed, 
 August 1, 1798. His character is said to have been very 
 noble. 
 
 See J. de laGravihrr, "Guerresmaritimes de la Re'publique," 
 etc. ; " Nouveiie Biographie Generale." 
 
 Dupetit-Thouars, (Louis Marie Aukert,) an emi- 
 nent French botanist, brother of the preceding, was born 
 at Saumur, in Anjou, about 1756. In 1792 he made a 
 botanical excursion to the Isle of France, where he 
 expected to join his brother, but was disappointed. He 
 remained there and in Bourbon about nine years, and 
 returned home with his collections in 1802. He was 
 elected a member of the Institute about 1820, and lived 
 mostly in Paris. Among his publications are a " History 
 of Plants collected in the Isles of France, Bourbon, and 
 Madagascar," (1804,) "The French Orchard," a treatise 
 on the culture of fruit-trees, a "Flora of the Southern 
 Isles of Africa," and " Melanges of Botany and Travels," 
 (181 1.) He wrote for the "Biographie Universelle" 
 many articles on botanists and physicians. Died in May, 
 1831. He was author of an "Essay on the Organiza- 
 tion of Plants," (1805,) and other treatises on vegetable 
 physiology. He originated a new and ingenious theory 
 of the formation of annual layers of wood, and of the 
 production of buds. 
 
 See P. Flourhns, " FJoge historique de A. Dupetit-Thouars," 
 1845; "Nouveiie Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Duphot, dii'fo', (Leonard,) a French general, born 
 at Lyons about 1770. He accompanied Joseph Bona- 
 parte in an embassy to Rome in 1797, and was killed the 
 same year, in a conflict between the papal soldiers and 
 some Roman citizens who favoured a revolution. 
 
 Dupin, dii'plN', (Andre Marie Jean Jacques,) an 
 eminent French lawyer, orator, and legislator, born at 
 Varzy (Nievre) in February, 1783. He was one of 
 the counsel for Marshal Ney in 181 5, and signalized his 
 courage and eloquence in the defence of many persons 
 tried for political offences, among whom was Beranger, 
 (1821.) In 1826 he was elected to the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties, in which he continued to sit for many years. He 
 was the reporter (rapporteur ) of the famous address of 
 the two hundred and twenty-one deputies in March, 
 1830, and firmly opposed the ordinances which caused the 
 
 revolution of 1830. He was appointed procurev.r-ge'neral 
 of the court of cassation, and a member of the first cabi- 
 net of Louis Philippe, to whose elevation he contributed 
 perhaps more than any other man. Between 1832 and 
 1848 he was chosen president of the Chamber eight 
 times. On the 24th of February, 1848, he presented the 
 infant Count of Paris to the deputies and proposed that 
 he should be recognized as successor to the throne just 
 abdicated. He acquiesced, however, in the republic, and 
 in the Constituent Assembly he took a prominent part 
 in defending social order, and was president of the com- 
 mittee of legislation. He displayed great firmness and 
 coolness as president of the Assembly in the stormy 
 period of 1849-50. M. Dupin retired from public life 
 in 1852. He had been elected to the French Academy, 
 in place of Cuvier, in 1832. He 'vas author of many 
 legal and political works, among which are " Principia 
 Juris Civilis," (5 vols., 1806,) and "Memoires et Plai- 
 doyers," (20 vols., 1806-30.) " He is the greatest reviser 
 of trials," says an anonymous French biographer, "the 
 greatest redresser of wrongs, in the world. . . . If he be 
 not the most eloquent he is certainly the most original 
 of our orators. At times his bonmots have created a 
 majority or upset a cabinet." He was reappointed pro- 
 em eur-general of France in 1857. He died in November, 
 1865. 
 
 See L. de I.nuKNiK, " Galerie des Contemporains;" Ortolan, 
 "Notice sur Dupin," 1840; "Nouveiie Biographie Generale." 
 
 Dupin, (Claude,) a French economist, born at Cha- 
 teauroux probably about 1700. He wrote "Qicono- 
 miques," (3 vols., 1745,) and several other works. He 
 died at an advanced age in 1769. 
 
 His second wife, nee Mademoiselle Fontaine, was . 
 distinguished for wit and beauty. Her house in Paris 
 was the resort of Fontenelle, Marivaux, and other au- 
 thors. She employed J. J. Rousseau, when he was yet 
 unknown to fame, as the preceptor of her son ; but she 
 was so little aware of his talents that she never invited 
 him to her assemblies. Died about 1800. 
 
 The authoress Madame Dudevant (George Sand) is a 
 descendant of Claude Dupin. 
 
 See I. J. Rousseau, "Confessions;" George Sand, " Histoire 
 de ma Vie." 
 
 Dupin, (Claude Francois Etienne, ) Baron, a 
 French writer, born at Metz in 1767, was the author of 
 several able works on the Statistics of the Department 
 of Deux-Sevres. He married the widow of Danton in 
 1796. Died in 1828. 
 
 Dupin, (Francois Pierre Charles,) Baron, a dis- 
 tinguished French geometer and senator, brother of 
 Andre*, noticed above, was born at Varzy (Nievre) in 
 1784. He entered the navy as an engineer in 1803. In 
 1813 he founded the Maritime Museum at Toulon. He 
 volunteered to defend his friend Carnot by his pen and 
 voice in 1815 ; but his client avoided the trial by going 
 into exile. In 1816 he obtained leave to visit England 
 in order to examine the public works and military re- 
 sources of that country. He published the results of 
 these observations in an important work entitled " Travels 
 in Great Britain between 1816 and 1821," (6 vols., 1820- 
 24,) which was received with great favour on both sides 
 of the Channel. He was admitted into the Academy 
 of Sciences in 1818, and became professor of mechanics 
 in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers about 1820. 
 His lectures were published (in 1825-26) in three works, 
 entitled "Geometry applied to the Arts," "Mechanics 
 applied to the Arts," and "La Dynamic," or "Science 
 of Force," which were very successful. 
 
 M. Dupin made an application of statistics to moral 
 and political questions in his work "On the Productive 
 and Commercial Power of France," ("Sur les Forces 
 productives et commerciales de la France," 2 vbls., 1827,) 
 which was popular with the Liberal party. He was 
 elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1828, and acquired 
 distinction as a speaker. In 1831 he became a councillor 
 of state, and in 1834 was minister of marine for the space 
 of three days. He was created a peer of France in 1837. 
 In the Assembly of 1848 and 1849 he voted with the 
 majority, and in 1852 he was appointed a senator. 
 
 See "Notice historique sur M. le Baron C. Dupin," Paris, 1837; 
 " Nouvelte Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 c as i; 9 a* s; g hard; g as/'; u, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jr^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DUPIN 
 
 812 
 
 DUPONT 
 
 Dupin, (Louis Ellies,) a French theologian and his- 
 torian of great merit, was born in Paris in 1657. He 
 became a doctor of the Sorbonne, and professor of phi- 
 losophy in the Royal College, lie composed, besides 
 other works, a complete history of theological literature, 
 — at least within the limits of the Church, — entitled "Bi- 
 bliotheque universelle des Auteurs ecclesiastiques," (58 
 vols., 168,6-1704.) "It is unquestionably," says Hallam, 
 "the most standard work of that kind extant. The im- 
 mense erudition requisite for such an undertaking may 
 have rendered it inevitable to fall into some errors. . . . 
 Integrity, love of truth, and moderation distinguish this 
 history perhaps beyond any other." ("Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe.") The pope, in a letter to 
 Louis XIV., called Dupin, who had written against the 
 papal supremacy, "a man of pernicious doctrine." He 
 was a Jansenist. Died in Paris in June, 1719. 
 
 SeeNiCERON,"Memoires;" MoRERi,"Dictionnaire Historique;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 Dupin, Madame. See Dupin, (Claude.) 
 
 Dupin, (Philippe,) born at Varzy in 1795, was an 
 able lawyer. He practised in Paris many years, and was 
 elected a deputy in 1830 and in 1842. He was a brother 
 of the celebrated lawyer and legislator. Died at Nice in 
 1846. 
 
 Dupin de Francueil, du'paw' deh fRSN'kul' or fR5N'- 
 kuh'ye, (Marie Aurore,) a French lady, born in 1750, 
 was the daughter of the famous Marshal Maurice de 
 Saxe. After the death of her first husband, Count de 
 Horn, she was married to Dupin de Francueil, the son 
 of Claude Dupin, noticed above. The issue of this 
 marriage was Maurice Dupin, the father of the well- 
 -known authoress Madame Dudevant, (George Sand.) 
 The latter in her infancy was under the care of the sub- 
 ject of this article, who died in 1821. 
 
 Dupinet, du'pe'ni', (Antoine,) a French Protestant, 
 lived in Lyons and Paris. He made a French version 
 of Pliny's "Natural History," (1542,) which was highly 
 praised by Bayle, and wrote "The Conformity of the 
 Reformed Church of France with the Primitive Church," 
 (1565,) besides a few other works. Died in 1584. 
 
 Duplanil, dii'pli'nel', (J. D.,) a French medical writer, 
 born in 1740 ; died in 1802. 
 
 Dupleix, du'plA', (Joseph,) Marquis, an enterprising 
 Frenchman, born about 1695, was the son of a director 
 of the East India Company. Having received a liberal 
 education and made great progress in the exact sciences, 
 he was appointed in 1720 a member of the council at 
 Pondicherry. Ten years later he became director of 
 the factory at Chandernagore, in Bengal, which speedily 
 prospered under his management. He made a large 
 fortune by commercial operations. In 1742 he was ap- 
 pointed Governor of Pondicherry and of all the French 
 possessions in India. His aspiring and capacious mind 
 was the first that formed the project of founding a Eu- 
 ropean empire on the ruins of the Mogul monarchy. By 
 intrigues with native princes and a few battles he became 
 master of the Camatic, and about 1750 was the greatest 
 potentate in India. The English, alarmed at his success, 
 resolved to counteract him by force, and gave the com- 
 mand of their troops to Captain Clive, who gained several 
 victories over the French and their allies. Dupleix was 
 not supported by his employers in France, who disap- 
 proved his policy. Having been superseded m 1754, he 
 returned to Paris, where he died poor in 1763. He had 
 spent his own fortune in the service of the Company, 
 who refused to repay him. About 1748 he had been re- 
 warded with the title of Marquis for his able defence of 
 Pondicherry against the English fleet under Boscawen. 
 
 See Mill, "History of British India;" Collin de Bar, "His- 
 toire de l'Inde ancienne et moderne," 1814; Claude Noel Le 
 Fkvre, "E"loge de Dupleix," 1818. 
 
 Dupleix, (Scipion,) a French historian, born at Con- 
 dom in 1569. About 1619 Louis XIII. gave him the 
 title of historiographer, and charged him to write a gen- 
 eral history of France. He produced a voluminous work 
 on that subject, (1621-43,) which was soon supplanted 
 by better histories. Died in 1661. 
 
 Duplessis. See Richelieu, Cardinal. 
 
 Duplessis, du'pLYse', (Joseph Sifhein, se'fRaN',) a 
 skilful French portrait-painter, born at Carpentias in 
 
 1725. He studied several years in Rome under Sublcy- 
 ras, and settled in Paris in 1752, where he painted with 
 success. He was admitted into the Royal Academy in 
 1774. Among his best works are portraits of Dr. Frank- 
 lin, Necker, and Marmontel. Died in 1S02. 
 
 Duplessis, (Michel ToussaintChretien,) a French 
 monk and historian, born in Paris in 1689, was an inmate 
 of the abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pres. He wrote a 
 "Historical Notice of Upper Normandy," (1740,) and 
 other works. Died in 1767. 
 
 Duplessis, (Pierre Alexandre Gratet — gRi'ti',) 
 a French scholar and bibliographer, born at Janville in 
 1792, was professor in several colleges. He published 
 "The Flower of French Proverbs," (1851,) and a good 
 edition of La Rochefoucauld's " Reflections and Maxims." 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 Duplessis-Mornay. See Mornay. 
 
 Duplessis-Praslin. See Choiseul. 
 
 Duponceau, du-pon'so, [Fr. pron. du / p6N'so',l (Pe- 
 ter S., ) a lawyer and scholar, born in the Isle of Rhe, 
 on the coast of France, in 1760, came to America in 1777 
 with Baron Steuben, whom he served as secretary and 
 aide-de-camp. He quitted the army in 1780, on account 
 of ill health, and studied law, which he practised in Phila- . 
 delphia, and became eminent in his profession. Besides 
 treatises on philology and essays on various subjects, he 
 published a "Dissertation on the Nature and Extent 
 of the Jurisdiction of the Courts of the United States," 
 (1824.) He received a prize of the French Institute for 
 a " Memoir on the Indian Languages of North America," 
 (1835.) He was for some years president of the Ameri- 
 can Philosophical Society. Died in Philadelphia in 1844. 
 
 See " Discourse in Commemoration of Peter S. Duponceau," bj 
 R. Dunglison, M.D., Philadelphia, 1844. 
 
 Dupont, dii'p6N', or, more fully, Dupont de L'Eure, 
 
 dti'pdN' deh Iur, (Jacques Charles,) a French Liberal 
 legislator, born at Neubourg (L'Eure) in 1767. He was a 
 judge under the first republic and the empire, and became 
 president of the imperial court at Rouen in 181 1. From 
 1817 to 1848 he constantly represented his native depart- 
 ment in the Chamber of Deputies. He was appointed 
 minister of justice in August, 1830, but resigned about 
 the end of that year, after which he sat with the oppo- 
 sition in the Chamber. His long services and his high 
 character for integrity caused him to be chosen president 
 of the provisional government formed in February, 1848. 
 He retired from public life in 1849, and died in 1855. 
 He was respected by all parties. 
 
 See Louis Blanc "Histoire de dix Ans." 
 
 Dupont, (Pierre,) a popular French song-writer, 
 born at Lyons in 1821. He produced about 1842 a poem 
 entitled "The Two Angels," which was crowned by the 
 French Academy. Among his popular productions are 
 the "Song of Bread" and the "Song of the Workers." 
 In many of his songs he manifests republican or socialistic 
 tendencies. 
 
 SeeC. Baudelaire, " Notice sur P. Dupont," 1849; E. de Mire- 
 court, "P. Dupont," 1854. 
 
 Dupont, or, more fully, Dupont de l'fitang, dii'p6N' 
 deh li't&N', (Pierre,) a French general, born at Cha- 
 bannais in 1765. He became a general of division in 
 1797. About 1801 he defeated the Austrians under Belk- 
 garde near the Mincio. He rendered important services 
 at Jena in 1806, and at Fr'.edland. In 1808 he commanded 
 an army in Spain, and obtained some successes ; but in 
 July of that year he was defeated at Baylen, where he 
 surrendered about 18,000 men as prisoners of war. For 
 this disaster he was disgraced by Napoleon and con- 
 demned to an indefinite imprisonment. He was minister 
 of war under Louis XVIII. from April to December, 
 1814. " In the whole French army," says Alison, " there 
 was not a general of division who bore a higher character 
 than Dupont," [before his Spanish campaign.] (" History 
 of Europe.") Died in 1838. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic GiSne'rale;" Vedel, "Precis des Ope- 
 rations militaires en Espagne." 
 
 Dupont, or, more fully, Dupont de Nemours, dii'- 
 pdN'cleh neh-mooii', (Pierre Samuel,) a French author 
 and economist, born in Paris in 1739- As a disciple of 
 Quesnay, he applied himself to the study of commerce 
 and political economy, and gained reputation by his 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, G, J, short; a, e, i; o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon.- 
 
DUPONT 
 
 813 
 
 DUPUIS 
 
 writings on those subjects. The prime ministers Tm- 
 got and Vergennes enlisted his talents in the public ser- 
 vice. During the ministry of Calonne he was made 
 councillor of state, and in 1787 he was secretary of the 
 Assembly of the Notables. He was a member of the 
 National Assembly in 1790, of which he was twice chosen 
 president, and defended the king at the peril of his own 
 life in the insurrection of August 10, 1792. He was 
 chosen one of the Council of Elders, and a member of 
 the Institute about 1796. From 1798 to 1802 he resided 
 in New Jersey, United States, whither he retired to 
 escape from persecution. He refused all the public 
 offices that Napoleon offered him. Having emigrated 
 in 1815 to Delaware, he died there in 1817. He had 
 composed for the Institute many treatises on public 
 economy, natural history, etc., and published " Philoso- 
 phic de l'Univers," (1796.) His sons were proprietors 
 of the powder-mills near Wilmington, Delaware. 
 
 See Daciek, " E*loge de Dupont de Nemours," in " Recneil de 
 l'Acade'mie des Inscriptions;" Aime Kouu.ee, "Notice biogra- 
 phique sur P. Poivre et Dupont de Nemours," 1835; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Du-p8nt', (Samuel Francis,) an able American 
 rear-aclmiral, born at Kergen Point, New Jersey, in 1803, 
 was a grandson of the preceding. He entered the navy 
 at an early age, and gained the rank of commander in 
 1845. In the summer of 1861 he obtained command of 
 the Atlantic blockading squadron. He commanded the 
 large naval expedition which gained possession of Port 
 Royal harbour, South Carolina, by a victory over two 
 forts at the entrance, in November, 1861. In July, 1862, 
 he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. He com- 
 manded the fleet of iron-clad vessels which attacked Fort 
 Sumter in April, 1863, and was defeated, with the loss 
 of the monitor Keokuk sunk. Four other monitors were 
 disabled. The flag-ship of Dupont in this battle was the 
 Ironsides. He was relieved of the command in June, 
 1863, and died in June, 1865. Dupont was a man of 
 imposing presence and great personal dignity. 
 
 See J. T. Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 
 1867. 
 
 Duport, dii'poR', (Adrien,) an eminent French law- 
 yer, born about 1758. He was deputed by the noblesse 
 of Paris to the States-General in 1789, and was a pro- 
 minent partisan of the new regime in the first years of 
 the Revolution. In the National Assembly Barnave 
 and Duport were leaders of the popular party for a 
 time ; but after the arrest of the king at Varennes, June, 
 1791, they became decided royalists. It is stated that 
 he was chiefly instrumental in introducing the trial by 
 jury into French legislation. Duport was president 
 of the Criminal Tribunal of Paris when the insurrection 
 of August 10, 1792, forced him to fly. He died in 
 exile, at Appenzel, in 1798. His speech against capital 
 punishment in 1791 is highly praised by Lamartine for 
 its profound logic. 
 
 See Lamartine, " Histoire des Constituants ;" Thiers, "His- 
 tory of the French Revolution." 
 
 Du-port', (James,) D.D., born at Cambridge, Eng- 
 land, in 1606. He became eminent as a Greek scholar, 
 and was chosen regius professor of Greek at Cambridge 
 in 1632. After the restoration he was chaplain to Charles 
 II., and Dean of Peterborough. He published " Gno- 
 mologia Homeri," Sermons, and other works. Died in 
 1679. 
 
 Duport, (Paul,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 
 1798, wrote popular comedies and vaudevilles. 
 
 Duport-Dutertre, dii'poR' dii'tiRtR', (Marguerite 
 Louis Francois,) a minister of state, born at Paris in 
 1754. In the constitutional ministry formed in Novem- 
 ber, 1790, he was minister of justice. He was attached 
 to the party or principles of Barnave and Adrien Duport. 
 Removed from office in March, 1792, and proscribed by 
 the dominant party, he escaped by flight until the next 
 year. He was condemned by the Revolutionary Tribunal 
 and executed in 1793. 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists." 
 
 Duportail, dii'poR'til' or dii'poR'tt'ye, (Lehegue, 
 leh-bjg',) a French officer, who served with distinction 
 in the United States under La Fayette, with whose po- 
 litical opinions he agreed. By the influence of La Fayette 
 
 he was appointed minister of war in November, 1790. The 
 hostility and violence of the Assembly induced him to 
 resign in December, 1791. In the reign of terror he 
 escaped death by exile to America about 1794. He 
 embarked for France in 1802, but died during the 
 passage. 
 
 Dup'pa, (Brian,) an English divine, born at Lewis- 
 ham in 1588. He was appointed chaplain to Charles I. 
 in 1634, and tutor to the Prince of Wales in 163c?. He 
 became Bishop of Salisbury in 1641, and of Winchester 
 about 1660. He published sermons and other religious 
 works. Died in 1662. 
 
 Duppa, (Richard,) an English lawyer and writer, 
 born about 1766. He published several books of travels 
 in Europe, "The Life and Works of Michael Angelo," 
 (1806,) "The Life of Raphael," (1816,) a "Translation 
 of Virgil's Bucolics," and other works. Died in 1831. 
 
 Duprat, dii'pRa", ( Antoine,) a cardinal and chancellor 
 of France, born at Issoire in 1463. He became first 
 president of the Parliament of Paris in 1507, and chan- 
 cellor in 1515. As the favourite minister of Francis I., 
 he rendered himself the object of the popular odium by 
 subverting civil and religious liberty. He procured the 
 passage of atrocious laws against the Reformers. In 
 1527 he obtained a cardinal's hat. Died in 1535. 
 See De Thou, "Histoire Univeiselle." 
 
 Duprat, (Jean,) a French merchant of Avignon, was 
 a Girondist member of the Convention, in which he 
 voted for the death of the king in 1792. He was con- 
 demned by the Jacobins, and executed with the leaders 
 of his party, in October, 1793, aged about thirty-six. 
 
 Duprat,' (Pardoux, paVdoo',) an eminent French 
 jurist, born at Aubusson about 1520. He resided some 
 years in Lyons, and wrote esteemed works on Roman 
 law. Died in or before 1570. 
 
 Duprat, (Pascal,) a French republican journalist, 
 born in the department of Landes in 1812. Soon after 
 the revolution of 1848 he co-operated with Lamennais in 
 founding the journal entitled "Le Peuple Constituant," 
 and was elected to the National Assembly. He was one 
 of the chiefs of the party which made Cavaignac dictator 
 in 1848, and was banished about 1852. 
 
 Dupre d'Aulnay, dii'pRa' do'nj , (Louis,) a French 
 writer of fiction, born in Paris about 1070; died in 1758. 
 Dupre de Saint-Maur, dii'pRa' deh saN'mSk', 
 (Nicolas Franqois,) a French writer, who promoted a 
 taste for English literature in France, was born in Paris 
 in 1695. The success of his version of " Paradise Lost" 
 opened for him the doors of the Academy in 1733. He 
 afterwards produced a useful work, entitled " Essay on 
 Money, or Reflections on the Relations between Money 
 and Articles of Food," (1746,) and "Tables of Mortality," 
 which Buffon praised and inserted in his works. Died 
 in 1774. 
 
 Duprez, dii'pRa', (Gilbert Louis,) a French tenor 
 singer of great celebrity, was born in Paris in 1806. 
 After performing in Italy for some years, he made a 
 successful dibut'm Paris in 1837. He became the chief 
 favourite of the Parisians, and was especially admired in 
 the opera of " William Tell." 
 
 Dupuis, du'pii-e', almost du'pwe', (Charles,) born 
 in Paris in 1685, was esteemed one of the best engravers 
 of his time. He worked some years in England, and 
 returned to Paris. The "Marriage of the Virgin," after 
 Vanloo, is called his master-piece. Died in 1742. 
 
 Dupuis, (Charles Francois,) a distinguished French 
 philosopher and savant, born at Trie-le-Chateau (Oise) 
 in 1742. He was educated in Paris, and in 1766 became 
 professor of rhetoric in the College of Lisieux. For 
 several years he attended the astronomical lectures of 
 Lalande, with whom he was very intimate. He directed 
 his researches to the origin of the figures or symbols 
 which represent the constellations of the zodiac. The 
 new theory which he formed was explained in a volume 
 entitled "Memoir on the Origin of the Constellations, 
 and on the Explanation of Mythology by Astronomy," 
 (1781.) This work attracted much attention among the 
 learned. A few years later he was appointed professor 
 of Latin eloquence in the College of France, and in 
 1788 was admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions. As 
 a member of the Convention, 1792-95, he acted and 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as^'; G, It, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (E3f"\See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DUPUIS 
 
 814 
 
 DURAM ANO 
 
 spoke with moderation. In 1794 he produced his cele- 
 brated "Origin of all Culttis,- or Universal Religion," 
 which excited much controversy by the novelty and bold- 
 ness of its speculations. It is stated that the interest ex- 
 cited by this work caused the appointment of the scien- 
 tific commission which accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. 
 Dupuis was one of the first members of the Institute. 
 In Bonaparte's consulate he was president of the legis- 
 lative body. Among his later works is a " Memoir on 
 the Zodiac of Tentyra," to which he assigns a date 
 anterior by many centuries to the first historical period. 
 The researches of Champollion, however, appear to have 
 fully disproved this opinion. Died near Dijon in 1809. 
 
 See Dacier, " Notice sur Dupuis," 1S12 ; " Notice sur la Vie de 
 Dupuis," by his widow, 1813; " Nouvelle Biographie GeiieYale." 
 
 Dupuis, (Nicolas Gabriel,) a French engraver, 
 brother of Charles, noticed above, and a pupil of Du- 
 change, was born in Paris in 1695. His style is pure 
 and correct. Among his admired works are " ./Eneas 
 saving his Father from Burning Troy," after Vanloo, and 
 "The Adoration of the Kings," after Paul Veronese. 
 Died in 1771. 
 
 See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Dupuis, du-pwee', (Thomas Saunders,) a musical 
 Composer, born in London in 1733. He was an excel- 
 lent performer oil the organ. In 1779 he was appointed 
 organist and composer of the royal chapel. He died in 
 1796, after which his select works were published by 
 John Spencer, nephew of the Duke of Marlborough. 
 
 Dupuy, du'pii-e', [Dutch, Van de Putte, vfn der 
 put'teh,] (Henry,) [Lat. Enri'cus Putea'nus,] a Dutch 
 scholar, was born at Venloo in 1574. He succeeded his 
 teacher, Justus Lipsius, in the chair of belles-lettres at 
 Louvain, which he filled from 1606 to 1646. He wrote 
 many learned works on history, philosophy, etc., among 
 which are " Historia Insubrica," and "Belli et Pacis 
 Statera," (1633.) Died in 1646. 
 
 Dupuy, du'pu-e', (Louis,) a French scholar of great 
 learning, born in Le Bugey in 1709. He became princi- 
 pal editor of the " Journal des Savans," which he directed 
 for thirty years with much critical ability. In 1756 he 
 was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions, of which 
 he was made perpetual secretary in 1773, and to which 
 he contributed many treatises. He wrote " Observa- 
 tions on Infinitesimals, and the Metaphysical Principles 
 of Geometry," and other mathematical works. Died 
 in 1795. 
 
 See Desessarts, "Les Siecles litteVaires." 
 
 Dupuy, (Pierre,) a French historical writer, born at 
 Agen in 1582, became successively councillor and libra- 
 rian to the king. He wrote a "Treatise on the Rights 
 and Liberties of the Gallican Church," (1639,) a "His- 
 tory of the Most Illustrious Favourites, Ancient and 
 Modern," and other works. Died in 165 1. 
 
 His brother Jacques was also royal librarian, and aided 
 in some of the productions of Pierre. Died in 1656. 
 
 See N. Rigaui.t, "Vita Petri Puteani," in the " Vita? Selectorum 
 lliquot Virorum," London, 1681. 
 
 Dupuy-Demportes, du'pu-e' d&N'pokt', (Jean Bap- 
 TISTE,) a French littlrateur. Died in 1770. 
 
 Dupuy des Islets, du'pu-e' di'ze'lY, Chevalier, 
 a French poet, born in Hayti about 1770; died in 183 1. 
 
 Dupuy-Montbrun. See Montbrun. 
 
 Dupuytren, dii'pu-e'tR&N', (Guillaume,) Baron, a 
 celebrated French surgeon and anatomist, born at Pierre- 
 Buffiere, near Limoges, in 1777. He was educated in 
 Paris, where, in 1803, he obtained the place of second 
 surgeon of the Hotel-Dieu. He was appointed inspector- 
 general to the University in 180S, professor of surgery 
 in 181 1, and chief surgeon of the Hotel-Dieu about 1816. 
 On the accession of Charles X. he became first surgeon 
 to the king. His practice was very lucrative, and his 
 reputation more extensive than that of any French sur- 
 geon of his time. He made improvements in surgical 
 operations, invented some valuable instruments, and 
 was an eloquent and popular lecturer. He did not pub- 
 lish any extensive work, but his lectures were printed 
 in the medical periodicals, and his opinions were reported 
 in the works of Royer-Collard, Sanson, etc. Dupuytren 
 was a member of the Academy of Sciences. His contribu- 
 
 tions to the knowledge of morbid anatomy form perhaps 
 his chief title to a durable reputation. Died in Paris in 
 February, 1835. 
 
 See Vidai. de Cassis, " Essai historique sur Dupuytren," 1835 j 
 Pakiset, " Eloge de Dupuytren," 1836; Cruveilhier, "Vie de 
 Dupuytren," 1K41 ; IIakdinet, "Notice sur Dupuytren," 1853; 
 Isidore Bourdon, " Illustres M Adeems et Naturalistes ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 Duquerie. See Callard de la Duquerie. 
 
 Duquesne, du'keV, (Abraham,) a French naval 
 hero, born at Dieppe in 1610. He had acquired a repu- 
 tation for courage and talents when, in 1637, he was 
 chosen to command a ship in the war with Spain. lie 
 rendered important services at Tarragona in 1641, and 
 at the Cape de Gates in 1643. A few years later, as vice- 
 admiral of the Swedish fleet, he gained several victories 
 over the Danes. About 1650 he was made a commodore. 
 He fought under D'Estrees against the Dutch under 
 De Ruyter in May, 1673. Having obtained the rank of 
 lieutenant-general, he defeated the Dutch near Catanea 
 in 1676, where the admiral De Ruyter was killed. The 
 king once avowed to Duquesne that his religion (Prot- 
 estantism) was an obstacle to his promotion. For this 
 reason he never received a marshal's baton, though he 
 was the most able and successful admiral that France 
 had then produced. He was, however, created a mar- 
 quis, and was excepted from the operation of the decree 
 which revoked the edict of Nantes. Died in 16S8. 
 
 See E. Sue, " Histoire de la Marine :" Andre Richer, "Vie du 
 Marquis Duquesne," 1783; Ferkt, " Esquisse de la Vie de Du- 
 quesne," 1844; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Duquesne, (Abraham,) a son of the preceding, was 
 an able seaman. In 1690 he commanded an expedition 
 to the East Indies, of which Challes published an ac- 
 count, (3 vols., 1721.) 
 
 Duquesne, (Arnaud Bernard d'Icard — de'kiR',) 
 a French priest, writer, and doctor of the Sorbonne, 
 born in Paris about 1732; died in 1791. 
 
 Duquesne, (Henri,) a son of Abraham, (the first of 
 the name,) was born in 1652, and became a Captain in the 
 navy in 1675. He served with distinction at the battle 
 near Catanea in 1676. When the edict of Nantes was 
 revoked, (1685,) he withdrew to Switzerland. He wrote 
 "Reflections on the Eucharist," (1718.) Died in 1722. 
 
 Duquesnoy, cKi'k.Vnwlt', (Adrien,) a French lawyer, 
 born in 1759, was deputed to the States-General by Bar- 
 le-Duc in 1789, and accpiitted himself with credit. He 
 edited a journal called "The Friend of the Patriots," 
 Which was issued until August 10, 1792. In the reign 
 of terror he was arrested, but was saved by the fall of 
 Robespierre. Died in 1808. 
 
 Duquesnoy, du'ki'nwa', (Francois,) an excellent 
 Flemish sculptor, born at Brussels in 1594, was better 
 known by the name of Francois Flamand. About 
 1619 he went to Rome, where he became an intimate 
 friend of Nicolas Poussin and worked many years. He 
 excelled in the representation of infants, and was consid- 
 ered by some as the best sculptor of his time. Among 
 his master-pieces are statues of Saint Susanna (in Rome) 
 and of Saint Andrew, (in the basilica of Saint Peter's.) 
 He was on his way to Paris, whither he had been in- 
 vited by Richelieu, when he died at Leghorn in 1646. 
 
 See Cicognara, "Storiadella Scultura." 
 
 Duquesnoy, (Jerome,) a skilful sculptor, brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Brussels in 1612. lie worked 
 gome years at Rome, and was appointed sculptor to 
 Philip IV. of Spain in 1645. He was executed for st me 
 alleged crime at Ghent in 1654. 
 
 Duraeus. See Dury. 
 
 Duram or Durab, doo-rowN', (Antonio Figueiia — 
 fe-ga'e-ra,) a Portuguese Latin poet, born in Lisbon about 
 i6i7T'died in 1642. 
 
 Duram or DurSo, doo-rowN', (Joze de Santa Rita,* 
 a Brazilian epic poet, born near Mariana in 1737. He 
 was educated in Portugal, where he resided nearly all 
 his life, and became a monk. He wrote a popular and 
 national epic poem, entitled " Caramurti, or the Discovery 
 of Bahia," (1781.) Died in Lisbon in 1783. 
 
 See Adolfo de Varnhagen, " Epicos Brazileiros," 1S45; Pe 
 reira da Svlva, "Plutarco Brazileiro." 
 
 Duramano, doo-ra-ma'no, (Francesco,) a Venetian 
 painter of flowers, flourished about 1750. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; nfit; good; moon; 
 
DURAMEAU 
 
 DURANTI 
 
 Purameau, du ri mo', (Louis Jean Jacques,) a 
 French historical painter, bom in Paris in 1733, His 
 "Continence of Bayard" and "Saint Louis washing the 
 Feet of the Poor" are admired. Died in 1796. 
 
 Dm an, doo-rln', (Don Augustin,) an eminent Span- 
 ish author and critic, born in Madrid about 1794. He 
 obtained an office in the department of public instruction 
 in 1S.M, but was removed in 1823 for his liberal opinions. 
 In kSjS he published an "Essay on the Influence which 
 Modern Criticism has exercised on the Decline of the 
 Old Drama," (teatro antiguo,) which produced a revolu- 
 tion in favour of the romantic school. His " Romancero 
 de Romances Moriscos," (5 vols., 1S2S-32,) (a collection 
 of old ballads,) had great success. About 1835 he was 
 appointed secretary or librarian in the National Library 
 of Madrid. He has recently written an important history 
 and bibliography of the Spanish drama, which perhaps 
 is not yet printed, 
 
 Durand, dii'roN', a learned French Benedictine, born 
 at Neubourg about 1012, acquired much influence, and 
 was consulted by William the Conqueror. He pro- 
 moted a taste for religious music. Died in 1089. 
 
 Du-rand', (AsHER Brown,) an eminent American 
 painter and engraver, born at Jefferson, New Jersey, in 
 1796. He engraved Trumbull's "Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence," a number of portraits for "The National 
 Portrait-Gallery," and other works. About 1835 he began 
 to devote himself exclusively to painting. He became 
 an excellent landscape-painter, and produced many pic- 
 tures of American mountain-scenery. Among his paint- 
 ings are "The Capture of Major Andre," "Primeval 
 Forest," and " Franconia Mountains." 
 
 See H. T. Tuckerman, "Book of tile Artists," 1867; DuNt.AP, 
 " Rise and Progress ot" the Arts of Design in America. 
 
 Durand, (Catherine Bedacier — ba'daVsg-4',) a 
 French novelist and poetess, wrote the "Comtesse de 
 Mortane," (1699,) and other works. Died in Paris in 1736. 
 
 Durand, (Chari.es Etienne,) a French architect, 
 born at Montpellier in 1762. He restored the ancient 
 temple at Nimes called "Maison carree." Died in 1840. 
 
 Durand, (David,) a learned French Protestant writer, 
 born in Languedoc about 1680. After being chaplain to 
 a French regiment in Spain, he went about 1714 to Lon- 
 don, where he preached about fifty years. He wrote 
 •'The Religion of Mohammed," (1721,) a "History of 
 ihe Sixteenth Century," (6 vols., 1725-29,) and other 
 works. Died in London in 1763. 
 
 See A. A. Barbier, "Notice sur la Vie et les ficrits de D. Du- 
 rand," 1S09; MM. Haag, "La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G&ieVale." 
 
 Durand, (Francois Jacques,) an eloquent French 
 Protestant preacher, born near Alencon in 1727. He 
 became professor of history at Lausanne, and published 
 Sermons, a "Treatise on the Statistics of Switzerland," 
 an "Epitome of Sciences and Arts," (1762,) which had 
 great success, and other works. Died in 1816. 
 
 See A. Deluxe, " Notice sur la Vie de F. J. Durand," 1805. 
 
 Durand or Duranti, doo-ran'tee, (Guili.aume,) a 
 French jurist, born at Puymisson about 1230, was sur- 
 named the "Speculateur." In 1287 he became Bishop 
 of Mende. He wrote a work on canon law, called 
 •'Speculum Judiciale." Died in 1296. 
 
 See S. MaIOLO, "Duranti Vita." 
 
 Durand, (Jacques,) a French historical painter, born 
 at Nancy in 1699; died in 1767. 
 
 Duraiid, (Jean Nicolas Louis,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1760. Having received lessons from 
 Panseron, be became draughtsman to Boulee, the king's 
 architect. In 1780 he gained a prize in the Royal Acad- 
 emy. He also obtained several of the prizes offered by 
 ntion in 1793 for public structures. About 
 I704 he was appointed professor of architecture in the 
 Polytechnic School, for the use of which he published an 
 important work! entitled "A Collection and Comparison 
 of Edifices of all Kinds, Ancient and Modem," (1800,) 
 and "Lectures on Architecture," (2 vols., 1802,) also an 
 excellent performance. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Rondelkt, "Notice historique sur la Vie de J. N. L. 
 Durand," 1835. 
 
 Durand, (Dom Leopold,) a French architect and 
 monk, born in Lorraine in 1666 ; died in 1749. 
 
 Durand, (Pierre Bernard,) a French botanist, born 
 in Calvados in 1814; died in 1853. 
 
 Durand-Brager, dii'roN' bR^'zha', (Jean Baptists 
 Henri,) a distinguished French marine and landscape 
 painter, born near Dol (Ile-et-Vilaine) in 1814. In 1840 
 lie went to Saint Helena on the staff of Prince <le Join- 
 ville, and after his return published a "Description of 
 Saint Helena," richly illustrated, (1844.) He produced 
 a Panorama of Rio Janeiro, and received a commission 
 to paint the principal actions and scenes of the campaign 
 against Morocco, in which he took part about 1845. He 
 has published several other successful works. 
 
 Durand de Maillane, dii'roN' deh mS'ySn', (Pierre 
 Toussaint,) a French lawyer, born at Saint-Kemi in 
 1729. Elected to the States-General in 1789, he was one 
 of the committee who framed the civil constitution of 
 the clergy. In the Convention of 1792 he opposed the 
 execution of the king, and voted for his banishment. 
 During the reign of Bonaparte he was a judge at Taras- 
 con and Aix until 1809. He was author of several 
 esteemed treatises on canon law. Died in 1814. 
 
 See "Notice sur Durand de Maillane," prefixed to his " Histoire 
 de la Convention Nationale." 
 
 Durand de Saint-Pourcain, dii'rftN' deh saN'pooR'- 
 s4n', (Guili.aume,) a French scholastic doctor and 
 bishop, born in Auvergne; died in 1334. 
 
 Durande, dii'rd.Nd', (Jean Francois,) a French bot- 
 anist, born at Dijon, became professor of botany in that 
 city. Died in 1794. 
 
 Durandi, doo-ran'dee, (Jacoto,) an Italian poet and 
 antiquary, born near Vercelli In 1739. He wrote numer- 
 ous operas, some of which were performed with success 
 at Turin ; " Arianna," an admired pastoral ; and several 
 works on history and geography. Died in 181 7. 
 
 See De Gregori, " Vita di J. Durandi," 1817. 
 
 Durando, doo-ran'do, (Giacomo,) an Italian general, 
 born at Mondovl in 1807. He was minister of war at 
 Turin during the Crimean war, 1854-55, commanded a 
 division at Solferino, June, 1859, and became minister of 
 foreign affairs in the cabinet of Ratazzi in March, 1861. 
 
 Durando, (Giovanni,) a brother of the preceding, 
 and an eminent Italian general of the present age, com- 
 manded the first corps-d'armee against the Austrians, and 
 was wounded at Custozza in June, 1866. 
 
 Durant, dii'ro.N', (Gii.i.es,) a French poet and ad- 
 vocate, was born at Clermont about 1550, and settled 
 near Paris. He is supposed to have written part of the 
 " Satire Menippee," which promoted the cause of Henry 
 IV. by ridiculing the League. His works, which were 
 much admired, consist of odes, sonnets, songs, etc. 
 Died in 1615. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Durante, doo-ran'ta, (Castore,) an Italian botanist, 
 born at Gualdo, became physician to Popjj Sixtus V., 
 and wrote many works, which were once esteemed. Died 
 at Viterbo in 1590. 
 
 Durante, (FRANCESCO,) one of the most celebrated 
 Italian composers, was born in Naples in 1693. He was 
 the pupil of Scarlatti, and is regarded as the founder of 
 the modern school which produced Sacchini, Pergoles), 
 etc. His style was severe, his harmony pure, and his 
 modulations natural. He confined himself mostly to 
 sacred music. Died in Naples in 1/55. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Durante Alighieri. See Dante. 
 
 Durante da Gualda, doo-ran'ti di goo-al'da, (Pie- 
 tro,) an Italian poet, born about 1460. 
 
 Duranti. See Durand, (Guii.lau.me.) 
 
 Duranti, doo-ran'tee, (Durante,) COUNT, a popular 
 Italian poet and orator, was born of a noble family at 
 Brescia in 1 718. His memory was such that he could 
 npr.it a poem which he had read or heard but once. 
 He imitated Ariosto in satirical epistles with success, 
 and wrote lyric verses which were celebrated through all 
 Italy. In the latter part of his life he resided at the court 
 of the King of Sardinia, as gentleman of the chamber. 
 Among his principal works is a satirical poem entitled 
 "Custom," or "Fashion," (" Uso," 1778.) Several of 
 his orations were printed. His moral character is said 
 to have been pure. Died in 1780. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 € as k; 9 as s ; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R. trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^™See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DVRJNTI 
 
 816 
 
 DURER 
 
 Duranti, du'rSN'te', (Jean Etienne,) a French judge, 
 born at Toulouse about 1534, became first president of 
 the parliament of Toulouse in 1581. For his fidelity to 
 the king he was massacred by a mob of furious partisans 
 of the Catholic League in 1589. He was author of a 
 book "On the Kites of the Catholic Church," ("De Riti- 
 bus Ecclesiae," 1581.) 
 
 See Ponsard, " FJoge de J. £tienne Duranti," 1770 ; De Thou, 
 " Histoire." 
 
 Duranton, du'r5N't6N', (Alexandre,) a French 
 jurist, born at Cusset (Bourbonnais) in 1782, was the 
 author of a "Course of French Law," (4th edition, 22 
 vols., 1844.) 
 
 Durao. See Duram. 
 
 Duras. See Dureort, (Gai Alphonse and Louis.) 
 
 Duras, de, deh dii'ras', (Claire Lechat de Ker- 
 saint — leh-shi' deh keVs&N',) Duchess, a French au- 
 thoress, born at Brest in 1778, was a daughter of the 
 Count de Kersaint, who was a member of the Con- 
 vention and executed in 1793. She became the wife 
 of the Due de Duras, and the friend of Madame de 
 Stael. After the restoration she was one of the orna- 
 ments of the French court. She produced two novels, 
 " Ourika," (1823,) and " Edouard," which had prodigious 
 success. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, " Portraits des Femmes ;" Barante, " Notice 
 sur Madame la Duchesse de Duras," 1828; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Duras, de, (Jacques Henri de Durfort — deh duV- 
 foR',) Duke, a French marshal, born of a noble family 
 of Guienne about 1624, was a nephew of the famous 
 Turenne. He fought at the battle of Nordlingen and 
 the capture of Landau. As lieutenant-general, he served 
 with distinction in Italy and Flanders. He was created 
 a marshal of France in 1675, and a duke in 1689. Died 
 in 1704. 
 
 Duras, de, (Jean Baptiste,) Duke, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1684. He rendered important ser- 
 vices in the war of the Spanish succession, (1701-12, ) 
 and was made lieutenant-general in 1720. He after- 
 wards became marshal of France, and in 1745 defeated 
 the enemy at Etlingen. Died in 1770. 
 
 Durazzo, doo-rit'so, a noble family of Genoa, which 
 furnished many doges to the republic, and several car- 
 dinals to the Church, in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 centuries. 
 
 Durbach, (Anne Louise.) See Karschin. 
 
 Dur'bin, (John Price,) an American Methodist min- 
 ister, born in Bourbon county, Kentucky, in 1800, gradu- 
 ated at the Cincinnati College in 1825. He was elected 
 chaplain of the Senate of the United States in 1831, and 
 president of Dickinson College, in Pennsylvania, in 1834. 
 After a visit to Europe, he published "Observations in 
 Europe, principally in France and Great Britain," (2 
 vols., 1844*) and "Observations in Egypt, Palestine, 
 Syria, etc.," (2 vols., 1845.) He resigned the presidency 
 of Dickinson College in 1845. Since 1851 he has been 
 secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church. He is now (1869) in the fiftieth year 
 of his pastoral services. 
 
 Durdent, cliiR'doN', (Rene Jean,) a prolific French 
 writer, born at Rouen about 1776. He had great facility 
 in composition, and wrote for the booksellers mediocre 
 works of fiction, history, criticism, etc., which had a tem- 
 porary success. Died in 1819. 
 
 Dureau de la Malle, (or de Lamalle,) du'ro' deh 
 ii mil, (Adolphe Jules Cesar Auguste,) a learned 
 French poet and antiquary, born in Paris in 1 777. He 
 produced in 1807 a poem entitled "The Pyrenees," and 
 in 181 1 a poetical version of the "Argonautica" of Vale- 
 rius Flaccus. In 1818 he was elected to the Academy of 
 Inscriptions, which he enriched with many antiquarian 
 treatises. Among his principal works are " Bayard, or 
 the Conquest of the Milanese," a poem, (2 vols., 1823,) 
 and " The Political Economy of the Romans," (2 vols., 
 1840.) Died in 1857. 
 
 See Louandre et Bourquelot, "La Literature Francaise;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Gene"rale." 
 
 Dureau de la Malle, (or de Lamalle,) (Jean Bap- 
 tiste Joseph Rene,) a French scholar and eminent 
 translator, father of the preceding, was born in Saint 
 Domingo in 1742. He was educated in Paris, where he 
 
 afterwards resided. His house was the resort of the 
 most eminent authors, namely, Delille, D'Alembert, 
 Marmontel, and La Harpe. In 1790 he produced an 
 admired version of Tacitus, superior to any previously 
 made in French. He was also successful in translating 
 Sal lust, and began a version of Livy, which, interrupted 
 by his death, was finished by M. Noel. He was chosen 
 a member of the legislative body in 1802, and of the 
 French Academy in 1804. Died in 1807. 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge"ne>ale." 
 
 Durel, (David.) See Durell. 
 
 Du-rel', (John,) D.D., a learned English theologian, 
 born in the isle of Jersey in 1626, was an adversary of 
 the Puritans. He passed many years in France during 
 the English civil war and the Commonwealth. About 
 1660 he became preacher at the French Church in Lon- 
 don. He was appointed Canon of Windsor in 1663 or 
 1664, and Dean of Windsor in 1677. He wrote, besides 
 other theological works, a "Defence of the Church of 
 England," (1669.) Died in 1683. 
 
 Du-rell' or Durel, (David,) D.D., an English biblical 
 critic, born in the isle of Jersey in 1728. He became 
 a Fellow of Hertford College, (Oxford,) and principal 
 of the same in 1757. His "Critical Remarks on Job, 
 Psalms, Proverbs," etc (1772) are commended. He also 
 published " The Hebrew Text of the Parallel Prophecies 
 of Jacob and Moses relating to the Twelve Tribes," 
 (1764.) Died in 1775. 
 
 Durer or Duerer, du'rer, (Albert or Albrecht,) a 
 celebrated German painter and engraver, born at Nu- 
 remberg on the 20th of May, 147 1, was the son of a gold- 
 smith, who designed that he should learn the same 
 occupation. He became in i486 a pupil of Michael 
 Wohlgemuth, a painter of Nuremberg. In 1490 he 
 began a tour, in the course of which he visited various 
 countries of Germany. He returned to Nuremberg in 
 1494, and, to please his father, entered into an ill-assorted 
 marriage. Soon after his return he produced a drawing 
 of "Orpheus," which was much admired. In 1505 he 
 visited Venice, where he remained eight months, and 
 painted the " Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew," and 
 other works, for which " he received," says Ruskin, "the 
 rarest of all rewards granted to a good workman, and 
 for once in his life was understood." During his visit 
 to Italy he formed a friendship with Raphael. About 
 1508 he was appointed court painter to Maximilian I., 
 for whom he painted "The Virgin with many Angels," 
 and other historical pictures. He was also patronized 
 by Charles V. as court painter. 
 
 Durer surpassed all the painters and engravers of 
 Germany in exuberance of imagination and in sublimity 
 and correctness of design. He was successful in history, 
 portraits, and landscapes. Vasari expresses the opinion 
 that he would have equalled the great masters of Italy 
 if he had been a native of Tuscany and had studied in 
 Rome. Some critics regret the absence of the ideal in 
 his works. Among his master-pieces in painting are a 
 "Crucifixion," (1511,) "Adam and Eve," an "Adoration 
 of the Magi," and portraits of Raphael, Erasmus, and 
 Melanchthon, who were his friends. He is the reputed 
 inventor of the art of etching and the art of printing 
 wood-cuts in two colours. His engravings (on copper) 
 of "Adam and Eve," "The Knight and Death," and 
 the " Revelation of Saint John" (on wood) are very cele- 
 brated. All his engravings are after his own designs, 
 and are finished with great neatness and refinement. He 
 wrote several works on geometry and perspective, and 
 contributed to polish and purify the German language, 
 in which those works are written.. It appears that he 
 favoured the doctrines of the Reformation. He died at 
 Nuremberg in April, 1528. His death is said to have 
 been hastened by domestic misery. His wife, covetous, 
 insatiable, and imperious, would neither permit him to 
 work in peace and quietness nor to recreate himself in 
 the society of his friends. His gentle disposition and 
 delicate sensibility rendered him especially liable to be 
 thus victimized. "This artist," says Michiels, "has 
 become the symbol of his epoch. An inexhaustible 
 imagination, an intelligence which could observe life in 
 its most delicate shades, a profound sentiment of grace, 
 naivete, and sublimity, and an earnest spirit joined to the 
 
 i, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; m(5t; nSt; good; moon; 
 
DURET 
 
 817 
 
 DUROC 
 
 courage required for protracted studies, were the quali- 
 ties which distinguished him." 
 
 See J. Heller, "Das Leben und die Werke A. Diirers," 1S27- 
 31 ; Nai;i.kr, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler Lexikon ;" Kksch und 
 Grubbr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" A. Michiels, " Etudes sur 
 lWliemagne ;" Leopold Schefer, "An Arlist's Married Life;" 
 G. G Naolkr, "A. Diirer und seine Kunst," 1837; Roth, "Leben 
 A. Diirers," 1791; "Foreign Quarterly Review" l'or January, 1833; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1861. 
 
 Duret, dii'ri', (Claude,) a French naturalist and lin- 
 guist, born at Moulins ; died in 161 1. 
 
 Duret, (Francisque,) an eminent French sculptor, 
 born in Paris about 1805. He studied in Rome, and 
 about 1831 gained a prize by his statue of "Mercury." 
 He adorned several churches and public edifices of Paris 
 with statues, among which are those of Moliere, (in the 
 Hall of the Institute,) Richelieu, and Chateaubriand. 
 At the Exposition of 1855 he received a grand medal. 
 He is a member of the Institute. 
 
 Duret, (JEAN,) born in Paris in 1563, was a skilful 
 physician, and a bitter partisan of the League against 
 Henry of Navarre. He succeeded his father as pro- 
 fessor of medicine in the Royal College, and became 
 physician to the queen Marie in 1610, after the death 
 of Henry IV. Died in 1629. 
 
 Duret, (Louis,) an eminent French physician, father 
 of the preceding, was born at Bage in 1527. He came 
 to Paris in youth, and graduated in 1552. From 1568 to 
 1586 he was a professor in the Royal College, and was 
 successively physician to Charles IX. and Henry III. 
 His most important work is a commentary on Hippocra- 
 tes, (1588,) which Boerhaave called "an inestimable 
 book." Died in 1586. 
 
 See Chomel, " £loge de L. Duret, Medecin celebre," 1765 ; Nl- 
 ceron, "Memoires;" "Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Duret. (NoEL,) a French astronomer, born at Mont- 
 brison in 1590, was a professor of mathematics in Paris, 
 and obtained the title of cosmographer to the king. He 
 wrote a " New Theory of the Planets," (1635,) and other 
 works. Died about 1650. 
 
 Dur'fee, (Job,) an American jurist, born at Tiverton, 
 Rhode Island, in 1790. He was elected a member of 
 Congress in 1820, and became chief justice of Rhode 
 Island in 1835. He wrote a poem, entitled "What 
 Cheer?" (1832,) on the adventures of Roger Williams. 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 D'TJrfey, dur'fe, (Thomas,) an English dramatist and 
 wit, bom at Exeter, in Devonshire. He was a favourite 
 at the court of Charles 1 1., and author of several success- 
 ful and licentious dramas. He wrote popular songs and 
 odes, which were published with the title " Laugh and be 
 Fat." According to Addison, his ode entitled "Joy to 
 Great Csesar" " gave the Whigs such a blow as they were 
 not able to recover that whole reign." Died in 1723. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica ;" Cibrer, " Lives of the 
 Poets." 
 
 Durfort, de, deb diiR'foR', (Gui Alphonse,) Duke of 
 I.orges, (IorzIi,) a French marshal, born in 1628, was a 
 younger brother of the first Duke of Duras. He served 
 as lieutenant-general in the army of his uncle Turenne, 
 whose talents in a great measure he inherited. In 1692 
 he gained the battle of Pfortzheirn. He had received a 
 marshal's baton in 1676. Died in 1703. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, "Me- 
 moires." 
 
 Durfort, de, (Louis,) sometimes called Durfbrt- 
 Duras, (dii'ras',) Count, the youngest brother of the 
 preceding, emigrated to England, where Charles II. gave 
 him the title of Baron Duras.* At the time of the peace 
 of Nymwegen (1678) he was ambassador at the court of 
 France. He was created Earl of Feversham, and be- 
 came general-in-chief of the army of James II., which 
 defeated the Duke of Monmouth in 1685 at Sedgemoor. 
 
 Durfort-Duras. See Duras. 
 
 Durfort-Duras, de.deh dtiVfoR' dii'ras', (Em MANUEl 
 Fei.ici IE,) Due, born in 1715, inherited the title of duke 
 from his father, Jean Baptiste. He became first gentle- 
 man of the chamber, a knight of the Golden Fleece, one 
 of the forty members of the French Academy, and mar- 
 shal of France. As lieutenant-general, he made all the 
 campaigns of the Seven Years' war. He was a finished 
 model of a courtier. Died in 1789. 
 
 Durga, ddoR'ga, a Sanscrit word signifying "difficult 
 of access," " impregnable," and forming the name of 
 Siva's consort in her character of active virtue. (See 
 Parvati.) 
 
 Durham, dtir'am, (James,) an eminent Scottish divine, 
 born in 1622. He became minister of Black friars' Church, 
 Glasgow, about 1647, and was a very popular preacher. 
 In 1650 he was appointed professor of divinity in the 
 College of Glasgow. He was chaplain to Charles II. 
 about 1650, and in 1651 preached a sermon before Crom- 
 well, who rebuked him for meddling with political affairs 
 in the pulpit. He wrote "Commentaries on Revela- 
 tion," (1660,) often reprinted, "Expositions of the Ten 
 Commandments," (1675,) and several religious treatises. 
 His works were highly esteemed. Died in 1658. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Durham, dCir'am, (John George Lamiiton,) Earl 
 OK, an able English statesman, born at Lambton Castle, 
 Durham, in 1792, was a son of William Henry Lambton. 
 He married Miss Cholmondeley in 1812, and the daugh- 
 ter of Earl Grey in 1816. In 1813 he was returned to 
 Parliament, where he acted with the Whig party, of 
 which he was one of the most liberal members. He 
 was raised to the peerage, as Baron Durham, in 1828. In 
 1830 he became lord privy seal in the cabinet of Lord 
 Grey, and was one of the four persons who prepared the 
 Reform bill of the ensuing year. He made an eloquent 
 speech in favour of the second Reform bill. He resigned 
 his place in the ministry in 1833, and was then created 
 Earl of Durham. He was sent on a special mission to 
 Russia in 1833, and was appointed ambassador to Russia 
 in 1836. In 1838 he was sent as Governor-General to 
 Canada, with extraordinary powers, to restore peace and 
 order in that province, then disturbed by rebellion. He 
 returned suddenly in December, 1839, in consequence of 
 his disagreement with the ministry at home. He died 
 in July, 1840, and was succeeded by his son, George 
 Frederick, born about 1828. Lord Durham was a great 
 favourite with the advanced Liberals. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Durham, (Joseph,) an English sculptor, born in Lon- 
 don in 1822. Among his works are a bust of Jenny 
 Land, and " Paul and Virginia," (1857.) 
 
 Durham, (Sir Philip Charles Cai.derwood,) a 
 British admiral, born in Fifeshire in 1763 ; died in 1845. 
 
 See A. Murray, "Life of Admiral Durham," 1846. 
 
 Duringer, doo'ring-er, (Melchior,) professor of ec- 
 clesiastical history at Berne, was born about 1647 ; died 
 in 1723. 
 
 Duringsfeld, von, (Ida.) See Rf.insherg. 
 
 Du'ris [Aoipic] OF SamoS, a Greek historian, a brother 
 of Lynceus, was born about 350 B.C. His most important 
 work was a history of Greece, entitled " Macedonica and 
 Hellenica," or "i)TC>v 'K.XhjvmCn> 'loroput" of which frag- 
 ments are extant. He became chief ruler of Samos. 
 Died after 280 B.C. 
 
 Durival, dii're'vai', (Jean,) a French writer, brother 
 of Nicolas L, noticed below, was born at Saint-Aubin 
 in 1725. He was minister to Holland in 1777. About 
 this date he assisted Mirabeau in translating Watson's 
 "Philip II." into French. Died in 1S10. 
 
 Durival, (Nicolas Luton — lii'tAN',) a French writer, 
 born at Commercy in 1733, published a "Description 
 of Lorraine," (4 vols., 1778-83,) which is regarded as a 
 model for works of that kind. Died in 1795. 
 
 Durivier, dii're've-V, (Jean,) a French engraver of 
 medals, born at Liege in 1687. He settled in Paris, re- 
 ceived the title of engraver to the king, and was admitted 
 to the Academy. Died in Paris in 1761. 
 
 Durnho&eroiDuernhoffer,duRn'hof'fer,(LoRENZO,) 
 a German poet and pastor, born at Nuremberg in 1532, 
 was a friend of Melanchthon. Died in 1594. 
 
 Duroc, dii'rok', (Gerard Christophe Michel,) 
 Duke of Friuli, a favourite officer of the court and ' 
 camp of Bonaparte, was born at Pont-a-Mousson in 1772. 
 In the early wars of the republic he was aide-de-camp 
 of General Lespinasse ; and in 1796 he became aide-de- 
 camp of Bonaparte, whom he followed to Egypt in 1798. 
 During the consulate and the empire he was employed 
 on important missions, and was sent successively to the 
 courts of Berlin, Vienna, and Saint Petersburg. In these 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. 
 
 52 
 
 See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DUROCHER 
 
 818 
 
 DUSSJULX 
 
 difficult affairs he acquitted himself to the satisfaction 
 of Napoleon, who ever treated him with confidence, and 
 who made him marshal of his palace and Duke of Friuli. 
 "Duroc loved Napoleon for himself," says Alison, "and 
 possessed perhaps a larger share of his confidence than 
 any of his other generals." He accompanied the emperor 
 in the campaigns of 1805-06 and 1807, and was killed by 
 his side at Mackersdorf, in Saxony, May, 1813. Bona- 
 parte wept as he pressed the hand of the dying man, 
 and said, " Duroc, there is another world, where we shall 
 meet again." 
 
 See " Memorial de Saint-Helene ;" Alison, " History of Europe ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographic G^neVale." 
 
 Durocher. See Guerin du Rocher. 
 
 Duroi. See Duroy. 
 
 Duroi, du'rvva', (Johann Philipp,) a German botanist, 
 born in 1741 ; died in 1786. 
 
 Durosnel, du'ro'nel', (Antoine Jean Auguste 
 Henri,) born in Paris in 1771, became in 1809 a gene- 
 ral of division, and aide-de-camp to Napoleon. During 
 the Hundred Days he was second in command of the 
 national guard of Paris. He was aide-de-camp to Louis 
 Philippe in 1832, and was made a peer in 1837. Died 
 in 1849. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Duroy, du'rvva', or Deroy,[Lat. Regius,] (Hendrtk,) 
 a Dutch physician, born in 1598 at Utrecht, where he 
 was professor of medicine for forty years, ending at 
 his death. He wrote, in Latin, works on Physiology, 
 (1641,) Natural Philosophy, (1651,) and Medicine. He 
 was involved in a quarrel with Descartes, who charged 
 him with plagiarism. Died in 1679. 
 
 See £loy, " Dictionnaire de la M^decine." 
 
 Du Rozoir, du ro'zwau', (Charles,) a French editor 
 and historical writer, born in Paris in 1790, became pro- 
 fessor of history in the college Louis-le-Grand in 1818. 
 He was one of the editors of Michaud's " Biographie 
 Universelle," and of other valuable works. He published 
 a " Programme of Roman History." Died in 1844, 
 
 Durri. See Doorree. 
 
 Durrieu, du're-uh', (Antoine Simon,) Baron, a 
 French general, born at Grenade (Landes) in 1775 ; died 
 in 1862. 
 
 Durrius, ddor're-tis, (Johann Conrad,) a German 
 author, born at Nuremberg in 1625, wrote, besides other 
 works, a "Compendium of Moral Theology," which was 
 often reprinted. Died in 1677. 
 
 Durufle, du'ru'fla',(Loi>is Robert Parfait — piR'fJ',) 
 a French poet, born at Elbeuf in 1742; died in 1793. 
 
 Durutte, du'rut', (Joseph Francois,) a French gen-. 
 eral, born at Douai in 1767; died in 1827 or 1837. 
 
 See " Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Duruy, dii'ru-e', (Victor,) a French historical writer, 
 born in Paris in 181 1, became professor of history at the 
 Lycee Napoleon, and published, for the use of schools, 
 many popular historical works, among which are a " His- 
 tory of the Romans," (1844,) and a "History of France," 
 (1852.) 
 
 Durvasas, dooR-va'sas, an irascible and famous Hin- 
 doo sage, who was, in his own estimation, "a very mine 
 of penitential merit." Sakoontala, the heroine of Kali- 
 dasa's drama "The Lost Ring," having failed, through 
 absence of mind, to show him the respect he deemed his 
 due, he cursed her ; and on this curse the plot of the 
 story turns. 
 
 See "Sakoontala," translated by Professor M. Williams, of 
 Oxford, 1856. 
 
 Durville. See Dumont d'Urvii.le. 
 
 Du'ry\ [Lat. DuRy«'us,] (John,) a Scottish clergyman, 
 who laboured and travelled many years to effect a union 
 between the Lutherans and the Calvinists. He wrote 
 "An Earnest Plea for Gospel Communion," (1654,) and 
 other works. Died after 1674. 
 
 Duryee, dur-ya', (A dram,) an American officer, born 
 in New York City in 1815. He commanded a regiment 
 of zouaves at the battle of Great Bethel in 1861, and 
 was made brigadier-general of volunteers the same year. 
 
 Duryer or Du Ryer, dii're-a', (Andre,) a French 
 scholar, born at Marcigny, in Burgundy, lived about 1640. 
 He was consul at Alexandria, and lived many years in 
 
 the East. He published a translation of the "Gulistan" 
 of Saadi, (1634,) and one of the Koran, (1647,) which was 
 very successful. 
 
 See Bavlb, "Historical and Critical Dictionary," edition of Des- 
 maiseaux. 
 
 Duryer, (Pierre,) a French dramatist and litterateur, 
 born in Paris in 1605. He was admitted into the French 
 Academy in 1646, when the celebrated Coraeille was his 
 competitor. Before that year he had produced several 
 successful tragedies, and in 1647 appeared the tragedy 
 of " Scevole," which is esteemed his best work. He 
 published bad versions of the works of Cicero and of 
 other Latin authors. Died about 1658. 
 
 See Niceron, " Me'moires." 
 
 Dusart, du'saiu', (Cornelis,) a Dutch painter, born 
 at Haarlem in 1665. He was a pupil and successful 
 imitator of Van Ostade. His favourite subjects were 
 the life, actions, and manners of villagers and peasants. 
 Died in 1704. 
 
 See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Dusaulchoy de Bergemont, du'zo'shwa'deh binzh'- 
 mdN', (Joseph Francois Nicolas,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Toul in 1761. He edited several journals be- 
 tween 1790 and 1800, and was imprisoned in the reign 
 of terror. He wrote spirited songs and other agreeable 
 verses, among which are "The Victories of the French 
 Armies," (1808,) and "The Poetic Nights," (1825.) 
 Among his prose works is " The Censor," (2 vols., 1818.) 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 Dusaulx. See Dussaulx. 
 
 Dusch, doosli, (Johann JaKOI!,) a German poet, born 
 at Zelle, Hanover, in 1725. He became in 1766 director 
 of a college in Altona, where he taught philosophy and 
 mathematics. He excelled in didactic poetry, and in the 
 art of enlivening dry themes of morality and philosophy 
 by the charms of his diction. His chief poem is entitled 
 "The Sciences," ("Die Wissenschaften.") His "Letters 
 on the Formation of Taste" ("Moralische Briefe zur 
 Bildung des Geschmacks," 6 vols., 1764) is called an 
 excellent work. Died at Altona in December, 1787. 
 
 Duseigneur, dU'sJn'yUR', (Jean Bernard,) a distin- 
 guished French sculptor, born in Paris in 180S. Among 
 his successful works is "Roland Furieux," or "Orlando 
 Furioso," (1831.) 
 
 Du Sejour. See Dionis. 
 
 Dush-yan'ta, [modern Hindoo pron. ddosh-yun'ta,] 
 a celebrated king of India, the hero of Kalidasa's drama 
 of "Sakoontala, or the Lost Ring." 
 
 See " Sakoontaia," translated by Professor M. Williams, of 
 Oxford, 1856. 
 
 Du Sommerard, dii som'rtR', (Alexandre,) a 
 French antiquary, born at Bar-sur-Aube in 1779. He was 
 appointed a member of the cour des comptes in 1807, and 
 comeiller riferendaire of the same in 1823. He devoted 
 much time to the study and search of monuments of 
 mediaeval arts, and made a rich collection of manuscripts, 
 arms, costumes, etc., which he deposited in the Hotel 
 de Cluny, now a public museum. He published, besides 
 other minor works, "The Arts of the Middle Ages," 
 (" Les Arts au Moyen Age," 5 vols., 1839-43,) which is 
 highly commended. Died in 1842. 
 
 See Louandre et Bourquelot, "La LitteYature Francaise." 
 
 Dussault, dii'so', (Jean Josepil) an able French 
 journalist and critic, born in Paris-'in 1769. He was a 
 tutor in the college Du Plessis until the Revolution de- 
 prived him of that place. During the first republic he 
 wrote for Freron's "Orator of the People." In 1800 
 he became one of the editors of the "Journal des De- 
 bats," then just established, which position he held until 
 1817. DiecPin 1824. 
 
 Dussaulx or Dusaulx, dii's5', (Jean,) a French litte- 
 rateur, born at Chartresin 1728. Having published a good 
 prose version of Juvenal, he was. admitted into the Acad- 
 emy of Inscriptions in 1776. He adopted the principles 
 of the Revolution, and as a member of the Convention 
 acted with moderation and opposed the execution of 
 the king. In 1796 and 1797 he was one of the Council 
 of Elders. He wrote several " Essays on the Passion 
 for Gaming," and other works. Died in 1799. 
 
 See "M^moires sur la Vie de Dussaulx," by his widow, 1801; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 5, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
DUSSEK 
 
 819 
 
 DUVAL 
 
 Dussek, ddos'sSk, (Johann Ludvvig,) an eminent 
 German composer and pianist, was born at Czaslau, in 
 Bohemia, about 1760. He performed in Paris, London, 
 and other cities, and composed for the piano numerous 
 concertos, symphonies, sonatas, etc., some of which were 
 very popular. From 1806 until his death in 1812 he was 
 in the service of Prince Talleyrand as director of music. 
 
 See Fbtis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Dussieux, du'se-uh', (Etienne Louis,) a French 
 writer, born in Paris in 1815, published " Historical 
 Geography of France," (1844,) "Essay on the Invasion 
 of Europe by the Huns," (Hongrois,) and other works. 
 
 Dutems, dti'tfiN', (Jean Francois Huoues,) better 
 known as Abbe Dutems, born in Franche-Comte in 1745, 
 became a doctor of the Sorbonne. He wrote a " His- 
 torical Picture of the Archbishops, Bishops, etc. of 
 France," (4 vols., 1775,) and a "Life of the Duke of 
 Marlborough," (3 vols., 1808.) Died in 181 1. 
 
 Dutens, dii'toN', (Joseph Michel,) a French political 
 economist, nephew of Louis, noticed below, was born 
 at Tours in 1765. He was sent to England in 1818 by 
 the government, to examine the inland navigation of 
 that country, and published, in 1819, "Memoirs on the 
 Public Works of England." His most important work 
 is "The Philosophy of Political Economy," (2 vols., 
 1835,) which was severely criticised by the disciples of 
 Adam Smith. He agrees with Quesnay in the opinion 
 that the riches of a nation proceed from agriculture 
 rather than from manufactures or trade. Died in 1848. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Dutens, (Louis,) a French Protestant writer, born at 
 Tours in 1730. In his youth, for the sake of religious 
 liberty, he emigrated to London. He learned Greek 
 and several Oriental languages. About 1760 he became 
 charge-d'affaires at the court of Turin, where he wrote 
 "Researches on the Origin of Discoveries attributed to 
 the Moderns," (1766,) which was received with favour. 
 About this time he was presented to the rich living 
 of Elsdon. He was a Fellow of the RoyalSociety of 
 London, and of the Academy of Inscription's at Paris. 
 He published many valuable works, among which are a 
 " Treatise on Greek and Phoenician Medals," (1773,) and 
 ■' Journal of Travels to the Principal Cities of Europe," 
 (1775.) Died in London in 1812. 
 
 See his " Memoires d'un Voyageur qui se repose," 2 vols., 1806; 
 " Ivlmburgh Keview" for July, 1806. 
 
 Dutertre. See Duport-Dutertre. 
 
 Dutertre, du't|RtR', (Jean Baptiste,) a French Do- 
 minican, born at Calais in 1610. He was sent in 1640 as 
 missionary to the Antilles, where he laboured eighteen 
 yean, and composed a "General History of the Antilles 
 inhabited by the French." Died in Pans in 1687. 
 
 Dutheil de la Porte, du't&I' (dii'tVye) deh 11 pout, 
 (or Laporte du Theil,) (Francois Jean Gabriel,) a 
 French Hellenist, son of Jean Gabriel, noticed below, 
 was bom in Paris in 1742. He was admitted into the 
 Academy of Inscriptions in 1770, and published trans- 
 lations of Callimachus (1775) and jEschylus, (2 vols., 
 1794.) In conjunction with Coray and Gosselin, he was 
 employed by the government to translate the Geography 
 of Strabo, which was half finished when he died in 1815. 
 
 See Silvestre i>e Sacy, "Notice abregrfsur la Vie de M. de La- 
 porte-Dutheil," 1816. 
 
 Dutheil de la Porte, (Jean Gabriel,) a French 
 diplomatist, father of the preceding, was born about 
 1683. In 1735 he was minister to Vienna, and in 1748 
 he was ambassador extraordinary to the Congress of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. Died in 1755. 
 
 Duthillceul, dii'te'yul', ( Hippolyte Romain Joseph,) 
 a French bibliographer, born at Douai in 1788, wrote 
 several biographies, and other works. 
 
 Dutillet, (Jean.) See Tillet. 
 
 Dutour, dii'tooR', (Etienne Francois,) a French 
 savant, born at Riom in 1 71 1, was a correspondent of 
 the Academy of Sciences, and author of treatises on 
 Magnetism, Electricity, the Diffraction of Light, etc. 
 Died at Riom in 1784. 
 
 Du Tramblay. See Dutremblay. 
 
 Dutremblay or Du Tramblay, dii / tR5N'b1&', (An- 
 toine Pierre,) Baron, a French writer, born in Paris 
 in 1745, was the author of numerous fables. Died in 1819. 
 
 Dutrochet, du'tRo'shi', (Ren6 Joachim Henri,) a 
 French physiologist and natural philosopher, born at 
 the chateau de Neon, Poitou, in 1776. lie graduated 
 as M.D. in 1806, and became military physician to Joseph 
 Bonaparte in Spain in 1808, but returned to France in 
 1809. He published a series of essays on physiology, 
 which present new ideas, and among which are " Ob- 
 servations on the Structure of Feathers," (1819,) and 
 "Researches in Endosmosis and Exosmosis," (1828.) 
 His former works appeared revised in a collection 
 called "Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire anatomique 
 et physiologique des Vegetaux et Animaux," (1837.) 
 Died in Paris in 1847. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteiaire ;" Adolphe Brongniart, 
 11 Notice sur H. Dutrochet," 1852; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Duvair, dii'vaR', (Guillaume,) a French writer and 
 moralist, distinguished for learning and probity, was 
 born in Paris in 1556. He opposed the League, and 
 became first president of the parliament of Provence in 
 1599. In 1616 he was chosen keeper of the seals. He 
 made a French version of Epictetus, and wrote several 
 excellent treatises on philosophy and other subjects, 
 among which is one on " French Eloquence." He was 
 regarded as one of the best writers of his time. Died in 
 1621. 
 
 See C. A. Sapev, " Essai sur la Vie, etc. de Du Vair," 1847. 
 
 Duval. See Espremenil. 
 
 Duval, du'val', (Alexandre Vincent Pineu — pe'- 
 nuh',) a popular French dramatist, born at Rennes in 
 1767. He produced in 1802 "Edward in Scotland," a 
 political drama, which was warmly applauded. He ex- 
 celled in invention, in dialogue, and in variety of effects. 
 His works are numerous, and consist chiefly of comedies 
 and comic operas. He was elected to the French Acad- 
 emy in 1812 in the place of Legouve. Died in 1842. 
 
 His brother, Henri Charles, born in 1770, wrote a 
 " History of France in the Reign of Charles VI.," (1842,) 
 and a few other works. Died in 1847. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale;" Ballanche, " Discours 
 de Reception a l'Academie Francaise." 
 
 Duval, (Amaury Pineu,) a French litterateur, brothei 
 of the preceding, was born at Rennes in 1 760. He was 
 chosen a member of the Institute in 181 1. In 1816 he 
 was selected by the Academy of Inscriptions to replace 
 Ginguene in the commission of the " Histoire Litteraire 
 de France," for which work he wrote many articles. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Duval, (Charles,) a French architect, born at Beau- 
 vais in 1800. 
 
 Duval, (Eugene Emmanuel Amaury.) a French 
 painter of history and portraits, son of Amaury Pineu, 
 noticed above, was born near Paris in 1808. 
 
 Duval, (Jean Pierre,) a French legislator and advo- 
 cate, who, elected to the Convention in 1792, opposed 
 the execution of the king, was proscribed as a Girondist, 
 and escaped by concealment. When the Convention was 
 dissolved, in 1795, he passed into the Council of Five 
 Hundred. Died in 1819. 
 
 Duval, dii'vil', (Nicolaas,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 the Hague in 1644. He was employed at Loo by Wil- 
 liam III. of England. Died in 1732. 
 
 Duval, (Pierre,) a nephew of Nicolas Sanson, was 
 born at Abbeville, France, in 1618. He cultivated and 
 taught geography with success, and received the title of 
 royal geographer. Among his numerous works are "The 
 World, or Universal Geography," and a " Description of 
 France," (1691.) Died in 1683. 
 
 Duval, (Valentine Jameray — zhini'r&',) was born 
 of poor parents in Champagne in 1695. In early youth 
 he became a servant of certain hermits near Lnneville, 
 and contracted a passion for study. The Duke of Lor- 
 raine (I-eopold) sent him to college, and founded for him 
 a chair of history at Luneville, where Duval lectured with 
 success. About 1730 he became librarian to Francis, 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany, and in 1748 he was appointed 
 director of the imperial cabinet at Vienna. He wrote 
 two treatises on medals and coins. Died in 1775. 
 
 See "Vie de Duval," 17SS; I.. Biogiitwkli.. "Bypaths of Bio- 
 graphy ;" Cari. Dielitz, " V. J. Duvals hochst merkwiirdige Lebenb- 
 gescrnchte," 1839. 
 
 € 2sk;^3&s;%hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; a, nasal; v., trilled; sasz; th asm tliis. (Jjy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DUVAL 
 
 820 
 
 DUTCKINCK 
 
 Duval, (Vincent,) a French physician, skilled in the 
 treatment of deformed feet, was born in Eure in 1796. 
 
 Duval le Camus, clu'vftl' leh ki'miiss', (Pierre,) a 
 skilful French painter, born at Lisieux (Calvados) in 1 790. 
 He painted portraits, genre, landscapes, and familiar 
 scenes. Among his works are "L'Ennui," (1827,) and 
 "The Passage of the Ford," (1837.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Duval Leroy, (or le Roy,) du'vtl' leh-i<wa', (Nico- 
 las Claude,) a French mathematician, born at Bayeux 
 about 1730, published "Elements of Navigation," and 
 other works. Died in 1810. 
 
 Duvau, du'vo', (Auguste,) a French botanist and 
 litterateur, born at Tours in 1771, contributed to the 
 "Biographie Universelle" the articles on Tournefort, 
 Schiller, Lessing, Wieland, Wallenstein, and many 
 others. Died in 1831. 
 
 Duvaucel, difvo'sSl', (Alfred,) an able French natu- 
 ralist, born in Paris in 1792, was a step-son and pupil of 
 the illustrious Cuvier. He had a great facility in acquir- 
 ing languages, and made extensive attainments in natural 
 history. In 1817 he went, with the title of naturalist to 
 the king, on a scientific excursion to India, which he ex- 
 plored about six years with M. Diard. They made rich 
 collections of animals, minerals, etc. for the Museum of 
 Paris. He died at or near Madras in 1824. 
 
 See Cuvier, "Notice sur les Voyages de M. Duvaucel," in the 
 " M^moires de l'Acaddmie des Sciences." 
 
 Duvaucel, (CHARLES,) a French astronomer, born in 
 Paris in 1734; died in 1820. 
 
 Duvenede, van, vSn du'veh-nkl', (Marc,) a Flemish 
 painter, born at Bruges about 1674, was a pupil of Carlo 
 Maratta in Rome. He returned to Bruges, and painted 
 pictures for churches. His "Martyrdom of Saint Law- 
 rence" is praised by Descamps. Died in 1729. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Duverdier, du'veVde-i', (Antoine,) a French bib- 
 liographer, was born at Montbrison in 1544. He was 
 counsellor to the king, and gentleman of the chamber. 
 He is chiefly known by his "Bibliotheque de A. Du- 
 verdier," (1585,) a catalogue of French authors. Died 
 in 1600. 
 
 Duverdier, (Gii.iiERTSaulnier — so'ne-i',) a French 
 historian, who died in Paris in 1686. 
 
 Duvergier, dii'veVzhe-a', (Jean Baptiste Marie,) 
 a French jurist, born at Bordeaux in 1792, published a 
 "Complete Collection of Laws, Decrees, etc.," (24 vols., 
 1824-28.) In 1855 he became a councillor of state. 
 
 Duvergier de Hauranne, dii'veVzhe-a' deli ho'i -in', 
 Abbe of Saint-Cyran, (se'r&N',) a noted French Jansenist 
 theologian, was born at Bayonne in 1581. He formed 
 a friendship with Jansenius at Louvain, and afterwards 
 became a resident of Paris. He acquired great distinc- 
 tion and influence by his ascetic life and his zeal for 
 reforms. In 1620 he was chosen Abbe of Saint-Cyran. 
 Among his friends or disciples were Arnauld and other 
 recluses of Port-Royal. He published several tracts 
 against the Jesuit Ga'rasse. In 1638 he was imprisoned 
 by Richelieu at Vincennes. He was released in 1642, 
 and died in 1643. 
 
 See Lancelot, " Me'moires touchant la Vie de Monsieur de Saint- 
 Cyran ;" Racine, " Histoire de Port-Royal ;" Sainte-Beuve, " His- 
 toire de Port-Royal." 
 
 Duvergier de Hauranne, (Jean Marie,) a French 
 legislator, born at Rouen in 1771. He was a member of 
 the Chamber of Deputies from September, 1815, until 
 1823, and supported liberal principles. He wrote several 
 legal works. Died in 1831. 
 
 Duvergier de Hauranne, (Prosper,) an eminent 
 French statesman, a son of the preceding, was born at 
 Rouen in 1798. He was identified with the Doctrinaires in 
 politics, and in 1831 entered the Chamber of Deputies, in 
 which he acquired much influence. He was one of the 
 master-spirits of the coalition formed by several shades 
 of opposition in 1837, and maintained the maxim "The 
 king reigns, but does not govern." He was one of the 
 chief agitators of electoral reform in 1846 and 1847, and 
 in the Assembly of 1848 acted with the conservatives. 
 Having opposed the coup d'etat of December, 185 1, he 
 was exiled for a few months. He wrote a " History of 
 Parliamentary Government in France," (2 vols., 1S57.) 
 
 See Louis Blanc, " Histoire de dix Ans." 
 
 Duvernet, dii'veVnk', (Theophile,) Abhe, a French 
 writer, born at Ambert in 1730, wrote a "Life of Vol- 
 taire," which had a large sale, but has not much merit. 
 Died in 1796. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Correspondance." 
 
 Duverney, du'veVn^', (Joseph Guichard— ge'- 
 sh$R',) an eminent French anatomist, born at Feurs, in 
 Forez, in August, 1648. He went to Paris in his youth, 
 and soon became distinguished as an eloquent lecturer 
 on anatomy. His elocution was so graceful and impress- 
 ive that famous actors attended his course to receive 
 instruction in their art. He was received into the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences in 1676, and was appointed professor 
 of anatomy in the Jardin du Roi in 1679. He wrote an 
 excellent treatise "On the Organ of Hearing," (1683,) 
 and other anatomical works. Died in 1730. 
 
 See "Biographie Medicate;" Fontenelle, "FJoges des Acade^ 
 miciens." 
 
 Duvernoy, du'veVnwa', (Georges Louis,) an emi- 
 nent French zoologist and anatomist, born at Montbe- 
 liard in 1777. About 1802 he was employed by Cuvier 
 as editor of his "Lectures on Comparative Anatomy," 
 and he published the last three volumes of that work 
 in 1805. He practised medicine at Montbeliard nearly 
 twenty years, and became professor of natural history at. 
 Strasbourg in 1827. In 1837 he succeeded Cuvier as pro- 
 fessor in the College of France, and in 1850 he exchanged 
 that place for the chair of comparative anatomy. He 
 wrote numerous and important works on anatomy and 
 zoology, among which is "Lectures on the History of 
 Organized Bodies," (1842,) and contributed to the " Dic- 
 tionary of Natural Sciences." Died in Paris in 1855. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Duvevnoy, (Jean Georges,) a French anatomist 
 and writer, born at Montbeliard in 1691. He became 
 professor of medicine at Tubingen in 1715, and in 1725 
 obtained the chair of anatomy and surgery in the Acad- 
 emy of Saint Petersburg, which he filled until 1746. 
 Died in 1759. 
 
 Duveyrier, du'vh're^i', (Anne Honore Joseph,) 
 a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1788. He wrote, 
 under the assumed name of Melesvii.le, many suc- 
 cessful comedies and vaudevilles. 
 
 Duveyrier, (Charles,) a brother of the preceding, 
 born in Paris in 1803, wrote "La Marquise de Senne- 
 terre," (1837,) and other popular comedies. 
 
 Duviquet, dii've'kj', (Pierre,) a French critic, born 
 at Clamecy in 1766. In the Revolution he acted with 
 the popular party, and in 1798 was one of the Council of 
 hive Hundred. From 1814 to 1830 he was employed as 
 editor of the "Journal des Debats," for which he wrote 
 able critiques on the drama. Died in 1835. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G&ieVale." 
 
 Duvivier, dii've've-A', (Franciade Fi.eurus, fp6N'- 
 se'td' fluh'russ',) a F rench general, born at Rouen in 
 1794, served with distinction in Algeria from 1830 to 
 1840. On the formation of the republic, in 1848, he be- 
 came a general of division. He was mortally wounded 
 in a fight with the insurgents of Paris in June, 1848. He 
 wrote several military works. 
 
 See "Nouvelle $iognrpfei£ (;. : iiL'ra!e." 
 
 Duvoisin, dii'vw.VzaN', (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 bishop, born at Langres in 1744. He was a professor in 
 the schools of the Sorbonne before the Revolution, and 
 was an exile from 1792 till 1802. About the latter date 
 he became Bishop of Nantes. He was one of the four 
 bishops chosen to reside with the pope during his cap- 
 tivity in France. Besides other works, he published 
 "Evangelical Demonstration," and "Defence of Social 
 Order against the Principles of the French Revolution," 
 (1798.) Died in 1813. 
 
 See Querard, "La Y ranee LitteVaire." 
 
 Duyckinck, dT'ldnk, (Evert Augustus,) an Ameri- 
 can essayist and critic, born in the city of New York in 
 1816. He founded the "Literary World" in 1847, and 
 edited it for several years. In conjunction with his 
 brother George L., he published a valuable work entitled 
 "Cyclopaedia of American Literature, embracing Per- 
 sonal and Critical Notices of Authors," (2 vols., 1856; 
 new edition, wifh Supplement, 1866.) 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, >*, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
DUTCKINCK 
 
 821 
 
 DYER 
 
 Duyckinck, (George Long,) an essayist and scholar, 
 brother of the preceding, was born in New York in 1822 
 or 1S23. He contributed to the "Literary World" and 
 the "Cyclopxdia of American Literature," and wrote a 
 " Life of George Herbert," (1S58.) Died in March, 1863. 
 
 Duyse, van, \9n doi'zeh, (Prudens,) a Dutch anti- 
 quary and poet, born at Dendermonde in 1805. 
 
 Duzi, doot'see, or Ducci, doot'chee, (Virgilio,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Citta di Castello, lived about 1600. 
 
 Dwapayana. See VyAsa. 
 
 Dwight, dwft, (Edmund,) an American merchant and 
 patron of learning, born at Springfield, Massachusetts, 
 in 17S0, graduated at Yale College in 1799. He was a 
 partner of the firm which established large cotton-mills 
 at Chicopee Falls and Holyoke. He is said to have 
 been the first who proposed to establish normal schools 
 in Massachusetts, and he subsequently gave ten thousand 
 dollars towards their support. Died in 1849. 
 
 Dwight, (Harrison Gray Otis,) an American mis- 
 sionary, born about 1803. He published "Christianity 
 Revived in the East," (1850. ] Died in 1862. 
 
 Dwight, (Skreso Edwards,) D.D., an American 
 divine, son of President Dwight, was born at Greenfield 
 {fill; Connecticut, m 1786. He graduated at Yale in 
 1803. After practising law for nearly ten years, he 
 studied divinity, and was several years pastor of Park 
 Street Church, but afterwards taught school in New 
 Haven and Boston. From 1833 to 1836 he was presi- 
 dent of Hamilton College, New York. Died in 1850. 
 Dr. Dwight edited the works of his great-grandfather, 
 Jonathan Edwards, (10 vols. 8vo,) to which he added a 
 life of the author. A volume of his discourses, with a 
 memoir of his life, has been published by W. T. Dwight. 
 
 Dwight, (THEODORE,) an able American journalist, 
 born at Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1765, was a 
 brother of Timothy Dwight, noticed below. He gained 
 distinction as a lawyer, and was a prominent leader of 
 the Federal party. He edited "The Hartford Mirror," 
 an organ of the Federalists, was secretary of the Hart- 
 ford Convention in 1814, and founded, about 1817, the 
 "New York Daily Advertiser," which he edited with 
 great ability until 1836. Died in 1846. 
 
 Dwight, (Timothy,) an eminent American divine 
 and scholar, born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on 
 the 14th of May, 1752, was a son of Timothy Dwight, 
 a merchant. His mother, Mary Edwards, a daughter 
 of the celebrated Jonathan Edwards, was a woman of 
 talents and rare worth. In 1765 he entered Yale Col- 
 lege, where he graduated in 1769. He acted as tutor in 
 that college for six years, from 1771 to 1777. In 1774 
 he finished "The Conquest of Canaan," an epic poem, 
 (printed in 1785.) He married a lady named Woolsey 
 in 1777, was licensed to preach, and became a chaplain 
 in the army the same year. Having left the army in 
 October, 1778, he worked on a farm in Northampton for 
 five years, during which he aided to support his mother, 
 and preached occasionally at several adjacent villages. 
 In 1783 he was ordained minister of the Congregational 
 church of Greenfield, Connecticut. His salary being 
 insufficient for the support of his family, he opened an 
 academy, (at Greenfield,) which had a high reputation. 
 
 He was chosen president of Yale College in 1795, and 
 was annually appointed professor of theology there for 
 ten years. This appointment was made permanent in 
 1805. He also performed the functions of preacher at 
 the chapel of the college. He published "Greenfield 
 Hill," a poem, (1794,) and a number of occasional ser- 
 mons at different times. He continued to preside over 
 Yale College until his death, and rendered important 
 services as a teacher of youth, for which he was emi- 
 nently qualified. His principal works are "Theology 
 Explained and Defended in a Series of One Hundred 
 and Seventy-three Sermons," (5 vols., 181 8,) which is 
 highly esteemed, and "Travels in New England and 
 Nrw York," (4 vols., 1821.) "This work," says Southey, 
 "though the humblest in its pretences, is the most im- 
 portant of his writings, and will derive additional value 
 from time. . . . The remarks upon natural history are 
 those of an observant and sagacious man who makes no 
 pretences to science : they are more interesting, therefore, 
 than those of a merely scientific traveller." ("London 
 
 Quarterly Review," vol. xxx., October, 1823.) He died 
 at New Haven in January, 181 7. 
 
 See his Life in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. iv., second 
 series, by William B. Sprague; ''Life of Dr. Dwight," by his son, 
 SerenoE. Dwight; Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America, "and 
 "Prose Writers of America;" "National Portrait-Gallery of Distin- 
 guished Americans," vol. i. ; Duvckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American 
 Literature," vol. i. ; Sprague, "Annals of the American Pulpit." 
 
 Dwight, (Wilder,) Lieutenant-Colonel, a brave 
 American officer, born at Springfield, Massachusetts, in 
 1833, was a brother of General William Dwight. He died 
 of wounds received at the battle of Antietam, September 
 17, 1862. 
 
 See " Life and Letters of Wilder Dwight," 186S. 
 
 Dwight, (William,) an American general, born in 
 Massachusetts. He served in Louisiana in May, 1863, 
 and took part in the battle of Pleasant Hill, under Gen- 
 eral Banks, April, 1864. 
 
 Dyce, (Rev. Alexander,) a British editor and critic, 
 born in Edinburgh about 1798. He became a resident 
 of London in 1827, after which he gave proof of his 
 critical ability in editions of Webster, Middleton, Beau- 
 mont and Fletcher, Marlowe, and other old dramatists. 
 In 1858 he published an excellent edition of Shakspeare, 
 in 6 vols., "which is," says the Athenaeum, "the most 
 perfect text now to be obtained, with brief annotations 
 sufficient for all practical purposes." He wrote the 
 lives of Shakspeare, Pope, and Akenside in a collection 
 called the "Aldine Poets." Died in May, 1869. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1S59. 
 
 Dyce, (William,) R.A., a painter of history, was 
 born at Aberdeen, in Scotland, about 1806. He began 
 to exhibit in the Royal Academy in 1827. His picture 
 of "Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance" (1844) 
 procured him a high reputation and admission into the 
 Royal Academy as associate. He was one of the artists 
 employed to decorate the new Houses of Parliament, and 
 painted in the House of Lords a fresco of the " Baptism 
 of Ethelbert," which is much admired. Among his oil- 
 paintings are a " Madonna and Child," (1846,) and "The 
 Meeting of Jacob and Rachel," (1850.) Died in 1864. 
 
 Dyche, (Thomas,) an English teacher and educa- 
 tional writer. Died in 1750. 
 
 Dyck, van, (Anthony.) See Vandyke. 
 
 Dyck, van, vin dlk, (Floris,) born in Haarlem in 
 1 577, was a skilful painter of history and of fruits. The 
 Museum of the Louvre contains two of his works, repre- 
 senting scenes in the life of Hagar. 
 
 See Dhscamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Dyck, van, (Philip,) an excellent painter, born in 
 Amsterdam in 1680, is regarded by the Dutch as the 
 last of their great painters. He was a pupil of Arnold 
 Boonen. In 1710 he settled at Middelbtirg, where he 
 gained a high reputation, and imitated Gerard Dow 
 with success. He afterwards worked at the Hague, 
 and was employed as painter by the States of Holland. 
 He painted portraits, history, and cabinet pictures, imi- 
 tated nature with fidelity, and finished his work with 
 care. Among his works are "Susanna and the Elders," 
 and a portrait of the Prince of Orange. Died in 1752. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Dy'er, (Sir Edward,) an English poet, born about 
 1540. He was employed in several embassies by Queen 
 Elizabeth, who knighted him. He associated with the 
 famous Dr. Dee, and was reputed a Rosicrucian. His 
 works consist of pastoral odes and madrigals. 
 
 See Ellis, "Specimens of the Early English Poets." 
 
 Dyer, (GEORGE,) an English scholar, antiquary, and 
 divine, born in London in 1755. Having officiated as a 
 Baptist minister at Oxford, he became a resident of Lon- 
 don in 1792, and applied himself with success to literary 
 pursuits. lie wrote a "History of the University of 
 Cambridge," and edited the Greek Testament, and seve- 
 ral plays of Euripides. He contributed the original 
 portions (except the preface) of " Valpy's Classics," (141 
 vols.,) on which he was employed from 1819 to 1830, and 
 published some poems and othet works. Charles Lamb, 
 who was his friend, has commemorated his merit as an 
 author and a man, in his Essays. Died in 1841. 
 
 Dyer or Deyer, (Sir Jamks,) an English jurist, born 
 at Roundhill in 1511. He became eminent in his pro- 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g is,j; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (ft^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
DYER 
 
 EARLE 
 
 Session, and in 1552 was elected Speaker of the House 
 of Commons. From 1560 until his death, in 1582, he was 
 chief justice of the common pleas. His Reports were 
 recommended to students by Lord Coke. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Dyer, (John,) a British poet, born in 1700, was the 
 son of a Welsh solicitor. In his youth he was an itine- 
 rant painter. In 1727 he produced his "Grongar Hill," 
 which is regarded as his best poem. "The scenes which 
 it displays," says Dr. Johnson, "are so pleasing, the 
 images which they raise are so welcome to the mind, 
 that when it is once read it will be read again." He 
 went to Italy to study painting, and wrote there "The 
 Ruins of Rome," a poem, which was much admired. 
 After his return he took orders, married Miss Ensor, 
 and obtained the livings of Calthorpe, Coningsby, Bed- 
 ford, and Kirkby. In 1757 he published his longest 
 pjem, "The Fleece," which was unfavourably criticised 
 by Johnson. Dr. Drake, on the other hand, thinks "it 
 contains a vast variety of landscapes, drawn and coloured 
 in the most spirited and fascinating style." Dyer was a 
 man of pure morality and amiable temper. Died in 1758. 
 
 See Johnson's "Lives of the English Poets." 
 
 Dyer, (Mary,) a member of the Society of Friends, 
 or Quakers, who suffered death for her religion. She 
 was hanged on Boston Common in 1660. 
 
 See Hildreth's" History of the United States," vol. i. chap. xii. 
 
 Dyer, (SAMUEL,) an English scholar, born about 1725, 
 was noted for his wit and convivial habits. He was a 
 member of the literary club composed of Dr. Johnson 
 and his friends. About 1758 he revised the English 
 edition of Plutarch's "Lives," for which he made new 
 translations of the lives of Pericles and Demetrius. Died 
 in 1772. 
 
 Dyer, (William,) an English clergyman, who, in 
 1662, was ejected from Cholesbury, in Buckingham- 
 
 shire, for nonconformity. His Sermons, printed in 1663- 
 66, are said to resemble the style of Bunyan. He after- 
 wards joined the Society of Friends. Died in 1696, aged 
 sixty. 
 
 Dyke, (Daniel,) an eminent English Puritan divine, 
 who wrote a treatise "On Repentance," (1631,) and Ser- 
 mons, which were highly praised by Bishop Wilkins. 
 Died about 1614. 
 
 Dy'mond, (Jonathan,) an eminent English moralist 
 and writer, born at Exeter in 1796, was a member of the 
 Society of Friends. He became a linen-draper in his 
 native city. He advocated the principles of peace in 
 an able work entitled an "Inquiry into the Accordancy 
 of War with the Principles of Christianity," (1823.) He 
 also wrote "Essays on the Principles of Morality, and 
 on the Private and Political Rights and Obligations of 
 Mankind," (1S29,) which has passed through numerous 
 editions. Commenting on this work, Professor George 
 Bush remarks, " Whetlier we regard the soundness and 
 luckiness of his reasonings, the temper, candour, and 
 wisdom of his conclusions, the elegance of his style, the 
 felicity of his illustrations, or the singularly excellent 
 spirit which pervades the whole, the Essays of Dyinond 
 are entitled to rank high in the highest class of ethical 
 productions." (See Preface to the American edition of 
 Dymond's " Essays," New York, 1834.) Died in 1828. 
 
 See a Review of Dymond's Essays, by Robkrt SoUTHBY, in the 
 "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1831, vol. xliv. ; "Chris- 
 tian Examiner," vol. xviii. ; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Dzahabi, dzah'ha-bee, or Dzehebi, (Ahmed, &H'- 
 med,) a famous Arabian historian and jurist, born at 
 Damascus in 1275 ; died in 1347. 
 
 Dzatee or Dzati, dza'tee, surnamed Roumi, (roo'- 
 mee,) a Turkish poet, born at Carasi ; died in 1546. 
 
 Dzondi, dzon'dee, (Carl Heinkich,) a German med- 
 ical writer, born in Saxony in 1 770; died in 1835. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eachard. See Echard. 
 
 Eachard, etch'ard, (John,) D.D., an English clergy- 
 man, born in Suffolk in 1636. He became a Fellow of 
 Catherine Hall, Cambridge, in 1658, and Master of the 
 same in 1675. He displayed a talent for ridicule in his 
 works, among which were " The Ground and Occasions 
 of the Contempt of the Clergy and Religion inquired 
 into," (1670,) and a "Dialogue on Hobbes's State of 
 Nature," (1672.) " I have known men happy enough at 
 ridicule," says Dean Swift, "who upon grave subjects 
 were perfectly stupid ; of which Dr. Eachard was a great 
 instance." Died in 1697. 
 
 See Thomas Davies, " Life of J. Eachard;" " Biographia Britan- 
 nica." 
 
 Eadgar. See Edgar. 
 
 Eadie, ee'de, (John,) a Scottish Presbyterian divine 
 and biblical critic, born at Alva, in the county of Stir- 
 ling, about 1814. He has published several popular 
 works, among which are the " Biblical Cyclopaedia," (6th 
 edition, 1857,) a "Life of Dr. Kitto," and a "Condensed 
 Concordance to the Scriptures," (20th edition, i860.) 
 He succeeded Dr. Mitchell as professor of biblical litera- 
 ture to the United Presbyterian Church in 1843. He is, 
 or was recently, pastor of a congregation in Glasgow. 
 
 Eadmer, Jd'mer, or Edmer, an English historian and 
 monk, was the friend and companion of Bishop Anselm. 
 He wrote the "Historia Novorum," or "History of his 
 own Times" from 1066 to 1122, which contains valuable 
 information, and the " Life of Anselm." He was elected 
 Bishop of St. Andrew's in 1120. Died about 1124. 
 
 Eadmund. See Edmund. 
 
 Eadred. See Edred. 
 
 Eadward. See Edward. 
 
 Eadwig. See Edwig. 
 
 Eagles, ee'glz, (Rev. John,) an English writer and 
 artist, born at Bristol about 1784. He contributed to 
 " Blackwood's Magazine" and other periodicals. A vol- 
 ume of his contributions to Blackwood was published, 
 under the title of "The Sketcher," in 1856. Died in 1855. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1855. 
 
 Eames, eemz, ? (John,) an English savant, wrote 
 papers on "Natural Philosophy," etc. for the "Philo- 
 sophical Transactions" from 1726 to 1742, and was as- 
 sociated with J. Martyn in publishing an Abridgment 
 of the said Transactions, (1719-33.) Died in 1744. 
 
 Eandi, a-an'dee, (Giuseppe Antonio Francesco 
 Girolamo,) born at Saluces, Piedmont, in 1735, became 
 professor of natural philosophy in the University of 
 Turin in 1788. He wrote "Elements of Geometry 
 and Physics," (1793,) and other works. Died in 1799. 
 
 Slaque, the French of /Eacus, which see. 
 
 Eardley, erd'le, (Sir Culling,) an English publicist, 
 born at Hatfield in 1805. He was noted for his zealous 
 assertion of Protestantism. Died in 1863. 
 
 Earle, erl, (James,) an American portrait-painter, born 
 in Massachusetts, studied in London. Died in Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, in 1796. He held a high rank among 
 American artists of his time. 
 
 Earle, erl, (John,) an English bishop, born at York 
 in 1601, graduated at Oxford in 1624, and became chap- 
 lain and tutor to Prince Charles, (afterwards Charles II.,) 
 whom he followed into exile. In 1662 he was appointed 
 Bishop of Worcester, and in 1663 transferred to the see 
 of Salisbury. He wrote a popular work entitled " Micro- 
 cosmography," a delineation of character and manners, 
 and translated into Latin the " Eikon Basilike." His 
 character was excellent. Burnet says, " Earle was the 
 man of all the clergy for whom the king had the greatest 
 esteem." Died in 1665. 
 
 See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Earle, (Pliny,) an American inventor, born at Leices- 
 ter, Massachusetts, in 1762. He invented a machine 
 for making cards which are used in carding wool and 
 cotton. Died in 1832. 
 
 Earle, (Thomas,) an American writer and philan- 
 thropist, son of the preceding, was born at Leicester, 
 Massachusetts, in 1701. He practised law in Philadelphia 
 for many years. He was one of the most influential 
 members of the State Constitutional Convention of 1837, 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
EARLOM 
 
 823 
 
 EBELMEN 
 
 and in 1840 was the candidate of the Liberty party for 
 the Vice-Presidency. Died in 1849. Among his winks 
 are treatises on penal law and on States' rights. 
 
 His brother Pliny, a physician, born in 1809, published 
 In 1841 a work on the asylums lor the insane in Europe. 
 
 Earlom, er'lQin, (RICHARD,) one of the most eminent 
 English engravers of his time, was born in London about 
 1742, or, assome say, in 1728. lie has probably never 
 been surpassed as a mezzotinto engraver. Among his 
 master-pieces is "The Royal Academy." He engraved 
 the works of many Italian and Flemish painters ; he also 
 left fruit- and flower-pieces, after Huysum, and a collection 
 of prints after Claude Lorrain, entitled " Liber Veritatis," 
 (3 vols., 1 777-1804.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Early, er'lc, (John,) an eminent American divine, 
 Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was 
 born in Virginia in 1785. At an early age he became an 
 itinerant preacher, and was chosen bishop in 1854. 
 
 Early, (Jt/BAL A.,) an American general, born in Vir- 
 ginia about 1818, graduated at West Point in 1837. He 
 commanded a division of General Lee's army at Gettys- 
 burg, July 2-3, 1863. In July, 1864, he invaded Mary- 
 land, and sent a body of cavalry on a raid to Chambers- 
 burg, which they burned. Having moved his army back 
 to the Shenandoah Valley, he was defeated by Sheridan 
 on the Opequan Creek and at Fisher's Hill on the 19th 
 and 20th of September. On the 19th of October, 1864, 
 he surprised the Union army at Cedar Creek, in the 
 absence of General Sheridan ; but the latter, having ar- 
 rived in the afternoon, gained a decisive victory, General 
 Early losing the greater part of his artillery and trains. 
 
 East, (Sir Edward Hyde,) an English jurist, born 
 about 1764, published "King's Bench Reports, 1800- 
 1812," which are highly commended, and another excel- 
 lent legal production, entitled "Pleas of the Crown," 
 (1803.) Died in 1847. 
 
 East/burn, (Jamks Wallis,) a poet and Episcopal 
 clergyman, born in England in 1797. He became in 1818 
 rector of a church in Accomac county, Virginia. In con- 
 junction with Robert C. Sands, he wrote " Yamoyden," a 
 romantic poem founded on the history of the Indian 
 king Philip. Died in 1819. 
 
 See "North American Review" for April, 1S21. 
 
 Eastburn, (Manton,) D.D., a bishop, brother of the 
 preceding, was born in England in 1S01. Having been 
 brought by his parents to New York, he graduated at 
 Columbia College in 181 7. He received holy orders in 
 1822, and was for many years pastor of the Church of 
 the Ascension in New York, lie was appointed Bishop 
 of Massachusetts in 1843. 
 
 East'lake, (Sir Charles Lock,) an eminent Iinglish 
 historical painter, born at Plymouth in 1793. He be- 
 came a pupil of F'useli in the Royal Academy, and visited 
 Italy and Greece about 1818, after which he passed some 
 years in Rome. In 1828 he produced a remarkable pic- 
 ture of " Pilgrims to Rome first coming in Sight of the 
 Holy City." He was elected a Royal Academician in 
 1830, and president of the Royal Academy in 1850. His 
 picture of "Christ Weeping over Jerusalem" was greatly 
 admired for a union of refinement with earnest religious 
 feeling. He has enriched the literature of art with valu- 
 able works, among which are a version of Goethe's 
 "Theory of Colours," (1840,) and "Materials for a His- 
 tory of Oil-Painting,"( 1847.) Died about the end of 1865. 
 
 See Naclkk, " Nenes Allgemeines KUnstler-Lexikon ;" " London 
 Quarterly Review" for March, 1848; "Gentleman's Magazine" for 
 i ebruary, 1866. 
 
 Eastlake, (Elizabeth Rigiiy,) Lady, wife of the 
 preceding, to whom she was married in 1849. Among 
 her works are "Letters from the Shores of the Baltic," 
 (1841,) and "Livonian Tales." 
 
 East'man, (Charles G.,) an American poet and 
 journalist, born in Oxford county, Maine, in 1816. He 
 became about 1846 editor of the "Vermont Patriot," 
 published at Montpelier, and produced a volume of 
 poems in 1848. 
 
 Eastman, (Mary Henderson,) an American writer, 
 born at Warrenton, Virginia, about 1818. She pub- 
 lished, besides other works, " Romance of Indian Life," 
 (1852,) and " Aunt Phillis's Cabin," designed as a reply 
 to " Uncle Tom's Cabin." 
 
 East'wick, (EDWARD B.,) an English Orientalist, 
 born in Berkshire in 1814. lie was employed in India 
 as interpreter in the service of the East India Company. 
 About 1845 he became professor of Oriental languages 
 in the College of Hailcybury. He has published, besides 
 other works, "Dry Leaves from Young Egypt," (1849,) 
 a version of " Gulistan," from the Persian, (1852,) " Lights 
 of Canopus," (1854,) and a version of "The Four Der- 
 vishes," a Persian tale. 
 
 Eaton, ee'tgn, ( Amos, ) a distinguished American 
 naturalist, born in 1777, graduated at Williams College, 
 studied law in early life, and was admitted to the bar. 
 On the organization of the Rensselaer Institute, about 
 1828, at Troy, New York, he was appointed principal and 
 senior professor, which position he held till his death in 
 1842. He published a text-book on botany, which passed 
 through numerous editions, an " Index to the Geology 
 of the Northern States," and other scientific works. By 
 his writings and zeal in the cause of natural science he 
 did much to promote the study of natural history in the 
 United States in the early part of the present century. 
 
 Eaton, ee'ton, (John,) an English clergyman, born 
 in 1575, preached at Wickham Market, and wrote Anti- 
 nomian treatises on Faith and Justification. Died in 1641. 
 
 Eaton, (Horace,) born in Windsor county, Vermont, 
 in 1804, was elected Governor of Vermont in 1846, and 
 was for several years State superintendent of common 
 schools. Died in 1855. 
 
 Eaton, (William,) an American soldier, born in 
 Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1764. He was sent as con- 
 sul to Tunis in 1798, and was involved in a series of 
 negotiations and disputes, which he conducted with great 
 ability and courage. After hostilities had begun between 
 the United States and Tripoli in 1801, he made an at- 
 tempt to revolutionize Tripoli by means of an army which 
 he commanded; but a treaty of peace in 1805 rendered 
 his attempt abortive. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See a " Life of W. Eaton" in Sparks's " American Biography," 
 vol. ix., 1st series, by (J. C. Felton. 
 
 Ebben, cb'ben, or Ebbon, Sb'bon, a German monk 
 of the twelfth century, wrote a "Life of Otho, Bishop 
 of Bamberg." 
 
 Ebbesen,eVbeh-sen, (Niels, or Nicholas,) a Danish 
 patriot, who took arms against Count Gerard, a petty 
 tyrant, whom he killed. He afterwards defeated the 
 army of Gerard, but lost his life in the action, in 1340. 
 
 Eb'bon, [ Fr. pron. 11)on',] a French ecclesiastic, born 
 about 775 A.D. He became Bishop of Rhehns in 816, 
 and aided Lothaire in rebellion against Louis le Debon- 
 naire. Died in 851. 
 
 E'bed Je'su, a Syrian writer, who became Nestorian 
 Bishop of Nisibis about 1290. Died in 1318. Among 
 his numerous works is "The Book of the Pearl," a treat- 
 ise on the truth of the Christian religion. 
 
 Ebel, a'bel, (Johann Gottfried,) a German geolo- 
 gist, born at Zullichau in 1764. He wrote a popular 
 "Guide to Travellers in Switzerland," (1793,) an able 
 treatise on the geology of the Alps, ("Ueber den Bau 
 der Erde In den Alpen-Gebirgen," 1808,) and other 
 works. Died in 1830. 
 
 Ebel, (Johann Phii.ipp,) a German writer, born in 
 1592 ; died in 1627. 
 
 Ebeling, a'beh-ling', (Christoph Daniel,) a German 
 historian and scholar, born in Hildesheim, Hanover, in 
 1741, was for many years professor of history and of 
 Greek at Hamburg. His principal work is a valuable 
 "History and Geography of North America," (7 vols., 
 1796-1816.) Died in 1817. 
 
 Ebelmen, a'beYmoN', (Jacques Joseph,) an eminent 
 French chemist, born at Beaume-les-Dames in 1814. He 
 became professor of docimacy in the Ecple des Mines 
 in 1845. In 1847 he was appointed an engineer of the 
 first class, and director of the porcelain manufactory at 
 Sevres, the products of which he raised to a higher state 
 of perfection. He wrote for the "Annales des Mines" 
 and "Annales de Physique et de Chimie"many treatises, 
 among which was one " On the Decomposition of Rocks," 
 (1848.) He died in 1852, a few days after he had been 
 appointed engineer-in-chief of mines. 
 
 See M. CtiEVREUL, "Notice sur Ebelmen," 1855; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 € as £,-9 as s;ghard;gasj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; th as in this. (Jf^'Se/ Explanations," p. 23.) 
 
EBER 
 
 824 
 
 EBU-THALIB 
 
 Eber, a'ber, [Lat. Ebf/rus,] (Paul,) a German Prot- 
 estant theologian, born at Ritzingcn in 1511, was a friend 
 of Melanchthon, with whom he attended the Conference 
 of Worms in 1541. He became professor of Hebrew 
 at Wittenberg in 1556, and wrote, among other works, 
 (in Latin,) an "Exposition of the Gospels," and a "His- 
 tory of the Jews," (1561.) Died in 1569. 
 
 See M. Adam, " Vita: Eruditorum;" Balthasar Menz, "Oratio 
 de Vita et Rebus gestis P. Eberi," 1.581 : G. H. Sixt, "P. Eber, 
 der Schuler, Freund und Amtsgenosse der Retbrmatoren," 1843. 
 
 Eb'er-ard, a son-in-law of the emperor Lothaire, ob- 
 tained about 845 A.D. the duchy of Friuli, then one of 
 the most important fiefs of Italy. He was the father of 
 Berenger, King of Italy. 
 
 Eberhard, a'ber-hakt' or eVer-haRt', (August Gott- 
 lob,) a German savant and writer, born at Belzig, Prus- 
 sia, in 1769. Among his prose works are stories entitled 
 "Ferdinand Werner," (1802,) and "Hannchen and the 
 Chickens," which had a great success. His poem "The 
 First Man and the Earth" ("Der erste Mensch und die 
 Erde," 1828) is praised for its noble style. Died in 1845. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Eberhard, (Chkistoph,) a German natural philoso- 
 pher, born in 1655 ; died in 1730. 
 
 Eberhard, (Johann August,) a German philosopher 
 and elegant writer, born at Halberstadt in 1739. He pub- 
 lished in 1772 an "Apology for Socrates," which exercised 
 great influence in the propagation of that theological sys- 
 tem popularly known as neology or rationalism. This 
 work was severely criticised by Lessing and others, and 
 hindered Eberhard's advancement in the Church. He 
 was appointed professor of history at Halle in 1778. In 
 philosophy he was a staunch partisan of Leibnitz, and 
 an adversary of Kantism. He wrote, among other works, 
 a " History of Philosophy," (1788,) and a "Dictionary 
 of German Synonyms," (6 vols., 1793-1802,) which was 
 universally admired. Died in 1809. 
 
 See F. Nicolai, " Gedachtnissschrift atif J. A. Eberhard," Ber- 
 lin, 1810: " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Eberhard, (Johann Heinrich,) a German jurist, 
 born at Hochstadt in 1743 ; died in 1772. 
 
 Eberhard, (Johann Peter,) a German medical writer, 
 born at Altona in 1727; died in 1779. 
 
 Eberhard, (Konrad,) a distinguished German sculp- 
 tor, born at Hindelang in 1768. He became professor 
 of sculpture in the Academy of Munich in 1816. Among 
 his works are "Leda and the Swan," and a statue of 
 Saint Michael. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Eb'er-hard or Evrard de Bethune, a Flemish 
 grammarian of the twelfth century, wrote a Latin Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 Eberle, a'ber-leh, (Adam,) a German painter, born 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1805 ; died at Rome in 1832. 
 
 Eb'er-le, (John,) an American medical writer, born 
 in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 1788, graduated in 
 the University of Pennsylvania in 1809. He published 
 about 1822 a "Treatise on Therapeutics," took a promi- 
 nent part in establishing the Jefferson Medical College 
 in Philadelphia, and became a professor in that institu- 
 tion. Died in 1838. 
 
 See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography." 
 
 Eberlin, a'ber-leen', (Daniel,) a German musician, 
 born at Nuremberg about 1630. He became succes- 
 sively soldier, chapel-master, and banker. Died at Cas- 
 sel in 1685. 
 
 Ebers, a'bers, (Emil,) a German painter, distinguished 
 for humour and comic talent, was born at Breslau in 
 1807. Among his subjects are smugglers, outlaws, etc. 
 
 Ebersberger, a'bers-beRG'er, or Ebersperger, 
 a'bers-peRG'er, (Johann Georc.,) a German engraver 
 of maps, born at Lichtenau in 1695 ; died in 1760. 
 
 Eberstein, von, fon a'ber-stln', (Wh.helm Lud- 
 WIG,) Baron, a German metaphysical philosopher, born 
 in 1762 ; died in 1805. 
 
 Ebert, a'beRt, (Friedrich Adoi.ph,) a distinguished 
 German bibliographer, born at Taucha, near Leipsic, in 
 1791. He was appointed director of the Royal Library 
 of Dresden in 1828. Among his principal works are a 
 " Life of Napoleon," (1817,) and a "Universal Biblio- 
 graphic Dictionary," (2 vols., 1820-30.) Died in 1834. 
 
 Ebert, (Johann Arnold,) a German poet, born at 
 Hamburg in 1723. He was for a long time professor 
 in the Carolinum of Brunswick. His German version 
 of Young's "Night Thoughts" (1790-95) is praised by 
 Guizot. He translated other English works, and wrote 
 lyric verses of some merit. Died in 1795. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ebert, (Johann Jakoii,) a German philosopher, born 
 at Breslau in 1737, became professor of mathematics 
 at Wittenberg. He published "Principles of Practical 
 Philosophy," (1784,) and other works for the instruction 
 of youth. Died in 1805. 
 
 Ebert, (Theodor,) a German Hebraist, who wa» 
 professor of Hebrew at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He pub- 
 lished several works. Died in 1630. 
 
 Eberus, (Paul.) See Eber. 
 
 Eberwein. See Ebroin. 
 
 E'bi-011, the supposed founder of the E'bionites, a 
 sect of heretics who existed in the East in the first cen- 
 tury. They rejected the New Testament and observed 
 the Mosaic law, but professed to be Christians. Origen 
 and some others, however, derive the name of Ebionites 
 from a Hebrew word signifying "poor." 
 
 See Matter, "Histoire du Gnosticisme." 
 
 Eble, el/li', (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent French 
 general, born in Lorraine in 1758. As general of bri- 
 gade, he directed the sieges of Ypres, Nieuwpoort, Bois- 
 le-Duc, etc. He was made a general of division in 
 1793. In 1795 he made the campaign of the Palatinate, 
 under Moreau, and in 1800 commanded the artillery at 
 the victory of Hohenlinden. In the Russian campaign 
 of 1S12 he was chief commandant of the pontoon-train, 
 and rendered great services at the passage of the Bere- 
 zina, where it is said Bonaparte was saved by his energy 
 and skill. He died from the effects of cold and exposure 
 on this occasion, just as he was appointed inspector- 
 general and commander-in-chief of the artillery of the 
 grand army. 
 
 See De Courceu.es, " Dictionnaire des G^neraux Francais." 
 
 Ebn. See Ibn. 
 
 Ebn-Koteybah. See Ibn-Koteybah. 
 
 Ebner, eb'ner, (Erasmus,) a German poet, born at 
 Nuremberg in I5ii,wasa pupil of Melanchthon. He 
 wrote Latin epigrams which were printed with those of 
 Melanchthon, and discovered that cadmium and copper 
 fused together produce brass. Died in 1577. 
 
 Eboli, eb'o-lee or a'bo-lee, (Ana de Mendoza — da 
 men-do'tha,) Princess of, a Spanish lady, born about 
 1535 or 1540, became the wife of Ruy Gomez de Sylva, 
 Prince of Eboli. She was, it is said, the mistress of Philip 
 II., and was suspected of being an accomplice of Antonio 
 Perez in the assassination of Escovedo. She was ar- 
 rested in 1579 and imprisoned, but was soon released. 
 See Mignet, "Antonio Perez et Philippe II." 
 
 Ebrard, a'bRaRt, (Johann Heinrich August,) a 
 prominent German Protestant theologian, born at Er- 
 langen in 1818. He became professor of theology at 
 Erlangen in 1847. He edited a review called "The 
 Future of the Church," (1845-47,) and wrote, besides 
 other works, "Christian Dogmatics," (2 vols., 1S52,) and 
 "The Divine and Human (Gottmenschliclikcit) in Chris- 
 tianity," (1844.) Many of his sermons have been pub- 
 lished, lie is, or was recently, preacher and councillor 
 of the Consistory at Spire. 
 
 Eb're-mar, written also Evermer, third Patriarch 
 of Jerusalem, was born near Therouanne. He was raised 
 to the dignity of patriarch in 1103. Died after 1122. 
 
 E'broin, [Lat. Ebroi'nus,] written also Eberwein, 
 a powerful and ambitious Frank, was mayor of the palace 
 under Clotaire III. (King of Neustria) and under Theo- 
 doric III. He was killed in 681 A.D. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Ebu. See A boo. 
 
 Ebu-Beker. See Aboo-Bekr. 
 
 Eb'ur-jr, (Robert Grosvenor,) Lord, an English 
 peer, a son of the second Earl Grosvenor, was born in 
 1801. He was a member of the House of Commons 
 from 1822 to 1857, and was then raised to the peerage. 
 He supported several bills for the promotion of civil 
 and religious liberty. 
 
 Ebu-Thalib. See Aboo-TAlib. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon ; 
 
EC AT AR IN A 
 
 82$ 
 
 ECKHEL 
 
 Ecatarina. See Catherine, Empress of Russia. 
 
 Ecbert. See Egbert. 
 
 Eccaid. See Eckhart. 
 
 Eccelmo da Romano. See Romano. 
 
 Eccheleusis. See Echellensis. 
 
 Eccius. See Eck. 
 
 Eccles, ek'klz, (AMBROSE,) an Irish critic, published 
 editions of "Cymbeline," "King Lear," and the "Mer- 
 chant of Venice," with copious notes and critical essays 
 on these dramas by himself and others. Died in 1809. 
 
 Eccles, ek'klz, (John,) an excellent English musical 
 composer, set some of Congreve's songs to music, with 
 a success that gained great applause. Died in 1735. 
 
 Eccles, (SOLOMON,) an English musician, father of 
 the preceding, lived about 1680. 
 
 Ecgberht or Ecgbert. See Egbert. 
 
 fichai d, 4'shlR',(jACQUES,) a French Dominican friar, 
 bom at Rouen in 1644, wrote a work on the authors who 
 had been members of his order, entitled " Scriptores 
 Ordinis Praedicatorum recensiti," (1721,) which is highly 
 commended. Died in 1724. 
 
 Echard, etch'ard, (Rev. Lawrence,) an English his- 
 torian, burn in Suffolk about 1670, obtained Alford and 
 Other livings in Suffolk. He is the author of a "General 
 Ecclesiastical History," (1702,) and of a "History of 
 England to 1688," (3 vols., 1707-18,) which was once 
 quite popular, but has ceased to be read since the pub- 
 lication of Rapin. Died in 1730. 
 
 E-eh-el-len'sis, (ABRAHAM,) a learned Maronite, born 
 at Eckel, Syria. After professing Syriac and Arabic at 
 Rome, he came to Paris about 1630 to assist in the edi- 
 tion of Le Jay's Polyglot Bible, and received the title of 
 interpreter to the king. He returned to Rome in 1653. 
 He wrote an " Oriental Chronicle," and translated sev- 
 eral works from the Arabic. Died in 1664. 
 
 Echeverri, de, da 6tch-e-ver-ree', sometimes written 
 Etcheverri, (Juan,) the most famous of the Basque 
 poets, born at Tafalla, in Navarre, about 1550, wrote the 
 "Mysteries of the Faith," and other religious poems. 
 
 Er-ehid'na, [Gr. *E;t«W,] in the Greek mythology, a 
 daughter of Tartarus, represented as a monster, half 
 woman and half serpent, was the mother of the Chimera, 
 Cerberus, the Sphinx, and other monsters. 
 
 Echinus, (Sebastian.) See Erizzo. 
 
 E-ehi'on, ['E.yi'uv,] a Greek painter and statuary, who 
 lived about 350 B.C., is ranked by Pliny among the great 
 painters, and is praised by Cicero. 
 
 E'eho, [Gr. 'H^<j,j a nymph of classic mythology, and 
 an attendant of Juno, was called a daughter of the Air. 
 The poets feigned that Juno, offended by her unruly 
 tonguey changed her into an echo, and ordained that she 
 should not be able to speak until another had spoken, 
 nor be silent after another had spoken to her. She was 
 disappointed in her love of Narcissus, and pined away 
 vSntil nothing remained of her but her voice. 
 
 Eck, Ik, Eckius, eVke-iis, or Eccius, Echius, a'ke- 
 us, (Johann,) a German theologian, famous as an able 
 antagonist of Luther, was born at Eck, in Suabia, in i486. 
 He became a professor in the University of Ingolstadt. 
 In 1519 he disputed against Luther at Leipsic, and in 
 1530 was chosen, with others, to controvert the Lutheran 
 Confession of Faith at the Diet of Augsburg. He wrote 
 a "Manual of Controversy," and other works. Died in 
 «543- 
 
 See Arnold, "Kirchen-.und Ketzer-Historie." 
 
 Eck or Eckius, (Leonard,) a German jurist, born 
 in 1480, acquired a great reputation as a lawyer, and was 
 employed by Charles V. Died at Munich in 1550. 
 
 Eck, van, vin ek, (Cornei.is,) a Dutch jurist, born 
 at Arnhcim. He became professor of civil and modern 
 law at Utrecht in 1692. He wrote " Principles of Civil 
 Law," (" Principia Juris Civilis," 1689,) and other works. 
 Died in 1732. 
 
 Eckarct. See Eckhard and Eckhart. 
 
 Eckard, ek'kaRt, (Georg Ludwig,) a German por- 
 trait-painter of high reputation, born at Hamburg in 
 1769 ; died in 1794. 
 
 Eckart, (Diktkich GotthaRD,) a German jurist, 
 born at Eilenburg in 1696 ; died in 1760. 
 
 Eckartshausen, von, fori eVkaRts-how'zen, (Kari.,) 
 a German writer, born in Bavaria in 1752, became aulic 
 
 councillor at Munich. He wrote, besides other works, 
 " God is the Purest Love," (" Gott ist die reinste Liebe," 
 1784,) which had great success. Died in 1803. 
 
 Eckerbrecht, eVk$r-bReKt', (Phii.ipp,) a German 
 astronomer, born at Nuremberg in 1594, was a pupil or 
 friend of Kepler. Died in 1667. 
 
 Eckermann, eVker-man', (Johann Peter,) a Ger- 
 man litterateur, born at Winsen, Hanover, in 1792. He 
 published in 1821 a volume of poems, which procured 
 for him the friendship of Goethe, and he co-operated 
 with that author in the complete edition of his works 
 at Weimar. In 1832-33 he published the posthumous 
 works of Goethe, in accordance with his last will. His 
 " Conversations with Goethe" ( " Gesprache mit Gothe," 
 3 vols., 1836-48) has been translated into various lan- 
 guages. Died in 1854. 
 
 See "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1836; Erockhaus, 
 11 Conversations- Lexikon. " 
 
 Eckersberg, ek'kers-beRC.', (Christoph Wii.hki.m,) 
 an eminent Danish painter, born in Holstein about 1782, 
 studied in Paris and Italy. He painted history, por- 
 traits, and marine pieces with great success. Among 
 his works is "The Death of Balder." Died in 1853. 
 
 Eck'fprd, (Henry,) a distinguished naval architect, 
 born in Scotland in 1775. He served an apprenticeship 
 to a shipbuilder in Quebec, and in 1796 established him- 
 self in business in New York. He was soon distinguished 
 for the superiority of his vessels in strength and speed, 
 and in the second war with Great Britain was employed 
 by the government to furnish fleets for the lakes. He 
 afterwards built many vessels of war for foreign nations, 
 established a professorship of naval architecture at Co- 
 lumbia College, and in 1831 accepted the appointment 
 of naval constructor for the Ottoman Empire. Died at 
 Constantinople, November 12, 1832. 
 
 See Henry Howe, "Lives of Eminent American Mechanics," 
 etc., 1847. 
 
 Eckhard, eVhaRt, (Johann Friedrich,) a German 
 philologist, born at Quedlinburg in 1723, wrote many 
 literary treatises. Died in 1794. 
 
 Eckhard, (Johann Georg.) See Eckhart. 
 
 Eckhard, (Tobias,) a German Hellenist, born at De- 
 litzsch in 1558; died in 1652. 
 
 Eckhard, (Tobias,) a distinguished German philolo- 
 gist, born at Jiiterbock, Saxony, in 1662. He was rector 
 of the Academy of Quedlinburg. He published (in Latin) 
 a treatise on logic, "Ars Rationis," (1714,) "Technica 
 Sacra," ( 1 7 1 6, ) a treatise on philosophy, (1717,) "Testi- 
 monies to Christ by those who were not Christians," 
 (1725,) and other works. Died in 1737. 
 
 See C. H. Eckhard, " VitaT. Eckhardi," 1739. 
 
 Eckhart or Eckhard, von, fon ek'haRt, written also 
 Eccard and Eckard, (Johann Geokg,) a German his- 
 torian, born at Duingenin 1674. Through the influence 
 of Leibnitz he obtained a chair of history at Helmstedt in 
 1706. He succeeded Leibnitz as librarian at Hanover. 
 To escape his creditors he retired to Cologne, where he 
 joined the Roman Catholic Church. He afterwards be- 
 came librarian and counsellor to the Bishop of Wiirtz- 
 burg. He was author of several Latin histories, which 
 are valued for research and criticism, viz., a " History of 
 the Princes of Upper Saxony," (1722,) "History of the 
 Middle Ages," ("Corpus historicum medii /Evi," 1723,) 
 and a work "On the Origin of the Germans," ("De 
 Origine Germanorum," 1750.) Died in 1730. 
 
 EckheL ek'hel, (Joseph Hilary,) a pre-eminent 
 Austrian numismatist, born at Enzersfeld in 1737, en- 
 tered the order of Jesuits. Having made extensive re- 
 searches in Italy and attained great proficiency in the 
 knowledge of medals, he was appointed, in 1774, director 
 of the imperial cabinet of medals at Vienna, and pro- 
 fessor of antiquities. In 1775 ' ,e published an excellent ' 
 work on medals, entitled "Numi Vetcres." His capital 
 work is "Doctrina Numorum Veterum," (8 vols., 1792- 
 98,) a systematic treatise on the science of numismatics, 
 which the perfection of the plan, the extent of the re- 
 searches, and the soundness of the criticism render per- 
 haps the best work, on the whole, which is to be found 
 on that subject. Died in 1798. 
 
 See Ersch und Grukkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" AcmN 
 Louis Mii.iin, "Notice hislorique sur J. H. Eckhel," Paris, 1798; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie G&ieVale." 
 
 e as k, 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (&y"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ECKHOF 
 
 826 
 
 EDGEWORTH 
 
 Eckhof, ek'hof, (Conrad,) one of the most celebrated 
 German actors, was born at Hamburg in 1720. He ex- 
 celled in tragedy, and was called " the Garrick of Ger- 
 many." He produced "The Desert Isle," and other 
 comedies. Died in 1778. 
 
 Eckhout. See Eeckhout. 
 
 Eckmiilil, Prince of. See Davoust. 
 
 Eckstein, von, fon eVstln, (Ferdinand,) Baron, a 
 publicist, born at Copenhagen in 1790, was converted to 
 Roman Catholicism. He removed to France, and edited 
 the " Catholique," (1826-29,) m which he advocated the 
 doctrines of De Maistre. 
 
 £cluse. See Lecluse. 
 
 ficluse des Loges, de 1', deh la'kliiz' di lozh, (Pierre 
 Mathurin,) born at Falaise, France, in 1 7 1 5, was a 
 doctor of the Sorbonne. His reputation rests chiefly on 
 his edition of Sully's "Memoirs." Died about 1783. 
 
 Sicolampade. See CEcolampadius. 
 
 Ec-phan'tl-des,['E/v0avr('o>/c,]an Athenian comicpoet, 
 who lived about 450 B.C. His works are not extant. 
 
 Ecquevilly, d', dek'vel'ye', (Armand Franqois,) 
 Count and Marquis, a French general, was born of a 
 noble family of Champagne in 1747. He emigrated in 
 1791, and served under the Prince of Conde, as quarter- 
 master-general of cavalry, in 1794. Returning to France 
 with the king, he was made lieutenant-general in 1814, 
 and marquis in 1820. Died in 1830. 
 
 Edebali, ed-eb'a-lee, Sheik, a Mussulman, noted for 
 devotion and learning, born in Caramania about 12 10, 
 founded a monastery which was much frequented. Oth- 
 man, the founder of the Turkish Empire, married the 
 daughter of Edebali. Died in 1326. 
 
 Edelinck, a'deh-link, (Caspar,) a Flemish engraver, 
 was a brother and pupil of Gerard, noticed below. 
 
 His brother John, born about 1630, was also an en- 
 graver, and worked some time with Gerard. 
 
 Edelinck, ed'el-ink or a'deh-link', (Gerard,) a cele- 
 brated Flemish engraver, born in Antwerp in 1649, re- 
 moved to Paris at an early age, and received the title 
 of engraver to the cabinet of Louis XIV. Among his 
 master-pieces are "The Holy Family," after Raphael, the 
 "Crucifixion," after Lebrun, the "Virgin," after Guido, 
 " The Combat of Cavalry," after Leonardo da Vinci, and 
 portraits of many eminent men. His works are highly 
 finished, and are characterized by freedom of touch, 
 fidelity of design, and perfect harmony of execution. 
 Died in 1707. He is reckoned among the engravers 
 of the first class. " No one but Audran," says Ponce, 
 "can be placed on a par with him." 
 
 His son Nicolas engraved at Venice a " Madonna and 
 Child," after Correggio, and other subjects. Died in 1730. 
 
 See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Edelmann, a'del-man' or a'del'mSN', (Jean Frede- 
 ric,) a musical composer, born at Strasburg in 1749, was 
 a violent revolutionist. He was guillotined in 1794, after 
 he had procured the death of several persons. 
 
 Edelmann, a'del-min', (Johann Christian,) a Ger- 
 man deist, born in Saxony in 1698. He wrote "The 
 Divinity of Reason," (1742.) Guizot calls him afameux 
 esprit-fort. Died in 1767. 
 
 See Wn.HELM Elster, " Erinnerung an J. C. Edelmann," 1830 ; 
 Edelmann's Autobiography, (" Selbstbiographie,") published by 
 Carl R. W. Klose, Berlin, 1849. 
 
 Edema, a'deh-ma, (Gerard,) a Dutch landscape- 
 painter, born in F'riesland about 1655, is said to have 
 travelled in America for artistic purposes, and finally 
 settled in England. Died about 1700. 
 
 See Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 E'den, (Sir Frederick Morton,) an English diplo- 
 matist and writer on political economy, published in 
 1797 "The State of England," which, says McCulloch, 
 " is the grand storehouse of information respecting the 
 labouring classes of England." He also wrote " Friendly 
 Societies." " Maritime Rights of Great Britain," and 
 other works. From 1792 to 1796 he was ambassador to 
 Berlin, Vienna, and Madrid. Died in 1809. 
 
 Eden, (George.) See Auckland, Lord. 
 
 Eden, (Sir Morton,) an English diplomatist, who 
 was ambassador to several continental courts in the 
 eighteenth century. He was raised to the peerage as 
 Lord Henley, and died in 1802. 
 
 Eden, (Richard,) an Englishman, who was the fust 
 to publish collectively the results of maritime enterprise 
 which followed the discovery of America. He translated, 
 from the Latin, " Decade of Voyages," by Vertomamis, 
 (1576,) and other works on navigation and geography. 
 His " History of Travel in the West and East Indies" 
 is partly original and partly translated. He is by some 
 considered as superior to Hakluyt. 
 
 Eden, (William.) See Auckland, Lord. 
 
 E-de'nI-us, (Jordan,) a Swedish savant, born in 1624, 
 was chosen professor of theology at Upsal in 1659. He 
 wrote an " Epitome of Ecclesiastical History," and other 
 works. Died in 1666. 
 
 Eder, a'der, (Georg,) a German Catholic theologian, 
 born at Freysingen in 1524. He was rector of the 
 University of Vienna, and a councillor of the emperor 
 Ferdinand. He wrote "Economy of the Scriptures," 
 ("Giconomia Bibliorum," 1568,) often reprinted, and 
 other works, mostly polemical. Died in 1586. 
 
 Ed'gar or Eadgar, a Saxon king of England, sur- 
 named the Peaceable, was the son of Edmund I. and 
 Elgiva, and was born in 943 a.d. He ascended the 
 throne at the death of his brother Edwy, in 959. Dun- 
 stan, Bishop of London, and afterwards primate, early 
 acquired an ascendency over Edgar, and retained during 
 the whole reign the chief control of affairs, which he 
 directed to the aggrandizement of the church and clergy. 
 Consequently, Edgar is pompously eulogized by the 
 monkish chroniclers, though his morals were depraved. 
 He married first Elfleda and then Elfrida, and founded 
 many monasteries. It is usually said that he extirpated 
 the wolves from England. He died in 975, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Edward the Martyr. 
 
 See Hume's "History of England," chap. ii. 
 
 Edgar or Eadgar Atheling, a Saxon prince, was 
 a grandson of King Edmund Ironside. His father Ed- 
 ward was exiled by Canute in 1017, and went to Hun- 
 gary, where Edgar was born. At the death of Edward 
 the Confessor, in 1066, Edgar was the nearest heir to the 
 throne, and was proclaimed at London just after the 
 battle of Hastings ; but he submitted to William the Con- 
 queror, who spared him in consideration of his feeble 
 character. He was induced to engage in several unsuc- 
 cessful revolts against the Norman king, and took refuge 
 in Scotland at the court of Malcolm, who had married 
 his sister. About 1091 he was received in peace at the 
 court of William Rufus. Died about 1120. 
 
 Ed'gar, King of Scotland, was the nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, and the son of Malcolm III., who died in 1093. 
 Donald Bane then usurped the throne, until Edgar Athe- 
 ling raised an army and deposed him, in 1097, when 
 Edgar became king. His sister Matilda became the 
 wife of Henry I. of England. Edgar, after a peaceful 
 reign, died in 1 107, and was succeeded by his brother, 
 Alexander I. 
 
 Edgeworth, (Abbe.) See Firmont. 
 
 Edgeworth, ej'worth, (Maria,) a popular English 
 authoress, born near Reading, Berkshire, January 1, 1767, 
 was the daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth (see be- 
 low) and his first wife, Miss Elers. In 1782 she removed 
 with her father to his paternal estate at Edgeworthstown, 
 in Ireland, where she continued to reside nearly all the 
 remainder of her life. She was associated with her father 
 in several literary labours, the first result of which was 
 a "Treatise on Practical Education," in 1798, followed 
 by an "Essay on Irish Bulls," (1802,) which was very 
 successful. In 1801 she began to issue a series of novels 
 of superior merit and of good moral tendency, which 
 were received with general and lasting favour, viz., 
 "Castle Rackrent," "Belinda," (1801,) "Patronage," 
 (1814,) "Ormond," (1817,) "Helen," etc., (1834.) In 
 1823 she made a visit to Abbotsford, the home of Sir 
 Walter Scott, who greatly admired her writings, and 
 once said, " If I could but hit Miss Edgeworth's wonder- 
 ful power of vivifying all her persons and making them 
 live as beings in your mind, I should not be afraid." 
 Besides the above-named works, she published several 
 volumes, respectively entitled "Moral Tales," (1801,) 
 "Popular Tales," (1804,) and "Tales of Fashionable 
 Life," (1809-12,) and co-operated with her father in 
 the " Parent's Assistant" and " Early Lessons." " The 
 
 a, e. I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
EDGEWORTH 
 
 827 
 
 EDREES 
 
 ^4iyj2£j^ 
 
 writings of Miss Edgeworth," says Lord Jeffrey, "ex- 
 hibit a singular union of sober sense and inexhaustible in- 
 vention, and a minute knowledge of all that distinguishes 
 manners or touches on happiness in every condition of 
 human fortune." Died in May, .1849. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review," July, 1S09, (vol. xiv.,) July, 1812, (vol. 
 xx.,) .iiul August. 1S17, (vol. xxviii. :) Sik Walter Scott's critique 
 in the " Edinburgh Review," January, 1814, (vol. xxii.;) also " Edin- 
 burgh Review" lor October, 1S67 ; " Loudon Quarterly Review" for 
 October, 1811. 
 
 . Edgeworth, (Richard Lovei.1,) an ingenious Eng- 
 lish author and philosopher, born at Bath in 1744, was 
 the father of Maria Edgeworth, the popular novelist. 
 Much of his childhood was passed at Edgeworthstown, 
 Ireland, where his father's estate was situated. While 
 a student at Oxford, when he was only about nineteen, 
 he married Miss Elers, with whom he resided for some 
 tine in Berkshire, where he formed an intimacy with 
 Thomas Day and Dr. Darwin. He was distinguished by 
 his genial character, versatile talents, and mechanical 
 ingenuity. In 17S0 he was chosen Fellow of the Royal 
 Society. In 1782 he fixed his residence permanently at 
 Edgeworthstown, where he was actively engaged in the 
 education of his numerous children and in the duties 
 of magistrate, legislator, and author. Besides the works 
 in which his daughter co-operated, (see Edgeworth, 
 Maria,) he wrote "Professional Education," "Letter 
 on the Telegraph," and Memoirs of himself, and contrib- 
 uted to the "Philosophical Transactions" treatises on 
 mechanics and natural philosophy. In the course of 
 his life he married four wives, two of whom were sisters, 
 named Sneyd. Died in 1817. 
 
 See "Memoirs of R. L. Edgeworth," by himself, and concluded 
 by his daughter; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1809, August, 
 1820; "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1820. 
 
 Edge-worth, (Roger,) an English Catholic divine, 
 was chancellor of Wells in 1554. He published a vol- 
 ume of sermons. Died about 1560. 
 
 Ed-gi'va or Ogive, Queen of France, was a daughter 
 of Edward, King of the West Saxons, and a granddaughter 
 of Alfred the Great. She was married to Charles the 
 Simple of France in 919. Louis d'Outre-Mer was her son, 
 
 Edinburgh, Duke or See Alfred, (Ernest Al- 
 bert.) 
 
 Edith. See Editiia. 
 
 Ed'I-tha, Saint, daughter of Edgar, King of Eng- 
 land, and Wilfrida, took the monastic vows at the age 
 of fifteen, and died about 984 A.D., aged twenty-three. 
 
 Editha or E'dith, an Anglo-Saxon queen, was a 
 daughter of Earl Godwin, and was married in 1044 to 
 King Edward the Confessor. Her virtues and accom- 
 plishments have been highly celebrated by historians 
 and poets. King Edward is said to have treated her 
 with neglect and seventy. 
 
 Edmer. See Eadmer. 
 
 Edmondes, ed'munz, orEd'monds, (Sir Clement,) 
 an English writer, born in 1566, obtained some places at 
 court. He wrote " Observations on the Commentaries 
 of Caesar," (1600-1609.) Died in 1622. 
 
 Edmondes or Edmonds, (Sir Thomas,) an English 
 statesman, born at Plymouth in 1563, was employed with 
 success in negotiations with several European courts in 
 the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. In 1616 he was 
 chosen privy councillor. His letters and papers were 
 published by Dr. Birch. Died in 1639. 
 
 Edmonds. See Edmondes. 
 
 Ed'monds, (John W.,) an American painter, born 
 in Hudson, New York, in 1806. In 1835 he commenced 
 sending paintings in oil to the exhibitions of the Acad- 
 emy. Among these were "Sparking," "The City and 
 Country Beaux," " Dominie Sampson," etc. In 1840 he 
 embarked for Europe, and spent the subsequent winter 
 and spring in Rome. Since his return he has followed 
 his profession in New York. 
 
 See Tuckerman's " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Edmonds, (John Worth,) an American jurist and 
 advocate of spiritualism, born at Hudson, New York, 
 in 1799. He graduated at Union College, and subse- 
 quently practised law in New York. Being appointed, 
 in 1843, one of the inspectors of State prisons, he effected 
 an important reform in prison-discipline. He became 
 one of the circuit judges of the State in 1845. He pub- 
 
 lished in 1853 his principal work, entitled "Spiritual- 
 ism," (2 vols.) 
 
 See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Ed'mond-son, (Henry,) an English scholar, born in 
 1607, wrote "Lingua Linguarum," (1655,) and a work on 
 Latin Homonyms and Synonyms. Died in 1659. 
 
 Edmondson, (Joseph,) an English writer and anti- 
 quary, was appointed Mowbray herald-extraordinary in 
 1764. He wrote a " Companion to the Peerage," (1776,) 
 a "Complete Body of Heraldry," (1780,) and several 
 other esteemed works. Died m 1786. 
 
 Edmonstone, (Sir Archibald,) a British writer, 
 born in 1795, published a "Journey to Two of the Oases 
 of Upper Egypt," (1822,) "The Progress of Religion," a 
 poem, (1842,) and other works. 
 
 Ed'mund the Martyr, King of the East Angles, 
 born in 840 A.D., began to reign in 855. In S70 he was 
 defeated in battle by the Danes under Hinguar and 
 Hubba, who took him prisoner and put him to death. 
 
 Edmund or Eadmuud L, King of the Anglo-Saxons, 
 born about 922, was the son of Edward the Elder and 
 Edgiva his wife, and grandson of Alfred the Great. He 
 succeeded his half-brother, Athelstane, in 941, and mar- 
 ried Elgiva. His brief reign gave evidence of his courage, 
 prudence, and other kingly qualifications. He was as- 
 sassinated by Liof, an outlaw, at a feast in 946. He left 
 two infant sons, Edwy and Edgar, and was succeeded by 
 his brother Edred. 
 
 See Hume's "History of England," chap. ii. 
 
 Edmund or Eadmund II, surnamed Ironside, a 
 king of England of the Saxon dynasty, born in 989 A.D., 
 was the son o'f Ethelred II., who died in 1016. Before 
 this event, Edmund had signalized his valour in battle 
 against the Danish invaders under Canute, and at his 
 accession he found the greater part of the kingdom in 
 the power of that enemy. After the Danes gained a 
 victory at Assandun, Edmund and Canute agreed by a 
 treaty to divide the kingdom, of which the former re- 
 ceived the southern and the latter the northern part. 
 Edmund survived this treaty about a month, and, as 
 Hume thinks, was murdered in 1016, when Canute be- 
 came master of the whole kingdom. Edmund's half- 
 brother, Edward the Confessor, afterwards became king. 
 Freeman calls Edmund "a true king of men, a hero 
 worthy to wield the sword of Wilfred [Alfred] and 
 jEthelstan." 
 
 See Freeman, " History of the Norman Conquest," vol. {. chap, 
 v., p. 419; Hume, " History of England," chap. iii. ; Turner, "His- 
 tory of the Anglo-Saxons." 
 
 Edmund of Langley, Duke of York, born in 1341, 
 was the fifth son of Edward III. of England, and was 
 the head of the house of York, famous in the war of 
 the Roses. He married Isabella of Castile, and left 
 two sons, Edward and Richard. Died in 1402. 
 
 Edmund, Saint, an English prelate, sometimes called 
 Edmund Rich and Edmund of Pontigny, born at 
 Abingdon, became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1234. 
 He is said to have been the first who taught logic at 
 Oxford. He died in 1242, and was canonized by Inno- 
 cent IV. in 1249. 
 
 See W. F.Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops <f Canterbury,' 
 vol. iii. chap. iii. 
 
 Ed'mund Plan-tag'e-net, Earl of Kenl the son of 
 Edward I. of England, was born in 1301. In the reign 
 of Edward II. he aided the queen, Isabella, to depose the 
 king and to crown the young prince Edward III. He 
 was executed on a charge of treason in 1330. 
 
 Edom, a name of Esau, the son of Isaac. See Esau. 
 
 Ed'red or Eadred, King of the Anglo-Saxons, was 
 the younger son of Edward the Elder, and brother of 
 Edmund I., whom he succeeded in 946 A.D. In this 
 reign the ambitious Dunstan acquired the ascendency 
 which he maintained through several ensuing reigns. 
 He died in 955, and was succeeded by his nephew Edwy. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England," chap. ii. 
 
 Edrees or Edrls, ed-rees', I., a descendant of Alee, 
 son-in-law of Mohammed, was the founder of the dynasty 
 of the Edrisites or Edrisides, which reigned in Africa 
 nearly two hundred years. When his party was defeated 
 by the Abbassides in 784 A.D., he fled to Barbary, or Mau- 
 ritania, where he was recognized as imam, or chief, about 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
EDREES 
 
 828 
 
 EDWARD 
 
 789. He was poisoned in 793 by an emissary of Haroun- 
 al-Raschid. 
 
 Edrees or Edris II., a son of the preceding, born in 
 793, succeeded to the throne, and is represented as a 
 learned, wise, and just ruler. He founded the city of 
 Fez, and reigned in peace. He died in 828, and was 
 succeeded by his son Mohammed. 
 
 See Ibn-Khaldoun, "Histoire des Berberes," translated by 
 Slane, 1854. 
 
 Edreesee or Edrisi, ed-ree'see, an eminent Arabian 
 geographer, born at Ceuta, Africa, about 1 100, was a 
 descendant of the dynasty above named, which ceased 
 to reign in 919. He lived at the court of Roger II. of 
 Sicily, for whom he made a silver terrestrial globe and 
 wrote his celebrated treatise on Geography, (1154.) In 
 1619 Gabriel Sionita and J. Hesronita published a Latin 
 version of an abridgment of Edreesee's Geography; and 
 since that time the manuscript of the entire work has 
 been found and translated into French by M. Jaubert, 
 (1836-40.) 
 
 See Haji-Khalfa, " Lexicon Bibliographicum ;" Casiri, " Biblio- 
 theca Arabico-Hispana." 
 
 Ed'ric, Duke of Mercia, was a treacherous minister 
 of Ethelred II. When England was invaded by the 
 Danes, he deserted, and fought against the Anglo-Saxon 
 king. He was put to death by Canute. 
 
 Ed'ridge, (Henry,) an English painter of landscapes 
 and miniatures, born at Paddington in 1768, died in 
 1S21. 
 
 Edris. See Edrees. 
 
 Edrisi. See Edreesek. 
 
 Ed'ward or Badward I., surnamed - the Elder, 
 King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the third son of Alfred the 
 Great and Alswitha. At the death of Alfred, in 901 A.D., 
 he was acknowledged as his successor by the Wittena- 
 gemote. He inherited his father's military talents, and 
 found abundant occasion to exercise them. He defeated 
 his cousin Ethelwald, who raised an army to contest his 
 title to the throne, and waged a successful war against 
 the Northumbrians and Danes. He married two or 
 three wives, the last of whom was Elgiva, and left three 
 sons, Athelstane, Edmund, and Edred, who all reigned 
 successively. Died in 925. 
 
 See Humb's "History of England," chap. ii. 
 
 Edwrard or Eadward II., surnamed the Martyr, 
 King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the eldest son of Edgar, 
 and great-grandson of the preceding. He was born 
 about 960 A.D., and succeeded his father in 975. His 
 step-mother, Elfrida, took measures to obtain the crown 
 for her son Ethelred ; but she was defeated by Saint 
 Dunstan, the primate of England. A council having 
 been assembled during this reign at Calne to decide be- 
 tween the secular clergy and the monks of Saint Dunstan, 
 the part of the floor on which the former sat suddenly 
 Rave way. The monks claimed this as a miracle in their 
 favour, and consequently prevailed. Edward was assas- 
 sinated by order of Elfrida in 978, and was succeeded 
 by his half-brother, Ethelred II. 
 
 See Hume's " History of England," chap. ii. 
 
 Edward or Eadward III., surnamed the Con- 
 fessor, King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the son of 
 Ethelred II., (by his second wife, Emma of Normandy,) 
 and was half-brother of Edmund Ironside. He was 
 born at Islip about 1004. When England was invaded 
 by the victorious Danes, Edward and his mother found 
 refuge with the Duke of Normandy, and remained there 
 till 1040. Canute, having conquered England, married 
 Edward's mother, Emma, in 1017. When Hardicanute 
 died, in 1042, Edward, who was- the half-brother of the 
 late king, was proclaimed his successor. In 1044 he 
 married Editha, daughter of Earl Godwin, but with the 
 express condition that she should not share his bed : 
 hence he was canonized with the title of "Confessor." 
 He showed partiality to the Normans, and in his reign 
 a powerful Norman party was formed in the island. He 
 died, without issue, in January, 1066, and was succeeded 
 by his wife's brother, Harold, whose title was disputed 
 by the Duke of Normandy. Edward was the last of the 
 Saxon line that reigned in England. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England," chap. iii. ; Jerome Porter, 
 "Life of Saint Edward, King and Confessor," 1710. 
 
 Ed'ward I., King of England, surnamed Longshanks, 
 born at Westminster in 1239, was the eldest son of Henry 
 III. and Eleanor, daughter of the Count of Provence. He 
 was married in earlyyouth to Eleanor of Castile. In 1263 
 he took a prominent part in the civil war between his 
 father and the barons under the Earl of Leicester, who 
 took him prisoner in 1264. Having escaped from cus- 
 tody in 1265, he gained a complete victory over Leicester 
 at Evesham. After the end of this civil war, his next 
 important enterprise was a crusade to the Holy Land in 
 1271, where he maintained his reputation for prowess. 
 On his homeward journey he found that his father had 
 died, in 1272, and he was crowned soon after his arrival, in 
 1274. He began the conquest of Wales in 1277, and com- 
 pleted it in 1282, when Llewellyn, prince of that country, 
 was slain in battle. In 1291, the numerous competitors 
 for the throne of Scotland, then vacant, having referred 
 their claims to Edward as lord paramount, he decided in 
 favour of John Baliol, and received from him the oath 
 of fealty, thus paving the way to the conquest of that 
 kingdom. The Scotch in 1294 took arms to regain their 
 independence ; but Edward speedily overpowered them, 
 dethroned Baliol, and seized the kingdom. The cele- 
 brated and heroic William Wallace renewed the contest 
 in 1297, gained a victory at Stirling, and expelled the 
 English troops from all the Scotch fortresses. The war 
 was alternately suspended by truce and feebly prosecuted 
 until 1303, when Edward invaded Scotland with a large 
 army and effected its temporary subjection. Wallace 
 was taken, and hanged in London in 1305. Edward 
 died in 1307, while on his march to Scotland, where 
 Robert Bruce had again raised the national standard 
 against him. He was one of the most able, ambitious, 
 and politic princes that ever filled the English throne ; 
 but his character was deeply disgraced by his vindictive 
 treatment of Wallace and by other acts of injustice. 
 His reign is rendered memorable by the confirmation 
 of the Great Charter, the institution of the House of 
 Commons, and great improvement in common law. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England," chaps, xiii. and xiv. ; also, the 
 character of Edward I. in Gardiner's "History of England from 
 1603 to 1616," pp. 15 and 16: Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. 
 ii. chaps, xviii.-xxii. 
 
 Edward II., King of England, the eldest surviving son 
 of the preceding, was born at Caernarvon, Wales, in 1 2S4. 
 In his minority he became subject to the pernicious influ- 
 ence of his favourite, Piers Gaveston, who was banished 
 in 1300 by Edward I. In 1301 Edward was created Prince 
 of Wales, and in July, 1307, he became king. One of 
 his first acts was to recall Gaveston from exile and create 
 him Earl of Cornwall. In 1308 he married Isabella, 
 daughter of Philip V. of France, a corrupt and ambitious 
 woman. The insolence of Gaveston, who had acquired 
 a complete ascendency over his imbecile king, provoked 
 the barons to form a league against that favourite, who 
 was executed in 1312. In 13 14 Edward invaded Scot- 
 land with a large army, which in the same year was 
 routed with great loss by Bruce at Bannockbum, and 
 Scottish independence was thus secured. The king's new 
 favourite, Hugh Spencer or Despencer, involved him in 
 another quarrel with his barons. The queen, who hated 
 the favourite and despised her consort, put herself at the 
 head of a powerful party, who took arms in 1326 with the 
 avowed purpose of removing Spencer from power. The 
 king being generally deserted, the queen's party easily 
 prevailed ; Spencer was executed, and Edward was de- 
 throned and confined in prison. The king's son, a minor, 
 was proclaimed in Parliament as Edward III., under the 
 regency of Isabella and her favourite, Roger de Mor- 
 timer, the latter of whom is charged with causii g the 
 murder of the deposed king, which was perpetrated, 
 with circumstances of great atrocity, in Berkeley Castle 
 in 1327. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England," chap, xiv.: Falkland, 
 (Henry Carv,) "History of King Edward II.," 1680. 
 
 Ed'ward III., King of England, born at Windsor in 
 1312, was the eldest son of Edward II. and Isabella of 
 France. He was proclaimed king on January 25, 1327, 
 under the nominal regency of twelve nobles and bishopsj 
 while the queen and Mortimer exercised the power in 
 reality. In 1328 Edward married Philippa of Hainault, 
 and concluded a treaty of peace with Robert Bruce, King 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
EDWARD 
 
 829 
 
 EDWARD 
 
 of Scotland. In 1330 the young king ordered the arrest 
 of Mortimer, who after trial was put to death. The queen- 
 mother was at the same time confined to her own house, 
 and ceased to exercise political power. After the death 
 of King Robert, Edward, in violation of the treaty, sup- 
 ported Edward lialiol in his pretensions to the Scottish 
 throne, and in 1333 defeated the Scotch at Halidon Hill, 
 when Baliol became for a time master of Scotland. But 
 repeated invasions by the English were required in the 
 ensuing years to prevent his expulsion ; for the Scotch 
 detested him as a vassal and partisan of the English 
 king. 
 
 The attention of Edward was diverted from Scotland 
 by a new and important project, namely, the conquest of 
 France, the crown of which he claimed by inheritance, 
 as nephew of the late king, Charles IV., (who left no 
 male issue,) while Philip VI. was recognized as the law- 
 ful heir by the French people. Hostilities began in 1340 
 by a sea-fight in which the English were victorious, after 
 which a long truce was concluded. Renewing the war 
 in 1346, Edward, with his son the Black Prince, invaded 
 France and gained a great victory at Crecy. After a 
 long siege, Calais was surrendered to the English king, 
 (1347,) who was prevented from a disgraceful act of ven- 
 geance against six citizens, who offered their lives as a 
 sacrifice for the city, only by the entreaties of Queen 
 Philippa. A truce of about eight years followed the re- 
 duction of Calais. 
 
 In September, 1356, the Black Prince gained a com- 
 plete victory at Poitiers, where the French king John 
 was taken prisoner. In 1360 a treaty of peace was made, 
 by which Edward retained several French provinces. 
 Charles V., having become King of France, renewed the 
 war in 1370, and in a few years recovered nearly all 
 that the English had conquered. The Black Prince 
 died in 1376, and King Edward in 1377, leaving the 
 crown to his grandson, Richard II. The reign of Ed- 
 ward, though arbitrary, was very popular with his sub- 
 jects, elated with the glory which attended his military 
 enterprises, and favoured with domestic peace and pros- 
 perity. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England," chaps, xv. and xvi. : Robert 
 Howard, " History of the Reigns of Edward III. and Richard II.," 
 1690; William Longman, "Life and Times of Edward III.," 2 
 vols., 1S69; Vidalin, "E\lnuarH III et la Regence, ou Essai sur 
 les Mceurs du XlVe Siecle," Paris, 1S43. 
 
 Edward IV., King of England, born at Rouen in 
 1441, was the son of Richard, Duke of Vork, who was a 
 grandson of Edmund of York, a younger son of Edward 
 III. This Richard also inherited from his mother the 
 title of Earl of March, and with that title all the right to 
 the throne transmitted by Lionel of Clarence, another 
 gon of Edward III. The subject of this article, then 
 styled the Earl of March, first appears on the scene of 
 the civil wars of York and Lancaster in 1460, when his 
 armv defeated the Lancastrians near Northampton, and 
 took the king (Henry VI.) a prisoner. In the same year 
 his father, the Duke of York, was defeated and killed ft 
 the battle of Wakefield, at which Edward was not pres- 
 ent. Having gained a battle at Mortimer's Cross, he 
 entered London, was received with favour and acclama- 
 tion, and was proclaimed king, March 4, (461. His 
 bravery, personal beauty, affability, and other popular 
 qualities contributed much to his success. 
 
 But Margaret of Anjou, the ambitious and indomitable 
 queen of Henry VI., soon raised another army to renew 
 the contest. At Towton, in 1461, the Lancastrians were 
 defeated with great loss, and Margaret escaped to Scot- 
 land. In 1464 the Lancastrian army was again defeated, 
 at Hexham, Henry VI. was made prisoner, hostilities 
 were suspended for several years, and the war appeared 
 to be terminated. In 1464 Edward married Elizabeth 
 Woodville, a person of rather obscure condition, by 
 which he gave great offence to the nobility, especially to 
 the Earl of Warwick, " the King-Maker," a great leader 
 of the Yorkist party. This nobleman, conspiring with 
 Queen Margaret, compelled Edward to retire to Holland 
 in 1470, when Henry VI. was released from the Tower 
 to assume again the form of royalty. The next year 
 Edward returned with an army, gained a victory at Bar- 
 net, where Warwick was slain, and recovered the throne. 
 Vt the great battle of Tewkesbury, May, 1471, the Lan- 
 
 castrians were finally defeated, and Margaret, with her 
 son, fell into the hands of the victor. She was confined 
 in the Tower, and her son was murdered in Edward's 
 presence. Such was the tragical end of the War of the 
 Roses, in which the old nobility of England was almost 
 annihilated. The subsequent events of this reign were 
 unimportant. Edward died in 1483, leaving the crown 
 to his son, Edward V. 
 
 Edward IV. is described by Hume as "a prince more 
 splendid and showy than either prudent or virtuous ; 
 brave, though cruel; addicted to pleasure, though capa- 
 ble of activity in great emergencies." He forms a promi- 
 nent character in Bulwer's "Last of the Barons." 
 
 See Hume, " History of England," chap. xxii. ; William Ha- 
 bington, " History of King Edward IV.," 1640. 
 
 Edward V., King of England, the eldest son of 
 Edward IV. and Elizabeth Woodville, was born in West- 
 minster in 1470, and succeeded his father on the 9th of 
 April, 1483. His uncle, Richard, Duke of Cloucester, 
 by the will of the late king, became regent during the 
 minority. This wicked and crafty usurper, aspiring to 
 wear the crown himself, obtained possession of the young 
 king and his brother, whom he secretly ordered to be 
 put to death. They disappeared in June, 1483 ; and it is 
 generally reported and believed that they were suffocated 
 with pillows in the Tower of London. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England," chap, xxiii. ; Miss Strick- 
 land, " Lives of the Bachelor Kings of England," 1861 ; W. Hep- 
 worth Dixon, "Her Majesty's Tower," 1869. 
 
 Edward VI., King of England, born at Hampton 
 Court, October 12, 1537, was the only s/irviving son of 
 Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour. He succeeded his 
 father January 28, 1547, the government during his 
 minority being confided, by the will of Henry VIII., to 
 sixteen executors, who elected for their president the 
 young king's uncle, Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford. 
 The latter, who was created Duke of Somerset and as- 
 sumed the title of lord protector, led an army against 
 the Scotch in order to compel the fulfilment of a certain 
 treaty by the marriage of Edward VI. with Mary Stuart. 
 The English gained a victory at Pinkie in 1547, but did 
 not effect their purpose. Somerset favoured the Prot- 
 estant religion, and used effectual measures to establish 
 it. The " Bloody Statute," and other acts, of the former 
 reign were repealed in Parliament, images were removed 
 from the churches, and the Book of Common Prayer 
 was ordered to be used, (1548.) About 1550 the Pro- 
 tector was supplanted by John Dudley, Earl of Warwick 
 and Duke of Northumberland, whose son married Lady 
 Jane Grey, a member of the royal family of Tudor. 
 When the death of the young king was evidently at 
 hand, he was induced by Northumberland to settle the 
 succession in favour of Lady Jane Grey. Died in 1553. 
 See Hums, "History of England." chaps, xxxiv. and xxxv. : 
 Miss Strickland, " Lives of the Bachelor Kings of England," 
 1861 : Sharon Turner, " Historv of the Reigns of Edward VI., 
 Mary, and Elizabeth," 1829; Van der Holk, " Leven van Edward 
 de Seste," 16^0. 
 
 Ed'ward [Port. Dharte, doo-aR'ta] I., King of Por- 
 tugal, was a son of John I., whom he succeeded in 1433. 
 His mother was an English princess, Philippa of Lan- 
 caster. He is said to have been a moderate, wise, and 
 enlightened prince ; but his reign was not prosperous. 
 He died young, in 1438, leaving the throne to his son, 
 Alfonzo V. 
 
 See Lopez. " Elogios dos Reys de Portugal." 
 Edward, Prince of Wales, surnamed THE Bl.ACK 
 Prince, (so called from the colour of his armour,) a 
 heroic- and idolized representative of the spirit of chivalry, 
 was the eldest son of Edward III. and Philippa of Hai- 
 nault. He was born at Woodstock in 1330, and at the 
 age of fifteen accompanied his father in the invasion of 
 France. He commanded the main body of the English 
 at the victory of Crecy, the glory of which was ascribed 
 to him, and then adopted the motto Ich dicn, (" I 
 serve,") which is still worn by his successors. In 1356 
 he alone commanded at the battle of Poitiers, where he 
 won applause both by his military skill and his hu- 
 manity to the vanquished. He married his cousin Joanna, 
 daughter of the Earl of Kent, in 1361, and, being created 
 Prince of Aquitaine, held his court at Bordeaux. On 
 account of his declining health, he returned to England 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g is J; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; s as 1; th as in this. (2^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
EDWARD 
 
 830 
 
 EDWARDS 
 
 in 1371, and died in 1376. His son became King Rich- 
 ard II. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England," chap. xvi. ; Arthur Col- 
 lins, "Life of Edward, Prince of Wales," 1740; G. P. R. James, 
 " History of the Life of Edward the Black Prince," 1839. 
 
 Edward [Port. Duarte] of Braganza, a Por- 
 tuguese prince, born in 1605, was brother of John IV., 
 who became King of Portugal in 1640. At this time 
 Edward was lieutenant-general in the army of the em- 
 peror Ferdinand III. The Spanish court, jealous of his 
 military talents, persuaded the emperor to deliver him 
 into their power. He was imprisoned at Milan in 1641, 
 and died in 1649. 
 
 See Gouvka, " Perfidia de Alemania y de Castilla en la Prision y 
 Proceso de Don Duarte," 1652. 
 
 Edward, (Charles,) the Pretender. See Charles 
 Edward. 
 
 Ed'ward Plan-tag'e-net, born in 1475, was a son 
 of George, Duke of Clarence, and was styled Earl of 
 Warwick. He was confined in the Tower by Henry 
 VII. in 1485, and executed, as an accomplice of Perkin 
 Warbeck, in 1499. 
 
 Edwardes, ed'wardz, (Sir Herbert Benjamin,) a 
 distinguished English officer, born in Shropshire in 1819 
 or 1820. He entered the army of the East India Com- 
 pany in 1840, and fought at Moodkee and Sobraon in 
 1845. Having obtained the rank of lieutenant, he gained 
 a decisive victory over the Dewan Moolraj, near the 
 Chenab, in 1848. For this service he was made an extra 
 Companion of the Bath. He published in 1851 "A Year 
 on the Punjaul^ Frontier in 1848-9." He was appointed 
 commissioner of Peshawur in 1853, and knighted in 1866. 
 Died in December, 1868. 
 
 Ed'wards, (Bela Bates,) an American theologian, 
 born in Southampton, Massachusetts, in 1802, graduated 
 at Amherst College in 1824. He founded the " American 
 Quarterly Observer" in 1833, edited the "Biblical Re- 
 pository" from 1835 to 1838, and the " Bibliotheca Sacra" 
 from 1844 to 1852. In 1837 he became professor of 
 Hebrew, and in 1848 professor of biblical literature, at 
 Andover Seminary. Died in 1852. 
 
 See "Writings of Bela B. Edwards, with a Memoir," by E. A. 
 Park, (Boston, 185.,.) 
 
 Ed'wards, (Bryan,) M.P., an English writer, born 
 at Westbury in 1743, removed in 1759 to Jamaica, where 
 he remained many years and became a wealthy planter. 
 He published in 1 793 a " History of the British Colonies 
 in the West Indies," an interesting and well-written 
 work, which acquired great popularity. He also wrote 
 a " History of Saint Domingo." Returning to England, 
 he was elected to Parliament in 1796, and died in 1800. 
 
 Edwards, (Edward,) an English artist, born in 
 London in 1738, was an excellent draughtsman. He 
 became an associate of the Royal Academy in 1773, and 
 teacher of perspective in that institution in 1788. He 
 wrote a "Treatise on Perspective," (1803,) and "Anec- 
 dotes of English Painters," (1808.) Die.d in 1806. 
 
 Edwards, (Edward,) an English bibliographer, born 
 in London in 1812, published about i860 a valuable 
 work entitled " Memoirs of Libraries, together with a 
 Practical Hand-Book of Library Economy." He has 
 written many other works on public libraries. 
 
 Edwards, (George,) an eminent English naturalist 
 and artist, born at Westham or Stratford, Essex, about 
 1693. Having travelled on the continent, he applied 
 himself after his return to the study of natural history, 
 supporting himself by drawing and colouring figures 
 of animals. In 1743 he began to issue his excellent 
 "Natural History of Birds," with coloured plates, which 
 was received with favour and procured his admission to 
 the Royal Society in 1757. He wrote, also, "Gleanings 
 of Natural History," (1763.) Died in 1773. 
 
 See "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of G. Edwards," London, 1776. 
 
 Edwards, (George,) M.D., an English writer on 
 politics and political economy, born in 1751, lived in 
 London. Among his numerous productions are " Po- 
 litical Interests of Great Britain," and " Means adequate 
 to the Present Crisis." Died in 1823. 
 
 Edwards, (Guillaume Frederic,) M.D., a brother 
 of Milne-Edwards, born in Jamaica in 1777, was a dis- 
 tinguished physiologist and ethnologist. He lived in 
 
 Bruges and in Paris. His " Physiological Characters 
 of Human Races considered in Relation. with History" 
 (1839) placed him in the first rank of French ethnologists. 
 He became a member of the Institute in 1832. He wrote 
 (in French) "On the Influence of Physical Agents on 
 Life," (1824,) and other scientific works. Died near 
 Paris in 1842. 
 Edwards, (Henry Milne.) See Milne-Edwards. 
 Ed'wards, (John,) D.D., a learned English Calvinistic 
 divine, born at Hertford in 1637, was a son of Thomas 
 Edwards, author of "Gangrasna." He became minister 
 of Trinity College Church, Cambridge, in 1664. He 
 wrote, besides many other works, " The Authority, Style, 
 and Perfection of the Books of the Old and New Testa- 
 ments," (3 vols., 1693-96,) and "Theologia Reformata," 
 (2 vols., 1713.) Died in 1716. 
 
 Edwards, (Jonathan,) D.D., an English divine, born 
 at Wrexham in 1629, became rector of Hiuton in 1681. 
 He wrote a " Preservative against Socinianism," (169S- 
 1703.) Died in 17 12. 
 
 Edwards, (Jonathan,) the greatest metaphysician 
 that America has produced, and one of the greatest that 
 ever lived, was born at East Windsor, Connecticut, the 
 5th of October, 1703. His father, Timothy Edwards, was 
 the minister at East Windsor, and was a man of rare 
 learning for those times. Jonathan was the only son ou 
 of thirteen children. He began the study of Latin when 
 he was but six years old. At a very early age he wrote 
 essays and other compositions, indicating an inquiring 
 mind and reasoning powers of an uncommon order for 
 one so young. When he was ten, he wrote a paper 
 ridiculing the idea, which some one had advanced, of the 
 materiality of the soul. While still a child, he was the 
 subject of deep and earnest religious impressions. In a 
 letter written at the age of twelve, he speaks of " a very 
 remarkable outpouring of the Spirit of God" in his native 
 place, in which event he evidently felt a deep interest. 
 He entered Yale College in 1716, and before leaving that 
 institution as a graduate, in 1720, he is said to have com- 
 pletely reasoned out for himself his great doctrine of the 
 freedom of the will. After his conversion, which, accord- 
 ing to his view of the subject, did not take place until his 
 seventeenth year, the whole universe seemed changed 
 in his sight ; God's excellency, wisdom, purity, and love 
 were revealed to him "in the sun, moon, and stars, in the 
 clouds and blue sky, and in the grass, flowers, and trees, 
 in the water and in all nature." After taking his degree, 
 he remained two years in New Haven, studying for the 
 ministry ; and before he had completed his nineteenth 
 year he began to preach to a Presbyterian congregation 
 in the city of New York. In less than a year he returned 
 to New Haven, and in September, 1723, took his degree 
 of master of arts. In 1724 he became a tutor in Yale 
 College, where he remained about two years. In Febru- 
 ary, 1727, he became pastor of a church at Northampton, 
 and not long after was married to Miss Sarah Pierre- 
 ttont, of New Haven, who in her unaffected and fervent 
 piety, in the purity, sweetness, and elevation of her char- 
 acter, and in her entire devotion to what she felt to be 
 rinht, maybe said to have been his perfect counterpart. 
 After many years of comparative happiness, — not that 
 happiness which results from the enjoyment of indolent 
 ease, but from duties laboriously, conscientiously, and 
 faithfully performed, — his faith and virtue were destined 
 to undergo a great trial. A lax custom had crept into 
 the Church of admitting to the communion-table all 
 those professing with the congregation, without inquiring 
 whether they were truly regenerate, and without regard 
 to the spiritual consistency of their life or character. Ed- 
 wards believed it to be required of him to insist on a 
 purer and higher standard. At length, after years of 
 opposition, he was driven forth, like Calvin, (whose re- 
 ligious views and entire devotion to duty he so ably 
 represented,) from his chosen field of gospel labour, not 
 knowing whither he should go, and without any outward 
 means of support for his numerous family. He was soon 
 after offered the situation of missionary to the Housaton- 
 nuck Indians at Stockbridge. His friends in Scotland 
 sent, it is said, a considerable contribution for the sup- 
 port of his family, and his scanty income was eked out 
 by the industry of his wife and daughters, whose delicate 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; m.ion; 
 
EDWARDS 
 
 83' 
 
 EECKHOUT 
 
 handiwork was sent to Boston to be sold. It was during 
 this period of his life that he elaborated and wrote out 
 his celebrated work on the Freedom of the Will. In this 
 work he exhibits a power of close and subtile reasoning 
 which perhaps has never been equalled by any other 
 writer. Whatever we may think of his doctrine that 
 philosophic necessity is compatible with freedom of the 
 will, rightly defined, and with human responsibility, we 
 may safely assume that, as the ultimate interests of truth 
 are necessarily promoted by all true philosophic investi- 
 gation, they must be best promoted by that investigation 
 which is the most thorough and exhaustive. In the rea- 
 soning of Edwards we see what the perfection of human 
 logic can accomplish, and are thus enabled to discern 
 more clearly its just limitations and necessary deficiencies. 
 
 About the close of 1757 Edwards left his field of labour 
 among the Indians, and reluctantly accepted the position 
 of president of Princeton College, in New Jersey. He 
 died there, of the smallpox, in March, 1758. 
 
 In person, Edwards was tall (above six feet) and 
 slender. He is said to have been, in middle life, much 
 emaciated by intense and constant application to study. 
 "He had," says his grandson, "a high, broad, bold 
 forehead, and an eye unusually piercing and luminous; 
 and on his whole countenance the features of his mind 
 — perspicacity, sincerity, and benevolence — were so 
 strongly impressed, that no one could behold it with- 
 out at once discovering the clearest indications of great 
 intellectual and moral elevation." (See "Life," by Se- 
 reno E. Dwight.) 
 
 He left a great number of miscellaneous writings. The 
 titles of his principal works are the following : " A Treat- 
 ise concerning the Religious Affections," (published in 
 1746;) "An Inquiry into the Qualifications for FullCom- 
 munion in the Church," (1749;) "An Inquiry into the 
 Modern Prevailing Notions respecting that Freedom of 
 the Will which is supposed to be essential to Moral 
 Agency," etc., (1754;) (this is his most celebrated work, 
 of which we have spoken above;) "The Great Christian 
 Doctrine of Original Sin Defended," (about 1757 ;) "The 
 History of Redemption," (1774;) "A Dissertation con- 
 cerning the End for which God created the World," 
 ^1789 ;) and " A Dissertation concerning the True Nature 
 of Christian Virtue," (1788.) 
 
 See Sereno Edwards Dwight, "Life of Jonathan Edwards," 
 1830; Samuel Hopkins, "Life of Jonathan Edwards;" Samuel 
 Mnxp-K, "Life of Jonathan Edwards," in Sparks's "American 
 Biography," vol. viil. ; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" Gris- 
 wold. "Prose Writers of America;" Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of 
 American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Edwards, (Jonathan,) an eminent minister, born 
 at Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1745, was a son of 
 the preceding. He graduated at the College of New 
 Jersey in 1765, and was tutor at Princeton College for 
 two years, (1767-68.) In 1769 he became pastor of the 
 church at White Haven, near New Haven, Connecticut, 
 where he remained until 1795, when he was dismissed on 
 account of his religious opinions. He was appointed 
 president of Union College, Schenectady, in 1799. He 
 was a man of superior talents and great penetration. 
 He published a number of sermons and treatises on 
 theology. Died at Schenectady in August, 1801. 
 
 See a "Memoir of J. Edwards," byTRYON Edwards, his grand- 
 son ; Sprague, "Annals of the American Pulpit." 
 
 Ed-wards, (Jonathan W.,) an eminent American 
 lawyer, grandson of the celebrated Jonathan Edwards, 
 was born in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1772. He 
 graduated at Yale, with distinguished honours, in 1789. 
 On taking his second degree, in 1791, he attacked with 
 so much ability the law granting a double portion of an 
 estate to the eldest son (if the father died intestate) as to 
 cause its repeal. He practised at Hartford. Died in 1831. 
 
 Edwards, (Justin,) D.D., an American divine and 
 author, born in Westhampton, Massachusetts, in 1787. 
 He graduated at Williams College in 1810, and was 
 afterwards for fifteen years pastor at Andover, and two 
 years in Boston, when he resigned his ministerial charge 
 and devoted himself to the cause of temperance, the 
 observance of the Sabbath, and to educational and lite- 
 rary labours. He was for six years president of the 
 theological seminary at Andover. As secretary of the 
 American Temperance Society, he prepared the "Tem- 
 
 perance Manual," of which about two hundred thousand 
 copies have been printed. He was also one of the 
 founders of the Boston Tract Society. Died in 1853. 
 
 Edwards, (Ninian,) an American judge and Senator, 
 born in Montgomery county, Maryland, in 1775. He be- 
 came chief justice of Kentucky, and Governor of Illinois 
 in 1809. He represented Illinois in the Senate of the 
 United States from 1818 to 1824, and became Governor 
 of that State in 1826. Died in 1833. 
 
 Edwards, (Richard,) an English dramatic poet, born 
 in Somersetshire in 1523, was a Fellow of one of the Ox- 
 ford Colleges. He was the principal contributor to the 
 " Paradise of Dainty Devises," and author of " Damon 
 and Pythias," a tragedy, acted in 1566. His poems were 
 once popular. Died about 1566. 
 
 Edwards, (Thomas,) an English Presbyterian theo- 
 logian, was a violent opponent of the Independents, 
 against whom he wrote his "Gangraena," (1646,) a very 
 vituperative work. He also wrote a "Treatise against 
 Toleration," (1647.) He was driven out of the country, 
 and died in Holland in 1647. 
 
 Edwards, (Thomas,) an English critic, born in or 
 mar London in 1699, was a student of law, but did 
 not practise. He gained distinction by his "Canons 
 of Criticism," (1747; 7th edition, 1765,) in which he 
 amused the public at the expense of Warburton_on the 
 subject of an edition of Shakspeare published by the 
 latter. Died in 1757. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Edwards, (Thomas,) an English divine, born at 
 Coventry in 1729, became rector of a church in that 
 place in 1758, and vicar of Nuneaton tibout 1770. He 
 published, besides other works, a " New English Trans- 
 lation of the Psalms from the Original Hebrew," (1755,) 
 and "Selecta Theocriti Idyllia," (1779.) Died in 1785. 
 
 Edwards, (Tkyon,) an American theologian, a son 
 of Jonathan W., noticed above, was born at Hartford, 
 Connecticut, in 1809. He graduated at Yale College in 
 1828, and became pastor of a church at New London, 
 Connecticut, in 1845. He published several religious 
 works. 
 
 Edwards, (William,) an English engineer and 
 architect, noted as a builder of bridges, was born in 
 Glamorganshire in 1719 ; died in 1789. 
 
 See "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. ii., 1839. 
 
 Ed'win, King of Northumbria, was the son of King 
 Ella, who died about 590 A.D. He began to reign in 617, 
 and became one of the most powerful princes of the 
 island. In his reign Christianity became the established 
 religion. He was defeated in battle and slain by Penda, 
 King of the Mercians, in 633 A.D. 
 
 See Hume's " History of England," chap. i. 
 
 Ed'win, (John,) an excellent English comedian, born 
 in London in 1749, first appeared on the public stage in 
 1765. He performed many years with success, especially 
 in ludicrous characters. Died in 1794. 
 
 See J. Williams, " Eccentricities of John Edwin," London, 1781. 
 
 Ed'wjf, written also Eadwig, King of the Anglo- 
 Saxons, born about 938 A.D., was the eldest son of Ed- 
 mund I., who died in 946. Edwy became king at the 
 death of his uncle Edred in 955. He appears to have 
 incurred the enmity of Dunstan and the monks by mar- 
 rying Elgiva, who was rather nearly related to him by 
 blood. Edwy banished Dunstan, and the friends of the 
 latter retaliated by murdering Elgiva and instigating a 
 successful rebellion in favour of the king's brother, 
 Edgar. Died or was killed in 958. 
 
 See Hume's " History of England," chap. ii. 
 
 Edzardi, ?t-saR'dee, (Esdras,) a German Orientalist, 
 born in 1629 at Hamburg, where he taught Hebiew 
 with a high reputation. Died in 1708. 
 
 His son Georg Eleazar (1661-1727) was an eminent 
 professor of Oriental languages at Hamburg. 
 
 Edzardi, (SEBASTIAN,] a German theologian, brother 
 of the preceding, born at I lambing in 1673 ; died in 1736. 
 
 Eeckhout, van den, vSn den ak'howt, written also 
 Eckhout, (Anton,) a Flemish painter of flowers and 
 fruit, born at P.ruges about 1656. He went with Louis de 
 Deyster to Italy, where he produced many pictures, the 
 figures of which were painted by Deyster. He afterwards 
 
 I i; cas s; %hard; gas/; G,H,K,guttural; N,ttasaJ; R,tri/ied; sass; th as in this. (Jfy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
EECKHOUT 
 
 832 
 
 EGERTON 
 
 worked with success in Lisbon, where he was assassinated 
 in 1695. The author of the deed was never discovered. 
 His works present an immense variety of flowers, and are 
 highly prized. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Eeckhout, van den, (Gersrand, ) an excellent 
 Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1621. He was a 
 pupil and successful imitator of Rembrandt, and ex- 
 celled both in history and portraits. His compositions, 
 in the opinion of Descamps, are rich and judicious. He 
 had a rare and superior talent for expressing the charac- 
 ter in the countenances of his portraits. Among his 
 master-pieces are "Christ in the midst of the Doctors," 
 " Abraham dismissing Hagar," and a portrait of his own 
 father. Died in 1674. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Eelkhauian. See Ilkhanian. 
 
 ]3ete, the French of ^Eetes, which see. 
 
 Effen, van, via If'fen, (Justus,) a popular Dutch 
 litterateur, born at Utrecht in 1684. In 171 1 he began 
 to issue, weekly, in imitation of Addison's " Spectator," 
 "The Misanthrope," in French, which was continued to 
 the end of 1712. He was chief editor of the "Literary 
 Journal," an able review, published in French at the 
 Hague, (1715-18.) He was employed as secretary of 
 embassy to London in 171 5, and again about 1727, and 
 made successful F"rench translations of" Robinson Cru- 
 soe" and the "Tale of a Tub." From 1731 to 1735 he 
 issued, in Dutch, the " Hollandsche Spectator," another 
 happy imitation of the model English essayist, which 
 obtained more permanent popularity, than his other 
 works. The myst of his publications were anonymous. 
 Died in 1735. 
 
 See Mokeri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge'ne'rale ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for July. 1S54. 
 
 Effiat, (Henri Coiffier.) See Cinq-Mars. 
 
 Effiat, d', di'fojf, (Antoine Coiifier— -kwaTe-i',) 
 Marquis, a French general and statesman, born in 1581. 
 After serving several years in the army, he was sent as 
 ambassador to London in 1624, and was appointed su- 
 perintendent of finances in 1626. As lieutenant-general, 
 he commanded in Piedmont in 1630, and was made 
 marshal of France the next year. He was a friend of 
 Lord Bacon, who left him a legacy. He died in 1632, 
 leaving a high reputation for civil and military talents. 
 He had three sons, one of whom was Henry, Marquis 
 of Cinq-Mars. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais," chap, xxiii. 
 
 Effing-ham, Lord, an English nobleman, who re- 
 signed his commission in the British army, about 1775, 
 rather than fight against the cause of American liberty. 
 
 Eg'bert, Ec'bert, or Ecgbert, an Anglo-Saxon pre- 
 late, born about 678 A.D., was a brother of the King of 
 Northumberland. He became Archbishop of York in 
 732. Died in 766. 
 
 Egbert or Ecgbert, surnamed the Great, King of 
 the West Saxons, (Wessex,) was a descendant of Cer- 
 dic, the first king of Wessex. After passing some years 
 at the court of Charlemagne, he became king in 800 a.d. 
 In 823 he defeated the Mercians at Ellendune, and in a 
 few years completed the conquest of Mercia and North- 
 umbria. By his prudent policy and military success all 
 the states of the Heptarchy were first united into one 
 kingdom, whose limits were nearly identical with those 
 of England proper. This occurred in 827. In 835 an 
 army of Danes invaded the island and were defeated by 
 Egbert. He died in 836, or, according to Hume, in 838, 
 leaving the throne to his son, Ethelwulf. 
 
 See Hume's "History of England," chaps, i. and ii. ; Freeman's 
 "Norman Conquest." 
 
 Egede, eg'eh-deh, (Hans,) the founder of the Danish 
 missions of Greenland, was born at Harstad, in Norway, 
 in 1686, and was ordained pastor of Vaagen in 1707. 
 Having for many years cherished the desire of convert- 
 ing the Greenlanders, he obtained the assistance of the 
 king, Frederick IV., and a trading-company was formed 
 to co-operate with the mission. In 1721 Egede sailed 
 with one ship and forty-five persons. They were kindly 
 received by the natives, many of whom were converted. 
 The Danes were unable to subsist without frequent sup- 
 plies from the mother-country, and the trading-company 
 
 was dissolved in 1727. Egede pursued his purpose with 
 constancy through great hardships and privations, until 
 the death of his wife in 1735. Some Moravian mission- 
 aries having arrived to continue the work, he then re- 
 turned to Copenhagen, where he became superintendent 
 of a seminary for the Greenland mission, with the title 
 of bishop, and wrote a narrative of his enterprise. Died 
 in 1758. 
 
 See Host, " Literary History of Denmark under Christian VII.,' 1 
 (in German;) Lund, " Biskop H. Egedes Levnet," 177S ; Bodemann, 
 
 H. Egede der Apostel der Grbnlander," 1853 ; Ersch und Gruber, 
 "Aligemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Egede, (Paul,) a son of the preceding, born in 1-708, 
 was a fellow-labourer in the mission above named, and 
 remained in Greenland until 1740. He then returned 
 to Copenhagen, was chosen a member of the College 
 of Missions in 1775, anc ' bishop of Greenland in 1776. 
 Died in 1789. 
 
 £gee, the French of /Egeus, which see. 
 
 Egenod, ezh'no', (Henri F'rancjois,) a French jurist 
 born at Orgelet in 1697 ; died in 1783. 
 
 figeon, the French of /Ecbon, which see. 
 
 E-ge'ii-a, sometimes, but very rarely, written JEgeria, 
 [Fr. Egerie, a'zha're',] a nymph in Roman mythology, 
 and one of the Camenae, was regarded as a p-ophetic 
 divinity, from whom Numa derived inspiration or in- 
 struction in relation to religion and forms of worship. 
 According to tradition, Numa had interviews with her 
 in a grove, and when he died she melted away in tears 
 into a fountain. 
 
 figerie. See Egeria. 
 
 Egerton, (Francis Henrv.) See Bridgewater, 
 Earl of. 
 
 Eg'er-ton, (Francis Leveson Gower,) Earl of 
 Ellesmerc, an English nobleman and author, born ir. 
 London, January 1, 1800, was the second son of the first 
 Duke of Sutherland. His family name was Gower. He 
 assumed the name of Francis Egerton, instead of his pa- 
 tronymic FVancis Leveson Gower, in 1833, on becoming 
 heir to part of the estates of the last Duke of Bridge- 
 water. He became a lord of the treasury in 1827, secre- 
 tary for Ireland in 1828, and secretary at war in 1830. 
 He gained literary distinction by translations of " Faust'' 
 and of several poems of Schiller and Korner, and pub- 
 lished admired original poems, among which are the 
 "Camp of Wallenstcin" and "The Pilgrimage." His 
 gallery of paintings in London was one of the richest 
 owned by any individual in the kingdom. In 1846 he 
 was created Earl of Ellesmere and Viscount Brackley. 
 Besides the poems and translations above named, he 
 wrote "Mediterranean Sketches," (1843,) a "d other 
 works. Died in 1857. 
 
 His wife, Lady Frances, accompanied him in a voyage 
 up the Mediterranean in 1840, and published a "Tour in 
 the Holy Land." 
 
 See article on Lord Ellesmere in "Fraser's Magazine" for June, 
 1847- 
 
 Egerton, (John,) an excellent English prelate, born 
 in London in 1721, was the son of Henry Egerton, Bishop 
 of Hereford, and a descendant of Lord Ellesmere the 
 chancellor. He was appointed Bishop of Bangor in 1756, 
 of Lichfield in 1768, and of Durham in 1 771. Died in 
 1787. He was the father of the Earl of Bridgewater, the 
 patron or originator of the "Bridgewater treatises." 
 
 See F. H. Egebton, "Life of Thomas Egerton, Lord Ellesmere, 
 with a Sketch of John Egerton, Bishop of Durham," etc. 
 
 Egerton, (Scroop,) first Duke of Bridgewater,' an 
 English nobleman, born in the seventeenth century, was 
 a descendant of Lord-Chancellor Egerton. By inherit- 
 ance he was the fourth Earl of Bridgewater, and in 1720 
 he was raised to the rank of duke. His son Francis, 
 who inherited his title, became eminent for his services 
 in inland navigation. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Aligemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Egerton, (Thomas,) Lord Ellesmere, lord chancel- 
 lor of England, born in Cheshire in 1540, was the son 
 of Sir Richard Egerton. Having become eminent in his 
 profession, he was chosen solicitor-general in 1581, and 
 attorney-general in 1592. After holding several other 
 high offices, he attained the dignity of keeper of the great 
 seal in 1596. He enjoyed a high degree of favour with 
 Queen Elizabeth to the end of her reign. After the ac- 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; not; good; moon- 
 
EGG 
 
 833 
 
 EGMONT 
 
 cession of James I., in 1603, he was created Baron of 
 Ellesmere and lord high chancellor. He was made Vis- 
 count Brackleyin 1616. In 161 7 he resigned the great seal, 
 and was succeeded by Lord Bacon. He was esteemed 
 an excellent judge and a great orator, "especially when 
 he was provoked." During his last illness the king 
 offered him the title of Earl of Bridgewater, with a pen- 
 sion ; but he declined both, saying, "These things were 
 now to him but vanities." Died in 1617. His son John 
 became the first Earl of Bridgewater. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors :" Foss, 
 "The Judges of England;" F. H. Egerton, "Life, etc. of Thomas 
 Egerton, Lord Ellesmere." 
 
 Egg, (Augustus,) A.R.A., an English painter, born 
 in London in 1816. He has illustrated with success 
 comic scenes from the works of Shakspeare, Le Sage, 
 and others. Among his works are "Peter the Great 
 sees Catherine, his Empress, for the First Time," and the 
 "Life and Death of Buckingham," (1855.) Died in 1863. 
 
 Egg, Ik, (John Caspar,) a Swiss economist, born at 
 Ellikon in 17^8; died in 1794. 
 
 Eggeling,"eg'geh-ling' or eVeh-ling, (Johann Hf.in- 
 rich,) a German antiquary, born at Bremen in 1639, 
 became professor of history in his native city. His prin- 
 cipal work is a "Treatise on Various German Anti- 
 quities," (" De Miscellaneis Germanise Antiquitatibus," 
 1694-1700.) Died in 1713. 
 
 Egger, i'kaik' or eg'zhaiR.', (Emilf,) a French linguist, 
 born in Paris in 1813. He published editions of Varro, 
 Longinus, and other classics, and wrote, besides other 
 works, "Elementary Notions of Comparative Grammar," 
 which reached the fifth edition in 1854 and is highly 
 commended. In 1855 he was chosen professor of Greek 
 at the Faculte des Lettres, Paris. 
 
 Eggers, eg'gers, (Jacob,) a Swedish or Livonian engi- 
 neer and military officer, born at Dorpat in 1704. He 
 published a military lexicon of engineering, artillery, etc., 
 entitled " Kriegs-Ingenieur-Artillerie-See- und Ritter- 
 Lexikon," (2 vols., 1757.) Died in 1773. 
 
 Eggestein, eg'ges-tm', (Henri,) an eminent printer, 
 worked at Strasburg in 1471. 
 
 Egidio Antonini. See Giles de Viterko. 
 
 Egidius. See Gilles, Giles, and /Egidius. 
 
 Eg'il, an Icelandic poet and warrior of the tenth cen- 
 tury, who was captured by Eric, King of Norway, and 
 saved his own life by improvising an ode on the exploits 
 of that king, which Malte-Brun says is still extant. 
 
 Eg'ill, a Scandinavian warrior of the seventh or eighth 
 century, who is said to have performed, at the command 
 of a tyrant, a feat of archery exactly like the celebrated 
 exploit of William Tell. 
 
 See P. Salanus, " Historia EgilH et Asmundi," Upsal, 1693. 
 
 Eginard.. See Eginhard. 
 
 Egineta orEgina, Paul of. See Paulus /'Egineta. 
 
 Eg'in-hard, written also Eginard, Eginhardt, and 
 Einhard, an'hard, an eminent French historian of the 
 ninth century, was born in Austrasia, or East France. 
 He was a pupil of Alcuin, and was appointed secretary 
 to Charlemagne. The romantic story of his courtship 
 and marriage of Charlemagne's daughter Emma is now 
 discredited. (SeeJiMMA.) After the death of that king 
 he passed into the service of his successor, Louis le 
 Debonnaire, and spent many of his last years in a monas- 
 tery. He wrote the "Life of Charlemagne," "Annals 
 of the French Kings from 741 to 829," and numerous 
 Letters. Died about 844. 
 
 See Sminckius, " De Vita et Scriptis Eginhardi," 1711 ; Teulet, 
 "Notice sur Eginhard," prefixed to an edition of his works, 1840; 
 J. Puss, " De Einhardi Vita et Scriptis Specimen," 1846. 
 
 Eginhardt. See Eginhard. 
 
 Eg'iu-ton, (Francis,) an English artist, born about 
 1737, was distinguished for his skill in painting on glass, 
 and made improvements in that art. He executed many 
 admired historical works in the English cathedrals. Died 
 in 1805. 
 
 figisthe, the French of jEgisthus, which see. 
 
 Egizio, a-jet'se-o, ( Maiteo, ) Count, an Italian 
 savant, born in Naples in 1674, was well versed in law 
 and antiquities. In 1735 he was secretary of embassy 
 in Paris, and on his return to Naples was chosen keeper 
 of the Koyal Library. He wrote a few antiquarian treat- 
 ises. Died in 1745. 
 
 Eglantine. See Fabre d'Eglantine. 
 
 Eglinger, ec'ling'er, (Nicholas,) a Swiss medical 
 writer, born at Bale in 1645; died in 171 1. 
 
 Eglinger, (Samuel,) a Swiss medical writer, born at 
 Bale in 1638; died in 1673. 
 
 Eg'lin-ton and Win'ton, (Archibald William 
 Montgomerie,) fifteenth Earl of, a British peer, born 
 at Palermo in 1812, succeeded to the earldom in 1819, 
 He produced a great sensation by a famous tournament 
 at Eglinton Castle, Ayrshire, in 1839, in which Louis 
 Napoleon took part, with many of the British nobility. 
 He was lord lieutenant of Ireland during the short ad- 
 ministration of Lord Derby, 1852-53, and again in 1858 
 -59. In politics he acted with the Conservatives. Died 
 in 1861. 
 
 Egloff, So'lof, (Louise,) a Swiss poetess, born at 
 Baden in 1803, was either born blind or became so in 
 infancy. A volume of her poems was published in 1823. 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Egloffstein, von, fon eG'lof-stln', (Karl August,) a 
 German general, born at Egloffstein in 1 77 1. He en- 
 tered the French army in his youth, and served with 
 distinction in Germany and Spain. He commanded a 
 brigade in the Russian campaign of 1812. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 lSgly, d', da'gle', (Charles Philippe Monthenault 
 — moN'ti'no',) born in Paris in 1696, wrote a History of 
 Naples. Died in 1749. 
 
 Egmond. See Egmont, (Lamoral and Philip.) 
 
 Egmond, van, vin eg'm6nt, (Justus,) a Dutch his- 
 torical painter of high reputation, born at Leyden in 1602 
 He worked in France, and was patronized by Louis 
 XIV. Died at Antwerp in 1674. 
 
 Eg'm&nd or Eg'mSnt, van, [Dutch pron. vSn eg'- 
 mAnt ; Fr. D'Egmond, dJg'moN', ] ( Karel,) a Dutch 
 prince, born at Gavre in 1467, was the son of Adolph, 
 Duke of Gelderland. He began to rule that duchy in 
 1492, and defended it successfully against Maximilian of 
 Germany. In 1507 he invaded Brabant, and took several 
 cities; but his progress was arrested by the treaty of 
 Cambrai. Nearly all his life was spent in war against the 
 Austrians, which he conducted with great ability, and 
 ended in 1528 by rendering homage to Charles V. Died 
 in 1538. 
 
 See Pontanus, " Historia Geldrica?;" Dujardin, "Histoire des 
 Provinces unies." 
 
 Egmond, van, (Maximilian,) Count of Buren, an 
 able general of Charles V., was born probably in Flan- 
 ders. He commanded an imperial army in 1536 against 
 Francis I., and took Saint-Pol. " He was," says De 
 Thou, "great in war and great in peace." He died in 
 1548, leaving no issue but a daughter, who was the first 
 wife of William, Prince of Orange. 
 
 See De Thou, " Histoire," vol. v. 
 
 Egmont, Earl of. See Perceval, (John.) 
 Eg'mfint, (John,) Count of, and Duke of Gelder- 
 land, formed a conspiracy against the Count of Holland 
 about 141 5, and was condemned to death, but escaped by 
 flight. Died in 1452. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Egmont or Egmond, [Fr. pron. eg'm6N',] (Lamo- 
 rai . li'mo'ril',) Count of, Prince de GJvre, and Baron 
 of Fiennes, one of the most illustrious nobles of the Low 
 Countries, was born in Amsterdam in 1522. He was a 
 descendant of the Dukes of Gelderland. In 1546 Charles 
 V. conferred on him the order of the Golden Fleece. 
 He married at an early age Sabina, Duchess of Bavaria. 
 Appointed commander of cavalry in the Spanish army, 
 he defeated the French at Saint-Quentin in 1557, and 
 the next year gained the important victory of Gravelines. 
 Though he continued constant in his support of the 
 Catholic Church, he used his great influence in favour 
 of peace and moderate measures in the contest between 
 the Spanish court and the Reformers. This conduct, 
 together with his extraordinary popularity, provoked the 
 vindictive jealousy of Philip II., who sent to Flanders, 
 with vice-regal power, the Duke of Alva, Egmont's per- 
 sonal enemy. Egmont was arrested, with Count Horn, 
 tried for treason, and executed, in 1568, after several 
 
 t.a&i;<;a3s;%Aard;gasj; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled ; sas*; th as in this. 
 
 53 
 
 (5SF"*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
EGMONT 
 
 «34 
 
 EHRENSWARD 
 
 German princes had made earnest efforts to save his life. 
 His death became the signal of a general revolt against 
 Philip II., which resulted in the independence of the 
 United Provinces. It is also the subject of an admired 
 tragedy by Goethe. Motley, who has had access to the 
 most various and ample sources of information, takes a 
 less favourable view of Egmont's character than most 
 other historians. (See " Rise of the Dutch Republic," 
 more especially the remarks on Egmont's character near 
 the end of chap. ii. Part iii.) 
 
 See Bercht, "Geschichte des Grafen Egniond," 1810; P. J. 
 Brunkllk, " E"loge duComte d'Egmont," 1S20; Pkescott, "His- 
 tory of Philip II.," vols. i. and ii. 
 
 Egmont, (Philip,) Count of, son of the preceding, 
 born in 1558, served in the army of Philip II., who sent 
 him at the head of a small force to fight for the League 
 against Henry IV. of France. When in Paris a certain 
 official made to him a public address and began to eulo- 
 gize his father, Egmont checked him by saying, " Say no 
 more of that rebel : he deserved his fate." He was 
 killed at the battle of Ivry in 1590. 
 
 His brother Charles, Count of Egmont, married 
 Marie of Lens, Baroness of Aubignies, became a cheva- 
 lier of the Golden Fleece, and was cqnstantly attached 
 to the cause of the Prince of Orange. He died at the 
 Hague in 1620. The posterity of Lamoral became extinct 
 in the person of Procope Francois, Count of Egmont, a 
 general in the French army, who died in 1707, aged 
 thirty-eight. 
 
 Egnatius. See Egnazio. 
 
 Egnazio, en-yat'se-o, [Lat. Egna'this,] the assumed 
 name of Giovanni Battista Cipelli, (che-pel'lee,) an 
 Italian orator and author, born at Venice about 1475. 
 He was professor of eloquence in Venice about thirty 
 years, (1520-50.) His lectures were very popular, and 
 are said to have attracted a class of five hundred stu- 
 dents. He edited the poems of Ovid, and wrote, in Latin, 
 several works, including an " Epitome of the Lives of 
 the Roman Emperors," which has some merit. Died 
 in '553- 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis;" Ersch und Gruber, 
 "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Eg're-mont, (Gkorge O'Brien Wyndham,) Earl 
 ok, an English nobleman, born in 175 1, inherited that 
 title at the age of twelve. He was eminent for his public 
 spirit and his liberality as a patron of native artists. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Eguia, de, da a-gee'a, (Francisco Ramon,) a Spanish 
 general, born at Durango in 1750; died in 1827. 
 
 figyptus, the French of ^Egyptus, which see. 
 
 Ehingen, von, fon a'ing-en, (George,) a German 
 traveller and knight-errant, born about 1435. He fought 
 with distinction against the Moors in Spain and Portugal. 
 He wrote a narrative of his travels in Europe, Palestine, 
 etc., (1600.) 
 
 Ehinger, a'ing-er, (Elias,) a German theologian, born 
 in 1573, was professor and rector at Augsburg, and pub- 
 lished several theological works. Died in 1653. 
 
 See Jacob Brucker, " Commentatio de Vita et Scriptis E. Ehin- 
 geri," 1724. 
 
 Ehlers, a'lers, (Martin,) a German novelist, born in 
 Holstein in 1732, became professor of philosophy at 
 Kiel in 1776. His chief work is "Considerations on 
 the Morality of our Enjoyments and Pleasures," (2 vols., 
 1790.) "All his thoughts," says Guizot, "are those of 
 a wise man. He presents a number of important truths 
 with clearness and simplicity." (" Biographie Univer- 
 selle.") Died in 1800. 
 
 See Meusei., " Lexikon der vom Jahr 1750-1800 verstorbenen 
 Deulschen Schriftsteller." 
 
 Ehninger, en'ing-er, ?(John W.,) an American painter, 
 born in the city of New York in 1827, studied in Paris. 
 His forte is genre. Among his works are " The Foray," 
 " Ars celare Artem," " Lady Jane Grey," and familiar 
 rural scenes. 
 
 See H. T. Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists." 
 
 Ehrenberg, s'ren-bJRG', (Christian Gottfried,) a 
 German naturalist, celebrated for his microscopic re- 
 searches, was born at Delitzsch, in Prussian Saxony, in 
 1 795. He studied medicine at Leipsic, and took his degree 
 in 1818. His first writings were treatises on fungi and 
 
 other cryptogamous plants. At the expense of the Berlin 
 Academy, he made with Dr. Hemprich a scientific excur- 
 sion to Egypt, Arabia, and Syria, in which they spent 
 about six years, (1820-26.) On his return to Berlin 
 he was appointed adjunct professor of the Faculty of 
 Medicine. He published his observations in "Scientific 
 Travels through Northern Africa and Western Asia," 
 (1828,) and in several special treatises entitled " Physical 
 Symbols of Birds, Insects," etc., ("Symbolae physical 
 Avium, Insectorum," etc., 1828-34.) In 1829 he accom- 
 panied Humboldt in an excursion to the Ural and Altai 
 Mountains. Having turned his attention to the study 
 of animalcula, he made remarkable discoveries with the 
 microscope. He published in 1838 a description of the 
 structure and habits of infusoria, in his great work "The 
 Infusoria as Perfect Organisms," ("Die Infusionsthier- 
 chen als vollkommene Organismen.") He wrote other 
 works, in which he announced that cretaceous and cal- 
 careous strata and large portions of mountains are 
 composed of the skeletons of infusoria or microscopic 
 organisms. His "Mikro-Geologie," (1S54-56,) treating 
 of this department of geology, is among his most impor- 
 tant works. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie GeneVale." 
 
 Ehrenberg, (FRiEDRlCH.)a German theologian, born 
 at Elberfeld in 1776, became court preacher in 1834. 
 
 Ehrenheim, a'ren-him', (Fredrick Wii.hf.im,) Ba- 
 ron of, a Swedish statesman, born at Broby in 1753. 
 In 1794 he was minister at the court of Denmark, and 
 a few years later he obtained the portfolio of foreign 
 affairs. When Gustavus IV. was dethroned, in 1809, 
 Ehrenheim retired from the public service. He wrote 
 an excellent treatise on "General Physics and Meteoro- 
 logy," and a few other works. Died in 1828. 
 
 Enrenmalm, a'ren-malm', (Arvid,) a Swedish travel- 
 ler, who published in 1742 a "Journey through Nordland 
 and Lapland," etc. 
 
 Ehrenpreus, a'ren-pr5-6os, (Carl,) a Swedish states- 
 man, born at OZrebro in 1692. He was employed by 
 Charles XII. as secretary at Bender about 1710, and 
 after his return to Sweden was made a senator and a 
 count. Died in 1760. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ehrenschild, a'ren-shllt', (Conrad Bierman,) a 
 Danish statesman, born in 1629; died in 1698. 
 
 Ehrenschold or Ehrenschoeld, a'ren-sholt', or 
 Ehrenskjold, a'rens-cbolt', (Nils,) a Swedish admiral, 
 born in 1674. In i7i4or 1715 he commanded the Swedish 
 fleet which was defeated in the Gulf of Finland by a 
 superior Russian fleet, in which Peter the Great served 
 as rear-admiral. Died in 1728. 
 
 Ehrensteen. See Ehrensten. 
 
 Ehrensten, a'ren-sten', written also Ehrensteen 
 (Eduard,) a Swedish statesman and author, bom at 
 Locknevid in 1620, was the son of Philip Bononius. In 
 1653 he became secretary of the king, Charles Gustavus, 
 and, having subsequently received letters of nobility, he 
 took the name of Ehrensten. He was appointed secre- 
 tary of state in 1659, and chancellor of the court in 
 1671. He wrote "De Forma SubstaTitiali," (1642,) and 
 other works, which are commended. Died in 1686. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ehrenstral, a'ren-stRal', (David Clocker,) a painter 
 of history and portraits, born at Hamburg in 1629, studied 
 in Italy. In 1661 he was appointed painter to the court 
 of Sweden. Died in 1698. 
 
 Ehrensvard. See Ehrf.nsward. 
 
 Ehrenswaerd. See Ehrf.nsward. 
 
 Ehrensward or Ehrenswaerd, a'ren-sweRd', (Au- 
 gust,) Count of, a Swedish field-marshal, born in 1710, 
 made himself famous by devising and organizing a new 
 plan of national defence, — a fleet of transport-vessels 
 and gun-boats, — which was employed with success on 
 several occasions. He also planned the fortifications of 
 Sveaborg. Died in 1773. 
 
 See Geyer. " History of Sweden ;" Axel M. Arbin, " Aminnelse- 
 Tal ofver A. Ehrenswaerd," 1774. 
 
 Ehrensward or Ehrenswaerd, (Carl August,) a 
 Swedish admiral and artist, a son of the preceding, was 
 born about 1745. He visited Italy about 1780, and after 
 
 a, e, I, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
EH RET 
 
 835 
 
 E1MMART 
 
 his return published an account of his travels, illustrated 
 with line engravings by himself. He was admiral of the 
 fleet in 1789, and fought against the Russians. Died in 
 1800. 
 Ehret, a'rJt, (Georg D.,) a German artist, distin- 
 
 fuished for his skill in drawing and painting plants, was 
 orn in Baden in 17 10. He worked some time in Bale, 
 from which he removed to Paris, where he was employed 
 by Bernard de Jussieu. He became intimate with Lin- 
 nauis in Holland, and designed the figures of his beautiful 
 "llortus Cliffortianus," (1737.) In 1740 he went to 
 England, where he worked for the Royal Society and 
 published a series of engravings of plants, (1748-59.) 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Ehrhardt, aR'haRt, (Sigismond Just,) a German 
 historian and preacher, born in 1733. He wrote on the 
 early history of Lower Saxony, and " On the Origin and 
 Antiquities of Schmalkalden. Died in 1793. 
 
 See Ersch mid Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ehrhart, aR'haRt, (Balthasar,) a German botanist, 
 was born at Memniingen. His chief work is an "Eco- 
 nomical History of Plants," of which five volumes had 
 appeared at his death in 1756. It was continued and 
 completed by P. F. Gmelin. 
 
 Ehrhart, (Frederick,) a Swiss botanist, born at Hol- 
 darbanc about 1745, learned the trade of apothecary, and 
 in the study of botany was a pupil of Linnaeus at Upsal. 
 From 1787 to 1792 he issued "Fragments of Natural 
 History," in 7 vols. He received in 1787 the diploma 
 of botanist to his Britannic Majesty. Died in 1795. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ehrmann, eVm&N' or aR'man, (Frederic Louis,) a 
 French writer, born about 1740, published " Elements of 
 Physics," (1779.) Died in 1800. 
 
 Ehrmann, aR'man, (Johann Christian,) a German 
 medical writer, born at Strasburg in 1740; died about 
 1800. 
 
 Ehrmann, aR'man, (Marianne,) a Swiss authoress, 
 whose maiden name was Brentano, (bR?n-ta'no,) bom 
 at Rapperschwyl in 1755. She was married to T. F. 
 Ehrmann, a geographer. She wrote works for the in- 
 struction of women, among which were " Amelia, a True 
 Story," (1787,) and "The Solitary of the Alps," (1794.) 
 " Her style is clear and easy," says Guizot ; " her reflec- 
 tions are always just, and often new. All her writings 
 are pervaded by an excellent morality." Died in 1795. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Eichendorff, von, fon I'Ken-doRf, (Joseph,) Baron, 
 a popular German poet and novelist, born at Lubowitz, 
 near Ratibor, in 1788. He became referendar of the gov- 
 ernment at Breslau in 1816, and afterwards councillor 
 (regierungsrath) at Konigsberg and Berlin. He wrote 
 several tragedies and novels, some of which are con- 
 sidered master-pieces. Among the latter are " Presenti- 
 ment and Reality," (1815,) and "Aus dem Leben eines 
 Taugenichts," ("From the Life of a Good-for-Nothing," 
 1824: translated into English by C. G. Leland in 1866.) 
 His songs are admired for melody and tenderness. Died 
 in 1857. • 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Eichens, T'Kens, (Friedrich Eduard,) an eminent 
 German engraver, born in Berlin in 1804. He pursued 
 his studies in Paris and Italy, where he acquired reputa- 
 tion by engravings of "The Daughter of Titian" and 
 Raphael's "Vision of Ezekiel." He returned to Berlin 
 about 1832, and was admitted into the Royal Academy. 
 His "Adoration of the Magi," after Raphael, is admired. 
 
 Eichhoff, S'kof, (Frederic Gijstavf.,) a French phi- 
 lologist, born at Havre in 1799. He studied Sanscrit and 
 other Oriental languages, and wrote, among other works, 
 a "Comparison of the Languages of Europe with those 
 of India," (1836.) In 1855 he was chosen inspector- 
 general of the classes of living languages in the lyceums 
 (lycees) of France. 
 
 Eichhoru, iK'hoRn, (Heinrich,) a German medical 
 writer, graduated in 1822; died in 1832. 
 
 Eichhoru, (Johann Ai.brecht Friedrich,) born in 
 Prussia in 1779, was minister of public instruction and 
 worship from 1840 to 1848. Died in 1856. 
 
 Eichhoru, (Johann Conrad,) a German naturalist, 
 born at Dantzic in 1718, wrote on aquatic animals. Died 
 in 1790. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Eichhoru, (Johann Gottfried,) an excellent Ger- 
 man scholar and biblical critic, born at Dorenzimmern, 
 Hohenlohe-Oehringen, on the 16th of October, 1752. 
 He was professor of Oriental languages at Jena from 
 1775 to 1788. In the latter year he obtained the chair 
 of Oriental and biblical literature at Gottingen, wheie 
 he taught until his death. He edited a periodical called 
 a "General Repository of Biblical Literature," (10 vols., 
 1787-1801,) and published many important works, anion;; 
 which are an " Introduction to the Old Testament," (3 
 vols., 1783,) and an "Introduction to the New Testa- 
 ment," (2 vols., 1804-10.) His "Primitive History" 
 ("Urgeschichte," 3 vols., 1790-93) is admired for style 
 and erudition. He left a "Universal History," (5 vols., 
 1799,) a "History of Literature from its Origin to the 
 Most Recent Times," (6 vols., 1806-12,) "The Primitive 
 History of the House of Guelph," (1817,) and other his- 
 torical works. As a biblical critic he favours rationalism 
 or philosophic skepticism. Died in 1827. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" T. C. 
 Tvchshn, "Memoria J. G. Eichhorn," 1828; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^neVale." 
 
 Eichhorn, (KARL Friedrich,) an eminent Prussian 
 jurisconsult and historian, born at Jena in 1 781, was a 
 son of the preceding. He became professor of German 
 law at Berlin in 181 1, and at Gottingen in 1817. In 1828 
 he resigned his chair on account of ill health. About 
 1833 he was appointed a member of the council of state 
 at Berlin, and of the commission of legislation. Among 
 his principal works is a " History of the States and Law 
 of Germany," (4 vols., 1808-18,) which has passed through 
 eight editions, and an " Introduction to German Civil 
 Law," ( Privatrecht. ) Died at Cologne in 1854. 
 
 Eichler, TK'ler, (Gottfried,) a German pamter of 
 portraits and history, was born at Augsburg about 1675. 
 He studied under Carlo Maratta in Rome, and returned 
 to Augsburg, where he received the title of court painter. 
 Died in 1757. 
 
 Eichler, (Gottfried,) a son of the preceding, born 
 in 1 7 1 5, was a skilful designer and engraver on copper. 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 Eichler, (Matthias Gottfriet),) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1748, lived at Berne. He engraved "The 
 Deluge," after Poussin, and many other historical pieces 
 and landscapes. Died about 1818. 
 
 See Nagler, "Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Eichmann. See Dryander, (Johann.) 
 
 Eichner, iK'ner, (Ernst,) a German musician and 
 composer, born at Manheim in 1740 ; died in 1777. 
 
 Eichstad, TK'stat, (Lorenz,) a German medical wri- 
 ter, born at Stettin ; died in 1660. 
 
 Eichstadt, iK'stat, (Heinrich Kari. Abraham,) a 
 German philologer, born at Oschatz in 1772. He was 
 professor of eloquence at Jena, edited the "Literary Ga- 
 zette," and published " Questiones Philological," (1796,) 
 and an edition of Lucretius, (1801.) Died in 1848. 
 
 Eichwald, iK'walt, (Edward,) a Russian naturalist, 
 of German extraction, born at Mittau in 1795. He was 
 appointed professor of zoology and obstetrics at Kazan 
 in 1823, after which he made an excursion to the Caspian 
 Sea and Persia. About 1838 he became professor of 
 mineralogy and zoology in Saint Petersburg ; he after- 
 wards explored the scientific resources of parts of Russia 
 and Italy. He wrote a treatise, in German, "On the 
 Natural History of Lithuania, Volhynia, and Podolia," 
 (1830,(3 "Fauna Caspio-Caucasia," (1841,) "The Primi- 
 tive World of Russia," (" Die Urwelt Russlands,'' 4 vols., 
 1840-47,) and other works. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Eimmart, lm'maRt, or Eimart, I'maRt, (Georg 
 Christoph,) a German painter, born in 1597; died at 
 Ratisbon in 1660. 
 
 Eimmart, (Georg Christoph,) an ingenious German 
 artist and astronomer, born at Ratisbon in 1638. He 
 painted portraits and history with success at Nuremberg, 
 where he settled in 1660. He made astronomical obser- 
 
 c as A; 5 as /; g hard; g as/; G, h, y., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jf^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
EINARI 
 
 836 
 
 ELBCEUF 
 
 vations, and left many volumes of manuscripts on as- 
 tronomy, meteorology, etc. Died in 1705. 
 
 Einari, i-na're, (Gissur,) the first Protestant Bishop of 
 Skalholt, Iceland, received lessons from Luther at Wit- 
 tenberg, and, returning home, became the leader of the 
 Reformation in that island. 
 
 Einari, written also Einaison, (Halfdan,) an Ice- 
 landic savant, became in 1755 rector of the Latin School 
 at Holum. His most important work is " Sciagraphia," 
 or " Sketch of the Literary History of Iceland," in which 
 he notices four hundred and five writers. Died in 1784. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyerup, "Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Einaison. See Einari. 
 
 Einem, von, fon I'nem, (Johann Justus,) a German 
 writer and teacher, published a "Sketch of the Life of 
 Luther," (1730,) and other works. 
 
 Einhard. See Eginhard. 
 
 Einheriar, In-ha're-ar, or Einherjar, [from einn, 
 "one," "single," hence "singled out" or "chosen," and 
 heri, (allied to the German Ilerr,) "lord," "hero,"] in 
 the Norse mythology, the name given to the chosen 
 heroes who are admitted to Valhalla. (See Odin and 
 Valkyria.) 
 
 Einsiedel, von, fon In'see-del, (Friedrich Hii.de- 
 BRAND,) a German writer and politician, born at Leipsic 
 in 1750; died in 1828. 
 
 Eioub or Eiub. See Aiyoob. 
 
 Eira, I'ra, or Eir, Tr, [etymology unknown,] in the 
 Norse mythology, the goddess of medicine, 
 
 Eirene, I-ree'ne, [Gr. Elpr/vr) ; Lat. Pax ; Fr. La Paix, 
 IS pi,] the goddess of peace, in classic mythology, was 
 called a daughter of Jupiter and Themis. Altars and 
 statues were raised in her honour at Athens, and a magni- 
 ficent temple was erected to her in Rome by Vespasian. 
 
 Eiselen, l'zeh-len, (Johann Friedrich,) a German 
 publicist, born at Rothemburg in 1785, became pro- 
 fessor of law at Halle in 1829. He wrote a "Theory 
 of Political Economy," (1843.)' 
 
 Eisen, i'z5N', (Chari.es,) a French painter and en- 
 graver, born in Paris in 1721 ; died in 1778. 
 
 Eisen von Schwar2;enberg, T'zen von shwiRt'sen- 
 Mrg', (Johann GEORG,)a German physician and writer 
 on theology, etc., was born at Bolsingen in 171 7. He pro- 
 moted the abolition of serfdom in Livonia. Died in 1779. 
 
 Eisengrein, I'zen-gRln', (Martin,) a German theolo- 
 gian, born in 1535, lived at Ingolstadt. Died in 1578. 
 
 Eisenhart, I'zen-haRt', (Johann Friedrich,) a dis- 
 tinguished German jurist, born at Spire in 1720. He 
 published "Institutes of German Private Law," (" Insti- 
 tutiones Juris Germanici privati," 1753,) and other legal 
 works. " His style is clear and precise," says Guizot, 
 "his discussions are animated, and give proof of equal 
 sagacity and judgment." ("Biographie Universelle.") 
 Died in 1783. 
 
 See J. C. Wernsdorf, "Mtmoria J. F. Eisenharti," 1783; 
 Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Eisenmann, 1'zen-maV, (Gottfried,) a German 
 medical writer and liberal politician, born at Wiirtzburg 
 in 1795. He was imprisoned for political reasons from 
 1832 to 1841. Among his works is a treatise "On Rheu- 
 matism," (3 vols., 1841-43.) 
 
 E' jeiimenger, T'zen-meng'er, (Johann Andreas,) a 
 German philologist and Hebraist, born at Manheiin in 
 1654. He became professor of Oriental languages at 
 Heidelberg in 1700, and published "Judaism Unveiled," 
 (1700,) which is regarded as a libellous work by the Jews 
 and others. Died in 1704. 
 
 See A. T. Hartmann, "J. A. Eisenmenger und seine jiidlschen 
 Gegner," 1834. 
 
 Eisenschmid, T'zen-shmit', (Johann Kaspar,) a skil- 
 ful mathematician, born at Strasburg in 1656, was chosen 
 in 1699 an associate of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. 
 He wrote a treatise on " The Figure of the Earth," and 
 several other works. Died in 1712. 
 
 Eisinga, T'sing-hJ, (Eise,) born in Holland in 1744, 
 was a councillor of state, and noted as the inventor and 
 maker of a remarkable planetarium. He died at Frane- 
 ker in 1838. 
 
 Eiyub. See Aiyoob. 
 
 Ekama, a'kl-ml, (Cornei.is,) a Dutch mathematician, 
 born in Friesland in 1773 ; died in 1826. 
 
 Ekber. See Akbar. • 
 
 Ekeberg, ek'eh-MRg', (Anders Gustaf,) an eminent 
 Swedish chemist, born at Stockholm in 1767. He made 
 some chemical discoveries, and taught chemistry at Up- 
 sal. Died in 1813. 
 
 Ekeberg, (Carl Gustaf,) a Swedish captain and 
 savant, born in 1 7 16, made several voyages to India and 
 China, and gained distinction by his useful observations. 
 He published an " Account oi the Rural Economy of 
 the Chinese," (1754,) and a " Voyage to India in 1770- 
 71." For his treatise on Inoculation he received medals 
 and pensions from several foreign powers. Died in 1784. 
 
 See A. Sparrman, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver C. G. Ekeberg," 1791. 
 
 Ekeblad, ek'eh-blJd', ( Claudius, ) Count of, a 
 Swedish statesman, born about 1700, was chosen in 1761 
 minister of foreign affairs. His opponents, styled the 
 party of Caps, prevailed in 1766, and he lost his place, 
 but recovered it in 1769, when the Hats, or French party, 
 were in the ascendant. Died in 1771. 
 
 See Hoepken, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver C. Ekeblad," 1773. 
 
 Ek'ins, (Jefkery,) an English parson, born in Ches- 
 hire. He translated from the Greek "The Loves of 
 Medea and Jason," by Apollonius of Rhodes. Died in 
 1791. 
 
 Ekstrom or Ekstroem, eVstrbm, (Daniel,) a Swe- 
 dish mechanician and mathematician, born at Ekesog in 
 171 1. He made excellent mathematical instruments. 
 Died in 1755. 
 
 See Ersch nnd Gruber, "Allgemeine Encvklopaedie ;" P. War- 
 gen-ten, "Gedachtniss auf Daniel Ekstroem." 
 
 filagabale. See Elagabalus. 
 
 El-a-ga-ba'lus or El-a-gab'a-lus, or He-H-o-ga- 
 ba'lus, [Fr. Elagabale, a'lI'gS'bil', or Hei.iogab ale, 
 1'le'o'gi bSl',] (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,) a Ro- 
 man emperor, born at Antioch in 204 A.D., was supposed 
 to be the natural son of Caracalla. His original name 
 was Varius Avitus Bassianus ; but, having become a 
 priest in the Temple of the Sun, (the Syrian Elagabal,) 
 he adopted the name of that idol. In 218 he was pro- 
 claimed by the army as successor to Caracalla, and, 
 having defeated his rival Macrinus.he assumed the name 
 of M. A. Antoninus. His reign was short, and was dis- 
 graced by cruelty, extravagance, and infamous vices. He 
 was assassinated by his soldiers in 222, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Alexander Severus. 
 
 See Tii.lemont, " Histoire des Emperenrs;" Gibbon, "Decline 
 and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Lampridius, "Elagabalus;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Elbee, d', del'bi', (Gigot, zhe'go',) a Vendean gen- 
 eral-in-chief, born of a French family at Dresden in 1752. 
 He resided in France when the Revolution began, and 
 put himself at the head of a body of royalists in March, 
 1793. His army joined that of Cathelineau and defeated 
 the republicans at Fontenayand Saumur. On the death 
 of Cathelineau, in June, Elbee was chosen general-in- 
 chief. He was defeated at Lucon, and gained a decisive 
 victory over Marceau at Chantonnay. He lost a great 
 battle and was desperately wounded at Chollet, in Oc- 
 tober. Havhig been taken prisoner, he was shot, by 
 order of a court-martial, in January, 1794. 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" De Cour- 
 celles, " Histoire des Gene'raux Francais." 
 
 Elbene. See Delhine. 
 
 El'bert, (Samuel,) an American officer, born in South 
 Carolina in 1743, served with distinction as colonel in the 
 Revolutionary war, and was chosen Governor of Georgia 
 in 1785. Died in 1788. 
 
 Eibeuf or Elboeuf, d', del'buf, (Charles,) Duke, 
 born about 1556, was a son of Rene de Lorraine, noticed 
 below. Died in 1605. 
 
 Eibeuf, d', (Charles,) a son of the preceding, born in 
 1596, became Duke of Eibeuf, and married in 1619 an 
 illegitimate daughter of Henry IV. Died in 1657. 
 
 Eibeuf, d', (Emmanuel Maurice,) Prince, a grand- 
 son of the preceding, born in 1677, entered the service 
 of the Emperor of Germany. He became owner of a 
 villa at Portici, and there ordered some excavations 
 which resulted in the discovery of Herculancum. Died 
 in 1763. 
 
 Eibeuf, d', (Rene de Lorraine — deh lo'r&n',) Mar- 
 quis, a son of Claude, Due de Guise. Died in 1566. 
 
 Elbceuf. See Elbeuf. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; (ix, fill, fit; mh t; not; good; moon; 
 
ELBURCHT 
 
 837 
 
 ELFLEDA 
 
 Elburcht. van, vSn eYbuRKt, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at Elburg about 1550, worked at Antwerp. He 
 painted landscapes, storms at sea, and scriptural sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Elchingen, Duke of. See Ney. 
 
 El'«ho, ( Francis Wemys Charteris, ) Lord, a 
 Scottish politician, born in Edinburgh in 1818. He has 
 been for many years a member of Parliament, and is 
 called Liberal Conservative. 
 
 Elci, eYchee, (Angelo,) Count, an eminent Italian 
 philologist, born of a noble family in Florence in 1764. 
 He published a fine edition of Lucan's " Pharsalia," and 
 some satires of his own. Died in 1824. 
 
 El' dad the Danite, a Jewish traveller, lived in Ara- 
 bia in the ninth century. He travelled in China, Persia, 
 and other countries, and wrote a narrative of his travels. 
 
 El'don, (John Scott,) Earl of, lord chancellor of 
 England, was born at Newcastle in 1751. His father, 
 William Scott, was a prosperous "coal-fitter," or dealer 
 in coal. John Scott was educated at Oxford, where in 
 1771 he gained a prize of £20 for a prose essay on the 
 "Advantages and Disadvantages of Foreign Travel." 
 In 1772 he ran away with and married Elizabeth Surtees, 
 a lady of exquisite beauty. He began the study of law 
 in the Middle Temple in 1773, where, by the most in- 
 tense application, he laid the foundation of the unrivalled 
 reputation which he acquired as a judge. In 1776 he 
 was called to the bar, and practised in London and on 
 the northern circuit. His great excellence as a lawyer 
 was publicly recognized in 1780 in the case of Acroyd 
 vs. Smithson before Lord Thurlow. From this time his 
 success was rapid and uninterrupted. In 1783 he was 
 returned to Parliament, in which he took a prominent 
 part as a supporter of the ministry of Pitt. Though not 
 a brilliant orator, he often spoke with great effect. In 
 1786 he warmly defended Warren Hastings in the House. 
 
 In 1788 he was appointed solicitor-general, and re- 
 ceived the title of baronet. From 1793 until 1799 he 
 officiated as attorney-general amidst the excitement of 
 the French Revolution. He prosecuted Hardy, Home 
 Tooke, and others for treason, who were defended by 
 Erskine and acquitted. In 1799 he obtained the office of 
 chief justice of the common pleas, and was raised to the 
 peerage as Baron Eldon, a title derived from a manor in 
 the county of Durham. Lord Kenyon congratulated the 
 profession on this appointment, and predicted that Eldon 
 would prove to be "the most consummate judge that ever 
 sat in judgment." It is admitted that he performed the 
 duties of this station admirably. 
 
 In April, 1801, on the accession of Addington as prime 
 minister, Lord Eldon was raised to the dignity of lord 
 chancellor, which he ascribed to the favour of the king. 
 The latter, having sent for Eldon, drew the seals out 
 from his bosom, saying, " I give them to you from my 
 heart !" He retained the great seal for the period of 
 twenty-six years, excepting an interval of about a year in 
 1806-07, when Erskine succeeded him. He possessed 
 great influence in the cabinet and in the Upper House. 
 It may, however, be mentioned as his reproach that he 
 constantly supported the Conservative party, that he 
 opposed the abolition of the slave-trade, the Reform bill, 
 and nearly every other change, whether of useful reform 
 or useless innovation. When Canning became prime 
 minister, in 1827, Eldon was superseded by Lord Lynd- 
 hurst, and retired from public life. A few years before 
 this he had been created Viscount Encombe and Earl of 
 Eldon. Died in 1838. 
 
 See "The Public and Private Life of Lord Eldon," by Horace 
 Twiss, 3 vols., 1844 : Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chan- 
 cellors;" Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. ; "London 
 Quarterly Review" for December and June, 1844; "Westminster 
 Review" for December, 1844; "Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1844. 
 
 Eleanor, 61'a-nor, [Sp. Leonora, la-o-no'ra,] of 
 Aragon, Queen of Portugal, was a daughter of Ferdi- 
 nand of Aragon. She was married in 1428 to a Portu- 
 guese prince, who became in 1433 King Edward I. He 
 died in 1438, leaving her guardian of her minor son, 
 Alfonso V., and regent. Died in 1445. 
 
 Eleanor [Fr. Ei.bonork, a'la'o'noR'] of Austria, a 
 sister of the emperor Charles V., was born at Louvain 
 in 1498, and was married in 1519 to Emanuel, King of 
 Portugal, who died about two years later. In 1530 she 
 
 became the consort of Francis I. of France, in accord- 
 ance with the first clause of the treaty of Cambrai. She 
 had two children, who were the issue of her first mar- 
 riage. She survived Francis, and died in Spain in 1558. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Eleanor of Castile, a daughter of Ferdinand III. 
 of Castile, was married in 1254 to the Prince of Wales, 
 who became Edward I. of England. Died in 1290. 
 
 Eleanor [Fr. ElEonore, A'la'o'noR'] of Guienne, 
 Queen of France, and afterwards Queen of England, 
 was born about 1122. She was daughter and heiress of 
 the last Duke of Aquitaine. In 1137 she married Louis 
 VII. of France, whom she followed on a crusade in 1 147. 
 Having been divorced in 1152, she married Henry II. 
 of England. In order to revenge his infidelity to her, 
 she is said to have instigated the king's sons to rebel, for 
 which she was imprisoned about fifteen years. She was 
 regent while her son, Richard I., was absent on a crusade. 
 Died in 1203. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Eleanor or Ellinor [Port. Eleonora, or, more fully, 
 Eleonora Tellez, a-la-o-no'ra tel'lez] of Portugal, 
 a beautiful Portuguese lady, born about 1350. She be- 
 came the queen of Ferdinand I. of Portugal. She was 
 artful and unscrupulous, and is said to have caused the 
 death of her sister. Died in 1405. 
 
 See Laclede, "Histoire de Portugal." 
 
 Eleanor of Provence, Queen of England, was a 
 daughter of Raimond Berenger IV., and was married 
 to Henry III. of England in 1236. She was mother of 
 Edward I. Died in 1291. 
 
 E-le-a'zar, [Heb. "UJ^X,] a high-priest of the Hebrew 
 church, was a son of Aaron, whom he succeeded in the 
 high-priesthood about 1452 B.C. 
 
 See Exodus xxviii. 1 ; Numbers xx. 28, xxxi. 6 ; Joshua xxiv. 33. 
 
 Eleazar, a Jewish high-priest, who about 277 B.C. 
 sent to Ptolemy, King ofaEgypt, (in compliance with his 
 request,) seventy-two wise men to translate the Mosaic 
 law into Greek. 
 
 Eleazar, a Jewish warrior, was a brother of Judas 
 Maccabaeus. He was killed in battle in 163 B.C. 
 
 Eleazar, an eminent Jewish scribe, who resisted the 
 tyrannical orders of Antiochus Epiphanes, and was put 
 to death in 167 B.C. 
 
 Eleazar, a son of Ananias, a fanatical Jew, instigated 
 his countrymen to revolt against the Romans. During 
 the siege of Jerusalem by Titus (70 a.d.) he was the 
 leader of one of the hostile factions of that city. 
 
 See Josephus, " History." 
 
 Eleazar, a Jewish warrior, noted for his obstinate 
 defence of Massada against the Romans in 70 A.D. When 
 resistance was no longer practicable, to avoid capture he 
 and his men killed themselves. 
 
 Eleazar or Eliezer of Garmiza or of Worms, an 
 eminent Hebrew rabbi, lived about 1240. 
 
 E-lec'tra, [Gr. 'HAc/crpa,] one of the Pleiades, was 
 regarded as the daughter of Atlas and Pleione, and the 
 mother of Dardanus. 
 
 Electra, [Gr. 'KUnTpa; Fr. Electre, a'liktR'; It. 
 Elettra, a-leVtRa,] a daughter of Agamemnon, and a 
 sister of Orestes, was sometimes called Laodice. Her 
 story has been dramatized by ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and 
 Euripides. 
 
 Electre. See Electra. 
 
 E-lec'trjr-on, [Gr. 'HAeK-pivv,] a son of Perseus and 
 Andromeda, was King of Mycenae, (or, as some say, of 
 Argos,) and father of Alcmena. Returning victorious 
 from war, he was accidentally killed by Amphitryon, 
 who was betrothed to his daughter Alcmena. 
 
 Eleonora Tellez. See Eleanor of Portugal. 
 
 Elettra. See ELECTRA. 
 
 E-leu'sis, [Gr. 'Efevoiz,] a mythical person, called a 
 son of Mercury or of Ogyges. The town of Eleusis in 
 Attica is supposed to have derived its name from him. 
 
 E-leu-the'rl-us or E-leu'the-ros, [Fr. Ei.kutiieke, 
 i'luh'taiR',1 a native of Nicopolis or Epirus, in Giccce, 
 was elected pope or bishop of Rome in 177 a.d. He 
 died in 192, and was succeeded by Victor I. 
 
 El-fle'da or Eth'el-fle'da, daughter of Alfred the 
 Great of England, and sister of Edward the Elder, in- 
 
 *; as h; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttwal; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
ELFRIC 
 
 838 
 
 ELIOT 
 
 herited some of her father's royal qualities. She became 
 about 890 the wife of Ethelred, Count of Mercia, after 
 whose death she defended her dominions against the 
 Danes with courage and ability. Died in 922. 
 
 Elfiic. See Alfric. 
 
 El-fri'da, queen of Edgar, King of the Anglo-Saxons, 
 was the mother of Ethelred II., and was a woman of 
 infamous character. 
 
 Elger. See Elliger, (Otmar.) 
 
 El'gin, (James Bruce,) Earl of, son of Thomas, 
 noticed below, a distinguished British statesman, was 
 born in 181 1, and educated at Oxford. In 1841 he suc- 
 ceeded his father in the earldom of Elgin and Kincar- 
 dine. From 1842 to 1846 he was Governor of Jamaica, 
 and in the latter year he was appointed Governor-Gene- 
 ril of Canada. In this position his policy was liberal, 
 and his administration obtained the general approbation 
 of the colonists and of the central government. In 1849 
 he was created an English peer. He left Canada in 1854, 
 and was sent in 1857 to China on a special mission, which 
 he performed with ability and success, and after the cap- 
 ture of Canton negotiated the treaty of Tien-Tsien or 
 Tientsin, (1858.) In June, 1859, he became postmaster- 
 general in the cabinet of Palmerston. He went as am- 
 bassador to China in i860, and, after the success of the 
 British army, entered Pekin in triumph. He returned 
 home in the spring of 1861, and was appointed Governor- 
 General of India. Died in 1863. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for January, 1864. 
 
 Elgin, (Thomas Bruce,) Earl of, seventh Earl of 
 Elgin and Kincardine, born in Scotland in 1777, was 
 descended from King Robert Bruce. He succeeded to 
 the peerage in childhood, entered the army at an early 
 age, and rose to the rank of general. In 1795 he was 
 appointed envoy extraordinary to Berlin, and in 1799 
 was sent in the same capacity to Constantinople. While 
 engaged in the latter mission, he availed himself of the 
 opportunity to procure, with great labour and expense, 
 at Athens, a large collection of statues, bas-reliefs, rrfed- 
 als, monuments, and other remains of ancient art, which 
 were purchased by the government in 1816, and now 
 form part of the British Museum, under the name of the 
 " Elgin Marbles." The government paid him .£35,000 
 for these treasures, for removing which he was severely 
 satirized by Lord Byron. Died in 1841. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Quar- 
 terly Review" for January, 1816; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 
 i860. 
 
 El-fi'va, ? Queen of Edmund I., King of the Anglo- 
 Saxons, and mother of Edgar. 
 
 E'H, [Heb. 'Sj?.] a Hebrew high-priest and judge, who 
 flourished about 1 170 B.C. He judged Israel forty years, 
 and was succeeded by Samuel. 
 
 See I. Samuel i., ii., iii., and iv. 
 
 Elia. See Lamb, (Charles.) 
 
 Elian. See ^LIAN. 
 
 Elias, (of Scripture.) See Elijah. 
 
 Elias, i-lee'as, (Matthaus,) a German painter, born 
 near Cassel in 1658, worked at Paris. Among his works 
 is a "Transfiguration." Died in 1 741. 
 
 E-li'as Le-vi'ta, a Jewish rabbi, born probably in 
 Italy in 1472, was one of the most celebrated writers 
 and skilful grammarians among the modern Jews. He 
 taught Hebrew in Rome and Venice, and published 
 many works, among which were a " Hebrew Grammar" 
 and a "Chaldaic, Talmudic, and Rabbinical Lexicon." 
 His critical notes on the text of Scripture, entitled " Mas- 
 sorah," (1538,) are highly prized. Died at Venice in 1549. 
 
 See Uasnage, " Histoire des Juifs." 
 
 Elichniann, a'liK-man', (JoIiann,) a German Orien- 
 talist and physician, bom in Silesia, practised at Leyden, 
 where he died in 1639. In the opinion of Salniasius, he 
 understood Persian better than any European of his time. 
 
 filie, the French of Elijah, which see. 
 
 filie de Beaumont, a'le' deh bo'moN',( Anne Louise 
 Morin-Dumesnil — 1110'ra.N' dii'mi 'nel',) an author- 
 ess, born at Caen in 1729, was the wife of Jean Baptiste 
 
 ed 
 ) 
 
 Jacques, noticed below. She wrote a novel entitlec 
 "Letters of the Marquis de Roselle," (2 vols., 1764. 
 Died in 1783. 
 
 filie de Beaumont, (Jean Baptiste Armand Louis 
 L60NCE,) a French geologist, born at Canon (Calvados) 
 in 1798. He studied in the Ecole Polytechnique and the 
 ficole des Mines. In 1823 he was sent with M. Dufrenoy 
 on a scientific excursion to Great Britain. He afterwards 
 co-operated in a great geological map of France. (See 
 Dufrenoy, P. A.) He became professor of geology in 
 the College of France in 1832, chief engineer of mines in 
 1833, and a member of the Institute in 1835. Though 
 not a politician, he was appointed a senator in 1852. He 
 succeeded Arago in 1853 as perpetual secretary of the 
 Academy of Sciences. Among his principal works aie 
 a "Glance at Mines," ("Coup-d'Uiil sur les Mines," 
 1824,) "Researches in some of the Revolutions of the 
 Surface of the Globe," (1829,) and "Lectures on Geol- 
 ogy." (3 vo, s-> t845 'tseq.) 
 
 See " Galerie historique des Membres du Senat." 
 
 "A\\e de Beaumont, (Jean Baptiste Jacques,) a 
 French lawyer, grandfather of the preceding, was born at 
 Carentan in 1732. He acquired a European reputation 
 by his judicial " Memoires." In reference to his memoir 
 of "les Calas," Voltaire pronounced him a true philoso- 
 pher. He died in 1786. 
 
 £lie de la Poterie, i/le' deh IS pot're', (Jean An- 
 TOINE,) a French physician, brother of the preceding, was 
 born about 1731. He died in 1794, leaving a few able 
 treatises on mesmerism, pharmacy, etc. 
 
 E^lien, the French of AiLiAN, which see. 
 
 Eliezer. See Eleazar. 
 
 E-H-e'zer, a Jewish rabbi and writer, surnamed THE 
 GREAT, lived in Palestine about 100 a.d. 
 
 Eligius. See Eloi. 
 
 Eligoum. See Elikoum. 
 
 E-li'jah [Heb. in ,l ?jt or rrSx] THE Tishbite, an 
 eminent Hebrew prophet, whose name is written Elias 
 in the New Testament, [Fr. Elie, i'le'.J He was a 
 native of Thisbe. The first recorded fact in his history 
 is that he predicted to Ahab a great drought. (I. Kings 
 xvii. 1.) He made zealous efforts to convert the people 
 from idolatry, and was the honoured instrument in the 
 most signal manifestations of miraculous power. Finally, 
 favoured with an exemption from the common doom of 
 mortality, he was translated to heaven about 895 B.C. 
 
 See I. Kings xviii., xix., XX., xxi. ; II. Kings i., ii. ; Matthew xi. 
 14, xvii. 3; Luke i. 17; also, F. Korn, " Der Prophet Elias; ein 
 Sonnen-Mythus," 1837; Krummacher, " Elijah the Tishbile." 
 
 Elikoom or Elikoum (el-e-koom') I., written also 
 Eligoum, a Christian prince of the Orpelian race in 
 Georgia. About 1168 he entered the service of the Sultan 
 of Azerbaijan, who made him governor of Ispahan and 
 other cities and in 1172 ceded to him part of Armenia. 
 He had one son, Libarid, who succeeded him. 
 
 Elio, a'le-o, (Francisco Xavier,) a Spanish general, 
 born at Pampeluna in 1769. In 1805 he took Buenos 
 Ayres from the English, and in 181 1 defended the royalist 
 cause against the insurgents of Montevideo. Recalled to 
 Spain about 1812, he was appointed general of an army, 
 fought against the French, aided to restore Ferdinand 
 VII., and was made Captain-General of Valencia and 
 Murcia in 1814. He was imprisoned by the insurgents 
 in 1820, and executed at Valencia in 1822. 
 
 See Southev's " History of the Peninsular War." 
 
 Eliot, (George.) See Evans, (Marian C.) 
 
 El'i-ot, ([ared,) an American preacher and botanist, 
 born in Connecticut in 1685, was a grandson of John 
 Eliot, the Apostle of the Indians. Died in 1763. 
 
 Eliot, (John,) called "the Apostle of the Indians," 
 was born in England in 1604, and was educated at Cam- 
 bridge. He emigrated to Boston in 1631, and soon 
 became minister of the church of Roxbury. He learned 
 the language of the Indians, and began about 1646 to 
 preach to the aborigines of Massachusetts in their own 
 tongue. In the prosecution of his missionary work 
 he travelled extensively, amidst great privations and 
 dangers, and acquired great influence over the Indians, 
 many of whom were converted by him. He translated the 
 Bible into the Indian language, (1661-63.) Died in 169a 
 
 See a "Life of John Elio:," by Convers Francis, in Sparks's 
 "American Biography," vol. v., 1st series. 
 
 Eliot, (John,) an American biographer and minister, 
 born in Boston, in 1754, was one of the founders of the 
 
 i, e, T, 6, 0, y, long; 4, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ELIOT 
 
 839 
 
 ELIZABETH 
 
 Massachusetts Historical Society. He published the 
 "New England Biographical Dictionary," (1809,) and 
 other works. Died in 1813. 
 
 El'I-ot, (Sir John,) an eminent English statesman and 
 orator, born at Port Eliot, in Cornwall, in April, 1590, 
 was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. He left college 
 in 1610, soon alter which he travelled in France and 
 Italy. In 1623 he was elected a member of Parliament, 
 in which he became a leader of the popular party and 
 an eloquent debater. "For quickness and completeness 
 of classical allusion," says Forster, "Eliot had no rival 
 in Parliament." In the second Parliament of Charles I. 
 he made a great speech on grievances. He was the 
 chief author of the impeachment of the Duke of Buck- 
 ingham, against whom he uttered a powerful philippic, 
 (1026.) For this speech he was committed to the Tower, 
 from which, however, he was released about ten days 
 later. " He had in great perfection," says Forster, " some 
 of the highest qualities of an orator, — singular power 
 of statement, clearness and facility in handling details, 
 pointed classical allusion, keen and logical argument, 
 forcible and rich declamation." In 1629 Eliot again 
 offended the king by his remonstrance against arbitrary 
 impositions, tonnage and poundage. The Parliament 
 was suddenly dissolved by the king, and Eliot, with many 
 other patriots, was committed to prison. As he refused 
 to make dishonourable concessions, he was confined in a 
 dark and cheerless apartment and treated with a severity 
 that ruined his health. He died in the Tower in No- 
 vember, 1632. During this imprisonment he wrote a 
 philosophical work entitled "The Monarchy of Man," 
 (unpublished,) which is highly commended. 
 
 See John Forster, "Sir John Eliot: a Biography," 2 vols., 1864; 
 "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1864; " London Quarterly Review" 
 for June, 1865. 
 
 Eliot, (SAMUEL,) an American historian, born in Bos- 
 ton, December 22, 1821. He graduated at Harvard with 
 the highest honours of his class in 1839, and afterwards 
 spent several years in Europe. While in Rome, in 1845, 
 he formed the plan of writing "The History of Liberty," 
 of which two volumes appeared in New York and Lon- 
 don, in 1849, under the title of "The Liberty of Rome." 
 Part II., entitled "The Early Christians," (2 vols. 8vo,) 
 was published in 1858. In 1856 he published " A Manual 
 of United States History from 1492 to 1850." He was 
 chosen president of Trinity College, Hartford, in i860. 
 
 Eliott. See Elliot. 
 
 Elisabetta, the Italian of Elizabeth, which see. 
 
 Elisseus, el-e-see'us, [Fr. Elise, i'le'za',] an eminent 
 Armenian historian, was secretary of Vartan, general of 
 the Armenian and Georgian armies. In 449 he became 
 a bishop. He wrote a history of the war of Vartan 
 against Persia, a work of superior merit, which has been 
 often reprinted and translated into English, French, and 
 Italian. Died in 480 A.D. 
 
 filisee, the French of Elisha, which see, 
 
 filisee. i'le'za', (Jean Jacques Copel,) known as 
 Father Elisee, a noted French pulpit orator, born at 
 Besancon in 1726, preached in the fashionable churches 
 of Paris. His sermons were published and much ad- 
 mired. Died in 1783. 
 
 Elisee, (Marie Vincent Talachon — t3'lt'sh6N',) a 
 French surgeon, born at Lagny in 1753. He emigrated 
 in 1792, and became chief surgeon of the royalist army. 
 In 1797 Louis XVIII. chose him as his first surgeon. 
 Died in 1817. , 
 
 E-H'sha, [Heb. i'ST^X; Fr. Elisee, i'le'za',] the son 
 of Shapha't, an eminent Hebrew prophet, was a disciple 
 of Elijah, whose mantle he inherited and by whom he 
 was anointed. (See I. Kings xix. 16-21.) He performed 
 many miracles between 890 and 840 B.C. 
 
 See II. Kings ii., in., iv., v., vi., vii., viii., and xiii. 
 
 Elisio, i-lee'se-o, [Lat. Elys'ius,] (Giovanni,) a Nea- 
 politan physician, who lived about 1550. 
 
 Elissa. See Dido. . 
 
 E-liz'a-beth or E-lis'a-beth, of Scripture, was the 
 wife of Zacharias and the mother of John the Baptist. 
 
 See Luke i. 5 to 57. 
 
 Eliz'abeth or Isabeau (e'zi'bf/) of Angouleme 
 was a daughter of Aimar, Count of Angouleme. She was 
 married in 1200 to King John of England. Died in 1245. 
 
 Eliz'abeth [Ger. Elisabeth, i-lee'zi-bet] of Aus- 
 tria, Queen of Fiance, born in 1554, was a daughter of 
 the emperor Maximilian II., and a granddaughter of 
 Charles V. She was married in 1570 to Charles IX. 
 of France, and had one child, a daughter, who died 
 young. She expressed abhorrence of the Massacre of 
 Saint Bartholomew. It is stated that after the death of 
 Charles IX. she declined an offer of marriage from Philip 
 II. of Spain. Died in Vienna in 1592. 
 
 See Clary Darlem, " Elisabeth d'Autriche, Reine de France," 
 1847; Alfred de Martonne, " Isabelle d'Aulriche," 1848. 
 
 Eliz'abeth of Bosnia was the wile of Louis the 
 Great, King of Hungary and Poland, who, dying in 
 1382, left her regent during the minority of his daughter 
 Maria. She was put to death by Giornard of Croatia 
 in 1386. 
 
 Eliz'abeth of England, or of York, a daughter of 
 Edward IV. and Elizabeth Woodville, was born in 1466. 
 She was married to Henry VII. in 1486, and became 
 the mother of Arthur and Henry VIII. 
 
 Elizabeth, [Sp. Isabel, e-sa-bel'; It. Elisabetta, 
 i-le-sa-bet'ta,] Queen of England, the daughter of Henry 
 VIII. and of Anne Boleyn, was born at Greenwich on 
 the 7th of September, 1533. In 1535 her father opened 
 a negotiation for a marriage between Elizabeth and the 
 Duke of Angouleme, son of Francis I. of France ; but 
 the alliance was not effected. In 1548 she was addressed 
 by the ambitious Lord Seymour, with whom she indulged 
 in a brief flirtation. She was endowed with superior 
 mental powers, which were diligently improved by study, 
 and, under the tuition of Roger Ascham, she attained a 
 proficiency in classical learning. Before the age of seven- 
 teen she was mistress of the Latin, French, and Italian 
 languages, and had read several Greek works. She was 
 attached by her education to the Protestant Church. 
 Her sister, Queen Mary, who regarded her with jealousy, 
 committed her to the Tower in 1554, on the pretext that 
 she was concerned in Wyatt's rebellion. Much appre- 
 hension was felt by the people that attempts might be 
 made upon her life ; but she was released from the Tower 
 after the lapse of a few months, and removed to Wood- 
 stock. In 1558 she declined an offer of marriage from 
 Eric, King of Sweden. 
 
 On the 17th of November, 1558, Mary died, and Eliza- 
 beth, with the general approbation, was proclaimed queen. 
 Her popularity was doubtless increased by the contrast 
 between her and the late sovereign. She acted with 
 politic caution in her design of restoring the Protestant 
 religion, retaining a number of Romanists in her privy 
 council. She appointed William Cecil secretary of state, 
 and Nicholas Bacon keeper of the great seal. She oegan 
 the religious reform by ordering that a large part of the 
 service should be read in English, and forbade the host 
 to be elevated in her presence. The Catholic bishops 
 refused to officiate at her coronation, excepting the Bishop 
 of Carlisle, who, it seems, acted his part reluctantly. 
 When Parliament met in 1559, a bill was passed which 
 vested in the crown the supremacy claimed by the pope ; 
 the mass was abolished, and the liturgy of Edward VI. 
 restored. "Thus," says Hume, "in one session, without 
 any violence or tumult, was the whole system of religion 
 altered by the will of a young woman." At her accession 
 Elizabeth found England at war with France and in alli- 
 ance with Philip of Spain, who made her an offer of mar- 
 riage, which she declined. In 1559 Francis II. (King of 
 France) having assumed the arms and title of England 
 in right of his wife, Mary Stuart, Elizabeth retaliated by ^ 
 sending an army to Scotland, which drove the French 
 out of that kingdom. In 1562 she supported with money 
 and troops the French "Huguenots, who were then en- 
 gaged in civil war with the Catholics. The next year the 
 Parliament, anxious respecting the succession, voted an 
 address to the queen, in which they entreated her to 
 choose a husband ; but she returned an evasive answer, 
 and was equally averse to decide in favour of any claimant 
 to the succession or of any suitor for her hand. Besides 
 the suitors already named, she gave encouragement to the 
 Archduke Charles of Austria, the Duke of Anjou, and 
 Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, the last of whom was 
 the chief favourite from the early part of her reign until 
 his death in 1588. 
 
 « as k; 9 as /; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ELIZABETH 
 
 840 
 
 ELIZABETH 
 
 After the treaty with the French in 1564, England 
 was at peace with foreign nations for more than twenty 
 y.'ars, — a period of national prosperity and progress, 
 in which commerce flourished and the naval power of the 
 kingdom was greatly increased. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, 
 was Elizabeth's prime minister and adviser during the 
 greater part of her reign. For an account of her rivalry 
 with the Queen of Scots, who was executed in 1587, see 
 Mary Stuart. 
 
 As the representatives of opposite interests in religion, 
 Elizabeth and Philip of Spain had long felt a mutual 
 hostility, which in 1588 resulted in the famous enterprise 
 of the Invincible Armada, fitted out by Philip for the 
 invasion of England. This armament, which consisted 
 of more than 130 vessels and about 30,000 men, was 
 commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia. The Eng- 
 lish harassed the Armada in the Channel by partial 
 attacks, and defeated the Spaniards in a general action on 
 the 8th of August. The Spanish admiral then retreated 
 northward, intending to sail home by that circuitous 
 route ; but, a violent storm having arisen near the Ork- 
 ney Isles, more than fifty of the ships were wrecked and 
 their crews perished. The Spanish loss was probably 
 not less than 20,000 men. (Motley.) About this time 
 Elizabeth began to show a decided partiality for the 
 Earl of Essex. (See Essex.) Hostilities still continued 
 between the English and Spaniards ; and, while Philip 
 subsidized the French Catholics, Elizabeth sent an army 
 to aid Henry IV. in 1590 and in several ensuing years. 
 
 The reign of Elizabeth was considered eminently 
 beneficial and glorious to the nation. It was illustrated 
 by such names as Spenser, Shakspeare, Sidney, Bacon, 
 and Raleigh. Her personal character was deformed by 
 selfishness, inconstancy, deceit, heartlessness, and other 
 unwomanly faults; but she has generally been regarded 
 as a ruler of eminent ability as well as courage. She 
 died in 1603, after signifying her will that King James of 
 Scotland should succeed her. (For a more particular 
 account of Elizabeth's character, both as a woman and a 
 queen, see Froude's " History of England," vols. vii. to 
 x., and Motley's " United Netherlands," chaps, vi., vii., 
 viii. et seq.) 
 
 See, also, Dk. Thomas Birch, "Memoirs of the Reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth," 1754; Camden, "History of Queen Elizabeth," ("Annates 
 Rerum Anglicanarum," etc., 1625;) Lucy Aikin, "Memoirs of the 
 Court of Queen Elizabeth," 1818 ; Hume, "History of England," 
 chaps, xxxviii. to xliv. : Gkegorio Leti, "Historia ovvero Vita di 
 Elisabetta, Regina d'lnghilterra," 1693; Fr. von Raumer, "Die 
 Koniginnen Elisabeth von England und Maria von Scotland," 1836 ; 
 Robert Nauton, " Fragmenta Regalia, or Observations on the Late 
 Queen Elizabeth," 1642 ; also an article entitled " Elizabeth and 
 Mary," in "Blackwood's Magazine" for April. 1867; "London 
 Quarterly Review" for July, 1854, and October, 1863; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for October and November, 1853. 
 
 Eliz'abeth (or Elisabeth) or Isabelle, e'zi'beT, 
 of Francf., born in Paris in 1389, was a daughter of 
 Charles VI., and became the consort of Richard II. of 
 England. Died in 1409. 
 
 Elizabeth of France, daughter of Henry IV., was 
 born in 1602, and was married to Philip IV. of Spain in 
 161 5. Died in 1644. 
 
 Eliz'abeth, Saint, of Hungary, born at Presburg 
 in 1207, was a daughter of Andrew (Andras) II., King 
 of Hungary. She was married to Louis, Landgrave of 
 Thuringia, in 1221, and was eminent for her fervent piety 
 and ascetic life. Died in 1231. 
 
 See " History of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary," London, 1632 ; 
 Schoppe, " Leben Elisabeth's der heiligen," 1834 ; Charles de 
 Montalembert, "Vie de S. Elisabeth de Hongrie," 1836. 
 
 Elizabeth, (Elisabeth,) (Philippine Marie He- 
 lene,) a French princess, usually called Madame Eli- 
 sabeth, a sister of Louis XVI"., was born at Versailles 
 in 1764. During the reign of terror she shared the 
 dangers and adversities of the king with fortitude, was 
 imprisoned in August, 1702, and executed in May, 1794. 
 
 See Parisot, " Vie de Madame Elisabeth de France," 1814. 
 
 Elizabeth, daughter of the King of Poland, married 
 Charobert, King of Hungary, in 1319. She was mother 
 of three sons, one of whom, Louis, inherited his father's 
 throne. By her intrigues and influence over her brother, 
 Casimir of Poland, she procured for Louis also the 
 throne of Poland in 1370. She was Regent of Poland 
 from 1370 to 1378. Died in 1381. 
 
 Elizabeth of Valois, a daughter of Henry II. of 
 France, was born in 1545, and married to Philip II. of 
 Spain in 1559. She died at Madrid in 1568. 
 
 Elizabeth, (Charlotte.) See Tonna, Mrs. 
 
 Elizabeth, Princess Palatine, the daughter of 
 Frederick V. of Bohemia and Elizabeth Stuart of Eng- 
 land, was born in 1618. She received lessons in philo- 
 sophy from Descartes, who is reported to have said that 
 he "found none, except her, who thoroughly understood 
 his works." She was instructed in religion by William 
 Penn, whose friendship she highly valued. Having 
 declined an offer of marriage from the King of Poland, 
 she retired to Hervorden, where she died in 1680. The 
 famous Prince Rupert was her brother, and George I. 
 of England was her sister's son. 
 
 See Pkudhomme, " Biographie des Femmes celebres." 
 
 Eliz'abeth Alexiev'na, (a-leks-e-ev'na,) Empress 
 of Russia, born in 1779, was a princess of Baden, whose 
 original name was Louisa Maria Augusta. In 1793 
 she became the consort of Alexander I., then grand duke. 
 Her character is represented as very amiable. Died in 
 1826. 
 
 Elizabeth (Elisabeth) Christi'na or Christi'ne. 
 (ki<is-tee'na, ) Queen of Prussia, born at Brunswick in 
 1715, was a daughter of Ferdinand Albert, Duke of Bruns- 
 wick- Wolfenbiittel. In 1732 or 1733 she was married to 
 Frederick the Great. She had a literary taste, and was 
 distinguished for modesty, piety, and many virtues. She 
 translated several religious works into French. Died 
 in 1797. 
 
 See Von Hahnke, " Elisabeth Christine, Konigin von Preussen," 
 Berlin, 1S48. 
 
 Elizabeth Christina or Christine, Empress of 
 Germany, born in 1691, was a daughter of the Duke of 
 Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel. She was the wife of Charles 
 VI., Emperor of Germany, and the mother of Maria 
 Theresa. Died in 1750. 
 
 Eliz'abeth Farnese, (far-neez'; It. pron. faR-na'sa,) 
 a daughter of Odouard II., Prince of Parma, was born in 
 1692. She was married in 1714 to Philip V. of Spain, and, 
 being crafty and ambitious, soon acquired a complete 
 ascendency over that indolent, timid, and uxorious king. 
 (See Philip V.) Charles III. was her son. Died in 1766. 
 
 See "Memoirs of Elizabeth F'arnese," London, 4 vols., 1746. 
 
 Eliz'abeth Petrovna, (or Petrow'ua,) pa-trov'na, 
 Empress of Russia, the daughter of Peter the Great and 
 Catherine I., was born in 1709. In 1740 Ivan, the infant 
 son of the Duke of Brunswick, was proclaimed emperor, 
 in accordance with the, will of the late empress Anna. By 
 a successful conspiracy of Elizabeth's partisans, of whom 
 her surgeon, Lestocq, was the leader, she obtained the 
 throne in 174L In the Seven Years' war, which began 
 in 1756, she co-operated with the enemies of Frederick 
 the Great so successfully that her army entered Berlin 
 in 1760; and he was probably saved from ruin only by 
 her death. She was indolent and dissolute, but inclined 
 to clemency. Though never married, she had several 
 children. She founded the University of Moscow and 
 the Academy of Fine Arts at Petersburg. She died in 
 the winter of 1761-62, and was succeeded by her nephew, 
 Peter III. 
 
 See Leclerc, " Histoire de la Russie moderne ;" Lomonosop, 
 "Panegyricus Elizabethan Imperatricis," 1749; WlBDSMEYBR, "Die 
 Regierung der Kaiserin Elisabeth Petrowna," 2 vols., 1834. 
 
 Eliz'abeth Stu'art, Queen of Bohemia, born in 1596 
 was the daughter of James I. of England and Anne of 
 Denmark. She was distinguished for beauty and cap- 
 tivating manners. In 1613 she became the wife of the 
 Elector Palatine Frederick V. In 1619 she prevailed 
 on him to accept the offered crown of Bohemia. This 
 step involved him in war ; he* was defeated in 1620, and 
 lost even his hereditary state. Among her numerous 
 children was Prince Rupert, the famous Cavalier. Died 
 in England in 1662. 
 
 See Miss Benger, "Memoirs of Elizabeth Stuart," 1825; Gar- 
 diner, " History of England," vol. ii. chap. x. 
 
 Eliz'abeth Wood'ville, a daughter of Sir Richard 
 Woodville, was distinguished for her personal beauty. 
 She was married to Sir John Gray, and after his death to 
 Edward IV. in 1464. She was the mother of Edward V. 
 and of Elizabeth, the queen of Henry VII. Died in 1488. 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
ELLAIN 
 
 841 
 
 ELLIOT 
 
 Ellain, i'laN', (Nicolas,) a French physician and poet, 
 born in Paris in 1534 ; died in 1621. 
 
 Ellenborough, el'len-bur'ruh, (Edward Law,) 
 Lord, an eminent English lawyer, born at Great Sal- 
 kejd, Cumberland, in 1750, was a son of Edmund Law, 
 Bishop of Carlisle. After practising some years with 
 Buccess, and becoming the leader of the northern cir- 
 cuit, he was employed in 1785 as leading counsel for the 
 defence in the trial of Warren Hastings, after Erskine 
 had refused to act on that side. Although he could not 
 compete with Burke or Fox in eloquent declamation or 
 in logical argument, he managed the case with a cer- 
 tain skill and success. In 1801 Law was appointed at- 
 torney-general. On the death of Lord Kenyon, in 1802, 
 he became lord chief justice of the king's bench, and 
 was created Baron Ellenborough. In the House of 
 Lords he opposed all measures for the relief of Catholics, 
 and voted lor the impeachment of Lord Melville in 1806. 
 He is said to have been extremely grieved by the ac- 
 quittal of William Hone, the popular author, in 1818, 
 at whose trial he presided. He died in 1818, and left 
 his title to his son, the present Earl of Ellenborough. 
 As a judge, Lord Brougham says, " no one could accuse 
 him of partiality. He despatched business with great 
 celerity, and for the most part with success." 
 
 See LordCampbell, " Lives of the Chief Justices;" Foss, "The 
 Judges of England ;" Brougham, m Statesmen of the Time of George 
 III." 
 
 Ellenborough, (Edward Law,) first Earl of, a 
 Tory statesman, and a son of the preceding, was born 
 in 1790. He inherited the title of baron in 1818, and 
 was appointed lord privy seal in 1828. During the 
 brief ministry of Sir Robert Peel in 1835 he was presi- 
 dent of the Hoard of Control. He was appointed Gov- 
 ernor-General of India in 1842, and, having annexed 
 Scinde and Gwalior by conquest, was recalled in 1844 
 and raised to the rank of earl. He was first lord of the 
 admiralty in 1845 a "d '846. On the accession of the 
 Derby-Disraeli ministry, in February, 1858, he became 
 president of the Board of Control. The publication of 
 a despatch in which he condemned Lord Canning's con- 
 duct in India, gave so much offence that Ellenborough 
 resigned a few months after his appointment. The 
 House of Lords, by a majority of nine, rejected a motion 
 to censure him for his conduct in this affair. 
 
 See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1S45. 
 
 Ellenrieder, el'len-ree'der, (Maria,) a German 
 painter of history and genre, was born at Constance in 
 1791. She visited Italy, and lived at Munich and Carls- 
 rune. She is considered by the Germans the most skilful 
 female artist of her time. Among her works is a picture 
 of " Faith, Hope, and Charity." 
 
 Eller, el'ler, (Johann Theodor,) a German physi- 
 cian and chemist, born at Pleskau in 1689. He was 
 physician to Frederick the Great, who made him a 
 privy councillor in 1 755. He wrote "Observationes de 
 Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis," ("Observations on 
 the Diagnosis and Cure of Diseases," tj62,) and other 
 medical works. Died in 1760. 
 
 See Adei.ung, Supplement to Jocher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 El'ler-jr, (William,) an American patriot, born at 
 Newport, Rhode Island, in 1727, was educated at Har- 
 vard College. He was engaged in mercantile pursuits 
 in his native city for some years, and began the practice 
 of the law in 1770. Having established a character for 
 integrity, good sense, and firm attachment to public 
 welfare and liberty, he was chosen a delegate to the 
 memorable Congress of 1776, in which he signed the 
 Declaration of Independence. Placing himself by the 
 side of Secretary Thompson, he observed the expression 
 and manner of each member in the act of signing his 
 name, and was convinced that the men were equal to the 
 crisis. He continued to serve in Congress (with the 
 exception of two years) until the end of 1785, being rather 
 eminent for his talents for business than for his powers 
 as a debater. Retiring from public service in 1785, 
 he found himself reduced in fortune by his patriotism, 
 as his dwelling had been burnt by the enemy. In 1790 
 he was appointed to the office of collector of customs 
 in Newport, which he retained to the end of his life. 
 
 His political sympathies were with the Federal party. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See a "Life of W. Eltery," in Sparks's "American Biography/ 
 by his son-in-law, E. T. Channing, vol. vi., 1st series ; Goodrich, 
 "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence." 
 
 Ellesmere, Earl of. See Egerton, (Francis Lev- 
 eson Gower.) 
 
 Ellesmere, Lord. See Egerton, (Thomas.) 
 
 El'let, (Charles,) an American engineer, bom at 
 Penn's Manor, Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1810. He 
 constructed the wire suspension bridge at Fairmount, 
 Philadelphia, (the first made in America,) and that which 
 crosses the Niagara River below the Falls. He was 
 employed as engineer of several railroads. After the 
 civil war began, he became a colonel of engineers, and 
 converted several steamers into rams for military ope- 
 rations on the Mississippi River. He received in a 
 naval battle near Memphis a wound, of which he died in 
 June, 1862. 
 
 Ellet, (Elizabeth FRlE.s,)an authoress, whose maiden 
 name was Lummis, was born at Sodus Point, New York, 
 in 1818. She published, besides other works, a volume 
 of poems, (1835,) " Women of the American Revolution," 
 (1848,) and "Summer Rambles in the West," (1853.) 
 
 See Griswoi.d's " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Ellet, (William Henry,) M.D., an American chem- 
 ist, born in New York about 1804, became professor of 
 chemistry, etc. in South Carolina College about 1835. 
 He discovered a method of preparing gun-cotton. The 
 poetess Elizabeth F. Ellet was his wife. Died in New 
 York in 1859. 
 
 Elleviou, el've'oo', (Pierre Jean Baptiste Fran- 
 cois,) a French singer and composer, born at Rennes in 
 1769 ; died in 1842. 
 
 El'llce, (Edward,) an English politician of the Whig 
 party, born about 1786, was a merchant of London, and 
 for many years an influential member of Parliament. 
 In 1830 he became secretary of the treasury, and was 
 secretary of war from April, 1833, to December, 1834. 
 His wife was a sister of the first Earl Grey. Died in 
 1863. 
 
 Ellicot. See Ellicott. 
 
 El'll-cptt, (Andrew,) surveyor-general of the United 
 States, born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1754, 
 served as an officer in the Revolution, and throughout 
 the greater part of his life filled important positions 
 under the Federal and State governments. In 1790 he 
 laid out the Federal metropolis. He was appointed 
 surveyor-general in 1792; from 1796 to 1801 he acted 
 as commissioner in settling the southern boundary of 
 the United States, and from 1812 till his death, in 1820, 
 was professor of mathematics, engineering, etc. at West 
 Point. He made valuable contributions to the Transac- 
 tions of philosophical societies of Europe. 
 
 El'll-cott or El'11-cpt, (Charles John,) an English 
 theologian, born near Stamford about 1820. He became 
 professor of divinity in King's College, London, in 1858, 
 and Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol in 1863. He 
 published, besides other works, "Commentaries on the 
 Epistles of Saint Paul to the Galatians, Ephesians, 
 Philippians, Colossians," etc. 
 
 Ellies-Dupin. See Dupin, (Louis.) 
 
 Elliger,el'le-ger,(<)TTO.MAR,) askilful Swedish painter, 
 born at Gotteitburg in 1633. He became painter to the 
 Elector Frederick William at Berlin. 
 
 Elliger, (Ottomar,) son of the above, a skilful his- 
 torical painter, born at Hamburg in 1666, was a pupil 
 of Lairesse, and worked in Amsterdam. He excelled in 
 architectural pictures. Among his best works are "The 
 Feast of the Gods," and the " Nuptials of Thetis and 
 Peleus." Died in 1732. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Ellinger, el'ling-er, (Andreas,) a German physician, 
 born in Thuringia in 1526, was professor at Leipsic. He 
 wrote " Hippocratis Aphorismi," in Latin verse, (1579.) 
 Died in 1582. 
 
 El'll-ot, (George,) an English admiral, born in 1784, 
 commanded the fleet which operated against the Chinese 
 in 1840, and became vice-admiral in 1847. 
 
 El'U-ot or Ell-ptt, (George Augustus,) Lord 
 Heathfield, born at Stobbs, in Scotland, in 1718, entered 
 
 « as k; 9 as *; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (jty See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ELLIOT 
 
 842 
 
 ELLIS 
 
 the army at an early age. From 1740 to 1748 he served 
 in Germany as lieutenant-colonel and aide-de-camp of 
 George II. He was second in command at the capture 
 of Havana. In 1775, having obtained the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-general, he was appointed Governor of Gibraltar, 
 the defence of which was his last and most memorable 
 achievement. During the siege, which commenced in 
 1779 and continued more than three years, he success- 
 fully resisted the combined armaments of France and 
 Spain, displaying great prudence and humanity, as well 
 as high military talents. After peace was restored, he 
 was raised to the peerage, with the title of Lord Heath- 
 field of Gibraltar. Died in 1790. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Elliot, (Sir Gilbert,) sometimes styled Lord Minto, 
 was a Scottish judge, who lived in the early part of the 
 eighteenth century. He became lord justice clerk, and 
 was distinguished for his patriotic efforts in favour of 
 the Protestant succession. 
 
 Elliot (Sir Gilbert) of Minto, a British orator, son 
 of the preceding, was the father of the first Earl of Minto, 
 and was eminent as a parliamentary speaker. He wrote 
 an admired pastoral beginning thus : 
 
 "My sheep I neglected, I broke my sheep-hook, 
 And all the gay haunts of my youth I forsook." 
 
 Died in 1777. 
 
 Elliot, (Sir Gilbert,) the first Earl of Minto, an 
 eminent Scottish statesman, born in Edinburgh in 1751, 
 was the son of the preceding. In 1774 he was returned 
 to Parliament for Morpeth. In 1777 he married the 
 daughter of Sir George Aymand. He acted with the 
 party of Mr. Fox for several years, but about 1790 he 
 changed sides and supported the ministry. In 1793 he 
 was sent, with two other commissioners, to protect the 
 Bourbon interest in Toulon and Corsica. In 1796 he was 
 raised to the peerage, as Baron Minto. He was appointed 
 Governor-General of India in 1806, and, after an able and 
 successful administration, returned home in 1814. He 
 died in June of that year. He had been created Earl of 
 Minto in 1813. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Elliot, (Gilbert Elliot Murray Kyninmound,) 
 second Earl of Minto, a son of the preceding, was born 
 in 1782. He was elected to Parliament in 1806, and 
 entered the House of Lords in 1814. He was sent as 
 ambassador to Berlin in 1832, and was appointed first 
 lord of the admiralty, under the Whig ministry, in 1835. 
 From 1846 to 1852 he was lord privy seal in the cabinet 
 of Lord John Russell, who was his son-in-law. He died 
 fh 1859, leaving several sons. 
 
 Elliot, (Miss Jane,) a sister of Sir Gilbert Elliot of 
 Minto, wrote an admired dirge for the slain at the battle 
 of Flodden, entitled "The Flowers of the Forest." 
 
 Elliot, (William,) an English designer and engraver, 
 bom at Hampton Court in 1717. He excelled in land- 
 scapes. Died in 1766. 
 
 El'11-ot-son, (John,) F.R.S., an eminent English phy- 
 sician, born in London about 1795. He became physician 
 to Saint Thomas's Hospital in 1822. By new prescrip- 
 tions of prussic acid and creosote, and other innovations in 
 medical practice, he excited much hostility among a por- 
 tion of the medical profession. He was chosen professor 
 of medical science in University College, London, in 183 1, 
 and afterwards became president of the Royal Medical 
 and Chirurgical Society. He was the author of valuable 
 works entitled "Principles and Practice of Medicine," 
 (1839,) and "Human Physiology," (1840.) Died in 
 August, 1868. 
 
 Elliott See Eliot, Eliott, and Elyot. 
 
 El'U-ott, (Charles,) a Methodist minister, born in the 
 county of Donegal, Ireland, in 1792, emigrated to Ohio 
 about 1 8 1 8, and edi ted the " Western Christian Advocate" 
 for many years. He wrote several religious works. 
 
 Elliott, (Charles Loring,) an American portrait- 
 painter, born in Scipio, New York, in 1812. He lived 
 many years in New York City, and painted portraits of 
 many eminent persons. His works are remarkable for 
 fidelity of likeness and vigorous colouring. Died in Au- 
 gust, 1868. 
 
 See H. T. Tuckerman's " Book of the Artists," 1867. 
 
 Elliott, (Charles Wyllys,) an American author, a 
 descendant of John Eliot, "the Apostle of the Indians," 
 was born in Guilford, Connecticut, in 1817. He has 
 published a " History of New England from the Dis- 
 covery of the Continent by the Northmen, in 986, to 
 1776." 
 
 El'U-ott, (Ebenezer,) an English poet, called "the 
 Corn-Law Rhymer," was born at Masborough, near Roth- 
 erham, Yorkshire, on the 17th of March, 17S1. His father 
 was 3 clerk in an iron-foundry, with a small salary, and 
 was a strict Calvinist The son, after having made small 
 progress at school, where he passed for a very dull boy, 
 was set to work in the foundry above mentioned, in 
 which he was employed many years. A love of nature 
 and of books counteracted the tendency to intemperance 
 and other vices usual among his associates. In his 
 seventeenth year he began to write verses, the first of 
 which were the " Vernal Walk," and " Night." In 1821 
 he removed to Sheffield, where he gained a competence 
 in the iron-trade. Soon after this change of residence 
 he wrote his most popular poem, the " Corn - Law 
 Rhymes," urging the repeal of duties on corn, which 
 excited general admiration. He wrote also " The Vil- 
 lage Patriarch," (1829,) "Byron and Napoleon," (1831,) 
 " Love," and a few other poems. The poet Montgomery 
 says, " I am quite willing to hazard my critical credit by 
 avowing my persuasion that in originality and power he 
 might have measured heads beside Byron in tremendous 
 energy, Crabbe in graphic description, and Coleridge in 
 effusions of domestic tenderness ; while in intense sym- 
 pathy with the poor, in whatever he deemed their wrongs 
 or their sufferings, he excelled them all." Died in 1849. 
 
 See J. Serle, " Life, Character, and Genius of Ebenezer Elliott," 
 1850; "Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles, 1860; John Wat- 
 kins, "Life, Poetry, and Letters-of E. Elliott," 1850; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1832, and October, 1834; "Westminster Review" 
 for January and April, 1850. 
 
 Elliott, (Jesse Duncan,) an American naval officer, 
 born in Maryland in 1782. He was second in command 
 under Commodore Perry at the battle of Lake Erie, 
 September, 1813, and was raised to the rank of captain 
 in 1818. Died in 1845. 
 
 Elliott, (Stephen,) an American naturalist, born at 
 Beaufort, South Carolina, in 177 1, graduated at Yale 
 College in 1 791. He became president of the Literary 
 Society and of the Philosophical Society of South Caro- 
 lina, and professor of natural history at Charleston. He 
 was the author of a valuable work entitled "The Botany 
 of South Carolina and Georgia," (2 vols., 1821-24.) Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 Elliott, (Stephen,) D.D., son of the preceding, was 
 born at Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1806. He became 
 professor of sacred literature in South Carolina College. 
 He was ordained in 1835, and was constituted Bishop of 
 Georgia in 1841. 
 
 Elliott, (William,) a politician and writer, born at 
 Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1788. He opposed nullifi- 
 cation in 1832, and afterwards wrote against secession, 
 (185 1.) Ainong«his works are " Fiesco," a tragedy, (1850,) 
 and several short poems. 
 
 El'lis, (Clement,) an English divine, born in Cum- 
 berland in 1630, was appointed prebendary of South- 
 well in 1693. He was the author of several approved 
 works on theology. Died in 1700. 
 
 See John Venekk, " Life of Clement Ellis," 1738. 
 
 Ellis, (George,) F.R.S., a witty and accomplished 
 English writer, born in 1745. During the French Revo- 
 lution he gained distinction as one of the authors of the 
 " Rolliad," (a political satire against Pitt and his minis- 
 try,) for which he wrote the " Birth-Day Ode" and the 
 "Ode on Dundas." In 1790 he published "Specimens 
 of the Early English Poets," which is thought to have 
 rendered an essential service to the national literature. 
 Ellis was distinguished for his refined taste as well as 
 for his literary attainments. In 1800 he became the 
 friend of Sir Walter Scott, who addressed to him the 
 fifth canto of "Marmion," and who is reported to have 
 said "he was one of the most accomplished scholars 
 and delightful companions he had ever known." In 
 1797-98 he wrote many articles for " The Anti -Jacobin," 
 a weekly paper under the auspices of Canning. Died 
 in 1815. 
 
 a. e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nit; good; moon; 
 
ELLIS 
 
 843 
 
 ELLWOOD 
 
 El'lis, (George Edward,) D.D., a distinguished Uni- 
 tarian divine and author, born in Boston in 1815. He 
 graduated at Harvard in 1833, and about 1838 was or- 
 dained pastor at Charlestown. In 1857 he was appointed 
 professor of theology in the Divinity School at Cam- 
 bridge, a position which he held for five years. He 
 wrote several memoirs for Sparks's "American Biog- 
 raphy," and a "TlaUCentury of the Unitarian Contro- 
 versy," (1857.) In 1864 he gave a course of Lowell 
 Lectures on the "Evidences of Christianity." 
 
 Ellis, (George James Wei.hokk Agar,) Lord Dover, 
 an English author, born in 1 797, was educated at Oxford. 
 He was elected to Parliament in 1818 and at several sub- 
 sequent periods. In 1831 he was raised to the peerage 
 as Baron Dover, and the next year was chosen president 
 of the Royal Society of Literature. Among his principal 
 works are "Life of Frederick II. of Prussia," (1831,) and 
 " The Ellis Correspondence, illustrative of the Revolu- 
 tion of 1688." He also contributed to the Edinburgh 
 and London Quarterly Reviews. Died in 1833. 
 
 Ellis, (Henry,) an English navigator, born in 1721. 
 He accompanied an expedition which sailed from Eng- 
 land in 1746 in search of a Northwest passage. Captains 
 Moore and Smith commanded this expedition, Ellis being 
 employed as naturalist and agent of the committee which 
 sent it out. He published a narrative of his voyage, 
 (1748,) and was afterwards Governor of New York and 
 Georgia. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. " 
 
 Ellis, (Sir Henry,) an English antiquary, born in 
 London in 1777. He became assistant librarian of the 
 British Museum in 1805. In 1823 he published the 
 first series of "Original Letters illustrative of English 
 History," (3 vols., second series, 1827 ; third series, 
 1846, 4 vols.) He was principal librarian of the British 
 Museum from 1827 to 1856. Among his valuable works 
 are "Elgin Marbles of the Classic Ages," (2 vols., 1847,) 
 and "The Townley Gallery of Sculpture," (1847.) Died 
 in January, 1869. 
 
 Ellis, (Sir Henry,) K.C.B., an English officer, who 
 in 1816 accompanied Lord Amherst as secretary of 
 embassy to China with dormant credentials as minister 
 plenipotentiary, and published an interesting Journal 
 of the Embassy, with Observations on China and the 
 Chinese. Died in 185^. 
 
 Ellis, (John,) a literary scrivener, born in London in 
 1698, was a particular favourite of Dr. Johnson, who 
 said, " The most literary conversation that I ever enjoyed 
 was at the table of Jack Ellis the money-scrivener, with 
 whom, at one period, I used to dine generally once a 
 week." He wrote "The South Sea Dream," (1720,) a 
 poem, and often exercised his talent in poetical squibs. 
 He also translated Ovid's "Epistles," and other Latin 
 poems. Died about 1791. 
 
 Ellis, (John,) F.R.S., an eminent English naturalist, 
 born in London about 1710, was a merchant in eariy life. 
 In 1 754 he published an " Essay towards the Natural ; 
 History of Corallines," in which the opinion was first 
 advanced that they are of animal origin. He also wrote 
 treatises on " Coffee," the " Bread-Fruit Tree," and other 
 subjects. Died in 1776. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ellis, (Sir Richard.) See Eu.ys. 
 
 Ellis, (ROBERT Leslie,) an English philosopher and 
 mathematician of Cambridge, was born in 1817. He 
 edited, in conjunction with James Spedding and D. 
 Denon Heath, "The Philosophical Works of Lord 
 Bacon," (5 vols., 1857-58.) Died in 1859. 
 
 Ellis, (Sarah,) a popular English authoress, whose 
 maiden name was SiicKNEY, was born about 1812. She 
 was married to William Ellis, author of "Polynesian 
 Researches," in 1837, before which she had published a 
 successful work, "The Poetry of Life." She rendered 
 important services to female education by numerous 
 works, among which are "The Women of England," 
 (1838,) "The Daughters of England," (1842,) "The 
 Wives of England," (1843,) "The Mothers of England," 
 (1843,) " Family Secrets," (1841-43,) and "Pictures of 
 Private Life," (3 vols., 1844.) 
 
 Ellis, (William,) an English surgeon, who accom- 
 panied Captain Cook in his third voyage, (1776-79,) and 
 
 published a well-written narrative of that voyage, (2 vols., 
 1782.) Died at Ostend in 1785. 
 
 Ellis, (Rev. William,) an eminent English missionary 
 and author. He was sent by the London Missionary 
 Society to the South Sea Islands in 1816, and returned 
 home in 1825. In 1829 he published his very interesting 
 " Polynesian Researches," (2 vols. 8vo,) and in 1838 
 a " History of Madagascar," (2 vols.) " Here is a work 
 as copious, as comprehensive, as minute, and, as far as 
 we can judge, as accurate, as it would be possible to 
 produce." ("London Eclectic Review.") He mat tied 
 Sarah Ellis, noticed above, in 1837. 
 
 Ellis, (William,) an English economist and writer 
 on social science, was born near London in 1800. He 
 distinguished himself by successful efforts to introduce 
 the study of political economy into schools. He wrote 
 "Outlines of Social Economy," "Phenomena of Indus- 
 trial Life," " Progressive Lessons in Social Science," and 
 other works. 
 
 Ellisen. See Ellissen. 
 
 Ellissen, el'lis-sen, or Ellisen, (Adolf,) a German 
 critic and historian, born at Gartow, Liineburg, in 1815, 
 was a moderate democratic member of the parliament 
 of Frankfort in 1848. He translated Montesquieu's 
 "Esprit des Lois," (1844.) Among his works are an 
 "Essay of a Polyglot of European Poetry," (" Versuch 
 einer Polyglotte der Europaischen Poesie," 1846,) and 
 one "On the History of Athens since the Loss of its 
 Liberty," (1848.) 
 
 EU'is-ton, (Robert William,) a celebrated English 
 actor, born in London in 1774, ran away from school, 
 and appeared on the stage for the first time at Bath in 
 1791. After obtaining success in the provinces, he made 
 his debut at the Haymarket in 1796. In 1803 he was 
 principal actor and acting manager of that theatre, where 
 he acquired great popularity. When Drury Lane was 
 rebuilt after the fire, Elliston became one of its leading 
 performers. He was the lessee of the theatre last named 
 from 1819 to 1826, when he became insolvent. He was 
 very successful in a great variety of characters ; and he 
 is generally regarded as the most excellent comedian that 
 the English nation has produced. Died in 1831. 
 
 See G. Raymond, " Memoirs of Elliston," 1846. 
 
 Ells'-worth, (Ei'Hraim Elmer,) a brave American 
 patriot, born at Mechanicsville, Saratoga county, New 
 York, in 1837. He removed to Chicago before he was 
 of age, and studied law. He organized about 1859 a 
 zouave corps which became noted for the excellence of 
 its discipline. In March, 1861, he accompanied Presi- 
 dent Lincoln to Washington, and in April he went to 
 New York City, where he organized a zouave regiment 
 of firemen, of which he became the colonel. He was 
 ordered to Alexandria, where he saw a rebel flag floating 
 over a hotel. He ascended to the roof and took down 
 the flag, for which act Jackson, the keeper of the hotel, 
 immediately shot him dead, in May, 1861. Jackson was 
 instantly a/terwards killed by one of the soldiers of 
 Ellsworth. 
 
 Ellsworth, (Oliver,) Chief Justice of the United 
 States, was born in Windsor, Connecticut, April 29, 
 1745. He graduated at Princeton, New Jersey, in 1766, 
 was admitted to the bar in 1771, and chosen a delegate 
 to the Continental Congress in 1777. He was a member 
 of the Convention which in 1787 formed the Federal 
 Constitution, and was elected in 1789 to the Senate of the 
 United States. He acquired distinction as a debater, 
 and acted with the Federal party. According to John 
 Adams, " he was the firmest pillar of Washington's 
 whole administration in that body." He was appointed 
 chief justice of the United States by Washington in 
 1796. His official conduct in this position was generally 
 approved. He was sent to Paris in 1799 as envoy ex- 
 traordinary, and, with his colleagues Davie and Murray, 
 negotiated a treaty with France. He died in 1807, 
 leaving a high reputation for ability and integrity. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. ; " Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Ell'wood, (Thomas,) an English author, born at 
 Crowell, in Oxfordshire, in 1639, adopted at an early 
 age the religion of the " Friends," or Quakers, among 
 whom he became a prominent member and a public 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ELLTS 
 
 844 
 
 ELPHINSTONE 
 
 minister. In 1662, having a desire to improve himself 
 in learning, he procured, by the mediation of Isaac Pen- 
 ington and Dr. Paget, the piace of reader to the poet 
 Milton, who was then blind and resided in London. Ell- 
 wood says, " he kept always a man to read to him, which 
 usually was the son of some gentleman, whom in kind- 
 ness he took to improve in his learning. ... I went 
 every day in the afternoon, (except on the first days of 
 the week,) and, sitting by him in his dining-room, read 
 to him in such books in the Latin tongue as he pleased 
 to hear." Thus they went on pleasantly together for six 
 weeks, when ill health compelled Ell wood to leave Lon- 
 don. The world is indebted to his suggestion for Milton's 
 second epic poem, "Paradise Regained." In 1665 Ell- 
 wood paid a visit to Milton at Giles-Chalfont, where, 
 says he, " after some common discourse had passed be- 
 tween us, he called for a manuscript of his, which he 
 delivered to me, bidding me take it home with me and 
 read it at my leisure, and, when I had done so, return it 
 to him with my judgment thereon." He found it was 
 " Paradise Lost," and, when he returned it, was asked 
 by the author how he liked it and what he thought of it. 
 Ellwood "modestly and freely" answered this question, 
 and added, " Thou hast said much here of Paradise 
 Lost; but what hast thou to say of Paradise Found?" 
 " He made no answer, but sat some time in a muse." 
 Elhvood published a "Sacred History," (1705,) and a 
 poem called "Davideis," (1712. ) He died in 1 713, leaving 
 interesting "Memoirs of his own Life," (1714.) 
 
 See, also, "The Penus and Peningtons," by Maria Webb, Lon- 
 don, 1867; "Retrospective Review," vol. xiii., 1826. 
 
 El'lys, (Anthony,) an English divine, born in 1693, 
 became Bishop of Saint David's in 1752. He wrote 
 "Tracts on the Liberty, Spiritual and Temporal, of 
 Subjects in England," and a few other works. Died 
 in 1761. 
 
 Ellys or EI'lis, (Sir Richard,) a grandson of the 
 English patriot Hampden, was a member of Parliament 
 from 1715 to 1734. He excelled in Hebrew, Greek, and 
 biblical criticism, on which he published a work called 
 " Fortuita Sacra," (1728.) Died in 1742. 
 
 Elmacin, Sl-ma-seen', (George,) [Lat. Geor'gius 
 Elmaci'nus,] written also Elmakin (el-ma-keen') and 
 Almakin, an Oriental historian and Christian, born 
 in Egypt in 1223, became secretary to the court of the 
 Sultans of Egypt. He wrote, in Arabic, a history of the 
 world from the creation to 1118 A. D., which obtained 
 European celebrity, and part of which was translated by 
 Erpenius about 1625. Died in 1273. 
 
 See Hottinger, " Bibliotheca Orientalis." 
 
 Elmacmus, (Georgius.) See ElmacIn. 
 
 Elmakin. See Elmacin. 
 
 Elmenhorst, el'men-hoRst', (Gf.verhard, Ger- 
 hard, or Gerhart,) a distinguished German critic, born 
 at Hamburg, published notes on Arnobius, (1603,) Minu- 
 cius Felix, and other old authors. Died in 1621. 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." - 
 
 Elmenhorst, (Heinrich,) a German poet and pastor, 
 born at Parchim in 1632, wrote "Spiritual Songs," and 
 " Dramatologia antiquo-hodierna," (1688.) Died in 1704. 
 
 Elmer. See Aylmer. 
 
 Elmes, Slmz, (Harvey Lonsdale,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish architect, born near Chichester about 1814, was the 
 son of James Elmes, noticed below, with whom he en- 
 tered into partnership in London. His reputation as an 
 architect is chiefly founded on the erection of Saint 
 George's Hall, Liverpool, his design for which was pre- 
 ferred to those of about eighty competitors. This edifice, 
 which is esteemed the principal ornament of Liverpool, 
 and one of the finest specimens of the Corinthian order 
 in England, was finished about 1855. It is 490 feet long 
 by 165 feet wide. Before its completion Mr. Elmes's 
 health failed; he died in Jamaica in 1847. 
 
 Elmes, (James,) the father of the preceding, was born 
 in London in 1782. He was architect of several public 
 and private buildings of London, and acquired distinction 
 as a writer. He published "The Life and Works of Sir 
 Christopher Wren," (1823,) "School of the Fine Arts," 
 (3 vols., 1825,) "Ecclesiastical and Civil Dilapidations," 
 (3d edition, 1829,) "Thomas Clarkson, a Monograph," 
 (1854,) and other works. Died in 1862. 
 
 El'more, (Alfred,) an Irish historical painter, born 
 at Clonakilty, county of Cork, about 1816. He became 
 a student in London, where he worked with success. 
 Among his chief productions are " Rienzi in the Forum," 
 (1844,) "The Fainting of Hero," (1846,) "The Inventor 
 of the Stocking-Loom," (1847,) and "The Emperor 
 Charles V. at Yuste," (1856.) 
 
 El'more, (Franklin Harper,) an Arnerican financier 
 and politician, was born in Laurens district, South 
 Carolina, in 1799. He was a member of Congress in 
 1837-39, and was president of the Bank of the State of 
 South Carolina from 1840 to 1850. In this year he 
 was chosen to fill a vacancy in the Senate of the United 
 States caused by the death of John C. Calhoun. Died 
 in May, 1850. 
 
 Elms'ley, (Peter,) an eminent English critic, and 
 one of the first Greek scholars of his time, was born in 
 1773. He wrote articles for the early numbers of the 
 " Edinburgh Review" about 1802. In 1819 he was chosen 
 to assist Sir Humphry Davy in unrolling the Hercula- 
 nean manuscripts. After this date he lived chiefly at 
 Oxford, where, in 1823, he became professor of history. 
 He published excellent editions of several dramas by 
 Euripides and Sophocles, which gained him a European 
 fame. Southey, speaking of the Edinburgh Reviewers, 
 said, " Elmsley has more knowledge and a sounder mind 
 than any or all of them." Died in 1825. 
 
 Bloi, a'lwa', [Lat. Elig'ius,] a French benefactor, 
 born near Limoges in 588 A.D., became a favourite min- 
 ister of King Dagobert, and founded monasteries and 
 hospitals. He was appointed Bishop of Noyon in 640. 
 Died in 659. 
 
 See Saint-Ouen, "Vita Eligii;" Barthblemy, "Viede Saint- 
 Eloi." 
 
 Elorza. See Churruca y Elorza. 
 
 iSloy, a'lwa', (Nicolas Francois Joseph,) a Flemish 
 physician, born at Mons in 1714, was employed profes- 
 sionally by Prince Charles of Lorraine. He wrote a " His- 
 torical Dictionary of Medicine, Ancient and Modern," 
 (4 vols., 1778.) Died in 1788. 
 
 Elphege, Sl'fe-ge, ? written also Alphege, an English 
 prelate, born in 954 A.D., became Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury in 1006. He was killed by the Danish pirates 
 in ion. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. i., i860. 
 
 El'phin-ston, (Arthur,) Lord Balmerino, a Scottish 
 Jacobite, born in 1688. On the accession of George I. 
 lie took arms for the Stuart cause, and fought at Sheriff- 
 muir. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Culloden 
 in 1745, and, after trial, was executed in 1746. 
 
 Elpliinston, (James,) an eccentric Scottish gram- 
 marian, born in Edinburgh in 1721, was for many years 
 principal of a successful school at Kensington, near 
 London. He associated with Dr. Johnson, by whom he 
 was highly esteemed, and he made versions of certain 
 Latin mottoes of the " Rambler," which were adopted 
 by the editor of that work. He published, among other 
 works, "Education," a poem, (1763,) "Propriety ascer- 
 tained in her Picture," and "English Grammar reduced 
 to Analogy," (1765,) in which he advocated a reform of 
 orthography on phonetic principles. Died in 1809. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Elphinston, (John,) an able naval officer, born in the 
 Highlands of Scotland in 1 720. In 1 768 his government 
 placed him at the disposal of Catherine, Empress of 
 Russia, who employed him as admiral of the fleet senl 
 against the Turks in 1770. After fighting one battle 
 near Scio, and burning a Turkish fleet, he quarrelled 
 with Orloff, the Russian general-in-chief, and left the 
 service. Died in 1774. 
 
 See Rulhiekes, " Histoire de l'Anarchie de Pologne." 
 
 El'phin-stone, (George Keith,) Viscount Keith, a 
 distinguished British admiral, born in Scotland in 1746, 
 was the son of Viscount Elphinstone. As post-captain 
 he served in America about 1776. In 1795 he obtained 
 the rank of vice-admiral, and captured Cape Town. In 
 1800 he was commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, 
 where he took Malta and Genoa. For his services in 
 Egypt he was raised to the British peerage, as Baron 
 Keith, (1801,) and obtained the rank of admiral. In 1814 
 
 a,e. 
 
 , I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, Ci, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
ELPHINSTONE 
 
 845 
 
 ELTON 
 
 he was created a viscount of the United Kingdom. He 
 died in 1823. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Elphinstone, (George William Keith,) C.B., a 
 British general, born about 1782, was descended from 
 the noble Scottish family of Elphinstone. After serving 
 in many campaigns, he became lieutenant-colonel in 1813, 
 and gained distinction at Waterloo. In 1837 he was 
 promoted to the rank of major-general. He commanded 
 the army which was defeated in Afghanistan, a short 
 time before his death, which occurred in 1842. 
 
 Elphinstone, (Hon. Mountstuart,) a British his- 
 torian and statesman, born in 1779, was the fourth son 
 of the eleventh Lord Elphinstone. He entered the civil 
 service of the East India Company in 1795, became sec- 
 retary to Sir Arthur Wellesley in 1803, and ambassador 
 to the court of Cabool in 1808. He published in 1815 an 
 "Account of the Kingdom of Cabool," a standard his- 
 torical work of great merit. From 1810 to 181 7 he was 
 resident at the court of Poona. He was appointed com- 
 missioner of that province in 1817, and Governor of 
 Bombay in 1819. "His policy, so far as India is con- 
 cerned," says Bishop Heber, " appeared to me peculiarly 
 wise and liberal." The same writer adds, " Mr. Elphin- 
 stone is in every respect an extraordinary man, possess- 
 ing great activity of mind and body, remarkable talent 
 for and application to public business," etc. He resigned 
 his office in November, 1827, and returned to England 
 in 1829. In 1836 he declined the offer of the Governor- 
 Generalship of India, on account of his health. His 
 "History of India: the Hindoo and Mohammedan Pe- 
 riods" (2 vols., 1841) is highly commended. He was 
 never married. He died in November, 1859. 
 
 See "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society," vol. xviii. part ii. p. 
 221; J. W. Kaye, " Lives of Indian Officers;" "London Quarterly 
 Review" for October, 1815, and September, 1841. 
 
 Elphinstone orElphinston, (William,) an eminent 
 Scottish statesman and prelate, founder of King's Col- 
 lege, Aberdeen, was born at Glasgow about 1435. He 
 studied law in France, and became professor of that 
 science in Paris. Having returned home about 1470, he 
 obtained several high civil offices, and in 1484 was chosen 
 Bishop of Aberdeen. Soon after this he was employed 
 with honour as negotiator at several foreign courts. In 
 1492 he accepted the office of lord privy seal, which he 
 appears to have retained until his death. In 1494 he 
 obtained a papal bull for the foundation of a university 
 which was built in 1506. He wrote a book of canons 
 and a "History of Scotland." Died in 1514. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 El'ring-ton, (Thomas.) D.D., a skilful Irish mathe- 
 matician, born near Dublin about 1760. He became 
 professor of mathematics in Dublin University in 1795, 
 provost of Trinity College in 181 1, Bishop of Limerick 
 in 1820, and was translated to the see of Leighlin and 
 Ferns in 1822. He published an edition of Euclid which 
 is used as a text-book in Dublin University, and an edi- 
 tion of Juvenal. Died in 1835. 
 
 Elsasser, el'sis'ser, (Frikdrich August,) a German 
 landscape-painter, born at Berlin in 1810; died at Rome 
 in 1845. Among his works is the "Grotto of Sirens" 
 at Tivoli. 
 
 Elsevier. See Elzevir. 
 
 Elsheimer, Slss'hi'mer, or Elzheimer, elts'hl'mer, 
 (Adam,) an excellent German landscape-painter, born 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1574, was known among the 
 Italians by the name of II. Tedesco, (i.e. "the German.") 
 He worked mostly in Rome, where he acquired a high 
 reputation by his good taste and his fidelity in the imita- 
 tion of nature. He excelled in colour and chiaroscuro. 
 His works are of small dimensions and very highly 
 finished. Besides many landscapes, he painted a " Flight 
 into Egypt," which is much admired, "Ceres in Search 
 of her Daughter," and other historical and mythological 
 pieces. Died in Rome in 1620. 
 
 See Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters and Engravers;" J. D. 
 Passavant, "A. Elsheimer, Maler aus Frankfurt," 1847. 
 
 Elshoecht, eTso'Jkt', or Elshoect, (Carle,) a skilful 
 French statuary, born at Dunkirk 101797, was a pupil of 
 Bosio. He gained a gold medal for his statue of " Inno- 
 cence," (1825.) He adorned several buildings of Paris 
 
 with busts of Mirabeau, Moliere, Poussin, and Claude 
 Lorrain, and the Tuileries with a group representing the 
 Genius of Asia. Died in 1856. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic G^neVale." 
 
 Elshoect. See Elshoecht. 
 
 Elsholtz. See Elsholz. 
 
 Elsholz, von, or Elsholtz, fon lls'holts, (Franz,) a 
 German comic poet, born in Berlin in 1791, obtained in 
 early life an office of secretary in the public service at 
 Cologne. He produced "The New Achilles," and a 
 successful drama called "Come here," ("Komm her," 
 1824.) His comedy "The Lady at Court" ("Die Hof- 
 dame") attracted much attention. 
 
 Elsholz or Elsholtz, (Johann Sigismund,) a Ger- 
 man botanist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1623. 
 He became physician to the Elector of Brandenburg in 
 1656, and lived in Berlin. He published, besides other 
 works, "Flora Marchica," (1663.) Died in 1688. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Boedi- 
 ker, " Ehrengedachtniss J S. Elsholzen's," 168S. 
 
 Eisner, elss'ner, (Christoph Friedrich,) a German 
 medical writer, born at Konigsberg in 1749; died in 
 1820. 
 
 Eisner, (Jakob,) a learned German Protestant theo> 
 logian, born at Saalfeld, in Prussia, in 1692. He became 
 in 1722 rector of the College of Joachimsthal, in Berlin, 
 and afterwards first preacher to the court. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, a commentary on the New 
 Testament, (" Observationes sacrae in Novi Foederis 
 Libros," 2 vols., 1720-28.) Died in 1750. 
 
 See Adelung's Supplement to Jocher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Eisner, (Johann Gottfried,) a meritorious Ger- 
 man economist, born at Gottesburg, in Silesia, in 1784, 
 He was a practical farmer, and studied rural economy 
 in various countries. He published many works, among 
 which are a " Manual for the Propagation of Merino 
 Sheep," (1832,) and a "Shepherd's Catechism," (1841.) 
 
 Elas'ler, (Fanny,) a German danseuse, born in Vi- 
 enna in 181 1. She performed with great applause in 
 Vienna, Berlin, Paris, and London. In 1841 she visited 
 the United States. 
 
 El'stob, (Elizabeth,) an English linguist, sister of 
 William, noticed below, was born at Newcastle in 1683. 
 She was noted for her knowledge of the Saxon language. 
 She translated Scudery's " Essay on Glory," and pub- 
 lished a "Saxon Grammar," (1715,) and "Saxon Homi- 
 lies." From 1739 to 1756 she was governess to the 
 children of the Duchess of Portland. Died in 1756. 
 
 Elstob, (William,) an English antiquary, born at 
 Newcastle in 1673, was a Fellow of one of the Oxford 
 colleges, and an excellent Saxon scholar. He became 
 rector of Saint Swithin, London, in 1702. He published 
 an edition of " Ascham's Latin Letters," "An Essay on 
 the Affinity, etc. between the two Professions of Law 
 and Divinity," and began an edition of Saxon laws, 
 which was finished after his death by Wilkins. Died 
 in 1714. 
 
 Elsynge, Sl'sinj, ? (Henry,) an English civil officer and 
 writer, born at Battersea, Surrey, in 1598. After leaving 
 college and travelling a few years, he obtained the office 
 of clerk of the House of Commons, which he kept during 
 the Long Parliament, and resigned in 1648. " Mr. El- 
 synge," says Whitelocke, "was the best I ever knew to 
 take the sense of the House and put it into apt terms." 
 He published a much-esteemed work on the " Manner 
 of Holding Parliaments in England." Died in 1654. 
 
 See Wood, " Athense Oxonienses." 
 
 El'ton, (Sir Arthur Hali.am,) an English writer, 
 son of Charles Abraham, noticed below, and a nephew 
 of Henry Hallam the historian, was born in 1818. He 
 wrote a tale entitled " Below the Surface." 
 
 Elton, (Charles Abraham,) an English poet, born 
 in 1778, published a volume of poems in 1804, and a 
 poetical version of the remains of Hesiod, (1809,) which 
 is highly praised by the "Edinburgh Review." In 1814 
 he published " Specimens of the Classic Poets from 
 Homer. to Tryphiodorus, translated into English Verse," 
 (3 vols.,) in which there are many brilliant and spirited 
 passages. Died in 1853. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1809. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal;, R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^"*See Explanations, p. 23] 
 
ELVEN1CH 
 
 846 
 
 EMERSON 
 
 Elvenich, el'veh-niK', (Peter Joseph,) a German 
 Catholic philosopher, born at Embken in 1796, is called 
 the chief of Hermesianisra, on which he wrote several 
 treatises. 
 
 Elves, [Norse, Alfar, al'far, in the singular, Alfi, sig- 
 nifying " Spirit,"] the name given in the Norse mythology 
 to a class of subordinate beings or deities who are sup- 
 posed to inhabit that part of .the atmosphere which is 
 nearest the earth's surface and the interior of the earth. 
 The former are aerial beings, and are called light-elves, 
 (Ljosalfar :) they preside over the plants on the surface 
 of the earth. The latter dwell in the bowels of the earth, 
 and are distinguished as dark-elves, (Dokkalfar or Svart- 
 alfar:) they have charge of the ores and minerals lying 
 within the earth, and are skilful workers in metal. The 
 Dwarfs (Dvvergar) nearly resemble the dark-elves : they 
 work in the interior of the earth, and possess magic or 
 supernatural powers. 
 
 See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vols. i. and ii., more par- 
 ticularly pp. 56 and 57. 
 
 Elvius, el've-us, (Pehr,) the Elder, a Swedish writer 
 and savant, lived in the first half of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Elvius, (Pehr,) a scientific Swedish traveller, son of 
 the preceding, was born at Upsal in 1710. He was em- 
 ployed in the survey and exploration of Sweden about 
 1745, of which he wrote an account. Died in 1749. 
 
 See Ol-OF Celsius, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver P. Elvius," 1749; 
 Olof Dalin, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver P. Elvius," 1750. 
 
 Elwart, Jl'vtR', (Antoine,) a French composer of 
 operas, symphonies, etc., born in Paris in 1808, gained 
 the grand prize of the Institute in 1834. 
 
 El'wes, (John Meggot,) an English miser, born in 
 London in 1 714, became member of Parliament about 
 1774. He is said to have left more than ^500,000. Died 
 in 1789. 
 
 See E. Topham, "Life of J. Elwes," 1790; "Retrospective Re- 
 view," vol. ix., 1824. 
 
 Elye, ee'll or k'le', (EUAS,) a Swiss philologist, born 
 at Laufen about 1400, was the first who introduced the 
 printing-press into Switzerland. Died about 1475. 
 
 El'jf-ot, (Sir Thomas,) an English diplomatist and 
 author, eminent for his profound learning, was sent by 
 Henry VIII. on a mission to Rome about 1532, and to 
 the court of Charles V. a few years later. He composed 
 admired works entitled "The Governor," (1531,) and 
 "The Castle of Health," (1534.) His" Latin Dictionary" 
 (1538) passed through marry editions. Died in 1546. 
 
 El'jrs or El'lis, (Rev. Edmund,) an English poet and 
 nonjuror, published " Divine Poems," (1658.) Died after 
 1693. 
 
 Elysium, or Elysian Fields. See Pluto. 
 
 Elzevier. See Elzevir. 
 
 Elzevir, eYzeh-vir, [Dutch, Elzevier or Elsevier, 
 el'zeh-veer',] the name of a family of Dutch printers and 
 publishers, who were celebrated for the beauty of their 
 typography, and rendered great services to literature by 
 the publication of classic authors. The most distin- 
 guished are the following: 
 
 Elzevir, (Lewis, or Lodewijk,) the first eminent 
 member of the family, was born about 1540, and settled at 
 Leyden. Some of his publications are dated 1592. He 
 died about 161 7, leaving four sons, Matthew, Lewis, Gilles, 
 and Bonaventure, who were publishers. Matthew died 
 in 1640, and left sons named Isaac, Abraham, and Bona- 
 venture. The last two were partners, and published at 
 Leyden the master-pieces of typography which rendered 
 the name of Elzevir famous. Among these are the works 
 of Virgil, Pliny, Livy, and Cicero. They both died be- 
 tween 1650 and 1660. 
 
 Lewis III., a son of Lewis II., established a press at 
 Amsterdam in 1638, and produced fine editions of many 
 authors. He died about 1670. 
 
 Daniel, a son of Abraham, (or, as others say, of Bona- 
 venture,) was the last of the family that excelled in the 
 art of printing. He lived at Leyden, and died in 1680. 
 
 See A. oe Reume, " Rechercheshistoriques. etc. surles Elsevier," 
 Brussels. 1S47 ; Dodtvan Flensburg, " Overde Elzeviers, Lodewijk 
 den Vader," etc., 1851. 
 
 El'zey, (Arnold,) an American general, was born in 
 Maryland about 1815. He served in the Mexican war, 
 and, on the breaking out of the rebellion of 1861, entered 
 
 the Confederate army. He was made brigadier-general 
 in 1862. 
 
 Elzheimer. See Ei.sheimer. 
 
 Emadee or Emadi, e-ma'dee, a celebrated Persian 
 poet, surnamed Sheheriari, because he resided in She- 
 heriar, lived in the reign of Malek II., one of the Sel- 
 jukides. He published a divan, or a collection of four 
 thousand verses, and died in 1 1 77. 
 
 See D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheque Orientale." 
 
 Emanuel. See Emmanuel and Manuel. 
 
 Eman'uel ben Sol'omon, a famous Hebrew poet, 
 a native of Rome, lived in that city about the end of the 
 thirteenth century. He was the author of a poem called 
 "Mcchabberoth" or "Mechaberoth," ("Poetic Compo- 
 sitions,") and of several commentaries on the Scriptures. 
 He is called by some rabbis " the Voltaire of the He- 
 brews," and is reputed the most elegant poet that his 
 nation has produced since their dispersion. 
 
 Emanuele, a-ma-noo-a'la, (surnamed Fra Como, 
 from the place of his birth,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Como in 1625; died in 1701. 
 
 Embury, Sm'ber-e, (Fmma Catherine,) an Ameri- 
 can writer, daughter of Dr. James R. Mauley, of New 
 York, was married to Daniel Embury, Esq., of Brooklyn. 
 in 1828. She published "Guido, and other Poems," 
 "Constance Latimer, or the Blind Girl," and "Nature's 
 Gems, or American Wild- Flowers." Died in 1863. 
 
 See Griswold's '* Female Poets of America." 
 
 Emelraet, a'mel-rat', a Flemish landscape-painter, 
 born at Brussels about 1612. He passed some years in 
 Rome, and afterwards settled in Antwerp. He worked 
 principally for the churches, painted often the landscape 
 for the pictures of other artists, and was regarded as one 
 of the best landscape-painters of Flanders. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Emeri. See Emery. 
 
 fimeriau, am're'o', (Maurice Julien,) a French 
 admiral, born in Bretagne in 1762. He commanded a 
 ship at Aboukir in 1798, where he was wounded and 
 made prisoner. He became a rear-admiral in 1802, a 
 count in 1810, and a vice-admiral in 181 1. About 1812-15 
 he was commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediter- 
 ranean, and resisted the English with success. He was 
 placed on the retired list in 1816. Died in 1845. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ie'rale," 
 
 Emeric. See Eymf.ric. 
 
 fimeric-David, irn'rek' dt'ved', ( Toussaint Ber- 
 nard,) a French archaeologist and writer on art, was 
 born at Aix (Provence) in 1755. He practised law at 
 Aix in his youth, and sat in the legislative body from 
 1809 to 1814. In 1815 he was elected to the Academy 
 of Inscriptions, for which he wrote memoirs on Greek 
 mythology, etc. He was author of a " Historical Dis- 
 course on Modern Painting," (1807.) of a "History of 
 Painting in the Middle Ages," (1842,) and of many 
 articles in the "Biographie Universelle." Died in 1839. 
 
 See Fauriel, in the " Histoire litteVaire de France," tome xx. ; 
 "Nnuvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 £merigon,am're'g6N T ',(BALTHASAR Marie,) a French 
 jurist, born about 1 714, published an excellent "Treatise 
 on Assurances (or Sureties) and Contracts," etc., (1784,) 
 and other works. Died in 1785. 
 
 Em'er-son, (George B.,) a distinguished American 
 teacher and writer on education, was born in York 
 county, Maine, in 1797. He taught in Boston for many 
 years, and was president of the Boston Society of Natural 
 History. He wrote "Lectures on Education," and a 
 " Report of the Trees and Shrubs growing naturally in 
 the Forests of Massachusetts," (1846.) 
 
 Emerson, (Ralph Waldo,) an American essayist, 
 poet, and speculative philosopher, was born in Boston 
 in 1803. He entered Harvard in 1817, and took the de- 
 gree of A.B. in 1821. While at college he is said to have 
 spent much of his time in the library, and, although not 
 distinguished for his proficiency in the regular studies 
 of the curriculum, he was superior to most of his class- 
 mates in his knowledge of general literature. His 
 health failing about 1827, he spent the ensuing winter in 
 Florida. In 1829 he was ordained at the Second Uni- 
 tarian Church of Boston, as colleague of Henrv Ware; 
 but he resigned this position in 1832, because lie could 
 not accept the views of his Church in regard to the 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e,\,o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n5t; good; moon; 
 
EMERSON 
 
 847 
 
 EMMANUEL 
 
 Lord's Supper. In December of the same year he sailed 
 for Europe, and returned to his native land in the au- 
 tumn of 1833. Soon after, he commenced his career as 
 lecturer, his discourses embracing almost every variety 
 of topic, from simple "Water" to "Milton," "Human 
 Culture," and universal "Nature." A volume of his 
 "Essays" appeared in 1841, and, by its freshness and 
 originality of thought and sparkling beauty of expression, 
 excited much attention. In 1840, on the establishment 
 of the " Dial," (the organ of the New England Transcen- 
 dentalists,) he became one of the contributors to that 
 periodical, and was afterwards its editor from 1842 to 
 1844. A second volume (or series) of "Essays" made 
 its appearance in 1844. It was characterized by the same 
 striking peculiarities of thought and expression that had 
 previously attracted so many readers, and soon procured 
 for him a multitude of admirers on both sides of the At- 
 lantic. A collection of his poems was published in 1846. 
 In the following year he visited England, in order to fulfil 
 an engagement which he had made to deliver a series 
 of lectures before various institutes and societies in that 
 country. In 1850 he issued a small volume, entitled 
 "Representative Men," one of the most important of all 
 his publications : it is doubtless that upon which his 
 permanent reputation as a thinker will principally rest. 
 It consists of a series of characters or mental portraits, 
 each of which is designed to represent a class : 1. Plato, 
 or the Philosopher; 2. Swedenborg, or the Mystic; 
 3. Montaigne, or the Skeptic ; 4 Shakspeare, or the 
 Poet ; 5. Napoleon, or the Man of the World ; 6. Goethe, 
 or the Writer. It is scarcely necessary to say that the 
 judgments formed of Mr. Emerson's writings, and more 
 especially of the last-named work, must vary according 
 to the habits of thought and prepossessions of the critic ; 
 the more so as our author does not attempt to establish 
 his positions by any process of reasoning; he simply 
 announces his views, leaving his reader to accept them 
 or not, as he may have the capacity to do so, in accord- 
 ance with the scriptural saying, " He that is able to re- 
 ceive it, let him receive it." In his philosophical or 
 metaphysical views he may be said to approximate the 
 celebrated German transcendentalist Fichte. Mr. Emei- 
 son's " English Traits" (1856) is one of his most popular 
 and attractive books, although many of the remarks and 
 statements contained in it require to be received with 
 liberal qualifications. 
 
 Mr. Emerson is distinguished for originality, as well 
 as for subtlety of intellect. One cannot, however, help 
 suspecting that, in his love of originality and his anxiety 
 to shake himself wholly free from the trammels of the 
 past, he sometimes runs into errors in the opposite direc- 
 tion, from which his good sense and rare sagacity might 
 otherwise have preserved him. "As a writer," observes 
 an accomplished critic, "Mr. Emerson is distinguished 
 for a singular union of poetic imagination with practical 
 acuteness. . . . The brilliant transcendentalist is evidently 
 a man not easy to be deceived in matters pertaining to 
 the ordinary course of human affairs. . . . His observa- 
 tions on society, on manners, on character, on institu- 
 tions, are stamped with rare sagacity. ... His style is 
 in the nicest harmony with the character of his thought. 
 It is condensed almost to abruptness. Occasionally he 
 purchases compression at the expense of clearness."* 
 "There never was," says Mr. Alger, "a bolder champion 
 of mental freedom for himself and for all men. His rich 
 and vigorous freshness has been an invaluable tonic to 
 his contemporaries." But the same writer justly observes 
 that "the emphasis of his statements is often fatal to the 
 needful qualifications ; but that requires his readers to be 
 thinkers too, and not passive recipients of his thinking." 
 ("Christian Examiner" for May, 1868.) As a poet," Mr. 
 Emerson's merits arc of a high order, although his poetry 
 is not of a kind to l>e popular with the generality of 
 readers. A number of his more recent poems have 
 appeared as contributions to the "Atlantic Monthly." 
 
 Sec " Blackwood's Ifogaane" lor December, 1847; "Westminster 
 Review" for March. 1S40, and October, 1S56; " Eraser's Magazine" 
 for Ma a Examiner,*' vols. xxx. and xxxviii.; Al- 
 
 Libonk, "Dictionary of Authors ;" GriswolD, "Prose Writers of 
 America ;" I live kinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. 
 
 * See Mr. Whipple's article on Emerson, in the " New Ameri- 
 can Cyclopaedia." 
 
 Em'er-son, (William,) an eminent English mathe- 
 matician, bom at Hurworth, near Darlington, in 1701. 
 He was educated at home by his father, who was a school- 
 teacher. At his father's death, he conducted the school 
 a short time, and then retired from all business except 
 writing on mathematics. Among his numerous works 
 (which for some time were probably the best mathe- 
 matical works in the language, except those of Simpson) 
 are "Doctrine of Fluxions," (1748,) "Principles of Me- 
 chanics," (1754,) and "Method of Increments." He 
 was eccentric in his habits. Died in 1782. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 iSmery, am're', (Edouard Felix Etienne,) a 
 French medical writer, born in Dauphine in 1788, prac- 
 tised in Paris. Died in 1856. 
 
 limery, (Jacques Andre,) a French Catholic divine, 
 born at Gex in 1732, entered the community of Saint- 
 Sulpice, Paris, about 1750. In 1782 he was chosen 
 superior-general of his order. He is commended for 
 his wise, firm, and moderate conduct during the reign 
 of terror, in which he was twice imprisoned. He wrote 
 "The Spirit of Leibnitz," (1772,) the "Christianity 
 ( Christianisme) of Lord Bacon," (1799,) and other 
 learned works. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Picot, " Notice sur la Vie de J. A. E*mery," 1811. 
 
 Em'er-y, (John,) an English comic actor, born at 
 Sunderland in 1777; died in 1822. 
 
 iSmery, d', dam're', (Michel Particelli — paVte'sJ'- 
 le',) Sieur, a French financier, of Italian descent, born at 
 Lyons ; died in 1650. 
 
 fimile or Emili, (Paul.) See Emii.io. 
 
 Emilian. See /Lmii.ian. 
 
 fimilien, the French of Emilian, which see. 
 
 Emilio, a-mee'le-o, (Paolo,) or Emili, a-mee'lee, 
 (Paul,) [Lat. Pau'lus >Emil'ius ; Fr. Paul Em ilk, pol 
 a'mel',] an Italian historian, born at Verona, removed 
 to Paris about 1495, and, by the order of the king, wrote 
 a Latin " History of France," (" De Rebus gestis Fran- 
 corum," 1 5 16-19,) which was admired and often reprinted. 
 The style is pure and concise. Erasmus expressed a high 
 opinion of Emilio's learning. Died in Paris in 1529. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Emilius. See Emilius, and Paulus. 
 
 Emilius Macer. See Macer. 
 
 Emin, a-meen', ? (Feodor Alexandrovitch,) a Rus- 
 sian historian and novelist, born about 1735. His chief 
 work is a "History of Russia to 1213," (1767.) Died 
 in 1770. 
 
 Em'lyn, (Henry,) an English architect, born about 
 1730; died in 1815. 
 
 Emlyn, (Thomas,) an English Unitarian minister, 
 born at Stamford in 1663. In 1691 he settled in Dub- 
 lin, where he preached a number of years. He was 
 fined and imprisoned about two years for his doctrines. 
 He wrote a "Life of Dr. Samuel Clarke," (1731,) and 
 several controversial works. Died in 1743. 
 
 See " Life of Thomas Emlyn," by his son. 
 
 Em'ma, a daughter of Charlemagne, who, according 
 to a doubtful legend, was married to Eginhard. It is 
 reported that before their marriage she once carried 
 Eginhard from the palace, lest his traces in the snow 
 might betray the secret of his visit. Died in 837 a. I). 
 
 See J. C. Dahi., " Ueber Eginhard und Emma," 1817; Egin- 
 hard, "Vita Caroli Magni." 
 
 Em'ma, Queen of England, was a daughter of Richard 
 I., Duke of Normandy. She was married first to Ethel- 
 red II., and became mother of Edward the Confessor. 
 About 1017 she was married to Canute the Great, by 
 whom she had a son, I lardicanute. Died in 1046. 
 
 Em-man'u-el, | Port. Manoel, ma-no-el',] sumanied 
 THE GREAT, King of Portugal, born at Alconcheta in 
 1469, was the son of Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, a younger 
 branch of the reigning family. Upon the death of John 
 1 1., in 1495, he succeeded to the throne. He married the 
 widow of the late prince-royal, Alonzo or Alplvmso, Isa- 
 bella of Castile, whose consent he obtained only on the 
 condition that he should banish the Moors and Jews 
 from the kingdom, which was repugnant to his own more 
 liberal principles. During his reign the glory and power 
 of Portugal attained their greatest height by the dis- 
 
 i e.-cas j; %hard: gas/;G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; ft, trillea'; sasz; thas in tit's. (*jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
EMMANUEL 
 
 848 
 
 EMPEREUR 
 
 covevies and victorious expeditions of Vasco da Gama, 
 Almeida, Albuquerque, and Alvares de Cabral. From 
 1497 to 1520 these famous captains maintained the as- 
 cendency of the Portuguese arms in India and Brazil. In 
 1519 Emmanuel married Eleonore, sister of the emperor 
 Charles V. He died in 1521, and was succeeded by his 
 son, John III. 
 
 See A. de Varnhagen, " Retratos e Eiogios des Personagens 
 ilustres de Portugal," 1842 ; Laclbde, " Histoire generate de Portu- 
 gal ;" H. Osorio, " De Rebus Eminanuelis Regis Lusitanisegestis," 
 1571 : translated into English by James Gibbs, 1752. 
 
 Em-man'u-el Phill-beit, surnamed Tete de Fer, 
 tit deh faiR. (i.e. "Iron-headed,") Duke of Savoy, an 
 Italian general of great ability, born at Chambery in 
 1528, was a son of Charles III' of Savoy. He entered 
 the service of the emperor Charles V. in 1548, and in 
 1553 obtained the chief command of the imperial army 
 in the war against the French. He gained a great vic- 
 tory over them at Saint-Quentin in 1557. In 1559 he 
 married Margaret, a sister of Henry II. of France, and 
 recovered part of his paternal dominions, which had been 
 seized by the French. In 1574 he obtained from Henry 
 III. the evacuation of all Piedmont, the condition of 
 which was greatly improved by his wise statesmanship. 
 Died in 1580. He was succeeded by his son, Charles 
 Emmanuel. 
 
 See G. Tost, "Vita Emmamielis Philiberti," 1596; Brusle de 
 Montplajnchamp, " Histoire de Emmanuel Philibert," 1692; De 
 Thou. "Histovia." 
 
 Emmerich, Sm'meh-riK, (Georg,) a German physi- 
 cian, born at Konigsberg in 1672, wrote several able 
 treatises. Died in 1727. 
 
 Emmery, fm're', (Jean Louis Claude,) Count of 
 Grozyeulx, a learned French lawyer and legislator, born 
 at Metz in 1752, was a member of the National As- 
 sembly in 1790. He became a senator in 1802. Died 
 in 1823. 
 
 Em'met, (Robert,) an eloquent Irish enthusiast, 
 born in Cork in 1780, was a brother of Thomas Addis 
 Emmet. He was an ardent but misguided partisan of 
 Irish independence, and appears to have been a sincere 
 patriot. Like his brother, he was one of the chiefs of the 
 "United Irishmen." In July, 1803, he rashly put him- 
 self at the head of a party of insurgents consisting of the 
 rabble of Dublin, who murdered the chief justice, Lord 
 Kilwarden, and others, but were quickly dispersed by 
 the military. Emmet was arrested, was tried, and, after 
 an eloquent and impassioned speech in vindication of his 
 course, suffered with intrepid courage a felon's death, 
 September, 1803. The poet Moore commemorated his 
 tragic fate and his attachment to Miss Curran in two of 
 his "Irish Melodies." 
 
 See Madden, "United Irishmen," vol. iii. : John W. Burke, 
 "Life of Robert Emmet. " 
 
 Emmet, (Thomas Addis,) an eloquent Irish lawyer, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born at Cork in 1764. 
 He was liberally educated, was called to the bar in 1790, 
 and became a leader of the " United Irishmen." He was 
 arrested in 1798, and imprisoned in a dungeon for about 
 three years. In 1804 he emigrated to New York, where 
 he practised law with great success, and became attorney- 
 general of the State of New York in i8r2. He died m 
 1827. "That he had great qualities as an orator," says 
 Judge Story, "cannot be doubted by any one who has 
 heard him. His mind possessed a good deal of the fer- 
 vour which characterizes his countrymen. It was quick, 
 vigorous, searching, and buoyant." He wrote pieces of 
 Irish history illustrative of the condition of the Catholics 
 of Ireland, (1807.) 
 
 See " Memoirs of Thomas Addis Emmet," by Charles Gt.idden 
 Havnes. 1S29; a sketch of Emmet's character in the Miscella- 
 neous Works of Joseph Story ; T. McGee, " O'Connelt and his 
 Friends." 
 
 Emmius, £m'me-iis, (Ubbo.) a Dutch scholar and 
 historian, born in 1547, was eminent for his knowledge 
 of ancient languages and history, and for modesty and 
 other virtues. After teaching many years in Norden and 
 Leer, he was chosen in 1614 professor of history and 
 Greek in the University of Groningen, of which he was 
 also rector. He wrote a " History of Friesland," (1596,) 
 a "General Chronology," (1619,) "Ancient Greece Illus- 
 trated," ("Vetus Graecia illustrata," 1626,) a' valuable 
 
 work on the history and topography of Greece, and a 
 few other works. Died in 1625. 
 
 See Foppens, "Bibliotheca Belgica;" N. Mui.erius. " Elogium 
 U. Emmii," 1628; Nicekon, "Memoires." 
 
 Em'mons, (Eisenezer,) M.D., an American geologist, 
 born in Middlefield, Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 
 1798, became professor of natural history in Williams 
 College in 1833. When the geological survey of New 
 York was ordered by the government, he was appointed 
 one of the geologists-in-chief. Several volumes of his 
 Reports were published in the " Natural History of New 
 York." He advanced the novel opinion that beneath 
 the oldest member of the Silurian system there is a series 
 of fossiliferous rocks, to which he applied the term "Ta- 
 conic." He died in North Carolina in October, 1863. 
 
 Emmons, (Nathaniel,) an American theologian, 
 born in East Haddam, Connecticut, in 1745, preached 
 for many years at Franklin, Massachusetts. He wrote 
 several works on theology. Died in 1840. 
 
 Emo, a'mo, (Angelo,) an able Venetian statesman 
 and admiral, born in 1 731. Having served with success 
 against the Algerine pirates, he was made vice-admiral 
 in 1 765, and compelled the Dey of Algiers to sign a treaty 
 favourable to Venice. He then obtained the rank of 
 captain-general and admiral of all the maritime forces. 
 In 1772 he was appointed a-senator, and about 1780 a 
 member of the Council of Ten. He afterwards held 
 other high offices with credit. Died in 1792. 
 
 See MENEGHEt.i.t, " Di A. Emo e delle sue Gesta," 1836. 
 
 Em'o-rJ, (John,) an American Methodist bishop, 
 born in Queen Ann county, Maryland, in 1789. He was 
 elected a bishop about 1832. He wrote several contro- 
 versial treatises. Died in 1835.' 
 
 See a " Life of Bishop Emory," by his son Robert. 
 
 Emory, (Robert,) a Methodist minister, a son oi 
 the preceding, was born in Philadelphia in 1814. He 
 wrote a "History of the Discipline of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church," (1843.) Died in 1848. 
 
 Emory, (William H.,) an American general, born 
 in Maryland about 1812, graduated at West Point in 
 1831. He became a lieutenant of topographical engi. 
 neers about 1839, and gained the rank of captain in 1851. 
 He was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers early 
 in 1862, and commanded a division under General Banks 
 in Louisiana in 1863, and a corps in 1864. He repulsed 
 the enemy at Pleasant Hill, April 7 of that year. He 
 fought with distinction at Opequan Creek, September 
 19, and Cedar Creek, October 19, 1864. 
 
 Empecinado. See Diaz, (Juan Martin.) 
 
 Empedocle. See Empedoclks. 
 
 Em-ped'o-cles, [Gr. 'E/ot«5o/o% ; Fr. Empedocle, 
 &N'pa'dokl'; It. Empedocle, Sm-pa'do-kla,] a celebrated 
 Greek philosopher, born at Agrigentum, Sicily, flourished 
 about 450 B.C. It is not known who were his teachers. 
 He excelled in medicine and poetry as well as philosophy. 
 By these merits he acquired great influence in his native 
 state, which he is said to have transformed into a repub- 
 lic, after refusing to accept the offer of royalty. He origi- 
 nated or adopted the theory that nature consists of four 
 elements, — fire, air, earth, and water. He appears to have 
 taught the Hindoo philosophy that the soul has been 
 banished into the body in order to punish it, and that it 
 migrates through animal and vegetable bodies until it 
 shall be entirely purified. The popular tradition that he 
 threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna to immor- 
 talize his name is probably fabulous. His greatest work 
 was a poem on the " Nature and Principles of Things," 
 of which fragments are extant. Lucretius, in his great 
 poem, " De Rerun) Natura," expresses his admiration of 
 Empedocles. 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Bio- 
 graphical History of Philosophy;" Diogenes Laertius; Scina, 
 " Memorie sulla Vita de Empedocle," 2 vols., 1813; J. G. New- 
 mann, " Programma de Empedocle Philosopho," 1690; Heinrich 
 Stein, "Dissertatio de Enipedoclis Sciiptis," 1851. 
 
 Empereur, L', l&N'peh'ruR', (Constantijn,) a Dutch 
 Orientalist, born at Oppyck, was one of the most emi- 
 nent pupils of Erpenius. He obtained the chair of 
 Hebrew in Leyden in 1627, and became councillor to 
 Maurice of Nassau in 1639. He translated portions of 
 the Talmud and other Jewish writings, and published, 
 besides other works, a "Treatise on the Forensic Laws 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,' T, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
EMPIR1CUS 
 
 849 
 
 ENFANT 
 
 of the Hebrews," and a "Key to the Talmud," ("Clavis 
 Talmudica," 1634.) Died in 1648. 
 
 See Trigland, "Oratio in Obitum C. L'Empereur," 1648, 
 
 Empiricus Sextus. See Sextus. 
 
 Empis, d.s'pe', (Adolphe,) a French dramatist, born 
 in Paris in 1790. He produced successful comedies and 
 operas, which in 1847 opened to him the doors of the 
 French Academy. Among his works are "Joan of Arc," 
 an opera, (1822,) and "A Change in the Ministry," a 
 Cuiiedy, (1 83 1.) 
 
 Empoli, em'po-lee, (Jacopo Chimentl) an Italian 
 painter in oil, usually called L'Empoli, was born at 
 Empoli in 1554. He worked mostly in Florence, the 
 churches of which contain many of his pictures. Among 
 his chief productions are "Saint Yves," "The Virgin 
 with Saint Nicholas," and an "Annunciation." His 
 design and colour are commended. He also painted 
 portraits with success. Died in 1640. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Empoli, d', dem'po-lee, (Giovanni,) a Florentine, 
 who lived about the year 1500, in the service of the Por- 
 tuguese king, sailed with Albuquerque to India in 1503, 
 and wrote a brief account of the voyage. 
 
 See Lapiteau, " Histoire des Conquetes des Portugais." 
 
 Em-po'rI-us, a Latin grammarian, who lived in the 
 fifth or sixth century, left some extant works on rhetoric. 
 
 Empson, (Richard.) See Dudley, (Edmund.) 
 
 Emp'son, (William,) an English editor and writer 
 on various subjects, born about 1790. He was for several 
 years editor of the "Edinburgh Review," to which he 
 contributed many articles between 1823 and 1850. Died 
 in 1852. 
 
 Emser, em'ser, (Hieronymus,) a German Catholic 
 theologian, noted as an adversary of Luther, was born 
 at Ulm in 1477. He became secretary of Duke George 
 of Saxony, who gave him a benefice in Dresden. In 
 1523 he published a criticism on Luther's version of the 
 New Testament. He also made a German translation 
 of the New Testament, (1527,) which was adopted by the 
 Catholics. Died in 1527. 
 
 See Waldau, "Nachricht von H. Emser's Leben," 1783. 
 
 Unambuc, d', da'no.N'biik', (Pierre Vandrosque 
 Diel — voN'dkosk' de'el',) an able French mariner and 
 colonial governor, who, with the permission of Richelieu, 
 planted a colony in the isle of Saint Christopher in 1625. 
 He also formed the first settlement in the isle of Mar- 
 tinique, in 1635. Hcdied in 1636, and was succeeded as 
 governor by his nephew, Diel Duparquet. 
 
 Encelade. See Enceladus. 
 
 En-cel'a-dus, [Gr. 'F.-/kBmSos ; Fr. Encelade, 5n'- 
 sa'lid',] a son of Tartarus, and one of the giants that 
 rebelled against Jupiter. According to one tradition, he 
 was buried under the island of Sicily or Mount /Etna, 
 and his struggles caused earthquakes. 
 
 Encina. See Enzina, (Juan de la.) 
 
 Enemas or Enzinas, en-thee'nas, often called Dry- 
 ander. ( Francisco,) a Spanish Reformer, born at Burgos 
 about 1520. Having been converted to Lutheranism, he 
 went to Wittenberg about 1541, and acquired the friend- 
 ship of Luther and Melanchthon. He produced a Span- 
 ish translation of the New Testament, (1543,) which he 
 presented to Charles V. at Brussels For this offence 
 he was imprisoned about a year. Having escaped from 
 prison, he went to England. Died in 1552. 
 
 See Raylk, " Historical and Critical Dictionary:" N. Antonio. 
 " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova ;" Mrs. Chari.es, " Martyrs of Spain," 
 etc., : 
 
 Encinas, (Juan,) a brother of the preceding, born at 
 Burgos, was also a Protestant. He went to Rome, or 
 was sent thither by his father. There he openly avowed 
 his principles, ami suffered death by fire in 1545. 
 
 See Mrs. Charles, "Martyrs of Spain," etc. 
 
 Enciso, de, da en-thee'so, (Diego Ximenes,) a Span- 
 ish dramatic poet, burn at Seville, lived about 1620-40. 
 He wrote " El Principe Don Carlos," and other dramas, 
 which display superior talents. 
 
 Enciso, de, (Don Martin Fernandez,) a Spanish 
 geographer,- accompanied the expeditions to Central 
 America, and published "Suma de Geografia," (1519.) 
 
 Encke, enk'keh, (Johann Franz,) an eminent Ger- 
 man astronomer, born at Hamburg in 1791. He gained 
 
 distinction by his determination of the orbit of the comet 
 of 1680, and of the distance of the earth from the sun, 
 and published "The Distance of the Sun," ("Die Ent- 
 fernung der Sonne," 2 vols., 1822-24.) He afterwards 
 made important and successful investigations into the 
 orbit and period of the comet of Pons, since known as 
 Encke's comet. About 1825 he became director of the 
 Royal Observatory of Berlin, and secretary of the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences. Afler 1830 he published the "Astro- 
 nomische Jahrbiicher," and other works. Died in 1865. 
 
 See G. Hacen, " Memoir of Encke," in the "Smithsonian Re- 
 port" for 1868. 
 
 Encontre, Sn'kAxtR', (Daniel,) a French Protestant 
 divine, eminent for talents and learning, born at Ninies 
 in 1762, was ordained, but was unable to preach, on ac- 
 count of a defect in the vocal organs. He became in 
 1808 professor of sciences in the Academy of Montpel- 
 lier, and in 1814 he accepted the chair of theology at 
 Montauban. He wrote an "Essay on the Theory of 
 Probabilities," "Elements of Plane Geometry," a "Dis- 
 sertation on the True System of the World," (1807,) and 
 many other works. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Juillerat-Chasseur, "Notice sur la Vie, etc. de Daniel 
 Encontre," 1S21. 
 
 Ende, von, fon en'deh, (Friedrich Albrecht,) 
 Baron, a German general, born at Celle in 1765 ; died 
 in 1829. 
 
 Ender, Sn'der, (Johann,) a German painter, born in 
 Vienna in 1793. He went to Rome as imperial pen- 
 sioner in 1820, and afterwards worked in Vienna with 
 success in portraits and history. Died in 1854. 
 
 Ender, (Thomas,) a landscape-painter, brother of the 
 preceding, was born in Vienna about 1794. He went 
 about 1817 with a scientific expedition to Brazil, from 
 which he brought home many designs. He accompanied 
 Metternich to Italy, where he worked some years. His 
 landscapes are admired for the vigorous effects of light 
 which they display. 
 
 En'der-ble, (Percy,) a British author, published a 
 mediocre history of Wales, (1661.) 
 
 En'dl-cott, (John,) one of the first colonial Gov- 
 ernors of Massachusetts, born at Dorchester, England, 
 in 1589. In 1636 he conducted an expedition against 
 the Pequot Indians. He was several years Deputy-Gov- 
 ernor of Massachusetts, and in 1644 was chosen Governor. 
 He was again Governor in 1649, and,' with the exception 
 of 1650 and 1654, was regularly re-elected to the same 
 office till his death in 1665. Governor Endicott was a 
 zealous Puritan, and was especially severe in executing 
 the laws against those who differed from the prevailing 
 religion. 
 
 Endlicher, eiit'liK-er, (Stephen Ladislaus,) an emi- 
 nent botanist and linguist, born at Presburg, in Hungary, 
 in 1804. Having studied Oriental languages and natural 
 sciences, he was appointed director of the Imperial 
 Library, Vienna, in 1828, and professor of botany in the 
 University in 1840. He liberally expended his fortune 
 in the promotion of science, and was one of the founders 
 of the Academy of Vienna. He published, in Latin, 
 many works on botany, the most important of which is 
 his "Genera of Plants arranged in the Natural Order," 
 (1836-40,) and" Rudiments of Chinese Grammar," (1845,) 
 with various other well-written works. He sympathized 
 with the people in the insurrection of 1848. Died in 
 1849. 
 
 See P.rockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie GeneVale." 
 
 En-d^ml-on, [Gr. 'Evfofiiuv,] in the Greek mythology, 
 was represented as a beautiful youth, a darling of Diana, 
 (Selene,) and a perpetual sleeper. One of the various 
 traditions announces him as a king of Elis. His eternal 
 sleep is ascribed to different causes. 
 
 See Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and 
 Mythology." 
 
 Enea, the Italian of /Eneas, which see. 
 Eneas. See /Eneas. 
 Eneas Sylvius. See Pius II. 
 Enee, the French of /Eneas, which see. 
 Enemann, en'eh-man', (Mikaei.,) a Swedish Orien- 
 talist, born at Enkbping in 1676; died in 1714. 
 Enfant, It. See L'Enfant. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural', N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (Jfy— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 54 
 
ENFANTIN 
 
 8,o 
 
 ENGHELRAMS 
 
 Enfantin, dN'fdN'taN', (Barth£lemi Prosper,) a 
 French arch-socialist, born in Paris in 1796, is called 
 one of the founders of Saint-Simonism. lie began to 
 propagate the doctrines of Saint-Simon about 1825, and 
 in 1830 had united numerous followers into an associa- 
 tion founded on community of property. A disagree- 
 ment between him and Bazard resulted in a schism, after 
 which Enfantin assumed the name of "the Living Law 
 and the Messiah." Charged with corruption of public 
 morals, he was condemned to imprisonment for one year 
 in 1832. After that event his disciples were dispersed, 
 and he was employed as director of the Paris and Lyons 
 Railway. Died in 1864. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic G^ne"rale." 
 
 Eu'field, (William,) LLD., an English author and 
 dissenting minister, born at Sudbury in 1741, officiated 
 successively in the Unitarian churches of Liverpool, 
 Warrington, and Norwich. He published several volumes 
 of popular sermons, a "Preacher's Directory," which was 
 highly esteemed, and said to be the best work of the 
 kind, and largely assisted Dr. Aikin in his "General 
 Biographical Dictionary." Besides several educational 
 works, he published in 1791 a " History of Philosophy 
 from the Earliest Periods to the Present Century," 
 abridged from Brucker's History. Died in 1797. 
 
 See Aikin, "Memoirs of Enfield," prefixed to his "Sermons." 
 
 Engau, gng'gow, (Johann Rudolf,) a German juris- 
 consult, born at Jena in 1708. He became professor of 
 law in the University of Jena in 1740, and councillor of 
 the court of Saxe- Weimar in 1748. "His numerous 
 writings," says Guizot, "attest his vast knowledge, and 
 are highly esteemed in Germany." Among them are 
 (in Latin) "Elements of German Civil Law," (1736,) 
 and "Elements of Criminal Law," (1738.) Died in 1755. 
 
 See " Biographie Universale ;" Hirsching, "Historisch-litera- 
 risches Handbuch." 
 
 Engel, (ing'e), (Johann,) a German astronomer, born 
 in Bavaria; died in 1512. 
 
 Engel, (Johann Jakob,) an excellent German author, 
 born at Parchim (Mecklenburg) in 1741. He was pro- 
 fessor of belles-lettres in Berlin from 1776 to 1787, and 
 was preceptor of the prince Frederick William, who 
 ascended the throne in 1787. His comedy " The Grateful 
 Son" (1770) was very successful. In 1775 he published 
 "The Philosopher for the World," (" Der Philosoph fur 
 die Welt," 2 vols.,) which is admired for great clearness, 
 facility, and elegance. He afterwards produced " Lorenz 
 Stark," (1795,) a romance, which was very popular, and 
 a " Mirror for Princes," (" Fiirstenspiegel.") His works 
 are characterized by an excellent judgment, and by a 
 refinement of taste and purity of diction which are rare 
 among the Germans. Died in 1802. 
 
 See P. NlcOLAl/'GedSchtnissschriftauf J. J. Engel," i8o6;"Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge"ne>ale." 
 
 Engel, (Karl Christian,) a dramatist, brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Parchim in 1752. He wrote 
 " Biondetta," a comedy, and a metaphysical essay, en- 
 titled " Nous nous reverrons," (" We shall see each other 
 again," 1787,) which caused a great sensation. Died in 
 1801. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Engel, Sng'el, (Samuel,) a Swiss geographer and 
 economist, born at Berne in 1702, wrote an "Essay on 
 the Question, ' When and how was America peopled ?'" 
 (1767,) and several works on rural economy. Died in 
 1784. 
 
 En-gel-ber'ga, sometimes written Engelberta and 
 Angilberga, Empress of Germany, was married in 856 
 a.d. to Lewis II. of Germany. Having been accused of 
 conjugal infidelity by two courtiers, she was about to be 
 subjected to the ordeal of fire and water, when Boson, 
 Count of Aries, came forward as her champion. He 
 defeated her accusers in single combat, and forced them 
 to retract. Died in 890 a.d. 
 
 Engelbert, Sng'el-beRt', a German historian, born in 
 the thirteenth century. He wrote, in Latin, a "History 
 of the Roman Empire." Died in 1331. 
 
 Engelbert, Saint, Archbishop of Cologne, became 
 tutor to Henry, a son of the emperor Frederick II., about 
 1220. He was assassinated by his cousin in 1225. 
 
 Engelberta or Engelberda. See Engelhf.rga. 
 
 Engelbrecht, eng'gel-bkeKt', (Engelhrechtson, 
 6ng'gel-bReKt'son,) a Swedish statesman and general, 
 was born in Dalecarlia about 1390. When Eric XIII. 
 was deposed, Engelbrecht was selected to administer 
 the government jointly with Charles Canutson ; but the 
 former was soon after assassinated bv Magnus Bengtson, 
 in 1436. 
 
 See J. J. Palm, " Dissertatio de Meritis Engelbrechti," 1802. 
 
 Engelbrecht, Jng'el-bR^Kt', (Johann,) a German 
 visionary and fanatical religionist, born at Brunswick in 
 1599 ; died in 1642. 
 
 Engelbrechtsen or Enghelbrechtsen, Sng'hel- 
 bkSKt'sen, (Cornelis,) a Dutch painter, born at I.eyden 
 in 1468, was the first of his nation who used oil-colours. 
 He is considered one of the ablest painters of his 
 time. Among his master-pieces are a " Descent from 
 the Cross," (in Paris,) " The Lamb of the Apocalypse," 
 (at Utrecht,) and " The Sacrifice of Abraham," (in Paris.) 
 Died in 1533. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Engelgrave, eng'el-gRa'veh, (Hendrik,) a learned 
 Jesuit and preacher, born at Antwerp in 16 10. He be- 
 came rector of colleges at Cassel, Bruges, and Antwerp. 
 His sermons were often reprinted, under the title of 
 "Gospel Light," ("Lux Evangelica," 1648.) Died in 1670. 
 
 Engelhardt, eng'el-haRt, (Johann Georg Veit,) a 
 German theologian, born at Neustadt (an-der-Aisch) in 
 1791. He became professor of theology at Erlangen in 
 1822. Among his principal works is a " History of 
 Dogmas," (" Dogmengeschichte," 1839.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Engelhardt, (Karl August,) a German writer, born 
 at Dresden in 1768. He published "The Friend of 
 Children," ("Der Kinderfreund," 12 vols., 1797-1814,) 
 "Poems," ("Gedichte," 3 vols., 1820-23,) an d otner 
 works. Died in 1834. 
 
 Engelmann, ON'zheTmoN' or Jng'el-man', (Gode- 
 FROY,) one of the inventors or improvers of lithography, 
 was born at Mulhouse, (Haut-Rhin,) in France, in 1788. 
 In 1816 he founded the first important and successful 
 lithographic establishment in Paris, in which he was aided 
 by Vernet, Girodet, Isabey, and other artists. He pub- 
 lished a "Treatise on Lithography,"(i839.) Died in 1839. 
 
 See G. Peignot, " Essai histovique sur la Lithographic" 
 
 Engelschall, eng'el-shal', (Joseph Frif.drich,) a 
 German poet, born at Marburg in 1739. He wrote short 
 lyric poems, epistles, epigrams, and prose essays, which, 
 in the opinion of Schoell, entitle him to a prominent 
 place among German authors of the second rank. Died 
 in 1797. 
 
 Engelstoft, gng'els-toft', (Christian Thorning,) a 
 learned Danish theologian, born at Naesberg in 1805. 
 He became professor of theology at Copenhagen in 
 1845, and Bishop of Funen in 1851. He has written on 
 church history, etc. 
 
 Engelstroem. See Engestrom. 
 
 Engenio, d', dfin-ja'ne-o, (Cesark Caracciolo — ki- 
 rit-she-o'lo,) an Italian historian, flourished about 1600. 
 He wrote a "Description of the Kingdom of Naples," 
 (1618.) 
 
 Engestrom or Engestroem, ?ng'geh-stRom', written 
 also Engelstroem, (Gustaf,) a Swedish savant, born 
 at Lund in 1738. He was president of the Academy of 
 Sciences at Stockholm, and wrote several treatises on 
 chemistry and mineralogy. Died in 1815. 
 
 Engestrom or Engestroem, (Lars,) a Swedish 
 statesman, brother of the preceding, was born at Stock- 
 holm in 1 75 1, and entered the civil service in 1770. 
 Appointed secretary of foreign affairs in 1776, he dis- 
 played superior diplomatic talents, and was sent as am • 
 bassador to London, Berlin, and other courts, between 
 1788 and 1798. In 1809 he became minister of foreign 
 affairs, and received the title of baron. In 1816 he was 
 raised to the rank of count. Died in 1826. 
 
 See " Nouveile Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Enghelbrechtsen. See Engei.rrechtsen. 
 
 Enghelrams, Sng'hel -rams', (Cornelis,) an able 
 Flemish painter, born at Malines in 1527. Among his 
 works is "The Conversion of Saint Paul," at Hamburg. 
 Died in 1583. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, $?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; grjod; moon ; 
 
 
ENGHIEN 
 
 851 
 
 ENT1NCK 
 
 Enghien, d', dd.N'gg^N', (Louis Antoine Henri 
 de Bourbon — ileh boon 'b6.N',) Due, a French prince, 
 born at Chantilly in 1772, was the son of the Duke of 
 Bourbon, and related to the royal family. He emigrated 
 in 1789, and, after travelling a few years, entered the 
 army under his grandfather, the Prince of Conde, and 
 fought bravely against the republic from 1793 until 1801, 
 when the army was disbanded. He then retired to Et- 
 tenheim, in Baden, where he was arrested, though on 
 neutral territory, in 1804, on suspicion of conspiracy, and 
 taken to the castle of Vincennes, near Paris. After a 
 hurried trial before a military tribunal, he was sentenced 
 and shot in March, 1804. This deed excited general and 
 deep indignation against Bonaparte, and is commonly 
 regarded as one of the worst crimes by which his memory 
 is stained. (See Bonaparte, Napoleon.) 
 
 Sei Thiers, "Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire;" Firmas- 
 Pbribs, " Notice historique sur L. A. Due d'Enghien," 1814. 
 
 Eugilbert See Angilbekt. 
 
 England, ing'gland, (John,) a Catholic theologian, 
 born at Cork, Ireland, in 1786. He was in 1820 appointed 
 the first Bishop of Charleston, South Carolina, where 
 he founded an academy and the "Charleston Catholic 
 Miscellany." He wrote many treatises on theology, 
 etc. Died in 1842. 
 
 England, ing'gland, (Sir Richard,) a British general, 
 born in Canada in 1793. He was sent to India in 1842, 
 and distinguished himself in the Afghan war. He com- 
 manded a division at the Alma and at Inkerman, etc., 
 (1854-55.) 
 
 Eu'gle-field, (Sir Henry Charles,) M.P., an English 
 antiquary and astronomer, born in 1752, was a person of 
 extensive and accurate attainments in science. In 1788 
 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote 
 a treatise on the Orbits of Comets, a " Walk through 
 Southampton," (1801,) and "Beauties, Antiquities, etc. 
 of the Isle of Wight," (1816.) Died in 1822. 
 
 English, ing'glish, (George BbTHWE,) an American 
 adventurer and linguist, born in Boston in 1789. About 
 1820 he entered the army of the Pasha of Egypt, and 
 served as an officer in an expedition against Sennaar. ' 
 He wrote several works on theology, etc. Died in 
 1828. 
 
 English, (Thomas Dunn,) an American poet and 
 novelist, born in Philadelphia in 1819. He published a 
 collection of poems in 1855. 
 
 Engramelle, oN'gRi'meY, (Marie Dominique Jo- 
 seph,) a French naturalist and musician, born in Artois 
 in 1727. He published "The Butterflies of Europe," (8 
 vols., 1779-93.) Died in 1781. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Engstrom or Engstroem, fng'stRom, (Johan,) a 
 Swedish poet and novelist, born in 1794. He published 
 "The /Eolian Harp," (1830,) and other poems. 
 
 Enjedin, cVyeh-deen , or Enyedin, [Lat. Enje'- 
 DH'S, ] (George,) a noted Unitarian writer, born at Enyed, 
 in Transylvania, was superintendent of the churches in 
 the province above named Died in 1597. 
 
 Enjedius. See Enjedin. 
 
 Ennebel, eri'neh-bel', (Louis,) a Belgian theologian 
 and canonist, born at Louvain in 1652; died in 1720. 
 
 Enuemoser, Jn'neh-mo'zer, (Joseph,) an eminent 
 German physician and writer on magnetism and phy- 
 siology, born in the Tyrol in 1787. He was professor at 
 Bonn from 1820 to 1841, after which he practised at Mu- 
 nich. Among his works are " Magnetism in its Relations 
 to Nature and Religion," (1842,) and " Der Magnetis- 
 mus," (1844,) which was translated into English by Wil- 
 liam Howitt, (" History of Magic," 1854.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Ennery, (Adoi.phe.) See Dennery. 
 
 Ennery, d', dSn're', (Michelet,) a French antiquary, 
 born at Metz in 1 709, made a large collection of medals 
 and coins. I lis cabinet at Paris, which contained over 
 twenty thousand medals, was sold and dispersed after 
 his death. Died in 1788. 
 
 En'nl-us, (Quintus,) a Roman epic poet of great 
 celebrity, born of a Greek family at Rudiae, in Calabria, 
 about 239 B.C. In early life he became a citizen of Rome, 
 where he obtained the patronage and friendship of Cato, 
 Scipio, and others. He contributed perhaps more than 
 any other early Latin writer towards forming the na- 
 
 tional literature of Rome. His principal work, called 
 the " Annals," a historical epic, was for a long time the 
 most popular poem in the language. He also wrote 
 several tragedies and comedies. He is said to have first 
 introduced from the Greek the heroic hexameter into 
 Latin poetry. His works are all lost, except some frag- 
 ments quoted by Cicero and others. " He stands out 
 prominently in that early time," says Professor Sellar, » 
 "as a man of true genius and of a great and original 
 character. . . . Whatever in the later poets is most truly 
 Roman in sentiment and morality, appears to be con"- 
 ceived in the spirit of Ennius. . . . The variety and 
 extent of his works bear witness to remarkable learning 
 as well as a strong productive energy." He was a great 
 favourite of Cicero, who often quotes him, and he was 
 highly eulogized by Lucretius, Propertius, Aulus Gellius, 
 and Ovid. Died in 169 B.C. 
 
 See Selt.ar, " Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. iv. ; Vossius, 
 "DePoetis Latinis;" Sagittarius, "De Vitaet Scriptis L. Andro- 
 nici, Emiii,"etc. ; H. Fokelius, " De Ennio Diatriba," Upsal, 1707. 
 
 Eu-no'dl-us, (Magnus Felix,) Saint, one of the 
 Fathers of the Latin Church, and a distinguished writer, 
 born at Aries about 473 a.d. He obtained the bishopric 
 of Pavia (l'apia) about 511. He wrote a " Panegyric on 
 King Theodoric," an "Apology for Pope Symmachus," 
 " The Fourth Council of Rome," and a " Life of Saint 
 Epiphanius of Pavia." He was sent to Constantinople 
 by the pope in 515 and again in 517 to negotiate a union 
 between the Eastern and Western Churches, but did not 
 succeed in effecting that object. Died in 521. 
 
 See Sirmond. " Vila Ennndii," prefixed to his edition of the work? 
 of Saint Ennodius. 
 
 Enobarbus. See Ahenobarbus. 
 
 E'noch, I Heb. ~\WT\; Ger. Enoch, a'noK, or Henoch, 
 ha'noK, ] an antediluvian patriarch, born in the year 
 3378 H.C., was the son of Jared, and father of Methuselah. 
 He was pre-eminently favoured by a holy life and immu- 
 nity from death. At the age of three hundred and sixty- 
 five he " was translated that he should not see death." 
 (Hebrews xi. 5; Genesis v. 24.) The book of Enoch, 
 quoted in the Epistle of Jude, was extant in the time of 
 the primitive Christians, but was rejected as apocryphal 
 by the Fathers and by the Church. 
 
 Ijiioch, i'nok', (Louis,) a French Hellenist and gram- 
 marian, born at Issoudun, became principal of the Col- 
 lege of Geneva in 1556. Died about 1570. 
 
 His son Enoch was a poet. Died about 1590. 
 
 Enrico of Portugal. See Henry. 
 
 Enriquez Gomez, en-ree'kith go'mSth, (Antonio,) 
 or Enriquez de Paz, (di path,) a Spanish poet and 
 writer of fiction, lived about 1650. Among his works is 
 " The Pythagorean Age." 
 
 Ens, Sns, (Jan,) a Dutch theologian and writer, born 
 in 1682, preached at Utrecht. Died in 1732. 
 
 Ens, eriss, (Kaspar,) a prolific and mediocre German 
 writer in Latin, born about 1570. 
 
 Ense. See Varnhagen von Ense. 
 
 Ensenada, de, da en-si-na'Da, (Zenon Silva,) Mar- 
 quis, a Spanish statesman, born near Valladolid in 1690. 
 He was appointed first minister of state by Ferdinand VI., 
 who began to reign in 1746, and at the same time was 
 created a marquis. The administration of Ensenada was 
 wise and economical, and improved the condition of 
 Spain. Died in 1762. 
 
 En'sor, (George,) an Irish writer, born in Dublin 
 about 1769. He published, besides other works, "The 
 Independent Man," (1806,) and "Defects of the English 
 Laws and Tribunals," (1812.) Died in 1843. 
 
 Ent, (Sir George,) an eminent English physician, born 
 in Kent in 1604, acquired a large practice, and was 
 knighted by Charles II. He wrote a defence of Har- 
 vey's theory of the circulation of the blood. Died in 1689. 
 
 En-tel'lus, a celebrated athlete and a friend of /Eneas, 
 is mentioned in Virgil's "./Eneid" (book v.) as having 
 conquered Dares in the funeral games of Anchises. 
 
 En'tick or En'tinck, (John,) an English writer, 
 born in 1713, was employed by the booksellers to com- 
 pile several histories and other works. His Latin and 
 English Dictionary was successful, and has been re- 
 printed. Died in 1 773. 
 
 Entinck. See Entick. 
 
 I k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jg=" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ENTINOPUS 
 
 852 
 
 EPAPHR ODITUS 
 
 En-tin'o-pus, an architect, born in the island of Can- 
 dia, is noted as the founder of Venice. It is reported 
 that he built the first house there, in 405 A.D. 
 
 See Daru, " Histoire de Venise. " 
 
 Entius. See Enzio. 
 
 Entraigues or Antraigues, d', doN'tR^g', (Emma- 
 nuel Louis Henri de Launey — deh lo'iii',) Count. 
 * a French politician, born in Vivarais. He published 
 in 1788 an eloquent "Memoir on the States-General," 
 which was extremely revolutionary. Having been de- 
 p'uted by the noblesse to the States-General in 1789, he 
 changed his course, and acted with the royalists. He 
 emigrated about 1790, and was assassinated near Lon- 
 don by one of his servants in 1812. 
 
 Entrecasteaux, d', d&Ntit'kis'to', (Joseph Antoine 
 Brum — bRii'ne',) a French navigator, born at Aix about 
 1740, entered the navy young, and soon distinguished him- 
 self by his talents and steady courage. In 1785 he was 
 appointed commander of the naval forces in India, and 
 in 1791 was sent, with the rank of rear-admiral, in search 
 of the lost navigator La Perouse. Although he failed in 
 this object, he made important discoveries on the coasts 
 of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, etc. He died at sea, 
 near Java, in 1793. The narrative of the voyage was 
 published in 1808 by Rossel, one of his officers. 
 
 See De Rossel, "Voyage de D'Entrecasteaux," etc. 
 
 Entrecolles. See Dkntrecolles. 
 
 E-ny'o, [ 'Ewu, ] the Greek name of the goddess of 
 war. (See Bellona.) 
 
 Enzina or Encina, de la, da IS en-thee'nl, (Juan,) 
 a popular Spanish poet, born in Old Castile about 1468, 
 is regarded as the founder of the Spanish theatre. He 
 was patronized by Ferdinand the Catholic. He published 
 in 1496 the first edition of his works, comprising odes, 
 comedies, and a poem called "A Vision of the Temple 
 of Fame." His "Art of Making Verses" ("Arte de 
 Trovar") was received with favour, and his " Placida y 
 Victoriano" is called a master-piece of dramatic art. 
 His works are characterized by purity of style, brilliant 
 ideas, and natural imagery. He was also distinguished 
 as a musician, and became musical director to Pope Leo 
 X. He went as a pilgrim to Palestine in 1519. Died 
 about 1534. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Enzinas. See Encinas, (Francisco.) 
 Enzio, en'ze-o, or Eiizo, Sn'zo, [Lat. En'tius,] a 
 nominal king of Sardinia, born about 1224, was a natu- 
 ral son of the emperor Frederick II. He distinguished 
 himself in the war which his father waged against the 
 pope and the Guelphs. He gained a great naval victory 
 over the Genoese in 1241. In 1249 he was made prisoner 
 at Fossalto by the Guelphs, who kept him in prison until 
 his death, in 1272. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Kepubliques Italiennes." 
 
 Enzo. See Enzio. 
 
 Eoban, a'o-ban, (Helius,) [Lat. Eoba'nus Hes'sius,] 
 a German poet, born at Bockendorf, in Hesse, in 1488. 
 He was professor of rhetoric and poetry at Nuremberg 
 seven years, between 1526 and 1533, after which he ob- 
 tained a similar position at -Erfurt and Marburg. He 
 translated into Latin verse Homer's "Iliad" and the 
 Idyls of Theocritus, and wrote Latin eclogues, and other 
 poems. His '.' Iliad" was often reprinted. Died in 1540. 
 
 See Lossius, " H. Eoban und seine ZeitgenoSsen ;" M. Adam, 
 " Vitas Germanorum Pbilosophorum." 
 
 Eobanua. See Eoban. 
 
 Eoetvoes. See Eorvos. 
 
 fiole, the French of /EoLUS, which see. 
 
 fion de Beaumont,d', da'.i.N'deh b5'mdN',(CHARLES 
 Genevieve Louise Auguste Andre TiMoiHEE,)styled 
 Chevalier d'Eon, a famous French diplomatist, born 
 at Tonnerre in 1728. Having gained reputation by 
 writing an Essay on the Finances of France, he was em- 
 ployed about 1755 on a mission to the court of Russia, 
 with which he negotiated an advantageous treaty. In 
 1759 he served with credit as captain in the French army 
 in Germany. A few years later he was minister pleni- 
 potentiary to London, but was superseded soon after his 
 appointment. On his return to France, about 1777, the 
 government, for some mysterious reason, required him 
 
 to assume the female dress, which he wore for tl.e rest 
 of his life. Being reduced to'poverty, he supported him- 
 self in his later years by giving lessons in the art of 
 fencing. He was author of many historical and political 
 essays. Died in 1810. 
 
 See " Me'moires du Chevalier D'E'on," by F. Gaillardet ; 
 Grimm, " Correspondance ;" Bachaumont, "Me^noires." 
 
 E'os, [Gr. 'Hur,] of the Greek mythology, corresponds 
 to the Latin Aurora, the goddess of morning. She was 
 supposed to be a daughter of Hyperion, a sister of Diana 
 or Selene, and the wife of Tithonus. 
 
 Eosander, a-o-zan'der, (Johann Frieiirich,) an 
 eminent German architect, of Swedish origin, born to- 
 wards the end of the seventeenth century, was employed 
 by the Elector Frederick on a palace in Berlin, and on 
 other edifices. That prince also sent him as ambassador 
 to Charles Xlf. of Sweden. Among his works is the 
 palace of Schbiihausen, Berlin. Died in Dresden in 1729. 
 
 See Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisclies Handbucb." 
 
 E6tv6.3 or Eoetvoes, a'bt-vbsh, (Joseph,) a popu- 
 lar Hungarian author and statesman, born at Buda (or 
 Ofen)in 1813. He produced about 1833 "The Critics," 
 a comedy, and "The Revenge," a tragedy. His reputa- 
 tion was increased by "The Carthusian," a novel, (1838- 
 41.) He defended Kossuth in a pamphlet (1841) which 
 proved that he possessed polemical abilities of a high 
 order. He was afterwards one of the chief orators of 
 the popular party in the Diet. His political novel "The 
 Village Notary" (1844-46) had great popularity, and was 
 translated into English and German. From February, 
 1867, until his death, in 1871, he was Hungarian minister 
 of worship and public instruction. 
 
 E-pam-I-iion'das, [Gr.'Eim/ietvuvdac or 'Eira/uvunSar,] 
 an illustrious Theban statesman and general, a son of 
 Polymnis, was born about the year 412 B.C. He re- 
 ceived instruction from Lysis of Tarentum, a Pythago. 
 rean philosopher. He first distinguished himself on the 
 field of Mantinea, where he and his friend Pelopidas 
 performed prodigies of valour, under the standard of 
 Sparta, (385.) In youth he loved retirement and study, 
 and, it is said, preferred poverty from principle. The 
 aristocrats of Thebes, aided by Spartan soldie»y, gained 
 the ascendency, and banished Pelopidas and other popu- 
 lar chiefs; but Epaminondas, being regarded as aspecu- 
 lative philosopher, was not included in the proscription. 
 When he was about forty years of age, at a congress of 
 deputies from the Grecian states he spoke eloquently 
 against the encroachments of the Spartan power, and 
 acquired the reputation of one of the best orators of 
 Greece. When, soon after this, Sparta declared waf 
 against Thebes, Epaminondas was nominated com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Theban army, consisting of 6000 
 foot and 500 horse, to which Sparta opposed 10,000 
 foot and 1000 horse. The armies met at Leuctra, where 
 the Spartans were totally routed, with a loss of 4000 men, 
 in 372 B.C. This battle was a fatal blow to the supremacy 
 of Sparta, and became forever memorable for the pro- 
 found and skilful combinations in the military art of 
 which Epaminondas gave the first example. He invaded 
 Peloponnesus in 369, and threatened Sparta, which was 
 defended with firmness and success by Agesilaus. He 
 commanded. the Thebansat the battle of Mantinea, (July 
 4, 363,) and had just achieved a glorious victory, when 
 he received a mortal wound. Some writers date this 
 event in 362 B.C. Cicero maintains that Epaminondas 
 was the greatest man that Greece has produced ; and 
 all parties admit that he was one of the most perfect 
 models of the statesman, warrior, patriot, and sage. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Pelopidas;" Grote, "History of Greece," 
 chaps, lxviii., Ixix., Ixxx. ; Seran de la Touk, "Histoire d'Epa- 
 minondas," 1739 ; A. G. Meissner, " Epaminondas," (in German, 
 1801 :) Cornelius Nepos, "Epaminondas;" Diodorus Siculus, 
 book xv. ; E. Hauch, "Epaminondas und Theben's Kampf urn die 
 Hegemonie," 1S34. 
 
 Ep'a-phras, a primitive Christian minister of Colosse, 
 was a fellow-prisoner with the Apostle Paul in Rome 
 about 66 A.D. 
 
 See Colossians i. 7, iv. 12: Philemon, 23d verse. 
 
 E-paph-ro-di'tus, [Fr. Epaphrodite, a'pi'fRo'det',1 
 one of the primitive Christians, was a companion and 
 " fellow-soldier" of the Apostle Paul. 
 
 See Philippians ii. 25 and iv. 18. 
 
 5, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; mdon; 
 
EPEE 
 
 853 
 
 EPICURUS 
 
 Epee, de 1', deh la'pi', (Charles Michel,) a French 
 abbe, born at Versailles in 1712, was distinguished for 
 his successful devotion to the instruction of the deaf and 
 dumb. He refused, as a Jansenist, to sign a formulary, 
 and thus hindered his success in the church at Paris ; 
 but he afterwards obtained a canonicate in the church of 
 Troyes. He had inherited an income of seven thousand 
 francs, when, casually meeting with two sisters who were 
 deaf-mutes, he thenceforth devoted his life and fortune 
 to the gratuitous instruction of that class. His institution 
 acquired a wide reputation, and at his death passed into 
 the hands of Abbe Sicard. He wrote several treatises 
 on the subject of his pursuits. He has the credit of being 
 the first who used natural signs or gestures in the instruc- 
 tion of the deaf and dumb. Died in 1789. 
 
 See J. Valette, "Vie de 1'AbW de l'fipee," 1857; Bebian, 
 "Eloge de C. M. de l'Epe>;" E. Morel, "Notice sur 1'AbW de 
 1'EpeV 1S33; F. Berthier, " L'AbW de l'lSpee, sa Vie, son 
 Apostolat, etc.," 1852. 
 
 Eperuon, d', cii'pen'ndN', written also Espemon. 
 (Jean Louis de Nogaret de la Vallette— no'gS'rV 
 deh li vt'let',) Due, sometimes called Caumont, a noted 
 French courtier, born in Languedoc in 1554. He was a 
 favourite of Henry III., who created him Duke of 
 Espemon and in 1587 appointed him admiral of France. 
 In the next two reigns he also held high offices. He 
 was in the carriage of Henry IV. when that king was 
 assassinated, and was suspected of complicity in the 
 crime. Died in 1642. 
 
 See G. Girard, "Histoire de la Vie du Due d'Espernon," 1655, 
 translated into English by Charles Cotton, 1670. 
 
 Ephialte. See Ephialtes. 
 
 E-phl-al'tes, [Gr. 'E^iAnyc; Fr. Ephialte, a'fe'alt',] 
 in the Greek mythology, a giant, supposed to be the son 
 of Neptune and Iphimedi'a. He and his brother Otus 
 are said to have -grown nine inches every month. When 
 only nine years old, they attempted to scale the heavens 
 by piling Mount Ossa on Olympus and Pelion upon 
 Ossa ; but they were slain by Apollo, (or, as one account 
 says, by Diana.) (See Iphimedia.) 
 
 Ephialtes, an Athenian orator, lived about 350 B.C. 
 He was one of the ten orators whom Alexander the Great 
 required to be delivered to him. They were saved by the 
 intervention of Demades. 
 
 Ephialtes, a Greek traitor, who, while Leonidas was 
 defending the pass of Thermopylae, guided the Persian 
 invaders through a defile, by which they turned the posi- 
 tion of the Greeks. 
 
 Ephialtes, an Athenian statesman and general, was a 
 political friend of Pericles. He was the principal author 
 of a law which diminished the power of the Areopagus 
 and changed the government into an unmixed democracy. 
 Several ancient historians commend his integrity and 
 other virtues. He was assassinated by the aristocrats 
 in 456 B.C. 
 
 See Grote, " History of Greece ;" Thirlwall, " History of 
 Greece:" Plutarch, "Pericles;" Cicero, "De Republica." 
 
 E-phip'pus, [Ttyttriroc,] an Athenian poet of the 
 middle comedy, lived about 340 B.C. The titles of some 
 of his plays have been preserved by Athenaeus. 
 
 Ephippus of Olynthus, a Greek historian who wrote 
 an account of Alexander the Great, which is lost. 
 
 Ephore. See Ephorus. 
 
 Eph'p-rus, [Or. "E^ofjoc; Fr. Ephore, a'foR',] an emi- 
 nent Greek historian, born probably about 400 B.C. He 
 studied rhetoric with Isocrates, who persuaded him to 
 devote himself to history in preference to oratory. His 
 principal work was a general history of Greece and of 
 the Barbarians from the siege of Troy to 340 B.C., only 
 a few fragments of which have not come clown to us. 
 He has a good reputation for sincerity and veracity a< 
 a historian. His style is clear and elegant, but rather 
 feeble and diffuse. He is supposed to have died about 
 330 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Lives of the Ten Orators;" C. Muller, "De 
 Ephore, ' in his " Fragments Histoncoium GrSSGOrum." 
 
 E'phra-em or E'phra-im, [Lat. Ephrae'mus,] writ- 
 ten also Ephrem, the Syrian, an eminent ecclesiastical 
 writer of the fourth century, born at Nisibis. In youth 
 he adopted the monastic life in a cave near Edessa, 
 where he improved his time in study and writing. He 
 zealously opposed Arianism with his voice and pen. | 
 
 The bishopric of Edessa was offered to him, but was 
 declined. According to some accounts, he renounced 
 his solitary way of life many years before his death. He 
 was venerated as a prophet by his contemporaries. He 
 wrote, in Syriac, numerous sermons, hvmns, commenta- 
 ries, etc., which were very popular, and are still extant. 
 Died about 378 a.d. Gerard Voss published a Latin 
 version of his works, (1586-97.) An edition of his works 
 in Syriac and Greek was published by the Assemani at 
 Rome, (6 vols., 1732-46.) 
 
 See Villemain, "Tableau de l'E"loquence chre"tienne au qua- 
 trieme Siecle;" Cave, "Scriptornm Ecclesiasticorum Historia;" 
 Lkngerke, " Commentatio critica de Ephraemo Syro," 1828. 
 
 E'phra-im, [Heb. D'liJX,] one of the Hebrew patri- 
 archs, was the second son of Joseph, and a favourite 
 grandson of Jacob. 
 
 See Genesis, chap, xlviii. 
 
 Ephrairn [Fr. pron. i'fRi'aN'] de Nevers, a French 
 monk, who was sent as missionary to India about 1645, 
 and laboured many years at Madras. He was confined 
 in prison by the Inquisitors of Goa, and liberated by the 
 King of Golconda about 1650. 
 
 Ephrem. See Ephraem. 
 
 Epicharme. See Epicharmus. 
 
 Ep-I-ehar'mus, [Gr. 'Enixapfios ; Fr. Epicharme, 
 jt'pe'shiRm',] a Greek poet and philosopher, born in the 
 island of Cos, passed the greater part of his life at Sy- 
 racuse, to which he removed about 485 B.C. He was a 
 disciple of Pythagoras, and is called by Aristotle the 
 inventor of comedy. Plato designates him as the first 
 of comic writers. His productions, of which scarcely 
 anything remains but the titles, were partly political 
 dramas, and partly parodies of mythological subjects. 
 He was an elegant and original writer. He wrote also 
 treatises on philosophy and morality. He died about 
 450 B.C., aged ninety or more. Some of his philosophical 
 ideas were adopted by Plato. 
 
 See O. Muller, "The Dorians;" Diogenes Laertius; H. 
 Harless, "De Epicharmo," 1822; Grysar, "De Doriensium Co- 
 mcedia," 1828. 
 
 E-pic'ra-te§, [Gr. 'E7r«parj7c,] an Athenian orator, 
 who lived about 390 B.C., belonged to the democratic 
 party. 
 
 Epicrates, an Athenian comic poet of the middle 
 comedy, flourished about 360 B.C. Fragments of his plays 
 are extant. 
 
 fipictete. See Epictetus. 
 
 Ep-ic-te'tus, [Gf.'EOT/cT^ros-; Fr. Epictete, i'pek W; 
 Ger. Epiktet, a-pik-tat' ; It. Epitetto, 4-pe-tet'to,] a 
 celebrated Stoic philosopher, was born at Hierapolis, in 
 Phrygia, about 60 a.d. He was a freedman of Epaphro- 
 ditus, a favourite servant of Nero. He retired from Rome 
 to Nicopolis, in Epii us, in consequence of an edict by 
 which Doniitian banished the philosophers, in 89 A.D. 
 Few other events of his life are known. He acquired a 
 great reputation as a teacher of philosophy, which he made 
 subservient to practical morality. His fife was an exam- 
 ple of temperance, moderation, and other virtues. His 
 temper and principles were less austere, and more allied 
 to the spirit of the gospel, than those of the early Stoics. 
 He left no written works ; but his doctrines were recorded 
 by his disciple Arrian in eight books, four of which have 
 come down to us. No heathen philosopher taught a 
 higher or purer system of morality. "The maxim suffer 
 and abstain (from evil)," says Professor liiandis, "which 
 he followed throughout his life, was based with him on the 
 firm belief in a wise and benevolent government of Provi- 
 dence; and in this respect he approaches the Christian 
 doctrine more than any of the earlier Stoics, though 
 there is not a trace in the Epietetea to show that he was 
 acquainted with Christianity." (Smith's "Dictionary of 
 Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.") His 
 "Enchiridion," or "Manual," has been translated into 
 English by Mrs. E. Carter. 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" Fabricius, " P.iblio- 
 theca Graca ; ' J. V. Bkver, " Ueber Epiktet imd sein Handbuch 
 der Stoischen Moral," 1705; (;. BoiUtAU, "Vie d'Epictete et sa 
 Philosophic 1655, and English version of the same, by I Davies 
 1670. ' 
 
 Epicure and Epicure See Epicurus. 
 Ep-I-cu'rus, [Gr. 'KxUuvpae ; Fr. Epicure, a'pe'kuV; 
 It. El>lcui<o,a-pe-koo'ro; Ger. Epikur, a-pe-kooR',| an 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^="See Explanations, p. 23J 
 
EPICTDES 
 
 854 
 
 EPISCOPWS 
 
 eminent Greek philosopher, the founder of the Epicurean 
 sect, was born in the island of Samos about 340 B.C. ' He 
 was the son of Neocles, an Athenian ; he studied under 
 Pamphilus in Samos, and under Xenocrates in Athens, 
 which he visited at the age of eighteen ; but he professed 
 to be self-taught, (autodidactos.) He then travelled in 
 Ionia, and spent several years in Mityleneand Lampsacus. 
 Here he began to teach new doctrines, and made numer- 
 ous disciples. In the year 309 he removed to Athens, 
 where he bought a garden, and founded a new school of 
 philosophy, which bears his name. His school became 
 very popular, and exerted an important influence on 
 many succeeding ages. Diogenes Laertius says that 
 Epicurus " had so many friends that even whole cities 
 could not contain them." It is said that he objected to 
 a community of property, as tending to excite mutual 
 distrust. Gassendi has ably defended Epicurus against 
 the accusations of the Stoics and the prejudices of the 
 Schoolmen with respect to his doctrines and his private 
 life ; though he recognizes a mixture of error in his 
 system. 
 
 His principles are the reverse of Stoicism, and forma 
 system of materialism founded on utility. (See Zeno.) 
 He taught that the gods live forever, far remote from 
 human affairs, in a state of passionless repose, indifferent 
 alike to the virtues and the crimes of mankind. Cicero 
 supposes that Epicurus had no belief whatever in any 
 gods, but that he nominally acknowledged their existence 
 that he might not offend the prejudices of the Athenians. 
 (See his "De Natura Deorum," i. 30.) When he pro- 
 posed pleasure or happiness as the supreme good, he 
 qualified this doctrine by the maxim that temperance is 
 necessary in order to enjoy the noble and durable pleas- 
 ures which are proper to human nature. Chrysippus, 
 an opponent, admits the purity of his moral character, 
 but insinuates that it was owing to his insensibility. He 
 took no part in political affairs, seeking in self-reliance 
 and internal resources a compensation for the loss of 
 national liberty. 
 
 He derived the basis of his philosophy, both his psy- 
 chology and his physics, from Democritus, who taught 
 that the universe consists of space (or vacuum) and of 
 matter, which is composed of eternal indivisible atoms 
 of various kinds ; and that everything — the soul as well 
 as the body — is formed by the fortuitous concurrence of 
 these atoms; that all our knowledge is derived from 
 sensations ; that sensation is produced by images or 
 emanations flowing from external objects. Lucretius was 
 a follower of the Epicurean philosophy, which is fully 
 explained in his admirable poem " De Rerum Natura." 
 (See Lucretius.) Of the voluminous writings of Epi- 
 curus nothing now remains but a few letters preserved 
 in the works of Diogenes Laertius, and fragments of 
 his treatise on Nature found at Herculaneum. Died 
 in 270 B.C. 
 
 See Gassendi, " De Vita et Moribus Epicuri," 1647: and "Syn- 
 tagma Philosophic Epicuri," 1659; Rondel, " La Vie d'E"picure," 
 1679: Rittek, "History of Philosophy:" G. H. Lewes, " Bio- 
 
 faphical History of Philosophy;" Mackintosh, "Progress of 
 thical Philosophy;" Diogenes Laertius; Ersch und Gruber, 
 "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" C. Mallet, " Epicure," in his 
 "Etudes philosophiques," 1843. 
 
 Ep-I-5y'des, [Gr. 'Eroa'oi/c,! a Syracusan general, who 
 served with distinction under Hannibal in Italy. In 214 
 B.C. he and his brother Hippocrates took Syracuse, of 
 which they had command when it was besieged by Mar- 
 cellus, 213 B.C. 
 
 iSpigene. See Epigenes. 
 
 E-pig'e-nes, ['Emyevric] an Athenian poet of the 
 middle comedy, lived probably about 375 B.C. 
 
 Bpigenes, [Fr. Epicene, a pe'zh&i^,] a Greek astron- 
 omer, who is supposed to have lived before the Christian 
 era He is mentioned by Seneca and Pliny. 
 
 fipigones. See Epigoni. 
 
 E-pig'o-ni, [Gr. 'Eiriyovoi ; Fr. Epigones, a'pe'gon',] 
 a term which signifies "heirs" or "descendants," was 
 applied to the sons of the seven chiefs who conducted 
 an expedition against Thebes to restore Polyni'ces, and 
 who were all killed except Adrastus. Ten years later, 
 the Epigoni — namely, Alcmaeon, Thersander, Dio- 
 medes, /Egialeus, Promachus, Sthenelus, and Euryalus 
 — renewed the enterprise and took Thebes. The war 
 
 of the Epigoni was celebrated by several ancient epic 
 and dramatic poets. 
 
 Epiktet, the German of Epictetus, which see. 
 
 Epikur. See Epicurus. 
 
 Ep-I-men'I-des, [Gr. 'Env/it-wAic ; Fr. Epimenide, 
 a'pe'mi'ned',] an eminent Greek poet and prophet, born 
 in Crete, is supposed to have lived about 600 B.C. By 
 some writers he was reckoned among the seven wise 
 men of Greece. A tradition was current that in early 
 youth he fell asleep in a cave, and remained in that state 
 more than fifty years, after which he was reputed to be 
 an inspired prophet, and was noted for his skill in medi- 
 cine. About 596 B.C. he accepted the invitation of the 
 Athenians to come and purify their city, then visited by 
 the plague. He wrote a poem on the Argonautic expe- 
 dition, which is not extant. Other works were ascribed 
 to him by the ancients. 
 
 See C. F. Heinrich, " Epimenides aus Creta," 1801 ; Grabener, 
 "Dissertatio de Epimenide," 1742. 
 
 ^pimethee. See Epimetheus. 
 
 Ep-I-me'theus, [Gr. 'Em/triffevc; Fr. Epim£thee, 
 a'pe ma'ti',] a mythical personage, said to be a son of 
 Iapetus, a brother of Prometheus, and the husband of 
 Pandora. (See Prom»theus.) His name signifies "after- 
 thought." 
 
 fipinac or Espinac, d', dst'pe'nik',(PiERRE,) a French 
 prelate, born at the chateau d'Epinac in 1540, was made 
 Archbishop of Lyons in 1574. He was a violent partisan 
 and instigator of the Catholic League against Henry III. 
 and Henry IV. Died in 1599. 
 
 Epiiiat* a'pe'nf, (Fleury, ) a French landscape- 
 painter, born at Montbrison in 1764, was a pupil of 
 David. Among his works is "The Lady of the Lake." 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 fipinay, d', da'pe'ni', (Louise Florence Petronille 
 de la Live — pa'tRo'nel' deh IS lev,) Madame, a French 
 authoress, born about 1725. She was married in youth 
 to M. d'Epinay, who deserted her. She afterwards formed 
 liaisons with Grimm and with J. J. Rousseau, for whom 
 she built the hermitage at Montmorenci about 1755. She 
 wrote a work on education, called "Conversations of 
 Emilie," (1783,) which was crowned by the French Acad- 
 emy. Died in 1783. Her autobiographic Memoirs were 
 published in 1818, (3 vols.) 
 
 See Rousseau, "Confessions;" Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du 
 Lundi ;" " Edinburgh Review" for December, 1818. 
 
 fipiphane. See Epiphanius. 
 
 Ep-I-pha'nI-us, [Gr. 'Erapnwoc,] a Greek philosopner 
 and founder of a sect, was a son of Carpocrates, noticed 
 in this work, and lived between 150 and 200 A.D. 
 
 Epiphanius of Alexandria, a Greek mathemati- 
 cian, who lived about the second century of'our era. 
 
 Epiphanius, [Fr. Epiphane, a'pe'fin',] Saint, a dog- 
 matical bishop, born near Eleutheropolis, in Palestine, 
 about 310 A.D., passed a part of his youth in Egypt, 
 where he imbibed ascetic notions. Returning to Pales- 
 tine, he became a disciple of Hilarion. About 368 he 
 was chosen Bishop of Constantia, formerly called Sala- 
 mi's, in the island of Cyprus. He exhibited a rather 
 violent zeal against Origen and the Arians, which in- 
 volved him in many contentions, and he took a prominent 
 part in the deposition of Chrysostom. He wrote "Pana- 
 rium," a treatise against heresies, and several other works, 
 in Greek. They contain many errors, but are valued for 
 passages quoted from other authors whose works are lost. 
 Died in 402 A.D. 
 
 See Neander, " History of the Church;" Cave, "Historia Lite- 
 raria." 
 
 Ep-I-pha'nl-us S«ho-las'tI-cus lived about 510 
 A.D., and was a friend of Cassiodorus. He translated into 
 Latin the Ecclesiastical Histories of Sozomen, Socrates, 
 and Theodorct, and other Greek works. 
 
 Ep-is-co'pl-us, (Simon,) a Dutch divine, whose pro- 
 per name was Bisschop, (bis'Kop,) born in Amsterdam 
 in 1583. He was eminent for his learning, charity, and 
 liberality, and became the principal pillar of the Arminian 
 party, or Remonstrants. He was professor of theology 
 in the University of Leyden from 1612 until 1618, when 
 the Synod of Dort banished him from Holland for his 
 opinions. Having passed some years in France, he re- 
 turned to his native land in 1626, and in 1634 became 
 
 a, e, I, o. u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
EPITETTO 
 
 «5S 
 
 ERASO 
 
 rector of a college in Amsterdam. He wrote the "Con- 
 fession of the Remonstrants," a treatise on Predestina- 
 tion, and other theological works. Died in 1643. 
 
 See J. K 'Nijnenburg, " Laudatio Simonis Episcopii," 1791 ; 
 Bayi.i:, " Historical and Critical Dictionary:" P. van Limbokch, 
 "Lnvravan S. Episcupms," Amsterdam, 1693; Frederick Cal- 
 iper, "Memoirs m ijimou Kpiscopius." 
 
 Epitetto. the Italian of Kpictetus, which see. 
 
 Epo or Epona. See IIippona. 
 
 Ep-o-ni'i:a, a woman of Gaul, noted for her conjugal 
 devotion, was the wife of Julius Sahinus, a chief of the 
 Lingeries, who revolted against Vespasian. She was 
 put to death, with her husband, in 7S a. i>. 
 
 Eppendorf, von, fon ep'pen-doRf, (Heinrich,) a 
 German writer, an adversary of Erasmus, was born in 
 Misnia. Died about 1554. 
 
 fiprememl. See Espkemksnii.. 
 
 Equicola, i-kwcc'ko-la, (MarIO,) an Italian historian 
 and philosopher, born at Alveto about 1460. Mis prin- 
 cipal works are a "History of Mantua," (1521,) and a 
 curious philosophic treatise on " Love," (" Delia Natura 
 d'Amore," 1525.) Died in 1539. 
 
 Eraclito, the Italian of Hkracutus, which see. 
 
 E-ra'clI-us, a Roman painter of the tenth or eleventh 
 century, wrote an essay on the "Arts of the Romans," in 
 which he treats of painting in oil and on glass. 
 
 EVard. See Erkakd. 
 
 firard, a'raV, (Jean Haptiste Orphee Pierre,) a 
 nephew of the following, was born in Paris in 1794. He 
 repaired in 1850 the organ of the Tuileries, which had 
 been damaged by the populace in 1830. Died in 1855. 
 
 EVard, (Sebastikn,) a French inventor of musical 
 instruments, born at Strasburg in 1752. In 1780 he 
 began, in Paris, the manufacture of pianos, (then almost 
 unknown,) in which he made improvements. His piano- 
 factory, in which his brother John Baptist was a part- 
 ner, became the most celebrated in Europe. His harp 
 with double action, invented about 181 1, had a great 
 sale. In 1823 he produced the grand piano with repeat- 
 ing movement, (cl double echappement. ) He finished in 
 1830 an organ for the chapel of the Tuileries, which is 
 his master-piece. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographic Universale des Musiciens." 
 
 JSrasistrate. See Erasistratus. 
 
 Er-a-sis'tra-tus, [Gr.'Epam'orparoc,- Fr. Erasistrate, 
 i'rl'ze'stRjt',] a celebrated Greek physician and anato- 
 mist, supposed to have been born at Iulis, in the island 
 of Ceos. He was, according to Pliny, a grandson of 
 Aristotle, and lived between 300 and 250 B.C. He gained 
 much credit at the court of Seleucus Nicator by discern- 
 ing anil remedying the secret malady of his son Antio- 
 chus, who pined with a hopeless passion for Stratonice, 
 his own step-mother. He practised chiefly in Alexandria, 
 with a high reputation as a teacher of anatomy and medi- 
 cine, and was regarded as the first anatomist of his time. 
 His most important discoveries were those of'the vice 
 lactete, and the functions of the brain and nervous system. 
 For blood-letting and cathartics he substituted dieting, 
 bathing, and exercise. His writings are not extant. 
 
 See Hali.er, " Bibliotheca Anatomica;" Leclerc, " Histoire de 
 la Medecine." 
 
 EVasme, (Didier.) See Erasmus, (Desiderius.) 
 E-ras'mus, (Desiderius,) (Fr. Didier (or Desire, 
 da'zc'ra') Erasme, de'de-i/ a'rism',] sumamed Ruter- 
 DA'MLSor Roterdamen'sis, a celebrated Dutch scholar 
 and philosopher, pre-eminent as a restorer of learning, 
 was bom at Rotterdam on the 28th of October, 1465, or, 
 according to some authorities, in 1467. He was a natural 
 son of Gerard Praet, a resident of Gouda, who by a false 
 report of the death of Margaret (the mother of Erasmus) 
 was induced to enter the priesthood. 
 
 The subject of this article, at first named Gerhardus 
 Gerhardi, or Gerard son of Gerard, was educated at 
 Utrecht and Deventer. He studied at Deventer about 
 six years, and made rapid progress under the tuition of 
 Alexander Ilegius. Having become an orphan about 
 the age of thirteen, he was urged by his guardians (who 
 defrauded him of his patrimony) to enter a monastery ; 
 but he felt a decided aversion to that mode of life. At 
 length he was enticed or compelled, in i486, to become 
 a monk and an inmate of the convent of Stein. Here he 
 
 pursued the study of the classics and acquired a reputa- 
 tion as a Latin scholar. He was employed as secretary 
 by the Bishop of Canibray for five years, 1492-96, and 
 at the latter date obtained permission to go to Paris, 
 where he passed some time in the College de Montaigu. 
 He earned a subsistence in Paris by acting as tutor. ' It 
 is related that while in the French capital, being almost 
 in rags, he wrote to a friend, " As soon as I get money 
 I will buy, first Greek books, and then clothes." 
 
 In 1498 he visited England, where he formed friend- 
 ships with Sir Thomas More and John Colet, and studied 
 Greek at Oxford. He returned to the continent in 1499, 
 and in 1506 went to Italy, where he associated with the 
 most eminent scholars, passed several years in travel 
 and in the study of GreeR, and obtained from the pope a 
 dispensation from his monastic vows. He accepted in 
 1510:111 invitation to visit England, and was employed 
 for a few years as professor of divinity and of Greek at 
 the University of Cambridge. In i5iohe produced and 
 dedicated to Sir Thomas More his "Praise of Follv," 
 (" Encomium Moriae,") a witty satire against all profes'- 
 sions, but especially against the mendicant monks. It 
 met with a rapid sale, and was received with almost 
 universal applause. 
 
 Erasmus was now at the head of the literary world, 
 and made zealous efforts to dispel the inveterate igno- 
 rance and prejudices which then prevailed. The greatest 
 monarchs solicited the honour of his presence in their 
 capitals. About 1 515 the Archduke Charles, (afterwards 
 Charles V.,) whose court was at Brussels, gave Erasmus 
 the title of royal councillor, with a pension of 400 florins, 
 which enabled him to gratify his inclination to travel. 
 It appears that he never remained long in one place. 
 Among his remarkable works is a collection of proverbs, 
 etc., entitled "Adagia," which was published about 1500, 
 and is a monument of his immense and multifarious 
 learning. 
 
 In 1516 he published an excellent edition of the Greek 
 Testament, with Latin version and notes, — the first 
 edition ever printed, — a work for which he was eminently 
 qualified. By his witty and satirical writings against the 
 abuses and corruptions of the Roman Church he con- 
 tributed greatly to the success of the Reformation ; and 
 at one time he was favourable to the Protestants. But 
 he was offended at the radical course of Luther, some of 
 whose tenets he did not approve, and the timidity or 
 moderation of his character prevented his open revolt 
 against the pope and the Church of Rome. His "pas- 
 sionless moderation" and neutral position in the latter 
 part of his life exposed him to annoyance from the zealots 
 of both parties, who considered him lukewarm or hereti- 
 cal. In 1 52 1 he removed to Bale, where, the next year, 
 appeared his celebrated "Colloquies," professedly in- 
 tended for the instruction of youth in Latin and morals, 
 but aiming many hard blows against the Roman Church. 
 In one year twenty-four thousand copies of this work 
 were printed, all of which were sold. His alienation from 
 the Reformers, however, increased, and he engaged in 
 1524 in a dispute on Free Will with Luther, who de- 
 nounced him in severe language. He died at Bale on 
 the 12th of July, 1536. 
 
 His epistles are very voluminous, and contain rich 
 stores of materials for literary history. He is considered 
 the greatest wit and most eminent scholar of the age in 
 which he lived, and one of the most conspicuous and 
 successful among those who have laboured to restore 
 classical learning and sound philosophy. His views on the 
 subject of war appear to have been perfectly accordant 
 with those of Penn and Barclay. His complete works were 
 published in nine volumes (1 541) by Beatus Rhenanus. 
 
 See Burigny, "Vie d'EVasme," 1757: Lives of Erasmus, by 
 Adoi.pu Mui.lek, (inOennan, iS2X,)and Joktin, (in English, 175K ;) 
 Knight, "Life of Erasmus," 1726, and notice in Bayle's "Dic- 
 tionary," also, (Jhaki.es Butler, "Life of Erasmus," 1825: Me- 
 ruit, "Vita D. Erasmi," 1607; "London Quarterly Review" for 
 Juiy, 1859; "Retrospective Review," vol. v., 1822. 
 
 E-raS'mus Jo-an'nis, [Fr. Erasme de Jean, a'rtsm' 
 deh zh&N,] a Dutch theologian and Unitarian of the 
 sixteenth century. He had a dispute with Socinus at 
 Cracow. Died after 1593. 
 
 Eraso, i-ra'so, (Don Benito,) a Spanish general, 
 born in Navarre in 1789, was a colonel in the army at 
 
 < as*; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; n,«on/; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (2r^ = "See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ERASTH 
 
 856 
 
 ERHARD 
 
 the death of Ferdinand VII., (1833.) He then took arms 
 in favour of Don Carlos, obtained the rank of general, 
 and commanded in several engagements during the civil 
 war. Died in 1835. 
 
 Eiasth. See Erastus. 
 
 E-ras'tus or Erasth, a-rast', (Thomas,) a Swiss phy- 
 sician, whose family name was Lieber, (lee'ber,) born 
 at Baden in 1524. He was a skilful practitioner of medi- 
 cine, on which he wrote several treatises. For many 
 years he was professor of medicine at Heidelberg, with 
 the title of physician to the Elector, Frederick III. In 
 1580 he removed to Bale, where he obtained the chairof 
 moral philosophy. His name is identified with certain 
 opinions on the relation of church and state, since called 
 Erastianism. His " Theses on'Excommunication," pub- 
 lished after his death, became the subject of much dis- 
 putation. He proposed that offences against morality 
 should be punished by the civil power, rather than by 
 the church. Died in 1583. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Histo- 
 rique;" Wordsworth, "Ecclesiastical Biography." 
 
 Erath, ii'iit, (Anton Ulrich,) a German historian, 
 born at Brunswick in 1709, wrote a " History of Bruns- 
 wick," (in Latin, 1745.) Died in 1773. 
 
 Erath, von, ion a'rSt, (Augustin,) a German theo- 
 logian, born in Suabia in 164S, published the " Noble 
 Order of the Golden Fleece," ("Augustus Velleris Aurei 
 Ordo," 1694,) and other works. Died in 17 19. 
 
 Er'a-to, ['Eparii,] in Greek mythology, was one of 
 the nine Muses, and presided over erotic poetry and 
 pantomimic performances. She was represented with a 
 lyre in her hand. 
 
 EVatosthene. See Eratosthenes. 
 
 Er-a-tos'the-nes, [Gr. 'EparocOevric ; Fr. Eratos- 
 thene, a'ri'tos't&n',] a famous Greek geometer and 
 astronomer, born at Cyrene in 276 B.C., was a pupil of 
 Ariston of Chios, and of Callimachus the poet. He was 
 for many years superintendent of the great library of 
 Alexandria in the reigns of Ptolemy Evergetes and his 
 successor. He acquired durable celebrity by his astro- 
 nomical labours, and is recognized by Delambrc as the 
 first founder of genuine astronomy. Among his remarka- 
 ble operations was the measurement of the obliquity of 
 the ecliptic, which he computed to be 23° 51' 20". He 
 also made a memorable attempt to ascertain the dimen- 
 sions of the earth by a method which has been used with 
 success in modern times, and which was invented by him. 
 He rendered important services to the science of geogra- 
 phy, and wrote works on philosophy, grammar, etc., 
 which are not extant. Died about 196 B.C. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grjeca;" Delambre, " Histoire de 
 l'Astronomie ancienne." 
 
 Erauso, d', da-row'so, (Catalina,) a Spanish heroine, 
 surnamed la Monja Alferez, (la mon'ila al-fa'reth,) 
 ("the Ensign Nun,") was born at Saint Sebastian, in 
 Biscay, in 1592. She was placed when an infant in the 
 convent of her native town, from which she effected her 
 escape at the age of fifteen. Disguised as a man, she 
 embarked for South America, and, after various romantic 
 adventures, entered the army and acquired a high repu- 
 tation for courage. On her return to Spain, in 1624, she 
 obtained a pension from Philip III., and was received 
 with great favour by Pope Urban VIII. The time of 
 her death is riot known. Her Memoirs, by herself, were 
 published by Don J. M. Ferrer, (Paris, 1829.) 
 
 See, also, De Quincev's account of the Spanish Nun, in "Nar- 
 rative and Miscellaneous Papers," vol. i. 
 
 Er'-ehem-bert [Lat. Erchember'tus] or Er'-ehern- 
 pert, a monk and historian, lived about 860—900 A.D. 
 He wrote a "Chronicle of the Lombards," of which a 
 part is extant. 
 
 Er-ehin'o-ald was elected mayor of the palace of 
 Neustria in 640 A.D., in the reign of Clovis II., and gov- 
 erned the kingdom for many years. Died about 660. 
 
 Ercilla y Arteaga, de, da eR-thel'ya e aR-ta-ii'ga, 
 (Fortunio Garcia,) a Spanish jurist, who flourished 
 about 1550, was the father of the following. 
 
 Ercilla y Zufiiga, eR-thel'ya e thoon-yee'ga, (Alon- 
 SO,) the first epic poet of Spain, born at liermeo about 
 1530, was the son of Fortunio Garcia, Lord of Ercilla. 
 In early youth he was a page of Philip II. of Spain, whom 
 
 he attended in a voyage to England in 1554. In the same 
 year he enlisted as a volunteer in an expedition against 
 the Araucanians, a brave native tribe of South America. 
 Amidst the tumults and dangers of this war, in which 
 he performed a conspicuous part, he composed his "Arau- 
 cana," which is thought to be the best heroic poem that 
 Spain has produced, and.is at the same time a historical 
 record of events that the author witnessed. It was first 
 printed in 1577, and has acquired a European reputation. 
 He died in obscurity and poverty in Spain about 1600. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Essai surlaPoesie^pique;" Longfellow," Poets 
 and Poetry of Europe;" Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Erckmaun-dhatrian, ^Rk'mSN' shi'tre'oN', the 
 name of a literary partnership which has become cele- 
 brated as the source from which has proceeded a series 
 of interesting works on the customs of the Germans, and 
 on the history and romance of the wars of the French 
 Revolution and Empire. Among the most popular of 
 these works are "Stories of the Borders of the Rhine," 
 ("Contes des Bords du Rhin,"l "La Maison forestiere," 
 "The Conscript of 1 813," "The Invasion," and" Water- 
 loo." Of this partnership Emii.e Erckmann was born 
 at Phalsbourg, in France, in 1825; Alexandre Cha- 
 trian was born in 1826. 
 
 Ercolanetti, eu-ko-la-net'tee, (Ekcoi.ano,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Perugia in 161 5 ; died in 1687. 
 
 Ercolani, &R-ko-la nee, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Italian 
 poet and prelate, born at Sinigaglia about 1690. He wrote 
 two admired poems, entitled "Maria," ( 1725,) and "La 
 Sulamitide ;" alsoa treatise on architecture, (1744.) Died 
 at Rome about 1760. 
 
 Erdelyi, SR-dal-yee, (Janos,) a Hungarian poet, born 
 in 1814. He gained distinction by a volume of lyric 
 poems, published in 1844, and "Legends and Popular 
 Tales of Hungary," (5 vols., 1845-48.) 
 
 Erdl.f Rtl, (Michael Pius,) askilful German anatomist 
 and physiologist, born in 1815, was professor of physiol- 
 ogy and comparative anatomy at Munich. He wrote a 
 treatise on the Eye, "On the Circulation of Infusoria," 
 (1841,) "The Development of Man and of the Chick in 
 the Egg," (1846,) and other works. Died in 1848. 
 
 Erdmann, SRt'man, (Johann Eduard,) a German 
 philosopher and disciple of Hegel, born at Volmar, in 
 Livonia, in 1805. He became professor of philosophy 
 at Halle about 1836. Among his principal works are 
 an " Essay of a Scientific Exposition ( Darstelhmg) of 
 the History of Modern Philosophy," (4 vols., 1834-51,) 
 "Nature and Creation," (1840,) "Elements of Psycho- 
 logy," (3d edition, 1847,) and "On Ennui," (" Ueber die 
 Langweile," 1852.) 
 
 Erdmami, (OrroLiiine — lin-na',) a German chemist, 
 born at Dresden in 1804, published a valuable " Manual 
 of Chemistry," (1828,) and a treatise on drugs. 
 
 Erdt, Sri, (Paulin,) a German monk, bom at Wer- 
 tach in 1737, published a "Literary History of Theology," 
 (" Historia literaria Theologian," 1785.) Died in 1800. 
 
 firebe. See Erehus. 
 
 Er'e-bus, [Gr. 'EpeSoc ; Fr. Erebe, a'reV,] in classic 
 mvthology, was represented as a son of Chaos. The 
 name was also applied to the dark and gloomy region 
 or space under the earth. (See Pluto.) 
 
 EYechthee. See Erechtheus. 
 
 E-re-eh'theu3, [Gr. 'Epe.rSeir; Fr. Erechthee, a'rek'- 
 ta',1 a fabulous or semi-fabulous hero, supposed to have 
 been a son of Vulcan and the father of Cecrops. Ac- 
 cording to another tradition, he was a son of Pandion. 
 He is considered by many critics as the same as Erich- 
 thonius. Homer mentions him as a king of Athens. 
 The Erechtheum, a temple of Minerva on the Acropolis, 
 is said to have been built by him. 
 
 Eredia, d', di-ri-dee'a, (LuiGl,) a Sicilian poet, born 
 at Palermo; died in 1604. 
 
 Eremita. See Ermite, (Daniel l\) 
 
 Erevantsi.en-e-vant'see, (Mei.chisedec,) an eminent 
 Armenian doctor and monk, born in 1550, wrote an 
 "Analysis of Aristotle's Philosophy." Died in 1631. 
 
 Erh'ard,' eVhaRt, (Heinrich August,) a German 
 archaeologist, born at Erfurt in 1793. He practised medi- 
 cine in early life, and became archivist at Magdeburg in 
 1824. In 183 1 he obtained a similar office at Minister. 
 Among his works are a " History of the Revival of Litera- 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
ERHARD 
 
 857. 
 
 ERICSSON 
 
 ture in Germany down to the Reformation," (1S27-32,) 
 and a " History of Minister," (1837.) Died in 1851. 
 
 Erhard, (Juiiann Benjamin,) a German philosopher 
 and physician, born at Nuremberg in 1766; died in 1827. 
 
 See Varnhagen von Ensb, " Denkwiirdigkeiten des Phitosophen 
 und Antes J. B. Erhard," 1S30. 
 
 Erhardt, eVhaRt, (Simon,) a German philosopher, 
 born at Ulm in 1776, wrote "The Idea and Object of 
 Philosophy," (1817,) and other works. Died in 1829. 
 
 Erl-bert, [Lat. Eriber'tus,] an ambitious Italian 
 prelate, obtained in 1018 the archbishopric of Milan, 
 and the highest rank among the princes of Italy. He 
 procured the crown of Italy for Conrad the Salic, who 
 111 return made him Lieutenant of Lombard)'. In 1035 
 Eribert was involved in a civil war against the Vavas- 
 seurs, with whom Conrad united. An important result 
 of this war was the edict of Conrad which rendered fiefs 
 hereditary and settled the public law of Europe. Died 
 in 1045. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Re*publiques Iuliennes." 
 
 Er'ic or Er'ik I., sumamed the Good, King of Den- 
 mark, began to reign about 1095. It was by his request 
 that the pope gave Denmark an archbishop. He was 
 noted for piety, and undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusa- 
 lem, but died on the way, in the island of Cyprus, in 
 1103. His brother, Nicholas, obtained the throne in 
 1 105. Eric I. left three sons, Harold, Canute, and Eric. 
 
 Eric II., King of Denmark, who was probably a son 
 of Eric I., succeeded to the throne about the year 1 135. 
 He was involved in a war with the Vandals, occasioned 
 by their piratical habits. He was assassinated in 1 137, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Eric III. 
 
 Eric HI., King of Denmark, surnamed THE Lamb, 
 a son or nephew of the preceding, began to reign about 
 1 138. He retired into a monastery at Odensee, where 
 he died in 1 147. 
 
 Eric IV., V., and VI, Kings of Denmark in the 
 thirteenth century, reigned during a period fruitful in 
 revolutions and disorders. Powerful vassals aspired to 
 independence, and the clergy admitted no supremacy but 
 that of the pope. Eric IV. began to reign in 1241, and 
 died by violence in 1250. Eric V. succeeded his father, 
 Christopher I., in 1259, and was assassinated in 1286. 
 His son, Eric VI., began to reign in 1286, waged war 
 against Norway, and died in 1319, leaving the throne to 
 his brother, Christopher II. 
 
 Eric VIL and VHX of Denmark. See Eric XIII. 
 of Sweden. 
 
 Er'ic or Er'ik X to VHX, the name of a series of 
 kings who reigned in Sweden during the ninth and tenth 
 centuries, of whose history little is known. Eric VIII. 
 ascended the throne about 954 A.D. It is said that he 
 instituted the rank and title of earl among the Swedes. 
 
 Eric IX., surnamed Saint, was elected King of Swe- 
 den in 115a. Being animated with zeal for the conver- 
 sion of infidels, he conducted a crusade against the Finns, 
 who made a successful resistance. Soon after his return 
 he was killed by Magnus, a Danish prince, who invaded 
 Sweden with an army about 1160. He left a son, Canute, 
 (Knut,) who became king in 1 168. 
 
 Eric X., King of Sweden, grandson of the preceding, 
 reigned from 1210 to 1216. He was son of Knut, or Ca- 
 nute, and is regarded as the first king of Sweden who 
 was solemnly crowned. He was succeeded by John I. 
 
 Eric XX of Sweden, son of Eric X., ascended the 
 throne in 1222, and died, without issue, in 1250, when the 
 throne passed to the house of Folkungar. 
 
 Eric XIX King of Sweden, was the son of King Mag- 
 nus and Blanche of Namur. In 1344 he was declared 
 a colleague of his father by a powerful party of clergy 
 and nobles. A civil war that followed was terminated 
 by a partition of the country between Magnus and Eric. 
 Died in 1359. 
 
 See Geykk, " Histoire de la Suede." 
 
 Eric XIII., King of Sweden, reckoned Eric VII. or 
 VIII. of Denmark, was born in 1382. lie was the son 
 of the Duke of l'omerania, and grand-nephew of Queen 
 Margaret of Waldemar, who had united the crowns of 
 Denmark and Sweden. After her death, in 1412, he suc- 
 ceeded to the throne. He married Philippa, daughter 
 of Henry IV. of England. By his oppressive measures 
 
 and lack of kingly qualities he alienated his subjects, 
 who revolted and drove him from the kingdom about 
 1438. He retired to the island of Riigen, where he died 
 about 1450. 
 
 Eric XIV., King of Sweden, son of Gustavus Vasa, 
 was born about 1535, and succeeded his father in 1560. 
 He patronized science, and founded literary institutions. 
 His proposal of marriage to Queen Elizabeth of Eng- 
 land having been declined, he resolved to wed Cathe- 
 rine Mansdoter, the daughter of a corporal, and gave 
 her the title of queen. His violent character and mis- 
 government rendered him so unpopular that his brothers, 
 with other nobles, conspired against him, and in 1568 he 
 was deposed from the throne and confined in prison, 
 where he died, or was killed, in 1577. His brother John 
 was his successor. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" O1.0P 
 Celsius, "Konung Eriks Historia," 1774, (translated into French 
 by Genest, 1777.) 
 
 Eric the Red, a Scandinavian navigator, the reputed 
 discoverer of North America. He emigrated to Iceland 
 about 982 A.D., after which he discovered Greenland, 
 where he planted a colony. He sent out, about 1000 A.D., 
 an exploring party under his son Lief, who discovered 
 a continent, part of which they called Markland, and 
 another part Vinland, (supposed to correspond to the 
 southern portion of New England.) Tradition adds 
 that he or his son formed a settlement in Vinland. 
 
 Eric Olai, er'ik o-la'e, or Eric of UpsAL.a Swedish 
 historian of the fifteenth century, was a doctor of theology 
 in Upsal. He composed, by order of Charles VIII., a 
 Latin history of Sweden. 
 
 Ericeira or Ericeyra, a-re-sa^e-ra, (Fernando de 
 Menezes — di ma-na'zes,) Count~6f, an eminent Por- 
 tuguese author and statesman, born at Lisbon in 1614, 
 was distinguished for his learning and for his civil and 
 military services. He wrote a " History of Tangier," a 
 " History of Portugal," and other esteemed works. Died 
 in 1699. 
 
 Ericeira or Ericeyra, (Francisco Xavier de Me- 
 nezes,) Count, a Portuguese general and author, born 
 at Lisbon in 1673, was the son of Luiz, noticed below. 
 The Portuguese rank him among their most eminent 
 men as a writer and public functionary. He was a Fel- 
 low of the Royal Society of London. He wrote an epic 
 poem entitled " Henriqueida," (1741,) and many occa- 
 sional poems ; he also made a translation of Boileau's 
 " Art of Poetry," which was admired by the author of 
 the original. Died in 1743. 
 
 See J. Barboza, "Elogio do I. Conde da Ericeira," 1785. 
 
 Ericeira or Ericeyra, (Luiz de Menezes,) Count, 
 the father of the preceding, was born at Lisbon in 1632. 
 He gained distinction as a statesman, general, and 
 author. He wrote an esteemed "History of Portugal" 
 (in Latin) from 1640 to 1668, and various other works. 
 In a fit of insanity he committed suicide in 1690. 
 
 Ericeyra. See Ericeira. 
 
 Erichsen, er'ik -sen, (John,) an eminent English sur- 
 geon of the present age, published an important work 
 entitled "The Science and Art of Surgery," (1853,) 
 which has been reprinted in the United States. He was 
 for some time professor of surgery in University College, 
 London. 
 
 Er-ieh-tho'nl-us, [Gr. 'Epixdovios,] a fabulous king 
 of Athens, called a son of Vulcan, was regarded by some 
 writers as identical with Erechtheus, (which see.) 
 According to tradition, lie was the successor of Amphic- 
 tyon, and the father of Pandi'on. 
 
 Ericius. See Erizzo, (Sebastiano.) 
 
 Er'ics-son, (John,) an eminent Swedish engineer, 
 inventor of the caloric engine, was born in the province 
 of Vermeland in 1803. After he had served several 
 years in the army, he removed to England about 1826, 
 and made unsuccessful experiments with an engine which 
 lie proposed to run without steam. He produced in 
 1829 a locomotive which ran fifty miles per hour on 
 the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. About 1833 he 
 exhibited in England a caloric engine, which attracted 
 much attention among scientific men. He also invented 
 the important application of the screw or propeller to 
 steam navigation, and about 1840 came to the United 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard, g as/,- G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ER1GENA 
 
 858 
 
 ERMITE 
 
 States, where he received aid from government in re- 
 ducing his inventions to practice. He built the iron- 
 clad steamer Monitor, which successfully opposed the 
 Merrimac in Hampton Roads, March 9, 1862. 
 
 See " Ericsson and his Inventions," in the "Atlantic Monthly," 
 July, 1862. 
 
 E-rig'e-na, (Joannes Scotus, ) [Fr. Jean Scot 
 Ekigene, zhON sko ta're'zhJm',] a philosopher and intel- 
 lectual giant, was a native of Ireland, or Erin, as his name 
 indicates, and lived about 850 A.D. He passed the most 
 of his mature life in France, at the court of Charles the 
 Bald, who liberally patronized him. He was celebrated 
 for classical learning and subtlety as a disputant in scho- 
 lastic theology. Hallam thinks " he was, in a literary and 
 philosophical sense, the most remarkable man of the 
 dark ages : no one else had his boldness and subtlety in 
 threading the labyrinths of metaphysical speculations." 
 His writings on theology were considered heterodox by 
 the Roman Church. He translated from the Greek the 
 works of Dionysius Areopagita, and wrote a "Treatise 
 on Predestination." His principal production is entitled 
 "On the Division of Nature," (" De Divisione Naturae,") 
 and treats of theology, metaphysics, etc. It was printed 
 at Oxford in 1681. He is supposed to have died about 
 875 A.D. 
 
 See S. Rene Taillandier, "Jean Scot EYigeneet la Philosophic 
 scolastique ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen." 
 
 EVigene. See Erigena. 
 
 E-rig'o-ne, [Gr. 'H/Kyow/,] a daughter of Icarius, be- 
 loved by Bacchus. It was fabled that she killed herself 
 from grief for the death of her father, and was placed 
 among the stars as the constellation Virgo. 
 
 Erik. See Eric. 
 
 E-rin'na, [Gr. 'Hpivva; Fr. Erinne, a'ren',] a Greek 
 poetess, who lived about 600 B.C., was a contemporary 
 and friend of Sappho, and a native of Rhodes or Telos. 
 She died unmarried at the age of nineteen, leaving a 
 poem, called " The Distaff," in three hundred hexameter 
 verses, few of which are extant. Some ancient critics 
 thought her verses compared favourably with those of 
 Homer. 
 
 See Richter, "Sappho und Erinna;" Bode, "Geschichte der 
 Hellenischen Dichtkunst." 
 
 Erinne. See Erinna. 
 
 E-rin'njfs, plural E-rin'ny-es, [Gr. "E/hwuc, 'Ep;v- 
 vvec,] a name applied to the Furies, or Eumenides, per- 
 sonifications of the avenging spirit. (See Eumenidks.) 
 
 E-riph'I-le, sister of Adrastus, King of Argos, and 
 wife of Amphiaraus. She was bribed by Polynices to dis- 
 cover the hiding-place of her husband, who was unwilling 
 to accompany the Argives in their expedition against 
 Thebes. Amphiaraus, before his departure, charged his 
 son Alcmaeon to murder his mother, which order was 
 obeyed. 
 
 E'ria, [Gr. 'Epic; Lat. Discor'dia; Fr. Eris, a'ress', 
 or DISCORDS, des'koRd',] the goddess of discord, in clas- 
 sic mythology, was called a daughter of Night. 
 
 Erizzo, i-ret'so, (Francesco,) a Venetian general 
 and doge, born about 1570. After he had obtained the 
 rank of commander-in-chief, he was elected doge in 1632. 
 In 1645 the senate gave him supreme command of a 
 large armament which they prepared to resist the vic- 
 torious progress of the Turks in Candia ; but just as he 
 was ready to sail he died, in January, 1646. 
 
 See M. Trevisano, "Vita di F. Erizzo," 1651: Daru, "His- 
 toire de Venise. " 
 
 Erizzo, [Lat. Eric/ius or Echi'nus,] (Sebastiano,) 
 a noble Italian, born in Venice in 1525, was eminent as 
 an antiquary, author, and senator. He was an excellent 
 classical scholar, and had a remarkable memory. His 
 "Discourse on Ancient Medals" (1559) had such suc- 
 cess that three editions were issued in one year, and it 
 opened a new era in the science of numismatics. He 
 wrote other works, and translated several Dialogues of 
 Plato. Died in 1585. 
 
 See Nani, " Storia Veneta." 
 
 Erlach, eVlSk', [Ger. pron. eVIaK,] or D'Erlach, 
 deVlaV, (Chari.es Louis,) a Swiss general, born at 
 Berne in 1746; died in 1798. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. " 
 
 Erlach, d', (Jean Louis,) a successful Swiss general, 
 born at Berne in 1595. After making several campaigns 
 in Germany, he entered the service of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus, who made him quartermaster of his army and in 
 1632 appointed him a councillor. At the death of the 
 Duke of Weimar, Erlach became commander of his army, 
 and passed into the service of the French king. In 1648 
 he fought at the battle of Lens under the Prince of Conde, 
 who, on presenting him to Louis XIV. after the action, 
 said, " Sire, behold the man to whom you owe the victory 
 of Lens." On the defection of Turenne, the king gave 
 to Erlach the chief command, and soon after a marshal's 
 baton. He survived this promotion only a few days, and 
 died in 1650. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais;" A. d'Erlach, "Me*- 
 inoires concernant le General J. L. d'Erlach," 1784. 
 
 Erlach, d', (Jean Louis,) an able admiral in the 
 Danish service, bom at Berne in 1648, became commo- 
 dore in 1672, and vice-admiral in 1678. He was em- 
 ployed in the war which Denmark and France waged 
 against the Swedes in 1678. Died in 1680. 
 
 Erlach, d', (Jer6me,) a skilful Swiss general, born 
 in 1667, entered the service of the emperor Leopold in 
 1702, and was employed in the wars of the Spanish suc- 
 cession. In 1712 he was created a count of the German 
 Empire. Died in 1748. 
 
 Erlach, d', (Sigismund,) a Swiss general, born at or 
 near Berne in 1614, served in the French army under 
 his uncle Jean Louis, noticed above, (the first of the 
 name.) He obtained the rank of marechal-de-camp in 
 1650, and was afterwards general of the Helvetic army. 
 Died in 1699. 
 
 See SisiwoNDr, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Erie, erl, (Sir William,) an English judge, born in 
 Dorsetshire in 1793. He was appointed chief justice of 
 the court of common pleas in 1859. 
 
 Erlon. See Dkouet d'Erlon. 
 
 Erman, eVman, (Georg Adolf,) a German natural 
 philosopher, born in Berlin in 1806. He performed 
 (1828-30) a voyage around the world, and made a series 
 of magnetic observations which served as the basis of 
 Gauss's theory of terrestrial magnetism. He published, 
 in German, a " Voyage around the World through North- 
 ern Asia and the Two Oceans," (5 vols., 1833-42,) and 
 was afterwards professor of physics in Berlin. 
 
 Erman, (Johann Peter,) a German writer, the father 
 of Paul, noticed below, was born at Berlin in 1733. He 
 became principal of the French College in his native 
 city, and a member of the Academy of Sciences. He 
 wrote " Historical Memoirs of the French Refugees in 
 Prussia," (9 vols., 1782-94.) Died in 1814. 
 
 See P. Buttmann, "Denkschrift auf Herrn Erman, Vater," 
 1814. 
 
 Erman, (Paul,) the father of Georg Adolf, noticed 
 above, was born in Berlin in 1764. He was professor of 
 physical science in the University of Berlin, and a secre- 
 tary of the Academy of Sciences, for which he wrote 
 treatises on galvanism and other subjects. Died in 1851. 
 
 Ermenald. See Ermoldus. 
 
 Ermengarde,er'men-gard, orHermengarde.Queen 
 of Provence, was a daughter of Louis II., Emperor of 
 Germany, and Engelberga. She was born in 855, and 
 was married in 877 A.D. to Boson, brother-in-law of 
 Charles the Bald of France, who gave Boson the gov- 
 ernment of Provence. She persuaded her husband to 
 assume the title of King of Aries. Her ambition in- 
 volved Boson in a disastrous war with Louis III. of 
 France. After the death of her husband (888) she gov- 
 erned Provence as guardian of her minor son Louis. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Er'mens, [Fr. ? r'ition',] (Joseph,) born at Brussels 
 in 1736, left in manuscript a "Bibliography of the Low 
 Countries," or " Catalogue Raisonne" of all books which 
 treat of the history of that country. Died in 1805. 
 
 Er'me-ric [Lat. Ermeri'cus] or Her'menric, King 
 of the Suevi, invaded Spain, and obtained Galicia by 
 conquest in the reign of Honorius. He repulsed an 
 attack of Gonderic the Vandal in 419 A.D. Died in 440. 
 
 Ermite, 1', leVmet', [Lat. Eremi'ta,] (Daniel,) a 
 Flemish writer, born at Antwerp about 1584, was a friend 
 or protege of Scaliger. He entered the service of Cosimo 
 
 a, e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£ t; not; good; moon; 
 
ERMOLDUS 
 
 859 
 
 ERNST 
 
 de' Medici, who employed him as secretary and sent him 
 on missions to several courts. He wrote " Iter Ger- 
 nianicum," (a "Journey to Germany," 1637,) and an 
 essay on " Court Life and Civil Life," (" Aulicae Vitae ac 
 civilis Libri IV.,") which is praised for style and other 
 merits. It was published by Graevius in 1701. Died at 
 Leghorn in 1613. 
 
 Er-mol'dus or Er'nie-nald, (Nigel'lus,) a French 
 monk and writer of the ninth century, composed a Latin 
 poem on the military and other acts of Louis le Debon- 
 naire, (826,) which is valued for the historical facts which 
 it records. 
 
 Ernest, er'nest, [Ger. Ernst, eRnst,] Prince of An- 
 halt, born at Amber in 1608, was mortally wounded at 
 Lutzen, where he fought for Gustavus Adolphus, in 1632. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubek, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ernest, (Ernst,) Archduke of Austria, born at Vienna 
 in 1533, was a son of Maximilian II. In 1592 he was 
 appointed Governor of the Low Countries by Philip II. 
 lie was generally considered an incapable governor. 
 Died in 1595. 
 
 See PkesCOTT, "Philip II." 
 
 Ernest, (Ernst,) Duke of Austria, born in 1378, was 
 the third son of Leopold V. He ruled over Carinthia, 
 Styria, and Camiola. Died in 1424. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ernest, (Ernst,) Margrave of Austria, was a son of 
 Albert the Victorious. He took arms against the em- 
 peror Henry IV. as an ally of Otho of Bavaria, and was 
 killed in battle in 1075. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ernest, (Ernst,) Duke of Bavaria, succeeded his 
 father, John, in 1397. Died in 1438. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ernest (Ernst) of Bavaria, Archbishop of Cologne, 
 born in 1554, was a younger son of Albert V. of Bavaria. 
 He became Archbishop of Cologne, and Elector in 1583. 
 Died in 1612. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ernest, (Ernst,) Prince of Holstein-Schauenburg, 
 was born in 1569; died in 1622. 
 
 Ernest, (Ernst,) Archbishop of Magdeburg, son of 
 the Elector of Saxony, was born in 1466. He was elected 
 archbishop in 1476. Died in 1513. 
 
 Ernest (Ernst) of Mansfeld. See Mansfeld. 
 
 Ernest, (ErnBt,) Duke of Saxe-Coburg, the eldest 
 brother of Albert, consort of Queen Victoria, was born 
 in 1S18. He began to reign in 1844, ar >d showed him- 
 self favourable to reform and the unity of Germany. 
 
 Ernest, (Ernst,) surnamed the Pious, Duke of Saxe- 
 Gotha, born in 1601, was a brother of Bernard of Saxe- 
 Weimar. He fought for Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty 
 Years' war. At the battle of Lutzen, after Gustavus fell, 
 Ernest defeated Pappenheim. He obtained the duchy 
 pf Gotha in 1640, and became the founder of the house 
 of Saxe-Gotha. He had a good reputation for ability 
 and virtue. Died in 1675. 
 
 See A. Teissier, "Vie d'Emest le Pieux," 1707; Redenbacher, 
 " Ernst der Froinme, Herzog von Gotha," 1851. 
 
 Ernest, (Ernst,) Duke of Saxe-Gotha, born about 
 1745, began to reign in 1772. He was a distinguished 
 astronomer, and founded an observatory at Seeberg, near 
 Gotha. The measurement of an arc of the meridian by 
 Zach was made under his auspices. Died in 1804. 
 
 Ernest, (Ernst,) Elector of Saxony, and head of the 
 branch called Ernestine, was born in 1441, and was the 
 eldest son of Frederick II., whom he succeeded in 1464. 
 He inherited Thuringia at the death of his uncle in 1482. 
 Died in i486, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick III. 
 
 Ernest (Ernst) L of Zell, Duke of Brunswick- 
 LUneburg, born at Ultzen in 1497, was one of the first 
 proselytes of Luther. He abolished the Romish worship 
 in his duchy, and signed in 1529 the famous protest 
 against the decree of the Diet of Spire. He joined the 
 league of Schmalkalden about 1532, and rendered great 
 services to his party in the wars that followed. Died in 
 1546. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Er'nest Au-gus'tus, [Ger. Ernst August, ?Rnst 
 Gw'gdost,] the first Elector of Hanover, born in 1629, 
 
 was a son of George, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg. He 
 married Sophia, a daughter of Frederick, King of Bohe» 
 mia, and had a son who became George I. of England. 
 He joined the coalition against Louis XIV. of France, 
 and distinguished himself in several battles between 1675 
 and 1690. He obtained the dignity of Elector in 1692. 
 Died in 1698. 
 
 Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover, born in 1771, 
 was a younger son of George III. of England. He was 
 styled the Duke of Cumberland before his accession to 
 the throne, and obtained the rank of field-marshal in the 
 British army. He married in 1815 Frederica of Meck- 
 lenburg-Strelitz. On the death of William IV., in 1837, 
 he succeeded to the throne of Hanover. He died in 1851, 
 and left the throne to his son, George V. 
 
 Er'nest Cas'I-mjr, [Ger. Ernst Kasimir, eRnst 
 ka'ze-me"SR,] Count of Nassau, born at Dillenburg in 
 1573, was a son of John, Count of Nassau. In 1597 he 
 entered the service of the United Provinces as captain. 
 He fought against the Spaniards in many sieges and 
 battles, was raised to the rank of general, and gained 
 several victories. He was killed at Koermonde in 1632. 
 
 See Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ernesti, CR-nSs'tee, (August Wii.helm,) a philolo- 
 gist, born at Frohndorf (Thuringia) in 1 733, was a nephew 
 of the celebrated J. A. Ernesti. He succeeded his uncle 
 as professor of eloquence at Leipsic in 1770. He spoke 
 and wrote Latin with elegance and facility, and filled 
 the chair above-named with great distinction. His most 
 important work is an edition of Livy, (3 vols., 1769.) 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ernesti, (Jacob Daniel,) a German Lutheran theo- 
 logian, born at Kochlitz in 1640; died in 1707. 
 
 Ernesti, (Johann August,) one of the most cele- 
 brated critics that Germany has produced, was born at 
 Tennstedt, in Thuringia, in August, 1707. He was a 
 son of Johann Christoph, pastor of Tennstedt, and was 
 educated at Wittenberg and Leipsic. In 173411c became 
 rector of the school of Saint Thomas, in Leipsic. He 
 was chosen professor of ancient literature in the univer- 
 sity of that city in 1742, after he had published an excel- 
 lent edition ot the works of Cicero, (in 5 vols., 1737-39,) 
 which is his principal title to celebrity. In the same 
 university he obtained the chair of eloquence in 1756, 
 to which the chair of theology was added in 1 758. He 
 edited the worlcs of Homer, (1759-65,) Polybius, and 
 Tacitus, (1752.) He developed a new system of biblical 
 criticism in his "Institutes of an Interpreter of the New 
 Testament," ("Institutio Interpretis Novi Testamenti," 
 1761,) which is regarded as a work of great merit. In 
 theology he belonged to the rationalistic school. Ernesti 
 imitated the style of Cicero with success, and was con- 
 sidered by many judges the first Latinist of his time. 
 He was author of other theological and philological 
 works. Died in 1781. 
 
 See J. van Voorst, "Oratio de J. A. Ernesto," Leyden, 1804; 
 "J. A. Ernesti's Verdienste in Theologie und Religion," Berlin, 
 1783; E. F. Voce!., "Oratio de J. A. Ernesti Mentis in Jur : spru- 
 dentiam," 1829; August W. Ernesti, " Memoria J. A. Ernesti," 
 1781. 
 
 Ernesti, (Johann Christian Gottlob,) a German 
 scholar and critic, born at Arnstadt in 1756, was a 
 nephew of the preceding, and cousin of August Wil- 
 helm. He became professor of philosophy at Leipsic 
 in 1782, and published, among other works, a good edi- 
 tion of Silius Italicus, (1791,) a valuable "Lexicon of 
 Greek Rhetorical Technology," (1795O and an elegant 
 German version of Cicero's best works, "Spirit and Art 
 of Cicero," ("Ciceros Geist und Kunst," 1799-1802.) 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 See Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 
 Ernesti, (Johann Heinrich,) a German scholar, 
 brother of Jacob Daniel, noticed above, was born in 1652. 
 He wrote a "Compendium of Profane Hermeneutics," 
 (1699,) and other works. Died in 1729. 
 
 Ernouf, eVnoof, (Jean Augustin,) Baron, a French 
 general, born at Alencon in 1753. He became a general 
 of division in 1793, and distinguished himself at Fleurus 
 and Novi. Died in 1827. 
 
 Ernst, the German of Ernest, which see. 
 
 € asi; 9 as s; %kard; gas/,- G, H, K, guttural; a, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( 
 
 ee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ERNST 
 
 860 
 
 ERSKINE 
 
 Ernst,eRnst, [Lat. Ern'sttus,] (Heinrich,) alearned 
 Danish jurist, born at Helmstedt in 1603, wrote, in Latin, 
 many able works on law, religion, and other subjects, 
 among which are " Sabbatismos," and " Introduction to 
 the True Life," (1643.) Died in 1665. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Ernst, (Heinrich Wilhelm,) a German violinist, 
 born at Briinn in 1814; died in 1865. 
 
 Ernst August. See Ernest Augustus. 
 
 Ernst Kasimir. See Ernest Casimir. 
 
 Ernsting, Sitn'sting, (Arthur Conrad,) a German 
 botanist, born at Sachsenhagen in 1709, published a 
 "Description of the Families of Plants," (1762,) and 
 other works. Died in 1768. 
 
 Ernstius. See Ernst. 
 
 Emulph. SeeARNULPH. 
 
 Eroles, de, da 4-ro-les', Baron, a Spanish general, 
 noted for energy and audacity, born in Catalonia in 1785, 
 took an active part in the guerilla war against the French 
 in 1809-10. He was a partisan of the royalists in 1820, 
 and in 1822 a member of the Supreme Regency, formed 
 during the king's captivity. In the same year he com- 
 manded at two battles, in which the royalists were totally 
 defeated by Mina. Died in 1825. 
 
 EVope, the French of /Erope, which see. 
 
 E'ros, ["Epuc,] the Greek name of the god of love, 
 corresponding to the Cupido of the Romans. He was 
 generally regarded as a son of Aphrodite, (Venus,) and 
 was personified as a beautiful boy with wings and armed 
 with a bow and arrows. (See Cupid.) 
 
 Erostratus. See Herostratus. 
 
 Erotianus, e-ro-she-a'nus, ['Efianavor,] a Greek wri- 
 ter, who lived in the first century of our era, in the reign 
 of Nero, is sometimes called Herodianus. He wrote, 
 in Greek, a glossary of Hippocrates, which explains some 
 obscure terms found in that writer. It was first printed 
 in Paris in 1564. 
 
 Er'o-vant II., King of Armenia, occupied the highest 
 rank among the Armenian generals in the reign of Sana- 
 drook, (Sanadrouk.) At the death of that prince, 68 A.D., 
 he usurped the throne. In 78 he founded a new and 
 splendid capital, which he named Erovantaschad. Ar- 
 dasches II., the son of Sanadrook, having raised an army 
 in Persia, came back to recover his throne. In the battle 
 that followed, Erovant was defeated and killed in the 
 year 88. 
 
 Er-pe'nI-us, or Van Erpen, vfn eVpen, (Thomas,) 
 a celebrated Orientalist, born at Gorkum, in Holland, in 
 1584, graduated at Leyden in 1608, and afterwards pur- 
 sued his favourite studies in England, France, Italy, etc. 
 In 1613 he was chosen professor of Arabic and other 
 Oriental languages, except Hebrew, in the University of 
 Leyden. In 1619 a second chair of Hebrew was founded 
 in his favour. He kept an Arabic press in his own house. 
 His labours have rendered important services to Oriental 
 learning, and have scarcely been surpassed in the same 
 department, although his career was closed by a prema- 
 ture death. His most important works are an "Arabic 
 Grammar," (1613,) the first composed in Europe, a 
 "Collection of Lokman's Arabic Proverbs," translated 
 into Latin, an Arabic version of the New Testament, and 
 " Historia Saracenica," an edition of Elmacin's history, 
 with Latin version, (1625.) Died in 1624. 
 
 See P. Scrivarius, "Manes ErpinianaV' 1625; G. J. Vosstus, 
 "Oratio in Obitum T. Erpenii," 1625; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Errante, Jr-ran'ta, (Giuseppe,) a skilful Italian his- 
 torical painter, born at Trapani in 1760, passed the 
 greater part of his life in Milan. Among his works are 
 "Eiulymion" and "Psyche." Died in 1821. 
 
 Errard. See Erard. 
 
 Errard, 4'iSr', (Chari.es,) a French painter, born at 
 Bressuire about 1570. He received the title of painter 
 to the king. Died about 1635. 
 
 Errard, (Charles,) a French painter and architect, a 
 son and pupil of the preceding, was born at Nantes in 
 1606. He painted historical subjects, among which is 
 " Saint Paul restored to Sight." In 1646 he began to 
 decorate the Palais Royal for Louis XIV. He afterwards 
 adorned the Louvre, Tuileries, the chateau of Versailles, 
 and other palaces. He was one of the twelve artists who 
 
 founded the Academy of Painting at Paris in 1648. He 
 had the principal part in the foundation of the French 
 Academy of Art in Rome in 1666, and was director of 
 that institution until 1683. He published (with Cham- 
 bray) a "Comparison of Ancient with Modern Archi- 
 tecture," (1666.) Died at Rome in 1689. 
 
 See Milizia, " Meinorie degli Architetti," etc. 
 
 Errard or £rard, a'rSR', (Jean,) a French military 
 engineer, born at Bar-le-Duc, was employed by Henry 
 IV., who called him the first of engineers. He wrote an 
 able treatise on Fortification, (1594.) Died about 1620. 
 
 Er-Rasheed or Er-Rashid. See Ar-Rasheed and 
 Haroun-al-Raschid. 
 
 Erri, degli, cial'yee er'ree, (Pellegrino,) an Italian 
 Orientalist, born at Modena in 151 1, produced an Italian 
 version of the Psalms of David, (1573.) Died in 1575. 
 
 Errico, e>-ree'ko, or Enrico, en-ree'ko, (Scipione,) 
 a popular Italian poet and priest, born in 1592 at Mes- 
 sina, where he obtained the chair of moral philosophy 
 and the title of poet-laureate. He wrote "The Wars of 
 Parnassus," (a history of literary quarrels, 1643,) " Deida- 
 mia," a drama, (1644,) and other works. Died in 1670. 
 
 See Mongitorb, " Bibliotheca Sicula." 
 
 Ersch, JrsIi, (Johann Samuel,) an eminent encyclo- 
 paedist, and founder of German bibliography, was born at 
 Gross Glogau, in Silesia, in 1766. He published between 
 1793 and 1809 a "General Repertory of Literature," (8 
 vols.,) and a work entitled "Literary France," ("Das 
 gelehrte Frankreich," 5 vols., 1797-1806.) About iSoo 
 he was chosen librarian of the University of Jena, and 
 in 1803 professor of geography at Halle. His principal 
 work is the great " Encyclopaedia of Sciences and Arts," 
 (" Allgemeine Encyklopaedie der Wissenschaften und 
 Kiinste,") by Ersch and Gruber, of which he edited 17 
 vols., (1818-28.) After the death of Ersch (1828) it was 
 continued by Gruber and others. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Erskine, er'skin, ( David, ) Lord Dun, an eminent 
 Scottish lawyer, born at Dun in 1670, became lord of 
 session in 171 1, and was a commissioner in the court of 
 justiciary from 1713 to 1750. He published a valuable 
 work, styled "Lord Dun's Advices." Died in 1755. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Erskine, (David Stewart,) Earl of Buchan, and 
 Lord Cardross, a literary Scottish nobleman and anti- 
 quary, born in 1742, was the eldest son of Henry David, 
 tenth Earl of Buchan, and was a brother of Lord-Chan- 
 cellor Erskine. About 1766 he was elected a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society and appointed secretary to the British 
 embassy in Spain. In 1780 he took the principal part 
 in founding the Society of Scottish Antiquaries, and in 
 1791 instituted an annual festive commemoration of the 
 poet Thomson. He wrote several antiquarian treatises. 
 Died in 1829. 
 
 See Cham bers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Erskine, (Erenezer,) the founder of a sect in Scot- 
 land designated as Seceders, born in 1680, was a son of 
 Henry Erskine, noticed below. From 1703 to 1731 he 
 ministered at Portmoak, in Kinross, where he became 
 eminent and popular as a theologian, preacher, and 
 writer. In 1731 he accepted a call from the church 
 of Stirling. About 1732 a controversy arose in the 
 Church of Scotland respecting lay patronage, on which 
 subject Mr. Erskine opposed the action of the General 
 Assembly, and was suspended from the ministry. In 
 1736 Erskine and his friends organized the "Secession 
 Church." His sermons and other writings have been 
 often reprinted, and are much admired. Died in 1754. 
 The Secession Church in 1847 formed a union with the 
 Relief Synod, and took the name of the United Presbyte- 
 rian Church. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Erskine, (Henry,) a Scottish clergyman, father of 
 the preceding, was born in 1624. He became pastor at 
 Cornhill, was ejected in 1662, and banished about 1682. 
 He was imprisoned in 1685. Died in 1690. 
 
 Erskine, (Henry,) an eminent Scottish patriot, born 
 about 1650. He was third Lord Cardross, eldest son of 
 the second Lord Cardross, and ancestor of Lord-Chan- 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
 
ERSKINE 
 
 861 
 
 ERSKINE 
 
 cellor Erskine. Having been persecuted by fine and im- 
 prisonment on account of his religion, he emigrated about 
 1680 to South Carolina, whence he »as driven by the 
 Spaniards. He next went to Holland, enlisted in the 
 service of the Prince of Orange, and returned with him 
 to England in 1688. He was restored to his estates and 
 made a privy councillor. Died in 1693. 
 
 Sec Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Erskine, (Hon. Henry,) an able Scottish lawyer, born 
 •n Edinburgh in 1 746, was the second son of David, tenth 
 Earl of Buchan, and brother of the lord chancellor. He 
 was called to the bar in 1768, and appointed lord advo- 
 cate of Scotland in 1782. On the accession of Pitt as 
 premier he was removed, but obtained the same high 
 office in 1806 under the Whig ministry, and was elected 
 to Parliament. He was an eloquent and witty advo- 
 cate, and for some years was considered the leader and 
 brightest ornament of the Scottish bar. Probably none 
 of his competitors equalled him in professional tact, in 
 suavity of temper, or in fascination of manner. As a 
 statesman he constantly supported the Whig or Liberal 
 party. He died in 1817, leaving two sons, Henry and 
 George, the former of whom is the present Earl of liuchan. 
 " In his long and splendid career at the bar," says Lord 
 Jeffrey, " he was distinguished not only by the peculiar 
 brilliancy of his wit and the gracefulness and vivacity 
 of his eloquence, but by the still rarer power of keeping 
 those seducing qualities in perfect subordination to his 
 judgment." 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Erskine, (John,) Baron of Dun, an eminent Scottish 
 Reformer, born near Montrose about 1508. At an early 
 age he became one of the leaders of the Protestants in 
 Scotland. He first introduced, it is said, the study of 
 the Greek language into the schools of Scotland, about 
 1534. In 1557 he was appointed a commissioner to attend 
 the marriage of Queen Mary in France. About 1560 he 
 was ordained as a minister. He assisted in compiling 
 the Second Book of Discipline in 1577. Died in 1 591. 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Erskine, (John,) Colonf.l, a Scottish officer, born 
 in 1661, was the third son of Lord Cardross. Having 
 served in Holland under the Prince of Orange, he was 
 appointed in 1688 lieutenant-governor of Stirling Castle, 
 and afterwards governor of Dumbarton Castle. In 1707 
 he was elected to the British Parliament. His son John 
 was an eminent jurist. Died in 1743. 
 
 Erskine, (John,) eighteenth Lord Erskine, and elev- 
 enth Earl of Mar, an ambitious and corrupt Scottish 
 politician, born at Alloa in 1675, was the son of Charles, 
 tenth Earl of Mar. At the accession of Queen Anne, 
 in 1702, he joined the Tories, and in 1708 was chosen 
 secretary for Scotland, and became one of the most 
 powerful leaders of the Jacobites. In September, 1715, 
 he raised the standard of the Pretender, and, though 
 destitute of military skill, assumed the command of the 
 insurgents, amounting to 12,000 men. He was defeated 
 by Argyle at Dunblane in November, and soon after 
 escaped with his master to the continent, where he con- 
 tinued to plot for several years, and died in 1732. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Erskine (John) of Carnoch, an eminent Scottish 
 jurist, born in 1695, was the son of Colonel John Er- 
 skine, and a cousin of Lord-Chancellor Erskine. In 
 1737 he was chosen professor of Scottish law in the 
 University of Edinburgh, and in 1754 published "Prin- 
 ciples of the Law of Scotland," which became a leading 
 authority in the courts. He retired from his chair in the 
 university in 1765, and died at his estate of Cardross in 
 1768. He left an extension of the above work, which 
 appeared in 1773, entitled "An Institute of the Law of 
 Scotland." It is a standard work of great merit, whose 
 authority is as unquestionable as "Coke upon Littleton." 
 See Chambrrs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Erskine, (John,) D.D., an eminent Scottish divine, 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1721. In 1744 he 
 was ordained minister of Kirkintilloch, near Glasgow. 
 From 1753 to 1758 he preached at Culross, and in the 
 latter year removed to the New Grey-Friars', a church 
 of Edinburgh. He was for many years the leader of the 
 
 popular or orthodox party in the Church, — the same 
 which in 1843 seceded and formed the " Free Church." 
 In 1767 he became a colleague of Dr. Robertson in 
 the Old Grey-Friars' Church, Edinburgh. Among his 
 writings on theology — which are numerous and highly 
 prized — are "Theological Dissertations," (1765,) and 
 "Sketches and Hints of Church History," (1790.) Died 
 in 1803. 
 
 See Sir H. Moncriefp Weu.wood, "Life of John Erskine," 
 1818; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Erskine, (Ralph,) an eminent Scottish divine, born 
 at Monilaws in 1685, was the brother of Ebenezer Er- 
 skine, noticed above. He was ordained in 1 71 1 as min- 
 ister of Dunfermline, and acquired a high reputation as 
 a preacher and writer on theology. About 1736 he 
 co-operated with his brother, and joined the Seceders. 
 (See Erskine, Ebenezer.) He published sermons and 
 "Gospel Sonnets." Died in 1752. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Erskine, (Thomas,) Lord, an illustrious British 
 orator and advocate, born in Edinburgh in January, 1750, 
 was the youngest son of Henry David, Earl of Buchan. 
 He received his education at the high-schools of Edin- 
 burgh and of Saint Andrew's. As his father could not 
 afford to defray the expense of preparing him for a 
 learned profession, he entered the navy in 1764 as mid- 
 shipman. After the lapse of four years, being disap- 
 pointed in his hope of promotion, he purchased an 
 ensign's commission in the army. In 1770 he married 
 the daughter of Daniel Moore, M.P., with whom he lived 
 in uninterrupted harmony. The same year his regiment 
 was ordered to Minorca, where he spent two years profit- 
 ably in the systematic study of English literature. Re- 
 turning home in 1772, he passed several months in 
 London, where he produced a sensation in the higher 
 circles by his graceful volubility, his genial temper, and 
 his charming social qualities. Rendered restless by the 
 consciousness of grand dormant powers and faculties, he 
 happened one day, in 1774, to enter court, in which Lord 
 Mansfield, the presiding judge, invited him to sit by his 
 side. Thinking that he could make a better speech than 
 any that he heard in that trial, he resolved to study law. 
 In 1775 he was admitted a student of Lincoln's Inn, and 
 in 1776 was matriculated at Cambridge, as the degree 
 of A.M. would shorten the term required to qualify him 
 for the bar, — to which he was called in 1778. 
 
 The first cause in which he was engaged was that of 
 Captain Baillie, tried for a libel on the Earl of Sandwich, a 
 member of the cabinet. "Then was exhibited," says Lord 
 Campbell, "the most remarkable scene ever witnessed in 
 Westminster Hall. It was the debit o{ a. barrister, wholly 
 unpractised in public speaking, before a court crowded 
 with the men of the greatest distinction, belonging to all 
 parties in the state. And I must own that, all the circum- 
 stances considered, it is the most wonderful forensic effort 
 of which we have any account in our annals." The im- 
 pression made on the audience was such that before he 
 left the court a large number of retainers were presented 
 to him by the attorneys who flocked around him. He had 
 risen at one bound to the highest rank in his profession. 
 In 1781 he made a great and successful plea in defence of 
 Lord George Gordon, indicted for treason, in which logic 
 and passion were combined with consummate art. 
 
 In 1783, by the influence of the Whig leaders, Erskine 
 obtained a seat in the House of Commons, where his 
 success was not equal to the high expectations that had 
 been raised. In the election of 1784 he lost his seat. 
 He could not adapt himself to the tenor of parliament- 
 ary debate with the same success that attended him in 
 the forum. In 1789, in the trial of Stockdale, he vindi- 
 cated the freedom of the press by another triumph of 
 eloquence. In 1790 he was again returned to Parliament 
 for Portsmouth, and continued to support the principles 
 of Fox, even in the crisis of the French Revolution, by 
 which the Whigs were divided. In 1794 Erskine ap- 
 peared as the champion of public liberty in the state 
 trials, when the ministry attempted to put down the 
 friends of reform by the law of "constructive treason." 
 He spoke seven hours in defence of Hardy, who was 
 acquitted, amidst the rapturous applause of the popular 
 party. Next came the case of John Home Tooke, which 
 
 € as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (jgp~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ERSKINE 
 
 862 
 
 ESCHENBACH 
 
 had a similar result. In 1802 he was made chancellor 
 of the duchy of Cornwall. On the formation of the 
 Grenville ministry, in January, i8o6,he became lord chan- 
 cellor, and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Erskine 
 of Restormel Castle. In consequence of a change in the 
 ministry, he retired from office in 1807. Lord Campbell, 
 late chancellor of England, gives it as his opinion that 
 "as an advocate in the forum he is without an equal in 
 ancient or modern times." He did not aim at wit or 
 ornament in his speeches, though his diction was pure, 
 simple, and full of variety. " But he spoke as his clients 
 respectively would have spoken, being endowed with his 
 genius ; and those who heard him seemed to be inspired 
 with a new, ethereal existence." Died in November, 1823. 
 His principal publications are "Armata," a political ro- 
 mance, and a " View of the Causes and Consequences 
 of the War with France," which ran through forty-eight 
 editions. He left several daughters, and three sons, of 
 whom the eldest, David Montague, inherited the title 
 of Lord Erskine. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Foss, 
 "The Judges of England," vol. ix. ; Lord Brougham, "Speeches 
 of Lord Erskine, with a Prefatory Memoir;" "London Quarterly 
 Review" for April, 1858. 
 
 Erskine, (Thomas,) of Linlethan, a member of the 
 Scottish bar, distinguished as a biblical scholar, wrote 
 "Remarks on the Internal Evidence for the Truth of 
 Revealed Religion," (3d edition, 1821,) an "Essay on 
 Faith," and "The Doctrine of Election Illustrated," 
 
 (I837-) 
 
 Erskine, (Thomas Alexander,) sixth Earl of Kellie, 
 a musical composer, born in 1732, was the son of the 
 fifth Earl of Kellie. He devoted his attention chiefly 
 to music, studied with Stamitz at Manheim, and gained 
 distinction as a composer and performer. Died in 1781. 
 
 Erslev. See Erslew. 
 
 Erslew or Erslev, Sr'sISv, (Thomas Han'sen,) a 
 Danish bibliographer, born at Randers in 1803. He was 
 appointed director of the archives of the ministry of 
 worship in 1849. His most important work is a "Gen- 
 eral Dictionary of the Authors of Denmark," ("Alminde- 
 ligt Forfatter-Lexicon for Danmark," etc., 3 vols., 1841- 
 53,) to which he has added a supplement. 
 
 Ertboru, van, vin ?Rt'boRn, (Joseph Charles Em- 
 manuel,) Baron, a Belgian linguist and writer on art 
 and literature, born at Antwerp in 1778, wrote "His- 
 torical Researches on the Academy of Antwerp and the 
 Artists which it produced," (1806.) Died in 1823. 
 
 Ertinger, Ir taVzhi', (Franqois,) a French en- 
 graver, born at Colmar in 1640, engraved after Rubens 
 and Poussin. 
 
 Ertogrul, eR'to-gRdt>], a Turkish chief, son of Soli- 
 man Shah, and father of OthmSn, the founder of the 
 Ottoman Empire. He ruled a tribe of Carismians, on 
 the Sangara River, near the Black Sea, for the space 
 of fifty years, and preached the Moslem religion with a 
 eword in his hand. He took the city of Kutaia from 
 the Greeks in 128 1, and died soon after that date. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Erwin, ?R'vvin, (John,) a German architect, who suc- 
 ceeded his father, Erwin von Steinbach, as architect of 
 the cathedral of Strasburg. Died in 1339. 
 
 Erwin von Steinbach, eVvvin fon stln'baK, a Ger- 
 man architect, born at Steinbach, near Buhl. He was 
 the chief architect of the doorway and tower of the 
 Strasburg cathedral, one of the most imposing and 
 admirable specimens of the modern Gothic style. He 
 commenced this tower in 1275, and died in 1318, after 
 which it was continued by his son John, who died in 
 1339. It has a greater altitude than any other struc- 
 ture in Europe, being about 436 French feet, or more 
 than 465 English feet, in height. 
 
 See Milizia, "Memorie degli Architetti ;" Pingeron, "Vies des 
 Architectes anciens et modernes;" Joseph Bader, "Meister Erwin 
 von Steinbach und seine Heimath, 1844. 
 
 Erxleben, SRks'la-ben, (Johann Christian Poly- 
 carp,) an eminent German naturalist, born at Quedlin- 
 burg, Saxony, in 1744. He was chosen professor of 
 philosophy at Gottingen in 1771. Hegained a high repu- 
 tation by his works, some of which are said to be models 
 of accuracy. He published "Elements of Natural His- 
 
 tory," (1768,) "Elements of Natural Philosophy," ("Na- 
 turlehre," 1772,) and " Systema Regni Animalis per 
 Classes, Ordines, ,penera, Species, Varietates, cum Ilis- 
 toria Animalium; Classis I., Mammalia," ("System 
 of the Animal Kingdom by Classes, Orders, Genera," 
 etc., 1777.) "There exists not in zoology," says the 
 "Biographie Universelle," "a more exact and com- 
 plete treatise than this history of the mammalia." Died 
 in 1777. 
 
 His mother, Dorothy Leporin, born in 171 5, was 
 eminent for her attainments in medical science. She 
 received a diploma from the University of Halle in 1754, 
 and practised medicine. Died in 1762. 
 
 See " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Eryceira. See Ericeira. 
 
 Er-jf-ci'na, [Fr. Erycine, a're-sen',] a surname of 
 Venus, derived from Mount Eryx, in Sicily, where she 
 had a temple. 
 
 EVycine. See Erycina. 
 
 E'r^x, [Gr. 'Epu£,] a son of Butes and Venus, killed 
 by Hercules in a combat with the cestus. (See Virgil's 
 "/Eneid," book v., lines 402-12.) A mountain in Sicily, 
 near Drepanum, was named Eryx, from his having been 
 buried there. 
 
 Erzilla. See Ercilla. 
 
 Es, van, vin 6s, (Jacob,) a Flemish painter, born in 
 Antwerp about 1570, excelled in the imitation of shells, 
 flowers, and fruits. He is praised by Descamps. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Esaias. See Isaiah. 
 
 E-sa'I-as of Egypt, a monk, who lived in Egypt in 
 the fourth century, and wrote, in Greek, a number of 
 works, some of which were published in 1684. 
 
 E'sau, [ Heb. llPi',] the eldest son of Isaacand Rebecca, 
 born about 1836 B.C., lived in Mount Seir or Edom. He 
 was sometimes called Edom, which signifies " red," and 
 was the ancestor of the Edomites. 
 
 See Genesis xxv. 25 : xxvii., xxxii., xxxiii., and xxxvi. 
 
 Escalante, fe-ki-lan'ta, (Juan Antonio,) a Span- 
 ish historical painter, born at Cordova in 1630, lived in 
 Madrid, and adorned the churches of that city with his 
 works, among which is "The Life of Saint Gerard." 
 He imitated Tintoret and Titian with moderate success. 
 Died in 1670. 
 
 Escalante, d', des-ka-lan'ta, (Juan,) was one of Cor- 
 tez's principal officers when he undertook, in 1518, the 
 conquest of Mexico. He received from Cortez the com- 
 mand of the colony or town founded by him at Vera 
 Cruz. He was killed in a battle against a Mexican chief 
 in 1519. 
 
 See Pkescott's "Conquest of Mexico." 
 
 Escale. See Scala. 
 
 Escarbot. See Lescarbot. 
 
 Eschasseriaux, i'shis're'o', (Joseph,) Baron, a 
 French Jacobin, born near Saintes in 1753. He was an 
 active member of the Convention, 1792-95, and of the 
 Tribunate, 1800-04. Died in 1823. 
 
 Eschasseriauz, (Rene,) a brother of the preceding, 
 born in 1754, was an able and moderate member of the 
 Convention, and of various legislative assemblies in 
 succession. In 1798 he made an important report on 
 the subject of supplying horses for the cavalry. Died 
 in 1831. 
 
 Eschels-Kroon, Ssh'els-kRon',(Arx>LPHus,)a Danish 
 traveller, born in 1736, passed many years in the East 
 Indies, where he was agent of Denmark from 1782 to 
 1784. He wrote a "Description of Sumatra," (1782,) 
 andother works. Died in 1793. 
 
 See Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Eschenbach, Ssh'en-baic', (Andreas Christian,) a 
 learned German writer, born in 1663 at Nuremberg, 
 where he became professor of Greek in 1695. He pub- 
 lished an edition of the works of Orpheus, (1689,) " Epi- 
 genes on Orphic Poetry," (" Epigenes de Poesi Orphica," 
 1702,) " Dissertationes Academicae," (1705,) and other 
 works. Died in 1705. 
 
 Eschenbach,(CnRiSTiANEhrenfried— a'ren-fReet',) 
 a German physician, born at Rostock in 1712, wrote 
 "Elements of Surgery," (1745,) "Medicina Legalis," 
 (1746,) and other professional works. Died in 1788. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6,0, y,Ung;k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Q, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fix, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
ESCHENBACH 
 
 863 
 
 ESKIL 
 
 Eaohvibach, von, fun esh'en-baK.', (Wolfram.) a 
 famoi.. L'tnnan poet or minnesinger, was burn in Iiava- 
 ria, and i'i urished .il i.mt 1200. According to the custom 
 of the mci'i.xval hards, he wandered fre-m castle to castle, 
 and found a welcome at the courts of several princes. 
 His principal poems are entitled "Titurel" and " Parci- 
 val." He ij generally admitted to have been the greatest 
 German poet anterior to the revival of German literature. 
 
 See Gervinus, "Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur," 
 1837; San Marts, "Wolfram von Kschenbach," Magdeburg, 2 
 vols., 1M41 ; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Eschenburg. esh'en-bdoRG', (Joiiann JoACHtM,) a 
 German litterateur, born at Hamburg in 1743. He was 
 professor in a college of Brunswick, and aulic councillor, 
 lie produced good German prose versions of Shak- 
 speare's Dramatic Works, (14 vols., 1775-87,) and of 
 other foreign works ; he also wrote a " lift of I landel," 
 (17S5.) His " Manual of Classical Literature" reached 
 the eighth edition in 1837. Died in 1820. 
 
 Eschenmayer, esh^n-mT'er, (Karl Adolf,) a Ger- 
 man philosopher, metaphysician, and mystic, born at 
 Neuenberg, in Wiirtemberg, in 1768. He became in 
 181 1 professor of philosophy and medicine at Tubingen. 
 From 1818 to 1836 he filled the chair of practical philo- 
 sophy in the same university. Among his chief works 
 are a " System of Moral Philosophy," (1818,) and " Phi- 
 losophy of Religion," (3 vols., 1818-24.) Died in 1854. 
 
 See Rittkr, "Historv of Philosophy;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate. " 
 
 Escher, Ssh'er. ( F. A., ) a German scholar, known 
 as the translator of Horace, was born in 1 777 ; died in 
 1802. 
 
 Escher, Ssh'er, (Henry,) a Swiss statesman, born at 
 Zurich in 1626, acquired by his talents and virtues great 
 influence in the state. Died in 1 7 10. 
 
 Escher, (Jean Henri Alfred,) a prominent Swiss 
 statesman, born at Zurich in 1819, acted with the Libe- 
 rals against the Jesuits and the Sonderbund. In 1847 
 he was president of the grand council, and advocated a 
 reform of the federal system, tending to a greater cen- 
 tralization. He was chosen president of the new council 
 of regency in 1848, and vice-president of the national 
 council in 1856. 
 
 Escher, (Johann Caspar,) a Swiss magistrate, born 
 at Zurich in 1678. He was employed in various impor- 
 tant negotiations. Died in 1762. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" David 
 Wyse, " Lebensgeschichte J. C. Eschers," 1790. 
 
 Escher, (Johann Conrad,) surnamed von der 
 Linth, (fon der lint,) a Swiss geologist, born at Zurich 
 in 1768, gained much credit by the improvement of the 
 channel of the river Linth, whence his surname is derived. 
 He published "Geological Observations on the Alps," 
 (1795,) and "The Formation of the Great Chain of the 
 Jura," (1820.) Died in 1823. 
 
 See Johann J. Hottincer, " H. C. Escher von der Linth; Cha- 
 rakterbitd eines Republikaners," 1852. 
 
 Escherny, d', dJ'sheVne', (Francois Louis,) Count, 
 a French litterateur, born at Ncufchatel in 1733. He 
 went to Paris in 1762, and became intimate with Diderot, 
 D'Alembert, and Rousseau. His principal works are 
 an "Essay on Equality," and "Lacuna; of Philosophy," 
 (1783.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Eschil. See Eskil. 
 
 Eschine, the French of ^Eschines, which see. 
 
 Eschines. See /Eschines. 
 
 Eschius, eVke-us, or Van Esche, vf n es'Keh, (Nl- 
 COLAAS,) a Dutch Catholic priest and writer, born near 
 Bois-lc-Duc in 1507; died in 1578. 
 
 Eschiicht, csl/riKt, (Daniel Frf.derik,) a Danish 
 physician and physiologist, born at Copenhagen in 1798. 
 He became professor of medicine in the University of 
 Copenhagen In 1836, and published several valuable 
 works on physiology, zoology, etc. 
 
 Eschscholtz, esh'sholts, (Johann Friedrich,) a 
 German naturalist and traveller, born at Dorpat in 1793. 
 He accompanied Kotzebueas physician in his voyage of 
 discovery, 1815-18, and in a second voyage about 1823. 
 He wrote a description of two thousand animals, which 
 was published with Kotzebue's narrative in 1830, and 
 published " Entomographien," (1823,) and a "Zoological 
 
 Atlas," (1829--33.) Diedini83i. The genus Eschscholt- 
 ixi. was named in honour of him by Chaniisso. 
 
 Eschyle, the French for /Eschyi.us, which see. 
 
 Eschylus. See /Eschyi.us. 
 
 Esclava, de, da cs-kli'va, (Antonio,) a Spanish 
 writer of romances, born in Aragon about 1570. 
 
 Escobar, de, daes-ko-b&R', (Antonio,) a Portuguese 
 litterateur, bom at Coimbra, wrote many and various 
 works. Died in 1681. 
 
 Escobar.de, da es-ko-baV, (Bartoi.ome.) a Spanish 
 missionary and writer, born at Seville In 1562, preached 
 in the West Indies and at Lima. Died at Lima in 1624. 
 
 Escobar, de, (Francisco,) a Spanish Hellenist and 
 writer, born at Valencia; died after 1557. 
 
 Escobar, de, (Maria,) a Spanish lady, born at Tru- 
 xillo, was the wife of Diego de Chaves, who followed 
 Pizarro to the conquest of Peru, about 1540. She was 
 the first who carried wheat to Peru. 
 
 Escobar y Mendoza, es-ko-baR' e men-do'tha, 
 (Antonio,) a famous casuist and Jesuit, born at Valla- 
 dolid, in Spain, in 1589. He was a popular preacher, 
 and a learned writer on theology, but was severely cen- 
 sured by Pascal and others for teaching a lax morality. 
 He wrote, in Latin, "Moral Theology," (1646,) a "Treat- 
 ise on Justice and Law," and another on " Cases of Con- 
 science," (" Summula Casuum Conscientiae," 1626.) It 
 was to :efute the doctrines and sophisms broached in the 
 last work that Pascal wrote the fifth and sixth of his 
 admirable " Provincial Letters." Died in 1669. In the 
 dictionary of the French Academy Escobar is a synonym 
 for an "adroit hypocrite." 
 
 See TlCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" N. Antonio, 
 "Bibliotheca Hispana N'uva." 
 
 Escoiquiz, es-ko-e-keth', sometimes written Escoi- 
 quitz, (Don Juan,) a Spanish priest and courtier, born 
 in Navarre in 1762, was appointed preceptor of the king's 
 son, afterwards Ferdinand VII. The latter employed 
 him in secret negotiations with Napoleon, and when he 
 became king, in 1808, made him a councillor of state. 
 He had a paramount influence with Ferdinand, whom he 
 accompanied to France ; and he was his principal agent 
 or adviser in the conferences at Bayonne, which resulted 
 in his forced abdication. Escoiquiz returned to Spain 
 with Ferdinand in 1S14, and was appointed minister; but 
 he was dismissed the same year, and exiled from court. 
 He wrote an epic poem of little merit, entitled "The 
 Conquest of Mexico," (1802,) and translated Milton's 
 "Paradise Lost" into Spanish. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Southev, "History of the Peninsular War;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge"neiale." 
 
 Escosura, de la, da II es-ko-soo'rJ, (Don Patricio,) 
 a Spanish author and politician, born at Madrid in 1807. 
 He became secretary of state about 1843, a f' er which he 
 was a member of the Narvaez ministry. He retired from 
 office in 1846, and was minister of the interior in 1854— 
 55. Among his works are romances entitled "El Conde 
 de Candespina," (1832,) and " Ni Rey ni Roque," (1835,) 
 several dramas, a "Manual of Mythology," (1843,) and 
 the text of "Artistic and Monumental Spain." 
 
 Escousse, es'kooss', (Victor,) a French poet, born 
 in Paris in 1813. He produced " Farruck the Moor," 
 ("Farruck le Maure,") a drama, (1831,) which was 
 applauded, and some songs. He committed suicide in 
 February, 1832, in company with his friend Lebras. 
 
 Esculape, the French of jEsculapius, which see. 
 
 Esculapius. See ^Esculapius. 
 
 Esdras of Scripture. See Ezra. 
 
 Es'dras, an Armenian, was chosen Patriarch of Ar- 
 menia In 628 a.d. In concert with Heraclius, the Greek 
 emperor, he called a council in 629, approving the reunion 
 of the Armenian and Greek Churches ; but the bishops 
 of Persian Armenia opposed the measure. Died in 639. 
 
 Esiodo, the Italian of HesIOD, which see. 
 
 Es'kil, written also Eschil or Eskild, an ambitious 
 Swedish prelate, became in 1 138 Archbishop of Lund and 
 Primate of Denmark. He founded several monasteries, 
 took part in political contests, and was sometimes in open 
 war with the king. He performed a pilgrimage to the 
 Holy Land, and wrote a work on Ecclesiastic Law. Died 
 in 1187 or 1181. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyeri'P, "Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ESKILD 
 
 864 
 
 ESPIC 
 
 Esklld. See Eskil. 
 
 Esmark. eVmaRk, or Esmarch, (Jens,) a Danish 
 geologist and mineralogist, born in 1763, published 
 several works on mineralogy. He became professor of 
 metallurgy at Christiania in 1814. Died about 1838. 
 See " Biografi ofver J. Esmark," Stockholm, 1839. 
 
 Esmenard, es'meh-niR', (Jean Baptiste,) born in 
 Provence, in France, in 1772, served many years in the 
 army, and became lieutenant-colonel. During the resto- 
 ration he resigned his commission, and rendered impor- 
 tant services to the republic of Colombia. He afterwards 
 became an editor of the "Gazette de France," "Journal 
 des Debats," and " Mercure." Died in 1842. 
 
 Esmenard, (Joseph Alphonse,) a French didactic 
 poet, born at Pelissanne (Bouches-du-Rhone) in 1769, 
 was a brother of the preceding. He emigrated as a 
 royalist in 1792, returned to Paris about the end of 1799, 
 and associated himself with La Harpe and Fontanes as 
 an editor of the "Mercure de France." About 1801 he 
 accompanied General Leclerc as secretary in the expedi- 
 tion to Hayti. He published in 1805 " La Navigation," 
 a poem, which was composed at sea and is admired for 
 the fidelity of its descriptions and the harmony of its 
 versification. His opera of " Trajan" was performed with 
 applause in 1808. He was elected to the Institute (class 
 of French literature) in 1810. He was thrown out of 
 his coacli and killed near Naples in June, 181 1. 
 
 See " Nouvelie Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 fison, the French of ^Eson, which see. 
 
 Esop. See /Esop. 
 
 iSsope, the French of /Esop, which see. 
 
 Espagnac, d', deVpin'yik', (Jean Baptiste Joseph 
 Damazit de Sahuguet — dt'mt'ze' deh si'ii'gk', ) 
 Baron, a French general, born at Brive-la-Gaillarde in 
 1713. He served several campaigns in Germany, became 
 aide-major-general under Marshal Saxe, and obtained the 
 grade of lieutenant-general in 1780. He wrote a "Life 
 of Marshal Saxe," and an " Essay on the Science of 
 War," (1751.) Died in 1783. 
 
 Espagnandel, L', les'ptn'ySN'del', (Mathieu, ) a 
 French sculptor, born in 1610, adorned several churches 
 of Paris with his works. Died in 1689. 
 
 Espagne, d', (Don Carlos.) See Espana. 
 
 Espagne, d', deVpin', (Charles,) a valiant French 
 warrior, was made Constable of France in 1350, and 
 became a great favourite with the king. He was assas- 
 sinated in 1354 by Charles, King of Navarre. 
 
 Espagne, d', (Jean,) a French Protestant theologian, 
 born in Dauphiny in 1 591. He preached in Holland, 
 and afterwards settled in London, where he was pastor 
 of a French church. He published many works, which 
 were often reprinted, the best-known of which is " Pop- 
 ular Errors in the Knowledge of Religion," (1648.) Died 
 in London in 1659. 
 
 Espagne, d', (Jean Louis Brigitte, ) Comte, a 
 French general of division, born at Auch ( Armagnac) 
 in 1766. He defeated the Austrians at San Michele, in 
 Italy, and distinguished himself at Heilsberg in 1807. 
 He was killed at the battle of Essling, in 1809. 
 
 Espagne, d', [Sp. De Espana, da <Ss-pan'va,J or De la 
 Cerda, da la theVda, (Louis,) was a grandson of Fer- 
 dinand de la Cerda, a Spanish prince, and a brother of 
 Charles, noticed above. He became admiral of France 
 in 1341, and fought for Charles de Blois in the war for 
 the succession of Brittany. 
 
 Espagnet, d', deV ptn'y.V, (Jean,) a French alchemist 
 of Bordeaux, lived about 1610-40. He wrote two Latin 
 works which were regarded as classic, viz., " Secret 
 of the Hermetic Philosophy," ("Arcanum Philosophise 
 Hermetic*," 1623,) and a "Manual of the Restored Phi- 
 losophy," (1633.) 
 
 Espagnoletto. See Spagnoletto. 
 
 Espana. See Espagne, d', (Louis.) 
 
 Espana, de, da 5s-pan'ya, [Fr. D'Espagne, deVpitn',] 
 (Don Carlos,) Count, a Spanish general, born in 
 France in 1775. He fought against the French in the 
 war which began in 1808, and rendered important ser- 
 vices at Badajoz, Albuera, Salamanca, etc., for which 
 he was rewarded with the place of Captain-General of 
 Aragon. He was assassinated in 1839. 
 
 Esparbes. See Aubeterre. 
 
 Espartero, Ss-paR-ta'ro, (Don Baldomero,) Duke de 
 la Vittoria, (da la vet-to're-a,) a Spanish statesman and 
 general, born at Granatula, La Mancha, in 1792 or 1793, 
 was the son of a\nechanic. He enlisted in the army 
 in 1808, and went in 1815 to South America, where he 
 fought against Bolivar, and became a colonel in 1822. 
 He returned to Spain in 1825, with the rank of brigadier. 
 When the civil war began, in 1833, he took arms for the 
 young queen Isabella, and was appointed commandant- 
 general of Biscay. He became a lieutenant-general in 
 1835, and commander-in-chief of the army of the North 
 in 1836. In 1837 he defended Madrid from an attack 
 of the Carlist army, which he drove back across the 
 Ebro. He gained victories at Burgos and other places 
 in 1838 and 1839, for which he was made a grandee of 
 the first class, as Duke de la Vittoria y Morella. The 
 war terminated by the submission of the Carlists in 1840. 
 In May, 1841, Espartero was appointed by the Cortes 
 Regent of Spain during the minority of Isabella. He 
 acted at first with energy in the suppression of revolts 
 at Barcelona, but was unable to resist a coalition of pro- 
 gresistas and moderados. An army of insurgents under 
 Narvaez having entered Madrid in July, 1843, Espartero 
 was exiled, and passed several years in England. He 
 was permitted to return to Spain in 1847 or 1848. By 
 another revolution, Narvaez, the leader of the absolutists, 
 was driven from power, July, 1854, and Espartero again 
 became prime minister of a cabinet in which O'Donnell, 
 his political enemy, was minister of war. This rivalry 
 resulted in a dissolution of the ministry in July, 1856, 
 and in the triumph of O'Donnell. 
 
 See "Espartero; Historia de su Vida,"etc, by Jose Segundo 
 Florez, 3 vols., 1S44; L. deLom^nie, "Galerie desContemporains," 
 (republished in i2mo, 1844;) " Foreign Quarterly Review" for Oc- 
 tober, 1843. 
 
 Espejo, £s-pa'Ho, (Antonio,) a Spanish traveller, 
 born at Cordova, was the leader of a small expedition 
 which in 1582 explored the regions north of Mexico and 
 discovered New Mexico. The account of his journey is 
 preserved in Hakluyt's collection. 
 
 See A. von Humboldt, " Essai sur la Nouvelie Espagne." 
 
 Espen, van, vin es'pen, (Zeger Bernard,) a Flem- 
 ish casuist and priest, born at Louvain in 1646, was 
 eminent for skill in canon law. He obtained in the 
 University of Louvain a chair of law, which he filled 
 many years. His connection with the party of Port- 
 Royal caused him to lose this place about 1728. He 
 published several works, of which the most important 
 is his "Universal Ecclesiastical Law." Died in 1728. 
 
 See De Bei.legardk, " Viede Van Espen," 1767; Bavav, "Van 
 Espen, Jurisconsulte et Canoniste Beige," 1846. 
 
 Espencaeus. See Espence, d'. 
 
 Espence, d', des'p6,Nss', [Latin, Espenc/b'us, ] 
 (Claude,) a French priest, born nearChalons-sur-Marne 
 in 151 1, became a doctor of the Sorbonne, and rector of 
 the University of Paris. Dupin expresses a favourable 
 opinion of him. He wrote many and various works, 
 among which is the "Education of a Christian Prince," 
 (154S.) Died in 1571. 
 
 Esper, es'per, (Eugen Johann Christoph,) a Ger- 
 man entomologist, born at Wunsiedel, Bavaria, in 1742, 
 became professor of philosophy at Erlangen in 17S2. 
 He published "The Butterflies of Europe, figured after 
 Nature," (1777-1807,) and a work on Zoophytes, ("Die 
 Pflanzenthiere in Abbildungen nach Natur," 1788-1809.) 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Esper, (Johann Friedrich,) a German naturalist, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Drossenfeld in 1732. 
 He wrote "The Marvellous Adventures of many Tra- 
 vellers," (2 vols., 1762,) and other works. Died in 1781. 
 
 Espercieux, eVpen'stMjh', (Jean Joseph,) a skilful 
 French sculptor, born at Marseilles in 1758, worked in 
 Paris. Among his works are statues of Moliere, Racine, 
 Napoleon, (1810,) and Voltaire, (1814.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Esperiente. See Callimachus. 
 
 Espernon. See Epernon. 
 
 Espiard, es'pe-j^R', (Francois Ignacedela Borde,) 
 born at Besancon in 1707, wrote an "Essay on the Genius 
 and Character of Nations," (1743.) Died in 1777. 
 
 Espic, eVpek', (Jean Barthelemy,) a French poet 
 and teacher, born in Languedoc in 1767 ; died in 1844. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u,y, long; a, e,o, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, gist ure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ESPINJC 
 
 865 
 
 ESQUIROL 
 
 Espinac. See Epinac. 
 
 Espiuasse, es'pe'niss', (Esprit Chari.es Marie,) a 
 French general, born at Saissac, in Aude, in 181 5, be- 
 came aide-de-camp to Napoleon III. about 1852. In 
 the Crimean war, in 1855, he served with distinction at 
 the Tchernaya and other places, .and was made gen- 
 eral of division. In 1858 he acted for a few months as 
 minister of the interior. He was killed at the battle of 
 Magenta, June, 1859. 
 
 Espiuasse, de 1', deh les'pe'ntss', (Augustin,) 
 Count, a French general, born at Pouilly-sur-Loire in 
 1736, commanded the artillery, under Bonaparte, at the 
 siege of Mantua, and at Areola in 1796. Died in 1 816. 
 
 Espiuasse. de 1', (Claire Francoise or Julie 
 Jv.an.ne Eleonore,) a French lady, remarkable for her 
 talents, imagination, and sensibility, was born in 1732. 
 In 1752 she became the protegee of the witty Madame 
 du Deffand, with whom she lived in Paris about ten 
 years, until her patroness was induced by jealousy to 
 dissolve the connection. Having gained the special 
 favour of D'Alembert, she formed a brilliant literary 
 circle in her own salon, which was the resort of the elite 
 of Paris. Her death was hastened by her excessive sen- 
 sibility and unhappy attachments. She died in 1776, 
 "leaving on the minds of almost all the eminent men 
 of France," says Lord Jeffrey, " an impression of talent 
 and of ardour of imagination which seems to have been 
 considered as without example." Her letters to M. de 
 Guibert (2 vols., 1809) are admirable in style and spirit. 
 
 See D'Alembert, "Aiix Manes de Mile. Lespinasse ;" Sainte- 
 Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi:" Marmontei., "M^moires;" Vol- 
 taire, " Correspondance ;" and critique, by Lord Jeffrey, in the 
 "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1810. 
 
 Espinel, es-pe-nel', ( Vincente, ) a popular Spanish 
 poet, born at Ronda about 1544, was ordained a priest, 
 but, never receiving any valuable preferment, passed his 
 life in great poverty. He was thoroughly versed in the 
 ancient and modern languages. Heacquireda high repu- 
 tation, and was considered one of the best poets of his 
 age for purity of style and fertility of imagination. He 
 translated into Spanish verse Horace's "Art of Poetry" 
 and Odes, and wrote "The House of Memory," ("La 
 Casa de Memoria,") and numerous songs. Died in 1634. 
 His novel "Marcos de Obregon" (1618) is said to be 
 seasoned with fine pleasantry. Le Sage derived from 
 the last-named work some materials for his "Gil Bias." 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca His- 
 pana Nova." 
 
 Espinosa, es-pe-no'sa, (Jacinto Geronimo,) an ex- 
 cellent Spanish painter, born at Cocentayna, in Valencia, 
 in 1600. He excelled in chiaroscuro, in correctness of 
 design, and in the expression of his figures. He worked 
 mostly in Valencia, the churches of which he adorned 
 with many pictures. Aming his works are a "Mary 
 Magdalene," a " Nativity of the Saviour," and a " Holy 
 Family." Died at Valencia in 1680. 
 
 See Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Espinosa, (Jose,) a Spanish painter and engraver, 
 born at Valencia in 1 72 1 ; died in 1784. 
 
 Espinosa, (Juan,) a Spanish poet and soldier, born 
 at Bellovado about 1540, became secretary of Gonzales 
 de Mendoza, Captain-General of Sicily. He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, a poem on " The Praise of Women," 
 (1580,) which contains beautiful passages and was re- 
 ceived with favour. Died about 1595. 
 
 Espinosa, (Nicolas,) a Spanish poet, born at Valencia 
 about 1520, wrote a continuation of Ariosto's "Orlando 
 Fi:rioso," (1555.) 
 
 Espinosa, ( Pedro,) a Spanish poet and critic, born 
 at Antequera about 1582. He became almoner to the 
 Duke of Medina-Sidonia. He displayed his taste in a 
 collection of specimens of Spanish poets, "Tesoro de 
 Poesias," (1605,) on which his reputation chiefly rests. 
 He wrote the "Concealed Treasure," ("Tesoro escon- 
 dido," 1644,) and other poems. Died in 1650, 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" Ticknor, 
 " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Espinosa, de, da es-pe-no'sa, (Don Diego,) an emi- 
 nent Spanish statesman and cardinal, born in Old Cas- 
 tile in 1502. His ability and fame as a lawyer insured 
 
 his rapid promotion to the highest dignities and to the 
 favour of Philip II., who made him president of the roya," 
 council (the highest place in the kingdom) and Inquisi- 
 tor-General. In 1568 he was created a cardinal. lie was 
 an intolerant and relentless enemy of religious liberty and 
 reform. For a few years he exercised almost unbounded 
 influence over the king ; but he lost the royal favour by 
 his arrogance. Philip announced to him his disgrace bv 
 saying, "Cardinal, renieml>er that I am the president.' - 
 Espinosa died shortly after this blow, in 1572. The 
 death of the king's son, Don Carlos, is imputed to him 
 by some writers. 
 
 See Auberv, " Histoire des Cardinaux;" Prescott, "History 
 of Philip IL," vol. iii. book vi. chap. i. ; Motley, " Rise of the 
 Dutch Republic," vol. ii. 
 
 Espremesnil, d', (01 flpremenil, d',) d&'pRa'ml'nel'. 
 (Jacques Duvai.,) a French economist, a son-in-law of 
 the famous Dupleix, became chief of the supreme coun- 
 cil of Madras about 1746. Died in France in 1767. 
 
 Espremesnil, d', (01 Ijpiemeiiil, d',) (Jean Jacques 
 Duval,) a French advocate, a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Pondicherry, in India, in 1746. He was richly 
 endowed with personal and mental advantages. In 1787 . 
 he was one of the most eloquent and prominent mem- 
 bers of the Parliament of Paris, and in 1789 he was one 
 of the chief agitators of the popular party. In a con- 
 test between the court and the Parliament he asserted the 
 rights of the latter so boldly that he was committed to 
 custody. Having been deputed to the States-Genera! 
 by the noblesse of Paris, he changed his course, and in 
 1790 defended bravely the royal cause in the Assembly. 
 He retired from that body in 1791. He was condemned 
 by the Revolutionary Tribunal, and executed in 1794. 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Gdne'rale." 
 
 Esprit, es'pRe', (Jacques,) usually called the Akbh 
 Esprit, born at Beziers, in France, in 161 1. By his 
 agreeable manners and conversation he gained the favour 
 of Seguier and the Prince of Conti, who each gave him 
 a large pension. Although only a mediocre writer, he 
 was in 1639 admitted into the French Academy. The 
 work called " Falsity of Human Virtues" is supposed to 
 have been written by him. Died in 1678. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires ;" Tallemant, " Historiettes." 
 Espronceda, de, da es-pRon-tha'Da, (Jose,) a popu- 
 lar Spanish poet and politician, born near Almendralejo, 
 in Estremadura, in 1810. In early youth he devoted him- 
 self to poetry and politics, and became so obnoxious to 
 government by his radical principles, or his connection 
 with a secret society, that he was imprisoned about the 
 age of fifteen, and banished a few years later. He passed 
 several years in London. In 1030 he fought with the 
 popular party at the barricades of Paris. On the death 
 of the Spanish king, in 1833, he returned to Madrid and 
 entered the queen's body-guards. Again banished to 
 Cuellar for a too free expression of his opinions, he there 
 wrote his popular novel " Sancho Saldaiia, or the Cas- 
 tellan of Cuellar," (1834.) A new regime having suc- 
 ceeded, he obtained his liberty, and returned to Madrid 
 about 1835. He took an active part in the revolutionary 
 contests of 1835-36. In 1841 he was appointed secre- 
 tary of embassy to the Hague, and was elected a mem- 
 ber of the Cortes, but died prematurely in 1842. The 
 Spanish critics highly extol his "Hymn to the Sun," 
 " Pirate," " Executioner," and " The Devil World," (" El 
 Diablo-Mundo,") which was left unfinished. His poetry 
 has some characteristics of the Byronic school. Among 
 his works are poems entitled "El Pelayo," and "The 
 Student of Salamanca." 
 
 See Kennedy's " Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain." 
 Es'pjf, (James P.,) an American meteorologist, born 
 in Washington county, Pennsylvania, in 1785. He pub- 
 lished "The Philosophy of Storms," (1841,) and, among 
 other opinions, maintained that rain might be produced 
 by human agency in all kinds of weather. Died in 
 i860. 
 
 Esquirol, es'ke'rol', (Jean Etienne Dominique,) 
 a French physician, born at Toulouse in 1772. He 
 founded at Paris in 1799 an asylum for the insane, which 
 became a model institution. In 181 7 he commenced a 
 course of clinical lectures for mental maladies. He 
 
 r as i: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttttral; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J[y~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 55 
 
ESQUIROS 
 
 866 
 
 ESTACO 
 
 appears to have rendered important services to humanity, 
 and to have promoted a reform in the harsh regime to 
 which the insane were subjected. He was chosen chief 
 physician of the asylum at Charenton In 1826. In 1838 
 he published a work on insanity, " Des Maladies men- 
 tales," (2 vols.,) which is highly esteemed. Died in 1840. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Lilte'raire ;" Pakiset, " Histoire des 
 Membres de 1'Acad^mie de Me'decine;" Leukkt, " Notice sur M. 
 Esquirol," 1841. 
 
 Esquiros, es'ke'ros', (Henri Alphonse,) a French 
 socialist, poet, and novelist, born in Paris in 1814. He 
 published "Charlotte Corday," a novel, (1840,) "The 
 Evangel of the People," "Songs ofa Prisoner," (1841,) 
 and a " History of the Mountain," (Montagnards,) ( 1 847.) 
 He was exiled for his political radicalism about Decem- 
 ber 2, 1851. 
 
 Esquivel de Alava. See Alava. 
 
 Esra. See Ezra. 
 
 Ess, van, vSn es, (Karl,) a Catholic theologian and 
 Benedictine monk, born at Warburg, in Westphalia, in 
 1770. In co-operation with his cousin, Leander van Ess, 
 he published a German version of the New Testament, 
 (1807,) which was often reprinted. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Atlgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ess, van, (Leander,) a theologian, born at Warburg 
 in 1772; died about 1846. 
 
 Essarts, des, d& z^'sSr', (Charlotte,) Countess of 
 Romorentin, (ro'mo'r&N'taN'.) After being the mistress 
 of Henry IV. of France, she became, in 1630, the wife 
 of Marshal L'Hopital. Died in 1651. 
 
 E3sarts, des, (Pierre,) a French politician, born 
 about 1360, became provost of Paris in 1408, and super- 
 intendent of finances. He deserted the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, and joined the faction of Orleans. He was 
 executed in 1413. 
 
 E3se, d', d£'sa', (Andre de Montalembert — deh 
 m6N'tt'l&N'baiR',) one of the most valiant French cap- 
 tains of his time, was born in Poitou in 1483. He served 
 in the Italian campaigns with such distinction that Fran- 
 cis I. chose him as his comrade in the tournament of 
 1520. In 1543 he defended Landrecy with success against 
 Charles V., and in 1548 commanded in Scotland, where 
 he gained some advantages over the English. He was 
 killed at the siege of Therouanne in 1558. 
 
 See Brantome, " Vies des grands Capitaines;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Generale. " 
 
 Essen, eVsen, (Hans Henrik,) Count of, a Swedish 
 field-marshal, born in West Gothland in 1755. He was 
 made governor of Stockholm about 1796, and grand 
 equerry in 1800. He defended Stralsund against the 
 French in 1807. Charles XHI., who came to the throne 
 in 1809, appointed him a councillor of state, with the title 
 of count, and sent him on an embassy to Paris. For his 
 success against the Norwegians in 1814 he was made a 
 field-marshal, and Governor of Norway. He was reputed 
 one of the greatest Swedish generals of his time. Died 
 in 1824. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire de l'Ehipire." 
 
 Essenius, 8s-sa'ne-us, (Andreas,) a Dutch divine, 
 born at Bommel in 1618. He became professor of theology 
 at Utrecht in 1653, and wrote, among many works, " Sys- 
 tema Theologicum," (1659.) Died in 1677. 
 
 Essex. See Capel, (Arthur,) and Cromwell, 
 (Thomas.) 
 
 Es'sex, (James,) an English architect, born at Cam- 
 bridge in 1723, was educated at King's College. He 
 acquired distinction by his skill in Gothic architecture, 
 and by restoring the chapel of King's College. He also 
 repaired other colleges in Cambridge, and the cathedrals 
 of Ely and Lincoln. He wrote several approved works 
 on Architecture. Died in 1784. 
 
 Essex, (Robert Devereux,) second Earl of, born 
 at Netherwood in 1567, was the eldest son of Walter, the 
 first Earl. He was educated at Cambridge. In 1587 he 
 served as captain-general of cavalry in the army com- 
 manded by his stepfather, the Earl of Leicester. On 
 the death of the latter, in 1588, Essex, whose person and 
 manners were very agreeable, and who was endowed with 
 many virtues, became the special favourite of the queen, 
 and the rival of Raleigh. In 1590 he married a daughter 
 of Sir Francis Walsingham, and widow of Sir Philip Sid- 
 
 ney. He displayed courage and capacity in the victorious 
 expedition against Cadiz in 1596, of which he commanded 
 the land-forces, and Lord Effingham the navy. The next 
 year he was named earl marshal of England. In 1598 
 he quarrelled with the queen, and, receiving from her a 
 box on the ear, he indulged his pride and resentment so 
 far as to withdraw from court for several months. In 
 1599 he was unsuccessful in an expedition against the 
 Irish rebels, and again incurred the displeasure of the 
 queen, who ordered him to be confined, intending to cor- 
 rect rather than ruin him. Having been examined before 
 the privy council, he was suspended from office. Trusting 
 to his general popularity, and led by his impetuous tem- 
 per, he attempted to compel the queen by force to dis- 
 miss his enemies. For this purpose he marched with 
 about two hundred retainers into London, and vainly 
 invoked the aid of the citizens; he was arrested, convicted 
 of treason, and executed in 1601. Elizabeth signed the 
 warrant for his execution very reluctantly, and was in- 
 consolable for his loss. He is admitted to have been 
 by nature noble and generous; but his vanity, ambition, 
 and imprudence rendered these advantages of no avail. 
 
 See W. B. Devereux, " Lives and Letters of the Earls of Essex," 
 etc.: Hume, " History of England;" Clarendon, (Edward Hyde,) 
 "The Characters of Robert, Earl of Essex, and George, Duke of 
 Buckingham, 1 * 1700; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1853. 
 
 Essex, (Robert Devereux,) third Eari. of, son of 
 the preceding, was born in London in 1592, and restored 
 to his father's rank and titles by James I. In 1605 he 
 married Lady Frances Howard, who was only thirteen 
 years of age. She indulged a passion for Lord Roches- 
 ter, and procured a divorce from Essex, whom she hated. 
 After several years spent in retirement at his country 
 mansion, in 1620 he served in the army of the Elector 
 Palatine in Holland, where he gave proof of military 
 talents. Having inherited a share of his father's noble 
 qualities, he became a popular favourite, and, in the 
 troubles of Charles I.'s reign, encouraged the opposi- 
 tion. The king, however, in 1641 appointed him lord 
 chamberlain, and lieutenant-general of a part of the 
 army. When Charles fled from London, he ordered 
 Essex to follow him ; but the earl refused to do so, and 
 was deprived of his commission. He was now the most 
 popular leader of the Presbyterian party. 
 
 In 1642 the Parliament gave him the chief command 
 of the army. The same year he fought the indecisive 
 battle of Edgehill, and in 1643 besieged and took the 
 fortified town of Reading. After suffering reverses in 
 Cornwall, the army of Essex defeated the royalists at 
 Newbury in 1644. He was considered too slow and 
 vacillating by the more zealous republicans, who thought 
 he was averse to a decisive triumph of their cause. They 
 therefore passed the " Self-denying Ordinance," by which 
 members of both Houses were excluded from command 
 in the army, and Essex resigned in 1644. A pension of 
 ,£10,000 was settled on him. At his death the title 
 became extinct. Died in 1647. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England ;" R. Codrington, "Life of 
 Robert, Earl of Essex," 1646; "Lives of the Warriors of the Civil 
 Wars of France and England," by Sir Edward Cust, London, 1867. 
 
 Essex, (Thomas Cromwell,) Earl of. See Crom- 
 well. 
 
 Essex, (Walter Devereux,) first Earl of, an Eng- 
 lish statesman and commander of superior ability, born 
 in Caermarthenshire about 1540. He inherited, at the 
 age of nineteen, the title of Viscount Hereford, and mar- 
 ried Lettice Knollys or Knolles. To reward his military 
 services against the "rebellion of the north" in 1569, he 
 was created Earl of Essex in 1572. He became a great 
 favourite with Queen Elizabeth, and was appointed com- 
 mander of an army sent in 1573 to subdue the insurgents 
 in Ulster. His success in this enterprise was hindered 
 by the intrigues of his rival Leicester, or by the acts of 
 the lord deputy. He resigned his command in 1575, but 
 was persuaded to return with the title of earl marsual of 
 Ireland. He died at Dublin in 1576. His widow Lettice 
 married the Earl of Leicester. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England." 
 
 Essling, Prince of. See Massena. 
 
 Estaco, es-ta'so, (Achille,) [Lat. Achil'lf.s Sta'- 
 tius,] a Portuguese poet and scholar, born at Vidigueira 
 in 1524. He studied at Louvain and Paris, became emi- 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ESTAING 
 
 867 
 
 ESTERHAZY 
 
 nent for learning, and obtained a chair in the college di 
 Sapienza, at Koine. About 1562 Pope Pius IV. appointed 
 him secretary of the Council of Trent. He also acted 
 as Latin secretary to Pius V. He published a collection 
 of elegant Latin verses, (" Sylvae aliquot," 1549,) and 
 notes on Horace's "Art of Poetry," on Catullus, Cicero, 
 and other classic authors. Died in 1581. 
 
 See Gaspaw Estaco, "Familia dos Estacos;" De Thou, " His- 
 loria sui Temporis." 
 
 Estaing, es'taN', [It. Stagno, stln'yo,| an ancient 
 and noble family of Kouergue, in France. Chevalier 
 IT Estaing in 1214 saved Philip Augustus from imminent 
 peril at the battle of Bouvines. Francois, born in 1460, 
 became Bishop of Rhodez in 1501, and died in 1529. 
 Joachim, Count d'Estaing, born about 1617, was noted 
 for military talents. He wrote a " Genealogical Account" 
 of his family. Died in 1688. 
 
 Estaiug, d', des'taN', (Charles Hector,) Count, a 
 French admiral, was born in Auvergne in 1729. He 
 served in India under De Lally about 1758. In 1763 
 he was chosen lieutenant-general of the naval armies, 
 though his experience was gained in the land-service. 
 In 1778, as vice-admiral, he commanded the fleet sent to 
 aid the American republic. Just as this fleet met that 
 of Lord Howe, near Rhode Island, in August, 1778, a 
 violent storm separated them, with much damage to the 
 French. Having captured the isle of Grenada, in 1779, 
 he returned to France in 1780, and, as commandant of 
 the national guard of Versailles in 1790-91, co-operated 
 with La Fayette in efforts to save the lives of the king 
 and queen. He was guillotined in April, 1794. 
 
 See Leboucher, " Histoire de la Guerre de l'Independance des 
 Etats-Unis;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 JEstampes. See Etampes. 
 Estampes-Valencay. See Etampes-Valencay. 
 
 Estancelin, &s't6Ns'laN', (Louis,) a French writer 
 on commerce, navigation, etc., born at Eu in 1777. 
 
 Est'court, (Richard,) an English actor, born at 
 Tewkesbury in 1668, performed in London with success 
 as a comedian, and excelled in mimicry. He was pur- 
 veyor of the Beefsteak Club, and is favourably mentioned 
 in the " Tatler" and " Spectator." He wrote " The Fair 
 Example," a comedy. Died in 1713. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Este, Ss'te or es'ta, ona of the most illustrious sove- 
 reign houses of Italy, and perhaps the most ancient 
 among those which have preserved their power and titles 
 to the present time. The following are a few of the 
 prominent persons who have inherited the marquisate 
 of Este, or the duchies of Ferrara and Modena. Among 
 the first who appears on record is Oherto I., who pos- 
 sessed fiefs in Tuscany and Lunigiana, and married the 
 daughter of Otho, King of Italy. He died about 972, 
 and left a son, Oberto II., who ruled Lunigiana and 
 Obertenga. Albertazzo II., who succeeded about 1020, 
 added to the above the fiefs of Este, Rovigo, and other 
 small towns of Lombardy, and married a princess of the 
 great German house of Guelph or Welf. Their son, 
 styled Guelph IV., was invested in 1071 with the duchy 
 of Bavaria, and is the ancestor of the royal line of Bruns- 
 wick and Hanover. Obizzo, who began to reign in 1 137, 
 was the first who assumed the title Marquis of Este. In 
 1208 the citizens of Ferrara, then a republic, elected 
 Azzo VI., Marquis of Este, as their sovereign. During 
 the civil war which raged between the Guelphs and 
 Ghibelines in the thirteenth century, the Marquis of 
 Este, Azzo VII., was the chief of the former faction. He 
 reigned with glory from 1215 to 1264. OBIZZO II. suc- 
 ceeded in 1264 to the titles of Marquis of Este and 
 Lord of Ferrara. In 1288 a deputation from Modena 
 offered to him the perpetual sovereignty of their city, — 
 an example which was followed by Reggio. Died in 
 1293. Ai.konzo I., Duke of Ferrara and of M6dena, a 
 son of Ercole I., was an able statesman and warrior. 
 He reigned from 1505 to 1534, and married the famous 
 Lucretia Borgia. He was involved in war with the pope 
 Julius II., who took from him M6dena and Reggio j but 
 Charles V. in 1531 confirmed his rights over those cities. 
 His son, Ercole (or Hercules) II., succeeded him in 
 1534, and married Renee, daughter of Louis XII. of 
 France. He died in 1559. Cardinal Ipi'OI.ito, a brother 
 
 of Alfonzo I., was accounted the greatest patron of 
 learning in his time. Died in 1520. Alfonzo II., who 
 succeeded his father in 1559, tarnished his fame by the 
 imprisonment of Tasso, who had been an ornament of 
 his court. Having died without issue in 1597, and named 
 his cousin Cesare as heir, the pope claimed Ferrara as 
 devolved to the see of Rome, by which it has since been 
 held. Cesare, Duke of Modena, transferred the court 
 from Ferrara to Modena. He died in 1628, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Alfonzo III., who, after a short 
 reign, abdicated and turned monk. Francis I., son of 
 Alfonzo I II., succeeded in 1629, and died in 1658, leaving 
 the duchy to his son, Alfonzo IV. The latter had a 
 daughter, Mary, who was married to James II. of Eng- 
 land, and a son, Francis II., who succeeded in 1662. 
 He died without issue in 1694, when his uncle, Cardinal 
 KlNALDO, became the heir. By the marriage of the latter 
 with Charlotte, daughter of the Duke of Brunswick, two 
 branches of the house of Este, which had been separated 
 since 1070, were reunited. He died in 1737. His son, 
 Francis III., Duke of Modena, etc., born in 1698, com- 
 manded the Spanish armies in Italy in the war of the 
 Austrian succession. Died in 1780. Ercole III., (1727 
 -1803,) a son of the preceding, married the Duchess of 
 Massa-Carrara, and left an only child, Maria Beatrice, 
 who became the wife of Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria. 
 In 1797 the duchy of Modena was annexed to the Cisal- 
 pine republic by the treaty of Campo Formio. By the 
 peace of Paris, (1814,) Francis IV., son of Maria Bea- 
 trice, recovered his dominions, which he left at his death, 
 in 1846, to his son, Francis V. (See Francis V.) 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes;" Pompeo 
 Litta, "Famiglie celebri Italiane;" Crawford, "History of the 
 House of Este," London, 1681. 
 
 Este, es'te, (Rev. Charles,) an English writer, born 
 in 1753, was ordained in 1777, and became one of the 
 chaplains at Whitehall. He was one of the editors of 
 "The World," a daily journal, and published a "Journey 
 through Flanders, Germany," etc., (1795.) Died in 1829. 
 
 Este, d', des'ti, (Cardinal Ippolito,) an Italian pre- 
 late, born in 1479, was a brother of Alfonzo I., Duke of 
 Modena, and was noted as a patron of learned men. 
 Ariosto passed a long time in his service. Died in 1520. 
 
 See Muratori, " Annali d'ltalia." 
 
 Esterhazy or Eszterhazy, es-ter-ha'ze, a noble 
 family of Hungary, which traces its origin to Paul d'Es- 
 teras, who lived in the tenth century, and has produced 
 in the space of eight hundred years many eminent men. 
 The most celebrated of these was Paul Esterhazy de 
 Galantha, son of Nicholas, born at Kis-Martony (or Ei- 
 senstadt) in 1635. He displayed literary talents at a very 
 early age, and served in the Austrian army with such 
 success that he was made a field-marshal before he was 
 thirty years old. In 1681 Count Esterhazy was elected 
 Governor-General or Palatine of Hungary, and in 1686 
 took Buda from the Turks. He co-operated with the 
 Austrian court in the subversion of civil and religions 
 liberty. He was created a prince of the Holy Roman 
 Empire in 1687. He used his great wealth in the liberal 
 patronage of art and literature. Died in 1 7 13. 
 
 Esterhazy or Eszterhazy, (Nicholas Joseph,) 
 grandson of Paul, born in 17 14, succeeded in 1762 to 
 his titles and estates. He was a knight of the Golden 
 Fleece, privy councillor, and field-marshal-general. In 
 1783 the dignity of prince, which was previously confined 
 to the eldest son of the family, was extended to all his 
 descendants. He patronized literature and the arts, es- 
 pecially music, and collected at his palace of Eisenstadt 
 the first musicians of his time. Died in 1790. 
 
 Esterhazy de Galantha, es-ter-ha'ze da ga-lan'ti, 
 (Nicholas,) Prince, a magnate of Hungary, born in 
 1765, was a son of the preceding. He married in 1783 
 the Princess of Lichtcnstein. In 1792, as ambassador 
 to the election of Francis II., he displayed extraordinary 
 magnificence. For his alacrity in defending the Austrian 
 throne against the French, about 1797, he was made a 
 field-marshal and privy councillor, and was employed in 
 diplomatic missions to Paris, London, and Saint Peters- 
 burg from 1801 to 1816. His immense revenues enabled 
 him to support a liberal, or rather a prodigal, expenditure. 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 « as k; ^ as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ESTER HAZY 
 
 868 
 
 ESTRELLA 
 
 Esterhazy de Galantha, ( Paul Antony, ) a son 
 of the preceding, was born in 1786. He represented 
 Austria at the court of London from 1815 to 1818 and 
 from 1830 to 1838. He favoured the national and liberal 
 movement which preceded the revolution of 1848, and 
 held office for a short time in the Batthyanyi ministry, 
 but resigned before the war began. He owns larger 
 estates in land than any other subject of Austria. 
 
 Esther, es'ter, [Heb. T1DX, ] a Jewess, whose original 
 name was Hadas'sah, (or, according to some writers, 
 Edissa,) and who is supposed to have lived about 450 
 B.C. at Susa, (Shushan,) the capital of Persia. She was a 
 cousin and adopted daughter of Mordecai, and on account 
 of her beauty was selected as the queen of Ahasuerus, 
 King of Persia, who is supposed to be the Artaxerxes 
 Longimanus of profane history. She has the honour of 
 giving her name to a canonical book of the Bible. The 
 authorship of this book is not ascertained. 
 
 See A. Niccolai, "L'Ester, Dissertazione," Florence, 1765. 
 
 Estiemie. See Ettenne. 
 
 Es'tl-UB or van Est, vin est, (Willem,) a Dutch 
 Catholic divine, born at Gorkum in 1542, was a pro- 
 fessor of theology in Douay. He wrote commentaries 
 on the Epistles, and other theological works. Died in 
 1613. 
 
 Estocart, L', les'to'kiR', (Charles,) a French sculp- 
 tor, who worked in Paris about 1650. 
 
 Estocq. See Lestocq. 
 
 Estoile. See Etoile, de l'. 
 
 Estor, 6s'toR, (Johann Georg,) a German jurist and 
 legal writer, born in Hesse in 1699, became professor of 
 law at Jena in 1735. Died in 1773. 
 
 Estourmel, d', deVtooR'nieT, (Alexandre Cesar 
 Louis,) Comte, a French legislator, born in Paris in 
 1780. He was one of the twenty-nine deputies who 
 gave the influence of their names to the insurgents who 
 dethroned Charles X. In 1833 he was sent on a mission 
 to the United States, from which he soon returned. 
 
 Estourmel, d', (Francois de Sales Maria Joseph 
 Louis,) Comte, a French traveller, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1783 ; died in 1852. 
 
 Estourmel, d', (Louis Marie,) Marquis, born in 
 Picardy, France, in 1744. As a member of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly, he opposed the Revolution. He 
 afterwards served in the army of the Rhine, and be- 
 came a general of division. In 1805 and in 181 1 he was 
 chosen a member of the legislative body. Died in 1823. 
 
 Estouteville, d', des'toot'vel',(GuiLLAUME,)a French 
 prelate, born in 1403. He obtained successively six 
 bishoprics, some of which were in Italy, and was at the 
 same time Archbishop of Rouen. He built the towers 
 of the cathedral of Rouen. Died in 1483. 
 
 Estrada, de, da 5s-tRa'Da, (Bartolome Ruiz,) a 
 Spanish pilot, who served under Pizarro in South Ame- 
 rica. He conducted Pizarro and Almagro to the Rio 
 Peru about 1525. 
 
 Estrades, d', deVtRtd', (Godefroi,) Comte, an able 
 French general and negotiator, born at Agen in 1607, was 
 employed in several foreign missions from 1637 to 1647. 
 As lieutenant-general, he commanded at the siege of 
 Dunkirk in 1652, and at Rochelle in 1653. He was sent 
 as ambassador to England in 1661, and obtained the 
 cession of Dunkirk to France. For his military services 
 in Holland from 1672 to 1675 he was created marshal of 
 France. He negotiated on the part of France the peace 
 of Nymwegen in 1678, and was chosen governor of the 
 Duke of Chartres in 1685. He was reputed one of the 
 ablest negotiators of his time. Died in 1686. 
 
 SeeMic.NET, " Negotiations relatives a la Succession d'Espagne ;" 
 M Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale ;" and his " Lettres, Memoires," 
 etc., published by J. Avmon, 5 vols., 1709. 
 
 Estrees, d', des'tRa', (Antoine,) a son of Jean, (the 
 first of that name,) noticed below, was at one time grand 
 master of artillery, and defended Noyon against the 
 Duke of Mayenne in 1593. Henry IV. for this service 
 appointed him Governor of the Isle of France. 
 
 Estrees, d\ (Cesar,) Cardinal, a son of Francois 
 Annibal, and grandson of the preceding, was born in 
 1628. Soon after graduating in the Sorbonne, he was 
 appointed Bishop of Laon. Having been made a car- 
 dinal, he was sent as minister to Rome, where he con- 
 
 curred in the election of Innocent XI. in 1676. He was 
 a member of the French Academy. Died in 1714. 
 See D'Alembert, "Histoire des Membres de l'Academie." 
 Estrees, d', (Francois Annihal,) a French general 
 and peer, born in 1573, was the son of Antoine, and 
 brother of Gabrielle. He was for a short time Bishop 
 of Noyon, but exchanged the church for the army, in 
 which his talents and services procured for him a mar- 
 shal's baton in 1626. Richelieu sent him to Rome as 
 envoy extraordinary in 1636. He officiated as constable 
 at the coronation of Louis XIV., who soon after created 
 him Duke of Estrees. Died in 1670. 
 
 See Bazin, " Histoire de I.ouis XIII ;" J. Chassebras, " filoge 
 de F. A. Due d' Estrees," 1687. 
 
 Estrees, d', (Gabrielle,) a beautiful French lady, 
 born about 1571, was the daughter of Antoine, and a 
 sister of the preceding, the first Duke of Estrees. She 
 became the mistress of Henry IV., who designed to 
 marry her and raise her to the throne ; but she died 
 suddenly in 1599. It is said that he was more attached 
 to her than to any other woman, and that his partiality 
 was merited by her amiable qualities. 
 
 See Tali.emant des Reaux, " Historiettes ;" Saintb-Beuve, 
 "Causeries du Lundi ;" Lamothe-Langon, " Me'moires de G. 
 d'Estrees," 2 vols., 1829. 
 
 Estrees, d', (Jean,) a skilful French officer, born in 
 i486 of a noble family in Picardy. He followed Francis 
 I. to the battles of Marignao, (1515,) Pavia, (1525,) and 
 Cerisoles, (1544.) In 1550 he was chosen grand master 
 and captain-general of the artillery. He embraced the 
 Reformed doctrines, and became attached to the cause 
 of Henry of Navarre. Died in 157 1. 
 
 See BrantQme, " Vies des grands Capitaines;" Moreri, " Dic- 
 tionnaire Historique." 
 
 Estrees, d', (Jean,) Comte, a French marshal, a son 
 of Francois Annibal, was born in 1624. As lieutenant- 
 general, he commanded a corps-d'armee at Valenciennes 
 in 1655. Having entered into the marine service, he 
 became a vice-admiral in 1670, and commanded the 
 French fleet at Solebay against De Ruyter in 1672. He 
 gained advantages over the Dutch at Cayenne and To- 
 bago in 1676-77, and was made a marshal of France in 
 1681, being the first naval officer who ever obtained that 
 rank. Died in 1707, leaving a son, Victor Marie. 
 
 See Leon Guerin, " Les Marins illustres dela France ;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Estrees, d', (Jean,) a French courtier and priest, 
 nephew of Cardinal d'Estrees, was born in Paris in 1666. 
 He was ambassador to Spain in 1703, and succeeded 
 Boileau in the French Academy in 1711. The king 
 appointed him in 1716 successor to Ffmelon as Arch- 
 bishop of Cambray ; but he died before his consecration, 
 in 1718. 
 
 Estrees, d', (Louis Cesar Letellier — leh-ti'le-i',) 
 Comte, born in 1697, was a nephew (sister's sonyof 
 Victor Marie, and was styled in youth Chevalier de 
 Louvois. He was a grandson of the famous minister 
 Louvois. In 1739 he assumed the name of Comte 
 d'Estrees. As lieutenant-general, he served with dis- 
 tinction in Flanders from 1744 to 1748. In 1756 he 
 became a marshal of France, received the chief com- 
 mand of the army in Germany, and defeated the Duke 
 of Cumberland near Hastenbeck in 1757. He died, 
 without issue, in 1771. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'rte'rale." 
 
 Estrees, d', (Victor Marie,) Due, an admiral, the 
 son of Jean, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1660. 
 He obtained in 1684 the reversion of the vice-admiralty 
 possessed by his father. At the death of his uncle, in 
 16S7, he inherited tb.e title of duke. In 1690 he de- 
 stroyed the fleet of the English admiral Torrington. In 
 the war of the Spanish succession he commanded the 
 fleet sent to aid Philip V. of Spain. He was made a 
 marshal of France in 1703, and a member of the French 
 Academy about 1 714. He was a good scholar and a 
 patron of learning. Died in 1737. 
 
 See I,. Guerin, " I.es Marins illustres de la France ;" Hrnnb- 
 quin, " Biographie maritime;" Rene Biet, " filoge de M. !s ManS- 
 chal d'Estrees," 1739. 
 
 Estrella, Ss-tRel'ya, (Juan Cristoval Calvete — 
 kal-va'ti,) a Spaniard, who wrote a " Narrative of the 
 Voyage of Philip of Spain to Flanders in 1549." 
 
 a, e, I, 5, ii, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, it, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ESTRUP 
 
 869 
 
 ETIENNE 
 
 Estrup, es'tRoop, (Hektor Fkederik Janson, ) a 
 Danish writer, born about 1794; died in 1846. 
 
 Eszterhazy. See Esterhazy. 
 
 fitampes, i'toMp', or Estampes, &'t6.Mp', (Anne,) 
 Duchess of, called at first Mademoiselle de Heilly, 
 a French lady, born in 1508. She was a mistress of 
 Francis I., over whom her beauty and talents acquired 
 great influence. She was complimented as "the fairest 
 among the learned, and the most learned among the 
 fair." Died about 1576. 
 
 fitampea or Estampes, d', (Jacques,) Marquis de 
 Ferte-Imbaut, a French general, born in 1590. He 
 displayed skill and courage in many campaigns in Flan- 
 ders, and was lieutenant-general at the battle of Lens 
 1111648. He became a marshal of France in 1651. Died 
 in 1668. 
 
 E'tampes or Estampes -Valencay, d', di'toMp' 
 vS'16n'sj!', (Henri,) a naval officer, born in Paris in 
 1603, commanded the French squadron which blockaded 
 Rochelle under the orders of Richelieu. In 1652 he 
 was sent as ambassador to Rome by Louis XIV., and in 
 1670 was chosen grand prior of France. Died in 1678. 
 
 See More^ri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Etchegoyen, 4'chi'go'e'en', a French philosopher, 
 born near 1'au (Beam) about 1786. He published a 
 work entitled "On Unity, or a Philosophic Treatise on 
 the Identity of the Principles of Mathematics, General 
 Grammar, and the Christian Religion," (4 vols., 1836- 
 42,) which is highly commended. Died in 1843. 
 
 Etcheverri. See EchEverri. 
 
 fiteocle. See Eteocles. 
 
 E-te'o-cles, [Gr. 'Er«wAi?c; Fr. EtEocle, i'ti'okl',] 
 a son of OZdipus, after whose death he and his brother 
 Polynices agreed to reign alternately at Thebes. Eteo- 
 cles having usurped the sole power, his brother fled to 
 Adrastus, who espoused his cause and led the expedi- 
 tion of the Seven against Thebes. Eteocles was killed 
 by Polynices in a single combat. 
 
 fitex, i'teks', ( Antoine,) a successful French sculptor, 
 born in Paris in 1808. Among his works are statues of 
 Charlemagne at the Luxembourg, Saint Augustine at the 
 Madeleine, busts of Chateaubriand and Cavaignac, and 
 two colossal groups which decorate the Arc de l'fitoile. 
 
 Eth'el-bald, King of Mercia, who began to reign in 
 716 A.D., was one of the most eminent princes who ruled 
 this part of the Heptarchy. He was defeated by Cuthred, 
 King of Wessex, in 754 and in 757, and soon after was 
 killed by Iieornred, one of his officers. 
 
 Ethelbald, King of Wessex, or of the Anglo-Saxons, 
 was the eldest surviving son of Ethelwolf, and brother 
 of Alfred the Great. While his father was absent from 
 the kingdom in 855, Ethelbald aspired to the throne with 
 such success that Ethelwolf, for the sake of peace, ceded 
 to him the kingdom of Wessex. He married his father's 
 widow, Judith of France. Died in 860, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Ethelbert. 
 
 Eth'el-bert, King of Kent, son of Hermenric, began 
 to reign about 560 a.d. By a victory over Ceaulin, King 
 of Wessex, he obtained the ascendency in the Heptarchy. 
 Before the death of his father he married Bertha of 
 Paris, a French princess, who was a zealous Christian 
 and gained great influence over the king and people. 
 The conversion of Ethelbert, with many of his subjects, 
 was completed by the agency of a Roman monk, Augus- 
 tine, who arrived in 597. Under Ethelbert's wise reign 
 the kingdom was prosperous. He was the author of the 
 first written laws among the Anglo-Saxons. Died in 616. 
 
 See Lingard's " History of England." 
 
 Ethelbert, King of the Anglo-Saxons, a son of Ethel- 
 wolf, succeeded his brother Ethelbald in 860 A.D. During 
 the life of his father, in 852, he had been made king or 
 regent of Kent, Essex, and Sussex, to which Wessex was 
 added at the death of Ethelbald. The kingdom was 
 infested by the Danes during his reign. He died in 865 
 or 866, and left the throne to his brother, Ethelred. 
 
 Ethelfleda. See Elfleda. 
 
 Eth'el-frid or A'del-frid, King of Northumbria, 
 began to reign in 593 a.d. He was killed in battle 
 fighting against Redwald in 617. 
 
 Eth-el-gi'va, an ambitious concubine of Edwy, King 
 of the Anglo-Saxons. Her influence over Edwy excited 
 
 the jealousy of his subjects, who put her to death in 958 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Ethelnoth. See Agelnoth. 
 
 Eth'el-red X, written also iEthelred, King of Wes- 
 sex, and head of the Saxon Heptarchy, the fourth son 
 of Ethelwolf, became king in 866 A.D. In the same year 
 a large army of Danes invaded the island, and in a few 
 years had conquered about half of the kingdom. In 870 
 the English under Alfred defeated the Danes at Ash- 
 Tree Hill. The next year the Danes defeated the English 
 at Merton, where Ethelred received a mortal wound. 
 His brother, Alfred the Great, was his successor. 
 
 Ethelred II., written also JBthelred, surnamed the 
 Unready, King of the Anglo-Saxons, was the son of 
 Edgar and Elfrida. He was born about 968 A. I)., and 
 succeeded his half-brother, Edward the Martyr, in 978. 
 The crimes of Elfrida rendered the people disaffected co 
 her son, who was accepted only because there was no 
 other heir. His reign was perhaps the most disastrous 
 and inglorious in English history. The kingdom was re- 
 peatedly ravaged by the Danes, who, after extorting large 
 sums of money as the price of peace, soon returned for 
 more, and demanded each time a larger tribute. In 1002 
 Ethelred ordered a general massacre of the Danish 
 settlers in his realm, which was avenged by Sweyn, King 
 of the Danes, who took London in 1014. Ethelred then 
 fled to the court of the Duke of Normandy, whose sister 
 Emma he had married. He died in 1016, leaving two 
 sons, Edmund Ironside and Edward the Confessor, who 
 became kings. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England," vol. i. chap. ii. ; Freeman, 
 "Norman Conquest," vol. i. chap. v. 
 
 Eth'el-werd or Eth'el-ward, an Anglo-Saxon 
 writer of the eleventh century, wrote a "History of the 
 Anglo-Saxons," in Latin. 
 
 Eth'el-wold, a learned Anglo-Saxon prelate, born 
 about 925, was a friend of Dunstan. He became Bishop 
 of Winchester in 963, founded several monasteries, and 
 made a reform ii. the monastic orders by the expulsion 
 of married priests. Died in 984. 
 
 Eth'el-wolf, (eth'el-woolf,) King of Wessex, or of the 
 Saxon Heptarchy, the eldest son of Egbert, began to reign 
 in 836 a.d. The country in this reign was harassed by 
 frequent invasions of the Danes, who in 851 plundered 
 London. Soon after this they were defeated with great 
 loss at Okeley by Ethelwolf. He had five sons, Ethel- 
 stan, (who died before his father,) Ethelbald, Ethelbert, 
 Ethelred, and Alfred the Great. In 856 he married Judith 
 of France, daughter of Charles the Bald, and resigned 
 Wessex to Ethelbald. Died in 858. 
 
 See William of Malmesbi/rv, "De Gestis Regum Anglorum." 
 
 Ethelwolf, an Anglo Saxon monk of the eighth and 
 ninth centuries, born before 770, wrote a metrical history 
 of the Abbots, etc. of the monastery of Lindisfarne, which 
 is of some historical value, and has some interest as the 
 only specimen of Anglo-Latin poetry of that period. 
 
 Eth'er-ege or Etheridge, (Sir George,) an English 
 wit and dramatic author, born about 1636, wrote several 
 licentious and successful comedies, among which are 
 " Love in a Tub," and " Sir Fopling Flutter, or the Man 
 of Mode." James II. sent him as minister to Ratisbon 
 about 1687. Died about 1690. 
 
 See Baku, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Etheridge. See Etherege. 
 
 Ethicus. See jEthicus. 
 
 fithia, the French of ^Ethra, which see. 
 
 Eth'ryg, written also Etheridge, [Lat. Edry'cus,] 
 (George,) was professor of Greek at Oxford in 1553. 
 He published a Latin version of Justin Martyr, and 
 several other works. He was a zealous Catholic. 
 
 fitienne, i'te'en', written also Estienne, (Antoine,) 
 son of Paul, noticed below, was born in Geneva in 1594. 
 In 1614 he obtained the title of printer to the King of 
 France, with a pension of 500 livres, and published many 
 valuable editions of ancient authors. Died in 1674. 
 
 fitienne, i'te'en', or Estienne, (Chari.es,) a scholar 
 and physician, born in Paris about 1504. In 1551 he en- 
 gaged in printing in Paris, and was appointed printer to 
 the king. His editions were models of typography and 
 accuracy. He compiled several dictionaries, a "Thesau- 
 rus Ciceronis," (1557,) and other works. Died in 1564. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; § as z; th as in this. (Jl^f* See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ETIENNE 
 
 870 
 
 ETTY 
 
 Etienne, (Charles Guillaume,) a French dramatic 
 poet, born at Chamouilly in 1778. He produced in 1807 
 the successful comedy of " Brueys et Palaprat." His 
 comedy of "Two Sons-in-Law ("Deux Gendres") 
 opened to him the French Academy in i8u. After the 
 restoration he became editor of the "Constitutionnel," 
 which he rendered one of the most popular of the liberal 
 organs of Paris. His " Letters on Paris," which appeared 
 in the "Minerve," were read with avidity. He sat in the 
 Chamber of Deputies from 1822 to 1839, when he was 
 raised to the peerage. He was author of numerous 
 comedies and operas. Died in 1845. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" Leon Thiess6, " M. 
 Etienne; Essai biographique et liiteVaire," 1853; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 g,taphie Generale." 
 
 Etienne or Estieime, [Eng. Ste'phens; Lat. Steph'- 
 anus,] (Henry I.,) bom in Paris about 1470 or 1460, was 
 the head of a remarkable family of printers and scholars, 
 who greatly "promoted the progress of learning by the 
 issue of good editions of classic authors. He began to 
 print books about 1503, and chose the device "Plus olei 
 quam vini," (" More oil than wine.") His publications 
 were chiefly scientific or theological. He died in 1520, 
 leaving three sons, Francis, Robert, and Charles. Simon 
 de Colines married his widow, and continued the business 
 in partnership with Francis. 
 
 Etienne or Estieime, (Henry II.,) son of Robert 
 Ctienne, (the first of that name,) born in Paris in 1528, 
 is considered by some the most eminent of the whole 
 family. In childhood he showed a remarkable aptitude 
 in acquiring the Latin and Greek languages, and about 
 the age of eighteen he began to assist his father in his 
 business. In 1547 he visited Italy, where he passed 
 three years in the search of ancient literary treasures. 
 He established a press in Paris about 1556, and adopted 
 as his emblem the olive-tree. At the death of his father, 
 in 1559, Henry appears to have removed to Geneva and 
 to have taken charge of his father's establishment. The 
 number of works which he printed and edited is immense. 
 His celebrated Greek "Thesaurus," or "Dictionary," 
 (1572,) would alone insure him an enduring reputation. 
 The learned bestowed on this the highest eulogies ; but 
 the sale of it was retarded by its great price, (especially 
 after an abridgment was published by Scapula,) and the 
 author was involved in pecuniary difficulties. He pub- 
 lished, among others, editions of Herodotus, ^Eschylus, 
 Plato, Horace, Virgil, Pliny, and Plutarch. In the latter 
 part of his time he led a wandering life, passing several 
 years in Paris, and in other parts of France. He pro- 
 fessed the Reformed religion, and was one of the most 
 learned men that have ever lived. He died in Lyons in 
 1598, leaving one son, Paul, and a daughter, who was 
 the wife of Isaac Casaubon. 
 
 See Maittaire. "Stephanomm Historia," I70g; Renouard, 
 " Annales ties Estienne," 1843; Firmin Didot, "Observations sur 
 Henri Estienne," 1826; Leon Feugbre, "Essai sur la Vie et les 
 Ouvrages de H. Estienne," 1853; "London Quarterly Review" for 
 April, 1S65 ; also Ambrose Firmin Didot's notice in the " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Etienne or Estienne, (Henry III.,) son of Robert, 
 (the second of that name,) became treasurer of the 
 French royal palaces. He had a son Henry, who had 
 some reputation as a poet, and was the author of the 
 "Art of making Devices" and "The Triumphs of Louis 
 the Just," (1649.) 
 
 Etienne or Estienne, (Paul,) son of Henry Etienne, 
 (the second of that name,) born at Geneva in 1566, applied 
 himself to the same pursuits in which his ancestors had 
 acquired such fame. After travelling for several years in 
 various countries of Europe, he returned to Geneva, and 
 became successor to his father in 1599. He produced 
 fine editions of Euripides, Sophocles, and other classic 
 authors. Died about 1627. 
 
 Etienne or Estienne, (Robert I.,) born in Paris in 
 1503, was one of the most celebrated printers of this 
 family, and one of the most excellent scholars of his 
 time. He was well versed in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. 
 In 1526 he established a press, from which he issued 
 editions of the classics that were superior to all former 
 editions and in many cases were enriched with notes 
 , and prefaces by himself. In 1 532 he published an edition 
 of the Bible in Latin, and in the same year an important 
 
 original work, "Thesaurus Linguae Latinae," which has 
 often been reprinted. In 1539 he was appointed printer 
 to the king. As Etienne was a Protestant, this favour 
 excited the jealousy of the doctors of the Sorbonne, who 
 instigated a charge of heresy against him ; but he was 
 protected by Francis I. as long as the latter lived; 
 After the accession of Henry II., (1547,) the vexations 
 to which he was subjected by the Catholics, who wished 
 to stop the sale of his Bible, induced him to remove to 
 Geneva in 1552. He compiled the first "Latin-French 
 Dictionary," (1543,) which was much esteemed. His 
 contemporaries ranked him among the greatest scholars 
 that ever lived. He died in 1559, leaving three sons, 
 Henry, Robert, and Francis. 
 
 See Maittaire, "Stephanorum Historia," 1709; Nichron, 
 "M^moires;" A. F. Didot's article in the "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale ;" and his " Essai sur la Typographic;" also " London Quar- 
 terly Review" for April, 1865. 
 
 Etienne or Estienne, (Robert II.,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in Paris about 1530. As he preferred the 
 old religion, he refused to follow his father to Geneva, 
 and opened a printing-office in Paris about 1556. In 1561 
 he received the title of printer to the king. Died in 1571, 
 leaving two sons, Robert and Henry. 
 
 Etienne or Estienne, (Robert III.,) son of the 
 preceding, was born in Paris, and commenced business 
 as a printer in 1572. He was a man of talents and cul- 
 tivation, and author of several poetical pieces. He 
 translated the " Rhetoric" of Aristotle into French. 
 Died about 1630. 
 
 See Gresweli., " Parisian Greek Press ;" A. A. Renouard, 
 " Annales des Estienne," i843;Didot, "Essai sur la Typographic" 
 
 Etienne de Blois. See Stephkn, King of England. 
 
 Etienne de Tournay, i'te-en' deh tooit'ni', a French 
 prelate, born at Orleans in 1132 ; died in 1203. 
 
 Etoile or Estoile, del', deh li'twal', (Claude,) born 
 in Paris about 1597, was the son of Pierre, noticed below. 
 He was one of the first members of the French Academy, 
 and enjoyed the favour of Cardinal Richelieu. His prin- 
 cipal productions were "The Fair Slave," atragi-comedy, 
 and some fugitive poems. Died in 165 1. 
 
 Etoile or Estoile, de 1', (Pierre,) a French chroni- 
 cler, born in Paris about 1544, was a crier ( grand audien- 
 cier) of the chancery. He left a promiscuous journal 
 of events, anecdotes, manners, customs, etc. during the 
 reigns of Henry III. and Henry IV., (1574-1610,) which 
 was published, the first part in 1621 and the second 
 part in 1719. It is highly prized by antiquaries and 
 students of history, and appears to have been wiitten 
 with candour. Died in 161 1. 
 
 See Mor£ri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Ettmuller, 8t'nvttl'ler, (Ernst Moritz Ludwig,) a 
 German philologist, born at Gersdorf, near LSbau, in 
 1802. He is distinguished for his researches in ancient 
 German literature. In 1833 he became professor of 
 German at Zurich. He published, besides editions of 
 old German poets, several epic poems, among which is 
 " The Chiefs of the Royal German Houses," (" Deutsche 
 Staromkonige," 1844,) also an "Anglo-Saxon Lexicon," 
 (1852.) 
 
 Ettmuller, (Michael,) an eminent German physician, 
 born at Leipsic in 1644. He graduated in 1668, and be- 
 came a member of the Faculty of Medicine it 1676. He 
 acquired great popularity as professor of botany and 
 surgery in Leipsic. His works were often reprinted, 
 with the title of "Opera Omnia." Died in 1683. 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Ettmuller, (Michael Ernst,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Leipsic in 1673. He practised in Leipsic, 
 and was successively professor of anatomy, physiology 
 and medicine in the university of that city. Died in 1732. 
 See Ersch undGRUBER, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Et'ty, (William,) an eminent English historical 
 painter, born at York in 1787, was a pupil of Sir Thomas 
 Lawrence. He visited Italy in 1816, and again in 1822, 
 and copied with rapidity many of the old masters. His 
 picture of "Cleopatra arriving in Cilicia," exhibited in 
 the Academy in 1821, was very successful. In 1824 he 
 was elected an associate of the Royal Academy. His 
 favourite subjects were nude female figures. He attained 
 a high rank among English painters, and is considered 
 
 3, f , T, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon- 
 
EUBCEUS 
 
 871 
 
 EUDES 
 
 unrivalled as a coloi ist. Among his best productions are 
 "Pandora crowned by the Seasons," (1824,) "The Com- 
 bat : Woman pleading for the Vanquished," (1825,) 
 "Joan of Arc," "Ulysses and the Sirens," and "The 
 Judgment of Paris," (1826.) In 1848 a collection of 
 one hundred and thirty of his pictures was exhibited in 
 London. Died in 1S49. 
 
 See his "Autobiography;" A. Gilchrist, "Life of William 
 Etty," 1S55; "Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1S55. 
 
 Euboeus, u-bee'us, [EtSoioc,] of Paros, a celebrated 
 Greek writer of parodies, lived about 350 B.C. His works 
 are not extant. 
 
 Eubulide. See Eubulides. 
 
 Eu-bu'11-deS, [Gr. EiSov/U'ifyc; Fr. Eubulide, uh'bii'- 
 iH',] a Greek philosopher of the Megaric school, was 
 a nj'ive of Miletus and an adversary of Aristotle. He 
 flourished probably about 350 B.C. He was the reputed 
 author of several sophistical syllogisms, among which 
 was the sorites, and was one of the successors of Euclid 
 in the school of Megara. 
 
 See Mallet, " Histoire de l'E*cole de Megare." 
 
 Eubulides, [EvSov/Mhft,] a Greek statuary of un- 
 certain date. He made a group of statues of Apollo, 
 Athena, Zeus, and the Muses, which he dedicated in a 
 temple at Athens. This group was found in 1837. 
 
 Eu-bu'lus, [Et>6Wloc,] an eminent Greek comic poet 
 of the middle comedy, lived at Athens about 375 B.C. 
 He composed many comedies on mythological subjects, 
 and in simple, elegant language. Small fragments of his 
 works are extant. 
 
 See Clinton, " Fasti Hellenici." 
 
 Eu-ehe'rI-us, [Fr. Eucher, uh'shaiR',] a native of 
 Gaul, became Bishop of Lyons about 434 A.D. He wrote 
 several religious works, which are extant. Died about 
 
 450 A.D. 
 
 Eucleides or Euclides. See Euclid. 
 
 EG 'did, Eu-cli'des, Eu-kli'des or Eu-clei'des, 
 [Gr. EvKMifox; Fr. Euclide, uh'kled',] of Alexan- 
 dria, a celebrated Greek geometer, whose name is nearly 
 synonymous with geometry, but of whose life we have 
 only scanty information. He taught mathematics in the 
 capital of Egypt in the reign of the first Ptolemy, (323 
 -2S3 B.C.,) and appears to have been a disciple of the 
 Platonic philosophy. Having been asked by Ptolemy if 
 geometry could be mastered by some easier method than 
 the ordinary one, he returnee! the witty and celebrated 
 answer, "There is no royal road to geometry." He was 
 the editor or author of the most ancient systems of geo- 
 metry which are extant, and surpassed all competitors in 
 the luminous exposition of his theorems and the rigorous 
 order of his demonstrations. For about two thousand 
 years no improvement was made on his labours, and his 
 Elements were considered an almost perfect standard. 
 
 See Delambrk," Histoire del'Astronomieancienne ;" Montucla, 
 " Histoire des Mathematiques;" Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and 
 Roman Biography and Mythology." 
 
 Euclid, Euclides, Euklides, or Eucleides, [Gr. 
 Et«/«'oV/c ; Fr. Euclide,] of Meg'ara, a Greek philoso- 
 pher, an eminent disciple of Socrates, flourished about 
 400 B.C. He also derived some of his doctrines from the 
 Eleatic school. On the death of Socrates, 399 B.C., he 
 removed to Megara, where he founded the school called 
 Megaric or Dialectic. He appears to have combined in 
 his system the ethics of Socrates with the ontology or 
 metaphysics of the Eleatics. In the fifteenth century he 
 was often confounded with Euclid the great geometer. 
 
 See Mai.lkt, " Histoire de P£co!e de Megare;" G. H. Lewes, 
 raphical History of Philosophy;" " Dictionnaire des Sciences 
 philosophiques." 
 
 Euclide. See Euclid and Euclides. 
 
 Eu-cli'des or Eu-clei'des [Gr. EwO«'%; Fr. Eu- 
 clide, uh'kled'] was archon of Athens in 403 B.C. During 
 his archonship the ancient laws of Solon were restored. 
 
 Euclides, an Athenian sculptor, mentioned by Pau- 
 sanias, lived about 372 B.C. 
 
 Euclides, a Spartan general, a brother of Cleomenes 
 III., was killed at the battle of Sellasia, 223 B.C. 
 
 Euclides, (the geometrician.) See Euclid of Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 Euclides, (the philosopher.) See Euclid of Meg- 
 ara. 
 
 Eu'cra-tes, [Gr. Eukputtk ; Fr. Eucrate, uh'kRit', 
 an Athenian general, a brother of Nicias, lived about 
 420 B.C. He was put to death by the Thirty Tyrants. 
 
 Eucratide. See Eucratides. 
 
 Eu-crat'I-des, [Gr. EvKi>aridi){ ; Fr. Eucratide, uh'. 
 kRi'tid',] a powerful king of Hactria, reigned probably 
 between 180 and 150 B.C., and was contemporary with 
 Mithridates I. of Parthia. He waged war against De- 
 metrius, King of India, and made extensive conquests in 
 the northern part of that empire. He was assassinated 
 by his own son. 
 
 Euc-te'mon, [ EvKTrniuv, ] an Athenian astronomer, 
 who lived about 432 B.C., was a friend and associate of 
 Meton, the inventor of the cycle of nineteen years. He 
 corrected the time assigned by Hesiod for the heliacal 
 setting of the Pleiades. 
 
 Eudaemon, u-dee'mon, (Johannes Andreas,) born 
 in the isle of Candia about 1560, came to Rome in his 
 youth, and joined the Jesuits in 1581. He was a pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and rector of the Greek College 
 in Rome. He wrote an apology for Henry Garnet, an 
 English Jesuit, which was answered by Isaac Casaubon, 
 and he was the reputed author of a libel against Louis 
 XIII. of France, "Ad Ludovicum XIII. Admonitio," 
 (1625.) Died in 1625. 
 
 Eu-dam'I-das, [EMa/uia^,] a Spartan general, who 
 lived between 400 and 375 B.C. 
 
 Eudamidas, a king of Sparta, a son of Archidamus 
 III., began to reign about 330 B.C. 
 
 Eudeme. See Eudemus. 
 
 Eu-de'mus [Gr. EMi/pa; ; Fr. Eudeme, uh'djin'] 
 of Rhodes, a Greek Peripatetic philosopher, who flou- 
 rished about 330 B.C. He was one of the principal dis- 
 ciples of Aristotle, and rendered important services as 
 editor and commentator of the works of his master. 
 Several modern critics ascribe to Eudemus certain 
 works which others suppose to have been written by 
 Aristotle himself. He was the author of a " History of 
 Geometry and Astronomy," which is not extant. 
 
 See Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Graca ;" Diogenes Laertiu.s. 
 
 Eudemus, [Gr. Ef'<%<or; Fr. Eudeme,] a general of 
 Alexander the Great. He obtained command of the 
 army left in India, and, after the death of Alexander, 
 conquered the dominions of Porus, whom he killed by 
 insidious means. He joined Eumenes in a war against 
 Antigonus, by whom he was put to death about 316 B.C. 
 
 Eudemus, a celebrated Greek anatomist, who lived 
 probably in the third century B.C. According to Galen, 
 he was a contemporary of Erasistratus. 
 
 Eudes. See Eudo. 
 
 Eu'des, ? [Fr. pron. ud,| Count of Paris, was the eldest 
 son of Robert, Duke of France. In 885 A.D. he ably 
 defended Paris against the Normans for nearly a year. 
 At the death of Charles le Gros, in 888, Eudes was elected 
 King of France by many of the nobles. The throne ljeing 
 contested by Charles III., Eudes made peace by ceding 
 to him the country between the Seine and the Rhine. 
 Died in 898. 
 
 Eudes I., Duke of Burgundy, succeeded his brother, 
 Hugh (Hugues) I,, in 1078. He once attacked Anselm, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, with the design to rob him, 
 but was so affected by his venerable aspect that he 
 changed his mind. He afterwards departed on a crusade 
 to Palestine, and died in Cilicia in 1 103. 
 
 Eudes II., Duke of Burgundy, was the son of Hugh 
 II., whom he succeeded in 1142. In 1143 he compelled 
 Thibaut of Champagne to render homage for the county 
 of Troyes and other fiefs. Died in 1 162, and left the 
 duchy to Ungues III. 
 
 Eudes HX, grandson of Eudes II., became Duke of 
 Burgundy in 1 190. He refused the chief command of the 
 crusaders in 1201, and remained at home. In 1214 he 
 commanded a wing of the French army at the battle of 
 Bouvines. Diedinl2l8. His son, Hugh IV., wasliis heir. 
 
 Eudes IV., Duke of Burgundy, was the son of Robert 
 II., and succeeded his brother, Hugh V., in 1315. He 
 married in 1318 the daughter of Philip, King of France. 
 In a long and prosperous reign he was a powerful sup- 
 port to the throne of Charles the Fair, who was his 
 nephew, and of Philip of Valois, who married Eudes's 
 sister. Died in 1350. 
 
 « as A; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, tmsal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (83^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
EUDES 
 
 872 
 
 EUGENE 
 
 Elides, Count of Champagne, was an ambitious and 
 warlike baron, and one of the most powerful feudatories 
 of the kingdom. In an attempt to make himself master 
 of Lorraine, he was defeated and killed in 1037. 
 
 Eudes, ud, (Jean,) a French priest, born at Ry, near 
 Argentan, in 1601, was a brother of Mezeray the historian. 
 About 1645 he founded for the promotion of missions 
 a new community called Eudistes, which was dissolved 
 at the Revolution. lie wrote several devotional works. 
 Died in 1680. 
 
 Eudes de Mezeray. See Mezeray. 
 
 Eu'do [ Fr. Eudon, uh'd6N' ] or Eudes, Duke of 
 Aquitaine and Vasconie, (Gascony, ) born in 665 A.D., 
 succeeded his father Boggison about 681. He added to 
 his dominions large tracts obtained by conquest from the 
 Kings of Austrasia and Neustria. In 720 a large army 
 of Saracens invaded his dominions, and were signally 
 defeated near Toulouse, the capital of Eudo. About 732 
 Aquitaine was invaded by Abderrahman the Saracen, who 
 defeated Eudo. The latter then solicited the aid of his 
 former enemy, Charles Martel, who gained an important 
 victory over the Saracens at Poitiers. Died in 735 A.D. 
 
 Eudocia, u-do'she-a, [Gr. Eidonia; Fr. EudoCIE, 
 uh'do'se',] sometimeiTcalled Eudoxia, a Roman em- 
 press, distinguished for her beauty and talents, the wife 
 of Theodosius II., was born at Athens about 394 A.D., 
 and was called Athenais before her conversion to Chris- 
 tianity. She was married in 421 A.D. Theodosius be- 
 came jealous, and banished her in 449 to Palestine, where 
 she died in 460 or 461. She wrote several poems, among 
 which was a Paraphrase of the first Eight Books of the 
 Old Testament. 
 
 See Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire." 
 
 Eudocia. See Eudoxia. 
 
 Eudocie. See Eudocia. 
 
 Eudokia. See Eudocia. 
 
 Eudon. See Eudo. 
 
 Eu-do'rus, [Gr. EMupoc ,- Fr. Eudork, uh'doR',] a 
 Greek philosopher, who lived probably before the Chris- 
 tian era, and was a commentator on Aristotle's "Meta- 
 physics." 
 
 Eudoxe. See Eudoxus. 
 
 Eudoxia. See Eudocia. 
 
 Eu-dox'I-a, [Gr. Btoofia; Fr. Eudoxie, uh'dok'se',] 
 sometimes called Eudocia, Empress of the East, was of 
 French origin, and was married to Arcadius in 395 A.D. 
 She acquired a complete ascendency over that feeble 
 prince, and procured the exile of Chrysostpm, Patriarch 
 of Constantinople. Her son reigned as Theodosius II. 
 
 Eudoxia or Eudocia, a Roman empress, daughter 
 of Theodosius II. and Eudocia, noticed above, became 
 the wife of Valentinian III. Petronius Maximus, having 
 assassinated the emperor and usurped the throne, (455 
 A.T>.,) compelled Eudoxia to be his wife. She avenged 
 herself by inviting Genseric the Vandal, who sacked Rome 
 and carried her to Africa. 
 
 See Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire." 
 
 Eudoxia or Eudocia was the wife of Constantine 
 Ducas, who became Emperor of Constantinople in 1059. 
 He died in 1067, leaving three minor sons, Constantine, 
 Michael, and Andronicus, under the tutelage of their 
 mother. She married Romanus Diogenes in 1068, and 
 three years later was forced to resign the royal power 
 to her son Michael. She was the author of a learned 
 work, entitled " Ionia," on the genealogy and metamor- 
 phoses of gods, heroes, and heroines. 
 
 Eudoxie. See Eudoxia. 
 
 Eu-dox'I-us, a native of Armenia. He embraced 
 the doctrines of Arius in their full extent, and was 
 chosen Bishop of Antioch about 356, and Patriarch of 
 Constantinople in 360. Died in 370. 
 
 Eudoxius, surnamed Heros, or THE Hero, a Roman 
 jurist, who lived about the fifth centory. 
 
 Eu-dox'us, [Gr. Etoo£t>c; Fr. Eudoxe, uh'doks',] a 
 celebrated Greek astronomer, born at Cnidus, in Caria, 
 lived about 370 Ii.C He was a pupil of Archytas, and 
 a friend or disciple of Plato. He opened a school in 
 Athens, which was very flourishing. Pliny informs us 
 that he approximately determined the length of the year 
 
 at 365! days. Eudoxus is also said to have originated the 
 doctrine of the concentric solid crystalline spheres, by 
 which the apparent motions of the sun, moon, and planets 
 were explained. Cicero thought him the greatest astrono- 
 mer that had ever lived. His works are not extant. 
 
 See Delambre, "Histoire de l'Astronomie ancienne." 
 
 Eudoxus, an Athenian comic poet of the new com 
 edy, is supposed to have lived in the third century B.C. 
 
 Eudoxus OF Cvzicus, a Greek navigator, who lived 
 about 130 B.C., and was sent by Ptolemy Evergetes on 
 an exploring or trading expedition to India, from which 
 he returned with success. It is supposed he afterwards 
 attempted to reach India by sailing round Africa, but 
 that he failed in that enterprise. He made no important 
 discoveries. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Boehmer, "Dissertatiu 
 de Eudoxo," 1715; "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Eu-ga-le'nus, (Severin, ) a Dutch physician, born 
 at Dokkum, wrote a "Treatise on the Scurvy," (1588,) 
 which was often reprinted. 
 
 Eu'ga-mon, [Evyu/iw,] a Greek epic poet of Cyrene, 
 lived probably about 560 B.C. He wrote a poem called 
 " Telegonia," which was designed as a continuation of 
 the " Odyssey:" it is not extant. 
 
 Eugeii, the German of Eugenius and Eugene, which 
 see. 
 
 Eugene, the French of Eugenius, which see. 
 
 Eu-gene', [Fr. Eugene, uh'zh&n'; Ger. Eugen, 
 oi-gan',) Prince, (or, more fully, Francois Eugene de 
 Savoy — deh st'vwa',) one of the most celebrated gene- 
 rals of modern times, born in Paris in 1663, was the grand- 
 son of the Duke of Savoy. His father was Eugene Maurice, 
 Count de Soissons, and his mother Olympia Mancini, a 
 niece of Cardinal Mazarin. He was destined for the 
 church, but, disliking the study of theology, he applied 
 to Louis XIV. for the command of a regiment, which 
 was refused. Deeply resenting this refusal, he offered 
 his services, in 1683, to the Emperor of Austria, by whom 
 he was so rapidly promoted in the war against the Turks 
 that he was general-major at the siege of Belgrade, in 
 1688. In 1691 he was appointed to command the Impe- 
 rial army in Piedmont, where he gained advantages over 
 the French, and received the commission of field-marshal. 
 
 About 1694 he rejected the offer of a marshal's baton, 
 with a large pension, which Louis XIV. proposed to him 
 as an inducement to return to the French service. He re- 
 ceived the command of the Austrian army of Hungary, and 
 in 1697 gained a decisive victory over the Turks at Zenta. 
 The war of the Spanish succession soon called him to 
 a more arduous and brilliant career. In 1701 he com- 
 manded in Italy, where he outgeneralled the able French 
 marshal Catinat, and, by an act of successful audacity, 
 surprised Villeroi in Cremona and made him a prisoner. 
 Vendome, having taken the command, proved himself 
 a more equal match for Eugene, who at the indecisive 
 battle of Luzara, in 1702, lost the best part of his army. 
 At the end of this campaign he was made president of 
 the council of war in Vienna. Eugene and the Duke of 
 Marlborough being associated in the command of the 
 allies, their congenial qualities and hearty co-operation 
 contributed greatly to their success. On the 13th of 
 August, 1704, they defeated the French at the famous 
 battle of Blenheim. To check the victorious French 
 army, he was again sent to Italy in 1705, and, engaging 
 with the Duke of Vendome, was wounded and defeated 
 at the battle of Cassano. But in 1706 he gained a corr 
 plete victory at Turin, and drove the French out of Italy. 
 He returned to Vienna in 1707, and was received with 
 great applause. Appointed to command the Imperial 
 army in Flanders, he cooperated with Marlborough in 
 the victory of Oudenarde, (1708,) and in the great battle 
 of Malplaquet, (1709,) which the allies claimed as a vic- 
 tory, although they lost 25,000 men. Eugene, who advised 
 the attack against the opinion of the Dutch deputies, was 
 censured for temerity in this affair. 
 
 In 1712 he performed a diplomatic mission to London, 
 but did not succeed in preventing the defection of the 
 English from the alliance against France, or in restoring 
 Marlborough to the command from which he had just 
 been dismissed. He returned to the army in Flanders 
 in 1712, and, having made another campaign with little 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon 
 
EUGENE 
 
 873 
 
 EVLER 
 
 success, began to think of peace. In March, 1714, he 
 signed with Marshal Villars a treaty of peace at Rastadt. 
 In 1716 and 1 71 7 he gained great victories at Peter- 
 waradin and Belgrade over the Turks, who were vastly 
 superior in number. After the end of this war he was 
 employed many years in civil affairs, and was treated with 
 great honour and confidence by Charles VI. of Germany. 
 He died, having never been married, in 1736. He was 
 regarded by some as the greatest general of his time, 
 though he made no remarkable improvements in the art 
 of war. His success was due not so much to skill in 
 strategy as to his audacity and decision, the admirable 
 rapidity of his coup-d'ail, and his promptitude to perceive 
 and rectify his errors. 
 
 See John Campbell, "Military History of Prince Eugene and 
 the Duke of Marlborough," 2 vols., 1736; " Histoire du Prince 
 Eugene," by Mauvili-on, 5 vols., 1740; Dumont et Rousskt, 
 "Histoire militaire du Prince Eugene, 1729-43; Ferrari, " De 
 Rebus gestis Eugenii," 1747; Prince de Lignb, "Vie du Prince 
 Eugene," 1809; Major General J. Mitchelu "Biographies of 
 Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries," 1865 ; F. von Kaus- 
 lhr, " Leben des Prinzen Eugen von Savoyen," a vols., 1838-39; 
 * Edinburgh Review" for November, 1810. 
 
 Eugene de Beauharnais. See Beauharnais. 
 
 Eu-gen'i-cus, an eloquent Greek theologian, became 
 Archbishop of Ephesus in 1436 a.d. He opposed the 
 union of the Greek with the Latin Church, with great 
 eloquence and vehemence, at the Council of Florence, 
 (1438.) Died in 1447. 
 
 Eugenie, uh'zh&'ne', (or, more fully, Eugenie Marie 
 de Montijo — deb. miN'te'zho',) Empress of France, 
 a daughter of the Count of Montijo, a Spanish grandee, 
 was born at Granada, Spain, on the 5th of May, 1826. 
 Her mother, Maria Manuela Kirkpatrick, was of Scot- 
 tish extraction. Eugenie received the title of Countess 
 of Teba, and was educated in France and England. In 
 1851 she appeared at the festivals of L'Elysee, Paris, 
 where her beauty and graces attracted the notice of Louis 
 Napoleon, to whom she was married in January, 1853. 
 
 See "Notice sur l'lmperatrice des Francais " etc., Paris, 1853; 
 Vapereau, " Dictionnaire universel des Contemporains," 1858; 
 "Eminent Women of the Age," 1868. 
 
 Eugenios Bulgaria. See Eucenius Bui.garis. 
 
 Eu-ge'nl-us, a Greek physician, mentioned by Galen, 
 lived probably about the first century. 
 
 Eugenius, a Gaul, who was noted for his rhetorical 
 talents, and was proclaimed emperor about 392 a.d. He 
 was defeated by Theodosius and put to death in 394. 
 
 Eugenius [ Fr. Eugene, uh'zh&n'; Ger. Eugen, oi- 
 gan'] I., a native of Rome, was elected pope in 654 as 
 successor to Martin I., who was banished by the emperor 
 Constans II. Died in 658. 
 
 Eugenius LT., a Roman by birth, was elected pope in 
 824 A.D. in place of Pascal I. He held a council at Rome 
 in 826 for the reformation of the clergy. This council 
 issued an injunction that the believers should learn to 
 read and write. He died in 827, and was succeeded by 
 Valentinus. 
 
 Eugenius UX, (Bernard of Pisa,) elected pope in 
 1 145, as successor to Lucius II-., was a native of Pisa, 
 and a disciple of Saint Bernard. At this period the 
 Roman senate and people, excited by the preaching of 
 Amaldo da Brescia, were in a state of revolt against the 
 papal power. The pope, therefore, retired to Viterbo, and 
 then to France, where he favoured the second crusade 
 by the offer of indulgences. He returned to Rome about 
 H52, and died in 1 153. Anastasius IV. succeeded him. 
 
 Eugenius IV., ("Gakiuele Condolmero, ) born at 
 Venice about 1383, was chosen pope in 1431. He was 
 soon involved in a contest with the Council of B&le, 
 which had been convoked by the late pope, Martin V., 
 for the reformation of the Church, and which refused to 
 own his supremacy. Having failed in an attempt to 
 dissolve this council, he ordered them to transfer their 
 sessions to Ferrara. They summoned him to appear 
 before the council in sixty days ; and he answered by a 
 bull declaring the council dissolved, and calling another 
 at Ferrara in 1437. The council then deposed the pope 
 for contumacy, (1438,) and elected in his stead Amadeus 
 of Savoy, who assumed the name of Felix V. Eugenius, 
 however, persisted in his course, and anathematized the 
 bishops who remained at Bale. Thus a great schism in 
 the Church was produced, which continued until the 
 
 death of Eugenius. A formal but insincere convention 
 was signed in 1439 by Eugenius and John Palaeologus 
 for the reunion of the Latin and Greek Churches. He 
 waged war against the Duke of Milan and the King of 
 Aragon, and instigated the Kings of Poland and Hungary 
 to violate their treaty with the Turks. He died in 1447, 
 when Nicholas V. was chosen his successor, and Felix 
 V. resigned. 
 
 See Platina, "Vita? Pontificum ;" Artaud de Montor, " His- 
 toire des souverains Pontifes;" Gibbon, "History of the Decline 
 and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. Ixvi. 
 
 Eugenins.SAiNT, [Fr. Saint-Eugene, saN'tuh'zh&n'; 
 Ger. Sankt Eugen, sankt oi-g5n',] was chosen Bishop 
 of Carthage about 480 a.d., when the church was divided 
 between the Catholics and the Arians, the latter of whom 
 were favoured by the Vandal king Huneric. A few years 
 later the Arians persecuted their opponents, and exiled 
 Eugenius. He wrote an "Exposition of the Catholic 
 Faith," and other works. Died in 505 A.D. 
 
 Eu-ge'nI-us or Eu-ge'nI-os Bul-ga'ris, a Greek 
 prelate, bom at Corfu in 1716. He taught philosophy 
 at Corfu, Yanina, and Constantinople. His reputation 
 having spread to the Court of Russia, the empress Cath- 
 erine, in 1775, made him Archbishop of Slavonia and 
 Cherson. His writings, which are in Greek, have con- 
 tributed much to the revival of learning and science in 
 Greece. He published a "Treatise on Logic," (1766,) 
 and a poetical Greek version of Virgil, (1786-94.) It 
 is stated that his scientific works are written in ancient 
 Greek, and the others in modern. Died in 1806. 
 
 Eu'ge-on of Samos, an ancient Greek historian, lived 
 about 500 B.C. 
 
 Euhemerus. See Evemerus. 
 
 Euklides. See Euclid and Euclides. 
 
 Eu-la'H-a, [Fr. Eulalie, uh'lt'le',] Saint, a Chris- 
 tian martyr, born at Merida, in Spain, about 290 A.D. 
 She perished at the stake under the reign of Maximian, 
 aged about fourteen. 
 
 See Tillemont, *' Memoires ecclesiastiques." 
 
 Euler, yoo'ler, [Ger. pron. oi'ler,] (Christoph,) a 
 son of Leonard, born in 1743, became a major in the 
 Russian army, and cultivated astronomy with success. 
 He was selected with others by the Academy of Saint 
 Petersburg to observe the transit of Venus in 1769. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Euler, (Johann Alhrecht,) the eldest son of Leonard 
 Euler, born in Saint Petersburg in 1734, inherited a good 
 share of his father's talents for mathematics. Having 
 resided some years in Berlin, he returned to Saint Peters- 
 burg about 1766, and obtained a chair of philosophy. 
 He afterwards served as secretary of the Imperial Acad- 
 emy, and councillor of state. In 1762 he shared with 
 Clairaut the prize proposed by the Academy of Saint 
 Petersburg on the theory of comets. He assisted his 
 father in a treatise on the theory of the moon, which 
 obtained the prize of the Academy of Paris in 1770. He 
 wrote many other treatises on astronomy, optics, and 
 physics. Died in Saint Petersburg in 1800. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Euler, (Karl,) second son of the great geometer, 
 born in Saint Petersburg in 1740, graduated at Halle. 
 Returning to Saint Petersburg in 1766, he was appointed 
 physician to the court and to the Imperial Academy. He 
 gained the prize proposed by the Academy of Paris in 
 1760 for a treatise on the Mean Velocity of the Planets. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Euler, (Leonard,) a celebrated Swiss geometer, born 
 at Bale on the 15th of April, 1707, was the pupil of John 
 Bernoulli in his native city. About 1727 he accompanied 
 Nicholas and Daniel Bernoulli to Saint Petersburg, 
 w"hither they had been invited to teach in the new Acad- 
 emy, in which he obtained a place as assistant professor. 
 In 1733 he succeeded Daniel as professor of mathematics. 
 Here he composed an immense number of memoirs, 
 which display a profound, inventive genius and an ex- 
 traordinary fecundity of mind. It is stated that he wrote 
 more than half of the forty-six volumes published by the 
 Academy of Saint Petersburg from 1727 to 1783. From 
 1741 to 1766 he lived in Berlin, having been invited by 
 Frederick the Great to assist in the formation of the lierlin 
 Academy, which he enriched with his writings. In 1755 
 
 « as h; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v.,guttural; N, nasal; R, (rilled; s as z; th as in this. (JT^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
EV MAT HI US 
 
 874 
 
 EUPHORION 
 
 he was chosen an associate of the Academy of Sciences 
 of Paris, which awarded him several prizes. Returning 
 to Saint Petersburg, he published, in French, his popular 
 work on physical philosophy, "Letters to a German 
 Princess," (1768.) He greatly improved the integral 
 calculus, the indeterminate analysis, and the science of 
 mechanics by analysis, and is reckoned one of the great- 
 est mathematicians of the eighteenth century. Among 
 his principal works are " Mechanics ; or the Science of 
 Motion analytically explained," ("Mechanica; sive Mo- 
 tus Scientia analytice exposita," 2 vols., 1736,) "Intro- 
 duction to the Analysis of Infinites," (" Introductio in 
 Analysiu Infinitorum," 1748,) a "Treatise on Naval 
 Science," (1749,) a Treatise on the Integral Calculus, 
 (" Institutiones Calculi Integralis," 1768,) a "Treatise 
 on Dioptrics," (1771,) and a "Theory of the Moon's 
 Motion," (1772.) He was blind during the last sixteen 
 years of his life. He died in September, 1783. He left 
 several sons, who became eminent in science. " His 
 genius," says Condorcet, " was equally capable of the 
 greatest efforts and of the most continuous labour. He 
 multiplied his productions marvellously, and yet was 
 original in each. His brain was Always' active, and his 
 soul always calm." Euler's memory was so extraor- 
 dinary that he knew, it is said, the " yEneid" by heart. 
 He was a man of deep and earnest religious convictions, 
 and had family worship daily in his own house. 
 
 See Condokcet, "E"loge de L. Euler;" Nicholas von Fuss, 
 "Eloge de L. Euler;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale," article 
 Euler." 
 
 Eumathius or Eumathe. See Eustathius. 
 
 Eumele. See Eumelus. 
 
 Eu-meTus, [Gr. Evfiri^oc ; Fr. Eumele, uh'mil',] a 
 son of Admetus and Alcestis, was one of the chiefs of 
 the Greek army which besieged Troy. His horses were 
 distinguished for fleetness. 
 
 Eumelus [Ev/uf/Mg] of Corinth, a very ancient Greek 
 epic poet, flourished about 750 B.C. His works are lost. 
 
 Eurnelus, a Greek painter, who lived probably about 
 200 A.D. His picture of Helen was placed in the Forum 
 at Rom§. 
 
 Eumene. See Eumenes. 
 
 Eu'rue-nes, [Gr. Evfievrft; Fr. Eumene, uh-mjn',1 a 
 favourite officer and confidential secretary of Alexander 
 the Great, was born at Cardia, in the Thracian Cherso- 
 nesus, about 360 B.C. He attended Alexander in his 
 expedition against Persia about 330 B.C., commanded a 
 division of the army, and was highly esteemed by that 
 prince for his bravery and military talents. When the 
 conquests of their departed chief were divided among 
 the Macedonian generals, Eumenes received Cappado- 
 cia, PontUS, and Paphlagonia. He was an ally of Per- 
 diccas in the war between the latter and Ptolemy, and 
 
 fained a complete victory over Craterus in the year 321. 
 n this action Craterus was killed. After the death 
 of Perdiccas (321) Antipater and Antigonus combined 
 against Eumenes, who defended himself for several 
 years. The Macedonians were jealous of Eumenes be- 
 cause he was an alien. At length, by means of treachery, 
 Antigonus took him prisoner and put him to death in 
 317 or 316 h.c. He was one of the few among Alexan- 
 der's officers who continued loyal to the royal family. 
 
 See_ " Life of Eumenes," in Plutarch, who compares him with 
 Sertorius; Cuknklus Nkpos, "Eumenes;" Arhian, "Anabasis;" 
 B. Geer, "Specimen historicum de Eumene Cardiano," 1838; 
 Thirlwall, " History of Greece." 
 
 Eumenes [Fr. Eumene] I., King or Governor of 
 Pergamus. He began to reign about 262 B.C., defeated 
 Antiochus Soter near Sardis, and died about 240 B.C. 
 He was succeeded by his cousin, Attalus I. 
 
 Eumenes II., King of Pergamus, a son of Attalus I., 
 began to reign in 197 B.C. He was a faithful and efficient 
 ally of the Romans in their war against Antiochus the 
 Great about 190, and was rewarded by the addition to 
 his kingdom of Mysia, Lydia, and Phrygia. By his 
 political sagacity he greatly increased the importance 
 of his kingdom, which prospered in a long peace. He 
 patronized the arts and sciences, and founded at Per- 
 gamus a celebrated library, which became a rival to that 
 of Alexandria. He died about 159 B.C. 
 
 See P >lybius, " History ;" Appian, " Syriaca ;" Livy, " History 
 of Rome." 
 
 Eu-men'I-des [Gr. Elftevifys ; Ger. Eumeniden, 
 oi'meh-nee'den] or E-rin'ny-es, often called, in Latin, 
 Fu'ri-se and Di'rae, the Greek name of the Furies, or 
 goddesses who punished crimes in this world and after 
 death, and pursued the guilty with burning torches. 
 Some writers limit the number of Furies to three, 
 namely, Tisi phone, Alecto, and Megaera. 
 
 Eu-me'nI-us, a Latin grammarian and rhetorician, 
 born at Autun about 560 A.D. He taught rhetoric in 
 Rome, and then in Autun. Four of his discourses are 
 extant, one of which is a panegyric on Constantine, 
 spoken in his presence. 
 
 Eumolpe. See Eumolpus. 
 
 Efi-mol'pus, [Gr. Ev/toXnoe ; Fr. Eumoi.pe, uh'- 
 molp',] a Thracian, who was regarded as a priestly bard 
 and founder of the Eleusinian mysteries, was called a 
 son of Neptune and Chione. According to one tradi- 
 tion, he fought for the people of Eleusis against the 
 Athenians, and was killed in battle. 
 
 Euuape. See Eunapius. 
 
 Eu-na'pl-us, [Gr. Ewumoc; Fr. Eunape, uh'nip',] a 
 heathen Sophist and physician, born at Sardis, in Lydia, 
 about 347 A.D. He lived at Athens, was a Neoplatonist, 
 and a violent opponent of Christianity, He wrote, in 
 Greek, a work entitled "Lives of Philosophers and So- 
 phists," which is extant. " It is of great importance for 
 literary and philosophic history," says Boissonade, "as 
 without it there would be an immense void in the his- 
 tory of Eclecticism." He left a continuation of Dexippus's 
 history from 270 to 404 A.D., which has not come down 
 to us. , 
 
 See Fadricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." 
 
 Eu-ni'cus, [Eitucoc,] an Athenian comic poet, who 
 lived in the fifth century B.C. 
 
 Eunome. See Eunomus. 
 
 Eu-no'ml-us, [Gr. Evvoiuoc,] the founder of an Arian 
 sect called Eunomians, was born at Dacora, in Cap- 
 padocia, and was a man of superior talents. About 360 
 A.D., Eudoxius, Bishop of Antioch, ordained him Bishop 
 of Cyzicus, but afterwards deposed him for heresy. He 
 was an ultra-Arian, and opposed the worship of martyrs 
 and relics. He was several times banished by successive 
 emperors, and suffered persecution with firmness and 
 constancy. His writings are nearly all lost, except a 
 "Confession of Faith." Saint Basil, and Saint Gregory of 
 Nyssa, wrote books to refute his doctrines. Died in 394 A.D. 
 
 See Ritter, " History of Christian Philosophy." 
 
 Eu'no-mus, [Gr. Evvo/ioc; Fr. Eunome, uh'nom',] 
 one of the early kings of Sparta, supposed to have lived 
 nine hundred years or more B.C. According to some 
 writers, he was the father of Lycurgus^ Simonides calls 
 him a brother of Lycurgus. 
 
 Eu'uus, a native of Syria, was the leader of the in- 
 surgents in the servile war which broke out in Sicily in 
 135 B.C. He defeated several Roman armies in succes- 
 sion, but was captured about 133 B.C., and died in prison 
 soon afterwards. 
 
 Euphante. See Euphantus. 
 
 Eu-phan'tus [Gr. Eifyavrog ; Fr. Euphante, uh'- 
 ffnt'J of Olynthus, a Greek poet and Pythagorean phi- 
 losopher, who wrote about 330 B.C. He was a preceptor 
 of Antigonus I. of Macedonia, to whom he dedicated a 
 work, llepl Baaileiac, ("On Royalty,") which was highly 
 commended. He composed also numerous tragedies. 
 
 Eu-phe'ml-a, (Flavia /Elia Marcia,) an empress 
 of the East, was originally a slave named Lupicina, and 
 was married to a Thracian of obscure condition, who in 
 518 ascended the throne of Constantinople as Justin I. 
 
 Euphorbe. See Euphorbus. 
 
 Eu-phor'bus, [Gr. Ev<j>op6os ; Fr. Euphorbe, uh'- 
 foRb', I a brave Trojan warrior, killed by Menelaus. Py- 
 thagoras professed that his soul was the same which had 
 animated Euphorbus. 
 
 Euphorbus, a physician, who lived at Rome in the 
 reign of Augustus, was a brother of Antonius Musa. He 
 was employed professionally by King Juba, who in honour 
 of him named a certain plant Euphorbia, which is still 
 the name of a numerous genus. 
 
 Eu-pho'rl-on, \Ev<j>opujv,] a tragic poet of Athens, 
 was the son of ./Eschylus. He is said to have gained 
 the prize four times with his father's posthumous trage- 
 
 5, e, I, o, 11, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mStj ndt; good; moon ; 
 
EUPHORION 
 
 875 
 
 EUR YD ICE 
 
 dies. He wrote several of his own, one of which was 
 Downed in competition with Sophocles and Euripides. 
 
 Etiphoriou, an eminent Greek poet and grammarian, 
 born at Chalcis, in Eubcea, about 275 B.C. He lived 
 some years at Athens, and became librarian to An- 
 tiocluis the Great about 220 B.C. He wrote epic poems 
 entitled " Hesiodos," "Mopsopia," and "Chiliades," 
 (XtWoVc;) also several epigrams. His poems were very 
 popular among the Romans of the Augustan age ; but 
 his style was censured by Cicero and others as affect- 
 edly obscure. He was* author of a celebrated treatise 
 on grammar, and of other prose works. Only small 
 fragments of his writings are extant. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Grjecis;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca 
 Grasca;" A. Mkinekh, "Dissertatio de Euphorionis Vita et Scrip- 
 
 tis," 1S23. 
 
 Euphorion, a Greek statuary, whose works were not 
 ex ant in the time of Pliny, bv whom he is mentioned. 
 
 Euphrseus, u-free'us, or Eu-phra'tes, [Gr. Efypaioc 
 or EiiffXirrft,] a native of Oreus, in Eubcea, was a disci- 
 ple of .Plato, and became a favourite of Perdiccas, King 
 of Macedonia. After the death of the latter he returned 
 to ( ireus and opposed the party of Philip of Macedon. 
 
 Eu-phra'nor, [Efypuvuf),] a celebrated Greek painter 
 and sculptor, born in Corinth, flourished between 365 and 
 325 B.C. He was pupil of Ariston, and a contemporary 
 of Apelles and Praxiteles. It appears that he worked 
 in Athens, as Pliny ranks him among Athenian artists. 
 He was the first artist who represented heroes with 
 proper dignity. He painted in encaustic and worked in 
 marble and bronze, and was equally successful in paint- 
 ing and sculpture. Pliny and Plutarch highly applaud his 
 productions. Among his master-pieces in painting are 
 " The Twelve Gods," " The Battle of Mantinea," and the 
 "Feigned Insanity of Ulysses ;"and in sculpture, a statue 
 Df Paris, and colossal statues of "Valor" and "Greece." 
 
 See Puny, "Natural History." 
 
 Euphrate. See Euphrates. 
 
 Euphrates. See Euphraeus. 
 
 Eu-phra'tes, [Gr. Etyparw; Fr. Euphrate, uh'- 
 fkit',] an eminent Stoic philosopher, lived in the reign 
 of Hadrian, in the second century. He was a native of 
 Syria or Egypt, and a friend of Pliny the Younger, who 
 eulogizes his virtues and talents, (Epist. i. 10.) 
 
 Euphrates, a heretic, who, in the second century, 
 founded the sect of Ophites. 
 
 Eu'phron, an Athenian comic poet of the new com- 
 edy, lived about 300 B.C. 
 
 Eu-phros'y-ne, [Gr. Efypooimi,] one of the Three 
 Graces, (in Greek, " Charites,") supposed to be the off- 
 spring of Venus. The Greeks personified in her the 
 genius of Mirth or Joy. (See Charites.) 
 
 Euphrosyne, an empress, was the wife of Alexis III., 
 who in 1 195 obtained the throne of Constantinople by a 
 conspiracy of which she was a chief instigator. By her 
 courage and talents she acquired a nearly absolute ascen- 
 dency over Alexis, but exposed herself to public contempt 
 by her immoral excesses. She died in exile about 1215. 
 
 Eu'po-lis, [Efortftif, ] an excellent Athenian comic 
 poet of the old comedy, was born about 446 B.C., and 
 was a rival of Aristophanes. Several of his plays ob- 
 tained the honour of a triumph. He is ranked by 
 Horace w:th Cratinus and Aristophanes, (see Satires, 
 book i. iv. 1,) and in the opinion of some critics he sur- 
 passed Aristophanes in the graces of diction. He often 
 chose political subjects, and severely satirized the per- 
 sons and conduct of eminent men then living. Only 
 small fragments of his works are extant. He is supposed 
 to have died about 410 B.C. According to one account, 
 he was killed in a naval action. 
 
 See Clinton, "Fasti Hellenici ;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca 
 Grasca ;" Suiijas, " Eupolis:" C. W\ Lucas, "Cratinus et Eupolis," 
 Bonn, 1S26 ; S tkvenakt, " £tude sur le Poete Eupolis," 1850. 
 
 Eupompe. See Eupompus. 
 
 Eu-pom'pus [Gr. EC vo/moc ; Fr. Eupompe, uh'pdMp'] 
 of Sicyon, a celebrated Greek painter, a contemporary 
 of Zeuxis, lived about 350-370 B.C., and was the master 
 of Pamphilus. He is called the founder of a new school, 
 the Sicyonian. In answer to the young sculptor Lysippus, 
 who consulted him on the choice of a model, he said, 
 "Follow nature." 
 
 Eu'ric [Lat. Euri'cus] orEv'a-ric, [Lat. Evari'cus,] 
 an able and warlike king of the Visigoths, began to reign 
 in 466 A.n. He enlarged his dominions by conquest 
 until they extended from the Loire to the Pyrenees and 
 from the Rhone to the ocean. His alliance was courted 
 by Franks, Romans, Vandals, and other nations. Died 
 in 484. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire." 
 
 Euripide. See Euripides. 
 
 Eu-ripl-des, [Gr. Evpmldyg; Fr. Euripide, uh're'- 
 ped',] one of the three great tragic poets of Greece, was 
 bom at Salamis in 480 B.C. According to a popular tra- 
 dition, he was born on the day of the battle of Salamis. 
 His parents, Mnesarchus and Clito, were Athenians who 
 sought refuge at Salamis from the Persian invaders. 
 He studied rhetoric under Prodicus, and philosophy or 
 physics under Anaxagoras. About the age of twenty- 
 five he produced his " Peliades," the first of his dramas 
 which was performed. He maintained an animated 
 rivalry with Sophocles, (who was his senior,) and gained 
 the first prize in several dramatic contests. He was a 
 friend of Socrates, who, it is said, seldom went to the 
 theatre except when the tragedies of Euripides were 
 performed. Euripides composed seventy -five — or, as 
 some say, ninety-two — tragedies, of which eighteen 
 are still extant. Among his most admired works are 
 "Hecuba," "Ion," "Alcestis," "Medea," "Helena," 
 "Iphigenia in Aulis," " Hippolytus," and "Bacchae." 
 His other extant dramas are " Heraclidae," "The Sup- 
 pliants," ("Supplices,") " Hercules Furens," "Orestes," 
 "Troades," " Electra," "Andromache," " Iphigenia in 
 Tauris," " Rhesus," and " Phcenissae." His style is distin- 
 guished by elegance, perspicuity, and harmony. Cicero 
 and Milton were great admirers of Euripides, and Aris- 
 totle calls him "the most tragic of poets." "When we 
 look only at the highest excellences of Euripides," says 
 Hallam, "there is perhaps a depth of pathos and an 
 intensity of dramatic effect which Racine himself has 
 not attained." (" Introduction to the Literature of Eu- 
 rope.") About the year 408 he retired from Athens, 
 where a violent and unscrupulous faction was arrayed 
 against him, and found repose at the court of Archelaus, 
 King of Macedon, who treated him with much favour. 
 According to a prevalent but doubtful tradition, he was 
 killed by a pack of hounds in 406 B.C. 
 
 See C. Hasse, "De Euripide Poeta," 1833: Jodrell, "Illus- 
 trations of Euripides," 3 vols., 1781 ; F.Jacobs, "Animadversionesin 
 Euripidis Tragcedias." 1790; Zikndorfer, "De Chronologia Fabu- 
 larum Euripidearum," Marburg, 1839: Hartung, "Euripides Resti- 
 tutus," 2 vols., 1844; Fabricius," Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Boutekwek, 
 "De Philosophia Euripidis," 1819: J. Lapaume, " De Euripidis Vita 
 et Fabulis Dissertatio," 1848; Reuter, "Dissertatio de /Eschylo, 
 Sophocle et Euripide," 1831 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for Septem* 
 ber, 1838; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1840. 
 
 Eu-ro'pa, [Gr. Evpcim? ; Fr. Europe, uh'rop',] in 
 classic mythology, a daughter of Agenor, King of Phoe- 
 nicia, and a sister of Cadmus. The poets feigned that 
 she was carried off by Jupiter, who previously assumed 
 the form of a bull. She became the mother of Minos 
 and Rhadamanthus. 
 
 Europe. See Europa. 
 
 Euryale. See Euryalus. 
 
 Eu-ry'a-lus, [Gr. EtpiaXoc; Fr. Euryai.e, uh're'fl',] 
 a son of Mecisteus, was one of the Argonauive, and one 
 of the Epigoni, (which see.) He was distinguished for 
 his bravery at the siege of Troy, where he was a com- 
 panion of Diomede. 
 
 Euryalus, a beautiful young Trojan mentioned by 
 Virgil. (See "/Eneid," books v. and ix.) 
 
 Eu-ry-cli'das, [Eupu/c/UwSac,] an Athenian orator, lived 
 about 220 B.C. 
 
 Eu-ryd'I-je, [Gr. Eupvdooj,] the wife of Orpheus, was 
 bitten by a serpent as she fled from Anstsus, and died. 
 The poets feigned that Orpheus descended to the lower 
 regions and persuaded Pluto to restore her to life on 
 condition that she should walk behind her husband and 
 he should not look back until they had arrived in the 
 upper world. But Orpheus, unable to resist his longing 
 to see her again, turned back, and thus lost her forever. 
 (See Orpheus.) 
 
 Sec Virgil's "Georgics," book iv. 454-527, 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. ( JJ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
EUR T DICE 
 
 876 
 
 EUSTACE 
 
 Eurydice, [EipviiKr/,] the wife ol Amyntas, King of 
 Macedonia, was the mother of Alexander, Perdiccas, and 
 Philip, all of whom became kings ; the last was the father 
 of Alexander the Great She is charged with attempting 
 the life of her husband, and with taking the life of her 
 eldest son, about 365 B.C. 
 
 Eurydice, a Macedonian princess, a daughter of An- 
 tipater, became the queen of Ptolemy, son of Lagus, 
 about 320 B.C., and mother of Ptolemy Ceraunus. Her 
 niece Berenice having gained her husband's affections, 
 Eurydice retired to the court of Seleucus, King of Syria. 
 
 Eurydice, sometimes called Ade'a, a daughter of 
 Amyntas III. of Macedonia. Her mother was Cynane, 
 a half-sister of Alexander the Great. About 322 B.C. 
 she was married to Arrhidaeus, a son of King Philip. 
 She was a rival competitor for the regency with Olympias, 
 by whose order she was put to death, 316 B.C. 
 
 Eu-ryl'o-ehus, [Eipi'Ao^oc,] a Spartan general, who 
 was defeated and killed in battle by the Athenians about 
 426 B.C. 
 
 Eu-rjfm'e-don, [Evpv/ieSuv,] an Athenian general, 
 who took part in the Peloponnesian war. He and Sopho- 
 cles commanded an army and fleet sent against Sicily in 
 425 B.C. ; but their operations were arrested soon after 
 their arrival by a peace or truce negotiated by Hermo- 
 crates. In conjunction with Demosthenes, Eurymedon 
 commanded an armament sent against Syracuse in 414. 
 He was killed in a naval battle in the harbour of that 
 city in 413 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Nicias." 
 
 Eu'rjf-phon, [EvpvQtiv,] an eminent Greek physician 
 of Cnidos, said to have lived in the time of Hippocrates, 
 about 350 B.C. He is quoted by Galen. 
 
 Eurysthee. See Eukysthhus. 
 
 Eurysthene. See Eurysthenes. 
 
 Eu-ryVthe-nes, [Gr. EopvaOevric; Fr. Eurysthene, 
 Uh'res'tin',] a son of Aristodemus, King of Sparta, had 
 a twin-brother, Procles. As their mother refused to say 
 which was the eldest, the oracle of Delphi decided that 
 they should reign jointly. After their death the throne 
 Continued to be shared between two kings, one of whom 
 was descended from Eurysthenes and the other from 
 Procles. 
 
 See Clinton, "Fasti Hellenic!;" Muller, "The Dorians." 
 
 Eu-ryVtheus, [Gr. EvpvoOevc; Fr. Eurysthee, uh'- 
 res'ta',] a fabulous king of Argos and Mycenae, was a 
 son, of Sthenelus. Juno hastened his birth that he might 
 have the advantage over Hercules, as the younger of 
 the two was ordained by Jupiter to serve the other. He 
 was a severe taskmaster, and imposed on Hercules the 
 well-known twelve labours. (See Hercules.) He was 
 slain by Hyllus, a son of Hercules. 
 
 Eus'den, (Rev. Lawrence,) an English poet and 
 clergyman, was born in Spotsworth, Yorkshire. Having 
 written an epithalamium on the marriage of the Duke 
 of Newcastle, the latter procured his appointment as 
 poet-laureate in 1718. He wrote a few articles for the 
 " Spectator," and some occasional poems, and was noticed 
 in Pope's "Dunciad." Died in 1730. His version of 
 Claudian's " Court of Venus" was highly praised by 
 one of the editors of the " Guardian," in which it was 
 inserted. (See "Guardian," Nos. 127 and 164.) 
 
 Eusebe, the French for Eusebius, which see. 
 
 Eu-se'bl-a, (Aurelia,) a Roman empress, was mar- 
 ried to Constantius about 353 A.D. She patronized 
 learning, and is charged with favouring Arianism. She 
 died childless in 360. 
 
 Eu-se'bl-us, [Gr. EvaelSvoc; Fr. Eusebe, uh'zW, ] 
 Bishop of Emesa, in Phoenicia, was born near Edessa 
 about 300 A.D. He refused the bishopric of Alexandria, 
 from which Athanasius was deposed in 341, and soon 
 afterwards became Bishop of Emesa. He is said to have 
 favoured the doctrines of the Semi-Arians. His numer- 
 ous works were once admired for learning and eloquence, 
 but are nearly all lost. Died about 360. 
 
 Eusebius ok Doryijectm, [Fr. Eusebe de Doryi.ee, 
 Uh-z&b' deh do're'la',] a Greek theologian of the fifth 
 century. He became Bishop of Dorylaeum, and a zealous 
 opponent of Eutyches. 
 
 Eusebius of Nicomedia, [ Fr. Eusebe de Nico- 
 UEDIE, uh'zjl/ deh ne'ko'ma'de',] an eminent and am- 
 
 bitious Arian prelate, was a friend of Eusebius Pamphili. 
 He became Bishop of Berytus and of Nicomedia. At 
 the Council of Nice, 325 a.d., he refused to sign the 
 condemnation of Arius, and was consequently banished ; 
 but, finding a powerful patron in Constantia, sister of the 
 emperor, he was restored to his see. Having acquired 
 paramount influence at court, he assembled a council at 
 Tyre in 334, by which Athanasius was condemned. He 
 also procured the restoration of Arius, and, after his 
 death, became the chief of the Arian party, who were 
 also called Eusebians. In 339 be obtained the bishopric 
 of Constantinople. His name is identified with a modi- 
 fied form of Arianism, (i.e. the Homoiousian doctrine.) 
 Died in 342 a.d. 
 
 See Tillemont, " Memoires eccUsiastiques ;" Neander, "His- 
 tory of the Church :" Cave, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 Eusebius Pam'phili, [Fr. Eusebe Pamphile, uh'- 
 zib' pSN'fel',] an eminent writer and theologian, called 
 "the Father of Ecclesiastical History," was born in Pales- 
 tine, probably at Caesarea, about 266 A.D. He assumed the 
 surname Pamphili in memory of his friend Pamphilus 
 the Martyr. He was appointed Bishop of Caesarea 
 about 314, and retained that dignity until his death. At 
 the Council of Nice, summoned in 325 to condemn 
 Arius, he was selected by the emperor Constantine to 
 deliver the opening address; but he objected to some of 
 the terms of the creed therein adopted. He was after- 
 wards charged with favouring Arianism, and actually 
 used his influence to reinstate Arius. At the Council 
 of Tyre, in 334, he was one of the bishops who censured 
 Athanasius, the orthodox leader, and was chosen by his 
 colleagues to defend their decision before the emperor, 
 who was his friend. He was a man of superior talents 
 and of great learning. His most important works 
 (which are written in Greek) are an " Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory" from the Christian era to 324 A.D., a " Universal 
 History or Chronicle," a " Life of Constantine," " Gospel 
 Preparation," (" Preparatio Evangelica,") and a work " On 
 the Proof or Demonstration of the Gospel," ( " De De- 
 monstratione Evangelica." He wrote many other works, 
 which have not been preserved. His History is written 
 in a moderate and impartial spirit, and is highly prized; 
 but his merit as a man and a Christian is variously esti- 
 mated. Jerome calls him the " Prince of the Arians." 
 The manuscript of his "Universal History" was found 
 at Constantinople about 1818. Died about 340. 
 
 See Tillemont, "Me'moires ecclesiastiques;" Cave, "Historia 
 Literaria;" Neandek, "History of the Church;" Gibbon, "His- 
 tory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" " Biographic 
 Universelle;" " Nouvelle Hiographie Ginerale." 
 
 Eusebius of Samosata, an eminent orthodox prelate, 
 so named from the place of his birth, (the modern Sumei- 
 sat,) on the Euphrates. He was bishop of his native 
 place in 361 A.D., and perhaps before that date. Having 
 been intrusted with the documents which proved the 
 election of Meletius as Bishop of Antioch, he firmly 
 refused to give them up to the Arians, who wished to 
 annul the election, although their wish was seconded by 
 the order of the emperor. He was banished by Valens 
 about 371, and restored to his see in 378 A.D. About 
 379 he was killed by an Arian who threw a stone on 
 his head from the roof of a house. 
 
 See Chillier, " Histoire des Auteurs sacres," etc. 
 
 Eusebius, Pope, succeeded Marcellus I. in 310 a.d., 
 and died after a pontificate of a few months. He was a 
 Greek by birth. 
 
 Eusebius, Bishop of Vercelli, born in Sardinia in the 
 fourth century, was noted for his zeal against Arianism. 
 Soon after the Council of Milan, 355 A.D., he was ban- 
 ished to Palestine by Constantius ; but on the accession 
 of Julian, in 361, he was relieved from persecution. He 
 co-operated with Athanasius in the Council of Alexan- 
 dria in 362. Two of his pastoral letters are extant. Died 
 about 370. 
 
 See Ceillier, "Histoire des Auteurs sacres," etc. 
 
 Eustace or Eustache. See Eustasius. 
 
 Etis'tace, (John Chetwode,) an English writer and 
 Roman Catholic priest, born about 1765. He published, 
 besides other works, "An Elegy to Burke," (1797,) and 
 a "Classical Tour through Italy," (2 vols., 1813,) which 
 was received with favour, but is said to be inaccurate. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n&t; good; moon ; 
 
E US T 'A CHE 
 
 877 
 
 EUTTCHUNUS 
 
 The sixth edition was published in 4 vols., 1821. A sup- 
 plement to this work was published by R. Colt Hoare 
 in 1819. Eustace died at Naples in 1815. 
 
 See *' London Quarterly Review" for October, 1813. 
 
 Eustache, rh'stSsh', (David,) a French Protestant 
 minister, born in Dauphine. He published numerous 
 sermons and controversial works. Died about 1660. 
 
 Eustachi or Eustachio. See Eustachius. 
 
 Eu-sta'chl-us, [It. Eustachio, i-oo-sta'ke-o, or Eu- 
 stachi, 8-oo-st5'kee,l (Bartolommeo,) a pre-eminent 
 Italian anatomist, was born at San Severino, in the March 
 of Ancona. He studied medicine in Rome, where he 
 also settled as a practitioner, and was professor in the 
 college di Sapienza in 1562. But, though patronized by 
 Cardinal Borromeo and widely celebrated as an anato- 
 mist, lie did not obtain pecuniary success, and died, as he 
 lived, in poverty. He was perhaps the greatest anatomist 
 of his time; and probably no other anatomist, ancient 
 or modern, has made so many discoveries. His most 
 important work, "On the Controversies of Anatomists," 
 ("De Anatomiconim Controversiis,") was announced by 
 him as ready for the press, but was not published, and is 
 not now extant. His anatomical plates, about forty in 
 number, engraved in 1552, after having been lost a cen- 
 tury and a half, were published in 1712, being a valuable 
 acquisition to science, as well as a most interesting relic 
 of their illustrious author. He also published an edition 
 of Erotianus's Lexicon, and several treatises collected 
 with the title "Opuscula Anatomica." A part of the 
 ear derives from him the name of "the Eustachian tube." 
 Died in 1574. 
 
 See Halier, " Bibliotheca Anatomica;" Cuvier, " Histoire des 
 Sciences naturelles:" G. C. Gentiu, "EIoki'o di B. Eustachio," 
 1837; Sprengel, "Geschichte der Arzeneikunde." 
 
 Eu-sta'sl-us ( ii-sta'she-us ) or Eu-sta'cM-us, [Fr. 
 Eustace, us'ttss', or Eustache, us'tish',] Abbe of 
 Luxeu, (now I.uxeuil,) was born in Burgundy about 560 
 A.D. He was employed by Saint Columbanus as teacher 
 or director at his school at Luxeu. Died in 625. 
 
 Eustathe. See Eustathius. 
 
 Eu-sta'thl-us [Gr. Eiordeioc ; Fr. Eustathe, uh'- 
 stit^l of Cappadocia, a Neoplatonic philosopher, was a 
 pupil of Jamblichus, and lived about 350 A.D. He was 
 celebrated for his eloquence. 
 
 Eustathius, Archbishop of Thessalonica, celebrated 
 as a commentator on Homer, lived at Constantinople. 
 He was one of the most learned men of his time. He 
 became Bishop of Myra, in Lycia, about 11 75, and after- 
 wards Archbishop. His voluminous commentary on 
 Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey" is an immense and 
 valuable store of ancient erudition, consisting chiefly of 
 extracts from the earlier scholiasts, as Apion, Porphyry, 
 and Demosthenes of Thrace. It was first printed in 
 1542. He also wrote a commentary on Dionysius Peri- 
 egetes, which is extant, and one on Pindar, which has 
 been lost. Died about 1200. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliolheca Graeca." 
 
 Eustathius, sometimes written Eumathiu^, a Greek 
 novelist, who is supposed to have lived in the twelfth 
 century. His name appears as author of a licentious 
 work in Greek called " The Drama of Hysmine and 
 Hvsminias." 
 
 Eustathius, [Gr. KvotuOuk; Fr. Eustathe,] Saint, 
 born at Sida, ill Pamphylia, became Bishop of Berea, 
 from which he was translated to the see of Antioch. He 
 opposed with zeal the doctrine of Anns, and spoke elo- 
 quently on the subject at the Council of Nice, 325 a.d. 
 Eusebms, the Arian leader, caused him to be deposed 
 and exiled about 330. His writings are lost. Died about 
 337, or, according to some, in 360 A.D. 
 
 See Ceiluer, " Histoire des Auteurs sacr^s." etc. 
 
 Ett-sta'thl-us Ro-ma'nus, a celebrated Byzantine 
 jurist, who flourished at Constantinople between 950 and 
 IOOO A. n. 
 
 Eas'tis, (Wii.i.iam,) an American physician and poli- 
 tician, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1753. He 
 served as a surgeon in the army during the Revolutionary 
 war, and was elected a member of Congress in 1800. 
 He was appointed secretary of war by President Madi- 
 son in 1809, resigned in 1812, and was sent as minister 
 
 to Holland in 1814. In 1823 he was elected Governor 
 of Massachusetts. Died in 1825. 
 
 EQ-sto'-ehl-um, (Julia,) a pious Roman lady, was a 
 disciple of Saint Jerome, who dedicated to her his com- 
 mentary on Isaiah. She became an inmate of a convent 
 in Palestine in 385 A.D. Died in 419. 
 
 Eustratius, u-stra'she-us, Bishop of Nice, lived in the 
 twelfth century, and wrottTa commentary on Aristotle. 
 
 Eu-ter'pe, [Gr. EvTiprn],] a name given by the ancient 
 Greeks to one of the nine Muses. She presided over 
 lyric poetry, and was represented with a flute. 
 
 Euthycrate. See Eu thycrates. 
 
 Eu-thyVra-tes, [Gr. Etowpuri/c; Fr. Euthycrate, 
 Uh'te'kRat',] a Greek sculptor, who lived about 300 H.c, 
 was a son and pupil of Lysippus. His works were more 
 remarkable for correctness and severity than for grace. 
 
 Euthydeme. See Euthydkmus. 
 
 Eu-thjf-de'mus, [Gr. EieOAr/uoc ; Fr. Euthydeme, 
 uh'te'dim',1 a Greek sophist, whom Xenophon mentions 
 as an opponent in argument of Socrates. He afterwards 
 became a disciple of that philosopher, by whose wisdom 
 he had been confounded. 
 
 Euthydemus, an Athenian general, who had a high 
 command in the army which besieged Syracuse in 
 413 B.C. 
 
 Euthydemus, a powerful king of Bactria, formed an 
 alliance with Antiochus the Great about 210 B.C. Silver 
 coins of this king (with Greek inscriptions) have been 
 found at Bokhara and Balk. 
 
 Euthyme. See Euthymius. 
 
 Eu-thym'I-us, [Fr. Euthyme, uh'tem',] Saint, an 
 Armenian priest, born in 377 A.D., lived in Palestine, 
 built several monasteries, and converted the empress 
 Eudocia. Died in 473. 
 
 Eu-thjrm'I-us Zig-a-be'nus, a Byzantine monk, lived 
 about 1 100. He wrote, in Greek, a work in defence of 
 the orthodox faith, which was printed in 1536. 
 
 Eutocius, ii-to'she-us, [Gr. Fmtokioc,] a Greek geom- 
 eter of Ascalon, in Palestine, lived about 550 a.d., and 
 was the pupil of Isidorus the architect. The only extant 
 works of this author are Commentaries on Apollonius and 
 Archimedes. His comments on Archimedes's " Treatise 
 on the Sphere and Cylinder" are interesting and valu- 
 able. He gives various modes for solving the problem 
 of the duplication of the Cube. 
 
 Eutrope. See Eutropius. 
 
 Eu-tro'pl-us, [Fr. Eutrope, uh'tRop',] sometimes 
 called Fla'vius Eutro'pius, a Latin historian of the 
 fourth century. He-was secretary to the emperors Con- 
 stantine and Julian, the latter of whom he attended in 
 his expedition against the Parthians. He wrote an 
 " Epitome of Roman History" (" Breviarium Rerum Ro- 
 manorum") from the foundation of the city to the time 
 of Valens, which has been popular for many centuries 
 and extensively used as a school-book in modern times. 
 The language is pure, and the style clear and simple. 
 Little is known of the author's life. 
 
 See Suidas, "Eutropius;" Gennadius, "De Viris illustribus ;' 
 Moi.ler, " Disputatio de Eutropio," 1685. 
 
 Eu'ty-ehes, [Gr. Eiri'xnc] the founder or head of a 
 heretical sect called Eutychians, born about 375 A.D., 
 became noted for his piety and ascetic zeal, and was 
 superior of a monastery near Constantinople. In warmly 
 opposing a doctrine ascribed to Nestorius, he erred in 
 the opposite extreme, teaching that there is only one 
 nature in Christ, — that is, the' divine. For this he was 
 condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 448. 
 His opinion, however, was adopted by the empress Eu- 
 docia and others in high station, and Theodosius IL 
 assembled in 449 a council at Ephesus, which reversed 
 the former decision. The OZcumenical Council of Chal- 
 cedon in 451 annulled the acts of the Council of Ephesus. 
 This sect became numerous in the East, and received 
 the name of Monophysites. 
 
 See Pi.uouet, " Dictionnaire des He're'sies ;" Ai.thurius, " His- 
 toria Eutychiana," 1650; " Nouvelle Biographie Ginerale." 
 
 Eutyches or EG-tychl-us, a Latin grammarian, a 
 disciple of Priscian, lived in the sixth century. 
 
 Eu-tych-I-a'nus, [Fr. Eutychien, uh'te'ke-aN',] 
 Pope or Bishop of Rome, was a native of Tuscany. He 
 succeeded Felix I. in 275 a.d., and died in 283. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. (Jr^-See Explanations, p. 23. » 
 
EUTT CHIDES 
 
 878 
 
 EFANS 
 
 Eu-tjr chl-des [Elrvxifoic] of Sicvon, a Greek sculp- 
 tor, who lived about 300 B.C., was a pupil of Lysippus. 
 He made a statue of the Eurotas, which is mentioned 
 by Pliny, "in quo artem ipso amne liquidiorem plurimi 
 dixere," (" in which many said the art showed itself more 
 liquid than the river itself.") 
 
 Eutychien. See Eutychianus. 
 
 Eu-tyeh'I-us, [Gr. Evtvxu>c,] born at Fostat, in Egypt, 
 in 876 a.d., became Patriarch of Alexandria in 933. He 
 was learned in theology, history, and medicine, on which 
 he wrote several works. His " Universal History" ac- 
 quired a high reputation among the Orientals. J. Seidell 
 published a part of this, with a Latin version. Died 
 about 940. 
 
 E-vag'o-ras, [Gr. 'Evaybpae ; Fr. Evagore, a'vfgoR',] 
 King of Salamis, in Cyprus, was descended from Teucer, 
 son of Telainon. He reigned from 410 to 375 li.C. Aided 
 by the Athenians and the King of Egypt, he carried on 
 a war ten years against the King of Persia, whose army 
 invaded Cyprus, and he obtained peace on not unfavour- 
 able terms in 376. He was assassinated in 374, and left 
 the throne to his son Nicocles. Isocrates the orator 
 describes Evagoras as an able ruler. Evagoras II., 
 supposed to have been a son of the preceding, became 
 King of Salamis after the death of Nicocles, and was 
 dethroned by Protagoras. 
 See Xknophon, "Hellenica." 
 
 iSvagore. See Evagoras. 
 
 fivagre. See Evagrius. 
 
 E-va'grl-us [Fr. Evagre, a'vSgR'] of Antioch. 
 During a schism in the Church, Evagrius and Flavian 
 were respectively elected to the dignity of Patriarch of 
 Antioch by the two different parties in 388 a.d. Eva- 
 grius translated into Latin a " Life of Saint Anthony" 
 by Athanasius. Died after 392. 
 
 Evagrius, [Gr. Evaypioc,] surnamed Pon'ticus, [Fr. 
 Evagre de Pont, a'vstgR' deh p6N,] a monk, born near 
 the Euxine Sea, in the fourth century, was noted for 
 piety and learning. He removed to Egypt, and passed 
 many years in the monastery of Nitria. He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, " Monachus" and " Gnosticus." Died 
 about 400. 
 
 See Tillemont, "Me"moires ecctesiastiques." 
 
 Evagrius, surnamed the Scholastic, born at Epi- 
 phania, in Syria, in the sixth' century, became an emi- 
 nent advocate of Antioch, and obtained the dignity of 
 quxstor. He wrote, in Greek, an ecclesiastical history 
 from 431 a.d. to 593, which is a respectable work in point 
 of authenticity and style. 
 
 Evald. See Evvai.d. 
 
 Evald or Ewald, a'walt, (Johannes,) the most emi- 
 nent Danish poet of the eighteenth century, was born in 
 Copenhagen in 1743. He was educated for the church ; 
 but, finding such studies uncongenial to his romantic 
 and ambitious ideas, he furtively enlisted in the Prussian 
 service about the age of sixteen. Failing to obtain a 
 more eligible rank than that of a private in the infantry, 
 he soon deserted to the Austrian standard, under which 
 he fought several battles in the Seven Years' war. Dis- 
 enchanted from his youthful illusions of military glory, 
 he returned home to study theology ; but a disappoint- 
 ment in love soon diverted him from this pursuit and 
 rendered him weary of life. He appears to have been 
 unconscious of his poetical genius until he was employed 
 to write a poem on the death of Frederick V., (1766,) 
 which excited general admiration. His reputation was 
 increased by his " Temple of Fortune," his tragedy of 
 "Rolf or "Rollo," (1770,) and the "Death of Balder," 
 a drama, (1773.) The last is considered his master- 
 piece, and was superior to any Danish drama which had 
 then appeared. He also wrote " Harlequin Patriot," a 
 satirical comedy, "The Fisherman," an opera, (1778,) 
 a beautiful elegy, entitled "Hope and Memory," and 
 several other works. His writings are pervaded by a 
 high moral tone. He suffered much in his later years 
 from a chronic malady, and received a rather sparing 
 pecuniary aid from government. Died in 1781. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Howitt, 
 "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," vol. i. chap. ii. ; 
 Erscii und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" C. Molbech, 
 "J. Ewalds Levnet med Bidrag til han's digtervaerkers Historic" 
 1831. 
 
 E-van'd?r, [Gr. F.vavSpos ; Fr. Evandre, a'v8NdR',] 
 a semi-fabulous Grecian hero, supposed to have been 
 a son of Hermes. He emigrated from Arcadia to Italy, 
 where he founded Pallantium and became an ally of 
 /Eneas against Turnus. He was the father of Pallas. 
 (See Virgil's "/Eneid.") 
 
 E-vati'der Au-11-a'nus, an Athenian sculptor, who 
 worked at Rome about 40 n.c. 
 
 iSvandre. See Evander. 
 
 Evaiigeli, a-van'ji-lee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet 
 and linguist, born at Cividale in 1742, filled for thirty 
 years the chair of belles-lettres in Padua. He made a 
 Latin version of Gray's "Elegy," ("Elegia in rusticum 
 Sepulchretum," 1772,) wrote a poem entitled "Musical 
 Love," (" Amor musico,") and turned some poetry of 
 the Bible into Italian verse. Died in 1805. 
 
 Evangelista, a-van-ja-les'ta, of Canobio, an Italian 
 canonist and civilian, born in 1511 ; died in 1595. 
 
 Ev'ans* (Ahei.,) an English wit, was a graduate of 
 Oxford in 1699, and had a great reputation as an epi- 
 grammatist. He wrote "Vertumnus," "The Appari- 
 tion," and other small poems. His name occurs in the 
 following couplet : 
 
 "Alma novem genuit celebres Rhedycina poetas, 
 Bubb, Stubb, Cobb, Crabb, Young, Carey, Tickell, Evans." 
 
 Evans, (Caleb,) D.D., an English Baptist minister, 
 born a;. Bristol in 1737, preached in his native city. He 
 published several sermons, and a letter to John Wesley 
 in which he defends the rights of the American colonies. 
 Died in 1 791. 
 
 Ev'ans, (Sir De Lacy,) K.C.B., a general of the 
 British army, born at Moig, Ireland, in 1787. He fought 
 as a commissioned officer in the Peninsula from 1810 to 
 1813, and against the Americans at Baltimore, Washing- 
 ton, and New Orleans in 1814. He took part in the 
 battle of Waterloo, 181 5. In 183 1 he was elected to 
 Parliament, in which he acted with the Liberal party. 
 He obtained command in 1835 of a legion of 10,000 
 men raised to suppress the Carlist rebellion in Spain. 
 He defeated the Carlists in several actions in 1836 and 
 1S37. In 1846 he became a major-general, and in 1854, 
 as lieutenant-general, obtained command of a division of 
 the army in the East. He distinguished himself at the 
 Alma and Inkerman, 1854. Died in 1870. 
 
 Ev'ans, (Evan,) a Welsh poet and clergyman, born 
 in Cardiganshire in 1730. He published "Love of our 
 Country," a poem, and "Specimens of Welsh Poetry," 
 with an English version and notes. Died in 1790. 
 
 See Owen, "Cambrian Biography." 
 
 Evans, (John,) D.D., an English dissenting divine, 
 born at Wrexham in 1680, became successor to Daniel 
 Williams in London. His "Discourses on Christian 
 Temper" (4th edition, 1729) were highly commended by 
 Dr. Watts, Dr. Doddridge, and others, and have often 
 been reprinted. Died in 1730. 
 
 See "Life of John Evans," by Dr. John Erskine. 
 
 Evans, (John,) LL.D., born at Usk, in Monmouth- 
 shire, in 1767, wjs minister of a General Baptist congre- 
 gation in London from 1792 to 1827. He wrote a "Brief 
 Sketch of the Different Denominations of Christians," 
 (1794,) which passed through eighteen editions and was 
 translated into several languages. He sold the copy- 
 right for ten pounds. Died in 1827. 
 
 Evans, (John Harrington,) an English Baptist min- 
 ister, born at Salisbury in 1785, preached in John Street 
 Chapel, London, about thirty years. He published Let- 
 ters, Sermons, and other religious works. Died in 1849. 
 
 See " Memoirs of J. H. Evans," by his son, 1852. 
 
 Ev'ans, (Lewis,) an American geographer, born about 
 1700. He published a Map of New York, New Jersey, 
 and other colonies in 1749. Died in 1756. 
 
 Evans, (Marian C.,) an English novelist, born in the 
 north of England about 1820. She published, under the 
 assumed name of George Eliot, popular novels, entitled 
 "Adam Bede," (1858,) "The Mill on the Floss," (1859,) 
 " Scenes of Clerical Life," " Romola," (1863,) and " Felix 
 Holt the Radical," (1866;) also a poem, entitled "The 
 Spanish Gypsy," (1868.) Miss Evans was married, a 
 
 * The name Evans is variously pronounced, both in England and 
 America,— often iv'ant, but perhaps still more frequently £v anz. 
 
 a. e, I, o, ii, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y\ short: a, e, i, o. obscure: far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good: moon; 
 
EVANS 
 
 879 
 
 EVERARD 
 
 few years since, to the distinguished writer, G. H. 
 Lewes, Esq. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for October, iS6o; Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, .850 ; " Blackwood 's Magaune _ f« April, .859. 
 and Mav, 1S60; " British Quarterly Review" tor October .863, and 
 October, ,S6S: " Westminster Review" for Apnk .8s9 1 "Novels ot 
 George Eiiot," in the " Atlantic Monthly" for October, 1S66. 
 
 Evans, (NATHAN G.,) an American general, born in 
 South Carolina about 1828, graduated at West Point in 
 1848. He commanded the insurgents at Balls Blurt, 
 October, 1861. . , , 
 
 Evans, (Oliver,) an American inventor and mechan- 
 ist, bora at Newport, Delaware, in 1755. He is said to 
 have invented the first steam-engine constructed on the 
 high-pressure system, the drawings and specifications of 
 winch he sent to England about 1795- He projected a 
 railroad to connect New York and Philadelphia, but 
 lacked the means to realize it Died in 1819. 
 
 Evans, (Robert Wilson,) an English author, born 
 at Shrewsbury about 1790, was vicar ot Heversham. He 
 published several esteemed works, among which is "The 
 Rectory of Valehead," (15th edition, 1852.) 
 
 Evans, iv'anz, (Thomas,) an eminent controversial 
 writer and minister of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, 
 born in Philadelphia in 1798. In 1827 and 1828 he 
 opposed the Unitarian views of Elias Hicks, in a series 
 ot able papers in "The Friend." He also published 
 (182S) an "Exposition of the Faith of the Religious 
 Society of Friends," etc., which is probably the most 
 complete exhibition extant of the doctrines of the early 
 Quakers in relation to the divinity and offices of Christ. 
 In 1837 he narrowly escaped shipwreck on a voyage to 
 Charleston, South Carolina, when by over-exertion at 
 the pumps (and other efforts to save the sinking vessel) 
 his health sustained a serious and irreparable injury. 
 From 1837 to 1854 he edited, in conjunction with his 
 brother, William Evans "The Friends' Library," a col- 
 lection of the standard religious writings of the Society, 
 in fourteen volumes. He died May 25, 1868. He was 
 distinguished for rare acuteness as well as comprehen- 
 siveness of intellect, for a most kindly and benevolent 
 spirit, and for an unquenchable zeal in defence of what 
 he believed to be the principles of truth. 
 
 See notice in the Philadelphia "North American and United 
 States Gazette" of June «, 1868, which was afterwards reprinted in 
 pamphlet form. 
 
 Ev'an-son, (Edward,) an English clergyman, born 
 in 1731, became vicar of South Mimms in 1768, and 
 rector of Tewkesbury in 1770. He was prosecuted for 
 altering the liturgv and preaching unsound doctrine, but 
 was acquitted. In 1778 he resigned his livings, and 
 opened a school at Mitcham. He published several 
 jacts against the Trinity and other doctrines of evan- 
 gelical religion. Died in 1805. 
 Evaric. See Euric. 
 Evariste. See Evaristus. 
 
 Ev-a-ris'tus, [Fr. Evariste, a'vi'rest',1 Saint, a 
 Greek by birth, was chosen Bishop of Rome in 100 A.D. 
 as successor to Saint Clement. He suffered in Trajan s 
 persecution, and is honoured as a martyr by the Church, 
 though history does not inform us of the manner of his 
 death, which occurred in 109 A.D. 
 
 See Artaud db Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 Ev'arts, (Jeremiah,) an American editor, born in 
 Sunderland, Vermont, in 1781, studied law. He became 
 editor of "The Panoplist," a religious paper of Boston, 
 . about 1810, and of the "Missionary Herald" In 1820. 
 In 1821 he was chosen corresponding secretary of the 
 Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Died 
 in 1 83 1. 
 
 See E. C. Tracy, " Memoirs of J. Evarts," 1845. 
 Evarts, (William M.,) an eminent American lawyer, 
 a son of the preceding, was born in Boston, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1818. He graduated at Yale College m 
 1817, studied law at Harvard University, and began to 
 practise in the city of New York about 1840. He be- 
 came an active member of the Republican party. In 
 the trial of President Johnson, in the spring of 1868, 
 he was the principal counsel for the respondent, who 
 nominated him attorney-general of the United States 
 about July I of that year 
 
 Eve, eev, [Heb. nin, Hevah or Chavah ; Arab. Haw A, 
 hi'wi;' Gr. i'.ia ; Lat. E'va,] the wife of Adam, and the 
 original mother of the human race. 
 
 See Genesis ii., iii., and iv. ; 11. Corinthians xi. 3; !■ Timothy 
 
 " Evelllon, a'va'voN', (Jacques,) a French priest, born 
 at Angers in 1572, was learned in canon law, and wrote 
 several theological works. Died in 1651. 
 
 Ev'e-lf n, (John,) an English author and gentleman, 
 eminent for his accomplishments, public services, and 
 honourable life, was born at Wotton, in Surrey, on the 
 31st of October, 1620, and educated at Oxford. In 1644 
 he visited the continent, where be passed seven years 
 in travel and in the diligent study of natural philosophy 
 and the fine arts. Returning to England in 1652, he 
 settled at Say's Court, near Deptford, with his wife, 
 whose maiden name was Browne. After the restora- 
 tion he was employed in important public services, as 
 memljer of the Board of Trade, commissioner for the 
 rebuilding of Saint Paul's, etc. He was one of the first 
 members of the Roval Society, formed in 1662. In 1604 
 he published his most important and popular work, 
 " Sylva, or a Discourse on Forest-Trees," which widely 
 diffused a taste for rural occupations, and gave an ef- 
 fectual impulse to the propagation of timber. " Evelyn s 
 ' Sylva ' " says Scott," is still the manual of British planters, 
 and his life, manners, and principles, as illustrated in his 
 Memoirs, ought equally to be the manual of English 
 gentlemen." Sir Walter here refers to his Diary from 
 1641 to 1705, a work of great historical interest and 
 value. Evelyn also wrote "Sculptura, a History of the 
 Art of Engraving," (1662,) a "Treatise on Architecture, 
 (1664,) several treatises on Horticulture, and various 
 other works. His " Sylva" was the first book printed by 
 order of the Royal Society. Died in February, 1706. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica ;" Evbi.yn's "Diary;" "London 
 Quarterly Review" for April, 1818; "Blackwood's Magazine for 
 JnW, 1854 
 
 Evelyn, (John,) a son of the preceding, born at Say s 
 Court about 1655, was an elegant scholar. He translated 
 Plutarch's Life of Alexander the Great, and wrote some 
 original verses. Died in 1698. 
 Evemere. See Evemerus. 
 
 E-vem'e-rus or Eu-hem'e-rus, [Gr. Ew;/«pof; fr. 
 Evemere, a'va'maiR',] a Greek philosopher, who lived 
 about 300 B.C., and was a friend of Cassander, King of 
 Macedonia. He wrote a Sacred History, ('M 'Avaypapi,) 
 in which he expressed his dissent from the established 
 polytheism, and aimed to prove that the pagan deities 
 were mortals. This work was very popular with the 
 Epicureans, and was translated into Latin by Ennius. 
 The original and version are both lost. 
 
 E-ve'nor, [Evr/vup,] a Greek painter, was the father 
 and master of Parrhasius. He lived about 420 B c. 
 
 E-ve'nus, I E1V00 ,] a Greek poet of Paros, who wrote 
 about 450 B.C., and from whom Socrates is said to have 
 taken lessons in poetry. He is supposed to have been 
 the author of numerous epigrams found in the Greek 
 Anthology. 
 
 Everaerts. See Everard. 
 
 Everard. See Everardi, (Angelo.) 
 
 Everard, 5'veh-raRt', or Everaerts, a'veh-r9Rts,(EGl- 
 
 DIUS) a Dutch 'physician, born at Berg-op-Zoom, prac- 
 tised at Antwerp, where he published in 1583 a treatise 
 "On the Marvellous Virtues of the Peruvian Weed called 
 
 Tobacco." , , 
 
 Everard, (Joannes Secundus,) a popular poet, son 
 of Nicolaas, noticed below, was born at the Hague hi 
 IC.ii He studied law, and about 1533 went to Spain, 
 where he became Latin secretary to the emperor Charles 
 V He gained an extensive reputation by his l^atin 
 poem entitled " Basia." Died in 1 536 
 
 Everard or Everardi, a'veh-raR'dee, (Nicoiaas,) 
 an eminent Dutch jurist, born at Grypskerk m 1473. was 
 a friend of Erasmus. I le was president of the supreme 
 court, or grand council, of Holland, at the Hague, from 
 
 court, or giaiiu i.uuih.m, u. ..„......-.,-. - — ^ . 
 
 icon to 1527, and was eminent for learning and probity. 
 He published "Topica Juris," (1516.) Died in 1532. 
 See Fopprns, " Bibliolheca Belgica." 
 
 Everard, (Nicolaas Grudius.) a Latin poet, son of 
 the preceding, was born at Louvain about 1515. He was 
 
 ; as *, c as ,; I hard', g ->; C H. ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; la. .; *h as in this. (BJ-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
EVERARDI 
 
 880 
 
 EVERETT 
 
 a councillor to Philip II., and secretary of the order of 
 the Golden Fleece. He wrote admired poems called 
 " Negotia, sive Poemata Sacra," (1566,) and "Otia, sive 
 Poemata Profana," (1612.) Died at Venice in 1571. 
 
 His brother, Adrian Marius, also gained distinction 
 as a Latin poet. His verses were printed in 1612 with 
 those of Nicolaas and Joannes. Died in 1568. 
 
 Everardi. See Everard. 
 
 Everardi, a-vi-raR'dee, [Fr. Everard, a'veh-riR',] 
 (Angelo,) an Italian painter, born at Brescia in 1647, 
 died prematurely in 1678. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Everdingen, van, vin Sv'er-ding'en or a'ver-ding'- 
 Hen, ( Alkert,) an excellent Dutch landscape-painter and 
 engraver, born at Alkmaar in 1621, studied with Savery 
 and Peter Molyn, both of whom he surpassed. He 
 travelled in Norway, the wild, rugged, and picturesque 
 scenery of which afforded many subjects for his art. He 
 excelled also in marine views and storms, and executed 
 admirable engravings in aqua-fortis. Died at his native 
 place in 1675. 
 
 His brother C/ESAR, born at Alkmaar in 1606, was a 
 skilful painter of history and portraits, and an able archi- 
 tect. Died at Alkmaar in 1679. 
 
 See Dkscamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Ev'er-ett, (Alexander Hii.l,) an American scholar 
 and diplomatist, born in Boston in 1792, was a brother 
 of Edward Everett, noticed below. He graduated at 
 Harvard University in 1806, and studied law under John 
 Q. Adams, whom he accompanied to Russia as secretary 
 of legation about 1809. He published in 1821 a work 
 entitled " Europe, or a General Survey of the Principal 
 Powers," etc. In 1825 he was appointed minister to the 
 court of Spain, where he remained several years. He 
 published " America, or a General Survey of the Political 
 Situation of the Several Powers of the Western Conti- 
 nent." Having returned home about 1830, he became 
 editor of the " North American Review," to which he 
 contributed many literary and political articles. He 
 conducted this review for about five years with great 
 ability. He became an adherent of the Democratic 
 party and a political friend of General Jackson about 
 1832, after which he was nominated several times as a 
 candidate for Congress, but was not elected. In 1845 he 
 published a volume of poems. He was appointed com- 
 missioner to China in 1845, and died at Canton in May, 
 1847. He had married Lucretia Peabody about 1816. 
 
 See Griswoi.d, " Prose Writers of America ;" Al-LIBONE, "Dic- 
 tionary of Authors." 
 
 Everett, (Edward,) a distinguished American orator, 
 scholar, and statesman, was born in Dorchester, Nor- 
 folk county, Massachusetts, on the nth of April, 1794. 
 His father, the Rev. Oliver Everett, was for a number 
 of years the minister of the New South Church, in Bos- 
 ton, and in 1799 was appointed judge of the circuit court. 
 While preparing for college, Edward Everett attended a 
 school kept by Ezekiel Webster, brother of the cele- 
 brated Daniel Webster, who on one occasion, during 
 Ezekiel's absence, took charge of the school for a week. 
 It was thus that the acquaintance began between two 
 individuals who were afterwards destined to act together 
 a distinguished part in their country's history. Edward 
 Everett entered Harvard in the summer of 1807, and 
 graduated, with the highest honours of his class, in 181 1. 
 He immediately commenced the study of divinity under 
 President Kirkland. In February, 1814, he was ordained 
 as minister of Brattle Street Church, Boston. In 181 5 
 he was called to the chair of the Greek professorship 
 at Harvard ; but, in order more fully to qualify himself 
 for the position, he visited Germany, and went through 
 a course of study at the University of Gottingen. He 
 afterwards made the tour of Europe. Returning, after 
 an absence of four years, to his native country, in 1819. 
 he entered upon the duties of his professorship, and 
 gave to the study of Greek literature an impulse the 
 influence of which is still felt in America. In 1822 he 
 married the daughter of the Hon. Peter Chardon Brooks. 
 In 1824 he was elected to Congress, and took his 
 seat in the House of Representatives, in 1825, as a 
 supporter of John Quincy Adams. He continued in 
 
 Congress ten years. In 1835 he was elected Governor 
 of Massachusetts. During the four years of his official 
 term the Board of Education was organized, the normal 
 schools founded, and other important public measures 
 adopted or carried on. In the gubernatorial election 
 of 1839, Mr. Everett failed to be re-elected by a single 
 vote only. Thus released from public duty, he visited 
 Europe the second time in the summer of 1840, and 
 passed the winter in Italy. On the election of General 
 Harrison to the Presidential chair, Webster became sec- 
 retary of state, and, chiefly through his influence, Everett 
 was appointed minister at the court of Saint James. 
 Several important questions, including that of the north- 
 eastern boundary, were then agitated between the two 
 countries. Mr. Everett performed his difficult diplomatic 
 duties in a manner that reflected the highest credit upon 
 himself and distinguished honour upon the administra- 
 tion with which he was connected. Having returned 
 home in 1845, ne was soon after elected president of 
 Harvard University. He resigned this position in 1849. 
 [n 1852 Mr. Everett was called by President Fillmore to 
 the office of secretary of state, left vacant by the death 
 of Daniel Webster ; he held this place, however, only 
 four months, — that is, until the inauguration of Franklin 
 Pierce, March 4, 1853. Previously to his retiring from 
 the cabinet he had been elected, by the legislature of 
 Massachusetts, to the Senate of the United States. Al- 
 though in feeble health, he applied himself assiduously, 
 during that exciting period, to the discharge of his public 
 duties. In May, 1854, in compliance with the earnest 
 recommendation of his physician, he resigned his seal 
 in Congress, and withdrew to private life. As soon as 
 his health was somewhat restored, he commenced his 
 labours in behalf of the Mount Vernon Fund, the object 
 of which was to purchase the home and burial-place of 
 the immortal Washington, (then in the possession of his 
 nephew, Bushrod Washington,) in order that it might 
 for all future time belong to the American people as a 
 place of public resort and pilgrimage. The sum collected 
 for this noble purpose by the efforts of Mr. Everett (as 
 the result of his lectures, writings, etc.) amounted to 
 scarcely less than one hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 Mr. Everett was by temperament and mental constitu- 
 tion strongly conservative. This tendency was perhaps 
 strengthened by the obvious consideration that, without a 
 measure of the spirit of conciliation and mutual conces- 
 sion, the government of a free people, spread over a vast 
 extent of territory and having a great diversity of interests, 
 would necessarily be exposed to continual jars, if not 
 fatal collisions. His tastes and his principles alike made 
 hiin averse to all discord and violence ; and, like many 
 others, he was led to hope that, by a moderate and con- 
 ciliatory policy on the part of the North, the spirit of 
 Southern slavery — that great source of peril to the nation 
 — might be rendered more mild and less aggressive. 
 When at length the assault committed by Brooks upon 
 Mr. Sumner in the Senate, and the subsequent outrages of 
 the pro-slavery party in Missouri and Kansas, had excited 
 deep and general indignation among the people of the 
 non-slavehokling States, Mr. Everett's anxiety seemed to 
 increase, with the increasing danger, to avert, if possible, 
 the dreadful scourge of civil war from his hitherto pros- 
 perous and happy country. With this view, he allowed 
 his name to go before the people as a representative of 
 the party of conciliation and compromise, by which party 
 he was chosen in the summer of i860 a candidate for 
 the Vice-Presidency, John Bell, of Tennessee, being the 
 nominee for President. In the ensuing election they 
 received only thirty-nine electoral votes, and Mr. Lin- 
 coln was chosen President by a large majority. The 
 events of the next few months showed that the Southern 
 leaders had for many years been making preparations 
 for a separation from the Union, and that the election 
 of Mr. Lincoln merely furnished them with a plausible 
 pretext before the people for carrying their schemes into 
 effect. When Mr. Everett perceived that war was inevi- 
 table, and that the nation could only be preserved by 
 putting down the rebellion by force of arms, he gave all 
 his energies and influence towards the support of the 
 Federal government. He died of an affection of the lungs, 
 terminating in apoplexy, on the 15th of January, 1865. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 3, e, T, 6, u, ?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; nflt; good; moon; 
 
EVERMER 
 
 881 
 
 EW1NG 
 
 Edward Everett affords a remarkable example of an 
 »lmo.st universal culture, — of the successful prosecution 
 of the most diversified pursuits, combined with rare accu- 
 racy and thoroughness in those departments of learning 
 to which lie more especially devoted himself. His lite- 
 rary productions consist chiefly of his elaborate public 
 speeches and addresses delivered on various occasions. 
 He also contributed several important articles to the 
 " North American Review." Among these we would call 
 especial attention to one which most ably discussed the 
 doctrine of nullification, (then rife in South Carolina,) 
 published in October, 1830. His published speeches and 
 addresses are perhaps not surpassed in value by those 
 of any other American orator, if, in addition to the grace 
 and elegance of the style, we take into consideration the 
 correct and valuable information which they contain. 
 
 For some excellent remarks on the character of Mr. Everett, both 
 as a gentleman and a scholar, see "Character and Characteristic 
 Men, bv E. P. Whipple, pp. 243-253; see, also, "A Memoir of 
 Edward Everett," Boston, 1865; "Christian Examiner" for Novem- 
 ber. i v :o; Gkiswumi's "Prose Writers of America ;" "National 
 PiTtrait-tl.illery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. ; "Golden 
 Age of American Oratory," by. Edward G. Parker, Boston, 1857; 
 "North American Review" for April, 1825, January. 1837, and 
 October, 1850 ; " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1840. 
 
 Evermer. See Ebrf.mar. 
 
 Evers, i-vaiR', (Charles Joseph,) Baron, a Belgian 
 general in the French service, born at Brussels in 1773 ; 
 died in 1818. 
 
 Ev'erii-ley, (Charles Shaw Lefevre,) Viscount, 
 in English legislator, born in London in 1794. His 
 family name was Shaw. He was elected to Parliament 
 as a Whig in 1830, and became Speaker of the House 
 of Commons in 1839. He was re-elected to that office 
 in 1841, in 1847, and in 1852, and ceased to be Speaker 
 in i8i7, when he was raised to the peerage, as Viscount 
 Eversley. His official conduct was highly approved by 
 both parties. He was remarkable for dignity of manner. 
 
 Everts, (Nicolaas.) See Everard. 
 
 Evertsen, Sv'ert-sen, a Dutch family which produced 
 several distinguished naval officers, of whom five were 
 brothers. Cornelius, a vice-admiral, was killed in battle 
 with the English, July, 1666. His brother John, hold- 
 ing the same rank in the navy, was killed in the ensuing 
 month. Cornelius, the son of John, attained the rank 
 of vice-admiral, and died in 1679. 
 
 See J. C. de Jonge, " Vie des Amiraux de ZeMande J. et C. Evert- 
 sen." 1817. 
 
 EVesque. See Levesque. 
 
 Evliya or Evleea, ev-lee'a, (Efff.ndt,) a noted 
 Turkish traveller, born in Constantinople in 1611, passed 
 the greater part of his mature life in travel through Asia 
 and Europe. He often accompanied military expeditions 
 or diplomatic missions as secretary. He wrote several 
 volumes of Travels, which, although they display more 
 credulity than judgment, are well adapted to give an 
 i"si_'ht into the Turkish character and mode of thought. 
 Died about 1680. 
 
 See Von Hammer. "Notice of Evlya Effendi," in his " Histoire 
 do 1 Empire Ottoman." 
 
 E-vo'dl-us, an intimate friend of Saint Augustine, was 
 bora at Tagaste, (Africa.) He became Bishop of Uzalis, 
 near Utica, about 396 a.d. He wrote letters to Saint 
 Augustine, which are extant. 
 
 Evremond, avR'mo.N', (Charles de Saint-Denis 
 — deh saN'deh-ne',) Seigneur de Saint-fivremond, a 
 Preach courtier, wit, and litterateur, born at Saint-Denys- 
 le-Guast, near Coutances, in 1613. He entered the army 
 at an early age, and, by his bravery, wit, and polite 
 accomplishments, attracted the notice of Turcnne and 
 Conde, with the latter of whom he became intimate. 
 In the war of the Fronde, about 1650, he supported the 
 royal cause, and was promoted by the king. For some 
 political offence, Louis XIV. ordered him to be confined 
 in the Bastille in 1661 ; but he escaped to England in 
 1662, was received with great favour at court, and never 
 returned to Prance. Charles II. granted him a pension 
 of ;£jOO. His letters, essays, dramas, etc. (in French) 
 gained him much temporary reputation; but they are 
 mostly of a trifling character, and have little merit ex- 
 cept the natural and graceful style. Died in 1703. 
 
 P. Dksmaiseaux, "Vie du Sieur de Saint- Evremond," 1705 ; 
 C. Cotoi.endi, " Saint-Evremontiana," Amsterdam, 1701. 
 
 Ewald, a'walt, (Georg HEtNRiCH August,) an emi- 
 nent German Orientalist and biblical critic, was born at 
 Gottingen in 1803. He became professor of philosophy 
 at Gottingen about 1827, and of Oriental languages in the 
 same university in 1835. He published a good Hebrew 
 grammar, (1835.) From 1837 to 1848 he was professor of 
 theology at Tubingen. In 1848 he resumed his former 
 functions at Gottingen. Among his principal works are 
 "The Poetical Books of the Old Testament," (1835-37,) 
 a " History of the People of Israel until the Advent of 
 Christ," (3 vols., 1843-50,) and "The Prophets of the 
 Old Testament," ("Die Propheten des alten Bundes," 
 2 vols., 1840.) In his religious views he inclined towards 
 rationalism. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon ;" E. Reman,™ the 
 "Revue des Deux Mondes," November 15, 1855; Caki. Whx, 
 " Professor Ewald als Punier gewurdigt," Rostock, 1843 ; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Ewald, (Johann Ludwig,) a German Protestant 
 theologian and writer, born in Hesse-Darmstadt in 1748. 
 After he had preached rationalism some years at Offen- 
 bach, he avowed his conversion to evangelical doctrines. 
 In 1 781 he became court preacher at Detmold. In 1796 
 he removed to Bremen, and to Heidelberg in 1805. He 
 published many works. Died in 1822. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ewald, (Johannes.) See Evald. 
 
 Ewald, a'valt, or Evald, (John,) a Danish genera], 
 born at Cassel in 1744. He fought for the British in the 
 United States in 1776-82, and entered, the Danish ser- 
 vice in 1788. Having risen to the rank of general, he 
 distinguished himself in defence of the neutrality of Den- 
 mark about 1806. He was author of an able and very 
 successful treatise, "Instructions in War," ("Belehrun- 
 gen iiber den Krieg," 1798.) Died in 1813. Malte-Brun 
 represents him as a brother of the poet Evald. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ew'art, (yoo'art,) (William,) an English Liberal 
 legislator, born in Liverpool in 1798, was educated for the 
 law. He represented the burghs of Dumfries district in 
 Parliament for many years, beginning in 1841. About 
 1850 he procured the passage of an act to establish free 
 public libraries, and laboured for the abolition of capital 
 punishment. Died in 1869. 
 
 Ew'bank, (Thomas,) a writer on practical mechanics, 
 born in the county of Durham, England, in 1792, emi- 
 grated to New York about 1820, and was appointed 
 commissioner of patents in 1849. Among his works are 
 a " Descriptive and Historical Account of Hydraulic and 
 other Machines, Ancient and Modern," (1842,) and 
 "Thoughts on Matter and Force," (1858.) Died in 1870. 
 
 Ew'ell, (yoo'el,) (Richard. Stoddard,) an American 
 general, born in the District of Columbia about 1818, 
 graduated at West Point in 1840. He became a captain 
 about 1849, resigned his commission in 1861, and took 
 arms against the Union. He commanded a division in 
 several battles near Richmond in June, 1862, and lost a 
 leg in August near Bull Run. Having been raised to 
 the rank of lieutenant-general, he commanded a corps of 
 Lee's army at Gettysburg, July, 1863. He took part in 
 the battles of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania Court- 
 House, May, 1864. He was taken prisoner near the 
 Appomattox River, April 6, 1865. 
 
 See " Southern Generals," anonymous, New York, 1865. 
 
 Ewers, a'fters, (Johann Philipp Giistav,) a German 
 historian, born in the diocese of Corbie in 1781. He 
 became professor of history at Dorpat in 1810, and 
 published several works on the history and statistics of 
 Russia. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ew'ing, (yoo'ing,) (Rev. Greville,) a Scottish theo- 
 logian, born in Edinburgh in 1767, was for many years 
 pastor of an Independent church in Glasgow. He gained 
 distinction as an expositor of Scripture, and published 
 a "Greek and English Lexicon," (1802,) "Letters to the 
 Jews," and several religious treatises. Died in 1841. 
 
 Ew'ing, (John.) an American Presbyterian minister, 
 born in Maryland in 1732. He became pastor rrf a 
 church in Philadelphia in 1759, and provost of the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania in 1779. He contributed to the 
 
 € as k: 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Sy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 ?6 
 
EWING 
 
 882 
 
 EYCK 
 
 Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 Ewing, (Thomas,) an American statesman, born in 
 Ohio county, Virginia, in December, 1789. He was 
 taken to the State of Ohio about 1792 by his father, 
 who was not able to give him much education at school. 
 After he was twenty-one years of age, he entered the 
 Ohio University at Athens. He studied law, was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1816, and practised with success in 
 the courts of Ohio and in the supreme court of the 
 United States. He represented Ohio in the Senate 
 of the United States from March, 1831, to March, 1837, 
 during which period he acted with the Whig party. 
 He supported General Harrison for the Presidency in 
 
 1840, and became secretary of the treasury in March, 
 
 1841. In September, 1841, he resigned because Presi- 
 dent Tyler vetoed a bill for a national bank (for the 
 regulation of exchanges) of which Mr. Ewing was in 
 part the author. He was secretary of the interior from 
 March, 1849, until the death of President Taylor, July, 
 
 1850. In the latter part of 1850 he was appointed a 
 Senator of the United States, to fill a vacancy caused by 
 the removal of Thomas Corwin to a seat in the cabinet. 
 He opposed Clay's Compromise bill and the Fugitive 
 Slave bill. After his retirement from the Senate, March, 
 
 1851, he resumed the practice of law at Lancaster, Ohio. 
 Died in 1871. 
 
 Exauvillez, d', deVso've'yi', (Philippe Irenee 
 Boistel — bwas'tSl',) a French Catholic, born at Amiens 
 in 1786, wrote "The Good Curate," (1827,) and other 
 popular religious works. He made a French version 
 of Sir Walter Scott's works, from which he omitted all 
 passages contrary to Roman Catholicism. 
 
 Excelmans, £k'seTm6N', or Exelmans, (Remi Jo- 
 seph ISIDORE,) Baron, an eminent French general, was 
 born at Bar-le-Duc in 1775. He entered the army young, 
 and became aide-de-camp to Murat in 1801. For his 
 gallant conduct at Austerlitr, in 1805, he was made a 
 colonel. He served with distinction at Eylau, where he 
 won the rank of general of brigade, and at Friedland, in 
 1807. In 181 1 he was grand equerry of Murat, then King 
 of Naples; but in 1812 he returned to France, was cre- 
 ated a baron, and commanded a division in the campaign 
 of Russia. He displayed great courage and skill at Bo- 
 rodino, and in the campaign of 1814 in France. At 
 Waterloo he commanded a corps of cavalry of the re- 
 serve. After an exile of four years, he returned to France 
 in 1819. He was restored to his rank as a peer in 1831, 
 and became a marshal of France about 1850. Died in 
 1851 or 1852. 
 
 See J. Nou.et-Fabert, " Notice sur M. le Marechal Exelmans," 
 1851 ; Victoires et Conquetes des Francais." 
 
 Exelmans. See Excelmans. 
 
 Exeter, Bishop of. See Phillpotts, (Henrv.) 
 
 Eximeno, ek-se-ma'no, ( Don Antonio, ) a learned 
 Spanish Jesuit and ingenious author, born at Balbastro, 
 in Aragon, in 1732. On the suppression of his order 
 he removed to Rome. He wrote the "Military History 
 of Spain," ( 1769, ) the style of which is admired, and a 
 treatise on the "Origin and Principles of Music, with a 
 History of its Progress," etc., (1774,) which is his chief 
 production. Died in Rome in 1798. 
 
 Exmouth, fjks'miith, (Edward Pellew,) Viscount, 
 an eminent English admiral, born at Dover in 1757, 
 entered the navy in 1770. He took a conspicuous part 
 in the battle of Lake Champlain in 1776, and became a 
 post-captain in 1782. During the war against Fiance 
 he captured a number of the enemy's ships, for which 
 service he was knighted about 1794. He was elected 
 member of Parliament in 1802, and obtained the rank of 
 rear-admiral in 1804, with a command in the East Indies. 
 As vice-admiral, he was appointed commander-in-chief 
 in the Mediterranean in 1810. In 1814 he was created 
 Baron Exmouth and promoted to the rank of full admi- 
 ral. In 1816 Lord Exmouth commanded a perilous ex- 
 pedition against the Algerines, who had violated a treaty 
 for the abolition of Christian slavery. The English and 
 Dutch fleets attacked Algiers on the 26th of August, and 
 directed their fire with such skill and effect that the Dey, 
 after an obstinate resistance, was compelled to submit 
 on the same day, and about twelve hundred captives 
 
 were liberated. In this action the admiral's coat was 
 torn by a cannon-ball. On his return to England, Lord 
 Exmouth was received with unbounded applause, and 
 was raised to the rank of viscount. He retired from 
 public service in 1821, and died in 1833. 
 
 See Edward Osler, " Life of Admiral Exmouth," 1835; "Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for December, 1835. 
 
 Exner, eks'ner, (Franz,) a German philosopher, born 
 in Vienna in 1802, was professor of philosophy at Prague 
 from 1831 to 1848. He wrote, among other works, one 
 "On Nominalism and Realism," (1841,) and the "Doc- 
 trine of the Unity of Thought and Existence," (1845.) 
 
 Expilly, eks'pe'le', (Claude,) a French lawyer and 
 councillor of state, born at Voiron in 1561. He was em- 
 ployed by Henry IV. and Louis XIII. as negotiator in 
 Piedmont and Savoy, and became president of the Par- 
 liament of Grenoble. He wrote a "Life of Chevalier 
 Bayard," (1650.) Died in 1636. 
 
 See J. C. Martin, " Histoire et Vie de Claude Expilly," 1803. 
 
 Expilly, (Jean Joseph,) Abbe, a French geographer, 
 born at Saint-Remi, Provence, in 1719, performed many 
 journeys in the public service, and others, for the pur- 
 pose of collecting materials for his works. He was a 
 prolific and accurate writer, and published, between 1750 
 and 1770, treatises on geography, which were among the 
 best of that period. Among these is a " Geographical 
 and Historical Dictionary of Gaul and of France," (6 
 vols., 1762-70.) Died in 1793. 
 
 Expilly, (Louis Alexandre,) a French priest and 
 revolutionist, born at Brest in 1742, became a deputy to 
 the States-General in 1789, and was one of the framers 
 of the ciyil constitution of the clergy. In 1790 he was 
 chosen constitutional Bishop of Finisterre. He was con- 
 demned on a charge of Federalism, and executed in 1794. 
 
 Ex-u-pe'rI-us, [Fr. Exupere, ek'sii'paiR',] Bishop 
 of Toulouse, lived about 400 A.D., and was eminent for 
 charity. 
 
 Eyb, von, fon Tp, (Albrecht,) a German ecclesiastic 
 of high reputation, born about 1420, became chamber- 
 lain to Pope Pius II. He published a compilation from 
 ancient authors, entitled "The Poetic Pearl," ("Marga- 
 rita poetica," 1472,) often reprinted. Died about 1478. 
 
 Eyck, van, vin Ik, (Hubert,) a famous Flemish 
 painter, born in 1366, was a brother of Jan, with whom 
 he worked in partnership at Bruges and Ghent. They 
 sometimes painted together on the same picture, — for 
 example, the altar-piece of a church in Ghent represent- 
 ing the Adoration of the Lamb, which is called their 
 master-piece. To these brothers is ascribed the inven- 
 tion of oil-painting, or, more properly, an improved 
 method of preparing the pigments. (See Eyck, Jan van.) 
 Died in 1426. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Eyck, van, (Jan,) a celebrated Flemish painter, 
 sometimes called John of Bruges, was born at or near 
 Maaseyck about 1390, and was a pupil of Hubert, his 
 brother. He worked mostly at Ghent and Bruges. 
 About 1425 he obtained the favour of Philip the Good, 
 Duke of Burgundy, who employed him as an artist and 
 ambassador. He had received from nature the qualities 
 requisite for a great painter. He and his brother were 
 the first who attained to great success in oil-painting, 
 having discovered a new vehicle of colour, composed of 
 siccative oils and resins. His pictures preserve to the 
 present time an admirable freshness and brilliancy of 
 colour. "His colour," says Emeric-David, in the "Bio- 
 graphie Universelle," "though inferior in harmony to 
 that of modern master-pieces, has more vivacity." 
 Among his works are "The Adoration of the Magi," 
 a "Virgin and Child," and a "Saint Jerome." Died 
 about 1440. 
 
 See A. Michiels, " Histoire de la Peinture Flamande;" Carton, 
 "Les trois Freres Van Eyck," etc., 1848. 
 
 Eyck, van, (Kaspar,) a Flemish painter, born at 
 Antwerp, lived in the second half of the seventeenth 
 century. He painted marine views with skill. 
 
 Eyck, van, (Margaret,) a sister of Hubert and Jan, 
 was a successful painter. She refused an offer (or offers) 
 of marriage because she preferred to devote herself to 
 art. She probably worked with her brothers in Bruges 
 and Ghent. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long;&, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m8t;n6t;go"6d;moon; 
 
ETCK 
 
 883 
 
 EZRA 
 
 Eyck, van, (Nicolaas,) a Flemish painter, born in 
 Antwerp about 1630, acquired a great reputation for 
 battle-pieces. The particulars of his life are not known. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Eyckens. See Eykens. 
 
 Eyer. See Ayrer, (Jakob.) 
 
 Eyke de Rebkow. See Rebkow. 
 
 Eykens, I'kens, or Eyckens, ik'kens, (Jan,) a son 
 of Pieter, noticed below, was a skilful painter of flowers 
 and fruits. Died in 1669. 
 
 Eykens or Eyckens, (Pieter,) called the Elder, 
 a skilful Flemish historical painter, born in Antwerp 
 about 1600. He worked in his native city, the churches 
 of which contain the most of his paintings. Among them 
 are a " Last Supper," a " Saint Catherine Disputing," 
 and " Elijah Ascending in a Chariot of Fire." His design, 
 colour, and expression are praised by Descamps. He 
 sometimes painted figures for the works of landscape- 
 painters. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Eymar, .i'miR',(CLAUDE,) a literary French merchant, 
 born in Marseilles in 1744. He wrote commentaries on 
 Rousseau's works, and essays on various subjects. Died 
 in 1822. 
 
 Eymar, d', dJ'miR', (Ange Marie,) Comte, a French 
 litterateur, born at Marseilles about 1 740 ; died at Geneva 
 in 1803. 
 
 Eymer. See Hymir. 
 
 Eymeric, 4-m^-rek', (Nicolas,) a native of Gerona, 
 in Spain, born about 1320, entered the Dominican order, 
 and was accounted the greatest canonist of his time. He 
 was made Inquisitor-General in 1356, and wrote "The 
 Inquisitor's Directory," the atrocious maxims of which 
 became the guide of Torquemada. Died in 1399. 
 
 Eynard, J'niR', (J. G.,) a merchant, born at Lyons 
 in 1775, removed to Geneva in his youth. About 1824 
 he devoted himself to the cause of Greek nationality, 
 and in 1829 he loaned or advanced 700,000 francs to 
 the Greek treasury. 
 
 Eynde, van den, vin den In'deh, [Lat. Eyn'dius,] 
 (Jakob,) a Dutch writer, born at Delft about 1575, pub- 
 lished a volume of Latin poems, (161 1,) and a "Chronicle 
 of Zealand," (1634.) Died in 1614. 
 
 Eynden, van, vin In'den, (Jacob,) a Dutch painter 
 of animals, flowers, etc., born at Nymwegen in 1733 ; 
 died about 1800. 
 
 Eynden, van, (Roland,) a Dutch writer and painter, 
 60m at Dort in 1748, published, in conjunction with 
 Yander Villigen, a " History of the Painters of the Low 
 Countries," from the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 which is esteemed valuable. Died in 1819. 
 
 Eyndius. See Eynde, van den. 
 
 Eyre, air, (Edward John,) an Englishman, distin- 
 guished as an explorer of Australia, was born about 
 1818. He published in 1845 "Discoveries in Central 
 Australia." In 1864 he was appointed Governor of Ja- 
 maica. He was censured for the severity with which 
 he suppressed an insurrection in October, 1865, and was 
 removed soon after that date. 
 
 Eyre, (Sir James,) an English judge, born in Wilt- 
 shire in 1734. After practising law in London, he be- 
 came recorder of that city in 1762. He was appointed 
 a baron of the exchequer in 1772, and first commissioner 
 of the great seal in 1792. He held the office of lord 
 chief justice of the court of common pleas from 1793 
 until his death in 1799. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Eyries, 4're-eV, (Jean' Baptiste BENotT,) a French 
 geographer and translator, born at Marseilles in 1767. 
 
 He translated from the English and German many works 
 on geography and narratives of voyages, was one of the 
 founders of the Geographical Society of Paris, and editor 
 of the "Annales des Voyages." He wrote many articles 
 for Michaud's " Biographie Universelle," and published 
 with Pinkerton an "Abridgment of Modern Geography," 
 (2 vols., 1827.) Died in 1846. 
 
 Eysel, I'zel, (Johann Philipp,) a German physician 
 and writer, born at Erfurt in 1652 ; died in 1717. 
 
 Eytelwein, l'tel-win', (Johann Albrecht,) a Prus- 
 sian engineer born at Frankfort in 1764. He published 
 a " Manual of the Mechanics of Solid Bodies and Hy- 
 draulics," (1801,) a "Manual of Perspective," (1810.) 
 and other works. Died about 1840. 
 
 Eytzing, von, fon It'sing, (Michael,) a German his- 
 torian of the sixteenth century, published a history of 
 events in the Low Countries from 1559 to 1583, entitled 
 " On the Belgic Lion," ("De Leone Belgico," etc., 1583.) 
 
 Ezechias, the French of Hezekiah, which see. 
 
 fizechiel. See Ezekiel. 
 
 Ez-ed-deen or Ez-ed-din, Sz-ed-deen', an Arabian 
 poet, born in 1181 ; died in 1261. 
 
 E-ze'kl-el, [Heb. SRWtT ; Fr. Ezechiei., i'za'she'el' 
 or a'za'ke-£l' ; Ger. Ezechiel, et-sa'ke-£I,] one of the 
 four greater prophets, was a contemporary of Daniel. 
 During the first Babylonian captivity he was removed, 
 with other captives, about 600 B.C., to the river Chebar, 
 an affluent of the Euphrates. He began to prophesy 
 and to proclaim the judgments of God against idolatry 
 and other sins in 595 B.C. His prophecies are generally 
 considered obscure, but are remarkable for bold and 
 magnificent imagery. Many critics concede to him con- 
 siderable poetical genius and great energy of character. 
 The data of his external life are very deficient. The 
 only important event of his personal history noticed in 
 his writings is the death of his wife, (chap. xxiv. 18.) 
 The New Testament contains no mention of Ezekiel, nor 
 any quotation from the book which bears his name. 
 
 See C. F. Boerner, " Dissertatio de Ezechiele Propheta," 1719. 
 
 Ezekiel, a Jewish poet, who lived at Alexandria, and 
 wrote, in Greek, a drama on the Exodus from F^gypt. 
 
 E-ze'kl-el, an Armenian astronomer, born about 673 
 a.d. After travelling in Greece, he opened in his native 
 place in 710 a school, which became flourishing. He 
 wrote a "Treatise on the Zodiac," and other works. 
 Died in 727. 
 
 Ezengatsi, ez-en-gat'see, written also Ezenkantsi, 
 (Hovan, i.e. John,) an eminent Armenian writer and 
 priest. Died about 1325. 
 
 Ez'nig, Ez'nag, or Ez'nik, an Armenian writer and 
 theologian, born in 397 A.D.; died in 478. 
 
 Eznik. See Eznig. 
 
 Ezquerra, eth-ker'ra, or Esquerra, Ss-ker'ra, a Span- 
 ish poet and priest, born in Biscay about 1568. His 
 reputation is founded on his "Epistle to Bartholomew 
 Argensola," the style of which is a model of elegance, 
 purity, and grace. Died in 1641. 
 
 Ez'ra, [Heb. XI?;'; Lat. Es'dras; Fr. Esdras, es'- 
 dRas' ; Ger. Es'ra or Es'dras,] an eminent Jewish scribe 
 and reformer, was the author of the canonical book which 
 bears his name, and perhaps of the two books of Chroni- 
 cles. He was probably born in Babylon. After the temple 
 had been rebuilt at Jerusalem, Ezra received authority 
 from the King of Persia, about 458 B.C., to lead a large 
 number of captive Jews back to their fatherland. (See 
 Ezra vii., viii., ix., and x., and Neliemiah viii.) He was 
 Governor of Judea until 445 B.C. He is called the " Re- 
 storer of the Scriptures," which he appears to have revised. 
 
 Ezzelino, (da Romano.) See Romano. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J^=*See Explanations, p. 23.1 
 
FABBRA 
 
 884 
 
 FABIUS 
 
 F. 
 
 Fabbira, della, dSKll flb'bRa, (Luigt,) a distinguished 
 professor of medicine in the University of Ferrara, born 
 in that city in 1655 ; died in 1723. 
 
 Fabbrizi, de\ da fab-bRet'see, (Luigi Cinzio,) an 
 Italian writer, born in Venice about 1450, published 
 "Origine de' volga i Proverbi," (1526.) Died about 1526. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura haliana." 
 
 Fabbroni. See Fabroni. 
 
 Faber. See Fabre, Le Fevre, and Fevre. 
 
 Faber, (Antoine and Claude.) See Favre. 
 
 Faber, fd'ber, (Basil,) a German scholar and Prot- 
 estant writer, born at Sora, or Sorau, in 1520. His chief 
 work is "Treasury of Scholastic Learning," ("Thesaurus 
 Eruditionis scholasticas," 1571,) often reprinted. Died 
 about 1575. 
 
 Faber, (Felix,) an author and itinerant preacher, 
 whose original name was Schmidt, born at Zurich about 
 1442 ; died at Ulm in 1502. 
 
 Fa'ber, (Frederick William,) a Roman Catholic 
 priest and writer, nephew of George Stanley Faber, no- 
 ticed below, was born in England in 1815. Died in 1863. 
 
 See Bowden, " Life of F. W. Faber," 1869. 
 
 Faber, (George Stanley,) an eminent English theo- 
 logian, born near Bradford, in Yorkshire, in 1773. He 
 studied at University College, Oxford. Having graduated 
 in 1803, he rose through several preferments to be a pre- 
 bendary in the cathedral of Salisbury in 1831. Among 
 his principal works we may name his " View of the 
 Mosaical Records," ("Horse Mosaicae," 1801,) "On the 
 Mysteries of the Cabyri, or the Great Gods of Phoenicia," 
 ( 1803, ) " Difficulties of Infidelity," ( 1824, ) (a masterly 
 production,) " Difficulties of Romanism," (1826,) "View 
 of the Prophecies relating to Judah and Israel," and 
 "The Sacred Calendar of Prophecy," (3 vols., 1828.) 
 His productions evince great learning and research and 
 a spirit of fervent piety, and are regarded by competent 
 critics as among the most valuable that have been 
 written on those subjects. Died in 1854. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1854; Allibone, "Dic- 
 tionary of Authors." 
 
 Faber, fi'ba', Fabre, fibR, or Le Fevre, leh fgvR, 
 (Jean,) a celebrated French lawyer and jurist, born in 
 Angouleme ; died in 1340. 
 
 Faber, fa'ber, (Johann, ) surnamed the Hammer 
 of Heretics, a German theologian and zealous adver- 
 sary of Luther, was born at Leutkirch, in Suabia, about 
 1475. He became a Dominican monk. He published, 
 besides other polemical works against the Protestants, 
 the "Hammer of Heretics," ("Malleus Hasreticorum," 
 1524.) In 1 53 1 he became Bishop of Vienna. Died in 
 1541. 
 
 See Kettner. " Dissertatio de J. Fabri Vita et Scriptis," 1737. 
 
 Faber, (Johann,) a German Catholic theologian and 
 controversialist, born at Heilbronn about 1500; died, 
 about 1560. 
 
 Faber, (Johann,) a German botanist and physician, 
 born at Bamberg about 1570, practised in Rome, and 
 was physician to Pope Urban VIII. 
 
 Faber, (Johann Ernst,) a German Orientalist and 
 writer, born at Simmerthausen in 1745; died in 1774. 
 
 Faber, (Pierre,) a French classical scholar, born in 
 Auvergne about 1530; died about 1615. He wrote 
 commentaries on Cicero, (1601.) 
 
 Faber, (SAMUEL,) a Swiss writer, born at Altorf in 
 1657. His ch'ii work is "The World in a Nutshell," 
 ("Orbis Terrarum in Nuce.") Died in 17 16. 
 
 Faber Stapulensis. See Lefevre d'Estaples. 
 
 Fabert, fa'bert or fS'baiR', (Abraham,) a noted orna- 
 mental printer, born at Metz about 1560; died in 1638. 
 
 Fabert, (Abraham,) a famous French general, a son 
 of the preceding, was born at Metz in 1599. After having 
 distinguished himself in several battles, he was created 
 marshal of France by Louis XIV. in 1658, and at the 
 same time was appointed governor of Sedan, at which 
 place he died in 1662. His exploits and good fortune 
 
 were so extraordinary that they were by many ascribed 
 to magic. 
 
 See Courtilz de Sandras, "Vie du Marechal Fabert," 1697; 
 J. de la Bakre, "Vie du Martkhal Fabert," 1752; Voltaire, 
 " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Begin, "£]oge du Mare'chal Fabert," 
 1837- 
 
 Fa'bl-an or Fabyan, (Robert,) a noted merchant 
 and sheriff of London, born about 1450, was the author of 
 "Concordance of Histories," or "Fabian's Chronicle," 
 (1516,) which treats of English history. Dietl in 1512. 
 
 See Dibehn, "Typographical Antiquities." 
 
 Fa'bi-an, [Lat. Fabia'nus; Fr. Fabien, ft'be-lN',] 
 Saint, was elected pope in 236 a.d., and suffered mar- 
 tyrdom under the emperor Decius in 250. 
 
 Fa-bl-a'nus, (Papir'ius,) a Roman philosopher of the 
 first century, wrote numerous treatises on philosophy. 
 The two Senecas expressed a high opinion of his works. 
 
 Fabii, fa'be-I, a powerful patrician house of ancient 
 Rome, which became conspicuous soon after the estab- 
 lishment of the republic. Three brothers named Fabius 
 obtained seven successive consulships between 486 and 
 479 8-C 
 
 Fa-bl-o'la, Saint, a Roman lady of the illustrious 
 house of Fabius, was celebrated for her piety and benevo- 
 lence, and was the founder of hospitals in Italy. Died 
 about 400 A.D. 
 
 See Baili.et, "Vies des Saints." 
 
 Fa'bl-us Am-bus'tus, (Marcus,) a general, was 
 consul in 360, in 356, and in 354 B.C., and afterwards 
 dictator of Rome about 351 B.C. He was the father of 
 Fabius Maximus Rtillianus, noticed below. He defeated 
 the Hernici and Tarquinians. 
 
 Fa'bl-us Max'I-mus, (Quintus,) a son of the fol- 
 lowing, and grandson by adoption of Paulus ^Emilius, 
 was chosen consul 122 B.C. Having the department of 
 Transalpine Gaul, he carried on a successful war against 
 the Arverni and the Allobroges. On one occasion he 
 defeated the enemy, who lost 120,000 men, while the 
 loss of the Romans was very small. For this victory 
 he received the surname of Allobrogicus. 
 
 Fa'bl-us Max'I-mus -ffi-mil-I-a'nus, (Quintus,) 
 son of the consul Paulus /Emilius, passed by adoption 
 into the house of Fabius. He was elected consul of Rome 
 147 B.C. He carried on a successful war in Spain against 
 Viriathus, a famous general commanding the Lusita- 
 nians. Like the great Fabius Cunctator, he pursued in 
 his wars the defensive policy. 
 
 Fa'bi-us Maxl-mus Gur'ges, (Quintus,) a son of 
 Fabius Maximus Rullianus, was consul in 292 B.C., and 
 again in 276. He was the grandfather of the great Fabius 
 Cunctator. 
 
 Fa'bl-us Max'I-mus RuI-H-a'nus, (Quintus,) a 
 famous general, was five times consul (322-295 B.C.) 
 and twice dictator of Rome. He also held many other 
 high offices. He gained victories over the Samnites in 
 325, in 322, and in 296 B.C. He was reputed the greatest 
 Roman general of his time. 
 
 See NiEBtrnR, " History of Rome:" Livy, "History of Rome:" 
 Valerius Maximls, "History of Rome;" Aurelius Victor, 
 " Viri illustres." 
 
 Fa'bi-us Maxl-mus VSr-ru-co'sus, (Quintus,) 
 surnamed Cuncta'tor, the greatest of the Fabian line, 
 was consul for the first time, in 233 B.C., when he con- 
 quered the Ligurians and had the honour of a triumph. 
 After the Carthaginians had taken Saguntum, the Romans 
 sent Fabius toCarthage at the head of their ambassadors. 
 After the defeat of the Roman armies at Thrasymene 
 in 217, a dictator being thought necessary, Fabius was 
 chosen to that office. He marched against Hannibal, 
 and firmly adhered to the policy of carrying on only a 
 defensive war, in which he was so successful that the 
 Carthaginian general was unable to obtain any advan- 
 tage over him. Minucius, master of the Roman cavalry, 
 at one time obtaining command of part of the army, 
 engaged with Hannibal, and would have been entirely 
 defeated if Fabius had not hastened to assist him, after 
 
 % e, I, o, 5, y, long; 4, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y\ short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
FABIUS 
 
 88; 
 
 FABR1CE 
 
 which Minucius gave up his command to Fabins. The 
 dictatorship of Fabius having expired, Paulus /Emilius 
 and Terentius Varro were appointed consuls, and, pur- 
 suing a different method, were totally defeated at the 
 batUe of Cannae, in 216 r.c, after which the Romans 
 returned to the defensive policy of Fabius. He was 
 chosen consul for the fifth time in 209 B.C. His uniform 
 success against the most formidable enemy of Rome 
 justly won for him the name of Maximus. Ennius spoke 
 of him as one " qui nobis cunctando restituit rem." Died 
 about 203 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Lives ;" Livv, " History of Rome," books xx - 
 xxiv. and xxvi.-xxx. ; Niebuhr. " Historv of Rome;" Polvbius, 
 book iii. : " Nouvelle Biographie Grfne'rale. 
 
 Fa'bi-us Pic'tor, (Caius,) a Roman painter, was 
 the grandfather of the historian Fabius Pictor. He 
 painted the temple of Salus (" Safety") about 304 B.C. 
 
 Fabius Pictor (Quintus) was the first Roman 
 historian, and is sometimes called "the father of Latin 
 historv." His works are known as the "Annals of Fa- 
 bius Pictor." He lived at the time of the second Punic 
 war, and died after 216 B.C. His History, which was 
 highly esteemed by the ancients, is lost, except small 
 fragments. 
 
 See Whistb, "De Fabio Pictore aeterisque Fabiis historicis," 
 1832: Moller, "De^Q. Fabio Pictore," 1690. 
 
 Fabius Planciades Fulgentius. See Fulgf.ntius. 
 
 Fa'bl-us Vib-u-la'nus, ( K iso,) a Roman command- 
 er, was chosen consul in 4S4, in 481, and in 479 B.C. 
 He rendered himself very popular with the plebeians, 
 and gained victories over the Veientes and ;Equi. During 
 his third consulship the Fabian family volunteered to 
 make a campaign against the Veientes without the aid 
 of other citizens. Kaeso led out three hundred and six 
 Fabii, (among whom was his brother Marcus,) attended 
 by their clients or servants, and occupied a fortified post 
 on the Cremera, which enters the Tiber near Rome. 
 They gained several victories, but at length were sur- 
 prised and all killed in 477 B.C. 
 
 See Niebuhr, " History of Rome ;" Livv, " History of Rome ;" 
 " Ncuvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Fabius Vibulanus, (Marcus,) a Roman general, 
 was a brother of the preceding. He was consul in 483 
 and 480 B.C. He was killed at Cremera in 477. (See 
 preceding article.) 
 
 Fabius Vibulanus, (Quintus,) a son of Marcus, 
 was the only one of the Fabii who escaped from being 
 massacred at Cremera by the Veientes in 477 B.C. The 
 different branches of the great Fabian house were de- 
 scended from him. He was consul in 467, 465, and 459 
 B.C., and defeated the Volsci. Appius Claudius and Q. 
 Fabius Vibulanus were the chiefs of the decemvirate 
 formed in 4>o, and were exiled for their tvrannical acts. 
 
 Fabre. ftbR, (Antoine Francois Hippolyte,) a 
 French medical writer, born at Marseilles in 1 797. He 
 edited the " Lancette Francaise," and won a medal of the 
 Institute in 1833 for a work on cholera. Died in 1853. 
 
 Fabre, (Denis,) a French advocate, born at Mont- 
 ptllier, was a member of the Convention in 1792, and 
 voted for the death of the king. He was killed in a 
 battle against the. Spaniards in January, 1794. 
 
 Fabre, (Francois Xavier Pascal,) an able French 
 painter, born at Montpellier in 1766, was a pupil of 
 David. He worked many years at Rome and Florence. 
 Among his best works are "The Judgment of Paris," 
 "The Preaching of John the Baptist," and a portrait of 
 Alfieri. He died at Montpellier in 1837. 
 
 Fabre, (Jean Claude,) a French ecclesiastic and 
 writer, born in Paris in 1668. He wrote a continuation 
 of Fleury's "Ecclesiastic History," (16 vols., 1734,) and 
 other works. Died in 1753. 
 
 Fabre, (Jean Raymond Auguste,) a French poet, 
 born at Jaujac in 1792, was a brother of Marie Joseph 
 Victorin. He wrote, besides other works, a poem called 
 "Caledonie," (1823,) which was received with favour, 
 and " Irene," a tragedy, (1825.) Died in 1839. 
 
 See Sabbatibr, " Vies de Victorin et d' Auguste Fabre." 
 
 Fabre, (Marie Joseph Victorin,) a distinguished 
 French poet and orator, born at Jaujac in 1785. He 
 produced in 1808 a "Eulogy on Corneille," (in prose,) 
 which was crowred by the Institute. Among his finest 
 
 works are "The Death of Henry IV.," a poem, (1808,) 
 an "Ode on Tasso," a "Eulogy on Montaigne," (1812,) 
 and " Literary History of France in the Eighteenth Cen- 
 tury," ("Tableau litteraire de la France au dix-huitieme 
 Siecle," 1810.) Died in 1831. 
 
 See Sabbatibr, "Viesde Victorin et d' Auguste Fabre," 1831; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Fabre de l'Aude, ftbR deh lod, (Jean Pierre,) a 
 French statesman, born at Carcassonne in 1 75 e,. He 
 was proscribed during the reign of terror, but in 1795 
 was named deputy to the Council of Five Hundred, and 
 became commissioner of finance. At the coronation of 
 Bonaparte, Fabre, as president of the tribunes, delivered 
 a congratulatory address to the emperor. He was ap- 
 pointed senator in 1807, and received the title of count 
 of the empire. He was afterwards chosen a member of 
 the grand council of administration of the senate. Died 
 in 1832. 
 
 Fabre d'F.glantine, f3bR da'gl&N'ten', (Philippe 
 Francois Nazairf.,) one of the leading French Jacobins, 
 born at Carcassonne in 1755. At the commencement 
 of the Revolution he leagued himself with Danton, La 
 Croix, and Camille Desmoulins, and participated in all 
 the excesses of this party. He was chosen as deputy 
 from Paris to the National Convention. He voted for 
 the death of Louis XVI. without appeal, and was elected 
 a member of the committee of public safety. He was 
 one of the instigators of the decree which ordered that 
 no English or Hanoverian prisoners should be made. 
 He was accused of royalist principles, or moderantisme, 
 and, with Danton, was executed in 1794. He had writ- 
 ten numerous comedies. 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale ;" " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Fabre d'Olivet, ftbR do'le'vj', (M.,) a French phi- 
 lologist and fanciful litterateur, born at Ganges (Langue- 
 doc) in 1768. He produced numerous plays, poems, 
 treatises on philology, history, etc. He found, it is said, 
 allegories or mystic meanings in every word, syllable, 
 and figure. Died in 1825. 
 
 Fabretti, fa-bRet'tee, (Rafael,) an excellent Italian 
 antiquary, born at Urbino about 1615. He was secre- 
 tary to Pope Alexander VIII., and in the pontificate of 
 Innocent XII. was appointed keeper of the archives in 
 the castle of Saint Angelo. His principal works are 
 "De Columna Trajani," ("On the Column of Trajan," 
 1683,) and "Inscriptionum Antiquarum Explicatio," 
 ("Explanation of Ancient Inscriptions," 1699.) Died at 
 Rome in 1700. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Fabrl See Peiresc, (Fabri de.) 
 
 Fabri, fa'bRee, (Alessandro,) a noted scholar and 
 author, born near Bologna in 1691. He wrote with great 
 elegance, both in Latin and Italian. Died in 1768. 
 
 Fabri, ft'bRe', (Honore,) a learned French Jesuit, 
 born about 1607, wrote numerous works, among which 
 are a "Treatise on Plants and the Generation of Ani- 
 mals," (1666,) and "Synopsis Optica," (1667.) Died in 
 1688. 
 
 Fabri de Hilden. See Fabrice de Hilden. 
 
 Fabriani, fa-bRe-a'nee, (Severino,) an Italian author 
 and philanthropist, born in the duchy of M6dena in 1792. 
 He assisted Baraldi in his "Memoirs on Religion, Lite- 
 rature," etc., and published several biographies. He 
 devoted much time to the instruction of the deaf and 
 dumb. Died in 1849. 
 
 Fabriano, da, da fa-bRe-a'no, (Gentile,) a skilful 
 painter of the Roman school, born at Fabriano, in the 
 March of Ancona, about 1370. He worked at Venice 
 and in Rome, where he painted the history of Saint John 
 in the church of San Giovanni Laterano. He is called 
 one of the best painters of his time. Died in 1450. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy;" Baldinucci, "Notizie;" P. Benbdf.tti, "Memorie 
 delle Opere di Maestro Gentile da Fabriano," 1830. 
 
 Fabrice. See Fabrizio. 
 
 Fabrice de Hilden, fS'bRess' deh hil'den, [Lat. Fa- 
 briq'ius Hilda'nus,] called also Fabri ( fa'bRee) de 
 Hilden, (Wilhklm,) a skilful surgeon and writer, 
 derived his surname from a village near Cologne, where 
 he was born in 1560. Died in 1634. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, VL,giittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this. (JJ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FABRICIUS 
 
 886 
 
 FJBRONI 
 
 Fabricius, fa-bRee'se-us, (Andreas,) a Roman Cath- 
 olic divine, born near Liege in 1520. He wrote "Har- 
 mony of the Augustinian Confession," ("Harmonia Con- 
 fessions Augustinianae," 1573.) Died in 1581. 
 
 Fabricius, fa-bRit'se-us, (David,) a German as- 
 tronomer, born at Essen in 1564. He is said to have 
 discovered spots in the sun. Among his works are 
 "Letters to Kepler." Died in 1617. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubkr, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fabricius, (Franz,) a theological writer, called also 
 Lekevre, born in Rhenish Prussia in 1524; died in 1573. 
 
 Fabricius, fa-bRit'se-us, ( Frederick Ernest, ) a 
 German or Swedish nobleman, who was a companion or 
 attendant of Charles XII. at Bender. He wrote "Anec- 
 dotes of the Residence of the King of Sweden at Bender," 
 (" Anecdotes du Sejour du Roi a Bender," 1760.) Died 
 after 1727. 
 
 Fabricius, or Goldschmidt, (Georg,) a German 
 philologist and Latin poet, born at Chemnitz in 1516. 
 He was president of the College of Meissen from 1553 
 to 1 571. Among his works are a " Description of Rome," 
 (1550,) and " Res Germanise et Saxoniae memorabiles," 
 (1609.) Died in 1571. 
 
 See Baumgarten-Crusius, "Programmade G. Fabricii Vita," 
 1839- 
 
 Fabricius, (Jakob,) a German physician and mathe- 
 matician, born at Rostock in 1577. He was physician 
 to the King of Denmark. Died at Copenhagen in 1652. 
 
 Fabricius, (Jean Louis,) a Swiss theological writer, 
 born at Schaffhausen in 1632 ; died in 1696. 
 
 Fabricius, (Johann,) a German astronomer, son of 
 David, noticed above, wrote a treatise on the spots of 
 the sun, ("De Maculis in Sole observatis," 161 1.) Died 
 in 1625. 
 
 Fabricius, (Johann,) a German Orientalist, born at 
 Dantzic in 1608, was professor of Hebrew at Rostock, 
 and published "Specimen Arabicum," (1638.) Died in 
 
 l653- 
 
 Fabricius, (Johann,) a German Protestant writer and 
 professor of theology, born at Altorf in 1644. Among his 
 works is "Amcenitates theologicae," (1699.) He taught 
 theology at Altorf for many years. Died in 1729. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fabricius, (Johann Albrecht,) a German scholar 
 and writer, eminent for his profound and various learn- 
 ing, born at Leipsic on the nth of November, 1668, was 
 a son of Werner the composer. He became professor of 
 eloquence and philosophy at Hamburg about 1700. He 
 published numerous and excellent works, among which 
 are "Bibliotheca Latina, sive Notitia Scriptorum Vete- 
 rum Latinorum," (3 vols., 1697,) "Bibliotheca Grreca," 
 (14 vols. 4to, 1705-28,) containing noticesof all the Greek 
 authors who lived before the subversion of the Eastern 
 Empire; " Bibliographia Antiquaria,"(i7i3,) and "Bib- 
 liotheca Latina Ecclesiastica," (1718.) He passed the 
 greater part of his mature life at Hamburg, where he 
 died in April, 1736. 
 
 See Reimar, "De Vita et Scriptis J. A. Fabricii Commenjarius," 
 1737.' Niceron, "M6noires." 
 
 Fabricius, (Johann Andreas,) a German scholar 
 and teacher, born at Dodendorf in 1696, published an 
 '• Abridgment of General Literary History," (3 vols., 
 1752-54.) Died in 1769. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Fabricius, (Johann Christian,) the most eminent 
 entomologist of his time, born at Tondern, in the duchy 
 of Sleswick, in January, 1743, studied under Linnaeus at 
 Upsal. In 1775 ne was appointed professor of natural 
 history at Kiel, and about the same time published his 
 "Systema Entomologiae." In this work, at the sugges- 
 tion of Linnaeus, he made an arrangement of insects 
 according to the organs of the mouth. Besides the 
 treatise mentioned above, he wrote " Philosophia Ento- 
 mologia," ( 1 778,) " Supplementum Entomologiae," ( 1 797,) 
 and others of a similar nature. Died at Kiel in 1807. 
 See " Biographie M^dicale ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 Fabricius, (Karel,) a Dutch painter, born at Delft in 
 1624, excelled in perspective and portraits. Died in 1654. 
 Fabricius, ( Theodor,) a German Reformer and the- 
 ologian, born at Anholt in 1501, wrote several religious 
 
 works. He taught Hebrew at Wittenberg, and acquired 
 the friendship of Luther. Died in 1570. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fabricius, (Tiieodosius,) a Lutheran theologian, and 
 nephew of the preceding, born at Nordhausen in 1560, 
 was pfofessor of theology at Gottingen. His work en- 
 titled " Harmony of the Four Evangelists" was published 
 in the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and German languages. 
 Died in 1597. 
 
 Fabricius, (Vincenz,) a German physician, jurist, 
 and Latin poet, born at Hamburg in 1612 ; died in 1667. 
 
 Fabricius, (Werner,) a composer and musician, born 
 in Holstein in 1633, was the father of Johann Albrecht, 
 noticed above. He lived at Leipsic. Died in 1679. 
 
 Fabricius Hildanus. See Fabrice de Hilden. 
 
 Fa-bric'!-us (fa-brish'e-usj Lus-91'nus, (Caius,) a 
 Roman statesman, celebrated for his great integrity and 
 simplicity of life, became consul 282 B.C. About 280 he 
 was sent on an embassy to Pyrrhus, who was encamped 
 with an army near Tarentum. His conduct on this oc- 
 casion was a celebrated theme of ancient historians and 
 poets. He refused the rich presents or bribes which 
 Pyrrhus offered him. According to tradition, the phy- 
 sician of Pyrrhus proposed to poison his master, expect- 
 ing a reward from the Romans, but Fabricius not only 
 rejected his offer, but exposed his treachery to Pyrrhus. 
 Fabricius gained victories over the Samnites, the Bruttii, 
 and other allies of Pyrrhus, about 277 B.C. 
 
 See Niebuhr, "History of Rome;" Pliny, "Natural History," 
 book xxxiv. 
 
 Fa-brigl-us Vei-en'to, a Latin author. Having 
 written a satirical work entitled "Codicilli," which was 
 supposed to be directed against the senators and priests, 
 he was banished by Nero in 62 A.D. After Nero's death 
 he returned to Rome, and was received with great favour 
 by Domitian. 
 
 Fabrini, fa-bRee'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian gram- 
 marian, born in Tuscany in 1516; died about 1580. 
 
 Fabris, fi'bRess, (Niccol6,) an ingenious Italian 
 mechanician, born at Chioggia in 1739; died in 1S01. 
 
 Fabrizio, fa-bRet'se-o, (Geronimo,) [Lat. Hieron'- 
 ymus Fabric'ius ab Acquapenden'te ; Fr. Fabrice, 
 fi'bRess',] an eminent Italian anatomist and surgeon, 
 was born at Acquapendente, near Orvieto, in 1537. He 
 was a pupil of Fallopius, whom he succeeded in 1562 as 
 professor at Padua. He wrote many short treatises on 
 anatomy and surgery. * Among his pupils was the cele- 
 brated Dr. Harvey, whose great discovery was perhaps 
 suggested by some new observations which Fabrizio 
 made on the valves of the veins. He obtained great 
 success and celebrity as a teacher of anatomy. Died 
 in 1619. 
 
 See Thuilius, "Meinoria H. Fabricii ab Acquapendente," 1619; 
 Cuvier, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" Salvador!, " No- 
 titia; de H. Fabricio," 1837. 
 
 Fabrizzi, fa-l>Ret'see, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Perugia in 1594, was a pupil of Annibal 
 Caracci. Died in 1649. 
 
 Fabroni, fa-bRo'nee, or Fabbroni, fab-bRo'nee, 
 (Angelo,) an eminent Italian biographer and Latin 
 scholar, born at Marradi in September, 1732. He pro- 
 duced in 1766 the first volume of the "Lives of Italians 
 eminent for Learning who flourished in the Seventeenth 
 and Eighteenth Centuries," ("Vitas Italorum doctrina 
 excellentium qui Saeculis XVII. et XVIII. floruerunt," 
 20 vols.,) which is his principal work. In 1767 he was 
 appointed prior or president of the church of San Lo- 
 renzo, Florence. He is sometimes called "the Plutarch 
 of Modern Italy." Died at Pisa in 1803. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri;" Fabroni, "Vitas 
 Italoriun," etc., vol. xx. 
 
 Fabroni or Fabbroni, (Giovanni Valentino,) an 
 Italian naturalist and writer on physical science, was 
 born at Florence on the 13th of February, 1752. He 
 applied various physical sciences to objects of general 
 utility. He was director of the Museum of Florence, and 
 wrote many useful treatises on botany, chemistry, rural 
 economy, etc. Cuvier characterized him as a "living 
 encyclopaedia." Died in December, 1822. 
 
 See Cuvier. " Eloges historiques," tome iii. ; Tipaldo, "Bio- 
 grafia degli Italiani illustri;" G. Fabroni Pelli, "Biografia del 
 Cavaliere G. Fabroni," 1837. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ti, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
FAB ROT 
 
 887 
 
 FAG1US 
 
 Fabrot, fi'bRo', [[.at. Fabro'tus,] (Charles Anni- 
 BAL,) a celebrated French jurist, born at Aix in 1580. 
 He was professur in the University of Aix, and the au- 
 thor of several legal treatises, one of which is entitled 
 " Basilicon." Died in Paris in 1659. 
 
 See C. Giraud, "Notice sur la Vie de C A. Fabrot," 1833. 
 
 Fabry, fit'bRc', (Jean Baptiste Germain,) a French 
 writer, born at Cornus in 17S0. He was editor of the 
 "Spectateur Francais," (12 vols., 1805-12,) and wrote a 
 history of the Hundred Davs, entitled "Itineraire de 
 Bonaparte de l'lsle d'Elbe a Sainte-Helene," (" Account 
 of the Journey of Bonaparte from Elba to Saint Helena," 
 1817.) Died in 1821. 
 
 Fabvier, ft"ve-A', (Charles Nicolas,) Baron, a 
 French general, born at Pont-a-Mousson in 1782. He 
 served with distinction in Germany and Spain, and was 
 wverely wounded at Moscow in 1812. In i8i4he signed 
 with Colonel Davis the capitulation of Paris. In 1823 
 :it to the assistance of the Greeks, and rendered 
 rial service in organizing an army. After his return 
 he was created in 1839 lieutenant-general, and in 1845 a 
 peer of France. He was the author of several military 
 and historical treatises. Died in 1855. 
 
 Fabyan. See Fabian. 
 
 Facchetti, fdk-ket'tee, (Pietro,) an Italian portrait- 
 painter, born at Mantua in 1535 ; died in Rome in 1613. 
 
 Facciardi, fat-chaR'dee, (Cristoforo,) an Italian 
 Capuchin and eloquent preacher, born near Rimini, lived 
 about 1570-90. 
 
 Faccini, fat-chee'nee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian 
 painter of architecture, born at or near Ferrara about 
 1520 ; died in 1577. 
 
 Faccio. See Fatio. 
 
 Facciolati, fat-cho-l&'tee, or Facciolato, fat-cho- 
 la'to, [Lat FAc<:n>i.\'Ti;s,](GiACOMO,)an eminent Italian 
 philologist, born at Torreglia, near Padua, in 1682. He was 
 a professor of logic or classical literature in the University 
 ol l'adua. He published an improved edition of a dic- 
 tionary called "Calepino," (1731,) wrote several works 
 on grammar and logic, and commenced an excellent 
 Latin Lexicon, which was finished by his pupil Forcel- 
 i.ini, (which see.) Died at Padua in 1769. 
 
 See Fabboni, "Vita; Italorum doctritia excellentium;" G. B. 
 Fekkaki, "Vita J. Facciolati," 1799 ; Giuseppe Gennabi, "Vita 
 di J. Facciolati," Padua, 1S18. 
 
 Facini, fa-chee'nee, or Faccini, fat-chee'nee, (Pie- 
 tro,) an able Italian painter, born at Bologna about 1560, 
 was a pupil and afterwards a rival of Annibal Caracci. 
 His chief merits were a vivacity of attitude, and skill 
 in colouring, especially in carnation. Died in 1602. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Fa-cun'dus, a Latin theologian and bishop, who lived 
 in Africa about 550 A.D. He defended the decision of the 
 Council of Chalcedon against the decree of the emperor 
 Justinian. 
 
 Fadhl-Ibn-Yahya-Al-Barmakee, (-Baimaki or 
 -Barmeki,) fad'l Ib'n ylh'he-a al baR'mek-ee, vizier of 
 Haroun-al-Raschid, was born about 762 a.d. He was 
 a brother of Jaafar, and one of the Barmecides, which 
 see. Died about 807 A.D. 
 
 See Aboolfkda, "Annales Moslemici." 
 
 Fadlalla or Fadlallah, fad-lal'lah, a Persian his- 
 torian, born at Hamadan, lived about 1290. He wrote 
 a "History of the Moguls." 
 
 Fadl-Ibn-Rabee, ( -Rab!,) fad'l Ib'n rab'ee, became 
 vizier of Haroun-al-Raschid about 803 A.D., which posi- 
 tion he continued to hold until the death of that sove- 
 reign. In the contest between the caliph's sons Ameen 
 and Mamoon, Fadl sided with the former, and was con- 
 sequently obliged to fly when Mamoon ascended the 
 throne. Died about 824 A.D. 
 
 See Ibn-Khai.mkan, "Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 Fadl-lbn-Sahal, (or -Sahl,) ttd'l Ib'n sah'hal, (or 
 sah'l,) a descendant of the ancient kings of Persia, and 
 vizier of the celebrated caliph Mamoon, was clothed 
 with absolute power by this prince. He was assassi- 
 nated by an opposite faction in 818 A.D. 
 
 See Ei.macin, "Historia Saracenica." 
 
 Faed, fad, (Thomas,) a Scottish painter, born at Burley- 
 Mill in 1826. He settled in London about 1852. Among 
 
 his works are " Walter Scott and his Friends at Abbots- 
 ford," " Home and the Homeless," " Highland Mary," 
 and "Sunday in the Backwoods." 
 
 Faenza, da, da fa-en'zS, (Giamiiattista Bertucci— 
 beR-toot'chee,) an Italian painter of the Bolognese school, 
 flourished about 1500. 
 
 Faerna, fa-eVna, or Faerno, fa-eVno, [Fr. Faerne, 
 ffSRii',] (Gahriei.e,) a celebrated modern Latin poet, 
 born at Cremona, in Italy. His most important work 
 was his Collection of a Hundred Fables in Latin verse, 
 (1564,) the subjects of which were taken from /Esop or 
 Phaedrus. He was patronized by Pope Pius IV. Died 
 in 1561. t 
 
 See Jan Hendrik Kroon, "Commentatio de Fabulis G. Faerni," 
 1824; Tikaboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Fagan, fa'goN', (Christophe Barthei.emi,) a French 
 writer of comedies, born at Paris in 1702; died in 1755. 
 
 Fage, fizh, (Durand,) a French Protestant, called 
 "the Prophet of the Cevennes," born at Aubais in 1681, 
 was one of the Camisards. 
 
 Fage, La. See La Fage, (Raimond.) 
 
 Fagel, fa'nel, (Frans Nicolaas,) nephew of Kaspar, 
 noticed below, was a distinguished military commander. 
 He was successively general of infantry in the service of 
 the States-General, and lieutenant-field-marshal to the 
 Emperor of Germany. His greatest exploits were at 
 the battle of Fleurus in 1690, the defence of Mons, the 
 siege of Namur, the capture of Bonn in 1703, and several 
 other battles in Flanders. Died in 1718. 
 
 Fagel, (Hendrik,) a Dutch politician, born in 1706, 
 was an adherent of the Prince of Orange. A transla- 
 tion of Lady Montagu's Letters (published in 1764) was 
 ascribed to him. Died in 1790. 
 
 Fagel, (Hendrik,) a Dutch diplomatist, born at the 
 I [ague, was an adherent of the house of Orange. Having 
 been sent as minister to London, he signed a treaty 
 between Holland and Great Britain in 1814. He became 
 secretary of state in 1824. Died in 1834. 
 
 Fagel, (Kaspar,) a celebrated Dutch statesman, born 
 at Haarlem in 1629. In 1670 he was elected master of 
 the rolls of the States-General, and in 1672 was created 
 grand pensionary. It was partly by his influence that 
 William III. was placed upon the throne of England. 
 In 1682 Count d'Avaux, ambassador of France in Hol- 
 land, made great efforts to win Fagel to the French 
 interests, and even offered a large bribe, which was nobly 
 refused. Died in 1688. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Macau- 
 lay, " History of England," vol. v. ; Lenting, " Specimen historico- 
 politicum de G. Fagelio," 1849. 
 
 Faggiuola,fad-joo-o'la,(UGUCCiONE,oo-goot-cho'na,) 
 a celebrated Italian general, chief of the Ghibelines, and 
 Lord of Pisa. He won several battles over the Neapoli- 
 tans and Florentines; and in August, 13 15, he gained 
 the memorable victory of Monte-Catini. He, however, 
 made himself so odious to the Pisans by his severity 
 that he was driven from Pisa and from Lucca. He died 
 at the siege of Padua in 1319. 
 
 See Lfo and Botta, " Histoire d'ltalie." 
 
 Faggot, fag'got, (Jakob,) a distinguished engineer and 
 metallurgist, born in the province of Upland, in Sweden, 
 in 1699, was secretary of the Academy of Sciences, and 
 published a valuable work on rural economy. Died in 
 1778. 
 
 See H. Nicander, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver J. Faggot," 1778. 
 
 Fagiuoli, fa-joo-o'lee, (Giambattista,) a celebrated 
 comic and burlesque poet, born at Florence in 1660. His 
 works were very voluminous. Died in 1742. 
 
 Fagius, fa'je-us or fa'ge-us, (Paul,) a learned Prot- 
 estant theologian and Hebraist, born in the Palatinate 
 in 1504. His family name was BOCHER, (Beech,) which, 
 according to the custom of that age, he changed into its 
 Latin equivalent. He studied at Heidelberg under the 
 celebrated Wolfgang Capito, whom he succeeded in 1544 
 as professor of Hebrew at Strasburg. In 1549, at the 
 solicitation of Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, he 
 visited England, where he was appointed to the chair 
 of theology at Cambridge; but his sudden death pre- 
 vented him from performing the duties of that office. 
 Eight years after his death his body was burnt, by the 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as ;'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FAG NAN 
 
 888 
 
 FAIRFAX 
 
 order of Queen Mary. Fagius was the author of numer- 
 ous classical and critical works. Died about 1550. 
 
 See "De Vita, Obitu et Combustione Buceri et P. Fagii," 1562; 
 Feubrlein et Seyfeied, "Tentameu historicum de Vita P. Fagii," 
 '736. 
 
 Fagnan, fin'vo.N', (Marie Antoinette,) a. French 
 romancer, born in Paris, wrote "The Mirror of Oriental 
 Princesses," (1755,) and other tales. Died about 1770. 
 
 Fagnani, fan-ya'nee, (Giovanni Marco,) an Italian 
 poet and scholar, born at Milan in 1524; died in 1609. 
 
 Fagnani or Fagiiauo, fan-ya'no, (Giulio Carlo,) 
 Marquis of Toschi, an eminent Italian mathematician, 
 bom at Sinigaglia in 1682, or, as some say, in 1690. He 
 published a collection of mathematical treatises, ("Pro- 
 duzioni matematiche," 2 vols., 1750.) Died in 1766. 
 
 See Manciani, "Elogi storici di F. Commandino, G. C. Fa- 
 gnani," etc., 1828 ; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Fagnani, (Prospero,) an eminent Italian canonist, 
 born in 1598, wrote a "Commentary on the Decretals," 
 (1661.) Died in 1678. 
 
 Fagon, ft'goV, (Gl/I Crescent,) a distinguished 
 French physician and botanist, born in Paris in 1638. 
 He became first physician to Louis XIV. in 1693. Died 
 in 1718. 
 
 See Fontenelle, " Fjoges des Academiciens ;" E*loy, "Dic- 
 tionnaire de la Medecine;" Antoine de Jussieu, "filoge de M. 
 Fagan," 1718. 
 
 Fahie, fa, ?(Srr William Charles,) a British admiral, 
 born in 1763; died in 1833. 
 
 Fahlcranz, fil'kRants, (Carl Johann,) a celebrated 
 Swedish landscape-painter, born in the province of Falun 
 in 1774. He painted many excellent pictures of the wild 
 and mountainous scenery of Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Fahlcranz, (Christian Erik,) a Swedish poet and 
 ecclesiastic, brother of the preceding, born in 1790. He 
 is the author of a witty piece entitled " Noah's Ark," 
 and " Ansgarius," an epic poem. He became Bishop 
 of WesterAs, and in 1839 associate editor of the "Eccle- 
 siastic Journal," (" Ecclesiastik Tidskrift.") 
 
 Fah-le'ni-us, (Eric,) a noted Swedish scholar, lived 
 about 1700. He was professor of Oriental languages at 
 Pernau, in Livonia. 
 
 Fahrenheit, far'en-hlt' or fa'ren-hlt', (Gabriel Da- 
 NIKI.,) an eminent German natural philosopher and 
 maker of philosophical instruments, was born at Dantzic 
 about 1690. He became a resident of Amsterdam, and 
 invented the thermometer which bears his name. He 
 is said to have been the first who used mercury in the 
 construction of thermometers. He fixed the zero of his 
 scale at the point to which the mercury sank in the 
 winter of 1709, and reproduced the same degree of cold 
 by a mixture of sal-ammoniac, common salt, and snow. 
 Died in 1740. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Faider, fl'der, [Fr. pron. iVdaiR',] (Charles,) a Bel- 
 gian jurist and writer, born about 1805. He was ap- 
 pointed minister of justice in 1852. 
 
 Faidit. See Faydit. 
 
 Faiguet de Villeneuve, fj'gi' deh vel'nuv', (Joa- 
 chim,) one of the earliest French writers on political 
 economy, born at Moncontour, in Brittany, in 1703. Died 
 about 17S0. 
 
 Faille, de la, deh 1$ fSl or (I've, ( Germain,) a French 
 historian, born at Castelnaudary in 1616; died in 1711. 
 He wrote " Annals of Toulouse," (2 vols., 1687-1701.) 
 
 Fain, An, (Agathon Jean Francois,) Uaron, a 
 French historian, born in Paris in 1778. He attended 
 Napoleon I. in his campaigns in the capacity of sec- 
 -etary, (secritaire-archiviste.) He wrote "Historical 
 Memoirs of the Last Three Years of the Reign of 
 Napoleon," (1823-27.) Died in 1837. 
 
 Faini, fa-ee'nee, (Madame Diamante,) an Italian 
 poetess, who wrote in Latin and French with great ele- 
 gance and purity of diction. Died at Salo in 1770. 
 
 See G. Pontara, " Vita della Signora Faini," 1774; A. Bro- 
 gnoli, " Elogio storico di D. Faini," 1785. 
 
 Faipoult. See Faypoult. 
 
 Fair'bairn, (William,) F.R.S., a British civil en- 
 gineer and mechanician, born at Kelso, on the Tweed, 
 in 1789. He is distinguished for the introduction of iron 
 water-wheels and other iron machinery, and as one of 
 the first constructors of iron ships, which he began to 
 
 build about 1835. He is author of several works, one of 
 which is entitled " Mills and Mill-Work," and has made 
 important contributions to the Philosophical Transactions 
 and the Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Man- 
 chester. Among his works are numerous iron bridges. 
 
 See Samuel Smiles, "Industrial Biography," 1864; "North 
 British Review" for August, 1850. 
 
 Fair'banks, (Erastus,) born at Brimfield, Massachu- 
 setts, in 1792, was an extensive manufacturer of platform 
 scales. He was chosen Governor of Vermont in i860. 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Fairclough. See Featley. 
 
 Fair'fax, (Edward,) a celebrated English poet, sou 
 of Sir Thomas Fairfax, was born at Denton, in York- 
 shire, in the latter part of the sixteenth century. His 
 principal work is a translation of Tasso's "Jerusalem 
 Delivered," (1600,) which he rendered, verse for verse, 
 with a fidelity and facility rarely equalled. King James 
 placed this translation above all other works of English 
 poetry. Waller recognizes him as his master in the art 
 of verse ; and Dryden, in comparing him to Spenser, 
 gave the preference to Fairfax on the score of harmony. 
 He also wrote a "History of Edward the Black Prince," 
 in verse, and a treatise on "Demonology." His version 
 of Tasso has often been reprinted in England, and once 
 in the United States, (1855.) Died in 1632. 
 
 See Preface to Fairfax's Tasso, 1749: " Biographia Britannica;" 
 Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Fairfax, (Robert,) an English musician and com- 
 poser, flourished about 1510-20. 
 
 Fairfax, (Thomas,) Lord, one of the most conspic- 
 uous actors in the rebellion against Charles I. of England, 
 and general of the parliamentary forces, was born at 
 Denton, in Yorkshire, in January, 161 1. He was the 
 son of Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax, and Mary, daughter 
 of Edmund Sheffield, Lord Mulgrave. Having strong 
 inclinations for a military life, he went to Holland, and 
 served as a volunteer under Horace, Lord Vere, whose 
 daughter he afterwards married. When Charles endeav- 
 oured to form a body-guard at York, the people, fearing 
 that he would raise an army, deputized Fairfax to present 
 a petition to him entreating him not to do it. Although 
 the king tried to shun him, Fairfax succeeded in pre- 
 senting the petition, in the presence of about one hundred 
 thousand persons. When the civil war broke out, (1642,) 
 the father of Lord Fairfax received from Parliament the 
 commission of commander-in-chief of the Northern 
 forces, and he himself that of general of cavalry. He 
 distinguished himself in this war by his activity and 
 bravery, particularly at Marston Moor, where he com- 
 manded the right wing and where the king's army was 
 totally defeated, (July 2, 1644,) and at the capture of 
 York. Fairfax was appointed commander-in-chief of 
 the parliamentary forces early in 1645, with Cromwell as 
 his lieutenant-general. On the 14th of June the battle 
 of Naseby was fought, on which occasion Lord Fairfax 
 gained a decided victory. On the 16th he besieged 
 Leicester, which surrendered on the 18th. He afterwards 
 defeated Lord Goring, took Bridgewater by assault, and 
 made himself master of several other places. On the 
 loth of September he forced Bristol to surrender. In 
 September, 1646, he captured Oxford, the last stronghold 
 of the king, who fled for protection to Scotland. Lord 
 Fairfax then went to London, where he was compli- 
 mented and thanked by both Houses of Parliament, and 
 was immediately sent with two hundred thousand pounds 
 to Scotland to obtain the king, the Scotch having agreed 
 to deliver him up for that sum. Soon after this he 
 yielded to the superior genius of Cromwell,, and w,hen 
 on his father's death, which took place about March, 
 1648, he succeeded to all his titles, he still continued to 
 fight for Cromwell. He was nominated one of the judges 
 of the king ; but he refused to serve in that trial. In the 
 spring of 1649 he was appointed commander of all the 
 forces in England and Ireland. He resigned his com- 
 mission in June, 1650. About the end of 1659 he joined 
 General Monk against Lambert, was appointed councillor 
 of state, and also chairman of the committee delegated 
 by the Chamber of Commons to go to the Hague and 
 persuade Charles II. to return and take the royal func- 
 tions. He was received by that prince, whose restora- 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ft, *j, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; gooa; moon; 
 
FAIRFAX 
 
 889 
 
 FALCONER 
 
 tion to the thione was partially owing to the sincere 
 efforts of Lord Fairfax. After these events, he retired 
 to his estates, where he died of a fever in February, 1671, 
 at the age of sixty years. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England;" Villbmain, "Histoire de 
 Cromwell;" UOIXOT, "Histoire de U Revolution d'Angleterre;" 
 "Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot, London, 1S65; Hartley 
 Coiuiipgh, " Lives of Dutinguiahed Northerns;" Richard Bell, 
 " 1' airfax Correspondence — Memorials of the Civil War," etc., 2 vols., 
 1649; Sik Edward Cost, " Lives of the Warriors of the Civil Wars 
 of France and England," London, 1S67. 
 
 Fair'fax, (Thomas,) Lord, of the same family as the 
 preceding, was born about 1691. Owning large estates 
 111 Virginia, he left England and settled in that colony, 
 in the county of Frederick. He was a patron and friend 
 of General Washington in his vounger days ; and in the 
 Revolutionary war the hospitality and noble qualities of 
 Lord Fairfax caused him to be held in so much vene- 
 ration that his property was equally respected by the 
 Americans and the English. Died in 1782. 
 
 Fair'field, (Sumner Lincoln,) an American poet, 
 born at Warwick, Massachusetts, in 1803. He published 
 in 1830 "Abaddon, the Spirit of Destruction, and other 
 Poems." In "The Last Night of Pompeii" he claimed 
 to have suggested the leading ideas in Bulwer's famous 
 novel of "The Last Days of Pompeii," which appeared 
 about two years later. Died in 1844. 
 
 See a Memoir of his Life, by his widow, 1846; Griswold, "Poets 
 and Poetry of America;" Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American 
 Literature." 
 
 Fair'hoit, (Frederick William,) a British artist and 
 writer, published in 1854 a "Dictionary of Terms in Art." 
 
 Faistenberger, fi'sten-beR'ger, (Anton,) a Tyrolese 
 landscape-painter, born at Innspruck in 1678, was a pupil 
 of Gaspard Poussin at Rome. Died in Vienna in 1721. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fai'thorne, (William,) an English engraver, born in 
 London about 1616. He was an adherent of the royal- 
 ists, and was for a time imprisoned in London. Having 
 refused, after his release, to take the oath of obedience 
 to Cromwell, he was banished from England, and went to 
 France, where he studied engraving under Champagne. 
 About 1650 he returned to England, where he died in 
 1691. His engravings of "Christ at Prayer in the Gar- 
 den of Olives," and of the " Marriage of Cana in Galilee," 
 were among his principal works. He was also the author 
 of a "Treatise on the Art of Engraving." 
 
 See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Faithorne, ( William, ) a son of the preceding, en- 
 graved portraits in mezzotint. He died about 1686. 
 
 Fakhr-Fiddaulah. See Fakhr-ed-Dowlah. 
 
 Fakhr- ed-Deen or Fakhr- ed-Diu, (or -Dyn,) faK'r 
 ed-deen, (i.e. the "Glory of the Religion.") There have 
 been many Moslem doctors of this name, the most cele- 
 brated of whom is the Imam Fakr-ed-Deen-Razee, (or 
 -Razy,) who was born at Rei, a city of Persia, about 11 50 
 A.D. He is esteemed one of the ablest Mohammedan 
 doctors that ever lived. He composed numerous works 
 on theology, philosophy, and mathematics. Died in 1210. 
 
 See Aboolfaraj, " Historia Dynastiarum," translated by Pocock ; 
 Apoolfkda, "Annales." 
 
 Fakhr-ed-Deen, better known as Facardin Ameer, 
 (or Amir,) Prince of the Druzes, born in 1574, was con- 
 quered by Amurath IV. and taken to Constantinople, 
 where he was put to death in 1635. 
 
 Fakhr-ed-Deen Binakeetee, or Fakhr-ed-Din 
 Binakiti, faK'r ed-deen bin-a-kee'tee, (Aboo SolymXn 
 DAood,) a Persian historian, bom at Binakeet (Bina- 
 kit) in 1329. 
 
 Fakhr-ed-Dowlah or -Eddaulah, faK'r ed-dow'lah, 
 (Alkk,) a prince who ruled over part of Persia towards 
 the close of the tenth century. Died in 997 a.D. 
 
 Falaize, ft'l&z', (Caroline Phii.iherte,) originally 
 named Jacquemain, (zhik'maN',) a French authoress, 
 born at Chateauroux in 1792 ; died in 1852. 
 
 Falbaire, de, deh faTbjR', (Charles George Fe- 
 nouillot — feh-noo'yo',) a French dramatist, born at 
 Salins in 1727. Among his most successful plays were 
 "The Honest Criminal" and "The Two Misers. Died 
 in 1800. 
 
 Falcand, fil'k&N', [Lat. Fai.can'dus,] (Hugo,) a 
 historian of the twelfth century, supposed to have been 
 
 born in Normandy, wrote, in Latin, a " History of Sicily" 
 from 1 146 to 1 169. Falcand witnessed the events which 
 he has recorded. His work is highly commended by 
 Gibbon. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire," chap. lvi. ; Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis." 
 
 Falcieri, fil-chea'ree, (Biagio,) a skilful painter of 
 the Venetian school, born at San Ambrogio in 1628. 
 Among his master-pieces is "The Council of Trent." 
 Died in 1703. 
 
 Falok, falk, (Antoon Reinhard,) a distinguished 
 Dutch statesman, born at Utrecht in 1776. He became 
 secretary of state in 1814, after the fall of Napoleon. In 
 1818 he was appointed minister of public instruction, 
 and in 1832 received the title of minister of state. He 
 wrote a treatise " On the Influence of Dutch Civilization 
 on the Nations of Northern Europe." Died in 1843. 
 
 See Quetelet, "Hommage a la Memoire d'A. R. Falck," 1844. 
 
 Falck filk, (Jeremias,) a German engraver of his- 
 tory and portraits, born at Dantzic in 1629, worked in 
 Holland and Sweden. Died about 1710. 
 
 Falck, (John Peter.) See Falk. 
 
 Falck or Falk, falk, (Niels,) a Danish jurist, born 
 near Tondern in 1784, was elected president of the Diet 
 in Sleswick-Holstein in 1838. He published a treatise 
 " On the Duchy of Sleswick in its Present Relations to 
 Denmark and Holstein." Died in 1850. 
 
 Falckenstein, fal'ken-stln', (Johann Hf.inrich,) 
 the author of numerous historical and antiquarian works, 
 is supposed to have been born in Silesia in 1682; died 
 in 1760. 
 
 Falco. See Conchillos-Falco. 
 
 Falco, di, de fal'ko, (Benedetto,) a learned Italian 
 writer, born at Naples, lived about 1530. 
 
 Fal'cc-n-berg or Fal'con-bridge, (fau'kon-brij,) 
 (Mary,) Countess of, a daughter of Oliver Cromwell, 
 born about 1636, became the wife of Viscount Falcon- 
 berg. She was a person of superior talents. Died in 
 1712. 
 
 Falconbridge, fau'kon-brij, (Alexander,) an Eng- 
 lish traveller who visited Africa, was the author of a 
 treatise "On the Slave-Trade of the African Coast," 
 (1789.) Died in 1792. 
 
 His wife, Anna Maria, who accompanied him, wrote 
 "Two Voyages to Sierra Leone," (1791.) 
 
 Falcone, fal-ko'ni, (Aniello or Angelo,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Naples in 1600, excelled in painting 
 battles. He was the master of Salvator Rosa. Died 
 in 1680. 
 
 Falcone, di, de fal-ko'ni, ( Benedetto, ) an Italian 
 chronicler, born at Benevento, lived in the twelfth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Falconer, faw'kon-er or fawk'ner, (Sir David,) a 
 Scottish jurist, born in 1639, was lord president of Scot- 
 land, and author of " Decisions of the Lords of Council," 
 (1701.) Died in 1685. 
 
 Falconer, (Hugh,) M.D., a British naturalist and 
 palaeontologist, born at Forres, Scotland, about 1808. 
 He was a surgeon in the service of the East India Com- 
 pany, and discovered numerous fossils in the Sivalik 
 Hills, which are described in the " Fauna antiqua Siva- 
 lonis," (1846,) of which Falconer and T. Proby Cautley 
 were joint authors. Died in January, 1865. 
 
 See a biographical notice prefixed to the " Palaeontological Me- 
 moirs of Hugh Falconer," 2 vols., London, 1868. 
 
 Falconer, faw'kQti-er, (Thomas,) an English scholar, 
 brother of Dr. William F'alconer, noticed below, was 
 born at Chester in 1736. He edited Strabo, and wrote 
 several works. Died in 1792. 
 
 Falconer, (Thomas,) an English lawyer and able 
 writer, a grandson of Dr. William Falconer, was called 
 to the bar about 1830, and was appointed a judge of 
 county courts in Wales in 1851. 
 
 Falconer, (William,) a Scottish poet, born at Edin- 
 burgh about the year 1735. He early became an orphan, 
 and, owing to the narrowness of his resources, passed 
 but little time at school. He afterwards went to sea as 
 a common sailor, — a position which was little calculated 
 to develop his poetical genius. At the age of eighteen 
 he embarked as boatswain on the ship Britannia, which 
 was wrecked on the passage from Alexandria to Venice. 
 
 « as h; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( $@jF~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FALCONER 
 
 890 
 
 FALKLAND 
 
 Falconer arc! two of his companions were the only ones 
 who were saved. This disaster furnished him with 
 the subject of a poem, called " The Shipwreck," which 
 he published in London in 1762, and which at once 
 acquired for him a high reputation as a poet. Falconer 
 returned to Scotland after the publication of his peom, 
 and remained some time at Gladsmuir, with his relation 
 the celebrated historian Robertson. In 1769 he em- 
 barked as treasurer in the frigate Aurora for the East 
 Indies, and is supposed to have been shipwrecked ; for 
 nothing was heard from the vessel after it left the Cape 
 of Good Hope. Besides the work previously mentioned, 
 Falconer wrote a " Nautical Dictionary," a poem " Upon 
 the Death of Frederick, Prince of Wales," and an ode 
 entitled "The Demagogue," a political satire. 
 
 See J. Mitford, "Memoir of Falconer," prefixed to an edition 
 of his poems, 1836; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Emi- 
 nent Scotsmen;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Falconer, (William,) an eminent English physician, 
 born at Chester about 1743. He was the author of an 
 "Essay upon the Waters of Bath," "Observations" re- 
 lating to the Gout, " Remarks on the Influence of Cli- 
 mate, Situation, etc. on the Disposition and Temper, 
 Manners, Laws, and Customs, Government and Religion, 
 of Mankind," (1781,) and a "Dissertation on the Influ- 
 ence of the Passions on the Disorders of the Body," 
 (1788.) He resided many years at Bath. Died in 1824. 
 He left an only son, the Rev. Thomas Falconer, born 
 in 1772; died in 1S39. 
 
 See notice of W. Falconer in the " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie" of 
 Eksch und Gruber. 
 
 Falconet, faTko'ni', (Andre,) a distinguished French 
 physician, born at Roanne in 161 1 or 1612. He was med- 
 ical counsellor to the King of France, and the author of 
 a work on the treatment of scurvy. Died in 1691. 
 
 Falconet, (Camillf.,) a distinguished physician and 
 medical writer, son of Noel, noticed below, was born at 
 Lyons in 1671. He was a member of the Academy of 
 Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, to which he contributed 
 several dissertations. Died in Paris in 1762. 
 
 S-e Qukrard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Falconet, (Etienne Maurice,) a distinguished 
 French sculptor, born at Paris in 1716, was a pupil of 
 Lemoine. His statue of Milo of Crotona opened to him 
 the Academy of Paris in 1745. Having been invited by 
 the empress Catherine II., he went to Saint Petersburg 
 in 1766, and spent about twelve years on a colossal bronze 
 equestrian statue of Peter the Great, which is his principal 
 work and is generally admired. He returned to France 
 in 1778. He wrote a Commentary on the books of Pliny 
 which treat on sculpture and painting, and several treat- 
 ises on art. Died in Paris in 1791. 
 
 See Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura ;" L. Brightwell, " By- 
 paths of Biography." 
 
 Falconet, (Noel,) a noted physician and medical 
 writer, son of Andre, noticed above, was born at Lyons 
 in 1644. He was appointed consulting physician to the 
 king. Died at Paris in 1734. 
 
 Falconetto, fal-ko-net'to, (Giovanni Antonio,) a 
 painter of the Venetian school, born at Verona, flou- 
 rished about 1500. 
 
 Falconetto, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian architect, 
 brother of the preceding, born at Verona in 1458, built 
 the Rotunda of Padua, and other admired edifices in 
 that city. His master-piece is the palace of Louis Cor- 
 naro, his intimate friend, with whom he resided many 
 years. Died in 1534. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc 
 
 Fal-co'nI-a, (Proba,) a Latin poetess, who lived in 
 the latter part of the fourth century. She composed a 
 poem upon the "Civil Wars of Rome," which is lost, 
 and a " Cento Virgilianus," which is extant. The sub- 
 ject of the latter is sacred history. 
 
 Falconieri, fal-ko-ne-a'ree, (Ottavio,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Florence in 1646; died in 1676. 
 
 Falcucci, fal-koot'chee, (Niccol6,) or Nicholas of 
 Florence, a celebrated Italian physician, supposed to 
 have been born about 1350. His medical skill procured 
 for him the title of "the Divine." Died in 141 1. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Falda, fal'da, (Giovanni Battista,) a skilful Italian 
 engraver, born in the Milanese about 1640. He engraved 
 some monuments at Rome. Died about 1700. 
 
 Faldoni, fal-do'nee, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 painter of landscapes, and an excellent engraver, was born 
 in the March of Treviso about 1690. 
 
 Faleiro, fa-laVro, or Falero, fa-la'ro, (Ruv, ) a 
 Portuguese geographer and mathematician. Having 
 formed an agreement with Magellan in a project to dis- 
 cover a new route to the Moluccas, he offered his services 
 to Charles V. in 1518. His offer was accepted; but a 
 difficulty arose between Faleiro and Magellan, who 
 departed without him. Died in 1523. 
 
 Faletti, fa-let'tee, or Falletti, fal-let'tee, (Geronimo,) 
 Count of Trino, an Italian writer, born at Trino, in 
 Montferrat, about 1518. He was the author of an "Ac- 
 count of the War in Germany in the Time of Charles 
 V.," (1552,) in verse, and other historical works. Died 
 in 1564. 
 
 Falgani, fal-ga'nee, (Gaspare,) an Italian landscape- 
 painter, born at Florence about 1620. 
 
 Falieri, fd-le-a'ree, or Faliero, fa-le-a'ro, (Marino,) 
 became Doge of Venice in 1354. He incited the ple- 
 beians to a conspiracy against the nobles, in which the 
 latter were to have been massacred; but, the plot being 
 revealed, Falieri was tried for his crime and beheaded in 
 April, 1355. This event forms the subject of Byron's 
 well-known drama " Marino Faliero." In the hall of the 
 Grand Council of Venice the portraits of the doges are 
 placed, but instead of that of F'alieri there is represented 
 a ducal throne covered with a pall, with this inscription : 
 " Here is the place of Marino Falieri, beheaded for his 
 crimes." He was about eighty years old. 
 
 See Marino Sanuto, "Vite de' Duchi de Venezia;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale;" " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Falieri or Faliero, (Vitale,) became Doge of Venice 
 about 1084. He increased the power and commercial 
 prosperity of the republic. Died about 1096. 
 
 Faliero, fa-le-a'ro, (Angelo,) an eminent Venetian 
 senator, who persuaded his fellow-citizens to reject the 
 proposition made by the doge Pietro Ziani, in 1225, to 
 remove the seat of government to Constantinople. 
 
 Faliero, (Ordelafo,) a Venetian general, who was 
 elected doge in 1 102. In the santv. year he conducted a 
 fleet to aid Baldwin I. and the Crusaders in the conquest 
 of Palestine. He was killed at the siege of Zara in 11 17. 
 
 Falk, falk, (Johann Daniel,) a German litterateur 
 and philanthropist, born at Dantzic in 1770. He founded 
 at Weimar an institution for the education of destitute 
 children, known as Falk's Institute. Among his works 
 we may cite a satire in verse, entitled " Men and Heroes," 
 (1796,) and 1 his dramatic poem "Prometheus," (1804.) 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 See Gervinus, " Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur," 
 etc. ; A. Wagner, " Falk's Liebe, Leben, und Leiden in Gott," 
 1818; "Falkiana," Hamburg, 1811. 
 
 Falk, falk, (Johan Pehr,) a Swedish physician and 
 distinguished botanist, born in 1727. He was employed 
 by Linnaeus as tutor to his son, and became, about 1765, 
 professor of botany or pharmacy in Saint Petersburg, 
 He was one of the naturalists appointed in 1768 to 
 make a scientific exploration of Russia, and wrote " Me- 
 moirs on the Topography of the Russian Empire," (3 
 vols., 1784-86.) In a fit of hypochondria, he killed him- 
 self in 1774. 
 
 See "Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Falkland, fauk'land, (Henry Lucius Cary,) third 
 Viscount, a son of the second Lord Falkland, is repre- 
 sented as a young man of great promise. He wrote a 
 play called "The Marriage-Night," (1664.) He died in 
 the prime of life in 1663. 
 
 Falkland, (Lucius Cary,) second Viscount, eldest 
 son of Henry, Viscount Falkland, is supposed to have 
 been born at Burford, in the county of Oxford, in 1610. 
 He studied at Dublin, and afterwards at Cambridge. 
 Possessing a good memory, great talents, and a pas- 
 sionate love of literature, he progressed so rapidly in the 
 study of the classics that, besides the Greek historians, 
 he had read all the Greek and Latin poets before he had 
 arrived at the age of twenty-three. In 1633, at the 
 death of his father, he became gentleman of the chain- 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
FALKNER 
 
 891 
 
 FANNIUS 
 
 ber of the king, and in 1639, although he was disap- 
 pointed in the hope which had been held out to him ot 
 a command in the army sent against the Scotch, he went 
 as a volunteer. In 1640 Lord Falkland was chosen 
 member of Parliament, in which capacity he distinguished 
 himself by his efficiency. In the contest between Charles 
 I. and the people, he at first acted with the latter, and 
 favoured the prosecution of the Earl of Strafford ; but, 
 becoming convinced that the popular party were going 
 too far. he attached himself to the interests of the king, 
 to whom he afterwards adhered with exemplary fidelity, 
 and by whom he was appointed secretary of state. After 
 the battle of Edgehill, where the royal army was victorious, 
 Lord Falkland exposed himself to imminent danger in 
 saving the lives of his enemies who had laid clown their 
 arms. lie was killed at the battle of Newbury, on the 
 20th of September, 1643, where, having insisted on going 
 in the first rank of Lord Byron's cavalry, he was shot at 
 the first charge : his body was not found until the next 
 day. lie was the author of a work entitled "A Discourse 
 ou the Infallibility of the Church of Rome," and is sup- 
 pi oed to have assisted Chillingworth in his " History of 
 Protestantism." 
 
 See Clarendon. " History of the Rebellion ;" Macaulay, 
 "History of F-ngland," vol. v.; Walpole, "Royal and Noble Au- 
 
 Falkner, fauk'ner, (Thomas,) an English missionary, 
 born at Manchester, studied surgery in London and 
 Cadiz, where he was persuaded to become a Jesuit and 
 to go to South America. He exercised his ministry in 
 the vice-royalty of Buenos Ayres and as far south as 
 the Rio de la Plata, where his great ability as a physician 
 and surgeon was very useful to him. After remaining 
 forty years in that country, he returned to England, where 
 he published a work in 1774, entitled "Descriptions of 
 Patagonia and the Adjoining Countries." Died in 1780. 
 
 See Qlierard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Pallaro, fal-U'ro, (Giacomo,) a painter of the Vene- 
 tian school, flourished about 1530. He is praised by 
 Vasari. 
 
 Fallati, fal-la'tee, (Johann,) a German writer, of Ital- 
 ian extraction, born at Hamburg in 1809, published an 
 "Introduction to the Science of Statistics," (1843,) and 
 other treatises. Died in 1854. 
 
 Falle, faul or fal, (Philip,) born in the isle of Jersey 
 in 1655, was the author of a learned work entitled "An 
 Account of the Island of Jersey." Died in 1742. 
 
 Pallet, i3'l&', (Nicolas,) a French dramatist and poet, 
 bom at I.angres in 1753; died in 1801. 
 
 Falletti. See FaLettt. 
 
 Fallmerayer, fal'meh-ri'er. (Philipp Jacob,) a dis- 
 tinguished German linguist and historian, born in the 
 Tyrol in 1791. He performed several journeys to Pales- 
 tine, Egypt, Greece, etc. Among his works are a " His- 
 tory of the Morea in the Middle Ages," (1830-36,) and 
 " Fragments from the East," (1845.) Died in April, 1862. 
 
 Failoppio, fal-lop'pe-o, sometimes written Fallopio, 
 [Lat. Fali.o'pius ; Fr. Fallope, fi'lop',] (Gabriei.lo,) a 
 celebrated Italian surgeon and anatomist, born at Modena 
 about 1523. He at first studied at Ferrara under Antonio 
 Musa Brasavola, and afterwards at Padua. About 1550 
 he became professor of surgery and anatomy at Padua, 
 where he succeeded Vesalius. He was the author of 
 several valuable anatomical works, of which only his 
 "Anatomical Observations" (1561) was published before 
 his death. He was one of the three anatomists who, 
 according to Cuvier, restored, or rather created, the 
 science of anatomy in the sixteenth century. Died at 
 Padua in 1 562. He was an excellent teacher and a skilful 
 operator. He discovered or first described several parts 
 of the human body which bear his name. " No one,' 
 says Hallam, "had understood that delicate part of the 
 human structure, the organ of hearing, so well as Fal- 
 lopius; though even he left much for others." ("Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" £u>Y, " Dictionnaire de la Me'de- 
 cine." 
 
 Falloux,de,dehfa"loo',( Frederic Alfred Pierre,) 
 VicoMTE, a French statesman and able writer, born at 
 Angers in May, 1811. He publisheda " History of Louis 
 XVI." in 1840, and favoured the formation of a republic 
 
 in 1848. He was minister of public instruction from 
 December 20, 1848, to October, 1849. Since the latttr 
 date he has not been in public office. He became a 
 member of the French Academy in 1857. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Geneiale." 
 
 Fal'lowi, (Fearon,) born about 1790, became astro- 
 nomer-royal at the Cape of Good Hope in 1821. Died 
 in 1 83 1. 
 
 Falret, fSl'rS', (Jean Pierre,) a French physician, 
 born in 1794, wrote on mental maladies. 
 
 Fala, fals, (Raymond,) a Swedish engraver of medals, 
 born at Stockholm in 1658; died in 1703. 
 
 Falsen, fal'sen, (Christian Magnus,) a Norwegian 
 historian and jurist, born near Christiania in 1782, wrote 
 a "History of Norway under Harold Haarfager and his 
 Male Descendants." Died in 1830. 
 
 Fal'staf, Fas'tolff.or Falstolf, (Sir John,) a famous 
 English captain, born in Norfolk about 1377. He dis- 
 tinguished himself at the battle of Agincourt, (1415,) and 
 other actions in France. After the death of Henry V. he 
 was Governor of Anjou and Maine. Died in 1459. 
 
 Falster, fitl'ster, (Christian,) a Danish critic and 
 poet, born about 1690, lived at Flensburg. He produced 
 a number of satires, which were favourably received ; 
 also "Amcenitates Philological," (3 vols., 1729-32,) and 
 other works. Died in 1752. 
 
 See Jens Hansen, " Programmata II. de Vita et Rebus gestis 
 C. Falsteri," 1769-71. 
 
 Famin, fS'maN', (Stanislas Marie Cesar,) a French 
 historical writer, born at Marseilles in 1799. Among 
 his works, which are highly commended, are "A His- 
 tory of the Invasion of Italy by the Saracens in the 
 Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Centuries," (1843,) 
 and " Histoire monetaire du Portugal," (in manuscript.) 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 Fanachen. See Achen. 
 
 Fancelli, fan-chel'lee, (Jacopo Antonio,) an Italian 
 sculptor, born at Rome about 1630. 
 
 Fancelli, (Pietro,) an eminent Italian historical 
 painter, born at Bologna in 1764; died in 1850. 
 
 See Massini, "Cenno biografico di P. Fancelli," 1850. 
 
 Fan'court, (Samuel,) an English dissenting minister 
 of Salisbury, born about 1678, commenced in London the 
 first circulating library that was established in England. 
 Died in 1768. 
 
 Fane, (Sir Henry,) a British general, born in 1778, 
 commanded a brigade of cavalry at Talavera (1810) and 
 other battles in the Peninsula. He became commander- 
 in-chief in India about 1835. Died in 1840. 
 
 Fanelli, fa-nel'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian advocate, 
 born at Venice, wrote a "History of Athens," (1707.) _ 
 
 Fanelli, (Virgilio,) a Florentine sculptor, who died 
 at Toledo, in Spain, in 1678. 
 
 Faneuil, popularly pronounced ffin'el, (Peter,) founder 
 of Faneuil Hall, Boston, was born in New Rochelle, New 
 York, in 1 700. About 1 740 he erected for the town, at his 
 own expense, the building which has since been famous 
 as the scene of the most memorable public meetings held 
 in Boston. Died in 1743. 
 
 Fange, foN'zha', (Augustin,) a French Benedictine, 
 born near Verdun about 1720; died about 1791. 
 
 Fan'nin, (James W.,) Colonel, an officer in the 
 Texan war of independence, a native of North Carolina, 
 was one of the three hundred and fifty-seven massacred 
 at Goliad by order of Santa Anna, March 27, 1836. 
 
 Fan'ning, (David,) an American Tory and outlaw, 
 notorious for his daring exploits and for his barbarity, 
 was born in North Carolina about 1756. He became the 
 leader of a band during the Revolution. Died in 1825. 
 
 Fan'nl-us, (Caius,) surnamed Strabo, a Roman 
 consul, during whose administration (161 B.C.) a law, 
 called from him " Lex Fannia," was passed, to restrain 
 the luxury of the people. 
 
 Fannius, (Caius,) son of the preceding, and a friend 
 of Scipio Africanus, was elected consul 122 B.C. Hewas 
 one of the most celebrated orators of his age. 
 
 Fannius, (Caius,) a Latin historian and orator, and 
 a friend of Pliny the Younger. He commenced a work 
 entitled " Exitus occisorum aut relegatorum a Nero," 
 
 
 e as t; c as s; g hard; g asy'; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FANNIUS 
 
 892 
 
 FARADAY 
 
 but died after he had completed only three volumes. A 
 few fragments of his writings remain. 
 
 Fan'ul-us Ce'pl-o, one of a party who conspired 
 against the emperor Augustus ; but his design was de- 
 tected, and he was put to death. He forms the subject 
 of one of Martial's epigrams. 
 
 Fan'nI-us Quad-ra'tus, a Latin poet, whose bust 
 and works were placed in the library founded by Augustus, 
 and who was the subject of the fourth satire of Horace. 
 
 Fano, da, da fi'no, (Bartolommeo,) a painter of the 
 Roman school, born about 1460; died after 1534. His 
 son Pompeo was a painter. 
 
 Fanoli, f&'no-Iee, (Michele,) an Italian painter and 
 lithographer, born near Venice in 1807. 
 
 Fansaga, fin-si'gi, (Cosimo,) an Italian architect 
 and sculptor, born in 1591 ; died at Naples in 1678. 
 
 Fan'shawe, (Anne Harrison,) wife of Sir Richard 
 Fanshawe, noticed below, was born in 1625. She was 
 distinguished for her talents and accomplishments, and 
 left interesting autobiographic " Memoirs," (1829.) Died 
 in 1680. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1829. 
 
 Fanshawe, (Catherine,) a literary English lady 
 of the nineteenth century. She associated with Scott, 
 Southey, Joanna Baillie, and other authors, and wrote 
 verses, among which is an enigma on the letter H. 
 
 Fanshawe or Fanshaw, ( Sir Richard, ) an Eng- 
 lish diplomatist and poet, born in Hertfordshire in 1608, 
 studied at Cambridge. He was sent as minister-resident 
 to the court of Spain by Charles I. At the commence- 
 ment of the revolution he joined the king's party, and 
 was taken prisoner in 165 1 at the battle of Worcester, 
 and detained in confinement for several years. After 
 the restoration he was made privy councillor for Ireland, 
 then envoy extraordinary, and afterwards ambassador to 
 Portugal, where he negotiated the marriage of Charles 
 II. with the princess Catherine. In 1664 he was sent 
 as ambassador to Spain, where he died in 1666. Not- 
 withstanding the cares of office and the troubles of that 
 period, Fanshawe found time for literary pursuits. He 
 was the author of several translations into English poetry, 
 among which were the " Pastor Fido" of Guarini, and the 
 " Lusiad" of Camoens. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica ;" " Westminster Review" for Octo- 
 ber, 1829. 
 
 Fant,fant, (Erik Michael,) a Swedish historian, born, 
 in Sudermanland in 1754. He became professor of his- 
 tory at Upsal in 1781, and made a collection of materials 
 for Swedish history. He commenced a work entitled 
 "Mediaeval Waiters of Swedish History," (" Scriptores 
 Rerum Suecicarum Medii /fcvi,") the first volume of 
 which was published in 1818. Died in 1817. 
 
 Fantetti, fan-tet'tee, (Cesare,) a Florentine engraver, 
 born about 1660, engraved, at Rome, thirty-seven of 
 Raphael's subjects from the Bible. 
 
 Fantin des Odoards, foN'tiN' di'zo'do'iR', (An- 
 Toine Eitenne Nicolas, ) a French historian, born 
 at Pont-de-Beauvoisin in 1738. Among his works is a 
 " History of the French Revolution," (6th edition, 1817.) 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'n^rale." 
 
 Fantoni, fan-to'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian physician, 
 son of Giovanni Battista, noticed below, born at Turin 
 in 1675. He was professor of anatomy in his native city, 
 and wrote many anatomical works, which are remarkable 
 for their pure and elegant Latin style. Died in 1758. 
 
 Fantoni, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian lyric poet, 
 born at Fivizzano, Tuscany, in 1755. He was a man of 
 unstable character, and was successively a monk, a cap- 
 tain in the French army, and professor of eloquence at 
 Pisa. He produced " Horatian and Anacreontic Odes," 
 ("Odi Oraziane ed Anacreontiche," 1 785,) and other 
 works. Died in 1807. 
 
 See "Autobiographic Memoirs," prefixed to an edition of his 
 Poems, 3 vols., 1823; Tipaldo, " Biograna degli Itatiani illustri," 
 Vol. i. ; " Nouvelle biographie Ge"neYale." 
 
 Fantoni, (Giovanni Battista,) a medical writer, 
 born in Piedmont in 1654, became professor of medicine 
 at Turin. Died in 1692. 
 
 Fantosme, fan'tom, ? (Jordan,) a poet and historian, 
 lived in England in the twelfth century. He wrote, in 
 
 verse, a history of the wars and events which he wit- 
 nessed in 1.1 73 and 1174. It was published about 1S40. 
 
 Fantucci, fan-toot'chee, or Fantuzzi, fan-toot'see, 
 (Marco,) Count, an Italian liuirateur and antiquary, 
 born at Ravenna in 1745. He published "Monuments 
 of Ravenna," etc., (" Monumenti Ravennati de' Secoli 
 di mezzo," 6 vols., 1801-04,) an( i "On Honest People," 
 (" De Gente honesta.") Died in 1806. 
 
 Fantuzzi, fan-toot'see, a family of Bologna, which 
 produced several distinguished writers. Giovanni Bat- 
 tista published a work on the Peripatetic Philosophy 
 in 1536. Giovanni Fantuzzi, born at Bologna, lived 
 about 1780. He contributed much to the literature of 
 Bologna by his work entitled " Notices of the Bolognese 
 Authors," (" Notizie degli Scrittori Bolognesi," 9 vols. 
 fat, 17S1-94.) 
 
 Fantuzzi, fin-toot'see, (Antonio,) sometimes called 
 Antonio da Trento, an Italian painter and skilful en- 
 graver, born at Trent, worked at Fontainebleau with 
 Primaticcio. Died about 1550. 
 
 See Ticozzi, "Dizionario." 
 
 Fanuoci, fa-noot'chee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Ital- 
 ian historian, born at Pisa in 1756, wrote a " History of 
 the Three Great Maritime Nations of Italy, the Vene- 
 tians, Genoese, and Pisans," (4 vols., 1817-22.) Died 
 in 1834. 
 
 Fanzoni, fan-zo'nee, or Fenzoni, fen-zo'nee, (Fer- 
 rau,) called also Ferrau da Faenza, a skilful painter 
 of the Bolognese school, was born at Faenza in 1562; 
 died in 1645. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Fa Presto. See Giordano, (Luca.) 
 
 Far'a-day, (Michael,) F.R.S., an English chemist 
 and natural philosopher of great eminence, was born at 
 Newington, in the county of Surrey, in 1791. He was 
 the son of a blacksmith, by whom he was apprenticed 
 to a bookbinder and stationer at an early age. His 
 education, consequently, was not very liberal. During 
 his apprenticeship he employed his leisure time in the 
 construction of an electric machine and other apparatus. 
 Having attended four lectures on chemistry delivered 
 by Sir H. Davy, and taken notes of them, he wrote a 
 letter to that great chemist, enclosing a copy of the notes, 
 and soliciting his patronage in order to obtain scientific 
 employment. This occurred in December, 1812. In 1813, 
 by the influence of Davy, he obtained the position of 
 assistant in the laboratory of the Royal Institution. In 
 the same year he accompanied Sir H. Davy in a journey 
 on the continent. The celebrity of Faraday is chiefly 
 founded on his discoveries in electricity and electro- 
 magnetism. He discovered the rotation of a magnet on 
 itself produced by an electric current properly directed. 
 As Ampere had made magnets by electricity, so Faraday 
 produced electrical phenomena by magnets. He is con- 
 sidered as the founder of the science of magneto-elec- 
 tricity. In 1831 he commenced a series of memoirs on 
 these subjects, which appeared first in the " Philosophical 
 Transactions," and have since been collected in three 
 volumes, entitled " Experimental Researches in Elec- 
 tricity," (1839-1844-1855.) He received the Rumford 
 medal and royal medal in 1846 for his discovery of dia- 
 magnetism. Among the results of his chemical experi- 
 ments are the condensation into a solid form of carbonic 
 acid gas and other gases, and the production of excellent 
 optical glass. His researches and writings have contrib- 
 uted to establish the theory that electricity, caloric, and 
 light are modifications of the same power or principle 
 and are convertible into each other. These speculations 
 conducted him to the surprising discovery of the action 
 of electricity on light. 
 
 From 1827 until his death, Faraday delivered annual 
 lectures on chemistry, etc. at the Royal Institution, in 
 which he was appointed professor of chemistry in 1835. 
 His lectures were rendered very attractive and popular 
 by his graceful elocution and his admirable tact as an 
 experimenter, joined with his genius as an interpreter 
 of nature. "Nothing," says Professor de la Rive, "can 
 give a notion of the charm which he imparted to these 
 improvised lectures, in which he knew how to combine 
 animated and often eloquent language with a judgment 
 and art in his experiments which added to the clearness 
 
 a, e, T, o, Q, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Ji, J, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mft; not; g ood; moon; 
 
FAR A J 
 
 893 
 
 FARINELLI 
 
 and elegance of his exposition. He exerted an actual 
 fascination upon his auditors ; and when, after having 
 initiated them into the mysteries of science, he terminated 
 his lecture, as he was in the habit of doing, by rising 
 into regions far above matter, space, and time, the emo- 
 tion which he experienced did not fail to communicate 
 itself to those who listened to him, and their enthusiasm 
 had no longer any bounds. 
 
 "Faraday was, in fact, thoroughly religious; and it 
 would be a very imperfect sketch of his life which did not 
 insist upon this peculiar feature which characterized him. 
 His Christian convictions occupied a great place in the 
 whole of his being ; and he showed their power and sin- 
 cerity by the conformity of his life to his principles. It 
 was not in arguments derived from science that he sought 
 the evidences of his faith. He found them in the revealed 
 truths at which he saw that the human mind could not 
 arrive by itself alone, even though they are in such gTeat 
 harmony with that which is taught by the study of nature 
 and the marvels of creation. Faraday had long and 
 justly perceived that scientific data, so movable and 
 variable, cannot suffice to give to man a solid and im- 
 pregnable basis for his religious convictions ; but he at the 
 same time showed by his example that the best answer 
 which the man of science can give to those who assert 
 that the progress of science is incompatible with these 
 convictions, is to say to them, 'And yet I am a Christian.'" 
 (See "Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution" 
 for 1867, pp. 227-245.) He was one of the eight foreign 
 members of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, an honour 
 reserved exclusively for savants of the highest rank and 
 merit. English and foreign writers concur in ascribing 
 to him an honourable character, free from jealousy, and 
 animated with a disinterested love of science. Among 
 his later works is "Experimental Researches in Chem- 
 istry and Physics," (1859.) Died in August, 1867. 
 
 See John Tyndat.t., "M. Faraday as a Discoverer," 1868 ; "Quar- 
 terly Review" for December, 1846; " British Quarterly Review for 
 April, 1S6S. 
 
 Faraj or FaradJ, fJr'aj, written also Farage and Fer- 
 ruj, became Sultan of Egypt about 1399. His army was 
 defeated by Taimoor near Haleb (Aleppo) in 140a He 
 was assassinated at Damascus in 1412. 
 
 Farcy, I'aVse', (Francois Charles,) a French writer, 
 born in Paris in 1792, was chief editor of the "Journal 
 des Artistes" from 1827 to 1835. 
 
 Farcy, (Jean Georges,) a French poet and prose- 
 writer, born in 1800, was a friend of M. Cousin, who 
 dedicated to him his translation of the laws of Plato. He 
 left a volume of melanges in prose and verse, which are 
 highly commended. He was killed in Paris, fighting for 
 the popular cause, in July, 1830. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Critiques et Portraits litteVaires." 
 
 Fardella, faR-del'la, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 general, born in 1762: died in 1836. 
 
 Fardella, ( Michelangelo,) an Italian philosopher, 
 professor of theology and geometry at Rome, and of 
 astronomy and medicine at Padua, was born at Trapani, 
 in Sicily, in 1650. He left some valuable mathematical 
 and philosophical works. Died in 1718. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires;" Mancuso, " Elogio'del Cavaliere M. 
 Fardella," 1839; "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Far'dulf or Far-dul'fus, a favourite of Desiderius, 
 the last king of the Lombards, was appointed by Charle- 
 magne abbot of Saint-Denis in 790. 
 
 Fare, de la, deh li f$R, (Charles Auguste,) Mar- 
 quis, a French soldier and writer, born in Ardeche in 
 1644, was the author of a work entitled "Memoirs of 
 the Principal Events of the Reign of Louis XIV." Died 
 in 1 712. 
 
 Farel, fl'rll', (Gi'ILI.aume,) one of the most distin- 
 guished Protestant Reformers in France, was born near 
 Gap in 1489. He studied in Paris under I^fevre d'Eta- 
 ples, and in 1524 publicly maintained at Bale a number 
 of theses on controverted points. He afterwards visited 
 successively the principal towns of Switzerland, where 
 his impetuous and fervent eloquence made numerous 
 converts to the Protestant cause. He was chiefly instru- 
 mental i» establishing the Reformed religion at Geneva 
 ab'ut 1532; and through his influence Calvin was in- 
 duced to remain in that city. Farel had a share in the 
 
 V 
 
 confession of faith and plan of ecclesiastical discipline 
 drawn up by Calvin in 1537. The following year, how- 
 ever, they were compelled to leave Geneva, and Fare! 
 repaired to Neufchatcl, where he organized a church. 
 (See Calvin.) He died in 1565, leaving a number of 
 religious works. He was more eminent as a preacher 
 than as a writer. 
 
 See D. Ancillon, "Vie de G. Farel," 1691 : Choupart, " His- 
 toire de Guillaume Farel;" Von Kikchhoper, "Das Leben W. 
 Farels," Zurich, 1831; C. Schmidt, "E\udes sur Farel," 1S34; 
 Rev. William M. Blackburn, "William Farel and the Story of 
 the Swiss Reform," Philadelphia, 1865; Bayle, "Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary;" Haag, "La France protestante ;" G. Goguel, 
 "Vie de G. Farel Reformateur," 1X41. 
 
 Farelli, fj-rel'lee, (Giacomo,) a painter of the Nea- 
 politan school, born in 1624; died in 1706. 
 
 Faret, fi'r&', (Nicolas,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Bourg-en-Bresse about 1600. He was one of the first 
 members of the French Academy, and author of several 
 works in prose and verse. "He had," says Pelisson, 
 "much purity and neaSness in style, and much genius 
 for language and eloquence." Died in 1646. 
 
 See Pelisson, " Histoire de l'Academie." 
 
 Fa'rey, (John,) an English geologist and surveyor, 
 born at Woburn in 1766. He wrote a "General View 
 of the Agriculture and Minerals of Derbyshire," (2 vols., 
 1S11.) Died in 1826. 
 
 Farey, (John,) an English civil engineer and draughts- 
 man, son of the preceding, was born at Lambeth in 179 1. 
 He received a gold medal for the invention of a machine 
 for drawing ellipses. Died in 1851. 
 
 Farge. See La Farge, (Madame.) 
 
 Faria, de, da fa-ree'a, (Manoel Severim,) a Portu- 
 guese antiquary and theologian, born at Lisbon in 1581 
 or 1582, was the author of some able historical and 
 political works, among which are " The Lives of loao de 
 Barros and Luiz de Camoens," (1624,) and "Noticiasde 
 Portugal," (1655.) Died in 1655. 
 
 Faria, de, (Thome,) a Portuguese Carmelite, born at 
 Lisbon, made a translation of the " Lusiad" of Camoens 
 into Latin poetry, which has been much admired for its 
 elegance and purity. Died in 1628. 
 
 Faria y Souza, (or Sousa,) de, da fi-ree'J e so'za, 
 (Manoel,) a distinguished Portuguese historian and 
 poet, born at Pombeiro or Souto in 1590. He became 
 secretary of the Spanish embassy at Rome about 1630, 
 and returned to Spain in 1634, after which he resided at 
 Madrid. His histories are written in the Spanish language. 
 Among his numerous works are a "Commentary on the 
 Lusiad of Camoens," (2 vols., 1639,) "Asia Portuguesa," 
 (3 vols., 1666,) a History of Portugal to 1557, ("La Eu- 
 ropa Portuguesa," 3 vols., 1667,) and "Various Poems," 
 or " Fuente de Aganippe." As a poet, he belongs to the 
 school of Gongora. Died in 1649. 
 
 See his life, in Portuguese, by F. Moreno Porcel, 1733; Long- 
 fellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca 
 Hispana Nova;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Farina. See La Farina. 
 
 Farina, fa-ree'nil, (Fabrizio,) a Tuscan sculptor, who 
 flourished about 1600, and worked in porphyry. 
 
 Farinacci, fJ-re-nat'chee, or Farinaccib, fil-re-naV- 
 cho, (Prospero,) an Italian lawyer, celebrated for his 
 talents and his vices, was born at Rome in 1544 or 1554. 
 Died in 1618. His numerous legal writings were col- 
 lected and published at Antwerp in 1620. 
 
 See Taisand, " Vies des plus celebres Jurisconsultes." 
 
 Farinato, fi-re-na'to, (Orazio,) a skilful painter and 
 engraver, born at Verona about 1500. 
 
 Farinato, (Paolo,) an eminent Italian painter, son 
 of the preceding, born at Verona about 1525, was a 
 pupil or imitator of Titian and Giorgione. He painted 
 in oil and fresco, and excelled in design. Among his 
 best works is "The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes." 
 Died in 1606. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Farinelli, fa-re-nel'lee, (Carlo,) a celebrated Italian 
 soprano singer, whose proper name was Carlo Broschi, 
 was born at Naples in 1705. He was a pupil of Porpora. 
 He performed with great applause in London in 1734 
 and 1735. About 1737, invited by the Queen of Spain, 
 he went to Madrid, in order to soothe the nervous 
 agitation or melancholy spirit of King Philip V. He 
 
 €zs*vcas.r;g/5an/;gas/;G,H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; sags; th as in Mm. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FARING DON 
 
 894 
 
 FARNHAM 
 
 succeeded in this effort, and became the favourite attend- 
 ant and adviser of the king. It is said that he never 
 abused his great influence at court, and that he gave a 
 good example of integrity and benevolence. He enjoyed 
 equal favour with Philip's successor, Ferdinand VI. Died 
 at Bologna in 1782. 
 
 See Giovenale Sacchi, "Vita di Carlo Rroschi detti Farinelli," 
 1784; Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Far'ing-don or Far'in-don, (Anthony,) an elo- 
 quent preacher of the Anglican Church, born at Sunning, 
 Berkshire, in 1596. Me became vicar of Bray in 1634, 
 was ejected during the rebellion, and was subsequently 
 pastor of Saint Mary Magdalene, London. He published 
 a volume of Sermons, (1647,) which are highly esteemed. 
 Died in 1658. 
 
 Far'ing-ton, (George,) an English painter, born in 
 Lancashire in 1754, was a pupil of West. Died in India 
 in 17S8. His brother Joseph, a landscape-painter, died 
 in 1818. 
 
 Farini, fa-ree'nee, (Carlo Luigi,) a popular Italian 
 statesman, historian, and orator, born at Russi, in the 
 Roman States, in October, 1822. He studied medicine, 
 and wrote several medical treatises. About 1842 he was 
 proscribed for his political opinions, (which, however, 
 were moderate rather than radical,) and went into exile. 
 He was elected a member of Parliament for Faenza in 
 1848, and was minister of public instruction in Piedmont 
 about nine months in 1850. Ri 1859 he was dictator 
 at Modena after the expulsion of the duke. He was 
 minister of commerce in the last cabinet of Cavour, and 
 president of the council (prime minister) from December, 
 1862, to March 24, 1863, when he resigned on account 
 of ill health. His chief works are "II Stato Romano," 
 (a History of Rome from 1815 to 1850,) and a continua- 
 tion of Botta's " History of Italy." Died in 1866. The 
 Hon. W. E. Gladstone published a translation of his " II 
 Stato Romano," in 2 vols., (1851.) 
 
 See "Quarterly Review" for January, 1S52; "Edinburgh Review" 
 for April, 1852. 
 
 Farini, (Giovanni, ) an Italian mathematician, born 
 near Ravenna in 1778; died in 1822. 
 
 Farjat, fiR'zhi'', (Benoit,) a French engraver, born 
 at Lyons in 1646, worked in Rome. Among his best 
 works are the " Baptism of Jesus Christ," and the " Com- 
 munion of Saint Jerome." 
 
 Farlati, faR-la'tee, (Daniele,) an Italian monk and 
 historian, born at Friuli in 1690; died in 1773. 
 
 Far'mer, (Hugh,) an eminent English dissenting 
 minister and eloquent preacher, was born near Shrews- 
 bury in 1 714. He preached in London, and published, 
 besides other works, a "Treatise on Miracles," (1771,) 
 an " Essay on the Demoniacs of the New Testament," 
 (1775,) and " Worship of Human Spirits in the Ancient 
 Heathen Nations," (1783.) Died in 1787. 
 
 See Michael Dodson, " Life of H. Farmer," 1804. 
 
 Far'mer, (John,) an American genealogist, born in 
 Chelmsford, Massachusetts, in 1789. He published a 
 " Genealogical Register of the First Settlers of New 
 England," (1829.) Died in 1838. 
 
 Farmer, (Richard,) a learned and ingenious English 
 author and critic, born at Leicester in 1735. His prin- 
 cipal work was his "Essay upon the Learning of Shak- 
 speare," (1766,) in which he maintains that Shakspeare 
 derived his knowledge of classic authors from transla- 
 tions. He became prebendary of Canterbury in 1782, 
 and canon of Saint Paul's in 1788. Died in 1797. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century." 
 
 Far'na-bjf or Far'na-bie, (Thomas,) a grammarian, 
 born in London about 1575, obtained a high reputation 
 and great success as a teacher, and was the author of 
 several critical and grammatical works. Died in 1647. 
 According to Anthony Wood, "he was the chief gram- 
 marian, poet, Latinist, and Grecian of his time, and his 
 school was so much frequented that more churchmen 
 and statesmen issued thence than from any school taught 
 by one man in England." 
 
 See Wood, "Athena: Oxonienses." 
 
 Fam'bor-cmgh, (Chari.es Long,) Lord, an English 
 politician, born in 1 76 1, became postmaster-general. 
 He was a friend of William Pitt. Died in 1838. 
 
 Farnese, faR-na'sa, (Alessandro,) an Italian diplo- 
 matist, born in 1520, was a grandson of Pope Paul III. 
 He became Bishop of Parma, and was employed by Paul 
 
 III. in missions to France and Germany. Died in 1589. 
 Farnese, far-neez', [It. pron. faR-na'si; Lat. Farne'- 
 
 sius,] (Alexander,) Duke of Parma, a celebrated gen- 
 eral, born in 1546, was a nephew of Philip II. of Spain, and 
 the eldest son ofOttavio Farnese and Margaret of Austria. 
 In 1565 he married Mary, niece of King John of Portugal. 
 When his mother was made Regent of Flanders, he ac- 
 companied her to that country ; he afterwards fought 
 under Don John of Austria, and distinguished himself 
 by his great courage and presence of mind, particularly 
 at the naval battle of Lepanto, (1571.) Upon the death 
 of Don John, (1578,) Farnese was invested with the gov- 
 ernment of the Low Countries, where he gained many 
 important victories. He was appointed to the command 
 of the Invincible Armada in 1588 ; but, being shut up in 
 Antwerp by the Dutch fleet, he was unable to take any 
 part in the action which resulted so disastrously to Spain. 
 During the civil war in France he marched against 
 Henry IV. and compelled him to raise the siege of Paris, 
 (1590.) After this he successfully opposed, at the same 
 time, two of the greatest generals of that period, Henry 
 
 IV. of France, and Maurice of Nassau. He received a 
 wound in December, 1592, of which he died in Arras at 
 the age of forty-seven. While in the midst of his mili- 
 tary career, upon receiving information of th? death of 
 his father, he asked permission of Philip III to return to 
 Italy, in order to take possession of his dukedom ; but, as 
 his services were invaluable to that monarch, his request 
 was not granted, so that he never entered his provinces 
 after he became their sovereign. " He possessed," says 
 Motley, comparing him with Don John of Austria, " far 
 greater power for governing men, whether in camp or 
 cabinet. . . . Cool, incisive, fearless, artful, he united 
 the unscrupulous audacity of a condottiere with the wily 
 patience of a Jesuit." 
 
 See Motley, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," part vi. chaps, i.- 
 vii. ; De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis ;" Strada, "De Bello 
 Belgico;" G. Dondini, "De Rebus in Gallia gestis ab Alexandro 
 Farnesio," 1671. 
 
 Farnese, (Odoardo,) a son of Ranuccio, noticed be- 
 low, succeeded him in authority in 1622. He took part 
 with France in a war against Spain, and afterwards fought 
 against Pope Urban VIII. He died in 1646, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Ranuccio II., who was born about 
 1630 and reigned from 1646 until 1694 Francesco suc- 
 ceeded his father, Ranuccio II. ; on the death of this 
 prince, in 1727, his brother Antonio followed him as the 
 eighth Duke of Parma and Piacenza. Diedini73i. An- 
 tonio was the last of the family of Farnese who occupied 
 the ducal throne. 
 
 Farnese, (Ottavio,) a son of Pietro Luigi, noticed 
 below, was born about 1520. He married Margaret of 
 Austria, natural daughter of Charles V., and became the 
 second Duke of Parma and Piacenza upon the death of 
 his father. He appears to have governed with as much 
 mildness and discretion as his father did with despotism. 
 Died in 1586. 
 
 Farnese, (Pietro Luigi,) was created first Duke of 
 Parma and Piacenza in 1545 by his father, Pope Paul 
 III. He was notorious for his vices and tyranny. He 
 was assassinated in 1547. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoiredes Republiques Italiennes;" Pompeo 
 Litta, "Vitadi Pier Luigi Farnese," 1821. 
 
 Farnese, (Ranuccio,) a son of Alexander, the cel- 
 ebrated Duke of Parma, noticed above, was born in 1 569, 
 and began to reign in 1592. He was notorious for tyranny 
 and cruelty. Died in 1622. 
 
 Farnesius. See Farnese, (Alexander.) 
 
 Farnes'worth or Farne'worth, (Ellis,) an Eng- 
 lish divine of the eighteenth century, born in Derbyshire. 
 He translated into English, from the Italian, Davila's 
 " History of the Civil Wars in France," and the works 
 of Machiavel. Died in 1763. 
 
 Farn'ham, (Eliza W.,) (originally Miss Woodson,) 
 an American authoress and philanthropist, born in Rens- 
 selaerville, New York, in 1815. In 1836 she was mar- 
 ried to Thomas J. Farnham, noticed below. , She was 
 for four years matron of the female department of the 
 State prison at Sing Sing, and was highly successful in 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m?t; n8t; good; moon; 
 
FARNHAM 
 
 895 
 
 FARRAGUT 
 
 he- efforts to govern by kindness. She published "Life 
 in Prairie-Land," "California Indoors and Out," and 
 "Mv Early Days." She died in 1864. 
 
 Farnham, (THOMAS J.,) an American traveller and 
 writer, born in Vermont in 1S04, published "Travels in 
 Oregon Territory," (1S42, ) and "Travels in California 
 and Scenes in the Pacific," (1845.) Died in California 
 in 1848. 
 
 Farochon, fi'ro'sh6>i', (Jean Baptiste Eugene.) a 
 French statuary and engraver of medals, born in Paris 
 in 1807. 
 
 Farquhar, far'kar, (George,) a distinguished dra- 
 matic writer, born at Londonderry, in Ireland, in 1678, 
 was educated at the University of Dublin, and after- 
 wards settled in London. Among his principal pro- 
 ductions were "Love and a Bottle," (1698,) "Twin 
 Rivals," (1703,) and "The Beaux Stratagem," (1707.) 
 Died in London in 1 707. 
 
 See a notice of his life, by Leigh Hunt, prefixed to Farquhar's 
 Works, 1S49; "Lives of the British Dramatists," by Campbell, 
 Leigh Hunt. etc. 
 
 Farr, (SAMUEL,) an English physician, born at Taun- 
 ton in 1741. He wrote, besides other works, "Elements 
 of Medical Jurisprudence," (1788.) Died in 1795. 
 
 Farr, (Willi am,) M.D., F.R.S., an English writer on 
 statistics and public health, born at Kenley, in Shrop- 
 shire, in 1807. He promoted sanitary reform by a 
 number of works, among which are " Vital Statistics," 
 (1837,) and "Statistical Nosology." 
 
 Far'ra-gnt, (David Glas'coe,) a celebrated Ameri- 
 can admiral, born near Knoxville, Tennessee, on the 
 5th of July, 1801. His father was a Spaniard, a native 
 of Minorca, who fought for the United States in the 
 Revolution and attained the rank of major. He entered 
 the navy in 1812, became a lieutenant in 1S21, and was 
 assignee! to duty at Norfolk navy-yard in 1824. He 
 remained there until 1833, and married Virginia Loyall, 
 of Norfolk. In 1841 he received a commission as com- 
 mander. Besides being well versed in naval science, 
 he spoke fluently, it is said, several modern languages. 
 He was appointed commander of the navy-yard at Mare 
 Island, California, about 1854, and obtained the rank of 
 captain in 1855. In April, l86t,hewent to Washington 
 and offered his services to fight for the Union ; but the 
 government had no ship for him to command, as Toucey, 
 the late secretary of the navy, had scattered the navy 
 over distant parts of the world. He was employed for 
 some time as a member of the naval retiring board. 
 
 In January, 1862, the government fitted out for the 
 capture of New Orjeans an armament, of which Farra- 
 gut was appointed commander. He sailed from Hamp- 
 ton Roads about the 3d of February to Ship Island, 
 which was used as a rendezvous. The expedition was 
 accompanied by a land-army under General B. F. But- 
 ler. New Orleans was defended against attacks from 
 the Gulf by Fort Jackson and Fort Saint Philip, about 
 seventy miles below the city, and by many gunboats 
 and steam-rams. On the 18th of April, Farragut, who 
 had selected the Hartford as his flag-ship, and whose 
 fleet consisted of wooden steamers and bomb-vessels 
 or mortar-boats, began to bombard Fort Jackson. The 
 sides of some of his vessels were protected by an armour 
 of heavy chain cables. He bombarded the fort for six 
 days without success, and then resolved to try the peril- 
 ous experiment of running past the forts in the darkness. 
 Before daylight on the 24th, his fleet advanced in two 
 columns, one of which was composed of the Hartford, 
 Brooklyn, Richmond, Scioto, Iroquois, Itasca, etc. ; the 
 other of the Cayuga, Pensacola, Mississippi, and five 
 others. A grand and terrific spectacle was then ex- 
 hibited when the guns of both the forts opened on the 
 Union fleet, which was also assailed by the iron-clad ram 
 Manassas, and by a number of gunboats and fire-rafts 
 rushing down the river. Of the seventeen Union vessels 
 engaged in this action, thirteen passed the forts safely, 
 and sunk or burned the fleet of the enemy, including 
 the Manassas. Farragut lost in this battle, which lasted 
 about one hour and a half, 36 killed and 135 wounded. 
 Captain Craven, of the Brooklyn, silenced Fort Saint 
 Philip as he passed it. "The passing of the forts Jack- 
 son and Saint Philip," says Farragut, "was one of the 
 
 most awful sights and events I ever saw or expect to 
 experience. The smoke was so dense that it was only 
 now and then vou could see any thing but the flash of 
 the cannon and the fire-ships or rafts, one of which was 
 pushed down upon us (the Hartford) by the ram Manas- 
 sas, and in my effort to avoid it ran the ship on shore, and 
 then the fire-raft was pushed alongside, and in a moment 
 the ship was one blaze all along the port side. But, 
 thanks to the good organization of the fire-department 
 by Lieutenant Thornton, the flames were extinguished, 
 and at the same time we backed off and got clear of the 
 raft." (Letter to G. V. Fox, dated April 27, 1862.) He 
 moved up to New Orleans, which, being entirely inde- 
 fensible against the guns of the fleet, was evacuated by 
 the rebel army. According to the "Rebellion Record" 
 and other authorities, the city surrendered on the 25th ; 
 but Farragut, in the letter just cited, says, "I demanded 
 the surrender of the city yesterday of the mayor. His 
 reply was that the city was under martial law, and he 
 would consult General Lovell. His lordship said he 
 would surrender nothing, but at the same time he would 
 retire and leave the mayor unembarrassed." The cap- 
 ture of New Orleans was one of the most important 
 victories of the war. 
 
 Farragut was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral in 
 July, 1862, having previously obtained command of the 
 Western Gulf blockading squadron. About the end of 
 June he attacked the batteries at Vicksburg, which were 
 found to be impregnable to an attack on the river-front. 
 Having been ordered to co-operate with General Grant 
 against Vicksburg, he attempted, in March, 1863, to pass 
 the batteries of Port Hudson. The Hartford and Al- 
 batross, which were lashed together, succeeded, after a 
 desperate contest ; but the Richmond and others were 
 disabled, and dropped down the river. His next great 
 enterprise was directed against the defences of Mobile, 
 the port of which the government desired to close against 
 the ingress of blockade-runners. The entrance to Mobile 
 Bay was defended by Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines, and 
 the insurgents had in the bay a powerful iron-clad ram, 
 called the Tennessee, besides three gunboats. Co- 
 operating with a land-army under Generals Canby and 
 Granger, the fleet of Farragut, consisting of fourteen 
 wooden steamers and gunboats and four iron-clad moni- 
 tors, passed Fort Morgan on the 5th of August, 1864, 
 and entered the bay. The admiral lashed himself near 
 the maintop of the Hartford, (according to one account,) 
 in order that he might be able to overlook the whole 
 scene. He states in his report that he " had an elevated 
 position in the main rigging, near the top." In the early 
 part of the action the monitor Tecumseh was sunk by 
 a torpedo. Just after his fleet passed the forts, it en- 
 countered the Tennessee ; and " then began," says Far- 
 ragut, " one of the fiercest naval combats on record. 
 The monitors, and such of the wooden vessels as I thought 
 best adapted for the purpose, were immediately ordered 
 to attack the ram, not only with their guns, but bows on 
 at full speed." The Tennessee was "sore beset," and 
 never fired a gun from the time the Hartford struck her 
 until her surrender. A few days after this victory the 
 Union forces took Fort Gaines and Fort Morgan, with 
 their garrisons, and rendered the access of blockade- 
 runners to Mobile impossible. The Congress which 
 met in December, 1864, recognized the obligations of 
 the country to Farragut by creating for him the grade of 
 vice-admiral. His character is described by the " United 
 States Service Magazine" for January, 1865, in the fol- 
 lowing terms: "The stainless honour, the straightfor- 
 ward frankness, the vivacity of manner and conversation, 
 the gentleness, the flow of good humour, the cheerful, 
 ever-buoyant spirit of the true man, — these will be added 
 to the complete education, the thorough seamanship, the 
 devotion to duty, and, lastly, the restless energy, the dis- 
 dain of obstacles, the impatience of delay or hesitation, 
 the disregard of danger, that stand forth in such promi- 
 nence in the portrait, deeply engraven on the loyal Ameri- 
 can heart, of the Great Admiral." He was promoted 
 to the rank of admiral July 25, 1866, and held a higher 
 rank than any other officer of the United States navy. 
 Died at Portland, Maine, in August, 1870. 
 
 See J.T. Headley," Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867. 
 
 « as*; 5 as s; %hard; gasy'/G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; izsz; thas in this. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FAR RANT 
 
 896 
 
 FAUCHER 
 
 Far'rant, (Richard,) an English composer of church 
 music, was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal. His an- 
 thems are regarded as master-pieces. Died about 1585. 
 
 FSr'rar, (John,) an American mathematician, born 
 in Lincoln, Massachusetts, in 1779, graduated at Har- 
 vard in 1803. He became professor of mathematics and 
 natural philosophy in that college in 1807. He translated 
 Lacroix's "Elements of Algebra," and other French 
 works, and contributed some articles to the "North 
 American Review." Died in 1853. 
 
 Far'ren, (Eliza,) a popular English actress, and 
 Countess of Derby, born in 1759, was the daughter of a 
 suigeon of Cork. She performed with great applause at 
 the theatres of Liverpool and London. In 1797 she was 
 married to Lord Derby. Died in 1829. 
 
 Farsetti, faR-set'tee, a noble Italian family, one branch 
 of which settled at Florence and another at Venice. Giu- 
 seppe Tommaso Farsetti, a chevalier of the order of 
 Malta, was the author of numerous miscellaneous works. 
 He collected a large number of poems in Latin and 
 Italian of great taste and elegance, by requesting all the 
 poets of his time to compose and send one or more pieces 
 of the best quality for the collection. Died about 1775. 
 
 Farsetti, (Filippo,) an Italian antiquary, born at 
 Venice in 1705; died in 1774. 
 
 Farulli, fa-rool'lee, (Giorgio Angelo,) a voluminous 
 Italian historical writer; died at Florence in 1728. 
 
 Farwharsoil, far'hwar-son, a Scottish mathematician, 
 whom Peter the Great, when he visited England in 1698, 
 induced to return with him to Moscow. In 1701 he 
 founded in that city the first Russian school of marine, 
 and in 1 7 16 became professor of mathematics at Saint 
 Petersburg. Farwharson is said to have been the first to 
 introduce the Arabic figures into Russia. Died in 1739. 
 
 Fasch, fish, (Augustin Heinrich,) a German medi- 
 cal writer, born in Thuringia in 1639; died in 1690. 
 
 Fasch, (Karl Friedrich Christian,) a German 
 musical composer, born at Zerbst, in Anhalt-Dessau, in 
 1736. His " Kyrie and Gloria" for sixteen voices is 
 esteemed one of the most exquisite productions of its 
 kind. Fasch was the founder of the Academy of Sing- 
 ing at Berlin, (Berliner Singakademie.) Died in 1800. 
 
 See Karl F. Zelter, " Biographie von C. F. Fasch," 1801. 
 
 Fasch or Faesch, fesh, (Sebastian,) a Swiss anti- 
 quary, born at Bile in 1647; died in 1712. 
 
 Fascitelli, fi-she-tel'lee, (Onorio,) a Latin poet, 
 born at Isemia, Naples, in 1502; died in 1564. 
 
 Fasel, fa'zel, (Johann Friedrich,) a German phy- 
 sician, and professor of medicine at Jena, born in the 
 duchy of Weimar in 1721 ; died in 1767. 
 
 Fasolato, O-so-la'to, (Agostino,) a Venetian sculp- 
 tor, lived about 1700, and made a famous group of "The 
 Fall of Rebellious Angels" at Padua. 
 
 Fasolo, fa'so-lo, (Bernardino,) an Italian painter, a 
 pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, born at Pavia, lived about 1540. 
 
 Fasolo or Fassolo, ffis'so-lo, (Giovanni Antonio,) 
 an Italian painter, pupil of Paul Veronese, was born at 
 Vicenza in 1528; died in 1572. 
 
 Fassin, de, deh I'i'saN', (Nicolas Henri Joseph,) a 
 skilful Belgian landscape-painter, born at Liege in 1728, 
 wo'ked at Geneva, Brussels, and Liege. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See F. van Hulst, " Biographie de N. H. J. de Fassin," 1837. 
 
 Fassolo. See Fasolo. 
 
 Fastolf. See Falsi" a f. 
 
 Fatah- (or Fat'h-) Abu-Na3r. See Alfath. 
 
 Fateh-Alee- (or Ali-) Shah, fat'eh a'lee shlh, written 
 also Futteh-Aly-Shah and Feth-Ali-Shah, ( called, 
 before his accession to the throne, Baba-Khan, ba'M 
 Kin,) King of Persia, born about 1762, began to reign 
 in 1798. About 1802 war broke out between Persia and 
 Russia, who fought for the possession of Georgia. This 
 war was ended in 1813 by a treaty in which Fateh-Alee- 
 Shah ceded Georgia to Russia. A dispute about bound- 
 aries occasioned a renewal of the war in 1826, when the 
 Persians were again defeated. Peace was restored in 1828. 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 See Malcolm, " Historv of Persia ;" W. G. Ouseley, " Travels 
 in Various Countries of the East," 1823; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate." 
 
 Fathime. See Fatimah. 
 
 Fathimites. See Fatimites. 
 
 Fatimah, fa'te-mah, [Fr. Fathime, ff'tem'; Gei. 
 Fatime, fa-tee'meh,] written also Fathimet, the onl> 
 daughter of Mohammed, was born at Mecca before her 
 father assumed the character of a religious teacher. 
 While still very young, she was married to her cousin 
 Alee, who was surnamed the "Lion of God." FStimah 
 died about six months after her father. 
 
 See Aboolfeda, "Vie de Mahomet." 
 
 Fatime. See FAtimah. 
 
 Fatimides or Fatimiden. See Fatimites. 
 
 Fat'I-mites, sing. Fat'I-mite, [Fr. pron. fi'te'met'; 
 Ger. Fatimiden, f5-te-mee'den ; Lat. Fatim'id^; or 
 Fatimi't^,] the name of a celebrated Moslem dynasty, 
 the rulers of which claimed to be descended from Fati- 
 mah, the daughter of Mohammed. The Fatimite caliphs 
 ruled in Egypt about two hundred years, — that is, from 
 about 970 to 1 1 70. The founder of this dynasty was 
 the Sheeite Al-Mahdee-Aboo-Mohammed Obeydallah, 
 (often called simply Obeydallah,) who about 910 over- 
 threw the dynasty of the Benee-Aghlab (the seat of 
 whose power was at Tunis) and conquered a large part 
 of Eastern Africa. He died in 934. One of his descend- 
 ants, Moez or Mooiz, nearly forty years later, subdued 
 Egypt and Western Africa, and established his throne 
 at Cairo. Al-Adhed, the fourteenth and last caliph of 
 this dynasty, was dethroned by the celebrated Saladin 
 (Sala-ed-Deen) the Aiyoobite. From Al-Mahdee's name 
 of Obeydallah his successors are often called Obeydites. 
 
 Fatio (or Faccio) de Duillers, fi'te-o (or fat'cho) 
 de dwee'ya, (Nicolas,) a celebrated mathematician, as- 
 tronomer, and religious enthusiast, was born at Bale in 
 1664. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don in 1688. Among his discoveries were a method for 
 forming glasses for telescopes, one for measuring the 
 velocity of vessels, and one for the perfect regulation of 
 watches. He was the author of numerous mathematical 
 works. Died in England in 1753. He pretended to be 
 able to work miracles. 
 
 See Senebier, " Histoire litteVaire de Geneve," 
 
 Fatouville, de, deh fj'too'vel', a French dramatic 
 writer of Normandy, lived about 1670. 
 
 Fattore, II. See Penni. 
 
 Faucci, fowt'chee, (Carlo,) an Italian engraver, born 
 at Florence in 1729, settled in London. 
 
 Fauchard, fo'shaV, (Pierre,) a celebrated dentist, 
 born in Brittany about 1680, is regarded as the founder 
 of the art of dentistry. He wrote a valuable work en- 
 titled " The Surgeon-Dentist ; or, Treatise on the Teeth," 
 (1728.) Died in Paris in 1761. 
 
 Fauche-Borel, fosh bo'rel', (Louis,) born at Neuf- 
 chatel in 1762, was a zealous adherent of the royal family 
 during the Revolution. After the accession of Napoleon 
 he was engaged in several attempts to restore the Bour- 
 bons. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Louis Fauche-Borel, " M^moires," 4 vols., 1828. 
 
 Faucher, fo'shi', (Cesar and Constantin,) French 
 generals, born at La Reole in 1759, were twin brothers. 
 They served with distinction in the army of the republic 
 in La Vendee in 1793, fighting side by side. During 
 the empire they were engaged in civil pursuits ; but 
 in March, 1815, they accepted office under Napoleon. 
 Having been falsely accused of treason, they were shot 
 at Bordeaux in September, 1815. 
 
 Faucher, (Jean,) a French Protestant minister and 
 polemical writer; died at Nimes in 1628. 
 
 Faucher, (Leon,) a French minister of state and able 
 writer on political economy and finance, was born at 
 Limoges in September, 1803. He contributed many 
 articles to the " Courrier Francais" and the " Revue des 
 Deux Mondes." In the Chamber of Deputies, to which 
 he was elected in 1846, he acted with the gauche. He 
 was minister of the interior from December, 1848, to May, 
 1849, and from April to October, 1851. He was liberal 
 in politics, but not a republican. Among his works are 
 "Studies on England," (1845,) and "Miscellanies of Po- 
 litical Economy and Finance," ("Melanges d'ficonomie 
 politique et de Finances," 2 vols., 1856.) Died at Mar- 
 seilles in December, 1854. He resolutely declined to hold 
 any office under Louis Napoleon after the latter had 
 usurped imperial power. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
FAUCHET 
 
 897 
 
 FAUSTJ 
 
 Alluding to the conduct of Faucher on this occasion, 
 a writer in the "Edinburgh Review" remarks, " IVc do 
 not remember an example in political history of greater 
 sacrifices made by an ambitious and ardent man to his 
 sense of public duty and personal dignity." 
 
 See Lavergne, "Biographic de Leon Faucher, " in the "Revue 
 des Deux Mondes," January i, 1855; Leon Faucher, "Corres- 
 pondance. Vie parlementaire," 2 vols., 1868; and article on " Leon 
 Faucher" in the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S6S. 
 
 Fauchet, fo'shj', (Claudk,) a French historical writer, 
 bom in Paris about 1530, published "Gallic and French 
 Antiquities," (1579,) and " Origin of Dignities and Magis- 
 trates in France." Died in 1601. 
 
 Fauchet, (Claude,) a French ecclesiastic, born in 
 Nivernais in 1744. He joined the revolutionary party 
 in 1789, and delivered in favour of their cause his " Dis- 
 course upon the National Religion," and "Civic Eulogy 
 on Franklin." He became constitutional liishop of Cal- 
 vados in 1 791. He was opposed to the death of the king, 
 and showed great courage in condemning those who 
 favoured it. Having been accused as an accomplice of 
 Charlotte Corday, he was condemned and executed as a 
 Girondist in October, 1793. 
 
 See Abbe Valmeron, (Jarry,) "Vie de l'Abbe Fauchet." 
 
 Faucheur, Le, leh fo'shuR', (Michel,) an eloquent 
 French Protestant minister; died in Paris in 1657. 
 
 Faugere, fo'zhaiR', (Arnaud Prosper,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Bergerac in 1810. He gained, three 
 times, the prize of eloquence offered by the French Acad- 
 emy. One of these prizes was awarded for his " Eulogy 
 Dn Pascal," (1842.) He also edited the works of Pascal, 
 "Pensees, Fragments et Lettres de Blaise Pascal," (2 
 vols., 1844.) This is said to have been the first correct 
 and complete edition of Pascal's "Thoughts." In 1864 
 he published a revised edition of the " Memoirs of Ma- 
 dame Roland." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Faujas de Saint-Fond, fo'zhas' deh sa.v'foN', (Bar- 
 thei.emv,) an eminent French geologist and traveller, 
 born at Montelimart in 1741. He was a friend of Buf- 
 fon, by whose influence he obtained the place of adjoint- 
 naturaliste in the Museum of Paris, and that of commis- 
 sioner of mines. He explored France, England, Germany, 
 Italy, etc. In 1793 he became professor of geology in 
 the Jardin des Plantes. Among his numerous works are 
 " Mineralogy of Volcanoes,") 1784,) "Travels in England 
 and Scotland," (1797,) and an "Essay on Geology, or 
 Memoirs subservient to the Natural History of the 
 Globe," (2 vols., 1803-09.) Died in 1819. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire;" Louis de Frevcinet, 
 "Essai sur la Vie, etc de B. Faujas de Saint- Fond," 1820; "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Geiieiale." 
 
 Faulcon, fo'koN', (Marie Felix,) a French politician 
 and jurist, born at Poitiers in 1758; died in 1843. 
 
 Faulhaber, fowl'ha'ber, (CHRISTOPH Erhardt,) a 
 German mathematician, born at Ulm in 1708; died in 
 1781. 
 
 Faulhaber, (Johann,) a German mathematician and 
 engineer, born at Ulm in 1580, was the author of " In- 
 ventions for the Delineations of Redoubts and Fortifica- 
 tions," and other treatises. Died in 1635. 
 
 See Montucla, "Histoire des Mathematiques." 
 
 Faulkner, fauk'ner, (George,) the first Irish printer 
 of any note, bom about 1700, was apprenticed to the 
 celebrated Bowyer, and established himself in Dublin 
 in 1727. He enjoyed the friendship and patronage of 
 Dean Swift, Lord Chesterfield, and other celebrated 
 men of the time. Died in 1775. 
 
 Fau'na, a goddess of ancient Italy or Latium, said to 
 be a daughter of Picus, and wife ot Faunus. She was 
 sometimes identified with the Bona Dea and with Ops. 
 
 Fau'ni, [Ettg. Fauns; Fr. Faunes, fon,l mythical 
 beings whom the ancient Romans representee! as having 
 human bodies with the legs and feet of the goat. They 
 were sportive and frolicsome, and presented some ana- 
 logy to the Satyrs of the Greek mythology. 
 
 Faun'tle-roy, (Thomas T.,) an American officer, 
 born in Virginia, served in the Confederate army in 
 1861, and was made a brigadier-general. 
 
 Fau'nus, [Fr. Faune, foil,] a rural divinity and king 
 of the ancient Latins, was supposed to be the son of 
 
 Picus and the father of Latinus. He was worshipped aa 
 the god of fields and shepherds, and was considered as 
 one of the founders of the religion of Latium. He was 
 sometimes identified with the Arcadian Pan of the Greeks. 
 
 Fauques, fok, (Marianne Agnes,) a French au- 
 thoress, born at Avignon about 1720. Having visited 
 London, she became a teacher of the French language, 
 and numbered among her pupils the celebrated linguist 
 Sir William Jones. She wrote numerous works in French 
 and English, among which are " The Triumph of Friend- 
 ship," (1751,) and " The Viziers, or the Enchanted Laby- 
 rinth." She was living in 1777. 
 
 See Prudhomme, "Biographie des Femmes ceiebres." 
 
 Faur, du, (Gut.) See Pikrac. 
 
 Faure, foR, (Francois,) Bishop of Amiens, in France, 
 and one of the preceptors of Louis XIV., was born near 
 Angouletne in 1612 ; died in 1687. 
 
 Faure, (Joseph Desire Felix,) a French judge, and 
 afterwards a peer, born at Grenoble in 1780. 
 
 Faure, (Louis Joseph,) a French statesman under 
 Bonaparte and Louis XVIII., bom in 1760; died in 1837. 
 
 Fauriel, fo're-el', (Claude Charles,) an eminent 
 French philologist and historian, born at Saint-Etienne 
 in 1772, was a nephew of the Abbe Sieyes. He was inti- 
 mate with Guizot, Manzoni, and Madame de Staei, who 
 characterized him as "inexhaustible in knowledge and 
 kindness." Among his principal works are a " History 
 of Southern Gaul under the Rule of the German Con- 
 querors," (1836,) and " History of Provencal Literature," 
 (1846.) A chair of foreign literature was founded for him 
 in Paris in 1830. His "Popular Songs of Modern 
 Greece" (with a French version, 1825) had great suc- 
 cess. In the opinion of E. Renan, " Fauriel is without 
 contradiction trie man of our age who has put into 
 circulation the most ideas." Died in Paris in July, 1844. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, " E*tude sur Fauriel," in the " Revue des 
 Deux Mondes" for May 15 and June 1, 1845 ; Renan, notice in the 
 "Revue des Deux Mondes," December, 1855; "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Geiierale." 
 
 Fauris de Saint-Vincens, fo'ress' deh saN'vaN'- 
 s6.n', (Alexandre Jules Antoine,) a French antiquary, 
 born at Aix in 1750; died in 1819. His father, Jules 
 Francois Paul, born in 1718, wrote on numismatics; 
 died in 1798. 
 
 Faust, fowst, or Fust, foost, (Johann,) a wealthy citi- 
 zen of Mentz, supposed to have shared in the invention 
 of printing. Having, after his law-suit with Gutenberg, 
 gained possession of his printing-apparatus, he carried 
 on the business with his son-in-law, Peter Schoffer, who 
 made important improvements in the art. (See Guten- 
 ukrg.) Died in 1460. 
 
 Faust, fowst, or Faus'tus, (Dr. John,) a famous 
 magician and astrologer, born in Wurtemberg in the 
 latter part of the fifteenth century. The German tradi- 
 tion is, that, after spending a large fortune in his astro- 
 logical studies, he made a league for twenty-four years 
 with the devil, who gave him a spirit named Mephis- 
 topheles for his servant. Having lived luxuriously 
 through the appointed time, and astonished the world 
 by his wonderful performances, he was destroyed by the 
 fiend at midnight. It is the general opinion that Dr. 
 Faust really existed, and, by his jugglery and magical 
 arts, deluded people into the belief that he was leagued 
 with evil spirits. This legend has formed the subject of 
 numerous dramas, romances, and poems : the most cele- 
 brated of these are Goethe's " Faust," Lessing's poetical 
 fragment entitled " Faust and the Seven Spirits," and 
 Marlowe's tragedy " The Life and Death of Dr. Faustus." 
 
 See DOntzer. "Die Sage von Dr. Faust untersucht;" H. 
 Heine, "La Legende de Faust," in the "Revue des Deux Mondes," 
 February, 1S52: Meyer, "Studien zu GSthe's Faust," 1847. 
 
 Faus'ta, (Flavia Maximiana, ) a Roman empress, 
 the daughter of Maximian, became the wife of Constan- 
 tine the Great in 307 a.d. She is said to have procured 
 the death of Crispus, her step-son, by a false accusation. 
 His innocence having become evident, she was put to 
 death in 326. 
 
 Faus'ta Cor-ne'11-a, a daughter of the Roman dictator 
 Sulla, was' born about 88 B.C. She was married about 
 55 to T. Annius Milo, and was notorious for her conjugal 
 infidelity. 
 
 € as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J[y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 57 
 
FAUSTINA 
 
 898 
 
 FAWKES 
 
 Faus-ti'na, (An'nia,) daughter of the following, and 
 wife of Marcus Aurelius. The infamy of her conduct 
 even surpassed that of her mother. Died in Cappadocia 
 in j 76 A.D. 
 
 Faustina, [Fr. Faustine, fos'ten',] (Annia Gale- 
 RIA,) a daughter of Antoninus Verus, one of the Roman 
 consuls, was born in 105 A.D. She became the wife of 
 the emperor Antoninus, and was notorious for her licen- 
 tiousness. She died in the third year of her husband's 
 reign, 141 a.d. 
 
 Faustina Bordoni, fow-stee'na boR-do'nee, (or Bor- 
 done, boR-do'ni,) an Italian singer, born in 1702, was 
 married in 1730 to Jean Adolphe Hasse. Died in 1783. 
 
 Fausto, fows'to, (Sebastiano,) surnamed da Longi- 
 ANO, a learned Italian author, who lived in the sixteenth 
 century. He made numerous translations from the Latin 
 and Greek. 
 
 Faus'tus of Byzantium, Bishop of Cappadocia, born 
 at Constantinople about 320 A.D. His principal work, 
 entitled "Byzantine History," is written in Armenian. 
 His style was far from elegant ; but his history contains 
 valuable information not to be found elsewhere. 
 
 Faus'tus, surnamed Reiensis or Regensis, a monk, 
 born in Bretagne, became Bishop of Riez about 470 A.D. 
 He was a chief of the Semi-Pelagians. Died about 490. 
 
 Fauveau, fo'vo', [Lat. Ful'vius,] (Pierre,) born in 
 Poitou, was the author of Latin poems, which were pub- 
 lished in the "Deliciae Poetarum Gallorum." Died in 
 1562. 
 
 Fauveau, de, deh fo'vo', (F£licie,) a sculptor, born 
 at Florence, of French parents, about 1802. Among her 
 works is a monument of Dante and a statue of Sainte- 
 Genevieve. 
 
 Fauvel, fo'v?l', a French antiquary, born in 1753; 
 died in 1838. 
 
 Fava, fi'va, (Pietro Ercole,) Count, an Italian 
 painter, born at Bologna in 1669; died in 1744. 
 
 Favard de Langlade, fi'vtR' deh l&N'glid', (Guil- 
 laume Jean,) a French jurist, born in 1762 ; died in 183 1. 
 
 Favart, fS'viR', (Antoine Pierre Charles,) a 
 French dramatist and painter, born in Paris in 1784. 
 
 Favart, (Chari.es Simon,) a popular French dramatist 
 and voluminous writer, born in Paris in 1710, was the 
 grandfather of the preceding. Among his best works 
 is his comedy of " Solomon II., or the Three Sultans." 
 Died in 1792. His Memoirs and Correspondence were 
 published in 1809, in 3 volumes. 
 
 Favart, (Marie Justine Benoite Duronceray — 
 dii'r6Nss'ra',) wife of Charles Simon, noticed above, and 
 one of the most celebrated actresses of her time, was 
 born at Avignon, in France, in 1727. In her plays she 
 was distinguished by her grace and versatility of power. 
 She is supposed to have been the authoress of three 
 works which appeared under her husband's name, viz., 
 "Annette and Lubin," " Bastien and Bastienne," and the 
 "Fete of Love." Died in 1772. 
 
 See " Mdmoires de C. S. Favart," 1809. 
 
 Favart d'Herbigny, ft'vi r' deVben'ye', (Nicolas 
 Remi,) a French military engineer, and general in the 
 corps of engineers, born at Rheims in 1735. He distin- 
 guished himself in the defence of Belle-Isle against the 
 British in 1761, and wrote a valuable work, entitled 
 "Memoirs on the Defence of Coasts and upon Military 
 Reconnoissances." Died in 1800. 
 
 Fave, fl'va', (Alphonse,) a French officer and writer 
 on military tactics, born at Dreux in 1812. 
 
 Favelet, • fiv'14', (Jean,) a Flemish physician, and 
 medical professor in the University of Louvain, born 
 near Antwerp in 1674; died in 1743. 
 
 Favereau, faVRo', (Jacques,) a French advocate and 
 poet, born at Cognac in 1590. He was the author of a 
 number of small poems which won for him a consider- 
 able reputation. Died in 1638. " La Milliade," a satire 
 in verse against Richelieu, was ascribed to him. 
 
 Favier, frt've-A', (Jean Louis,) a celebrated French 
 writer on civil law and politics, born at Toulouse about 
 1720. He published a " Historical and Political Essay 
 upon the Government of Holland," (2 vols., 1748,) and 
 other works. Died in 1784. 
 
 Fa-vo'11-us or Favoli, fa-vo'lee, (Hugo,) a Dutch 
 physician, of Italian extraction, born at Middelburg in 
 
 1523. He visited Turkey and Greece, and published an 
 account of his travels, entitled "Hodoeporicon Byzan- 
 tium," (1563,) written in Latin hexameter verse. Died 
 in 1585. 
 
 Fa-vo'nl-us, (MARCUS,>a Roman senator, was a par- 
 tisan of the Optifnates, a friend of Cato Uticensis, and an 
 opponent of Pompey. He was elected praetor in 49 B.C., 
 and fought against Caesar in the civil war. He was nick- 
 named "the ape of Cato," whom he took as his model. 
 Having joined the army of Brutus and Cassius, he was 
 taken prisoner at Philippi and put to death in 42 B.C. 
 
 Fav-o-ri'nus or Phavori'nus, [*aS<jph>oc,] a Greek 
 writer, a native of Aries, in Gaul, removed to Rome, 
 where he became celebrated under the reigns of Trajan 
 and Adrian for his learning and literary productions. 
 Of his numerous works but a few fragments are now 
 extant. Favorinus was a friend of Plutarch, from whom 
 he received the dedication of a work. 
 
 See Philostratus, " Vitae Sophistarum ;" Diogenes Laer- 
 tius; Mahkes, "Dissertatio de Favorini Vita," 1853. 
 
 Favorinus, known also as Va-ri'nus or Guarino, 
 gwj-ree'no, Bishop of Nocera, born near Camerino, in 
 Italy. He was noted for his learning, and as the pre- 
 ceptor of Giovanni de' Medici, afterwards Pope Leo X. 
 Died in 1537. 
 
 Favoriti, fa-vo-ree'tee, (Agostino,) an Italian priest 
 and Latin poet, born at Lucca in 1624; died in 1682. 
 
 Favras, de, deh ftv'ras', (Thomas Mahi— ma"e',) 
 Marquis, born at Blois in 1745. He entered the French 
 army, and became lieutenant in the Swiss body-guards 
 of the Count of Provence. He afterwards had the com- 
 mand of a legion in Holland. In 1789 he was accused 
 by the revolutionary party of conspiracy, and crimes of 
 which he was innocent. He was condemned to death 
 and executed in 1790. 
 
 Favrat, fav'rUt, (Franz Andreas,) a Prussian gene- 
 ral, noted for his physical strength, bom in 1730; died 
 in 1804. 
 
 Favre, fivn, [Lat. Fa'ber,] (Antoine,) an eminent 
 French jurist, born at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1557, was for 
 many years a judge and senator at Chambery. He pub- 
 lished several valuable works. Died in 1624. 
 
 Favre, (Claude de.) See Vaugelas. 
 
 Favre, (Jui.es Gabriel Claude,) an eloquent French 
 republican and orator, born at Lyons in 1809, became an 
 advocate in Paris. On the formation of the republic, 
 in February, 1848, he became secretary-general in the 
 ministry of the interior. He was a member of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly of 1848. Since Napoleon III. obtained 
 the chief power, M. Favre has been a leader of the op- 
 position. He is distinguished for his radical opinions 
 and independence or audacity of character. He was 
 elected a member of the corps legislatif in 1858 and in 
 1869, and admitted into the French Academy in 1868. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Favre, (Pierre,) a learned Jesuit, born in the diocese 
 of Geneva in 1506. He was the companion of Loyola, 
 to whom he rendered important aid in establishing the 
 order of the latter through Europe. Many stories are 
 told of his great piety and miraculous performances. 
 Died in 1546. 
 
 Favyn, fi'vaN', (Andre,) a French historical writer, 
 born in Paris between 1550 and 1590. Among his works 
 were a "History of Navarre," (1612,) and a "History 
 of the Military Orders of Christian Kings and Princes." 
 
 Eaw'oet, (Sir William,) an English general and 
 writer, born in Yorkshire in 1728. He served with dis- 
 tinction on the continent during the Seven Years' war. 
 He translated from the French the "Reveries" of Count 
 de Saxe, (1757,) and from the German " Rules for the 
 Prussian Cavalry and Infantry," (1759.) Died in 1804. 
 
 Faw'cett, (John,) an English Baptist minister and re- 
 ligious writer, born near Bradford in 1740 ; died in 1817. 
 
 Fawkes, fauks, (Francis,) an English poet and lit- 
 tirateur, born in Yorkshire about 1725. He was the 
 author of " Bramham Park," and other poems, and made 
 good translations from Anacreon, Sappho, Theocritus, 
 and Musseus. Died in 1777. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes," etc. 
 
 Fawkes, (Guy or Guido,) one of the chief conspira- 
 tors in the Gunpowder Plot in the reign of James I., wa» 
 
 a, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, p, obscure: far, fall, fat: mjt; n8t; good; moon; 
 
FAXARDC 
 
 899 
 
 FEARNE 
 
 a Catholic, and a native of Yorkshire. In 1604, Robert 
 Catesby, Thomas Percy, Guy Fawkes, and others con- 
 spired to blow up, with gunpowder, the House of Par- 
 liament and kill the king, with the Lords and Commons, 
 their motive being a fanatical zeal against the Protest- 
 ants. They hired a vault under the House of Lords, 
 placed in it thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, and arranged 
 that Fawkes should explode it on the 5th of November, 
 1605. Before that time arrived, Lord Mounteagle, a 
 Catholic peer, received an anonymous letter advising 
 him to absent himself from Parliament and intimating 
 that a great catastrophe was impending over that body. 
 This excited the suspicion of the king and others, who 
 searched the cellars in the vicinity and found Fawkes 
 with matches and a dark lantern about midnight, No- 
 vember 4. He was tried and executed in January, 1606. 
 See Hume, "History of England;" Gardiner, "History of 
 England from 1603 to 1616," chap. v. 
 
 Faxardo. See Saavedra. 
 
 Fay. See Dufay. 
 
 Fay, fi or fi'e, ( AndrAs, ) a Hungarian novelist, 
 poet, and dramatic writer, born at Kohany in 1786. As 
 a prose writer he may be ranked among the best his 
 country has produced. 
 
 Fay, (Theodore Sedgwick,) an American writer, 
 born in New York in 1807. He produced, besides other 
 works, "Norman Leslie," a novel, (1835,) a poem en- 
 titled "Ulric, or the Voices," (1851,) and a "History of 
 Switzerland.'* He was sent as minister-resident to Swit- 
 zerland in 1853. 
 
 See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America ;" Duyckinck, 
 " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. 
 
 Fayderbe or Fay-d'Herbe, fJ'djRb', ( Lucas,) an 
 able Flemish sculptor and architect, born at Malines in 
 1617, was a pupil of Rubens. Died in 1694. 
 
 See G. A. Vanderfoel, "Notice sur la Vie, etc. de L. Fay- 
 d'Herbe," 1854. 
 
 Faydit or Faidit, fi'de', (Anselme or Gancelm,) a 
 French troubadour, born in Limousin. After he had led 
 for some time the strolling life of a buffoon and juggler, 
 he found a patron in Richard Coeur-de-Lion, whom he 
 accompanied in his crusade to the Holy Land. Died 
 in 1220. 
 
 See " Histoire litteraire des Troubadours ;" Longfellow, " Poets 
 and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Faydit, (Pierre,) a French priest and theological 
 writer, born in Auvergne. He is particularly noted for 
 the part he took in the dispute between France and Pope 
 Innocent XL, on which occasion he preached against 
 the pontiff with great boldness. Died in 1709. 
 
 Faye. See Lafaye. 
 
 Faye, fa'ySh, (Andreas,) a Norwegian preacher and 
 writer, born at Drammen in 1802, published a " History 
 of Norway," (1831,) and several educational works. 
 
 Faye, fj, (Herve Auguste Etienne Albans,) a 
 French astronomer and writer, born in the department 
 of Indre in 1814. He became a member of the Institute. 
 He discovered in 1843 a new comet, which bears his 
 name. 
 
 Faye, (Jacques,) Lord of Espeisses, a jurist, born 
 in Paris in 1542. When the Duke of Anjou was elected 
 King of Poland, he accompanied that prince to Warsaw, 
 and rendered him efficient service in conciliating some 
 of the principal inhabitants. Upon the death of Charles 
 IX., when the Duke of Anjou mounted the throne of 
 France as Henry HI., Faye still retained his confidence, 
 and held many stations of importance under him. Upon 
 the death of this prince he joined Henry IV. He greatly 
 distinguished himself at the siege of Pan's, but died soon 
 after, in 1 590, of a fever. He was the author of some 
 political works. 
 
 See De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis;" Taisand, "Vies des 
 pins celebres Jurisconsultes." 
 
 Fayette, de la, deh li f"J'et', (Gilbert Motier— 
 mo'te-4',) was appointed marshal of France in 1428 by 
 the regent, afterwards Charles VII. Died in 1464. 
 
 Fayette, de la, (Marie Madelene Pioche de la 
 Vergne — pe'osh' deh li viRfi,) Countess, a distin- 
 guished French writer of romances, born in 1632. The 
 most important of her works were "Zai'de" and "The 
 Princess of Cleves." She also wrote a historical romance, 
 
 IIVI^, tlll'I.^V. III.^IWI 1 11V >l 1 UH., 111.1 HIV.H l|ll|''MUIIIt 
 
 was a " History of the Illustrious Men of his own 
 :," ("De Viris /Evi sui illustribus Liber," 1745. ) 
 
 entitled " History of Henrietta of England." Died in 
 1693. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, " Portraits of Celebrated Women." 
 
 Fayette, La, General. See La Fayi.ii k. 
 
 Fayolle, fi'yol', (Francois Joseph Marie,) a French 
 litterateur, musician, and critic, born in Paris ju 1774, 
 wrote, besides other works in prose and verse, " The 
 Four Seasons of Parnassus," (16 vols., 1805-09,) and a 
 French version of Gerber's " Dictionary of Musicians," 
 (1810-12.) Died in Paris in 1852. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generate;" Fbtis, "Biographic Uni- 
 verselle des Musiciens. " 
 
 Fayot, ft'yo', (Alfred Charles Frederic,) a 
 French historian, born in Paris in 1797. Among his 
 works is a " History of France from 1793 to the Acces- 
 sion of Charles X., (16 vols., 1830.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Faypoult de Maisoncelle, fA'poo' deh mi'z6N / sel', 
 (Guili.aume Charles,) an able French statesman, born 
 in Champagne in 1752, became minister of finance in 
 1795, a "d minister plenipotentiary at Genoa in 1796. 
 His services here were recognized by a medal which the 
 Genoese senate ordered to be struck in honour of Bona- 
 parte and Faypoult. He was minister of finance in'Spain 
 under Joseph Bonaparte about 1810-13. Died in 1817. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Fazaree or Fazary, Al, al fa-zl'ree, or Fezari, 
 (Mohammed Ibn Ibkaheem,) a Moslem astronomer of 
 the eighth century, translated some important Indian 
 mathematical tables into Arabic. 
 
 Fazelli, fad-zel'lee, (Tommaso,) an Italian historian, 
 and professor of philosophy at Palermo, born at Sacca, 
 in Sicily, in 1498. His chief work is his " History of 
 Sicily," ( 1558, ) esteemed for its accuracy and elegance 
 of style. Died in 1570. 
 
 Fazio, fat'se-o, ( Bartolommeo, ) a distinguished 
 Latin scholar and historian, born in the republic of 
 Genoa. He was patronized by Alfonso of Aragon, King 
 of Naples, whose history he wrote. His most important 
 work ' 
 Time,' 
 Died in 1457. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis." 
 
 Fazio degli TTberti, fat'se-o dal'yee 00-beR'tee, a 
 famous Italian poet, born at Florence in the fourteenth 
 century, was an ardent Ghibeline. He wrote a long 
 descriptive poem entitled "Ditta Mundi," or "II Ditta- 
 mondo," in which he proposed to imitate or rival Dante. 
 It was printed in 1474. Died in 1367. 
 
 Fazy, fi'ze', (Jean Jacques,) a Swiss statesman and 
 journalist, born at Geneva in 1796. He edited several 
 liberal journals at Paris between 1826 and 1835. Hav- 
 ing returned to Geneva, he became the leader of the 
 democratic party, which triumphed in the revolution of 
 1846. He was afterwards president of the council of 
 state of his canton, and had the chief control of its 
 affairs for many years. He published various works. 
 
 Fazziiii, fat-see'nee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian natural 
 philosopher, born in 1787 ; died in 1837. 
 
 Fea, fa'a, (Carlo,) an Italian antiquary, born at Pigna, 
 in Piedmont, in 1753. Among his works we may name 
 the " Philological, Critical, and Antiquarian Miscellany," 
 (1790,) and "Descrizione de Roma e dei Contorni con 
 vedute," (3 vols., 1824,) which are said to have great 
 merit. Died about 1834. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Fearn, fern, (John,) an English metaphysician, pub- 
 lished a " Review of Berkeley, Reid, and Stewart,"' 
 (1813,) "Primary Vision," (1815,) and a work on "The 
 Human Mind." 
 
 Fearne, fern, ( Charles, ) an English jurist and 
 writer of high reputation, born in London in 1749. His 
 chief work is an "Essay on Contingent Remainders," 
 (1772; 4th edition, enlarged, 1791.) Died in 1791. "It 
 was reserved for Mr. Fearne," says Judge Story, "to 
 honour the profession by a treatise so profound and 
 accurate that it became the guide of the ablest lawyers, 
 yet so luminous in method and explanations that it is 
 level to the capacity of every attentive student. He has 
 in fact exhausted the subject, and this chefd'attvre will 
 forever remain a monument of his skill, acuteness, and 
 research." 
 
 « as k: c as s: ff hard: g as ;'; G. H. K. tutfurnl; n. nasal: v. trilled: s as z: th as in this. (2 r ^ = See Explanations, p. t.t,.\ 
 
f EARN LEY 
 
 900 
 
 FEITH 
 
 Pearnley, fem'le, (Thomas,) a Norwegian landscape- 
 painter, born at Frederickshall in 1802. Among his 
 master-pieces are "The Glacier of Grindenwald," and 
 ' A Scene in Norway," which was purchased by Thor- 
 waldsen. Died in 1842. 
 
 Featherstonehaugh, feth'er-ston-hau', (George 
 \V.,) an American traveller, published a "Geological 
 Report of the Elevated Country between the Missouri 
 and Red Rivers," (1835,) and other works. Died Sep- 
 tember 28, 1866. 
 
 Featly, feet'le, or Fair'clough, (Daniel,) a learned 
 English theologian and controversialist, born at Charlton, 
 in Oxfordshire, in 1582. His "Ancilla Pietatis" (1626) 
 was very popular. He also wrote "Clavis Mystica," 
 (1636,) and a treatise against the Anabaptists, entitled 
 "The Dippers Dipt," (1647.) Died in 1645. 
 
 Febre or Febvre.Le, leh f2vR, (Valentine,) askilful 
 Flemish painter and engraver, born at Brussels in 1642 
 or 1643. He worked mostly in Venice, and imitated 
 Paul Veronese. He engraved numerous works of Titian 
 and Paul Veronese. Died about 1700. 
 
 Febure, fa'buR.', or Fevre, (Michel,) a French 
 missionary and Orientalist, lived about 1650-S0. Among 
 his works are "The Present State of Turkey," (1674,) 
 and a "Treatise on the Manners and Customs of the 
 Ottomans," etc. 
 
 Fechner, fSK'ner, (Gustav Theodor,) a German 
 natural philosopher and poet, born near Muskau in 1S01. 
 He obtained the chair of physics at Leipsic in 1834, and 
 distinguished himself by researches in galvanism. He 
 published a number of able works on organic chemistry, 
 anthropology, etc., also humorous essays, which were 
 very popular. 
 
 Fecht, feKt, (Johann,) a learned Lutheran theologian, 
 writer, and professor of Hebrew, theology, and meta- 
 physics, was born at Saltzburg in 1636; died at Rostock 
 in 1716. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Feck'en-ham, de, (John,) an English Catholic 
 theologian, whose original name was How'man, born 
 in Worcestershire about 1516. He was appointed chap- 
 lain to Bonner, Bishop of London, and when that prelate 
 was deprived of his bishopric, under Edward VI., he was 
 sent to the Tower. Upon the accession of Mary to the 
 throne, (1553,) Feckenham was appointed her chaplain, 
 and was sent to Lady Jane Grey a short time before her 
 death, to endeavour to reclaim her to the Catholic faith ; 
 but without success. During the bloody persecutions 
 that followed, he used all his influence in favour of mode- 
 ration towards the suffering Protestants. He even went 
 so far as to intercede with the queen for her sister, the 
 princess Elizabeth, who, when she became queen, offered 
 him the archbishopric of Canterbury if he would con- 
 form to the rules of the Episcopal Church, — which, 
 however, he refused to do. After having opposed the 
 Reformation in the House of Lords, where he was the 
 last mitred abbot, he was imprisoned in 1560. He died 
 in prison in the island of Ely in 1585. 
 
 See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses." 
 
 Fedele, fi-da'la, (Cassandra,) an Italian lady, cele- 
 brated for her great learning and accomplishments, was 
 born in Venice in 1465. She possessed the friendship 
 of Pope Leo X., Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand 
 and Isabella of Spain : the latter tried to draw her to 
 the court of Castile, but without success. Died about 
 IS58. 
 
 See F. Tomasini, "Vita della Signora C. Fedele," 1636. 
 
 Fedelissimi, fa-da-les'se-mee, (Giovanni Battista,) 
 an Italian poet and physician, born at Pistoia, lived about 
 1620. 
 
 Feder, fa'der, (Johann Georg Heinrich,) a learned 
 German, who was professor of philosophy at Gottingen, 
 born near Bayreuth in 1740; died in 1821. 
 
 See ijs "Autobiography," ("J. G. H. Feders Leben," 1825;) 
 Oertel, " De Vita et Fatis J. G. H. Federi," 1789. 
 
 Federici, fa-da-ree'chee, (Camillo,) originally Gio- 
 vanni Battista Viassolo,(ve-as'so-lo,) one of the most 
 popular Italian dramatists of recent times, born in Pied- 
 mont in April, 1749. He is regarded as the founder of 
 a new dramatic school in Italy, and his plays are dis- 
 tinguished by a higher moral tone than those of his 
 
 predecessors. Among his best pieces are comedies called 
 " The Sculptor and the Blind Man," " Henry IV. at the 
 Passage of the Marne," and " I falsi Galantuomini." Died 
 at Padua in December, 1802. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri;" Ugoni, "Delia 
 Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Federici, (Cesare.) See Fedrici. 
 
 Federici, (Francesco,) an Italian republican general, 
 born at Naples in 1748. He obtained the chief command 
 at Naples in 1799. Having surrendered to the royalists 
 as a prisoner of war, he was treacherously put to death 
 in 1799. 
 
 Federici, (Luigi,) an Italian poet and jurist, born at 
 Brescia about 1540; died about 1607. 
 
 Federmann, fa'der-man', (Nikolaus,) a German, 
 born at Ulm, commanded an expedition which explored 
 New Granada about 1537. 
 
 Fedrici, ft-dRee'chee, or Federici, fl-di-ree'chee, 
 (Cesare,) a Venetian merchant and traveller, spent many 
 years in the East Indies. He published, on his return, 
 an interesting book, entitled" Voyage to the East Indies," 
 etc., (1587.) 
 
 Fedrigotti, fi-dRe-got'tee, (Geronimo,) an Italian 
 lyric poet of superior merit, born in 1742 ; died in 1776. 
 
 Fee, fa, (Antoine Laurent Apollinaire,) a French 
 physician and eminent botanist, and first professor at 
 the military hospital of Strasbourg, was born in 1789. 
 He published a "Flora of Virgil," or "Critical Nomen- 
 clature of the Plants, Fruits, etc. mentioned by Virgil," 
 (1822,) "Methode lichenographique," (1824,) being a 
 description of lichens, (regarded as the best work on 
 this subject,) and other scientific works ; also, a " Life of 
 Linnxus," (1832.) 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale." 
 
 Fehling, fa'ling, (Heinrich Christoph,) a German 
 painter, bom at Sangerhausen in 1653; died in 1725. 
 
 Fehr, faR, (Johann Michael,) a learned German 
 physician, born in Franconia in 1610, became imperial 
 physician to Leopold I. Died in 1688. 
 
 Fehrmann, faVman, (Daniel,) a Swedish engraver 
 of medals, born in Stockholm in 17 10; died in 17S0. 
 
 Fei, fa'ee, (Alessandro,) an Italian historical painter, 
 called DEL Barbiere, was born in Florence in 1543. 
 
 Feijou. See Feyjou. 
 
 Fein, fin, (Eduard,) a German jurist and legal writer, 
 born at Brunswick in 1813, became professor of Roman 
 law at Jena in 1845. He published, among other works, 
 a continuation of Gliick's "Complete Explanation of the 
 Pandects," (44th vol., 1851.) He became professor of 
 law at Tubingen in 1852. Died in 1857. 
 
 Fein, (Georg,) a German democrat and revolutionist, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Helmstedt in 1803. 
 He was connected with secret political societies, and 
 was often banished and expelled from various states in 
 which he sought refuge. 
 
 Feitama, fl'ta-ma, (Sierand,) a Dutch dramatic 
 writer, born in Amsterdam in 1694. Among his works 
 are two tragedies, "Fabricius," and the "Triumph of 
 Poetry and Painting." He made excellent translations 
 of Fenelon's "Telemaque" and Voltaire's " Henriade" 
 into Dutch verse, and of several plays of Lamotte, Cor- 
 neille, and other French writers. Died in 1758. 
 
 See Jan de Kruvff, " Leven van S. Feitama," Leyden, 1782. 
 
 Feith, fit, [Lat. Fei'thius,] (Everard,) a distin- 
 guished Dutch scholar, born at Elburg about 1597. 
 Among his principal works are "Athenian Antiquities" 
 and "Antiquities of Homer," (1677,) the latter of which 
 was highly esteemed. The death of Feith is enveloped 
 in mystery. As he was walking one day in Rochelle, a 
 citizen invited him to enter his house. He entered, and 
 was never seen or heard of afterwards, notwithstanding 
 the thorough search of the magistrates. He was young 
 when he disappeared. 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Feith, (Rhijnvis or Rhynvis,) one of the most emi- 
 nent Dutch poets of modern times, born at Zwolle, in 
 Overyssel, in 1753. He studied law at Leyden, where 
 he graduated in 1770. Among his best productions are 
 his didactic poem "The Grave," ("Het Graf," 1792,) 
 the tragedies of " Inez de Castro," (1793,) "Thirza," and 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; not; good; moon 
 
FEIZEE 
 
 901 
 
 "Johanna Gray," and numerous hymns and odes of great 
 beauty. His " Letters on Various Subjects" (" Brieven 
 over verscheiden Onderwerpen," 6 vols., 1784-94) are 
 among his most admired prose writings. Died in 1824. 
 
 His son Peter Rutger was also a poet. 
 
 See "Gedenkiuil voor Mr. R. Feith," 1825; Cornelis Loots, 
 " Hulde aan de Nagedachtenis van Mr. R. Feith;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Generale." 
 
 Feizee or Feizi, f I'zee, written also Fyzee and Fey- 
 azi, (Abool-Feiz-Hindee,) an eminent poet, born at 
 Agra, in India, in 1547, was a brother of the famous 
 Abool-Fazl. He wrote in Persian. Died in 1595. 
 
 Fejer, fa-yaR, (Gyorgy,) a distinguished Hungarian 
 writer, born at Keszthely in 1766. His chief production 
 is entitled " Codex diplomaticus Hungarian ecclesiasticus 
 ac civilis." This valuable work is composed of twenty- 
 eight (or twelve) large volumes relating to the history 
 of Hungary, published in 1829-44. He became librarian 
 of the University of Pesth and Buda in 1824. 
 
 Feldbausch, felt'bowsh, (Felix Sebastian,) a Ger- 
 man scholar and educational writer, born at Manheim 
 in 1795. 
 
 Feldmann, felt'man, (Leopold,) a German dramatist, 
 of Jewish extraction, born at Munich in 1803, was the 
 author of several popular comedies. 
 
 Felekee or Feleki, fel'e-kee, a distinguished Persian 
 poet, whose true name was Abool-JNizam-Moham- 
 med; but, having devoted himself to astronomy and 
 astrology, he received the title of Felekee, ("Celestial.") 
 Died in 1182. 
 
 See Von Hammer, " Geschichte der schonen Redekiinste Per- 
 siens." 
 
 Feletz, de, deh fa'l&s', (Charles Marie Dorimond,) 
 Abbe, a French critic, bom near Brives-la-Gaillarde in 
 1767. He contributed a number of learned and elegant 
 essays to the "Journal des Debats" and the "Mercure 
 de France." He was chosen a member of the French 
 Academy in 1827, and was also director of that institu- 
 tion. Among his works is "Melanges de Philosophie et 
 Litterature," (6 vols., 1828.) He wrote for the "Journal 
 des Debats" about twenty-five years, and defended the 
 classical against the romantic school. Died in 1850. 
 
 See M. Delpit, "Notice sur M. de Feletz," 1852 ; Villemain, 
 " I)e M. de Fdletz et de quelques Salons de son Temps," 1852; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Felibien, fa'le'be^N', (Andre,) a French architect 
 and able writer on art, born at Chartres in 1619. He 
 was one of the first eight members of the Academy of 
 Inscriptions, and in 1673 became keeper of the Royal 
 Cabinet of Antiquities. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "Conversations on the Lives and Works of the Most Ex- 
 cellent Painters, Ancient and Modern," ("Entretiens sur 
 les Vies et sur les Ouvrages des plus excellents Peintres," 
 etc., 5 vols., 1666-88,) which was translated into various 
 languages. Died in 1695. 
 
 See Nicsron, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Felibien, (Jacques,) a Roman Catholic theologian 
 and writer, brother of the preceding, was born at Chartres 
 in 1636 ; died in 1716. 
 
 Felibien, (Jean Francois,) an architect, son of 
 Andre, noticed above, was born about 1658. He pos- 
 sessed his father's taste for the fine arts, and left several 
 works on the subject, the principal of which is entitled 
 " Historical Collection of the Life and Works of the Most 
 Celebrated Architects," (1687.) Died in 1733. 
 
 Felibien, (Michel,) a Dominican, brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Chartres in 1666. He wrote a 
 " History of the Royal Abbey of Saint-Denis in France," 
 and a "History of the City of Paris." Died in 1719. 
 
 Felice, fi-lce'cha, (Costanzo,) ILat. Constan'tius 
 Fh.ic/ius,] an Italian of the sixteenth century, born near 
 Ancona, wrote, besides other works, a " History of the 
 Conspiracy of Catiline." 
 
 Felice, (Fortunato Bartolommeo,) a celebrated 
 Italian author, and professor of philosophy at Naples, 
 was born at Rome in 1725. He published in 1770 his 
 greatest work, entitled " Kncyclopaxlia, or an Accurate 
 Universal Dictionary of Human Knowledge," (42 vols.,) 
 in which he was assisted by several eminent savants, 
 including Haller. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Feller, " Biographie Univemelle," edited by Weiss. 
 
 FELIX 
 
 Feliciano, fi-le-cha'no, (Felice,) surnamed Anti- 
 quario, an Italian antiquary, born at Verona about 1420. 
 He collected inscriptions, medals, and other antiquities, 
 and wrote a number of epigrams. 
 
 Feliciano, (Giovanni Bernardino,) an Italian 
 scholar and physician, born at Verona about 1490. He 
 translated a number of medical and philosophical works 
 from the Greek and Latin. He was living in 1550. 
 
 Feliciano, or Feliciani, fi-le-cha'nee, (Porfirio,) 
 an Italian bishop and Latin poet, born in Vaud in 1562 ; 
 died in 1632. 
 
 Fe-lic'I-tas, Saint, a Roman lady and Christian 
 martyr of noble birth, lived under the reign of Marcus 
 Aurelius Antoninus. She suffered martyrdom in 164 
 a.d., having previously witnessed the death of her seven 
 sons. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, "Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 Felino, de, deh fa-lee'no, (Guillaume Leon du 
 Tillot — du' te'yo',) Marquis, born at Bayonne, in France, 
 in 1711. Being appointed in 1759 prime minister of 
 Parma, he commenced a series of reformations which 
 added greatly to the prosperity of the country. He 
 expelled the Jesuits, founded a university, and liberally 
 patronized education. In 1765 he was created Marquis 
 of Felino. Died at Paris in 1774. 
 
 Felinski, fa-lin'skee, (Aloys,) a Polish poet and 
 political essayist, born at Ossow in 1773, was secretary 
 of Kosciusko about 1794. In 1809 he was appointed 
 professor of poetry and rhetoric at Krzemicniec. Died 
 in 1822 or 1820. 
 
 Fe'lix, (Antonius, ) a profligate Roman officer, a 
 freedman of the emperor Claudius, became Governor of 
 Judea about 60 A.D. According to Tacitus, "he exer- 
 cised the sovereign power with the character of a slave." 
 He was removed from office in 62 A.D. 
 
 See Acts xxiii. 24, and xxiv. 24, 27. 
 
 Fe'lix I., Saint, was elected pope in 269. At this 
 time the Christians suffered persecutions under the em- 
 peror Aurelian, and Saint Felix himself was condemned 
 to death. He died, however, in prison, in 274. 
 
 Felix II., Pope, or, as some say, Antipope, was chosen 
 by the Arians, or the emperor Constantius, in 355, to 
 succeed Liberius, who had been banished. Upon the 
 return of Liberius, in 358, Felix was driven from the city. 
 Died in 365. He was canonized as a saint of the Roman 
 Church. 
 
 Felix II. or III., a native of Rome, was chosen pope 
 in 483. He is said to have been a great-grandfather of 
 Gregory the Great. In 484 or 485 he condemned Aca- 
 cius, Patriarch of Constantinople, who was accused of 
 heresy but was protected by the emperor. This act of 
 Felix occasioned the first schism between the Eastern 
 and the Western Church. Died in 492. 
 
 Felix III. or IV. became pope in 526. He was ap- 
 pointed by Theodoric, King of the Goths, against the 
 wishes of the clergy and people of Rome. Died in 530. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souveiains Pontifes." 
 
 Felix V., Pope or Antipope. See Amadeus VIII. 
 of Savoy. 
 
 Fe'lix, Kishop of Urgel, in Catalonia, lived in the 
 eighth century. He advanced the doctrine that our 
 Saviour, according to the human nature, was only the 
 adopted Son of God. This doctrine was condemned in 
 several councils, and Felix was sent to Rome, where he 
 abjured it before Pope Adrian ; but when he returned 
 to his diocese he relapsed into his former opinion He 
 was deposed and banished about 800. His doctrine was 
 called Adoptionism. Died about 818. 
 
 See Eginhard, " Annales;" Baronius, " Annales." 
 
 Felix. See Rachel, (Mademoiselle.) 
 
 Felix, (Cassius.) See Cassius Felix. 
 
 Felix, (Minucius.) See Minucius. 
 
 Felix, surnamed Pratensis, a native of Tuscany, and 
 son of a Jewish rabbi, became a Christian, and translated 
 the Hebrew Psalms and other books of the Old Testa- 
 ment into Latin. Died in 1557. 
 
 Felix, Saint, a French prelate, born about 512 A.D., 
 became Bishop of Nantes in 549. He is said to have 
 displayed much political ability, and to have constructed 
 useful public works. Died about 583. 
 
 « as /•; 9 as s; g hard; g mj; a, 11, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (fly See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FELIX 
 
 902 
 
 FEND. 7 
 
 Felix, Saint, Bishop of Ravenna, incited the people 
 of that city to revolt against Justinian II., who punished 
 him with the loss of his eyes. Died in 716 A.D. 
 
 Felix de Tassy, fa'less' deh ti'se', (Charles Fran- 
 cois,) a skilful French surgeon, born in Paris, was ap- 
 pointed first surgeon to Louis XIV. Died in 1703. 
 
 Fell, (John,) an English prelate, born at Longworth, 
 in Berkshire, in 1625, was a son of Samuel Fell, noticed 
 below. He became Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, 
 about 1660, and Bishop of Oxford in 1676. He wrote 
 a number of works, including a "Life of Henry Ham- 
 mond," (1660,) and an edition of the New Testament in 
 Greek, (1675,) which was favourably received. Died in 
 1686. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica;" Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Fell, (John,) an English dissenting theologian, born 
 at Cockermouth, in Cumberland, in 1735. Among his 
 works we may mention his "Genuine Protestantism, or 
 the Inalienable Rights of Conscience defended," (1773.) 
 Died in 1797. 
 
 Fell, (Samuel,) an English clergyman, born in London 
 in 1594, was the father of John Fell, Bishop of Oxford. 
 He became Margaret professor of divinity at Oxford in 
 1626, and Dean of Christ Church in 1638. Died in 1648. 
 
 Felle, fei, (Guillaume,) a French traveller and Domi- 
 nican monk, born at Dieppe in 1639; died in 1710. 
 
 Fel'len-berg, von, [Ger. pron. fon fel'leii-beRG',] 
 (Philip Emanuel,) a celebrated Swiss philanthropist, 
 was born at Berne in June, 1771. His mother was a 
 descendant of the Dutch admiral Van Tromp. He tra- 
 velled in his youth for the purpose of obtaining informa- 
 tion. About 1799 he founded at Hofwyl, near Berne, an 
 institution designed to supply a practical education to 
 poor children by means of a model farm, a manual- 
 labour school, and a normal school. His institution ac- 
 quired a high reputation, and, together with his writings, 
 exercised an extensive influence. He was the author 
 of many works on agriculture and education. Died in 
 November, 1844. 
 
 See Hamm, " Fellenbergs Leben und Wirken," 1845 ; E. Roch- 
 holz, "Gesprache uber E. von Fellenberg und seine Zeh," 1834; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^wSrale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for De- 
 cember, 1818. 
 
 Feller, fel'ler, (Joachim,) a German scholar, born at 
 Zwickau in 1628. He wrote a number of Latin poems, 
 and contributed to the " Acta Eruditorum." Died in 1691. 
 
 See Jocher, " AUgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Feller, (Joachim Friedrich,) son of the preceding, 
 born at Leipsic in 1673, was the author of several valu- 
 able historical works, and assisted in Leibnitz's " History 
 of the House of Brunswick." Died in 1726. 
 
 Feller, de, deh fel'ler or fi'laiR', (Francois Xavier,) 
 a learned Jesuit, born at Brussels in 1735, was the author, 
 among other works, of a " Historical Dictionary," in 
 French, which passed through numerous editions. This 
 was written with a view to serve the Roman Catholic 
 Church, and is censured for lack of impartiality. Died 
 in 1802. 
 
 See Desdovarts, "Notice sur la Vie de M. Feller," 1802. 
 
 Fellon, fi'ldN', (Thomas Bernard.) a French Jesuit 
 and Latin poet, born at Avignon in 1672, published fune- 
 ral orations on Louis XIV., Louis, Dauphin of France, 
 and others. Died in 1759. 
 
 Fel'ldwes, ( Sir Charles,) an English traveller and 
 antiquary, born in Nottingham in 1799. He explored in 
 1838 various parts of Asia Minor, and discovered the 
 ruins of Xanthus, the capital of ancient Lycia. In 1839 
 he published his "Journal written during an Excursion 
 in Asia Minor." As an agent of the British Museum, he 
 visited Lycia again in 1839, and discovered many other 
 ruined cities with beautiful sculptures, which he described 
 in "An Account of Discoveries in Lycia," ( 1 84 1 . ) Having 
 obtained from the Sultan of Turkey a firman permitting 
 him to remove works of art, he conducted a party of 
 explorers to the valley of the Xanthus in 1841, and 
 brought home a collection of Xanthian marbles, which 
 are now in the British Museum. Died in i860. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for January, 1861. 
 
 Fellowes, (Rev. Robert,) an English writer on 
 theology, born in Norfolk in 1770, was a friend of the 
 famous Dr. Parr. He published, besides other works, 
 
 " Christian Philosophy,"( 1 798,) a "Guide to Immortality," 
 (3 vols., 1804,) and a "Body of Theology," (2 vols., 1807.) 
 He withdrew from the Anglican Church, of which he 
 had been ordained a priest, and became editor of the 
 "London Critical Review." Died in 1847. 
 
 Felsiiig, fel'sing, (Jakob,) an excellent German en- 
 graver, born at Darmstadt in 1802. He studied and 
 worked for about ten years in Italy, and returned in 
 1832 to Darmstadt, where he obtained the title of en- 
 graver to the court. Among his master-pieces are "The 
 Marriage of Saint Catherine," after Correggio ; a " Holy 
 Family," after Overbeck; and a "Violin-Player," after 
 Raphael. 
 
 Fel'tham or Fell'tham, (Owen,) a learned English 
 writer under the reign of James I., was born about 1608. 
 He was a zealous royalist in the civil war. He is chiefly 
 celebrated as the author of a work entitled " Resolves, 
 Divine, Moral, and Political," (2d edition, 1628.) Died 
 about 1678. "He is one of our worst writers in point 
 of style," says Hallam, who thinks him " not only a 
 laboured and artificial, but a shallow, writer." ("Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See, also, "Retrospective Review," vol. x., 1824. 
 
 Fel'ton, (Cornelius Conway,) LL.D., a distin- 
 guished American scholar and author, was born at West 
 Newbury, Massachusetts, in 1807. He graduated at Har- 
 vard with high honours in 1827. He was appointed 
 Latin tutor in that institution in 1829, Greek tutor in 1830, 
 and professor of Greek in 1832. In 1834 he was selected 
 to fill the chair of Eliot professor of Greek literature, 
 which position he held until i860, when he succeeded Dr. 
 Walker as president of the university. He contributed 
 many articles to "The North American Review," "The 
 Christian Examiner," "Bibliotheca Sacra," and other 
 leading reviews and journals of the country. Of his 
 numerous classical works, his "Iliad" of Homer, issued 
 in 1833, "Greek Reader," (1840,) " Panegyricus" of 
 Isocrates, (1847,) "Agamemnon" of ./Eschylus, (1847,) 
 "The Clouds" of Aristophanes, and "The Birds" of 
 Aristophanes, have each passed through several editions, 
 and the two last have been reprinted in England. Among 
 his most important works is "Greece, Ancient and Mod- 
 ern : Lectures delivered before the Lowell Institute," (2 
 vols., 1867.) Died in 1862. 
 
 Fel'ton, (Henry,) an English divine, born in London 
 in 1679. He became rector of Whitewell, Derbyshire, 
 in 1711, and principal of Edmund Hall, Oxford, in 1722. 
 He published, besides a number of sermons, a "Disser- 
 tation on reading the Classics and forming a Just Style," 
 (1711.) Died in 1740. 
 
 See William Felton, "Life of Henry Felton," 174S. 
 
 Felton, (John,) a native of Ireland, notorious for 
 having assassinated, in 1628, George Villiers, Duke of 
 Buckingham, the favourite of James I. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England." 
 
 Felton, (Nicholas,) an English divine, born at Yar- 
 mouth about 1563, was appointed Bishop of Bristol in 
 1617, and translated to the see of Ely in 1619. He was 
 one of the persons employed by James I. in the trans- 
 lation of the Bible. Died in 1626. 
 
 Feltre, Duke of. See Clarke. 
 
 Feltriuo, fSl-tRee'no, (Andrea,) a painter of the Flor- 
 entine school, born about 1490; died about 1554. 
 
 Feltro, da, da fel'tRO, (Morto,) a Venetian painter 
 of arabesques, bom at Feltre about 1474, had a high 
 reputation as a decorative painter, and was an assistant 
 of Giorgione. He was killed in battle near Zara about 
 1519. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Fenaroli, fa-na-ro'lee, (Camilla Solar d'Asti— so- 
 
 Ur' das'tee,) an Italian poetess, born at Brescia about 
 1705 ; died in 1769. 
 
 Fenaroli or Feneroli, fa-na-ro'lee, (Fedele,) an 
 Italian composer, born at Lanciano, in the Abruzzi, in 
 1732, was professor of music at Naples. Died in 1818. 
 
 Fenaruolo, fa-na-roo-o'lo, (Geronimo,) an Italian 
 poet, a native of Venice, died about 1570. 
 
 Fendi, fen'dee, (Peter,) an eminent German painter 
 of history and portraits, born at Vienna in 1796, was also 
 an engraver. He painted many subjects of German his- 
 
 a, e, 1. 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mit; n5t; good; moon; 
 
 " 
 
FENEL 
 
 903 
 
 FENN 
 
 tory, and the portraits of the eminent numismatists of 
 Europe. Died in 1842. 
 
 Fenel, fa'nel', (Jean Baptiste Pascal,) a French 
 abbot, born in Paris in 1695, was the author of several 
 historical and antiquarian essays. Died in 1 753. 
 
 Feuelon, fen'eMon or fan'loN', (Francois de Sa- 
 lignac de la Mothe, (or la Motte) — deh st'len'yaV deh 
 lit mot,) Archbishop of Cambray, an illustrious French 
 prelate and author, born at the chateau de Fenelon, in 
 Porigord, August 6, 1651. He was sent about the age 
 of twelve to the College of Cahors, from which he passed 
 to the college Du Plessis in Paris, and devoted himself 
 to the study of philosophy and theology. At the age of 
 fifteen he preached his first sermon, which elicited so 
 much applause that his uncle, the Marquis de Fenelon, 
 fearing it would have a bad effect on one so young, sent 
 him to the seminary of Saint-Sulpice. Me was ordained 
 as a priest about 1675, after which he was employed 
 tor ten years in Paris as superior of a community called 
 "Nouvelles Catholiques," founded for the instruction 
 of new converts. Among his earliest publications was 
 an argument against the Protestant religion, entitled 
 "Traite du Minister* des Pasteurs." Soon after the 
 edict of Nantes was revoked, (1685,) Louis XIV. sent 
 Fenelon to convert the Protestants of Poitou. In this 
 mission he employed mildness and persuasion in prefer- 
 ence to military power. 
 
 In 1689 Fenelon was appointed preceptor to the Duke 
 of Burgundy, a grandson of Louis XIV., and the pre- 
 sumptive heir to the throne, a prince of violent and 
 irascible temper. He performed the duties of this highly 
 responsible position with great ability, and, it appears, 
 effected a decided improvement in the temper and con- 
 duct ot his pupil, for whom he composed " Dialogues 
 of the Dead," and other works. He gained the favour 
 and confidence of Madame de Maintenon. In 1693 he 
 was admitted into the French Academy. He was ap- 
 pointed Archbishop of Cambray in February, 1695, and 
 accepted the office on condition that he should reside for 
 nine months of the year in his diocese and devote three 
 months to the instruction of the Duke of Anjou and the 
 Duke of Berry, grandsons of the king. Fenelon excited 
 general admiration at court by his ready and brilliant 
 wit and the graceful amenity of a character in which, 
 it has been remarked, "the apostle and the great lord 
 seemed to be strangely united." 
 
 About this time great excitement was produced in the 
 religious world of F "ranee by the mystical sentiments and 
 writings of Madame Guyon, of whom Fenelon was an 
 intimate friend. His sympathy with her involved him 
 in a long controversy with Bossuet, who condemned the 
 quietism of Madame Guyon and somewhat arrogantly 
 insisted that F'enelon should define his position on the 
 subject. The latter accordingly wrote his "Explication 
 des Maximes des Saints," (1697,) which was regarded as 
 an indirect apology for Guyonism. Fenelon was de- 
 nounced by Bossuet to the king, and was dismissed from 
 court in disgrace. He appealed to the judgment of the 
 pope, who, after long hesitation, yielding to the impe- 
 rious will of Louis XIV. and the menaces of his agents, 
 decided against the "Maximes des Saints" in March, 
 1699. Fenelon submitted with dignity, and publicly 
 expressed his acquiescence in this decision. He might 
 perhaps have been restored to favour at court, if a book, 
 which he wrote to amuse the Duke of Burgundy, had 
 not been made public, in 1699, through the infidelity of 
 a servant whom he employed to transcribe the manu- 
 script. This was " Les Aventures de Telemaque," his 
 most celebrated production, and one of the most popular 
 works in the French language. Louis XIV. suspected 
 that this was a covert satire against his despotic regime, 
 and endeavoured to suppress it. While Fenelon was 
 thus proscribed, at the Frencn court, he was so highly 
 honoured for his Christian virtues and wisdom among 
 the nations of Europe, that, when adjacent parts of 
 France were ravaged by hostile armies, the diocese of 
 Carr.cray was protected from spoliation by the orders 
 of the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. His 
 eloquence and wisdom in conversation are highly ex- 
 tolled by Saint-Simon and other contemporaries. "We 
 feel the power and ascendency of his rare genius," says La 
 
 Bruyere, "whether he preaches without preparation, or 
 pronounces a studied discourse, or explains his thoughts 
 in conversation." He died on the 7th of January, 1 71 5. 
 Besides the above-named works, he wrote " Dialogues 
 on the Eloquence of the Pulpit," a " Demonstration of 
 the Existence of God," "On the Temporal Power of the 
 Mediaeval Popes," an excellent "Treatise on the Edu- 
 cation of Girls," and a number of political treatises. He 
 ranks among the most excellent masters of graceful and 
 eloquent diction that France has produced. 
 
 " He had all the qualities," says Sir James Mackintosh, 
 " which fit a man to be the preceptor of a prince, and 
 which most disable him to get or to keep office. Even 
 birth and urbanity and accomplishments and vivacity 
 were an insufficient atonement for his genius and virtue." 
 The same writer remarks, in another place, " Fenelon 
 in his writings exhibits more of the qualities which 
 predispose to religious feelings than any other equal Iv 
 conspicuous person : a mind so pure as steadily to con- 
 template supreme excellence ; a heart capable of being 
 touched and affected by the contemplation ; a gentle and 
 modest spirit, not elated by the privilege, but seeing its 
 own want of worth as it came nearer to such brightness, 
 and disposed to treat with compassionate forbearance 
 those errors in others of which it felt a humbling con- 
 sciousness." "There was indeed," says Macaulay, " one 
 Frenchman who has discovered those principles which 
 it now seems impossible to miss, — that the many are 
 not made for the use of one ; that the truly good govern- 
 ment is not that which concentrates magnificence in a 
 court, but that which diffuses happiness among a people. 
 These were the doctrines which Fenelon taught." (See 
 review of Dumont's "Recollections of Mirabeau," in 
 Macaulay's "Essays.") 
 
 See, also, Ramsay, " Vie de Fenelon ;" Cardinal de Bausset, 
 " Histoire de Fenelon," 4 vols., 180S ; Gosselin, " Histoire litteraire 
 de Fe'nelon," 1S43; Mackintosh, " View of the Progress of Ethical 
 Philosophy :" Charles Butler, "Life of Fenelon," 1S10; Alphonse 
 de Lamartine, "Fenelon," Paris, 1854; Henri Lemaire, " Vie de 
 Fenelon," 1826; Thomas C. Upham, "Life of Feaielon ;" J. F. de 
 Laharpe, " E"loge de F. Salignac de Laniotte-Fe'iielon," 1771 ; Jean 
 Siffkein Maury, " E"loge de Fenelon," 1771 ; Roy, "Histoire de 
 Fenelon," 1842; Albert Werfer, " Leben des F. Fenelon," etc., 
 1852; A. Celarier, " Histoire de F'enelon," 1844; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Geaierale;" " Biographie Universelle," by M. Villemain; 
 Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley, 
 vol. i. 
 
 Fenelon, de, deh fa'neh-16N' or fan'l6N', (Bertrand 
 de Salignac — deh st'ien'ySk', ) Marquis, a distin- 
 guished French soldier, writer, and ambassador of 
 Charles IX. at the court of England. His master hav- 
 ing charged him to apologize to Queen Elizabeth for the 
 Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, he answered, "Sire, 
 address yourself to those who have advised you to it." 
 He was the author of several diplomatic works. Died 
 in 1589. 
 
 Fenelon, de, (Gauriei. Jacques de Salignac,) Mar- 
 quis, nephew of the illustrious Archbishop of Cambray, 
 was lieutenant-general of the French armies, and am- 
 bassador from Louis XV. to the States of Holland. He 
 wrote several diplomatic memoirs. He was killed by a 
 cannon-ball at the battle of Rocour in October, 1746. 
 
 Fenelon, de, (J. B. A. Salignac,) a French ecclesi- 
 astic and philanthropist, born in Perigord, was appointed 
 almoner to the queen of Louis XV. The young Savoy- 
 ards of Paris interested him so much that he received 
 the title of " Bishop of the Savoyards." During the 
 Revolution he was arrested as a suspected person, and, 
 although his innocence was proved, he was beheaded in 
 July, 1794. 
 
 Fen-es-tel'la, (Lucius,) a Roman historian, born 49 
 B.C., was the author of "Annals" which were esteemed 
 by his contemporaries and are often quoted by Pliny and 
 others. Few fragments only are extant. Died in 21 A. D. 
 
 Fenin, fa'naN', (Pierre,) a Erench chronicler, born 
 in Artois, wrote a history of the civil war between the 
 houses of Burgundy and Orleans, which was printed in 
 1837. Died in 1506. 
 
 Fenn, (Lady Fj.eanor,) an English writer of educa- 
 tional works, whose assumed name was Mrs. Lovechild, 
 was born about 1744; died in 1813. 
 
 Fenn, (Sir John,) an English antiquary, born in Nor- 
 wich in 1739, published a work entitled "Original Letters 
 
 < a- k: 9 as s; g hard; g zij; u, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JrySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FENNER 
 
 904 
 
 FEODOR 
 
 written under the Reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., and 
 Richard III.," which were the productions of different 
 persons of distinction, and contained many curious and 
 11 teresting anecdotes. Died in 1794. 
 
 ren'ner, (William,) an English Puritan divine, born 
 in 1560. He became rector of Kochford, Essex, in 1629. 
 Died in 1640. A volume of his sermons and other works 
 was published in 1657. 
 
 Feimer von Feuneberg, fen'ner fon fen'neh-beRG', 
 leader of the insurrection, in the Palatinate in 1848, was 
 a native of the Tyrol. After the failure of his projects, 
 he went to America, where, in 185 1, he founded in New 
 York a journal called the "Atlantis." 
 
 Fenoillet, feh-nwa'ya', or Fenouillet, feh-noo'ya', 
 (Pierre,) a French prelate, born at Annecy, was chaplain 
 to Henry IV., and Bishop of Montpellier. He wrote, 
 among other treatises, " Remonstrances to the King 
 against Duels." Died in 1652. 
 
 Fenollar, fa-nol-yiK', (Bernardo,) a Spanish poet, 
 born at Valencia in the thirteenth century. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus." 
 
 Fenouillot. See Fenoillet and Falhaire. 
 
 Fen'rir or Fen'ris, called also Fenrisu'lfr or Fen- 
 risulf, (fen'ris-dolf,) in the mythology of the Northmen, 
 the name of a monster, regarded as the most terrible 
 enemy of the ^isir. He was the offspring of Loki, the 
 god of evil, and the female Totun Angurboda, (AngrboSa, 
 the "anguish-boding.") When he was young, the gods 
 with great difficulty succeeded in binding him, (for an 
 account of this, see Tyr ;) but at the approach of Ragnarok 
 or Ragnarock (the twilight of the gods) he will at length 
 break loose. He will then rush forth with gaping mouth, 
 his upper jaw touching heaven and his nether jaw the earth, 
 and it there were room he would gape even more widely. 
 He will first devour the sun, causing a severe loss, as 
 may well be supposed, to mankind. Immediately after- 
 wards, in the great battle with the gods, he will swallow 
 Odin, but will the next moment be slain by Vidar. 
 Some writers suppose that by the wolf Fenrir is typified 
 volcanic fire. The name is probably derived from the 
 same root as ien, a "marsh" or Jow place. Fenrir may 
 signify the inhabitant of the lower world or the abyss. 
 The monsters of the deep destined to destroy the bene- 
 ficent gods (TEsir) may denote the blind and terrible 
 powers which reside in the elements, and which, when 
 they once break loose, are so destructive to the products 
 of human intellect and industry ; "because," says Schil- 
 ler, "the elements hate the creations of the human 
 hand."* 
 
 See the_ account of Ragnarok in Thorpe's " Northern Mytho- 
 logy," vol. i. pp. 80, 81, 82; also p. 181 et seg. ; Mallet's " Northern 
 Antiquities," vol. ii., fable xxxii. ; Keyser's "Religion of the North- 
 men;" Petersen's " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Fen'ton, (Edward,) an English navigator, born about 
 1550. In 1577 he accompanied Sir Martin Frobisher on 
 his second voyage to the North Seas, as the commander 
 of a small vessel. After making two voyages in the 
 unsuccessful attempt to discover a passage by the north- 
 west to the South Seas, he was given the command of 
 four vessels to continue his explorations. He sailed first 
 towards Africa, and then towards the Strait of Magellan. 
 He fell in with three Spanish ships, one of which he 
 succeeded in sinking, after a severe engagement. He 
 then returned to England, and obtained the command 
 of a vessel in the armament sent against the famous 
 Armada in 1588, on which occasion he distinguished 
 himself by his skill and bravery. Died in 1603. 
 
 See Fuller, "Worthies of England;" J. Barrow, "Memoirs 
 of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign." 
 
 Fenton, (Elijah,) a distinguished English poet, born 
 near Newcastle, Staffordshire, in 1683. He graduated at 
 Oxford about 1704. He was secretary to the Earl of 
 Orrery, who appointed him preceptor to his only son. 
 He assisted Pope, whose esteem and friendship he 
 possessed, in the translation of the "Odyssey," his por- 
 tion being the first, fourth, nineteenth, and twentieth 
 books. Among his other works were the tragedy of 
 "Mariamne," (1723,) which was successful, and brought 
 
 * "Denn die Elemente hassen 
 
 Das Gebild' der Menschenhand." 
 
 Das Lied von der Glocke. 
 
 him about £1000, a "Life of Milton," (1727,) which is 
 highly praised by Johnson, and several poems. Died 
 in Berkshire in July, 1730. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets." 
 
 Fenton, (Sir Geoferey, ) an able statesman and 
 translator, was a brother of Edward, noticed above. He 
 produced "Golden Epistles from Guevara and other 
 Authors," (1575,) and an English version of Guicciar- 
 dini's " History of the Italian Wars," (1579.) He was 
 for many years secretary of state in Ireland in the reigns 
 of Queen Elizabeth and James I. Died in 1608. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry." 
 
 Fen'ton, (Reuben E.,) an American lawyer and legis- 
 lator, born at Carroll, Chautauqua county, New York, 
 in July, 1819. He represented the thirty-third district 
 of New York in Congress for four successive terms, 
 from December, 1857, to March, 1865, and acted with 
 the Republican party. He distinguished himself by his 
 talents for business. In November, 1864, he was elected 
 Governor of New York for two years. He was re- 
 elected in 1866, and was chosen a Senator of the United 
 States in 1869. 
 
 Fen'wick, (George,) the proprietor of a plantation 
 near Saybrook, Connecticut, came to America in 1636. 
 Having returned to England, he was appointed one of 
 the judges in the trial of Charles I. Died in 1657. 
 
 Fenwick, (George,) an English theologian of the 
 Hutchinsonian school, was rector of Hallaton, Leicester- 
 shire. He published "Thoughts on the Hebrew Titles 
 of the Psalms," (1749.) Died in 1760. 
 
 Fenwick, (Sir John,) a Roman Catholic agitator 
 and conspirator during the reign of William III., was 
 born in England near the middle of the seventeenth 
 century. He was highly connected, having married a 
 sister of the Earl of Carlisle. In 1696 he was arrested 
 for high treason ; but the government failed to convict 
 him, in consequence of one of the chief witnesses having 
 been prevailed upon by Fenwick's friends to hide himself 
 on the continent. Thereupon he was tried under a bill of 
 attainder, which, after an extraordinary excitement and 
 conflict, passed both Houses of Parliament and received 
 the royal assent. He was executed the 28th of January, 
 1697. He was the last person who suffered death in 
 England by an act of attainder. For an extremely 
 interesting account of his trial, see Macaulay's " History 
 of England," vol. iv. chap. xxii. 
 
 Fen'wicke, (John,) an Englishman, born in 1618, 
 noted as the founder of a colony in New Jersey, was a 
 member of the Society of Friends. He obtained in 1673 
 a grant of land in West Jersey, emigrated in 1675, and 
 settled in Salem. His claim to the proprietorship was 
 disputed by Governor E. Andros, who arrested him in 
 1678 and confined him in prison for two years. He died 
 poor in 1683, after he had conveyed or transferred his 
 claim to William Penn. 
 
 See L. Q. C. Elmer, " History of the Early Settlement of Cum- 
 berland County, New Jersey," 1869. 
 
 Fenyes, fcn-yjsh, (Alexius,) a Hungarian geogra- 
 pher, born in the county of Bihar in 1807. He published 
 two valuable works, entitled " Present Condition of Hun- 
 gary and the Adjacent Countries in their Geographical 
 and Statistical Relations," (6 vols., 1839,) and "Statistics 
 of Hungary," (1849.) 
 
 Feo, fa'o, (Francesco,) an Italian composer, born at 
 Naples about 1699. He produced a number of masses, 
 litanies, etc., and a successful opera, entitled " Iperm- 
 nestra." 
 
 Feodor, fa'o-dor, sometimes written Fedor, I, (Ivan- 
 ovitch,) Czar of Russia, the last of the dynasty of Rurik, 
 was born in 1557, and ascended the throne in 1584. 
 Under his reign the Church of Russia was declared in- 
 dependent of the Patriarch of Constantinople ; and from 
 that time it had a separate patriarch. Died in 1598. 
 
 See Karamzin, " Histoire de 1'Empire de Russie." 
 
 Feodor or Fedor II., (Ai.exievitch,) elder brother 
 of Peter the Great, became Czar of Russia in 1676, and 
 distinguished his reign by passing some important laws 
 of a reformatory character. Died in 1682. 
 
 Feodor or Fedor, fa'o-dor, (IvANovrrcH,)a Russian 
 or Kalmuck painter and engraver, born about 1765, near 
 the frontier between Russia and China. He studied at 
 
 5, e, \, o, u, y, long; k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
FEOFAN 
 
 905 
 
 FERDINAND 
 
 Rome, became a skilful draughtsman, and accompanied 
 Lord Elgin to Athens about 1800. He made drawings of 
 the bas-reliefs and other antique monuments of Athens, 
 called the Elgin Marbles. Died in 1821. 
 
 Feofan or Feophaii, fa-o-fan', an eminent Russian 
 prelate and writer, born at Kiev in 1681. He became 
 Bishop of Pleskov and Narva about 1 7 16, and Archbishop 
 of Novogorod in 1721. He cooperated with Peter the 
 Great in his projects of improvement and civilization. 
 Died in 1736. 
 
 Fer, de, deh faiR, (Nicolas,) a French geographer, 
 born in 1646; died in 1720. 
 
 Fer de la Nouerre, de, deh f?R deh li noo'aiR', a 
 French captain of artillery, and the author of "Science 
 of Navigable Canals." Died about 1790. 
 
 Ferabosco, fa-rabos'ko, (Alfonso,) a composer, 
 born at Greenwich about 1550, was a son of an Italian 
 musician. He composed madrigals, and acquired a high 
 reputation. 
 
 Feraldo. See Feraud, (Raimond.) 
 
 Feraud, fa'ro', (Jean Francois,) a French gramma- 
 rian, born at Marseilles in 1725, published a valuable 
 "Grammatical Dictionary of the French Language." 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Feraud or Feraudi, fa'ro'de', sometimes written 
 Feraldo or Ferrando, (Raimond,) a Provencal poet, 
 who died about 1324. 
 
 Ferber, feVber, (Johan Jakob,) a distinguished 
 Swedish mineralogist, born at Carlscrona in 1743. He 
 studied under Linnaeus, Wallerius, and Cronstadt, ex- 
 plored the mines of Germany, France, etc., and was 
 appointed professor of natural history and philosophy 
 at Mittau in 1774. He removed to Saint Petersburg in 
 1783, and entered the service of the King of Prussia in 
 1786. Among his numerous works are his " Descriptions 
 of the Quicksilver-Mines of Idria," (1774,) and "Minera- 
 logical History of Bohemia," (1774.) Died in 1790. 
 
 See Meusei., " Lexikon der vom Jahre 1750-1S00 verstorbenen 
 Deutschen Schriftsteller." 
 
 Ferchault de Reaumur. See Reaumur. 
 
 Fer'dl-nand [Ger. pron. feVde-nant'] I., (Karl Leo- 
 pold Franz,) Emperor of Austria, born at Vienna in 1793, 
 was the eldest son of Francis I., and uncle of Franz 
 Joseph, the present emperor. He married, in 1831, Maria 
 Anna Carolina, a daughter of Victor Emmanuel of Sar- 
 dinia. He ascended the throne on the 2d of March, 1835. 
 As he was subject to a chronic disorder by which his 
 mind was impaired, the government was directed chiefly 
 by Metternich as prime minister. In consequence of 
 the revolutionary agitations which prevailed in 1848, he 
 abdicated in favour of his nephew, Franz Joseph, in 
 December of that year. 
 
 Ferdinand I., Emperor of Germany, and younger 
 brother of Charles V., was born at Alcala, in Spain, in 
 1503. His mother was a daughter of Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella of Spain. Having married Anne, sister and heiress 
 of Louis, King of Hungary and Bohemia, upon the death 
 of that monarch, in 1526, he laid claim to both crowns, 
 and was recognized by the Bohemians ; but in Hungary 
 he met with opposition. John Zapolya, Vayvode of 
 Transylvania, having been elected king by some of the 
 Hungarian lords, called in the Turks to assist him, and 
 defeated Ferdinand, who had marched against him. 
 After this a compromise was effected, each retaining 
 part of the kingdom. He obtained in 1521 the sove- 
 reignty of the German provinces of Austria by the con- 
 sent of Charles V. Ferdinand was elected King of the 
 Romans in 1531, and succeeded Charles V., who abdi- 
 cated the imperial throne in August, 1556. His title was 
 confirmed by the Diet in 1558. As a monarch, he was 
 distinguished for his moderation and justice, and was a 
 liberal patron of learning. Died in Vienna in July, 1564. 
 He was succeeded by his son, Maximilian. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Alfonso 
 de Ulloa, " Vita del Imperatore Ferdinando !.," 1565; F. B. Buch- 
 HOLTZ, " Geschichte der Regierung Ferdinand's I.,'' 10 vols., 1830-41. 
 
 Ferdinand IX, Emperor of Germany, son of Charles, 
 Duke of Styria, and grandson of Ferdinand I., was born 
 in July, 1578. Through the influence of his cousin, the 
 emperor Matthias, he was crowned King of Bohemia 
 in 161 7, after having promised religious liberty to the 
 
 Bohemian Protestants. Frederick, Elector Palatine, re- 
 solved to oppose him; and, as Ferdinand had refused 
 to protect his Protestant subjects against the Catholics, 
 the Bohemians declared that he had broken his oath 
 and that the throne was vacant. This led to the famous 
 Thirty Years' war. At the time that Ferdinand lost the 
 crown of Bohemia, he was recognized King of Hungary, 
 and, upon the death of Matthias, was elected emperor, 
 in 1619. Frederick, after some hesitation, accepted the 
 crown of Bohemia, which had been offered to him by the 
 States, and leagued himself with all the enemies of the 
 house of Austria. At the battle of Prague, which was 
 fought in 1620, the Palatine was defeated by the army 
 of Ferdinand under Maximilian of Bavaria, and he lost 
 both his new and his old dominions ; and in 1623 the 
 emperor gave Maximilian full power in the Palatinate. 
 In 1624 another Protestant league was formed against 
 Ferdinand, with the King of Denmark at its head ; but 
 the latter was defeated by the imperialist general Wal- 
 lenstein, and was forced to accept peace on humiliating 
 terms. Ferdinand, thinking that the time had now ar- 
 rived to extinguish Protestantism in his empire, as he 
 could command an army of 150,000 men, while the league 
 could muster only 30,000, was preparing to execute this 
 design, when a new league was formed, about 1630, by 
 Sweden, France, and Venice, with Gustavus Adolphus 
 at its head, who gained many brilliant and important 
 victories over the emperor. But at the battle of Lutzen, 
 (1632,) where the Protestant arms were crowned with 
 the most splendid success, the Swedish monarch was 
 killed. The league was then directed by Chancellor 
 Oxenstiern ; and Ferdinand, more fortunate with his 
 arms, succeeded in making peace with some of the allies, 
 and procured the election of his son, Ferdinand Ernest, 
 as King of the Romans. As a monarch, Ferdinand pos- 
 sessed great ability, but was tyrannical and bigoted. 
 Died in February, 1637. 
 
 See Schiller, " History of the Thirty Years' War;" Ersch und 
 Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" J. P. Silbert, "Ferdinand 
 [I., Romischer Kaiser," 1S36 ; Friedrich Hurter, "Geschichte 
 Kaiser Ferdinand's II.," 4 vols., 1850-53. 
 
 Ferdinand III., born in 1608, succeeded his father, 
 Ferdinand II., in 1637, on the imperial throne of Ger- 
 many. The crowns of Bohemia and Hungary having 
 been secured to him, he was elected emperor with 
 little opposition ; but during the first years of his reign 
 he met with continual reverses. The Swedes, led on by 
 their general, Bemhard of Saxe-Weimar, and assisted by 
 the French, were scarcely less successful than they had 
 been under Gustavus Adolphus ; but the Duke of Saxe- 
 Weimar died in the midst of his victories, — as some 
 suppose, by poison. The war was still urged with such 
 vigour by Louis XIII. and Cardinal Richelieu that the 
 Austrians were beaten in nearly every battle until Oc- 
 tober, 1648, when, after the death of the French monarch 
 and his prime minister, the emperor signed the treaty 
 known as the Peace of Westphalia, which secured re- 
 ligious liberty to the Protestants. Ferdinand died in 
 1657, deeply regretted by his subjects, and was succeeded 
 by his son, Leopold I. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Ferdinand [Sp. Fernando, fdR-nan'do] I., King of 
 Aragon and Sicily, surnamed THE Just, born in 1373, 
 was the second son of Juan I. of Castile. He became 
 King of Aragon in 1412, and died in 1416, leaving the 
 throne to his son, Alfonso V. 
 
 Ferdinand II. of Aragon. See Ferdinand V. of 
 Castile. 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) I., King of Castile, a son 
 of Sancho III., was crowned in 1035. In 1038 his 
 brother-in-law, Bermudo, King of Leon, having Invaded 
 Castile, Ferdinand defeated him in a battle, in which 
 Ikrmudo was slain. Ferdinand thus became King of 
 Leon and the most powerful monarch in Spain. He 
 afterwards carried on a successful war against the Moors, 
 and forced the Kings of Saragossa and Toledo to become 
 his tributaries. Historians speak in high terms of the 
 ability and virtues of this prince. Died in 1065. He 
 left Castile to his son Sancho, and Leon to his second 
 son, Alfonso. 
 
 See Ferreras, " Historia general de Espafia." 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in thit. (jjy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FERDINAND 
 
 906 
 
 FERDINAND 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) IX of Leon, a son of Alfonso 
 VII., mounted the throne of Leon in 1 157, at the same 
 time that his brother, Sancho III., became King of Cas- 
 tile. It was under the reign of this monarch that the 
 famous order of the Christian knights of Saint James was 
 founded. Ferdinand carried on successful wars against 
 the Moors, in which he displayed great generalship and 
 intrepidity. Died in 1187. He was particularly noted 
 for his generosity. 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) IH., called the Saint, a 
 son of Alfonso IX., King of Leon, and Berengaria, Queen 
 of Castile. He became King of Castile in 1217, and suc- 
 ceeded his father in 1230. In his Moorish wars he con- 
 quered the kingdom of Baeza, took C6rdova, Seville, and 
 several other rich and important places, and made the 
 Kings of Granada and Murcia his tributaries. He died 
 in 1252, and was succeeded by his son, Alfonso X. 
 
 See Miguel de Herrera, " Cronica del Rev Fernando III.," 
 1554; H. Florez, "Klogio del S. Rey Fernando III.," 1754. 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) IV., King of Castile and 
 Leon, born at Seville in 1285, was the son of Sancho IV., 
 whom he succeeded in 1295. Like the preceding, he 
 gained many victories over the Moors. He was vindic- 
 tive, passionate, and unjust. He died in 1312, and left 
 the throne to his son, Alfonso XI. 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) V., King of Castile and 
 Aragon, surnamed the Catholic, was born at Sos on 
 the 10th of March, 1452. He was the son of Juan II., 
 King of Aragon. At this time Juan's son Carlos, Prince 
 of Viana, was the presumptive heir to the throne of Ara- 
 gon and Navarre. In 1461 the Prince of Viana died, and 
 soon after the Aragonese tendered the oaths of allegiance 
 to Ferdinand, as heir-apparent to that monarchy. In 
 very early life he was trained to the use of arms, and 
 was schooled in all the military science ef that age, and, 
 while yet a boy, exhibited great discretion and superior 
 prowess on the field of battle. In 1469 he married the 
 infanta Isabella, on whom had been fixed the succession 
 to the throne of Castile. The glory of their reign and 
 the commencement of the highest prosperity and gran- 
 deur of the Spanish monarchy are chiefly to be attributed 
 to the eminent qualities of this princess. Spain at this 
 period was divided into the kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, 
 Navarre, and Granada, the latter of which was still pos- 
 sessed by the Moors ; but Ferdinand and Isabella, before 
 the close of their reign, by energetic and politic measures 
 united the four sovereignties under their sway. In 1474 
 Henry IV. of Castile died, and Isabella was proclaimed 
 queen at Segovia. Her title, however, was disputed by 
 the princess Joanna, whom Henry had acknowledged to 
 be his legitimate daughter. Joanna received assistance 
 from several of the Castilian grandees and her uncle, 
 Alfonso of Portugal, who invaded Spain to defend her 
 cause. Ferdinand soon placed himself at the head of 
 an army, and gained a decisive victory over the Portu- 
 guese at Toro, which caused Alfonso to withdraw to his 
 own dominions. In a short time the entire kingdom of 
 Castile submitted to Isabella, and finally, in 1479, a treaty 
 of peace was ratified at Lisbon. The same year Ferdi- 
 nand was crowned King of Aragon at the death of Juan 
 II. The two sovereigns immediately commenced a course 
 of salutary reforms, especially in Castile, where during 
 the reign of Henry oppression and rapine had been car- 
 ried to great excesses by the nobility. Various courts 
 of justice were also formed, over which the king and 
 queen frequently presided in person. A successful at- 
 tempt was likewise made for reducing the power of the 
 great feudal lords, who had frequently held the authority 
 of their sovereigns in contempt. In 1480 an indelible 
 stain was fastened on the otherwise unsullied fame of 
 Isabella by the establishment of the Inquisition. Ferdi- 
 nand subsequently gave his consent for its introduction 
 into Aragon. After the king and queen had fully estab- 
 lished their authority at home, they turned their attention 
 towards the conquest of Granada, the most fertile portion 
 of Spain. The invasion of that kingdom was, however, 
 anticipated by the Moorish sovereign, who in 1481 sur- 
 prised and captured the fortress of Zahara, in Andalusia. 
 Soon after the Castilians took the strongly-fortified city 
 of Alhama, in the heart of the Moorish dominions. This 
 exploit struck the Moslems with terror, while it greatly 
 
 inspirited the Christians. The war was now vigorously 
 urged forward by Ferdinand, who commanded in person, 
 and by Isabella, who was untiring in her efforts to en- 
 courage the nation and to keep in the field an efficient 
 army. She imparted to the people her own zeal and 
 heroic enterprise, which wavered not until the capitula- 
 tion of the royal city of Granada, in November, 1491. In 
 i486 Columbus visited the court of Spain, to solicit from 
 the sovereigns the assistance which would enable him 
 to prosecute a voyage of discovery. At this time their 
 treasury was drained, and the Moorish war engrossed 
 their entire attention : so that they were unable either to 
 fit out the armament which he wished, or to decide on 
 the policy of the adventure. However, when the war 
 was finished, Isabella made those arrangements with the 
 illustrious Genoese which opened to the Castilians a far 
 greater empire than the one just obtained. In 1492 an 
 edict was issued for the expulsion of all Jews from the 
 kingdom. In 1493 Columbus returned from his success- 
 ful voyage to the New World. The same year they 
 obtained a papal bull by which their titles were confirmed 
 to all territories which they should discover in the West- 
 ern hemisphere. Ferdinand and Isabella next turned 
 their attention to the education of the Spanish youth. 
 They invited learned men to settle in their dominions, 
 and founded universities throughout the kingdom. In 
 1495 Charles VIII. of France invaded Italy and took 
 possession of Naples. The proximity of so powerful an 
 army to his Sicilian possessions filled the mind of Fer- 
 dinand with apprehension. He fitted out an army to 
 assist the Neapolitan king, the command of which he 
 gave to Gonsalvo de Cordova, known in history as the 
 " Great Captain," who landed in Italy in May, and, after 
 a series of brilliant victories gained over much larger 
 forces, expelled the French and firmly established the 
 King of Naples on his throne. Subsequently treaties of 
 marriage were formed by the Spanish monarchs for their 
 only son, Prince Juan, with Margaret, the daughter of 
 the emperor Maximilian, and for the princess Joanna 
 with the emperor's son Philip ; and, to cement their friend- 
 ship with England, their youngest daughter, known as 
 Catherine of Aragon, was married to Arthur, Prince of 
 Wales. 
 
 In 1497 the nation sustained a great calamity in the 
 death of Prince Juan. Two years later, his sister, the 
 Princess of Portugal, died. In 1 501, the Moors having 
 revolted, Ferdinand compelled them all either to be 
 baptized or to leave the kingdom. The majority chose 
 the former alternative. In 1500 Ferdinand concluded a 
 treaty with Louis XII. of France, by which they divided 
 the kingdom of Naples equally between them. The 
 Great Captain had previously sailed for Italy with a pow- 
 erful army, and in a short time the division was made. 
 Disputes, however, soon arose between the invaders, 
 which, after a war of four years, resulted in the complete 
 overthrow of the French in Italy, and the firm establish- 
 ment of the authority of Ferdinand over all the kingdom 
 of Naples. In November, 1504, Queen Isabella died, 
 and Ferdinand was appointed Regent of Castile, on 
 account of the insanity of his daughter Joanna, the heir- 
 apparent to that throne. In 1505 Ferdinand married 
 Germaine de Foix, niece of Louis XII. In 1508 the 
 treaty of Cambray was signed by the Emperor of Ger- 
 many, the King of Aragon, the King of France, and the 
 pope, for the division of the Venetian republic. After a 
 decisive battle gained by the allies, the Spanish monarch 
 received several cities as his share, which were incorpo- 
 rated into the kingdom of Naples. In 151 1 a treaty was 
 formed by the Spanish king and the Emperor of Ger- 
 many for driving the French from Italy, which was ac- 
 complished after the battle of Ravenna. Jean d'Albret, 
 King of Navarre, having leagued himself, offensively and 
 defensively, with Louis of France, the King of Aragon 
 invaded his dominions, drove him from the throne, and 
 in 1 5 13 completed the entire subjugation of that king- 
 dom. Ferdinand died in January, 1 516. As a sovereign, 
 he was brave, affable, indefatigable in business, temperate 
 in his habits, and strongly attached to the Catholic re- 
 ligion ; but he was bigoted, cruel, selfish in the extreme, 
 and ungenerous to those to whom he was greatly indebted. 
 For shrewdness and policy he excelled every other mon- 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, j?, short; a, s, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
FERDINAND 
 
 907 
 
 FERDINAND 
 
 arch of his age. He was succeeded by Prince Carlos, 
 celebrated as Charles V. of Germany, son of Philip of 
 Austria and Joanna. 
 
 See Prkscott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," 3 vols., 
 1838; Mariana, " Historia de Rebus Hispania? ;" Hernando del 
 Fulgak, "Cronica de los Seiiores Reyes Catolicos," 1545; Bal- 
 THAsar Gractan, " El politico D. Fernando el Catolico," 1641. 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) VX of Spain, surnamed the 
 Wise, son of Philip V. and Mary of Savoy, was born at 
 Madrid in 171 3, and ascended the throne in 1746. The 
 early part of his reign was distinguished by the many 
 wise and just laws which he enacted, by the encourage- 
 ment that he gave to commerce, manufactures, and the 
 arts, and by the successful efforts he made to promote 
 literature and science in Spain. Ferdinand was subject 
 to long fits of melancholy, which materially interfered 
 with his various plans for the welfare of his subjects. 
 Ho died, without issue, in 1759, and was succeeded by 
 his brother, Charles III. 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) VII., son of Charles IV., 
 King ot Spain, and Maria Louisa of Parma, was born in 
 1784. When he was six years of age, he was proclaimed 
 Prince of Asturias and heir-apparent to the Spanish 
 crown. He was kept in servile subjection by the queen 
 and Godoy, the court favourite, but was provided with 
 competent instructors. In 1802 Ferdinand married Maria 
 Antoinette, daughter of Ferdinand IV., King of the Two 
 Sicilies. This princess, possessing much talent and 
 energy, attempted to raise her husband to his proper 
 station at court ; but, being unsuccessful, they were both 
 obliged to go into retirement. She died in 1806, under 
 circumstances which created a belief that Godoy had 
 caused her to be poisoned. The favourite afterwards ac- 
 cused Ferdinand of plotting against the life of the king, 
 and caused him to be thrown into prison ; but he was 
 liberated not long after. In 1808 Charles IV., alarmed 
 by the French invasion, abdicated in Ferdinand's favour ; 
 but Napoleon succeeded by intrigue in drawing them 
 to France, where he detained them for several years and 
 cau>ed them both to resign their authority. In 1813, 
 when Joseph Bonaparte bad been repeatedly driven from 
 his capital, Napoleon restored Ferdinand to power. His 
 reign was subsequently disturbed by the disputes of the 
 two parties called the Liberals, or those who favoured 
 the Constitution of 1812, and the Absolutists, or Apos- 
 tolical party, the monarch favouring the latter. Fer- 
 dinand had two daughters by his fourth wife, Maria 
 Christina, daughter of Francis, King of the Two Sicilies. 
 The eldest of these, Maria Isabella, became Queen of 
 Spain upon her father's death in 1833. 
 
 See Southey, " History of the Peninsular War ;" De Pradt, 
 "Meinoiies sur la Revolution d'Espagne," 1816; General Foy, 
 " Guerre de la P^ninsule," 4 vols. ; Godoy, " Memoirs," 4 vols. 
 
 Ferdinand X, II., and IIX of Bohemia. See Ferdi- 
 nand I., II., and III., Emperors of Germany and 
 Austria. 
 
 Ferdinand [It. Ferdinando, feR-de-nan'dol *i King 
 of Naples, natural and. only son of Alfonso, King of Ara- 
 gon, was born in 1423, legitimized by Pope Eugene IV., 
 and crowned King of Naples in 1458. The false and cruel 
 character of Ferdinand soon caused a general revolt of 
 his subjects, who invited John of Anjou to take posses- 
 sion of the throne. At first Ferdinand met with some 
 severe losses ; but, assisted by Pope Pius II. and the 
 Duke of Milan, he gained, in August, 1462, at Troia, a 
 decisive victory over the French, by which success his 
 power was completely restored. In 1485 the barons, 
 assisted by Pope Innocent VIII., revolted against Fer- 
 dinand, who obtained peace only on granting their de- 
 mands; but as soon as they disarmed he caused the 
 barons to be arrested and put to death. For this treach- 
 erous proceeding he was excommunicated by the pope. 
 Ferdinand died in 1494, detested by his subjects, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Alfonso II. 
 
 See Mariana, "Historia de Rebus Hispanix ;" Sismondi, 
 Histoirc des Rdpubliques Italiennes;" Guicciardini, "Istoria 
 d'ltalia ;" Pontano, " Historia Neapolitana ab Anno 1458 ad Annum 
 1494," 1617. 
 
 Ferdinand (Ferdinando) IX, grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, and son of Alfonso II., was born about 1468, and 
 ascended the throne of Naples in January, 1495. T "e 
 Neapolitans, having a long time conceived a hatred for 
 
 the house of Aragon, now revolted 1 , and Ferdinand was 
 
 obliged to leave Naples, which was shortly afterwards 
 
 invested by the French under Charles VIII. But, on 
 
 obtaining assistance from the King of Aragon, who sent 
 
 him troops commanded by the great captain Gonsalvo 
 
 de Cordova, Ferdinand succeeded in driving the French 
 
 from Naples. He died, without issue, in 1496. 
 
 See Guicciardini, "Istoria d'ltalia;" Philippe de Comines, 
 ' Cllronique." 
 
 Ferdinand (Ferdinando) III. of Naples. See 
 Ferdinand V. of Spain. 
 
 Ferdinand (Ferdinando) IV., King of Naples, after- 
 wards called Ferdinand I. of the United Kingdoms of 
 the Two Sicilies, was born in 1751. He was a younger 
 son of Charles III. of Spain. He began to reign when 
 he was but eight years old. The Marquis Tanucci, who 
 possessed much ability as a minister, was appointed 
 regent. He, however, totally neglected the education of 
 the young prince. In 1768 Ferdinand married Maria 
 Carolina of Austria, daughter of Maria Theresa, who, 
 being a princess of great ambition, cruelty, and energy, 
 misgoverned Naples under her husband's name. In 
 ■777. Tanucci, who had been created prime minister, was 
 dismissed, and John Acton, an Englishman, came into 
 power. His administration was even far less beneficial 
 than Tanucci's. In 1792 the court of Naples joined the 
 allies against France, but four years later purchased a 
 peace from the French Directory. In 1798 it formed 
 a secret alliance with Russia, Austria, and England, and 
 the Neapolitan army marched against the Flench, by 
 whom they were defeated about the end of 1798. The 
 queen, becoming alarmed, fled to Sicily, whither she was 
 followed by the king in 1799. The successes of the allies 
 in 1799 restored to power Ferdinand and his queen, who, 
 by the aid of Lord Nelson, inflicted a treacherous and 
 bloody revenge on the republicans. Many of the best and 
 noblest citizens of Naples were then executed. Ferdi- 
 nand formed a treaty of peace with France in 1801, but in 
 1805 entered another secret alliance. Napoleon I. then 
 declared that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign 
 at Naples, and created Murat sovereign of that kingdom. 
 Ferdinand retired to Sicily, where he was protected by 
 the British until the overthrow of the French emperor. 
 In 1812 he was induced to resign his authority into the 
 hands of his son Francis. On the fall of Napoleon, in 
 1814, he was restored to the throne of Naples. In 1816 
 he united the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily under the 
 same form of government. He died, generally detested, 
 in 1825, and was succeeded by his son, Francis I. 
 
 See Botta, "Storm d'ltalia dal 1789 al 181. 
 tory of the French Revolution," and his "Histc 
 and of tbe F^nipire." 
 
 Ferdinand (Ferdinando) IX, King of the Two 
 Sicilies, born in 1810, was a son of Francis I. He began 
 to reign in November, 1830, and married Maria Theresa, 
 an Austrian princess, in 1837. His oppressive and 
 despotic reign provoked a series of conspiracies and in- 
 surrections, which were suppressed with great cruelty. 
 He was nicknamed "Bomba." He died in 1859, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Francis II. 
 
 See Gladstone, "Letters to Lord Aberdeen," 1851; Farini, 
 "II Stato Romano," and English version of the same, by W. E. 
 Gladstone, 1851. 
 
 Ferdinand (or Fernando) X, King of Portugal, son 
 of Peter the Cruel and Constance of Castile, born at 
 Coimbra in 1345, ascended the throne in 1367. He 
 engaged in a war with Henry II. of Castile, who invaded 
 Portugal, and, after gaining two victories, compelled 
 Ferdinand to sue for peace, the articles of which were 
 signed in 1371. Died in 1383. Ferdinand left behind 
 him the reputation of a just and beneficent prince. 
 
 Ferdinand (or Fernando) IX, King of Portugal, a 
 younger son of Queen Maria II., was born about 1838. 
 He succeeded his brother, Don Pedro V., in November, 
 1861. 
 
 His father, Ferdinand Augustus of Saxe-Coburg, 
 had married the Portuguese queen Maria II., after whose 
 death, in 1853, he was for a short time regent of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Ferdinand [It. Ferdinando, feR-de-nan'do] X de' 
 Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, born in 1549, was a 
 
 814;'' Thiers, " His- 
 ' History of the Consulate 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this. ( J|^=See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
FERDINAND 
 
 908 
 
 FERGUSON 
 
 younger son of Cosirrfo I. He succeeded his brother, 
 Francesco, in 1587. Died in 1609. 
 
 Ferdinand (Ferdinando) II., Grand Duke of Tus- 
 cany, born in 1610, was a son of Cosimo II., whom he 
 succeeded in 1620. He was a liberal patron of literature 
 and art. He died in 1670, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Cosimo III. 
 
 Ferdinand (Ferdinando) III. of Tuscany, born in 
 1769, was a son of Pietro Leopoldo, and a brother of 
 Francis II., Emperor of Germany. He began to reign 
 in 1 791, was expelled by the French about 1800, and re- 
 stored in 1814. He was more liberal and mild than the 
 other Italian princes of that period. Died in 1824, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Leopold II. 
 
 See Gonnelm, "Elogio di Ferdinando III.," 1824; Zeller, 
 "Histoire d'ltalie." 
 
 Ferdinand, (Ferdinando,) Duke of Parma, born in 
 1757, was a son of Philip of Bourbon. His mother was 
 Elizabeth, a daughter of Louis XV. of France. He began 
 to reign in 1765, and left the direction of affairs to the 
 Marquis de Feline Died in 1802. 
 
 Ferdinand, (Fernando,) son of James II., King of 
 Aragon, born at Valencia in 1228. James had divided 
 the kingdom among his sons, which produced a war 
 between Don Ferdinand and his brother, Don Pedro, 
 in which the former was defeated and taken prisoner. 
 Don Pedro ordered him to be thrown into the river 
 Cinga. This occurred in 1275. 
 
 Ferdinand, or Fernando, Infante of Portugal, born 
 in 1402, was a younger son of John I. He accompanied 
 a Portuguese army which invaded Barbary in 1437 and 
 was defeated. He remained as a hostage in the power 
 of the Moors, and died at Fez in 1443. 
 
 Ferdinand, (August Franz Anton,) Duke of Saxe- 
 Coburg-Gotha, and prince-consort of Portugal, was born 
 in 1816. He married Maria, Queen of Portugal, in 1836. 
 His son became king in 1855, with the title of Pedro V. 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) of Aragon, Archbishop of 
 Saragossa, and grandson of Ferdinand the Catholic, was 
 born at Madrid in 15 14. He wrote, besides other works, 
 a valuable history of the kings and prelates of Aragon. 
 Died in 1575. 
 
 Ferdinand of Bavaria, Archbishop of Cologne, and 
 Prince-Bishop of Liege and Minister, was born in 1577. 
 He commanded a body of troops which fought against 
 the Protestants in the Thirty Years' war. During his 
 reign there were a series of bloody revolts at Liege. 
 Died in 1650. 
 
 Ferdinand, or Fernando, Duke of Braganza, a Por- 
 tuguese general, born in 1403, was a son of Alfonso, the 
 first Duke of Braganza. Died in 1478. 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) of Cordova, celebrated for 
 his universal knowledge, was born about 1420. He 
 signalized his bravery under John II. of Castile in 
 the war against the Moors ; but, preferring the pen to 
 the sword, he retired from the army, and occupied the 
 chair of professor in several Spanish universities. He 
 stood high in the favour of Ferdinand and Isabella, who 
 granted him a pension. He was the author of several 
 works on theology, etc. He is supposed to have died 
 about 1480. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Ferdinand (Charles Joseph) of Este, Archduke 
 of Austria, born in 1781, was a son of Ferdinand Charles 
 Anton Joseph, and a nephew of the emperor Leopold. 
 He commanded an army against the French, and after- 
 wards against the Poles, in both instances unsuccess- 
 fully. Died in 1850. 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) of Spain, Cardinal, born 
 in 1609, was the third son of Philip III. of Spain. He 
 became Governor of the Low Countries in 1633, and 
 invaded France in 1636. Died in 1641. 
 
 See Schm.i.er, " History of the Thirty Years' War ;" Coxe, " His- 
 tory of the House of Austria," 3 vols., 1807. 
 
 Ferdinand (Fernando) de Jesus — di Ha-soos', a 
 Spanish Carmelite and ecclesiastical writer, born at Jaen 
 in 1570. He wrote, besides other works, " Commentaries 
 on Aristotle." Died at Granada in 1644. 
 
 Ferdinand de Talavera — da ta-la-va'ra, a Spanish 
 monk, and confessor to Queen Isabella of Castile, was 
 born at Talavera de la Reyna in 1445. He was appointed 
 
 Archbishop of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella. Died 
 in 1507. 
 
 Ferdinandi, feR-de-nan'dee, (Epifanio,) a distin- 
 guished Italian philosopher and physician, born at Mi- 
 sagna, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1569. He was the 
 author of numerous philosophical and medical works, 
 among which is " Centum Historian, seu Observationes 
 et Casus Medici," (1621, often reprinted.) Died in 1638. 
 
 Ferdinandi, feR-de-nan'dee, or Fernandi, feR-nan'- 
 dee, (Francesco,) called Imperiali, a painter of the 
 Roman school, who worked at Rome in 1730. 
 
 Ferdoucy or Ferdousi. See Firdousee. 
 
 Ferdusi. See Firdousee. 
 
 Fereedoon, Feridoun, or Feridun, fer'ee-doon', a 
 king of ancient Persia, of the Peshdadian dynasty, was 
 a son of the famous Jemsheed, (or Jamshid.) He is 
 regarded by the Persians as a model of every virtue. 
 
 See Atkinson's "Abridgment of the Shah-Nameh of Firdausi," 
 London, 1832 ; and "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of Sir 
 William Jones's Works. 
 
 Feretrius, a surname of Jupiter, which see. 
 Ferg, feKG, (Paul Fkanz,) an excellent German land- 
 scape-painter, born at Vienna in 1689; died about 1740. 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Fer'gus I., King of Scotland, was engaged in wars 
 with the Romans and Britons. Died about 450 A.D. 
 
 Fergus II. succeeded Eugene VII. in 764. He was 
 killed in 767. 
 
 Fer'gus-on, (Adam,) a distinguished Scottish writer 
 and metaphysician, born in Perthshire in 1724, studied 
 at the University of Saint Andrew's and at that of Edin- 
 burgh. He filled for some years the office of chaplain 
 in a Highland regiment. In 1759 he was appointed to 
 the chair of natural philosophy in the University of 
 Edinburgh, where in 1764 he became professor of moral 
 philosophy. In 1767 he published his first work, an 
 " Essay on the History of Civil Society," which was 
 translated into several languages. In 1778 he was ap- 
 pointed secretary to the five commissioners sent to the 
 United States to effect a reconciliation. Of his numerous 
 works the most important is his " History of the Progress 
 and Termination of the Roman Republic," (3 vols., 1783.) 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1867. 
 
 Ferguson, (James,) an eminent self-taught astrono- 
 mer and mechanician, born near Keith, in the north of 
 Scotland, in 1710. His father, though a day-labourer, 
 succeeded in teaching all his children to read and write. 
 Ferguson's mechanical genius was first developed when 
 Tie was but seven or eight years old. The roof of their 
 cottage had partly fallen in, and his father, in order to 
 raise it, used a lever and fulcrum. It appeared almost 
 incredible to young Ferguson that one man could raise 
 such a great weight. He began to experiment with 
 levers of different sizes. To these he added the wheel 
 and axle, and drew up a short treatise on the subject. 
 His father having placed him with a farmer to take 
 charge of sheep, he began to study the stars at night, and 
 to construct models of mills, spinning-wheels, etc. in the 
 daytime. He afterwards went to live with a farmer 
 named Glashan, who treated him with great kindness 
 and allowed him leisure for his studies. He also made 
 the acquaintance of Mr. Grant, a gentleman who soon 
 took Ferguson into his service and placed him under the 
 instruction of his butler, Robert Cautley, an ingenious 
 and well-informed man, from whom he acquired some 
 knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. In 
 order to amuse himself during an illness, he constructed 
 a wooden clock, which was a good time-keeper. He 
 also formed a wooden watch with a whalebone spring, 
 and began to earn small sums by repairing and cleaning 
 clocks. He turned his attention to drawing patterns for 
 needle-work, copying pictures, and taking portraits in 
 India-ink. In the last employment he was so successful 
 that he was induced to go to Edinburgh, where, through 
 the patronage of the Marchioness of Douglas, he gained 
 a sufficient sum to support himself and to assist his pa- 
 rents. He followed this profession, as a means of obtain- 
 ing a livelihood, for about twenty-six years. He invented 
 an orrery on a less intricate plan than those formerly 
 
 a, e, I, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
FERGUSON 
 
 909 
 
 FERNAND ES 
 
 constructed. In 1743 he removed to London. In 1747 
 he published a " Dissertation on the Phenomena of the 
 Harvest Moon," and in 1748 commenced lecturing on 
 astronomy and mechanics. He was patronized by the 
 Prince of Wales, afterwards George III., who, after he 
 ascended the throne, granted Ferguson a pension of fifty 
 pounds a year from his privy purse. Ferguson said that 
 the best machine he ever invented was the Eclipsareon, 
 which showed the time, quantity, duration, and progress 
 of solar eclipses in all parts of the earth. Among his 
 most important works we may mention "Astronomy ex- 
 plained upon Sir Isaac Newton's Principles, and made 
 easy to those who have not studied Mathematics," (2 
 vols., 1821,) and "Lectures on Subjects in Mechanics, 
 Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Optics," etc. Died in 1776. 
 
 See his " Autobiography ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary 
 of Eminent Scotsmen ;'' C. Henderson, " Life of James Ferguson," 
 Edinburgh, 1S67 ; " Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i., 
 1839; C. L. Brightwell, "Annals of Industry and Genius." 
 
 Ferguson or Fergusson, (ROBERT,) a Scottish poet, 
 born in Edinburgh in 1750. He published a volume of 
 poems in 1773. His habits were very dissipated. He 
 became insane and died in 1774. 
 
 See D. Irving, " Life of R. Ferguson," 1810; A. Peterkin, 
 " Life of R. Ferguson." 
 
 Ferguson, (Robert,) M.D., a British medical writer, 
 born in 1799. He published a work "On Puerperal 
 Fever." Died in 1865. 
 
 Ferguson, (Robert,) a British poet and prose writer, 
 born at Carlisle about 1820. He published a collection 
 of poems, entitled "The Shadow of the Pyramid," (1847,) 
 and "The Pipe of Repose ; or, Recollections of Eastern 
 Travel," (1848.) 
 
 Ferguson, (William,) a Scottish painter of still life. 
 Died in 1690. 
 
 Fer'gus-spn, (James,) a celebrated architect, born at 
 Ayr, in Scotland, in 1808. After spending ten years in 
 India rind China, he returned to England and employed 
 his time in literary and scientific studies. In 1849 he 
 Drought forward a new theory in regard to fortifications, 
 in which he advocated the superiority of round forts to 
 those formed of angles, and the use of earth-work for 
 masonry, and of terraces. His plan was at first ridiculed ; 
 but after the siege of Sebastopol, where Mr. Fergusson 's 
 suggestions had produced important results, it was re- 
 ceived far more favourably.' He is the author of numerous 
 works upon architecture and fortifications, among which 
 we may cite "An Essay on the Ancient Topography of 
 Jerusalem," (1847,) "Picturesque Illustrations of An- 
 cient Architecture in Hindostan," (1848,) "The Palaces 
 of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored," (185 1,) "Illustrated 
 Hand-Book of Architecture," (1855,) and the "Peril of 
 Portsmouth, or French Fleets and English Forts." 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1S57, and July, 1863; 
 "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1859. 
 
 Ferhad- (fer-hid') Pasha, a Turk, who became grand 
 vizier of Amurath III. in 1581. He was defeated near 
 Nicopolis, for which he was put to death in 1596. 
 
 Ferichtah. See Ferisiiia. 
 
 Ferid-eddin- Attar, (or -Athar.) See Aii'Ar-Fe- 
 r !■: 1 : 1 > -ku-Deen. 
 
 Feridoun or Feridun. See Fereedoon. 
 
 Feriol or FerrioL See Pont-de-Vi.yi.e. 
 
 Ferishta, Ferischtah, or Ferichtah, fer'ish-tah, 
 iMohammed-Kasim, mo-h5m'med ka'sim,) an emi- 
 nent Persian historian, born at Astrabad about 1550, or, 
 according to some accounts, 1570. His great work was 
 a " History of India," commencing about the close of 
 the tenth century ; though in the introduction he gives a 
 short account of Indian history previous to the invasion 
 of the Mohammedans. It was translated into English 
 by Alexander Dow, (2 vols., 1768.) A better English 
 version was published by General Briggs, "History of 
 the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India," (London, 
 4 vols. 8vo, 1829.) He is supposed to have died about 
 1625. 
 
 See Von Hammer, article in the "Wiener Jahrbiicher," vol. li. : 
 Briggs, Preface to Translation of the "History of the Mahomedan 
 Power in India." 
 
 Ferloni, f&R-lo'nee, (Severino Antonio,) a learned 
 Italian ecclesiastic, born in the Papal States in 1740, was 
 a partisan of Napoleon. Died in 1813. 
 
 Fermanel, feVmi'nel', a French traveller, visited 
 Palestine and other parts of Asia Minor in 1630, and 
 published, after his return, a "Voyage to Italy and the 
 Levant." 
 
 Fermat, de, deh feVmS', (Pierre,) a celebrated 
 French mathematician and lawyer. According to sev- 
 eral biographers, he was born at Toulouse in 1595; but 
 Dr. Hoefer states that he was born near Montauban in 
 1601. He was one of the counsellors of the parlia- 
 ment of Toulouse, and cultivated mathematics as a re- 
 creation. He corresponded with Descartes, Roberval, 
 Mersenne, and others. The French savants claim that 
 he is entitled to a great part of the honour of the dis- 
 covery of the differential calculus, which is generally 
 awarded to Newton. He made important discoveries 
 in the theory of numbers, and invented a method of 
 finding maxima and minima. According to La Place, 
 Fermat shares with Pascal the honour of the invention 
 of the calculus of probabilities. He died at Toulouse 
 in January, 1665, leaving several works, which were 
 published by his son Samuel, under the title of "Varia 
 Opera," (1679.) He had married Louise du Long about 
 1631. "The geometer next in genius to Descartes," 
 says Hallam, "and perhaps nearer to him than to any 
 third, was Fermat, a man of various acquirements, of 
 high rank in the parliament of Toulouse, and of a mind 
 incapable of envy, forgiving of detraction, and delighting 
 in truth, with almost too much indifference to praise." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Montucla, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" Genty, " De 
 l'lnfluence de Fermat sur son Siecle," 1784 ; "Revue des Deux 
 Mondes" for May, 1845; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Fermat, de, (Samuel,) a French lawyer and poet, a 
 son of the preceding, born at Toulouse in 1632, was a 
 counsellor to the parliament. He wrote several treatises 
 on law and other subjects. Died in 1690. 
 
 Ferme, ferm, (Charles,) a Scottish divine, born in 
 Edinburgh, became minister at Fraserburgh about 1600. 
 He wrote a Latin Commentary on the Epistle to the 
 Romans, (1651.) Died about 1618. 
 
 Fermin, feVmin or feR'maN', (Philippus,) a Dutch 
 physician and traveller, born at Maestricht. He visited 
 Surinam in 1754, resided there nearly ten years, and 
 published several works relating to the geography and 
 natural history of that colony. 
 
 Fermo, da, da feVmo, (Lorenzino,) an able Italian 
 painter, born at Fermo, flourished about 1660. 
 
 Fermor, feVmoR, (Wilhelm,) Count of, a Russian 
 general, born at Pleskov in 1704, served with distinction 
 in the Seven Years' war and against the Turks, and 
 was subsequently created a count. He commanded the 
 Russian army which Frederick the Great defeated at 
 Zorndorf in 1761. Died in 1771. 
 
 Fern, (Fanny.) See Parton. 
 
 Fernand, feR'noN', [Lat. Phernan'dus,] Ferrand, 
 fJ'r&N', or Frenand, fReh'noN', (Charles,) a teacher of 
 theology and philosophy in the University of Paris, was 
 born at Bruges about 1450. He became blind in child- 
 hood. He was the author of several ecclesiastical works. 
 Died in 1496. 
 
 See Valbre Andre, "Bibliotheca Belgica." 
 
 Fernand, fer-nand', or Fernan, f?r-nan', (Gonzalez,) 
 a famous Castilian hero or cavalier, born about 910 A.D., 
 was the first Count of Castile. He gained several vic- 
 tories over the Moors. His adventures were favourite 
 subjects of Spanish writers of romance. Died after 950. 
 
 Fernand Nunez, (or Nunes,) de, di f?r-n5nd' noon'- 
 yeth, (or noon'yes,) Count, a Spanish noble, born in 
 Madrid in 1778. As a partisan of Ferdinand VII., he 
 was declared a traitor to France and Spain by Napoleon 
 I. He escaped, however, the vengeance of the emperor ; 
 and when Ferdinand returned to his kingdom, in 1814, 
 Fernand Nunez was sent as ambassador to England, and 
 subsequently to Paris. Died in 1821. 
 
 Fernand'es, feR-nJii'des, (Alvaro, ai'vi-ro,) a dis- 
 tinguished Portuguese navigator, explored the west coast 
 of Africa about 1448. 
 
 Fernandes, feR-nln'dJs, or Ferdinand, feVde-n5nt, 
 (Valentin,) a German printer and translator, lived at 
 Lisbon about 1500. He translated part of Marco Polo's 
 Travels into Portuguese, (1502.) 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as_/'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (J£^"*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FERNANDES 
 
 910 
 
 FERRJNDO 
 
 Fernandes or Fernandez, (Vasco,) an eminent 
 Portuguese painter, born at Viseu in 1552. Little is 
 known of his life. 
 
 Fernandez. See Hernandez. 
 
 Fernandez, feR-nan'deth,( Alfoxzo,) a Spanish monk 
 and historian, born at Palencia in 1572; died in 1640. 
 
 Fernandez, (Antonio de Arias — di a're-as,) a 
 celebrated Spanish painter, born at Madrid. His pic- 
 tures had once a high reputation. Died in 1684. 
 
 Fernandez, (Diego,) a Spanish historian and soldier, 
 born at Palencia. He embarked for Peru in 1545, and 
 entered the service of the viceroy Hurtado de Mendoza, 
 as historiographer, in 1555. He wrote a " History of 
 Peru," (1571,) which is said to be the best contemporary 
 work on that subject. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Fernandez, feR-nin'dez, (Diniz,) a Portuguese navi- 
 gator, born in Lisbon, sailed about 1446 on an exploring 
 expedition to Africa, and discovered the mouth of the 
 Senegal, and the promontory at the extreme western part 
 of Africa, to which he gave the name of Cape Verd. 
 
 Fernandez, ( Francisco, ) a celebrated Spanish 
 painter, born in Madrid in 1605; died in 1646. 
 
 See Quii.uet, "Vies des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Fernandez, (Joao,) a Portuguese traveller, who about 
 1446 visited the west coast of Africa. He is supposed 
 to have been the first European who penetrated into the 
 interior of that continent, which he entered at the mouth 
 of the Rio do Ouro. 
 
 Fernandez, (Juan,) a Spanish captain and navigator, 
 entered in 1533 the service of Alvarado in South America. 
 He accompanied Antonio de Sedeno in an expedition to 
 Venezuela. Died in 1538. 
 
 Fernandez, (Juan,) a Spanish pilot and navigator, 
 discovered in 1563 the two islands which bear his name, 
 and planted a colony on the larger island, which is eigh- 
 teen miles long. The adventures of Alexander Selkirk 
 on this island are supposed to have formed the basis of 
 De Foe's story of "Robinson Crusoe." Other discoveries 
 in the Southern Ocean are ascribed to him. Died in 1576. 
 See Anson, " Voyage round the World," etc. 
 Fernandez, (Luis,) a Spanish painter and disciple 
 of Eugenio Caxes, was born in Madrid about 1594; died 
 in 1654. 
 Fernandez de Cordova. See Gonzalvo. 
 Fernandez de Laredo, feR-nan'deth da la-ra'Do, 
 (Juan,) a Spanish painter in fresco, born at Madrid in 
 1632 ; died in 1692. 
 Fernandez Navarrete. See Mudo, el. 
 Fernandez Villareal, feR-nan'dez vil-la-ra'al, (Ma- 
 NOEL,) a Portuguese writer, born in Lisbon, published a 
 curious work on the imprisonment of the Portuguese 
 prince Duarte in Germany, "El Principe vendido," etc., 
 (1643.) He was accused of observing the Mosaic law, 
 and was strangled in Lisbon in 1652. 
 Fernandi. See FerdinanDi. 
 
 Fernau, feR'now, ( Karl, ) originally Sebastian 
 Francis Daxenherger, a German litterateur, born at 
 Munich in 1809, wrote "Mythical Poems," and several 
 dramas, among which is one called "Bianca Capello." 
 
 Feme, fern or farn, (Henry,) a learned English 
 prelate, born at York in 1602, was one of the first who 
 openly defended by his writings the cause of Charles I. 
 After the restoration he was made Bishop of Chester, in 
 1660. Died in 1661. 
 
 Feme, (Sir John,) an English antiquary, father of the 
 preceding, born in Lincolnshire ; died about 1610. He 
 published "The Blazon of the Gentry," (1586.) 
 
 Ferneham, fam'ham, ? (Nicholas,) an English phy- 
 sician and naturalist, gave much attention to botany. He 
 became physician to Henry III., and afterwards Bishop 
 of Durham. Died in 1241. 
 
 Fernel, feR'nel', [Lat. Ferne'i.ius,] (Jean,) an emi- 
 nent French physician, surnamed the modern Galen, 
 was born at Clermont in Beauvoisis in 1497. He prac- 
 tised in Paris, and acquired a' high reputation as a prac- 
 titioner, a professor, and an elegant writer. About 1547 
 he received the title of first physician to Henry II. He 
 was the teacher of Vesalius. He wrote numerous works 
 on anatomy, pathology, therapeutics, etc., among which 
 
 are "De abditis Rerum Causis," (1548,) and "J. Fernelii 
 Medicina," (1554,) often reprinted.* Died in April, 1558. 
 See G. Plantius, "Vita Fernelii;" De Thou, "Hisioria sui 
 Temporis;" Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Fernow, feR'no, (Karl Ludwig,) a German author 
 and critic, born at Blumenhagen, in Prussia, in 1763. 
 He studied the theory and history of art at Rome under 
 the direction of his friend Carstens, whose life he wrote, 
 (1806.) Among his works are " Roman Studies," (" R6- 
 mische Studien," 1806-08,) "Ariosto's Lebenslauf," 
 (1809,) and " Francesco Petrarca," (1818.) Died in 1808. 
 
 See J. Schopenhauer, " C. L. Fernow's Leben," 1810. 
 
 Feron, fa'r6N', (Firmin Eloi,) a painter of history, 
 born in Paris in 1802, gained the grand prize in 1825. 
 
 Fe-ro'nI-a, [Fr. Feronie, fi'ro ne',] an ancient Italian 
 divinity, whose worship originated with the Sabines. Her 
 character is not well understood. 
 
 Feroze or Ferose. See Fyroz. 
 
 Ferracino, fer-ra-chee'no, (Bartolommeo,) a cele- 
 brated Italian mechanician and engineer, was born near 
 Bassano in 1692. Among his inventions were a saw 
 driven by the wind, a hydraulic engine which raised water 
 to the height of thirtv-five feet, and a bridge over the 
 Brenta at Bassano, which won for him a high reputation. 
 The inhabitants of Bassano raised a monument to his 
 memory. Died in 1777. 
 
 See F. Memmo, " Vita di Bartolommeo Ferracino." 
 
 Ferracuti, fer-ra-koo'tee, (Giovanni Domenico,) an 
 Italian landscape-painter, born at Macerata, flourished 
 about 1700. He was a pupil of Claude Lorrain. 
 
 Ferraiuoli or Ferrajuoli, fer-ra-yoo-o'lee, (Nunzio,) 
 a Neapolitan landscape-painter, born in Nocera, near 
 Salerno, in 1661 ; died in 1735. 
 
 Ferramola, fer-ra-mo'la, (Fioravante,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Brescia ; died in 1528. 
 
 Ferrand, fi'r6x', a French traveller and physician, 
 born about 1670. He became medical adviser to the 
 Khan of the Tartars of Crimea, and wrote several works 
 relating to that country. 
 
 Ferrand, (Antoine,) a distinguished French writer 
 of epigrams, born in Paris in 1678 ; died in that city in 
 1 7 19. 
 
 Ferrand, (Antoine Francois Claude,) Count, a 
 French writer on politics, history, etc., was born in Paris 
 in 1 75 1. He emigrated as a royalist in 1789. In 1814 
 he became director-general of the post-office. He was 
 chosen a member of the French Academy by the king 
 in 1816. Among his works is "The Spirit of History," 
 ("L'Esprit de l'Histoire," 1802; 6th edition, 4 vols., 
 1826.) Died in 1825. 
 
 SeeCASlMiR Delavigne, "Discoursde Reception" at the French 
 Academy. 
 
 Ferrand, (Jacques,) a French physician and writer, 
 born at Agen, lived about 1620. 
 
 Ferrand, (Jacques,) a distinguished French general, 
 born in 1746; died in 1804. 
 
 Ferrand, (Jacques Philippe,) a French painter, born 
 in Joigny about 1653, was a member of the Royal Acad- 
 emy of Painting, and the author of a work entitled 
 " Art of the Fire, or Manner of Enamelling." Died in 
 1732. 
 
 Ferrand, (Louis,) a French advocate and wiiter on 
 theology, born in Toulon in 1645, was versed in Hebrew 
 and other Oriental languages. He was the author of 
 numerous works, among which is " Reflections on the 
 Christian Religion," (1679.) Died in 1699. 
 
 Ferrand, (Marie Louis,) a French general, bom in 
 Besancon in 1753, accompanied Leclerc in his expedition 
 against Hayti in 1802, and, on the death of that general, 
 succeeded to the chief command. Having failed in an 
 attempt to suppress a revolt in Saint Domingo, he shot 
 himself in 1808. . 
 
 Ferrand de la Caussade, fi'r6N' deh IS ko'std', 
 (Jean Henri Becays — bi'ki',) a French general, born 
 in Mont-Flanquin, in Agenois, in 1736, served under 
 Dumouriez at the defence of Valenciennes, where he 
 greatly distinguished himself. Died in Paris in 1805. 
 
 Ferrando, fer-ran'do, (Gonsalvo,) a Spaniard, born 
 at Oviedo in the fifteenth century, introduced lignum 
 Guaiacum into Europe, and wrote a tract on it. 
 
 a, e,T, o. u, y, /o«y: i, e, 6, same, less prolonged: 5. e.T.o.ii.V. short: a, e.i. o. obscure: far. fill, fat; met: not; good; moon: 
 
FERRAKDUS 
 
 911 
 
 FERRAVD 
 
 Ferrandus, ( Fui.gkn'tius, ) [Fr. Fuk;knck Fer- 
 Rand, fuTzh&Nss' fj'rdx',] a Christian writer, bom in 
 Africa, was a deacon of the Chinch of Carthage. Among 
 his works is •' llrcviatio Canonum." Died about 550 A.D. 
 
 Ferrautini, fer-ran-tee'nee, (Gabriki.k,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Bologna about 1580, was called G\- 
 bkif.i.k digi.i Occm ai.i, (dll'yee ok-kea'lee.) He ex- 
 celled in frescos. Among his pupils was Guido Keni. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy.'* 
 
 Fer'rar, (Nicholas,) a learned English gentleman, 
 born in London in 1592, had a high reputation for piety, 
 lie formed at Little Gidding a community called "the 
 English nunnery," the inmates of which were his relatives. 
 The whole book of Psalms was repeated by them every 
 day, and this devotion was practised by them every hour 
 of the night. Died in 1637. 
 
 See P. Peckard, " Life of N. Ferrar," 1790. 
 
 Ferrar, (Robert,) an English divine, born in York- 
 shire, was appointed Bishop of Saint David's by Edward 
 VI. in 1548. On the accession of Mary he was con- 
 demned as a heretic, and burnt, in 1555. 
 
 Ferrara, fei -ra'ra, (Alfeo,) a distinguished physician, 
 bom in Sicily in 1777, was the author of a "Memoir 
 upon the Waters of Sicily," and other works. Died at 
 Paris in 1829. 
 
 Ferrara, (Andrea,) an Italian, celebrated as a sword- 
 smith, lived about 1520-50. He worked in Spain. 
 
 Ferrara, (Francesco,) an Italian economist and writer 
 on statistics, born at Palermo in 1810. He published, 
 besides other works, "The Importance of Political Econ- 
 omy," (1849.) 
 
 Ferrara, (Michf.i.e,) an Italian chemist and writer on 
 pharmacy, born in Terra di Lavoro in 1763 ; died in 1817. 
 
 Ferrara, ( Kenee, ) Duchess of. See Renee of 
 France. 
 
 Ferrara, da, di fer-ra'ra,(ANTONio,) an Italian painter 
 of the school of Ferrara, flourished about 1450. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Ferrara, da, (Ercolf.) See Grandf. 
 
 Ferrari, t?r-ra'ree, (Antonio,) surnamed Galateo, 
 |I.at. Gai.ate'us Leccen'sis,] an Italian physician and 
 antiquary, born in Galatina, in the kingdom of Naples, 
 in 1444, was the author of several philosophical and 
 historical works. He passed the latter part of his life 
 at Lecce, where he died in 1516. 
 
 Ferrari, (Antonio Felice,) an Italian painter of the 
 school of Ferrara, born in 1668; died in 1719. 
 
 Ferrari, (Bartoi.ommeo,) an Italian religionist, born 
 at Milan in 1497. He founded the religious order or 
 institution of Barnabites. Died in 1544. 
 
 Ferrari, (Bartoi.ommeo,) a Venetian sculptor, born 
 in 1 7R0. He executed a number of superior works in 
 marble, bronze, and wood, and completed the restora- 
 tion of the bronze winged lion which adorns the Piazzetta 
 at Venice. Died in 1844. 
 
 Ferrari, [ Lat. Ferra'rius, ] (Francesco Bernar- 
 dino,) a learned Italian, born at Milan in 1577, became 
 librarian of the Ambrosian Library about 1609. He 
 wrote several ecclesiastical and antiquarian works, 
 among which is " De Ritu sacrarum Ecclesiae Catholicae 
 Concionum," (1612.) Died in 1669. He collected the 
 manuscripts and books which formed the commencement 
 of the Ambrosian Library. 
 
 Ferrari, (Gaudenzio,) an eminent painter and sculp- 
 tor of the Milanese school of Leonardo da Vinci, was 
 born at Valduggia in 1484. He studied under B. I.uini. 
 In 1 5 16 he aided Raphael in painting frescos in the Vati- 
 can at Rome. He worked mostly at Varallo. His style 
 is somewhat Raphaelesque ; but he is deficient in taste 
 and harmony of colour. He is regarded as the greatest 
 painter of the Milanese school after Leonardo da Vinci. 
 His subjects are all religious. Died at Milan in 1550. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters;" G. Hondiga, "Vita di 
 Gaudenzio Ferrari," 1821 ; Lomazzo, " Idea del Tempio della Pit- 
 tura:" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Ferrari, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian Orientalist 
 and naturalist, born at Sienna in 1584, wrote "Nomcn- 
 clator Syriacus," (1622,) and other works. Died in 1655. 
 
 Ferrari, (Giovanni Matteo,) an Italian physician 
 and medical writer, born near Milan ; died in 1472. 
 
 Ferrari, (Giuseppe,) an Italian philosopher, born at 
 Milan in 1 8 1 1 , became a resident in Fiance. He was 
 appointed professor of philosophy at Strasbourg in 1841. 
 Among his works are " Vico and Italy," (1839,) and an 
 " Essay on the Principle and Limits of the Philosophy 
 of History," (1847.) Both are in French. 
 
 Ferrari, (Gregorio,) a skilful painter of the Genoese 
 school, born in 1644; died in 1726. His son Lorenzo, 
 called Ahb£ Ferrari, was also a painter. He was born 
 in 1680, and died in 1744. 
 
 Ferrari, (Guido,) an Italian scholar and Jesuit, born 
 at Novara in 1 717. He wrote several antiquarian and 
 historical works. Died in 1 791. 
 
 Ferrari, (Luca,) an Italian painter, born at Reggio in 
 1605, studied under Guido Reni, and imitated his style 
 successfully. Died in 1654. 
 
 Ferrari, (Ludovico,) an Italian mathematician, born 
 at Bologna in 1522, was a pupil of the celebrated Car- 
 dan. He discovered the mode of resolving equations 
 of the fourth degree which is called by his name. Died 
 in 1565. 
 
 See Montucla, " Histoire des Mathematiques." 
 
 Ferrari, (Luigi,) son of the sculptor Bartolommeo 
 Ferrari, born at Venice in 1810, is ranked among the 
 most distinguished sculptors of the present time. His 
 figures of "Melancholy" and "The Lotos-gathering 
 Nymph" are esteemed master-pieces. 
 
 Ferrari, (Luigi Maria Bartolommeo,) an Italian 
 ecclesiastic, and professor of mathematics and natural 
 philosophy at Bologna, born at Milan in 1747. He was 
 the author of various works upon religious subjects and 
 upon hydraulics. Died in 1820. 
 
 Ferrari, (Orazio,) a Genoese painter, born at Voltri 
 in 1606; died in 1657. 
 
 Ferrari, (Ottaviano,) an Italian scholar, born at 
 Milan in 1518, published a treatise "On the Origin of 
 the Romans," (1607,) and other critical and antiquarian 
 works. Died in 1586. 
 
 Ferrari, (Ottavio,) an Italian antiquary, nephew of 
 Francesco Bernardino, noticed above, was born at Milan 
 in 1607. He became professor of philosophy and Greek 
 literature at Padua in 1634. Among his chief works 
 is "Sources (or Elements) of the Italian Language," 
 (" Origines Linguae Italicae," 1676.) Died in 1682. 
 
 See J. Fabricios, "Vita Ferrarii," 1710. 
 
 Ferrari, de', da fer-ra'ree, (Giovanni Andrea,) a 
 Genoese painter of history, landscapes, and animals, was 
 born about 1600 ; died in 1669. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Ferraris, fer-ri'ris, (Joseph,) Count of, a celebrated 
 commander, born at Luneville in 1726. He served in 
 the war of the Austrian succession, and afterwards in the 
 Seven Years' war. About 1777 he published the twenty- 
 five-sheet map of the Netherlands which is called by his 
 name. He was appointed vice-president of the imperial 
 council of war in 1798, and in 1801 field-marshal. Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 Fer'rars, (Edward,) an English writer, born in War- 
 wickshire, was the author of several dramas, which have 
 been lost. Died in 1564. 
 
 Ferrars or Ferrers, (George,) an English lawyer, 
 poet, and historian, born near Saint Alban's about 1512. 
 He became a favourite courtier of Henry VIII., and 
 wrote a " History of the Reign of Queen Mary." He 
 contributed to "The Mirror for Magistrates" six trage- 
 dies or poems, among which are "The Fall of Robert 
 Tressilian" and "The Tragedy of King Richard II." 
 Died in 1579. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica;" Wakton, "History of English 
 Poetry." 
 
 Ferrars, (Henry,) a relative of Edward, noticed 
 above, born about 1560, was the author of several treatises 
 on antiquities and heraldry. He was a friend of the 
 celebrated Camden. Died in 1633. 
 
 Ferrata, fcr-ra'ta, (Ercoi.e,) an eminent Italian 
 sculptor, born near Como about 1610; died in 1685. 
 
 Ferrato Sasso. Sec Salvi. 
 
 Ferraud, fj'ro', or Feraud, fa'i o', a French deputy to 
 the National Convention, born in Armagnac in 1764, was 
 an adherent of the Girondists, and voted for the death 
 of the king. While resisting the populace, who were 
 
 « at i; c as s: g hard; g as/'; G, H, y.,guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled: s as *: th as in this. (&J^="See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
FERREIN 
 
 912 
 
 FERRO 
 
 endeavouring to force the doors of the Convention, in 
 May, 1795, he was killed by a pistol-shot. 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Ferrein, fi'raw', (Antoine,) a distinguished French 
 anatomist and physician, born near Agen in 1693; died 
 in 1769. He was author of several anatomical works. 
 
 Ferreira, fer-ra'e-ra, (Alexandre,) a Portuguese 
 nistorian, born in Oporto. He wrote a "History of the 
 Knights Templars," which is highly esteemed. Died in 
 
 1737- 
 
 Ferreira, fer-ra'e-ra, (Alexandre Rodriques,) a 
 Brazilian naturalist and traveller, born at Bahia in 1756. 
 He spent nine years in exploring Brazil, from 1784 to 
 1793. Died in 1815. 
 
 Ferreira, (Antonio,) a celebrated poet, sometimes 
 called "the Portuguese Horace," was born at Lisbon 
 in 1528. He became a professor at the University of 
 Coimbra, and wrote, besides numerous sonnets, odes, 
 epistles, and epigrams, a tragedy of "Inez de Castro," 
 which ranks among the most beautiful productions in 
 the Portuguese language. He was one of the principal 
 promoters of classical taste in Portuguese poetry. His 
 epistles (Cartas) are regarded by some critics as his best 
 works. Died in 1569. 
 
 See F. Denis, " Resume de l'Histoire litteVaire du Portugal ;" 
 Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Barbosa Machado, 
 "Bibliotheca Lusitaua ;" J. M. da Costa e Sylva, " Ensaio sobre 
 os melhores Poetas Portuguezes," 1S52. 
 
 Ferreira, (Ciiristovao,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born 
 about 1580 at Torres-Vedras, went as a missionary to 
 Japan, where he remained twenty-four years, and suffered 
 martyrdom at Nagasaki about 1652. 
 
 Ferrer, fer-raiR', (Bartolome,) a Spanish navigator, 
 was chief pilot of an expedition which, under Cabrillo, 
 explored the coast of California in 1542. He succeeded 
 to the command on the death of Cabrillo, January, 1543. 
 
 Ferrer, (Jayme,) a Spanish cosmographer, was sum- 
 moned to court in 1496, and employed to fix a line of 
 demarcation which should separate the Spanish from the 
 Portuguese possessions in the New World. 
 
 Ferreri, fSr-ra'ree, (Andrea,) an Italian sculptor and 
 painter, born at Milan in 1673 ; died in 1744. 
 
 Ferreri, (Zaccaria,) a Latin poet, born in 1479 in 
 Vicenza, Italy, was appointed by Pope Leo X., in 15 19, 
 Bishop of Guardia, in the kingdom of Naples. Died 
 about 1530. 
 
 Ferreras, de, da f§r-ra'ras, (Juan,) a learned Spanish 
 ecclesiastic and historian, born near Astorga in 1652. He 
 assisted in compiling the great Spanish Dictionary ; but 
 his principal work is his " Historical and Chronological 
 Synopsis of Spain," (16 vols. 4to.) It comes down to 
 1588, and is highly esteemed for its accuracy. Died in 
 
 1735- 
 
 Ferrero, fSr-ra'ro, (Edward,) a general, born in Spain 
 about 1832, came to the United States in his childhood. 
 As colonel, he served with distinction in the Union army 
 at Newbern, and at Antietam, September, 1862, and was 
 not long after appointed a brigadier-general. He com- 
 manded a division of the army which besieged Peters- 
 burg in June, 1864. 
 
 Ferrers, (Gf.orge.) See Ferrars. 
 
 Ferreti, fer-ra'tee, or Ferreto, fer-ra'to, [Lat. Fer- 
 re'tus,] an Italian historian and poet, born at Vicenza 
 about 1296, wrote a History of Italy from 1230 to 1318. 
 
 Ferreti, (Emilio,) a distinguished Italian jurist and 
 legal writer, born in Tuscany in 1489, was secretary to 
 Pope Leo X. He afterwards became counsellor to the 
 Parliament of Paris, and French ambassador to Charles 
 V. of Germany, whom he afterwards accompanied on his 
 African expedition. Died in 1552. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Ferreti, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian antiquary, 
 born at Vicenza in 1639. He wrote "Musae Lapidariaa 
 Antiquorum in Marmoribus Carmina," (1672.) Died in 
 1682. 
 
 Ferreti, (Giovanni Domenico, ) a skilful Italian 
 painter, born at Florence in 1692. His design is correct, 
 and his colouring vivid. Died after 1750. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Diziona- 
 rio;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gdne>ale." 
 
 Ferreti, (Giulio,) an Italian jurist and writer on law, 
 born in Ravenna in 1480; died in 1547. 
 
 F8r'rey, (Benjamin,) an English architect, born at 
 Christ Church, in Hampshire, in 1810, was a pupil of A. 
 Pugin. Among his principal structures are churches at 
 Taunton and Eton, and Saint Stephen's Church, West- 
 minster. He is the author of a treatise " On the An- 
 tiquities of the Priory of Christ Church," (1834.) His 
 works are mostly in the Gothic style. 
 
 Ferri, fer'ree, or Ferro, fer'ro, [Lat. Fer'rius,] (Al- 
 phonso,) an Italian physician, was first surgeon to Pope 
 Paul III., and the author of several medical and surgical 
 works. Died about 15S0. 
 
 Ferri, (Giro,) a distinguished Italian painter and 
 architect, born in Rome in 1634, was a pupil of Pietro 
 da Cortona, whose style he imitated successfully. He 
 excelled as a fresco-painter, and assisted Pietro da Cor- 
 tona in many of his great works. He is said to have 
 been an almost universal artist. Died in 1689. 
 
 See Winckelmann, " Neues Mahler- Lexikon ;" Lanzi, "History 
 of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Dizionario." 
 
 Ferri, (Geronimo,) a learned Italian writer, born in 
 Romagna in 1713. He was appointed professor of rheto- 
 ric in the University of Ferrara by Pope Clement XIV, 
 He was the author of various works. Died in 1766. 
 
 Ferri, (Paul.) See Ferry. 
 
 Fer'rl-ar, (John,) an English physician, born at 
 Chester in 1764, wrote "Medical Histories and Reflec- 
 tions," (3 vols., 1792-98,) and "Illustrations of Sterne," 
 (1798.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Ferrier, fti're-i', (Auger,) a French physician and 
 medical writer, born near Toulouse in 15 13 ; died in 
 1588. 
 
 F6r'rl-er, (James F.,) a British writer on moral phi- 
 losophy, born in Edinburgh about 1808, was a son- 
 in-law of Professor John Wilson. He was appointed 
 professor of moral philosophy and political economy in 
 the University of Saint Andrew's in 1845. His most 
 important work is " Institutes of Metaphyics, the Theory 
 of Knowing and Being," (1854,) which was favourably 
 received. Died in 1864. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1855, and March, 
 1867 ; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S67. 
 
 Ferrier, (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born at Rodez in 
 1619, wrote against the Jansenists. He became con- 
 fessor to Louis XIV. in 1670. Died in 1670 or 1674. 
 
 Ferrier, (Jekemie,) a French professor of theology, 
 born about 1560. He was a Protestant minister at 
 Nimes, and argued in 1602 that the pope was Anti- 
 christ. About 1612 he became a Roman Catholic. He 
 was regarded as a traitor by the Protestants before his 
 public avowal of his conversion. Died in 1626. 
 
 Ferrier, sometimes called erroneously Ferriere, 
 (Louis,) a French poet, born in Aries in 1652 ; died in 
 1721. 
 
 Ferrier, (Miss Mary,) a Scottish novelist, born in 
 Edinburgh about 1782. She produced a number of suc- 
 cessful novels, among which are "Marriage," (1818,) 
 "The Inheritance," (1824,) and "Destiny, or the Chiefs 
 Daughter," (1831.) She was intimate with Sir Walter 
 Scott, who described her as a "gifted personage, having, 
 besides her great talents, conversation the least ixigeante 
 of any author — female, at least — whom he had ever seen." 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1842. 
 
 Ferrier, du, dii fl're-i', (Arnaud,) a French jurist, 
 born at Toulouse about 1506. He represented Henry 
 II. of France at the Council of Trent, where he gave 
 offence by his liberal sentiments. He afterwards avowed 
 himself a Protestant, and became chancellor of Henry 
 of Navarre. Died in 1585. 
 
 See De Thou, "Historia sui Temporis;" Bayle, "Historical 
 and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Ferriere. See La Ferriere. 
 
 Ferrieres or Ferriere, de, deh fi're-aiR', (Claude,) 
 a distinguished French lawyer, born in Paris in 1639, 
 was the author of numerous legal works. Died in 1714. 
 
 Ferro, del, del fer'ro, (Scii'ione,) an Italian mathe- 
 matician, born at Bologna about 1465. He discovered a 
 method to resolve equations of the third degree. Died 
 about 1525, or after that date. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
FERRON 
 
 9»3 
 
 FETI 
 
 Perron, Le, leh fJ'roN', (Arnoui.,) a French jurist 
 and historian, horn at Bordeaux in 151 5. He wrote, in 
 elegant Latin, a continuation of Paolo Emilio's " History 
 of France," (1554) Died in 1563. 
 
 Ferroni, fcr-ro'nec, (Giroi.amo,) an Italian painter 
 and engraver, born at Milan in 1687. 
 
 Ferrucoi, fer-root'chee, (Andrea,) an Italian sculp- 
 tor, born at Fiesole. He died at an advanced age in 1522. 
 
 Ferrucci, (l''KANCEsco,)surnamedDKLTAm>A,a Flor- 
 entine sculptor, who worked in porphyry. Died in 1585. 
 
 Ferrucci, (Nicodemo,) a skilful painter of the Flor- 
 entine school, born at Fiesole; died in 1650. 
 
 Ferrucci, (Pompeo,) an Italian sculptor, born at Fie- 
 sole, lived at Rome. Died about 1625. 
 
 Ferry, f&'re', (Claude Joseph,) a French statesman 
 and savant, born near Saint-Die in 1756. He was a 
 republican member of the Convention of 1792, and 
 succeeded Malus as examiner in the Polytechnic School 
 in 1812, but was deprived of that place in 1814. Died 
 in 1845. 
 
 F&r'rjf, (Orris S.,) an American Senator, born at 
 Bethel, Connecticut, in 1823, became a lawyer, and set- 
 tled at Norwalk. He was elected a member of Congress 
 for the fourth district of Connecticut in 1859. Having 
 entered the army as colonel in 1861, he was appointed a 
 brigadier-general about March, 1862. He was elected 
 to the Senate of the United States by the legislature of 
 Connecticut for six years, March, 1867-73. 
 
 Fen-y or Ferri, [Lat. Fer'rius,] (Paul,) an elo- 
 quent French Protestant minister, born at Metz in 1 591. 
 He preached in his native place more than fifty years, 
 and acquired great influence. He wrote many theological 
 works, among which is "Scholastici Orthodoxi Speci- 
 men," (1616.) Died in 1669. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Haag, "La 
 France protestante." 
 
 Fersen, von, fon feVsen, (Axel,) a Swedish general 
 and senator, born about 1715. He was an active and 
 prominent member of the Diet, and opposed the policy 
 of Gustavus III. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Geyer, " Histoire de la Suede." 
 
 Fersen, von, (Axel,) Count, marshal of Sweden, a 
 son of the preceding, born at Stockholm in 1750. He 
 entered the French service, and fought for the United 
 States, 1778-82. In the disguise of a coachman, he 
 conducted Louis XVI. and his family out of Paris in his 
 flight to Varennes, 1791. He returned to Sweden, and 
 was appointed marshal of the kingdom about 1801. He 
 was murdered in 1810 by a mob, who suspected him of 
 complicity in the death of Prince Christian. 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generate. " 
 
 Ferte-Imbaut, de la, deh It feVta' Sn'1)o', Mar- 
 quise, a celebrated French lady, was a daughter of 
 Madame Geoffrin. She was married in 1733 to the 
 Marquis de la Ferte-Imbaut. 
 
 Ferte, La. See La Ferte. 
 
 Fertiault, feVte'6', (Francois,) a French poet and 
 litterateur, born at Verdun in 1814. 
 
 Ferus, fa'rus, (Johann,) a learned German ecclesi- 
 astic, whose original name was Wild, (wilt,) born at 
 Metz in 1494. He wrote commentaries on the books 
 of the Old and New Testaments, which are commended 
 by Dupin and Bayle. Died in 1554. 
 
 Ferussac, de, deh fi'ru'sik', (Andre Etienne Just 
 Pascal Joseph Francois d'Audebard— dod'bjR',) 
 Baron, a French naturalist, the son of Jean Baptiste 
 Ferussac, noticed below, was born in 1786 or 1784. He 
 published an important work, entitled "Natural History 
 of Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca," (1817,) and other 
 treatises on natural history. He founded and edited a 
 valuable scientific journal, called "Bulletin universe! des 
 Sciences," (1823-30.) Died in Paris in 1836. 
 
 Ferussac, de, (Jean Baptiste Louis d'Audebard,) 
 Babok, a French naturalist, born at Clerac, in Langue- 
 doc, in 1745. He was a captain in the navy before the 
 Revolution. He wrote a work on fresh-water mollusca, 
 (1807.) Diedini8i5. 
 
 Fesca, fgs'ka, (Friedrich ERNST,)»a German musi- 
 cian and composer, born at Magdeburg in 1789. He 
 produced a number of symphonies, overtures, etc., and 
 
 two operas, entitled "Cantemira," and "Omar and 
 Leila." Died in 1826. 
 
 Fesch, Igsh, (Joseph,) born in Corsica in 1763, was 
 half-brother to the mother of Napoleon. Soon after the 
 concordat concluded by Bonaparte with Pius VII. in 
 1801, Fesch was created Archbishop of Lyons, and in 
 1803 was made a cardinal. In 1805 he was appointed 
 grand almoner, and senator of the empire. When offered 
 the archbishopric of Paris, in 1809, Cardinal Fesch, 
 offended by Bonaparte's unkindness to the pope, refused 
 the promotion, and in the Council of Paris, in 1810, boldly 
 condemned the conduct of the emperor. For this he 
 was banished to Lyons, where he remained until 1814. 
 After the battle of Waterloo he took refuge at Rome, 
 and died there in 1839. His celebrated collection of 
 pictures, medals, etc. was sold at auction. 
 
 See "Le Cardinal Fesch, Fragments biographiques," Lyons, 
 1841 ; Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire. ' 
 
 Fessard, fi'saV, (Pierre Ai.phonse,) a French statu- 
 ary, born in Paris in 1798 ; died in 1844. 
 
 Fes'sen-den, (Thomas Green,) an American satirical 
 poet, born in Walpole, New Hampshire, in 177 1, gradu- 
 ated at Dartmouth College in 1796, and studied law. 
 He produced a poem called "The Country Lovers,'* 
 which was very popular, went to England in 1801, and 
 there published, in 1803, his humorous poem "Terrible 
 Tractoration," (on the Metallic Tractors of Dr. Perkins.) 
 He settled in Boston about 1804, and became the editor 
 of the "New England Farmer." Died in 1837. 
 
 See Duvckinck's "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Fessenden, (William Pitt,) an American Senator, 
 a son of the Hon. Samuel Fessenden, was born at Bos. 
 cawen, New Hampshire, on the 16th of October, 1806, 
 He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1823, studied law, 
 and began to practise at Portland, Maine, about 1828. 
 In 1840 he was elected a member of Congress by the 
 Whigs of Maine. He served in the legislature of that 
 State in 1845 and 1846, after which he passed several 
 years in the practice of his profession. He was elected 
 a Senator of the United States by the legislature of 
 Maine in 1853 or 1854, and about that time joined the 
 Republican party. He acquired a high reputation as a 
 debater, was re-elected a member of the United States 
 Senate in 1859, and was appointed chairman of the com- 
 mittee on finance. In July, 1864, he was appointed to 
 the office of secretary of the treasury, rendered vacant 
 by the resignation of Mr. Chase. He resigned this post 
 about February, 1865, and in March of that year resumed 
 his seat in the Senate, to which he had again been elected 
 for a term of six years. He was one of the seven Re- 
 publican Senators who decided that President Johnson 
 was not guilty of high crimes or misdemeanours, May 
 16, 1868. Died in September, 1869. 
 
 Fess'ler, (Ignaz Aurei.ius,) a historian and novelist, 
 born in Lower Hungary in 1756, was professor of Ori- 
 ental languages at Lemberg about 1784. His principal 
 work is a "History of Hungary," (10 vols., 1812-25.) 
 He also wrote several historical romances, and an inter- 
 esting autobiography, (1826.) Died at Saint Petersburg 
 in 1839. 
 
 Festa, feVta, (Constantino,) an Italian musician 
 and composer of madrigals, became a singer in the pon- 
 tifical chapel at Rome in 15 17. Died in 1545. 
 
 Fes'tus, (Porcius,) a Roman officer, who in 62 A.D. 
 succeeded Felix as Governor of Judea. He gained an 
 honourable and durable distinction by his conduct in the 
 case of the Apostle Paul, who was arraigned before him 
 by the Jews. (See Acts xxiv. 27, xxv. and xxvi.) 
 
 Festus, (Sextus Pompeius,) a Latin grammarian, 
 supposed to have lived in the third or fourth century. 
 His name is attached to a glossary entitled "De Signin- 
 catione Verborum," ("On the Signification of Words,") 
 which, though not preserved entire, is very important for 
 the explanation of Latin grammar and Roman antiquities. 
 It is an epitome of a work by M. Verrius Flaccus, which 
 is lost. The epitome, however, contains valuable notes 
 and criticisms added by Festus. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Latina." 
 
 Feth-Ali-Schah. See Fateh-Alee- (or Am-) Shah. 
 
 Feti, fa'tee, (Domenico,) sometimes called II Man- 
 
 tuano, an eminent Italian painter, born at Rome in 
 
 € as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gittturat; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 58 
 
 (23^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FETIS 
 
 9'4 
 
 TEVRE 
 
 1589, was a pupil of Cigoli. He worked at Mantua 
 and Venice, injured his health by dissipation, and died 
 in 1624. His works are chiefly oil-pictures of religious 
 subjects. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge^ierale." 
 
 Fetis, fa'tess', (Francois Joseph,) a Belgian com- 
 poser, critic, and biographer, born at Mons in 1784. He 
 became professor of composition in Paris in 1821, and 
 founded in 1827 the " Revue Musicale," which was re- 
 garded as high authority. He composed several operas 
 ' and pieces of sacred music. In 1833 he was appointed 
 director of the Conservatory of Brussels. He published, 
 besides several treatises on music, a "Universal Biog- 
 raphy of Musicians," .(8 vols. 8vo, 1834-44,) which is the 
 most complete work on the subject. He also published, 
 in 1869, a "General History of Music from the Earliest 
 Times down to the Present," in 8 vols. Died in 1871. 
 
 See a notice of M. F^tis, in his " Biographie Universelle des 
 Musiciens;" Gollmick, " Herr F^tis als Mensch, Kritiker, etc.," 
 1852. 
 
 Feuchere, fuh'shaiR', (Jean Jacques,) a French 
 sculptor, born in Paris in 1807 ; died in 1852. 
 
 Feucheres, de, deh fuh'shaiR', (Sophie,) Baronne, 
 born in the Isle of Wight in 1795. Her maiden name 
 was Dawks. She was the mistress of the Due de Bour- 
 bon, who was found dead in his chamber in 1830. She 
 was suspected of being accessory to his death, but after 
 trial was acquitted. Died in 1841. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge"ne"rale." 
 
 Feuchtersleben, von, fonfoiK'ters-la'ben, (Eduard 
 or Ernst,) a German philosopher and physician, born 
 in Vienna in 1806. He published, besides other works, 
 "Zur Diatetik der Seele," (1838.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Feuerbach, foi'er-baK', (Ansklm,) eldest son of the 
 eminent jurist Paul Johann Alselm, noticed below, was 
 born in 1798. He was the author of a work entitled 
 "The Apollo of the Vatican," and other archaeological 
 treatises. Died in 1851. 
 
 Feuerbach, (Friedrich Heinrich,) an Orientalist, 
 brother of the preceding, was born in 1806. He wrote 
 "Religion of the Future," (1843-47.) 
 
 Feuerbach, (Ludwig Andreas,) a speculative phi- 
 losopher and skeptic, a son of the celebrated jurist, was 
 bom at Anspach in 1804. He published, besides other 
 works, a " History of Modern Philosophy from Lord 
 Bacon to Spinoza," (1833,) and "The Essence of Chris- 
 tianity," (" Das VVesen ties Christenthums," 1841.) He 
 is a disciple of Hegel. 
 
 See Bkockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Feuerbach, (Paul Johann Anselm,) an eminent 
 German jurist and reformer of criminal law, born at Jena 
 in 1775. His first important work was entitled "Anti- 
 Hobbes, or on the Limits of Civil Power, and the Com- 
 pulsory Right of Subjects against their Sovereigns," 
 (1798 ;) and the same year he published his "Examina- 
 tion of the Crime of High Treason." In his " Review 
 of the Fundamental Principles and Ideas of Penal Law," 
 (2 vols., 1799,) and the "Library of Penal Law," he en- 
 tirely remodelled the science of criminal jurisprudence, 
 and introduced into it most important and salutary 
 reforms. In 1804 he brought out his "Critique of a 
 Project of a Penal Code for Bavaria," in consequence 
 of which he was soon after commissioned to draw up a 
 criminal code for that kingdom, which also formed the 
 basis of a reform in the penal codes of other German 
 states. In 181 2 he published "Considerations on the 
 Jury," in which he censures the defects of French legis- 
 lation, and in 1828 his "Exposition of Remarkable 
 Crimes," one of his most celebrated works. Feuerbach 
 was appointed about 1 81 7 first president of the court of 
 appeal at Anspach. In 1832 appeared his treatise en- 
 titled "Kaspar Ilauser: an Instance of a Crime against 
 a Soul," ( Vcrbrecliens am Seelenleben, ) in which he gives 
 the result of his investigations in that remarkable case. 
 He was a firm opposer of all civil and ecclesiastical ag- 
 gressions, and especially deserves the gratitude of man- 
 kind for the humanity he has infused into legislation. 
 Died at Frankfort in 1833. 
 
 See " Lcben und Wirken Anselm von Feuerbach," by his son, 
 1852; "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Feuerlein, foi'er-lln', (GeorgChristoph,) a German 
 physician and writer, born at Nuremberg in 1694 or 1695; 
 died in 1756. 
 
 Feuerlein, (Jakob Wii.helm,) a German theologian, 
 born at Nuremberg in 1689 ; died in 1776. 
 
 Feuerlein, (Johann Conrad,) a German jurist, born 
 at Wohrd in 1725; died at Nuremberg in 1788. 
 
 Feugere, fuh'zhaiR', (Leon Jacques,) a French litte- 
 rateur, born at Villeneuve-sur-Yonne in 1810 ; died in 
 1858. 
 
 Feuillade, de la, deh If fuh'yfd', (Francois d'Au- 
 busson — do'bii'sdN',) Vicomte, chevalier of the order 
 of Saint Louis, distinguished himself in the wars agains; 
 the Spaniards and the Turks, and in 1675 was create, 
 by Louis XIV. marshal of France. Died in 1691. 
 
 Feuillade, de la, (Louis,) Due, son of the preceding, 
 was created marshal of France in 1724. Died in 1725. 
 
 Feuillet, fuh'yi', sometimes written Feuillee,( Louis,) 
 a French botanist and astronomer, born near Forcalquier, 
 in Provence, in 1660. He was the companion of J. Cas- 
 sini in a geographical and hydrographical voyage to the 
 Levant. Between 1703 and 1712 he travelled in South 
 America. He published a " History of the Medicinal 
 Plants of Peru and Chili," (3 vols., 17 14,) and a "Journal 
 of Observations, Mathematical and Botanical, made on 
 the Eastern Coasts of South America and in the West 
 Indies," (2 vols., 1714.) Died at Marseilles in 1732. 
 
 See Lelong, " Bibliothfcque historique de France ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Feuillet, (Nicolas,) a noted French preacher and 
 moralist, born in 1622 ; died in Paris in 1693. 
 
 Feuillet, (Octave,) a French novelist and dramatist, 
 born at Saint-Lo (Manche) in 1822. Among his works 
 are comedies called "The Crisis," ("La Crise," 1848,) 
 and " Dalila," (1857.) He was elected to the French 
 Academy in 1862. 
 
 Feuquieres, de, deh fuh'ke-aiR', (Antoine de Pas 
 — deh pi,) Marquis, a distinguished French generai, 
 grandson of the following, was born in Paris in 1648. 
 He served with eminent ability from 1667 until 1697. He 
 wrote an able work on military tactics, entitled " Memoires 
 sur la Guerre," (4 vols., 1731.) Died in 1711. 
 
 Feuquieres, de, or Feuquiere, (Manasses de Pas,) 
 Marquis, a French general and diplomatist, born at 
 Saumur in 1590. Having been sent on a mission to Ger- 
 many after the death of Gustavus Adolphus, he formed 
 an alliance with that country against Austria. He was 
 killed at the siege of Thionville in 1640. 
 
 His son Isaac, also a general and ambassador, was 
 appointed Viceroy of America in 1660. Died in 1088. 
 
 Feutry, fuh'tRe', (Aime Ambroise Joseph,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Lille in 1720; died in 1789. 
 
 Feval, fa'vil', (Paul,) a popular French novelist, 
 born at Rennes in November, 1817. He began his 
 literary career as a writer for several journals of Paris. 
 In 1844 he produced, under the assumed name of Sir 
 Francis Trolopp, "The Mysteries of London," (1 1 vols.) 
 Among his works are "Captain Spartacus," (1845,) an0 - 
 "The Iron Man," ("L'Homme de Fer," 1856.) 
 
 See C. Robin, " Biographie de P. Feval," 1848. 
 
 Feversham, Earl of. See Durfort, (Louis.) 
 
 Fevre. See Le Febvrf. and Le Fevre. 
 
 Fevre, Le, (Anne.) See Dacikr, Madame. 
 
 Fevre, Le, leh f&v-R or leh fevR, (Claude,) a French 
 portrait-painter and engraver, born at Fontainebleau in 
 1633, was patronized by Louis XIV. He painted some 
 subjects of sacred history. Died in London in 1675. 
 
 Fevre, Le, (Jacques,) a French polemical writer on 
 theology, born at Lisieux. He wrote against the Prot- 
 estant doctrines. Died in 1 7 16. 
 
 Fevre, Le, (Jkan Baptists,) or Lefebvre de Ville- 
 brune, a French philologist, born at Senlis in 1732. 
 He was master of many ancient and modern languages. 
 Among his chief works is a translation of Athenams. 
 He became professor of Hebrew and Syriac in the Col- 
 lege of France in 1792. Died in 1809. 
 
 Fevre, Le, (Nicolas,) [Lat. Nicola'us Fa'ber,] a 
 French scholar, born in Paris in 1544, published a 
 valuable edition Of Seneca, with notes. As a critic he 
 is highly commended by Lipsius and Scaliger. Died 
 in 161 1. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon j 
 
FEFRE 
 
 9'5 
 
 FICHTE 
 
 Fevre, I«e, (Roi.aniO ■ French portrait-painter, born 
 (bout 1605, worked in England, where he died in 1677. 
 Fevret, frjh-vKi', (C11 aki .ks,) ■ learned and distin- 
 
 fnished French jurist, born in 15S3 at Semur-en-Auxois. 
 le wrote several works on canon law, one of which is 
 entitled "Traitc de 1'Abus," (1653.) Died in 1661. 
 
 His son Piekkk, born in 1625, founded the public 
 library of Dijon. Died in 1 706. 
 
 Fevret de Fontette, feh-vki' deh fdN'tet', (Chari.es 
 Marie,) a learned French lawyer, a great-grandson of 
 Charles Fevret, noticed above, was born at Dijon in 17 10. 
 He commenced a new edition of Lelong's " Bibliotheque 
 historique de la France," and published one volume of 
 that important work. Died in 1772. 
 
 See Barbeau dh la Bruvbre, "Vie de Fevret de Fontette," 
 a vols., 1775. 
 
 Few, (William,) Colonel, an American patriot, born 
 in Maryland in 1748, removed to Georgia about 1776. 
 He was elected a member of Congress in 1780, and was 
 a member of the Convention which framed the Federal 
 Constitution in 1787. He served with distinction in seve- 
 ral battles with the British and Indians. He was United 
 States Senator from 1789 to 1793. Died in 1828. 
 
 Feydeau, fi'do', (Mathieu,) a zealous French Jan- 
 senist, born in Paris in 1616, was one of the ecclesiastics 
 expelled by the faculty of the Sorbonne for refusing to 
 condemn Arnauld. He was the author of "Reflections 
 on the History and Harmony of the Gospels," (2 vols., 
 1673.) Died at Annonay in 1694. 
 
 Feyerabend, fi'er-a'bent, (Sigismond,) a German 
 painter, engraver, and bookseller, born at Frankfort 
 about 1526; died after 1585. 
 
 Feyjoo (or Feijoo) y Montenegro, fa-e-Ho' e mon- 
 ri-na'gRo, (Francisco Benito Jeronimo,) a learned 
 Spanish moralist and critic, sometimes called "the 
 Spanish Addison," was born at Cardamiro in 1676, or, 
 as others say, in 1701. He became a Benedictine monk, 
 and abbot of the monastery of Oviedo. He attacked 
 prevailing errors and prejudices in a series of essays, 
 entitled "Teatro critico sobre los Errores comunes,"(i6 
 vols. 8vo, 1738-46.) He also published "Cartas eruditas 
 y curiosas," (8 vols. Svo, 1746-48.) His works contributed 
 much to the diffusion of science and good morals. Died 
 at Oviedo in 1764. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" Campomanes, 
 "Vida de Feyjoo," prefixed to an edition of the works of Feyjoo. 
 33 vols., 1780. 
 
 Feynes, de, deh fin, (Henri,) a French traveller, born 
 in Provence in the sixteenth century. He spent nearly 
 eighteen years in Asia, and on his return published an 
 account of his travels. 
 
 Fezensac, de, deh feh-zoN'zik', (Raymond Emery 
 Philippe Joseph de Montesquiou — deh miN'teV- 
 
 ke-oo',) Due, a French general of division, born in 1784, 
 wrote "Souvenirs militaires de 1804 a 1814," (Paris, 
 1S63,) which has a high reputation. Died in 1S67. 
 
 See V*pereau, "Dictionnaire universel des Contemporains, * 
 185S; " F.dinburgh Review" for January, 1868. 
 
 Fiacchi, fe-Sk'kee, (LuiGlJ an able Italian critic and 
 poet, born at Scarperi, in Tuscany, in 1754, was some- 
 times called Clasio. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Fiaoco, feik'ko, or Flacco, flik'ko, (Orlando,) a 
 painter of the Venetian school, born at Verona, lived 
 about 1550. 
 
 Fialetti, fe-3-let'tee, (Odoardo,) an Italian painter 
 and engraver, born at Bologna in 1573, was a pupil of 
 the celebrated Tintoretto. Died in 1638. 
 
 Fialho, fe-il'yo, (Manoel,) a Portuguese historian, 
 born at Evora in 1659. He wrote a history of Evora, 
 entitled "Evora gloriosa," (1728.) Died in 1718. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Fialho-Ferreira, fe-51'yo feR-ra^e-ri, (Antonio,) a 
 Portuguese traveller and captain, ^vvas born at Macao. 
 He commanded a fleet in 1633, after which he travelled 
 by land from India to Lisbon, and returned by sea. He 
 published a narrative of his travels in 1643. • 
 
 Fiaoima, fe-im'ma, (Gai.vaneo,) an Italian histo- 
 rian, born at Milan in 1283, wrote a "History of Milan 
 from the Origin of the City until the Year 1336." Died 
 in 1344. 
 
 Fiammingo, fe-am-min'go, (Arrigo,) a Flemish 
 painter, whose name is not known. He worked in Rome 
 for Pope Gregory XIII. Died about 1600. 
 
 Fiammingo, I], el fe-am-min'go, (or Flamingo,) ("the 
 Fleming,") the name given by the Italians to several 
 artists of the Netherlands. See Calvaert, (Denis,) and 
 Ducjuesnoy, (Francois.) 
 
 Fiasella, fe-5-sel'li, (Domenico,) a painter of the 
 Genoese school, born at Sarzana in 1589; died in 1669. 
 
 Fibonacci. See Leonardo da Pisa. 
 
 Fichard, fe'shiR' or fin/aRt, (Johann,) a German 
 jurist, born at Frankfort in 1512; died in 1591. 
 
 Ficherelli, fc-ka-rel'lee, or Ficarelli, fe-ka-rel'lee, 
 (Felice,) a skilful Florentine painter, born at San Ge- 
 migianoabout 1605, was surnamed Riposo. Died in 1660. 
 
 Fichet, fe'shi^ (Alexandre;) a French Jesuit and 
 scholar, born in Savoy in 1588; died in 1659. 
 
 Fichet, (Guillaume,) a French theologian and rhet- 
 orician, born at Aunay, near Paris. He became rector 
 of the University of Paris in 1467, and was employed in 
 diplomacy by Louis XI. About 1470 he established in 
 the Sorbonne a printing-press, — probably the first used 
 in Paris. 
 
 Fichte, fiK'teh, (Immanuel Hermann,) son of the 
 eminent philosopher Johann Gottlieb, was born at Jena 
 in 1797. He studied at Berlin, and became in 1842 
 professor of philosophy in the University of Tubingen. 
 He is the chief of a school which affects, it has been said, 
 a juste milieu between mysticism and materialism. He 
 has written numerous works relating to metaphysics, 
 theology, etc., in some of which he has sought to defend 
 and explain the views of his father. His "Speculative 
 Theology," in 3 vols., appeared in 1847. 
 
 Fichte, (Johann Gottlieb,) the second in order of 
 the four great teachers* of intellectual and moral phi- 
 losophy in Germany, was born near Bischofswerda, in 
 Upper Lusatia, in 1762. He studied at the Universities 
 of Jena, Leipsic, and Wittenberg. He afterwards spent 
 several years as private teacher in Zurich, where he 
 formed a friendship with the celebrated Pestalozzi. 
 Leaving Switzerland, he visited Leipsic, Warsaw, and 
 lastly KSnigsberg, where he became acquainted with 
 Kant, and published anonymously his first important 
 work, entitled an "Attempt at a Criticism of all Revela- 
 tion," (" Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung,") which 
 attracted much attention and was at first generally attrib- 
 uted to Kant himself. The fame of this work procured 
 Fichte a call to the chair of philosophy at Jena, where 
 he developed his system of metaphysics, to which he 
 gave the name of " Wissenschaftslehre," ("Doctrine or 
 Principles of Science.") Having been accused of holding 
 atheistical opinions, he resigned his professorship about 
 1799, and soon after made to the public an "Appeal 
 against the Charge of Atheism," ("Appellation gegen 
 die Anklage des Atheismus.") This, however, was con- 
 sidered by many not to be a Successful refutation of the 
 objections which had been made to his doctrines. He 
 appears to have held that God was not a Being, properly 
 so called, but a supreme Law, or rather a system of laws, 
 intellectual, moral, arjd spiritual, without what we call 
 " personality," or personal consciousness ; although there 
 are passages in his works which seem to indicate that 
 sometimes, at least, his views approximated those of the 
 Theists. He was afterwards for a few months professor 
 of philosophy at Erlangen; but when Germany became 
 the theatre of war he withdrew for a time to Konigsberg. 
 In 1810 he was made professor of philosophy in the new 
 University at Berlin. 
 
 Fichte took a deep interest in the cause of German 
 independence, and employed all his influence and elo- 
 quence tostir up the patriotism of his countrymen against 
 the domination of the FVench, during the contest which 
 terminated in the fall of Napoleon in 1813. He died 
 in January, 1814. Bcsidesthe different publications ex- 
 pounding his peculiar system of philosophy, his most 
 important works are "On the Destination of Man,'' 
 (" Ueber die Bestimmung des Menschen,") " Foundation 
 of Natural Right," ("Grundlage des Naturrechts,") anr 
 his " System of Ethics," (" System der Sittenlehre.'-; 
 
 • Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. 
 
 *aa i;<;-iss;% hard; gas j;c,, h, k, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled: s as z; *h as in this. (JrySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FICHTEL 
 
 916 
 
 FIELD/NG 
 
 His " Addresses to the German Nation" (" Reden an 
 die Deutsche Nation") are replete with eloquence and 
 fervid patriotism. His collected works were published 
 in 8 vols., (Berlin, 1845-46.) 
 
 "Among the illustrious four whose names are most 
 intimately associated with the recent movement in Ger- 
 man philosophy," says Professor Hedge, " his [Fichte's] 
 function is that of moralist ; a preacher of righteousness. 
 . . . Few philosophers have so honoured their theories 
 with personal illustrations. He carried his philosophy 
 into life and his life into philosophy, acting as he spoke, 
 from an eminence above the level of the world." (" Prose 
 Writers of Germany.") 
 
 See, also, Immanuel Hermann Fichte, "J. G. Fichte's Leben," 
 etc., 2 vols., 1830; Carl Beyer, "Zu Fichte's Gedachtniss," 1835; 
 William Smith, " Memoirof J. G. Fichte," 1846; Wilhelm Busse, 
 "J. G. Fichte und seine Beziehung zur Gegenwart des Deutsche!! 
 Volkes," 2 vols., 1848-49; "Leben des Philosophen und Professors 
 J. G. Fichte," Bautzen, 1851 ; Ersch und Gkubetc, "Ailgemeine 
 Encyklopaedie ;" Ritter, " Historyof Philosophy ;" G. H. Lewes, 
 " Biographical History of Philosophy ;" De Remusat, " De la Philo- 
 sophic Alleniande :" Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale ;" " Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for October, 1845. 
 
 Fichtel, fiK'tel, (Johann Ehrenreich,) a distin- 
 guished mineralogist, born at Presburg, in Hungary, in 
 1732. He wrote, besides other works, "Memoirs upon 
 the Mineralogy of Transylvania." Died in 1795. 
 
 Ficino, fe-chee'no, (Marsilio, maR-see'le-o,) [Lat. 
 Marsil'ius Fici'nus; Fr. Marsile Ficin, mSR'sel' fe'- 
 saN',] a celebrated Italian philosopher and scholar, born 
 at Florence on the 19th of October, 1433. He was edu- 
 cated by Cosimo de' Medici, studied Greek, and became 
 an admirer of the Platonic philosophy. He was the 
 president of the Platonic Academy founded at Florence 
 by Cosimo de' Medici about 1450, and produced a Latin 
 translation of the works of Plato about 1484. "This 
 version," says Hallam, " has the rare merit of being at 
 once literal, perspicuous, and in good Latin." ("Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe." ) He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " Life of Plato," " Theologia 
 Platonica de Immortalitate," (1488,) and "On the Chris- 
 tian Religion," ("De Religione Christiana," 1510.) Died 
 in 1499. 
 
 See Giovanni Corsi, "Vita Ficini," written in 1506, published in 
 1772 ; Schelhorn, " Commentarius de Vita et Scriptis M. Ficini ;" 
 Niceron, "M^moires;" Ersch und Gkuber, "Ailgemeine Ency- 
 klopaedie;" Brucker, " History of Philosophy;" A.M. Bandini, 
 "Commentarius de Vita M. Ficini," 1771. 
 
 Picoroni, fe-ko-ro'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 scholar and antiquary, born near Rome in 1664. He 
 was the author of numerous works, chiefly on Roman 
 antiquities. Died in 1747. 
 
 Picquelmont, fe'keTm6N', (Karl Ludwig,) a dis- 
 tinguished general and diplomatist, born in Lorraine in 
 1777. He served in the Austrian army in the principal 
 campaigns against the French, and became lieutenant- 
 field-marshal in 1830. Died in 1859. 
 
 Picquet, fe'k^', (Etienne,) a distinguished French 
 engraver, born in Paris in'1731 ; died in 1794. 
 
 Fidani, fe-da'nee, (Orazio,) a Florentine painter, 
 born about 1610 ; died after 1642. 
 
 Fidanza, fe-dan'za, (Francesco,) a skilful painter of 
 landscapes and marine views, born in 1747, belonged to 
 thi Roman school. Died in Milan in 1819. 
 
 His brother Gregorio was also a landscape-painter. 
 Died about 182 1. 
 
 Fiddes, fulz or fid'des, (Richard,) an English writer, 
 and a priest of the Anglican Church, born near Scar- 
 borough in 167 1. He became rector of Halsham about 
 1694. He published a "System of Divinity," (2 vols., 
 1718-20,) and a "Life of Cardinal Wolsey," (1724,) in 
 which he showed himself so unjust to the Reformers 
 that he was suspected of being a Roman Catholic. Died 
 in 1725. 
 
 Fidelis, fe-da'less, (Fortunio,) an Italian physician, 
 born in Sicily about 1550, wrote a work on legal medi- 
 cine, (1602.) Died in 1630. , 
 
 Fidenza or Fidanza, (John.) See Bonaventure, 
 Saint. 
 
 Field, (Barron,) an English lawyer and botanist, 
 born probably in London about 1786. He published 
 "An Analysis of Blackstone's Commentaries," (1811,) 
 and "Memoirs of New South Wales," (1826.) Died 
 in 1846. 
 
 Field, (Cyrus W.,) an American merchant, distin- 
 guished by his successful efforts to open telegraphic 
 communication between. Europe and America, was born 
 at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in 1819. He acquired a 
 fortune by trade in the city of New York, whither he had 
 removed before he was of age. About 1854 he procured 
 a charter for a telegraph from the American continent to 
 Newfoundland, designing to connect it with a submarine 
 Atlantic cable. To this arduous enterprise he devoted 
 his time and fortune during many years. He organized 
 the "Atlantic Telegraph Company" in 1856, and accom- 
 panied the expeditions sent out from England to lay the 
 cable in 1857 and 1858. After two failures, Mr. Field 
 and his coadjutors succeeded, and began to operate with 
 the Atlantic telegraph, in August, 1866. 
 
 Field, (David Dudley,) an American jurist, a brother 
 of the preceding, born at Haddam, Connecticut, in 1805, 
 was educated at Williams College. He was admitted to 
 the bar in 1828, and commenced the practice of law in 
 New York City. He gained distinction by his writings 
 on law reform, and was appointed a commissioner on 
 practice and pleadings by the legislature in 1847. He 
 was appointed in 1857 president of a commission to 
 digest a political code, a penal code, and a civil code. 
 
 Field, (George,) an English chemist and writer on 
 various subjects, born about 1777. He published " Chro- 
 matics, or Harmony of Colours," (new edition, 1845,) 
 "Outlines of Analytical Philosophy," (2 vols., 1839,) and 
 other works. Died in 1854. 
 
 Field, (John,) an English astronomer, said to have 
 been the first in England that adopted the Copernican 
 system. Died about 1587. 
 
 Field, (John,) a skilful musician and composer for the 
 piano, born at Dublin in 1782. He visited successively 
 France, Germany, and Russia, where his performances 
 were greatly admired. Died at Moscow in 1837. 
 
 Field, (Nathaniel,) an English actor, born about 
 1570. While still very young, he appeared on the stage, 
 and at length became a member of Shakspeare's company 
 of players. He was the author of two spirited comedies, 
 entitled "A Woman is a Weathercock," and "Amends 
 for the Ladies." 
 
 Field, (Richard,) a learned and liberal English divine, 
 born at Hempstead, in Hertfordshire, in 1561. He had 
 a high reputation as a preacher. He became rector of 
 Burghclere, canon of Windsor in 1604, and chaplain to 
 James I. He wrote an important work, entitled " Of the 
 Church," (1606,) which is highly praised by Coleridge. 
 Died in 1616. 
 
 See " Memorials of the Life of R. Field," by his son, Nathaniel, 
 1716. 
 
 Field, (Stephen J.,) an American jurist, a brother of 
 David Dudley, noticed above, was chief justice of the 
 supreme court of California from 1859 to 1863. He was 
 appointed an associate justice of the supreme court of 
 the United States in 1863 or 1864. 
 
 Field'ing, (Copley Vandyke,) a celebrated English 
 landscape-painter, born about 1787. He was one of the 
 first to distinguish himself in water-colour paintings, of 
 which he produced a great number. He held for a long 
 time the office of president of the Society of Painters in 
 Water-Colours. He represented British mountain- and 
 lake-scenery and the downs of Southern England with a 
 success which has perhaps not been equalled by any 
 other artist. Died in 1855. 
 
 Fielding, (Henry,) a celebrated English novelist, 
 born at Sharpham Park, Somersetshire, on the 22d of 
 April, 1707. He was the son of Edmund Fielding, who 
 served as lieutenant-general under the Duke of Marl- 
 borough, and great-grandson of William, third Earl of 
 Denbigh. At the age of eighteen he commenced the 
 study of law at Leyden ; but, owing to financial difficul- 
 ties, he returned to London at the expiration of two 
 years, where he abandoned himself to the wildest dissi- 
 pation. At this period he published the comedy entitled 
 " Love in Several Masques," which met with some suc- 
 cess'and was followed by numerous other plays. In 
 1734 he married a lady of great beauty and accomplish- 
 ments, by whom he obtained .£1500. Continuing his 
 excesses, in a short time he was reduced to poverty. He 
 now recommenced the study of law with great assiduity, 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m4t; not; good; moon; 
 
FIELDING 
 
 917 
 
 FIESCO 
 
 and would doubtless have succeeded well in that profes- 
 sion had not violent attacks of the gout prevented him 
 from attending the circuits. He therefore applied him- 
 self to literature as a means of support, and soon after 
 became the editor of a paper called "The Champion." 
 In 1742 he published the novel "Joseph Andrews," 
 which was intended as a satire on Richardson's " Pamela." 
 In 1749 appeared "Tom Jones," the greatest of his 
 works, and in 1751 "Amelia" was issued, of which Dr. 
 Johnson has observed that it "was perhaps the only 
 book of which, being printed off betimes one morning, a 
 new edition was called for before night." In 1750 he 
 was appointed justice of the peace for the county of 
 Middlesex, in which position he distinguished himself 
 by his ability and activity. He was successful in extir- 
 pating numerous gangs of robbers which had previously 
 been a terror to the inhabitants of the metropolis. The 
 best-known of his works are "Joseph Andrews," "Tom 
 Jones," and "Amelia," which have justly placed him 
 in the highest rank of British novelists. ' His greatest 
 strength appears to have been in portraying characters 
 of those in the lower orders of society. His works 
 display much wit and vigour, and his delineations are 
 remarkable for their fidelity to nature. Though it is 
 claimed that his writings have a moral tendency, the 
 coarseness and vulgarity of many of his characters render 
 their utility extremely problematical. Fielding was the 
 author of numerous works in addition to those mentioned 
 above. Among these were a " History of Jonathan Wild 
 the Great," " The Journey from this \iorld to the Next," 
 and some important legal treatises. It is stated that all 
 his works have been translated into the French language. 
 Fielding died at Lisbon in 1754, whither he had gone in 
 the hope of benefiting his health. A monument was 
 erected to his memory in that city through the influence 
 of the French consul, Chevalier Meyronnet. Lady Mary 
 Montagu, who was a kinswoman of Fielding, in speaking 
 of him, observes, "There was a great similitude between 
 his character and that of Sir Richard Steele. Fielding 
 had the advantage both in learning and, in my opinion, 
 in genius ; they both agreed in wanting money in spite 
 of all their friends, and would have wanted it if their 
 hereditary lands had been as extensive as their imagi- 
 nation." Sir James Mackintosh remarks, " Fielding 
 will forever remain the delight of his country, and will 
 always retain his place in the libraries of Europe, not- 
 withstanding the unfortunate grossness, the mark of an 
 Uncultivated taste." 
 
 See Murphy, "Life and Genius of Fielding;" Lawrence, "Life 
 of Fielding," 1855; Sir W. Scott, Miscellaneous Prose Works; 
 Disraeli, "Quarrels of Authors;" William Watson, "Lifeof H. 
 Fielding," London, 1808; "London Quarterly Review" for Jamiarv, 
 1856; E. P. Whipple, critique in the " North American Review" 
 for January, 1849; "North British Review" for November, 1855. 
 
 Fielding, (Sir John,) a half-brother of the great novel- 
 ist, whom he succeeded as justice of the county of Middle- 
 sex. Although blind for many years, he fulfilled the 
 duties of his office with much ability ; and he received 
 the order of knighthood in 1761. He was the author 
 of three works, viz., " Extracts from the Penal Laws," 
 (1761,) "Universal Mentor," (1762,) and "Description 
 of the Cities of London and Westminster," (1777.) 
 Died in 1780. 
 
 Fielding, (Sarah,) an English authoress of great 
 learning, sister of the novelist, was born in 1714. Her 
 principal works were a novel, entitled "The Adven- 
 tures of David Simple," and an excellent translation of 
 Xenophon's "Memoirs of Socrates, with the Defence 
 of Socrates before his Judges." Died at Bath in 1768. 
 
 Fields, (James T.,) an American poet, born in Ports- 
 mouth, New Hampshire, in 1820. He became a partner 
 of the publishing-house of Ticknoi & Fields, Boston. 
 Among his poems are "Commerce," (1838,) "The Post 
 of Honour," (1848,) and " The Fair Wind." "The poems 
 Mr. Fields has given us," says R. W. Griswold, "are 
 evidently the careless products of a singularly sensitive 
 and fertile mind, — indications rather than exponents of 
 its powers." ("Poets and Poetry of America.") 
 
 Fiennes, fenz, ? (Nathaniel) a son of William, I.ord 
 Save, bom at Broughton, Oxfordshire, in 1608. Having 
 joined the army Of Parliament in the civil war, he was 
 appointed governor of Bristol, which he surrendered to 
 
 Prince Rupert in 1643. F° r trns act ne was sentenced 
 to death, but was pardoned. He afterwards became a 
 prominent member of Parliament, and a partisan of 
 Cromwell, who in l654or 1655 appointed him lord keeper 
 of the great seal. He was one of the lords of the Upper 
 House convened in 1658. Died in 1669. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica ;" Noble, " Memoirs of Cromwell." 
 Fiennes, (William,) Lord Saye and Sele, an English 
 statesman, born in Oxfordshire 111 1582, was created a 
 viscount in 1624. He co-operated with Hampden and 
 Pym in opposition to the arbitrary government of Charles 
 I. At the commencement of the rebellion (1642) he took 
 sides with the Parliament. About 1650 he left the Presby- 
 terians and joined the Independents. Lord Saye exerted 
 a great influence in public affairs, and was an intimate 
 friend of Cromwell. At the restoration he was appointed 
 lord privy seal and chamberlain of the royal household 
 by Charles II. Died in 1662. "He was, says White- 
 locke, "a person of great parts, wisdom, and integrity." 
 See Lloyd. "State Worthies;" Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Fiennes, de, deh fe'en', (Jean Baptiste,) an Orien- 
 tal scholar, born at Saint-Germain, near Paris, in 1669, 
 became professor of Arabic in the College of France in 
 1714. He was also interpreter to the king. Died in 1744. 
 
 Fiennes, de, (Jean Baptiste Helin,) an Orientalist 
 and diplomatist, son of the preceding, was born at Saint- 
 Germain-en-Lay» in 1710. He became interpreter to 
 the king for Oriental languages in 1746, and professor of 
 Arabic at the College of France in 1748. Died in 1767. 
 
 Fiennes, de, (Maximilien Francois,) a French gen- 
 eral, born in 1669, took part in many battles in Flanders, 
 and commanded an army about 1712-14. Died in 1716. 
 
 Fiennes, de, (Rorert,) a French commander, ren- 
 dered important services to King John and Charles V., 
 and was rewarded with the office of Constable of France 
 in 1356. Died about 1382. 
 
 Fieschi. See Innocent IV. 
 
 Fieschi, fe-Ss'kee, singular Fiesco, fe-2s'ko, [Fr. 
 Fiesque, fe'£sk',] Counts of Lavagna, the name of one 
 of the four principal families of Genoa or Liguria. The 
 Fieschi in the twelfth century aspired to supreme power, 
 and resisted the republic of Genoa without success. 
 Among the eminent members of this family were Popes 
 Innocent IV. and Adrian V. The Fieschi were attached 
 to the Guelph party. 
 
 Fieschi, (Joseph Marco,) born in Corsica in 1790, 
 was the inventor of the so-called infernal machine, and 
 the principal agent in the attempt on the life of the 
 French king, Louis Philippe. His machine, consisting 
 of twenty-four musket-barrels, was discharged in July, 
 1835, while the king, at the head of a military procession, 
 was going to a review. Louis Philippe was very slightly 
 injured ; but ten others, including Marshal Mortier, were 
 instantly killed. Fieschi, with his accomplices, was exe- 
 cuted in February, 1836. 
 
 See Louts Blanc, " Histoire de dix Ans." 
 
 Fiesco, fe-es'ko, (Giovanni Luigi,) sometimes writ- 
 ten Fieschi, Count of Lavagna, born in 1525. He was 
 the chief of one of the most powerful families of Genoa, 
 and aspired to supreme power. In this he was prevented 
 by the more influential house of Doria, against whioh he 
 formed a powerful conspiracy. He received assistance 
 in this enterprise from Pope Paul III., the court of 
 France, and Pietro Luigi Farnese, Duke of Parma and 
 Piacenza. Fieschi endeavoured to procure the assassi- 
 nation of Andrew Doria, the chief of that family, and his 
 nephew Giovannino, while they were at a banquet. In 
 this, however, he was unsuccessful. Having resolved on 
 another attempt, the arrangements were made with so 
 great caution that no suspicions were aroused against 
 the conspirators. On the night of the 2d of January, 
 1547, after the city had become quiet, Fieschi sent 
 part of his followers to seize the palace of the Doria. 
 He proceeded to the harbour to capture his enemy's 
 galleys. As he was passing from one ship to another, 
 the plank broke under him, and, encumbered by his 
 armour, he was unable to save himself. His companions 
 did not perceive the accident until too late to rescue him. 
 In the attack on the palace, Giovannino Doria was killed, 
 but his uncle escaped. As a consequence of this con. 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as x; th as in this, (jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FIESOLE 
 
 918 
 
 FILIASS1 
 
 spiracy, most of the family of Fieschi were put to death. 
 Schiller wrote a tragedy on the conspiracy of Fiesco. 
 
 See E. Vincens, "Histoire de la Republique de Genes;" Sis- 
 MONDI, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" A. Mascardi, 
 " Congiura del Conte G. L. de Fieschi," 1627, (translated into Eng- 
 lish by Hugh Hare, 1693.) 
 
 Fiesole, da, da fe-a'so-11 or fe-es'o-la, ( Fra Gio- 
 vanni,) an Italian painter, whose original name was Santi 
 Tosini, or, according to Vasari, Giovanni Guido, was 
 born at Mugello, in Tuscany, in 1387. He was surnamed 
 Fra Angelico or Beato Angelico, and was one of the 
 most eminent among the restorers of painting in Italy. 
 He is highly praised by Ruskin, who says, " In Angelico 
 you have the entirely spiritual mind, incapable of con- 
 ceiving any wickedness or vileness whatever." (" Modern 
 Painters," vol. v. p. 300.) He was employed by Pope 
 Nicholas V. to paint his private chapel in the Vatican, 
 and the chapel of Saint Lorenzo. His easel-picture 
 representing the "Coronation of Mary," which is con- 
 sidered a master-piece, now adorns the entrance-hall of 
 the Louvre at Paris. He devoted himself exclusively 
 to sacred subjects; and the purity and deep religious 
 feeling which characterize all his works are a faithful 
 reflection of his own life and character. Among his chief 
 works are an "Annunciation," and the " Last Judgment." 
 Died about 1455. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy ;" Mrs. Jameson, " Memoirs of Early Italian Painters ;" 
 Ticozzi, "Dizionario." 
 
 Fievee, fe'a'va', (Joseph,) a French litterateur and 
 politician, born in Paris in 1767. He wrote for the 
 "Journal des Debats" and other journals, published 
 several successful novels and political treatises, and 
 was appointed censor in 1805. About 1808 he became 
 master of requests. Died in Paris in 1839. 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi," tome v. 
 Figino, fe-jee'no, or Figine, fe-jee'nl, (Ambrogio,) 
 an Italian painter, born at Milan about 1550, excelled in 
 portraits. Died after 1595. 
 
 Figliucci, ftl-yoot'chee, (Felice,) an Italian philo- 
 sbpher and voluminous writer, born at Sienna, made 
 translations from Plato and Aristotle, and wrote several 
 commentaries on the works of the latter. Died about 1590. 
 Figrelius, fe-gRa'le-us, called also G-riepenhielm or 
 Greifenhelm, (Edmund,) a Swedish antiquary, and 
 professor of history in the University of Upsal. He was 
 preceptor of Charles XL, by whom he was created baron, 
 senator, and chancellor of the court. Died in 1676. 
 Figueiras. See Figuieira. 
 
 Figueiredo, de, (Antonio PEREiRA.)See Pereira. 
 Figueiredo, de, da fe-gk-e-ra'do, (Manoel,) a Por- 
 tuguese savant and scientific writer, born near Lisbon in 
 1568; died about 1630. 
 
 Figueroa, de, da fe-ga-ro'a, (Bartolomb Cayrasco,) 
 a Spanish poet, born at Logrono about 1540. He was 
 the first to introduce into Spanish poetry the measure 
 termed esdruxolos, or the sdruccioli of the Italians. 
 
 Figueroa, de, (Cristoval Suarez,) a distinguished 
 Spanish poet and miscellaneous writer, born at Valladolid 
 about 1586. He translated into Spanish the "Pastor 
 Fido" of Guarini, and was the author of a pastoral en- 
 titled " La constante Amarilis." Died in 1650. 
 
 Figueroa, de, (Francisco,) a celebrated Spanish 
 poet, surnamed the Divine, born at Alcala de Henares 
 about 1540. He entered the army young, and served in 
 Italy and Flanders. He wrote pastorals in imitation of 
 the Italians. He caused most of his poems to be burnt 
 a short time before his death ; but the few that remain 
 attest the superiority of his poetical genius. Died about 
 1620. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Longfellow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Figueroa, de, (Garcias y Silva, gaR-rV&ee'Js e sel'vj,) 
 a Spanish diplomatist, born at Badajos in 1574. In 1618 
 he was ambassador at the court of Shah Abbas, in Persia. 
 On his return he published an interesting account of his 
 travels in India and Persia. Died about 1625. 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 Figueroa, de, (Don Lopez,) a Spanish officer under 
 Philip II., born at Valladolid about 1520. He was con- 
 spicuous for his bravery in the war against the Moors, 
 
 and at the naval battle of Lepanto, where he served 
 under Don John of Austria. Died in 1595. 
 
 Figuieira, fe-ge-a'ra, or Figueiras, fe-ga'ras, (GuiL. 
 lem,) a celebrated Provencal troubadour, was born at 
 Toulouse about 1190. 
 
 Figuier, fe'ge-i', (Louis Guillaume, ) a French 
 chemist, was bonTat Montpellier in 1819. He became 
 professor in the School of Pharmacy in Paris in 1853. 
 Among his numerous and valuable works maybe named 
 his "Exposition and History of the Principal Modern 
 Scientific Discoveries," (3 vols., 1855,) and "Vies des 
 Savants illustres," (1866.) 
 
 Fig'u-lus, (P. Nigid'ius, ) a Roman Pythagorean 
 philosopher, born about 100 B.C., was celebrated for his 
 learning. He was a friend of Cicero, and was one of 
 the senators appointed in 63 to receive testimony in the 
 case of Catiline. He became pra3tor in 59 B.C., and was 
 a partisan of Pompey in the civil war. Died in 44 B.C. 
 Filamondo, fe-li-mon'do, (Rafael Maria,) Bishop 
 of Suessa, born at Naples about 1650; died in 1 7 16. 
 
 Filangieri, fe-lan-je-a'ree, (Carlo,) an Italian gen- 
 eral, son of Gaetano, noticed below, was born at Naples 
 in 1785. He commanded the army which took Messina 
 in 1848 and Palermo in 1849, after which he was Gov- 
 ernor of Sicily. He was created Duke of Taormina. 
 
 Filangieri, (Gaetano,) an Italian writer on political 
 economy, and one of the most celebrated publicists of 
 his time, was born at Naples in 1752. In 1771 he com- 
 menced two works, one upon private and public edu- 
 cation, and the other entitled " Morality for Princes," 
 neither of which was finished. He rendered important 
 services to humanity and legislative reform by his great 
 work entitled "Scienza della Legislazione," the first 
 volume of which appeared in 1780 and gave him an en- 
 viable reputation throughout Europe. In 1787 he was 
 appointed by Ferdinand IV. a member of the board of 
 finance. He died in 1788. His "Science of Legisla- 
 tion," which was not quite finished at his death, passed 
 through numerous editions, and was translated into Ger- 
 man, French, English, and Spanish. At the request of 
 Dr. Franklin, the author sent a number of copies to 
 America. 
 
 See Salfi, "Life of Filangieri," in a French translation of his 
 works published in Paris in 1822 ; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! 
 illustrii" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" Donato TommasI, 
 "Elogio storico del Cavaliere G. Filangieri," 1788; Caknkvali, 
 " Vita del Cavaliere G. Filangieri ;" G. Bianchetti, " Elogio di G. 
 Filangieri," 1819. 
 
 Filarete, fe-li-ra'ta, (Antonio,) a Florentine architect 
 and sculptor, flourished about 1450. Among his works 
 was the grand hospital of Milan, built in 1456. 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." 
 FilastreorFillastre,fe'listK',(GuiLLAUME,) a French 
 prelate and Greek scholar, born in Maine about 1347. 
 He translated some works of Plato, and wrote commen- 
 taries on Ptolemy. Died at Rome in 1428. 
 
 Filelfo, fe-lel'fo, [Lat. Philel'phus; Fr. Philelphe, 
 fe'lelP,] (Francesco,) a celebrated Italian philologist and 
 poet, born at Tolentino in 1398. He became an eminent 
 Greek scholar, and obtained the chair of belles-lettres 
 at Florence in 1429. Having written satires against 
 the Medici and made many enemies among the literati, 
 he was obliged to quit Florence in 1434. He became 
 professor at Milan in 1440. About 1466 he removed to 
 Rome, where he taught philosophy. His habits are said 
 to have been very licentious. He wrote a poem, "La 
 Sforziade;" "Epistles,"- ("Epistolarum Libri XVI.," 
 1485 ;) Latin Odes, ( 1497, ) and other works. Died at 
 Florence in 1481. 
 
 See C. Rosmini, "Vitadi Filelfo," 3 vols., 1S0S; Meucci, "Phi- 
 lelphi Vita," 1741 ; Lancelot, " Vie de Philelphe;" Paolo Giovio, 
 "Elogia;" Nicbron, "Me'moires." 
 
 Filesac, fel'sik', (Jean,) a learned French theologian, 
 born in Paris about 1550. He was chosen rector of the 
 University of Paris in 1586. His chief work is a "Treat- 
 ise on the Authority of Bishops," (1606.) Died in 1638. 
 Filhol, fel'yol', (Michel Antoine,) a French en- 
 graver, born in 1759, published "Complete Gallery of 
 the Napoleon Museum," ("Galerie complete du Musee 
 Napoleon," 10 vols., 1804-14.) Died in 1812. 
 
 Filiasai, fe-!e-as'see, (Giacomo,) Count, an Italian 
 physician, born at Venice in 1750, published a " Treatise 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, ail, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
 
FILICAIA 
 
 919 
 
 FINELLI 
 
 upon the Prevailing Winds in the Venetian Marshes," 
 and otlier works. Died in 1829. 
 
 Filicaia or Filicaja, da, d.i le-le-ka'ya, (Vincenzo or 
 Vincknzio,) a celebrated Italian lyric poet, and senator 
 of Florence, was born in that city in 1642. He published 
 numerous poems in Latin and Italian, which were re- 
 markable for their spirit and elegance. His "Ode on 
 the Victory over the Turks" gained for him the reputa- 
 tion of the first Italian poet of his time. He married 
 Anna Capponi in 1673, al, d was patronized by Queen 
 Christina of Sweden. Among his most admirable com- 
 positions are sonnets entitled "La Providenza" and 
 "I.'Italia," which are sublime in thought, imagery, and 
 style. His moral character is represented as excellent. 
 He died at Florence in September, 1707. "At Paris," 
 says Macaulay, "Addison eagerly sought an introduction 
 to Boileau ; but he seems not to have been at all aware 
 that at Florence he was in the vicinity of a poet with 
 whom Boileau could not sustain a comparison, — of the 
 greatest lyric poet of modern times, of Vincenzio Filicaja. 
 This is the more remarkable because Filicaja was the 
 favourite poet of the all-accomplished Somers, under 
 whose protection Addison travelled." (" Review of the 
 Life and Writings of Addison," in Macaulay's " Essays.") 
 . See Negri, " Istoria dei Fiorentini Scrittori ;" Fabroni, "Vita: 
 Italorum doctrina excellentiutn ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia delta Lettera- 
 tura Italian.!;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Lives 
 of the Italian Poets," by Rev. Henry Stebbing, London, 1831 ; 
 "Retrospective Review," vol. x., 1824. 
 
 Filippi, fe-lep'pee, (Camili.o,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Ferrara about 1510; died in 1574. 
 
 Filippi, de, da fe-lep'pee, (Filippo,) a naturalist, son 
 of Giuseppe, noticed below, was born at Milan in 1814. 
 He published "The Three Kingdoms of Nature," ("I 
 tre Regni della Natttra," 1852,) and other works. 
 
 Filippi, de, (Giuseppe,) an Italian medical writer, 
 born in Piedmont in 1781. He was chief physician of 
 the Italian army in 1814. Died in 1856. 
 
 Filippini, fe-lep-pee'nee, (Antonio Pietro,) an ec- 
 clesiastic, born in the island of Corsica in 1529, wrote a 
 •' History of Corsica." 
 
 Fil'lans, (James,) a Scottish sculptor, born in Lanark- 
 shire in 1808, was apprenticed to a weaver, and after- 
 wards to a stone-mason. About 1 836 he settled in London 
 as a sculptor. Among his best works are a bust of John 
 Wilson, "The Blind Teaching the Blind," and a "Boy 
 and Fawn." Died in Glasgow in 1852. 
 
 See Paterson, " Life of James Fillans," 1854. 
 
 Filleau, fe'yo', (Jean,) a French lawyer, noted as an 
 adversary of the Jansenists, was born at Poitiers in 1600. 
 He wrote an " Account of the Proceedings and Doctrines 
 of the Jansenists." Died in 1682. 
 
 Filleul, fe'yul', or Filleuil, (Nicolas,) a French poet 
 and dramatist, born at Rouen about 1530. 
 
 Fill'more, (Mil'lard,) the thirteenth President of 
 the United States, was born in Cayuga county, New 
 Vork, on the 7th of January, 1800. He was not liberally 
 educated; but, after learning the tr*ade of a fuller, he 
 studied law, and supported himself for several years by 
 teaching school. In 1821 he removed to Erie county. 
 New York, where he practised law with success. He 
 married Abigail Powers in 1826, and was elected to 
 Congress in 1832 by the Anti-Jackson party. He was 
 re-elected as a Whig in 1836, 1838, and 1840, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by his talents for business and dili- 
 gent attention to it. In the session of 1841-42 he was 
 chairman of the committee of ways and means, and was 
 the chief author of the tariff of 1842. He was nomi- 
 nated for the office of Governor of New York in 1844, 
 but was not elected. In 1847 he was elected comptroller 
 of that State. Having been nominated as the Whig 
 candidate for Vice-President, he was elected in Novem- 
 ber, 1848, when General Taylor was chosen President. 
 He was raised to the office of President by the death of 
 President Taylor on the 9th of Julv, 1850. He appointed 
 Daniel Webster secretary of stale, and approved Mr. 
 Clay's Compromise Bill of 1850. Many of the Northern 
 Whigs were offended by his signature of the act for the 
 rendition of fugitive slaves. During his administration 
 his opponents had a majority in both Houses of Con- 
 gress. On the expiration of his term, in March, 1853, 
 ne returned to Buffalo, his former residence. He was 
 
 < as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s ass; th as in this. (J^*"See Explanations, p. 23 
 
 nominated as a candidate for the Presidency by the 
 American party in 1856, but received no electoral votei 
 except those of Maryland. 
 
 Fil'mer, (Sir Robert,) an English political writer, 
 born in the county of Kent. He was a staunch advocate 
 of absolute monarchy, and endeavoured to prove that this 
 was the true and natural form of government. Locke 
 wrote two treatises to refute this theory. Filmer wrote, 
 among other works, "The Anarchy of a Limited and 
 Mixed Monarchy," and "Patriarcha." Died in 1688. 
 
 Filon, fe'loN', (Charles Auguste Desire,) a French 
 historian, born in Paris in 1800. He was professor of 
 history in several colleges, and published, besides other 
 works, a " History of Europe in the Sixteenth Century," 
 (2 vols., 1838,) and a " History of the Roman Senate," 
 (1850.) 
 
 Fim'brl-a, (Caius Flavius,) a Roman general, who 
 was a violent partisan of Marius. Having been chosen 
 lieutenant (legates) to the consul Valerius Flaccus, who 
 was sent to Asia to replace Sulla, Fimbria corrupted the 
 soldiers, caused the consul to be assassinated, and took 
 the command of the army, in which he was sanctioned 
 by the Roman senate. After committing great outrages, 
 he was surrounded by the army of Sulla. Fimbria, per- 
 ceiving that it would be impossible to resist, as his soldiers 
 were deserting him, put an end to his own life, in 85 B.C. 
 
 Finaeus. See Fine. 
 
 Finch, (Anne,) Countess of Winchelsea, an English 
 poetess, born in the seventeenth century. Of her poems 
 we may cite "The Spleen" and the tragedy of "Aristo- 
 menes." Died in 1720. 
 
 Finch, (Daniel,) second Earl of Nottingham, born 
 in 1647, was a son of Heneage Finch. He was one of 
 the privy councillors who upon the death of Charles II. 
 proclaimed the Duke of York king. Upon the accession 
 of William and Mary (1689) he refused the office of lord 
 high chancellor, but was appointed secretary of state. 
 He rendered so much service to William that James II., 
 in making a declaration in regard to his intended inva- 
 sion, excluded Finch from the general pardon. He re- 
 signed office in 1694, and again became secretary in 1702. 
 He wrote a work on the Trinity, (1721,) for which he was 
 thanked by the University of Oxford. Died in 1730. 
 
 See Walpole, "Royal and Noble Authors;" Macaulay, "His- 
 tory of England." 
 
 Finch, (Heneage.) See Nottingham. 
 
 Finch, (Henry,) an English jurist, born in Kent about 
 1550 ; died in 1625. 
 
 Finch, (Robert,) a distinguished English antiquary 
 and traveller, born in London in 1783. He died at Rome 
 in 1830, leaving his valuable library and collection of 
 antiquities to the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford. 
 
 Finch, (William,) an English traveller, who lived 
 about 1610, visited India and Africa, where he obtained 
 much valuable geographical information, which was pub- 
 lished after his return. 
 
 Finck, (Thomas,) a Danish mathematician, physician, 
 and first professor of rhetoric and medicine at Copen- 
 hagen, born in South Jutland in 1 561. He was the author 
 of various scientific and medical works. Died in 1656. 
 
 Fin'den, (William,) a skilful English line-engraver, 
 born in 1787. He engraved illustrations for numerous 
 books, among which is " Don Quixote." He also published 
 many illustrated works, entitled "The Byron Gallery," 
 "The Gallery of the Graces," "The Gallery of British* 
 Art," etc. Died in 1852. 
 
 Flnd'lay, (Robert,) a Scottish divine, born in 1721, 
 published a "Vindication of the Sacred Books and of 
 Josephus against Voltaire," (1770,) and other works. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 Fine, fin, sometimes written Fine, (Oronce, o'roNss',) 
 [Lat. Oron'tius FiN/E'its,] a celebrated French mathe- 
 matician, born at Briancon in 1494. In 1530 he was 
 appointed professor of mathematics in the Royal College. 
 Among his mechanical inventions was a clock of peculiar 
 construction. He was the author of numerous scientific 
 works. Died in 1555. 
 
 See Niceron, "M^moires;" Delambre, "Histoire de l'Astro- 
 nomie au Moyen-Age." 
 
 Finelli, fe-nel'lee, (Carlo,) an able Italian statuary, 
 born at Carrara in 1780, was a pupil of Canova. Among 
 
 ") 
 
FINELL1 
 
 920 
 
 FIRDOUSEE 
 
 his master-pieces are statues of Raphael and of the 
 archangel Michael. Died in 1854. 
 
 Finelli, (Giuliano,) an Italian sculptor and architect, 
 born at Carrara in 1602; died about 1658. 
 
 Fiiiet, fe-net' or fe'n^', (Sir John,) an English author 
 and wit, born near Dover in 1571. His principal work 
 was " Fineti Philoxenus," which treated of the etiquette 
 of the English court. Died in 1641. 
 
 Fingal, fing'gal or fing'gaul, King of Morven, a prov- 
 ince of ancient Caledonia, and father of the poet Ossian, 
 by whom he was celebrated for his heroic exploits, was 
 born in 2S2. A great part of his time was devoted to 
 the wars against the Romans, who then held sway over 
 a large portion of Britain. 
 
 Finiguerra, fe-ne-gweR'ra, (Tommaso or Maso,) an 
 Italian sculptor and goldsmith, who is believed to have 
 been the inventor of the art of taking engravings from 
 metallic plates on paper. Died in 1475. 
 
 See Strutt, "Dictionary of Engravers ;" Vasari, "Lives of the 
 Painters," etc. 
 
 Fink, fink, (Gottfried Wii.hf.lm,) a German writer, 
 born at Suiza in 1783, published several works on the- 
 ology and music, and in 1827 was editor of the "Uni- 
 versal Musical Gazette." Died in 1846. 
 
 Fink, von, fon fink, (Friedrich August,) a Prussian 
 general, born in Mecklenburg in 1718. In 1759 he was 
 sent by the king, Frederick II., to oppose Marshal Daun, 
 by whose greatly superior force he was defeated at 
 Maxen. For this he was imprisoned and dismissed from 
 the army. Died at Copenhagen in 1766. 
 
 Fiiikenstein,von,fonflnk'en-stin',(CARLWiLHELM 
 Finck,) Count, a Prussian minister of state, born in 
 1 7 14. He was minister of foreign affairs for many years 
 between 1750 and his death. Died in 1800. 
 
 Fin'lay, (fin'le,) (George,) a British historian, born 
 in Scotland about 1800, resided some years at Athens. 
 Among his principal works are "Greece under the Ro- 
 mans," (1843,) "History of the Byzantine and Greek 
 Empires from 1057 to 1453," (1854,) and "Greece under 
 the Othman and Venetian Dominion from 1453 to 1821." 
 These productions are highly commended. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for October, 1844 : " North British 
 Review" for February, 1855. 
 
 Finlay, (John,) a Scottish poet and prose writer, born 
 at Glasgow in 1782. Among his works are "Wallace, 
 or the Vale of Ellerslie," (1802,) a "Life of Cervantes," 
 and a "Collection of Scottish Ballads, Historical and 
 Romantic," (1808.) Died in 1810. 
 
 Fin'lay-son, (George,) a Scottish surgeon, born at 
 Thurso about 1790, accompanied an embassy to Siam 
 and Hue in 1822. He published "The Mission from 
 Bengal to Siam and Hue," (1822.) Died in 1823. 
 
 Finlayson, (James,) a Scottish Presbyterian minister, 
 born about 1750. He was appointed professor of logic 
 in the University of Edinburgh about 1788, and after- 
 wards became, as minister, the colleague of Dr. Blair. He 
 had great influence in the affairs of the church. Died 
 in 1808. 
 
 See a notice of his life prefixed to a volume of his sermons, 1809; 
 Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Fin'ley, (James Bradley,) a Methodist minister and 
 author, born in North Carolina in 1781. He became 
 chaplain of the Ohio penitentiary in 1845. Died in 1857. 
 His "Prison Life," "Autobiography," and several of 
 his other works have had an extensive circulation. 
 
 Finley, (Roisert,) born at Princeton, New Jersey, in 
 1772, was for many years a tutor in Princeton College. 
 He is regarded as the founder of the American Coloni- 
 zation Society. He was pastor at Baskingridge, New 
 Jersey, from 1795 to 1817. Died in 1817. 
 
 Finley, (Samuel,) a Presbyterian minister, born in 
 Armagh, Ireland, in 1715, came to America in 1734. He 
 was chosen president of the College of New Jersey in 
 1761. Died in 1766. 
 
 Finn, (Henry J.,) a popular American comic actor, 
 born at Sydney, Cape Breton, about 1784. He performed 
 in London and New York, and wrote several humorous 
 works. He was lost in the steamer Lexington, which 
 was burned in 1840. 
 
 Fin'ney, (Charles G.,) an American theologian and 
 popular preacher, born in Litchfield county, Connecticut, 
 
 in 1792. He published, besides other works, "Lectures 
 on Revivals," (1835 ; 13th edition, 1840,) and "Lectures 
 on Systematic Theology," (1847.) He became president 
 of Oberlin College, Ohio, in 1852. 
 
 See Bartlett, "Modern Agitators." 
 
 Fino, fee'no, (Alemanio,) an Italian historian and 
 elegant writer, bom at Bergamo. Among his works are 
 "The History of Crema," (1566,) and "The War of 
 Attila, the Scourge of God," (1569.) Died about 15S6. 
 
 See TlKAnoscm, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Fino Fini, fee'no fee'nee, surnamed Adriano, an 
 eminent Italian scholar and Orientalist, born in the dio- 
 cese of Adria in 1431 ; died in 1517. 
 
 Finoglia, fe-nil'ya, (Paolo Domenico,) an able Ital- 
 ian painter, born at Orta, (Naples;) died in 1656. 
 
 Fioravanti, fe-o-ra-van'tee, (Leonardo,) an Italian 
 physician and surgeon, was a native of Bologna. He 
 wrote, among other works, "The Mirror of Universal 
 Science." Died in 1588. 
 
 Fioravanti, (Valentino,) an Italian composer, born 
 at Rome about 1765, produced successful operas, among 
 which were "I Virtuosi ambulanti" and "II Furbo con- 
 tra Furbo." Died in 1837. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Fiore, del, d£l feo'ra, (Jacohei.lo,) a painter of the 
 Venetian school, flourished from 1400 to 1436. He was 
 a son of a painter named Francesco del Fiore. The 
 beauty and grace of his figures are praised. His master- 
 piece is a "Coronation of the Virgin." 
 
 See Vasari," Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi," History of Painting 
 in Italy." 
 
 Fiore, del, (Niccol6 Antonio,) often called Colan- 
 tonio del Fiore, a Neapolitan painter, born at Naples 
 in 1352. He painted in distemper. Died in 1444. 
 
 Fiorentini, fe-o-ren-tee'nee, (Francesco Maria,) an 
 Italian historian, born at Lucca about 1610 ; died in 1673. 
 
 Fiorentino, fe-o-ren-tee'no, (Agostino,) a Floren- 
 tine sculptor, flourished from 1442 to 1461. 
 
 Fiorentino, (Pietro Angelo,) an Italian litterateur, 
 born in Naples in 1810. He became a resident of Paris 
 about 1835, and contributed to the "Moniteur" and other 
 journals. Among his works are several dramas. 
 
 Fiorentino, (Stefano,) called Stefano da Ponte- 
 Vecchio, and, also, Lo Scimmia, ("The Ape,") a Flor- 
 entine painter, born in 1301, was a pupil of Giotto. He 
 is highly praised by Vasari. Only one of his works is 
 extant, — a fresco of Christ at Florence. Died in 1350. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Fidrgyn, Fiorgvin, or Fiorgynn. See Hlodyn. 
 
 Fiori, (FEDERIGO.) See Barocci. 
 
 Fiori. fe-o'ree, (Giorgio,) a noted Italian lawyer, born 
 at Milan about 1450. He wrote a history, in Latin, of the 
 Italian and German wars of his time. Died about 1512. 
 
 Fiori, (GIUSEPPE,) a Sicilian poet. Died in 1646. 
 
 Fiori, de', da fe-o'ree, (Mario,) an Italian flower- 
 painter, born in i6t>3 ; died in 1673. 
 
 Fiorillo, fe-o-rel'lo, (Johann Dominicus,) a German 
 artist and writer upon art, born at Hamburg in 1748. 
 He produced several good pictures, but is chiefly known 
 as the author of two excellent works, entitled " History 
 of the Arts of Design from their Revival to the Most 
 Recent Times," (5 vols., 1798-1808,) and " History of 
 the Arts of Design in Germany and the Netherlands," 
 (4 vols., 1815-20.) He was for many years professor of 
 art in the University of Gottingen. Died in 1821. 
 
 Fioriivi, fe-o-ree'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) a Bo- 
 lognese painter, flourished about 1560-90. He worked 
 in partnership with Cesare Aretusi, who coloured the 
 works which were designed by Fiorini. 
 
 His son Gakriello was a sculptor. 
 
 Fiorini, (Pietro,) an able Italian architect, a son of 
 Gabriello, began to work in 1581. He designed several 
 churches of Bologna.' Died in 1622. 
 
 Firdousee or Firdausi, flr-dow'see or fSr-dow'see, 
 written also, but less correctly, Firdusi, Firdousi, and 
 Ferdoucy, fir-doo'see, the surname by which the greatest 
 of the Persian poets, Abool-Kasim-Mansoor, ( Abu'l- 
 Kasim-Mansur, or Abou'l-Casim-Mansour, a'bool 
 ka'sim man-soon',) is generally known. He was born at 
 or near Toos, (Tus,) in Khorassan, about 940 A.D. His 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
fIRDOUSEE 
 
 921 
 
 FIRM IN 
 
 surname Fikdousek is supposed by some to have been 
 given him because his father was a gardener, from the 
 Persian firdous or firdous, signifying a "garden," also 
 "paradise;" according to others, the name implied a 
 lofty culogium on his poetry, as being worthy to be sung 
 In Paradise, or because when it was recited at the court 
 of Mahmood the hearers imagined themselves to be in 
 Paradise. Firdousee had made himself intimately ac- 
 quainted with the early history of Persia as it was known 
 through the ancient chronicles and traditions. With 
 these as a basis, he composed his great poem the " Shah- 
 Namah" or " Shah-Nameh," (shah na'mah,) or " Book 
 of Kings." As originally written, it is said to have con- 
 tained 60,000 distichs or couplets ; but none of the exist- 
 ing manuscripts have more, it is stated, than about 56,000 
 distichs. When the fame of Firdousee became known, 
 the Sultan Mahmood invited him to his court at Ghiznee, 
 (Gazna ;) and he is said to have been charmed with the 
 wit and genius of the poet. While the latter was writing 
 the " Shah-Namah," Mahmood directed that he should 
 be paid out of the royal treasury a thousand pieces of 
 gold for every thousand couplets that he should com- 
 pose ; but, through the envy or jealousy of influential 
 courtiers, he received but a very small part of what was 
 due to him. When at last, after a labour of thirty years, 
 his immortal poem was completed, Mahmood, in an im- 
 pulse of generous admiration, ordered, it is said, that an 
 elephant-load of gold should be given to the poet. But 
 afterwards, either repenting of his too great liberality, 
 or else influenced by the representations of Firdousee's 
 enemies, he revoked the order, and sent him 60,000 
 dirhems (small silver coins) instead. The money arrived 
 while the poet was in one of the public baths. Enraged 
 and rendered utterly reckless by this illiberal treatment, 
 he gave one-third of the coins to the man who brought 
 them, another third to a seller of refreshments, and 
 the remainder to the keeper of the bath. When Mah- 
 mood learned how his gift had been received, he was 
 filled with wrath, and ordered that the poet should be 
 trampled to death under the feet of an elephant. Fir- 
 dousee, in the greatest consternation, hastened into the 
 king's presence, and, falling at his feet, implored his for- 
 giveness, at the same time reciting a poem in which he 
 spoke in terms of the most glowing eulogy of the glories 
 of Mahmood's reign. The king pardoned him, and, ac- 
 cording to some accounts, sought to make reparation for 
 his former unworthy treatment. But the wound inflicted 
 upon the mind of the poet was too deep to be forgiven. 
 With a truly Oriental duplicity, he obtained from the 
 royal librarian the copy of the "Shah-Namah" which he 
 had presented to the king, ostensibly for the purpose of 
 making some correction, and wrote in it a most scathing 
 satire on Mahmood ; he then fled from Ghiznee and 
 sought refuge in Bagdad. When the caliph learned that 
 Firdousee was residing in his capital, he invited him to 
 his court, and treated him with the greatest honour and 
 liberality. Firdousee added to his great poem 1000 dis- 
 tichs in praise of the caliph, who gave the poet 60,000 
 pieces of gold. Some authors say that Firdousee sent 
 the satire to Mahmood by the hand of a friend, who 
 supposed it to be a petition of some sort. 
 
 The events of his life, however, are very differently 
 related by different authors. According to one story, 
 Mahmood after a time not only repented of his injustice 
 and permitted the poet to return to Toos, his native city, 
 but severely punished those courtiers by whose counsel 
 he had been misled, and finally, as a tardy reparation 
 for his wrongs, sent Firdousee 100,000 pieces of gold. 
 Meanwhile, the days of the immortal bard were drawing 
 to their close. He one day heard a child singing in the 
 streets of Toos some of his own verses, which so vividly 
 recalled his bitter wrongs and sufferings that he was 
 seized with faintness, and, having been carried to his 
 house, he soon after expired. It is said that while the 
 mortal remains of the poet were passing through one of 
 the gates of Toos to the cemetery without the city, the 
 train of camels bearing the munificent but tardy present 
 of the sultan was entering by another. One of the daugh- 
 ters of the deceased, to whom the gold was offered, re- 
 jected it with indignant disdain ; but her sister consented 
 to accept it in order to construct a work of public utility 
 
 which her father had long had at heart : this was the 
 erection of a stone dike to prevent the overflow of the 
 river near his native town. Thus his wish was at last 
 fulfilled, though not until after his death. When Fir- 
 dousee died, he was eighty, or, as some authorities say, 
 eighty-two years of age. Although to a European mind 
 many of the incidents related in the "Shah-Namah" would 
 appear extravagant, it is, nevertheless, of all the great 
 Mohammedan poems that which corresponds most nearly 
 to the taste of the Western nations and to the principles 
 of European criticism. Sir William Jones styles the 
 " Shah-Namah" "a glorious monument of Eastern genius 
 and learning, which, if it should ever be generally under- 
 stood in its original language, will contest the merit of 
 invention with Homer himself." (See article " Firdousi" 
 in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generate," and the biblio- 
 graphic references subjoined. Of these, perhaps the 
 most valuable for the English reader are the preface to 
 Julius von Mohl's translation and commentary of the 
 " Shah-Namah," Sir W. Gore Ouseley's " Biographical 
 Notices of the Persian Poets," and the biographical notice 
 prefixed to the " Abridgment of the Shah-Nameh," by 
 J. Atkinson, London, 1832.) 
 
 See, also, J. van Wallbnburg, " Notice sur le SchSh NSmeh de 
 Ferdoussi," 1810; De Sacv, article in the " Magasin Encycloprf- 
 dique," 1813 ; Von Hammer, " Geschichte der schbnen Redekiinste 
 Persiens," and an article in the "Wiener Jahrbucher," vol. ix. ; 
 Alexander Ross, " Essay on the Life and Genius of Firdousi," in 
 the "Annals of Oriental Literature," 1S20 ; Robinson, " Sketch of 
 the Life and Writings of Ferdoosee," in " Memoirs of the Literary 
 and Philosophical Society of Manchester," 2d series, 1S24 ; De Star- 
 kenfels, "Vie de Firdousi ;" E. Nazarianz, article on the "Life 
 and Writings of Firdousee," (in Russian,) 1851 ; "Retrospective 
 Review," vol. iv., 1821. 
 
 Fixenzuola, fe-ren-zoo-o'lii, (Agnolo,) a celebrated 
 Italian writer, born at Florence in 1493. He was the 
 author of satirical poems, sonnets, prose essays, novels, 
 and dramas. His two comedies entitled " I Lucidi" and 
 " La Trinuzia" are greatly admired, and both his prose 
 writings and poems are ranked among the Italian classics. 
 Died about 1545. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Tiraboschi, "Storia della Lettera- 
 tura Italiana ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" G. 
 Negri, "Istoria de' Fiorentini Scrittori." 
 
 Fir-ma'nus, (Tarutius,) a Roman astronomer, was 
 a contemporary and friend of Cicero. 
 
 Firmenich, feR'meh-niK', (Johannes Matthias,) 
 a German poet and dramatist, born at Cologne in 1808. 
 
 Firmian, von, fon fgeVme-an, ( Karl Joseph, ) 
 Count, an Austrian statesman, born in the Tyrol in 1716. 
 He was a member of the aulic council at Vienna in the 
 reign of Charles VI., after whose death he was Governor 
 of Austrian Lombardy, to which he rendered important 
 services. He founded libraries, and liberally patronized 
 artists and men of letters. Died in 1782. 
 
 See Paolo Frisi, " Elogio di T. Pomponio Attico," 1780 ; Angelo 
 Teodoro Villa, "C. Comitis Firmiani Vita," 1783. 
 
 Fir'ml-cus Ma-ter'nus, (Julius or Vii.lius,) an 
 ecclesiastic of the fourth century. By some he is sup- 
 posed to have been Bishop of Milan. The work by which 
 he is chiefly known was addressed to the Roman em- 
 perors Constantius and Constans, entitled "De Errore 
 Profanarum Religionuin." His treatise is a forcible and 
 striking exposition of the excellence and purity of the 
 Christian religion as contrasted with the immoralities 
 and absurdities of paganism. It was printed by Matthias 
 Flaccius in 1562. There is also extant a work on as- 
 tronomy, called "Mathesis," by Firmicus Maternus. 
 
 See Hertz, "Dissertatio de J. Firmico Matemo," 1817. 
 
 Fir-mil'I-an, [Fr. Firmilien,, fer'me'le-aN',] Saint, 
 Bishop of Cesarea. He was successful in quelling the 
 Novatian doctrines, and united with Saint Cyprian against 
 Pope Stephen in the dispute in relation to the re-baptism 
 of heretics. Finnilian was the intimate friend of Origen, 
 and was distinguished even among the Christian Fathers 
 for his exemplary piety. He presided at the Council of 
 Antioch in the trial of Paul of Samosata. Died at Tarsus 
 in 269 a.d. 
 
 See Eusebius, "Historia Ecclesiastica;" Baillet, "Vies des 
 Saints." 
 
 Fir'min, (Giles,) an English physician and noncon- 
 formist minister, born in Suffolk in 161 7, wrote a work 
 entitled "The Real Christian." Died in 1697. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ($&~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FIRM IN 
 
 azz 
 
 FISK 
 
 Fir'niin, (Thomas,) a distinguished English philan- 
 thropist, born at Ipswich in 1632. Though a Socinian, 
 he was held in high estimation by many of the ecclesi- 
 astics of the Established Church,especially by Archbishop 
 Tillotson. He founded two houses to supply the poor 
 with work, and liberally contributed to many of the be- 
 nevolent institutions of his time. He published a work 
 entitled " Proposals for the Employing of the Poor, and 
 for the Prevention of Beggary." Died in 1697. 
 
 See Cornish, "Life of T. Firmin," 1780; "Retrospective Re- 
 view," vol. xii., 1825. 
 
 Fir'mbnt, de, [Fr. pron. deh feR'm6N',] (Henry 
 Essex Edgeworth,) a Catholic priest, vicar-general of 
 the church of Paris, born at Edgeworthstown, in Ireland, 
 >n 1745, removed to France when quite young. He 
 performed the office of confessor to Louis XVI., and 
 accompanied that unfortunate monarch to the scaffold. 
 Firmont died in 1807, greatly lamented by the royal 
 family. Louis XVIII. composed his epitaph. 
 
 Fii'nius or Fir'ml-us, a native of Seleucia, in Syria. 
 Having obtained great wealth and power, he seized Alex- 
 andria, was proclaimed Augustus, and formed an alliance 
 with Zenobia. The emperor Aurelian, having defeated 
 and taken him prisoner, ordered him to be crucified. 
 
 Fischart, fish'aRt, (Johann,) sumamed MENTZER, a 
 celebrated German satirist, was born at Mentz or Stras- 
 burg about 1545. His satires in prose and verse are 
 distinguished for their moral tone as well as caustic wit, 
 and give a faithful picture of the manners of his time, 
 He wrote a descriptive poem, called "GlUckhafft Schiff," 
 (1576,) which was much admired. Died in 1614. 
 
 See Eksch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fischer, fish'er, (Christian August,) a German 
 litterateur, born at Leipsic in 1 771, was the author of 
 "Mountain Travels," "Picture of Madrid," (1802,) "Pic- 
 ture of Brazil," (1819,) and other works. Died in 1829. 
 
 Fischer, (Edmund Rudolf,) a German writer, born 
 at Hasen-Preppach in 1687, became in 1758 general 
 superintendent, or Protestant archbishop. Died in 1776. 
 
 See Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fischer, (Friedrich Christoph Jonathan,) a Ger- 
 man jurist and historian, born at Stuttgart in 1750. His 
 chief work is a " History of German Commerce," (1791.) 
 
 Fischer, (Gotthelf',) a German naturalist and chem- 
 ist, born at Waldheim in 1771 or 1775, became professor 
 of natural history at Moscow about 1804. He wrote on 
 anatomy, natural history, etc. 
 
 Fischer, (Gotthelf August,) a German mathema- 
 tician and scientific writer, born in 1763; died in 1832. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fischer, (Johann Andreas,) a German physician, 
 born at Erfurt in 1667. He wrote "Iliad in a Nutshell, 
 or Synoptic Medicine," (" Ilias in Nuce, seu Medicina 
 synoptica," 1716,) and other works. Died in 1729. 
 
 Fischer, (Johann Eherhard,) a German historian 
 and antiquary, born at Essling in 1697 ; died at Saint 
 Petersburg in 1771. 
 
 Fischer, (Johann Friedrich,) an eminent German 
 philologist, born at Coburg in 1726, resided chiefly at Leip- 
 sic. He edited Anacreon, Justin, Ovid, and other classics, 
 and wrote works on biblical criticism. Died in 1799. 
 
 Fischer, (Joseph Emanuel,) an architect, born about 
 16S0, was a son of J. B. Fischer von Erlach, noticed below. 
 He is said to have constructed in 1727 a steam-engine for 
 carrying water in the garden of Schwarzenberg. 
 
 Fischer, (Kuno, koo'no,) a German writer of great 
 merit, chiefly known as a philosophical critic and histo- 
 rian, was born at Soridewalde, in Silesia, in 1824. In 
 1856 he was appointed professor of philosophy at Jena. 
 I le has written " Diotima ; or, The Idea of the Beautiful," 
 (1849,) "History of Modern Philosophy," (2 vols., 1852- 
 55,) " Bacon of Verulam," (1856,) and other works. As 
 a lecturer on philosophy he is eminently popular. 
 
 Fischer, von, fon fish'er, (Kari.,) a noted German 
 architect, born at Manheim in 1782, became professor of 
 architecture at Munich about 1809. Died in 1820. 
 
 Fischer von Erlach, fish'er fon Jr'ISk, (Johann 
 Bernhard,) Baron, a celebrated German architect, born 
 at Prague (or, according to some authorities, at Vienna) in 
 1650. He built the Schonbrunn palace and the church 
 
 of San Carlo Borromeo at Vienna, and other public 
 edifices. He was court architect to Joseph I. and to his 
 successor, Charles VI. Died about 1730. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Fisen, fee'zen or fe'z&N', (Barthelemy,) a Belgian 
 Jesuit and historian, born at Liege in 1591 ; died in 1649. 
 
 Fish, (Hamilton,) an American statesman, born in 
 the city of New York in 1809, graduated at Columbia 
 College. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 
 1830, and was elected a member of Congress in 1843. 
 In 1848 he was chosen Governor of New York by the 
 Whig party. He was a United States Senator from 1851 
 to 1857, opposed the repeal of the Missouri Compromise 
 in 1854, and joined the Republican party about that time. 
 He was appointed secretary of state by President Grant 
 in the spring of 1869. 
 
 Fish, (Simon,) an English lawyer and author, born in 
 Kent about 1520, wrote "The Supplication of Beggars," 
 a satire on the Roman Catholic clergy. Died about 1534. 
 
 Fish'er, (Alva N,) an American painter, born in Need- 
 ham, Massachusetts, in 1792. His rural and domestic 
 scenes are much admired. He also painted many por- 
 traits. 
 
 Fish'er, (Edward,) a Calvinistic writer, born in 
 Gloucestershire, England, was distinguished for his 
 knowledge of the Greek and Hebrew languages and 
 ecclesiastical history. His principal work was entitled 
 the "Marrow of Modern Divinity," (1646.) 
 
 Fisher, (John,) [called in Latin Roffen'sis, (from 
 Roffa, the Latin name of Rochester,)] a learned English 
 prelate, born at Beverley, in Yorkshire, England, in 1459. 
 Margaret, Countess of Richmond and mother of Henry 
 VII., chose him as her confessor. In 1501 he was ap- 
 pointed chancellor of the University of Cambridge. In 
 1504 he became Bishop of Rochester, and the year 
 following accepted the presidency of Queen's College. 
 While in this position, he invited Erasmus to Cambridge 
 and had him appointed professor of Greek. Fisher took 
 an active part against the Lutheran doctrines, writing 
 several treatises upon the subject. When Henry VIII. 
 attempted to procure a divorce from Catherine of Ara- 
 gon, Fisher sided with the queen, thus incurring the 
 king's displeasure. He was soon deprived of his bish- 
 opric, and after the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn, 
 refusing to take the oath of allegiance, he was thrown 
 into the Tower. The king was still further exasperated 
 by Pope Paul III. having conferred the title of cardinal 
 upon F'isher, and resolved to put him to death. He was 
 soon after brought to trial, and executed in June, 1535. 
 
 See Dr. Baii.ey, " Life of Bishop Fisher," 1655: Richard Hall, 
 "Lite of J. Fisher," 1719; J. Lewis, " Life of John Fisher," 1855; 
 Burnet, "History of the Reformation;" Hartley Coleridce, 
 " Lives of Distinguished Northerns." 
 
 Fisher, (John,) an English Jesuit, whose proper name 
 was Piercy, was born in Yorkshire. He held public 
 disputes with several Protestant divines, and wrote a 
 "Treatise on Faith," (1600.) Died after 1641. 
 
 Fisher, (John,) born in Middlesex, England, in 1748, 
 became successively Bishop of Exeter and of Salisbury 
 about 1804. He was appointed to superintend the edu- 
 cation of the princess Charlotte of Wales. Died in 1825. 
 
 Fisher, (Payne,) [Lat. Paga'nus Pisca'tor,] an 
 English poet, born in Dorsetshire in 1614. During the 
 protectorate of Cromwell he was regarded as the poet- 
 laureate. He served as a major in the army of Charles 
 I. Died in 1693. 
 
 Fisher, (Thomas,) an English antiquary and writer, 
 born at Rochester in 1772. He contributed for many 
 years to the "Gentleman's Magazine." Died in 1836. 
 
 Fisk, (Pliny,) an American missionary in Palestine, 
 born at Shelburne, Massachusetts, in 1792, graduated at 
 Middlebury College in 1814, and in 1819 embarked for 
 Palestine. ' On reaching Smyrna, he applied himself to 
 the study of the Eastern languages, which he afterwards 
 pursued at the college of Scio. Died at Beyroot in 1825. 
 
 Fisk, (Wilbur,) D.D., a distinguished Methodist 
 divine, born in Brattleborough, Vermont, in 1792. He 
 was for several years principal of the Wesleyan Academy 
 in Wilbraham, Massachusetts, and in 1831 was chosen the 
 first president of the Wesleyan University, Middletown, 
 Connecticut, which, under his direction, became perhaps 
 
 a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mit; n&t; good; moon; 
 
FISQUET 
 
 9*3 
 
 F1TZW1LL1AM 
 
 the most influential educational institution of the Meth- 
 odist denomination in America. He was instrumental 
 in 1832 in establishing the Indian mission in Oregon. 
 In 1835-36 he visited Europe, and on his return published 
 a volume of travels. Died in 1839. 
 
 Fisquet, f6s'k&', (Honore JEAN Pierre,) a French 
 biographer, born at Montpellier in 1818. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " History of Algeria," (1842,) and 
 " Pontifical France, or a History of the Bishops who 
 have governed the Dioceses of France," (4 vols.) 
 
 Fitch, (Eisenkzer,) D.D., an American divine, first 
 president of Williams College, Massachusetts, was born 
 in Norwich, Connecticut, in 1756; died in 1833. 
 
 Fitch, (John,) an American inventor, born in Wind- 
 sor, Connecticut, in 1743. He became a brass-founder, 
 and afterwards a silversmith. About 1780 he removed 
 to Kentucky, where he was appointed deputy-surveyor, 
 and was captured by the Indians, who took him to De- 
 troit and detained him until he was exchanged. In 
 1785 he began to devote himself to the application of 
 steam to navigation, and constructed a model of a steam- 
 boat. Having petitioned the legislatures of Pennsylvania, 
 New Jersey, and Virginia for aid, without success, he 
 formed in 17S6 a private company for navigation by steam. 
 In August, 1787, he made with a small steamboat an ex- 
 periment on the Delaware River, with partial success. 
 He built another boat, which, in 1790, plied as a passen- 
 ger-boat on the Delaware at the rate of about seven 
 miles an hour. Fitch, however, gained no profit from 
 his enterprise, and afterwards wandered about in poverty, 
 and was regarded by some as an insane projector. He 
 died in Kentucky in 1 798. 
 
 Sec a life of John Fitch in Sparks's "American Biography;" 
 Thompson Wk-hott, "Lite of John Fitch," 1S57; "Lives' of 
 Eminent American Mechanics," etc., by Henry Howe. 
 
 Fitch, (Ralph,) an English traveller, left England in 
 1583, and spent eight years in the East Indies. On his 
 return an interesting account of his travels was published. 
 
 See Hakxuyt, "Voyages." 
 
 Fitz-geVald, (Edward,) Lord, an Irish revolution- 
 ist, born in 1763, was a younger son of the Duke of 
 Leinster. From 1773 to 1779 he resided in France, 
 where in learning the language he became partially as- 
 similated to the tastes and manners of the French. 
 Having entered the British army, he served with distinc- 
 tion in the battle of Charleston, South Carolina, in 1 781. 
 In 1784 he returned home and obtained a seat in the 
 Irish Parliament. The sufferings of Ireland, added per- 
 haps to the neglect with which he conceived himself 
 to be treated, rendered him disaffected to the English 
 government. He took his seat with the opposition, and 
 aspired to rival Grattan and Curran in eloquence. In 
 1788 we find him at Halifax, America, with the fifty- 
 fourth regiment, whence he travelled through the United 
 States to New Orleans. He visited Paris in 1 791 to 
 consult and fraternize with the republicans. In 1792 
 he married the beautiful and accomplished Pamela, the 
 protegee and supposed daughter of Madame de Genlis. 
 The latter being employed by the Duke of Orleans as 
 governess of his children, (one of whom, Louis Philippe, 
 became King of France,) Pamela was educated with 
 them. In 1796 he joined the United Irishmen, who sent 
 him as their agent to the continent to procure French 
 aid in liberating Ireland. A few months before the time 
 set for the insurrection in 1798, the secret was divulged 
 to the English ministry. He resisted the officers who 
 arrested him, was wounded, and died in prison in 1798. 
 
 See Thomas Moore, " Life of Edward Fitzgerald," 1831 ; Eksch 
 und Guuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fitzgerald, (Pamela,) a French lady, supposed to 
 have been a daughter of the Duke of Orleans and 
 Madame de Genlis. She was educated by the latter, 
 and was married about 1792 to I.ord Edward Fitzgerald. 
 After his death she became the wife of a man named 
 Pitcairn. Died in Paris in 1831. 
 
 See Eksch und Grubek, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fitzgerald, (Thomas.) See Kildarf, Earl of. 
 
 Fitz-gib'bon, (John,) Earl of Clare, an Irish noble- 
 man, born in 1749. He rose to be lord high chancellor 
 of Ireland in 1789, and was afterwards appointed vice- 
 
 chancellor of the University of Dublin. He was a lealous 
 advocate for the Union. Died in 1802. 
 
 Fitzharris. See Malmesbury, (Earl,) and Harris, 
 (James.) 
 
 Fitz-her'bert, (Sir Anthony,) a distinguished Eng- 
 lish lawyer under the reign of Henry VIII. In 1523 he 
 became one of the justices of the court of common pleas. 
 He wrote several able works, among which are "The 
 Grand Abridgment," ( 1 5 1 4, ) and the "Office and Au- 
 thority of Justices of the Peace," (1538.) Died in 1538. 
 
 Fitzherbert, (Maria,) born in 1756, was the daugh- 
 ter of Waller Smythe, of Hampshire. Having become 
 a widow the second time, she was privately married in 
 1785 to the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. 
 After the king's separation from the princess Caroline, 
 Mrs. Fitzherbert lived with him for a time, but at length 
 retired to Brighton, where she died in 1837. 
 
 See Charles Langdale, "Memoirs of Mrs. Fitzherbert." 
 
 Fitzherbert, (Nicholas,) grandson of Sir Anthony, 
 mentioned above, was born about 1550. He wrote, 
 among other works, a "Treatise on the Antiquity and 
 Duration of the Catholic Religion in England," (1608.) 
 Died in 1621. 
 
 Fitzherbert, (Thomas,) an English Jesuit, born in 
 Staffordshire in 1552, was appointed rector of the Eng- 
 lish College at Koine. Among other works, he wrote 
 a "Treatise concerning Polity and Religion," (1606-10,) 
 and a " Refutation of some of the Principles of Machi« 
 avel." Died in 1640. 
 
 Fitzherbert, (Sir William,) an English jurist, a 
 relative of the preceding, born in Derbyshire in 1748, 
 wrote a "Dialogue on the Revenue Laws." Died in 
 1791. 
 
 Fitzjames, (James.) See Berwick, Duke of. 
 
 Fitzjames, de, deh fets'zhim' or fe'zhSm', (Charles,) 
 Duke, Marshal of France, and grandson of James II., 
 King of England, born in 1712. He served chiefly in 
 the wars in Germany. Died in 1787. 
 
 Fitz-James, de, (Edouard,) Comtf, a French gen- 
 eral, born in 171 5, was a son of the Duke of Berwick. 
 Died at Cologne in 1758. 
 
 Fitz-James, de, (Edouard,) Due, a French peer 
 and politician, born in 1776, was a grandson of Marshal 
 Fitz-James. He was a partisan of the Bourbons. Died 
 in 1838. 
 
 Fitz-pat'rick, (Benjamin,) a lawyer, born in Green 
 county, Georgia, in 1802, removed to Alabama, of which 
 he was Governor from 1841 to 1845. He became a Sen- 
 ator of the United States in 1848, and was re-elected irt 
 
 1853- 
 
 Fitz-roy', (Rohert,) an English navigator, meteor- 
 ologist, and rear-admiral, born in 1805, was a son of 
 General Lord Charles Fitzroy. As captain of the Beagle, 
 he was employed in the survey of the west coast of South 
 America in 1828-30. He also commanded the Beagle 
 in a voyage round the world performed between 1831 
 and 1836, which expedition Charles Darwin accompanied 
 as naturalist. The results of this expedition appeared 
 in a "Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S 
 Adventure and Beagle between 1826 and 1836, etc.," 
 (1839,) written by Captain Fitzroy and Captain King. 
 In 1855 he was appointed chief of the meteorological 
 department of the Board of Trade. Died in 1865. 
 
 Fitz-si'mons or Fitz-si'mon, (Henry,) an Irish 
 Jesuit, noted as a polemical writer, born in Dublin in 
 1569. He took an active part in the rebellion of 1641. 
 Died in 1644. 
 
 Fitz-ste'phen, (William,) a learned English monk 
 and historian of the twelfth century. He was an intimate 
 friend of Thomas a Becket, of whose murder he was an 
 eye-witness. He wrote the "Life and Passion of Arch- 
 bishop Becket," in Latin, to which was prefixed his 
 " Description of the City of London," one of the earliest 
 and most valuable accounts of that capital. Died about 
 1191. 
 
 Fitz-wil'liam, (Charles William Wkntworth,) 
 Earl OF, a Liberal peer, born in London in 1786, was 
 the eldest son of William Wentworth, noticed below. 
 Before the death of his father, in 1833, he was styled 
 Lord Milton. He was a warm friend of the Reform bill. 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. ( JJfSee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
F1TZWILL1AM 
 
 9*4 
 
 FLAMININUS 
 
 Fitzwilliam, (William,) Earl of Southampton, a 
 celebrated naval commander, born about 1490. He 
 served against the French in 1513 and in 1523, and was 
 raised to the rank of admiral. In 1537 he received the 
 title of Earl of Southampton, and was made lord privy 
 seal in 1539. Died in 1542. 
 
 Fitzwilliam, (William Wentworth,) Earl of, an 
 English statesman, nephew of the Marquis of Rocking- 
 ham, was born in 1748. He began his public life as a 
 friend of Fox, but separated from him on the issue of the 
 French Revolution, and became president of the council 
 under Mr. Pitt in July, 1794. In 1795 he was for a short 
 time Viceroy of Ireland. He was again appointed presi- 
 dent of the council in 1806, and retired from office in 
 1807. Died in 1833. 
 
 Fiurelli, fe-oo-rel'lee, (Tiberio,) a famous Italian 
 comedian, surnamed Scaramouchk, was born at Naples 
 in 1608. In early life he removed to Paris, where he 
 died in 1694. 
 
 Fix, fiks or ftks, (Theobald,) a Swiss philologist, 
 brother of Theodor, noticed below, was born at Soleure 
 in 1802. He contributed to the new edition of Ste- 
 phens's "Thesaurus Linguae Graecse," and published 
 several editions of Greek classics. 
 
 Fix, (Theodor,) a Swiss writer on political economy, 
 born at Soleure in 1800. He made contributions to 
 several journals of Paris, and was a member of the Acad- 
 emy of Moral and Political Science. Died in 1846. 
 
 See Theobald Fix, " Notice sur M. T. Fix," 1846. 
 
 Fixlmillner, fiks'l-mil'ner, or Fixmillner, fiks-mil'- 
 ner, (Placidus,) an eminent German astronomer, born 
 at Achlenthen, near Linz, in 1721. His principal work 
 is "Decenniuin Astronomicum," (1776,) which is the 
 record of his observations for ten years. He was a monk 
 of the monastery of Kremsmunster. Died in 1791. 
 
 Fizeau, fe'zo , (Hippolyte Louis,) a French natural 
 philosopher, born in Paris in 1819. He distinguished 
 himself by his researches into the properties and motion 
 of light, and received in 1856 the grand prize of the In- 
 stitute, 10,000 francs. He married a daughter of Adrien 
 de Jussieu. 
 
 Fizes, fez, (Antoine,) a French physician, and pro- 
 fessor of medicine and mathematics at Montpellier, was 
 born in that city in 1690. He published "Opera Medica," 
 a "Treatise on Fevers," (1749,) a "Treatise on Physio- 
 logy," and other works. Died in 1765. 
 
 See Esteve, " La Vie et les Principes de M. de Fizes," 1765 ; Des- 
 Genbttes, article in the "Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Flac-cil'la, (TElia, ) wife of the Roman emperor 
 Theodosius L, and mother of Arcadius and Honorius, 
 was born in Spain, and became empress in 379 A.D. She 
 left a high reputation for piety, virtue, and moderation. 
 Died about 386. 
 
 Flac'cus, (Caius Valerius,) a Roman poet, born 
 probably at Padua. He wrote a poem on the Argo- 
 nautic expedition, (" Argonautica,") which is a free imi- 
 tation of Apollonius of Rhodes, and contains beautiful 
 passages and descriptions. The style is rather obscure 
 and artificial. It is supposed that several of the last 
 books of this poem are lost, or else it was left unfinished. 
 Eight books are extant. He died about 88 or 90 a.d. 
 Quintilian referred to his death in terms like these : " We 
 have recently lost much in Valerius Flaccus." The 
 critics are far from being agreed as to the merits of his 
 poem. 
 
 Seethe Preface of Burmann's edition of the "Argonautica," 1724; 
 •' Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Flaccus, (Calpurnius.) See Calpurnius. 
 
 Flaccus, (Horatius.) See Horace. 
 
 Flaccus, ( I.. Valerius, ) a Roman general, was a 
 partisan of Marius, and commanded an army in Asia. 
 He was killed by Fimbria about 86 B.C. 
 
 Flaccus, (M. Fulvius,) a Roman officer, who was 
 consul in 125 B.C., and a political friend of the Gracchi. 
 Carbo, Caius Gracchus, and Flaccus were the triumviri 
 for the division of lands. Having taken arms for Caius 
 Gracchus, he was put to death by Opimius in 121 B.C. 
 
 Flaccus, (Persius.) See Persius. 
 
 Flaccus, (Q. Fulvius,) a Roman general, who was 
 elected consul in 237 B.C. Having been re-elected in 
 
 212, he obtained command of an army, and defeated 
 Hanno at Beneventum. Died about 200 B.C. 
 
 See Livv, " History of Rome." 
 
 Flaccus, (Q. Fulvius,) a son of the preceding, com- 
 manded with success in Spain in 181 B.C. 
 
 Flaccus, ( Verrius, ) a Roman grammarian, lived in 
 the reign of Augustus. He wrote many and various 
 works, which are not extant. 
 
 Flaccus Illyricus. See Francowitz. 
 
 Flach, (Matthias.) See Francowitz. 
 
 Flachat, flS'shi', (Jean Claude,) a French merchant, 
 who lived and traded many years in Constantinople, and 
 published "Observations on the Commerce and Arts 
 of Europe, Asia," etc., (2 vols., 1766.) Died in 1775. 
 
 Flacius. See Francowitz. 
 
 Flacourt, de, deli flS'kook', (Etienne,) born at Or- 
 leans, in France, in 1607, was nominated commander of 
 Madagascar in 1648. He returned to France in 1655, 
 and published in 1658 a " History of Madagascar," which 
 was written with much care and accuracy and contained 
 the first general description of that island. Died in 
 1660. 
 
 Flagg, (Edmund,) an American writer, born at Wis- 
 cassett, Maine, in 181 tj, became a lawyer, and edited 
 several journals. He published a few novels, and " Ven- 
 ice, the City of the Sea, 1749-1849," (2 vols., 1853.) 
 
 Flahault de la Billarderie, de, deh fli'6' deh IS 
 bel'yiRd're', (Auguste Charles Joseph,) Count, a 
 French general, born in Paris in 1785. He became 
 colonel in 1809, distinguished himself in the campaign 
 of Russia, and was aide-de-camp to Napoleon in 1813. 
 For his conduct at the battle of Leipsic ( 1813) he was 
 made a general of division, and a count. He fought for 
 Napoleon at Waterloo. The revolution of 1830 restored 
 him to his rank as a peer and general. He was am- 
 bassador to Vienna from 1841 to 1848, and became a 
 senator in 1853. Died in 1870. 
 
 Flahaut, Countess. See Souza, Adele de. 
 
 Flajani, fla-ya'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian surgeon, 
 born near Ascoli in 1741, studied at Rome. Pope Pius 
 VI. chose him for his surgeon-in-ordinary. Died in 1808. 
 
 Flamael. See Flemalle. 
 
 Flam'bard, (Ralph,) an English prelate, who was 
 chief minister of William Rufus. He became Bishop 
 of Durham in 1099. Died in 1128. 
 
 Flameel. See Flemalle. 
 
 Flamel, fli'mel', (Nicolas,) a scribe, a dealer in 
 manuscripts, and a famous alchemist, who lived in Paris 
 about 1350, was the subject of many marvellous stories 
 which have exercised the public credulity. He is sup- 
 posed to have acquired by some means great wealth, 
 which he spent partly in the erection of churches and in 
 works of charity. There are several treatises on alchemy 
 which are ascribed to him. Died in 1418. 
 
 See " Histoire critique de N. Flamel," anonymous, 1761. 
 
 Flamen, fla'men, (Albert,) a Flemish painter and 
 engraver, born at Bruges, lived in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Flamen, fli'mSN', or Flamin, flS'maN', (Anselme,) 
 a French sculptor, born at Saint-Omer in 1647, worked 
 in Paris. Died in 1 717. 
 
 Flam-I-m'nus, (Lucius Quintius,) a Roman ad- 
 miral, born about 240 B.C., was a brother of Titus. He 
 commanded a fleet sent against Philip of Macedon in 
 198 B.C. Died in 170. 
 
 Flamininus, (Titus Quintius,) sometimes called 
 Fla-min'I-us, a distinguished Roman general, was 
 chosen consul 198 B.C., and obtained the province of 
 Macedonia, then the seat of war with Philip of Macedon. 
 He defeated the army of Philip in Epirus, and recovered 
 possession of Thessaly. After the year of his consulship 
 had expired, he was continued in the command of that 
 province by the senate. All attempts to negotiate a 
 peace having failed, the two armies again met at Cyno- 
 cephalae, in Thessaly. The phalanx of Philip having 
 been broken by the elephants of the Romans, a panic 
 seized his whole army, of whom 8000 were killed. After 
 this victory, in a general concourse of Greeks assembled 
 at the Isthmian Games, 196 B.C., Flamininus proclaimed 
 liberty and independence to the people of Corinth, 
 Phocis, Locris, Thessaly, etc. In 183 he performed a mis- 
 
 a.e. 
 
 , 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; not- good; moon 
 
FLAMIN10 
 
 925 
 
 FLAVIAN 
 
 sion to Prusias, King of Bithynia, to demand the surren- 
 der of Hannibal, who frustrated that design by suicide. 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Flamininus ;" Livv, "History of 
 Rome, 1 ' books xxxi.-xxxix. ; Niebuhr, "Roman History." 
 
 Flaminio, fli-mee'ne-o, (Giovanni Antonio,) an 
 Italian writer, born at Imola about 1464. He was pro- 
 fessor of belles-lettres at Seravalla and Bologna, and 
 wrote Latin poetry with moderate success. He also 
 wrote, in prose, a Dialogue on Education, and a treatise 
 "On the Origin of Philosophy," which are better than 
 his poems. Died in 1536. 
 
 Flaminio, (Marcantonio,) an eminent Latin poet, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Seravalla in 1498. He 
 was patronized by Cardinal Pole, with whom he lived 
 for many years, and whom he accompanied to the Coun- 
 cil of Trent in 1545. He translated thirty Psalms into 
 Latin verse, (1558,) and wrote hymns and other Latin 
 poems, " which," says Ginguene, "join to a rare elegance 
 something sweet and amiable, like his own character." 
 Died in Rome in 1550. 
 
 See August Neanoer, " Erinnerung an M. A. Flaminio," Ber- 
 lin, 1S37; Baylb, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Tira- 
 boschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Fla-min'i-us, (Caius,) a Roman general, noted for 
 his valour, became tribune of the people in 232 B.C., and 
 procured the passage of an agrarian law which was 
 violently opposed by the Optimates. In 225 or 223 he 
 was elected consul, and led an army against the Gauls. 
 Having been chosen consul a second time, he com- 
 manded at the battle of Lake Thrasymene, where, after 
 a brave and desperate resistance, the Romans were 
 defeated by Hannibal, and Flaminius was slain, in 217 
 B.C. During this battle an earthquake destroyed the 
 greater part of several cities of Italy; but it is said the 
 armies were entirely unconscious of its shock. The 
 I " Via Flaminia," a great highway, was made during his 
 censorship, and named in his honour. 
 
 His son Caius was consul in 185 B.C., and defeated 
 the Ligurians. 
 
 See Niebuhr, "Lectures on Roman History;" Livy, "History 
 of Rome," books xxi. and xxii. 
 
 Fla-minT-us, (Nobilius,) an Italian critic and theo- 
 logian, born at Lucca in 1532; died in 1590. 
 
 Flam'ma, (Calpurnius,) a Roman officer, noted for 
 one heroic or daring action in the first Punic war. 
 
 Flamma, (L Volumnius, ) a Roman general, who 
 commanded in the Samnite war, 296 B.C. 
 
 Flam'steed, (John,) an eminent English astronomer, 
 and the first astronomer royal, was born at Denby, 
 near Derby, on the 19th of August, 1646, and began the 
 study of the stars at an early age. He was ordained, 
 and obtained the living of Burstow, in 1684. He ap- 
 pears to have been the first modern astronomer who 
 understood the theorv of the equation of time, on which 
 subject he published: a practical demonstration about 
 1667. He made observations at Denby from 1668 to 
 1674, soon after which he went to London and associated 
 with Newton, Halley, and Hook. About 1675 Charles 
 II. appointed him astronomer royal, and gave him the 
 direction of the new observatory of Greenwich, which 
 was finished in 1676. Here he passed the remainder of 
 his life in patient observation, and determined the posi- 
 tion of 2884 stars. The results of his labours were 
 published in 1725, with the title of "Celestial History," 
 ("Historia Ccelestis.") This work surpassed all pre- 
 vious performances of the kind, contained the first ac- 
 curate catalogue of the stars, and is one of the richest 
 contributions ever made to practical astronomy. An 
 imperfect edition was published, without his consent, in 
 1712. He died in December, 1719. 
 
 See "An Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed," 1835, derived 
 fiom bis own manuscripts, which details a celebrated quarrel between 
 Newton and Flamsteed; Brewster, "Life of Sir Isaac Newton;" 
 J. B. Biot, "Notice sur Flamsteed," Paris, 1827; Whewku., 
 ton and Flamsteed," 1836; " London Quarterly Review" for 
 December, 1835; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1836. 
 
 Flandin, floti'dlN', (Charles,) a French physician, 
 born at Aubues (Nievre) in 1803. He wrote several 
 treatises on arsenic, and became a member of the Con- 
 seil dc Salubrite, in Paris, in 1845. His most important 
 work is a "Complete Treatise on Poisons," (3 vols., 
 I846-53-) 
 
 Flaiidin, (Eugene Napoleon,) a French painter and 
 antiquary, born at Naples in 1809. He visited Italy and 
 Algeria, and witnessed the attack on Constantine, which 
 he painted in 1838. Under the auspices of the Academy, 
 he was attached to the Persian embassy, and explored 
 the antiquities of Persia, 1839-41. The results of this 
 mission were "Studies on Persian Sculpture," (3 vols.,) 
 "Studies on Modern Persia," (100 plates,) and a "Nar- 
 rative of a Journey to Persia," (2 vols., 1843.) In 1844 
 he was sent to the supposed site of Nineveh, where he 
 made many designs, which were published by the govern- 
 ment, (1845-54.) 
 
 Flandrin, fldN'dRaN', (Auguste,) a French painter, 
 born in Lyons in 1804; died in 1842. 
 
 Flandrin, (Jean Hippolyte,) a French historical 
 painter, brother of the preceding, was born at Lyons in 
 1809, and was one of the best pupils of Ingres. He 
 studied in Rome from 1833 to 1838, and settled in Paris. 
 Among his works are "Euripides writing Tragedies," 
 " Dante conducted by Virgil," (1836,) " Mater Dolorosa," 
 (1845,) a,, d "Napoleon Legislateur," (1847,) ordered for 
 the Council of State. His composition and design are 
 highly praised. He excelled also in portraits. He was 
 admitted into the Institute in 1853. Died in 1864. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic GeWrale." 
 
 Flandrin, (Jean Paul,) a skilful landscape-painter, 
 brother of the preceding, with whom he studied in Rome, 
 was born at Lyons in 181 1. He is called one of the 
 representatives of classic landscape in France. Among 
 his works are "The Campagna of Rome," "The Prome- 
 nade of Poussin on the Tiber," (1843,) a "View of 
 Rivoli," (1844,) and "The Rhone near Avignon," (1846.) 
 
 Flandrin, (Pierre,) a French veterinary writer, born 
 at Lyons in 1752; died in 1796. 
 
 Flangini, fian-jee'nee, (Luigi,) an Italian writer, born 
 in Venice in 1733, was made cardinal in 1789. In 1801 
 the Austrian emperor conferred on him the titles of Pa- 
 triarch of Venice, count of the empire, and councillor of 
 state. He translated from the Greek the "Apology of 
 Socrates" by Plato, and the " Argonautica" of Apollo- 
 nius Rhodius into verse, (2 vols., 1791-94.) Died iti 1804. 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Biogratia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Flassans. See Raxis. 
 
 Flat'man, (Thomas,) a lawyer, poet, and a skilful 
 painter, born in London in 1633. He wrote songs, Pin- 
 daric odes, and other small poems, which procured for 
 him a temporary popularity. Died in 1688. 
 
 Flatters, flat'ters, a German sculptor, born at Cre- 
 velt in 1784; died in 1845. 
 
 Flaugergues, flo'zhjug', (Honor£,) a French as- 
 tronomer, born at V.iviers in 1755. In 181 5 the Academy 
 of Nimes awarded him a prize for a treatise on the tails 
 of comets. Died in 1835. 
 
 Flaugergues, (Pierre FRANgois,) a French lawyer, 
 born at Rodez about 1760. He was an active memljer 
 of the legislative body in 1813, and was one of the com- 
 mittee of three who prepared the address on the state 
 of the nation to Napoleon in December of that year. 
 Died in 1836. 
 
 Flav'el, (John,) an eminent English nonconformist 
 and Calvinist divine, born in Worcestershire about 1627. 
 He became rector of Dartmouth in 1656, and was ejected 
 for nonconformity in 1662 ; after which he preached in 
 private houses. His character is represented as excel- 
 lent. Among his works, which are highly esteemed, are 
 "Husbandry Spiritualized," (1669,) "Divine Conduct," 
 (1678,) and "Method of Grace," (1698.) His "Token 
 for Mourners," says Dr. Doddridge, "is inimitable." 
 Died at Exeter in 1691. An edition of his works, in six 
 volumes, was published in 1820. 
 
 See a " Life of Flavel," in an edition of his select works, 1833. 
 
 Fla'vi-an, [Lat. Flavia'nus; Fr. Flavien, flS've- 
 a.s',] Bishop of Antioch, is called a saint by the Roman 
 Catholics. He was an adversary of Arianism, and was 
 elected in 381 A.D. to the see of Antioch. The pope and 
 the Western bishops recognized Paulinus, who had been 
 chosen Bishop of Antioch by another party. Died in 
 404 A.D. 
 
 Fla'vi-an or Fla-vl-a' uus, Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople, was chosen Pontiff of the Greek Church in A.D. 
 447. By his influence Eutyches was condemned as a 
 
 « as *; 9 as s, g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N ( nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FLAVIGNY 
 
 926 
 
 FLEMALLE 
 
 heretic in a council held in 448. At another council, 
 assembled at Ephesus in 449, the Eutychian party pre- 
 vailed, and deposed or condemned Flavian. He died in 
 449, in consequence, it is said, of personal violence re- 
 ceived from the hostile sect. 
 
 See Socrates, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Sozomen, " Historia 
 Ecclesiastica ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grseca." 
 
 Flavigny, fli'ven'ye', (Valerien,) a French Hebra- 
 ist, born near Laon, was a doctor of the Sorbonne. He 
 became professor of Hebrew in the College de France 
 in 1630. He was chiefly occupied with philological dis- 
 cussions respecting the Hebrew text of the Bible, and 
 was involved in a long dispute with Abraham Echel- 
 lensis. Died in 1674. 
 
 Flavio, fla've-o, (Biondo,) or Biondo Flavio, [Lat. 
 Fla'vius Bi.on'dus,] an Italian historian and antiquary, 
 born at Forli in 1388. He was secretary to Pope Eu- 
 genius IV. and to three succeeding pontiffs. He illus- 
 trated the antiquities of Italy and Rome in three works, 
 viz., "Italia Illustrata," (1474,) "Ten Books of Rome 
 Triumphant," (" Romse Triumphantis Libri X.," 1482,) 
 and " Three Books of Rome Restored," (" Romae Instau- 
 rata: Libri III.," 1482.) These works we*e excellent 
 for the time, and are still consulted. Died in 1463. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della 
 Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Fla'vl-us, (Caius or Cneius,) a Roman senator, of 
 plebeian birth, who held the office of aedile about 303 B.C. 
 He acquired great popularity by publishing legal for- 
 mulas and technicalities, the knowledge of which the 
 patricians and pontiffs wished to be confined to them- 
 selves. His collection of legal rules was called "Jus 
 Flavianum." 
 
 Flaviua, (Clemens.) See Clemens. 
 
 Flavius, (Josephus.) See Josephus. 
 
 Fla'vua, (Titus Lartius,) the first Roman dictator, 
 appointed to that office in 498 B.C. 
 
 Flavy, de, deh fli've', (Guillaume,) a famous and 
 powerful French captain, born at Compiegne about 1398. 
 He had command of Compiegne when Joan of Arc was 
 captured there, (1430,) and was suspected of treachery 
 in that affair. He was notorious for his audacity and 
 crimes, and was assassinated in 1449. 
 
 Flax'man, (John,) an English sculptor of great emi- 
 nence, was'born at York in 1755. His father, who was 
 a moulder of figures, brought him to London in infancy. 
 About the year 1770 he became a student in the Royal 
 Academy, where he distinguished himself by his industry 
 and received a silver medal. In 1782 he married Miss 
 Demnan, with whom he lived happily until her death in 
 1820. In 1787 he removed to Rome, where he executed 
 his admirable and sublime compositions (in outline) 
 illustrative of the prominent events of the " Iliad" and 
 "Odyssey" and of the great poems of ^Eschylus and 
 Dante. His success in these subjects was such as to 
 acquire for him a very high celebrity, especially for in- 
 vention and composition. After remaining in Rome about 
 seven years, he returned home, and in 1797 was unani- 
 mously elected an associate of the Royal Academy. 
 About this time he executed monuments of Lord Mans- 
 field and Lord Nelson, which are much admired, and 
 numerous marble groups of scriptural subjects, for which 
 he was peculiarly qualified by his genius and his piety. 
 In 1810 he became professor of sculpture in the Royal 
 Academy. Among his latest productions are the " Shield 
 of Achilles," his " Psyche," and the group of the " Arch- 
 angel Michael and Satan." He died in 1826. Canova 
 and other competent judges have pronounced him the 
 greatest sculptor of modern times. "There was Flax- 
 man," says Ruskin, "another naturally great man, with 
 as true an eye for nature as Raphael ; — he stumbles over 
 the blocks of the antique statues, wanders in the dark 
 valley of their ruins to the end of his days." (" Modern 
 Painters.") 
 
 See Cunningham, "Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters, 
 Sculptors, and Architects;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Flechere or Fleohiere. See Fletcher, (John Wil- 
 liam.) 
 
 Fleohier, fla'she-V, (Esprit,) an excellent French 
 pulpit orator, born at Pernes, (Vaucluse,) June 10, 1632. 
 Having gained distinction by his Latin verses, eloquent 
 
 conversation, and funeral orations, he was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the French Academy in 1673. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Lavaur in 1685, and Bishop of Nimes in 1687. 
 As an orator, he was admired for his graceful style, noble 
 thoughts, and harmonious periods. He was considered 
 by his contemporaries as equal or only second to Bos- 
 suet ; but his reputation has since declined. Among 
 his best works are an "Oration on Turenne," (1676,) 
 and a "Life of Theodosius the Great," (1679.) Died 
 at Montpellier in February, 1710. 
 
 See Labitte, "La Jeunesse de Flechier," in the " Revue des 
 Deux Mondes," May, 1845; D'Alembert, " Histoire des Menibves 
 de 1'Acade^iiie," tomes i. and ii. ; Fabke de Narbonne, " Discours 
 sur la Vie de Flechier," prefixed to an edition of his works, 10 vols., 
 i8*s. 
 
 Fleck, flek, (Johann Friedrich Ferdinand,) a 
 celebrated German actor, born at Breslau in 1757, was 
 especially admired for his personation of the prominent 
 characters in Shakspeare. Died in 1801. 
 
 Fleck'noe, (Richard,) an English poet and drama- 
 tist, who lived in the reign of Charles II. He was 
 poet-laureate in the time of Dryden, whose ridicule, and 
 that of Pope, seem to have preserved Flecknoe's name 
 from oblivion more than his own writings. He wrote 
 " Fashionable Young Ladies," (" Damoiselles a la Mode," 
 1667,) and other plays, which were not successful. Died 
 about 1680. 
 
 See Malone, "Life of Dryden;" Allibone, "Dictionary of 
 Authors." 
 
 Fleet'wood, (Charles,) an English general, born 
 in Lancashire, is commonly described as a fanatic or 
 enthusiast of small capacity. He was returned to Par- 
 liament in 1645, and became a zealous republican and 
 Puritan. As lieutenant-general, he distinguished himself 
 at Dunbar and at the battle of Worcester, September, 
 1651. After the death of Ireton, (1651,) Fleetwood 
 married his widow, Bridget, a daughter of Cromwell, 
 and was appointed commander-in-chief of the army in 
 Ireland. He was also lord deputy of Ireland in 1654 
 and 1655. The Protector afterwards gave him the first 
 place among the major-generals whom he appointed in 
 1656. After the restoration he lived in obscurity until 
 his death, about 1692. His promotion is ascribed to his 
 remarkable gift for praying and preaching extempore. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England;" Guizot, "Histoire de la 
 Revolution d'Angleterre." 
 
 Fleetwood, (John,) an English writer on. theology, 
 published "The Christian Dictionary," (1773,) and "The 
 Life of Christ, and Lives of the Apostles," etc., (1813.) 
 
 Fleetwood, (William,) D.D., an eminent English 
 divine, born in London on the 1st of January, 1656. 
 After graduating at Cambridge, he became chaplain 
 of King William HI. He was chosen Bishop of Saint 
 Asaph in 1708, and was promoted to the Bishopric of 
 Ely in 1714. His sermons, of which a large number 
 were published, were greatly admired, and he was prob- 
 ably the most eminent preacher in the Anglican Church 
 of his time. Among his works are an "Essay on Mira- 
 cles," (1 701,) and "Chronicon Preciosum : an Account 
 of English Money, the Price of Corn, Wages, etc., for 
 the Last Six Hundred Years," (1707.) He published in 
 1712 four sermons, with a preface which, though con- 
 demned by the House of Commons to be burnt, was 
 inserted in the " Spectator," No. 384, with commendatory 
 remarks by the editor. He advocated Whig principles 
 in this preface. Died in August, 1723. 
 
 See Powell, " Life of Fleetwood" prefixed to his Works ; " liio- 
 graphia Hritannica ;" Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Fleetwood, (William,) an English lawyer, became 
 recorder of London about 1569. He wrote some legal 
 and historical works. Died in 1593. 
 
 Fleischer, flf'sher, (Heinrich Leberecht,) an emi- 
 nent German Orientalist, born at Schandau, in Saxony, 
 in 1801. In 1835 he succeeded Rosenmtiller as pro- 
 fessor of Oriental languages at Leipsic. He published 
 an edition of Abulfeda's " Anteislamica," with a Latin 
 translation, (1831,) and a valuable commentary on the 
 "Koran of Beidhawi," (1S44.) 
 
 Flemalle, fla'mil', written also Flamael, fla-mil', 
 Flemael, and Flameel, (Bertholet, beR'to'lJ',) a 
 Flemish painter, born at Liege in 1614. He worked in 
 Paris some years. Died in 1675. 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y. Ions;: A. e. 6. same, less prolonged : a. e, 1, 6. u, ?. short: a. %. i. p. ob.vure: far. fall, fat; met: not; good; moon ; 
 
FLEMING 
 
 927 
 
 FLETCHER 
 
 Flem'ing, (Abraham,) an English classical scholar 
 and translator, born in London, lived about 1580. He 
 translated Virgil's "Bucolics," (1575,) /Elian's "His- 
 tory," (1576,) Virgil's "Georgics," (1589,) and other 
 classic works. 
 
 Fleming, (Caleb,) an English Socinian minister, born 
 in 1698, succeeded the eloquent James Foster at Pinners' 
 Hall, London, in 1752. He published many theological 
 writings. Died in 1779. 
 
 Fleming, (Charles,) a philologist, born at Perth, 
 Scotland, in 1806. He became professor of English at 
 the College I.ouis-le-Grand, Paris, in 1829, and at the 
 Polytechnic School in 1844. With M. Tibbins he pub- 
 lished an "English- French and French-English Dic- 
 tionary," (Paris, 2 vols., 1840,) which is considered one 
 of the best dictionaries of the two languages extant. 
 
 Fleming or Flemming, flt'm'ming, (Claudius,) Con- 
 stable of Sweden, born in Finland, commanded in that 
 province when Sigismond inherited the throne at the 
 death of his father, John III., in 1591. In the civil war 
 that followed, Fleming supported Sigismond with fidelity, 
 and defeated the insurgents. Died in 1597. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Geyer, 
 " Histoire de la Suede." 
 
 Flem'ing, (JOHft,) an eminent Scottish naturalist, 
 born near Bathgate, in Linlithgowshire, in 1785, became 
 a minister of the Church of Scotland. He preached at 
 Flisk, in Fifeshire. He produced, about 1822, the " Phi- 
 losophy of Zoology," which was highly esteemed, and 
 obtained the chair of natural philosophy at King's Col- 
 lege, Aberdeen, in 1828 or 1832. His " History of British 
 Animals" is a work of high authority. He was author 
 of a work on "Molluscous Animals, including Shell- 
 Fish," (1837,) and of many minor scientific treatises. 
 Having identified himself with the Free Church, or- 
 ganized about 1843, he resigned his chair at Aberdeen. 
 He became professor of natural history or natural science 
 in the Free Church College of Edinburgh about 1845. 
 Died in November, 1857. 
 
 Flem'ing, (Patrick,) an Irish monk, born in the 
 county of Lowth in 1599, received at baptism the name 
 of Christopher. He taught philosophy at Rome and 
 Louvain, and theology at Prague, and wrote " Lives of 
 Irish Saints." He was murdered near Prague by some 
 fanatical peasants in 1631. 
 
 Fleming, (Robert,) a Scottish theologian, born at' 
 Yester in 1630. He wrote the " Fulfilling of Scripture," 
 (1681,) and other works. He preached many years at 
 Rotterdam after 1676. Died in 1694. 
 
 Fleming, (Robert,) Jr., a learned Scottish author and 
 clergyman, son of the preceding, preached in Holland and 
 London, and published sermons, poems, and discourses 
 on the prophecies of Scripture, which are highly esteemed. 
 In 1701 he issued a "Discourse on the Rise and Fall of 
 the Papacy," containing predictions which it is thought 
 have been remarkably verified. He expected that 1848 
 would be an important era in the subversion of the papal 
 power. Died in 1716. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Flemming, flem'ming, (Hans Heinrich,) Count, 
 bom in Pomerania in 1632, distinguished himself at the 
 siege of Vienna in 1683, and was made count of the 
 empire. He obtained the rank of field-marshal about 
 16S8. Died in 1706. 
 
 Flemming, (Jakob Heinrich,) an able general, born 
 in Pomerania in 1667. He entered the service of Au- 
 gustus of Saxony, who became King of Poland. He 
 had a high command in the war against Charles XII. 
 of Sweden, and was appointed field-marshal and chief 
 minister of Augustus about 1712. He defeated the 
 Swedes under Steinbeck in Pomerania, and was after- 
 ward victorious over the revolted Poles in 1715. Died 
 in 1728. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubbr, "Allgemeine Encvklopaedie;" M. 
 Ranft, " Leben und Thaten des General J. H. Grain von Flem- 
 "mng, "7SJ- 
 
 Flemming, (Paul,) one of the most celebrated Ger- 
 man poets of his time, was born at Hartenstein, in Saxony, 
 in 1609. His "Spiritual and Secular Poems" (1642) are 
 greatly admired for their melody of versification, and his 
 sonnets display merit of a high order. He went with an 
 
 embassy sent by the Duke of Holstein to Persia in 1636. 
 Died at Hamburg in 1640. 
 
 See Varnhagen von Ense, " Biographische Denkmale," vol. 
 iy. : Kari. Schmitt, "P. Flemming nach seiner literargeschicht- 
 lichen Bedeutung dargestellt," 1851. 
 
 Flemming or Flemmynge, (Richard,) born at 
 Crofton, was appointed in 1420, by Henry V., Bishop 
 of Lincoln. Having zealously opposed the opinions of 
 Wycliffe, he received from the pope the appointment to 
 the Archbishopric of York ; but Henry did not permit 
 him to occupy it. He founded Lincoln College, Oxford. 
 Died in 1430. 
 
 Flemming, (Robert,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 became Dean of Lincoln in 1451. He published a Greek 
 and Latin Dictionary, and a Latin poem in praise of 
 Pope Sixtus IV. Died in 1483. 
 
 Flers, flaiR, (Camille,) a French landscape-painter, 
 born at Paris in 1802. He revolted against academical 
 traditions, and aimed to paint nature in its simplicity. 
 His subjects are mostly taken from French scenery. 
 
 Flers, de, deh flaiR, (Charles,) a French general, 
 born in 1756. In 1793 " e commanded the army of the 
 Eastern Pyrenees, and had several engagements with the 
 Spaniards. Being accused of treason, he was arrested by 
 order of the Convention and condemned to death in 1 794. 
 
 Flesselle, de, deh fl&'sel', (Philippe,) a French 
 physician, who graduated in 1528. He was employed 
 professionally by Francis I., Henry II., Francis II., and 
 Charles IX. Died in 1562. 
 
 Flesselles, de, deh fl&'seT, (Jacques,) a French civil 
 officer, one of the first victims of the Revolution, was born 
 about 1724. He held the office of provost of the mer- 
 chants of Paris, the functions of which are similar to those 
 of mayor. On the day the Bastille was stormed, July 14, 
 1789, he was charged with hostility to the popular cause 
 and shot by one of the mob. 
 
 Fletch'er, (Abraham,) a self-taught English mathe- 
 matician and physician, born at Little Broughton in 1714, 
 wrote the "Universal Measurer and Mechanic," (1762.) 
 Died in 1793. 
 
 Fletcher, (Alexander,) a British divine, born about 
 17S7, was minister of Finsbury Chapel, London. He 
 published a "Guide to Family Devotion, containing 730 
 Hymns, 730 Prayers," etc., which passed through many 
 editions, "Addresses to the Young," (1851,) and other 
 works. Died in i860. 
 
 Fletch'er, (Andrew,) an able Scottish republican 
 writer and orator, often called Fletcher of Sai.toun, 
 was born at Saltoun in 1653. He was elected to the 
 Scottish Parliament, in which he opposed the arbitrary 
 measures of the court. Having been outlawed about 
 1680, he retired to the continent, and fought against the 
 Turks. At the revolution of 1688 he returned home, 
 and again became a member of Parliament. " He was 
 by far the most nervous and correct speaker in the Par- 
 liament of Scotland," says the Earl of Buchan; "for he 
 drew his style from the pure models of antiquity." He 
 published several political treatises, among which are 
 "Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of Scotland," 
 (1698.) Lockhart praises the "undaunted courage and 
 pathetic eloquence" with which he exposed the oppres- 
 sion to which Scotland was subjected. Died in London 
 in 1716. Although a determined foe to despotism, 
 Fletcher appears to have had little confidence in the 
 capacity of the common people for self-goveinment. 
 Macaulay goes so far as to accuse him of being "the 
 author of a plan for reducing a large part of the working- 
 classes of Scotland to slavery." (" History," vol. i. p. 501.) 
 
 See Earl of Buchan, " Life and Writings of Andrew Fletcher," 
 1792: "Retrospective Review," vol. iv., 1S21. 
 
 Fletcher, (Andrew,) Lord Milton, a Scottish judge, 
 nephew of the preceding, was born in 1692. He became 
 a lord of session in 1724, and keeper of the signet in 1748. 
 He was the confidential agent of the Dukeof Argyll when 
 the latter had the chief management of Scottish' affairs. 
 He is commended for his services in the promotion of 
 commerce, manufactures, and agriculture. Died in 1766. 
 See Chambers," Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Fletcher, (Giles,) born in Kent, was the brother ol 
 Bishop Fletcher, and father of the poets Giles and 
 Phineas. In 1588 he was ambassador to Russia, of 
 
 «as*.cas<;g^ra';gas>;G, H, K., cultural: ti. nasal: R. trilled: I as «.■ th as in this. (Jr^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FLETCHER 
 
 928 
 
 FLEURT 
 
 which nation he wrote a curious account, (1590.) This 
 was suppressed by government, lest it should give of- 
 fence to the Russian court. Died in 1610. 
 
 Fletcher, (Giles,) a son of the preceding, born about 
 1588, was educated at Cambridge, and obtained the 
 living of Alderton, in Suffolk. He wrote an admired 
 and picturesque poem, " Christ's Victory and Triumph 
 in Heaven and Earth over and after Death," (1610.) 
 "Giles seems," says Hallam, "to have more vigour than 
 his elder brother, [Phineas, ] but less sweetness and 
 smoothness. . . . They both bear much resemblance to 
 Spenser. . . . They were endowed with minds eminently 
 poetical, and not inferior in imagination to any of their 
 contemporaries." ("Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe.") Died in 1623. 
 
 See Campbeli., "Specimens of the British Poets," vol. ii. 
 
 Fletcher, (James,) an English writer and school- 
 teacher, born in 181 1, lived in London. He published 
 "The Siege of Damascus," "The Gem, and other 
 Poems," and a "History of Poland," (1831.) In a fit 
 of insanity, he committed suicide in 1832. 
 
 Fletcher, (John,) an eminent English dramatic 
 author, born in Northamptonshire in 1576, was a son of 
 Richard, Bishop of Bristol and London. He was edu- 
 cated at Cambridge, and became the friend of Francis 
 Beaumont, with whom his name is inseparably asso- 
 ciated as a partner in authorship. The unity of feeling 
 and identity of genius between them were- such that critics 
 are unable to assign their respective shares in their 
 works. Among the dramas of Beaumont and Fletcher, 
 which had immense success, are "The Maid's Tragedy," 
 (before 1611,) " Philaster," (1611,) and "The Loyal Sub- 
 ject," (161 8.) Fletcher was sole author of "The Faith- 
 ful Shepherdess," "The Scornful Lady," (1616,) "The 
 Spanish Curate," comedy, (1622,) " Rule a Wife and Have 
 a Wife," a comedy, (1624,) and many other comedies, 
 or tragi-comedies, in verse. Dryden informs us that in 
 his time the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher were per- 
 formed oftener than those of Shakspeare. " Fletcher," 
 remarks Hallam, "is as much superior to Shakspeare 
 in his knowledge of the stage, as he falls below him in 
 that of human nature. . . . His sentiments and style, 
 where not concealed by obscurity, are very dramatic. 
 His thoughts are noble, and tinged with the ideality of 
 romance ; his metaphors vivid, though sometimes too 
 forced. . . . Yet we are seldom arrested by striking 
 beauties : good lines occur in every page, fine ones but 
 rarely." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 The same critic censures the "protracted indecency" 
 of these authors. (See Beaumont, Francis.) Died 
 in 1625. 
 
 See Langbaine, "Account of the English Dramatic Poets," 1691. 
 
 Fletcher or Flechere, (John William,) a divine, 
 born at Nyon, in Switzerland, in 1729. He removed to 
 England in his youth, became a priest of the Anglican 
 Church, and obtained the living of Madeley, in Salop, in 
 1760. He was a religious associate of John Wesley, and 
 author of several works, some of which were directed 
 against Calvinism. His works were published in 8 
 vols., (1803.) He died in Shropshire in 1785. "No 
 Church," says R. Southey, " has ever possessed a more 
 apostolic minister." 
 
 See J. Benson, " Life of J. W. Fletcher." 
 
 Fletcher, (Phineas,) an English poet, born in 1584, 
 was the son of Giles Fletcher the ambassador. He 
 was educated for the church, and obtained in 1621 the 
 living of Hilgay. He wrote " The Locustse, or Apollyon- 
 ists," "Sicelides, a Drama," and other poems. His 
 reputation as a poet rests on "The Purple Island, or the 
 Isle of Man," (1633,) an allegorical description of the 
 human body, faculties, and passions. Milton is said to 
 have admired and imitated him. "He is entitled," says 
 Headley, "to a very high rank among our old English 
 classics." Hallam thinks him deserving of praise, but 
 that his poem "from its very nature is insufferably 
 wearisome." (See Fletcher, Giles.) Died about 1650. 
 
 See Johnson and Chalmers, "Lives of the English Poets;" 
 "Biographia Britannica;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1820. 
 
 Fletcher, (Richard,) an English prelate, born in 
 Kent, was the father of John the dramatist. He became 
 
 chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, who directed him in 1586 to 
 attend Mary Stuart at her execution ; but she declined to 
 listen to his exhortations. He was appointed Bishop of 
 Bristol in 1589, of Worcester in 1592, and of •London in 
 1594. Died in 1596. 
 
 Fleuranges, de, deh fluh'roNzh', (Robert de la 
 Marck — deh 13 miRk,) Seigneur, a brave French 
 officer, born of a noble family at Sedan in 1491, offered 
 his services to Louis XII. at an early age, and became 
 the companion of the Count of Angouleme, afterwards 
 Francis I. At the battle of Novara, or Asti, he is said 
 to have received forty-six wounds. In 1525 he was taken 
 prisoner with Francis I. at the battle of Pavia. A few 
 years after this he was promoted to the rank of marshal 
 of France. He wrote a "History of Memorable Events 
 which occurred from 1499 to 1521." Died in 1537. 
 
 Fleuriau, fluh're-6', (Jer6me Charlemagne,) Mar- 
 quis de Langle, (deh loNgl,) a French writer, born in 
 Brittany about 1742 ; died in 1807. 
 
 Fleurieu, de, deh fluh're-uh', (Charles Pierre 
 Claret — kli'ri',) Count, a skilful French hydrographer 
 and statesman, born in Lyons in 1738. He entered the 
 navy in his youth, acquired skill in naval tactics, and 
 became director-general of the ports and arsenals in 1776. 
 He was minister of marine from October, 1790, until 
 May, 1 791, after which he was chosen a member of the 
 Institute. He planned the naval operations of the war 
 against the British, 177810 1783,111 which he displayed 
 great strategical skill. He published, besides other 
 writings, a valuable work, entitled a "Voyage around 
 the World, made by fitienne Marchand," (4 vols., 1798,) 
 with notes and many charts. He became councillor 
 of state in 1799, and intendant-general of the emperor's 
 household, and a senator, in 1805. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Delambre, " Notice sur la Vie, etc. de M. le Comte de Fleu- 
 rieu;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gdnerale." 
 
 Fleuriot-Lescot, fluh're'o' les'ko', (J. A. C.,) born 
 in Brussels about 1760, was a violent Jacobin, and 
 acted for a short time as mayor of Paris, until the fall 
 of Robespierre, his patron, with whom he was executed 
 in 1794. 
 
 Fleury, fluh're', (Abraham Joseph Benard — ba'. 
 naR',) a French comedian, born at Chartres in 175 1. 
 He performed in Paris with success from 1778 to 1818. 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 See " M^moires de Fleury," by J. B. Lafitte, 1835. 
 
 Fleury, (Claude,) Abbe, a pious and learned eccle- 
 siastic, born in Paris in 1640, practised law several years 
 before he entered the priesthood. In 1672 Louis XIV, 
 chose him for tutor to the Princes de Conti. He was 
 associated with Fenelon about sixteen years (1689-1705) 
 as sub-preceptor of the Dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, and 
 Berry. After their education was finished, the king 
 gave him the rich priory of Argenteuil. In 1696 Abbe 
 Fleury was elected a member of the French Academy in 
 the place of La Bruyere. Contemporary writers agree 
 in extolling his moral qualities, his profound learning, 
 and his literary merit. He published a work on the 
 "Morality of Christians," another on "Ecclesiastical 
 Law," and a "Historical Catechism," (1683,) which had 
 great success. His greatest work is his "Ecclesiastical 
 History," (" Histoire ecclesiastique," 20 vols., 1691- 
 1723,) comprising a period of about four centuries. His 
 style is pure, clear, and concise, and his spirit liberal and 
 candid. He was confessor to Louis XV. from 171610 
 1722. Voltaire said, "His history of the Church is the 
 best that has been written." Died in July, 1723. 
 
 See Rondet, "Notice sur Abbe 1 Fleury" prefixed to an edition 
 of his "Opuscules," 5 vols., 1780; C. E. Simonktti, "DerCharak- 
 ter eines Geschichtsschreibers in dem Leben und aus den Schriften 
 des Abbts C. Fleury," 1746; Jaeger, " Notice sur C Fleury_ consi- 
 de>e conime Historien de Pfighse," 1847 ; A. Martin, " Essai sur la 
 Vie et les Ouvrages de Fleury," 1837. 
 
 Fleury, (Emile Felix,) a French general, born in 
 Paris in 1815. He served in Algeria, became a senator 
 in 1865, and was sent as ambassador to Russia in 1869. 
 
 Fleury, (Julien,) a French philologist, born about 
 1650. He edited Apuleius "ad usum Delphini," (1688.) 
 Died in 1725. 
 
 Fleury, de, deh fluh're', (Aimee de Coigny — deh 
 kwan'ye',) Duchesse, a literary French lady, born in 
 
 , e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
FLEURT 
 
 929 
 
 FLOQUET 
 
 Paris about 1776. In 1794 she was confined in the same 
 prison with Andre Chenier, and was the subject of his 
 ode "La jeune Captive." She wrote a novel entitled 
 "Alvar," (181S.) Died in 1820. 
 
 Fleury, de, (Andue Hercule.) Cardinal an emi- 
 nent French statesman, born at Lodeve, in Languedoc, 
 on the 22d of June, 1653, was educated at Paris. To 
 superior mental faculties and wit he added high literary 
 attainments and persuasive eloquence. In 1677 he was 
 chosen almoner to the queen, ana after her death, in 1683, 
 he served in the same capacity Louis XIV., who in 1698 
 nominated him Bishop of Frejns. Just before the death 
 of Louis XIV., by a codicil to his will, he appointed 
 Fleury preceptor to the heir-apparent, aged about six 
 years, who In 1 7 1 5 succeeded as Louis XV. He per- 
 formed the duties of this office in such a manner that he 
 gained the affection and respect of the young king, who 
 in 1726 raised him to the dignity of prime minister, — an 
 event which occasioned ample demonstrations of popu- 
 lar joy. In the same year he received from the pope a 
 cardinal's hat. Adopting a pacific and economical policy, 
 he exercised his power with wisdom and fidelity until 
 his death. He maintained peace with Spain and Eng- 
 land until 1740, when France, in spite of his efforts, was 
 involved in the general war. He was a member of the 
 French Academy. Died in Paris in January, 1743. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, *' Me'moires ;" Voi.tairk, "Sieclede Louis 
 XIV ;" F. J. Bataiu.e, " Cloge historique de M. le Cardinal A. H. 
 de Fleury, 1737; *' Leben des Cardinals A. H. Fleury," Freiburg, 
 I743- 
 
 Fleury, de, (Guillaume Francois Joly.) See 
 Joly. 
 
 Fleury de Chaba lion, fluh're' deh sht'boo'IAN', 
 (Pierre ALEXANDRE EdoU.vkD,) a Frenchman, born in 
 
 1779. He became private secret try of Napoleon on his 
 return from Elba, and wrote " Mem >irs of the Private 
 Life and Reign of Napoleon in 1 S 1 5," (2 vols., 1819,) 
 which had a great success. Died in 1S35. 
 
 Fiex'mau, (Roger,) D.D., an English dissenting 
 minister, born in Devonshire in 170S. He wrote several 
 biographies, and made an index to "The Rambler," 
 which provoked Dr. Johnson's indignation and disgust 
 by entering Milton's name thus: — "Milton, Mr. John." 
 He preached in London many years. Died in 1795. 
 
 Flin'ders, (MATTHEW,) an English navigator, born 
 in Lincolnshire about 1760. He m.ide a voyage to New 
 Holland in 1 795, and, in company with George Bass, dis- 
 covered, in 179S, the strait since called Bass's Strait. As 
 captain of the Investigator, he explored the southern 
 coast of Australia, and discovered the Gulfs of Spencer 
 and Saint Vincent. On a homeward-bound voyage, being 
 compelled to put in to the Isle of France, he was de- 
 tained a prisoner by the French about six years, 1803-10. 
 He died in England in iSt4, just after he had published 
 his "Voyage to Terra Australis," (2 vols., 1814.) 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1S14. 
 
 Flink or Flinck, Rink, (Govaert, go'viRt,) a skilful 
 Dutch painter of portraits and history, born at Cleves in 
 1616, was a pupil of Rembrandt, whose style he imitated 
 with success. He worked at Amsterdam, and was pa- 
 tronized by the Elector of Brandenburg. Among his 
 works are " Solomon praying for Wisdom," and a " Vir- 
 gin and Child." Died in 1660. 
 
 See Df-scAMi's " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Halandais," etc 
 
 Flins de3 Oliviers, de, deh flax dj'zo'le've-i', 
 (Claude Marie Louis Carbon — kSVbdN',) a French 
 poet, born at Rheiuts in 1757. He wrote "The Awaking 
 of Epimenidcs," ("l.e Reveil d'Epimenide,") a drama, 
 and many other poems. Died in 1806. 
 
 Flint, (AUSTIN,) a distinguished American physician 
 and medical writer, born in Petersham, Massachusetts, 
 in 1812, graduated as M. D. at 1 1 uvard in 1833. He was 
 one of the founders of the Buffalo Medical College in 
 1847. Alter having been a professor in several medical 
 colleges in the United States, he was appointed in i86t 
 professor of the principles and practice of medicine in 
 the Bellevue College Hospital, New York, and of pa- 
 thology ,iiid practical medicine in the Long Island Col- 
 lege Hospital. He has published, besides other valuable 
 works, " Practical Treatise on the Pathology, Diagnosis, 
 and Treatment of Diseases of the Heart,"' (1859,) and 
 
 an excellent work on the " Practice of Medicine," (1SG6; 
 3d edition, 1868.) 
 
 Flint, (Austin,) a son of the preceding, born in North- 
 ampton, Massachusetts, in 1836, studied at Harvard, and 
 graduated at Jefferson Medical College in 1857. He 
 became professor of physiology in the University of Buf- 
 falo in 1858, and was afterwards professor of the same 
 branch in the Long Island College Hospital. His essay 
 on the Excretory Function of the Liver, translated into 
 French, received from the Institute of France a prize of 
 1500 francs. He has made several valuable contribu- 
 tions to the "American Journal of Medical Sciences," 
 and other periodicals. 
 
 Flint, (TIMOTHY,) an American author and traveller, 
 born at North Reading, Massachusetts, in 1780. In 1815 
 he went as a missionary to the Valley of the Mississippi. 
 In 1826 he published " Recollections of Ten Years 
 passed in the Valley of the Mississippi." He also wrote 
 "Geography of the Mississippi Valley," (2 vols., 1828,) 
 "Arthur Clenning" (1828) and other novels, and made 
 contributions to several periodicals. He died in Mas- 
 sachusetts in 1840. 
 
 See Gkiswolo, "Prose Writers ot' America." 
 
 Flin'toff, (Owkn,) a British legal writer of the present 
 century. He published an excellent work on " The Law 
 of Real Property," (1839,) also "The Rise and Progress 
 of the Laws of England and Wales," and an " Introduc- 
 tion to Conveyancing," (1840.) 
 
 Flipart, rle'paV, (Jean Jacques,) a skilful French 
 engraver and designer, born in Paris in 1723, was an 
 associate of the Royal Academy. He engraved a "Holy 
 Family," after Giulio Romano, and some works of Greuze 
 and Vernet. Died in 1782. 
 
 Flocco, flok'ko, or Floke, a Norwegian or Swedish 
 pirate, who acquired reputation by his enterprise in navi- 
 gation. In 865 a.d. he visited Iceland, and gave it the 
 name which it now bears. 
 
 Flocon, flo'k6.N', (FERDINAND,) a French journalist, 
 born in Paris about 1800. He became in 1845 chief 
 editor of the " Reforme," the organ of the radical de. 
 mocracy, and in February, 1848, secretary of the pro. 
 visional government formed by the revolutionists. His 
 official career ended in June of that year. 
 
 Flodoard, flo'do'SR , a French historian and priest, 
 born at Epernay in 894 A.D., wrote a history of the 
 Church of Rheims, and a chronicle of events that oc- 
 curred in France from 919 to 966. He was canon of 
 Rheims when he died, in 966. 
 
 Floerke. See FTorke. 
 
 Flogel or Floegel, flo'gel, (Karl Friedrich,) a 
 German writer, born in Silesia in 1729, became professor 
 of philosophy at- Liegnitz in 1774. He wrote a " History 
 of the Human Intellect," (1776,) a curious work, of great 
 research, "The History of Comic Literature," (4 vols., 
 1784-86,) which is commended, and a few other works. 
 Died in 1788. 
 
 Floke. See Flocco. 
 
 Flood, fliid, (Rt. Hon. Henry,) an eloquent Irish 
 orator, born in 1732. He was elected in 1759 to the 
 Irish Parliament, where he became one of the chiefs 
 of the opposition, and a rival of Grattan, with whom he 
 was formerly intimate. They had a personal dispute in 
 the House in 1783, which was a remarkable display of 
 the power of invective on both sides. Flood challenged 
 his opponent; but the meeting was prevented by the 
 authorities. About that date Flood became a member 
 of the English Parliament, in which he sat until 1790. 
 Mr. Phillips, the biographer of Curran, informs us that 
 the latter once said, " Flood was immeasurably the 
 greatest man of his time in Ireland ;" but this opinion 
 is not generally concurred in. He died in 1791. His 
 speeches and poetical pieces have been published. 
 
 See W. Flood, " Life and Correspondence of Henry Flood," 1838. 
 
 Flood, (Robert.) See Fludd. 
 
 Floquet, flo'kj'i (Etienne Joseph,) a French com- 
 poser, bom at Aix in 1750; died in 1785. 
 
 Floquet, (Pierre Amable, ) a French historical 
 writer and advocate, born at Rouen in 1797. His prin- 
 cipal works are a "Eulogy on Bossuet," (1827,) and a 
 " History of the Parliament of Normandy," ( 7 vols., 
 1840-43,) which gained a prize of the Institute. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as z; th as in this. ((jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 59 
 
FLOR 
 
 93° 
 
 FLORIMOND 
 
 Flor, de, d?h Aor, (Roger,) a famous military adven- 
 turer, born about 1264. In his youth he fought with the 
 crusaders against the Saracens. About 1303 he entered 
 the service of the emperor Andronicus, for whom he 
 gained several victories over the Turks. He was assas- 
 sinated, by order of the emperor, in 1306 or 1307. 
 See Lk Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire." 
 Flo'ra, [Fr. Flore, Aor,] an ancient Italian divinity, 
 the goddess of flowers, appears to have been wor- 
 shipped in the time of Nuraa, or earlier. Her annual 
 festival ( Floral ia) was celebrated from April 28 to May 
 1. The Flora of the Romans corresponded to the Greek 
 Chloris. 
 Flore, (Franc.) See Fi.oris, (Frans.) 
 Flor'euce of Worcester, (wdos'ter,) a learned 
 monk, was the first chronicler who wrote in England 
 after the Norman Conquest. His chronicle (in Latin) 
 was printed in 1592. Died in 1 1 18. 
 
 Florencourt, von, fon flo'rS.N'kooR', (Franz Chas- 
 sot — shS'so',) a German journalist and political writer, 
 of aristocratic principles, was born at Brunswick in 1803. 
 Since 185 1 he has lived in Vienna. 
 
 Florencourt, von, (Wilhelm Chassot,) a German 
 antiquary and writer on numismatics; born about 1800. 
 Fioreut, flo'rent, or Floris, flo'ris, I., Count of Fries- 
 land, was killed in battle by the men of Brabant in 1061. 
 Fioreut II., Count of Friesland and Holland, suc- 
 ceeded his father, Thierry V., in 1091, at the age of ten. 
 Died in 11 22. 
 
 Florent III., Count of Holland, was a son of Thierry 
 VI., whom he succeeded in 1157. He waged war against 
 the Count of Flanders, and in 1 189 followed the emperor 
 Frederick I. in a crusade. He died at Antioch in 1190. 
 Florent IV. of Holland, born in 1210, began to reign 
 in 1223. In his reign a great storm and inundation 
 of the sea covered a populous district now occupied by 
 the Zuyder Zee, which was then first formed. He was 
 assassinated in 1235. 
 
 Florent V., a grandson of the preceding, was about 
 two years old at the death of his father, in 1254, He 
 waged a long war against the revolted West Frisians 
 and against the Flemings. He was assassinated in 1296. 
 Florent-Chretien. See Chretien. 
 Florentine See Fiorentino. 
 Flo-ren-ti'uus, a Roman jurist, who had a high repu- 
 tation, but of whom little is known. He is supposed to 
 have lived in the time of Ulpian, (who died in 228 a.d.,) 
 or later. He wrote many books of "Institutiones." 
 
 Flores, flo'res, (Andres,) a minor Spanish poet, born 
 at Segovia in 1484, wrote lyric poems. Died about 1560. 
 Flores, Uo'rSs or Aor, (Louis,) born at Ghent in 1570, 
 became a monk, and went as a missionary to the Philip- 
 pine Isles. The Dutch imprisoned him, and then deliv- 
 ered him to the Japanese, who put hiin to death in 1622. 
 He wrote an "Account of the State of Christianity." 
 
 Flores, de, di flo'res, (Juan,) a Spanish novelist, 
 who flourished about 1510. He wrote "The History 
 of Cerisel and Mirabella," ("La Historia de Cerisel y 
 Mirabella," 1524,) which was very popular. 
 
 Florez, flo'reth, (Enrique,) a Spanish monk, and an 
 excellent historian and numismatist, born at Valladolid 
 in 1701, devoted his life to the investigation of history, 
 especially that of Spain. His first essay, entitled " Key 
 to History," ("Clave historical," 1743,) was very success- 
 ful. He wrote a voluminous work on the Ecclesiastical 
 History of Spain, (" Espafia sagrada," in 29 vols., 1747 
 -70.) After his death it was continued and completed, 
 in forty-six volumes. This work has a high character 
 for veracity and literary merit. He was also author of a 
 learned antiquarian treatise on medals. Died in 1773. 
 
 See Bouteuwek, " Histoire de la Literature Espagnole ;" Fran- 
 cisco Menijez, " Noticias de la Vida y Escritos del P. H. Florez," 
 Madrid, 1780. 
 
 Florian, (Docampo.) See Docampo. 
 
 Flo'rI-an, (in Latin, Mar'cus (or An'nius) Floria'- 
 nus,) a Roman emperor, who was a half-brother of the 
 emperor Tacitus. At the death of the latter, Florian 
 was proclaimed his successor by a part of the army, 
 while the legions of the East supported the claims of 
 probus. A few months after this event, Florian was 
 killed by his own soldiers, in 276 A.D. 
 
 Florian, de, deh flo're'SN 1 ', (Jean Pierre Claris— 
 klS'ress',) a French novelist and poet, was born at the 
 chateau de Florian, in the department of Gard, in March, 
 1755. In youth or childhood he often visited the house 
 of Voltaire, who encouraged his literary aspirations. He 
 became gentleman-in-ordinary to the Ducde Penthievre, 
 who treated him with much favour and confidence. In 
 1783 he published the romance of "Galatea," which 
 was very popular, and was followed by "Numa Port* 
 pilius," (1786,) "Estelle," (1788,) and several comedies 
 and fables, which obtained the public favour. He trans- 
 lated " Don Quixote" into French. He was admitted 
 into the French ■ Academy in 1788. During the reign 
 of terror he was imprisoned several months, but was 
 released by the coup d'tiat of 9th Thermidor. Among 
 French fabulists he is considered next to La Fontaine. 
 Died near Paris in 1794. 
 
 See Rosny, "Vie de Florian," 1798; Lacreteixe, " filoge d< 
 Florian," 1812; "Jeunesse de Florian, on Memoires d'un jcune 
 Espagnol," 1807; Viancin, "Eiogede Florian," 1833. 
 
 Floriani, flo-re-a'nee, (Francesco,) a painter of the 
 Venetian school, born at Udine, flourished about 1570. 
 
 Florida, de la, di la flo-ree'Da, (Marquis,) a Spanish 
 general, born in Madrid about the year 1646. He dis- 
 tinguished himself by his military talents in the reigns of 
 Charles II. and Philip V., defended Milan in 1706 against 
 Prince Eugene, and commanded under the Duke of 
 Vendome at the important battle of Almanza, in 1707, 
 where the French and Spaniards defeated the English 
 and their allies. Died in 1 714. 
 
 Florida Blanca, flo-ree'Da blan'ka, (Jose Monino— 
 m6n-yee'no,) Count of, an eminent Spanish statesman, 
 born at Helin, in Murcia, in 1728, belonged by birth to 
 the middle class. After studying law at Salamanca, he 
 practised several years with increasing reputation, and 
 filled the office of fiscal of the Council of Castile. About 
 1770 he was appointed ambassador to Rome, where he 
 displayed great diplomaticability, and remained until the 
 resignation of the prime minister Grimaldi, who, having 
 the privilege of naming his successor, selected Monino, 
 who had recently been created Count of Florida Blanca. 
 He entered the office in February, 1777, soon after which 
 Charles III. of Spain formed an alliance with France 
 against England. Monino carried on the war with vigour, 
 ability, and credit ; and, though his efforts to recover 
 Gibraltar were frustrated, the Spaniards captured Florida, 
 Minorca, the Bahamas, and a fleet of fifty-five merchant- 
 vessels. Peace having been made with England in Janu- 
 ary, 1783, he promoted the cause of popular education, 
 patronized arts and sciences, and made several wise 
 reforms in the domestic policy of Spain. Just before the 
 death of Charles HI., in 1788, he testified his confidence 
 in his minister by commending him to the favour of his 
 successor, Charles IV., who retained him in his service 
 until the intrigues of the queen and the notorious Godoy 
 effected his dismissal in 1792. His disposition is said to 
 have been amiable, and his moral character high. Died 
 in 1808. 
 
 See Coxs, " Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bour- 
 b<fn," s vols., 1815. 
 
 Floridor, flo're'doR', (Josias de Soulas— deh soo'- 
 las',) Sieur de Prinefosse, a popular French comedian, 
 was born of a noble family in Brie in 160S. Floridor was 
 a fancy name which he assumed when he became an 
 actor. He performed the principal rSles in tragedy and 
 high comedy, and was a great favourite with the public 
 Died about 1671. 
 
 Floridus, flo-ree'dd"6ce, (Francesco,) an Italian phi- 
 lologist, born about 1500. He removed to Paris at the 
 request of Francis I., who gave him a pension. He 
 made a translation into Latin verse of eight books of 
 the " Odyssey," (1545,) which had a great success. I lis 
 death prevented the completion of it. He wrote an 
 "Apology for the Latin Language," (1537,) and other 
 works. Died in 1547. 
 
 Florigerio, flo-re-ja're-o, or Florigorio, flo-re-go'- 
 re-o, (Sehastiano,) an Italian painter of the Venetian 
 school, born at Udine, lived about 1535. 
 
 Florirnond de Remond, flo're'moN' deh reh-m6N', 
 a French Roman Catholic theologian, born at Agen ; 
 died in 1602. 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, $\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
FLORIO 
 
 93' 
 
 FLU EG EL 
 
 Florio, flo're-o, (Danikle,) Count, an Italian poet, 
 born at Udine in 1710; died in 1789. 
 
 Florio, flo're-o, (John,) surnamed the Resolute, a 
 philologist and grammarian, born in London, of Italian 
 parents, about 1545. He was professor of French and 
 Italian in the University of Oxford, and in the reign of 
 Tames I. was appointed to teach those languages to Prince 
 Henry. He married a sister of Samuel Daniel the poet. 
 He published an "Italian and English Dictionary," 
 (1597,) the most copious then extant, a translation of 
 Montaigne's "Essays," (1603,) and several other works. 
 Shakspeare, it is supposed, ridiculed him in the character 
 of Holofernes in "Love's Labour Lost." Died in 1625. 
 
 See Wood. "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Floriot, flo're-o', (Pierre,) a French moralist, born 
 in 1604, became confessor to the recluses of Port-Royal. 
 He wrote a pious work entitled "La Morale du Pater," 
 ar "La Morale chretienne," ("Christian Morality," 5 
 vols., 1672,) which was much esteemed. Died in 1691. 
 
 Floris, flo'ris, (Frans,) [Fr. Franc-Flore, fRS.NK 
 floR,] an excellent Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 
 1520, was surnamed the Raphael ok Flanders. His 
 proper name was Frans de Vriend, (vreend.) He 
 studied the works of Michael Angelo in Rome, and 
 returned to Antwerp. He was eminent for boldness of 
 design, richness of invention, and facility of execution. 
 Among his master-pieces are a "Nativity," a "Cruci- 
 fixion," and "The Last Judgment" He is said to have 
 been very intemperate. Died in 1570. 
 
 His son and pupil, Frans Floris, was a skilful painter, 
 especially of small pictures. 
 
 See Descamps, "Viesdes Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Floris, flo'ris, (Pieter Willemszoon,) a navigator, 
 born at Dantzic lie sailed to the East Indies as factor 
 of the English Company in 1610, before which he had 
 visited those regions in the service of the Dutch. He 
 returned in 1615, and wrote, in Dutch, an interesting 
 journal of his voyage, a version of which was published 
 by Purchas. Died in 1615. 
 
 Florke or Floerke, fioVkeh, (Johann Ernst,) a 
 German author, born at Altenkalden in 1 767 ; died in 1830. 
 
 Flo'rus, (Drepa'nius,) a theologian and poet, who 
 probably wrote about 850 A.D., and was a canon or 
 deacon of the church of Lyons. He composed, besides 
 Latin poems, a commentary on the Epistles of Saint 
 Paul, and a refutation of Erigena on predestination. 
 
 Flo'rus, (Gessius,) a Roman officer, who became 
 governor of Jttdea in 64 A. D. His cruelty and rapacity 
 provoked the last revolt of the Jews, which resulted in 
 the destruction of Jerusalem, 70 A.D. 
 
 Florus, (Julius,) a celebrated orator of Gaul, born 
 about 20 B.C., practised at the Roman bar, and after- 
 wards in his native country. Quintilian speaks highly 
 of his eloquence. Died about 55 A.D. 
 
 Florus, (Lucius Ann<«us,) a Latin historian, who 
 lived in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian, and, accord- 
 ing to some authors, was a native of Spain. He wrote 
 an "Epitome of Roman History," ("Epitome de Gestis 
 Romanorum,") from the origin of Rome to the time 
 of Augustus, compiled probably from historians whose 
 works are lost. Critics observe that he deals rather 
 largely in panegyric, but give him credit for being an 
 agreeable writer and generally exact. His style is ele- 
 gant, but somewhat declamatory. 
 
 See Vossiur, "De Historicis Latinis;" J. M. Heinze, "Com- 
 mentatio de Floro non historico sed rhetore, 1787. 
 
 Flotow, von, fon flo'to, (Friedrich,) a German 
 composer, born at Teutendorf in 181 1. He composed 
 operas entitled " Martha," "Linda," "Albin," eta 
 
 Flotte, flot, (Pierre,) a French lawyer, who performed 
 an important part in the quarrel between King Philip 
 the Fair and Pope Honiface about 1300. He was sent to 
 Rome with an answer to the pope's bull, and is said to 
 have used insulting language to Boniface. He was killed 
 at tin: battle of Courtray, in 1302. 
 
 Flotte, de, deh dot,' (Etie'nne Gaston — gts'tdN',) 
 Baron, a French litterateur, nephew of Lantier the poet, 
 was bom near Marseilles in 1805. He has written, 
 besides other poems, the "Exile of Dante," (1833,) and 
 "La Vendee," (1845.) 
 
 Flottes, flot, (Jean Baptiste Marcel,) Ahb4, a 
 French writer and professor of philosophy, born at 
 Montpellier in 1789. 
 
 Flottwell, flot'wSl, (Eduard Heinrich,) a Prussian 
 statesman, bom at Insterburg in 1786, was appointed 
 minister of state in 1844. 
 
 Flourens, floo'ro.N', (Marie Jean Pierre,) an emi- 
 nent French physiologist and author, born near Beziers 
 in 1794. He took his degree in medicine in 1813, and 
 became a resident of Paris in 1814. In 1822 he pro- 
 duced " Researches on Irritability and Sensibility." He 
 was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1828, 
 after he had published an able work called " Researches 
 on the Properties and Functions of the Nervous System 
 in Vertebrate Animals," (1824.) He became professor 
 of comparative anatomy in the museum in 1832, and 
 perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 1833. 
 Among his chief works are " Analysis of the Labours of 
 Cuvier," ("Analyse raisonnee des Travaux de G. Cuvier," 
 1841,) " BufTon, Histoire de ses Idees et de ses Tra- 
 vaux," (1844,) "Theory of the Formation of the Bones," 
 (1847,) "Course of Comparative Physiology," (3 vols., 
 1854,) and " Human Longevity and the Quantity of Life 
 on the Globe," (1854,) a very popular book. He was 
 elected to the French Academy in 1840. 
 
 See Quhrard, "La France Litte>aire ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeWrale." 
 
 Floyd, (John,) an English writer on theology, born 
 in Cambridgeshire, became a Jesuit about 1593. He 
 was banished after that date. 
 
 Floyd, (John,) an American officer, born in Virginia 
 in 1769. He removed to Georgia in 179 1, and became 
 a major-general in the second war with Great Britain. 
 From 1827 to 1829 he was a member of Congress. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Floyd, (John B.,) an American lawyer and general, 
 born in Pulaski county, Virginia, in 1805. He was ap- 
 pointed secretary of war by President Buchanan in 
 March, 1857. To aid the cause of disunion, he trans- 
 ferred more than one hundred thousand muskets and 
 rifles, besides a great number of cannon, from Northern 
 armories to the South, in i860. He resigned about De- 
 cember 25, i860, after which he was accused of being a 
 defaulter, but was not brought to trial. Having joined 
 the army of the Confederates, he commanded at Fort 
 Donelson when it was attacked by General Grant, Feb- 
 ruary, 1862. When the capture of the fort became in- 
 evitable, he turned the command over to Pillow, and 
 escaped by flight. Died in 1863. 
 
 Floyd, (William,) an American patriot, bora in 
 Suffolk county, New York, in 1734. He was chosen in 
 1774 a delegate to the first Continental Congress, in 
 which he continued to serve about eight years, and 
 signed the Declaration of Independence. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Goodrich, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence." 
 
 Floy'er, (Sir John,) a skilful English physician, born 
 at Hinters in 1649. He published several professional 
 treatises, and translated the "Sibylline Oracles" from 
 the Greek. His learning and piety were commended by 
 Dr. Johnson, who had been under his medical care. He 
 was a strenuous advocate of cold baths. Died in 1734. 
 
 Fliidd, [Lat. De Fluc'tihus,] (Robert,) an English 
 physician and writer, born at Milgate in 1574, was re- 
 puted a man of great learning, especially in occult 
 sciences, and was an adept in the Rosicrucian philoso- 
 phy. He published treatises on various subjects, abound- 
 ing in abstruse philosophy and visionary theories, with 
 some original ideas. Kepler and Gassendi did him the 
 honour to write refutations of his system. Thomas 
 Fuller says, " His works are for the English to slight or 
 admire, for the French and other foreigners to under- 
 stand or use." (" Worthies of England.") Died in 1637. 
 
 See Brucker, "History of Philosophy. " 
 
 Flue, de, deh flii'eh, (Nicolas,) a Swiss patriot and 
 hermit, born at the village of Saxeln in 1417, was revered 
 by his countrymen for his piety and wisdom. When the 
 confederacy was in great peril from civil dissension, he 
 restored harmony on the basis of the Covenant of Stantz 
 formed in 1481. Died in 1487. 
 
 Fluegel. See Flugkl. ' 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K.,gultural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; 5 as 1; th as in this. ( jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FLUGEL 
 
 932 
 
 FOIX 
 
 Fltigel, flii'gel, (Gustav Lebrecht,) a German Ori- 
 ental scholar, born at Bautzen in 1802. His most im- 
 portant work is the edition of the large encyclopjedic- 
 bibliographical Dictionary of Haji (Hadschi) Khalfa, 
 with a Latin translation and commentary, six volumes 
 of which were completed in 1852. He was professor at 
 Meissen from 1832 to 1850. 
 
 Fltigel, (Johann Gottfried,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man lexicographer, born at Barby, on the Elbe, in 1788. 
 He brought out in 1830 his "Complete English-German 
 and German-English Dictionary," (2 vols.,) and in 1840 
 his "Triglotte, or Merchant's Dictionary, in German, 
 English, and French," (3 vols.) He lived at Leipsic. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Flus'ser, (Charles \V.,) an American naval officer, 
 born in Maryland about 1832. He gained the rank of 
 lieutenant in 1855. He commanded the gunboat Miami, 
 and was killed in a battle against the iron-clad Albemarle, 
 in Roanoke River, April, 1864. 
 
 Flygare-Carlen. See Cari.en. 
 
 Foa, fo'i', (Eugenie,) originally named Gradis, a 
 French authoress, born at Bordeaux about the end of 
 the eighteenth century. She wrote " Le Petit Robinson 
 de Paris," (1840,) and other moral tales for youth. Died 
 in Paris in 1853. 
 
 Fodere, fo'da'ra', (Francois Emanuel,) an eminent 
 physician, born in Savoy in 1764. About 1814 he was 
 elected professor of legal medicine in Strasbourg, and 
 physician of the Royal College of that place, where he 
 passed the rest of his life. He wrote numerous valuable 
 professional works, among which are a "Treatise on 
 Legal Medicine and Public Hygiene," (3 vols., 1798,) 
 and a " Natural History of the County of Nice," (2 vols., 
 1812.) Died in 1835. 
 
 See Ducros, " Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux du Dr. FodeVeV ' 
 1S45 ; A. Mottaru, " Notice historique sur la Vie du Professeur 
 Fod<5re7' 1843. 
 
 Fodhail, fo-dll' or fo-dal', (Aboo-Alee or Abu- 
 Ali, a'boo a'lee,) a Mussulman saint, born at Samarcand 
 or in Khorassan. He was a highway-robber in his youth. 
 Many of his sententious sayings have been preserved. 
 Died in 803 A.D. 
 
 See Ibm-Khallikan, "Biographical Dictionary;" Aboolfeda, 
 " Annales." 
 
 Foe, De. See De Foe. 
 
 Foelix, fi'leks', (Jean Jacques Gaspard,) a French 
 jurist, born at Oberstein in 1791. He published a "Treat- 
 ise on Private International Law," ("Traite du Droit 
 international prive," 1843.) Died in 1S53. 
 
 Foerster. See Forster. 
 
 Foe's, fo'eV, (Anuce,) [Lat. Anu'tius Foe'sius,] an 
 eminent French physician, born at Metz in 1528, studied 
 in Paris, and became an excellent Greek scholar. About 
 1556 he began to practise medicine in Metz, of which 
 city he was chosen public physician. He received offers 
 of patronage from several foreign princes, but declined 
 them. He acquired a wide reputation by his excellent 
 edition of Hippocrates, with a Latin translation, (1595,) 
 and by another valuable work, entitled "CEconomia 
 Hippocratis," (1588,) which explains obscure terms used 
 by that writer. Died in 1595. 
 
 See Willaume, " Notice sur A. Foes," 1823. 
 
 Fogarasy, fo'goh-rosh-e, (JAnos,) a Hungarian jurist, 
 born at Kasmark in 1801. He wrote, besides other 
 important works, a " Hungarian-German Dictionary," 
 (1836,) " Principles of the Civil Law of Hungary," (1S39,) 
 and "The Spirit of the Magyar Language," (1845.) 
 
 Fogelberg, fo'gel-beRg', (Bkngt,) a Swedish sculptor, 
 born at Gothenburg in 1787. He went in 1820 to Italy, 
 which became his adopted country. He produced ad- 
 mired statues of Odin, Thor, and Balder. A statue of 
 Psyche is called his master-piece. Died at Trieste in 
 1854. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Foggia, fod'ja, (Francesco,) an eminent Italian mu- 
 sician, bom in Rome in 1604. He was chapel-master 
 of San Giovanni Laterano, Rome, from 1636 to 1661, 
 and composed motets, masses, and other sacred music. 
 He was the first Italian that wrote the tonal fugue. Died 
 at Rome in 1688. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Foggini, fod-jee'nee, (Pietro Francesco,) an Italian 
 scholar and priest, born at Florence in 17 13. He held 
 high offices at Rome in. the gift of the popes, and became 
 keeper of the Vatican Library in 1775. He wrote several 
 theological treatises, and published a famous manuscript 
 of Virgil, (1741,) which is or was preserved in the Medi- 
 cean Library, Florence. Died in 1783. 
 
 See " Elogio di P. F. Foggini," Florence, 1784. 
 
 Fogliani, f61-ya'nee, or Fogliano, f61-ya'no, [Lat. 
 Foi.ia'nus,] (Luigi,) an Italian writer on music, born at 
 Modena; died about 1540. 
 
 Foglietta, fol-yeVta, or Foglieta, fol-ya'ta, (Uberto,) 
 an admired Italian historian, born of a noble family in 
 Genoa in 1518. In 1559 he issued at Rome a historical 
 essay on the Republic of Genoa, which gave so much 
 offence to the aristocracy that they condemned him to 
 exile and confiscated his property. He found a liberal 
 patron in Cardinal Este, who received him as an inmate 
 of his house in Rome. Here he composed, in pure and 
 elegant Latin, his most important work, a " History of 
 Genoa from the Earliest Times to l527,"(i585,)on which 
 he was employed at his death. He also wrote portions 
 of the history of the emperor Charles V., and other works. 
 Among the Italian writers of that age he is esteemed one 
 of the most classical. Died in 1581. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires;" Tiraboschi, "Storia della Lettera- 
 tura Italiana." 
 
 Fogolino, fo-go-lee'no, (Marcello,) an excellent 
 painter of the Venetian school, born at Vicenza, was 
 living in 1530. He painted history and landscapes with 
 equal skill. "The Adoration of the Magi" is called his 
 master-piece. _ 
 
 Fo-Hi. See Foo-Hee. 
 
 Fohr, foR, (Karl Philipp,) a German landscape- 
 painter, born at Heidelberg in 1795, studied at Rome 
 under Koch. Among his works are two pictures of rare 
 excellence, one of which represents a rocky landscape 
 with a waterfall. He was drowned in the Tiber in 1818. 
 
 See J. P. Dieffenbach, "Leben des Malers C. Fohr," 1823. 
 
 Foinard, fwa'nSn', (Frederic Maurice,) a learned 
 French priest, born at Conches about 1685, published a 
 translation of Genesis with critical notes, and a few other 
 works. Died in 1743. 
 
 Foisset, fwi's.Y, (Jean Louis Severin,) a French 
 author, born at Bligny-sous-Beaune in 1796. In 1820 he 
 was engaged as assistant editor of the "Biographie Uni- 
 verselle," for vvtiich he wrote a great number of articles, 
 including those on Mirabeau and Petrarch. Died in 1822. 
 
 Foix, de, deh fwa, (Catherine,) Queen of Navarre, 
 born in 1470, was the daughter and heiress of Gaston de 
 Foix, Prince de Viane, and Madeleine of France. She 
 was married in 1484 to Jean dAlbret, to whom she 
 brought Navarre as her dowry. She was a great-grand- 
 mother of the famous Henry of Navarre. Died in 1517. 
 
 Foix, de, (Gaston II.,) Comte, succeeded his father 
 in 1315. He rendered important services to the French 
 king in the war against the English, (1337.) Died in 1343. 
 
 Foix, de, (Gaston III.,) Comte, Vicomte de Beam, 
 born in 1331, was a son of Gaston II., and was sur- 
 named Phcebus. He married Agnes, a daughter of 
 the King of Navarre and a sister of Charles the Bad. 
 During the revolt of La Jacquerie, 1358, he assisted in 
 the rescue of the dauphin. He afterwards waged with 
 success a war against Count d'Armagnac. His ruling 
 passion was the love of the chase, on which he wrote 
 a treatise, called "Miroir de Phebtis des desduicts de la 
 Chasse." According to Froissart, he was a brave, violent, 
 and magnificent representative of the age of chivalry. 
 He died, without an heir, in 1391, and left his domain 
 to the King of France. 
 
 Foix, de, (Gaston IV.,) succeeded his father, Jean 
 de Grailly, in 1436. He married a daughter of Juan II. 
 of Aragon and Navarre, who in 1455 appointed him 
 successor to the throne of Navarre. He was a minister 
 of Charles VII. of France, and an ally of Louis XI. 
 Died in 1472. 
 
 His son Gaston, Prince de Viane, married Madeleine, 
 a daughter of Charles VII. of France, and died in 1470. 
 
 Foix, de, (GASTON,) Due de Nemours, a brave French 
 prince, bom in 1489, was a son of Jean de Foix, Vis- 
 
 i, e, T, 6, ft, y, long; i, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
FOIX 
 
 933 
 
 FOLLEN 
 
 count of Narlxmne, and the nephew of Louis XII. of 
 France, who in 1505 created him Due de Nemours. In 
 1512 he commanded the army of Italy with brilliant 
 success against the Spaniards, and in the same year, 
 after he had won the great victory of Ravenna, he was 
 killed in the pursuit Louis XII., on hearing of his 
 loss, said he would gladly give up every inch of Italian 
 ground if he could thus restore his nephew to life. 
 
 See BrantGme, " Vies des grands Capitaines." 
 
 Foix, de, (Germainh,) Queen of Aragon, born about 
 14S8, was a niece of Louis XII. of France. She was 
 married in 1506 to Ferdinand V. of Castile and Aragon, 
 her grand-uncle. She had one son, who died in infancy. 
 Died in 1538. 
 
 Foix, de, (Louis,) a French architect and engineer, 
 born in Paris, was employed by Philip II. of Spain; and 
 it is supposed he was one of the architects of the Escu- 
 rial. He erected the remarkable tower of Cordouan, at 
 the mouth of the Garonne, used as a light-house, which 
 was commenced in 1584 and finished in 1610. It is one 
 hundred and eighty feet high, and is regarded as the 
 most magnificent light-house erected in modern times. 
 
 Foix, de, [MARC Antoine,) a French Jesuit, born at 
 the chateau de Fabas in 1627, was noted as a preacher 
 and wrote a few learned treatises, one of which is entitled 
 the " Art of Preaching the Word of God." Died in 1687. 
 
 Foix, de, (Odet.) See Lautrec. 
 
 Foix, de, (Paul,) an eminent French jurist and states- 
 man, born in 1528, was descended from the noble family 
 of Foix. After a profound study of law, he was appointed 
 a judge in the Parliament of Paris. By counselling mode- 
 ration towards the Protestants in 1559, he rendered him- 
 self obnoxious to some persons in power, and in 1561 
 resigned his office. He became a councillor of state 
 about 1565, was employed by Charles IX. as ambassador 
 to England, Venice, etc., and was considered one of the 
 ablest negotiators of his time. In 1576 he was made 
 Archbishop of Toulouse. Died in 1584. 
 
 See Dk Thou. '* Historia sui Temporis ;" Sismondi, " Histoire 
 des Fran<;ais;" Montaigne, "Essais;" Marc Antoine Muket, 
 ■ in funere P. Foxii," 1584. 
 
 Foix, de, (K aimond Roger,) Comte, an able French 
 captain, succeeded his father in 1 188. In 1191 he led 
 his vassals in a crusade against the infidels in Palestine. 
 After his return he took arms in defence of the Albi- 
 
 f;enses, but without success. He died in 1222, and left 
 lis domain to his son, Roger Bernard. 
 
 Foix, de, (Roger,) Comte, a. French nobleman, in- 
 herited his title and estate in 1070. He joined the 
 crusade and went to Palestine in 1095. Died in 1125. 
 
 Foix, de, (Roger Bernard II.,) Comte, surnamed 
 THE GREAT, was an ally of Raymond, Count of Toulouse. 
 lie waned war against the crusaders who, under De 
 Montfort, invaded the county of Foix, and was excom- 
 municated by the pope. Died in 1241. 
 
 Foix, de, (Roger Bernard III.,) Comte, a grand- 
 son of the preceding, was distinguished as a poet. He 
 became Comte de Foix in 1265. Died in 1302. 
 
 Folard, de, deh fo'liR', (Jean Charles,) a French 
 officer and tactician, born at Avignon in 1669, entered 
 the army at an early age, and made himself proficient in 
 tactics and engineering. He served as aide-de-camp to 
 the Due de Vendome in Italy in 1702, and was wounded 
 at the battle of Cassano in 1705. The freedom with 
 which he offered advice sometimes gave offence to his 
 superiors ; but the court twice recognized the value of 
 his services by granting him a pension. In 1709 he 
 was severely wounded at Malplaquet. He accompanied 
 Charles XII. of Sweden in his last campaign, (1718.) 
 Folard accpiired reputation by his version of the His- 
 tory of Polybius, with Commentaries, (6 vols., 1727-30,) 
 which illustrate the tactics of the ancients. Died in 1752. 
 
 See "M^moires pour servir a 1'Hisioire de la Vie de Folard," 
 Paris, 1753; " Nonveile Biographie Ge^ierale." 
 
 Folengo, fo-len'go, (Giamhattista,) an Italian monk 
 and scholar, born at Mantua about 1500. lie wrote a 
 few Commentaries on Scripture, which were approved 
 by the Protestants. Died in 1559. 
 
 Folengo, (Teoeii.o,) (better known by the name 
 Meki.ino Cocajo or CgjCCai,) a whimsical Italian poet, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born of a noble family 
 
 near Mantua in 1491. He entered a Benedictine convent 
 at the age of sixteen, but soon exchanged that for a dis- 
 solute life. He was gifted with vivacity and great facility 
 in versification, and published licentious and burlesque 
 poems, in a style which he called Macaronic, the language 
 being a mixture of Latin and Italian. He returned to 
 the convent in 1526. Died in 1544. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires;" Gingurne, "Histoire litte'raire 
 d'ltalie:" A. Dalmistro, " Elogio di T. Folengo," 1803. 
 
 Fo'ley, (John Henry,) an eminent sculptor, born in 
 Dublin in 1818, studied in the Royal Academy of London. 
 His "Ino and Bacchus" (1840) placed him in the first 
 rank of modern British sculptors. Among his works 
 are "Lear and Cordelia," "Venus rescuing /Eneas," 
 (1842,) "Egeria," (1856,) a statue of Seidell, a statue of 
 John Hampden at the new palace of Westminster, and a 
 bronze statue of Viscouut Sir H. Hardinge at Calcutta. 
 
 Foley, (Sir Thomas,) an English admiral, born in 
 Pembrokeshire in 1757. He distinguished himself as 
 captain at the battle of Cape Saint Vincent in 1797, and 
 had the honour of leading the fleet of Nelson into action 
 at the battle of the Nile, in August, 1798. He took a 
 prominent part in the battle of Copenhagen, (1801,) 
 and became a vice-admiral in 1812. At this battle Sir 
 Hyde Parker signalled to Lord Nelson to discontinue 
 the action ; but Nejson, putting the glass to his blind 
 eye, said to F'oley, " You know, Foley, I have only one 
 eye, and have a right to be blind sometimes. I really do 
 not see the signal." Died in 1833. 
 
 Foliaims. See Fogliani. 
 
 Folieta. See Foglietta. 
 
 Foligno. See Frezzi, (Federigo.) 
 
 Folkema, fol'keh-ma,( Jacob,) an able Dutch engraver, 
 born at Dokkum in 1692. He engraved plates for books 
 after the designs of Picart, and portraits of eminent men. 
 Died in 1767. 
 
 Folkes, folks, (Martin,) F.R.S., an eminent English 
 antiquary, born in London in 1690, excelled in mathe- 
 matics and philosophy, was chosen Fellow of the Royal 
 Society in 1713, and succeeded Sir Hans Sloane as 
 president of the same 111 1741. He wrote several excel- 
 lent treatises on ancient monuments and coins, and ren- 
 dered important services to science. In 1750 he became 
 president of the Society of Antiquaries. In 1742 he was 
 chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. 
 Among his works is a " Dissertation on the Weights and 
 Values of Ancient Coins," (1736.) Died in 1754. 
 
 Follen, fol'len, (Adolf Ludwig,) a German poet and 
 scholar, brother of Charles Follen, noticed in the next 
 article, was born at Giessen in 1794. He published in 
 1819 his "Free Voices of Fresh Youth," and in 1827 
 his " Picture-Gallery of German Poetry," both of which 
 enjoy great popularity. He also made several excellent 
 translations from the Latin, Greek, and Italian. Died 
 in 1855. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Fol'len, (Charles Theodore Christian,) born at 
 Romrod, in Germany, in 1795, was educated at Giessen. 
 His youthful zeal for liberty having subjected him to per- 
 secution from the government, he left his native land in 
 1820, and, after a visit to Paris, he found a home in Swit- 
 zerland, where he was chosen, about 1821, professor of 
 law in the University of Bale. In 1824 the Holy Alliance 
 demanded that he should be delivered up, and he escaped 
 only by a sudden departure to Paris and by emigrating to 
 the United States. Here he applied himself with success 
 to the study of the English language. By the favour of 
 La Fayette, he obtained influential friends, and was em- 
 ployecl as German tutor at Harvard. He studied divinity 
 with Dr. Channing in 1827, was admitted to the ministry 
 in 1828, and officiated as teacher in the divinity school 
 at Cambridge. From 1831 to 1834 he was professor of 
 German literature at Harvard. In 1836 and 1837 he 
 had charge of the First Unitarian Church in New York, 
 where he gave offence by speaking against slavery. In 
 1839 he accepted a call from the church of East Lexing- 
 ton, Massachusetts. In the passage from New York to 
 his home, in January, 1840, he lost his life by the burning 
 of the steamer Lexington. 
 I See a Memoir of his life, by his wife, Eliza Lek Follen, 1841. 
 
 e as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,giittural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jfj^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FOLLEN 
 
 934 
 
 FONSECA 
 
 Follen, (Eliza Lee,) wife of the preceding, born at 
 Boston in 1787, was originally named Cabot. She was 
 the author of "Twilight Stories," "Little Songs," and 
 other popular works for children, and was for several 
 years editor of the "Child's Friend." Died in 1859. 
 
 See Griswold's "Female Poets of America." 
 
 Fol'lett, (Sir Wili.iam Webb,) an able English 
 lawyer, born at Topsham in 1798, began to practise law 
 about 1S23, and rapidly rose to eminence. He was re- 
 turned to Parliament for Exeter by the Conservatives in 
 1835, acted a short time as solicitor-general under Sir 
 Robert Peel, (1834-35,) and was twice re-elected to Par- 
 liament, in 1837 and in 1841. He was again appointed 
 solicitor-general ill 1841, and became attorney-general 
 in 1844. Died in London in 1845. 
 
 See a notice of Sir W. Follett in " Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 January, 1846. 
 
 Folleville, de, deh fol'vel', (Guyot, ge'o',) Abbe, 
 a French priest, who in 1793 appeared in the royalist 
 army of La Vendee and gave out that he was the Bishop 
 of Agra, sent by the pope as apostolic vicar. He was 
 received without distrust, and his presence excited great 
 enthusiasm among the army ; but before long a brief from 
 the pope informed the generals that he was an impostor. 
 However, they kept the secret from the soldiers, and he 
 continued to act his part until the republicans captured 
 him and put him to death, in 1794. 
 
 Folli, fol'lee, or Fuoli, foo-o'lee, (Cecilio,) born at 
 Fanano in 1615, was for many years professor of anatomy 
 at Venice. 
 
 Folli, (Francesco,) an Italian physician and writer, 
 born in 1624; died in 1685. 
 
 Folo, fo'lo, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian engraver, 
 bom at Bassano in 1764, worked at Rome, and imitated 
 the style of Raphael Morghen. He engraved works of 
 several Italian masters. Died at Rome in 1836. 
 
 Folquet, fol'ki', or Foulques, fook, a French trou- 
 badour and prelate, born at Marseilles about 1160. He 
 was appointed Bishop of Toulouse in 1205, and became 
 a cruel persecutor of the Albigenses. Dante has, how- 
 ever, given him a place in his " Paradiso." Died in 1231. 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Foltz, folts, (Philipp,) a German painter, and pro- 
 fessor in the Academy of Arts at Munich, born at Bingen, 
 on the Rhine, in 1S05. He painted in fresco, in the royal 
 palace at Munich, a number of illustrations from Burger's 
 poems and Schiller's ballads. Among his works is a 
 large oil-picture of "Otho of Bavaria departing from his 
 Father's Palace for the Throne of Greece." 
 
 Folz, or Volz, folts, written also Folcz, (Hans,) a 
 celebrated German poet and Protestant Reformer, born 
 at Worms in 1479. He wrote lyrics, Carnival pieces, 
 ( Fastnachtspiclc) and tales in rhyme. 
 
 Fonblanque, fon-blank', (Albany W.,) an eminent 
 English journalist and political writer, a son of the fol- 
 lowing, was born in London in 1797. He studied law, 
 but never practised it. About 1822 he succeeded Leigh 
 Hunt as editor of the "Examiner," a Liberal weekly 
 journal, the previous high character of which was main- 
 tained by the caustic wit and literary abilities of Mr. 
 Foublanque. A selection of his editorial articles ap- 
 peared under the title of " England under Seven Ad- 
 ministrations," (3 vols., 1837.) He ceased to edit that 
 journal in 1846, and was chosen director of the sta- 
 tistical department of the Board of Trade in 1852. 
 
 See K. H. Hornk, " New Spirit of the Age," 1844. 
 
 Fonblanque, (John de Guenier,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish lawyer, born in 1759, descended from a French Prot- 
 estant family, became senior king's counsel and senior 
 bencher of the Society of the Middle Temple. He' wrote 
 an able and learned " Treatise on Equity," (1793,) which 
 had a wide circulation and was considered as authorita- 
 tive by the English courts. Died in 1837. 
 
 Fonblanque, (John Samuel Martin,) a son of the 
 
 E receding, born about 1787, became commissioner of 
 ankrupts. He published, in 1825, "Bankrupt Stat- 
 utes," and, with J. A. Paris, M.D., "Medical Jurispru- 
 dence," (1823.) Died in 1865 or 1866. 
 
 Foncemagne, de, deh fiNss'mffi', (Etienne Lau- 
 reault — lo'ri'o',) a French savant, born at Orleans in 
 
 1694. He was received in the Academy of Inscriptions 
 in 1722, and chosen a member of the French Academy 
 in 1737. He was eminent for learning, virtue, and talents, 
 and distinguished himself in a literary war with Voltaire 
 in relation to the "Testament politique" pf Richelieu, 
 which Voltaire thought was a fabrication. He wrote 
 many able dissertations, inserted in the Memoirs of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1779. 
 
 See Sabatier, "Les trois Siecles de la Liuerature Francaise;" 
 Dk Chabanon, " Fjoge de M. de Fonceniague," i78o t 
 
 Fondolo, fon'do-lo, (Gaurino,) an Italian, who by 
 treachery obtained the sovereignty of Cremona in 1406. 
 He was executed by the Duke of Milan in 1420. 
 
 Fonfrede, foN'fR,\d', (Henri,) a French journalist, 
 a son of the following, was born at Bordeaux in 1788. 
 He founded at Bordeaux, in 1S20, a journal called " La 
 Tribune," which was soon suppressed by the govern- 
 ment. He wrote spirited political articles for other jour- 
 nals, and supported liberal conservative principles. His 
 works were published in 10 vols., 1844. Died in 1841. 
 
 See E. Ferbos, " Eloge de Henri Fonfrede ;" Charles Camp an, 
 "fiioge historique de H. Fonfrede," 1845. 
 
 Fonfrede, (Jean Baptists Boyer — bw.Vya',) an 
 eloquent French Girondist, born at Bordeaux in 1766, 
 was a brother-in-law of Ducos. He was elected to the 
 Convention in 1792, and was president of that body in 
 May, 1793. His career was short and memorable. In 
 talents he was ranked next to Vergniaud, Guadet, «nd 
 Gensonne. He was imprisoned in October, and declined 
 to escape when an opportunity was offered, saying he 
 would share the fate of Ducos. He was executed in 
 October, 1793. 
 
 See Lamartine's " History of the Girondists," books xxxi. and 
 xlvii. 
 
 Fonk, fonk, (PETER Anion,) a German merchant, 
 born near Cleves in 1781. He was convicted of murder 
 at Treves in 1822, but was pardoned by the king, because 
 his guilt was not clearly proved. Died in 1832. 
 
 Fons. See La Fons. 
 
 Fonseca, da, da fon-sa'ka, (Antonio,) a Portuguese 
 theologian, born in Lisbon in 1517, obtained in 1544 the 
 chair of theology in Coimbra. Having gained distinction 
 as a pulpit orator, he became preacher to the king, John 
 IH. Died in 158S. 
 
 Fonseca, da, (Gabriel,) a Portuguese physician, 
 born at Lamego, was chief physician of Pope Innocent 
 X. Died in 1668. 
 
 Fonseca, da, (Pedro,) a Portuguese Jesuit and writer, 
 born at Cortizada in 1528, was eminent as a professor of 
 philosophy in the University of Evora, and was surnamed 
 the Portuguese Aristotle. He was employed in 
 important affairs by Pope Gregory XIII. His principal 
 works are "Institutes of Dialectics," (1564,) and a 
 " Commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle," (4 vols., 
 1572-94.) He is reputed the inventor of the "Sciencia 
 Media," a mode of reconciling free will with predestina- 
 tion. Died in 1599. 
 
 See Bakbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Fonseca, da, (Pedro JozE,) a Portuguese philologist, 
 was the principal author or editor of the "Dictionary of 
 the Portuguese Language" published by the Academy 
 of Lisbon in 1793. Died in 1816. 
 
 Fonseca, de, dl fon-sa'ka, (Eleanora Pimeiitel — 
 pe-men-tSl',) Marchioness, a beautiful and gifted Italian 
 lady, born in Naples in 1768, became the wife of the 
 Marquis of Fonseca in 1784. She sympathized with the 
 French republicans, and was an active adherent of the 
 popular party in Naples. While the latter was in the 
 ascendant, she edited a public journal. In 1799 the 
 royalists again prevailed, and condemned her to a felon's 
 death. She was hung in 1799. 
 
 Fonseca, de, da fon-sa'ka, (Juan Rodriguez,) a 
 bigoted Spanish prelate, bom at Toro about 1452, be- 
 came Bishop of Palencia and of Burgos, and a councillor 
 of Queen Isabella. He patronized Torquemada, and 
 opposed the enterprise of Columbus, whom he called a 
 visionary and treated with persistent malignity. Died in 
 
 1524- 
 
 See Charlevoix, " Histoire de Saint-Domingue ;" Herrera, 
 " Historia." 
 
 Fonseca Fignereido y Sousa, de, di fnn-sa'kl 
 fe-ga-ra'e-do e s5's$, (JozE Maria,) a Portuguese writer, 
 
 I, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
FOX SEC A 
 
 935 
 
 FONTANA 
 
 born at Evora in 1690, was eminent as a theologian and 
 diplomatist. He was aulic councillor of the emperor 
 Charles VI. Died in 1 760. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, "Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Fonseca Soares, de, da fon-sa'ka so-a'res, (An- 
 tonio,) or Antonio das Chagas, (das sha'gas,) a Por- 
 tuguese theologian and poet, born at Vidigueira in 1631. 
 He was noted for his ascetic piety, and wrote several 
 devotional works. Died in 1682. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, "Bibliotheca Lusitana;" M. Godinho, 
 " Vida de F. A. das Chagas," 1687. 
 
 Fontaine, or Fontaine des Bertins, foN'tin' di 
 beVta.N', (Alexis,) an eminent French geometer, born 
 at Claveison, in Dauphiny, about 1705, came to l'.iris at 
 an early age, where he became intimate with Clairaut 
 and Maupertuis. In 1733 the Academy of Sciences was 
 opened to him, and in 1734 he published his famous 
 memoir on the problem of " Tautochrones," which had 
 been resolved by Huyghens and Newton by different 
 methods, and in whieh he was afterwards surpassed by 
 Lagrange, He made several important discoveries in 
 mathematics and dynamics. Hearing Nollet read in 
 the Academy a long essay <m the value of various com- 
 modities, Fontaine said, "This man knows the value of 
 everything except time." Died in 1771. 
 
 See Condorcet, "filoge de Fontaine;'* Querard, "La France 
 Lilteraire. " 
 
 Fontaine, foN'tin', (Charles,) a French poet, born 
 in Paris in 1515, translated Ovid's "Epistles" into verse, 
 and wrote mediocre odes, epigrams, etc. Died about 1590. 
 
 Fontaine, (Nicolas,) a pious Jansenist writer, born 
 in Paris in 1625. He joined the recluses of Port-Royal 
 in 1645, and shared the labours and pei seditions of Ar- 
 nauld, Nicole, and Sacy, with whom he was confined in 
 the Pastille. Deleft interesting "Memoirs of Port-Royal," 
 (2 vols., 1736.) Died in 1709. 
 
 Fontaine, (Pierre Francois Leonard,) a distin- 
 guished French architect, born at Pontoise on the 20th 
 of September, 1762. He studied in Rome, and became 
 in his youth the friend and associate of Charles Percier, 
 and formed with him a partnership which was only dis- 
 solved by death. About 180 1 he was appointed architect 
 of the Tuileries. He was afterwards employed in the 
 extension or restoration of the palaces of the Louvre, 
 Saint-Cloud, and Fontainebleau. He erected the tri- 
 umphal arch of the Carrousel, (1807,) and united the 
 Tuileries with the Louvre. He was admitted into the 
 Institute in 1812, and received the title of first architect 
 of Napoleon in 1813. With Percier he published " Palaces 
 and other Modern Edifices designed at Rome," (1798,) 
 and a successful work " On Interior Decorations," (1812.) 
 He retained the place of chief architect under Louis 
 XVIII. and his successors until 1848. Died in 1853. 
 
 See "Journal des Beaux- Arts," 1842; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge'ne'rale. 
 
 Fontaine, La. See La Fontaine. 
 
 Fontaine-Malherbe, foN'tin' maTiRb', (Jean,) a 
 French poet, born near Coutances about 1740, wrote two 
 poems which were crowned by the French Academy, 
 viz., "The Rapidity of Life," (1766,) and an "Epistle to 
 the Poor," (1768.) Died in 1780. 
 
 Fontaines. See Deskontaines. 
 
 Fontana, fon-ta'na, (Anniiiai,) an Italian engraver 
 on precious stones, born in Milan in 1540, acquired a 
 high reputation in his art. Died in 1587. 
 
 Fontana, (Carlo,) a celebrated Italian architect, born 
 at Bruciato, near Como, in 1634, was a pupil of Bernini. 
 He passed nearly all his life in Rome, and was patronized 
 by several popes. Under Clement X. he constructed the 
 grand fountain in front of Saint Peter's. Among his 
 numerous works are the Grimani palace, the Holognetti 
 palace, the theatre Tordinona, and the portal of Santa 
 Maria in Trastevere. lie wrote ample and valuable 
 descriptions of the Church of Saint Peter, (1694,) and 
 of the Coliseum, (1725.) Died at Rome in 1714. 
 
 See Quatrkmkrk de Quincv, "Dictionnaire d' Architecture ;" 
 Fontknai, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Fontana, (Domenico,) an Italian architect and en- 
 gineer of celebrity, was born at Mili, near Lake Como, 
 in 1543, and went to Rome at the age of twenty. His 
 patron, Pope Sixtus V., employed him as chief architect 
 
 in several great works, the most memorable of which 
 was the erection of the Egyptian obelisk in front of Saint 
 Peter's Church. About five hundred engineers having 
 offered their respective plans, that of Fontaha was pre- 
 ferred. This great triumph of mechanical skill, which 
 was accomplished in 1586 amidst the applause of the 
 populace, was rewarded by a title of nobility and a large 
 pension. Fontana afterwards raised large obelisks in the 
 Piazza del Popolo and in front of San Giovanni Laterano. 
 He built the palace of the Lateral), the Vatican Library, 
 and the Quirinal Palace, Rome. In 1592 he went to 
 Naples, where he designed the grand royal palace. Died 
 at Naples in 1607. 
 
 See Ticozzl, " Dizionario ;" Quatremerr de Quincv, "Dic- 
 tionnaire d'Architecture ;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^ne>ale." 
 
 Fontana, (Felice,) a learned Italian philosopher and 
 naturalist, born at Pomarolo, in the Tyrol, in April, 1730, 
 was a brother of Gregorio, noticed below, and was edu- 
 cated in the best schools of Italy. He was for some time 
 professor of philosophy in Pisa, and afterwards lived in 
 Florence, where he was patronized by the grand duke 
 Leopold. By the order of this prince, he prepared ana- 
 tomical models in wax, and a fine cabinet or museujn of 
 natural history and philosophy, which is one of the orna- 
 ments of Florence. He wrote many ingenious treatises 
 on chemistry, physics, and physiology. He died in 1805, 
 and was buried in Florence by the side of Galileo. 
 
 See Mangim, " Elogio di F. Fontana," 1813; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G^n^rale." 
 
 Fontana, (Francesco,) a Neapolitan astronomer, 
 published "New Observations on Celestial and Earthly 
 Things," (1646.) Died in 1656. 
 
 Fontana, (Francesco,) an Italian architect, a de- 
 scendant of Domenico Fontana, was employed in 1705 
 in the erection of the column of Antoninus Pius on 
 Monte Citorio, in Rome. 
 
 Fontana, (Francesco Luigi,) a learned Italian car- 
 dinal and writer, born in 1750, accompanied the captive 
 pope to Paris in 1804. Died in 1822. 
 
 Fontana, (Gaetano,) an Italian priest and astron- 
 omer, born at Modena in 1645. He cultivated as- 
 tronomy with success, corresponded with Cassini, and 
 published " Institutio Physico-Astronomica," (" Physical 
 and Astronomical Institutes," 1695.) Cassini said the 
 observations of Fontana were the most exact of all that 
 were sent to him. Died in 1 719. 
 
 Fontana, (Giovanni,) an able Italian architect, born 
 at Mili in 1540, was the brother of Domenico, above 
 named. He was at one time architect of Saint Peter's 
 Church, Rome, and was especially eminent as a hy- 
 draulic engineer. Died in 1614. 
 
 Fontana, (Giui.io Cesare,) a son of Domenico, was 
 an architect, and a native of Rome. Among his best 
 works is the Museo Borbonico at Naples. He flourished 
 about 1600. 
 
 Fontana, (Gregorio,) an eminent Italian mathema- 
 tician, brother of Felice, noticed above, was born near 
 Roveredo in 1735. In 1763 he became professor of logic 
 and metaphysics in the University of Pavia, in which, 
 a few years later, he obtained the chair of high mathe- 
 matics. Though he attempted no large work, he left 
 numerous treatises on the latter science, and translated 
 several scientific works from the English. Died in 1803. 
 
 See G. B. Savioli, "Elogio di G. Fontana," 1804. 
 
 Fontana, (Lavinia,) an excellent painter, born at 
 Bologna in 1552, was a daughter of Prospero Fontana, 
 noticed below. She was married to an artist named 
 Zappi, and worked in Rome with great success, espe- 
 cially in portraits. She was appointed painter to Gregory 
 XlH. Some of her portraits were attributed to Guido. 
 Among her works are a "Madonna," "The Miracle of 
 the Loaves," and a." Holy Family." Died in 1614. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Fontana, (Prospero,) an Italian painter of high 
 reputation, born in Bologna in 1 51 2, was a pupil of 
 lmola and Vasari. He was presented as an excellent 
 portrait-painter by Michael Angelo to Pope Julius III. 
 He also painted historical subjects in fresco, with which 
 he adorned several churches in Rome and Bologna. 
 He excelled in design and composition. Among his 
 
 € as a 1 ; 5 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FONTANA 
 
 936 
 
 FONTENELLE 
 
 pupils were his daughter Lavinia and the Caracci. Died 
 at Rome in 1597. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Fontana, (Publio,) an Italian poet, born at Paluccio, 
 in the diocese of Brescia, in 1548. He wrote the "Apo- 
 theosis of Tasso," a poem which extended his reputation 
 through all Italy. His most popular work is " Del- 
 phinis," a Latin poem, (15S2.) "Fontana is one of the 
 modern poets," says J. Victor Rossi, " who have ap- 
 proached nearest to Virgil in beauty of imagery and 
 harmony of diction." Died in 1609. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Fontanella, fon-ta-nel'la, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 philologist and classical scholar, born in Venice in 1768. 
 He published, besides other works, " Universal Or- 
 thography of the Italian Language," ("Ortografia enci- 
 clopedica universale della Lingua Italiana," 1826.) He 
 became professor of Greek and Hebrew in Venice. Died 
 in 1827. 
 
 See his Autobiography, entitled "Vita di F. Fontanella, scritta 
 da lui medesiino," 1825. 
 
 Fcnitanelle, (Jean Gaspard Dubois.) See Dubois. 
 
 Fontanelli, fon-ta-nel'lee, ( Alfonso Vincenzo, ) 
 Marquis of, an eminent Italian scholar and linguist, 
 born at Reggio in 1706. He was employed as ambas- 
 sador by the Duke of Modena. Died in 1777. 
 
 Fontanes, de, deb. f6N'tin', (Jean Pierre Makcel- 
 Lin,) born at Geneva in 1721. His ancestors had been 
 exiled from France as Protestants. He was employed 
 as inspector of manufactures in Poitou, and wrote treat- 
 ises on agriculture. Died in 1774. 
 
 Foutanes, de, (Louis,) Count, a French statesman 
 and author, son of the preceding, was born at Niort (Poi- 
 tou) in 1757, and came to Paris at an early age. In 1778 
 he began his career as a poet by the " Forest of Navarre," 
 a descriptive poem, which was favourably received, and 
 was followed by "Le Verger," ("The Orchard,") and an 
 "Essay on Astronomy," (17S9.) The Directory having 
 proscribed him and expelled him from the Institute, 
 he took refuge in England in 1797. In January or 
 February, 1S00, by the order and under the auspices 
 of the First Consul Bonaparte, he pronounced a fune- 
 ral eulogy on Washington, which gained for the orator 
 an exalted reputation, and opened to him a second 
 time the doors of the Institute, (Academie Francaise,) 
 in 1803. It is worthy of remark that the author of this 
 noble and eloquent tribute, in analyzing a character so 
 heroic and so admirably balanced as that of Washington, 
 gives to his moderation and good sense the pre-eminence 
 over all his other virtues. He became a member of the 
 corps legislatif in 1802, and president of that body in 
 January, 1804. In this position he maintained his repu- 
 tation by his elegant addresses in reply to the annual 
 speeches from the throne. During the empire he was 
 raised to the rank of a peer of France, and chosen grand 
 master of the Imperial University in 1808. He was ap- 
 pointed a senator in 1810. It appears that he had great 
 influence with Bonaparte, who frequently admitted him 
 to private interviews and invited him to his table. One 
 day, as they were conversing on literature, Bonaparte said, 
 " You like Voltaire : you are wrong : he is a busybody, an 
 incendiary, a scoffer. He has sapped by ridicule the foun- 
 dations of all authority, divine and human ; he has caused 
 the revolution that has dishonoured and ruined us. You 
 laugh, monsieur ; but will you laugh when I tell you that 
 among twenty of my young officers nineteen had each a 
 volume of this demon in his valise?" He was admitted 
 to the Chamber of Peers at the restoration. "He was," 
 says Chateaubriand, " my guide in the world of letters, 
 and his friendship was one of the honours of my life. 
 The school founded by Boileau, Racine, and Fenelon 
 ended in him." Died in Paris in March, 1821. 
 
 See Viu.emain, " FJoge de Fontanes," 1821 ; Sainth-Rf.uvk, 
 "Portraits litte>aires:" Chateaubriand, " M6noires d'Outre- 
 Tombe ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 Fontaney, de, deh foN'tS'ni', (Jean,) a French Jesuit 
 and astronomer, who in 1685 was sent by Colbert to 
 China on a mission partly scientific and partly religious. 
 He and his companions were the pioneers of the French 
 missionary enterprise in China. After he had laboured 
 
 at Nankin and other places, he returned to France in 
 1699. He was living in 1720. 
 
 Fontaiiges, de, deh f6N't8Nzh', (Marie Angei.ique 
 Scoraille de Roussille— sko'rS'ye deh roo'seV, ) 
 Duchesse, a beautiful French lady, born in 1661, was 
 the mistress of Louis XIV., over whom she possessed 
 great influence for a few years. Died in 1681. 
 
 Fontanieu, fiN'tS'n.e-uh'.fGASPARD Moise,) a French 
 writer, born about 17067'was author of a "History of 
 Charles VII.," (still in manuscript.) Died in 1767. 
 
 Fontanini, fon-ta-nee'nee, (Giusro,) a learned Italian 
 critic and antiquary, born at Saint Daniel, in Friuli, in 
 1666, was educated for the church, and lived -mostly in 
 Rome. Clement XI. appointed him professor of elo- 
 quence in the Roman University. In 1706 he published 
 his famous "Treatise on Italian Eloquence," which con- 
 tains in the third part a Catalogue (Bibliotheca) of classic 
 Italian works, with notes. He gave an improved and 
 enlarged edition in 1736. Apostolo Zeno wrote an 
 excellent critique on this work. Fontanini wrote also 
 other treatises on various subjects, and left unfinished a 
 "Literary History of Friuli." Clement XI. gave him 
 several rich benefices, and Benedict XIII. made him 
 titular Archbishop of Ancyra. Died in 1736. 
 
 See D. Fontanini, "Vita di Fontanini," Venice, 1755; Fabroni, 
 " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium;" Tipaldo, " Biogratia degli 
 Italiani illustri." 
 
 Foiite, fon'ti, (Moderata,) an Italian lady, distin- 
 guished for talent, born at Venice in 1555. She married 
 Filippo Giorgi, a lawyer, about 1572. Her memory is 
 said to have been extraordinary. She wrote " II Fldri- 
 doro," and other poems. Her original name was Mo- 
 desta Pozzo, (pot'so.) Died in 1592. 
 
 Fontanon, (oN'tJ'noV, (Antoine,) a French advo- 
 cate and jurist, born in Auvergne, lived about 1580. 
 
 Fontanus or Fonteyn, fon'tln', (Nicolaas,) a Dutch 
 physician and writer, lived at Amsterdam about 1620-40. 
 
 Fontenai, (J u lien de.) See Coldore. 
 
 Fontenay. See Coldore. 
 
 Fontenay, foNt'ni', (Louis Abel de Bonafons — 
 bo'nST6N',) usually called Abbe de Fontenay, a French 
 Jesuit, born near Castres in 1737. He published a 
 "Dictionary of Artists," (2 vols., 1777,) and several other 
 works. Died in 1806. , 
 
 Fontenay, Madame. See Chimay. 
 
 Fontenay, (Pierre Claude,) a French Jesuit, born 
 in Paris in 1663. On the death of Longueval he suc- 
 ceeded him as compiler of the " History of the Gal- 
 ilean Church," of which he finished the ninth and tenth 
 volumes. Died in 1742. 
 
 Fontenay, de, deh f6Nt'ii&', (J. B. Blain— blaN,) an 
 excellent French painter of flowers and fruits, born at 
 Caen in 1654, was a pupil and son-in-law of Baptiste 
 Monnoyer. He worked in Paris, and was much em- 
 ployed by Louis XIV. at Versailles, Marly, etc. He is 
 said to have had no rival except Van Huysum and Mon- 
 noyer, the latter of whom he equalled. Died in 1 715. 
 
 See D'Argenvili.e, "Vies des Peintres Francais." 
 
 Fontenelle, de, deh fdn'teh-nel', [Fr. pron. fdxt'nel',] 
 (Bernard le Bovier — Ieh bo've-4', ) a celebrated 
 French author, born at Rouen, February 11, 1657, was a 
 nephew of the famous poet Corneille. In the interval of 
 one hundred years which elapsed from his birth to hi? 
 death, the greatest French authors began or ended their 
 career. And though many of these illustrious men sur- 
 passed Fontenelle, either by the force, the originality, or 
 the elevation of their genius, no one, perhaps, has been 
 more admired or more influential. He owed this emi- 
 nence chiefly to the variety of his talents, to the popular 
 and congenial subjects on which he exercised them, to his 
 matchless social qualities', and to an uncommon share 
 of those graceful endowments for which the French 
 are distinguished. His writings and principles were in 
 harmony with his conduct, which was remarkable for 
 moderation and self-control. 
 
 The dramas and pastorals with which he opened his 
 literary career were not very successful. His " Dialogues 
 of the Dead," published in 1683, formed the beginning 
 of his celebrity, which was greatly increased by his " Dis- 
 course on the Plurality of Worlds," (1686.) In the latter 
 he displays his peculiar talent for rendering science at- 
 
 a, e, I, o, T, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon: 
 
FONTENU 
 
 Q?7 
 
 FORBES 
 
 tractive, by blending useful instruction with ingenious 
 amusement and by conducting the reader through easy 
 paths to extensive, luminous, and profound views of the 
 beautiful and sublime. With great spirit and vivacity 
 he maintains the "fascinating paradox" that the planets 
 and fixed stars are populous worlds. He also wrote a 
 popular "History of Oracles," for which Van Dale's 
 work supplied the crude materials. In 1691 he became 
 a member of the French Academy, and in 1699 he was 
 chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences. 
 His "Essay on the Geometry of the Infinite" (1727) is 
 among his most admired productions. On presenting 
 it to the Regent of France, Fontenelle said, "There is 
 a book which only eight men in Europe are capable of 
 understanding; and the author is not one of that num- 
 ber !" Died in January, 1757. 
 
 The mind of Fontenelle was characterized by a phi- 
 losophic spirit and a union of judgment with subtility of 
 intellect, to which was often joined a strange fondness 
 for paradox. He professed to adopt these two axioms, — 
 " that everything is possible, and that everybody is right." 
 In the opinion of Voltaire, Fontenelle was the most uni- 
 versal genius of his age. He once said, " If 1 had my hand 
 full of truths, I should take good care not to open it." 
 During a period of forty years, he composed eulogies on 
 about seventy members of the Academy of Sciences. 
 This collection of "Eloges" is esteemed one of the best 
 books in the language. 
 
 See Chakma, " Biographie de Fontenelle," 1846: Trublet, 
 
 "Metnohes de Fontenelle;" Flol'kkns, "Fontenelle, Histoire de 
 
 <\aux etde sa Vie;" Gar at, "£.ogede Fontenelle;" S At nth- 
 
 , "Causeries du Luiuli," tome lii. ; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 
 Genciale;" "Biographie Universale." 
 
 Fontenu, de, deh foNt'nii', (Louis Francois,) a 
 French abbe, born of a noble family in 1667, visited Rome 
 in 1700. He lived mostly in Paris, and was a member 
 of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, which 
 he enriched with (earned memoirs on antiquarian sub- 
 jects. Died in 1759. 
 
 Fontette. See Fevket de Fontette. 
 
 Fonteyn. See Fontanus. 
 
 Fonteyraud, foN't.Vio', (Alcidf.,) a French writer 
 on political economy, born in the island of Mauritius in 
 1S22; died in Paris in 1849. 
 
 Fonti, fon'tee, [Lat. Fo.n'tuts,! (Bartolommeo,) an 
 Italian philologist, born in 1445 : died in 15 13. 
 
 Fontrailles, de, deh foN'tkH'or f6N'tRi'ye, (Loins 
 d'Astarac — dis'tS'riik',) Marquis de Marestang, a 
 French gentleman, remarkable for his factious intrigues 
 and talents. He was an enemy of Richelieu and a friend 
 of Cinq-Mars, whose fate he would have shared if he had 
 not fled to England. He died in 1677. 
 
 Fonvielle, foN've-cl', (Bernard Francois Anne,) 
 a PrenCh royalist and writer on politics, etc., was born at 
 Toulouse in 1759. He was a secret agent of the Bour- 
 bons in 1794. Died in 1837. 
 
 Sec his Autobiography, entitled " Mes Memoires historiques sur 
 la Revolution," 4 vols., 1824. 
 
 Foot, (Solomon,) an American Senator and lawyer, 
 born in Addison county, Vermont, in 1802. He was 
 elected to Congress in 1842, and again in 1844, by the 
 Whigs. In 1850 he was chosen a Senator of the United 
 States. Having joined the Republican party in 1854, he 
 was re-elected a Senator in 1856. Died in 1866. 
 
 Foote, foot, (Andrew Hull,) a distinguished Ame- 
 rican rear-admiral, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 
 September, 1806. He entered the navy about 1822, be- 
 came a lieutenant in 1830, and a commander in 1852. In 
 1856 he was sent to China, and captured by storm a fort 
 near Canton, the garrison of which had fired on one of 
 his boats. He was appointed flag-officer of the flotilla in 
 the Mississippi River in September, 1S61. He rendered 
 important assistance to General Grant in the capture of 
 Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in February, 1862, with 
 seven gunboats which he commanded : he was disabled 
 in the latter action by a wound in the ankle. In July, 
 1862, he was raised to the rank of rear-admiral. He 
 t did Dupont in June, 1863, as commander of the 
 South Atlantic squadron, employed in operations against 
 Charleston, but died in New York in the same month. 
 Admiral Footc was distinguished for his high moral 
 worth as well as for his ardent patriotism, liy his ex- 
 
 ample and precept he promoted total abstinence from 
 spirituous liquors in the navy. 
 
 See Headlev, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867. 
 
 Foote, foot, (Sir Edward James,) a British admiral, 
 born in Kent in 1767. He commanded the fleet which 
 blockaded Naples in 1799. Died in 1833. 
 
 Foote, (Henry S.,) an American politician, born in 
 Fauquier county, Virginia, in 1800. He studied law, and 
 removed about 1826 to Mississippi, where he was elected 
 to the Senate of the United States in 1847. In 1851 he 
 was chosen Governor of Mississippi by the Union p?rty, 
 when Jefferson Davis was his competitor. He was a 
 member of the Confederate Congress during the civil 
 war. 
 
 Foote, (Jesse,) an English surgeon, born in 1744 
 wrote the " Life of John Hunter," professional treatises, 
 and other works. Died in 1827. 
 
 Foote, (Samuel,) a witty English comedian, was born 
 at Truro, in Cornwall, about 1720, and educated at Ox- 
 ford. Having spent his estate in gaming and other vices, 
 he was induced by necessity to resort to the stage in 
 1744. In 1747 he opened the Haymarket Theatre on his 
 own account, being at the same time director, author, and 
 actor. Here he represented with great success a series 
 of satirical pieces and farces, among which were " Diver- 
 sions of the Morning," "The Auction of Pictures," "The 
 Minor," "The Englishman in Paris," (1753,) and "The 
 Mayor of Garratt," (1764.) He possessed great talents 
 for ridicule and mimicry, and excelled in colloquial 
 wit, which he used at the expense of others. " For 
 loud, obstreperous, broad-faced mirth," said Johnson, 
 "I know not his equal." Died in 1777. 
 
 See William Cooke, " Memoirs of Samuel Foote, with some of 
 his Writings," 3 vols., 1S05; John Forster, "Historical and Bio- 
 graphical Essays;" "Quarterly Review" for October, 1854. 
 
 Foppa, fop'pa, (Vincenzo,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Brescia about 1420, founded a flourishing school at 
 Milan, which preceded that of Leonardo da Vinci. He 
 excelled in perspective, and was a good master of de- 
 sign. Died in 1492. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Foppens, fop'pens, (Johannes Frans,) a bibliogra- 
 pher, born at Brussels in 1689, was professor of theology 
 at Louvain. He wrote several works on Belgian history, 
 also the "Bibliotheca Belgica," (2 vols., 1739,) treating 
 of Belgian authors and their works, i Died in 1 761. 
 
 Forabosco, fo-ra-bos'ko, (Girolamo,) a Venetian 
 portrait-painter, born about 1600; died after 1659. 
 
 Forbes, for'bes, (Alexander,) Lord Forbes of Pitsli- 
 go, a Scottish Jacobite, born about 1678, was supposed to 
 be the original of the Baron of Bradwardine in Scott's 
 " Waverley." He fought for the Pretender at Culloden 
 in 1746, after which he fled to France. Died in 1749. 
 
 Forbes, (Alexander,) a British writer of the present 
 era. He published in 1839 an esteemed "History of 
 Upper and Lower California," which he had explored. 
 
 Forbes, (Duncan,) an eminent Scottish judge and 
 patriot, born at Culloden in 1686, acquired a nigh repu- 
 tation at the bar, and was for many years a member of 
 the British Parliament, which he entered in 1722. After 
 filling other high stations, he was appointed in 1737 
 lord president of the court of sessions, and rendered 
 important services to the crown in the rebellion of 1745. 
 lie publisl. '.d "Thoughts on Religion, Natural and Re- 
 vealed," (1735,) and other religious works. Warburlon 
 thought him one of the greatest men that Scotland had 
 produced, "both as a judge, a patriot, and a Christian." 
 Died in 1747. 
 
 See John HillBurton, " Life of Duncan Forbes," 1847: Cham- 
 bers, Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen; " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for February, 1816; "North British Review" for 
 May, 1S47. 
 
 Forbes, forb/., (Edward,) an eminent English natural- 
 ist, bom in the Isle of Man in February, 1815. In 1832 he 
 went to Edinburgh, where he studied zoology and botany. 
 1 le made scientific excursions through various parts of 
 Europe, and published his valuable discoveries in several 
 treatises on Mollusca and other marine animals. He 
 accepted in 1844 the professorship of botany in King's 
 College, London, and distinguished himself by contribu- 
 tions to various departments of natural history. In 1854 
 
 g 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (gg^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FORBES 
 
 938 
 
 FORCE 
 
 he was chosen president of the Geological Society, and 
 professor of natural history in the University of Edin- 
 burgh. Professor Forbes and S. Hanley published a 
 " History of British Mollusca," (4 vols. 8vo, 1853.) Among 
 his works are a " History of British Star-Fishes," (1841,) 
 "Travels in Lycia," (1846,) and "Zoology of the Voyage 
 of H. M. Ship Herald," (3 vols. 4to.) He made an ex- 
 tensive use of the dredge as an instrument of research. 
 He was profoundly versed in botany, zoology, and geol- 
 ogy. He died near Edinburgh in November, 1854. 
 
 See "Memoir of Edward Forbes, F. R.S.,"bythe late Dr. George 
 Wilson and Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.E. and F.G.S., London, 
 1861 ; "Encyclopaedia Britannica;" William Jerdan, "Men I have 
 known," London, 1866: "Blackwood's Magazine" tor February, 1855; 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1855. 
 
 Forbes, (James,) an English author, born in London 
 in 1749. He was employed in the civil service of the 
 East India Company, and returned from India about 
 1784. He published an interesting work entitled "Ori- 
 ental Memoirs, a Narrative of Seventeen Years' Resi- 
 dence in India, embellished with ninety-five Fine En- 
 gravings and Coloured Plates," (4 vols., 1813-15,) which 
 was received with great favour. Died in 1819. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1814. 
 
 Forbes, (James David,) F.R.S., an eminent British 
 physical philosopher, a grandson of Sir William Forbes, 
 noticed below, was born at Colinton, near Edinburgh, in 
 1809. He succeeded Sir John Leslie as professor of nat- 
 ural philosophy in the University of Edinburgh in 1833. 
 In [843 he published "Travels in the Alps." He made 
 discoveries in the laws of the motion of glaciers, and in the 
 phenomena of radiant heat and light in relation to polari- 
 zation. He received the Rumford medal, and the royal 
 medal of the Royal Society of London. In i860 he be- 
 came principal of the United College in the University 
 of Saint Andrew's. Among his works are " Norway and 
 its Glaciers visited in 1851," (1853,) and the " Sixth Dis- 
 sertation" prefixed to the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1861 ; "North British 
 Review" for May, 1S54. 
 
 Forbes, (Sir John,) F.R.S., an eminent British phy- 
 sician and medical writer, born in Banffshire, Scotland, 
 about 1787, graduated in Edinburgh in 181 7. He ac- 
 quired distinction by translations of the works of Auen- 
 brugger and Laennec "On Auscultation," (1824,) and 
 practised successively at Penzance, Chichester, and Lon- 
 don. He was one of the editors of the "Cyclopaedia of 
 Practical Medicine." In 1835 he published a "Manual 
 of Select Medical Bibliography," and afterwards edited 
 the " British and Foreign Medical Review." About 1840 
 he became physician-in-ordinary to the queen's house- 
 hold, and physician-extraordinary to Prince Albert. He 
 published, besides other works, a "Physician's Holiday, 
 or a Month in Switzerland in 1848," (1849.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Forbes, (John,) an English botanist and traveller, 
 born in 1799. He attempted to ascend the river Zam- 
 bezi, in Africa, but died during the journey, in 1824. 
 
 Forbes, (John,) of Corse, a Scottish divine, born in 
 1593, was the son of Bishop Patrick Forbes, noticed 
 below. From 1619 to 1640 he was professor of divinity 
 in King's College, Aberdeen, from which he was ejected 
 for refusing to sign the Covenant. He published several 
 admired religious works, among which is " Institutiones 
 Historico-Theologicae," (1645.) Died in 1648. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Forbes, (Patrick,) Lord of Corse and Baron of 
 O'Neil, a Scottish divine, born in Aberdeenshire in 1564. 
 Having embraced Episcopacy, he was made Bishop of 
 Aberdeen in 1618. He wrote a "Commentary on the 
 Revelation of Saint John," and other religious works. 
 Died in 1635. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Forbes, [Lat. Forhe'sius,] (William,) a Scottish 
 Mshop, eminent for learning and eloquence, born at Aber- 
 deen about 1580. He became principal of Marischal Col- 
 lege about 161 8, and minister in Edinburgh a few years 
 later. He was the first Bishop of Edinburgh, but died 
 about three months after his consecration, in 1634. 
 
 Forbes, (Sir William,) Baronet of Pitsligo, an emi- 
 nent banker, was born in Edinburgh in 1739. With Sir 
 James H. Blair, he founded the principal banking estab- 
 
 lishment of Edinburgh. He wiote a "Memoir of the 
 Life and Writings of James Beattie" the poet, (2 vols., 
 1806,) which, says Lord Jeffrey, "is a great deal longer 
 and a great deal duller than we are bound to tolerate." 
 Scott lamented the loss of Forbes in the introduction to 
 one of the cantos of " Marmion." Sir William Forbes 
 was a member, with Johnson, Burke, and Reynolds, of 
 the famous Literary Club of London. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Forbin, foR'blN',(CLAUDE,) abrave and skilful French 
 naval officer, born at Gardanne, near Aix, in 1656. When 
 Chaumont was sent as ambassador to Siam, in 1685, 
 Forbin went with him as major. In 1686-87 he served as 
 admiral and general-in-chief of the King of Siam. (See 
 Constance, Faulcon.) Ha\ing accepted these offices 
 with reluctance, he resigned them at the end of two 
 years. From 1702 to 1710, in the war of the Spanish 
 succession, as chef-d'escadre, he performed many bold 
 and successful exploits against the English and Dutch, 
 for which he was rewarded by Louis XIV. with the title 
 of count. He retired from service in 1710, and wrote 
 entertaining " Memoirs of his Life and Adventures," (2 
 vols., 1730.) He is esteemed one of the greatest naval 
 commanders that France has produced. Died in 1733. 
 
 See Richer, " Vie de Forbin ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Forbin, de, deh foR'baN', (Louis Nicolas Philiitb 
 Auguste,) Comte, a French antiquary and painter, born 
 on the Durance (department of Bouches-du-Rhone) in 
 August, 1777. He was very accomplished, and was ad- 
 mired for his personal qualities. In 1804 he became 
 chamberlain to Pauline Bonaparte. He served several 
 campaigns as an officer in the army. At the restoration 
 (1815) he was appointed director of the royal museums. 
 The museum or gallery of the Luxembourg was originated 
 by him. He painted history, genre, and landscape with 
 success, and was a brilliant colorist. He wrote a "Voyage 
 in the Levant," with plates, (1819.) Among his works 
 of art are " Ines de Castro," (1819,) "The Ruins of Pab 
 myra," (1S24,) and "The Via Appia." Died in 1841. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litleniire." 
 
 Forbisserus. See Frohisher. 
 
 Forbonnais, de, dehfoit'bo'ni', (FRANgoisVeron — 
 va'roN',) an eminent French financier and writer, born at 
 Mans in 1722, removed to Paris in 1752, and became a 
 member of the Institute. In 1754 he published an able 
 and important work, entitled "The Elements of Com- 
 merce," which was often reprinted and was translated 
 into many languages. In 1756 he was chosen inspector- 
 general of the mint, and in 1759 chief clerk in the office 
 of the controller-general. The flourishing condition of 
 the finances for several ensuing years is ascribed to his 
 skill. He wrote a work on the Finances of France, 
 (" Recherches et Considerations," etc., 2 vols., 1758,) 
 which was highly esteemed, and several other treatises 
 on political economy. Died in 1800. 
 
 See Delisle de Sales, " Vie litteraire de V. Forbonnais," 1801. 
 
 Forcade, foR'kSd', (Eugene,) a French journalist, 
 born at Marseilles in 1820. He was a regular con- 
 tributor to the "Revue des Deux Mondes," and edited 
 several Liberal journals in Paris. Among his works is 
 " Historical Studies," (1853.) 
 
 Forcade-Laroquette, de, deh foR'kSd' It'ro'ket', 
 (Jean Louis Victor Adolphe,) a French politician 
 and lawyer, a half-brother of Marshal Saint-Arnaud, was 
 born in Paris about 1820. He was appointed director- 
 general of the customs, etc. in 1859, and minister of 
 finance in November, i860. Having been removed in 
 November, 1861, he was then appointed a senator, and 
 in 1869 minister of the interior. 
 
 Forcadel, foR'ki'del', (Etiennf.,) a French jurist and 
 legal writer, born at Beziers in 1534, is chiefly noted as 
 having been a competitor of the famous Cujas for the 
 chair of law at Toulouse in 1554. As Cujas absented 
 himself before the decision of the question, Forcadel 
 gained the place. Died in 1573. 
 
 See Taisand, " Vies des plus celebres Jurisconsultes." 
 
 Force, (Peter,) an American historian and compiler, 
 born in New Jersey in 1790. He became president of 
 the National Institute at Washington, District of Colum- 
 bia. He expended many years in compiling a " Docu- 
 
 5, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
FORCE 
 
 939 
 
 FORDTCE 
 
 -nentary History of the American Revolution," of which 
 •>ine volumes have been published, under the title of 
 ••American Archives," (i S3 7-53.) Died in January, 186S. 
 
 Force, de la,de> IS fouss, (ARMAND de Caumont— 
 deh kiYmo.s',) a French general and marquis, born in 
 1615. He became marechal-de-camp in 1651, and fought 
 with Conde against the court. He was made a lieutenant- 
 general in 1655, and served under Turenne. Having be- 
 come a Protestant exile in 1685, he entered the army of 
 the Dutch Republic as a general. Died in 1701. 
 
 Force, de la, (Armanii Nompar de Caumont — 
 ni.s'paV deh ko'm6.\',) Due, a French general, born 
 about 1585, was a son of Jacques, noticed below. He 
 distinguished himself In the wars of Italy and Germany, 
 and obtained the rank of marshal of France in 1652. 
 Died in 1675. 
 
 Force, de la, (Charlotte Rose de Caumont,) a 
 French authoress, born in Bazadois in 1650, was grand- 
 daughter of Marshal Force, noticed below. She was 
 Married to M. de Briou in 1687. She wrote several ad- 
 Bired poems and historical romances, among which are 
 "Secret History of Navarre," (2 vols., 1696,) and "Gus- 
 tavus Vasa," (2 vols., 1698.) Died in 1724. 
 
 Force, de la, (Henri Xompak de Caumont,) Due, 
 a French general and Protestant, born in 1582, was a 
 son of Jacques, noticed below. He presided over the 
 political assembly of the Protestants at Sainte-Foy in 
 1613, alter which he fought against the royal troops, and 
 killed the Duke of Mayenne in battle. He served under 
 his father in many campaigns. Died in 1678. 
 
 Force, de la, (Jacques Noictai de C.u mont,) Due, 
 a French general, born about 1558, was a son of a Hugue- 
 not who was killed in the Massacre of Saint Bartholo- 
 mew. He fought against the League for Henry IV., 
 whose confidence he enjoyed. He was in the carriage 
 with the king when the latter was assassinated in 1610. 
 In the civil war that ensued, he commanded the Protest- 
 ants, and defended Montauban in 162 1, soon after which 
 he accepted overtures of peace from Louis XIII., who 
 gave him a marshal's baton in 1622. He commanded 
 with success in several campaigns against the Spaniards 
 and Austiiaus lietween 1630 and 1638. He died in 1652, 
 leaving Memoirs, which were published in 1843, (4 vols.) 
 
 Forcellini, foR-chel-lce'nee, (Egidio,) [Lat. ^Egid'- 
 IUS Fokcei.i.i'.nus,] an eminent Italian lexicographer, 
 bom near Padua, August 26, t688. In 1731 he received 
 an appointment in the Seminary of Padua, with the free 
 disposal of his time. He devoted about forty years to 
 the great task of compiling a Latin Dictionary, in which 
 he was assisted by Facciolati, and which was published 
 in 1 771. This enduring monument of his learning and 
 indu-try, entitled "Lexicon of all Latinity," ("Totius 
 Latinitatfs Lexicon," 4 vols.,) is regarded as the most 
 Complete Latin lexicon that has ever been compiled, and 
 entitles him to the honour of having performed one of 
 the most important services ever rendered to the study 
 of antiquity. Died at Fener in April, 176S. 
 
 See Ferrari, " Vila jEgidii Forcellini," Padua, 1792; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeWrale ;" " Biographie Uuiverselle." 
 
 Forcellini, (Marco,) an Italian poet, brother of the 
 preceding, born at Campo in 1711 ; died in 1794. 
 
 Forchhammer, foRk'liam'mer, (Johan Georg,) a 
 chemist and writer, born at Husum, in Denmark, in 
 1794. About 1850 he was elected titular professor at 
 Copenhagen, and succeeded Oersted as secretary of the 
 Academy of Sciences. 
 
 Forchhammer, foKK'ham'mer, (Paul Wii.helm,) an 
 antiquary, born at Husum in 1803. Having travelled 
 in Italy and Greece, he visited Asia Minor in 1838, in 
 order to ascertain the site of Troy, being assisted in this 
 enterprise by the British Admiralty. His chart of Troy, 
 with an English text, appeared subsequently in the pub- 
 lications of the Royal Geographical Society. Among his 
 treatises is the "Topography of Athens," (1841.) 
 
 Ford, (John-,) an eminent English dramatic author, 
 born at Ilsington in 1586, was contemporary with Shak- 
 speare. He became a member of the Middle Temple in 
 1602, and appears to have practised law with success ; 
 but the details of his life are not well known. He wrote 
 about sixteen plays, (most of which were performed 
 between 1628 and 1639,) among which are the tragedies 
 
 of "Love's Sacrifice," "The Broken Heart," and "Th« 
 Lover's Melancholy." He is admired for elegance, hat- 
 mony, and pathos, but gives offence by bad taste and 
 licentiousness. Hallam thinks " he does not display one 
 particle of comic ability." " With none of the moral 
 beauty and elevation of Massinger, he has in a much 
 higher degree the power over tears." Suckling thus 
 describes him in the "Sessions of the Poets:" 
 
 " In the dumps John Ford alone by himself sat. 
 Wall folded arms and melancholy hat." 
 
 See Hazlitt, "Lectures on Dramatic Literature;" Baker, 
 " Biographia Dramatic.! ;" Halcam, " Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe;" Lord Jeffrev, critique in the "Edinburgh Review** 
 for August, 1811, vol. xviii. ; " Lives of the British Dramatists," by 
 Campbell, Leigh Hunt, etc; "London Quarterly Review" for 
 December, 181 1. 
 
 Ford, (Sir John,) an English engineer, born in Sus- 
 sex in 1605, was knighted by Charles I., and served as 
 colonel in the royalist army. In 1656, under the auspices 
 of Cromwell, he invented a machine to raise water from 
 the Thames. He was a great virtuoso, says Anthony 
 Wood. Died in 1670. 
 
 Ford, (Richard,) an English descriptive writer, born 
 in London in 1796. About 1830 he visited Spain, where 
 he remained some years. After his return to England 
 he became a contributor to the "Quarterly Review," 
 and published an excellent " Hand-Book for Travellers 
 in Spain and Readers at Home," describing the country 
 and cities, the natives and their manners, etc., (2 vols., 
 1845,) which was praised by Irving, Lockhart, and other 
 critics. His "Gatherings from Spain" (1846) consists 
 chiefly of extracts from the preceding work, and " is the 
 best English book," says the " London Quarterly Re- 
 view," "that has ever appeared for the illustration of 
 the topography, curiosities, and the national character 
 and manners of Spain." Died in September, 1858. 
 
 See "Fraser's Magazine" for October, 1858. 
 
 Ford, (Rev. Simon,) an English poet, born at East 
 Ogwell in 1619, became vicar of Reading in 1651, and 
 of All-Saints, Northampton, in 1659. He published ser- 
 mons and Latin poems. Died in 1699. 
 
 Fordun, de, deh for-dun', (John,) the earliest Scot- 
 tish historian, lived about 1350. He is supposed to 
 have been a priest in the church of Fordun, or a canon 
 of Aberdeen. He wrote a Latin chronicle of Scot- 
 tish affairs from the creation to 1053, entitled "Scoti 
 Chronicon." 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 For-dyce', (David,) a Scottish moralist, born at 
 Aberdeen in 171 1, was a brother of Sir William, noticed 
 below. He was appointed professor of moral philosophy 
 in Marischal College in 1742, and published "Dialogues 
 concerning Education," (2 vols., 1745-48,) a work of 
 considerable merit. Returning from a continental tour, 
 he was drowned at sea in 1751. He left "Theodorus, a 
 Dialogue on the Art of Preaching," (1752,) and "Ele- 
 ments'" of Moral Philosophy," (1754.) 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Fordyce, (George,) an eminent Scottish physician, 
 born near Aberdeen in 1736, was a nephew of the pre- 
 ceding. About the year 1 760 he settled in London, where 
 he acquired reputation by his lectures on chemistry, etc. 
 He was chosen physician of Saint Thomas's Hospital in 
 1770, and a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1776. He is 
 the author of able medical treatises, and of "Elements 
 of Agriculture and Vegetation," (1765.) Died in 1802. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Fordyce, (James,) D.D., a Scottish author and 
 divine, born at Aberdeen in 1720. In 1760 he came to 
 London, where he became minister of a congregation 
 of dissenters, and was distinguished for eloquence as a 
 preacher. He published, besides other works, "Ser- 
 mons to Young Women," (2 vols., 1765; 9th edition, 
 1778,) and a small volume of poems. Died in 1796. He 
 was a brother of Sir William Fordyce, noticed below. 
 
 Fordyce, (Sir William,) brother of David F'ordyce, 
 noticed above, was born at Aberdeen in 1724, and was 
 educated at Marischal College, of which he became lord 
 rector in the latter part of his life. He practised medi- 
 cine and surgery in London with great success, and pub- 
 lished several medical treatises, among which are "On 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asj; C, H, Y.,giMural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jty See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FORE mo 
 
 94° 
 
 FORftER 
 
 Putrid and Inflammatory Fevers," (1773,) and " Frag- 
 menta Chirurgica et Medica," (1784.) Died in 1792. 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Foreiro, fo-raVro, (Francisco,) an eminent Portu- 
 guese ecclesiastic, born in Lisbon, entered the Dominican 
 order. He was well versed in languages and theology, 
 which he began to teach in 1540. lie was reckoned the 
 most eloquent preacher of his time in Portugal, and 
 often preached before the court. He was a prominent 
 member of the Council of Trent, (1561,) where he was 
 selected with two others to compile a catechism, which 
 was printed in 1565. He published a Latin version of 
 the book of Isaiah, with notes, (1563.) Died in 1587. 
 See Quetif et Iichakd, "Scriptores ordinis Predicatorum." 
 Forest, fo'rj', (Jean,) a French landscape-painter, 
 born in Paris in 1636; died in 1712. 
 
 For'est or Foreest, van, vin for-ast', [Lat. Fores' - 
 tus,] (Pieter,) a skilful Dutch physician, born at Alk- 
 maar in 1522, studied in Italy and Paris. He practised 
 with success about forty years at Delft, and published 
 medical works which display much learning and judg- 
 ment. Died in 1597. 
 
 See £i.oy, "Dictionnaire historique de la M^decine." 
 Foresti, fo-reVtee, (Antonio,) an Italian Jesuit, born 
 at Carpi, published a " Universal History," (6 vols., 1690,) 
 a work of some merit, which after his death was continued 
 by Apostolo Zeno. Its title is "Mappamondo historico," 
 etc. Died about 1700. 
 
 Foresti, (E. Felice,) an Italian patriot, born near 
 Ferrara about 1793. He was confined for a political 
 offence in the prison of Spielberg, Moravia, from 1822 to 
 1835, and was then exiled to America. He became pro- 
 fessor of Italian in Columbia College, New York, where 
 he taught for many years. Died at Genoa in 1858. 
 See the "Atlantic Monthly" for November, 1859. 
 
 Foresti, (Jacopo Filippo,) (better known as Jacopo 
 Filippo of Bergamo,) an Italian monk and historian, 
 born at Soldio, near Bergamo, in 1434. He published 
 in 1483 a valuable and successful work, entitled "'Sup- 
 plementum Chronicorum Orbis," etc., (a "Supplement 
 of Universal History from the Beginning of the World 
 to 1482.") Died in 1520. 
 
 Forestier, fo'r.i'te-i', (Henri,) a French general, born 
 at Pommeraye in 1775. In 1793 he joined the royalist 
 army of Vendeans, and, after many successful battles, 
 was made general-in-chief of the cavalry. The Ven- 
 deans were defeated and dispersed, and Forestier fled 
 to England. Died in 1806. 
 
 See T. Muret, " Histoire de la Vendee." 
 
 Forestus. See Forest. 
 
 Forey, fo'r&', (Elie Frederic,) a French general, 
 born in Paris in 1804. He served several campaigns in 
 Africa, was a prominent actor in the coup d'etat of De- 
 cember, 1851, and became general of division in 1852. 
 He took part in the siege of Sevastopol in 1854, and 
 commanded the division which defeated the Austrians at 
 Montebello, May 20, 1859. In the summer of 1862 he 
 was appointed general-in-chief of an expedition against 
 Mexico. He captured the city of Mexico in 1863, and 
 was made marshal of France. 
 
 Forfait, foR'fV, (Pierre Alexandre Laurent,) a 
 French engineer, was born at Rouen in 1752. He was 
 appointed by Bonaparte minister of the marine in No- 
 vember, 1799, and afterwards councillor of state, mari- 
 time prefect at Havre, and inspector-general of the flotilla 
 destined for the invasion of England. He wrote a " Me- 
 moir on Navigable Canals, and a Treatise on the Masting 
 of Vessels," (1788.) Died in 1807. 
 
 Forgeot, foR'zho', (Nicolas Julien,) a French lawyer 
 and comic writer, born in Paris in 1758 ; died in 1798. 
 
 Forget, fon'zhA', (Pierre,) Sieur de Beauvais et de la 
 Picardiere, a French poet and diplomatist ; died in 1638. 
 
 Forget, (Pierre,) Sieur de Fresnes, a French states- 
 man, was made secretary of state in 1589, and was em- 
 ployed by Henry IV. after that date. He drew up the 
 famou« edict of Nantes, (which granted to the Protest- 
 ants the free exercise of their religion,) and acted as 
 counsellor in the Treasury office. Died in 1610. 
 
 Forgues, foRg, (Emii.k Daman — do'rfiN',) a French 
 littiraienr who has written in several journals under the 
 name of "O'.l Nick." Among his works is "The Minor 
 
 Miseries of Human Life," (1841.) He translated " Uncle 
 Tom's Cabin" into French. 
 
 Forkel, fon'kel, (Johann Nikolaus,) a German com- 
 poser and writer on music, born at Meeder, near Coburg, 
 in 1749. He graduated at the University of Gottingen, 
 and became director of music in that institution about 
 1778. He published, besides other works, a " General 
 History of Music," (2 vols., 1788-1801, unfinished,) 
 "General Literature of Music," (1792,) and a "Life of 
 Sebastian Bach," (1803.) The first-named is a work 
 of great erudition and research. He died at Gottingen 
 in 1818. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universale des Musiciens." 
 
 Forlenze, foR-len'za, (Giuseppe Niccol6 Blasio,) a 
 Neapolitan surgeon and skilful oculist, born at Picemo 
 in 1769. He practised in Paris, where he was appointed 
 oculist to the Hotel-Dieu and the Hotel des Invalides. 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 Forli, foR-lee', (Jacopo della Torre— del'la tor'ra,) 
 (better known as Jacopo Forli,) an eminent Italian 
 physician, born at Fori) about 1350, was professor of 
 medicine at Bologna and Padua. His medical writings 
 were once in great vogue. Died in 1414. 
 
 Forli, da, da foR-lee', (Ansovino,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Forli, lived about 1500. 
 
 Forli, da, (Melozzo.) See Mei.ozzo da Forli. 
 
 Formaleoni, foR-ma-la-o'nee, (Vincenzo,) an Italian 
 historical writer, bom at Venice in 1752. He wrote two 
 important works, entitled "Essay on the Ancient Navi- 
 gation of the Venetians," ("Saggio sulla Nautica dei 
 Veneziani,") and a " Philosophical History of the Navi- 
 gation of the Black Sea," (2 vols., 1788;) also several 
 tragedies. Died in 1797. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 For'man, (Simon,) a notorious English astiologer 
 and physician, born near Wilton in 1552, studied at Ox- 
 ford. He practised medicine and fortune-telling in Lon- 
 don with success, and wrote on magic. Died in 161 1. 
 
 See Wood, "Atliense Oxonienses." 
 
 Formey, foR'mT, (Johann Heinrich Samuel,) a 
 learned German writer, of French extraction, bon at 
 Berlin in 1711. He was appointed in 1748 peipetual 
 secretary of the Academy of Sciences, on the members 
 of which he wrote many eulogies. He made valuable 
 contributions to the "New German Library," ("Nou- 
 velle Bibliotheque Germanique,") and was the author of 
 several theological and philosophical treatises, among 
 which was a " Compendium of the Philosophy of Wolff," 
 in French, (6 vols., 1741-53.) Died in 1797. 
 
 See J. H. S. Formey, " Souvenirs d'un Citoyen," 2 vols., 1789. 
 
 Formey, (Johann Ludwig,) a Prussian physician, 
 son of the preceding, was born in Berlin in 1.766. He 
 became in 1796 physician to Frederick William II. lie 
 wrote, besides other works, one "On the Actual State 
 of Medicine," (1809.) Died in 1823. 
 
 Formi, foR'nie', (Pierre,) a French physician, born 
 at Nimes, accompanied Gustavus Adolphus in his jour- 
 ney in France in 1631, and wrote verses in his honour. 
 Died in 1679. 
 
 Formose. See Formosus. 
 
 For-mo'sus, [Fr. Formose, foR'moz',] elected pope 
 in 891 a.d. as successor to Stephen V., had previously 
 been Bishop of Porto. He crowned Arnulph of Ger- 
 many as Emperor or King of Italy in 895. He is said 
 to have been the first pope who was transferred from 
 another see to that of Rome. Died in 896. 
 
 Fornarina, La, la foR-na-ree'na, the name of a beau- 
 tiful Roman maiden, whom Raphael admired or loved, 
 and in whose form he found the model of his ideal 
 figures. He painted her in the "Transfiguration," in the 
 fresco of " Parnassus," and in other compositions. 
 
 Fornaris, fou-na'ress, (Fahricio,) an Italian comic 
 author, born at Naples, lived about 1600. He wrote 
 " Angelica," from which Moliere borrqwed some parts 
 of his "Etourdi." 
 
 Forner, for-naiR', (Juan Pablo,) a Spanish authoi 
 and critic, born at Merida in 1756. He endeavoured to 
 reform the style of Spanish literature by satirical criti- 
 cisms against prevalent affectation. Among his works is 
 an "Apology for Spain and her Literary Merit," (1786.) 
 Died at Seville in 1797. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
FORNER 
 
 94' 
 
 F0RS7 J ER 
 
 Porner, (Don Pablo,) a Spanish lawyer and poet, 
 bom at Palma, in the island of Majorca, in 1750, prac- 
 tised law in Madrid, and obtained the office of attorney- 
 general. He gained distinction bv his eloquence and 
 poetical talent. Besides odes and short poems, he wrote 
 a successful comedy, called the " Enamoured Philoso- 
 pher," ("Filosofo enamorado," 1798.) Died in 1799. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Fomerod, foRn'rod', (CONSTANT,) a Swiss statesman, 
 born in the Canton de Vaud in 1820. He studied law, 
 became a leader of the Liberal party, and gained distinc- 
 tion as an orator. He was chosen president of the coun- 
 cil of state in 185s, and president of the federal council 
 {i.e. the highest officer in the republic) in 1857, and was 
 again elected to the same office in 1S67. 
 
 For'ney, fJOHN W.,) an American politician and 
 journalist, born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1817. He 
 began to edit a newspaper at Lancaster about 1838, and 
 was originally a Democrat. In 1845 he removed to Phila- 
 delphia, where he became editor of the " Pennsylvanian," 
 a daily journal, which was for many years the chief organ 
 of the Democratic party in Pennsylvania. He was clerk 
 of the national House of Representatives, 1852-55. He 
 supported James Buchanan for the Presidency in 1856. 
 In August, 1857, he established "The Press" in Phila- 
 delphia, which became an organ of the Douglas De- 
 mocracy. He was chosen clerk of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives in December, 1859. About the end of i860 
 he left the Democratic party and joined the Republicans. 
 He became secretary of the Senate of the United States 
 in 1861, and held that office until 1868. 
 
 For'rest, (Edwin,) a popular American actor, born 
 in Philadelphia in 1806. He performed the roles of 
 Othello, Macbeth, Richard III., Spartacus, etc. with great 
 applause. He visited England several times between 
 1S34 and 1844. Mr. Forrest has been one of the most 
 successful of American actors. 
 
 For'rest, (Thomas,) a British navigator, was a captain 
 in the service of the East India Company. He was 
 author of two valuable works, viz., " A Voyage to New 
 Guinea and the Moluccas," (made in 1774-76,) and a 
 "Voyage from Calcutta to the Mergui Archipelago," 
 (1792.) 
 
 For'res-ter, (Alfred Henry,) an English artist and 
 comic writer, was born in London in 1806. About 1828 
 he co-operated with Hook and others in the production 
 of the " Humourist Papers" in " Colbum's Magazine," 
 writing under the name of "Alfred Crowquill." He 
 was the first illustrator of " Punch." He has published 
 "Comic Arithmetic," "Railway Raillery," etc. 
 
 Forsell, Af, af foR's?l, (Carl,) a Swedish statistician, 
 distinguished for his philanthropy, was born at Skottorp 
 in March, 1783. He attended Bernadotte as adjutant 
 in the war in Germany in 1813, after which he was a 
 member of the Diet of Sweden. About 1820 he applied 
 steam-power to the navigation of Swedish waters. He 
 was made director-general of the department for the sur- 
 vey of land in 1824, and published an important work, 
 entitled "Statistics of Sweden," (1834.) Died in 1848. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- I.exikon." 
 
 Forseti, for-seVe, written also Forsete, [equivalent 
 to the Latin Prases, "seated before," and hence "pre- 
 siding," or " president,"] in the Norse mythology, the 
 god who presides over justice and settles quarrels. He 
 is regarded as the son of Balder, (/>. of spotless inno- 
 cence.) His dwelling is called Glitnir, (the "shining,") 
 because full light is necessary for the operations of justice. 
 
 See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Keyser, " Re- 
 ligion of the Northmen." 
 
 For'shall, (Rev. Josiah,) an English biblical critic, 
 born about 1795. He was secretary of the British Mu- 
 seum from 1828 to 1851. Died in 1863. 
 
 Forskal, foR'sk61, written also Forskahl and For- 
 skael, (Pehr,) a Swedish naturalist, born at Kalmar in 
 1736. Being well versed in Oriental languages and natural 
 sciences, he was recommended by Linnaeus to the King 
 of Denmark, who chose him in 1761 to accompany Nie- 
 buhr and others in a scientific expedition to Egypt and 
 Arabia. While engaged in this enterprise, he died at 
 Yerim, (Jerim,) in Arabia, in July, 1763. The results 
 of his labours, edited and published by Niebuhr, are a 
 
 "Fauna Orientalis," (1775,) and a "Flora /Egyptiaco- 
 Arabica," (1775,) which acquired for him a high repu- 
 tation as a naturalist. " Forskal is one of my best 
 disciples," said Linnaeus: "he excels in the knowledge 
 of insects, and is but little in(erior in other branches of 
 natural history." 
 
 See ErsCh und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyclopaedic" 
 
 Forster, foRs'ter, (Ernst Joachim,) a German painter 
 and writer on art, born near Munich in 1800, executed 
 a number of frescos in the Glyptothek and Arcade at 
 Munich. Among his publications may lie named his 
 "History of German Art," (3 vols., 1851,) and "Truth 
 from Jean Paul's Life," (" Wahrheit aus Jean Paul's 
 Leben," 8 vols., 1827-334) He edited the last five vol- 
 umes of the latter. 
 
 Fors'ter, [Fr. pron. foRs'taiR',] (Francois,) a Swiss 
 engraver on copper, born at Locle in 1 790. He became 
 a citizen of Paris, where he gained the first grand prize 
 in 1814, after which he went to Rome. He engraved in 
 Paris many plates for the Musee Napoleon and Musee 
 Royal, and was elected to the Institute in 1844. Among 
 his best works are the "Vierge de la Legende," and 
 "The Three Graces," both after Raphael, and a portrait 
 of Raphael by himself. 
 
 See " Journal des Beaux- Arts" for October 10, 1842. 
 
 Fors'ter, (Frank,) an English civil engineer, born ai 
 or near Newcastle about 1800. He was employed by 
 Robert Stephenson on the London and Birmingham 
 Railway, and afterwards became chief enginee» of the 
 metropolitan sewers. He had resigned this office a few 
 weeks when he died, in 1852. 
 
 Forster, (Friedrich,) a German litterateur, brother 
 of Ernst Joachim, noticed above, was born in 1792, and 
 became a resident of Berlin. His works include lyric 
 poems, romances, and biographical and historical treat- 
 ises, among which are "Albrecht von Wallenstein," 
 (1834,) "Prussian Heroes," (4th edition, 1855,) and 
 "Modern History of Prussia," (1st vol., 1850.) 
 
 Fors'ter, (Froben,) a German philosopher and monk, 
 born at Konigsfeld in 1709 ; died in 1791. He published 
 several works on philosophy. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allsemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Forster, (George,) an English traveller, was an em- 
 ployee in the civil service of the East India Company. 
 He performed in 1783-84 a perilous journey alone from 
 India to Europe through Cashmere, Cabool, Candahar, 
 and Herat, and published an interesting narrative, en- 
 titled "Journey from Bengal to England," etc., (2 vols., 
 1790-98.) He was afterwards envoy to the court of Nag- 
 pore, in the Deccan, where he died in 1792. 
 
 Forster, (Johann,) a learned German divine, born at 
 Augsburg in 1495, was,a favourite disciple of Melanch- 
 thon. He filled the chair of Hebrew at Wittenberg for 
 many years with distinction, and published an esteemed 
 Hebrew Dictionary, (1552.) Died in 1556. 
 
 Forster, (Johann,) a German theologian, born in 
 the Palatinate in 1576; died in 1613. 
 
 Forster, (Johann GEORG,)son of the celebrated natu- 
 ralist noticed below, was born near Dantzic in 1754. 
 He accompanied his father on his various expeditions, 
 and in 1777 published a work entitled "A Voyage 
 around the World in 1772, 1773, 1775." He became 
 professor of natural history at Wilna in 1784, and soon 
 after married Theresa, daughter of the philologist Heyne. 
 Among his principal works are his "History and De- 
 scription of the Iiread-Fruit," (1784,) "Views of the 
 Lower Rhine, Brabant, Flanders, etc.," (3 vols., 1791,) 
 etc. Forster is ranked among the classic prose writers 
 of Germany. Died in Paris in 1794. He was a friend of 
 Alexander von Humboldt. A collection of his Letters 
 was published by his widow, (2 vols., 1828.) 
 
 See Moi.eschott, "Georg Forster der Naturforscherdes Volks," 
 1854; Grrvinus, "J. G. Forster," 1S43; Ersch und Gruber, "All- 
 gemeine Encyklopaedie ;" " Westminster Review" for Oclober, 1856. 
 
 Forster, (Johann Reinhold,) a celebrated German 
 traveller, and one of the first naturalists of his time, born 
 near Dantzic, October 22, 1729. In 1765 he was com- 
 missioned by the Russian government to visit the colo- 
 nies in Asiatic Russia, of which he gave an accurate 
 account on his return. Having spent several years In 
 England as a teacher, he accompanied Captain Cook in 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,giittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (23p""See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FORSTER 
 
 942 
 
 FORTEGUERRI 
 
 1772 on his second voyage to the South Sea; but, being 
 prohibited from giving a narrative of this voyage, it was 
 published in 1777 by his son, who took part in the expe- 
 dition. After his return to Germany, Forster became pro- 
 fessor of natural history at Halle in 1780. Among his 
 works, which display profound learning, may be named 
 "On the Linen of the Ancients," (" Ue Bysso Antiquo- 
 rum,") "Observations made during a Voyage round the 
 World on Physical Geography, Natural History, and 
 Ethic Philosophy," (1778,) and" Zoologia Indica," (1781.) 
 Forster possessed a very retentive memory, and spoke 
 and wrote seventeen languages. He was hasty in his 
 temper and unpolished in his manners. It is related that 
 on being presented to Frederick the Great he said, " I 
 have seen seven kings, four wilcl and three tame ones, but 
 none to be compared to your majesty." Died in 1798. 
 
 See J. G. Forster. "Voyage round the World in the Resolution, 
 etc.;" Krsch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fors'ter, (John,) of the Inner Temple, an eloquent 
 English author and editor, born at Newcastle in 1812. 
 He was educated in the London University, studied law, 
 and was called to the bar. About 1834 he began to write 
 for "The Examiner," (see Fonblanque, Albany,) of 
 which he has been chief editor since 1846. He published 
 in 1840 " Lives of the Statesmen of the Commonwealth," 
 (7 vols.,) which has obtained much popularity. " We 
 regard these biographies," says the "London Morning 
 Chronicle," "as additions of the very highest value to 
 what w£ may term our political literature." His " Life 
 and Adventures of Oliver Goldsmith" (1848) is greatly 
 admired. " It is executed," says Irving, " with a spirit, a 
 feeling, a grace, and an elegance that leave nothing to 
 be desired." He was appointed secretary to the com- 
 missioners in lunacy in 1856. He also published " His- 
 torical and Biographical Essays," (2 vols., 1858,) many 
 of which first appeared in the Edinburgh and Quarterly 
 Reviews, " Life of Sir John Eliot," (1864,) and " Walter 
 Sivage Landor : a Biography," (2 vols., 1869.) 
 
 Forster or Foerster, (Karl,) a German scholar, 
 born at Naumburg in 1784, published translations of 
 Dante's " Vita Nuova" and Tasso's " Select Lyrics," and 
 finished in 1838 the " Library of German Poets of the 
 Seventeenth Century," begun by Miiller. Died in 1841. 
 
 See L. F5rster, " Biographische und literarische Skizzen." 
 
 Forster, (Nathanif.l,) a learned English divine, born 
 at Stadscombe, in Devonshire, in 171 7, became preben- 
 dary of Bristol and vicar of Rochdale in 1754. He 
 edited Plato's "Dialogues," (1745,) and wrote an essay 
 "On the Antiquity of Government, Arts, etc. in Egypt," 
 (1743,) besides other works. Died in 1757. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica," 
 
 Forster, (Thomas Ignatius Maria,) a naturalist 
 and meteorologist, born in London in 1789. He pub- 
 lished a "Natural History of the Swallow," (1808; 6th 
 edition, 1817,) edited Catullus in 1816, and wrote essays 
 on meteorology for "The Philosophic Magazine." He 
 discovered a comet in 1819. Among his various works 
 is a " Perpetual Calendar, illustrating the Events of every 
 Day in the Year," etc., (1824.) Died about 1850. 
 
 Forster, (Valentin,) a German jurist, born at Wit- 
 tenberg in 1530. Among his works is " Historia Juris 
 civilis Romani," (1565.) Died in 1608. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Forster, (William,) an English philanthropist, born 
 at Tottenham, near London, in 1784. He became a 
 minister of the Society of Friends in 1803, and married 
 Anna, a sister of Thomas Fowell Buxton, in 18 16. In 
 1820 lie visited the United States. He settled near Nor- 
 wich in 1838. In 1844-45 he laboured as a minister of 
 the gospel in France. He took active measures to re- 
 lieve the people of Ireland during the famine of 1846, 
 and visited various parts of the island for this purpose. 
 In 1849 he was commissioned by the Yearly Meeting of 
 London to present an address on slavery and the slave- 
 trade to the sovereigns and rulers of Christendom. After 
 he had ibtained interviews with many European mon- 
 archs, he proceeded to the United States in 1853, and 
 presented the address to the President and also to the 
 Governors of several Southern States. His mission was 
 nearly fulfilled, when he died on the Holston River, in 
 
 Blount county, Tennessee, in 1854. He left one son, 
 William E., noticed below. 
 
 See " Memoirs of William Forster," edited by B. Skebohm, 1865. 
 
 Forster, (William E.,.) an English Liberal statesman 
 and orator, a son of the preceding, and nephew of T. 
 Fowell Buxton, was born in 1818. He married Jane, 
 daughter of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He was elected to 
 Parliament for Bradford in 1861. About February, 1866, 
 he became a member of the Russell ministry, and under- 
 secretary for the colonies. He retired from office in July, 
 1866. He was appointed vice-president of the council in 
 December, 1868, and afterwards became a cabinet minis- 
 ter. He was the author of the important Education Bill 
 which was passed in 1870. " He stands," says the " Spec- 
 tator" for January 21, 1871, "in the first rank of English 
 statesmen. There is no man in the cabinet so likely, if 
 he lives, to become prime minister as Mr. Forster." 
 
 Forstner, foRst'ner, (Christoph,) a German diplo- 
 matist, born in 1598; died in 1667. 
 
 Forsyth, for-sith', (John,) an American statesman, 
 was born in Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 1780. After 
 graduating at Princeton, he removed to Augusta, Geor- 
 gia, where he studied law. He served with distinction as 
 a member of Congress many years between 1813 and 
 1827, also as United States Senator from Georgia in 1818 
 and 1819. From 1819 to 1822 he was employed on a 
 mission to Spain. He was elected Governor of the 
 State in 1827, and was chosen Senator for a second term, 
 commencing in 1829. He was secretary of state in the 
 cabinet of General Jackson from 1834 to 1837, and also 
 in that of Van Buren, from 1S37 to 1841. Died in 1841. 
 
 Forsyth, for-sith', (Joseph,) born at Elgin, in Scot- 
 land, in 1763, was a classical teacher near London. While 
 making a tour on the continent, he was detained a pris- 
 oner by the French for several years. He published 
 interesting " Remarks on Antiquities, Arts, and Letters 
 during an Excursion in Italy." Died in 1815. Lord 
 Byron called him " an accomplished traveller, of extraor- 
 dinary capacity, extensive erudition, and refined taste." 
 
 Forsyth, (William,) born in Scotland in 1737, was 
 appointed in 1784 superintendent of the Royal Gardens 
 at Kensington, and wrote a work on the "Culture and 
 Management of Fruit-Trees," (1802.) Died in 1804. 
 
 Forsyth, (William,) a British barrister, born about 
 1812, published a "Dictionary of the Statute Laws of 
 Scotland," (1842,) a " History of the Trial by Jury," 
 (1S52,) and other legal works ; also an interesting "Life 
 of Cicero," (2 vols., 1864.) 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1864; "London Quarterly 
 Review" for January, 1864. < 
 
 Fort, Le. See Lefort. 
 
 Forteguerri, fou-ta-gwer'ree, or Fortiguerra, foR-te- 
 gwer'ra, (Niccol6,) an Italian poet and priest, born at 
 Pistoia in 1674. He became a resident of Rome, where 
 he obtained the offices of chamberlain to the pope and 
 prelate-referendary. In 1715 he was spending the au- 
 tumn in the country, where he amused his friends by 
 reading the verses of Berni, of Pulci, and of Ariosto. One 
 of the company expressed his admiration at the art with 
 which these poets had overcome the difficulties of the 
 octave rhyme. Forteguerri maintained that the diffi- 
 culty was imaginary, and engaged to produce on the 
 ensuing evening the first canto of a poem which should 
 imitate them all. He fulfilled his promise with such 
 success that his friends persuaded him to continue the 
 story. Such was the origin of the amusing and popular 
 poem of "Ricciardetto," (1738,) in which the exuber- 
 ance and extravagance of the author's fancy are equal 
 to the facility, elegance, and freedom of his style. He. 
 also made an Italian version of Terence in blank verse. 
 Died in 1735. 
 
 See TlPAl.no, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" Sebastiano 
 Ciampi, "Memoriedi N. Forteguerri," 1813; "Narrative and Ro- 
 mantic Poetry of the Italians," in the "London Quarterly Review" 
 for April, 1819; and "Italian Narrative Poetry," in the "North 
 American Review" for October, 1S24. (by W. H. Prescott.) 
 
 Forteguerri or Fortiguerra, (SciriONE,) called also 
 Carteromaco, an Italian scholar, born at Pistoia in 
 1466. When Aldus Manutius instituted his Academy at 
 Venice, (the chief object of which was to perfect editions 
 of classic authors,) about 1495, he chose Forteguerri as 
 secretary of this institution. Here he wrote his famous 
 
 S, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6; u, 5?, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
FORTES CUE 
 
 943 
 
 FOSCARINI 
 
 discourse in praise of Greek learning, " Oratio de Laudi- 
 bus Literarum Gnecarum," (1504,) and was appointed 
 professor of Greek about 1500. Died in 1 51 5. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" S. Ciampi, 
 "Mcmorie di S. Carteroinaco," iSii. 
 
 For'tes-cue, (Chichester Samuel Parkinson,) an 
 English statesman, born in 1823, was educated at Ox- 
 ford, where he graduated in 1844. He was under-secretary 
 of state for the colonies from 1859 to 1865, and was chief 
 secretary for Ireland from November, 1865, to June, 1S66. 
 In December, 1868, he was reappointed to that office by- 
 Mr. Gladstone. 
 
 Fortescue, (Sir John,) an eminent English lawyer, 
 was the son of Sir Henry Fortescue. The date and 
 place of his birth are unknown. He was made lord 
 chief justice in 1442, and grand chancellor in the reign of 
 Henry VI., whose adverse fortunes he shared in the war 
 of the Roses. He wrote, in Latin, a work " On the Praises 
 of British Laws," ("De Laudibus Legum Angliae,") 
 which is highly esteemed. Fuller, in his "Worthies," 
 says, "His learned 'Commentaries on the Law' make 
 him famous to all posterity." He died, it is supposed, 
 about 1485. 
 
 See Bridgman, "Legal Biography;" Lord Campbell, "Lives 
 of the Lord Chancellors ;" Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. iv. 
 
 For'tes-cue-A'land, (Sir John,) first Baron For- 
 tescue, an English judge and writer, a descendant of 
 the preceding, was born in 1670. He was appointed a 
 judge of the king's bench in 1718, and gained distinction 
 by his literary merits. A collection of his reports was 
 published in 1748. Died in 1746. 
 
 See Foss, " The Judges of England," vol. viii. 
 
 Forti. See Fortis. 
 
 Fortia, foR'tej^', (Agricoi.e Joseph Franqots Xa- 
 vier Pierre Esprit Simon Paul Antoine,) Marquis of 
 Fortia-d' Urban, a French savant and writer, was born at 
 Avignon in 1756. He wrote many and various works, 
 among which are " Melanges of Geography and History," 
 (1795,) a " Life of Petrarch," (1804,) " Historical View'of 
 the World from its Origin to the Age of Alexander," 
 (4 vols., 1810,) and an " Essay on the Origin of Writing," 
 (1832.) Died in 1843. 
 
 See Ripert-Montclar, " Essai sur la Vie, etc. de Fortia-d'Ur- 
 ban," 1S40. 
 
 Fortin, foR'taN', (Augustin F£lix,) a French sculp- 
 tor, born about 1 760; died in 1832. 
 
 Fortis, foR'tess, or Forti, foR'tee, (Giovanni Battis- 
 ta,) Ahiiate, an Italian writer, sometimes called Albert, 
 born at Padua or Vicenza in 1741. He was noted for 
 versatility of talent, and was by turns poet, naturalist, 
 journalist, and biographer. He is chiefly remembered 
 for his "Travels in Dalmatia," (1774.) Died in 1803. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Fortoul, foR'tool', (Hippolyte Nicolas Honore,) 
 a French writer and minister of state, born at Digne 
 (Basses- Alpes) in 181 1. In early life he professed re- 
 publican principles, and gained literary distinction by 
 writing for the " Revue de Paris" and other periodicals. 
 He wrote, besides other works, "The Grandeur of Pri- 
 vate Life," (1838,) a novel. He obtained the chair of 
 literature in the University of Toulouse about 1840, and 
 was chosen a" member of the French Institute in 1854. 
 Soon after the revolution of 1848 he was elected to the 
 National Assembly, and in December, 1851, was ap- 
 pointed by Louis Napoleon minister of public instruc- 
 tion. He adopted an important innovation in education, 
 called the system of bifurcation, by which sciences and 
 belles-lettres were separated. Died in 1856. 
 
 See Louandre et Bourqup.i.ot, " La LitteYature Francaise con- 
 temporaine ;" F. Lacointa, "Notice sur M. H. Fortoul," 1853; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 For-tu'na, [Fr. Fortune, foR'tiin',] the Roman name 
 of the goddess of chance, fortune, and good luck, called 
 Tvxv bv the Greeks. Several temples of Fortune were 
 erected at Rome and other cities of Italy. 
 
 Fortunat. See Foktunatus. 
 
 For-tu-na'tus, [Fr. Fortunat, foR'tu'nS',1 < Vk " 
 nan'tius Huxu'rii s Clemen tia'nus,) Saint, a Latin 
 poet, born at Ceneda in 530 A.D., became Bishop of 
 Poitiers. 
 
 Fortune. See Fortuna. 
 
 For'tune, (Robert,) a British traveller and horticul- 
 turist, born at Berwick in 1813. He went to China ia 
 1843 to collect botanical specimens for the London Hor- 
 ticultural Society. Having returned in 1846, he published 
 "Three Years' Wanderings in the Northern Provinces 
 of China." In 1848 he again visited China, to procure 
 tea-plants for the East India Directors. The narratives 
 of his various journeys were published together in 1853, 
 under the title of " Two Visits to the Tea Countries of 
 China, etc., with a Description of the Culture of the 
 Tea-Plant and the Botany of China." He afterwards 
 produced a " Residence among the Chinese : a Narra- 
 tive of a Third Visit to China from 1853 to 1856," (1857.) 
 " The value and interest of these books are very great." 
 ("London Quarterly Review," article on "Fortune and 
 Hue," July, 1857; see, also, "Edinburgh Review" for 
 October, 1848.) 
 
 For'ward, (Walter,) an American lawyer, born in 
 Connecticut in 1786, removed in 1803 to Pittsburg, where 
 he practised law with success. He was a member of 
 Congress from 1822 to 1825, and in September, 1841, was 
 appointed secretary of the treasury by President Tyler. 
 Died in 1852. 
 
 Forzate, foRd-za'ti, or Forzati, foRd-za'tee, (Ci.AU- 
 DIO,) an Italian poet, born at Padua, lived about 1 560- 
 90. He wrote "Recinda," a tragedy. 
 
 Fosbroke, fos'brobk, or Fosbrooke, (Thomas 
 Dudley,) an English antiquary and clergyman, born in 
 London in 1770, obtained the living of Walford. He 
 wrote, among other learned works, " British Monachism," 
 (1802,) and an " Encyclopaedia of Antiquities and Ele- 
 ments of Archaeology," (2 vols., 1823-25.) Died in 1842. 
 
 Foscarari, fos-ka-ra'ree, (Egidio,) an Italian "eccle- 
 siastic, born at Bologna in 1512, became Bishop of 
 Modena in 1550. He was one of three members of 
 the Council of Trent appointed to compile a catechism 
 about 1 56 1. Died in 1564. 
 
 Foscari, fos'ka-ree, (Francesco,) a celebrated doge 
 of Venice, was born about 1372, and elected doge in 
 1423. He waged war for many years against the Duke 
 of Milan and other Italian princes. The Venetians, 
 though sometimes defeated, obtained possession of the 
 provinces of Crema, Bergamo, and Brescia. " The am- 
 bition of Foscari," says Sismondi, "was advantageous 
 to the republic, but fatal to his own happiness." His 
 old age was rendered unhappy by the ruin of his son, 
 unjustly condemned and tortured by the Council of Ten. 
 He was deposed in 1457, and died about three days after 
 that event. The sufferings of this doge and of his son 
 form the subject of Byron's tragedy entitled "The Two 
 Foscari." 
 
 See Daru, "Histoire de Venise ;" Marino Sanuto, "Vite de' 
 Duchi di Venezia;" Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques lla- 
 liennes." 
 
 Foscarini, fos-ka-ree'nee, (Marco,) an eminent Ital- 
 ian statesman and author, bom in Venice about 1696. 
 After having gained distinction by his learning, talents, 
 and eloquence, he was chosen procurator of Saint Mark, 
 and employed successively in diplomatic missions to 
 various courts of Europe. Before he departed on his 
 first embassy, he had been selected by the Council of 
 Ten to write a continuation of Venetian history. As 
 this could not be performed without the examination of 
 the archives of Venice, he undertook instead another 
 national work, a " History of Venetian Literature." Of 
 this he published in 1752 the first volume, "Della Let- 
 teratura Veneziana," which contains critical dissertations 
 on the rise and progress of law, history, astronomy, and 
 other sciences in Venice, and was highly appreciated. 
 The pressure of various public duties prevented him 
 from writing the second part of his projected work. In 
 1762 he was elected doge. Died in March, 1763. 
 
 See Daru, "Histoire de Venise;" Tipaldo, "Biografia degli 
 Italiani illustri;" L. Arnaldi, " Oraiione in Onore del Doge M. 
 Foscarini," 1765. 
 
 Foscarini, (Michele,) a Venetian senator and histo- 
 riographer, eminent for talents and eloquence, was born 
 in 1632. The Council of Ten in 1678 selected him to con- 
 tinue the history of Venice, begun by Cardinal Bembo. 
 He had composed seven books when his death occurred, 
 
 ^asAS-cas-f/g/iaraVgasy/u, h, K.,guttural; K.wtsai; R, trille d; s as *; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FOSCHINI 
 
 944 
 
 FOSTER 
 
 in 1692. This work is esteemed authentic, being derived 
 from the archives of the republic. 
 
 See Nickron, "MiSmoires." 
 
 Poschini, fos-kee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian archi- 
 tect, born about 1740, erected at Ferrara a number of 
 buildings, the most remarkable of which was the theatre, 
 considered one of the finest in Italy. Died about 1802. 
 
 Fosco, fos'ko, [Lat. Fus'cus.f (Placido,) a skilful 
 Italian physician, born in 1509; died in 1574. 
 
 Foscolo, fos'ko-1o, (Ugo,) an eloquent Italian poet 
 and prose writer, born at Zante or at sea near Zante 
 about 1776, was educated in Italy. In the political move- 
 ments which followed the French Revolution he took a 
 conspicuous part as a friend of national independence. 
 About 1800 he produced a political romance, entitled 
 "Letters of Jacopo Ortis," ("Lettere di Jacopo Ortis,") 
 which had immense popularity. He was an officer in 
 the army which Napoleon assembled for the invasion of 
 England in 1805, but did not remain long in the service. 
 He is praised for the lofty spirit of independence which 
 refused to join in the general homage or adulation to 
 Napoleon in Italy. His admirable lyric poem "The 
 Monuments" ("I Sepolcri," 1807) is called his capital 
 work. He was professor of eloquence at Pavia for a 
 short time in 180S, and emigrated to England in 1816. 
 He lectured on Italian literature in London in 1823. 
 Among his works are " Ricciarda," a tragedy; an able 
 "Discourse on the Text of Dante," (1826;) and an 
 "Fssay on Petrarch." Died near London in 1827. 
 
 See "Vita di Ugo Foscolo, scritta da G. Pecchio," 1830; G. 
 Oaj-effi, "Cenni sulla Vita, il Carattere, etc. di Ugo Foscolo," 
 1835: Maffri, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana, Secolo XIX.;" 
 I.uigi Carrer, "Vita di Ugo Foscolo," Venice, 1842; Longfel- 
 low, ".Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Nouvelie Biographie Gene- 
 rate ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1832. 
 
 Fo3s, (Edward,) an English lawyer and writer of 
 biography, born about 1788, published "The Grandeur 
 of the Law, or the Legal Peers of England," (1843,) also 
 a highly esteemed work on legal history, entitled " The 
 J-idges of England," (9 vols., 1848-64.) 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1866. 
 
 Fossati, fos-sa'tee, (Davide Antonio,) an Italian 
 painter and engraver, brother of Giorgio, noticed below, 
 was born about 1714. He worked in Venice, where he 
 painted frescos in the Contarini palace. He etched " The 
 Family of Darius with Alexander," after Paul Veronese, 
 and many views of Venice. Died about 1780. 
 
 See Ttcozzi, " Dizionario." 
 
 Fossati, (Domenico,) an eminent Italian scene- 
 painter, born in Venice in 1743, was the son of Giorgio, 
 noticod below. He was employed in decorating theatres 
 and palaces in Venice and Milan. He was killed by a 
 fall in 1784. 
 
 Fossati, (Giorgio,) an Italian architect and engraver, 
 born at Morco, near Lugano, about 1705, engraved plates 
 for the works of Palladio. 
 
 Fossati, (Giovanni Antonio Lorenzo,) an Italian 
 writer on medicine and phrenology, was born at Novara 
 in 1786. He became a resident of Paris about 1824. 
 Among his works is a " Manual of Phrenology, or Phy- 
 siology of the Brain," (1845.) 
 
 See " Nouvelie Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Fossati, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian historian, 
 born at Milan ; died in 1653. 
 
 Fosse. See Lafosse. 
 
 Fosse, du, dii fo'si', (Pierre Thomas,) a learned 
 French writer, born at Rouen in 1634. He became at 
 an early age one of the recluses of Port-Royal, learned 
 Hebrew and other languages, and acquired a high repu- 
 tation for virtue and erudition. He published, besides 
 other biographies, a " Life of Thomas a Becket," (1674,) 
 and a " History of Tertullian and Origen," (1675,) both 
 in French. Died in 1698. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historiqtte :" Sainte-Beuve, "His- 
 toire de Port-Royal ;" " Memoires de P. Thomas Seigneur du Fosse," 
 •739- 
 
 Fossombroni, fos-som-bRo'nee, (Vittorio,) an emi- 
 nent Italian statesman and writer, born at Arezzo, in 
 Tuscany, in 1754, excelled in mathematics and philoso- 
 phy. In 1796 he became minister of foreign affairs of 
 the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and he held several offices 
 
 under the new government which Bonaparte established 
 in 1799. After the restoration of the grand duke (1814) 
 Fossombroni was again appointed minister of foreign 
 affairs, and councillor of state. He published, in the 
 course of his long life, many treatises on hydraulics and 
 mathematics. Died in 1844. 
 
 See Saint-Maurice Cabanv, "Le Corate V. Fossombroni," 
 Paris, 1845. 
 
 Fos'ter, (Birket,) a skilful English engraver on 
 wood, born at North Shields about 1825. He has illus- 
 trated the works of several English poets with wood-cuts. 
 He published "Christmas with the Poets," (1850,) and 
 "Cowper's Task, with Illustrations," (1855,) "which," 
 says the "London Quarterly Review," "is one of the 
 most beautiful gift-books that has ever appeared." He 
 has also illustrated several other works. 
 
 Foster, (Henry,) an English navigator, born in Lan- 
 cashire in 1797. Under the auspices of the Royal So- 
 ciety, he was selected to command an expedition sent in 
 1828 to make observations in the Antarctic Ocean. In 
 January, 1829, he had reached a portion of land in 63 
 26' south latitude, which was within the circle of per- 
 petual congelation. During the homeward voyage he 
 was drowned in the river Cnagres in February, 1831. 
 
 Foster, (James,) a very popular English dissenting 
 minister, born at Exeter in 1697. He began to preach 
 at the Barbican, London, in 1724, and was eminent for 
 eloquence and fervour of spirit. He was an Independent 
 in his youth, and afterwards was baptized by immer- 
 sion. In 1744 he became minister at Pinners' Hall. He 
 published an "Essay on Fundamentals, especially the 
 Trinity," (1720,) several volumes of sermons, and other 
 works. Died in 1753. Foster is the subject of the fol- 
 lowing couplet of Pope : 
 
 " Let modest Foster, if he will, excel 
 Ten metropolitans in preaching well." 
 
 See Pope's "Satires," preface. 
 
 Foster, (John,) an English philologist, born at Wind, 
 sor in 1731. He became master of Eton School in 1765. 
 He has left a memorial of his scholarship and critical 
 sagacity in his " Essay on the Different Nature of Accent 
 and Quantity," (1762 ; 3d edition, 1820.) Died in 1773. 
 
 Foster, (John,) an English essayist and moralist of 
 great merit, born at or near Halifax on the 17th of Sep- 
 tember, 1770. He worked at the trade of a weaver in 
 his youth, and was educated for the ministry at the 
 Baptist College of Bristol, which he entered in 1791. 
 He became a Baptist minister at Chichester about 1797, 
 but did not remain there long. He afterwards preached 
 at Downend, near Bristol, and at Frome for a short 
 time. As a minister he does not appear to have been 
 very popular. He was the principal contributor to the 
 " Eclectic Review," for which he began to write in 1806. 
 His reputation is founded on Essays in a Series of 
 Letters to a Friend, (1805:) I. "On a Man's Writing 
 Memoirs of Himself;" 2. "On Decision of Character;" 
 3. " On the Application of the Epithet Romantic ;" 4. 
 "On some of the Causes by which Evangelical Religion 
 has been rendered unacceptable to Persons of Cultivated 
 Taste." These essays are the productions of a profound 
 and original thinker. His morality is high-toned and his 
 principles are liberal. "I have read with the greatest 
 admiration the Essays of Mr. Foster," says Sir James 
 Mackintosh. " He is one of the most profound and elo- 
 quent writers that England has produced." He married 
 Maria Snooke, of Downend, about 1808, and relinquished 
 the labours of the ministry. The last eighteen years of 
 his life were passed at Stapleton, where he died in Octo- 
 ber, 1843. Among his principal works is an " Essay on 
 the Evils of Popular Ignorance," (1819.) 
 
 See " Life and Correspondence of John Foster," by J. E. Ry- 
 land, with Notices of Mr. Foster as a preacher and companion, by 
 John Sheppard, 2 vols., 1846; De Quincey, " Essays." 
 
 Foster, (John,) an English architect of Liverpool, 
 born about 1786, studied the models of antiquity in 
 Greece. In 1824 he was chosen corporation-architect and 
 surveyor of the city of Liverpool, where he constructed 
 several churches and other public edifices, among which 
 is the custom-house, a sandstone building. It is the 
 largest structure in Liverpool, but has a very heavy 
 and dull appearance. Died in 1846. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ti, J, short; ?, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nflt; good; moon; 
 
FOSTER 
 
 945 
 
 FOUCHER 
 
 Foa'ter, (fi'llN G,)an American general, born in New 
 Hampshire about 1824, graduated at West Point in 1846. 
 He became a captain in i860, and was one of llie garrison 
 of Fort Sumter when it was bombarded in April, 1861. 
 He commanded a brigade under Hurnside at Roanoke 
 Island in February, and at Newbcrn in March, 1862. 
 About August, 1S62, he was appointed a major-general 
 of volunteers, and commander of the department of 
 Virginia and North Carolina. He succeeded General 
 Burnside In East Tennessee in Decemlxir, 1863, and 
 commanded the department of the South in 1864. 
 
 Foster, (Sir Michael,) an English lawyer, born at 
 Marlborough in 1689. In 1745 he was knighted and 
 appointed judge of the court of king's bench. He wrote 
 a " Discourse on the Crown Law," which was much 
 esteemed, Blackstone called him "a very great master 
 of the crown law." Died in 1763. 
 
 See Foss. "Judges of England;" Bridcman, "Legal Biogra- 
 phy;" M. Dodson, " Life of Sir M. Foste"-" 1811. 
 
 Foster, (Randolph S.,) D.D., & Methodist divine 
 and author, president of the Northwestern University at 
 Evanston, Illinois, was born in Williamsburg, Ohio, in 
 1820. His principal works are "Christian Purity," and 
 "Ministry for the Times." 
 
 Foster, (Samuel,) an English mathematician, born in 
 Northamptonshire, was noted as an inventor of mathe- 
 matical instruments. He published a treatise on the 
 "Quadrant," (1624,) and other works. In 1636 he be- 
 came professor of astronomy in Gresham College, Lon- 
 don. Died in 1652. 
 
 Foster, (STEPHEN C.,)an American musical composer 
 and writer of songs, was born in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, 
 in 1S26. He produced many popular songs or ballads, 
 among which are "My Old Kentucky Home," "Susan- 
 nah," "Old Folks at Home," and "Willie, we have 
 missed you." He died in New York in 1864. 
 
 See " Atlantic Monthly" for November, 1867. 
 
 Fotherby, foth'er-bjf, (Martin,) an English theolo- 
 gian, born in Lincolnshire in 1559 ; died in 1619. 
 
 Fotherby, (Robert,) an English navigator, who was 
 sent with Baffin, in 1614, to explore the Northern Ocean. 
 Their progress being arrested by ice about the eightieth 
 degree of latitude, they returned home. 
 
 Fothergill, foth'er-gill, (George,) an English divine, 
 born in Westmoreland in 1705, became Vicar of Bramley 
 in 1 75 1, after having been tutor in Queen's College, 
 Oxford. He published several volumes of approved 
 sermons. Died in 1760. 
 
 Fothergill, (John,) an English physician, highly dis- 
 tinguished for benevolence and professional skill, was 
 born at Carr-End, near Richmond, in Yorkshire, in 
 1712, and was a member of the Society of Friends. After 
 graduating in Edinburgh in 1737, he made the tour of 
 Europe, and settled in London, where he obtained a 
 large practice. Being deeply interested in natural his- 
 tory and rural economy, he laid out at Upton a large 
 garden, in which he collected and acclimated such exotic 
 plants as are useful in medicine and the arts. Dr. Fother- 
 gill wrote numerous treatises on therapeutics, pharmacy, 
 etc. He was a coadjutor of Howard in his efforts to 
 reform the management of prisons. Dr. Franklin once 
 said of him, "I can hardly conceive that a better man 
 ever existed." Died in December, 1780. 
 
 See a Memoir of Dr. Fothergill, prefixed to his works, by John 
 El.l lor, M.D., 1781 ; J. C. I.kttsom, "Account of the Life of John 
 Fothergill ;" W. Hind, "Tribute to the Memory of Dr. John Fother- 
 gill ;" Gilbert Thompson, "Memoirs of the Life of J. Fothergill," 
 1781 
 
 Fothergill, (Samuel,) an eminent and eloquent min- 
 ister of the Society of Friends, a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Carr-End, England, in 1716. Having been 
 converted from a life of dissipation or libertinism about 
 the age of twenty-one, he soon appeared as a minister 
 of the gospel, in the service of which he travelled ex- 
 tensively in Great Britain, Ireland, and North America. 
 He resided in Warrington, and acquired a competence 
 by trade. Many of his letters and some of his sermons 
 have been published. Died in 1773. 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Life of Samuel Fothergill." 
 Fo-Thoo-Chhing or Fo-Thou-Tchhing, fo-t'hoo- 
 ch'hing, a fabulous or semi-fabulous personage, who is 
 
 said to have been born in Hindostan, and to have greatly 
 contributed, by his proficiency in magic or occult science, 
 to the establishment of the religion of Buddha in China, 
 about the year 310 A.n. 
 
 Fouoaud, foo'ko', (Jean,) a French fabulist, born at 
 Limoges in 1747, was a zealous revolutionist about 1790. 
 He imitated or translated into patois the fables of La 
 Fontaine, (1809.) Died in 1818. 
 
 See O. Peconnrt, " Foucnud, sa Politique et ses Fables,"i854. 
 
 Foucauld, foo'ko', (Louis,) Marquis de Lardimalie, 
 born in Petigord, in France, in 1755, was a royalist mem- 
 ber of the States-General in 1789-90. Died in 1805. 
 
 Foucault, foo'ko', (Leon,) a French natural philoso- 
 pher, born in Paris on the 18th of September, 1819. The 
 invention of Daguerre turned his attention to optics, 
 which he studied with great success. He invented in 
 1844 an apparatus by which electric light is used in optical 
 experiments, microscopic researches, &c. He was asso- 
 ciated with M. Fizeau in some improvements in .pho- 
 tography and the theory of light, and proved that the 
 velocity of light is not the same in a vacuum as In the air. 
 His demonstration of the rotary motion of the earth by 
 the pendulum and gyroscope attracted general attention. 
 He became physicien to the Imperial Observatory, (1854,) 
 and was a member of the Institute. About 1855 he ob- 
 tained the Copley medal of the Royal Society for his 
 measurement of the velocity of light. Died in 1868. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge^ie'rale." 
 
 Foucault, (Nicolas Joseph,) a French antiquary 
 and administrator, born in Paris in 1643; died in 1721. 
 
 Fouche, foo'sha', ( Joseph, ) Duke of Otranto, a 
 French Jacobin, born at Nantes in 1763, received a 
 liberal education, and adopted the profession of advocate. 
 As a member of the National Convention, (1792-95,) he 
 acted with the Jacobins, and voted for the death of the 
 king. In 1794 he was chosen president of the Jacobin 
 club, as a reward for his share in the massacre of Lyons, 
 and in the same year, with Tallien and others, he plotted 
 the ruin of Robespierre. He was appointed minister of 
 the general police by the Directory in July, 1799. He 
 filled this office many years, displaying great genius for 
 intrigue and artifice ; and it seems he exerted himself to 
 moderate the violence of party and to repair the evils 
 which he and his accomplices had brought upon France. 
 Under the consulate and the empire he rendered impor- 
 tant services to Bonaparte, who in 1806 gave him the 
 title of Duke of Otranto. On one occasion Napoleon 
 blamed Fouche^ for the cold reception which he met 
 with in Paris. The minister reminded him that he had 
 previously directed that nothing should be done to pro- 
 duce a forced or feigned enthusiasm, and added, "In 
 spite of the fusion of the Gauls with the Franks, we are 
 still the same people, — unable to tolerate either liberty 
 or oppression." Having lost the favour of Napoleon, he 
 was dismissed from the police department in 1810, 
 and appointed governor of Rome. After the return of 
 Napoleon from Elba, Fouche served him as minister of 
 police ; and he was retained in the same office by Louis 
 XVIII. for a short period. He was banished in 1816, 
 and died at Trieste in 1820. 
 
 See " Sketch of the Life of the Duke of Otranto," London, x8i6; 
 A. Serirvs, " Fouche de Nantes, sa Vie privee," etc., 1816 ; " Vie de 
 Fouche," Paris, 1S21 ; " Memniresde la Vie publique de M. Fouche 1 ," 
 1819: " M^moires de FoucheV' 2 vols., 1824, (said to have been 
 written by Alphonse de Beauchamp, though it purports to be an 
 autobiography ;) " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Foucher, foo'sha', (Paul,) a French scholar, born at 
 Tours in 1704. He was admitted into the Academy 
 of Inscriptions in 1753. He left a " Historical Treatise 
 on the Religion of the Persians," and another on the 
 "Religion of the Greeks," which were printed in the 
 Memoirs of the above-named Academy. Died in 1778. 
 
 Foucher, (Simon,) a French philosophical writer, 
 born at Dijon in 1644, became a priest. He was an 
 admirer of the philosophy of Plato, on which he wrote 
 a treatise, entitled " Dissertation stir la Philosophic des 
 Academiciens," (1692.) He also wrote "On the Wis- 
 dom of the Ancients," (1682.) Died in Paris in 1696. 
 
 Foucher, (Victor Adrien,) a French jurist and 
 magistrate, born in Paris in 1803. He became director- 
 general of civil affairs in Algeria, procureur at the tribu- 
 nal of the Seine, and in 1850 a member of the court of 
 
 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; c. H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 27 th as in this. ( Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 60 
 
 easi 
 
FO UCHER 
 
 946 
 
 FOUQUE 
 
 cassation. He wrote several legal works, and edited a 
 "Collection of the Civil and Criminal Laws of Modern 
 States," (10 vols., 1833-58) He rendered important 
 services to the cause of order in 1848. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Toucher d'Obsonville, foo'sha' dob's6N'vel', a 
 French' traveller and naturalist, born at Montargis in 
 1734. He went to India by land about 1753, and re- 
 mained there until 1771. He published " lissays on 
 the Habits of Divers Animals, with Observations on 
 the Morals and Customs of Several Nations," (1783.) 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 Fouchier, foo'she-V, (Bertrand,) a Dutch portrait- 
 painter, born at Berg~op-Zoom in 1609, was a pupil of A. 
 Van Dyck. He also studied the works of Tintoret in 
 Italy. Died in 1674. 
 
 Fouchy.de, deh foo'she', (Jean Paul Grand-Jean 
 — gr&N'zli6.M',) a French savant, born in Paris in 1707, 
 was elected perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sci- 
 ences in 1743, and performed the duties of that office for 
 thirty years with much ability. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Condorcet, " FJoge de M. de Fouchy," 1788. 
 
 Foucquet. See Fouquet. 
 
 Fougerct de Monbron. See Monbron. 
 
 Fougeroux de Bondaroy, foozh'roo' deh b6N'd$'- 
 Rwa', (Auguste Denis,) a French savant, born in Paris 
 in 1732, was a nephew of the famous Duhamel, (Henri 
 Louis.) He wrote, besides other works, " Researches 
 among the Ruins of Herculaneum," (1769,) and "The 
 Art of the Cutler," (1772.) Died in 1789. 
 
 Foo-hf.e or Fou-hi, foo-hee, supposed to have been 
 the first Emperor of China, born in the province of 
 Shanseo. began to reign about 2950 B.C. He is said to 
 have instituted matrimony, and to have invented music 
 and writing. 
 
 Fouillou, foo'yoo', (Jacques,) a French Jansenist 
 polemical writer, born at La Rochelle in 1670; died 
 in 1736. 
 
 FouiJloux, du, dU foo'yoo', (Jacques,) a French 
 gentleman, who wrote a popular treatise on " Hunting, 
 and on the Habits of Animals," (1560.) Died in 1580. 
 
 Fouinet, foo'e'n.V, (Ernest,) a French poet and 
 novelist, born at Nantes in 1799; died in Paris in 1845. 
 
 Foulcher (or Foucher) de Chartres, foo'sha' deh 
 shaRtR, [Lat. Fulche'rius Carnoten'sis,] a French 
 historian, born about 1050, joined the crusade for the 
 conquest of the Holy Land. He was chaplain to Bald- 
 win, King of Jerusalem, and wrote a history of the first 
 crusade. Died about 1 127. 
 
 Foulcoie, foo'kwa', [Lat. Fulco'ius,] born at Beau- 
 vais, in France, about 1020, was one of the most popular 
 poets of his time. The subjects of his poems are legends, 
 lives of saints, etc. Died about 1083. 
 
 Fould, foo, (Achille,) a French financier, born in 
 Paris in 1S00, was a son of a Jewish banker. He was 
 elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1842, and again 
 in 1846. In the Constituent Assembly of 1848 he acted 
 with the party of order, and distinguished himself by 
 financial ability. He was appointed minister of finance 
 three times between October, 1849, and January, 1852, 
 during which period the public credit was improved or 
 restored. He resigned in January, 1852, soon after which 
 he was raised to the dignity of senator and appointed 
 minister of state and of tire household of the emperor. 
 A large deficit having induced Napoleon to renounce the 
 prerogative to raise money on credit without the assent 
 of the legislative body, M. Fould was persuaded to re- 
 sume the portfolio of finance in November, 1861. He 
 was removed in February, 1867, and died the same year. 
 
 See " Biographie des Menibres du Senat." 
 
 Foulis, fow'lis, (Robert and Andrew,) two learned 
 and noted Scottish printers, were brothers and residents 
 of Glasgow, where they followed their profession about 
 thirty years, and printed editions of Greek and Latin 
 classics remarkable for accuracy and elegance. Their 
 famous Horace (1743) was reputed to be faultless, and a 
 reward was offered to any person who should detect an 
 error in it. After making handsome fortunes, they were 
 ruined by the expense incurred in founding an academy 
 of painting and sculpture at Glasgow. Their collection 
 
 of paintings was sold at auction in 1776. Andrew died 
 in 1774, and Robert in 1776. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 Lemojne, " History of Printing." 
 
 Foulkes, (Martin.) See Foi.kes. 
 
 Foullon, foo'ldN', (Abel,) a French poet and mecha- 
 nician, born in Maine in 1513, made a metrical version 
 of the Satires of Persius, — the first that appeared in 
 French. Died in 1563. 
 
 Foullon or Foulon, (Joseph Francois,) a French 
 administrator, born at Saumur in 1 715. In 1771 he was 
 intendant or controller of finance, and in July, 1789, 
 was appointed controller-general in place of Necker, or 
 (according to one account) administrator of the army. 
 A few days after his appointment, before he had entered 
 upon the office, he fell a victim to the violence of the 
 Parisian mob. He proposed the repudiation of the 
 public debt. 
 
 See Madame Campan, "Me'moires." 
 
 Foulon or Foullon, foo'lo.N', (Johann Erard,) a 
 Flemish historian and Jesuit, born at Liege in 1608 or 
 1609 ; died in 1668. 
 
 Foulon, foo'16.N' or fow'lon, [Lat. Fullo'nius,] 
 (Willem,) a Dutch poet and Protestant, born at the 
 Hague in 1493. He became rector of the College of 
 Elbing about 1536. Among his works are "Acolas- 
 tus," a Latin drama on the subject of the Prodigal 
 Son, (1540,) and the "Triumph of Eloquence," a Latin 
 poem. Died in 1568. 
 
 Foulques, foolk or fook, [Lat. Ful'co,] an eminent 
 French prelate, born about 850 a.d. He became Arch- 
 bishop of Rheims in 883, and acquired great influence 
 both in the church and state. He promoted education 
 and morality. He was killed by order of Baldwin, Count 
 of Flanders, in 900. <u 
 
 See Baronius, "Annales." 
 
 Foulques I., Count of Anjou, surnamed le Roux, 
 was the son of Ingelger and Alinde. Died in 938 A.D. 
 
 Foulques II., surnamed the Good, Count of Anjou, 
 son of the preceding, was a patron of learning. He died 
 at Tours in 958 a.d. 
 
 Foulques III., Count of Anjou, grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, waged war against the Duke of Bretagne and 
 the Count of Blois, founded monasteries, and visited 
 the Holy Land. Died in 1040. 
 
 Foulques IV., grandson of Foulques III., born at 
 Chateaulandon in 1043, inherited Saintonge, and con- 
 quered Anjou and Touraine from his brother Geofifroi. 
 He married a daughter of Simon de Montfort. Died 
 in 1 109. 
 
 Foulques V., a son of the preceding, born about 
 109C, went twice to Palestine in the crusades, married 
 a daughter of Baldwin II. in 1129, and succeeded him, 
 in 1131,011 the throne of Jerusalem. He was renowned 
 for courage and other virtues. Died in 1142. He left 
 his crown to his sons, Baldwin HI. and Amaury. 
 
 Foulques, (Gui.) See Clement IV. 
 
 Foulques de Marseille. See Foi.quet. 
 
 Foulques de Neuilly, fook deh nuh'ye', a French 
 priest, celebrated for his zeal and eloquence and his 
 promotion of the fourth crusade. He directed his efforts 
 especially to the conversion of courtesans, and obtained 
 from Pope Innocent HI. a plenary indulgence for those 
 who should marry them. He persuaded many nobles 
 to join the crusade in 1 198. Died in 1201. 
 
 See Villehardouin, " Histoire de la Conquete de Constanti- 
 nople." 
 
 Foulston, fols'ton, (John,) an English architect, was 
 born about 1772. He worked for many years at Ply- 
 mouth, was architect of nearly all the public buildings 
 erected there in that period, and attempted various 
 styles, including Grecian, Ionic, Doric, and Hindoo. 
 Among his works are the Royal Hotel and Theatre, 
 the Exchange, and the Town Hall, at Devonport. Died 
 in 1842. 
 
 Fountaine, fown'tin, (Sir Andrew,) an English an- 
 tiquary, born about 1680, was tutor of Prince William, 
 and keeper of the mint from 1727 to 1753. He wrote a 
 treatise on ancient coins. Died in 1753. 
 
 Fouque\ (Friedrich Heinrich Karl.) See La- 
 mothe-Fouquk\ 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m£t; n5t; good; moon; 
 
FOUQVE 
 
 947 
 
 FOURIER 
 
 Fouque, foo'ka', (Henri Auguste,) Baron de la 
 Mothe, (d<;h li mot,) a general, born at the Hague, of a 
 French family, in 1698, entered the Prussian service in 
 1715. He acquired the friendship of the prince royal, 
 (afterwards Frederick the Great,) who, on his accession 
 in 1740, gave him a command in the army and deco- 
 rated him with the order of merit. He served with 
 credit in all the wars of that prince, and rose to the rank 
 of general. In 1760 he commanded a corps-d'armee at 
 Landshut, was wounded and taken prisoner. His cor- 
 respondence with Frederick has been published with 
 the works of that royal author. Lamotte-Fouque, the 
 author of "Undine," was his grandson. Died in 1774. 
 
 See Friedrich de i.a Motte-Fouque, " Lebensbeschreibung 
 des Generals H. A. Baron de la Molte-Fouque\" 1824. 
 
 Fouquet, foo'k.V, (Guillaume,) Marquis de la Va- 
 renne, a French diplomatist, born in 1560, was a favour- 
 ite of Henry IV. Died in 1616. 
 
 Fouquet, (Henri,) an eminent French physician, 
 born at Montpellier in 1727, graduated in 1759, and prac- 
 ticed at Marseilles. In 1766 he settled in his native city, 
 and published medical treatises which had a high repu- 
 tation. He was chosen professor of medicine in the 
 University of Montpellier about 1792. Died in 1806. 
 
 See "Biographie Medicale;" Dumas, "Fjogede Fouquet," 1807. 
 
 Fouquet or Foucquet, foo'ki', (Nicolas,) Marquis 
 of Belle-Isle, a noted French minister of finance, born 
 in Paris in 1615, was the son of Francis Fouquet, 
 Vicomte de Vaux. At the age of thirty-five he became 
 attorney-general of the Parliament of Paris. In 1652 
 he was appointed superintendent of the finances, which 
 were then not in a flourishing state, and did not improve 
 under his direction. Louis XlY r . once demanded some 
 money of Fouquet, who answered, "Sire, there is none 
 in your majesty's coffers; but Cardinal Mazarin will lend 
 you some." Fouquet expended about eighteen million 
 francs on his palace of Vaux, which surpassed even the 
 royal residence of Fontainebleau. "Never," says Vol- 
 taire, "was a dissipator of the royal finances more noble 
 and generous." The king lost confidence in his integrity 
 and financial skill, and it is thought Colbert promoted 
 his disgrace. Fouquet was arrested in 1661, and, after a 
 trial of three years' duration, sentenced to imprisonment 
 for life. La Fontaine wrote verses in his defence during 
 the trial. He died in 1680. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV ;" Madame de Sevign£, 
 " Lettres ;" D'Auvigny, " Vies des Homines illustres de la France ;" 
 Sainte-Beuve. "Causeriesdu Lundi." 
 
 Fouquet, de, deh foo'k&', (Charles Louis Ar- 
 mani),) Comte de Belle-Isle, a French general, born in 
 1693, was a brother of Marshal Fouquet, Duke of Helle- 
 Isle. He was killed in battle in Piedmont in 1747. 
 
 Fouquet, de, (Charles Louis Auguste,) Due de 
 Belle-Isle, a French general and diplomatist, born at 
 Villefranche de Rouergue in 1684, was a grandson of the 
 financier Nicolas Fouquet. He became marechal-de- 
 camp in 1718, and lieutenant-general in 1731. It appears 
 that his influence with the king involved France in the 
 general war which began in 1741. He was made a mar- 
 shal of France in 1 741, and gained some advantages over 
 the Austrians in Bohemia. In 1745 he defeated the 
 enemy at Vintimiglia and Montauban. He was appointed 
 minister of state in 1756, and secretary of war in 1758. 
 He is said to have been a diplomatist of great ability. 
 " His whole life," says Macaulay. " was one wild day- 
 dream of conquest and spoliation." ("Essay on Frederick 
 the Great.") Died in 1761. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XV;" De Courceli.es, "Dic- 
 tionnaire des Generaux Francais." 
 
 Fouquier, foo'ke-4'. (Pierre Slot,) a French physi- 
 cian, born in Picardy in 1776. He practised and lectured 
 in Paris, and became one of the consulting physicians 
 of Charles X. He succeeded Dr. Marc as first physician 
 to Louis Philippe. Died in 1850. 
 
 Fouquier-Tinville or -Talnville, foo'ke-i' taN'vel', 
 (Antoine Quentin,) born near Saint-Quentin in 1747. 
 Among the French Jacobins he was one of the most 
 atrocious. Under the auspices of Robespierre, he acted 
 as public accuser before the bloody tribunal of the Revo- 
 lution. When informed of the fall of Robespierre, he 
 exclaimed, " No change for us ! justice must take its 
 
 course." However, after he had exercised his functions 
 by sending his former patron to the guillotine, he was 
 himself condemned to death, and executed in 1795. 
 
 See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists." 
 
 Fouquieres, foo'kejiiR', (Jacques,) an eminent 
 Flemish lamlscape-painter, was born at Antwerp in 
 1580, and studied with Rubens. In 1621 he went to 
 France, by invitation of Louis XIII., who gave him a 
 commission to paint the chief towns of the kingdom. 
 Died in 1659. 
 
 See Felibien, " Entretiens sur les Ouvrages des Peintres." 
 
 Four. See Dueour and Longuerue. 
 
 Fourcroy, de, deh fooR'kRwa', (Antoine Francois,) 
 Comte, an eminent French chemist, born of poor parents 
 in Paris in 1755, was a pupil of Macquer and Bucquet. 
 He graduated as M.D. in 1780, and was appointed by 
 Buffon, in 1784, professor of chemistry in the Jardin du 
 Roi, the name of which was changed about 1794 to 
 the Museum of Natural History. He lectured there for 
 twenty-five years with great success. "The facility and 
 elegance of his language," says Cuvier, " his copiousness, 
 enthusiasm, and clearness, enchanted his auditors, and 
 contributed greatly to diffuse a taste for chemistry in 
 all parts of the world." In 1793 he became a member 
 of the National Convention, in which he promoted the 
 cause of education and did not partake in the excesses 
 of the dominant party. He saved the life of Da'rcet in 
 the reign of terror. He was one of the first members 
 of the Institute. He was nominated a councillor of 
 state in December, 1799, and director-general of public 
 instruction in 1801. The schools flourished under his 
 wise direction. He published in 1801 a " System of 
 Chemistry," ("Systeme des Connaissances chimiques," 
 II vols. 8vo,) a work of great merit. Among his best 
 works is "The Philosophy of Chemistry," ("La Philoso- 
 phic chimique," 1792.) He died suddenly in December, 
 1809, and left one son, who was killed at the battle of 
 Lutzen. 
 
 See Cuvier, " Flloge de Fourcroy," 1811; Palissot de Beau- 
 vois, " E"!oge historique de Fourcroy," 1S10; Pariset, " E*!oge de 
 Fourcroy;" A. Cattaneo, " Cenni sulla Vita di A. F. Fourcroy," 
 1839 ; " Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"nerale." 
 
 Fourcroy de Ramecourt, fooR'kRwa' deh rSm'- 
 kooR', (Charles Rene,) a French military engineer, 
 born in Paris in 1715. He served as engineer in the 
 Seven Years' war, and obtained the rank of marechal- 
 de-camp. The Academy of Sciences rewarded his sci- 
 entific services by admitting him as a " free associate." 
 He wrote a treatise on " Fortification," (1786,) and other 
 esteemed works. Died in 1791. 
 
 See Condorcet, " FJoge de Charles Rene - Fourcroy." 
 
 Fourier,foo're-&',(FRANCois Charles Marie,) named 
 " the Phalansterian," the founder of the famous system of 
 "Fourierism," a form of socialism, born at Besancon, in 
 France, in 1772, was the son of a merchant. After he had 
 received his education in his native town, he was employed 
 a few years in a counting-house in Lyons. During the 
 Revolution he was compelled, in 1793, to take arms, and 
 served one or two campaigns on the Rhine. He em- 
 ployed his leisure time while in the army, and in other 
 situations, in study and reflection upon the social and 
 political theories which then abounded in France. He 
 also acquired proficiency in the exact sciences, not neg- 
 lecting political economy. After leaving the army, he 
 passed several years as a commercial traveller for mer- 
 cantile houses of Marseilles and Lvons, diligently engaged 
 in the problem the solution of which should remedy the 
 miseries of the present social system. In 1803 lie pub- 
 lished, in a journal at Lyons, an article on European 
 policy which attracted the favourable notice of Bonaparte. 
 At length, having, as he thought, made the important 
 discovery of which he was in search, he published, in 
 1808, his "Theory of Four Movements and General 
 Destinies," designed as the prospectus of a more com- 
 plete work, which appeared in 1822, entitled a "Treatise 
 on Domestic and Agricultural Association." A later 
 edition was entitled " Theory of Universal Unity," (4 
 vols., 1841.) These works were coldly received by the 
 public and by the reviewers. Numerous experiments of 
 his system of attractive industry and social harmony 
 have been made in Europe and America ; but they have 
 
 € as h; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as 1; th as in this. (Uy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FOURIER 
 
 948 
 
 FOWLER 
 
 not been successful. Fourier lived in Paris from 1830 
 until his death, which occurred in 1837. 
 
 See L. de Lomen'ie, "Galerie des Contemporains ;" V. Con- 
 siderant, " Exposition du Systeme de Fourier;" Lechevalier, 
 "Eludes sur la Science sociale;" C. Pellerin, "Charles Fourier, 
 *a Vie et sa Theorie," 1838; Victor Hennequin, "Theorie de C. 
 Fourier," 1847. • 
 
 Fourier, (Jean Bapttste Joseph,) Baron, a cele- 
 brated French mathematician, born at Auxerre on the 
 2rst of March, 1768. He espoused with ardour the popu- 
 lar cause in the Revolution; but, not keeping pace with 
 the violent demagogues, he was twice imprisoned by the 
 dominant faction. When the Polytechnic School was 
 opened, about 1795, Fourier was appointed by Lagrange 
 and Monge assistant professor. For his profound and 
 varied acquirements he was selected as one of the savants 
 who accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt in 1798, after 
 which he was secretary of the Institute of Egypt. Here 
 he distinguished himself by his industry in scientific ex- 
 cursions, and was employed with credit in negotiations 
 with the natives. He was prefect of Isere at Grenoble 
 from 1801 to 1815, and was admitted into the Academy 
 of Sciences in 181 7. He was elected a member of the 
 Academie Francaise in 1827. Besides several minor 
 treatises, Fourier published a great work on the theory 
 of heat, "Theorie analytique de la Chaleur," (1822,) of 
 which M. Cousin observes, " The grandeur of its results 
 has no more been contested than their certainty, and, in 
 the judgment of scientific Europe, the novelty of the 
 analysis on which they rest is equal to its perfection. 
 M. Fourier presents himself, then, with the evident mark 
 of true genius : he is an inventor." He left an "Analysis 
 of Determinate Equations," (1831.) Died in May, 1830. 
 
 See V. Cousin, " FJoge de Fourier;" M. Arago, " FJoge his- 
 torique de J. Fourier;" Champollion-Figkac, '"Fourier et Napo- 
 leon, l'lsgvpte et les Cent Jours ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 October, 1831 ; see, also, an English version of Arago's " E*loge de 
 Fourier," Boston, 1859. 
 
 Fourmont, fooR'mAN', (Claude Louis,) an Orien- 
 talist, a nephew of Etienne, noticed below, was born at 
 Cormeilles in 1708. About 1733 he acted as interpreter 
 in the Royal Library. He visited Egypt in 1746, and pub- 
 lished a "Historical and GeographicaJ Description of 
 the Plains of Heliopolis and Memphis," (1755.) Died 
 in 178a 
 
 Fourmont, (Etienne,) a French savant and distin- 
 guished Orientalist, born near Paris in June, 1683, was 
 educated in various colleges of the capital. He possessed 
 a powerful memory, and became eminent for his immense 
 erudition, especially in Oriental languages. In 1715 he 
 obtained the chair of Arabic in the Royal College, and 
 became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. 
 About this time he was employed to assist a certain 
 Chinese, named Hoang-Ji, in the compilation of a 
 Chinese grammar and dictionary. This person having 
 died in 1716, Fourmont pursued the task alone, and after 
 twenty years' labour finished his " Grammatica Sinica," 
 (1742,) one of the best Chinese grammars that have been 
 published in Europe. In 1738 he was elected a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society of London. He wrote " Critical 
 Reflections on the History of Ancient Nations," (2 vols., 
 1735,) and numerous other works. Died in 1745. 
 
 See " Vie d'fitienne Fourmont," etc., prefixed to his " Reflexions 
 sur l'Origine des anciens Peuples," Paris, 1747; Freret, " FJoge 
 de Fourmont ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Fourmont, (Michel,) an accomplished linguist, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born near Paris in 1690. 
 In 1720 he became professor of Syriac in the Royal Col- 
 lege, and in 1724 a member of the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions. He assisted his brother in his labours on the 
 Chinese language. Louis XV. sent Fourmont with Abbe 
 Sevin to Greece and other parts of the Levant in 1728, to 
 purchase manuscripts and to copy inscriptions. They 
 returned, with abundant success, in 1732. Died in 1746. 
 Fourmont has been censured for the unnecessary de- 
 struction of ancient monuments in Greece. 
 
 See " Histoire et M^moires de l'Academie des Inscriptions;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Fournel, fooR'nJl', (Jean Francois,) a learned jurist, 
 born in Paris in 1745. He published a number of legal 
 treatises, and a work on " The State of Gaul at the 
 Epoch of the Conquest of the Franks." Died in 1820. 
 
 Fournet, fooR'ni', (Victor,) a French geologist, born 
 in Paris in 1S01, became professor of mineralogy at 
 Lyons about 1834. He has laid the base of a new theory 
 on the distribution of coal-fields in France, and is said 
 to have rendered important services to science. 
 
 Fourneyron, fooR'n^'rAN', (Benolt,) a French engi- 
 neer and inventor, born at Saint-Etienne (Loire) in 1802. 
 He invented or improved a turbine, which obtained in 
 1836 a prize of 6000 francs offered by the Academy of 
 Sciences. 
 
 Fournier, fooR'ne-i', (Edouard,) a learned French 
 writer, born at Orleans in 1819, was the author of a " His- 
 tory of Printing and Publishing," (1854,) a Review of 
 Wise and Witty Sayings of Eminent Men, ("L'Esprit 
 dans l'Histoire,") and other works. 
 
 Fournier, (Georges,) a French Jesuit, born at Caen 
 in 1595. As chaplain in the navy, he visited the coasts 
 of Asia, and, after his return, published useful treatises 
 on geography, hydrography, etc. Died in 1652. 
 
 Fournier, (Marc Jean Louis,) a Swiss dramatist, 
 born at Geneva in 1820, became a resident of Paris in 
 his youth. His drama the " Clown," (" Paillasse," 1850,) 
 in which he was assisted by Dennery, had great success. 
 
 Fournier, (Pierre Simon,) a skilful French engraver 
 and founder of types, born in Paris in 1712. He wrote 
 an "Essay on the Origin and Progress of the Art of 
 Engraving on Wood," (1758,) and a useful work called 
 "Manuel typographique," (2 vols., 1764.) Died in 1768. 
 
 Fournier, (Raoul,) Sieur du Rondeau, a learned 
 French author, born at Orleans in 1562, wrote approved 
 works on law, morality, philosophy, religion, etc., also a 
 Latin poem called "Cento Christianus." Died in 1627. 
 
 Fournier de la Contamine, fooit'ne-a' deh IS 1<on'- 
 tf'men', (Marie Nicolas,) a French bishop, born at 
 Gex in 1760. By the influence of Cardinal Fesch, he 
 was appointed chaplain, and then almoner, to Bona- 
 parte, who, in 1806, made him Bishop of Montpellier. 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 Fournier des Ormes, fooR'ne-4' dJ'zoRm', 
 (Charles,) a French poet and landscape-painter, born 
 in Paris in 1778, was a grandson of Pierre Simon, noticed 
 above. He wrote a poem entitled "The Art of Painting," 
 ("La Peinture," 1837,) and translated Lucretius's " De 
 Rerum Natura" into French verse, (1848.) His land- 
 scapes are commended. Died in 1853. 
 
 See Quehard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Fournier de Pescay, fooR'ne-a' deh peVkJ', (Fran- 
 cois,) born at Bordeaux in 1771, became physician to 
 Ferdinand VII. at Valencay. He wrote several treatises 
 on medicine. Died about 1833. 
 
 Fournival, de, deh fooR'ne'vil', Fournivaux, fooR'- 
 ne'vS', or Furnival, ftiR'ne'vil', (Richard,) one of the 
 most noted novelists (romanciers) of his time, was a canon 
 of the church of Amiens. He wrote several works 
 about 1250, one of which is styled the "Power of Love." 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Fourquevaux, de, deh fooRk'vo', (Franqois de 
 Pavie— deh pi've',) Baron, son of the following, was 
 born near Toulouse in 1561. After making a tour in 
 Europe and Asia, he was gentleman-ordinary and stew- 
 ard in the court of Henry of Navarre. He wrote the 
 "Lives of Great French Captains," (1643.) Died in 161 1. 
 
 Fourquevaux, de, (Raimond de Beccarie de 
 Pavie — deh bi'ki're' deh pS've',) Baron, a French 
 general, born at Toulouse in 1509, served in several 
 campaigns in Italy. In 1557 he became Governor of 
 Narbonne. He wrote a treatise on military discipline. 
 Died in 1574. 
 
 Foville, fo'vel', (Achille Louis,) a French medical 
 writer, born at Pontoise in 1799. He wrote on the brain 
 and cerebral diseases. 
 
 FSw'ler, (Charles,) an English architect, born in 
 Devonshire in 1792. He gained the first premium for 
 his design of London Bridge. Among his works are the 
 Hungerford Market, the Devon Lunatic Asylum, and 
 the Court of Bankruptcy, London. 
 
 Fowler, (Christopher,) an English clergyman, born 
 in 161 1, left the Established Chu.ch in 1641, and joined 
 the Presbyterians, among whom he became a prominent 
 and zealous preacher. Died in 1676. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; nit; good; moon; 
 
FOWLER 
 
 949 
 
 FOX 
 
 Fowler, (Edward,) an English divine, born at West- 
 erleigh in 1632, was appointed in 1691 Bishop of Glou- 
 cester. He wrote "The Design of Christianity," (1671,) 
 which was attacked by Bunyan ; also, a "Discourse on 
 Christian Lilwrty," (1680.) Died in 1714. 
 
 See "Biugraphia Britannica." 
 
 Fowler, (John,) a learned English printer, born at 
 Bristol, was a zealous opponent of the Protestant Refor- 
 mation, and a good classical scholar. He removed his 
 press to Antwerp, to serve the Catholics more efficiently. 
 Died in 1579. 
 
 See Fuller, "Worthies." 
 
 Fow'ler, (Orson Squire,) an American phrenolo- 
 gist, bom in Cohocton, New York, in 1809. He has 
 published a large nutnlwr of works on phrenological 
 and kindred subjects. In connection with his brother, 
 Lorenzo N. Fowler, he has conducted the " Phreno- 
 logical Journal" for many years. 
 
 F6w"'ler, (Thomas,) born at York, in England, in 
 1736, was a successful practitioner of medicine in that 
 city, and wrote several medical treatises. Died in 1801. 
 
 Fownes, fownz, (George,) an English chemist, born 
 about 1815, was professor of practical chemistry in Uni- 
 versity College, London. He wrote a prize essay on 
 "Chemistry as exemplifying the Wisdom and Benefi- 
 cence of God," (1844,) and a "Manual of Elementary 
 Chemistry," (1844,) which is a popular text-book and 
 has been reprinted in Philadelphia, (1855.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Fox, (Sir Charles,) an English civil engineer, born 
 at Derby in 1810. Among his works are several rail- 
 ways in England, and bridges and railway stations. He 
 constructed the building for the Great Exhibition of 
 1851, according to the plan of Sir Joseph Paxton, and 
 wa> the architect of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. 
 
 Fox, (Charles James,) a celebrated English orator 
 and statesman, born in London on the 24th of January, 
 1749, was the third son of Henry Eox, the first Lord 
 Holland, and of Lady Georgiana Caroline Lennox, a 
 daughter of the Duke of Richmond. His indulgent 
 father was not slow to appreciate his splendid promise 
 and hereditary genius, and bestowed particular atten- 
 tion on his education, although it is said that he per- 
 mitted him to follow his own inclinations without restraint. 
 About the age of nine he was sent to Eton, where he 
 manifested a rare aptitude for all departments of learn- 
 ing, and an eager relish for the sports of youth and for 
 all physical and intellectual pleasures. In the autumn 
 of 1764 Fox went to Oxford, and entered Hertford Col- 
 lege, where he appears to have been a hard student He 
 learned to read the Latin and Greek classics with facility, 
 and in after-life he continued to delight in classic studies, 
 to which he added an accurate knowledge of modern Ian- 
 is and history. About this period he began to in- 
 dulge an insane passion for gaming and other modes of 
 dissipation, which continued through his life to obscure 
 the noble qualities that nature had given him. Leaving 
 College in 1766, he went abroad, and passed two years 
 on the continent. In May, 1 768, he was returned to 
 Parliament for Midhurst, though he had not yet attained 
 the age of twenty. 
 
 He entered Parliament as a supporter of the ministerial 
 or Tory party, and when Lord North became premier, in 
 1770, Fox was appointed junior lord of the admiralty. 
 In 1773 ne ' ,e,c l u)r a few weeks the place of one of the 
 lords of the treasury ; but, being dismissed for his in- 
 subordination to the court, he joined the opposition, and 
 found more congenial company with Burke and other 
 .Whig leaders. He strenuously opposed Lord North's 
 policy in regard to American taxation. In March, 1774, 
 he made a speech against the Boston Port Bill ; and he 
 continued to defend the cause of the colonies against 
 the insane policy of the British ministry. Fox was re- 
 turned for Westminster in 1 780; and when the American 
 war ended, in 1782, he had become the recognized leader 
 of the Whigs in the House of Commons, the champion 
 of freedom, and a " consummate master of the art of 
 debate." On the formation of the new ministry under 
 Rockingham, in 1782, he accepted the office of foreign 
 secretary, but resigned in a few months, in consequence 
 of the* death of that premier. By a coalition between 
 Fox and Lord North, the ministry of Lord Shelburne was 
 
 outvoted and compelled to resign, and in April, 1783, 
 Fox became secretary of state in a cabinet of which the 
 Duke of Portland was the premier. This ministry was 
 weakened by the hostility of the king ; and Fox, having 
 been defeated on his India Bill, was dismissed from 
 power in December, 1783, when Mr. Pitt became prime 
 minister. Fox had lost popularity by his coalition with 
 Lord North, and in the next election his rival obtained 
 a large majority in Parliament. He was again elected 
 for Westminster, after a warm contest, in 1784, and 
 made a memorable speech on the scrutiny which was 
 demanded by his opponent. 
 
 He powerfully seconded Burke in the impeachment 
 of Warren Hastings in 1788 and the ensuing years. The 
 warm political and personal friendship which had long 
 existed between him and Burke was broken by the 
 French Revolution, which Fox cordially approved in its 
 first stages. Fox having expressed his admiration of 
 the new French constitution in 1791, Burke spoke on the 
 other side, and declared, "Our friendship is at an end." 
 Mr. Fox continued to be the leader of the Whigs, and 
 constantly opposed the long aggressive war which Pitt 
 waged against the French republic. He supported Wil- 
 berforce's motion for the abolition of the slave-trade in 
 1791, and Mr. Grey's effort for parliamentary reform in 
 1793. His party having been reduced to a small minority, 
 he resolved, in 1797, to take no part In legislation, and 
 absented himself from Parliament for five years, which he 
 passed in literary pursuits. In 1802 he visited Paris, and 
 was treated with marked attention by Bonaparte. In con- 
 sequence of the death of Pitt, in January, 1806, the Whigs, 
 under Lord Grenville, came into power, and Fox became 
 foreign secretary, and the master-spirit of the govern- 
 ment. He was negotiating for peace with France when 
 he died, on the 13th of September, 1806, leaving the 
 reputation of an honest statesman and a real philan- 
 thropist. Brougham pronounced him " the most accom- 
 plished debater that ever appeared on the theatre of 
 public affairs." "He possessed above all modems," 
 says Mackintosh, "that union of reason, simplicity, and 
 vehemence which formed the prince of orators." He 
 left an unfinished history of the reign of James II., which, 
 says Lord Jeffrey, "we think is an invaluable work, not 
 only as a memorial of the high principles and gentle dis- 
 positions of its illustrious author, but as a record of 
 those sentiments of true English constitutional indepen- 
 dence which seem to have been nearly forgotten in the 
 bitterness and hazards of our recent contentions. . . . 
 We do not think it has any great value as a history, nor 
 is it very admirable as a piece of composition." 
 
 See Lord John Russell, " Life of Charles James Fox," 3 vols., 
 1867 ; Svdnev Smith, in the " Edinburgh Review," vol. xiv., (July, 
 1809,) "Quarterly Review," vol. ii., (November, 1809,) and " Edin- 
 burgh Review," vol. xviii. ; Samuel Pakr, "Character of the Late 
 C. J. Fox," 2 vols., 1809; " Memorials of Charles James Fox," by 
 Lord Holland; Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George 
 III. :" Trotter, "Memoirs of C. J. Fox," 1811 : "Recollections 
 of C. J. Fox," by B. C. Walpoi.e, 1806; "Edinburgh Review" 
 for July, 1808, and January, 1854; "London Quarterly Review" for 
 November, 1809, December, 1811, and April, 1859. 
 
 Fox, (Edward,) an English bishop, born in Glouces- 
 tershire, was a strenuous promoter of the Protestant 
 Reformation. He was sent by Wolsey, with Gardiner, 
 to Rome, in 1528, to procure the divorce of Queen 
 Catherine. In 1535 he became Bishop of Hereford, and 
 was sent on a mission to the Protestant league of Schr.ial 
 kalden. He was distinguished for his dexterity as a 
 negotiator. He wrote " On the True Difference between 
 Regal and Ecclesiastical Power," ("De vera Differentia 
 Regiae Potestatis et Ecclesiasticae," 1534.) Died in 1538. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Fox, (Francis,) an English clergyman, was vicar of 
 Pottern and prebendary of Salisbury. He published 
 the "New Testament Explained," (1722,) and a few 
 other works. Died in 1738. 
 
 Fox, (George,) the founder of the Society of Friends, 
 or Quakers, was born at Drayton-in-the-Clav, (now called 
 Fenny Drayton,) Leicestershire, England, fn July, 1624. 
 His father, Christopher Fox, was a weaver, so distin- 
 guished for the uprightness of his character that he was 
 called, among his neighbours, "righteous Christer." 
 His mother, whose maiden name was Mary Eago, was 
 
 * as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J|^~See Explanations, p. 13.) 
 
FOX 
 
 95° 
 
 FOX 
 
 eminent for her piety, and by her sympathy and encou- 
 ragement doubtless did much to promote that religious 
 thoughtfulness for which her son George was remark- 
 able even from his childhood. At an early age he was 
 placed with a man who was a shoemaker and dealt in 
 wool. He was for some time employed as a shepherd, 
 an occupation well suited to his cast of mind, and " a fit 
 emblem," says William Penn, "of his future service in 
 the Church of Christ." The parents of George Fox 
 were members of the Church of England, and they en- 
 deavoured to educate their children in its doctrines and 
 mode of worship. When he was in his nineteenth year, 
 being on business at a fair, he was invited by his cousin 
 and another person, both professors of religion, to join 
 them in drinking a jug of beer, and he, being thirsty, con- 
 sented. When they had drunk a glass apiece, they began 
 to drink healths, and, calling for more beer, they said, 
 " he that would not drink should pay all." Then George 
 Fi x, taking out a groat, laid it on the table, saying, " If 
 it be so, I will leave you." He returned home much 
 distressed. That night he did not go to bed, but spent 
 the time in walking up and down and in earnest prayer. 
 "The Lord said unto me," (we quote the words of his 
 journal,) " Thou seest how young people go together into 
 vanity, and old people into the earth : thou must forsake 
 all, young and old, keep out of all, and be a stranger to 
 all." " i fasted much," he says, " walked abroad in soli- 
 tary places many days, and often took my Bible and sat 
 in hollow trees and lonesome places till night came on ; 
 and frequently in the night walked mournfully about by 
 myself." As a remedy for his distress of mind, some of 
 his relations advised him to marry; but he "told them 
 he was but a lad, and must get wisdom." He went to 
 different priests for consolation, but found them all 
 "miserable comforters." One "ancient priest" bade him 
 take tobacco and sing psalms. But tobacco he did not 
 like, and psalms he was not in a state to sing. To sing 
 belongs rather to the joyful ;* but George Fox suffered 
 what few, we may hope, among the children of men are 
 required to suffer. So great was his mental distress 
 that, he says, "I could have wished I had never been 
 born, or that I had been born blind, that I might never 
 have seen wickedness nor vanity, and deaf, that I might 
 never have heard vain and wicked words, and the Lord's 
 name blasphemed." At times he was reduced almost to 
 despair. On one occasion " a great cloud came over him," 
 and there arose in his mind doubts even of the existence 
 of a God ; but the temptation soon passed, and a divine 
 voice within him said, " There is a living God, who made 
 all things." He afterwards "saw tnat it was good that 
 he had gone through that exercise ;" for, meeting with 
 some who had embraced atheism, he was enabled to 
 speak with convincing power to their minds, and forced 
 them to confess that there is a living God. Amid all his 
 trials he had moments of great rejoicing. He was filled 
 with admiration of God's infinite love, and "saw through 
 all these troubles and temptations," and that they were 
 "good for him," being designed for the perfection of 
 his faith. When all his hopes of obtaining comfort from 
 any human source were gone, "I heard," he says, "a 
 voice which said, 'There is one, even Christ Jesus, that 
 can speak to thy condition.' When I heard it, my heart 
 did leap for joy. Then the Lord let me see why there 
 was none upon the earth that could speak to my condi- 
 tion, namely, that I might give him all the glory." 
 
 Some of his relations, observing the seriousness of his 
 character, had wished that he should be educated for a 
 priest ; but one morning, as he was walking in the field, 
 it was shown to him " that being bred at Oxford or Cam- 
 biidge was not enough to qualify men to be ministers of 
 Christ;" at which he wondered, because it was contrary 
 to what the people were commonly taught to believe. 
 At the same time he saw that it was the anointing of the 
 Spirit which qualified one to be a true preacher of the 
 gospel. At another time it was shown to him "that 
 God, who made the world, did not dwell in temples made 
 with hands." This also surprised him, because it was so 
 different from the prevailing belief. He perceived that 
 many read the Scriptures without a right understanding 
 
 * See James v. 13. 
 
 of their meaning ; it was then shown to him that none 
 could read them aright without a measure of the same 
 Divine Spirit that gave them forth. He saw everywhere 
 around him men attaching the greatest importance to the 
 letter, while very few regarded the spirit, of the Bible ; 
 many Christian professors who had an outward form of 
 godliness showed too plainly by their conduct that they 
 were without its life-giving power. George Fox believed 
 that he was called by Heaven to awaken men from their 
 lifeless forms and dogmas to a sense of the vital im- 
 portance of an inward, living, spiritual religion. The 
 field was already waiting for the labourers. He saw the 
 harvest white and the heavenly seed lying thick on the 
 ground, and none to gather it ; for this he mourned with 
 tears. A report having gone forth that he had a "dis- 
 cerning spirit," people came from far and near to hear 
 him. "I had," he says, "great openings and prophe- 
 cies, and spoke unto them of the things of God." On 
 a subsequent occasion he says, "We had great meet- 
 ings : the Lord's power wrought mightily and gathered 
 many." He was about twenty-three years old when he 
 first began to preach, after which he travelled much in 
 the ministry. 
 
 As, on the one hand, George Fox believed that he 
 was required to do many things which in that age were 
 generally considered to form no part of Christian duty, 
 so, on the other, he was forbidden to do many things 
 which other religious professors permitted or enjoined. 
 However small or apparently trivial the requirement, he 
 felt that he must yield an absolute obedience to the Di- 
 vine voice within his soul. It was then deemed neces- 
 sary, as a mark of honour, to address one's superiors 
 or equals always with the plural pronoun : to "thou" a 
 person was generally regarded as an expression of dis- 
 respect, or at least of familiarity. But Fox considered 
 that to address a single person with a form of speech 
 which could only in strictness be applied to two or more, 
 was inconsistent with that simplicity and perfect truth- 
 fulness which the pure spirit of Christianity requires. 
 He regarded also the custom of taking off the hat, as 
 a mark of respect to our fellow-men, as improper, and 
 thought that men ought not to demand such formal 
 honours of one another, but should rather seek " the 
 honour that cometh from God only." One of the princi- 
 pal reasons alleged by Fox for not taking off one's hat to 
 men was, that this was an act of homage due only to the 
 Creator, and that it appears from the words of the Apos- 
 tle Paul, (see I. Cor. xi. 4,) and from the practice of the 
 primitive Christians, to have been regarded as an es- 
 pecial mark of reverence to God. He seems to have 
 considered complimentary forms and ceremonies as not 
 only opposed to Christian simplicity and truthfulness, 
 but as tending to foster a spirit of pride and vain- 
 glory incompatible with the humility which belongs to a 
 true follower of the Redeemer, and unfavourable to that 
 Christian equality and freedom which are necessary to 
 the most perfect society. 
 
 Although the rise ot the Society of Friends was pri- 
 marily a religious movement, it has unquestionably ex- 
 erted an important influence upon the political as well 
 as the social condition of England and the United States. 
 " It was," says Bancroft, " the consequence of the moral 
 warfare against corruption, — the aspiration of the human 
 mind after a perfect emancipation from the long reign 
 of bigotry and superstition." " It marks," observes the 
 same writer, in another place, "the moment when in- 
 tellectual freedom was claimed unconditionally by the 
 people as an inalienable birthright." (See "History of 
 the United States," vol. i. p. 451, and vol. ii. p. 337.) 
 
 As Fox believed it to be required of him that he should 
 not doff his hat "to any, high or low," and that he 
 should, when addressing an individual, use invariably 
 the singular pronoun, "without any respect to rich or 
 poor, great or small," he gave great offence, and ex- 
 cited the rage of some who, he says, were "great pro- 
 fessors of Christianity." He was thus furnished with 
 an answer to those who thought this too trifling a mat- 
 ter to be so scrupulous about ; for what concerned so 
 nearly the pride and passions of men was not so trivial 
 as to be beneath the command of God. 
 
 Having, in 1648, at Nottingham, boldly opposed 3 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ti, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon, 
 
FOX 
 
 95' 
 
 FOX 
 
 priest respecting a point pf doctrine in the presence 
 of his congregation, he was arrested and sent to prison. 
 He wis again imprisoned in 1650 at Derby, upon a 
 false accusation of blasphemy. On that occasion Justice 
 Bennet, of Derby, called him and his friends "Quakers," 
 because he bade the magistrates " tremble at the word 
 of the Lord." During his imprisonment at Derby there 
 was in the same jail a young woman who was to be tried 
 for her life for stealing. "I wrote," says Fox, "to the 
 judge and jury, showing them how contrary it was to the 
 law of God in old time to put people to death for steal- 
 ing ; and moving them to show mercy." Throughout 
 his life he appears never to have hesitated to rebuke 
 falsehood, injustice, and cruelty, in whatever form they 
 exhibited themselves, and without respect to persons. 
 He felt also called upon to bear his testimony against all 
 war, whether offensive or defensive, alleging the com- 
 mands of our Saviour, "Love your enemies," " Resist 
 not evil," etc. He cited the same Divine authority to 
 prove not merely the unlawfulness of profane swearing, 
 but of oaths of every kind. Their faithful adherence to 
 their convictions, on these and other points, subjected 
 Fox and his followers to much bitter persecution. He 
 had in 1655 been imprisoned at Launceston. During 
 his confinement in that place, one of his friends went to 
 Oliver Cromwell and desired that he might be impris- 
 oned in Fox's stead. This disinterested conduct appears 
 to have greatly surprised the Protector. Turning to his 
 councillors, he asked, "Which of you would do as much 
 for me if I were in the same condition ?*' On the acces- 
 sion of Charles II., many hundred Quakers, who had 
 been imprisoned under the governments of Oliver and 
 Richard Cromwell, were set at liberty. But soon after 
 the persecution against these unoffending people raged 
 more fiercely than ever. In 1663 Fox was again arrested ; 
 but, when he was brought to be tried at the assizes, the 
 judge declared that, in consequence of the errors in the 
 indictment, he was free from all the charges made against 
 him. But, as the scruples of the Quakers against swear- 
 ing were well known, the judge, in order to find a pre- 
 text against him, required him to take the oath of alle- 
 giance and supremacy. 0" his refusing to do so, he was 
 put into a filthy prison, in which there was, a part of the 
 time, scarcely any ventilation, and yet the rain came in 
 upon his bed, and he was exposed, without any fire, to 
 the cold and wet during a long and severe winter. His 
 confinement on this occasion lasted altogether, in differ- 
 ent prisons, nearly three years. He was at length, in 1666, 
 set at liberty. In 1669 he was married to Margaret Fell, 
 the widow of Judge Fell, a man who was highly esteemed 
 for his moderation and good sense, as well as for his 
 piety. He had befriended George Fox in the early pe- 
 riod of his ministry; and his wife and daughters had 
 been convinced by Fox's preaching and led to embrace 
 the principles of the Quakers. On behalf of these prin- 
 ciples she had suffered long imprisonment and other 
 persecution. 
 
 In 1671 Fox set sail for Barbadoes, where many were 
 convinced by his ministry. While in this island, in com- 
 pany with some other Friends, he drew up an important 
 paper setting forth the belief of the Society in regard to 
 the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, and showing 
 that the charges which had been made against them 
 of denying the Divinity and Atonement of Christ and 
 the divine inspiration of the Scriptures, were unfounded 
 calumnies. He afterwards visited the colonies of Mary- 
 land, New Jersey, New England, etc. He embarked for 
 England in March, 1673, and arrived at Bristol about 
 the end of April. Some months afterwards he was again 
 imprisoned, for refusing to swear, in Worcester jail. 
 While here he had a severe illness, so that his life was 
 almost despaired of. The king would freely have par- 
 doned him, but Fox would not accept a release from 
 prison on these terms ; for to accept a pardon implied 
 that he had committed something to be forgiven. After 
 remaining in jail for more than a year, he was at last set 
 at liberty, chiefly through the influence of Sir Matthew 
 Hale. Subsequently, his health having been greatly 
 impaired by his imprisonment, he spent, for the first 
 time since his early youth, nearly two years in compara- 
 tive repose at Swarthmore, in Lancashire. This place 
 
 had belonged to Margaret Fell, and was his ordinary 
 residence during the latter period of his life. In 1677, 
 accompanied by Penn, Barclay, and several (.ihers, 
 he visited the "Friends" in Holland, and established 
 Monthly and Quarterly Meetings and a Yearly Meeting 
 in that country. Alter an absence of several months, he 
 returned to England the same year. He died in London 
 in 1690, in the sixty-seventh year of his age. 
 
 In the religious history of modern times there is per- 
 haps no more remarkable character than that of George 
 Fox. He presents a rare example of the greatest gen- 
 tleness and meekness joined with a courage which no 
 dangers could appall and a zeal which no obloquy nor 
 suffering could abate, much less subdue. From early 
 manhood until the very end of his life, in spite of ridi- 
 cule, reproach, and the bitterest persecution, he pursued 
 with an unfaltering faith, and a resolution that never 
 wavered even for a moment, the path which had, as 
 he believed, been divinely appointed him. Many men, 
 deemed brave and virtuous, have, under the pressure of 
 affliction or necessity, been led to reconsider and modify 
 their principles, and, in order to gain what they con- 
 sidered a great good, have sometimes been willing to 
 sacrifice a minute point of conscience ; but George Fox 
 never changed or qualified his views in the slightest 
 degree, however great the emergency, and what he felt 
 to be right in the beginning of his course he maintained 
 unswervingly to the end of his life. If it be thought 
 that he sometimes erred through excess of zeal, it should 
 be borne in mind that, in those times of religious ex- 
 citement and political commotion, many things were 
 considered allowable, not by the Quakers only, but by 
 a large proportion of the religious community, which 
 would be universally condemned by the spirit of a later 
 and more lukewarm age. 
 
 In person, George Fox was above the common stature. 
 He was of a pleasing countenance, and, though grave, of 
 easy and modest manners. " He was," says Penn, "civil 
 beyond all forms of breeding." "A most merciful man, 
 as ready to forgive as inapt to take offence." As a 
 speaker, he was clear, forcible, and convincing. " But 
 above all," says Penn, " he excelled in prayer. The 
 inwardness and weight of his spirit, the reverence and 
 solemnity of his address and behaviour, the fewness and 
 fullness of his words, have often struck even strangers 
 with admiration." 
 
 The popular but erroneous idea that Fox was opposed 
 to all learning, has arisen doubtless from his having 
 maintained not merely that human learning was insuf- 
 ficient of itself to qualify one to be a preacher of the 
 gospel, but also that a man might be a true gospel min- 
 ister without any such learning at all as is given at the 
 universities. Nevertheless, he clearly showed the high 
 value which he set upon education, both by his earnest 
 recommendation that schools should be established 
 among " Friends" for the proper instruction of their 
 children, and still more by his applying himself, even 
 after he had entered upon his ministry, to the study 
 of the Hebrew tongue, of which he appears to have 
 acquired a respectable knowledge ; for we are assured, 
 on the authority of his intimate friend, George White- 
 head,* that "he was able to understand, read, and write 
 Hebrew." 
 
 It would be a mistake, however, to regard Fox as 
 a man of learning, in the ordinary acceptation of the 
 phrase, although he well understood the use and value 
 of learning. He was, to adopt the words of Coleridge, 
 "an uneducated man of genius." "There exist folios," 
 remarks the same great critic, " on the human under- 
 standing and the nature of man, which would have a 
 far juster claim to their high rank and celebrity, if in 
 the whole huge volume there could be found as much 
 fulness of heart and intellect as burst forth in many a 
 simple page of George Fox." (" Biographia Literaria," 
 chap, ix.) 
 
 Fox wrote many epistles of advice and exhortation to 
 the various meetings of the Society ; and he has left us a 
 journal of his life, of which Sir James Mackintosh says, 
 
 * See his pamphlet in reply to the charges of ig.iorance made 
 against Otorge Fox. 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g d&j; G, H, vl, guttural; n, nasal; K, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FOX 
 
 952 
 
 FRACASTORO 
 
 " It is one of the most extraordinary and instructive 
 documents in the world, which no reader of competent 
 judgment can peruse without revering the virtue of the 
 writer."* 
 
 See George Fox's "Journal;" also the Preface to it, by Wil- 
 liam Penn; Marsh's "Life of George Fox," 1 vol. 8vo ; Jan- 
 ney's "Life of George Fox," 1 vol. 8vo ; "George Fox," an Ad- 
 dress to the Society of Friends, by C. H. Spurgeon, London, 1S66; 
 also, "peorge Fox, the Friends, and the Early Baptists," by Wil- 
 liam Tallack, London, 1S68 ; and Hermann Weingarten's mas- 
 terly work entitled " Revolutionskirchen Englands," Leipsic, 1868. 
 
 For the doctrinal views of George Fox and the early Quakers, see 
 Barclay's "Apology ;" also "Dissertation" appended to Janney's 
 ''Life of Fox;" and T. Evans's "Exposition of the Faith of the 
 Religious Society of Friends," Philadelphia, 1828. 
 
 For a full account of the various writings and publications of 
 George Fox, see Joseph Smith's "Catalogue of Friends' Books," 
 vol. i. pp. 644-697. 
 
 Fox, (Henry,) the first Lord Holland, was a son of 
 Sir Stephen, and the father of the great orator Charles 
 J. Fox. He was secretary at war in the reign of George 
 II. about 1750. In 1755 he became secretary of state, 
 and Whig leader of the House of Commons when the 
 1 elder Pitt was leader of the opposition. Fox had parlia- 
 mentary talents of a very high order, but was inferior to 
 Pitt in declamation. According to Macaulay, Fox re- 
 sembled his more celebrated son in disposition as well 
 as talents. He had the same sweetness of temper, the 
 same openness and impetuosity. Upon the dissolution 
 of Newcastle's ministry, the king sent for Fox, and 
 directed him to arrange a new cabinet in concert with 
 Pitt ; but the latter declined the coalition with his rival. 
 In 1762 he accepted office in the ministry of Lord Bute, 
 and became ministerial leader in the House ; but in 
 the next year Bute resigned, and Fox was raised to the 
 peerage, as Lord Holland. According to the essayist 
 above named, "he was the most unpopular statesman 
 of his time, not because he sinned more, but because 
 he canted less." Died in 1774, leaving his title to his 
 son Stephen. 
 
 See Macaulay, review of Thackeray's " History of the Earl of 
 Chatham." 
 
 Fox, (John,) an English author, born at Boston, in 
 Lincolnshire, in 151 7, adopted the principles of the Re- 
 formation. He was tutor in the family of Sir Thomas 
 Lucy, and at a later period instructed the sons of the 
 Earl of Surrey, then confined in the Tower. In 1545 
 he was accused of heresy and expelled from Magdalene 
 College, of which he was a Fellow. To escape perse- 
 cution, he retired to Bale, and after the death of Queen 
 Mary returned to England and received a prebend in 
 the church of Salisbury. He is the author of " The 
 Acts and Monuments of the Church," (1563,) commonly 
 called the "Book: of Martyrs," a work which obtained 
 great and deserved popularity. Died in 1587. 
 
 See a Life of J. Fox, by his son Samuel; Fuller, "Worthies 
 ©f England;" " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Fox, (Luke,) an English navigator, who commanded 
 a vessel sent out in 1631 to explore the Northwest 
 passage. After making discoveries in Hudson Bay, he 
 returned home, and published an account of the same, 
 dated 1635. 
 
 See Purchas, "Pilgrimages." 
 
 Fox, (Margaret.) See Fox, (George.) 
 Fox, [Sp. pron. foH.l (Morzii.i.o Sebastian,) a Span- 
 ish writer, born at Seville in 1528, wrote about the age 
 of twenty a commentary on the "Topics of Cicero," and 
 in 1554 he published a treatise on the "Analogy of the 
 Philosophical Views of Plato and Aristotle," which was 
 applauded by some critics. Philip II. appointed him 
 ] receptor of his son Carlos ; but as he was on his way 
 to this new scene of labour he perished by shipwreck, 
 in J 560. 
 
 Fox, (Richard,) an English bishop and statesman, 
 born at Ropesley, in Lincolnshire, in 1466. In the reign 
 of Henry VII. he officiated as keeper of the privy seal, 
 secretary of state, and ambassador to various courts. He 
 was appointed Bishop of Winchester in 1500, having 
 previously occupied the see of Durham and others. In 
 1516 he founded at Oxford the College of Corpus Christi, 
 with a chair of Greek and Latin. He retained the favour 
 and confidence of Henry VII. throughout his reign, and 
 
 * See Mackintosh's " History of the Revolution in 1688." 
 
 was supplanted by Wolsey in .the councils of Henry VIII. 
 Died in 1528. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Fox, (Sir Stephen,) an English politician, born at 
 Farley, Wilts, in 1627, was the father of the first Lord 
 Holland. He was "clerk of the green cloth" in the reign 
 of Charles II., and held other offices. He built several 
 almshouses, and was the first who projected Chelsea 
 College as a military hospital. Died in 1716. 
 
 Fox, (William Johnson,) an English politician and 
 writer, was born near Wrentham, Suffolk, in 1786. He 
 was once a Unitarian minister at Finsbury, and was a 
 frequent and able contributor to the " Westminster Re- 
 view." In 1847 he was returned to Parliament for Old- 
 ham, and became a prominent member of the advanced 
 Liberal party. He published " Lectures to the Working 
 Classes," and other works. Died in 1864. 
 
 Foy, fvva, (Maximilian Sebastien,) a French gene- 
 ral and eminent orator, born at Ham, in Picardy, in 
 February, 1775. He served his first campaign in 1792 
 as lieutenant of artillery. In 1794, having expressed his 
 abhorrence of the atrocities of the Convention, he was 
 sent to prison, and would probably have been executed 
 had not the crisis of the 9th Thermidor and the death 
 of Robespierre subverted that bloody regime. He made 
 the campaigns of 1796 and 1797 as commander of cavalry 
 under Moreau. Foy was one of those republicans who 
 opposed the assumption of imperial power by Napoleon, 
 and thus retarded his own promotion. From 1807 to 
 1813 he served in Portugal and Spain, where he obtained 
 the rank of general of division about 1810, and distin- 
 guished himself by his braver,y, capacity, and colloquial 
 talents. He was often wounded in battle. After Bona- 
 parte landed from Elba, in 181 5, General Foy did not 
 long hesitate to join his standard in defending the soil 
 of France from invasion, and he led a division at Water- 
 loo, where he was again wounded. In 1819 he was 
 elected by the department of Aisne to the Chamber of 
 Deputies, where he speedily took his place in the first 
 rank of orators. His past life, his noble character, added 
 to his persuasive manner, gave him great influence, 
 which he employed in favour of a liberal and constitu- 
 tional government. Died in Paris in November, 1S25. 
 About one million francs were raised by national sub- 
 scription for his family. He left (unfinished) a " History 
 of the Peninsular War," (4 vols., 1827.) 
 
 See Cuisin, " Vie militaire, politique, etc. du General Foy;" 
 Paul Lacroix, "Eloge historique du G^neVal Foy;" Rene Per- 
 rin, " Notice sur la Vie militaire de Foy," prefixed to " Pensees de 
 General Foy," 1S21 ; F. Vidal, "Vie du General Foy," 1826. 
 
 Foyatier, fwa'yi'te-i', (Denis,) a French sculptor, 
 born at Beson, near Feurs, (Loire,) in 1793. He became 
 a student of art in Paris in 1816, and went to Rome 
 in 1822. His reputation was established by a statue of 
 Spartacus, (1830,) which was purchased by the king. 
 Among his works are a statue of " Prudence," and an 
 equestrian statue of Joan of Arc, inaugurated at Orleans 
 in 1855. 
 
 Fra Angelico. See Fif.soi.e. 
 
 Fra Bartolommeo. See Baccio dei.la Porta. 
 
 Fracanzani, fRa-kan-za'nee, or Fracanzano, fKa- 
 kan-za'no, (Francesco,) an able Italian painter, worked 
 in Naples, and was the master of Salvator Rosa, whose 
 sister he married. His colouring is brilliant and vigor- 
 ous. Died about 1657. 
 
 Fracastoro, fKa-kas-to'ro, or Fracastor, (Girola 
 mo,) an eminent Italian author, born at Verona in 1483, 
 was one of the most learned men of his time, and ex- 
 celled in philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and poetry. 
 Before the age of twenty he was professor of logic at 
 Padua. His reputation is derived chiefly from a Latin 
 poem on the venereal disease, called "Syphilis, sive 
 Morbus Gallicus," (1530,) which has been translated into 
 several languages. Scaliger had so high an opinion of 
 Fracastor's talents that he composed a poem in honour 
 of him. Hallam gives him credit for " having delivered 
 the rules of practical art in all the graces of the most 
 delicious poetry, without inflation, without obscurity, 
 and without affectation." ("Introduction to the Litera- 
 ture of Europe.") He was in his latter years chief 
 physician to Pope Paul III. and to the Council of Trent, 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long, 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n8t; good; moon 
 
FRACCAROLI 
 
 953 
 
 FRANCHI 
 
 held in 1547. Died near Verona in August, 1553. He 
 wrote a few scientific treatises. 
 
 See F. O. Mencken. "De Vita, Moribus, etc. Fracastorii Com- 
 
 ment.uio," 1; ;i ; Nkkkon, " Memoires;" l-oNGf-'itLLuw, "Poets 
 and Poetry ot Europe." 
 
 Fraccaroli, fKlk-ka-ro'lee, (Innocenzo,) an able 
 Italian sculptor, born at Castel-Rotto, near Verona, 
 about 1804. He studied in Rome, and became pro* 
 lessor of sculpture at Florence about 1842. His " Eve 
 after the Fall" gained a medal of the first class at Paris, 
 and is called a master-piece of grace. Among his other 
 works is a statue of Achilles. 
 
 Frachetta, tKa-ket'ta, (Girolamo,) an Italian pub- 
 licist and critic, born at Rovigo about 1560. In his 
 youth he was secretary of Cardinal Este. lie wrote a 
 paraphrase of Lucretius, (1589,) with notes, a volume 
 entitled "On Reasons of State," ("Delia Ragione di 
 Stato," 1623,) which is commended, and a few other 
 works. Died at Naples in 1620. 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Fra Diavolo, fka de-a'vo-lo, an Italian chief of bri- 
 gands, whose proper name was Michel Pozza, (pot'sa,) 
 urn at Itri. He fought in the army of Cardinal 
 Ruffo against the French in 1799. In 1806 he became 
 the chief of a band of insurgents in Calabria. He was 
 arrested and hung at Naples, in that year. 
 
 Fraehn. See Frahn. 
 
 Fragouard, fki'go'naV, (Alexandre Evakiste,) a 
 French painter and sculptor, born at Grasse in 1780, 
 was a pupil of David. Among his works are " Maria 
 Theresa presenting her Infant Son to the Hungarians," 
 (1822,) and "The Entrance of Joan of Arc into Orleans." 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Fragonard, (Jean Honore,) a French historical 
 painter, born at Grasse in 1732. After gaining the first 
 prize for painting in Paris, he went to Rome with a pen- 
 sion. He returned to Paris, was received in the Royal 
 Academy, and became a fashionable artist. He is blamed 
 for the sensual and licentious tendency of his produc- 
 tions. Died in 1806. 
 
 Fraguier, fnS'ge-1', (Claude Francois,) a French 
 savant and elegant writer, born in Paris in 1666, became 
 a good classical scholar, and one of the editors of the 
 "Journal des Savants." He was admitted into the 
 Academy of Inscriptions in 1705, and into the French 
 Academy in 1708. He wrote an admired Latin poem, 
 called " Platonic School on the Perfection of Man," 
 ("Mopsus, seu Schola Platonica de Hominis Perfec- 
 tione," 1721 ;) also dissertations on ancient history, lite- 
 rature, etc. Died in 1728. 
 
 See D'Ouvet, " Fjoge de Fraguier;" Niceron, "Memoires;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographic Generale. " 
 
 Frahn, (Kan, or Fraehn, (Christian Martin,) a 
 German antiquary and Orientalist, born at Rostock in 
 1782. He became in 1815 director of the Asiatic Mu- 
 seum and member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences 
 at Saint Petersburg. He published "Recension of Ma- 
 hometan Coins in the Academy of Sciences at Peters- 
 burg," (1826,) and other similar works. Died in 1851. 
 
 See Dorn, "Vie de Frahn," prefixed to a supplement of the work 
 just noticed, 1855. 
 
 Fraikin, fKl'kin or fRS'ka.N', (Charles Augusts,) a 
 successful Belgian sculptor, born near Antwerp in 1816. 
 Among his works are "L'Amour captif," "Venus," 
 {1848,) and "Le Sommeil," ("Sleep," 1856.) 
 
 Frain, fuaN, (Sebastien,) an eminent French advo- 
 cate, bom at Rennes; died in 1645. 
 
 Framery, fitittn're', (Nicolas F.ithnne,) a mediocre 
 French writer, born at Rouen in 1745; died in iSio. 
 
 Franc, Le, leh fRON, (Martin,) a French poet, born 
 at Arras or Aumale. His chief work is " Ladies' Cham- 
 pion," ("Champion des Dames.") Died about 1460. 
 
 Francois, fkftN'sJ', (FRANCOIS Louis,) a French land- 
 scape -painter, born at Plombieres in 1S14, obtained a fust 
 medal in 1848, and a medal of the first class in 1855. 
 
 Francaia de Nantes, fRON'sJ' deh nfiNt, ( Antoink,) 
 born at lieaurepaire, in France, in 1756, was a warm 
 partisan of the Revolution. He was elected to the 
 Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Council of 
 Five Hundred in 1797 or 1798. Under the consulate 
 and the empire he enjoyed the favour of Uonaparte, who 
 
 made him count, councillor of state, grand officer of the 
 legion of honour, and director-general of the Octrois. He 
 represented Isere in the Chamber of Deputies from 1819 
 to 1822, and voted with the opposition. Died in 1836. 
 
 See "Nouvelle ttiographie Generale." 
 
 Francavilla. See Francheville, (Pierre.) 
 
 Fran'ces, Saint, an Italian lady, born in Rome in 
 1384, was noted for piety and benevolence. She died 
 in 1440, and was canonized by Paul V. in 1608. 
 
 See Baiixet, "Vies des Saints." 
 
 Francesca, della, del'la fKan-ches'ka, (Pietro,) an 
 eminent Italian painter, born at Borgo San Sepolcro, 
 in Tuscany, about 1400, was often called Pietro Bor- 
 ghese. By invitation of Pope Nicholas V., he went to 
 Rome and painted frescos in the Vatican. He excelled 
 in foreshortening, perspective, and geometry. "The 
 Dream of Constantine,"at Arezzo, is one of the few works 
 of this artist that have been preserved. He wrote treat- 
 ises on perspective and geometry. Died about 1490. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy." 
 
 Franceschetti, fRan-ches-ket'tee, (Domenico Ce- 
 sare,) a Corsican general, born at Bastia in 1776. He 
 entered the service of Murat, King of Naples, rose to 
 the rank of general, and distinguished himself at To- 
 lentino. He attended Murat in his last desperate ex- 
 pedition of 1815, and was taken prisoner. Died in 1835. 
 
 Franceschini, fRan-chSs-kee'nee, (Ualdassark,) a 
 painter of the Florentine school, surnamed Volterkano, 
 was born at Volterra in 161 1, and was a pupil of Matteo 
 Rosselli. He worked in Florence, where he painted 
 the translation of Elijah, and other frescos, also many 
 oil-paintings. He excelled in perspective, colour, and 
 composition. Died in 1689. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;"Ticozzi, " Dizionarto." 
 
 Franceschini, (Makcantonio,) an excellent Italian 
 historical painter, bom at Bologna in 1648, was a pupil 
 of Carlo Cignani. He was eminent for his rapidity of 
 execution, fine taste, fertility of invention, and skill in 
 colouring. He painted frescos in Bologna, Genoa, and 
 Rome, and declined invitations from several princes of 
 Europe. The Pope gave him the title of Knight of the 
 Golden Spur. Among his chief works are an "Annun- 
 ciation" and "Saint John in the Isle of Patmos." He 
 also left many oil-paintings. Died in 1729. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Zanotti, "Storia 
 dell' Accademia Clementina ;"Malv asia, " Felsina pittrice." 
 
 Francesquito, fRan-th?s-kee'to, written also Fran- 
 ceschitto, a Spanish painter, born at Valladolid in 
 1681. He was a pupil of Giordano, who predicted that 
 he would equal the best painters of Italy; but he died 
 at the age of twenty-four, in Naples, whither he had 
 accompanied Gioidano. 
 
 Franc-Flore. See Fi.oris, (Frans.) 
 
 Francheville, fR&Nsh'vel', or Francavilla, fRin-ka- 
 vel'U, written also Francqueville, (Pierre,) a skilful 
 French sculptor, born atCambrai in 1548. After he had 
 worked in Italy with success, he was invited to Paris 
 by Henry IV., who patronized him, and he was after- 
 wards sculptor to Louis XIII. about 1614. Among his 
 works is a group of "Time bearing away Truth," (" Le 
 Temps enlevant la Verite,") and a statue of Goliath. 
 Died about 1620. 
 
 See Cicocnara, "Storia della Scultura:" Dutilleul, "Notice 
 stir P. de Francqueville," 1821. 
 
 Francheville, de, deh fuoNsh'vel', (Joseph Du 
 Fresne — du frehi,) a French writer and accomplished 
 scholar, born at Doullensin 1704. He published a " His- 
 tory of the Finances," (3 vols., 1738-40.) Having ac- 
 cepted the invitation of Frederick H. of Prussia, about 
 1742, he passed the rest of his life at Berlin. He wrote 
 a poem called "Bombyx, or the Silk-Worm," (1755.) 
 He was a member of the Academy of Berlin, which he 
 enriched with treatises on history, antiquities, etc., and 
 he edited the " Literary Gazette" of Berlin from 1764 to 
 his death. Died in 1781. 
 
 See Formev, " Eloge de Francheville." 
 
 Franchi, fRan'kee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, of 
 the Florentine school, born at Villa Basilica, near Lucca, 
 in 1634. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Bartoi.ozzi, " Vita di A. Franchi Lucchese," 1754. 
 
 e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, k, guttural; n, nasal; it, trilled; i as *; th as in this. (JQf-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FRAN CHI 
 
 954 
 
 FRANCIS 
 
 Franchi, (Ausonio,) the assumed name of an Italian 
 rationalistic philosopher, whose family name was Bona- 
 VINC, (bo-na-vee'no.) He was born at Pegli, near Genoa, 
 in 1820. He was a priest in his youth, but renounced 
 that profession. His principal work, "The Philosophy 
 of the Italian Schools," (1852,) is written with much 
 ability. About 1854 he founded at Turin a journal called 
 "La Ragione." 
 
 Franchi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian sculptor, born at 
 Carrara in 1730; died at Milan in 1806. 
 
 Franchini, fRin-kee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Cosenza in 1495; died in 1554. 
 
 Fianchini, (Niccol6,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Sienna in 1704 ; died in 1783. 
 
 Francia, fcan'cha, (Domenico,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Bologna in 1702, visited Vienna in 1723, where 
 he painted for the court. From 1736 to 1744 he was 
 employed by the Swedish court. Died in 1758. 
 
 Francia, (Francesco,) a celebrated Italian painter, 
 whose proper name was Francesco Raikolini, (rl-bo- 
 lee'nee,) was born at Bologna about 1450. He was a 
 goldsmith in his youth. His style was a medium between 
 the styles of Perugino and Bellini. He was a friend of 
 Raphael, who praised his Madonnas, saying he had seen 
 none "more handsome or more devout." Among his 
 works is a Saint Sebastian, which was used for a long 
 time as a model. He was an excellent colorist. The 
 date of his death is variously given from 1518 to 1533. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Calvi, " Memorie di F. 
 Raibolini detto il Francia;" Malvasia, " Felsina pittrice ;" Mks. 
 Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters." 
 
 Francia, (Giacomo,) a skilful Italian painter of Bo- 
 logna, was a son and pupil of the preceding, whom he 
 imitated with success. He painted a Saint George, (1526,) 
 and other saints and Madonnas, which were engraved by 
 Agostino Caracci. Died in 1557. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Francia, (Giulio,) a painter of the Bolognese school, 
 was a relative of Raibolini. Died in 1540. 
 
 Francia, fRan'se-a or fRan'Me-a, (Dr. Josfi Gaspar 
 Rodriguez,) Dictator of Paraguay, was born near As- 
 sumption about 1758. He studied law, and practised 
 with success in Assumption, until the formation of a 
 republic in Paraguay in 181 1, when he became secretary 
 of state. In 1813 he was chosen joint consul with Ful- 
 gencio. The republic having fallen into anarchy, he was 
 made dictator for three years in 1814, and perpetual dic- 
 tator in 181 7. His reign was arbitrary and severe ; but 
 he appears to have repressed disorders with vigour. A 
 system of non-intercourse with foreign countries was 
 adopted by him, and a "rigorous sanitary line was drawn 
 round all Paraguay." " We might define him," says 
 Carlyle, "as the born enemy of quacks. So far as lay 
 in Francia, no public or private man in Paraguay was 
 allowed to slur his work." (See "Essays," vol iv.) 
 Among the most notorious of his arbitrary acts was the 
 detention of Bonpland, a French botanist, who was ar- 
 rested in 1821 and released in 1831. Dr. Francia died 
 in September, 1840, when the power passed to a junta 
 or directory of three. 
 
 See Robertson. " Life of Dr. Francia ;" Bengger, " Essai his- 
 torique sur la Revolution du Paraguay," etc., Paris, 1827.; " Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for July, 1S43. 
 
 Frauciabigio, fRan-cha-bee'jo, (Marcantonio,) a 
 skilful Italian fresco-painter, born at Florence in 1483, 
 was a pupil and friend of Andrea del Sarto. He painted 
 the " Marriage of the Virgin," at Florence, in company 
 with Andreadel Sarto. He excelled in perspective and 
 in colouring. Died in 1524. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters;" Frigerio, "Vita di Marc 
 anionic Frauciabigio." 
 
 Francini, I'Ran-chee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet 
 of patrician rank. He lived in Florence when Milton 
 visited that city in 1638, and was one of seven Florentines 
 specially mentioned by that poet as his friends. He 
 complimented Milton in an Italian ode, the last stanza 
 of which is praised by Dr. Johnson as "natural and 
 beautiful." He is said to have left many poems in 
 manuscript. 
 
 Francis X of Austria. See Francis II. of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Francis [Ger. Franz, fnants] I., Emperor of Ger- 
 many, born at Nancy in 1708, was the eldest son of Leo- 
 pold, Duke of Lorraine, and a French princess, Elizabeth 
 Charlotte of Orleans. In accordance with a treaty made 
 in 1 735> Francis received Tuscany in exchange for Lor- 
 raine, which was ceded to Stanislas Leczinski, on the 
 condition that at his death it should revert to the crown 
 of France. He married Maria Theresa, the daughter 
 and heiress of the emperor Charles VI., in 1736, (see 
 Maria Theresa,) and thus became the founder of the 
 reigning dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine. He was elected 
 Emperor of Germany, as successor to Charles VII., in 
 September, 1745, and was commander-in-chief of the 
 army of Austria, which was then at war with France, 
 until peace was restored in 1748. He is represented 
 as a prince of good disposition and moderate capacity. 
 He died in August, 1765, and was succeeded by his 
 son, Joseph II. 
 
 See J. F. Sevfart, " Lebens- und Repierune:sgescbicbte Kaiser 
 Franz I.," 1766; Coxh, " History of tbe House of Austria;" Vol- 
 taire, "Siecle de Louis XV." 
 
 Francis (Franz) II., (Joseph Kari,) Emperor of 
 Germany, and Francis I. of Austria, was the eldest son 
 of Leopold II. and of Maria Louisa of Spain. He was 
 born at Florence in February, 1768, and at an early age 
 went to reside at the court of Vienna. He married 
 Maria Theresa of Naples in 1790 or 1 791, and began to 
 reign over the -hereditary states of Austria in March, 
 1792. In the same year he was elected Emperor of 
 Germany, and was involved in a war with the French, 
 which was suspended by the treaty of Campo Formio, 
 1797. (See Bonaparte.) In 1799 he entered into a 
 coalition with Russia and England against the French. 
 After gaining and losing many battles, the allies signed 
 a treaty of peace at Luneville in 1801. He assumed the 
 title of hereditary Emperor of Austria in December, 1804, 
 and, in alliance with England and Russia, again defied 
 the power of Napoleon. This war was ended by the 
 battle of Austerlitz, December, 1805, and the treaty of 
 Presburg, by which Tyrol and Venetia were annexed to 
 France. The German empire having been disorganized 
 or subverted, Francis renounced the throne of the Caesars 
 in August, 1806, after which he was styled Francis I. of 
 Austria. In March, 1809, he again declared war against 
 Napoleon, who, after the capture of Vienna and the vic- 
 tory of Wagram, dictated terms of peace in October, 
 1809. He joined in 1813 the coalition which resulted in 
 the final defeat of Napoleon, after which he recovered 
 Venice and Lombardy, and reigned in peace until his 
 death, in March, 1835. He was succeeded by his son, 
 Ferdinand I. Francis was popular with his German 
 subjects. 
 
 See J. von Hormayer, " Kaiser Franz I. und Metternich," 1848 ; 
 H. Meynert, " Franz II. und sein Zeitalter," 1834. 
 
 Francis [Fr. Franqois, fRdN'swa'] I., King of France, 
 born at Cognac September 12, 1494, was the son of 
 Charles, Count of Angouleme, (a cousin-german of King 
 Louis XII.,) and Louise, daughter of Philippe, Duke of 
 Savoy. As Francis had lost his father in infancy, Louis 
 XII. took charge of his education, created him Duke of 
 Valois, and gave him his daughter Claude in marriage in 
 
 1514. The king dying without any son to survive him, 
 Francis succeeded to the throne on the 1st of January, 
 
 1515. In the same year he despatched an army under 
 Constable Bourbon to conquer the Milanese, defended 
 by a Swiss army, which the French engaged and defeated 
 at Marignano. In 1 5 19 Francis was an unsuccessful can- 
 didate for the empire of Germany, which was obtained 
 by his rival, Charles V. of Spain. About two years later, 
 a league was formed against the French king by Charles 
 V., Henry VIII. of England, and the pope, Leo X., the 
 first result of which was the expulsion of the French 
 from the Milanese. The French were defeated in 1524 
 at the battle of Sesia, in which the famous Chevalier 
 Bayard fell, and in 1525 at the decisive battle of Pavia, 
 where Francis commanded in person and was taken 
 prisoner, after receiving two wounds. It is commonly 
 stated that he wrote a report of the event to his mother 
 in these terms : " Madame, all is lost except our honour," 
 ("tout est perdu fors l'honneur.") He was sent to 
 Madrid, and closely confined until he consented to the 
 conditions exacted by Charles V., — namely, the cession 
 
 i, e, I, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, Q, J, short; a, e, i, Q, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; nfit; good; moon ; 
 
FRANCIS 
 
 955 
 
 FRANCIS 
 
 of Burgundy, the renunciation of his claim to Flanders, 
 and the restoration of Constable Bourbon to his estate 
 and rank. After he obtained his liberation, in 1526, he 
 refused to fulfil these conditions, and, forming an alliance 
 with Henry VIII, and Pope Clement, continued the war 
 until 1529, when the treaty of Cambrai was signed, by 
 which Francis abandoned his claim to Italy, and married 
 Eleonore, the sister of Charles. He afterwards devoted 
 several years to the promotion of commerce, science, 
 literature, and industry. He founded the Royal College of 
 three languages in Paris in 1531, and obtained the title of 
 " the Father of French literature." In 1539 the emperor 
 surprised the European public by asking permission of 
 his rival to pass through France on his way from Spain 
 to the Low Countries. Francis granted the request, and 
 entertained Charles, who, it seems, gave him the promise 
 of the duchy of Milan. In 1542 war was again declared, 
 and prosecuted in Piedmont and Picardy without im- 
 portant results, until the French gained a decisive vic- 
 tory at Ceresole, in April, 1544, and a treaty of peace 
 was signed at Crespi in September of that year. Francis 
 died in March, 1547, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Henry II. He left a great reputation for gallantry, 
 generosity, and royal accomplishments, but is justly 
 censured for the persecution which the Protestants 
 red during his reign. 
 See Brant6me, " Memoires ;" Capefigue, " Francois I et la 
 Renaissance," 4 vols., 1S44 ; Michelet, " Renaissance;" A. Va- 
 kii.i.as, "Histoire de Francois I," 1684; GaillarB, "Histoire de 
 Francois I," 8 vols., 176S; MlGNET, " Rivalite de Charles Quint et 
 de Francois I," 1854-66: Miss PAkDOH, "Court andReign ofFran- 
 cis [.." 1849; " Nouvelle Biographic: GeneVale." 
 
 Francis II., King of France, born at Fontainebleau 
 in January, 1543, was the eldest son of Henry II. and of 
 Catherine de Medicis. In 1558 he married the beautiful 
 Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, and on the 10th of July, 
 1559, he succeeded to the throne of his father. In con- 
 sequence of his youth and feeble character, he relin- 
 3uished the power of the state into the hands of the Due 
 e Guise and Cardinal Lorraine, who were uncles of 
 Mary Stuart, and zealous Catholics. Antoine de Bour- 
 bon, King of Navarre, the Prince of Conde, and other 
 nobles, jealous of the influence and impatient of the 
 domination of the Guises, formed a coalition with the 
 Protestants, who were then objects of a violent persecu- 
 tion. In 1560 a conspiracy was discovered by the Guises, 
 which was the prelude of the civil wars that afterwards 
 raged in the kingdom. The States-General were assem- 
 bled at Orleans, and the Prince of Conde was condemned 
 to death ; but he escaped this penalty in consequence of 
 the death of the king, December 5, 1560. Francis was 
 succeeded by his brother, Charles IX. 
 
 See Henault, "Francois II, Roi de France," 1748; Vakii.i.as, 
 "Histoire de Francois II," 1603; Davm.a, "History of the Civil. 
 Wars of France:" W. Anoekson, "History of France during the 
 Reigns of Francis II. and Charles IX.," 5 vols., 1769-82. 
 
 Francis L, (Gennaro Giuseppe,) King of the Two 
 Sicilies, born in Naples in 1777, was the son of Ferdi- 
 nand I. of Naples and of Caroline of Austria. In 1 797 he 
 married Maria Clementina, daughter of the emperor Leo- 
 pold II. While he was heir-presumptive he favoured the 
 party of reform ; but he afterwards became subservient to 
 the Austrian policy. In 1S14, when, by the fall of Murat, 
 Ferdinand recovered Naples, Francis became Governor 
 of Sicily. He succeeded to the throne in January, 1825. 
 His reign was neither prosperous nor popular. He died 
 in 1830, and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand II. 
 
 Francis II., (Makia Leopoldo,) King of the Two 
 Sicilies, a son of Ferdinand II., was born in January, 
 1836. He succeeded his father on the 22d of May, 1859, 
 and married the princess Maria Sophia Amelia of Bavaria 
 in the same year. He persisted in the arbitrary policy 
 which had rendered his father odious. His subjects 
 revolted in i860, and were led to victory by Garibaldi. 
 After a siege of several months, Francis surrendered 
 Gaeta in February, 1861, and his dominions have since 
 been united to the new kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Francis (or Francois) I, Duke of Brctagne, born at 
 Vannes in 1414, was the eldest son of Jean VI., and a 
 nephew of Charles VII. of France. He began to reign 
 in 1442. and formed an alliance with Charles VII. against 
 the English, His memory is deeply stained by his cruelty 
 to his brother Giles. Died in 1450. 
 
 Francis II, the last Duke of Bretagne, born in 1435, 
 succeeded his uncle, Arthur III., in 1459. The principal 
 events of his reign were a series of wars against Louis 
 XI. of France, of whom Francis was a feudatory, and 
 who desired to annex Bretagne to his kingdom. The 
 duke formed an alliance with the King of England and 
 the Duke of Burgundy. He was defeated in a decisive 
 battle by the army of Charles VIII. of France in 14S8, 
 and died the same year. His daughter Anne became 
 the wife of the French king. 
 
 Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, born in 1517, succeeded 
 his father, Antoine, in 1544. He died in 1545, and left 
 the dukedom to his son, Charles III. 
 
 Francis U. of Lorraine, a son of Charles III., born 
 in 1571, became duke in 1624. He abdicated in favour 
 of his son, Charles IV., the same year. Died in 1632. 
 
 Francis IV., Duke of Modena and Reggio, born in 
 1779, was a son of Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, and 
 Maria Beatrice of Este. He began to reign in 1814, and, 
 by his despotic policy, acquired the surname of "the 
 Tiberius of Italy." Died in 1846. 
 
 Francis V., Archduke of Austria, and last Duke of 
 Modena, born in 1819, was a son of Francis IV., whom 
 he succeeded in January, 1846. His reign was very un- 
 popular. In the spring of 1859 his subjects revolted, 
 drove him into exile, and decided by their votes that 
 Modena should be annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia. 
 
 Francis, Duke of Tuscany. See Medicis. 
 
 Fran'cis, (Convers,) an American writer, born at 
 West Cambridge, Massachusetts, about 1796. He was 
 pastor of a Unitarian church at Watertown, Massa- 
 chusetts, from 1819 to 1842, and then became professor 
 of pulpit eloquence at Harvard College. He wrote 
 several biographies, etc. Died in 1863. 
 
 Francis, (Jean Charles.) See Francois. 
 
 Francis, (John Wakefield,) an eminent American 
 physician, born in New York in November, 1789. He 
 graduated at Columbia College in 1809, and took the 
 degree of M.D. at the College of Physicians and Sur- 
 geons in 181 1. Having entered into partnership with 
 Dr. Hosack, he aided the latter in editing the " American 
 Medical and Philosophical Register," (1810-14.) He 
 became professor of materia medica in Columbia Col- 
 lege about 1 814, after which he visited the principal 
 schools of medicine in Europe. On his return he was 
 appointed professor of the institutes of medicine, and 
 in 1 Si 7 obtained the chair of medical jurisprudence. 
 In 1826 Dr. Francis, Dr. Hosack, and other professors 
 resigned their chairs and organized the Rutgers Medical 
 School, in which the former was professor of obstetrics 
 and forensic medicine for four years. He was one of 
 the editors of the " New York Medical and Physical 
 Journal," (1822-24.) After 1830 he devoted his time 
 chiefly to the practice of his profession and to literary 
 pursuits. Among his numerous productions are "Cases 
 of Morbid Anatomy,"(i8i4,) " Febrile Contagion,"(i8i6,) 
 " Denman's Practice of Midwifery," with notes, (1825,) 
 and "Old New York, or Reminiscences of the Past 
 Sixty Years," (1857.) He was one of the founders of 
 the New York Academy of Medicine, of which he was 
 chosen president in 1847. He was prominently identi- 
 fied with the interests of New York, especially with its 
 literary and scientific institutions. Died in 1861. 
 
 See H. T. Tuckhkman, "Life of John W. Francis," 1855 ; 
 "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. ; 
 Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. 
 
 Francis, (Luke,) a Flemish painter of history and 
 portraits, born at Mechlin in 1574. He was patronized 
 at the courts of France and Spain. Died in 1643. 
 
 His son Luke, born at Mechlin in 1606, gained a high 
 reputation in the same branches of art. He worked 
 several years in Paris, and then returned to Flanders. 
 Died in 1654. 
 
 Francis, (Rev. Philip,) an eminent translator, born 
 in Dublin, was the father of Sir Philip Francis. He lived 
 many years in England, to which he removed about 1750. 
 He became chaplain to Lord Holland, and a preceptor 
 of his son, the celebrated Charles James Fox. He pro- 
 duced a poetical translation of Horace, which was suc- 
 cessful, and has often been reprinted, (8th edition, 1778,) 
 a translation of Demosthenes' Orations, (1753-55,) an d 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FRANCIS 
 
 9 ;6 
 
 FRANCISCO 
 
 several tragedies. Dr. Johnson considered his version 
 of Horace the best that had been made. Died in 1773. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Francis, (Sir Philip,) an eminent British statesman, 
 the son of the preceding, was born in Dublin in 1740, 
 and removed to London about the age of ten. He was 
 a clerk in the war office from 1763 to 1772, and was ap- 
 pointed in 1773 a member of the Supreme Council of 
 Bengal, of which Warren Hastings was president. He 
 was the leader of the party which opposed the measures 
 of Hastings. While in this position he fought a duel 
 with Hastings, (who asserted that Francis was void of 
 truth and honour,) was severely wounded, and returned 
 to England about December, 1780. In 1784 he was 
 chosen a member of Parliament, in which he took a 
 prominent part in the trial of Hastings, voted with Fox 
 during the French Revolution, and zealously advocated 
 the abolition of the slave-trade. The Grenville ministry 
 conferred on Francis the title of Knight of the Bath in 
 1806, soon after which he retired from Parliament. He 
 died in London in December, 1818. He was a writer and 
 speaker of decided ability. He is generally believed to 
 have been the author of the famous " Letters of Junius," 
 though he always denied such responsibility. Brougham 
 and Macaulav are among those who were convinced that 
 Francis was the author of Junius. To account for his 
 persistence in concealing his authorship of those letters, 
 Lord Brougham remarks, " He has long, in his proper 
 person, possessed the admiration of all who have a due 
 regard for unblemished public virtue, great talents and 
 accomplishments. He might well afford to forego the 
 applause of the multitude, which could only be purchased 
 by a sacrifice of the tranquillity so invaluable in the de- 
 cline of life." "His style," says the same critic, " was 
 admirable, excelling in clearness, abounding in happy 
 idiomatic terms, not overloaded with words or figures, 
 but not rejecting either beautiful phrases or appropriate 
 ornament." 
 
 See J. Tavlor, "Junius identified with a Distinguished Living 
 Character;" Herman Merivale, "Memoirs of the Life of Sir 
 Pliiiip Francis," 2 vols., 1867; Macaulav, "Essay 011 Warren 
 Hastings ;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1S68. 
 
 Francis, Saint, [It. San Francesco, san fnaii- 
 ches'ko; Fr. Saint-Francois, saN'fko.N'swa',] the cele- 
 brated founder of an order of mendicant friars, called 
 Franciscans, was born at Assisi, in Italy, in 1182. In 
 his youth, prompted by enthusiasm and ascetic devo- 
 tion, he renounced his inheritance, and resolved to live 
 on public charity. Large numbers being attracted by 
 his preaching and example to follow the same course, 
 he composed rules for their organization, which Pope 
 Innocent III. sanctioned about 1210, and by which they 
 were forbidden to have any private property, and were 
 bound to preach and labour without salaries, depending 
 on alms for their simple subsistence. They were named 
 Minor Friars, and sometimes also Cordeliers, from the 
 cord with which their coarse tunic was girded. About 
 the year 1220 he visited Palestine during one of the 
 crusades, and attempted to convert SuUan Meledin, but 
 without success. In 1223 Pope Honorius published a 
 bull confirming the verbal sanction which the order had 
 received from Innocent III. This fraternity became very 
 numerous and influential. He died near Assisi in 1226, 
 and was canonized by Pope Gregory in 1230. 
 
 See Chai.ippe, "Vie de Saint-Francois," 1728; Chavin de 
 Mai.an, "Viede Saint-Francois," 1841; N. Papini, "Stona di 
 S. Francesco di Assisi," 2 vols.. 1825-27: E. Vogt, "Der heilige 
 Franciscus von Assisi," 1840; F. Morin, "S. Francois d' Assise," 
 '853- 
 
 Francis de PauTo, (or PauTa,) [It. Francesco di 
 Paolo, (or Paula,) fRan-ches'ko de pow'lo, (or pow'la ;) 
 Fr. Francois de Paule, fRdN'swa' deh p5l,] Saint, 
 founder of an order of monks called Minimi, was born 
 at Paulo, in Calabria, in 1416. In early life he became a 
 hermit, and by his asceticism acquired a great reputa- 
 tion for sanctity. In 1436 a monastery was built for him 
 and his imitators, who were organized with the name of 
 Eremites, or Hermits of Saint Francis, which was after- 
 wards changed to Minimi. He went to Paris about 1483, 
 at the invitation of the king, Louis XI., who was old 
 and sick and hoped his life would be miraculously pro- 
 longed. He lived to see the order multiply rapidly and 
 
 become very numerous throughout Europe. The rules 
 of this order were approved by a bull of Pope Sixtus 
 VI. in 1474. Died in 1507. 
 
 See C. Duvivier, "Vie et Miracles de S. Francois de Paule," 
 1622; F. Victons, "Vita S. Francisci de Paula," Rome, 1625; I. 
 Toscani, "Delia Vita ed Miracoli di S. Francesco de Paolo," Koine, 
 1648 ; Baillet, " Vies des Saints." 
 
 Francis de Sales. See Sales, Saint Francis de. 
 
 Francis Joseph Charles, [Ger. Franz Joseph 
 Karl, fRantsyo'zef kaRl,) usually called simply Francis 
 Joseph, Emperor of Austria, the eldest son of the Arch- 
 duke Francis Charles Joseph, and a grandson of Francis 
 I., was born on the 18th of August, 1830. His mother 
 was Sophia, a daughter of the King of Bavaria. The 
 stability of the throne having been imperilled by the 
 insurrections in Vienna, Hungary, and Italy, the em- 
 peror Ferdinand, a feeble prince, abdicated in favour 
 of his nephew, the subject of this article, December 
 2, 1848. With the aid of Russia, his armies subju- 
 gated the Hungarians in 1849. Many of the Hungarian 
 generals were executed after they had surrendered. 
 His army also defeated Charles Albert of Sardinia at 
 Novara in 1849. He hastened to seize again the prero- 
 gatives which Ferdinand had given up, and to perfect a 
 system of absolutism. In 1854 he married Elizabeth 
 Amelia Eugenia, a daughter of the Duke of Bavaria. 
 The Austrian court in the spring of 1859 demanded a 
 disarmament on the part of Sardinia, which, supported 
 by Napoleon III., refused to comply. Francis Joseph 
 invaded Sardinia about the end of April, with a large 
 army under Gyulai, who was soon forced to retire across 
 the Ticino, and was defeated at Magenta on the 4th of 
 June by the French and Sardinians. On the 24th of 
 June, 1859, the Austrian army of 150,000 men or more, 
 commanded by Francis Joseph in person, was defeated 
 with great loss at Solferino by the allies, under the com- 
 mand of the emperor Napoleon. The war was ended 
 by the treaty of Villafranca, (July, 1859,) and Lombardy 
 was released from Austrian domination. (See Viei'OR 
 Emanuel.) In 1864 he co-operated with Prussia in the 
 conquest of Sleswick-Holstein and the spoliation of Den- 
 mark. About the 18th of June, 1S66, war was declared 
 between the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia, 
 each of whom aspired to be the head of the German 
 liund. In this war Italy was an ally of Prussia, and the 
 federal army of Germany fought on the side of Austria. 
 The Prussians, with wonderful promptitude and rapidity, 
 occupied Hanover, Saxony, Hesse, etc., and the mam 
 Prussian army entered Bohemia about the 25th of June. 
 On the 3d of July, 1866, they gained a decisive victory 
 over the grand Austrian army at Sadowa. In this short 
 campaign of about ten days the Austrians lost nearly 
 .100,000 men. Francis Joseph ceded Venetia to Louis 
 Napoleon, and, after soliciting in vain the intervention 
 of France, made overtures for peace to Prussia about 
 July 25, 1866. The result of this war was a great hu- 
 miliation of the house of Hapsburg, and the exclusion 
 of Austria from the German Confederation and from 
 Italy. In 1867 the constitutional autonomy of Hungary 
 was restored, and the subjects of Francis Joseph acquired 
 an increase of civil and religious liberty. 
 
 See Edmond Texier, " Les Homines de la Guerre d'Orient: 
 Francois Joseph I," Paris, 1854. 
 
 Francis Xavier. See Xavier. 
 
 Francisci, fran-sis'se, (John,) a Danish poet and 
 physician, born at Ripen in 1532, was chosen professor 
 of medicine in Copenhagen in 1561. He wrote Latin 
 poems, which were received with favour. Died in 1584. 
 
 Francisco de Borgia, fran-sis'ko (or fRan-thes'ko) 
 di boR'ja, [Fr. Francois de Borgia, fR6N'swa' deh 
 boR'zhe-J',] Saint, Duke of Gandia, born at Gandi.t, in 
 Spain, in 1510, was inclined in early youth to the monastic 
 life. To divert him from this, his parents placed him at 
 the court of Charles V., who received him into his favour 
 and made him Viceroy of Catalonia. In 1546 he joined 
 the society of Jesuits, then recently founded by Ignatius 
 Loyola, became a zealous preacher, and in 1565 was 
 elected general of the order. He died in 1572, and was 
 canonized in 167 1 by Pope Clement X. 
 
 See Ribadeneira," Vida de Francisco de Borgia," 1605 ; Micn'et, 
 "Charles V au Monastere de Yuste ;" "Ignatius Loyola ar.d his 
 Associates," in the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1842. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
FRANCISCC 
 
 957 
 
 FRANCCEUR 
 
 Francisco (or Francis) de Jesu Maria, fRan-thes'- 
 ko da hA-mk/ mi-ree'i, a Spanish Carmelite monk and 
 writer on theology, bom at Burgos ; died in 1677. 
 
 Fran-cis'co ~de Vi-to'rI-a, [Sp. pron. fuan-thes^ko 
 da ve-to'rea.l a Spanish Dominican monk, born at Vito- 
 ria. He published "Theologicae Praelectiones." Died 
 in 1549. 
 
 Fran'cl-us or Fransz, fRanss, (Peter,) an excel- 
 lent modern Latin poet, born at Amsterdam in 1645, 
 studied under Gronovius at Leyden. He became, about 
 1675, professor of history, eloquence, and Greek in his 
 native city. " He is justly reckoned," says the " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle," "among those moderns who have 
 cultivated Latin poetry with most success." His " Poe- 
 mata," consisting of elegies, epigrams, etc., were pub- 
 lished in 1672. He also produced Dutch verses and 
 Latin orations, (1692.) Died in 1703. 
 
 See Niceron, " Menioires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Franck, fR5.sk, (Adolphe,) a French philosopher, 
 born in Meurthe in 1S09. He wrote, besides other 
 works, "The Religious Philosophy of the Hebrews," 
 (1843,) and was editor of the " Dictionary of Philosophic 
 Sciences," (6 vols., 1844-52,) for which he wrote many 
 articles. He became one of the keepers of the Imperial 
 Library in 1854, and professor of natural and public law 
 in the College of France in 1856. 
 
 Franck, Frank, fRank, or Francken, fRank'ken, 
 (Ambrose,) a Flemish painter of history, born at Ant- 
 werp about 1545, was a pupil of Frans Floris. Among 
 his works is the " Martyrdom of Saint Crepin and Saint 
 Crepinien." Died in 1619. 
 
 Franck, (Constantine,) a Flemish painter, born at 
 Antwerp in 1660. He excelled in battle-scenes. His 
 master-piece is the "Siege of Nainur by William III." 
 Died about 1708. 
 
 Franck or Francken, (Francis,) surnamed the 
 Elder, a skilful painter, born at or near Antwerp about 
 1544, was a brother of Ambrose, noticed above. He 
 painted, besides other historical works, "The Holy 
 Family," and "Christ in the midst of the Doctors," 
 which is called his master-piece. Died at Antwerp in 
 1616. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Franck, (Francis,) called the Younger, a son of 
 the preceding, born at Antwerp in 1580, studied with 
 his father. After travelling in Italy, he returned to his 
 native place, and was received in the Academy in 1605. 
 He is regarded by some as the most skilful artist of this 
 family. Among his works, which are chiefly historical, 
 are "The Prodigal Son," and "Laban Seeking his 
 Idols." Died in 1642. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 Franck, (Gabriel,) a Flemish painter, was director 
 of the Academy of Antwerp in 1634. 
 
 Franck, (Jean Baptiste,) grandson of Francis the 
 Elder, was born at Antwerp in 1600. He excelled in 
 the representation of picture-galleries, imitating the 
 manner of various artists with skill. His masterpiece 
 is " Rubens and Van Dyck Playing Backgammon." Died 
 in 1653. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 Franck, ( ] erome,) a Flemish painter, born at Heren- 
 thals about 1542, was a brother of Ambrose, -and a pupil 
 of Frans Floris. He acquired a high reputation as a 
 painter of portraits, and was appointed first painter to 
 Ilenrv III. of France. He also painted history with 
 success in Paris and Antwerp. Among his works is a 
 '• Nativity," (Paris, 1585.) He was living in 1607. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Franck, (Sebastian,) son of Francis the Elder, 
 above named, born about 1575, lived at Antwerp, and 
 painted landscapes and battles with success. Died 
 about 1636. 
 
 Franck von Franckenau.- See Frank. 
 
 Francke. See Franke. 
 
 Francke, fRank'ken, written also Franke, (August 
 
 Hermann,) a German Protestant divine and eminent 
 
 philanthropist, born at Lubeck in 1663. He became pro- 
 
 r of Oriental languages at Halle in 1692, and about 
 
 the same time founded in that town an orphan-asylum 
 
 and a college for the poor, which received the name of 
 Francke's Institutions. He was for many years pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Halle. Died in 1727. Francke 
 belonged to the Evangelical school of theology, and 
 wrote "Methodus Studii Theologize," (1723,) besides 
 other works. 
 
 See Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch:" M. Al- 
 bert!, " Mcmunientum A. H. Franckio positum," 1727 ; Niemeyer, 
 "Uebersicht von A. H. Franckeu's Leben,"elc, 178S; Guericke, 
 'Ueber A. H. Francke," Halle, 1827; G. E. Leo, "Leben A. H. 
 Francke's," 1848. 
 
 Francke, fRtnk'keh, (Johan Valentin,) a Danish 
 critic and philologist, was born at Husum about 1792. 
 He became professor in the University of Dorpat, and 
 wrote several works, the principal of which is his "Latin 
 and Greek Inscriptions." Died in 1830. 
 
 See Ersch und GrUBRR, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Francke or Franke, (Theophilus August,) a theo 
 logian, born at Halle in 1696, was a son of August Her 
 maim, whom he succeeded, in 1727, as director of the 
 institution at Halle. Died in 1769. 
 
 Francken. See Franck, (Ambrose.) 
 
 Franckenstein, fnank'en-stm', (Christian Gott- 
 kried,) a German lawyer and historical writer, born at 
 Leipsic in 1661 ; died in 1717. 
 
 His son Jakob, born at Leipsic in 1689, was a jurist; 
 died in 1733. 
 
 Franck'lin, (Thomas,) an English writer, born in 
 London in 1721, became Greek professor at Cambridge 
 in 1750, and was presented to the livings of Ware and 
 Thnndrich in 1758. In 1776 he became rector of Brasted, 
 in Kent. He wrote several dramas, and other works 
 in prose and verse, and published translations of Sopho- 
 cles (2 vols., 1759) and of Lucian, (2 vols., 1780.) Died 
 in London in 1784. 
 
 Fran'co [Fr. Francon or Frankon, fR&N'k6N'] 
 of Cologne, a celebrated scholar and writer on music, 
 flourished at Liege about 1050. He is supposed to have 
 been born at Cologne. " He is the author," says Denne- 
 Baron, "of the most ancient treatises which are extant 
 on measured music and regular harmony," namely, " Ars 
 Cantus Mensurabilis," and " Compendium de Discantu." 
 ("Nouvelle Biographie Generale.") 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Franco, fnan'ko, (Battista,) called Semolei, an 
 eminent Venetian painter and engraver, born in 1498, 
 studied at Rome, and imitated Michael Angelo. He 
 practised his art in several cities of Italy with success, 
 and engraved many subjects after Raphael. He was a 
 skilful designer. Among his paintings is " Hannibal 
 assailed by a Storm under the Walls of Rome." Died 
 in Venice in 1 561. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy." 
 
 Franco, (Niccoi.6,) a satirical and licentious Italian 
 poet, born at Benevento about 1510. He published, 
 besides other works, "The Temple of Love," "La Pri- 
 apea," (1541,) and "Dialogues on Beauty," (1542.) He 
 was hung by order of Pope Pius V. in 1569, either for 
 the immoral tendency of his books or for a personal 
 satire on the pontiff. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Franco, (Veronica,) an Italian poetess, born at 
 Venice in 1554; died about 1595. 
 
 Franco-Barreto, fitan'ko bar-ra'to, (J0X0,) a classic 
 Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon about 1600. After 
 serving in the armament sent to Brazil in 1646, he took 
 orders, and became vicar of Barreiro in 1648. He pub- 
 lished numerous works in verse and prose, among which 
 is a poetical translation of the " jEneid," which is com- 
 mended for its fidelity and other merits, (1664-70.) Died 
 about 1668. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, "Bibliolheca Lusitana." 
 
 Francceur, fR5N'kUR', (Louis Benjamin,) a French 
 geometer, born in Paris in 1773. He became professor 
 of mathematics at the Faculty of Sciences in 1809. He 
 wrote many good school-books, among which are a 
 " Complete Course of Pure Mathematics, (2 vols., 1809,) 
 and "Elements of Statics," (l8to.) Died in 1849. 
 
 See Franccsur fils, "Notice sur la Vie de L. B. Francceur," 
 1854. 
 
 € as *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as 1; th as in this. (Jfy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FRANCOIS 
 
 958 
 
 FRANKLIN 
 
 Francois, fnoN'swa', (Jean Charles,) a French en- 
 graver, born at Nancy in 171 7. He was the inventor of 
 engraving in imitation of crayon or pencil. Died in 1769. 
 
 See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Francois, (Laurent,) a French priest, born at Arin- 
 thod in 1698, was a defender of revealed religion against 
 Voltaire and other skeptics. Among his works isa" De- 
 fence of the Christian Religion against the Objections of 
 Infidels," (2 vols., 1755.) Died in 1782. 
 
 Francois, (Luc,) a Flemish painter. See Francis, 
 (Luke.) 
 
 Francois, (Simon,) a French portrait-painter, called 
 LE Valentin, born at Tours in 1606 ; died in 1671. 
 
 Francois de Bourbon. See Enghien, Bourbon, 
 and Montpensier. 
 
 Francois de Neufchateau, fnoN'swa' deh nuh'- 
 sha'to', (Nicolas Louis,) Comte, a French statesman 
 and poet, born in Lorraine in 1750. In his youth he was 
 for a short time secretary to Voltaire. He favoured the 
 Revolution, and was elected to the Legislative Assembly 
 in 1791. In October, 1792, he was appointed minister 
 of justice, but declined. His comedy " Pamela" was 
 performed with success in 1793. He was a member of 
 the executive Directory from September, 1797, until May, 
 1798, and became minister of the interior in July of that 
 year. He was appointed a senator about the end of 1799, 
 and was president of the senate two years, 1804-06. In 
 this capacity he pronounced several eloquent addresses 
 to the emperor. He was admitted into the French Acad- 
 emy in 1816, after which he retired from public life. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 See A. F. de Silvestre, " Notice biographique sur M. le Comte 
 Francois de Neufchlteau," 1828; H. Bonnelier, "M^moires sur 
 Francois de NeufchSteau," 1829; Querard, "La France Litt^- 
 raire;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Francowitz, fRan'ko-wits', (Matthias Flach — 
 flaK,) an eminent Protestant theologian and biblical critic, 
 born in Istria in 1521, assumed the name of FlaCCUS 
 (or Flacius) Illyricus. He was a pupil of Luther at 
 Wittenberg, where he became a professor of Hebrew in 
 1544. He was chosen professor of theology at Jena in 
 1557. To superior talents he joined extensive learning. 
 His character is represented as turbulent, impetuous, 
 and disputatious. He wrote many controversial works, 
 (partly against Melanchthon,) an excellent Ecclesiastical 
 History, entitled " Centuries of Magdeburg," published 
 in 3 volumes at Magdeburg, (1559-74,) which Mosheim 
 calls "an immortal work," and "Key of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures," (" Clavis Scripture Sacra;," 1567.) Died in 1575. 
 
 See Twesten, "Matthias Flacius Illyricus," Berlin, 1844: J. B. 
 Ritter, " Beschreibung des Lebens Flaccii," 1723: M. Adam, 
 "Viue Gernianorum Theolngorum ;" Niceron, "Memoires;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Francucci, fitan-koot'chee, (Innocenzio,) called also 
 Innocenzio da Imola, an Italian painter, born at Imola 
 about 1490, was a pupil of Francia. He lived in Bologna, 
 and adorned the churches of that city with frescos which 
 were greatly admired. The latest date on his works is 
 1549. A picture of the "Archangel Michael and Satan" 
 is esteemed his master-piece. 
 
 See Varari, " Lives of the Painters :" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy;" Papotti, " Elogio di I. Francucci, Imitatore glorioso 
 del divino Raffaello," 1840. 
 
 Frangipani, fRan-je-pa'nee, a powerful family of Rome 
 in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, who derived their 
 name from the distribution of bread in time of famine. 
 They held the first rank among the nobility until the 
 Colonna family and the Orsini gained the ascendant. 
 Cenzio Frangipani produced a schism in the Church in 
 1 1 18 by the election of the Antipope Burdino, who 
 assumed the title of Gregory VIII. 
 
 Frangipani, (Claudio Cornelio,) a jurist, born in 
 Venice in 1533, professed civil law with great credit in 
 his native city, and wrote several legal treatises. Died 
 in 1630. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Frangipani, (Cornelio,) a Venetian of noble descent, 
 born in Friuli, was the father of the preceding. He prac- 
 tised law in Venice, was distinguished as an orator, and 
 translated three of Cicero's orations. Died in 1581. 
 
 Frank. See Franck. 
 
 Frank, or Francke von Franckenau, fRank'keh 
 fon fitank'keh-now', (Georg,) a learned German physi- 
 cian and elegant writer, was born in Naumburg, in Mis- 
 nia, in 1643. He wrote agreeable verses in German, 
 Latin, and Greek. After he had taught medicine at 
 Wittenberg, he became chief physician and aulic 
 councillor to Christian V. of Denmark. He published, 
 besides other works, a "Flora Francica," (1685,) and 
 "Twenty Medical Satires," (" Satyre Medicse Viginti," 
 1722.) He was created count by the emperor in 1691. 
 Died in 1704. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" " Biographie Me'dxale." 
 
 Frank, or Francke von Franckenau, (Georg 
 Frif.drich,) a son of the preceding, born about 1670, 
 was also a physician. He became professor at Copen- 
 hagen, and wrote several medical works. Died in 1732. 
 
 Frank, (Jacob,) a Polish Jew, born in 1712, was the 
 founder of a sect called Frankists or Zoharites. He 
 acquired a great reputation as a Cabalist, and made 
 many disciples in Podolia about 1750. They rejected the 
 Talmud, and professed faith in a book called "Zohar." 
 Died in 1791. 
 
 Frank, (Johann Peter,) a celebrated German phy- 
 sician, born in the duchy of Baden in 1745, graduated 
 at Heidelberg, succeeded Tissot in 1785 in the chair 
 of clinics at Pavia, and in 1804 was appointed professor 
 of medicine at Wilna, and soon after physician to the 
 emperor Alexander of Russia. Among his principal 
 works are his " System of a Perfect Medical Police," 
 (1784,) and "Special Pathology and Therapeutics." 
 Died in 1821. His son, Joseph, born in 1771, was a 
 skilful physician, and the author of several valuable 
 medical treatises. Died in 1842. 
 
 See "Biographie des J. P. Frank," Vienna, 1802: Ersch uni 
 Gruber, "Allgemeine Er.cyklopaedie." 
 
 Frank, (Sebastian,) an excellent German prose 
 writer, also noted as a visionary theologian, was born at 
 Donauworth, in Suabia, about 1500. He was a zealous 
 Reformer, but by his mystical opinions and writings was 
 involved in a quarrel with Luther. Among his numerous 
 works were a Chronicle of Germany. Died about 1545. 
 
 See Christian Kari. Am Ende, " Kleine Nachlese zu den 
 vielen unvnllstandigen Nachrichten von S. Frank's Leben," 1796- 
 99; S. G. Wald, " De Vita et Systemate mystico S. Franki," 1793. 
 
 Franke. See Francke, (August H.) 
 
 Frankel, fRan'kel, (Zackarias,) a learned Jewish 
 writer, born at Prague in 1801. He became chief rabbi 
 at Dresden about 1836. His works are said to be per- 
 vaded by the spirit of progress. 
 
 Franki, fnankl, (Ludwig August,) a German poet, of 
 a Jewish family, born in Bohemia in 1810. His heroic 
 poem of " Don Juan of Austria," (1846,) and an epic en- 
 titled "Christopher Columbus," (1836,) are among his 
 best works. 
 
 Frank'land, (Rev. Thomas,) an English physician, 
 born in 1633. , He produced, besides other works, "The 
 Annals of King James I. and Charles I.," (1681,) which 
 are said to be impartial. Died in 1690. 
 
 Frank'lin, (Anna Eleanor Porden,) an English 
 poetess, born in 1795, was a daughter of Mr. Porden, 
 architect of Eton Hall. She learned several ancient and 
 modern languages, and wrote poems entitled "The Veils, 
 or the Triumph of Constancy," (1815,) " The Arctic Ex- 
 pedition," ( 181 8, ) and "Cceur-de-Lion, or the Third Cru- 
 sade," an epic poem, (1824.) In 1823 she was married 
 to the great navigator Sir John Franklin. Died in 1825. 
 
 Frank'lin, (Benjamin,) an eminent American phi- 
 losopher and statesman, born at Boston, in Massachu- 
 setts, the 17th of January, 1706. He was the youngest 
 son and fifteenth child of a family of seventeen children. 
 His father, Josiah Franklin, emigrated from England, to 
 America in 1682: he followed the business of tallow- 
 chandler and soap-boiler. Benjamin, when only ten 
 years old, was employed in his father's shop, in cutting 
 wicks, going errands, etc. ; but soon, becoming disgusted 
 with the monotonous routine of his duties, he conceived 
 a strong desire to go to sea. To prevent this, his father 
 bound him apprentice to his brother James, who was a 
 printer. Young Franklin had now free access to books, 
 for which he had evinced a fondness even from infancy. 
 He himself says he could not remember the time when 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
FRANKLIN 
 
 959 
 
 FRANKLIN 
 
 he did not know how to read. To gratify his thirst for 
 reading, he would often sit up the greater part of the 
 night. During his apprenticeship, he made occasional 
 anonymous contributions to a paper published by his 
 brother, and once had the gratification to hear his articles 
 warmly commended by some gentlemen who called at 
 the office, and who little imagined him to be the author, 
 lie did not, however, neglect his duties as a printer; 
 and he became in a few years well skilled in his trade. 
 But the two brothers could not agree. The elder appears 
 to have been of a severe and passionate temper, which 
 the younger (as he himself intimates) may have some- 
 times provoked by his impertinence. At length, when 
 seventeen years of age, young Franklin left Boston 
 without the knowledge of his relations, embarking in a 
 vessel bound for New York, whence he proceeded, partly 
 by water and partly on foot, to Philadelphia. Here he 
 obtained employment as a journeyman printer. In the 
 following year, encouraged by the promise of assistance 
 from a gentleman in Philadelphia, he resolved to set up 
 business for himself. With this view he went to England 
 in order to purchase type and other materials necessary 
 for carrying on his trade. But, failing to receive the aid 
 which he had expected from his pretended friend, he 
 was obliged to work as a journeyman in London, where 
 he remained more than a year. He returned in 1726 to 
 Philadelphia, and in 1729, with the assistance of some 
 friends, he established himself in business. The next 
 vear he married Miss Deborah Read, with whom he 
 had become acquainted in Philadelphia .before he went 
 to England. In 1729 he became the editor and propri- 
 etor of a newspaper, (the " Pennsvlvania Gazette,") which 
 his talent for writing soon rendered very popular and 
 very profitable. In 1732 he commenced the publication 
 of an almanac purporting to be by "Richard Saunders." 
 He sought to make this, as well as his paper, the vehicle 
 of useful information for the people, especially inculcating 
 the virtues of frugality, industry, etc. It was commonly 
 called "Poor Richard's Almanac," under which name ft 
 acquired a wide celebrity. He soon won for himself a 
 high reputation for public spirit as well as for wisdom 
 and foresight. He warmly supported, both by his per- 
 sonal efforts and by his pen, every enterprise which in 
 his judgment was calculated to promote the public good. 
 To him is due the credit of founding the Philadelphia 
 Library, which was commenced in 1731 and is now one 
 of the largest in the United States. By his talents, pru- 
 dence, and integrity, he continued to rise in the estima- 
 tion of the community in which he lived, until he was 
 deemed worthy of the highest honours which his country 
 could bestow. He was made successively clerk of the 
 General Assembly of Pennsylvania, (1736,) postmaster 
 of Philadelphia, (1737,) and deputy postmaster-general 
 for the British colonies, (1753.) A dispute having arisen 
 between the Assembly and the proprietary governors, 
 in consequence of the latter claiming exemption from 
 taxation, Franklin was sent in 1757 to England to plead 
 the cause of the people before the privy council. His 
 representations and arguments prevailed ; and it was 
 decided that the estates of the proprietaries should bear 
 their due proportion of the public burdens. On his 
 return in 1762, he received the thanks of the Assembly 
 for the able and faithful fulfilment of his mission. 
 
 Franklin had already become distinguished in the 
 scientific world by his successful experiments on the 
 nature of electricity. In 1752 he had made the important 
 and brilliant discovery of the identity of lightning with 
 the electric fluid, by means of a kite. Some letters, giving 
 an account of his first experiments, were sent to England 
 to his friend Mr. Collinson, who had them, read before 
 the Royal Society; but they attracted little attention. 
 " One paper," says Franklin in his Autobiography, " which 
 I wrote for Mr. Kinnersley, on the sameness of lightning 
 with electricity, . . . was laughed at by the connois- 
 seurs." These papers were not even thought worthy 
 to be printed in the " Transactions" of the society. At 
 the suggestion of Dr. Fothergill, they were published in 
 a pamphlet by themselves. A copy having fallen under 
 .he notice of the celebrated Count' de Buffon, it was, at 
 his instance, translated into French, and excited great 
 attention on the continent. The subject was brought 
 
 again before the notice of the Royal Society; ana "they 
 soon made me," says Franklin, "more than amends for 
 the slight with which they had before treated me." 
 Without waiting for any application to be made on his 
 behalf, they chose him a member of their body, and voted 
 that he should be excused from the customary payments 
 on admission, (amounting to twenty-five guineas ;) they 
 also bestowed upon him the Copley gold medal, (dated 
 1753,) and afterwards furnished him with their "Trans- 
 actions" without charge. Alluding to Franklin's account 
 of his electrical experiments, Sir Humphry Davy ob- 
 serves, "A singular felicity of induction guided all his 
 researches, and by very small means he established very 
 grand truths : the style and manner of his publication 
 are almost as worthy of admiration as the doctrines it 
 contains. . . . He has written equally for the uninitiated 
 and for the philosopher." Before he left England, in 
 1762, the degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred upon 
 him by the Universities of Edinburgh and Oxford. 
 
 In 1764, Franklin was again sent by the Assembly as 
 agent to England.* The policy of taxing the colonies 
 had already been agitated ; and he was instructed by the 
 Assembly to use his efforts against such a measure. 
 But the ministry had formed their plans, and the Stamp 
 Act was passed early in 1765. In the examination before 
 the House of Commons in 1766, Franklin's talents, skill, 
 and varied information were shown to great advantage, 
 and the repeal of the obnoxious Stamp Act was the result. 
 But other laws, deemed equally objectionable, remained 
 in force. In the dispute between the American colonies 
 and the mother-country, Franklin had sought sincerely 
 and earnestly to prevent a disruption : when, however, 
 he became convinced that a separation was inevitable, 
 he returned home and took an active part in promoting 
 the cause of independence. He arrived at Philadelphia 
 on the 5th of May, 1775, after an absence of rather more 
 than ten years. The day after his arrival he was unani- 
 mously elected by the Assembly of Pennsylvania a dele- 
 gate to the second Continental Congress, then about to 
 assemble. He was one of the committee of five chosen 
 by Congress to prepare the " Declaration of Independ- 
 ence," which, having been agreed to on the 4th of July, 
 1 776, he afterwards signed with the other leading pa- 
 triots. Towards the close of 1776 he was sent as am- 
 bassador to the court of France : he arrived in Paris on 
 the 21st of December. To Franklin is due the principal, 
 if not the sole, credit of effecting between France and 
 the United States the Treaty of Alliance, the stipulations 
 of which were so eminently favourable to the latter 
 country. This treaty, signed at Paris the 6th of February, 
 1778, may be said to have secured the independence of 
 the American colonies. Franklin took an important 
 part in the negotiation of peace with England, and signed 
 the preliminary articles of a treaty of peace at Paris on 
 the 30th of November, 17S2. The definitive treaty of 
 peace was signed at Paris by Franklin, Adams, and Jay, 
 September 3, 1783. Franklin afterwards negotiated with 
 Prussia a treaty, in which he inserted an article against 
 privateering. "This treaty," said Washington, "marks 
 a new era in negotiation. It is the most liberal treaty 
 which has ever been entered into between independent 
 powers." He returned home in September, 1785, and 
 in the next month was chosen President of Pennsylvania 
 for one year. He was re-elected in 1786 and 1787. He 
 was a delegate to the convention which met at Philadel- 
 phia in May, 1787, to form a Constitution of the United 
 States. It deserves to be mentioned that he introduced 
 a motion for daily prayers in this convention, on which 
 occasion he said, "I have lived a long time, and the 
 longer I live the more convincing proofs I see of this 
 truth, that God governs in the affairs of men. And if a 
 sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his notice, is 
 it probable that an empire can rise without his aid ?" 
 
 At the close of the convention he made a speech, in 
 which he said, " I consent to this Constitution, because 
 I expect no better, and because I am not sure that it is 
 not the best." His last public act was the signature 
 of a memorial addressed to Congress by the Abolition 
 Society, of which he was president. 
 
 * He was afterwards appointed agent by several of the other 
 colonies. 
 
 < as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FRANKLIN 
 
 960 
 
 FRANZ 
 
 He died in Philadelphia on the 17th of April, 1790, 
 aged eighty-four years, leaving a son, William, who was 
 Governor of New Jersey, and a daughter, Sarah Rache. 
 His remains are entombed in the cemetery of Christ 
 Church, at the southeastern angle of Fifth and Arch 
 Streets, Philadelphia. 
 
 In person Franklin was of a medium stature, well 
 formed and strongly built, with a light complexion and 
 gray eyes. As a philosopher he was remarkable for 
 simplicity of character and for practical common sense. 
 He deemed nothing which concerned the interest or hap- 
 piness of mankind unworthy of his attention; and he 
 rarely, if ever, bestowed attention on any subject without 
 permanently useful results. His services to science and 
 liberty were expressed in this famous line by Turgot : 
 '* Eripuil ccelo fulnien, sceptrumque tyrannis."* 
 
 " He never pretended to the accomplishments of an 
 orator or debater. He seldom spoke in a deliberative 
 assembly except for some special object, and then briefly 
 and with great simplicity of manner and language/' 
 (Sparks's " Life of Franklin.") 
 
 Franklin left an interesting and highly-instructive 
 autobiography of the earlier part of his life, (up to his 
 fifty-second year.) A continuation has been added by 
 Jared Sparks, prefixed to an edition of Franklin's entire 
 works, — the whole being comprised in 10 vols. 8vo, 
 (Boston, 1850.) 
 
 " Antiquity," says Mirabeau, " would have raised altars 
 to this mighty genius, who, to the advantage of man- 
 kind, compassing in his mind the heavens and the earth, 
 was able to restrain alike thunderbolts and tyrants." 
 Lord Chatham, in a public speech made in 1775, charac- 
 terized Franklin as " one whom all Europe held in high 
 estimation for his knowledge and wisdom, and ranked 
 with our Boyles and Newtons ; who was an. honour not 
 to the English nation only, but to human nature." " His 
 style," says Lord Jeffrey, "has all the vigour and even 
 conciseness of Swift, without any of his harshness. It 
 is in no degree more flowery, yet both elegant and lively. 
 ■ . . The peculiar charm of his writings, and his great 
 merit also in action, consisted in the clearness with which 
 he saw his object, and the bold and steady pursuit of 
 it by the surest and the shortest road." 
 
 See Lord Jeffrey's articles in the " Edinburgh Review," July, 
 1806, and August, 1817; Condorcet, " E*loge de Franklin," 1790; 
 Bancroft," History of the United States," vol. ix. chap. xxix. ; A. 
 Norton, article in the "North American Review," vol. vii. ; Mi- 
 gnet, "Vie de Franklin;" Bauer, "Washington und Franklin," 
 Berlin, 1803-06: C. Schmaltz, " Leben Benj. Franklins," 1S40. In 
 1S68 a corrected edition of his Autobiography was published by John 
 Bigelow, who obtained the original MS. in Paris. See, also, Lord 
 Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George III.," vol. ii. ; 
 Parton, " Life and Times of B. Franklin," 2 vols. 8vo, 1864. 
 
 Franklin, (Jane Griffin,) Lady, the second wife of 
 Sir John Franklin, was born about 1802. She was mar- 
 ried about 1828, and went with her husband to Van 
 Diemen's Land in 1836. Her name has been rendered 
 memorable by her persevering efforts to ascertain the 
 fate of Sir John Franklin. In 1850 she sent out a ship 
 for that purpose at her own expense. Other expeditions 
 were sent by the British government, without success, 
 until 1857, when she fitted out the steamer Fox. See 
 Franklin, (Sir John.) 
 
 Franklin, (Sir John,) a distinguished English navi- 
 gator and Arctic explorer, was born at Spilsby, in 
 Lincolnshire, in April, 1786. He entered the navy as a 
 midshipman about 1800, and in 1801 accompanied Cap- 
 tain Flinders in a voyage of exploration to Australia. 
 He served with distinction at the battle of Trafalgar, 
 October 21, 1805, and was slightly wounded in the attack 
 on New Orleans, January, 1815. Having obtained the 
 rank of lieutenant, he was appointed commander of the 
 Trent in the Arctic expedition which, under Captain 
 Buchan, sailed in 1818. The ship of Captain Buchan 
 was disabled soon after their departure, and the expe- 
 dition consequently failed. In 1819 he conducted an 
 overland expedition sent to trace the coast-line of North 
 America, in which service he and his party walked about 
 fifty-five hundred and fifty miles. On his return to 
 England he published a narrative of his expedition, and 
 
 • " He wrested the thunderbolt from heaven and the sceptre from 
 tyrants." 
 
 was raised to the rank of captain. He was elected a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society in 1823, and married Miss 
 Eleanor Porden about that date. In 1825 he renewed 
 the enterprise of exploration by land, and traced the 
 coast of North America from the mouth of the Copper- 
 mine River to the 150th meridian, for which service he 
 was knighted. He afterwards commanded the Rainbow 
 in the Mediterranean for several years. Having lost 
 his first wife, he married Jane Griffin in 1828. He was 
 Governor of Van Diemen's Land from 1836 to 1842. 
 
 The government having ordered a new expedition to 
 discover a Northwest passage, and given the command 
 of it to Sir John Franklin, he sailed with the Erebus 
 and Terror in May, 1845, and never returned. Several 
 expeditions were sent in search of him by the English 
 and the Americans, without success; but Dr. Rae found, 
 in 1854, some relics of the lost navigators. Lady 
 Franklin sent out, in 1857, the steamer Fox, under Cap- 
 tain McClintock, who, in the summer of 1859, discovered 
 on the shore of King William's Land a record deposited 
 in a cairn by the survivors of Franklin's company. This 
 document, dated April 25, 1848, stated that Sir John 
 Franklin died June 11, 1847, that the Erebus and Terror 
 were abandoned April 22, 1848, when the survivors, 
 one hundred and five in number, started for the Great 
 Fish River. Many relics were found of this party, who 
 perished on their journey, probably soon after they left 
 the vessels. It appears that Sir John is entitled to the 
 honour of being the first to discover a Northwest passage. 
 
 See P. L. Simmonds, "Sir John Franklin and the Arctic Re- 
 gions," 1852; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1823; 
 "North American Review" for July, 1850, (vol. lxxi.) 
 
 Franklin, (William,) the last royal Governor of 
 New Jersey, an illegitimate son of the celebrated Dr. 
 Franklin, was born in Philadelphia about 1731. He 
 served as an officer in the French war before he was of 
 age. In 1757 he went with his father to London, where 
 he studied law and was admitted to the bar. He was 
 appointed Governor of New Jersey in 1762, became a 
 Tory in the Revolution, and was confined in prison for 
 two years, 1776-78. In 1782 he removed to England, 
 where he remained until his death, in 1813. He left a 
 son, William Temple F'rankfin. 
 
 Franklin, (William B.,) an American general, born 
 at York, Pennsylvania, in 1823, graduated at West Point 
 in 1843, in the same class with Ulysses S. Grant. He 
 served in the Mexican war, became a captain in 1857, 
 and colonel in the regular army in 1861. He served as 
 a general under McClellan in several battles near Rich- 
 mond in June, 1862, commanded a corps at Malvern 
 Hill, July I, and at Antietam, September 17. He was 
 appointed a major-general of volunteers about July, 
 1S62. In December, 1862, he led a grand division of 
 Burnside's army at Fredericksburg. He commanded a 
 division of General Banks's army in the Red River 
 campaign of 1864. 
 
 Franquelm, fRSNk'laN', (Jean Auguste,) a French 
 painter of genre, born in Paris in 1798; died in 1839. 
 
 Franscini, fiian-shee'nee, (Stefano,) a Swiss states- 
 man of the Liberal party, born in the canton of Tessin 
 (Ticino) in 1796. He was secretary of state from 1830 
 to 1837, after which he was a member of the Federal 
 Council. In 1849 or 1850 he became minister of the in- 
 terior and of public instruction. He published, besides 
 other works, "Statistics of Switzerland," (," Statistics 
 della Suizzera," 3 vols., 182S-51.) Died in 1857. 
 
 Fransoni, fRan-so'nee, or Franzoni, fuan-zo'nee, 
 (Luioi,) an Italian prelate, born at Genoa in 1789. He 
 became Archbishop of Turin about 1831, and displayed 
 a great zeal for ultramontane doctrines and absolutism. 
 He was banished about 1853. 
 
 Fransz, (Peter.) See Francius. 
 
 Frautz, fRjnts, or Frantzius, fitSnt'se-us, (Wolf- 
 gang,) a German Protestant theologian, born at Plauen, 
 in Saxony, in 1564, was professor of theology at Wit- 
 tenberg. Among his works is " A Treatise on the 
 Interpretation of the Sacred Scriptures," ("Tractatus 
 de Interpretatione Sacrae Scripturas.") Died in 1628. 
 
 See J. G. Neumann, "Programma de Vita W. Frantzii," 1709. 
 
 Franz, fRarits, (Agnes,) born in Silesia in 1794, wrote 
 a number of excellent and attractive works for children, 
 
 2, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e I, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, ofirurc: far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
FRANZ 
 
 961 
 
 FREDERICK 
 
 among which are " My Legacy to Youth," and the 
 " Book of Childhood and Youth." Died in 1843. 
 
 Franz, (JOHANN Michael,) » German geographer, 
 born at Oehringen in 1700; died in 1761. 
 
 Franz, (JOHANNES,) a German scholar, born at Nu- 
 remberg in 1S04. In 1S32 he accompanied King Otho 
 to Greece, where he was appointed chief interpreter. 
 He published a "German-Greek Dictionary," (1838,) 
 " Elements of Greek Epigraphy," and other works. Died 
 In 1851. 
 
 Franz, (Karl Joseph,) Prince and Archduke of 
 Austria, bom in 1802, was a son of Francis I., and the 
 father of the present emperor, Francis Joseph, in whose 
 favour he resigned his own right to the throne in 1848. 
 
 Franzen, frant-sTTn', (Fkans Michaki.,) a popular 
 Swedish poet, born at Uleiborg, Finland, in 1772, was 
 for some time pastor of a church in Stockholm, and 
 about 1832 was made Bishop of Hernosand. From 
 1824 to 1834 he acted as secretary of the Swedish Acad- 
 emy. Me wrote biographical memoirs of several persons, 
 ■Misted in an authorized and excellent version of the 
 Psalms, and published several volumes of songs and 
 other poems, which are highly appreciated and have 
 acquired for him the reputation of one of the most 
 eminent Swedish poets of his age. Died in 1847. Among 
 his poems is "Columbus, or the Discovery of America," 
 ("Columbus, eller Amerikas Upptackt," 1831.) 
 
 See 0. H. Mki.i.is, "Minna Tal Sfver F. M. Franzen," 1848; 
 
 '' Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Fra Paolo. See Sarpi. 
 
 Fra'ser, (Alexander,) a Scottish painter, born about 
 1792. Me painted domestic and familiar scenes with suc- 
 cess. Among his works are the " Interior of a Highland 
 Cottage," and " The Last Moments of Mary Queen of 
 Died in 1865. 
 
 Fraser, (ALEXANDER Camprki.i.,) a Scottish meta- 
 physician, born in Argyleshire about 1818. lie studied 
 under Sir William Hamilton, and became professor of 
 logic in the New College, Edinburgh, in 1S46, and editor 
 of the "North British Review" about 1850. In 1856 he 
 succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of logic 
 and metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Ife 
 published a work entitled "Rational Philosophy in His- 
 tory and m System." 
 
 Fra'ser, (Charles,) an American painter and writer, 
 born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1782, was a lawyer 
 for many years. His portraits include La Fayette, and 
 a great number of eminent persons of South Carolina. 
 Died in i860. 
 
 See Dunlap, "History of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of 
 Design in America." 
 
 Fraser, (James Baillie,) a popular Scottish writer 
 of travels, born in 1783, resided on his estate of Reelig, 
 Inverness-shire. He spent many years in travelling in 
 Asia, and published numerous entertaining works, among 
 which are "Journal of a Tour through part of the Hima- 
 laya Mountains," (1820;) "Journey into Khorasan," 
 (1825 ;) "The Persian Adventurer," a romance, (1828 ;) 
 " History of Persia, Ancient and Modern," (1847;) and 
 "Travels through Various Parts of Persia," (1838,) 
 which, says the "London Athenseum," "can hardly be 
 surpassed in livelv delineations and rapid but graphic 
 sketches." Died in 1856. 
 
 Fraser, (Simon.) See Lovat. 
 
 Fraser, (Simon,) a British general of high reputation, 
 was second in command of the army which, under Bur- 
 goyne, invaded New York in 1777. lie was killed at the 
 battle of Stillwater, in October of that year. 
 
 Frassen, fRi'sfiN', (Claude,) a French monk, born 
 near Peronne in 1620. He published a " Course of The- 
 clogy," (4 vols., 1672,) and other works. Died in 1711. 
 
 Fratellini, fRitel-lee'nee, (Giovanna,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Florence in 1666, was adopted in in- 
 fancy by the grand duchess Vittoria. She excelled in 
 portraits. Died in 1731. 
 
 Fratellini, (Lorenzo,) a Florentine portrait-painter, 
 a son of the preceding, born about 1690; died in 1729. 
 
 Fratta, fKat'ta, (Domenico Maria,) a skilful Italian 
 painter, born at Bologna in 1696; died in 1763. 
 
 Franenlob, fnow'en-lop', originally Heinrich von 
 Meissen, a famous German poet, was born in the thir- 
 
 e as^ 
 
 teenth century. He composed " Songs," (" Lieder,") 
 ami witty or sententious sayings, (" Spriiche,") and 
 invented many varieties of metre. His works are partly 
 satirical. Died at Mentz in 13 18. 
 
 See Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" K. G5- 
 deke, " Das Mitlelalter ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" N. 
 Vogt, "Heinrich Franenlob," 1792. 
 
 Fraunoe, (Abraham,) an English poet, lived in the 
 reign of Elizabeth, and was educated at Cambridge. 
 He was author of " Lawyers' Logic," of " Arcadian 
 Rhetoric," a mixture of prose and verse, and of several 
 small poems in English hexameter, published between 
 1587 and 1 59 1. 
 
 Fraunhofer, von, fon fRown'ho'fer, (Joseph,) an 
 eminent German optician, born at Straubing, in Bavaria, 
 in March, 1787. He was an apprentice to a manufac- 
 turer of mirrors, and afterwards became an assistant 
 of Reichenbach in the fabrication of mathematical in- 
 struments, near Munich. He invented or perfected a 
 heliometer and micrometer, and constructed the great 
 parallactic telescope of Dorpat. Among his discover- 
 ies was the fact that the solar spectrum is crossed by 
 about five hundred and ninety black lines. Died in 
 1826. We owe to him the art of making the finest glass 
 for achromatic telescopes. 
 
 See Utzschneipek, " Umriss der Lebensgeschichte des J. von 
 Fraunhofer;" Eksch und Grubkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Frayssinous, fRj'se'noo', (Denis Luc,) a French 
 prelate and eminent pulpit orator, born at Curieres in 
 1765, became chaplain to Louis XVIII. He was ap- 
 pointed Bishop of Hermopolis in 1822, and grand mas- 
 ter of the university in 1823. He was minister of public 
 instruction from 1824 to 1828. Among his writings is a 
 " Defence of Christianity," (1S23.) Died in 1841. 
 
 See M. Henrion, "Vie de M. Frayssinous," 1842; "Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 Fra-aee', (John,) an American sculptor, born at Rah- 
 wav, New Jersey, in 1790. Among his works are busts 
 of Marshall, Jackson, and Webster. 
 
 See Duni.ap, " Rise and Progress of the. Arts of Design in Amer- 
 ica ;" Tuckhrman, *' Book of the Artists." 
 
 Frea. See FflltioA. 
 
 Freard, (Roland.) See Ciiambray. 
 
 Fred-e-ga'ri-us, [Fr. FrBdEgaire, fka'da'gaV,! sur- 
 named Schoi.asticus. a chronicler who lived (probably 
 in France) in the seventh century. His work treats of 
 the history of the Franks, ending about 640 a.d. 
 
 Fredegonda or Fredegonde. See Fredegunda. 
 
 Fred-e-gun'da, [Fr, FkEdEc.onde, fra'da'giNd',] a 
 queen of the Franks, notorious for her crimes, was born 
 about 545 A.D. She became the wife of Chilperic I. 
 about 565, after which she procured the assassination of 
 his sons by a former marriage, and of Sigebert, King of 
 Austrasia. After the death of Chilperic (584) she was 
 regent during the minority of her son Clotaire, and gained 
 victories in a war against several kings. Died in 596 a.d. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Frederic. See Frederick and Friedrich. 
 
 Fred-er-ic'a So-phi'a Wil-hel-mi'na, (wil-hel- 
 mee'na,) Margravine of Baireuth, daughter of Frederick 
 William I. of Prussia, and favourite sister of Frederick 
 the Great, was born at Potsdam in 1 709. She was married 
 in 1731 to the hereditary prince of Baireuth, and died jjk 
 1758, on the day of her brother's defeat at HochkircKen. 
 She left interesting " Memoirs" of her times, which see ; 
 also "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1812. 
 
 Fred'er-ick [Ger. Friedrich, fReed'riK ; It. Fede- 
 rigo, fi-da-ree'go] X, Emperor of Germany, sumamed 
 Barharossa, born in 1 121, was a son of Frederick, Duke 
 of Suabia. He was elected emperer on the death of his 
 uncle, Conrad III., in March, 1152. In 1 155 he passed 
 into Italy with an army, and was crowned by Pope Adrian 
 IV. at Rome. He married Beatrice, heiress of Burgundy, 
 about 1 156, and reduced the King or Duke of Poland to 
 become his vassal. He led in 1158 a large army into 
 Italy, and subjected the revolted city of Milan, which 
 was punished with rigour. Two rival popes, Victor IV. 
 and Alexander III., having been elected in 1159, Fred- 
 erick recognized the former and was excommunicated 
 by the latter. His reign was disturbed by disputes with 
 the pope, and wars with the cities of Lombardy. His 
 
 c as s; g hard; g asj; G, H, Y.,giittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jf^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 6l 
 
FREDERICK 
 
 962 
 
 FREDERICK 
 
 »rmy was defeated with great loss by the Lombards near 
 Legnano in 1 176. He then made peace with Pope Alex- 
 ander, and a truce with his other enemies in Italy. In 
 1 183 the celebrated peace of Constance was concluded 
 between Frederick and the Lombards. He joined the 
 third crusade with an army of. about 150,000 men in 
 1189, and, having marched by land as far as Asia Minor, 
 defeated the Turks near Iconium. He was drowned in 
 the river Calycadnus in 1190. Frederick was ambitious,' 
 but rather liberal, and passes for one of the greatest men 
 of his time. He was succeeded by his son, Henry VI. 
 
 See Raumer, "Geschichte der Hohenstaufen :" Sismondi, " His- 
 loiredes R^publiques Italiennes;" YVilken, "Geschichteder Kreuz- 
 tiige ;" Cosmo Raktoi.i, " Vita di Federigo Rarbarossa." Florence, 
 1556; H. F. Massmann, "Kaiser Friedrich ini Kyffhauser," 1S50. 
 
 Frederick II., Kmperor of Germany, was a son of 
 Henry VI., and was born at Iesi, in Italy, in 1 194. His 
 mother was Constance of Sicily. His education was 
 directed by his guardian, Innocent Hi. He had supe- 
 rior talents, and was master of the Greek, Italian, French, 
 and Arabic languages. He was crowned as emperor at 
 Aix-!a-Chapelle in 1214 or 1215, after the defeat of his 
 rival, Otho, at Bovines, and was supported by the Ghibel- 
 ine party in an attempt to unite Italy and Germany in 
 one empire. This project was resisted by the pope and 
 the Guelphs in a long contest. In 1220 he removed his 
 court to Naples, which belonged to him by inheritance, 
 and in which he founded a university. In accordance 
 with a vow extorted from him in his youth by the pope, 
 he undertook a crusade against the infidels in 1227, but 
 turned back before he had reached Palestine, for which 
 cause he was excommunicated by Gregory IX. He 
 renewed the enterprise in 1228, obtained possession of 
 Jerusalem, and made peace with the pope in 1230. He 
 suppressed a rebellion raised in Germany by his son 
 Henry, gained in 1237 a great victory over the Guelphs 
 at Cortenuova, and waged war against Gregory IX. In 
 1245 Innocent IV. renewed the papal anathema against 
 him, and absolved his subjects from their allegiance. 
 In the midst of the contest Frederick died, in 1250. He 
 was succeeded by his son, Conrad IV. Frederick was 
 eminent for courage, generosity, and other royal qualities. 
 
 See Raumer, " Geschichte der Hohenstaufen;" Luden, " His- 
 toire d'AUeniagne ;" Hoeflek, "Kaiser Friedrich II.," 1S44; T. L. 
 Kington, " History of Frederick II., Emperor of the Romans;" 
 Cari. W. F. Funk, "Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II.," 1790. 
 
 Frederick III., Emperor of Germany, surnamed the 
 Pacific, the son of Ernest, Duke of Austria, was born 
 at Innspruck in 141 5. He was elected emperor in 1440, 
 on the death of Albert II. In 1452 he went to Rome, 
 where he received from the pope the imperial crown 
 and that of Lombardy. He is censured for supineness 
 in defending Christendom against the Turks, and was 
 incapable of ruling his large empire with success. In 
 1485 he was involved in war with Matthias Corvinus of 
 Hungary, who conquered Vienna and Lower Austria. 
 Died in 1493, and was succeeded by his son, Maximilian. 
 
 See Luuen, " Histoire d'Allemagne ;" J. Chmel, "Geschichte 
 Kaiser Friedrich's III.," 1840. 
 
 Frederick [Dan. Frederik, fRa'deh-rek] I., King of 
 Denmark and Norway, born in 1471, was a son of Chris- 
 tian I., who founded the dynasty of Oldenburg. In 1522 
 he succeeded his nephew, Christian II., who was deposed. 
 The latter raised an army and invaded Norway in 1532, 
 but was forced to surrender and was confined in prison. 
 Frederick favoured the propagation of Lutheranism in 
 his kingdom. He died in 1533, and was succeeded by 
 his son, Christian III. 
 
 Frederick II., King of Denmark and Norwav, son 
 of Christian III., was born in 1534, and ascended the 
 throne in 1559. In 1561 he was involved in a war with 
 Eric, King of Sweden, in which the Danes were victo- 
 .ious. Peace was restored in 1570. Frederick married 
 Sophia of Mecklenburg, and had several children. He 
 promoted commerce, and patronized men of science, 
 especially Tycho Brahe, the eminent astronomer, for 
 whom he built the Observatory of Oranienburg. He 
 died in 1588, and was succeeded by his son, Christian IV. 
 
 See P.. H. Resen, "Frederik II. Kronike," 16S0; Pontanus, 
 * Vita Friderici II., Regis Daniae," 1735. 
 
 Frederick III., King of Denmark and Norway, a 
 son of Christian IV., was born in 1609, and succeeded 
 
 to the crown by inheritance and election in 1648. In 
 1657 Frederick and his senate declared war against 
 Charles Gustavus of Sweden, who was so well prepared 
 that he crossed the ice and suddenly besieged Copen- 
 hagen. The Danish king was compelled to sign a peace, 
 by which he gave up several provinces, in 1658. Before 
 the end of that year Charles Gustavus again besieged 
 his capital, which was relieved by a Dutch fleet, and 
 peace was concluded in 1660. At a diet held in 1660- 
 6 1 a great change was effected in the constitution by a 
 coalition of the clergy with the bourgeoisie against the 
 nobles, so that the monarchy (which had been elective 
 and limited) was made hereditary and absolute. He 
 died in 1670, and was succeeded by his son, Christian V. 
 See R. Manley, " History of the Wars in Denmark," London, 
 1670; R. Nverup, " Efterretninger om Kong Frederik III.," 1817; 
 P. W. Becker, " Samlinger til Danmarks Historie under Frederik 
 III.," 1847. 
 
 Frederick IV., King of Denmark, son of Christian 
 V., was born in 1671. After he had married Louisa of 
 Mecklenburg-Gustrow, he ascended the throne in 1699. 
 In 1700 he formed an alliance with Peter the Great and 
 Augustus, King of Poland, against Charles XII. of 
 Sweden, who soon besieged Copenhagen and dictated 
 the terms of peace. During the reverses that befell 
 Charles XII. in 1709, Frederick again.declared war, and 
 captured the fortress of Tonningen, Stralsund, and other 
 places. In 1718 Charles invaded Norway and besieged 
 Frederickshall, where he was killed by a cannon-ball. 
 Frederick died in 1730, regretted by his subjects, whom 
 he governed with ability, and was succeeded by his son. 
 Christian VI. • 
 
 See A. Hoier, " Kbnig Friedrich's IV. glorvriirdigstes Leben," 
 1829; Riegels, "Udkast til Fjerde Frederiks Historie," 1799. 
 
 Frederick V., King of Denmark, son of Christian 
 VI., was born in 1723. He succeeded his father in 
 1746, having previously married Louisa, daughter of 
 George II. of England. His reign was remarkable for 
 many institutions and enterprises for the promotion of 
 commerce, industry, science, and arts. The emancipa- 
 tion of serfs was tried with success in some districts ; a 
 hospital and an academy of fine arts were founded in 
 the capital. In 1761 Frederick sent Niebuhr and others 
 on a scientific expedition to Egypt and Arabia. He died 
 in January, 1766, after a prosperous and pacific reign, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Christian VII. 
 
 See J. K. Hoest, " Markvardigheder i Kong Frederiks Levnet 
 og Revering," 1820; G. L. Baden, " Frederiks Regjerings Aarbog." 
 1832 ; M. S. Arentz, " Ligpraediken over Kong Frederik V.," 1767. 
 
 Frederick VI., King of Denmark and Norway, born 
 in 1768, was the only son of Christian VII. and Caroline 
 Matilda. He became regent in 1784, (in consequence 
 of the mental alienation of his father,) and king in 1808. 
 Between these two dates he made many reforms. He 
 formed an alliance with Napoleon in 1808, his capital 
 having been previously bombarded by the British. In 
 1813 he refused to join the coalition against the French 
 emperor. Russia and Sweden having entered into a 
 convention to annex Norway to the latter, Bemadotte 
 attacked the dominions of Frederick, who was compelled 
 to cede Norway in 1814. He died in 1839, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his cousin, Christian VIII. 
 
 See O. L. Bang, " Mindetale over Kong Frederik VI ," 1840; H. 
 P. Giessing, " Kong Frederik VI. Regjerings Historie," 2 vols., 1850. 
 
 Frederick VTX, King of Denmark, and Duke of 
 Sleswick and Holstein, born in 1808, is the only son of 
 Christian VIII., whom he succeeded in January, 1848. 
 The German party in Holstein and Sleswick revolted 
 in March of the same year. After several indecisive 
 battles, the insurgents were defeated at Idsted in July, 
 1850, and the rebellion was suppressed in January, 1851. 
 He contracted a morganatic marriage with the Countess 
 Danner in 1850. In 1864 Austria and Prussia united in 
 an aggressive war against Denmark, and conquered the 
 duchies of Sleswick and Holstein. 
 
 Frederick [Ger. Friedrich, fReed'riK] I, King of 
 Prussia, born at Kbnigsberg in 1657, was a son of Frede- 
 rick William, Elector of Brandenburg. He succeeded 
 his father in 1688, and was styled Frederick III. of 
 Brandenburg. His wife was Sophia Charlotte, a sister of 
 George I. of England. He joined the coalition against 
 Louis XIV. of France in 1691. In 1700 the dukedom of 
 
 i, e, :, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
FREDERICK 
 
 963 
 
 FREDERICK 
 
 Prussia was erected into a kingdom, with the assent of 
 the emperor, and Frederick gained the great object of 
 his life, the title of king, on condition that he would aid 
 Austria in the war of the Spanish succession, and vote 
 with Austria in the Diet. He died in 1713, and left 
 the throne to his son, Frederick William I. 
 
 SeeSTENZEL, "Geschichte des Preussischen Staats:" Franz 
 Hokn, "Friedrich III., erster Konig in PrnllMrn," 1816; J. G. 
 Miitag, " Geschichte Friedrich's I. Kbnig's von Preussen," 1734 ; 
 Werner Hahn. " Friedrich I. Konig in Preussen," etc., 1851. 
 
 Frederick H, surnamed the Great, [Ger. Fried- 
 hick derGrosse, fRced'riKdeRgRos'seh ; Fr, Frederic 
 le Grand, fRl'da'rek' leh gRON ; It. Federigo il 
 Grande, fA-da-ree'go el gRan'di; Sp. Federico kl 
 Grande, fa-Di-ree'ko el gRan'di,] King of Prussia, was 
 the son of Frederick William I. and Sophia Dorothea, 
 who wa# a daughter of George I. of England. He was 
 born at Berlin on the 24th of January, 1712. He received 
 from nature a strong and acute intellect, with a rare 
 firmness of temper and intensity of will. The discipline 
 and training to which he was subjected by his father 
 were extremely rigid, perverse, and illiberal ; the study 
 of latin was positively forbidden to him. "Oliver Twist 
 in the parish workhouse, Smike at Dotheboys Hall," 
 says Macaulay, "were petted children when compared 
 with this wretched heir-apparent of a crown." It ap- 
 pears that the prince would have been put to death by 
 his father for desertion, or running away from the armv, 
 if he had not been saved by the intercession of tlie 
 Fmperor of Germany. The penalty was commuted into 
 close confinement. Frederick married (by compulsion) 
 Elizabeth Christina of Brunswick, in 1733. His favourite 
 study or resource in his youth was French literature. 
 He wrote and read nothing but French. 
 
 He ascended the throne about June 1, 1740, and 
 quickly displayed a political ability and an unscrupulous 
 energy Which surprised his courtiers and former com- 
 panions. He seized the opportunity presented by the 
 accession of Maria Theresa in October, 1740, and gave 
 the first signal of the war of spoliation, called the war 
 of the Austrian succession, by the sudden invasion of 
 Silesia, which he occupied without much resistance. In 
 April, 1 741, he defeated the Austrian* at the battle of 
 Molwitz; after which Bavaria and France took arms as 
 allies of Frederick. A separate peace was concluded in 
 1742 between him and Maria Theresa, who ceded Silesia 
 to the victor. He renewed hostilities in 1744, and took 
 Prague, but was forced to retreat about the end of that 
 year. He commanded at Hohenfriedberg and at Sorr, 
 where the Austrians were defeated, in 1745, and made 
 peace with Austria in December of the same year. In the 
 civil administration he was his own prime minister, or, 
 rather, sole minister. "A love of labour for its own 
 sake, an insatiable longing to dictate, to intermeddle, to 
 make his power felt, a profound scorn and distrust of his 
 fellow-creatures, indisposed him to ask counsel, to con- 
 fide important secrets, to delegate ample powers." (Mac- 
 aulay.) He was so parsimonious that in his household 
 "not a bottle of champagne was uncorked without his 
 express order." He encouraged commerce, manufactures, 
 and the fine arts. Every form of religion and of irre- 
 ligion was tolerated by him. In 1750 he attracted to hrs 
 court Voltaire, whom he treated with great favour. This 
 eccentric friendship, however, soon ended in a violent 
 quarrel. (See Voltaire.) 
 
 A powerful coalition having been formed against 
 Frederick by Maria Theresa, the Empress of Russia, the 
 King of France, and other powers, he was thus involved 
 in the Seven Years' war, with no ally but the English. 
 lie began the war by the invasion of Saxony, in August, 
 1756, and, having defeated the Austrians at Lowositz, 
 made himself master of that country. He opened the 
 next campaign by a march into Bohemia, and gained the 
 great battle of Prague, (May, 1757,) where he lost about 
 18,000 men; but on the iSth of June he was defeated 
 at Kolin by Marshal Daun, and driven out of Bohemia. 
 His position now seemed desperate; but his passion for 
 writing verses did not fail even in this gloomy crisis. 
 " We hardly know," says Macaulay, "any instance of the 
 Strength and weakness of human nature so striking and 
 10 grotesque as the character of this haughty, vigilant, 
 
 resolute, sagacious blue-stocking, . . . bearing up againsl 
 a world in arms, with an ounce of poison in one pocket 
 and a quire of bad verses in the other." » 
 
 Frederick defeated a French army twice as numerous 
 as his own, at Rossbach, in November, and gained a 
 complete victory over the Austrians at Leuthen on the 
 5th of December, 1 757, when 27,000 of the enemy were 
 killed, wounded, or taken. "That battle," said Napoleon, 
 "was a master-piece. Of itself it is sufficient to entitle 
 Frederick to a place in the first rank of generals." His 
 fame was increased by a victory over the Russians at 
 Zorndorf, near the Oder, in 1758. The principal event 
 of the campaign of 1759 was the battle of Kunnersdorf, 
 where the Prussians were routed by the allies and 
 Frederick's coat was pierced with lxdls. After the 
 enemy had taken Berlin and reduced him to desperation, 
 the tide of forfune turned in 1760, at the battles of 
 Liegnitz and Torgau. The campaign of 1761 was, on 
 the whole, disastrous to Frederick ; but, in consequence 
 of the death of the empress Elizabeth, January, 1762, 
 the policy of Russia was changed, and Maria Theresa, 
 deserted by her allies, was obliged to make peace in 
 February, 1763. The result of the war was that Frede- 
 rick kept Silesia and ceded nothing. 
 
 He has been praised for the diligence and liberality 
 with which he repaired the ruinous state to which the 
 war had reduced his kingdom. On the partition of 
 Poland, in 1772, he acquired Polish Prussia and a part 
 of Great Poland. By the formation of the league called 
 Fiirstenbund, ("Princes' League,") in 1785, he frustrated 
 the design of the emperor to acquire Bavaria in exchange 
 for the Low Countries. He died, without issue, at his 
 palace of Sans-Souci, on the 17th of August, 17S6, and 
 was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II. 
 He left many and various works, which were published 
 in 23 vols., 1790. His poem "On the Art of War," 
 " History of My Time," and " History of the Seven 
 Years' War," are reckoned among his best productions. 
 Of his voluminous "Memoirs" Macaulay remarks, "The 
 narrative is distinguished by clearness, conciseness, good 
 sense, and a certain air of truth and simplicity, which is 
 singularly graceful in a man who, having done great 
 things, sits down to relate them." 
 
 See Lord Dover, "Life of Frederick IL," 2 vols., 1840; 
 " Frederick the Great and his Times," by Thomas Campbell, 4 vols., 
 1S43: Carlvi.e, "Life of Frederick the Great," 6 vols., 1858-65; 
 IIrocgham, " Statesmen of the Time of George III.," first series; 
 Macaui.av," Essays;" Mikabeau, " De la Monarchic Prussienne 
 sous Frederic le Grand," 1788; Thiehault, " Souvenirs :'' Jomini, 
 " Histoire critique et militatre des Guerres de Frederic II:" Paga- 
 ItKL, "Histoire de Frederic le Grand;" Preiss, "Friedrich der 
 Grosse," 9 vols., 1832-34; J. C. Adelung, " Denkwiirdigkeilen 
 Friedrich's des Grossen," 9 vols., 1757-66; Fischer, "Geschichte 
 Friedrich's IL," 2 vols., 1787: J. F. Seyfart, " Lebens- and Re- 
 gierungs-geschichte Friedrich's des Andern," 9 vols., 1759-70; Ilcc- 
 quoy, Leben und Elide Friedrich'sdes Eimigen," 4 vols., 1787-91 ; 
 Charles Joseph de Eigne. "Me"moires sur le Roi de Prusse," 1788; 
 Carlo Denina, "Essaisurla Vieet le Regne de Frederic II," 1788; 
 Calzada, "Vida de Federico II. , Rev de Prusia," 4 vols., 17S8. 
 
 For further bibliographical information resecting Frederick IL, 
 the reader is referred to Oettinger's " Bibliographic biographique 
 universelle," 2 vols., 1854. 
 
 Frederick, (of Aragon,) King of Naples, son of Fer- 
 dinand I., succeeded his nephew, Ferdinand II., who died, 
 without issue, in September, 1496. In 1501, Louis XII. 
 of France and Ferdinand of Spain agreed to depose 
 the King of Naples and partition his kingdom between 
 them, and each sent an army to take possession of his 
 share. Frederick, after a feeble resistance, surrendered 
 himself to the French, received from Louis the duchy of 
 Anjou, and died in 1504. His son having died without 
 issue in 1550, the family became extinct. 
 
 Frederick I., (of Aragon,) King of Sicily, was the 
 third son of Peter (Pedro) of Aragon and of Constance of 
 Suabia. He is called Frederick II. by some writers. He 
 was crowned in 1296, and soon found himself engaged in 
 war against Charles II. of Naples and the pope ; but, 
 being zealously supported by his subjects, he made a suc- 
 cessful defence, and obtained peace in 1302. He renewed 
 the war in 13 12 against Robert, the successor of Charles 
 II., and waged it for many years. He died in 1337, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Pietro II. Frederick is re- 
 garded as the founder of Sicilian nationality. 
 
 See Burigny, " Histoire generate de Sicile," 2 vols., 1745 ; Mu- 
 ratori, " Annali d'ltalia." 
 
 «as>; 9 as/,- %hard; gas/; G,H,K,gntturaJ; N, nasal; H, trilled; sast.thasin this. (J^— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FREDERICK 
 
 964 
 
 FREDERICK 
 
 Frederick Hor 111., King of Sicily, born about 1340, 
 was a son of Peter (Pietro) II., and succeeded his elder 
 brother Louis in 1355. He found the kingdom in dis- 
 order, and at war with Joanna I. of Naples, who captured 
 Messina and Palermo. In 1372 he obtained peace, and 
 recovered those towns, by paving tribute. He died in 
 1377, leaving a daughter, Maria, who married Martin II. 
 of Aragon. 
 
 See Vili.ani, "Istoria;" Burigny, " Histoire generate de Sicile." 
 
 Frederick, [Sw. Fred'rick,] King of Sweden, a son 
 of the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, was born at Cassel 
 in 1676. He married Ulrica Eleonora, a sister of Charles 
 XII. of Sweden, in 1715. She succeeded to the throne 
 at the death of Charles, and in 1720 the Diet, at her 
 request, elected Frederick king. He made peace before 
 the end of 1721 with Russia and the other enemies whom 
 Ihe ambition of Charles XII. had armed against Sweden, 
 by giving up Livonia, Ingria, etc. His reign was pacific, 
 except a war with Russia in 1 741 and 1742, in which the 
 Swedes were defeated. He died in 1751, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Adolph Frederick of Holstein. 
 
 See Gevkr, " Histoire de la Suede ;" J. Arkenholtz, " Leben 
 Fricdrich's I. Konigs von Schweden," 1752. 
 
 Frederick I., Duke of Austria, born in 11 74, was a 
 son of Leopold I. He led an army of crusaders to Pales- 
 tine in 1 197, and besieged Toron without success. Died 
 in 1 198. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, *' Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Frederick HI., Archduke of Austria, born in 1286, 
 was the eldest son of the emperor Albert I. After the 
 death of Albert the throne was claimed by Frederick 
 and by Louis of Bavaria. The former was supported by 
 the Guelphs, and his rival by the Ghibelines. In 1322 
 Frederick was defeated in battle and taken prisoner by 
 Louis, who treated him generously. Died in 1330. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Frederick V., Duke of Austria, was a younger son 
 of Leopold of Austria. He was an adherent of Pope 
 John XXIII., and offended the emperor Sigismund in 
 141 5 by aiding that pontiff to abscond from Constance, 
 where the Council was then in session. Frederick was 
 placed under the ban of the empire, and saved himself 
 from ruin only by a humble submission. Died in 1436. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Frederick I., Elector Palatine, [Ger. Friediuch 
 Curfurstvon der Pfalz,] surnamed the Victorious, 
 born in 1425, was a son of Louis III. He became re- 
 gent at the death of his elder brother, in 1449. A league 
 was formed against him by several princes, whom he 
 defeated in 1460. Died in 1476. 
 
 See Tritheme, "Res gesta Friderici Palatini," 1602; Ersch 
 und Grubrr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Frederick IL, Elector Palatine, surnamed the 
 Wise, a son of Philip, was born in 1482. He succeeded 
 his brother Louis in 1544, and embraced the doctrines 
 of Luther in 1545. He afterwards joined the league of 
 Schmalkalden, and signed the formulary called the " In- 
 terim" in 1548. He died in 1556, and was succeeded by 
 his nephew, Otho Henry. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Frederick III., Elector Palatine, surnamed the 
 Pious, born in 1515, was a son of John II., Duke of 
 Simmern. He became a zealous Protestant. He ob- 
 tained the dignity of Elector in 1559, and sent troops to 
 aid the French Huguenots in 1568. He died in 1576, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Louis VI. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie.** 
 Frederick IV., Elector Palatine, surnamed the 
 Just, born in 1574, was a son of Louis VI. He began 
 to reign in 1592. He founded Mannheim about 1606. 
 Died in 1610. 
 
 Frederick V., Elector Palatine, and King of Bohe- 
 mia, born in 1596, was a son of Frederick IV., and father 
 of Prince Rupert, famous in English history. He married 
 in 1613 Elizabeth, a daughter of James I. of England, 
 and became the chief of the German Protestant Union. 
 In 1619 he was elected King of Bohemia by the people 
 of that country, who had revolted against the emperor. 
 He was completely defeated in battle at Prague in 1620, 
 lost his hereditary dominions, and was obliged to go into 
 
 exile. His electoral dignity was transferred to the Duke 
 of Bavaria. Died in 1632. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Lipowski, 
 "Friedrich V., Curfurst von der Pfalz und Kbnig von Bohmen." 
 
 Frederick IU., surnamed the Sage, Elector of 
 Saxony, born about 1463, was a son of Ernest, whom 
 he succeeded in i486. He magnanimously refused the 
 imperial crown in 15 19, and voted for Charles V. He 
 promoted the Reformation, and was a faithful patron of 
 Luther. When Luther was returning from the Diet of 
 Worms, where he had been proscribed, in 1521, he was 
 seized by order of Frederick, and secreted in the castle 
 of Wartburg. Frederick died in 1525, and was succeeded 
 by his brother John. 
 
 See Philip Melanchthon, "Oratio de Friderico duce Saxonije," 
 1551; H. O. Mrncke, " Dissertatio de Friderico III. Sapiente," 
 1712; P. Ekerman, "Dissertatio de Friderico Sapiente," Upsal, 
 1761. 
 
 Frederick, Prince of Wales, the eldest son of George 
 II., was born in 1 707. He was estranged from his father 
 and became the leader of the Opposition, (i.e. of the 
 party called Patriots, who opposed Walpole.) "The 
 royal family," says Macaulay, "was rather strengthened 
 than weakened by the disagreement of its two most 
 distinguished members." In 1736 he married Augusta, 
 Princess of Saxe-Gotha. The fall of Walpole, in 1742, 
 caused the dissension between the king and the prince 
 to abate for a time ; but the latter soon resumed his oppo- 
 sition. He died in 1751, leaving a number of children ; 
 one of his sons became King George III. 
 
 Frederick Landgrave of Thuringia, born in 1256, 
 was a son and rightful heir of Albert of Thuringia. His 
 mother was a daughter of the emperor Frederick II. He 
 waged war against his father, (who wished to exclude 
 him from the succession,) and obtained possession of 
 Thuringia and Misnia about 1308. Died in 1324. 
 
 Frederick, Colonel, a Corsican officer, born about 
 1730, was supposed to be the son of Theodore, who was 
 styled King of Corsica. He entered the service of the 
 Duke of Wiirtemberg, who sent him to England as his 
 agent. He wrote a "Description of Corsica," (1798.) 
 He committed suicide in London in 1797. 
 
 Frederick Augustus I. and II., Kings of Poland. 
 See Augustus. 
 
 Frederick Augustus [Ger. Friedrich August, 
 fReed'riK ow'goost] I., King of Saxony, bom at Dres- 
 den in 1750, was the eldest son of the Elector Fred- 
 erick Christian, whom he succeeded in 1763. He is 
 said to have uniformly consulted the happiness of his 
 subjects. He abolished torture, (1770,) and made other 
 reforms in legislation. In 1791 he refused the crown 
 of Poland. He maintained neutrality in the war between 
 the French and the allied powers until 1806, when he 
 united his army with that of Prussia. In December, 
 1806, he assumed the title of king, joined the Confedera- 
 tion of the Rhine, and became an ally of Napoleon. He 
 was deprived by the allied powers of a large part of his 
 kingdom about 1815. He died in May, 1827, and was 
 succeeded by his brother Antony. 
 
 See Hermann, "Friedrich Augusts Leben," 1827; Poelitz, 
 " Friedrich Augusts Leben," 2 vols., 1830. 
 
 Frederick Augustus II., King of Saxony, born in 
 May, 1797, was a nephew of the preceding, and a son of 
 Prince Maximilian. He married the archduchess Caro- 
 line of Austria in 1819. In July, 1830, he was appointed 
 general-in-chief of the army. He began to reign in 
 June, 1836, his father having renounced his right to the 
 throne. He was so interested in botany that he made 
 several botanical excursions to foreign countries after 
 his accession. He died in August, 1854, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother John. 
 
 Frederick Charles, (or Friedrich Karl,) Prince of 
 Prussia, a nephew of the king, Wilhelm I., and a son of 
 Friedrich Karl Alexander, was born in 1828. He com- 
 manded the first Prussian army which defeated the Aus- 
 trians at Sadowa, (Kbniggratz,) July 3, 1866. Another 
 army, under the crown-prince, arrived some hours after 
 the battle began, and contributed to the victory. The 
 Austrians, commanded by Benedek,. lost about one 
 hundred and twenty pieces of cannon and 14,000 un- 
 wounded prisoners. About 200,000 men were engaged 
 on each side. 
 
 i, e, T, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
 
FREDERICK 
 
 965 
 
 FREDERICK 
 
 Frederick Henry of Orange. See Orange. 
 
 Frederick William, [Ger. Friedrich Wilhelm, 
 fReed'riK wil'helm,] Elector of Brandenburg, sumamed 
 the Great Elector, born in 1620, was the son of 
 the Elector George William, the prince to whose policy 
 the house of Honcnzollern owes its greatness. He suc- 
 ceeded his father in 1640, soon after which he obtained 
 from the King of Poland the sovereignty of the duchy of 
 Prussia. By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) he acquired 
 Magdeburg,' Mindeu, and part of Pomerania. In 1655 
 he joined Charles Gustavus of Sweden in a successful 
 invasion of Poland. As the ally of Holland and the 
 emperor, he took the field against Louis XIV. in 1672. 
 The Swedes, having invaded his dominions, were totally 
 defeated by him at Fehrbellin in 1675. In 1679 he made 
 peace with Sweden and France, receiving from the latter 
 300,000 crowns. His first wife was Louisa Henrietta, 
 Princess, of Orange, author of a popular hymn, " Jesus 
 mein Zuvcrsicht." He possessed great political abilities, 
 and his reign was very beneficial to Prussia. He died in 
 1688, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick I. 
 
 See Samuel von Pufendorf, "De Rebus gestis Friderici Wil- 
 helmi," 1695 ; Franz Horn, " Leben Friedrich Wilhelms des Gros- 
 sep," 1 814; Von Raumkr, '' Fried. Wiihelm's des grossen Kurfursten 
 Kinderjahre," 1850 ; S. Hirsch, " Krinnerungen an den grossen Kur- 
 fursten Friedrich YViihelm, utld an seine Gemahlin Louise," 1852. 
 
 Frederick William (or Friedrich Wilhelm) I, 
 King of Prussia, a son of Frederick I., was born in 1688. 
 He ascended the throne in February, 1713, having mar- 
 ried Sophia Dorothea of Hanover. He was very parsi- 
 monious, eccentric, and arbitrary. " His eccentricities," 
 says Macaulay, "were such as had never been seen out 
 of a mad-house. . . . His taste for military pomp and 
 order became a mania, like that of a Dutch burgomaster 
 for tulips. . . . Every country was ransacked by his agents 
 for men above the ordinary stature," for his army. Al- 
 though he formed a large and highly-disciplined army, 
 he was a pacific prince, and was not engaged in any im- 
 portant wars. He founded a medical college and other 
 useful institutions at Berlin, but was hostile to literature, 
 art, and metaphysics. He died in 1740, leaving the 
 throne to his son, Frederick the Great. 
 
 See Morgenstekn, " Ueber Friedrich Wiihelm I.," 1793 ; Fors- 
 ter," Geschichte Friedrich Wilhelms I.," 1835: Ersch und Gkuber, 
 "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" E. Mauvii.i.on, " Histoire de Fre- 
 deric Guiilaume I," 1741, (translated into English by W. Phelps, 
 1750;) F. Cramer, " Znr Geschichte Friedrich Wiihelm's I. und 
 Friedrichs II.," 1829; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 
 1835- 
 
 Frederick William II., King of Prussia, born in 
 September, 1744, was a son of Augustus William, who 
 was a brother of Frederick the Great. He was declared 
 crown-prince, or heir to the throne, in 1758, and began 
 to reign in August, 1786. His first wife, Elizabeth Chris- 
 tina Ulrica of Brunswick, having been divorced in 1769, 
 he married the princess Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt. 
 In August, 1 791, occurred a famous interview at Pilnitz 
 between Frederick William and the Emperor of Austria, 
 who agreed to intervene for the defence of Louis XVI. 
 of France against his subjects. He invaded France with 
 a large army in July, 1792, but retreated to the Rhine, 
 without important results, in the autumn of that year. 
 The dilatory movements of the Prussians in this and the 
 ensuing campaign are ascribed to secret negotiations or 
 intrigues. (See DumourieZ, and BRUNSWICK, Duke of.) 
 Frederick William united with Russia in the second par- 
 tition of Poland, (1793,) by which he obtained Dantzic 
 and Thorn, with about noo German square miles of ter- 
 ritory. He made a separate peace with the French re- 
 public at Bale in April, 1795. Died in November, 1797, 
 leaving his throne to his son, Frederick William III. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubhr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Mira- 
 beau, " Histoire secrete de la Cour de Berlin." 
 
 Frederick William III., King of Prussia, the eldest 
 son of the preceding, was born in August, 1770. His 
 mother was Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt. He married 
 the Princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and succeeded his 
 father on the i6thof November, 1797. For the neutrality 
 which he observed between the French and the coalition 
 he was rewarded at the peace of Luneville, 1801, with the 
 bishoprics of Hildesheim and Paderborn, besides some 
 other territories. The population of Prussia was then 
 about ten millions. 
 
 He refused to join the third coalition against the 
 French in 1805 until the French army had violated the 
 neutral territory of Anspach. In November, 1805, he 
 formed a secret alliance with Russia and the other powers; 
 but a few days after the battle of Austerlitz heconcluded 
 with Napoleon a treaty of peace, by which Hanover was 
 annexed to Prussia in exchange for Anspach, Cleves, 
 and Neufchatel. This transaction provoked England to 
 declare war against Prussia. His alliance with France 
 was broken by the aggressions of Napoleon, or by the 
 offer of the latter to restore Hanover to England. He 
 demanded as his ultimatum that the French troops should 
 evacuate Germany; but before this demand reached Paris 
 Napoleon had advanced far on his way to the seat of 
 war. The Prussians were routed at Jena and Auerstadt 
 on the 14th of October, 1806, a few days after which 
 Napoleon entered Berlin. The war was ended in July, 
 1807, by the treaty of Tilsit, which deprived Frederick 
 William of about half of his kingdom, — viz., the Polish 
 provinces, and all that part which lies west of the Elbe. 
 
 He applied himself with success to repair the desola- 
 tions caused by the war, made reforms in the government, 
 and abolished serfdom. In 1812 he was compelled to 
 furnish a large force to aid the French in the invasion of 
 Russia ; but in March, 1813, he summoned his subjects to 
 the war of liberation, for which they evinced the utmost 
 enthusiasm. He gave proof of personal courage in 
 several battles in 1813, and entered Paris in triumph in 
 March, 1814. At the Congress of Vienna, 1814-15, he 
 recovered nearly all the provinces he had lost, and ac- 
 quired half of Saxony. He failed to give his people a 
 free constitution, as he had promised. Frederick William 
 was a ruler of moderate capacity. He died in June, 1840, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Frederick William IV. 
 
 See Leutsch, " Geschichte des Preussischen Staats miter Wil- 
 helm III.;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" 
 Thiers, " History of the French Revolution ;" Hense, "Friedrich 
 Wilhelm III.," 1840; F. R. Eyi.ert, " Charakterziige und historische 
 Fragmente aus dem Leben Friedrich Wiihelm's III.," 3 vols., 1842- 
 44, (translated into English by J. Birch, London, 1844.) 
 
 Frederick William IV, King of Prussia, was born 
 on the 15th of October, 1795. He married in 1823 
 Elizabeth Louisa, a daughter of Maximilian, King of 
 Bavaria. In consequence of the marriage of his sister 
 to Nicholas of Russia, he became an intimate friend of 
 the latter. He began his reign, June 7, 1840, with mea- 
 sures of indulgence and moderation, and excited hopes 
 of reforms which were never realized. He refused to 
 restrict his absolute power by a constitution, saying, " I 
 would not have a piece of parchment interposed between 
 me and my people." Excited by the triumph of the 
 French revolutionists, the citizens of Berlin revolted in 
 March, 1848. After several days of severe fighting, the 
 king withdrew his troops from the city, changed his 
 ministry, and made concessions to the Liberal party. 
 He granted in December, 1848, a constitution which has 
 since been modified or nullified, and professed a great 
 zeal for German unity, until the National Assembly at 
 Frankfort elected the Archduke John of Austria as lieu- 
 tenant-general. He was censured for his irresolution 
 and neutrality in the Crimean war. He was rendered 
 incompetent to reign by a serious malady in 1858, after 
 which his brother acted as regent. He died, without 
 issue, in [anuary, 1861, and was succeeded by his bro- 
 ther, styled William (Wilhelm) I. 
 
 Frederick William I., the last Elector of Hesse, 
 born in 1802, was the son of William II., whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 1847. He became very unpopular. In 1866 he 
 took side with Austria in the war against the King of 
 Prussia, who deposed him and annexed Hesse to his 
 own kingdom. 
 
 Frederick William, Prince Royal or Crown-Prince 
 of Prussia, born on the 18th of October, 1831, is the 
 eldest son of the regent Frederick William Lewis, after- 
 wards William (Wilhelm) I. He commanded the second 
 army which in June, 1866, entered Bohemia from Silesia, 
 and, after several successful actions at Nachod, Trau- 
 tenau, etc., effected a junction with the other Prussian 
 army at Sadowa, July 3. He married Victoria Adelaide, 
 a daughter of the Queen of England, in 1858. 
 
 Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick. See 
 Brunswick. 
 
 « as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ|^ = See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FREDERICK 
 
 966 
 
 FREIND 
 
 Frederick William Charles, King of Wiirtem- 
 berg, born at Treptow in 1754, received from nature 
 superior abilities. In 1797 he married Charlotte Au- 
 gusta Matilda, a princess of England, and succeeded his 
 father, Frederick Eugene, as Duke of Wiirtemberg. He 
 obtained the dignity of Elector in 1803. Having formed 
 an alliance with Napoleon, (1805,) he gained a large 
 accession of territory and the title of king. He joined 
 the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806. His army 
 fought for Napoleon in 1809, 1812, and 1813, but joined 
 the allies in November, 1813. Died in October, 1816. 
 
 See Thikrs, " Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire ;" Ersch und 
 Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. " 
 
 Frederick 'William Charles, Prince of the Low 
 Countries, second son of William I., was born in 1797. 
 He married a daughter of the King of Prussia in 1825, 
 took a prominent part in the war of the Belgian revo- 
 lution in 1830, and commanded in battle at Brussels, 
 fiom which he was compelled to retreat in September 
 of that year. 
 
 Fredro, fRa'dRo, (Maximilian,) Palatine of Podolia, 
 a popular Polish author, noted for civil and military 
 services. He published several able works on political 
 and military affairs, which acquired a high reputation. 
 One of these is entitled " Proverbs and Advice, Moral, 
 Political, and Military." He died in 1676. 
 
 Free'ling, (Sir Francis,) born at Bristol, England, 
 in 1764, entered the General Post-Office in 1787. For a 
 long period he filled the office of secretary of that de- 
 partment with eminent ability and fidelity. His services 
 were rewarded with the rank of baronet in 1828. Died 
 in 1836. 
 
 Free'man, (Edward A.,) an English historian, born 
 at Harborne, Staffordshire, in 1823. He studied at Trinity 
 College, Oxford, of which he was elected a Fellow in 
 1845. He published, besides other works, "The History 
 and Conquests of the Saracens," (1856,) "The History 
 of Federal Government," (1st vol., 186?,) and a valuable 
 " History of the Norman Conquest of England," of which 
 the first volume appeared in 1867 and the third in 1869. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for July, T869. 
 
 Free'man, (James,) an American Unitarian minister, 
 born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1750, graduated 
 at Harvard in 1777. He became about 1782 reader 
 at the Kind's Chapel, Boston, and soon after separated 
 from the Episcopal Church. He was the first minister 
 in the United States that openly professed to be a Uni- 
 tarian ; and he continued to preach in Boston for fifty 
 years. Died in 1835. 
 
 Freeman, (Thomas,) an English poet, born in Glou- 
 cestershire about 1590, was educated at Oxford. He 
 wrote numerous epigrams. 
 
 Freeman, (William Pkf.rk Williams,) an English 
 admiral, born in 1742, entered the navv about 17^7, and 
 gained distinction in the American war, 1776-82. He 
 was made an admiral about 1830. Died in 18^2. 
 
 Fregoso, fRa-go'so, or Fregoae, fua-go'sa, (in the 
 plural, Fregosi, fRa-go'see,) a Genoese family, which 
 in the fourteenth century gained distinction among the 
 popular party and by their rivalry with the Adorni oc- 
 casioned frequent civil wars. Fregoso, (Domenico.) 
 became Doge of Genoa in 1370. He conquered the isle 
 of Cyprus, and was deposed in 1378. Pikiro was a 
 brother of the preceding. He commanded the arma- 
 ment which conquered Cyprus hi 1373, and in 139^ was 
 elected doge. Thomas was elected doge in 1415. Being 
 attacked bv Alfonso of Aragon and the Duke of Milan, 
 he made a brave resistance, but was forced to retire from 
 Genoa in 1421. In 1436 he was again elected, and held 
 the office until 1443. Janus, a nephew of Thomas, was 
 elected doge in 1447, and died the next year. Pietro, 
 nephew of Thomas, was elected in 1450, and for eight 
 years maintained his power against Alfonso of Aragon 
 and the Adorni. In 1458 he ceded the seigniory of 
 Genoa to Charles VII. of France. He was killed In an 
 attempt to expel the French from Genoa in 1459. Paul, 
 brother of Pietro, and Archbishop of Genoa, was an am- 
 bitious and unscrupulous priest. In 1461 he drove Pros- 
 per Adorno out of the city, and placed his own cousin, 
 Spinet'a Fregoso, in the office of doge. He caused him- 
 self to be elected in 1462, but was expelled from office 
 
 in 1464 by Sforza, Duke of Milan. He was again in 
 power from 1483 to 1488. Died in 1498. Battista, a 
 son of Pietro, was born at Genoa about 1440, elected 
 doge in 1479. and deposed by a conspiracy in 1483. He 
 wrote a " Life of Martin v.," and a treatise on love, 
 " Anteros, sive De Amore." Octavian was elected doge 
 in 1513, after having expelled the French. He was 
 compelled in 1515 to cede the sovereignty of Genoa 
 to Francis I. of France, in whose name he governed the 
 same until 1522. In 1528 the success of Andrea Doria 
 terminated the rivalry between the Adorno and Fregoso 
 families. Frederico, a brother of Octavian, was born 
 in Genoa about 1480. He was versed in Hebrew and 
 other languages, and wrote, besides other works, a 
 " Paraphrase on the Paternoster," in terza rima, and a 
 "Treatise on Prayer," (1542.) He became a cardinal in 
 1539. Died in 1 541. 
 
 See E. Vincens, " Histoire de Genes;" Sismondi, "Histoire des 
 Rejmbliques Italiennes." 
 
 Fregoso, (Antonio Fileremo,) an Italian poet, born 
 in Genoa, of the same family as the preceding, lived at 
 the court of Milan about 1500, and enjoyed a high repu- 
 tation as a poet. His principal poems are " The Laughter 
 of Democritus and the Weeping of Heraclitus," (1506, 
 often reprinted,) "Contest of Plutus and Irus," (" Con- 
 tenzione di Pluto ed Iro,") and "La Cerva bianca," 
 ("The White Deer," 1510.) Died about 1515. 
 
 See Givguen^, "Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie;" Tiraboschi, 
 " Storia della Letteratura haliana." 
 
 Freher, fra'er, [ Lat. Frehe'rus, ] (Marquard,) a 
 German historian, and a native of Augsburg, published 
 "Ancient Bohemian Historians," " Historyof the Ancient 
 Franks," and other works, which enjoy a high reputation. 
 Died in 1614. 
 
 See Melchior Adam, "Vitae Jurisconsultorum ;" Niceron, 
 " Memoires." 
 
 Freher, (Paul,) a German biographer, born at Nu- 
 remberg in 1611. He practised medicine in that city, 
 and compiled a mediocre work, called "Theatre of Men 
 eminent for Learning," ("Theatrum Virorum Eruditione 
 clarorum," 1688,) containing notices of about 2850 emi- 
 nent authors and other persons. Died in 1682. 
 
 Freherus. See Freher. 
 
 Freig, fnT<;, or Freige, fkT'geh, [Lat. Frei'gius,] 
 (Johann Thomas,) a learned German writer, born at 
 Friburg, in Hrisgau, in 1543. He became rector of the 
 college of Alton in 1575. He wrote, besides other works 
 in Latin, a " Life of Peter Ramus," (about 1580,) and 
 " Rhetorica, Poetica, Logica," (15S2,) and published 
 Cicero's Orations with notes, (3 vols., 1581,) often re- 
 printed. Died in 1583. 
 
 Freigius. See Freig. 
 
 Freiligrath, fRT'lio-rat', (Ferdinand,) a celebrated 
 German lyric and patriotic poet, born at Detmold in 
 1810. In 1833 he published some poems in the "Alma- 
 nac of the Muses," which were so successful that he 
 renounced his previous employment in a banking-house 
 at Amsterdam, and devoted hfmself to literature. After 
 the revolution of 1848 he brought out his spirited poem 
 entitled "The Dead to the Living," for which he was 
 tried by the government, but was acquitted. Owing to 
 renewed political accusations, he left Germany in 1849, 
 and settled in London. Among his best productions 
 are his "Political and Social Poems," and "Confession 
 of Faith," ("Glaubensbekenntniss,") which enjoy the 
 greatest popularity among the Liberal party in Germany 
 Freiligrath's poetry, apart from the fervent patriotism it 
 displays, possesses merits of a high order; and he has 
 made several excellent translations from the English 
 and French. 
 
 See I,on<;fru.ow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for January, 1S45. 
 
 Freind, frend, or Friend, (John,) F.R.S., an English 
 physician, born in Northamptonshire in 1675, was an 
 excellent classical scholar, and eminent in his profession. 
 He served as army physician under the Earl of Peter- 
 borough, in Spain, in 1705-07. He was chosen Fellow 
 of the Royal Society in 1712, and member of Parliament 
 in 1722. In 1727 he was appointed -first physician to 
 the queen of George II. He wrote many able medical 
 works, of which the most important is his " History of 
 
 i, e, I, 5, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short ; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; m<55n; 
 

 FREIND 
 
 967 
 
 FREMONT 
 
 Physic from the Time of Galen to the Beginning of the 
 Sixteenth Century," (2 vols., 1726-27.) Died in 1728. 
 Sec " Biographta Britannica." 
 
 Freind, (Robert,) D.D., an English divine, a brother 
 of the preceding, was born in 1667. He resided in West- 
 minster, wrote verses in Latin and English, edited 
 "Cicero de Oratore," (1724,) and was an opponent of 
 Bentley in the controversy respecting the Epistles of 
 Phataris. He was head-master of Westminster School. 
 Died in 1751. 
 
 Freiiistieim, fKlns'hTm', [Lat. Freinshk'mius,] (Jo- 
 RANNj a German scholar, born at Ulm in 1608. In 1642 
 he was appointed professor of eloquence and political 
 economy at Upsal, and in 1647 was created by Queen 
 Christina her librarian and historiographer. He was 
 L jnorary professor at Heidelberg when he died in 1660. 
 He published several editions of the classics, and wrote 
 a valuable supplement to Livy and to Quintus Curtius, 
 with a view of restoring the lost books of those authors. 
 
 See A. Fkeinsheim. " Laudatio postluuna J. Freinshemii," 1661. 
 
 Freinshemius. See Freinshkim. 
 
 Freire, fRa'e-ri, ( Francisco Joze,) a Portuguese 
 philologist and historian, born at Lisbon in 1713. As 
 a member of the Academy of Arcades, he was called 
 "Candido Lusitano." He wrote "Maxims on the Art 
 of Oratory," and a "Life of Prince Henry of Portugal," 
 (1758.) l)ied in 1773. "He contributed much," savs 
 Ferdinand Denis, "to the restoration of literature by the 
 purity of his style." ("Nouvelle Biographie Generale.") 
 
 Freire de Andrada, fRa^e-ri. da an-dRa'da, (Ber- 
 Nardim,) a Portuguese general, born in Lisbon in 1764. 
 He had risen to the rank of lieutenant-general when the 
 war against Bonaparte began. In 1808 he put himself 
 at the head of the national army which co-operated 
 with Wellington. He was accused of treason by some 
 factious persons, and was killed by his own soldiers at 
 Braga in 1809, 
 
 Freire de Andrada, (Hyacinth.) See Andrada, 
 
 (J V INTO.) 
 
 Freire de Andrade, (or Andrada,) fRa'e-ra da an- 
 dRa'da, (or an-dRa'da,) (Gomez,) a Portuguese general, 
 and an able administrator, born about 1685. He was 
 governor of Rio Janeiro for many years, beginning in 
 1733. He was the hero of the poem of Iiasileo da (Jama 
 entitled " O Uruguay." In 1756 he defeated the Spaniards 
 in the war of the Seven Missions. Died in 1763. 
 
 See Southev's " History of Brazil." 
 
 Freire de Andrade, (Gomez,) a Portuguese general, 
 was born in Vienna in 1752. He obtained a command in 
 the French army under Junot in 1808, served in Russia 
 in 181 2, and was governor of Dresden in 1 813. Having 
 returned to Lisbon, he was executed, on a charge of 
 conspiracy against Marshal Beresford, in 181 7. His inno- 
 cence was recognized several years later. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale ;" " Histoire de Jean VI, 
 Roi de Portugal," etc., Paris, 1827. 
 
 Freire de Carvalho, fRaVra da kaR-val'yn, (Fran- 
 Ciscu.) a Portuguese critici~who became professor of 
 eloquence in Lisbon about 1846. He published a good 
 edition of the " Lusiad," (1843,) and an "Essay on the 
 Literary History of Portugal," (1845.) 
 
 Freitag. See Freytag. 
 
 Frelinghuysen, free'ling-hfzen, (Frederick,) an 
 American statesman, born in New Jersey in 1 753. He 
 graduated at Princeton in 1770, and served with distinc- 
 tion as captain at the battles of Trenton and Monmouth. 
 He was a memlier of the Continental Congress of 1 775, 
 and from 1793 to 1796 was a United States Senator. 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 Frelinghuysen, (Theodore,) an American states- 
 man, a son of the preceding, was born in Somerset 
 county. New Jersey, in 1787. He graduated at Prince- 
 ton College in 1804, studied law, and was admitted to 
 the bar in 1808. In 1829 he was elected to the Senate 
 of the United States, in which he acted with the Whig 
 party and took a prominent part in the debates until 
 1835. He became chancellor of the University of New 
 York in 1838. In 1844 he was nominated as candidate 
 for the Vice- Presidency of the United States by the 
 Whig party, which also nominated Henry Clay for the 
 Presidency ; but they were not elected. He was chosen 
 
 president of Rutgers College, New Brunswick, in 1850. 
 Died in 1862. 
 
 SeeT. \V. Chambers, "Memoir of the Life of T. Frelinghuysen," 
 1863. with portrait. 
 
 Frellon, fRj'IAN', (Jean and Francois,) printers of 
 Lyons, France, who acquired distinction by the perfec- 
 tion of their editions of the New Testament and other 
 books, printed between 1530 and 1570. 
 
 Fre'mantle, (Sir Thomas Francis,) an English 
 politician, born in 1798. He represented Buckingham 
 in Parliament from 1827 to 1846, and acted with the 
 Conservatives. He was secretary of war in 1844-45, 
 and was appointed chairman of the board of customs 
 in 1846. 
 
 Fremiti, fRa'maV, (Rene,) a French sculptor, born 
 in Paris in 1673. In 1722 Philip V. of Spain employed 
 him to embellish with statuary his gardens and palace 
 of the Granja. Died in 1745. 
 
 Freminet, fra'ine'nj', (Martin,) an eminent French 
 painter, born in Paris in 1567, studied many years in 
 Italy with such success that Henry IV. of Fiance chose 
 him in 1603 as his first painter, and employed him in 
 decorating the chapel of Fontainebleau, which contains 
 his master-pieces. He imitated the style of Michael 
 Angelo, and excelled in composition and perspective. 
 Died in 1619. 
 
 See A. Fslibibn, " Entretiens sur les Vies des plus celebrej 
 Petntres." 
 
 Fre'mSnt', (John Charles,) the " Pathfinder" of the 
 Rocky Mountains, an American explorer and general, 
 born at Savannah, Georgia, January 21, 1813, was the 
 son of a Frenchman and a Virginian mother. He gradu- 
 ated at Charleston College, South Carolina, and became 
 a professor of mathematics in the navy about 1835; but 
 he soon resigned that position. In 1838 and 1839 he 
 assisted Nicollet in the exploration of the, upper portion 
 of the Valley of the Mississippi. He was appointed a 
 second lieutenant of the topographical engineers in 1838, 
 and was ordered in 1841 to explore and survey the river 
 Des Moines. In October of that year he married Jessie, 
 a daughter of Senator Benton, of Missouri. Having 
 formed a project to explore the Rocky Mountains and 
 to open an overland route to the Pacific Ocean, he 
 began the arduous enterprise, under the authority of 
 the government, in May, 1842. He examined the South 
 Pass of the Rocky Mountains, and ascended, in August, 
 the highest peak of the Wind River Mountains, (13,570 
 feet above the sea,) which is now called Fremont's Peak. 
 In the autumn of 1842 he returned to Washington, and 
 published a report of his discoveries, which was com- 
 mended by Humboldt in his "Aspects of Nature." 
 
 In the summer of 1843 he conducted another expedi- 
 tion up the valley of the Platte and through the South 
 Pass, explored Great Salt Lake, and made important 
 discoveries in geography. He arrived in November at 
 Fort Vancouver, near the mouth of the Columbia River, 
 and in the ensuing winter attempted to return by a more 
 southern route ; but his progress was arrested by deep 
 snows, and his party suffered severely from hunger and 
 cold. Having changed his course, he reached the Sacra- 
 mento River in March, 1844, and, returning through the 
 Great Basin and the South Pass, arrived at Kansas in 
 July of that year. The during and fortitude exhibited 
 in this expedition among hostile savages and inhospi- 
 table deserts have hardly been surpassed in the records 
 of human adventure. Soon after bis return he was pro- 
 moted to the rank of captain, and prepared a report of 
 his second expedition. In the spring of 1845 he con- 
 ducted a third expedition, to explore the Sierra Nevada, 
 California, &c. He was attacked by Mexicans near 
 Monterey in March, 1846, defended himself with success, 
 was raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel in May, and 
 was appointed Governor of California by Commodore 
 Stockton, whose authority was disputed by General 
 Kearney. Fremont, however, continued to recognize 
 Commodore Stockton as his superior, and was arrested 
 by General Kearney, who ordered him to report to the 
 adjutant-general at Washington. He was tried by a court- 
 martial, and found guilty of mutiny and disobedience, 
 for which he was pardoned by the President; but he 
 declined the pardon, and resigned his commission. 
 
 € as* 1 ; casj; gAard;g asj; c, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; thasinMu. (jry^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FREMONT 
 
 968 
 
 FRERET 
 
 In 1848 Fremont attempted, at his own expense, 
 another expedition across the continent, through the 
 northern part of Mexico; but, the guide having lost his 
 way, the party, after undergoing incredible sufferings, in 
 which about one-third of their number perished, were 
 compelled to return to Santa Fe, whence they had 
 started. 
 
 In 1849 he settled in California, where he had pur- 
 chased a large auriferous tract called the Mariposa 
 estate. He exerted his influence to make California a 
 free State, and was one of the Senators chosen to repre- 
 sent that State in the Federal Senate in 1850. His term 
 in the Senate expired in March, 1851. For his services 
 as an explorer he received, in 1850, a gold medal from 
 the King of Prussia, and another from the Royal Geo- 
 graphical Society of London. In 1853 he conducted, at 
 his own expense, an exploring party to the Pacific, and 
 succeeded in finding a new route about latitude 38° north. 
 He was nominated as candidate for the Presidency by the 
 Republican National Convention in June, 1856, as the 
 competitor of the Democratic candidate, James Buchanan. 
 Colonel Fremont received one hundred and fourteen 
 electoral votes, cast by eleven States, against one hun- 
 dred and seventy-four votes given to his opponent. 
 
 In May, 1861, he was appointed a major-general of the 
 regular army, and commander of the department of Mis- 
 souri, or Western district. In August he issued an order 
 for the emancipation of the slaves of those who should 
 take arms against the United States ; but this act was dis- 
 approved and annulled by the President, who considered 
 it premature. Moving his army from the Missouri 
 River, he pursued the enemy, who retired southwestward. 
 He had just overtaken the army of insurgents at Spring- 
 field, when he was removed from the command, Novem- 
 ber 2, 1861. In March, 1862, he was appointed to the 
 command of the Mountain department, including parts of 
 Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. About the 1st of 
 June he began to pursue General Jackson, (Stonewall,) 
 who, after chasing General Banks down the Shenandoah 
 Valley to the Potomac, was retiring towards Harrison- 
 burg. General Fremont attacked the enemy on the 8th 
 of June, 1862, at Cross Keys, where he fought an inde- 
 cisive battle. He was then recalled from the pursuit of 
 General Jackson, and he resigned his command about 
 the end of June, because he was not willing to serve 
 under General Pope, his junior or inferior in rank. 
 
 See John Bigelow, "Life of John C. Fremont," 1S56; C. W. 
 Upham, "Life and Explorations of J. C. Fremont," 1856; "Fre- 
 mont's Explorations," 2 vols., 1859. 
 
 Fremont d'Ablaucourt, fRa'mdN' di'bldN'kooR', 
 (Nicolas,) a French Protestant, born in Paris about 
 1625, was a nephew of Perrot d'Ablaucourt. By the 
 influence of Turenne he was appointed ambassador to 
 Portugal in 1663. When the edict of Nantes was re- 
 voked, in 1685, he was obliged to leave France, and 
 retired to Holland, where the Prince of Orange appointed 
 him historiographer. He wrote, besides a few other 
 works, " Memoirs in relation to the History of Portugal," 
 (from 1659 to 1668, published in 1701.) Died in 1693. 
 
 See Haag, " La France protestante." 
 
 Fremy, fri'me', (ARNOULD,)a French litterateur, born 
 in 1809, has written some works of fiction. 
 
 Fr6my, (Edmond,) a French chemist, born in Paris 
 in 1814. He was a favourite pupil of M. Pelouze, whom 
 he aided as assistant professor in the Polytechnic School. 
 He afterwards succeeded M. Pelouze as professor, and 
 succeeded Gay-Lussac in the Museum of Natural His- 
 tory. In conjunction with Pelouze, he produced successful 
 works, entitled " General Treatise on Chemistry," (6 vols., 
 1844-57,) and an "Abridgment (Abrege 1 ) of Chemistry." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 French, (John,) an English physician, born in 1616, 
 attended professionally the parliamentary army under 
 Fairfax. He wrote the " Art of Distillation," and the 
 "Yorkshire Spaw," Died in 1657. 
 
 French, (Nicholas,) an Irish Roman Catholic bishop, 
 born at Wexford in 1604. He was appointed Bishop of 
 Ferns in 1643, soon after which date he went as an exile 
 to the continent. He published, besides other works, 
 "The Unkind Deserter of Loyal Men," (1676,) directed 
 against Ormond. Died in 1678. 
 
 French, (Samuel G.,) an American officer in the 
 Confederate army, born in New Jersey, was made a 
 brigadier-general in 1861. 
 
 French, (William Henry,) an American officer, 
 born in Maryland about 1818, served in the Mexican 
 war, and in 1861 became a brigadier-general of volun- 
 teers in the Union army. 
 
 Frend, (William,) an English writer on astronomy, 
 political economy, etc., born at Canterbury in 1757. He 
 was rector of Madingley, but, having adopted Socinian 
 opinions, he resigned that living in 1787. Among his 
 works is "Evening Amusements on the Beauties of the 
 Heavens," issued annually, (1804-22.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Freneau, fre'no', (Philip,) an American poet and 
 journalist, of French descent, born at New York in 
 1752. He wrote, during the Revolution, many satirical 
 and burlesque poems against the Tories. Some of these 
 were very popular. He performed many voyages as a 
 captain of a merchant-vessel between 1784 and 1789, 
 and again after 1798. About 1790 he became translating 
 clerk to Jefferson, (then secretary of state,) and editor 
 of the "National Gazette," published at Philadelphia and 
 notorious for virulent articles against the administra- 
 tion of Washington. Died near Freehold, New Jersey, 
 in December, 1832. 
 
 See Gkiswoi.d, "Poets and Poetry of America;" Duyckinck, 
 " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Frenicle, fRa'nek'l', (Nicolas,) a minor French poet, 
 born in Paris in 1600, wrote "Niobe, a Tragedy," and 
 other poems. Died in 1661. 
 
 Frenicle de Bessy, fRa'nek'l' deh bjt'se', (Bernard,) 
 a skilful French mathematician, brother of the preceding. 
 He excelled in solving difficult questions without the 
 use of algebra, so that Fermat, Descartes, and others 
 confessed his superiority. His modus operandi was kept 
 secret until his death, when it was ascertained by his 
 papers to be the "method of exclusion." He was ad- 
 mitted to the Academy of Sciences in 1666. He wrote 
 a "Treatise on Right-Angled Triangles in Numbers," 
 and other works. Died in 1675. 
 
 See Baili.et, "Vie de Descartes;" Condorcet, "Fjoge de 
 Frenicle de Bessy." 
 
 Frenzel or Frentzel, fRent'sel, (Johann,) a German 
 poet, born at Annaberg in 1609. He was professor of 
 poetry at Leipsic. Died in 1674. 
 
 Frere, fRaiR, (Georges,) a French general of division, 
 born in Languedoc in 1764. He distinguished himself 
 in the Austrian campaign of 1809. Died in 1826. 
 
 Frere, freer, (Right Hon. John Hookham,) of Nor- 
 folk, England, was born in 1769, and entered Parliament 
 in 1796. He was ambassador to Spain in 1808, and per- 
 formed other diplomatic services. He was one of the 
 founders of the " London Quarterly Review," and ac- 
 quired distinction as a poet by a humorous work, entitled 
 "Prospectus and Specimen of an Intended National 
 Work by William and Robert Whistlecraft, etc., relating 
 to King Arthur and his Round Table." His translation 
 of a Saxon poem on the victory of Athelstan at Brunnen- 
 burgh was much admired. Died at Malta in 1846. 
 
 See Lockhart, " Life of Scott;" " London Quarterly Review" 
 for September, 1843; "Gentleman's Magazine" for March and April, 
 1846. 
 
 Frere, (Pierre Edouard,) a French painter, a pupil 
 of Paul Delaroche, was born in Paris in 1819. His 
 subjects are familiar domestic scenes. 
 
 Frer6s, fra-ra'? (Theodore,) a Dutch painter, born 
 at Enckhuysen in 1643, studied at Rome. He worked 
 for some time at Amsterdam. Died at sea in 1693. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Fr^ret, fKa'r.V, (Nicolas,) an eminent French his- 
 torical critic and savant, born in Paris, February 15, 
 1688, was early distinguished for his devotion to learning 
 and his extraordinary attainments in ancient history, 
 philosophy, and chronology. The Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions was opened to him in 1714, about which time he 
 wrote a " Discourse on the Origin of the French," which 
 was much admired. The novel or candid opinions 
 uttered in this work procured him a short confinement 
 in the Bastille. He was versed in many ancient and 
 modern languages. He appears to have been free from 
 selfish ambition, and actuated by a disinterested zeal for 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ft, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
FRERICHS 
 
 969 
 
 FRET 
 
 the honour of the Academy, for which he wrote a multi- 
 tude of profound dissertations on ancient history and 
 chronology, in one of which he explodes the fabulous 
 antiquity of the Chinese. Among his principal works 
 are a "Treatise on the Origin of the Greeks," "Obser- 
 vations on the Cyropsedia of Xenophon," and "Historical 
 Researches respecting the Ancient Peoples of Asia." 
 He was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions and Belles-Lettres. Died in Paris in March, 1749. 
 He is considered the greatest of French historical critics. 
 See Bougainville, "Eloge de Freret ;" Champollion-Figbac, 
 " Vie de Fre>et," prefixed to a new edition of his works. The first 
 volume of this edition was published in 1825. See, also, "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^oe'rale." 
 
 Frerichs, fRa'riKs, (Frif.drich Thf.odor,) a German 
 physician, born at Aurich, in Hanover, in 18 19. He 
 became professor of pathology and therapeutics at Bres- 
 lau about 1852. He wrote, besides other able works, 
 a "Treatise on Diseases of the Liver," (1859.) 
 
 Freron, fRa'rd.N', (Elie Catherine,) a distinguished 
 French critic and litterateur, born at Qttimper in 1719, 
 assisted Desfontaines for several years in his critical re- 
 views. From 1749 to 175411c issued a spirited literary 
 periodical, styled "Letters on Certain Contemporary 
 Writings." From 1754 until his death he edited the 
 " Literary -Year," and acquired much notoriety by his 
 attacks on Voltaire and the Encyclopedists, who retorted 
 with great asperity. His ode on the battle of Fontenoy 
 (1745) was admired. He wrote many other works. Died 
 in 1776. 
 
 See Grimm, " Correspondance lituiraire ;" C. Nisard, " Les 
 Ennemis de Voltaire," 1853. 
 
 Freron, (Louis Stanislas,) son of the preceding, 
 was born in Paris in 1765. He was a violent Jacobin, 
 edited a paper called the "Orator of the People," voted 
 for the death of the king in the Convention, and took an 
 official and prominent part in the massacres at Marseilles 
 and Toulon. He promoted the fall of Robespierre in 
 1794, and was appointed sub-prefect in Saint Domingo, 
 where he died, soon after his arrival, in 1802. 
 
 See Lamartine's " History of the Girondists." 
 
 Frescobaldi, fRfeVko-bal'dee, (Giroi.amo, ) a re- 
 nowned Italian organist and composer, born at Ferrara, 
 probably about 1588. He became organist of St. Peter's 
 in Rome. He displayed a rich imagination as a com- 
 poser of canzoni, toccatas, etc. He is regarded as the 
 father of that style of organ-music which the English call 
 "voluntaries." Died about 1654. 
 
 See Hawkins, "History of Music;" Fetis, " Biographie Uni- 
 verselle des Musiciens." 
 
 Presenilis, fRa-za'ne-us, (Johann Frif.drich,) a 
 German theologian, born in 1717; died in 1783. 
 
 SeeF. A. Fkesenius, " Lebenslauf, etc. J. F. Fresenii," 1789. 
 
 Fresia, fna'se-3, or fRa'ze'jf, (Maurice Ignace,) Ka- 
 ron, a general in the French army, was born at Saluzzo, 
 in Piedmont, in 1 746. He was appointed Governor of 
 Venice, and commandant of the Illyrian provinces, about 
 1810. Died in Paris in 1827. 
 
 Fresnaye, de la, deh 13 fR^'n^', (Jean Vauquelin 
 — vok'liN',) a mediocre French poet, father of Desyve- 
 teaux, horn in Normandy in 1536; died in 1606. 
 
 Fresne. See Dufkksne and Du Cange. 
 
 Fresne, fain, (Francois iSbaudy — i'bo'de',) a 
 French economist, born at Langres in 1743, published a 
 "Treatise on Agriculture," (3 vols., 1788,) and proposed 
 the saving-fund for servants, and other means of econ- 
 omy which have since been adopted. Died in 1815. 
 
 Fresnel, frj'nel', (Aijgustin Jean,) a celebrated 
 French geometer and optician, born at Broglie (Eure) on 
 the 10th of May, 1788, was the son of an architect. He 
 studied in the Ecole Polytechnique, and passed thence 
 into the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, which he quitted 
 with the title of engineer. He began to experiment on 
 the theory of light about 1815, and received a prize from 
 the Academy of Sciences for his treatise "On the Dif- 
 fraction of Light" in 1819. In 1823 he was elected a 
 member of the Academy of Science*. He wrote several 
 memoirs on polarization and double refraction, which 
 were inserted in the "Annales de Physique et Chimie," 
 (1816-25.) He performed for physical optics what New- 
 ton did foi astronomy. His experiments tend to prove 
 
 the truth of the theory that light consists in the vibra- 
 tions of an elastic medium. His theory of double refrac- 
 tion and polarization is called one of the finest efforts 
 of genius. He made the first successful application of 
 lenses to the lamps of light-houses, and invented the 
 illuminating apparatus which is used throughout the 
 civilized world. He was chosen in 1825 a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society of London, which in 1827 awarded to him 
 the Rumford medal. When on his death-bed, this medal 
 was presented to him by his friend Arago, to whom he 
 said, " I thank you for performing this mission, which 
 must have been a painful duty ; for the brightest badge 
 of honour appears dim and insignificant to him who must 
 lay it down on the grave of a friend." Died in 1827. 
 
 See Arago's "FJoge de Fresnel," in the "CEuvres completes" 
 (of Arago,) tome i.; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale;" "Biographie 
 Universelle," (Supplement.) 
 
 Fresnel, (Fulgence,) a French Orientalist, born at 
 Mathieu (Calvados) in 1795 ; died at BagdSd in 1855. 
 
 Fresnoy. See Dueresnoy, (Charles Alphonse.) 
 
 Fresnoy, (Lenglet du.) See Lenglet. 
 
 Fresny. See Dufresny. 
 
 Fresse-Montval, fRes'm6N / vil', (Henri Francois 
 Alphonse,) a French litterateur, born at Perpignan in 
 1 795, wrote a " Manual of Latin Composition," and made 
 a translation of Pindar's works into French verse, which 
 gained a prize of the French Academy in 1851. 
 
 Fressinet, fRi'se'ni', (Philikert,) a French general, 
 born in Burgundy in 1769. In 1813, for his conduct at 
 the battle of Lutzen, he obtained the rank of general of 
 division. Died in 1821. 
 
 Freteau de Saint-Just, fita'to' deh saN'zhust', (Em- 
 manuel Marie Michel Philippe,) a French lawyer, 
 born in 1745. He was elected in 1789 to the States- 
 General, and was a moderate partisan of the Revolu- 
 tion. He was one of the presidents of the Constituent 
 Assembly, and a judge of one of the courts in Paris. 
 He was executed by the terrorists in 1794. 
 
 Freudenberger, fRoi'den-beVGer, (Sigismond,) a 
 Swiss painter and engraver, born in 1745; died in 1801. 
 
 Freudweiler, fRoid'wi'ler, (Daniel,) a Swiss painter, 
 born in 1793; died in 1827. 
 
 Freund, iRoint, ( Wilhelm,) a German lexicographer, 
 of Jewish extraction, horn at Kempen, in the province 
 of Posen, in 1806. His "Dictionary of the Latin Lan- 
 guage" (4 vols., 1834) enjoys a high reputation. He 
 also published a Latin-German, Latin-Greek Dictionary 
 for Schools, (1848.) 
 
 Freuudsberg. See Frondsherg. 
 
 Freundweiler, fRoint'wi'ler, or Freudweiler, froit'- 
 wl'ler, (Henri,) a skilful Swiss painter of history, genre, 
 and portraits, was bom at Zurich in 1755 ; died in 1795. 
 
 Freux, de, deh fRuh, ILat. Fru'sius,] (Andre,) a 
 French Jesuit and writer, born at Chartres about 1500, 
 became secretary to Loyola at Rome. Died in 1556. 
 
 Frey, fn, or Freyr, frlr, [sometimes written in Latin 
 Fric'co; etymology the same as that of Frf.yia, which 
 see,*] the son of Njord, and the brother of Freyia. He 
 presides over rain and sunshine and the fruits of the earth. 
 His attributes correspond to those both of Frigga and 
 Freyia. As the god of fertility, he resembles the former ;t 
 as the god of pleasure and love, he is the counterpart of 
 the latter. We are told that he was (like Freyia) beloved 
 by all, both gods and men. lie had two remarkable 
 gifts presented him by Loki, — the ship Skidbladnir, which 
 would always have a fair wind whenever the sails were 
 set, and was so capacious that it could contain all the 
 gods, with their weapons and armour, and yet could be 
 folded up like a cloth and carried in one's pocket ; and 
 the boar named Gullinbursti, ("golden bristles,") which 
 he could drive on the air and sea and which could travel 
 
 * Supposing the etymology given under Freyia to be the true 
 one, Frey is simply the masculine form of Freyia, — the masculine of 
 prtya being /rlyd, or (as the final short a is often dropped) simply 
 prty\ — and signifies, like Freyia, "beloved," "dear." The Latin 
 name Frieeo goes to establish F rev's relationship with Frigga, and to 
 confirm the view that Freyia and Frigga were originally one name, 
 since nothing is more common than for g and y to interchange, as 
 shown in such examples as "Day," Anglo-Saxon Dag, German 
 Tag; "Way," Anglo-Saxon and German IVeg, etc. 
 
 t As Frigga was the goddess of marriage, so Frey was the god of 
 marriage : for on such occasions, as Adam of Bremen tells us, the old 
 Danes used to sacrifice to Frey. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; £ hard; g as/; g, h, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2ry=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FRET 
 
 970 
 
 F RETT AG 
 
 far more swiftly than any horse. The wife of Frey was 
 Gerda, (ger'da,) or Gerd, (gerd,) the daughter of a giant 
 named Gymir. It is related that-one day Frey ascended 
 Odin's throne Hlidskialf, whence he could view all the 
 regions of the world. Towards the north he saw a 
 magnificent palace, out of which came a woman whose 
 beauty was so resplendent that it illumined the whole 
 world. As a just punishment for his presumption in 
 ascending the seat of the father of the gods, P' icy was so 
 deeply smitten with love that he could neither drink, 
 speak, nor sleep. Thereupon Njord sent Skirmir, Frey's 
 attendant, to inquire the cause of his distress. When 
 Skirmir learned it, he promised that if his master would 
 give him his sword he would obtain for him the beautiful 
 maiden, whose name was Gerda. In this undertaking he 
 encountered great difficulties, but was at last successful. 
 But Frey had parted with his good sword, which will 
 prove a very serious loss at Ragnarock, when the great 
 battle will be fought between the /Esir and their ene- 
 mies. 
 
 See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Kevser's " Reli- 
 
 fion of the Northmen;" Mallet's " Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., 
 'able XIX. : Petersen's "Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Frey, fnl, (Jean Cecile,) a Swiss philologist and 
 physician, born at KaiserstUhl about 1580, taught phi- 
 losophy in a college of Paris. He wrote, besides other 
 works in Latin, "The Philosophy of the Druids," 
 (1625.) Died in 163 1. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me^noires." 
 
 Prey, (Jean Louis,) a Swiss philologist and Oriental- 
 ist, born at Hale in 1682. He was appointed professor of 
 history and theology in the Academy of Berne in 1711. 
 He also distinguished himself by great knowledge and 
 critical sagacity in theology, history, and philosophy, and 
 wrote several works. Died in 1759. 
 
 See J. C. Beck, "De Vita et Meritis Philologi J. L. Frey," 
 176°. 
 
 Frey, (Johann Jakoh,) an excellent Swiss engraver, 
 bom at Lucerne in 1681, studied under Carlo Maratta, 
 and worked mostly in Rome. He engraved a large 
 number of the master-pieces of the Italian painters, re- 
 producing with great fidelity the characteristic style 
 of each master, and was perhaps the most excellent 
 engraver of his time. Died in 1752. Among his works are 
 "Bacchus and Ariadne" and "The Chariot of Aurora," 
 after Guido; and "The Holy Family," after Raphael. 
 
 See STRUT*, "Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Freya. See Freyia. 
 
 Freyberg, fRl'beRo, (Maximilian Prokop,) Baron, 
 bom at Freising in 1789, was appointed by Louis I. of 
 Bavaria keeper of the archives at Munich. Besides legal 
 treatises, he published several works relating to Bavarian 
 history. Died in 1 851. 
 
 Freycinet, de, deh fRj'se'nl', (Louis Claude De- 
 saulses — deh-sol',) a French navigator, born at Mon- 
 telimart in 1779. He sailed with Baudin in a scientific 
 expedition to Australia, and assisted in composing an 
 account of the same. He obtained the rank of captain 
 of a frigate in 181 1, and commanded the expedition sent 
 in the Urania in 1817 to ascertain the figure of the earth 
 and the elements of terrestrial magnetism. The result 
 of this enterprise was a " Voyage around the World," 
 etc., (13 vols., 1824-44,) of which the parts on navigation, 
 hydrography, and magnetism were written by Freycinet. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 His brother Henri, born in 1777, also distinguished 
 as a navigator, was associated with him in nearly all his 
 expeditions. Died in 1840. 
 
 See Koouette, " Notices historiqnes sur MM. Henri et Louis de 
 Freycinet," 1S40; F. Grille, " L. de Freycinet. sa Vie de Savant et 
 de Marin," etc., 1853; " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Freyia or Freyja, fri'ya, written also Freya, [pro- 
 bably allied to the Sanscrit priyd, signifying "dear," 
 "beloved," and, as a substantive, a "wife:" compare 
 the Swedish fria or frija, to "make love," to "seek in 
 marriage,"] the goddess of love, the Venus of the Norse 
 mythology. She is also called Van'adis, or the " Vanir 
 goddess." She is said to be the daughter of Njord, 
 the god of the air. (See Vanir.) She was married to 
 Oder, (or Odur,) who afterwards left her and wandered 
 far away. During his absence she weeps for him, shed- 
 
 ding golden tears. Matthew Arnold, in his beautiful 
 poem entitled " Balder Dead," speaks thus of Freya : 
 " And Freya next caine nigh, with golden tears, 
 The loveliest goddess she in heaven, by all 
 Most honoured after Frea, Odin's wife: 
 Her long ago the wandering Oder took 
 To mate, but left her to roam in distant lands , 
 Since then she seeks him, and weeps tears of gold: 
 Names hath she many ; Vanadis on earth 
 They call her; Freya is her name in heaven." 
 One-half of the heroes who fell in battle belonged, it 
 is said, to Freyia: hence she was sometimes called Val- 
 freyia, (i.e. the " Freyia of the fallen,") in the same man- 
 ner that Odin was styled ValfotSr, (or Valfaftir,) or the 
 "father of the slain." This is thus explained by some 
 writers : Many warriors are impelled chiefly by their 
 own fiery courage ; these, falling in battle, belong to 
 Odin, the god of courage : others, like the knights of 
 the middle ages, seek to obtain by their prowess the 
 admiration and favour of the other sex ; these are the 
 votaries of Freyia, the goddess of love and gallantry, 
 and, when they fall in battle, belong especially to her. 
 
 Most etymologists agree that Freyia and Frigga were 
 originally the same name. We may conjecture that 
 among a simple and comparatively virtuous people the 
 same power would preside over love and marriage, but 
 that in a later and more corrupt age those orifices which 
 originally belonged to one became divided, as among 
 the Greeks and Romans, between two distinct and inde- 
 pendent deities. (See Frey.) There can scarcely be a 
 reasonable question but that Friday signifies " Freyia's 
 day;" though some suppose it to be "Frigga's day:" it 
 was called in the Latin of the middle ages Veneris dies, 
 (" Venus's day,") whence the French Vendredi. 
 
 See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; " Religion of 
 the Northmen," by Rudolph Kevsek, translated by Bakclav Pen- 
 nock; Mallet's " Northern Antiquities," vol. ii., Fable XVIII. 
 
 Freylinghausen, fet'ling-h&Vzen, (Johann Anas- 
 tas or Anastasius,) a German theologian and writer, 
 born at Gandersheim in 1670. He became the colleague 
 of the philanthropist A. II. Francke at Halle. Died in 1738. 
 
 Freyre. See Krkire. 
 
 Freyre, fua^e-ri, (Don Manoei.,) a Spanish general, 
 born at Osuna, in Andalusia, in 1765. He commanded 
 the cavalry at Ocana, where the Spaniards were de- 
 feated by the French, in 1S09, and obtained the chief 
 command of a corps in Murcia and Granada in 1810 or 
 181 1. In 1 8 13 he succeeded Castanos as general of the 
 Spanish forces under Wellington. He was selected to 
 command the royal army at the beginning of the revo- 
 lution of 1820. After the king had, in March, 1820, 
 sworn to restore the constitution of 1812, Freyre was 
 deprived of the command. Died in 1834. 
 
 See " Irefensa del General Manoei Freyre." 
 
 Freytag, fiu'taa, (Friedrich Gotthilf,) a Ger- 
 man professor and classical scholar, born in 1687; died 
 in 1761. 
 
 Freytag, (Friedrich Gotthilf,) a German bibli- 
 ographer, son of the preceding, was born at Pforta in 
 1723. He was a lawyer and burgomaster of Naum- 
 burg, and published several works, among which is 
 "Analecta literaria de Libris rarioribus," (1751.) Died 
 in 1776. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," 
 
 Freytag, (Georg Wii.hei.m Friedrich,) a distin- 
 guished German philologist, born at Luneburg in 1788, 
 devoted himself to the study of the Arabic, Persian, and 
 Turkish languages in Paris. Among his principal works 
 are a "Lexicon Arabico-Latinum," (1830,) and "Ara- 
 bum Proverbia," (" Proverbs of the Arabs.") He became 
 professor of Oriental literature at Bonn in 1819. Died 
 in November, 1861. 
 
 Freytag, (Gustav,) a popular German dramatist and 
 novelist, born at Kreuzburg, in Silesia, in 1816. He 
 produced, besides other dramas, "Count Waldemar," 
 (1847,) and the "Journalists," (1854,) a comedy, which is 
 commended. His novel entitled "Soil und Haben" (3 
 vols., 1855) was very successful. 
 
 Freytag, (Johann,) a German physician, born at 
 Wesel in 1581. He was for many years first physician 
 to the Prince-Bishop of Osna'rruck, and became pro. 
 fessor at Groningen in 1631. He wrote, besides other 
 medical works, "Noctes Medics," (1616.) Died in 1641. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, <?, obscure; far, fall, fat; m4t; not; good; moon j 
 
FREZIER 
 
 97 « 
 
 FR IRION 
 
 Frezier, IVi'ze-4', ( Amedef. Francois,) a French 
 military engineer, was born at Chambery in 1682. He 
 published, in 1706, a "Treatise on Fire-Works," which 
 was much esteemed. Having been sent on a mission to 
 Peru and Chili in 1712, he wrote a " Voyage to the South 
 Sea and the Coasts of Chili and Peru," (1716,) which 
 was often reprinted. Me was chief engineer of the for- 
 tifications constructed in Brittany after 1740, and wrote 
 several other works. Died in 1773. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Frezzi daFoliguo, fket'see da fo-len'yo, (Federigo,) 
 an Italian poet, born in Umbria, became Bishop of 
 Koligno in 1403. He wrote, in imitation of Dante, an 
 allegorical poem called "II Quadriregio," or poem of 
 four kingdoms, which had great temporary success. It 
 was fust printed in 1481. Died in 1416. 
 
 Frezzolirri, fket-so-lee'nee, (Ekminia Nencini — 
 nen-chee'nee,) a popular Italian vocalist, distinguished 
 for dramatic power and a soprano voice of great com- 
 pass, w.t, born at Yiterbo in 1S20. After she had per- 
 formed in London and Paris, she visited the Ujiited 
 States in 1857. 
 
 Friant, fise 6n', (Louis,) a French general, born in 
 Picardv in 1758. He became a brigadier-general in 1794. 
 Alter he had served several campaigns on the Rhine and 
 in Italy, he accompanied Bonaparte in 1798 to Egypt, 
 where he signalized his courage and was promoted to 
 the rank of a general of division. He succeeded Desaix 
 when the latter departed from Upper Egypt He was 
 wounded at Austerlitz, (1805,) and contributed to the 
 victories of Jena and Wagram. In 1812 he made the 
 campaign of Russia as commander of the grenadiers of 
 the Imperial guard. After Napoleon's return from Elba, 
 Friant was made a peer, and was severely wounded at 
 Waterloo. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Thiers " Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 Frias, de, da fRee'as, (Damas?) a Spanish poet, sup- 
 posed to have lived about 1 500, left a poem called the 
 " Retreat of Silvia," and a few songs. Spanish critics 
 rank him as one of the most agreeable lyric poets of 
 his time. 
 
 Friche. See Dufrisciik. 
 
 Frick, folk, (Albrecht,) a learned German professor, 
 bom at Ulm in 1714 ; died in 1776. 
 
 Friedeniaun, fitee'den-man', (Friedrich Trau- 
 Goii,) a German teacher, philologist, and writer of edu- 
 cational works, was born at Stolpen, in Saxony, in 1793 ; 
 died after 1852. 
 
 Friederich, fRee'deh-riK', or Frederic, fRa'di'iek', 
 (Andre,) a skilful French sculptor, born at Kibeau- 
 ville (Haut-Rhin) in 1798. He studied at Dresden, 
 Paris, and Rome, and settled at Strasbourg about 1826. 
 Among his works are a granite monument to Turenne 
 at Sulzbach, (1828,) and a bas-relief of the baptism of 
 Clovis. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Friedland, Dike oh. See Wai.i.fnsi fin. 
 
 Friedland, fkeet'lant, (Valentin,) a learned German 
 teacher, born in 1490, was sumamed Trotzf.niiorff, 
 from his birthplace in Upper I.usatia. Having visited 
 Wittenberg in 1518. he accpiired the friendship of Luther 
 and Melaix hthnn. In 1531 he became rector of the 
 academy at Goldberg, which, under his care, obtained 
 the highest popularity and success. Died in 1556. 
 
 Friedrich, fkccd'riK, (Kasi-ak David,) a German 
 painter, born at Gieifswakle in 1774; died in 1840. 
 
 Friedrich of Gkrmanv. See FBKDERICf. 
 
 Fries, fkeess, (Bekniiard,) a German painter, born 
 at Heidelberg in 1820, studied in Rome. He worked at 
 his native place alter 1852, and painted landscapes with 
 success. Among his works are "The Rocks of N'emi," 
 and the "Valley of the N'eckar." 
 
 Fries, li:eess, (Ei.ias.) an eminent Swedish botanist 
 and orator, born in Wexiii in 1794. He became pro- 
 fessor of practical economy at Upsal in 1834, and intro- 
 duced the natural system of botany into Sweden. He 
 represented the University of Upsal in the Diet several 
 years, and gained distinction as an orator. In 1S51 he 
 was chosen professor of botany at Upsal. Among his 
 numerous and able works are a " Flora of Holland," 
 
 (1817,) "Systema Mycologicum," (3 vols., 1821-29,) 
 "Systema Orbis Vegetabilis," (a System of Botany ac- 
 cording to the natural method, 1825,) and "Flora Sea- 
 nica," (1835.) He is one of the eighteen members of 
 the Academy of Stockholm. 
 
 See Bkockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Fries, (Ernst,) a German landscape-painter, born at 
 Heidelberg in 1801, was appointed in 1831 court painter 
 at Carlsruhe, where he died in 1833. His productions 
 are of great merit, and resemble the landscapes of Pous- 
 sin. He was a brother of Bernhard, noticed above. 
 
 See Nagi.br, " Neues Allgenieines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Fries, fRees, [Lat. Fiu'sius,] (Henry,) a Swiss pro- 
 fessor of eloquence, lived at Zurich. He wrote " On 
 the Seat of the Rational Soul," (" De Sede Animas 
 rationalis.") Died in 1718. 
 
 Fries, (Jakob Friedrich,) a German philosopher, 
 born at Barby in 1773. He l>ecame in 1805 professor of 
 philosophy and elementary mathematics at Heidelberg. 
 He was the author of a "System of Logic," (181 1,) " Sys- 
 tem of Philosophy as an Evident Science," (1804,) and 
 other works, in which he favours the doctrines of Kant. 
 He was professor of physics at Jena from 1816 to 1843. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 See Klopfleisch, "Rede am Grabe des Herm J. F. Fries," 
 1843; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Fries, [Lat. Kri'sius,] (John,) an eminent Swiss 
 philologist, born at Gryffensee in 1505, was an intimate 
 friend of Conrad Gesner. He was chosen professor of 
 languages at Zurich about 1537, and gave agrcat impulse 
 to the study of Oriental languages. His most important 
 work is a "Latin-German Dictionary," (1 541.) He also 
 produced a Latin translation of Hesiod, (1548,) and 
 several original works. Died in 1565. 
 
 His son John James, bom at Zurich in 1547, was 
 professor of theology in that city. He published "Chro- 
 nological Library ol the Classic Philosophers," (" Biblio. 
 theca Philosophorum Classicorum Chronologica," 1592,) 
 a work of some value. Died in 161 1. 
 
 See Ekscii und Gri'ber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," which 
 contains notices of both the father and the son. 
 
 Friese, fRee'zeh, (Martin,) a Danish theological 
 writer, born at Ripen in 1688; died in 1750. 
 
 Frig'ga or Frigg, written also Friga, Frea, and Fiiia, 
 (probably of the same etymology as Fkeyia and F'rey, 
 which see,) the daughter of F*jdrgyn, and wife of Odin. 
 She is called "the Mother of the Gods," (/Esir,) and 
 the chief goddess, in the Norse mythology. Like Juno, 
 she was the goddess of marriage. Her habitation is 
 called Fensalir, (or F'ensaler; pronounced fen-sS'ler.) 
 She is generally regarded as a personification of the 
 earth or of the productive power of the earth, and in 
 this respect nearly corresponding to the Ceres of the 
 Romans and the Demeter (i.e. "Mother Earth") of the 
 Greeks. 
 
 See Mallet, " Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. chap. vi. ; Thorpe. 
 "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Petersen, " Nordisk Mytfoiogi/' 
 
 Frigimeiica, fRe-je-mSl'e-ka, (Francesco,) a distin- 
 guished Italian physician, born at Padua in 1491. He 
 became physician to Pope Julius HI. in 1555. Died in 
 '559- 
 
 Fr 
 
 riis, fRees, (Iohan,) a Danish statesman, born in 
 1494, became a disciple of Luther, whom he met at Wit- 
 tenberg. He was chancellor under Christian HI. Died 
 in 1570. 
 
 Frimont, de, deh fRe'miN', (Johan.n Phii.ipp, ) 
 Count, an Austrian general, and Prince of Antrodocco, 
 was born in Lorraine or Belgium about 1756. He 
 commanded a corps which invaded France in 1814. 
 lie conducted a successful campaign in Italy in 1815, and 
 forced the French to evacuate Savoy. Charged with the 
 execution of the decrees of the Congress of Laybach in 
 1821, he marched to Naples and quelled an insurrection 
 of the Liberal party. He was appointed president of the 
 council of war at Vienna a short time before his death, 
 which occttrred in December, 1831. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gerierale." 
 
 Fririon, fRe're'oN', (Francois Nicolas,) Baron, a 
 French general, born in Lorraine in 1766. He distin- 
 guished himself in 1S00 at Wagram, as chief of the stafl 
 of Massena's corps. Died in 1840. 
 
 e »* k; $ an s; gAard; ga&j; G,n,K,gnttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sas»; thasint/ifs. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23. 
 
FRISCH 
 
 972 
 
 FR OB IS HER 
 
 Frisch, fRlsh, (Jodocus (or Josse) Leopold,) a natu- 
 ralist and theologian, son of Johann L. Frisch, noticed 
 below, was born in Berlin in 1714. He published several 
 treatises on zoology, etc. Died in 1787. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Frisch, (Johann Leonhard,) a German philologist 
 and naturalist, born at Sulzbach in 1666. He settled in 
 Berlin about 1700, and was admitted into the Academy 
 of Sciences in 1706. He was afterwards rector of a 
 gymnasium in Berlin, and displayed great erudition in 
 numerous works. His " German-Latin Dictionary" ( 1 741 ) 
 was the most complete and learned that had appeared 
 in Germany. He wrote a good "Description of all the 
 Insects of Germany," (13 parts, 1720-38,) and a work on 
 German Ornithology, (1735-65.) Died in 1743. 
 
 See J. J. Wippbl, "Das Leben, etc. Johann Leonhard Frisch," 
 1744; Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Frisch, (Johann Leonhard,) a German philosopher, 
 born in Berlin in 1737 ; died in 1795. 
 
 Frische, du, dii fKesh, (Jacques,) a learned French 
 Benedictine, born in Normandy in 1640. He published, 
 with Lenourry, an excellent edition of Saint Ambrose's 
 works, (1686-90.) Died in 1693. 
 
 Frischlin, fRlsh-leen', (Nicodemus,) a Latin poet 
 and satirist, born at Balingen, in Wurtemberg, in 1547. 
 Having offended the Duke of Wurtemberg, he was 
 imprisoned in a fortress, and, after a confinement of 
 several months, was killed in attempting to escape, in 
 1590. He wjas the author of satires, epigrams, and 
 elegies, written in elegant Latin, and paraphrases on 
 Virgil's "Bucolics" and "Georgics." For his comedy 
 entitled " Rebecca" he was created by Maximilian Ii. 
 poet-laureate and count palatine. 
 
 See "Nicodemus Frischlinus redivivus," by his brother, 1599: 
 Lange, " Frischlinus Vita fama et Scriptis memorabilis," 1727; D. 
 F. Strauss, "Leben und Schriften des N. Frischlin," 1S56; Mel- 
 chior Adam, " Vita; Philosophorum." 
 
 Frischmuth, fRlsh'nioot, (Johann,) a German Ori- 
 entalist and theologian, born in Franconia in 1619, 
 became professor of Hebrew and Greek at Jena in 
 1654. He wrote many philologico-theological treatises, 
 among which are "On Tithes," ("De Decimis,") and 
 "On Sacrifices." Died in 1687. 
 
 See Jochrr, "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Frisi, fRee'see, (Paolo,) a celebrated Italian mathema- 
 tician and philosopher, born at Milan in April, 1728. He 
 entered at the age of fifteen the monastery of the llama- 
 bites, where, with little or no aid except that of books, 
 he made great progress in geometry. In 1750 he wrote 
 an able treatise "On the Figure of the Earth," which 
 established his reputation and procured for him a chair 
 of philosophy at Milan. From 1756 to 1764 he was pro- 
 fessor in the University of Pisa. During this period he 
 published a treatise on " Electricity," and a prize essay 
 "On the Diurnal Motion of the Earth." About 1757 he 
 was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and 
 afterwards a member of the Academies of Saint Petersburg, 
 Paris, and Berlin. In 1764 he accepted a chair of mathe- 
 matics in Milan, and received a pension of one hundred 
 sequins from Maria Theresa of Austria. He published 
 (in Latin) in 1774 his greatest work, "Physical and Ma- 
 thematical Cosmography," (2 vols. 4to.) He wrote also 
 on " Universal Gravity," Mechanics, Architecture, Ana- 
 lytic Geometry, etc. Died in 1784. His brother Philip 
 was Podesta of Ravenna, and author of an able work on 
 public law. 
 
 See Count Verri, " Memorte appartenenti alia Vita, etc. del 
 Paolo Frisi," Milan, 1787; F. Jacquier, " Elogio academico del 
 Signor Abate Frisi." 
 
 Frisius. See Fries, (John and Henry.) 
 
 Frith or Friyth, frith, (John,) an English Reformer, 
 born at Sevenoaks, in Kent. He had a controversy with 
 Sir Thomas More, and was imprisoned in the Tower for 
 his religion. Having refused to renounce his principles, 
 ht was burnt at Smithfield in 1553. He left several 
 works on theology. 
 
 See Fox, " Acts and Monuments." 
 
 Frith, (William Powell,) a skilful English historical 
 painter, born at Harrogate, in Yorkshire, in 181901- 1820, 
 was a student of the Royal Academy. He painted scenes 
 from Shakspeare, Scott, Goldsmith, and Moliere with 
 
 success, and was elected Royal Academician in 1853. 
 His colour is brilliant, and his style adapted to the 
 general taste of the people, if not to that of critics and 
 artists. Among his works are "The Village Pastor," 
 (1845,) "Coming of Age," (1849,) and " Life at the Sea- 
 Side," (1854.) 
 
 Frit'I-gern, King of the Visigoths, crossed the Dan- 
 ube and established himself in Mcesia. He defeated 
 the emperor Valens at Adrianople in 378 A.D. Died 
 about 392. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire." 
 
 Fritz, fkits, (Samuel,) a Jesuit missionary, bom in 
 Bohemia in 1650. He laboured about forty years on the 
 Upper Amazon, where he is said to have converted many 
 thousand natives. He was skilful in several useful arts, 
 and made a valuable chart of the river Amazon. Died 
 in South America in 1730. 
 
 Fritzsche, fnit'sheh, (Christian Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man theologian, born at Naundorf in 1776. He became 
 in i8jo professor of theology at Halle. He wrote " Lec- 
 tures on the Communion," and other religious treatises. 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Fritzsche, (Franz Volkmar— folk'maR,) a German 
 scholar and critic, a son of the preceding, was bom at 
 Steinbach in 1806. He wrote a treatise " On the Mono- 
 dies of Euripides," (" De Monodiis Euripideis,") and 
 published editions of Lucian's "Alexander," " Demonax," 
 etc., and "Questiones Lucianae." 
 
 Fritzsche, (Karl Friedrich August,) a learned 
 theologian and biblical critic, born at Steinbach. in 1801, 
 was a brother of the preceding. He published a number 
 of commentaries on the New Testament, the most im- 
 portant of which is that on the Epistle to the Romans. 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 His brother, Otto Fridolin, also distinguished him- 
 self as a biblical critic and philologist. 
 
 Friuli, Duke of. See Duroc. 
 
 Frizon, fRe'ziN', (Pierre,) a French Jesuit, born 
 in the diocese of Rheims. He wrote a history of the 
 French cardinals and popes, entitled " Gallia Purpu- 
 rata," (1629.) Died about 1650. 
 
 Frizzi, fRit'see, (Antonio,) an Italian writer and 
 lawyer, born at Ferrara in 1736. He wrote a History 
 of Ferrara, (5 vols., 1791-1809.) Died in 1800. 
 
 Frobel or Froebel, fub'bel, (Carl Poppo,) a Ger- 
 man linguist and printer, born at Oberweissbach in 1786. 
 He translated Sallust into German, (1821.) Died in 1824. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fr6bel or Froebel, (Friedrich,) a German teacher, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born near Rudolstadt 
 in 1782. He published in 1826 a work on education, 
 (" Die Menschenerziehung,") and founded in 1837, at 
 Blankenburg, a school called "Kindergarten," in which 
 he pursued a new system of education. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Kuehne, " Frobel's.Tod und der Fortbestand seiner Lehre," 
 1852. 
 
 Frobel or Froebel, (Julius,) a German writer and 
 democrat, a nephew of the preceding, was born at 
 Griesheim in 1806. He was professor of history and 
 natural history at Zurich from 1833 to 1844, and pub- 
 lished a " System of Crystalology," (1843.) He became 
 a leader of the democratic party in Germany about 1848, 
 and a member of the Parliament of Frankfort. He was 
 united with Blum in a deputation to Vienna, and was 
 arrested there, but acquitted. Among his works is " Ex- 
 periences, Travels, Studies, etc. in America," ("Aus 
 Amerika Erfahrungen, Reisen und Studien," 2 vols., 
 1858.) 
 
 Froben, fRo'ben, [Lat. Frobe'nius,] (Johann,) a 
 learned German printer, born in Franconia in 1460. He 
 opened an office at Bale in 1491, from which he issued a 
 Latin Bible; and he was one of the first who introduced 
 into Germany the Roman letters. He printed all the 
 works of Erasmus, who resided many years in Bale and 
 was his warm personal friend. Died in 1527. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Frobenius. See Frohen. 
 
 Frob'ish-er, [Lat. Forwsse'rus,] (Sir Martin,) an 
 English navigator, born at Doncaster, was the first of his 
 countrymen who sought to discover the Northwest pass- 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
FROCHOT 
 
 973 
 
 FRONTINUS 
 
 age. In June, 1576, he sailed from Deptford with three 
 small barks, explored the coast of Greenland, discovered 
 the strait which bears his name, near 63 north latitude, 
 and brought home a black mineral in which gold was 
 found. He renewed his explorations in 1577 and 1578, 
 without any great results. The chief object of his second 
 expedition was to find gold. In 1 588, as captain of the 
 Triumph, — a large ship, — he signalized his bravery in 
 the contest with the Spanish Armada, for which he was 
 knighted. He commanded a small fleet sent to aid Henry 
 IV. of France, and in the attack of a fort near Brest he 
 received a wound of which he died in 1594. 
 
 See Freigius, " Historia Navigationis Martini Forbisseri." 1675 ; 
 Campbell, "Lives of British Admirals;" J. Barrow, "Memoirs 
 of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," 1845. 
 
 Frochot, fRo'sho', (Nicolas Therese Beno!t,) 
 Count, a French administrator, born about 1760. In 
 1800 he was appointed, by the First Consul, prefect of the 
 department of the Seine, in which position he directed 
 with ability the municipal affairs of Paris until 181 2, when 
 he was dismissed from office because he had been in 
 some measure the dupe of the conspirator Mallet. (See 
 Mallet.) Died in 1828. 
 Froebel. See Frobel. 
 Froeben. See Frohen. 
 Froehlich. See Frohlich. 
 Froelich. See Froi.ich. 
 
 Frohlich or Froehlich, fRo'liK, (Abraham Em- 
 manuel,) a Swiss poet, born at Brugg in 1796. He 
 became pastor at Aarau in 1835, and produced epic 
 poems, elegies, and fables, which were received with 
 favour. 
 
 Froidmond, Froidmont, fRwa'm6N', or Fromont, 
 fRo'moN', [Lat Fromun'dus,] (Libert,) an eminent 
 Catholic divine and scholar, born at Haccourt, in Bel- 
 gium, in 1587. He was the friend of Jansen, whom he 
 succeeded, about 1635, as professor of divinity in the 
 University of Louvain. He wrote many works on the- 
 ology, of which his " Commentary on St Paul's Epistles" 
 is among the best. Died in 1653. 
 
 Froila (fRo'e-la or froi'la) I., King of Spain, was the 
 son of Alfonso I., and began to reign in A.D. 757. His 
 realm included Oviedo, the Asturias, and Leon, the Moors 
 haying possession of the rest of Spain. About 760 he 
 gained a decisive victory over Omar, a Saracen prince. 
 He was dethroned and killed by his brother Aurelio 
 in 768. 
 
 Froila (written also Fruela) II. of Spain, born about 
 the year 845 A.D., was Count of Galicia, and son of 
 King Vereniond. He was killed in 875 by Alfonso III., 
 from whom he had usurped the throne of Leon. 
 
 Froila III., King of Leon, succeeded his brother 
 Ordono in 923 A.D. His cruelty and injustice impelled 
 his subjects to drive him from the throne and to change 
 the kingdom into a republic. He died in 924. 
 
 Froissart, frois'sart, [Fr. pron. fRwa'saV,] (Jean,) a 
 French historian and poet, born at Valenciennes in 1337. 
 He was educated for the church ; but his love of festive 
 pleasure and romantic gallantry directed him into other 
 pursuits. At the age of twenty he began to write chroni- 
 cles of the wars of his time, and to obtain the requisite 
 information he travelled much, and associated with the 
 nobles and principal actors in public affairs. In the year 
 136 1 he visited the court of Edward III. of England, where 
 he remained five or six years and was treated with great 
 favour, especially by the queen Philippa, who employed 
 him as her clerk or secretary. He attended Lionel, 
 Duke of Clarence, when he went to Italy to marry the 
 daughter of the Duke of Milan. After the death of 
 Philippa, in 1369, he officiated a short time as curate of 
 Lestines, in France. About the year 1385, Guy, Count 
 of Blois, employed Froissart as clerkj and the latter 
 soon afterwards, in quest of historical materials, visited 
 Gaston, Count of Foix. His active curiosity, even in 
 his declining years, led him to frequent courts, festivals, 
 and tournaments, and his Chronicles present a "faithful 
 mirror" of the age of chivalry, with its beauties and 
 deformities. He is esteemed for his veracity, and ad- 
 mired for picturesque description and a charming 
 simplicity of expression. The period comprised in his 
 history extends from 1326 to 1400; he probably died | 
 
 soon after the latter date. He gives a brilliant but 
 superficial picture of his times, and seems not to 
 recognize the existence of any class except the noblesse. 
 
 See Walter Scott, "Froissart," in the "Edinburgh Review" 
 for January, 1805; Villrmain, "Coursde Literature Francaise au 
 Moven-Age ;" Henri Lucas, " Notice stir la Vie et les Ouvragee 
 de J. Froissart," Berlin, 1849; " Nouvelle Bingraphie Gene>ale." 
 
 Frolich or Froelich, fRo'liK, (Erasmus,) an eminent 
 German numismatist, born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1700. 
 He became professor of history and antiquities at Vienna, 
 and published many works (in Latin) on numismatics, 
 among which are "The Utility of Numismatics," (1733,) 
 and "The Annals of the Kings of Syria illustrated by 
 Medals," (1744.) Died in 1758. 
 
 See HtRSCHlNG, "Historisch-literarisches Handbuch;" Oetteh, 
 " Lebensgeschichte des beruhmten E. Froelich," 1773. 
 
 Fromage, fRo'mtzh', (Pierre,) a French missionary, 
 born at Laon in 1678; died in Syria in 1740. 
 
 Fromaget, fRo'ma"zh£', a French dramatic writ^i, 
 published " Kara Mustapha," " Mirima," " The Maga- 
 zine of Lost Things," etc. Died in 1759. 
 
 Froment or Prominent, fRo'moN', (Antoine,) a 
 Protestant Reformer, born near Grenoble, France, about 
 1510, was a disciple of Farel. He began to preach 
 against popery at Geneva in 1533, and settled as pastor 
 in that city in 1537. He was deposed from the ministry 
 (for some misconduct on the part of his wife) about 1552, 
 and died about 1585, leaving a " History of the Reforma- 
 tion at Geneva," which was published in 1854. 
 
 See MM. Haag, "La France protestante ;" Senebier, " His- 
 toire litteraire de Geneve." 
 
 Froment, (FRANgois Marie,) a French pamphleteer 
 and politician, born at Nimes in 1756. He emigrated 
 about 1790, after which he engaged in many intrigues 
 for the restoration of the Bourbons. Died in 1825. 
 
 Froment, (Paul Gustave,) a French optician, noted 
 as a skilful maker of instruments, was born in 1815. He 
 produced some remarkable electro-magnetic apparatus. 
 
 Fromond, fi:o-mdnd', (Giovanni Claudio,) an emi- 
 nent natural philosopher, born at Cremona, Italy, in 1703. 
 He was for twenty years professor of logic and philoso- 
 phy at Pisa, and acquired a wide reputation. In 1758 he 
 was chosen a correspondent of the Academy of Sciences 
 of Paris. He has the credit of determining the charac- 
 ters of mechanical and physical forces. Among his chief 
 works is a "General Introduction to Philosophy," (1748.) 
 Died at Pisa in 1765. 
 
 See BiANCin, " Elogio storico del G. C. Fromond," Cremona, 
 1781 ; Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Fromundus. See Froidmond. 
 
 Frondeville, de, deh fRONd'vel', (Thomas Louis 
 Cesar,) Marquis, a French royalist, born at Lisieux 
 in 1756. He was a member of the National Assembly, 
 1790-91. Died in 1816. 
 
 Frondsberg, i'Ronds'bjRo, Fronsperg, fRons'plRG, 
 or Frundsberg, fRoonds'MRG, (Georg,) a German 
 general, born at Mindelheim in 1475. He distinguished 
 himself as colonel in the army of Charles V. in several 
 campaigns, and contributed to the victory of Pavia in 
 1525. He reinforced with about 12,000 Germans, re- 
 cruited by himself, the army with which Constable Bour- 
 bon took Rome in 1527. Died in 1528. 
 
 Fronteau, fRoN'to', (Jean,) a learned French Jesuit 
 and antiquary, born at Angers in 1614. He became a 
 professor of philosophy, and in 1648 chancellor of the 
 University of Paris. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "Thomas a Kempis vindicatus," (1641,) an essay to 
 prove that T. a Kempis was the author of "The Imi- 
 tation of Christ," and "A Contrast between Augustine 
 and Calvin," ("Antitheses Augustini et Calvini," 1651.) 
 Died in 1662. 
 
 See Lallemant, "Vie de Fronteau," 1663. 
 
 Frontenac, fR6N'teh-ntk', (Louis,) Count, a French 
 officer, born in 1621, was appointed Governor-General 
 of Canada in 1678. He built Fort Frontenac, on Lake 
 Ontario, and was recalled to France in 1682. Died 
 in 1698. 
 
 Frontin. See Frontinus. 
 
 Fron-ti'nus, [Fr. Frontin, fr6N'taN',] (Sextus 
 Julius,) a Roman general and author, of patrician rank, 
 became praetor in 70 a.d., and was several times consul. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FRONTO 
 
 974 
 
 FRU1T1ERS 
 
 About the year 75 he was sent to Britain as proconsul, 
 commanded the army which conquered the Silures, and 
 returned to Rome in 78. In the reign of Nerva he super- 
 intended the operations which supplied Rome with water. 
 He is the author of two well-written extant works, — 
 viz. : "Military Stratagems," ("Stratagematica,") and a 
 treatise on the Aqueducts of Rome. Died in 106 A.D. 
 
 See Tacitus, "History," book iv. ; Schohll, " Histoire de la 
 Literature Romaine ;" " Nouvelle Biographic GimeVale ;" Nie- 
 Buhr, " Roman History." 
 
 Pron'to, [Fr. Fronton, fr4N't6N',| (Marcus Cor- 
 nelius,) an eminent Roman orator, was a native of 
 Cirta, in Africa. He was preceptor of Lucius Veins and 
 Marcus Aurelius, who made him consul in 143 A.D. and 
 treated him with great favour. All of his works are lost, 
 except small fragments and letters. In 1814 or 1815' a 
 palimpsest was found by Angelo Mai in the Ambrosian 
 Library at Milan, containing interesting letters from 
 Fronto to Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Their 
 answers were also discovered by Mai at Rome. 
 
 See *' Nouvelle Biographie Gf*ne"rale ;" Roth, " Bemerkungen 
 ttber den Schriften des M. C. Fronton," etc., 1817. 
 
 Fronton. See Fronto. 
 
 Fronton du Due. See Due. 
 
 Froriep, fro'reep, (Justus Friedrich,) a German 
 Orientalist, born at Lubeck in 1745 ; died in 1800. 
 
 Froriep, von, fon fRo'reep, (Friedrich Ludwig,) 
 a German physician and writer, born at Erfurt about 
 1780; died in 1847. 
 
 Froriep, von, (Robert,) a physician, son of the 
 preceding, was born at Jena in 1804. He became pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Berlin in 1833, and published 
 several anatomical works with plates, among which is 
 "Atlas Anatomicus," (1850.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Frosaard, fRo'siu', (Benjamin Sigismond,) a Swiss 
 Protestant divine, born at Nyon in 1754. He published 
 "The Slave-Trade tried before the Tribunal of Reason, 
 Policy, and Religion," (1789.) From 1815 to 1830 he 
 was professor of theology at Montauban. Died in 1830. 
 
 Frost, (William Edward,) an English painter, born 
 at Wandsworth, Surrey, in 1810, studied in the Royal 
 Academy. He gained a gold medal for his " Prome- 
 theus Bound," (1839.) His picture of "Una and the 
 Wood-Nymphs" (1847) was purchased by the queen. 
 Among his other works are "Nymphs Dancing," "Diana 
 surprised by Actaeon," (1846,) and "The Graces," (1856.) 
 His pictures are admired for correct design and refined 
 taste. 
 
 Frothingham, fro*h'ing-am, (Nathaniel La ngdon,) 
 D.D., an eminent Unitarian divine, born in Boston in 
 1793. He graduated at Harvard in 1 811, and the next year, 
 when only nineteen years of age, was appointed instructor 
 in rhetoric and oratory in that institution. In 1815 he 
 was ordained pastor of the First Church in Boston. 
 Besides numerous sermons and addresses, he wrote 
 many short poems and hymns of great beauty, and made 
 various translations from the German. A collection of 
 these, entitled "Metrical Pieces, Original and Trans- 
 lated," was published in 1855. Died in 1870. 
 
 Frothingham, (Octavius B.,) a Unitarian divine and 
 rationalistic theologian, a son of the preceding, was born 
 in Boston in 1822. He was educated at Harvard, where 
 he also studied divinity. He was ordained in 1847. 
 About 1859 he removed to New York ; and since Febru- 
 ary, i860, he has been pastor of the Third Unitarian 
 Society of that city. Mr. Frothingham possesses supe- 
 rior intellectual powers, with a high and broad literary 
 culture. He is remarkable as representing the most 
 radical phase of rationalistic Unitarianism as it exists at 
 the present time in the United States: in this respect, 
 /jideed, he may be regarded as the successor of Theo- 
 dore Parker, although differing widely from that writer 
 in his mental characteristics, and also (it would seem) 
 in many of his theological or philosophical views. 
 
 For some interesting remarks on Mr. Frothingham's position as 
 a philosopher and a theologian, see an article contributed by one 
 of his congregation to the New York "World," about the end of 
 June, 1868. 
 
 Frothingham, (Richard,) Jr., an American journal- 
 ist and historical writer, born in Charlestown, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1812, became associate editor of the " Boston 
 Post," the leading Democratic paper in New England. 
 
 His " History of the Siege of Boston" (1840) has been 
 warmly praised by Everett and Bancroft. 
 
 Frotte, de, deli fRo'ta', (Louis,) Count, a French 
 royalist chief, born in Normandy about 1755. He raised 
 a revolt in Normandy in 1795, but was defeated and 
 retired to England in 1796. In 1799 he again appeared 
 in Normandy as general-in-chief of the royalist army. 
 He resisted all efforts for pacification: but, having lost 
 several battles, he surrendered, and was executed, in 
 1800. 
 
 Froude, frood, (James Anthony,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish historian, born at Totness, in Devonshire, about 1818. 
 He was educated at Oxford, and liecame a Fellow of Exeter 
 College. He published in 1847 "The Shadows of the 
 Clouds," a novel, and in 1849 "The Nemesis of Faith," 
 both of which have decided literary merit. The latter is 
 charged with being heterodoxical. His principal work 
 is a " History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to 
 the Death of Elizabeth," (10 vols. 8vo, 1856-67.) As a 
 historian, Mr. Froude's merits are of a high order. The 
 work just named embraces a period equal, if not su- 
 perior, in interest and importance to any other period of 
 the same length in English history, and one which had 
 not been adequately treated by any previous historian. 
 
 " The peculiar merit of Mr. Froude's work," says the 
 " Edinburgh Review" for September, 1866, " is its wealth 
 of unpublished manuscripts ; and the reign of Elizabeth 
 is remarkably illustrated by the correspondence of the 
 Spanish ambassadors and other agents of the court of 
 Spain, which have been preserved in the Archives at 
 Simancas. The extraordinary interest of such illustra- 
 tions is apparent in every page of these volumes : they 
 give novelty to the narrative and variety to the well- 
 known incidents of the time ; and they bring in aid of 
 historical evidence the contemporary opinions of society 
 upon current events." 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1858, and January, 1864: 
 " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1863 ; " British Quarterly" 
 for January and April, 1864 : " North British Review" for November, 
 1856; " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1849, July, 1856, July and 
 September, 1858, and July, i860. 
 
 Froude, (Richard Hur'rei.l,) an English clergy- 
 man, a brother of the preceding, was born in 1803. He 
 graduated at Oriel College, Oxford, of which he became 
 Fellow in 1826 and tutor in 1827. Several volumes 
 of his writings (of the Oxford Tract School) have been 
 published. Died in 1836. 
 
 Froumenteau, froo'm&N'to', (Nicolas,) the assumed 
 name of an unknown French Protestant author, who 
 published in 1 581 a remarkable work, entitled "The 
 Secret of the Finances of Fiance Discovered." 
 
 Frowde, frowd, (Phii.ii>,) an English dramatic poet, 
 born about 1680, was intimate with Addison. He wrote 
 some Latin verses which appeared in" Muss Anglicanae," 
 and two tragedies. Died in 1738. 
 
 Frugoni, fitoo-go'iiee, (Carlo Innqcf.nzio,) one of 
 the most popular Italian poets of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, born in Genoa in 1692, entered a monastery in 1708. 
 Having gained the reputation of an elegant writer in 
 Latin and Italian, he became professor of rhetoric at 
 Brescia in 1716. In 1725 he found an asylum at the 
 court of Parma, where he passed the greater part of his 
 life and was liberally patronized by several successive 
 dukes. In 1733 he was released from the monastic rules, 
 which had become intolerable to him. His ode on the 
 occasion of the capture of Oran was greatly admired. He 
 wrote a multitude of sonnets, odes, eclogues, epistles, 
 and other verses, which display a graceful style and a 
 rich imagination. An edition of his works appeared in 9 
 vols., 1779. Died at Parma in December, 1768. 
 
 See Crrati, " Elogio de C. I. Frigoni," 1782: Fabroni, " Elogi 
 d'illustri Italiani," 1786: Tipai.do, " Biografiadegli Italiani illustri ; 
 "Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. Henrv Steering, London, 
 1831 ; " Biographie Universelle ; Nouvelle Biograpbie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Fruitiers or Fruytiers, fRii-e'te-k', (Philip,) a 
 Flemish portrait-painter, born in Antwerp about 1625. 
 He was employed by Rubens to execute a portrait 
 of himself and family. This picture is highly praised 
 by Weyermans. As a miniature-painter he was prob- 
 ably inferior to no artist of his time. He was living 
 in 1650. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 5, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, 6, 5, J?, short; a, e, |, 9, obsrurt; far, fall, fit; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
FR UMENCE 
 
 975 
 
 FUGGER 
 
 Frumeuce. See Fki-menhus. 
 
 Frunientius, fru-meVshc-tjs, [Fr. Frumence, fRoo'- 
 mosss',] Saint, born at Tyre, is usually called "the 
 Apostle of Ethiopia." He was employed in evangelizing 
 Abyssinia. Having returned to Egypt, he was appointed 
 a bishop in 331 by Athanasius, who sent him to propagate 
 the faith In Ethiopia, Died about 360 a.d. 
 
 Frundsberg. See FkondsHK.rg. 
 
 Frusius. See Freux. 
 
 Fruytiers. See Fruitiers. 
 
 Fry, (Caroline.) See Wilson, (Mrs. C.) 
 
 Fry, (F.i.iZABKTH,) an eminent philanthropist, daughter 
 of John Gumey, of Earlham Hall, and sister of Joseph 
 John Gnrney, was born in Norwich, England, in 1780. 
 Her father was an opulent banker, and a member of the 
 Society of Friends. About the age of eighteen she be- 
 came a serious professor of religion, and renounced the 
 gay amusements in which she had before participated. 
 In 1800 she was married to Joseph Fry, of London, and 
 Borne years later she appeared as minister in the meet- 
 ings of the Friends. About the year 1813 she began to 
 make systematic efforts for the reformation of the female 
 prisoners in Newgate and other prisdns of London, in 
 which she laboured for many years with great zeal and 
 success, manifesting a true Christian sympathy for those 
 unfortunate persons, and administering lxrth to their 
 spiritual and their physical necessities. Died in 1845. 
 
 See a Memoir of her life, containing her Journal and Letters, 
 by her daughters, 2 vols., 1*47; Rev. T. Timpson, "Memoirs of 
 Elizabeth Fry," 1846; Rev. E. Neai.e, "Christianity and Infi- 
 delity Contrasted j" " London Quarterly Review" for December, 
 1847^ 
 
 Fry, (John,) an English Socinian writer, published, 
 besides other works, " The Clergy in their Colours," 
 (1650.) Died about 1650. 
 
 Fry, (Rev. John,) an English author, a brother of 
 Caroline Fry, was rector of Desford. He published 
 several esteemed religious works, among which are 
 "Lectures on Romans," ( 1 8 1 6, ) "The Second Ad- 
 vent," (1822,) and "A Short History of the Christian 
 Church," (1825.) 
 
 Fry, (Speed S.,) an American officer in the Union 
 service, became brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. 
 
 Fry, (William Hknry,) an American composer and 
 journalist, born in Philadelphia in 1815. He composed 
 Operas, symphonies, etc., and was assistant editor of 
 several daily journals. Died in 1864. 
 
 Frye, (Thomas,) a skilful portrait-painter, born in 
 Ireland in 1 7 10, lived in London. He is reputed to 
 have l>een the first who manufactured English porcelain. 
 Died in 1762. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," vol. xxxiv. 
 
 Fryzell, fK8ks'£l, ( A ndkks,) a Swedish historian, born 
 in Dalsland in 1795. He published in 1824 a work on 
 education, "Svensk Sprakkera," which was often re- 
 printed. He became professor in Stockholm about 1833. 
 His chief work„consisting of essays on the history of 
 Sweden, " Berattelser ur Svenska Historien," (" Correc- 
 tions of Swedish History,") is very popular. Of this 
 publication about twenty volumes have already appeared. 
 The first volume was issued in 1823. 
 
 Fuad-Effeiidi, foo'ad ef-feVdee, (Mehemet, ) a 
 Turkish minister of state, distinguished as a linguist 
 and diplomatist, was born at Constantinople about 181 5. 
 He was appointed minister of foreign affairs several 
 times after 1852. He published an Ottoman Gram- 
 mar, (1852.) 
 
 Fuca, de, da foo'ka, (Juan,) a Greek navigator, whose 
 /proper name was Apostolos Valerianos, was a native 
 of Cephalonia. He served about forty years as Spanish 
 pilot in the East Indies. In 1596 he offered his ser- 
 vices to the English, stating that he had discovered on 
 the west coast of America, near latitude 48^ north, a 
 strait leading to the Atlantic, which he wished to ex- 
 plore further. He died about 1602. His name has been 
 given to the strait which connects the Pacific with the 
 Gulf of Georgia. 
 
 Fuchs. See Fttx, (Johann Joseph.) 
 
 Fuchs, fooks, (Gottlieb,) a German poet, born in 
 Upper Saxony in 1720, became a minister at Tauben- 
 heim. Among his poems, which are mostly lyrical, is 
 "The Contented. Peasant." Died about 1800. 
 
 Fuchs, (Johann Christoph,) a German naturalist, 
 born at Gross-Germersleben in 1726. He was master 
 of pages at the court of Frederick the Great from 1754 
 to 1766. Died in 1795. 
 
 See Ersch und Grurer, '* Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fuchs, (Konrad Heinrich,) a German physician, 
 and professor of medicine at Gottingen, born at Bam- 
 berg in 1803. He published, among other treatises, a 
 "Manual of Special Nosology and Therapeutics," (4 
 vols., 1845-48.) Died about 1855. 
 
 Fuchs, (Leonhard,) adistinguishecLGerman botanist 
 and physician, born at Wemdingen, (or Wemding,) in 
 Bavaria, in 1501. He was professor of medicine at 
 Tubingen from 1535 until his death, and contributed 
 largely to the restoration of that school. He wrote 
 many able medical works, among which is "Method of 
 Curing," ("Medendi Methodus," 1541,) and acquired a 
 high reputation by his botanical work "On the History 
 of Plants," (" De Historia Stirpium Commentarii in- 
 signes," 1542,) with many figures well designed. This 
 work was often reprinted and translated. The Fuchsia 
 was named in his honour. Died in 1 565. 
 
 See Hizi.hr, "Oratio de Vita, etc. L. Fuchsii," TUbingen, 1506; 
 Niceron, "Memoires;" M. Adam, "Vine Eruditorum ;" Carl 
 I.ORENZ, " Disseitatio inauguralis medica de L. Fuchs," Berlin, 
 1846; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Fuehrich. See Fuhrig, (Joseph.) 
 
 Fuente. See La Fuente. 
 
 Fuente, la, la fwen'ta, (Juan Leandro,) a skilful 
 Spanish historical painter, born at Granada in 1600, ex- 
 celled in design and colouring, and in clair-obscur. Died 
 in 1654. 
 
 Fuentes, fwen'tes, or Fonte, de, da fon'ta, (Barto- 
 lome,) a Spanish or Portuguese navigator, whose real 
 or pretended voyages have been the subject of learned 
 speculation. He is reported to have made discoveries 
 on the west coast of North America about 1640. 
 
 See Foster, "Northern Voyages and Discoveries." 
 
 Fuentes, de, da fwin'tSs, (Pedro Henriquez 
 d'Azevedo — da-tha-va'no,) Count, an eminent Span- 
 ish general, born at Valladolid in 1560. He made his 
 first campaign in Portugal, under the Duke of Alva, 
 about 1580. He performed with ability several im- 
 portant diplomatic missions. In 1606 he distinguished 
 himself at the siege of Ostend, and was raised to the 
 rank of general. He commanded the infantry in the 
 war with France which began in 1635, and was killed, 
 In 1643, at the battle of Rocroy, where he was defeated 
 by the Prince of Conde. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Fuerst See FDrst. 
 
 Fuerstenberg. See FOrstenderg. 
 
 Fuessli. See Fussli. 
 
 Fuga, foo'ga, (Ferdinando,) a skilful Italian archi- 
 tect, born at Florence in 1699. He was appointed about 
 1730 architect of the pontifical palaces by Clement XII. 
 Among his works in Rome are the palace of the Con- 
 sulta, a very fine edifice, and the palace Corsini. He 
 was afterwards employed by the King of Naples in the 
 embellishment of his capital, and was architect of the 
 Albergo Reale dei Poveri, (" Royal Hotel for the Poor,") 
 said to be the largest hospital of Europe. It was com- 
 menced in 1751. Died about 1780. 
 
 See Quatrhmrre de Quincv, " Dictionnaire d'Arcliitecutre ;" 
 Mn.iziA, "Vite degli Arcliitetti ;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario ;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie G^ueVale." 
 
 Ftiger, fii'ger, (Friedrich Heinrich,) a German 
 painter, born at Heilbronn in 1 75 1. He was patronized 
 by the empress Maria Theresa. Died in 1S1S. 
 
 Fugger, fooG'ger, the name of a German family in 
 Suabia, who were originally linen-weavers and gradually 
 amassed immense wealth by commerce. The brothers 
 Ulric, George, and Jacob Fugger were ennobled by the 
 emperor Maximilian in the latter part of the fifteenth 
 century. Raimond and Antonv, the founders of the two 
 principal lines of the house of Fugger, were raised to the 
 rank of count, in 1530, by Charles V., to whom they had 
 lent money, and who also gave them the privilege of 
 striking gold and silver coin. It is related that Charles 
 V. on his return from Algiers was entertained by Antony 
 Fugger, who made a fire of cinnamon-wood and kindled 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, tuisal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (J^**See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FUHRIG 
 
 976 
 
 FULLERTON 
 
 it with the emperor's bonds due to the Fuggers for the 
 money they had lent him. Several members of this 
 family were patrons of learning, and active in founding 
 charitable institutions, of which we may name the Fug- 
 gerei at Augsburg. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubhr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Fiihrig or Puehrig, fii'iic, Fiihrich or Fuehrich, 
 fu'iiK, (Joseph,) a German historical painter and en- 
 graver, born, in Bohemia in 1800. He became professor 
 of painting in the Academy of Vienna. He painted a 
 number of subjects of sacred history, among which is 
 "The Triumph bf Christ." 
 
 Fuhrmann, fooR'min, (Matthias,) a German his- 
 torian, who wrote on Austrian history. Died at Vienna 
 in 1 77 3. 
 
 Ful'beck or Ful'becke, (William,) an English 
 jurist, born in Lincoln in 1560, published several legal 
 works, which were esteemed, viz., " Preparative to the 
 Study of the Law," (1600,) "Pandects of the Law of 
 Nations," etc. 
 
 Fulbert, fuTbaiR.', a French prelate and writer, was 
 eminent for piety and learning, and was considered as one 
 of the greatest ornaments of the Gallican Church in his 
 time. He was chosen Bishop of Chatties in 1007, after 
 he had been the master of a celebrated school at that 
 place. "The writings of Fulbert," says the "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale," " are almost th? only historical 
 monuments of France for his time." His sermons, hymns, 
 and letters, of which about one hundred have been pre- 
 served, are esteemed precious for the light they throw 
 upon that age. Died in 1028 or 1029. 
 
 See "Gallia Christiana ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G£ne>ale." 
 
 Fulcherius Camotensis. See Foulcher de Char- 
 tres. 
 
 Fulco. See Foulques. 
 
 Fulcodi Guido. See Clement IV. 
 
 Fulooius. See Foulcoie. 
 
 Fulda, fool'da, (Frikdrich Karl,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born at Wimpfen, Suabia, in 1724, was noted 
 for his mechanical ingenuity. He became minister of 
 the Lutheran church at Muhlhausen-on-the-Enz. He 
 gave much attention to the general theory of language, 
 or what the Germans call " linguistik." He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, a "Collection of German Idioms," 
 (1788,) and a "Natural History of the German People," 
 (1794.) Died at Enzingen in 1788. 
 
 See Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Fulgence. See Fulgentius. 
 
 Fulgentius, ful-ien'shg-us, [Fr. Fulgence, fuT- 
 zhaNss',1 (Fabius Claudius Gordianus,) an eminent 
 African bishop, was born at Leptis about 478 a.d. At 
 an early age lie resolved to renounce the world, and, 
 entering a monastery, became noted for ascetic devotion. 
 After visiting Rome in 500 and returning home, he was 
 chosen Bishop of Ruspina, or Ruspa, by the Catholics, in 
 508. Soon after this date he was exiled to Sardinia by 
 Thrasimund, King of the Vandals, who was an Arian and 
 a persecutor of the orthodox. He was restored at the 
 death of that king, and died about 533. He wrote, in 
 Vatin, treatises on the Trinity, Predestination, Faith, 
 and Arianism, which are highly esteemed. His opinions 
 and style resemble those of Augustine. 
 
 See Ferrandus, "Vita Fulgentii." 
 
 Fulgentius, [Fr. Fulgence,] (Fabius Planci'ades,) 
 a Latin writer, who lived probably about the sixth 
 century, is supposed by some to have been a bishop 
 of Carthage. He wrote a work on Mythology, and a 
 glossary of antiquated words, ("Expositio Sermonum 
 antiquorum," etc.,) which are extant. 
 
 Fulgosio, fooI-go'Se-o, (Raphael,) an Italian jurist, 
 born at Placentia; died in 1427. 
 
 Fulke, fdolk, (William,) D.D., an eminent English 
 Puritan divine, born in London, became rector of Warley 
 in 1571, and afterwards Margaret professor of divinity at 
 Cambridge. He published, in 1580, "The Text of the 
 New Testament, etc.," said to be an invaluable as- 
 sistant to the Protestant divine, treating of the relative 
 merits of the Catholic and Protestant versions. Died 
 in 1589. 
 
 See Fuller, "Worthies;" Brook, "Lives of the Puritans," 1813. 
 
 Fulla, fdol'la, (i.e. " fujl,") in the Norse mythology, an 
 attendant of Frigga, whose treasure-casket and slippers 
 she is said to carry. She is also acquainted with the 
 secret counsels of the mother of the gods. As Frigga 
 represents the earth's fertility, Fulla would seem to typify 
 the abundance which follows it. (See Frigga.) 
 
 Fiilleborn, fttl'leh-boRn', (Georg Gustav,) a Ger- 
 man scholar and writer, born at Glogau in 1769; died 
 in 1803. 
 
 Fuller, fool'ler, (Andrew,) an eminent English Bap- 
 tist minister, born at Wicken, in Cambridgeshire, in 1754. 
 His education was defective or very limited. He preached 
 a few years at Soham, and removed in 1782 to Kettering, 
 Northamptonshire, where he remained until his death. 
 He was the first secretary of the Baptist Missionary 
 Society, formed about 1792, and acquired a high reputa- 
 tion by his writings, among which are "The Gospel its 
 own Witness," (1800,) " Expository Discourses on Gene- 
 sis," (2 vols., 1806,) "Dialogues, Letters, and Essays on 
 Various Subjects," (1806,) "Sermons," (1 vol., 1814,) 
 and "The Harmony of Scripture, or an Attempt to 
 reconcile various Passages," (1817.) Diedini8l5. ful- 
 ler has been styled the " Franklin of Theology." His 
 writings are characterized by vigour, logical acumen, and 
 deep insight into human nature. " He was a man," says 
 Robert Hall, "whose sagacity enabled him to penetrate 
 to the depths of every subject he explored ; whose con- 
 ceptions were so powerful and luminous that what was 
 recondite and original appeared familiar, what was intri- 
 cate, easy and perspicuous, in his hands." 
 
 See Memoirs of his Life, by J. W. Morris, 1S15, and a Memoir, 
 prefixed to an edition of his Works, (5 vols., 1832,) by his son, Andrew 
 Gunton Fuller. 
 
 Fuller, (Isaac,) an English painter of history and 
 portraits. He painted for a church of Oxford an altar- 
 piece which was praised by Addison in a Latin poem, 
 and was very successful in portraits. Died in 1672. 
 
 Fuller, (Margaret.) See Ossoli. 
 
 Fuller, (Nicholas,) an eminent Oriental scholar, 
 born at Southampton, England, in 1557. He became 
 rector of Bishop Waltham, and published " Miscellanea 
 Theologica," (1612.) Died in 1622. 
 
 See Fuller, "Worthies." 
 
 Fuller, (Nicholas,) an English lawyer and member 
 of Parliament, who distinguished himself in the early 
 part of the reign, of James I. by his resolute opposition 
 to the oppressive measures of the court of high com- 
 mission. Died in 1620. 
 
 See Gardiner, " History of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. i. 
 chap, viii., pp. 443-446. 
 
 Full'er, (Richard,) a Baptist minister and writer, born 
 in Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1808. He became pastor 
 of a Baptist church in Baltimore in 1847. 
 
 Fuller, (Thomas,) an eminent English divine and 
 author, born at Aldwinckle, in Northamptonshire, in 
 1608. Having graduated at Cambridge in 1628, he ob- 
 tained the prebend of Salisbury, and was rector of Broad 
 Windsor. About 1641 he removed to London and be- 
 came minister of the Savoy. He favoured the cause of 
 Charles I. in the civil war, and served as chaplain in the 
 royal army, 1644-46. He was rector of Waltham, in 
 Essex, from 1648 to 1658, and at the restoration, 1660, 
 was appointed chaplain-extraordinary to Charles II. 
 Died in 1661. His writings abound with quaint humour 
 and conceits, and are much admired for originality, wit, 
 and liberality. Among his principal works are a "His- 
 tory of the Holy War," (1639 ;) "The Holy and Profane 
 State : a Collection of Characters, Moral Essays, and 
 Lives, Ancient, Foreign, and Domestic," (1642 ;) "Good 
 Thoughts in Bad Times," (1645 ;) "Good Thoughts in 
 Worse Times," (1647;) "The Church History of Britain 
 from the Birth of Christ to 1648," (1655;) and a "His- 
 tory of the Worthies of England," (1662.) " Fuller was," 
 says S. T. Coleridge, "incomparably the most sensible, 
 the least prejudiced, great man of an age that boasted 
 of a galaxy of great men." 
 
 See Arthur T. Russell, " Memorials of the Life and Writings 
 of Thomas Fuller," 1844; Henry Rogers, "Essay on the Life and 
 Writings of Thomas Fuller," vol. i. ; " Retrospective Review," vol. 
 iii., 1S21, and vol. i., 2d series. 
 
 Fullerton, fool'ler-ton, (Lady Georgiana Leveson 
 Gower — commonly pronounced lew'son gor,) a popular 
 
 «. «. I. 5, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fl, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon"; 
 
FULLONIUS 
 
 977 
 
 FURET1ERE 
 
 English novelist, a daughter of Earl Granville, was born 
 about 1814. She wrote "Ellen Middleton," (3 vols., 
 1844,) and "Grantley Manor," (1847.) She was married 
 to Captain Alexander Fullerton in 1833. 
 
 Fullonius. See Foulon. 
 
 Fulton, fdol'ton, (Robert,) a celebrated American 
 engineer and inventor, was born in Little Britain, Lan- 
 caster county, Pennsylvania, in 1765. About the age of 
 seventeen he went to Philadelphia, and began to cultivate 
 a talent for drawing and portrait-painting, which he prac- 
 tised with skill and profit for three or four years. In 1786 
 he visited London, where he devoted several years to the 
 same profession, under the tuition of Benjamin West, 
 who received him as an inmate into his own house. He 
 next resided for two years in Devonshire, and became 
 acquainted with the Duke of Bridgewater and Lord Stan- 
 hope. About this time his mechanical genius impelled 
 him to abandon painting and to follow the profession of 
 civil engineer. In 1793 he was engaged in a project to 
 improve inland navigation, having already conceived the 
 idea of using steam as a motive power. He invented a 
 machine for spinning flax, and another for making ropes, 
 for which he obtained patents in England. In 1796 he 
 published in London a "Treatise on Canal Navigation." 
 From 1797 to 1804 he resided in Paris, in the family of Joel 
 Barlow, where he displayed his characteristic enterprise 
 and ingenuity in various projects and inventions and in 
 the study of the sciences and modern languages. He was 
 the proprietor of the first panorama exhibited in Paris. 
 \ He invented a submarine or plunging boat, called a tor- 
 pedo, designed to be used in naval warfare, and induced 
 Bonaparte to appoint Volney, La Place, and Monge as a 
 commission to examine it. In 1801 he made an experi- 
 ment in the harbour of Brest, when he succeeded in re- 
 maining under water for an hour and in guiding the boat 
 with ease. Other trials were made, with partial success, 
 at the expense of the French government ; but, as thev 
 at last declined to patronize the project, Fulton accepted, 
 in 1804, an invitation from the English ministry, who also 
 appointed a commission and made trials of his torpedo. 
 It appears, however, that the English did not give him 
 much encouragement ; for in 1806 he returned to New 
 York. Here, in co-operation with Robert Livingston, 
 Esq., he succeeded, in 1807, in perfecting the great dis- 
 covery of steam navigatiomVThough others had previously 
 conceived the idea of steam navigation, Fulton is admitted 
 to have been the first who successfully realized it. In 
 1807 his first boat, the Clermont, was launched at New 
 York, and the trial was so successful that it excited great 
 admiration, and steamboats were rapidly multiplied on 
 the American rivers. The Clermont made regular pas- 
 sages between New York and Albany, at the rate of five 
 miles an hour ; but this rate was soon increased by im- 
 proved machinery. Several other larger boats were built 
 under the direction of Fulton, who expended large sums 
 of money in this way, though he received nothing for 
 his patent. In 1806 he married Harriet, daughter of 
 Walter Livingston, by whom he had four children. He 
 possessed great personal dignity, agreeable manners, 
 and noble qualities of heart. In the midst of his triumph, 
 and in the height of prosperity, he died in New York, in 
 February, 181 5. 
 
 See Rknwick, "Life of Fulton," in Sparks's "American Bio- 
 griphy," vol. x.; also Coi.den, "Life oi Fulton," 1817; Mont- 
 Gixv, "Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de R. Fulton," 1825; 
 " Encyclopaedia Americana:" "Life of Robert Fulton," by J. F. 
 Reigakt, i8j6; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ameri- 
 cans," vol. ill. 
 
 Ful'vl-a, [Fr. Fulvie, fuTve',] a Roman lady, noted 
 for intrigue and ambition, was the wife of Clodius the 
 demagogue, who was killed by Milo. She afterwards 
 became the wife of Mark Antony, the famous triumvir, 
 and showed a vindictive spirit in the proscription of those 
 whom she disliked. During the civil war that followed 
 the death of Julius Caesar she had great power in Rome, 
 and instigated an unsuccessful revolt against Octavius, 
 her son-in-law. Died in 40 B.C. 
 
 Fulvie. See Fui.via. 
 
 Ful'vl-us, (Marcus Norilior,) a Roman general, 
 was praetor in Spain in 193 B.C., and defeated the Tec- 
 tones and Celtiberians near Toletum, (Toledo.) Having 
 been elected consul in 189 B.C., he obtained command in 
 
 Greece, where he captured Ambracia and dictated terms 
 of peace to the /Etolians. In 179 B.C. he was chosen 
 censor, and, from patriotic motives, was reconciled to 
 /Emilius Lepidus, his enemy and colleague. He was a 
 patron of Ennius the poet. 
 Fulvius Flaocus. See Flaccus, (M. Fulvius.) 
 Fulwell, fool'wel, (Ulpian,) an English writer, born 
 in 1556, became rector of Naunton. He wrote the 
 "Flower of Fame," a historical work, (1575,) and the 
 "Art of Flattery," (I579-) 
 
 Fumagalli, foo-ma-gal'lee, (Angei.o,) an Italian his- 
 torian and monk, born in Milan in 1728, became supe- 
 rior of the monastery of Saint Ambrose, and was noted 
 for his various erudition and the elegance and purity of 
 his style. He wrote a work called "Diplomatic Insti- 
 tutes," ("Delle Istituzioni diplomatiche," 1802,) which 
 was highly esteemed, and treatises " On the Antiqui- 
 ties of Milan," and "The Origin of Idolatry." He was 
 one of the first members of the Italian Institute. Died 
 in 1804. 
 
 _ See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge"neVale." 
 
 Fumani, foo-ma'nee, (Adamo,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Verona, became a canon in the cathedral of that city. 
 He was chosen secretary of the Council of Trent about 
 1546. He wrote, in Latin, " Logices Libri quinque," a 
 poetical treatise on logic, in which the rules of that art 
 are explained with admirable clearness and elegance, 
 besides other short poems. Died in 1587. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Fumee, fii'ma', (Adam,) born in Touraine, in France, 
 about 1430, was physician to Charles VII., and afterwards 
 to Louis XI. Died in 1494. 
 
 Fumiani, foo-me-a'nee, (Giovanni Antonio,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Venice in 1633; died in 1710. 
 
 Fumicelli, foo-me-chel'lee, or Fiumicelli, fe-oo-me- 
 chel'lee, (Ludovico,) a painter of the Venetian school, 
 born at Treviso, flourished in 1536. 
 
 Funccius. See Funck. 
 
 Funck, foonk, or Funch, foonK, [Lat. FuNf/cius,] 
 (Johan.n,) a German theologian, born near Nuremberg 
 in 1518, was a son-in-law of Osiander, whose doctrines 
 he adopted. He became chaplain to Duke Albert of 
 Prussia, and wrote, besides other works, a Chronology 
 from the Creation to 1560. He was executed at Konigs- 
 berg in 1566, on a charge of treason or sedition. 
 
 Funck or Funk, [Lat. Func'cius,] (Johann Nico- 
 las,) a German philologist, born at Marburg in 1693. 
 He became professor of eloquence and history at Rin- 
 teln about 1730, and wrote, in Latin, seven able treat- 
 ises on the origin, growth, and decadence of the Latin 
 language, among which are "On the Childhood of 
 the Latin Language," (" De Pueritia Latinae Linguae," 
 1720,) and "On the Maturity of the Latin Language," 
 (" De Virili .lEtate Latinae Linguae," 1727.) Died in 
 
 1777- 
 
 See Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Funck, (Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand,) a German 
 writer and officer, born at Brunswick in 1761, served 
 against the French on the Rhine, and in 1810 became 
 lieutenant-general. He published in 1820 "Pictures 
 from the Age of the Crusades." He was also a con- 
 tributor with Schiller and Goethe to the " Horen." Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Funes, fbo'nes, (Gregorio,) a historian, born at C6r- 
 dova, in South America. He became dean of the church 
 of Cordova, and wrote a "History of Paraguay, Buenos 
 Ayres, and Tucuman," (3 vol?., 1816 et seq.,) which is 
 commended. Died about 1820. • 
 
 Funke, foon'keh, (Karl Philipp,) a German natu- 
 ralist, born in 1752. He wrote "Natural History and 
 Technology," (3 vols., 1791,) and other works. Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 Furetifere, fuR'tejuR', (Antoine,) a French writer, 
 born in Paris in 1620, became Abbe of Chalivoy. He 
 was chosen a member of the French Academy in 1662. 
 In his " Bourgeois Romance" (" Roman bourgeois," 
 1666) he satirized the manners of the middle or inferior 
 class ; he also wrote " The Voyage of Mercury," a satire 
 in verse, (1673.) Having undertaken to compile a Dic- 
 tionary of the French language while that of the Academy 
 
 « asir; 9 as s; g hard; g asj; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (2iy*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 62 
 
FVRGAULT 
 
 978 
 
 FUSELI 
 
 was in progress, he was accused of plagiarism, and ex- 
 pelled from the Academy, in 1685. He died in 1688. 
 His Dictionary was published in 1690, and was received 
 with favour. 
 
 See "Fureteriana," 1696; Madame dh Sevigne, " Lettres," and 
 " Menagiana." 
 
 Purgault, fiiu'go', (Nicolas,) a French professor, born 
 in 1706, published a "Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Antiquities," (1768.) Died in 1795. 
 
 Furgole, fuR'gol',(jEAN Baptiste,).™ eminent French 
 jurist, born at Castelf'errus in 1690, practised at Toulouse 
 with success. He published " Ordonnance de Louis XV 
 pour fixer la Jurisprudence sur les Donations," (1733,) 
 and a "Treatise on Wills, Codicils, and Donations," (4 
 vols., 1745,) which was one of the most complete works 
 on that subject. Died in 1761. 
 
 See Bernadeau, "Vies, Portraits et Paralleles des Jurisconsultes 
 Domat, Furgole et Pothier," 1798. 
 
 Furies, [Lat. Furi/E.) See Eumenides. 
 
 Furietti, foo-re-et'tee, (Giuseppe Ai.essandro,) an 
 Italian antiquary, born at Bergamo in 1685. After making 
 great progress in the study of law and theology, he re- 
 moved to Rome, where he obtained preferment, and at 
 the age of seventy-four was made a cardinal. He wrote 
 an able treatise on the " History of the Mosaic Art," 
 (" De Pictoriae Mosaicae Artis Origine," 1752,) and a few 
 other works. Died about 1762. 
 
 Furini, foo-ree'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Florence in 1600. His works are highly com- 
 mended. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Fu'ri-us, [Sp. pron. foo're-ooss,] (Federico,) sur- 
 named Seriolanus, a moralist, born in Valencia, Spain, 
 about 1 5 10. Charles V. appointed him historian to his 
 son Philip II., by whom he was employed in the public 
 affairs of the Low Countries. Furius published a treatise 
 on Rhetoric, ( 1 544 ;) also " The Counsel and Counsellor," 
 ("Del Consejo y Consejero," 1559.) He is favourably 
 noticed by De Thou, who ranks him with Montaigne. 
 Died in 1592. 
 
 See Dh Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" N. Antonio, " Biblio- 
 theca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Fu'ri-us, (Marcus,) surnamed Bibac'ulus, a Latin 
 satirical poet, born at Cremona about 102 B.C. He began 
 a poem on the Gallic War by a line which represents 
 Jupiter as spitting snow upon the Alps, — which Horace 
 parodied in his fifth satire (book ii.) by substituting the 
 name of Furius for Jupiter : 
 
 " Furius hybernas cana nive conspuet Alpes."* 
 Small fragments of his works are all that now remain. 
 
 Furlanetto, fooR-la-net'to, (Bonaventura,) distin- 
 guished as a composer of sacred music, was born at 
 Venice in 1738. He composed "The Vow of Jephthah," 
 "The Spouse of the Canticles," and other oratorios. 
 Died in 1817. 
 
 Fiir'long, (Thomas,) an Irish poet and satirist, born 
 about 1792, was the son of a farmer. In his early youth 
 he was employed in the shop of a merchant of Dublin. 
 He published in 1819 or 1820 "The Misanthrope," a 
 poem. Among his best works is " The Plagues of Ire- 
 land," (1824.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Furueaux, fur'no', (Philip,) an English dissenting 
 minister, born at Totness, in Devonshire, in 1726. He 
 •was lecturer at Clapham, in Surrey, for twenty-three 
 years, (1753-76.) He wrote "Letters to Judge Black- 
 stone on his Exposition of the Toleration Act," (1793.) 
 Died in 1783. 
 
 Fur'ness, (William Henry,) D.D., a Unitarian 
 divine aud author, born in Boston in 1802. He gradu- 
 ated at Harvard in 1820, and afterwards studied for the 
 ministry in the theological school of that institution. 
 In 1825 he became pastor of the First Unitarian Congre- 
 gational Church in Philadelphia. As a public preacher, 
 he early distinguished himself by his zealous and un- 
 wavering opposition to the iniquities of slavery. Among 
 his religious publications the most important are his 
 "Remarks on the Four Gospels," (1836,) "Jesus and 
 his Biographers," (1838,) "History of Jesus," (1850,) 
 and "Thoughts on the Life and Character of Jesus of 
 Nazareth," (1859.) For a critique on Dr. Furness's pe- 
 
 * Furius will bespit the wintry Alps with white snow." 
 
 culiar views respecting the character of Christ, etc., see 
 "North American Review" for October, 1850, (vol. lxxi.) 
 
 Dr. Furness is distinguished for his fine taste and 
 high literary culture. He has made some admirable 
 translations from the German, among which that of 
 Schiller's "Das Lied von der Glocke" ("The Song 
 of the Bell") deserves particular mention, as being the 
 best English version that has ever appeared of that 
 exquisite poem. 
 
 His son, William H. Furness, born in 1827, acquired 
 a high reputation as a portrait-painter. Died in 1867. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Furrer, fdor'rer, (Jonas,) a Swiss statesman, born at 
 Winterthur in 1805. 
 
 Ftirst, fiiRst, (Julius,) a German Orientalist, born of 
 a Jewish family, in the duchy of Posen, in 1805, studied 
 theology at Halle. He published, besides other works, 
 a " History of the Jews in Asia," (1849,) and a " Hebrew- 
 Chaldee Dictionary," (1851.) 
 
 Fiirst, ftiRst, (Walter,) a Swiss patriot, born at 
 Altorf, lived about 1300. He co-operated with William 
 Tell in the liberation of his country. 
 
 Furstemberg, fuRst'em-beRG', or Fuerstenberg, 
 fuRst'en-beJtG', (Ferdinand,) a German prelate, born 
 at Bilstein, Westphalia, in 1626, was distinguished for 
 liberality and other virtues. He became Bishop of 
 Paderborn in 1661, and Bishop of Munster in 1678. He 
 published Latin poems, which are commended, and 
 "Monuments of Paderborn," ("Monumenta Paderbor- 
 nensia," 1669.) Died in 1683. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Furstenau, fooR'steh-now', (Johann Hermann,) a 
 German physician, born at Herford, in Westphalia, in 
 1688. He obtained the chair of medicine at Rinteln 
 about 172c He wrote many valuable medical works, 
 among which is "Desiderata Medica," (1727.) Died in 
 1756. 
 
 See Jocher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Furstenberg, furst'en-beito', (Friedrich Wilhelm 
 Franz,) Baron, a German statesman, born in 1729, was 
 minister to Maximilian Frederick, Elector of Cologne. 
 He founded the University of Munster, and introduced 
 important reforms into the government. Died in 1810. 
 
 Furtado, fooR-ti'do, (Francisco,) a Portuguese poet, 
 born in 1740; died in Italy after 1816. 
 
 Fuscus. See Fosco. 
 
 Fus'cus, (Arel'lius,) a Latin rhetorician, flourished 
 in the reign of Augustus. 
 
 Fuscus, (Aris'tius,) a Latin poet, lived about 30 
 B.C. He was a friend of Horace, who addressed to him 
 an epistle and an ode. 
 
 Fmeli, fu'seh-le, or Fuessli, (John Henry,) a cele- 
 brated historical painter, born at Zurich about 1742, was 
 the son of Johann Caspar Ftissli, noticed below. His 
 family name was changed to Fuseli by the subject of this 
 article. Having gained distinction by his classic acquire- 
 ments and by his poetical genius, he visited England in 
 1763. Sir Joshua Reynolds, on seeing some drawings of 
 Fuseli, persuaded him to prefer the profession of painter 
 to that of author. Between 1770 and 1778 he studied art 
 in Italy, choosing Michael Angelo for his model, and in 
 the latter year returned to London, where he speedily 
 rose to the first rank of British painters. He was partial 
 to the romantic style, and found congenial subjects in 
 the most imaginative dramas of Shakspeare. In 1788 
 he married Sophia Rawlins, and was chosen an associate 
 of the Royal Academy. He assisted Covvper in trans- 
 lating Homer. He was chosen professor of painting in 
 the Royal Academy in 1799. His Lectures on Art are 
 much admired, and have been published. Among his 
 master-pieces are eight pictures of the "Shakspeare Gal- 
 lery," and illustrations of Dante and Milton. His imagi- 
 nation was lofty and rich, but rather extravagant. "Of 
 all the painters whom this country has encouraged," 
 says Allan Cunningham, "no one had either the reach 
 of thought or the poetic feeling of Fuseli." He pub- 
 lished " Aphorisms on Art," and other works, which are 
 highly prized. Died in London in 1825. 
 
 See " Life and Works of Fuseli," by John Knowles, 3 vols., 
 1831 ; Cunningham, "Lives of Painters and Sculptors ;" "Edin- 
 burgh Review" for July, 1803, and September. 1831. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, B, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, it, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n8t; g(56d; moon; 
 
FUSI 
 
 979 
 
 FYT 
 
 Fusi, fu'ze', (Antoine,) a Frenchman, born in Lor- 
 raine about 1565. He became a doctor of the Sorbonne, 
 in Paris. Having been charged with sorcery and heresy, 
 and persecuted, he retired to Geneva about 1618, adopted 
 the Protestant religion, and became a minister. He wrote 
 a book against the Jesuits, called " Le franc Archier de 
 la vraie Eglise contre les Abus de la fausse," (1619.) 
 Died about 1635. 
 
 See Nicbron, " Memoires." 
 
 Fusina, foo-see'na, (Andrea,) an excellent Italian 
 sculptor, of the Milanese school, flourished about 1490. 
 He adorned the cathedral of Milan with bas-reliefs. 
 
 See Ticozzi, "Dizionario." 
 
 Fuss, von, fon fooss, (Nikolaus,) a Swiss mathema- 
 tician, born at Bale in 1755. He removed to Saint 
 Petersburg in his youth, and was appointed adjunct 
 professor in the Academy of Sciences in 1776. He ob- 
 tained the dignity of councillor of state in 1800. He 
 wrote many mathematical treatises. Died in 1826. 
 
 Fiissli or Fuessli, fiis'lee, (Hans Heinrich,) a Swiss 
 writer on art, born at Zurich in 1 745, was a son of Johann 
 Rudolph. He was distinguished for learning and elo- 
 quence. In 1802 he was chosen senator. He published, 
 among other works, "The Life and Works of Raphael 
 Sanzio," (1815.) Died in 1832. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Fiissli or Fuessli, (Johann Caspar,) a Swiss artist 
 and author, born at Zurich in 1707, excelled in land- 
 scapes and portraits. He wrote two esteemed works, 
 viz., a " History of the Best Painters of Switzerland," (4 
 vols., 1769-79,) and a "Descriptive Catalogue (or Cata- 
 logue Raisonne) of the Best Engravers and of their 
 Works," (1771.) He was the father of the celebrated 
 John Henry Fuseli. Died in 1781. 
 
 Fiissli or Fuessli, (Johann Caspar,) a Swiss natu- 
 ralist, son of the preceding, born at Zurich in 1745. He 
 published a "Catalogue of Swiss Insects," (1775,) "Ar- 
 chives of the History of Insects," (1781-86,) and several 
 other works. Died in 1786. 
 
 Fiissli or Fuessli, (Johann Conrad,) a Swiss author, 
 born at Zurich or Wetzlar about 1705, spent many years 
 in teaching school. He published several esteemed 
 works, among which are " Historical Memoirs of the 
 Reformation in Switzerland," (5 vols., 1741-53,) a 
 "Description of Switzerland," (4 vols., 1770,) and a 
 "History of the Mediaeval Church," (3 vols., 1770-74.) 
 Died in 1775. 
 
 See Mecsel, " Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 
 Fiissli or Fuessli, (Johann Rudolf,) a Swiss artist, 
 born at Zurich in 1709, finished his studies in Paris. 
 'His reputation is founded chiefly on his "General Dic- 
 tionary of Artists," in German, (1763-77.) This vast 
 and excellent work was continued by his son, Hans 
 Heinrich, and formed the basis of Nagler's " Allgemeines 
 Kiinstler-Lexikon." Died in 1793. 
 
 Fiissli or Fuessli, (Johann Rudolf,) a painter and 
 engraver, the eldest son of Johann Caspar, noticed 
 above, was born at Zurich in 1737. He wrote an ex- 
 cellent work, entitled a "Catalogue (Raisonne) of En- 
 gravings executed after the Most Famous Artists of each 
 School," (4 vols., 1806; unfinished.) Died in 1806. 
 
 Fiissli or Fuessli, (Matthias,) a skilful Swiss 
 painter and engraver, born at Zurich in 1598, excelled 
 in the representation of battles, conflagrations, and other 
 terrible scenes. He also executed miniatures and frescos. 
 Died in 1664. 
 
 Fiissli or Fuessli, (Matthias,) a Swiss portrait- 
 painter, born in 1671 ; died in 1739. 
 
 Fust, (Johann.) See Faust. 
 
 Futteh-Aly-Shah. See Fateh-Alee-Shah. 
 
 Fux or Fuchs, fooks, (Johann Joseph,) a German 
 composer, born in Styria in 1660. He was successively 
 chapel-master to the emperors Leopold I., Joseph I., 
 and Charles VI. He composed operas and sacred 
 music, and a treatise on music, entitled "Gradus ad 
 Parnassum," (1725,) which is called a classic work. He 
 was living in 1732. 
 
 See Fins, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Fuzelier, fuz'le-i', (Louis,) a French dramatist, born 
 in Paris about 1672, wrote numerous operas and plays 
 of little merit. His "Momus fabuliste" is called his 
 best piece. Died in 1752. 
 
 Fyens, fi'ens, (Thomas,) a Flemish physician, born 
 in Antwerp in 1567. He became professor of medicine 
 in Louvain in 1593. His chief work is a critical essay 
 on eminent surgeons and their discoveries, " De Artis 
 Chirurgicse Controversiis," (1649.) Died in 163 1. 
 
 Fyot de la Marche, fe'o' deh li miRsh, (Claude,) 
 a French priest, born at Dijon in 1630, was appointed 
 in 1651 almoner of Louis XIV. In 1661 he became 
 abbot of Saint-Etienne-de-Dijon, of which he wrote a 
 history, (1696.) Diedini72i. 
 
 Fyrouz. See Fyroz. 
 
 Fyroz or Feroze, fee'roz', (written also Ferose, Fi- 
 roz, Fyrouz, Feyrouz, and Firuz,) a Persian word, 
 signifying " victorious," and forming the name of several 
 kings ruling in Persia and Hindostan. 
 
 Fyroz I., King of Persia, son of Valas, is supposed 
 to have been the same as the Pacorus mentioned by 
 certain Greek and Latin authors. He succeeded his 
 father in 83 a.d. As he was preparing to resist a Roman 
 army which invaded his kingdom, he died, about 107, 
 and was succeeded by his brother, Chosroes I. 
 
 Fyroz (Feroze, Fyrouz, or Firuz) II., King of 
 Persia, of the Sassanide dynasty, was the son of Yez- 
 dejerd II. He began to reign about 457, having put to 
 death his brother Hormooz, who had reigned a short 
 time. He made war on the Huns, by whom he was 
 defeated and killed in battle about 488 A.D. 
 
 SeeFlRDOUsEE, "Shah-Namah ;" Malcolm, " History of Persia." 
 
 Fyroz (Feroze or Firouz) Shah I, surnamed 
 R6okn-ed-Deen (or RoKN-EDDtN or -eddyn,) (the 
 " Support of the Faith,") a Moslem sovereign of India, 
 began to reign in 1236 at Delhi. He abandoned him- 
 self to indolent pleasures, and in the same year was 
 deposed, and succeeded by his sister. Fyroz died or 
 was killed shortly after his disgrace. 
 
 Fyroz (Feroze or Fyrouz) Shah II., Moham- 
 medan King of Delhi, usurped the throne in 1289, after 
 assassinating the late king, Kai Kobad. His cruelty 
 provoked a conspiracy, which deprived him of his throne 
 and life about 1295. 
 
 Fyroz Shah IIL, Mohammedan King of Delhi or 
 Hindostan, succeeded his uncle, Mohammed III., in 
 1351. He adopted a pacific policy, built the city of 
 Fyroz-ibSd, and made several canals, and many other 
 internal improvements, including mosques and schools. 
 He abdicated in favour of his son in 1387, and died the 
 next year, aged ninety. 
 
 See Briggs's translation of Ferishta's " History of India." 
 
 Fyt or Feydt, fit, (Jan,) a Flemish painter of still 
 life, born at Antwerp in 1625. He excelled in the repre- 
 sentation of animals, flowers, fruits, etc. His design is 
 correct, his colouring true, and his touch light. He is 
 supposed to have died in 1671. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vie des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. ( Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GAAB 
 
 980 
 
 GACE 
 
 G. 
 
 Gaab, gap, (Johann Friedrich,) a German Protest- 
 ant theologian, born at Goppingen in 1761. He became 
 professor at Tubingen in 1798, and afterwards general 
 superintendent, or bishop. He wrote commentaries on 
 the Scriptures. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie.*' 
 
 Gaal, gal, (Barend,) a Dutch painter of landscapes 
 and battle-pieces, bom at Haarlem, was a pupil of 
 Wouwerman. Died about 1670. 
 
 Gaal, gil, (Joseph,) a Hungarian comic poet and 
 novelist, born at Nagy Karoly in 181 1. He represents 
 with fidelity the manners and language of the peasants. 
 
 Gabaret, ga'bS'r^', ( ,) a brave French naval 
 
 officer, who served many years in the reign of Louis 
 XIV., and obtained the rank of commodore. He 
 commanded the rear-guard at La Hogue, (1692,) and 
 repulsed the English force which attacked Martinique 
 in 1693. Died in 1693. 
 
 Gabbema, gab'beh-ma, (Simon Auras,) a Dutch 
 philologist, born at Leeuwarden about 1620, wrote a 
 " History of Friesland," (1703,) and edited several Latin 
 classics. Died about 1700. 
 
 Gabbiani, gab-be-a'nee, (Antonio Domenico,) an 
 eminent historical painter and engraver, born in Florence 
 in 1652. He studied in Rome and Venice, excelled in 
 design, and was employed to decorate the churches and 
 palaces of Florence, in which he opened a school and 
 had many pupils. Among his works, which are much 
 praised, is "The Dance of the Genii." Died in 1726. 
 
 See Hugford, "Vita di Antonio Domenico Gabbiani," 1762; 
 Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Gabelchover, gi'bel-Ko'ver, (Oswald,) a German 
 physician and historical writer, born at Tubingen in 1538 ; 
 died in 1616. 
 
 Gabelentz, von der, fon der ga'beh-lents', (Hans 
 Conon,) a German philologist, born at Altenburg in 1807. 
 He published " Elements de la Grammaire Mandschoue," 
 (1833,) and " Philological Contributions," (" Beitr'age zur 
 Sprachenkunde," 1852.) 
 
 Gabelsberger, ga'bels-beVger, (Franz Xaver,) a 
 German, who produced an improved method of ste- 
 nography, was born at Munich in 1789. He published, 
 besides other works, an " Introduction to Stenography," 
 (1834.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Ga-biii'I-us, (Aulus,) a profligate Roman politician, 
 was elected tribune in 66 B.C., (685 A.u.C.) He was the 
 author of the famous Gabinian law, which gave Pompey 
 the conduct of the war against the pirates. Having 
 become consul in 58 B.C., he promoted the banishment 
 of Cicero, and, at the end of his consulship, obtained 
 command in Syria. About the year 56 he invaded 
 Egypt, against the will of the senate, and restored 
 Ptolemy to the throne. He was tried for treason, and 
 acquitted, but was condemned to perpetual banishment 
 for extortion, (de repetundis,) although Cicero made an 
 oration in his defence. He died in 48 or 47 li.c. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, books xxxix. and xliii. ; Drumann, "Ge- 
 schichte Rons." 
 
 Gabio, ga'be-o, or Gabia, ga'be-a, (Giovanni Bat- 
 tista,) an Italian Hellenist, born at Verona, became 
 professor of Greek in Rome. He translated into Latin 
 the works of Sophocles, (1543,) and other Greek classics. 
 Died in Rome about 1590. 
 
 Gabiot, gi'be'o', (Jean Louis,) a French dramatist, 
 born at-Salins in 1759, lived chiefly in Paris, and wrote 
 numerous comedies. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Gabler, gap'ler, (Georg Andreas,) born at Altdorf 
 in 1786, succeeded Hegel as professor of philosophy at 
 Berlin. He published a "System of Theoretical Phi- 
 losophy," (1827,) and a work entitled "The Philosophy 
 ofIIegcl,"(i8 4 3.) 
 
 Gabler, (Johann Phii.ipp,) a learned German theo- 
 logian, father of the preceding, was born at Frankfort- 
 on-the-Main in 1753. He became professor of philosophy 
 at Altdorf in 1785, and first professor of theology at Jena 
 
 in 1812. He wrote, besides other works, an "Essay 
 on the Hermeneutics of the New Testament," (1788,) 
 and an " Essay on the Mosaic History of the Creation," 
 (1795.) Died in 1826. 
 
 See Schroetbr, " Erinnerungen an Gabler," 1827. 
 
 Gabotto. See Cabot. 
 
 Ga'bri-el, a Syrian physician, who practised. at Bag- 
 dad. He became chief physician to the Caliph Haroun- 
 al-Raschid, with whom he had much influence, and to 
 his successor, Alameen,- (Alamin.) He wrote several 
 medical treatises. Died in 829 A.D. 
 
 Gabriel, gi'bRe'el', (Jacques,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1667. He erected the H6tels-de-Ville 
 of Rennes and Dijon, and designed the great sewer of 
 Paris. He. became architect to the king, chief engineer 
 of bridges, etc. Died in 1742. 
 
 Gabriel, (Jacques Ange,) an eminent French archi- 
 tect, son of the preceding, was born in Paris about 17 10. 
 lie was employed by Louis XV. on the principal public 
 works of his reign, among which was the restoration or 
 completion of the Louvre. He designed the two colon- 
 nades which border the Place de la Concorde, and which 
 were finished about 1772. The Military School of Paris 
 is called his master-piece. Died in 17S2. 
 
 See Fon'tenay, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Ga'bri-el Sioni'ta or "the Sionite," a learned 
 Maronite, born at Edden, on Mount Lebanon, was 
 educated at Rome. In 1614 he removed to Paris, 
 where he was chosen professor of Arabic in the College of 
 France. He published an Arabic Grammar, and edited 
 or translated into Latin the Arabic and Syrian texts of 
 the Polyglot Bible of Le Jay. Died in 164S. 
 
 See Zenker, " Bibliotheca Orieutalis." 
 
 Gabriel de Chinon, gi'bRe'eY deh she'n6N', a 
 French monk, went as a missionary, about 1640, to 
 Ispahan. He died at Malabar in 1670, leaving a " Treat- 
 ise on the Religion, Customs, etc. of the Persians and 
 Armenians," (1671.) 
 
 Gabrielli, ga-bRe-el'lee, (Cante,) an Italian condot- 
 Here and chief of the Guelph party. He served under 
 Charles de Valois, and became Podesta of Florence 
 about 1300. He banished Dante and others. 
 
 Gabrielli, (Catarina,) a famous Italian singer, born 
 in Rome in 1730. In 1747 she made her debut as prima 
 donna in the opera with complete success. She also 
 performed with great applause at Naples, Vienna, and 
 Saint Petersburg, and made a fortune rapidly. Having 
 accepted an invitation from Catherine II. of Russia, she 
 asked a salary of ten thousand roubles ; but the empress 
 objected that she did not pay her field-marshals so 
 much. "Very well," replied Gabrielli: "your majesty 
 may employ the field-marshals to sing." She had a 
 voice of prodigious compass. Died in 1796. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Gabrielli, (Giacomo,) a son of Cante, noticed above, 
 obtained the dictatorship or chief power at Florence 
 in 1336. He was a tyrannical ruler. In 1338 he was 
 appointed a senator of Rome by the pope. He re- 
 ceived the title of captain (capitano) in 1352, and became 
 governor of Florence in 1357. His son Cante was 
 Podesta or Captain of Florence about 1380. 
 
 Gabrielli, (Giulio,) a cardinal, born in Rome in 
 1748. In 180S Pope Pius VII. appointed him secretary 
 of state. A few months later, he was arrested by the 
 French and banished. Died in 1822. 
 
 Gabriello, ga-bRe-el'lo, (Onofrio,) an Italian painter 
 of high reputation, born at Messina in 1616, painted por- 
 traits and easel-pictures at Venice and Messina. Died 
 m 1706. 
 
 Gabrini or Gabrino, (NiccoiA) See Rienzi. 
 
 Gabrini, ga-bRee'nee, (Tommaso Maria,) an Italian 
 mathematician, born at Rome in 1726; died in 1807. 
 
 Gace, de, deh gt'sa', (Charles Augusts de Ma- 
 tignon — deh mi'ten'yoN',) Count, a French general, 
 born in Paris in 1646, distinguished himself at the sieges 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
GACE 
 
 981 
 
 GAFFARELL1 
 
 of Mons and Nainur, and was made lieutenant-general 
 in 1693. In 1708 lie obtained the rank of marshal of 
 Franco, and commanded an army which made an abor- 
 tive attempt to aid the Pretender in obtaining the British 
 crown. Died in 1729. 
 
 Gace Brulez, giss bRit'li', sometimes called Gaste 
 Ble, a French poet of superior merit, flourished about 
 1220-50. 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Gachart or Gachard, gfshfn/, (Louis Prosper,) 
 archivist of Belgium, was born in Paris about 1800. lie 
 was naturalized as a Belgian citizen in 1831, and was 
 appointed keeper of the Belgian archives. He published 
 the " Correspondence of William the Silent," (4 vols., 
 1847-51,) and other documents for the history of the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 See Prescott, "History of Philip II.," vol. ii. book iii. ; "Edin- 
 burgh Review" for January, 1S6S. 
 
 Gaches, gSsh, (Jacques,) a French advocate, born at 
 Castres in 1558. lie wrote Memoirs of events which 
 occurred between 1555 and 1610. Died in 1612. 
 
 Gaches, (Raymond,) a French Protestant and elo- 
 quent preacher, grandson of the preceding, was born at 
 Castres about 1615 ; died at Paris in 1668. 
 
 Gacon, gi'k6.\ , (FranQois,) a French satirical poet, 
 born at Lyons in 1667. He made a disgraceful use of his 
 talents, and attacked the most eminent authors, — among 
 others, Boileau and Bossuet. He produced a French 
 version of Anacreon, (2 vols., 1712,) besides satires, 
 odes, and other poems. Died in 1725. 
 
 Gacon-Dufour, gi'k6N' du'fook', (Marie Armande 
 Jeanne,) a French authoress, born in Paris in 1753, 
 was first known as Madame d'Humiere. Dufour was 
 the name of her second husband. Died in 1835. 
 
 Gadd, gad, (Peter Anton,) a Swedish chemist and 
 botanist, lived about 1760. He wrote, besides other 
 works, one "On the Diseases of Plants," ("De Morbis 
 Plantarum," 1748.) 
 
 Gaddesden, gad/.'den, (John of,) an English phy- 
 sician of the fourteenth century, attended Edward II., 
 and was the first native physician employed at the Eng- 
 lish court. 
 
 Gaddi, gad'dee, (Angelo or Agnolo, ) a famous 
 painter, born at Florence about 1324, was a son and 
 pupil of Taddeo, noticed below. He painted in fresco 
 and oil, and was a good colorist, but not equal to his 
 father in expression. His chief work in fresco is a " His- 
 tory of the True Cross," in the church of Santa Croce, 
 Florence. His Madonna in the church of Saint Am- 
 brose is called his best work. He removed to Venice, 
 and enriched himself by commerce. Died in 13S7. 
 
 See yASARl, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Gaddi, (Gaddo,) an Italian painter, born in Florence 
 about 1240, was a pupil of Cimabue. He excelled in 
 design and in mosaics. He wa.s employed by Pope 
 Clement V. to adorn the basilica of Saint Peter's and 
 the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. Died in 1312. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Gaddi, (Taddeo,) a Florentine painter and architect, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Florence in 1300. He 
 surpassed his father, and was the most eminent pupil 
 of Giotto. His first works were frescos painted in the 
 church of Santa Croce of Florence, the subjects of which 
 were taken from the New Testament. He excelled in 
 expression, and was probably the best painter of his 
 time. Among his chief works is " The Virgin surrounded 
 by Saints." He built a bridge over the Arao, called 
 Ponte Vecchio. Died about 1360. 
 • See Vasari, "Livesof the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy." • 
 
 Gade, ga'deh, (Niei.s Wii.hei.m.) a Danish musician, 
 born at Copenhagen in 1817. He composed sympho- 
 nies, overtures, sonatas, etc., succeeded Mendelssohn as 
 director of the concerts at Leipsic, and was appointed 
 master of the royal chapel at Copenhagen about 1850. 
 
 Gadebusch, ga'deh-boosh', (FriedriCH Konkad.) 
 a German writer, born in the island of RUgen in 1719, 
 published several valuable works on the history and 
 literature of Livonia and the adjacent provinces. He 
 lived many years at Dorpat, where he died in 1788. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruhkr, " Allgemeine Encyclopaedic" 
 
 Ga-de'11-UB, [Sw. pron. gl-dU'le-us,] (Erik,) a Swe. 
 dish physician, born at Stockholm in 1778, was chosen in 
 1823 president of the Academy of Sciences. He gamed 
 a prize offered in 1802 for a treatise on medical juris- 
 prudence. Died in 1827. 
 
 GadS'den, (Christopher,) an American patriot, 
 born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. He was a 
 resolute and early advocate of the popular cause before 
 the Revolution, and was a delegate to the first Conti- 
 nental Congress, which met in 1774. He served as an 
 officer in the army in 1776, resigned his commission in 
 
 1779, and was taken prisoner at Charleston in August, 
 
 1780. Died in 1805. 
 
 Gadsden, (Christopher Edwards,) an Arherican 
 bishop, a grandson of the preceding, was born in Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, in 1785. He became a bishop of the 
 Episcopal Churchin 1840. Died in 1852. 
 
 Gadsden, (James,) an American politician, born in 
 Charleston, South Carolina, in 1788, was a brother of the 
 preceding. He served under General Jackson in the war 
 against the Indians of Florida* about 1818. He was sent 
 on a mission to Mexico in 1853, and negotiated a treaty 
 or convention which defined the boundary between the 
 United States and Mexico. In accordance with this 
 treaty, the United States paid Mexico ten million dollars 
 for Arizona. Died in 1858. 
 
 Gaede, ga'deh, (Hendrik Moritz,) a Danish natu- 
 ralist, born at Kiel in 1796. He wrote, besides other 
 works, a "Treatise on the Anatomy of Insects," (1815.) 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 Gaelen, van, vSn gS'len, (Alexander,) a Dutch 
 painter, born in 1670, visited many courts of Germany, 
 and finally settled in London. Pie distinguished him- 
 self by pictures of battles and of animals. Died in 
 1728. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Descamps, 
 "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Gaertner. See Gartner. 
 
 Gaeta, Duke of. See Gaudin. 
 
 Gae'tan, ga-a-tan', or Gaetano, gi-a-ta'no, (Giovan- 
 ni,) an Italian pilot, who in 1542 made a voyage in the 
 service of Spain to the Moluccas, and wrote a narrative 
 of the discoveries made in that region. 
 
 Gaetano. See Cajetan, (Cardinal.) 
 
 Gaetano, (Benedetto.) See Boniface VIII. 
 
 Gaetano, ga-i-ta'no, or Gae'tani, ga-a-ta'nee, (Ce- 
 sare,) Count della Torre, an Italian poet and antiquary, 
 born at Syracuse in 1718, was professor of moral phi- 
 losophy in that city. He wrote a work on the "An- 
 tiquities of Syracuse," a poem called "The Duties of 
 Man," ("I Doveri dell'Uomo," 1790,) and other works. 
 Died in 1808. 
 
 Gaetano, [Lat. Caieta'nus ; Fr. Gae'tan, gi'a'toN',] 
 Saint, often called Gaetano di Tiene — ga-a-ta'no 
 de te-a'na, an Italian priest, born at Vicenza in 1480. 
 His father's name was Thieni or Tiene. With a view 
 to reform the priests, he undertook, in 1524, to found a 
 new order of monks, and obtained the sanction of Pope 
 Clement VII. His friend Caraffa was chosen superior 
 of the order, which took the name of Theatines and 
 became numerous in Italy, Spain, and the Levant. One 
 of the rules of this order forbade them to have private 
 property or receive salaries, or to resort to begging for 
 support He died in 1547, and was canonized by the 
 pope in 1675. 
 
 See Castaloi, "Vita di S. Gaetano.** 1612: B. Destutt dh 
 Tracy, "Vie de S. Gaetan de Tliienne," 1774: S. Pepe, "Vita del 
 B. Gaetano Tiene," 1656. 
 
 Gaffarel, gS'fS'rel', (Jacques,) a French Orientalist 
 and priest, born at Mamies in 1601. He became libra- 
 rian to Cardinal Richelieu, and chaplain to the king. 
 He wrote, besides other works, " Curiosities of the 
 Talismanic Sculpture of the Persians," (1630,) and a 
 " History of the Subterranean World, containing a 
 Description of Caves, Grottoes, Caverns," etc., (1666.) 
 Died in 1681. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Gaffarelli, gaf-fa-rel'Iee, or Caffarelli, kaf-fa-rel'lee. 
 (Gaetano,) a celebrated Italian singer, born at Bari in 
 1703, was the son of a peasant named Majorano. He 
 began his career in a Roman theatre as soprano. He 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, gnttttral '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (Jr3^~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
G A FOR 10 
 
 982 
 
 GAIL 
 
 performed with success in the other cities of Italy and in 
 London, which he visited in 1730. Having amassed a 
 large fortune, he bought the dukedom of Santo Dorato. 
 He had the reputation of being one of the most admira- 
 ble vocalists of his time. Died in 1783. 
 
 Gaforio, ga-fo're-o, Gafforio, gaf-fo're-o, or Gafori, 
 ga-fo'ree, sometimes written Gafuri or Gafurio, [Lat. 
 Gafo'rius,] (Franchino.) an eminent writer on music, 
 born at Lodi, Italy, in 145 1. He taught music at Naples, 
 and was appointed chapel-master of Milan Cathedral in 
 1484. He wrote, besides other works on music, " Prac- 
 tice of Music," etc., (" Practica Musicae, sive Musicae 
 Actiones," 1496.) His writings had much influence, and 
 were cited by later writers as a high authority. Died 
 about 1522. 
 
 See Burney, " History of Music ;" Fetis, " Biographie Univer- 
 sale des Musiciens." 
 
 Gaforius. See Gaforio. 
 
 Gage, (Thomas,) a missionary, born in Ireland or 
 England. He studied with the Jesuits, became a monk, 
 and spent many years as a missionary in Mexico between 
 1625 and 1637. After many adventures, he returned to 
 London, abjured Catholicism, and published a "New 
 Survey of the West Indies," (164S,) which had great 
 success. He became rector of Deal, in Kent. Died in 
 Jamaica in 1655. 
 
 Gage, (Thomas,) a British general, who succeeded 
 General Amherst in 1763 as commander of the British 
 army in America. In 1774 he was appointed Governor 
 of Massachusetts colony, and general-in-chief for the 
 continent. In April, 1775, he sent an expedition to 
 Concord to seize the colony's stores, and thus provoked 
 the battle of Lexington, the first explosion of the Revo- 
 lution. In the following May the Provincial Congress 
 resolved that "no obedience was in future due to Gage, 
 and that he ought to be guarded against as an inveterate 
 enemy." According to Bancroft, " Gage was neither fit 
 to reconcile nor subdue. By his mild temper and love 
 of society he escaped personal enmities, but in earnest 
 business he inspired neither confidence nor fear." He 
 was recalled in 1775, and died in 1787. 
 
 Ga'ger, (William,) an English poet and civilian, who 
 entered Oxford University in 1574, was reputed the best 
 dramatist of his time. He wrote " Ulysses Redux," and 
 other tragedies. 
 
 Gagern, von, fon ga'gSRn, (Frif.drich Bai.duin,) a 
 general, born at Weilburg, in Nassau, in 1794, was a son 
 of the following. He fought against the French in 1813 
 -15, and became a general in the Dutch armv. Having 
 taken command of the army of Baden in 1848, he was 
 killed by the insurgents in April of that year. 
 
 See " Leben des General Gagern," by his brother Heinrich 
 
 WlLHELM, 3 Vols., 1856. 
 
 Gagern, von, (Hans Christoph Ernst,) Baron, a 
 German statesman, born near Worms in 1766, was em- 
 ployed in several missions by the Prince of Orange, 
 who appointed him prime minister in 1814. He repre- 
 sented the King of Holland at the Congress of Vienna in 
 1815. He was the author of a number of historical and 
 political works. Died in 1852. 
 
 Gagern. von, (Heinrich Wilhklm August,)Baron, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Baireuth in 1799. He 
 studied at Jena, and afterwards filled several offices 
 under the. Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt. He was 
 elected in May, 1848, president of the Parliament or 
 National Assembly which met at Frankfort. He was 
 a very popular leader of the Liberal or constitutional 
 party, and favoured the union of the German States 
 on the basis of the exclusion of Austria. He became 
 president of the council of ministers, or prime minister 
 of the empire, in December, 1848. He resigned office 
 in March, 1849, probably because his project to effect 
 the unity of Germany was defeated by the refusal of the 
 King of Prussia to accept the imperial crown. He has 
 a high reputation for probity and patriotism. 
 
 See Max Duncker, " H. von Gagern ; biographische Skizze," 
 1850. 
 
 Gagern, von, (Maximilian,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Weilburg in 1810, was in his youth a 
 councillor of the Duke of Nassau. In 1848 he was a 
 Liberal member of the Parliament of Frankfort. 
 
 Gages, de, deh gSzh, ? (Jean Bonaventure Du- 
 mont,) Count, a Spanish general, born at Mons, in 
 Hainault, in 1682. He fought for Philip V. of Spain 
 in the war of the Spanish succession, 1701-12. Having 
 obtained command of the Spanish army in Italy in 1742, 
 he defeated the Austrians at Campo-Santo in 1743. His 
 skilful manoeuvres in the ensuing campaigns (1744-46) 
 were highly applauded. He was appointed Viceroy of 
 Navarre in 1748. His retreat from Campo-Freddo in 
 1746 was called by Rousseau the most brilliant man- 
 oeuvre of that century. Died in 1753. 
 
 See Lavallee, " Histoire d'Espagne." 
 
 Gagliardi, gal-yaR'dee, (Bernardino,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Citta-di-Castello in 1609, was an imi- 
 tator of Guido and the Caracci. Died in 1660. * 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Gagliardo, gal-yaR'do, (Achille,) an Italian Jesuit 
 and writer, born at Padua about 1537; died in 1607. 
 
 Gagliuffi, gal-yoof'fee, (Marco Faustino,) an im- 
 provisator, born at Ragusa in 1764; died in 1834. 
 
 Gagnseus or Gaguee. See Gagni. 
 
 Gagni, gSn'ye', or Gagnee, de, deh gtn'ya', [Lat. 
 Gagn/e'us,] (Jean,) a French theologian, born in or 
 near Paris. He became rector of the University of Paris 
 in 1531, and afterwards chief almoner and preacher to 
 Francis I., who employed him to read and expound 
 books to him during his repasts. Having obtained from 
 the king an order which opened to him all the libraries 
 of France, he examined and published many manuscripts, 
 and by this means promoted the revival of learning. He 
 wrote several learned works on theology, and "Com- 
 mentaries on the Four Gospels," (1552.) Died in 1549. 
 
 Gagnier, gin'ye-i', (Jean,) a French priest and emi- 
 nent Orientalist, was born in Paris about 1670. He 
 emigrated to England about 1700, and, having renounced 
 the Roman Catholic religion, became professor of Hebrew 
 and Arabic at Oxford. He published, besides other 
 works, a Latin version of Abulfeda's " Life of Mahomet," 
 (1723,) and a " Life of Mahomet," in French, (2 vols., 
 1732.) Died in 1740. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Gaguin.gS'ga.N', (Robert,) a French historian, orator, 
 and monk, was born near Bethune about 1425. He was 
 chosen professor of rhetoric in the University of Paris in 
 1463, and was employed with credit in diplomatic mis- 
 sions by Louis XI., Charles VIII., and Louis XII. He 
 wrote, besides other works, in Latin, " A History of 
 the French (or Franks) from Pharamond to the Year 
 1499," which was praised by Erasmus for fidelity and 
 other merits. Died in 1501. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires." 
 
 Ga-ha'gan, ? (Ushkr,) an Irish scholar, translated into 
 Latin verse Pope's " Essay on Criticism" and " Temple 
 of Fame." He was executed at Tyburn, for clipping 
 coin, in 1749. 
 
 Gahn, gin, (Joseph Gottlieb,) a Swedish mineralo- 
 gist and chemist, born in 1745, was a pupil of Bergmann. 
 He discovered that phosphorus is a component of bones, 
 and made some improvements in the arts of mining and 
 metallurgy. He was the first who obtained manganese 
 in the metallic state, and discovered the primitive form 
 of calcareous spar. Died in 1818. 
 
 See H. Jaerta, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver J. G. Gahn," 1S32. 
 
 Gaichies, gi'she-i', (Jean,) a French priest, born at 
 Condom in 1647, wrote " Maxims for the Ministry of the 
 Pulpit," (1710.) Died in 1731. 
 
 Gail, gil or gi'ye, (Edme Sophie Garre — g$R,) the 
 wife of the following, was born at Melun in 1776. She _ 
 was an admirable musical genius, and composed several 
 operas, one of which, called "The Jealous Couple," was 
 performed in Paris, in 1813, with brilliant success. She 
 also produced several charming ballads. She separated 
 from M. Gail soon after their marriage, (1794.) Died in 
 1819. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Gail, (Jean Baptiste,) a French Hellenist, born in 
 Paris in 1755. In 1791 he obtained the chair of Greek 
 literature in the College of France, where he taught with 
 success about twenty years. He became a member of 
 the Institute in 1809, and keeper of the Greek and Latin 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, j?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GAIL 
 
 983 
 
 GALAUP 
 
 manuscripts in the Royal Library in 1815. He published, 
 besides a Latin version of Thucydides, (5 vols., 1807,) a 
 great number of editions and translations of the Greek 
 authors, and a Greek grammar, (1798.) Died in 1829. 
 
 See " NouveUe Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Gail, (Jean Francois,) a French Hellenist, a son of 
 the preceding, was born in Paris in 1795. He was a sub- 
 stitute of his father as professor in the College of France. 
 He published an excellent edition of Hudson's "Geo- 
 graphi Graeci Minores," (3 vols., 1826-31,) and other 
 successful works. Died in 1845. 
 
 See Qierard, " La France I.iiteraire." 
 
 Gail Hamilton. See Dodgk, (Mary Abigail.) 
 
 Gailhabaud, g.VlS'bo', (Jui.es,) a French archaeolo- 
 gist, born at Lille in 1S10. He published a valuable 
 work entitled " Ancient and Modern Monuments," 
 (" Monuments anciens et modernes," 4 vols., 1840-49,) 
 and "Architecture of the Period from the Fifth to 
 the Sixteenth Century," (1857.) 
 
 Gaillard,gS'y$R', (Gabriel Henri,) a popular French 
 historian, bom at Ostel, in Picardy, in 1726. He was 
 admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1760, and 
 published in 1766 a "History of Francis I.," (7 vols.) 
 His capital work is a "History of the Rivalry between 
 France and England," (" Histoire de la Rivalite de la 
 France et de l'Angleterre," 11 vols., 1771-77,) which 
 opened to him the doors of the French Academy in 177 1. 
 Among his numerous other works are a " Iiistory of 
 the Rivalry between France and Spain," '(8 vols., 1801 ;) 
 a "Historical Dictionary," (6 vols., 1 789-1 804,) which 
 forms part of the " Encyclopedic Methodique ;" and a 
 " Life of Malesherbes," (1805,) who was his friend. His 
 principal merits as a writer are clearness, elegance, 
 facility, and truthfulness. Died near Chantilly in 1806. 
 
 See Qu^rard, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge"nerale." 
 
 Gaillard, gS'ytR', ? (John Ernest,) a musical com- 
 poser, bora at Zell about 1686, lived in London, and 
 composed for the stage. Died in 1749. 
 
 Gaillard, de, deh gS'yatR', (Honore Reynaud,) a 
 French Jesuit, born at Aix in 1641, gained distinction 
 as a pulpit orator. He became rector of the College of 
 Paris, and confessor to the queen of James II. of England. 
 Died in 1727. 
 
 See Mokrki, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Gaillard de Lonjumeau, gi'yaV deh lAN'zhu'mo', 
 a French ecclesiastic, became Bishop of Apt in 1673. 
 He conceived the project of a great historical dictionary, 
 for which he collected copious materials. The work was 
 edited by his chaplain, Moreri, and published in 1674. 
 Died in 1695. 
 
 Gaillardot, gl'yiR'do', (Claude Antoinf, ) a 
 French naturalist and physician, born at Luneville in 
 1774. He found in the vicinity of that town fossils of 
 many huge reptiles. He wrote a " Memoir on the 
 Fossils of the Mottled Sandstone," (1806,) and other 
 works. Died in 1833 
 
 Gai'nas, a Goth, who became a Roman. general and 
 served under Stilicho in 395 A.I). Soon after that date 
 he obtained the chief command of an army which Arca- 
 dius sent against Tribigild, another Gothic chief; but, 
 instead of fighting him, he formed a coalition with him 
 and marched against Constantinople. Arcadius was 
 alarmed, and negotiated with Gainas, who was admitted 
 into the capital with his army and received the title of 
 "master-general." His demand of liberty of worship 
 for the Goths (who were Arians) provoked the Catholics, 
 who massacred many of his army. Gainas retreated into 
 Thrace, and was killed near the Danube by the Huns in 
 400 A.I). 
 
 See Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire." 
 
 Gaines, ganz, (Edmund Pendleton,) an American 
 general, born in Culpepper county, Virginia, in 1777. 
 He served as captain at Chrystler's Field, in Novem- 
 l>er, 1813, and, having become brigadier-general, de- 
 fended Fort Erie with success in 1814. Died in 1849. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Gainsborough, ganz'btir-eh, (Thomas,) an excellent 
 English landscape-painter, born at Sudbury in 1727. He 
 
 became a student of art in London about the age of fif- 
 teen, and painted portraits c*hiefly in the early part of his 
 career. Having worked some years at Ipswich, he re- 
 moved to Bath about 1760. Among his works are several 
 good portraits of the royal family. He settled in Lon- 
 don about 1775, after which he devoted himself to land- 
 scapes. He was one of the first members of the Royal 
 Academy. His works are admired for simplicity and 
 fidelity to nature. His early style differed from his later, 
 and exhibited more attention to minute details. He 
 excels in richness of colour and in the distribution 
 of light and shade, and is considered superior to any 
 English landscape-painter who had appeared before his 
 time. Among his works are "The Woodman in the 
 Storm," "The Cottage Door," and "The Shepherd 
 Boy." "Gainsborough's hand," says Ruskin, "is as 
 light as the sweep of a cloud, — as 'swift as the flash 
 of a sunbeam. His forms are grand, simple, and ideal. 
 . . . The greatest colorist since Rubens, and the last, 
 I think, of legitimate colorists, — that is to say, of those 
 who were fully acquainted with the power of their mate- 
 rial, — pure in his English feeling, profound in his seri- 
 ousness, graceful in his gaiety, there are nevertheless 
 certain deductions to be made from his worthiness," etc 
 ("Modern Painters.") Died in London, August, 1788. 
 
 See Thickness, "Sketch of the Life of Gainsborough ;" Cun- 
 ningham, "Lives of British Painters." 
 
 Gais'ford, (Thomas,) D.D., a distinguished English 
 scholar, born in Wiltshire in 1780. He became regius 
 professor of Greek at Oxford about 181 1, and after- 
 wards Dean of Christ Church. He published, besides 
 other works, "Poetae Graeci Minores," (3 vols., 1814-16,) 
 an edition of Herodotus, (1824,) and one of Suidas, 
 (1834.) He had a high reputation as a critic. Diedini855. 
 
 Ga'ius (or Gajus) or Ca'ius, a Roman jurist of high 
 authority, is supposed to have flourished in the reign of 
 Antoninus Pius, 138-161 A.D. Little or nothing is posi- 
 tively known of his personal history. His writings were 
 recognized as a standard by the Roman jurists until the 
 compilation of the Code of Justinian, which was based 
 upon the "Institutes" of Gaius. In 1816 Niebuhr dis- 
 covered at Verona, on a palimpsest, a treatise on Roman 
 law, which was ascertained to be the Institutes of Gaius 
 and was published in 1820-21. This discovery was re- 
 garded as an important contribution to the history of law. 
 
 See Ersch jind Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneVale ;" Van Ysselmonde, "Djssertatio de 
 Gaji Legis Actionibus," 1S40. 
 
 Gaj, |T, (Lewis,) a Croatian journalist, born at Kra- 
 pina in 1810. He founded, in 1835, the "Croatian 
 Gazette," which became afterwards the "National Illy- 
 rian Gazette." This journal acquired extensive influence, 
 and is said to have effected a great literary and political 
 improvement among the Slavonians. 
 
 Galaccini, ga-lat-chee'nee, or Gallaccini, gSl-lat- 
 chee'nee, (Teofilo,) an Italian geometer, born at Sienna 
 in 1564. He wrote an able work "On the Errors of 
 Architects," (1767.) Died in 1641. 
 
 Galand. See Gai.i.and. 
 
 Galanino, ga-la-nee'no, an Italian painter, whose 
 proper name was Bai.dassare Aloisi, was born at 
 Bologna in 1578. He was a pupil of the Caracci, and 
 worked in Rome with success, especially in portraits. 
 He also painted history. Died in 1638. 
 
 Galanti, ga-lan'tee, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Italian 
 publicist, born at Campobasso in 1743. He published a 
 "Geographical and Political Description of the Two 
 Sicilies," (4 vols., 1786-93,) and other works. Died at 
 Naples in 1806. 
 
 Galateo. See Ferrari, (Antonio.) 
 
 Galatin. See Gallatin. 
 
 Galatin, (Peter,) a Franciscan monk, who flourished 
 about 1 520. He wrote "On the Mysteries of the Catho- 
 lic Truth," ("De Arcanis catholicae Veritatis," 1518.) 
 
 Galaup. See Perouse, La. 
 
 Galaup de Chasteuil, gi'lo' deh sha'tul' or sha'- 
 tuh'ye, (Francois,) a French Orientalist, born at Aix 
 in 1588. He passed his latter years as an anchorite on 
 Mount Lebanon, where he died in 1644. 
 
 His nephew, Pierre Galaup de Chasteuil, born in 
 1643, was a P oet > am ' a friend of Boileau. His ode on 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (jy See Explanatk ns, p. 23.) 
 
GALBA 
 
 984 
 
 GALEOTTI 
 
 the capture of Maestricht (1673) is admired. Died in 
 1727. 
 
 Gal'ba, (Pub'liuS SuLPig'ius,) a Roman general, 
 who was elected consul for 211 B.C. He commanded in 
 the war against Philip of Macedon from 2tl to 204, but 
 performed nothing of much importance. In 200 B.C. he 
 was re-elected consul, and renewed the war in Macedonia. 
 He defeated Philip near Eordea in 199, and returned to 
 Rome the next year. 
 
 Galba, (Sergius or Servius Sulpicius,) a Roman 
 general and orator, who commanded in Spain in 150 B.C. 
 and perfidiously massacred many thousand Lusitanians. 
 Viriathus was one of those who escaped from this mas- 
 sacre. Galba was elected consul 144 B.C. His eloquence 
 is highly praised by Cicero. 
 
 Galba, (Servius Sulpicius,) a Roman emperor, born 
 in 3 or 4 B.C., of a noble family. He was consul under 
 Tiberius in 33 A.D., and in the reign of Caligula com- 
 manded the army in Germany, where he acquired repu- 
 tation for military skill. Claudius, having succeeded to 
 the throne, appointed Galba Governor of Africa, in which 
 post he obtained successes. He commanded an army in 
 Spain at the death of Nero, 68 a.d. He was then pro- 
 claimed emperor by his own troops and the Praetorian 
 guards, whose choice was confirmed by the senate. But 
 he speedily lost the popular favour by his severity, 
 parsimony, and impolitic measures. The army declared 
 for Otho, and Galba was slain, after a reign of seven 
 months, in 69 a.d. According to Tacitus, he would have 
 been universally considered worthy to reign if he had 
 never been emperor. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Galba;" Suetonius, "Galba;" Taci- 
 tus, "Annates;" Niebuhr, "History of Rome;" Franz Horn, 
 "Historische Gemalde: Galba, Cftho und Vitellius," 1812. 
 
 Gale, (John,) an eminent Baptist minister, born in 
 London in 1680. He studied at Leyden, and on his 
 return became one of the ministers of Paul's Alley, near 
 Barbican, London. His principal.work is " Reflections on 
 Wall's Defence (or History) of Infant Baptism," (171 1,) 
 which is called one of the best works on that subject. 
 Died in 1721. 
 
 See " Life of John Gale," prefixed to his Works. 
 
 Gale, (Roger,) son of Thomas Gale, of Scruton, born 
 in 1672, was member of Parliament, Fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and treasurer of the Antiquarian Society, and 
 wrote several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1744. 
 
 Gale, (Samuel,) an English antiquary, a brother of 
 the preceding, was born in London in 1682. He pub- 
 lished a "History of Winchester Cathedral," (171 5.) 
 Died in 1754. 
 
 Gale, (Theophilus,) a learned English nonconform- 
 ist divine, born at Kings-Teignton, Devonshire, in 1628. 
 He became a Fellow of Magdalene College, and a popular 
 preacher at Winchester, from which he was ejected for 
 nonconformity in 1661. His reputation is founded on a 
 great work, called "The Court of the Gentiles; or, A 
 Discourse touching the Original of Human Literature 
 from the Scriptures," (5 vols., 1669-77,) m which he 
 argues that the heathen theology and philosophy were 
 derived from the Scriptures and the Jewish Church. He 
 became assistant to John Rowe at Holborn, and suc- 
 ceeded him in 1677. Died in 1678. 
 
 Gale, (Thomas,) an eminent English surgeon, born 
 in 1507. He served in the army of Henry VIII. in 
 France in 1544, and in that of Philip II. in 1557. He 
 afterwards practised in London, and wrote several pro- 
 fessional treatises, (1563-86.) 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Gale, (Thomas,) D.D., an eminent English classical 
 scholar and critic, born at Scruton, Yorkshire, in 1636. 
 He became professor of Greek in Cambridge University 
 in 1666, and was master of Saint Paul's School, London, 
 from 1672 to 1697. In the latter year he was appointed 
 Dean of York. He was also a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society. He published, besides other works, "Mytho- 
 logical, Ethical, and Physical Works or Treatises," 
 ("Opuscula mythologica.'ethica, et physica," 1671,) an 
 edition of Herodotus's History, (1679,) and an edition 
 of Cicero's Works, (1681.) Died in 1702. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Galeano, ga-la-a'no, (Giuseppe,) an eminent Italian 
 physician, born at Palermo about 1605. He practised 
 in that city, where he also taught medicine for twenty- 
 five years with great success. He had a high reputation 
 as a philosopher, and was regarded as a second Galen 
 by his contemporaries. Among his works are " Hip- 
 pocrates Revived," (1650,) a Treatise on the Use of 
 Brandy, (1667,) and several poems. Died in 1675. 
 
 Galeazzo. See Visconti. 
 
 Ga'len, [ Lat. Clau'dius Gale'nus ; Gr. KAowJioc 
 Takrivos; Fr. Galien, gi'le-aN'; It. Galie.no, ga-le-a'no,j 
 a celebrated Greek medical writer and pagan philosopher, 
 born at Pergamus, (or Pergamum,) in Mysia, in 131 A.D. 
 He studied the Platonic and the Peripatetic philosophies, 
 and was instructed in anatomy by Satyrus. In his youth 
 he visited several foreign countries, to perfect his edu- 
 cation at the best schools. At the age of thirty-four he 
 removed to Rome, where he acquired great celebrity as 
 a practitioner of medicine and surgery. He obtained 
 the confidence of Marcus Aurelius, who appointed him 
 physician to Commodus, the heir of the empire. He 
 also lectured on anatomy in Rome. Towards the end 
 of his life he returned to his native city. His death is 
 variously dated from 200 to 210 A.D. He rendered im- 
 portant services to the science of medicine, and left a great 
 number of works in Greek, many of which are lost. Of 
 some others, only Latin versions have come down to us. 
 
 "Galen had not," says the "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate, " "the noble simplicity of Hippocrates. . . . 
 He impairs the purity of his principles by fanciful ex- 
 planations and by subtilities. He is, nevertheless, the 
 only one among all the ancients who has given us a 
 complete system (corps) of medicine." 
 
 Galen rejected the various medical systems which 
 were in vogue in his time, and formed a new eclectic 
 system, which maintained its authority for thirteen cen- 
 turies. He was regarded as an oracle by the Arabs 
 and Europeans until the fifteenth century. Among his 
 extaut works (above eighty in number) are a treatise on 
 anatomy, (Rept auaTO/uxuv iyxttfnioeuv,) a capital work 
 on physiology, called "On the Uses of the Parts of 
 the Human Body," "Xyitiva, "On Preserving Health," 
 ("De Sanitate Tuenda,") and " De Locis affectis," a 
 treatise on pathology, which Haller regarded as one of 
 Galen's best productions. He wrote many able works 
 on ethics, logic, and philosophy, in one of which he 
 praises the temperance and self-denial of the Christians. 
 
 See Suidas, TaATjvos; Aboolfaraj, " Historia Dynast ianun ;" 
 Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Daniel Le Clerc, "Histoire 
 de la Medecine;" Speengel, "History of Medicine;" Hai.u-.k, 
 " Biblioiheca" Medicinae ;" Daremberg, " Expose" des Connaissances 
 de Galien," 1841 ; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" 
 A. Fumanei.li, " De Vita et Moribus Galeni," 1577; A. Werner, 
 "Oratiode Vita Galeni," 1570; Smith, "Greek and Roman Biog- 
 raphy and Mythology;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Galen, van, vin ga'len, (Jan,) a brave naval officer, 
 born at Essen, in Westphalia, about 1600. He entered 
 the Dutch navy, distinguished himself in battles against 
 the Spaniards, and rose to the rank of commodore. In 
 1653 he defeated the English fleet near Leghorn, and at 
 the same time received a mortal wound. 
 
 SeeOosTKWMP, " Leven, Daden en Lotgevallen van den Komman- 
 deur J. van Galen," 1830. 
 
 Galen, von, fon ga'len, (Christoph Bernhard,) a 
 warlike German prelate, born in Westphalia about 1605. 
 He was elected Prince-Bishop of Minister in 1650. In 
 1665 he joined Charles II. of England in a war against 
 the Dutch, from whom he took some fortified places. 
 He waged other aggressive wars, and is called by Sis- 
 mondi a "mitred brigand." Died in 1678. 
 
 See Le Lorrain, " Vie de C. B. de Galen, etc.," Rouen, 1679: 
 Johann von Ai.phen, " De Vita et Rebus gestis C. Bernard! Epis- 
 copi, etc.," 1694; E. Wiens, "Saminlung fragmentarischer Nach- 
 richten iiber C. B. von Galtn," 1834. 
 
 Galenus, (Claudius.) See Galen. 
 
 Galeotti, ga-la-ot'tee, (Alberto,) an eminent Italian 
 jurist, born at Parma; died about 1285. 
 , See Tiraboschi, " Storia dell? Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Galeotti, (Marzio,) an Italian writer, born at Narni 
 about 1440. He was professor of belles-lettres at Bo- 
 logna, from which he was expelled for his religious 
 opinions. He afterwards was preceptor of the son of 
 Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary. Among his works 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, lom;; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
GALEOTTI 
 
 985 
 
 GALILEI 
 
 
 is one entitled "On Man and his Parts," ("De Homine 
 et ejus Paribus," 1490.) Died about 1494. 
 
 Galeotti, (Skbastia.no,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Florence about 1676. His chief works are his frescos in 
 the church of l,a Madalena in Genoa. Died in 1746. 
 
 Galere. See Galerius. 
 
 Ga-le'rl-us, [Fr. G ai.ekk, gi'iaiR',] (Cai'us Vai.k'- 
 RIUS Maximia'.ni's,) a Roman emperor, was a native 
 of Dacia. and of humble origin. From the rank of pri- 
 vate soldier he rose to the highest commands in the 
 army. In the year 292 A.D. he was adopted as sou or 
 heir, with the title of Caesar, by Diocletian, whose 
 daughter he married ; and a few years later he com- 
 manded the army which defeated the Persian king 
 Narses. The violent persecution of the Christians by 
 Diocletian is ascribed to the instigation of Galerius. 
 When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, in 305, Gale- 
 rius and Constantius Chlorus succeeded as colleagues 
 in the empire, and the former took for his share Illyria, 
 Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, and the Eastern provinces. 
 His colleague having died in 306, Galerius wished to 
 choose Severus in his place; but Constantine and Max- 
 entius opposed him, and Severus was slain. After he 
 had failed in an attempt to capture Rome, he retired 
 to one of his provinces, and died in 311 a.d. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" TlEfcs- 
 mont, H Histoire des Lnipereurs." 
 
 Gales, galz, (JOSEPH,) a distinguished journalist, born 
 in England about 1760. He established and edited " The 
 Sheffield Register," which, on coming to the United States 
 in 1793. he sold to Montgomery the poet, who had been 
 brought up in his family. After editing for some time 
 "The Independent Gazetteer," in Philadelphia, a Re- 
 publican journal, in which he introduced short-hand 
 reports of debates in Congress, he founded, in 1799, 
 "The Raleigh (N.C.) Register." Died in 1841. 
 
 Gales, (Joseph,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 neai Sheffield, England, in 1786. He removed to Wash- 
 ington in 1807, and became in 1810 the proprietor and 
 editor of the "National Intelligencer," which after 1813 
 was issued daily. It became a very able and influential 
 organ of the Whig party. Died in i860. 
 
 Galestruzzi, ga-leVt'root'see, or Gallestruzzi, gal- 
 les-tRoot'see, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian engraver 
 and painter, born at Florence about 1618. He settled 
 in Rome, and was received into the Academy of Saint 
 Luke in 1652. Died in Rome about 1670. 
 
 Galfrid (or Geoffroy) de Beaulieu, gtl'fre' deh bo'- 
 le-Uh', a French monk, confessor to Saint Louis, who was 
 attended bv him in his two crusades. Died in 1274. 
 
 Galfridus de Vinosalvo. See Geokfroi de Vin- 
 
 SACI-. 
 
 Galhegos, de, digal-ya'gos. (Manoel, or Manuel,) a 
 popular Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon in 1597, was a 
 friend of Lope de Vega. He produced a poem on the 
 " Wars of the Giants against Jupiter," (1628,) which was 
 admired for its brilliant imagery and elegant style, and a 
 poem named "The Temple of Memory," (1635,) which 
 increased his celebrity. He also wrote several dramas, 
 which were performed with applause. Died in 1665. 
 
 Galiani, ga-lea'nee, (Ferdinando,) Abhe, an Italian 
 political economist, born at Chieti, in the Abruzzi.in 1728. 
 He wrote (1750) an able treatise "On Currency," or 
 Money, ("Delia Moneta,") which acquired a European 
 reputation and influenced the legislation of his own 
 Country, then disturbed by a surplus of precious metals 
 and the consequent enormous rise in the price of com- 
 modities. In 1759 he was appointed secretary of le- 
 gation at Paris, where he remained many years and 
 attracted much notice by his wit and convivial power*. 
 While in Paris, he argued against the free exportation of 
 corn, in his " Dialogues on the Corn Trade," in French, 
 (1770,) which obtained great success, and of which Vol- 
 taire said, "This work seems like the joint production 
 of Plato and Moliere." " No one," said Turgot, " could 
 maintain a bad cause with more wit, grace, finesse, and 
 reasonableness in details." Having returned to Naples 
 in 1769, he was appointed one of the ministers of the 
 junta of royal domains in 1777, and first assessor or 
 minister of the council of finance in 1782. He wrote 
 an able treatise "On. the Reciprocal Duties of Neutrals 
 
 and Belligerents," (1782.) Died at Naples in 1787. He 
 left in manuscript a Life of Horace and a Commen- 
 tary on that poet, which, says Ginguene, are learned and 
 original, like all his works. His " Letters to Madame 
 d'Epinay" were published in 1818. 
 
 See Marmontei., " Me* moires ;" Grimm, " Correspondance ;" 
 Saintk-Heuve. " Causeries du Lundi." 
 
 Galiano, ga-le-a'no, (Antonio Alcala,) a distin- 
 guished Spanish political writer and orator, was born at 
 Cadiz about 1790. He promoted with zeal the revolu- 
 tion of 1S20, and was elected in 1821 to the Cortes, in 
 which he highly distinguished himself as an orator and 
 leader of the Liberal party. Having been driven into 
 exile in 1823, he went to England, and became professor 
 of Spanish in the London University about 1828. He 
 wrote a " History of Spanish Literature in the Nineteenth 
 Century," which was published in the "Athenaeum" 
 (1834) and is highly commended. He returned to Spain 
 in 1834, and joined the Conservative party about 1836, 
 after which he was again exiled, for political reasons. 
 
 Galien, the French for Galen, which see. 
 
 Galien, gi'le-a.N', (Joseph,) a French natural philoso- 
 pher, born near Le Puy in 1699. He is said to have been 
 one of the first who conceived the practicability of ascend- 
 ing by means of an apparatus lighter than air. He pub- 
 lished "The Art of Aerial Navigation," and a treatise 
 "On the Formation of Hail." Died in 1782. 
 
 Galieno, the Italian for Galen, which see. 
 
 Galigai. See Ancre, (Marshal d\) 
 
 Galilaeus or Galilee. See Galilei. 
 
 Galilei, ga-le-la'ee, (Alessandro,) an Italian archi- 
 tect, born at Florence in 1691. He worked at Florence 
 and Rome, where he was employed by Pope Clement 
 XII., and where he built the facade of the church of 
 Saint John of the Florentines, and the chapel Corsini, 
 which is called his master-piece. Died in 1737. 
 
 Galilei, ga-le-la'ee, [Fr. Galilee, g^le'la'; Lat. 
 Galil/e'us or Galile'us,] (Galileo,) commonly called 
 simply Galileo, gal-e-lee'o, [It. pron. ga-le-la'o,[ an illus- 
 trious Italian mathematician and natural philosopher, 
 was born of a noble family at Pisa, the 15th of February, 
 1564. From early childhood he showed a rare aptitude 
 for mechanical invention. After having studied, at Flor- 
 ence, the classics, music, and painting, he went to Pisa 
 in 1582 to study medicine. But the impulse ofhis genius 
 and destiny caused him to prefer geometry and physical 
 philosophy, in which he made rapid progress. He dis- 
 covered about 1584 the isochronism of the vibrations of 
 a pendulum. Like his contemporary, Bacon, he asserted 
 his independence against the authority of Aristotle, 
 (whose system was then followed with blind and servile 
 submission,) and appealed to the impartial evidence and 
 umpirage of experiment. In 1589 he was chosen pro- 
 fessor of mathematics in the University of Pisa, where 
 he demonstrated the fallacy of the received theory that 
 bodies of unequal weights will fall with proportionate 
 velocities, by dropping metallic balls of different sizes 
 from the top of the Leaning Tower. He was also the 
 first who discovered the law by which the velocity ot 
 falling bodies is accelerated. In 1592 the senate of 
 Venice appointed him professor of mathematics in 
 Padua for the term of six years, which term was re- 
 newed in 159S. During this period he invented a ther- 
 mometer, and, after examining the rival theories of 
 astronomy, he adopted the Copernican system, which 
 was then regarded as heretical by the schoolmen and 
 clergy of Italy. In 1609 his celebrity was greatly in- 
 creased by the construction of his telescope (the honour 
 of inventing which is generally conceded to him) and by 
 the sublime results which he realized in its application 
 to astronomy and the "structure of the universe." He 
 saw with rapt and devout admiration the mountains and 
 valleys of the moon, and the phases of Venus ; he dis- 
 covered the satellites of Jupiter, and resolved into 
 myriads of stars or flaming orbs the luminous nebula: 
 of the Milky Way. He hastened to impart these glo- 
 rious revelations in his "Sidereal Messenger," (" Side- 
 reus Nuncius,") published in 1610. About the year 
 i6ii he accepted an invitation to Florence, where he 
 was liberally patronized byCosimo de' Mediri. 
 
 While Galileo was thus employed in consolidating th» 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g Hard; g as>; g, h, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in Mis. (jrgf~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GALILEI 
 
 986 
 
 GJLLJEUS 
 
 Copernican system by sensible evidence, and unfolding 
 to the human mind the grandeur of the universe, the 
 Jesuits and other enemies denounced him to the Inquisi- 
 tion as a heretic. In 1616 he was summoned to Rome, 
 and had an interview with the pope, Paul V., who posi- 
 tively forbade him to teach the doctrine of the motion of 
 the earth, and, on his giving a promise to that effect, 
 permitted him to return to Florence. For a number of 
 years he enjoyed a truce from persecution, and even re- 
 ceived some kindness from the next pope, Urban VIII. 
 In 1632 he published his great work, the "Dialogues on 
 the Ptolemaic and Copernican Systems," in which, with 
 graceful felicity of style, he employs all the resources of 
 wit, fancy, reason, and eloquence to render the truth at- 
 tractive. The dialogue is carried on by Salviati, Sagredo, 
 and Simplicius, the last of whom (a fictitious person) 
 maintains the theory of Ptolemy. The appearance of 
 this work occasioned a great outcry at Rome. The pope 
 was persuaded that the author had exposed him to 
 ridicule, in the character of Simplicius; and Galileo was 
 again cited before the Inquisition, in his seventieth year. 
 After a confinement of several months, he was induced 
 to sign a document abjuring the obnoxious theory, (that 
 the earth had a diurnal motion, as well as a motion round 
 the sun,) and promised to refrain from teaching it; but 
 even this did not procure his liberation. It is said that, as 
 he rose from the kneeling posture in which he signed his 
 name, he whispered to a friend, " E pur se muove," (" It 
 moves nevertheless.") His confinement was continued a 
 few years, though not in the severest form, and it appears 
 that he pursued his studies and observations until he 
 became blind. He was visited by Milton in 1638. He 
 died at or near Florence in January, 1642, within a year 
 of the birth of Newton. He was never married. His 
 temper was cheerful and sociable, his features comely, 
 and his person of medium stature. Among his principal 
 disciples were Torricelli and Viviani. In regard to the 
 invention of the telescope, to which allusion has been 
 made above, we may here remark that although Jens or 
 Tansen, a Dutch optician, first invented a small spy-glass, 
 intended for a plaything, yet Galileo was the first who 
 constructed an astronomical telescope and applied it to 
 its noblest use. Galileo himseif says that he had heard 
 of the invention in Holland of an instrument which en- 
 larged the size of distant objects, but was not informed 
 how it was constructed, and that the one he used was 
 the result of his own study and experiments. The most 
 important discovery of Galileo was that of Jupiter's satel- 
 lites, the eclipses of which afforded the first good method 
 of determining longitudes. His " Scienza mechanica" 
 was written in 1592, but not printed until 1634. About 
 1582 he obtained the idea of the pendulum from the 
 oscillations of a lamp suspended in a church ; and Biot 
 says he constructed a clock iu 1633 in which the pen- 
 dulum was used. Hume ranks Galileo above Lord Bacon 
 as an author and philosopher. (" History of England," 
 vol. iv.) A good edition of Galileo's complete works 
 was published at Florence by Alberi, 20 vols., 1842-58. 
 See Viviani, " Vita del Galilei ;" L. Brenna. " Vita Galilei," in 
 Farrow's "Vitae Italorum;" Drinkwatkr Bethune, "Life of 
 Galileo," in the "Library of Useful Knowledge:" Sir David 
 Brewster, "Martyrs of Science," 1841 : Nelli," Vita di Galilei," 
 2 vols., 1793: Philareir Chasles, "Galileo; sa Vie, son Proces 
 et ses Contempnrains," 1862; G. Libri, "Histoire de la Vie et des 
 CEuvresde G. Galilei," 1841 ; Campaneixa, " Apologia pro Galileo," 
 1622; Frisi, "Klogiodel Galileo," 1775; A. Cattaneo, "Cenni su 
 la Vita di G. Galilei," 1843 ; " North British Review" for November, 
 i860; Biot, article on Galileo in the " Biographie Universelle ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale." 
 
 Galilei, (Vincf.ntio,) the father of the great astrono- 
 mer, resided in Florence, and was married in 1562 to 
 Julia Venturi. He excelled in the theory and practice of 
 music, and wrote a learned treatise entitled a" Dialogue 
 on Ancient and Modern Music." He died about 1600. 
 
 Galileo, (the celebrated philosopher.) See Galilei, 
 (Galileo.) 
 
 Galileo, (Vincentio,) a son of the great astronomer, 
 was born about 1600. He aided his father in experiments, 
 cultivated literature, and gave special attention to the 
 application of the pendulum to clocks. Died in 1649. 
 
 Galileus. See Galilei. 
 
 Galimard, gt'le'maR', (Nicolas Augusts,) a French 
 historical painter, born in Paris in 1813, was a pupil of 
 
 Ingres. Among his works are "Nausicaa and her Com« 
 panions,"and "The Evangelists." 
 
 Galin, gi'laN', (Pierre,) a French musician, born at 
 Samatan in 1786, invented a new method of teaching 
 music, named the " Method of the Meloplaste." Died 
 in 1822. 
 
 G-alindes de Caravajal, gi-len'desdi ka-ra-va-Hal', 
 (Lorenzo,) a Spanish lawyer and historian, born at Pla- 
 cencia in 1472. Ferdinand the Catholic chose him as 
 president of his council of state. He wrote a history 
 of John II. of Castile, and other works. Died in 1532. 
 
 See Prbscott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. iii. 
 part ii. 
 
 Galindo, ga-len'do, (Beatriz,) a Spanish lady, born 
 at Salamanca in 1475, excelled in the use of the Latin 
 language, and was regarded as a prodigy of learning. 
 She became a lady of honour to Isabella of Castile. 
 Died in 1535. 
 
 Galiot (or Galliot) de Genouillac, gt'le'o' deh 
 zheh'noo'yik'. Seigneur d'Acier, (dS'se-i',) a French 
 officer, born in Quercy about 1466, was' made grand 
 master of artillery in 15 12, and afterwards grand equerry 
 to Francis I. He displayed skill at the battles of Ma- 
 rignano and of Pavia, (1525.) Died in 1546. 
 
 See Brantome, " Vie de Galliot," vol. ii. 
 
 Galisonniere. See Gallissoniere. 
 
 Galitzin or Galitsin. See Gallitsin. 
 
 Gall, gal, (Ferdinand,) Baron, a German author, 
 born at Battenberg, in Hesse, in 1809. He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, "Travels in Sweden in the Summer 
 of 1836," (2 vols., 1838,) and "Paris and its Salons," 
 (2 vols., 1845,) which had a great success. In 1846 he 
 became intendant of the royal theatre at Stuttgart. 
 
 Gall, gaul, [Ger. pron. gal,] (Franz Joseph,) a Ger- 
 man physician, distinguished as the founder of the sys- 
 tem of phrenology, was born at Tiefenbrunn, in Baden, 
 on the 9th of March, 1758. He studied natural sciences 
 at Strasburg, and passed thence to Vienna about 1 781. 
 He graduated as M.D. at Vienna in 1785, and practised 
 in that city for many years. In 1791 he published a 
 medical work entitled " Medical and Philosophical Re- 
 searches on Nature and Art," (" Philosophisch-medici- 
 nische Untersuchungen iiber Natur und Kunst,") etc. He 
 devoted much time to the study of the brain and to the 
 external signs connected with the different functions and 
 faculties of the human mind, and began in 1796 to lec- 
 ture on these subjects in Vienna. Among his principal 
 doctrines are the following : that the brain is the organ 
 of all the faculties, propensities, and sentiments ; that dif- 
 ferent parts of the brain are appropriated to particular 
 mental faculties or moral affections ; and that the capacity 
 and character of a person are indicated by the external 
 form of his skull. About 1805 he began, with his pupil 
 and coadjutor, Dr. Spurzheim, to propagate their system 
 by lectures in Paris, Berlin, and other cities of Europe. 
 Dr. Gall became a permanent resident of Paris in 1807. 
 He presented to the Institute in 1808 his "Researches 
 into the Nervous System in General and the Brain in 
 Particular," which was unfavourably criticised by a com- 
 mittee of the Institute, in their report. His principal 
 work is entitled " The Anatomy and Physiology of the 
 Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particu- 
 lar," (4 vols., 1810-19, in French.) He was assisted in 
 this work by Dr. Spurzheim. (See Spurzheim.) Died 
 in Paris in 1S28. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1815: "Quarterly Review" 
 for April, 1815; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"ne>ale." 
 
 Gall, (Richard,) a Scottish poet, born in 1776, was a 
 printer of Edinburgh. He acquired distinction as the 
 author of a poem called "Arthur's Seat," and of several 
 popular songs, among which are "The Farewell to 
 Ayrshire," and "The Braes o' Drumlie." Died in 1801. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gall, gaul, or Gal'lus, Saint, called "the Apostle 
 of the Swiss," was born in Ireland about 550 A.D. He 
 was a disciple of Saint Columban, whom he accompanied 
 to Gaul in 585. He founded the monastery of Saint Gall, 
 in the Swiss canton of that name. Died 111 646 A.D. 
 
 See Karl Greith, "Der heilige Callus der Apostel Alieman- 
 niens," 184s. 
 
 Gallaeus. See Gai.le. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
GALLAGHER 
 
 987 
 
 GALLE 
 
 Gal'la-gher, (WILLIAM D.,) an American poet and 
 journalist, born in Philadelphia in 1808. He edited 
 several literary journals in Ohio, and was associate editor 
 of the "Cincinnati Gazette," 1840-50. He removed to 
 Louisville, Kentucky, about 1853. Among his works 
 are three volumes of poems entitled "Erato," (1835-37.) 
 
 See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Gallais, gi'li', (Jean Pierrk,) a French historical 
 and political writer, born at Doue (Anjou) in 1756. In 
 the Revolution he was a zealous royalist. He wrote 
 many mediocre works, among which is a " History of 
 France from the Death of Louis XVI. to the Peace of 
 181 5," (2 vols., 1820.) Died in 1820. 
 
 Gallait, g!t)&', (Louis,) an eminent Belgian historical 
 painter, born at Tournay in 1810, studied in Paris. 
 Among his works are " Job and his Friends," " The 
 Abdication of Charles V.," (1841,) and "The Last Mo- 
 ments of Egmont," (1853.) 
 
 Galland, gJ'l&N', (Antoine,) a distinguished French 
 Orientalist and antiquary, born at Rollot, in Picardy, in 
 1646. He made several journeys to the Levant to collect 
 medals and copy inscriptions. About 1680 he had a 
 commission from Colbert to make antiquarian researches 
 in the East. He was admitted into the Academy of 
 Inscriptions in 1701, and became professor of Arabic 
 in the Royal College in 1709. His reputation is chiefly 
 founded on his French version of the Arabian tales called 
 "The Thousand and One Nights," (12 vols., 1704-17.) 
 The style of this version is' natural and simple. He trans- 
 lated other works from the Arabic and Persian, and 
 wrote treatises on medals and antiquities. Died in 1 715. 
 
 See Zenker, " Bibliotheca Orientalis ;" " Nouvelle liiographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Galland, (Auguste,) a French historical writer, born 
 about 1570. He was a member of Henry the Fourth's 
 council of state, and wrote, besides other works, 
 "Memoirs to illustrate the History of Navarre and 
 Flanders," (1648,) and a "History of the Reformation 
 in France." Died before 1645. 
 
 Galland, (Pierre,) a French scholar, born at Aire in 
 1510. He became professor of eloquence in the Royal 
 College in 1545, and was a friend of Bude, (Budaeus.) 
 His argument "On Behalf of the Parisian School against 
 the New Academy of P. Ramus" (" Pro Schola Parisiensi 
 contra novam Academiam Petri Rami," 1 551) was the 
 signal for the persecutions which that author suffered. 
 Died in 1559. 
 
 Gallas, gal'lis, (Matthias,) an Austrian genera], 
 born at or near Trent in 1589. He was a major-general 
 of the army which took Mantua in 1629, and became a 
 general of cavalry, or field-marshal, in 1631. He com- 
 manded a corps under Wallenstein, in Bohemia, and 
 distinguished himself in battles against the Swedes at 
 Nuremberg and Lutzen in 1632. Gallas appears to have 
 been the chief agent in the intrigues which resulted in 
 the ruin of Wallenstein, whom he succeeded as general- 
 in-chief in 1634. He gained a decisive victory at Nord- 
 lingen in 1634, but was outgeneralled and defeated near 
 Magdeburg by Torstenson in 1644. Died in 1647. 
 
 See Schiller, "History of the Thirty Years' War;" Kksch und 
 Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Gal'la-tin, [Fr. pron. gt'lS'tiN 7 ,] (Albert,) an emi- 
 nent statesman, and a great oracle and leader of the 
 Republican party in America, was bom at Geneva in 
 January, 1761. After graduating at the university of his 
 native place, he emigrated to the United States in 1780. 
 He acted as French tutor in Harvard University in 1782, 
 and spent the two or three ensuing years in Virginia, 
 where he purchased a large tract of land. In 1786 he 
 fixed his home in Fayette county, Pennsylvania, and in 
 1790 was elected a member of the legislature of that 
 State, in which he served several years, and acquired 
 great influence with both parties, although he acted with 
 the Republicans. In 1793 the legislature, in which the 
 Federal party had a majority, paid him a high compli- 
 ment by electing him to the Senate of the United States, 
 in which, however, he served only two months, as that 
 body decided, by a party vote, that he was not eligible, 
 because he had not been naturalized nine years before 
 the election. From 1795 to 1 801 he represented a dis- 
 trict of Pennsylvania in the Federal Congress, in which 
 
 he became one of the ablest debaters and was recog- 
 nized as the leader of the Republicans, at least after 
 Madison had retired from that arena in 1797. He spoke 
 often, and was distinguished for his cool and ready dex- 
 terity, as well as his knowledge of political economy and 
 finance. The first formation of the committee of ways 
 and means was due to his suggestion. In 1801 President 
 Jefferson appointed Gallatin secretary of the treasury, 
 which he managed with eminent ability until 1813, having 
 been continued in the office by Madison in 1809. He 
 succeeded in effecting a great reduction of the public 
 debt, and opposed the second war with England. In 
 1813 he retired from the cabinet, to take an active part 
 in negotiating a peace with England ; and, as the col- 
 league of Adams, Clay, and others, he signed the treaty 
 of Ghent in 1814. On this occasion, and in his subse- 
 quent career of diplomacy, he enjoyed a very high repu- 
 tation as a negotiator, for which he was so well fitted 
 by his extensive and exact information, his honourable 
 character, his courteous address, and his logical ability. 
 He was resident minister of the United States at Pans 
 from 1816 to 1823, and in 1826 accepted a mission to 
 England, where he settled a question of the boundary 
 between the United States and British America, and 
 regulated the subject of fisheries. Returning in 1827, he 
 withdrew from political employment, and took up his 
 residence in New York City. He subsequently wrote 
 two able pamphlets on Currency, and in 1840 an essay 
 on the Northeastern Boundary. In 1843 ne was chosen 
 president of the New York Historical Society. John 
 Randolph, who witnessed his career in Congress, once 
 remarked that Gallatin was unrivalled for readiness and 
 dexterity in debate ; and Judge Story pronounced him 
 a truhy great statesman, ranking him side by side with 
 Hamilton. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Duyckjnck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Gallatin, gS'lS'taN', (Jean Louis,) a Swiss physician, 
 born at Geneva in 1751, was physician to the hospital 
 founded in Paris by Madame Necker. He wrote a treat- 
 ise on acute fevers, (1781.) Died in 1783. 
 
 Gal'lau-det', (Rev. Thomas H.,) born in Philadel- 
 phia in 1787, rendered himself widely and favourably 
 known by his successful efforts for the instruction of the 
 deaf and dumb. After studying for the ministry at An- 
 dover, he took charge of a church in Portsmouth, New 
 Hampshire. About 1815 he formed an association for 
 the relief of the deaf and dumb, and was induced to un- 
 dertake a mission to Europe to qualify himself for their 
 tuition. At Paris he was kindly received by the Abbe" 
 Sicard, who gave him full facilities for learning the sys- 
 tem followed in the institution under his charge. Having 
 returned to the United States, he was chosen principal 
 of the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Hartford, which 
 was opened in April, 1 81 7, and which was the first insti- 
 tution that had been founded for that purpose in America. 
 He continued to labour here with zeal and success until 
 1830, when he resigned on account of ill health. He 
 published, besides other works, " The Child's Book of 
 the Soul," (3d edition, 1850.) Died in 1851. 
 
 See Henry Barnard, "Discourse on the Life and Character 
 of T. H. Gallaudet." 1852; "Life of T. H. Gallaudet," by H. Hum- 
 phrey ; " North American Review" for October, 1858. 
 
 Galle, g41, (Andre,) a French medallist and engraver, 
 born at Saint-fitienne in 1 761, settled in Paris. He en- 
 graved many portraits and medals in commemoration of 
 the events of Napoleon's reign. Died in 1844. 
 
 Galle, gil'leh, (Cornf.i.is,) an excellent Flemish en- 
 graver, born at Antwerp in 1570, was a sun and pupil 
 of Philip Galle, (1537-1612.) He studied in Rome, and 
 returned to Antwerp, where he engraved history after 
 various masters, and portraits after Van Dyck. Among 
 his works are a " Virgin and Child," after Raphael ; a 
 " Virgin crowned with Flowers," after Rubens ; and 
 some original designs. He was the most famous artist 
 of the family. 
 
 See GANDELUNt, " Notizie degli Intagliatori." 
 
 Galle, (Cornei.is,) the Younger, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Antwerp in 1600, was an engraver and 
 designer. He engraved history and portraits, the latter 
 of which are his best productions. 
 
 See Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters and Engravers." 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, tiasaJ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. (B3f~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GALLE 
 
 988 
 
 GALLITSIN 
 
 Galle, gal'Ieh, (Dr. J. G.,) a German astronomer, born 
 in Prussian Saxony about 1S12, became director of the 
 Observatory at Berlin, and was the first who observed 
 with a telescope the planet Neptune, whose existence 
 Leverrier had previously demonstrated. (See Lever- 
 rier.) He announced this fact to Leverrier in a letter 
 dated September 25, 1846. A few years later he obtained 
 the chair of astronomy at Breslau. 
 
 Galle, (Philip-,) a Flemish engraver, born at Haarlem 
 in 1537, was a correct designer. He was a dealer in 
 prints at Antwerp, and produced many engravings after 
 his own designs and after those of other artists. Among 
 his works are " Portraits of the Eminent Men of the 
 Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries." Died in 161 2. 
 
 His son Theodore, born at Antwerp in 1560, was an 
 engraver. He engraved some works of Rubens and other 
 F'lemish masters, besides his own designs. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Galle, gt'li', [Lat. GalL/e'us,] (Servais,) a Dutch 
 writer, born at Rotterdam about 1628, published an edi- 
 tion of Lactantius, (1660,) and "Dissertations on the 
 Sibyls and their Oracles," (1688.) Died in 1709. 
 
 Gallego, gal-ya'go, (Don Juan Nicasio,) a Spanish 
 poet and priest, born at Zamora in 1777, became chap- 
 lain to the king in 1805, and, after the French invasion, 
 was elected to the Cortes of Cadiz. He wrote, besides 
 other fine poems, an " Elegy to the Second of May," 
 ("Al Dos de Mayo," 1808,) and an "Ode on the Influ- 
 ence of Public Enthusiasm on the' Arts," (1832.) 
 
 Gallegos, gal -ya'g6s, (Fernando,) a renowned Span- 
 ish painter, born at Salamanca in 1461. He distinguished 
 himself by accuracy of design and beauty of colouring. 
 His subjects are chiefly Scriptural. His works are said 
 to have been often mistaken for those of Albert Diirer. 
 Died in 1550. 
 
 See Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Gallegos, (Manuel.) See Galhegos. 
 
 Gallestruzzi. See Gales truzzi. 
 
 Galletti, gal -let'tee, (Fn.irro Maria,) a fresco-painter,' 
 born at Florence in 1636, adornad several churches of 
 that city and of Parma. Died in 17 14. 
 
 Galletti gal-let'tee, (Johann Georg August,) a 
 German historian, born at Altenburg in 1750, became 
 historiographer to the Duke of Gotha in 1816. He 
 wrote a number of educational treatises and historical 
 works, among which is a "History of Germany," (10 
 vols., 1 787-1819.) Died in 1S28. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemein« Encyklopaedie. " 
 
 Galletti, (Pietro LurGi,) an Italian antiquary and 
 monk, born in Rome in 1724. He published, besides 
 other works, " Mediaeval Inscriptions of Venice, Rome," 
 etc., (7 vols., 1757-66.) Died in 1790. 
 
 Galli, gal'lee, (Francesco,) surnamed Biiikiena, a 
 painter and architect, born at Bologna in 1656, was a 
 brother of Ferdinando, noticed below. He was gifted 
 with a fine imagination. He practised the art of deco- 
 ration at Naples, Verona, Vienna, and Rome, and became 
 first architect to Philip V. of Spain. Among his greatest 
 works was the theatre of Verona. Died in 1739. 
 
 His son Giovanni, or Jean, was born at Nancy 
 about 1710. He wrote, in French, several novels, and 
 a comedy entitled "New Italy," ("La nouvelle Italie," 
 1762.) Died about 1779. 
 
 See Malvasia, "Pittura, Scoltura ed Architettiira di Bologna." 
 
 Galli, (Giovanni Antonio,) born at Bologna in 1708, 
 was a skilful surgeon, and a professor of midwifery, 
 which he taught by an improved method. Died in 1784. 
 
 Galli da Bibbiena, gal'lee' da beb-be-a'na, (or 
 Bibieua, be-be-5'na,) (Ferdinando,) an able Italian 
 painter and architect, born at Bologna in 1657, was a 
 pupil of C. Cignani. He excelled in perspective and 
 theatrical decorations. He became first painter and 
 architect to Charles III. at Vienna. He published a 
 "Treatise on Architecture and Perspective," (2 vols., 
 1711.) Died about 1745. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Galliani. See Galiani. 
 
 Galliccioli, gal-let-cho'lee, (Giovanni Battista,) 
 Abke, an Italian Orientalist, born in Venice in 1733, 
 
 published, besides other works, one on " Ancient Vene- 
 tian Memoirs." Died in 1806. 
 
 Gal-H-e'nus, [Fr. Gallien, gfle-aN',] (Publius Li- 
 Cinius Valerius,) a Roman emperor, born about 233 
 A.D., was a son of the emperor Valerian, who admitted 
 him to a share in the empire in 253. Valerian having 
 been defeated and taken prisoner by the Persians in 260 
 A.D., Gallienus succeeded to the throne. He made no 
 effort to liberate his father from captivity, and disgraced 
 himself by his cruelty and profligacy. His frontiers were 
 invaded by barbarian armies, while Ingenuus, Aureolus, 
 and other Roman generals revolted in different parts 
 of the empire. After he had defeated Aureolus in 
 battle, a conspiracy was formed against Gallienus by 
 his own officers. During the siege of Milan, 26S a.d., 
 "he received a mortal dart from an uncertain hand," 
 says Gibbon, who thus describes him: "He was master 
 of several curious but useless sciences, a ready orator, 
 an elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, 
 and a most contemptible prince." He was succeeded 
 by Claudius II. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tille- 
 mont, " Histoire des Empereurs;" Eckhel, "Doctrina Nnmmo- 
 rum." 
 
 Galligai. See Ancre. 
 
 Gallinari, gal-le-na'ree, (Pietro,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Brescia about 1629, was a favourite pupil of 
 Guido. He was an artist of high promise, but died 
 prematurely in 1664. 
 
 Gal'li-o, (Junius,) a Roman judicial officer, was an 
 adopted son of the rhetorician Junius Gallio, and a 
 brother of Seneca the philosopher. His original name 
 was M. Ann^eus Novatus. He is supposed by some 
 persons to be the Gallio who was deputy or proconsul 
 of Achaia, before whom Saint Paul was arraigned by 
 the Jews. (See Acts xviii. 12-17.) Died in 65 a.d. 
 
 Galliot. See Galiot. 
 
 Gallissoniere, de la, deh 13 ga'le'so'nt^aJR', (Ro- 
 land Michel Barrin — bS'raN',) Marquis, a naval 
 officer, born at Rochefort, in France, in 1693. He be- 
 came a captain about 1738, and acted as Governor of 
 Canada from 1745 to 1749. In 1756 his fleet defeated 
 the English under Admiral Byng, near Minorca. Died 
 in 1756. 
 
 Gallitsin, Gallitzin, or Galitzin, ga-lit'sin or ga- 
 let'sen, (Alexander Mikhailovitch,) a Russian gen- 
 eral and prince, bom in 1718, was a son of Mikhail, 
 (1674-1730.) He distinguished himself in the Seven 
 Years' war, (1756-63,) about the end of which he became 
 general-in-chief. He afterwards obtained great favour 
 with Catherine II., and defeated the Turks at Choczim 
 in 1769. Died in 1783. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Gallitsin, Gallitzin, or Galitzin, (Dmitri I.,) 
 Prince of, uncle of the preceding, was one of the Rus- 
 sian nobles who, after the death of Peter II., placed 
 Anne on the throne, on the condition that she should 
 sign a charter as a guarantee against despotic power. 
 But, when she thought her authority established, she 
 tore the charter in pieces and imprisoned its authors. 
 Died in 1738. 
 
 Gallitsin or Gallitzin, (Dmitri Alexievitch,) 
 Prince, a Russian author and diplomatist, was born 
 about 1738. In 1763 he was appointed ambassador to 
 France, where he remained several years, and corre- 
 sponded with Voltaire, who praised his good qualities. 
 In 1773 he became resident minister at the Hague. He 
 wrote, besides other works, a " Physical Description of 
 the Crimea," (1788,) and a "Treatise on Mineralogy," 
 (1792.) Died in 1803. 
 
 Gallitsin or Gallitzin, written also Galyzin, (Dmi- 
 tri Augustine,) a Russian missionary, a son of the 
 preceding, was born at the Hague in 1770. He became 
 a Roman Catholic priest, and went to the United States 
 about 1792. He founded Loretto, in Cambria county, 
 Pennsylvania, where he died in 1840. 
 
 Gallitsin, (Dmitri Mikhailovitch,) Prince, was 
 born in 172 1. He was Russian ambassador at the court 
 of Vienna from 1762 to 1792, and had a high reputation 
 as a negotiator. He founded a hospital in Moscow 
 1 tied in 1793. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mei; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GALL ITS IN 
 
 989 
 
 GJLLUS 
 
 Gallitsin, (Emanuel,) Prince, a Russian litterateur, 
 born in l'aris in 1804. He fought with distinction at 
 the capture of Varna, soon after which he retired from 
 the army. He translated several works from Russian 
 into French, and wrote "Travels in Finland," (1852.) 
 Died in Paris in 1853. 
 
 Gallitsin, (Mikhail,) Prince, a Russian admiral, 
 born about 1685. During the reign of Catherine I. or 
 Peter II. he became a senator and privy councillor. 
 After the death of the empress Anne (1740) he obtained 
 the rank of admiral. He was appointed grand admiral 
 and president of the admiralty in 1756. Died in 1764. 
 
 Gallitsin, (Mikhail Mikh.ulovitch,) Prince, a 
 Russian nobleman, born in 1674. He entered the army 
 as a private, became a general about 1708, and led a 
 division at Pultowa (Poltava) in 1709. In 171 1 he com- 
 manded an army against the Tartars and Poles. He 
 had the chief command in Finland from 1713 to 1721, 
 defeated the Swedes in a naval fight in 1720, and was 
 made field-marshal in 1724. In 1730 he was appointed 
 a senator, and president of the College of War. He 
 was reputed to be the best general that Russia had then 
 produced. Died in 1730. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Gallitsin, Galitzin, Gallitzin, Galyzin, or Gallit- 
 zine, (Vasili, or Basil,) an able and liberal Russian 
 statesman, born about 1633. He was the minister or 
 influential adviser of Feodor, (1676-82,) and promoted 
 reform and civilization. He retained power or favour 
 during the minority of Ivan and Peter and the regency 
 of Sophia. In 1686 he concluded with Poland a treaty 
 that was very advantageous to Russia. He commanded 
 an expedition against the Crimean Tartars in 1687. For 
 his alleged complicity in the conspiracy of Sophia against 
 Peter the Great, he was exiled in 1689. Died in 1713. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Gallizin or Gallitzin. See Gallitsin. 
 
 Gallo, gal'lo, (Agostino,) born at Brescia, in Italy, 
 in 1499, wrote a useful treatise called "Twenty Days 
 of Agriculture," ("Vinti Giornate dell' Agricoltura," 
 1550,) and other similar works. He was regarded as the 
 restorer of agriculture in Italy. Died in 1570. 
 
 Gallo, (Andrea,) a Sicilian antiquary, born at Mes- 
 sina in 1732. He wrote an account of the earthquake 
 which nearly ruined Messina in 1783. Died in 1814. 
 
 Gallo, (Thomas.) See Gali.us, (Thomas.) 
 
 Gallo, da, da gal'lo, (Marzio Mastrizzi — mls- 
 tRet'see,) Duke, a Neapolitan minister of state and 
 able negotiator, was born at Palermo in 1753. He was 
 sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1795, and performed a 
 prominent part in the treaty of Campo Formio, (1797.) 
 During the consulate of Bonaparte he was ambassador 
 to Paris. He was minister of foreign affairs at Naples 
 from the accession of Joseph Bonaparte, in 1806, until 
 1815. The revolution of 1820 restored him to the same 
 office for a brief term. He retired when the government 
 again became absolute, in 1821. Died in- 1833. 
 
 See Ersch nnd Grubrr, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Galloche, gS'losh', (Louis,) a French painter, born 
 in Paris in 1670, painted subjects from Scripture with 
 success. He received a pension from the king, and was 
 rector of the Academy in Paris when he died, in 1761. 
 Lemoyne was one of his pupils. Among his best works 
 is "The Removal of the Reliques of Saint Augustine." 
 
 Gallcis, gS'lwa', (Charles Andre Gustave Leo- 
 nard,) a French political and historical writer, born at 
 Monaco in 1789. He removed to Paris in 1818, be- 
 came an editor of the " Constitutionnel," and advocated 
 democracy in several popular pamphlets. He also 
 wrote a " Pictorial History of the French Revolution," 
 (4 vols., 1830,) and a " History of the National Conven- 
 tion," (8 vols., 1835.) Died in 1851. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Gallois, (Jean,) a French editor and critic of much 
 merit, born in Paris in 1632, was one of the founders of 
 the " Jour.nal des Savants," which he edited with ability 
 from 1666 to 1674. He was admitted into the French 
 Academy, on the same day as Racine and Flechier, in 
 1673. He was a favourite protege! of Colbert. After 
 the death of Colbert he became keeper of the Royal 
 
 Library, and professor of Greek in the 'College Royal. 
 Died in 1707. 
 
 See Morbri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" Sabatihr, " Les troi» 
 Siecles de la Litterature;" "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 GalloiB, (Jean Antoine Gauvain — go'v&N',) a poli- 
 tician, born in Paris in 1755. In 1802 he was president 
 of the Tribunate, after the dissolution of which he passed 
 into the legislative body. In 1 813 he was a member 
 of the commission to which the negotiations with the 
 allied powers were referred. He translated from the 
 Italian a treatise on the " Science of Legislation," by 
 Filangieri, (1786-91,) and wrote some fugitive poems. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 Gallois, (Julian Jean C£sar.) See Legallois. 
 
 Gallois, (Leonard Joseph Orbain Napoleon,) a 
 son of Charles Andre Gustave Leonard, was born at 
 Foix in 1815. He edited several political journals, and 
 wrote a "Life of Ledru Rollin," (1849.) 
 
 Gallois, (Pierre,) a French bibliographer, born in 
 Paris, published "Academic Conversations," (2 vols., 
 1674.) 
 
 Galloni, gal-lo'nee, or Gallonio, gal-lo'ne-o, (An- 
 tonio,) a learned Italian priest, born in Rome, published 
 a " Treatise on Instruments of Torture or Martyrdom," 
 ("De Martyrum Cruciatibus," 1594,) and a "Life of 
 Saint Philip de Neri," (1602.) Died in 1605. 
 
 Galloway, Earl of. See Galway. 
 
 Gal'lo-way, (Joseph,) an American lawyer, born 
 in Maryland about 1730, practised with distinction in 
 Philadelphia. He became in 1774 a delegate to the 
 Continental Congress, in which he took a prominent 
 part and opposed the independence of the colonies. He 
 removed to England in 1778. Died in 1803. 
 
 Galluoci, gal-loot'chee, (Giovanni Paolo,) an Italian 
 astronomer, born at Salo, near Brescia, about 1550. He 
 was one of the first members of the Academy founded 
 at Venice in 1593. He published, besides other works, 
 a "Theatre of the World and Time," ("Theatrum Mundi 
 et Temporis," 1589,) which treats partly of astrology, and 
 "Speculum Uranicum," (1593.) 
 
 Gallucci, (Tarquinio.) See Galluzzi. 
 
 Galluccio, gal-loot'cho, (Angelo,) an Italian Jesuit, 
 born at Macerata in 1593, was professor of rhetoric at 
 Rome, and published " De Bello Belgico," a History of 
 the War in the Low Countries from 1593 to 1609, (2 
 vols., 1671.) Died in 1674. 
 
 Gal'lup, (Joseph Adam,) an American physician and 
 author, born in Stonington, Connecticut, in 1769. In 
 1827 he established at Woodstock a clinical school of 
 medicine, which in 1835 was incorporated as the Ver- 
 mont Medical College. He published "Outlines of the 
 Institutes of Medicine," (1839.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Galluppi, (Baldassare.) See Galltpi. 
 
 Galluppi, gal-loop'pee, or Galuppi, ga-loop'pee, 
 (Pasquale,) an Italian metaphysical philosopher, born 
 at Tropea, Calabria, in 1770, was professor of philosophy 
 at Naples, and an adversary of skepticism. His "Ele- 
 ments of Philosophy" (4 vols., 1832) passed through 
 many editions. He also wrote "The Philosophy of the 
 Will," (4 vols., 1835-42,) and other works. Died in 1846. 
 
 See Carlo Maria Curci, " Elogio di P. Galluppi," 1847. 
 
 Gal'lus, (^Elius,) an eminent Roman jurist, who was 
 a contemporary of Cicero. He wrote a treatise "On 
 the Signification of Terms which pertain to the Civil 
 Law," an extract from which is found in the " Digest." 
 According to Lachmann, he was the same person that 
 was prefect of Egypt in 25 B.C. 
 
 Gallus, (^Elius,) a Roman general, who was prefect of 
 Egypt in 25 and 24 B.C., and was the first who penetrated 
 Arabia with a Roman army, (23 B.C.) The expedition 
 failed, in consequence, partly, of the treachery of Syl- 
 lseus, an Arabian who was the guide of the Roman 
 army. Strabo obtained from him new information in 
 geography, and wrote an account of the expedition. 
 
 Gallus, (Caius Aquilius,) an eminent Roman lawyer 
 and judge, noted for learning and integrity, became prsetor 
 in 66 B.C. He was a friend of Cicero, who esteemed 
 him highly and paid him a handsome compliment in his 
 oration for Csecina. He was the author of a formula 
 " De Dolo Malo," and effected some important legal 
 reforms. His works have not come down to us. 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GALL US 
 
 99° 
 
 GALVEZ 
 
 Gallus, (Caius Asinius,) a Roman politician, was a 
 son of C. Asinius Pollio. He became consul in 8 is.c., 
 and married Vipsania, the repudiated wife of Tiberius, 
 who hated him for that reason and for his freedom 111 
 expressing his mind. He was committed to prison by 
 Tiberius in 30 A.D., and died in confinement about the 
 year 33. He wrote a book called a " Comparison between 
 my Father and Cicero," which is not extant. 
 
 See J. G. Heineccius, "Oratio de C. A. Gallo," (about 1730.) 
 
 Gallus, (Caius Cornelius,) an eminent Roman poet 
 and courtier, was born at Forum Julii (Frejus) about 
 66 B.C. He served in the army under Octavius, who 
 received him into his favour and confidence and gave 
 him a high command in the war against Antony. After 
 the death of Antony, about 30 B.C., Augustus appointed 
 Gallus Governor of Egypt, which he ruled at first with 
 success. But afterwards, being accused of oppression 
 and peculation, he was condemned to perpetual banish- 
 ment, and killed himself in 25 or 26 B.C. His Elegies, 
 which were much admired, are all lost. Like his friend 
 Maecenas, he patronized literary men, especially Virgil, 
 who was his intimate friend, and who has gracefully 
 commemorated his name and merit in his sixth and 
 tenth eclogues. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, books 1., liii. ; Quintilian, books i., x. ; 
 Suetonius, "De illustribusGrammaticis;" Voi.ker, " Commentatio 
 de C. C. Galli Vita et Scriptis," 1840-44; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^neVale." 
 
 Gallus, (Caius Sulpicius,) a Roman astronomer and 
 orator, was chosen consul for 166 B.C. He was eminent 
 as an orator and a Greek scholar, and appears to have 
 been one of the most remarkable men of his time. He 
 is regarded as the earliest of Roman astronomers. The 
 occurrence of an eclipse of the moon, at the hour which 
 he predicted, on the eve of the battle of Pydna, 168 
 B.C., excited the admiration and raised the spirits of the 
 army in which he then served as tribune. He is highly 
 eulogized by Cicero. 
 
 See Livv, " History of Rome," books xliii., xliv., andxlv. ; Cicero, 
 "Brutus," " De Republica," " De Senectute," and " De Officiis." 
 
 Gallus, (Caius Vibius Trebonianus,) a Roman em- 
 peror, born, it is supposed, in the isle of Gerba, on the 
 coast of Africa, about 205 a.d. He succeeded Decius 
 in 251, with Hostilian as his colleague, and purchased a 
 disgraceful peace with the Goths by an annual tribute. 
 The empire was soon invaded by other hordes of bar- 
 barians, who were defeated by jEmilian. The victor 
 having been proclaimed emperor by his army, Gallus 
 marched against him ; but, before the armies met, he 
 was killed by his own troops, in 253 a.d. He was gen- 
 erally unpopular and despised. 
 
 See Tillemont, " Histoire des Empereurs." 
 
 Gallus, (Cestius,) a Roman general, became Gov- 
 ernor of Syria in 64 A.D. The Jews having rebelled in 
 the year 65, he besieged Jerusalem, but failed to take it. 
 
 Gallus, (Flavi us Claudius Constantius,) a nephew 
 of Constantine the Great, was born about 325 a.d. In 
 351 the Roman emperor Constantius gave to him his 
 sister Constantina in marriage, and raised him to the 
 rank of Caesar, with the command of the Eastern prov- 
 inces. But he soon disgraced himself by his cruelty and 
 tyranny, for which he was recalled and executed in 354 
 A.D. He was a half-brother of the emperor Julian. 
 
 Gallus, (Servatius.) See Galle. 
 
 Gallus or Gallo, (Thomas,) a French monk, was one 
 of the most eminent theologians of his time, and became 
 abbe of Vercelli, where he founded a famous school. 
 He translated from the Greek a work on mystic theology 
 ascribed to Dionysius Areopagita. Died 111 1246. 
 
 Galluzzi, gal-loot'see, or Gallucci, gal-loot'chee, 
 (Tarquinio,) an Italian Jesuit and poet, born in 1574, 
 professed rhetoric and morality at Rome, and was emi- 
 nent as a pulpit orator. He published a volume of 
 poems, "Carmina," (1611,) another of Latin orations, 
 (1617,) and "Vindications of Virgil," (" Virgilianas Vin- 
 dicationes," 1621.) Died in 1649. 
 
 Gal'ljf, (Henry,) an English divine, born at Beck- 
 enham, in Kent, in 1696. He translated from the Greek 
 the "Characters" of Theophrastus, (1725,) and wrote, 
 besides other works, an " Essay on Clandestine Mar- 
 riages," (1750.) In 1735 ne became chaplain-in-ordinary 
 to the king. Died in 1769. 
 
 Gait, (John,) a Scottish author, born at Irvine in May, 
 1779. He became a resident of London about 1803, 
 engaged in trade, and failed. He travelled in the south 
 of Europe in 1809-11, after which he published "Let- 
 ters from the Levant," (1813,) several biographies, and 
 a volume of tragedies, which were not successful. In 
 1820 his " Ayrshire Legatees" appeared in " Blackwood's 
 Magazine." This was more popular than his previous 
 efforts, and was followed by "Annals of the Parish," 
 (1821,) and other tales illustrative of Scottish life. Be- 
 tween 1826 and 1829 he spent two or three years in 
 Canada, as agent of a land-company ; but, though not defi- 
 cient in energy and integrity, he did not succeed in pecu- 
 niary affairs, and returned to England insolvent. Among 
 his numerous works are a " Life of Lord Byron," (1830,) 
 "Lawrie Todd," (1830,) "The Provost," (1822,) and 
 other novels. Many of his tales are entertaining, and 
 characterized by rough good sense and a quaintness of 
 expression. He also wrote his Autobiography, (2 vols., 
 1833.) He died at Greenock in 1839. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 W. Jerdan, " Men I have known," London, 1866. 
 
 Galuppi, ga-loop'pee, (Baldassare,) a famous Ital- 
 ian composer, was born in 1703, in Burano, (whence he 
 was called Buranel'lo,) an island near Venice. He 
 composed many operas, and some sacred music, and has 
 been called the father of the Italian comic opera. Died 
 at Venice in 1785. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Galuppi, (Pasquale.) See Galluppi. 
 
 Galuzzi, ga-loot'see, (Riguccio, re-goot'cho,) an Ital- 
 ian historian and priest, born at Volterra in 1730, pub- 
 lished a " History of Tuscany under the Rule of the 
 House of Medici, from 1569 to 1737. Died in 1801. 
 
 Galvam or GalvSo, gll-vowN', (Antonio,) an emi- 
 nent Portuguese captain, son of Duarte, noticed below, 
 was born about 1502. He was appointed Governor of the 
 Moluccas in 1538. He subdued several chiefs by arms, 
 and governed that region with ability. It is stated that 
 he converted many natives to the Catholic faith, and 
 refused the offer of sovereignty in the Moluccas. He 
 was recalled about 1545, and died in 1557, leaving a valu- 
 able work "On the Discoveries, Ancient and Modern, 
 in India," (1563.) His exploits are highly extolled by 
 the Portuguese historians. 
 
 See J0S0 Barros, "Asia, Decada IV;" Faria v Souza, "Asia 
 Portugueza ;" La Cledh, " Histoire de Portugal." 
 
 Galvam or Galvao, (Duarte,) a learned Portuguese 
 historian, born at Evora about 1435, became secretary 
 to John II., and ambassador to Rome, France, etc. He 
 edited, revised, or continued the "Chronicles of Por- 
 tugal" written by Lopez. Died in 1517. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Galvani, gll-va'nee, (Aloisio,) an eminent Italian, 
 physician, and physiologist, born in 1737 at Bologna, 
 where he became professor of anatomy in 1762. He 
 composed valuable treatises "On the Kidneys and 
 Ureters of Birds," ("De Renibus atque Ureteribus 
 Volatilium,") and "On the Organs of Hearing in 
 Birds," ("De Aure Volatilium.") His durable repu- 
 tation is founded on the accidental discovery of the phe- 
 nomena since called from his name Galvanism, which 
 he announced in his "Commentary on the Power (or 
 Effect) of Electricity on Muscular Motion," (" De Viribus 
 Electricitatis in Motu musculari Commentarius," 1791.) 
 These phenomena were first observed in some dead 
 frogs, which had been procured as aliment for his in- 
 valid wife. While they were lying on the table near the 
 conductor of an electrical machine, their muscles were 
 convulsed by accidental contact with a scalpel. Galvani 
 explained this fact by the theory that all animals have 
 electricity inherent in their economy, especially in the 
 nerves and muscles. (See Volta.) Having refused to 
 take an oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine republic, 1797, 
 he lost his chair at Bologna, but was restored a short 
 time before his death, which occurred in December, 1798. 
 
 See Alibert, " E"loge de Galvani," Paris, 1806; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Galvez.gal'vSth, (Don Bernardo,) Count, a nephew 
 of Jose, noticed below, was born at Malaga in 1756. 
 About 1780 he was appointed Governor of Louisiana, 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; 1, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; n5t; good; moon; 
 
GALVEZ 
 
 991 
 
 CAMBACORTI 
 
 made a successful campaign against the English in 
 Florida, and took Pensacola in 1781. Soon after this 
 he became Viceroy of Mexico, which he governed with 
 credit until his death, in 1794. 
 
 Galvez, (Don Jose,) a Spanish statesman and lawyer, 
 born at Velez-Malaga in 1729. After gaining some 
 distinction by his eloquence, he was employed as con- 
 fidential secretary by Grimalcli, the prime minister. In 
 1764 Charles III. appointed him a member of the Coun- 
 cil of the Indies, and in 1 771 sent him to Mexico to 
 settle a difficulty between the viceroy and the Audiencia 
 or supreme tribunal. Upon his return, about 1775, he 
 obtained the place of minister of the Indies, the most 
 important office in the kingdom, next to that of prime 
 minister. He directed the affairs of the colonies with 
 ability, and received the title of Marquis of Sonora. 
 Died in 1786. 
 
 See Coxe, *' Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of 
 Bourbon," 1S13. 
 
 Galvez de Montalvo, gal'vSth da mon-tll'vo, 
 (Luis,) a popular Spanish poet, born at Guadalaxara in 
 1549, was a friend of Cervantes. In 1582 he published 
 a pastoral romance called the " Pastor de Filida," in 
 prose and verse, which was admired for its richness of 
 imagery and purity of style. He wrote also " The Tears 
 of Saint Peter," (1587.) He is praised by Lope de Vega 
 in his " Laurel of Apollo." He took the monastic vows 
 in the latter part of his life. Died at Palermo in 1610. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" N. Antonio, 
 " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Gal'way or Gal'lo-way, (Henry,) Lord, Marquis 
 de Ruvigny, (ru'ven'ye',) was born in France in 1647. 
 Proscribed as a Protestant, he retired to England about 
 1685, and was made Earl of Galway for his services in 
 Ireland in 1691. In the war of the Spanish succession, 
 he commanded the English and allies, who captured 
 Madrid in June, 1706. Having been appointed gene- 
 ral-in-chief in place of Lord Peterborough, he joined 
 battle with the French at Almanza, (1707,) where he was 
 wounded and defeated with great loss. He was again 
 defeated at Gudina in 1709, and soon after recalled from 
 the command for his ill success. In 1 715 he acted as 
 lord justiciary of Ireland. Died in 1720. 
 
 Gama, ga'ma, (Antonio de Leon y — da li'on' e,) 
 an astronomer and geographer, born at Mexico about 
 1735. Without the aid of teachers, he made great pro- 
 gress in astronomy. He published "Memoirs on the 
 Satellites of Jupiter," "On the Almanac and Chronology 
 of the Ancient Mexicans," and on the "Climate of New 
 Spain," which are commended by Humboldt and Pres- 
 cott. Died about 1800. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i. 
 book i. 
 
 Gama, (Joanna,) a Portuguese poetess, born in 1 515, 
 wrote religious poems, sonnets, etc. Died in 1586. 
 
 Gama, da, da ga'ma, (ChristovXo,) a Portuguese 
 captain, was the son of Vasco, the admiral. He served 
 under his brother Estevao in the East Indies in 1540, 
 and commanded a small army sent to aid the King of 
 Abyssinia, where he was taken prisoner and killed by 
 the Moors in 1542. 
 
 Gama, da, (EstevSo,) the son of Vasco, was also 
 noted as a naval commander. In 1536 he was appointed 
 Governor of Malacca, and in 1540 Viceroy of India, which 
 he ruled with ability. In the course of a war with the 
 Turks, he explored the Red Sea, of which one of his 
 officers wrote a description, the first that had been made 
 by a European. Gama returned to Portugal in 1542. 
 
 Another EstevXo, brother of Vasco, commanded a 
 division of five ships in the expedition of 1502. 
 
 Gama, da, (Fii.ippo Jozk,) a Portuguese poet and 
 scholar, born in Lisbon in 1713 ; died in 1742. 
 
 Gama, da, (Joze Basilio,) a Brazilian poet, born In 
 Minas Geraes in 1740. He became a resident of Lisbon, 
 and was patronized by the minister Pombal. His prin- 
 cipal poem, entitled "O Uruguay," (1769,) has been often 
 reprinted. Died in Lisbon in 1795. 
 
 Gama, da, (Vasco,) (commonly, but less correctly, 
 ■•ailed Vasco de Gama— da ga'ma,) a celebrated Por- 
 tuguese navigator, born at Sines. The date of his birth 
 and the details of his private life are unknown. He ac- 
 
 quired celebrity as commander of the fleet which in 1497 
 Emanuel of Portugal sent to India, being the first that 
 performed the voyage from Europe to that remote region 
 by doubling the Cape of Good Hope. He sailed from 
 Lisbon on the 8th of July, with three small vessels and 
 one hundred and sixty men. After doubling the cape, 
 he sailed along the eastern coast, landed at Mozambique 
 and Melinda, at the latter of which he procured a skilful 
 pilot, and arrived at Calicut on the 20th of May, 1498. 
 He went on shore with a few men, had an interview with 
 the native prince, but failed to negotiate a treaty, in con- 
 sequence of the jealousy of the Moors, and returned to 
 Lisbon in September, 1499. The discovery of this route 
 was an important era in commercial history, diverting 
 into a new channel the Indian trade, which had before 
 passed through the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. 
 This enterprise of Gama forms the subject of Camoens's 
 "Lusiad." In 1502, Vasco was sent out to India with a 
 larger fleet, and, having cannonaded Calicut in retalia- 
 tion for some injuries, established a factory at Cochin. 
 Returning home in December, 1503, he was received 
 with great honour, and rewarded with the title of count. 
 In 1524, after a repose of twenty years, he was appointed 
 Viceroy of India. He died in Cochin in 1524. 
 
 See Barros, "Decadas;" Lafitau, "Histotre cles De'convertes 
 des Fortugais," etc.; Faria y Souza, "Asia Portugueza ;" Ker- 
 nAo Lopkz de Castanheda, " Historia do Descobnmento e Con- 
 quista da India," 1551 ; Ferdinand Denis, "Portugal." 
 
 Gama, de, (Vasco.) See Gama, da. 
 
 Gamaches.gS'mtsh', (Etienne,) an agreeable French 
 writer, born at Meulan in 1672, was a canon regular. 
 He published, under the name of Clarigny, a metaphys- 
 ical work, called "System of the Heart," (" Systeme du 
 Cceur," 1704,) which is commended. He wrote other 
 works, among which are "The Elegancies of Language 
 reduced to their Principles," ( 1 7 1 8, ) and "Physical 
 Astronomy," (1740.) Died in 1756. 
 
 See Sabatier, " Les trois Siecles de la Literature." 
 
 Gamaches, de, deh gt'mtsh', (Joachim Rouault — 
 roo'6',) a French officer, born in Poitou, fought against 
 the English about 1450. In 1461 Louis XI. made him 
 a marshal of Fiance. Died in 1478. 
 
 Gamaches, de, (Philippe,) a doctor of the Sorbonne, 
 and one of the best French Catholic theologians of his 
 time, was born in 1568. He became professor of theology 
 in Paris in 1598, and wrote an excellent commentary on 
 Saint Thomas, called " Theologia scholastica speculativa 
 practica," (1627.) Died in 1625. 
 
 See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Ga-ma'11-el, [Heb. IX'IOJ,] a Pharisee and eminent 
 Jewish doctor, lived at Jerusalem in the first century. 
 He was a member of the Sanhedrim, the preceptor 
 of Saint Paul, (see Acts xxii. 3,) and, according to the 
 Talmud, was a grandson of the celebrated Hillel. His 
 moderation and prudence are shown by a brief speech 
 recorded in Acts v. 34-39. Died about 88 a.d. 
 
 Gamba, gam'ba, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian biogra- 
 pher, born at Bassano in 1766. He became a member 
 of the Academy of Florence. He published, besides 
 other works, "Narrazione de' Bassanesi illustri," (1807,) 
 a." Gallery of the Literati and Artists of the Venetian 
 Provinces in the Eighteenth Century," (1824,) and a 
 "Life of Dante," (1825,) a work of recognized merit. 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 See Bartolommeo Gamba, " Narrazione della Vita e delle Opere 
 di lui," 1X41 ; Antonio Nbymayr, " Memoria dt B. Gamba," 
 Venice, 1846; Tipaldo, " Bingrafia degli ItalUni illustri." 
 
 Gamba, giN'bt', (Jacques Francois,) a French 
 traveller, born at Dunkirk in 1763, published "Travels 
 in Southern Russia, Georgia," etc., (1824.) Died in 1833. 
 
 Gamba, (Pietro,) Count, brother of the countess 
 Guiccioli, was born at Ravenna, in Italy, in 1801. He 
 accompanied Lord Byron to Greece, and fought with 
 distinction for the liberty of the Greeks. He published 
 a " Narrative of Lord Byron's Last Journey to Greece," 
 (1825.) Died in Greece in 1826. 
 
 Gambacorti, gam-bl-koR'tee, the name of an Italian 
 family who held the chief power in Pisa between 1348 
 and 1406. Andrea became chief magistrate in 1348, 
 and died about 1354. Francesco, his successor, was 
 beheaded by the emperor Charles IV. in 1355, when the 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; % hard; g as>; G, H, K,gvtturai; N, nasal; R, Irilltd; 3 as •; th as in this. (Jty See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GAM BAR A 
 
 992 
 
 GANILH 
 
 other members of the family were exiled. Pietro, the 
 nephew of Francesco, directed the republic with wisdom, 
 moderation, and ability from 1369 to 1392, and waged 
 war against the pope, (1376.) He was assassinated in 
 1392. Giovanni, a nephew of Pietro, and the last of 
 the family, surrendered Pisa, after a long siege, to the 
 Florentines in 1406. This was regarded by the citizens 
 of Pisa as an act of treachery. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Gambara, gam-ba'ra, (Giovanni Francesco,) 
 Count, an Italian writer, born near Piacenza in 1771. 
 He served in the French armies as a colonel about 
 1805-08. He wrote "The League of Cambray," a 
 poem, (1825,) and several dramas. Died in 1848. 
 
 Gambara, (Lattanzio,) an eminent Italian painter, 
 born at Brescia in 1 541, adorned the churches of Cre- 
 mona, Brescia, and Parma with frescos. He was killed 
 by a fall in 1574. 
 
 Gambara, (Lorenzo,) a Latin poet, born at Brescia 
 about 1500. He was attached to Cardinal Farnese, in 
 whose house he lived for a long time in Rome. Among 
 his principal Latin poems, which were praised by Paul 
 Manutius and Justus Lipsius, is "Columbus, or the 
 Discovery of the New World." The first edition of 
 his works appeared in 1555. Died in 1596. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Gambara, (Veronica,) a noble Italian lady, born 
 at Pralboino, near Brescia, in 1485, was the daughter 
 of Count Gambara, and was eminent for her poetical 
 talents and her attainments in Latin and philosophy. 
 In 150S she was married to Giberto, Lord of Correggio. 
 She wfote admired sonnets and letters. Died in 1550. 
 
 See Rizzardi, "Rime, Lettere e Vita di F. Gambara." 1769: 
 Tiraborchi, " Storia della Letteratura Italians ;" Zamboni, "Vita 
 di V. Gambara," 1759. 
 
 Gambart, go.N'baV, (Jean Felix Adoi.phe,) a 
 French astronomer, born in Cette in 1800. He became 
 director of the Observatory of Marseilles in 1822, and 
 discovered many comets. Died in 1836. 
 
 See F. D. Arago, " Notice sur M. Gambart," 1836. 
 
 Gamberelli, gam-ba-rel'lee, (Bernardo,) an able 
 Florentine architect and sculptor, born about 1410. He 
 was patronized by Pope Nicholas V., and restored, be- 
 sides other churches of Rome, San Pietro-in-Vincoli and 
 San Giovanni Laterano. Died in 1490. 
 
 Gambey, goN'b^', (Henri Prudence,) a skilful 
 French mechanician, who excelled in the fabrication of 
 astronomical instruments, was born at Troves in 17S7. 
 He invented a heliostat. In 1837 he was admitted into 
 the Academy of Sciences. Died in Paris in 1847. 
 
 See Arago, "Notice de Gambey," in the "Annuaire du Bureau 
 des Longitudes," i8s». 
 
 Gambier, gam'beer, (James,) Baron, an English ad- 
 miral, born in one of the Bahama Isles in 1756, entered 
 the navy when young, and served in the American war 
 at the capture of Charleston, South Carolina, and other 
 places. In 1793 he contributed to Lord Howe's victory 
 over the French. He was made a rear-admiral in 1795, 
 and vice-admiral in 1799. In 1802 he was appointed Gov- 
 ernor of Newfoundland. Having been raised to the rank 
 of admiral, he commanded the fleet which bombarded 
 Copenhagen in 1807 and captured the Danish fleet. For 
 this exploit he was raised to the peerage as a baron. 
 In 1808 he quitted the admiralty, to take command of 
 the Channel fleet against the French, from whom he 
 took several ships. He was one of the commissioners 
 who negotiated a treaty of peace between England and 
 the United States, at Ghent, in 1814. He obtained the 
 rank of admiral of the fleet in 1830. Died in 1S33. 
 
 See Van Tenac, " Histoire g^neVale de !a Marine." 
 
 Gam'bold, (John,) a learned English Moravian 
 divine, born in South Wales about 1710. He was for 
 many years minister of the Moravian church in Lon- 
 don, and was chosen a bishop in 1754. He published 
 an edition of the Greek Testament, (1742,) "Hymns 
 for the Use of the Brethren," (1748,) a " Short Summary 
 of Christian Doctrine," (1767,) and other works. He 
 had a high reputation for piety and talents. Died at 
 Haverford West in 1771. 
 
 See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century." 
 
 Gamelia, a surname of Juno, which see. 
 
 Gamelin, gtm'laN', (Jacques,) a French historical 
 painter, born at Carcassonne in 1739; died in 1803. 
 
 Gamelius, a surname of Jupiter, which see. 
 
 Gam'mel, (William,) an American writer, born at 
 Medfield, Massachusetts, in 1812. He graduated at 
 Brown University in 1831, and was appointed professor 
 of rhetoric in that institution in 1836, and of history 
 and political economy in 1850. He also made nume- 
 rous contributions to reviews, and wrote the Life of 
 Roger Williams, and that of Governor Samuel Ward, in 
 Sparks's "American Biography," and other works. 
 
 Gamon, g4'm6N', (Christophe,) a French poet, born 
 at Annonay about 1575, wrote "The Week, or Creation 
 of the World," (1609,) a poem, in which he explains and 
 maintains the Copernican system. Died in 1621. 
 
 Gamon, (Francois Joseph,) a French poet, born 
 about 1763. In 1792 he was a Girondist member of the 
 Convention. Died in 1832. 
 
 Gamperlin. See Graf. 
 
 Gaud, (or Ghent,) Henry of. See Goethals. 
 
 Gaud-har'va, [Hindoo pron. gfind-hur'va,] some- 
 times written Gandharba. In the Hindoo mythology, 
 the Gandharvas are celestial musicians, who live in 
 Swerga, (the heaven of Indra,) or else attend on the 
 superior gods, as Siva, Krishna, (Vishnu,) etc. 
 
 Gandini, gan-dee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Brescia about 1550; died in 1630. 
 
 Gandini, (Giorgio,) or Giorgio del Grano, an 
 Italian painter, born at Parma, was a pupil of Correggio. 
 Died about 1538. 
 
 Gando, gON'do', (Nicolas,) a skilful type-founder, 
 was born at Geneva, and lived in Paris. He made im- 
 provements in the printing of music. Died about 1767. 
 
 Gandolfi, gan-dol'fee, (Bartolommeo,) born atTor- 
 ria, in Italy, in 1753, was P r °fessor of natural philosophy 
 in the College di Sapienza at Rome from 1792 to 1824. 
 He published, besides other useful works, a treatise on 
 Earthquakes, (1787.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Gandolfi, (Gaetano,) an able Italian historical 
 painter and engraver, born in the province of Bologna in 
 1 734, was professor in the school of Bologna. The Italians 
 regarded him as one of the first artists of his time. His 
 works are admired for correctness of design, gracefulness 
 of expression, and harmony of dair-obscur. Died in iSo2. 
 
 See Grilu, " Elogio di Gandolfi;" Malvasia, "Felsina pit- 
 trice;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Gandolfi, (Mauro,) a skilful engraver and painter, a 
 son of the preceding, died in 1834. 
 
 Gandolfi, (Ubaldo,) a painter, brother of Gaetano, 
 noticed above, was born in 1728; died in 1781. 
 
 Gandolfo, gan-dol'fo, (Domenico Antonio,) an Au- 
 gustine monk, born at Vintimiglia about 1645, wrote 
 memoirs of eminent writers who belonged to the order 
 of Augustines, (1704.) Died in 1707. 
 
 Gaii'don, (James,) an English architect, born about 
 1742. He studied under Sir William Chambers, and 
 won the first gold medal for architecture ever awarded 
 by the Royal Academy. He acquired a high reputation 
 by erecting public buildings in Dublin, among which is 
 the Custom-House, (finished in 1791,) one of the finest 
 structures of its class in the world. He edited the "Vi- 
 truvius Britannicus," (3 vols., 1767-71.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Gan'djp, (James,) an English portrait-painter, born in 
 1619, \vas an imitator of Van Dyck. Died in 1689. 
 
 Gandsa, ga-na'sa, written also Ganeca and Gan©- 
 sha, in the Hindoo mythology, the god of prudence and 
 policy, is said to be tlie eldest son of Siva and Parvati. 
 He is represented with an elephant's head and trunk, a 
 symbol of sagacity. He is identified by some writers 
 with the Roman Janus, (which see.) He is sometimes 
 called PoLLEAR. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Ganga. See ParvatI. 
 
 Ganganelli. See Clement XIV. 
 
 Ganilh, gft'nel' or gS'ne^yj, (Charles,) a French 
 writer and lawyer, was born at Allanche (Cantal) in 
 1758. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies 
 from 1815 to 1823. He wrote " The Theory of Political 
 Economy founded on Facts," (2 vols., 1815-22,) and 
 other works. Died in 1836. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit, met; not; good; moon; 
 
GANNAL 
 
 993 
 
 GARCAO 
 
 Oannal, gfnil', (Jkan Nicolas,) a French chemist 
 and inventor, born at Sarre-Louis in 1791. He became 
 about 1816 assistant of Thenard in his lectures in Paris. 
 He invented a process for refining borax, an elastic 
 roller for printing-presses, and a process for embalming 
 dead bodies by injection, for which he received the 
 Montyon prize of the Institute, about 1835. Died in 1852. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 Gan'nett, (Ezra Stiles,) an American Unitarian 
 divine, born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1S01. He 
 graduated at Harvard College in 1820, was ordained in 
 1824, and subsequently became the colleague of Dr. 
 Charming, after whose death he succeeded to the pastoral 
 charge of the Federal Street Church in Boston. He 
 was for some years associate editor of the "Christian 
 Examiner." Mr. Gannett holds a prominent place 
 among the conservative Unitarians of New England. 
 
 Gans, ginss, (Eduard,) an eminent German jurist, of 
 Jewish extraction, born in Berlin in 1798. He studied 
 under Hegel and Thibaut at Heidelberg, and became an 
 earnest advocate of the philosophical, as opposed to the 
 historical, school of jurisprudence. In 1820 he pub- 
 lished his "Scholia on Gaius," ("Scholien zum Gajus,") 
 in which his views are ably set forth, and which caused 
 much excitement among his opponents. He brought 
 out in 1824 his " Law of Succession in its Historical De- 
 velopment," esteemed one of the most admirable works 
 of the kind. Soon after this he was appointed professor 
 of law at Berlin, where he obtained the highest reputa- 
 tion and success as a lecturer. His "Lectures on the 
 History of Modern Times" were afterwards published, 
 and are regarded as models of eloquence, wit, and erudi- 
 tion. Among his other works we may name " Retrospect 
 on Persons and Conditions," (1836,) and "The Basis of 
 Possession," (1839.) Died in Berlin in 1839. 
 
 See Marhrinhke, "Rede am Grabe des Professor Dr. Gans." 
 1839; Saint-Marc Girardin, " fidouard Gans," in the "Revue 
 d.:s Deux Mondes" for December 1, 1839; "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale." 
 
 Gansevoort, ginss'voort, (Peter,) an American 
 officer, born at Albany, New York, in 1749. He de- 
 fended Fort Stanwix with success in 1777 during a siege 
 of twenty days, for which important service he received 
 the thanks of Congress. In 1809 he became a brigadier- 
 general in the United States army. Died in 1812. 
 
 Ganteaume, g&N'tom', (Hon'ore Joseph.) Count, 
 a French naval officer, born at La Ciotat in i7ee. After • 
 
 serving in the American war (, 779 ) and in the East n Aragonm 760. was called the Necker «.f Spam. 
 Indies, he obtained the rank of captain in 1794. In I79 8 ''? "r ™"" st " of finance about 1814, and proposed a 
 he was wounded at the battle of Aboukir, and became a P 'T] fi " a " c,al reform which gave much offence to the 
 
 quence awarded by the French Academy between l 77 9 
 and l 7 84. In 1790 he became a member of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly, of which he reported the proceedings 
 in the "Journal de Paris." He succeeded Danton in 
 1792 as minister of justice, in which capacity it devolved 
 on him to notify Louis XVI. that the Convention had 
 sentenced him to death. He expressed his repugnance 
 to this "frightful commission." He was minister of the 
 interior for a short time in 1793, and was admitted into 
 the Institute in 1795. Under the regime of Napoleon 
 he became a senator, a count, and president of the In- 
 stitute. Garat was excluded from office and from the 
 Academy on the restoration of 1815. Besides many 
 political treatises, he wrote "Memoirs of the Life of 
 M. Suard," (1820.) Died in 1833. 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" Armand 
 Marrast, "Notice sur D. J. Garat," 183S ; Villenave, "Notice 
 sur la Vie de D. J. Garat ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Garat, (Pierre Jean,) a celebrated vocalist, nephew 
 of the preceding, was born at Ustarits in 1764. He was 
 styled "the Modern Orpheus," "the Musical Proteus," 
 etc. Died in 1823. 
 
 Garavaglia, ga-ra-val'ya, (Giovita,) a skilful Italian 
 engraver, born at Pavia in 1790. He engraved "The 
 Holy Family," after Raphael, (1817,) "Beatrice Cenci," 
 after Guido Reni, "The Infant Jesus with John," after 
 C. Maratta, and other works. He became a professor 
 in the Academy of Florence in 1833. Died in 1835. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Garay. See Lagaraye. 
 
 Garay, [Hun. pron. gor'oi,] (JAnos,) a popular Hun- 
 garian poet, born at Szekszard in 181 2. He wrote 
 "Csatar," (1834,) a heroic poem, "Elizabeth Bathory," 
 a drama, (1840,) a volume of lyric verses called "The 
 Pearls of Balaton Lake," (1843,) which were received 
 with favour, and several popular ballads. Died in 1853. ' 
 
 Garay, de, da ga-rl', (Juan,) a Spanish general, born 
 at Badajos in 1541. He went to South America in his 
 youth, fought with distinction against the natives, ex- 
 plored a vast region on the Parana, and was appointed 
 a lieutenant-general about 1576. He founded Buenos 
 Ayres in 1580, soon after which he was killed by some 
 savages who surprised him at night. 
 
 See Funks, "Ensayo del Historia civil del Paraguay,'.' etc., 
 Buenos Ayres, 1816. 
 
 Garay, de, (Don Martin,) a Spanish financier, born 
 
 He 
 
 rear-admiral, with the command of the fleet employed 
 on the coast of Egypt. He escorted Bonaparte from 
 Egypt to France with two frigates in 1799, and was ap- 
 pointed a councillor of state. In 1804 he was raised to 
 the grade of vice-admiral. Louis XVIII. made him a 
 peer in 1815. Died in 1818. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"neVaIe." 
 
 Gan-^-me'deS, in English Gan'^-mede, [Gr. Taim- 
 
 pjjfiiK; Fr. Ganymede, gi'ne'mid',] a personage of clas- 
 
 ivthology, represented as the son of Tros and the 
 
 cup-bearer of Jupiter, who selected him for that office 
 
 on account of his extraordinary beauty. 
 
 Gaoutama, the French of GAUTAMA, .which see. 
 
 Garamond, gS'rS'nioN', (Claude,) a celebrated en- 
 graver and type-founder, born in Paris. He surpassed 
 all his predecessors in the fabrication of types. Francis 
 I. employed him to engrave for editions'of ancient au- 
 thors the Greek characters since known by the name 
 of Garamond. Died in 1561. 
 
 Garampi, ga-rjm'pee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian anti- 
 quary and writer, bom at Rimini in 1725, was made a 
 cardinal by Pope Pius VI. Died in 1792. 
 
 Garasse, gS'iitss', (Francois,) a French Jesuit and 
 popular preacher, born at Angouleme in 1585, noted for 
 his scurrility and buffoonery, wrote many violent contro- 
 versial works, among which was "La Doctrine corieuse 
 des Beaux-Espiits de ce Temps," (1623.) Died in 1631. 
 
 Garat, ^it'rit', (DOMINIQUE JOSEPH,) a French revo 
 
 nobles and clergy. Died in 1822. 
 
 Gar'bett, (James,) an English theologian, born about 
 1773, was archdeacon of Chichester, and professor of 
 poetry at Oxford. Among his works are "Christ as 
 Prophet, Priest, and King; Eight Lectures at Hampton 
 Lecture," (1842,) and "The Beatitudes of the Mount, in 
 Seventeen Sermons," (1853.) Died in 1857. 
 
 Garbieri, gaR-be-a'ree, (Lorenzo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Bologna in 1580, was a pupil of L. Caracci.of whom 
 he is called one of the best imitators. He preferred 
 for his subjects scenes of carnage or sorrow. Among 
 his works is "The Plague at Milan." Died in 1654. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Malvasia, "Felsina 
 pittrice." 
 
 Garbo, del, del gaR'bo, (Dino,) a Florentine physi- 
 cian, was professor in the University of Bologna. He 
 was physician to the pope John XX II., and wrote 
 treatises on medicine. Died in 1327. 
 
 Garbo, del, (Raffaelino,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Florence in 1466. Among his best works is "The 
 Resurrection of Christ." Died in 1524. 
 
 GarcSo or Garcam, gaR-sowN% (Pedro Antonio 
 Correa — kor-ra'S,) a Portuguese lyric poet, called "the 
 Portuguese Horace, " was born in Lisbon in 1724, or. as 
 some say, 1735. tIe wr °'e sonnets, satires, and odes, 
 which are admired for good sense and elegant taste, and 
 is reputed the best lyric poet that Portugal produced 
 in the eighteenth century. He also wrote "Theatro 
 Novo," a drama. His complete works were published 
 in 1778. He died in 1772, in prison, where he was con- 
 
 lutionist and popular writer, was bom near Bavonne 
 
 in 1749. He gained literary distinction by his eulogies fined by Pombal for a reason which is not explained 
 
 o n Fontenelle and others, and took four prizes of elo- 1 See "Nouvelle Biog raphic Gene>ale." 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as t; th as in th 
 
 63 
 
 "• (Dy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GARCAO 
 
 994 
 
 GAR DANE 
 
 Garcao-Stockler, gaR-sowN' stok'ler, ? (Francisco 
 DE Borja,) a Portuguese mathematician, a nephew 
 of the preceding, was born at Lisbon in 1759. He 
 published an "Account of the True Principles of the 
 Method of Fluxions," ("Memoria sobre os verdadeiros 
 Principios do Methodo dos Fluxoes," 1797,) "Histo- 
 rical Essay on the Origin and Progress of Mathematics 
 in Portugal," (1819,) and other able works. He was 
 chosen Captain-General of the Azores in 1820. Died 
 in 1829. 
 
 Garces, gaR'thes, (Julian,) a Spanish bishop and 
 pulpit orator, born in Aragon about 1460, was appointed 
 chaplain to Charles V. and preacher to his court. In 
 1527 he was ordained Bishop of Tlascala, in Mexico. 
 He wrote an " Epistle to the Pope in Favour of the 
 Indians." Died about 1547. 
 
 Garcia or Garzia, gar-see'a or gaR-^ee'a, I., Count 
 of Castile, born at Burgos in 938 A.D., succeeded his 
 father, Fernando Gonzales, in 970. He defeated the 
 redoubtable Almansor at Osma in 984. The latter 
 having again invaded Castile in 990, Garcia gave him 
 battle, and received a mortal wound. He was reputed 
 a wise and just prince. 
 
 Garcia (or Garzia) II., Count of Castile, grandson 
 of the preceding, succeeded his father, Don Sancho, in 
 1022, at the age of fourteen. His virtues and talents 
 gave promise of a prosperous reign ; but he was as- 
 sassinated by the Counts of Vela, in the prime of life, 
 about 1030. 
 
 Garcia or Garzia, gaR-r/;ee'a, or Garcias, gaR- 
 tnee'&s, King of Navarre, born at Tudela in 958 A.D., 
 began to reign in 994. He was called "the Trembler," 
 because his frame was agitated just before battle, and 
 was the author of the saying, "My body trembles at 
 the dangers to which my courage is about to expose 
 it." In 998 Garcia and his allies defeated Almansor the 
 Saracen in the great battle of Calacanacor or Caltanazor. 
 Died in 1001. 
 
 Garcia, (Jose Hidalgo.) See Garzia. 
 
 Garcia, (or Garzia,) (Manuel,) an eminent teacher 
 of music, was born at Madrid in 1805. He became pro- 
 fessor of music in Paris and London, and wrote, besides 
 other musical treatises, " School of Garcia : Complete 
 Treatise on the Art of Singing," (" Ecole de Garcia : Traite 
 complet de l'Art du Chant," 1841.) The famous actress 
 and singer Pauline Viardot is his sister. 
 
 Garcia, (or Garzia,) (Manuel de Populo Vicente 
 — di po'poo-lo ve-thSn'ta,) a Spanish composer and 
 singer, born at Seville in 1775, was the father of the 
 preceding and of Madame Malibran. He lived many 
 years in Paris and London, where he taught music and 
 performed with great success on the stage. He com- 
 posed several successful operas, among which is "The 
 Caliph of Bagdad," (1812.) About 1825 he visited the 
 United States. Died in Paris in 1832. 
 
 Garcia, (Pauline.) See Viardot. 
 
 Garcia de Mascarenhas, gaR-see'a da mas-ka- 
 ren'yas, (Braz, or Blaise,) a Portuguese poet, born at 
 Avo in 1596. He enlisted in the army in 1614, went to 
 Brazil, and fought against the Dutch. He returned to 
 Lisbon in 1640, and was appointed Governor of Alfa- 
 yates, which he defended against the Spaniards. Having 
 been imprisoned on a false charge of conspiracy or trea- 
 son, he wrote a poetical letter to John IV., escaped from 
 prison, and obtained an interview with the king, who was 
 satisfied of his innocence and restored him to office. 
 His principal work is " Viriato," a national epic poem, 
 (1699,) which, says the "Biographic Universelle," "en- 
 titles him to rank among the best epic poets of Portugal 
 after Camoens." Died in 1656. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, " Bibliofheca Lusitana;" J. M. da 
 Costa e Sylva, " Ensaio biogranco-critico sobre os melhores Poetas 
 Portuguezes," 1854, vol. vii. 
 
 Garcia (or Garzia) de Paredes, gaR-Mee'a da pa- 
 ra'ijes, (Don Diego,) a brave Spanish officer, born at 
 Truxillo in 1466, served in the war against the Moors 
 which resulted in the conquest of Granada, and after- 
 wards, under Gonsalvo de C6rdova, against the French. 
 Like the Chevalier Bayard, to whom he is compared in 
 loyalty and honour, he never held very high positions, 
 though he had captured eight fortified places, besides 
 
 taking part in thirty-two battles and sieges. He distin 
 guished himself at Pavia in 1525. Died in 1530. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des RtSpubliques Italiennes ;" Guic- 
 ciardini, " Historia Bellorum Italia?;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge*ii^- 
 rale;" De Vargas, "Vida de D. Garzia de Paredes," 1621. 
 
 Garcias Laso. See Garcilaso. 
 
 Garcias y Matamoros, gaR-Mee'as e ma-ta-mo'ros, 
 (Ai.phonso,) a learned priest, born at Cordova, in Spain, 
 in 1490, left a single Latin work, " On the Academies 
 and Learned Men of Spain," (1553.) Died about 1550. 
 
 Garcilaso (or Garcilasso) de la Vega, gaR-Me- 
 la'so da la va'ga, (or Garcias Laso, gaR-rtee'as la'so,) 
 a Spanish poet of superior merit, born at Toledo in 1503. 
 His name is sometimes written Garsias Lasso. He 
 entered in early youth the army of Charles V., under 
 whom he made several campaigns, and distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Pavia, (1525.) He commanded 
 thirty companies of the Imperial army that invaded 
 France in 1536, and was mortally wounded in the retreat 
 from Marseilles. Died at Nice in November of that 
 year. He acquired a durable and wide reputation by 
 his pastoral and lyrical poems, and his successful efforts, 
 in concert with his friend Boscan, to reform Spanish 
 poetry by the introduction of the Italian measure, which 
 forms an epoch in the literary history of Spain. Garcilaso 
 excels in tenderness and pathos, and has been styled 
 "the Spanish Petrarch." His works, which are com- 
 prised in one small volume, (1553,) consist of above 
 thirty sonnets, three eclogues, and a number of odes 
 and elegies. His first eclogue, which many poets have 
 imitated but none has equalled, would alone suffice to 
 immortalize his name as that of one of the best poets 
 of Spain. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Literature of the South of Europe ;" Ticknor, 
 " History of Spanish Literature;" E. F. ue Navarrete, " Vida 
 del celebre Poeta Garcilaso de la Vega," 1850 ; Bouterwkk, " His- 
 toire de la Litte'rature Espagnole ;" Nicekon, " Me'moires ;" " Lyric 
 Poetry of Spain," in the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1824. 
 
 Garcilaso de la Vega, surnamed the Inca, a 
 Spanish historian, born at Cuzco, in Peru, about 1530. 
 He derived his surname from his mother, who was a 
 native princess, a descendant of the Incas. After col- 
 lecting materials for the history of Peru, he went to 
 Spain in 1560, and obtained a pension from Philip II. 
 His history of Peru, entitled " Comentarios reales que 
 tratan del Origen de los Incas," (1609,) is esteemed for 
 its fidelity and accuracy. He also wrote an account of 
 the conquest of Florida by De Soto, (1605.) His death 
 is variously dated from 1568 to 1616. 
 
 See Ticknor, m History of Spanish Literature ;" Prescott, 
 " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. i. book ii. 
 
 Garcilasso (or Garcias Lasso) de la Vega y Var- 
 gas, gaR-Me-ISs'so da la va'ga e van'gas, (Sebastian,) 
 a Spanish officer, was the father of the preceding. He 
 went to Mexico with Alvarado, whom he aided in the 
 conquest of Guatemala. He served with distinction under 
 Pizarro in Peru, which he entered in 1534, and fought 
 against Almagi o in 1542. He became Governor of Cuzco 
 in 1548. Died in 1559. 
 
 Garcin de Tassy, gin'saN' deji tt'se', (Joseph He- 
 LIODoRE,) a French Orientalist, born at Marseilles in 
 1794, was chosen a member of the Academy of In- 
 scriptions, in place of Talleyrand, in 1838. He became 
 professor of Hindostanee at the " Ecole de Langues 
 orientales vivantes," in Paris. He published, among 
 other works, a "History of Hindostanee Literature," (2 
 vols., 1837.) 
 
 Garczynski, gaR-chin'skee, (STEPHEN,) a Polish 
 statesman, who was appointed vai'vode of Kalisch and 
 palatine of Posen. He wrote the "Anatomy of the 
 Kingdom of Poland," (1751.) Died in 1755. 
 
 Gardane, giit'dtn', (Antoine,) a French general, 
 born in Provence about 1760, became general of division 
 about 1798, won distinction by his conduct at Marengo 
 in 1800, and took part in the campaigns against Austria 
 and Prussia in 1805 and 1806. Died in 1807. 
 
 Gardane, (Joseph Jacques,) a French physician and 
 medical writer, born in Provence, practised in Paris 
 about 1770. He wrote several treatises on syphilis. 
 
 Gardane, de, deh gtit'din', (Mathieu Claude,) 
 Comte, a French officer, born in Marseilles, in 1766, 
 acted as aide-de-camp to Napoleon in 1804, and distin- 
 
 i, e, I, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
GARDEN 
 
 995 
 
 GARELLI 
 
 guished himself at Austerlitz, Jena, and Eylau. In 1807 
 he was sent as ambassador to Persia. Died in 1818. 
 
 Gar'den, (Alexander,) F.R.S., a British botanist, 
 born in Edinburgh about 1730. He practised medicine 
 for many years in Charleston, South Carolina, and cor- 
 responded with Linnaeus, to whom he furnished informa- 
 tion on the natural history of Carolina. He contributed 
 to the " Philosophical Transactions" of London. Died 
 in England in 1 791. The genus Gardenia was named 
 in honour of him by Linnaeus. 
 
 Gar'den, (Alexander,) an American officer, who 
 served in the war of the Revolution as aide-de-camp to 
 General Greene. He wrote "Anecdotes of the Revo- 
 lutionary War in America, with Sketches of Character," 
 etc., (1822.) Died about 1825. 
 
 Garden, (Francis,) called also Lord Gardenstone, 
 a Scottish judge, born in Edinburgh in 1721. After 
 he had practised at the bar with credit, he was chosen 
 solicitor of the king in 1764, and judge of the court of 
 sessions. He published a work entitled "Travelling 
 Memoranda," (3 vols., 1792-95,) the result of his travels 
 on the continent. Died in 1793. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gardenstone, Lord. See Garden, (Francis.) 
 
 Gar die, de la, deh 15 gaR'de', (Jakob,) Count, a skilful 
 Swedish general, son of Pontus, noticed below, was born 
 in 1583. He commanded the Swedish army against the 
 Russians in the reign of Charles IX., subjected a large 
 part of Muscovy, and advanced with his victorious army 
 to Moscow, where a truce was negotiated. Gustavus 
 Adolphus, having ascended the throne, renewed the war, 
 and made his first campaign under the tuition of Count 
 de la Gardie. After the peace of 1617 he became senator 
 and minister of war. Died in 1652. 
 
 See J. Scheffer, " Oratio in obitum J. de la Gardie," 1652. 
 
 Gardie, de la, (Magnus Gabriel,) an able Swedish 
 statesman, son of the preceding, was born in 1622. In 
 the reign of Charles X. (whose sister La Gardie mar- 
 ried) he commanded one of the armies. Under Charles 
 XL he was grand chancellor, and for about twenty years 
 principal minister of state. Died in 1686. 
 
 Gardie, de la, deh li giK'de', (Pontus, pAN'tiiss',) 
 an able general, born at La Gardie, in France, about 
 1530. He entered the service of the King of Sweden 
 about 1565, and commanded the army of Duke John in 
 the war which resulted in the dethronement of Eric XIV., 
 (1568.) He became a baron, field-marshal, and senator. 
 About 1583 he was commander-in-chief of the Swedish 
 army, and gained advantages over the Russians in Li- 
 vonia. He was drowned near Narva in 1585. 
 
 See DrThou, "Histoire universelle;" Bavle, " Historical and 
 
 i Dictionary;" C. Oeknhielm, " Vita illustrissimi HeroisP.de 
 la Garc ie," 1600; "Svensk Plutarch," vol. ii. ; " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phic (i-'nerale. 
 
 Gardin-Dumesnil, gaVdaN' dii'mS'nel', (Jean Bap- 
 tist!-:,) an eminent French professor and scholar, born 
 at Saint-Cyr in 1720. In 1758 he became professor of 
 rhetoric in the College of Harcourt, Paris, where he lec- 
 tured many years. He wrote a work entitled " Latin 
 Synonyms," (1777.) Died in 1802. 
 
 Gardiner, gard'ner, (Allan,) Lord, an English ad- 
 miral, born at Uttoxeter in 1742, entered the navy in 
 1755. He served against the Americans and French, 
 and commanded the Duke in the battle of April 12, 
 1782. Having been for several years a member of the 
 admiralty, he obtained the rank of rear-admiral in 1793, 
 with command of the fleet stationed near the Leeward 
 Islands. He distinguished himself in the Channel fleet, 
 under Lord Howe, in the battle of June I, 1794. In 
 1800 he was promoted to the rank of admiral. He sat 
 in several Parliaments, and was raised to the English 
 e, as Baron Uttoxeter. Died in 1809. 
 
 Gardiniy, (Captain Allen F.,) an English naval 
 officer, bottl in 1794. He went as a missionary to Pata- 
 gonia, and published "Voice from South America," 
 (1847.) Died in 1851. 
 
 Gardiner, gard'ner, (James,) a Scottish officer, emi- 
 nent for his piety and courage, was born at Carriden in 
 1688. He was wounded at Ramillies, (1706,) and after- 
 wards rose' to the rank of colonel. He commanded a 
 regiment of dragoons against the Pretender at Preston- 
 
 pans, where he was killed, in 1745. The circumstances 
 of his death are minutely described by Scott in "Wa- 
 verley." 
 
 See " Some Remarkable Passages in the Life of Colonel James 
 Gardiner," by Rev. Philip Doddridge, 1796; Chambers, "Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gardiner, gard'ner, (John,) an American lawyer, 
 born in Boston in 1731. As a member of the legislature 
 of Massachusetts, he procured the abolition of the law 
 of primogeniture, and promoted several legal reforms. 
 Died in 1 793. 
 
 Gardiner, (John Sylvester John,) an Episcopal 
 clergyman, a son of the preceding, was born in South 
 Wales in 1775. He became rector of Trinity Church, 
 Boston, in 1805. He was distinguished as a scholar and 
 a writer. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Dovckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Gardiner, (Richard,) an English divine, born at 
 Hereford in 1591. He became a canon of Christ Church 
 in 1629, and chaplain to Charles I. in 1630. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "Model of Oratory," ("Specimen 
 Oratorium," 1653,) and a volume of sixteen Sermons, 
 (1659.) Died in 1670. 
 
 Gardiner, (Stephen,) Bishop of Winchester, an Eng- 
 lish prelate and statesman, was born at ISury Saint Ed- 
 mund's in 1483. At Cambridge he made himself master 
 of Greek and Latin and of civil and canon law. While 
 employed as secretary by Cardinal Wolsey, he attracted 
 the notice and favour of Henry VIII., who in 1527 chose 
 him as a commissioner to negotiate with the pope the 
 divorce of Queen Catherine. Soon after his return he 
 was made secretary of state, and in 1531 Bishop of Win- 
 chester. He strenuously opposed the Protestant Re- 
 formers, and urged the king to punish them with severity. 
 He courted the favour of Henry VIII. by aiding him to 
 procure divorces, but gave offence to him by being too 
 officious in preparing the impeachment of Catherine 
 Parr. Gardiner was an enemy of Cranmer, whom he 
 attempted to convict of heresy, but without success. In 
 the reign of Edward VI. he was committed to the Tower 
 in 1548, and confined about five years. Queen Mary, 
 having ascended the throne, hastened to reward him 
 by the office of chancellor of England and the principal 
 direction of affairs in church and state. The sanguinary 
 persecutions of that reign are attributed to his influence 
 by Hume, who says, "The severe manners of Gardiner 
 inclined him to support by persecution that religion 
 which at the bottom he regarded with great indifference." 
 Died in 1555. "There was," says Fronde, "something 
 in Gardiner's character which was not wholly execrable. 
 For thirty years he worked unweariedly in the service 
 of the public) his judgment as member of the council 
 was generally excellent. . . . He was vindictive, ruthless, 
 treacherous ; but his courage was indomitable." 
 
 See Froude's " History of England," vol. vi. chap, xxxiii. : also 
 HuMF.'sand Lingard's Histories of England ; Burnet's "History 
 of the Reformation." 
 
 Gardiner, (Sylvester,) an American physician, father 
 of John Gardiner, noticed above, was born in Kingston, 
 Rhode Island, in 1717, and practised in Boston. Died 
 in 1786. 
 
 Gardiner, (William,) a skilful engraver, born in 
 Dublin in 1766. He was a pupil or assistant of Bar- 
 tolozzi. Among his works are " Illustrations of Shak- 
 spcare" and of other English authors. He committed 
 suicide in 1814. 
 
 Gardiner, (William,) an English writer on music, 
 born in 1770. He published "Music of Nature," " Sights 
 in Italy," and other works. Died in 1853. 
 
 Gardner, (George,) M.D., a Scottish botanist, born 
 at Glasgow about 1812. He explored Brazil and other 
 parts of South America, in. which he passed several 
 years, 1836—41. Having returned to England, he pub- 
 lished "Travels in the Interior of Brazil," (1846.) He 
 died in Ceylon in 1849. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Garelli, ga-rel'lee, (Pio Niccol6,) born at Bologna 
 in 1670, became first physician to the Emperor of 
 Germany. He wrote a treatise on " Viviparous Gene- 
 ration." Died in 1739. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; gas/;G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sas»; thas in this. (By See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 
GARENGEOT 
 
 996 
 
 GARNET 
 
 Garengeot, de, deh gt'rftN'zho', (Rene Jacques 
 Croissant— kRwa'sdN',) a French surgeon, born at Vi- 
 tre" in 1688. He began to lecture on anatomy in Paris 
 in 1725, and was chosen Fellow of the Royal Society 
 of London in 1728. He became surgeon-major of the 
 king's regiment in 1742, and wrote several treatises, 
 among which is "Traitedes Operations de Chirurgie," 
 (2 vols., 1720.) Died in 1759. 
 
 Garet, ga'ri', (Jean,) a French scholar and Benedic- 
 tine, born at Havre in 1627. He published an edition 
 of Cassiodorus, (2 vols., 1676.) Died in 1694. 
 
 Gar/field, (James A.,) an American general, born in 
 Cuyahoga county, Ohio, in 1831. He was a teacher and 
 a lawyer before the civil war, and became a brigadier- 
 general early in 1862. He was elected a member of 
 Congress from the nineteenth district of Ohio in Octo- 
 ber, 1862, served as chief of staff of General Rosecrans 
 in 1863, and was raised to the rank of major-general for 
 his services at Chickamauga in September of that year. 
 He was elected to Congress by the Republicans in 1866 
 and 1868. He was appointed in 1867 chairman of the 
 committee on military affairs. 
 
 Garibaldi, gar-e-bal'de, [It. pron. ga-re-bal'dee,j 
 (Giuseppe,) a celebrated Italian patriot and general, born 
 at Nice, July 4, 1807. He entered the navy in early youth. 
 Having become an active friend of liberty, he was ban- 
 ished in 1834. About 1836 he took arms for the re- 
 public of Uruguay, and fought against Brazil for several 
 years. Before the end of this war he married a South 
 American lady, named Anita, who afterwards shared 
 with him in Italy the dangers of his military career. 
 In 1844 he volunteered to defend Montevideo against 
 Rosas, and led his Italian legion to victory at San An- 
 tonio in 1846. He quitted South America in the spring 
 of 1S48, and joined the Italian patriots in the war against 
 Austria. He offered his services to King Charles Albert, 
 but was treated by him with coldness and distrust. After 
 the flight of the pope, he took an active part in founding 
 the Roman Republic and in the defence of Rome against 
 the French army in April and May, 1849. During the 
 siege of Rome he displayed great heroism, and gained 
 several victories over the Neapolitans, who threatened 
 that city. When the French captured Rome in July, 
 1849, Garibaldi escaped with several hundred men, and, 
 after passing through many desperate adventures and 
 conflicts with the Austrians, was again driven into exile, 
 and became in 1850 a resident of New York. He worked 
 for some time in a manufactory of candles near that city, 
 and afterwards made several voyages in the Pacific. 
 
 Early in 1859 he offered his services to the King of 
 Sardinia, and, having formed a detached corps, called 
 "Hunters of the Alps," he gained several victories over 
 the Austrians, at Varese, Como, etc. Having raised a 
 small army for the liberation of Southern Italy from the 
 domination of the Bourbon King of Naples, he landed 
 at Marsala, in Sicily, in May, i860. He speedily took 
 Palermo and Messina, and, crossing over to the main- 
 land in August, occupied the city of Naples about the 
 8th of September. His army, reinforced by many Libe- 
 rals of Southern Italy, defeated the troops of King 
 Francis in October, i860, and expelled him from the 
 country, which was soon after annexed to the kingdom 
 of Italy. Garibaldi afterwards retired to his home in the 
 island of Caprera. In April, 1862, he was appointed 
 general-in-chief of the Italian national guard. He en- 
 gaged in the summer of 1862 in an enterprise which 
 was disapproved by the Italian government, and came 
 into collision with the royal troops at Aspromonte, where 
 he was wounded in the foot and taken prisoner. 
 
 In 1864 he visited England, where he was received 
 with great enthusiasm. He fought against the Austrians 
 in the short war of 1866, at the head of a corps of volun- 
 teers; but the hostilities were ended by a truce before he 
 came to any decisive action. On several occasions he 
 inflamed the patriotism of his countrymen by eloquent 
 addresses. Acting without the authority of the Italian 
 government, he raised, in the summer of 1867, an army 
 for the liberation of Rome, which he wished to annex to 
 the kingdom of Italy. In an address to the people of 
 Rome, dated September 16, he said, "Break the rings 
 of your chains on the necks of your oppressors, and 
 
 henceforth you will share your glory with the Italians." 
 He was arrested, by the order of the king, at Sina- 
 lunga, September 23, and confined, but soon escaped, 
 and invaded the Papal States with a body of troops, who 
 were defeated at Mentana by the papal forces and their 
 French allies in November, 1867. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," edited by Alexandre Dumas, and 
 translated into English bv w". Robson, i860; "Garibaldi at Caprera," 
 by Colonel Vecchj, with a Preface by Mrs. Gaskell, London, 
 1862; 'Westminster Review" for October, 1859. 
 
 Garibay y Zamalloa, ga-re-Bl' e tha-mal-yo'a, (Es- 
 teban,) a Spanish historian, born at Mondragon in 1525. 
 He was appointed in 1563 historiographer by Philip II., 
 and published a "Compendium of the Chronicles and 
 History of Spain," (4 vols., 1571.) Died in 1593. 
 
 Garidel, gS're'deT, (Pierre,) a French physician and 
 botanist, born at Manosque in 1659; died in 1737. 
 
 Gariel, gi're-el', (Pierre,) a French historian, born 
 at Montpellier about 15S2, wrote a " History of Mont- 
 pellier," and other works. Died in 1670. 
 
 Garissoles, gi're'sol', (Antoine,) a French poet and 
 Protestant divine, born at Montauban in 1587. He be- 
 came pastor of the Calvinist church and professor of 
 theology in his native town in 1627. He wrote Latin 
 with purity and remarkable facility. Besides several 
 approved works on theology, he wrote (1649) a Latin 
 poem on the exploits of Gustavus Adolplms, entitled 
 "Adolphis," and a few other poems. Died in 1651. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle 
 Biograplne GtWrale." 
 
 Gar'land, ( Hugh A.,) an American lawyer and writer, 
 born in Virginia in 1805. He was chosen clerk of the 
 House of Representatives by the Democrats in 1838. 
 He wrote a "Life of John Randolph," (2 vols., 1850.) 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Garland, (Robert R.,) an American officer in the 
 Confederate army, became a brigadier-general, and was 
 killed in the battle of South Mountain in 1862. 
 
 Garlande, de, deh gti<'15Nd', ? (Jean,) a poet of the 
 eleventh century. The English and" French both claim 
 him as a native of their respective countries. Little is 
 known of his history. Among the numerous works that 
 bear his name are Latin poems on the " Mysteries of the 
 Church," and on " Contempt of the World," " Facetus," 
 a poem on the " Duties of Man," and " Floretus," or 
 "Liber Floreti." Died after 1080. 
 
 Garnaud, giit'iio', (Antoine Martin,) a French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1796; died in 1861. 
 
 Garneray, gfRn'iA', (Amhroise Louis,) a French 
 painter of marine views, born in Paris in 1783. He 
 served several years in the navy. He painted naval 
 battles with success, and designed and engraved many 
 views of French ports. He was employed for about 
 ten years in the porcelain-manufactory of Sevres. 
 
 Garneray, (Augusts Simeon,) a painter, brother of 
 the preceding, was born in Paris in 1785. He was pa- 
 tronized by the empress Josephine and Queen Hortense. 
 Died in 1823 or 1824. 
 
 Garneray, (Jean Francois,) a French painter of 
 history and portraits, father of the preceding, was born 
 in Paris in 1755. Among his works are a portrait of 
 Charlotte Corday, and a picture of "Louis XVI. in the 
 Temple." Died in 1837. 
 
 Garnerin, gfim'rafi', (Andre Jacques,) a noted 
 French aeronaut, born in Paris in 1769, was the first who 
 descended from a balloon by a parachute, (1797.) At 
 the coronation of Napoleon, in 1804, he was employed 
 to celebrate the event by sending up a large balloon, 
 which, it is said, was wafted by the wind to Rome, and, 
 after soaring over the Vatican, struck against the monu- 
 ment of Nero, the next day after its ascent. Died in 1S23. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Kiographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Garnerin, (Jean Baptiste Olivier,) an aeronaut, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1766; 
 died in 1849. 
 
 Gar'net, (Henry,) an English Jesuit, born at Not- 
 tingham about 1555. Having become a Roman Catholic, 
 he visited Rome and joined the Society of Jesus in 
 1575. He was appointed superior of the English [i-suits 
 in 1586, and resided in or near London at the time of 
 the Gunpowder Plot. For complicity in this affair he 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; 3, e, 1, 0, u, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m«t; n6t; good; n.fxm; 
 
GARNETT 
 
 997 
 
 GAROFALO 
 
 was tried, convicted, and hung in May, 1606. (See 
 Fawkes, Guy.) He was regarded as a martyr by the 
 Catholics, who admit that the plot had been revealed to 
 him as a confessor, but assert that he discouraged it. 
 ..i?." HuME > "History of England," chap. xlvi. ; Gardiner, 
 History of England from 1603 to 1616," chap. v. 
 
 Gar'nett, (James Mercer,) an American agriculturist, 
 born in Essex county, Virginia, in 1770. He was one 
 of the principal founders, and the first president, of the 
 United States Agricultural Society, and wrote many able 
 papers on agriculture and other subjects. Died in'1843. 
 Garnett, (Richard 15.,) an American general, born 
 in Virginia, graduated at West Point in 1841. He com- 
 manded a brigade of General Lee's army, and was killed 
 at Gettysburg, July 3, 1863, aged about forty-four years. 
 Garnett, (Robert Sei.den,) an American general, 
 born in Virginia about 1 821, graduated at West Point in 
 1841. He was aide-de-camp to General Taylor in the 
 Mexican war, and became a captain in 185 1. Having 
 taken arms against the Union in 1861, he obtained a 
 command in Western Virginia. He was defeated and 
 killed at Carrick's Ford in July, 1861. 
 
 Garnett, (Thomas,) an English physician, born at 
 Castertonin 1766. He obtained in 1796 the chair founded 
 by Anderson at Glasgow, and lectured on chemistry at 
 the Royal Institution of London in 1799-1800. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, "Observations on a Tour 
 through the Highlands," (2 vols., 1800,) and "Lectures 
 on Chemistry," (1801.) Died in 1802. 
 
 Garnier, gaVne-4', (Adolphe,) a French philoso- 
 phical writer, was bom in Paris in 1801. He became in 
 1838, at the Sorbonne, assistant, or substitute, of M. 
 Jouffroy, to whose chair he afterwards succeeded. 
 Among his works are a "Treatise on Social Morals," 
 ("Traite de Morale sociale," 1850,) and a "Treatise 
 on the Faculties of the Soul," ("Traite des Facultes 
 de 1'Ame," 3 vols., 1852,) which was crowned by the 
 Academy in 1853. 
 
 Garnier, (Charles Georges Thomas,) a French 
 litterateur and advocate, born at Auxerre in 1746, pub- 
 lished "Dramatic Proverbs," (1784,) "The Cabinet of 
 the Fairies," (41 vols., 1785,) and other fanciful produc- 
 tions. Died in 1795. He was a brother of Germain 
 Garnier, noticed below. 
 
 Garnier, (Clement Joseph,) a French political 
 economist, born in the county of Nice in 1813. He was 
 professor of political economy in the Ecole des Pouts et 
 Chaussees, Paris, from 1846 to 1856, and edited the 
 "Journal des Economistes" about ten years, ending in 
 1855. Among his works is one called "Elements of 
 Political Economy," (1846.) He belongs to the advanced 
 Liberal school. 
 
 Garnier, (Etienne Barthelemy,) a French his- 
 torical painter, born in Paris in 1759, studied in Rome, 
 where he painted " Diogenes asking Alms of a Statue." 
 He returned to Paris in 1793. His "Desolation of the 
 Family of Priam" (1800) was admired," says the " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale," "as one of the grandest 
 pages of French painting." Among his master-pieces 
 is "The Miracle performed on the Deaf-Mute," (1831.) 
 Died in 1849. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." ' 
 Garnier, (Francois Xavier Paul,) a French jurist, 
 born at Brest in 1793. He published works of high 
 authority, among which is " Regime des Eaux," or a 
 Treatise on the Waters of the Sea, Rivers, etc., (5 
 vols., 1839-51.) 
 
 Gamier, (Germain,) a French economist, born at 
 Auxerre in 1 754, was a brother of Charles Georges Tho- 
 mas, noticed above. He emigrated with the royalists in 
 •793> anc ' returned in 1795. Me was appointed prefect 
 of the department of Seine-et-Oise in 1800, a senator in 
 1804, and president of the senate in 1809. At the resto- 
 ration of 1814 he became a member of the Chamber 
 of Peers. He was afterwards appointed a minister of 
 state by Louis XVIII. He made a translation of Adam 
 Smith's " Wealth of Nations," (5 vols., 1805,) which is 
 the best in the French language, and published several 
 treatises on currency, statistics, and political economy. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Garnier, (Jean,) a French Jacobin, born at Saintes 
 in 1754, was a member of the Convention, 1792-94, 
 and passed into the Council of Five Hundred in 1795. 
 Having been exiled in 181 5, he went to the United 
 States, and was drowned in the Ohio in 1820. 
 
 Garnier, (Jean,) a learned French Jesuit and casuist, 
 born in Paris in 1612, professed rhetoric, philosophy, and 
 theology in Paris for many years. He wrote, in Latin, 
 "Theses of Moral Philosophy," (1651,) "Journal of the 
 Roman Pontiffs," ("Liber diurnus Romanorum Pontifi- 
 cum cum Notis," 1680,) and other works. Died in 1681. 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Garnier, (Jean Guii.laume,) a French mathemati- 
 cian, born near Guise, Picarcly, in 1766, was professor of 
 astronemy at Ghent from 1817 to 1830. He published, 
 besides many other works, "Lessons on the Integral 
 Calculus," (3d edition, 1812.) Died in 1840. 
 See Quetelet, " Notice sur J. G. Garnier," 1841. 
 Garnier, (Jean Jacques,) a French historian, born 
 at Gorron, near Mayenne, in 1729. He went to Paris 
 about 1747, and obtained a place as tutor in the College 
 of Harcourt. He afterwards became professor of He- 
 brew in the College of France, to which he rendered 
 eminent services as inspector. In 1761 his essay "On 
 the Origin of the French Government" gained the prize 
 of the Academy of Inscriptions, and opened to him the 
 doors of that institution. He published in 1764 the 
 "Man of Letters," and a "Treatise on Civil Educa- 
 tion." He succ|eded Villaret as historiographer, and 
 published a continuation of Velly and Villaret's " His- 
 tory of France," (1765-85.) Died in 1805. "He is 
 cold, prolix, and monotonous," says Walckenaer. 
 
 See Dacier, "Notice sur la Vie de Garnier," 1806; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G6ie>ale." 
 
 Garnier, (Robert,) a French tragic poet, born at La 
 Ferte-Bemard (Maine) in 1534, published in 1568 the 
 tragedy of " Porcie," which was very successful, and was 
 followed by "Cornelia," "Mark Antony," " Antigone," 
 "Les Juives," and several others. They were highly 
 esteemed and often reprinted. Henry IV. made him 
 councillor of state. Died in 1590. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Garnier de l'Aube, gaVne-4' deh lob, a French 
 revolutionist, born about 1760, was a partisan of Danton 
 in the Convention. Died about 1812. 
 
 Garnier-Deschenes, gaVne_-i' clJ'sheV, (EDME Hi- 
 I.aire,) a French jurist and writer, born at Montpellier 
 in 1732, lived in Paris. Died in 1812. 
 
 Garnier-Pages, gaVne-4' pS'zhes', (Etienne Joseph 
 Louis,) a French political orator, born at Marseilles in 
 1801. He studied law, joined the Liberal party in poli- 
 tics, and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1831. 
 He professed the republican faith, but was prudent and 
 practical, and acquired distinction as a speaker on finan- 
 cial questions. He was re-elected in 1834 and in 1837. 
 Died in 1841. "This orator," says Lamartine, "whose 
 renown increased at each discourse, was with respect to 
 the tribune what Carrel was in journalism,— a movement 
 towards the future." ("History of the Restoration.") 
 
 . See L he Lomenie, "M. Garnier- Pages, " 1840; " Histoire popu- 
 late de Garnier- Pages," 1841; M. UK C.jkmkmn, "Livre desOra- 
 teurs." 
 
 Gamier-Pages, (Louis Antoine,) a republican 
 financier, half-brother of the preceding, was born at 
 Marseilles in 1805. He was elected to the Chaml)er 
 of Deputies in 1842. He spoke with ability on financial 
 affairs, was re-elected in 1846, and was a member of the 
 provisional government formed by the revolutionists of 
 February, 1848. Having l>ecome minister of finance on 
 the 5th of March, he provided for the public exigencies 
 by a land-tax, the forced circulation ,,! bank or treasury 
 notes, (billets tie baiigue,) and other measure*. His 
 management of the finances is highly praised by Lamar- 
 tine. In May, 1S4S, Gamier -Pat 1 , n by the 
 Assembly a member of the executive "committee of'five. 
 He has since been elected to the Corp* I.< '-gislatif. 
 
 See L. i>k I.iimrnir, "Galeriedes Contrmporains :" "Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 Garofalo, ga-ro'fa-lo, or Garofano, gi-ro'fl-no, the 
 surname of an excellent painter of the Roman school, 
 who was born at Garofalo, near Ferrara, in 1481. His 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (Jry-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GAROFALO 
 
 998 
 
 GARRISON 
 
 proper name was Benvenuto Tisio. He went to Rome 
 about 1500, and was a pupil of G. Baldini. He after- 
 wards studied or worked with Raphael, of whom he was 
 an enthusiastic admirer and excellent imitator. After 
 he parted from Raphael he worked mostly in Ferrara, 
 where he painted in fresco and oil. Among his works 
 are a copy of the "Transfiguration," (in oil,) " The Mas- 
 sacre of the Innocents," and "The Resurrection of Laza- 
 rus." He was an admirable colorist. Died in 1559. 
 
 See Vasaki, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italv ;" Domenico C. Mora, " Vite di B. Tisio da Garofalo e 
 di G. V. Barbieri," 1842. 
 
 Garofalo, [Lat. Caryoph'ilus,] (Biagio,) a learned 
 priest and antiquary, born in Naples in 1677, wrote a 
 "Dissertation on Ancient Marbles," (1738.) Diediji 1762. 
 
 Garouda. See Garuda. 
 
 Garraii de Covtlon, gS'r6.\' deh koo'16N', (Jean 
 Philippe,) a French lawyer, born in 1749. He was a 
 moderate member of the Convention of 1792, voting 
 against the death of the king. He became a senator, a 
 member of the Institute, and a count. Died in 1816. 
 
 Garrard, gar'rard', written also Geerards or Gee- 
 raerts, (Mark,) a Flemish painter, was born at Bruges 
 about 1526. lie worked some years in England, where 
 he died about 1588. 
 
 His son Mark, born in 1561, was a portrait-painter in 
 England. He had a high reputation. Died in 1635. 
 
 Gar'rett-son, ( Freeborn, ) a popular Methodist 
 preacher, born in Maryland in 1752; died in 1827. 
 
 Gar'rick, (David,) a famous Englfsh actor, born at 
 Hereford in 1716. His father's family was of French 
 descent. In 1735 he was a pupil of Dr. Johnson, (at 
 Lichfield,) whom in the next year he accompanied to 
 London. Here Garrick studied law in Lincoln's Inn 
 for a short period. Having for several years cherished 
 a growing inclination for the stage, he made his debut 
 at Ipswich in 1741, with complete success, and in the 
 autumn of that year acted in the theatre of Goodman's 
 Fields, in London, with a rapidly-growing popularity. 
 He made his appearance in Drury Lane for the first 
 •time in May, 1742. His performance of "Richard III." 
 was thought to excel all the efforts of former actors, and 
 drew from Pope the prediction that Garrick would never 
 have a rival. In 1745 he visited Dublin and performed 
 For one season in the Royal Theatre. In 1747 he pur- 
 chased, in partnership with Lacy, Drury Lane Theatre, 
 of which he continued to be manager until he retired 
 from the stage in 1776. In 1749 he married a danseuse 
 of Vienna, Eva Maria Violette, who is said to have been 
 an exceedingly estimable woman. He possessed in a pre- 
 eminent degree the art of imitating the physiognomy of 
 others and the expression of various emotions, and was 
 equally at home in tragedy and comedy. His voice was 
 sonorous and melodious, and even in a whisper it filled 
 the whole house. His character, accomplishments, and 
 matchless colloquial powers rendered him welcome in 
 what is styled the best society. He also exercised his 
 talents with success in writing numerous comedies, pro- 
 logues, etc., among which are " The Lying Valet," " High 
 Life below-stairs," "The Clandestine Marriage," and 
 "Miss in her Teens." He receives credit for reforming 
 the English theatre by rejecting the more licentious 
 dramas and expurgating others, so that Dr. Johnson 
 declared he had augmented the stock of innocent pleas- 
 ures. He was intimate with Lord Chatham, the Duke 
 of Devonshire, Lord Lyttleton, and Dr. Johnson, whose 
 friendship he retained to the end of his life. In 1777 he 
 was invited by the king and queen to read a drama to 
 them in their palace, and selected for this occasion his 
 own farce of " Lethe." Though he was rewarded by the 
 expression of their satisfaction, he described its effect 
 as like a "wet blanket," compared with the thunder of 
 applause he usually received. He amassed, it is said, 
 a fortune of ^140,000. He died in February, 1779, and 
 was buried with great pomp, beside the tomb of Shak- 
 speare, in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 See "Garrick's Private Correspondence with the Most Celebrated 
 Psrsousof his Time, with a Biographical Memoir," 2 vols., 1S31-32; 
 T. Davies, "Memoirs of the Lite of D. Garrick," 2 vols., 1780; 
 C. Blasis, "Biografia di D. Garrick," Milan, 1840; P. Fitzgerald, 
 "Life of David Garrick," 2 vols., 1868: Arthur Murphv, "Lite 
 of Garrick," 2 vols., 1801 ; "Quarterly Review" for July, 1868. 
 
 Gar'rI-son, (William Lloyd,) an American philan. 
 thropist, the great leader of the advocates of immediate 
 emancipation in the United States, was born in New- 
 buryport, Massachusetts, December 12, 1804, (not in 
 1805, as stated in some publications.) When ab mt 
 fourteen, he was apprenticed to a cabinet-maker; but, 
 being strongly averse to this occupation, he prevailed 
 upon his master to release him. Shortly after, he was 
 placed with Mr. E. W. Allen, editor of the "Newbury- 
 port Herald," to learn the art of printing. He soon 
 became expert in the mechanical part of the business. 
 About this time he began to write (at first anonymously) 
 for the "Herald" and other papers. He once had the 
 satisfaction of receiving from Mr. Allen, through the 
 post-office, a letter in which the editor expressed his 
 thanks to his unknown correspondent for his communi- 
 cations and hoped that he would still continue to write 
 for the " Herald." Before he was twenty years old, he 
 contributed to the "Salem Gazette" a series of ably- 
 written articles, which attracted much attention. About 
 this time the struggle of the Greeks for freedom awa- 
 kened the interest of the friends of liberty in every part 
 of the civilized world : young Garrison's sympathy was 
 so strongly excited for the cause, that he seriously con- 
 templated, it is said, entering the Academy at West Point, 
 that he might fit himself for a military career. On the 
 expiration of his apprenticeship, in 1S26, he became the 
 conductor of a paper of his own, called the " Free Press," 
 which was published at Newburyport. It proved, how- 
 ever, unsuccessful, and was soon discontinued. In 1827 
 he became the editor of the " National Philanthropist," 
 published in Boston, and the first paper in America 
 devoted to the advocacy of the cause of "total abiti- 
 nence." Towards the end of 1829 he accepted an invi- 
 tation from Benjamin Lundy to assist in the editorship of 
 the "Genius of Universal Emancipation," published in 
 Baltimore. This journal had previously advocated the 
 gradual abolition of slavery ; but in the very first number 
 that was issued after Garrison became associated with 
 it, he distinctly avowed the doctrine that immediate 
 emancipation was the right of the slave and the duty of 
 the master. Not long after, he denounced with great 
 severity certain persons engaged in the domestic slave- 
 trade, and declared his purpose to "cover with thick 
 infamy" all who were implicated therein. He was in 
 consequence tried and convicted for a libel. Being 
 unable to pay the costs, he was committed to prison, 
 where he remained nearly two months. At length Mr. 
 Arthur Tappan, a merchant of New York, paid his fine 
 and released him. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1831, he began, in Boston, the 
 publication of "The Liberator," a weekly journal, de- 
 voted to the advocacy of the most decided and uncom- 
 promising anti-slavery views. He took for his motto "My 
 country is the world, my countrymen are all mankind." 
 His unsparing denunciation of slavery and of all those 
 connected with it, met with sympathy in some portions 
 of the country; but it excited in the Southern States, as 
 was naturally to be expected, the most intense exaspera- 
 tion. Almost every mail brought letters from the South 
 filled with threats of violence and even of assassination. 
 The legislature of Georgia went so far as to offer'a re- 
 ward of five thousand dollars to any one who should 
 arrest, bring to trial, and prosecute him to conviction 
 under the laws of that State. So great was the excite- 
 ment produced by the "Liberator," in even many parts 
 of the North, that his life was more than once in the 
 utmost peril in the capital of Massachusetts itself. Many 
 of his friends, believing him to be in danger of assassi- 
 nation, entreated him to go armed in self-defence; but 
 his non-resistent principles prevented him from com- 
 plying with their request. In 1840 he was sent as a 
 delegate to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention held 
 in London ; but he refused to take his seat, because the 
 female delegates from the United States were excluded. 
 After many years of long and earnest labour in the cause 
 of emancipation, Mr. Garrison lived to see at first a great 
 though gradual change in the public sentiment of the 
 North in regard to slavery, and at last the fetters of the 
 slave broken, according to a view which he had enter- 
 tained for some years, — that slavery could be abolished only 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; m<3on ; 
 
GARSAULT 
 
 999 
 
 GARZONI 
 
 
 by a dissolution of the Union; but not, as he had once 
 hoped, through the influence of moral suasion alone, and 
 without fighting or bloodshed. In May, 1865, he resigned 
 the presidency of the Anti-Slavery Society, — an office 
 which he had held uninterruptedly for twenty-two years, 
 (having been first elected in 1843 '<) ar >d '» Decem- 
 ber of the same year the " Liberator" was discontinued, 
 the great object for which it had been established having, 
 in his view, been fully.accomplished. 
 
 Not long afterwards his friends set on foot a subscrip- 
 tion designed as a national testimonial for his long and 
 faithful labours in the anti-slavery cause. About thirty 
 thousand dollars were raised, and presented to him in 
 March, 1868. 
 
 See Mrs. Stowe, " Men of our Times," Hartford, 1868. 
 
 Garsault, de, deh giR'so', (FRANgois Alexandre,) 
 a French author, born about 1692, was a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences, and captain of the royal stud. He 
 wrote useful treatises on the treatment of the horse and 
 on certain mechanic arts, among which are "The Perfect 
 Farrier," (1741,) and "The Horseman's Guide," (1759.) 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 Garth, (Sir Samuel,) an English physician and poet, 
 born in Yorkshire. He settled in London about 1691, 
 acquired a large practice, and was noted for his wit and 
 colloquial powers. He was interested in the subject 
 of Dispensaries, which originated in his time and were 
 opposed by the apothecaries ; and for the purpose of 
 ridiculing the latter he wrote the "Dispensary," a mock- 
 heroic poem, (1699,) which ran through many editions, 
 each of which was corrected by the author and, as Pope 
 thought, improved by the change. Garth wrote also 
 several prologues, epigrams, and other small poems, 
 and translated a part of Ovid's " Metamorphoses." 
 About 1714 he was knighted by George I., who ap- 
 pointed him royal physician and physician to the army. 
 He enjoyed the. friendship of Pope, Addison, and other 
 literary men. Died in 17 18. 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets;" Spencr, "Anecdotes;" 
 "Biographia Britannica;" Gibber, "Lives of the English Poets." 
 
 Gartner or Gaertner, geKt'ner, (Bf.rnhard Au- 
 gust,) a German jurist, born at Cassel in 1719; died 
 in 1793. 
 
 Gartner or Gaertner, (Johann Andreas,) a Ger- 
 man architect, born at Dresden about 1742, was the 
 father of Friedrich von Gartner, noticed below. He 
 worked in Vienna, Coblentz, Wurzburg, and Munich. 
 In the last city he was employed by the king as Hofbau- 
 intendant. Died in 1826. 
 
 Gartner, (Joseph,) an eminent German botanist, born 
 at Calw, in Vi'urtemberg, in 1732. He became professor 
 of botany at Saint Petersburg in 1768; but, because the 
 climate did not suit him, he returned to Germany in 
 1770. He devoted many years to the study of fruits 
 and seeds as a basis of classification, and published the 
 results in an important work entitled "Carpology; or, 
 Treatise on the Fruits and Seeds of Plants," (Carpo- 
 logia, seu De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum," 2 
 vols., 1789-91,) which is regarded as a classic work. 
 Died in 1791. 
 
 See Krsch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie :" Delruze, 
 " Eloge de J. Gartner," and German translation of the same, Stutt- 
 gart, 1805; " Nouvelle Biographie G&ie'rale." 
 
 Gartner, (Karl Christian,) a meritorious German 
 critic and writer, born at Freiburg, in Saxony, in 1712, 
 was a friend of Gellert and Ramler. He was professor 
 of eloquence at the Carolinum College of Brunswick 
 from 1747 until his death. He rendered useful services 
 to German literature as editor of a journal called "Bre- 
 mische Beitrage." He wrote a popular comedy called 
 "Fidelity Proved," ("Die geprufte Treue," 1768,) and 
 other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1791. 
 
 See Meusel. " Lextkon der vom Jahre 1750-1800 verstorbenen 
 Deutschen Schriftsteller." 
 
 Gartner or Gaertner, von, fon g?Rt'ner, (Fried- 
 rich,) a German architect, born at Coblentz in 1792. 
 He studied in Paris in 1812, and subsequently spent 
 several years in Rome. He was appointed professor of 
 architecture at Munich in 1820, and was soon after em- 
 ployed by the prince, afterwards king, Louis, to co-ope- 
 rate in the improvements he had projected. Among his 
 
 principal edifices are the Ludwigskirche, the University, 
 the Befreiungshalle, all at Munich, and an arched hall in 
 the style of the Loggia di Lanzi at Florence. About 
 1840 he built at Athens a splendid palace for King Otho. 
 Died in April, 1847. 
 
 Gar'u-da, [common Hindoo pron. gur'06-da or gtir'- 
 ood ; called in the popular dialect Giu'oor,] in the Hin- 
 doo mythology, the vahan* or vehicle of Vishnu, a crea- 
 ture half man and half eagle, whose office it is to bear 
 the preserving deity in all his journeys through the air, 
 which is the appropriate element of Vishnu. Garuda is 
 commonly said to be the son of Kasyapa and Vinata, 
 (whence he is sometimes called Vinateya, vin-a-ta'ya.;) 
 although some legends make him the offspring of Kasya- 
 pa and Diti. As the eagle of Jupiter is often represented 
 as holding in his talons the thunderbolt, so Garuda is 
 sometimes pictured as bearing a bow and arrows. He 
 is usually painted with green or blue wings. Garuda 
 is supposed to be a personification of the sky, which 
 apparently supports the sun, one of the symbols of 
 Vishnu. (See Vishnu.) 
 
 See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon;" Coleman's "Mythology of the 
 Hindus." 
 
 Garuffi, ga-rooffee, (Giuseppe Malatesta,) an Ital- 
 ian poet and antiquary, born at Rimini in 1655. He 
 wrote "II Rodrigo," a musical drama, (1677,) said to be 
 the first example in Italy of a drama performed by a 
 single person. Died about 1710. 
 
 Garve, gak'veh, (Christian,) a German philosopher 
 and moralist, born at Breslau in 1742. He studied at 
 Leipsic, and in 1769 succeeded Gellert as professor of 
 philosophy in that city. He resigned this chair, on ac- 
 count of ill health, about 1772. He translated Burke's 
 " Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful," and Ferguson's 
 " Moral Philosophy," and wrote, besides several essays 
 on moral philosophy, a treatise "On the Connection 
 of Morals with Politics," (1788,) and "On Society and 
 Solitude," (1792.) He was called by Kant a philosopher 
 in the best sense of the word. Died in 1798. 
 
 See Manso, "Garve nach seiiiem schriftstellerischen Character," 
 1799; S. G. Dittmar, "Erinnerungen aus meinem Umgange mit 
 Garve," etc., 1801 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge*neVa!e." 
 
 Garzi, gaRd'zee, (Luigi,) an eminent Italian painter, 
 born at Pistoia in 1638, was a pupil of Andrea Sacchi, 
 and was successful in various branches of his art, which 
 he practised in Naples and Rome. His style resembles 
 that of Carlo Maratta. His drawing was true, and his 
 touch easy and mellow. He excelled in the representa- 
 tion of Madonnas and infants. Died in 1721. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Drzio- 
 nario ;" Pascoli, "Vite de' Pittori, etc 
 
 Garzia. See Garcia. 
 
 Garzia de Miranda, gaR-rtee'5 da me-rSii'da, stir- 
 named el Manco because he had lost his right hand, 
 was born in 1677. He was painter to Philip V., and an 
 excellent artist. Died in Madrid in 1749. 
 
 Garzia (or Garcia) Hidalgo, gaR-Mee'a e-dal'go, 
 (Jose\) a skilful Spanish painter of history, born at Mur- 
 cia about 1656, became court painter to Philip V. of 
 Spain. Died in 1712. 
 
 See Quilliet, "Dictiomiaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Garzoni, gaR-zo'nee, (Giovanni,) a learned Italian 
 physician and litterateur, born at Bologna in 1419, wrote 
 a Latin "History of Saxony," (15 18.) Died in 1506. 
 
 Garzoni, (Piktro,) a Venetian historian and senator, 
 wrote a continuation of Foscarini's" History of Venice," 
 ("Istoria della Republics di Vcnezia," 3 vols., 1705- 
 16.) The last part relates the events of the war of the 
 Spanish succession, (1701-13.) Died probably about 
 1720. 
 
 Garzoni, (Tommaso,) an Italian author and monk, 
 born at Bagnacavsllo in 1549. He published several 
 works remarkable for their oddity and erudition, among 
 which are "La Piazza universale di tutte le Profes- 
 sion! del Mondo," (1585,) "The Hospital of Lunatics," 
 (1586,) and "The Synagogue of the Ignorant," (1589.) 
 The first of these was once a popular performance. It 
 
 • Etymologically related to the German Wagen, (a "carriage" or 
 "vehicle,") to which it corresponds so nearly in sound It is derived 
 from the Sanscrit veib fdA, (or fM,) to " carrv." which is cognate 
 with the Latin verb vlh-o, having the same signification. 
 
 e as A; $as s; g hard; gzsj; G,H,K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas«; th as in this. (JJ^'See Explanations, p. 2%) 
 
GJSCA 
 
 IOOO 
 
 GASPAR1N0 
 
 treats at great length of all the professions, pursuits, 
 trades, and occupations of man. Died in 1589. 
 
 See Ghilini, "Teatro d'Uomini letterati;" Nicbron, "Me*- 
 moires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Gasca.de la, da la gas'ka, (Pedro,) a Spanish bishop, 
 born at or near Plasencia in 1485, was eminent for his 
 skill In negotiation, and was employed by Charles V. in 
 several delicate and difficult missions. Having been 
 sent to England with secret instructions in 1542, he 
 was successful in forming a coalition with Henry VIII. 
 against Francis I. In 1546 he was made president of 
 the Royal Audiencia of Lima, and sent with vice-regal 
 power *o Peru, where he adroitly suppressed, without 
 much fighting, the rebellion of Gonzales Pizarro. He 
 returned L' 1549, and became Bishop of Palencia. Died 
 in 1560. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru,'* vol. i. ; 
 Cieca de Leon, " La Cronica del Peru*," 1554 ; M Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Gen^rale." 
 
 Gascoigne, gas-koin', (George,) an English poet, 
 born in Essex about 1535. He served in Holland under 
 the Prince of Orange, and was afterwards a courtier and 
 an attendant of Queen Elizabeth on one of her stately 
 journeys. He wrote, besides other poems, the " Steel 
 Glass, a satire, (1576,) "Jocasta," a tragedy, and the 
 "Comedy of Supposes." Died in 1577. "His minor 
 poems," says Hallam, "especially one called 'The Ar- 
 raignment of a Lover,' have much spirit and gaiety." 
 " He has much exceeded all the poets of his age," 
 says Warton, "in smoothness and harmony of versifi- 
 cation." 
 
 See Wood, "Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Gascoigne, [Lat. Gasco'nius,] (Sir William,) an 
 English judge, noted for his moral courage, was born in 
 Yorkshire about 1350. He was appointed chief justice 
 of the king's bench by Henry IV. in 1401. During the 
 trial of a riotous person who was a companion of Prince 
 Henry, the latter struck or insulted Gascoigne, who vin- 
 dicated the majesty of the law by committing the prince 
 to prison. (See Shakspeare's "Henry IV.") On the 
 accession of the prince as Henry V., (1413,) Gascoigne, 
 says Hume, "met with praises, instead of reproaches, 
 for his past conduct." Died about 1420. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices;" Foss, "The 
 Judges of Lngland." 
 
 Gasconius, the Latin of Gascoigne, which see. 
 
 Gascoygne or Gascoigne, (William,) an English 
 astronomer, born in Yorkshire about 162 1. He invented 
 the micrometer about 1641. He fought for Charles I., 
 and was killed at Marston Moor, July, 1644. 
 
 Gas'kell, (Mrs. Elizabeth C.,) an English authoress, 
 born about 1822, was the wife of a Unitarian clergy- 
 man of Manchester. Her maiden name was Steven- 
 son. She produced, in 1848, a popular novel, entitled 
 " Mary Barton, a Tale of Manchester Life," and main- 
 tained her literary reputation by other works of fiction, 
 among which are "The Moorland Cottage," (1850,) and 
 "Ruth," (1853.) She was a friend of Charlotte Bronte, 
 of whom she published a very interesting Life, (2 
 vols., 1857.) She was for several years a regular con- 
 tributor to " Household Words." Her other principal 
 works are the novels of "North and South," "Cran- 
 ford," " Sylvia's Lovers," and " Wives and Daughters :" 
 she left the last unfinished at her death, in 1866. "Mrs. 
 Gaskell," says George Sand, "has done what neither 
 I nor other female writers in France can accomplish : 
 she has written novels which excite the deepest interest 
 in men of the world, and which every girl will be the 
 better for reading." 
 
 For an interesting and admirable article on Mrs. Gas- 
 kell's writings, see the " British Quarterly" for April, 
 1867 ; from it we extract the following : " It is hardly pos- 
 sible to read a page of her writing without getting some 
 good from it. The style is clear and forcible, the tone 
 pure, the matter wholesome. . . . Other novel-writers of 
 her generation [may] have more poetry, more scholar- 
 ship, more grace, eloquence, and passion ; but in the 
 art of telling a story she has no superior, perhaps no 
 equal." Of her unfinished "Wives and Daughters" the 
 reviewer says, "We do not hesitate to pronounce it the 
 finest of Mrs. Gaskell's productions, — that in which her 
 
 true womanly nature is most adequately reflected, that 
 which will keep her name longest in remembrance." 
 
 See, also, "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1849: "Westminster 
 Review" for April, 1849; "North British Review" for May, 1853; 
 " Gentleman's Magazine" for February, 1866. 
 
 Gasnevides. See Gaznevides. 
 
 Gasparin, de, deh gas'pS'raN', (Adrif.n Etienne 
 Pierre,) Comte, a distinguished French rural economist 
 and minister of state, born at Orange (Vaucluse) in 1783, 
 was a son of T. A. Gasparin, noticed below. He gave 
 special attention to agriculture, on which he wrote many 
 able treatises. After the revolution of 1830 he was suc- 
 cessively prefect of La Loire, of Isere, and of the Rhone. 
 He was minister of the interior from September, 1836, 
 to April, 1837, during which period he made a reform in 
 the treatment of convicts. He filled the same office in 
 the brief ministry formed in March, 1839, and was ad- 
 mitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1840. Among 
 his works is an excellent "Course of Agriculture," (5 
 vols., 1843-49.) Died in September, 1862. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Gasparin, de, (Agenor Etienne,) Comte, a son 
 of the preceding, a Protestant by birth and conviction, 
 and an eminent publicist and friend of liberty and 
 order, was born at Orange in 1810. In early youth he 
 was secretary to M. Guizot, minister of public instruc- 
 tion. He became auditor to the council of state, and 
 was secretary to his father in 1836 and 1839. In 1842 
 he was elected by the voters of Bastia to the Chamber 
 of Deputies, in which he advocated religious liberty for 
 Protestants and the liberation of slaves. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "Slavery and the Slave-Trade," 
 (1838,) "Christianity and Paganism," (2 vols., 1850,) 
 "The Schools of Doubt and the School of Faith: an 
 Essay on Authority in Religion," (1853.) In 1846 he 
 retired from political life. The great rebellion in the 
 United States afforded him the subject of two remark- 
 able and successful works, called "The Uprising of a 
 Great Nation," ("Un grand Peuple qui se releve," 1861,) 
 and "America in the Presence of Europe," ("L'Ame- 
 rique devant l'Europe," 1862.) Died in 1871. 
 
 Gasparin, de, Madame, the wife of the preceding, 
 and known as an authoress and moralist of a high order, 
 was born about 1815. Among her works are "Marriage 
 from the Christian Point of View," (3 vols., 1S43,) which 
 received the Montyon prize of the French Academy, 
 "Some Defects of Christians at the Present Day," 
 "Monastic Corpoiations in the Heart of Protestantism," 
 (2 vols., 1855,) and three volumes of tales, entitled 
 "Near Horizons," (" Les Horizons prochains,") "Hea- 
 venly Horizons," ("Les Horizons celestes,") and "Ves- 
 per," (1862.) 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Gasparin, de, (Thomas Augustin,) a French revo- 
 lutionist, born of a Protestant family at Orange in 1740 
 or 1750, was the father of Count Adrien, noticed above. 
 He was elected in 1792 to the Convention, in which he 
 acted with the Jacobins. He was on a mission to the 
 army of the north when the defection of Dumouriez 
 transpired, and confirmed the loyalty of the troops. In 
 1793 he was one of the commissioners who directed the 
 siege of Toulon. It is stated that his influence induced 
 the general to adopt in this siege the plan of Bonaparte, 
 who in his will expressed his gratitude by a legacy of 
 one hundred thousand francs to the hens of M. de 
 Gasparin. Died in November, 1793. 
 
 See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generate. " 
 
 Gasparini, gas-pa-ree'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 composer, born at Lucca about 1655, was a professor of 
 music in Venice. He composed many operas and can 
 tatas, which were admired, and a work called "L'Ar- 
 monico prattico al Cembalo," (1683.) Died in 1727. 
 
 Gasparino, gas-pa-ree'no, surnamed Barzizza or 
 Barzizzio, (from the place of his birth,) an Italian 
 scholar, born near Bergamo about 1370, was professor 
 of belles-lettres in Padua and Milan from 1407 to 143 1. 
 He is regarded as one of the restorers of sound litera- 
 ture and pure Latinity. Among his works is a treatise 
 on Composition. By the diligent study of Cicero, he 
 acquired an elegant style, and was reputed the best writer 
 
 a, e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less piolonged; a, {J, 1^ 8, fi, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t;go6d; moon; 
 
GASP RE 
 
 1001 
 
 GASTALDI 
 
 of that generation. Seveial of his orations are extant, 
 and are the earliest models of classical declamation in 
 modern times. A volume of his epistles was the first 
 book ever printed at Paris, (in 1471.) Died in 1431. 
 
 See Furietti, "Vita Gasparini," prefixed to Gasparini's Works, 
 Rome, 1723; Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infima; 
 /Etatis." 
 
 Oaspre, Le. See Dughet. 
 
 Oasse, gas'si, (Stefano and Luigi,) two able Italian 
 architects, born at Naples in 1778, were twin brothers, 
 and partners in their profession. They studied in Rome, 
 and were employed in the construction of palaces and 
 public buildings in Naples, among which are the Ob- 
 servatory, the Dogana, (custom-house,) and the Palazzo 
 Montemiletto. Luigi died in 1833, and Stefano in 1840. 
 
 Gassendi, gf'so.N'de', (Jean Jacques Bash.ien,) 
 bom at Digne, in France, in 1748. He obtained the 
 rank of a general of brigade in 1800. The First Consul 
 gave him command of the artillery just before the battle 
 of Marengo, in which he took part. Gassendi became 
 a general of division in 1805, a councillor of state in 
 1806, and a senator in 1813. He published a volume 
 of poems. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Qu^rard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Gassendi, gas-sen'dee, [Fr. pron. gi'sSr/de'; Lat. 
 Gassen'dus,] written also Gassend, (Pierre,) born at 
 Champtercier, near Digne, in Provence, January 22, 1592, 
 was one of the most eminent philosophers and savants of 
 France, and one who added lustre to almost every branch 
 of learning, being at the same time historian, naturalist, 
 mathematician, astronomer, logician, Hellenist, metaphy- 
 sician, and critic; and all this at a period when the sci- 
 ences had scarcely emerged from their infancy. He is 
 regarded as the most universal genius of that age. The 
 first disciple of Bacon in France, he was also the cor- 
 respondent and friend of Galileo and Kepler. Destined 
 for the church, he studied at Aix and Avignon, and, at 
 the age of twenty-one, obtained the chairs of philosophy 
 and theology in the University of Aix. Though required 
 to conform in his lectures to the doctrines of Aristotle, 
 he early perceived the fallacy of that system, and by his 
 studies prepared himself to become one of the leaders 
 in that great controversy which resulted in depriving 
 the philosopher of Stagira of the prestige of infallibility 
 which he had so long enjoyed. Having obtained a bene- 
 fice in the cathedral of Digne, and the office of provost, 
 he resigned in 1623 the place of professor, and next year 
 published the first volume of his "Paradoxical Essays 
 against Aristotle," which made a great impression on 
 the public mind, and was followed a few years later by 
 a second volume with the same title. About this period 
 he devoted most of his leisure to the study of the clas- 
 sics and to researches in anatomy and astronomy. 
 
 In 1642 he attacked the philosophy and bold inno- 
 vations of his friend Descartes, with whom he became 
 involved in controversy, refuting, with modest doubts, 
 the dogmatism of his opponent. He was appointed in 
 1645 professor of mathematics in the College Royal of 
 Paris, where his lectures on Astronomy were admired and 
 largely attended by the Site of the capital. In 1647 ap- 
 peared one of his best-known works, " The Life, Opinions, 
 and Morals of Epicurus," ("De Vita, Morihus et l'lacitis 
 Epicuri,") whose memory he defends against the accusa- 
 tions of the Stoics, at the same time exposing and com- 
 bating those parts of his system which are at variance 
 with Christianity. His admiration for Epicurus furnished 
 some narrow-minded or envious persons with a pretext 
 to accuse him of skepticism ; but this charge is refuted 
 by the tenor of his entire life. In 1654 he published the 
 " Lives of Tycho Brahe, Copernicus, and other Astrono- 
 mers," with a preface, in which he reviewed, in a lumi- 
 nous manner, the history of astronomy. Gassendi was 
 the first to observe the transit of Mercury, (in 1631.) 
 The parhelia, the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and the 
 magnetic needle afforded him subjects for careful and 
 profound research. 
 
 The mind of Gassendi was penetrating and refined, 
 his style elegant and clear, his manners simple and full 
 of amenity. In his efforts to subvert the inveterate 
 prejudices of the Schoolmen with respect to Aristotle 
 and Epicurus, he has displayed a union of vast erudition. 
 
 sound criticism, and mental independence. Marivat, 
 having freely conversed with him while passing from 
 Grenoble to Paris, without knowing his name, de- 
 sired on their arrival to lie presented to the celebrated 
 Gassendi, and was agreeably surprised to recognize his 
 identity with the modest companion of his journey. Be- 
 sides the works already referred to, he wrote, in Latin, 
 treatises on the laws of motion, a "System of Epicurean 1 
 Philosophy," (1649,) and "The Philosophical System 
 of Gassendi," ("Syntagma Philosophicum," etc., 1658.) 
 The last is rather an eclectic than an original system, 
 a selection and combination of the doctrines taught in 
 the various schools of antiquity. It may be observed 
 that in that age nearly all the philosophers of France 
 were ranged under the two parties of Cartesians and 
 Gassendists. Died in 1655. 
 
 See Bernier, "Abrege de la Philosophic de Gassendi," 1674; 
 Bougbrel, "Vie de Gassendi," 1737: Sorbiere, "DeVita et Mori- 
 bus P. Gassendi," 1679 ; Menc, " Eloge de Gassendi," 1767 ; Cam- 
 burat, "Abrege de la Vie et du Systeme de P. Gassendi," 17/0; A. 
 Martin, " Histoire de la Vie et des Ecrits de P. Gassendi," Paris, 
 1S53; Brucker, " History of Philosophy;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale. " 
 
 Gassendus. See Gassendi. 
 
 Gasser, gas'ser, (Johann Michael,) a learned Ger- 
 man writer, born at Schweinfurt in 1 700; died in 1754. 
 
 Gasser, (Simon Peter,) a German jurist and econo- 
 mist, born at Colberg in 1076. He was professor of law 
 and of political economy at Halle, and is said to have 
 been the first German who conceived the idea of treating 
 political economy as a science. His chief work is an 
 " Introduction to Economical and Political Sciences," 
 (1729.) Died in 1745. 
 
 See F. Wideburg, " Elogiuin S. P. Gasseri," 1746; Adelung, 
 Supplement to Jocher's "Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Gassicourt, de, (Charles Louis Cadet.) See 
 Cadet. 
 
 Gassies, gi'se', (Jean Baptists,) a French painter 
 of history, marine views, and genre, born at Bordeaux 
 in 1786. Among his works is " Virgil reading the /Eneid 
 to Augustus," (1814.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Gassies, (Jean Bafitste,) a French naturalist, born 
 at Agen in 1816. He published a "Description of the 
 Terrestrial and Fresh-Water Mollusks of the Agenais," 
 (1849,) and other works. 
 
 Gassion, de, deh gS'se'6N', (Jean,) a French general, 
 born at Pau in 1609, was attached to the Protestant cause, 
 and served with distinction under Gustavus Adolphus as 
 captain in 1631 and 1632. After the death of that prince 
 he returned to the French army, in which he soon ob- 
 tained the rank of marechal-de-camp. In 1643 he com- 
 manded the right wing at the battle of Rocroy, under the 
 famous Conde, who ascribed to him the honour of the 
 day, saying, on the field of battle, as he embraced Gas- 
 sion, " It is to you I am indebted for the victory." For 
 this service he was rewarded with a marshal s baton. 
 He took part in several campaigns against the Spaniard* 
 in Flanders, and was killed at the siege of Lens in 1647. 
 He was one of the most able and successful generals of 
 his time. In reply to an officer who thought a certain 
 enterprise impracticable, he said, " I have in my head, 
 and at my side, all that is requisite for victory." 
 
 See Rrnauuot, "La Vie du Marechal J. de (Mission," 1647; 
 MitMKl. DE Pure, " Vie de J. Gassion," 4 vols., 1673; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Gassner, gas'ner, (Johann Joseph,) a German exor- 
 cist, or thaumaturgus, and Catholic priest, born at liiatz 
 in 1727. He practised the imposition of hands lor the 
 cure of diseases. Died in 1779. 
 
 Gast, (Rev, John,) the son of a French Protestant 
 exile, was born in Dublin in 1716, and became Arch- 
 deacon of Glandclogh. lie published "Rudiments of 
 Greek History,-' (1754,) which is commended lor style and 
 other merits, and a " History of Greece from Alexander 
 of Macedon until its Subjection by the Romans," (1782.) 
 Died in 1788. 
 
 Gastaldi, gas-tal'dee, (Giroi.amo.) an Italian prelate, 
 born at Genoa. He ms made Archbishop of Benevento, 
 and cardinal, about 1658. Died ill 1685. 
 
 Gastaldi, gis'tal'de', (Jean Bai-iimi.) a French 
 medical writer, born at Sisteron in 1674. He practised 
 for many years at Avignon. Died in 1747. 
 
 : as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as^,- o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as x; th as in this. (2ry=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GASTAUD 
 
 1002 
 
 GATTERER 
 
 Gastaud, gSs'to', (Francois,) a French Jansenist and 
 controversialist, born at Aix about 1660; died in 1732. 
 
 Gastelier, gat'le^A', (Rene Georges,) a French phy- 
 sician and medical writer, born at Ferrieres in 1741, 
 practised in Paris with success. As a member of the 
 Legislative Assembly, he gave offence to the Jacobins, by 
 whom he was arrested in 1793, but was saved from death 
 by the fall of Robespierre. Died in 1821. 
 
 Gaston, g4s't6N', Viscount of Beam, was one of 
 the French lords who distinguished themselves in the 
 first crusade in company with Raimond of Toulouse. 
 He commanded a part of the army at the victory near 
 Antioch in 1098, and was present at the capture of Jeru- 
 salem, after which he returned home, (1101.) He was 
 killed in fighting against the infidels in Spain, about 1 130. 
 
 Gas'tcin, (William,) an eminent American jurist, 
 born at Newbern, North Carolina, in 1778, was chosen 
 in 1813 a member of the national House of Repre- 
 sentatives, in which he sat four years and acquired a 
 high reputation as a speaker. He was an influential 
 leader of the Federal party. In 1834 he was appointed 
 a judge of the supreme court of North Carolina. Died 
 in 1844. 
 
 See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. ii. 
 
 Gaston de Foix. See Foix, (Gaston de.) 
 
 Gas'trell, (Francis,) an English theologian, born at 
 Slapton (Northampton) in 1662. He became canon of 
 Christ Church, Oxford, in 1702, and Bishop of Chester 
 in 1 7 14. He published many approved religious treatises, 
 one of which, entitled "The Christian Institutes; or, 
 Sincere Word of God," (1707,) has been often reprinted. 
 He also wrote "The Certainty of the Christian Revela- 
 tion," (1699.) Died in 1725. 
 
 Gat'a-ker, (Charles,) an English clergyman, born 
 at Rotherhithe about 1614, was rector of Hoggeston for 
 about thirty years. He wrote treatises against popery, 
 and other religious works, among which is "The Way 
 of Truth and Peace," (1669.) Died in 1680. 
 
 See Wood, " Afhenai Oxonienses." 
 
 Gataker, (Thomas,) an English divine and critic of 
 great learning, the father of the preceding, was born in 
 London in 1574. He became rector of Rotherhithe, 
 Surrey, in 161 1, and published in 1616 "Of the Nature 
 and Use of Lots : a Treatise historical and theological." 
 He subscribed the Covenant, and during the Common- 
 wealth was in fellowship with the Presbyterians. Among 
 his works are excellent commentaries on Isaiah and 
 Jeremiah, published, with other "Annotations on the 
 Bible," by the Assembly of Divines at Westminster; 
 "Cinnus, seu Animadversiones Varire," 1651 ; and a 
 commentary on Marcus Aurelius's "Meditations," with 
 a Latin version. Died in 1654. 
 
 See a " Life of T. Gataker," London, 1655 ; "Biographia Britan- 
 nica ;" " Memoir of T. Gataker," prefixed to his "Adversaria mis- 
 cellanea posthuma," published by his son Charles in 1659; Nichron, 
 "Memoires." 
 
 Gates, gats, (Horatio,) a general, born in England 
 in 1728, entered the British army at an early age. 
 He served as captain in the army of General Braddock 
 when that general was defeated and mortally wounded, 
 near Pittsburg, in 1755. Retiring then from service, he 
 bought an estate in Virginia, where he resided when the 
 war of the Revolution broke out. Having espoused the 
 popular cause, his military talents and experience pro- 
 cured for him a rapid promotion. In 1776 he was made 
 major-general, and appointed to the command of the 
 Northern army, which had recently returned from the 
 invasion of Canada and was in the vicinity of Ticonde- 
 roga. General Schuyler was then in command of that 
 district. In order to prevent a collision, Congress de- 
 clared that in appointing Gates they had no intention 
 to supersede the former, but wished these two officers 
 to act in concert. The English general Carleton, with 
 a large force on Lake Champlain, advanced as far as 
 Crown Point, which he captured ; but, thinking the sea- 
 son too late to besiege the Americans, he retired into 
 winter quarters. At the return of spring, Schuyler had 
 the sole command. After the capture of Ticonderoga 
 by Burgoyne in July, 1777, all the Northern generals 
 were recalled by Congress, in a fit of disgust and vexa- 
 
 tion, and the choice of a new commander fell upon 
 Gates, who assumed about the 22d of August the com- 
 mand of an army of 6000 men, besides detached parties 
 of militia. On the 19th of September was fought the 
 battle of Bemus Heights, which was terminated by the 
 approach of night without decisive results. About this 
 time a party of militia had made a successful attack on 
 the British posts on Lake George, cut off Burgoyne's 
 communications, and rendered his position very critical. 
 The army of Gates was increased, September 22, by the 
 arrival of militia under General Lincoln, who received 
 command of the right wing. On the 7th of October, 
 1777, near the village of Stillwater, commenced another 
 battle, in which the Americans had gained decisive 
 advantages when darkness suspended the contest. The 
 British lost a large part of their artillery and ammuni- 
 tion, and during the night retired to higher ground, 
 where in the morning they appeared in order of battle. 
 After slight skirmishes on the 8th, Burgoyne abandoned 
 his position on the 9th, and retreated six miles to Sara- 
 toga, whither he was followed by General Gates and 
 blockaded. Being reduced to great distress, he opened 
 a treaty of capitulation, and surrendered, with the condi- 
 tions that his army (amounting then to 5642 men) should 
 give up their arms, artillery, and baggage, and be con- 
 veyed to England under a pledge not to serve'against 
 the United States. The capture of this army produced 
 great exultation among the Americans, and was one of 
 the most important events of the war. Burgoyne and 
 other British officers bore testimony to the humanity of 
 the victor in that campaign. In 1777 Gates was made 
 president of the board of war. In 1780 he was ap- 
 pointed to command the Southern army, consisting of 
 6000 men, chiefly militia. On August 6 he was totally 
 defeated at Camden, in South Carolina, by Cornwallis, 
 with a loss of 900 killed and of many prisoners. On ac- 
 count of this disaster, Congress, on October 5, ordered 
 inquiry to be made into the conduct of Gates, who 
 was in consequence superseded in the command, and 
 retired to his estate in Virginia. The inquiry resulted 
 in an honourable acquittal ; but it appears he took no 
 further part in the war. In 1800 he removed to New 
 York. Died in 1806. 
 
 . See Bancroft, "History of the United States;" Hildreth, 
 ''History of the United States," vol. iii., chaps, xxxiii., xxxvii., 
 and xl. 
 
 Gat'lin, (Richard Caswell,) born in North Carolina 
 about 1813, served in Mexico in 1845-46, and was made 
 a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Confederate army 
 in 1861. 
 
 Gatta, della, del'la gat'ta, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian 
 painter and architect, born about 1420, worked at Arezzo 
 and Rome. Died about 1500. 
 
 Gatta-Melata, gat'ta ma-la'ta, (Stefano Giovanni,) 
 an able Italian condottiere, born at Narni. As a general 
 in the service of Venice, he defeated the Marquis of 
 Mantua in 1438. Died in 1443. 
 
 Gatteaux, gi'to', (Jacques Edouard,) a French 
 artist, born in Paris in 1788, engraved medals of Mon- 
 taigne, Corneille, Racine, La Fayette, etc. Among his 
 works are statues of Michael Angelo for the Louvre, 
 and "Minerva," (1836,) which was purchased by the 
 state. 
 
 Gatteaux, (Nicolas Marie,) a French engraver of 
 medals, father of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1 75 1. 
 He engraved in 1798 the prize medal for the Ecole de 
 Medecine of Paris, which is regarded as his master-piece. 
 He illustrated many historical events by medals, and 
 made improvements in the mechanism of the art of 
 engraving. Died in 1832. 
 
 Gattel, gi'tel', (Claude Marie,) a lexicographer, 
 born in Lvons, France, in 1743, published a French- 
 Spanish Dictionary, (3 vols., 1790,) and a Portable French 
 Dictionary, (1797.) Died in 1812. 
 
 Gatterer, gat'ter-er, (Johann Christoph,) a German 
 historian, born near Nuremberg in 1727. He became 
 professor of history at Gottingen in 1759, and wrote 
 numerous works relating to history, chronology, and 
 genealogy, among which are "The Complete History 
 of the World," (2 vols., 1785-87,) "Universal Historical 
 Library," (i6vols., 1767,) and "Elements of the Diplo- 
 
 a, e, T, 6, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ti, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; m<55n; 
 
GATTERER 
 
 1003 
 
 GAUD1CHAUD 
 
 matic Art." He founded, in 1764, the Historical Insti- 
 tute at Gottingen. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Hkynk, " Elogium J. C. Gattereri," Gottingen, 1800: J. G. 
 Eichhorn, "J. C. Gatterer; biographische Skizze, 1800. 
 
 Gatterer, (Magdalene Philippine,) daughter of the 
 preceding, born at Gottingen or at Nuremberg in 1756, 
 published a volume of poems, "Neue Gedichte," (1821,) 
 which were favourably received. Died in 1831. 
 
 Gattey, gi't&'. (Francois,) a French mathematician, 
 bom at Dijon in 1753, published "Elements of the 
 New Metrical System," (1801,) and other works. Died 
 in 1819. 
 
 Gatti, gat'tee, (Bernardino,) an eminent Italian 
 painter, surnamed il Sogaro or Sogliaro, (sdl-ya'ro,) 
 was born about 1495. Cremona, Pavfa, and Vercelli 
 dispute the honour of having given him birth. He was 
 a pupil and successful imitator of Correggio, and worked 
 in Cremona and Parma. Vasari speaks in praise of his 
 skill. Among his master-pieces are frescos of "The 
 Miracle of the Loaves," at Cremona, and "The Ascen- 
 sion," near Cremona. Died about 1575. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Bryan, "Dictionary 
 of Painters." 
 
 Gatti, (Gervasio,) an Italian painter,- born at Cre- 
 mona about 1555, was a nephew and pupil of the pre- 
 ceding. His last works are dated in 163 1. 
 
 Gatti, (Giovanni,) an Italian Dominican friar, born 
 at Messina about 1420, professed theology at Florence 
 and Bologna, and in 1472 was made Bishop of Cefalii. 
 He possessed an extraordinary memory, and was dis- 
 tinguished for his attainments in languages, philosophy, 
 mathematics, etc. Died in 1484. 
 
 Gatti, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, born at Bo- 
 logna in 1662, was a pupil of Franceschini, of many of 
 whose works he made good copies. Died in 1726. 
 
 Gatti, (Oliviero,) an Italian engraver, born at Parma 
 about 1570. He worked at Bologna for many years. 
 
 Gattinara. See Arborio. 
 
 Gau, gow or go, (Franz Christian,) an architect, 
 born at Cologne in 1790. Having made a journey to 
 Egypt and Nubia and designed many ruins, he published 
 in 1823 "Antiquities of Nubia," with text by Niebuhr 
 and Letronne. He added two volumes to the work on 
 the "Ruins of Pompeii" which Mazois left unfinished. 
 He was naturalized as a Frenchman in 1825, and de- 
 signed several public buildings in Paris, by which he 
 gained a high reputation. His chief work is the church 
 of Saint Clotilde, commenced in 1846, the style of which 
 is pointed, or ogivale. Died in 1853. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Gaub, gowp, or Gaube, gow'beh, [Lat. Gau'bius,] 
 (Hikronymus David,) a German physician, born at 
 Heidelberg in 1705, was a favourite pupil of Boerhaave, 
 who procured him the succession to his chair of chem- 
 istry at Leyden about 1 73 1. In 1733 he obtained in 
 addition the chair of medicine, which he filled until his 
 death. He published several valuable works, among 
 which are " On the Government of the Mind which is 
 within the Province of Medicine," ("De Regimine Mentis 
 quod medicorum est," 1747,) and "Institutes of Pathol- 
 ogy." ("Institutiones Pathologise," 1758.) Died in 1780. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgeineine Encyklopaedie ;" J. Hi.ku- 
 land, "Oratio qua Memoria H. D. Gaubii commendatur," 1792; 
 " Bi< graphic MecJicaie." 
 
 Gaubert, go'baiR', (Paul Leon Marie,) a French 
 physician, born at Ermenonville in 1805, wrote, besides 
 other works, "The Hygiene of Digestion," (1845,) which 
 was very successful. 
 
 Gaubii, go'bel', (Antoinf.,) an eminent French mis- 
 sionary and Jesuit, who did much to promote a know- 
 ledge of the literature of Eastern Asia, was born at Gail- 
 lac in 1689. He went to China in 1723, and attained 
 such proficiency in the Chinese language and learning 
 that the native doctors confessed his superiority. He 
 was also well versed in the exact sciences and astronomy. 
 The Chinese emperor employed him for thirty years as 
 interpreter of the diplomatic correspondence with Russia, 
 and in other important offices. Gaubil's learning was 
 displayed in several profound works, the most remark- 
 able of which is his translation of the "Shoo-King," 
 (1 77 1,) a canonical treasury of Chinese history and 
 
 tradition. He published a " History of Jengis Khan ana 
 the Mongol Dynasty," 1739. Died in Pekin in 1759. 
 
 See A. UK Rkmusat, " Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques ;" G. 
 Pauthier, "La Clime;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeiiiSrale." 
 
 Gaubius. See Gaub. 
 
 Gaucher, go'slia', (Charles Etienne,) a French 
 engraver, born in Paris in 1740. He wrote "Iconologie," 
 a treatise on Allegories and Emblems, (4 vols., 1796,) 
 and other essays on art. Died in 1804. 
 
 Gaucher d'e Chastillon. See Chastillon. 
 
 Gaucourt, go'kook', (Raoul,) a French commander, 
 who fought for Charles VII. against the English. He 
 was appointed grand master of France in 1450, and 
 again in 1456. 
 
 Gau'den, (John,) an English bishop and author, born 
 at Mayland, Essex, in 1605. In 1640, being then favour- 
 able to the popular party, he preached a sermon before 
 the House of Commons, in consequence of which he 
 obtained the deanery of Bocking. During the civil war 
 and under the Commonwealth he kept his preferments, 
 but ultimately joined the royalist party and wrote several 
 tracts in its support. At the restoration he became, in 
 1660, chaplain to Charles IL, and Bishop of Exeter ; but, 
 as this did not satisfy him, he was, in 1662, transferred 
 to the see of Worcester. His death, which occurred in 
 1662, was thought to have been hastened by the refusal 
 of the king to reward him with the rich bishopric of 
 Winchester, In soliciting preferment and royal favour, 
 he claimed to be the real author of the famous " Eikon 
 Basilike," or "Portrait of his Sacred Majesty in his 
 Solitude and Sufferings," which was published a few 
 days after the death of Charles I. and was generally 
 supposed to have been written by that king. This 
 book ran through many editions, and made so great an 
 impression that the potent voice of Milton was invoked 
 to counteract it. This question of authorship has been 
 discussed at much length ; and the majority of critics 
 seem to be agreed that Gauden was the author of the 
 above-named work, or at least had a share in its com- 
 position. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses;" Nichols, "Literary Anec- 
 dotes;" "Biographia Britannica ;" " Edinburgh Review' for June, 
 1826, (vol. xliv.) 
 
 Gaudentius. See Gaudenzio. 
 
 Gaudentius, gaw-den'she-us, Saint, was chosen 
 Bishop of Brescia about 387^0. He wrote the life of 
 his friend Saint Philaster, and several discourses and 
 sermons, which are still extant. Died about 420. 
 
 See Cave, "Historia Literaria." 
 
 Gaudenzi, gow-dSn'zee, (Peli.egrino,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Forli in 1749, removed to Padua in 1775. 
 He wrote in 1781 "The Birth of Christ," ("La Nascita 
 di Cristo,") which produced a vivid sensation and was 
 much admired, and " La Campagna." He was endued 
 with fine sensibility. Died in 1784. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" Meneghrlli, 
 "Elogio storico di P. Gaudenzi, i8ir. 
 
 Gaudenzio, gow-d&i'ze-o, [Lat.GAUDEN'Tius,] (Pa- 
 gan in I,) an eminent savant and writer, born at Poschiavo, 
 in Switzerland, in 1596, exchanged in youth Calvinism 
 for the Catholic faith. From 1628 to 1648 he taught 
 belles-lettres in the University of Pisa, then the most 
 flourishing in Italy. He wrote, in Latin, many ora- 
 tions, and dissertations on philosophy and antiquities, 
 among which his " Rise and Progress of Philosophy 
 among the Romans" (1643) is esteemed the best. Died 
 in 1648. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita; Italorum doctrina excellemium ;" Nicbron, 
 '' Memoires." 
 
 Gaudichaud - Beaupre, go'de'sho' b5'pRa', 
 (Charles,) a French botanist, born at Angouleme in 
 1780. He served as botanist of Freycinet's scientific 
 expedition of 1816—20, and wrote the botanical part of 
 the work which was the result of that voyage. In 1836 
 -37 he made a voyage around the world in the Bonite. 
 Among his works are " Researches on Organography, 
 Physiology, and Organogeny," (1841,) and "The Botany 
 of the Voyage around the World in the Bonite." Died 
 in Paris in 1854. 
 
 See Louandrk et Bourquelot, "La Litte'rature Francaise:" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale :" E. Pascallet, "Notice bio- 
 gntphique sur M. Gaudichaud- Beauprtf," 1S44. 
 
 € as £; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
GAUD IN 
 
 1004 
 
 GAUTAMA 
 
 Gaudin, go'daN', (Jean,) a French grammarian and 
 Jesuit, born m Poitou in 161 7, published a " Latin Gram- 
 mar," and a " Dictionary of the Latin, Greek, and French 
 Languages," (1680.) Died about 1690. 
 
 Gaudin, gow-den', (Luis Pascal,) a Spanish painter 
 of history, born at Villa-Franca in 1556 ; died in 1621. 
 
 Gaudin, (Marc Antoine Augustin,) a French 
 chemist, born at Saintes in 1804. He invented in 1827 
 an air-pump which compresses air or reverses that pro- 
 cess at will, and discovered a method to convert beef 
 into a substance like milk. Among his works are a 
 "Practical Treatise on Photography," (1845,) and one 
 on the "Grouping of Atoms," etc., (1847.) 
 
 Gaudin, (Martin Michel Charles,) Duke of Gaeta, 
 an able French minister of finance, born at Saint-Denis, 
 near Paris, in 1756. He was one of six commissioners 
 of the treasury appointed by the Assembly in 1791, and 
 was minister of finance from November 10, 1799, until 
 April, 1814. This protracted official career was almost 
 without example among French financiers. He was 
 created Duke of Gaeta in 1809. The restoration of the 
 national credit is ascribed to him. He was governor of 
 the Bank of France from 1820 to 1834. He published 
 several treatises on finance. Died in 1844. 
 
 See his " M&noires, Souvenirs," etc., 2vols., 1826: A. Portai.is, 
 "EssaisurlaVieet 1' Administration du Due de Gae'te," 1842; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Gaudy, gow'dee, (Franz BernhardHeinrich Wil- 
 helm,) Baron of, a German poet and litterateur, of 
 Scottish extraction, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 
 1800. He published a number of popular lyrics and 
 tales, and made translations from the Polish writers 
 Mickiewicz and Niemcewicz. Died in 1840. 
 
 Gauermann, gow'er-man', (Frieduich,) a German 
 landscape-painter, born near Guttenstein, in Austria, in 
 1807. He exhibited in 1834, at Vienna, " The Labourer," 
 which was very successful. He was also a skilful painter 
 of animals. Died in 1862. 
 
 Gauermann, (Jakob,) a German landscape-painter 
 and engraver, the father of the preceding, was born near 
 Stuttgart in 1772. His best works represent scenes in 
 the Tyrol, which are greatly admired. 
 
 Gauffier, go'fe-i', (Louis,) a French painter, born at 
 Rochelle in 1761^ He gained the first prize at Paris in 
 1784, and went with a royal pension to Rome, where he 
 painted "Achilles recognized by Ulysses," and "The 
 Roman Ladies offering their Jewels to the Senate." Died 
 at Florence in 1801. 
 
 Gauli or Gaulli. See Baciccio. 
 
 Gaullyer, gol'ya', (Denis,) born at Clery, in France, 
 in 1688, was a professor in the University of Paris. He 
 published " Poetical Rules drawn from Aristotle and 
 others," (1728.) Died in 1736. 
 
 Gaulmin, gol'maN', (Gilbert,) a French philologist 
 and linguist of great learning, was born at Moulins in 
 1585. He became a councillor of state, and a partisan 
 of Mazarin. He wrote Latin epigrams, odes, and ele- 
 gies, and published an edition of the romance of " Is- 
 mene and Ismenias," with a Latin version, (1618.) He 
 is highly praised by Baillet and Colomies. Died in 1665. 
 
 See Baillet, " Jugements des Savants," tomes ii. and iv. 
 
 Gault, go, (Jean Baptiste,) a French priest, born at 
 Tours in 1595. He was appointed Bishop of Marseilles 
 about 1640. Died in 1643. 
 
 See Senault, "Vie de J. B. Gault," 1647. 
 
 Gaulthier, go'te-i', [Lat. Walte'rius, 1 an able 
 French theologian and statesman, born at Orleans, was 
 bishop of that place in 876. Died in 892 a.d. 
 
 Gaultier, go'te-a', (Aloysius Edouard Camii.le,) 
 Abbe, born of French parents in Italy in 1744, was noted 
 for his benevolence and his zealous efforts to improve 
 the method of education. For this purpose he invented 
 games for children and wrote many popular school-books. 
 During the Revolution he took refuge in England, 
 whence he returned to Paris about 1802. Died in 1S18. 
 
 Gaultier, (Charles,) a'French advocate, noted for 
 his eloquence and powerful sarcasm, was born in Paris in 
 1590 ; died in 1666. Boileau, in his Ninth Satire, says, 
 "Dans vosdiscours chagrins plus aigre et plus mordant 
 Qu'une t'emme en iurie ou Gaultier en plaidant." 
 
 See Taisand, " Vies des Jurisconsultes." 
 
 Gaultier, gowl'teeR, (Leonard,) a German engraver, 
 born at Mentz in 1552. His master-piece is "The Last 
 Judgment," after Michael Angelo. 
 
 Gaultier or Gaultier de Lille, go'te-i' deh lei, 
 (Philippe,) born at Lille, in Flanders. He wrote a Latin 
 heroic poem, entitled "Alexandreis," on the exploits of 
 Alexander the Great, which was once in great vogue. Died 
 about 1200. One of his verses has become proverbial : 
 " Instabile est regnum quod non dementia firniat."* 
 
 Gaultier (or Gautier) de Coutances, go'te-A' deh 
 koo'toNss', [Lat. Gualte'rus de Constan'tiis,] an 
 English or Norman prelate and statesman, acted an 
 important part in the affairs of his time, and became 
 Archbishop of Rouen in 1184. Under Richard I. he en- 
 joyed great credit as a minister of state. Died in 1207. 
 
 Gaupp, gowp, (Ernst Theodor,) a German jurist, 
 and professor of law at Breslau, born in Lower Silesia 
 in 1796. 
 
 Gaurico, gow-ree'ko, (Luca,) [Fr. Luc Gauric, liik 
 go'rek',] an Italian astrologer, born at Gifoni in 1476. 
 He obtained eminence as a fortune-teller, and professed 
 mathematics at Ferrara in 1531. In 1545 he was chosen 
 Bishop of Civitata. He wrote treatises on astronomy, 
 astrology, and geometry. Died in 1558. 
 
 Gaurico, [Fr. Gauric, go'rek',] (Pomponio,) an Ital- 
 ian poet, brother of the preceding, was born at Gifoni. 
 He wrote a treatise on sculpture, and One on the- Poetic 
 Art, (1541 ;) also epigrams, elegies, songs, and other 
 verses. He was supposed to have been murdered about 
 15:50, as he disappeared and was never found. 
 
 Gauss, gowss, (Kaki. Friedrich,) a profound Ger- 
 man mathematician, born at Brunswick on the 30th of 
 April, 1777, was educated at Gottingen. He published 
 in 1801 a remarkable work on transcendental arithmetic, 
 entitled "Arithmetical Disquisitions," (" Disquisitiones 
 Arithmetics,") which made an epoch in the history of 
 the science. He increased his reputation by his calcu- 
 lations of the elements of the planets Ceres and Pallas, 
 for which the French Institute awarded him a medal in 
 1810. In 1807 he was appointed professor of astronomy 
 and director of the Observatory at Gottingen. He pub- 
 lished in 1809 his celebrated work, "Theory of the Mo- 
 tion of the Celestial Bodies," ("Theoria Motus Corporum 
 Ccelestium,") in which he developed an improved method 
 for calculating the orbits of planets and comets. He 
 invented the heliotrope, which he used in a triangulation 
 between Gottingen and Altona about 1822. About 1832 
 he associated himself with Weber in researches in ter- 
 restrial magnetism. They contributed greatly to perfect 
 this science, and published " Results of the Observations 
 of the Magnetic Society, ( Verein,) 1837-40." Gauss was 
 author of other .works. He had a remarkable facility in 
 learning languages. Laplace is reported to have called 
 him " the greatest mathematician of Europe." Died at 
 Gottingen in February, 1855. 
 
 See Wai.tkrshausen, " Memoir of Gauss," (in German ;) " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Gaussen, go'sSN', (Etienne,) a French Protestant 
 theologian, born at Nimes, became professor of philoso- 
 phy at Saumur in 1651, and of theology in 1655. He 
 wrote several Latin works, that were highly esteemed, 
 among which is " De Ratione Studii theologici," (1670.) 
 Died at Saumur in 1675. 
 
 Gaussin, go'saN', ( [eanne Catherine,) a celebrated 
 French actress, born about 1713, made her debut in Paris 
 in 1 73 1 with unanimous applause. Voltaire confided to 
 her the role of "Zaire" in his tragedy of that name, the 
 success of which was ascribed to her by the public, and 
 even by the author. She was most successful in parts 
 characterized by fine and artless sensibility. She retired 
 from the stage in 1763, and died in 1767. Her father's 
 name was GaUSSEM. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Correspondance ;*' Arsene Houssaye, "Phi- 
 losophers and Actresses.*' 
 
 Gau'ta-ma [Hindoo pron. gow'ta-ma] or Go^ta-ma, 
 called also Gautama Booddha or Buddha.t (bood'da,) 
 i.e. " Gautama the Sage," Sakya Muni, (slk'ya moo'nl,) 
 " Sakya the Sage," and Sakya Sinha, " Sakya the Lion," 
 
 * "That kingdom which elemenev does not establish is unstable.'* 
 t Booddha (Gautama) is called FO by the Chinese, and B00DSUO 
 by the Japanese.— The name, in French, is Gaoutama Bouddha. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, ?, short; a, e, j, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
GAUTAMA 
 
 1005 
 
 GAUTAMA 
 
 the name of a celebrated Hindoo reformer, commonly sup- 
 posed to have been the founder of Bo&ddhism. Respect- 
 ing the time that he lived, the greatest diversity prevails 
 among the different Bd&ddhistic authorities, several 
 maintaining that he was born more than a thousand, and 
 some not less than two thousand, years before the Chris- 
 tian era. Recent European writers, however, appear to 
 have adopted approximatively the date given by the Cey- 
 lonese Booddhists, from whom we have the fullest and, 
 on the whole, the most satisfactory account, both of Gau- 
 tama and his doctrines, that can anywhere be found. 
 According to the Ceylonese writers, Gautama was born 
 in 624 and died in 543 B.C.* He was of the Kshatria 
 or warrior caste, of the Sakyat family or tribe, and the 
 son of Sudhodana,} King of Maghada, of which the chief 
 city was Kapilavastu, supposed to have been situated 
 near the modern Bahar. In early life he was commonly 
 ailed Siddharta, (sld-liaVta.§) 
 
 The Hooddhistic legends surpass in extravagance every- 
 thing that can elsewhere be found in the records of 
 banian invention. Yet not only is some knowledge of 
 these legend- Indispensable to a just appreciation of the 
 spirit and genua of Booddhism, but it is through them 
 alone that we can reach the few scattered germs of his- 
 toric truth existing in the various accounts of Gautama 
 which have come down to us.|| 
 
 According to the legends respecting Gautama, his birth 
 was attended with great wonders : the earth quaked, the 
 sun, moon, and stars stood still, the blind saw, the lame 
 walked, etc. When he reached the age of sixteen, his 
 father, fearing lest he might become a priest, was anxious 
 to have him married. The young Siddharta made out a 
 long list of qualities, personal and moral, which he con- 
 sidered it necessary that his wife should possess. With 
 this list the court priest went from house to house through 
 Kapilavastu, and at length found a maiden fulfilling all 
 the requisitions; but her father insisted that Siddharta, 
 before marrying her, should give proof that he was 
 skilled in all knightly accomplishments, as well as in 
 learning and wisdom. At a public trial he came off 
 victorious over all competitors We are twH that he 
 was examined in botany and zoology as well as in 
 mathematics and philosophy. According to another 
 legend, of which the boundless extravagance suggests a 
 much later date, Sudhodana sent to certain of the neigh- 
 bouring kings to obtain their daughters as wives for his 
 son ; they refused, on the ground that the young prince 
 was inexperienced, and especially that he was unac- 
 quainted with the arts of war, and could not, therefore, 
 defend himself against the powerful enemies by whom 
 he was surrounded. Piqued at this answer, Siddharta 
 resolved to give public proof of his strength and skill. 
 A day having been fixed for that purpose, in the pres- 
 ence of a vast concourse of kings and warriors, he 
 carelessly took up a bow requiring the strength of a 
 thousand men to bend it. By merely thrumming the 
 string he produced a sound louder than the loudest 
 thunder, filling the inhabitants of distant provinces with 
 terror. He then placed four plantain-leaves at each 
 corner of a square, and with a single flight of his arrow* 
 pierced them all. Even in the dark he could send an 
 arrow with an aim so unerring as to divide a hair. By 
 his ready answers to the most difficult and abstruse 
 questions, he showed that his wisdom was not inferior 
 
 * Kiippen, after a careful and thorough examination of the sub- 
 ject, comes to the conclusion that the death of SSkya Muni should 
 be placed, in round numbers, about two centuries before Asoka, 
 (Acoka.) and that he (SJkya) was very probably the contemporary 
 of Darius Hystaspes, or Xerxes. 
 
 t Written Sakja and f^akja in German. 
 
 X Written also C.udhodana and Qoudhodana. 
 
 § SiddhSna or SiddhSrtha (written also Sidhartta) is an abbrevia- 
 tion or corruption of SarvAkthasiddha, i.e. the " fulfilment of every 
 wish." 
 
 K The intelligent reader need scarcely be informed that nothing 
 deserving the name of history, as this word is understood among the 
 nations of the West, is to be found in the literature of anv portion of 
 India, excepting onlv the little kingdom of Cashmere. The Hindoo 
 mind, indeed, though gifted with extraordinary intelligence and rare 
 sagacity in some departments of thought, would seem to be wholly 
 incapable of appreciating the value of historic truth. It is not the 
 probability or truth, but the grandeur, of a statement, which carries 
 conviction to the minds of the people of India 1 and their religious 
 teachers are too wise or too sympathetic not to meet the popular 
 demand. 
 
 to his strength or skill. The neighbouring kings were 
 abundantly satisfied ; and not long after, no fewer than 
 forty thousand princesses were sent to be the inmates 
 of Siddharta's palace.* Later accounts give the young 
 prince eighty-four thousand concubines, besides two or 
 three lawlul wives. For a time the son of Sudhodana 
 lived in the enjoyment of every pleasure that youth and 
 power could bestow. 
 
 At length a feeling of the utter vanity of all earthly 
 things took possession of his mind ; a divine influence 
 brought to him some dim remembrance of the innume- 
 rable sacrifices he had made in previous transmigrations 
 in order to attain the Booddhaship and to free all living 
 beings from the pains of existence. (See Booddha.) 
 His father, warned by dreams and prophecies, tried to 
 keep Siddharta confined in his seraglio and in total 
 ignorance of the world around him. But once, as the 
 young prince happened to walk out, he saw an old man, 
 with bent body, wrinkled face, bald head, and trembling 
 limbs. Astonished at the sight, he asked his attendant 
 what it was. The latter simply answered, " It is an old 
 man." But when, on further inquiries, Siddharta learned 
 that decrepitude and misery were the lot of all in advanced 
 age, he returned to his home full of sorrow. "What," 
 thought he," can pleasure or power avail me if at last I must 
 come to this ?" On another occasion he saw one afflicted 
 with incurable leprosy and covered with sores, without 
 a guide or helper. He exclaimed, "Alas! for youth 
 which is destroyed by age, and for health which is under- 
 mined by every form of disease !" At length he met a 
 beggar, who was a religious devotee, and whose whole 
 appearance betokened inward composure and peace. 
 Siddharta at last decides to renounce the world ; he now 
 remembers that he is a Bodhisattva, or Bodhisat, (an 
 aspirant to the Booddhaship,) and, in spite of the most 
 determined opposition from his father, he resolves to 
 devote his life to teaching mortals how to escape from 
 the miseries of their changeful existence. According to 
 the doctrine of the Booddhists, Siddharta did not owe 
 his wonderful gifts or his spirit of self-sacrifice to the 
 mere accident of his having been born with a happy 
 intellectual and physical constitution ; but the merit 
 which he had acquired in innumerable previous exist- 
 ences caused him, by an unerring, inevitable law, to be 
 thus wonderfully endowed in his last and most perfect 
 birth. (See Booddha.) That power or principle which 
 causes any being to be born in a condition corresponding 
 to the merit or demerit acquired in previous transmi- 
 grations, is termed Karma, (or Kiirma,) a Sanscrit term 
 signifying "work" or "action." It may be regarded as 
 the combined result of all one's previous acts, whether 
 good or evil. "Destiny fSMctial) in its Hooddhistic 
 acceptation," says Kiippen, " is the product of the merit 
 and the guilt of* living (bcseelten) creatures. . . . Every 
 deed, whether good or evil, operates through endless 
 periods, on and on, and bears, even after a hundred 
 thousand kalpas.t its inevitable fruit, until its effect is 
 destroyed through perfect sinlessness." (See " Religion 
 des Buddha," p. 285.) 
 
 I Siddharta having, by his perseverance in acts of be- 
 nevolence and self-sacrifice performed through innume- 
 rable previous transmigrations, accomplished everything 
 necessary to make him a supreme Booddha, he acquired, 
 at last, unlimited intelligence and power. But, after 
 resigning the pleasures and splendours of royalty, it 
 was necessary for him to pass through various trials 
 and to overcome the opposition of powerful enemies — 
 among others, that of Mara, a mighty (leva (or deity) — 
 before he could attain to complete deification. 
 
 We are told, in true Oriental style, that, in his great 
 contest with Mara, the latter, accompanied by all the 
 powers of evil, came to the conflict riding on an elephant 
 one hundred and fifty miles high. Mountains of immeas- 
 urable size are hurled at the Bodhisattva ; but the mo- 
 ment they touch him they are changed into wreaths and 
 
 • It would appear that both in ancient and modertt titnet it ha? 
 been customary in the East to measure the splendour and dignity 01 
 a sovereign by the number of his wives. Akbar, the greatest of the 
 Mogul emperors, is said to have had more than five thousand, each 
 lady having a separate -apartment for herself. 
 
 T KilpS (a day and night of Brahma) is a period of 4320 millions 
 of our years. 
 
 e as 4; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s ass; th as in this. (J[y See Explanations p. 23.) 
 
GAUTAMA 
 
 1006 
 
 GAUTAMA 
 
 festoons of flowers ; at the same time the poison, which 
 is spit upon him by his demoniac foes", becomes a halo of 
 glory round his head. Having at last come off victorious 
 over all his enemies, he becomes possessor of boundless 
 wisdom and knowledge, and not only remembers with 
 perfect distinctness all his experiences in his innume- 
 rable previous existences, but he also knows the exact 
 circumstances of all the beings who have ever existed in 
 the infinite worlds, and receives that divine vision which 
 enables him to see the remotest parts of the universe as 
 distinctly as if they were close at hand. "Then the be- 
 ings of all the infinite sakwalas (or worlds) who had not 
 before enjoyed that privilege, saw a supreme Booddha, 
 and rejoiced in the rays of many-coloured light which 
 proceeded from his person." Among the characteris- 
 tics of beauty belonging to Booddha are mentioned curly 
 locks and a golden-coloured complexion : accordingly, 
 we always see his statues represented with curly hair ; 
 and generally, if not invariably, they are of a yellow 
 colour.* The person of Booddha, it is said, was ordi- 
 narily only twelve cubits in height ; but, when he willed 
 to do so, he could enlarge himself beyond the limits of 
 the highest heaven. 
 
 The followers of Gautama believe that throughout 
 myriads of ages he voluntarily endured the severest 
 privations, and often the most dreadful sufferings, in 
 order that he might at last save the inhabitants of the 
 different worlds from the miseries of existence. Millions 
 of centuries ago he had acquired sufficient merit to enter 
 Nirvana or Nirwana, (the supreme beatitude of the Bood- 
 dhists ;) but he preferred to suffer through countless 
 ages, that he might become the benefactor of all beings. 
 The Booddhists believe that in the universe the worlds 
 (sakwalas) are beyond all computation. Each sakwala 
 includes an earth, with its continents, islands, and oceans, 
 as well as a number of heavens and hells, and is in- 
 habited in its different parts by various beings, such as 
 animals, men, demons, devas, and brahmas. The devas 
 (da'vas) are a sort of inferior deities. The brahmas are 
 an order of godlike beings, who hold the highest rank 
 among all the inhabitants of the universe, a Booddha 
 alone excepted. Their state of passionless repose 
 strongly reminds us of Lucretius's description of the 
 gods of Epicurus, from whom they differ, however, in 
 not possessing absolute immortality : 
 
 " Omnis eiiim per se Divom natura necesse est 
 Immortali sevo summa cum pace fruatur, 
 Semota ab nostris rebus sejunctaque longe; 
 Nam privata doloreomni, privata periclis, 
 Ipsa suis pollens opibus, nihil indiga nostri, 
 Nee bene promeritis capitur, nee tangitur ira\"1 
 
 De Rentm Neiturd, lib. i. 
 One of the abodes of the devas is termed a devaloka, 
 and an abode of the brahmas is called a brahmaloka. 
 The ages of the different inhabitants of the universe vary 
 according to the 16ka which they occupy. The most 
 short-lived of the devas live nine millions of our years ; 
 while those who enjoy the greatest longevity live more 
 than nine thousand million years. The life-term of the 
 brahmas also varies greatly; but it would be almost im- 
 possible to express in figures the age even of those whose 
 lives are the briefest. Some of the Booddhistic writers, 
 however, have endeavoured to convey an idea of those 
 immeasurable periods in the following manner. There is 
 fabricated in India a species of cotton cloth unequalled 
 in the delicacy of its texture ; it is sometimes called 
 " woven wind," (in Latin, " ventus textilis.") Now, were 
 
 * See Moor's "Hindu Pantheon." p. 229. It appears that be- 
 fore Gautama's appearance as supreme Booddha, tlie putting on of 
 a yellow garment was an indication that the wearer had renounced 
 the world and become an ascetic. (See Koppen, pp. S3 and 85.) 
 Whether Booddha's golden complexion may have been given to him 
 in commemoration of his forrner character as an ascetic, we are un- 
 able to say ; but it is still a prevailing, if not universal, custom, among 
 the Booddhist priesthood, in many parts of the world, to wear a 
 yellow dress. 
 
 t The following, by Dr. Good, though very imperfect, is perhaps 
 the best poetical translation into English that has been made of the 
 above passage : 
 
 " Far, far from mortals and their vain concerns, 
 In peace perpetual, dwell the immortal gods, 
 Each self-dependent and from human wants 
 Estranged forever. There nor pain pervades, 
 Nor danger threatens ; every passion sleeps ; 
 Vice no revenge, no rapture virtue prompts.*' 
 
 one to touch with this material, ever so lightly, once in a 
 hundred years, a mountain of solid rock sixteen miles 
 high and as many broad, the mountain would at length 
 be completely worn to dust. But the time required for 
 this would not amount to the thousandth part of the life- 
 term of the greater number of the brahmas. 
 
 There is also an endless variety of beings of a less ex- 
 alted order, and of various forms. Some of these, called 
 Nagas, appear as serpents, but are in fact demi-gods. 
 The Garundas are like immense birds, and are repre- 
 sented as the mortal enemies of the Nagas. The Asuras, 
 (or Asurs,) who hold so prominent a place in the Bnth- 
 manical mythology, are too important to be omitted from 
 a system of exaggeration designed to throw all the fic- 
 tions of the Brahmans into the shade. Accordingly, we 
 have them in all their glory. Rahu, (ra'hoo,) one of the 
 Astir chiefs, is expressly stated to be 76,800 miles high, 
 and 19,200 miles across the shoulders. The Pretas 
 (pra'tas) are unhappy beings, of immense size, but so 
 wasted and thin as to resemble a dry leaf. 
 
 Respecting the doctrines taught by Gautama him- 
 self, we cannot safely affirm anything positively. There 
 seems, however, to be no reason to doubt that the primi- 
 tive Booddhists were atheists. Those of Ceylon, (who 
 have confessedly departed the least from the primitive 
 doctrines of Booddhism,) as well as the most ancient 
 sect of Nepaul; (the Swabhavlkas,) are, strictly speaking, 
 atheists, since they do not recognize any infinite self- 
 existent Spirit who is the original source of all forms of 
 being. They teach that an infinite multitude of separate 
 finite souls have always existed. Some sects maintain 
 that nothing exists in the universe except matter, which 
 is endowed with certain inherent, inseparable properties, 
 causing it to arrange itself in forms of beauty and order, 
 and, consequently, that the souls of living beings are 
 material. While thus teaching that existence had no 
 beginning, they maintain not only that under every form 
 it is an evil, but that, except where it is voluntarily en- 
 dured, as in the case of the aspirants to the Booddhaship, 
 it- is invariably associated with demerit. If any being, 
 whether man, deva, or brahma, had sufficient merit, he 
 would at once enter Nirvana and cease to have any 
 separate existence. 
 
 We have already spoken of the Karma (that power or 
 destiny that determines the condition in which any being 
 is to be born) as the combined influence or result of all 
 one's previous actions, whether good or evil. In assign- 
 ing to any one a place or condition according to the 
 aggregate of the actions of his past existence, the Karma 
 is held to be absolutely unerring, and irresistible as the 
 decrees of fate. (To this, however, there is one excep- 
 tion : a candidate for the Booddhaship may voluntarily 
 relinquish a superior condition for one far inferior, in 
 order to gain more merit.) Nothing except severe pen- 
 ance and blameless conduct, continued through immeas- 
 urable periods, can suffice to change an evil Karma for 
 a good one. The very shortest period that any of the 
 inhabitants of Naraka (or hell) remain in torment is 
 nine millions of our years. The great object for which 
 a supreme Booddha is manifested is not only to en- 
 courage the various beings burdened with existence to 
 enter the paths which lead to Nirvana, but also to facili- 
 tate their progress therein. The Booddhists do not hold 
 that a supreme Booddha is able to deliver any being 
 from the evils of existence by his own direct power ; 
 but in various ways he can afford them opportunities of 
 acquiring merit. Through his divine knowledge he can 
 point out to them the true "paths," and by his divine 
 eloquence he can often prevail upon the most reluctant 
 to enter the way leading to Nirvana. The preaching 
 [bana, or " word") of Gautama is said to have exerted an 
 astonishing influence upon the minds of his hearers. " It 
 was," to adopt the language of his enthusiastic votaries, 
 "as a divine charm to cure the poison of evil desire; a 
 sovereign medicine to heal the disease of anger; a lamp 
 in the midst of the darkness of ignorance ; an all-con- 
 suming fire to destroy the evils of repeated existence ; 
 a meridian sun to dry up the mud of covetousness ; a 
 great rain to quench the flame of sensuality," etc. etc. 
 
 There are five great commandments, called "pun'cha 
 seel," (or pancha sil,) i.e. the " five duties or ordinances," 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; not; good; moon: 
 
GAUTAMA 
 
 1007 
 
 GAUTAMA 
 
 which are especially binding on all the followers of Bood- 
 dha, laymen as well as priests, viz. : 1. Do not kill ; 2. 
 Do not violate the law of chastity ; 3. Do not steal ; 4. 
 Do not lie ; 5. Do not drink intoxicating liquors. The 
 transgressor of any one of the above commands is liable 
 — unless there be important extenuating circumstances — 
 to suffer in Naraka for myriads of ages. It may be ob- 
 served that the Booddhistic idea as to what constitutes a 
 lie differs materially from that entertained by European 
 nations : according to the fdYmer, there must not only be 
 an intentional misstatement with a purpose to deceive, 
 but there must also be the discovery by the person deceived 
 that what has been told him is untrue. (Hardy's " Manual 
 of Budhism," p. 469.) 
 
 In regard to all classes of transgression, the degree of 
 sin depends greatly upon the attending circumstances, 
 and especially upon the character or condition of the 
 person sinned against. Thus, to steal from a skeptic is 
 a comparatively small offence ; to steal from a priest is 
 a grievous sin ; but to steal from the associated priest- 
 hood is a crime of the blackest dye. 
 
 The Booddhist priesthood are required to observe not 
 merely the five great precepts above mentioned, but 
 a multitude of other ordinances, of the most stringent 
 character, among which are the following. The priest 
 must live on alms, and, if in good health, must himself 
 carry the alms-bowl from house to house. He must not 
 only observe the strictest celibacy, but he must (unless 
 in company with other men) avoid as far as possible the 
 presence of women : he must not sit on the same seat 
 with one in any private place, nor may he accompany a 
 woman on a journey even from one end of a village to 
 the other. He must eat his food " meditatively," not for 
 the pleasure it gives him, but merely for the purpose of 
 warding off untimely death. He must in no case eat 
 food after mid-day. A priest who has entered one of 
 the paths leading to NirvSna is called a Rahat (rah'hat) 
 or Ar'hat, (written also Archat.) The common term for 
 the system of doctrines and precepts of Gautama is 
 Dharmma, (or, as it is more usually written, Dharma,) 
 (pronounced dur'ma,) that is, the "law," "virtue," 
 "duty." The followers of Booddha are commonly called, 
 in India, Bauddhas, (bowd'has.) 
 
 The Booddhists believe that all living creatures are 
 homogeneous in their essence, the only difference being 
 accidental and caused solely by a difference of merit, 
 Hence a worm or insect may be as truly our brother, 
 according to the profoundest and most essential laws 
 of relationship, as a human being. Booddhism cannot, 
 therefore, properly be said to teach- the brotherhood of 
 mankind, but rather the brotherhood of all creatures. 
 It teaches that not merely all animals, including the 
 vilest insects, have souls, but that the seeds of plants 
 have souls also. And this may furnish the reason why 
 a priest is required to live on alms, since in no other 
 way could he escape the responsibility of taking life. If 
 he caused grain to be ground, he would disembody the 
 souls of innumerable beings; but by living on offal he 
 merely uses for his sustenance that which would other- 
 wise be thrown aside and wasted. In regard to the re- 
 lationship subsisting between different creatures, "with 
 the exception," says Hardy, "of those beings who have 
 entered one of the four paths leading to Nirvana, there 
 mav be an interchange of condition between the highest 
 and the lowest. He who is now the most degraded of 
 demons may me day rule the highest of the heavens ; 
 he who is at present seated upon the most honourable 
 of the celestial thrones may one day writhe amid the 
 agonies of a place of torment ; and the worm which we 
 crush under our feet mav in the course of ages become 
 a Supreme Budha." ("Manual of Budhism," p. 36.) 
 
 The highest element of Booddhism was a feeling of 
 benevolence and sympathy for other men or other 
 creatures, — unquestionably the highest and noblest of 
 human impu'ses. It was called into action by what was 
 probably the most|oppressive and fearful tyranny under 
 which any great people ever suffered. It was not the 
 tyranny of one or of a few tyrants, from which there might 
 be some hope of escape by flight or concealment, but 
 the tyranny of a multitudinous class, — of a class generally 
 believed to be necessary to the very existence not merely 
 
 of the state, but of the separate individuals composing 
 the nation, (see "Institutes of Manu," i. 101 ; see, also, 
 ix. 313-319,) and penetrating with its terrible and ail-but 
 omnipotent arms every ramification of society. As the 
 vapours in the interior of the earth, exasperated by vol- 
 canic fires, will sometimes force aside or burst asunder 
 the superincumbent mountains, so at length the masses 
 of the Hindoo nation, maddened by their sufferings and 
 rendered irresistible by their very despair, shook off the 
 frightful incubus which pressed upon them. In this, as 
 in all other cases of religious tyranny, the deliverance 
 came through skepticism and denial of the prevailing 
 dogmas. And, as was to be expected, the power and 
 extent of the reaction were in proportion to the power 
 of the tyranny under which the masses of the people 
 had suffered. The revolution which accompanied the rise 
 of Booddhism appears to have closely resembled, in its 
 more important features, the French Revolution ; but, as 
 it was a reaction against a more terrible oppression, it 
 was followed by more extensive and more permanent re- 
 sults. As the oppression had been chiefly if not wholly 
 religious in its origin, so the reaction, we have every 
 reason to suppose, was accompanied and followed by a 
 deeper spirit of denial and by a more universal unbelief. 
 The reformers began with repudiating the authority of 
 the Brahmans, and ended with not merely rejecting the 
 sacred books of the priesthood, (the Vedas,) but in deny- 
 ing the very existence of those Higher Bowers from which 
 the Brahmans claimed to derive their authority. The 
 reformation took a humanitarian direction, and at the 
 same time carried the levelling principle to its utmost 
 possible limits. It rejected absolutely all prescriptive 
 claims, whether human or divine. It assumed that all 
 beings in the universe stood exactly on the same ground, 
 the onlv difference being made by the difference of con- 
 duct. But, as the religious sentiment found in all nations 
 demanded something to satisfy it, men, deified by their 
 merits, were made use of to supply this demand. 
 
 It will thus be seen (if, as there seems every reason 
 to believe, the foregoing views are correct) that Bood- 
 dhism originated in almost total unbelief, and owed its 
 influence principally, if not wholly, to a great political 
 revolution. The corner-stone of the building is atheism, 
 the copestone (Nirvana, or annihilation) is absolute de- 
 spair. But between these terrible extremes there is a 
 kindly human element, which is the only redeeming fea- 
 ture of the svstem, and to which is doubtless due what- 
 ever of vitality it possesses. But the influence of this 
 humanity is greatly impaired and, indeed, rendered all- 
 hut nugatory by its impracticable and extravagant char- 
 acter. By teaching that we must not only spare the 
 lives of vermin, (these being really our brethren,) but 
 the lives of the seeds of plants, which form the suste- 
 nance of so large a portion of the human race, there is 
 nothing left for the truly devout votary of Booddhism, 
 as we have already seen, but thriftless indolence and 
 helpless beggary. 
 
 As it is impossible for any people wholly to change 
 their previous habits of thought, we need not be surprised 
 to discover manv points of resemblance between Bood- 
 dhism and the Brahmanical system which it for a time 
 displaced. First, as the basis of both, we find the doc- 
 trine of Metempsychosis, or the continued existence of 
 the same being under various outward forms ; secondly, 
 both teach alike a belief in accumulative merit, by which 
 the meanest creature may, by a course of penance con- 
 tinued through successive ages, rise to the possession 
 of godlike intelligence and power ; thirdly, they agree 
 substantially in regarding Nirvana, or the cessation of a 
 distinct and separate existence, as the greatest blessing 
 to which any being can attain,* — not to mention other 
 points of less importance. (See l!k \iim anism.) 
 
 • With the primitive or orthodox Hooddhists, Nirvana is simply 
 annihilation, while with the Brahmans it is absorption into the essence 
 of I'.rahma. the supreme, self-existent Spirit. '1 he etymology of Nir- 
 very objure. It is supposed by sotne to be derived from the 
 Sanscrit nir, "without." "not," and van, to "sound," to "blow as 
 a flute." It may possibly have allusion to the exceedingly transitory 
 character of every form of being, comparing it to the breath or sound 
 of a musical instrument, which passes away we know not whither, 
 Nirvana would then imply the absence or cessation of that fitful, 
 changeful existence which, with us, has been compared to a passing 
 vapour. 
 
 e as -*; 9 as s; g Hard; g as/'/ G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as «; th as in this. (J^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GAUTAMA 
 
 1008 
 
 GAUTHET 
 
 They differ, on the other hand, with respect to caste, 
 which the Brahmans make the corner-stone of their sys- 
 tem, but which Gautama totally rejected.* Among the 
 votaries of Brahmanism the priests could be chosen from 
 the highest caste only, and it is regarded as a serious 
 offence even to teach the Vedas (sacred books) to a 
 Soodra (a person of the lowest of the pure castes) or to 
 a woman. Among the Booddhists, on the contrary, all 
 classes, including women and even the lowest outcasts, 
 are freely admitted to the priesthood ; none are rejected, 
 except the deformed, or diseased, or those who are ser- 
 vants. It is considered that a servant cannot give him- 
 self to the priesthood, because he cannot give what is 
 the property of another. They differ, also, totally with 
 respect to the Vedas, which the Booddhists entirely re- 
 ject, while the Brahmans regard them as the most sacred 
 and excellent of all writings. 
 
 Again, the principal deities of the Brahmans are incar- 
 nations from Brahm, the supreme, eternal, self-existing 
 Spirit. The principal deity of the Booddhists (strictly 
 so called) is always a mortal, and may have begun his 
 career as the most pitiful insect, though he always ends 
 it as a deified man, in which form, however, he has but 
 a brief existence, and soon dies, leaving the universe 
 without even the semblance of a ruler. 
 
 The remarkable success of Gautama as a reformer 
 was doubtless owing chiefly, if not entirely, to the demo- 
 cratic character of his doctrines ; and we should probably 
 not err in considering him to have been far more a 
 political than a religious reformer. His doctrine of the 
 impartial equality of all classes, dignified and rendered 
 sacred by his twofold character of saint and sage, and 
 promulgated at a time when the irksome and oppress- 
 ive restrictions of caste, joined to the arrogance of the 
 Brahmans, had become intolerable to a large majority 
 of the people, was, we may confidently conjecture, 
 eagerly, passionately welcomed by all, the dominant 
 class alone excepted. So rapid was the spread of the 
 new doctrines that only about two centuries after the 
 death of Gautama we find Chandragupta, (the Sandra- 
 cottus of the Greek historians,) a man of low caste, raised 
 to the most powerful throne in Northern India. This 
 event is the more remarkable because he does not appear 
 to have been a believer in or a supporter of Booddhism, 
 showing that it was a political rather than a religious 
 revolution which placed him on the throne; although, 
 as already intimated, the doctrines of the new religion 
 may have powerfully co-operated with the new political 
 principles in bringing about that result. His grandson, 
 however, Asoka, (Acoka or Ashoka,) became a devoted 
 follower of Gautama, and succeeded, it would appear, in 
 establishing the new religion in every part of his widely- 
 extended dominions. He is said — with Oriental hyper- 
 bole, no doubt — to have erected eighty-four thousand 
 monasteries (vihars) in honour of the eighty-four thou- 
 sand discourses of Booddha. (See the " Bhilsa Topes," 
 by Cunningham, p. 99.) His son Mahendra (or Ma- 
 hmdo) introduced Booddhism into Ceylon, which is still 
 one of its principal seats. The persecutions to which 
 the new religion was subjected in India in the early cen- 
 turies of our era contributed undoubtedly to its diffusion 
 among the neighbouring nations, but resulted at last in 
 its almost total extirpation from the land wherein it had 
 its origin. 
 
 Booddhism appears to have been first introduced into 
 China in the latter part of the third century before Christ. 
 From Ceylon it extended to Farther India and Cochin 
 China. It is supposed to have been permanently estab- 
 lished in Japan in the sixth century. Nepaul has long 
 been one of its principal seats, whence it extended to 
 Thibet and the country of the Mongols, receiving greater 
 or less modifications from the peculiar genius of the 
 various nations by whom it was adopted. 
 
 It would, perhaps, be difficult to explain satisfactorily 
 how Booddhism, after it had once obtained such an 
 ascendency among the people of India, could be so soon 
 and so completely displaced by the old religion. But, 
 if we regard the movement which for a time overthrew 
 
 * "There is caste," observes Hardy, "among the Budhists of Cey- 
 lon; but this is contrary to the tenets of the founder of their religion." 
 ("Manual of Budhism," p. 78.) 
 
 the Btahmanical domination to have been due in a great 
 measure to political causes, among which the tyranny 
 of caste was probably the chief, we may suppose that 
 when the pressure of those causes was removed the 
 popular mind came gradually to look with less and less 
 aversion, and perhaps at last with affectionate reverence, 
 on the religion of their ancestors, a change of feeling 
 which was probably much accelerated by the austere 
 ordinances and comfortless, despairing doctrines .of the 
 new faith, — a faith which makes annihilation the final 
 and highest reward for ages of self-denial, privation, and 
 suffering. We may well believe that these doctrines 
 never had any place in the popular affections, and that 
 they were only accepted at all because they were accom- 
 panied by great ameliorations in the political and social 
 condition of the people. We may conjecture that the 
 Brahmans, taught by past experience, were very careful, 
 at least for a time, not to repress, by any undue rigour 
 or offensive assertions of superiority, the returning affec- 
 tions of the people. 
 
 There are some general and obvious points of re- 
 semblance between Booddhism and Christianity which 
 can scarcely fail to strike one at first sight ; such, for 
 example, as the importance which each attaches to the 
 practice of self-denial, and that regard for the welfare 
 of others, however humble their condition, which forms 
 so essential a feature in the ethical system of both. But, 
 if we examine them more closely, and consider their 
 deeper relations, we shall find that the difference between 
 them is not only great, but absolutely immeasurable. It 
 would, we feel assured, be a grave error to suppose (as 
 some recent writers appear to do) that this difference is a 
 mere divergence, though a very wide one, from a common 
 principle or starting-point ; for they are essentially and 
 wholly different in their very origin. We need only 
 allude to the remarkable difference between the accounts 
 of the two systems that have come down to us, — the 
 one filled with the wildest fables, which, from their 
 very nature, must destroy, in every truth-loving mind, all 
 confidence and everything deserving the name of belief; 
 the other characterized by an unpretending and touch- 
 ing simplicity, which furnishes the strongest internal 
 evidence of the entire sincerity and truthfulness of the 
 writers.* But we refer more particularly to the character 
 of the systems themselves, — the one owing its origin, 
 as there is every reason to suppose, to an utter and 
 almost universal unbelief, and being, like the worship 
 of the goddess of Reason in France, a mere device to 
 appease rather than satisfy the cravings of the religious 
 instinct of the people; the other having for its foun- 
 dation the highest and fullest belief ever presented to 
 the world, — the belief in a Being, infinite in power 
 and love, whose paternal care extends to the very hum- 
 blest of his creatures. The one system, built upon athe- 
 ism, has for its final scope annihilation : in other words, 
 it is the religion of despair. The other, based upon a 
 belief in God's infinite perfections and his boundles? 
 love to man, (see John iii. 16,) becomes the unfailing 
 source of an infinite hope, — a hope not ouiy of endless 
 happiness, but of eternal progress towards perfection. 
 
 See Koppen, "Religion des Buddha," Berlin, 1857; R. Spknce 
 Hardy, "Manual of Budhism," London, 1S53; 1*. H. Hodgson, 
 " Literature and Religion of 'he Buddhists," 1841 : J. Barthki.kmy 
 Saint-Hilmre, " Le Bouddha et sa Religion," Paris. 1^62; Gut- 
 gniaut, " Religions de rAntiquite," Paris, 1825; Moor, "Hindu 
 Pantheon;" Stanislas Julien, " Histoire de la Vie de Hiouen- 
 Thsaug," etc., 1853; and the continuation of the same, under the 
 name of " Mernoires sur les Conti^es occidentales," 1S57-58. 
 
 Gautherot, got'ro', (Claude,) an eminent French 
 painter, born in Paris in 1769, was a pupil of David. 
 Among his chief works are "Marius at MinturnjE," and 
 "The Funeral of Atala," (1800.) Died in 1S25. 
 
 Gauthey, go'tA', (Emiland Marie,) an eminent 
 French civil engineer.born at Chalons-sur-Saone in 1732, 
 was employed from 1783 to 1791 in constructing the Canal 
 du Centre. In 1791 he was appointed inspector-general. 
 He wrote a " Treatise on the Construction of Bridges 
 and Navigable Canals," (3 vols., 180(f) Died in 1806. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 * This internal evidence alone is such as not only to command the 
 assent of multitudes of intelligent readers, but even sometimes to 
 overcome the skepticism of the most gifted and critical minds. (See 
 Niebuhr's "Letters," vol. i., Letter 148.) 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
GAVTHEY 
 
 1009 
 
 GAY 
 
 Gauthey, go't&', (Louis Francois Frederic,) a 
 Swiss Protestant teacher, bom in the canton de Vaud in 
 1795. He published, besides other works, a treatise on 
 education, " De l'Education," etc., (1854.) 
 
 Gauthier, go'te-A', surnamed Sans-Avoir, (s8n- 
 ri'vwiR',) a Norman knight, who took a prominent 
 part in the first crusade. He was killed in battle by 
 the Turks near Nicea, in Asia, in 1097. 
 
 Gauthier, (Francois,) Abh6, a French priest and 
 able negotiator, born near Falaise. He lived many years 
 in London, and was employed in secret negotiations.which 
 resulted in the peace of Utrecht, 1713. Died in 1720. 
 
 Gauthier, (Jean Baptistf,) a French theologian, 
 born at Louviers in 1685. He published several works 
 against the Jesuits and infidels. Died in 1755. 
 
 Gauthier, (Pierre.) a French architect, born at 
 Troyes in 1790. Among his works is a monument to 
 Fenelon at Cambrai. Died in 1855. 
 
 Gautier. See Gaultif.r, Gauthier, and Walter. 
 
 Gautier, go'te-i', (Ambroise Georges Joseph,) a 
 French jurist, borrfat Chevreuse in 1776, wrote "Studies 
 on Commercial Jurisprudence," (1829.) Died in 1829. 
 
 See Andre Marie Jean Jacques Dopin, " Notice sur la Vie de 
 Gauthier," 1829. 
 
 Gautier, (Arnaud Eloy.) a French artist, son of J. 
 Gautier-Dagoty, noticed below. He began to issue in 
 1752 "Periodical Observations on Natural History and 
 the Arts, with Coloured Plates," which, after his death, 
 was continued by Rozier, (1771-85.) 
 
 Gautier, (Joseph,) a French abbe and litttrateur,hom 
 in Lorraine about 17 14. He wrote, besides other works, 
 a refutation of Rousseau's Essay on the question, " Do 
 Sciences and Arts contribute to the Promotion of Mo- 
 rality?" (1751.) Died in 1776. 
 
 Gautier, (Theophilf.,) a French litterateur and critic, 
 born at Tarbes about 1810. He produced " Albertus," 
 and other poems, and an immoral romance called " Mile. 
 Maupin," (1835.) About 1836 he became assistant 
 editor of the " Presse," for which he wrote criticisms on 
 the drama and fine arts until 1854. After that date he 
 had charge of the same department of the "Moniteur." 
 Among his works is a book of travels in Spain, etc., en- 
 titled "Tras los Montes," (1843.) He has been extolled 
 as an original and brilliant writer. 
 
 See Louandrf. et Bourquei.ot, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nou- 
 relle Biographic Generate ;" "Atlantic Monthly" for June, 186S. 
 
 Gautier-Dagoty, go't^i' dt'go'te', (Edouard,) a 
 grandson of the following, was an engraver of Paris, 
 where he published, about 1780, coloured engravings of 
 twelve paintings in the Royal Gallery. Died in 1784. 
 
 Gautier- (or Gauthier-) Dagoty, (Jacques,) a 
 French anatomist and engraver, born at Marseilles, was 
 remarkable for mental activity. He claimed to be the 
 inventor of the art of producing coloured engravings, in 
 which he used four colours. He published several works 
 on anatomy, with coloured plates, and "Observations 
 on Phvsics, Natural History, and Painting," (6 vols., 
 1752-55,) which was the origin of the "Journal de Phy- 
 sique," the first French journal of physical sciences. 
 Died in 1758. 
 
 His son, Jean Baptistf., was an engraver in colours. 
 He published the "Galerie Franchise," a series of twelve 
 portraits, (1770, unfinished.) Died in 1786. 
 
 Gautier de Metz, go'te-i' deh mis, a French poet, 
 who lived about 1 230, is "supposed to have written a 
 didactic poem called "The Image of the World," 
 ("L'Image du Monde.") 
 
 Gautieri, gow-tea'ree, (Giuseppe,) an Italian phy- 
 sician and naturalist, was born at Novara in 1769. He 
 was appointed in 1808 inspector-general of woods and 
 forests under the then kingdom of Italy. He retained 
 this position twenty-two years. He wrote interesting 
 works on forests and natural history, among which is 
 a "General Treatise on the Science and Administration 
 of Forests." Died in 1833. 
 
 Gautruche or Gaultruche, go'tRiish', (Pierre,) a 
 French priest, born at Orleans in 1602, published a 
 "Poetic History," (" Histoire poetique," 1658,) and a 
 "Sacred History," (1672.) Died in 1681. 
 
 Gauzlin, go la.N', a French prelate, reputed one of 
 the most learned men of his time, was the natural son 
 
 of Hugh Capet. He was made Archbishop of Bourges 
 in 1013. Died in 1029. 
 
 Gavanti, ga-vln'tee, ( Bartolommeo, ) an Italian 
 friar, born at Monza about 1570, was general of the 
 Barnabites. He wrote, besides other works, " Thesaurus 
 Sacrorum Rituum," a commentary on the rubrics of the 
 missal and the breviary of the Roman Church. Died in 
 1638. 
 
 Gavard, gS'vlR', (Hyacinthe.) an eminent French 
 anatomist, born at Montmelian in 1753, was a successful 
 teacher of surgery in Paris. He published several treat- 
 ises on anatomy. His "Splanchnologie" (1800) is said 
 to be superior to anything before printed on that subject. 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 See " Biographic Medicale." 
 
 Gavarni, ga-var'nee, the pseudonym of Paul Che- 
 valier, a very popular French caricaturist, born in 
 Paris in 1801. In 1835 he began to issue a satirical 
 journal called " Les Gens du Monde," in which he pre- 
 sented spirited pictures of Parisian society. Many of 
 these designs were reproduced in the "Charivari," which 
 owed to Gavarni a great part of its success. His works 
 are remarkable for variety and fidelity tomature. 
 
 Gavarret, gS'vi'ri', (Ix>uis Denis Jules,) a French 
 physician, lxirn in 1809. He graduated in 1843, and in 
 the same year became professor of medical physics. He 
 published, besides other works, an excellent "Treatise 
 on Electricity," (1857.) 
 
 Gavazzi, ga-vat 'see, (Padre Alessandro,) an Italian 
 priest and political agitator, born at Bologna in 1809. 
 He became professor of rhetoric in Naples, where he 
 distinguished himself by his eloquence and liberal prin- 
 ciples. He was chaplain of the army of volunteers 
 which Pius IX. sent against the Austrians in 1848, and 
 excited the enthusiasm of the people by his harangues. 
 He continued to support the popular cause after the 
 pope had recalled his army and changed his policy. In 
 1849, as chaplain-general of the republican army, he 
 distinguished himself by his zeal in the siege of Rome. 
 After Rome had been captured by the French, (1849,) 
 he became an exile, and lectured against popery in Eng- 
 land and the United States. 
 
 See a "Life of Father Gavazzi," London, 1851. 
 
 Gaveaux, gi'vo', (Pierre,) a French composer and 
 singer, born at Beziers in 1761. His "Leonore" (1798) 
 furnished to Beethoven the subject of his opera " Fidelio." 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 Gav'es-tou, de, [Fr. pron. gt'ves'tiN',] (Piers, or 
 Pierre,) the favourite of Edward II. of England, was 
 descended from a Gascon family. He appears to have 
 acquired influence over the young prince by his vices, 
 wit, and personal accomplishments. In 1300 he was 
 banished by Edward I. Edward II., having come to 
 the throne, recalled Gaveston, and made him Ear! of 
 Cornwall, and chief minister. His pride and insolence 
 excited a conspiracy of the nobles, who attacked him in 
 his castle and put him to death in 1312. 
 
 See " Life and Death of Piers Gaveston," 1740 ; Hume, " His- 
 tory of England." 
 
 Gavinies, gfve'ne-Ss', (Pierre,) a French musician, 
 born at Bordeaux in 1726. He is regarded as the chief 
 of the French school of violinists. He composed 
 "Matinees" for the violin, (1794.) Died in 1800. 
 
 See Fayolle," Notices sur Corelli, Tartini, Gavinies," etc., 1810. 
 
 Gavirol, ga-ve-rol', (Soliman Ben,) a noted Rabbi, 
 born in Malaga, Spain, excelled in grammar, philosophy, 
 and other sciences. He wrote, in Arabic, two admired 
 works on morality. Died about 1070. 
 
 Gay, gi, (Claude,) a French botanist and traveller, 
 born at Draguignan in 1800. He spent about twelve 
 years in the exploration of the botany and zoology of 
 Chili between 1828 and 1841, during which he received 
 aid from the Chilian government. Having returned to 
 Paris, he published, in Spanish, his excellent "Physical 
 and Political History of Chili," (" Historia fisica y poli- 
 tica de Chile," 24 vols., 1843-51.) Eight volumes of this 
 treat on botany. He was admitted into the Institute in 
 1856. Died in 1864. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Gehirale." 
 
 Gay, (Dki.i'Hine.) See Girardin. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gutlural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. 
 
 64. 
 
 (JJ^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GA1 
 
 1010 
 
 GAZA 
 
 Gay, (Ebenf.zer,) D.D., an American divine, born in 
 Dedham, Massachusetts, in 1696, graduated at Harvard 
 in 17:4, and from 1718 till his death, in 1787, was pastor 
 in Hingham. He published numerous sermons, one of 
 which, delivered on his eighty-fifth birthday, was entitled 
 "The Old Man's Calendar." 
 
 Gay, (John,) an English poet, born at Barnstaple in 
 1688. He became secretary to the Duchess of Mon- 
 mouth in 1712. His first production, called "Rural 
 Sports," (1711,) was dedicated to Pope, who became his 
 constant friend. By his amiable disposition, his wit 
 and poetic talents, he made many friends among literary 
 men and the higher classes. He wrote comedies, farces, 
 fables, ballads, etc., which were received with favour. 
 "The Beggar's Opera," (1728,) and the farce "What 
 d'ye call It ?" were especially popular ; though but little 
 can be said in favour of their moral tendency. His fables 
 are admired for ingenious reflections and for a grace- 
 ful sprightly style. In "The Shepherd's Week," (1714,) 
 a series of pastoral poems, he successfully describes the 
 manners of English peasants. He wrote, also, "Trivia, 
 or the Art of Walking the Streets of London," (1 71 5.) 
 In the latter part of his life the Duke of Queensberry 
 received him into his house, and treated him kindly. He 
 died in 1732, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 Dr. Johnson remarks that " he had not in any degree the 
 mens divinior, the dignity of genius." Hazlitt thought 
 his pastorals pleasing and poetical, and that his fables 
 possess "great merit, both as to the quantity of in- 
 vention implied, and the elegance and facility of the 
 execution." 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets;" Spence, "Anecdotes;" 
 "Biographia Britannica ;" Campbell, "Specimens of the British 
 Poets." 
 
 Gay', (Joseph Jean Paul,) born at Lyons, in France, 
 in 1775, obtained the title of architect to his native city. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 Gay, (Marie Franchise Sophie Nichault de La- 
 valette — ne'sho' deh ll'vt'lSt',) a popular French novel- 
 ist, born in Paris in 1776, was the mother of Delphine 
 Gay Girardin. She was married to M. Gay about 1800, 
 after which she was intimate with Pauline Bonaparte. 
 Among her numerous works are " Laure d'Estell," 
 (1802,) "Leonie de Montbreuse," (1813,) "Celebrated 
 Saloons," ("Les Salons celebres," 2 vols., 1837,) and 
 "Ellenore," (4 vols., 1846.) Her style is commended for 
 its elegance. Died in 1852. 
 
 Gay, (Wickworth Allan,) an American landscape- 
 painter, noted for his skill in mountain and coast scenery, 
 was born in Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1821. 
 
 See Tuckerman's " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Gay de Vernon, gk deh v2r'ii6n' f (Leonard,) a 
 French revolutionist and priest, born in Limousin in 
 1748. He was chosen constitutional Bishop of Haute- 
 Vienne about 1790, and a member of the Convention in 
 1792. He acted with the Jacobins, and was one of the 
 Council of Five Hundred, 1795-98. Died in 1822. 
 
 Gay de Vernon, (Simon Francois,) a French en- 
 gineer, and professor in the Polytechnic School, brother 
 of the preceding, was born in 1760. He wrote an " Ele- 
 mentary Treatise on the Art of War and Fortification," 
 (2 vols., 1805,) which was adopted in many military 
 schools of Europe. Died in 1822. 
 
 Gay-Lussac, g^'lii'sik', (Joseph Louis,) an eminent 
 French chemist and natural philosopher, born at Saint- 
 Leonard (Haute-Vienne) on the 6th of December, 1778, 
 was educated in the school afterwards called L'Ecole 
 Polytechnique. He was a pupil and protege of Berthol- 
 let. In August, 1804, under the auspices of the Institute, 
 MM. Biot and Gay-Lussac made a memorable ascent 
 in a balloon, in order to ascertain the intensity of the 
 magnetic force, and reached a height of thirteen thou- 
 sand feet. This was the first ascent ever made for 
 scientific objects. Gay-Lussac ascended alone in the 
 ensuing month to the height of 7016 metres,- 1 — 23,040 
 feet, — or about four and one-third miles above the level 
 of the sea, and there made observations which tend to 
 prove that the magnetic force diminishes very little with 
 the elevation. He ascertained that the air of that region 
 is identical in composition with that found near the 
 surface of the earth. The temperature at the height 
 
 of 7016 metres was I4°.g above zero of Fahrenheit, while 
 that .of the surface was 82 of Fahrenheit. He wrote in 
 1804 a memoir which announced that in the composition 
 of water one hundred volumes of oxygen unite with two 
 hundred volumes of hydrogen. He was elected a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Sciences about 1806, soon after 
 which he discovered the law by which air and gases are 
 expanded uniformly by increase of temperature. In 1808 
 Gay-Lussac and Thenard were directed to make experi- 
 ments with a colossal voltaic pile constructed by order 
 of Bonaparte. The important results of their labours 
 were published in the " Recherches physico-chimiques," 
 (2 vols., 181 1,) and in several memoirs on boracic acid 
 and fluoric acid read at the Institute, 1808-09. He was 
 appointed professor of practical chemistry at the Poly- 
 technic School in 1809, and professor of physics at the 
 Sorbonne. Among his most remarkable discoveries is 
 that of cyanogen, in 181 5. He made important contribu- 
 tions to nearly every branch of chemical and physical 
 science. He wrote many valuable memoirs, which ap- 
 peared in the " Memoires" of the Society of Arcueil, and 
 in the "Annales de Chimie," of which he was an editor. 
 In 1831 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, be- 
 came professor of chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes 
 in 1832, and was made a peer of France in 1839. Died 
 in Paris in May, 1850. 
 
 See Arago, "Fjoge de Gay-Ltissac," in his "Notices biogra- 
 phiques," tome iii. ; Gardeur Le Brun, "Notice stir M. Gay- 
 Lussac," 1851; Dr. F. Hoefer, in the " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^ndrale ;" L. de Lombnie, "M. Gay-Lussac, par un Homme de 
 Rien," 1841. 
 
 Gayangos, de, da gi-ing'g6s, (Pascuai.,) an eminent 
 Spanish Orientalist, born at Seville in 1809, studied in 
 Paris under Silvestre de Sacy. He resided some years 
 in England, where he published (in English) a " History 
 of the Mohammedan Dynasties of Spain," from the 
 Arabic of Al-Makkari, with notes, (2 vols., 1840-43.) 
 He wrote articles for several English Reviews. In 1843 
 he became professor of Arabic at Madrid, and produced, 
 with Vedia, a Spanish version of Ticknor's "History of 
 Spanish Literature," (1851-56.) He gave important aid 
 to Prescott in the collection of materials for his " History 
 of Philip II." 
 
 Gayarre, gT'i'ra', (Charles Arthur,) an American 
 historian and lawyer, born in Louisiana in 1805. He 
 was appointed secretary of state by Governor Johnson, 
 of Louisiana, and filled that office about seven years. 
 He published, besides other works, a " Histoire de la 
 Louisiane," (2 vols., 1847,) and " Louisiana : its History 
 as a French Colony," (2 vols., 1851-52.) 
 
 Gayot de Pitaval, gt'yo' deh pe'tS'vil', (FRANgois,) 
 a mediocre French compiler, was born at Lyons in 1673. 
 He worked for the booksellers of Paris, and published 
 "Sallies of Wit for Conversation," (2 vols., 1732,) and 
 "Celebrated Trials," ("Causes celebres," 20 vols., 
 
 1734-43) Died in '743- 
 
 Gayrard, gi'rSR, (Raymond,) a French sculptor 
 and engraver of medals, born at Rodez in 1777, gained 
 distinction by two medallions engraved on the occasion 
 of the marriage of Napoleon, 1810. 
 
 Gay'ton, [Lat. De Speciosa Villa,] (Edmund,) an 
 English humorous writer, born in 1609. According to 
 Anthony Wood, "he lived in London, and wrote trite 
 things merely to get bread to sustain him and his wife." 
 His best-known work is " Festivious Notes on Don 
 Quixote," (1654.) Died in 1666. 
 
 Gay'wood, (Robert,) an eminent English engraver, 
 who lived about 1650, was a pupil and imitator of Hollar. 
 
 Gaza, ga'z3, written also Gazis, (Theodore,) an 
 eminent Greek scholar, born at Thessalonica about" 1400. 
 He emigrated to Italy soon after the capture of that city 
 by the Turks, (1429,) and taught Greek for some time 
 at Ferrara. About 1450 he removed to Rome, where 
 he was patronized by Pope Nicholas V. He wrote an 
 excellent Greek Grammar, (printed in 1495,) and trans- 
 lated into Latin many Greek works, among which are 
 Aristotle's" History of Animals," (1476,) and Theophras- 
 tus's " History of Plants," (1483.) He was an excellent 
 Latin scholar, and contributed much to the revival of 
 classical learning. Died in Italy about 1478. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Gra>ca ;" Hodv, "De Graecis illus- 
 trious;" "Nouvelle Biographie G<*neVale." 
 
 . e t 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, ess prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon 
 
GAZjEVS 
 
 ion 
 
 GEDDES 
 
 Gazaeus. See Gazet. 
 
 Gazan de la Peyriere, gifzoN' deh li pk're-aiR', 
 (HoxorS Theophile Maxime,) Count, a FrenclTgene- 
 ral, born at Grasse, in Provence, in 1765. He became 
 a general of division in 1799, after which he gained suc- 
 cesses over the Austrians at Marcello, and other places 
 in Italy. He distinguished himself at Jena, (1806,) Sara- 
 gossa, (1809,) and Albuera, (181 1.) Died in 1844. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Gazan Khan. See Ghazan Khan. 
 Gazee- (or Gazi-) Hassan, gil'zee has'san, grand ad- 
 miral and prime minister of the Ottoman Empire, raised 
 himself from the lowest rank. He went to Constanti- 
 nople in 1760, and entered the navy. In 1769, in the war 
 between Russia and the Porte, Hassan was a vice-ad- 
 miral. In 1771 he forced the Russians to raise the siege 
 of Lemnos, and was promoted to the rank of capudan- 
 pasha, (grand admiral.) Sultan Selim in 1789 appointed 
 him grand vizier ; but, as he failed to secure either peace 
 or .victory, he was deprived of office and of life in 1790. 
 
 Gazet, gS'zi/, [ Lat. Gazje'us, ] (Guillaume, ) a 
 French historian and priest, born at Arras in 1554. He 
 wrote, besides other superficial works, an "Ecclesiastical 
 History of the Low Countries," (1614.) He is considered 
 an injudicious and credulous writer. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Gazi, gjd'zee, [Lat. Ga'zius,] (Antonio,) an Italian 
 physician, born about 1450. His treatise on hygiene, 
 entitled "Florida Corona Medicinae," (1491,) was often 
 reprinted. Died in 1530. 
 Gazis. See Gaza. 
 Gazius. See Gazi. 
 
 Gaznevides, (or Ghaznevides,) gaz'ne-vidz, (sing. 
 Gazuevide, gaz'ne-vid,) written also Ghasnevides 
 and Gasnevides, [Fr. pron. giz'na'ved'; Ger. Ghasne- 
 widen, gaz-neh-wee'den ; Lat. Gaznev'id^e and Gaz- 
 nevi't/E,] the name of the first Mohammedan dynasty 
 which ruled in India. It was founded by Sebaktegeen 
 about 980, and named from Gaza, or Ghiznee, the seat 
 of his empire. His son Mahmood, by far the most 
 powerful and most famous of all the Gaznevide sultans, 
 overran a large part of Northern India, whence he re- 
 turned with untold riches, the fruit of his vast con- 
 quests, to Gazna. (See Mahmood.) Khosroo-Malek, 
 (or -Melek,) the last sovereign of this dynasty, was taken 
 and put to death by the Ghaurian conqueror in 1186. 
 
 Gazola, gld'zo-Ia, (Giuseppe,) an Italian physician, 
 born at Verona in 1661. In 1692 the emperor Leopold 
 employed him as one of his medical attendants. In 1697 he 
 returned to Verona, where he practised with success till 
 his death. He wrote a popular work, called " II Mondo 
 ingannato da falsi Medici," ("The World deceived by 
 False Physicians," 1716.) Died in 1715. 
 
 Gazon-Dourxigne.gt'zdN'dooR'zen'ya'.fSgBASTiEN 
 Marie Mathurin,) a French litterateur, born at Quim- 
 per-Corentin, wrote a poem entitled "Antenor, or the 
 Republic of Venice," (1748,) a Critique on Voltaire's 
 Dramas, (1767,) "The Gardens," a poem, (1772,) and 
 several other works. Died in 1784. 
 
 Gazzaniga, gat-sa-nee'ga, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 composer of operas, born at Verona about 1745 ; died 
 about 1815. 
 
 Geary, ga're, commonly called gee're, (John W.,) an 
 American general, born in Westmoreland county, Penn- 
 sylvania, about 1820. He commanded a regiment in the 
 Mexican w*r, (1846-47,) and was appointed Governor of 
 Kansas in July, 1856, which position he resigned about 
 March, 1857. He became a brigadier general early in 
 1862, fought at the battle of Gettysburg in July, 1863, and 
 commanded a division of the army of General Sherman 
 in the campaign against Atlanta in the summer of 1864. 
 He was elected Governor of Pennsylvania by the Repub- 
 licans in October, 1866, and again in 1869. 
 
 Gebauer, ga bSw'er, (Georg Christian,) a German 
 jurist, born at Breslau in 1690. He became first pro- 
 fessor of law at Gottingen in 1734, wrote many valuable 
 legal works, and published an edition of the "Corpus 
 Juris." Died at Gottingen in January, 1 773. 
 
 SeeC. G. HEYNE,"Programmade Vita et Mentis G. C. Gebauer," 
 1774; Goeschen, "Vita G. C. Gebaueri," 1837. 
 
 Gebelin. See Court de Geiielin. 
 
 Geber, geVer or ga'ber, sometimes written Giaber, 
 a distinguished Arabian chemist and alchemist, lived in 
 Mesopotamia in the eighth century. His real name was 
 Aboo-Moossah-Jaakar-al-Sofee. Some writers have 
 erroneously attributed to him the invention of algebra. 
 He was the author of several works on alchemy and 
 kindred subjects. He was classed by Cardan among the 
 twelve most subtle intellects of the world. According 
 to Dr. F. Hoefer, " he deserves to be placed in the first 
 rank among the chemists or alchemists anterior to Van 
 Helmont. Geber is for the history of chemistry what 
 Hippocrates is for the history of medicine." (See " His- 
 toire de la Chimie.") 
 
 See, also, Borel, "Bibliotheca Chimica;" Abulfeda, ii. 
 
 Gebhard Truchsess, gep'haRt tRook'sess, Elector 
 and Archbishop of Cologne, was born near Waldburg 
 in 1547. Having become a Protestant and married the 
 Countess Agnes of Mansfeld about 1582, he was in- 
 volved in a contest with the Catholic party, which 
 resulted in his being compelled to surrender his elector- 
 ate to the Archbishop of Bavaria. Died in 1601. 
 
 See J. D. K oei.hr, " Dissertatio de Actis et Fatis Gebhardii Truch- 
 sessii," 1745: Jocher, "Supplementum Historic C-ebhardi Truch- 
 sessii. 
 
 Gebhardi, gep-haR'dee, (Johann Ludyvig Levin,) a 
 German historian, born at Brunswick in 1699. He was 
 professor of theology, logic, and mathematics at Liine- 
 burg for many years. He published an important 
 " Historical and Genealogical Account of the Royal and 
 Imperial Houses of Europe," (1731,) and other works. 
 Died in 1 764. 
 
 See Meusel, "Lexikon der vom Jahre 1750-1800 verstorbenen 
 Deutschen Schriftsteller." 
 
 Gebhard t, gep'h5rt, or Geb-har'dus, (Janus,) a 
 Dutch scholar, of German extraction. He wrote notes 
 on Tibullus, Catullus, and Propertius. Died in 1632. 
 
 Gebler, geb'ler, (Tobias Philipp,) a German poet 
 and dramatist, born in 1726, was a councillor of state in 
 the reign of Maria Theresa, and became a member of 
 the privy council in 1782. Died in 1786. 
 
 Gechter, zhesh'taiR', (Jean Francois Theodore,) 
 a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1796. Among his 
 works are colossal statues of the Rhine and Rhone, which 
 adorn the Place de la Concorde, Paris. Died in 1844. 
 
 Ged, g£d, (William,) a Scottish goldsmith and artist, 
 born probably in Edinburgh about 1690. He invented, 
 about 1725, a method of printing by a plate cast in a 
 mould of plaster. He published an edition of Sallust 
 thus printed in 1744. The term "stereotype" was first 
 applied to this process by Firmin Didot. Died in 1749. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes;" Chambers, "Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Ged'des, (Alexander,) a learned Roman Catholic 
 biblical critic and translator, was born in the county of 
 Banff, Scotland, in 1737. He removed to London about 
 1780, and undertook a translation of the Bible, (for the 
 use of Roman Catholics,) of which he published two 
 volumes, (1792-97.) These contain the books from 
 Genesis to Chronicles inclusive, with notes and critical 
 remarks which gave offence to Christians generally. 
 He was deposed from his priestly functions by the apos- 
 tolic vicar for his attack on the divine authority of the 
 Scriptures, and his version remained unfinished. He 
 doubted or denied the miracles ascribed to Moses. Died, 
 in 1802. 
 
 See " Life of A. Geddes," by John Mason Good, 1803. 
 
 Geddes, (Andrew,) a Scottish painter, born in Edin- 
 burgh about 1789. He painted portraits of Dr. Chalmers 
 and David Wilkie, and historical pictures, among which 
 was "Christ and the Woman of Samaria." Died in 1844. 
 
 Geddes, (James,) a Scottish advocate and writer, 
 born in 1710. He published an "Essay on the Compo- 
 sition and Manner of Writing of the Ancients, particu- 
 larly Plato," (1748.) Died in 1749. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Geddes, (Michael,) a theologian, born in Scotland 
 about 1640. I le was chancellor of the diocese of Sarum, 
 and published, besides other works, a " History of the 
 Church of Ethiopia," (1696,) "Miscellaneous Tracts," 
 (3 vols., 1702-06,) and "Tracts against Popery," (1715.) 
 
 € as i; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; gas »; th as in this. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GEDIKE 
 
 1012 
 
 GEIJER 
 
 His works were admired by Southey. Died about 
 1715. 
 
 See Chambers," Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Gedike, ga'de-keb, or Gedicke, (Friedrich, ) a 
 German teacher and educational Writer, born in the 
 province of Brandenburg in 1755. He became in 1779 
 director of the Friedrichswerder Gymnasium at Berlin, 
 and in 1795 of the Berlin Gymnasium, both of which 
 institutions he raised to the highest prosperity by his 
 excellent system of instruction. Died in 1803. 
 
 See Franz Horn, "F. Gedicke's Biographie," 1808; Daniel 
 Jenisch, " Einige Worte zum Andenken des F. Gedicke," 1803. 
 
 Gedoyn, zheh-dw&N', (Nicolas,) a French translator 
 and abbt, born at Orleans in 1677. He became intimate 
 with Ninon de Lenclos, who was his relative. In 1701 
 he obtained acanonicate in Paris. He produced in 1718 
 an elegant but rather free translation of Quintilian, which 
 opened to him the French Academy. His other chief 
 work is a version of Pausanias, (1 731.) Died in 1744. 
 
 See D'Alembert, "filoge de Gedoyn;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge'neVale." 
 
 Gee, (Joshua,) a distinguished London merchant, 
 published in .1729 a work entitled "The Trade and 
 Navigation of Great Britain Considered," which was 
 once popular. 
 
 Geefs, gafs or Hafs, (Jan Joseph,) a distinguished 
 Belgian sculptor, born at Antwerp in 181 1. Among his 
 best works are "Adonis departing to the Chase," and 
 "Metabus, King of the Volsci." Died in i860. 
 
 Geefs, (Willem,) a celebrated Belgian sculptor, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Antwerp in Sep- 
 tember, 1806, and studied under Ramey in Paris. Among 
 his master-pieces are statues of Rubens and of Malibran, 
 the monument to Count Frederick de Merode, the " Lion 
 in Love," a group in marble, and " Francesca da Rimini." 
 He obtained the title of first sculptor to the king. His 
 wife, Fanny, is a skilful painter of genre and portraits. 
 
 Geel, Hal, or Gell, gSI, (Jakob,) an eminent Dutch 
 classical scholar, born at Amsterdam in 1789. He be- 
 came chief librarian at the University of Leyden in 1833, 
 and was one of the founders of the "Bibliotheca Critica 
 Nova," commenced in 1825. Among his chief works 
 is a "Critical History of the Greek Sophists," in Latin, 
 (1823.) He edited Theocritus, (1820,) the "Phcenissse" 
 of Euripides, and other Greek works. 
 
 Geel, van, v$n Hal, (Louis,) a Belgian sculptor, born 
 at Malines in 1789. He executed the colossal figure of a 
 lion erected on the field of Waterloo. Among his master- 
 pieces is a shepherd playing on a flute. Died in 1852. 
 
 Geer, de, deh HaR or gaR, (Lodewijck,) a Dutch or 
 Swedish manufacturer, born in 1587. He was employed 
 by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in the fabrication of 
 arms, and in the reign of Queen Christina distinguished 
 himself by the construction of a fleet. He rendered 
 other important services to Sweden. Died in 1652. 
 
 See Buken, "Areminne ofver I., de Geer," 1790; Ersch und 
 Gruber, ".Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," 1852; Franzen, "Aminnelse- 
 Tal ofver L. de Geer." 
 
 Geer, von, fon yaR, (Carl,) Baron, a distinguished 
 Swedish naturalist, born in 1720, was the owner of a 
 large fortune. He was a pupil or friend of Linnsens, and 
 attained the dignity of marshal of the court. His favour- 
 ite study was entomology, on which he published an 
 excellent work, "Memoirs to illustrate the History 
 of Insects," ("Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire des 
 Insectes," 8 vols., 1752-78, with good figures.) He was 
 author of other scientific works. Died in 1778. 
 
 See T. Bergmann, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver C. de Geer," 1779; 
 Ersch und Gruber, "Allgeineine Encyklopaedie;" Gezeljus, 
 " Biographiskt- Lexicon." 
 
 Geeraerts. See Garrard, (Mark.) 
 
 Geerts, HaRts, (Charles Henri,) a Belgian sculptor, 
 born at Antwerp about 1808; died in 1855. 
 
 Geffrard, zhi'fuiK', (Fakre,) a native of Saint Do- 
 mingo, born in 1806, entered the army at an early age, 
 and was made a lieutenant-general in 1845. After the 
 deposition of Soulouque, in 1 859, Geffrard became presi- 
 dent of the republic of Hayti. 
 
 Gefion, ga'fe-on or gefe-on, or Gefione, [etymology 
 unknown,] in the Northern mythology, a virgin goddess, 
 
 who takes into her service all those who die virgins. 
 For a fuller account of Gefion and the offices she is sup- 
 posed to fulfil, see Petersen's " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Gehema, von, fon ga-ha'ma, (John Abraham,) a 
 Polish medical writer, born about 1660. He was phy- 
 sician to the Elector of Brandenburg and to the King 
 of Poland. b 
 
 Gehlen, ga'len, (Adolph Ferdinand,) a German 
 chemist, born at Biitow in 1775, became a professor at 
 Munich about 1807. He was editor of a "Journal of 
 Chemistry," (5 vols., 1803-05,) and published several 
 chemical memoirs. He died at Munich, a victim to an 
 experiment with arsenical hydrogen gas, in 1815. 
 
 Gehler, ga'ler, (Johann Karl,) a German physician 
 and writer, born at Gorlitz in 1732, was professor of 
 botany, anatomy, and chemistry at Leipsic. He wrote 
 able treatises on obstetrics, and other works. Died in 
 1796. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Bio- 
 graphie Medicale." 
 
 Gehler, (Johann Samuel Traugott,) a German 
 jurist and savant, born at Gorlitz in 1751. He published 
 in 1787 a valuable "Dictionary of Physical Science," in 
 5 vols. Died in 1795. 
 
 Gehren, ga'ren, (Karl Christian,) a German 
 preacher and writer on theology, born at Marburg in 
 1763 ; died in 1832. 
 
 See his Selbstbiographie." 
 
 Geibel, gl'bel, (Emanuel,) a celebrated German poet, 
 bom at Lubeck in 1815. Having accompanied the 
 Russian ambassador Katakazi, as a family tutor, to 
 Athens in 1838, he visited the most interesting parts of 
 Greece and perfected himself in his classical studies. 
 After his return to Germany he published, in 1840, a 
 volume of poems, which were very well received; and in 
 1852 he became professor of aesthetics at Munich. He 
 brought out in 1841 his "Voices of the Time," ("Zeit- 
 stimmen,") which was followed by " King Sigurd's 
 Bridal Excursion," and the "Twelve Sonnets for Sles- 
 wick-Holstein," (1846.) His poetry is characterized by 
 rich fancy, melodious versification, and deep religious 
 feeling, and he ranks among the most popular German 
 poets of the age. 
 
 Geier, gi'er. (Martin,) a German Lutheran divine, 
 born at Leipsic in 1614, was professor of Hebrew. He 
 wrote Commentaries on Scripture. Died in 1681. 
 
 Geiger, gl'ger, (Abraham,) a Jewish rabbi and Ori- 
 ental scholar, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1S10. 
 Among his principal works are a treatise entitled " What 
 has Mohammed borrowed from Judaism?" (1833,) and 
 "Studies on Moses ben Mainion," (1850.) 
 
 Geiger, gl'ger, (Johann Conrad,) a distinguished 
 painter on glass, born in Zurich in 1597; died in 1674. 
 
 Geijer or Geyer, yl'er, (Erik Gtjstaf,) an eminent 
 Swedish historian and poet, born in the province of 
 Warmeland on the 12th of January, 17S3. He studied 
 at Upsal, where he became professor of history in 181 7, 
 and acquired great popularity by his lectures. In 1S11 
 he had begun the publication of a journal entitled "The 
 Iduna," in which his finest poems — "The Viking," "The 
 Last Skald," etc. — appeared, and soon established his 
 reputation. He represented the University of Upsal 
 in the Diets of 1828 and 1840, and was twice offered a 
 bishopric, which he refused. In 1822 he was appointed 
 royal historiographer, and subsequently president of the 
 Royal Academy. His "History of the Swedish Nation," 
 ("Svenska Kolkets Historia," 3 vols.,) esteemed his 
 most important work, came out in 1832, and was soon 
 after translated into English, French, and German. 
 Among his other productions may be named his " Sketch 
 of the Condition of Sweden from the Death of Charles 
 XII. to the Reign of Gustavus III.," (1839,) "Life of 
 Charles XIV., Jean," (Bernadotte,) (1844,) and " Remi- 
 niscences," ("Minnen," 1834,) left unfinished, containing 
 an account of his early life and of his visit to England 
 and Germany. Geyer was a member of numerous 
 learned institutions, both of his own and other countries, 
 and was in 1840 created Commander of the Polar Star. 
 He was from his youth very intimate with the poet Teg- 
 ner, and numbered among his friends Frederika Bremer 
 and other celebrated Swedish writers. He also possessed 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; nSt; good; moon; 
 
GEILER 
 
 1013 
 
 GELLIUS 
 
 superior musical talent, and composed several pieces for 
 Jenny Lind. Died April 13, 1847. 
 
 See Howitt, " Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," 
 1852; X. Marmier, "Histoire de la Literature Scandinave;" 
 Gkijer, "Autobiographic Souvenirs," ("Minnen,") 1834; Sten- 
 bbrg, "Mmnestal ofver E. G. Geijer," 1848: A. Cronholm, "Min- 
 nesial ofver E. G. Geijer," 1847; Carl Ploug, " E. G. Geijer's 
 Minnesteckning," 1S48; "Biographiskt- Lexicon ofver nantnkunnige 
 Svenska Man; 1 ' "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1833, and 
 April, 1844. 
 
 Geiler. See Geyler, (John.) 
 
 Geinitz, gl'nits, (Johann Bruno,) a German geolo- 
 gist, born at Altenburg in 1814, became professor of 
 mineralogy and geology at Dresden in 1850. He was 
 author of many works, among which is a "Geological 
 Description of Saxony," (1843.) 
 
 Geinoz, zh£'no', (Francois,) a Swiss scholar and 
 critic, born at Bulle in 1696. He became a resident 
 of Paris in 1730, and a member of the Academy of In- 
 scriptions in 1735. He was afterwards chief editor of 
 the "Journal des Savants," and was distinguished as 
 a Hellenist Among his works are " Observations on 
 the Text and Version of the First Book of Herodotus." 
 Died in Paris in 1752. 
 
 Geladas. See Ageladas. 
 
 Gelase. See Gelasius. 
 
 Gelasius, je-la'she-us, [Gr. Teteoioe; Fr. Gelase, 
 zha'ISz',] became Bishop of Caesarea about the year 367. 
 He was a member of the General Council of Constanti- 
 nople. He wrote several works, among which is an 
 " Ecclesiastical History." Died about 395. 
 
 Gelasius of Cyzicus [Fr. Gexask de Cyzique, zhV- 
 19z' deh se'zek'l lived during the time of the emperors 
 Basiliscus and Zeno, about 475 a.d. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of the Council of Nice," and some other works. 
 
 See Dupin, " Histoire des Auteurs eccle^siastiques. " 
 
 Gelasius I., Saint, a native of Africa, was elected 
 pope in 492. He died in 496, leaving several works, 
 which are extant. The canonical books of Scripture 
 were separated from the apocryphal in his pontificate. 
 
 Gelasius II., (originally Giovanni di Gaeta,) born 
 at Gaeta about 1050, was elected pope in January, 11 18. 
 He was maltreated by some partisans of the emperor 
 Henry V., who was his enemy, and who elected an anti- 
 pope, Gregory VIII. Gelasius fled from Rome, and died 
 at Cluny in 1119. 
 
 See Platina, "Vita: Pontificum." 
 
 Geldenhauer, gel'den-how'er or Hel'tlen-how'er, or 
 Geldenhaur, (Gerard,) a Dutch writer and Latin poet, 
 born at Nymwegen about 1480, waS sometimes called 
 Gerard oe Nymwegen. He was in early life a friend 
 of Erasmus and reader to Charles V. His talent for 
 Latin poetry procured for him the crown of poet-lau- 
 reate in 1517. He was converted to the Protestant faith 
 about 1526. Among his works are "Satires," (15 1 5,) and 
 a "History of Lower Germany," (" Germanise Inferioris 
 Historia," 1532.) Died at Wittenberg in 1542. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Gelder, van, vtn gel'der or Hel'der, (Arnold,) a 
 Dutch painter, born at Dort in 1645, was a pupil of Rem- 
 brandt. He distinguished himself in several branches 
 of painting, designed correctly, and was a good colorist. 
 Among his best works are "Christ before Pilate," a 
 portrait of Peter the Great, and "The Toilet of the 
 Jewish Bride." Died at Dort in 1727. 
 
 SeeStRET, " Dictionnaire des Peintres." 
 
 Gelee, (Claude.) See Claude Lorrain. 
 
 Gelee, zheh-li', (Francois Antoine,) a French en- 
 graver, born in Paris in 1796, gained the grand prize in 
 1824, and a first medal at the Salon in 1842. 
 
 Ge-le'nI-us, [Ger. pron. gi-la'ne-us,] or Ghelen, 
 galen, (Sigismund,) a philologist and translator, born at 
 Prague in 1477. He was a friend of Erasmus, who pro- 
 cured for him the place of corrector of the press under 
 Froben at Bale. He translated into Latin the works of 
 Josephus, Appian, Philo, and Justin Martyr, and pub- 
 lished a dictionary of the Greek, Latin, German, and 
 Slavonian languages, ("Lexicon Symphonum quatuor 
 Linguarum," 1537.) Died in 1554. 
 
 Gelimer, Sere-raff or jel'e-mer, written also Gil'imer, 
 [Gr. YeTdfitp^ the last king of the Vandals in Africa, suc- 
 ceeded Hilderic in 530 a.d. He was defeated and taken 
 
 prisoner by Belisarius in 534, and then ceased to reign. 
 The date of his death is unknown. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Gelinek, ga-lee'n4k, (Joseph,) a Bohemian com- 
 poser, born at Selez in 1757, was a friend or associate 
 of Mozart. He acquired a wide but temporary reputa- 
 tion. Died at Vienna in 1825. 
 
 Gell, (Jakob.) See Geel. 
 
 Gell, (Sir William,) an English scholar and and. 
 quary, born in 1777, was a son of Philip Gell, of Hopton, 
 Derbyshire. Being appointed one of the chamberlains 
 to the Princess of Wales, he accompanied her to Italy 
 in 1814. He published, among other works, the " Itine- 
 rary of Greece," (1810,) "Topography of Troy and its 
 Vicinity," " Pompeiana," being a description of Pom- 
 peii, (1817,) and the excellent " Topography of Rome," 
 (3 vols., 1834.) He resided some years at Rome and 
 Naples. Died at Naples in 1836. 
 
 Gellert, gel'lert, (Christian Furchtegott,) a Ger- 
 man poet and miscellaneous writer, born at Hainichen, 
 in Saxony, on the 4th of July, 1715. Having been edu- 
 cated in the University of Leipsic, he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of philosophy there in 1751. His "Tales" and 
 " Fables" obtained a popularity in Germany not sur- 
 passed perhaps by any other works of the kind, and, by 
 their pure morality, exercised the most salutary influ- 
 ence on society. His "Sacred Songs" are also highly 
 esteemed, and his romance entitled "The Swedish 
 Countess" is a superior production. As a man, Gellert 
 was eminently virtuous and amiable. He was loved and 
 reverenced by all classes, and received signal marks of 
 favour from Frederick II. and the princes royal. " Such," 
 says Guizot, "are the literary titles of a man who will 
 always possess the merit of having powerfully contrib- 
 uted to form the language and improve the minds of 
 his countrymen." ("Biographie Universelle.") Died in 
 December, 1769. 
 
 „ , See . Lbssing's Critique on Gellert; Johann August Ernesti, 
 'ElogiumC. F. Gellerti," 1770; Johann Andreas Cramer, "C. F. 
 Gellert's Leben utid Briefe, ' 2 vols., 1774. (translated into English by 
 Mrs. Douglas, 1805;) Heinrich Doking, "Leben C. V. Gellerts," 
 2 vols., 1S33; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encvklopaedie ;" 
 Bouterwek, "Geschichte der poetischen National- Literatur der 
 Deutschen;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" G. E. 
 Leo, "Das fiomme Leben C. F. Gellerts," 1845. 
 
 Gelli, jel'lee, (Giovanni Battista,) a celebrated 
 Italian author and moralist, born at Florence in 1498, 
 was a tailor by trade. He was one of the founders 
 of the Florentine Academy, of which he was chosen 
 president in 1548. He published in 1546 a collection 
 of moral dialogues, entitled " I Capricci del Bottajo," 
 ("The Whims of the Cooper,") and in 1549 a fable, or ' 
 moral fiction, called "La Circe," which Ginguene' com- 
 mends as original and piquant. Among his works are 
 "The liasket," ("La Sporta," a comedy, 1543,) and 
 lectures on the "Divina Commedia" of Dante, (1551.) 
 His writings are recognized as authorities in language 
 by the Academy della Crusca. Died in 1563. 
 
 See Negri, "Scrittori Fiorentini;" Nicekon, "M^moire«;" 
 Michklk Capri, "Orazione nella Morte di G. B. Gelli," 1563; 
 Ginguene', "Histoire litte'raire d'ltalie." 
 
 GelTI-brand, (Henry,) an English mathematician, 
 born in London in 1597. He became professor of astron- 
 omy at Gresham College, London, in 1627, and wrote 
 an "Epitome of Navigation," and several mathematical 
 works. He completed Briggs's " Trigonometria Bri- 
 tannica," (1633,) at the request of the dying author. 
 Died in 1636. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Gel'11-us, (Au'lus,) [Fr. Aulu-Gelle, o'lii' zheM,] a 
 Roman writer and grammarian, born at Rome in the 
 early part of the second century. He became a resident 
 of Athens, but returned to Rome and obtained the office 
 of judge. He wrote a work called "Attic Nights," 
 (" Noctes Atticae,") which consists of a curious collection 
 of anecdotes, arguments, and observations on a variety 
 of subjects. It contains fragments pf several lost works, 
 and is highly prized. He informs the reader that he 
 wrote the "Noctes Attics" to amuse his children. It 
 was translated into English by lieloe, (1795.) He died 
 in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 See BXiir, "Geschichte der Romi&che Literatur." 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (Jr^-See Explanations, p. 33,) 
 
GELLIUS 
 
 1014 
 
 GEN EST 
 
 Gellius, (Cneius,) a Roman historian, who lived about 
 150 B.C. He wrote a " History of Rome from the Ear- 
 liest Times," which is not extant. 
 
 Ge'lon [Gr. Te\uv\ 1 succeeded Hippocrates as King 
 of Syracuse in 485 B.C. He had distinguished himself 
 in fighting under Hippocrates, and was appointed by 
 him general of the cavalry. About 480 B.C. the Car- 
 thaginians, under Hamilcar, made an attempt to recover 
 their possessions held by Gelon, but were defeated at 
 Himera with immense loss, estimated at 150,000 men. 
 After this the Carthaginians sued for peace, which was 
 granted on condition of their abolishing human sacrifices 
 and on the payment of two thousand talents. He died 
 in 478 B.C., deeply regretted by all his subjects. 
 
 See Nihbuhr, " Roman History ;" Grotk, " History of Greece." 
 
 Gelon II., a son of Hieron II., King of Syracuse, was 
 bcm about 266 B.C. He was a patron of Archimedes. 
 It is said that he was about to abandon the alliance of 
 the Romans, defeated at Cannae, when he died in 216 
 B.C., leaving a son Hieronymus. It appears that Gelon 
 was associated as king with his father, who survived him. 
 
 Gemberlein. See Graf. 
 
 Gemeau, zha'mo', (Auguste Pierre Walbourg — 
 vaTbooR',) a French general, born in Paris in 1790, 
 became a general of division in 1845, and commander- 
 in-chief of the army of occupation at Rome in 1850. 
 
 Gemelli, ja-mel'lee, (Lodovico,) an Italian educa- 
 tional writer, born in Calabria in 1757; died iii 1835. 
 
 Gemelli-Carreri. See Carreri. 
 
 Gemignano. See Gimignano. 
 
 Gemignaiio, di San, de sin ja-men-ya'no, (Vin- 
 Cenzio,) an Italian painter, born in Tuscany in 1490, 
 was a pupil of Raphael. He was employed in the Vati- 
 can, at Rome. Died in 1530. 
 
 Geminiani, ja-me-ne-a'nee, (Francesco,) an eminent 
 composer and violinist, born at Lucca about 1680, or, as 
 some say, about 1666. He studied under A. Scarlatti, 
 Lunati, and Corelli. In 17 14 he removed to London, 
 where he performed with great success. He composed 
 beautiful concertos and sonatas, which display much 
 skill in harmony, and published a " Guide to Harmony," 
 (" Guida armonica," 1742,) which was received with 
 favour. His expensive habits kept him always on the 
 verge of poverty. He lost a valuable manuscript treatise 
 on music, through the treachery of a servant, about 1761. 
 Died in Dublin in 1762. 
 
 See Burney, " History of Music;" Fins, "Biographie Uni- 
 verselle des Musiciens." 
 
 Ge-mi'nus, [Tefuvoc,] a Greek astronomer, who lived 
 in the first century B.C. He quotes Hipparchus in his 
 works, some of which are lost. It is supposed he was a 
 native of Rhodes. He wrote an elementary work on 
 astronomy, " Eioayuyjj e/c til faaivo/ieva," which is extant. 
 "This work," says Delambre, "is rather superficial, but 
 simple and luminous, and the best of those which have 
 come down to us from the Greeks." 
 
 See Delambre, " Histoire de I'Astronomie ancienne." 
 Ge-mis'tus, (George,) [Gr. Tsupyioc 6 Te/uoTos; Fr. 
 Gemiste, zha'mest',1 sumamed Pi.etho, a Platonic 
 philosopher, famous for his learning, was born at Con- 
 stantinople. He was a deputy from the Greek Church 
 to the Council of Florence in 1438. He was a zealous 
 partisan of the philosophy of Plato, and an opponent of 
 Aristotle. The prevalence of Platonism in Italy in the 
 fifteenth century is ascribed to his efforts. He wrote 
 many works on philosophy, history, etc., among which 
 are a " History of Greece after the Battle of Mantinea," 
 and " On the Difference between the Philosophy of Plato 
 and that of Aristotle." He is said to have attained the 
 age of one hundred years. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Appendix to Cave, " His- 
 toria Literaria ;" Wilhklm Gass, "Gennadius und Pletho," Bres- 
 lau, 1844: C. F. Boerner, "De doctis Hominibus Graecis," Leipsic, 
 1754; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Gem'ma, [Dutch pron. Hem'ma,] (Corneus,) a son 
 of Reinier, noticed below, was born at Louvain in 1535. 
 He became professor of medicine there about 1570. He 
 wrote a learned work, " De Arte Cyclognomica," (1569,) 
 and a Latin poem entitled " Menti rerum architectrici," 
 etc. Died in 1577. 
 
 See Castellan, " Vitae illustrium Medicorum." 
 
 Gemma, [or Gemma Frisius, i.e. "Gemma the 
 Frisian,"] (Reinier,) a Dutch physician and eminent 
 astronomer, born at Dokkum in 1508. He was appointed 
 professor of medicine at Louvain in 1541, and modestly 
 declined the offer of Charles V., who invited him to his 
 court. He published, besides other works, "The Princi- 
 ples of Astronomy and Cosmography," (1547.) Died at 
 Louvain in 1555. 
 
 See De Thou, " Histnria sui Temporis ;" Foppens, " Bibiio- 
 theca Belgica;" Vossiu.s, "De Scientiis Mathematicis." 
 
 Gemmingen-Hornberg, von, foil gem'ming-en- 
 hoRn'beKG, (Otto Heinrich,) Baron, born at Heil- 
 bronn in 1753, wrote several popular dramas, one of 
 which was entitled " Der Deutsche Hausvater," on the 
 model of Diderot's " Pere de Famille." Died in 1836. 
 
 Gemusseus, ga-moo-za'us, or Geschmauss, gi'- 
 shmowss', (Hieronymus,) a German philologist, born 
 at Miilhausen, in Alsace, in 1505. He published a good 
 edition of Paulus .Lgineta, (1538,) and wrote, in Latin, 
 a Life of Galen. Died in 1543. 
 
 Gence, zh&Nss, (Jean Baptiste Modeste,) a French 
 writer, born at Amiens in 1755. He obtained the office 
 of archivist at the Depot des Chartes before the Revolu- 
 tion. He published a Latin edition of the "Imitation 
 of Christ," (1826,) and wrote several treatises to prove 
 that Gerson was the author of that work. This subject 
 was his hobby during nearly all his life. Died in 1840. 
 
 See " Biographie litteVaire de J. B. M. Gence," by himself; Vil- 
 lenave, " Eloge de M. Gence," 1840. 
 
 Gendebien, zhSN'deh'be^.N', (Alexandre Joseph 
 Seisastien,) a Belgian politician and eloquent advocate, 
 born at Mons in 1789. He was a member of the pro- 
 visional government in 1S30, and opposed the election 
 of Leopold in 1831. As a member of the Chamber of 
 Deputies, he supported liberal principles until he retired 
 from public service in 1839. 
 
 Gendebien, (Jean Francois,) a Belgian legislator, 
 father of the preceding, was born in 1753. He promoted 
 the liberation of Belgium from Austria in 1789, and was 
 a member of the French legislative body from 1802 to 
 1813. In 1830 he was president of the Congress of 
 Belgium. Died in 183S. 
 
 Gendre. See Legendre. 
 
 Gendrin, zhS.N'dKaN', (Auguste Nicolas,) a French 
 physician, born at Chateaudun in 1796. He received 
 the Montyon prize of the Institute for his "Anatomical 
 History of Inflammations," (1826.) Among his other 
 works is a "Philosophical Treatise on Practical Medi- 
 cine," (3'vols., 1838-41.) 
 
 Gendron, zh&N'dRAN', (Claude Deshais — di'/.i',) 
 born at Beauce about 1663, was physician to the Duke 
 of Orleans, Regent of France. Died in 1750. 
 
 Genebrard, zha'na'bRSit',(GlLHKRT,)a learned French 
 prelate, born at Riom in 1537. He became professor 
 of Hebrew at Paris in 1563. He was a partisan of the 
 League against Henry IV. In 1592 he was appointed 
 Archbishop of Aix by the pope. He published an edi- 
 tion of Origen's works, (1574,) a commentary on the 
 Psalms of David, (1577,) and other works. Died in 1597. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memuires;" Possbvin, "Apparatus Sacer." 
 
 Genelll, gi-nel'lee, ? (Bonaventura,) a German de- 
 signer, born at Berlin in 1803, settled at Munich, where 
 he produced, among other works, " Hercules playing on 
 the Lyre," and " Jason and Medea." 
 
 Generali, ja-na-ri'lee, (Pietro,) an able Italian com- 
 poser, born near Vercelli in 1783. His proper name 
 was Mercandetti. He composed many operas, among 
 which is " I Baccanali di Roma." Died in 1832. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Genes, zheh'ness', (written also Geneat, ) Saint, 
 sometimes called Genes of Rome, was originally a 
 comedian. It is said that as he was playing, in the 
 presence of the emperor, a piece in derision of the Chris- 
 tians, he was miraculously converted to the new faith, 
 for which he was beheaded by order of Diocletian. 
 
 Ge-ne'sl-us, (JOSEPH,) a Byzantine historian, flour- 
 ished about 950 a.d. He wrote, in Greek, a history of 
 Leo the Armenian, Michael II., Theophilus, and Michael 
 III., (or, as some say, Basil I.) 
 
 Genest. See Campan, (Madame,) and Genes. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a,e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nfit; good; nicion; 
 
GENE ST 
 
 1015 
 
 GENNARI 
 
 Genest, zheh-ni', or GenSt, ( Abbe Charles 
 Claude,) a French poet and dramatist, born in Paris in 
 1639. He gained in 1673 the prize of poetry offered by 
 the French Academy, into which he was admitted in 
 1698. He expounded the Cartesian philosophy in a 
 poem called "Principles of Philosophy," (" Principes de 
 Philosophic," 1 7 16,) which, says Voltaire, "demonstrated 
 his patience rather than his genius." He wrote a medi- 
 ocre drama entitled " Penelope." Died in 1719. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Catalogue des ficrivains du Siecle de Louis 
 XIV;'* " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^iera'e." 
 
 Genest or Gen&t, (Edmond Charles,) a French 
 diplomatist, born at Versailles about 1765, was a brother 
 of Madame Campan. He was sent as ambassador to 
 the United States in December, 1792, and on his arrival 
 was received with enthusiasm by the people. He used 
 his influence to involve the United States in war against 
 the British, and denounced Washington for his neutral- 
 ity. At the request of Washington, he was superseded ; 
 but he remained in the United States. Died at Schodac, 
 _ New York, In 1834. 
 
 Genet, (Edmund Charles.) See Genest. 
 
 Genet, zheh-nj', (Francois,) a French theologian 
 and casuist, bom at Avignon in 1640, became Bishop of 
 Yaison in 1685. He wrote "Moral Theology; or, A So- 
 lution of Cases of Conscience," (3d edition, 7 vols., 1682,) 
 which was approved by many bishops. Died in 1707. 
 
 Geneva, (Robert DE.) See Robert ok Geneva. 
 
 Genevieve, jeVeh-veev', [Fr. pron. zhen-ve'Av',] 
 Patron Saint of Paris, was born at Nanterre, in France, 
 in 423 A.D., and took the veil when she was fifteen. It is 
 said that when Attila, King of the Huns, menaced Paris, 
 Genevieve assured the inhabitants of their safety, upon 
 which they scoffed at her as a pretended prophetess ; 
 but, as the prediction was verified, they ever afterwards 
 held her in great esteem. When Paris was besieged, 
 she afforded the city great relief by the abundance of 
 provisions which she procured. It has also been stated 
 that she performed many miracles, and was the means 
 of converting King Clovis. Died in 512. 
 
 See Bmii.kt, "Vies des -Saints," etc. ; Mezeray, "Histoire de 
 France;" Mks. Jameson, " Sacred and Legendary Art ;" Lk Nain 
 dk Tili-emont, "Vie de S. Genevieve, Patronne de Paris," 1823; 
 J. Barthslemy, " Vie de S. Genevieve," 1852. 
 
 Genevieve of Brabant, wife of the palatine Sieg- 
 fried, is supposed to have lived in the eighth century. 
 Being falsely accused of adultery, she was condemned to 
 death ; but the penalty was commuted to exposure in a 
 forest. After five years, she was recognized by her hus- 
 band when hunting, and her innocence acknowledged. 
 
 See "Vie admirable de Genevieve de Brabant," Paris, 1842; 
 Gorres, "Deutsche Volks-Bucher." 
 
 Genga, jjn'ga, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian architect, 
 born at Cesena in 15 18, was a son of Girolamo, noticed 
 below. He was appointed intendant of public buildings 
 by the Duke of Urbino. Among his works was the 
 church of San Pietro de Mondovi. Shortly before his 
 death he went to Malta to put that island in a state of de- 
 fence. He traced the plan of Valetta, and designed several 
 churches there, but died before they were finished, in 1558. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc.; Quatrembre de 
 Quincv, " Dictionnaire d' Architecture." 
 
 Genga, (Bernardino,) an Italian anatomist, born in 
 the duchy of Urbino about 1650. He wrote "Surgical 
 Anatomy," (1672,) and other works. Died in 1734. 
 
 Genga, (Girolamo,) an eminent painter and archi- 
 tect, born at Urbino about 1476, was a pupil of Perugino 
 and a friend of Raphael. He worked at Sienna, Rome, 
 and Urbino. He excelled in perspective, and in the 
 distribution of the effects of light. Among his master- 
 pieces is an oil-painting of the " Resurrection of Christ" 
 at Sienna. He was the architect of a ducal palace near 
 Pesaro, and restored the archiepiscopal palace at Mantua. 
 He wrote several treatises on the fine arts. Died in 1 55 1. 
 Pope Leo XII. is said to have been his descendant. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters, Sculptors," etc. ; Quatrh- 
 merk dk Quincv, " Dictionnaire cf Architecture ; Lanzi, "History 
 of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Genga, della, (Annibal.) See Leo XII. 
 Genghis Khan. See Jengis Khan. 
 Genin, zha'naN', (Francois,) a French litterateur and 
 philologist, born at Amiens in 1803. He became one of 
 
 the editors of "The National," a daily paper of Paris, 
 about 1837, and wrote for it spirited articles against the 
 Jesuits, in 1845 the French Academy awarded a prize 
 to his " Lexicon of the Language of Moliere." He 
 made successful researches in the origin of the French 
 language and literature. Among his works are "The 
 Variations of the French Language since the Twelfth 
 Century," (1845,) and "Letters on French Philology," 
 (1846.) Died in 1856. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Genissieux, zha'ne'se-yh', (J. J. V.,) a French advo- 
 cate and revolutionist, bom in Dauphine about 1740. 
 As a member of the Convention in 1792, he voted for the 
 death of the king. He was minister of justice for the 
 first three months of 1796. Died in 1S04. 
 
 Genlis, zho.s'less', (STEPHANIE Felicite Ducrest 
 de Saint-Aubin — du'kR&' deh sa.Nt'o'baN',) CoUNTESS 
 OF, a celebrated French writer, born near Autun, in 
 Burgundy, in 1746. Her talents, beauty, and skill in 
 music introduced her at an early age into Parisian so- 
 ciety. In her sixteenth year she was married to the 
 Count de Genlis, who, having accidentally seen one of 
 her letters, was so charmed with its style that he sought 
 her acquaintance. Being appointed soon after governess 
 to the children of the Duke of Orleans, one of whom, 
 Louis Philippe, was afterwards king, she wrote a series 
 of works for their instruction, the principal of which are 
 "Les Annales de laVertu," "Theatre de l'Education," 
 " Les Veillees du Chateau," and "Adele et Theodore." 
 She sympathized with the principles of the French 
 Revolution, but was compelled in 1791 — probably on 
 account of her intimacy with the Duke of Orleans — to 
 take refuge in England. She afterwards spent some time 
 on the continent, and while in Belgium brought about 
 a marriage between her adopted daughter Pamela and 
 Lord Edward Fitzgerald. When Bonaparte became 
 consul, Madame de Genlis returned to Paris, where she 
 brought out many works in rapid succession. In her 
 treatises entitled " On the Influence of Women on 
 Literature," "Critical Observations towards the Literary 
 History of the Nineteenth Century," and "The Dinners 
 of Baron d'Holbach," she attacked a number of the most 
 prominent French philosophers, as well as Madame de 
 Stael and Madame Cottin. Her productions, which 
 amount in all to more than eighty volumes, are written 
 with great elegance, and display considerable talent ; but 
 theft morality is not of a high order. When past eighty 
 years of age, she wrote "Memoirs of the Eighteenth 
 Century and the French Revolution," which, though 
 containing much that is interesting, are disfigured by 
 petty scandal and excessive and ludicrous vanity. In 
 the words of a witty French writer, Madame de Genlis 
 has in this work confessed everybody's sins but her own. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 See Grimm, " Correspondance litteiaire ;" L. de Sevelinoes, 
 "Madame de Genlis en Miniature," etc., 1826: Bachaumont, 
 "Memoires secrets;" Cousin d'Avallon, " Genlisiana," 1820; 
 Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi," tome iii. 
 
 Gennade. See Gennadius. 
 
 Gen-na'dl-us (Gr. Ttvviduig] was elected Bishop and 
 Patriarch of Constantinople in 458. He wrote some 
 ecclesiastical works. Died in 471 a.D. 
 
 Gen-na'dl-us, an ecclesiastic, whose original name 
 was George Scholarius, advocated the union of the 
 Greek and Latin Churches at the Council of Florence in 
 1438, but afterwards strenuously opposed that measure. 
 He was chosen Patriarch of Constantinople in 1453, 
 after the capture of that city by the Turks, and abdicated 
 about 1458. He left many theological works. 
 
 Gen-na'dl-us [Fr. Gennade, zh^-nSd'] of Mar- 
 seii.i.es, a priest or presbyter, who lived about 470-500 
 A.D. He wrote a book "On Illustrious Men," ["ut 
 Viris illustribus,") which is regarded as a continuation 
 of Saint Jerome's work of similar title, and a treatise 
 on " Doctrines," (" De Dogmatibus,") both of which are 
 extant. He has been charged with Semi-Pelagianisni. 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria ;"'Wii.hki.m Gass, •* Gennadius 
 und Plelho, oder Aristoteiismus und Platouismusin der Griechitdwn 
 Kirche," 1844. 
 
 Geunari, jen-na'ree, (BENEDETTO,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Cento, near Bologna, about 1550. Among his 
 chief works are "Saint Peter and Saint Paul," and "The 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
GENNAR1 
 
 1016 
 
 GENTILIS 
 
 Repast of the Saviour with the Disciples at Emmaus." 
 " His composition is simple and noble," says E. Breton, 
 " his touch is easy, and his colour true." (" Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale.") Died in 1610. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy.". 
 
 Gennari, (Benedetto,) the Younger, a grandson 
 of the preceding, was born at Cento in 1633. He was 
 a pupil and nephew of Guercino, whom he imitated with 
 success. Having visited England, he received the title 
 of first painter to Charles II. and James II. His copies 
 of certain works of Guercino can hardly be distinguished 
 from the originals. Among his master-pieces are "Venus 
 and Adonis," and "Saint Jerome." Died in 1715. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Gennari, (Cesare,) a brother of the preceding, born 
 in 1641, was a pupil of Guercino, and was a skilful painter 
 of landscapes and history. He worked at Bologna, where 
 he died in 1688. 
 
 Gennari, (Ercole,) a son of Benedetto the elder, 
 was born at Cento in 1597. He married a sister of 
 Guercino, and copied many works of that master. Died 
 at Bologna in 1658. 
 
 Gennari, (Giusefpe,) an Italian litterateur, born at 
 Padua in 1721 ; died in 1800. 
 
 Geunaro, jen-na'ro, (Giuseppe Aurelio,) an Italian 
 jurisconsult and ingenious writer, born at Naples in 1 701. 
 He published in 1731 "Republic of Jurists," (" Repub- 
 lics Jurisconsultorum,") a history of law under a ficti- 
 tious form, which was much admired and often reprinted. 
 In 1748 he became a councillor of the king. He wrote 
 " On the Vicious Manner of Defending Causes in Court," 
 (1744.) Died in 1761. 
 
 See Spiriti, " Elogio storicodi G. A. Gennaro," 1762 ; Tipaldo, 
 "Biografia degli ltaliani iliustri." 
 
 Gennete, zhSn'ti', (Claude Leopold,) a French 
 mechanician, born near Nancy in 1706. He wrote a 
 work "On the Construction of Chimneys warranted 
 not to Smoke," (1760.) Died in 1782. 
 
 Genod, zheh-no', (Michel Philibert,) a French 
 painter of history and genre, born at Lyons in 1795. 
 
 Genoels, ga-nools', [Dutch pron. na-nools',] (Abra- 
 ham,) an eminent Flemish landscape-painter, born at 
 Antwerp in 1640. He worked in Paris and Rome, 
 whither he went about 1674. He painted the back- 
 grounds of Lebrun's " Battles of Alexander," and several 
 views in the vicinity of Rome. Died about 1722. . 
 
 See Bryan's "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Genoude, zheh-nood', (Antoine Eugene,) a noted 
 French journalist, born at Montelimart in 1792. He 
 became editor in 1821 of the "Gazette de France," a 
 legitimist journal of Paris, in which post he displayed 
 considerable ability, but, owing to his fondness for 
 polemics, was involved In numerous difficulties. He 
 wrote "Considerations on the Greeks and Turks," 
 "The Life of Jesus Christ and the Apostles, drawn from 
 the Gospels," (1836,) a " History of France," (16 vols., 
 1844-47,) and other works. Abbe Genoude took holy 
 orders in 1835, after the death of his wife. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Cretineau-Joi.y, " Histoire de M. de Genoude et de la 
 Gazette de France," 1843; " Bioeraphie de M. de Genoude," 
 anonymous, Paris, 1S44; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Genoux, zheh-noo', (Claude,) a Savoyard writer 
 and traveller, born in 181 1, made the tour of the world 
 twice, and published " Memoirs of a Savoyard Boy," 
 (1844.) He wrote a "History of Savoy," (1852,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Genovesi, ji-no-va'see, (Antonio,) an eminent Ital- 
 ian philosopher and political economist, born near Sa- 
 lerno in 1712. He was ordained a priest in 1736, and 
 became professor of metaphysics at Naples in 1 741. He 
 published " Elements of Metaphysics," (in Latin, 1st vol., 
 1743,) and a treatise on logic, "Elements of Logico- 
 Critical Art," ("Elementa Artis logico-critica:," 1745.) 
 In these two works he combined the principles of Bacon, 
 Descartes, Leibnitz, and Locke. He was the first occu- 
 pant of the chair of political economy founded in 1754 
 at Naples. His lectures on that subject were very popu- 
 lar, and gave a great impulse to the study of the same. 
 They were published by him under the title of "Lectures 
 on Commerce or Civil Economy," (" Lezioni di Com- 
 mercio o di Economia civile," 2 vols.) His "Logic for 
 
 Youth" (" Logica per i Giovannetti," 1766) is highly 
 commended. Died at Naples in 1769. 
 
 See " Life of Genovesi," prefixed to his Works; G. M. Galanti, 
 "Elogio storico del Signor Abate A. Genovesi," 1772; Tipaldo, 
 " Biografia degli Italiani iliustri." a 
 
 Gen'ser-ic, [Gr. T^epucoc; Lat. Genseri'cus or 
 Gizrri'cus,] a famous king of the Vandals, born at 
 Seville about 406 A.D., was a son of King Godigisdus or 
 Modigisdus. In 429 he crossed from Spain into Africa 
 with a large army, was joined by many Donatists, and 
 gained victories over the Roman general Bonifacius. 
 His army committed great atrocities and devastation. 
 He captured Carthage in 439, made himself master of 
 Northern Africa, and, according to some writers, formed 
 an alliance with Attila the Hun. He had a powerful 
 fleet, which was a great scourge to the Romans. In 455 
 he was invited by the empress Eudocia, or Eudoxia, to 
 fight against the usurper Maximus. He accordingly 
 marched against Rome, which he sacked, and carried 
 Eudoxia with many other Romans as captives to Car- 
 thage. His fleet defeated that of the emperor Majorian 
 in 457. In religion Genseric was an Arian. Died in" 
 477 a.d. 
 
 See Pkocopius, " Bellum Vandalicum :" Girron, "Decline and 
 Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Le Beau, " Histoiiedu Bas-Einpire." 
 
 Gensonne, zh6N'so'na', (Armand,) a French lawyer, 
 and one of the leaders of the Girondists, born at Bor- 
 deaux in 1758, was one of the most energetic promoters 
 of the Revolution. He was elected to the Legislative 
 Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. He 
 opposed the execution of the king, and exerted himself 
 for the welfare of the dauphin and his sister. In the 
 struggle that followed between the Girondists and Jaco- 
 bins, Gensonne was one of the most prominent and elo- 
 quent champions of his party. One day, in the tribunal, 
 as he was picturing the horrible excesses that had been 
 committed, and was in bold terms denouncing the per- 
 petrators, some one cried, "But they have saved the 
 country." " Yes,'" answered Gensonne ; " as the geese 
 saved the Capitol." When the Jacobins had obtained 
 full power, he was arrested, and condemned to death, 
 with twenty-one of his colleagues, in October, 1793. 
 
 See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists," book xlvii. ; 
 Thiers, " History of the French Revolution ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 j GeneVale." 
 
 Gent, jent, ? (Thomas,) an English printer and anti- 
 quary, born in York in 1691. He wrote several works, 
 among which is "An Ancient and Modern History of the 
 Famous City of York." Died in 1778. 
 
 See the " Life of Thomas Gent," by himself. 
 
 Gentil. See Legentil. 
 
 Gentil, zhfi.N'tel' or zhdN'te'ye, (Andr£ Antoine 
 Pierre,) a French writer on agriculture, was born in 
 Franche-Comte about 1728. He produced an "Essay 
 on Agronomy," (" Essai d'Agronomie," 1777.) Buffon 
 expressed a high opinion of his talents and character. 
 Died in Paris in 1S00. 
 
 Gentil, (Jean Baptiste Joseph,) a French officer 
 and historical writer, born at Bagnols in 1726. He went 
 to India in 1752, fought several campaigns against the 
 British, and entered the service of Sujah Dowlah. He 
 made a rich collection of medals, manuscripts, etc., which 
 he presented to the Royal Library and Museum of Paris. 
 He returned to France in 1778, and died in 1799, leaving 
 in manuscript a " History of the Mogul Empire,"' and 
 other works. In 1822 M. Didot published his "Me- 
 moires d'tudostan." 
 
 See " Precis sur J. B. J. Gentil," etc., Paris, 1814 ; Mill, " His- 
 tory of British India." 
 
 Gentile, jen-tee'14, (Luigi Primo,) a Flemish por- 
 trait-painter, born at Brussels about 1606. He worked 
 many years at Rome, and painted some historical pic- 
 tures. He is called an excellent colorist. Died about 1670. 
 
 Gentile da Fabriano. See Kabriano. 
 
 Gentile Gentili, j£n-tee'la jen-tee'lee, [Lat. Genti'- 
 i.is de Gen tii/ihus,] sinnamed Fui.ginas, a celebrated 
 Italian physician, was born at Foligno. He was the 
 author of several medical works. Died in 1348. 
 
 See G Girolami, " Discorso storico-critico sopra Gentile da 
 Foligno." 1844. 
 
 Gentileschi. See Lomi, (Orazio.) 
 Gentilis. See Gentile. 
 
 S,e,T,6,u,y,/oKj-;a,e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,I,6,u,^, short; a.,e,\,<},oSscurt; fir, fill, fit; rait; n6t; good; mSon; 
 
GENTILIS 
 
 1017 
 
 GEOFFROT 
 
 Gen-ti'lis, (or jSn-tee'less,) (Alberico,) an Italian 
 jurist of high reputation, born in the March of Ancona 
 in 155 1. Having become a Protestant, he emigrated to 
 England, found a patron in the Earl of Leicester, and 
 obtained in 1587 the chair of civil law at Oxford. Among 
 his numerous works the most important is " Three Books 
 on the Law of War," ("De Jure Belli Libri tres," 1589,) 
 which is said to contain sound principles on the law of 
 nations. He died at Oxford in 161 1. 
 
 See Wood, "Athene Oxonienses;" Taisand, "Vies des Juris- 
 Consultes." 
 
 Gentilis, (Giovanni Valentino,) a Socinian theo- 
 logian, born at Cosenza, in Italy, about 1520. He fled, 
 to avoid persecution, to Geneva, and thence to Poland. 
 Having been banished from Poland, he was tried at 
 Berne for heresy, and beheaded, in 1566. 
 
 See Arktius, " Valentini Gentilis Historia." 
 
 Gen-ti'lis, (Robert,) an English littlrateur , born in 
 London in 1590, was a son of Alberico Gentilis, noticed 
 above. He translated " The History of the Inquisition" 
 from the Italian of Fra Paolo, and made other transla- 
 tions from the Italian and Spanish. Died about 1654. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Gentilis, (Scipio,) a Protestant and jurist, born in 
 the March of Ancona in 1563, was a brother of Alberico, 
 noticed above. He became eminent as professor of law 
 at Altorf, and wrote several legal works. Hied in 1616. 
 
 See G. Konig, " Leichpredigt auf S. Gentilis," 1617; G. Monte- 
 CHIARI, " Klogiu storico di S. Gentili," 1816. 
 
 Gentillet, zh&.N'te'yJ', (Innocent,) a French jurist 
 and Protestant, born at Vienne. He wrote, in Latin, 
 " Anti-Machiavel," (1576,) an "Apology for the' French 
 Christians of the Reformed Religion," (1578,) and other 
 works. Died at Geneva about 1595. 
 
 Gentilotti, jen-te-lot'tee, (Giovanni Benedetto,) a 
 learned ecclesiastic, born in the Tyrol in 1672, was keeper 
 of the Imperial Library of Vienna from 170710 1723. He 
 became Bishop of Trent in 1725, and died the same year. 
 
 Gentius, geVte-us, (Georg,) a German Orientalist, 
 born at Dahme in 1618. He published a Latin version 
 of Saadi's " Gulistan," (1651.) Died in 1687. 
 
 See A. Beyer, " Historia Vitae, etc. Georgii Gentii," 1733. 
 
 Gen'tleman, (Francis,) a dramatic writer and actor, 
 born in Dublin in 1728. He wrote, besides dramas, 
 "Royal Fables," in verse, (1766.) His best work is the 
 "Dramatic Censor," (2 vols., 1770,) in which he criti- 
 cised the dramas and actors of his time. Died in 1784. 
 
 See " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Gentz, von, fon g£nts, (Friedrich,) a distinguished 
 German publicist, born at Breslau in 1764, became in 
 1802 imperial councillor in the state chancery at Vienna. 
 He was an ardent opponent of the French Revolution. 
 As head secretary, he was present at the Congress of 
 Vienna, and at the conference of ministers at Paris in 
 181 5. He was the principal contributor to the "Historical 
 Journal," (1799,) and wrote a treatise "On the Political 
 Condition of Europe before and after the French Revo- 
 lution." He also translated Burke's " Reflections on the 
 French Revolution." Died in 1832. 
 
 See Varnhagen, " Biographische Skizze tiber Gentz;" Schlesier, 
 "Schriften von f, von Gentz," 1838; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rate ;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1807, and January, 1863. 
 
 Geoffrey, jef're, (Gaimar,) an English poet of the 
 twelfth century, wrote a " History of England" in Anglo- 
 Norman verse. 
 
 Geoffrey of Mon'mouth, surnamed Artu'rus, or 
 ARTHUR, an English historian, was Bishop of Saint 
 Asaph. His principal work is a " History of the Britons," 
 which is generally believed to contain more romance and 
 fable than true history. He also translated Merlin's 
 "Prophecies" into Latin prose. Died in 1 154. 
 
 Geoffrin, zho'fuax', (Marie Thekese Rodet— 
 ro'dj',) Madame, a French lady, distinguished as a 
 patroness of learning and the fine arts, born in Paris in 
 1699. She was on intimate terms with many celebrated 
 characters, among whom were Montesquieu and Count 
 Stanislas Poniatowski. The latter, on ascending the 
 throne of Poland, invited her to visit Warsaw, where she 
 was received with great honours. Died in Paris in 1777. 
 
 See Marmontei., "Memoires;" Grimm and Diderot, "Cor- 
 respondance ;" A. Morei.i.et, " Portrait de Madame Geoffrin," 1777. 
 
 Geoffroi, zho'fRwi', surnamed IE Bel, Duke of 
 Anjou, called afterwards Plantagenet, ( because he 
 wore the plant named genet, or genista, — a species of 
 broom, — on his helmet,) was bom in 11 13. He married 
 Matilda, a daughter of Henry I. of England, in 1129. 
 He waged war against Stephen of Blois for the pos- 
 session of Normandy. His son became Henry II. of 
 England. Died in 1 150. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Geoffroi II., Duke of Bretagne, surnamed the Beau- 
 tiful, the third son of Henry II. of England, was born 
 in 1 158. He married Constance, daughter of Conan IV., 
 and thus became the Duke of Brittany. He was the 
 father of the unfortunate Prince Arthur who was assas- 
 sinated by order of his uncle, John, King of England. 
 In early youth he distinguished himself in the wars of 
 Philippe Auguste against the dukes of Burgundy and 
 others. Died in 1186. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Geoffroi, [Lat. Geoffri'dus,] Abbe de Vendome, a 
 powerful French cardinal, born at Angers ; died in 1132. 
 
 Geoffroi de Beaulieu. See Galfrid de Bf.aui.ieu. 
 
 Geoffroy, zho'fRwa', (Claude Joseph,) a chemist 
 and pharmaceutist, a brother of Etienne Francois, noticed 
 below, was born in Paris in 1685. He wrote, besides 
 other works, "Observations on the Essential Oils," 
 (1707.) Died in 1752. 
 
 See F. Hoefkr, "Histoire de la Chimie;" Querard, "La 
 France LitteYaire." 
 
 Geoffroy, (Etienne Francois,) a distinguished 
 French physician, born in Paris in 1672. In 1709 he 
 became professor of medicine and pharmacy in the 
 College of France. He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society of London, and a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences in Paris. Among his works is a "Treatise 
 on Materia Medica," ("Tractatus de Materia Medica," 
 1741,) which was translated into English, French, Ger- 
 man, and Italian, and had a European reputation. Died 
 in 1 73 1. 
 
 See Fontenei.i.e, " Fjoge de Geoffroy," prefixed to his "Traite" 
 de Matiere meMicale;" F. Hoefer, "Histoire de la Chimie;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Geoffroy, (Etienne Louis,) a French physician and 
 entomologist, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris 
 in 1725. Among his works are a valuable "Abridged 
 History of the Insects which are found near Paris," 
 (1762,) "Dissertations upon the Organ of Hearing in 
 Man, in Reptiles, and in Fishes," (1778,) and "Hygiene 
 sive Ars Sanitatem conservandi ; Poema," (1771.) This 
 poem is commended by several French critics for its 
 elegance and other merits. He died in 1810. 
 
 See F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Geoffroy,((ui.iEN Louis,) Abbe, a celebrated French 
 critic and editor, born at Rennes in 1 743. He became, 
 in 1776, professor of rhetoric in the College of Navarre, 
 Paris, and editor of the "Annee litteraire," founded by 
 Freron. He wrote able critical articles for this periodical 
 during fifteen years. In 1790-92 he edited a royalist 
 journal. In 1800 he became an assistant editor of the 
 "Journal des Debats," for which he wrote dramatical 
 criticisms with great success. He indulged in bitter sar- 
 casm and virulence against Voltaire and other authors. 
 Died in 1814. His critiques in the "Journal des Debats" 
 were published in 5 vols., (1819-20.) 
 
 See Pakshkiin, "Observations sur le Caractere et le Talent de 
 fen Geoffroy, *' 1826: Saintk-Beuve, "Causeriesdu Lundi;" *' Nou- 
 velle Biographie G6ierale. " 
 
 Geoffroy (or Geoffroi) d'Auxerre, zho'fRwa' do'- 
 saiR', a French abbot, was a disciple of Abelard, and 
 afterwards of Saint Bernard. He wrote numerous 
 ecclesiastical works, one of which was an "Epistle on 
 Transubstantiation." Died about 1 180. 
 
 Geoffroy (or Geoffroi) de Vinsauf — vAn'sdf, 
 [I.at. Galfri'dus dk. Vinosai/vo,] a Litin poet of the 
 twelfth century, was a native of Kngland. lie wrote a 
 treatise on the Art of Poetry, entitled "Nova Poetria." 
 
 Geoffroy-Ch&teau, zho'fRw.V shS'to', (Marc An- 
 toine,) a brother of Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire, was born at 
 Etampes in 1774. He served with distinction in Egypt 
 as an officer, and in the campaign against Austria in 1805. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K. guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. ( JQf-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GEOFFROT 
 
 1018 
 
 GEORGE 
 
 Geoflfroy-Martel, zho'fRwi' mf R'tJl', Count of Anjou 
 and Poitou, was bom in 1006. For the great energy and 
 bravery that he displayed in the feudal wars, and lor his 
 victories over the Saracens, he received the surname of 
 Martel, ("hammer," or "mallet.") Died in 1061. 
 
 Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire, zho'fRwa' saN te'laiR', 
 (Etienne,) a distinguished French naturalist, born at 
 Etampes (Seine-et-Oise) on the 15th of April, 1772. He 
 was educated in the College of Navarre, Paris, and be- 
 came a favourite pupil of Haiiy. In 1793 he was ap- 
 pointed professor of zoology in the Museum of Natural 
 History. He was one of the savants who accompanied 
 Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt in 1798, and returned 
 about the end of 1801 with a rich collection of animals, 
 of which he wrote descriptions. He propounded his 
 celebrated theory of the unity of organic composition 
 (which may be said to have laid the foundation of philo- 
 sophical anatomy) in several memoirs, which opened to 
 him the doors of the Institute in 1807. In 1809 he was 
 appointed professor of zoology (or anatomy) at the 
 Faculty of Sciences. He published an important work, 
 entitled "Anatomical Philosophy," ("Philosophic ana- 
 tomique," 2 vols., 1818-22,) which excited a great con- 
 troversy between the author and Cuvier. They differed 
 in regard to the doctrine of final causes and the immu- 
 tability of species, both of which were maintained by 
 Cuvier. " We have a powerful ally in Geoffroy-Saint- 
 Hilaire," said Goethe, (1830.) "The synthetic method 
 of looking at nature, initiated by him in France, can no 
 more retrograde." Among his numerous works are one 
 "On the Principle of the Unity of Organic Composi- 
 tion," (1828,) a "Natural History of the Fishes of the 
 Nile and Reptiles of Egypt," published in the great work 
 of the Egyptian Commission, (1808-29,) alu ' a "Natural 
 History of Mammiferae," (with F. Cuvier, 4 vols., 1820- 
 42.) Died June 19, 1844. 
 
 See I. Geoffrov-Saint-Hilaire, "Vie, Travaux, etc. d'£tienne 
 Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire," 1847; Fi.ourens, "Memoire de Geoffroy- 
 Saint-Hilaire," (and English translation of the same, in the Smith- 
 sonian Report for 1861 ;) Mersseman, "Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire, son 
 Caractere, ses Decouvertes," 1844; " Nouveile Biographie G^nd- 
 rale ;" " Westminster Review" for January, 1854. 
 
 Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire, (Isidore,) a distinguished 
 French zoologist, son of the preceding, was born in Paris, 
 December 16, 1805. He was elected to the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1833, and afterwards became successively 
 inspector-general of the University, member of the coun- 
 cil of public instruction, (1845,) a "d professor of zoology, 
 (1850.) Among his principal works are "Essays on 
 General Zoology," (1840,) "Natural History of Insects 
 and Molluscs," (1841,) and "General Natural History of 
 the Organic Kingdoms," (1852.) Died in November, 1861. 
 
 See De QuatrepagbSj "Memoire d'Isidore Geoffroy-Saint- 
 Hilaire," (and English version of the same, in the Smithsonian Re- 
 port for 1862.) 
 
 George, [Ger. Georg, ga'oRG,] Duke of Saxony, sur- 
 named the Bearded, was born in 1471. He began to 
 reign in 1500, and opposed the Reformation initiated by 
 Luther. Died in 1530. 
 
 George, a learned Eastern physician and Nestorian 
 of the eighth century, was the confidential friend and 
 medical adviser of Al-Mansoor, the Caliph of Bagdad. 
 He wrote a "Treatise on Medicine," in Syriac. 
 
 George (Lewis) I., King of Great Britain, was the 
 son of Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover, and Sophia, 
 the youngest daughter of Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of 
 Bohemia, who was a sister of Charles I. of England. 
 He was born atOsnaburgin May, 1660, and married his 
 cousin, Sophia Dorothea, the daughter of the Duke of 
 Zell, in 1682. In 1698 he succeeded his father (origin- 
 ally Duke of Brunswick and Liineburg) as Elector of 
 Hanover. In 1701 the English Parliament passed the 
 Act of Settlement, excluding the son of James II. and 
 her Catholic claimants, and entailing the crown on the 
 Electress Sophia of Hanover, as the nearest Protestant 
 heir, in case neither the reigning king nor the princess 
 Anne should leave issue. Sophia died in May, 1714, and 
 on the death of Queen Anne, August 1 of the same year, 
 the son of Sophia was proclaimed as George I. 
 
 He selected his cabinet almost exclusively from the 
 Whig party, giving his chief confidence to Lord Town- 
 shend, who was secretary of state. The Tories were re- 
 
 garded by him with strong suspicion and dislike. In 
 1 715 the partisans of the Pretender, headed by the Earl 
 of Mar, raised a rebellion in Scotland, and were defeated 
 at Sheriffmuir. Another army of Jacobites surrendered 
 at Preston, and the rebellion was suppressed early in 
 1716. In 1717 Townshend was dismissed from power, 
 and Mr. Stanhope and the Earl of Sunderland became 
 the principal ministers. War was declared against Spain 
 in 1 7 18, and, after a few battles, was ended by a peace 
 in the next year. In 1720 the ministry received an im- 
 portant accession in Robert Walpole, who ingratiated 
 himself with the Prince of Wales and effected a recon- 
 ciliation between him and the king. (See next article.) 
 About this time the famous South Sea scheme exploded, 
 and thousands of families were reduced to beggary in a 
 moment. Stanhope having died in 1721, Walpole became 
 prime minister, with Townshend as his principal col- 
 league. In 1725 a treaty of defensive alliance was signed 
 between England, France, and Prussia, and the former 
 was involved in a war against Spain; but no important 
 battles were fought by these powers. George I. died at 
 Osnaburg in June, 1727, and was succeeded by his son, 
 George II. George I. was ignorant of the English lan- 
 guage, and was deficient in popular qualities. He was 
 steady in his friendships, and is said to have had more 
 virtues than accomplishments. 
 
 See E. Pufendorf, " Vita et Res gestae Georgii I. Regis Magna? 
 Britanniae," 1728; P. H. Limiers, " M&noires dti Regne de George 
 I," 5 vols., 1729-31 ; Lingard, "History of England." 
 
 George (Augustus) II., King of Great Britain, was 
 the only son of George I. and Sophia Dorothea, and was 
 born at Hanover in 1683. In 1705 he married the prin- 
 cess Caroline of Brandenburg-Anspach. He displayed 
 courage at the battle of Oudenarde, (1708,) where he 
 fought against the French. On his father's accession to 
 the throne, he accompanied him to England, and w.ts 
 created Prince of Wales in September, 1714. The king 
 was jealous of his heir-apparent, who was a rather un- 
 dutiful son. In 1718 the latter assumed the attitude of 
 open opposition, and kept his own court. They were 
 reconciled in 1720, by the mediation of Walpole. 
 
 George II. ascended the throne in June, 1727. By 
 the influence of Queen Caroline, Walpole was retained 
 in office as prime minister, and but little change was 
 made in the cabinet, which was composed of Whigs and 
 supported by a large majority in Parliament. A treaty 
 of peace was concluded with Spain in November, 1729. 
 The ascendency of Walpole was confirmed by a general 
 peace, which lasted ten years, and by the growing pros- 
 perity of the country. About 1736, Frederick, Prince of 
 Wales, quarrelled with his father, and became the chief 
 of the opposition, which included William Pitt and other 
 Whigs. In 1739 public opinion or popular clamour 
 compelled Walpole to renew the war against Spain on 
 the question of maritime right. The question of the 
 Austrian succession produced in 1740 a general Euro- 
 pean war, in which the English ministry became an ally 
 of Maria Theresa of Austria against Prussia, Spain, etc. 
 In January, 1 742, Walpole was forced to resign by an 
 adverse majority in the House, (though he still retained 
 the favour of the king,) and was succeeded by Lord 
 Wilmington as first lord of the treasury. Lord Carteret, 
 however, soon became, through royal favour and his 
 own merit, the most influential minister. George II. 
 gained a victory over the French at Dettingen, (1743,) 
 the last battle in which a king of England appeared at 
 the head of his troops. 
 
 About the end of 1743, Henry Pelham was appointed 
 first lord of the treasury, or premier. In the summer 
 of 1745 the Pretender Charles Edward Stuart landed in 
 Scotland, and raised a formidable rebellion. His army 
 took Edinburgh, and defeated the royal troops at Pres- 
 tonpans. He pursued his victorious march towards 
 London as far as Derby, whence he retreated to Scot- 
 land, followed by the royal army. In April, 1746, the 
 Duke of Cumberland gained a decisive victory over the 
 insurgents at Culloden, after which they were unable to 
 renew the contest. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 
 1748, the European war was terminated, or rather sus- 
 pended. In 1755 the English and French were again 
 embroiled by the question of the American Boundary, 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
GEORGE 
 
 1019 
 
 GEORGE 
 
 and the former became the ally of Frederick the Great 
 in the Seven Years' war, 1756-62. Mr. Pitt (afterwards 
 Lord Chatham) in June, 1757, became the master-spirit 
 of an administration perhaps the most glorious that had 
 presided over the destinies of the nation. (See Pitt, 
 William.) A series of brilliant victories over the 
 French, in Canada, India, and at sea, illustrated the last 
 years of George the Second's reign. He died on the 
 25th of October, 1760, and was succeeded by his grand- 
 son, George III. " He had scarcely one kingly quality," 
 says Lord Mahon, " except personal courage and justice. 
 Of acquired knowledge he had little, professing great 
 contempt for literature." 
 
 See Lord Mahon, "History of England;" Lord Hervey, 
 11 Memoirs of the Reign of George II.," 1848; Horace Wai.pole, 
 " Memoirs of the Last Ten Years of the Reign of George II.," 4 
 vols., 1822; "Edinburgh Review" for June, 1822; "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for April, 1868 ; Thackeray's " Lectures on the 
 Georges." 
 
 George (William Frederick) III., King of Great 
 Britain, born on the 4th of June, 1738, was the eldest 
 son of Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales, and a grand- 
 son of George II. His mother was Augusta, daughter 
 of Frederick, Duke of Saxe-Gotha. His education was 
 directed by Lord Harcourt as governor, and the Bishop 
 of Norwich as preceptor, until 1752. He was brought 
 upjn strict seclusion by his mother. In 1751 he was 
 created Prince of Wales. Before his accession his groom 
 of the stole, Lord Bute, acquired an almost unbounded 
 influence over him, and instilled Tory principles into his 
 mind. He ascended the throne on the 25th of October, 
 
 1760, being the first sovereign of the house of Hanover 
 who was a native of Great Britain. He had received from 
 nature a strong will and mental capacities which quali- 
 fied him to become a good man of business. His age, 
 his appearance, and his moral character prepossessed 
 the nation warmly in his favour. Lord Bute, who still 
 retained his ascendency over the king, was appointed 
 secretary of state, and several of his partisans were in- 
 troduced into the cabinet. Pitt, who was then prime 
 minister, finding himself overruled, resigned in October, 
 
 1761, and was succeeded by Bute. For the first time 
 since the accession of the house of Hanover, the Tory 
 party came into power. In 1761 George III. married 
 the princess Charlotte, a daughter of the Duke of Meck- 
 lenburg-Strelitz. War was declared against Spain in 
 January, 1762. The treaty of Paris, in February, 1763, 
 restored the peace of Europe and recognized the right 
 of England to Canada and Florida. In April of the 
 same year the nation was amazed by the sudden resig- 
 nation of Bute, and George Grenville became first lord 
 of the treasury. "We are inclined to think," says Mac- 
 aulay, "that the worst administration which has governed 
 England since the Revolution was that of Grenville. 
 His public acts may be classed under two heads, — out- 
 rages on the liberty of the people, and outrages on the 
 dignity of the crown." He offended the king by in- 
 sisting that no secret adviser (alluding to Bute) should 
 have access to the royal ear ; but he was kept in office, 
 because the king had no choice except between him and 
 the Whigs. In 1765 Grenville proposed and enacted a 
 bill for imposing stamp-duties on the North American 
 colonies, — " the effects of which," says Macaulay, " will 
 long be felt by the whole human race." The ministers 
 became so intolerable to George III. that he sent for 
 Pitt and solicited him to form a ministry; but Pitt was 
 impracticable, and at last the king reluctantly called the 
 Whigs into his council. The Marquis of Rockingham 
 became prime minister in July, 1765, and the Stamp Act 
 was repealed in the next session. But the new ministry 
 was not cordially supported by the king, and was assailed 
 and obstructed by the king's friends at every turn. The 
 court having secured the services of Pitt by lavish pro- 
 mises and caresses, Rockingham was dismissed in 1766, 
 and Pitt, now created Earl of Chatham, was appointed 
 prime minister. But diseases of body and mind soon 
 rendered him unable to attend to business. New taxes 
 imposed on the Americans in 1767 provoked violent 
 opposition. Lord Chatham resigned in October, 1768. 
 Lord North was prime minister from January, 1770, 
 until March, 1782, during which period the revolted 
 Colonies resisted with success the British armies, and 
 
 were finally separated from the empire. (See Washing- 
 ton.) In 1778 England was involved in war with France, 
 which had become the ally of the United States. 
 
 The resignation of Lord North was followed by the 
 brief ministries of Rockingham, • Shelburne, and Port- 
 land. Peace was concluded between England on one 
 hand, and the United States, France, and Spain on the 
 other, by the treaty of Paris, in 1783. In December, 
 1783, William Pitt commenced his long and eventful 
 Tory administration. " With more power than any 
 minister ever possessed," says Lord Brougham, — "with 
 a friendly court, an obsequious Parliament, a confiding 
 people, — he held the supreme place in the public coun- 
 cils for twenty years, and. except the Union with Ireland, 
 (1800,) he has not left a single measure behind him for 
 which the community whose destinies he so long swayed 
 has any reason to respect his memory." (See Pitt, 
 William.) The most important event of his adminis- 
 tration was the war against the French republic and 
 Bonaparte, which began in 1793. Naval victories were 
 gained by Lord Howe in 1794, and by Nelson, at the 
 battle of the Nile, in 1798. In March, 1801, Pitt re- 
 signed, and Addington became premier. The war was 
 suspended by the treaty of Amiens, in March, 1802, 
 and renewed in May, 1803. Mr. Pitt was restored to 
 power in 1804, and died in January, 1806, when a Whig 
 ministry was formed by Fox and Lord Grenville. After 
 the death of Fox, in 1807, Mr. Percival and Lord Liver- 
 pool were successively the prime ministers. George III. 
 having become insane in 1810, his son George was ap- 
 pointed regent. Among the important events of this 
 reign were the victory of Trafalgar, 1805, the American 
 war, 1812-14, and the battle of Waterloo, 1815. The 
 mental malady of the king continued until his death, in 
 January, 1820, when he was succeeded by his son, George 
 IV. George III. was the father of nine sons and six 
 daughters. His reign of sixty years' duration was the 
 longest and one of the most eventful in the annals of 
 Britain. ,! Few princes," says Lord Brougham, " have 
 been more exemplary in their domestic habits or in the 
 offices of private friendship. But the instant that his 
 prerogative was concerned, or his bigotry interfered 
 with, or his will thwarted, the most bitter animosity, 
 the most calculating coldness of heart, the most unfor- 
 giving resentment, took possession of his whole breast, 
 and swayed it by turns." 
 
 See Adoi.phi's, " History of England from the Accession of George 
 III. to 1783;" Macfarlane, "History of the Reign of George III.," 
 2 vols., 1770-96; "George the Third, his Court and Family," 1820; 
 Brown, " Memoirs of George III. ;" John Aikin, "Annals of the 
 Reign of King George III.," 2 vols., 1820; Lord Brougham, 
 " Historical Sketch of the Statesmen of the Time of George III. ;" 
 Lingard, "History of England;" " Georgiana, or Anecdotes of 
 George III.," 1S20: "Correspondence of King George III. with 
 768 101783," London, 1867; "Memoirs of the 
 jeorge III.," by J. Heneage Jesse, London, 
 
 Life and Reign 1 
 
 George (Augustus Frederick) IV., King of Great 
 Britain, the eldest son of George III. and Queen Char- 
 lotte, was born on the I2th of August, 1762. His 
 education was confided in 1771 to Lord Holderness as 
 governor, and Maikham, Bishop of Chester, as pre- 
 ceptor, who both resigned in 1776. Their places were 
 supplied by the Duke of Montague and Dr. Hurd. His 
 natural abilities were above mediocrity, but were not 
 diligently or wisely improved. In his youth he became 
 an object of his father's invincible aversion, and by a 
 natural consequence attached himself to the Whig party, 
 who were also treated as enemies by the king. He ex- 
 hausted prematurely the resources of sensual indulgence, 
 and was deeply involved in debt by gaming and extrava- 
 gance. About 1 786 he married privately Mrs. Fitzherbert, 
 a Roman Catholic lady, who was the object of his most 
 lasting attachment. This marriage was illegal, ami, when 
 the subject was broached in Parliament, was publicly dis- 
 owned by the Prince of Wales. The pressure of pecu- 
 niary difficulties rendered a regular marriage necessary, 
 as the king refused to supply his extravagant wants except 
 on condition that he should marry. In 1795 he married 
 his cousin, Caroline Amelia Elizabeth, a daughter of 
 the Duke of Brunswick, who became the mother of the 
 princess Charlotte in 1796, and whom he treated with 
 studied neglect, if not contempt. A final separation 
 
 eas 
 
 k; 9 as /; g hard; g asy'; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (jJ^-See Exp' inations, p. 23.) 
 
GEORGE 
 
 1020 
 
 GEORGE 
 
 took place in 1796, and scandalous reports against her 
 honour were circulated. 
 
 The king having become, through insanity, incom- 
 petent for the duties of royalty, the Prince of Wales was 
 appointed regent in February, 181 1. He retained in 
 office the Tory ministry of Mr. Percival, abandoning his 
 former political friends, who accused him of ingratitude. 
 The foreign policy of the prince regent was the same as 
 that of George III. The war against the French was 
 prosecuted with vigour and success in the Peninsula. In 
 June, 1812, war was declared against the United States, 
 with which a treaty of peace was concluded in December, 
 1814. Lord Liverpool succeeded Percival as prime min- 
 ister in 1812. The only child of the prince regent, the 
 princess Charlotte, died in 181 7. On the death of his 
 father, George IV. ascended the throne, on the 29th of 
 January, 1820. Great excitement was produced by the 
 process instituted by the ministry in 1820 against Queen 
 Caroline, for alleged infidelity to her husband. The ma- 
 jority for the ministers on this question in the House was 
 so small that they abandoned the case. (See Caroline 
 Amelia Elizabeth.) The prime minister, Lord Liver- 
 pool, having been prostrated by apoplexy, was succeeded 
 by Mr. Canning in April, 1827. On the death of Canning, 
 in August of the same year, Viscount Goderich became 
 premier. In January, 1828, a new ministry was formed, 
 under the Duke of Wellington. A bill for the relief of 
 Roman Catholics from political disabilities was passed, 
 after a long contest, in April, 1829. George IV. died in 
 June, 1830, and was succeeded by his brother, the Duke 
 of Clarence, as William IV. George IV. had no public 
 virtues, and took little interest in the affairs of govern- 
 ment. 
 
 See Wallace, "Memoirs of the Life and Reign of George IV. ;" 
 Cobbett, " History of George IV.;" Mackintosh, "History of 
 England ;" Lloyd, " George IV. : Memoirs of his Life," 1830 ; Rev. 
 George Croly, " Life and Times of George IV." 
 
 George I., King of Georgia, of the dynasty of Pagra- 
 tides, ascended the throne in 1015. He reigned over a 
 great extent of territory besides that included in Georgia, 
 and vvas one of the most powerful Christian monarchs 
 of his time. He revolted against Basil II., Emperor 
 of Constantinople, who ravaged Georgia with fire and 
 sword and compelled George to sue for peace. Died 
 in 1027. 
 
 See Le Beau, " Histoire du lias- Empire." 
 
 George IX, grandson of the preceding, was crowned 
 King of Georgia in 1072. He carried on an unsuccessful 
 and disastrous war against the Sultan of Persia, to whom 
 he was forced to become a tributary. Died in 1089. 
 
 George III. usurped the throne of Georgia in 1 156, 
 when the true heir to the crown was his nephew Temna. 
 George waged several long and successful wars against 
 the Persian and Turkish Moslems. Died in 11S0. 
 
 George IV. ascended the Georgian throne in 1198, 
 and added fresh glory to the arms of the Georgians by 
 his brilliant victories over his Mohammedan neighbours. 
 In 1220 the Moguls invaded and laid waste a great part 
 of Georgia. George attacked them, and was defeated ; 
 but one of his generals soon after succeeded in driving 
 the invaders from the country. Died in 1223. 
 
 George VT succeeded his cousin George V. For 
 the ability that he exhibited in quelling the civil disturb- 
 ances in Georgia, and the successful efforts he made to 
 repair the effects of long and fierce wars, he received 
 the title of "Most Illustrious." Died in 1346. 
 
 George VII. ascended the throne of Georgia in 1394. 
 His father, Bagrat V., had been compelled to submit to 
 Tamerlane and embrace the Moslem faith ; but George 
 determined to yield neither his freedom nor his religion 
 to the conqueror. Tamerlane invaded Georgia twice 
 for the purpose of subduing the Georgian monarch and 
 spreading the Mohammedan religion ; but he did not 
 succeed. After the second invasion, George collected 
 all his forces, recaptured the fortresses that had fallen 
 into the hands of the enemy, and compelled all Mussul- 
 mans to leave Georgia. Died in 1407. 
 
 See Von Hammer, " Histoire de l'Empire Ottoman." 
 
 George I., Vladimirovitch, written also Juri or 
 Jo mi, Grand Duke of Russia, ascended the throne in 
 1 149. He was the son of Vladimir Monomachos, who 
 
 married Gyda, daughter of Harold, the last Saxon king 
 of England. On account of his ambitious and grasping 
 character, George received the surname of Doi.gorooki, 
 (Long-Handed.) He founded the city of Moscow, and 
 in various ways promoted the civilization of his country. 
 Died in 1157, and was succeeded by his son Andrew. 
 
 See Ersch mid Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 George II., Uskvoi.odovitch, grandson of George 
 I., became Archduke of Russia in 1212. He was soon 
 after compelled to abdicate by his brother Constantino, 
 who, however, on his death-bed, 1219, named George as 
 his successor. In 1224 Russia was invaded by the troops 
 of Jengis Khan, who defeated an army of one hundred 
 thousand Russians, and ravaged the country as far as 
 the Dnieper, and then suddenly retired. In 1237 the 
 Moguls reappeared, with three hundred thousand men, 
 and took and destroyed Moscow, and the capital Vladimir. 
 George was killed in 1238, while bravely resisting the 
 invaders. 
 
 See Karamzin, " Histoire de l'Empire de Russie," translated by 
 Diyoff; Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 George, Duke of Clarence, a younger brother of Ed* 
 ward IV. of England, was born in 1449. He married 
 Isabella, a daughter of the Earl of Warwick, " the King- 
 maker," and aided the latter to dethrone Edward IV. 
 about 1470. Soon after that date he deserted Warwick 
 and joined the army of Edward; but, having again of- 
 fended his royal brother, he was accused of treason, 
 and was found dead in the Tower in 1478. (See Shak- 
 speare's "Henry VI., Part III.") 
 
 George of Cyprus, a learned writer, who bec;ime 
 Patriarch of Constantinople in 12S3 and abdicated in 
 1289. He wrote, besides other works, an autobiography, 
 "Vita Georgii Cypri," (Venice, 1763.) Died in 1290. 
 
 See Fabricius. " Bibliotheca Graeca." 
 
 George of Denmark, Prince, a younger son of 
 Frederick III., was born in 1653. He married Anne, 
 daughter of James II. of England, in 1683, and was a 
 privy councillor in the reign of his father-in-law. In 
 November, 1688, in company with the Duke of (Jrmond, 
 he deserted James II. at Andover, and joined the party 
 of the Prince of Orange. " The impenetrable stupidity 
 of Prince George," says Macaulay, "served his turn op 
 this occasion better than cunning would have done. It 
 was his habit, when any news vvas told him, to exclaim, 
 in French, 'Est-il possible?' 'Is it possible?' This catch- 
 word was now of great use to him. 'Est-il possible?' 
 he cried, when he had been made to understand that 
 Churchill and Grafton were missing." He vvas created 
 Duke of Cumberland in 1689, and, on the accession of 
 his wife as queen, received nominally the chief command 
 of the army. Died in 1708. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England;" Burnet, " History of 
 his Own Time." 
 
 George Danielovitch, Grand Duke of Russia, was 
 a rival of his uncle Michael, against whom he waged 
 war. He was assassinated by a son of Michael in 1328. 
 
 George OF Trebizonde, |Gr. Tcupyiog TpancioiniTto^,] 
 a celebrated scholar, born in the isle of Crete in 1396. 
 About 1430 he became professor of Greek at Venice, and 
 was afterwards appointed secretary to Pope Eugenius. 
 He wrote, besides many other works, a "Commentary 
 on the Philippics and other Orations of Cicero," and a 
 "Comparison between Plato and Aristotle," (in Latin.) 
 He also translated many Greek books into Latin, among 
 which were Aristotle's "Rhetoric and Problems." Died 
 in i486. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grseca ;" Paolo Gtovio, " Elogia 
 Virornm illustrium;" Nicbron, " Me^moires ;" Cave, * Historia 
 Literaria." 
 
 George, [Yeupyioq,] Saint, of Cappadocia, a cele- 
 brated ecclesiastic of the fourth century, rose, through 
 the influence of the Arians,-whose doctrines he professed, 
 to be Archbishop of Alexandria in 354. Having, by 
 his rapacity and his persecutions of both orthodox and 
 pagans, incurred the hatred of the people, he was im- 
 prisoned, and, while awaiting his trial, taken away by 
 force and murdered by the mob. He was canonized by 
 Pope Gelasius about 494. During the first crusade he 
 was chosen by the English soldiers as their patron, and 
 about the time of Edward III. was generally regarded 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, 5, y, long ; i, t, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, G, ?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GEORGE 
 
 1021 
 
 GERARD 
 
 as the guardian saint of England. He was designated 
 among the Greeks by the name of " Tropaeophoros," (the 
 "Trophy-bearer," or the "Victorious,") and was famed 
 for having destroyed a terrible dragon, (supposed to 
 be that mentioned in the book of Revelation.) Some 
 writers have conjectured that there was another person 
 of the same name to whom this achievement should be 
 attributed. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, "Sacred and Legendary Art;" Gibbon, 
 "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap. xxi. ; T. LowtCK, 
 "History of the Life and Martyrdom of Saint George ;" Pktek 
 Hevlin, " Historie of that famous Saint and Soldier of Jesus Christ, 
 Saint George," 1631 ; John Mii.ner," Historical and Critical Inquiry 
 into the Existence and Character of Saint George," 1795. 
 
 George Acropolita. See Ackopoi.i ta. 
 
 George Chrysococces. See Chrysococces. 
 
 George Codinus. See Codinus, 
 
 George Czerni. See Czerni. 
 
 George David. See David, (George.) 
 
 George Pachymeres. See Pachymeres. 
 
 George Fis'I-des, [Gr. Tcupytof llioidrK,] a Greek 
 writer, lived in Constantinople in the seventh century. 
 He was the author of a poem of three thousand verses 
 on the Creation, and several works of a historical and 
 ecclesiastical character. 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 George Sand. See Sand. 
 
 George Scholarius. See Gennadius. 
 
 Georgel, zhoK'zheJ', (Jean Francois,) a French ec- 
 clesiastic, born in Lorraine in 1731. He was secretary 
 of embassy at Vienna in 1772, and soon after became 
 grand vicar of Cardinal Prince Rohan, whose defence he 
 managed in the affair of the diamond necklace. He died 
 in 1S13, leaving historical memoirs, which were published 
 in 1S17, (6 vols.) 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for September, 1818. 
 
 Georges, g&oR'gfs, (Kari. Ernst,) a German lexi- 
 cographer, born at Gotha in 1806. He published, in 
 1834, a "German-Latin Hand-Lexicon." 
 
 Georges-Weymer.zhoRzh v&'maiR', (Marguerite,) 
 one of the most celebrated French actresses of recent 
 times, born at Bayeux about 1787, performed in Paris 
 (1802) and other cities of Europe with brilliant success. 
 
 Georgi. See Giorgi. 
 
 Georgi, gi-oR'gee, (Christian Sigismund,) a Ger- 
 man biblical critic, born at Luckau in 1702, became pro- 
 fessor of theology at Wittenberg in 1743. He published 
 many dissertations on the sacred text. Died in 1771. 
 
 Geppert, gep'pert, (Kari. Eduard,) a meritorious 
 German philologist and critic, born at Stettin in 1811. 
 He published, besides other works, "De Versu Gly- 
 coneo," ("On the Glyconian Verse," 1833,) a "Chronicle 
 of Berlin," (3 vols., 1837-42,) and "On the Origin of the 
 Homeric Poems," (2 vols., 1840.) 
 
 Geraldini, ja-ril-dee'nee, (Alessandro,) an Italian 
 prelate, born in 1455, entered the service of Isabella of 
 Spain, was appointed preceptor of the Infantas, and was 
 afterwards ambassador to several European courts. He 
 exerted his influence to promote the great enterprise of 
 Columbus. He became Bishop of San Domingo in 1520. 
 Died in 1525. 
 
 See B. de las Casas, "Historia general de las Indias." 
 
 Geramb, zheh-r6.\', (Ferdinand,) Baron, a noted 
 adventurer, of Hungarian extraction, born at Lyons in 
 1770. After fighting against the French in Austria and 
 in Spain, he fell into the power of Napoleon, by whom 
 he was imprisoned in 1812. On his release, in 1816, he 
 became a monk of La Trappe, and rose to be procureur- 
 general of the order. In 1831 he made a pilgrimage to 
 Palestine, of which he published an account, written in 
 French, (1844, 3 vols.) It has been translated into Ger- 
 man, Italian, and Spanish. Died in 1848. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Genii-ale. " 
 
 Gerando, de, often written Degerando, d?h zheh- 
 roN'do', (JOSEPH Marie,) a distinguished French meta- 
 physical philosopher, born at Lyons in 1772. He en- 
 tered the army about 1798, and in 1799 gained the prize 
 of the Institute for an essay on the question, "What 
 is the Influence of Signs on the Formation of Ideas ?" 
 lie published this essay, with additions, with the title of 
 "Des Signes et de l'Art de Penser," (1803,) ard an im- 
 
 portant work, called " A Complete History of Systems 
 of Philosophy considered in Relation to the Principles 
 of Human Knowledge," (3 vols., 1803,) which opened to 
 him the Academy of Inscriptions. He was appointed 
 secretary-general of the ministry of the interior in 1804, 
 master of requests in 1808, and member of the council 
 of state in 1811. Under the restoration he retained the 
 last-named office. He gained a high reputation for 
 philanthropy by his labours and writings, one of which 
 is entitled "On Public Beneficence," ("De la Bienfai- 
 sance publique," 4 vols., 1839.) He was called to the 
 Chamber of Peers in 1837. Died in Paris in 1842. 
 
 See E. F. Jomard, " Discours sur la Vie et les Travaux du 
 Baron Degerando," 1843; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale ;" Oc- 
 tavie Morel, " Essai sur la Vie de J. M. Baron Degerando," 
 1846; "North American Review," April, 1861. 
 
 . Gerard. See Girard. 
 
 <Jre-rard', (Alexander,) a Scottish author and divine, 
 born in the county of Aberdeen in 1 728. In 1 760 he 
 became professor of theology in Marischal College, and 
 in 1771 was appointed to fill the same chair in the Uni- 
 versity of King's College. Among his various works 
 we may cite an "Essay on Taste," (1759,) for which a 
 gold medal was awarded him by the Philosophical So- 
 ciety of Edinburgh, and " Dissertations on the Genius 
 and Evidences of Christianity," (1766.) Died at Aber- 
 deen in 1795. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gerard, (Captain Alexander,) son of Gilbert Gerard, 
 noticed below, was born at Aberdeen about 1795. He 
 spent many years in scientific explorations among the 
 Himalayas. He died in 1840, leaving an " Account 
 of Koonawur in the Himalaya," which was published 
 in 1841. 
 
 Gerard, zhi'rtR', (Bai.thasar,) a Catholic fanatic, 
 and a native of Franche-Comte, in France, is notorious 
 as the assassin of William of Nassau, Prince of Orange. 
 He was executed in July, 1584, a short time after he 
 committed the deed; and Philip II. of Spain ennobled 
 his family. 
 
 Gerard, (Francois,) an eminent painter of the French 
 school, was born at Rome in 1 770. He studied in Paris 
 under David, and about 1795 produced his picture of 
 " Belisarius." His "Battle of Austerlitz," painted at 
 the request of Napoleon, is of immense size, (thirty feet 
 wide by sixteen high,) and an admirable work of its kind. 
 Among his other productions are "The Entrance of 
 Henry IV. into Paris," " Saint Theresa," " Corinna at 
 the Cape of Miseno," and "Thetis with the Armour of 
 Achilles." Gerard was created by Napoleon an officer 
 of the legion of honour, chevalier of Saint Michael, and 
 a member of the Institute, and was afterwards made 
 a baron by Louis XVIII. Besides the works above 
 mentioned, he painted a great number of portraits, in- 
 cluding those of the Bonaparte family and other distin- 
 guished persons. As a painter of history and portraits, 
 he ranks among the greatest European artists of recent 
 times. Died in Paris in 1836. 
 
 See Charles LenormanTj " F. Girard, Peintre d*Histbirej 
 Essai de Biographie et de Critique," 1S46; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gine'rale." 
 
 Gerard, (Francois Antoine,) a French general, born 
 at Nancy in 1786, served with distinction in the cam- 
 paign of 1814, and rendered important services to the 
 Greek cause in 1829. In 1848 he became general of 
 division. Died in 1856. 
 
 Gerard, (Gilbert,) a distinguished scholar and theo- 
 logian, son of Dr. Alexander Gerard, was born at Aber- 
 deen. He was the author of " Institutes of Biblical 
 Criticism." Died 1111815. 
 
 Gerard, (James,) a surgeon and traveller, son of the 
 preceding, was born at Aberdeen in 1795. He explored 
 Hindostan, Thibet, and the Himalayas, in company with 
 his brother Alexander, between 1818 and 1835. He died 
 in Bengal in 1835. * 
 
 Gerard, (Jean Ignace Isidore,) an eminent French 
 artist and caricaturist, who assumed the name of Grand- 
 vili.e, was born at Nancy in 1803. He brought out in 
 1828 the first of a series of humorous sketches, en- 
 titled " Metamorphoses of the Day," which were exceed- 
 ingly admired and at once established his reputation. 
 After the passage of the law prohibiting political carica- 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as »'• o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as*/ thasin this. (|£ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GERARD 
 
 1022 
 
 GERD1L 
 
 tures, he made illustrations for La Fontaine's and Florian's 
 Fables, Beranger's Poems, "Gulliver's Travels," and 
 other popular works. His " Speaking Animals," ("Ani- 
 maux parlants,") in which he has represented animals 
 with human physiognomies, is unsurpassed in its comic 
 power and keen and delicate satire. His works are very 
 numerous, and rank among the most perfect of their 
 kind, both in conception and execution. He died in 1847, 
 of grief caused by the sudden death of a favourite child. 
 
 See " Dictionnaire de la Conversation." 
 
 Gerard or Gerarde, (John,) an English surgeon 
 and botanist, born at Nantwich in 1545. He had a 
 large botanical garden in London, and was one of the 
 first who introduced exotics. He wrote a general "His- 
 tory of Plants," (1597,) which was highly esteemed. Died 
 about 1607. 
 
 Gerard, (Jui.es,) a French officer, surnamed "the 
 Lion-Killer," born at Pignans in 1817. Having entered 
 the army, he went to Africa in 1842, and became distin- 
 guished as a hunter. It is stated that he killed his twenty- 
 fifth lion in 1855. He published an account of his exploits, 
 "The Lion-Hunt," ("La Chasse au Lion," 1855.) Died 
 in 1864. 
 
 Gerard, (Louis,) a French botanist, born at Cotignac 
 in 1733. He published in 1761 his " Flora Gallo-Provin- 
 cialis," said to be the first work in which plants are 
 arranged according t» a natural system. Died in 1819. 
 
 Gerard, (Maurice Etienne,) Count, marshal and 
 peer of France, born at Danvilliers in 1773. For his 
 bravery at Austerlitz he was made a commander of the 
 legion of honour on the field of battle, and was after- 
 wards intrusted by Bernadotte with the command of the 
 Saxon cavalry at Wagram. In the Russian campaign 
 of 1812 he displayed signal courage at the taking of 
 Smolensk and the passage of the Berezina. He had a 
 principal share in the victory of Bautzen in 1813. Being 
 severely wounded at Leipsic, he was obliged for a time 
 to quit the army. On the return of Bonaparte from 
 Elba, Gerard obtained the command of the army of the 
 Moselle. When the battle of Waterloo was taking place, 
 on the 18th of June, he urged Marshal Grouchy to ad- 
 vance towards the scene of action. After the accession 
 of Louis Philippe, he was created marshal and peer of 
 France, and minister of war, but, owing to infirm health, 
 soon resigned this post to Marshal Soult. In 1835 he was 
 made grand chancellor of the legion of honour. He 
 died, according to the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale," 
 in 1855. 
 
 See "Victoires et ConquStes des Francais," etc.; J. Nollet- 
 Fabert, " Notice sur le Martkhal Gerard," 1852; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Ge"ne>ale;" L. de Lomenie, " Galerie des Contemporains." 
 
 Gerard, (Philippe Louis,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 born in Paris in 1737, wrote a moral fiction called "The 
 Count of Valmont, or the Wanderings of the Reason," 
 (1774,) and " Study of the French Language, Rhetoric, 
 and Philosophy." Died in 1813. 
 
 Gerard de Nerval. See Nerval. 
 
 Gerard de Nimeguen. See Geldenhaur. 
 
 Gerard de Rayneval. See Rayneval. 
 
 Gerard Groot See Groot. 
 
 Gerard of Cre-mo'na, [Lat. Gherar'dus Crf.mo- 
 nen'sis; It. Gherardo Cremonese, gi-raR'do kRa- 
 mo-na'sa; Fr. Gerard de Cremone, zhi'rtk' deh 
 kRa'mon',] an Italian translator, was born at Cremona, 
 in Lombardy, about 1 114. He translated, it is said, 
 seventy-six different works from the Arabic into Latin, 
 chiefly relating to mathematics and medicine. Of these 
 we may mention " Theory of the Planets," and the 
 "Ars Parva" of Galen. Died in 1187. 
 
 See Boncompagni, "Delia Vita, etc. di Gherardo Cremonese," etc. 
 
 Gerard Thorn, zhl'iaV t6N, or Tenque, tftNk, the 
 founder and first grand master of the knights of the order 
 of Saint John of Jerusalem, was born about 1040, on an 
 island near the coast of Provence. He went to Jeru- 
 salem when quite young, and was appointed superior of 
 a hospital built for the benefit of pilgrims. Here he was 
 held in great esteem, even by the Saracens, before the 
 crusades began. The Moslems, suspecting Gerard of 
 aiding the crusaders, put him in prison ; but he was libe- 
 rated by Godfrey of Bouillon. In 1100 he founded that 
 
 order of warrior monks which afterwards became so cele- 
 brated. Died in 1121. 
 
 See Michaud, "Histoire des Croisades ;" Bosio, " Histoire de 
 l'Ordre de Saint- Jean-de-JeVusalem ;" D. Arbaud, "Dissertation 
 historique sur le B. Gerard Tenque," 1851. 
 
 Gerardi. See Gherardi. 
 
 Gerbais, zheVb&'i (Jean,) a French ecclesiastical 
 writer, born near Rheims in 1629 ; died in 1699. 
 
 Gerbel, geVbel, [Lat. Gerbf/lius,] (Nikolaus,) a 
 German jurist, professor at Strasburg, born at Pforz- 
 heim, wrote " The Rise and Progress of the Anabaptists," 
 and other works. Died in 1560. 
 
 Gerber, geVber, (Ernst Ludwig,) a German or- 
 ganist and writer on music, born at Sondershausen in 
 1746. He published a valuable "Historical and Bio- 
 graphical Lexicon of Musicians," (2 vols., 1790-92, and 
 a more complete work, entitled "Neues historisch-bio- 
 graphischesLexikonderTonkiinstler," (4 vols., 1 810-14.) 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Gerberon, zh6Rb'r6N', (Gabriel,) a French Bene- 
 dictine monk, born at Saint-Calais (Maine) in 1628. He 
 became a zealous Jansenist, and was imprisoned for his 
 opinions at Vincennes from 1706 to 1710. He wrote, 
 besides many other works, a "History of Jansenism," (3 
 vols., 1700.) Diedini7ii. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Gerbert. See Sylvester II. 
 
 Gerbert, geVbSRt, (Martin,) Baron von Homau, 
 (hor'now,) a learned German priest and writer on music, 
 who became Prince-Abbot of Saint-Blaise, was born at 
 Horb, in Wiirtemberg, in 1720. His principal works are 
 a history of church music, entitled " De Cantu et Musica 
 sacra," (1774,) and "Ecclesiastical Writers on Sacred 
 Music," (" Scriptores ecclesiastici de Musica sacra," etc., 
 3 vols., 1784,) which are highly esteemed. Died in 1793. 
 
 See J. B. Weiss, "Trauerrede auf den Fiirst-Abbt M. Gerbert," 
 1793; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Gerbet, zheVbi', (Olympe Philippe,) a French ec- 
 clesiastic, born in 1798. He wrote, among other works, 
 a "Sketch of Christian Rome," ("Esquisse de Rome 
 chretienne," 1844-50.) In 1853 he became Bishop of 
 Perpignan. 
 
 Gerbier, zheVbe-4', (Pierre Jean Baptiste,) a 
 French lawyer and orator, born at Rennes in 1725, was 
 advocate to the Parliament of Paris. Died in 1788. 
 
 Gerbier d'Ouvilly, zheVbe-i' doo've'ye', (Sir Bal- 
 THASAR,) a Flemish architect and painter, born at Ant- 
 werp about 1592, visited England at an early age, and 
 was successively patronized by James I., Charles I., and 
 Charles II. He was employed by James to negotiate 
 the marriage of Prince Charles with the Spanish In- 
 fanta. Among his best works is a portrait of the Duke 
 of Buckingham on horseback. Gerbier designed the 
 triumphal arches for the reception of Charles II. Died 
 in 1667. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Gerbillon, zheVbe'yoN', (Jean Francois,) a French 
 Jesuit, born in 1634. In 1086 he went as a missionary 
 to China, where, on account of his medical skill, he was 
 received with great favour by the emperor. He wrote 
 a " Relation" of eight journeys into Grand Tartary, the 
 " Elements of Geometry," and "Geometry, Practical and 
 Speculative." The last two were written in Chinese. 
 Died at Pekin in 1707. 
 
 See Michault, "Melanges historiques et philologiques." 
 
 Gerbo, zheVbo', (Louis,) a Flemish painter, born at 
 Bruges in 1761, worked some years in Paris, where he 
 died in 1818. 
 
 Gerd, Gerda, or Gerde. See Frey. 
 
 Gerdes, g^R'dfs, (Daniel,) a meritorious German 
 Protestant minister, born at Bremen in 1698. He became 
 professor of theology at Groningen (one account says at 
 Utrecht) in 1735. His chief work is a "History of the 
 Reformation," (in Latin, 4 vols., 1744-52.) Died in 1767. 
 
 See Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Gerdil, jen-del' or j?R-deI', (Giacinto Sigismondo,) 
 a learned Italian cardinal, born in Savoy in 1718. He 
 became professor of philosophy at Turin, (1749,) and 
 preceptor to the Prince of Piedmont, afterwards Charles 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
GERDT 
 
 1023 
 
 GERMAIN 
 
 Emanuel IV. He was made a cardinal in 1777, and, 
 soon after, prefect of the Propaganda. He wrote, besides 
 other works ill Latin, French, and Italian, "The Imma- 
 teriality of the Soul demonstrated against Locke," etc., 
 (1747,) and " AntiEmile, or Reflections on the Theory 
 and Practice of Education, against the Principles of J. J. 
 Rousseau," (1763.) Died in 1802. 
 
 See Fontana, "Elogio letterario del C. G. S. Gerdil," 1802; 
 Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Gerdy, zheR'de', (Pierre Nicolas,) a French phy- 
 sician and surgeon, born at Loches (Aube) in 1797. 
 Among his works are " Physiology of the Sensations 
 and Intelligence," (1846,) and "Practical Surgery," (3 
 vols., 1850-55.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Geree, ge-ree', ? (John,) an English Puritan minister, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1600. He preached at Saint Alban's 
 and in London. Died in 1649. 
 
 Gerhard, geVh&Rt, (Eduard,) a German archaeolo- 
 gist, born at Posen in 1795. In 1822 he visited Rome, 
 where he resided many years, and had a share in Plat- 
 ner's " Description of Rome," which was conducted by 
 Baron Bunsen. In conjunction with the latter and other 
 savants, he founded at Rome the Institute for Archaeo- 
 logical Correspondence. After his return, about 1837, 
 he was appointed professor in the University of Berlin, 
 and archaeologist at the Royal Museum. Among his 
 numerous treatises on ancient works of art, we may 
 name "Greek and Etruscan Drinking-Cups," (1843,) 
 '• Vises of Apulia," and "Antique Sculpture," (1827-44.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Gerhard, (Ephraim,) a German philosopher, born 
 in Silesia in 1682. He wrote, in Latin, " Delineation of 
 Rational Philosophy." Died in 1 7 18. 
 
 Gerhard, (Johann,) a learned Lutheran theologian, 
 born at Quedlinburg in 1582, became professor of di- 
 vinity at Jena in 1616, and was employed in missions 
 by several princes. His " Meditationes Sacrae" (1627) 
 were often reprinted, and translated into several lan- 
 guages. He wrote other works, and was chief editor of 
 the Bible of Weimar. Died at Jena in 1637. 
 
 See E. R. Fischer, " Vita J. Gerhardi," 1723; Arnold," Kirchen- 
 und Ketzer-Historie." 
 
 Gerhard, (Johann Ernst,) a son of the preceding, 
 born at Jena in 1621, was an Orientalist, and professor 
 of history in his native city. He wrote " Harmony of 
 Oriental Languages," and other treatises. Died in 1688. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Gerhard, (Karl Abraham,) a German mineralogist, 
 born in 1738, wrote an " Essay of a History of the Min- 
 eral Kingdom," (Berlin, 2 vols., 1781.) Died in 1821. 
 
 Gerhard Groot. See Groot. 
 
 Gerhardt, zh^'raV or geVhaRt, (Charles Frede- 
 ric,) a French chemist, born at Strasbourg in 1816. He 
 was professor of chemistry from 1844-48 at Montpellier, 
 and removed thence to Paris, where he devoted himself to 
 experiments on homologous series, the theory of types, 
 and anhydrous acids. He proposed an improved classi- 
 fication of organic chemistry, and published an important 
 "Treatise on Organic Chemistry," (4 vols., 1854-56.) 
 In 1855 he became professor of chemistry at Strasbourg. 
 Died in August, 1856. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Gerhardt or Gerhard, (Paul,) a German Protestant 
 divine and poet, born in Saxony about 1606. He was 
 the author of a collection of hymns, which are greatly 
 esteemed. He preached in Berlin and at Lubben. Died 
 at Lublien in 1675. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie:" Ernst 
 G. Roth, "P. Gerhard nach seineni Leben und Wirken," 1829; 
 Langbecker, " P. Gerhard's Leben und Lieder," Berlin, 1841 ; 
 Wildknhahn. "P. Gerhard: kirchengeschichiliches Lebensbild," 
 etc., 2 vols., 1845, (translated into English by Mrs. Stanley Carr, 
 London, 1846.) 
 
 Gericault, zh&'re'ko', (Jean Iaiiiis Theodore An- 
 dre,) a French painter, born at Rouen in 1790, studied 
 under Vernet and Gue>in, and about 1819 produced 
 his master-piece, "The Shipwreck of the Medusa." His 
 pictures of horses are greatly admired. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Cmile Coquatrix, " Gericault, Prose et Vers," 1846 ; C. 
 Blanc, "Ge'ricault," Paris. 
 
 Gericke, ga'rlkkeh, (Peter,) a German physician 
 acd writer, born at Stendal in 1683 ; died in 1750. 
 
 Geriiig, ga'ring, (Ulric,) a Swiss printer, who, with 
 his associates, Crantz and Friburger, introduced the art 
 of printing into France in 1469. ■ The first work which 
 they printed was the "Epistles of Gasparini Barzizza," 
 Paris, (1470.) Died in Paris in 1510. 
 
 See Greswell, " Parisian Typography :" Lacaili.e, " Histoire 
 de l'lnipiimerie," etc. ; "Nouvelle Biographie G^uerale," (by A. F. 
 Didot.) 
 
 Gerini, ja-ree'nee, (Gerino, ji-ree'no,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Pistoia, lived about 1530. He was a 
 pupil of Perugino, whose manner he adopted. Among 
 his works is "The Miracle of the Loaves." 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Gerlach, geVlSK, (Benjamin Gottlieb,) a German 
 philologist, born at Liegnitz in 1698, wrote an essay 
 "On the Portable Chinese Temple," (" De Templo 
 Sinensi portatili," 1739.) Died in 1756. 
 
 Gerlach, (Franz Dorotheus,) a German philologist, 
 born in Gotha in 1793, published editions of Sallust, and 
 of the " Germania" of Tacitus, and wrote several his- 
 torical treatises. He became professor of Greek at the 
 University of Bale in 1820. 
 
 Gerlach, (Stephen,) a German Protestant divine, 
 born in Wurtemberg in 1546, was chaplain to the impe- 
 rial embassy at Constantinople for five years, (1573-78.) 
 He left a "Journal of the Embassy," (published in 1674,) 
 and several theological works. Died in 1612. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Gerlache, de, deli zheVli'sh', (Etienne Constan- 
 tin,) Baron, a Belgian historian and statesman, born 
 in Luxembourg in 1785. He became a member of the 
 Belgian Congress in 1830, president of the Chamber of 
 Representatives in 1831, and president of the court of 
 cassation in 1832 or 1833. He wrote several historical 
 works, the most popular of which is a "History of the 
 Kingdom of the Netherlands from 1814 to 1830," (2 vols., 
 1839.) He belonged to the Catholic conservative party. 
 
 Gerle, zhARl, (Dom Christophe Antoine,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born in Auvergne in 1740, became an ad- 
 herent of the fanatic Catherine Theot. Died about 1805. 
 
 Germain. See German us. 
 
 Germain, zheVmitN', (Charles Antoine,) a French 
 political orator, born at Narbonne about 1770. He was 
 an ultra-republican in the Revolution, and became a 
 strenuous opponent of the Directory, by whom he was 
 banished in 1797. Died in 1835. 
 
 Germain, (Michel,) a French antiquary, born at 
 Peronne in 1645 ; died in 1694. 
 
 Germain, (Pierre,) a distinguished carver on metals, 
 born in Paris in 1647, was patronized by Louis XIV. 
 Died in 1682. 
 
 Germain, [Lat. Germa'nus,] Saint, of Auxerre, 
 was born at Auxerre, France, about 380 a.d. He was of 
 illustrious birth, and was created duke of several French 
 provinces by the emperor Honorius. He afterwards 
 embraced an ecclesiastical life, and, on the death of 
 Saint Amator, became Bishop of Auxerre. In 428, 
 Germain was sent to Britain, where, meeting with great 
 success in suppressing Pelagianism and promoting edu- 
 cation, he remained nearly eighteen years. Died at 
 Ravenna in 448. 
 
 See Bam.let, " Vies des Saints." 
 
 Germain, (Sophie,) a French lady, distinguished for 
 her knowledge of mathematics, was born in Paris in 
 1776. In 1815 she obtained the prize offered by the 
 Institute for the best essay on the vibration of elastic 
 plates. She wrote, besides other works, " Researches 
 on the Theoryof Elastic Surfaces," (1821.) Died in 1831. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Germain, (Thomas,) an architect and sculptor, a 
 son of Pierre, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1673. 
 He studied under the painter Boullongne, and sub- 
 sequently at Rome, where he was principally employed 
 in executing ornamental work in gold for different Euro- 
 pean monarchs. Died in 1748. 
 
 Germain de Paris, zheVmaN' deli pS're', Saint, 
 born in Paris, of which city he became bishop in 554. 
 He Was distinguished for his great zeal for religion, and 
 wrote some ecclesiastical works. Died in 576 a.d. 
 
 See Duplrssy, "Histoire de Saint-Germain," 1841: Gmllet, 
 "Vies des Saints." 
 
 e as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; £ as *; *h as in this. (fl^-See Explanations, p. 13.) 
 
GERMANICUS 
 
 1024 
 
 GERSON 
 
 Ger-man'I-cus, (C^sar,) a celebrated Roman gene- 
 ral, born in 14 B.C., was the oldest son of Drusus Nero 
 Germanicus, and brother of Claudius, who afterwards 
 became emperor. At the request of Augustus Caesar, 
 Germanicus was adopted by his uncle Tiberius. When 
 he was twenty years of age, he fought in Dalmatia and 
 Pannonia with such distinction that he obtained a tri- 
 umph on his return to Rome. In 12 a.d. he became 
 consul, and soon after received from Augustus the com- 
 mand of the legions on the Rhine. The news of the 
 death of this emperor caused several of the legions of 
 the Lower Rhine to break out in a dangerous mutiny 
 while Germanicus was absent. On his return the soldiers 
 desired to raise him to the imperial power; but he refused 
 to accede to their wishes, and succeeded in restoring 
 discipline. He immediately marched against the Ger- 
 mans, whom he defeated in several battles, repulsed the 
 great German leader Arminius, and penetrated to the 
 place where the legions of Varus had been destroyed. 
 The next year he was victorious in two important battles 
 fought against Arminius. Germanicus wished to remain 
 in Germany another year, in order to complete its subju- 
 gation ; but Tiberius, who was very jealous of the popu- 
 larity of the conqueror, ordered him to return to Rome, 
 where he was honoured with a brilliant triumph in 17 
 A. i>. He was again chosen consul for the year 18, with 
 Tiberius as his colleague, and was sent to quell some 
 serious disturbances which had broken out in the East. 
 Having brought this expedition to a successful issue, 
 he died at Antioch in the year 19, it is supposed from 
 the effects of poison administered to him by the orders 
 of the emperor and of Cneius Piso, Governor of Syria. 
 Germanicus was greatly beloved by the Romans ; and 
 even the nations whom he vanquished regarded him as 
 a noble and generous foe. He left, by his wife Agrip- 
 pina, granddaughter of Augustus, several children, one 
 of whom was the notorious Caligula. His daughter 
 Agrippina became the mother of Nero. 
 
 See Tacitus, " Annales;" Louis de Beaufort, " Histoire de C. 
 Germanicus," 1741 ; Lag-erloef, " Vita C. Gernianici," Upsal, 1698; 
 J. Hili.ebkand, "Germanicus," 2 vols., Frankfort. 1S17. 
 
 Germanus. See Germain. 
 
 Ger-ma'nus [Fr. Germain, zheVmaN'] I., Patriarch 
 of Constantinople, was an enemy of the Iconoclasts, and 
 had a contest respecting the worship of images with the 
 emperor Leo, by whom he was deposed in 730 A.D. Died 
 about 740. 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria.*' 
 
 Germanus II. was elected Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople about 1224. He left numerous writings. Died 
 about 1250. 
 
 Germanus III. became Patriarch of Constantinople 
 about 1265. He resigned in 1266 or 1267. 
 
 German y Llorente, Herman' e Io-reVti, (Ber- 
 nardo,) a distinguished Spanish painter, born at Seville 
 in 1685. His chief work was a picture of the Virgin 
 represented as a shepherdess. After this work, Murillo 
 gave him the surname of "the Painter of Shepherdesses." 
 Died in 1757. 
 
 See Quilliet, " Dictionnaiiedes Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Germar, geVmaR, (Ernst Friedrich,) a German 
 naturalist, born at Glauchau, in Saxony, in 1786, was 
 appointed chief councillor of mines at Halle in 1844. 
 He wrote a treatise "On the Petrifactions of the Coal 
 Formation of Wettin," etc. 
 
 Germon, zh£R'm6.N', (Barthei.emj,) a French Jesuit, 
 born at Orleans in 1663, distinguished himself in a con- 
 troversy with Mabillon, and other Benedictines, in regard 
 to ecclesiastical diplomatics. He wrote several works 
 on this subject. Died in 1718. 
 
 See Morbri, " Dictionnarre Historique." 
 
 Germonio, jgR-mo'ne-o, (Anastasio,) an Italian 
 canonist, born near Parma in 1551. In 1608 he was 
 appointed Archbishop of Tarantaise. He was the author 
 of numerous ecclesiastical works. Died in 1627. 
 
 See Taisand, "Vies des Jurisconsultesanciens et modernes." 
 
 Germyn, HeT-mln', (Simon,) a Dutch landscape- 
 painter, born at Dort about 1650; died in 1719. 
 
 Gerner, geVner, (Hendrik,) a Danish author, born 
 at Copenhagen in 1629, became Bishop of Viborg in 
 
 1693. H e published a "Translation from Hesiod into 
 Danish Verse," and an " Epitome of Danish Philology." 
 Died in 1700. 
 
 Gerner, (Hendrik,) a naval architect, born at Copen- 
 hagen in 1742, wrote "Songs for the Amusement of 
 Danish Sailors." Died about 1800. 
 
 Gerning, geVning, (Johann Christian,) a German 
 naturalist, born at Frankfort in 1746; died in 1802. 
 
 Gerome, zha'rom', (Jean Leon,) a French painter, 
 born at Vesoul (Haute-Saone) in 1824, was a pupil of 
 Delaroche. He received a medal of the second class at 
 the Paris Exposition of 1855. Among his works are 
 "The Augustan Age," (1855,) "La Soitit du Bal mas- 
 que," and "The Gladiators." 
 
 Gerrard, geVraRt or HeVraut, of Haarlem, a 
 Dutch oil-painter, born at Haarlem in 1460; died in 
 1488. 
 
 Gerrards, van, vSn geVraRts,(G. P.,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at Amsterdam in 1607. He imitated Van Dyck, 
 who was his friend. Died in 1667. 
 
 Gerritsz, geVrits, (Dirck or Dirk,) a famous Dutch 
 navigator, born at Enkhuisen about 1555. He made a 
 voyage to China, the coasts of which he is said to have 
 explored. He commanded one of the five vessels which 
 in 1598 sailed to the South Sea and discovered land 
 about 64° south latitude. Died about 1602. 
 
 Ger'ry, (Elkridge,) an American statesman, born 
 in Marblehead, Massachusetts, in 1744, graduated at 
 Harvard in 1762. He was elected to the legislature of 
 Massachusetts in 1772, and soon became a prominent 
 political leader. Having been chosen a member of the 
 Continental Congress in 1776, he signed the Declaration 
 of Independence, and was placed on several important 
 committees. He became chairman of the treasury board 
 in 1780, and was a member of the convention which, in 
 1787, formed the Federal Constitution. About 1790 he 
 was again elected to Congress, from which he retired in 
 1795, and was sent on a mission to France in 1797 with 
 General Pinckney and Mr. Marshall. He was invited to 
 remain when his colleagues were ordered by the French 
 Directors to leave France; and he did remain. He 
 joined the Democratic party, by which he was elected 
 Governor of Massachusetts in 1S10. He was elected 
 Vice-President of the United States in 1812, when 
 Madison was chosen President. Died in November, 
 1814 
 
 See J. T. Austin, " Life of Elbridge Gerry ;" Goodrich, " L.ves 
 of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence." 
 
 Gersdorf, gSRs'doRf, (Johann,) a German physician 
 and surgeon, practised at Strasburg about 1520-40. He 
 published a "Manual of Surgery," (1517.) 
 
 Gersdorf, (Karl Friedrich Wii.hklm,) a German 
 general, born at Lobau in 1765. After the alliance of 
 Saxony with France, he fought for Napoleon in the cam- 
 paigns of 1809, 1810, and 1812. Died in 1829. 
 
 Gerson, de, deh zheVsoN', (Jean Charlier — shaV- 
 le-a',) sumamed the Most Christian Doctor, was 
 bom at the village of Gerson, near Rheims, in 1363. 
 Soon after completing his studies he became chancellor 
 of the University of Paris and canon of Notre-Dame. 
 Having boldly denounced the assassins of the Duke of 
 Orleans, he was persecuted by the Duke of Burgundy, 
 his house was pillaged by a mob, and he saved his life 
 only by concealing himself. He was one of the must 
 energetic members of the Council of Pisa, which de- 
 posed the rival popes Benedict XIII. and Gregory 
 XII. and elected Alexander V. He afterwards exerted 
 a great influence at the Council of Constance, which de- 
 posed Pope John XXIII. Gerson sat in this council as 
 the ambassador of the French king and the representa- 
 tive of the Church of France and of the University. 
 While at this place, he had a fierce disputation with John 
 Huss. Gerson always maintained that the Church had 
 the right to make any reforms, even without the con- 
 sent of the pope. Owing to the enmity of the party of the 
 Duke of Burgundy, he went from Constance to Bavaria 
 disguised as a pilgrim. After remaining in Germany sev- 
 eral years, he returned to France, and entered a convent 
 at Lyons, where he died in 1429. He wrote a treatise 
 "On the Consolation of Theology," ("De Consolatione 
 Theologiae,") and is supposed by some to have l>een 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, 6, u, ?, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; m£t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
GERSTJCKER 
 
 1025 
 
 GESNER 
 
 the author of the " Imitation of Jesus Christ," which has 
 generally been attributed to Thomas a Kempis. 
 
 See Lecuy, "Essai sur la Vie de J. Gerson," 1832; Von der 
 Hardt, "Gersoniana:" Thomassy, "Jean Gerson," 1843; C 
 Schmidt, "Essai sur Gerson," 1839; "Nouvelle Biographie G^n^- 
 rale." 
 
 GerstSckeror Gerstaecker, geVstJk'ker, (Fried- 
 RtCH,) a German traveller and writer, born at Hamburg 
 in 1816. In 1837 he visited the United States, where he 
 spent six years, and after his return published "Streif- 
 und Jagdziigen durch die Vereinigten Staaten Nord- 
 amenkas," (" Wanderings and Hunting Excursions 
 through the United States of North America,") "The 
 River-Pirates of the Mississippi," and several other 
 fictitious works. 
 
 Gersten, geR'sten, or Geratein, geVstln, (Chris- 
 tian 1.UDWIG,) a German mathematician, born in 1701 
 at Giessen, where he became professor of mathematics 
 in 1733. He was imprisoned twelve years (1748-60) for 
 writing an offensive letter to the Landgrave of Hesse- 
 Darmstadt. Died in 1762. 
 
 Gerstenberg, geR'sten-beRG',(HEiNRlCH Wilhelm,) 
 a German litterateur, born at Tondern in 1737. He 
 wrote a successful tragedy, entitled "Ugolino," and a 
 number of poems. Died in 1823. 
 
 Gerstner, von, fon ggRst'ner, (Franz Anton,) a 
 German engineer, born at Prague in 1795, was appointed 
 in 1818 professor of geometry in Vienna. For the pur- 
 pose of examining the railroads, he several times visited 
 England, and in 1834 laid the foundation of the railway 
 from Saint Petersburg to Tsai koe-Selo, the first made 
 in Russia. During a visit to the United States, he died, 
 in 1840. 
 
 Gerstner, von, (Franz Joseph,) an eminent German 
 astronomer and mechanician, the father of the preceding, 
 was born in Bohemia in 1756. He was professor of 
 mathematics at Prague, and published, besides other 
 works, a" Hand-Book of Mechanics," (3 vols., 1838-41.) 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 See Bolzano, " Leben des F. J. Ritter von Gerstner," 1837. 
 
 Gertrude, jer'trood, Saint, Abbess of Nivelle, was 
 born in Brabant about 626 A.D.; died in 659. 
 
 Gerusez or Geruzez, zha'tu'za', (Eugene,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Rheims in 1799. He was the substi- 
 tute (suppliant) of Villemain in the chair of literature 
 at Paris from 1833 to 1852. He published a "Course 
 of Philosophy," (1833,) which is commended, and "Es- 
 says on Literary History," (2 vols., 1853.) 
 
 Gervaise. See Gervase. 
 
 Gervaise, zheu'viz', (Francois Armani),) a French 
 writer, and abbot of the order of La Trappe, born in Paris 
 about 1660. Among his works are the "Lives of many 
 of the Christian Fathers," a " Life of Abelard and He- 
 Irjise," (2 vols., 1720,) and a "Life of Saint Paul," (3 
 vols., 1734.) Died in 1751. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" Marsollier, "Vie de 1'AbW 
 de RanceV' 
 
 Gervaise, (Nicolas,) a French ecclesiastic, brother 
 of the preceding, was born in Paris about 1662. When 
 quite young, he went as a missionary to Siam, where he 
 remained four years. In 1724 the pope appointed him 
 Bishop of Horren, and soon after sent him to America, 
 where in 1729 he and all his companions were massa- 
 cred by the Caribs. Gervaise wrote a "Natural and 
 Political History of the Kingdom of Siam," (1688.) 
 
 See Mokeri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Gervase, jer'vas or jer-vaz', [Lat. Gerva'sius.1 of 
 Canterbury, an English monk and historian of the 
 thirteenth century, wrote a "Chronicle of the Kings of 
 England," and a " History of the Archbishops of Can- 
 terbury." 
 
 Gervase [Fr. Gervais, zheR'v&'; Ger. Gerva'sius] 
 of Tii.bury, a historian of the thirteenth century, and 
 marshal of the kingdom of Aries, in France, was born at 
 Tilbury, in Essex. He is said to have been the nephew 
 of King Henry II. of England. Among his works are 
 a "History of Britain," and a history of the kings of 
 England and France, entitled "Otia Imperialia." 
 
 See T. Wright, " Biographia Britannica Literaria." 
 
 Gerville, de, deh zheR'vel', (Charles Alexis 
 Adrien du Herissier— du hl're'se-i',) a French anti 
 
 quary, born at Gerville, near Coutances, in 1769. He 
 wrote treatises on French antiquities. Died in 1853. 
 
 Gervinus, geR-vee'nus, (Georg Gottfried,) an 
 eminent German historian and critic, born at Darmstadt 
 in May, 1 805. He became professor of history and 
 literature at Gottingen in 1836, but was removed in 1837 
 because he signed a protest against the abolition of the 
 constitution of Hanover. He published an important 
 work, called "History of the National Poetic Literature 
 of the Germans," (3 vols., 1835-38,) and, as a continua- 
 tion or complement of the same, " Neuere Geschichte 
 der poetischen National-Literatur der Deutschen," (2 
 vols., 1840-42.) He was chosen professor at Heidelberg 
 in 1844. Among his works is an excellent critical essay 
 on "Goethe's Correspondence," (1836,) a "Study of 
 Shakspeare," (4 vols., 1850,) and a " History of the 
 Nineteenth Century," (3 vols., 1858.) He was a leader 
 of the Liberal party and member of the National As- 
 sembly at Frankfort in 1848. He afterwards advocated 
 republican principles. 
 
 See Saint-RenA Taiu.andier, in the "Revue des Peux 
 Mondes," 1856 ; and his "Etudes sur l'AUemagne;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Ge'rjf-on or Ge-ry'o-nes, [Gr. Yiiftwvric,] a monster 
 of classic mythology, represented as having three heads, 
 or the bodies of three men united. One of the labours 
 imposed on Hercules was to bring the oxen of Geryon 
 from an island on which they were kept. Hercules 
 accomplished the task, and slew Geryon. 
 
 Geselscbap, Ha'sel-sKap', (Eduard,) a Dutch painter 
 of history and genre, born at Amsterdam in 1814. Among 
 his earlier productions are " The Adoration of the Magi," 
 and "Gustavus Adolphus at Lutzen." His later works 
 represent scenes of German life, and display much ima- 
 gination. 
 
 Gesenius, ge-see'ne-us or ga-za'ne-Cis, (Friedrich 
 Heinrich Wilhelm, )"aii eminent German Orientalist 
 and biblical critic, was born at Nordhausen on the 
 3d of February, 1785. He studied at Gottingen, and 
 became professor of theology at Halle in loll. He 
 published a " Hebrew Grammar," " Hebrew and Chaldee 
 Hand-Lexicon for the Old Testament," (1810-12,) which 
 has been translated into English and Latin, " On the 
 Origin, Nature, and Authority of the Samaritan Penta- 
 teuch," ("De Pentateuchi Samaritan! Origine, Indole," 
 etc., 1815,) "Critical History of the Hebrew Language 
 and Writing," (1815,) and a translation of the prophet 
 Isaiah, with a historical, critical, and philological com- 
 mentary. He was also a contributor to Ersch and 
 Grubers "Encyklopaedie." As a theologian, Gese- 
 nius belonged to the philosophical and critical school. 
 Died at Halle in October, 1842. 
 
 See " Gesenius, eine Erinnerung an seine Freunde," 1843 : " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Gesenius, (Wilhelm,) a German medical writer, 
 born in the duchy of Brunswick in 1760. He practised 
 at Nordhausen. Died in 1801. 
 
 Ges'ner, (Abraham,) M.D., a geologist of the present 
 age, born at Cornwallis, Nova Scotia. He published 
 a treatise "On the Mineralogy and Geology of Nova 
 Scotia," (1847.) He is said to have discovered kero- 
 seal gas. 
 
 Gesner, ges'ner, (Andreas Samuel,) a German 
 teacher, born at Roth (Anspach) in 1690, was a brother 
 of Johann Matthias, whom he aided in the " Thesaurus 
 Linguae Latinse," ("Treasury of the Latin Tongue.") 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 Gesner, (Conrad,) a celebrated Swiss naturalist and 
 scholar, whom Cuvier calls a "prodigy of application, 
 learning, and sagacity," was born at Zurich on the 26th 
 of March, 1516. He studied languages and sciences at 
 Zurich, Bourges, Bale, etc., and, after teaching Greek 
 three years at Lausanne, took the degree of doctor of 
 medicine at Pile about 1540. He practised medicine 
 at Zurich. In 1545 he published the first volume of his 
 famous " Bibliotheca Universalis," the first great work 
 on bibliography which the moderns have produced. The 
 second volume, called " Pandectes," appeared in 1548. 
 
 From his youth he had conceived the plan of an ex- 
 tensive work on natural history, in prosecution of which 
 he travelled in Germany and other countries. His " llis- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (jaf-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GESNER 
 
 1026 
 
 GEZEL1US 
 
 tory of Animals" (" Historise Animalium") is perhaps 
 the work by which he has gained the most durable 
 reputation. The first part of it was published in 155 1. 
 "This work," says Cuvier, "may be considered, as the 
 basis of all modern zoology; copied almost literally by 
 Aldrovandus, abridged by Johnston, it has become the 
 foundation of much more recent works ; and more than 
 one famous author has borrowed from it nearly all of 
 his learning. He deserved their confidence by his accu- 
 racy, his clearness, his good faith, and sometimes by the 
 sagacity of bis views." 
 
 Gesner also acquired celebrity as a botanist. He 
 formed a botanic garden at Zurich, and designed or 
 painted with his own hand more than fifteen hundred 
 plants for a History of Plants which he projected and 
 left unfinished. His engravings were used in the "Epi- 
 tome Mathioli de Plantis," published by Camerarius in 
 1586. His botanical manuscripts were published by 
 Schmiedel in 1754. "He has the credit," says Hallam, 
 "of having discovered the true system of classifying 
 plants according to the organs of fructification, which, 
 however, he does not seem to have made known, nor 
 were his botanical writings published till the last cen- 
 tury. Gesner was the first who mentions the Indian 
 sugar-cane and the tobacco." (" Introduction to the Lite- 
 rature of Europe.") In 1556 he published a valuable 
 translation of the works of .(Elian into Latin. His 
 "Mithridates sive de Differentiis Linguarum" ("On the 
 Differences of Languages") is an effort on a great scale 
 to arrange the various languages of mankind by their 
 origin and analogies. He died at Zurich in December, 
 1565, leaving a good reputation for piety and virtue. 
 
 See Simler, "V..a C. Gesneri," 1566; Life by Schmiedel, pre- 
 6xed toGesner's botanical works ; Haller, " Bibliolheca Botanica;" 
 NicERON, "Memoires;" J. Hanmart, "C. Gesner, Beitrag zur 
 Geschichte des wissenschaftlichen Strebens," etc., 1824. 
 
 Gesner, (Jean,) a Swiss botanist, born at Zurich in 
 1709. At the University of Leyden he formed a life- 
 long friendship with the great Haller. He taught mathe- 
 matics and physics about forty years in the Academy of 
 Zurich. Haller's " Description of Swiss Plants," says 
 the "Biographie Universelle," was in great part the 
 work of Gesner, who, through modesty, declined to 
 attach his name to the work. He wrote another botanical 
 work, the "Tabulae Phytographise," which was published 
 after his death, and is highly commended. Died in 1790. 
 
 See "Biographie Me'dicale:" H. C. Hirzei., " Denkrede auf J. 
 Gesner," 1790; Rudolph Wolf, "J. Gesner, Freund von Haller," 
 etc., 1S46. 
 
 Gesner, (Jean Jacques,) a Swiss antiquary, brother 
 of the preceding, born at Zurich in 1707. He was pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew at Zurich from 1740 until his death. 
 His favourite study was numismatology. He wrote a 
 work entitled "All Ancient Coins of Nations and 
 Cities," (" Numismata antiqua Populorum et Uibium 
 omnia,") in which he attempted to present all Greek and 
 Roman medals. It contains many errors. Died in 1 787. 
 
 Gesner, (Johann Matthias,) an eminent German 
 scholar, born near Nuremberg in 1 691, became professor 
 of eloquence at Gottingen, (1734.) He published excel- 
 lent editions of Horace, Quintilian, Claudian, and the 
 " Scriptores de Re Rustica," (" Writers on Agricul- 
 ture,") also a compilation entitled "New Treasure of 
 the Roman Language," etc., (" Novus Lingua; et Erudi- 
 tionis Romanae Thesaurus," 4 vols., 1749.) Died in 1761. 
 
 See J. D. MicHAELis, " Memoria J. M. Gesneri," 1761 ; Johann 
 August Brnesti, '"Narratio de J. M. Gesnero," 1762. 
 
 Gessi, jeVsee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian 
 painter, called the " Second Guido," (" Guido Secondo,") 
 was born at Bologna in 158S. He was a pupil of Guido, 
 whose manner he imitated with success. He is said to 
 have equalled that master in freedom and firmness of 
 touch and in mellowness of colour. Among his works 
 are a "Virgin and Child," and a " Repose in Egypt." 
 He died in 1625, or, according to some writers, in 1649. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Gessner, ges'ner, or Gesner, (Salomon,) a Swiss 
 poet and artist, born at Zurich in 1730. In 1754 he 
 brought out his poem of " Daphnis," which was followed 
 by " Inkle and Yarico," and a volume of "Idyls," all of 
 which were very favourably received, both in Germany 
 
 and France. His "Death of Abel," a kind of prose 
 poem, appeared in 1758. As a landscape-painter, Gess- 
 ner holds a high rank, and his engravings after his own 
 pictures are of superior merit. His poetry, though dis- 
 tinguished for elegance of language and fine versification, 
 gives unreal delineations of life, and no longer enjoys its 
 former popularity. He died at Zurich in 1787. 
 
 See Hottinger, "S. Gessner," Zurich, 1796; Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Filippo Mordani, " Elogio storico 
 di S. Gessner," 1840: Meyer, " Denktnal S. Gesner's in Zurich," 
 1790; Bertola, " Elogio di S. Gesner," 1789. 
 
 Gestrin, yes-treen', (John,) a Swedish mathematician, 
 who lived under the reign of Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 Gesualdo, ji-soo-al'do, (Carlo,) Prince of Venosa, 
 an Italian amateur musician, lived about 1580. He com- 
 posed madrigals, which were published in 1595. He ex- 
 celled in pathos. 
 
 Ge'ta, (Septimus Antoninus,) Emperor of Rome, 
 colleague and younger brother of Caracalla, and son of 
 Septimus Severus, was born in Milan about 190 a.d. 
 His disposition appears to have been as open and gene- 
 rous as that of his brother was treacherous and cruel. 
 Caracalla, envious of the great popularity ot his brother, 
 and also being determined to reign alone, made several 
 attempts to assassinate him. He accomplished this in 
 212, by concealing some centurions in the apartments of 
 Julia, the mother of the emperors. Geta was holding a 
 conference with his mother when the assassins killed him 
 and wounded her while she endeavoured to shield him. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tille- 
 mont, " Histoire des Empereurs Romains;" Wm. Musgrave, 
 "Geta Britannicus, avec des Notes par Isaac Casaubon, Janus 
 Gruter et Claude Saumaise," London, 1716. 
 
 Geth'in, (Lady Grace,) born in Somerset, England, 
 in 1676, wrote a book entitled " Reliquiae Gethinianae,' - 
 containing essays on love, friendship, death, courage, 
 and several other subjects. Congreve has highly eulo- 
 gized this work in one of his poems. She died in 1697. 
 A beautiful monument was erected to her memory in 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 See Ballard, " Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain." 
 
 Geulincx, nuh'links or zhuh'laNks', (Arnold,) a 
 learned Flemish Protestant theologian and Cartesian 
 philosopher at Lotivain, born at Antwerp about 1625. 
 He wrote several philosophical and metaphysical works, 
 one of which is called "Metaphysica vera," (1691.) 
 Died in 1669. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Geuns, van, vfn Huns, (Stephen Jan,) a Flemish 
 physician and naturalist, born at Groningen in 1767. He 
 wrote several botanical and medical works, and enriched 
 Gorter's "Flora of Holland" with two hundred species 
 of plants. Died in 1795. 
 
 Geusau, von, fon goi'zow, (Levin,) a Prussian gene- 
 ral, born near Eisenach in 1734, served with distinction 
 in the Seven Years' war. Died in 1808. 
 
 Gevaerts. See Gevartius. 
 
 Ge-var'ti-us or Gevaerts, gi-vaRts', (Jan Kaspar,) 
 a celebrated Belgian philologist, born at Antwerp in 
 1593. In 161 1 he was created councillor of state, and 
 historiographer, by the emperor Ferdinand III. of Ger- 
 many. He wrote Latin poems, and other works. Died 
 in 1666. 
 
 Geyer. See Geijer, (Eric Gustaf.) 
 
 Geyer, gi'er, (Henry Shefeie,) an American jurist, 
 born at Fredericktown, Maryland, in 1790, settled at 
 Saint Louis, Missouri, about 1812. He was elected to 
 the legislature of Missouri several times, and took an 
 important part in revising the statutes of that State in 
 1825. In 1851 he was chosen a Senator of the United 
 States. Died in 1859. 
 
 Geyger. See Geigkr. 
 
 Geyler or Geiler, gi'ler, (Johann,) a Swiss preacher, 
 born at Schaffhausen in 1445 ; died at Strasburg in 1510. 
 
 Geyser, gl'zer, (Christian Theophilus,) a skilful 
 German engraver, born at Gorlitz in 1742. Among his 
 most admired productions are landscapes after Wouwer- 
 man and Pynaker, and the vignettes of Heyne's edition 
 of Virgil. Died about 1806. 
 
 Ge-ze'H-us, [Sw. pron. yi-zll'le-us,] (Georg,) a 
 learned Swedish ecclesiastic, born in 1736. He pub- 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long: 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
GEZELWS 
 
 1027 
 
 GH1KA 
 
 lished a "biographical Dictionary of the Illustrious 
 Men of Sweden," (3 or 4 vols., 1776-78.) Died in 1789. 
 See " Biographiskt-Lexicon iifver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 Oezelius, (Johan,) a prelate of Finland, born in 
 1615. He became professor of theology and Greek at 
 Dorpat, in Livonia, and in 1664 was ordained Bishop 
 of Abo. He wrote a valuable "Commentary on the 
 Bible" in the Swedish language, and several works in 
 Latin. Died in 1690. 
 
 See Achkelius, "Oratio in exequias J. Gezelii," 1690; J. J. 
 TK\'.vrKOEM, "Biskopen i Abo Stilt J. Gezehi den aldres Minne," 
 i8j<. 
 
 Gezelius, (Johan,) a son of the preceding, born in 
 1647. He became Bishop of Abo in 1690, and finished 
 his father's commentary or translation of the Bible. He 
 also wrote " Xomenclator Adami." Died in 1718. 
 
 Gfrorer, glKo'rer, (AUGUST Friedrich,) a German 
 historian, born at Calw, in Wurtemberg, in 1803, became 
 in 1846 professor at the Catholic University of Freiburg. 
 He published, among other works, a " Universal Church 
 History," and "Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and his 
 Times," (1835.) 
 
 Ghasnevides. See Gaznevides. 
 
 Ghasnewiden. See Gaznevides. 
 
 Ghazan, ga'zln', (written also Kazan,) Khan, a 
 Mongol sovereign of Persia, born about 1270, was a son 
 of Argoon (Argoun) Khan. He began to reign while 
 still very young, but met at first with much opposition. 
 In 1294 he renounced Booddhism, after which many of 
 the Mohammedan chiefs, who had previously opposed 
 him, joined his cause. He extended his empire by con- 
 quest from the river Jihon to the. Persian Gulf on the 
 south and Syria on the west He died in 1304. He was 
 a man of great talents and rare acquirements. Few, if 
 any, among his numerous subjects, were more thoroughly 
 acquainted than he with the history of the ancient Mon- 
 gols. His government, though severe, appears to have 
 been, on the whole, just and enlightened. For a partic- 
 ular account of his reign, see the "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale." 
 
 Ghazueviden. See Gaznevides. 
 
 Ghazzalee, (or Ghazzali,) Al. See Aboo-Hamid- 
 Moll \M.\II.D. 
 
 Ghedini, ga-dee'nee, (Ferdinando Antonio,) an 
 Italian naturalist and poet, born at Bologna in 1684; 
 died in 1767. 
 
 Gbelen. See Gei.enius. 
 
 Gherardesca, ga-raR-des'ki, a celebrated noble fam- 
 ily of Tuscany, of the thirteenth century. They were 
 opposed to the other families of nobles, and placed them- 
 selves at the head of the popular party. 
 
 Gherardesca, (Fazio or Bonifacio,) appointed chief 
 of ihe republic of Pisa in 1329, threw off the yoke of the 
 emperor Louis of Bavaria, and concluded an honourable 
 peace with the Guelphs. Died in 1340. 
 
 Gherardesca, (FiLipro,) a distinguished Italian com- 
 poser, born at Pistoia in 1730; died in 1808. 
 
 Gherardesca, (Ugolino,) Count of, an Italian sol- 
 dier, who endeavoured to usurp the government of Pisa, 
 but failed and was banished from that city. He then 
 joined the army of Florence, which enabled! him to suc- 
 ceed in his projects in 1284. He afterwards governed so 
 despotically that a conspiracy was formed against him, 
 with Ubalclini, the Archbishop of Pisa, at its head. 
 Ugolino was attacked in his palace, where, after a brave 
 .defence, he was capturSd, with three eons and one 
 grandson. By the archbishop's orders, they were all 
 imprisoned in the tower, where they were starved to 
 death, (1288.) This is the Gherardesca of Dante's 
 "Inferno." 
 
 See Sismondi. " HiMoire des Republiques Italiennes ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographic G^neVflle." 
 
 Gherardi, ga-raR'dee, (Antonio,) a painter of the 
 Roman school, born in Umbria in 1644; died in 1702. 
 
 Gherardi, (Christofano,) called Doceno, (do-cha'- 
 no,) a painter of the Florentine school, born at Borgo 
 San Sepolcro in 1500. He assisted Vasari in his works. 
 Died in 1556. 
 
 Gherardi, (Fii.ippo,) an Italian painter, born at Lucca 
 in 1643, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. Among his 
 works is the " Battle of Lepanto." Died in 1704. 
 
 Gherardi del Testa, ga-raR'dee del teVta, (Tom- 
 M a so,) Count, an Italian dramatist, born near Pisa in 
 1818. He produced in 1845 a successful comedy, called 
 "Mad Ambition," ("Una folle Ambizione.") He com- 
 posed about forty dramas, and a popular poem, entitled 
 "The Creator and his World," (" II Creatore ed il suo 
 Mondo,") with other poetical works. 
 
 Gherardini,ga-raK-dee'nee,(ALESSANDRO,) a painter, 
 born at Florence in 1655. A picture of the "Crucifixion" 
 is called his master-piece. Died in 1723. 
 
 Gherardo da Sabbionetta, ga-raR'do da sab-be-o- 
 net'ta, a celebrated Italian physician and astrologer, born 
 near Cremona between 1200 and 1250. He translated 
 into Latin the works of Avicenna and Almansor. 
 
 See Boncompagni, "Delta Vita e delle Opere di Gherardo da 
 Sabbionetta;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Ghesquiere, de, deh ges'ke-aiR', (Joseph,) a Jesuit 
 and antiquarian writer, born at Courtrai, in Belgium, in 
 1736; died in 1802. 
 
 Gheyn, de, deh gTn or Hln, (Jacob,) the Elder, a 
 noted Flemish painter and engraver, born at Antwerp 
 in 1565 ; died in 1615. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Gheyn, de, (Jacob,) the Younger, an engraver, 
 born at Antwerp about 1610; died about 1660. 
 
 Ghezzi, gft'see, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born 
 in 1634. He adorned several churches of Rome. Died 
 in 1721. 
 
 Ghezzi, (Pietro Leone,) a painter and engraver, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Rome in 1674, and ex- 
 celled in enamel-work and engraving on stones. He was 
 employed by Pope Clement XI. His prophet Micah, 
 in the church of San Giovanni Laterano, is commended. 
 Died in 1755. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Ghezzi, (Sebast'iano,) an Italian painter and archi- 
 tect, the father of Giuseppe, noticed above, was born 
 near Ascoli about 1600 ; died about 1650. 
 
 Ghiberti, ge-beVtee, (Lorenzo,) the greatest sculptor 
 of his time, born at Florence in 1378, was also a painter. 
 He received lessons in design from Bartoluccio, a gold- 
 smith, and opened a new era in the art of sculpture by 
 a restoration of the antique style. In 1400 he produced 
 a design for a bronze gate of the baptistery of Saint John 
 at Florence, which was preferred to those of his competi- 
 tors, among whom was Brunelleschi. He spent twenty 
 years on this bronze gate, which represents scenes from 
 the Xew Testament. He afterwards executed for the 
 same building another gate, superior to the first. Michael 
 Augelo extolled one or both of these works as worthy to 
 adorn the entrance to Paradise. Among his master-pieces 
 were a statne of Saint Matthew, and the bas-reliefs of 
 the shrine of San Zenobi. "These works," says the 
 "Biographie Universelle," referring to the second gate 
 of the baptistery and the shrine of San Zenobi, "are 
 remarkable for the propriety of the composition, the 
 truth of the attitudes, the accuracy and firmness of the 
 outlines, and the vivacity and dignity of the expression." 
 He was chosen a colleague of Brunelleschi in the erec- 
 tion of the Duomo of Florence. Died about 1455. 
 
 See August Hagen, "Chronik seiner Vaterstadt von Lorenz 
 Ghiberti," 1833; Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura;" Lanzi, 
 "History of Painting in Italy;" Vasari, "Lives of the' Painters 
 and Sculptors;" Gonelli, " Elogio di L. Ghiberti," etc., 8vo, 1822. 
 
 Ghica or Ghicca. See Ghika. 
 
 Ghika, gee'ka, Ghica, or Ghicca, (Gregory,) be- 
 came Hospodar of Moldavia in 1662. He was deposed 
 by the grand vizier Kuprili in 1673, and died about 1680. 
 
 Ghika or Ghica, (Gregory,) a dragoman at the Ot- 
 toman Porte. Having been taken prisoner by the Rus- 
 sians, he was sent to Saint Petersburg. Through the 
 influence of the empress Catherine II., he was appointed 
 in 1774 Prince of Moldavia. He was assassinated in 
 1777, by order of the Sultan. 
 
 Ghika, (Gregory,) was Hospodar of Moldavia anc' 
 ruler of Wallachia for many years in the first half of the 
 eighteenth century. 
 
 Ghika, (Gregory,) Hospodar of Moldavia, born in 
 Moldavia in 1807. Pie became hospodar in 1849, and 
 adopted several liberal measures. He was removed by 
 the Turkish Sultan in 1856. Died in 1857. 
 
 easA 4 ; casj; %hard; gas/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; K,fri/W; s as z; th as in this. (jjy-See Explanations, p. 23.; 
 
GHILINI 
 
 1028 
 
 G1BAULT 
 
 Ghilini, ge-lee'nee, (Girolamo,) a learned Italian 
 priest, born at Monza in 1589, published a work entitled 
 "Theatre of Literary Men," ("Teatro d'Uomini lette- 
 rati," (1633.) Died about 1670. 
 
 Ghingi, gen'jee, (Francesco,) a celebrated Italian 
 gem-engraver, born at Florence in 1689. He executed 
 a " Venus de Medici" carved from a piece of amethyst 
 weighing eighteen pounds. This master-piece afterwards 
 came into the possession of Augustus III. of Poland. 
 His works are by some esteemed equal to the finest 
 antiques. Died in 1766. 
 
 Ghini, fee'nee, (Luca,) an Italian botanist, born near 
 Imola in 1500. He taught botany at Pisa, where he 
 planted a botanic garden. Died in 1556. 
 
 Ghirlaudaio, geer-Iin-dT'o or geR-lan-da'yo, a cele- 
 brated painter, whose proper name was Domenico Cor- 
 radi or Currado, was bom at Florence about 1450. 
 He excelled in invention, and was the first Florentine 
 who attained skill in aerial perspective. He painted 
 many scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary and John 
 the Baptist. Among his chief works are " The Massacre 
 of the Innocents," "The Death of Saint Francis," and 
 "The Calling of Saint Peter and Andrew," which is still 
 preserved in the Sistine Chapel, Rome. Michael Angelo 
 was one of his pupils. Died in 1495. His brothers 
 Benedetto and David were painters of inferior ability. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian 
 Painters." 
 
 Ghirlandaio, (Ridolfo,) a skilful painter, son of the 
 preceding, born at Florence in 1482. He was the master 
 of a numerous school. " The Coronation of the Virgin" 
 is one of his most admired works. His genius is said 
 to have resembled that of Raphael, whose friendship he 
 enjoyed. He had a talent for the imitation of nature, 
 with the addition of ideal charms. Died in 1560. 
 
 See Vasari, v " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Ghisi, (Adamo.) See Mantuano. 
 
 Ghisi, (Diana.) See Mantuana. 
 
 Ghisi, gee'see, (Teodoro,) an Italian painter of the 
 Mantuan school, was a brother of Giorgio Ghisi, sur- 
 named Mantuano, and lived about 1530-80. He was 
 a pupil of Giulio Romano, some of whose works he 
 finished. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Ghisleri. See Pius V. 
 
 Ghisolfi, ge-sol'fee, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Milan in 1624. He worked with success at 
 Rome, Genoa, Milan, and Naples. Died in 1683. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Giaber. See Gf.ber. 
 
 Giacobbi, ja kob'bee, or Giacobi, ja-ko'bee, (Giro- 
 lamo,) an Italian composer, born at Bologna in 1575. 
 He excelled in sacred music, and composed several 
 operas, said to have been the first performed in Europe. 
 Died in 1650. 
 
 Giaconielli, ja-ko-mel'lee, (Michelangelo,) an 
 Italian translator, born at Pistoia in 1695, became Arch- 
 bishop of Chalcedon in 1761. He translated into Italian 
 the "Electra" of Sophocles, (1754,) and other Greek 
 works. His versions were highly esteemed. Diedini774. 
 
 See A. M. Matani, " Elogio storico di M. A. Giacomelli," 1775. 
 
 Giacuinto or Giacquinto, ja-kwen'to, (Corrado, 
 kor-ra'do,) an Italian painter, born at Molfetta about 
 1695. He went to Madrid, and became first painter to 
 the king about 1752. Died in 1765. 
 
 Giafar. See Iaafar. 
 
 Giambelli. See Gianip.ei.lt. 
 
 Giamberti. See San Gai.lo. • 
 
 Giambullari,jam-bool-la'ree, (Bernardo,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Florence about 1450. 
 
 Giambullari, (Pietro Francesco,) a son of the 
 preceding, was born at F'lorence about 1495. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "Rules for Writing and Speaking 
 the Tuscan Language, " (1549.) Died in 1564. 
 
 Giampaolo, jam-pow'lo or jam-pa'o-lo, (Paolo Nic- 
 COI.6,) an Italian writer, born in the kingdom of Naples 
 in 1757. He became a member of Joseph Bonaparte's 
 council of state in 1807. His chief work is " Dialogues 
 on Religion," (4 vols., 1815-28.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Gianibelli, ja-ne-bel'lee, or Giambelli, jam-bel'lee, 
 (Federigo.) an Italian mechanician and pyrotechnist, 
 who lived about 1570-90. He was the projector of the 
 "infernal machines" which did such fearful execution 
 against the troops of Parma, near Antwerp, April, 1585. 
 
 See Motlev, " United Netherlands," vol. i. p. 189. 
 
 Giannettasio, jan-net-ta'se-o, (NiccoL6Partenio — 
 paR-ta'ne-o,) a Latin poet and Jesuit, born at Naples in 
 1648. He published in 1685 a didactic poem on naviga- 
 tion, entitled " Piscatoria et Nautica." The nobleness, 
 facility, and harmony of his poetry are praised by Gin- 
 guene. He wrote other poems. Died in 171 5. 
 
 Giannetti, jan-net'tee, (Filippo,) an able landscape- 
 painter, born at Messina. He worked at Naples, where 
 he died in 1702. 
 
 Gianni, jan'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet and 
 improvisator, born at Rome in 1759. He went to Paris 
 about 1800, and obtained a pension from Bonaparte, 
 whose victories he had celebrated. Died in Paris in 1822. 
 
 Giannini, jan-nee'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian physi- 
 cian, born near Milan in 1773, published several valuable 
 medical works. He practised at Milan. Died in 1818. 
 
 Giannone, jan-no'na, (Pietro,) an eminent Italian 
 historian, born at Ischitella, in the kingdom of Naples, in 
 1676. He studied law, and practised as an advocate at 
 Naples. He devoted many years to the composition of 
 a " History of the Kingdom of Naples," (" Storia civile 
 del Regno di Napoli," 4 vols., 1723,) in which he at- 
 tacked the temporal power of the pope and censured 
 the abuses of the Roman Catholic Church. He was 
 excommunicated by the Archbishop of Naples, and, to 
 escape the violence of the clerical party, he retired to 
 Vienna about 1723. He received from the emperor 
 Charles VI. an annual pension of one thousand florins. 
 Having in a subsequent work avowed opinions which 
 were considered heterodox, he was deprived of his pen- 
 sion about 1734, and removed to Geneva in 1735. He 
 wrote a work entitled " II Triregno, ossia del Regno del 
 Cielo, della Terra e del Papa," ("The Triple Kingdom, 
 or the Kingdom of Heaven, of the Earth, and of the 
 Pope,") which was never printed. In this work he 
 opposed the Catholic dogmas of purgatory, the eucharist, 
 etc. Having been enticed into Savoy by Joseph Guas- 
 taldi in 1736, he was arrested by the order of the King 
 of Sardinia, and confined in prison until his death. He 
 died at Turin in March, 1748. 
 
 See F. Panzini, "Vita di P. Giannone," 1765; A. Fabroni, 
 "Vita; Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Corniani, "Secoli della 
 Letteratura Italiana;" Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Giannotti, jan-not'tee, (Donato,) an Italian histo- 
 rian, born at Florence in 1494, was elected secretary of 
 the republic. His chief work is a history of Venice, 
 called " Republica di Venezia," (1540,) which is com- 
 mended for accuracy and elegance. Died in 1563. 
 
 Giannotti, (Silvestro Domenico,) an Italian sculp- 
 tor in wood, born at Lucca in 1680; died in 1750. 
 
 See Crespi, "Vita di S. Giannotti," 1770. 
 
 Giants. See Gigantes and Jotuns. 
 
 Giardini, jaR-dee'nee, (Felice,) a celebrated Italian 
 violinist and composer, born at Turin in 1716. Having 
 performed with brilliant success in Germany, he visited 
 London, where he was received with equal favour. He 
 subsequently became one of the managers of the King's 
 Theatre, which post he was forced to resign, after suffer- 
 ing a heavy pecuniary loss. Hj5 died, in great poverty, 
 at Saint Petersburg, Russia, in 1796. He was esteemed " 
 one of the best musicians of his time, and his composi- 
 tions for the violin are also of great merit. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universale des Musiciens." 
 
 Giattini, jat-tee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Ital- 
 ian Jesuit and Latin writer, born at Palermo about 1600; 
 died in 1672. 
 
 Gib, (Adam,) a Scottish theologian, born in Perth- 
 shire in 1713, was one of the founders of the Secession 
 Church in Scotland. On the division of this church 
 (1746) he became the leader of the Anti-burghers. He 
 wrote "Sacred Contemplations," (1786.) Died in 1788. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gibault, zhe'bo', (Hierome Bonavf.nture,) a French 
 jurist, born at Poitiers ; died about 1832. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, $>, short; a, e, j, <j, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GIBBES 
 
 1029 
 
 GIBBONS 
 
 Gibbes, gibz, (James Aldan,) a physician and medi- 
 cal writer, born 01 English parents at Rouen about 1616. 
 Me practised in Rome. Died in 1677. 
 
 Gibbes, gibz, (Robert Wilson,) an American phy- 
 sician, bom at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1809. He 
 wrote, besides several medical and scientific treatises, a 
 "Documentary History of the American Revolution," 
 etc., (3 vols., 1853 et sea.) 
 
 ■Gib'bon, (Edward,) one of the most distinguished of 
 English historians, was born at Putney in 1737. At the 
 age of twelve he was sent to Westminster School, where 
 his feeble health prevented his making much progress 
 in classical studies. V n nearly fifteen, however, he 
 became more robust, and entered Magdalene College ; 
 but the picture he has drawn of the Oxford professors 
 and their discipline gives us anything but a favourable 
 impression, and he speaks of the fourteen months he 
 spent there as " the most idle and unprofitable of his 
 whole life." About this time he was converted to the 
 Catholic faith, in consequence of which his father sent 
 him to Lausanne, in Switzerland, to reside with M. 
 Pavillard, a Calvinistic divine, under whose teachings 
 he was brought back to Protestantism. Here he lived 
 five years in retirement, preparing himself by study and 
 reflection for future eminence. He regarded his " banish- 
 ment" as a fortunate circumstance, but for which " those 
 important years so liberally improved in the studies and 
 conversation of Lausanne would have been steeped in 
 port and prejudice among the monks of Oxford." In 
 1758 he returned to England, and in 1761 published his 
 first work, entitled " Essay on the Study of Literature," 
 written in French, with which at that time he was better 
 acquainted, as he himself states in his Autobiography, 
 than with his native tongue. Soon after this he became 
 a captain in the 1 lanipshire militia, and engaged with 
 much ardour in the srbdy of military tactics ; but, 
 becoming weary of this pursuit, he gave it up, and in 
 1763 went to Paris. Leaving Paris, he repaired to Lau- 
 sanne, and in a short time set out for Rome, where, he 
 tells us, "as he sat musing amidst the ruins of the 
 Capitol, while the bare-footed friars were singing vespers 
 in the temple of Jupiter, the idea of writing the decline 
 and fall of the city first started to his mind." He did 
 not, however, begin it until several years later. On his 
 return to England he wrote a historvof the Swiss Revo- 
 lution ; but this work was never published. In 1767 he 
 began to publish, conjointly with his Swiss friend Dey- 
 veidun, a work called "Literary Memoirs of Great 
 Britain." In 1770 appeared his first work written in 
 English, "Critical Observations on the Sixth Rook of 
 the /Eneid." In 1774 he obtained a seat in Parliament, 
 where he supported Lord North's administration, in 
 return for which he was made a commissioner of trade, 
 with a salary of £800 a year. On Lord North's resig- 
 nation, Gibbon gave up his place in Parliament and his 
 "convenient salary." In 1776 the first volume of the 
 " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" appeared, and 
 proved a brilliant success. "The first impression was 
 exhausted in a few days ; a second and third edition were 
 scarcely adequate to the demand." He was especially 
 gratified by the praise of Hume and Robertson, and he 
 says, in his Autobiography, "a letter from Mr. Hume 
 overpaid the labour often years." The hostility of this 
 work to the Christian religion, however, gave great 
 offence to many, and it was severely attacked by several 
 English divines, to only one of whom — Mr. Davis — he 
 replied, "because he assailed not the faith, but the 
 fidelity, of the historian." This charge, however, is gen- 
 erally thought to have been fully refuted. The second 
 and third volumes were published in 1781 ; and in 1783 
 he again retired to Lausanne, where he gave himself up 
 to literary pursuits and repose. Here he finished the 
 three remaining volumes of his history, which appeared 
 in 17SS. He returned to England in 1793, and died in 
 London, January, 1794. I lis great work has by common 
 consent been placed in the very highest rank of the 
 English classics. Asa historian and man of learning, 
 he merits, perhaps, all the praises he has received. As 
 a man, though possessing many amiable traits, he had 
 too little moral elevation and religious sentiment to 
 appreciate the sublime courage of Christian martyrs; 
 
 and his political course shows far more regard for his 
 personal interest than devotion to principle. 
 
 Mr. Prescott, after some excellent remarks on the 
 qualifications demanded for a perfect historian, speaks 
 of Gibbon as one of the most accomplished writers in 
 this department of literature. He observes, however, 
 that the author of the "Decline and Fall" is wanting in 
 good faith : " his most elaborate efforts exhibit too often 
 the perversion of learning and ingenuity to the vindica- 
 tion of preconceived hypotheses. He cannot, indeed, 
 be convicted of ignorance or literal inaccuracy ; but his 
 disingenuous mode of conducting the argument leads 
 precisely to the same unfair result. Thus, in his cele- 
 brated chapters on the ' Progress of Christianity' . . . 
 he has often slurred over in the text such particulars as 
 might reflect most credit on the character of the religion, 
 or shuffled them into a note at the bottom of the page, 
 while all that admits of a doubtful complexion in its early 
 propagation is ostentatiously blazoned and set in con- 
 trast to the most amiable features of paganism. At the 
 same time, by a style of innuendo that conveys 'more 
 than meets the ear,' he has contrived, with Iago-like 
 duplicity, to breathe a taint of suspicion on the purity 
 which he dares not openly assail." (See " Biographical 
 and Critical Miscellanies.") Poison, alluding to the " De- 
 cline and Fall," observes, " An impartial judge must, I 
 think, allow that Mr. Gibbon's history is one of the ablest 
 performances of the kind that has ever appeared. His 
 industry is indefatigable ; his accuracy scrupulous ; his 
 reading, which indeed is sometimes ostentatiously dis- 
 played, immense ; ... his style emphatic and express- 
 ive ; his periods harmonious." The same able and 
 impartial critic admits that Gibbon's bitter hostility to 
 Christianity is a great blemish on his character as a histo- 
 rian, and adds, " He often makes, when he cannot readily 
 find, an occasion to insult our religion, which he hates so 
 cordially that he might seem to revenge some personal 
 injury." Porson also justly stigmatizes "that rage for 
 indecency which pervades the whole work, but especially 
 the last volumes." (Preface to his "Letters to Travis.'') 
 " The ' History of the Decline and Fall,' " says Professor 
 Smyth, "must always be considered as one of the most 
 extraordinary monuments that have appeared of the 
 literary powers of a single mind ; and its fame can perish 
 only with the civilization of the world." (" Lectures 
 on Modern History.") Alison, the historian, calls the 
 "Decline and Fall" "the greatest historical work in 
 existence." For a fuller presentation of various critical 
 opinions respecting Gibbon, the reader is referred to 
 Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 See Gibbon's aulobiograpnlc" Memoirs of his Life and Writ ings," 
 1700: Hknhv Hart Mii.man, " Life of E. Gibbon," 1S39: GuiroT, 
 " Notice snr Gibbon :" Saintp.-Bhuvk, " Causeriesdn l.undi." tome 
 viii. ; J. B. Chhistophk. "Etude snr I'HUlorien Gibbon," 1S53; 
 Vii'.EMAiN, "Tableau de la LitteVnture an dix-huiiieme Riecle :" 
 "Quarterly Review" for January, 1815, (vol. xii.,) and January, 
 1834, (vol. 1.) 
 
 ■Gib'bon, (John,) an American general, born in 
 Pennsylvania about 1826, graduated at West Point in 
 1847. He obtained the rank of captain in 1859. He 
 commanded a brigade at Antietam, September, 1862, and 
 at Gettysburg, July, 1863. Having l>een appointed a 
 major-general, he took part in the battles of the Wil- 
 derness, Spottsylvania Court-House, and Cold Harbour, 
 Mav-Iune, 1864. 
 
 ■Gib'bons, (Christopher,) a son of Orlando, noticed 
 below, was a skilful musician and composer. He was 
 organist of Westminster Abbey. Died about 1675. 
 
 Gibbons, (Grini.ing,) a distinguished sculptor, of 
 Dutch extraction, born in London (or, as some writers 
 state, in Rotterdam) about 1650. He was appointed by 
 Charles II. one of the directors of public works, and 
 commissioned by him to ornament Windsor Castle with 
 sculpture in wood and marble. Among the most ex- 
 quisite specimens of his skill in wood-carving are the 
 decorations of a room at Petworth. "There is no 
 instance, "says Horace Walpole, "of a man before Gib- 
 bons who gave to wood the loose and airy lightness of 
 flowers." He is said to have carved feathers which 
 could not be distincuished from real ones. Died in 1721. 
 
 See ChalHRBS. "Biographical Dictionary;" Walpole, "Anec- 
 dotes of Painting." 
 
 e as i; cas s; g hard; g as/; o, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; I as *; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GIBBONS 
 
 1030 
 
 GIBSON 
 
 Gibbons, (Orlando,) an eminent English composer 
 and musician, born at Cambridge in 15S3. His anthems 
 are regarded as master-pieces of the kind ; and he also 
 composed madrigals of great beauty. He was created 
 Doctor in Music in 1622. Died in 1625. 
 
 See Burney, " History of Music." 
 
 Gibbons, (Thomas,) an English Calvinistic divine, 
 born near Newmarket in 1720. He published a work 
 entitled "Female Worthies; or, The Lives of Pious 
 Women." Died in 1785. 
 
 Gibbs, (George,) an American mineralogist, born in 
 Rhodi Island about 1780. He collected the valuable 
 cabinet of minerals now owned by Yale College and pur- 
 chased of him by that institution in 1825. Died in 1833. 
 
 Gibbs, (James,) a Scottish architect, born at Aber- 
 deen about 16S0. He studied in Holland and in Italy, 
 and after his return built Saint Martin's Church and 
 Saint Bartholomew's Hospital In London, and the Rad- 
 cliffe Library at Oxford. Died in 1754. 
 
 SeeCnAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gibbs, (J0SI4H Willard,) LL.D., an American phi- 
 lologist, born in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1790. He 
 graduated at Yale College, where he became in 1824 
 professor of sacred literature. He published, besides 
 other works, a " Manual Hebrew and English Lexicon," 
 abridged from Gesenius, (1828,) and "Philological 
 Studies," (1857.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Gibbs, (Sir Vicary,) an English judge, born at Exe- 
 ter in 1752. He distinguished himself in the trials of 
 Hardy, Worne Tooke, and others, for treason, in 1794. 
 He became solicitor-general in 1805, and attorney-gene- 
 ral in 1807. He was appointed chief justice of the court 
 of common pleas in 1813. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Gibelin, zheb'laN', (Esprit (Ss'pReO Antoine,) a 
 French painter of history, born at Aix in 1739. He 
 worked in Paris, chiefly in fresco, and wrote several 
 antiquarian treatises. Died in 1814. 
 
 Gibelin, (JACQUES,) a physician and naturalist, brother 
 of the preceding, was born at Aix in 1744; died in 1828. 
 
 Gibert, zhe'baiit', (Balthasar,) a French critic, of 
 high reputation, born at Aix in 1662, He was professor 
 of rhetoric at the College Mazarin, Paris, for more than 
 fifty years, during which he instructed many who became 
 eminent. His principal work is "The Judgment of 
 Savants on the Authors who have treated on Rhetoric," 
 (3 vols., 1713-19,) which is remarkable for power of 
 analysis and judicious reflections. Died in 1 741. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaiie Historique." 
 
 Gibert, (Camii.le Meixhior,) a French physician, 
 born in Paris in 1797. He wrote, besides other works, 
 " Manual of Diseases pertaining to the Skin," (" Manuel 
 des Maladies speciales de la Peau," 1834.) 
 
 Gibert, (Jean Pierre,) a writer on canon law, born 
 at Aix, Provence, in 1660, was a cousin of Balthasar, 
 noticed above. His " Institutions ecclesiastiques et 
 beneficiales" ( 1 720) is called his best work. Died in 1 730. 
 
 See Goujet, " £loge de J. P. Gibert," 1736. 
 
 Gibert, (Joseph Balthasar,) a historical writer 
 and antiquary, born at Aix in 171 1, was a nephew of 
 Balthasar. In 1746 he was admitted into the Academy 
 of Inscriptions. Diedini77i. 
 
 Gibert de Montreuil, zhe'baiR' deh m6N'tRuI' or 
 moN'tRuh'ye, a French trouvlre of the twelfth century, 
 was the author of a romance in verse, entitled " La Vio- 
 lette," which ranks among the best productions of the 
 kind in the middle ages. It is supposed to have furnished 
 to Boccaccio the subject of one of his novels, "Novella 
 IX., Giomata seconda," from which Shakspeare has taken 
 the plot of " Cymbeline." " La Violette" was first printed 
 in the original text at Paris in 1834. 
 
 Giberti, je-beVtee, (Giammatteo,) a Sicilian bishop, 
 eminent for learning and piety, bom at Palermo in 1495. 
 He was appointed to the see of Verona in 1524. He 
 was a generous patron of literature ; and several ex- 
 cellent editions of the Greek Fathers were published at 
 his charge. Died in 1543. 
 
 See P. F. Zini, " Boni Pastoris Exemplum." 
 
 Gibieuf, zhe'be-uf', (Guillaume,) a French doctor 
 of the Sorbonne, born at Bourges, was appointed vicar- 
 
 general of the order of the Carmelites. He wrote a work 
 entitled " De Libertate Dei et Creatuiae." Died in 1650. 
 
 Gib'son, (Edmund,) an English prelate, distinguished 
 for his attainments in the Northern tongues, was born 
 in Westmoreland in 1669. Among his principal publica- 
 tions maybe named an edition of the "Chronicon Saxo- 
 nicum," a translation of Camden's "Britannia," and his 
 " Body of English Ecclesiastical Law," (" Codex Juris 
 Ecclesiastici Anglicani.") As chaplain to Tennison, 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, he maintained the rights of 
 the clergy during the contest between the two Houses 
 concerning the extent of their respective powers. He 
 was appointed Bishop of Lincoln in 1715, and in 1723 
 removed to the see of London. He was a zealous de- 
 fender of the claims of the Church, and opposed the 
 efforts of Protestant dissenters to remove the disability 
 under which they suffered. He is said to have incurred 
 the displeasure of the king by his denunciation of mas- 
 querades and other court amusements. Died in 1748. 
 
 See Coxe, " Life of Walpole ;" " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Gibson, (John,) one of the most eminent sculptors 
 of recent times, born at Conway, Wales, in 1791, re- 
 moved at an early age to Liverpool. His talents soon 
 attracted the notice of Roscoe, through whose influence 
 he was enabled in 181 7 to visit Rome. He studied under 
 Canova, and afterwards under Thorwaldsen. Among 
 his principal works are the groups of " Mars and Cupid" 
 and " Psyche borne by Zephyrs," a " Narcissus," a 
 " Wounded Amazon," and other productions of a poetical 
 character, which are regarded as models of classic ele- 
 gance. His statues of Queen Victoria, Huskisson, Sir 
 Robert Peel, and others, are less admired, owing in part 
 to their being represented in antique costume. Gibson 
 also favoured the practice of painting statues, which was 
 opposed by his brother artists. Died in 1 866. 
 
 See "Life of John Gibson," edited by Lady Eastlak:e, 1869; 
 "Gentleman's Magazine" for March, 1866. 
 
 Gib'spn, (John Bannister,) an eminent American 
 jurist, born in Pennsylvania in 1780. His father, Lieu- 
 tenant-Colonel Gibson, was killed in Saint Clair's expe- 
 dition against the Indians in 1 79 1. He was admitted to 
 the bar in 1803. He was repeatedly re-elected to the 
 State legislature by the then Republican party, and was 
 appointed presiding judge of one of the judicial districts 
 in 1813. He became in 1816 associate justice of the 
 supreme court of Pennsylvania, and succeeded Judge 
 Tilghman as chief justice in 1827. In consequence of a 
 change in the constitution of the State, making the offices 
 of judges elective, he was deprived of his seat in 185 1, 
 but was elected an associate justice the same year. He 
 died in Philadelphia in 1853, having occupied a promi- 
 nent position as a judge for about forty years. 
 
 For some excellent and discriminating, though eulogistic, remarks 
 on his character, by Chief-Justice Black, see Harris's "Penn- 
 sylvania State Reports," vol. vii. pp. 10-14 ; see » a ' so ' a biographical 
 sketch of Chief-Justice Gibson, by W. A. Porter, Esq., 1855. 
 
 Gibson, (Richard,) an English painter and dwarf, 
 born in 1615, excelled particularly In water-colours. He 
 was three feet ten inches high ; and his wife was of 
 exactly the same stature. Of five children who grew to 
 maturity, all were of usual size. Gibson was appointed 
 preceptor to the princesses Mary and Anne, daughters 
 of James II. Died in 1690. 
 
 Gibson, (Thomas,) an English naturalist and Prot- 
 estant divine, was distinguished for his learning. He 
 wrote works on various subjects. Died in 1562. 
 
 Gibson, (Thomas Milner,) a Liberal English legis- 
 lator, born at Trinidad in 1807. He entered Parliament 
 in 1837 as member for Ipswich, and became an effective 
 orator of the Anti-Corn-Law League. In 1841 he was 
 returned to Parliament for Manchester. He was ap- 
 pointed a privy councillor and vice-president of the board 
 of trade in 1846, but resigned in 1848. His opposition 
 to the Russian war rendered him so unpopular that he 
 was defeated at the general election of 1857. About the 
 end of that year he was elected a member of Parliament 
 by the voters of Ashton-under-Lyne. He was appointed 
 president of the board of trade (with a seat in the cabi- 
 net) by Palmerston in 1859. He is identified with the 
 " Manchester school" in politics. In June, 1866, he re- 
 tired from office. 
 
 I, e, 1, 6, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; m5on ; 
 
GIBSON 
 
 10,1 
 
 GIGGEI 
 
 Gibsou, (William,) a self-taught English mathe- 
 matician, born near Appleby in 1720. He became a 
 school -teacher and land-surveyor. Died in 1791. 
 
 Gibson, (William,) an eminent American surgeon, 
 born in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1788, graduated at the 
 University of Edinburgh in 1809, and succeeded Dr. 
 Physick as professor of surgery in ihe University of 
 Pennsylvania in 1819. He resigned this position in 1855. 
 Died at Savannah, in Georgia, in 1868. He was one of 
 the first American surgeons who performed the Cffisarian 
 operation with complete success. (See " American Jour- 
 nal of Medical Sciences" for May, 1838.) 
 
 See Dr. Carson's " History of the Medical Department of the 
 Uaivereity of Pennsylvania," 1869. 
 
 Gichtel, giK'tel, (Johann Georg,) a German mystic, 
 born at Ratisbon in 1638, professed doctrines similar to 
 those of Jacob Boehme. His disciples obtained the 
 name of Gichtelians, or Angelic Brothers. He published 
 a work entitled " Practical Theosophy." Died in 1710. 
 
 See Reinbeck, *'Sur la Vie et les Doctrines de Gichtel," Berlin, 
 ■ 7.12- 
 
 Gid'dingS, (Joshua Reed,) a distinguished leader in 
 the anti-slavery movement in the United States, was born 
 in Athens, Pennsylvania, in 1795. In 1805 his parents 
 were among the first settlers in Ashtabula county, Ohio, 
 (Western Reserve.) He commenced the practice of law 
 In 1820, and in 1838 was elected a representative to Con- 
 gress, which position he held by subsequent re-elections 
 for twenty-one years. He united with Mr. Adams in his 
 memorable struggle for the overthrow of the obnoxious 
 "gag-law," enacted for the purpose of preventing the 
 agitation of the slavery question. In 1842 Mr. Giddings 
 was censured by a Congressional vote of 125 to 69 for 
 his agitation of slavery. He instantly resigned his seat, 
 but was soon after re-elected by a large majority. He 
 acted for the most part with the Whig party, voting for 
 Harrison in 1840 and for Clay in 1844, but he supported 
 Van Buren in 1848. While in Congress he took a con- 
 spicuous part in all the debates on the slavery question, 
 including the fugitive-slave law of 1850, the repeal of 
 the Missouri Compromise in 1854, etc. In March, 1861, 
 he was appointed consul-general lor the British North 
 American provinces. Died at Montreal, May 27, 1864. 
 He published two volumes of essays and speeches, a 
 work entitled "The Exiles of Florida," (1858,) and "The 
 Rebellion, its Authors and Causes," (New York, 1864.) 
 
 Giddings, (Salmon,) a pioneer missionary in the 
 Mississippi Valley, was born at Hartford, Connecticut, 
 in 1782. He organized eleven churches in Missouri and 
 Illinois, and visited many of the Indian tribes in what 
 are now Kansas and Nebraska. Died in 1828. 
 
 Gid'e-on, [Heb. pjTU : Fr. GedEon, zha'da'6.N',] an 
 Israelite of the tribe of Manasseh, and son of Joash, 
 became judge of Israel. His nation had been suffering 
 seven years under the tyranny of the Midianites, when 
 a heavenly messenger was sent to Gideon, commanding 
 him to take arms in defence of his country. With three 
 hundred men he totally defeated the Midianites. Gideon 
 was judge of Israel forty years. Died about 1236 B.C. 
 
 See Judges vi., vii., and viii. 
 
 Gie, de, deli zhe'A', (Pierre de Rohan— deli to'Sn',) 
 a French marshal, born in Brittany about 1450. He en- 
 joyed the favour and confidence of Louis XI. and his 
 successor Charles VIII., whom he accompanied in his 
 Italian expedition. He was appointed by Louis XII. 
 preceptor to the young prince, afterwards Francis I. 
 He was subsequently deprived of his dignities, on a 
 charge of having abused his authority. Died in 1513. 
 
 See Brantomk, " Histoire des grands Capilaincs." 
 
 Giedroyc, ge-a'dRoits, (R. Thaddeijs,) Prince, a 
 Polish general, born in Lithuania in 1750. He served 
 with distinction against the Russians in the campaigns 
 of 1792 and 1794, and rose to the rank of lieutenant- 
 general. Died in 1824. 
 
 Gierig, gee'ric, (GOTTLIEB Erdmann,) a German 
 philologist, born at Wehrau, Lusatia, in 1753. He pub- 
 lished good editions of Ovid (1784) »»<' "f Plinv the 
 Younger, and several original treatises. Died in 1814. 
 
 Giesecke. See Giskkk. 
 
 Gieaeler, gee'zeh-ler, (Johann Karl Ludwig,) a 
 German Protestant theologian, distinguished as an eccle- 
 
 siastical historian, was born at Petershagen, near Minden, 
 about 1792. He published in 1818 an able " Historical 
 and Critical Essay on the Origin of the Gospels," and 
 was appointed professor of theology at Bonn in 1819. 
 He obtained the chair of theology at Gottingen in 1831. 
 His principal work is his " Manual of Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory," which was not completed until after his death. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Niographie Ge'neVnle. " 
 
 Giffen.van, vSngif'fen, [Lai. Gii'iiv'Nirs,] (Huhert,) 
 a Flemish philologist and eminent jurist, born in 1534. 
 The emperor Rudolph II. made him councillor and re- 
 ferendary of the empire. His treatises on law and phi- 
 lol"»v are greatly esteemed. Died in 1604. 
 
 Gif'ford, (Andrew,) an English Baptist minister and 
 noted antiquary, born in 1700. He preached in Ijondon, 
 and became assistant librarian of the British Museum 
 in 1757. He published a new edition of Folkes's" Tables 
 of English Coins," (1763.) Died in 1784. 
 
 Gifford, (John,) the assumed name of John Richard 
 Greene, an English journalist, born in 1758. He was 
 one of the founders of the "British Critic" and "The 
 Anti-Jacobin Review," and wrote, among other works, 
 a " Life of the Right Hon. William Pitt." Died in 1818. 
 
 Gifford, (Richard,) an English divine, born in 1725, 
 became rector of North Okendon in 1772. He wrote 
 "Contemplation," a poem, and "Answer to Dr. Priest- 
 ley's Disquisition on Matter and Spirit." Died in 1807. 
 
 Gifford, jif ford, (ROBERT.) Baron Saint Leonard's, an 
 able English lawyer, born at Exeter in 1779. He was 
 appointed solicitor-general in 1817, and attorney-general 
 in 1819. In this capacity he conducted the prosecution 
 of Queen Caroline in 1820, after which he received the 
 title of baron. He became master of the rolls and chief 
 justice of the common pleas in 1824. Died in 1826. 
 
 See I»'oss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. 
 
 Gif'ford, (Sanford R.,) a distinguished American 
 landscape-painter, born in Saratoga county, New York. 
 He resided in early life at Hudson, in the vicinity of the 
 Catskill Mountains. Among his works, which are highly 
 praised bv Tnckerman, are the "Coming Storm," 
 " Waves Breaking on the Beach at Early Dawn," and 
 "Morning in the Mountains." 
 
 See TuCkkkman's " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Gifford, (William,) an eminent English critic and 
 author, and principal founder of the " Quarterly Review," 
 was born at Ashburton, Devonshire, in April, 1757. 
 He was a shoemaker's apprentice for about five years, 
 and afterwards studied at Oxford. He began his literary 
 career by "The Baviad," a poetical satire, (1794,) which 
 was highly successful. His satire "The Maeviad" (1795) 
 was also much admired. In 1797 Gifford was editor of 
 "The Anti-Jacobin." In 1S02 he produced a poetical 
 version of Juvenal, which is highly commended. He 
 was editor of the "Quarterly Review" from 1809 until 
 1824, during which period he showed himself a bitter 
 partisan of Toryism and a severe critic of authors, whom 
 "he regarded, says Southcy, "as a fishmonger regards 
 eels, or as Izaak Walton did worms, slugs, and frogs." 
 He was a powerful master of sarcasm, and unsparing in 
 the use of it. Died in December, 1826. 
 
 "William Gifford," says Mr. Whipple, "seems to have 
 united in himself all the bad qualities of the criticism 
 of his time. He was fierce, dogmatic, bigoted, libellous, 
 and unsvmpathizing. Whatever may have been his 
 talents, they were exquisitely unfitted lor his position, — 
 his literary judgments being contemptible, where any 
 sense of beauty was required." ("North American 
 Review" for October, 1845, vol. Ixi.) 
 
 See "Autobiography" prefixed to Ins translation of Juvenal, and 
 "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. vii. 
 
 Gi-gan'tes, [ Gr. Teyuvreg ; Fr. GEants, zha'6N',] 
 gigantic beings of classic mythology, supposed to be the 
 sons of Terra or Tartarus, and to have waged war against 
 the gods. Some ancient poets confounded them with 
 the Titans. They were conquered by the gods, but not 
 until the latter obtained the aid of Heresies, 
 
 See Smith's " Dictionary of Greek and Roman I'.iography and 
 Mythology." 
 
 Giggei, jid-ja'ee, or Giggeo, jed-ja'o, [Lat. Gigc.e'- 
 ius,| (Antonio,) an Italian ecclesiastic and Orientalist, 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard;&a&j; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trillid; i as «; »h as in Ms. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
G1GL1 
 
 1032 
 
 GILBERT 
 
 was patronized by Pope Urban VIII. He published a 
 " Thesaurus Linguae Arabicae," which had a high repu- 
 tation at that time. Giggei was an intimate friend of 
 Cardinal Federigo Borromeo. Died in 1632. 
 
 Gigli, jel'yee, (Girolamo,) an Italian dramatist and 
 satirist, born at Sienna in 1660. His original name was 
 Nenci, (nen'chee.) He wrote successful comedies and 
 tragedies, among which were a translation of Moliere's 
 "Tartuffe," entitled "Don Pilone," (1711,) and "The 
 Sister of Don Pilone," (1 721,) in which he burlesqued 
 himself and his wife. He attacked the Academy della 
 Crusca in his " Vocabulary of the Works of Saint Cathe- 
 rine," (" Vocabolario delle Opere di Santa Caterina," 
 1717.) He is called an original genius by Ginguene. Died 
 at Rome in 1722. 
 
 See F. Coksktti, " Vita di G. Gigli," 1746 ; Tipaldo, " Biografia 
 degli ltaliani illustri." 
 
 Giguoux, zhen'yoo', (Francisque Regis — rl'zhess',) 
 a French landscape-painter, born in Lyons about 1S16. 
 He emigrated to New York about 1840, and produced 
 pictures of American scenery, among which is "Niagara 
 Falls by Moonlight." 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Gigot, zhe'go', (Philippe Francois Mathieu,) a 
 Belgian writer, born at Brussels in 1793. He wrote an 
 "Abridged History of Holland," (1820.) Died in 1819. 
 
 Gigot d'Elbee. See Ei.iiek. 
 
 Gigoux, zhe'goo', (Jean Fkanqois,) a French painter, 
 born at Besancon in 1806, obtained a medal of the first 
 class at Paris in 1848. Among his works are a " Mag- 
 dalene," "The Death of Cleopatra," "The Baptism of 
 Clovis," and a portrait of Lamartine. 
 
 Gil, Heel or Hel, a Spanish friar, distinguished as a 
 preacher, born in Andalusia about 1745 ; died in 1815. 
 
 Gil'bart, (James William,) an English writer on 
 banking, born in London about 1794, was manager of 
 the London and Westminster Bank. He published a 
 "Practical Treatise on Banking," (1827; 6th edition, 
 1S55,) and other esteemed works. Died in 1863. 
 
 ■Gil'bert, called the Universal, an English prelate, 
 who received his surname on account of his great learn- 
 ing. He was created Bishop of London in 1128. Died 
 in 1 134- 
 
 See B. Haureau, " De la Philosophic scolastique." 
 
 Gilbert, zhel'baiR', (Antoine Pierre Marie,) a 
 French antiquary, born in Paris in 1785. He published 
 historical descriptions of the cathedrals of Rouen, Char- 
 tres, and Amiens. Died in 1858. 
 
 Gilbert, (Charles C.,) an American officer, born in 
 Ohio in 1827, became brigadier-general of volunteers in 
 the United States army in 1862. 
 
 Gilbert, (Davif.s,) a distinguished English savant, 
 whose original name was Giddy, born in Cornwall in 
 1767. He was president of the Royal Society, and was 
 noted for his generous patronage of literary and scientific 
 men. He was one of the first to recognize the genius 
 of Sir Humphry Davy, whom he materially assisted in 
 early life and introduced to the notice of the man- 
 agers of the Royal Institution. He published "A Plain 
 Statement of the Bullion Question," and other learned 
 treatises. In 1827 he succeeded Sir Humphry Davy as 
 president of the Royal Society ; he resigned this posi- 
 tion in 1830. Died in 1839. 
 
 Gilbert, •(Gahriel,) a French dramatic poet, born 
 about 1610. His works are numerous, but have little 
 merit It is evident, however, that some of the best 
 French writers — Racine, for example — have sometimes 
 borrowed from him. He was patronized by Christina, 
 Queen of Sweden, who invited him, after her abdication, 
 to her court in France, and made him her secretary. 
 Died about 1680. 
 
 See MM. Haag, " La France protestante." 
 
 Gilbert, (Sir Geoffrey or Jeffrey,) an English jurist, 
 born in 1674, became chief baron of the exchequer in 
 Ireland, ( 1 7 1 6, ) and in England, (1725.) He wrote the 
 "Forum Romanum," (1756,) " History and Practice of 
 Chancery," (1758,) and other legal works. Died in 1726. 
 
 Gilbert, (Sir Humphrey,) a celebrated English navi- 
 gator, born of an ancient family in Devonshire in 1539. 
 By the marriage of his mother, after becoming a widow, 
 
 with Mr. Raleigh, he was half-brother to the famous Sit 
 Walter Raleigh. After leaving Oxford, he distinguished 
 himself in several military enterprises. As commander- 
 in-chief in the province of Minister, he assisted in 
 quelling the insurrection in Ireland. He published in 
 1576 a " Discourse to Prove a Passage by the Northwest 
 to Cathaia," etc. He obtained letters-patent from the 
 queen in 1578, with permission to make discoveries in 
 North America and take possession of any part yet 
 unoccupied. His first expedition to Newfoundland was 
 unsuccessful ; but in 1583 he again set sail. "The com- 
 mander," says Bancroft, " on the eve of his departure 
 received from Elizabeth a golden anchor guided by a 
 lady, a token of the queen's regard." When he arrived 
 in the Bay of Saint John, he took possession in the 
 queen's name of the surrounding country, and granted 
 leases to those of his company vyho desired them. It 
 having been represented to him that there were silver- 
 mines in Newfoundland, he sailed, with his little fleet 
 of three vessels, along that coast. They had not gone 
 far, however, when, owing to the negligence of the crew, 
 their largest ship was wrecked and nearly all on board 
 perished. Gilbert now set sail for England in the Squirrel, 
 a vessel of only ten tons. He was requested to go on 
 board the larger vessel, called the Hind ; but he refused 
 to leave the little company who had shared with him so 
 many dangers. They encountered very rough seas, and 
 the little bark was in the greatest danger. "The general, 
 sitting abaft, with a book in his hand, cried out to those 
 in the Hind, ' We are as near to heaven by sea as by 
 land.' That same night, about twelve o'clock, the lights 
 of the Squirrel suddenly disappeared, and neither the 
 vessel nor any of its crew was ever again seen." 
 
 See Bancroft, " History of the United States," vol. i. chap, lit ; 
 Prince. " Worthies of Devon ;" F. Denis, "Ge'niedela Navigation ;" 
 Hn.DkKTH, "History of the United States," vol. i. chap. iii. ; J. 
 Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's 
 Reign," 1845. 
 
 Gilbert, (John,) an English historical painter, born 
 in Kent in 1817. Among his works are " The Murder 
 of Thomas a Becket," and " Don Quixote giving Advice 
 to Sancho Panza." ' 
 
 Gilbert, (John Graham,) a painter of history and 
 portraits, was born at Glasgow in 1794. 
 
 Gilbert, (L. T.,) a French dramatist and novelist, 
 born in Paris in 1780; died in 1827. 
 
 Gilbert, gil'beRt, (Ludwig Wiliif.i.m,) a German 
 physician, born in Berlin in 1769. He founded in 1799 
 "The Annals of Physics and Chemistry," ("Annalen 
 der Physik undChymie," 150 vols.) Died in 1824. 
 
 See L. Choulant, " L. W. Gilberts Leben und Wirken," 1825. 
 
 Gilbert, (Nicolas Joseph Laurent,) an excellent 
 French satiric and lyric poet, born near Remiremont, 
 in Lorraine, in 1 75 1. He became a resident of Paris in 
 1774, with no resources but his talents. , In 1775 he pro- 
 duced a satire against the skeptical philosophers, called 
 "The Eighteenth Century." His odes " On the Jubilee," 
 (1776,) "On the Present War," (1778,) and his poem 
 entitled "At the Banquet of Life" ("Au Banquet de la 
 Vie") contain passages of great beauty. According to 
 the " Biographie Universelle," he became insane, swal- 
 lowed a key, and flied in November, 1780. His death 
 is attributed to a fall from a horse by the "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale," which calls him "the most emi- 
 nent satirist of the eighteenth century." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Pinard, "Gilbert, ou le 
 Poete malheuieux, " 1S40; "Memoires de la Marquise de Cre"quv." 
 
 Gilbert, (Nicolas Pierre,) a French physician and 
 medical writer, born at Brest in 1 751. He became pro- 
 fessor at Val-de-Grace, Paris, in 1796, and physician-in- 
 chief to the grand army in 1806. Died in 1814. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Gilbert, (Pierre Julien,) a French painter of ma- 
 rine views, born at Brest in 1783. 
 
 Gilbert, Saint, a French ecclesiastic, accompanied 
 the second crusade to the Holy Land. Died in 1152. 
 
 Gilbert, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist minis- 
 ter, born about 1612 ; died in 1694. 
 
 Gilbert or Gilberd, (William,) an eminent English 
 physician and scientific writer, born at Colchester in 
 1540. Having taken his degree in a foreign university, 
 
 i, s, 1, 5, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; p x)d; moon; 
 
GILBERT 
 
 i°33 
 
 GILJ 
 
 he was, after his return to England, chosen a Fellow of 
 the College of Physicians, in London. He acquired a 
 high reputation in his profession, and became physician- 
 in-ordinary to Queen Elizabeth. His great work entitled 
 "On the Magnet, the Magnetic Bodies," etc. (" De Mag- 
 nete, Magneticisque Corporibus," etc.) came out in 1600. 
 His reputation was at once established by this produc- 
 tion, which presents many original and striking views. 
 "It contains," says Whewell, "all the fundamental facts 
 of the science, so fully examined, indeed, that even at 
 this day we have little to add to them." It was eulogized 
 by Erasmus, Galileo, and other eminent men of the time. 
 Died in 1603. 
 
 See Wood. "Athens Oxonienses;" Humboldt, "Cosmos." 
 
 Gilbert [Lat. Gilber'tus] of Sempringham, Saint, 
 an English ecclesiastic, born in Lincolnshire in 1083, was 
 the founder of the order of Gilbertines. He established 
 thirteen monasteries and a number of hospitals. Died 
 in 1 1 89. 
 
 Gilbert de la Porre, zhel'baiR' deh li po'rA', [Lat. 
 Gisleher'tus Porreta'nus,] a French theologian and 
 scholastic philosopher, born at Poitiers about 1070. He 
 became Bishop of Poitiers, and wrote a celebrated work 
 called " Book of Six Principles," (" Liber sex Principio- 
 rum.") He was a realist in philosophy. Died in n 54. 
 
 See B. Havrkau, "De la Philosophie scolastique." 
 
 Gilbert deVoisins, zhel'baiR' deh vwa'zaN',(PlERRF. 
 Paul Alexandre,) Count, a French judge, born near 
 Paris in 1779. He was appointed first president of the 
 imperial court under Napoleon, and in 1830 became a 
 member of the court of cassation. Died in 1843. 
 
 Gil'chrlst, (Alexander,) a British writer on art, 
 born about 1827. He wrote a "Life of William Etty," 
 (2 vols., 1855.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Gilchrist, (Erenezer,) a Scottish physician, born at 
 Dumfries in 1707. He practised at his native place with 
 success, and wrote "On the Use of Sea- Voyages in 
 Medicine," (1756.) Died in 1774. 
 
 Gil'chrlst, (John Borthwick,) an English Oriental- 
 ist, born in 1759. He published several valuable works 
 on the Hindostanee language. Died in 1841. 
 
 Gilchrist, (Octavius,) an English dramatic critic, 
 born at Twickenham in 1779. He wrote a "Letter to 
 W. Gifford on a Late Edition of Ford's Plays," (181 1,) 
 and other works. Died in 1823. 
 
 Gil'das, Saint, surnamed Sapiens, (the "Wise,") an 
 eminent ecclesiastic, supposed to have been a native of 
 Wales, was born about 511 a.d. Having spent several 
 years in France in his studies, he founded after his re- 
 turn a church and school in Pembrokeshire. On the 
 invitation of Saint Bridget, he visited Ireland, where he 
 effected a great reformation in the Church. He after- 
 wards founded the monastery of Saint Gildas de Ruys 
 in Brittany. The work entitled "De Excidio Britanniae" 
 has been ascribed to this writer. 
 
 See Lobinkau. "Vies des Saints de Bretagne." 
 
 Gil'do or Gil'don, a Mauritanian chief, son of Nabal, 
 was raised by the emperor Theodosius to the chief com- 
 mand in Africa. In the quarrel between Arcadius and 
 Honorius he sided with the former, for which he was 
 declared a public enemy by the Romans. His army was 
 soon after defeated by the Roman forces under Mascezel, 
 andGildo, being imprisoned, destroyed himself, (398 A.L>.) 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Gil'don, (Ciiari.es,) an English writer and actor, 
 born in Dorsetshire in 1665. He published "The Deist's 
 Manual," (1705,) "The Complete Art of Poetry," and 
 several dramas. "His memory is still preserved," says 
 Macaulay, "not by his own voluminous works, but by 
 two or three lines in which his stupidity and venality 
 have been contemptuously mentioned by Pope." Died 
 in 1723. 
 
 See Leland, "Deistical Writers;" Cibiiek, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Giles. See /Eg mi us. 
 
 GileS, jlls, (HENRY,) a Unitarian minister and writer, 
 born in Wexford county, Ireland, in 1809, emigrated to 
 the United States about 1840. Among his work! are 
 " Lei lures and Essays," (2 vols., 1845,) and "Christian 
 Thoughts on Life," (1850.) He has lectured extensively 
 in the United States. 
 
 Giles, jTlz, (Rev. John A.,) an English editor and 
 historian, born about 1802. He published a number of 
 valuable works, among which are a "Greek-and-English 
 Lexicon," (1846,) a "History of the Ancient Britons," 
 (2 vols., 1847,) and "The Life and Times of Alfred the 
 Great," (2d edition, 1854.) He edited the "Entire 
 Works of the Venerable Bede," (12 vols., 1843-44.) 
 
 Giles, (William Branch,) an American statesman 
 and orator, born in Amelia county, Virginia, in 1762. 
 He was educated at Hampden-Sidney College and at 
 Princeton. In 1790 he was elected a representative to 
 Congress by the Federal party, but soon became a I )emo- 
 crat. He made in 1793 a violent attack on Hamilton, 
 then secretary of the treasury, and offered resolutions 
 censuring him for an undue assumption of power ; but 
 these were not adopted by the House. He vigorously 
 opposed Jay's treaty with England in 1796. Having 
 retired from Congress in 1798 to accept a seat in the 
 Virginia legislature, he co-operated with Madison in 
 procuring the passage of the celebrated resolutions of 
 •798 against the alien and sedition laws. He was again 
 a representative in Congress in 1801-2, and in 1804 was 
 elected to the United States Senate. In this body he 
 continued to be one of the ablest supporters of the ad- 
 ministrations of Jefferson and Madison until 181 1 or 1812, 
 when he took sides with the opposition. He retired 
 from the Senate in 1815. In 1825 he was again a can- 
 didate for re-election, but was defeated by John Randolph. 
 He was chosen Governor of Virginia in 1827. In 1829 
 the famous Constitutional Convention met ; and, though 
 Governor of the State, he served as a delegate, and took 
 a conspicuous part in its deliberations. Died in 1830. 
 
 " Mr. Giles," says Senator Benton, " was considered by 
 Mr. Randolph to be in our House of Representatives 
 what Charles Fox was admitted to be in the British 
 House of Commons, — the most accomplished debater 
 that his country had ever seen. But their acquired 
 advantages were very different: Fox was a ripe scholar, 
 Giles neither read nor studied ; Fox perfected himself 
 in the House, speaking on every subject, Giles out of 
 the House, talking to everybody. 
 
 See Benton's "Thirty Years' View," etc. 
 
 Giles de Corbeil. See /Egidius Corboliensis. 
 
 Giles of Viterbo. See /Egidius of Viterbo. 
 
 Gil-fil'lan, (Rev. George,) a Scottish writer, born in 
 Perthshire iff 1813. He published in 1845 h'S "Gallery 
 of Literary Portraits," which was favourably received, 
 and was followed by a second and a third series in 1849 
 and 1855. Among his other works are "The Book of 
 British Poesy, Ancient and Modern," "The Martyrs, 
 Heroes, and Bards of the Scottish Covenant," and 
 "The Bards of the Bible." "Gilfillan is sometimes 
 happy in his metaphors and apt in his allusions, but is 
 more likely to be extravagant in the one and grotesque 
 in the other." (Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors.") 
 
 Gilfillan, (Robert,) a Scottish poet, born at Dunferm- 
 line about 1798. He wrote songs and other poems, (4th 
 edition, 1851.) Died in 1850. 
 
 See a " Memoir of the Author," prefixed to the edition of his 
 poems, 1851; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen. 
 
 Gilianez,zhe-le-a'n£z, or Gilles-Anes, a Portuguese 
 navigator, who made discoveries on the west coast of 
 Africa about 1435. 
 
 Gilibert, zhe le'baiR', (Jean Immanuel.) a French 
 physician and naturalist, born at Lyons in 1741. He 
 planted a botanic garden at Grodno about 1775, and 
 returned to Lyons in 1783. He published, besides Other 
 works, "Medical Anarchy," (" L'Anarchie medicinale," 
 3 vols., 1772,) which was commended by llalkr, "Flora 
 Lithuanica," (1781,) a " History of the Plants of Europe, 
 or Elements of Practical Botany," (2 vols., 1798,) and an 
 " A bridgment of the Natural System of Linnaeus," (i8c2.) 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 See J. Moi.i.kt, "filcice historique de J. E. Gilibert," 1816 : 
 Qukhako. "La France l.ittcraire." 
 
 Gilimer. See Gei.imer. 
 
 Gilj or Gilii, jee'le-ee or jel'yee, (Filippo Luigi,) an 
 Italian astronomer and botanist, born at Corneto in 1756, 
 was director of the observatory founded by Gregory XIII. 
 Died at Rome in 1821. 
 
 i;ca»j; %harj; gas/;G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; tL,trill<a';iasi; thas \nthis. (Jf^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 eas 
 
GILKENS 
 
 1034 
 
 GILMAN 
 
 Gilkens, liil'kens, (Peter,) a jurist and legal writer, 
 born at Kuremond, Netherlands, about 1558. 
 
 •Gill, (Rev. Alexander,) an English scholar and 
 theologian, born in Lincolnshire in 1564. He was the 
 author of " Sacred Philosophy of the Holy Scriptures," 
 and of several educational works. Died in 1635. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena Oxonienses." 
 
 Gill, (Alexander,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 in London in 1597. He became usher, and afterwards 
 head-master, of Saint Paul's School. Among his pupils 
 was the poet Milton, who in some of his letters has 
 expressed much esteem for him. Died in 1642. 
 
 Gill, (John,) an English Baptist divine, of great learn- 
 ing, born at Kettering, Northamptonshire, in 1697. He 
 was well versed in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. In 1719 
 he settled in London, as pastor of a congregation at 
 Horsleydown, where he preached for fifty years. He 
 published an "Exposition of the New Testament," (3 
 vols., 1746-48,) and an "Exposition of the Old Testa- 
 ment," (6 vols., 1748-63,) which are highly esteemed by 
 the Baptists. Among his numerous other works is "A 
 Body of Doctrinal and Practical Divinity," (3 vols., 1769 
 -70.) Died in 1771. 
 
 See "Life of Gill," prefixed to his " Exposition of the Bible," 1809. 
 
 Gille. zhel, (Charles Eug£ne,) a French lyric poet 
 and dramatist, born in Paris in 1820, published "The 
 Barber of Pezenas," a comedy, and a number of popular 
 songs. He committed suicide in 1856. 
 
 Grilles, zhel, (Jean,) a French musical composer, born 
 at Tarascon in 1669; died in 1705. 
 
 Gilles, (Nicole,) a French historian, who was skrS- 
 taire-controleur of the treasury in the reign of Charles 
 VIII. He wrote "Annals of France," a work of some 
 merit, often reprinted. . Died in 1503. 
 
 Gilles, (Pierre,) a French naturalist, born at Albi in 
 1490. He travelled in the Levant for scientific purposes. 
 " He was one of the first in France," says Weiss, " who 
 cultivated natural history with success." ("Biographie 
 Universelle.") He published, in Latin, a work " On the 
 Nature of Animals," (1533,) consisting chiefly of trans- 
 lations from /Elian, a "Treatise on the Antiquities of 
 Constantinople," (1561,) and other works. Died at Rome 
 in '555- 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Gilles, zhel, (Pierre,) a Swiss Protestant minister, 
 born about 1570, wrote a " History of the Church of 
 the Vaudois," (1644.) 
 
 Gilles de Colonne. See Colonna, (Egidio.) 
 
 Gilles de Delft. See Delphus. 
 
 Gil-les'pie, (George,) a Scottish Presbyterian theo- 
 logian, who was one of the commissioners sent to the 
 Assembly of Westminster in 1643. He published "Treat- 
 ises of Miscellaneous Questions," (1649,) "The Ark of 
 the Testament Opened," (2 vols., 1661-77,) a "d other 
 works. Died in 1648. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gillespie, (Thomas,) a Scottish Presbyterian minis- 
 ter, born near Edinburgh about 1708. He founded, about 
 1750, a sect called the " Synod of Relief." Died in 1774. 
 
 ■Gil-lSs'pie, (William Mitchell,) LL.D., an Ameri- 
 can engineer and writer, born in New York in 1816. 
 He graduated at Columbia College in 1834, and became 
 professor of civil engineering in Union College at Sche- 
 nectady in 1845. His principal work is " Roads and 
 Railroads: a Manual for Road-Making," (1845,) sa ' ( l 
 to be one of the best treatises on the subject in the 
 English language, (7th edition, 1854.) Died in 1868. 
 
 Gillet, zhe'l£', (Nicolas Francois,) a French sculp- 
 tor, born in 1709. He worked in Saint Petersburg, 
 returned to France about 1778, and died in 1791. 
 
 Gilli, jel'lee, or Gilj, (Filippo Salvator,) an Italian 
 Jesuit and missionary, born near Spoleto in 1721. He 
 spent twenty-five years in South America, and published 
 after his return "The Natural, Civil, and Sacred History 
 of the Spanish Provinces in South America," which was 
 esteemed one of the best works that had been written 
 on those countries until Humboldt's Travels appeared. 
 Died in 1789. 
 
 GilTies, (John,) a Scottish historian, born at Brechin, 
 in Forfarshire, in January, 1747. He published in 1778 
 
 his translation of the Orations of Lysias and Isocrates. 
 The first part of his principal work, "The History of 
 Ancient Greece and its Colonies," (2 vols. 4to,) came 
 out in 1786, and in 1793 he succeeded Dr. Robertson as 
 royal historiographer of Scotland. He afterwards pub- 
 lished his " History of the World from the Reign of 
 Alexander to that of Augustus," (2 vols., 1807-10,) which 
 is a continuation of his History of Greece. He died at 
 Clapham, near London, in 1836. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionaryof Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement;) " Nouvelle Biographie G«Sne>ale." 
 
 Gillies, (Robert Pierce,) a Scottish writer, favour- 
 ably known by his translations from the German. He 
 lived near Edinburgh, and was a friend of Sir Walter 
 Scott and of Wordsworth the poet. He was the first 
 editor of the "Foreign Quarterly Review," and author 
 of various works, among which are " Childe Alarique," 
 a poem, and autobiographic " Memoirs of a Literary 
 Veteran," (3 vols., 185 1.) 
 
 See Prescott's " Miscellanies," p. 180. 
 
 Gill'more, (Quincy Adams,) an American general, 
 born in Lorain county, Ohio, about 1825, graduated at 
 West Point in 1849. He gained the rank of captain in 
 
 1861, and that of brigadier-general of volunteers early in 
 
 1862. He displayed skill as an engineer by the capture 
 of Fort Pulaski in April, 1862, and was appointed com- 
 mander of the department of the South in June, 1863. 
 He made a successful attack on the enemy's fortified po- 
 sition on Morris Island in July, began to bombard Fort 
 Sumter and Charleston in August, and took Fort Wag- 
 ner in September, 1863. Fort Sumter was reduced to a 
 ruinous condition ; but its garrison continued to hold it 
 until February 17, 1865. He also damaged Charleston 
 by batteries about four and a half miles distant from that 
 city. He commanded the tenth corps in the operations 
 against Petersburg and Richmond in the summer of 1864. 
 He was appointed a brevet major-general of the regular 
 army in March, 1865. 
 
 See Reid, "Ohio in the War," 1868; Greeley, "American 
 Conflict." 
 
 Gillot, zhe'yo', (Claude,) a French designer and 
 engraver, born at Langres in 1673, was the master of 
 Watteau. He was most successful in etching. His com- 
 positions are chiefly burlesque. Died in Paris in 1722. 
 
 See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Gillot, (Jacques,) a French scholar, born at Langres 
 about 1550. He was a friend of Scaliger and Casaubon, 
 and one of the authors of the celebrated "Satire Menip- 
 pee," which contributed greatly to the success of Henry 
 IV. against the League. He wrote "Letters to Joseph 
 Scaliger," which were printed. Died in 1619. 
 
 See Maimbourg, " Histoire de la Ligue," vol. iii. 
 
 Gill'ray, (James,) a celebrated English caricaturist, 
 born about 1750, excelled both in drawing and engraving. 
 The satire of his caricatures was directed against social 
 and political abuses ; but he was frequently extravagant, 
 and indulged in too great personalities. Died in 1815. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. i., second series, 1853. 
 
 Gilly, zhe'ye', (Jacques Laurent,) a French general 
 of division, born in Languedoc in 1769; died in 1829. 
 
 Gil'ljr, (William Stephen,) an English writer, born 
 about 1790, was canon of Durham and vicar of Norham. 
 He published "The Spirit of the Gospel," (1818,) "Ex- 
 cursion to the Mountains of Piedmont and Researches 
 among the Vaudois," (1824,) "Second Visit, or Walden- 
 sian Researches," (1831,) and other works. Died in 1855. 
 
 Gil'man, (Caroline,) an American authoress, wife 
 of the Rev. Samuel Gilman, was born in Boston in 1794. 
 Among her most popular works are " Recollections of a 
 New England Housekeeper," and "Recollections of a 
 Southern Matron." She has also published "Oracles 
 for Youth," (1854,) "Sibyl, or New Oracles from the 
 Poets," (1854,) and "Jairus's Daughter." 
 
 See Griswoi.d's " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Gilman, (John Taylor,) an American Governor, 
 born at Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1759. He was a 
 member of the Continental Congress in 1782 and 1783, 
 and became treasurer of his State in the latter year. 
 In 1797 he was elected Governor of New Hampshire 
 by the Federalists. He was re-elected annually until 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; si, e, I, o, ii, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t ; good; moon; 
 
GILMAN 
 
 1035 
 
 GIOBERT 
 
 1807, was a very popular Governor, and filled the same 
 office in 1813, 1814, and 1S15. Died in 1828. 
 
 Oilman, (Samuel,) D.D., an American divine and 
 author, born in Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 1791, 
 graduated at Harvard in 181 1. He was pastor of a 
 Unitarian church in Charleston, South Carolina, from 
 1819 until his death. Among his works are " Memoirs 
 of a New England Village Choir," (1829,) and a poem 
 called " The History of a Ray of Light." Died in 1858. 
 
 Gil'mer, (Thomas W.,) a Virginian politician and 
 member of Congress. He was appointed secretary of 
 the navy by President Tyler, and was killed by the 
 explosion of a large gun on the steamer Princeton in 
 February, 1844. 
 
 Gil'pin, (Bernard,) an excellent English divine, born 
 in Westmoreland in 1517. He was appointed one of the 
 first professors of Christ Church College soon after it 
 was founded by Henry VIII. He was educated in the 
 Catholic faith ; but he was subsequently converted to 
 Protestantism, and, soon after the accession of Queen 
 Mary, visited France and Holland. Returning to Eng- 
 land in 1556, he was appointed Archdeacon of Durham 
 and rector of Houghton-le-Spring, in the county of 
 Durham, during the reign of Mary. The' reformation he 
 effected among the lawless borderers of this region, and 
 his bold denunciations of the wickedness of the times, 
 obtained for him the name of "the Apostle of the North." 
 He refused the bishopric of Carlisle, offered him by Queen 
 Elizabeth, preferring to remain at Houghton, where he 
 thought his labours were most needed. Died in 1583. 
 
 See Wm. Gilpin, "Life of Bernard Gilpin," 1753; G. Carle- 
 ton, " Vita Bern. Gilpini," 1628. 
 
 Gil'pin, (Henry D.,)an American lawyer and classical 
 scholar, born in Philadelphia in 1801. He graduated at 
 the University of Pennsylvania in 1819, was admitted to 
 the bar in 1822, and soon became distinguished as an 
 able lawyer. In 1840 he was made attorney-general of 
 the United States. He edited the papers of James 
 Madison, (3 vols. 8vo, 1840.) Died in i860. 
 
 See "Memorial of Henry D. Gilpin," i860; Alliuone, "Dic- 
 tionary of Authors." 
 
 Gilpin, (Richard,) an English nonconformist minis- 
 ter, born in Cumberland about 1625. He published a 
 "Treatise of Satan's Temptations," (1677.) Died in 1699. 
 
 Gilpin, (Sawrey,) an English painter, brother of 
 William Gilpin, noticed below, was born at Carlisle in 
 1733. His favourite subjects were horses and other 
 animals, which he painted with extraordinary fidelity. 
 Among his master-pieces are a "Group of Tigers," and 
 the "Horses of Diomede." Died in 1807. 
 
 See Bryan, " Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Gilpin, (Rev. William,) a distinguished English 
 author, born at Carlisle in 1724. He taught a school at 
 Cheam, in Surrey, until one of his pupils — Colonel Mit- 
 ford, the historian — procured for him the living of Boldre, 
 in Hampshire. He was the author of many valuable and 
 well-written works, among which are a " Life of Bernard 
 Gilpin," (1753,) a "Life of Wickliff," (1765,) a "Life of 
 Cranmer," (1784,) and " Essays on Picturesque Beauty," 
 etc. He described and illustrated the picturesque scenery 
 of England in a series of works, with plate* finely en- 
 graved by himself. Died in 1804. 
 
 Gil Vicente, zheel or zhel ve-sen'ta, an eminent Por- 
 tuguese dramatist, born at Barcellos in 1485. He was 
 patronized by King John III., who, it is said, often per- 
 formed parts in his comedies. He was himself an actor, 
 and his daughter Paula was esteemed the first Portuguese 
 actress of her time. Gil Vicente's works enjoyed a Eu- 
 ropean reputation, and Erasmus is said to have learned 
 Portuguese for the sole purpose of reading his comedies. 
 He wrote nearly a century before Lope de Vega and Shak- 
 speare, and probably did more than any other to build up 
 the modern drama. His compositions include tragedies, 
 comedies, and farces ; also autos, or religious pieces for 
 Christmas festivals. Among his best comedies are "The 
 Judge of Beyra," and the " Portuguese Kidalgo." Died 
 in 1557. 
 
 See LoNGren.ow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Barwisa 
 Machado, "BibliothecaLusitana;" Bouterwek, "Litte'raturc E»- 
 pagnole et Portugaise;" " Nouvell* Biographic Generate," (under 
 Vicente.^ 
 
 Gil y Zarate, Hel e thl-ri'ta, (Don Antonio,) a 
 Spanish dramatist, born in 1793 at the Escurial, where 
 his parents resided as court actors. He brought out in 
 1835 his tragedy of " Dona Blanca de Borbon," which 
 was favourably received, and was soon followed by 
 another, entitled "Carlos II. el Hechizado," which es- 
 tablished his reputation. Among his other dramas we 
 may name " Rosamunda," and "Guzman el Bueno:" 
 the latter is esteemed his best piece. Zarate filled sev- 
 eral offices under the government, and was appointed 
 professor of history at Madrid, and a member of the 
 Spanish Academy. 
 
 Gimignano, je-men-ya'no, or Geminiani, ja-me-ne- 
 a'nee, (Giacinto,) an Italian painter, born at Pistoia in 
 161 1, studied under Pietro da Cortona. His principal 
 works are frescos in the Lateran at Rome and the 
 Niccolini palace at Florence. Died in 1681. His son 
 Lodovico (1644-97) was a painter of some merit. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Gitnma, jem'ma, (Giacinto,) an Italian writer, born 
 at Bari in 1668; died in 1735. 
 
 Ginani, je-na'nee, or Zinani, dze-na'nee, (Gabriel,) 
 an Italian poet, born at Reggio about 1560. Among his 
 works is "Amerigo," (1590,) which Tiraboschi ranked 
 with the best Italian tragedies of the sixteenth century. 
 Died about 1635. 
 
 Ginani, (Giuseppe,) Count, an Italian naturalist, 
 born at Ravenna in 1692. He made a valuable collection 
 of plants, shells, and other objects of natural history, on 
 which he wrote several treatises. Died in 1753. 
 
 Gines or Ginez. See Sepulveda. 
 
 Ginguene, zhSN'geh-na', (Pierre Louis,) an eminent 
 French critic and litterateur, born at Rennes in 1748. 
 He became a resident of Paris in 1772. On the breaking 
 out of the Revolution he favoured the republican cause, 
 but always showed himself a friend to moderation. He 
 was appointed in 1795 director-general of the commission 
 of public instruction, and in 1798 was ambassador to the 
 King of Sardinia. On his return he obtained, in 1799 
 or 1800, a seat in the Tribunat, from which, however, 
 he was soon dismissed, on account of his opposition to 
 the acts of Bonaparte. He now abandoned politics, and 
 became a contributor to the " Literary History of France," 
 which had been begun by the Benedictines. His greatest 
 work, the " Literary History of Italy," (9 vols., 1810-24,) 
 was left by him incomplete, and was continued by SanS. 
 Ginguene was the author of a poem of great merit, 
 entitled "The Confession of Zulme," and contributed 
 numerous notices of Italian writers to the "Biographie 
 Universelle." Died in Paris in November, 1816. 
 
 See "Notice sur Ginguene"," by Sai.fi, appended to the " His- 
 toire lilteraire d'ltalie," tome x. ; Dacier, " E*loge de Ginguene" ;" 
 D. J. Gahat, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de P. L. Gin- 
 gueneV' 1817; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieYale;" "London Quar- 
 terly Review" for April, 1814. 
 
 Gin'kel or Ginkell, van, (Godard or Godart,) 
 sometimes written Ginkle, Earl of Athlone, a Dutch 
 general of great ability, born at Utrecht, or in Gelder- 
 land, about 1630. He had attained the rank of general 
 when he accompanied the Prince of Orange to England, 
 (1688.) He served at the battle of the lioyne, (1690,) and 
 was appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland in 1691. 
 He took Athlone, gained a decisive victory over the 
 Irish at Aghrim in July, 1691, and completed the sub- 
 jection of the island before the end of that year. He 
 was rewarded with the title of the Earl of Athlone in 
 1692. He commanded the Dutch cavalry in Flanderi 
 in 1695 and 1696. "Ginkel was one of the bravest and 
 ablest officers of the Dutch army," says Macaulay. In 
 1702 he obtained command of the Dutch troops under 
 Marlborough. He died at Utrecht in 1703, leaving two 
 sons. 
 
 See Macaulay's " History of England," vol. iv. 
 
 Giobert, jo-b&Rt', (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 chemist, lx>rn near Asti in 1 761. He was the first in 
 Italy to propagate the doctrines of Lavoisier, and he 
 marie some reforms or innovations in agriculture. Ir. 
 1800 he became professor of rural economy at Turin. 
 He published "Annals of Rural Economy," (3 vols., 
 1793,) 'and other works. Died in 1834. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge"nerale." 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; 3 as %; th as in this. (jy^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
G 10 BERT! 
 
 1036 
 
 GIORGIONE 
 
 Gioberti, jo-beVtee, (Vincenzo,) an eminent Italian 
 philosopher and patriotic statesman, born at Turin in 
 April, i8ot. He graduated at the University of Turin, 
 where in 1825 he was appointed professor of theology. 
 In 1831 he became chaplain to the king, Charles Albert ; 
 but, being soon after accused of favouring the liberal 
 party, he was first imprisoned, and subsequently exiled. 
 He resided more than ten years in Brussels, where he 
 wrote his "Theory of the Supernatural," ("Teoria del 
 Sopranaturale," 1838,) and "Introduction to the Study 
 of Philosophy," ("Introduzione alio Studio della Filo- 
 sofia," 1839.) In 1843 he published his "Civil and 
 Moral Supremacy of the Italians," (" II Primato civile 
 e morale degli Italiani,") in which he advocates the 
 restoration of the greatness of Italy, through a reformed 
 papacy, a constitutional monarchy, and moderate free- 
 dom of the press. This work was received with enthu- 
 siasm by his countrymen, with the exception of the 
 Jesuits, several of whom replied to it. His " Modern 
 Jesuit," ("Gesuita moderno,") which appeared in 1847, 
 caused a great sensation, and the expulsion of the Jesuits 
 from Italy was soon after decreed by the pope. Gio- 
 berti's return to Turin in 1848 was celebrated by the 
 Italians with the liveliest demonstrations of joy, and 
 he was chosen soon after president of the Chamber of 
 Deputies. The same year he was appointed minister 
 of public instruction, and afterwards placed at the head 
 of the ministry as president of the council. Owing to 
 disagreement with his colleagues, he resigned this post 
 in February, 1849. He died in Paris in October, 1851 
 or 1852, having previously published a treatise "On 
 the Civil Renovation of Italy," (1851,) which was very 
 favourably received. He was an eloquent and powerful 
 writer and orator. 
 
 See Cruger, " Esquisses Italiennes ;" G. Massari, " Vita di V. 
 Gioberti," 1848, (translated into French, Brussels, 1853;) Cerise, 
 "V. Gioberti," Paris, 1853; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neiale." 
 
 Giocondo, jo-kon'do, [Lat. Jocun'dus,] (Fra Gio- 
 vanni,) a celebrated architect and antiquary, born at 
 Verona about 1435. He became in 1494 professor of 
 the ancient languages in his native city, and numbered 
 among his pupils J. C. Scaliger. Being invited to Paris 
 by Louis XII. in 1499, he built the bridge of Notre- 
 Dame, which is regarded as one of the finest of that 
 time. He was afterwards employed by the Venetians to 
 superintend the turning off the waters of the Brentafrom 
 the lagunes of Venice. He was subsequently commis- 
 sioned by Pope Leo X. to assist Raphael and San Gallo 
 in the building of Saint Peter's Church. Giocondo had 
 made a very large and valuable collection of ancient 
 inscriptions, which he presented to Lorenzo the Mag- 
 nificent. Died about 1537. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc.; Quatremere de 
 Quincv, " Dictionnaire d'Architecture." 
 
 Gioeni, jo-a'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian naturalist, 
 barn at Catana in 1747. He published in 1790 a "Treat- 
 ise on the Lithology of Vesuvius," ("Saggio di Litologia 
 Vesuviana.") Died in 1822. 
 
 Gioffredo, jof-fRa'do, (Mario Gaetano,) an able 
 architect, born at Naples in 1718. He was employed by 
 the government at Naples, and received the title of chief 
 architect. Among his works are the church of Spirito 
 Santo, and the Palazzo Campolieto. He published a 
 "Treatise on Architecture," (1768.) Died in 1785. 
 
 See N. A. Carlini, "Elogium M. G. Gioffredi," 1785. 
 
 Gioffredo, (Pietro,) an Italian historian, born at 
 Nice in 1629. He wrote " A History of Nice," in Latin, 
 (1658,) and a "Description of the Maritime Alps." 
 Died in 1692. 
 
 Gioja, jo'ya, (Fi.avio,) an Italian navigator, born 
 near Amalfi about 1300. The invention of the mariner's 
 compass has been erroneously ascribed to him. 
 
 See Klaproth, "Lettre sur 1'Invention de la Boussole," Paris, 
 1834. 
 
 Gioja, (Melchiorre,) an eminent Italian political 
 economist, born at Piacenza in 1767. He advocated the 
 republican form of government in an essay which ob- 
 tained a prize in 1796, and was appointed director of the 
 bureau of statistics at Milan about 1803. He expressed 
 his preference of the French regime in his work entitled 
 "The French, Germans, and Russians in Lombardy," 
 
 ("I Francesci, i Tedeschi, i Russi in Lombardia," 1805.) 
 He published an important work on political economy, 
 called " New View of the Economic Sciences," (" Nuovo 
 Prospetto delle Scienze economiche," 6 vols., 1S15-19.) 
 Among his other remarkable works are a "Treatise on 
 Merit and Rewards," (1819,) and "The Philosophy of 
 Statistics," (2 vols., 1826.) "M. Gioja," says Silvio 
 Pellico, "was the most eminent thinker that the eco- 
 nomical sciences have had in Italy in modern times." 
 Died at Milan in 1829. 
 
 See Ti pa loo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" Giuseppe Sac- 
 Chi, " Menioria sulla Vita di M. Gioja," 1829; F. Bettini, "Cenni 
 intorno alia Vita ed alle Opere di M. Gioja," 1843. 
 
 Giolfiiio,jol-fee'no, orGolfino,gol-fee'no,(NiccoL6,) 
 an Italian painter, born at Verona, lived about 1475. 
 
 Giolito de' Ferrari, jo-lee'to di fer-ra/ree, (Gabri- 
 ELE,) a distinguished Venetian printer, whose works are 
 remarkable for the beauty of their typography. He was 
 ennobled by the emperor Charles V. Died in 15S1. 
 
 Giordaui, joR-da'nee, (Vitale,) a Neapolitan mathe- 
 matician, born at Bitonto in 1633. He became professor 
 of mathematics in the College di Sapienza, at Rome. 
 Died in 171 1. 
 
 Giordano, JpR-da'no, (Luca,) surnamed Fa Presto, 
 an eminent Italian painter, born at Naples in 1632, was 
 a pupil of Ribera, (Spagnoletto.) He afterwards studied 
 under Pietro da Cortona at Rome, and was distinguished 
 for the skill and rapidity with which he copied the works 
 of the great masters. His father, who was very covetous, 
 was constantly urging him to haste, from which he ob- 
 tained the sobriquet of Fa Presto, (" Make I laste.") An 
 anecdote is often told of him, that, when painting a pic- 
 ture of the Saviour and the Apostles, his father, called 
 him to dinner: "Luke, come down instantly: the soup 
 is getting cold." "1 am at your service," he replied: 
 "I have only to make the twelve Apostles." He has 
 been called " the Proteus of Painting," from his admirable 
 imitations of the works of other artists. Being invited 
 to Spain in 1679 by Charles II., he adorned the Escurial 
 with frescos, which rank among his master-pieces. His 
 other principal works are the grand altar-piece in the 
 church of the Ascension at Naples, and a number of 
 frescos at Rome and Florence. Critics, while admitting 
 the wonderful versatility of his genius, deny to him the 
 highest rank in his art, since he never reaches the 
 sublime. Died in 1705. 
 
 See Stirling, "Annals of the Artists of Spain ;" Lanzi, "His- 
 tory of Painting in Italy:" Bei.i.ori, " Vite de' Pittori ;" Nagi.rr, 
 "Neues Allgenieines ICunstler-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gener.ile." 
 
 Giordano, (Sofia,) an Italian portrait-painter, born 
 at Turin in 1779; died in 1829. 
 
 Giorgi, joR'jee, (Alessa.ndro,) an Italian scholar and 
 Latin poet, born at Venice in 1747; died in 1779. 
 
 Giorgi, (Antonio Agostino,) an Italian monk and 
 linguist, born near Rimini in 171 1. He wrote a work 
 on the grammar, religion, and history of Thibet, entitled 
 "Alphabetum Thibetanum," (1762.) "His erudition," 
 says the "Biographie Universelle," "is confused, vain, 
 and mendacious." Died in 1797. 
 
 See Fontani, " Elogio del P. Giorgi," 1798. 
 
 Giorgi, (DOMENICO,) an Italian antiquary and bibli- 
 ographer, born in 1690, lived in Rome. Died in 1747. 
 
 Giorgini, joR-jee'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian chemist, 
 born at Carpi in 1821. He wrote several able chemical 
 works. 
 
 Giorgione, joR-jo'ni, (Giorgio Barbarelli— bar-ba- 
 rel'lee,) called Ii. Giorgione 111 Castelfranco, a cele- 
 brated painter, was born at Castelfranco, near Treviso, 
 in 1477. He is considered the founder of the Vene- 
 tian school. He was a pupil of Giovanni Bellini, and a 
 fellow-student of Titian, who became his rival. Before 
 him no one had possessed so free and firm a touch, so 
 true and rich a colouring. He continued to ennoble his 
 manner, and to present more ample outlines, more ani- 
 mated figures, and bolder foreshortenings. He was an 
 excellent portrait-painter. His pictures are rare, many 
 of his frescos having been injured by the air of Venice. 
 Among his oil-paintings are " The Concert," at Florence, 
 "Christ Allaying the Storm," at Venice, and "Moses 
 Saved from the Water," at Milan. He died at Venice 
 in 151 1, aged thirty-four. As a colorist he was equalled 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GIOSEFFO 
 
 i°37 
 
 G1RARD 
 
 only by Titian and perhaps a few artists of a later period. 
 "There have been only seven supreme colorists," says 
 Ruskin, "among the true painters whose works exist, 
 — namely, Giorgione, Titian, Veronese, Tintoret, Cor- 
 reggio, Reynolds, and Turner; but the names of great 
 designers are multitudinous." 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy;" Mrs. Jameson, " Memoirs of Early Italian 
 Painters;" Carlo Ridolfi, l * Vite degli illustri Pittori Veneti," etc., 
 a vols., 1648; Ruskin, "Modem Painters." 
 
 Gioseffo, the Italian of Tosephus, which see. 
 
 Giottino, jot-tee'no, (Tommaso di Stefano — de 
 steJ'a-no,) or Tommaso di Lapi>o, an Italian painter, 
 born at Florence in 1324. He was surnamed Giottino 
 because he imitated the manner of Giotto. He painted 
 frescos and oil-pictures, some of which are extant. Died 
 in 1356. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Giotto Angiolotto, jot'to an-jo-Iot'to, or Ambro- 
 giotto, am-bRo-jot'to, [Lat. JoCTUS,] (Bondonk,) an 
 eminent Florentine painter, bom in 1276. He studied 
 under Cimabue, whom he far surpassed in the grace of 
 his figures, harmony of colouring, and the easy flow of 
 his draperies. He. is regarded as one of the principal 
 reformers of painting in Italy, and his portraits are char- 
 acterized by a spirit and fidelity hitherto unknown since 
 the revival of arts. He was also an architect and sculp- 
 tor, and excelled in mosaics, one of which, called the 
 Navicella, in the church of Saint Peter, is esteemed his 
 master-piece. He numbered among his friends the illus- 
 trious Dante, and adorned with paintings the church of 
 Saint Francis, where the great Italian poet was buried. 
 He executed a number of historical pictures in fresco, 
 nearly all of which have been lost. His portraits of 
 Dante and Brunetto Latin! are among his best works 
 in that department. Died in 1336. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, ".History of Painting 
 in Italy;" Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters." 
 
 GiovanellL jo-va-nel'lee, (Ruggieeo,) an Italian 
 composer, born at Velletri about 1560. He succeeded 
 Palestrina as chapel-master at Saint Peter's, Pome, in 
 1594. He composed masses, motets, etc. He was living 
 in 1615. 
 
 Giovanetti, jo-va-net'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 jurist, born at Bologna; died in 1586. 
 
 Giovanetti, (Giacomo,) an eminent Italian jurist 
 and economist, born at Orta (province of Novara) in 
 1787. He wrote "On the Civil State," ("Sullo Stato 
 civile," 1809,) "On the Statutes of Novara," (" Degli 
 Statuti Novaresi," 1830,) and other works. Died in 
 1849. 
 
 Giovanni, jo-van'nee, (or John,) an Italian painter, 
 was patronized by the emperor Otho III., whose palace 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle he ornamented with paintings about 
 1000 A.n. 
 
 Giovanni, jo-van'nee, (or John,) of Udine, (oo'de- 
 na,) an Italian painter, born in 1494, was a student of 
 Raphael. He was particularly known for his pictures 
 of animals and flowers. Died in 1564. 
 
 Giovanni da Fiesole. See Fiesoi.e. 
 
 Giovanni da San Giovanni. See Manozzt. 
 
 Giovanni Pisano, jo-van'nee pe-sl'no, an Italian 
 sculptor and architect, erected the Campo Santo at Pisa 
 and the Castello del Novo at Naples. He also designed 
 and executed the monuments of three of the popes, and 
 various other works. Died in 1320. 
 
 Giovannini, jo-van-nee'nee, (Giacomo Maria,) an 
 able engraver, born at Bologna in 1667. He engraved 
 several works of Correggio. Died in 1717. 
 
 Giove, the Italian of JUPITER, which see. 
 
 Giovenazzi, jo-va-nat'see, (Vito Maria,) an Italian 
 poet, born in Apulia in 1727 ; died in Rome in 1805. 
 
 Giovene, jo'vi-na, (Giuseppe Maria,) an Italian 
 naturalist, born at Molfetta in 1753 ; died in 1837. 
 
 Giovini, jo-vee'nee, (Angei.o Aurei.io Bianchi,) 
 an able Italian historian and journalist, born at Como 
 in 1799. He published a " History of the Hebrews," 
 (1844,) a " History of the Longobards," (1848,) and other 
 works. He became editor of " L'Opinione," a Liberal 
 journal of Turin, in 1848, and of the " Unione" in 1853. 
 In 1852 he began the publication of a "History of the 
 
 Popes," of which ten or more volumes have appeared. 
 He was hostile to the papal supremacy. Died in 1862. 
 
 See " Nonvelle Iliographie GeneVale." 
 
 Giovio, jo've-o, (Benedetto,) a historian and Latin 
 poet, brother of Paolo, noticed below, was born at Como 
 in 1471 ; died in 1544. 
 
 Giovio, (Giovanni Battista,) Count, an Italian 
 writer, born at Como in 1748; died in 1814. 
 
 Giovio, [Lat. Jo'vius; Fr. Jove, zhov,] (Paolo,) a 
 celebrated Italian historian, of an ancient family, born 
 at Como in 1483. He was patronized by Leo X. and his 
 successor, Clement VII., who made Giovio Bishop of 
 Noceraand conferred upon him other distinctions. He 
 was also distinguished by the favour of Francis I. and 
 Charles V., and, having amassed a large fortune, built 
 an elegant villa on Lake Como. His principal works 
 are his "Lives of Illustrious Men," ("Elogia Virorum 
 illustriuin," (1546,) and " History of his Own Times," 
 (1550,) both written in Latin and remarkable for grace 
 and purity of style. As a historian, he cannot be relied 
 on, since he himself admits in his letters that he wrote 
 to please his patrons, and he was accustomed to say he 
 had two pens, — one of gold, the other of iron. Died at 
 Florence in 1552. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Arte historica ;" Bayle, " Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary," under Jovh ; De Thou, " Histoire univer- 
 selle;" "Nonvelle hiographie G^neYale." 
 
 Giovio, (Paolo,) [Fr. Paul Jove, pol zhov,] the 
 Younger, a Latin poet and bishop, born at Como about 
 1530, was a grandson of Benedetto, noticed above. He 
 became Bishop of Nocera in 1560, and was a member of 
 the Council of Trent. He wrote short Latin poems 
 of superior merit. Died about 1585. 
 
 Giraldi, je-ral'dee, (Cinzio Giambattista,) an Italian 
 dramatist and litterateur, born at Ferrara in 1504, was for 
 many years professor of medicine and philosophy in his 
 native city. He wrote numerous tragedies, one of which, 
 entitled " Orbecche," is esteemed one of the best dramas 
 of that time. He also published " Gli Hecatomiti," or 
 "The Hundred Novels," which acquired a wide popu- 
 larity. Died in 1573. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Giraldi,[Lat. GiRAi.'DUS,](Ln.loGREGORio,)alearned 
 Italian poet and antiquary, bom at Ferrara in 1479. He 
 lived some years in Rome, and was appointed apostolic 
 prothonotary. His chief works are a " History of the 
 Heathen Gods," (" De Diis Gentium,") a "History of 
 Greek and Latin Poets," (1545,) and critical "Dialogues 
 on the Poets of our Times," (1551.) Died in 1552. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Frizzou, 
 " De Vita et Operibus L. G. Giraldi," Venice, 1553; De Thou, 
 '■ Histoire universelle;" Niceron, " Homines illustres." 
 
 Giraldus. See Giraldi. 
 
 Gl-ral'dua Cam-bren'sis, sometimes called Giral- 
 dus de Barry, and Sylvester Giraldus, a learned 
 ecclesiastic and historian, born in Pembrokeshire, Wales, 
 about 1 146. He studied at the University of Paris, where 
 he became a proficient in rhetoric and civil and canon 
 law. After his return he was appointed one of the chap- 
 lains to Henry II., and preceptor to Prince John. Among 
 his principal works are two on the geography of Ire- 
 land and of Wales, viz. : "Topographia Hibernian" and 
 " Descriptio Cambrix." As a historian, he shows great 
 learning and research, mingled, however, with super- 
 stition. Died about 1220. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1806. 
 
 Girard, je-rard/ or He-raRt', ( Alhert, ) a Dutch 
 mathematician, wrote a "New Invention in Algebra," 
 (1629,) which Montucla called a remarkable work. Died 
 in 1634. 
 
 Girard, zhe'riV, (Alexis Francois,) a French en- 
 graver, born at Vinccnnes in 1789. Among his best works 
 is "The Three Marys at the Tomb," after Ary Scheffer. 
 
 Girard, (Balthasar.) See Gerard. 
 
 Girard, Baron, a French general, born at Geneva in 
 1750, served with distinction under Moreau on the Rhine 
 in 1796. F'or his services at Essling and Wagram, in 
 1809, he received the title of baron. Died in [all. 
 
 Girard, je-rard', [Fr. pron. zhc'rtii',] (Chari.es,) a 
 naturalist, born at Mtilhausen, France, aliout 1822, was a 
 pupil and assistant of Agassiz. He became about 1850 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as x; th as in this. (J3f~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GIRARD 
 
 1038 
 
 GIRARDIN 
 
 a resident of Washington, United States, and wrote nu- 
 merous treatises on fishes, repti'es, etc He described 
 the reptiles collected by the United States Exploring 
 Expedition. 
 
 Girard, (Gabriel,) ore of the most distinguished 
 of French grammarians, born at Clermont-en-Auvergne 
 about 1677. He was appointed royal interpreter for the 
 Russian and Sclavonic languages. His work entitled 
 "French Synonyms" (1736) was received with great 
 favour, and has taUen its place among the French classics. 
 Voltaire said, " It will subsist as long as the language, 
 and will even serve to make it subsist." Girard was 
 elected to the French Academy in 1744. Died in 1748. 
 
 See D'Alembert, " Etoges des Acade^niciens." 
 
 Girard, (Gregoire,) called Pere Girard, a Swiss 
 teacher, born at Freyburg in 1765. He wrote several 
 treatises on education, one of which, called "Educational 
 Course of the Mother-Tongue," ("Cours educatif de la 
 Langue maternelle," 1840,) obtained the Montyon prize 
 of the French Academy. Died in 1850. 
 
 See E. Navii.t.e, "Notice biographique sur le Pere Girard, " 
 1850; Sevekus, "G. Girard; ein Character- und Lebensbild," 1853. 
 
 Girard, (Jean,) a French jurist and Latin poet, born 
 at Dijon in 1518; died in 1586. 
 
 Girard, (Jean,) a French veterinary physician, born 
 near Clermont-en-Auvergne in 1770. He wrote the 
 "Anatomy of Domestic Animals," (2 vols., 1807,) and 
 other valuable works. Died in 1852. 
 
 Girard, (Jean Baptiste,) a French Jesuit and popu- 
 lar preacher, born at Dole about 1680. His name ob- 
 tained a scandalous publicity by a charge of sorcery 
 and other crimes, for which he was tried and acquitted 
 in 1731. Died in 1733. 
 
 See " Details historiques sur le Pere Girard," etc., Paris, 1845. 
 
 Girard, (Jean Baptiste,) a French general, born at 
 Aulps (Var) in 1775, distinguished himself at Austerlitz 
 in 1805, became general of division in 1809, and was 
 killed at Ligny in 1815. "He was one of the most 
 intrepid soldiers of the army," said Napoleon : " he had 
 evidently the sacred fire." 
 
 Girard, (Jean de Villethierri — deh vel'te'A're',) a 
 French ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1641, WK>te many 
 excellent treatises on morals and religion. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Dupin, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs ecctesiastiques." 
 
 Girard, (Pierre Simon,) an eminent French engineer, 
 born at Caen in 1765. lie was attached to the expe- 
 dition to Egypt in 1798, and there obtained data for his 
 valuable treatise "On the Agriculture, Commerce, and 
 Industry of Egypt." He was appointed director of 
 waters at Paris by Napoleon, and admitted into the 
 Institute in 1813. He wrote many treatises on navi- 
 gable canals. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Chari.es Dupin, "Discours aux Funerailles de Girard;" 
 Boissard, " Les Hommes illustres de Calvados;" Queeard, "La 
 France Litte'raire." 
 
 GI-rard', (Stephen,) a famous merchant and banker, 
 born near Bordeaux, in France, May 24, 1750, was not 
 liberally educated. He became a cabin-boy, a mate, 
 and afterwards master, of a coasting-vessel. About 1 776 
 he settled in Philadelphia as a trader. He eventually 
 owned a fleet of merchant-vessels. When the yellow 
 fever raged in that city in 1793, he distinguished him- 
 self by his humane attentions to the sick, whom he 
 nursed in the hospitals. Having purchased the building 
 of the United States Bank, he established in 1812 a 
 private bank, with a capital of $1,200,000, which was 
 increased to $4,000,000. His bank prospered, and his 
 notes were at par when all other paper money was 
 depreciated. "It was the war of 1812," says Parton, 
 "which suspended commerce, that made this merchant 
 so enormously rich. ... He was the very sheet-anchor 
 of the government credit during the whole of that dis- 
 astrous war." Although he could sometimes act the 
 part of a benefactor to the community, it is said that he 
 never had a friend. He died, without issue, in 1831, 
 leaving property valued at about $9,000,000, and directed 
 that two millions should be applied to found a college 
 for orphan bovs, which was commenced in 1833 and 
 opened in 1848. The main building of this college is 
 considered the most admirable specimen of Grecian 
 
 architecture in America. It is one hundred and sixty- 
 nine feet long, by one hundred and eleven feet wide, and 
 is surrounded by a portico of thirty-four columns, each 
 fifty-five feet high and six feet in diameter. 
 
 See Parton, "Famous Americans of Recent Times," 1867, 
 " North American Review" for January, 1865 ; Freeman Hunt, 
 "Lives of American Merchants," vol. i. 
 
 Girard, de, deh zhe'rtR', (Philippe Henri,) a French 
 engineer and inventor, born in Vaucluse in 1775. He 
 made some improvements in the steam-engine, and, ac- 
 cording to a French biographer, produced rotary motion 
 without a working-beam, (1806.) In 1810 he invented a 
 useful machine for spinning flax, for which the jury of 
 the Exposition of National Industry awarded him a gold 
 medal in 1844. His friends claim for him the invention 
 of the steam-gun, which is also ascribed! to Perkins. 
 He invented other machines, and owned or directed 
 extensive manufactories of flax in France, Austria, and 
 Poland. Died in Paris in 1S45. 
 
 See E*mile Deschamps, "Notice biographique sur P. de Girard 
 Inventeur, etc.," 1853; Chapsal, "P. de Girard," 1853; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Girardet, zhe'rf R'di', (Abraham,) a Swiss engraver, 
 born at Locle in 1764. He engraved the "Transfigura- 
 tion," after Raphael, and the " Rape of the Sabine 
 Women," after Poussin. Died in Paris in 1823. 
 
 Girardet, (Charles,) a Swiss painter, of high repu- 
 tation, born at Locle about 1808. He called himself 
 Karl to distinguish himself from his father, Charles, 
 who was an engraver. He produced a capital picture 
 of "Protestants surprised at Meeting," (1S42,) and 
 some Swiss and Italian landscapes. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'n^rale." 
 
 Girardet, (EnouARD,)a Swiss painter of genre, and 
 engraver, a brother of the preceding, was born at Neuf- 
 chfttel in 1819. He travelled in Egypt with his brother 
 Karl, and worked in Paris. He represents Swiss scenery, 
 manners, and costumes with success. 
 
 His brother Paul, an engraver, was born in 1821. His 
 master-piece is " Washington Crossing the Delaware," 
 after Leutze. 
 
 Girardet, zhe'riR'd&', (Jean,) a French historical 
 painter, born at Luneville in 1709, received the title 
 of first painter to Stanislas, ex-King of Poland. Died 
 in 1778. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Girardi, je-rait'dee, (Michele,) an Italian anatomist, 
 born at Lhrrone, on Lake Garda, in 1 73 1. He was pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Padua and Parma. He edited a 
 magnificent edition of the "Plates of Santorini," (1775.) 
 Died in 1797. 
 
 Girardin. See Saint-Marc Girardin. 
 
 Girardin, zhe'raVdaN', (Jean Pierre Louis,) an emi- 
 nent French chemist, born in Paris in 1803, was a pupil 
 of Thenard. He became in 1828 professor of chemistry 
 applied to the arts, at Rouen. He published, besides 
 other works, "Lectures on Elementary Chemistry," 
 (1835,) which obtained two medals at Paris, "Memoirs 
 of Applied Chemistry," and a "Treatise on Agricul- 
 ture," (2 vols., 1852.) About 1858 he accepted a chair 
 at Lille. 
 
 Girardin, de, deh zhe'r5i<'diN'',(ALEXANDRF.,)CoMTE, 
 a son of Rene Louis, noticed below, born in 1776, dis- 
 tinguished himself at Austerlitz, in Spain, Russia, etc., 
 and became a general of division in 1814. Died in 1855. 
 
 Girardin, de, (Df.i.phine Gay,) a popular authoress, 
 born at Aix-la-Chapelle in January, 1804, was a daughter 
 of Sophie Gay, noticed in this work. Her verses en- 
 titled "The Sisters of Saint Camille" (1822) gained a 
 prize of the French Academy. She produced in 1824 a 
 volume of "Essais poetiques." Her beauty and esprit 
 rendered her a popular favourite. She was married to 
 Emile de Girardin in 1831, after which she wrote "The 
 Quiz," (" Le Lorgnon," 1S32,) and other romances, 
 among which is "The Cane of M. de Balzac," ("La 
 Canne de M. de Balzac," 1836.) Her reputation was 
 increased by the sparkling and charming prattle of her 
 " Lettres Parisiennes," which appeared in "La Presse" 
 from 1836 to 1848. Died in Paris in 1855. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi." February, 1831 ; La- 
 martine. "Cours familier de Literature;" "Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" for January, 1844. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, it, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon, 
 
GIRARDIN 
 
 i°39 
 
 GISBORNE 
 
 Girardin, de, (Smile,) an enterprising French jour- 
 nalist, a natural son of Count Alexandre de Girardin, 
 was born in Paris about 1804. He founded in 1831 the 
 "Journal des Connaissances utiles," and made some 
 efforts for the diffusion of cheap literature among the 
 masses. In 1836 he founded " La Presse," a daily paper, 
 (at forty francs per annum, about half the usual price,) 
 which he conducted with great ability and success until 
 1856. He killed Armand Carrel in a duel in 1836. He 
 was elected a deputy several times, and supported nearly 
 all parties in turn. The abdication of Louis Philippe is 
 ascribed to the influence of Girardin, who attempted to 
 secure the succession for the Comte de Paris. He op- 
 posed Napoleon III. after his usurpation of imperial 
 power, December, 1851. He afterwards became editor 
 of the paper " La Liberte." 
 
 See Larcher, " Emile de Girardin, son Enfance," etc., 1849 ; P. 
 Forest, " Biographie d'E\ de Girardin," 1842 ; " Nouvelle Hiogra- 
 phie GeneYale." 
 
 Girardin, de, (Ernest Stanislas,) a son of the fol- 
 lowing, was born in Paris in 1803. He became in 1848 a 
 moderate member of the Legislative Assembly. In 
 1852 he was made a senator. 
 
 Girardin, de, (Louis Stanislas Cecile Xavier,) 
 Comte, a French officer, born at Luneville in 1762, was 
 a son of Rene Louis, noticed below. He was educated 
 partly by J. J. Rousseau. As adeputyto the Legislative 
 Assembly, 1791-92, he acted with the Constitutional 
 party. He became a member of the Tribunat in 1S00, 
 and a general of brigade in the army of Joseph Bona- 
 parte in Spain about 1&8. After the restoration he 
 was a Liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies. He 
 left, besides political tracts, "Journal and Souvenirs, 
 Speeches and Opinions," (2 vols., 182S.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See Vatout, " Hommage a la Memoire de S. Girardin," 1827 ; 
 'Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Girardin, de, (Rene Louis,) Marquis, born in Paris 
 in 1 735, was a friend of the celebrated Rousseau, to whom 
 he gave a retreat on his beautiful domain of Ermenon- 
 ville. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise "On the 
 Composition of Landscapes," (1777,) which was trans- 
 lated into several languages. Died in 1808. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Girardon, zhe'r$R'd6N', ( Francois, ) an eminent 
 French sculptor, born at Troyes in 1630. He studied 
 at Rome, and after his return was distinguished by the 
 favour of Louis XIV., being successively appointed pro- 
 fessor, rector, and chancellor of the Academy of Painting 
 and Sculpture. Among his master-pieces may be named 
 the sculptures of the " Fountain of Pyramids" and the 
 four principal figures of the " Bath of Apollo" at Ver- 
 sailles, the "Mausoleum of Cardinal Richelieu," and the 
 " Rape of Proserpine." He enjoyed the friendship and 
 patronage of the great painter Le Brun. Died in 1 715. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Giraud, zhe'ro', (Charles Joseph Barthelemy,) a 
 French jurist, born at Pernes in 1802. He was minister 
 of public instruction in 1 851, soon after which he became 
 professor of Roman law in the Faculty of Paris. 
 
 Giraud, (Giovanni,) Count, a celebrated Italian 
 dramatist, of French extraction, born at Rome in 1776. 
 He produced a number of successful comedies, (4 vols., 
 1808.) The most popular of these is entitled " The Tutor 
 in a Quandary," (" L'Ajo nell' Imbarazzo," 1807.) He 
 excels in comic power and vivacity. Died in 1834. 
 
 See TlPAl.no. " Biografia degli Italiani illustri;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Giraud, (Pierre,) a French cardinal, born at Mont- 
 ferrand in 1791. He became Archbishop of Cambrai 
 in 1841, and a cardinal in 1847. Died in 1850. 
 
 See J. P. Fabrr, " Biographie du Cardinal Giraud," 1850. 
 
 Giraud, (Pierre Francois,) a French sculptor, born 
 at Luc, in Provence, in 1783, gained the grand prize in 
 1806 for his " Wounded Philoctetus." Died in 1836. 
 
 Giraud, (Pierre Francois Eugene,) a French 
 painter and engraver, born in Paris in 1806; died, 1871. 
 
 Girault de Saint-Fargeau, zhe'ro' deh sa.N'fiR'zho', 
 (Euseiie,) a French litterateur, born in Yonne in 1799. 
 He published a " Geographical and Historical Dictionary 
 of all the Communes of France," (3 vols., 1846-47,) and 
 other works, 
 
 Girault-Duvivier, zhe'ro' du've've-a', (Charles 
 Pierre,) a French grammarian, born in Paris in 1765. 
 He published an "Analysis of the Best Treatises on 
 French Grammar," (2 vols., 1 8 II,) which was approved 
 by the French Academy in 1814. Died in 1832. 
 
 Girey-Dupre, zhe'rV du'pRi', (Joseph Marie,) a 
 French Girondist, born in Paris in 1769, assisted Brissot 
 in the " Patriote Francais." He was executed in Novem- 
 ber, 1793. 
 
 Girod-Chantrans, zhe'ro' shSN'tuSN', (Justin,) a 
 French naturalist, born at Besancon in 1750; died in 
 1841. He wrote several scientific works. 
 
 Girod de l'Ain, zhe'ro' deh 14n, (Amedee,) Baron, 
 an able French advocate and legislator, born at Gex 
 (Ain) in 1781. He was elected president of the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies in 1831, and was president of the 
 council of state from 1832 until 1847. Died in 1847. 
 
 Girodet-Trioson, zhe'ro'd4' tRe'o'ziN', (Anhs 
 Louis,) a celebrated French painter, born at Montargis- 
 in 1767. He studied for a time under David, and sub- 
 sequently at Rome, where he produced his " Dream 
 of Endymion," and several other pictures. Among his 
 master-pieces we may name "Pygmalion and Galatea," 
 a " Scene from the Deluge," and "The Revolt of Cairo." 
 His works are characterized by great excellence of de- 
 sign, but they are frequently disfigured by extravagance 
 and are deficient in animation. Girodet was an officer 
 of the legion of honour, and a member of the Academy 
 of Painting. Died in 1824. 
 
 See P. A. Coupin, " Notice necrologique sur la Vie, etc. de Giro- 
 det," 1825; Quatremeke de Quincy, '• E*loge de Girodet," 1825; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Giron. See Osuna. 
 
 Giron de Loaysa, He-r6n' da lo-I'sa, (Garcias,) a 
 learned Spanish prelate, born at Talavera in 1542. He 
 became almoner to Philip II. of Spain in 1585, and 
 Archbishop of Toledo in 1598. Died in 1599. 
 
 Gironi, je-ro'nee, (Robustiano,) an Italian antiquary, 
 born near Milan in 1769; died in 1838. 
 
 Girou de Buzareingues, zhe'roo' deh bu'zS'raNg', 
 (Louis Francois Charles,) a French physiologist and 
 writer on agriculture, born in 1773'; died in 1856. 
 
 Giroust, zhe'roo', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit and 
 pulpit orator, born at Beaufort, in Anjou, in 1624; died 
 in 1689. 
 
 Girs, yfiers ?(Giles, or jEgidius,) a Swedish chronicler, 
 born in Sbdermannland about 1580, wrote a work entitled 
 "Chronicles of Gustavus I. and Eric XIV.,"("Gustaf I. 
 och Eric XIV. Chronicor," 1670.) Died in 1639. 
 
 Girtanner, ge~gR'tan'ner, (Christoph,) a Swiss phy- 
 sician, born at Saint Gall in 1760. Among his works is a 
 "Treatise on Venereal Diseases," (1794.) Died in 1800. 
 
 Gir'tin, (Thomas,) an English artist, born in 1773. 
 Among his works are a collection of " Views in Paris." 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 Giry, zhe're', (Francois,) a learned French eccle- 
 siastic and philanthropist, son of Lbuis, noticed below, 
 was born in Paris in 1635. He was the author of a 
 number of religious works. Died in 1688. 
 
 See Raffron, " Vie du P. Giry," 1691. 
 
 Giry, (Louis,) a French translator, born in Paris in 
 1595. He was a member of the French Academy. 
 Among his versions, which were received with favour, 
 were those of Plato's "Crito," Plato's "Apology for 
 Socrates," and ten books of Saint Augustine's "Civitas 
 Dei." Died in 1665. 
 
 See Pkli.isson, "Histoire del'Academie Francaise." 
 
 Gisbert, zhcs'baiR', (Blaise,) a French Jesuit and 
 pulpit orator, born at Cahors in 1657. He was the 
 author of " Christian Eloquence in Theory and Prac- 
 tice," and other works. Died in 1731. 
 
 Gisbert, (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born at Cahors in 
 1639, became professor of theology and principal of the 
 Jesuits' College at Toulouse. He was the author of a 
 work entitled " Antiprobabilismus," etc., which is eulo- 
 gized by Dupin. Died in 171 1. 
 
 See Dupi.n, " ISibliotheque des Auieurs ecclesiastiques," etc. 
 
 GiS'bprne, (Thomas,) an English divine and poet, 
 born at Derby in 1758. He became perpetual curate 
 of IS.nton-uncler-Needwood, Staffordshire, in 1783, and 
 prebendary of Durham in 1826. His principal works are 
 
 c as k; c as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as %; «h as in this, (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GISCO 
 
 1040 
 
 GIVSTINIANI 
 
 " Principles of Moral Philosophy," (1789,) " Walks in a 
 Forest, or Poems," (1794,) " Duties of the Female Sex," 
 (14th edition, 1847,) and sermons, which were com- 
 mended by Robert Hall. Died in 1846. ■ 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for June, 1846. 
 
 Gis'co, [Gr. Tiaxuv or Teaxuv; Fr. Giscon, zhes'kiN',] 
 a Carthaginian general, who commanded in Sicily in 
 338 B.C. 
 
 Gisco, a Carthaginian general, who at the end of the 
 first Punic war, 241 B.C., took command of the army in 
 Sicily. On their arrival in Africa his troops mutinied 
 and commenced the civil war called " the Inexpiable." 
 Gisco, having been sent to negotiate with the rebels, was 
 seized by them and put to death about 239 B.C. 
 
 Giseke, gee'zeh-keh, or Giesecke, (Nikoi.aus 
 Dietrich,) a German poet, born in Hungary in 1724. 
 He became court preacher at Quedlinburg, and super- 
 intendent at Sondershausen. He wrote religious and 
 lyric poems, which were favourably received. Died in 
 176=. 
 
 Giseke, (Paul Dietrich,) a German botanist and 
 physician, born at Hamburg in 1745 ; died in 1796. 
 
 Gismondi, jes-mon'dee, (Carlo Giuseppe,) an Ital- 
 ian mineralogist, born at Mentone in 1762; died in 
 1824. 
 
 Gisors, zhe'zoR', (Alphonse Henri,) born in Paris 
 in 1796, was appointed architect of the Palais du Luxem- 
 bourg in 1834. Among his works are the Normal School, 
 Paris, (1842,) and the chamber of the senate. He be- 
 came a member of the Institute. 
 
 Gl-tl'a-das, [Gr.Tmutkc,] a Lacedaemonian architect, 
 statuary, and poet, flourished about 520 B.C. He com- 
 pleted the temple of Athena Poliouchos at Sparta, and 
 adorned it with a bronze statue of the goddess. 
 
 Giudici, joo'de-chee, (Carlo Maria,) an Italian 
 painter and sculptor, born in the province of Milan in 
 1723, was the master of Andrea Appiani. Among his 
 works is a bas-relief of "Adam and Eve expelled from 
 Eden." Died in 1804. 
 
 Giulay. See Gyulai. 
 
 Giuliano, (Majano di.) See Majano. 
 
 Giulini, joo-lee'nee, (Giorgio,) an Italian historical 
 writer, born at Milan in 1 7 14. He displayed great eru- 
 dition and good judgment in a work on the mediaeval 
 history of Milan and the Milanese, " Memorie spettanti 
 alia Storia, al Governo ed alia Descrizione della Citta e 
 della Campagna di Milano ne' Secoli bassi," (9 vols., 
 1760-75.) Died in 1780. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vitze Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Giulio Romano, joo'le-o ro-ma'no, sometimes also 
 written Julio Romano, [Fr. Jules Romain, zhiil 
 ro'maN',] or Giulio Pipi, joo'le-o pee'pee, a celebrated 
 Italian painter and architect, born in Rome in 1492. He 
 was a student and intimate friend of Raphael, of whom 
 he became the principal heir. After the death of his 
 preceptor he completed several works which that great 
 artist had left unfinished. He was also employed by 
 Pope Clement VII. as architect of a palace. He was 
 liberally patronized by the Duke of Mantua, in whose 
 saloon he painted his greatest work, a representation 
 of the Giants struck by the Thunderbolts of Jupiter. 
 The designs of Giulio display great powers of invention 
 and uncommon sublimity of thought; but his colouring 
 is dry and defective. As an architect, he stood so high 
 that upon the death of San Gallo he was appointed 
 to superintend the construction of Saint Peter's at 
 Rime; but he died in 1546, before reaching that city. 
 About two hundred and fifty of Giulio's best designs 
 have been engraved, one of which is the "Triumph of 
 Titus and Vespasian." 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale," under Pippi. 
 
 Giunone. See Juno. 
 
 Giunta, joon'ta, sometimes called Zonta, dzon'ta, 
 (Filippo,) an Italian printer, born in Florence in 1450. 
 In company with his son Bernardo, he established presses 
 in Florence, Geneva, and Venice. Their editions of 
 the Greek authors were highly valued. Filippo died 
 in 1519, Bernardo in 1551. 
 
 Giunta da Pisa, joon'ta da pee'sa, a painter of the 
 Florentine school, flourished between 1210 and 1240. 
 
 He painted frescos at Pisa and Assisi. He was perhaps 
 the best artist of his epoch. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Giuntino, joon-tee'no, or Giuntini, joon-tee'nee, 
 (Francesco,) an Italian astronomer, born at Florence 
 in 1523. He became a Protestant, and settled at Lyons, 
 where he died in 1590. 
 
 Giusti, joos'tee, (Antonio,) an.Italian painter of the 
 Florentine school, born in 1624. He painted landscapes 
 and animals with success. Died in 1705. 
 
 Giusti, (Giuseppe,) an eminent Italian satiric poet, 
 born near Pescia in 1809. He published in 1835 a poem 
 " On the Death of Francis I.," which caused a great 
 sensation. This was succeeded by the " Dies Irae," 
 " Health-Drinking to the Weathercock," (" II Brindisi 
 di Girella,") "The Humanitarians," ("Gli Umanitari,") 
 and other caustic satires on the political and social vices 
 of the day. An adherent of moderate liberalism, he was 
 equally severe on the oppressors of his country and 
 on the so-called party of Young Italv. He became a 
 member of the Tuscan Chamber of deputies in 1848. 
 Giusti numbered among his friends Capponi, Manzoni, 
 and D'Azeglio. Died in 1850. 
 
 See "Giuseppe Giusti and his Times," 1864, by Susan Horner; 
 "North British Review" for November, 1864. 
 
 Giustiniani, joos -te-ne-l'nee, written also Justiniani, 
 
 (Agostino,) a learned ecclesiastic, born at Genoa in 
 1470. He was profoundly versed in biblical literature 
 and the Oriental tongues, and published an edition of 
 the Psalter in Hebrew, Greek, Arabic, and Chaldee, with 
 three Latin interpretations and glosses, being the first 
 polyglot edition of the Scriptures. He was invited to 
 Paris by Francis I., who conferred on him a pension and 
 appointed him professor of Oriental languages in the 
 university of that city. He was made Bishop of Nebbio, 
 in Corsica, in 1 5 14. He was lost at sea in 1536, while 
 going from Genoa to Corsica. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana :" Bayi.e, 
 "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" P. Giovio, " Elogia Virorum 
 illustriuin." 
 
 Giustiniani or Justiniani, (Bernardo,) a Venetian 
 statesman and historian, of a noble family, born in 1408. 
 He was employed on several important embassies, and 
 rose through various preferments to be a member of the 
 Council of Ten, and procurator of Saint Mark, the highest 
 office in the republic next to that of doge. He wrote a 
 " History of Venice," (in Latin,) which is highly valued 
 for its accuracy. It was left unfinished. Died in 1489. 
 
 See Stella, "Vita di Bernardo Giustiniani," 1553. 
 
 Giustiniani or Justiniani, (Fabian,) Bishop of 
 Ajaccio, born in Genoa about 1578; died in 1627. He 
 wrote a Biblical concordance. 
 
 Giustiniani or Justiniani, (Geronimo,) a poet, born 
 at Genoa about 1560. He wrote "Jephthah," a tragedy, 
 (1583,) and translated the "Ajax Furiosus" of Sophocles 
 into Italian, (1603.) 
 
 Giustiniani or Justiniani, (Lorenzo,) [Lat. Lau- 
 ren'tius Justinia'nus ; Fr. Laurent Justinif.n, 15'- 
 rd.N'zhiis'te'ne'aN',] Saint, first Patriarch of Venice, 
 was born at Venice in 1380. He became patriarch in 
 1451, and died in 1465, leaving many sermons and letters. 
 
 See Bernardo Giustiniani, " Sancti L. Justiniani Vita," 1475 ; 
 Johann Pktek Silbert, " Leben des heiligen L. Justiniani," 1836. 
 
 Giustiniani, (Lorenzo,) an Italian bibliographer, 
 born in 1761. He became keeper of the Royal Library of 
 Naples in 1815. Among his works are a "Geographical 
 Dictionary of the Kingdom of Naples," (13 vols., 1797 
 -1816,) and "Historical and Critical Memoirs of the 
 Royal Library (Borbonica) of Naples," (1818.) Died 
 in 1824. 
 
 Giustiniani or Justiniani, (Marcantonio,) was 
 Doge of Venice from 1684 until 1688, during which time 
 the Venetians conquered the Morea from the Turks. 
 Died in 1688. 
 
 Giustiniani or Justiniani, (Miciif.le,) born at Genoa 
 in 1612, wrote "Memorable Letters," ("Lettere memo- 
 rabili," 3 vols., 1675.) Died about 1680. 
 
 Giustiniani or Justiniani, (Orsatto,) a Venetian 
 poet and nobleman, born in 1538. He produced, besides 
 other poems, a poetical version of the " CEdipus Tyran- 
 nus" of Sophocles, (1585.) Died in 1603. 
 
 i, e, I, o, 8, y. Ions;; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, 6, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GIUSriNUNI 
 
 1041 
 
 GLANDORP 
 
 Giustiiiiani or Justiniani, (Pietro,) a Venetian 
 senator and historian. He published, in 1576, a Latin 
 "History of Venice." 
 
 Giustiiiiani or Justiniani, (Pompeio,) an Italian 
 general, born in Corsica in 1569, was appointed governor 
 or commandant of Candia by the Venetians. He was 
 killed in 1616. 
 
 Givry, de, deh zhev're', (Anne d'Anglure— d3N'- 
 gliiR',) a celebrated French captain, born about 1560, was 
 a faithful adherent of Henry IV., for whom he fought 
 against the League. He was killed at the siege of Laon 
 in 1594. 
 
 Gjallar-horn. See Heimdall. 
 
 Gjoranson, jb'ran-son, (Johan,) a Swedish divine 
 and antiquary, born about 1712; died in 1769. 
 
 Gjorwell, joR'well, (Karl Kristofer,) a Swedish 
 editor, born at Landscrona in 1731. He founded the 
 "Swedish Mercury," (1755,) and was the first who edited 
 literary and critical journals in Sweden. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See " Biographiskt-Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Glaber, gli'ber, (Rodulphe,) a French chronicler of 
 the eleventh century. He wrote a chronicle of events 
 from 900 a.d. to 1046, which is of some value. 
 
 Glabrio. See Acilius. 
 
 Gladbach, glit'b&K, (Georg Jakob,) a German 
 naturalist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1 736, wrote 
 a "Treatise on Butterflies," (1777.) Died in 1796. 
 
 Glad'den, (A. H.,) an American general, born in 
 South Carolina. He served as an officer in the Mexican 
 war, (1846-47.) Having taken arms against the Union, 
 he was killed at Shiloh in April, 1862. 
 
 Gladstone, glad'ston, (Sir John,) a British merchant, 
 born in Scotland about 1764. He became an eminent 
 citizen and successful merchant of Liverpool, which he 
 represented in Parliament. Died in 1852. 
 
 Gladstone, (The Right Hon. William Ew'art,) an 
 eminent English statesman, financier, orator, and author, 
 a younger son of the preceding, was born in Liverpool, 
 December 29, 1809. In 1831 he graduated at Christ 
 Church, Oxford, as a double first-class, — that is, with 
 the highest excellence in classics and mathematics. He 
 was elected to Parliament by the Conservatives of 
 Newark in 1832, and appointed a lord of the treasury 
 by Sir Robert Peel in December, 1834. On the acces- 
 sion of the Whigs, in April, 1835, he retired from office. 
 In 1838 he published " The State in its Relations with 
 the Church," an argument in favour of the union of 
 church and state, which, says Macaulay, " though not a 
 good book, shows more talent than many good books. 
 It contains some eloquent and ingenious passages. It 
 bears the signs of much patient thought." ("Edinburgh 
 Review" for April, 1839.) He married a daughter of 
 Sir Stephen R. Glynne in 1839. 
 
 On the formation of a new ministry by Sir Robert 
 Peel in 1841, Mr. Gladstone became vice-president of 
 the board of trade, and master of the mint. He distin- 
 
 tuished himself in this position by his financial skill and 
 nowledge of commercial affairs, and was made president 
 of the board of trade in May, 1843. He was appointed 
 secretary for the colonies in 1845, ani ^ supported Sir 
 Robert Peel in the repeal of the corn-laws in 1846. 
 
 In 1847 he was elected as representative of Oxford 
 University in Parliament. Having differed from his party 
 on several important questions, and having become iden- 
 tified with the Conservative Liberals, or Peelites, he 
 entered the coalition ministry of Lord Aberdeen, as chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer, in December, 1852. A short 
 time after the accession of Palmerston as premier, in 
 February, 1855, Mr. Gladstone resigned, with several 
 other Peelites. He co-operated with Cobden and others 
 in 1855 in their efforts to terminate the Crimean war; 
 and he strenuously opposed the Chinese war in 1857. 
 He declined to take office in the ministry of Lord Derby 
 in 1858, but accepted an embassy as commissioner to 
 the Ionian Isles in that year. in«June, 1859, he was 
 appointed chancellor of the exchequer in the cabinet of 
 Palmerston. His humane aversion to war and his par- 
 tiality for free trade and frugality inclined him to act 
 with the Liberal party and the Manchester school. He 
 is considered the greatest of British financiers, and as 
 
 mons except John Bright. His speech of four h >urs on 
 the Budget of i860 was a wonderful union of reason- 
 ing and declamation. Commenting on this speech, the 
 "London Quarterly Review" for April, i860, declares, 
 " We find ourselves in the enchanted region of pure 
 Gladstonism, — that terrible combination of relentless 
 logic and dauntless imagination. We soar into the 
 empyrean of finance. Everything is on a colossal scale 
 of grandeur, — all-embracing free-trade, abysses of deficit, 
 and mountains of income-tax." 
 
 He continued to represent Oxford University until 
 
 1865, when he was defeated by the Tory candidate. After 
 the death of Lord Palmerston he became the leader of the 
 House of Commons, and retained the office of chancellor 
 of the exchequer under Earl Russell. Russell and Glad- 
 stone introduced a bill for electoral reform, on which 
 the latter made a great speech, April 28, 1866. This 
 bill having been defeated, the ministers resigned iTi June, 
 
 1866. He advocated the disestablishment and disen- 
 dowment of the Episcopal Church of Ireland, which was 
 opposed by Disraeli and the Tories. After a long debate 
 on this measure, Gladstone's resolution was passed, by 
 a majority of sixty-five, on the 1st of May, 1868 ; but 
 Disraeli, though defeated, would not resign, and the 
 question became the chief issue in the next election. 
 The Liberal party having gained a large majority in the 
 general election of November, Mr. Gladstone became 
 prime minister, December 4, 1868. He appointed Sir 
 William Page Wood lord chancellor; Robert Lowe, 
 chancellor of the exchequer; Lord Clarendon, secretary 
 for foreign affairs ; and John Bright, president of the 
 board of trade. He brought in a bill to disestablish the 
 Irish Church, which passed the House of Commons by 
 a majority of one hundred and fourteen about May 31, 
 but was mutilated iu the House of Lords by important 
 amendments, which the Commons rejected after Mr. 
 Gladstone had made a great speech on the subject. This 
 resistance of the peers to the will of the majority of the 
 nation caused great excitement, and a dangerous crisi:; 
 seemed to be imminent; but in July, 1869, a compro- 
 mise was effected, and the bill of Mr. Gladstone, slightly 
 modified, was adopted by the House of Lords. This 
 compromise did not affect the principle of the bill, which 
 the London "Times" calls "the greatest and boldest act 
 of legislation of modern times." 
 
 Among his important publications is " Studies on 
 Homer and the Homeric Age," (3 vols., 1858.) "A more 
 attractive composition, on the one hand, so far as taste 
 and feeling are concerned, — one more unsatisfactory, on 
 the other, as a critical essay, the product of accurate 
 learning, — it is scarcely possible to imagine. Under the 
 first point of view, the volumes well deserve the great 
 admiration, not to say enthusiasm, which they nave 
 excited, especially among younger and fresher readers." 
 (" Edinburgh Review," October, 1858.) In 1869 appeared 
 his "Juventus Mundi : the Gods and Men of the Heroic 
 Age. As prime minister, Mr. Gladstone may be said 
 to be one of the most popular and influential that ever 
 ruled England. 
 
 See "The Four Reform Orators," in the "London Quarterly 
 Review" for April, 1867; J. McGilchrist, "Life of W. K. Glad- 
 stone," 1869; Samuel Smiles, "Brief Biographies:" "Loudon 
 Quarterly Review" for December, 1830; "Edinburgh Review" for 
 October, 1858; "Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1858; "British 
 Quarterly" for July, 1869. 
 
 Glafey, gla'ft, (Adam Frif.drich,) a German publi- 
 cist, born at Reichenbach in 1692, became archivist at the 
 court of Dresden in 1726. Among his works are "The 
 Kernel (Kern) of the History of Saxony," (1722,) and a 
 " History of the Law of Nature," (1739.) Died in 1753. 
 
 See Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Glaire, glaR, (Jean Baptiste,) a French theologian 
 and Orientalist, bom at Bordeaux in 1798. He became 
 professor of Hebrew at the Sorbonne in 1841, and in 
 1845 councillor of the University. He published a " He- 
 brew and Chaldee Hand-Lexicon," (1830,) an "Arabic 
 Concordance of the Koran," and other valuable works. 
 
 Glaize, gljz, (Aucuste Barthelemy,) a French 
 painter, born at Montpellier about 1812. He worked in 
 Paris, and gained a first medal in 1854. 
 
 Glandorp, glim'doRp, (Johann,) a German philolo. 
 
 an orator has probably no equal in the House of Com- ' gist, born at Minister, learned languages under Melanch 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g Hard; g as/; G, H, y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as t; th as in this. (JQ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 66 
 
GLANVIL 
 
 1042 
 
 GLEIG 
 
 thon. He became professor of history at Marburg in 
 1560, and published " Onomasticon Historian Romanae," 
 (1589,) and other works. Diet! in 1564. 
 See Reineccius, "Vita Glandorpii." 
 
 Glanvil, (Bartholomew.) See Bartholomews de 
 Glanville. 
 
 Glan'vil, (Sir John,) an able English lawyer, born 
 about 1590, was speaker of Parliament in 1640. Having 
 become a partisan of Charles I., he was imprisoned by 
 the dominant party from 1645 to 1648. He died in 1661, 
 and left "Reports of Cases of Controverted Elections." 
 
 See Prince's " Worthies of Devon." 
 
 Glanvil, (John,) an English poet, grandson of the 
 preceding, born in 1664. He made the first English 
 translation of Fontenelle's " Plurality of Worlds," and 
 published a number of poems. Died in 1735. 
 
 Glan'vil or Glan'vill, (Joseph,) an eminent English 
 divine, born at Plymouth in 1636. Having taken his de- 
 gree at Oxford University, he published in 1661 a work 
 entitled " The Vanity of Dogmatizing," in which he assails 
 the system of Aristotle. In 1665 he published his " Scep- 
 sis Scientifica," etc., a remodelling of the former treatise, 
 which is commended by Hallam. About the same time 
 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was 
 a believer in witchcraft, and published, among other 
 works, " Philosophic Considerations touching the Being 
 of Witches," etc. Died at Bath in 1680. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses;" "Retrospective Review," 
 vol. i., 1853; " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Glan'ville, de, (Ranulphus or Ralph,) an eminent 
 English lawyer, became chief justiciary of the kingdom 
 under Henry II. He is supposed to have been the author 
 of one of the earliest legal treatises that appeared in 
 England. Having accompanied Richard I. to Palestine, 
 he lost his life at the siege of Acre in 1190. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. i. 
 
 Glaph'y-ra, [Gr. VXa<j>ifia,] daughter of Archelaus, 
 King of Cappadocia, was successively married to Alex- 
 ander, son of Herod and Mariamne, Juba, King of Libya, 
 and Archelaus, son of Herod. Died 7 a.d. 
 
 Glap'thorne or Glap'thorn, (Henry,) an English 
 dramatic poet of the time of Charles I. He was the 
 author of "Albertus Wallenstein," a tragedy, "The Hol- 
 lander," a comedy, and other plays, which were popular 
 in their time. 
 
 See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica ;" "Retrospective Review," 
 vol. x., 1824. 
 
 Glareanus, gli-re-i'nus, (Henricus Loritus,) a 
 Swiss poet, musician, and scholar, born at Glarus in 
 1488, was a friend of Erasmus. In 1512 he was crowned 
 as poet-laureate by the emperor Maximilian. He founded 
 a school for belles-lettres at Friburg, in Brisgau, and 
 acquired a high reputation by his vast erudition. Among 
 his chief works are " Annotationes in Titum Livium," 
 (1540,) and a valuable treatise on music, entitled "Dode- 
 cachordon," (1547.) Died at Friburg in 1563. 
 
 See H. Schreider, " H. L. Glareanus, gekronter Dichter," etc., 
 1837: Erasmus, "Epistolae XVIII.;" M. Adam, "Vitas Philoso- 
 phorum Germanorum;" G. Vossius, "De Scientiis Mathematicis." 
 
 Glaser, gli'zer, (Christoph,) a Swiss chemist, born 
 at Bale, was apothecary to Louis XIV. of France. He 
 published a "Treatise on Chemistry," (1663,) which was 
 often reprinted. 
 
 See F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Glaser, gla'zer, (Johann Friedrich,) a German phy- 
 sician and chemist, born in 1707; died in 1789. 
 
 Glass or Glas, (John,) a Scottish clergyman, born in 
 Fifeshire in 1695, is noted as the founder of a sect called 
 Glassites. For his opposition to some of the principles 
 of the Church of Scotland, he was deprived of his bene- 
 fice in 1728. His sect were afterwards called Sande- 
 manians. Died in 1773. He left works published in 4 
 vols., 1762. 
 
 See Chambers," Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Glass, (John,) a son of the preceding, born at Dundee 
 in 1725. He became captain of a merchant-ship, and 
 on a voyage from Brazil to London was murdered by 
 his crew, in 1765. He left a "Description of Teneriffe. ' 
 
 Glass, glas, [Lat. Glas'sius,] (Solomon,) a German 
 Lutheran divine, eminent as a biblical critic, was born at 
 
 Sondershausen in 1593. He became professor of theology 
 at Jena, and superintendent of the churches and schools 
 of Saxe-Gotha. His principal work is " Sacred Phi- 
 lology, in which the Style, Literature, and Signification 
 of the Holy Scriptures are unfolded," (" Philologia Sacra 
 qua S. Scripturae Stylus Litteratura et Sensus expan- 
 ditur," 1623,) which was highly esteemed and often 
 reprinted. Died in 1656. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"ne>ale." 
 
 Glassbrenner, glis'bRen-ner, (Adolf,) a German 
 satirist, born at Berlin in 1810. He wrote, among other 
 humorous works, " Berlin as it Eats and Drinks," (1832,) 
 and "Pictures and Dreams from Vienna," (1836.) 
 
 Glassius. See Glass, (Solomon.) 
 
 Glauber, glow'ber, (Johann,) a distinguished land- 
 scape-painter, sometimes called Polydore, was born at 
 Utrecht in 1646. His pictures are chiefly representations 
 of Italian and Alpine scenery. Died in 1726. 
 
 Glauber, (Johann Gottlieb,) a landscape-painter, 
 surnamed Myrtill, born in 1656, was a brother of the 
 preceding. Died in Breslau in 1703. 
 
 Glauber, glau'ber or glow'ber, (Johann Rudolph,) 
 a German chemist, born at Karlstadt about 1604, was a 
 professor of alchemy. He lived at Frankfort, Cologne, 
 and Amsterdam. He made several useful discoveries, 
 among which was the salt that bears his name, and made 
 improvements in chemical apparatus. Between 1646 
 and 166S he published numerous Latin and German 
 works, among which is " Miraculum Mundi," (1653.) 
 Died in Amsterdam in 1668. 
 
 See F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Glaucia, glau'she-a, (CaPus Servil'ius,) a Roman 
 demagogue, contemporary with L. Apuleius Saturninus, 
 whose fate he shared about 99 B.C. (See Saturninus.) 
 
 Glau'cl-as, irAawdac,] a Greek sculptor of Egina, 
 flourished about 480 B.C. 
 
 Glauoias, a king of the Illyrians in the time of Alex- 
 ander the Great. 
 
 Glau'con, [rXavicuv,] a Greek philosopher, a brother 
 of Plato, lived about 400 B.C. He was one of the in- 
 terlocutors in the "Republic" of Plato, and in the 
 "Parmenides." 
 
 Glaucus, [Gr. T\avnor,] a prophetic marine deity of 
 Greek mythology. According to one tradition, he was 
 originally a fisherman, who obtained immortality by 
 eating a certain herb. He built the ship Argo, and 
 accompanied the Argonautae to Colchis. 
 
 See Keightlev's "Mythology." 
 
 Glaucus, a Greek statuary, born at Chios, (Scio,) 
 lived in the sixth century B.C. He is said to have in- 
 vented the art of soldering metals. 
 
 See Meyer, " Kunstgeschichte." 
 
 Glaucus, a son of Minos, while a child fell into a 
 vessel of honey and was smothered. The poets feigned 
 that he was restored to life by Polyidus, a soothsayer. 
 
 Gleditscb, gla'ditsh, (Johann Gottlieb,) an emi- 
 nent German botanist, born at Leipsic in 1 7 14. He was 
 appointed professor of anatomy, and director of the 
 botanic garden at Berlin, in 1740. His chief merit was 
 that he applied botany to rural economy. He published, 
 besides other works, a " System of Plants founded on the 
 Position of the Stamens," (in Latin, 1764,) "Essays on 
 Physics, Botany, and Economy," (3 vols., 1767,) and an 
 "Introduction to Forest Science," (1774.). Died in 1786. 
 
 See WtLLDENOw and Usteri, " Biographie des Hofrath und 
 Professor Gleditsch," 1790; "Biographie Mddicale ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge"nerale." 
 
 Gleichen, von, fon gll'Ken, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) 
 a German naturalist, called Russworm, was born at 
 Baireuth in 171 7. He gave special attention to infusoria 
 and spermatic animalcula, and was a skilful microscopic 
 observer. Among his works is " Microscopic Discoveries 
 in Plants, Insects," etc., (1777.) Died in 1783. 
 
 See Weikard, " Biographie des Herren von Gleichen," 1783. 
 
 Gleig, glSg, (George,) a Scottish theologian, born in 
 1753. He became Bishop of Brechin about 1810, and 
 published several works on theology. Died in 1839. 
 
 Gleig, (Rev. George Robert,) a Scottish divine and 
 voluminous writer, born in 1795. Having served in the 
 Peninsular war and in America, he was subsequently 
 
 e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mer; not; good; moon; 
 
GLE1M 
 
 '°43 
 
 GLOUCESTER 
 
 appointed chaplain-general to the forces, (1846.) Among 
 his principal works are the romances of "The Hussar/' 
 "Chelsea Pensioners," and "The Subaltern," (1825,) 
 "The Campaign of New Orleans," "The Story of the 
 Peninsular War," "Life of Lord Clive," and "Memoirs 
 of Warren Hastings," which Lord Macaulay has charac- 
 terized as "three big, bad volumes, full of undigested 
 correspondence and undiscerning panegyric." " Mr. 
 Gleig's Life of Hastings," says Mr. Allibone, "forms a 
 proper companion to Abbott's 'Life of Napoleon.' We 
 can say nothing more condemnatory of both." 
 
 Gleim, glim, (Johann Wii.helm Ludwig,) a popular 
 German poet, sometimes called " Father Gleim," born 
 near Ermsleben in 1 7 19. He was the author of fables, 
 romances, anacreontic poems, a didactic poem entitled 
 " Halladat," etc.; but he is chiefly celebrated for his 
 " War-Songs," (" Kriegslieder.") Died in 1803. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Wii.helm 
 Korte, "J. W. L. Gleim's Leben," 1811; Meusbl, "Gelehnes 
 Deutschland." 
 
 Gleizes, gl&z, (Jean Antoine,) a French vegetarian 
 and philosophical writer, born at Dourgne in 1773; died 
 in 1843. 
 
 Glemona, da, da gla-mo'na, (Basils,) a missionary 
 and Chinese scholar. He resided many years in China, 
 and produced a Chinese lexicon. 
 
 Glen, de, deh glen, (John,) a Flemish engraver on 
 wood, born at Liege. He published in 1601 a curious 
 work, called "On Dress, Manners, Ceremonies," etc., 
 ("Des Habits, Moeurs, Ceremonies et Facons de faire.") 
 
 Glenbervie. See Douglas, (Sylvester.) 
 
 Glen'd6w-er or Glendwr, (Owen,) a celebrated 
 Welsh chieftain, born in Merionethshire about 1350, 
 was descended from Llewelyn, Prince of Wales. He 
 was early patronized by King Richard II., to whom he 
 faithfully adhered until the deposition of that monarch. 
 Being roused to resistance by the oppression exercised 
 against his countrymen by Henry IV., he laid claim, 
 about 1400, to the crown of Wales. The king soon after 
 marched with an army against Glendower, who, without 
 coming to an engagement, led them through the moun- 
 tainous tracts until, worn with fatigue and famine, they 
 were forced to retreat. A second expedition undertaken 
 by King Henry was likewise unsuccessful ; and in 1402 
 Glendower gained a signal victory over the English near 
 Knighton. Having assembled a large army, the king 
 marched for the third time into Wales ; and Glendower, 
 unwilling to risk an encounter with so superior a force, 
 retired to the mountains. With Mortimer and Henry 
 Percy, surnamed Hotspur, he formed a conspiracy against 
 the English king, who defeated their army near Shrews- 
 bury in 1403. Having made a treaty with Charles VI. 
 of France, Glendower again invaded the enemy's coun- 
 try, capturing a number of fortresses ; but in 1405 he was 
 defeated by Henry, the young Prince of Wales. After 
 several unsuccessful attempts at negotiation, Glendower 
 died in 1415. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England ;" Shakspeare, " Henry IV. ;" 
 "Retrospective Review," vol. xiii., 1826. 
 
 Glenelg, Lord. See Grant, (Charles.) 
 
 Glen'ie or Glen'nie, (James,) F.R.S., a Scottish 
 mathematician and artillery officer, born in 1750. He 
 published some mathematical works, and a " History of 
 Gunnery," (1776.) Diedini8i7. 
 
 SeeCnAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Glent'worth, (George,) an American physician, born 
 in Philadelphia in 1735, was appointed senior surgeon in 
 the army during the Revolution. Died in 1792. 
 
 Gley, glj, (Gerard,) a French linguist and writer, 
 horn in Lorraine in 1761. Among his numerous works 
 is a " French-German Dictionary," (1795.) Died in 1830. 
 
 Gleyre, gliR, (Charles,) a Swiss painter of high 
 reputation, born in the canton de Vaud in 1807. His 
 picture of "Evening," or "Illusions perdues," (1843,) is 
 called one of the most poetical compositfons of the 
 modern school. He produced a picture of the " Separa- 
 tion of the Apostles," which is much admired. 
 
 Glichezare or Glichessere. See Heinrich der 
 Glichezare. 
 
 Glid'don, (George R.,) was born in Devonshire, Eng- 
 land, about 1808. He went to Egypt, where he passed 
 
 many years. He published "Ancient Egypt," etc., (1850,) 
 and, with Dr. J. C. Nott, of Mobile, the " Types of Man- 
 kind," etc., (1854.) Died at Panama in 1857. 
 
 Gliemauu, giee'man, (Johann Georg Theodor.) a 
 geographet, born at Oldenburg in 1793 ; died in 1828. 
 
 Glinka.glink'ka, (FeodorNikolaevitch,) a Russian 
 officer and poet, born in the government of Smolensk in 
 1788, served in the campaigns of 1805 and 1815. Among 
 his military writings, which are highly esteemed, are 
 " Letters of a Russian Officer on the Campaigns of 1805," 
 etc. His war-lyrics also enjoy a wide popularity ; and 
 he has made poetical versions of the Psalms and other 
 sacred books. 
 
 Glinka, (Gregor Andreevitch,) a Russian writer, 
 born in the government of Smolensk in 1774, became in 
 1802 professor of Russian literature at Dorpat. He was 
 afterwards appointed tutor to the grand duke Nicholas, 
 whom he accompanied on his travels. Among his prin- 
 cipal works is a treatise " On the Ancient Religion of 
 the Slavonians." Died about 1818. 
 
 Glinka, (Michael,) a Russian composer, produced 
 in 1837 an opera entitled " Tsarskaya Zheezn,' (or"Zar- 
 kaja Shisn,") which was very successful, and is regarded 
 as the first national work of the kind. 
 
 Glinka, (Sergei Nikolaevitch,) a Russian littera- 
 teur, born in the government of Smolensk in 1774. He 
 has published poems, dramas, operas, and historical 
 works : among these we may name a " History of the 
 Migration of the Armenians of Azerbaijan from Turkey 
 to Russia," and " Russian History for Youth." He also 
 translated Young's "Night Thoughts" into Russian. 
 
 Glinski, glins'kee, (Michael,) a Polish nobleman, 
 who, having lost the favour of King Sigismund, offered 
 his services to the Czar of Russia, then at war with his 
 country. He captured Smolensk in 1514; but the Czar 
 soon after, suspecting him of treachery, caused him to be 
 put in prison, where he died in 1534. 
 
 Gliscenti, gle-shen'tee, (Fabio,) an Italian physician 
 and moralist, born near Brescia about 1550, wrote "The 
 Market," (" II Mercato," 1620,) a moral fable. Died 
 about 1620. 
 
 Glis'son, (Francis,) a celebrated English physician 
 and anatomist, born in Dorsetshire in 1597. Having 
 taken his degree at Cambridge, he became professor 
 of physic in that university, and in 1634 was chosen a 
 Fellow of the College of Physicians, London. He wrote 
 a "Treatise on the Rickets," (1650,) and "Anatomy of 
 the Liver." The latter work is highly esteemed ; and a 
 part of the liver which he has minutely described has 
 been called the "Capsule of Glisson." He was the first 
 who attributed to simple fibre the innate principle of 
 irritability, which he distinguishes from sensibility. Dr. 
 Glisson was eulogized by Harvey; and the celebrated 
 Boerhaave pronounced him "the most accurate of all 
 anatomists that ever lived." Died in 1677. 
 
 See Birch, " History of the Royal Society;" Aikin, "Biogra- 
 phical Memoirs of Medicine." 
 
 Glitner. See Forseti. " 
 
 Glocker, glok'ker, (Ernst Friedrich,) professor of 
 mineralogy at Breslau, was born at Stuttgart hi 1793. 
 He wrote a "Manual of Mineralogy," (1829,) and other 
 works on that science. 
 
 Gloucester, Duke of, was a title of Richard III. of 
 England, before his accession to the throne. 
 
 Gloucester, glos't^r, (Humphrey,) Duke of, was a 
 brother of Henry V. of England, by whose last will he was 
 appointed Regent of England in 1422. He was invested 
 by Parliament with the office of "protector" during the 
 absence of his brother, the Duke of Bedford. The affairs 
 of the nation were thrown into confusion by a long con- 
 test for supremacy between Gloucester and Cardinal 
 Beaufort. Having been arrested on a charge of treason, 
 he was murdered in prison, by the order, it is supposed, 
 of Cardinal Beaufort, in 1447. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England;" Shakspeare, " Henry VI., 
 Part II." 
 
 Gloucester, (Robert of,) an early English writer, 
 who flourished in the thirteenth century, is supposed to 
 have been a monk of Gloucester Abbey. He was the 
 author of a History of England from the earliest times 
 down to the reign of Henry III., written in verse, and 
 
 ' as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GLOUCESTER 
 
 1044 
 
 GNEISENAU 
 
 furnishing a valuable monument of the language of that 
 time. 
 
 Gloucester, (William Frederick,) Duke of, born 
 at Rome in 1776, was a nephew of George III. of Eng- 
 land, and a son of Prince William Henry. He obtained 
 the rank of general in 1808, and was afterwards a field- 
 marshal. He married Princess Mary, a daughter of. 
 George III. Died in 1834. 
 
 Glover, gluv'er, Mrs., an Irish actress, born in 1781. 
 She performed a great variety of characters with suc- 
 cess. Died in 1850. 
 
 Glover, gluv'er, (Richard,) an English poet and 
 scholar, born in London in 1712, was a merchant in his 
 youth. He published in 1737 "Leonidas, an Epic Poem 
 on the Persian War," which had great temporary suc- 
 cess and was extravagantly praised by Lord Lyttleton, 
 Fielding, and other prominent members of the Whig 
 party. It has not retained its popularity, which was 
 owing more to the peculiar circumstances of the times 
 than its own intrinsic merit. His ballad of " Hosier's 
 Ghost" (1739) caused a great sensation, and is still a 
 popular national song. He was also the author of two 
 tragedies, entitled " Medea" and " lioadicea." He was 
 elected a member of Parliament for Weymouth in 1761, 
 and was several times re-elected. Glover is styled by 
 Warton one of the best Greek scholars of his time. 
 Died in 1 785. 
 
 See "Memoirs of a Distinguished Literary and Political Charac- 
 ter," 1S13 ; Campbeli., " Specimens of the British Poets;" "Retro- 
 spective Review," vol. ii., 1820. 
 
 Glover, (Robert,) an English heraldic writer, born 
 at Ashford in 1543. He wrote "On Political or Civil 
 Nobility," ("De Nobilitate politica vel civili," 1608.) 
 Died in 1588. 
 
 See Fuller's "Worthies." 
 
 Gliick, glfik, ( Christian Friedrich, ) a learned 
 German jurist, born at Halle, on the Saale, in 1755. He 
 became professor of law at Erlangen in 1784. His 
 "Complete Explanation of the Pandects" (1796) was 
 esteemed a standard work. Died in 1831. 
 
 Gluck, von, fon glook, (Johann Christoph,) an 
 eminent German composer, born near Neumarkt in 1714. 
 He visited Italy in 1738, and studied composition under 
 Martini. His first operas, " Artaxerxes" and " Deme- 
 trius," and a third, entitled "The Fall of the Giants," 
 brought out in London, met with no decided success. 
 Having made the acquaintance of the Florentine poet 
 Calzabigi, they resolved to effect a reform in the Italian 
 Opera, which resulted in the production of " Alceste," 
 "Orfeo," and "Helena and Paris," (1762-69.) These 
 operas were received with general applause both in 
 Germany and Italy. In 1774 he brought out at Paris 
 his " Iphigenia in Aulis," which, in spite of the oppo- 
 sition of the French composers, met with an enthusi- 
 astic reception. In the musical contest which was now 
 carried on with great violence between the partisans 
 of Gluck and those of Piccini, who had been iavited to 
 Paris, the queen, Marie Antoinette, actively supported 
 the former, who had been her teacher in music. His 
 "Iphigenia in Tauris," which came out in 1779, is ranked 
 among his master-pieces. Died in Vienna in November, 
 1787. 
 
 See Burnev, "General History of Music;" A. Schmid, " Chris- 
 toph, Ritter von Gluck dessen Leben," etc., 1854; Fetis, " Biogra- 
 phie Uuiverselle des Musiciens;" Miel, "Notice sur Gluck," 1840. 
 
 Gly'oas, (Michael,) [Gr. Mixar/A 6 Tavku.;,] a learned 
 Byzantine historian, supposed to have lived about 1 1 50- 
 80. He was the author of "Annales," being a history 
 of the world from the creation to the birth of Christ, 
 and that of the Byzantine emperors down to the death 
 of Alexius I. Comnenus. 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 Gly'con, [rAi'/cui',] a Greek sculptor of uncertain 
 period and of high reputation. He is only known as 
 the sculptor of a famous colossal statue called the " Far- 
 nese Hercules," which is in the Royal Museum at Naples. 
 No ancient writer mentions Glycon ; but TATKHN* 
 A6HNAI0S EIIOIEI ("Glycon the Athenian made it") 
 is engraved on the rock winch supported the statue. 
 
 Gijhnn, (Robert,) M.D., an English poet, born at 
 Cambridge, was a Fellow of Queen's College. He wrote 
 
 " The Day of Judgment," a poetical essay, which ob- 
 tained the Seatonian prize in 1757. Died in 1800. 
 
 Gmeliu, gma'lin, (Friedrich Wii.helm,) a skilful 
 German engraver, born at Badenweiler in 1745. He 
 worked many years at Rome, where he died in 1 821. 
 
 Gmelin, (Johann Friedrich,) a German naturalist, 
 born at Tubingen in 1748, was a son of Philipp Friedrich, 
 noticed below. He was professor of medical sciences in 
 the University of Gottingen for about thirty years, ending 
 in 1804, and acquired an extensive reputation by his lec- 
 tures and his numerous and voluminous works on botany, 
 chemistry, and other natural sciences. Among these are 
 a "Dictionary of Botany," (9 vols.,) and a " History of 
 Natural Sciences," ( 1 799.) He also edited the thirteenth 
 edition of Linnaeus's " Systema Naturae," (1788-93,) in 
 which work he has shown himself defective in critical 
 judgment. Died in 1804. 
 
 See "Biographie medicale ;" "Nouvelle Biographie G&ie*rale." 
 
 Gmelin, (Johann Georg,) an eminent German bot- 
 anist and naturalist, an uncle of the preceding, was born 
 at Tubingen in June, 1709. Having taken his degree in 
 medicine, he went to Saint Petersburg, and obtained, 
 about 1731, the chair of chemistry and natural history. 
 In 1733 he was sent by the empress, in company with 
 G. F. Muller and others, on an exploring expedition to 
 Siberia. In this arduous enterprise he spent about ten 
 years, and, having returned to Saint Petersburg in 1743, 
 published his "Flora of Siberia," ("Flora Sibirica," 
 1747,) which is praised by Haller. He became professor 
 of botany and chemistry at Tubingen in 1749, and pub- 
 lished (in German) "Travels in Siberia," (1752,) a work 
 of considerable merit. Died at Tubingen in 1755. 
 
 See Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Gmelin, (Leopold,) a chemist, son of Johann Fried- 
 rich, noticed above, was born in 1788. He became pro- 
 fessor of chemistry at Heidelberg in 1817. His principal 
 works are a "Manual of Theoretical Chemistry," (5 vols., 
 1841,) and a "Text-Book of Chemistry," (1844.) He re- 
 tired from the chair at Heidelberg in 1851. Died in 1853. 
 
 Gmelin, (Philipp Friedrich,) a German physician 
 and botanist, a brother of Johann Georg, noticed above, 
 was born at Tubingen in 1721. He wrote treatises on 
 medicine, botany, etc. Died in 1768. 
 
 Gmelin, (Samuel Gottlieb,) M.D., an eminent 
 botanist and traveller, born at Tubingen in 1744, was a 
 nephew of the preceding. He obtained a chair of botany 
 in Saint Petersburg about 1766, and published a "Treatise 
 on Sea- Weeds," ("Historia Fucorum," 1768.) In 1768, 
 Gmelin and his friend Pallas were associated in a scien- 
 tific exploration of Russia in the service of the empress 
 Catherine. The former directed his researches to the 
 regions of the Don and the Volga, and explored the 
 western and eastern coasts of the Caspian. He was 
 seized on his homeward route by the Kaitaks, was im- 
 prisoned in Caucasus, and died, in consequence of ill 
 treatment, in 1774. Soon after that date his "Travels 
 through Russia, with a View to Investigate the Three 
 Kingdoms of Nature," (in German,) was published. 
 
 See Hirsching, "Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 GnSditsch, gna'ditch, written also Gnieditsch, (Ni- 
 kolai Ivanovitch,) a Russian poet, born at Poltava in 
 1784. He is chiefly known from his excellent transla- 
 tion of the " Iliad" into Russian hexameter verse. He 
 also made translations from Byron and several French 
 poets, and published, among other original poems, "The 
 Fishers," and " Popular Songs of the Modern Greeks." 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 Gneisenau, gnl'zeh-now', (August Neidhardt— 
 ivTt'haRt,) Count, a celebrated Prussian field-marshal, 
 born at Schilda, in Saxony, in 1760. He served with 
 great distinction in the principal campaigns from 1807 
 to 1809, when he was sent on embassies to London and 
 Saint Petersburg. In 1813 he was appointed quarter- 
 master-genera! of Bliicher's army ; and to his counsel 
 and strategic skill are chiefly to be attributed the advan- 
 tages gained by the Prussian army at that time. He was 
 made a general in 1814, and received the title of count. 
 After the defeat at Ligny he made a skilful retreat, and 
 collected the remains of the army that by its timely 
 arrival at Waterloo decided the event of that day. He 
 
 a, e 
 
 i, 0, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mf t; not; good; moon: 
 
GNIEDITSCH 
 
 1045 
 
 GODEFROI 
 
 was appointed governor of Berlin and councillor of state 
 jit 1S18, and in 1825 field-marshal. Died in 1831. 
 
 See C. G. Lischkb, " A. Gneisenau's Urne," 8vo, 1832; "Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneYalc" 
 
 Gnieditsch. See Gnaditsch. 
 
 Gni'pho, (Marcus Antonius,) a Roman rhetorician, 
 born in Gaul in 114 B.C. He taught rhetoric, at Rome, 
 to Cicero and other eminent men, and wrote several 
 works, which are not extant. Died 63 B.C. 
 
 Goad, (John,) a classical teacher, bom in London in 
 1615, was head-master of the Merchant Taylors' School 
 for about twenty years. Among his works is "Astro- 
 Meteorologia," (1686.) Died in 1689. 
 
 See Wilson. " History of Merchant Taylors' School." 
 
 Gockingk or Goeckingk, gok'kink, (Leopold 
 Friedrich Gunther— goon'ter,) a German poet, born 
 near Halberstadt in 1748, was appointed to several high 
 offices in the Prussian government. He wrote epigrams 
 satiric fables, and " The Songs of Two Lovers," (" Lieder 
 zweier Liebenden," 1777.) The last-named are especially 
 admired. Died in 1828. 
 
 GocleniuB, go-kla'ne-iis, (Conrad,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born in Westphalia in 1455. He was a friend 
 
 Goad'by, (Robert,) an English printer and writer, 
 of Sherborne, in Dorsetshire, wrote "Illustration of the 
 Scriptures by Notes," (3 vols., 1759-64.) Died in 1778. 
 
 Goar, go'SR', (Jacques,) a French Dominican monk, 
 born in Paris about 1606. He published a work on the 
 ritual of the Greek Church, " Eukologion sive Rituale 
 Gr.xcorum," (1647.) Died in 1653. 
 
 Goar, van. See Graf. 
 
 Gobbo, gob'bo, (Andrea,) a painter, distinguished as 
 a colorist, born at Milan about 1470; died in 1527. 
 
 Gobbo da Cortona, gob'bo da koR-to'na, an Italian 
 painter, whose proper name was Paolo Bonzi, was born 
 at Cortona about 1580. He excelled in painting fruits. 
 Died about 1640. 
 
 Gobel, go'bel', (Jean Baptiste,) a French revolu- 
 tionist, born in Alsace in 1727, was a deputy of the 
 clergy to the States-General in 1789. When the oath 
 to the civil constitution was offered to the clergy, he at- 
 tached to it some restrictions ; but he subsequently with- 
 drew them. As a reward for his compliance, he obtained 
 the bishoprics of the Upper Rhine, the Upper Maine, 
 and of Paris. He renounced his ecclesiastical functions 
 about the end of 1793. Having incurred the displeasure 
 of the Jacobins, he was guillotined in 1794. 
 
 See Lamartjne, "History of the Girondists;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale;" "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Gobel or Goebel, go'bel, (Johann Heinrich Ert- 
 m ann',) a German writer, born at Lauban in 1732 ; died 
 in 1795. 
 
 Gobel or Goebel, (Traugott Friedemann,) a Ger- 
 man chemist and traveller, born in Thuringia in 1794, 
 became professor of chemistry at Dorpat in 1828. He 
 published "Travels in Southern Russia," (1838,) "Ele- 
 ments of Pharmacy," (" Grundlehren der Pharmacie," 4 
 vols., 1843-47,) and other works. Died in 1851. 
 
 Gobel or Goebel, von, fon go'bel, (Johann Wil- 
 HEI.m,) a German jurist and publicist, born in Westphalia 
 in 16X3. His works on public law were much esteemed. 
 Died in 1745. 
 
 Gobelin, gob'laN', (Gili.es and Jean,) brothers, and 
 celebrated French dyers, who about 1450 established dye- 
 houses on the Bievre, (Faubourg Saint-Marcel, Pans.) 
 A manufactory of tapestry was afterwards founded, and, 
 under the supervision of the celebrated Le Bran, were 
 produced those superb pieces of tapestry which have 
 excited the admiration of the world. 
 
 See Lacordaire, "Notice historique sur la Manufacture des 
 Gobeiins." 
 
 Gobet,go'bi', (Nicolas,) a French savant, born about 
 '735. wrote "The Ancient Mineralogists of France," (2 
 vols., 1779,) and other works. Died about 1781. 
 
 Gobien.. See Legobif.n. 
 
 Gobinet, go'be'nj', (Charles,) a French religious 
 writer, born at Saint-Quentin in 1613 ; died in 1600. 
 
 Gobler or Goebler, go'bler, (Justin,) a German 
 historian, born in Hesse. He wrote a " History of the 
 Emperor Maximilian I.," (1566.) Died in 1567. 
 
 Goblet, go'biy, (Albert Joseph,) Count of Alviella, 
 a Belgian officer, born at Tournay in 1790. In 1835 he 
 obtained the rank of lieutenant-general. 
 
 Go'brjf-as, one of the seven Persian noblemen who 
 conspired against Smerdis, 521 B.C. He married a sister 
 of King Darius, and was the father of Mardonius. 
 
 Gockel, gok'kel, (Kberhard,) born at Ulm in 1646, 
 was physician to the Duke of Wurtemberg. His writings 
 were highly esteemed. 
 
 ii- 
 1455. He was a friend 
 and correspondent of Erasmus. He wrote " Scholia in 
 Tullii Ofricia," and edited Lucian. Died about 1535. 
 
 Goclenius, (Rudolph,) a German philosopher, born 
 at Corbach in 1547, was professor of logic at Marburg. 
 He wrote, besides other works, " Miscellanea philoso- 
 phico-theologica," (3 vols., 1607-09.) Died in 1628. 
 
 Goclenius, (Rudolph,) a physician, son of the pre 
 ceding, was born at Wittenberg in 1572. He became 
 professor of physics at Marburg, and wrote various works. 
 Died in 1621. 
 
 Godard, go'dtR', (Jean,) a French poet, born in Paris 
 m 1564, wrote odes, dramas, etc., which were once popu- 
 lar. Died about 1630. 
 
 Godart, go'daV, (Jean Baptiste,) a French natural- 
 ist, born in Picardy in 1775. He published four volumes 
 of a " History of the Lepidoptera of France," (1S22-25,) 
 which, after his death, was finished by Duponchel. It 
 is a work of much merit. Died in 1823. 
 ^ God'dard, (Arabella,) a popular pianist, born of 
 English parents in Brittany, France, in 1836, was a pupil 
 of Thalberg. She made her first appearance in public 
 in London in 1850, since which time she has been con- 
 stantly increasing in popular favour. In i860 she was 
 married to Mr. Davison, but still retains her maiden name. 
 See "Men of the Time," 1868. 
 
 Goddard, (Jonathan,) a distinguished English phy- 
 sician and chemist, bom at Greenwich in 161 7. Being 
 appointed head-physician in the army in 1649, he accom" 
 panied Cromwell to Ireland and Scotland, and in 1653 
 became a member of the council of state. On the for- 
 mation of the Royal Society, in 1663, Dr. Goddard was 
 chosen one of its council. He published, among other 
 works, a " Discourse concerning Physic, and the many 
 Abuses thereof by Apothecaries," (1668.) He was also 
 noted for his scientific attainments, and made great 
 improvements in optical instruments. Died in 1674. 
 
 See "Biographie medicale;" Chalmers, "Biographical Dic- 
 tionary." 
 
 Goddard, (William Stanley,) an English clergy- 
 man, born in 1757, was master of Winchester School, 
 and rector of Repton, Derby. He gave large sums of 
 money for charity. Died in 1845. 
 
 Godde, god, (Etienne Hippolyte,) a French ar- 
 chitect, born at Breteuil in 1781, was appointed chief 
 architect of the city of Paris in 1813. His chief work 
 is the addition to-the Hotel de Ville. 
 
 Godeau, go'do', (Antolne,) a French writer, born 
 at Dreux in 1605, was one of the founders and first mem- 
 bers of the French Academy. He was distinguished for 
 his wit and social accomplishments, and was one of the 
 coterie of the H&tel de Rambouillet. He was created 
 Bishop of Grasse by Cardinal Richelieu in 1636, and was 
 afterwards Bishop of Vence. He wrote a ""History of 
 the Church from the Creation to the End of the Eighth 
 Century," (5 vols., 1653-78,) " Christian Morals," and 
 various other works. Died in 1672. 
 
 See Dopin, " Bibliothequedes Auteursecc1esiastiqu.es ;" NiciRON, 
 " Memoires;" Spf.kuni uecli Alvamcitti, " Vita dt A. Godeau Ve»- 
 covo di Vence." 1761. 
 
 God'e-bert, [Lat. Godeber'tus,] written also Gun- 
 depert, King of the Lombards, succeeded his father in 
 661 a.d. He was killed by Grimoald in 662. 
 
 Godefroi. See Godfrey. 
 
 Godefroi, god'fRwa', [I.at. Gothofre'dus,] (Denis,) 
 the Elder, an eminent French jurist, bom ii, l.uis in 
 1549. He studied successively at Louvain, Heidelberg, 
 and Cologne, and, after his return, was made a councillor 
 in the Parliament of Paris. He became professor ol law 
 at Geneva in 1580. On the invitation ol , the 
 
 Elector-palatine, he repaired to Heidelberg, where, owing 
 to the troubles of war, he did not remain long, He died 
 at Strasburg in 1622. He published a "Body of Civil 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I ass; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. z\.) 
 
GODEFROI 
 
 1046 
 
 GO DM AN 
 
 Law," ("Corpus Juris civilis," 1583,) and other valuable 
 legal works, and enjoyed the reputation of one of the 
 first jurists of his time. 
 
 See NicriuoN, "Me'moires." 
 
 Godefroi, (Denis,) the Younger, a French historian, 
 born in Paris in 1615, was a grandson of the preceding.- 
 He was made historiographer of France in 1640, and 
 wrote a " History of the Constables, Chancellors, etc. 
 of France," (1658.) Died in 1681. 
 
 Godefroi, (Jacques,) son of Denis the Elder, born 
 at Geneva in 1587, became professor of law in his native 
 town. He was afterwards appointed secretary of state 
 and syndic of the republic. His edition of the "Codex 
 Theodosianus" (1665) is highly esteemed. Died in 1652. 
 
 Godefroi, (Jean,) Sieur d'Aumont, son of Denis the 
 Younger, born in Paris in 1656. He filled several im- 
 portant offices under the government, and published 
 editions of the " Memoires de Comines," and other 
 works. Died in 1732. 
 
 Godefroi, (Theodore,) a French jurist and historical 
 writer, born at Geneva in 1580, was a son of Denis the 
 Elder, noticed above. He was appointed historiogra- 
 pher of the kingdom in 1632. He published, among 
 other works, " Le Ceremonial de France," (1619,) and 
 one " On the True Origin of the House of Austria," 
 (1624.) Died in 1649. 
 
 Godefroid (or Godefroi) de Bouillon. See God- 
 frey of Bouillon. 
 
 Godefroidus Boloniensis, (or Bulloniensis.) See 
 Godfrey of Bouillon. 
 
 Godeke or Goedeke, go'deh-keh, (Karl,) a German 
 litterateur,horn at Celle in 1814. He published, besides 
 otherworks, "The Poets of Germany from 1813 to 1843," 
 (1844,) and "The Middle Ages and their Literature," 
 (1852-54.) 
 
 Goderich. See Ripon, Earl of. 
 
 Godescalch or Godeschalcus. See Gottschalk. 
 
 Godescard, go'des'kiR', (Jean Francois,) a French 
 ecclesiastical writer, born near Rouen in 1728, published, 
 besides other works, " Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs," 
 v etc., (12 vols. 8vo.) Died in 1800. 
 
 God'frey, (Sir Edmundbury,) an English magistrate, 
 who took the evidence of Oates in relation to a suspected 
 popish plot. His dead body was found, after he had been 
 missing some days, at Primrose Hill, in October, 1678. 
 A great excitement was caused by his murder. 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Life and Death of Sir E. Godfrey," Lon- 
 don, 1682. 
 
 God'frey, (Thomas,) an American mechanician and 
 inventor, born in Philadelphia. About 1730 he made an 
 improvement in the quadrant, which was communicated 
 to the Royal Society. A similar improvement was made 
 nearly at the same time by Mr. Hadley in England ; and 
 a reward was given to both by the society. Died in 1 749. 
 
 God'frey of Bouillon, (boo'yd.N',) {Fr. Godefroid 
 (or Godefroi) de Bouillon, go'deh-fKwa' deh boo'- 
 von'; Ger. Gottfried von Bouillon, got'tReet fon 
 boo'yiN' ; It. Goffredo di Buglione, gof-fRa'do de 
 bool-yo'ni; Lot Godefroi'dus (or Gothofre'dus) 
 Bolonien'sis,] the. illustrious leader of the first crusade, 
 son of Eustace II., Count of Boulogne, was born near 
 Nivelle, in France, about 1058. He early distinguished 
 himself while fighting for Henry IV. of Germany, by 
 whom he was created Duke of Bouillon. He was one of 
 the first to engage in the crusade for the. recovery of the 
 Holy Sepulchre, and to him was intrusted the command 
 of the principal army. In 1096 he set out for Constan- 
 tinople, accompanied by the most distinguished of the 
 nobility. Being informed that Hugh, Count of Ver- 
 mandois, brother of the King of France, was detained 
 there as a prisoner, Godfrey demanded his release of 
 the emperor Alexius, and on his refusal threatened to 
 besiege the capital, in consequence of which the captive 
 was liberated. After much difficulty, a treaty was con- 
 cluded between Alexius and the crusaders, by which the 
 latter agreed to do homage to the emperor on condition 
 of his assistance. The army next advanced to Nice, 
 which surrendered after a protracted siege. In June, 
 1098, Antioch was taken, after great suffering had been 
 endured from famine and disease. With the remnant of 
 his army Godfrey now marched to Jerusalem, the siege 
 
 of which was begun in June, 1099, and ended the July 
 following by the capture of the city. By the unanimous 
 wish of the crusaders, he was chosen King of Jerusalem ; 
 but he refused the title of royalty, saying "he would 
 never accept a crown of gold in a city where his Saviour 
 had worn a crown of thorns." Soon after this he ob- 
 tained another victory over the Saracens, at Ascalon. 
 Godfrey gave to the city a set of laws, called the " Assize 
 of Jerusalem," resembling the feudal system of Europe. 
 He survived but a year after the taking of Jerusalem, 
 dying in July, 1 100. Godfrey is the hero of Tasso's 
 "Jerusalem Delivered ;" and the poet appears not to 
 have exaggerated the merits of a character which was a 
 rare combination of wisdom and heroism with Christian 
 virtues of a high order. 
 
 S^e Michaud, '■ H stoiredjs Croisades ;" C. de Pi.ancv, "Gode- 
 froid de Bnuil on," rSj2; Wh.kkn, "Geschichte d-jr R'r.-n// i ■ -." 
 1830; R. Pico, " V'ta di G. Dtica di Buglione," 1626 ; H. Puevaui.t 
 " Hisloire de G. de Rouillon," 2 vols., 1833; J. H. d'Kx.uiv ii.i.kz, 
 " Histoire de G. de Bouillon," 1842: Gibbon. "Decline and Kail, 
 etc ; H. von Sybel, "Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs," 1841. 
 
 Godfrey of Viterbo, a historian of the twelfth 
 century. He was employed as secretary and chaplain by 
 the emperors Conrad III., Frederick I., and Henry IV. 
 of Germany. His principal work is entitled " Pantheon," 
 being a history of the world from the creation to the 
 year 1186. It is written in Latin, and displays great 
 learning ; but the style is somewhat barbarous. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis." 
 
 Godin, go'daN', (Louis,) an eminent French mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, born in Paris in 1704. In 1725 
 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences. When, in 
 1 735> tne Academy sent some of its members to measure 
 a degree of the meridian, Godin was appointed to con- 
 duct the enterprise. He was for a time professor of 
 mathematics at Lima, and after his return to Europe 
 became director of the Naval Academy at Cadiz. He 
 wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Academy 
 of Sciences from 1680 to 1699," (11 vols.) Died in 1760. 
 
 See Grand-Jean de Fouchy, " Fjoge de Godin." 
 
 Godinot, go'de'no', (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic and 
 philanthropist, born at Rheims in 1661. He devoted 
 his large fortune to benevolent purposes, founded free 
 schools, and conferred numerous other benefits upon his 
 native city. Died in 1749. 
 
 Go-di'va, [Fr. Godive, go'dev',] a celebrated Eng- 
 lish lady, who lived in the time of Edward the Confessor 
 and was the wife of Leofric, Earl of Leicester. According 
 to tradition, she procured the exemption of Coventry 
 from a tax by riding naked through that city on horse- 
 back. Tennyson has written a poem on this subject. 
 
 Godive. See Godiva. 
 
 God'ley, (John Robert,) an English politician and 
 writer. He published " Letters from Canada and the 
 United States," (2 vols., 1844.) Died in 1862. 
 
 God'man, (John D.,) an eminent American natu- 
 ralist and physician, born at Annapolis, Maryland, in 
 December, 1794. He enlisted in the navy in 1814, and 
 served at the defence of Fort McHenry, but left the 
 service in 181 5. He then began to study medicine, and 
 graduated in the University of Maryland in 1818. In 
 1821 he was chosen professor of surgery in the Medical 
 College of Ohio at Cincinnati ; but he removed to Phila- 
 delphia in 1822, after which he lectured on anatomy to a 
 private class. He became in 1824 one of the editors of 
 the " Philadelphia Journal of the Medical Sciences," and 
 was appointed professor of anatomy in Rutgers College, 
 New York, in 1826. About the end of 1827 he resigned 
 his chair, on account of ill health. He died at German- 
 town, near Philadelphia, in April, 1830. As a lecturer on 
 anatomy and as a naturalist, Professor Godman had few, 
 if any, superiors among his contemporaries in the United 
 States. He was also well versed in the Latin, French, 
 and German languages. His work on "American Natural 
 History" (3 vols. 8vo, 1823-28) the " North American 
 Review" pronounces " undoubtedly superior to any 
 previous publication on the same subject," and adds, 
 " We consider Dr. Godman in some respects among the 
 most extraordinary men that have adorned the medical 
 profession in our country." Among his other publica- 
 tions may be mentioned his "Anatomical Investigations," 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure: far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon ; 
 
GODOI 
 
 1047 
 
 GODWIN 
 
 " Rambles of a Naturalist," and an edition of Bell's 
 "Anatomy," with notes. Dr. God man had adopted the 
 materialistic views of the French naturalists ; but, on 
 being called, in 1827, to witness the death of a medical 
 student, who died a Christian, he was led to embrace 
 Christianity, and was ever after a devoutly religious 
 man. A " Memoir of his Life," by Dr. Sewall, has been 
 pub ished by the Tract Society. 
 
 See, also. Gross, "American Medical Biography ;" " North 
 American Review" for January, 1835. 
 
 Godoi. See Godoy. 
 
 Go-dol'phin, (John,) an eminent civilian, born at 
 Godolphin, in the island of Scilly, in 1617. He was 
 appointed a judge of the admiralty in 1653, and king's 
 advocate after the restoration of 1660. He published 
 "The Holy Harbour, a Body of Divinity," (165 1,) and 
 "Admiralty Jurisdiction," (1661.) Died in 1678. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Godolphin, (Sidney Godolphin,) Earl of, an 
 eminent English statesman, of a distinguished family 
 in Cornwall. The year of his birth is not known ; but 
 he entered early into the service of Charles II., and on 
 the restoration was appointed by that prince one of the 
 grooms of the bed-chamber. In 1678 he was intrusted 
 with the management of a confidential correspondence 
 between the Prince of Orange and the Duke of York, 
 and the following year he became one of the lords of the 
 treasury. When the Duke of Monmouth and Lord Salis- 
 bury were dismissed, in 1679, he shared with Viscount 
 Hyde and the Earl of Sunderland the chief management 
 of affairs. In 1683 he was one of those ministers em- 
 ployed in secret negotiations with Louis XIV. to renew 
 the dependency of Charles on the French king. He was 
 made first commissioner of the treasury in 1684, and 
 was created Baron Godolphin of Kialton. Although he 
 had voted to exclude James II. from the crown, he was 
 retained in office when that sovereign succeeded to the 
 throne, (1685,) but in a subordinate place at the treasury 
 board. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange, Godol- 
 phin was one of the noblemen employed to negotiate 
 with him on the part of the king. On the accession of 
 the Prince of Orange he retained his office as one of the 
 lords of the treasury, and in 1690 was made first lord in 
 that department. He was dismissed from office in 1697. 
 When Queen Anne succeeded to the throne, (1702,) he 
 became lord high treasurer. This office he had re- 
 fused until the Duke of Marlborough declared he could 
 not command the armies on the continent unless the 
 treasury was in Godolphin's hands. In 1704 he was 
 made knight of the Garter, and in 1706 Earl of Go- 
 dolphin. He was removed from his post of lord high 
 treasurer in 17 10, when the Duke and Duchess of Marl- 
 borough, with whom he had been connected, had lost 
 the favour of the queen. Bishop Burnet says of Godol- 
 phin, " He was the silentest and modestest man who was 
 perhaps ever bred in a court. He had true principles 
 of religion and virtue, and never heaped up wealth." 
 During the greater part of his political course he acted 
 with the Tories ; but about 1705 he attached himself to 
 the Whig party. Died in 1712. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. iv. ; Burnet, "His- 
 tory of his Own Times." 
 
 Godolphin, (Sydney,) an English poet, born in Corn- 
 wall in 1610. He fought for Charles I., and was killed 
 at Chagford in 1643. He translated " The Ixrves of Dido 
 and /Eneas" from Virgil, and wrote several original 
 poems. His judgment and fancy are praised by Hobbes, 
 who was his friend. 
 
 Godoonof, Godounof, or Godunow, go'doo-nof , 
 sometimes written Gudenow, (Boris,) Czar of Moscow, 
 bom in 1552, was of Tartar origin, and was made a member 
 of the supreme council of state by Ivan the Terrible in 
 1582. When the imbecile Feodor succeeded Ivan, Godou- 
 nof became his chief favourite, and obtained from him the 
 highest honours. In 1 591 Demetrius, the half-brother of 
 Feodor, was said to have been murdered by the orders 
 of Godoonof. In 1598 Feodor died, leaving the throne 
 to his widow Irene, the sister of Godoonof, and, on her 
 refusal to accept the crown, the latter was proclaimed 
 Czar by the unanimous wish of the people. About this 
 time he defeated the Khan of the Crimea, and brought 
 
 Siberia to subjection. He displayed great ability and 
 energy in his administration, and his policy was generally 
 marked by clemency. He manifested great zeal in the 
 cause of education, and invited to his country distin- 
 guished foreigners whom he thought likely to promote 
 its civilization. During the terrible famine of 1601 he 
 showed himself a benefactor to his people by his exer- 
 tions in their behalf. In 1604 a report was raised that 
 Prince Demetrius, who was supposed to have been mur- 
 dered, was still alive and was preparing to enter Russia. 
 As he was approaching Moscow, Godoonof died sud- 
 denly, in April, 1605 ; and it is supposed he took poison. 
 See P. Merimek, "Un Episode de PHistoire de Russie ; Ies 
 faux Demetrius:" Margaret, " L'Estat de la Russie," etc., 1607 
 
 Godounof or Godunow. See Godoonof. 
 
 Go-doy', de, [Sp. pron. dago-Do'ee,] (Don Manuel,) 
 (Alvarez de Faria Rios Sanchez y Zarsoa — di 
 fa-ree'a ree'6s san'chSth e thaR-so'a,) Duke of Alcudia, 
 a Spanish courtier, surnamed the Prince of Peace, 
 was born at Badajoz in 1767. He became the chief 
 favourite of Charles IV. and of his queen, and was ap- 
 pointed prime minister in 1792. He received the title of 
 "Prince of Peace" because he made peace with France 
 in 1795. His influence over the feeble king and the 
 queen was unbounded; but he became very unpopular. 
 Ferdinand, the heir of the throne, was among his enemies. 
 Godoy's administration was very corrupt. His palace 
 was attacked in March, 1808, by a mob, who were ap- 
 peased by the abdication of Charles IV. and the disgrace 
 of the favourite. He took refuge in France, and died in 
 Paris in 1851. 
 
 See Ovilo y Otero, "Vida poKtica y militar de Don Manuel 
 Godoy," etc., 1844; ToRRNo."Guerra, Revolucion, etc. de Espana;" 
 "Westminster Review" for April, 1836; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale." 
 
 Godron, go'dRoN', ( Dominique Alexandre, ) a 
 French naturalist of the present age. He was -professor 
 of natural history at Nancy, and published a " Flora of 
 France," (6 vols., 1848-56.) 
 
 God'win, Earl, a celebrated Saxon baron, was the 
 son of Ulnoth, or Wolfnoth, Earl of Sussex. In 1017 he 
 accompanied Canute in an expedition against Sweden, 
 and so distinguished himself by his bravery that the king 
 bestowed upon him his daughter in marriage. On the 
 death of Canute, Godwin espoused the cause of Har- 
 dicanute in opposition to Harold Harefoot, but, soon 
 changing his course, supported the claims of Harold, 
 and, in concert with him, planned the murder of the 
 young princes Alfred and Edward^sons of Ethelred and 
 Emma. When Hardicanute came to the throne, Prince 
 Edward accused-Godwin of the murder of his brother; 
 but a magnificent present from the guilty earl induced 
 the king to pardon him. In 1041, on the death of Hardi- 
 canute, Godwin was reconciled to Edward, and promoted 
 his succession on condition of his marrying his daughter 
 Editha. About this time the counties of Kent and 
 Sussex were added to his domain. Having openly dis- 
 obeyed the king, the latter summoned a council of his 
 nobles at London, and passed judgment on the rebellion. 
 Godwin, with three of his sons, took refuge in Flanders. 
 Their estates were confiscated. Having gained adherents 
 in Flanders, Godwin equipped a fleet, and, with his son 
 Harold, entered the Thames and appeared before Lon- 
 don. The king now entered into negotiations with him, 
 and Godwin, with his sons, after giving hostages to pre- 
 serve the peace, were reinstated in their possessions. 
 Died in 1053. 
 
 See Lingard's " History of England." 
 
 Godwin, (Francis,) an English antiquary, born in 
 Northamptonshire in 1561, was appointed Bishop of 
 Llandaff. He was the author of a "Catalogue of the 
 Bishops of England," etc., also a work entitled "The 
 Man in the Moon, by Domingo Gonsales." He became 
 Bishop of Hereford in 1617. Died in 1633. 
 
 God-win, (George,) F.R.S., an Engliflb architect, 
 born in Middlesex in 1815. He wrote a descriptive 
 work called "The Churches of London," (1838,) a col- 
 lection of tales entitled "Facts and Fancies," (1844,) 
 " History in Ruins," and other works. He became editor 
 of the " Builder" in 1S44, since which he has contributed 
 many articles to that valuable weekly journal. He was 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, h, K.,giitturai; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. (JSf^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GODWIN 
 
 1048 
 
 GOETHE 
 
 afterwards employed on the restoration of the church of 
 Saint Mary Redcliff. 
 
 Godwin, (Mary.) See Wollstonecraft. 
 
 Godwin, (Parke,) an American author and editor, 
 born at Paterson, New Jersey, in February, 1816, grad- 
 uated at Princeton College in 1834. He married a 
 daughter of William C. Bryant, the poet, whom he as- 
 sisted as associate editor of the New York " Evening 
 Post" from 1837 to 1853. He published a periodical, 
 called "The Pathfinder," for several months in 1843, 
 contributed to the " Democratic Review" many political, 
 literary, and biographical articles, and was editor of 
 " Putnam's Magazine." He translated into English 
 Goethe's "Autobiography," Lamotte-Fouque's "Un- 
 dine" and " Sintram and his Companions," and has 
 been engaged, it is said, for several years in writing a 
 " History of France," (i860.) He is a member of the 
 Republican party. 
 
 Godwin, (Thomas,) an English prelate, born in 
 Berkshire in 15 17. He became a Protestant at an early 
 age, and was appointed Dean of Christ Church in 1565. 
 He was made Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1584. Died 
 in 1590. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses. " 
 
 Godwin, (Thomas,) a learned English divine, born 
 in Somersetshire in 1587, was master of Royse's free 
 school, in Abingdon, for the use of which he wrote his 
 "Anthology of Roman History." In 1616 he published 
 a "Synopsis of Hebrew Antiquities." Died in 1643. 
 
 Godwin, (William,) a celebrated English novelist, 
 was born in Cambridgeshire in 1756. He studied at 
 the Independent Theological College at Hoxton. After 
 having filled the clerical office for five years, he visited 
 London, where he began his career as an author. His 
 first work, entitled "Political Justice," appeared in 1793. 
 It made a great sensation, and brought much opprobrium 
 on the author, who was thought to sympathize with the 
 principles of the French Revolution. The next year he 
 published "Caleb Williams," a novel, which was very 
 successful. In 1794, when several of Godwin's friends 
 were tried for high treason, he wrote " Cursory Stric- 
 tures" on the charge delivered by Judge Eyre to the 
 jury, and in this way rendered essential service to the 
 accused. In 1796 he married Mary Wollstonecraft, and 
 after her death, in 1797, he edited her posthumous works 
 and published a memoir of her. He produced "Saint 
 Leon," a novel, in 1799, and engaged in business as a 
 bookseller about 1804. In 1808 he wrote an "Essay on 
 Sepulchres ; or, Proposal for Erecting some Memorial of 
 the Illustrious Dead on the Spot where their Remains 
 have been interred." In 1816 his novel "Mandeville" 
 appeared. He next wrote a "Treatise on Population," 
 and in 1828 published his "History of the Common- 
 wealth of England." His last novel, "Cloudesley," was 
 brought out in 1830, when the author was seventy-four 
 years of age. His last work, entitled " Lives of the 
 Necromancers," appeared in 1834. When Lord Grey 
 came into power, he bestowed on Godwin the office of 
 yeoman usher of the exchequer. Though distinguished 
 as a political writer, he has displayed his greatest talent 
 in his novels, of which "Caleb Williams" and " Mande- 
 ville" are considered the best. Died in 1836. 
 
 See the critique on Godwin in Hazlitt's Miscellaneous Works, 
 vol. v.; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1830 ; De Quincev, " Lite- 
 rary Reminiscences," vol. i. 
 
 Goebel. See Gobel. 
 
 Goeckingk. See Gockingk. 
 
 Goedeke. See Godeke. 
 
 Goelike. See Goi.ike. 
 
 Goenner. See Gonner. 
 
 Goeppert. See Gopi>ert. 
 
 Goeree, noo'Ra, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, son of Wil- 
 lem, noticed below, was born at Middelburg in 1670. He 
 adorned with his pictures the Burghers' Hall at Amster- 
 dam. Died in 1731. 
 
 Goeree, (Willem,) a Dutch writer and bookseller 
 of extensive learning, born at Middelburg in 1635. He 
 published a " History of the Jewish Church," etc., and 
 other works on various subjects. Died in 171 1. 
 
 Goerenz. See Gorenz. 
 
 Goergei or Goergey. See Gorgey. 
 
 Goerres. See Gorres. 
 
 Goertz. See Gortz, (Johann Eustach.) 
 
 Goertz or Gortz, gbKts, (Georg Henrik,) Baron, 
 a Swedish statesman, who became minister of finance 
 under Charles XII. Soon after the death of that sove- 
 reign he was arrested and executed at Stockholm (1719) 
 on a charge of having prolonged the war and brought 
 pecuniary distress upon the nation. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Histoire de Charles XII." 
 
 Goertze. See Gortze. 
 
 Goes or Goez, de, da go'ez, (Damiao,) a Portuguese 
 historian and statesman, born near Lisbon in 1501. He 
 was sent on important missions to Poland, Denmark, 
 and Sweden, and afterwards appointed historiographer 
 of the kingdom and keeper of the archives. He wrote 
 a "History of the Prince Don Juan," a "Chronicle of 
 Don Emanuel," (1567,) and other valuable works. He 
 was also an accomplished musician. Died in 1560. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Goes, de, (Pero,) brother of the preceding, was one 
 of the first colonists of Brazil, where he settled about 
 1535 and introduced the culture of the sugar-cane. 
 
 Goes, van der, vSn der hoos, (Hugo,) a celebrated 
 Flemish painter, born at Bruges about 1420, studied 
 under Van Eyck. He is especially admired for the ele- 
 gance of his female heads. Among his best works we 
 may mention " David and Abigail," and the " Crucifixion 
 j between the Two Thieves." During the general destruc- 
 ; tion of pictures and images in 1566, the latter piece was 
 preserved by being coated with black and inscribed with 
 the ten commandments. It was afterwards restored. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flatnands," etc. 
 
 Goes, van der, vtn der Hoos, (Willem,) a Dutch 
 jurist and philologist, born at Leyden in 161 1, was 
 councillor of the supreme court of justice at the Hague. 
 His principal work is called " Pilatus Judex," wherein 
 he attempts to throw light upon circumstances attending 
 the Passion of our Saviour. Died in 1686. 
 
 Goeschel. See Goschel. 
 
 Goeschen. See Goschen. 
 
 Goethals, Hoo'tals, (Felix Victor,) a Belgian lit- 
 terateur, born at Ghent in 1799, became librarian of the 
 public library at Brussels in 1830. Among his works 
 is a " History of Letters and Arts in Belgium and Ad- 
 joining Countries," (4 vols., 1840-44.) 
 
 Goethals, (Hkndrik,) called also Gredals or Cro- 
 dals, a Flemish diplomatist, born at Ghent in 1359. 
 He was successively ambassador to Constantinople, 
 Paris, London, and Rome, and filled, among other offices, 
 that of private secretary to Philip the Bold. Died in 
 
 '433- 
 
 Goethals, van, vtn Hoo'tals, [Lat. Muda'nus.J 
 (Hendrik,) a noted Dutch theologian, born at Muda, 
 near Ghent, (Gand,) about 1218, became Archdeacon of 
 Tournay. He was author of several popular works on 
 theology, one of which is entitled "Summa Theolpgiaj." 
 Died in 1293. 
 
 Goethe or Gothe, von, fen go'teh, (Johann Wolf- 
 gang,) the most illustrious name in German literature, 
 and one of the greatest poets of any age or country, was 
 born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, August 28, 1749. His 
 father, Johann Caspar Goethe, imperial councillor, was 
 of a stern, obstinate, and somewhat pedantic character, 
 though on the whole an upright and worthy man. His 
 maternal grandfather, Johann Wolfgang Textor, was a 
 person of note and the chief magistrate (Schultheiss) of 
 the city of Frankfort. His mother was genial, warm- 
 hearted, and of a singularly bright and happy dispo- 
 sition. She says of herself, "I always seek out the 
 good that is in people, and leave what is bad to Him who 
 made mankind and knows how to round off the corners." 
 Goethe says in one of his poems that from his father he 
 derives his earnestness of purpose, and from his mother 
 his happy disposition and his love of story-telling. The 
 circumstances with which the poet was surrounded in 
 early life were eminently favourable to the development 
 of his great and varied powers, and undoubtedly con- 
 tributed in no small degree to cultivate that "many- 
 sidedness" for which he was afterwards so distinguished. 
 In his autobiography, entitled " Poetry and Truth from 
 
 a, e, I o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 5, ii, j?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; mfJon; 
 
GOETHE 
 
 1049 
 
 GOETHE 
 
 
 my own Life," ("Aus meinem Leben Dichtung und 
 Wahrheit," published in 181 1,) he describes, with graceful 
 naiveti, the influence exerted on his mind by the various 
 events and experiences of childhood. The young Goethe 
 exhibited a wonderful precocity of intellect Early in his 
 seventh year (November I, 1755) the great earthquake 
 which destroyed a large part of Lisbon occurred, and 
 filled his mind with perplexity and doubt. He found it 
 impossible to reconcile that terrible phenomenon with 
 what he had been taught respecting the goodness of 
 Providence. " It was in vain," he says, "that my young 
 mind strove to recover itself from these impressions ; the 
 more so as the wise and learned in Scripture themselves 
 could not agree upon the view which should be taken of 
 the event." His religious perplexities, however, seem 
 gradually to have passed away. In his eighth year we 
 find him, wholly self-prompted, erecting to the Deity 
 an altar in the form of a pyramid, on the sides of which 
 were arranged a variety of substances representing the 
 natural productions of the earth. At the apex was 
 placed the incense, which he kindled by means of a 
 burning-glass just as the sun was rising above the 
 neighbouring house-tops. Before he was nine years of 
 age he could write several different languages, including 
 French, Latin, and Greek. 
 
 He had scarcely reached his tenth year when the 
 French troops occupied the city of Frankfort : this oc- 
 curred during the -Seven Years' war. The Comte de 
 Thorane, the king's lieutenant, was quartered in the 
 house of the poet's father. Young Goethe was thus 
 brought into contact with new characters : he also be- 
 came acquainted with the French theatre. He had 
 several years before amused himself and his mother 
 with inventing romantic stories ; he now began to write 
 French plays. A French boy, near his own age, with 
 whom he had become acquainted, took him to the 
 theatre and introduced him behind the scenes. This 
 same lad sought to instruct him in the proper mode of 
 writing plays, and criticised the dramatic efforts of our 
 poet somewhat unmercifully. This led him to inform 
 himself more particularly respecting the principles of 
 criticism. The result was that he rejected with contempt 
 the canons of the French school ; and it is not impro- 
 bable that the occurrences just related may have exerted 
 an important influence upon the productions of his ma- 
 turer years. In 1761 the French troops quitted Frank- 
 fort, and his regular studies were resumed. About this 
 time he learned to read English, and commenced the 
 study of Hebrew, which led him to a more intimate 
 acquaintance with the Bible. He composed a poem on 
 the subject of Joseph and his brethren. The education 
 of Goethe, until he was sixteen, was carried on at home, 
 under the superintendence of his father. It was his rare 
 bappineu to find in his only sister, Cornelia, not merely 
 an object of his tenderest affection, but one who shared 
 his tastes and cordially sympathized with his poetic 
 aspirations. In October, 1765, he commenced his col- 
 legiate studies at I.eipsic. It was a practice which he 
 adopted in early life, that he always sought, whenever 
 any subject interested him deeply, to give his thoughts 
 and feelings expression in writing. He himself says 
 that all Ids works are but fragments of the grand con- 
 fession of bis life. While at Leipsic, he composed the 
 first of his poems which have been preserved, "The 
 Humours of a Lover," ("Die Laune ties Verliebten ;") 
 "The Fellow-Sinners" ("Die Mitschuldigen") followed 
 soon after. He left Leipsic for Frankfort in 1768. After 
 having been some time detained at home by ill health, 
 he repaired to Strasburg University, in 1770, for the 
 purpose of completing his law studies. At Strasburg he 
 became acquainted with Herder, who was already dis- 
 tinguished among the great men of Germany. The friend- 
 ship thus formed was not without important influence 
 upon the mind of Goethe. By Herder his attention was 
 directed to the Hebrew poets, to Ossian, and to Shak- 
 speare. During his stay at Strasburg he also became 
 acquainted with Frcderica, with whom he fell passion- 
 ately in love. She was the daughter of Herr Brion, 
 pastor of Sesenheim. This little place could be seen 
 from the lofty gallery of Strasburg Cathedral, whence 
 the young lover and poet sometimes pointed out to his 
 
 friends the home of his beloved. Goethe pleased him- 
 self with likening Herr Brion to the Vicar of Wakefield, 
 Frederica to Sophia, and the elder sister to Olivia. 
 
 On his return to Strasburg it was understood that he 
 was the accepted lover of Frederica; although it is prob- 
 able that they were not formally betrothed. He after- 
 wards left her, because, as his friends suggest, his love 
 was not strong enough to justify marriage. Alluding to 
 some of his earlier love-passages, he says, "Gretchen 
 had been taken from me, Annchen had left me ; but now 
 [in the case of Frederica] for the first time I was guilty: 
 I had wounded to its very depths one of the most beau- 
 tiful and tender of hearts. And that period of gloomy 
 repentance, deprived of the love which had so strength- 
 ened me, was agonizing, insupportable." 
 
 Goethe took the degree of Doctor in 1771. But 
 although, in accordance with his father's wishes, he had 
 studied law, his inclinations led him toother pursuits; 
 he seems indeed, even in youth, never to have lost sight 
 of that universal self-culture which was one of the great 
 aims of his life. Not only poetry, but art, science, the 
 languages, philosophy, and criticism, — all were studied 
 by him with an impartiality and success of which the 
 history of the human mind probably furnishes no other 
 example. 
 
 In 1771 he composed one of his most celebrated works, 
 " Gbtz von Berlichingen." He had been deeply inter- 
 ested in the life of Gottfried (or Gbtz) von Berlichingen, 
 of the sixteenth century, written by Gbtz himself. Goethe 
 undertook to dramatize it. " I had," he says, " talked 
 the matter over with my sister, who was interested heart 
 and soul in such subjects ; and I *o often renewed this 
 conversation, without taking any step towards beginning 
 the work, that at last she impatiently and urgently en- 
 treated me not to be always talking, but at once to set 
 down on paper what was so distinctly present to my 
 mind. I wrote the first scenes, and in the evening read 
 them aloud to Cornelia. She warmly applauded them, 
 but doubted whether I should go on so ; she even ex- 
 pressed a decided disbelief in my perseverance. This 
 only excited me the more. I wrote on the next day, and 
 also the third. Thus I kept on, without interruption, 
 looking neither backwards nor forwards, neither to the 
 right nor the left ; and in about six weeks I had the 
 pleasure of seeing the manuscript finished." "Gbtz 
 von Berlichingen," as first written by Goethe, was a 
 dramatized history; but in this form it was not pub- 
 lished until many years later. Having been revised and 
 adapted to the stage, it appeared in 1773 as a drama, 
 (Siliauspicl,) the form by which it is popularly known. 
 It produced a great sensation in the literary circles of 
 Germany. "It is a piece," says one of the critics of 
 'hat day, "in which the three unities are shamefully 
 violated, and which is neither a tragedy nor a comedy, 
 and is, notwithstanding, the most beautiful, the most 
 captivating, monstrosity." In 1774 appeared another 
 work, "Sorrows of Young Werther," ("Leiden des 
 jungen Werther,") which excited a still greater and 
 more universal admiration than " Gbtz" had done. It 
 seemed to fascinate alike men of every class and every 
 nation, and through it Goethe first acquired a European 
 renown. During his Egyptian campaigns, Napoleon is 
 said to have read it through several times ; and its fame, 
 it is asserted, extended even to China. " Werther," 
 says Carlyle, " is but the cry of that dim-rooted pain 
 under which all thoughtful men of a certain age were 
 languishing : it paints the misery, it passionately utters 
 the complaint ; and heart and voice, all over Europe, 
 loudly and at once respond to it. True, it prescribes 
 no remedy ; for that was a far different, far harder en- 
 terprise, to which other years and a higher culture 
 were required ; but even this utterance of pain, even 
 this little, for the present, is grasped at, and with eager 
 sympathy appropriated in every bosom." 
 
 In 1775, attracted by the fame of Goethe, Charles 
 Augustus, (Karl August,) Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar, 
 invited him to spend some time at his court. The 
 acquaintance thus begun ripened afterwards into a 
 life-long friendship. Weimar was at that time the 
 residence of several distinguished persons, among whom 
 were Wieland, Herder, Musacus, Knebel, and Secken- 
 
 « as i, c as s; g hard; g as;; G, H, Y.,guUural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; 3 as z; th as in this. (J|^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GOETHE 
 
 1050 
 
 GOETHE 
 
 dorf. Wieland, who repeatedly calls Goethe a "godlike 
 creature," was captivated by him at first sight. In a 
 letter written soon after their first interview, he says, 
 "How I loved the magnificent youth as I sat beside 
 him at table ! All I can say is this : since that morning 
 my soul is as full of Goethe as a dew-drop of the morn- 
 ing sun." Knebel says, " He rose like a star in the 
 heavens : everybody worshipped him, especially the 
 women." For several months after his arrival at Wei- 
 mar, he appears to have abandoned himself wholly to 
 the excitements of his new life. The duke and the poet 
 were constant companions, and plunged together for a 
 time into the most insane frolics and wildest dissipation. 
 "Goethe will never," says Wieland, "leave this place 
 again ; Karl August can no longer either swim or wade 
 without him." It is almost needless to say that such a 
 life could not long satisfy such a mind. " The want to 
 be once more among simple people and lovely scenes 
 drove him away from Weimar to Waldeck. Amid the 
 crowded tumult of life he ever kept his soul sequestered ; 
 and from the hot air of society he broke impatiently 
 away to the serenity of solitude." (Lewes's " Life of 
 Goethe," vol. i. p. 355.) He was called back to Weimar 
 by the grand duke, and in June, 1776, created Gcheimer- 
 Legationsrath, (" Privy Councillor of Legation,") with a 
 salary of twelve hundred thalers. The duke, writing to 
 Goethe's father, said that the appointment was a mere 
 formality ; adding, " Goethe can have but one position, 
 — that of my friend : all others are beneath him." 
 
 The first great production of our poet, after he had 
 seriously resumed his studies, was " Iphigenia aufTauris," 
 (" Iphigeni'a at Tauris.") This piece was first written 
 in prose ; Goethe afterwards turned it into verse, pro- 
 ducing what many critics have declared to be the finest 
 modern specimen of the Greek tragedy. In 1786 Goethe 
 visited Italy. In order that he might pursue his studies 
 undisturbed, he travelled incognito. He spent some 
 time in Venice, with which city he seems to have been 
 enchanted. He passed through Ferrara, Bologna, and 
 Florence, on his way to Rome, where he arrived about 
 the end of October. He remained there four months. 
 "All the dreams of my youth," he says, " I now see living 
 before me. Everywhere I go I find an old familiar face. 
 Everything is just what I thought it, and yet everything 
 is new." He subsequently visited Naples, Pompeii, and 
 the ruins of Paestum, carrying with him everywhere a 
 soul intensely susceptible to the beauties both of nature 
 and of art. An account of what he saw and felt while 
 in Italy is given in his " Italianische Reise," (" Italian 
 Journey.") He returned to Weimar in June, 1788. In 
 the autumn of that year he first became acquainted with 
 Christiane Vulpius, a young woman in humble life, whom 
 he afterwards married. She had presented him a peti- 
 tion entreating him to procure some position for her 
 brother, a young author, then living at Jena. Goethe 
 was greatly smitten with her beauty, naivete, and spright- 
 liness. His liaison with her gave rise to much scandal, 
 on account of the disparity of station j and the scandal 
 was not lessened when, many years later, (1806,) he per- 
 formed an act of tardy justice in marrying her. She 
 had, in 1789, borne him a son, August von Goethe, to 
 whom the Duke of Saxe- Weimar stood godfather. After 
 this event Goethe took Christiane, with her mother and 
 sister, to live with him in his own house ; and he appears 
 always to have regarded the connection as a marriage. 
 His conduct in relation to this affair was, however, a 
 source of mortification and deep regret to many of his 
 admirers. "The nation," says Schafer, "has never for- 
 given its greatest poet for this rupture with law and cus- 
 tom ; nothing has stood so much in the way of a right 
 appreciation of his moral character, nothing has created 
 more false judgments on the tendency of his writings, 
 than this half-marriage." His friends urge two consider- 
 ations in extenuation of his conduct, which certainly 
 ought not to be lost sight of: first, the general laxity 
 of morals then prevailing among the upper classes in 
 Germany ; secondly, the disparity of position between 
 the humble Christiane and the illustrious Goethe, the 
 world-renowned poet, and the councillor and intimate 
 friend of the Grand Duke of Weimar. It is said that she 
 rejected his offers of marriage on this very ground, and 
 
 that she herself had declared that it was her own fault 
 that the marriage ceremony had been so long delayed. 
 
 In 1792, with the duke, Charles Augustus, Goethe ac- 
 companied the Prussian army in the invasion of Prance. 
 In that campaign he showed that he was not wanting 
 in courage of the most reckless kind; but he returned 
 to Weimar thoroughly disgusted with the war and with 
 military life. He published soon after a scientific work, 
 entitled "Theory or Doctrine of Colours," ("Farben- 
 lehre,") in which he called in question the correctness 
 of the Newtonian theory. It is proper to state that his 
 views have not been adopted by the scientific world. 
 
 The poet Schiller had in 1789, partly through Goethe's 
 influence, been appointed to the chair of history in the 
 University of Jena. In 1794 these two illustrious men 
 — "twin sons of Jove," (Dioscuri,) as the Germans de- 
 lighted to call them — were brought frequently together; 
 and, although their characters were so different that they 
 seemed to have scarcely anything in common excepting 
 literary taste and transcendent genius, their acquaintance 
 gradually ripened into a noble and enduring friendship, 
 which exerted an important and most beneficial influence 
 on the minds of both. The correspondence of Schiller 
 and Goethe is of rare interest and value to all the lovers 
 of literature. 
 
 To return to Goethe's works. " Egmont," a tragedy, 
 which had been completed in Italy, was published in 
 1788, soon after his return to Weimar. His "Tasso" 
 appeared in 1790. In 1795, " Wilhelm Meister's Lehr- 
 jahre" ("Apprenticeship") was given to the world ; this 
 was long after (1821) followed by his " Wanderjahre," 
 ("Travelling Years.") In 1806 appeared the first part 
 of " Faust," the great work of Goethe's life. He had 
 revolved the subject in his mind for more than thirty 
 years. This long delay was not without its fruits. The 
 great poet has, indeed, embodied in this work the re- 
 sults of his mature and infinitely varied experience, with 
 his ripest, richest, and profoundest thoughts ; the whole 
 being wrought out with admirable skill, and everywhere 
 illumined, so to speak, with passages of the most exqui- 
 site poetry, touching in turn every chord of the human 
 heart. Without indorsing the enthusiastic praise of some 
 of Goethe's admirers, who have pronounced " Faust" to 
 be unqualifiedly "the greatest poem of modern times," we 
 may safely say that it is one of the most wonderful pro- 
 ductions of genius to be found in the whole compass 
 of literature. The tale, or novel, entitled " Wahlver- 
 wandtschaften," (" Elective Affinities,") appeared in 1809. 
 Considered simply as a piece of creative art, this is one 
 of the most admirable of all of Goethe's productions. In 
 none of his other works are the characters drawn with 
 more vividness and power. The illusion produced by 
 the poet-artist is perfect ; so that each of the persons 
 represented is to the reader an absolute and living 
 reality. The moral tendency, however, of the story is 
 more than questionable. The aim of the author, it would 
 seem, is to teach that the attachments between the sexes 
 are governed, like chemical affinities, by fixed, inevitable 
 laws, which it is as impossible to oppose successfully as 
 to resist the decrees of fate. 
 
 Besides those already noticed, we may mention among 
 Goethe's works "Clavigo," (published in 1774,) "Her- 
 mann und Dorothea," (1796-97,) "Eugenie," (1804,) 
 and " West-Oestliche Divan," (1819,) in which Oriental 
 images and scenes are described with Western feelings 
 and colouring ; hence the epithet " West-Oestliche" 
 (" West-Eastern") which the author has applied to this 
 work. The second part of " Faust" was not finished 
 until 1830. It has enjoyed far less popularity than the 
 first part, and by the great majority of critics is con- 
 sidered to be decidedly inferior to it. Goethe's mind was 
 active to the last. He continued to study and to write 
 till within a few days of his death, which took place at 
 Weimar on the 22d of March, 1832. 
 
 In person Goethe was eminently handsome, — tall, 
 graceful, and well proportioned. "That accordance of 
 personal appearance with genius," says Heine, "which 
 we ever desire to see in distinguished men, was found 
 in perfection in Goethe. His outward appearance was 
 just as imposing as the word that lives in his writings. 
 Even his form was symmetrical, expressive of joy, nobly 
 
 i, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, oArirar<r; far, fall, fat; mJt; not; good; moon; 
 
GOETHE 
 
 io;i 
 
 GOGOL 
 
 proportioned ; and one might study the Grecian art upon 
 it as well as upon an antique." The same writer con- 
 tinues, in a more extravagant strain, " His eyes were calm 
 as those of a god. It is the peculiar characteristic of 
 the gods that their gaze is ever steady, and their eyes 
 roll not to and fro in uncertainty. . . . The eye of 
 Goethe remained in his latest age just as divine as in 
 his youth." (Heine's "Letters," translated by G. W. 
 Haven, Boston, 1836.) 
 
 Never, perhaps, was there a human character about 
 which more varying and contradictory opinions have 
 been entertained than about that of Goethe. This is to 
 be chiefly attributed, — first, to the wonderful depth and 
 originality of his mind, and, secondly, to its many-, or 
 rather myriad-, sidedness. It has been said that, in spite 
 of the beautiful sentiments and admirable characters 
 with which his works abound, he himself was cold, cal- 
 culating, and thoroughly selfish. But this charge is 
 contradicted by his whole life. He appears, indeed, to 
 have always felt for every form of actual suffering a true 
 and ready sympathy, which he manifested rather by acts 
 than by words.* Another charge, more frequently urged, 
 and perhaps better founded, than the preceding, is that 
 he was utterly destitute of any real sympathy with the 
 rights and interests of the common people. It was one 
 of his marked peculiarities that he entertained a distrust 
 and dislike of all abstractions, and he had little or no 
 sympathy with mere ideas or ideal systems. He felt no 
 interest in democracy, because to him democracy was 
 an abstraction. He did not sympathize with his country- 
 men in their struggle for German independence, because 
 they aimed, as he thought, at what was impracticable. 
 However mistaken this opinion proved to be, it was 
 beyond all doubt perfectly sincere. He disliked politics, 
 for which, indeed, he appears to have felt he had no 
 vocation. His genius lay in a totally different direction. 
 
 His aversion to abstractions and his love of the con- 
 crete may be said to have given form to all his views, 
 religious, moral, and social. He refused to recognize a 
 Deity that was above and distinct from the world ; for 
 he considered every part of nature — the entire universe, 
 in short — to be divine. He did not hold, with the Pla- 
 tonists or Christians, that mankind have fallen from an 
 ideal or divine perfection, after which they must con- 
 tinually strive if they would be restored. 
 
 He was a worshipper of Nature ; and his moral creed, 
 if not distinctly avowed, may be readily gathered from 
 many expressions in his works or his recorded conver- 
 sations : it may be thus briefly summed up, "Everything 
 that is natural is right ;" in other words, " Nothing is 
 really wrong except what is unnatural." We accord- 
 ingly find him quoting with apparent approbation the 
 saying of Thraseas, " He who hates faults or vices hates 
 men," ("Qui vitia odit homines odit,") which, says Mr. 
 Lewes, " was just the sort of passage to captivate him." 
 It may readily be conceded that, whatever evils might 
 result from the general adoption of so loose a system 
 of morals, these evils would be much mitigated in one 
 whose perception of moral as well as aesthetic beauty 
 was so vivid and intense. But it was not without an in- 
 jurious influence even upon him. It was the great defect 
 of Goethe's character that his virtues, like his faults, 
 were toe often the offspring of mere feeling or impulse 
 uncontrolled by any fixed principles of duty or right. It 
 is thus, indeed, we are to explain the fact that so many 
 of his writings are destitute of anything like a moral 
 purpose. This charge has been made particularly against 
 his " Wilhelm Meister." It is not enough to reply that 
 the author did not set himself up as a preacher of mo- 
 rality. His admirers will not deny that he aimed to give 
 a picture of human life, or a narrative of human events : 
 in either case there should have been at least so much 
 of moral teaching as we find everywhere interwoven with 
 the tissue of human affairs. If Goethe had possessed a 
 just and true appreciation of the importance of moral 
 principles, such a conviction could not fail to make 
 itself felt in his works. The moral need not, to use the 
 language of Miss Edgewqrth, be "sewed on in purple 
 
 • For a remarkable instance of this, see Lewes's " Life of Goethe,' 
 book iv. chapter viii. 
 
 patches," but be " interwoven with the very texture of 
 the stuff." In the dramas of Shakspeare we perceive a 
 moral element constantly pervading the story, yet with- 
 out being in the least obtruded upon the reader. So in 
 history we behold a "divinity that shapes our ends, rough 
 hew them how we will."* Many of Goethe's sincerest 
 admirers have felt and acknowledged the faults in his 
 character to which we have adverted. While giving him 
 credit for a rare sincerity and for many generous and 
 noble qualities, they cannot help regretting the absence 
 of a fixed and lofty moral purpose which might serve as 
 a keystone to his other attributes. (Respecting Goethe's 
 character and moral influence, see an excellent article 
 in the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1857, vol. cvi.) 
 With regard to Goethe's rank as a man of genius, if we 
 cannot concede all that Carlyle and some of his other 
 devoted admirers claim for him, still less can we agree 
 with De Quincey, that, owing to a rare combination of 
 external circumstances, it has been his fortune to take a 
 far higher rank in European literature than his actual 
 merits would justify. But these are questions which the 
 reader must examine and settle for himself. 
 
 See Lewes, "Life of Goethe," 2 vols., 1855; Goethe, Auto- 
 biography, " Aus nieinem Leben Dichtung und Wahrheit," 5 vols., 
 1811-12, (translated into English by Parke Godwin. 2 vols., 1847 ;) 
 Viehoff, "Gbthe's Leben," 4 vols., 1847; Kckhkmann, " Conversa- 
 tions with Gothe," (" Gesprache mit Gothe:") " Characteristics of 
 Gothe," bySAKAH Austin, 3 vols., London, 1833; Caklyle. " Es- 
 says ;" De Quincey, "Biographical Essays," article " Goethe ;" 
 Emerso*, "Representative Men;" Longfellow, "Poets and 
 Poetry of Europe," 1855; Heinrich D6ring, "Goethe's Leben," 
 182S: Varnhagen von Ense, "Goelhe in den Zengnissen der Mit- 
 lebenden," 1S23 ; Rosenkranz, "Goethe und seine Werke,".i856; 
 Carl Morgenstern, "J. W. Goethe," 1833; Makmikr, " Etudes 
 sur Goethe," 1835; F. Pfeiffer, "Goethe und Klopstock," 1840; 
 J. W. Sciiaefkr, "J. W. Goethe's Leben," 1851 ; F. Rihmlr, 
 Mittheilungeniiber Goethe," 2 vols., 1841 ; A. Nicolovius, " Ueber 
 Goethe," etc., 1828; Duntzer. "Gothe als Dramatiker," 1837. 
 
 Goettling. See GoTTLiNG. 
 
 Goetz. See Gorz. 
 
 Goetze. See Gotze. 
 
 Goetziuger. See Gotzinger. 
 
 Goez. See Goz. 
 
 Goffe or Gough, gof, (Thomas,) an English divine 
 and dramatist, born .in Essex about 1592. He was the 
 author of tragedies entitled "The Raging Turk," and 
 "Orestes;" also of several comedies. Died in 1629. 
 
 Goffe, gof, (William,) an English Puritan and regi- 
 cide, was one of the judges of Charles I., and a general 
 in Cromwell's army. In company with Whalley, another 
 outlaw, he retired to New England in 1660, and lived 
 in concealment. During an attack of the savages on 
 Hadley, (1675,) Goffe, it is said, suddenly appeared, 
 rallied the whites, and repulsed the enemy. 
 
 See Neal's " History of New England." 
 
 Gofiredo di Buglione. See Godfrey of Bouillon. 
 
 Gogol, go'gol, (Nikolai Vassilievitch,) a celebrated 
 Russian writer, born about 1810. Having visited Saint 
 Petersburg about 1830, he published soon after a series 
 of tales entitled "Evenings at a Farm- House," contain- 
 ing admirable delineations of rural life in Russia. They 
 immediately obtained great popularity, and were trans- 
 lated into French by M. Viardot. His next publication 
 was the comedy of the "Revisor," which also met with 
 brilliant success, and is perhaps the most popular work 
 of the kind in the language. "The Dead Souls," (1842,) 
 a comic satire on ignorance and prejudice, was received 
 with equal enthusiasm. Gogol, who had previously been 
 appointed professor of history in the University ol Saint 
 Petersburg, soon after visited Rome, where he wrote a 
 series of letters (published at Saint Petersburg in 1847) 
 which gave great offence to his liberal friends in Russia. 
 In these he appears as the defender of tyranny, both in 
 church and state, instead of the advocate of serf emanci- 
 pation and popular progress, as he had shown himself in 
 
 • One of the ablest and most thorough historian* of the present 
 age. and one who will scarcely be accused of a disposition to accept 
 popular theories without examination, icils us that, amid all the half 
 truths and uncertainties of history, one lesson is distinctly taught, — 
 that "the moral law is written on the tablets of etenmt v. 
 For every false word or unrighteous deed, for cruelly and 0] 
 sion, for lust or vanity, the price has to be paid a' last." (Lecture 
 on "Science of History," in Froude's "Short Studies on Great 
 Subject*.") 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, m,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as *; th as in this. (jjy~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GOGUET 
 
 1052 
 
 GOLDSMITH 
 
 his novel of " The Dead Souls." He returned to Russia 
 in 1848, and died at Moscow in February, 1852. An 
 excellent French translation of the " Kevisor" has been 
 made by M. Merimee, and an imperfect English version 
 of " The Dead Souls" came out in 1854, entitled " Home- 
 Life in Russia." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^ne"rale;" "British Quarterly Re- 
 view" for April, 1868. 
 
 Goguet, go'gi', (Antoine Yves,) a French jurist, 
 born in Paris in 1716. He wrote an important work 
 " On the Origin of Laws, Arts, and Sciences, and their 
 Progress among the Ancients," (3 vols., 1758,) "the 
 success of which," says M. Weiss, "was brilliant and 
 merited." ("Biographie Universelle.") Died in 1758. 
 
 Gohier, go'e-4', (Louis Jek6me,) a director of the 
 French republic, was born at Semblancay in 1746. He 
 was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and 
 succeeded Garat as minister of justice in March, 1793. 
 Having been removed in April, 1794, he was elected a 
 member of the Directory in June, 1799. He was presi- 
 dent of the Directory when Bonaparte returned from 
 Egypt, and, in concert with Moulins, opposed the coup 
 d'etat oi the 18th Brumaire, even after their colleagues 
 had resigned. " He was an honest citizen," says Thiers, 
 "and devoted to the republic" ("History of the French 
 Revolution.") Died in Paris in 1830. 
 
 See Louis Jer&me Gohikr, " Mernoires," 2 vols., 1824; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge^ierale." 
 
 Gohl. See Golius. 
 
 Gohory or Gohorry, go'o're', (Jacques,) a French 
 litterateur, born in Paris, translated into French Machia- 
 vel's "Prince," and other works, and wrote a treatise 
 " On the Knowledge of the Virtues of the Herb called 
 Petum, [Tobacco,]" (1572.) Died in 1576. ' 
 
 Gois, gwa, (Edme Etienne Francois,) a French 
 sculptor, born in Paris in 1765, executed statues of Char- 
 lemagne, Joan of Arc, and Bonaparte. Died in 1836. 
 
 Golbery, de, deh gol'ba're', (Marie Philippe Aime,) 
 a French lawyer and antiquary, born at Colmar in 1786, 
 wrote many antiquarian treatises, and translated into 
 French Niebuhr's " History of Rome." Died in 1854. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." , 
 
 Golbery, de, (Sylvain Meinrad Xavier,) a French 
 officer, born at Colmar in 1742, explored the western 
 coast of Africa in 1785-87, and wrote a " Fragment of a 
 Journey in Africa," (2 vols., 1802.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Goldast von Heimingsfeld, gol'dast fon hl'mings- 
 felt', (Melchior,) a learned historian and jurist, born 
 near Bischofszell, in Switzerland, in 1576. Among his 
 most important works we may cite " Scriptores Rerum 
 Suevicarum," (1605,) and "Collectio Constitutionum 
 Imperialium," (1607.) Died in 1635. 
 
 See Froriep, " Beitrage zu der Lebensgeschichte des Publicisten 
 Goldast," 1780; Bayle," Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Nice- 
 kon, " Memorres." 
 
 Goldfuss, golt'fooss, (Georg August,) a German 
 naturalist, and professor of zoology and mineralogy at 
 Bonn, was born near Baireuth in 1782. He published 
 " Representations and Descriptions of the Petrifactions 
 of Germany," and other works. Died in 1848. 
 
 Goldhagen, golt'ha'gen, (Hermann,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born at Mentz in 1718, published, besides other 
 works, a "Greek-Latin Lexicon, "(1753.) Died in 1794. 
 
 Goldhagen, (Johann Eustace,) a German philolo- 
 gist, born at Nordhausen in 1 701, was rector of the 
 gymnasium of Magdeburg. He translated Herodotus, 
 Xenophon, and Pausanias into German. Died in 1772. 
 
 Gold'iug, (Arthur,) an English writer and able 
 translator, born in London, lived about 1560-90. He 
 finished the translation of Philippe de Mornay's treatise 
 "Sur la Verite du Christianisme," commenced by Sir 
 Philip Sidney, and published versions of the theological 
 works of Calvin and Grosteste, also of Caesar, Seneca, 
 and other Latin classics. He also translated Ovid's 
 " Metamorphoses" into English verse. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry." 
 
 Goldmann. See Chrysander. 
 
 Goldmayer, golt'mT'er, (Andreas,) a German as- 
 tronomer and astrologer, born at Gunzenhausen in 1603 ; 
 died in 1664. 
 
 Goldoni, gol-d5'nee, (Carlo,) a celebrated Italian 
 comic author, born in Venice in 1707. He manifested a 
 passion for theatrical performances in early childhood, 
 and wrote a comedy at the age of eight. He was libe- 
 rally educated, studied law, and graduated at Padua in 
 1 73 1, after which he practised as an advocate in Venice 
 for a short time. In 1734 he produced a drama called 
 " Belisario." He married a Genoese lady in 1 736. Having 
 renounced the profession of advocate, he composed in 
 rapid succession numerous comedies, which were per- 
 formed with applause, and effected an important reform 
 of the Italian theatre. He became a resident of Paris in 
 1761, and received a pension from the king, who also 
 appointed him Italian teacher to the princesses. He 
 wrote several comedies in French, one of which, " Le 
 Bourru bienfaisant," (1 771,) met with brilliant success. 
 Among his other comedies are " The Flatterer,"(" L' Adu- 
 latore,") "La Donna di Garbo," " II Bugiardo," and " II 
 Vecchio bizarro." Goldoni was one of the best comic 
 writers that Italy has produced. He died in Paris in 
 1793, leaving Memoirs of his Life, (3 vols., 1787, in 
 French,) which are said to be very interesting, and 
 were pronounced by Gibbon "more comic than the best 
 comedies of their author." 
 
 See, also, G. Giovanni, "Vita di Carlo Goldoni," 1821 ; Mfne- 
 ghezzi, " Memorie della Vita di Carlo Goldoni," 1827 ; Luigi Carrer, 
 "Saggio su la Vitae su le Opere di C Goldoni," 3 vols., 1824; Long- 
 fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Goldsborough, golz'bur-reh, (Lewis M.,) an Ame- 
 rican rear-admiral, born in Washington, District of Co- 
 lumbia, in 1805. He became a lieutenant in 1825, married 
 a daughter of William Wirt, and gained the rank of 
 commander in 1841. In 1855 he was raised to the rank 
 of captain, and in September, 1861, took command of the 
 North Atlantic Blockading Squadron. He commanded 
 the fleet which co-operated with General Burnside in the 
 capture of Roanoke Island in February, 1862. 
 
 Goldschmidt, golt'shmit, (Hermann,) a German 
 painter and astronomer, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main 
 in 1802. He settled in Paris about 1S36. Among the 
 works which have procured him a high reputation are 
 the "Cumsan Sibyl," (1845,) " The Offering to Venus," 
 (1S46,) and "Cleopatra." lie has acquired celebrity by 
 astronomical observations which have resulted in the 
 discovery of the following asteroids : Lutetia, (1852,) Po- 
 mona, (1854,) Atalanta, (1855,) Harmonia and Daphne, 
 (1856,) Nysa, (1857,) etc. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Goldschmidt, Madame. See Lind, (Jenny.) 
 
 Goldschmidt, golt'shmit, (Meyer Aaron,) a Danish 
 novelist, born in Jutland in 1819. Among his works is 
 " The Homeless Man," (5 vols., 1853-57.) 
 
 Gold'smith, (Oliver,) an eminent poet and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, was born in Ireland, at Pallas, in the 
 county of Longford, in 1728. Having early manifested 
 a talent for making rhymes, his uncle, the Rev. Thomas 
 Contarine, offered to send him at his own expense to the 
 University of Dublin. He entered Trinity College as a 
 sizar in 1745. Here he was more remarkable for idle- 
 ness and love of dissipation than for his devotion to his 
 studies. He took his degree of B.A. in 1749, two yens 
 after the regular time. Yielding fo the wishes of his 
 uncle, he now prepared to enter the church; but he was 
 rejected by the bishop when he applied for orders. His 
 uncle next sent him to London to study law ; but on 
 his way he spent in gambling the money furnished for 
 his travelling expenses, and returned home with empty 
 pockets. His generous relative, however, forgave all 
 his offences, and soon after sent him to study medicine 
 at Edinburgh, where he spent two years; after which 
 he visited Leyden, where he remained about a year, and 
 then set out, " with only one clean shirt, and no money in 
 his pocket," to make the tour of Europe on foot. The 
 following passage in the "Vicar of Wakefield," which 
 probably has reference to himself, may explain to us how 
 he supported himself while travelling. " I had some 
 knowledge of music, and now turned what was once my 
 amusement into a present means of subsistence. When- 
 ever I approached a peasant's house towards nightfall, I 
 played one of my most merry tunes ; and that procured 
 me not only a lodging, but subsistence for the next day." 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, |, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
GOLIATH 
 
 •°53 
 
 GOLTZIUS 
 
 He sojourned six months at Padua, in Italy, and is sup- 
 posed to have taken his medical degree either at that 
 place or Louvain. Having heard, while in Italy, of the 
 death of his uncle, he immediately set out for England, 
 where he landed in 1756. 
 
 On his arrival in London he was first employed as an 
 usher in a school at Peckham, and afterwards became 
 an apothecary's assistant. In 1758 he was appointed 
 physician to one of the factories in India, but he declined 
 the offer, and turned his attention to the study of letters. 
 In 1759 he published his "Present State of Literature 
 in Europe." In the same year he wrote several essays 
 for a periodical called "The Bee," of which only eight 
 numbers appeared. He next published some contribu- 
 tions to Smollett's "British Magazine," and the "Chi- 
 nese Letter." In 1762 he wrote "The Vicar of Wake- 
 field," while under arrest for debt, from which he was 
 released by Dr. Johnson, who obtained from a bookseller 
 .£60 for the work. It was not published, however, till 
 1766. "The Traveller," a part of which had been writ- 
 ten in Switzerland, came out in 1764. It was received 
 with great favour, and at once established the repu- 
 tation of its author. About this time he wrote "Letters 
 from a Nobleman to his Son," "Life of Beau Nash," 
 and several compilations. In the early part of 1768 
 the comedy of " The Good-natured Man" was brought 
 out at Covent-Garden Theatre, but was not very well 
 received. "The Deserted Village" appeared in 1770. 
 Soon after this he began his Histories of Rome, Greece, 
 and England, and also engaged, with several of his lite- 
 rary friends, in a periodical called "The Gentleman's 
 Journal," which, however, had a very brief existence, 
 dying, as Goldsmith said, "of too many doctors." His 
 next comedy, " She Stoops to Conquer," came out in 
 1773, and met with complete success. Dr. Johnson said 
 that "he knew of no comedy for many years that had 
 answered so much the great end of comedy, — making an 
 audience merry." His " History of the Earth and Ani- 
 mated Nature was published in 1774. Shortly after the 
 appearance of this work, Goldsmith was attacked by a 
 fever, which, being aggravated by improper treatment, 
 and also by pecuniary troubles, caused his death, on 
 the 4th of April, 1774. Though Goldsmith's fame rests 
 chiefly on his poems, he merits little less admiration as 
 a prose-writer. The rich yet delicate humour of some 
 of his essays has perhaps never been excelled. He 
 possessed great benevolence and warmth of feeling, but 
 he wanted steadiness of principle, and was at all times 
 the creature of impulse. He also manifested on many 
 occasions a considerable degree of vanity and feelings 
 of petty jealousy. 
 
 "Of all romances in miniature," says Schlegel, "the 
 ' Vicar of Wakefield' is the most exquisite;" and this 
 may be said to be the judgment of nearly all competent 
 critics. Perhaps no English prose work of fiction is so 
 generally admired in Germany as that above named. 
 
 See John Forster, "Life and Adventures of O. Goldsmith," 
 1848; W. Irving, "Goldsmith; a Biography," 1850; James Prior, 
 " Life of Q. Goldsmith." 2 vols., 1837 ; Johnson's and Chalmkks's 
 "Lives of tile English Poets;" Percy, " Life of Goldsmith, " 1801 ; 
 John Mitford, "Life of O. Goldsmith;" Sir W. Scott's Mis- 
 cellaneous Prose Works ; " London Quarterly Review," vol. lvn. ; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1S37 ; Macaulay's notice 0/ Gold- 
 smith in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Go-li'ath, [Heb. /vSj,] a giant leader of the Philis- 
 tines, is supposed to have flourished in the eleventh 
 century B.C. Having challenged the Israelites to single 
 combat,' no one was found willing to meet him except 
 David, who slew him with a stone from his sling. (See 
 t 1st Book of Samuel.) 
 
 Go'll-us, (Jakob,) an eminent Dutch Orientalist, 
 born at the Hague in 1596. He distinguished himself 
 at the University of Leyden by his attainments in the 
 classics, mathematics, and philosophy, and subsequently 
 studied Arabic under Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied 
 the Dutch embassy to Morocco as interpreter, and pre- 
 sented a memorial in Arabic to the emperor. Erpenius 
 having died in 1624, Golius succeeded him as professor 
 of Arabic at Leyden. He 90on after obtained permission 
 to visit the East, and, having spent four years in Asia 
 Minor and Arabia, returned in 1629, bringing with him 
 a very large and choice collection of manuscripts. He 
 
 had been appointed during his absence professor of ma- 
 thematics. His principal work is his "Lexicon Arabico. 
 Latinum," (1653,) which is still highly esteemed ; he also 
 fjnished the translation of Elmacin's "History of the 
 Saracens," which was begun by Erpenius, and published 
 other learned works. Died in 1667. 
 
 See J. F. Gronovius," Laudatio funebris J. Golii,"i66S; Baylk, 
 " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biographic Cini- 
 rale. " 
 
 Golius, (Pieter,) brother of the preceding, born at 
 Leyden, was also distinguished as an Oriental scholar. 
 He became professor of Arabic in the Carmelite Semi- 
 nary at Rome, and was afterwards a missionary to Asia, 
 where he founded a monastery of his order on Mount 
 Lebanon. He translated into Arabic the " Imitation of 
 Jesus Christ," and published other works. Died in 1673. 
 
 Gollut, go'lu', (Louis,) a French historian, born in 
 Burgundy, wrote " Historical Memoirs of the Republic 
 and the Princes of Burgundy." Died in 1595. 
 
 Golovin, go-lo-veen', (Fkodor Alexievjtch,) a dis- 
 tinguished Russian, who became high-chancellor under 
 Peter the Great. In 1689 he was commissioned to sign 
 a treaty of perpetual peace between Russia and China. 
 Died in 1706. His son Nicholas, born in 1694, was 
 sent as Russian minister to the court of Sweden, and 
 became afterwards president of the College of the Ad- 
 miralty. Died in 1745. 
 
 See Bantich-Kamenski, "Histoire des Hommes illustres dtt 
 Regne de Pierre le Grand." 
 
 Golovin or Golowin, (Ivan,) a Russian senator and 
 admiral, distinguished for integrity, lived in the reign of 
 Peter the Great, who ordered a medal to be struck in 
 his honour. He was made a vice-admiral in 1725. 
 
 See Berch, " Histoire d'lvan Golovin." 
 
 Golovin, Golovine, or Golowin, (Ivan,) a Russian 
 litte'rateur,born about 1816, travelled in England, France, 
 and Germany, and in 1855 visited the United States. He 
 published "Russian Types and Characters," (1847,) 
 "Russia under Nicholas I.," (in French,) and "Stars 
 and Stripes ; or, American Impressions." 
 
 Golovin, Golovine, or Golowin, (Semen Vassi- 
 ltevitch,) a Russian general and statesman, born in 
 1560. Having supported the claims of Michael Feo- 
 dorovitch to the throne, he was rewarded with a title 
 of nobility, and appointed Governor-General of Kazan, 
 Died in 1634. 
 
 Golovine. See Golovin. 
 
 Golovkin, go-lov-ken', (Gabriel,) Count, a Russian 
 statesman, born in 1660, was a favourite of Peter the 
 Great, whom he accompanied in several of his cam- 
 paigns. He was created chancellor of the empire in 
 1709. He was also patronized by Catherine I. and 
 Peter II. Died in 1734. 
 
 Golovnin, Golovnine, or Golownin, go-1ov-neen', 
 (Vasilii,) a Russian navigator, who sailed in 1809 to 
 make a survey of the coasts of the Russian empire. 
 After an absence of two years, during which he was 
 imprisoned for a time in Japan, he returned to Russia, 
 where he published in 1816 an account of his voyage 
 and captivity, which was translated into several lan- 
 guages. Died in 1832. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale ;" " London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for November, 1820. 
 
 Golowin. See Goi.ovin. 
 
 Golowkin. See Golovkin 
 
 Golownin. See Golovnin. 
 
 Goltz, golts, (August Friedrich Ferdinand,) 
 Count, a Prussian statesman, born at Dresden in 1765. 
 In conjunction with Kalckreuth, he concluded the peace 
 of Tilsit, and in 1812 he negotiated the treaty between 
 France and Prussia. He was subsequently appointed 
 grand marshal of the court. Died in 1832. 
 
 Goltz, von, fon golts, (Georg Conrad,) Baron, an 
 able Prussian general, born in Pomerania in 1704. He 
 was appointed adjutant-general by Frederick the Great 
 in 1740. Died in 1747. 
 
 Goltzius, golt'se-us, (Heinrich,) a celebrated Dutch 
 engraver and painter, born near Venloo in 1558. ile 
 studied under Leonhard at Haarlem, and afterwards at 
 Rome. He executed a number of good pictures; but 
 his reputation rests chiefly on his engravings, which are 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as *; th as in this. (Jf^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GOLTZIUS 
 
 1054 
 
 GONDI 
 
 of great excellence and very numerous. Among these 
 we may name the "Annunciation," after Raphael, the 
 "Adoration of the Shepherds," after Bassano, and an 
 "Adoration of the Kings." Died at Haarlem in 1617. 
 
 See Descamps, "Les Peintres Flaniands;" Nagler, " Neues 
 Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon. " 
 
 Goltzius, (Hubert,) a Dutch antiquary, artist, and 
 numismatist, born at Venloo in 1526. He was appointed 
 royal historiographer and painter by Philip II. of Spain, 
 to whom he dedicated one of his works. He published 
 " Roman Fasti from Antique Coins," etc., (" Fasti 
 Magistratum et Triumphorum Romanorum," etc.,) and 
 other similar treatises. Died at Bruges in 1583. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires;" Foppens, " Bibliotheca Belgica:" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generate;" Felix van Hulst, " H. 
 Goltzius." 
 
 Gomar, go'mar, (Francis,) a celebrated Protestant 
 theologian and controversialist, born at Bruges in 1563. 
 He completed his studies at Oxford and Cambridge in 
 England, and in 1594 was appointed professor of the- 
 ology at Leyden. lie filled the same chair at Saumur 
 in 1614, and subsequently became professor of Hebrew 
 and divinity at Groningen, (1618.) He is chiefly known 
 from his controversy with Arminius ; and the Calvinistic 
 party in Holland received from him the name of Go- 
 marists. Died at Groningen in 1641. 
 
 See R. Simon, " Histoire critique des principalis Commentateurs 
 du Nouveau Testament," chap. xl. ; Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical 
 Dictionary;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Gomara, de, da go-ma'ra, (Francisco Lopez,) a 
 Spanish historian, born at Seville in 1510, was the au- 
 thor of a "Cronica de la Nueva Espana," published in 
 1553. It is written in a concise and elegant style, and 
 was translated into several languages. Died about 1560. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. ii. 
 book v. 
 
 Gombauld, de, deh g6N'bo',(jEAN Ogier — o'zhe-i',) 
 a French poet and epigrammatist, one of the founders of 
 the French Academy, was born at Saintonge in 1567. 
 He was celebrated for his wit, and was one of the circle 
 who frequented the Hotel de Rambouillet. His works 
 include romances, dramas, and sonnets, and epigrams 
 which were particularly admired. It is related of him 
 that he once read one of his poems to Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu, who remarked, " Here are some things I do not 
 understand." "That is not my fault," replied Gom- 
 bauld.- Among his principal works may be named 
 " Endymion," a prose romance, and " Amaranthe," a 
 pastoral. Died in 1666. 
 
 See Pelusson, " Histoire de l'Acadimie Franchise ;" Bayi.e, 
 "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire 
 Historique;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge"neVale. " 
 
 Gomberville, Le Roi de, leh Rwadeh g6N'beVvel', 
 (Marin,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1600, 
 wrote many poems and romances, and was one of the 
 first members of the French Academy. Died in 1674. 
 
 See Pellisson, " Histoire de l'Acad&nie Franchise." 
 
 Gomera, de. See Gomara. 
 
 Go'mer-sall, (Rohert,) an English divine and poet, 
 born in London in 1600. He published a tragedy 
 entitled "Ludpvic Sforza," "The Levite's Revenge," a 
 poem, and a number of sermons. Died in 1646. 
 
 See Wood, " Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Gomes or Gomez, go'mSz, (Francisco Dias,) a 
 Portuguese poet and critic, born at Lisbon. He wrote 
 " The Seasons," and other poems, also a critical essay 
 on the styles of Sa de Miranda, Ferreira, and Camoens, 
 (1790.) Died in 1795. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Gomes or Gomez, (J0A0 Baptista,) a distinguished 
 Portuguese dramatist, wrote a very popular tragedy 
 entitled "Inez de Castro," (published about 1806.) It 
 has been translated into French and German. Died 
 about 1 81 2. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Gomez, go'meHh, (Fernando,) a Spanish soldier, 
 born at Toledo in 1 138, distinguished himself by his 
 skill and bravery in the wars against the Moors. He 
 is said to have been the original founder of the order of 
 Alcantara. Died in 1 182. 
 
 Gomez, (Juan,) a Spanish painter, born about 1550, 
 became court painter to Philip II. Died in 1597. 
 
 Gomez, (Sebastiano,) a celebrated Spanish painter, 
 called " the Mulatto of Murillo," born at Seville about 
 1616. He was originally a slave of Murillo, but, on ac- 
 count of the genius he displayed, was liberated by his 
 master and received among his pupils. Among his mas- 
 ter-pieces is a " Virgin and Child." Died about 1690. 
 
 See Quilliet, "Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Gomez, de, deh go'meV, (Madelene Angelique 
 Foisson — pwa'sdN',) Madame, a French novelist, born 
 in Paris in 1684 Among her best works are "Les 
 Cent Nouvelles" and her " Persian Anecdotes." Died 
 in 1770. 
 
 Gomez de Becerra, de, da go'mJth da ba-theVra, 
 (Alvaro,) a Spanish jurist and statesman, born in Es- 
 tremadura in 1771, became a senator and president of 
 the chamber of the Cortes. 
 
 Gomez de Castro, (Alvarez.) See Castro. 
 
 Gomez de Ciudad Real, go'mSth da the-oo-Dan' 
 ra-al', (Alvarez,) a Spanish Latin poet, born at Guada- 
 laxara in 1488. He wrote several Latin poems, among 
 which is "Thaliachristia," (1522.) Died in 1538. 
 
 Gomez de Ciudad Real, (Ferdinando,) born at 
 Ciudad Real in 1388, became physician to John II., 
 King of Castile. Died in 1457. 
 
 Gomez (or Gomes) de Oliviera, go'mSz da o-le- 
 ve-a'ra, (Antonio,) a Portuguese poet, who lived about 
 1620. He wrote " Idyls of the Sea," (" Idylios mari- 
 timos,") and numerous sonnets. 
 
 Gomez de Silva. See Silva. 
 
 Gomez de Vasconcelle, de, deh go'meV deh v$s'- 
 k6N's£l', (Louise Genevieve,) a literary lady, of Por- 
 tuguese extraction, published an abridged translation 
 of the " Orlando Furioso" into French ; also several 
 romances. Died in 1718. 
 
 Gomez-Ferreira, go'mlz f£r-ra^e-ra,(Luis,) a learned 
 Portuguese physician, born in 1680^ He wrote a valua- 
 ble work, entitled " Mineral' Treasury." Died in 1741. 
 
 Gomm, (Sir William May'nard,) a British general, 
 born in 1784. He served in the Peninsula, 1808-14, and 
 at Waterloo. He became commander-in-chief in India 
 in 1850 or 185 1, and was relieved in 1855. 
 
 Goncalo de Cordova. See Gonsalvo. 
 
 Gon^alves, gon-sal'vlz, (Joaquim Affonso,) a 
 learned Portuguese missionary and Chinese scholar, 
 born in 1780. In 1812 he visited Brazil, the Philippine 
 Islands, and Macao. He published a Portuguese-Chinese 
 Grammar, entitled "Arte China," (1829,) and a " Dic- 
 cionario Portuguez-China," which are highly esteemed. 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 Gondebaud, g6N'deh-bo', or Gun'do-bald, second 
 son of Gondioc, King of Burgundy. Having slain his 
 brother Chilperic, and defeated his army, he ascended 
 the throne in 491 a.d. In 499 he made an unsuccessful 
 attempt to reconcile the Catholics and Arians. He was 
 defeated near Dijon, in 500 a.d., by Clovis, King of the 
 Franks, to whom he became tributary. He drew up a sys- 
 tem of laws for his subjects, since called the " Burgun- 
 dian Code." In religion he was an Arian. Died in 516. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Gondebaud or Gon'do-vald, King of Aquitaine, 
 surnamed Ballomer, was a natural son of Clotaire I. 
 On the death of Chilperic, King of Austrasia, he suc- 
 ceeded to the throne, (584.) He was afterwards betrayed 
 into the hands of Gontran, King of Burgundy, and put 
 to death, 585. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Gondebaud-Ballomer. See preceding article. 
 
 Gondegisile, gSN'deh-zhe'zel', I [.at.GoNDEGisi'i.us,] 
 a younger son of Gondioc, King of Burgundy, was born 1 
 about 470 A.D. He ruled over the territory between the 
 Rhone and the Doubs, and was an ally of Clovis. He 
 was killed by his brother Gondebaud in 501. 
 
 Gon'de-mar or God'o-mar, King of Burgundy, was 
 a son of Gondebaud. He reigned from 523 to 534 A.D., 
 and defeated Clodomir, King of Orleans, in battle. 
 
 Gon'de-mar, (Flavius,) was elected king of th« 
 Visigoths in Spain in 610 A.D. Died in 612. 
 
 Gonderic. See Gondioc. 
 
 Gondi. See Retz, Cardinal de. 
 
 Gondi, de, deh g6N'de', (Philippe Emanuel,) a 
 French naval officer, born at Limoges in 1584 In 1622 
 
 t, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged ; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GONDICAIRE 
 
 1 05 5 
 
 GONZAGA 
 
 he assisted the Duke of Guise in the blockade of I*a 
 Kuchelle. He was a patron of the celebrated Vincent 
 de Paul. Died in 1662. 
 
 Gondicaire, g6N'de'k5R', [Lat. Gundica'rius,] or 
 Gundahaire, first King of Burgundy, born about 385 
 A.D. Having invaded Germany about 413, he established 
 himself with his subjects on the Rhine, whence the 
 Romans vainly endeavoured to expel them. His army 
 was defeated by the Huns under Attila in 436, and he 
 himself slain. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Gon'dl-oc or Gon'der-ic, |Lat. Gunderi'cus,] son 
 of Gondicaire, noticed above, was the second King of 
 Burgundy, and ascended the throne in 436 A.D. He 
 greatly extended, both by conquest and by treaties, the 
 territory left him by his father. Died about 473. 
 
 See Aug. Thierry, " Lettres but l'Histoire de France." 
 
 Gondola, gon'do-15, (Giovanni di Francesco,) a 
 distinguished poet, born at Ragusa, in Illyria, in 1588. 
 He wrote an epic poem entitled the " Osmanide," in 
 which he celebrates the deeds and misfortunes of Osmin 
 I. He also translated into Illyrian Tasso's "Gerusa- 
 lemme Liberata," and wrote other works. Died in 1638. 
 
 His son Sigismund was an accomplished poet, and 
 became rector of the republic of Ragusa. 
 
 See F. M. Appendini, m Memoria sulla Vita e su gli Scritti di G. 
 F. Gondola," 1837. 
 
 Gondouin, gdN'doo-lN', (Jacques,) a French archi- 
 tect, born at Saint-Ouen-sur-Seine in 1737. He designed 
 the Ecole de Chirurgie, since called Ecole de Medecine, 
 in Paris, which, says Quatremere de Quincy, "is the 
 most classic work of the eighteenth century." Died 
 in 1 81 8. 
 
 See Quatremere de Quincv, " Vies des plus calibres Archi- 
 tectes." 
 
 Gondrin, de, deh gdN'dRaN', (Louis Antoine de 
 Pardaillan — deh pi K'di'vSN',) Due d'Antin, (d8N'- 
 taN',) a French courtier, Dorn in 1665, was a son of 
 Madame de Montespan. He won the favour of Louis 
 XIV., and of his son, the dauphin. Died in 1736. 
 
 See " Nouvelte Biographie Generale." 
 
 Gondrin, de, (Louis Henri de Pardaillan,) a 
 French Jansenist, bom in the diocese of Auch in 1620. 
 He was made Archbishop of Sens in 1646. Died in 1674. 
 
 Gon'dulf or Gun'dulf, a French prelate, born in 
 the diocese of Rouen in 1023, became Abbot of Saint 
 Stephen's at Caen, and in 1076 was made Bishop of 
 Rochester, in England. Died in tio8. 
 
 Gonelli, go-nel'lee, or Gonnellt gon-nel'lee, (Gio- 
 vanni,) an Italian sculptor, sumamed "the Blind Man 
 of Cambassi," born in Tuscany in 1610. He became 
 blind at the age of twenty, but continued the practice 
 of his art, and, it is said, modelled portraits in clay by 
 the touch alone. Died in 1664. 
 
 Gonet, go'nj', (Jean Baitiste.) a learned French 
 Dominican, born at Be^iers in 1616, became professor 
 of theology at Bordeaux. He published a work entitled 
 "Shield of the Theology of the Thomists," (" Clypeus 
 Theologiae Thomistica:, 18 vols. 121110,) of which Bayle 
 remarks, "The Spaniards call it a very pretty com- 
 pendium of divinity." Died in 1681. 
 
 Gongora y Ar'gote, gon-go'ra e aR-go'ta, (Luis,) a 
 Spanish poet, born at C6rdova in 1 561. He took holy 
 orders at the age of forty-five, before which he had com- 
 posed elegant sonnets, satires, and ballads. He became 
 chaplain to Philip III. about 1616. In the latter part 
 of his life he adopted a fantastic, affected, and obscure 
 • style, which he called estilo culto, and which was imi- 
 tated by many of his contemporaries and is sometimes 
 called Congorism. Died in 1627. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" Longfem ow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca His- 
 pana Nova." 
 
 Gonnelieu, de, deh gonlg-uh', (J6r6mf.,) a French 
 Jesuit, pulpit orator, and theoTogian, born at Soissons 
 in 1640 ; died in 1715. 
 
 Gonner or Goenner, gon'ner, (Nikolaus Thad- 
 daus,) a German jurist, born at Bamberg in 1764. He 
 published, among other works, a treatise " On German 
 Public Law," (1S04,) and a "Manual of Common Pro- 
 
 cess," ("Handbuch des gemeinen Processes," 4 vols,, 
 1805.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See H. J. JXck, " N. T. von Gonnex's Biographie," 1813. 
 
 Gonsalo, gon-sa'lo, (Fernando,) Count of Castile, 
 a Spanish military commander, who gained a victory 
 over Sancho, King of Navarre, in 924, and afterwards 
 defeated the Moors in several engagements. 
 
 Gonsalvo.gon-sal'vo, Gonzalo, gon-tha'lo, or Gon- 
 calo de Cbrdova, (Hernandez or Fernandez,) |Fr. 
 Gonsalve de Cordoue, g6N'silv' deh kok'doo',] a 
 celebrated Spanish commander, sumamed the Great 
 Captain, was born at Montilla, near Cordova, in 1443, 
 (or, according to some writers, in 1453.) He was a bro- 
 ther of Don Alonzo de Aguilar. He distinguished him- 
 self in the long war of Granada which ended in 1492. In 
 1495 he was selected by Queen Isabella to command the 
 army sent to aid the King of Naples against Charles VIII. 
 of France. He expelled the French by a rapid succession 
 of victories, succoured the pope by capturing Ostia from 
 a piratical horde, and returned to Spain in 1498. A secret 
 treaty for the partition of the kingdom of Naples having 
 been made by Ferdinand of Spain and Louis XII. of 
 France in 1500, Gonsalvo was appointed lieutenant-gen- 
 eral of Calabria and Apulia. The French and Spaniards 
 were involved in a war with each other in 1502. " The 
 Great Captain" gained decisive victories at Cerignola 
 and Garigliano in 1503, and drove the French out of the 
 kingdom of Naples. In 1506 he was recalled to Spain 
 by Ferdinand, who was jealous of his glory or suspicious 
 of his loyalty. He was received with enthusiasm by the 
 people, but was treated with coldness at court. Died 
 at Granada in 15 15. " His splendid military successes," 
 says Prescott, "have made the name of Gonsalvo as 
 familiar to his countrymen as that of the Cid, which, 
 floating down the stream of popular melody, has been 
 •treasured up as a part of the national history. . . . His 
 characteristics were prudence, coolness, steadiness of 
 purpose, and intimate knowledge of man. He betrayed 
 none of the cruelty and licentiousness which disgrace 
 the age of chivalry." (See Prescott's "Ferdinand and 
 Isabella," vol. ii. Part II., chap. ii. ; and vol. iii. chaps, 
 xii., xiv., and xxiv.) 
 
 "See Paolo Gtovro, "De Vita et Rebus gestis G. F. Cordubse;" 
 Brant6me, " Viesdes grands Capilaines ;" M.J. Quintana, " Vida 
 de G. F. de C6idova," 1827 : Fernandez dk Pulgar, " Coronica del 
 gran Capitan G. F. de C6rdova," 1580. 
 
 Gonthier, gon'teeR, one of the best poets of the thir- 
 teenth century, was born in Germany. His chief work 
 is entitled "Ligurinus sive de Rebus a Friderico I. 
 gestis," ("On the Achievements of Frederick I.") 
 
 Gonthier, [Fr. pron. gdN'te-i',] (Johann,) a German 
 physician and Hellenist, was born at Andemach in 1487. 
 He became physician to Francis I. of France in 1535, and 
 lectured on anatomy at Paris, where Vesalius was among 
 his pupils. Having been persecuted as a Protestant, 
 he retired to Strasburg, where he was chosen professor 
 of Greek. Among his works, which were highly es- 
 teemed, are " Anatomical Institutes according to the 
 Views of Galen," (" Anatomicae Institutiones secun- 
 dum Galeni Sententiam," 1536,) and "On Ancient and 
 Modern Medicine," ("De Medicina veteri et nova," 
 1571.) Died in 1574. 
 
 See Herissant, " Fjoge de Gonthier d' Andemach," 1765 ; Nice- 
 ron, " Homines illustres;" E*lov, "Dictionnaire de la Medecine;" 
 M. Adam, "Vita; Medicorutn." 
 
 Gontran, g6.N'tR6N', a son of Clotaire I., inherited 
 the kingdom of Burgundy in 561 A.D. Died in 593. 
 
 Gonzaga, gon-za'gi, (Thomas Antonio,) a popular 
 Portuguese lyric poet, born at Oporto in 1747, was sur- 
 named Dirceo. He was banished for a political offence 
 to Mozambique in 1793, and died there in the same year. 
 
 See F. Denis, " Resume de l'Histoire litteraire du Bresil ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Gonzaga, de* deh gon-zl'ga, [Fr. Gonzague, g6N'- 
 zig',1 (Anne.) Princess-Palatine, born about 1616, was a 
 daughter of Charles, Duke of Mantua and Nevers. She 
 was married in 1645 to Edward, a son of Frederick V., 
 Prince- Palatine and King of Bohemia. She passed much 
 
 • Some authorities give these names without the particle*, {tie, or 
 di ;) in inserting them we have followed the " Nouveile Biographie 
 Genomic." 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as *; th as in this. (JS^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GONZAGA 
 
 1056 
 
 GOOD 
 
 time at the French court, and was distinguished for her 
 political talents and influence in the war of the Fronde. 
 Died in 1684. Bossuet pronounced her funeral oration. 
 Sec Cardinal db Rktz, " Me"moires ;" Senac de Mbilhan, 
 " Memoires d'Anne de Gonzague," 1786. 
 
 Gonzaga, de,* da gon-za'ga, (Maria Louisa,) Queen 
 of Poland, born about 1612, was a sister of Anne Gon- 
 zaga, noticed above, and was eminent for beauty. Her 
 mother was Catherine of Lorraine. She was married 
 in 1645 to Sigismond Ladislas, King of Poland, who 
 died in 1648. Soon after that event she became the 
 wife of his brother and successor, John Casimir. Died 
 in 1667. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" Bassompierre, "M6- 
 moires." 
 
 Gonzaga, di ,*(Carlo,) Duke of Mantua, Montferrato, 
 and Nevers, was a grandson of Federico, noticed below, 
 and heir of his cousin Vincenzo, who died in 1627. His 
 claim was disputed by the emperor Ferdinand II., whose 
 army took and pillaged Mantua in 1630. Gonzaga re- 
 covered Mantua about a year later. Died in 1637. 
 
 Gonzaga, di* or de, (Curtius,) an Italian poet, who 
 lived about 1580. He wrote an epic poem called " Fido 
 Amante," (1582.) 
 
 Gonzaga, di* (Ercole,) an Italian cardinal, son of 
 Francis II., Duke of Mantua, born in 1505. He became 
 successively Bishop of Mantua, Cardinal, and Archbishop 
 of Tarragona. He was intimate with Cardinal Bembo 
 and other eminent scholars of the time. Died in 1563. 
 
 See Ughelli, "Italia Sacra." 
 
 Gonzaga, di* (Federico,) Duke of Mantua, suc- 
 ceeded his father, Giovanni Francesco, in 15 19. He 
 became an ally of Charles V. in 1521, and fought with 
 distinction against the French. He was created Duke 
 of Mantua by the emperor, and obtained the marquisate 
 of Montferrato in 1536. Died in 1540. 
 
 Gonzaga, di,*[Fr. Gonzague, g6Vztg',](FERDiNAND 
 or Ferkante,) Duke of Molfetta and Guastalla, born in 
 1506, was a younger son of the Duke of Mantua. He 
 acquired a high reputation as a general in the service 
 of Charles V., who appointed him Viceroy of Sicily in 
 1536, and Governor of the Milanese in 1546. Died at 
 Brussels in 1557. 
 
 See Alfonso de Ulloa, "Vita del gran Capitano F. Gonzaga," 
 1563 ; Gosellini, " Vita del Principe F. Gonzaga," 1574. 
 
 Gonzaga, di* (Ferdinando Carlo,) last Duke of 
 Milan, succeeded his father in 1665. He was extremely 
 dissolute. In the war of the Spanish succession he was 
 the ally of France. The Austrians took Mantua in 1707 
 and annexed it to the Milanese. He died in 1708. 
 
 Gonzaga, di* (Giovanni Francesco,) first Marquis 
 of Mantua, began to reign in 1407. He waged war 
 against Visconti, Duke of Milan, and became general- 
 in-chief of the Venetian army in 1432. He entered the 
 service of the Duke of Milan in 1438, after which he 
 defeated the Venetians and their allies under F. Sforza, 
 one of the ablest generals of that time. He died in 1444, 
 aged about fifty, and was succeeded by his son Luigi, 
 who was distinguished as a general and patron of poets 
 and artists. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" Possevin, "Historia 
 Gonzagarum," etc. 
 
 Gonzaga, di* (Giovanni Francesco,) a grandson 
 of Luigi, became Marquis of Mantua in 1466. He com- 
 manded the army which the Italian allies raised in 1495 
 to resist Charles VIII. of France. He was general of 
 the League of Cambrai in 1509. Died in 1519. 
 
 Gonzaga, di* (I.ucrezia,) a learned Italian lady, was 
 married to Gian Paolo Manfroni, afterwards imprisoned 
 for conspiracy against the life of the Duke of Ferrara. 
 Her letters were greatly admired by her contemporaries. 
 Died in 1576. 
 
 Gonzaga, di* [Fr. Gonzague,] (Luigi,) Lord of 
 Mantua, was the founder of a sovereign house which 
 reigned at Mantua from 1328 to 1707. They belonged 
 to the Ghibeline party. He died in 1361. 
 
 Gonzaga, di* (Scipione,) an Italian writer and car- 
 dinal, born in 1542, was an intimate friend of Tasso. He 
 
 * See note on preceding page. 
 
 wrote verses and Latin Memoirs of his own Life, (1791.) 
 Died in 1593. 
 
 See Possevin, " Historia Gonzagarum," etc. 
 
 Gonzaga, di,* (Vespasiano,) Duke of Sabbionetta, 
 an Italian military commander, born in 153 1, served with 
 distinction in the wars of Charles V. and Philip II. of 
 Spain. He was also a generous patron of learning and 
 the arts. Died in 1591. 
 
 Gonzague, the French of Gonzaga, which see. 
 
 Gonzales, gon-tha'ISs, ( Bartolom£, ) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Valladolid in 1564. He was patronized 
 by Philip III., who employed him to restore the Escu- 
 rial and other palaces. Died in 1627. 
 
 Gonzales, g6N'za"ifo', (Louis Jean Emmanuel,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Saintes in 1815, became as- 
 sistant editor of the "Siecte." He wrote a successful 
 novel, entitled "The Pearl-Diver," or "Les Freres de la 
 Cote," ("Filibusters," or "Buccaneers.") 
 
 Gonzales-Velasquez, gon-tha'les va-las'klth, (Ale- 
 jandro,) a Spanish painter and architect, born at Madrid 
 in 1719. He adorned with paintings the royal palace 
 of San Ildefonso. Died in 1772. 
 
 Gonzales-Velasquez, (Antonio,) a Spanish painter, 
 brother of the preceding, born in Madrid in 1729. lie 
 excelled in frescos, and became court painter in 1757. 
 Died in 1793. His brother Luis, born in 1715, was also 
 a painter. Died in 1764. 
 
 Gonzalez, gon-tha'leth, or Gonzales, (Diego,) a 
 Spanish poet, born at Ciudad Rodrigo in 1733; died 
 in 1794. 
 
 Gonzalez, (Tirso,) a Spanish Jesuit, who was chosen 
 general of his order about 1685. He wrote a work 
 against the doctrine of probability, entitled "Fundamen- 
 turn Theologiae Moralis," etc., (1689.) Died in 1705. 
 
 See Dupin, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs eccl^siastiques du dix- 
 septieme Steele." 
 
 Gouzalez-Cabrera-Bueno, gon-tha'leth ka-bRa'ra 
 bwa'no, (Don JozE,) a distinguished admiral, born in 
 the island of Teneriffe about 1670, was sent in 1701, by 
 Pedro II., King of Portugal, as commander of a fleet, 
 to the Philippines. He published a valuable treatise 
 on navigation. 
 
 Gonzalez de Andrada. See Andrada, (Paolo.) 
 
 Gonzalez de Berceo, gon-tha'ISth da beR-tha'o, 
 (Juan,) the earliest Spanish poet of whom anything is 
 known, was born in Castile in 1196. He was a Bene- 
 dictine monk, and wrote in verse the lives of San Do- 
 mingo de Silos and San Millan. Died in 1266. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" Slsmondi, 
 " Literatures du Midi de 1'Europe;" Longfellow, "Poets and 
 Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Gonzalez- Velasquez. See Gonzales-Velasquez. 
 
 Gonzalo or Gonzalvo. See Gonsalvo. 
 
 Gonzalvo. See Gonsalvo. 
 
 Gooch, (Robert,) an English physician, born at 
 Yarmouth in 1784. He practised in London, whither 
 he removed in 1811. He published an excellent work 
 on " Diseases Peculiar to Women," (1829.) Died in 1830. 
 
 Good, (John Mason,) an eminent English physician 
 and author, born at Epping in May, 1764. He was ap- 
 prenticed to a surgeon at Gosport in 1779, and, having 
 studied at Guy's Hospital for a short time, began to 
 practise at Sudbury in 1784. In 1793 he removed to 
 London, where he devoted much attention to literature 
 and contributed to several reviews. He was versed in 
 many ancient and modern languages, which he learned 
 with uncommon facility. In 1805 he produced a trans- 
 lation in verse of Lucretius "De Rerum Natura." 
 Among his chief medical works are a "Physiological 
 System of Nosology," (1817,) and "The Study of Medi- 
 cine," (4 vols., 1822; 2d edition, with notes by Dr. 
 Samuel Cooper, 5 vols., 1828,) one of the most complete 
 and learned works on that subject that ever appeared 
 in the language. He also published "The Book of 
 Nature," (3 vols., 1826,) a "Translation of the Book 
 of Psalms, and several original poems. In 1820 he 
 took the degree of M.D. at Marischal College, Aberdeen. 
 Died in January, 1827. 
 
 Commenting on his translation of Lucretius, Lord 
 Jeffrey says, " Upon the whole, this book is very dull, 
 and as a translation very flat and unpoetical ; yet it is 
 
 ii Si i. °> «, y. long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m4t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GOODALL 
 
 1057 
 
 GOODYEAR 
 
 evidently the work of a man of no ordinary vigour or 
 intelligence : it contains a very correct edition of Lucre- 
 tius, with more information on the subject of his poem 
 than could be gathered from all his other commentators 
 put together." ("Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807.) 
 
 See Olinthus Gkegorv, "Memoirs of the Life of J. M. Good," 
 18*8; "Gentleman's Magazine" for March, 1827. 
 
 Goodall, good'al, (Edward,) an English artist, 
 chiefly known as an engraver, born at Leeds in 1795. 
 His vignette landscapes, after Turner, are esteemed 
 master-pieces. Among his works are the illustrations 
 of Kogers's " Italy" and other poems, and the plates in 
 Turner's "South Coast." He reproduces the manner 
 of Turner with exquisite tact. 
 
 Goodall, (Frederick,) an eminent painter of history 
 and genre, a son of the preceding, was born in London 
 in 1822. He obtained a silver medal from the Society 
 of Arts at the age of fifteen. His early works represent 
 the life of the peasants of Normandy and Brittany. He 
 produced "The Departure of the Emigrant-Ship," and 
 other scenes of Irish life, and afterwards devoted him- 
 self chiefly to English subjects. Among his later works 
 are "The Village Festival," (1847,) "Raising the May- 
 Pole," (1851,) and "Cranmer at the Traitors' Gate," 
 (1856.) He was chosen an associate of the Royal 
 Academy in 1852. 
 
 Good'all or Good'al, (Walter,) a Scottish anti- 
 quary, born in Banffshire in 1706. He published an 
 "Examination of the Letters said to be written by 
 Mary to James, Earl of Bothwell ;" also an edition of 
 the "Scoti-Chronicon" of Fordun. Died in 1766. 
 
 Goode, good, (Francis,) an English divine, born about 
 1797. He wrote " The Better Covenant," (5th edition, 
 1848,) which is highly commended. Died in 1842. 
 
 Goode, (William,) an English theologian, born about 
 1800. Among his works is "The Divine Rule of Faith 
 and Practice," (2 vols., 1842,) and treatises against the 
 doctrines of the Puseyites. He became Dean of Ripon 
 in i860. 
 
 Good'man, (Christopher,) an English Puritan, born 
 at Chester about 1520. He retired to the continent in 
 the reign of Mary, and became pastor of an English 
 church at Geneva. About 1560 he was appointed min- 
 ister at Saint Andrew's, Scotland. He wrote a " Com- 
 mentary on Amos." Died in 1602. 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Goodman, (Godfrey,) an English writer, born in 
 Denbighshire in 1583. He became Bishop of Gloucester 
 in 1625, and joined the Church of Rome about 1640. 
 He wrote, besides other works, a " History of his Own 
 Times," which was published in 1839. Died in 1655. 
 See Fuller, "Church History." 
 
 Good'rich, (Charles A.,) of Hartford, Connecticut, 
 a historian and clergyman, born in 1790. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " History of the United States 
 of America." Died in 1862. 
 
 Goodrich, (Chauncey,) an American Senator, born 
 at Durham, Connecticut, in 1759, was a son of Elizur, 
 noticed below. He was a member of Congress from 
 1795 to 1 80 1, and represented Connecticut in the Senate 
 of the United States from 1807 to 1813. Died in 1815. 
 
 Goodrich, (Chauncey Allen,) aji American scholar 
 and divine, born at New Haven in October, 1790, was a 
 son of Elizur, noticed below, (1761-1849.) He graduated 
 at Yale College in 1810, and afterwards studied theology. 
 He was professor of rhetoric and oratory in Yale Col- 
 lege from 1817 to 1839, and in the latter year obtained 
 the chair of theology in that institution. In 1847 he 
 produced an enlarged edition of Webster's Dictionary. 
 He also edited Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, with 
 an Appendix and Vocabulary of Proper Names, (1859,) 
 and published " Select British Eloquence," (1852.) Died 
 in i860. 
 
 See Allibonk's " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Goodrich, (Elizur,) an American divine and scho- 
 lar, born in Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1734; died 
 in 1797. 
 
 Goodrich, (Elizur,) an American lawyer, son of the 
 ©receding, was born in Durham, Connecticut, in 1761. 
 lie was professor of law in Yale College from 1801 to 
 
 1810, and was a judge of probate for many years. Died 
 in 1849. 
 
 Goodrich, (Frank B.,) an American writer, son of 
 Samuel G. Goodrich, noticed below, was born in Boston 
 in 1826. He published, besides several other works, 
 "The Court of Napoleon, or Society under the First 
 Empire, with Portraits of its Beauties, etc., (1857.) 
 
 Goodrich, (Samuel Griswold,) an American writer, 
 known under the assumed name of Peter Parley, was 
 born at Ridgefield, Connecticut, in 1793. He was a 
 nephew of Chauricey A. Goodrich. He became pro- 
 prietor of a publishing-house in Boston about 1825, soon 
 after which he began to write a series of juvenile books 
 under the name of "Peter Parley." These works, the 
 subjects of which were history, geography, travels, etc., 
 enjoyed an extensive popularity. Some of them were 
 translated into French. He edited a periodical called 
 "Parley's Magazine," (1841-54.) He was consul of 
 the United States in Paris for several years, (1848-52.) 
 Among his numerous works are "Recollections of a 
 Lifetime," (2 vols., 1857,) "Illustrated Natural History 
 of the Animal Kingdom," (2 vols., 1859,) and "Peter 
 Parley's Own Story," etc., (1864.) Died in 1863. 
 
 For a particular account of his various publications, see Alli- 
 bone's " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Goodrich, (Thomas,) an English prelate, bom in 
 Lincolnshire about 1480. He rose through various pre- 
 ferments to be Bishop of Ely in 1534. He was also a 
 member of the privy council under Henry VIII. and 
 Edward VI., and in 1551 was made lord chancellor. 
 He assisted in the compilation of the Bishops' Book and 
 the Book of Common Prayer of 1548. Died in 1554. 
 
 Good'win, (Francis,) an English architect, among 
 whose principal works are the Manchester Town Hall 
 and Lissadell Court. Died in 1835. 
 
 Goodwin, (John,) an English Puritan divine, born 
 in 1593, resided many years in London, where he was 
 distinguished for his pulpit eloquence. He was a zealous 
 republican, and defended the execution of the king. By 
 his writings and in his pulpit he maintained the Arminian 
 doctrines. He was the author of "The Divine Authority 
 of Scripture Asserted," "Right and Might Well Met," 
 " Redemption Redeemed," etc. The first-named is con- 
 sidered a master-piece of polemic theology. Died in 
 1665. 
 
 See " Life of John Goodwin," by Thomas Jackson. 
 
 Good'win, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist di- 
 vine and writer, born in Norfolk in 1600. He took his 
 degree at Cambridge, and in 1632 became vicar of Trinity 
 Church, in that town. This post he soon after resigned, 
 on account of a change in his religious opinions. After 
 a short residence in Holland, he was, on his return to 
 England, elected to the Westminster Assembly, and was 
 distinguished as one of the ablest and most active leaders 
 of the Independent party. His zeal in this cause pro- 
 cured for him the favour of Cromwell, who in 1649 
 appointed him president of Magdalene College, Oxford. 
 He wrote numerous theological and controversial works, 
 which enjoy a high reputation. Died in 1679. 
 
 See Neal, "History of the Puritans;" Wood, "Athense Oxo- 
 nienses." 
 
 Good'year, (Charles,) an eminent American in- 
 ventor, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1800. His 
 early education was very defective. He removed in 1S26 
 to Philadelphia, where he opened a small store. About 
 1834 he became deeply interested in the manufacture of 
 India-rubber. The cloth, shoes, and other articles made 
 from this substance had proved failures on account of 
 the effect produced upon it by heat and cold. After five 
 years spent in constant experiments, during which time 
 he and his family lived in extreme destitution, Mr. Good- 
 year succeeded in producing, by means of sulphur, the 
 vulcanized India-rubber now so extensively used in manu- 
 factures. In 1851 he visited London, and exhibited at 
 the Crystal Palace a great variety of useful and orna- 
 mental articles of the new material. He obtained on this 
 occasion the Grand Council medal. He also attended 
 the Paris Exposition of 1855, and received from the 
 French emperor the grand medal of honour and the 
 cross of the legion of honour. He returned to Ame- 
 rica in 1858, and devoted himself with untiring energy 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; i as z; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations p 23 ) 
 
 °7 
 
GOOGE 
 
 1058 
 
 GORDON 
 
 to the perfection of his discoveries, although suffering 
 from chronic disease. Died in July, i860. " He lived," 
 says Parton, " to see his material applied to nearly five 
 hundred uses, and to give employment, in England, 
 France, Germany, and the United States, to sixty .thou- 
 sand persons. But we should greatly undervalue the 
 labours of Charles Goodyear if we regarded them only 
 as opening a new source of wealth. . . . Art, science, 
 and humanity are indebted to him for a material which 
 serves the purposes of them all, and serves them as no 
 other known material could." , 
 
 See Rev. Bradford K. Peikce, "Trials of an Inventor," New 
 York, 1S06; Pakton, "Famous Americans of Recent Times," 1S67. 
 
 Googe, gooj, (Barnaby,) an English translator of the 
 sixteenth century, published versions of the "Zodiake of 
 Life," by Paiingenius Stellatus, the " Spanish Proverbs" 
 of Lope de Mendoza, and Aristotle's " Categories ;" he 
 was also the author of a collection of sonnets and other 
 poems. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry." 
 
 Gook'in, (Daniel,) a writer, born in Kent, England, 
 about 1612, removed to Massachusetts in 1644. He 
 became a major-general in 1681. He wrote " Historical 
 Collections of the Indians of Massachusetts," (published 
 in 1792.) Died in 1687. 
 
 Gool, van, iitn gol or Hoi, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at the Hague in 1685, painted admired landscapes, 
 and wrote a mediocre " Biography of Flemish and Dutch 
 Painters," (1751.) Died in 1757. 
 
 Gopala, one of the names of Krishna, which see. 
 
 Goppert or Goeppert, gop'pert, (Heinrich Ro- 
 bert,) professor of medicine and botany at Breslau, was 
 born in Silesia in 1800. He published a treatise " On 
 the Anatomical Structure of the Coniferae," " On the 
 Fossil Ferns," and other similar works. 
 
 Gor'dl-an, [Fr. Gordien, goR'de-aN' ; Lat. Gordia'- 
 nus, (Mar'cus Anto'nius Africa'nus,)] a Roman em- 
 peror, born about 160 A.D., of an illustrious family. He 
 was appointed proconsul of Africa in 237, and was declared 
 emperor by the insurgents who rebelled against Maximi- 
 nus. His son Gordian was associated with him in the 
 empire, and their election was confirmed by the Roman 
 senate. Soon after this, Capellianus, Governor of Mau- 
 ritania, assembled an army in favour of Maximinus, and 
 attacked Carthage. In the combat that ensued, the 
 younger Gordian was slain ; and his aged father, on 
 hearing of his fate, strangled himself, in 238 a.d. Gor- 
 dian was distinguished for his love of letters, and was 
 the author of several poems. He spent a great part of 
 his immense wealth in procuring games and amusements 
 for the people. His reign lasted but six weeks. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Gordian, [Lat. Gordianus, (Marcus Antonius 
 Pius,)] grandson of the elder Gordian, was born about 
 225, and was proclaimed Caesar by the Roman people 
 when news arrived of the death of the two Gordians in 
 Africa. He was made colleague of the new emperors 
 Maximus and Balbinus, and after their death became 
 emperor, in July, 238 a.d. Gordian, accompanied by 
 his father-in-law, Misitheus, repelled an invasion of 
 Sapor, King of Persia, in 242. He afterwards attacked 
 the Persians, and defeated their army on the banks of 
 the Chaboras. Meanwhile, Philippus, an officer in the 
 Roman army, availing himself of his popularity, caused 
 himself to be proclaimed a colleague of the emperor, 
 and soon after had Gordian put to death, in 244 a.d. 
 
 See Tillemont, " Histoire des Empereurs;" Montesquieu, 
 "Grandeur et Decadence des Romains;" Gisbert Cuper, " His- 
 tnria trium Gordianorum," 1697; Capitolinus, "Gordiani tres." 
 
 Gordianus, the Latin of Gordian, which see. 
 
 Gordien, the French of Gordian, which see. 
 
 Gor'dl-us, a Phrygian peasant who was raised to the 
 throne, was the father of Midas. His name is associated 
 with the famous "Gordian Knot," which Alexander the 
 Great, unable to untie, cut with his sword. 
 
 Gor'dpn, (Alexander,) of Achintoul, a relative of 
 Patrick, noticed below, visited Russia in 1693. He was 
 patronized by the Czar, to whom he rendered important 
 services in his wars against Sweden and Poland. He 
 wrote a valuable " History of Peter the Great," (1755.) 
 Died in 1752. 
 
 Gordon, (Alexander,) a distinguished Scottish an- 
 tiquary, wrote " Itinerarium Septentrionale," or travels 
 in Scotland and the North of England, (1726,) and a 
 "Complete History of Ancient Amphitheatres," (1730.) 
 Died in 1750. 
 
 SeeCHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gordon, (Andrew,) a distinguished scholar, born 
 near Aberdeen in 1712, became professor of philosophy 
 at Erfurt, in Germany. He published a work entitled 
 " Phenomena of Electricity Exposed," (1744.) He made 
 important discoveries in that science; and he is said to 
 have been the first who used a cylinder instead of a globe 
 in electrical apparatus. Died in 1 751. 
 
 See Priestley, " History 'of Electricity." 
 
 Gordon, goR'dAN', [Lat. Gordo'nus,] (Bernard,) a 
 French physician, became professor of medicine at Mont- 
 pellier in 1285. He wrote " Lilium Medicinae," and other 
 professional works, which were highly esteemed. Died 
 about 1320. 
 
 Gordon, (George,) Earl of Huntley, an ambitious 
 and powerful Scottish nobleman, was a Roman Catholic. 
 He became lord chancellor of Scotland about 1546. 
 Having taken arms against Queen Mary and Regent 
 Murray, he was defeated and killed in 1562. His son 
 GEORGE, the fifth Earl, was accessory to the death of 
 Lord Darnley, after wriich he was an adherent of Queen 
 Mary. 
 
 Gordon, (George,) sixth Earl of Huntley, a son of 
 the fifth Earl, was a turbulent and powerful nobleman. 
 He engaged in treasonable intrigues with the King of 
 Spain in order to restore the Romish Church in Scot- 
 land. He rebelled openly in 1594, was defeated, and 
 fled to the continent, but soon returned. Died in 1635. 
 
 Gordon, (George,) the son of Cosmo George, Duke 
 of Gordon, was born in London in 1750. On taking his 
 seat in Parliament, he distinguished himself by his violent 
 opposition to the Act of Toleration, passed in 1778 in 
 favour of the Catholics. In 1780, at the head of a mob 
 estimated at one hundred thousand persons, Gordon 
 presented a petition to Parliament for the repeal of the 
 Bill of Toleration ; and, on the refusal of that body to 
 take it into immediate consideration, his followers spread 
 themselves over the city and plundered and burned 
 several Roman Catholic chapels. These outrages being 
 feebly repressed, the mob broke out a few days after with 
 greater violence. A great number of private houses as 
 well as churches were destroyed, and the prisons forced' 
 open. At length the king commanded the military to 
 disperse the mob, and order was restored. Gordon was 
 tried for high treason, but was acquitted, because it 
 could not be proved that he had assembled the populace 
 with bad intentions. He afterwards was condemned to 
 five years' imprisonment for contempt of court. He 
 died in prison in 1793. 
 
 See Robert Watson, "Life of Lord George Gordon," 1795; 
 Lingard, "History of England;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- 
 tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gor'dpn, (George H.,) an American general, born in 
 Charlestown, Massachusetts, about 1826. He was a 
 lawyer before the civil war. He commanded a brigade 
 of the army of General Banks in May, 1862, and took 
 part in the battle of Antietam, September 17 of that year. 
 
 Gordon, (George Hamilton.) See Aberdeen, 
 Earl of. 
 
 Gordon, (James Huntley,) a learned Jesuit, of a 
 noble Scottish family, born in Paris in 1543. He became 
 successively professor of theology and of the learned 
 languages at Rome, Paris, and Bordeaux, and was also 
 employed on several apostolic missions. Died in 1620. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmer. 
 
 Gordon, (Sir John Watson,) an eminent Scottish 
 portrait-painter, born in Edinburgh about 1790. He 
 painted portraits of nearly all the eminent Scotsmen of 
 his time, including Sir Walter Scott, the Duke of Ar- 
 gyle, Dr. Chalmers, (1837,) and Professor Wilson, (1851.) 
 He was chosen president of the Royal Scottish Academy 
 in 1850, and received the title of painter-limner to the 
 queen. Died in 1864. 
 
 Gordon, (Lady Lucy Duff,) daughter of the cele- 
 brated Mrs. Austin, and wife of Sir Alexander Duff 
 Gordon, published a number of excellent translations 
 
 i, e, T, 6, S, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
GORDON 
 
 1059 
 
 GO R ION IDES 
 
 from the German and French. Among these are Von 
 Feuerbach's " Remarkable Crimes anil Trials," Mein- 
 hold's "Amber Witch," and the "Celebrated Crimes" 
 of Dumas. She wrote "Letters from Egypt," (1865.) 
 Jjied in Egypt in 1869. 
 
 Gordon, (Patrick,) a Scottish officer, born in 1635, 
 entered the service of Peter the Great of Russia, whose 
 favour he won, and who made him commander-in-chief 
 of his army. Died in 1699. 
 
 See Bhckmann, " Peter der Grosse als Mensch und Regent," 
 1830; "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1852; "Edinburgh 
 Review" l'or July, 1856 ; Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1S61. 
 
 Gordon, (Robert,) a Scottish geographer, born in 
 Aberdeenshire about 1580, was appointed by Charles I. 
 to complete the "Theatrum Scotiae," which forms a part 
 of the geographical work projected by Ulaeu of Amster- 
 dam. Died about 1660. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gordon, (Sir Robert,) a brother of the Earl of 
 Aberdeen, born in 1791, was sent as ambassador to 
 Constantinople in 1829, and was minister at Vienna from 
 1841 to 1846. He died at Balmoral in 1847. 
 
 Gordon, (Thomas.) a Scottish writer, born at Kirk- 
 cudbright about 1685. He was the author, in conjunc- 
 tion with his friend Trenchard, of " Cato's Letters," and 
 "The Independent Whig," (2 vols., 1732.) His transla- 
 tion of Tacitus is esteemed the best in the English 
 language. Died in 1750. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gordon, (Thomas F.,) an American historian, pub- 
 lished a " History of Pennsylvania," (1823,) a "Digest 
 of the Laws of the United States," (1827,) a "History 
 of New Jersey," (1831,) a "Gazetteer of New Jersey," 
 (1834,) and other works. 
 
 Gordon, (William,) an English historian, born at 
 Hitchin in 1729, became pastor of an Independent 
 church at Ipswich. He removed to America in 1770, 
 preached for some years at Roxbury, Massachusetts, 
 favoured the popular party in the Revolution, and re- 
 turned to England in 1780. He published a "History 
 of the Rise, Progress, and Establishment of the Inde- 
 pendence of the United States of America," (4 vols., 
 1788.) He states that General Washington furnished 
 material for this work. Died in 1807. 
 
 Gordon, (William,) an English physician and philan- 
 thropist, born near Ripon in 1801, practised in Hull. He 
 wrote a " Critical Inquiry concerning a New Membrane 
 of the Eye," (1832,) and other works. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Newman Hall, "The Christian Philosopher Triumphing 
 over Death," etc. 
 
 Gordonus. See Gordon, (Bernard.) 
 Gore, (Catherine Grace,) originally named Fran- 
 cis, a distinguished English authoress, born in Notting- 
 hamshire in 1799. Among her most popular novels, 
 which are principally delineations of fashionable life, 
 are "Cecil ; or. The Adventures of a Coxcomb," (1841,) 
 "Peers and Parvenus," "The Haniiltons," and "The 
 Ambassador's Wife." She also published a comedy 
 entitled " The School for Coquettes," and other dramatic 
 works. Mrs. Gore's productions display superior talent, 
 and a number of her novels have been translated into 
 German. Died in 1861. 
 
 See R.H. Horne, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844; "Edinburgh 
 Re', iew" for July, 1830. 
 
 Gore, (CHRISTOPHER,) an American Governor, born 
 in Boston in 1758. He was elected Governor of Massa- 
 chusetts in 1809, and a Senator of the United States in 
 1814. Died in 1827. He left nearly $100,000 to Harvard 
 College. 
 
 Gore, (Sir John,) a British naval officer, who became 
 a vice-admiral in 1825. Died in 1836. 
 
 Gore, (Thomas,) an English writer, born in Wiltshire 
 in 163 1, was the author of several genealogical works. 
 Died in 1684. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Gorenz or Goerenz, go'rents, (Johann August,) a 
 German philologist and Latin scholar, born in Saxony 
 in 1765. He published a good edition of Cicero's philo- 
 sophical works, viz., " De Legibus," " De Finibus," and 
 "Academica," (3 vols., 1809-12.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Gorgei. See Gorgey. 
 
 Gor'gSs, (SirFERDiNANDO,) an Englishman, born in 
 Somersetshire. He planted a colony in Maine, and 
 spent a large sum of money in attempts to explore and 
 settle that province. About 1637 he obtained a large 
 grant of land, and was appointed lord proprietary of 
 Maine. His colony did not prosper. Died in 1647. 
 
 Gorgey or Goergey, goVgl, (Arthur,) a famous 
 Hungarian general, born at Toporcz in 1818. He entered 
 the army in 1837, but retired from it in 1845 and became 
 a student in the University of Prague. In the spring of 
 1848 he joined the army which took the field against 
 Austria, and received a captain's commission. Having 
 given proofs of superior military talents, he was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief by Kossuth on the 1st of 
 November, 1848. He issued in January, 1849, a procla- 
 mation against the separation of Hungary from Austria, 
 and in the next month was superseded by Dembinski, 
 whom he refused to obey. He was soon restored to the 
 command, and defeated the Austrians at Nagy Sarlo in 
 April, after which he became minister of war. Hav'ng 
 been defeated near Komorn in July, he made a skilful 
 retreat to Arad. On the nth of August, 1849, he was 
 appointed dictator, and a few days later he capitulated 
 without conditions to the Russian general. He was 
 pardoned by the emperor, and incurred the suspicion of 
 treason to the cause of Hungary. In 1852 he published 
 "My Life and Acts in Hungary in 1848 and 1849." 
 
 Gor'gl-as [Gr. Topyiac] of Leontini, a celebrated 
 orator and sophist, was born at Leontini, (or Leontium,) 
 in Sicily, and was a contemporary of Socrates. He was 
 sent by his fellow-citizens to Athens on a political mis- 
 sion about 426 B.C., soon after which he became a resi- 
 dent of Athens. He taught rhetoric with great Mat, and 
 wrote a philosophical work entitled " Of the Non-Being, 
 or of Nature," in which he argued that nothing has ex- 
 istence or reality. Some extracts from this are extant. 
 His mind was eminently subtle and brilliant. He appears 
 to have promoted the advancement of philosophy by de- 
 monstrating the distinction between the conception and 
 its object. But he was more remarkable for the graces 
 of language than for earnestness of feeling. " Like a 
 great man of modern times," says Fournier, "he propa- 
 gated doubt with finesse, and suggested or generated 
 ideas with an art of which Socrates alone furnished a 
 model." Plato gave the name of Gorgias to one of his 
 dialogues which is extant. Gorgias survived Socrates, 
 and reached the age of one hundred years. 
 
 See Philostratus, "Vine Sophistarum ;" H. E. Foss, "Com- 
 mentatio de Gorgia Leontino," 1828; Luk.i Garofai.o, " Discorsi 
 intorno Gorgia Leontino," 1831 ; "Nouvelle Biographie Gendrale;" 
 Aristotle, " De Xcnophane, Gorgia," etc.: Sexti's Emi-jriccs, 
 "Adversus Mathematicos ;" Grote, "History of Greece," vol. viii. 
 chap. Ixvii. 
 
 Gor'gon, [Lat. Gor'gon ; Gr. Topyu, (plural Top- 
 yovec ;) Fr. Gorgone, goR'gon'.l The Gorgons of the 
 classic mythology were three sisters, named Stheno, 
 (or Stheino,) Eury'ale, and Medusa. By the later poets 
 they were represented as having on their heads serpents 
 instead of hair, or serpents entwined among their hair. 
 According to the popular legend, all persons who looked 
 at them were changed into stone. 
 
 See Kfichti.ev, " Mythology ;" " Biographic Universelle," 
 (Partie mythologique.) 
 
 Gorgonia, a surname of Minerva, which see. 
 
 Gori, go'ree, (Antonio Francesco,) an Italian anti- 
 quary, born in 1691 at Florence, where he became pro- 
 fessor of history. Among his numerous and valuable 
 works we may name " Inscriptiones antiqua? Graecae et 
 Romanx," etc., an account of ancient inscriptions found 
 in Tuscany, and a superb work entitled "Museum Flo- 
 rentinum, (6 vols, fol., 1731-43.) In 1735 ne founded 
 the Academia Columbaria. Died in 1757. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" Gokthe, "Winckelmann 
 und sein Jabrbui 
 
 Gorini, da, da go-ree'nee, (Giuseppe Corio,) Mar- 
 quis, an Italian dramatic poet, born at Milan. lie com- 
 posed many tragedies and comedies, some of which were 
 very successful. His tragedy of "Jezebel" is called his 
 master-piece. He died after 1761. 
 
 Go-rl-on'I-deS, or Joseph Ben Gorion, a Jewish 
 compiler, who is supposed to have lived in France in 
 
 « as k; c as 1; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; § as *; th as in this, (Jiy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GORL^EUS 
 
 1060 
 
 GOSCHEL 
 
 the ninth century. He was the reputed author of a " His- 
 tory of the Jews." 
 
 Gorlaeus, gor-la'us, (Abraham,) a distinguished an- 
 tiquary and numismatist, born at Antwerp in 1549. He 
 collected a valuable cabinet of medals, which was sold 
 after his death to James I. of England. His principal 
 works are his " Dactyliotheca, etc.," and "Thesaurus 
 Numismatum," ("Treasury of Coins," 1608.) Died in 
 1609. 
 
 Gorm or Gor'mon, surnamed the Old, a king of 
 Denmark, who united the whole of that country into one 
 kingd mi. He was hostile to Christianity, and resisted 
 all the efforts of the missionaries to convert his people. 
 Died in 935. 
 
 Gor'man, (Willis A.,) an American general, born 
 in Kentucky about 1814. He represented a district of 
 Indiana in Congress from 1849 to 1853, and was Gov- 
 ernor of Minnesota Territory from 1853 to 1857. He 
 commanded a brigade of the Union army at the battles 
 of Fair Oaks, June I, and Antietam, September 17, 1862. 
 
 Gornicius. See Gornicki. 
 
 Gornicki, goR-nets'kee, [Lat. Gorni'cius,] (Luke,) a 
 Polish historian, born in 1530, became secretary to Sigis- 
 mund Augustus, King of Poland. He wrote a " History 
 of the Kingdom of Poland." Died in 1600. 
 
 Gor'on-wjf, (Owen,) a Welsh poet, born in 1722, 
 wrote poems in his own language and in Latin. 
 
 Goropius or Gorophius. See Becan, (John.) 
 
 Gorostiza, go-ros-tee'sa, (Don Manuel Eduardo,) 
 a distinguished diplomatist and dramatic writer, born 
 at Vera Cruz, in Mexico, in 1790. He was employed by 
 his countrymen in several important missions to London 
 and Paris, and was on his return appointed councillor of 
 state. His comedies entitled "Bread and Onion with 
 Thee!" ("Contigo Pan y Cebolla,") and "Indulgence 
 towards All," ("Indulgencia para Todos,") enjoy great 
 popularity. 
 
 Gorraeua. See Gorris. 
 
 Gorran, de, deh go'rdN', (Nicolas,) a French theo- 
 logian, born in Maine about 1230. He wrote commen- 
 taries on Scripture. Died in 1295. 
 
 Gorres or Goerres, gor'res, (Jakob Joseph,) an 
 able German writer and publicist, was born at Coblentz 
 in 1776. He edited in 1814 the " Rheinisches Mercur," 
 an organ of the Liberal party in Germany, and was ap- 
 pointed professor of history at Munich in 1827. He wrote 
 on a great variety of subjects. Among his principal 
 works are "Aphorisms on Art," (1802,) "Faith and 
 Science," (" Glauben und Wissen," 1805,) " Mythologi- 
 cal History of the Asiatic World," (1810,) "Christian 
 Mystic," ("Christliche Mystik," 4 vols., 1836-42,) and 
 a number of contributions to the "Historico-Political 
 Journal." Died at Munich in 1848. 
 
 See Sepp, "J. von Gorres; eine Skizze seines Leben," 1848; S. 
 Brunner, "Einige Stunden bei Goerres," 1848; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generate," (where he is called Jean Joseph de Goerres.) 
 
 Gorresio, gor-ra'se-o, ( Gaspard,) an Italian Ori- 
 entalist, born in Piedmont in 1808, became professor of 
 Sanscrit at Turin. He produced a good Italian ver- 
 sion of the Sanscrit poem "Ramayana," (Paris, 9 vols., 
 1843-56.) 
 
 Gorris, de, deh go'ress', [Lat. Gorr^e'us,] (Jean,) a 
 French physician, born in Paris in 1505 ; died in 1577. 
 
 Gorsas, goR'sa', (Antoine Joseph,) a French poli- 
 tician and revolutionist, born at Limoges in 1752. As 
 editor of the "Courrier de Versailles," he contributed 
 greatly to excite the populace to the outrages of the 20th 
 of June and the 10th of August. He was a deputy to 
 the National Convention in 1792. In 1793 he was ar- 
 rested by the Revolutionary Tribunal, and executed. 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists." 
 
 Goraki, goRs'skee, or Gors'kl-us, (James,) a Polish 
 writer, born in Masovia about 1525. He wrote on rhet- 
 oric, theology, etc. Died about 1584. 
 
 Gortchakof or Gortschakow, goR'cha-kof .written 
 also Gortchakov or Gortchakoff, (Alexander,) a 
 Russian general, born in 1764. He obtained the rank 
 of general about 1798, served in several campaigns 
 against the French, and defeated Marshal Lannes at 
 Heilsberg in 1807. He acted as minister of war in 1812. 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 Gortchakof or Gortschakow, (Alexander,) 
 Prince, a Russian statesman, born about 1800. He was 
 appointed secretary of legation to London in 1824, and 
 in 1832 councillor of the embassy in Vienna. In 1841 
 he negotiated the marriage of the grand duchess Olga 
 with the crown-prince of Wurtemberg. He represented 
 Russia at the court of Vienna in 1854 and 1855, and be- 
 came minister of foreign affairs about 1857. 
 
 Gortchakof or Gortachakow, (Dmitri,) a Rus- 
 sian poet, born in 1756. He wrote odes, satires, etc., and 
 was considered one of the best Russian poets of his 
 time. Died in 1824. 
 
 Gortchakof or Gortachakow, (Michael,) Prince, 
 an able general, brother of Prince Alexander, was born 
 in 1795. He served in the Polish campaign of 1831, 
 and distinguished himself at Ostrolenka and Warsaw. 
 He was made general of artillery in 1843, and in 1846 
 military governor of Warsaw. He commanded the army 
 which entered the Danubian principalities in 1853, and 
 succeeded Prince Mentchikof as commander of the army 
 in the Crimea in March, 1855. ^ ne s ^'" w ' tn wmc h he 
 defended Sevastopol and conducted the retreat of his 
 army is highly extolled. He was Governor of Poland 
 when he died, about June, 1861. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for July, 1861. 
 
 Gortchakof or Gortachakow, (Peter,) Prince, 
 eldest brother of the preceding, born about 1790, served 
 against the French in 1813-14, and subsequently in the 
 Caucasus under Yermolof. In 1839 he became Governor- 
 General of Western Siberia, and in 1843 general of 
 infantry. According to Vapereau, he commanded a wing 
 of the army at Alma and the Inkerman, (1854.) 
 
 Gortchakov or Gortachakow. See Gortchakof. 
 
 Gorter, van, vin goR'ter, (David,) a Dutch physi- 
 cian and botanist, son of Jan, noticed below. He suc- 
 ceeded his father as physician to the Empress of Russia, 
 and published " Flora Ingrica," and other botanical 
 works. Died in 1783. 
 
 Gorter, van, (Jan,) a celebrated Dutch physician, 
 born in West Friesland in 1689. He studied at Leyden 
 under Boerhaave, and in 1754 was invited to Russia by 
 the empress Elizabeth, who made him her first physi- 
 cian. Among his principal works are a " Compendium of 
 Medicine," and a treatise "On Insensible Perspiration," 
 (in Latin.) Died in Holland in 1762. 
 
 Gor'tpn, (John,) an English editor, of whom we have 
 little information. He published a valuable "General 
 Biographical Dictionary," (2 vols., 1828-30.) A new 
 edition, with a supplement, appeared, in 4 vols., in 1851. 
 
 Gorton, (Samuel,) a religionist or enthusiast, born in 
 England about 1600, emigrated to Boston in 1636. He 
 was whipped for a contemptuous speech against the 
 magistrates, and about 1642 was accused of heresy and 
 found guilty. For this offence he was imprisoned until 
 1644. Died in 1677. 
 
 See " Life of S. Gorton," in Sparks's " American Biography." 
 
 Gortz, (Georo Henrik.) See Goertz. 
 
 Gortz or Goertz, goRts, (Johann Eustach,) Count 
 of Schlitz, a Prussian statesman, born in the grand duchy 
 of Hesse in 1737. He was created by Frederick II. 
 minister of state and grand master of the wardrobe. He 
 died in 1821, leaving, among other works, "Authentic 
 Memoirs relative to the Negotiations which preceded 
 the Partition of Poland," (1810.) 
 
 See " Historische und politische Denkwiirdigkeiten des Grafen 
 von Goertz," 2 vols., 1827; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Gdachel or Goeschel, go'shel, (Karl Friedrich,) 
 a German jurist and philosopher, born at Langensalza 
 in 1784. He graduated at Bonn in 1835, and was ap- 
 pointed in 1845 first president of the Consistory for the 
 province of Saxony. He published in 1828 "Caecilius 
 and Octavius, or a Conversation on the Principal Ob- 
 jections to Christian Truth," and in 1829 "Aphorisms 
 on Ignorance and Absolute Knowledge in Relation to 
 the Christian Confession of Faith," in which he advo- 
 cates Hegel's philosophy and seeks to prove its harmony 
 with the Christian faith. He also wrote an answer to 
 
 Brockhaus, "Conversa- 
 
 Strauss's "Life of Jesus." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale 
 tions-Lexikon." 
 
 i, e, I, o, 3, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, 11, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, ail, ftt; met; not; good; m<56n; 
 
GOSCHEN 
 
 io6i 
 
 GOTTS CHALK 
 
 Gdschen, go'shen or gosh'en, (George Joachim,) 
 an English financier, of German extraction, born in Lon- 
 don in 1831, was educated at Oxford. He wrote, besides 
 several treatises on financial subjects, " The Theory of 
 Foreign Exchanges." Since 1S63 he has represented 
 the city of London in Parliament. As chancellor of 
 the duchy of Lancaster, he was a member of the Liberal 
 ministry from January to June, 1866. He became a 
 member of Mr. Gladstone's cabinet, as president of the 
 poor-law board, in December, 1868. 
 
 Odschen or Goeschen, go'shen, (Johann Fried- 
 rich Ludwig,) an able German jurist, born at Konigs- 
 berg in 1778. He studied Roman law at Berlin under 
 Savigny and Niebuhr, and in 1S13 was appointed pro- 
 fessor at the Berlin University. He published an edition 
 of the " Institutes of Gaius," and " Lectures on Common 
 Civil Law." Died in 1837. 
 
 Goselini, go-sa-lee'nee, (Giuliano,) an Italian poet 
 and historical writer, born at Rome in 1525. He became 
 secretary to Ferdinand Gonzaga, Viceroy of Sicily, of 
 whom he wrote a biography. He also published a work 
 entitled "Tre Congiure," etc., and a number of poems. 
 Died in 1587. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Goslicki, gos-let'skee, (Laurentius Grimalius,) a 
 Polish prelate and diplomatist, born in 1535, was secre- 
 tary to Sigismund III. He was Successively Bishop of 
 Kamieniec and Posen. His chief work is entitled "The 
 Accomplished Senator," ("De Optimo Senatore.") 
 
 Gosse, goss, (Etienne,) a French dramatist, born at 
 Bordeaux in 1773. He wrote many comedies, and " Dra- 
 matic Proverbs," (2 vols., 1819.) Died in 1834. 
 
 Gosse, goss, (Henri Albertet — tl'beR'tJ',) a Swiss 
 chemist and apothecary, born at Geneva in 1753, made 
 improvements in the fabrication of potters' ware and of 
 leather, and in other arts. He is said to have been the 
 inventor of artificial mineral waters. Died in 1816. 
 
 Gosse, (Louis Francois Nicolas,) a French his- 
 torical painter, born in Paris in 1787. Among his works 
 are "The Adoration of the Magi," (1828,) "The Crea- 
 tion," and a " Visit of Napoleon III. to the Louvre," 
 which was ordered for the Salle du Trone in the Senate- 
 house. 
 
 Gosse, goss, (Philip Henry,) an English naturalist, 
 born at Worcester in 1810. He made a scientific tour 
 through Canada, the United States, and Jamaica, and 
 published, after his return, "The Canadian Naturalist," 
 (1840,) "The Birds of Jamaica," (1845,) and "A Natu- 
 ralist's Sojourn in Jamaica." His " Rambles of a Natu- 
 ralist on the Devonshire Coast" appeared in 1853, and 
 his "Aquarium" in 1854. These works were received 
 with general favour, and have contributed greatly to 
 excite an interest in those departments of natural his- 
 tory which he has so well illustrated. In 1850 Mr. 
 Gosse was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He 
 produced in i860 a " History of British Sea- Anemones 
 and Corals." 
 
 See " Westminster Review" for July, 1847. 
 
 Gossec, go'seV, (Francois Joseph,) an eminent 
 musical composer, born in Hainault in 1733. He studied 
 in Paris under Rameau, and subsequently became pro- 
 fessor in the Conservatory of Music. His compositions 
 are various ; among his master-pieces are " The Mass 
 for the Dead," "The Nativity," an oratorio, the opera 
 of " Sabinus," the music for the funeral of Mirabeau, and 
 the apotheosis of Voltaire. Died in 1829. 
 
 See P. Hedouin, " Gossec, sa Vie et ses Ouvrages," 1852 ; Cho- 
 ron et Fayolle, " Dictionnaire des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Gosselin, goss'liN', (Antoine,) a French ecclesi- 
 astic, born near Amiens alxmt 1580, became professor 
 of rhetoric at Caen. His principal work is a " History 
 of the Old Gauls," (in Latin.) Died in 1645. 
 
 Gosselin, (Jean,) a French writer, born at Vire, in 
 Normandy. He was patronized liy Margaret of Navarre, 
 and was appointed keeper of the Royal Library in Paris. 
 He published "Signification of the Ancient Game of 
 Pythagorean Cards," and other works. Died in 1604. 
 
 'Gosselin or Gossellin, (Pierre Francois Joseph,) 
 a celebrated French geographer, born at Lille in 1751. 
 He was a deputy to the National Assembly in 1789, and 
 
 in 1791 became a member of the central administration 
 of commerce. He was elected to the French Institute 
 soon after its formation, and in 1799 succeeded Barthe- 
 lemy as keeper of the medals in the National Library. 
 His geographical works are numerous and valuable ; 
 among the most important may be named his " Geo- 
 graphy of the Greeks Analyzed," (4to, with ten maps, 
 1790,) and "Inquiries into the Positive and Systematic 
 Geography of the Ancients," (4 vols. 4to, fifty-four maps, 
 1798.) Gosselin was employed by Napoleon to assist 
 in the translation of Strabo. Died in 1830. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Gossin, go'siN', (Pierre Francois,) a French revo- 
 lutionist, born near Verdun in 1744. He was elected 
 to the States-General in 1789, and was chairman of 
 the committee which divided France into departments. 
 He was guillotined in July, 1794. 
 
 Gos'son, (Stephen,) an English divine and drama- 
 tist, born in Kent in 1554, was the author of a tragedy 
 entitled*' Catiline's Conspiracies," and " Captain Mario, 
 a comedy. He afterwards wrote with great severity 
 against the stage. Died in 1623. 
 
 Goszczynski, gosh-chin'skee, (Severin,) a Polish 
 poet, born in the Ukraine in 1806. His principal works 
 are "The Castle of Kaniow," an epic poem, and a 
 number of lyrics. 
 
 Got, de, (Bertrand.) See Clement V. 
 
 Gotama. See Gautama. 
 
 Go'ter or Go'ther, (John,) an English Catholic 
 theologian, born in Hampshire about 1640, wrote many 
 theological and controversial works. Died in 1704. 
 
 Gotescalc. See Gottschalk. 
 
 Goth. See Clement V. 
 
 Gothe. See Goethe. 
 
 Gothofredus. See Godefroi, (Denis.) 
 
 Gothofredus Boloniensis. See Godfrey of 
 Bouillon. 
 
 Gotter, got'ter, (Frif.drich Wii.helm,) a German 
 poet and dramatist, born at Gotha in 1746, was one of 
 the founders of the " Musen-Almanach" in that city. 
 Besides a number of tragedies, comedies, and farces, he 
 wrote admired songs, elegies, etc. Died in 1797. 
 
 Gottfried von Nifen, got'fReet fon nee'ien, a Ger- 
 man minnesinger, flourished about 1230. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Gottfried (or Godefroi) von Strasburg, got'fReet 
 fon stRas'booRG, a celebrated German poet, who lived 
 about 1200, was the author of an epic poem entitled 
 "Tristan and Isolde," which ranks among the finest 
 productions of the kind in, the middle ages. Editions 
 of it have been published by Massmann and others. 
 
 Gotti, got'tee, (Vincenzo Luigi,) a learned Italian 
 cardinal, born at Bologna in 1664, became professor of 
 philosophy in his native city in 1688. He was the author 
 of a treatise "On the True Church of Christ," (in Ital- 
 ian,) and other religious works, in Latin. Died in 1742. 
 
 Gottigniez, go'ten'ye-i', ( Gilles Francois, ) a 
 mathematician, was born at Brussels in 1630. He taught 
 mathematics at Rome, and wrote, besides other works, 
 "Elements of Geometry," (Rome, 1669.) Died in 1689. 
 
 Gottleber, got'la'ber, (Johann Christoph,) a Ger- 
 man philologist, born at Chemnitz in 1733. Among his 
 works are " Observations on Plato's Phaedon and Alci- 
 biades," (" Animadversioncs ad Platonis Phaedonem et 
 Alcibiadem," 1771.) Died in 1785. 
 
 Gottlingor Goettling,got'ling,(JoHANN Friedrich 
 August,) a German chemist, born at Bemburg in 1755. 
 He taught chemistry and philosophy at Jena, and wrote 
 many useful works, among which is a "Chemical and 
 Philosophical Encyclopaedia," (3 vols., 1805-07.) Died 
 in 1S09. 
 
 See Hirsching, " Historijch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Gdttling or Goettling, (Karl W 11.11 elm,) a German 
 scholar, bom at Jena in 1793, was professor of ancient 
 literature in that city, and in 1826 librarian of the 
 university. lie published a treatise "On the Historical 
 Part of the Nibelungenlied," and several other critical 
 and antiquarian works. 
 
 Gottschalk or Gotschalk, got'shalk, written also 
 Gotescalc, [Lit. GodescHaI/CUI or GOTHI sctial'- 
 
 € as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as 1; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GOTTSCHALL 
 
 1062 
 
 GOUGE 
 
 CUS,] a German monk, born about? 808 a.d. His expo- 
 sition of Saint Augustine's doctrine of predestination 
 subjected him to the charge of heresy. By the influence 
 of Hincmar, he was condemned as a heretic in 849 
 A.D., and punished with imprisonment for life. Died 
 about 860. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"nerale." 
 
 Gottschall, got'shal, (Rudolph,) a Prussian poet, 
 born at Breslau in 1823. He displayed a rich imagi- 
 nation in his poems, among which are " Songs of the 
 Present Time," (" Lieder der Gegenwart," 2d edition, 
 1842,) "Madonna and Magdalene," (1843,) "The God- 
 dess," (" Die Gtittinn," 1852,) and a drama called " Lam- 
 bertine de Mericourt," (1851.) 
 
 Gottsched, got'shSt, [Lat Gottsche'dius,] (Jo- 
 HANN Christoph,) a German critic and litterateur, born 
 near KSnigsberg in 1700. He published "The German 
 Theatre according to the Rules and Examples of the 
 Ancients," " Essay on a Critical Art of Poetry," (1730,) 
 and Poems, (1736.) His writings contributed much to 
 refine the German language and to introduce a purer 
 taste into its literature. He was for many years professor 
 of philosophy, etc. at Leipsic, and edited several jour- 
 nals, among which was " Die verniinftige Tadlerinuen." 
 Died in 1766. 
 
 See Johann August Ernesti, " Memoria J. C. Gottschedii, " 
 1767; T. W. Danzel, "Gottsched and seine Zeit," 1848; Gekvinus, 
 "Geschichte der Nalional-Literatur der ■ Deutsche!) ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Gottsched, (Luise Adelgunde Victorie,) origin- 
 ally Culmus, a learned authoress, born at Dantzic in 
 1713, was the wife of the preceding. She translated Addi- 
 son's "Cato" and "Spectator" into German, and wrote 
 "Letters," (1 771,) which are much admired. "She sur- 
 passed her husband," says Bernhard, "in taste, wit, and 
 purity of style." Died in 1762. 
 
 See J. H. S. Formhv, " E"loge de Madame Gottsched," 1767. 
 
 Gottschedius. See Gottsched, (Johann Chris- 
 toph.) 
 
 Gottwald, got'Mlt, (Christoph,) a German natu- 
 ralist, born at Dantzic in 1636. He made a rich col- 
 lection of specimens, which was purchased by Peter the 
 Great, and wrote a few treatises. Died in 1700. 
 
 Gotz. See Berlichingen. 
 
 Gotz, gots, (Johann Nikolaus,) a German poet, 
 born at Worms in 172 J, wrote lyrics, epigrams, etc., and 
 made translations from Anacreon and Sappho. Died 
 in 1781. 
 
 Gotze or Goetze, got'seh, (Georg Heinrich,) a 
 learned Lutheran divine, born at Leipsic in 1667. He 
 was chosen superintendent if the churches of Lubeck in 
 1702. His works are numerous and curious, but mostly 
 short or unimportant. Two of them are entitled "On 
 the Relics of Luther," (1703,) and "On Learned Mer- 
 chants," (1708.) Died in 1728. 
 
 See Seelen, "Memoria G. H. Goetzii," 1728; Niceron, "Me- 
 moires." 
 
 Gotze or Goetze, (Johann August Ephraim,) a 
 distinguished German naturalist, born at Halberstadt in 
 1 73 1. He was minister at Quedlinburg from 1756 to 
 1787. He is said to have been one of the first entomolo- 
 gists of his time. Among his numerous works are "En- 
 tomological Memoirs," (4 vols., 1777-81,) a "Natural 
 History of Intestinal Worms," (1782,) and "Nature, 
 Human Life, and Providence," (6 vols., 1789-92.) Died 
 in 1793. 
 
 See Cramer, "Zum Andenken des Pastors Goetze," 1793; " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle." 
 
 Gotze or Goetze, (Johann Melchior,) a German 
 theologian and scholar, a brother of the preceding, born 
 at Halberstadt in 1 71 7, was pastor of Saint Catherine's 
 Church at Hamburg. His passion for controversy in- 
 volved him in disputes with Goethe, Lessing, and other 
 eminent men of the time; and his intolerance obtained 
 for him the name of "The Inquisitor of Hamburg." 
 He died in 1786, leaving a number of learned treatises. 
 
 See Lessing, "Mendelssohn, Risbeck und GStze," 1787; J. L. 
 Schlosskr, " Nachricht an das Publikum J. M. Goetze betreffend," 
 1770: C. F. Bahrdt, "Standrede am Grabe J. M. Goetzens," 1786. 
 
 Gotzinger or Goetzinger, got'sing-er, (Max Wil- 
 HELM,) a German grammarian and litterateur, born near 
 
 Stolpen in 1799, published " Elements of German Gram- 
 mar," (1825,) "Commentaries on the German Poets," 
 (1831,) and other works. 
 
 Gouan, goo-6N', (Antoine,) a French botanist, born 
 in 1733 at Montpellier, where he became professor of 
 botany in 1767. He published, besides other works, 
 "The Botanic Garden of Montpellier," (" Hortus Mons- 
 peliensis," 1762,) and " Flora Monspeliaca," (1765.) He 
 corresponded with Linnaeus and Haller. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Pierre Joseph Amoreux, " Notice historique stir A. Gouan," 
 1S22; Haller, "Bibliotheca Botanica;" "Nouvelle Biographie G6- 
 nerale." 
 
 Gouaz, le, leh goo'Sz', (Yves,) a French engraver, 
 born at Brest in 1742. He executed, from designs by 
 Ozanne, more than sixty views of French sea-ports and 
 scenes in the Antilles. Died in 1816. 
 
 Gouchtasp. See Gushtasp. 
 
 Gouda, van, vSn gow'da or How'da, (Cornelis,) a 
 skilful Dutch painter, born at Gouda, lived about 1550. 
 
 Goudar, goo'diR', (Ange,) a French writer, born 
 at Montpellier about 1720. He published, among other 
 works, "The Chinese Spy; or, Secret Envoy from the 
 Court of Pekin," (6 vols., 1768.) Died in 1791. 
 
 Goudchaux, goo'sho', (Michel,) a French financier, 
 of a Jewish family, was born at Nancy in 1801. He 
 was chosen minister of finance in February, 184S, under 
 the new regime, but resigned about the 6th of March. 
 He had the portfolio of finance in the administration of 
 Cavaignac from June to October, 1848. 
 
 Goudelin. See Goudouli. 
 
 Goudelin, How'deh-lin, [Fr. pron. good'laN'; Lat. 
 Gudeli'nus,] (Pieter,) a learned jurist, born in Hai- 
 nault in 1550, was professor of law at Louvain, and 
 published, among other works, a treatise "On the Law 
 of Peace," (in Latin.) Died in 1619. 
 
 Goudimel, goo'de'mSl', (Claude,) a French musical 
 composer and Protestant, born at Besancon about 15 10. 
 He set to music the Psalms of Beza and Marot. He 
 was condemned and put to death by the Catholics soon 
 after the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, (1572.) 
 
 See Burnev, "History of Music;" Fetis, "Biographie Univer- 
 selle des Musiciens." 
 
 Goudin, goo'daN', (Mathieu Bernard,) a French 
 geometer, born in Paris in 1734; died in 181 7. 
 
 Goudouli, goo'doo'le', or Goudelin, good'laN', 
 (Pierre,) a French poet, born at Toulouse in 1579. 
 Among his works is a " Chant royal," composed on the 
 death of Henry IV. Died in 1649. 
 
 Goudt, gowt or Howt, (Hendrik,) Count, a distin- 
 guished Dutch painter and engraver, born at Utrecht in 
 1585. Among his master-pieces are the engravings of 
 "Tobias and the Angels," "The Flight into Egypt," 
 and " Philemon and Baucis." Died about 1630. 
 
 Gouffe, goo'fa', (Akmand,) a French song-writer, 
 born in Paris in 1775. Among his most remarkable 
 songs are "The Praise of Water," and "Saint Denis." 
 He also wrote many vaudevilles. Died in 1845. 
 
 Gouffier. See Choiseul-Goueeier. 
 
 Gouffier, (Guillaume.) See Bonnivet. 
 
 Gouge, gooj, ? (Thomas,) an English nonconformist 
 divine, a son of William, noticed below, was born near 
 Stratford in 1605. He studied at Cambridge, and in 1638 
 obtained the living of Saint Sepulchre, London, where he 
 resided more than twenty years. He resigned this post 
 when the Act of Uniformity was passed. Having formed 
 a plan for the moral and religious improvement of Wales, 
 he visited that country about 1671, founded between three 
 and four hundred schools, and printed eight thousand 
 Bibles in the Welsh language. He died in 1681, and his 
 funeral sermon was preached by Dr. Tillotson. He was 
 the author of " Principles of Religion Explained," and 
 other similar works. 
 
 Gouge, (William,) an English Puritan divine, dis- 
 tinguished for his learning and piety, born at Stratford- 
 le-Bow, in Middlesex, in 1575. He became rector of 
 Saint Anne's, Blackfriars, London, in 1608, and was after- 
 wards nominated one of the Assembly of Divines. He 
 opposed in 1648 the execution of the king. He pub- 
 lished a "Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews," 
 and other works. Died in 1653. 
 
 See Midoleton, "Evangelical Biography." 
 
 S,e 
 
 :, I, o, u, y,long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J>, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; nfit; good; moon ; 
 
GOUGES 
 
 1063 
 
 GOULD 
 
 Gouges, de, deh goozh, (Marie Olympe,) a French 
 dramatic writer, bom at Montauban in 1755. She was 
 at first a zealous partisan of the Revolution, but, alarmed 
 by its excesses, changed her views, and opposed the 
 execution of the king. She was condemned to death, 
 and executed in November, 1792. 
 
 See Michelet, " Les Femmes de la Revolution," etc. 
 
 Gough, gof, (Hugh,) Viscount, a distinguished 
 British general, bom at Woodstown, Ireland, in Novem- 
 ber, 1779. He served as colonel in the Peninsular war, 
 1808-14, and became a major-general in 1830. He com- 
 manded a corps of the army operating against the Chi- 
 nese in 1841, and took Canton. Having obtained the 
 chief command in India, he defeated the Mahrattas at 
 Maharajpore in December, 1843. for his victories over 
 the Sikhs in 1845 and 1846 he was raised to the peerage, 
 as viscount. He also commanded the army which fought 
 against the Sikhs in 1849 and gained a decisive victory 
 at Goojerat, (Guzerat.) He became a field-marshal about 
 1862. Died in March, 1869. 
 
 Gough, gof, (John B.,) a celebrated lecturer on tem- 
 perance, born in Kent, England, in 181 7. He came to 
 America in 1829, and, while learning the bookbinding 
 business in New York, fell into habits of intemperance, 
 and finally sunk to the lowest depths of poverty and 
 wretchedness. Having been induced about 1840 to sign 
 the total-abstinence pledge, he became deeply interested 
 in the temperance reform, and soon distinguished himself 
 as one of the most eloquent and most successful advo- 
 cates of the cause. Since 1843 he has devoted himself 
 almost without interruption to lecturing on temperance 
 in the United States, Canada, and the British Islands. 
 He has spoken, it is said, nearly one hundred times 
 on the subject of temperance in Exeter Hall, London. 
 Mr. Gough combines in an eminent degree the quali- 
 ties of an actor with those of a great orator. His auto- 
 biography was published in 1846, and a volume of his 
 orations in 1854. 
 
 Gough, (Richard,) a celebrated English antiquary, 
 born in London in 1735. He studied at Cambridge, was 
 elected to the Society of Antiquaries in 1767, and in 
 1775 a Fellow of the Royal Society. His principal works 
 are his "Anecdotes of British Topography," (1768,) and 
 " Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain," (3 vols., 
 '799-) He also edited Camden's "Britannia," (3 vols, 
 foj., 1789,) Martin's "History of Thetford," and other 
 antiquarian works. Died in 1809. 
 
 See Nichols, "Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Goujet, goo'zh&', (Claude Pierre,) a French writer 
 and Jansenist, born in Paris in 1697. He published 
 a "Life of Nicole," and a number of biographical and 
 historical works, and wrote a supplement to MoreVi's 
 "Historical Dictionary." Died in 1767. 
 
 See Bakral, "Memoires historiques, etc. de TAbbe" Goujet," 
 1767. 
 
 Goujon or Gougeon, goo'zhdN', (Jean,) an eminent 
 sculptor and architect, regarded as the restorer of sculp- 
 ture in France, was born in Paris about 15 1 5. He was 
 patronized by Henry II., who employed him in the deco- 
 ration of the Louvre. Among his best works are the 
 bas-reliefs of the Naiads of the Fountain of the Inno- 
 cents, and the colossal Caryatides which adorn the Salle 
 des Cent-Suisses in the Louvre. He excelled in bas- 
 relief. He was sometimes called "the Correggio of 
 sculpture." He was a Protestant, and was killed at 
 Paris during the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, in 1572. 
 
 See F. Mlt.lzIA, "Memorie deeli Architetti antichi e moderni," 
 1781 ; AuooTet Pottihr, "Essai sur la Vie de Goujon," prefixed 
 to ReVeil's engravings of Goujon's works, 1827-44: M. Frft.irm'N, 
 " Reeuatl historique de la Vie des pluscelebres Architectes;" " Nou- 
 vclle Biographic Gener.ile." 
 
 Goujon, (Jkan Jacques Emii.f,) an astronomer, born 
 in Paris in 1823. He entered the Observatory of Paris, 
 as a student or assistant, in 1841, and made many thou- 
 sand observations. He and Mauvais were selected to 
 observe the total eclipse of the sun at Dautzic in 1851. 
 He was appointed adjunct astronomer to the Observa- 
 tory in 1854. Died in 1856. 
 
 Goujon, (Jean Marie Claude,) a French revolu- 
 tionist, born at Uourg-en-Brcsse in 1766. He obtained 
 a "seat in th • Convention in April, 1794, and acted with 
 
 the party of the Mountain. Having been sentenced to 
 death for alleged complicity in the bloody sedition of 
 May 20, 1795, he killed himself. 
 
 Goulard, goo'lard', [Fr. pron. goo'ljR',] (Thomas,) 
 a French surgeon, who has given his name to the prepa- 
 rations known as " Goulard's Cerate," " Goulard's Lo- 
 tion," etc. Died about 1 790. 
 
 Goulart, goo'lik', (Simon,) a learned French Prot- 
 estant divine and compiler, born at Senlis in 1543. lie 
 became pastor of a church at Geneva about 1570, and 
 was elected in 1607 to succeed Beza as president of the 
 company of pastors. He published a great number of 
 works, some of which were translations, and was regarded 
 as one of the best prose-writers of the sixteenth century. 
 Among his original works are "Discourses touching 
 the State of the World and the Church," (1591,) and 
 "Treasury of Admirable and Memorable Histories of 
 our Time," (2 vols., 1600.) Died at Geneva in 1628. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Senkwer, 
 "Histoire litte>atre de Geneve;" Nicbron, "Memoires;" Haag, 
 " La France protestante." 
 
 Goulart, (Simon,) son of the preceding, born at 
 Geneva about 1575, was pastor of the French Protestant 
 church at Wesel, and subsequently of the Walloon church 
 at Amsterdam. Having refused to subscribe to the 
 Synod of Dort, he was banished, and died in Sleswick 
 in 1628. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nicbron. 
 "Memoires." 
 
 Goulburn, gool'bum, (Henry,) an English politician, 
 born in London in 1784. He was appointed chief secre- 
 tary for Ireland about 1822, was chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer in the ministry of Wellington from 1828 to 1830, 
 and was chosen to represent the University of Cambridge 
 in Parliament in 1831. He was a Conservative, and 
 opposed the Reform Bill. In the cabinet of Sir Robert 
 Peel he was home-secretary from December, 1834, to 
 April, 1835, and chancellor of the exchequer from Sep- 
 tember, 1841, to June, 1846. Died in 1856. 
 
 Gould, goold, (Augustus Addison,) M.D., an Ame- 
 rican physician and eminent naturalist, born at New 
 Ipswich, New Hampshire, in 1805. He graduated at 
 Harvard in 1825, and was afterwards for some time 
 instructor in botany and zoology in that institution. 
 Having taken the degree of M.D. in 1830, he began to 
 practise in Boston. In the department of conchology 
 Dr. Gould has few superiors. His chief works are a 
 "System of Natural History," (1833,) "The Mollusca 
 ana Shells of the United States Exploring Expedition 
 under Wilkes, with an Atlas of Plates," (1852,) and "The 
 Mollusca of the North Pacific Expedition under Ringgold 
 and Rodgers," (i860.) In connection with Professor 
 Agassiz, he published in 1848 a work entitled "Prin- 
 ciples of Zoology." Dr. Gould made many valuable 
 contributions to scientific journals, etc. Died in 1866. 
 
 Gould, (Hannah FLAGG,)an American poetess, bom 
 in Lancaster, Massachusetts. She published in 1832 a 
 volume of poems, which were favourably received ; also 
 two other volumes of poems in 1836 and 1841, and 
 "Hymns and Poems for Children," (1854.) Died in 
 1865. 
 
 See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America," and " Female 
 Poets of America : Cleveland, "Compendium of American Litera- 
 ture ;" " North American Review" for October, 1835. 
 
 Gould, (James,) an American jurist, born in Con- 
 necticut about 1770. He was a justice of the supreme 
 court of that State, and published a "Treatise on the 
 Principles of Pleading in Civil Actions." Died in 1838. 
 
 Gould, (John,) an eminent English naturalist, bom 
 in Dorsetshire in 1804. He published in 1831 an ad- 
 mirable work, entitled " A Century of Hirds from the 
 Himalaya Mountains," in folio, with coloured plates, and 
 in 1837 "The Hirds of Europe." lie visited Australia 
 in 1838, and spent two years in collecting material* 
 for his " Bird* of Australia," which came out in 1848. in 
 7 vols, folio, and contains six hundred species. The 
 figures in this superb work, as well as in the preceding, 
 weref "" 
 mono 
 and the "Trogonidae." 
 
 See " We«tmin«ter Review" for April, 1841. 
 
 e exquisitely coloured by his wit.. Ha alto published 
 in. Li. i|. lis ol the"Troclulidae," the " Rhamphastidae," 
 
 t as *; 9 as /; \ hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; it, trilled; gas 1; th as in this. (jrySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GOULD 
 
 1064 
 
 G0UF10N 
 
 Gould, (Robert,) a British poet, published in 1689 
 "Poems, chiefly consisting of Satires." Died in 1708. 
 
 Ooulin, goo'laN', (Jean,) a learned French physician, 
 born at Rheims in 1728, was professor of the history of 
 medicine in the Medical School of Paris. Died in 1799. 
 
 Gdul'ston or Goul'son, written also Gulsou, 
 (Theodore,) a learned English physician, born in 
 Northamptonshire about 1576, was the founder of the 
 Goulstonian Lectureship of Pathology. He translated 
 several works from the Greek into Latin. Died in 1632. 
 
 Goulu, goo'lii', (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, born in 
 Paris in 1576, wrote a "Life of Saint Francis de Sales," 
 and made several translations from the Latin and Greek. 
 He is chiefly known through his violent controversy with 
 Balzac. (See Balzac, Jean Louis Guez.) Died in 1629. 
 
 Gounod, goo'no', (Chari.es or Felix Charles,) a 
 popular French composer and musician, born in Paris 
 in 1818. He gained the grand prize for composition in 
 1839, after which he pursued his studies in Rome. In 
 185 1 he produced the opera of "Sappho." He was 
 appointed director of the Orpheon of Paris in 1852. 
 His opera of "Faust" (about 1859) was performed with 
 brilliant success. Among his other works are sympho- 
 nies, and operas entitled "La Nonne sanglante" and 
 " La Colombe." 
 
 Gottpil or Goupyl, goo'pe', (Jacques,) a French 
 physician, born in Poitou, became professor of medicine 
 at Paris in 1555. He edited Aretaeus and other Greek 
 medical works, and translated Dioscorides " De Materia 
 Medica" into Latin. Died in 1564. 
 
 Gourdan, gooK'dS.N', (Simon,) a French monk, born 
 in Paris in 1646. He composed hymns which were sung 
 in churches, and "The Sacrifice of Faith and Love at 
 the Holy Sacrament," (1714,) which was often reprinted. 
 Died in 1729. 
 
 Gourgaud, gooR'go', (Gaspard,) Baron, a French 
 general and military writer, born at Versailles in 1783. 
 Having entered the army in 1803, he served in the prin- 
 cipal campaigns from 1805 to 1814, and was made a 
 general by Napoleon after the battle of Fleurus, (1815.) 
 He accompanied the emperor to Saint Helena, where, 
 owing to a disagreement with Montholon, he did not 
 remain long. After the revolution of July, 1830, Gour- 
 gaud was created a lieutenant-general, and a peer of 
 France in 1841. He published, conjointly with Mon- 
 tholon, "Memoirs to illustrate the History of France 
 under Napoleon," etc., (8 vols., 1822,) "Refutation of 
 the Life of Napoleon by Sir Walter Scott," and several 
 other works. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Sarrut and Sajnt-Edme, " Biographie des Hommes du 
 Jour;" Querard, "La France Litteiaire;" " Nouvelle Biographic 
 G<§n<<rale." 
 
 Gourgues, de, deh gooRg, (Dominique,) a celebrated 
 French seaman, born at Mont-de-Marsan about 1530. 
 Having heard of the atrocious massacre by the Spaniards 
 of the French colonists in Florida, he with some assist- 
 ance equipped a small fleet, and with upwards of two 
 hundred followers sailed, in 1567, for that country. In 
 conjunction with his Indian allies, he totally defeated the 
 Spaniards, and took a number of prisoners, whom he 
 hanged. The head of Gourgues was demanded by the 
 Spanish king, and, having lived for some time concealed 
 in France, he was invited by Queen Elizabeth to take 
 command of an English fleet. He died on the journey 
 to London, in 1593. 
 
 See Bazanier, " Voyage du Capitaine de Gourgues dans la Flo- 
 ride :" Hildreth, "History of the United States," vol. i. chap. iii. 
 
 Gouriet, goo're-i', (Jean Baptiste,) a French littera- 
 teur, born in Paris in 1774. He published tales, verses, 
 etc. Died in 1855. 
 
 Gourlier, gooR'le-i', (Charles Pierre,) an archi- 
 tect, born in Paris inT786. He published a useful work 
 on the public buildings erected in France in the nine- 
 teenth century, " Choix d'Edifices publics," etc., (3 vols., 
 1825-50.) Died in 1857. 
 
 Gourmelen, gooRtn'16N', (Etienne,) an eminent 
 French surgeon, born in Finistere, became professor of 
 surgery in the College of France in 1578. He published, 
 besides other works, "Synopsis Chirurgiae," (1566,) 
 which was for a long time the basis of surgical instruc- 
 tion in the Faculty of Paris. Died at Melun in 1593. 
 
 Gournay, de, deh gooR'n^', (Marie le Jars — leh 
 zhjR,) a literary French lady, born in Paris in 1566, was 
 an intimate friend and admirer of Montaigne, who called 
 her his daughter, (fille cTalliance.) She published two 
 editions of his "Essays," (1595 and 1635.) She gained 
 a high reputation by her writings, among which were a 
 treatise " On the Equality of Men and Women," several 
 moral essays, and verses, some of which Grotius trans- 
 lated. Died in 1645. 
 
 See Mlle. de Gournay, " SaVie, par elle-m§me ;" L. Fbugkre. 
 "Mile, de Gournay," 8vo, 1853; Baylb, "Historical and Critical 
 Dictionary;" Niceron, "Me"moires." 
 
 Gourne, de, deh gooR'nl', (Pierre Mathias,) Abbe, 
 a French geographer, born at Dieppe in 1702. Among 
 his principal works are his " Methodical Geography," 
 etc., (1741,) and "Geographical Description of the King- 
 doms of Spain and Portugal," (1743.) Died about 1770. 
 
 Gourville, de, deh gooR'vel', (Jean Herault — 
 ha'ro',) Sieur, a celebrated French financier, born at 
 La Rochefoucauld in 1625. He was patronized by the 
 Prince of Conde, to whom he rendered many impor- 
 tant services, and was afterwards employed by Cardinal 
 Mazarin in various negotiations. He was subsequently 
 ambassador from Louis XIV. to the court of Brunswick. 
 He died in 1703, leaving memoirs of his life, etc., which 
 are highly commended by Madame de Sevigne. 
 
 See " M^moire de Gourville :" " Lettres de Madame de SevigneV ' 
 
 Gousset, goo's|', I'Lat. Gusse'tius,] (Jacques,) a 
 learned French Protestant divine, born at Blois in 1635. 
 His principal work is his " Commentaries on the Hebrew 
 Language," ("Commentarii Linguae Ebraicae," etc.) He 
 was for many years professor of Greek and theology at 
 Groningen. Died in 1704. 
 
 Gousset, (Thomas Marie Joseph,) a French prelate, 
 born in Haute-Saone in 1792. He became Archbishop 
 of Rheims in 1840, and a cardinal in 1850 or 1851. Among 
 his works is a treatise on "Moral Theology,'" (1836,) 
 which is highly esteemed. 
 
 Goustasp. See GushtAsp. 
 
 Gouthieres or Goutieres, goo'te-aiR', written also 
 Guthier, [Lat. Guthe'rius,] (Jacques,) a French jurist 
 and antiquary, born at Chaumont in 1568, published, 
 among other works, a treatise "On the Old Pontifical 
 Law of Rome." Died in 1638. 
 
 Gouttes, goot, (Jean Louis,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 born at Tulle in 1740, was a deputy to the States-General 
 in 1789. In 1791 he succeeded Talleyrand as Bishop of 
 Autun. He was arrested by the committee of public 
 safety, and executed, in 1794. 
 
 Gouvea, go-va'a, or Govea, de, da go-va'a, [Lat. 
 Govea'nus,] (Antonio,) an eminent Portuguese jurist 
 and writer, born at Beja in 1505. He became a member 
 of the privy council of Emanuel Philibert, Duke of 
 Savoy, having previously filled the chair of jurispru- 
 dence at Cahors and Valence, in France. He wrote 
 a number of legal works in Latin, also Latin poems of 
 great elegance. He died at Turin in 1 565, leaving the 
 reputation of one of the first jurists of his time. 
 
 Gouvea, de, (Antonio,) a Portuguese historian and 
 monk, born at Beja about 1570. He was sent as an am- 
 bassador to Persia in 1602, and wrote an account of the 
 war between Shah Abbas of Persia and the Turks, (161 1.) 
 Died in 1628. 
 
 Gouvest. See Maubert. 
 
 Gouvion Saint-Cyr, goo've-6N' sSn's&r', (Lau- 
 rent,) a French marshal, was born at Toul in 1764. 
 He served in the army of the Rhine in 1796, and in 
 1797 succeeded Massena as commander of the army 
 of Rome. He took a prominent part in the Austrian 
 and Prussian campaigns of 1805-06, and in 1812 ob- 
 tained a signal victory over the Russian prince Witt- 
 genstein at Polotsk, for which he received a marshal's 
 baton. After the accession of Louis XVIII. he was 
 created successively a peer and a marquis, and in 181 7 
 became minister of war. He died in 1830, leaving 
 "Memoirs towards a Military History under the Direc- 
 tory, the Consulate, and the Empire," (1831,) which is 
 regarded as a standard work and has been translated 
 into several languages. 
 
 See Gay de Vernon, "Vie de Gouvion Saint-Cyr;" Nollet- 
 Fabert, "Le Marshal Gouvion Saint-Cyr," 1853. 
 
 t, S, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; no.; good; mr36n; 
 
GOUrE 
 
 1065 
 
 GOZZOLI 
 
 Gouye, goo-e', (Thomas,) a French Jesuit and ma- 
 thematician, born at Dieppe in 1650, wrote " Physical 
 and Mathematical Observations," etc. Died in 1725. 
 
 Oouye de Longuemarre, goo-e' d?h IdNg'mlR', 
 (N.,) a French advocate and historical writer, bom at 
 Dieppe in 1715. He published several dissertations 
 relative to the early history of France. Died in 1763. 
 
 Gouz or Goux, goo, (F rancois de la Boullaye le 
 — deh lit boo'li' leh,) a French traveller and diplomatist, 
 boni in Anjou about 1610, was sent in 1688 on an em- 
 bassy to the Great Mogul. He died in Persia in 1689. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. i., (new series,) 1853. 
 
 Govea. See Gouvea. 
 
 Govinda, a name of Krishna, (which see.) 
 
 Go-vin'da Singh, (sing,) a famous chief of the Sikhs, 
 borlr at Patna in i66t, was the last Guru (or G6"6'r<56) 
 or religious head of that sect. He was a son of the ninth 
 Gooroo, who was put to death by Aurung-Zeb. He 
 reformed or reorganized the Sikhs, whom he converted 
 into a tribe of formidable warriors and taught that it was 
 meritorious to exterminate the Mongols, over whom he 
 gained several victories. Having been abandoned by 
 nearly all his partisans, he escaped in disguise to the 
 desert. Died in 1708. 
 
 See J. Malcolm, "Sketch of the Sikhs," in the "Asiatic Re- 
 searches," vol. xi. 
 
 Govona, go-vo'nl, (Rosa,) was born at Mondovi, in 
 Italy, in 1716. Left an orphan at an early age, she not 
 only supported herself by her industry, but formed an 
 association of destitute young girls, whom she instructed 
 in various kinds of labour. In 1755, assiste(1 Dv . several 
 of the nobility, she founded at Turin an industrial insti- 
 tution, which was patronized by King Charles Emanuel 
 III. Similar establishments were formed in other Italian 
 towns, and called Rosines in honour of their foundress. 
 Died in 1776. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Grfn^rale." 
 
 Gow'er, (John,) one of the earliest English poets, 
 born about 1320, is supposed to have been a native of 
 Yorkshire. He studied law in London, where he formed 
 an intimate friendship with Chaucer, who is said to have 
 been his fellow-student. His principal works are his 
 " Speculum Meditantis," (" Mirror of Meditation,") " Vox 
 Clamantis," ("Voice of One Crying,") and "Confessio 
 Amantis," (" Lover's Confession. ) The last-named only 
 has been printed, and was one of the first works issued 
 from Caxton's press, (1483.) Gower was in opulent cir- 
 cumstances, and contributed largely to the rebuilding of 
 the conventual church of Saint Mary Overy, now Saint 
 Saviour's Church. His learning was profound and varied, 
 but his merits as a poet are not of a high order. His 
 sonnets, in French, are pronounced by Warton superior 
 to his other compositions. He died in 1402, and was 
 interred in Saint Saviour's Church. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry ;" Disraeli, '* Ameni- 
 ties of Literature ;" " Retrosjiective Review," vol. ii., 2d series; H. 
 J. T0OP1 " Illustrations of the Lives, etc. of Gower and Chaucer." 
 
 Gower, (Lkveson.) See Granville, Lord, and 
 Egbbton, (Francis.) 
 
 Gow'rie, (John Ruthven,) Earl of, born about 
 1578, was a son of William Ruthven, noticed below. He 
 and his brother Alexander were the chief actors in the 
 mysterious affair called the Gowrie conspiracy. In 1600 
 King James was induced to visit the earl in his castle at 
 Perth, and an attempt was made against his liberty or 
 life by the Ruthvens, who were both killed by the king's 
 attendant's. 
 
 See Robertson, "History of Scotland:" Hume, "History of 
 England;" Jamks Scott, " History of the Life and Death of John, 
 Earl of Gowrie," 1818. 
 
 Gowrie, (William Ruthven,) Earl of, was a son 
 of the Lord Ruthven who took a prominent part in the 
 murder of David Rizzio. He was the leader of the 
 conspirators who seized James VI. at Ruthven Castle in 
 1582 and detained him as a captive about ten months, 
 This seizure of the king was called the " Raid of Ruth- 
 ven." He was convicted of treason, and executed in 1 584. 
 
 Goya y Lucientes, go'yi e loo-thecn'tes, (Fran- 
 cisco,) a skilful Spanish painter, born in Aragon in 1746. 
 He received the title of painter to Charles IV. in 1799. 
 He painted religious subjects, portraits, caricatures, etc 
 
 with success. He also engraved a series of caricature* 
 and moral scenes called " Caprichos." Died at Bordeaux 
 in 1828. 
 
 See Viardot, " Notices stir les Peintres d'Espagne." 
 
 Goyen, van, vjn goi'?n, ? (Jan,) a celebrated Dutch 
 painter of landscapes and marine views, born at Leyden 
 in 1596. His pictures are admirably executed; but the 
 colours, not being well chosen, are injured by time. Died 
 in 1656. 
 
 Goz or Goez, gots, (Joseph Franz,) Baron, a German 
 painter, born at Hermannstadt in 1754. He published 
 about 1784 a series of plates entitled " Exercises of Ima- 
 gination on Different Human Characters and Forms," 
 which are regarded as little inferior to the designs of 
 Hogarth. Among his best pictures are the portrait 
 of Kosciusko, and " The Madness of King Lear." Died 
 in 1815. 
 
 See Nacler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Gozlan,goz'16N',(LEON,) a witty French dramatist and 
 novelist, born at Marseilles in 1806. He displayed great 
 talent for observation in his works, among which are 
 "The Notary of Chantilly," (1836,) "Celeste," (1839,) 
 " The Chateaus of France," (4 vols., 1844,) " Le Gateau 
 des Reines," (1855,) and " II faut que Jeunesse se paye," 
 (1858.) Died in 1866. 
 
 Gozon, de, deh go'zdN', (Deodatus or Dieudonne,) 
 a celebrated French chevalier, who, according to tradi- 
 tion, delivered the island of Rhodes from a monstrous 
 serpent which infested it. This achievement has been 
 immortalized by Schiller in his poem entitled "The 
 Combat with the Dragon," (" Der Kampf mit dem Dra- 
 chen.") Gozon was afterwards elected grand master of 
 the order of Saint John of Jerusalem. Died in 1353. 
 
 See Vertot, " Histoire des Chevaliers de Malte." 
 
 Gozzi, got'see, (Carlo,) Count, a celebrated Italian 
 dramatist, was born at Venice about 1720. He pub- 
 lished in 1 761 his drama entitled "The Loves of the 
 Three Oranges," ("Amore delle tre Melarance,") which 
 met with brilliant success. It was followed by " Mrs. 
 Serpent," (" Donna Serpente,") " King Stag," (" II Re 
 Cervo,") "Turandot," and other fairy-pieces, (Fiabe,) of 
 a similar nature, which are characterized by wonderful 
 and striking incidents, drawn from Oriental fables. They 
 were received with general admiration, more especially 
 in Germany, where they have been imitated by seve- 
 ral eminent writers. Gozzi's "Turandot, Princess of 
 China," has been translated and re-wrought by Schiller. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 See Fr. Horn, "Ueber K. Gozzi's dramatische Poesie:" Tipal- 
 do, "Biografia degli Italiani illustri;" Longfellow, "Poets and 
 Poetry of Europe ;" also Gozzi's Autobiography, entitled " Memorie 
 inutili di Carlo Gozzi," 3 vols., 1788, and the French version of 
 the same, by Paul de Musset, 1848; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ 
 nirale." 
 
 Gozzi, (Gasparo,) Count, a distinguished Italian 
 writer, brother of the preceding, was born at Venice in 
 1713. He was the author of the "Venetian Observer," 
 (" Osservatore Veneto," 12 vols., 1768,) on the model 
 of Addison's "Spectator," which it resembles in its 
 graceful style and delicate satire ; and of " Epistles," in 
 verse, (" Sermoni,") which are greatly admired for their 
 elegance. He also made several excellent translations 
 from the Latin, French, and English, and published a 
 " Defence of Dante," which is esteemed a standard work. 
 Died at Padua in 1786. 
 
 See Gherardini, " Vita di G. Gozzi," 1821 : Pindkmontk, 
 " Klogin del Conte G. Gozzi," 1787 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Genf- 
 rale , F. Fanzago, "Delle Lodi del Conte G. Gozzi, 1788. 
 
 Gozzoli, got'so-lee, (Benozzo,) a distinguished Ital- 
 ian painter, born at F'lorence about 1405, was a pupil of 
 Fra Angelico. He worked at Florence, Rome, Orvieto, 
 and Pisa. Among his best works are his frescos.which 
 cover an entire side of the Campo Santo at Pisa. The 
 subjects of these are taken from the Bible. "These 
 marvellous frescos," says the " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate," "display in the highest degree the genius 
 for invention and the talent for execution." Some of 
 his frescos at Pisa and Florence are still well preserved. 
 Died about 1485. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, " Memoirs of Early Italian Painters ;" Va- 
 sari, "Lives of tile Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Painting in 
 Italy;" "Nouvelle Biographie Genirale." 
 
 « as *; c as 1; g hard; g as/; c, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; s as x; th as in this. (flt^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GRAAF 
 
 1066 
 
 GRADENIGO 
 
 Graaf or Graef, de, deh gRlf, (Reinhart,) a Dutch 
 physician and anatomist, born at Schoonhoven in 1641. 
 He studied at Leyden, and afterwards settled at Delft, 
 where he died in 1673. He published, among other 
 works, in Latin, a treatise " On the Nature and Use of 
 the Pancreatic Juice." 
 
 See Nicekon, "Memoires." 
 
 Graaso. See Grauw, (Hendrik.) 
 
 Graat, gRit, (Bernard or Barent,) a skilful Dutch 
 painter of landscapes and animals, born at Amsterdam 
 in 1628. His colouring is vigorous and harmonious, and 
 his design correct. He excelled in animated landscapes, 
 and painted some historical pieces with success. Among 
 his best works is a " David and Bathsheba." He worked 
 mostly at Amsterdam, where he died in 1709. 
 
 Grabbe, gRab'beh, (Christian Dietrich,) a Ger- 
 man dramatic poet, born at Detmold in 1801. Among 
 his best productions are the tragedies of " The Duke 
 of Gothland," "Hannibal," "The Battle of Hermann," 
 (1838,) and a comedy entitled "Jest, Satire, Irony," etc., 
 (" Scherz, Satire, Ironie," etc.,) which is esteemed a 
 master-piece of wit and humour. Died in 1836. 
 
 See E. Dui.i.ek, "C. Grabbe's Leben," 1838; Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Karl Zibglek, "Biographie C. 
 Grabbe's," 1848. 
 
 Grabe, gRa'beh, (Johann Ernst,) a German theolo- 
 gian, born at Konigsberg in 1666. About 1705 he settled 
 in England, where he obtained the degree of D.D. He 
 published several religious works, the principal of which 
 was an edition of the Septuagint, (8 vols. 8vo, 1707-20.) 
 Died in 1711. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Grabener, gRa'beh-n§r, (Gottlieb,) a German phi- 
 lologist and writer, born in 1685 ; died in 1750. 
 
 See " Vita Grabeneri," by his son, C. G. Grabsner, 1751. 
 
 Graberg (guo'bSRg) von Hemso, (Jakob,) a learned 
 Swedish geographer, born in the island of Gottland in 
 1776, was appointed by his government, in 1823, consul 
 in Tripoli. Among his most important works, which 
 are composed in several languages, are a "Historical 
 Essay on the Skalds," (181 1,) a "Geographico-Statistical 
 Essay on the Regency of Algiers," (1830,) and a good 
 work on the "Geography of Morocco," (1834, in Italian.) 
 He possessed a choice collection of antique coins and 
 Oriental manuscripts. Died at Florence in 1847. 
 
 See his " Autobiography ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Grabowski, gRa-bov'skee, (Ambrosius,) a Polish 
 archaeologist, born near Cracow in 1782, published " The 
 Historic Antiquities of Poland," (1840.) 
 
 Grac'ehus, (Caius Sempronius,) a celebrated 
 Roman statesman and orator, born in 159 (or, as some 
 say, 154) B.C., was a brother of Tiberius. He was care- 
 fully educated by his mother, the wise and virtuous 
 Cornelia. He was elected quaestor in 126 B.C., and in 
 that capacity served in Sardinia, where he acquired much 
 popularity, and, according to Plutarch, exhibited " a 
 noble specimen of every virtue." As he was endowed 
 with great talents and excelled in eloquence, the aris- 
 tocratic party always regarded him with a jealous eye. 
 He was elected tribune of the people in 123 B.C., and 
 was the author of several laws tending to improve the 
 condition of the poor and to moderate the power of 
 the senate. By one of his laws the judiciary power was 
 transferred from the senate to the equestrian order. He 
 promoted commerce by opening good public roads. 
 " They who hated and feared him," says Plutarch, " were 
 struck with his amazing industry and the celerity of his 
 operations." He was re-elected tribune for the year 122. 
 During his second term he proposed to give the Roman 
 franchise, or right of citizenship, to all the Latins. To 
 counteract his influence, the senate resorted to a trick 
 or stratagem. They induced the tribune M. Livius 
 Drusus to act the part of a demagogue, and to propose 
 measures more radical or democratic than those of Grac- 
 chus, who was thus supplanted in the popular favour. 
 Caius conducted a colony to Carthage, and after an ab- 
 sence of seventy days returned to Rome. Opimius, an 
 enemy of Gracchus, was chosen consul for the year 121, 
 and the adherents of the senate began to repeal the laws 
 of the latter, who was now a private citizen. Fulvius 
 Flaccus, a rash partisan of Gracchus, and many others, 
 
 took arms in his defence ; but Gracchus himself was 
 averse to violent resistance. He perished in a general 
 massacre, ordered by Opimius, in 121 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Caius Gracchus:" Livv, "Epitome;* 
 Dion Cassius, " Fragments ;" F. D. Gbrlach, "Tiberius und 
 Caius Gracchus; histonscher Vortrag," 1843. 
 
 Gracchus, (Tiberius Sempronius,) a Roman gene- 
 ral of the second Punic war. He was elected consul for 
 215 B.C., and defeated Hanno near Beneventum in 214. 
 In the next year he was the colleague of Fabius Maximus 
 in the consulship. He was killed in an ambuscade in 
 212 B.C. 
 
 Gracchus, (Tiberius Sempronius,) a Roman gene- 
 ral, who married Cornelia, a daughter of Scipio Afri- 
 canus, and was the father of the famous Gracchi. He 
 became consul in 178 B.C., (or 576 A.u.C.,) and agaih in 
 163 B.C. He gained a victory over the Sardinians. His 
 character is extolled by Cicero. Died about 158 B.C. 
 
 Gracchus, (Tiberius Sempronius,) a popular and 
 eminent Roman statesman, born about 168 B.C. His 
 mother was the celebrated Cornelia, a daughter of the 
 greatest Scipio. He served at the capture and destruc- 
 tion of Carthage under Scipio Africanus the Younger, 
 who had married a sister of Gracchus. In 137 B.C. he 
 was elected quaestor, and was employed in the Numan- 
 tian war, in which he greatly distinguished himself by 
 his courage and capacity. About 134 B.C. he was elected 
 tribune of the people, and proposed an important reform 
 in the disposition of the public lands. His first effort 
 was to restore or enforce (with some modifications) the 
 Licinian law, which prohibited any man from occupying 
 more than five hundred acres of public land, and which 
 had never been formally repealed, but was generally neg- 
 lected and violated. " There never was," says Plutarch, 
 "a milder law made against so much injustice and oppres- 
 sion. For they who deserved to have been punished 
 for their infringement on the rights of the community 
 were to have a consideration for giving up their ground- 
 less claims. ... In this just and glorious cause Tiberius 
 exerted an eloquence which might have adorned a worse 
 subject, and which nothing could resist." He was vio- 
 lently opposed by the aristocracy and the tribune M. 
 Octavius, whose veto retarded the passage of the bill. 
 At length Octavius was deposed, and the agrarian law 
 was adopted. Gracchus again offered himself as a can- 
 didate for the office of tribune. During the election, 
 which occurred in June, when many of his friends were 
 engaged in harvesting, the partisans of the aristocracy, 
 led by Scipio Nasica, appealed to force, and killed 
 Gracchus, with about three hundred of his supporters, 
 in 133 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Life of Tiberius Gracchus ;" Livv, " History of 
 Rome;" Crf.ll, " Elogium et Character T. et C. Gracchorum," 
 1727; Niebuhr, "Historyof Rome;" Heeren," Tiberius und Caiuj 
 Gracchus ;" F. D. Gerlach, " Tiberius und Caius Gracchus ; histo- 
 rischer Vortrag," 1843. 
 
 Gracian, gRa-Afc-an', (Baltasar,) a Spanish eccle- 
 siastic, born at Calatayud in 1584, was rector of the 
 Jesuits' College at Tarragona. He wrote " Reflections 
 on the Political Conduct of Ferdinand the Catholic,'' 
 a work entitled "The Hero," (1637,) which was trans- 
 lated into several languages, and " Criticon," an allegory, 
 (1650-53.) Died in 1658. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Bouterwek. 
 "Histoire de la Litterature Espagnole." 
 
 Gradenigo, gRa-da-nee'go, (Giovanni Agostino,) 
 an Italian antiquary and writer, born at Venice about 
 1722. He became Bishop of Chioggia and Ceneda. 
 Died in 1774. 
 
 See L. Dogi.ioni, '" Elogio storico di G. A. Gradenigo," 1774, 
 
 Gradenigo, (Giovanni Girolamo,) an Italian prel- 
 ate, born at Venice in 1708, became Archbishop of Udine 
 in 1766. Died in 1786. 
 
 Gradenigo, (Pietro,) born in 1249, was Doge of 
 Venice from 1289 to 1311. He originated the revolution 
 that deprived the people of their privileges and made 
 the aristocracy hereditary. During the war with Genoa 
 in 1297, he passed the decree called the Closing of the 
 Grand Council, which took from the people the right 
 of electing the members of that council. Died in 1311. 
 
 See Marino Sanuto, " Vitedei Duchidi Venezia, P. Gradenigo; 
 Daru,-" Histoire de Venise." 
 
 S, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, G, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
GRADI 
 
 1067 
 
 GRAHAM 
 
 Oradi, gRi'de', f Lat. De Grad'ibus,] (Jean,) a French 
 jurist and legal writer, who lived about 1490-1520. 
 
 Gradivus, a surname of Mars, which see, 
 
 Graeciiius, gre-sl'nus, (Julius,) a Roman senator, 
 who refused to appear as the accuser of Marcus Silanus, 
 and was in consequence put to death by order of Ca- 
 ligula. "He was," says Seneca, "too good a man to 
 be permitted to live under a tyrant." 
 
 Graefe. See Grake, and Gravius, (Johann G.) 
 
 Graeffe. See Graffe. 
 
 Graeme, gram, (John,) a Scottish poet, born at Cam- 
 watli, Lanarkshire, in 1748. His elegies and other poems 
 were published in 1773. Died in 1772. 
 
 Graesse. See Gkasse. 
 
 Graeter. See Grater. 
 
 GraeveL See Gravel. 
 
 Graevius. See Gravius. 
 
 Graf, gRaf, (called also TJrs, Ours, Ursus, Gam- 
 perlin, Gemberlein, and Van Goar,) a noted Swiss 
 engraver, born at Bale about 14S5. 
 
 Grafe. See Gkayius. 
 
 Grafe, gKa'feh, (H kin rich,) born at Buttstadt, in Ger- 
 many, in 1802, wrote " Universal Science of Education," 
 (" Allgenieine Padagogik," 1845.) 
 
 Grafe or Graefe, von, fon gRa'feh, (Karl Ferdi- 
 nand,) a celebrated surgeon and oculist, born at Warsaw 
 in 1787. He liecanie, about i8u, professor of surgery and 
 director of the ophthalmo-surgical clinic at Berlin, and 
 wrote, besides other works, one on the rhinoplastic art, 
 which he greatly improved. Died in 1840. 
 
 Albrecht von Grafe, a son of the preceding, born 
 at Berlin in 1828, became professor of ophthalmic sur- 
 gery in his native city in 1857. He was regarded as the 
 greatest oculist in Europe. Died in 1870. 
 
 Graff, gRaf, (Antoine,) an eminent Swiss portrait- 
 painter, born at Wintertliur in 1736. He was appointed 
 in 1766 court painter at Dresden. His works are nu- 
 merous and highly esteemed. Died in 1813. 
 
 Graff, gRaf, (Ehekhard Gottlieb,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born at Elbing in 1780, was profoundly versed 
 in the old German language and literature. His princi- 
 pal work is the " Treasure of the Old German language," 
 which, after his death, was completed by Massmann. 
 Died in Berlin m 1841. 
 
 Graffe or Graeffe, gReTfeh, (Johann Friedrich 
 Christopii,) a German philosopher and writer, born 
 in 1754 at Gottingen, where he became professor of phi- 
 losophy. Died in 1816. 
 
 Grafigni, gRa-fen<yee, (Agostino,) a Genoese mer- 
 chant, residing at Antwerp and London about 1590, was 
 a principal agent in the secret negotiations between 
 Queen Elizabeth and Alexander of Parma. 
 
 See Motley's "History of the United Netherlands," chap. viii. 
 
 Grafigny or Graffigny, gRiTen'ye', ( FRANgoiSE 
 dTssembourg d'Happoncourt — de'sS.N'booR' da"- 
 pdN'kooR',) a French writer, born at Nancy in 1695. 
 Her principal works are the comedy of "Cenia," and 
 "Lettres d'une Peruvienne," a romance. Died in 1 758. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Correspondance geneYale." 
 
 Grafstroem or Grafstrom, gRaTstRom, (Anders 
 Abraham,) a Swedish poet and clergyman, born at 
 Sundsvall in 1790. . He married a daughter of the iioet 
 Franzen. Among his works are " Sanger fr Jn Norr- 
 land," (1841.) 
 
 Grafton, (Augustus Henry Fitzroy,) Duke of, 
 a British minister of state, was born in 1736. He 
 became one of the two secretaries of state in the Whig 
 cabinet in 1765, and was appointed first lord of the 
 treasury in a ministry which Lord Chatham formed of 
 very discordant materials in 1766. In consequence of 
 Lord Chatham's ill health, the functions of prime min- 
 ister devolved on the Duke of Grafton, whose 1 character 
 and measures were assailed with violent invective by 
 Junius. I,ord Chatham resigned about October, 1768, 
 and the duke resigned in 1770. He was lord privy seal 
 from 1771 to 1775, after which he opposed the American 
 war and the measures of Lord North. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Lord Mahon's " History of England." 
 
 Grafton, (Richard,) an English printer and histori- 
 cal writer, published in 1569 "Chronicles at Large and 
 Meere History of the AfTayres of England." 
 
 Grafunder, gRa'foon-der, (David,) a German Ori- 
 entalist, published a "Chaldaic Grammar," and other 
 works. Died in 1680. 
 
 Graham, (Catherine.) See Macaulay. 
 
 Graham, gra'am, (George,) F.R.S., a distinguished 
 English mechanician and astronomer, born in Cumber- 
 land in 1675. He was commissioned to furnish instru- 
 ments for the French Academicians who were sent to 
 the North to ascertain the figure of the earth, (1735.) 
 He also constructed the mural arch in the Observatory 
 at Greenwich, and the sector by which Dr. Bradley made 
 discoveries relating to the fixed stars. He was esteemed 
 one of the best watchmakers of his time. Died in 1751. 
 
 See Thiout, "Traite' d'Horlogerie." 
 
 Graham, gra'am, (Isabella,) a Scottish philanthro- 
 pist, born at Lanark in 1742. She emigrated to New 
 York City in 1789, after she had been married to Dr. 
 John Graham, (1765.) She took a prominent part in 
 founding several benevolent institutions in New York, 
 and abounded in works of charity. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Dr. Mason, "Memoirs of Mrs. Graham." 
 
 Graham, (Sir James Robert George,) a British 
 statesman, born at Netherby in 1792. He was elected 
 to Parliament for Hull as a Liberal in 1S1S. In 1830 
 he became first lord of the admiralty under Earl Grey, 
 and managed that department with rigid economy. lie 
 promoted the passage of the Reform Bill in 1831, and 
 resigned office in 1834. On the accession of Sir Robert 
 Peel, in 1841, he entered the cabinet as home-secretary. 
 He rendered efficient aid to Peel in the repeal of the 
 corn-laws, and retired firm office with the same chief 
 in 1846. He gave a general support to the Whig admin- 
 istration which followed, and about the end of 1852 was 
 appointed first lord of the admiralty in the ministry of 
 Lord Aberdeen. His opposition to the Russian war 
 appears to have been the cause which induced him to 
 resign, about February, 1855. The ill success of the 
 Baltic fleet in the Russian war was attributed, by Sir 
 C. Napier and others, to his parsimony and misman- 
 agement He represented Carlisle in Parliament for 
 many years. Died in October, 1861. 
 
 See "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1863; " Westminster 
 Review" for June, 1844. 
 
 Graham, (John,) Viscount Dundee, called Claver- 
 house — klav'er-iis, a Scottish officer, distinguished for 
 his military talents and for his merciless severity towards 
 the Covenanters, was born about 1650. He served in the 
 Dutch army under the Prince of Orange, and returned 
 to Scotland in 1677. Soon after this date he became a 
 captain in a troop of dragoons which was ordered to 
 enforce the penal laws against the Scottish Covenanters. 
 Though defeated by them at Drumclog in 1679, he was 
 afterwards more successful, and rendered his name for- 
 ever odious by his atrocities. In 1689 he raised a body 
 of Highlanders to fight for James II. He was killed in 
 June, 1689, at Killiecrankie, where his army was victo- 
 rious. "During the last three months of his lite," says 
 Macaulay, "he had proved himself a great warrior and 
 politician ; and his name is therefore mentioned with 
 respect by that large class of persons who think that 
 there is no excess of wickedness for which courage and 
 ability do not atone." 
 
 See Macaulav, " History of England," vol. i. chap, iv., and vol. 
 iii. chap. xiii. ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen ;" J. Paget, " New Examen," 1861 ; " Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for July, 1863: "North British Review" for May, 1850; Sir 
 Walter Scott, "Old Mortality." 
 
 Graham, gra'am, (John Andrew,) born in Connecti- 
 cut in 1764, wrote a "Descriptive Sketch of the Present 
 State of Vermont," ( 1 797,) and " Memoirs of John Home 
 Tooke,"(i828.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Graham, (Joseph,) an officer of the American Revo- 
 lution, was born in Chester, Pennsylvania, in 1759. He 
 emigrated to North Carolina. He served with distinc- 
 tion under General Lincoln, and was afterwards made 
 a brigadier-general. Died in 1836. 
 
 Graham, (Maria.) See Callcott, (Lady.) 
 
 Graham, (Mary Jane,) a literary Englishwoman, 
 born in London in 1803, was acquainted witli Greek and 
 other languages. She published "The Test of Truth," 
 (7th edition, 1852.) Died in 1830. 
 
 «as 
 
 *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; i as t; th as in this. (K&~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GRAHAM 
 
 1068 
 
 GRANADA 
 
 Graham, (Robert,) a Scottish physician and botanist, 
 born at Stirling in 1786, became professor of botany at 
 Glasgow about 1818. He was a contributor to the " Bo- 
 tanical Magazine" and other scientific journals. In 1820 
 he obtained a chair of botany in the University of Edin- 
 burgh. Died in 1845. 
 
 Graham, (Sylvester,) a noted American reformer 
 and writer on dietetics, was born in Suffield, Connecti- 
 cut, in 1794. He studied at Amherst College, officiated 
 for a time as a Presbyterian minister, and about 1830 
 was employed by the Pennsylvania Temperance Society 
 as a lecturer. His experience in this vocation led him 
 to the conviction that the prevention and cure of in- 
 temperance were chiefly to be found in the adoption 
 of a purely vegetable diet, which he supposed would 
 take away the desire for stimulants. He subsequently 
 applied this theory to all cases of disease. He published 
 in 1839 "Lectures on the Science of Human Life," (in 
 a vols.) Died in 1851. 
 
 Graham, (Thomas,) F.R.S., an eminent British chem- 
 ist, born at Glasgow in 1805. He became professor of 
 chemistry in the Andersonian University in 1830, and in 
 the London University in 1837. He published in 1842 
 a valuable work, entitled "Elements of Chemistry." 
 Among his important discoveries is the law of the diffu- 
 sion of gases. He was the first president of the Chemical 
 Society of London. He succeeded Sir John Herschel 
 as Master of the Mint in 1855. Died in 1869. 
 
 Graham, (Sir Thomas.) See Lynedoch. 
 
 Graham, (William A.,) an American politician, born 
 in North Carolina in 1800. He represented North Caro- 
 lina in the Senate of the United States in 1841-43, was 
 elected Governor of that State by the Whigs in 1844, 
 and re-elected in 1846. He became secretary of the 
 navy in July, 1850, and retired from that office in 1852. 
 In the latter year he was the candidate of the Whig 
 party for the Vice-Presidency. 
 
 Grahame.gra'am, (James,) a Scottish poet and divine, 
 born at Glasgow in 1765. He studied in the univer- 
 sity of his native city, and subsequently practised law 
 for a time. He entered holy orders in 1809, and was 
 appointed curate of Shipton, in Gloucestershire. His 
 principal poem, "The Sabbath," is esteemed one of 
 the finest compositions of the kind. He also published 
 " British Georgics," " The Birds of Scotland," etc. Died 
 in 181 1. 
 
 See Chamhers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1810; "London Quarterly Review" 
 for May, 1810. 
 
 Grahame, (James,) a British historian, published a 
 " History of the Rise and Progress of the United States 
 Of North America till the British Revolution of 1688." 
 It is styled by Prescott " the most thorough work, and 
 incomparably the best on the subject, previous to Mr. 
 Bancroft's." Died in 1842. 
 
 Grain. See Le Grain. 
 
 Graindorge, gRaN'doRzh', (Andre,) a French physi- 
 cian and naturalist, born at Caen in 1616, wrote a treatise 
 " On the Nature of Fire, Light, and Colours," and other 
 works, in Latin. Died in 1676. 
 
 Graindorge, (Andre,) a French weaver, born at 
 Caen, lived about 1600. He was the first artisan who 
 wove diaper in flowers and squares. His son Richard 
 perfected the art by representing animals and other 
 figures. 
 
 Grain'ger, (James,) a Scottish physician and poet, 
 born at Dunse in 1723. He was the author of a mediocre 
 poem entitled "Sugar-Cane," (1764,) and an "Ode on 
 Solitude," which Dr. Johnson admired. He also trans- 
 lated the "Elegies" of Tibullus. Died in 1767. 
 
 See Johnson and Chalmers, "Lives of the English Poets;" 
 Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Grain'ger, (Richard,) an English architect, born at 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1798. He acquired wealth by 
 his enterprise, and made extensive improvements in 
 Newcastle, among which were new streets, an exchange, 
 market-house, and other public buildings. Died in 1861. 
 
 Grainville, gRaN'vel', (Jean BaptisteChristophe,) 
 a French litterateur, born at Lisieux in 1760, made sev- 
 eral translations from the Spanish and the Italian, and 
 published a number of original poems. Died in 1805. 
 
 Grainville, de, deh gRaN'vel', (Jean Baptiste Fran- 
 cois Xavier Cousin — koo'zaN',) a French ecclesiastic 
 and distinguished pulpit orator, born at Havre in 1746. 
 He published a poem entitled " The Last Man," " The 
 Judgment of Paris," (a drama,) and several other works. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 Gram, gRam, (Johan or Hans,) a Danish philologist, 
 born in Jutland in 1685, became successively professor 
 of Greek at Copenhagen, (1714,) historiographer, royal 
 librarian, and archivist, (1 731.) In 1745 he was made a 
 councillor of state. He published, in Latin, a "History 
 of the Gods, from Xenophon," and other critical and 
 historical works, which enjoy a high reputation. He 
 was the founder of the Scientific Society of Copenhagen. 
 Died in 1748. 
 
 See Jens Moeller. " H. Grams Levnet," 1810; Kraft eg 
 Nyerup. " Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Gramaye, gRt'm&', (Jean Baptiste,) a Flemish an- 
 tiquary and historical writer, born at Antwerp about 
 1580. He became professor of law and rhetoric at Lou- 
 vain, and was afterwards appointed historiographer to 
 the Netherlands. He wrote a " History of Brabant," 
 " Antiquities of Flanders," and other works, in Latin. 
 Died in 1635. 
 
 Grammatica, gRam-ma'te-ka, (Antiveduto, an-te- 
 vi-doo'to,) an Italian painter, born near Rome in 1 571. 
 He was a skilful imitator and counterfeiter of the works 
 of great masters. Died in 1626. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Grammatico, gRam-ma'te-ko, (Nicaiso,) an Italian 
 Jesuit, born at Trent; died in 1736. 
 
 Gramond or Grammont, gRS'm6N', [Lat. Gra- 
 mun'dus,] (Gabriel Barthelemy,) a French writer, 
 born at Toulouse about 1590, published a "History of 
 the Reign of Louis XIII.," etc., (in Latin.) Died in 1654. 
 
 Gramont or Grammont, de, deh gRit'moN', (An- 
 toine,) Due, born in 1604, became lieutenant-general in 
 1641, and soon after a marshal of France. Died in 1678. 
 
 Gramont, de, (Antoine,) Due, a grandson of the 
 preceding, was born in 1672, and was first called Comte 
 de Guiche. He served in many battles in Flanders, 
 and was made lieutenant-general in 1704, and marshal 
 in 1724. Died in 1725. 
 
 Gramont, de, (Antoine Louis Marie,) Due, a 
 French general, born in 1755. He emigrated in 1789. 
 Died in 1836. 
 
 Gramont, de, (Armand.) See Guiche. 
 
 Gramont, de, (Gabriel,) a French prelate, became 
 Archbishop of Bordeaux in 1529, and in 1530 was made 
 a cardinal. Died in 1534. 
 
 Gramont or Grammont, de, (Philibert,) Comte, 
 a French courtier, celebrated for his wit, frivolity, and 
 gallantry, was born in 1621. He distinguished himself 
 in several campaigns under Conde and Turenne, and 
 obtained the rank of general. He passed some time at 
 the court of Charles II. of England. Died in 1707. 
 His brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton, published " Me- 
 moirs of Grammont," which is much admired. (See 
 Hamilton, Anthony.) 
 
 Gramont, de, (Scipion,) a French poet, born in Pro- 
 vence, was secretary to Louis XIII. Died about 1638. 
 
 Granacci, gRa-nat'chee, (Francesco,) a Florentine 
 painter, born about 1475, was a pupil of Ghirlandaio, and 
 afterwards of Michael Angelo, whose style he adopted. 
 Among his master-pieces we may name " The Virgin 
 giving her Girdle to Saint Thomas." Died in 1544. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Granada, de, di gRa-na'Da, (Fray Luis,) [Fr. Louis 
 de Grenade, loo'e' deh gReh'nid',] a celebrated Spanish 
 ecclesiastic, and one of the first pulpit orators of his time, 
 born at Granada in 1504, was educated in the family of 
 the Count of Tendilla. He refused the archbishopric 
 of Braga, which was offered him, and devoted himself at 
 Lisbon to preaching and religious compositions. Free 
 from the persecuting spirit of his time, he won the hearts 
 of his hearers by his mild persuasive eloquence and the 
 shining example of his own life. Among his principal 
 works are "The Sinner's Guide," a "Memorial of the 
 Christian Life," (1566,) "Symbol of the Faith," and 
 "Rhetorica Ecclesiastica." His "Guide to Sinners," 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mi t; not; good; moon, 
 
GRAN BERG 
 
 1069 
 
 GRANIER 
 
 Says Ticknor, "was translated into nearly all the lan- 
 guages of Europe, including Greek and Polish." Died 
 in 1588. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" Luis Munoz, 
 "La Vida de Luis de Granada," 1639. 
 
 Granberg, gRan'bgRg, (Pehr Adolf,) a Swedish 
 historian, born at Gottenburg in 1770, published a " His- 
 tory of the Union of Calniar," (3 vols., 1807-11,) and a 
 "History of the Wars in Scandinavia from the Rupture 
 of the Union of Calniar to the Death of Charles XII.," 
 (1821.) Died in 1841. 
 
 See " Biographiskt-Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Gran'bjf, (John Manners,) Marquis of, an Eng- 
 lish general, born in 1 72 1, was the eldest son of the Duke 
 of Rutland. He obtained the rank of lieutenant-general 
 about 1758, and contributed to the victory of Minden, 
 (1759.) In the ensuing campaigns of the Seven Years' 
 war he commanded the British troops at Warburg and 
 Hamburg, (1762.) He was appointed master-general of 
 the ordnance in 1763, and commander-in-chief of the 
 British armies in 1766. He died in 1770, leaving several 
 sons, one of whom, Charles, became Duke of Rutland. 
 "Granby, honest, generous, and brave as a lion, had 
 neither science nor genius." (Macaulay's " Essays.") 
 
 Grancolas, gR&N'ko'la', (Jean,) a French theologian 
 and doctor of the Sorbonne, born near Chateaudun 
 about 1660. He wrote a "Treatise on Liturgies," and 
 other works, on the traditions, rites, and usages of the 
 Church. Died in 1732. 
 
 Grand. See Legrand. 
 
 Grandami, gRo.N'dS'nie', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit 
 and astronomer, bom at Nantes in 1588, published a 
 treatise on eclipses, and another on chronology, (1668.) 
 Died in 1672. 
 
 Grander., gRON'dJ'i (Joseph,) a French priest and 
 biographer, born at Angers in 1046. Among his works 
 is a " Life of an unknown Recluse, supposed to be the 
 Count of Moret," (1699.) Died in 1724. 
 
 Grandi, gRin'dee, (Ercole,) an Italian painter, born 
 in Ferrara in 1491. Among his works is "The Conver- 
 sion of Saint Paul," now in London. Died in 1 53 1. 
 
 Grandi, [Lat. Gran'dius,] (Guido,) an Italian mathe- 
 matician, born at Cremona in 1671, became professor 
 of philosophy at Pisa in 1700. He published a treat- 
 ise "On Series and Infinitesimals," and another "On 
 Sound," which caused his election to the Royal Society 
 of London. His works are numerous, and chiefly writ- 
 ten in Latin. He was a friend of Newton, Leibnitz, and 
 other eminent philosophers of the time. Died in 1742. 
 
 See G. M. Ortes, " Vita del Padre G. Grandi," 1744 ; Fabroni, 
 " Viue Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Tipaldo, Biografia degli 
 Italiani illustri ;" A. M. Bandini, "G. Grandi Elogium," 1745. 
 
 Grandi, (Jacopo,) an Italian physician and naturalist, 
 born in the duchy of Modena in 1646; died in 1691. 
 
 Grandidier, gRS.N'de'de^i', (Philippe Andre,) a 
 French historian, was born at Strasburg in 1752. He 
 wrote a " History of the Bishopric and Bishops of Stras- 
 burg," (2 vols., 1778.) Died in 1787. 
 
 See Louis Spach, "filoge de Grandidier," 1851. 
 
 Grandier, groN'de-V, (Urbain,) a French ecclesi- 
 astic, and canon of Ixiudun, born near Sable. Having 
 been accused of sorcery by some monks who were his 
 enemies, he was condemned to death, and burnt at the 
 stake in 1634. 
 
 See Bazin, " Histoire de Louis XIII," vol. iii. ; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graph ie G&ierale." 
 
 Grandin, gRSN'daN', (Martin,) a French theologian 
 and doctor of the Sorbonne, born at Saint Quentin in 
 1604. He was appointed professor of philosophy and 
 divinity in Le Moine College, and was the author of 
 "Theological Institutes," (in Latin.) Died in 1691. 
 
 Grand jean de Fouchy. See Fouchy. 
 
 Graiidmesnil or Grandmenil, de, deh gRoN'mi'- 
 nel', (Jean Baptistf. Fauchard — fo'shiV,) a popular 
 French actor and dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1737 ; 
 died in 1816. 
 
 Grandpre\ gRoN'pRi', (Louis Marie Joseph Ohier 
 — o'e-i',) a French voyager, born at Saint-Malo in 1761. 
 He published a "Voyage to India and Bengal, made in 
 1789-90," (1801,) a "Universal Dictionary of Maritime 
 
 Geography," (3 vols., 1803,) and other works. Died in 
 Paris In 1846. 
 
 Grandval, de, deh gRflN'vil', (Francois Charles 
 Racot — iS'ko',) a French actor and litterateur, born in 
 Paris HI 1710, published a number of poems and dramas. 
 Died in 1784. 
 
 Grandville. See Gerard, (Jean Ignace Isidore.) 
 
 Granelli, gud-nel'lee, (Giovanni,) an Italian Jesuit 
 and dramatic poet, born at Genoa in 1703, was also cele- 
 brated as a pulpit orator. He was the author of several 
 popular tragedies and other works. Died in 1770. 
 
 Granet, gRi'ny, (Francois,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Brignoles in 1692, contributed to the "Biblio- 
 theque Francaise," and to the " Nouvelliste du Pamasse" 
 of Desfontaines, and wrote other works. Died in 1741. 
 
 Granet, (Francois Marius,) an eminent French 
 painter of history and genre, born at Aix in 1775, was 
 a friend of Comte de Forbin. He studied and worked 
 for many years in Rome. Among his master-pieces are 
 "Stella in the Prison of the Capitol," (1810,) and "The 
 Choir of the Capuchins," which he repeated several 
 times. He was a good colorist, and represented the 
 effects of light with great success. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Raoul Rochette, " Notice 8ur la Vie de M. Granet," 1851 ; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Grange, (Joseph de Chancel de la.) See La 
 Grange. 
 
 Grangeneuve, gR6Nzh'nuv', (Jacques Antoine,) a 
 French Girondist, born at Bordeaux in 1750. As a 
 member of the National Convention, he was conspicuous 
 for his severity towards the royal family, the clergy, and 
 the emigrants; though he did not vote for the death of 
 the king. He was executed at Bordeaux in 1 793. 
 
 Gran'ger, (Francis,) an American politician, born in 
 Hartford county, Connecticut, in 1787. He removed to 
 the State of New York, and was elected to Congress as 
 a Whig in 1834. He was re-elected in 1838, and was 
 postmaster-general from March to September, 1841. 
 Died in August, 1868. 
 
 Granger, (Gideon,) an American lawyer, born in 
 Suffield, Connecticut, in 1767, was the father of the 
 preceding. He was appointed postmaster-general by 
 President Jefferson in 1801, and was re-appointed by 
 President Madison in 1809. He retired from that office 
 in 1814, and was elected a member of the Senate of 
 New York in 1819. Died in 1822. 
 
 Granger, (Gordon,) an American general, born in 
 New York about 1825, graduated at West Point in 1845. 
 He became a captain in the regular army in 1861, and 
 commanded a brigade of cavalry in Mississippi in the 
 summer of 1862. Having been appointed a major-gene- 
 ral, he served at Chickamauga in September, 1863. He 
 commanded the army which, aided by Admiral Farra- 
 gut, took Fort Morgan in August, 1864. In 1866 he 
 became a colonel in the regular army. 
 
 Gran'g?r, (James,) an English writer, born in Berk- 
 shire about 1 715. Having studied at Oxford and taken 
 orders, he became vicar of Shiplake, in Oxfordshire. 
 His principal work is a "Biographical History of Eng- 
 land from Egbert the Great to the Revolution," (2 
 vols., 1769, with portraits.) Died in I776. 
 
 Granger, gR&N'zhi', (Jean Perrin,) a French his- 
 torical painter, born in 1779, was a pupil of David. He 
 gained the first prize in Paris in 1801. Died in 1840. 
 
 Granger - Tournechot, gRdN'zhi' tooRn'sho', a 
 French traveller, born at Dijon in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, visited Asia and the northern part of Africa, and 
 died at Bassora in 1734. His travels were published 
 after his death. 
 
 Grangier, grdN'zhe_-l', (Bai.thasar,) a French trans- 
 lator, almoner to Henry IV., produced in 1596 the first 
 French translation of Dante, (in verse.) He aimed to 
 render verse for verse, and by this extreme fidelity be- 
 came often obscure. 
 
 Granier de Caasagnac, gRa"ne-V deh ki'sin'yik', 
 (Bernard Adoi.phe,) a French jouTiTalist and historian, 
 born in the department of Gers about 1805. He became 
 in 1850 chief editor of "Le Pouvoir," and a partisan of 
 Louis Napoleon. In 1852 he was elected to the legis- 
 lative body. Since that date he has been an editor or 
 frequent contributor to the "Constitutionnel." Among 
 
 e as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this. (Jry~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GRANT 
 
 1070 
 
 GRANT 
 
 his works are a " Voyage to the Antilles and United 
 States," (1842-44,) a "History of the Causes of the 
 French Revolution of 1789," (4 vols., 1850,) and a " His- 
 tory of the Fall of Louis Philippe and the Revolution 
 of 184S," etc., (2 vols., 1855-57.) He was a zealous 
 advocate of slavery. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Bio^raphie G^neVale." 
 
 Grant (Mrs. Anne) of Laggan, an accomplished 
 Scottish writer, born at Glasgow in 1755, was the daugh- 
 ter of Duncan McVicar, an officer who went with his 
 regiment to America about 1758. Having resided nearly 
 ten years in that country, the family returned to Scot- 
 land, and in 1779 Miss McVicar was married to the Rev. 
 James Grant, subsequently minister of Laggan, in In- 
 \emess-shire. Having lost her husband in 1801, Mrs. 
 Grant applied herself to authorship for the maintenance 
 of her family. "The Highlanders, and other Poems," 
 came out in 1803, and was well received; it was followed 
 by her "Letters from the Mountains," (1806,) which 
 established her reputation and immediately obtained a 
 wide popularity. She afterwards published "Memoirs 
 of an American Lady," (1808,) and "Essays on the 
 Superstitions of the Highlands," (181 1,) both of which 
 are highly esteemed. "She has," says Lord Jeffrey, 
 "great powers of description both of character and 
 scenery, much force of conception, acuteness, and reach 
 of mind in reasoning, great occasional brightness and 
 perpetual activity of fancy, and a fine enthusiasm for 
 virtue, simplicity, and the Highlands." Died in 1838. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement ;) " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," etc., 
 by .Mrs. Ei.woou: De Quincey, "Literary Reminiscences," vol. i. ; 
 *' Edinburgh Review" for August, :Sii. 
 
 Grant, (Charles,) an East India proprietor, born in 
 Scotland in 1746. At an early age he went to India, 
 where in 1772 he became secretary to the board of trade, 
 and on his return to England in 1790 was appointed one 
 of the East India directors. In 1802 he was elected to 
 the House of Commons. He was vice-president of the 
 Bible Society, and contributed greatly to the extension 
 of Christianity in India. He published a treatise en- 
 titled "Observations on the State of Society among the 
 Asiatic Subjects of Great Britain." Died in 1823. 
 
 Grant, (Chari.es,) Lord Glenelg, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in Bengal about 1782. He became 
 president of the board of trade in 1828, and president 
 of the board of control in 1830. He retired from office 
 with his party (the Whigs) in 1834, and was created 
 Baron Glenelg. He was colonial secretary from 1834 
 to 1839. 
 
 Grant, (Edward.) See Graunt. 
 
 Grant, (Francis,) Lord Cullen, a celebrated Scot- 
 tish lawyer, born about 1660. He was the author of a 
 treatise entitled "Law, Religion, and Education Con- 
 sidered," (1715,) and other legal works. Died in 1726. 
 
 Grant, (Francis,) a distinguished Scottish artist, born 
 in Perthshire about 1804. He enjoyed a high reputation 
 as a portrait-painter, and was extensively patronized by 
 the nobility. Among his portraits may be named those 
 of Disraeli, Macaulay, and Lady Howard. He also pro- 
 duced several hunting-scenes. He was elected to the 
 Royal Academy in 1S51, and became president of the 
 same in 1866. 
 
 Grant, (James,) one of the most eminent Scottish 
 lawyers of his time, born about 1742. He published 
 " Essays on the Origin of Society, Languages," etc., 
 and " Thoughts on the Origin and Descent of the Gael," 
 (1813.) Died in 1835. 
 
 Grant, (James,) editor of the "London Morning 
 Advertiser," bom in Scotland about 1806. He wrote 
 " Random Recollections of the House of Lords," (1830,) 
 "The Great Metropolis," (1836,) and other popular 
 works. 
 
 Grant, (James,) a popular writer, born at Edinburgh 
 in 1822. Among his principal works are the "Ad- 
 ventures of an Aide-de-Camp," (1848,) "Memoirs of 
 Kirkaldy of Grange," (1849,) "Memorials of Edinburgh 
 Castle," and " Walter Fenton," (1850.) 
 
 Grant, (Sir James Hope,) a British general, a brother 
 of Francis Grant the artist, was born in 1808. He 
 served in India during the mutiny of 1857, and com- 
 
 manded the British army which, aided by the French, 
 defeated the Chinese in September, i860, and captured 
 Pekin. 
 
 Grant, (Patrick,) Lord Preston-Grange, a Scottish 
 judge, born in 1698 ; died in 1762. 
 
 Grant, (Roiikrt,) bom at Grantoun, in Scotland, in 
 1814, wrote a " History of Physical Astronomy," (1852,) 
 which has a high reputation. 
 
 Grant, (Rohert Edmund,) a British physician, dis- 
 tinguished as a comparative anatomist, was born in 
 Edinburgh in 1793. He graduated in 1814, and began 
 to practise in his native city about 1820. He wrote 
 several able treatises on "The Structure and Functions 
 of the Sponge," and made other contributions to com- 
 parative anatomy. In 1828 he was chosen professor 
 of comparative anatomy and zoology in the London 
 University, where he lectured about thirty years. He 
 published in 1835 the first volume of an important work, 
 entitled " Outlines of Comparative Anatomy." 
 
 Grant, (Ulysses Simpson,) a distinguished Ameri- 
 can general, and the eighteenth President of the United 
 States, was born at Point Pleasant, Clermont county, 
 Ohio, April 27, 1822. ; He is the eldest son of Jesse R. 
 and Hannah Simpson Grant, both natives of Pennsyl- 
 vania, (Having acquired the rudiments of education 
 at a common school, he entered the Military Academy 
 at West Point in 1839. He was a diligent student, but 
 graduated without special distinction in 1843, standing 
 twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. He left West Point 
 as brevet second lieutenant of the Fourth Infantry, 
 with which he went to Mexico, and served with dis- 
 tinction at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma in May, 
 1846. ( For meritorious conduct at Molino del Rey and 
 Chapultepcc, September, 1847, ' ,e was made first lieuten- 
 ant. J\n 1848 he married Miss Julia T. Dent, of Saint 
 Louis. He was raised to the rank of captain in 1853, 
 but resigned his commission in July, 1854. In 1859 or 
 i860 he entered into business with his father, as a dealer 
 in leather and saddlery, at Galena, Illinois. ■} 
 
 Immediately after the breaking out of the' rebellion in 
 1861, he raised a company and marched with it to Spring- 
 field. J Having been appointed colonel of the twenty-first 
 regiment of volunteers in June, he was first employed in 
 Missouri, and became a brigadier-general in August, 1861. 
 About this time he was ordered to Cairo, and took com-' 
 mand of the important district of Cairo, or " Southeast 
 Missouri," including both sides of the Mississippi River. 
 He occupied Paducah on the 6th of SeptemberJHis firs**' 
 battle was fought at Belmont, Missouri, nearly opposite 
 Columbus, which latter place was occupied by a large 
 force of the enemy.l On the 7th of November he cap- 
 tured the camp of tKe insurgents at Belmont, and in the 
 act of retiring was attacked by troops which had crossed 
 the river from Columbus. Both parties claimed the 
 victory in this affair. In December, 1861, the district 
 commanded by Grant was enlarged so as to include 
 Southeastern Missouri and all that part of Kentucky 
 which lies west of the Cumberland River. 
 
 The famous Prince Eugene observed that the greatest 
 generals have commonly been those who have been at 
 once raised to the command of an army, without spend- 
 ing much time in the petty calculations and manoeuvres 
 of an inferior officer. It may at least be said that Grant 
 was no exception to this rule. In January, 1862, he 
 opened the campaign by a flank movement against a 
 large rebel force which was strongly fortified at Colum- 
 bus, on the Mississippi River. Ascending the Tennessee 
 River with the aid of iron-clad gun-boats, he took Fort 
 Henry on the 6th of February, thus breaking the chain 
 of defences which extended from Columbus eastward. 
 The navigation of the Cumberland was obstructed by 
 Fort Donelson, a very important position, which was 
 held by a garrison of 20,000 men. Grant attacked this 
 fort on the 14th of February, and fought a severe battle 
 on the 15th with the garrison, which made a sortie from 
 their works. On the 16th, General Buckner made over- 
 tures, in reply to which Grant wrote, "No terms other 
 than unconditional and immediate surrender can be 
 accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your 
 works." The fort was accordingly surrendered to him, 
 with about 13,500 prisoners. Among the results of this 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
GRANT 
 
 1071 
 
 GRANT 
 
 victory was the speedy evacuation of Columbus and 
 Nashville by the insurgents. Giant was appointed a 
 major-general in February, 1862. 
 
 The rebel general A. S. Johnston, forced to retire from 
 Tennessee, had occupied a strong position at Corinth, in 
 Mississippi, with a large army. To operate against this 
 force, General Grant advanced to l'ittsburg Landing, 
 on the Tennessee River, where he awaited the arrival 
 of General Buell, who was ordered to join him with the 
 army of the Ohio. General Johnston attacked the Union 
 armv at Shiloh on the morning of the 6th of April, and 
 took several thousand prisoners. The battle was renewed 
 011 the 7th, when Grant, having been reinforced by the 
 army of Buell, attacked and defeated the enemy. The 
 Union army lost here about 1600 killed and 7200 wounded, 
 and the enemy lost as many or more. In July, Grant 
 became commander of a newly-formed department, 
 comprising Northern Mississippi, West Tennessee, and 
 Western Kentucky. His great object was to open the 
 Mississippi River by the capture of Vicksburg, — a very 
 difficult enterprise. A part of his army, under Rose- 
 crans, gained a decisive victory at Corinth on the 4th 
 and 5th of October. Generals Grant and Sherman made 
 several unsuccessful attempts to take Vicksburg in the 
 winter of 1862-63. Having adopted a new plan of ap- 
 proach, he moved his army by land on the west bank of 
 the river to a point below Vicksburg. Co-operating with 
 him, the gun-boats under Captain Porter, and transports 
 loaded with supplies, passed the batteries of Vicksburg 
 safely on the night of April 16. Grant's army crossed 
 the river <jbottt the 30th of April, defeated the enemy at 
 Raymond, at Jackson, May 14, at Champion's Hill, (or 
 Baker's Creek,) May 16, and at the Big Black. Having 
 prevented General J. E. Johnston from effecting a junc- 
 tion with Pcniberton, who commanded at Vicksburg, he 
 commenced the siege of that important place about the 
 18th of May. The capture of Vicksburg, which, with 
 about 30,000 prisoners, was surrendered on the 4th of 
 July, 1S63, caused great exultation among the friend* 
 of the Union. General Grant was rewarded for this 
 service by promotion to the rank of major-general in 
 the regular army. 
 
 In October, 1863, he obtained command of the Military 
 Division of the Mississippi, comprising the departments 
 of the Ohio, of the Cumberland, and of the Tennessee. 
 Among General Grant's important characteristics as a 
 great commander is the rare sagacity which he uniformly 
 displayed in the choice of his subordinate officers. On this 
 occasion he selected Generals Sherman and Thomas as 
 his principal lieutenants, and concentrated his armies for 
 the defence of Chattanooga, which was partly invested by 
 General Bragg. His design was promoted by the impru- 
 dence of Bragg, who sent Longstreet with about 20,000 
 men to besiege Knoxville. The army of Bragg, holding 
 strong positions on the Missionary Ridge and Lookout 
 Mountain, was attacked on the 24th and retreated on the 
 25th of November. A part of this great battle, it is said, 
 was fought above the clouds. It is stated that from the 
 beginning of the war to December 7, 1863, the armies 
 under Grant's command had captured 472 pieces of 
 cannon and 90,000 prisoners. In the mean time, the 
 Federal armies in the East had failed disastrously in 
 successive campaigns against Richmond ; and the eyes 
 of the nation turned to Grant as the general most com- 
 petent to direct all the armies of the Union. The grade 
 of lieutenant-general was revived for him by Congress, 
 and he w.is appointed commander of all the armies by 
 the President on the I2th of March, 1804, — the most im- 
 portant appointment ever made by an American Presi- 
 deit. He was thus summoned to a new scene of action 
 and a position of immense responsibility. The forces 
 of the enemy were mostly concentrated in two large 
 armies, — one in Virginia, commanded by Robert E. Lee, 
 and the other in Northern Georgia, led by J. E. John- 
 ston. General Grant selected General Sherman to op- 
 pose the latter, and himself directed in person the army 
 of the Potomac, which opened the campaign by en 
 the Rapidan on the 4th of May and moving towards 
 Richmond by a route which was natural)* strong for 
 purposes of defence and was well fortifierl at various 
 points. Before he began this movement, he appointed 
 
 c as k; 9 as 
 
 General Sheridan commander of all the cavalry of his 
 army. Hancock, Warren, Sedgwick, and Bumside, sub- 
 ject to the orders of General Meade, commanded the 
 several corps of the army of the Potomac, which probably 
 amounted to 150,000 men. 
 
 On the 5th of May, Grant's army met the enemy near 
 Mine Run ; and then began the great and indecisive 
 battle of the Wilderness, so named because it was fought 
 in an extensive forest. The battle was renewed about 
 five A.M. on the 6th, and continued with unabated fury 
 until darkness interposed. In the ensuing night Lee's 
 army retired behind their intrenched lines. Giant then 
 moved his army by the enemy's right flank, intending 
 to put his whole force between Lee and Richmond ; but 
 Lee, moving on a shorter line, again checked his pro- 
 gress at Spottsylvania Court-House, where the 9th, loth, 
 and nth were spent in fighting and manoeuvring with- 
 out decisive results. A dispatch of Grant, dated May 
 II, concludes with this famous sentence: "I propose to 
 fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer." On the 
 12th Hancock's corps attacked the enemy and captured 
 nearly 4000 prisoners. In the mean time, another army, 
 directed by General Butler and operating against Rich- 
 mond from the east, took City Point and Bermuda Hun- 
 dred on the 5th of May. In consequence of another 
 flank movement made by Grant about May 21, Lee 
 marched southward across the North Anna River, and 
 again confronted the Federal army. Finding Lee's po- 
 sition on the North Anna very strong, Grant again turned 
 it by moving round the enemy's right, and crossed the 
 Pamunkey River on the 28th, at a point about fifteen 
 miles from Richmond. 
 
 On the 3d of June, Grant attacked the enemy's works 
 at Cold Harbour, but was repulsed with heavy loss. The 
 army of the Potomac crossed the James River, June 14 
 and 15, formed a junction with the army of Butler, and 
 commenced the siege of Petersburg. Having made a 
 breach in the works by exploding a mine, the Union 
 army assaulted Petersburg on the 30th of July, but failed 
 to take it. In September and October, General Sheridan 
 gained several decisive victories in the Shenandoah Val- 
 ley. (See SHERIDAN, Philip H.) The army of Grant 
 remained nearly inactive before Petersburg during the 
 winter of 1864-65; but Sherman continued to operate 
 in Georgia and Carolina with signal success, and moved 
 rapidly towards Virginia. Savannah, Charleston, and 
 Wilmington were taken in quick succession by General 
 Sherman. 
 
 The armies operating against Richmond and Peters- 
 burg commenced a movement on the 31st of March 
 to cut the Danville and Southside Railroads, by which 
 Lee's army was supplied. On the 1st of April, Sheridan 
 and Warren assaulted the works at Five Forks, and 
 took about 5000 prisoners. On the morning of the 2d 
 a combined assault was made on the lines of Petersburg, 
 with great success. Having been driven from their main 
 line of defence, and having lost several thousand pris- 
 oners in this attack, Lee's army evacuated Petersburg 
 and Richmond in the night of April 2, and retreated 
 towards Danville, closely pursued. The Federals at- 
 tacked a part of Lee's force near Sailor's Creek on the 
 6th, and captured about 6000 prisoners. On the 7th, 
 General Grant opened a correspondence with General 
 Lee, who surrendered his army at Appomattox Court- 
 House on the 9th of April, 1865, after whicR the insur- 
 gents everywhere gave up the contest. 
 
 To reward the services of Grant, Congress passed in 
 Tilly, 1866, a bill to "revive the grade of General of the 
 Army of the United States," and he was appointed to 
 that position. He became secretary of war ad interim 
 about the 1st of August, 1867. When President Johnson 
 ordered the removal of General Sheridan, General Grant, 
 departing from his habitual reticence, defended the latter 
 with spirit, and objected to his removal in a letter which 
 convinced the public that the writer was not an admirer 
 of Johnson's policy. He ceased to be secretary ad inte- ' 
 rim on the 14th of January, 1868, when he gave up the 
 war department to Mr. Stanton against the will of the 
 President, who vainly tempted General Grant to violate 
 the law of Congress. In a letter of General Grant, dated 
 February 3, 1868, and addressed to President Johnson, 
 
 /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; a, trilled; s as »; th as in this. (jjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GRANT 
 
 1072 
 
 GRASSE-TILLT 
 
 he writes, "I cannot but regard this whole matter as an 
 attempt to involve me in the resistance of law for which 
 you hesitated to assume the responsibility, in order thus 
 to destroy my character before the country." At the 
 National Republican Convention, May 21, 1868, he was 
 unanimously nominated a candidate for the Presidency 
 of the United States on the first ballot, receiving the 
 votes of six hundred and fifty delegates. 
 
 His Democratic competitor was Horatio Seymour, of 
 New York. General Grant accepted the nomination by 
 a letter ending with this sentence, " Let us have peace !" 
 which became the watchword of the campaign. After 
 a very exciting canvass, Grant and Colfax were elected 
 by a large majority, receiving two hundred and fourteen 
 electoral votes, cast by twenty-six States, — viz., the six 
 States of New England, Pennsylvania, Ohio, North Caro- 
 lina, South Carolina, West Virginia, Florida, Alabama, 
 Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, and all the Western 
 States except Oregon. Mr. Seymour received eighty 
 electoral votes. This result proved that the name of 
 General Grant was a tower of strength to the Republican 
 party, whose ascendency had been seriously menaced by 
 the reaction of 1867. During the first half-year of his 
 administration the public debt was reduced over fifty 
 million dollars, and order and prosperity were rapidly 
 restored, especially in the Southern States. After his 
 election to the Presidency, he declared himself in favour 
 of the fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which 
 ordains that no person shall be disfranchised on account 
 of colour, race, etc. Having resigned his supreme rank 
 in the army, he conferred the same on his friend and 
 companion-in-arms, General W. T. Sherman. 
 
 See A. Badeao, "Military History of U. S. Grant," 2 vols,; 
 C. A. Phelps, " Life of U. S. Grant," 1S6S ; J. T. Headlev, *' Life 
 of U. S. Grant;" A. D. Richardson, "Personal History of U. S. 
 Grant," 1868 ; Harriet Beecher Stowe, "Men of our Times," 
 Hartford, 1868 ; H. Coppee, " Grant and his Campaigns," 1866 ; E. 
 Howland, "Grant as a Soldier and Statesman," London, 1868; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1869. 
 
 Grant, (Sir William,) an eminent orator and judge, 
 born in the county of Moray, Scotland, in 1754. He 
 entered Parliament about 1790, and supported Pitt. He 
 became solicitor-general in 1799, and was master of the 
 rolls from 1801 to 1817. Died in 1832. His forensic 
 eloquence is highly praised. 
 
 See Lord Brougham, " Statesmen of the Time of George HI.;" 
 Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. viii. 
 
 Granucci, gRa-noot'chee, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Lucca about 1534, published lives of Tamerlane 
 and Scanderbeg, and a number of tales and novels. 
 
 Granvelle, de, gran'vel, [Fr. pron. deh grdN've!',] 
 (Antoine de Perrenot— deh pi'reh-no' or peVno',) 
 Cardinal, an eminent French statesman, was born at 
 Besancon in 151 7. He was early distinguished by the 
 favour of Charles V. of Germany, who employed him in 
 several important embassies, and, at the time of his ab- 
 dication, recommended him to his son, Philip II. He 
 was successively created Bishop of Arras, Archbishop 
 of Mechlin, councillor of state and keeper of the seals, 
 (1550,) and a cardinal, (1561.) His business talent was 
 extraordinary ; and he is said to have dictated to five 
 secretaries at once in different languages. When Mar- 
 garet of Austria became the ruler of the Netherlands, 
 Granvelle was made her chief counsellor. In this post 
 the severity of his measures against the Protestants 
 roused the people to such resistance that Philip was 
 compelled to remove him in 1563. He was subsequently 
 created Archbishop of Besancon, and Viceroy of Naples 
 about 1 571. Died at Madrid in 1586. Nine volumes or 
 more of his letters, state papers, etc. have been published 
 since 1S41. 
 
 See Motley, " Rise of the Dutch Republic," vol. i. p. 248, and 
 vol, iii. p. 492; Prescott, " History of Philip II.," vols. i. and ii. ; 
 Courchetet, " Histoire du Cardinal de Granvelle," 1761 ; E. C. de 
 Gerlache, "Philippe II et Granvelle," 1842. 
 
 Granvelle, de, (Nicolas Perrenot,) a distinguished 
 French diplomatist, father of the preceding, was born 
 at Ornans in i486. Having filled several high offices in 
 France, he entered the service of Charles V. of Germany, 
 who honoured him with his confidence, and made him a 
 chancellor in 1530. He was also employed in various 
 important negotiations. Died in 1550. 
 
 Gran'ville, Green'ville, or Gren'ville, (George,) 
 Viscount Lansdowne, an English statesman and poet, 
 born in 1667. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 and in 1696 published his tragedy of "Heroic Love." 
 It was followed by "The British Enchanters," (1706,) a 
 drama, which was very successful. Soon after the ac- 
 cession of Queen Anne, he was elected to Parliament for 
 Fowey, and acted with the Tory party. On the change 
 of the ministry in 1710, he succeeded Walpole as secre- 
 tary of war. He was made a peer of Great Britain, 
 with the title of Lord Lansdowne, in 171 1, and in 1712 
 was appointed one of the privy council, and treasurer 
 of the household. On the accession of George I. he 
 was deprived of his place, and, being suspected of pro- 
 moting the cause of the Pretender, was imprisoned for 
 a time in the Tower. In 1722 he visited Paris, where 
 he resided ten years. Granville was a generous patron 
 of literary men, and was one of the first to encourage 
 the rising genius of Pope, who dedicated to him his 
 "Windsor Forest." Died in 1735. 
 
 See " Biographia Dramatica ;" Johnson and Chalmers, " Lives 
 of the English Poets;" Walpole, " Royal and Noble Authors." 
 
 Granville, (Granville George Leveson Gower,) 
 Earl, an English statesman, son of Earl Granville, no- 
 ticed below, was born in 181 5. He was twice elected 
 member of Parliament' for Morpeth, and represented 
 Lichfield from 1841 to 1846, when he succeeded his 
 father in the House of Lords. During the Universal 
 Exhibition of 1851 at the Crystal Palace in London, 
 Lord Granville was chairman of the executive committee. 
 In December, 1851, he succeeded Lord Palmerston as 
 minister of foreign affairs in Lord Russell's cabinet, and 
 in 1855 was appointed president of the council. He re- 
 signed in 1858. He was again president of the council 
 in the cabinet of Palmerston, and leader of the House 
 of Lords, from 1859 to June, 1866. In December, 1868, 
 he became secretary of state for the colonies in the new 
 cabinet formed by Mr. Gladstone. He is distinguished 
 as a skilful debater, and is called the leader of the House 
 of Lords. 
 
 Granville, (Granville Leveson Gower,) Earl, an 
 English statesman, a son of the Marquis of Stafford, was 
 born in 1773. He was appointed lord of the treasury 
 under Pitt in 1800, and was afterwards employed on im- 
 portant missions to Russia, the Netherlands, and France. 
 He was created Baron Leveson and Earl Granville in 
 1833, having previously obtained the grand cross of tne 
 order of the Bath. Died in 1846. 
 
 Granville, Lord. See Carteret, (John.) 
 
 Granville, (Mary.) See Delany, (Mary.) 
 
 Grapaldi,gRa-pal'dee, (Francesco Mario,) a learned 
 Italian writer, born at Parma about 1465 ; died in 1 5 1 5. 
 
 Grapius, gRa'pe-us, or Grappius, (Zacharias,) a 
 German philologist, born at Rostock in 1671, wrote, be- 
 sides other works, a " Literary History of the Talmud," 
 (1696.) Died in 1713. 
 
 Grappin, gRi'paN', (Pierre Philippe,) a French 
 Benedictine and historical writer, born in Franche- 
 Cotnte in 1738 ; died in 1833. 
 
 See Charles Weiss, " Notice sur Dom Grappin." 
 
 Graser, gRa'zer, (Johann Baptist,) a German divine 
 and educational writer, born in Lower Franconia in 1766. 
 He published " Divinity, or the Principle of True Edu- 
 cation," (1810,) and other works. Died in 1841. 
 
 Graslin, gRa'laN', (Jean Joseph Louis,) a French 
 political economist, born at Tours in 1727 ; died in 1790. 
 
 Grasse or Graesse, gRes'seh, (Johann Georg Theo- 
 dor,) a German bibliographer and antiquary, born at 
 Grimma in 1814. He wrote a "Manual of the General 
 History of Literature," (1837,) a "Manual of Ancient 
 Numismatics," and other works. 
 
 Grasse, de, Com te. See Grasse-Tilly. 
 
 Grasser, guas'ser, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss theolo- 
 gian and historical writer, born at Bale in 1579, wrote a 
 history of the Waldenses, ("Chronicon der Walden- 
 ser.") Died in 1627. 
 
 Grasse-Tilly, de, deh gRts'te'ye', (Francois Joseph 
 Paul,) Comte, commonly known as Count de Grasse, 
 a French naval officer, born at Valette in 1723. He 
 served in the American war, and in 1781 assisted Wash- 
 ington, La Fayette, and Rochambeau in the capture of 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, Q, y", long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, .f/5rW; a., e,\,<), obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
GRASSI 
 
 1073 
 
 GRAUNT 
 
 Cornwallis. He was afterwards sent to the West Indies, 
 where he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Eng- 
 lish admiral Rodney in April, 1782. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Gerard, "Vies des plus illustres Marios Francais." 
 
 Grassi, gRas'see, (Giuseppe,) one of the best Italian 
 portrait-painters of his time, born in Friuli in 1756. He 
 became professor in the Academy of Arts at Dresden in 
 1799. Hied in 1838. 
 
 Grassi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian writer, born at Turin 
 in 1 779. Among his works is an " Essay on the Syno- 
 nyms of the Italian Language," (1821 ; 3d edition, 1824.) 
 Died in 1831. 
 
 Grassi, (Orazio,) an Italian astronomer and mathe- 
 matician, born at Savona in 1582. He was chiefly noted 
 for his controversy with Galileo about the nature of 
 comets. Grassi affirmed that comets revolve around 
 the sun in definite orbits. Died in 1654. 
 
 Grassis, de, da gras'sess, (Paris,) an Italian his- 
 torical writer, born at Bologna. He became Bishop of 
 Pesaro in 1 513. Died in 1528. 
 
 Graswinkel.gRas'win'kel, (Theodorus,) an eminent 
 Dutch jurist, born at Delft in 1600. He was appointed 
 to several important offices under the government, and 
 was made a knight of Saint Mark by the Venetians for 
 having defended their republic in a dispute with the 
 Duke of Savoy. He was the author of a treatise " On 
 the Sovereignty of the States of Holland," (in Dutch,) 
 and "Vindication of the Freedom of the Sea," ("Maris 
 Liberi Vindiciae," 1652,) and other works in Latin. He 
 was a relative of the celebrated Grotius. Died in 1666. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Foppens, 
 '* Biblioiheca Belgica." , ■ 
 
 Grataroli, gRa-t5-ro'lee, (Guglielmo,) an Italian phy- 
 sician and medical writer, born at Bergamo in 1 516. 
 To avoid persecution for religion, he removed to Bale, 
 where he died in 1568. 
 
 See Nic^ron, " Menioires." 
 
 Gratella, gRi-tel'li, or Gratello, gRS-tel'lo, the sur- 
 name of Filippo Sebastiano Bastianino, an eminent 
 Italian painter, born at Ferrara about 1530, was a pupil 
 and one of the most successful imitators of Michael An- 
 gelo. He excelled in the science of design and in energy 
 of composition. His fresco of " The Last Judgment," 
 in the cathedral of Ferrara, is esteemed his master-piece. 
 Died in 1602. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Dizio- 
 nario." 
 
 Grater or Graeter, gRa'ter, (Friedrich David,) 
 a German antiquary, born in 1768. His "Nordische 
 Blumen" (1789) had great success. Died in 1830. 
 
 Gratias, the Latin name of the Graces. See 
 Charites. 
 
 Gratian, gra'she-an, [Lat. Gratia'nus ; Fr. Gratikn, 
 gRi'sej^.N',) a Roman emperor, who in 375 A.D. suc- 
 ceeded his father, Valentinian I., and became joint ruler 
 of the Western Empire with his brother, Valentinian II. 
 His uncle, Valens, who ruled the Eastern Empire, having 
 fallen in battle in 378, Gratian appointed Theodosius in 
 his place. In 383 a revolt broke out in Britain, and 
 a certain Maximus proclaimed himself emperor and 
 invaded Gaul. Gratian advanced to meet him, but, 
 being forsaken by the greater part of his army, was 
 seized and put to death at Lyons. He was distinguished 
 for his justice and clemency, and his zeal in promoting 
 Christianity. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," books 
 xxvii., xxviii.,xxix.,and xxx. ; Ammianus Marcri.linus; Socrates, 
 " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Tiu.kmont, " Histoire des Empereurs." 
 
 Gratian or Gratia'nus, [Fr. Gratien,] an Italian 
 Benedictine monk, a native of Tuscany, lived about 
 1125-50, and was the author of a work entitled " Decre- 
 tum," being a collection of the canons of the Church. 
 It was received with great favour by the pope, and has 
 been generally adopted by the Catholic colleges. 
 
 Gratiani. See Graziani. 
 
 Gratien, the French for Gratian, which see. 
 
 Gratien, gRi'seAN', (Jean Baptiste,) a French theo- 
 logian and writerToorn in 1747, was appointed Bishop 
 of the Lower Seine in 1792. Died in 1799. 
 
 Gratiolet, gRi'te'o'lJ', (Louis Pierre,) a French 
 naturalist and anatomist, bom at Sainte-Foy (Gironde) 
 
 in 1815. He wrote treatises on anatomy, and became in 
 1854 an assistant naturalist in the Museum of Natural 
 History, Paris. Died in 1865. 
 
 Gra'tius, (gra'she-us,) a Latin poet, and friend of Ovid, 
 surnamed Fai.is'cus from the place of his birth. His 
 only extant poem is entitled " Cynegeticon." 
 
 Gratius, gRat'se-ds, or Graes, gRes, (Ortwin,) a 
 German Roman Catholic theologian, born in the diocese 
 of Miinster, became professor at Cologne in 1509. He 
 was ridiculed by Hutten and Reuchlin in the "Letters 
 of Obscure Men," (" Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum,") 
 which were addressed to Gratius. Died in 1 541. 
 
 Grat'tan, (Henry,) an eminent Irish statesman and 
 orator, born at Dublin in 1750. He was educated at 
 Trinity College, and subsequently studied law in Lon- 
 don. In 1775 he was chosen to represent the borough 
 of Charlemont in the Irish Parliament, where he acted 
 with the opposition or Whig party and distinguished 
 himself by his zeal and eloquence, and acquired great 
 popularity. In 1780 he procured the passage of the 
 resolution "that the king's most excellent Majesty, and 
 the Lords and Commons of Ireland, are the only power 
 competent to make laws to bind Ireland." About this 
 time he received from the Irish Parliament the sum of 
 fifty thousand pounds, "as a testimonial of the national 
 gratitude for his great national services." In 1785 he 
 opposed the propositions relating to the trade between 
 Great Britain and Ireland, known as Orde's Propositions, 
 and, in consequence chiefly of his efforts, they were 
 abandoned. He was returned to Parliament in 1790 for 
 Dublin, and advocated the cause of Catholic emancipa- 
 tion. On the recall of Lord Fitzwilliam from Ireland, 
 Grattan retired temporarily from the public service. 
 When the union with Great Britain was proposed, he 
 took his seat again, in order to oppose it, and after the 
 measure was carried, in 1805, entered the Imperial Par- 
 liament, first as member for Malton, and the following 
 year for Dublin. In 1806 he was offered by Mr. Fox 
 the office of chancellor of the exchequer, which he 
 declined. Having been requested by the Catholics of 
 Ireland to present a petition to the British Parliament, 
 he complied, although in declining health. He grew 
 worse after his arrival in London, and died there in May, 
 1820. Sir James Mackintosh, in his eulogium on Grat- 
 tan, says, "The purity of his life was the brightness of 
 his glory. Among all the men of genius I have known, 
 I have never found so much native grandeur of soul 
 accompanying all the wisdom of age and all the sim- 
 plicity of genius." 
 
 See H. Grattan, Jr., "Life and Times of Henry Grattan," 
 1839; T. Davis, "Lite of J. P. Curran and H. Grattan," 1846; 
 "Edinburgh Review" for February, 1823; "Blackwood's Magazine" 
 for September and October, 1839. 
 
 Grattan, (Thomas Colley,) a popular Irish novel- 
 ist, born in Dublin in 1796, passed some years on the 
 continent of Europe. Among his principal works are 
 " Philibert, a Poetical Romance," (Bordeaux, 1819,) 
 "High-Ways and By- Ways," (2 vols., 1823,) "The 
 Heiress of Bruges," (4 vols., 1830,) "Men and* Cities; 
 or, Tales of Travel," (3 vols.,) and "Agnes de Mansfelt," 
 (1847.) He was British consul at Boston from 1839 to 
 1853. Died in 1864. 
 
 Giaumann, gRow'man, (Johann Phii.ipp,) a Ger- 
 man financier, who is called the reformer of the mone- 
 tary system in Germany, published several works on 
 currency and exchange. He became director of the 
 mint at Berlin about 1 750. Died in 1762. 
 
 Graun, gRown, (Karl Heinrich,) a celebrated Ger- 
 man composer, born in Saxony in 1701. The fame of 
 his early performances having reached the crown-prince, 
 afterwards Frederick the Great, he was taken into his 
 service, and in 1740 appointed his chapel-master. His 
 oratorio of "The Death of Jesus" and his "Te Detim" 
 are esteemed master-pieces ; his operas had but a tran- 
 sient reputation. Died in Berlin in 1759. 
 
 See Fstis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Graunt or Grant, (Edward,) an eminent English 
 scholar and teacher, born about 1550, was for twenty years 
 head-master of Westminster School. In 1598 he was ap- 
 pointed rector of Toppersfield, in Essex. He published 
 elegant Latin poems, and a "Spicilegium of the Greek 
 
 « as k 9 as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (fl^^^See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
 68 
 
GRAUNT 
 
 1074 
 
 GRAY 
 
 Language," ("Graecae Linguae Spicilegium," 1575.) He 
 was a friend of Camden and of Roger Ascham, whose 
 works he edited, with a eulogy, (1577.) Died k 1601. 
 
 Graunt, (John,) an English merchant, bom in Lon- 
 don in 1620, wrote "Observations on the Hills of Mor- 
 tality." He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society 
 in 1662. Died in 1674. 
 
 Grauw, gRow or hrow, or Graaao, gitt'so, (Hen- 
 drik,) a Dutch painter, born at Horn or Hoorn in 1627, 
 was a pupil of Van Kampen. He studied in Rome, 
 and settled at Alkmaar, where he died in 1681. " His 
 manner of composition," says Descamps, "is noble, 
 his draperies are flowing, and his colour good." 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Gravander.gRi-vin'der, (Lars Frederic,) a Swedish 
 poet and physician, born in 1778, was active in his efforts 
 to introduce vaccination into his country. Died in 1815. 
 
 Grave, de, cleh gRa'veh, (Charles Joseph,) a Flem- 
 ish jurist, born at Ursel in 1736. He wrote a curious 
 work, entitled "The Republic of the Elysian Fields, or 
 the Ancient World," (3 vols., 1806.) Died in 1805. 
 
 Gravel or Graevell, gRa'vel, (Maximilian Karl 
 Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German jurist, born at Bel- 
 gard in 1781, published, among other treatises, "The 
 Anti-Platonic State," (1808,) and "General Theory of 
 Compacts according to Prussian Law." 
 
 Gravelot, gRaVlo ', (Hubert Francois Bourgui- 
 gnon — booR-gen'yds'',) a celebrated French designer 
 and engraver, born in Paris in 1699, was a brother of the 
 great geographer D'Anville. He studied under Restout, 
 and subsequently resided many years in London, where 
 he acquired great skill in design and composition and 
 was patronized by booksellers and publishers. Among 
 his best works are the etchings for Theobald's "Shake- 
 spere," and illustrations for the works of Racine and 
 Voltaire. Died in 1773. 
 
 See Basan, "Supplement au Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Gravenberg, von, fon gRi'ven-beRG', (Wirnt,) a 
 German poet, who flourished about 1210. His chief 
 work is entitled " Wigalois." 
 
 Graverol, gRiv'rol ', (Francois,) a French Protest- 
 ant, born at Nimes in 1635, was eminent as a jurist 
 and scholar. He was the author of " Sorberiana, etc.," 
 "Observations on the Decisions of the Parliament of 
 Toulouse," and numerous antiquarian treatises, chiefly 
 in French. He was well versed in ancient and modern 
 languages and numismatics, and was perpetual secretary 
 of the Academy of Nimes. Died in 1694. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique ;" MM. Haag, "La 
 France protestante. " 
 
 Graverol, (Jean,) a brother of the preceding, born 
 at Nimes,in 1636, (or according to some, in 1647,) became 
 successively minister of the Calvinistic churches at Lyons, 
 Amsterdam, and London, and wrote several esteemed 
 theological works. Died about 1720. 
 
 Graves, (Richard,) an English divine, born in Glou- 
 cestershire in 1 715, was an intimate friend of the poet 
 Shenstone. He studied at Pembroke College, Oxford, 
 and became rector of Claverton, near Bath, in 1750. 
 His principal work is a satirical novel, entitled " The 
 Spiritual Quixote." He also wrote " Recollections, etc. 
 of the Life of William Shenstone." Died in 1804. 
 
 Graves, (Richard,) a divine, born in the county of 
 Limerick, Ireland, in 1763. He became Dean of Ardagh 
 in 1813, and professor of divinity in the University of 
 Dublin. He published, besides other works, "Lectures 
 on the Four Last Books of the Pentateuch," (2 vols., 
 1807,) which are highly esteemed. Home pronounces 
 them "indispensably necessary to the biblical student." 
 ("Biblical Bibliography.") Died in 1829. 
 
 See a " Life of Richard Graves," by his son, R. H. Graves, 1840. 
 
 Graves, (Robert J.,) an Irish physician, son of the 
 preceding, born in Dublin about 1797. He was professor 
 of medicine in the school of physic, Trinity College, 
 Dublin. His " Clinical Lectures on the Practice of Medi- 
 cine" (1843) have been reprinted in the United States. 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 Gravesande, 's, ('s Gravesande,) van, vSn sgRa'veh- 
 sin'deh, ( Willem Jacob,) an eminent Dutch philosopher 
 and mathematician, born at Bois-le-Duc in 1688. He 
 studied at Leyden, and began to practise law at the 
 
 Hague about 1707. In 1715 he accompanied as secre- 
 tary the embassy sent to England by the States-General 
 to congratulate George I. on his accession to the throne. 
 While in London, he became intimate with Sir Isaac 
 Newton, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 Having been appointed, on his return in 1 71 7, professor 
 of mathematics and astronomy at the University of Ley- 
 den, he introduced the Newtonian philosophy into that 
 institution. He published, among other scientific works, 
 " Institutes of the Newtonian Philosophy." Died in 1742. 
 See C. Mai.lbt, " Memoire sur la Vie, etc. de 's Gravesande," 
 1858: "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Gravina, gRa-vee'na, (Giovanni Vincenzo,) an emi- 
 nent Italian jurist and writer, born at Roggiano, in Cala- 
 bria, in 1664 He studied at Naples, and in 1689 repaired 
 to Rome, where he was appointed in 1699 professor of 
 civil law in the college di Sapienza, and, in 1703, of 
 canon law in the same institution. He was one of the 
 founders of the Academy of the Arcadi, and was the 
 author of a treatise entitled " Origin of Civil Law," 
 ("Origines Juris civilis," 1713,) which obtained great 
 celebrity, "Canonical Institutes," (in Latin,) and a 
 "Treatise on the Art (or Principles) of Poetry," (" Delia 
 Ragione poetica,") also a number of poems and ora- 
 tions. Gravina was the preceptor of the celebrated poet 
 Metastasio, whom he adopted as his son and to whom 
 he bequeathed his property. Died in Rome in 1718. 
 
 See Fabkoni, "Vitae Italorum;" Andrea Serrao, " De Vita e 
 Scriptis Gravinae Commentarius," 1758; F. Valdrigi, " Elogio 
 stonco di G. V. Gravina," 1816 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Gravina, (Pietro,) a Sicilian poet and ecclesiastic, 
 born at Palermo in 1453. He was patronized by Gon- 
 salvo de Cordova, who appointed him in 1500 a canon 
 of Naples. His poems in Latin and Italian were highly 
 esteemed at the time. Died in 1527. 
 
 See Roscor. " Life of Leo X. ;" Paolo Giovio, " Elogia Virorura 
 iliustrium ;" " Vita Gravina:," in an edition of his poems. 
 
 Gravina, da, da gRa-vee'na, (Domfnico,) an Italian 
 historian, born in the kingdom of Naples. He was the 
 author of a " History of Naples from 1332 to 1350," 
 (in Latin.) Died about 1350. 
 
 Gravina, de, di gRi-vee'ni, (Federico,) Duke, an 
 admiral in the Spanish service, was born at Naples about 
 1750. For his services against the French he obtained 
 the rank of rear-admiral in 1794. Having b#en raised to 
 the highest rank — <apitan-general — in 1805, he combined 
 his fleet with that of the French admiral Villeneuve. 
 They were defeated by Nelson at Trafalgar, (October 21, 
 1805,) where Gravina was wounded. He died of the 
 wound, at Cadiz, in February, 1806. 
 
 See Van Tenac, " Histoire generate de la Marine ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Gravius. See Greaves, (John.) ■ 
 
 Gravius or Graevius, gRa've-as, (Johann Georg,) 
 an eminent German scholar and critic, whose original 
 name was Grafe, (or Graepe,) was born at Naumburg 
 in January, 1632. He became professor of history at 
 Utrecht, (1661.) He received distinguished marks of 
 favour from Louis XIV. of France and other sove- 
 reigns of Europe, and was created by William III. of 
 England his historiographer. Among his numerous and 
 excellent editions of the classics we may name those 
 of Hesiod, Suetonius, Cicero, Propertius, Catullus, and 
 Caesar. He also wrote " Treasury of Roman Antiqui- 
 ties," (" Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum," 12 vols., 
 1694,) and "Treasury of Italian Antiquities and His- 
 tories," ("Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Historiarum 
 Italiae.") The latter was continued by Peter Burmann. 
 Died at Utrecht in 1 703. 
 
 See Nicbron, "Memoires;" C. Burmann, "Trajectum ertidi- 
 tum:" P. Burmann, "Oratio funebris in Gratvii Obitum," 1703; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^rale." 
 
 Gray. See Grev. 
 
 Gray, (Asa,) an eminent American botanist, born at 
 Paris, Oneida county, New York, in November, 18 10. 
 He graduated as M.D. at Fairfield College in 1831, but 
 preferred the study of botany to the practice 01 medi- 
 cine. In 1842 he was appointed Fisher professor of 
 natural history at Harvard College. He published ex- 
 cellent works entitled "Elements of Botany," (1836,) 
 " Botanical Text-Book," (1842,) "Genera of Plants of the 
 United States," (1849,) "Lessons in Botany," "Manual 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, f c ;ame, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, 5, ?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nflt; good; moon; 
 
GRAT 
 
 1075 
 
 GREATRAKES 
 
 of the Botany of the Northern United States," (1848,) 
 " Structural and Systematic Botany," (1858,) and " How 
 Plants Grow," (1858.) Professor 'Gray and Dr. Torrey 
 were joint authors of a " Flora of North America," ( 1st 
 vol., 1S3S.) "As an accurate analyst," says the "North 
 American Review" for October, 1858, "Professor Gray 
 has received a just meed of praise from all foreign bota- 
 nists. Standing as he does at the head of the science 
 in our own country, and scarcely inferior to any botanist 
 of the Old World, we consider it a subject of congratu- 
 lation that he has found time, amidst his multifarious 
 avocations of a high order, to write two books expressly 
 for the young." His " Botanical Text-Book" was used 
 for several years in the University of Edinburgh. 
 See " North American Review" for January, 1843. 
 Gray, (David,) a Scottish poet, born not far from 
 ow in 1838; died in 1861. A volume of his poems, 
 with an introductory notice by R. Monckton Milnes, 
 and memoirs of his life, was published in 1865. 
 
 Gray, (Francis Cam.ey,) an American lawyer and 
 scholar, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1790. He was 
 private secretary to John Quincy Adams during his mis- 
 sion to Russia. He contributed many articles to the 
 " North American Review," and published other works, 
 in prose and verse. Died in 1856. 
 
 Gray, (George Robert,) an eminent English natu- 
 ralist, and senior assistant in the zoological department 
 of the British Museum, was born at Chelsea in 1808. 
 He published "The Genera of Birds," illustrated by 1). 
 W. Mitchell, (3 vols. 4to, with 371 plates, 1837-49,) 
 a splendid and valuable work. He also wrote many 
 memoirs on birds and insects for scientific journals, etc. 
 Gray, (Henry Peters,) an American painter, born 
 in New York in 1819. He studied in Europe, and 
 on his return, in 1846, established himself in his native 
 city. Among his numerous works we may mention 
 "Cupid Begging his Arrows," "The Wages of War," 
 "Apple of Discord," "Blessed are the Pure in Heart," 
 and " Hagar and the Angel." 
 
 Gray, (John Edward,) F.R.S., an eminent English 
 naturalist, brother of George Robert, noticed above, was 
 born at Walsall in 1800. He was for many years the 
 head of the department of natural history in the British 
 Museum, the completeness and excellent order of which 
 are to be ascribed, it is said, chiefly to his efforts. He 
 prepared several catalogues of that museum, and be- 
 tween 1825 and i860 wrote several hundred memoirs on 
 zoology, which have been published in various journals. 
 Gray, (ROBERT,) an English divine, born in London 
 in 1762, became, in 1827, Bishop of Bristol. He was 
 the author of a " Key to the Old Testament and Apocry- 
 pha," (1790,) "Connexion between the Sacred Writings 
 and the Literature of Jewish and Heathen Authors," 
 (1819,) and other valuable religious works. Died in 1834. 
 Gray, (Stephen,) an English experimental philoso- 
 pher, made several valuable discoveries with regard to 
 electricity, and was the inventor of an electric planeta- 
 rium. Died in 1736. 
 
 See Priestley's History of Electricity." 
 Gray, (Thomas,) an eminent English poet, born in 
 London in 1716. He was sent at an early age to Eton, 
 where he formed an intimacy with Horace Walpole and 
 Richard West, son of the Chancellor of Ireland. He 
 studied at Peter- House College, Cambridge, and in 1739 
 visited France and Italy in company with Horace Wal- 
 pole. After they had spent some time together at Rome 
 and Florence, the difference in their tastes caused a dis- 
 agreement between them, and they separated. "Gray," 
 says Walpole, "was too serious a companion. He was 
 for antiquities, etc., whilst I was for perpetual balls and 
 plays : the fault was mine." Gray returned to England 
 in 1741, and in 1742 took his degree of bachelor of civil 
 law at Cambridge, where he continued to reside, on ac- 
 count of the facilities for study which the place afforded. 
 About this time he wrote his " Ode to Spring," " Hvmn 
 to Adversity," and " Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton 
 College," which were published some years after. His 
 "Elegy written in a Country Church-Yard" (1749) was 
 received with the greatest favour, and soon ran through 
 eleven editions. No poem, perhaps, was ever more uni- 
 versally admired : it has been translated into the prin- 
 
 cipal modern languages of Europe, a dozen different 
 versions having, it is said, appeared in French. In 1743 
 Cray lost his most intimate friend, West, whom he has 
 lamented in an English sonnet and in the apostrophe to 
 his unfinished poem " De Principiis Cogitandi." This 
 bereavement was followed in 1753 by the death of the 
 poet's mother, a woman of great excellence, to whom he 
 had been devotedly attached. He published in 1757 
 his "Ode on the Progress of Poesy," and "The Bard," 
 which, being less adapted to the popular taste, were less 
 generally appreciated. On the death of Gibber, in the 
 same year, the vacant laureateship was offered to Gray; 
 but it was declined. He was appointed In 1769 profes- 
 sor of modem history at Cambridge. In 1770 his health, 
 which had been some time declining, became much worse, 
 and he died in July, 1771, of an attack of gout in the 
 stomach. Gray occupies a very high rank in English 
 literature, not only as a poet, but as an elegant prose- 
 writer and an accomplished scholar. He delighted in 
 knowledge for its own sake, and his profound and varied 
 learning embraced, in addition to classical and scientific 
 studies, those of antiquities and the fine arts. 
 
 See Mason, "Life of T. Gray," 1778: Mitford, "Life of T. 
 G1.1v," prefixed toliis Works, 1816: Johnson, " Lives of the English 
 Poets r" Hazutt, " Lectures on the English Poets;" Henry Rkkd, 
 "Memoir of T. Gray," prefixed to an edition of his poems, 1850; 
 Allibonk, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Gray'don, (Alexander,) a writer, born at Bristol, 
 Pennsylvania, in 1752, was a soldier in the American 
 Revolution. He published "Memoirs of a Life chiefly 
 passed in Pennsylvania," etc., (1811.) Died in 1818. 
 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Gray'son, (William J.,) an American politician and 
 poet, born in Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1788. He repre- 
 sented a district of that State in Congress from 1833 
 to 1837. Among his works are "The Hireling ami the 
 Slave," a poem, (1854,) and "Chicora," an Indian tale. 
 
 Graziani, gRat-se-a'nee, an Italian sculptor, whose 
 proper name was Battista Ballanti, was born at 
 Eaenza in 1762; died in 1835. 
 
 Graziani, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian prelate and 
 historical writer, born in Tuscany in 1537. He became 
 secretary to Pope Sixtus V. in 1584, and in 1592 was 
 created Bishop of Amelia by Clement VIII., in whose 
 election he had a prominent part. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of the War of Cyprus," (in Latin,) and a work 
 "On the Fortunes of Illustrious Men," ("De Casibus 
 Virorum illustrium," 1680,) also a life (in Latin) of his 
 friend and patron Cardinal Commendonc. Died in 161 1. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Stona della Letteratura Italian.! :" Grazi- 
 ani. " De Scriplis invita Minerva," 1725, which contains his auto- 
 biography. 
 
 Graziani, (Giovanni,) an Italian historian, born at 
 Bergamo about 1670, wrote a " History of Venice from 
 1615 to 1700," (2 vols., 1728.) Died about 1730. 
 
 Graziani or Gratiani, (Giroi.amo,) an Italian poet, 
 once popular, was born at Pergola in 1604. His chief 
 works are "Cleopatra," (1626,) "The Conquest of 
 Granada," (1650,) and "Cromwell," ("II Cromvello," 
 a tragedy, 1671.) Died in 1675. 
 
 Grazzini, (Antonio Francesco.) See Lasca. 
 
 Grazzini, grit-see'nee, (Giovanni Paolo,) an Italian 
 painter, of the school of Ferrara. He began to paint 
 when he was about fifty years old. Died in 1632. 
 
 Greathead. See Grosseti si k. 
 
 Great'heed, (BERTIE,) an English litterateur, ham 
 in Warwickshire in 1759. He wrote a tragedy entitled 
 "The Regent." Died in 1826, 
 
 See " Iliographia Dramatica." 
 
 Great'o-rex, (Thomas,) an English musician and 
 savant, born in Derbyshire in 1758. He became pro- 
 fessor of music in London in 1788, and in 1819 organ- 
 ist of Westminster Abbey. He was :1 Fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and contributed to the " Philosophical 
 Transactions" a treatise on measuring mountains by 
 the barometer. Died in 1831. 
 
 GreSt'rakes, (Valentine,) a celebrated empiric, 
 born in the county of Waterford, Ireland, in 1628, pro- 
 fessed to be able to heal diseases by his touch. Having 
 
 visited England, he was invited to Whitehall, and was 
 
 patronized by Dr. Henry More and other learned men. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as «; th as in this. (fl^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GREAVES 
 
 1076 
 
 GREEN 
 
 He enjoyed a high reputation for integrity and benevo- 
 lence, and several eminent physicians bore witness to 
 the efficacy of his cures. Died about 1700. 
 
 See J. Glanvil, "Scepsis Scientifica ;" Deleuze, " Histoire 
 Critique du Magntkisme animal." 
 
 Greaves, greevz, (Sir Edward,) an English physician, 
 was born in Surrey about 1615. In 1643 he became first 
 professor of medicine at Merton College, and was ap- 
 pointed, after the restoration, physician-in-ordinary to 
 Charles II. Died in 16S0. 
 
 Greaves, [Lat. Gra'vius,] (John,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish mathematician and antiquary, was born in Hamp- 
 shire in 1602. He became professor of geometry at 
 Gresham College, London, in 1630, and in 1637 visited 
 Egypt and the Levant. He took a survey of the Pyra- 
 mids, of which he published the first accurate descrip- 
 tion. After his return he was appointed, in 1643, 
 Savilian professor of astronomy, which post he was 
 compelled to resign in 1648 because he was a royalist. 
 He published, among other works, a "Discourse on the 
 Roman Foot and Denarius," etc. Died in 1652. 
 
 See " Life of Greaves," by Birch, prefixed to his Miscellaneous 
 Works; Ward, "Lives of the Gresham Professors;" Niceron, 
 "Memoires;" Thomas Smith, "Vita J. Gravii," 1699. 
 
 Greaves, (Thomas,) an English Orientalist of high 
 reputation, born about 1610, was a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, and a friend of Selden. He rose through several 
 preferments to be a prebendary of Peterborough. He 
 wrote some valuable philological treatises. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena Oxonienses." 
 
 Grechetto. See Castiglione, (Giovanni Bene- 
 detto.) 
 
 Grecourt, de, deh gRa'kooR', ( Jean Baptiste 
 Joseph Willart — ve'liR',) a French poet, of Scottish 
 extraction, born at Tours in 1684. He was the author 
 of songs, epigrams, and fables of a licentious character. 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 See Vot.TAiRR, "Age of Louis XIV." 
 
 Gree'ley, (Horace,) an American journalist, distin- 
 guished as an opponent of slavery, born at Amherst, 
 New Hampshire, in February, 181 1, was the son of a 
 poor farmer, who removed to Vermont in 1821. He 
 learned the art of printing at East Poultney, Vermont, 
 where he worked about four years, (1826-30,) and be- 
 came at an early age well versed in party politics. He 
 adopted the Universalist creed before he was of age, and 
 supported the Anti-Masonic party. After he had worked 
 a few months in a printing-office in Erie, Pennsylvania, 
 he sought employment in the city of New York in August, 
 183 1, having only ten dollars in his pocket. As he had 
 no friends or acquaintances in New York, and his dress 
 was very odd and shabby, he met with many repulses; 
 but at last he obtained work. He was employed as a 
 journeyman printer for fourteen months, and in January, 
 1833, became a partner of Francis Story, and began to 
 print the "Morning Post," the first daily penny paper 
 ever published. It was discontinued in a few weeks. 
 The firm of Greeley & Co. founded in March, 1834, "The 
 New-Yorker," a weekly literary journal, (neutral in poli- 
 tics,) of which Mr. Greeley wrote the editorial articles. 
 The "New-Yorker" was issued for seven years, and be- 
 came an influential paper, but was not profitable to the 
 publishers. He married Miss Cheney, of North Caro- 
 lina, in 1836. From March, 1838, to March, 1S39, he 
 edited " The Jeffersonian," a weekly Whig paper, pub- 
 lished under the direction of the Whig Central Com- 
 mittee of the State of New York. About May, 1840, 
 he began to publish "The Log Cabin," a weekly paper, 
 which supported General Harrison for President, and 
 had a large circulation, (over 80,000.) " The Log Cabin," 
 says Parton, "gave him an immense reputation in all parts 
 of the country as an able writer and a zealous politician." 
 
 In April, 1841, he founded "The Daily Tribune," 
 price one cent, of which Henry J. Raymond (afterwards 
 editor of the New York "Times") was assistant editor. 
 Since that date the size and the price of the "Tribune" 
 have been much increased. Mr. Greeley advocated the 
 election of Henry Clay to the Presidency in 1844, and, 
 after his defeat, assumed an attitude of more decided 
 Hostility to slavery. In 1848 he was elected member of 
 Congress to fill a vacancy for a term which expired in 
 
 March, 1849. He published in 1850 "Hints towards 
 Reforms," composed partly of lectures which he had 
 delivered at various places on temperance, popular edu- 
 cation, the organization of labour, etc. " His subject," 
 says Parton, "is ever the same ; t'he object of his public 
 life is single. It is the ' Emancipation of Lahor ;' its 
 emancipation from ignorance, vice, servitude, poverty." 
 Having visited Europe in 1851, he published "Glances 
 at Europe." He supported, in successive Presidential 
 elections, General Scott in 1852, J. C. Fremont in 1856, 
 and Abraham Lincoln in i860, having exerted his influ- 
 ence against the nomination of W. H. Seward at the 
 Chicago Convention of that year. In 1864 he published 
 the first volume of "The American Conflict," (2 vols.) 
 He favoured the plan of universal amnesty and universal 
 suffrage at the end of the civil war, and offered himself 
 as bail for Jefferson Davis in May, 1867, for which he 
 was censured by many of his own party. 
 
 See Parton, " Life of Horace Greeley," 1855 : D. W. Bartlett, 
 "Modern Agitators;" Bungay, "Off-Hand Takings," 1854 ; H. 
 Gkkhley, "Recollections of a Busy Life." 1868. 
 
 Green, (Ashbel,) an American theologian, born in 
 Hanover, New Jersey, in 1762, graduated at Princeton 
 in 1782. He became pastor of the Second Presbyterian 
 Church in Philadelphia in 1787, and officiated as chap- 
 lain to Congress from 1792 till 1800. He was a principal 
 founder of the Philadelphia Bible Society, formed in 
 1809. In 1812 he was appointed president of Princeton 
 College. He resigned that position in 1822, and re- 
 turned to Philadelphia, where he edited the "Christian 
 Advocate." He published Sermons, Discourses, etc. 
 Died in 1848. 
 
 See Joseph H. Jones, " Life of Ashbel Green, begun to be written 
 by himself," etc., 1849. 
 
 Green, (Edward Burnary,) an English scholar, a 
 brother of Admiral Burnaby, made translations from 
 Anacreon, Pindar, and Apollonius Rhodius. Died in 1788. 
 
 Green, (Horace,) an American physician, born ir 
 Chittenden, Vermont, in 1802, graduated at Middlebury 
 College in 1824. He took a prominent part in founding 
 the New York Medical College in 1850, and has since 
 been president of its faculty, and emeritus professor 
 of the theory and practice of medicine. Dr. Green is 
 distinguished for his novel treatment of diseases of the 
 air-tubes which had very generally been deemed in- 
 curable. In 1846 he published a "Treatise on Diseases 
 of the Air-Passages." Among his other works are his 
 " Pathology and Treatment of the Croup," (1849,) and 
 " Surgical Treatment of the Polypi of the Larynx and 
 the OLdema of the Glottis," (1852.) 
 
 Green, (Jacoii,) M.D., professor of chemistry in Jef- 
 ferson Medical College, born in Philadelphia in 1790. 
 Among his works may be mentioned his "Chemical 
 Philosophy," " Astronomical Recreations," " Botany of 
 the United States," "Trilobites of North America," and 
 "Travels in Europe," (1828.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Green, (James S.,) an American politician, born in 
 Fauquier county, Virginia, in 181 7. He settled in Mis- 
 souri, and was elected a member of Congress in 1846. 
 He represented Missouri in the Senate of the United 
 States from 1857 to 1861. He was a disunionist Demo- 
 crat. Died in 1870. 
 
 Green, (John,) an English prelate, born in Yorkshire 
 about 1706. He studied at Saint John's College, Cam- 
 bridge, where he became regius professor of theology in 
 1748, and vice-chancellor about 1750. In 1756 he was 
 created Bishop of Salisbury. Died in 1 779. 
 
 Green, (John Richard.) See Gifford, (John.) 
 
 Green, (Joseph Henry,) an English surgeon, born in 
 1791. He became professor of surgery in King's College. 
 London, about 1830. He published "Vital Dynamics " 
 and " Mental Dynamics." Died in 1863. 
 
 Green, (Mary Anne Everett,) an English authoress, 
 a daughter of Rev. Robert Wood, was born at Sheffield 
 about 1818. She married a Mr. Green in 1845. She 
 published " Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies 
 of Great Britain," (3 vols., 1846,) "Lives of the Prin- 
 cesses of England," (6 vols., 1849-55,) which is highly 
 esteemed, and the " Letters of Henrietta Maria, Queen- 
 Consort of Charles I.," (1857,) with other important 
 works. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
GREEN 
 
 1077 
 
 GREENHAM 
 
 Green, (Matthew,) an English poet, born in London 
 in 1696, wrote a poem, "The Spleen," which was com- 
 mended by Pope and other critics. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Johnson and Chalmers, "Lives of the English Poets;" 
 Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Green, (Thomas,) an English writer, born at Ipswich 
 in 1769. He published a work on the "Theory of 
 Morals," and " Extracts from the Diary of a Lover of 
 Literature," (1810.) Died in 1825. 
 
 Green, (Thomas,) an American general, born in Vir- 
 ginia aoout 1816. He took arms against the Union in 
 1861, became a commander of cavalry, and distinguished 
 himself in several actions in Louisiana in 1863. He was 
 raised to the rank of major-general, and was killed on 
 Red River in April, 1864. 
 
 Green, (Valentine,) a celebrated English engraver, 
 born in Warwickshire in 1739, settled in London, where 
 he acquired great skill in mezzotint engraving. In 1774 
 he became associate engraver of the Royal Academy. 
 Among his rr.aster pieces are his prints after West's 
 picture of the "Return of Regulus to Carthage," and 
 portraits after Sir Joshua Reynolds. Died in 1813. 
 
 See Brvan's "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Greene, (Charles Gordon,) an American journalist, 
 born in Boscawen, New Hampshire, in 1804. He became 
 proprietor of the "Boston Statesman," and in 1831 es- 
 tablished in Boston the "Morning Post," a Democratic 
 paper, which was successful. 
 
 Greene, (Christopher,) Colonel, an American 
 officer, born in Warwick, Rhode Island, in 1737. He 
 commanded Fort Mercer, at Red Bank, on the Delaware 
 River, in 1777, and repulsed a body of Hessians who 
 attacked that fort. He was killed near the Croton River 
 in May, 1781. 
 
 Greene, (George S.,) an American general, born in 
 Rhode Island about 1801, graduated at West Point in 
 1823. He became a brigadier-general in 1862, and served 
 at the battle of Antietam in September of that year, at 
 Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863, and in other actions. 
 
 Greene, (George Washington,) an American au- 
 thor, a grandson of General Nathaniel Greene, was born 
 at East Greenwich, Kent county, Rhode Island, in 181 1. 
 He was consul of the United States at Rome from 1837 
 to 1845. He contributed a "Life of General Nathaniel 
 Greene" to Sparks's "American Biography," edited Ad- 
 dison's Complete Works, (1854,) and wrote, besides other 
 works, "Historical Studies, chiefly on Italian History 
 and Literature," (1850,) and a " Life of General Nathaniel 
 Greene," (of which the first volume appeared in 1867.) 
 
 Greene, (Maurice,) an eminent English composer 
 of church music, born in London about 1696. He was 
 appointed in 1726 organist and composer to the chapels 
 royal, and Ijecame professor of music in the University 
 of Cambridge. His " Forty Anthems" (2 vols, fol.) are 
 esteemed his master-pieces ; he also composed songs and 
 cantatas of great beauty. Died in 1755. 
 
 See Hawkins, " History of Music" 
 
 Greene, (Nathaniel,) a distinguished American 
 general, born in Warwick, Rhode Island, on the 27th of 
 May, 1742. His father was a member of the Society of 
 Friends, and owner of an iron-forge, in which Nathaniel 
 worked for many years. In 1770 he was elected to the 
 General Assembly of the colony. Anticipating the im- 
 pending appeal to arms, he began to study the art of war. 
 He married Miss Littlefield in July, 1774. In May, 1775, 
 he was chosen a brigadier-general of the militia of Rhode 
 Island, and joined the army near Boston. He soon 
 gained the confidence of General Washington, who se- 
 lected him to command the- army sent to defend Long 
 Island ; but a violent attack of fever prevented him from 
 taking part in the battle of Long Island, August, 1776. 
 He commanded the division with which Washington 
 marched in person at the battle of Trenton, December, 
 1776. In September, 1777, he distinguished himself at 
 the battle of the Brandvwine, and in October commanded 
 the left wing at the battle of Germantown. At the 
 request of General Washington, he accepted in March, 
 1778, the position ot quartermaster-general, the duties 
 of which he performed with great ability until August, 
 1780. He commanded the right wing at Monmouth, 
 June, 1778, and defeated Sir Henry Clinton at Springfield, 
 
 New Jersey, on the 23d of June, 1780. In the October 
 ensuing he was appointed to the command of the South- 
 ern army, then greatly disorganized and nearly destitute 
 of supplies. A part of his army gained a victory at Cow- 
 pens in January, 1781, soon after which he moved his 
 army to the Catawba River. Pursued by a superior 
 force under Lord Cornwallis, he retreated in good order 
 through North Carolina to the Dan River in February. 
 On this occasion General Washington wrote to him, 
 "Your retreat before Cornwallis is highly applauded 
 by all ranks." Having been reinforced, he marched to 
 Guilford Court-House, where he encountered the enemy 
 on the 15th of March, 1781. Here was fought an inde- 
 cisive battle, and the British remained masters of the 
 field ; but their loss had been so severe that Cornwallis 
 immediately retreated towards the sea. In April, 1781, 
 General Greene adopted the bold resolution to march 
 into South Carolina, and was defeated at Hobkirk's 
 Hill, near Camden. The British, however, were unable 
 to follow up this victory, and in May General Greene 
 inarched to the siege of Ninety-Six, a fortified post 
 near the Saluda River. The siege was raised about 
 the end of June by the approach of Lord Rawdon ; but 
 the place was soon after evacuated by the British, 
 who, retiring southeastward, were pursued to Orange- 
 burg by General Greene. The next important event of 
 the campaign was the severe battle of Eutaw Springs, 
 (September, 1781,) where Greene lost 555 killed and 
 wounded, but remained master of the field. So great 
 was his energy and skill that before the end of the year 
 the enemy were driven from all parts of South Caro- 
 lina, except the vicinity of Charleston. A medal was 
 presented to him by Congress for his victory at Eutaw 
 Springs. In 1782 his operations were greatly retarded 
 by the want of ammunition, money, and other resources. 
 He proposed to enlist several regiments of negro sol- 
 diers ; but this proposal was rejected by the civil authori- 
 ties of the State. After the end of the war he resolved 
 to settle with his family in Georgia, and in 1785 he 
 removed to an estate which had been presented to 
 him by the State of Georgia, and which was situated 
 near Savannah. He died of a sunstroke, June 19, 1786. 
 He is generally considered to have been superior in 
 military skill and in force of character to all the gene- 
 rals of the Revolution, Washington only excepted. 
 
 See a " Life of General Greene," by his grandson, George W, 
 Greene, 3 vols., 1867 et M.i Sparks's "American Biography," 
 vol. xx., (or x. of second series;) Bancropt, " History of the United 
 States;" William Johnson, "Life and Correspondence of Na- 
 thaniel Greene," 2 vols., 1822; "National Portrait-Gallery of 
 Distinguished Americans," vol. i. 
 
 Greene, (Nathaniel,) a journalist, a brother of 
 Charles Gordon, noticed above, was born in Boscawen, 
 New Hampshire, in 1797. He founded in 1821 the " Bos- 
 ton Statesman," a Democratic paper. In 1829 he was 
 appointed postmaster of Boston. He translated " Tales 
 from the German," (2 vols., 1837,) and other works. 
 
 Greene, (Robert,) one of the principal English 
 dramatists who preceded Shakspeaie, was born at Ips- 
 wich about 1560. He began to write for the stage about 
 1584, and from that time gave himself up to a course 
 of dissipation, varied by occasional fits of remorse. 
 Among the works known to 1« his are the "History 
 of Orlando Furioso," and the "Comical History of Al- 
 phonsus, King of Aragon," also a prose treatise entitled 
 "Greene's Groatswortii of Wit bought with a' Million of 
 Repentance." His novel of" Pandosto" is said to have 
 been the original of Shakspeare's " Winter's Tale." He 
 died in great poverty in 1592. 
 
 See Collier, " History of English Dramatic Poetry:" Drake, 
 " Shakespeare and his Times ;" Disraeli, " Calamities of Authors. 
 
 Greene, (Thomas,) an English divine, born at Nor- 
 wich in 1658. On the accession of George I. he was 
 appointed one of his chaplains, and in 1721 became 
 Bishop <>f Norwich. He was the author of " Principles 
 of Religion Explained," and other works. Died in 1738. 
 
 Green'field, (William,) an English Ori. -tiulist and 
 profound scholar, published a u Comprehensive Bible," 
 (1827,)" Novum Testamentum,"( 1829,) and other works. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 Greenham, green'am, (Richard,) an English Puritan 
 divine, born about 1630, was rector of Dry- Drayton for 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as *; th as in this. ( J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GREEN HILL 
 
 10-% 
 
 GREGORIUS 
 
 many years. He left Sermons and other religious works. 
 '.' He excelled in experimental divinity," says Bishop Hall. 
 Died in 1591. 
 
 . Green'hill, (John,) an English painter, born in 1649, 
 was a pupil of Sir Peter Lely. He copied some works 
 of Van Dyck. Died in 1676. 
 
 Greenhill, (William,) an English divine and com- 
 mentator, became rector of Stepney about 1656. He 
 was ejected in 1662 for nonconformity. He wrote " Ex- 
 positions of Ezekiel," (5 vols., 1645-62.) Died about 1675. 
 
 Green'hSw, (Robert,) M.D., an American writer, 
 born in Richmond, Virginia, in 1800, graduated at the 
 College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York in 
 1821. He published a " History of Oregon and Cali- 
 fornia," (1846.) Died at San Francisco in 1854. 
 
 Green'leaf, (Simon,) an American jurist, born in 
 Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1783, became Royall 
 professor of law at Harvard in 1833, and Dane professor 
 in 1846. His chief work is a "Treatise on the Law of 
 Evidence," (3 vols., 1842-53.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Greenough, green'o, (George Bellas,) an English 
 geologist, born about 1777; died in 1854. 
 
 Greenough, green'o, (Horatio,) an eminent Ameri- 
 can sculptor, born in Boston in 1805. He was educated 
 at Harvard, where he enjoyed the friendship of Allston. 
 Before graduating, he went to Rome, to prosecute his 
 artistic studies ; and, with the exception of a brief visit to 
 his native city in 1826, he resided in Italy, chiefly at Flor- 
 ence, until 1851, when he returned to the United States. 
 Died near Boston in December, 1852. Of his numerous 
 works we may mention his "Chaunting Cherubs," the 
 first group in marble ever executed by an American 
 sculptor, (ordered by his devoted friend and patron, J. 
 Fenimore Cooper,) "The Angel and Child," "Venus 
 contending for the Golden Apple," (greatly admired in 
 Florence,) a colossal statue of Washington in front of 
 the national Capitol, for which Congress paid twenty 
 thousand dollars, and a group entitled "The Rescue," 
 ( 1 85 1 , ) representing a scene in the early settlement of 
 the American colonies, executed by order of Congress. 
 A volume of Greenough's Essays, with a Memoir of his 
 Life by H. T. Tuckerman, was published in 1853. 
 
 See, also, Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists." 
 
 Greenville. See Granville. 
 
 Green'ville, (Sir Bevil,) an English officer, born in 
 1596, was a grandson of Sir Richard, noticed below. He 
 represented the county of Cornwall in the Long Parlia- 
 ment in 1640, and supported the royalist party. He had 
 a prominent share in the victory gained by the royal 
 army at Stratton in 1643 ; but he was mortally wounded 
 at the battle of Lansdowne the same year. Lord Clar- 
 endon says of Sir Bevil, "A brighter courage and gentler 
 disposition were never married together." 
 
 See Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion." 
 
 Greenville, (Denis,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 about 1630. He was created Dean of Durham in 1684; 
 but he was deprived of his office in 1690 for refusing to 
 take the oath of allegiance to William III. He died in 
 Paris in 1703. 
 
 See Wood. " Athena Oxonienses." 
 
 Greenville, (Richard.) See Temple, Earl. 
 
 Greenville, (Sir Richard,) a brave English officer, 
 born in the West of England about 1540, was a relative 
 of Sir Walter Raleigh. He was elected to Parliament 
 f>r Cornwall in 1571. As vice-admiral of a squadron, 
 he sailed in 1591 to intercept some Spanish merchant- 
 vessels. These being strongly escorted, an obstinate 
 struggle took place, which resulted in the defeat of the 
 English. Sir Richard, though severely wounded, refused 
 to surrender until his men accepted the offers of quarter. 
 He was taken on board a Spanish ship, but, though 
 kindly treated, soon after died of his wounds, (1588.) 
 
 See Hakluvt, "Voyages," vol. iii. ; " Biographia Britannica ;" 
 Campbell, " Lives of British Admirals." 
 
 Green'wood, (Francis William Pin,) an Ameri- 
 can Unitarian minister, born in Boston in 1797, gradu- 
 ated at Harvard in 1814. He became pastor of King's 
 Chapel, in Boston, in 1824. He contributed to the 
 "North American Review," and published sermons, 
 essays, etc. Died in 1843. 
 
 Green-wood, (Grace.) See Lippincott, (Sarah J.) 
 
 GrSg'an, (John Edgar,) a noted Scottish architect, 
 born in 1813. His principal works are in Manchester 
 and its vicinity, and include the bank of Sir Benjamin 
 Heywood, a number of churches, warehouses, and pri- 
 vate dwellings. Gregan was a Fellow of the Institute 
 of British Architects. Died in 1855. 
 
 Gregg, (David M.,) an American general of cavalry, 
 born in Pennsylvania, graduated at West Point in 1855. 
 He commanded a division of cavalry under General 
 Sheridan in a raid around Lee's army in May, 1864, and 
 at the battles of Meadow Bridge and Trevilian Station, 
 in June of that year. He directed the cavalry of the 
 army of the Potomac from August, 1864, to February, 
 1865. 
 
 Gregg, (John,) an American general, born about 1828. 
 He became a brigadier-general of the Confederate army, 
 and was killed at Petersburg, Virginia, in October, 1864. 
 
 Gregg, (Max'cy,) an American general, born in South 
 Carolina about 1814, was a lawyer before the civil war. 
 He was killed at F'redericksburg, fighting against the 
 Union, in December, 1862. 
 
 Gregoire, the French of Gregory, which see. 
 
 Gregoire, gna'gwaR', (Henri,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and eminent writer, born near Luneville in 1750. He 
 was elected by the clergy to the States-General in 1789. 
 In 1792 he was chosen Bishop of Blois under the civil 
 constitution, and a member of the Convention, in which 
 he took a prominent part in the abolition of royalty and 
 negro slavery, (1794.) The Jacobins accused him of a 
 design to "Christianize the Revolution." He was chosen 
 one of the legislative body about the end of 1799, and a 
 senator in 1801. He was one of the founders and mem- 
 bers of the Institute, and corresponded with many savants 
 among foreign nations. His election as deputy in 1819 
 caused great excitement, and was nullified by the royal- 
 ist majority. Among his principal works is a " History 
 of Religious Sects," (181,0.) Died in 1831. 
 
 See Carnot, "Notice historiqne," prefixed to the " M^moires 
 ecclesiastiques, politiqties," etc. of Gregoire, 2 vols., 1837; J. La- 
 vaud, "Notice sur H. Gregoire," 1819; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^n^rale;" G. Krueger, " H. Gregoire, Bischof von Blois," 1838; 
 " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1822. 
 
 Gregoire, (Pierre,) [Lat. Grego'rius Tolosa'nus,] 
 a French jurist, born at Toulouse about 1540, became 
 professor of civil law at Pont-a-Mousson. He published 
 several legal works in Latin. Died about 1597. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Gregoire de Nazianze. See Gregory Nazianzen. 
 
 Gregoire de Nysse. See Gregory of Nyssa. 
 
 Gregoire le Grand. See Gregory (Pope) I. 
 
 Gregor, the German for Gregory, which see. 
 
 Greg'o-ras Ni-ceph'o-rus, [Gr. Nixr/ipupoc 6 Tpnyo- 
 par,] a Byzantine historian and mathematician, born about 
 1295, was the author of a "History of Constantinople 
 from 1204 to 1359." The principal part of it was pub- 
 lished, with a Latin translation, in 1562. He wrote many 
 other works. He proposed a method for reforming the 
 calendar, which was adopted about three hundred years 
 later by Gregory XIII. Died about 1360. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Boivm, "Vita Nicephori 
 Gregory," in an edition of his History, Paris, 2 vols., 1702. 
 
 Gregorio, gr;a-go're-o, sometimes written Gregori, 
 (Carlo,) an Italian engraver, born at Florence in 1719 ; 
 died in 1759. 
 
 His son Ferdinando (1740-1800) was a skilful en- 
 graver, and worked at Florence. 
 
 Gregorio, (Maurisio,) a Sicilian theologian and 
 writer, born at Camerata in 1575 ; died in 1651. 
 
 Gregorio, (Rosario,) an Italian antiquary and his- 
 torian, born in 1753, became canon of a church at Pa- 
 lermo, and professor of law. Among his works are an 
 " Introduction to the Study of the Public Law of Sicily," 
 (1794,) and " Discourses on the History of Sicily." Died 
 in 1809. 
 
 Gregorio il Grande. See Gregory (Pope) I. 
 
 Gregorius, the Latin of Gregory, which see. 
 
 Gre-go'rl-us, (Publius,) an Italian scholar, surnamed 
 Tipher'nus, born in Umbria, translated into Latin the 
 last seven books of Strabo. Died in 1469. 
 
 Gregorius Ariminensis. See Gregory of Rimini. 
 
 Gregorius Florentius. See Gregory of Tours. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moin; 
 
GREG OR US 
 
 1079 
 
 GREGOR r 
 
 Gregorius Magnus. See Gregory (1'oi'e) I. 
 
 Gregorius Nazianzenus. See G kegory N azi a n/.en. 
 
 Gregorius Nyssenus. See Gregory of Nyssa. 
 
 Gre-go'rI-us Par'dus, called also Gregory of Cor- 
 inth, an Archbishop of Corinth in the twelfth century, 
 was the author of a work on Dialects. 
 
 See " Biographic Universelle." 
 
 Gregorius Tolosaiius. See Gregoire, (Pierre.) 
 
 Gregorj or Gregorii, gka-go're-ee, (Giovanni Gas- 
 PARO,) an Italian writer, born in 1769, became president 
 of the imperial court in Rome in 1811. Died in 1846. 
 
 Greg'o-ry I., Pope, surnamed the Great, [l.at. Gre- 
 go'rhjs Mag'nus; Fr. Gregoire le Grand, gRa'gwaR' 
 leh gRON ; It. Gregorio il Grande, gRa-go're-o el 
 grdn'da,] was born about 550, of an illustrious Roman 
 family. He became prefect of Rome in 573. On the death 
 of Pelagius, in 590, he was elected pope, and in this station 
 showed great zeal in reforming the Church and propa- 
 gating Christianity. Previous to his becoming pope, he 
 had induced Pelagius II. to send missionaries to Eng- 
 land. His character was distinguished by many eminent 
 virtues, much alloyed, however, by superstitious weak- 
 ness. Among other inconsistencies, he is charged with 
 having flattered infamous rulers to secure their protec- 
 tion to the Church. His principal works are a treatise 
 "On the Sacerdotal Office," ("De Cura sacerdotali,") 
 "Books of Morals," ("Moralium Libri,") and " Letters 
 and Dialogues." Died in 604. 
 
 See Maimbourg, " Histoire du Pontificat de Gregoire le Grand," 
 1686: Hayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary:" Georg Pfah- 
 ler, "Gregor der Grosse und seine* Zeit," 2 vols., 1853; Fleury, 
 " Histoire ecclesiastique ;" G. Gradenigo, " S. Gregorius Magnus, 
 etc vindicatus," 1753; Denis de Sainte-Marthe, "Histoire de 
 S. Gregoire le Grand," 1697. 
 
 Gregory H., Pope, was born in Rome, and succeeded 
 Constantine in 715 A.D. When in 726 the emperor Leo 
 forbade the worship of images, Gregory attempted to 
 dissuade him from it. He convoked a council against 
 the Iconoclasts, and one to forbid marriage to monks. 
 It was during his rule that Boniface preached Chris- 
 tianity in Germany. Died in 731. 
 
 See Ughelli. " Italia Sacra." 
 
 Gregory III, a native of Syria, was the successor of 
 Gregory II. In 732 he passed a decree establishing the 
 worship of images. In 740 he was involved in a dispute 
 with Luitprand, King of the Lombards. Died in 741. 
 
 See Alletz, " Histoire des Papes," 1776. 
 
 Gregory IV., born at Rome, became pope on the 
 death of Valentinus, in 827. Being called upon to adjust 
 the quarrel between Louis le Debonnaire and his sons, 
 he offended both parties and also the French bishops. 
 He built a new town near Ostia as a defence against the 
 Saracens, which he named Gregoriopolis. Died in 844. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 
 Gregory V. was a native of Germany and a relative 
 of Otho HI. Through the influence of that emperor he 
 became pope in 997. Soon after this, Crescentius, a 
 man of wealth, assumed the title of consul, and drove 
 the new pope from the city. He raised John, Bishop 
 of Piacenza, to the tiara ; but the next year Otho and 
 Gregory returned with an army, imprisoned John, and 
 executed Crescentius. Died in 999. 
 
 See Pi.atina, " Viuc Summorum Pontificum." 
 
 Gregory VI was a native of Rome, and succeeded 
 Benedict IX. in 1044. In 1046 the emperor Henry III., 
 in a council at Sutri, deposed the three popes Benedict, 
 Sylvester III., and Gregory, and elected Clement II., 
 upon which Gregory retired to a monastery, where he 
 died in 1047. 
 
 Gregory VII. (or Hil'de-brand) was born near 
 Soana, in Tuscany, about 1015. On the death of Alex- 
 ander II., in 1073, he was elected his successor. He now 
 set about reforming the Church, especially with regard to 
 simony, which was very prevalent He resolved to take 
 away from secular princes the right of disposing of sees 
 within their dominions. With this view, he sent legates 
 to Henry IV. of Germany, one of the most guilty in 
 this respect. His admonitions having no effect, he next 
 assembled a council at Rome in 1074, in which persons 
 guilty of simony were anathematized, and it was decreed 
 that no one should be admitted to holy orders unless 
 
 he had taken a vow of celibacy. He summoned another 
 council in 1075, in which kings were forbidden, under 
 pain of excommunication, to give the investiture of 
 sees and abbeys. Henry IV., without regarding Greg- 
 ory's decrees, and indignant at his assumptions, assem- 
 bled a diet at Worms and deposed him ; whereupon 
 Gregory solemnly excommunicated the emperor in a 
 council at the Lateran palace, and declared his subjects 
 released from their allegiance. This act of Gregory was 
 the boldest assumption of power hitherto exercised by 
 any pontiff. Alter Henry had endured a most hu- 
 miliating penance, a reconciliation was effected between 
 them, which, however, was not lasting. Gregory at length 
 retired to Salerno, where he died in 1085. He appears 
 to have been sincere in his efforts to reform the Church, 
 but to have allowed his ambition to get the mastery of 
 him, and aimed to make all powers subordinate to the 
 papal see. 
 
 See Spittler, "Geschichte der Hierarchie von Gregor VII. ;" 
 Griesley, "Life and Pontificate of Gregory VII.," 1829; Ranks, 
 " History of the Popes;" Platina, "Vita; Summorum Pontificum ;" 
 J. VotGT, "Hildebrand alsPapst Gregor VII.," 2 vols., 1813 ; French 
 version of the same, Paris, 1837; John W. Bowden, "Life and 
 Pontificate of Gregory VII.," 2 vols., 1840; G. Cassander, "Das 
 Zeitalter Hildebrands fur und gegen ihn," 1842; " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for November, 1866. 
 
 Gregory VIII., (Alberto di Mora,) born at Bene- 
 vento, succeeded Urban III. in 1 187. He survived but 
 two months, and was followed by Clement III. He 
 must be distinguished from the anti-pope of the name 
 of Bourdin, who also assumed the name of Gregory VIII. 
 
 Gregory IX. (Cardinal Ugolino) was Bishop of 
 Ostia, and a native of Anagni. He succeeded Honorius 
 III. in 1227. Soon after his election, he insisted on 
 Frederick II. of Germany engaging in a crusade, and, on 
 his delay, immediately excommunicated him. The whole 
 of this pontiffs rule was signalized by a struggle for su- 
 premacy between Frederick and the Ghibelines on the 
 one side, and the Guelphs, with the pope, on the other. 
 Died in 1241. 
 
 See G. Vossius, "Gregorii Papae Noni Gesta," 1686. 
 
 Gregory X, (Tebaldo Visconti,) born at Piacenza, 
 succeeded Clement IV. in 1271. In 1274 he convoked 
 a general council at Lyons, and effected a transient 
 reconciliation between the Greek and Latin Churches. 
 Among other reforms, the mode of electing popes by 
 conclave was adopted. Died in 1276. 
 
 See P. M. Campi, "Vita Gregorii X.," Rome, 1665; Bonucci, 
 "Istoria del Pontefice B. Gregorio X.," 1711. 
 
 Gregory XL, (Pierre Roger de Montroux — deh 
 moN'tuoo',) a native of France, and son of the Count 
 of Beaufort, was born about 1330. He succeeded Urban 
 V. in 1370. In 1377 he transferred the papal see from 
 Avignon, where it had been for nearly seventy years, 
 back to Rome. Gregory was the first pope who con- 
 demned the doctrines of Wicliff. He was a man of 
 great learning, and highly esteemed for his unblemished 
 character. Died in 1378. 
 
 See Alletz, " Histoire des Papes," 1776. 
 
 Gregory XII., (Angelo Coruaro,) a native of Ve- 
 nice, born about 1325, was chosen successor to Innocent 
 VII. in 1406. Owing to the schism which had divided 
 the Western Church since 1379, he had a rival in the 
 anti-pope Benedict XIII. In a council at Pisa in 1409, 
 the sovereigns of Europe deposed both Gregory and 
 Benedict, and elected Peter Philargi, a Greek. The 
 other two, however, persisted in their claims, and the 
 Western Church had three popes instead of one. The 
 great Council of Constance again deposed them in 1415, 
 and Gregory was appointed legate to the Marches of 
 Ancona. Died in 1417. 
 
 See Alletz, " Histoire des Papes," 1776. 
 
 Gregory XIII., (Ugo Buoncompagni,) a native of 
 Bologna, born in 1502, succeeded Pius V. in 1572. He 
 was distinguished for his knowledge of civil and canon 
 law, and his zeal in the cause of education. He endowed 
 several colleges at Rome, one of which was called the 
 Gregorian College. He reformed the Julian Calendar; 
 and the " New Style," (as it is called,) which he intro- 
 duced, has been generally adopted. Died in 1585. 
 
 See Rankk, "History of the Popes;" G. P. Makfkl. "Annali 
 di Gregorio XML," 2 vols., 1742; A. de Vidaillan, "Vie de Gre- 
 goire XI II," 1840. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (fly-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GREGORT 
 
 1080 
 
 GREGORT 
 
 Gregory XIV., (Niccol6 Sfondrato,) a native of 
 Cremona, succeeded Urban VII. in 1590. He did much 
 to promote the French league against Henry IV. of 
 France, whom he excommunicated. Died in 1 591. 
 
 Gregory XV., (Alessandro Ludovisio,) a native 
 of Bologna, born in 1554, succeeded Paul V. In 1621. 
 He was of a mild and humane character, and exerted 
 himself to put an end to the persecution of the Prot- 
 estants In Valtellina. lie founded the college De Propa- 
 ganda Fide. He was the author of a " Letter to Shah 
 Abbas, King of the Persians." Died in 1623. 
 
 See Ranks, " History of the Popes ;" Alletz, " Histoire des 
 Papes." 
 
 Gregory XVI., (Mauro Capellari,) born at Bel- 
 luno in 1765. He was made a cardinal by Leo XII. in 
 1825, and soon after became prefect of the college 
 De Propaganda Fide. He conducted the negotiation 
 with the kingdom of Prussia under Pius VIII., and was 
 elected pope in 1831. Died in 1846. He was succeeded 
 by Pius IX. 
 
 See A. Manavit, " Notice historique stir Grdgoire XVI," 1846 ; 
 B. Wagnkk, " Papst Gregor XVI., sem Leben und sein Pontificat," 
 1846; Farini, "Lo Stato Romano," translated into English by the 
 Hon. W. E. Gladstone; Wiseman, " Recollections of the Last 
 Four Popes." 
 
 Gregory of Agrigentum, a Greek theologian, born 
 about 524. He visited Antioch, Constantinople, and 
 Rome, and was appointed by the pope Bishop of Agri- 
 gentum, in Sicily. Died about 565. 
 
 Gregory of Antioch, a Greek ecclesiastic, who 
 became Patriarch of Antioch about 570 a.d. Died 
 about 594. 
 
 Gregory of Corinth. See Gregorius Pardus. 
 
 Gregory of Nyssa, [Lat. Grego'rius Nysse'nus; 
 Fr. Gregoire de Nysse, gRa'gwaR' deh ness,] Bishop 
 of Nyssa, an eminent Greek Father, was born at Cassa- 
 rea, in Cappadocia, about 332 A.D., and was a brother 
 of Basil the Great. He became bishop about 372, op- 
 posed Arianism, and was banished at the instigation of 
 the Arians by Valens in 375 a.d. On the death of Valens 
 (378 A.D.) he was restored to his see. He had a high 
 reputation for learning and eloquence. He died about 
 398 A.D., and left many sermons, doctrinal treatises, ora- 
 tions, letters, etc., which have often been printed. 
 
 See Dupin, "Histoire des Auteurs eccMsiastiques ;" J. Rupp, 
 " Gregor's des Bischofs von Nyssa Leben," etc., 1834 : Villemain, 
 "Tableau de rFJoquence chre'tienne au quatrieme Steele;" Farri- 
 cius. " Bibliotheca Gra?ca ;" S. P. Heyns, "Disputatio historico- 
 theologica de Gregorio Nysseno," 1835. 
 
 Gregory of Rimini, [Lat. Grego'rius Ariminen'- 
 SIS,] an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Rimini, became 
 general of the order of Augustines at Montpellier. He 
 wrote several theological works. Died in 1358. 
 
 Gregory, [Lat. Grego'rius,] Saint, first Patriarch 
 of Armenia, born in 257 a.d., was of the royal Persian 
 family of the Arsacidae, and was surnamed the Illu- 
 minator, from his having converted Armenia to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 See Gravjna, "Vita e Miracoli di San Gregorio." 
 
 Gregory of Saint Vincent. See Saint Vincent. 
 
 Gregory the Thaumaturgist, [Lat. Grego'rius 
 Thaumatur'gus; Gr. Tpr/yopwc 6 Oavfiarovpyoc; ; Fr. 
 Gregoire Thaumaturge, gua'gwaR' to'mS'tiiRzh',] one 
 of the early Christian theologians, born in Cappadocia 
 in the third century, was a disciple of Origen. He owed 
 his surname to his reputation for working miracles. He 
 became Bishop of Neo-Caesarea in 240 a.d. He was the 
 author of a " Eulogy on Origen," " Symbol of the Faith," 
 and other works. Died about 270. 
 
 See Pallavicini, "Vita Gregorii Thaiunaturgi," Rome, 1644: 
 Fleury, "Histoire ecclesiastique;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gini- 
 rale." 
 
 Gregory of Tours, [Lat. Geor'gius Floren'tius 
 Grego'rius,] one of the earliest French historians, born 
 at Auvergne in 544 A.D., was appointed Bishop of Tours. 
 His principal work, entitled "Historia Francorum," is a 
 history of France from the establishment of Christianity 
 till 595 A.D. Being persecuted for denouncing the crimes 
 of the French sovereigns Chilperic and Fredegonde, 
 he retired to Rome, where he died in 595. 
 
 See Dupin, "Bibliotheque des Auteurs eccMsiastiques ;" J. W. 
 Loebei.i, "Gregor von Tours und seine Zeit," 1830; "Gallia 
 Christiana," tome xiv. ; "Nouvelle Biographie GdneYale." 
 
 Greg'o-rjf, (David,) a Scottish philosopher, born 
 about 1627, was the brother of James, who invented the 
 reflecting telescope, and was the ancestor of several great 
 mathematicians. He was himself remarkable for his skill 
 in medicine, philosophy, etc His three sons, David, 
 James, and Charles, were at the same time mathematical 
 professors in three universities. 
 
 Gregory, (David,) son of the preceding, born at 
 Aberdeen in 1661, was a skilful mathematician, and one 
 of the most eminent members of this remarkable family. 
 At the age of twenty-three he succeeded his uncle 
 James as professor of mathematics in the University of 
 Edinburgh. He has the credit of being one of the first 
 who taught the Newtonian philosophy in his public lec- 
 tures. He published, from 1684 to 1703, several works 
 on astronomy and geometry. In 1691 he obtained the 
 Savilian professorship of astronomy at Oxford. He 
 afterwards wrote " Elements of Spherical Dioptrics and 
 Catoptrics," and "Elements of Physical and Geometrical 
 Astronomy," (1702,) the latter of which is his most im- 
 portant work. Professor Hutton says, " It was esteemed 
 by Newton himself as a most excellent explanation and 
 defence of his philosophy." Died in 1708. His brother 
 James was chosen professor of mathematics in Edin- 
 burgh in 1791. Another brother, Charles, occupied the 
 chair of mathematics at Saint Andrew's from 1707 to 
 1739, when he was succeeded by his son David. 
 
 See Hutton, "Mathematical Dictionary;" Chambers, "Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gregory, (Duncan Farquharson,) a British mathe- 
 matician, born in 1814, was the son of James Gregory, 
 M.D., (1753-1821,) and a descendant of the first James, 
 noticed below. He was a Fellow and sub-lecturer of 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, and principal contributor 
 to the Cambridge "Mathematical Journal." In 1841 he 
 published an excellent work on the "Differential and 
 Integral Calculus." Died in 1844. 
 
 Gregory, (Edmund,) an English writer, published a 
 "Historical Anatomy of Christian Melancholy," (1646.) 
 Died in 1650. 
 
 Gregory, (George,) D.D., an English author, born 
 in 1754, was curate of Saint Giles, London, from 1782 to 
 1804. He published a " History of the Christian Church," 
 (2 vols., 1794,) a "Dictionary of Arts and Sciences," and 
 other works on various subjects. Died in 1808. 
 
 Gregory, (James,) a celebrated Scottish geometer, 
 born at Aberdeen in 1638, was the most eminent indi- 
 vidual in a family which during several successive genera- 
 tions has been distinguished for profound attainments in 
 the exact sciences. After leaving the university he de- 
 voted his talents to optics, and, at the age of twenty-four, 
 invented the reflecting telescope which bears his name, 
 and which he described in a treatise entitled "Optica 
 Promota." About 1665 he visited Italy, where he passed 
 several years and published a work on the "Quadrature 
 of the Circle and Hyperbola," (1667.) These works pro- 
 cured for him the friendship of Newton, Huyghens, and 
 other eminent philosophers. On his return to England, 
 in 1668, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, 
 and professor of mathematics at Saint Andrew's. In 
 1674 he obtained the same chair in the University of 
 Edinburgh, where he died suddenly in October, 1675, 
 at the age of thirty-six. Charles Hutton expressed the 
 opinion that "his mathematical genius as an inventor 
 was of the first order." The list of his inventions com- 
 prises, besides the Gregorian telescope, burning mir- 
 rors, the solution of the Keplerian problem, a method 
 for the transformation of curves, a converging series for 
 making logarithms, etc. He wrote, besides the works 
 above named, a " Part of Universal Geometry," and 
 "Geometrical Essays." He left one son, James, born 
 in 1674, who became professor of medicine at Aberdeen 
 and was the father of John Gregory, M.D., noticed 
 below. It is said that sixteen members of this family 
 have held professorships in British colleges and schools. 
 
 See Montuci.a. " Histoire des Mathe"matiques :" " Biographia 
 Britannica ;" Hutton, "Mathematical Dictionary;" Chambers, 
 "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gregory, (James,) M.D., a Scottish physician, born at 
 Aberdeen in 1753, was the son of John Gregory, M.D., 
 noticed below. He attained eminence as a professor of 
 medicine in Edinburgh, and published a "General View 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, ?, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; mooni 
 
GREGORT 
 
 1081 
 
 GRENFILLE 
 
 of Theoretical Medicine," (" Conspectus Medicinae Theo- 
 retical,") and other professional works. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gregory, (John,) an English minister and historical 
 writer, born in Buckinghamshire in 1607. His various 
 works were published under the title of "Gregorii Post- 
 huma," with a Life of the author by John Gurgany, 
 (1st part, 1649.) Died in 1646. 
 
 Gregory, (John,) M.D., a grandson of James Gregory 
 the eminent geometer, was born at Aberdeen in 1724. 
 He became successively professor of philosophy and 
 medicine at Aberdeen, and in 1766 was appointed pro- 
 fessor of the practice of physic in Edinburgh. His prin- 
 cipal works are " Elements of the Practice of Physic," 
 "A Comparative View of the State and Faculties of 
 Man with those of the Animal World," and "A Father's 
 Legacy to his Daughters." Died in 1773. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gregory, (Oi.inthus Gilbert,) LLD., a distin- 
 guished mathematician and philosopher, born in Hun- 
 tingdonshire, England, in 1774. His "Treatise on the 
 Use of the Sliding Rule" procured for him the notice of 
 Dr. Hutton, to whom in 1800 he dedicated his " Treatise 
 on Astronomy." Soon after this he became editor of 
 the "Gentleman's Diary" and the "Pantalogia." He 
 was appointed a mathematical master in the Royal Mili- 
 tary Academy, Woolwich, in 1802, and, on the resigna- 
 tion of Dr. Hutton, succeeded him as professor of mathe- 
 matics in that institution. Among his other writings 
 are "A Treatise on Mechanics," "Plane and Spherical 
 Trigonometry," " Lessons Astronomical and Philoso- 
 phical," a " Memoir of John Mason Good," a "Disser- 
 tation on Weights and Measures," and "Evidences of 
 Christianity," (1815.) Dr. Gregory was one of the twelve 
 founders of the Royal Astronomical Society. As a man, 
 he was greatly beloved and esteemed for his goodness 
 of heart and eminent Christian virtues. Died in 1841. 
 
 Gregory, (William,) a Scottish chemist and phy- 
 sician of high reputation, born in Edinburgh about 1803, 
 was the author of "Outlines of Chemistry," (1848,) and 
 " Letters to a Candid Enquirer on Animal Magnetism," 
 (1853.) He also translated Von Reichenbach's " Re- 
 searches on Magnetism," and edited several of Liebig's 
 works. He became professor of chemistry in the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh about 1844. Died in 1858. 
 
 Gregory the Great. See Gregory (Pope) I. 
 
 Greg'o-ry Naz-I-an'zen, [Lat. Grego'rius Nazian- 
 Ze'nus; Gr. Tpr/yopios Na^avO^oc ; Fr. Gregoire DE 
 Nazianzk, gni'gwis' deh ni'ze'ftNz'; Ger. Gregor (or 
 Gregorius, gRa-go're-us) von Nazianz, gRa-goR' fon 
 nat-se-ints',] a celebrated Greek Father, surnamed the 
 Theologian, was born near Nazianzus about 328 a.d. 
 He studied successively at Caesarea, Alexandria, and 
 Athens, where he formed an intimacy with Saint Basil. 
 He was afterwards associated with his father in the 
 bishopric of Nazianzus, where he was distinguished for 
 his pulpit eloquence and by the poetical graces and the 
 mild conciliatory spirit of his compositions. During the 
 Arian persecution under Valens, he repaired to Constan- 
 tinople, where he took charge of a private chapel ; but, 
 having incurred the enmity of zealots and courtiers by 
 his mildness and his simple style of living, he resigned 
 his office. His farewell sermon on this occasion is an 
 admirable specimen of pulpit eloquence, full of dignity 
 and pathos. Having previously visited Caesarea and 
 delivered the funeral oration of his friend Basil, he re- 
 tired to his native place, where he devoted himself for 
 the remainder of his life to his religious duties and the 
 composition of his poems. A collection of these was 
 published at Venice in 1504. He also wrote numerous 
 orations and epistles, which have gone through several 
 editions. "Gregorius," says Dupin, "deserves to be 
 classed with the most perfect orators of Greece," excel- 
 ling his contemporaries " in the nobleness of his expres- 
 sions, the beauty of his reasonings, and the sublimity of 
 his thoughts." Died in 389 A.D. 
 
 See VlLLKMAIH, "Tableau de 1'lsloquenee chnStienne au quatri- 
 emeSiecle ;"Ui.lmann, "Gregorius von Nazianz," 1S25; Godkvkuy 
 Hvkmant, "Vie de S. Gregoire de Nazianze," 1675; Fabkicius, 
 " Bibliotheca Grasca:" Soceatbs, "Historia Ecclestastica ;" Cave, 
 "Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia Literaria;" "Westminster 
 Review" for October, 1851. 
 
 Greif. See Gryphws. 
 
 Greifl; gRlf, (Friedrich,) a German chemist, born at 
 Tubingen in 1601 ; died in 1668. 
 
 Greig, greg, (Samuel Carlovitch,) a Scottish ad- 
 miral, who entered the Russian service in 1764 and 
 accompanied Count Orlof in his expedition against the 
 Turks. He was made commandant of Cronstadf in 1775, 
 and admiral in 1782. Died in 1788. A monument was 
 erected to him at Revel by the empress Catherine. 
 
 See Count Segur, "Me'moires;" Chambers, "Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Grel-let', (Stephen,) a minister of the Society of 
 Friends or Quakers, born in France in 1773, was origi- 
 nally a Roman Catholic. He entered the body-guard 
 of Louis XVI. about 1790, and emigrated to New York 
 in 1795. He was converted to the principles of the 
 Friends about 1796, and became a preacher, in which 
 capacity he travelled extensively. He resided in the 
 latter part of his life at Burlington, New Jersey, where 
 he died in 1855. 
 
 See "Memoirs of the Life of Stephen Grellet," edited by B. Sek- 
 bohm, 2 vols., i860. 
 
 Gren, guen, (Friedrich Albrecht Karl,) a Ger- 
 man chemist and writer, born at Bernburg in 1760; died 
 at Halle in 1798. 
 
 Grenade, de, (Louis.) See Granada. 
 
 Grenan, gReh-noN', (Benigne,) a Latin poet, born 
 at Noyers, in Burgundy, about 1680, was professor of 
 rhetoric at Paris. His style is said to be pure and ani- 
 mated. He translated Boileau's tenth and eleventh 
 Satires into Latin. Died in 1723. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Gren'fell, (Pas'coe,) M.P., an English opponent of 
 the slave-trade, born in 1762. He was a coadjutor of 
 Wilberforce, and spoke in the House of Commons 
 against the slave-trade. Died in 1838. 
 
 Grenier, gReh-ne-i', (Jacques Raymond,) a French 
 hydrographer and naval officer, born in 1736, sailed in 
 1767 to explore the seas bordering on the coast of Coro- 
 mandel and the adjacent islands. He published, after 
 his return, a number of valuable charts, and "The Art 
 of Naval Warfare," etc., (1787.) Died in 1803. 
 
 See "Archives de la Marine," etc 
 
 Grenier, (Jean,) Baron, a French jurist, born in 
 Auvergne in 1753, published a "Treatise on Donations 
 and Wills," (1807,) and other works. Died in 1841. 
 
 Grenier, (Paul,) Count, a French general of divi- 
 sion, born at Sarre-Louis in 1768; died in 1827. 
 
 Gren'ville, (Hon. George,) a distinguished English 
 statesman, born in 17:2, was a younger brother of Rich- 
 ard, Earl Temple, and brother-in-law of William Pitt the 
 elder. He became ministerial leader of the Commons 
 in 1 762, having been treasurer of the navy for some years 
 previous. He had mostly acted with the Whigs. While 
 advocating a tax on cider, he called on his opponents to 
 say where they would have a tax laid : " Let them tell me 
 where ; I repeat it, sir, tell me where." Pitt, who was 
 then in the Opposition, raised a general laugh against 
 him by murmuring the line of a well-known song, 
 
 " Gentle shepherd, tell me where. " 
 In 1763 the prime minister, Lord Bute, resigned, and 
 Grenville succeeded him as first lord of the treasury and 
 chancellor of the exchequer. " We are inclined to think," 
 says Macaulay, " that the worst administration which 
 has governed England since the Revolution was that of 
 George Grenville. His public acts may be classed under 
 two heads, — outrages on the liberty of the people, and 
 outrages on the dignity of the crown." Among the for- 
 mer was the famous Stamp Act of 1765. The king hated 
 Grenville, and at last got rid of him in July, 1765, when 
 the Marquis of Rockingham became premier. He died 
 in 1770, leaving three sons, one of whom was Thomas, 
 Lord Grenville. 
 
 See Smith, "Grenville Papers;" Lord Mahon, "History of 
 F.nglnnd :" Macaulay, article on the " Earl of Chatham," in the 
 " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1844. 
 
 Grenville, (George Nugent.) See Nugent. 
 Grenville, (Richard.) See Temple, (Earl.) 
 Grenville, (Thomas,) born in 1755, was a son of 
 George Grenville, noticed above. He was employed in 
 
 e as it; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilltd; i as *; th as in this. (J^r— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GRENVILLE 
 
 1082 
 
 GREV1LLE 
 
 
 Important missions to the United States, France, and 
 Prussia, and after the death of Fox became first lord of 
 the admiralty. This post he resigned in 1807, because 
 the new ministry was hostile to Catholic emancipation. 
 He died in 1846, having bequeathed to the British Mu- 
 seum his magnificent library, consisting of more than 
 20,000 volumes. 
 
 Grenville, (William WyndhamGrenville,)Lord, 
 an able English statesman and orator, born in 1759, was 
 the third son of George Grenville, noticed above. He 
 was elected to Parliament in 1782, was appointed pay- 
 master-general of the army in 1783, and was chosen 
 Speaker of the Commons about 1789. In 1790 he was 
 created Baron Grenville, and in 1791 became secretary 
 for foreign affairs in the ministry of Pitt. He retired 
 from office with Pitt in 1801. In the Whig ministry 
 formed by himself and Fox about February, 1806, he was 
 first lord of the treasury (premier) for about one year. 
 During several years after 1808, Lords Grenville and 
 Grey were the leaders of the opposition ; but the former 
 did not support the Reform bills of Lord Grey. He wrote 
 Latin poems, entitled " Nugae Metrics," (" Metrical Tri- 
 fles," 1824.) For many years he was chancellor of the 
 University of Oxford. His wife was Anne Pitt, daughter 
 of Lord Camelford. He died, without issue, in 1834. 
 
 See J. Smith, " Grenville Papers," 1852 ; " Edinburgh Review" 
 for January, 1820; Alison, " History of Europe." 
 
 Greppi, guep'pee, (Giovanni,) an Italian dramatist, 
 born at Bologna in 175 1. His works are numerous, and 
 were popular at the time. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri," vol. viii. 
 
 Gresh'am, (Sir Thomas,) a wealthy English mer- 
 chant, born in London in 1519. He was employed by 
 Queen Elizabeth as her agent at Antwerp, and was also 
 sent on several diplomatic missions. About 1566 he 
 built at his own expense the Royal Exchange, London, 
 the first edifice of the kind in England. He founded in 
 London, in 1575, the college called by his name. Died 
 
 in 1579- 
 
 See " Life of Sir Thomas Gresham," London, 1845 ; Ward, 
 " Lives of the Greshain Professors." 
 
 Gresley, gR^'le', (Gabriel,) a French painter, born 
 at L'Isle-sur-le-Doubs about 1710. He excelled espe- 
 cially in domestic scenes. Died in 1756. 
 
 GrSs'ley, (William,) a popular English writer, born 
 about 1800. Among his works (published 1835-51) are 
 "Bernard Leslie," a novel, "Coniston Hall," "Forest 
 of Arden," and " Help to Prayer." 
 
 Greslou, gKi'16N', (Adrien,) a French Jesuit, born 
 at Perigueux in 1618. He visited China in 1657, and 
 published, after his return, a "History of China under 
 the Rule of the Tartars," (1661.) Died in 1697. 
 
 Gresset, gi4's£', (Jean Baptiste Louis,) a cele- 
 brated French poet and dramatist, born at Amiens in 
 1709. He entered the order of Jesuits, and, at the age 
 of twenty-four, produced a comic poem called "Vert- 
 Vert," which had great success, and is one of the most 
 witty and ingenious specimens of persiflage in the lan- 
 guage. It has been translated into English by T. G. 
 Cooper. About 1735 he ceased to be a Jesuit, and 
 removed to Paris. His " Epistle to my Sister on my 
 Convalescence" is greatly admired* He wrote a very 
 successful comedy, called " Le Mechant," (1747,) and 
 several tragedies. In 1748 he was admitted into the 
 French Academy. Died in 1777. "After the lapse of 
 a century," says De Pongerville, " Gresset has lost 
 nothing of his high renown. He is considered one of 
 the ornaments of our poetical firmament." ("Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale.") 
 
 See Baili.v, " Eloge de Gresset," 1785; Sainte-Bhuve, in the 
 "Revue des Deux Mondes," September, 1845 ; Longfellow, "Poets 
 and Poetry of Europe ;" De Caykol, Essai historique sur la Vie 
 de Gresset," 2 vols., 1845. 
 
 Gressly, gRlss'lee, (Armand,) a Swiss geologist, 
 born near Laufen about 1813. He gained distinction by 
 his researches in the geology of the Jura Mountains. 
 Died near Berne in 1865. 
 
 Gres'well, (Edward,) a learned English theologian, 
 born at Manchester in 1797. He became a Fellow of 
 Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He published, be- 
 sides other works, " Harmonia Evangelica," (1830,) and 
 
 "An Exposition of the Parables and other Parts of the 
 Gospels," (5 vols., 1834-35.) 
 
 Gretch or Gretsch, gRetch, (Nikolai Ivanovitch,) 
 a Russian litterateur and critic, born at Saint Petersbuig 
 in 1787. He was for a time editor of a political and 
 patriotic journal, entitled "The Son of the Fatherland," 
 and was afterwards associated with Boolgarin (Bulgarin) 
 in editing "The Northern Bee." His principal work is 
 a "History of Russian Literature," (1819-22.) He also 
 published a valuable Russian Grammar, and a " Military 
 Lexicon," in which he was assisted by his friend Baron 
 von Seddeler. 
 
 See Konig. " N. Gretch und die Russische Literatur," 1846. 
 
 Grdtry, gRa'tRe', (Andre Ernest Modeste,) a cele- 
 brated opera-composer, born at Liege in 1741. He visited 
 Rome in 1759, having previously given proof of his ge- 
 nius by the composition of six symphonies and a mass. 
 He became a pupil of the famous Martini. He after- 
 wards repaired to Paris, where he brought out his comic 
 opera of "Huron," (1769,) which met with brilliant- 
 success; it was followed in rapid succession by "The 
 Speaking Picture," ("Le Tableau parlant,") "Sylvain," 
 "Zemoire et Azor," "The Rose-Tree of Salency," ("La 
 Rosiere de Salency,") "Richard Coeur de Lion," and 
 other comic operas, which raised his reputation to the 
 highest point. Gretry was a member of the French In- 
 stitute, and of the Academy of Music at Stockholm, and 
 obtained various other distinctions. He died in 1813, 
 and a monument, by Geefs, was erected to him at Liege. 
 
 See Le Breton, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Gre'try," 
 1814; "Gretry en Famille," etc., by A. J. Gretry, his nephew, 
 1815 ; E. C. de Gerlache, " Essai sur Gretry," 1844 ; Fetis, " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle des Musiciens;" F. VAN Hulst, "Gretry," 1842. 
 
 Gretser, gRel'ser, (Jakob,) a distinguished German 
 Jesuit and philologist, born at Markdorf, in Suabia, in 
 1561. He wrote numerous works, among which is a 
 treatise "On the Holy Cross," ("De Sancta Cruce," 
 1600.) Died at Ingolstadt in 1625. 
 
 See his Life prefixed to an edition of his Works, 17 vols, fol., 1734 
 -41; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 " Memoires." 
 
 Greuze, gRUz, (Jean Baptiste.) a distinguished 
 French painter, born in Burgundy in 1726. He ^excelled 
 in delineating domestic scenes of a touching and im- 
 pressive character. Among his master-pieces may be 
 named a "Father explaining the Bible to his Children," 
 " Saint Mary in Egypt," (" Sainte-Marie figyptienne,") 
 " The Good Mother," a " Young Girl holding a Dove," 
 and "The Paternal Blessing." Died in 1805. 
 
 See Merimee, "De la Peinture a l'Huile;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Greve or Greeve, gRa'veh or HRa'veh, (Egbert 
 Jan,) a Dutch theologian and Orientalist, born at Dev- 
 enter in 1754, wrote a treatise "On the Last Chapters 
 of the Book of Job," (in Latin.) Died in 1811. 
 
 Greve, van, viii gRa'veh, (Jan,) a Dutch Arminian 
 theologian, born about 1580. He wrote "Tribunal Re- 
 formatum." 
 
 Greve, van, (Pietf.r,) a Dutch jurist, born at Deven- 
 ter in 1641 ; died in 1677. 
 
 Grev'ille or Grev'ile, (Sir Fulke,) Lord Brooke, 
 an English poet and miscellaneous writer, born in War- 
 wickshire in 1554, was distinguished by the favour of 
 Queen Elizabeth, who made him a knight. He was ap- 
 pointed by King James I. under-treasurer and chancellor 
 of the exchequer in 1615, and obtained from that monarch 
 the castle of Warwick, (then in a ruinous condition,) 
 which he repaired at vast expense. He was created a 
 peer, with the title of Baron Brooke, in 1620. He was 
 mortally wounded, in a quarrel with an old servant, in 
 1628. Lord Brooke was the intimate friend of Sir Philip 
 Sidney, of whom he published a biography. He also 
 wrote a number of poems and tragedies. 
 
 See Horace Walpole, "Royal and Noble Authors;" "Biogra- 
 phia Britannica." 
 
 Greville, (Robert,) born in 1608, was a cousin of 
 the preceding, whose title he inherited. He fought in 
 the Parliamentary army, and was killed at the battle 
 of Lichfield in 1643. Among his principal works are a 
 "Discourse opening the Nature of the Episcopacy exer- 
 cised in England," (1641,) and "The Nature of Truth." 
 
 See Lodge's " Portraits." 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, $>, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon ; 
 
GREV1LLE 
 
 1083 
 
 GREY 
 
 Greville, (Robert Kaye,) a British botanist, born 
 in the county of Durham about 1794. He published, 
 besides other works, " Flora Edinensis : Plants of Edin- 
 burgh," (1824,) and "The Scottish Cryptogamic Flora," 
 (6 vols., 1822-28,) which was called by Loudon "a truly 
 admirable work." Died in 1866. 
 
 Grevin, gki'vaN', (Jacques,) a French poet, born at 
 Clermont-en-Beauvoisis about 1540, was a Calvinist. 
 He wrote dramas which had great success, and became 
 physician to the Duchess of Savoy. Died in 1570. 
 
 See La Haki-e, "Coursde Literature." 
 
 Grew, (Nehemiah,) an English naturalist, son of 
 Obadiah, noticed below, was born at Coventry about 
 162S. He was a Fellow of the Koyal Society and of 
 the College of Physicians, and published, among other 
 works, "I he Anatomy of Vegetables," (1682,) and " Idea 
 of a Philosophical History of Plants." The former treat- 
 ise was translated into French. Died in 1711. 
 
 See Rees, "Cyclopedia;" "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Grew, (Oiiadiah,) an English Puritan divine, born 
 in Warwickshire in 1607. He joined the party of the 
 Parliament on the breaking out of the civil war, but he 
 opposed the execution of the king. Died in 1698. 
 
 Grey, gra, (Charles,) second Earl, an eminent Eng- 
 lish statesman and champion of Parliamentary reform, 
 was the eldest son of the first Earl Grey. He was 
 born at Fallowden, near Alnwick, in March, 1764, and 
 educated at Cambridge. Entering Parliament in 1786, 
 as member for Northumberland, he became a constant 
 supporter of the Whig party and a warm personal 
 friend of Fox. He had won a prominent position by 
 his splendid talents and eloquence, when he was ap- 
 pointed by the House a member of the committee 
 to manage the impeachment of Warren Hastings, in 
 1788. "At twenty-three," says Macaulay, "he had 
 been thought worthy to be ranked with the veteran 
 statesmen who appeared as the delegates of the British 
 Commons at the bar of the British nobility." 
 
 When the Whig party was disorganized by hostility to 
 the French Revolution, Fox and Grey remained constant 
 to their principles, and were the leaders of the opposi- 
 tion. Mr. Grey was one of the founders of the " Society 
 of the Friends of the People," a political association 
 formed in 1792 to promote reform in Parliament. In 
 the stormy and critical times which followed, when the 
 more timid Whigs deserted to the dominant party, when 
 liberal principles were stigmatized as Jacobinical, when 
 the coercive policy of Pitt was supported by large ma- 
 jorities, Mr. Grey did not falter in his devotion to the 
 popular cause. In 1793 he presented a petition for a 
 change in the system of representation, and advocated 
 it in an impressive speech. In 1797 he again made an 
 unsuccessful effort for reform in the House of Commons. 
 On the formation of the Whig ministry of Fox and 
 Grenville, in 1806, Mr. Grey, who had recently received 
 the title of Lord Howick, was appointed first lord of 
 the admiralty. At the death of Fox, September, 1806, 
 Lord Howick succeeded him as secretary of foreign 
 affairs and leader in the House of Commons. The 
 most memorable act of this brief ministry was the 
 abolition of the slave-trade, which he cordially sup- 
 ported. The Whig cabinet was dissolved in March, 
 1807. In the same year. Lord Howick, at the death of 
 his father, became Earl Grey, and a member of the 
 House of Lords. In 1812 the prince-regent solicited 
 Lords Grey and Grenville to accept places in his Tory 
 cabinet ; but they declined thus to sacrifice their con- 
 sistency and principles, and continued to he the oppo- 
 sition leaders in the House of Lords. In 1829 Lord 
 Grey concurred in the passage of the Catholic Emanci- 
 pation Bill, which had long been a fundamental point in 
 his political creed. 
 
 The cause of Reform in 1830 received a new impulse 
 by the accession of William IV., and the second French 
 revolution. Wellington was compelled to resign, and Earl 
 Grey became premier, adopting for his policy peace, re- 
 trenchment, and reform. The first Reform bill having 
 been defeated in 1831, the ministers dissolved Parlia- 
 ment and appealed to the people, who returned to the 
 new House a large majority of Liberals. A second bill 
 passed the House of Commons, but was lost in the 
 
 Upper House. The measure finally triumphed in June, 
 1S32. The Reformed Parliament, which met in 1833, 
 abolished colonial slavery and the monopoly of the East 
 India Company. In consequence of dissensions in th(» 
 cabinet, Lord Grey resigned in July, 1833. He died in 
 1845. He had married in 1784 Mary E. Ponsonby, and 
 left eight sons, the eldest of whom is the third Earl Grey. 
 See Roebuck, " History of the Whig Party of 1830;" Harriet 
 Maktineau, "History of Thirty Year? Peace." 
 
 Grey, (Sir George,) born in Ireland, travelled in 
 Australia in 1837, and published, after his return to 
 England, "Journals of Two Expeditions in Northwest 
 and Western Australia." He was successively appointed 
 Lieutenant-Governor of Southern Australia, Governor 
 of New Zealand, (1846,) and Governor of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, (1854.) He wrote a treatise "On Poly- 
 nesian Mythology, and the Traditional History of the 
 New Zealand Race," (1855.) 
 
 Grey, (Right Hon. Sir George,) G.C.B., a British 
 statesman, born at Gibraltar in 1799, was a nephew of 
 the second Earl Grey. He graduated with honour as a 
 classical scholar at Oxford, and was called to the bar 
 about 1826. In 1832 he was elected to Parliament by 
 the Whigs of Devonport. He was appointed judge- 
 advocate general in 1839, and entered the cabinet of 
 Lord John Russell as home secretary in 1846. Having 
 retired with his party in 1852, he was appointed to the 
 same office by Palmerston in 1855, and resigned in 1858 
 when Lord Derby became premier. In July, 1861, he 
 again obtained the office of home secretary, which he 
 resigned in June, 1866. 
 
 Grey, (Henry George,) third Earl, the eldest son 
 of Charles, the second Earl Grey, was bom in Decem- 
 ber, 1 802. He was appointed under-secretary of state 
 for the colonies in 1830, and resigned in 1833. From 
 May, 1835, to August, 1841, he was secretary at war 
 under Lord Melbourne. He became an able parlia- 
 mentary debater. He succeeded to the earldom in 
 1845, before which he was styled Lord Howick. In 
 1846 he was appointed colonial secretary by Lord John 
 Russell. He retired from office on the defeat of the 
 Whig ministry in 1852. 
 
 Grey, (Lady Jane,) daughter of Henry Grey, Mar- 
 quis of Dorset, and Frances Brandon, granddauglXer 
 of Henry VII., was born in 1537. She early manifested 
 extraordinary talents and a passionate love of learning, 
 and, according to her tutor, Roger Ascham, spoke and 
 wrote Latin, Greek, French, and Italian with the greatest 
 ease. At the early age of sixteen she wrote excellent 
 Latin; "but the matter of her letters," says Froude, 
 "is more striking than the language, and speaks more 
 for her. than the most elaborate panegyrics of admiring 
 courtiers." (See "History of England," vol. vi. chap, 
 xxx.) She was married in 1553 to Lord Guilford Dud- 
 ley, son of the Duke of Northumberland. The latter, 
 in concert with Lady Jane's father, then Duke of Suffolk, 
 prevailed upon Edward VI. to settle the crown upon 
 Lady Jane Grey, to the exclusion of his sisters Mary 
 and Elizabeth. The crown being offered to her after 
 the death of Edward, she at first refused, but at length 
 yielded to the authority of her father and the solicita- 
 tions of her. husband. Ten days later, the people having 
 declared for Mary, Lady Jane and her husband were 
 sent to the Tower, and, after an imprisonment of several 
 months, were executed in February, 1554. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England :" Sir N. H. Nicolas, "Me- 
 moir', and Literary Remains of Lady Jane Grey," 1825: D. W. 
 Baktlett, "Life of Lady Jane Grey," 1853; George Howard, 
 " Ladv Jane Grey and her Times." 
 
 Grey or Gray, (Nicholas,) born in London in 1590, 
 became headmaster of Eton in 163L He was the author 
 of a Latin-and-English Dictionary. Died in 1660. 
 
 Grey, (Richard,) an English clergyman, born at 
 Newcastle in 1694, became rector of Kincotc and preb- 
 endary of Saint Paul's. He published, besides other 
 works, "The Art of Memory," ("Memoria Technica," 
 1730.) Died in 1771. 
 
 Grey, (Zachary,) an English divine, born in York- 
 shire in 1687, became vicar of Saint Peter's, Cambridge. 
 He edited Butler's " Hudibras," (1744,) and published 
 several theological and controversial works. Died in 
 1766. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( JJ^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GRET 
 
 1084 
 
 GRIFFITH 
 
 Grey, de. See De Grey and Ripon. 
 
 Gribaldi, gRe-bal'dee, (M atteo,) a learned Italian 
 jurist and legal writer, born in Piedmont, was succes- 
 sively professor of law at Pisa, Toulouse, and Padua. 
 About 1550 he became a Protestant. Died in 1564. 
 
 See Baylk, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Tiraboschi, 
 " Storia della Letteratnra Italiana." 
 
 Gribeauval, gRe'bo'vtl', (Jean Baptiste Vaquette 
 — vi'Uet',) a distinguished French general and military 
 engineer, was born at Amiens in 17 15. He entered the 
 Austrian army in 1757, and rendered very important 
 services to Maria Theresa during the Seven Years' war. 
 Among these the defence of Schweidnitz, in 1762, against 
 Frederick the Great, deserves especial mention. He was 
 made lieutenant-general in 1765. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Gaucher de Passac, " Precis sur M. de Gribeauval." 1816. 
 
 Griboyedof, Griboyedov, or Gribojedow, gre- 
 bo-ya'dof, (Alexander Sergievitch,) a celebrated Rus- 
 sian poet and dramatist, born at Moscow about 1795. 
 Having served for a time in the army, he was sent as 
 minister plenipotentiary to Persia in 1828. In February, 
 1829, the populace of Teheran, incensed against the Rus- 
 sian embassy, attacked their house and assassinated the 
 minister, together with the Russians who were his com- 
 panions. His principal work, entitled " The Misfortunes 
 of Genius," (" Gore ot Uma,") is the most popular 
 comedy in the language, and is so universally admired 
 that many of its sentences have become proverbs. 
 
 See E. Mestcherski. " Les Poe'tes Russes." 
 
 Grid'ley, (Jeremiah,) an eminent American lawyer, 
 born about 1705, became attorney-general of Massachu- 
 setts. He defended in 1761 the writs of assistance, which 
 were obnoxious to the popular party. Died in 1767. 
 
 Gridley, (Philo,) an American jurist, born in Paris, 
 Oneida county, New York, in 1796, was elected a judge 
 of the supreme court of New York in 1846. Died in 1864. 
 
 Gridley, (Richard,) General, a brother of Jere- 
 miah, noticed above, was born in Boston in 171 1. He 
 served as engineer in the war against the French, and 
 became chief engineer of the American army in 1775. 
 He was wounded at Bunker Hill in June of that year. 
 Died in 1796. 
 
 Griebner, gReep'ner, or Gribner, gRip'ner,(M iciiael 
 Heinrich,) a German jurist, born at Leipsic in 1682, was 
 professor of law at Wittenberg. Died in 1734. 
 
 Griepenhielm. See Figrelius. 
 
 Griepenkerl, gRee'pen-keRl', (Roiskrt,) a Swiss lit- 
 terateur, born at Hofwyl in 1810, wrote, besides other 
 works, two tragedies, "The Girondists," and "Maxi- 
 milian Robespierre." 
 
 Grier, greer, (Robert Coop'er,) a distinguished 
 American jurist, born in Cumberland county, Pennsyl- 
 vania, in 1794. He graduated at Dickinson College, in 
 which institution he is said to have acted as principal 
 before he had reached the age of twenty-one. He after- 
 wards studied law, and rose to be a justice of the supreme 
 court of the United States, (1846.) He resigned in 
 February, 1870, and died in September of the same year. 
 
 See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Grier'son, (Constantia,) an Irish lady, eminent for 
 her talents and learning, born in the county of Kilkenny 
 in 1706. She was an accomplished classical scholar, and 
 was also well versed in philosophy and the exact sciences. 
 She published valuable editions of Tacitus and Terence, 
 and was the author of a number of poems. Died in 1733. 
 
 See Cibber's "Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Gries, gReess, (Johann Dietrich,) a German poet and 
 litterateur, born at Hamburg in 1775. His "Phaeton," 
 a poem, published about 1798, led to his acquaintance 
 with Schiller, who inserted it in the "Musenalmanach." 
 He translated Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," and the 
 "Orlando Furioso" of Ariosto, from the Italian, and 
 Calderon's dramas from the Spanish. Died in 1842. 
 
 Griesbach, gReess'b&K, (Johann Jakob,) a German 
 theologian and celebrated biblical critic, born at ButZ- 
 bach, Hesse-Dar nstadt, in 1745. Having studied at 
 Tubingen, Halle, and Leipsic, he devoted himself chiefly 
 to the revision of the Greek text of the New Testament. 
 He became professor of theology at Halle in 1773. In 
 1775 he published his excellent edition of the Greek 
 
 New Testament. The text established by him has been 
 generally adopted. He was chosen professor of divinity 
 in Jena in 1776. He published, in Latin, many critical 
 works, among which is "Symbolae Criticae," etc., (1 785— 
 93 ;) and in German, an " Introduction to the Study of 
 the Popular Christian Dogmas," (" Populare Dogmatik" ) 
 ( > 7 79. ) which is his most celebrated work. Died in 1812. 
 See J. C. W. August!, " Ueber J. J. Griesbach's Verdienste," 
 1812 ; F. A. Kothe, "Gedachtnissredeauf J. J. Griesbach nebsteiner 
 Skizze seines Lebens," 1812; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Griesheim, von, fon gReess'hTm, (Karl Gustav 
 Julius,) a Prussian general, born at Berlin in 1798. He 
 published several military works. 
 
 Griffen-feld or Gri'ffenfeldt, (Peter Schuiima- 
 Cher,) Count of, a Danish statesman, born at Co- 
 penhagen in 1635, rose, through various offices, to be 
 president of the supreme tribunal and chancellor of 
 the University of Copenhagen. His haughtiness and 
 abuse of power having made him many enemies, he 
 was charged in 1676 with treasonable negotiations with 
 foreign courts, and was imprisoned twenty-seven years. 
 Died in 1699. 
 
 See C. P. Rothe, " Griffenfelds Liv og Levnet," 1745; Gies- 
 sing, " Gritfenfeld ; en histoii.sk Fremstilling," 1S46. 
 
 Griffet, gRe'fi', (Henri,) a learned French Jesuit, 
 born at Moulins in 1698, wrote numerous theological 
 and historical works. Died in 1771. 
 
 Griffet de la Beaume, gne'fi' deh If bom, (Antoine 
 Gilbert,) a nephew of the preceding, born at Moulins 
 in 1756, wrote, among other works, a comedy entitled 
 "Galatea." Died in 1805. 
 
 Griffier, griffeer, (John,) the Elder, an eminent 
 Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam in 1656. He resided 
 for a time in London, where he died in 1718. Among 
 his master-pieces are several views on the Rhine, and 
 a " View of the Seven Castles," in Germany. His land- 
 scapes rival in beauty those of Teniers and Ruysdael. 
 
 Griffier, (Robert,) the Younger, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in England in 1688. He was distin- 
 guished, like his father, for his exquisite landscapes and 
 river- views. Died about 1750. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands. Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Griffin or Griffon. See Gryphon. 
 
 Griffin, (Charles,) an American general, born in 
 Ohio about 1826, graduated at West Point in 1847. He 
 became a captain in the regular army early in 1861, and 
 a brigadier-general of volunteers about April, 1862. He 
 commanded a division at the battles of Gaines' Mill and 
 Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862, and served under General 
 Grant in his operations against Richmond in the summer 
 of 1864. He commanded a corps at F'ive Forks, April I, 
 1865. Died at Galveston in September, 1867. 
 
 Griffin, (Rev. Edmund Dorr,) an American Episco- 
 palian divine, born at Wyoming, Pennsylvania, in 1804. 
 He died in 1830, leaving " Literary Remains," which 
 were published in 2 vols., with a Memoir by the Rev. 
 John McVickar, (1831.) 
 
 See "North American Review" for January, 1832. 
 
 Griffin, (Edward Dorr,) D.D., an American Pres- 
 byterian divine and eminent pulpit orator, born in East 
 Haddani, Connecticut, in 1770, graduated at Yale in 1790. 
 He was for some time professor of sacred rhetoric in the 
 Theological Seminary at Andover, and in 181 1 became 
 pastor of the Park Street Church, Boston. It was here 
 that he delivered his well-known " Park Street Lectures" 
 on the doctrines of Calvinism. In 1815 he accepted the 
 presidency of Williams College. Died in 1837. 
 
 See Spragur, " Life of E. D. Griffin," 1839. 
 
 Griffin, (Gerald,) an Irish novelist, born at Lim- 
 erick in 1803. He was the author of "Holland Tide, or 
 Munster Popular Tales," (1827,) "The Collegians," and 
 other works. Died in 1840. 
 
 Griffith, (Elizabeth,) a writer of fiction, born in 
 Wales in 1750, published conjointly with her husband, 
 Richard Griffith, a popular work, entitled "Letters of 
 Henry and Francis," (1756.) Mrs. Griffith also wrote a 
 number of novels and comedies, and "The Morality of 
 Shakespeare's Dramas Illustrated." Died in 1793. 
 
 Griffith, (Sir Richard John,) a geologist, born in 
 Dublin in 1784. He was a civil engineer in early life, 
 
 a, e, 1, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GRIFFITH 
 
 1085 
 
 GRIMBALD 
 
 and became professor of geology in Dublin. About 1850 
 he was appointed chairman of the board of public works 
 of Ireland. He published a Geological Map of Ireland. 
 
 Griffith, (William,) M.D., an English naturalist, 
 borr in 1810. He went to India as a surgeon about 
 1832, and spent much time in exploring the botany of 
 that region. He wrote several treatises for scientific 
 jou.-nals, and made large collections of plants and ani- 
 mals. Died in Malacca in 1845. 
 
 Griffiths, (Ralph,) an English journalist, born in 
 Shropshire about 1720, founded in 1749 the "Monthly 
 Review" in London. Died in 1803. 
 
 Griffon. See Gryphon. 
 
 Grignan, de, deh gRen'yoN', (Framboise Margue- 
 rite de Sevigne — deh sa'ven'yi',) Comtesse, a French 
 lady, distinguished for talents and beauty, born in 1648. 
 She was a daughter of the celebrated Madame de Sevigne, 
 who addressed to her the " Letters" so widely known 
 and so generally admired. Madame de Grignan was 
 the author of a " Summary of the System of Fenelon 
 on the Love of God." Died in 1705. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "M^moires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Grigoletti, gRe-go-Iet'tee, (Michelangelo,) an Ital- 
 ian painter, born at Pordenone in 1801, became professor 
 in the Academy of Venice in 1839. Among his works 
 is a celebrated picture of " The Last Interview between 
 the Foscari," (1838.) 
 
 Grijalva, de, da gRe-Hll'vJ, (Juan,) a Spanish navi- 
 
 fator, and the discoverer of Mexico, born at Cuellar. 
 le sailed on a voyage of discovery in 15 18, and arrived 
 first at the island of Cozumel, (called by him Santa Cruz,) 
 in the Bay of Yucatan. He gave to Mexico the name 
 of New Spain. 
 
 See Prfscott, "History of the Conquest of Mexico;" A. de 
 Soli-, " Historia de la Conquista de Mexico." 
 
 Grill, gRil, (Claudius,) a learned Swede, born at 
 Stockholm in 1705, was one of the first members of the 
 Academy of Sciences in his native city. Died in 1767. 
 
 Grillet, gRe'yi', (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born about 
 1630, was one of the first missionaries to Guiana. He 
 published/after his return, an account of Guiana, which 
 is still esteemed. Died about 1675. 
 
 Grillet, gRe'yi', (Jean Louis,) a historical writer, 
 born in Savoy in 1756. He was one of the founders of 
 the College of Carouge, near Geneva, which admitted 
 Catholics, Protestants, and Jews without distinction. 
 Died in 1812. 
 
 Grillo, gitel'lo, (Don Angelo,) a learned Genoese 
 nobleman, born about 1550, was a friend of the poet 
 Tasso, and was patronized by the popes Urban VIII. 
 and Alexander VII. Died in 1629. 
 
 Grillparzer, gRil'paRt-ser, (Franz,) a German dram- 
 atist, born in 1790 at Vienna, where he appears to have 
 since resided. Among his best productions are "The 
 Waves of the Sea and of Love," a tragedy founded on 
 the story of Hero and Leander, and another, called 
 "Sappho," which was translated into Italian. 
 
 See " Fraser*s Magazine" for August, 185s. 
 
 Grimaldi, gRe-mal'dee, (Antonio,) a Genoese ad- 
 miral, of a noble family, captured several vessels from 
 the Catalonians in 1332, but was defeated in 135,3 by the 
 Spanish and Venetian fleet under Niccolo Pisani. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Carlo,) surnamed the Great, Prince 
 of Monaco, was commander of the Genoese fleet against 
 the Flemings in 1338. He was mortally wounded at the 
 battle of Crecy, in 1346. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Constantino,) a Neapolitan jurist and 
 philosopher, born in 1667. He is chiefly known from 
 his controversy with Benedictis on the doctrine of Aris- 
 totle, and published an able defence of the Cartesian 
 philosophy. Died in 1750. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Domenico,) a Genoese prelate, who, being 
 appointed by the pope commissary-general of the galleys 
 of the Church, took an active part in the battle of Le- 
 panto in 1 57 1. He afterwards became Archbishop and 
 Vice-Legate of Avignon. Died in 1 592. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Domenico,) Marquis, an Italian writer 
 on rural and political economy, born at Seminara in 
 1735; died in 1805. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Francesco,) an Italian architect, botn in 
 the kingdom of Naples about 1550. Among his best 
 works are the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, and 
 the chapel of San Januario, at Naples. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Francesco,) a Neapolitan Jesuit and 
 Latin poet, born about 1678; died in 1738. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Francesco Antonio,) an Italian jurist 
 and historian, born in Calabria in 1740, wrote "Annals 
 of the Kingdom of Naples." Died in 1784. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Francesco Maria,) an Italian Jesuit and 
 natural philosopher, born at Bologna in 1618 or 1619. 
 He wrote a valuable work entitled " Physico-Mathesis de 
 Lumine, Coloribus," etc., (1665,) being an account of his 
 experiments and discoveries relating to the interference 
 of rays of light. He is said to have been the discoverer 
 of the diffraction of light. Died in 1663. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita: Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Mon- 
 tucla, " Histoire des Mathematiques." 
 
 Grimaldi, (Giovanni,) Prince of Monaco, a Genoese 
 admiral, who signally defeated the Venetians in 143 1. 
 Died in 1454. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Giovanni Francesco,) a celebrated Ital- 
 ian painter of landscapes and architectural pieces, sur- 
 named il Bolognese, born at Bologna in 1606, was a 
 pupil of the Caracci. He was employed by Louis XIV. 
 and Cardinal Mazarin to paint in the Louvre, and was 
 patronized by Pope Innocent X. Died in 1680. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Grimaldi, gre-mal'dee, (Joseph,) a celebrated comic 
 actor, born in England in 1779. He performed the part 
 of a clown with success in London. Died in 1837. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Joseph Grimaldi," edited by Boz. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Onorio,) Prince of Monaco, born in 1597, 
 was created Duke of Valentinois by Louis XIII. of 
 France, and obtained many other distinctions. He wrote 
 "Genealogica et historica Grimaldiae Gentis Arbor," 
 being a history of the Grimaldi family. Died in 1662. 
 
 Grimaldi, (Ranieri,) Prince of Monaco, a leader 
 of the Guelph faction, entered the service of Philippe 
 le Bel in 1302, and rose to be admiral of France. He 
 gained a victory over the Flemish fleet in 1304, and took 
 prisoner Guy de Namur, son of the Count of Flanders. 
 
 Grimaldo, de, da gRe-mal'no, (Don Jose Gutie- 
 rez de Solorzano — goo-tea'rSth da so-loR-tha'no,) 
 Marquis, a Spanish minister of state, born in Biscay in 
 1664. He was secretary of the marine and of war, and 
 afterwards chief minister, of Philip V. Died in 1733. 
 
 Grimani, gRe-ma'nee, (Antonio,) a Venetian noble- 
 man, born in 1436. He was appointed in 1499 procu- 
 rator of Saint Mark, and captain-general of the fleet sent 
 against the Sultan Bayazeed, (Bajazet.) He was elected 
 Doge of Venice in 1521. He died in 1523. 
 
 See Daku, " Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Grimani, gRe-ma'nee, (Hubert,) a Dutch painter, 
 sometimes called Jacobs, was born at Delft in 1599. He 
 studied in Venice, and was a good colorist. Died in 1629. 
 
 Grimani, (Marino,) became Doge of Venice in 1595. 
 Under his rule an expedition was fitted out against the 
 pirates of the Adriatic Sea. Died in 1605. 
 
 Grimani, (Pietro,) succeeded Ludovico Pisani as 
 Doge of Venice in 1741. He died in 1752, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Francesco Loredano. 
 
 Grimarest, de, deh gue'mt'rj', (Jean Leonor le 
 Gallois — leh gi'lwl',) Sieur, a French littlrateur, born 
 in Paris, was noted for witticisms and anecdotes. He 
 wrote, besides other works, a " Life of Moliere," (1705.) 
 Died in 1720. 
 
 Grimaud, de, deh gRe'mS', (Jean Charles Margue- 
 rite Guii.laume,) a French physician, born at Nantes 
 in 1750, became professor in the Medical University 
 of Montpellier. He wrote an " Essay on Irritability,'' 
 and other valuable works. Died in 1789. 
 
 Grimauld. See Urban V. 
 
 Grim'bald, written also Grimbold and Grimoald, 
 (Nicholas,) an English poet, was one of the first among 
 his countrymen who wrote in blank verse. " As a writer 
 of verses in rhyme," says Warton, " he yields to none 
 of his contemporaries for a masterly choice of chaste 
 expression and the concise elegancies of didactic versi- 
 fication." He was also the author of a Latin tragedy, 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; 5 as t; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GRIMKE 
 
 1086 
 
 GRINNELL 
 
 entitled "John the Baptist," and made several transla- 
 tions from the Greek and Latin. Died about 1563. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry." 
 
 Grinike, grim'ke, (Frederick,) an American judge, 
 of Huguenot descent, born in Charleston, South Caro- 
 lina, in 1 791, removed to Ohio. He wrote "The Nature 
 and Tendency of Free Institutions," (1848.) 
 
 Grimke, (Thomas Smith,) LL.D, an American jurist 
 and philanthropist, a brother of the preceding, was born 
 in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1786. He graduated 
 at Vale in 1807. He was widely known for his efforts 
 in behalf of peace, religion, and education. A volume 
 of his Addresses on these and other subjects was pub- 
 lished at New Haven in 1831. Died in 1834. 
 
 Grimm, gRlm, (Friedrich Melchior,) Baron, a 
 witty German writer, born at Ratisbon on the 25th of 
 December, 1723. Having accompanied Count Schon- 
 berg to Paris, he became acquainted with Rousseau, 
 Baron Holbach, and other celebrated persons, and at- 
 tracted general admiration by his elegant accomplish- 
 ments and conversational talent. When the war broke 
 out in the musical world between the partisans of the 
 French composer Rameau and the Italian musicians. 
 Grimm espoused the cause of the latter. He was the 
 head of the queen's party, called "Coin de la Reine" 
 from their assembling in the pit under the queen's box, 
 while the "Coin du Roi," the French party, took their 
 station under the box of the king. About this time he 
 published a spirited and witty satire, entitled "Le petit 
 Prophete de Boemischbroda," (1753,) and soon after his 
 " Lettres sur la Musique Franchise," in which he gained 
 a complete victory over his antagonists. After becoming 
 secretary to the Duke of Orleans, he wrote, in conjunc- 
 tion with Diderot and the Abbe Raynal, his literary 
 bulletins, containing acute criticisms on French litera- 
 ture. Catherine of Russia appointed him her minister at 
 Hamburg in 1795. He died at Gotha in December, 
 1807, leaving " Correspondance litteraire, philosophique 
 et critique," which was published by J. Taschereau, (15 
 vols., 1829-31.) 
 
 See Taschereau, " Notice sur Grimm," prefixed to this edition ; 
 Madame d'Ilpinay, "Memoires;" Rousseau, "Confessions;" 
 Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi;" Sainte-Beuve et LlMAV- 
 rac, "Gazette litteraire de Grimm: Histoire, LiueVature, Philosophie, 
 1753-90. Eludes sur Grimm," Paris, 8vo, 1854; " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie G^neVale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for March and October, 
 1813, and July, 1814; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1813. 
 
 Grimm, (Jakoh Ludwig,) an eminent German jurist 
 and philologist, born at Hanau on the 4th of January, 
 1785. He studied law at Marburg, under Savigny. He 
 was secretary of legation to the Congress of Vienna in 
 1S14, and shortly after was sent to Paris to reclaim the 
 manuscripts which had been taken away from Prussia 
 by the French under Napoleon. In 1830 he obtained 
 a professorship at Gottingen, and was also made libra- 
 rian. He was deprived of that chair in 1837 for his 
 liberal political principles. In 1841 he was invited to 
 Berlin, where he was elected to the Academy of Sci- 
 ences. He wrote " Legal Antiquities of Germany," (1828,) 
 "History of the German Language," (1848,) and "Ger- 
 man Mythology," all of which are esteemed standard 
 works. He also published a German Grammar, and 
 editions of " Reinhart Fuchs" and other fables of the 
 middle ages. The " Kinder- und Hausmahrchen," writ- 
 ten conjointly with his brother Wilhelm Karl, enjoy 
 great popularity, and have been frequently translated. 
 Died in Berlin in September, 1863. 
 
 See I. Schmidt, "Geschichte der Deutschen National-literatur 
 im neunzehnten Jahrhundert ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" 
 "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1832, and July, 1838; 
 " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 184a 
 
 Grimm, (Ludwig Emil,) a German painter and en- 
 graver, younger brother of the preceding, was born at 
 Hanau in 1790. He became, in 1832, professor in the 
 Academy of Painting at Cassel. Died in 1863. 
 
 Grimm, (Wilhelm Karl,) an eminent linguist, a bro- 
 ther of the preceding, was born at Hanau in 1786. He 
 was associated in the literary labours of his brother Jakob 
 Ludwig, whom he accompanied to Gottingen in 1830, 
 and subsequently to Berlin, where he became a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences. He published editions 
 of the " Hildebrandslied," "Grave Ruodolf," "Rolands- 
 
 lied," and other German poems of the middle ages; also 
 a translation of "Old Danish Hero-Ballads," a treatise 
 "On German Runic Inscriptions," and one "On German 
 Traditions." He was engaged with his brother Jakob 
 Ludwig on a large and very complete German Dic- 
 tionary, of which two volumes appeared in 1859. Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 Grimmelshausen, von, fon gRim'mels-how'zen, 
 (Christoffel,) a German writer, born in Hesse-Cassel 
 about 1625, produced a romance entitled "Simplicissi- 
 mus," (1669,) a work of superior merit. Died in 1676. 
 
 Grimmer, guirn'mer, or Grimaar, gRee'miR, (Ja- 
 cob,) a Flemish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in 
 1 5 10; died in 1546. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Grim'o-ald, son of Pepin the Elder, mayor of the 
 Austrasian palace, succeeded his father in that office in 
 642 A.D. King Sigebert died in 656, leaving a son, Dago- 
 bert, whom Grimoald sent to a monastery, and attempted 
 to make his own son king. He was soon after arrested 
 and put to death by order of Clovis. 
 
 Grimoald III., Duke of Benevento, succeeded his 
 father on the throneof Lombardy in 787 A.D. He was at 
 first tributary to Charlemagne ; but he soon renounced 
 his allegiance, and carried on a vigorous and successful 
 warfare against that monarch and his successor Pepin. 
 
 See SlSMONnr, " Histoire des Francais. " 
 
 Grimoard, de, deh gRe'mo'tR', (Philippe Henri,) 
 Comte, a French general and historical writer, born at 
 Verdun about 1750. He published a "Theoretic Essay 
 on Battles," (1775,) "Life and Reign of Frederick the 
 Great," (178S.) and other works. Died in 1815. 
 
 Grimod de la Reyniere, gite'mo' deh IS r|'ne>a,iR', 
 (Alexandre Balthasar Laurent,) a witty and eccen- 
 tric French writer, born in Paris in 1758. His " Alma- 
 nach des Gourmands" (8 vols., 1803-12) made a great 
 sensation throughout Europe. His zeal to promote what 
 Montaigne styled " the science of the palate" induced him 
 to establish a jury, who held monthly sessions, to decide 
 on the merits of particular dishes. Died in 1838. 
 
 Grimoud, Grimou, or Grimoux, gRe'moo', (Alex- 
 is,) a Swiss painter, born in the canton o<~ Fribourg 
 about 1688. His works are chiefly portraits and domestic 
 scenes, and are highly esteemed. Died about 1740. 
 
 See Fuessm, " Geschichte der besten Kunstler in der Schweiz." 
 
 Grim'shawe, (Rev. Thomas Shuttleworth,) an 
 English clergyman, born at Preston in 1777. He pub- 
 lished a " Life of the Rev. Legh Richmond," and " Life 
 and Works of Cowper," (1836.) Died in 1850. 
 
 Grim'stone or Grim'ston, (Sir Harhottle,) a 
 noted English lawyer, born in Essex about 1596. He 
 favoured the cause of the Parliament, but opposed the 
 execution of the king. He was one of the commis- 
 sioners who waited upon Charles II. at Breda; and he 
 was afterwards appointed master of the rolls. Died 
 in 1683. 
 
 See Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion;" Burnet, " His- 
 tory of his Own Time." 
 
 Grin'dal, (Edmund,) an English prelate, born in 
 Cumberland in 1 5 19, rose to be Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in 1575. He was distinguished for-learning and 
 piety, and was a contributor to Fox's "Acts and Monu- 
 ments," (" Dook of Martyrs.") Died in 1583. 
 
 See Strype's " Life of Grindal." 
 
 Grin'field, (Edward W.,) an English clergyman and 
 biblical critic, born about 1784. He published, under 
 the title of " Novum Testamentum Graecum," (4 vols., 
 1843-48,) a work designed to show the close connection 
 of the Greek Testament with the Septuagint ; also other 
 works on theology. Died in 1864. 
 
 Gringore, gRaN'goR', or Gringoire, gRaN'gwlR', 
 (Pierre,) one of the early French dramatists, born in 
 Lorraine about 1475, produced a play entitled "The 
 Prince of Fools and the Foolish Mother," said to have 
 been written, at the instigation of Louis XII., to ridicule 
 Pope Julius II. Died about 1544. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. i., 1853. 
 
 Grin-nell', (Joseph,) an American merchant, born at 
 New Bedford, Massachusetts, in 1788. He acquired a 
 large fortune by trade in New York city, and became a 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GRINNELL 
 
 1087 
 
 GROLMAN 
 
 resident of New Bedford abou*. 1830. He was elected a 
 memljer of Congress about 1843, and re-elected several 
 times. 
 
 Grinnell, (Moses,) an American merchant, a brother 
 of the preceding, was born at New Bedford in 1S03. He 
 became the head of the firm of Grinnell, Mintum & Co., 
 New York. He represented a district of New York in 
 Congress for one term, (1839-1841.) He was one of 
 the most liberal contributors to Dr. Kane's Arctic ex- 
 pedition, (1853—55.) I" '869 he was appointed collector 
 of the port of New York. 
 
 Gripenhielm. See Figrelius. 
 
 Gria-aunt', (William,) a learned English astronomer 
 and physician, lived about 1350. Being accused of magic, 
 he took refuge in France, where he acquired a high repu- 
 tation in his profession. He wrote "Speculum Astrolo- 
 giae," and other scientific works. 
 
 Gris'com, (John,) I.L.D., an American educationist, 
 a member of the Society of Friends, was born in Salem 
 county, New Jersey, in 1774. He was for more than a 
 quarter of a century an eminent teacher in New York, 
 whither he removed in 1807. Among other things, he 
 was chiefly instrumental in organizing the Society for 
 the Prevention of Pauperism and Crime, which was the 
 parent of many important reform movements. He was 
 one of the first to introduce lectures on philosophy, 
 chemistry, geology, etc., and, with Dr. Mott, Dr. Francis, 
 and others, organized Rutgers Medical College, (New 
 York,) in which he was made professor of chemistry and 
 natural philosophy. "For thirty years," says Dr. Francis, 
 " Dr. Griscom was the acknowledged head of all other 
 teachers of chemistry among us." Died in 1852. He 
 was author of "A Year in Europe," (2 vols., 1823.) 
 
 See a " Memoir of John Griscom," by his son, John H. Griscom. 
 
 Griscom, (John Hos'kins,) a physician, a son of the 
 preceding, was born in New York in 1809. He became 
 professor of chemistry in the New York College of Phar- 
 macy in 1836. He wrote, besides other works, "The 
 Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Classes of New 
 York," and "The Uses and Abuses of Air," etc., (1850.) 
 
 Grisebach, gRee'zeh-baK, (August Heinrich Ru- 
 dolph,) a German botanist, born at Hanover in 1814, 
 became professor at Gottingen about 1847. Among his 
 works are a "Journey through Roumelia," ( 1 84 1 , ) and 
 "Outlines (Grundriss) of Systematic Botany," (1854.) 
 
 Griselda, gRe-zel'da, Griseldis, gRe-zel'dis, or 
 Gris'la, the heroine of a popular romance of the middle 
 ages, was, according to Italian tradition, the wife of 
 Walter, Marquis of Saluzzo, who, in order to test her 
 virtues, treated her for a time with great unkindness. 
 Her patience and constancy triumphed over all ; and her 
 story has formed the subject of several works by cele- 
 brated writers, including Chaucer, who introduced it into 
 his " Canterbury Tales," and Boccaccio, who has remod- 
 elled it in his "Decameron." It was also translated 
 into Latin by Petrarch, and dramatized by Hans Sachs. 
 
 GriBi, gRee'See, (Giulia,) (Madame Melcy,) a cele- 
 brated Italian vocalist, born at Milan in 1810, performed 
 with distinguished success in the principal cities of 
 Europe, and visited the United States in 1854. She 
 had been married in 1836 to M. Girard de Melcy. Died 
 at Berlin in 1869. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Grisoni, gRe-so'nee, (Giuseppe,) a Florentine painter 
 of history, landscapes, and portraits. Died in 1769. 
 
 Gris'wold, (Alexander Viets,) D.D., was born in 
 Simsbury, Connecticut, in 1766. He was ordained as 
 a pastor in the Episcopal Church in 1795. Upon the 
 formation of the new diocese comprising the States of 
 Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Rhode 
 Island, in 1810, Dr. Griswold was elected the first bishop. 
 He succeeded Bishop White as presiding bishop in 1836. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 See J. S. Stone, "Life of Bishop Griiwold." 
 
 Griswold, (Roger,) an American statesman, born in 
 Lyme, Connecticut, in 1762, graduated at Yale College 
 in 1780. Elected to Congress in 1794, he was for many 
 years a leader of the Federalists. In 1807 he became 
 judge of the supreme court of Connecticut, and in 181 1 
 was elected Governor of the State. Died in 1812. 
 
 Griswold, (Rufus Wn.MOT,)an American critic and 
 editor, born at Benson, Rutland county, Vermont, in 
 Februarys '815. He became in early life a Baptist min- 
 ister, and successively associate editor of "The New 
 Yorker," "Brother Jonathan," and "The New World." 
 He published a volume of Poems in 1841. He con- 
 tributed to the history of American literature several 
 valuable works, entitled " Poets and Poetry of America," 
 (1842; t6th edition, 1855,) "The Prose Writers of 
 America," (1846,) and "The Female Poets of America," 
 (1848.) These contain short biographies and critical 
 remarks. " His ' Prose Writers of America,' " says W. 
 H. Prescott, "will be an important contribution to our 
 national literature. The range of authors is very wide; 
 the biographical notices full and interesting. . . . The 
 selections appear to me to be made with discrimination, 
 and the criticism shows a sound taste, and a correct 
 appreciation of the qualities of the writers, as well as I 
 can judge." " In these sketches," says the " North Ameri- 
 can Review" for January, 1856, "we find reason to ad- 
 mire the author's impartiality and kindness. We have 
 been unable to find a single instance in which he has 
 suffered any of the usual grounds of prejudice to warp 
 his judgment or to scant his eulogy." Among his other 
 works is "The Republican Court; or, American Society 
 in the Days of Washington," with twenty-one portraits 
 of distinguished women, (1854.) He edited "The Inter- 
 national Magazine," (New York, 1850-52.) Died in the 
 city of New York in August, 1857. 
 
 See Horace Binnby Wallace, " Literary Criticisms and Literary 
 Portraits." 
 
 Gritti, gRet'tee, (Andrea,) born at Venice in 1454, 
 acquired a high reputation as a general in the war carried 
 on by the Venetians against the League of Cambrai, and 
 reconquered the towns of Brescia and Bergamo from 
 the French in 1512. Being afterwards made prisoner, 
 he signed a treaty of alliance between Louis XII. and 
 the Venetian republic. He was elected Doge in 1523. 
 Died in 1538. 
 
 See N. Barbarigo, "A. Gritti Principis Venetiarum Vita," 1793 ; 
 Daru, "Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Gro'cyn, (William,) an English philologist, born at 
 Bristol in 1442. About 1489 he visited Rome, where he 
 studied the Greek language, at that time little cultivated 
 in England. He was appointed after his return professor 
 of Greek at Oxford. He was an intimate friend of Eras- 
 mus, by whom he was highly esteemed. Died in 1519. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena; Oxonienses ;" Knight, " Life of Erasmus. '» 
 
 Groddeck, gRod'dek, (Ernst Gottfried,) a Ger- 
 man philologist, born at Dantzic in 1762, became a pro- 
 fessor at Wilna about 1804. He published "Elements 
 of the Literary History of the Greeks," (in Latin, 1811,) 
 and other similar works. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Malinowski, " Biographie de Groddeck," 1825. 
 
 Groddeck, (Gabriel,) a German philologist, born 
 at Dantzic in 1672 ; died in 1709. 
 
 Groen van Priiisterer, groon vin pRin'steh-rer, 
 a Belgian writer of the present age, published the " Ar- 
 chives of the House of Orange-Nassau," ("Archives de 
 la Maison d'Orange-Nassau.") 
 
 See Prescott, "History of Philip II.," vol. ii. book iii. 
 
 Groening. See Groning. 
 
 Grohmann, gRo'man, (Johann Gottfried,) a Ger- 
 man compiler, born in Upper Lusatia in 1763. He pub- 
 lished a "Dictionary of the Fine Arts," (2 vols., 1795,) 
 a "Biographical Dictionary," (7 vols., 1796-99,) and other 
 works, which were favourably received. Died in 1805. 
 
 Grolier or Grollier de Servier, gRo'le-4' deh seR'- 
 ve-a', (Jean,) Vicomte d'Aguisy, a French scholar and 
 patron of literature, born at Lyons in 1479, numbered 
 among his friends Erasmus and Budaeus. Died in 1565. 
 
 See Dibdin's " Bibliomania." 
 
 Grolman, von, fon gRol'mln, (Heinrich Dietrich,) 
 an eminent Prussian jurist, born at Bochum in 1740, 
 filled several important posts under Frederick the Great, 
 and became a member of the state council in 181 7. He 
 died in 1840, at the age of nearly a hundred years. 
 
 Grolman, von, (Karl Luinvio W11 helm,) a Ger- 
 man statesman and jurist, born at Giessen in 1775. He 
 was created chancellor of the university in 181 5, minister 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, %,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as t; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GROLMJN 
 
 1088 
 
 GROSSMJNN 
 
 of state about 1819, and in i82t president of the united 
 ministry, ( Vereinten Ministerien.) He published " Prin- 
 ciples of Criminal Jurisprudence," (1798,) and other 
 works. Died in 1829. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Grolmaii, von, (Karl Wilhelm Georg,) a brother 
 of the preceding, was born at Berlin in 1777. He served 
 as a general in the principal campaigns against the French 
 from 1806 till 1815. Died in 1843. 
 
 Groning or Groening, gRo'ning, (Johann,) an able 
 German publicist and jurist, born at Wismar in 1669. 
 He wrote valuable treatises on the law of nature and of 
 nations. Died after 1700. 
 
 Gronov. See Gronovius. 
 
 Gro-no'vl-us, or Gro'nov, ( A braham,) son of Jakob 
 Gronovius, noticed below, was born at Leyden in 1694. 
 He was librarian of the university in that city, and pub- 
 lished editions of Pomponius Mela, Justin, and Tacitus. 
 Died in 1775. 
 
 Gronovius, or Gronov, (Jakob,) an eminent philolo- 
 gist, son of Johann Friedrich, noticed below, was born at 
 Deventer in October, 1645. He was appointed in 1679 
 professor of belles-lettres at Leyden. He published in 
 1697 his " Dictionary of Greek Antiquities," ("Thesau- 
 rus Antiquitatum Grecarum," 13 vols.,) which ranks very 
 high among works of the kind. He also edited Polybius, 
 Aulus Gellius, Macrobius, and other classics. Died at 
 Leyden in 17 16. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires ;" Creuzer, "Zur Geschichte der 
 dassischen Philologie ;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Gronovius, or Gronov, (Johann Friedrich,) a cele- 
 brated German scholar and antiquary, born at Hamburg 
 in 161 1. In 1658 he became professor of history and 
 eloquence in the University of Leyden. He published 
 valuable editions of Statius, Tacitus, Livy, Seneca, and 
 other Latin classics. He also wrote a work entitled " De 
 Sestertiis," (1643,) respecting ancient Greek and Roman 
 coins, which is much esteemed. Died at Leyden in 1671. 
 He was distinguished for his critical sagacity, and was 
 one of the most profound Latin scholars of modern 
 times. 
 
 See " Daventria illustrata," Leyden, 1651 ; Wilkens, " Leben 
 des beriihmten J. F. Gronovii," 1723; Foppens, "Bibliotheca Bel- 
 gica;" Creuzer, "Zur Geschichte der classischen Philologie ;" 
 
 Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Gronovius, (Johann Friedrich,) an eminent natu- 
 ralist, a son of Jakob, noticed above, was born about 
 1690. He studied law, and became a magistrate of 
 Leyden. He published " Flora Virginica," (1743.) Rau " 
 wolfs " Flora Orientalis," (1755,) and other works. He 
 was a friend of Linnaeus. Died in 1760. 
 
 Gronovius, (Laukentius Theodorus,) a son of the 
 preceding, was a naturalist and a lawyer of Leyden. He 
 published " Library of the Animal and Mineral King- 
 doms," (." Bibliotheca Regni Animalis et Lapidei," 1740,) 
 and Clayton's "Flora Virginica." Died in 1777. 
 
 Gronovius, (Laurentius Theodorus,) a Dutch 
 antiquary and jurist, brother of Jakob, was born about 
 1660. He wrote " Emendatioiies Pandectarum," (" Emen- 
 dations of the Pandects," 1688,) and notes on Vibius 
 Sequester. 
 
 Gro'now, (Rees Howell,) Captain, a British writer 
 and officer, born in 1794. He served in the Peninsular 
 war, (1808-14,) and wrote "Recollections and Reminis- 
 cences," (2 vols., 1863.) Died in 1865. 
 
 Groot, gRot, (Gerard,) or Gerard the Great, a 
 celebrated theologian, reformer, and founder of religious 
 orders, was born at Deventer, Holland, in 1340. He was a 
 popular preacher, and formed associations of friars, whom 
 he employed in transcribing the Scriptures. They were 
 called "Brethren of the Common Life." Died in 1384. 
 
 See Hodgson's " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. 
 
 Groot, (Hugo.) See Grotius. 
 
 Gropper, gRop'per, (Johann,) a Roman Catholic 
 theologian, born in Westphalia in 1501. He wrote a 
 "Manual of the Christian Religion," (1546,) and several 
 works against the Protestants. Died at Rome in 1558. 
 
 Gros, gRo, (Antoine Jean,) an eminent French 
 painter, born in Paris in March, 1771, was a pupil of 
 David. He worked several years in Italy, and returned 
 home about 1802, after which he produced "The Plague 
 
 of Jaffa," "The Battle of Aboukir," (1806,) "The Battle 
 of Eylau," (1808,) "The Capture of Madrid by Napo- 
 leon," (1810,) "The Battle of Wagram," and numerous 
 good portraits. About 1824 he completed a large oil- 
 painting in the cupola of Sainte-Genevieve. This is 
 considered by some critics his master-piece. He was 
 found dead in the Seine, near Meudon, in June, 1835. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale;" J. B. Delestre, "Gros 
 et ses Ouvrages, ou Memoires historiques," etc., 1845. 
 
 Gros, (Etienne,) a French philologist, born at Car- 
 cassonne in 1797. He translated the works of Ovid, (5 
 vols., 1836,) part of Dion Cassius, (4 vols.,' 1845-55,) 
 and other classics. Died in 1856. 
 
 Gros de Boze. See Boze, de, (Claude Gros.) 
 
 Gros, lie. See Legros, (Nicolas and Pierre.) 
 
 Grose, (Francis,) an English antiquary, born in 
 Middlesex in 1731. He was the author of "Views of 
 Antiquities in England and Wales," (8 vols., 1787,) 
 "Military Antiquities," (2 vols., 1788,) a "Treatise on 
 Ancient Armour," etc., (1789,) "Antiquities of Scot- 
 land," (2 vols., 1790,) "Antiquities of Ireland," (2 vols., 
 1794,) and other works finely illustrated with his own 
 designs. Captain Grose was noted for his wit, good 
 humour, and conviviality, and was an intimate friend of 
 the poet Burns, who has mentioned him in his poems. 
 Died in 1791. 
 
 Grosier, gRo'ze-i', (Jean Baptiste Gabriel Alex- 
 andre,) Abbe, a - French critic, born at Saint-Omer 
 in 1743. He was assistant editor of Freron's "Annee 
 litteraire." He published, with Le Roux des Haute- 
 rayes, a "General History of China," (12 vols., 1777- 
 84.) Died in 1 823. 
 
 Grosley, gRo'lJ', (Pierre Jean,) a French lawyer 
 and facetious writer, born at Troyes in 1718. Among 
 his works is a "Life of Pithou." Died in 1785. 
 
 See "Vie -de Grosley," partly by himself, 1787; E. T. Simon, 
 "Notice sur la Vie de Grosley," 1786. 
 
 Gross, gRos, (Johann Gottfried,) a German publi- 
 cist, born in Baireuth in 1703, was for twenty-eight years 
 editor of the able "Gazette" of Erlangen, (1741-68.) 
 Died in 1768. 
 
 Gross, (Samuel D.,) M.D., an American surgeon, 
 born near Easton, Pennsylvania, in 1805. In 1856 he 
 was appointed professor of surgery in the Jefferson Medi- 
 cal College in Philadelphia. Among his publications we 
 may specify his "Elements of Pathological Anatomy," 
 (2 vols., 1839; 3d edition, 1857,) and his "System of 
 Surgery," (2 vols. 8vo, 1859.) He edited "American 
 Medical Biography," (1861.) 
 
 Grosser, gRos'ser, (Samuel,) a German philologist, 
 bom in Silesia in 1664. He wrote a work on logic, 
 entitled " Light-House of the Intellect," (" Pharus Intel- 
 lectus," 1697,) and other works. Died in 1736. 
 
 Grosseteste, gros'test, or Grost'head, [Lat. Cap'- 
 ito,] (Robert,) an eminent English prelate, was the 
 author of " Compendium Spherae Mundi," and several 
 other scientific treatises. He was made Bishop of Lin- 
 coln in 1235. 
 
 See S. Pecge, "Life of Robert Grosseteste," 1793; Milner, 
 " Church History." 
 
 Grossi, gRos'see, (Tommaso,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Bellano (province of Como) in 1791. Among his 
 works are "Ildegonda," (1820,) "G. Maria Visconti," a 
 tragedy, "The Lombards in the First Crusade," (1826,) 
 and "Marco Visconti," a historical romance, which has 
 been translated into English. " He is full of grace and 
 elegance," says the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" 
 "and these qualities do not exclude force, passion, and 
 elevation." Died at Milan in 1853. 
 
 See Cherubini, " I Poeti vemacoli." 
 
 Grossmann, gRoss'man, (Christian Gottlob Leb- 
 recht,) a learned German theologian, born at Priessnitz 
 in 1783, became professor of theology at Leipsic. He 
 founded in that city the Evangelical Union, called the 
 Gustavus Adolphus Institution. He published a treatise 
 "On the Reformation of the Constitution of the Prot- 
 estant Church," etc., and other works. 
 
 Grossmann, (Gustav Friedrich Wilhelm,) a Ger- 
 man dramatist and actor, born at Berlin in 1744. He 
 wrote, among other popular comedies, " Wilhelmine von 
 Blondheim," and " Only Six Plates." Died in 1796. 
 
 See GrXsse, "Geschichte der Deutsche!) Literatur." 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, 0, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
GROSTETE 
 
 1089 
 
 GROUCHT 
 
 Grostete or Grosteste, gRo'tit', (Claudk,) a French 
 Protestant theologian and writer, born at Orleans in 1647 ; 
 died in London in 1713. 
 
 Grosveuor, gro'ven-or or grov'^n-pr, or Grovenor, 
 (Benjamin,) born in London in 1675, was a popular 
 preacher among the Independents. lie was one of the 
 lecturers at Salters' Hall, London. Died in 1758. 
 
 Grote, (George,) an eminent English historian, of 
 German extraction, born near Beckenham, in Kent, in 
 1794. He was educated for the employment of a banker 
 by his father, one of the firm of Prescott, Grote & Co. in 
 London. His earliest literary productions were contri- 
 butions to the Westminster and Edinburgh Reviews, 
 and a treatise "On the Essentials of Parliamentary 
 Reform." In 1832 he represented London in Parlia- 
 ment, where he distinguished himself by the liberality 
 of his views. He was twice re-elected, but in 1841 re- 
 tired from public life. In 1846 he published the first 
 two volumes of his " History of Greece." The remaining 
 volumes, amounting in all to twelve, and ending at the 
 death of Alexander, appeared successively between 1847 
 and 1856. Mr. Grote, in the words of a critic in the 
 "London Quarterly," "unites the practical knowledge 
 of the British statesman with the erudition of a German 
 professor ;" and the same writer pronounces his " History 
 of Greece" "the most important contribution to his- 
 torical literature in modem times." He also published 
 " Plato and the other Companions of Socrates," (3 vols., 
 1865,) and a review of Stuart Mill's "Examination of 
 Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy," (1868.) Died in 
 1871. His wi e (originally Mrs. Harriet I.ewin) has 
 written a Life of Ary SchefTer, and other works. 
 
 See " London Quarterly " for June, 1846, April, 1850, July, 1856, 
 and January, 1866; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1846, Jan- 
 uary. 1S50,' July, 1S51, July and October, 1853, and April, 1866; 
 M nuiwt, " .Melanges lustoriques et iitteiaires." 
 
 Grotefend, gRo'teh-fent', (Friedrich August,) a 
 German philologist, nephew of Georg Friedrich, noticed 
 below, was born at Ilfeld in 1798; died in 1836. 
 
 Grotefend, (Georg Friedrich,) a German scholar 
 and antiquary, born at Munden in 1775. He was director 
 of the lyceum or gymnasium of Hanover for twenty-eight 
 years, (1821-49.) He published several valuable treat- 
 ises on the cuneiform writings of Persepoltsand Babylon, 
 and made contributions to Ersch and Grnber's " Ency- 
 clopaedia." He also wrote a work "On the Geography 
 and History of Ancient Italy," (1840-42.) He is said to 
 have been the first who deciphered the cuneiform in- 
 scriptions. Died in December, 1853. 
 
 Grothusen, von, fon gRot'hoo'zen, (Christian Al- 
 tsrecht,) Baron, a general, born probably in Germany. 
 He entered the service of Charles XII. of Sweden, of 
 whom he became a favoured companion, and treasurer. 
 He accompanied that king in his retreat into Turkey 
 in 1709. He was killed in battle in the island of Riigen 
 in 1 7 14. 
 
 Grotius, gro'she-us, orDe Groot, deli gRot, (Hugo,) 
 an eminent Dutch jurist and theologian, and one of the 
 most celebrated scholars of his time, was born at Delft, 
 April to, 1583. As a child he was remarkable for pre- 
 cocity of intellect, and is said to have written Latin verses 
 when but eight years of age. He studied at Leyden 
 under Joseph Scaliger and the theologian Junius, and 
 devoted himself to divinity, law, and mathematics. In 
 159S he accompanied a Dutch embassy to Paris, on 
 which occasion Henry IV. presented him with a golden 
 chain. Soon after his return, in 1590, he published edi- 
 tions of several classics, and wrote a Latin poem entitled 
 "Prosopopoeia," which was greatly admired and trans- 
 lated into French and Greek. In 1613 he obtained 
 the important post of pensionary of Rotterdam, which 
 gave him a seat in the Assembly of the States of Hoi- 
 Kind and in that of the States-General. Being sent to 
 England in 161 5 on some public business, he formed 
 the acquaintance of Isaac Casaubon. In 1618 he was 
 involved in the defeat and misfortune of the Liberal or 
 Arminian party, of which his friend Bamcveldt was the 
 leader. He was tried for treason, and unjustly con- 
 demned to perpetual imprisonment, and his property 
 was confiscated. In June, 1619, he was sent to the fort- 
 ress of Loevestein. He here devoted himself to study, 
 
 f. as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; Ih as in this. 
 
 69 
 
 and wrote, during his captivity, several works, among 
 which was his celebrated treatise "On the Truth of the 
 Christian Religion," ("De Veritate Religionis Chris- 
 tiana," 1627.) At the end of eighteen months, Grotius 
 escaped from his prison by means of a stratagem devised 
 by his wife, who had been permitted to share his con- 
 finement. He went immediately to Fiance, where he 
 was well received by Louis XIII., who granted him a 
 pension of three thousand livres. On the death of the 
 stadtholder Maurice, Grotius was persuaded by his 
 friends to return to Holland in 1631, but was again com- 
 pelled to leave it. In 1634 he was appointed councillor 
 to the Queen of Sweden by Chancellor Oxenstiern, and 
 her ambassador to the court of France. In 1645 he 
 repaired to Stockholm, where he was received with the 
 greatest favour by Queen Christina; but, soon becoming 
 weary of court life, he embarked for Lubeck in August. 
 After a stormy passage, he arrived at Rostock, very ill 
 from exposure and fatigue, and died on the 28th of 
 August, 1645. Grotius left numerous works on juris- 
 prudence, divinity, history, and poetry. Referring to 
 his theological w'orks, Leibnitz said that he preferred 
 Grotius to all other commentators. His treatise on 
 International Law,("De Jure Belli et Pads,") a work 
 of the greatest merit, has been translated into the prin- 
 cipal European languages. Among his historical pro- 
 ductions we may mention "The History of the Goths, 
 Vandals, and Lombards," "Belgian History and An- 
 nals," and "On the Origin of the American Tribes." 
 These were all written in excellent Latin. His Latin 
 poems comprise three tragedies and numerous lyrical 
 and elegiac compositions. Grotius was distinguished 
 for sincere piety, and his character combined mildness 
 with remarkable energy. 
 
 See Butler, " Life of H. Grotius;" Luden, " H. Grotius nacli 
 seinen Schicksalen unrt Schriften dargestellt," 1806; Levesque UK 
 Burignv, "Vie de H. Grotius," 1750, (and English version of the 
 same, London. 1754:) Bavie, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" 
 Caspar Brandt, " Historie van het Leven des Heeren H. de Groot," 
 : vols., 1727; G. F. Creuzer, "Luther und Grotius, oder Glaube 
 und Wisscnschaft," 1846; Niceron, "M^moires;" " Nouvelle Hio- 
 graphie GeneVale ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" 
 "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1860. 
 
 Grotius, (Pieter,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 in 1610. He was appointed in 1660 pensionary at Am- 
 sterdam, and was afterwards ambassador to Denmark, 
 Sweden, and France. Died in 1680. 
 
 Grotius, (Wii.lem.) a Dutch jurist, born at Delft in 
 1597, was a brother of the celebrated Hugo Grotius. He 
 was appointed advocate of the India Company in 1639. 
 He published several legal works in Latin. Died in 1662. 
 
 Gro'to or Grot'to, (Lunovico,) an Italian poet, 
 called "HCiecod'Adria," ("The Blind Man of Adria,") 
 was born at Adria in 154L He wrote numerous plays 
 and poems, which had a temporary popularity. Died 
 in 1585. 
 
 See GtNGUENi, " Histoire Litte'raire d'ltalie." 
 
 Grouchy, gRoo'she', or Grouche, gRoo'sha', [Lat. 
 Gru'ciiius,] (Nicolas,) a French scholar and Protestant, 
 born about 1520. He published, besides other works, 
 " De Comitiis Romanorum Libri ties," (1555,) and 
 "The Logic of Aristotle," (1558.) Died at La Rochclle 
 in 1572. 
 
 Grouchy, (Sophia.) See Condokcet. 
 
 Grouchy, de, deh gRoo'she', (Emmanuel,) Marquis, 
 a celebrated French general, born in Paris in 1766. He 
 entered the republican army about 1790, and as major- 
 general commanded the cavalry in the Campaign against 
 Savoy, (1792.) He was soon after sent against the Ven- 
 deans, whom he defeated in several engagements. He 
 served under Moreau in the campaign of Piedmont, 
 (1798,) and was severely wounded at the battle of Novi 
 and made prisoner by the Austrians. He was released 
 after a year's captivity, and, having joined the army of 
 Moreau, assisted in gaining the victory of Hnhenlinden. 
 He was conspicuous for his skill and courage in the 
 battles of Jena and Eylau, and at Fricdland, where he 
 commanded the cavalry. His services on this occasion 
 were mentioned by Napoleon with high commendation. 
 He was appointed governor of Madrid in 1808. In the 
 campaign of 1812, Napoleon gave a signal proof of his 
 confidence in Grouchy by placing him at the head of 
 
 (By~ See Explanations, p. 23.I 
 
GROV TELLE 
 
 1090 
 
 GR UN E IS EN 
 
 his " Sacred Battalion." His conduct in the engagements 
 of Brienne, La Rothiere, and Vauchamps won for him 
 the applause of the nation, and he was soon after made 
 a marshal, (1814.) On the iStli of June, 1815, while the 
 battle of Waterloo was in progress, General Grouchy, 
 who was stationed near Wavre, was urged by his officers 
 to march in that direction ; but he refused to disobey the 
 orders he had received from the emperor. He became 
 an exile in 1815, and was restored to the rank of mar- 
 shal in 1830. Died in 1847. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de rEmpire;" Jomini, 
 " Precis politique et militaire de la Campagne de 1815 ;" " Opinions 
 et Jugements de Napoleon;" Norvjns, " Histoire de Napoleon ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." ^%F~ Respecting the question of 
 Grouchy's responsibility for the defeat of Waterloo, see Lieut.-Col. 
 J. B. A. Chauras, "Histoire de !a Can)|>agne de 1815 — Waterloo," 
 Brussels, 2 vols. 8vo, 1S58, 5lh edition, 1863, (which ably and unan- 
 swerably refutes tile falsehoods of Napoleon and his admirers against 
 Grouchy and Ney ;) E. Qimket, " Histoire de la Campagne de 1815," 
 1862; Lieut.-Col. Chari.es C. Chesnev, "Waterloo Lectures," 
 186S; Pibrart, " Le Drame de Waterloo," 1868. 
 
 Grouvelle, gRoo'vel', (PHILIPPE Antoink,) a French 
 revolutionist and writer, born in Paris in 1758. As sec- 
 retary of the provisionary executive council in 1792, he 
 read to Louis XVI. the decree of the Convention which 
 condemned him to death. He was sent as minister to 
 Denmark in 1793, and in 1800 was elected to the legis- 
 lative body. He published a " Historical Memoir of the 
 Templars," etc., and other works. Died in 1806. 
 
 Grove, (Henry,) an English dissenting divine, born 
 in Somersetshire in 1683, wrote a treatise " On the Im- 
 mortality of the Soul," ( 1 7 1 8, ) and other religious works,' 
 which are highly commended by Doddridge. He was 
 director of an academy at Taunton. Died in 1738. 
 
 Grove, (Joseph,) an English writer, was an attorney 
 of Richmond. He was the author of the " Life and 
 Times of Cardinal Wolsey," (4 vols., 1742-44,) and other 
 works. Died in 1764. 
 
 Grove, (William Robert,) F.R.S.,an eminent Eng- 
 lish electrician and natural philosopher, born at Swansea 
 in July, 181 1. He graduated at Oxford in 1835, studied 
 law, and became a successful barrister. He devoted 
 much attention to physical science, in which he has made 
 important discoveries. He invented, about 1839, the 
 nitric-acid battery which bears his name, and effected 
 the recomposition of water by the battery. In a lecture 
 delivered in 1842 he maintained or suggested the doctrine 
 that heat, light, and electricity are mutually convertible, 
 and that heat is a mode of motion. This theory was 
 more fully developed in his "Correlation of Physical 
 Forces," (4th edition, 1862.) He received the medal of 
 the Royal Society in 1847, and was chosen vice-president 
 of that institution. He contributed to the " Philosophical 
 Transactions" numerous treatises on electricity, etc. 
 
 See Dr. F. Hoefer, article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Gene 1 - 
 rale." 
 
 Grovenor. See Grosvenor. 
 
 Gzo'ver, (Cuvier,) an American general, born at 
 Bethel, Maine, about 1830, graduated at West Point in 
 1850. He commanded a division of General Banks's 
 army at the capture of Port Hudson, July, 1863, and a 
 division under General Sheridan at the battle of Cedar 
 Creek, October 19, 1864. 
 
 Grow, (Galusha A.,) an American politician, born 
 in Windham county, Connecticut, in 1823. He studied 
 law, was admitted to the bar in 1847, and settled in Sus- 
 quehanna county, Pennsylvania. He represented the 
 fourteenth district of Pennsylvania in Congress from De- 
 cember, 1859, to March, 1863, and was chosen Speaker 
 of the House of Representatives by the Republicans in 
 December, 1861. 
 
 Grozetfer, gRoz'le-A', (Nicolas,) bom at Beaune, in 
 France, in 1692, published, besides other works, a "Col- 
 lection of Fables in Verse." Died in 1778. 
 
 Grubenmann, gRoo'ben-man', or Grubemann, 
 gRoo'beh-man', (Johann Ul.RiCH,) a Swiss architect 
 of the eighteenth century, born at Teufen. He built a 
 noble bridge over the Rhine at Schaffhausen, and an- 
 other at Reichenau. These were burned by the French 
 in 1799. 
 
 Gruber, gRoo'ber, (Gregor Maximilian,) a German 
 antiquary, born at Horn, in Austria, in 1739, was professor 
 of history at Vienna. He wrote, besides other works, a 
 
 "System of Diplomatics for Austria and Germany," 
 (1783.) Died in 1799. 
 
 Gruber, (Johann Daniel,) a German jurist and his- 
 torian, born in Franconia, wrote a work on the early 
 history of Livonia, (" Origines Livoniae," 1740.) Died 
 in 1748. 
 
 Gruber, (Johann Gottfried,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man scholar and miscellaneous writer, born at Naum- 
 burg in 1774. His essays "On the Literature of Ro- 
 mance," and his "Comparison of the Philosophy of 
 many Nations," won for him the regard of Wieland, 
 who chose him for his biographer. In 1815 he was 
 appointed professor of philosophy at Halle. He soon 
 after became engaged with Ersch in the publication of 
 the " Universal Encyclopaedia of Sciences and Arts," 
 ("Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," etc.,) extending to more 
 than one hundred volumes 4to. In 1818 he published 
 a complete edition of Wieland's works, accompanied by 
 a biography. He was also a contributor to the "Con- 
 versations-Lexikon" and to the "Universal Literary 
 Gazette." Died in 185 1. 
 
 Gruchius. See Grouchy, (Nicolas.) 
 
 Grudiu3. See Everard. 
 
 Grueneisen. See Gruneisen. 
 
 Gruenewald. See Grunewald. 
 
 Griiithuisen, groit'hoi'zen or HRoit'hoi'zen, (Franz 
 von Paula,) an astronomer, surgeon, and scientific 
 writer, born in 1774. He was the inventor of a sur- 
 gical instrument for performing lithotrity, for which 
 he received from the French Academy a prize of one 
 thousand francs. Died in 1852. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"nerale." 
 
 Grumbach, von, fon gRoom'baK', (Wilhelm,) a 
 German adventurer, born in 1503, was the leader of an 
 insurrection against the government, commonly called 
 "Grumbach's Rebellion." Having captured and plun- 
 dered the city of Wurzburg in 1563, he was put under the 
 ban of the empire, and in 1566 was taken and executed. 
 
 Griin, (Anastasius.) See Auersperg. 
 
 Grunaeus. See Gryn^us. 
 
 Grund, gRoont, (Johann Jakob Norbert,) a Ger- 
 man miniature-painter, born at Giinzenhausen in 1755, 
 became professor in the Academy of Florence. He wrote 
 " Painting among the Greeks, or the Rise, Progress, and 
 Decadence of Painting," (2 vols., 181 1.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Grundtvig, gRoont'vig, (Nicolai Frederik Seve- 
 RIN,) a distinguished Danish theologian, poet, and his- 
 torian, was born at Udby, in Seeland, in September, 
 1783. He published in 1808 " Mythology of the North," 
 ("Nordens Mythologie," revised edition, 1832,) which 
 treats the subject in a poetical and philosophical spirit. 
 He preached for some time at Copenhagen, and acquired 
 great influence as a theologian. In 1820 he was ap- 
 pointed pastor of Prastoe. He produced several poetical 
 and historical works, which, according to P. L Moller, 
 are characterized by sublime inspirations and mystical 
 tendencies. He became minister of a church of Copen- 
 hagen in 1839. Since 1848 he has been an active member 
 of the Diet and a leader of the Anti-German party. 
 
 See Howitt's " Literature and Romance of Northern Europe;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Grundtvig, (Sven HERSLEB,) a Danish writer, a son 
 of the preceding, was born at Christianshavn in 1824. 
 His favourite subjects are the songs and popular tradi- 
 tions of his country. Among his publications is "The 
 Ancient Popular Songs of Denmark," (2 vols., 1853-56.) 
 
 See Erslew, "Almindeligt Forfatter- Lexicon." 
 
 Grttn'd^, (Felix,) an American lawyer and Senator, 
 born in Berkeley county, Virginia, in 1777. He removed 
 to Nashville, Tennessee, about 1808, and in 181 1 was 
 elected a member of Congress, in which he supported 
 Mr. Madison's administration. He was chosen a Senator 
 of the United States in 1829, as a political friend of 
 General Jackson, and was re-elected in 1833. Fn 1838 
 he was appointed attorney-general of the United States. 
 Having resigned in 1840, he was again elected a Senator. 
 Died in December, 1840. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. 
 
 Gruneisen or Grueneisen, giuin'T'zen, (Karl,) a 
 German writer and divine, born at Stuttgart in 1802. 
 
 i. e, I, o, fi, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mgt; not; good; moon; 
 
GR UKER 
 
 1091 
 
 GUADET 
 
 He published a collection of popular songs, ("Lieder," 
 1823,) and other works. 
 
 Gruuer, gRoo'ner, (Christian Gottfried,) a Ger- 
 man physician, born at Sagait, in Silesia, in 1744, became 
 professor of botany at Jena. He published "Library 
 of Ancient Physicians," (2 vols., 1782,) and other medical 
 works. Hied in 1815. 
 
 See Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 
 Gruner, groo'ner, (Gottlieb Siegmund,) a Swiss 
 naturalist, born at Berne in 1717. He published a 
 "Description of the Swiss Glaciers," (3 vols., 1762,) and 
 other works. Died in 1778. 
 
 Gruner, (Johann Friedrich,) a German philologist, 
 born at Coburg in 1 723. He became professor of theology 
 at Halle, and wrote some theological works. He pub- 
 lished good editions of Eutropius, (1752,) Aurelius Victor, 
 (•7S7.) and Velleius Paterculus, (1762.) Died in 1778. 
 
 See Harlesius, "Vita Philologorum ;" Hirsching, "Histo- 
 nsch-literansches Handbuch." 
 
 Gruner, (Johann Gerhard,) a German historical 
 writer, born at Coburg in 1734; died in 1790. 
 
 Gruner, (Wilhelm Heinkich Ludwic,,) an eminent 
 German engraver, born at Dresden in 1801. He pub- 
 lished two splendid works, entitled " Fresco Decorations 
 and Studies," (1844,) and "The Decorations of the (Jar- 
 den Pavilion in the Grounds of Buckingham Palace," 
 with text by Mrs. Jameson, (1846.) In 1851 he was 
 employed in the decorations of the Crystal Palace in 
 London. Among his finest prints are "Christ on the 
 Mount of Olives," and several Madonnas, after Raphael. 
 Gruner, von, fon gRoo'ner, (Karl Justus,) a Ger- 
 man diplomatist, born at Osnabriick in 1777, entered the 
 Prussian civil service. About 1814 he was one of the 
 important agents of the allies. Died in 1820. 
 
 Grunert, gRoo'nert, (Johann August,) an able Ger- 
 man mathematician, born at Halle in 1797. He published 
 "Spheroidal Trigonometry," (1833,) and "Contributions 
 to Meteorological Optics and its Auxiliary Sciences." 
 (.850.) 
 
 Griiuewald or Gruenewald, gRii'neh-walt', (Mat- 
 THAUS,) a German painter, supposed to have been a 
 native of Aschaffenburg. Among his works is a " Cruci- 
 fixion," which displays great power. He was contempo- 
 rary with Albert DUrer, whom, in the opinion of many 
 critics, he nearly equalled. 
 
 Gru-pel'lo, de, (Gabriel,) a Belgian sculptor, born 
 at Grammont in 1644; died in 1730. 
 
 Grupen, gRoo'pen, (Christian Ulrich,) a German 
 antiquary and jurist, born at Harburg in 1692, wrote 
 treatises on mediaeval antiquities, etc. Died in 1767. 
 
 Gruppe, gRoop'peh, (Otto Friedrich,) a German 
 philosophical and critical writer, born at Dantzic in 1804, 
 became professor-extraordinary of philosophy in Berlin 
 in 1844. In his works entitled "Antaeus" and "The 
 Crisis of Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century" (1834) 
 he has assailed the system of Hegel. He wrote "Al- 
 boin," an epic, (1830,) and other poems. 
 
 Gruter, gRii'ter or HRii'ter, or Gruytere.gRit-e'taiR', 
 [Lat. Grute'rus,] (Jan,) an eminent scholar, was born 
 at Antwerp in 1560. He studied at Cambridge and Ley- 
 den, and subsequently filled various professorships in 
 Germany, at Wittenberg and Heidelberg. His greatest 
 work is entitled " Ancient Inscriptions of the Whole 
 World known to the Romans," (" Inscriptiones antiquae 
 tortus Orbis Romanorum," about 1602.) He also pub- 
 lished numerous editions of the classics, and "Lampas, 
 sive Fax Artium liberalium," being a collection of the 
 best critical and antiquarian treatises of the sixteenth 
 century. Died at Heidelberg in 1627. 
 
 See F. H. Flayder, "Vita Gniteri," iftjS; Bayi.e, "Historical 
 and Critical tfictionary :" Niceron, "Memoires;" Feux van 
 Hui-st, "Jean Gruytere," 1847; " Nouvelie Biographic Gencrale.'' 
 
 Gruter, (Pieter,) a Dutch physician and writer, born 
 about 1555. He published many Latin epistles, "Epis- 
 tolarum Centuria," (1609.) Died at Amsterdam in 1634. 
 
 Gry'l'lus, [Gr. r^r/Acc,] ason of Xenophon, was killed 
 at the battle of Mantinea, 362 B.C. According to tra- 
 dition, he killed Epaminondas at this battle. 
 
 Grynaeus, gRe-na'us, (Johann Jakob.) a theologian, 
 born at Bale in 1540, was a grand-nephew of Simon, 
 noticed below. He was professor of theology at Bale, 
 
 and wrote commentaries on Scripture, and other works. 
 Died in 1618. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires ;" J. J. Brunn, " Vir sanctus et in- 
 comnarabilis, hoc est Vita J. J. Gryruei," 1618. 
 
 Grynseus, (Samuel,) a Swiss jurist, son of the fol- 
 lowing, was born at Bale in 1539 ; died in 1599. 
 
 Gryneeus, (Simon,) a distinguished Protestant theo- 
 logian, born at Veringen, in Suabia, in 1493, was a 
 friend of Melanchthon and Erasmus. He became pro- 
 lessor of Greek at Heidelberg in 1523, removed to BSle 
 in 1536, and attended the conference at Worms in 1540. 
 He discovered the last five books of Livy, published the 
 "Almagest" of Ptolemy in Greek, (1538,) wrote several 
 works, and translated Plato into Latin. He published 
 in 1532 a cujious work, entitled "The New World of 
 Regions and Islands unknown to the Ancients," which 
 contains the narratives of Marco Polo and many other 
 travellers. Died at Bale in 1541. 
 
 See Melchior Adam, " Vitae Theologorum ;" Brucker, "His- 
 tory of Philosophy." 
 
 Gryph. See Gryphius. 
 
 Gryphius, gRee'fe-us or grife-us, or Gryph, gRif, 
 originally Greif, gRif, (Andreas,) a celebrated German 
 poet and dramatist, born in Silesia in 1616. Among his 
 principal works are the tragedies of "Leo Armenius," 
 "Cardenioand Celinda,"and " Carolus Stuartus," and a 
 very popular comedy, entitled " Peter Squenz." He is 
 regarded as the greatest dramatic poet of the seventeenth 
 century in Germany. His epigrams, lyrics, and spiritual 
 odes also possess great merit. He was an accomplished 
 linguist, and was well versed in mathematics and physical 
 science. Died in 1664. 
 
 See J. Hermann, " Ueber A. Grvphius ; literar-historischer Ver- 
 such," 1851 ; Caspar Knorr, "Gedachtniss A. Gryphii," 1665. 
 
 Gryphius, (Christian,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Fraustadt in 1649. His " History of the Orders 
 of Knighthood" (1697) is his best work. Died in 1706. 
 
 Gryphius, (Sebastian,) a learned and celebrated 
 printer, born in Suabia in 1493, settled at Lyons. Among 
 his publications was a Latin Bible, (1550.) Died at Lyons 
 in 1556. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Gryph'on or Griffon, [Lat. Gry'phus or Gryps, 
 (plural Gry'phes ;) Gr. Tpbtp; Fr. Griffon, gRe'f6N',] 
 i monster of the classic mythology, having the body 
 of a lion with the head and wings of an eagle. (See 
 Seemoorgh.) 
 
 Guadagni, goo-i-dan'yee, (Leopoldo Andrea,) an 
 Italian jurist, born at Florence in 1705 ; died in 1785. 
 
 Guadagnini, goo-a-dan-yee'nee, (Giambattista,) an 
 Italian ecclesiastic and controversial writer, born at Pia- 
 cenza about 1720 ; died in 1806. 
 
 Guadagnoli, goo-a-dan-yo'lee, (Filippo,) an Italian 
 Or.ientalist, born at Magliano about 1596. He became 
 professor of Arabic in the college di Sapienza at Rome. 
 He published " Institutiones Linguae Arabicoe," and an 
 "Apology for Christianity," etc., (in Latin,) which is 
 esteemed a standard work. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Gua de Malves, de, deh gSdeh milv, (Jean Paul,) 
 a French mathematician, born at Carcassonne in 1713, 
 became professor of philosophy in the College of Fiance. 
 He was a member of the Acaciemy of Sciences, and pub- 
 lished several scientific treatises. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Desessarts, " Siecles littevaires de la France." 
 
 Guadet, gS'di', (Marguerite Elie,) a French states- 
 man, and one of the principal leaders of the Giron- 
 dist party, was born near Bordeaux in 1758. He was a 
 deputy in 1791 to the Legislative Assembly, where, says 
 Lamartine, "he formed with Vergniaud and Gensonne 
 a tiiumvirate of talent, opinion, and eloquence." One 
 of his first acts was to accuse the French emigrants of 
 conspiracy against the government ; and in 1792 he sup- 
 ported the decree of accusation against the brothers of 
 the king, which was passed. He was soon after a deputy 
 from Bordeaux to the National Convention, where he 
 was conspicuous for his bold and vehement eloquence. 
 In common with his colleagues, he at last yielded to the 
 rage of the populace, and voted for the' death of the 
 king, after having appealed in vain to the people to sus- 
 tain them in their efforts to preserve his life. On the 
 
 e as*v 5 as s; g hard; g asy; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (jgf~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GUAGN1N0 
 
 1092 
 
 GUDENOF 
 
 downfall of his party, Guadet took refuge with his friends, 
 near Bordeaux, where he was discovered, and was exe- 
 cuted in that city in July, 1794. 
 
 See Lamaktine, "History of the Girondists;" Thiers, "His- 
 tory of the l-'rench Revolution;" "Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Guagnino, goo-an-yee'no, (Ai.essandro,) a historian, 
 was born at Verona in 1548. He served in the Polish 
 army against the Russians, and wrote a " History of Po- 
 land," ("Rerum Polonicarum Libri tres," 1574,) which 
 is praised for accuracy and elegance. Died in 1614. 
 
 See Aoelung, " Uebersicht der Reisenden in Russland bis 1700." 
 
 Gualaiidi,goo-a-lan'dee, (Michelangelo,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Bologna in 1793. He published a 
 valuable work on the fine arts, entitled " Memorie origi- 
 nali Italiani risguardanti le belle Arti," (3 vojs., 1840-45.) 
 
 Gualdim-Paes, gwal-deeN' pa-es', a Portuguese 
 ecclesiastic, born at Braga, founded, about 1160, the 
 magnificent monastery of Thomar. Died in 1 195. 
 
 Gualdo-Priorato, goo-al'do pue-o-ra'to,(G aleazzo,) 
 Count of Coniazzo, an Italian soldier, diplomatist, and 
 historian, born at Vicenza in 1606. lie served succes- 
 sively 'under Maurice, Prince of Orange, Count Mans- 
 feld, and Wallenstein, and was afterwards sent on various 
 important missions. He wrote a " History of the Wars 
 of Ferdinand H. and Ferdinand III.," a "History of 
 Wallenstein," (1643,) and other works. Died in 1678. 
 
 See M. A. Zorzi, "Vita di Gualdo-Priorato," in the "Opuscoli 
 scientific!, " Venice, 1728; " Nouvelle Biographic Genevale." 
 
 Gualterus, gwil-ta'rus, sometimes written Gualther, 
 (Rudoi.k,) a Swiss divine, born at Zurich in 1518, was 
 a son-in-law of Zwingle. He became first minister of 
 Zurich, and wrote several popular works. Died in 1586. 
 
 Gualtieri, (Giovanni.) See Cimahue. 
 
 Gualtieri, goo-al-te-a'ree, (Niccol6,) an Italian phy- 
 sician and naturalist, born in Tuscany in 1688, was pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Pisa. Died in 1744. 
 
 Guarco, goo-ai<'ko, (Antoniotto,) a son of Niccolo, 
 noticed below, became Doge of Genoa in 1394. He was 
 assassinated at Pavia about 1404. 
 
 Guarco, (Niccoi.6,) was elected Doge of Genoa in 
 1378. Under his rule a war was carried on between the 
 Genoese and the Venetians. Died in 1383. 
 
 Guardi, goo-aii'dee, (Francesco,) a painter, born at 
 Venice in 1712, was a pupil and successful imitator of 
 Canaletto. He painted Venetian scenery and architecture'. 
 Died in 1793. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Guarienti, goo-i-re-en'tee, Guariento, goo-i-re-en'- 
 to, or Guariero, goo-a-re-a'ro, written also Guareute, 
 an Italian painter, who lived about 1360-90. He painted 
 the hall of the Grand Council at Venice, which in 1508 
 was renewed by Tintoretto. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Guarin, gfraN', (Pierre,) a French ecclesiastic and 
 distinguished Orientalist, born in Normandy in 1678. 
 He published "Grammatica Hebraica et Chaldaica," 
 and other valuable works. Died in Paris in 1729. 
 
 Guarini, goo-a-ree'nee, (Camillo Guariiio — goo-a- 
 ree'no,) an Italian architect, born at Modena in 1624. 
 Among his works are the Chapel Royal at Turin, and 
 the Convent of the Theatines at Modena. Died in 1683. 
 
 See Quatrembre de Quincv, "Vies des plus celebres Archi- 
 tectes." 
 
 Guarini, (Giamhattista,) son of Guarini da Verona, 
 noticed below, became professor of Greek at Ferrara, 
 and numbered among his pupils Aldus Manutius and 
 Giraldus. He wrote a treatise "On the Sect of Epi- 
 curus," (" De Secta Epicuri,") and other works in Latin, 
 and made translations from Demosthenes, Dion Chrys- 
 ostom, and Saint Gregory Nazianzen. Died in 1513. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Sloria della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Guarini, (Giamhattista,) a celebrated Italian poet, 
 born at Ferrara December 10, 1537. He became pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric in his native city about 1560. and was 
 afterwards patronized by Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara, who 
 made him a chevalier and employed him in various 
 diplomatic missions. For these services he received 
 little except empty honours. He published in 1590 his 
 " Pastor Fido," a pastoral tragi-comedy, in verse, which 
 met with brilliant success and was translated into the 
 
 principal languages of Europe. Guarini was the authot 
 of other dramas, and of a number of sonnets and mad- 
 rigals. He was a friend of the poet Tasso. Died in 
 Venice in 1612. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Ginguens, 
 "Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie ;" Apostolo Zeno, "Vita del Guarini,' 
 in the "Galleria di Minerva;" Longfki.i.ow, "Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe ;" Nicekon, " M^moires;" " Lives of the Italian Poets, 
 by Rev. Henry Stebbing, London, 1831. 
 
 Guarini da Verona, goo-a-ree'nee di vi-ro'na, 
 [Lat. Vari'nus,] one of the restorers of classical litera- 
 ture in Italy, born at Verona in 1370. He studied Greek 
 at Constantinople under Chrysoloras, and brought with 
 him on his return a valuable collection of manuscripts. 
 He afterwards became professor of Greek at Florence 
 or Verona, being, it is said, the first Italian who publicly 
 taught that language. He made a Latin translation of 
 the first ten books of Strabo, and of portions of Plutarch 
 Died in 1460. 
 
 See Rosmini, "Vita e Disciplina di Guarini Veronese," etc., 3 
 vols., 1805 ; Uavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, 
 " Memoires ;" Paolo Giovio, " Elogia Virorum iUustrium." 
 
 Guarino. See Favorinus. 
 
 Guarnacci, goo-aR-nat'chee, (Mario,) an Italian prel- 
 ate and antiquary, born at Volterra in 1 701, published, 
 among other works, a "Dissertation on the Twelve 
 Tables." Died in 1785. 
 
 Guarnieri-Ottoni, goo-aR-ne-a'ree ot-to'nee, (Aure- 
 lio,) an Italian antiquary, born at Osimo in 1748, wrote 
 a work on the Claudian Way, etc. Died in 1788. 
 
 Guasco, da, da goo-as'ko, (Ottaviano,) a writer, 
 born at Pinerolo, in Piedmont, in 1712, published a 
 work entitled "Satires of Prince Cantemir," etc., also 
 an " Essay on the State of Sciences in France under 
 Charles VI.," etc. Guasco was an intimate friend of 
 Montesquieu. Died in 1781. 
 
 Guaspre, Le. See Dughet. 
 
 Guatemozin, gwi-te-mo'zin, or Quah-te-mot'zin, 
 son-in-law and successor of Montezuma, Emperor of 
 Mexico, was the last prince of the Aztec dynasty. After a 
 brave defence of his capital against the Spaniards, he was 
 forced to capitulate, and was taken prisoner. He was then 
 cruelly tortured, by order of Cortez, to compel him to 
 reveal where the treasures of the empire were concealed. 
 Being afterwards unjustly accused of exciting his sub- 
 jects to rebellion, he was put to death without any form 
 of trial, in 1522. "Among all the names of barbarian 
 princes, there are few entitled to a higher place on the 
 roll of fame than Guatemozin. He was called to the 
 throne in the convulsed and expiring hours of the mon- 
 archy, when the banded nations of Anahuac and the 
 fierce European were thundering at the gates of the 
 capital. No one can refuse his admiration to the intrepid 
 spirit which could prolong a defence of his city while one 
 stone was left upon another; and our sympathies for the 
 time are inevitably thrown more into the scale of the rude 
 chieftain thus battling for his country's freedom, than 
 into that of his civilized and successful antagonist." 
 (Prescott's "Conquest of Mexico," vols. ii. and iii.) 
 
 Guay, gi, (Jacques,) a French gem-engraver, born at 
 Marseilles in 1 71 5 ; died in 1787. 
 
 Guay-Trouin. See Duguay-Trouin. 
 
 Guazzesi, goo-at-sa'see, (Lorenzo,) an Italian litte- 
 rateur, born at Arezzo in 1708. He published several 
 historical works. Died in 1764. 
 
 Guazzo, goo-at'so, (Marco,) an Italian poet and 
 litterateur, born at Padua about 1496; died in 1556. 
 
 Guazzo, (Stefano,) an Italian poet and essayist, 
 born at Casali in 1530; died in 1593. 
 
 Gubbio, da, da goob'be-o, (Oderigi,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Gubbio, near Perugia, was a friend of 
 Dante, who mentions him with honour in his great poem. 
 He worked at Bologna, and was distinguished as a 
 painter of missals and miniatures. Died about 1300. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Gubitz, goo'bits, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German 
 engraver and litterateur, born at Leipsic in 1786. He 
 wrote several dramas, and other works. 
 
 Gude. See Gudius. 
 
 Gudelinus. See Goudf.lin. 
 
 Gudenof. See Godoonof. 
 
 a, i, T, o, vi,y,loiig ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, o, obseure;Rr, fill, fat; mjt; not; gd"6d; mfion; 
 
GUDIN 
 
 io 9 j 
 
 GUERCINO 
 
 Gudin, gii'daN', (Jean Antoine Theodore,) a cele- 
 brated marine painter, born In Paris in 1802, was a pupil 
 pfGirodet. Among his best world are "The Storm in 
 the Bay of Algiers," a " View of Constantinople," " The 
 Shipwreck," and a "View of Gibraltar." 
 
 Gudin de la Brenellerie, gii'daN' deh It bReh-neTre', 
 (Paul Philippe,) a French dramatic poet, born in Paris 
 in 1738. He published a number of tragedies, and a 
 mock-heroic poem entitled "The Conquest of Naples 
 by Charles VIII." Died in 1812. 
 
 See " Notice sur Gudin de la Brenellerie," Paris, 1812. 
 
 Gudin de la Sablonniere, gu'diw' deh It st'blo'- 
 nejjiK', (Cesar Charles Etienne,) Count, a French 
 general, bom at Montargis in 1 768. He distinguished 
 himself at Eylau, (1807,) Eckmuhl, and Wagram, (1809,) 
 and was killed at Volutina-Gora, in Russia, in 1S12. 
 
 Gudius, goo'de-iis, or Gude, goo'deh, (Gottlob 
 Friepkich,) a German minister and writer, born at 
 Lauban in 1701 ; died in 1756. 
 
 See Mkissnbr, " Gedachtnissrede auf Gude," 1756. 
 
 Gudius or Gude, (Marquard,) a German philolo- 
 gist and antiquary, bom at Kensburg in 1635, became 
 councillor to the King of Denmark. He collected many 
 manuscripts and Greek and Latin inscriptions, which 
 were published in 173 1. Died in 1689. 
 
 Gudmundsson, good'moond'son, (Thorgejr,) a dis- 
 tinguished scholar and antiquary of Iceland, bom in 
 1794, was one of the founders of the Society of Northern 
 Antiquaries at Copenhagen in 1845. 
 
 Gudmundus, good-mdon'das, (Andreas,) a learned 
 Icelander, wrote several antiquarian works, and a "Lexi- 
 con Islandico-Latinum." Died in 1654. 
 
 Guebriant, de, deh gi'bRe'o.N', (Jean Baptiste 
 Budes — bud,) Comte, a French marshal, born in Brit- 
 tany in 1602. He served with great distinction in Ger- 
 many during several campaigns of the Thirty Years' 
 war, and in 1641 gained a signal victory over the Imperial 
 troops al Wolfenbuttel. He was made a marshal in 1642. 
 He was mortally woutided at Rothweil in 1643. 
 
 See Le Laboukeur, " Histoire du Marechal de Guebriant," 1657. 
 
 Guebrinot, de, (Renee du Bee-Crispin — du bek'- 
 kReVpaN',1 wife of the preceding, was appointed in 
 1643 ambassadress-extraordinary to the King of Poland, 
 being, it is said, the first woman who ever acted in that 
 capacity independently of her husband. Died in 1659. 
 
 See " Leltres de Madame de Gue'briant a la Princesse-Palatine 
 Anne de Gonzague." 
 
 Guedier de Saint- Aubin, gl'de-i' deh saN'to'baN', 
 (III n u 1 Michel,) a French theologian, born at Gournay- 
 en-Bray in 1695. He wrote "The Sacred History of 
 the Two Covenants," (7 vols., 1741.) Died in 1742. 
 
 Gueel y Rente, Hal e len'ta, (Don Jose,) a Spanish 
 writer and statesman, born at Havana about 1820. He 
 studied in Spain, became a deputy to the Cortes about 
 1854, and was re-elected in 1857. He had married in 
 1848 the Infanta Joscfa, sister of the King of Spain. I le 
 has published poems entitled "Tears of the Heart" 
 (" I^agrimas del Corazon") and "Sorrows of the Heart," 
 (" Amarguras del Corazon,") and "Thoughts Moral and 
 Political." 
 
 Guelf, Guelph, gwelf, or Welf, <v6lf, the name of a 
 noble family in Germany, the founder of which lived in 
 the time of Charlemagne. 
 
 Guelfo, gwel'fo, Welfo, or Guelf II. flourished in 
 the eleventh century. He was engaged in a contest 
 with the emperor Conrad II., which was the beginning 
 of the long strife between the Dukes of Bavaria and the 
 German emperors. 
 
 Guelfo IH. was created Duke of Carinthia by the 
 emperor Henry III. as a reward for his services in the 
 war with the Hungarians. Died about 1055. 
 
 Guelfo IV., called the Great, was made Duke of 
 Bavaria by Henry IV., but subsequently took up arms ' 
 against him. After alternate victories and defeats, a 
 peace was concluded in 1097. Died about 1120. 
 
 Guelfo V. succeeded his father, Guelfo IV., as Duke 
 
 of Bavaria. He married Matilda, the heiress of Tuscany, 
 
 and widow of Godfrey, Duke of Lorraine. After she 
 
 had made a donation of her domains to the Church of 
 
 , Guelfo returned to Germany, where he took part 
 
 tttt 
 
 with Henry V. in his quarrel with his father, Henry IV. 
 Died about n 20. 
 
 Guelfo VI, nephew of Guelfo V., and son of Henry 
 the Black, was born in 1115. Having embraced the cause 
 of his nephew, Henry the Lion, in"" his contest with the 
 emperor Conrad III., he was defeated by that sovereign 
 at Weinsbergin 1140. It was on this occasion that the 
 war-cry of Guelphs (or Welfs) and Ghibelines was first 
 used, the latter name being derived from Waiblingen, 
 the seat of the Hohenstaufen family at Wurtemberg. 
 Died in 1191. The popes having taken sides with the 
 Guelphs, the names of Guelph and Ghibeline were used 
 to designate the parties of the emperor and the pope. 
 
 See ElCH horn, "Urgeschicluedes Hausesder Welfen ;"Sismondi, 
 " Histoire des Re"publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Guenard, ga'ntK', (Ei.lsaiikth,) Baronne de Mere, a 
 romance-writer, born in Paris in 1751 ; died in 1829. 
 
 Gueneau de Montbeliard, ga'no'deh m6N'ba'lg-5R', 
 (PhiLIBERT,) an eminent French naturalist, born at 
 Semur-en-Auxois in 1720. He was an intimate friend 
 of Buffon, and prepared the ornithological department 
 for his great work ; he was also a contributor to the 
 "Encyclopedic," and wrote an "Abridgment of the His- 
 tory and the Memoirs qf the Academy of Sciences," (4 
 vols., 1770.) Died in 1785. 
 
 See Qcerard, " La France LitteYaire." 
 
 Guenee, ga'ni', (Antoine,) an eminent French eccle- 
 siastic and controversial writer, born at Etampes in 171 7, 
 was for many years professor of rhetoric in the college Du 
 Plcssis in Paris. In 1785 he obtained the abbey of Loroy, 
 in the diocese of Bourges. He wrote a very able work, 
 entitled " Letters of some Portuguese, German, and 
 Polish Jews to Voltaire," etc., in which he defends the 
 Old Testament against Voltaire, clearly convicting him 
 of contradictions and of ignorance. Died in 1803. 
 
 See Qcekard, " La France LitteYaire." 
 
 Guenzi, goo-Sn'zee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian poet and translator, born in 1713; died in 1753. 
 
 Guepin, ga'pafc', (Augusts,) a French writer and 
 physician, born at Pontivy about 1805. His chief work 
 is "The Philosophy of Socialism," (1850.) 
 
 Guerard, ga'rtii', (Benjamin Edme Charles,) a 
 French antiquary, born at Montbard in 1797. He was 
 an assistant librarian in the Royal Library of Paris, and 
 published treatises on the social state of France in the 
 middle ages. Died in 1854. 
 
 Guerard, (ROBERT,) a French Benedictine monk, 
 born at Rouen about 1641. He published an "Abridg- 
 ment of the Bible," (1707.) Died in 1715. 
 
 Guerazzi, goo-a-rit'see or goo-e>-at'see, or Guer- 
 razzi, (FRANCESCO Domenico,) an Italian writer and 
 Liberal statesman, born at Leghorn in 1805. In 1848 
 he was appointed president of the cabinet and minister 
 of the interior by the grand duke Leopold II. He was 
 the author of the "Siege of Florence," ("Assedio di 
 Firenze,") and other historical romances, and an " Apol- 
 ogy for the Political Life of F. D. Guerazzi," (1851.) 
 
 See "Memorie di F. D. Guerrazzi," 1848, written by himself. 
 
 Gueiohin. See Gukrcino. 
 
 Guerchois, le, leh geK'shwa', (Madei.Enf.,) a French 
 lady, eminent for her talents and piety, born in Paris in 
 1679, was a sister of Chancellor D'Aguesseau. She wrote 
 "Christian Reflections on the Historical Books of the 
 Did Testament." Died in 1740. 
 
 Guerchy, de, deh geVshe', (Claude Francois 
 Louis Regnikr,) Comte, a French general, born in 
 1715, served in Flanders under Marshal Saxe, and par- 
 ticularly distinguished himself at Fontcnoy and Hasten- 
 beck, (1757.) He was afterwards ambassador to London. 
 Died in 1767. 
 
 See " Inures et Memoires du Marechal de Saxe." 
 
 Guercino, gw^R-chee'no or goo-eVchee'no, [Fr. 
 Guerchin, geVshaN',| (Giovanni 1m Bar- 
 
 bieri— bau-be-a'ree,) called GUKRCINO l>.\ Onto, a 
 celebrated Italian painter, born at Cento, near Bologna, 
 in 1590. He at first painted in the style of lit 
 but Tie afterwards adopted that of Caravaggio. Among 
 his master-pieces are "The Death of Dido," "Santa 
 Petronilla," in the Capitol at Rome, "Aurora," a fresco 
 in the Villa I.udovisi, a "Saint William," and "Angels 
 
 ; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as t; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 73.) 
 
GUERET 
 
 1094 
 
 GUESS 
 
 weeping over the Dead Body of Christ." Guercino was 
 an intimate friend of Guido Reni. He worked many 
 years at Cento, from which he removed to Bologna in 
 1642. His works are mostly oil-paintings, and include 
 about a hundred altar-pieces. Died at liologna in 1666. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Cacvi, ." Notizie 
 della Vita e delle Opere di G. F. Barbieri," jSoS; Domhnico C. 
 Mora, "Vite di Benvenuto Tisio e di G. F. Barbieri." 1S42: 
 Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres;" Bryan, "Dictionary 
 of Painters." 
 
 Gueret, geh-ri', (Gahriei.,) a French lawyer and 
 miscellaneous writer, born in Paris in 1641. Among his 
 principal works are his "Conversations on the Eloquence 
 of the Pulpit and the Bar," " Parnassus Reformed," and 
 "War of the Authors." Died in 168S. 
 
 See Querard, "La France I.itteraire." 
 
 Guericke, ger'rik-keh, (Hkinrich Ernst Fekdi- 
 NANJJ.) a German theologian, born at Wettin, in Prus- 
 sian Saxony, in 1803, published a "Manual of Church 
 History," (1833,) and other works. 
 
 Guericke, von, fon ger'ik-keh or ga'rik-keh, (Otto,) 
 a celebrated German savant and experimental philoso- 
 pher, born at Magdeburg in 1602. Having studied ma- 
 thematics and mechanics at Leyden, he visited France 
 and England. After his return, he was made in 1646 
 burgomaster of Magdeburg. In 1650 he invented the 
 air-pump, of which he made the first public experiment 
 before the Diet at Ratisbon in 1651. Having fitted 
 together two large hollow hemispheres made of copper 
 and brass, with strong rings attached to them, to which 
 horses were harnessed, he exhausted the air from the 
 globe; and it was only after the number of horses was 
 increased to upwards of thirty that the parts were sepa- 
 rated. He was also the inventor of the instrument 
 called Guericke's Weather Mannikin, which was used, 
 before the invention of the barometer, to denote the 
 changes of the weather. He published in 1672 a work 
 entitled "New Magdeburgian Experiments, as they are 
 called, relating to a Vacuum," (*' Experiments Nova, ut 
 vocant, Magdeburgica, de vacuo Spatio.") Died in 1686. 
 
 See Fontenelle, " FJoges historiques des Academiciens;" 
 Jochkr, " Allgenieines Gelehrten-LexiUon." 
 
 Guerin, gi'riN', (Adoi.phe Claude,) Colonel, a 
 French officer, born at Mortagne in 1805, served in seve- 
 ral campaigns in Algeria as chief of engineers. He sub- 
 sequently 'distinguished himself in the Crimean war, 
 and was killed in June, 1855, at the siege of Sebastopol, 
 where he had rendered important services as chief of the 
 staff of engineers. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Guerin, (Francois,) a French scholar, born in Tou- 
 raine in 1681, translated Livy and Tacitus into French. 
 Died in 1751. 
 
 Guerin, (Gili.es,) an able French sculptor, born in 
 Paris in 1606. He was employed in the decoration of 
 the Louvre. Among his chief works is a statue of Louis 
 XIV. Died in 1678. 
 
 Guerin, (Fean Baptiste Paulin,) a French painter, 
 born at Toulon in 1783, worked at Paris. Among his 
 productions are " Adam and Eve driven from Eden," 
 (1827,) and a "Holy Family," (1829.) Died in 1S55. 
 
 Gueriu, (JOSEPH Xavier,) a French physician and 
 naturalist, born at Avignon in 1775. Among his works 
 are a " Panorama of Avignon and Vaucluse," (1S29,) and 
 " Meteorologic Observations," (1839.) Died in 1850. 
 
 Guerin, (Jules,) a French physician, born at Boussu 
 (Belgium) in 1801. He studied and afterwards resided 
 at Paris. He gave special attention to malformations 
 of the feet, and wrote an able treatise on Orthopedy, (16 
 vols., 1837,) which gained the prize of the Academy of 
 Paris, 
 
 Guerin, (Nicolas Francois,) a French scholar and 
 writer, born at Nancy in 17H ; died in 1782. 
 
 Guerin, (Pierre Narcis.sk, ) Baron, an eminent 
 French painter, born in Paris in 1774, was a pupil of 
 Regnault. He produced about 1800 "Marcus Sextus" 
 and " Phedre et Hippolyte," which had great popularity. 
 His subjects are mostly antique, and his style is classic. 
 His chief merits are purity of contour, good taste in 
 details, and harmony of colour. He was director of the 
 French Academy at Rome from 1822 to 1828. Among 
 
 his works are "Aurora and Cephalus," (1810,) "Dido 
 listening to /Eneas," (i8i7,)and a "Clytemnestra." He 
 died at Rome in 1833. 
 
 See Quatre.meke ue Quincv, " Notice sur la Vie de P. Guerin," 
 1833; " Nouvelie Biographic Gindrale." 
 
 Guerin, de, deh gi'raN', (Eugenie,) a French writer, 
 born at the chateau Du Cayla, in Languedoc, in 1805. 
 She was endowed with rare intelligence, and was an 
 example of deep and fervent piety. Her life may be 
 said to have been absorbed in her brother Maurice, to 
 whom she was intensely devoted. She died in May, 
 1S48, leaving a Journal and Letters, which were pub- 
 lished in 1863. "Her Journal," says the "Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1864, "is the outpouring of one of the 
 purest and most saintly minds that ever existed upon 
 earth. The style is exquisitely beautiful, and it lingers 
 in the memory like the dying tones of an vEolian harp, 
 full of ineffable sweetness. Amidst the impurity which 
 has so long flooded French literature, it is delightful to 
 come upon the streams of thought that flowed in limpid 
 clearness from the fountain of her mind, and to find in 
 a young French girl a combination of piety and genius 
 with so much felicity and force of expression that her 
 countrymen have not scrupled to compare her style to 
 that of Pascal himself." 
 
 Guerin, de,( Maurice du Cayla — du ki'lt',) a French 
 poet, brother of the preceding, was born near Albi, in 
 Languedoc, in 1S10. I ledied prematurely in 1839, leaving 
 several poetical fragments, among which is "Le Cen- 
 taure." "This revealed," says Sainte-Beuve, "a nature 
 of talent so new, so powerful, so vast, that the word ge- 
 nius seems appropriate to it." His Letters, Poems, etc. 
 were published in i860, under the title of "Maurice de 
 Guerin : Reliquiae," (2 vols.,) preceded by a biographical 
 notice of the author by Sainte-Beuve. 
 
 See Saintk-Beuvr, " Canseries du Lundi ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phic GeneVale ;" " Frascr's Magazine" for January, 1S63. 
 
 Gueriu du Rocher, gi'riN' dii ro'shi', (Pierre,) a 
 learned French Jesuit, born at Falaise in 1731, wrote 
 " The True History of Fabulous Times," (3 vols., 1776.) 
 He was massacred in September, 1792. 
 
 Guerin-Meneville, gi'raN' min'vel', (Felix Edou- 
 ahd,) a French naturalist, born at Toulon in 1799, pub- 
 lished a " Magazine of Zoology, Comparative Anatomy, 
 and Palaeontology," (33 vols., 1S31-44,) and other works. 
 
 Guerle. See Deguerlk. 
 
 Guernier. See Duc.ukrnier. 
 
 Gueronniere. See La Gueronniere. 
 
 Gueroult, gi'roo', (ADOLPHE,) a French journalist, 
 born at Radepont (Eure) in 1810. He became chief 
 editor of the " Presse," a daily paper of Paris, in 1857. 
 
 Gueroult, geh-roo', (Pierre Claude Bernard,) a 
 French classical scholar, born at Rouen in 1744. He 
 was director of the Normal School at Paris under the 
 empire. He translated Pliny's "Natural History," (3 
 vols., 1S03,) and some works of Cicero. Died in 182 1. 
 
 Guerra, goo-gr'rior gwer'ra, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 architect and painter, born at Modena in 1544. He was 
 employed by Sixtus V. to adorn the Vatican and Quirinal 
 palace. Died in 1618. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Guerre, de la, deh la gaiR, (Ei.isaheth Claude 
 Jacquet — zht'kj',) a French lady, celebrated for her 
 musical talents, was born in Paris about 1659. Among 
 her compositions are a Te Deum and a number of can- 
 tatas. Died in 1729. 
 
 Guerre-Dumolard, gain du'mo'llR'.fjEAN,) a French 
 jurist, born at Allevard (Dauphine) in 1761 ; died in 1S45. 
 
 Guerrero, ger-ra'ro, (Vincente,) a Mexican partisan 
 leader, who l>ecame President of Mexico in April, 1829. 
 He was supplanted or overpowered about the end of 
 that year by Bustamente. Having afterwards appealed, 
 to arms, he was defeated, taken prisoner, and executed 
 in February, 1831. 
 
 Guerrini.gwer-ree'nee, (GiACOMO.)an Italian painter, 
 born at Cremona in 1718; died in 1793. 
 
 Guesclin. See Du Guesci.in. 
 
 Guess, gess, or Se-quoy'ah, (Georce,) a half-breed 
 Cherokee Indian, born about 1770, was noted as the 
 inventor of the Cherokee syllabic alphaliet, consisting 
 of eighty-five characters, representing the syllables in 
 
 i, e, i, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, q, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
GUETTARD 
 
 >°9S 
 
 GVIBERT 
 
 use among the Cherokees. It has proved a great suc- 
 cess, having been employed both in writing anil printing. 
 He lived in Georgia, from which he removed with his 
 tribe beyond the Mississippi. Died in 1843. 
 
 Guettard, gj't*u', (Jkan Etiknne,) a celebrated 
 Flench naturalist and physician, born at Etampes in 
 1715. He studied natural science under Reaumur in 
 Paris, and in 1 743 was elected a member of the Academy 
 of .Sciences. He was afterwards appointed by the Duke 
 of Orleans keeper of his cabinet of natural history, lie 
 first ascertained the volcanic nature of the mountains of 
 Auvergne, and determined the true character of organic 
 remains which had been only partially recognized before. 
 He was the author of " Memoirs on some Mountains of 
 France formerly Volcanoes," (1752,) a treatise "On the 
 Granites of France compared with those of Egypt," (1755,) 
 and other valuable works. Died in Paris in 1786. 
 
 Sec CoNDORCKT, " Eioge de Guettard;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Gene^rale." 
 
 Gueulette, guh'let', (Thomas Simon,) a popular 
 writer, born jn Paris in 1683, published numerous tales 
 in the Oriental style, and several comedies. Died in 1766. 
 
 See Querard, " La France I.itteraire." 
 
 Guevara, gi-va'ra, (Don Felipe Ladron y— la- 
 dR6n'e,)a Spanish painter, born about 1 5 to, was a pupil 
 or friend of Titian. He distinguished himself at the siege 
 of Tunis under Charles V. in 1535. Died in 1563. 
 
 Guevara, (Luis Velez de las Duefias y — va'leth 
 da lis doo-eii'yas e,) a celebrated Spanish dramatist, born 
 in Andalusia in 1574. His works are principally come- 
 dies, which were highly popular at the time, and were 
 commended by Lope de Vega. He also published a 
 witty satirical romance, entitled "El Diablo cojuelo," 
 ("The Lame Devil,") said to have been the original of 
 Le Sage's " Diable boiteux." Died in 1646. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Guevara, (Sebastian Velez — va'leth,) a Spanish 
 poet, born at Valladolid in 1558, published a continua- 
 tion of the " Romancero, " or collection of Spanish 
 romances, (1594.) Died in 1610. 
 
 See Ticknok, "History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Guevara, de, diga-v.Vra, (Antonio,) a Spanish prel- 
 ate and historian, born in the province of Alava about 
 1490, was preacher and historiographer to Charles V. of 
 Germany. He was afterwards created Bishop of Mon- 
 donedo. His "History of Marcus Aurelius," published 
 in 1529, is said to contain less truth than fiction. He 
 also began a "History of Charles V.," which was never 
 published. His "Golden Epistles" were translated into 
 French and English. Died in 1544. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literaiure." 
 
 Guevara, de, (Antonio,) a relative of the preceding, 
 was appointed almoner to Philip II. of Spain. He wrote 
 several commentaries on the Scriptures. 
 
 Guearara, de, (Juan N.,) a Spanish painter and bril- 
 liant colorist, born at Malaga in 163 1, was a pupil of 
 Alonzo Cano. Died in 1698. 
 
 Guez de Balzac. See Balzac. 
 
 Guffroy, gu'fuwa', (Armand BF.Norr Joseph,) a 
 French journalist and politician of the Jacobin faction, 
 born at Arras in 1740. He was elected to the National 
 Convention in 1792, and in 1793 became a member of 
 the committee of public safety. He voted for the death 
 of the king. Died in 1800. 
 
 Guglielmi, gool-yel'mee, (Pietro,) one of the most 
 celebrated Italian composers of his time, born at Massa- 
 Carrara in 1727. He studied at Naples under Durante, 
 and subsequently visited Venice, Dresden, and London. 
 He was appointed chapel-master at the Vatican in 1793. 
 Among his operas, which amount to more than two 
 hundred, we may name "Iphigenia in Aulide," "Cle- 
 menza di Tito," " Didone," "Tamerlano," and "Don 
 Ambrogio." Died in 1804. 
 
 See Frtis, "Biographic Univcrselle des Musiciens. " 
 
 Guglielmini, gool-yel-mee'nee, (DouENICO,) an emi- 
 nent Italian physician, astronomer, and natural philoso- 
 pher, born at Bologna in 1655, Iwcame professor of 
 mathematics in his native city in 16S6, and of theoretic 
 medicine at Padua in 1702. lie published a "Disserta- 
 tion on the Nature and Origin of Comets," "The Meas- 
 ure of Running Waters," " Hydrostatic Epistles," " Phy- 
 
 sico-Mathematical Treatise on the Nature of Rivers," 
 (1697,) and other valuable works. He had been appointed 
 in ifJ86 intendant of water-works, and gained distinction 
 as a hydraulic engineer. Died in 1710. 
 
 See Mukgacni, " Vita di Guglielmini," prefixed to his Works, 
 1719; Fontenelle, " Eloge de Guglielniini, 1710; NlCKRON, "Mi- 
 moires." 
 
 Guglielmo d'Apulia, gool-yel'mo di-poo'le-a, [Fr. 
 Guillaume de Pouili.k, ge'yom' deh pool or poo'ye,] 
 an Italian writer of the eleventh century, was the author 
 of a historical poem, in Latin, "On the Deeds of the 
 Normans in Sicily," etc., first published in 1582. 
 
 Guhr, gooR, (Rarl Wilhelm Ferdinand,) a German 
 composer, born in Silesia in 1787. Among his operas is 
 "Aladdin, or the Wonderful Lamp." Died In 1848. 
 
 Guhrauer, goo'row'er, (Gottschalk (got'shalk) 
 Eduard,) a German litterateur, born in Posen in 1809, 
 published a " Biography of Leibnitz," (2 vols., 1842,) 
 which is commended, "Goethe's Correspondence with 
 Knebel," (2 vols., 1852,) and other works. Died in 1854. 
 Guhyaka or Guhyaca, gooh'ya-ka. In the Hindoo 
 mythology, the Guhyakas, the servants of Kuvera, (the 
 deformed god of riches,) are a kind of demons into which 
 transmigrate the souls of men particularly addicted to 
 covctousness and selfishness. 
 Gui d'Arezzo. See Guido d'Arezzo. 
 Gui da Ravenna, goo-ee' di ri-veVna, an Italian 
 historian of the ninth century, wrote a "History of the 
 Roman Pontiffs," and a " History of the Gothic War," 
 (in I-atin,) neither of which is extant. 
 Gui de Crema. See Paschal III. 
 Gui de Doucie, ge deh doo'se-A', a French poet of 
 the fourteenth century, of whose writings only fragments 
 are extant. He translated into French the "Consola- 
 tion of Philosophy" by Boethius. 
 Gui de Lusignan. See Guy de Lusignan. 
 Guibal, ge'bil', (Barthelemy,) a French sculptor 
 and architect, born at Nimes in 1699; died in 1757. 
 
 Guibal, (Nicolas,) a French painter, son of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Luneville in 1725 ; died in 1784. 
 
 Guibaud, ge'bo', (Eustachf,) a French Jansenisr, 
 born at Hieres in 1711. He wrote "Groans of a Peni- 
 tent Soul," and other devotional works. Died in 1794. 
 Guibert, ge'baiR', Archbishop of Ravenna, was a 
 native of Parma. He was made anti-pope by Henry IV. 
 of Germany, with the name of Clement III., and in oppo- 
 sition to Hildebrand, (Gregory VII.) Guibert, having 
 crowned Henry emperor, was enabled by his protec- 
 tion to resist successively three legitimate popes. Died 
 in 1 100. 
 
 Guibert, Madame, a French writer, born at Ver- 
 sailles in 1725, published a number of poems and dramas, 
 which were popular at the time. Died in 1788. 
 
 Guibert, de, deh ge-baiR', (Charles BenoIt, ) 
 Comtk, a French general, born at Montauban in 1715, 
 served with distinction in Italy and Flanders, and sub- 
 sequently against the Prussians in the Seven Years' war. 
 Died in 1786. . 
 
 Guibert, de, (TaCqu es A n to ink Hi ppolyte,) Comte, 
 a popular and witty French author, born at Montauban 
 in 1743, was the son of the preceding. He accompa- 
 nied his father in the Seven Years' war, (1756-62,) and 
 studied military tactics with great success. In 1773 he 
 published a "General Essay on Tactics," which obtained 
 a European celebrity and was read with avidity even 
 by the ladies. Voltaire complimented the author in a 
 short poem entitled "La Tartique." His tragedy the 
 "Constable Bourbon" excited in the salons of Paris a 
 temporary admiration scarcely equalled by that accorded 
 to the productions of the greatest tragic poets; but this 
 is not justified by the intrinsic merit of the work. In 
 1786 he was chosen a member of the French Academy. 
 He died in 1790. Madame dc Slael in the same year 
 composed a eulogy on him. He was the object of an 
 unhappy passion on the part of Mademoiselle L'Espi- 
 nasse, whose letters to him were much admired. 
 
 See Madame dr Stakc "Eloge de Guibert ;" Tnui.nNCKON 
 "Noiice hiatoriqra Nir Goibert," 1X01: Forrstie " Biographic rlu 
 Conile de Guibert," 1855; E. A. Barpin, "Nonce sur J. A. H. 
 Guibcrl," 1836. 
 
 Guibert de Nogent, ge'baiR' deh no'zhoN', a learned 
 French ecclesiastic, born near Clermont-en-Beauvoisis 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, v., guttural; a, nasal; v., trilled; 3 as*; th as in this, (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GU1CC1ARDINI 
 
 1096 
 
 GUJDO 
 
 in 1053, wrote a history of the first crusade, entitled 
 " Gesta Dei per Francos," published in Paris in J651. 
 Died In 1 124. 
 
 Guicciardini, gwe-char-dee'nee or goo-et-chaR-dee'- 
 nee, [Lat. Guicciardi'nus; Fr. Guichardin, ge'shaV- 
 da.N',] (Francesco,) an eminent Italian historian and 
 diplomatist, born at Florence in 1482. At the early age 
 of twenty-three he became professor of jurisprudence in 
 his native city. He was appointed by Pope Leo X. Gov- 
 ernor of Modena and Reggio in 15 1 8, and he also enjoyed 
 the favour of Adrian VI. and Clement VII. The latter, 
 having become the ally of France, intrusted Guicciar- 
 dini with the command of the pontifical troops, with the 
 title of lieutenant-general of the Holy See. On the sur- 
 render of Florence to the Imperial army in 1530, he be- 
 came the agent of the Medici in that city, and one of the 
 commission of twelve called "the reformers of the state." 
 Having greatly contributed to establish the tyranny of 
 the Medici at Floience, he retired from public life about 
 1536, and devoted himself to the composition of his" His- 
 tory of Italy from 1494 to 1532," (1564.) It is esteemed 
 a standard work, though somewhat prolix: it has been 
 translated into Latin and French. Died in 1540. 
 
 His " History of Italy" "is well known," says Hallam, 
 "for the solidity of the reflections, the gravity and im- 
 partiality with which it is written, and the prolixity of 
 the narrative. . . . Guicciardini has generally held the 
 first place among Italian historians, though he is by no 
 means equal in literary merit to Machiavel." ("Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See R. Figrentini, " Vita di F. Guicciardini," 1560; F. Sanso- 
 vino, "Vita di Guicciardini," 1665; G. RoslNt, " Saggio suile Azioni 
 e sulie Opere di F. Guicciardini," 1822; Nicekon, "Memoires;" 
 Ginguene, " Histoire litteraire d'ltalie;" "Nouvelie Biogr.iphie 
 Generale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S69. 
 
 Guicciardini, (Luigi,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 was born at Florence in 1523. He resided many years 
 in Antwerp, where he published a "Description of the 
 Low Countries," and several other works. Died in 
 1589. 
 
 Guicciardinus. See Guicciardini. 
 
 Guiccioli, gwet'cho-lee, (Teresa Gamba,) Count- 
 ess, a beautiful Italian lady, born in Romagna in 1801. 
 She was married about 181 7 to Count Guiccioli, a wealthy 
 nobleman of Ravenna. She owes her celebrity to her 
 liaison with Lord Byron, who appears to have loved her 
 with as true and tender an affection as it was possible 
 for a man of his character to do. In 1851 she was mar- 
 ried to the Marquis de Boissy, a French senator and 
 peer, (who was born at Paris in 1798; died in 1866.) 
 Left a second time a widow, she has recently given to 
 the world a book which has attracted much attention, — 
 "My Recollections of Lord Byron and those of Eye- 
 Witnesses of his Life," (London and Philadelphia, 
 1869;) — for, although she does not put her own name 
 to the work, there appears to be no doubt as to its 
 authorship. 
 
 See Moore, "Life of Byron," vol. it; Vapereau, " Diction- 
 naire des ContL-inporains," under the head of Boissy, (Hilaikk- 
 E*tiknnk Octave Rouille, Marquis de.) 
 
 Guichard, ge'shSu/, (Claude,) a French antiquary 
 of the sixteenth century, born at Saint-Rambert-en- 
 Bugey, was historiographer to Charles Emanuel, Duke 
 of Savoy. He published a work entitled " The Funerals 
 and Various Methods of Burial among the Romans, 
 Greeks," etc., (1581.) Died in 1607. 
 
 Guichard, (Jean Francois,) a French poet and 
 dramatist, born near Melun in 1731 ; died in 1811. 
 
 Guichard, (Louis Anastase — i'ni'stiz',) a French 
 ecclesiastic, wrote a " History of Socinianism," and other 
 works. Died in 1737. 
 
 Guichardin. See Guicciardini. 
 
 Guiche, (Philihert de la.) See La Guiche. 
 
 Guiche, de, deh gesh, (A km and de Gramont,) 
 Comtk, a distinguished French general, bom in 1638. 
 He served against the English in the campaign of 1666, 
 and subsequently in Holland under Conde. He died 
 in 1674, leaving "Memoirs concerning the United Prov- 
 inces," etc. 
 
 See " Memoires du Marechal de Gramont." 
 
 Guichen, ge'sh&N', (Luc Urhain du Bouexic — du' 
 boo'Sks'ek',) a French naval officer, born at Fougeres in 
 
 1712. He was made a lieutenant-general in 1779, and 
 commander of the marine of Bresi. In 1780 he gained 
 a victory over the English fleet uider Admiral Rodney 
 at Dominique, and sunk one of their ships. In 1781 De 
 Guichen was in turn defeated by Admiral Kempenfeld, 
 who took fifteen of his vessels. Died in 1790. 
 See Gerard, " Vies des plus celebres Marins Francais." 
 
 Guichenon, gesh'n6N', (Samuel,) a French historian, 
 born at Macon in 1607, was appointed historiographer 
 of France and Savoy by Louis XIV., and created a 
 count-palatine by Ferdinand [II., Emperor of Germany. 
 He published a "Genealogical History of the House of 
 Savoy," and other similar works. Died in 1664. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Guidal, ge'dSi', (Maximilien Joseph,) a French 
 officer, born at Grasse about 1760. Having joined the 
 conspiracy of Mallet in 1812, he was executed by order 
 of Napoleon. 
 
 Guidalotti, goo-e-da-lot'tee, (Diomede,) an Italian 
 scholar and poet, born at Bologna about 1482 ; died 
 in 1526. 
 
 Guide, Le. See Guido Rem. 
 
 Guidi, goo-ee'dee, or Guido, goo-ee'do, (Carlo 
 Ai.essandro,) an Italian poet, born at Pavi'a in 1650. 
 Having visited Rome in 1683, he obtained the patron- 
 age of Christina, Queen of Sweden, who made him a 
 member of her Academy. He was the author of "Amala- 
 sunta in Italia," " Endimione," a pastoral, and a number 
 of sonnets and lyric poems of superior merit. He is 
 ranked among the principal reformers of Italian poetry. 
 Died in 1712. 
 
 See Fabkoni, " Vita? Italorum," etc., vol. xi. ; Crescimhbni, " Vita 
 di Guidi," prefixed to his 'poems; "Lives of the Italian Poets," by 
 Rev. Henry Stebbing; Niceron, "Memoires;" G. Turroni, 
 " Elogio storico di C. A. Guidi," 1827. 
 
 Guidi, (Tommaso.) See Masaccio. 
 
 Guidi da San Giovanni. See Masaccio. 
 
 Guidiccioui, goo-e-det-cho'nee, (Cristokoro,) an 
 Italian poet, born at Lucca about 1530, became Bishop 
 of Ajaccio. He translated from the Greek the " Electra" 
 of Sophocles and the " Bacchantes," the " Andromache," 
 and the "Trojans" of Euripides." Died in 1582. 
 
 Guidiccioni, (Giovanni,) an Italian writer, born at 
 Lucca about 1500. In 1534 he was appointed Governor 
 of Rome by Pope Paul III., and the same year made 
 Bishop of Fossombrone. He was soon after sent as 
 nuncio to the emperor Charles V., whom he accom- 
 panied to Tunis. He was the author of a number of 
 poems, letters, and orations. Died in 1541. 
 
 See Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Guido, gwee'do or goo-ee'do, [Fr. Le Guide, leh 
 ged,] or, more properly, Guido Reni, (goo-ee'do ra'- 
 nee,) an eminent Italian painter, born at or near Bologna 
 about 1575. He first studied under Denis Calvart, at 
 Bologna, and was afterwards a pupil of the Caracci, 
 Having resided many years at Rome, where he was 
 liberally patronized by Pope Paul V., he returned to 
 his native city and devoted himself to painting and to 
 the instruction of young artists. His pictures are very 
 numerous, both in oil and fresco. His first works are 
 painted in the style of the Caracci; but he subsequently 
 adopted in some degree that of Caravaggio. His 
 pictures are models of grace, delicacy, and beauty of 
 expression. He succeeded especially in pathetic and 
 devotional subjects. Among his master-pieces are "The 
 Martyrdom of Saint Peter," (in the Vatican,) " Aurora," 
 a fresco in Rome, "The Assumption," a picture of Saint 
 Peter and Saint Paul, " Fortune," and "The Massacre 
 of the Innocents." Died at Bologna in 1642. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc.; Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy;" Malvasia, " Felsina nitirice;" Crispi, '" Vite 
 de* Piltori Bolognesi," 1769; Bryan. "Dictionary oi Painters," 
 under Rhni; "Nouvelie Biographie Generale." 
 
 Guido, (Alkssandro.) See Guidi. 
 
 Guido, goo-ee'do, (Gukrra,) an Italian soldier, was 
 one of the principal leaders of the Guelph faction in 
 Florence. He commanded the Florentine forces in the 
 victorious campaign of 1254, and upon the arrival of 
 Charles of Anton in Naples joined him with four hun- 
 dred men, and had a prominent part in gaining the 
 victory of Grandella, (1266.) Dante has assigned to 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
GUIDO 
 
 1097 
 
 GVILLAVME 
 
 Guido a place in his " Inferno," at the same time highly 
 commending his abilities. 
 
 See StSMONDt, " Histoire des R^publiques Italiennes," vol. iii. 
 
 Guido, (NoVKIXO,)a Florentine general of theGbibel- 
 ine faction. He assisted in gaining the victory of Arbia, 
 in 1260. 
 
 Guido, (Ubaldo,) Marquis, an Italian mathema- 
 tician, born at Urbino about 1540, wrote the "Theory of 
 Universal Planispheres," (in Latin,) and other works, 
 which are commended by Montucla. Died about 1600. 
 
 See Montucla, " Histoire des Mathe'matiques." 
 
 Guido (or Gui, goo-ee') d'Arezzo, goo-ce'do da- 
 rJt'so, an eminent Italian musician and ecclesiastic, born 
 about 990. He was the inventor of the modern system 
 of notation in music, and founded a school at Pomposa, 
 in which he taught the new method with great success. 
 
 See Burnxy, " General History of Music ;" Fetis, " Biographie 
 Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Guido Canlassi, goo-ee'do kan-las'see, called also 
 Cagnacci, (kan-yat'chee,) an Italian historical painter, 
 born near Rimini in 1601, was a pupil of Guido Reni. 
 He worked many years for the emperor Leopold I. 
 Died in Vienna in 1681. 
 
 See Lanz!, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Guido da Siena, goo-ee'do da se-a'na, or Guidone 
 da Ghezzo, goo-e-do'ni da get'so, an Italian painter of 
 the early part of the thirteenth century. His "Madonna 
 and Child," in the church of the Dominicans at Sienna, 
 is esteemed one of the finest works of the time. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Guido delle Colonne, goo-ee'do del'la ko-lon'na, 
 [Lat. I)E Colum'nis,] a Sicilian historian and poet of 
 the thirteenth century, wrote a "History of the Trojan 
 War," ("Historia Trojana,") which enjoyed a great 
 reputation in its time and has been translated into nearly 
 all the languages of Europe. It is said to have been the 
 original of Boccaccio's "Filostrato," and, consequently, 
 of Shakspeare's "Troilus and Cressida." 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia delta Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Guidobono, goo-e-do-bo'no, (Bartolommeo,) an 
 Italian painter, called "the Priest of Savona," born at 
 that town in 1654; died in 1709. 
 
 Guidonis, ge'do'ness', (Bernard,) a French Domin- 
 ican monk, born near Limoges about 1260. He was 
 created Bishop of Lodeve in 1324. He wrote "Annals 
 of the Pontiffs," and other works. Died in 1331. 
 
 Guidotti-Borghese, goo-e-dot'tee boR-ga'sa, (Pao- 
 lo,) an Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, born at 
 
 Lucca about 1565, was patronized by Pope Sixtus V., 
 who employed him to paint the Vatican. He was after- 
 wards appointed bv Paul V. conservator of the Museum U-uiinem ae uastro. Set 
 of the Capitol. Died in 1629. Guilhem de Clermont-Lodeve, 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." CkOIX, (GuiI.LAUME EMANUEL JOSEPH 
 
 flrtMin».(I*i tnitrinir nr ) SeeELEANOROFGuiENNE. 
 
 Guieune, de, deh ge'en', (N. ( ) a French lawyer of 
 the Parliament of Paris, born at Orleans ; died in 1767. 
 
 Guignard, gen'yaV, (Jean,) a French Jesuit, sur- 
 named Briquakei., (bKe'kS'iSl',) was executed for high 
 treason in 1595 for having openly justified the attempted 
 assassination of Henry IV. by Chate). 
 
 See Sismondi. " Histoire des Francais," vol. xxi. 
 
 Gttignes, de, deh gen, (Chretien Locis Joseph,) a 
 French Oiientalist, lx>rn in Paris in 1759, was a son of 
 Joseph, noticed below. He was appointed French resi- 
 dent in China in 1784. and returned to France about 
 1800. He published "Voyages to Peking and Manilla," 
 (3 vols., 1808,) and a " Chinese-French-Lalin Dictionary," 
 (1S13.) Died in 1845. 
 
 See Qiierard, " La France Litteraire ;" " London Quarterly Re- 
 view" lor November, 1809. 
 
 Guignes, de, ( Joseph,) an eminent French Oriental- 
 ist, bom at Pontoise in 1721. He became professor of 
 Syriac in the College Royale in 1757, having previously 
 been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in London, 
 and a meinlicr of the Academy of Inscriptions in Paris. 
 He was afterwards appointed royal censor, and keeper 
 of the antiques of the Louvre. He was the author of 
 a "General History of the Huns, Turks, Mongols, and 
 other Western Tartars," etc., (1756,) " Historical Me- 
 moir on the Origin of the Huns and Turks," "History 
 
 of China," and other works, which enjoy a high reputa- 
 tion for learning and accuracy. Died in Paris in 1800. 
 
 See Qurrard, "La France Litteraire;" "London Quarterly 
 Review" lor April, 1815. 
 
 Guigniaut, gen'ye-o', (Joseph Daniel,) an eminent 
 French scholar and antiquary, born at Paray-le-Monial 
 in May, 1794. He became a director of the Normal 
 School, a member of the Institute in 1837, and professor 
 of history in the College de Fiance in 1854. His chief 
 work is "The Religions of Antiquity, considered princi- 
 pally in their Symbolical and Mythological Forms," (3 
 tomes, in 10 vols., 1825-51,) which is a translation of 
 Creuzer's "Symbolik," with additions. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale. " 
 
 Guignon, gen'y6N', (Jean,) a distinguished violin- 
 ist, born at Turin in 1702, was appointed musician to 
 the royal chapel in Paris. He composed a number of 
 sonatas and concertos. Died in 1774. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Guijon, ge'zh6N', (Jean,) a French scholar and natu- 
 ralist, born in 1544, became professor of rhetoric and 
 languages in the College of Navarre. He published 
 several scientific works, and a number of Latin poems. 
 Died in 1605. 
 
 Guilaiidinus, gwe-lan-dee'nus, or Guilandini, gwe- 
 lan-dee'nee, (Melchior,) a German naturalist, whose 
 proper name was Wieland, was bom at Kbnigsberg. 
 He became professor of botany at Padua on the death 
 of Fallopius, and wrote, in Latin, "Papyrus; or, A 
 Commentary on the Three Chapters of Pliny the Elder 
 concerning Papyrus," (1572.) Died in 1589. 
 
 See De Thou, " Histoire ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Guilbert, gel'baiR', (Pierre,) a French writer, born 
 in Paris in 1697, was the author of "Chronological and 
 Historical Memoirs of Port-Royal." Died in 1759. 
 
 Guilbert de Pixerecourt, 'gel'baiR' deh pek'sa'ri'- 
 kooR', (Rene Charles,) a French dramatist, born at 
 Nancy in 1773. He wrote many vaudevilles and melo- 
 dramas. Died in 1844. 
 
 Guild, gild, (William,) a Scottish divine, born at 
 Aberdeen in 1586. He became one of the ministers 
 of Aberdeen in 1631, and principal of King's College in 
 1640. For devotion to the royal cause he was deposed 
 in 1651. lie wrote, besides other works, "The Har- 
 mony of all the Prophets concerning Christ's Coming," 
 (1619,) and "Moses Unveiled," (1620.) Died in 1657. 
 
 SeeC'HAMBERs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Guildford, Earl of. See North. 
 Guilhelmus Pictavensis. See Guillaume de 
 Porn kbs, 
 Guilhem de Castro. See Castro. 
 
 See Sainte- 
 
 Guillaiii, ge'ya.s', (Simon,) a French sculptor, born 
 in Paris in 1581. Among his best works are the statues 
 in the church of the Sorbonne, and those of the Virgin 
 and Saint Francis de Paulo in the convent of Minims. 
 Giiillahl was one of the founders of the Academy of 
 Painting and Sculpture, and one of its first rectors. 
 Died in 1658. 
 
 See Lknoik, " Musee des Monuments Francais," vol. v. 
 
 Guillard, gcryaV or ge'ya'R', (Nicolas Francois,) 
 a French dramatist and lyric poet, born at Charlies in 
 1752. He brought out "Iphigenia in Tauris," a lyric 
 tragedy, (1779,) and "CEdipus at Colona," which were 
 greatly admired. Died in 1S14. 
 
 Guillaume, gc'ySm', sometimes called Frere Guil- 
 laume, a French artist, skilled in painting on glass, was 
 born at Marseilles in 1475. He was patronized bv Pope 
 Julius II., who employed him in various works at Rome. 
 1 1 is paintings on the windows of the Vatican and in the 
 church of the Madonna del Popolo arc ranked an ang 
 the finest productions of the kind. He also excelled 
 as an architect and painter in fresco. Died in 1537. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Guillaume, surnamed LorGUE-ISpbe, (loNg'a'pi',) 
 (l.o\<;SwoKi>,) son of Rollo, Duke of Normandy, suc- 
 ceeded his father about 927. He became one of the most 
 powerful vassals of the crown of France, 1 le was treach- 
 erously killed by Arnould, Count of Flanders, in 943. 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g asy; <;, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as t; th as in this. (J;3P~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GUILLAUME 
 
 1098 
 
 GV1RAUD 
 
 Guillaume, Saint, surnamed the Great, a French 
 ecclesiastic and military commander, served under Char- 
 lemagne against the Saracens, and received from him the 
 title of Duke of Aquitaine. In 808 he founded in the 
 valley of Gellone a monastery, since called that of Saint 
 Guillaume in the Desert. His deeds were celebrated in 
 a metrical romance of the ninth century. Died in 812. 
 
 See Baillet, "Vies des Saints." 
 
 Guillaume, Saint, a French theologian, became 
 Archbishop of liourges. He died in 1209, and was can- 
 onized by Pope Honorius III. in 1218. 
 
 Guillaume d'Auvergne, ge'yom' do'v&Rn', or Guil- 
 laume de' Paris, a celebrated French theologian and 
 philosopher, born at Aurillac, was created Bishop of 
 Paris in 1228. He was one of the most learned men of 
 his time, and wrote several Latin works distinguished 
 for the purity and elegance of the style. Died in 1249. 
 
 See " Histoire litteraire de la France." 
 
 Guillaume de Chartres, ge'y5m' deh shtRtR, a 
 French ecclesiastic and historian, born at Chartres about 
 1225. He was chaplain to Louis IX., whom he accom- 
 panied on his expeditions to Palestine, and was present 
 at his death in 1270. He wrote a supplement to the 
 " Vita Sancti Ludovici" (" Life of Saint Louis") begun 
 by Geoffrey (or Galfrid) de Beaulieu. Died about 1280. 
 
 See " Histoire litteraire de la France," vol. ix. ; Bollandus, 
 "Acta Sanctorum." 
 
 Guillaume de Jumieges, ge'yom' deh zhu'me-azh', 
 a French historian and ecclesiastic, who lived about 
 1070, wrote a " History of the Normans," (" Historian 
 Normannorum Libri VII.,") which he dedicated to Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror. It has been published in Camden's 
 "Anglise Scriptores" and Duchesne's " Normannorum 
 Antiqui Scriptores," (1619.) 
 
 Guillaume de Poitiers, ge'yom' deh pwa'te-i', 
 [Lat. Guilhk.l'mus Pictaven'sis,] a French or Norman 
 chronicler, born in Normandy in 1020, was chaplain to 
 the Duke William afterwards King of England. His 
 principal work is a " History of William the Conqueror," 
 (in Latin,) which is not all extant. 
 
 Guillaume de Pouille. See Gugi.iei.mo n'.A puma. 
 
 Guillaume le Breton, ge'ySm' left bReh-to.N', or 
 Bri'to-Ar-mo'rI-cus, a French chronicler and poet, 
 born in Brittany about 1 165, was chaplain to Philip 
 Augustus. He was the author of "Historia de Vita et 
 Gestis Philippi Augusti," ("Life and Deeds of Philip 
 Augustus,") and a poem entitled the " Philippide." 
 
 See Niceron, " M^inoires." 
 
 Guillaumet, ge'yo'mi', (Tanneguy (tin'ge') orTn£- 
 VENIN, tav'naN',) born at Nimes about 1560, became 
 surgeon to Henry IV., and published several medical 
 works. Died in 1630. 
 
 Guillaumot, ge'yo'mo', (Charles Axei.,) a Swedish 
 architect, of French extraction, born at Stockholm in 
 1730. Having visited Paris in 1754, he was appointed, 
 on the death of Sauflot, intendant-general of the royal 
 buildings, gardens, etc. Died in 1807. 
 
 Guillem or Guilhem de Castro. See Castro. 
 
 Guillemain, ge'ye-maN' or Ret'maN', (CHARLES 
 Jacob,) a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1750. His 
 comedies are very numerous, and enjoyed a temporary 
 popularity. Dieelin 1799. 
 
 Guillemeau, ge'ye-m5' or gel'mo', (Jacques,) an emi- 
 nent French surgeon, born at Orleans about 1530, was 
 a pupil of Ambrose Pare. He became successively sur- 
 
 ? eon-in-ordinary to Charles IX., Henry III., and Henry 
 V. He published, among other works, a treatise " On 
 Diseases of the Eye." Died in 1613. 
 
 Guillemeau, (Jean Louis Marie,) a French natu- 
 ralist and physician, born at Niort in 1766, wrote many 
 works on botany, ornithology, etc. Died about 1850. 
 
 Guillemin, ge'ye-maN' or gel'maN', (Jean Antoine,) 
 a French botanist, born at Pouilly-sur-Saone in 1796. 
 He made a scientific voyage to Brazil in 1838. Died at 
 Montpellier in 1842. 
 
 Guilleminot, de, deh ge'ye-me'no' or gel'me'no', 
 (Armand Charles,) Comte, a French general and 
 diplomatist, born at Dunkirk in 1774. He served under 
 General Moreau in Italy and on the Rhine, made the 
 Russian campaign of 1812, and became general of divi- 
 
 sion in 1813 He was sent as ambassador to Constanti- 
 nople in 1824. Died in 1840. 
 
 Guilleragues, ge'ye-rftg' or gel'rtg', (Gabriel Jo- 
 seph, f Comte de Lavergne, a French litterateur and diplo- 
 matist, born at Bordeaux. He was sent as ambassador 
 to the Ottoman court in 1679, and died at Constanti- 
 nople in 1684. His work entitled "Embassies of Count 
 de Guilleragues and M. de Girardin to the Grand Sei- 
 gneur" was published in 1687. He was an intimate friend 
 of Boileau, who dedicated to him his fifth Epistle. 
 
 See "Lettres de Madame de Sevigne" ;" Saint-Simon, "Me^ 
 moires. " 
 
 Guillet de Saint-Georges, gt'ya' deh saN'zhoRzh', 
 (Georges,) a French writer, born in Auvergne about 
 1625. He was a member, and the first historiographer, 
 of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. He was the 
 author of " Athens, Ancient and Modern, and the Present 
 State of the Turkish Empire," and several other works. 
 Died in 1705. 
 
 Guillim, gwil'liin, ? (John,) an English writer on 
 heraldry, was born in Herefordshire about 1565. He 
 wrote "The Display of Heraldry," (1610.) Died in 1621. 
 
 Guillon, ge'yoN', (L. Gabriel,) a French surgeon, 
 born near Tours in 179S. He invented several instru- 
 ments and methods of surgery. 
 
 Guillon, (Marie Nicolas Silvestre, ) Abis£, a 
 French ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1760. He was 
 professor of rhetoric and theology in Paris, and was 
 appointed Bishop of Morocco in 1833. Among his 
 numerous works is a "History of Ancient and Modern 
 Philosophy," (1835.) Died in 1847. 
 
 See Quekard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Guillon de Montleon, ge'y6N' deh m6N'la'6N', 
 (AlME,) a French historical and theological writer, born 
 at Lyons in 1758. He became keeper of the Mazarin 
 Library, Paris, in 1816. Among his works is " Historical 
 Memoirs of Lyons," (3 vols., 1824.) Died in 1842. 
 
 Guillotine, gil-lo-teen', [Fr. pron. ge'yo'ten',] (Jo- 
 seph Ignace,) a French physician, born at Saintes in 
 1738. He was a deputy in 1789 to the States-General, 
 where he proposed, as a humane measure, to substitute 
 decapitation for other modes of punishment. He was 
 not, however, the inventor of the machine called by his 
 name. He was one of the founders of the Academy of 
 Medicine in Paris. Died in 1814. 
 
 See " Fjoge funebre de Guillotine," 1814; Croker, "The Guil- 
 lotine: an Historical Essay." 
 
 Guillou, ge'yoo', (Jean Ren£,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 born at Chateaudun in 1730, was the author of a "Fune- 
 ral Oration for the Dauphin," which was greatly admired. 
 Died in 1776. 
 
 Guimet, ge'mj', (Jean Baptists,) a French chemist, 
 born at Voiron in 1795, discovered the art of making 
 artificial ultramarine in 1826. 
 
 Guinand, ge'nfiN', a Swiss optician, born about 1745. 
 He discovered the art of fabricating large flint-glass 
 discs for telescopes, and became a partner or assistant 
 of Fraunhofer. Died in 1824 or 1825. 
 
 Guinet, ge'n&', (Francois,) a French jurist and legal 
 writer, born at Nancy in 1604; died in 1681. 
 
 Guinicelli, goo-e-ne-chel'lee, (Guido,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Bologna, is eulogized by Dante in his 
 " Purgatorio," canto xxvi. Died in 1276. 
 
 Guiniforte, goo-e-ne-fou'ta, an Italian scholar and 
 orator, born at Pavia in 1406, was surnamed Barzizza 
 or Barzizzio. Died about 1460. 
 
 Guinigi, goo-e-nee'jee, (Paolo,) an Italian nobleman 
 of the Guelph faction, who in 1400 made himself master 
 of the city of Lucca. After a rule of thirty years, he was 
 dispossessed of his power by the Duke of Milan, and 
 died, after two years' imprisonment, in 143 1. 
 
 Guiot, ge'o', (Joseph Andre,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and Latin poet, born at Rouen in 1739; died in 1807. 
 
 Guiran, ge'rfi.N', (Gaii.lard, gi'y&R',) a French jurist 
 and antiquary, born at Nimes in 1600; died in 1680. 
 
 Guiraud, ge'ro', (Pierre Marie Therese Alex- 
 andre,) Baron, a French poet and dramatist, born at 
 Limoux in 1788. He wrote two successful tragedies, 
 in verse, entitled " Les Machabees," (1822,) and "Count 
 Julien," (1822,) and other works. He was elected to the 
 French Academy in 1826. Died in 1847. 
 
 1,6,1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
GUIRAUDET 
 
 1-099 
 
 GUISE 
 
 Guiraudet, ge'ro'd&',(CilARi.ES Pmi.i pp« Toussaint 
 — too'siN',) a French statesman and writer, born at Alais 
 in 1754, became secretary-general uf the ministry of 
 foreign affairs under the Directory. Died in 1804. 
 
 Guiscard, ges'ktR', [Lat. Guiscar'dus,] (Robert,) a 
 celebrated military commander, born in Normandy, was 
 one of the sons ot Tancred de Hauteville. He assisted 
 -his brother Humphrey in the conquest of Calabria, and 
 on his death (1057) proclaimed himself Count of Apulia. 
 Pope Nicholas II., who had previously excommunicated 
 him, now created him Duke of Apulia, Calabria, and 
 Sicily. In 1081 he marched against the Greek emperor 
 Alexius, whom he defeated at Durazzo in 1084. He 
 soon after liberated Pope Gregory VII., who had been 
 imprisoned at Saint Angelo. Died in 1085. 
 
 See Mala-Terra. " De Gestis Robert! Guiscardi," 1578 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Guiscardus. See Guiscard, (Robert.) 
 
 Guischaid, ge'shaV, (Karl Gottlieb,) a Prussian 
 officer, born at Magdeburg in 1724, was a favourite of 
 Frederick the Great, who gave him the name of Quintus 
 Icilius. He served in the Seven Years' war, and rose 
 to the rank of colonel. He wrote, in French, an inter- 
 esting work entitled " Military Memoirs of the Greeks 
 and Rinnans," in which he has exposed the errors of 
 Fulai <I. Died in 1775. 
 
 Guise, glz, ? (William,) an English divine and Ori- 
 entalist, born near Gloucester in 1653 ; died in 1683. 
 
 Guise, de, deli gweez, (or gii-ez',) (Antoinette de 
 Bourbon— deh boor'bo.N',) Duchesse, a French lady, 
 eminent for her piety and benevolence, born in 1493, 
 was the daughter of Francis de Bourbon, Count of Yen- 
 dome, and the wife of Claude de Lorraine, Duke of 
 Guise. Died in 1583. 
 
 See Hilarion de Coste, " Vies des Dames illustres. " 
 
 Guise, de, (Catherine de Cleves — deh kl&v,) 
 Duchesse, born in 1547, was a daughter of the Duke of 
 Nevers, and was married to Henry, first Duke of Guise, 
 in 1570. She was chiefly instrumental in procuring the 
 submission of the Guises to Henry IV. Died in 1633. 
 
 See Variixas. " Histoire de Henri III." 
 
 Guise, de, (Charles,) Cardinal de Lorraine, born at 
 Toinville in 1525, was a son of Claude, first Duke of Guise, 
 lie became Archbishop of Rheims in 1538, and cardinal 
 in 1547, and was subsequently minister of finance under 
 Francis II. and Charles IX. In 1569 he negotiated the 
 marriage of the latter with Elizabeth of Austria. He 
 was conspicuous, even in that age of persecution, for his 
 intolerance and bitter hostility to the Protestants, and 
 was one of the chief promoters of the civil wars of the 
 time. He made several attempts to introduce the In- 
 quisition into France, and he is believed to have approved 
 of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, although absent 
 at the time. Cardinal Lorraine is represented by Bran- 
 t&me and other contemporary writers as possessed of 
 eminent abilities, but false, cruel, and ambitious. They 
 admit, however, that he was a liberal patron of learning, 
 and that he did a great deal to check the usurpations of 
 the Papal See. Died in 1574. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Brantome, 
 *■ Vies des grands Capitaines ;" " Memoires de CoiideV' 1743. 
 
 Guise, de, (Charles de Lorraine,) Due, eldest son 
 of Henry of Guise and Catherine of Cleves, noticed above, 
 wis born in 1 571. On the assassination of his father, 
 in 1588, he was imprisoned at Tours. Having made his 
 escape in 1591, he entered the service of Henry IV., and 
 in 1596 besieged and recaptured the city of Marseilles. 
 In 163 1 he was obliged by Richelieu to leave the king- 
 dom. Died in '1640. 
 
 Guise, de, deh gweez, |Fr. pron. gii-ez',] (Claude de 
 Lorraine,) first Duke, born in 1496, was the younger son 
 of Rene II., Duke of I^orraine. He became a citizen of 
 F'rance, and married Antoinette de Bourbon, about 1514. 
 He served in the army with distinction at Marignano and 
 other places, and was created Duke of Guise by Francis 
 I. He died about 1550, leaving many children, among 
 whom were Francis, Duke of Guise, Charles, (the Car- 
 dinal de I^orraine,) and a daughter, Mary, who became 
 queen of James V. of Scotland. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Guise, de, (Francois de Lorraine,) Duke, a promi- 
 nent leader of the Catholic party in France, and one of 
 the greatest commanders of his time, was bom in 1519. 
 He was a son of Claude, first Duke of Guise, and An- 
 toinette de Bourbon, and a brother of the cardinal, noticed 
 above. Having previously gained important victories at 
 Landrecies and other places, he raised his reputation to 
 the highest point by his defence of Metz in 1553 against 
 Charles V., who was forced to retire with the loss of 
 30,000 men. Soon after the battle of Saint-Quentin, in 
 1557, he was appointed by Henry II. lieutenant-general 
 of the kingdom and invested with almost absolute power. 
 The capture of Calais from the English in 1558, and the 
 subsequent victories at Guines and Thionville, justified 
 the confidence reposed in him, and made him more than 
 ever the idol of the nation. In conjunction with his 
 brother the cardinal, he defeated the conspiracy of Am- 
 boise, formed by the Prince of Conde and other Prot- 
 estant leaders. He had a prominent share in t*ie victory 
 at Dreux, where he took the Prince of Conde prisoner. 
 At the siege of Orleans, soon after, he was assassinated 
 by a Calvinist, named Poltrot de Merey, in 1563. He 
 was the author of "Memoires," which are valuable and 
 interesting records of his time. 
 
 See Davila, " History of the Civil Wars of France ;" Brantome, 
 " Vies des grands Capitaines';" DuTrousset de Vai.incuurt, " Vie 
 de Francois de Lorraine," 1668; Bayle, "Historical and Crilical 
 Dictionary;" L'Estoile, "Journal de Henri 111;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Guise, de, (Francois Joseph de Lorraine,) seventh 
 and last Duke, was born in 1670; died in 1675. The 
 family of Guise liecame extinct in 1688. 
 
 Guise, de, (Henry I. of Lorraine,) Duke, eldest 
 son of Francis, Duke of Guise, born in 1550, was a cousin 
 of Mary, Queen of Scots. He inherited in a great degree 
 the talents and accomplishments of his father, and even 
 surpassed him in his bitter opposition to the Protestants. 
 When less than nineteen years of age, he defended Poi- 
 tiers against Coligny, and soon after had a share in the 
 victory of Moncontour, (1569.) At the battle of Dormans 
 he received a wound on the cheek, from which he was 
 surnamed Balafk£, or the " Scarred." lie was one of 
 the instigators of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew 
 in 1572, and was concerned in the murder of Coligny. 
 In 1576, Henry of Guise, with his brother, the Cardinal 
 de Guise, headed the faction called the League, osten- 
 sibly formed for the defence of the Catholic religion 
 and the king, but really designed to assist the family of 
 Guise in usurping the royal power. On the accession 
 of Henry HI. the Duke of Guise prevailed upon him 
 to adopt more severe measures against the Protestants. 
 The king, however, becoming weary of the arrogance of 
 the Guises, forbade the duke to appear at court, where- 
 upon he openly revolted, and in May, 1588, on the "day 
 of the Barricades," entered Paris with his troops, dis- 
 armed the Swiss guard, and obliged the king to abandon 
 his capital. Henry HI. soon after summoned the States- 
 General at Blois, where the Duke of Guise demanded 
 to be appointed constable and lieutenant-general of the 
 kingdom. The king now, in conjunction with several 
 of his courtiers, resolved to take the life of the duke; 
 and, as the latter entered the king's apartment, he 
 was dispatched by the daggers of the assassins, in De- 
 cember, 1588. 
 
 See L'Kstoii-E, "Journal de Henri III:" Brantome, "Vie da 
 T Admiral deChastillon ;" F.nrico Cathkino Davii.a, "La SeradiS. 
 Bartolommeoe la Morte del llnca tli Guisa." 1S2S ; Davii.a. " His- 
 tory of the Civil Wars in France ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gtinirale." 
 
 Guise, de, (Henry II. of Lorraine,) Duke, and 
 Prince de Joinville, born at Blois in 1614, was the son of 
 Charles IV., Duke of Guise. He joined the conspiracy 
 of the Count of Soissons against the French government 
 in 1641, and was condemned to death, but escaped. In 
 1647 he went to the assistance of the Neapolitans, who 
 had revolted against Spain. Being made generalissimo 
 of their army, he took Naples, which, however, was soon 
 recovered by the Spaniards, and the Duke of Guise taken 
 prisoner. After his release he was appointed, in 1655, 
 iiigh chamberlain of France. He died in 1664, leaving 
 "Memoirs," which were published in 1668. 
 
 See Tai.lrmant dh Keacx, " Hiitoriettes;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Generale." 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this, (jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GUISE 
 
 I 100 
 
 GULDENSTJDT 
 
 Guise, de, (Jean de Lorraine,) Cardinal, brother 
 of Claude, noticed above, was born in 1498. He was 
 sent on an embassy to the emperor Charles V. in 1536. 
 He obtained the archbishoprics of Lyons, Rheims, and 
 Narbonne, and various other preferments, and was dis- 
 tinguished for his munificence and extensive charities. 
 Died in 1550. 
 
 See De Thou, "Histoire universale," vol. i., 1734; Sismondi, 
 "Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Guise, de, (Louis I. de Lorraine,) Cardinal, 
 brother of Francis and of the cardinal Charles de Lor- 
 raine, was born in 1527. lie was successively appointed 
 Bishop of Troyes and of Alby, and Archbishop of Sens, 
 being made a cardinal in 1553. Died in 157S. 
 
 Guise, de, (Louis II. de Lorraine,) Cardinal, son 
 of Francis, Duke of Guise, born at Dampierre in 1555. 
 lie succeeded his uncle as Archbishop of Rheims, and in 
 1578 was made a cardinal. Having been associated with 
 his brother Henry I., Duke of Guise, as one of the 
 chiefs of the League, he was, on the death of the latter, 
 imprisoned, and. a few days after assassinated, (1588.) 
 
 See L'Estom.e, "Journal de Henri III.'* 
 
 Guise, de, (Louis III. de Lorraine,) Cardinal, 
 son of Henry I. de Lorraine, was born about 1580. He 
 obtained numerous benefices in the Church, and was 
 created a cardinal by Paul V. in 1615. Died in 1621. 
 
 Guiton, ge't6N', (Jean,) a French Huguenot, who was 
 admiral and mayor of Rochelle in 1627, when that city 
 was besieged by the royalists. He surrendered in 1628. 
 Died in 1654, aged about seventy years. 
 
 Guittone d'Arezzo, goo-et-to'ui da-rSt'so, an Italian 
 poet, born at Arezzo about 1230, was one of the chief 
 reformers of Italian literature in that age. Died in 1294. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Guizot, gii-e'zo' or ge'zo', (Elisabeth Charlotte 
 Pauline de Meulan — deh muh'l&x',) a French au- 
 thoress, horn in Paris in 1773, was left by the death of her 
 father with no resources but her talents. She produced 
 in 1800 an ingenious and sprightly work of fiction, en- 
 titled " The Contradictions," and, by her contributions to 
 Suard's literary journal "Le Publiciste," gained distinc- 
 tion as a critic and a moralist. She was married to M. 
 Guizot in 1812. Among her works are " Domestic Edu- 
 cation," (2 vols., 1826,) and "A Family," (" Une F'amille," 
 1828.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See Sainte-Heuvb, "Portraits of Celebrated Women;" " Nou- 
 velle Uiographie GeneVale." 
 
 Guizot, gwe'zo' or gii-e'zo',* (Francois Pierre Guil- 
 i.au.me,) a distinguished French statesman and historian, 
 born at Nimes on the 4th of October, 1787, was a son of 
 an able advocate who fell a victim to the reign of terror in 
 1794. Having been educated as a Protestant at Geneva, 
 he went to Paris in 1805, and published an edition of 
 Gibbon's History, in French, about 1S10. He married 
 Pauline de Meulan, noticed above, and was appointed 
 professor of modern history at the Sorbonne by Fon- 
 tanes, in 1812. He defended constitutional principles in 
 a pamphlet "On Representative Government and the 
 Present State of France," (1816,) became a leader of 
 the party called Doctrinaires, and councillor of state in 
 1817. In 1822 he was suspended from his functions as 
 professor, because his principles were offensive to the 
 ministry. In 1828 he founded the "Revue Francaise," 
 and was reinstated in the chair of history. He acquired 
 much celebrity as a lecturer, and formed with Cousin 
 and Villemain a triumvirate of professors. His lectures 
 were published with the title of a "History of Civiliza- 
 tion," (5th edition, 5 vols., 1845.) 
 
 He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies from 
 Lisieux in January, 1830, and promoted the accession 
 of Louis Philippe, who appointed him minister of the 
 interior on the 1st of August. His ministry (the policy 
 
 * So pronounced by M. Guizot himself, as stated in a letter from 
 him, now before us. He says, " Dans mon pays natal, la ville de 
 Nimes, on prouonce mon nam ghi~zo. A Paris on dit en g^ne>al 
 gwi-zo ; et je crois cette prononciation plus correcte." A near rela- 
 tive, however, of the great French historian and statesman takes a 
 different view of the question. He says the name of his family is 
 always pronounced gki-zo in the south of France, where the name 
 originated ; and he maintains, with great appearance of reason, that 
 the invariable usage of the people Of Nimes ought to be decisive as 
 to the pronunciation of km twin Nlntois. 
 
 of which was styled juste milieu) was dissolved in 
 November, 1830. In October, 1832, Guizot became 
 minister of public instruction in the cabinet of Marshal 
 Soult. While in this office, he rendered an important 
 service to the public by organizing a system of primary 
 schools. He was compelled to resign in February, 1836, 
 when his rival Thiers obtained power for a brief term. 
 He was elected to the French Academy In 1836. In 
 1838 Guizot and Thiers (who had been superseded by 
 Count Mole) formed a coalition, which was regarded by 
 many as discreditable to the former. He was sent as 
 ambassador to London in February, 1840. On the 29th 
 of October, 1840, he became minister of foreign affairs, 
 and really prime minister, in a cabinet of which Soult was 
 nominally president. He maintained himself in power 
 until the revolution of February, 1848, which was pro- 
 voked partly by his inflexible resistance to electoral 
 reform. 
 
 He escaped in discruise tc- England, wrote a pamphlet 
 on " Democracy in France," and returned to his native 
 country in 1849; after which, it is said, he favoured a 
 fusion between the Iwo parties of Legitimists and Or- 
 Ieanists. Among his principal works are an excellent 
 " History of the Revolution in England, from the Acces- 
 sion of Charles I. to that of Charles II.," ("Histoire 
 de la Revolution d'Angleterre," etc., 6 vols., 1827-56,) 
 and " Memoirs to illustrate the History of mv Time," 
 ("Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire de mon Temps,") 
 of which four or more volumes have appeared. These 
 have been translated into English. He is generally 
 considered to be more successful as a historian than he 
 was as a statesman. He has a'so shown himself to be 
 an effective and imposing parliamentary orator. 
 
 "Among this band of great and honourable men," says 
 the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1858, "we think 
 that M. Guizot will retain in history, as he has occupied 
 in life, the first and highest place. Other writers, gifted 
 with livelier powers of imagination and appealing more 
 directly to the sentiment of their contemporaries, may, 
 like Chateaubriand, have exercised for a time a more 
 powerful influence on the literature of France. . . .Other 
 statesmen have enjoyed far more of popular sympathy 
 in their day. But in the depth and variety of his literary 
 labours, which have enlarged the philosophy of history, 
 in the force and precision of his oratory, which at one 
 swoop could bend an assembly or crush a foe, and in the 
 systematic consistency of his whole political life, . . . 
 M. Guizot has had no equal, either in his own country 
 or, as far as we know, in any other." Comparing him 
 with Burke and Pitt, the same critic adds, " In M. 
 Guizot the speculative genius of the one was united to 
 the practical authority of the other ; and, though each 
 of these great Englishmen may have possessed his Own 
 peculiar qualification in a still higher degree, Guizot 
 stands before them both in the rare union of the con- 
 templative and active faculties." 
 
 See LOUIS np. Lomes-ir, "M. Guizot. par tin Homme de Rien,"' 
 1*44: TTIOMAfl Desoibres. " Riographie de M. Guizot," 1S43; 
 Victor Vernkuii., " M. Guizot, par un Homme du Peuple," 1846; 
 Gainet. "Etudes critiques sur les Travaux historiqnes de M. 
 Guizot," 1851: " Nouvelle Riographie GeneVale ;" "London Quar- 
 terly Review" for December. 1S4S. January. 1854, July, 1856. and 
 T^nuarv. 1S6S; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1849; " Rlackwnod'A 
 Magazine" for December. 1837; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 April, 1846;; " Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1844. 
 
 Guldberg, gooh/'b?ur,, (Frf.derik Hoegh.) son of 
 the following, was born at Copenhagen in 1771. He 
 wrote a number of lyric and elegiac poems, and made 
 eood metrical translations of Plautus, Tibulhts, and 
 Terence. He lived many years at Kiel. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon. 
 
 Guldbere;, (Ove Hoegh, o'veh ho'eg,) an eminent 
 Danish historian, statesman, and theologian, born at 
 Horsen in 173 1. He was the author of a " History of 
 the World," f 1 76S. 1 "Determination of the Dates of the 
 Books of the New Testament," (1785,) and "Translation 
 of the New Testament, with Notes." He was minister 
 of state from 1775 to 1784. Died in 1808. 
 
 See H. P. Giessing, "Struensee og Guldberg, etc.; historisk 
 Skildring," 184S; Kraft og Nyekup, " Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Giildenstadt or Gueldensteedt, giil'den-stet', (An- 
 ton Johann,) a Russian physician and naturalist, of 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, i, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; n't; good; moon; 
 
GULDIN 
 
 1101 
 
 GUROWSKI 
 
 German extraction, was born at Riga in 1745. He ac- 
 companied in 1768 a scientific expedition sent out by 
 Catherine II. to explore the different parts of Russia 
 and the Caucasus. He died in 1781, and his "Travels 
 in Russia and the Mountains of the Caucasus" was 
 published in 1791, (2 vols., in German.) 
 
 See Bernoulli, "Reisen," 
 
 Guldin,g6ol-deen',[I.at. Guldi'nus,] (PAUT,)aSwiss 
 mathematician, born at Saint Gall in 1577. He wrote a 
 treatise " On the Centre of Gravity," in which he is thonght 
 to have borrowed from Pappus. He opposed the method 
 of indivisibles invented by Cavalieri. Died in 1643. 
 
 See Monti'Cu, " Histoire des Mathematiqucs." 
 
 Guldinus. See Guldin. 
 
 Gfll'iy, (James Manby,) an English physician, born 
 at Kingston, Jamaica, in 1808. He removed about 1842 
 to Malvern, in England, where he practised hydropathy. 
 He published several medical works. 
 
 Giim'mer-e, (John,) a mathematician, born at Wil- 
 low Grove, Pennsylvania, in 1784, published a valuable 
 treatise on Surveying, (1814,) and became professor of 
 mathematics at Haverford College in 1833. Died in 1845. 
 
 See "Memorials of J. Gummere," by William J. Allinson, 
 Burlington, 1845. 
 
 Gundegisilus. See Gondegisile. 
 
 Gundericus. See Gondioc. 
 
 Guuderode or Guenderode, von, fon giin'deh-ro'- 
 deh, (CAROLINE,) a German poetess, born at Carlsruhe 
 in 1780. Her works are distinguished for great powers 
 of fancy, but are frequently tinctured with melancholy. 
 A disappointment in love caused her to commit suicide 
 in 1806. Her friend Bettina Brentano published, in 1840, 
 " The Giindcrode Letters," consisting of the correspond- 
 ence which passed between herself and Mademoiselle 
 Giinderode. 
 
 Gundicarius. See Gondicaire. 
 
 Gundling, goont'ling, (Nikoi.aus Hieronymus,) a 
 German jurist and litterateur, born near Nuremberg in 
 1671. He became professor of the law of nature and of 
 nations at Halle, and was afterwards made privy coun- 
 cillor. Among his works are "The Way to Truth," 
 ("Via ad Veritatem," 3 vols., 1 7 13,) a collection of essays, 
 entitled "Gundlingiana," (1715-32,) and a "History of 
 Erudition," (5 vols., 1734-36.) Died in 1729. 
 
 See Wideburg, "Memoria Gundlingii," 1729; C. F. Hempel, 
 "N. H. Gundling's umstandliches Leben und Sehriften," 1736; Nl- 
 ceron, "Memoires;" Rambaoi, " Leichenpredigt auf N. H. Gund- 
 ling," 1729. 
 
 Gundling, von, fon g6"6nt'ling, (Jacob Paul,) Baron, 
 a German historian and court fool, born near Nuremberg 
 in 1673. He received from the King of Prussia the titles 
 of baron, privy councillor, councillor of war, etc. He 
 amused the court at Berlin by his oddities and vanity. 
 He wrote a " History of the Emperors Frederick I., 
 Henry VII., and Conrad IV.," (4 vols., 1715-19,) and 
 other works. Died in 1 731. 
 
 See A. B. Koenig. "Leben J. P. von Gundlings," etc., 1795. 
 
 Gundobald. See Gondebaud. 
 
 Gim'duH a Norman ecclesiastic, who was appointed 
 Bishop of Rochester by William the Conqueror. He 
 was the architect of Rochester Castle, and is said to 
 havt built the Tower of London. Died about 1108. 
 
 Gundulitsch, goon'doo-litch', (Ivan,) a distinguished 
 poet, born at Ragusa, in Servia, in 1588. He wrote an 
 epic poem, entitled "The Osmanide," celebrating the 
 war between Osman II. and the Poles; also several 
 admired dramas. He was the earliest dramatic poet 
 among the Slavonians. Died in 1638. 
 
 Gunes. See Ganesa. 
 
 Guunerus, goon-na'ius, (John Ernest,) a Norwegian 
 prelate and naturalist, born at Christianiain 17 18, was one 
 of the founders of the Scientific Society of Norway. He 
 was the author of a " Flora Norvegica," and other works, 
 and was a friend of Linnaeus, who gave the name of Gun- 
 nera to a South American plant. He was created Bishop 
 of Drontheim in 1758. Died in 1773. 
 
 Gun'iiing, (Peter,) an English pulpit orator, born in 
 Kent in 1613, rose to be Bishop of Ely under Charles II. 
 He published several controversial works. Died in 1684. 
 
 Guiist, van, vin gfinst or Hunst, (Pietek,) a skilful 
 Dutch engraver of portraits, born at Amsterdam about 
 
 1566. Among his works are engravings of portraits after 
 van Dyck, dated about 1715 or later. 
 
 Gfin'ter, (Edmund,) an eminent English mathema 
 tician, born in Hertfordshire in 1581. About 1606 he 
 invented the sector, of which he wrote a description in 
 Latin ; and in 1619 he became professor of astronomy 
 at Gresham College. He also invented the Logarithmic 
 Rule for the use of draughtsmen, called "Gunter's 
 Scale," the cross-staff, and other instruments, and the 
 " Canon Triangulorum," (" Law of Triangles.") Gunter 
 is said to have been the first to discover the variation 
 of the compass. Died in 1626. 
 
 See Montucla, " Histoire des Mathematiques." 
 
 Giinther, gun'ter, (Anton,) a German Catholic theo- 
 logian, born at Lindenau in 17S5. He published "Pre- 
 paratory School of Speculative Theology," "The Juste- 
 Milicu in the German Philosophy of the Present," and 
 other treatises in opposition to Hegel's philosophy. 
 
 Gunther, (Johann Christian,) a German poet, born 
 in Lower Silesia in 1695, wrote poetical epistles, satires, 
 songs, and odes, which display uncommon power and 
 were eulogized by Goethe. He fell into dissipated habits, 
 and died in extreme poverty in 1723. 
 
 See his Autobiography, "Lebens- und Keisebeschreibung," etc., 
 1732; M. VV. DURING, "J. C. Gunther; Beitrag zur Deutsche!! Li- 
 teratur-Geschichte," 1831 ; Hoffmann von Fallersleben, "J. C. 
 Giinther ; litevar-historischer Versuch," 1832. 
 
 Gunther von Schwarzburg, guVter fon shwaRts'- 
 booRG, a warlike German prince, born in 1304. He was 
 elected King of the Germans in 1343, and Emperor of 
 Germany in January, 1349. His title to the imperial 
 throne was disputed by Charles IV. Gunther died in 
 June, 1349. 
 
 See F. L. Hoffmann, "Giinther von Schwarzburg," 1819; We- 
 ber, "Kurzgefasstes Memoire vom Leben Guntheri Bellicosi," 1720. 
 
 Gurlitt, gdoR'lit, (Johann Gottfried,) a German 
 archaeologist, born at Halle in 1754, wrote "On the Sci- 
 ence of Gems," and other works. Died in 1827. 
 
 Gttr'nall, (William,) an English divine, bom in 1617. 
 He became rector of Lavenham in 1644, and remained 
 there thirty-five years. He published "The Christian 
 in Complete Armour," (3 vols., 1656-62.) Died in 1679. 
 
 Gur'ney, (Hudson,) M.P., an English antiquary and 
 poet, born about 1774. He produced a good translation 
 of the "Golden Ass" of Apuleius, entitled "Cupid and 
 Psyche," (1799.) Died in 1864. 
 
 Gurney, (Rev. John Hampden,) an English divine 
 of the present age. He published several volumes of 
 sermons, (1S45-57,) and "Historical Sketches, 1400- 
 1546," (1852, second series, 1855, and third series, 1858.) 
 He died in 1862, aged about sixty years. 
 
 Gurney, (Joseph John,) an 'English philanthropist 
 and minister of the Society of Friends, born near. Nor- 
 wich in 1788. He studied at Oxford, where he was dis- 
 tinguished for his attainments in mathematics and the 
 ancient languages. In 1841, in company with his sister, 
 the celebrated Mrs. Fry, he set out on a tour on the con- 
 tinent, with the view of introducing improvements into 
 prison-discipline and of inducing the French govern- 
 ment to abolish slavery in their colonies. He was the 
 author of "Notes and Dissertations on the Bible," "Ob- 
 servations on the Distinguishing Views, etc. of the So- 
 ciety of Friends," " Hints on the Portable Evidence of 
 Christianity," and other valuable works. He possessed 
 great wealth, of which he made a most liberal use, both 
 in public and private charities. In 1837-39 he visited 
 the United States and the West Indies, and wrote "A 
 Winter in the West Indies," giving an interesting account 
 of the results of emancipation in those islands. Died 
 in 1847. 
 
 1 See Bernaro Barton, "Memorial of J. J. Gurney," 1S47; "The 
 British Friend" for 1st month, 1847 ; " Memoirs of J. J. Gurney, 
 with Sdectitins from his Journal," etc. 
 
 Gurowski, goo-rov'skee, (Adam,) Count, a Polish 
 writer and patriot, born in the government of Kalisz 
 about 1810. After the revolution of 1830 he repaired 
 to Paris, where he employed himself for a time as a 
 journalist, and in 1849 visited America. He published, 
 in French, "Thoughts on the Future of Poland," (1841,) 
 " Russia and Civilization," (1841,) (in German,) and 
 various other works. Dietl in 1866. 
 
 See " Atlantic Monthly" for November, 1866. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as x; %b as in this. (2y~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
GURTLER 
 
 uoz 
 
 GUSTAVUS 
 
 Gurtler, gooRt'ler, (Nicholas,) a Swiss Protestant 
 divine, born at Bale in 1654; died in 1711. 
 See Niceron, "Metnoires." * 
 
 Gur'wood, (John,) a brave English officer, born in 
 1791, served in the Peninsular war, and was leader of 
 the forlorn hope at the storming of Ciudad Rodrigo in 
 1812. He became private secretary to the Duke of Wel- 
 lington, and in 1841 was made a colonel. He published 
 in 1838 "The Despatches of the Duke of Wellington 
 during his Various Campaigns," etc., (13 vols. 8vo,) a 
 very popular and valuable work. Died in 1845. 
 
 Gushtasp, goosh-tSsp', or Gustasp, goostSsp', writ- 
 ten also Goshtasp, Histasp, and Kishtasp, a famous 
 Persian hero and king, who has been by some writers 
 identified with Darius I., (surnamed Hystaspis,) by 
 others with Hystaspes, the father of Darius. There is 
 so much that is fabulous in the Persian accounts that 
 have come down to us, that it seems impossible, in most 
 cases, to settle in any satisfactory manner the question 
 of identity between the kings of the Persian writers and 
 those of the Greek historians. Firdousee, (Firdausi,) 
 who is generally believed to have taken the facts of Per- 
 sian history for the basis of his great poem, (the "Shah 
 Namah,") represents GushtSsp as having ruled over Per- 
 sia many years as an absolute sovereign, and as having 
 under his command " a thousand thousand warriors armed 
 with shining steel," — which could not very well refer to 
 Hystaspes, who was but a satrap or inferior prince under 
 Cambyses, but would answer exactly to the circumstances 
 of Darius Hystaspis. As " Darius" (in Persian, " Data" 
 or " Darab) was not originally a proper name, but a title, 
 signifying "lord," " prince," or "king," it seems prob- 
 able that he should have been generally known among 
 the Persians by his patronymic Hystaspes, (in Persian, 
 Gushtdsf.) Darius Hystaspis would then signify, accord- 
 ing to the Greek mode of speaking, the " Prince [son] 
 of Hystaspes." According to Firdousee, Gushtasp was 
 the first Persian king who openly professed the religion 
 of Zoroaster, who (if we may trust the poet-historian) 
 was the contemporary of Gushtasp and his most influen- 
 tial counsellor. (See Darius I., and Hystaspes.) 
 
 See J. Atkinson, "Abridgment of the ShSh Nameh of Fir- 
 dausi," London, 1832; Smith, "Greek and Roman Biography and 
 Mythology." 
 
 Gusman, (Bartholomeu Lourenco.) See Guzman. 
 
 Gussetius. See Gousset. 
 
 Gustaf, the Swedish of Gustavus, which see. 
 
 Gustafskold or Gustafskoeld, goos'tafs-chold', 
 originally named Abraham Hellichius, a Swedish 
 general, born in 1723. Having rendered a very important 
 service to the king, Gustavus III., he was made a general 
 by him, and received a title of nobility, with the sur- 
 name" of Gustafskoeld, ("Shield of Gustavus.") Died 
 in 1792. 
 
 Gustav or Gustave. See Gustavus. 
 
 Gustavus, giis-ta'vus orgus-ta'vus, [Lat. Gusta'vus ; 
 Sw. Gustaf, goos'taf; Ger. Gustav, goos'taf; Fr. Gus- 
 tave, gus'tiv'; It. Gustavo, goos-ta'vo,| I., commonly 
 called Gustavus Vasa, (or Wasa, va'sa,) King of 
 Sweden, was born near Stockholm in 1496. Christie™ 
 II. of Denmark, having usurped the crown of Sweden in 
 1519, caused Gustavus to be imprisoned. Within three 
 days after his coronation, Christiern violated his solemn 
 promise of protection to the Swedish nation, and ordered 
 the execution of the heads of the first Swedish families. 
 Among the eighty-four persons who perished was Eric 
 Vasa, the father of Gustavus. The latter, having escaped 
 from prison, fled to the mountains of Dalecarlia. After 
 enduring great hardships, he at length succeeded in 
 attaching to himself a powerful party, with which he 
 marched towards Stockholm. In 1521, at the head of 
 fifteen thousand men, he took the town and fortress 
 of Westeris, and finally obtained possession of Stock- 
 holm, after an obstinate defence. The crown was now 
 offered to Gustavus, which he refused, and chose rather 
 to govern under the title of stadtholder. But, as the 
 nation was still molested by the King of Denmark and 
 his allies the Catholic party, they again solicited Gus- 
 tavus to become their sovereign ; and in June, 1527, he 
 was crowned King of Sweden. He died in 1559, after a 
 reign of thirty-three years, during which he had gained 
 
 the love of his people by his wise and beneficent admin- 
 istration. He was succeeded by his son, Eric XIV. 
 
 See Hoi.bkrg, "Histoiredu Danemarck ;" Gever, " Histoire de 
 la Suede ;" Vertot, " Histoire des Revolutions de la Suede ;" Olap 
 Celsius, " Konung Gustafs I. Historia," 2 vols., 1746-53; J. W. 
 Archenhoi.z, " Geschichte Gustav Wasa's Konigs von Scilweden," 
 2 vols., 1801, (and French version of the same, Paris, 1803.) 
 
 Gustavus II. See Gustavus Adolphus. 
 
 Gustavus III, King of Sweden, eldest son of Adol- 
 phus Frederick, born in 1746, succeeded to the throne 
 in 1771. Soon after his accession he formed the project 
 of diminishing the power of the nobles, at this time so 
 great as to be dangerous to the crown, while their oppres- 
 sions made them hated by the people. Having by his 
 favours secured the co-operation of the army, he offered 
 his plan for a new constitution to all the military officers 
 of the capital, who received it with applause. After 
 exacting an oath of obedience from the soldiers, he next 
 arrested the chief members of the States-General, and 
 made a public declaration of his project. The following 
 day, the house in which the States-General were as- 
 sembled was surrounded by soldiers and cannon, and 
 the king, with his military staff, entered, and proposed to 
 them the new constitution. It was accepted, and con- 
 firmed by signatures. Those who had been arrested 
 were released, and the revolution was effected without 
 bloodshed. In 1788, however, the nobles showed their 
 hostility to the king by refusing to grant him supplies 
 during his wars with Denmark and Russia. In 1789 
 Gustavus caused a law to be passed which greatly in- 
 creased the royal prerogatives, and at the same time he 
 arrested the leaders of the opposition in the Diet. About 
 1792 several Swedish noblemen conspired against the 
 king's life ; and at a masked ball given at Stockholm 
 he was assassinated by one of their number, named 
 Ankarstrom, in March, 1792. In addition to his talents 
 as a statesman, Gustavus was distinguished as a poet 
 and a dramatist. 
 
 See Geislhr, "Leben des Konigs von Schweden, Gustavs III. ;" 
 Gever, "Histoire de la Suede;" E. L. Possei.t, " Geschichte Gus- 
 tav's III. Konigs der Schweden," 1792 ; F. Beccatini, " Storia del 
 Regno e della Vita di Gustavo III.," 4 vols., 1792. 
 
 Gustavus IV., born in 1778, succeeded his father. 
 Gustavus III., in 1792. From his childhood he had 
 manifested a singular obstinacy of disposition, which in 
 after-life resembled monomania. A zealous advocate of 
 the divine right of kings, he made it the principal object 
 of his life to restore the Bourbon family to the throne 
 of France. He travelled through Germany in 1803 in 
 order to unite the princes of the Empire against Napo- 
 leon I. He would have no intercourse with the nations 
 of Europe who were in the least degree friendly to the 
 French emperor. By these follies he alienated the affec- 
 tions of his people and brought them into innumerable 
 difficulties. The Swedes, in order to rescue their coun- 
 try from the ruin which his conduct was likely to bring 
 upon it, formed a plan for deposing him. Gustavus, 
 suspecting their designs, attempted to obtain possession 
 of the money in the Bank of Sweden, but was prevented 
 by force, and soon after imprisoned as a traitor,. (1809.) 
 The king and his direct descendants were declared by 
 the Diet to have forfeited their right to the crown, and 
 his uncle, Duke Charles, was proclaimed king, under the 
 title of Charles XIII. The deposed king, after travel- 
 ling over Europe, fixed his residence in the town of 
 Saint Gall, in Switzerland, where he assumed the name 
 of Colonel Gustavson, and supported himself by his 
 writings, together with a small pension. His son Gus- 
 tavus obtained the title of Prince of Wasa. Died in 1837. 
 
 See Le Bas, "Suede et Norvege;" "London Quarterly Review" 
 for Dece.mber, 1812. 
 
 Gus-ta'vus A-dol'phus, [Fr. Gustave Adoi.phe, 
 giis'tSv' S'dolF ; Ger. Gustaf Adolf, goos'taf a'dolf ; 
 It. Gustavo Adoi.fo, goos-ta'vo a-dol'fo,] or Gusta- 
 vus II., King of Sweden, the most illustrious hero of his 
 time, born at Stockholm on the 9th of December, 1594, 
 was the son of Charles IX., and grandson of Gustavus 
 Vasa. He ascended the throne in his seventeenth year, 
 and soon gave proof of his extraordinary abilities. Sweden 
 having been invaded by Sigismund, King of Poland, and 
 his ally the Czar of Russia, Gustavus defeated them, and 
 in 1629 concluded a peace by which he gained a great part 
 of Livonia and the town of Riga. Soon after this he was 
 
 a,e, I, o, 0,y, long;^, e, 6, same, less prolonged: a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a,e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndtjgood; moon; 
 
G VST A l^ US 
 
 1103 
 
 GVTZKOfF 
 
 invited by the Protestants of Germany, suffering under 
 the persecutions of Ferdinand II., to be the champion 
 of their cause. Their solicitations, combined with the 
 interest which he as a zealous Protestant felt in the suc- 
 cess of their arms, induced him to comply. Before setting 
 out, he published a declaration to the effect that he did 
 not take this step from the love of conquest, but for the 
 defence of his religion and to avenge the injuries he had 
 received from the Emperor of Austria. In June, 1630, 
 Gustavus landed in Pomerania, at the head of 8000 men. 
 His army was soon after reinforced by six Scottish regi- 
 ments under the Duke of Hamilton, and took the fortress 
 of Wolgast, which supplied them with arms and ammu- 
 nition. Having advanced into Mecklenburg, Gustavus 
 received proposals of peace from the emperor, offering 
 him, among other things, the possession of Pomerania. 
 These proposals were rejected, and Gustavus, with his 
 army increased by large numbers of German Protestants, 
 continued his march through Pomerania and Mecklen- 
 burg, taking one town and fortress after another in rapid 
 succession. He was soon after opposed by Field-Marshal 
 Tilly, whom, after several indecisive engagements, he sig- 
 nally defeated at Leipsic in September, 163 1. In a second 
 encounter with Tilly, on the banks of the Lech, in April, 
 1632, that general lost his life. Ferdinand, now becoming 
 alarmed at the victories of Gustavus, summoned Wallen- 
 stein, whom he had shortly before dismissed, to oppose 
 him. On the 16th of November, 1632, these commanders, 
 the most eminent of their time, and both hitherto uncon- 
 quered, met on the plain of Liitzen. In the early part 
 of the action Gustavus was mortally wounded ; and the 
 Swedes, exasperated in the highest degree by the loss of 
 their king, whom they idolized, fought with irresistible 
 fury, and compelled the enemy to retreat. The Duke of 
 Saxe-Lauenburg, a cousin of Gustavus, who was near him 
 when he fell, and who soon afterwards entered the service 
 of Austria, was strongly suspected of having assassinated 
 him. The military talents of Gustavus were of the high- 
 est order; but they were surpassed by his admirable 
 qualities as a man and his virtues as a ruler. He was 
 succeeded by his daughter and only child, Christina. 
 "Gustavus was," says Schiller, " incontestably the first 
 commander of his century, and the bravest soldier in the 
 army which he had created. His eye watched over the 
 morals of his soldiers as strictly as over their bravery. 
 In everything their law-giver was also their example. 
 In the intoxication of his fortune he was still a man and 
 a Christian, and in his devotion still a hero and a king." 
 See Schiller, "History of the Thirty Years' War;" R. de 
 Prade, " Histoire de Gustave Adolphe dit le Grand," 1686 ; Geyer, 
 " Histoire de la Suede ;" Walter Harte, " History of the Life of 
 Gustavus Adolphus," 2 vols., 1759 ; N. Voot, "Guslav Adolph KBtiig 
 von Schweden," 2 vols., 1790: Jonas H ALLEN BERG, " Svea Rikcs 
 Historia under Konung Gustaf Adolfs Regering," 5 vols., 1790-96; 
 AxelOxenstieena, " Histoire de la Jeunesse de Gustave Adolph ;" 
 Asdkrs Khyxell, "Gustaf II. Adolph," 1833; J. F. Hoi.i.iNtis, 
 " Life of Gustavus Adolphus." 183S ; Gkhokku, " Geschichte Gustav 
 Adolph's," 2 vols., 1837 ; "Gustav Adolf," von C. Dkovsen, 1869, 
 
 Gustavus Eriksson. See Gustavus I. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa, (or Wasa.) See Gustavus I. 
 
 Gutberleth, goot'ber-leV, (Heinrich,) a German 
 professor of philosophy at Deventer, born at Hirschfeld 
 in 1592, wrote a treatise (in Latin) "On Human Affections 
 Physically and Morally considered." Died in 1635. 
 
 Gutberleth, giit'ber-leY, (Todias,) a Dutch antiquary, 
 born in Friesland about 1674, was the author of a treat- 
 ise "On the Mysteries of the Cabiri Gods," (in Latin,) 
 and other works. Died in 1703. 
 
 Gutch, (John,) an English antiquary, born in 1745, 
 was registrar of the University of Oxford He published 
 "The History and Antiquities of the University of Ox- 
 ford, from the Manuscripts of Anthony Wood, with a 
 Continuation," (17S6 ) Died in 1831. 
 
 Gutch, (John MATTHEW,) an English antiquary, son 
 of the preceding, born about 1777, wrote "A Lytell 
 Gestc of Robin Mode," (2 vols., 1847.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Gutenberg, goo'ten-WRo', (Joiiann or Henne,) the 
 inventor of printing, was born at Mentz, in Germany, 
 about 1400. Hisoriginal name was Gansi-leisch, (genss'- 
 fllsh ;) but he afterwards assumed his mother's family 
 name of Gutenberg. In 1450 he entered into partner- 
 ship with John Faust, a citizen of Mentz, in conjunction 
 with whom he printed a vocabulary, called a "' 
 
 'Catholi- 
 
 con," by means of letters cut on blocks of wood. Types 
 of copper or tin were soon after substituted for wood ; 
 and with these a Latin Bible was printed, with great 
 difficulty and expense. In 1455, owing to some dis- 
 agreement in pecuniary matters, Gutenberg and Faust 
 separated, after having had a law-suit. The former, 
 being unable to pay the sum awarded to Faust by 
 the judge, was obliged to give up to him his printing- 
 materials and his invention. Gutenberg subsequently 
 practised his art at Mentz. He was appointed by the 
 archbishop elector of that city and one of the nobles of 
 his court, and obtained other preferments. A bronze 
 monument, by Thorwaldsen, was erected to his memory 
 at Mentz in 1837. Died in 1468. 
 
 See Dupont, " Histoire de I'lmprimerie:" Falkenstein, "Ge- 
 schichte der Buchdruckerkunst," 1840; Ottlev, " Inquiry into the 
 Origin^ etc. of Engraving on Copper and Wood," 1816; Mekrmann, 
 "Origmes Typographies," 1765; Sotheby, "The Typography of 
 the Fifteenth Century," 1845 ; Alphonse de Lamartine, " Guten- 
 berg, Inventeur de I'lmprimerie," 1853 ; Charles Schmidt, " Nou- 
 veaux Details sur la Vie de Gutenberg," 1841 ; Domenico Taccio, 
 " Notizie storico-critico-tipogranco-bibTiografiche di Gutenberg," etc.. 
 1844; "Memoirs of Celebrated Characters," by Lamartine, 1856. 
 
 Gutenberg or Gutteniberg, g56t'tenvbeKO', (Karl 
 Gottlieb,) a German engraver, bom near Nuremberg 
 about 1742. He worked in Paris, where he died in 1792. 
 Among his works were engravings after Rembrandt and 
 Mieris. 
 
 Gutherius. See Gouthieres. 
 
 Guthier. See Gouthieres. 
 
 , Giith'rie, (George James,) an English surgeon, born 
 in London in 1785. He lectured on surgery'in London 
 for many years, and wrote several professional works. 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 Giith'rie, (James,) an American statesman and jurist, 
 born in Nelson county, Kentucky, in 1793. He began 
 to practise law at Louisville about 1820, and was for 
 several years a member of the State legislature for that 
 city. In 1850 he was president of the convention which 
 framed the new constitution of Kentucky. He was 
 appointed by President Pierce secretary of the United 
 States treasury in 1853, and was elected to the Senate 
 of the United States in 1865. Died in 1869. 
 
 See Livingston's "Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Giith'rie, (Thomas,) D.D., a Scottish divine, born at 
 Brechin about 1800. He became an eloquent preacher, 
 and minister of Free Saint John's, Edinburgh, in 1840. 
 As an associate of Dr. Chalmers, he took a prominent 
 part in the institution of the Free Church in 1843. He 
 published "The Gospel in Ezekiel." He was the chief 
 founder of the original Ragged or Industrial School of 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Guthrie, (William,) a Scottish litterateur, born in 
 the county of Angus about 1708. He published a 
 "General History of England from the Invasion of the 
 Romans under Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688," 
 a " History of the English Peerage," a " History of Scot- 
 land," and other compilations. Died in 1770. 
 
 See Disraeli, "Calamities of Authors;" Chambers, "Biogra- 
 phical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gfith'ry or Guthrie, (Henry,) a Scottish divine, 
 was one of the adherents of Charles I. in his contest 
 with the Parliament. He became Bishop of Dunkeld in 
 1665. He died in 1676, leaving a " History of his Own 
 Time," published in 1748. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Gutierrez, goote-eVreth, or Gutierres, goo-te-er'- 
 res, (Antonio Garcia — gaR-Mee'a,) a popular Spanish 
 dramatist, born near Cadiz about 1814. He produced 
 about 1834 " El Trovador," a drama. Among his works 
 are "El Page," and "Magdalena." 
 
 Gutsmuths, goots'moots, (Joiiann Christopii 
 Friedrich,) a German teacher and educational writer, 
 born at Quedlinburg in 1759. He published "Plays 
 for the Exercise and Recreation of Body and Mind," 
 (1796,) and other similar treatises. Died in 1839. 
 
 Gutzkow, goots'ko, (Karl Ferdinand,) a popular 
 
 German novelist and dramatist, born in Berlin in 1S11. 
 He became about 1830 one of the chiefs of the school 
 called "Young Germany." He published, besides many 
 other works, successful tragedies entit'ed " Patkul 
 (1841) and "Uriel Acosta," (1847,) a comedy called 
 " Das Urbild des Tartuffe," a collection of critical essays 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard;%**j; c, H, K,gutturai; N, msal; K, trilltd; 5 as »; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 2$.) 
 
GUTZLAFF 
 
 1 104 
 
 cursE 
 
 entitled "Gods, Heroes, and Don Quixote," (1838,) and 
 "Die Ritter vom Geist," a political and social romance, 
 (1850-52,) which was very popular. He became a resi- 
 dent of Dresden in 1847. 
 
 See Hkinrich Moff, " G. Gutzkow und die Gutzkowgraphie," 
 1839 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Gutzlaff, giits'laf or gu"ts'laf, (Kaul,) a celebrated 
 German missionary and Chinese scholar, born at Pyritz, 
 in Pomerania, in 1803. He repaired to Siam in 1828, 
 and, in conjunction with Tomlin, translated the New 
 Testament into Siamese. With a view of introducing 
 the gospel into China, he settled at Macao, where he 
 formed an intimate friendship with Dr. Morrison, after 
 whose death Gutzlaff became, in 1835, first interpreter 
 for the superintendence of British commerce, lie visited 
 England in 1849, and died at Hong-Kong, shortly after 
 his return, in 1851. Among his various works (which 
 are mostly written in English) we may name his "China 
 Opened," (1838,) and " History of the Chinese Empire." 
 He also had a share in a new translation of the Bible 
 into Chinese. 
 
 Guy. See Gui and Guido. 
 
 Guy, gi, (Thomas,) the founder of Guy's Hospital, 
 London, was born in that city in 1643. Having acquired 
 a large fortune, principally by the sale of South Sea 
 stock, he built additions to Saint Thomas's Hospital in 
 Southwark in 1707, and subsequently founded the hos- 
 pital near Saint Thomas's which bears his name. He 
 is said to have made more munificent donations for 
 charitable purposes than any other private man in the 
 kingdom. Died in 1724. 
 
 Guy, gi or ge, (or Guido, gwee'do) de Lusignan, 
 (deh lu'sen'yoN',) King of Jerusalem, was of French 
 origin. He married Sibylla, daughter of Amaury, King 
 of [erusalem. In 1 186, Baldwin V., the son of Sibylla by 
 a former husband, the Marquis of Montferrat, became 
 heir to the throne, but died in the same year. Guy de 
 Lusignan then obtained the title of king. His capital 
 was taken by Saladin in 1 187, and his title was disputed 
 by Isabella, a sister of Sibylla. Guy applied for aid to 
 Richard I. of England, who gave him the kingdom of 
 Cyprus (1 192) on condition that he would renounce his 
 claim to Jerusalem. He was succeeded by his brother 
 Amaury about 1 194. 
 
 See Michaud, " History of the Crusades." 
 
 Guyard, ge'iR', (Bernard,) a French friar, born at 
 Craon in 1601, had the title of preacher ( ' preJicateur ) to 
 the king, and wrote several works. Died in 1674. 
 
 Guyard, (Laurent,) a French sculptor, born at Chau- 
 mont-en-Bassigni in 1723, was a pupil of Bouchardon 
 the Younger. Died in 1788. 
 
 See J. B. Varney, "Notice sur L. Guyard," 1806. 
 
 Guyard de Berville, ge'aV deh beVvel', a French 
 biographer, born in Paris in 1697. He wrote a " Life 
 of Chevalier Bayard," (1760,) and a "Life of Bertrand 
 Du Guesclin," (1767.) Died in a hospital in 1770. 
 
 Guyet, ge'|', (Francois,) a French scholar, born at 
 Angers in 1575. He wrote annotations on various Greek 
 and Latin classics, and some Latin poems. He was a 
 friend of De Thou, Menage, and Balzac. Died in 1655. 
 
 Guyetand, ge'a't&N', (Claude M\RrE,) a French 
 poet and satirist, born in 1748, wrote "Genius Avenged," 
 and other poems. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Guyon, ge'6N', (Claude Marie,) a French historian, 
 born in* Franche-Comte in 1699. He published a con- 
 tinuation of Echard's " Roman History," (io vols., 1736,) 
 a "History of the Amazons, Ancient and Modern," 
 (1740,) a "History of the Indies," (3 vols., 1744,) and 
 other works. Died in 1771. 
 
 See Desessarts, " Les Siecles HtteYaires de la France." 
 
 Guyon, gl'on, [Fr. pron. ge'oN',] (Jeanne Bouvier 
 de la Motte — boo've-a' deh limot,) Madame, a French 
 lady, celebrated for her talents and piety, born at Mon- 
 targis in 1648. In her sixteenth year, in compliance with 
 her parents' wishes, she married M. Guyon, whom she 
 had never seen till a few days previous. On becoming 
 a widow, in 1676, she devoted herself to the service of 
 the Church, and a few years later retired to a religious 
 establishment at Gex. She soon after wrote "The Song 
 of Songs of Solomon, interpreted according to the Mystic 
 
 Sense," and a " Short and Easy Method of Prayer," two 
 very popular works, which, however, gave offence to some 
 of the clergy. In consequence of their persecutions, 
 she was imprisoned nearly eight months. On her re- 
 lease she became intimately acquainted with Fenelon, 
 who had considerable sympathy with her peculiar reli- 
 gious views and continued to be one of her truest friends. 
 About this time she put her writings into the hands of 
 Uossuet, Bishop of Meaux, who expurgated them from 
 what he regarded as the heresy of Quietism. Notwith- 
 standing the submission of Madame Guyon to the cen- 
 sure of Bossuet, she was involved in the persecutions of 
 Fenelon, and about 1695 was imprisoned in the Bastille. 
 On her release, in 170c, she devoted herself to writing; 
 and her works, it is said, form 39 octavo volumes. Her 
 Autobiography has been translated by Cowper, who had 
 a great esteem for her character and her writings. 
 
 See Upham, "Life of Madame Guyon," 1831 ; De Bausset, 
 "Histoire de Fenelon;" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" 
 Phei.ipeaux, " Lettres sur 1'Histoire du Quie'tisme;" Hodgson, 
 " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. 
 
 Guyon, gT'on, (Richard Debaufre,) a distinguished 
 general, born near Bath, in England, in 1813. He entered 
 the Austrian service in 1832, and rose in a few years to 
 be aide-de-camp of the Hungarian field-marshal Splenyi, 
 whose daughter he married. He fought with great dis- 
 tinction against the Austrians in the principal battles of 
 the revolution of 1848, and was created a general. After 
 Gorgey's surrender, (August, 1849,) Guyon escaped with 
 Kossuth to Turkey, where he obtained a high command 
 in the Sultan's army. He organized the army which de- 
 fended Kars, (1854.) Died at Constantinople in 1856. 
 
 See A. Kinglakk, "Gen. Guyon on the Battle-Fields ofHungary." 
 
 Guyot See Desfontaines, Aisise. 
 
 Guyot, ge'o', (Arnold Henry,) Ph.D., LL.D., a 
 meritorious writer on physical geography, was born near 
 Neufchatel, in Switzerland, in 1807. He was a fellow- 
 student and friend of Agassiz, graduated at Berlin in 1835, 
 and spent several years in the study of glaciers, in which 
 he made important discoveries, lie came to the United 
 States in 1848, and in the ensuing winter delivered in Bos- 
 ton a course of lectures on physical geography, which were 
 published under the title of "The Earth and Man," (1849.) 
 He is author of a series of text-books on geography. He 
 has been for some years professor of geology and physical 
 geography at Princeton College, New Jersey. 
 
 Guyot, ge'o', (Claude Etienne,) a French general, 
 born near Lons-le-Saulnier in 1768, served as general of 
 division in Russia in 1812. Died in 1837. 
 
 Guyot, (Germain Antoine,) a French jurist, born 
 in Paris in 1694; died in 1750. 
 
 Guyot, (Joseph Nicolas,') a French jurist, born in 
 Lorraine in 1728, published, besides other works, a useful 
 compilation called a " Universal and Descriptive (rai- 
 sonne) Repertory of Civil, Criminal, and Canonical Juris- 
 prudence," (64 vols., 1775-86.) Died in 1816. 
 
 Guyot de Fere, ge'o' deh faiR, (Franqois Fortune,) 
 a French journalist and litterateur, born in Paris in 1791. 
 In 1826 he founded the "Journal of Arts and Trades," 
 ("Journal des Arts et Metiers.") He published, among 
 other works, a " History of Prince Eugene Beauharnais," 
 (1821.) 
 
 Guyot de Folleville. See Foli.evili.e. 
 
 Guyot des Herbiers, ge'o' da zek'be-a', (Claude 
 Antoine,) a French poet, born at Joinville in 1745 ; died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Gvtys, ge, (Pierre Alphonsf.,) a French litterateur, 
 son of Pierre Augustin, noticed below, was born at Mar- 
 seilles in 1755. lie was the author of a comedy entitled 
 "The House of Moliere," a "Eulogy on Antoninus 
 Pius," and several other works. Died in 1812. 
 
 Guys, (Pierre Augustin,) a French merchant and 
 traveller, bom at Marseilles in 1721, visited Asia and 
 Greece, and published in 1776 a "Literary Journey in 
 Greece," which was eulogized by Voltaire in some verses. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 Guyse. See Guise. 
 
 Guyse, g?z, ? (John,) an eminent English Calvinist 
 and Independent minister, born at Hertford in 1680. He 
 preached for some years in London. His principal work, 
 "An Exposition of the New Testament in the Form 
 
 i,e,T, o, u,y, long; a,e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o, 11, J, short; a,e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
gutton 
 
 i io; 
 
 GTLLEMBOVRG 
 
 of a Paraphrase," (3 vols., 1739-42,) has been often re- 
 printed. Died in 1761. 
 
 Guyton de Morveau, ge'tiN' deh moR'vo', (Louis 
 Bernard,) an eminent French chemist, born at Dijon 
 in January, 1737, was educated for the law, and in 1755 
 became advocate-general in Parliament. Without relin- 
 quishing the law, he pursued the study of chemistry with 
 success, and in 1772 published a work on the subject, 
 entitled "Academic Digressions." In 1773 he made the 
 important discovery of the power of certain fumigations 
 against infectious effluvia, and checked a fatal disease at 
 Dijon by chlorine gas. In 1782 he proposed a methodi- 
 cal nomenclature for chemistry, and afterwards united 
 with Lavoisier in forming that system of nomenclature 
 which has since been generally adopted with such exten- 
 sive utility. He displayed great erudition and judgment 
 in his "Chemical Dictionary" for the "Encyclopedic 
 Methodique," (1786.) As a member of the Convention 
 in 1792, he participated in the excesses of the popular 
 party. About 1795 he took a prominent part in the 
 establishment of the Polytechnic School, in which he 
 occupied a chair for eleven years. He contributed manv 
 articles to the Institute, of which lie was a member, and 
 to the "Annalcs de Chitnie," of which he was editor. 
 He was a Fellow of the Koyal Society of London. During 
 the empire of Napoleon he received the title of baron, 
 and was an officer of the legion of honour. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Hkkthollet, "E*loge historique de Guyton de Morveau;" 
 HoEfTVR, " Histoire de la Cliimie;" "Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" 
 *' N'Hiveile Biographic Ge"ndrale." 
 
 Guzman, gooth-man', (Alejandro,) a Spanish poli- 
 tician, born in Granada in 1752, entered the republican 
 army soon after the breaking out of the French Revo- 
 lution, and became one of the most violent members of 
 the Jacobin faction. He was guillotined in Paris in 1794. 
 
 Guzman, de, da gooth-man', (Alfonso Perez,) sur- 
 named THE Good, a celebrated Spanish commander, 
 born at Valladolid in 1258. Having been appointed by 
 King Sancho IV. governor of Tarifa, he defended that 
 fortress against the Infant Don Juan, brother of the 
 king. Don Juan, having failed in his efforts to take the 
 place, threatened to put to death a son of Guzman who 
 had fallen into his hands, if the fortress was not instantly 
 surrendered. To this menace Guzman replied "that, 
 sooner than be guilty of such infamous treachery, he 
 would lend him a poniard to kill his son," at the same 
 time throwing his dagger from the ramparts. The atro- 
 cious threat was executed ; and the wife of Guzman died 
 soon after, of grief. This incident has been celebrated 
 in one of Lope de Vega's dramas. Guzman afterwards 
 distinguished himself in several engagements with the 
 Moors, and fell in battle in 1309. He was the ancestor 
 of the Dukes of Medina-Sidonia. 
 
 See Quintana, " Lives of Celebrated Spaniards." 
 
 Guzman or GuzmSo, de, di goos-mowN', (Bar- 
 THolomeu LoUKENQo,) a Portuguese mechanician and 
 ecclesiastic, born at Santos about 1680, is called the 
 original inventor of the balloon. He made the first 
 experiment with his machine near Lisbon in 1709; but 
 he was deterred from prosecuting his labours by the fear 
 of the Inquisition. Died about 1725. 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Americana," edited by Francis Libber ; 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Guzman, de, (Enrique,) Duke of Medina-Sidonia, a 
 Spanish grandee, acted a prominent part in the conquest 
 of Granada. Died in 1492. 
 
 Guzman, de, (Don Fernando Perez,) a Spanish 
 poet and chronicler, born in 1405, left a "Chronicle of 
 John II. of Castile." Died in 1470. 
 
 Guzman, de, (Donna Luisa,) a daughter of Juan 
 Perez, Duke of Medina-Sidonia, became the queen of 
 John of Braganza, King of Portugal. On his death, in 
 1656, she was appointed regent, and distinguished her- 
 self by the wisdom and firmness of her administration. 
 Having concluded a treaty with Charles I. of England, 
 she gave her daughter in marriage to his son, afterwards 
 Charles II. Soon after the accession of her son, Al- 
 fonso VI., she retired to a convent, where she died in 
 1666. Under her rule the independence of Portugal 
 was secured. 
 
 Guzman, de, (Oi.ivarf.z.) See Oi.ivarez. 
 
 Gnzman, de, (Pedro,) a Spanish painter, surnamed 
 EL Coxo, ("the Lame,") born about 1557, was patronized 
 by Philip III., who made him his painter in 1601. 
 
 See Quilijkt, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Gwllt, (George,) an English architect and antiquary, 
 was born in London in 1775. Among his principal 
 works are the warehouses of the West India Docks. 
 Being employed in repairing liow Church in 1820, he 
 identified the Norman remains of the original building, 
 which he described in a treatise entitled "Observations 
 on the Church of Saint Mary-le-Bow," etc. He also 
 restored the church of Saint Mary Overy, and other 
 edifices in London. Died in 1856. 
 
 Gwilt, (Joseph,) a brother of the preceding, born 
 in 1784, was distinguished as a writer on architecture. 
 He designed Markree Castle, near Sligo. Among his 
 works are " Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and 
 Theoretical," (1826,) and an " Encyclopaedia of Archi- 
 tecture, Historical, Theoretical, and Practical," (1S42,) 
 which is commended as a standard work. 
 
 Gwilym, gwll'im, (David ai>,) a Welsh bard, born in 
 Cardiganshire in 1340; died about 1400. His poems, in 
 Welsh, were published in 1792. 
 
 Gwin, (William M.,) a Democratic politician, born 
 in Sumner county, Tennessee, in 1805. He was elected 
 to the Senate of the United States for California in 1850, 
 and was re-elected in 1857. He acted with the pro-slavery 
 party. 
 
 Gwinn, (William,) an American naval officer, born 
 at Columbus, Indiana, in 1831. He became a lieutenant 
 in 1856, and commanded a gunboat at the battles of 
 Fort Donelson and Shiloh, February and April, 1862. 
 He was killed in the attack on Haines' Bluff, near Vicks. 
 burg, in January, 1863. 
 
 Gwinne, gwln, (Matthew,) an English physician, 
 born in London about 1554, was appointed in 1582 regent 
 of Saint John's College, Oxford, and in 1596 first pro- 
 fessor of medicine in Gresham College. He was also 
 a Fellow of the College of Physicians. Died in 1627. 
 
 See Ward's "Lives of the Gresham Professors." 
 
 Gwin-nett', (Button,) born in England about 1732, 
 emigrated to Georgia about 1772. In 1776 he was 
 elected to Congress, in which he signed the Declaration 
 of Independence. He became president of the provin- 
 cial council of Georgia in 1777, and was killed in a duel 
 by General Mcintosh in May of that year. 
 
 See Goodrich's "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of 
 Independence." 
 
 Gwynn or Gwynne, gwln, (Eleanor,) an English 
 actress and celebrated beauty, was born in London 
 about 1650. After she had achieved success as an actress, 
 she became a mistress of Charles II. Died about 1690. 
 
 See P. Cunningham, "The Story of Nell Gwynn," 1852: W. H. 
 D. Adams, " Famous Beauties and Historic Women," vol. i., Lon- 
 don, 1865. 
 
 Gy'geS, [Gr. Tiyvi,] first Lydian king of the dynasty 
 of the Mermnadae, was minister of King Candaules, 
 whose throne he usurped after having put him to death. 
 He is said to have possessed a magic ring which made 
 the wearer invisible. He reigned about thirty-eight 
 years. Died about 680 B.C. 
 
 Gylippe. See Gvi.ippus. 
 
 Gy-lip'pus, [Gr. Yifamroc; Fr. Gylippe, zhe'lip',1 
 a skilful Spartan general in the Peloponnesian war. In 
 414 11. C. he was sent to command the army at Syracuse, 
 which was then besieged by the Athenians. He defeated 
 the. enemy in several actions, and captured their whole 
 army, commanded by Nicias and Demosthenes, in 413. 
 After the capture of Athens by Lysander, Gylippus was 
 commissioned to convey to Sparta the treasure there 
 obtained. He was convicted of stealing a large part of 
 it, and was condemned to death, but escaped, and died 
 in exile. 
 
 See THUcvninFA, books vi., vii., viit. ; Plutarch, "Nicias" and 
 "Lysander;" Mui.l.KR, "The Dorians." 
 
 Gyllembourg-Ehreusvard, gtll'lem-bdoRG' a'ren- 
 sv?Rd', ( Tiiom asink Christine Buntzen.) Madame, a 
 celebrated Danish novelist, born in 1773, was married 
 in 1790 to the dramatist Peter Andreas llciberg. She 
 was subsequently divorced, and in 1801 became the wife 
 of Count Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard. Her " Novels, Old 
 
 e as k; 9 as t; g hard; g zsj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (Jjiy"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 70 
 
GTLLENBORG 
 
 1 1 06 
 
 HABER T 
 
 and New, by the Author of a Story of Every Day," 
 (" Gamle og Nye Noveller af Forfatteren til en Hver- 
 dags Historic,") appeared in 1834. They acquired a 
 wide popularity, and were translated into French and 
 German. Died in 1856. 
 
 See Ersi.ew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." 
 
 Gyllenborg, yfiil'len-boRg', (Charles,) Count, a 
 Swedish nobleman and diplomatist, born at Upsal in 
 1679. He was employed by Charles XII. as resident 
 minister in London from 1703 to 1717, and subsequently 
 rose to be a councillor of state and chancellor of the 
 University of Upsal. He was the author of " Disputatio 
 de Regno Ostro-Gothorum in Italia," (" Dissertation on 
 the Ostro-Gothic Kingdom in Italy.") Died in 1746. 
 
 See Johan Ihre, " Oratio in MemoriamC. Gyllenborg," 1747. 
 
 Gyllenborg, (Gustavus Frederic,) Count, a cousin 
 of the preceding; born in 1 731, was one of the first mem- 
 bers of the Academy of Stockholm. He published a 
 number of odes, satires, fables, and poems of various 
 kinds, among which maybe named "The Passage of the 
 Belts." Died in 1809. 
 
 Gyllenhaal, yiil'len-hil, (Leonhard,) a Swedish 
 entomologist, born in West Gothland in 1752, was a 
 pupil of Linnaeus. He wrote an able work on the 
 insects of Sweden, (" Insecta Suecica," 4 vols., 180S-27.) 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Gyllenhielm, ytil'len-hyJlm', (Carl Carlsson,) 
 Baron, a natural son of Charles IX. of Sweden, was 
 born in 1574. He served with distinction in France in 
 the army of Henry IV., and afterwards was made a 
 senator, high admiral of Sweden, and one of the pre- 
 ceptors of the princess Christina. Died in 1650. 
 
 Gyongy63y, dyon'dyo-se, (Stephen,) one of the 
 earliest Hungarian poets, born in 1620. His works are 
 
 still popular among his countrymen, and have passed 
 through numerous editions. Died in 1704. 
 
 Gyrowetz, glr'o-wets', (Adalbert,) a distinguished 
 musical composer, born at Budweis, in Bohemia, in 1763, 
 After visiting Paris and London, where he was received 
 with great favour, he settled at Vienna, and became 
 chapel-master at the Imperial Theatre. Among his 
 best operas are "The Oculist," and "Felix and Adele." 
 He also composed masses, sonatas, and symphonies: 
 the last-named are particularly admired. Died in 1850. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Biographie von ilun selbst geschrieben," 
 1848 ; Fetis, " Biographie Uuiverselle des Musiciens." 
 
 Gyulai or Gyulay, dyoo'lT, almost joo'lT, (Franz,) 
 Count, a Hungarian general in the Austrian service, 
 was born at Pesth in 1799. He became colonel about 
 1830, and lieutenant-field-marshal in 1846. He was min- 
 ister of war a short time in 1850, after which he was 
 commandant at Milan. In 1857 he succeeded Kadetzky 
 as commander-in-chief of the army of Italy. He had 
 the chief command in the war which began in May, 1859, 
 and was defeated by the Franco-Sardinian army at the 
 great battle of Magenta in June. Before the end of this 
 month he was deprived of the command. Died in 1862. 
 
 Gyulai or Gyulay, (Ignatius,) Count, an Austrian 
 commander, the father of the preceding, born at Her- 
 mannstadt in 1763, served against the Turks and in 
 the principal campaigns against the French. In 1805 he 
 concluded the peace of Presburg, in conjunction with 
 Prince Liechtenstein, and was soon after made Ban of 
 Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia. He was appointed 
 field-marshal-general in 1813, and in 1830 president of 
 the aulic council. Died in 1831. 
 
 Gyzen, gl'zen or Hi'zen, (Peter,) a Flemish landscape- 
 painter, born at Antwerp in 1636. His works are rare, 
 and are prized for their high finish. Died about 1700. 
 
 H. 
 
 Haag,/*8g, (Eugene and Emilf.,) brothers, and French 
 Protestants, born at Montbeliard in 1S08 and 1810. They 
 published " Protestant France, or the Lives of French 
 Protestants who have made for themselves a Name in 
 Historv," (" La France protestante," etc., 9 vols. 8vo, 
 1847-59.) 
 
 Haak, hak, (Theodor,) a German divine, born near 
 Worms in 1605. He translated the Dutch annotations 
 on the Bible into English, and was one of the founders 
 of the Royal Society of London. He passed many years 
 in England. Died in 1690. 
 
 Haansbergen, van, vin hins'beVgen, (Jan,) a Dutch 
 painter, born at Utrecht in 1642, was one of the best 
 pupils of Poelemburg, whom he imitated. He settled 
 at the Hague in 1669, and painted portraits, nymphs, 
 etc. Died in 1705. 
 
 Haaren, van, (Willem.) See Haren. 
 
 Haas, hass, (Guillaume,) a Swiss engraver and type- 
 founder, born at Bale in 1741 ; died in 1800. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Haas, hiss, or Hasius, ha'ze-us, (Johann Mat- 
 thias,) a German historian and geographer of great 
 merit, born at Augsburg in 1684. He taught mathematics 
 at Wittenberg, and wrote " Phosphorus Historiarum," 
 etc., (1743.) Died in 1742. 
 
 Haas, de, deh his, (F. H.,) a skilful marine painter, 
 born at Rotterdam about 1830. He opened, a few years 
 since, a studio in New York, where he now resides. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Haas, de, deh hSs, (John Philip,) born in Holland 
 about 1735, distinguished himself in the war of the Revo- 
 lution, and was made a brigadier-general by Congress in 
 1777. Died in Philadelphia about 1795. 
 
 Haase, ha'zeh, (Heinrich Gottlob Friedrich 
 Christian,) an eminent German philologist, born at 
 Magdeburg in 1808. He became titular professor of 
 philology at Breslau in 1846. He published good editions 
 of Thucydides, (1842,) of Seneca, (1S52,) and other clas- 
 sics; also "The Past and Future of Philology," (1835.) 
 
 Hab'ak-kuk, (or ha-bak'kuk,) [Heb. p'p3n ; Fr. 
 
 Habacuc, hi'bt' kiik',] one of the minor Hebrew pro- 
 phets, and author of a canonical book of the Bible. He 
 is supposed to have prophesied about 600 B.C. His 
 language is highly poetical and imaginative. A passage 
 of his book is quoted by Saint Paul, Acts xiii. 41. 
 
 Habeneck, Afb'nek', ( Antoine Francois,) a French 
 musician, born at Mezieres in 1781 ; died in 1849. 
 
 Haberlin or Haeberlin, ha'ber-Ieen', (Franz Domi- 
 nicus,) an eminent German, historian, born near Ulm, on 
 the Danube, in 1720. He became professor of history at 
 Helmstedt in 1746, and professor of public law there in 
 1 75 1. Soon after that date he was privy councillor of 
 the Duke of Brunswick. He published a " Universal 
 History," ("Allgemeine Weltgeschichte," 12 vols., 1767 
 -73,) a "Modern History of the German Empire since 
 the Beginning of the War of Schmalkalden," (20 vols., 
 1774-86,) which is praised as a classic work, and other 
 histories. His chief merits are exactitude and thorough 
 research. Died in 1787. 
 
 See Mrusri., " Lexikon der vom Jahre 1750-1800 verstorbenen 
 Deutschen Schriftsteller." 
 
 Haberlin, (Karl Friedrich,) a German publicist, 
 son of the preceding, born in 1756 at Helmstedt, where 
 he became professor of public law about 1786. He 
 published a " Repertory of German Public Law and 
 Feudal Law," (1781-95,) and other works. Died in 1808. 
 
 Haberlin, (Karl Ludwig,) a novelist, a son of the 
 preceding, was born at Erlangen in 1784. He published 
 many historical novels, among which are "The Exile," 
 ("Der Heimathlose,") and "The Prime Minister," (4 
 vols., 1835.) 
 
 Habermann. See Avenarius. 
 
 Hab'er-sham, (Joseph,) born at Savannah, Georgia, 
 in 1750. He took part in the war of the Revolution, 
 and obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1785 he 
 was chosen a member of Congress. From 1795 to 1800 
 he was postmaster-general. Died in 181 5. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans." 
 
 Habert, /jt'baiR', (Franqois,) a French poet, born 
 at Issoudun about 1520. He produced, besides many 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, 8, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HABERT 
 
 1 107 
 
 HACQUET 
 
 original poems, a version of Ovid's " Metamorphoses," 
 which was often reprinted. Died about 1568. 
 
 Habert, (Isaac,) a French poet, nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, born in Paris about 1560, wrote a poem "On 
 Meteors," ("Des Meteores," 1585.) 
 
 Habert, (Isaac,) a French theologian and writer, son 
 of Germain, (de Cerisy,) noticed below, was born in 
 Paris. He became preacher to the king, and in 1645 
 Bishop of Vabtes. Died in 1668. 
 
 Habert, (Louis,) a French theological writer, born 
 near Blois in 1636; died in 1 718. 
 
 Habert, (PHILIPPE.) a French poet, born in Paris 
 about 1605, was one of the first members of the French 
 Academy, and author of a poem called the "Temple of 
 Death." He was killed at a siege in Flanders in 1637. 
 
 Habert, (Pikrrk JoskI'H,) Baron, a French general, 
 born at Avallon in 1773. He distinguished himself at 
 Heliopolis, (1798,) Jena, (1806,) and Eylau, (1807,) and 
 subsequently in the Spanish campaign of 1814. In 1815 
 he obtained command of a division, and was severely 
 wounded at Waterloo. Died in 1825. 
 
 Habert de Cerisy, //a'baiR'* deli si're'se', (Ger- 
 main,) a brother of Philippe Habert, noticed above, was 
 a member of the French Academy, and wrote poems 
 which were once admired. Died in 1655. 
 
 Habicht, ha'biKt, (Christian Maximilian,) a Ger- 
 man Orientalist, born at Breslau in 1775. He published 
 an edition of "The Arabian Nights," (" Tausend and 
 eine Nachte," 8 vols., 1825-39,) and, with the aid of 
 Schall and Von der Hagen, made a German version of 
 the same, (15 vols., 1825.) Died in 1839. 
 
 Habicot^a'be'ko',* (Nicolas,) a French anatomist, 
 born at Bonny about 1550, studied in Paris, and became 
 surgeon to the Hotel-Dieu and to the army. He was 
 one of the most skilful anatomists of his time, and wrote 
 several professional treatises. Died in 1624. 
 
 Hab'ing-ton, (William,) an English poet, born at 
 Hendlip in 1605. His father, Thomas, was implicated 
 in the Gunpowder Plot, but was pardoned. William 
 wrote "The Queen of Aragon," a tragi-comedy, and 
 a collection of small poems, entitled "Castara," (1635.) 
 Died in 1645. 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets :" Sir S. E. Brydgrs, 
 *' Censura Literaria;" Hali.am, " Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe;" "Retrospective Review," vol. xi., 182s. 
 
 Habsburg or Hapsburg, haps'biirg, [Ger. pron. 
 haps'booRG,] House of, an ancient sovereign family 
 of Austria, which derives its name from the castle of 
 Habsburg, or Hapsburg, in Switzerland. The firs*, 
 member of the family who acquired great celebrity was 
 Rudolf of Habsburg, born in 1218 and elected Emperor 
 of Germany in 1273. H e obtained Austria and other 
 provinces by conquest, and founded the dynasty which 
 now reigns over the Austrian empire, and which since 
 1736 has been styled the house of Habsburg-Lorraine. 
 (See Rudolf of Habsiiurg.) 
 
 See, also, E. M. von Lichnowsky, " Geschichte des Hauses 
 Habsburg," 2 vols., 1836-37. 
 
 Hachette, /43'sheV,* the surname of Jeanne Four- 
 qukt, (fooR'ki',) a French heroine, born at Beauvais 
 in 1454. She acted a prominent part in the defence of 
 Beauvais against Charles the Bold in 1472. She used 
 a imall axe (hachette) as a weapon : hence her surname. 
 
 Hachette, (J fan Nicolas Pierre,) an able French 
 mathematician, born at Mezieres in 1769, was educated 
 at the University of Rheims. By the influence of Monge, 
 he was appointed assistant professor in the Polytechnic 
 School in 1794, and in 1797 he obtained the chair of 
 descriptive geometry, which he retained until 1816. In 
 1830 he became a member of the Institute. He published 
 a "Supplement to the Descriptive Geometry of Monge," 
 (181 1,) "Elements of Geometry of Solids," (1817,) 
 "Applications of Descriptive Geometry," (1821,) a 
 " Treatise on Machines," etc He rendered a great 
 service by applying geometry to the construction of ma- 
 chinery. Among his pupils was Arago. Died in 1834. 
 
 See <,H;eraro, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Hachette, (Louts Christopiik. Francois,) born at 
 Rethel, in France, in 1800, was the proprietor of a great 
 publishing-house in Paris. Died in 1864. 
 
 • On the pronunciation of the initial French h, see p. 1115, nut*. 
 
 Hackaei t. See Hakkert. 
 
 Hackelmaiin, hak'kel-man', (Leopold,) a German 
 jurist and legal writer, born near Bremen in 1563 ; died 
 in 1619. ■ 
 
 Hackert. See Hakkert. 
 
 Hackert, hak'keRt, (Georg,) an engraver, a brother 
 of Philipp, noticed below, was born in Prussia in 1755. 
 He engraved the "View of Rome" and other works of 
 his brother Philipp. Died at Florence in 1805. His 
 brother Johann, born in 1744, was a landscape-painter. 
 Died at Bath, in England, in 1773. Another brother, 
 Wii.helm, born in 1748, was a painter of history and 
 portraits. He was professor of design in the Academy 
 of Saint Petersburg when he died, about 1786. 
 
 See Nagi.er, " Neues Al!gemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Hackert, (Philipp,) an excellent German landscape- 
 painter, was bom at Prenzlau, in Prussia, in 1737. He 
 visited Rome about 1768, and passed the rest of his life 
 mostly in Italy. He painted for the empress Catherine 
 of Russia six pictures of the naval victory over the Turks 
 at Tchesme in 1770. He painted a "View of Rome," 
 " Views in the Vicinity of the Villa Horace," and many 
 Italian sea-ports. About 1786 he was appointed first 
 painter to the King of Naples. He left Naples in 1799, 
 and settled at Florence, where he died in 1807. His 
 merit consisted in a close imitation of nature. Goethe 
 wrote a memoir of his life, ("P. Hackert; biographische 
 Skizze," 1811.) 
 
 See, also, Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hack'et, (John,) born in London in 1592, was edu- 
 cated at Cambridge, and made Bishop of Lichfield and 
 Coventry in 1661. He published a volume of sermons, 
 and a " Life of Archbishop Williams." Died in 1670. 
 
 See THOMAS Pi.cme, " Life of Bishop Hacket," 167s. 
 
 Hack'ett, (Horatio Bai.ch,) an American biblical 
 scholar, born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, in 1808. He 
 graduated at Amherst College in 1830, studied theology 
 at Andover, and afterwards at Halle, in Germany. He 
 obtained the chair of Hebrew and biblical interpreta- 
 tion in the Newton (Baptist) Theological Seminary of 
 Massachusetts about 1840. Among his works are a 
 Chaldee Grammar, translated, with additions, from the 
 German of Winer, and a "Commentary on the Original 
 Text of the Acts of the Apostles," (1853; same edition, 
 greatly enlarged, 1858.) 
 
 Hackett, (James Henry,) an American actor, born 
 in New York in 1800. He performed comedy in the 
 United States and in England. Died in 1871. 
 
 Hacklander, hak'len'der, (Friedrich Wii.helm,) a 
 popular German novelist, born near Aix-la-Chapelle 
 about 1816. He served in the Prussian army for several 
 of his early years. In 1841 he published " Scenes of 
 Military Life during Peace," which had a great success, 
 lie became secretary to the prince-royal of Wurtemberg 
 in 1843. He wrote numerous popular works, among 
 which are "Military Life in Time of War," (1849,) 
 "Scenes from Life," (" Bilder aus dem Leben," 1850,) 
 " Nameless Histories," (" Namenlose Geschichten," 3 
 vols., 1851,) and "Eugene Stillfried," (1852.) He has 
 been called "the Charles Dickens of Germany." 
 
 Hack'ley, (Charles W.,) a mathematician and Epis- 
 copal clergyman, bom at Herkimer, New York, in 1808, 
 became professor of mathematics in Columbia College, 
 New York, in 1843. He published, besides other works, 
 a "Treatise on Algebra," (1846.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Hackluyt. See Hakluyt. 
 
 Hackspann or Hackspan, hik'span, (TiiE.onoR 
 or Till (iI)oric.) a learned German theologian and phi- 
 lologist, born at Weimar in 1607. He was a pupil of 
 Calixtus, whose liberal opinions he adopted, was well 
 versed in Oriental languages, and became professor of 
 Hebrew at Altorf. He published, besides other works, 
 in Latin, "Philological Disputations," (1643,) "The 
 Faith and Laws of Mohammed," (1646,) and "Miscel- 
 lanea Sacra," (1660.) Died in 1659. 
 
 See Ersch und Uruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." • 
 
 Hacquet, //S'kJ', (I'.althasar,) a naturalist, born at 
 net, in Uretagne, in 1740, was chosen professor of 
 
 natural history in Lemberg, Austria, in 1788. He pub- 
 lished, in German, several accounts of his travels among 
 the Alps and Carpathian Mountains, which furnish valu- 
 
 tas *; 5 as/; g hard; gas/'/ G, H, K,grittura/; N, nasal; %, trilled; 5 as*; th as in this. (Jry - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HADDIK 
 
 1108 
 
 HAERING 
 
 able information on geography and other sciences. One 
 of his works is " Physico-Political Journeys among the 
 Alps," (4 vols., 1785-87.) Died in Vienna in 1815. 
 
 See Eksch und. Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Haddik, had'dik, (Andreas,) Count of, an able 
 Austrian general, born at Futak, in Hungary, in 1710, 
 gained distinction in the war against the Turks. In the 
 Seven Years' war, as lieutenant-field-marshal, he fought 
 against the Prussians near Gorlitz, and took Berlin by 
 surprise in 1757. In 1765 he was chosen Governor of 
 Galicia, and in 1774 he became president of the war 
 department, or council of war, with the title of field-mar- 
 shal. Died in 1790. 
 
 Had'dock, (Sir Richard,) an English admiral, born 
 in Essex about 1630. He was wounded at Solebay in 
 1667. Died in 1715. 
 
 Had'don, (Walter,) an English scholar, born in 
 Buckinghamshire in 1516, contributed to the revival of 
 classical learning. In 1550 he became professor of civil 
 law in Cambridge, and in 1552 president of Magdalene 
 College, Oxford. He enjoyed favour at the court of 
 Elizabeth, who praised his skill in Latin composition 
 by saying, " Hacldonum nemini postpono," ("I rank 
 Ha'ddon behind none.") Died in 1572. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Hadee-Moosa, Hady-Moussa, or Hadi-Mussa, 
 Al, 41 ha'dee moo'sa, a caliph of the family of Abbassides, 
 born about 760 A.D., succeeded his father Al-Mahdee 
 (or -Mahdi) on the throne of Bagdad in 785. He was 
 a brother of Haroun-al-Raschid. After a reign of fifteen 
 months, he died, in 786. 
 
 See Abooi.feda, " Annates." 
 
 Ha'des, [Gr. "A«5;;f or "Aifyc,] a name applied by the 
 Greeks to Pluto and to his dominions. (See Pluto.) 
 
 Hadji-Khalfa. See Haji-Khalfa. 
 
 Had'ley, (James,) an American scholar, was born 
 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New York, the 30th of 
 March, 1821. He is the son of Dr. James Hadley, who 
 was for many years professor of chemistry in the Medical 
 College at Fairfield and afterwards held the same chair 
 in the Medical College at Geneva, New York. He 
 entered in September, 1840, the junior class of Yale Col- 
 lege, and graduated in 1842. In 1848 he became assistant 
 professor of Greek at Yale, and in 1851 professor in full, 
 in place of President Woolsey, who had retained until 
 then his charge of that department. In August, 1851, he 
 married a daughter of Stephen Twining, Esq., of New 
 Haven. In i860 he published an excellent "Greek 
 Grammar for Schools and Colleges," founded on a 
 similar work by Professor Georg Curtius in Germany. 
 An abridgment appeared in 1869, under the name "Ele- 
 ments of the Greek Language." He has contributed 
 articles to various scientific and literary periodicals, 
 especially the "New-Englander," and has been an active 
 member of the American Oriental Society. 
 
 Had'ley, (John,) an English astronomer, became a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society in 171 7, of which he was 
 afterwards vice-president. In 1731 he presented to that 
 society a sextant, of which he claimed to be the inventor, 
 and which has since been generally used in nautical 
 astronomy. It is commonly known as " Hadley's Sex- 
 tant." Many, however, give Sir Isaac Newton credit for 
 this invention. Died in 1744. 
 
 Hadlub, hlt'loop, or Hadloub, (Johann,) a Ger- 
 man poet or minnesinger, lived at Zurich about 1300. 
 His poems present agreeable pictures of rustic life and 
 interesting details about the manners of the peasantry 
 of that age. 
 
 See EttmOi.ler, "J. Hadlouber, Gedichte," 1840; Longfel- 
 low, "Poets and Poetry of Europe. " 
 
 Hadorph, hS'doRf, (Johan,) a Swedish antiquary, 
 born near Linkoping in 1630; died in 1693. 
 
 Ha'dil an or A'drl-an, [Lat. Haokia'nus; Fr. 
 Adrien, S (lRe-aN' ; It. Adriano, a-dRe-a'no,] or, more 
 fully, Hadria'nus Fub'lius JE'liuB, a Roman emperor, 
 born at Rome in January, 76 A.D., was a son of *E!ius Ha- 
 drianus Afer, and a cousin of Trajan. His favourite study 
 was the Greek language and literature. He won the 
 favour of Trajan, and accompanied him in his campaign 
 against the Dacians. He was chosen tribune of the people 
 in 105 A.D., and praetor in 107. When Trajan was forced 
 
 by illness to retire from the army which he had conducted 
 against the Parthians, he gave the chief command to Ha- 
 drian. On the death of Trajan, Hadrian was proclaimed 
 emperor (at Antioch) by the army in August, 117 a.d. ; 
 and their choice was confirmed by the senate. The 
 question whether Trajan had adopted Hadrian as his heir 
 appears to remain undetermined. The new emperor 
 hastened to make peace with the Parthians by abandoning 
 all the provinces which Trajan had conquered beyond 
 the Euphrates, and rendered himself popular by the re- 
 mission of taxes and other acts of liberality. The greater 
 portion of his reign was spent in journeys through the 
 provinces of his vast empire, in which he displayed dura- 
 ble evidences of his liberality, political wisdom, and love 
 of the fine arts. He commenced these journeys in 119 
 A.p. He built a famous wall across the island of Britain 
 from Solway Frith to the German Ocean, to protect the 
 Roman province from the incursions of the Picts and 
 Scots. He founded cities in other provinces, completed 
 the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, and erected 
 many great architectural works, among which were a 
 magnificent villa at Tibur, and his mausoleum at Rome, 
 now called the Castle of Saint Angelo. In 131 A.D. he 
 promulgated the " Edictum Perpetuum," a fixed code of 
 laws drawn up by Sal vi us Julianus. This event forms 
 an important epoch in the history of Roman law. His 
 reign was peaceful, and tended to consolidate the empire 
 as well as to civilize the people. He patronized literary 
 men, artists, and philosophers, and composed a number 
 of works, in prose and verse, which are not extant. He 
 aspired to distinction as an architect and painter, and 
 indulged a petty vanity and jealousy towards artists, 
 which sometimes prompted him to acts of cruelty. A 
 short time before his death, he adopted as his successor 
 Arrius Antoninus, surnamed "the Pious," and composed 
 the following verses addressed to his own soul : 
 
 "Animula, vagula, blandula, 
 H ospes comesque corporis, 
 Quae nunc abibis in loca, 
 Pallidula, rigida, nudula, 
 Nee, ut soles, dabis jocos?"* 
 
 Died in July, 138 A.D. Many statues and medals of 
 Hadrian are extant. 
 
 See Spartianus, "Vita Hadriani ;" Niepuhr, "Lectures on 
 Roman History ;"Tili.emont, "Histoiredes Empereurs ;" Gibbon, 
 " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Hadschi-Chalfa, (or -Khalfa.) See Haji-Khalfa. 
 
 Hady-Moussa. See Hadee-Moosa. 
 
 Haeberlin. See Hahkrun. 
 
 Haedo, de, di 5-a'Do, (Diego,) a Spanish monk and 
 historian, lived about 1600. He wrote an account of 
 Algiers, ("Topographia e Historia de Argel," 1612.) 
 
 Haeffner. See Hakk.ner. 
 
 Haehnel. See Hahnel. 
 
 Haellstroem. See Hallstrom. 
 
 Haelwig. See Halvig. 
 
 Haen or Haan, van, vin hin, (Antoon,) an eminent 
 Dutch physician, born at the Hague in 1704, was a pupil 
 of Boerhaave. lie practised twenty years in his native 
 place, and was chosen first professor of medicine in 
 Vienna in 1754. He succeeded Van Swieten as chief 
 physician to the empress Maria Theresa. He published 
 many medical works, of which the most important is 
 the "Method of Treatment (or Curing) in Hospitals," 
 ("Ratio Medendi in Nosocomio practico," 1757-74,) 
 often reprinted. Died in Vienna in 1776. Desgenettes 
 calls him "one of the most illustrious practitioners of 
 the eighteenth century." 
 
 See F. G. Boisseau, "Biographie MMicale ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Haendel. See Handel. 
 Haenel. See I Ian el. 
 Haenke. See Hanke. 
 Haering. See Haring, (Wilhelm.) 
 
 * "Ah. fleeting spirit ! wandering fire, 
 
 That long nast warmed my tender breast, 
 Must thou no more this frame inspire, 
 
 No more a pleasing, cheerful guest? 
 Whither, ah. whither art thou flying? 
 
 To what dark, undiscovered shore? 
 Thou seem'st all trembling, shivering, dying, 
 
 And wit and humour are no more. — Pope. 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ti, f, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, (it; met; nftt; gobd; moon; 
 
HAERLEM 
 
 1109 
 
 HAGUE NOT 
 
 Haerlem or Haarlem, van, vSn haVlem, (Dirck,) 
 a Dutch painter, bom at Haarlem about 1410; died in 
 
 Haeser. See Hasf.r. 
 
 Haeusser. See Hausser. 
 
 Haffner, hafner, (Anton,) a painter of perspective, 
 Qf Swiss extraction, was born at Bologna in 1654. He 
 lived many years at Genoa, where he painted admi- 
 rable frescos in the church of Saint Luke and other 
 churches. He was also employed by the grand duke at 
 Florence. Died in 1732. His brother Hknky, bom in 
 1640, painted decorations ill several palaces at Rome 
 and in churches of Bologna. Died ill 1702. 
 
 Haffner or Haeffner, hef ner, (Johann Christian 
 Friedrich,) a German composer, bom in Thuringia in 
 1759; died at Upsal in 1S33. 
 
 Hails, the German spelling of Hafiz, which see. 
 
 Hafiz, ha'fiz, written also" Hafitz and Hafis, (Mo- 
 hammed Shems-ed-Deen, mo-hani'med shems ed- 
 deeu',) a celebrated Persian poet, born at Stiir&z about 
 1300. Love and wine are the favourite subjects of his 
 poems, which are condemned as licentious by strict Mus- 
 sulmans. He is regarded as the greatest lyric poet of 
 Persia. His poems, which collectively are entitled the 
 " Divan,'] are praised for purity of style, harmony of 
 versification, and brilliant imagination. Among the re- 
 corded events of his life is an interview with Tamerlane 
 in 1387. Died about 1390. His poems were published 
 in Persian at Calcutta in 1791. Some portions of them 
 have been translated into English by J. Richardson, 
 ('774.) J- H. Hindley, (1800,) and other Oriental scholars. 
 
 Sec Sir W. Gore Ouselky, " Biographical Notices of Persian 
 Poets," London, 1846 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" " Eraser's 
 Magazine" lor January. 1S46, and September. 1854. 
 
 Ha'gar or A'gar, |Heb. "UPI,] an Egyptian woman, 
 was the second wife of the patriarch Abraham, and the 
 mother of Ishmael. (See Genesis xvi. and xxi.) 
 
 Hageau, /;S'zho', (Amabi.k,) a French engineer, born 
 in 1756' was appointed divisionary inspector of bridges 
 and roads beyond the Alps. Died in 1836. 
 
 Hagedorri, ha'geh-doRn', (Christian I.udwig,) an 
 eminent critic of art, a brother of Friedrich, the poet, 
 was born at Hamburg in 1713. He served the Elector 
 of Saxony many years as secretary of legation to various 
 courts. In 1764 he was appointed director-general of 
 the Academies of Fine Arts at Dresden and Leipsic. He 
 produced in 1762, in German, "Reflections on Painting," 
 (2 vols.,) which is considered a classic work by artists. 
 Died at Dresden in 1780. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hagedorn, von, fori ha'geh-doRn', (Friedrich,) an 
 elegant German poet, born at Hamburg in April, 1708. 
 In 1733 he became secretary to a company of merchants, 
 called " The English Court," at Hamburg. He published 
 in 173S a volume of fables and tales in verse, and after- 
 wards a volume of "Moral Poems." Among his master- 
 pieces are "The Savant," a satire, (1740,) "The Sam." 
 (1741,) and "Ode on Happiness," (1743.) The merit 
 of restoring good taste in German poetry is ascribed to 
 lorn and Haller. Wieland called him "the German 
 Horace." Died in 1754. 
 
 See EftCHEKSURG, " F. von Hagedorn's Werke," 5 vols., :8oo, 
 the 4th vol. of which contains a memoir of Hagedorn ; Loncfei 1 o\v, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Euro|>e ;" C. H. Soimiii, " Riogivphic der 
 Dichter;" Gervincs, "Geschichte der Deulschen Iliclitung." 
 
 Hagemann, ha'geh-maV, (Theodor,) a German 
 jurist, born at Stiege, Brunswick, in 1761, became aulic 
 Councillor and judge of the court of appeal at Zelle. 
 lie published a valuable work, entitled "Practical Ex- 
 planations of All Sorts of Juridical Subjects," (6 vols., 
 1708-1818.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Hagen, ha'gen, (ERNST AUGUST,] an ingenious Ger- 
 man novelist and writer on art, was born at JConigsbiig 
 in 1797. He became professor of aesthetics in Kiniigs- 
 lierg about 1830. Among his works are "Olfrid and 
 Lisena," a poem, (1820,) and "Leonardo da Vinci at 
 Milan," (1840.) 
 
 Hagen, (Kari. GOTTFRIED,) a German chemist and 
 wiii. r, bom at Konigsberg in 1740; died in 1829. 
 
 Hapcn, van, \Jn ha'gen or hi'iien, (Jan,) a Dutch 
 landscape-painter, who lived aliout 1650. 
 
 Hagen, van der, vSn der ha'gen or ha'Hen, (S tkvkn,) 
 a Dutch admiral, born about 1560, commanded an ex- 
 pedition which explored the Chinese Sea and the Sunda 
 Isles in 1600. In 1604 he defeated the Portuguese in 
 several actions, and expelled them from the Moluccas. 
 Died about 1610. 
 
 Hagen, von, fon ha'gen, (Johann Georg Fried- 
 rich,) a German antiquary, born at Baireuth in 1723. 
 He formed a rich cabinet of medals, pictures, etc., and 
 was a liberal patron of artists. He wrote a "Descrip- 
 tion of the Silver Coins of Nuremberg," (1766,) and 
 other valuable works. Died in 1783. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hagen, von der, fon dei< ha'gen, (Kriedrich Hein- 
 RICH,) an eminent German critic and philologist, born at 
 Schiniedeberg, in Prussia, in February, 1780. He became 
 professor of German literature at Berlin in 1810, and 
 devoted his attention to the mediaeval German literature. 
 He published, besides other works, " Heroic Romances 
 of the North," (5 vols., 1814-28,) "Monuments of the 
 Middle Ages," (1824,) and "The Minnesinger," (5 vols., 
 1838-56,) a poetical collection, which is called his chief 
 work. Died in Berlin in 1856. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Hageubach, ha'gen-baK', (Karl Rudolf,) a Swiss 
 Protestant theologian, was born at Bale in 1801. He 
 became professor of theology at Bale about 1S28, and 
 was author of lectures on the "Essence and History 
 of the Reformation," (6 vols., 1834-43,) "Ecclesiastic 
 History of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," 
 (2 vols. ; 3d edition, 1 856,) and other esteemed works, 
 (in German.) 
 
 Hagenbuch, ha'gen-booK', (Johann Caspar,) a 
 Swiss antiquary, born at Zurich in 1700. Among his 
 writings is a curious treatise on certain Greek and 
 Latin inscriptions, entitled "Epistolae Epigraphies," 
 etc., (1747.) Died in 1763. 
 
 See Erscu und Grimier, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hager, ha'ger, (Johann Georg,) a German geogra- 
 pher, born in the district of Baireuth in 1709. He pub- 
 lished an edition of Homer's "Iliad," (1745-67,) and a 
 " System of Geography," (" Ausfuhrliche Geographic" 
 3 vols., 1746-51,) which had great success. Died in 1777. 
 
 See E^scn und Gruber,' "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hager, (Joseph,) an Orientalist, of German extrac- 
 tion, born at Milan in 1757. He published a treatise on 
 Chinese worship, called "Pantheon Cliinois," (1S02,) 
 and "Elements of the Chinese Language," (London, 
 1806.) In 1809 he became professor of Oriental lan- 
 guages at Pavia. Died in 1819. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hag'ga-i, [Ileb. 'JH ; Fr. Aggee, aV'zha',]one of the 
 twelve minor Hebrew prophets, lived about 520 B.C., 
 during the erection of the second temple, the glory of 
 which he predicted should transcend that of the first. 
 (Haggai ii. 9.) His mission was chiefly to urge the'Jews 
 to greater diligence in the erection of the temple. His 
 language is quoted in Hebrews xii. 26. 
 
 Haghe, hSg, (Lotus,) a skilful painter and lithogra- 
 pher, born in Belgium in 1802. He removed in his youth 
 to London, where he has since resided. He published 
 many fine lithographs of Flemish monuments designed 
 by himself, and painted in water-colours the interiors 
 of Flemish town-halls and churches. Among his most 
 admired works are paintings of the Palais de Courtray 
 and the Audience-Chamber of Bruges. 
 
 Hagatiom or Hagstroem, blg'stRSm, (Johan 
 Otto,) a Swedish naturalist and writer, born at Froson 
 in 1716 ; died in 1792. 
 
 Hague, hag, (Charles,) an English composer, born 
 In Taacaster in 1769. He became professor of music 
 at Cambridge about 1796. Died in 1021. 
 
 Hague, hag, (William,) an American Baptist min- 
 ister, born in New York about 1805, graduated at 
 Hamilton College in 1826. He published, In side-, other 
 
 works, "Christianity and Statesmanship," (1855.) 
 
 lienor,, //Sg no', iHenki,) a French physician, 
 
 Hagu 
 
 bom at Montpellier in 1687. He wrote a "Treatise on 
 Small-Pox," (1734.) Died in 1775. 
 
 c as i; c is s; g hard; g as/- G, H, v.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HAHN 
 
 II 10 
 
 HAKLUTT 
 
 Hahn, hln, (August,) a German theologian, one of 
 the leaders of the orthodox Protestant party, was born 
 near Querfurt, in Prussia, in 1792. He became professor 
 of theology at Leipsic in 1826, and general superintend- 
 ent of Silesia in 1844. He published, besides other 
 works, a "Text-Book of the Christian Faith," (1828,) and 
 "On the Present State of Christianity, and the Relations 
 which exist between Theology and Science," (1832.) 
 
 Hahn, (Carl AUGUST,) a German philologist, born 
 at Heidelberg in 1807 ; died in 1857. 
 
 Hahn, (Johann David,) a German natural philoso- 
 pher, born at Heidelberg in 1729, published a treatise 
 " On the Mutual Subservience of Mathematics and Chem- 
 istry," and other works. Died in 17S4. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " AUgemeine EncyUlopaedie." 
 
 Hahn, (Ludwio Phiupp,) a German dramatic poet, 
 born atTrippstadt in 1746. He wrote tragedies entitled 
 "The Rebellion of Pisa," (1776,) and " Robert von Hohe- 
 necken," (1778,) which are admired for energy of style 
 and elevation of thought. Died in 1787. 
 
 Hahn, (PHILIP!" Matthaus,) a German, noted for 
 inventive mechanical genius, was born near Stuttgart in 
 1739. He settled as pastor at Onsmettingen in 1764, 
 before which he had made astronomical and optical in- 
 struments. He invented a machine whicji represented 
 the motions of the celestial bodies, and another which 
 performed operations in arithmetic. He published seve- 
 ral treatises on theology, sermons, etc. Died in 1790. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "AUgemeine EncyUlopaedie;" "Annals 
 of Industry and Genius," by C. L. Brightwell, London, i86v 
 
 Hahn, (Simon Friedrich,) a German historian and 
 publicist, born at Klosterbergen, in Prussia, in 1692. 
 He is said to have understood Greek, Latin, and French 
 at the age of ten. At the age of twenty-four he became 
 professor of history and public law at Helmstedt. He 
 published an excellent " History of the Constitution of 
 the Empire and German Emperors," ("Teutsche Staats- 
 Reichs- und Keyser Historie," (4 vols., 1721-24,) and 
 other historical works. Died at Hanover in 1729. 
 
 See J. F. C. Hahn, " Schediasma de Vita Hahnii," 1729; Ersch 
 und Gruber, "AUgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hahnel or Haehnel, ha'nel, (Ernst Julius,) a 
 German contemporary sculptor, studied under Reitschel 
 and Schwanthaler. Among his master-pieces is th« statue 
 of Beethoven at Bonn, completed in 1845. 
 
 Hahnemann, ha'neh-man, (Samuel Christian 
 Friedrich,) a celebrated German physician, born in 
 Meissen, in Saxony, in 1755, was the founder of the sys- 
 tem of medicine known as homoeopathy. He graduated 
 at Erlangen in 1779, and practised for some years at 
 Dresden. About 1796 he announced his new system, 
 founded on the principle that in order to cure any 
 diseased affection we should employ a medicine having 
 power to produce a similar affection in the body of a 
 healthy person : an artificial affection (caused by the 
 medicine) displaces the original disease, and on the dis- 
 continuance of the medicine this secondary disease ceases 
 of itself. Hence the motto adopted by the homceopa- 
 thists, " Similia similibus curanttir," (" Like cures like.") 
 Hahnemann afterwards settled in Leipsic. He developed 
 his system in a work called "Organon of Rational Medi- 
 cine," (Dresden, 1810.) Died in Paris in 1843. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Hahn-Hahn, von, fon han-han, (Ida Marie Luise 
 Sophie,) Countess, a poetess and novelist, called "the 
 German George Sand," was born at Tressow, Mecklen- 
 burg-Schwerin, in 1805. About 1826 she was married to 
 Count von Hahn-Hahn, from whom she was divorced 
 in 1829, after which she visited France, Italy, Spain, and 
 the Levant. She produced in 1835 " Poems," ("Ge- 
 dichte,") and in 1836 " Venetian Nights," which had 
 great success. Among her most popular novels is " Faus- 
 tine," (1841.) She has published several narratives of 
 travel, and "Oriental Letters," (1845.) About 1850 she 
 avowed her conversion to Roman Catholicism. 
 
 See LlSCH, "Gescllichte und Urkunden des Geschlechtes Hahn," 
 1844; "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1844; "Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" for January, 1843; "North British Review" for August, 1847. 
 
 Haid, hit or hid, (Johann Gottfried,) a German 
 engraver, born at Augsburg in 1710, worked in England. 
 
 Died in 1770. His brother, Johann Lorenz, born in 
 1702, was an engraver in mezzotint. Died in 1 750. 
 
 Haid, (Johann Jakob,) a German engraver of por- 
 traits, born near Ulm in 1704; died in 1767. His son, 
 Johann Ei.ias, (1739- 1809,) was also an engraver. 
 
 Haider Ali. See Hyder Ai.i. 
 
 Haidinger, hl'ding'er. (Wii.hei.m,) a German geolo- 
 gist, born in Vienna in 1795. He was appointed coun- 
 cillor of mines at Vienna in 1840, and director-in-chief 
 of the Geological Institute of Austria in 1849. He 
 published a "Treatise on Mineralogy," ("llandbuch 
 der bestimmende.. Mineralogie," (1845,) a "Geognostic 
 Chart of the Austrian Empire," (1847,) and other works. 
 
 His father, Karl, born in Vienna in 1756, was a mine- 
 ralogist of merit. He was author of an " Essay towards 
 a Systematic Division of the Different Kinds of Rocks," 
 (1786.) Died in 1797. 
 
 Hailes, Lord. See Dalrympi.e, (Sir David.) 
 
 Haillan, du, dii Afy&N', (Bernard de Girard — 
 deli zhe'rSR',) Seigneur, a French historian, born at 
 Bordeaux in 1535. He wrote a history of France, ("De 
 l'Etat et Succes des Affaires de France," 1570,) which 
 passed through many editions and was approved by 
 Charles IX., who rewarded him with the title of histo- 
 riographer. Died in 1610. 
 
 See Bayce, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Haimavata, hi'ma-va-ta, or Haimavat, hi'r.ia-vat, 
 [i.e. "snowy" or "snow-clad," from the Sanscrit hlmd 
 or liaimft, "cold," " frost," "snow,"] called the " king of 
 mountains," was, according to the Hindoo mythology, 
 the father of Ganga, (Ganges,) or ParvatJ, whiJi see. 
 
 Haimo. See Haymo. 
 
 Haizinger, hTts'ing'er, (Amalie,) a popular German 
 actress, born at Carlsruhe in 1800. 
 
 Haji- (or Hadji-) Khalfa, hlj'ee Kal'fi., written 
 also Hadschi-Chalfa, (or -Khalfah,) a celebrated 
 Turkish historian and bibliographer, born in Constan- 
 tinople. His proper name was Mustafa-Ben-Aiidal- 
 lah. He was minister of finances under Amurath IV. 
 He wrote a " History of Constantinople," and an excel- 
 lent work on bibliography, which contains notices of 
 18,550 Arabic, Persian, and Turkish books, with memoirs 
 of the authors. It served as the basis of Herbelot's 
 "Bibliotheque Orientale." Died in 1658. 
 
 See Von Hammer, " Histoire de l'Empire Ottortmm." 
 
 Hakem. See Aliiakem. 
 
 Hakem-Biamrillah, ha'kem be-am-ril'lah, (Aboo- 
 Alee-Mansoor, or Abu-Ali-Mansur, a'boo a'lee 
 man-sodi;',) third Fatimite caliph of Egypt, succeeded 
 his father, AzeezBillah, in 996 A. D. A capricious despot, 
 he was noted for his cruelty and extravagance. After 
 subjecting the Christians to numerous vexations, he 
 banished them from Egypt, and thus furnished one 
 of the chief motives of the crusades. He died, or was 
 killed, in 1021. 
 
 Hakewill, hak'wil, (George,) D.D , born at Exeter, 
 in England,- in 1579, became Archdeacon of Surrey in 
 1616. He published several sermons, and "An Apology 
 or Declaration of the Power and Providence of God in 
 the Government of the World," (1627,) which is com- 
 mended for piety and learning. It is designed to refute 
 the doctrine of modern degeneracy, and to prove that 
 the powers of nature are not doomed to a progressive 
 decline. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Prince, " Worthies of Devon." 
 
 Hakewill, (James,) an English writer and architect, 
 published a "History of Windsor," (1813,) and a "Pic- 
 turesque Tour of Italy," (1817.) Died in 1843. 
 
 Hakkert, hak'keut, or Hackaert, hak'kaut, (Jan,) 
 a skilful Dutch landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam 
 about 1540. He painted chiefly wild and mountainous 
 scenery, anfi was intimate with Adrian van der Velde, 
 who furnished the figures of many 6f Hakkert's land, 
 scapes. Died about 1635. 
 
 Hakluyt, hak'loot, (Richard,) prebendary of West- 
 minster, an English historian, born at Yatton in 1553. 
 He became greatly interested in geography and naviga- 
 tion, and was appointed professor of these branches at 
 Oxford. In 1589 he published his celebrated work on 
 the voyages and discoveries of the English, dedicated 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ft, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nfit; good; moon; 
 
HAL 
 
 u 1 1 
 
 HALE 
 
 to Walsingham, his patron, which was afterwards en- 
 larged and published in 1600, with the following title- : 
 " Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffics, and Discover- 
 ies of the English Nation, by Sea or Overland, to the 
 Most Remote and Distant Quarters of the Earth, at any 
 Time within the Compass of 1500 Years." This work 
 contains official documents relative to each voyage, as 
 patents, letters of ministers, charters, etc., and has pre- 
 served from oblivion many precious monuments of 
 Anglo-Saxon enterprise. He died in 1616. 
 
 Sec Wood, "Atheuae Oxonienses ;" "Retrospective Review," 
 yd. xi., 1S25. 
 
 Hal, van, vin hal, a Flemish painter, born at Ant- 
 w;rp in 1668. His early historical pieces are admired. 
 
 Halb Suter, halp soo'ter, a Swiss poet, born at Lu- 
 cerne about 1370, was the author of a popular song 
 entitled " The Battle of Sempach." 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Haley one. See Alcyone. 
 
 Haldane, hal'dan, (James Alexander,) a Scottish 
 Independent clergyman, born at Dundee in 1768, was the 
 brother of Kobeit Haldane, noticed below. In 1785 he 
 entered the naval service of the East India Company, 
 and in 1 793 was appointed captain of the Melville Castle. 
 The next year he retired from the sea, in order to devote 
 himself to the ministry of the gospel. He became pas- 
 tor of the Tabernacle, Edinburgh, in 1799, and continued 
 to preach in that city until his death, in 1851. He pub- 
 lished several religious works. 
 
 See Alexander Haldane, *' Memoirs of Robert and James A. 
 Haldane." 1S52: Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen," (Supplement.) 
 
 Haldane, (Robert,) was born of Scottish parents in 
 London in 1764, and was educated at Edinburgh. He 
 served in the navy from 1780 to 1783, and afterwards 
 became an Independent minister, noted for his zeal 
 and liberality in the diffusion of religious instruction. It 
 is stated that, he expended ,£30,000 in the erection of 
 churches. In 1816 he published his " Evidence and 
 Authority of Divine Revelation." In 1817 and 1818 he 
 was successful at Geneva and Montauban in promoting 
 a revival of religion and in forming the evangelical school, 
 which has done so much to propagate Protestantism in 
 France. His " Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans" 
 (1835) is esteemed an excellent standard work, especially 
 by Calvinists. Died in 1842. 
 
 See Alexander HaLDANB, " -\f emoirs of Robert and James A. 
 Haldane ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Sco;s- 
 nien," (Supplement ;) " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1S56. 
 
 Haldat du Lya, //SI 'da" dii le, (Charles Nicolas 
 ALEXANDRE,) M.D., a French physicist, born at Bour- 
 mont, in Lorraine, in 1770. He wrote several treatises 
 on magnetism, biographies, and other works. Died in 
 1832 or 1852. 
 
 Halde, Du. See Duhalde. 
 
 Hal'de-man, (S. S.,) an American naturalist and phi- 
 lologist, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 1812. 
 He wai appointed an assistant m the geological survey 
 of Pennsylvania in 1837. He published " Freshwater 
 Univalve Mollusca of the United States," (1840-44,) 
 "Zoological Contributions," (1843,) "Analytic Orthog- 
 raphy," (the Trevelyan Prize Essay,) and other works. 
 In 1851 he became professor of natural history in the 
 University of Pennsylvania, and about 1855 he obtained 
 a similar office in Delaware College, at Newark. 
 
 Haldenwang, hal'den-wang', (Christian,) an emi- 
 nent German engraver, was born at Durlach in 1770. 
 He engraved many landscapes after Poussin, Claude 
 Lorrain, and Elsheimer, and executed some prints for 
 the " Musee Napoleon." Died in 1831. 
 
 Haldorsen, hal'doR'sen, (Bjorn,) an Icelandic lexi- 
 cographer, born in 1724. He published a " Lexicon Is- 
 landico-Latino-Danicum," (2 vols., 1814.) Died in 1794. 
 
 See Kraft og Nykrup, " Lilteraturlexicon." # 
 
 Hale, (Rev. Benjamin,) an American educator, born 
 at Newburvport, Massachusetts, in 1797, graduated at 
 Bowdoin College in 1818. He became professor at 
 chemistry at Dartmouth College in 1827, and president 
 of Geneva College (now Hobart Free College) in 1836. 
 Died in 1863. 
 
 Hale. (David,) an American journalist, born in Lis- 
 bon, Connecticut, in 1 791. In 1827 he established, in 
 
 connection with Gerard Hallock, the New York "Jour- 
 nal of Commerce." He was a distinguished advocate of 
 the sub-treasury, free trade, and other leading measures 
 of the Democratic party. Died in 1849. 
 
 Hale, (Horatio,) an American lawyer and philoio 
 gist, a son of Mrs. Sarah J. Hale, was born in New 
 Hampshire about 1817. He graduated at Harvard in 
 1837. He produced a work entitled "Ethnology and 
 Philology," which, says Dr. Latham, "contains the 
 greatest mass of philological data ever accumulated by 
 a single inquirer." The "North American Review, 
 in a notice of the volume in July, 1846, says, "Mr. Hale 
 has succeeded in giving a certain classical completeness 
 to his work which makes it a model for future labourers 
 in the same or similar fields of research." 
 
 Hale, (John P.,) an American statesman, born at Ro- 
 chester, Strafford county, New Hampshire, in March, 
 1806. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1827, studied 
 law, and was admitted to the bar in 1830. He was ap- 
 pointed district attorney for New Hampshire by Presi- 
 dent Jackson in 1834, and reappointed by Van Bui en. 
 In 1843 he was elected a member of Congress by the 
 Democrats of a district in New Hampshire. He became 
 in Congress a decided opponent of slavery, for which 
 reason his party opposed his election in 1845. About 
 this date he resided at Dover, New Hampshire. He 
 was Speaker of the House of Representatives of his 
 native State in 1846. By a combination of anti-slavery 
 Democrats and Whigs, he was elected Senator of the 
 United States for New Hampshire in 1847. For sev- 
 eral years he stood almost alone in the Senate on the 
 question of slavery, and maintained a position inde- 
 pendent of party. He was an easy and ready speaker, 
 and by his wit or humour was often successful in turning 
 aside the attacks of the pro-slavery Senators or in miti- 
 gating the bitterness of party animosity. He was nomi- 
 nated as candidate for the Presidency by the Liberty 
 party in 1852, and received about 155,800 votes. On 
 the expiration of his senatorial term in 1853, a Democrat 
 was chosen to fill his place. Mr. Hale was again elected 
 a member of the national Senate in 1855, to fill a vacancy. 
 Having joined the Republican party, he was re-elected 
 a Senator by the legislature of New Hampshire for a 
 term of six years, 1859-65. He was appointed minister 
 to Spain in 1865, and recalled in 1869. 
 
 Hale, (Sir Matthew,) an eminent English judge, 
 born at Alderley on the 1st of November, 1609, was 
 educated at Oxford. About the age of twenty he entered 
 Lincoln's Inn, where he pursued the study of law with 
 great assiduity, and reformed his habits of dissipation. 
 I le was admitted to the bar a few years before the com- 
 mencement of the civil war, during which he maintained 
 a neutral position, and acted as counsel for royalists in 
 several important trials, among which were the cases 
 of Strafford and Archbishop Laud. After the execution 
 of Charles I., he recognized the Commonwealth, and 
 accepted from Cromwell, in 1653, the post of judge of 
 the common bench, the duties of which he performed 
 with great fidelity, ability, and honour. He was twice 
 elected to Parliament, — in 1658 and in 1660. Charles 
 II. appointed him chief baron of the exchequer in 1660, 
 and lord chief justice of England in 1671. He is regarded 
 as one of the greatest, wisest, and best judges that ever 
 attained this dignity. His "History of the Common 
 Law" and " Pleas of the Crown" are esteemed as very 
 high authority. He wrote also several religious and 
 moral treatises, among which we may notice his "Con- 
 templations" and " Primitive Origination of Mankind." 
 He was twice married, and had a numerous offspring. 
 Died in December, 1676. 
 
 See Gilbert Hornet, " Life of Sir Matthew Hale," 1682 : Dr. 
 Williams, " Life of Sir Matthew Hale." 1S35 ; Roscoe, " Life of Sir 
 Matthew Hale;" Loki> Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices;" 
 Koss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Hale, (Nathan,) Captain, an American patriot, born 
 at Coventry, Connecticut, in 1755, graduated at Yale 
 College in 1773, and entered the army in 1775. In 1776 
 he took part in the battle of Long Island. He was sent 
 by General Washington to penetrate the enemy's lines 
 and procure intelligence in Septcinlier, 1776. Having 
 been seized as a spy, he was executed the next day. 
 
 See Stuart, " Life of Nathan Hale," 1856. 
 
 « asi; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this, {$&- See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HALE 
 
 I 12 
 
 HALIFAX 
 
 Hale, (Nathan,) a journalist and lawyer, a nephew 
 of the preceding, was born in Westhampton, Massachu- 
 setts, in 1784. He became in 1814 owner and editor 
 of the "Boston Daily Advertiser," the first daily paper 
 issued in New England, which he conducted for many 
 years with ability. It was an influential organ succes- 
 sively of the Federalist, Whig, and Republican parties. 
 In 1 816 he married a sister of Edward Everett. He 
 rendered important services in both branches of the 
 legislature of Massachusetts, and was one of the founders 
 of the "North American Review." He published a 
 good map of New England in 1825. Died in 1863. 
 
 Hale, (Sarah Josepha,) an American authoress, 
 daughter of Mr. Buell, of Saybrook, Connecticut, born 
 ir. 1795 at Newport, New Hampshire, was married ill 
 1814 to Mr. David Hale. She published in 1823 "The 
 Genius of Oblivion, and other Poems," followed by 
 "Northwood," a novel, (1827.) In 1828 she became 
 editor of the "Ladies' Magazine," Boston, which in 
 1837 she merged into the "Lady's Book" of Philadel- 
 phia. Among her poetic productions may be mentioned 
 "Ormond Grosvenor," a tragedy, "Three Hours, or, 
 The Vigil of Love ; and other Poems," issued in 1848, 
 and " Harry Guy, a Story of the Sea." 
 
 See Griswoi.d's " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Halem, ha'lem, (Bkrnhard Jakob Friedrich,) a 
 German litterateur, born at Oldenburg in 1768. He 
 translated from the English Hallam's "Middle Ages," 
 and several of the romances of Sir Walter Scott. Died 
 in 1823. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Halem, von, fon ha'lem, (Gerhard Anion.) a Ger- 
 man historian, born at Oldenburg in 1752. Among his 
 works are a " History of the Duchy of Oldenburg," (3 
 vols., 1796,) and a "Life of Peter the Great," (1805.) 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 See his " Selbstbiographie," 1840; Erscii und Gruber, "Allge- 
 meine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Halen, van, van a'len, ? (Don Juan,) Count of Pera- 
 campos, a Spanish general, of Belgian extraction, was 
 born in the isle of Leon in 1790. He fought as officer 
 for the Constitutional party in 1821, and went into exile 
 about 1823. In 1830 he obtained command of the Bel- 
 gian insurgents, and drove the Dutch army from Brus- 
 sels. He returned to Spain in 1836, and, as general of 
 division, defeated the Carlists in Navarre. He was presi- 
 dent of the council of war sometime between 1852 and 
 1856. Died in November, 1864. 
 
 See Juan van Halen, " Relacion de su Cautividad en los Cala- 
 bozos de la Inquisicion," 2 vols., 1S27, and English translation, Lon- 
 don, 1827. 
 
 Hales or Hayles, halz, (John,) an English scholar 
 and writer, born in Kent ; died in 1572. 
 
 Hales, (John,) the Ever-Memokable, a noted Eng- 
 lish scholar and Arminian divine, born at Bath in 1584, 
 was educated at Oxford, and was a Fellow of Merton 
 College. In 1618 he took part in the Synod of Dort, 
 and in 1639 he liecame canon of Windsor. He wrote 
 sermons, letters, and treatises on theology, which were 
 highly commended for learning, subtlety, and wit. Clar- 
 endon called him one of the greatest scholars in Europe ; 
 and many writers agree in praising both his character 
 and acquirements. Died in 1656. 
 
 See " Biographia Hritannica;" "Account of the Life and Writings 
 of John Hales," 1719. 
 
 Hales, (Stephen,) D.D., an eminent English philoso- 
 pher, born at Beckesbourn in 1677, resided for the greater 
 part of his life at Teddington, of which he was curate. 
 He made important discoveries in vegetable physiology, 
 of which he published an account in a work entitled 
 "Vegetable Statics," (1727.) In 171 7 he was elected a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote treatises on 
 anatomy, temperance, the circulation of the blood, and 
 other subjects, and invented an improved plan for venti- 
 lating prisons. Died in 1761. 
 
 See Fouchv, " Fjoge de Hales." 
 
 Hales, (Thomas.) See Hele, d\ 
 
 Hales, (William,) an Irish clergyman and scientific 
 author, wrote, besides works on mathematics and the- 
 ology, a "New Analysis of Chronology," (3 vols., 1809- 
 
 14,) which is highly commended by Home and Orme. 
 Died at Kildare in 1821. 
 
 Hales, de, (Alexander.) See Alexander deIIai.es. 
 
 Halevy, //i'li've', (Jacques Franqois Fhomental 
 Elie,) an excellent French composer, born in Paris, of 
 Jewish parents, in 1799, was a favourite pupil of Cheru- 
 bini. He produced in 1829 "Claria," an opera, which 
 was successful. His reputation was greatly increased 
 by " The Jewess," (" La Juive," 1835,) which is called his 
 capital work. The text of this was written by E. Scribe. 
 He was chosen professor in the Conservatory in 1833. 
 Among his later works are the operas of "The Queen 
 of Cyprus," (1841,) "La Fee aux Roses," (1849,) an d 
 "Valentine d'Aubigne," (1856,) which display beauties 
 of the first order. Died in March, 1862. 
 
 See Fetis Hiographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate ;" Ebees, " Spohr und Halevy und die neueste 
 Kirchen- und Opern-Mustk," 1837. 
 
 Halevy, (Leon,) a French poet, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in Paris in 1802. He produced about 
 1830 an excellent version of the Odes of Horace, and 
 afterwards imitations of many great foreign poets, en- 
 titled " Poesies Europeennes." His original drama of 
 " Luther" is commended. Among his other works are 
 a "History of the Jews," (1828,) versions of several 
 tragedies of yiischylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and a 
 version of ".Macbeth," (1853.) He was a clerk in the 
 ministry of public instruction many years. 
 
 Hal'fprd, (Sir Henry,) an eminent English physician, 
 born on the 2d of October, 1766, was the son of Dr. James 
 Vaughan, of Leicester. After graduating at Oxford, he 
 practised in London with success, and, having given 
 proof of his consummate skill, was chosen as medical 
 attendant by George III., by whom he was knighted in 
 1809. Having inherited a large fortune from a relative 
 named Halford, he adopted the name of his benefactor 
 in 1815. Sir Henry continued to be royal physician 
 during the reigns of George IV., William IV., and 
 Victoria. He was for many years president of the 
 College of Physicians, before which he delivered several 
 elegant Latin orations ; and he wrote numerous, essays 
 on professional subjects, some of which are interesting 
 and attractive even to the general reader. His pro- 
 lussional income at one period amounted to j£io,ooo a 
 J year. Died in 1844. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1844. 
 
 Halgan, //Sl'g&N', (Emmanuel,) a French admiral, 
 born in Bretagne in 1 77 1. He became captain of a 
 ship about 1805, and by his skilful seamanship escaped 
 in the disastrous affair of the fire-ships at the isle of 
 Aix in 1809. He was made a vice-admiral in 1829, and 
 Governor of Martinique in 1834. Died in 1852. 
 
 Hal'hed, (Nathaniel Brassev,) M.P., an English 
 author, born in 1751, published a "Grammar of the 
 Bengal Language," and a "Code of Gentoo Laws," 
 translated from the Persian. Died in 1830. 
 
 Hal'I-bur-ton, (Thomas Chandler,) a humorous 
 and popular English author, was born in Nova Scotia 
 about 1802. In early life he practised law. About 1837 
 he obtained celebrity by his " Clockmaker, or the Sayings 
 and Doings of Sam Slick of Slickville," an amusing 
 personation of Yankee character. A second series of 
 these Sayings and Doings appeared in 1838, and a third 
 in 1S40. He was appointed a judge about 1841, and 
 removed to England in 1850. He also wrote "Sam 
 Slick in England," (1843,) and "Nature and Human 
 Nature," (1855.) Died in 1865. 
 
 Halifax. See Hallifax, (Samuel) 
 
 Hal'I-fax, (Charles Montagu,) Earl ok, an Eng- 
 lish statesman, born at Horton in April, 1661, was the 
 younger son of George Montagu, and a grandson of the 
 Earl of Manchester. He was educated at Cambridge, 
 where he formed an acquaintance with Sir Isaac Newton. 
 He acquired distinction by his verses on the death of 
 Charles II. in 1685, for which he was patronized by the 
 Earl of Dorset. Being the youngest son of a younger 
 brother, and consequently without fortune, he chose the 
 profession of a politician, and obtained in 1690 a seat in 
 the House of Commons, where he speedily distinguished 
 himself by his talents for debate and for other duties of 
 a statesman. His efforts on the question of trials for 
 
 , e, I, o, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 11, % short; a, e, |, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moonj 
 
HALIFAX 
 
 1 1 13 
 
 HALL 
 
 treason in 1692 raised him to the first rank of parlia- 
 mentary orators, and in the same year he became one 
 of the lords of the treasury. About this time Montagu 
 and Somen were the leaders of the Whig party in the 
 House of Commons ; and when Somers rejired from 
 that arena the former remained without an equal. In 
 1695 he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer, and 
 projected the general fund. He became first lord of the 
 treasury in 1697, and was raised to the peerage, as Baron 
 Halifax, in 1700. 
 
 In 1 701 he was impeached by the House of Commons, 
 in which the Tories had gained the ascendency, but was 
 acquitted by the House of Lords. At the death of 
 Queen Anne, in 1714, he acted as one of the regents until 
 the arrival of George I., who created him Earl of Hali- 
 fax and appointed him first lord of the treasury. lie 
 died in 1 7 1 5, and, leaving no issue, his earldom became 
 extinct ; but his nephew and heir, George Montagu, was 
 soon after made Earl of Halifax. He receives credit for 
 consistency as a statesman, but is censured for inordi- 
 nate vanity. He ceased to be a versifier soon after he 
 entered Parliament, but was noted as a patron of lite- 
 rary men, among whom were Addison and Steele. By 
 these and other writers he was, as Pope remarked, " fed 
 with dedications." His chief production as a poet is 
 his " Epistle to the Earl of Dorset on "the Battle of the 
 Boyne." The Earl of Halifax originated the project for 
 the formation of a public library and the purchase of 
 the Cotton manuscripts, which were the commencement 
 of the British Museum. He is called the author or origi- 
 nator of the national debt and of the Bank of England. 
 
 See Macaulay's "Essay on Addison," and his "History of 
 England;" "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Halifax, (George Savile or Savili.e,) Marquis of, 
 an English statesman, born in 1630, was the son of Sir 
 William Savile, of Yorkshire, and grandfather of Lord 
 Chesterfield. In 1668 his loyalty to the Stuart family 
 was rewarded by a peerage, with the title of Viscount 
 Halifax. In the reign of Charles II. he was the rival 
 of Shaftesbury. He was a man of eminent abilities and 
 accomplishments, and acquired great influence in Par- 
 liament by his readiness in debate, his copious elo- 
 quence, and his extensive knowledge. In 1679 he was 
 appointed member of the Council of Thirty, and in 1682 
 was made a marquis. He opposed the bill for the exclu- 
 sion of the Duke of York from the throne, and was 
 Speaker of the Lords in the Convention or Parliament 
 which settled the succession in the revolution of 1688. 
 At the accession of William III., Halifax was appointed 
 lord privy seal, but resigned that office in 1690, and 
 joined the opposition. He was called "the trimmer 
 of trimmers" in politics, and censured for inconstancy. 
 Macaulay, however, represents him as "the most ac- 
 complished, the most enlightened, and, in spite of 
 great faults, the most estimable" of the statesmen who 
 were formed in the corrupt court of Charles II. He 
 wrote two political tracts, — "The Character of a Trim- 
 mer," and "Anatomy of an Equivalent," — which entitle 
 him to a place among English classical authors. He 
 left an only son, at whose death, about 1700, the title 
 became extinct. Died in 1695. 
 
 See Macaui.ay's "History of England," vol. i. chaps, ii. and 
 iv. ; vol. ii. chaps, vi., vii., ix., and x. : vol. iii. chaps, xi., xiv., and xv. ; 
 vol. iv. chap. xxi. 
 
 Halirsch, ha'letRsh, (Friedricii I.idwig,) a German 
 poet, born in Vienna in 1802; died at Milan in 1832. 
 
 Hal'ket, (Lady Anne,) originally named Murray, a 
 learned lady, born in London in 1632. She lelt in 
 manuscript many volumes, a portion of which was pub- 
 lished under the title of "Meditations," (1702.) Died 
 in 1699. 
 
 Hal'kett, (Sir Peter,) a British naval officer, born in 
 1766, became vice-admiral in 1821, and admiral in 1837. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Hall, (Anna Maria.) See Hail, (Mrs. S. C.) 
 
 Hall, (Rev. Anthony,) born in Cumberland in 1679. 
 edited Leland " De Scriptoribus," (1709,) and other 
 works. Died in 1723. 
 
 Hall, (Captain Bash.,) born in Edinburgh in 1788, 
 entered tiie royal navy about the age of fifteen, and be- 
 came a post-captain in 1817. About 1816 he accompa 
 
 nied Lord Amherst on the embassy to China, and after 
 his return published "A Voyage of Discovery to Corea 
 and Great Loo-Choo Island," which was well received. 
 He published in 1823 "Extracts from a Journal written 
 on the Coasts of Chili, Peru, and Mexico;" and in 1829 
 appealed his "Travels in North America," which was 
 followed by "A Winter in Lower Styria," "Travels in 
 South America," etc. Captain Hall was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society, to the "Transactions" of which he con- 
 tributed several scientific treatises. His books of travel 
 obtained a liberal share of popularity. " Blackwood's 
 Magazine," reviewing his " Travels in North America," 
 gives him credit for "striking talent and many just and 
 profound observations." He died in an asylum for the 
 insane, in 1844. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen, 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Hall, (Rt. Hon. Sir Benjamin,) a liberal British legis- 
 lator, born probably in Wales in 1802. He was elected 
 to Parliament in 1831, after which he represented Mary- 
 lebone for many years. He favoured the extension of 
 the right of suffrage, and other reforms, and acted a 
 prominent part in the often-repeated effort to abolish 
 church rates. In 1854 he became president of the board 
 of health, and privy councillor. He was raised to the 
 peerage, with the title of Baron Llanover, about 1859. 
 
 Hall, hal, (Carl Christian,) a Danish orator of the 
 Liberal party, born at Copenhagen about 1812. In 1854 
 he was appointed minister of worship and public instruc- 
 tion, and- president of the council in 1856. 
 
 Hall, (Dominick Augustine,) an American magis- 
 trate, born in South Carolina in 1765, became United 
 States judge for Louisiana in 1812. He is chiefly known 
 from his controversy with General Jackson at New Or- 
 leans in 1815. (See Jackson, Andrew.) Died in 1820. 
 
 Hall or Halle, (Edward,) an English historian, born 
 in London. In 1540 he was appointed a judge of the 
 sheriffs court. He wrote a chronicle, entitled "The 
 Union of the Two Noble and Illustrate Families of 
 Lancaster and York," (1542.) Died in 1547. 
 
 Hall, (George,) a son of the Bishop of Norwich, was 
 born at Waltham Holy Cross in 1612. He became 
 Bishop of Chester in 1662, and published some sermons, 
 (1655-66.) Died in 1668. 
 
 Hall, (Gordon,) the first American missionary to 
 Bombay, was born in West Granville, (now Tolland,) 
 Massachusetts, in 1782. He graduated at Williams 
 College in 1808, was ordained in February, 1812, and 
 the same month sailed for the East under 'the auspices 
 of the American Board for Foreign Missions. After his 
 arrival at Bombay he continued to labour with great 
 zeal and success till his death, (of cholera,) in 1826, just 
 after completing the publication of the New Testament 
 in the Mahratta language. 
 
 Hall, (Sir James,) Baronet of Dunglass, a Scottish 
 gentleman, born in 1761, was the father of Captain Basil 
 Hall. He wrote an "Essay on the Origin, Principles, 
 and History of Gothic Architecture," said to be the 
 most popular and valuable work on the subject. He 
 was president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. By 
 experiments on the fusion of mineral substances he 
 contributed greatly to the progress of geological science. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hall, (James,) an eminent American author and judge, 
 born in Philadelphia in 1793. He joined the army and 
 served with distinction against the British in the war of 
 1812-15. In 1820 he removed to Shawneetown. Illinois, 
 where he practised law and held several civil offices, in- 
 cluding that of judge. After 1833 he resided in Cincinnati. 
 He established at Vandalia about 1830 "The Illinoii 
 Monthly Magazine," which he conducted for several 
 years with much ability. He published, besides other 
 works, "Legends of the West," (1832,) "Sketches of 
 the West," (1835,) "Tales of the Border," (1835.) 
 " Notes on the Western States," (1838,) and "The Wil- 
 derness and the War-Path," (1845.) Judge Hall and 
 T. I.. Mi Kcnney were joint authors of a splcudidly- 
 illustrated work, "The History of the Indian Tribes of 
 North America," (3 vols., 1838-44.) A new edition of 
 
 « as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. (iJJf-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HALL 
 
 1 1 14 
 
 HALL 
 
 his Works, revised by himself, was published about 1S56, 
 in 4 vols. Died in July, 1868. 
 
 See Griswold, "Prose Writers of America;" Duyckinck, " Cy- 
 clopedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Allibone, "Dictionary 
 of Authors." 
 
 Hall, (James,) an American geologist, born at Hing- 
 ham, Massachusetts, in 181 1. He was educated at the 
 Rensselaer School, Troy, where he was a pupil of Amos 
 Eaton. About 1837 he was appointed one of the geolo- 
 gists of the State of New York, and commenced the 
 survey of the western part of that State. His *' Report 
 on the Geology of New York, Fourth District," was 
 published by the government in 1843. He acquired 
 distinction by his researches in the fossils of the lower 
 and middle Silurian rocks, which he described in his 
 excellent work on "The Palaeontology of New York " 
 (3 vols., 1847-59.) He was appointed geologist of the 
 State of Iowa in 1855. 
 
 Hall, (John,) an English author, born at Durham in 
 1627, was educated for the law. He wrote a volume of 
 poems, treatises on Emblems and on Paradoxes, and a 
 translation of Longinus" On the Sublime." Died in 1656. 
 Hall, (John,) an English engraver, born near Col- 
 chester in 1739. He was historical engraver to George 
 III. Died in 1797. 
 
 Hall, (John E,) an American lawyer and editor, a 
 brother of Judge James Hall, noticed above, was born 
 in 1783. He began to practise law in Baltimore about 
 1805, and there edited the "American Law Journal," (6 
 vols., 1808-16.) In 1816 he became editor ot the " Port- 
 Folio," (published in Philadelphia,) to which 'he con- 
 tributed "Memoirs of Anacreon." Died in 1829. 
 
 Hall, (JOSEPH,) an English bishop and author, born 
 at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, July I, 1574. After graduating at 
 Cambridge, he was ordained, and became chaplain to 
 James I. and Dean of Worcester in 1617. He was a 
 deputy to the Synod of Doit in 1618. In 1627 he was 
 appointed Bishop of Exeter, from which he was trans- 
 ferred to the see of Norwich in 1641. His earnest piety 
 subjected him to the charge of Puritanism. Having 
 united with other bishops in protesting against the va- 
 lidity of acts of Parliament passed in their compulsory 
 absence, he was committed to the Tower in 1641, and 
 confined a few months. The revenues of his bishopric 
 having been sequestered about 1642, he passed the 
 remainder of his life in poverty, at Iligham. Died in 
 1656. Bishop Hall was a man of excellent character, 
 and author of many learned and eloquent productions 
 in prose and verse, among which may be noticed 
 " Virgidemiarum," (Poetical Satires, 1598,) "Epistles," 
 "Christian Meditations," (1640,) " Enochismus ■, or. 
 Treatise on the Mode of Walking with God," and 
 "Contemplations upon the Principal Historical Passages 
 of the New Testament," (1612-15.) The last, in the 
 opinion of Doddridge, is "incomparably valuable for 
 language, criticism, and devotion." " Both Taylor and 
 Hall," says Hallam, "were full of learning and fertile 
 of illustration ; both may be said to have had strong 
 imagination and poetical genius, though Taylor let his 
 predominate a little more." 
 
 See Rrv John Jones, " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of 
 Joseph Hail;" "Autobiography," in his "Specialities;" Pratt, 
 '• Life of Joseph Hall ;" Wakton, " History of English Poetry ; 
 " Biogiaphia Brilannica." 
 
 Hall, (Louisa. Jane,) an American poetess, born at 
 Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1802. She wrote, besides 
 other works, a dramatic poem, entitled " Miriam," (1S37,) 
 and a " Life of Elizabeth Carter." 
 
 See Gkiswold's " Female Poets of America." 
 Hall, (Lyman,) a physician, born in Connecticut, 
 graduated at Yale College in 1747, and settled at Sud- 
 bury, Georgia. Having joined the popular cause, he 
 was chosen a member of the Congress of 1775, and 
 signed the Declaration of Independence. He retired 
 from Congress in 1780, and was elected Governor of 
 Georgia in 1783. Died in 1 791. 
 
 See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence." 
 
 Hall, (Marshall,) an English medical writer, born 
 near Nottingham in 1790. He published, besides other 
 works, " Principles of the Theory and Practice of Medi- 
 
 cine," (1837 ;) reprinted by Drs. J. Bigelow and O. W 
 Holmes, (Boston, 1839.) Died in 1857. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Marshall Hall," by his widow, London, 1861. 
 Hall, (Newman,) an English dissenting minister, bom 
 in 1816. He graduated at the London University, and 
 preached to the Congregational church of Hull from 
 1842 to 1854. In the latter year he became minister of 
 Surrey Chapel, London. He wrote a work called "Come 
 to Jesus," which had a large circulation. Among his 
 other works is " Italy, the Land of the Forum and the 
 Vatican," (1853.) He distinguished himself as an advo- 
 cate of American liberty during the civil war of 1861-65. 
 He visited the United States in 1867. 
 
 Hall, (Peter,) an English theologian, born in 1803, 
 became rector of Milston, Wiltshire. He edited the 
 works of his ancestor, Bishop Joseph Hall, and wrote 
 " Reliquiae Liturgiae," (5 vols., 1847,) and "Fragmenta 
 Litiugica," (7 vols., 1848.) Died in 1849. _ _ 
 
 Hall, hal, (PETER Adolf,) an eminent Swedish minia- 
 ture-painter, born at Boris in 1739, worked in Paris. 
 Died at Liege in 1794. 
 
 Hall, (Richard,) an English Catholic theologian, pro- 
 fessor of theology at Douay, in France, wrote a "Life of 
 Fisher, Bishop of Rochester," (1653,) which goes under 
 the name of its editor, Bailey. Died in 1604. 
 
 Hall, (ROBERT,) an eloquent English Baptist minister, 
 born at Arnsby, in Leicestershire, on the 2d of May, 
 1764. He was a remarkable instance of early mental 
 development. It is said that before the age of nine years 
 he perused with interest Jonathan Edwards's treatises 
 on the "Affections" and the " Will." After graduating 
 at King's College, Aberdeen, where he formed a triend- 
 ship with Sir James Mackintosh, he became, in 1783, 
 assistant pastor in the church of Broadmead, near Bristol, 
 to which a crowded audience was attracted by his won- 
 derful eloquence. From 1791 to 1804 he was minister of 
 a Baptist congregation in Cambridge. In consequence 
 of excessive application to study and habitual privation 
 of social recreation, he suffered an attack of insanity m 
 November, 1804, from which he was restored in about 
 two years. But it was thought expedient for him to 
 resign his ministerial charge, and to abstain from mental 
 exertion for a year or two. In 1807 or 1808, having im- 
 proved in health, he accepted a call from the church of 
 Harvey Lane, Leicester, where he was married in 1808. 
 Here he continued to labour for a period of twenty 
 years, and maintained his high reputation as a pulpit 
 orator. In 1826 he left Leicester and returned to the 
 scene of his early labours at Bristol, where he died in 
 1831. His published sermons are ranked among the 
 most perfect specimens of pulpit, eloquence. " In his 
 highest flights, what he said of Burke might, with the 
 slightest deduction, be applied to himself,— 'that his im- 
 perial fancy laid all nature under tribute,' and collected 
 riches from every scene of the creation and every walk 
 of art." (Dr. Gregory.) In the excitement occasioned 
 by the French Revolution, he published an "Apology for 
 the Freedom of the Press," and other political treatises. 
 See Ounthus Gregory, " Brief Memoir of ihe Life of Robert 
 Hill" J W Morris, "Life of Robert Hall," 1846; John Gkkknk, 
 •• Reminiscences of Robert Hall ;" "Quarterly Review,' vol. xlvni., 
 1832; "Encyclopaedia IJritannica." 
 
 Hall, (Robert Pleasants,) an American lawyer and 
 poet, born in Chester district, South Carolina, in 1825. 
 He removed with his parents to Georgia during his 
 minority. He published a volume of poems about 1848. 
 Died in 1854. ■ , . . 
 
 Hall, (Samuel Carter,) an English editor and critic, 
 was born at Topsham, Devon, in 1800. He was suc- 
 cessively editor of the " New Monthly Magazine," " The 
 Book of Gems," "The Baronial Halls of England," and 
 other illustrated annuals. In co-operation with his wife, 
 (see next article,) lie published a successful work entitled 
 " Ireland : its Scenery, Character," etc., (3 vols., 1841- 
 43.) He has been for about twenty years editor of the 
 London "Art Journal," an illustrated monthly periodical 
 of high character. It was founded chiefly by him, and 
 has contributed greatly to the advancement of the arts 
 in Great Britain. 
 
 Hall, (Mrs. S. C.) (Anna Maria Fielding,) a 
 popular Irish authoress, born at Dublin about 1804. ' 
 
 At 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HALL 
 
 my 
 
 HALLE CK 
 
 fifteen she removed to London, and was married to S. 
 C. Hall, noticed above, in 1824. She produced in 1829 
 "Sketches of Irish Character," which was favourably 
 received, and in 1834 "Tales of Woman's Trials." Her 
 reputation was maintained by " Lights and Shadows of 
 Irish Life," (1838, 3 vols.,) "Tales of the Irish Peas- 
 antry," (1840,) and other graphic descriptions of the 
 same people. She also wrote two successful dramas, 
 entitled "The French Refugee," (1837,) and "The Groves 
 of lilamey." Her talents have been enlisted in the tem- 
 perance cause and other benevolent enterprises. 
 
 See " Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. xvii. 
 
 Hall, (Samuel Read,) an American teacher, born at 
 Croydon, New Hampshire, in 1795. He opened a school 
 for the training of teachers at Concord, Vermont, about 
 1823, and published "The Instructor's Manual." 
 
 Hal'lam, (Arthur Henry,) a critic and essayist, 
 born in London on the 1st of February, 181 1, was a 
 son of Henry Hallam the historian. He was educated 
 at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he 
 graduated in 1832. He gained a prize at Cambridge 
 for an English essay on the Philosophical Writings of 
 Cicero. After he left college, he visited the continent 
 in company with his father. He died in Vienna in Sep- 
 tember, 1833, leaving a number of short poems and 
 essays, since published under the title of " Remains in 
 Prose and Verse," to which a Memoir by his father is 
 prefixed. His intimate friend Tennyson has raised an im- 
 mortal monument to his name in his " In Memoriam." 
 One of his fellow-students, in a letter to Henry Hallam, 
 writes, "I have met with no man his superior in meta- 
 physical subtlety; no man his equal as a philosophical 
 critic on works of taste." See an article on " Precocity" 
 in the "Saturday Review" of April 4, 1863, from which 
 we quote the following : " No matter how often his prose 
 Remains are read and pondered, our admiration con- 
 tinues as fresh as ever. We say prose Remains, because 
 his poems . . . are wanting in those astounding evi- 
 dences of matured thought which meet us in every page 
 of his three great prose essays." 
 
 See the "North British Review" for February, 1851; "Atlantic 
 Monthly" tor December, i860. 
 
 Hallam, (Henry,) an English historian and critic of 
 great merit, born at Windsor in 1777, was educated at 
 Eton and Oxford. Soon after he left college he became 
 a resident of London, where he passed the greater part 
 of his life, engaged in literary studies and in the labours 
 of authorship. He married a daughter of Sir Abraham 
 Elton. He was one of the earliest contributors to the 
 "Edinburgh Review." His political affinities associ- 
 ated him with the Whigs; but he was remarkably free 
 from a partisan spirit. He was a prominent coadjutor 
 of Wilberforce in the abolition of the slave-trade. He 
 published in 1818 an important and valuable work, a 
 "View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages," 
 which has run through eleven editions. "It is written 
 thro jghout," says the " Edinburgh Review," (vol. xxx., 
 June, 1818,) "with a spirit of freedom and liberality that 
 do credit to the author. A firm but temperate love of 
 liberty, an enlightened but cautious philosophy, form its 
 distinguished excellence." 
 
 His next great work was "The Constitutional History 
 of England from the Accession of Henry VII. to the 
 Death of George II.," (1827.) "Mr. Hallam," says 
 Macaulay, "is, on the whole, far better qualified than 
 any other writer of our time for the office which he has 
 undertaken. He has great industry and great acuteness. 
 His knowledge is extensive, various, and profound. His 
 mind is equally distinguished by the amplitude of its 
 grasp and the delicacy of its tact. . . . His work is emi- 
 nently judicial. He sums up with a calm, steady im- 
 partiality. On a general survey, we do not scruple to 
 pronounce the 'Constitutional History' the most im- 
 partial book that we ever read." In 1830 he received 
 one of the two gold medals instituted by George IV. for 
 excellence in historical composition. He published in 
 1837-39 an " Introduction to the Literature of Europe 
 in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries," 
 (4 vols.,) a work of immense research, which was received 
 wilh great favour and which placed the author in the 
 highest rank as a critic A writer in the " Edinburgh 
 
 Review" for October, 1840, pronounced it "the most 
 important contribution to literary history which English 
 libraries have received for many years." Hallam was a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, and a corresponding mem- 
 ber of the French Institute. He died in January, 1859. 
 
 Seea Sketch of his Life in the " Proceedings of the Royal Society," 
 vol. x. No. 40; Macaulay, "Essay on Hallam's Constitutional 
 History of England ;" Wm. Jerdan, "Men I have known," Lon- 
 don, 1866: "Biographical Sketches," by Harriet Martineau, 
 London, i860; critique on " Hallam's Constitutional History," in the 
 "Quarterly Review" for January, 1828, (by Southey,) also the same 
 Review for February, 1837, and March, 1840; and articles in the 
 " Edinburgh Review" for June. 1818, and October. 1840: and" Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for May, 1837; Allibonh, "Diet, of Authors." 
 
 Hallam, (Henry Fitzmaurice,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in August, 1824. He studied at Eton, 
 became a good classical scholar, and entered Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, in 1842. Having gained the first 
 prize for English declamation in 1845, he quitted Cam- 
 bridge in 1846, and commenced the study of law. He 
 had been called to the bar a few months, when he died, 
 at Sienna, Italy, in October, 1850. An American student 
 who knew him at Cambridge says, " He was the neatest 
 extempore speaker I ever heard." (See Memoir pre- 
 fixed to "Arthur Henry Hallam's Remains.") 
 
 Hallberg-Broich, von, fon hal'beRG' Iiro'Ik, (Theo- 
 dor Humeri",) Baron, an eccentric German traveller, 
 born near Dusseldorf about 1775. He published a 
 "Tour in Scandinavia," (1818,) "Travels in Italy," 
 (1829,) and a "Journey to the East," (" Reise nach dem 
 Orient," 1839.) 
 
 Halle, (Antoine.) See Hai.ley, (Antoine.) 
 
 Halle, fii'W, (Claude Gui,) a French painter, born 
 in Paris in 1652. He gained many prizes at the Acad- 
 emy, and was employed to decorate the royal residences 
 and several churches of Paris. Died in 1736. 
 
 Halle, (Jean Noel,) an eminent French physician, 
 son of Noel Halle the painter, was born in Paris 111 1754. 
 After he had acquired skill in the art of design at Rome, 
 he returned to Paris to study medicine. In 1794 he was 
 appointed professor of hygiene and medicine in the 
 Ecole de Saute, where his lectures were very popular. 
 Halle was admitted to the Academy of Sciences at the 
 first formation of the Institute, (1796.) In 1804 he ob- 
 tained the chair of medicine in the College of France ; 
 and about the same period Napoleon chose him as his 
 first physician. After the restoration he was employed 
 professionally by the king's brother, (afterwards Charles 
 X.) His vast erudition was displayed by his professional 
 works and by various scientific treatises, which form 
 part of the Memoirs of the Institute and of the " Ency- 
 clopedic Methodique." In his character were united 
 many estimable qualities. Died in 1822. 
 
 SeeCwvlER, " Elogede Halle 1 ;" Desgenettes, "Elngede Halle 1 ," 
 1823; F. Dubois d'Amiens, "E*logede J. N. Halle," 1852. 
 
 Halle, (N'oEi.,) the son of Claude Gui, noticed above, 
 was born in Paris in 171 1, and gained distinction as a 
 historical painter. Having obtained several prizes, he 
 was sent to Rome at the public expense. In 1771 he 
 was made superintendent of the tapestries of the crown, 
 and afterwards director of the Academy of France which 
 the king instituted at Rome, Died in 1781. 
 
 Halle, (Pierre,) a French poet and orator, born at 
 Baveux in 161 1. He wrote on canon law. Died in 1689. 
 
 Hal'leck, (Fitz-Greene,) a distinguished American 
 poet, born in Guilford, Connecticut, July 8, 1796. He 
 was descended on his mother's side from John Eliot, the 
 "Apostle of the Indians." He appears to have enjoyed 
 but few advantages for education. About the age of 
 eighteen he became, in the city of New York, a clerk in 
 the banking-house of Jacob Barker, in whose employ he 
 continued for a number of years. Mr. Halite k's mind 
 was not remarkable for precocity, and his earliest pro 
 ductions show but slight traces of that genius which 
 charmed and dazzled in his mature? fears. The fust of 
 his poems that attracted much attention appeared (1818- 
 10) in the New York "Evening Post," under the sig- 
 nature of "Croaker & Co.," a literary partnership (.in- 
 sisting of himself and his gifted friend Joseph Rodman 
 Drake. The early death of the hitler (in 1820) was com- 
 memorated by his brother poet in some beautiful and 
 touching lines. About the beginning of 1820 he pub- 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.gutfura/; U, nasal; R, trilltd; S as »; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HALLECK 
 
 n 16 
 
 HALLER 
 
 lished " Fanny," his longest poem, — a satire upon the 
 fashionable and political follies of the day, — which had 
 a great success and passed through numerous editions. 
 In 1822 he visited Europe, and after his return published 
 in the " New York Review" his " Marco Bozzaris," one 
 of the finest martial lyrics in the language, and in the 
 "United States Review" his beautiful poem to the mem- 
 ory of Burns, concerning which Mr. Bryant remarks, 
 " I am not sure that the verses are not the finest in which 
 one poet ever celebrated another." A volume of his 
 poems, including the two last named, appeared in 1827. 
 Among his other productions we may particularly name 
 "Alnwick Castle," " Connecticut," and " Red Jacket." 
 Although Mr. Halleck's most ardent admirers would 
 hardly claim for him the name of a "great" poet, all 
 competent critics must, we think, admit that there are in 
 the productions of his happier moments a facility, sweet- 
 ness, and grace scarcely surpassed by any of the most 
 gifted poets of the present age. In none of his poems, 
 perhaps, are these qualities exhibited to better advan- 
 tage than in his charming lines on " Woman," written 
 in the album of an unknown lady. 
 
 For many years Mr. Halleck was employed as a clerk 
 by John Jacob Astor, the celebrated millionnaire. Some 
 time after he had given up this position, he received from 
 J. J. Astor a small legacy, to which a liberal addition 
 was made by Mr. W. B. Astor. During the latter years 
 of his life he resided chiefly in Connecticut, in his native 
 town. He died November 19, 1867. A complete edition 
 of Halleck's poems appeared in 1858. The "Croaker 
 Papers," including portraits of Halleck and Drake, were 
 published by the Bradford Club in a handsome octavo 
 volume, (New York, i860,) the typography of which has 
 probably never been surpassed by that of any other 
 work issued in this country. It is said to be the first 
 complete edition of the "Croaker Papers" that has 
 appeared. 
 
 See James Grant Wilson, "Life and Letters of Fitz-Greene 
 Halleck," 1869: W. C. Bryant, "Address on Fitz-Greene Halleck," 
 delivered before the New York Historical Society, February 2, 1S69 ; 
 Duvckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Gkts- 
 woi.o, "Poets and Poetry of America ;" Cleveland, "Comjiendiuin 
 W American Literature. 
 
 Halleck, (Henry Wagf.r,) an American general, 
 born near Utica, in New York, in 1814. He graduated 
 at West Point in 1839. He published "Elements of 
 Military Art and Science," (1846.) As first lieutenant, 
 he served in the Mexican war in 1846-47, after which he 
 filled several civil offices in California. He became a 
 captain of engineers, but resigned his commission in 
 1854, and practised law at San Francisco from that time 
 until 1861. In August, 1861, he was appointed a major- 
 general of the United States army. He obtained the 
 command of the department of Missouri in November, 
 
 1861, and of the department of the Mississippi in March, 
 
 1862. He commanded in person at the siege of Corinth, 
 which the enemy evacuated about the end of May, 1862. 
 He was geneial-m-chief of the armies of the United States 
 from July 11, 1862, till March, 1864, during which period 
 he remained at Washington, directing the movements 
 of the generals in the field. He was superseded March 
 12, 1864, by General Grant, and was appointed chief of 
 staff of the United States army. He took command of 
 the military division of the Pacific in August, 1865. Died 
 in 1872. 
 
 Hallenberg, h31'len-beKg',(J<>NAS,) a learned Swedish 
 historian and antiquary, b >rn in Smaland in 1748. He 
 was appointed in 1784 historian of the kingdom, and 
 ordered to write the history of the reign of Gustavus 
 Adolphus, which was published, in 1790, in 5 vols. In 
 1818 he received a title of nobility. Died in 1834. 
 
 See J. H. Schroeder, "Minne af J. Hallenberg," 1838; " Bio- 
 graplnskl-Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Haller, hal'ler, (Herthoi.d,) a Swiss Reformer, born 
 in Suabia in 1492, was a coadjutor of Zwingle. He was 
 the principal agent in the conversion of the people of 
 Berne to the Protestant religion. Died in 1536. 
 
 Haller, (Johann,) a German sculptor, born at Inn- 
 sprnck in 1792. He worked in Munich, was patronized 
 by King Ludwig, and adorned the Glyptothek with statues 
 of ancient heroes. Among his works are many busts of 
 eminent moderns. Died in 1826. 
 
 Haller, von, fon hal'ler, (Alhf.rt,) a distinguished 
 Swiss physiologist, botanist, and poet, was born at Berne 
 on the 16th of October, 1708. His intellectual powers 
 developed themselves very early. At the age ol nine or 
 ten, it is said, he wrote a composition in Greek, and 
 compiled Hebrew and Chaldee grammars. In 1725 he 
 studied medicine and anatomy under Boerhaave and 
 Albinus at Leyden, where he graduated in 1727. At 
 Paris he pursued his studies under Winslowand Ledran, 
 and, after taking lessons in mathematics from Bernoulli 
 at Bale, he returned to practise medicine at Berne. Here 
 he cultivated botany and poetry with ardour, and had 
 charge of the public library. In 1736 he accepted the 
 chair of medicine, anatomy, and botany in the University 
 of Gdttingen, in which during seventeen years he offi- 
 ciated with great zeal and distinction. Amidst his multi- 
 farious official duties he found time for careful researches 
 and important discoveries in science, and for the collec- 
 tion of materials for his projected publications. 
 
 At Gdttingen he published his "Anatomical riates," 
 the first volume of his "Swiss Flora," his "Experiments 
 on Sensibility and Irritability," and his "First Outlines 
 of Physiology," besides a great multitude of memoirs 
 contributed to learned societies and recorded in their 
 "Transactions." When the Royal Society of Gottingen 
 was founded, in 1 75 1, Haller was chosen perpetual presi- 
 dent. Some years previously he was elected Fellow of 
 the Royal Society of London, and was named physician 
 to the King of England. His renown was such that the 
 Universities of Oxford and Leyden were eager to engage 
 his services as professor, and Frederick the Great invited 
 him to his court. 
 
 The delicate state of his health rendering repose 
 needful, he resigned his professorship at Gottingen in 
 1753, and returned to Berne, the citizens of which in his 
 absence had chosen him a member of the Supreme 
 Council, and now added other dignities. Still he main- 
 tained his prodigious mental activity as an author and a 
 student of nature, which, aided by a powerful memory, 
 rendered him profoundly versed not only in natural 
 sciences, but also in languages, history, geography, and 
 antiquities. Among his numerous and voluminous writ- 
 ings may be specially mentioned " Icones Anatomies:," 
 ("Anatomical Plates," 1743-56,) esteemed one of his best 
 works, and " Elementa Physiologiae Corporis Humaui," 
 ("Elements of the Physiology of the Human Body," 8 
 vols., 1757-66.) This work opened a new era in physi- 
 ology, and is highly praised for its admirable,anangemtnt 
 and the elegance of its style, as well as for the multitude 
 of its scientific facts and its thorough discussion of the 
 theories of others. The principal idea developed in it 
 is the irritability of the muscular fibre considered as a 
 motive power, and distinguished from sensibility else- 
 where diffused. He published, also, "Opera Minora," 
 a collection of forty treatises on "Anatomy and Physi- 
 ology," (3 vols. 4to, 1762-68,) and a "Flora of Switzer- 
 land," (1768.) In botany Haller may be called a rival 
 of his contemporary Linnants, whose artificial system he 
 laboured to supplant by the system founded on natural 
 affinities, now generally adopted. 
 
 His poetical works were written in German, and were 
 published when he was about twenty years of age. The 
 most extensive among them is a poem on the Alps, 
 which ran through twenty-two editions. His elegiac 
 odes, his verses on "Eternity," and his didactic poems 
 on " Reason" and " Superstition," are admiled for their 
 sensibility and elevated thought. Haller was thrice 
 married, and had a large far.tily of children. His re- 
 ligions views were evangelical, as was shown by his de- 
 fence of revelation in answer to Voltaire. Died in 1777. 
 
 See " Life of Haller," (in German,) by J. G. Zimmekmann, 1755; 
 Thomas Henry, "Memoirs of Albert de Haller," 1783; Condorcet, 
 " Fjoge de Haller;" Sknhhiek, "filoge hislorique de Aibert von 
 Haller," 1778; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry ot Europe:" Cu- 
 viek, "Histoiie des Sciences natuielies;" Eksch und Gkuukr, 
 "Allgemeine Eiicyklvpaedie ;" Isidore Bourdon, "lllustres Mede- 
 cins et Naturalistes des Temps modernes," 1844; "Biographie de 
 Albert de Haller,'' 2d edition, 1846. 
 
 Haller, von, (Ai.uf.rt,) a son of the preceding, born 
 at Berne in 1758, was an excellent botanist, and left 
 several works in manuscript. He performed several 
 diplomatic missions with honour. Died at Berne in 
 1823. 
 
 i, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, tat; met; n6t; good; 11:0011; 
 
HALLER 
 
 1117 
 
 HALM A 
 
 Haller, von, (Charles Louis,) a Swiss publicist, 
 born at Berne in 1768, was a grandson of the great 
 Haller. He was chosen a memtier of the Grand Coun- 
 cil in 1814. He asserted the divine right of kings in his 
 "Restoration of Political Science," (in German, 6 vols., 
 1816-22.) About 1820 he avowed his conversion to 
 Roman Catholicism, and obtained an office in the min- 
 istry of foreign affairs in Paris. He returned to Switzer- 
 land in 1830. Died in 1854. 
 
 SeeQuifcRARD, "La France l.itteVaire." 
 
 Haller, von, (Gottlieb Immanuf.l,) a Swiss anti- 
 quary and bibliographer, the eldest son of the celebrated 
 physiologist, was born at Heme in 1735. He studied 
 jurisprudence, and served the state in several offices, 
 among which was that of magistrate (bailli) of Novon. 
 He published a "Cabinet of Swiss Coins and Medals," 
 (1780,) and a bibliography of Swiss historians, "Biblio- 
 thek der Schweizer-Geschichte systematisch-chronolo- 
 gisch geordnet," (6 vols., 1785-87,) which is called an 
 excellent work. Died in 1786. 
 
 See Mkusei.. " Lexikon der vom Jahre 1750-1800 vec^torbenen 
 Deutsche!! Schriftsteller." 
 
 Hallerstein. See Ali.ersi f.in. 
 
 Hal'let, (Joseph,) an English dissenting minister, 
 born at Exeter in 1692. He wrote "A Free and Im- 
 partial Study of the Holy Scriptures Recommended," 
 (1729-36.) Died in 1744. 
 
 Hallette, />3'leV, (A.,) a French engineer, born in 
 1788. He invented a hydraulic press for the production 
 of olive oil, and applied atmospheric pressure as a motive 
 power on railways. Died at Arras in 1846. 
 
 Halley, Jtf jft or Halle, /rit'li', (Antoinf,) a French 
 writer of Latin poetry, born in 1595 ; died in 1675. 
 
 Hal'ley, (Edmund,) an eminent English astronomer 
 and mathematician, was born in a suburb of London on 
 the 26th of October, 1656, and educated at Oxford. He 
 began to cultivate astronomy with ardour, and before 
 •the age of twenty he had made observations of the 
 planets and had written a memoir on the problem of 
 Kepler. Perceiving that the advancement of astronomy 
 depended on an accurate knowledge of the position of 
 the stars, and that the catalogues of Ptolemy and Tycho 
 were no longer adequate to the requirements of the 
 science, he resolved, while Flamsteed and Hevelius were 
 engaged in a survey of the Northern latitudes, to apply 
 his own energies and observations on a catalogue of the 
 Southern hemisphere. Having received aid and patron- 
 age from the king, he embarked in 1676 for Saint Helena, 
 where he remained about two years, and prepared his 
 "Catalogue of Southern Stars,'' ("Catalogus Stellaruni 
 Australium,") published in 1679, which contains three 
 hundred and fifty stars. He also discovered a method 
 of obtaining the sun's parallax by means of the transits 
 of Mercury or Venus. 
 
 In 1678 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 Two years later he made observations on a remarkable 
 comet, since designated "Halley's comet," and in 1683 
 published his theory of the variation of the magnet. 
 Having become intimate with Newton, he persuaded 
 him to publish his " Principia," in 1686. In 1698, under 
 the auspices of William III., Halley commanded a suc- 
 cessful scientific expedition to the South Atlantic Ocean, 
 one object of which was to observe the variation of the 
 magnet. At his return, in 1700, he published his "Chart 
 of the Variations of the Magnetic Needle." After per- 
 forming other public services of a scientific character, he 
 obtained in 1703 the Savilian chair of geometry at Ox- 
 ford. Still pursuing the study of astronomy with un- 
 abated activity, he was the first who successfully predicted 
 the return of a comet, having ascertained that the comet 
 of 1680 revolved in a period of about seventy-six years. 
 The Royal Society elected him their secretary in 1713. 
 
 In 1720 he was appointed astronomer royal, in place 
 of Flamsteed, deceased, and then undertook a task 
 which would require nineteen years to perform, namely, 
 to observe the moon throughout an entire revolution 
 of her nodes. He lived to finish this task, in which he 
 arrived at an important discovery in the theory of the 
 moon, — the acceleration of her mean motion, — and also 
 made some corrections in the lunar tables. Having 
 turned his attention to the distance and parallax of the 
 
 CHii 
 
 fixed stars, he advanced the opinion that their para:iax 
 and diameter were insensible, or at least too small to be 
 measured by any means which astronomers then pos- 
 sessed. He appears to have been one of the first who 
 conceived or discovered the sublime doctrine of the pro- 
 per motion of the fixed stars in universal space. Besides 
 the works already named, he published a translation of 
 Apollonius's "Conic Sections," treatises on the Trade 
 Winds, on. Logarithms, on the Use of the Barometer, 
 etc. Of his success in poetry we have an instance in the 
 well-known Latin verses prefixed to Newton's "Prin- 
 cipia." He had married in 1682 a daughter of Mr. 
 Tooke, auditor of the exchequer. Died in January, 1742. 
 See Macaulav, "History of England," vol. i. ; " Hiographia 
 Britannia ;" Thompson, " History of the Royal Society." 
 
 Hal'11-day, (Sir Andrkw,) an eminent British phy- 
 sician and historical writer. He served as physician in 
 the army in the Peninsular war, and at Waterloo, (1815,) 
 after which he attended the Duke of Clarence, then 
 travelling for his health. He wrote, among other works, 
 a "Memoir of the Campaign of 1815," "Annals of the 
 House of Brunswick," (2 vols., 1826,) and "Annals of 
 the House of Hanover," (2 vols., 1826.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Hallier, /;i'le-A', (Francois,) a doctor of the Sor- 
 bonne, was born at Chartres, in France, in 1595. He 
 officiated as fromoteur of the assembly of the clergy in 
 1645. In 1652 he went to Rome and obtained against 
 the Jansenists the bull aim ascensiont. In 1656 he was 
 appointed Bishop of Cavaillon. He wrote "On Elec- 
 tions and Ordinations," (1636,) and other works, in Latin. 
 Died in 1658. 
 
 Hal'11-fax, (Samuel,) D.D., LL.D., an English schol- 
 ar, born at Mansfield in 1733, was appointed professor 
 of Arabic in the University of Cambridge in 1768. He 
 became chaplain-in-ordinary to George III. in 1774, 
 Bishop of Gloucester in 1781, and Bishop of Saint 
 Asaph in 1787. He published an "Analysis of the 
 Roman Civil Law compared with the Laws of England," 
 (1774.) Died in 1790. 
 
 Hal'll-well, (Jamks Orchard,) a learned British 
 archaeologist, born at Chelsea in 1821. He has distin- 
 guished himself by his researches into the literary history 
 of Great Britain, and by his services as a Shakspearian 
 critic. He edited numerous old writings, and published 
 several original works, among which are a "History 
 of Free-Masonry in England," (2d edition, 1844,) and 
 a "Life of William Shakespeare," (1848.) For many 
 years he was engaged on a costly illustrated edition of 
 Shakspeare's Works, (16 vols., 1855—65.) 
 
 Hallman, hal'man, (Carl Israel,) a Swedish dra- 
 matic writer, born in 1732. He obtained an obscure 
 position in the College of Mines, and produced successful 
 comedies and parodies, among which are " Skeppar 
 Rolf," (1778,) and "Petis och Telee," (1779.) Died in 
 1800. 
 
 See " Biographiskt-Lexicon Sfver naninkunnip;e Svenska Miln." 
 
 Hallman, (Johan Gustaf,) a Swedish writer of 
 prose and verse, born in Sodermannland, was the father 
 of the preceding. Died about 1758. 
 
 Hal'lock, (Gerard.) a journalist, a son of Moses, 
 noticed below, born at Plainfield, Massachusetts, in 1S00, 
 became in 1828 one of the two owners of the New York 
 "Journal of Commerce," which he and David Hale con- 
 ducted for over twenty years. Died in 1866. 
 
 Hallock, (Jeremiah,) an American clergyman, born 
 in Brookhaven, Long Island, in 1758. He preached for 
 many years at West Sinisbury, Connecticut, where he 
 settled in 1785. Died in 1826. 
 
 Hallock, (Moses,) a clergyman, a brother of the 
 preceding, was born in Long Island in 1760. He became 
 pastor at Plainfield, Massachusetts, in 1 792, and educated 
 many young men for the ministry. Died in 1837. 
 
 Halloian. Sec O'Hali.oran. 
 
 HallBtiom or Haellstroem, hcl'stuom, (Cam. Pe- 
 ter,) a Swedish geographer and engineer, was bom at 
 Ilmola in 1774. He rendered important atfrticts to the 
 geography of Sweden by surveys, triangulaiions, etc., 
 and published many geographical works. Died in 1836. 
 
 Halm, (Friedrich.) See MONCffBlLLINCHAUJEN. 
 
 Halma, Hi'mT, (Nicolas,) AhM, a French mathe- 
 matician and linguist, bom at Sedan in 1755, removed 
 
 ; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K.,gutturai; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as 1; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HALO AND ER 
 
 : 1 1 8 
 
 HAMELMANN 
 
 to Paris in 1797. He published, besides other works, a 
 French translation of the "Almagest" of Ptolemy, (2 
 vols., 1813-16.) Died in 1828. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Haloander, ha'lo-an'der, (Grf.gor,) a German jurist 
 and Hellenist, born at Zwickau, published " Digestorum 
 seu Pandectarum Libri L.," (1529,) and translated Jus- 
 tinian's " Novella;" into Latin, (1530.) Died in 1532. 
 
 Hals, hals, (Frans,) an excellent Flemish portrait- 
 painter, born at Mechlin in 1584. He was reputed to be 
 second only to Van Dyck among the portrait-painters of 
 his time. He worked in Delft, Haarlem, and other places. 
 Died in 1666 or 1656. 
 
 His brother DlRCK, born in 1589, painted interiors of 
 buildings, and animals, with success. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Dbscamps, "Viesdes Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Halthaus, halt'howss, or Haltaus, hal'towss, (Chris- 
 tian Gottlob,) a German antiquary and philologist, 
 born at Leipsic in 1702, excelled in the study of mediaeval 
 history. He was successively con-rector, and rector, of 
 a school in Leipsic. He published a "Calendarium 
 Medii ^ivi," (1729,) and an important work, in Latin, 
 called a" Glossary of Mediaeval German Words," (1758.) 
 Died in 1758. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruder, ** Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Halvig or Haelwig, hel'vig, ( Albrecht,) of Copen- 
 hagen, a Danish engraver, flourished about 1650. 
 
 Haly-Abbas. See Alee-Ibnool-AbbAs. 
 
 Haly-Rodoan. See Alee-Ibn-Rodhwan. 
 
 Hal'jf-bur'ton, (Thomas,) a Scottish divine, born at 
 Duplin, near Perth, in 1674. He became professor of 
 divinity at Saint Andrew's about 17 10. He wrote "Nat- 
 ural Religion insufficient and Revealed necessary to 
 Happiness," (1714,) "The Great Concern of Salvation," 
 (1722,) and other works, which were highly esteemed. 
 Died in 1 712. 
 
 See "Memoirs of Thomas Halyburton," by himself. 
 
 Ham, [Heb. Dn; Gr. Xuft; Fr. Cham, kim,] the 
 second son of Noah, is supposed to have lived about 
 3400 B.C. 
 
 See Genesis vi., vii., and ix. 
 
 Hamadanee or Hamadani, ha-ma-da'nee, the sur- 
 name of Abool-Fadhl-Ibn-Hosein, (a'bool fad'l Ib'n 
 ho'sin,) an Arabian writer and improvisatore, born at 
 Hamadan about 968 a.d. ; died in 1007. 
 
 See Haji-Khalpa, "Lexicon Bibliographicum ;" Aboolfeda, 
 "Annales Moslemici." 
 
 Hamaker, ha'ma'ker, (Hendrik Arens,) an emi-. 
 nent Dutch Orientalist, born at Amsterdam in 1789. He 
 became in 1815 professor of Oriental languages at Fra- 
 neker. In 1817 he was invited to Leyden to teach those 
 languages in the university, first as assistant, and in 1822 
 as titular professor. In 1820 he published a catalogue 
 of the Oriental manuscripts in the library of the uni- 
 versity, accompanied with Arabic texts, biographies, and 
 notes, which form one of the best modern coinpendiums 
 of Oriental literature. His oral lectures and conversa- 
 tions gave a better idea of his immense attainments in 
 the language, history, and geography of the Orientals, 
 than many of his works, which bear marks of haste 
 and negligence. He had a prodigious memory, and 
 he is said (with some hyperbole, no doubt) to have 
 known nearly all the languages of Europe and Asia. 
 His health failed under his excessive application, and he 
 died at Leyden in 1835. 
 
 See Bergman, " Levensschets van H. A. Hamaker," 1836 : Juyn- 
 boll, "Oratio de H. A. Hamaker," 1837; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale." 
 
 Hamal, hi'mil', (Jean Noel,) a distinguished musical 
 composer, born at Liege in 1709, studied music at Rome 
 in 1728. In 1738 he became maitre de chapdle in the 
 cathedral of Liege. His oratorios of "Jonathan" and 
 "Judith," and his opera of "The Journey of Chaufon- 
 taine," were much admired. His " In Exitu Israel" is 
 accounted by some his master-piece. Died in 1778. 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universale des Musiciens." 
 Hamami, ha'man, (Johann Gf.org,) (styled by him- 
 self "the Magus of the North,") a German thinker and 
 writer of a very peculiar stamp, born at Konigsberg 
 in 1730. He studied theology in the university of his 
 
 native city; but an impediment in his speech, and a 
 decided taste for general literature, caused him to turn 
 his attention to other pursuits. He supported himself 
 for a time as a private tutor. As a student, he devoted 
 himself especially to ancient literature and the Oriental 
 languages. In 1764, in order to recruit his health, he 
 made a journey through Germany and Switzerland. 
 Some years later he received an appointment connected 
 with the customs-department at Konigsberg. He died 
 in 1788. " Hamann," says Dr. Hedge, "is indebted for 
 his reputation to the testimony of a few names of the 
 highest mark, such as Herder, Jacobi, Goethe, and Jean 
 Paul, rather than to any great popularity which his 
 works have had with the German public. He belonged 
 to that class of writers who repel, by the uncouth shapes 
 in which their thoughts are disguised, more readers than 
 they attract by the rarity of the thoughts themselves. 
 He is a humourist, but of a sombre complexion, with a 
 strong dash of cynicism. At the same time, a deep re- 
 ligious sentiment pervades his writings." "The great 
 Hamann," observes Jean Paul, "is a deep sky full of 
 telescopic stars, with many a nebula which no eye can 
 resolve." His best-known works are perhaps "Sibyl- 
 line Leaves, by the Magus of the North," and the " Me- 
 morabilia of Socrates." A collection of all his writings 
 was published at Berlin, in 8 vols., 1821-43. 
 
 See F. H. Hedge, "Prose Writers of Germany." 
 
 Hamarskiold. See Hammarskold. 
 
 Hamazani. See Hamadanee. 
 
 Hamberger, ham'beVger, (Georg Albrecht,) a 
 German mathematician and writer, born in Franconia in 
 1662, was professor of physics at Jena. Died in 1716. 
 
 Hamberger, (Georg Christoph,) a German biblio- 
 grapher, born at Feuchtwang, in Anspach, in 1726. He 
 became professor of philosophy and literary history at 
 Gottingen in 1755. He wrote "Literary Germany," 
 (" Gelehrtes Deutschland,") a dictionary of living German 
 authors, (5 vols., 1768.) Died in 1773. 
 
 Hamberger, (Georg Erhard,) a German physician, 
 born at Jena in 1697. He was professor of physics and 
 medicine at Jena for many years, and was the first Ger- 
 man professor who in his lectures applied mathematics 
 to the physical sciences and medicine. He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, "Elements of Physics," etc., ("Ele- 
 menta Physices Methodo mathematica," 1727,) which 
 was regarded as a standard work. Died in 1755. 
 
 See J. C. Blasch, "Das Leben G. E. Hambergers," 175S; Ersch 
 und Grurkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hambrasus, ham-bRa'us, (Jonas,) a Swedish Orien- 
 talist, born in Helsingland in 1588, became professor 
 of Hebrew in Paris, where he died in 1671. 
 
 See Ekerman, " Dissertatio de Mentis acFatis J. Hambraei," 1749. 
 
 Hamel, ha'mel, (Joseph,) a natural philosopher, born 
 at Sarepta, on the Volga, about 1788. He invented an 
 electrical machine in 1807, ascended Mont Blanc in 1820, 
 and wrote a " History of the Steam-Engine." Died in 
 London in 1862. 
 
 Hamel, du. See Duhamel. 
 
 Hamel, du, dii ht'mhV, (Victor Auguste,) Vicomte, 
 a French writer, born in Paris in 1810, published a "Con- 
 stitutional History of the Spanish Monarchy from 411 to 
 1833," (2 vols., 1845.) 
 
 Hamel du Monceau. See Duhamel r>u Monceau. 
 
 Hamelin, Atml&N', (Ferdinand Alphonse,) a 
 French admiral, born at Pont-1'Eveque (Calvados) in 
 1796. He became captain of a frigate in 1828, and distin- 
 guished himself by his nautical skill in the Pacific Ocean. 
 In 1842 he was raised to the rank of rear-admiral. He 
 commanded the naval station of Oceanica from 1843 to 
 1846, and became a vice-admiral in 1848. He commanded 
 Wie fleet which in 1854 co-operated with the English fleet 
 in the bombardment of Odessa, and he directed with 
 ability the debarkation of troops in the Crimea. He 
 became a full admiral and senator in 1854, and minister 
 of the marine in April, 1855. Died in 1864. His uncle, 
 Jacques Felix Emanuel Hamelin, was also an ad- 
 miral. Died in 1839. 
 
 See Edmond Trxihk, " I.es Hommes de la Guerre d'Orient: le 
 Vice-Amiral Baron Hamelin," 1854. 
 
 Hamelmann, ha'mel-man', (Hermann,) a German 
 Protestant historian, born at Osnabriick in 1525. He 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HAMELSVELD 
 
 1 1 19 
 
 HAMILTON 
 
 had a high reputation as an eloquent preacher, and 
 became intendant-gencral of the churches of Oldenburg. 
 He wrote, in Latin, besides theological works, a "Chroni- 
 cle of Oldenburg," (3 vols., 1599,) and a "History of 
 Westphalia in the Sixteenth Century." Died in 1595. 
 
 See Leuckfhld, " Historia Hamelmanni," etc., 1720. 
 
 Hamelsveld, van, vjn ha'mels-velt', (Ysbrand,) a 
 Dutch divine, born in 1743 at Utrecht, where he became 
 professor of theology. He produced a good Dutch ver- 
 sion of the Bible, (1802,) a "General History of the 
 Christian Church," (22 vols., 1800-12,) and other works. 
 Died in 1812. 
 
 Hamerani, ha-ma-ra'nee, (Alberto,) a German en- 
 graver of medals, worked at Rome. He engraved fine 
 medals of several popes, among whom were Clement 
 IX. and Clement X. 
 
 Hamerani, (Ermengild,) a medallist, son of Gio- 
 vanni, noticed below, was born at Rome in 1683 ; died 
 in 1744. 
 
 Hamerani, (Giovanni,) a son of Alberto, noticed 
 above, was medallist to Pope Innocent XI. and his suc- 
 cessors. Died in 1705. 
 
 Hamerken, (Thomas.) See Kempis. 
 
 Ha-mil'car, [Gr. 'Afdhcag or 'A/u'Ajap,] a Carthaginian 
 general, who commanded a large army sent against Sicily 
 in 480 B.C. He was defeated at Hin'iera, and killed by 
 the army of Gelon, in that year. 
 
 Hamilcar, son of Gisco, a Carthaginian general, was 
 commander of a large fleet which was sent against Sicily 
 in 311 B.C. He defeated Agathocles and reduced a large 
 part of the island. Having attacked Syracuse, he was 
 made prisoner, and put to death, in 309 B.C. 
 
 Hamilcar, a Carthaginian general, who was distin- 
 guished in the first Punic war. He obtained command 
 of the army in Sicily in 262 B.C., and defeated the Romans 
 near Therma. He was associated with Hanno in the 
 command of the fleet in 256. They were defeated with 
 great loss in the same year by Regulus, near the coast 
 of Sicily. 
 
 Hamilcar, [Gr. 'A/uTxac or 'A/ua^i,] sumamed Barca 
 or Karcas, a famous Carthaginian general, was the father 
 of Hannibal, and the leader of the popular party at Car- 
 thage. The date of his birth is unknown. During the 
 first Punic war, in 247 B.C., he obtained command of the 
 army in Sicily, where for five years he defended himself 
 against the Romans, with whom he fought many inde- 
 cisive battles. In 241 a treaty of peace- was made, and 
 Hamilcar led the army back to Africa. Soon after this 
 he was successfully employed against a formidable revolt 
 of the mercenary troops of Carthage. In the year 238 
 he led an army into Spain, where he passed nine years 
 in war with the natives, and had made extensive con- 
 quests, when he was killed in battle in 229 B.C. It is 
 said he caused Hannibal in his childhood to swear eter- 
 nal hostility to Rome. His sons Hasdrubal and Mago 
 were distinguished in the second Punic war. Hamilcar 
 was perhaps nearly equal to Hannibal in military talents. 
 
 Hamilcar, son of Uomilcar, a Carthaginian general, 
 was defeated by the two Scipios in Spain at the siege 
 of Illiturgi, in 215 B.C. 
 
 Ham'il-tpn, (Ai.kxander,) an English Orientalist, 
 born about 1765. He resided many years in India, and 
 learned the Sanscrit. After his return to England, he 
 was chosen professor of Sanscrit at Hailevbury College. 
 He published a "Catalogue of the Sanscrit Manuscripts 
 of the Imperial Library, Paris, with Notes," (1809,) a 
 "Sanscrit Grammar," (181 5,) and other works. Died 
 in 1824. 
 
 Ham'il-tpn, (Alexander,) an illustrious American 
 statesman, orator, and general, born in the West Indian 
 island of Nevis on the nth of January, 1757. He was 
 the son of James Hamilton, a Scottish merchant, and 
 a grandson of Alexander Hamilton, of Grange, in Ayr- 
 shire. His mother, whose name was Faucette, was a 
 daughter of a French Huguenot. He entered in 1769 
 the counting-house of a merchant in Saint Croix, where 
 he acquired habits of order and methodical industry. 
 The literary talents displayed in his early essays induced 
 his friends to give him a liberal education. He was 
 sent to New York in 1772, and entered King's College 
 in 1773. In July, 1774, he addressed the citizens of New 
 
 York in a public speech, which was inspired by the 
 spirit of freedom, and was highly applauded. He also 
 promoted the popular cause by pamphlets so remarkable 
 for sagacity and logical ability that the public were 
 greatly surprised to learn that they were written by a 
 youth only about eighteen years of age. 
 
 He applied himself to the study of military tactics, 
 and was appointed captain of a company of artillery in 
 March, 1776. He served with distinction at the battles 
 of Long Island, White Plains, Trenton, and Princeton, 
 and was appointed aide-de-camp to General Washington, 
 with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, in March, 1777. He 
 gained the special favour and confidence of Washington, 
 who employed him as secretary. "Hamilton became," 
 says Renwick, "the depositary of the most secret 
 thoughts of his chief, and the organ of their promulga- 
 tion." He also assisted in planning campaigns and in 
 devising means to support the army. .. In November, 
 1777, he was sent to Albany to urge General Gates to 
 send reinforcements to the army of Washington.* Re- 
 ferring to this mission, his son and biographer says, 
 "This deportment of a lad of twenty, negotiating with 
 an officer buoyed up with his recent successes, already 
 placed before the popular eye as the rival of Washing- 
 ton, sustained by a majority of Congress, and hoping 
 soon to supplant him, will be regarded as not the least 
 remarkable nor the least interesting incident of his life : 
 by Washington it was never forgotten." Hamilton took 
 an active part m the battle of Monmouth, June, 1778, 
 and was highly commended for his conduct in that affair. 
 In 1 780 he married Eliza, a daughter of General Schuyler, 
 of Albany, and in February, 1781, he retired from the 
 staff and military family of Washington. 
 
 Before this date he had turned with "eager aptitude" 
 to the financial affairs of the country, and had written 
 on that subject several letters admirable for maturity of 
 judgment and perspicuity of style. In the spring of 
 1780 he wrote to James Duane a celebrated letter on 
 the state of the nation, in which he urged the necessity 
 of a new constitution, and expressed the opinion that 
 "Congress should have complete sovereignty in all that 
 relates to war, peace, trade, finance, and to the manage- 
 ment of foreign affairs," etc. He also recommended a 
 national bank. In July, 1781, he obtained command 
 of a battalion of the armv of Washington. He led this 
 body at the siege of Yorktown, and took a redoubt by 
 assault on the 14th of October, 1781. On the capture 
 of the British army at Yorktown, which virtually ended 
 the war, he applied himself to the study of law, retain- 
 ing his rank in the army, but declining to receive any 
 pay. In 1782 he was elected a member of the Conti- 
 nental Congress by the legislature of New York. He 
 was often the chairman of the committees which had 
 charge of the subjects of the greatest importance. Ac- 
 cording to one of his biographers, "his modes of think- 
 ing imparted to the proceedings of this body a new 
 tone and character, and his winning eloquence was the 
 delight and wonder of friend and foe." Washington 
 expressed the opinion that "no one exceeded him in 
 probity and sterling virtue." 
 
 About August, 1783, he resigned his seat in Congress, 
 and commenced the practice of law in the city of New 
 York. Although the course of his legal studies had 
 been brief, having a mind peculiarly adapted to the 
 analysis of first principles, he soon rose to the first rank 
 in his profession. He exerted his talents and influence 
 to protect the Tories from persecution at a time when 
 the popular senjiment of New York was too vindictive 
 towards that party. His qualifications for the bar are 
 thus described by Chancellor Kent: "Hamilton, by 
 means of his fine melodious voice and dignified deport- 
 ment, his reasoning powers and persuasive address, 
 soared above all competition ; his pre-eminence was at 
 once universally conceded." 
 
 He was an active member of an anti-slavery society 
 formed in New York, and offered, about 1784, a resolu- 
 tion that every member of that society should liberate 
 his own slaves. In 1786 he was elected to the legisla- 
 
 • Gales h«d previously been ordered to send troops to Washing- 
 ton, but preferred 10 keep them, although he had no especial need of 
 them after the capture of Burgoyne. 
 
 « as i: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, *.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as *; th as in this, [^f See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HAMILTON 
 
 I 120 
 
 HAMILTON 
 
 ture of New York, which met in January, 1787. Ham- 
 ilton and two other citizens of New York were chosen 
 as delegates to the convention which met in Philadel- 
 phia in May, 1 787, to form a Federal Constitution for 
 the country, which for several years had suffered greatly 
 from the want of an efficient government and from the 
 prostration of trade and the loss of public credit.* It 
 appears that Hamilton was the principal author of this 
 movement towards a firm and durable union of the 
 States. " He was lauded by some," says Renwick, " and 
 decried by others, according to their feelings on the ques- 
 tion, as the founder of the Union which superseded the 
 Confederacy." ("Life of Hamilton.") His twocolleagues 
 from New York were partisans of Clinton, and adverse 
 to the proposed Union or Constitution. "The policy 
 of Clinton," says J. C. Hamilton, "had placed him there 
 to become a cipher and a sacrifice." 
 
 On the iStruof June, Hamilton addressed the Con- 
 vention in a long speech, of which no report has been 
 preserved, but which was pronounced by Gouverneur 
 Morris to be " the most able and impressive he had 
 ever heard." In the course of this speech, he read his 
 plan of government, an outline of which is given in J. 
 C. Hamilton's " History of the Republic of the United 
 States," vol. iii. pp. 286-301. Although the plan adopted 
 differed from that of Hamilton, he signed the new Con- 
 stitution in September, 1787, and warmly urged the 
 people of New York to ratify it. With the co-operation 
 of Madison and Jay, he advocated the adoption of the 
 Constitution in a series of essays which first appeared, 
 under the signature of " Publius," in the " New York Ga- 
 zette," and were afterwards published in several volumes, 
 entitled " The Federalist." Hamilton wrote more than 
 half of these profound and luminous political treatises, 
 which are recognized by all parties as the best commentary 
 on the Constitution. This instrument was strenuously 
 opposed by a powerful party, "misled by the ignis-fatuits 
 of State sovereignty. " Hamilton must be classed," says 
 Guizot, "among the men who have best known the vital 
 principles and fundamental conditions of government. 
 . . . There is not in the Constitution of the United States 
 an element of order, strength, or durability which he did 
 not powerfully contribute to introduce into it." ("Char- 
 acter and Influence of Washington.") He proposed to 
 give the right of suffrage to all freemen, without distinc- 
 tion of colour. 
 
 Hamilton was appointed secretary of the treasury in 
 September, 1789, a few days after Congress had enacted 
 a bill to organize a treasury department, and at a time 
 when the nation was burdened with a heavy debt and 
 almost destitute of credit. In January, 1790, he pre- 
 sented to Congress a report on public credit, and a plan 
 for the support of the same, which became the basis of 
 the financial system of the nation. Among the measures 
 which he proposed were the funding system and a 
 national bank. A bill to establish a national bank was 
 passed by Congress in February, 1 791, and, though de- 
 nounced as unconstitutional by Jefferson, was approved 
 by the President. The results of Hamilton's financial 
 policy were the restoration of public crqdit and a rapid 
 revival of trade and industry. He advocated the encour- 
 agement of domestic manufactures by a protective tariff. 
 
 Hamilton and Jefferson, who became the respective 
 leaders of the Federal and Republican parties, differed 
 widely on financial questions and in regard to their for- 
 eign policy. The former advised the President to main- 
 tain neutrality in the war between the French and British. 
 Having failed in his efforts to defeat Hamilton and eject 
 him from the cabinet, Jefferson resigned, about January 
 I, 1794. Hamilton, whose salary was scarcely sufficient 
 for the support of his family, and who was unwilling to 
 neglect longer his private interests, resigned his office, 
 January 31, 1795. He declined the position of chief 
 justice of the supreme court of the United States. In 
 a series of able essays, signed "Camillus," he defended 
 Jay's treaty with Great Britain. Washington testified 
 his great esteem for Hamilton by consulting him in the 
 
 * The impotence of Congress is shown by the following incident: 
 In June, 1783, Congress had been driven from Philadelphia by the 
 insults and menaces of a small body of mutinous soldiers, and had 
 adjourned to Princeton. 
 
 preparation of his " Farewell Address," which, says 
 Renwick, "would have been less perfect as a composi- 
 tion had it not passed through the hands of Hamilton." 
 
 In the Presidential election of 1 796 he supported Adams 
 and Pinckney; but it appears that he wished the latter 
 to obtain the office of President. He had offended Mr. 
 Adams in a previous election by his efforts to secure a 
 larger vote for Washington than for Adams. The French 
 Directory having provoked the American people by acts 
 of hostility, the army was reorganized in the summer of 
 1798. Washington then accepted the chief command 
 of the army, on condition that Hamilton should be the 
 second in command. He was accordingly made inspector- 
 general, with the rank of major-general, after the general- 
 in-chief had overcome the repugnance of the President 
 to Hamilton's appointment by a menace of resignation. 
 On the death of General Washington, December, 1799, 
 he succeeded him as commander-in-chief; but the army 
 was soon disbanded, and he resumed the practice of law. 
 
 Hamilton and many other leading Federalists censured 
 President Adams for appointing an embassy to France, 
 about September, 1799. This affair caused a breach in 
 the Federal party, which was defeated in the Presidential 
 election of tSoo. .When the duty devolved on the House 
 of Representatives to decide whether Jefferson or Burr 
 should be President, Hamilton advised his friends to 
 prefer the former. In 1804 Aaron Burr presented him- 
 self as a candidate for the office of Governor of New 
 York, and hoped to receive the votes of many Federal- 
 ists ; but Hamilton opposed the election of Burr, ex- 
 pressing his opinion that he was a dangerous man and 
 unfit to be trusted with power. The election of General 
 Lewis blasted the ambitious projects of Burr, who inso- 
 lently demanded an explanation of Hamilton, and finally 
 challenged him. Hamilton accepted the challenge, was 
 mortally wounded at Weehawken, and died July 12, 1804. 
 His death was profoundly and generally lamented. His 
 eldest son had been killed in a duel by a political ad- 
 versary about 1802. 
 
 In person, Hamilton was not above the middle size. 
 He had blue eyes and a fair complexion. "Virtue so 
 rare, so pure, so bold," says Fisher Ames, "by its very 
 purity and excellence inspired suspicion as a prodigy. 
 His enemies judged of him by themselves: so splendid 
 and arduous were his services, they could not find it 
 in their hearts to believe that they were disinterested." 
 Talleyrand once said to Mr. George Ticknor, of Boston, 
 " he had known nearly all the marked men of his time, 
 but had never known one, on the whole, equal to Ham- 
 ilton." Hamilton's Works were edited by his son, John 
 C. Hamilton, (7 vols. 8vo, 1851.) 
 
 See James Renwick," Life of A. Hamilton," 1841 ; "Life of A. 
 Hamilton," by his son, John C. Hamilton, 2 vols., 1834-40; John 
 C. Hamilton, " History of the Republic of the United States as 
 traced in the Writings of Alexander Hamilton and of his Contem- 
 poraries," 6 vols., 185S-60; "Reminiscences of James A. Hamil- 
 ton," etc., New York, 1869; Rev. J. M. Mason, " Eulogy on Ham- 
 ilton;" William Coleman, "Collection of the Facts and Docu- 
 ment! relative to the Death of Major-General A. Hamilton," New 
 York, 1S04 ; R. W. Criswoi.u. " Prose Writers of America ;" Duvc- 
 kinck, •' Cyclopaedia of American Literature;" "North American 
 Review" for April, 1858. 
 
 Hamilton, (Andrew J.,) an American politician, 
 born in Madison county, Alabama, in 1815, became a 
 lawyer. He removed to Texas about 1846, and was 
 elected a member of Congress front that State in 1858 
 or 1859. He was loyal to the Union in the crisis of 1861, 
 and was appointed military Governor of Texas in 1862, 
 and provisional Governor in June, 1865. He retired 
 from that office in 1866. 
 
 Ham'il-tpii, (Anthony,) Count, born in Ireland 
 about 1646, was of Scottish descent. His mother was 
 a sister of the Duke of Ormond. His wit and elegant 
 accomplishments rendered him a favourite at the courts 
 of Charles II. and James II. He was brother-in-law of 
 the famous Count de Grammont, and had the principal 
 share in producing the "Memoirs of Grammont," (1713,) 
 which is greatly admired as a highly-finished picture of 
 the voluptuous court of Charles II. La Harpe said, 
 "Of all frivolous books, it is the most agreeable and 
 most ingenious." He wrote, also, several fairy-talcs. 
 Died at Saint-Germain in 1720. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, t, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HAMILTON 
 
 1 121 
 
 HAMILTON 
 
 Hamilton, (Captain Charles,) an officer in the ser- 
 vice of tlie liust India Company, was born a.t lielfast in 
 1 753- He wrote a " History of the Rohilla Afghans," 
 (17S7,) and translated the " Hedaya," (or "Guide,") a 
 Commentary on Mussulman law, (1791.) Died in 1792. 
 He was a brother of Elizabeth Hamilton, the authoress, 
 noticed below, 
 
 Hamilton, (Charles S.,) an American general, born 
 in New York about 1824, graduated at West Point in 
 1843. He lived in Wisconsin when the civil war began. 
 He served as brigadier-general in the army of the Po- 
 tomac, 1S62, and distinguished himself at the battle of 
 Corinth, October 3 and 4 of that year. He was com- 
 mended by General Grant for his conduct at Iuka, Sep- 
 tember, 1862, and was promoted to be a major-general 
 in March, 1863. He resigned in the ensuing month. 
 
 Hamilton, (Lord Claude,) was a son of James, 
 second Earl of Arran. He commanded the forces of 
 Queen Mary at Langside about 1568; but it appears 
 that he conspired secretly against her life. The assas- 
 sination of Regent Lenox was instigated by him. His 
 brother, Lord John, was an accomplice in the plot 
 against Queen Mary. Having been banished in 1577, 
 Lord John returned in 1585 at the head of an army, and 
 seized the king, who created him Marquis of Hamilton 
 in 1599. He was grandfather of the first Duke of Ham- 
 ilton. Died in 1604. 
 
 Hamilton, (David,) a Scottish architect, born in 
 Glasgow in 1768. He gained distinction by the erection 
 of the Glasgow Exchange, about 1840, and of several 
 banks and castles in Scotland. He was one of the suc- 
 cessful competitors who obtained premiums of £S 00 f° r 
 their designs for the New Houses of Parliament Died 
 in 1843. 
 
 Hamilton, (Elizabeth,) a meritorious writer, born 
 at Belfast, Ireland, in 1758. She resided some time in 
 Scotland, as governess of the daughters of a nobleman. 
 She published "Memoirs of Modern Philosophers," (3 
 vols., 1800,) " Letters on the Elementary Principles of 
 Education," (2 vols., 1801,) and a tale called "The Cot- 
 tagers of Glenburnie," (1808.) The last work is called 
 by Sir Walter Scott "a picture of the rural habits of 
 Scotland of striking and impressive fidelity." Died in 
 1816, at Harrowgate. 
 
 See Miss Benger, "Memoirs of Elizabeth Hamilton;" Mrs. 
 Ei.wO(id, " Memoirsof the Literary Ladiesof England," etc., vol. ii., 
 1843 ; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1808. 
 
 Hamilton, (Lady Emma,) a fascinating and profligate 
 woman, whose name was originally Lvon born at Pres- 
 ton, or in Cheshire, about 1764. She was married in 
 1791 to Sir William Hamilton, and accompanied him to 
 Naples. She acquired great influence over the Queen 
 of Naples, and captivated Lord Nelson. She died in 
 poverty at Calais in 1815. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Lady Hamilton," 1816; "Blackwood's Maga- 
 line" for April, i860. 
 
 Hamilton, (Gavin,) a Scottish historical painter, born 
 at Lanark about 1730, passed the greater part of his life 
 at Rome. He displayed skill and gotxl taste rather than 
 inventive genius. His illustrations of Homer's "Iliad" 
 are among his best productions. He rendered service 
 to art by his discoveries of statues, bas-reliefs, and other 
 buried monuments, many of which adorn the Museo 
 Clementino, and published "The Italian School of Paint- 
 ing," illustrated with splendid plates, (1773.) Died at 
 Rome in 1797. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hamilton, (George,) Earl of Orkney, a Scottish gene- 
 ral, and a younger son of William Douglas, Earl of Sel- 
 kirk, was born in 1666. He distinguished himself at the 
 battle of the Boyne in 1690, and in 1696 was made Earl 
 of Orkney. In 1704, as lieutenant-general, he took part 
 in the battle of Blenheim. In 1707 he became a member 
 of the British House of Peers. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Macaui.av, " History of England," vol. v. 
 
 Hamilton, (Hugh,) an Irish bishop and mathema- 
 tician, born in the county of Dublin in 1729, became 
 Bishop of Ossory in 1799. He published theological 
 and mathematical works, among which was a " Treatise 
 on Conic Sections." Died in 1805. 
 
 Hamilton, (James,) second Earl of Arran, was a son 
 of James Hamilton, Earl of Arran, who died in 1529. At 
 the death of James V., in 1542, he was appointed Regent 
 of Scotland. He obtained in 1549, from Henry if. of 
 France, the duchy of Chatellerault. The queen-mother 
 extorted from Regent Arran (who was a man of feeble 
 character) a resignation of his office about 1554. After 
 Mary Stuart became a captive in England, he was the 
 chief of a party which adhered to her cause and took 
 arms against Regent Lennox. Died in 1575. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. iii. chaps, xxxiv.-xxxvi. ; 
 Robertson, " History ot Scotland." 
 
 Hamilton, (James,) of Bothwellhaugh, a notorious 
 desperado, who lived about 1570. He was the murderer 
 of the regent Murray, and afterwards offered his ser- 
 vices to the agents of Philip II. for the purpose of assas- 
 sinating the Prince of Orange. 
 
 See Froude, " History of England," vol. ix. 
 
 Hamilton, (James,) first Duke of, a Scottish noble- 
 man, born in 1606, was the son of the Marquis of Ham- 
 ilton. In the civil war he was an adherent of Charles 
 I., who gave him the title of duke. By the influence of 
 his rival Montrose, he was imprisoned in 1645. In 1648 
 he raised an army of about 20,000 men in Scotland, with 
 which he marched south to Preston, where he was de- 
 feated by Cromwell and taken prisoner. He was tried 
 for treason, condemned, and executed, in 1649. 
 
 See Needham, " Life of the Duke of Hamilton," 1640; Chambers, 
 "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hamilton, (James,) fourth Duke of, (previously Earl 
 of Arran,) son of William Douglas, Earl of Selkirk, born 
 in 1657, succeeded to the title in 1694. He was a Ja- 
 cobite, and in 171 1 he was made a peer, with the title of 
 Duke of Brandon ; but the House of Lords refused to 
 admit him. Queen Anne appointed. him ambassador to 
 France ; but before his departure he was killed ( 1 712) in a 
 duel with Lord Mohun, who also was mortally wounded. 
 
 See "Memoirs of James, Duke of Hamilton," London, 1742; 
 Chamber-, " ffi >g a.iliicu DLti'jnary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hamilton, (James,) born in London about 1775, is 
 known as the author of the Hamiltonian system of teach- 
 ing languages by the use of a literal interlinear translation 
 before learning the rules of grammar. Died in 1829. 
 
 Hamilton, (James,) a politician and lawyer, born at 
 Charleston, South Carolina, in 17S6. In 1830 he became 
 Governor of South Carolina, and was a zealous promoter 
 of nullification, lie represented Texas as minister to 
 England in 1841. He was drowned at sea in 1S57. 
 
 Hamilton, (James,) D.D., a popular British author 
 and Presbyterian divine, born at Paisley in 1814. He 
 became about 1840 minister of the National Scottish 
 Church, Regent Square, London. He was an eloquent 
 preacher, and author of numerous works. Among these 
 ate " Life in Earnest," (which has had a very extensive 
 circulation,) "The Mount of Olives," and "The Happy 
 Home," (new edition, 1855.) Died in November, 1867. 
 
 Hamilton, (James,) a distinguished painter of marine 
 views, born in Ireland about 1820, came to the United 
 States in infancy. He practised his art in Philadelphia, 
 and acquired much distinction by his illustrations of Dr. 
 Kane's "Arctic Explorations," (1856.) His "Capture 
 of the Serapis" and "Old Ironsides" have been greatly 
 admired. Hamilton is particularly successful in the repre- 
 sentation of all water-scenes, whether he attempts to 
 bring before us the rush and tumult of Niagara or the 
 infinitely diversified appearances of the mighty ocean. 
 
 See Tuckrrman's " Book of the Artist*." 
 
 Hamilton, (John,) Archbishop of Saint Andrew's, 
 an ambitious Scottish prelate, was a brother of the Earl 
 of Arran, the regent. He was a persecutor of the Prot- 
 estants, and took an active part in the political contests 
 of the reign of Mary Stuart. He was tried for treason, 
 convicted, and hung, in 1 571. . 
 
 See Ctf ambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hamilton. (John,) a Scottish priest, born in the six- 
 teenth century. He wrote a "Treatise on Theology" 
 about 1581. 
 
 See Lord Hah.es, " Life of John Hamilton." 
 
 Hamilton, (Sir John,) a British general, born in 
 1755. He served in several campaigns in India, and 
 
 « as i; 9 as /; | hard; g as./'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, natal; R, (rilled; I as «; th as in this. 
 
 71 
 
 (Jiy~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HAMILTON 
 
 1 I 22 
 
 HAMILTON 
 
 became a brigadier-general in 1805. He distinguished 
 himself in the Peninsular war. Died in 1835. 
 
 Hamilton, (John C.,) an American writer, a son of 
 Alexander Hamilton, was born in Philadelphia in 1792. 
 He served in the army in the war against Great Britain, 
 1812-14. He published "Memoirs of the Life of Alex- 
 ander Hamilton," (2 vols., 1834-40,) and a " History 
 of the Republic of the United States as traced in the 
 Writings of Alexander Hamilton and his Contempo- 
 raries," (6 vols., 1858.) 
 
 Hamilton, (Patrick,) commonly regarded as the 
 first Scottish Reformer, was born in 1503. He adopted 
 the principles of Luther, whom he had heard preach 
 in Germany, and on his return to Scotland he openly 
 attacked the errors of the Roman Church. He was 
 condemned as a heretic, and suffered martyrdom with 
 constancy at the age of twenty-three. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men ;" J. G. Lorimrr, " Patrick Hamilton: a Historical Biography," 
 1857; Rev. Robert Steel, "Burning and Shining Lights," Lon- 
 don, 1864. 
 
 Hamilton, (Richard Winter,) an English preacher, 
 born in London in 1794. He became pastor of an Inde- 
 pendent church, Albion Chapel, Leeds, in 1S15. He 
 was eminent as a platform orator, and wrote a series of 
 essays entitled " Nugae Literariae," (" Literary Trifles," 
 1841.) Several volumes of his sermons have been pub- 
 lished. Died in 1848. 
 
 See W. H. Stowell. " Memoir of R. W. Hamilton," 1850. 
 Hamilton, (Robert,) a Scottish physician, born at 
 Edinburgh in 1 72 1 ; died at Lynn in 1793. 
 
 Hamilton, (Robert,) a Scottish political economist, 
 born in Edinburgh about 1742. He was professor of 
 natural philosophy and mathematics in Maris.chal Col- 
 lege, Aberdeen, from 1782 to 1829. His chief work is 
 an "Inquiry concerning the Rise and Progress, the Re- 
 demption and the Present State, and the Management, 
 of the National Debt of Great Britain," (1813.) "This 
 important work," says McCulloch, "opened the eyes of 
 the public to the delusive nature of the sinking fund." 
 Among his other works is " The Progress of Society," 
 (1830.) Died in 1829. 
 
 Hamilton, (Schuyler,) an American general, a son 
 of John C. Hamilton, and a grandson of Hamilton the 
 great statesman, was born in New York in 1822. He 
 graduated at West Point in 1841, served as aide-de-camp 
 to General Scott in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and 
 resigned his commission in 1855. In 1861 he became 
 a brigadier-general of volunteers. He rendered important 
 services in Missouri, and suggested the canal which was 
 cut near New Madrid in March and April, 1862. He 
 was made a major-general in September, 1862, and re- 
 signed, on account of ill health, in February, 1863. 
 
 Hamilton, (Thomas,) a captain of the British army, 
 born in 1789. He served in the Peninsular war, and in 
 the second war between the United States and Great 
 Britain. He contributed many articles to " Blackwood's 
 Magazine," and published several able works, namely, 
 "Annals of the Peninsular Campaign," "The Youth and 
 Manhood of Cyril Thornton," a novel, (1827,) and "Men 
 and Manners in America," (1833.) These books were 
 favourably noticed by British critics. Died in 1842. 
 
 Hamilton, (Walter,) a British geographer, pub- 
 lished "The East India Gazetteer," (London, 1814,) and 
 a "Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Description 
 of Hindostan," (2 vols., 1820,) which the "London Quar- 
 terly Review" pronounced "an inestimable work, con- 
 taining a more full, detailed, and faithful picture of India 
 than any former work on the subject." 
 
 Hamilton, (William,) second Duke of, born in 
 1616, was brother of James, the first Duke of Hamilton, 
 whose title he inherited. He officiated as secretary of 
 state in Scotland, and, after serving in the army of Charles 
 II., died in 165 1, of wounds received at the battle of 
 Worcester. The duchy devolved on his niece, Anne 
 Hamilton, who was married to William Douglas. 
 
 Hamilton, (William,) of Bangour, a Scottish poet, 
 born in Ayrshire in 1704, joined the party of the Pre- 
 tender in 1745. He wrote a volume of poems, among 
 which is "The Braes of Yarrow." Died in 1754. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hamilton, (Sir William,) a diplomatist, antiquary 
 and connoisseur, born in Scotland in 1730. He was 
 appointed ambassador to Naples in 1764, and retained 
 that post until 1800. In 1766 he was admitted a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society, and in 1772 was made Knight of 
 the Bath. During his residence at Naples he contributed 
 much to the advancement of art and science by collecting 
 Etruscan and Greek vases and other antiquities (now 
 in the British Museum) and by observing the volcanic 
 phenomena of Vesuvius. He published, in 1772, "Ob- 
 servations on Mount Vesuvius, Mount Etna," etc., and 
 in 1776 another work on the same subject, entitled 
 "Campi Phlegraei." In 1766 appeared an elegant work, 
 in French and English, named " Etruscan, Greek, and 
 Roman Antiquities, drawn from the Cabinet of Mr. 
 Hamilton," by D'Hancarville. Died in 1803. His 
 second wife, Emma, gained notoriety by her disgraceful 
 connection with Lord Nelson. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Hamilton, (Sir William,) one of the greatest meta- 
 physicians of modern times, was born at Glasgow on the 
 8th of March, 1788. He was descended from the ancient 
 Scottish family of the Hamiltons of Preston, and was 
 educated at Balliol College, Oxford, where he obtained 
 first-class honours. In 1821 he was appointed professor 
 of universal history in the University of Edinburgh, 
 where he had much leisure for the pursuit of his favourite 
 metaphysical studies. He commenced in 1829 to write 
 for the "Edinburgh Review" on mental philosophy, logic, 
 and other subjects. Among the titles of these es'says or 
 reviews are the " Philosophy of the Absolute : Cousin- 
 Schelling," (1829,) " Philosophy of Perception : Reid and 
 Brown," (1830,) and "Logic: the Recent English Treat- 
 ises on that Science," (1833.) He combated the system 
 of Schelling and Hegel in the essay first named. From 
 1836 until his death he was professor of logic and meta- 
 physics in the University of Edinburgh. Before the 
 former date he had acquired a European reputation by 
 his vast erudition and extraordinary acuteness of intel- 
 lect. His influence and success as a professor were aug- 
 mented by a noble person, a sonorous voice, and perfect 
 dignity of manner. He published in 1846 an edition 
 of Reid's Works, with notes and supplementary disser- 
 tations ; and in 1852, "Discussions on Philosophy and 
 Literature, Education and University Reform, chiefly 
 from the ' Edinburgh Review,' enlarged, with Notes and 
 other Additions," (1 vol. 8vo.) In 1845 he was partially 
 disabled by paralysis, which, however, did not impair his 
 mental activity. His last publication was an edition 
 of the Works of Dugald Stewart, (9 vols., 1854-56.) He 
 died in Edinburgh on the 6th of May, 1856. He com- 
 bined the power of analysis and generalization in a degree 
 perhaps unequalled since the time of Aristotle. In a 
 thorough acquaintance with the history of philosophy 
 he has never been surpassed by any writer. 
 
 " Sir William Hamilton," says the " Edinburgh Re- 
 view," " has attained to the very highest distinction as 
 a philosopher, and in some respects he is decidedly 
 superior to any of his illustrious predecessors, — Reid, 
 Stewart, or Brown. With a remarkable power of analysis 
 and discrimination, he combines great decision and ele- 
 gance of style, and a degree of erudition that is almost 
 without a parallel." " Hamilton never deviates," says 
 M. Cousin, "from the grande route of common sense; 
 and at the same time he has much esprit and sagacity. 
 I assure you (as I know by experience) that his dialectic 
 is very inconvenient to an adversary. . . . His inde- 
 pendence is equal to his knowledge ; and he is especially 
 great in logic. I now address you professionally, (en 
 homme de mitier.) Know then, that M. Hamilton, 
 among all your compatriots, understands Aristotle the 
 best ; and if there is a chair of logic vacant in the three 
 kingdoms, give it to him, by all means, without delay." 
 (Letter to Mr. Pillans, of Edinburgh, 1836.) 
 
 See John Veitch, "Memoir of Sir William Hamilton, Bart," 
 (with portrait,) 1869; E. P. Whipple, "Essays and Reviews," 
 1851 ; "North American Review" for January, 1853, vol. Ixxvi. : 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale :" " Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 October, 1859; "North British Review" for May, 1859. September, 
 1S65, and July, 1868. See, also, J. S. Mill's "Examination of Sir 
 William Hamilton's Philosophy," 1865, and the Introduction to Dr. 
 James McCosh's "Examination of Mr. J. S. Mill's Philosophy." 
 1866. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; not; go5d; moon; 
 
HAMILTON 
 
 1123 
 
 HAMMOND 
 
 Hamilton, (William,) R.A., a British painter, born 
 about 1750, was a pupil of Zucchi, in Koine. He was 
 successful as a painter of ornaments, and was elected 
 a Royal Academician in 1789. He worked mostly in 
 England, and was one of the artists employed on the 
 " Shakspeare Gallery." Died in 1801. 
 
 Hamilton, (William Douglas,) Earl of Selkirk, was 
 created Duke of Hamilton in 1660. He married Anne, 
 Duchess of Hamilton, with the condition that their chil- 
 dren should take her family name. William III. appointed 
 him lord high commissioner of Scotland in 1689, and 
 again in 1693. Died in 1694. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. ii. chap. vi. ; also 
 vol. iii. chaps, xiii. and xvi. 
 
 Hamilton, (William Gerard,) often called " Single- 
 Speech Hamilton," was born in London in 1729. Having 
 been educated at Oxford, he obtained a seat in Parlia- 
 ment in 1754, and made his first speech in November, 
 1 755, which was received with great applause. It is said 
 that no maiden speech in that House ever made such a 
 sensation. In 1756 he was appointed one of the lords 
 of trade. He wrote a treatise on " Parliamentary Logic," 
 and was conjectured, without evidence or probability, to 
 be the author of "Junius." From 1765 to 1784 he was 
 chancellor of the exchequer in Ireland, and made several 
 eloquent speeches in the Irish Parliament. He was one 
 of Dr. Johnson's most valued friends. Died in 1796. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review," vol. xv. 
 
 Hamilton, (William Richard,) an English anti- 
 quary and diplomatist, born in London in 1777. He was 
 private secretary of Lord Elgin in the embassy to Con- 
 stantinople, and aided in the removal of the Elgin Mar- 
 bles from Athens. After a visit to Egypt, he published 
 a work on the antiquities of that country, called " ;Egyp- 
 tiaca," (1810.) He procured for the British Museum the 
 famous Rosetta Stone. He was undersecretary of state 
 for foreign affairs between 1810 and 1822. Died in 1859. 
 
 Hamilton, (Sir William Kuwan,) an eminent Irish 
 astronomer and geometer, born in Dublin in 1805. He 
 learned, or at least studied, thirteen languages before he 
 had completed his thirteenth year, and about the age 
 of fifteen became versed in the higher mathematics. In 
 1823 he began to apply algebraic geometry to optics, and 
 entered the University of Dublin, where he " uniformly 
 obtained the chief honour in both science and classics. 
 He was appointed Andrews professor of astronomy and 
 astronomer royal for Ireland at the age of twenty-one, 
 and produced in 1828 his important " Theory of Systems 
 of Rays," in which he developed the application of alge- 
 bra to' optics, and announced two new laws of light, — the 
 internal and external conical refraction of biaxal crystals. 
 He received a gold medal from the Royal Society of 
 London for this discovery, in reference to which Professor 
 Pliicker, of Bonn, declared, "No experiment in physics 
 has made such an impression on my mind." He was 
 chosen president of the Royal Irish Academy in 1837. 
 Among his chief works is "Elements of Quaternions," 
 (1866.) Died in 1865. "There can be but one opinion," 
 says the "North British Review" for September, 1866, 
 "of the extraordinary genius and untiring energy of him 
 who, unaided, composed in so short a time two such 
 enormous treatises as the 'Lectures,' (1853,) and the 
 'Elements of Quaternions,' (1866.) As a repertory of 
 mathematical facts and a triumph of analytical and geo- 
 metrical power, they can be compared only with such 
 imperishable works as the ' Principia' and the ' Me- 
 canique Analytique.'" 
 
 See "Gentleman's Maga*ine" for 1866. 
 
 Ham'ley, (Lieutenant -Colonel Edward Bruce,) 
 R.A., a contemporary British writer of fiction, published 
 Ij Lee's Widowhood," (2 vols., 1854,) and "The 
 Story of a Campaign : a Narrative of the War in 
 Southern Russia, written in the Crimea," (1855.) These 
 works first appeared in " Blackwood's Magazine." 
 
 Hamlin, (Hannibal,) an American Senator, born at 
 Paris, Oxford county, Maine, in August, 1809. He prac- 
 tised law from 1833 to 1848. He was Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives of Maine in 1837, 1839, and 
 1840, and represented a district of that State in Congress 
 from 1843 to 1847. In May, 1848, he was elected a 
 Senator of the United States for four years, to fill a 
 
 vacancy. He was re-elected a Senator for six years by 
 the legislature of Maine in 1851. He was originally a 
 Democrat, but differed from his party on the question 
 of slavery, and joined the Republicans about 1855. In 
 1857 he was Governor of Maine for a short time, but, 
 having been again elected to the Federal Senate, he 
 resigned the office of Governor. He was elected Vice- 
 President of the United States by the Republicans in 
 i860. In January, 1869, he was again elected a Senator 
 of the United States. 
 
 Hammarskold or Hammarskoeld, ham'mars- 
 chold', (Lars,) an able Swedish critic and author, born 
 at Tuna, in Calmar, in 1785. He published a volume 
 of poems, " Poetiska Studier," (1813,) " Hellvin och EI- 
 vina," a tale, (1817,) "Swedish Literature," ("Svenska 
 Vitterheten," 1818,) which is highly commended, and 
 an excellent work entitled " Historical Remarks on the 
 Progress and Development of Philosophic Studies in 
 Sweden," (1821.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See "Minnen af L. Hammarskoeld," 1827. 
 
 Hammer, ham'mer, (Julius,) a German writer, born 
 at Dresden in 1810, published " Life and Dreaming," 
 (" Leben und Traum," 1839,) and other novels. A volume 
 of his poems, entitled "Look around thee and Look 
 within thee," ("Schau' urn Dich und schau' in Dich," 
 185 1,) was often reprinted. 
 
 Hammerer, ham'meh-rer, (Johann,) an Alsatian 
 architect and sculptor, superintended the erection of the 
 Strasburg Cathedral from 1510 to 1520. 
 
 Hammericb, ham'meh-riK, ( Frkderik Pedf.r 
 Adolf,) a Danish author and divine, born at Copen- 
 hagen in 1809. He produced popular national songs in 
 a work entitled "Skandinaviske Reiseminder," (1840,) 
 " Heroic Songs," ("Heltesange," 1841,) "The Awaken- 
 ing of Denmark," (1848,) and other admired poems. In 
 1845 ne became pastor of a church in Copenhagen. He 
 published several well-written works on Danish history, 
 among which is "Denmark under the Union of Calmar," 
 (" Denmark under de Nordiske Rigers Forening 1375— 
 1523," 1849.) 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter-I.exicon." 
 
 Hammerlein, ham'mer-lin', [ Lat. Mallf/olus, ] 
 (Felix,) a Swiss theologian, born in Zurich in 1389. He 
 distinguished himself at the Council of Bale by his zeal 
 for the maintenance of discipline. He wrote many 
 religious treatises, which exposed him to persecution, 
 and was condemned to perpetual detention in a convent, 
 where he died about 1460. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hammer-Purgstall, von, fon ham'mer p6"6Rr/stat', 
 (Joseph,) Baron, an eminent German Orientalist and 
 historian, was born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1774. He was 
 a friend of Goethe, Herder, and Wieland in his youth. 
 In 1802 he went to Constantinople as secretary of lega- 
 tion, and in 1807 he returned to Vienna, where he chiefly 
 resided. He was appointed interpreter to the imperial 
 court about 1815, and aulic councillor in 1817. He spoke 
 and wrote ten foreign languages, among which were the 
 Persian, Arabic, Greek, and Turkish. His literary career 
 was long and prosperous. He was elected president of 
 the Academy of Vienna in 1847, and was an associate 
 of the French Institute. Probably no other European 
 has been so successful in the illustration of the manners, 
 history, and literature of the Mussulmans. His histories 
 are the most complete that we have on the subjects of 
 which he treats. One of his chief works is a " I Iistory of 
 the Ottoman Empire," ("Geschichte des Osmanischeti 
 Reichs," 10 vols., 1827-35.) H e was author of numerous 
 other works, among which are a "History of Ottoman 
 Poetry," (4 vols., 1836-38,) and a " History of Arabic 
 Literature," (" Literaturgeschichte der Araber," 7 vols. 
 4to, 1850-56.) He also translated poems from the Per- 
 sian, Arabic, etc. His original name was Joseph Ham- 
 mer ; but, having in 1837 inherited certain estates of the 
 Counts. of Purgstall, he added their name tq his own, 
 and was created a baron. Died in 1856. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Denkwiirdigkeiten aus meinem Leben ;" 
 K. Scm.nTTMANN, "Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall;" " Foreign 
 Quarterly" for November, 1837 : "Nouvelle Hiographie Gc"ne>ale.' 
 
 Ham'mond, (Anthony,) M.P., born at Somcrsham 
 Place, England, in 1668, gained distinction in literature 
 
 s k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as z; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HAMMOND 
 
 112 + 
 
 HAMPDEN 
 
 and parliamentary eloquence. In 1720 he edited a "New 
 Miscellany of Original Poems," some of which were his 
 own productions. Died in 1738. 
 
 Hammond, (Henry,) an English divine and author, 
 born at Chertsey in 1605, was appointed Archdeacon of 
 Chichester in 1643, ar >d canon of Christ Church, Oxford, 
 in 1645. Being a zealous royalist, he attended Charles 
 I. as chaplain while he was a prisoner in 1646-47. He 
 was an excellent orator, and an author of superior merit. 
 Among his works are "A Practical Catechism," (1644,) 
 "Paraphrase and Annotations on the New Testament," 
 (1653,) "Paraphrase and Annotations on the Book of 
 Psalms," (1659,) and "A Pacific Discourse on God's 
 Grace and Decrees," (1660.) "t would recommend," 
 says Dr. Johnson, " Lowth and Patrick on the Old Tes- 
 tament, and Hammond on the New." Died in 1660. 
 
 See Bishop Fell, " Life of H. Hammond," 1661 ; R. Fulman, 
 "Life of H. Hammond," 16S4. 
 
 Hammond, (Jabez D.,) an American lawyer and 
 writer. He represented a district of New York in Con- 
 gress in 1815-17, and was elected regent of the Uni- 
 versity of New York in 1845. He wrote a " Political 
 History of New York," (2 vols., 1843,) anf l a "Life of 
 Silas Wright." Died at Cherry Valley in 1855. 
 
 Ham'mond, (James,) M.P., an English poet, son of 
 Anthony, noticed above, was lx>rn about 17 10. He was 
 equerry to the Prince of Wales, and sat in Parliament in 
 1741. He wrote "Love Elegies," (partly translated or 
 imitated from Tibullus.) Died in 1742. 
 
 Hammond, (James Hamilton,) a politician, born in 
 Newberry district, South Carolina, in 1807. He was a 
 nullifier about 1832, was elected to Congress in 1835, 
 and was chosen Governor of South Carolina in 1842. In 
 1857 he l>ecame a United States Senator. Died in 1861. 
 
 Hammond, (Le Roy,) Colonel, an American officer, 
 born in Richmond county, Virginia, about 1740. He 
 removed to South Carolina, where he fought against the 
 British in 1776-82 and distinguished himself as a leader 
 in guerilla warfare. Died about 1800. 
 
 Hammond, (Marcus C. M.,) a military writer, a 
 brother of James H. Hammond, noticed above, was born 
 in Newberry district, South Carolina, in 1814, and gradu- 
 ated at West Point in 1836. He wrote for the " South- 
 ern Quarterly" a series of essays on the Mexican war. 
 
 Hammond, (Samuel,) an able American officer, born 
 in Richmond county, Virginia, in 1757. He served with 
 distinction at King's Mountain, Cowpens, Eutaw, and 
 other battles in South Carolina and Georgia. He was 
 appointed civil and military commandant of Upper 
 Louisiana about 1805. In 1831 he became secretary of 
 state of South Carolina. Died in 1842. 
 
 Hammond, (William A.,) an American surgeon 
 and distinguished medical writer, born in Annapolis, 
 Maryland, August 28, 1S28, graduated as M.D. at the 
 University of New York in 1848, and entered the army as 
 assistant surgeon. In October, i860, he was appointed 
 professor of anatomy and physiology in the University 
 of Maryland. In 1861 he re-entered the army, was 
 appointed surgeon -general in April, 1862, and was dis- 
 missed in August. 1864. He has published, besides other 
 valuable'works, "Military Hygiene," (1863,) and "Sleep 
 and its Derangements," (1869.) 
 
 Hamon, /;8'm6N', (Jean,) a distinguished Jansenist 
 writer, was born at Cherbourg in 1618. He entered the 
 monastery of Port-Royal about 1650, before which he 
 had acquired distinction by his talents. He was ex- 
 tremely abstemious or ascetic in his way of life. He 
 wrote treatises on prayer and on solitude, and other de- 
 votional works, the morality and unction of which entitle 
 him to rank with the best writers of Port-Royal, lie 
 practised medicine before and after his retirement from 
 the world. Died in 1687. 
 
 "Tout brillant de savoir, d'esprit et d'e'loquence, 
 II courut au desert chercher robscuriteV'— BoileaI'. 
 See Thomas Dufossb, " Histoire de Port-Royal;" " Nouvelle 
 Birjraphie Ge'uerale." 
 
 Hamon, (Jean Louis,) a French painter of genre, 
 born at Plouha (C6tes-du-Nord) in 1821. His works 
 are admired for grace, finesse, and subtlety of idea and 
 execution. Among his master-pieces are " My Sister 
 is not here," (1853,) "Cupid and his Flock," (1855,) 
 
 and "The Butterfly Chained," ("Le Papillon enchatneV 
 (I8S7-) 
 
 Hamp'd?n, (John,) an illustrious English patriot 
 and statesman, born in London in 1594, was the eldest 
 son of William Hampden of Hampden and Elizabeth 
 Cromwell, who was aunt of the Protector, Oliver Crom- 
 well. He inherited at an early age the ample estate of 
 his ancestors, in the county of Bucks. Having been edu- 
 cated at Oxford, he became in 1613 a student in the Inner 
 Temple, and attained proficiency both in literature and 
 law. While a student, he was chosen to write an epitha- 
 lainium on the marriage of the princess Elizabeth, sister 
 of Charles I. In 1619 he married Elizabeth Symeon, 
 and in the next year was returned to Parliament by the 
 borough of Grampound. Of his private life not many 
 particulars have been recorded. It appears that party 
 spirit and detraction failed to find any vice in his morals 
 or any vulnerable point in his character. Clarendon men- 
 tions a change which occurred in his habits, probably, 
 about the age of twenty-five. "On a sudden," he says, 
 "from a life of great pleasure and license, he retired to 
 extraordinary sobriety and strictness." But even after 
 this change "he preserved his natural cheerfulness and 
 vivacity, and, above all, a flowing courtesy to all men." 
 Hampden represented Wendover in the Hpuse of Com- 
 mons in 1625, and also in the next Parliament, which met 
 in 1626 and denied the right of the king to levy tonnage 
 and poundage without their consent. When the king 
 resorted to a forced loan, Hampden, with many others, 
 refused to pay his portion, and was imprisoned. Having 
 been restored to liberty, he entered Parliament in 1628, 
 and distinguished himself by his industry and capacity 
 for business. The king having resolved to dispense with 
 Parliaments, Hampden retired to his estate in 1629, and 
 passed many years in rural occupations. In 1636 he 
 obtained great credit and popularity by his firm resistance 
 to the arbitrary measures of the court in reference to 
 ship-money. The sum required of him was only a few 
 shillings; but, as he considered the demand despotic in 
 principle and tendency, he thought it his duty to abide 
 by the constitution, and refused to pay a farthing. To- 
 wards the end of 1636 this great cause was tried in 
 the Exchequer Chamber before all the (twelve) judges 
 of England. The arguments of the counsel occupied 
 about twelve days. Four of the judges decided in Hamp- 
 den's favour, and seven or eight against him. 
 
 Many Puritans now sought a refuge from persecution 
 and oppression by emigration to America under the 
 auspices of Lord Say and Lord Brooke. Hampden, 
 perceiving that neither his person nor his property was 
 safe, determined to follow their example. In 1638, in com- 
 pany with his cousin, Oliver Cromwell, he took passage 
 in a ship on the point of sailing to America, when the 
 voyage was arrested by an order of Council, and the two 
 friends remained, to teach despotic power an ever-memo- 
 rable lesson. In 1640 the king called the famous Long 
 Parliament, in which Hampden sat as a member for 
 Bucks, being regarded as the leader of the opposition 
 and the most popular man in England. " He was," says 
 Macaulay, "a greater master of parliamentary tactics 
 than any man of his time. . . . His speaking was ready, 
 weighty, perspicuous, condensed. He seldom rose till 
 late in a debate." In 1641 the court proposed to form 
 a popular administration, under the direction of the Earl 
 of Bedford, and to select Hampden as tutor of the Prince 
 of Wales ; but the death of the earl prevented this de- 
 sirable consummation. During the stormy debate which 
 attended the passage of the Grand Remonstrance, when 
 the excited disputants were near coming to blows, they 
 were pacified, as an eye-witness states, "by the sagacity 
 and great calmness of Mr. Hampden." 
 
 On the 3d of January, 1642, the king sent the attor- 
 ney-general to impeach Hampden, Pym, Hollis, and two 
 other members of the House, on a charge of high treason. 
 As the Commons refused to surrender these members, 
 Charles went in person, with his guards, to arrest them 
 in their seats ; but the five members had retired a few 
 minutes before, and escaped from his grasp. This des- 
 perate attempt against the privilege of Parliament excited 
 the greatest indignation. The city of London rose in 
 arms. In a few days the Commons openly defied the 
 
 5, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, Q, obscure; far, fill, fat; mjt; ndt; good; moon- 
 
HAMPDEN 
 
 1 125 
 
 HANCOCK 
 
 court, and the citizens escorted the accused metnlwrs 
 in triumph back to their seats in Westminster. When 
 the news reached Buckinghamshire, four thousand free- 
 holders rode to London to defend their representative. 
 
 When all attempts to negotiate had failed between the 
 two parties, Hampden received a commission as colonel, 
 and raised a regiment in his own county. They wore 
 the device "Vestigia nulla retrorsum," a fitting motto 
 for one whose character was so straightforward and 
 determined. As a member of the committee of public 
 salety, he was incessantly employed in a variety of 
 labours. I lad he lived a few years longer, it is probable 
 he would have been commander-in-chief. He took part 
 in the battle of Edgehill, and in several skirmishes, ex- 
 posing his person with a bravery bordering on rashness. 
 In June, 1643, Prince Rupert, returning from a maraud- 
 ing expedition, encountered Hampden, with a small 
 troop, on Chalgrove field. In the first charge Hamp- 
 den received a fatal shot in the shoulder ; and a few days 
 after the great Commoner expired. 
 
 He left three sons and six daughters, whose mother 
 died in 1634. Clarendon, though a political opponent, 
 renders the following tribute to his memory : " lie was 
 indeed a very wise man, and possessed with the most 
 absolute spirit of popularity, and the most absolute 
 faculties to govern the people, of any man I ever knew. 
 . . . His reputation of honesty was universal. . . . The 
 eyes of all men were fixed upon him as their patriae 
 pater, and the pilot that must steer the vessel through 
 the tempests that threatened it." 
 
 See Lord Nugent, "Memorials of Hampden," 1832; Mac- 
 aulay's review of the same, in his "Essays;" Clarendon, 
 "History of the Rebellion;" John Forstek, "Lives of Eminent 
 British Statesmen;" Hume, "History of England." chap. lvi. ; 
 GutzoT, " Histoire de la Revolution d'Angleterre ;" Ham. am, 
 "Constitutional History of England;" Isaac Disraeli, "Eliot, 
 Hampden, and Pyni," 1832. 
 
 Hampden, (Rev. Renn Dickson,) an English divine 
 and scholar, bom in Barbadoes about 1794. He became 
 a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, where he was also 
 a tutor. He published, among other works, "Philo- 
 sophical Evidence of Christianity," (1827,) and "The 
 Scholastic Philosophy in its Relation to Christian The- 
 °'°^y>" ('832.) In 1836 he was appointed by the Whig 
 ministry regius professor of divinity at Oxford. This 
 appointment gave rise to a fierce controversy. It 
 was condemned by the high-church party, who charged 
 Hampden with unsoundness of doctrine; and it was 
 stigmatized by Southey as "an insult to the University." 
 He became Bishop of Hereford in 1847. He contributed 
 able articles on Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle to the 
 "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Hied in 1868. 
 
 Hampden, (Richard,) a son of the great John Hamp- 
 den, was a Whig member of the House of Commons 
 in 1689, also a commissioner of the treasury, and member 
 of the privy council. In 1690 he was made chancellor 
 of the exchequer, — "probably to reward him for the 
 moderation of his conduct," says Macaulay. 
 
 See Macaulay's " History of England," vol. ii. chap. x. ; vol. iii. 
 chaps, xi. and xv. 
 
 Ham'per, (William,) an English biographer and 
 antiquary, born at Birmingham in 1776. He served as 
 magistrate in Warwickshire. Among his works were 
 several antiquarian treatises in the "Gentleman's Ma- 
 gazine," and " The Life, Diary, and Correspondence of 
 Sir William Dugdale," (1837,) which contains valuable 
 historical information. Died in 1831. 
 
 Hamp'ton, (Rev. James,) an English translator, who 
 published a version of the " General History" of Polybius, 
 (2 vols. 410, 1756-72,) with a preface by Dr. Johnson. 
 "The English translator," says Gibbon, "has preserved 
 the admirable sense and improved the coarse original." 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 Hamp'ton, (Wade,) an American general, born in 
 South Carolina in 1755. He served in the Revolutionary 
 war, and gained the rank of brigadier-general in 1809. 
 He commanded an army which made an unsuccessful 
 invasion of Canada in October, 1813. Died in 1835. 
 
 Hampton, ( Wade.) a grandson of the preceding, was 
 born at Columbia or Charleston, South Carolina, about 
 1828, or, as others say, in 1818. He took arms against 
 the Union in 1861, served as a brigadier-general at the j 
 
 battle of Antietam, September, 1862, and was wounded 
 at Gettysburg, July, 1863. Having been raised to the 
 rank of major-general, he commanded all the cavalry of 
 Lee's army in Virginia in the summer of 1864. He served 
 in South Carolina in February, 1865, and, according to 
 the report of General Sherman, "ordered that all cotton, 
 public and private, should be moved into the streets [of 
 Columbia] and fired." Generals Hampton and Sherman 
 mutually accused each other of burning Columbia. 
 
 See "Southern Generals," anonymous, 1865; Greeley, "Ameri- 
 can Conflict," vol. ii. pp. 699-701. 
 
 Hamsfort, hams'foRt, (Cornelius,) a Danish his- 
 torian, -who published in 1585 a succession of Kings of 
 Denmark from Dan to Frederick II. He also wrote a 
 "Chronology of Danish History." Died in 1627. 
 
 Hamza, ham'za, surnamed Al-Hadee, (or Al-HadL,) 
 i.e. "the Director," called by some authorities the founder 
 of the sect of the Druses, flourished in Cairo about the 
 year 1000. He wrote the " Book of Testimonies to the 
 Mysteries of the Unity," thought by some to rival the 
 Koran. 
 
 Hamza, or Hamzah, was also the name of one of 
 Mohammed's foster-brothers. He fell at Bedr, 622 a.d. 
 
 Hanbal. See Ibn-Hanbai„ 
 
 Hancarville, d',d&N'kSR'v61', the title of an ingenious 
 French antiquary, whose proper name was Pierre Fran- 
 cois Hugues, (/Rig,) born at Nancy in 1719. He lived 
 many years in Italy, and attained some skill in design. 
 He published a splendid work entitled " Etruscan, Greek, 
 and Roman Antiquities, drawn from the Cabinet of Sir 
 William Hamilton," (4 vols., Naples, 1766,) and "Re- 
 searches into the Origin, Spirit, and Progress of the Arts 
 in Greece," (1785.) Died in Padua in 1805. 
 
 Hanckius, hank'e-us, or Hanke, hank'eh, (Martin,) 
 a German philologist, born near Breslau in 1633. He 
 became professor of history in Breslau in 1661, and after- 
 wards inspector of the Lutheran schools. He wrote a 
 useful work on Roman historians, entitled " De Roma- 
 narum Rerum Scriptoribus,"( 1669-75,) and several inter- 
 esting works on the civil and literary history of Silesia, 
 among which is a work on learned Silesians, " De Sile- 
 siis Indigenis eruditis ab Anno 1165 ad Annum 1550," 
 (1707.) Died in 1709. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine F.ncyklopaedie ;" Caspar 
 Naumann, " Martinalia Christiana, seu Concio funebris in Obitum 
 M. Hanckii," 1710. 
 
 Han'cock, (John,) an American statesman, born in 
 Qnincy, Massachusetts, January 12, 1737, graduated ar 
 Harvard in 1754. He l>ecame a merchant of Boston, 
 and heir to a large fortune. His wife was a daughter of 
 Edmund Quincy. He was chosen a member of the 
 House of Representatives of Massachusetts in 1766, 
 became a bold asset tor of liberty, and was president of 
 the Provincial Congress in 1774. In June, 1775, Gov- 
 ernor Gage offered a pardon to all the rebels except 
 Samuel Adams and John Hancock. He was chosen 
 president of the Continental Congress in 1775, and 
 signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Having 
 resigned his seat in Congress, on account of ill health, 
 in October, 1777, he was elected Governor of Massa- 
 chusetts in 1780. He was a very popular Governor, and 
 was annually re-elected, except for the years 1785 and 
 1786, until his death. His eloquence, his affable dispo- 
 sition, and his polished manners rendered him a general 
 favourite. As a presiding officer, he was dignified and 
 very successful. He made a generous use of his fortune, 
 ancl was a liberal benefactor to Harvard College. Died 
 in October, 1793. 
 
 See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence;" Bancroft, " History of the United States." 
 
 Hancock, (W infield Scoit,) a distinguished Ameri- 
 can genera], born in Montgomery county, Pennsylvania, in 
 1824. He graduated at West Point in 1844, and served 
 as lieutenant in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) after which 
 he was employed for several years in Missouri. In 1855 
 he obtained the rank of captain. He was appointed a 
 brigadier-general of volunteers in 1S61, and served with 
 distinction in the army of the Potomac in the spring of 
 1862. He took part in the battle of Antietam, Septem- 
 ber, 1862, and when General Richardson was killed 
 there, succeeded him as commander of a division, which 
 
 < as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as % ; th as in this, (^f See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HAND 
 
 1 1 26 
 
 HANNA 
 
 he directed at Fredericksburg in December of that year. 
 He commanded a corps at the battle of Gettysburg, July 
 1-3, 1863, where he was wounded. In the spring of 
 1864 he obtained command of the second corps of the 
 army of General Grant. His corps captured nearly 4000 
 prisoners, and twenty pieces of cannon, in the battle 
 fought near Spottsylvania Court-House on the 12th of 
 May, 1864. He was promoted to the rank of brigadier- 
 general of the regular army in August of that year. In 
 August, 1867, he was appointed commander of the fifth 
 military district, comprising Louisiana and Texas. He 
 resigned that position in March, 1868. He received at 
 the National Democratic Convention of July, 1868, one 
 hundred and forty four and a half votes as a candidate 
 for the Presidency. 
 
 Hand, hint, (Ferdinand Gotthelf,) a German 
 philologist, born at Plauen, in Saxony, in 1786. He was 
 professor of Greek literature in the University of Jena 
 from 1817 until 1851. Among his principal works are 
 a "Treatise on Latin Style," (" Lehrbuch des Latei- 
 nischen Stil," 1833,) and "Esthetics of the Musical 
 Art," (2 vols., 1837-41.) Died in 1851. 
 
 See Gustav Queck, " F. G. Hand nach seinem Leben und Wirken 
 dargestellt," 1852. 
 
 Han'del, [Ger. Handel or Haendel, hen'del,] 
 (George Frederick,) one of the most excellent, pro- 
 found, and original of musical composers, was born at 
 Halle, in Prussian Saxony, on the 24th of February, 
 1684. He manifested in childhood a ruling passion for 
 music, which he studied first under Zachau of Halle, 
 and composed sonatas at the age of ten. In 1703 he 
 became connected with the Opera of Hamburg, where 
 in the next year he produced his " Almeria" with great 
 success. He visited Italy in 1708, and composed his 
 first Italian opera, "Rodrigo," which was performed at 
 Florence. Having produced other operas, etc. at Venice 
 and Rome, he went to England in 1710, and composed 
 the music for the opera " Rinaldo," which was greatly 
 admired. In 1712 he settled in England, and in 1714 
 became chapel-master of George I. 
 
 About 1720 he was engaged as manager of the new 
 Academy of Music founded by the English nobility, and 
 composed the opera "Radamista," which was received 
 with great enthusiasm. After he had produced many 
 other operas, he retired from the direction of the Acad- 
 emy in 1728. He lost nearly all his fortune, £10,000, in 
 an unsuccessful attempt to support another opera-house 
 between 1728 and 1740. Thenceforth devoting himself 
 to sacred music, which is the chief foundation of his 
 celebrity, he composed the oratorio of "Saul," (1740,) 
 and in 1741 his sublime master-piece, the "Messiah," 
 which was received with immense applause. Among his 
 other oratorios (the words of all of which are English) 
 are "Samson," "Moses in Egypt," "Joshua," (1747,) 
 and "Tephthah," (1751.) 
 
 He "became blind in 1751, but continued for several 
 years to conduct his oratorios in public concerts. He 
 died in April, 1759, and was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey. Handel is regarded by some critics as the 
 greatest composer that ever lived. He was chiefly pre- 
 eminent in majesty and sublimity of conception. The 
 centennial anniversary of his birth was celebrated in 
 London, in 1784, with great hlat. 
 
 See " Life of Handel" in Hurnev's " History of Music ;" Eschf.n- 
 bukg, "Life of Handel," (in German,) 1785: Matheson, "Life 
 of Handel," (in German,) 1761 : Fetis, "Biographic Universelle des 
 Musiciens;" J. M. Weissukck, " Der grosse Musikus G. F. Han- 
 del im Universalruhme," 1805; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 
 1857; "Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1857; " British Quar- 
 terly Review" for January, 1862. 
 
 Handjeri. See Hanjeri. 
 
 Handmanu, hant'man, (Emanuei.,) a Swiss painter 
 of history and portraits, born at Bale in 1 718; died in 
 1781. 
 
 HaneefahorHanifa, ha-nee'fa, Aboo-al-Noman- 
 Ibn-Tabet, (Abu-al-Noman-Ibn- (or Ebn-) Tha- 
 bet — a'booal no-min'Tb'n ta'bet.) the founder of the sect 
 of Haneefites, the first of the four orthodox sects among 
 Mohammedans, was born at Cufa about 700 a.d. This 
 sect prevails chiefly among the Turks and Tartars. They 
 are called by an Arabian writer followers of reason, while 
 the other three sects are called followers of tradition, as 
 
 being more tenacious of the traditions of the prophet, 
 Haneefa died in prison at Bagdad in 767. He was im- 
 prisoned because he refused to act as kadi, or judge, 
 alleging that he was unfit for the office. It is said that 
 while in prison he read the Koran through seven thou- 
 sand times. 
 
 See Sale's " Koran," Preliminary Discourse. 
 
 Hanel or Haenel, ha'nel, (Ernst Julius,) a German 
 sculptor, born at Dresden about 1810, executed a statue 
 of Beethoven, which was erected at Bonn in 1845. 
 
 H^nel or Haenel, (Gustav Friedkich,) an eminent 
 German jurist, born in 1792 at Leipsic, where he became 
 professor of law about 1838. He edited "Ulpianus de 
 Edendo," (1838,) " Codex Theodosianus," (1S39-42,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Hanel, Haenel, or Handl. handl, (Jakob,) surnamed 
 Gallus, a German composer, born in Carniola about 
 1550, was imperial chapel-master at Vienna. His " Media 
 in Vita" is esteemed a master-piece. Died in 1590. 
 
 Hanfstangel or Hanfstaengel, hanf'steng'el, 
 (Franz,) a German lithographer, born in Upper Bavaria 
 in 1804. His chief work is "The Principal Pictures in 
 the Royal Gallery of Dresden," (1836-52.) 
 
 Hang'er, (Colonel George,) a whimsical English 
 writer, born in 1760, was a younger son of Lord Cole- 
 raine. Among his works is his " Life, Adventures, and 
 Opinions," (1801.) Died in 1S24. 
 
 Hangest, de.deh //oN'zhest', (Jerome,) a French theo- 
 logian, born at Compiegne, wrote against Luther. Died 
 in 1538. 
 
 Hanifa. See HANBEFAH. 
 
 Hanjeri or Handjeri, han'jeh-ree, (ALEXANDER,) 
 Prince, a noted linguist, born at Constantinople in 1760, 
 was appointed Hospodar of Moldavia by the Sultan in 
 1807. He removed to Moscow about 1821. He com- 
 piled a " Dictionary of the French, Arabic, Persian, and 
 Turkish Languages," (3 vols., 1S44.) Died at Moscow 
 in 1854. ' 
 
 Hanka, hink'a, (Wencesi.aus,) a distinguished Bo- 
 hemian antiquary and critic, born at Horenowes in 1791. 
 He was liberally educated at Prague, and about 1820 
 became librarian of the Bohemian Museum of that city. 
 He discovered in 1817, at Kralodvor, a precious manu- 
 script of old Bohemian poems, which are greatly ad- 
 mired, and of which he published an edition, called 
 " Kralodvorsky Rukopis," (1817.) He published a " Col- 
 lection of Bohemian Poems of the Thirteenth and P'our- 
 teenth Centuries," (5 vols., 1817-25,) and other works. 
 
 Hanke. See HanCKIUS, (Martin.) 
 
 Hanke, hank'eh, (Henriettk Wiliielmine,) a suc- 
 cessful German novelist, originally named Arndt, was 
 bom at Jauer, in Silesia, in 1785. She produced about 
 one hundred volumes of novels, among which we may 
 name "Claudia," (1825,) "The Pearls," (1836,) and "My 
 Winter Garden," (1854.) 
 
 Hanke or Haenke, henk'eh, (Thaddeus,) a Bohe- 
 mian naturalist and traveller, born at Kreihitz in 1761, 
 visited Mexico and the islands of the South Sea. Died 
 in Peru in 1817. A description of the plants which he 
 collected was published in 1825. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkuber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Han'mer, (Jonathan,) an English nonconformist 
 minister, born at Barnstaple ; died in 1687. 
 
 Hanmer, (Meredith,) an English scholar and divine, 
 born in 1543. He produced a translation of the " Eccle- 
 siastic Histories of Eusebius, Socrates, and Evagrius," 
 (1577.) Died in 1604. 
 
 Hanmer, (Sir Thomas,) an English legislator, born 
 about 1676, was for thirty years a member of the House 
 of Commons, of which he was chosen Speaker in 1 7 13. 
 He published an edition of Shakspeare on which much 
 time and labour were expended, (1744.) Died in 1746. 
 
 See Sir H. Bunburv, "Life of Sir Thomas Hanmer," 1S3S. 
 
 Hann, (James,) an English mathematician, born about 
 1799; died in London in 1856. 
 
 Han'ua, (Rev. William,) LLD., a British clergyman, 
 a son-in law of the eminent Dr. Chalmers, was born at 
 Belfast in 1808. He became editor of the " North British 
 Review" about 184A, and afterwards edited the "Me- 
 moirs of the Life and Writings of Dr. Chalmers," (4 vols., 
 
 i, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, tj, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moonj 
 
HANNAH 
 
 1127 
 
 HANNIBAL 
 
 1S49-52.) In 1850 he became colleague of Dr. Guthrie 
 in Saint John's Church, Edinburgh. He published about 
 1S6S a " Life of Christ," (6 vols.) 
 
 Han'nah, [Heb. Hjn,] a Hebrew matron, was the 
 wife of Elkanah, and the mother of the prophet Samuel. 
 
 See I. Samuel i. and ii. 
 
 Han'nay, (Jamks,) a successful British writer of 
 fiction, was born at Dumfries in 1827. He served about 
 five yearn in the royal navy, from which he retired in 
 1845. He contributed to several periodicals and jour- 
 nals, and gained distinction by his novel "Singleton 
 Fontenoy," (3 vols., 1850.) Among his other works are 
 "Satire and Satirists," (1853,) and "Eustace Conyers," 
 (1855.) 
 
 Haiineken or Hannecken, han'neh-ken, (Mem- 
 non,) a German Lutheran minister, born at Blaxen, in 
 Oldenburg, in 1595; died in 1671. 
 
 His son, Philipp Ludwio, born at Marburg in 1637, 
 was a writer on theology. Died in 1706. 
 
 Hanneman, han'neh-man', (Adrian.) a Dutch por- 
 trait-painter, born at the Hague about 1610. He worked 
 in his native place with a high reputation, and was 
 patronized by the princes of the house of Nassau. He 
 also painted allegorical subjects. Died after 1666. 
 
 Hannetaire, //in'tiR', (Jean Nicolas Servan- 
 doni — ^cVvON'do'ne', ) a French comedian, born at 
 Grenoble in 1718, excelled in the personation of Mo- 
 liere's characters. He wrote "Observations on the Art 
 of a Comedian," (1764,) which was often reprinted. 
 "This work," says Marmontel, "is one of the few whose 
 fault is too great' brevity." Died in 1780. 
 
 Han'nI-bal, a grandson of that Hamilcar who was 
 killed in 480 n.c. He invaded Sicily with a large army 
 in 409 B.C., and defeated the Syracusans at Himera. He 
 died at Agrigentum in 406. 
 
 Hannibal, a son of Gisco, a general of the first 
 Punic war. He ravaged the coast of Italy with a large 
 fleet in 261 B.C., and was defeated in a great naval battle 
 by Duilius in 260. He was killed by his mutinous troops 
 about 258 B.C. 
 
 Han'nI-bal or An'nl-bal, [Gr. 'AniSac; Fr. Anni- 
 Bal, t'nc'btl'; It. Annibal'e, an-ne-ba'la, or Annibai., 
 au-ne-bal',] one of the greatest generals that ever lived, 
 was born about 247 n.c. He was the son of the Cartha- 
 ginian commander Hamilcar Barca, who was killed in 
 battle in 229 B.C. When he was but nine years old, he 
 was taken to Spain by his father, who then caused him 
 solemnly to swear on the altar of the gods an eternal 
 hostility to the Romans, — an oath which he appears never 
 to have forgotten. This anecdote was related by Han- 
 nibal himself, many years later, to Antiochus the Great, 
 King of Syria. Hannibal was present at the battle in 
 which his father fell, and had already given proof of 
 superior military genius in several campaigns in Spain. 
 On the death of Hasdrubal, Hamilcar's son-in-law, (221 
 B.C.,) Hannibal became commander-in-chief of the army, ! 
 then engaged in the subjugation of some Spanish tribes, ' 
 which he completed in two campaigns, 221 and 220 B.C. 
 
 Early in the year 219 he attacked Saguntum, which 
 was situated on the Iberus (Ebro) and was an ally of 
 the Romans. The Saguntines defended their city with 
 desperate courage, but it was taken after a siege of eight 
 months. This was the beginning of the second Punic 
 war, which Hannibal did not wish to avert or postpone. 
 Having resolved upon the invasion of Italy, he crossed 
 the Ebro in the spring of 218 B.C. with about 100,000 j 
 men ; but his army was greatly reduced in number before 
 he reached the Rhone. In his march across the Alps, 
 which was one of the most remarkable military achieve- 
 ments of antiquity, he was opposed by the Gaulish 
 mountaineers, and lost about 30,000 men. Great di- 
 versity of opinion has prevailed among the learned in 
 respect to the route by which he crossed the Alps. Ac- 
 cording to some ancient authors, he removed the rocks 
 which obstructed his passage by means of vinegar : 
 
 "Diducit scopulos et montem rumpit acelo."* 
 
 Juvknal, Satire X. 
 
 * Literally, " Heseparales the rocks and breaks the mountain with 
 vinegar." — Respecting tins much-vexed question, the reader is re- 
 ferred to the works named at the close of this article. 
 
 When he entered the plains of Piedmont, he had 
 about 26,000 men, of whom 6000 were cavalry and all 
 were veterans. He met a Roman army, commanded by 
 Publius Scipio, near the Ticinus, (now Ticino,) and gained 
 a victory in a battle between the cavalry of the two armies. 
 Scipio retreated to Placentia, and was joined by another 
 army, under the consul T. Scmpionius, who, confiding 
 in the superior numbers of the Romans, eagerly offered 
 battle on the banks of the Trebia. Hannibal gained 
 here a complete victory about the end of 218, and in the 
 ensuing winter increased his army by numerous recruits 
 obtained among the friendly tribes of Gauls. In the 
 spring of 217 he entered Etruria, and encountered a 
 Roman army under the consul Flaminius, whom he 
 defeated in a great battle at Lake Thrasymene. Han- 
 nibal took in this action about 15,000 prisoners, many 
 of whom were Italian allies of the Romans. The victo- 
 rious general liberated without ransom these Italians, in 
 the hope that by this course he might detach some states 
 of Italy from the alliance with Rome. He next marched 
 into Apulia, where he passed a great part of the summer, 
 during which the dictator Fabius took command of the 
 Roman army and adopted a defensive policy. Hannibal 
 entered and devastated the fertile plains of Campania, 
 but could not induce Fabius to risk a genera] battle. 
 The Carthaginian army remained in winter-quarters at 
 Geranium until late in the spring of 216 B.C. 
 
 The Romans raised an army of about 90,000 men, 
 commanded b'y the consuls L. ./Emilius Patilus and C. 
 Tetentius Varro, who gave battle to Hannibal on the 
 banks of the Aufidus, near Cannae, in Apulia, in the 
 summer of 216 B.C. The army of Hannibal was proba- 
 bly much inferior in number to that of the Romans. The 
 battle of Cannae, which was one of the most memorable 
 and decisive in universal history, resulted in the rout 
 and almost total destruction of the Roman army. It is 
 estimated by Livy and others that more than 40,000 
 Romans, including eighty senators, fell on this day; and 
 many thousands were taken prisoners. Hannibal lost 
 at Cannae about 4500 men. 
 
 According to some military critics, Hannibal failed to 
 improve and follow up this victory with due vigour and 
 celerity by an advance against the Roman capital. The 
 Apulians, I.ucanians, and Bruttians declared in favour 
 of Carthage soon after the victory at Cannae ; but the 
 Romans maintained the contest with a resolute and 
 unfaltering spirit, and resorted to the extreme measure 
 of arming their slaves. 
 
 Hannibal took about the end of 216 the large and 
 opulent city of Capua, the second city of Italy, and there 
 passed the ensuing winter, which is considered as. the 
 turning-point in the fortune of the war. According 
 to ancient rhetoricians, his soldiers were enervated by 
 their luxurious life in Capua; but Hannibal continued to 
 gain victories wherever he commanded in person. The 
 Romans, however, changed their plan of operations, and 
 adhered to a defensive and Fabian policy, instead of op- 
 posing a large army to the enemy. No decisive battles 
 were fought in the campaigns of 215 and 214 B.C. Han- 
 nibal formed an alliance with Philip of Macedon in 215, 
 and made himself master of Tarentum in 213. In the 
 year 212 Hasdrubal gained a victory over the two Scipios 
 in Spain, and Hannibal defeated Cneius Fulvius at Her- 
 donea; but he lost Capua, which was taken in 211. His 
 principal adversaries at this period were Fabius Corre- 
 lator and M. Marcellus, who had recently returned from 
 the conquest of Syracuse. The latter was led into an 
 ambush by Hannibal and was killed in 208 B.C. Hanni- 
 bal expected to be reinforced by his brother Hasdrubal, 
 who crossed the Alps with an army and entered Cis- 
 alpine Gaul ; but before he could effect a junction with 
 Hannibal he was defeated and killed by the Romans, on 
 the Metaurus, in 207 B.C. This was an Irreparable dis- 
 aster to tht Carthaginians, who after that defeat < eased 
 to act on the offensive. Having concentrated his forces 
 in the peninsula of Bruttium, Hannibal defended himself 
 against superior numbers for nearly four years, during 
 which he displayed great fertility of'resources and mas- 
 tery of defensive tactics. He erected near Crotona a 
 column, on which he inscribed the principal events of 
 his great expedition. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. ( jry~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HANNO 
 
 1128 
 
 HANS TEEN 
 
 In the mean time, Scipio Africanus had passed with a 
 victorious army from Spain into Africa, and had gained 
 several victories over the Carthaginians, who urged 
 Hannibal to return to the defence of his native country. 
 About the end of 203 he evacuated Italy and moved his 
 army by sea to Leptis, in Africa. The statement that an 
 interview occurred between Hannibal and Scipio is dis- 
 credited by some historians. In 202 B.C. they fought the 
 decisive battle of Zama, in which Hannibal was defeated 
 and about 20,000 Carthaginians were slain. The Car- 
 thaginians sued for peace, and in 201 B.C. concluded a 
 treaty of which the Romans dictated the terms. Thus 
 ended the second Punic war, in which Hannibal had 
 received little aid from the government of Carthage, and 
 had won a long series of victories by his own personal 
 influence, resources, and military genius. 
 
 He next turned his attention to political affairs, effected 
 ■some reforms in the administration, and was chosen chief 
 magistrate of the republic. He also made constitutional 
 changes which reduced the power of the judges and the 
 aristocracy. By these reforms he incurred the enmity 
 of a powerful faction, which excited the suspicion of the 
 Roman senate by a charge that Hannibal was instigating 
 Antiochus of Syria to wage war against Rome. The 
 Romans having demanded the expulsion of Hannibal, 
 he retired to the court of Antiochus about 194 B.C., 
 and was received with great honour. The King of Syria 
 soon after commenced hostilities against the Romans, 
 and employed Hannibal as a commander, but would 
 not follow his advice in the conduct of the war. When 
 peace was restored between Antiochus and the Romans, 
 in 190 B.C., Hannibal took refuge at the court of Prusias, 
 King of Bithynia. The Romans sent an embassy to 
 demand the surrender of the fugitive, which Prusias did 
 not refuse ; but Hannibal killed himself by poison, and 
 thus escaped the power of his enemies, in 183 B.C. 
 
 Plutarch mentions a report that Hannibal and Scipio 
 once met at Ephesus after the battle of Zama, and fell 
 into conversation about great generals. Hannibal as- 
 serted that Alexander was the greatest general the world 
 had ever seen, that Pyrrhus was the second, and himself 
 the third. Scipio smiled at this, and said, " But what 
 rank would you have placed yourself in if I had not con- 
 quered you ?" " O Scipio," said he, " then I would not 
 have placed myself the third, but the first." ("Life of 
 T. Q. Flaminius.") His temperance and fortitude are 
 extolled by several ancient writers. Polybius expresses 
 liis admiration of the wonderful management by which 
 for a series of years he maintained his authority over an 
 army composed of many different nations. 
 
 See Polybius, "History;" Cornelius Nepos, "Life of Hanni- 
 bal :" Beknewitz, " Leben Hannibals," 1802 ; Plutarch, " Life of 
 Kabius Maximus ;'' Arnold, " History of Rome," vol. iii. ; Niebumr, 
 " Lectures on Roman History," vol. i.; Vaui>oncourt, " Histoiredes 
 Campagnes d'Annibal en Itatie," 3 vols., 1812; Becker, " History 
 of the Second Punic War," (in German;) Rol.I.IN, " Ancient His- 
 tory;" A. Gerard, " Resume - des Campagues d'Annibal," 1844; 
 H. L. Long, "March of Hannibal from the Rhone 10 the Alps," 
 1831 ; John Whitaker, " Course of Hannibal over the Alps ascer- 
 tained," 2 vols., 1794. 
 
 Han'no, [Gr. 'AwurJ a famous Carthaginian navi- 
 gator, supposed to have lived about 500 B.C. He com- 
 manded an expedition sent to explore the coast of Africa 
 beyond the pillars of Hercules. A Greek version of the 
 account of his voyage (IlefW/louc) has come down to us. 
 Geographers and critics have discussed at great length 
 the questions of the date and extent of his voyage, which 
 remain undetermined. 
 
 Haimo, a Carthaginian general, who commanded in 
 the war against Agathocles, King of Sicily. He was 
 killed in a battle near Carthage about 309 B.C. 
 
 Haiino, a Carthaginian general, who commanded in 
 Sicily in the first Punic war. He was defeated by the 
 Romans in a great battle near Agrigentum in 262 B.C. 
 and recalled to Carthage. Hanno and Hamilcar com- 
 manded jointly at the naval battle of Ecnomus, where 
 the Romans gained the victory in 256 B.C. 
 
 Haimo, a Carthaginian admiral, commanded in a 
 great naval battle near Sicily in the year 241 B.C., in which 
 he was defeated by the Roman consul Lutatius Catulus. 
 This action terminated the first Punic war, and secured 
 to Rome the empire of the sea. He was punished with 
 death for this disaster by the senate of Carthage. 
 
 Hanno, a son of Bomilcar, a Carthaginian general 
 who, in the second Punic war, followed Hannibal in his 
 invasion of Italy. He commanded the right wing at the 
 battle of Cannae, 216 B.C., after which, at the head of a 
 separate force, he took Crotona. He was defeated near 
 Beneventum by Tiberius Gracchus in 214, but he routed 
 the army of L. Pomponius in the next year. Having 
 returned to Carthage after Scipio had invaded Africa, 
 he commanded the army for a short time until the arrival 
 of Hannibal, in 202 B.C. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome," books xxi., xxiii., xxv., and xxvii. ; 
 Appian, "Puuica." 
 
 Hanno, surnamed thk Great, (a title which his ac- 
 tions apparently did not justify,) was the leader of the 
 aristocratic party of Carthage, and a political rival of 
 Hamilcar Karca. Having acquired distinction in Africa 
 during the first Punic war, he was appointed in 240 B.C. 
 to command the army against the revolted mercenaries. 
 After the enemy had surprised his camp, his incompe- 
 tence became so apparent that the senate gave the com- 
 mand to Hamilcar Barca, or perhaps divided it between 
 him and Hanno. He maintained in the councils of Car 
 thage a persistent hostility to the influence and policj 
 of Hamilcar and his son Hannibal, and opposed the 
 prosecution of the second Punic war, (217-201 B.C.) 
 
 See T.ivv, " History of Rome," books xxi., xxiii., and xxx. 
 
 Hanouman or Hanooman. See Hanuman. 
 
 Hanriot. See II en riot. 
 
 Hau'sard, (Luke,) an English printer, born at Nor- 
 wich in 1752. He became printer to the House of 
 Commons, and published "Hansard's Parliamentary 
 Debates." Died in 1828. 
 
 Hansemann, han'seh-man', (DAvm Justus Lud- 
 WIG,) an eminent Prussian financier and statesman, born 
 near Hamburg in 1790. In early life he was a successful 
 merchant of Aix-la-Chapelle. About 1830 he began to 
 advocate the adoption of the constitutional system of 
 government in Prussia, and published a treatise " On 
 the Constitutions of Prussia and Germany." He was 
 afterwards one of the chief representatives of the Liberal 
 party. In March, 1848, he became minister of finance, 
 and in the ensuing June succeeded Camphausen as the 
 head of a new cabinet. He lost his popularity, and re- 
 signed office in September of the same year. His policy 
 accorded neither with that of the conservatives nor that 
 of the advanced democrats. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Hansen, hin'sen, (Christian Fredrik,) a Danish 
 architect, born at Copenhagen in 1756, designed the 
 Raad-hus (Council-house) of Copenhagen. Died in 1645. 
 
 Hansen, han'sen, (Moritz Christoffer,) a popular 
 Norwegian novelist and poet, born at Modum in 1794, 
 published novels entitled "Morgana," (1820,) "The 
 Journal of Theodore," (1820,) and "Tone," (1843 ;) also, 
 a "Garland of Norwegian Idyls," ("Norsk Idylkrands," 
 1831.) Died in 1842. 
 
 See M. Nissen, " Norsk Bog Fortegnelse." 
 
 Hansen, han'sen, (Peter Andreas,) a German as- 
 tronomer, born at Tondern, in the duchy of Sleswick, in 
 1795. He was chosen in 1825 director of the Observatory 
 i of Seeberg, near Gotha. He wrote " Researches on the 
 Mutual Perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn," (1831,) a 
 Latin treatise on "The Moon's Orbit," (1838,) and able 
 memoirs on the higher mathematics. 
 
 Hans-Sachs, hans saks, written also Hans-Sachse, 
 a popular German poet, born at Nuremberg in 1494. 
 He was a shoemaker, and became afterwards meister- 
 Sanger and a schoolmaster in his native city. He versified 
 the Psalms and Proverbs of Scripture, and composed a 
 great number of sacred and other comedies and trage- 
 dies, by which he acquired much celebrity. In theology 
 he was a zealous disciple of Luther. Died in 1576. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. x., 1824. 
 
 Hansteen, han'stan, (Christoeff.r,) a Norwegian 
 astronomer, born at Christiania in 1784. He obtained a 
 chair of mathematics in that town in 1814, and published 
 in 1819 " Researches on Terrestrial Magnetism," which 
 attracted much attention. In 1828, 1829, and 1830 he 
 performed an excursion to Siberia to promote the sci- 
 ence of magnetism. About 1837 he was chosen to direct 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; 1, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, Q, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; m£t; nflt; good; moc 
 
 moon; 
 
HAKSTE1N 
 
 1129 
 
 HARDENBERG 
 
 the triangulation of Norway. He wrote a "Manual of 
 Geometry," (1835,) and other works, and became director 
 of the Observatory of Christiania. 
 
 See Kraft og Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Hansteiii, han'stln, (Gottfried August Ludwig,) 
 a German 1'rotestant theologian and pulpit orator, born 
 at Magdeburg in 1761 ; died about 1S20. 
 
 Hanuman, han-oo-min', common Hindoo pron. hun- 
 60-man', [i.e. "having large jaws or cheeks," from' the 
 Sanscrit k&nu, a "jaw" or "cheek,"] the name of the 
 King of the Monkeys, in the Hindoo mythology. He is 
 sometimes called the son of Pavana, the regent or god 
 of the winds, perhaps in allusion to his extraordinary 
 fleetness. He was the friend and prime minister of the 
 god Rama, (which see.) He is represented as having 
 been of such strength as to fly through the air a thousand 
 miles, carrying a huge mountain in his aims. He is al- 
 ways represented in pictures with a tail, and sometimes 
 with two and sometimes with ten arms. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Hauusch, ha'noosh, (Ignaz Johann,) a Bohemian 
 philosopher, born at Prague in 1812. He published a 
 " History of Philosophy from its Origin to the Suspen- 
 sion of the Philosophic Schools by Justinian," (1849,) 
 and other works of merit In 1S49 he became professor 
 of philosophy at Prague. 
 
 Hauvill. See Hauteville. 
 
 Hau'way, (Jonas,) a benevolent English merchant, 
 born at Portsmouth in 1712, lived some years in Saint 
 Petersburg. Having travelled on business in Persia, he 
 published in 1753 an interesting "Journal of Travels 
 through Russia into Persia," etc., and a "Historical 
 Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea." 
 He wrote many other works, and was chiefly instru- 
 mental in the formation of the Marine Society and the 
 Magdalen Charity. Died in 1786. 
 
 See John Puch, " Remarkable Occurrences in the Life of Jonas 
 Hanway." 
 
 Hau-Yu, hjn yoo, called also Han-Wan-Kung, 
 (i.e. " duke or prince of literature,") a famous Chinese 
 scholar and philosopher, who lived in the eighth century 
 of our era. He wrote an "Examination into the Nature 
 of Man," in which he criticises the doctrine of Mencius, 
 who held that man's nature is good, and that of Seun, 
 who maintained that it is evil. (See Seun-King.) Han- 
 Yu taught that in the nature of man there are three 
 grades, of which the highest is purely good; the middle 
 is not so good, but is capable of being led ; the lowest 
 grade is purely evil: it may be restrained, but not changed. 
 Besides the essay referred to above, Han-Yu has left 
 some other critical writings. 
 
 See Legge, "Chinese Classics," vol. ii. ; also "Review of The 
 Ethics of the Chinese," by the Rkv. Griffith John, read before the 
 North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, November, 1859. 
 
 HaoucaL See HaukXl. 
 
 Hapsburg. See Habsburg. 
 
 Haquin, ha'kwin, L, King of Norway, born in 915 
 A.D., was the fifth son of Harold Harfager. He was 
 educated as a Christian at the court of Athelstan of 
 England, and succeeded his father in 935. On account 
 of his mildness and justice, he was surnamed'lHE GoOTa 
 His attempt to introduce Christianity into Norway was 
 met by violent resistance. In repelling an invasion by 
 the sons of Eric, he was killed in 961. 
 
 See Saxo Grammaticus, " Historia Danica." 
 
 Hara, a name of Siva, which see. 
 
 Harambure,d',di't&N'l>iiR',( Louis Francois Alex- 
 andre,) Baron, a French general, born at Preuilly, in 
 Totrrame, in 1742. As a member of the National Assem- 
 bly, in 1789, he favoured the Revolution. He became 
 general of division in March, 1792. and after the removal 
 of Luckner was general-in-chief of the army of the Rhine 
 for a short time. Died in 1828. 
 
 Harbaugh, har'baw, (Henry,) an American theolo- 
 
 fian, born in Franklin county, Pennsylvania, in 1817. 
 It became pastor of a German Reformed church at 
 Eat caster in 1850. Among his works are "The Hea- 
 vci ly Home, or the Employments and Enjoyments of 
 the Saints in Heaven," (1853,) and "The Fathers of the 
 Geiman Reformed Church in Europe and America," (3 
 to!*., 1857-58.) Died in 1867. 
 
 Har'bjf, (Isaac,) an American writer, born in Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, in 1788. He produced, besides 
 other works, dramas entitled "The Gordian Knot; or, 
 Causes and Effects," (1807,) and " Alberti," (1819.) Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Har'court, (Harriet Eusebia,) a learned English 
 lady, born near Richmond in 1705. She collected a 
 company of cultivated women, who lived in a sort of 
 monastic seclusion on her estate. Died in 1745. 
 
 Harcourt, (William,) Earl of, an English officer, 
 born in 1743, entered the army in 1759. In the American 
 Revolution he distinguished himself by the capture of 
 General Lee in 1777. On his return to England he was 
 appointed aide-de-camp to the king, and commanded the 
 queen's regiment of dragoons. In 1809 he inherited his 
 father's title and estate. Died in 1830. 
 
 Harcourt, d\ daVkooR', (Francois Eugene Ga- 
 briel,) Due, a French diplomatist, born in 1786. 
 
 Harcourt, d', (Francois Henri,) Due, born in 1726, 
 was appointed governor of the dauphin about 1787, and 
 elected to the French Academy in 1789. He died in 
 England about 1802. 
 
 Harcourt, d', (Henri,) Due, a French general and 
 diplomatist, born in 1654, was a son of Francois, Mar- 
 quis de Beuvron et de Thury- Harcourt. He was a fine 
 specimen of the old French nobility. He distinguished 
 himself at the sieges of Cambrai and Fribourg, in 1677, 
 and for a victory over the Germans at Courteville was 
 made a lieutenant-general in 1692. He was ambassador 
 to Madrid from 1697 to 1700, and managed the negotia- 
 tions relating to the Spanish succession with skill and 
 success. He received the title of duke in 1700, and 
 became a marshal of France in 1703. Died in 171 8. 
 
 His son Francois, second Duke of Harcourt, born 
 in 1689, was a general. He was severely wounded at 
 Dettingen, (1743,) and obtained a marshal's baton in 
 1746. Died in 1750. Another son, Anne Pierre, 
 (1701-83,) the father of Francois Henri, noticed above, 
 became a marshal of France. 
 
 See I.aroque, "Histoire de la Maison de Harcourt," 4 vols.; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Harcourt, d', (Henri de Lorraine,) Comte, an 
 able French general, born in 1601, was a younger son of 
 Charles de Lorraine, Due d'Elbceuf. He commanded in 
 Piedmont in 1639, defeated the Spaniards at Outers, and 
 captured Turin. In 1643 he was sent to mediate between 
 Charles I. of England and his Parliament. He defeated 
 the Spaniards at Valenciennes and Conde in 1649. In the 
 war of the Fronde, about 1650, he fought on both sides. 
 Died in t666. 
 
 See Laroque, " Histoire de la Maison de Harcourt." 
 Har'court, de, [Fr. pron. AiR'kooR',] (Godekroi or 
 Geoffrey,) was a Norman knight, who rebelled against 
 Philip VI. of France in 1345, and commanded the army 
 of Edward III. of England in the war against the French. 
 After the battle of Crecy, he asked and received pardon 
 of Philip, but again revolted, and was killed in battle in 
 
 1356- 
 
 Hardeby, hard'be, (Geoffrey,) an English monk 
 and writer, confessor to King Henry II., wrote a " His- 
 tory of the Order of Saint Augustine." Died in 1360. 
 
 Har'dee, (William J.,) an American general, born 
 at Savannah, Georgia, about 1818, graduated at West 
 Point in 1838. He became a captain in 1844, and pub- 
 lished a work on Tactics, (1855.) He served as major- 
 general at the battle of Shiloh, April, 1862. About 
 O ctob er, 1862, he was appointed a lieutenant-general in 
 the Confederate army. He commanded a corps at the 
 battle of Stone River, December 31, 1862-January 2, 
 1863, and in several battles fought between Dalton and 
 Atlanta, May-September, 1864. He commanded an 
 army which defended Savannah without success against 
 General Sherman in December, 1864. 
 
 See "Southern Generals," anonymous, 1865. 
 
 Hardenberg, haK'den-beKc;', (Albert,) a Dutch 
 Protestant divine, born in Overyssel in 1510. He 
 preached at Bremen from 1547 to 1561, and became 
 pastor primarins at Kmdcn in 1567. Died in 1574. 
 
 Hardenberg, (Friedrich Lumvic.) See Novalis. 
 
 Hardenberg, von, fon haR'dcjn-bcRG', (Karl Au- 
 gust,) Prince, an able Prussian statesman, born at 
 
 € as /•; 5 as s; g hard; g isj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as 2; th as in this. (£^~See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
HARDER 
 
 1 1 30 
 
 HARDION 
 
 Essenroda, in Hanover, in May, 1750. He obtained in 
 1778 an office in the administration of Hanover, with 
 the title of count. About 1785 he entered the service 
 of the Duke of Brunswick, in whose hands the will of 
 Frederick II. of Prussia was deposited. Hardenberg 
 was chosen in 1786 to transmit that important document 
 to the heir, Frederick William, who in 1791 appointed 
 him a minister of state. He was the negotiator on the 
 part of Prussia at the Conference of Bale, where he 
 concluded a peace with France in 1795. In August, 
 1804, he was appointed prime minister, and in 1805 
 formed an alliance with Russia against Napoleon. Soon 
 after the battle of Austerlitz, (1805,) he was driven from 
 power by his rival Haugwitz. 
 
 Hardenberg was minister of foreign affairs for a few 
 months in 1806-07, after which he passed several years 
 in exile. Having become chancellor of state in 1810, he 
 equalized taxation, and made reforms which contributed 
 materially to improve the condition of the peasants. In 
 1814 he signed, on the part of Prussia, the peace of Paris, 
 and was created a prince. He was the Prussian pleni- 
 potentiary at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and be- 
 came in 1817 president of the council, or prime minister. 
 His administration was favourable to education, trade, 
 and other important interests. He died at Genoa in 
 1822, leaving Memoirs in manuscript. 
 
 See W. Hennings, " Biographie des FUrsten und Staats-Kanzlers 
 Von Hardenberg," 1824; Wolf, "Geschichte des Geschlechts Von 
 Hardenberg." 1824; Karl Luuwig Klose, " Leben C. A. FUrsten 
 Von Hardenberg," Halle, 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Harder, hau'der or htit'daiR', (Johann Jakoh,) a 
 Swiss physician and scientific writer, born at Bale in 
 1656. He practised with success in his native town, and 
 obtained the chairs of philosophy, anatomy, botany, etc. 
 The emperor Leopold made him a count-palatine. Died 
 in 1711. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hardi, (Alexandre.} See Hardy. 
 
 Har'di-ca-nute', written also Harthacanute and 
 Hardy-Caiiute, King of England and Denmark, was 
 the eldest son of Canute the Great and Emma, daughter 
 of Richard I., Duke of Normandy. At the death of 
 Canute, in 1035, Hardicanute succeeded to the throne of 
 Denmark ; but his claim to England was contested by his 
 half-brother Harold, who was in actual possession. An 
 agreement was made by these two that Harold should 
 retain the country north of the Thames and his rival 
 should possess the remainder. At the death of Harold, 
 in 1040, Hardicanute became King of all England. He 
 died, without issue, in 1042, and was succeeded by his 
 half-brother, Edward the Confessor. 
 
 Hardime, hiit'dem', (Pierre, or Peter,) a Flemish 
 painter of flowers and fruit, born at Antwerp or the 
 Hague about 1675. His master-piece is "The Four 
 Seasons." Died in 1748. 
 
 Hardime, (Simon,) a Flemish painter, brother of the 
 preceding, born in 1672 ; died in 1737. 
 
 Hard'ing, (Chester,) an American portrait-painter, 
 born in Conway, Massachusetts, in 1792. He became 
 successively a soldier, a cabinet-maker, and a house- 
 painter. Having resolved to be an artist, he visited 
 England in 1823, and returned about 1826. Among his 
 works are portraits of Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, J. 
 Q. Adams, and James Monroe. 
 
 See Donlap, " Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in Amer- 
 ica;" "Atlantic Monthly" lor April, 1867. 
 
 Hard'ing, (James Duffield,) an eminent English 
 landscape-painter and popular writer on art, was born 
 at Deptford in 1798. He was one of the first to employ 
 lithography with success in teaching the art of design, 
 and excelled in the representation of trees and foliage. 
 In 1836 he published "Sketches at Home and Abroad," 
 60 tinted drawings of scenes in Italy, Germany, Fiance, 
 etc He painted a great number of landscapes in oil 
 and in water-colours. His works are remarkable for 
 variety, fidelity to nature, and facility of execution. "J. 
 D. Harding is, I think," says Ruskin, " nearly unequalled 
 in the drawing of running water. . . . His foregrounds 
 and the rocks of his middle distances are al§o thoroughly 
 admirable. His work in near passages of fresh-broken, 
 sharp-edged rock is absolute perfection. Let us refresh 
 
 ourselves by looking at the truth. We need not go to 
 Turner ; we will go to the man who next to him is un- 
 questionably the greatest master of foliage in Europe, — 
 J. D. Harding." He wrote several valuable works for 
 the use of students, among which is "The Principles 
 and Practice of Art," (1850.) Died in 1863. 
 
 Harding or Hardyng, (John,) an English chronicler, 
 born in 1378, was a member of the household of Sir 
 Henry Percy, (Hotspur,) whom he attended in several 
 battles. After the death of Percy he served under Sir 
 Robert Umfraville. In the reign of Henry V. he was 
 sent to Scotland to search for deeds of homage, or docu- 
 ments to prove that the Scottish kings owed fealty to 
 the English. He wrote a " Metrical Chronicle of Eng- 
 land" from the earliest times to the reign of Henry VI. 
 Died about 1465. 
 
 Harding, haR'ding, (Karl Ludwig,) a German 
 astronomer, born at Lauenburg in 1765. He became in 
 1796 assistant of Schroter in the Observatory of Lilien- 
 thal, and in 1803 gained distinction by the discovery of 
 the telescopic planet Juno. He was chosen a member 
 of the Royal Society of London, and of the French In- 
 stitute. Ill 1805 he obtained a chair of astronomy at 
 Gdttingen. He published a "Celestial Atlas," (1822.) 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Harding, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born in 
 Devonshire in 1512. He became professor of Hebrew 
 at Oxford in 1542, and tutor of Lady Jane Grey. On 
 the accession of Queen Mary he turned Roman Catholic, 
 and was appointed prebendary of Winchester in 1554. 
 He wrote some polemical works in answer to Bishop 
 Jewel. Died in 1572. 
 
 Hardinge, hard'ing, (George,) an English lawyer, 
 born in 1744, became attorney-general to the queen in 
 1789. He wrote "The Essence of Malone," (1800,) 
 " Letters to Burke on the Impeachment of Hastings," 
 and other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1816. 
 
 Hardinge, (Henry,) Viscount, an English general, 
 born at Wrotham, Kent, in March, 1785, was the third 
 son of the Rev. Henry Hardinge. Having entered the 
 army in 1798, he became captain in 1804. In the Pen- 
 insular war he served with credit, under Wellington, as 
 staff-officer and quartermaster-general, and was wounded 
 at Vimiera and Vitoria. In 1815, being then brigadier- 
 general, he received a wound two days before the battle 
 of Waterloo, which disabled him for a short time, so 
 that he could not be present at that action. Soon after 
 this event he was knighted, and in 1820 he was elected 
 to Parliament. Hardinge was appointed secretary of 
 war, and member of the privy council in the ministry 
 of Wellington, in 1828. He officiated as secretary for 
 Ireland during the brief ministry of Sir Robert Peel 
 in 1834-35. In 1841 he accepted the office of secretary 
 at war in the cabinet of Sir Robert Peel. In 1844 he 
 succeeded Lord Ellenborough as Governor-General of 
 India, which he governed with ability. About the end 
 of 1845 the British territory was invaded by the Sikhs, 
 whom he defeated at Moodkee and Aliwal and com- 
 pelled to sue for peace. For these services he received a 
 pension of three thousand pounds, and was raised to the 
 peerage, as Viscount Hardinge of Lahore. In 1848 he 
 was superseded by Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General. 
 On the death of the Duke of Wellington, in 1852, he 
 succeeded him as commander-in-chief, and in 1855 was 
 made a field-marshal. He died in 1856, and left his title 
 to his son, Charles Stewart Hardinge. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Hardinge, (Nicholas,) an English antiquary, born 
 in 1700, was the father of George, noticed above. He 
 was a good classical scholar, and wrote short poems in 
 Latin, Greek, and English. He was clerk of the House 
 of Commons from 1731 to 1752. Died in 1758. 
 
 Hardion, /;tR'de'6N', (Jacques,) a French historian 
 and scholar, born at Tours in 1686, resided in Paris. He 
 was admitted to the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles- 
 Lettres in 1715, and to the French Academy in 1730. In 
 1748 he was chosen to give lessons in history to the 
 princesses of the royal family. He published " Essays 
 on the Origin and Progress of Eloquence in Greece," 
 and a "Universal History," (20 vols., 1754-69,) which 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
HARDOUIN 
 
 >«3« 
 
 HARE 
 
 had much success and was translated into several lan- 
 guages. Died in 1766. 
 
 Hardouin, /;aVdoo-aN', (Henri,) a French musician 
 and composer of sacred music, born about 1724; died 
 in 1S0S. 
 
 Hardouln, (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born at Quimper 
 in 1646, was deeply versed in history, languages, and 
 numismatology, but addicted to fancies and to paradox. 
 He maintained that ancient history and many other classic 
 writings were forged by the monks of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, — that the works of Cicero, Horace, Pliny, and Vir- 
 gil'* "Georgics" were the only genuine classics extant. 
 For this odd conceit he was reprimanded by his supe- 
 riors, and in 1708 he retracted publicly. He produced 
 several treatises on coins and medals, and for the use 
 of the dauphin an excellent edition of Pliny's "Natural 
 History," (5 vols., 1685.) Died In 1729. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Hardt, von der, fon der haRt, (Hermann,) an emi- 
 nent German philologist, born at Melle, In Prussia, in 
 1660. He was chosen professor of Oriental languages 
 at Helmstedt in 1690, and was more noted for learning 
 than judgment Among his numerous works (in Latin) 
 are "Elements of Universal Exegesis," (1691,) a "Lite- 
 rary History of the Reformation," (5 vols., 1 7 17,) and 
 ".Enigmata Prisci Orbis," (" Enigmas of the Primeval 
 World," 1723.) Died in 1746. 
 
 See Ersch unci Grcrer, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Harduin,/;tR'du-aN',( Alexandre XAViER,)a French 
 author, born at Arras in 171 8. He wrote agreeable verses, 
 among which were an "Ode to Health," and "Pan et 
 Glycere," a lyric pastoral ; also several treatises on 
 grammar. Died in 1785. 
 
 Hard'wick, (Chari.es,) an English theologian, born 
 about 1820, became a Fellow of Saint Catherine's Hall, 
 Cambridge. He published, besides other works, a " His- 
 tory of the Thirty-Nine Articles," (1851,) and a "His- 
 tory of the Christian Church from the Seventh Century 
 to the Reformation," (1853,) which is highly commended 
 by British reviewers. He was appointed Archdeacon of 
 Elv a short time before his death, in 1859. 
 
 Hardwick, (Philip,) an English architect, born in 
 London in 1792. He erected the hall of the Goldsmiths' 
 Company about 1832, and afterwards many public build- 
 ings in London, among which was the hall and library 
 of Lincoln's Inn. He was elected Royal Academician 
 about 1841. Died in 1871. His son, Philip Charles, 
 also an architect, worked in conjunction with his father 
 in several edifices, and was chief architect of the Great 
 Western Hotel in London. 
 
 Hard'wicke, (Charles Philip Yorke,) fourth 
 E\ki. of, a son of Admiral J. S. Yorke, and a nephew 
 of the third Earl, born about 1800, was elected to the 
 House of Commons in 1831, and inherited the title of 
 earl In 1834. He obtained the rank of rear-admiral 
 on the reserve list in 1854, and was lord privy seal in 
 the cabinet of Lord Derby in 1858 and 1859. 
 
 Hardwicke, (Philip Yorke,) first Earl of, an 
 eminent English jurist, bom at Dover in 1690, was the 
 son of an attorney. He never attended any school ex- 
 cept a private one at Bethnal Green. He was entered 
 as a student in the Middle Temple in 1708, and soon 
 after was introduced to Lord Macclesfield, who recog- 
 nized his merit and employed him as the tutor of his 
 sons. In 1712 he wrote a letter, signed Philip Home- 
 bred, which was inserted in the " Spectator," No. 364. 
 Admitted to the bar in 1715, he rapidly acquired an ex- 
 tensive practice. In 1719, by the favour of Macclesfield, 
 then lord chancellor, Mr. Yorke obtained a seat in the 
 House of Commons. He was appointed solicitor-gene- 
 ral in 1720, and attorney-general in 1724. In 1733 he 
 became lord chief justice of the king's bench, and. was 
 raised to the peerage, as Baron Hardwicke. In 1737 he 
 was promoted to the dignity of lord chancellor, which he 
 retained nearly twenty years, discharging the functions 
 of that office with such wisdom and justice as to obtain 
 universal approbation. None of his decrees was ever 
 reversed. He was made Earl of Hardwicke and Vis- 
 count Royston in 1 754. In 1756 he resigned the great 
 seal and retired to private life. " He is deservedly cpf> 
 aidered," says Lord Campbell, "the most consummate 
 
 judge who ever sat in the court of chancery." As a 
 statesman he was consistent and upright, and a supporter 
 of Sir Robert Walpole. Died in 1764. His second son, 
 Charles, became lord chancellor of England. 
 
 See George Harris, "Life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke," 
 1847; Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" Fuss, 
 "The Judges of England ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1848. 
 
 Hardwicke, (Philip Yorke,) second Earl of, eld- 
 est son of the preceding, was born in 1720. He made 
 a respectable figure in literature and politics, and was 
 attached to the Whig party. He was returned to Par- 
 liament in 1741, in 1747, and again in 1754. In 1765 he 
 was a member of council during the short administration 
 of Lord Rockingham. He also officiated as high-steward 
 of the University of Cambridge. He published " Miscel- 
 laneous State Papers," and was one of the authors of 
 the celebrated "Athenian Letters," (1741.) (See Yorke, 
 Charles.) Died in 1796. 
 
 Hardwicke, (Philip Yorke,) third Earl of, born 
 m 1 757, "as the eldest son of Charles Yorke, lord chan- 
 cellor of England. lie succeeded to the earldom at the 
 death of his uncle, in 1796. From 1801 to 1805 he gov- 
 erned Ireland with wisdom and justice as lord lieutenant. 
 He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. He died, without 
 male issue, in 1834, and the title passed to his nephew. 
 
 Hardy, //Su'de', (Alexandre,) a French dramatic 
 author and actor, born in Paris, lived in the reigns of 
 Henry IV. and Louis XIII. He was reputed the first 
 French tragic writer of his time ; but his works are not 
 highly appreciated at present. "'Mariamne' is the most 
 tolerable of his tragedies," says Hallam. Died about 
 1630. He left about six hundred dramas, some of which 
 are comedies. 
 
 Hardy, (Antoine Franqois,) a French revolutionist, 
 born at Rouen in 1756. In the National Convention he 
 acted with the Girondists in 1793. Died in 1823. 
 
 Hardy, (Claude,) a French linguist and geometer, 
 born at Mans about 1600, published a Greek edition of 
 the "Data" of Euclid, (1625,) with a Latin version. He 
 was a friend of Descartes, who esteemed him highly. 
 Died in 1678. 
 
 Har'dy, (Gathorne,) an English Conservative poli- 
 tician, born in Yorkshire in 1814. He became a member 
 of the cabinet, as president of the poor-law board, in 
 July, 1866, and resigned with his colleagues in Decem- 
 ber, 1868. He represents (1869) Oxford University in 
 Parliament 
 
 Hardy, (J.,) a French general, born at Pont-i-Mous- 
 son, Lorraine, in 1763; died in 1802. 
 
 Hardy, (Peter,) an English mathematician and ac- 
 tuary, bom in Jamaica about 1812. He distinguished 
 himself in the practical application of mathematics and 
 in the compilation of tables for life-assurance companies. 
 
 Hardy, (Thomas Duffus,) an English writer, born 
 in Jamaica in 1804, edited several ancient manuscripts 
 in the Rolls collection, and published a " Life of Lord 
 Langdale," (2 vols., 1852.) 
 
 Hardy, (Sir Thomas Masterman,) an English naval 
 officer, born near Dorchester in 1769. For his brave con- 
 duct at the battle of Saint Vincent he was made com- 
 mander in 1797. In 1803 he became flag-captain to Admi- 
 ral Nelson ;and at the battle of Trafalgar, in 1805, Captain 
 Hardy was one of the officers of Nelson's flag-ship, the 
 Victory. When Nelson was dying, he sent for Hardy, to 
 whom he was warmly attached, and said, "Don't throw 
 me overboard: kiss me, Hardy." From 1820 to 1824 
 he commanded the South American squadron. In 1830 
 he was appointed a lord of the admiralty, and in 1834 
 governor of Greenwich Hospital. Died in 1839. 
 
 Hardy-Canute. See Hardicanute. 
 
 Hardyng. See Harding, (John.) 
 
 Hare, (Augustus William,) an English divine, born 
 at Rome in 1792. He became rector of Alton-Barnes in 
 1829, after he had produced, in conjunction with his 
 brother, Julius Charles, "Guesses at Truth." He com- 
 posed two volumes of Sermons, (1837,) which have been 
 often reprinted, and which, says the "London Quarterly 
 Review," vol. lix., "are compositions of very rare merit 
 in their kind." Died in Rome in 1834. 
 
 Hare, (Francis,) an English bishop, born in London. 
 He obtained the deanery of Worcester in 1708, and that 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; 5 as z; t-h as in Ms. (Jjy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HARE 
 
 1132 
 
 HARGRAVES 
 
 of Saint Paul's in 1726. In 1731 he became Bishop of 
 Chichester. He wrote an " Essay on the Difficulties 
 and Discouragements that attend the Study of Scrip- 
 ture," and other learned works. His essay just named 
 was censured by the convocation of divines as tending 
 to skepticism. Died in 1740. 
 
 Hare, (Henry,) Lord Coleraine, an English antiquary 
 and linguist, born in Surrey in 1693 S c '' e ^ '" '749- 
 
 Hare, (John Innes Clark,) son of Robert Hare, the 
 distinguished chemist, was born in Philadelphia in 1817. 
 He studied law, and, in conjunction with the late Horace 
 Kinney Wallace, published about 1852 "American Lead- 
 ing Cases in Law," (2 vols.,) Smith's " Leading Cases," 
 (fourth American from third London edition, 2 vols.,) 
 and White and Tudor's "Leading Cases in Equity," 
 (3 vols.) The American notes to these works are 
 thorough and exhaustive, and are highly esteemed by 
 legal critics. In 185 1 Mr. Hare was elected associate 
 judge of the district court of Philadelphia, and became 
 afterwards presiding judge in the same court. 
 
 Hare, (Julius Charles,) an eminent English divine, 
 born in 1796, was grandson of Bishop Francis Hare. 
 Having graduated at Cambridge in 1819, he took holy 
 orders. In 1827 he acquired distinction by the publi- 
 cation of "Guesses at Truth," in which he was assisted 
 by his brother. Rev. Augustus William Hare. He be- 
 came rector of Hurstmonceaux in 1832, Archdeacon of 
 Lewes in 1840, canon of Chichester in 1851, and chap- 
 lain to the queen in 1853. His character and literary 
 talents rendered his influence extensive. In the church 
 he was considered one of the leaders of the " broad 
 party" with liberal and moderate principles. He pub- 
 lished numerous sermons and controversial works. In 
 conjunction with C. Thirlwall, he translated Niebuhr's 
 " History of Rome." Died in 1855. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for April, 1855. 
 
 Hare, (Robert,) a distinguished American chemist, 
 born in Philadelphia January 17, 1781. He discovered, 
 about the age of twenty-one, a mode of producing the 
 most intense heat by the combustion of hydrogen with 
 oxygen, and invented the compound blow-pipe, for which 
 the Rumford medal was awarded him by the American 
 Academy at Boston. In 1818 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of chemistry in the medical department of the 
 University of Pennsylvania. He occupied this chair 
 nearly thirty years, during which he made several useful 
 discoveries in chemistry. In 1816 he invented a gal- 
 vanic apparatus which he called a Calorimotor, capable 
 of producing intense heat. With an improved form of 
 this apparatus, named a Deflagrator, Professor Silliman 
 succeeded in not merely fusing but in volatilizing carbon. 
 Dr.. Hare contributed many treatises to the "American 
 Journal of Science," and other periodicals. Among 
 his other works is "Chemical Apparatus and Manipula- 
 tions," (1836.) Died in 1858. 
 
 See "Lives of Eminent Philadelphians," 1859. 
 
 Ha-ree'ree or Hariri, (Al Kasem, 11 ka'sem,) a 
 popular Arabian author, born at Bassorah about 1055 A - D - 
 He received a liberal education, and at an early age was 
 employed in political affairs. His principal work is his 
 "Macamat," (or "Assemblies,") composed of alternate 
 portions of verse and prose. The author has availed 
 himself of this plan to display by turns the most elegant 
 expressions of the Arabic language, and the most fami- 
 liar proverbial phrases. The Arabs use the "Macamat" 
 as a dictionary of synonyms, and regard it as the best 
 subject of study in order to penetrate the genius of their 
 language. The character of the " Macamat" is chiefly 
 imaginative and dramatic. It has exercised an immense 
 influence over the nations of Islam, from Bengal to the 
 Atlantic Ocean. The durable popularity of this work 
 may be attributed partly to the knowledge of human 
 nature which it exhibits. Hareeree also composed two 
 treatises on philology, which have come down to us, and 
 are entitled " Molhat-al-Irab" and "Dorrat-al-Gauas," 
 or the " Pearl of the Diver." He was accustomed to 
 read his productions aloud in the portico of the grand 
 mosque of Bassorah, and thus expose them to the ordeal 
 of public opinion. He died in 1 122. A complete edition 
 of the "Macamat" was published in Calcutta, (3 vols., 
 1809-14.) Silvestre de Sacy wrote a commentary on the 
 
 "Macamat," (1821.) The same work was translated 
 into Latin by Peiper in 1832, and into German by F. 
 Riickert, 1826. In 1850, Theodore Preston published 
 in London " Macamat, or Rhetorical Anecdotes of Al- 
 Hariri of Basra, translated from the Original Arabic." 
 An excellent translation of the Macamat, by T. Chenery, 
 M.A., appeared in London in 1867. 
 
 See Louis Dei.atre, "Hariri, sa Vie et ses ficrits," in the 
 " Revue Orientale," 1S57. 
 
 Harel, //3'rel', (F. A.,) a French litterateur, bom at 
 Rouen in 1790, was a nephew of Luce de Lancival. His 
 " Eulogy on Voltaire" obtained the prize of the French 
 Academy in 1844. Died in 1846. 
 
 Harembure. See Harambure. 
 
 Haren, van, vin ha'ren, (Onno Zvvier,) a Dutch 
 poet and statesman of merit, born at I^euwarden in 
 1713, was a brother of Willem, noticed below. He was 
 employed as a diplomatist at Aix-la-Chapelle. He was 
 the author of a popular patriotic poem, entitled "The 
 Beggars," (" Les Gueux," 1769.) This derisjve appella- 
 tion was given by their enemies to those who liberated 
 Holland from the power of Spain in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury ; and that liberation is the subject of the poem. He 
 also wrote many odes, among which are an " Ode to 
 Liberty," and an "Ode to Commerce." His tragedy 
 of " Agon, Sultan of Bantam," is highly praised by the 
 " Biographie Universelle." Died in 1779. 
 
 Haren, van, (Willem,) a Dutch diplomatist, born at 
 Leeuwarden in 1626. In 1665 Van Haren and De Witt 
 were associated in the direction of a fleet sent against 
 England. He displayed ability as a negotiator at the 
 treaty of Nymwegen in 1678, and at the peace of Rys- 
 wick in 1697. Died in 1708. 
 
 Haren, van, (Willem,) a Dutch poet, grandson of 
 the preceding, born at Leeuwarden in 1713. He was of 
 a noble family, and filled several public offices with dis- 
 tinction. His reputation is founded chiefly on his poem 
 entitled "The Adventures of Friso," ( 1 74 1 , ) of which 
 De Vries remarks that "it is perhaps the only true epic 
 poem which we possess in our language." It is com- 
 mended for beautiful descriptions, harmony, and pure 
 morality. Van Haren also succeeded in lyric poetry. 
 Voltaire complimented him in verses which begin thus : 
 
 "D^mostliene ail conseil et Pindare au Parnasse, 
 L'auj;uste liberty marche devaut tes pas." 
 
 Died in 1768. 
 
 See Dtt Vrihs, "Histoire de la Poe"sie Hollandaise." 
 Harenberg, ha'ren-beRc/, (Johann Chrjstoph,) a 
 German historian and Protestant theologian of great 
 learning, was born at Langenholtzen in 1696. He became 
 professor of ecclesiastic history in the Carolinum of 
 Brunswick. Among his works (in Latin) are "Laws of 
 the Jews in Palestine," (1724,) a " History of the Church 
 of Gandersheim," (1734,) and a "History of the Order 
 of Jesuits," (in German, 1760.) Died in 1774. 
 See Hiksching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Har'ford, (John S.,) an English biographer and con- 
 noisseur in art, was born near Bristol about 1785. He 
 wrote a " Life of Thomas Burgess, Bishop of Salisbury," 
 and a "Life of Michael Angelo." 
 
 Har'grave, (Francis,) an eminent English lawyer, 
 born in 1741, published an "Argument in Defence of 
 Literary Property," and a "Collection of State Trials." 
 In 1772 he was counsel in the case of Somerset, a fugitive 
 slave, and procured a decision that every slave became 
 free as soon as he touched the soil of Britain. He 
 was afterwards recorder of Liverpool. His legal at- 
 tainments and ability were highly commended by Lord 
 Lyndhurst. Died in 1821. 
 
 Har'graves, (Edmund Hammond,) an Englishmar., 
 noted as the discoverer of gold in Australia, was born 
 at Gosport about 1816. He settled in Australia in his 
 youth, and in 1849 went to California, where he acquired 
 some practical skill in digging gold. Having observed 
 that the gold-region of California resembled a part 0/ 
 New South Wales, he began to explore the latter in 
 February, 185 1, and soon discovered rich deposits of 
 gold near the Macquarie River. For this service the 
 colonial government voted him a reward of ,£10,000. 
 He returned to England in 1854, and published "Aus- 
 tralia and its Gold-Fields." 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, % short; a, e, i, q, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HARGREAVES 
 
 1133 
 
 HARM AND 
 
 Hargreaves, har'greevz, (James,) an English opera- 
 tive, who invented the spinning-jenny about 1768. 
 
 See Hbnrv Howe, " Lives of Eminent American and European 
 Meclianics." 
 
 Harl or Herl, [modern Hindoo pron. hiir'ee,] a San- 
 scrit word signifying "green," and forming one of the 
 many names of Vishnu, which see. 
 
 Haring, ha'ring, (David,) a Dutch portrait-painter, 
 born in 1636, worked at the Hague with great success, 
 and was director of the Academy there. Died in 1706. 
 
 Haring or Haering, ha'ring, (Wilhei.m,) a popular 
 German novelist, born at Breslau in 1798, is widely 
 known under the assumed name of Wilibald Alexis. 
 He produced in 1823 "Walladmor," a novel, which he 
 announced as a translation from Sir Walter Scott, and 
 which had great success. He published a book of 
 travels, called "Excursions in the South," (1828,) and 
 numerous historical novels. His novel "Cabanis" (6 
 vols., 1832) is called his best work. Among his later 
 productions are " Roland of Berlin," (1840,) and " Doro- 
 thea" (1855.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Harington. See Harrington. 
 
 Hariot. See Harriot, (Thomas.) 
 
 Hariri. See Hareerf.e. 
 
 Harispe, //9'resp', (Jean Isidore,) Count, a French 
 general, born in Basse-Pyrenees in 1768. He distin- 
 guished himself in many actions in the Peninsula, and 
 was made a general of division in 18 10. During the 
 Hundred Days he took the field fo- Napoleon. He 
 became a peer of France in 1835, and was raised to 
 the rank of marshal in 1851. Died in 1855. 
 
 Har'ker, (Charles G.,) an American general, born 
 in New Jersey about 1836. He graduated at West Point 
 in 1858. He served as colonel at Stone River, December 
 31, 1862-January 2, 1863, distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Chickamauga, September 19-20, 1863, and was 
 killed at Kenesaw in June, 1864. 
 
 Har'lan, (Richard,) an American naturalist, born 
 in Philadelphia in 1796, graduated as M.D. at the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania in 1817. Among his principal 
 works is " Fauna Americana," (1825.) Died at New 
 Orleans in 1843. 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.) 
 
 Harlay, de, deh //IrIS', (Achii.i.f.,) a French judge, 
 noted for his learning, integrity, and loyalty, was born in 
 Paris in 1536, and was son-in-law of De Thou. He be- 
 came first president of the Parliament of Paris in 1582, 
 and firmly opposed the factious designs of the League 
 a few years later. After the death of Henry III., in 1589, 
 he promoted the cause of Henry IV., and opposed ul- 
 tramontane doctrines. He is called one of the greatest 
 men who have illustrated the French magistracy. Died 
 in 1616. 
 
 See De la Vallee, " E"loge de M. de Harlay," 1624 ; De Thou, 
 "Hisuiire;" " Nonvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Harlay, de, (Aciiili.e,) a French judge, noted for his 
 learning and caustic wit, was born in Paris in 1639, and 
 was chosen first president of the Parliament of Paris in 
 1689. Died in 1712. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Memoires." 
 
 Harlay de Chanvalon, /&Sr'14' deh shoN'vi"16N', 
 (Francois,) a French courtier and prelate, born in Paris 
 in 1625, became Archbishop of Paris in 1670. He ob- 
 tained the favour of Louis XIV., was hostile to the Jan- 
 senists, and persecuted the Protestants. He was a 
 member of the French Academy. Died in 1695. 
 
 See Legenore, "Vie de Harlay," 1720; Saint-Suion, "Me- 
 moires." 
 
 Harleman. See Horleman. 
 
 Harless or Harles, haR'less, (Christian Fried- 
 rich,) a German physician, son of Gottlieb C. Harless, 
 was born at Erlangen in 1773. He was professor of 
 medicine at Bonn from 1818 until 1853. He wrote, lie- 
 sides other works, a " History of Cephalology and Neu- 
 rology in Antiquity," (1801.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Harless or Harles, (Gottlieb Christoph, ) a 
 learned German philologist, born at Culmbach in 1740. 
 He became professor of eloquence at Erlangen in 1 770, 
 and wrote numerous I,atin works, the most important of 
 
 which are "The Lives of Philologists of the Present 
 Age," (4 vols., 1764-72,) an "Introduction to the His- 
 tory of the Greek Language," (1778,) and a new edition 
 of the " Bibliotheca Graeca" of Fabricius," (12 vols., 
 1790-1810.) Died in 1815. 
 
 See C. F. Harles, "Vita Viri amplissimi T. C. Harles," Erlan- 
 gen. 1S18. 
 
 Harless, (Gottlieb Christoph Adolf,) an influen- 
 tial German Protestant theologian, born at Nuremberg 
 in 1806. He was professor of theology at Erlangen from 
 1836 to 1845, am ' acquired eminence as a pulpit orator 
 and an author. Among his works are a " Commentary 
 on the Epistle to the Ephesians," (1834,) a volume of 
 sermons entitled "Christi Reich una Christi Kraft," 
 (1840,) and "Christian Ethics," (1842,) which has been 
 often reprinted. In 1852 he became president of the 
 Consistory of Munich. Died in 1862. 
 
 Harleville, (Collin d\) See Collin-Harlevili.e. 
 
 Har'ley, (Robert,) Earl of Oxford, born in London 
 in 1661, was the son and heir of Sir Edward Harley, 
 a Puritan officer, who fought against Charles I. in the 
 civil war. At the Revolution Sir Edward and his son 
 raised a troop of horse for the Prince of Orange. In 
 1689 Robert obtained a seat in Parliament, where at 
 first he acted with the Whigs. However, he often voted 
 with the opposition, and by degrees became identified 
 with the Tories. He acquired great influence in the 
 House by his industry, gravity, and political artifice, and 
 after a few years was recognized as one of the leaders 
 of his party. He was chosen Speaker of the House of 
 Commons in 1701, and again in 1702. 
 
 In 1704 this wily politician became secretary of state, 
 probably through the influence of his cousin, Mrs. Ma- 
 sham, who was the favourite of Queen Anne. Harley, 
 with his ally Bolingbroke, resigned in 1708, in conse- 
 quence of the enmity of Marlborough and Godolphin, 
 whom he attempted to supplant and who insisted on his 
 dismissal. In 1710, a change of the ministry having 
 occurred, Harley was appointed chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer. In 1711 a French emissary named Guiscard, 
 while being examined before the privy council, stabbed 
 Harley with a pen-knife and wounded him slightly. This 
 affair rendered him more popular ; and soon after he was 
 made Earl of Oxford and of Mortimer and lord high 
 treasurer. The most important event of his administra. 
 tion is the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. The rivalry which 
 had existed between the premier and his colleague Bo- 
 lingbroke resulted in the dismissal of the former in July, 
 1714; and the death of Queen Anne, a few days after, 
 ruined his political prospects. In 1715 he was impeached 
 by the Commons, and sent to the Tower, in which he 
 was confined nearly two years. While in prison he 
 maintained a treasonable correspondence with the Stuart 
 family. In 1717 he was acquitted and released. Died 
 in 1724. "His influence in Parliament," says Macattlay, 
 " was altogether out of proportion to his abilities. His 
 intellect was both small and slow." He was the patron 
 of Pope and Swift. His valuable collection of manu- 
 scripts was purchased by Parliament, and now forms 
 part of the British Museum, with the name of the Har- 
 leian Collection. His private character is said to have 
 been strictly moral ; but he was justly distrusted lry both 
 parties for his duplicity. Pope said, " Oxford was not a 
 very capable minister, and had a good deal of negligence 
 into the bargain." 
 
 See Macaulav, "History of England," vol. W. ; Lord Mahon 
 "History of England;" Duchess of Marlborough, " Account of 
 her own Life." 
 
 Har'low, (George Henry,) an English historical 
 and portrait painter, born in London in 17S7, studied 
 with Sir Thomas Lawrence. He acquired great executive 
 facility, and was very successful in portraits. In 1818 
 he visited Rome, where in the short space of eighteen 
 days he produced acopy of Raphael's "Transfiguration." 
 Among his chief works is "The Trial of Queen Cathe- 
 rine," the prominent characters of which are portraits of 
 the Kemble family. He died in 1819. 
 
 Harmand, AaVmoN', (Jean Baptists,) a French 
 revolutionist, of the moderate party, a member of the 
 Convention, 1792-94, born at Souilly (Meuse) in 1751 ; 
 died in 1816. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this. (Jiy~See Explanations, p. 13.) 
 
HAR MANSE N 
 
 > 134 
 
 HAR UN 
 
 Harmansen, haR'man-sen, (Wolphart,) born about 
 1550, commanded a Dutch commercial expedition sent 
 to the East Indies in i6or. Died about 1610. 
 
 Hai'mar, (John,) a learned English divine, born in 
 1594, was chosen professor of Greek at Oxford in 1650. 
 He published " Lexicon Etymologicon Graecum," (1637,) 
 and other works. Died in 1670. 
 
 Harmenopule. See Harmenopulus. 
 
 Har-men-o-pu'lus, [Fr. Harmenopule, hiR'meh- 
 no'piil',] (Constantin,) a noted Greek jurist, born in 
 Constantinople about 1320. He held the high offices of 
 councillor, curopalate, and grand chancellor under the 
 emperor John Palasologus. He wrote a " Manual of 
 Laws," (Ityo^apov tuv vo/iuv,) a work of high authority 
 among the Greeks, and a treatise on canon law. Died 
 in 1383. 
 
 Har'mer, (Thomas,) a learned English dissenting min- 
 ister, born at Norwich in 1715. He had charge of the 
 Independent church in Wattesfield, in Suffolk, from 1735 
 to 1788. He published, besides other works, "Obser- 
 vations on Various Passages of Scripture, placing them 
 in a New Light, compiled from Relations incidentally 
 mentioned in Books of Travels in the East," (1764,) 
 which is esteemed an able and useful work. An enlarged 
 edition of it was published in 4 vols. (1816) by Dr. Adam 
 Clarke. Died in 1788. 
 
 Har-mo'dl-us, [Gr. 'Ap/xo&oc,] a young Athenian, 
 who, with his friend Aristogi'ton, acquired celebrity by 
 a conspiracy against the Pisistratidae, Hippias and Hip- 
 parchus, who held the chief power in Athens about 525 
 B.C. Harmodius having received a personal affront from 
 Hipparchus, the two friends conspired to revenge this 
 by the death of both the brothers, and chose the occasion 
 of a public festival for the execution of their design. 
 They first attacked and killed Hipparchus, whose guards 
 then slew Harmodius and arrested Aristogiton, who was 
 afterwards put to death by the order of Hippias. The 
 latter, having become tyrannical and unpopular, was ex- 
 pelled from the state about three years after that event, 
 511 B.C. Statues were erected at the public expense to 
 the memory of the conspirators, who were regarded as 
 heroes and martyrs of liberty. It is said that when the 
 tyrant Dionysius asked Antipho which was the finest 
 kind of brass, he replied, "That of which the statues of 
 Harmodius and Aristogiton are formed." 
 
 Har-mo'nI-a, [Gr. 'Ap/xovia; Fr. Harmonie, Sr'- 
 mo'ne',] in classic mythology, a personification of the 
 order or harmony of the universe, said to be a daughter 
 of Mars and Venus, (or, according to some authorities, 
 of Jupiter and Electra,) and a wife of Cadmus. She 
 received on her wedding-day, from some of the gods, a 
 rich necklace, which proved fatal to every person who 
 successively possessed it. 
 
 See Smith, "Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology." 
 
 Harmonie. See Harmonia. 
 
 Harms, harmz, (Claude,) a Danish theologian, born 
 at Fahrstedt (Holstein) in 1778. He was an adversary of 
 rationalism, and became principal pastor of Kiel in 1S35. 
 Among his most important works are "Pastoral The- 
 ology," (3 vols., 1834,) and "The Augsburg Confession," 
 (1847.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Har'ness, (William,) an English theologian and 
 dramatist, born in Hampshire in 1790. 
 
 Har'nett, (Cornelius,) an American statesman, born 
 in England in 1723. He became a citizen of North 
 Carolina before the Revolution, in which he took a 
 prominent part against the British government. He 
 was elected to the Congress at Halifax in 1776, after 
 which he was a member of the Continental Congress. 
 Died in 1781. 
 
 Har'ney, (William Sei.by,) an American general, 
 born in Tennessee in 1800. He became a captain in 1825, 
 served in the Florida war, and obtained the rank of colo- 
 nel in 1846. He took part in several battles in Mexico, 
 (1846-47,) and was raised to the rank of brigadier-general 
 in 1858. As military commandant of Oregon, in 1859, he 
 occupied the island of San Juan, (on the west coast of 
 North America,) which was claimed by the British. He 
 was soon after removed from his command. 
 
 Harnisch, haR'nish, (Wilhelm,) a meritorious Ger- 
 man teacher and educational reformer, born at Wilsnach, 
 
 near Potsdam, in 1787. He was preceptor to the prin- 
 cess Charlotte, afterwards Empress of Russia. Among 
 his chief works are a " Manual of Popular Instruction," 
 (1820,) and "Cosmology," ("Die Weltkunde," 4th edi- 
 tion, 1827, 3 vols.) 
 
 Haro, de, da a'ro, (Juan,) a Spanish historical painter, 
 born in Castile. He was living at Madrid in 1604. 
 
 Haro, de, (Don Luis,) a Spanish minister of state, 
 born at Valladolid in 1598. He was the son of the 
 Marquis of Carpio, and a nephew of the famous Duke 
 of Olivares, whom in 1644 he succeeded as prime min- 
 ister and favourite of Philip IV. He carried on a dis- 
 astrous war against France, Portugal, and the Dutch for 
 many years, and in 1659 signed, with the French minister 
 Mazarin, the treaty of the Pyrenees. The king rewarded 
 him for his services by erecting the marquisate of Carpio 
 into a dukedom. He is represented to have directed 
 the arduous affairs of state with prudence and ability. 
 Died in 1661. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Har'old I., surnamed Harefoot, King of England, 
 was the second son of Canute the Great by Algiva, 
 daughter of the Earl of Northampton. At the death of 
 Canute, in 1035, Harold and Hardicanute (son of Queen 
 Emma) were the chief competitors for the throne of 
 England, which their father, on his marriage with Emma, 
 had agreed to leave to her issue. But Harold had the 
 advantage of possession, and was recognized by the 
 Danes and people of Mercia. (See Hardicanute.) In 
 1037, Alfred, the younger son of Emma, having invaded 
 the country and been defeated and killed, Harold be- 
 came King of all England. He died in 1040, and was 
 succeeded by Hardicanute. 
 
 Harold II., King of England, was a son of Godwin, 
 Earl of Kent, a powerful Saxon nobleman. On the death 
 of Godwin, in 1053, he inherited with his father's talents 
 the earldom of Kent. Having been appointed com- 
 mander of the army of the king, Edward the Confessor, 
 he gained victories over the Welsh about 1062. He was 
 thrown by a storm on the coast of France about 1065, 
 and became the prisoner of William, Duke of Nor- 
 mandy, who, as a condition of his liberation, required 
 Harold to swear that on the death of Edward the Con- 
 fessor he would aid William to obtain the throne of 
 England. Edward died in January, 1066, and Harold 
 was proclaimed king by the assembly of thanes and the 
 citizens of London, without opposition from any native 
 competitor except his own brother, Tostig. The Norman 
 duke demanded that Harold should surrender to him 
 the crown ; but he refused to be bound by an oath which 
 was extorted" from him by force. In September, 1066, 
 Harold gained a complete victory over Tostig and the 
 King of Norway, who had invaded England. Three 
 days after this battle, the Duke of Normandy landed in 
 Sussex with an army of about 60,000 men, which Harold 
 encountered at Senlac, (now Battle,) near Hastings, on 
 the 14th of October, 1066. After a long and obstinate 
 combat, in which Harold and his two brothers were 
 killed, William gained a decisive victory, which rendered 
 him master of England. 
 
 See Freeman, "History of the Norman Conquest of England ;" 
 Hume, " Historv of England :" Augustin Thierry, " Histoire de 
 la Conquete de l'Anglete'rre ;" William of Malmesbury, "History 
 of the Kings of England." 
 
 Har'old (or Harald) Harfager, (har'fa'ger, almost 
 har'fa'her,) a king of Norway, whose reign is considered 
 to mark the commencement of authentic Norwegian his- 
 tory. About 895 he subdued the jarls, or petty chief- 
 tains, and united the various sections of Norway into 
 one kingdom. He reigned above thirty years, and left 
 his crown to his son, Haco (or Haquin) the Good, who 
 first introduced Christianity into Norway. 
 
 Harouii-al-Raschid* Tia-roon' 41 rash/id, or, more 
 correctly, Haroon-ar-Rasheed, (or Harfln-ar-Ra- 
 shid,) ha-roon' ar-ra-sheed', the most celebrated of the 
 Eastern caliphs, and the most powerful sovereign of the 
 dynasty of the Abbassides, was born about 766 A.D. He 
 was a son of the caliph Mahdee, (Mahdi,) and succeeded 
 
 * In this instance we have departed from our general rule of spell- 
 ing according to the sound of Oriental names. The spelling HarouH 
 seems to have become, indeed, a part of the English language. 
 
 S. e, I, o, u, y, long; k, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 5, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon- 
 
HJRPJGUS 
 
 "3> 
 
 Harrington 
 
 his elder brother Harlee (Hacli) in 786. In the early 
 pai 1 of his reign the Barmecides Yahia and Jaafar were 
 his favourite ministers. About 804 A.l>. he waged a suc- 
 cessful war against the Byzantine emperor Nicephoms, 
 whom he compelled to pay tribute. Haroun was a lib- 
 eral patron of poets and scholars ; but he scarcely merited 
 the surname of Ar-Rasheed, (" the Just.") (See JaaI'ar.) 
 He is chiefly renowned as the principal hero of the " Ara- 
 bian Nights' Entertainments." Died in 809 A.D. 
 
 See Aboolfkda, "Annales Moslemici ;" Abooi.farat, (Abul- 
 pharagius.) " Historia Dynastiarum ;" Weil, "Geschichte der 
 Lh.iiiten ;" Elmacin, " Historia Saracenica." 
 
 Har'pa-gus, [Gr. 'Aprrayoc,] a noble Mede, said to 
 have saved the life of Cyrus the Great. Afterwards, 
 under Cyrus, he reduced several Greek cities of Ionia. 
 
 Har'pa-lus, [Gr. 'ApiraAoc,] a Macedonian whom Alex- 
 ander the Great made satrap of Babylon and intrusted 
 with the care of his accumulated treasures on his de- 
 parture for India. Harpalus abused his trust, and, when 
 he heard that his master was returning, fled to Athens 
 with a large sum of money. The Athenians being unable 
 or unwilling to protect him against Antipater, Alexan- 
 der's lieutenant, who demanded that he should be given 
 up, he retired to Crete, where he was killed in 324 B.C. 
 Demosthenes, having advocated his cause, was tried on 
 a charge of bribery and fined. 
 
 See Thirlwall, " History of Greece." 
 
 Har-pal'^-ce, [Gr. 'Ap7raAwo7,] daughter of Harpal'y- 
 cus, King of Thrace, was distinguished for her courageous 
 defence of her father's kingdom against Neoptolemus, 
 the son of Achilles. 
 
 Harpe, La. See La Harpe. 
 
 Har'per, (James,) an American publisher, born at 
 Newton, Long Island, in 1795. He and several of his 
 brothers founded in New York the great publishing 
 house of Harper & Brothers about 1825. He was 
 elected mayor of New York in 1844. Died in 1869. 
 
 Harper, (Robert Goodloe,) an eminent lawyer and 
 Senator of the United States, born near Fredericksburg, 
 Virginia, in 1765. After graduating at Princeton, New 
 Jersey, in 1785, he studied law in Charleston, South 
 Carolina, and settled in the interior of that State. From 
 1795 to 1800 he represented one of the districts of South 
 Carolina in the National Congress, of which he was one 
 of the most prominent members and one of the ablest 
 debaters. In the latter part of this period he was the 
 principal leader of the Federal party in the House of 
 Representatives. In 1801 he retired from office, married 
 the daughter of Charles Carroll, and settled in Baltimore, 
 where he resumed the practice of law. He was employed 
 as counsel for the defence in the impeachment of Judge 
 Chase, of the supreme court of the United States, who 
 was acquitted. In 1815 he was elected a Senator of the 
 United States by the legislature of Maryland. A volume 
 of his speeches, arguments, and letters was published 
 in 1814. John Neal, in " Blackwood's Magazine," says, 
 " His writings are energetic, manly, profound. We hold 
 him to be one of the ablest men that North America has 
 produced." Died in 1825. 
 
 Harper, (Wii.uam,) an American lawyer and politi- 
 cian, born in the island of Antigua in 1 790. He settled 
 in Missouri in 1818, removed to South Carolina in 1823, 
 and became a Senator of the United States in 1826. He 
 was appointed a judge of the court of appeals in 1831, 
 and elected chancellor in 1834. Died in 1847. 
 
 Harphius, haR'fe-iis, (Henry,) an eminent Flemish 
 mvstic theologian, born at Erp or Hcrp, was superior 
 Franciscan abbey at Malines, where he died in 1478. 
 He wrote the "Eden of the Contemplative," "The Mir- 
 ror of Perfection," and other religious works. 
 
 Har'pies, [Gr. 'kfrmat.; Lat. Har'PYMJj Fr. Har- 
 ivks, fK'pe',] winged monsters of classic mythology, 
 regarded as the daughters of Neptune, and supposed by 
 some to be personified storm-winds. They polluted all 
 that they touched. 
 
 See Virgil's ".ASneid," book iii. 211-261. 
 Har-poc'ra-teS or Har'po-krat, a divinity of the 
 ancient Egyptians, sometimes identified with Horus, and 
 called the god of silence or secrecy. He was repre- 
 sented as holding a finger on his mouth. 
 
 Har-po-cra'tl-on, [Gr. ' kpTronpariuiv,] (Valerius,) a 
 Greek rhetorician of Alexandria, of whose life scarcely 
 anything is known. He appears to have lived in or 
 alter the second century. He wrote a very important 
 work, called " Lexicon for the Ten Orators," {Ar^uiim tuv 
 Una fn/Tofiuv,) which is extant. He explains in this the 
 political and other terms used by the Athenian orators, 
 and affords much valuable information on the public and 
 civil law and history of Athens. 
 
 Harps'field or Harps'feld, (Nicholas,) an English 
 Catholic, born in London, was chosen professor of Greek 
 in Oxford in 1546, and Archdeacon of Canterbury in 1554. 
 He wrote an "English Ecclesiastical History." He was 
 imprisoned about twenty years during the reign of Eliza- 
 beth. Died about 1582. 
 
 Harpyes. See Harpies. 
 
 Harpyise. See Ha rimes. 
 
 Harring, hSr'ring, (Hakro Paul,) a writer, born near 
 Husum, Denmark, in 1798. He travelled in many coun- 
 tries, and was several times arrested as a conspirator 
 and revolutionist. He wrote several dramas and other 
 works of fiction, and " Memoirs of Poland under Russian 
 Domination," (in French, 1831.) Died in 1870. 
 
 Har'ring-tcM), (Charles Stanhope,) Earl of, born 
 in England in 1753, was previously styled Lord Peters- 
 ham. He entered the army in 1769, and was returned 
 to Parliament in 1776. At the death of his father, about 
 1778, he became a member of the House of Lords. He 
 served in several campaigns in America and in the West 
 Indies, and was aide-de-camp to General Burgoyne at 
 the capitulation of Saratoga. After his return he became 
 aide-de-camp to the king, George III., in 1792 a colonel 
 of the life-guards, and in 1798 lieutenant-general. About 
 1802 he was envoy-extraordinary to Berlin. From 1807 
 to 1812 he commanded the army 111 Ireland. Died in 1829. 
 
 Harrington, (Henry,) an English physician and poet, 
 born at Kelston in 1 729, resided at Bath. He published 
 " An Ode to Harmony," " An Ode to Discord," and a 
 few other works. Died in 1816. 
 
 Harrington, (James,) an English author, born at 
 Upton in 161 1, was educated at Oxford under Dr. Chil- 
 lingworth. In youth he made the tour of the continent 
 In 1646 he officiated as groom of the bed-chamber to 
 Charles I., then a prisoner, whom he attended at his 
 execution. In 1656 he published his principal work, 
 entitled "Oceana," which attracted much attention and 
 was greatly admired. It is a political allegory, exhibiting, 
 in imitation of Plato's "Atlantis," the plan or model of 
 an ideal republic, named Oce'ana, which is supposed to 
 represent England. His project was generally considered 
 visionary, impracticable, and Utopian. Hume said, " It 
 is justlv admired as a work of genius and invention ;" 
 while Hallam thinks that the author "is in general 
 prolix, dull, pedantic, yet seldom profound." He was 
 arrested in 1061 on a cnarge of treason, and (though the 
 case was never brought to trial) closely confined until he 
 became deranged. The cause of his arrest was probably 
 his avowed republican principles. Died in 1677. 
 
 See T01.AND." Life of James Harrington," prefaced to his Works, 
 1700; "Biographia Biitannica:" Wood, "Alhenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Harrington, (James,) an English lawyer, born in 
 1664, contributed some Latin verses to the "Musae An- 
 glicanae," and wrote the preface to the first volume ot 
 Wood's " Athenae." Died in 1693. 
 
 Harrington or Harington, (John,) of Stepney, an 
 English poet, born in 1534. He wrote elegant "Verses 
 on Isabella Markham," dated about 1564. "If these 
 are genuine," says Hallam, "they are as polished as 
 any written at the close of the queen's reign." Died 
 in 1582. 
 
 Harrington, (Sir John,) an English poet and cour- 
 tier, a fon of the preceding, was born at or near Bath in 
 1561. He became a favourite of Queen Elizabeth. He 
 was the author of an admired English version of Ariosto's 
 "Orlando Furroso," (1591.) He wrote numerous epi- 
 grams, which were published in 1615, a "Brief View of 
 the State of the Church," and other works. About 1600 
 he served under the Earl of Essex as commander of the 
 horse. Died in 1612. 
 
 See " Life of Sir J. Harrington," prefixed to his " Nuga Antiqtue,'* 
 a vols., 1804. 
 
 « as *; c as *; g /Sanz; g as/; G,H,K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; sasj; eh as in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. a> 
 
HARRIOTT 
 
 1 1 36 
 
 HARRIS 
 
 Har'rI-ott or Harriot, (Thomas,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish mathematician, born at Oxford in 1560. He visited 
 Virginia in the service of Sir Walter Raleigh (who had 
 been his pupil) in 1584, and published an Account of 
 that province in 1588. He was liberally patronized by 
 the Earl of Northumberland, in whose house he spent 
 the latter part of his life. Harriott was noted for skill in 
 algebra, his treatise on which, entitled " Artis Analytical 
 Praxis," was published in 163 1. It is said that he ob- 
 served the satellites of Jupiter in 1610, a few days after 
 Galileo first discovered them, and that he was the first 
 who detected the spots on the sun, December 8, 1610. 
 "Harriott was destined," says Hallam," to make the 
 last great discovery in the pure science of algebra. He 
 arrived at a complete theory of the genesis of equations, 
 which Cardan and Vieta had but partially conceived." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 
 1621. 
 
 See Montucla, " Histoire des Mathe'matiques ;" " Biographia 
 Britannica;" Eksch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. 
 
 Har'ris, (George,) a son of the Bishop of Llandaff, 
 published an English version of Justinian's "Institu- 
 tiones," (1756.) Died in 1796. 
 
 Harris, (George,) Lord, an English general, born at 
 Brasted in 1746, entered the army in 1759. As captain, 
 he took part in the battle of Bunker Hill in 1775, where 
 he was severely wounded, and in that of Long Island, 
 (1776.) In 1790-91 he served in India against Tippoo 
 Sultan, and in 1794 he was promoted to the rank of 
 major-general. About four years later he was appointed 
 Governor of the Madras Presidency, and commanded 
 the army which was sent against Tippoo and which 
 captured Seringapatam. For his services he was re- 
 warded by a peerage, as Lord Harris of Seringapatam 
 and Mysore. Died in 1829. 
 
 See S. R. Lushikgton, " Life of General Lord Harris." 
 
 Harris, (James,) an English author, born at Salisbury 
 in 1709, was the son of James Harris and of Lady Cooper, 
 who was sister of Lord Shaftesbury. He was an excel- 
 lent classical scholar. In 1761 he obtained a seat in Par- 
 liament, in 1763 became a lord of the treasury, and in 
 1774 secretary and controller to the queen. In 1751 
 he published his "Hermes; or, A Philosophical Inquiry 
 concerning Language and Universal Grammar," which, 
 according to Coleridge, is "written with the precision 
 of Aristotle and the elegance of Quintilian." He wrote 
 three treatises, viz., on " Art," on " Music, Painting, and 
 Poetry," and on " Happiness." Died in 1780. 
 
 See " Life of James Harris," by Lord Malmesburv, 1801. 
 
 Harris, (James,) first Earl of Malmesbury, an able 
 diplomatist, born at Salisbury in 1746, was the only son 
 of the preceding. He was educated at Oxford and Ley- 
 den, and in 1767 was appointed secretary of embassy 
 at Madrid. A few years after, being left as charge- 
 d'affaires in the same court, he acquitted himself so well 
 in an important affair that he received in 1772 the mis- 
 sion to Prussia, and in 1777 that to Saint Petersburg, 
 from which he returned home in 1784. Although he was 
 a political friend of Fox, he received from Pitt, then pre- 
 mier, the appointment of minister to the Hague, where 
 he negotiated, in 1788, a treaty with Holland and Prus- 
 sia. The same year he was created Baron Malmesbury. 
 In 1793 he joined the Tory or Conservative party. He 
 was subsequently employed on missions to Berlin and 
 the French republic, in which he maintained his repu- 
 tation as a skilful diplomatist. In 1800 he was raised to 
 the rank of Earl of Malmesbury and Viscount Fitzharris. 
 He died in 1820, leaving one son and several daughters. 
 The present earl is his grandson. Since his death his 
 " Diaries and Correspondence" has been published. 
 
 See M London Quarterly Review" for October, 1844, and March, 
 "845- 
 
 Harris, (James Howard.) See Malmesbury, Earl 
 of. 
 
 Harris, (John,) D.D., an English divine, born about 
 1667, became prebendary of Rochester. He was secre- 
 tary and vice-president of the Royal Society. Besides a 
 variety of scientific works, he published a valuable " Col- 
 lection of Voyages and Travels." His "Dictionary of 
 Arts and Sciences," (1704,) explaining both the terms 
 of art and the arts themselves, was the prototype, it is 
 
 said, of all the cyclopaedias which have since appeared. 
 Died in 1 719. 
 
 Harris, (John,) D.D., an English dissenting minister, 
 born at Ugborough in 1804. After preaching for the 
 Independent Church at Epsom, he became in 1837 pro- 
 fessor of theology in Cheshunt College. About 1850 he 
 was appointed principal of New College, the chief theo- 
 logical seminary of the Independents. Dr. Harris was 
 a popular preacher, and acquired a wide reputation as 
 an author. Among his chief works are " The Great 
 Teacher," (1835,) "Covetousness the Sin of the Chris- 
 tian Church," of which ninety thousand copies had been 
 sold in 1856, "The Great Commission," (1842,) "The 
 Pre- Adamite Earth," (1847,) and " Man Primeval." Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 Harris, (Joseph,) an astronomer, and assay-master 
 of the English mint, wrote an " Essay on Money and 
 Coins,"(i757,)a"Treatiseon Optics," etc. Died in 1764. 
 
 Harris, (Moses,) an English naturalist and artist, 
 published in 1766 "The Aurelian; or, Natural History 
 of English Moths and Butterflies," and an "Exposition 
 of English Insects," (1776.) 
 
 Harris, (Robert,) D.D., an eminent English Puritan 
 divine, born in Gloucestershire in 1578. He was presi- 
 dent of Trinity College, Oxford, from 1648 to 1658. He 
 was a popular preacher, and a man of excellent gifts and 
 graces. He published a volume of Sermons, Letters, 
 etc. Died in 1658. 
 
 See Durham, " Life of Robert Harris," 1660. 
 
 Har'ris, (Thaddeus Mason,) born at Charlestown, 
 Massachusetts, in 1768, was pastor of a Congrega- 
 tional church in Dorchester from 1793 until his death 
 in 1842. He published, besides many sermons and other 
 works, a "Natural History of the Bible." 
 
 Harris, (Thaddeus William,) M.D., an eminent 
 entomologist, a son of the preceding, was born in 1795. 
 He graduated at Harvard College in 1815, and was libra- 
 rian at that institution from 1S31 until his death. In 
 1837 he was employed in the Zoological and Botanical 
 Survey of Massachusetts. He wrote, besides other works, 
 an official " Report on the Insects of Massachusetts 
 Injurious to Vegetation," (1841.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Harris, (Thomas L.,) a spiritualistic poet and 
 preacher, born in England, emigrated in early life to the 
 United States. Among his works is an "Epic of the 
 Starry Heavens," (1854.) 
 
 Harris or Harries, (Walter,) an English physician, 
 born at Gloucester in 1647, began to practise in London 
 in 1676, and was chosen physician to William III. about 
 1689. He wrote several professional treatises. Died in 
 172s. 
 
 Harris, (William,) D.D., an English divine, born in 
 1675, was minister of a dissenting church in London. 
 He published " Practical Discourses on the Principal 
 Representatives of the Messiah," (1724,) and assisted in 
 the continuation of Matthew Henry's "Commentary on 
 the Bible." " He was reckoned," says Doddridge, " the 
 greatest master of the English tongue among the dis- 
 senters." Died in 1740. 
 
 Harris, (William,) D.D., an English dissenting min- 
 ister and biographer, born at Salisbury in 1720. He was 
 successively pastor at Wells and Honiton. He published 
 valuable biographies of Hugh Peters, (1751,) of James 
 !•> (1753.) <« Charles I., (1758,) of Oliver Cromwell, 
 (1762,) and of Charles II., (1766.) His positions and 
 statements are confirmed by copious notes and original 
 documents. He is commended for his fidelity to the 
 truth by several critics. Died in 1770. 
 
 Harris, (Sir William Cornwallis,) a British officer 
 and writer of travels. He published, in 1839, "Wild 
 Sports in Southern Africa," and afterwards "The High- 
 lands of Ethiopia," (3 vols., 2d edition, 1844.) 
 
 Harris, (William Snow,) an English surgeon, dis- 
 tinguished by his researches in physical sciences and by 
 his inventions, was born at Plymouth about 1792. He 
 gave special attention to electricity, magnetism, and 
 meteorology. In 1831 he was chosen a Fellow jof the 
 Royal Society, which awarded him the Copley medal in 
 1835. He invented a new steering-compass, and made 
 important improvements in the construction of con- 
 ductors of the electric fluid. By a system of metallic 
 
 5, e, T, 6, u, J, long; a, i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m?t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
HARRISON 
 
 <>37 
 
 HART 
 
 conductors applied to the masts and hulls of ships, he 
 greatly diminished the ruinous effects of lightning in 
 the navy. He published "The Nature of Thunder- 
 storms, (1843,) an d "Rudiments of Electricity," (1849.) 
 Died in January, 1867. 
 
 Har'r'l-son. (Benjamin,) born at Berkeley, on the 
 James River, Virginia, about 1740, was the father of 
 president William H. Harrison. In 1764 he was a 
 member of the Virginia legislature, and in 1774 was 
 elected to the national Congress, in which he was dis- 
 tinguished for his patriotic services and signed the 
 Declaration of Independence. From 1782 to 17S4 he 
 was Governor of Virginia. He was also a member of 
 the convention which framed the Constitution of the 
 United Slates in 1788. Died in 1791. 
 
 See C. A. Goodrich, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of 
 Inde|>endence." 
 
 Har'rl-son, (John,) an English republican general, 
 served in the parliamentary army in the civil war, and 
 was one of the judges of the court in which Charles I. 
 was tried in 1649. He had obtained the rank of major- 
 general, when he became a member of the council of 
 state, in 1653. Cromwell, when Protector, endeavoured 
 to gain his support by the oner of an exalted position ; 
 but he refused to co-operate with the " usurper," as he 
 called him. In 1657 he was deprived of his commission 
 and confined. In 1660 he was executed for his share in 
 the death of Charles I. Before the judges who tried him, 
 he spoke with courage and complacency of the act for 
 which he was about to suffer. 
 
 Har'rl-son, (John,) an English mechanician, born 
 at Faulby, in Yorkshire, in 1693, learned the trade of a 
 carpenter. He became interested in the mechanism of 
 clocks, in which he made several improvements, the 
 greatest of which was the compound pendulum. Large 
 rewards having been offered to any one who would ascer- 
 tain the longitude within sixty miles, Harrison, in 1735, 
 exhibited his chronometer to the Royal Society, and a 
 man-of-war was put at his disposal, in which he made a 
 voyage to Lisbon and corrected the reckoning a degree 
 and a half. After repeated trials, he perfected in 1761 
 a chronometer which determined the longitude within 
 eighteen miles, by which he became entitled to the re- 
 ward of ^20,000 offered by government. After it had 
 been tested in several voyages, and it was found that 
 other persons could construct the instrument, the above 
 premium was paid to Harrison in 1765-67. Died in 1776. 
 
 Harrison, (Thomas,) (given erroneously in almost 
 all biographical dictionaries as John Harrison,) an 
 English republican general, served in the parliamentary 
 army in the civil war, and was one of the judges of the 
 court in which Charles I. was tried in 1649. He had 
 obtained the rank of major-general, when he became a 
 member of the council of state, in 1653. Cromwell, 
 when Protector, endeavoured to gain his support by 
 the offer of an exalted position ; but he refused to co- 
 operate with the "usurper," as he called him. In 
 1657 he was deprived of his commission and confined. 
 In 1660 he was executed for his share in the death of 
 Charles I. Before the judges who tried him, he spoke 
 with courage and complacency of the act for which he 
 was about to suffer. 
 
 Harrison, (William,) an English scholar and poet, 
 was a Fellow of New College, Oxford. He was a favour- 
 ite of Swift, who described him as a "pretty fellow, with 
 a great deal of wit, good sense, and good nature." Swift 
 procured for him the office of secretary of embassy to the 
 Hague. Harrison edited the fifth volume of the "fatler." 
 Died in 1713. 
 
 Harrison, (William Henry,) the ninth President of 
 the United States, was born in Charles City county, Vir- 
 ginia, on the 9th of February, 1773. He was a son of 
 Benjamin Harrison, noticed above, and was educated at 
 HampdenSidney College. He entered the army in 1791, 
 served as aide-de-camp to General Wayne in the Indian 
 war, and became a captain in 1794. In'1797 he resigned 
 his commission, and in 1799 he was chosen a delegate 
 to Congress for the Northwest Territory. He was ap- 
 pointed Governor of the Territory of Indiana in 1801, 
 and, having been reappointed by several successive Presi- 
 dents, held that office until 1813, and made many treaties 
 
 with the Indians. On the 7th of November, 1811, he 
 defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe. He was appointed 
 a brigadier-general in 1812, and a major-general in the 
 regular army in 1813. In October of that year he gained 
 a complete victory over the British at the battle of the 
 Thames. He represented Cincinnati in Congress in 1817 
 and 1S18, and was elected to the Senate of the United 
 States in 1824. President Adams sent him in 1828 as 
 minister to the republic of Colombia; but he was re- 
 called by General Jackson in the spring of 1829. He 
 passed many subsequent years on his farm at North 
 Bend, on the Ohio River. In 1836 he was the Whig 
 candidate for the Presidency of the United States, and 
 received seventy-three electoral votes, but was defeated 
 by Mr. Van Buren. Having been again nominated by 
 the Whigs, he was elected in 1840 by a large majority 
 over Van Buren, who received only sixty electoral votes 
 out of two hundred and ninety-four, which was the whole 
 number. This political campaign was remarkable for its 
 immense mass-meetings, processions, and novel modes 
 of exciting the people. He entered upon the ofiice 
 March 4, and died April 4, 1841. 
 
 See M. Dawson, " Life of General W. H. Harrison," 1824 ; 
 James Hall, " Memoir of the Public Services of W. H. Harrison," 
 1S36; S. J. Burr, "Life and Times of W. H. Harrison," 1840; 
 "Life of William Henry Harrison," by Isaac R.Jackson; "Na- 
 tional Portrait-Gallery of J-Jistinguished Americans, vol. iii. 
 
 Har'row-by\ (Dudley Ryder,) Earl of, an Eng- 
 lish peer and philanthropist, born about 1798. He 
 inherited the earldom at the death of his father in 1847, 
 and was lord privy seal in 1856 and 1857. 
 
 Har'ry\ Blind, or Henry the Minstrel, a Scot- 
 tish bard of the fifteenth century, who was blind from 
 his birth, and wrote a heroic poem on the " Adventures 
 of Sir William Wallace." But little is known of the 
 events of his life. It appears that he made a poetical 
 version of the popular traditions in relation to his hero, 
 in which he followed in a humble degree the example 
 of Homer. Some of his statements are confirmed by 
 recent researches into the monuments and records of 
 history. "The work, therefore," says Tytler, "cannot 
 be treated as an entire romance." 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Harsdorfer or Harsdoerfer, haRs'dbVfer, (Georo 
 Philipp,) a German poet, born at Nuremberg in 1607, 
 wrote in German and Latin. Among his works, which 
 are nearly forgotten, are "The Poetical Kilter," (" Poe- 
 tischer Trichter," 3 vols., 1653,) and "Gespriichspiele." 
 Died in 1658. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" A. G 
 Widmann, "Vita: Curriculum G. P. Harsdorferi," 1707. 
 
 Hars'net, (Samuel,) born at Colchester, England, 
 in 1 56 1, became Bishop of Chichester in 1609, and 
 Archbishop of York in 1628. He published a volume 
 of Sermons, and a "Declaration of Popish Imposture*," 
 etc. Died in 1631. 
 
 Hart, (George Vaughan,) a British general, born in 
 1752; died in 1832. 
 
 Hart, (James M.,) a landscape-painter, born at Kil- 
 marnock, in Scotland, in 1828. He studied at Dussel- 
 dorf, and afterwards settled in New York. His "Woods 
 in Autumn," and "Moonrise in the Adirondacks," are 
 among his master-pieces. His brother William, also 
 a landscape-painter, born at Paisley about 1820, removed 
 to the United States in 1831. Among his best works are 
 "Peace and Plenty," a harvest scene, and "October's 
 Golden Hours." 
 
 See Tuckerman. " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Hart, (Joel T.,) an American sculptor, born in Clark 
 county, Kentucky, in 1810. He was a mason or stone- 
 cutter in his youth. In 1849 he visited Italy, where he 
 executed a marble statue of Henry Clay. Among his 
 other works is "Angelina." 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Hart, (John,) one of the signers of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was the son of Edward Hart, of Mope- 
 well, New Jersey. He was elected to Congress in 1774 
 by the people of New Jersey. Died in 1780. 
 
 Hart, (Solomon,) an eminent English historical 
 
 painter, born at Plymouth in 1806. He produced in 
 
 ^1830 "The Elevation of the Law," (in the Jewish wor- 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilleJ; I as »; th as in this. (J[^~See Explanations, p. 83.) 
 
 7* 
 
HARTE 
 
 1138 
 
 HARTSHORN E 
 
 ship,) and was elected Royal Academician in 1840. He 
 afterwards exhibited several pictures annually at the 
 Academy, and treated a great variety of subjects with 
 success. Among his works are " Richard and Saladin," 
 (1835,) "The Interior of 'a Synagogue," "Milton visit- 
 ing Galileo in Prison," (1847,) and "The Student pre- 
 paring for Honours," (at Oxford,) (1852.) 
 
 Harte, hart, (Walter,) an English poet and priest, 
 born about 1700, was educated at Oxford, took orders, 
 and became canon of Windsor in 1751. He wrote a 
 poem named an " Essay on Reason," in imitation of Pope, 
 who assisted him in its composition. He wrote also an 
 "Essay on Painting," (in verse,) and "The History of 
 Gustavus Adolphus," (1759.) Dr. Johnson commended 
 him as a scholar and a man of the most companionable 
 talents, and said, " The defects of his History [i.e. in re- 
 spect to the style] proceeded not from imbecility, but 
 from foppery." (Boswell.) His poems were once much 
 admired. His History of Gustavus is prized in respect 
 to the matter. Died in 1774. 
 
 See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Hartenkeil, haR't$n-kTl', (Johann Jakoh,) a German 
 medical writer, born at Mentz in 1 761, settled at Salz- 
 burg. He published "The Medico-Surgical Gazette," 
 (72 vols., 1790-1808.) Died in 1808. 
 
 Hartenstein, haR'ten-stTn', (Gustav, ) a German 
 philosopher, born at Plauen, Saxony, in 1808. He wrote 
 "The Problems and Principles of General Metaphysics," 
 (1836,) and other treatises, and published an edition of 
 the "Complete Works of Kant," (10 vols., 1839.) 
 
 Harthacanute. See Hardicanute. 
 
 Hartig, haR'tiG, (Franz Anton,) Count, a liltjra- 
 tear, born at Prague in 1758, wrote, in French, "Letters 
 on France, England, and Italy," (1785,) and "Melanges 
 of Verse and Prose," (1788.) Died in 1797. 
 
 Hartig, haR'tiG, (Georo Ludwig,) a German writer 
 on the culture of forests, born near Marburg in 1764. 
 He was appointed grand master of the forests of Prussia 
 in 181 1, and published, besides other works, "The 
 Science or Economy of Forests in all its Extent," ("Die 
 Forstwissenschaft nach ihrem ganzen Umfange," 1831,) 
 and a " Manual or Text-Book for Foresters," (" Lehrbuch 
 fur Forster," (3 vols., 9th edition, 1851.) Died in 1836. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge*ne"rale." 
 
 Hartig, (Theodor,) a German botanist and writer on 
 the culture of forests, was a son of the preceding. He 
 published a "Treatise on Botany and its Application to 
 the Science of Forests," (1840-51,) and other works. 
 
 Har'ting-tpn.fSPENCER Compton Cavendish,)Mar- 
 QUIS OF, an English minister of state, and the eldest son 
 of the Duke of Devonshire, was born in 1833. He gradu- 
 ated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1854, was elected 
 to Parliament as a Liberal in 1857, and became under- 
 secretary of war in April, 1863. He was secretary of 
 war from February to July, 1866, and was appointed 
 postmaster-general by Mr. Gladstone in December, 1868. 
 
 Hartleben, haRt'la-ben, (Franz Joseph,) a German 
 jurist, born at Dusseldorf in 1740 ; died in 1808. 
 
 Hartleben, (Theodor Konrad,) a German jurist, a 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1770. From 1816 to 
 1827 he published a valuable legal review, "Deutsche 
 Justiz- und Polizeifama." Among his works is a "Me- 
 thod or System of German Public Law," (1800.) Died 
 in 1827. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hart'ley, (David,) an eminent English physician and 
 philosopher, born at Armley, in Yorkshire, in 1705, was 
 educated at Cambridge University. He practised medi- 
 cine at Newark, London, and Bath. His reputation as 
 an author is founded on an excellent metaphysical work, 
 entitled "Observations on Man: his Frame, his Duty, 
 and his Expectations," (1748.) The design of this work 
 is to investigate the principles of association in applica- 
 tion to the phenomena of mind. " Hartley," says Dr. 
 Parr, " has explained the principle of association more 
 accurately and applied it more usefully than even his 
 great predecessor Locke." Dr. Priestley said "he had 
 learned more from Hartley than from any book he had 
 ever read, except the Bible." Died in 1757. 
 
 See " Life of D. Hartley," by his son. t 
 
 Hartley, (David,) a son of the preceding, born in 
 England about 1 730, was educated at Oxford. He repre- 
 sented Hull in Parliament for many years, and distin- 
 guished himself by his opposition to the American war 
 and to the slave-trade. About 1782 he was appointed 
 plenipotentiary to negotiate with Dr. Franklin, at Paris, 
 a treaty of peace between England and the United States. 
 He wrote "Letters on the American War." Died in 1813. 
 
 Hartlib, haRt'lip, (Samuel,) a native of Poland, came 
 to England about 1640. He was interested in the prac- 
 tical application of science, was noted for public spirit, 
 and published a treatise on agriculture, for which Crom- 
 well granted him a pension. About the year 1646 Milton 
 addressed a " Treatise on Education" to Hartlib, who 
 had recently founded an academy on a new system. 
 
 See Chalmers's " Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 Hartman, haRt'man, (Gf.org,) a German mathema- 
 tician of Nuremberg, born in 1489, invented the bom- 
 barding staff. Died in 1564. 
 
 Hartmann, haRt'man, (Anton Theodor,) a German 
 Orientalist, born at Dusseldorf in 1774. He was ap- 
 pointed professor of theology at Rostock in 181 1. He 
 was author of several works on the antiquities and lite- 
 rature of the Hebrews, among which is " Historical and 
 Critical Researches on the Formation, Epoch, and Plan 
 of the Five Books of Moses," (1831.) Died in 1838. 
 
 Hartmann, haRt'man, (Carl Johan,) a Swedish 
 naturalist and physician, born at Gefle in 1790. He 
 published a " Description of the Plants of Sweden and 
 Norway," (" Handbok i Skandinaviens Flora," 1830 ; 6th 
 edition, 1854.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Hartmann, (Ferdinand,) a German historical 
 painter, born at Stuttgart in 1770. 
 
 Hartmann, (Johann,) a German chemist, born at 
 Amberg, in Bavaria, in 1568. His chief work is " Praxis 
 Chymiatrica," ("Chemico-Medical Practice," 1633,) often 
 reprinted. Died at Cassel in 163 1. 
 
 Hartmann, (Johann Adolf,) a German historian, 
 born at Minister in 1680, published a Latin "History of 
 Hesse," (3 vols., 1741-46.) Died in 1744. 
 
 Hartmann, (Johann Mei.chior,) a German Orien- 
 talist, born at Nordlingen in 1764. He published a good 
 " Geographical and Historical Description of Egypt," 
 (1799,) and other works. Died in 1827. 
 
 Hartmann, haRt'man, (Johann Peter Emil,) a 
 Danish composer, born at Copenhagen in 1805, fur- 
 nished the music for two of Andersen's operas and for 
 several of Oehlenschlager's dramas. 
 
 Hartmann, (Moritz,) a popular German poet, born 
 at Duschnik, in Bohemia, in 1821. He produced in 
 1845 a volume of lyrical poems, called the "Cup and 
 Sword," ("Kelch und Schwert,") which had great suc- 
 cess. Having been prosecuted for his liberal political 
 opinions, he took refuge in Paris in 1846. In 1847 he 
 published "New Poems," ("Neuere Gedichte,") and in 
 1848 was a prominent democratic member of the Par- 
 liament at Frankfort. He fought for the insurgents 
 under Bern, in or near Vienna, in 1849, after which he 
 was driven into exile and passed some years in Paris. 
 Among his other works are "The Rhyming Chronicle 
 of the Clerk Mauritius," a witty political satire, (1849,) 
 "The War about the Forest," ("Der Krieg urn 'den 
 Wald," 1850,) and " Shadows," ("Schatten," 185 1.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations Lexikon." 
 
 Hartmann, (Philipp Jakob,) a German physician, 
 born at Stralsund in 164S, published able treatises on 
 amber, anatomy, and physiology. Died in 1707. 
 
 Hartmann von Aue, haRt'man fon ow'eh, a cele- 
 brated German minnesinger, born about 1 170. Editions 
 of his principal works have been published by Miiller, 
 Lachmann, and others. 
 
 See Gervinus, "Deutsche National- Literatur." 
 
 Harts'horne, (Rev. Charles Henry,) an English 
 antiquary, born about 1802, became rector of Holdenby, 
 in Northamptonshire. He published "The Book Rari- 
 ties in the University of Cambridge," (1829,) "Salopia 
 Antiqua," (1841,) and other works. Died in 1865. 
 
 Harts'horne, (Joseph,) M.D., an eminent physician 
 of Philadelphia, was born at Alexandria, Virginia, De- 
 cember 12, 1779. His father was a native of New Jersey, 
 
 i, e : i, o, 5, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; not; good; moon, 
 
HARTSOEKER 
 
 i«39 
 
 HARVEY 
 
 his mother of Philadelphia. When only five years old, 
 he was, while under the influence of calomel, exposed 
 to cold, which resulted in incurable lameness. I lis 
 inability to engage in the sports of boyhood led him at 
 at. early age to seek the companionship of books, and 
 to cultivate his mind, which was endowed with powers 
 of no common order. While attending lectures at the 
 University of Pennsylvania, he performed the duties of 
 apothecary and resident surgeon in the Pennsylvania 
 Hospital, where he enjoyed the rare advantage of the 
 practical instructions of Rush, Wistar, and Physick, 
 who were at the same time physicians and surgeons 
 at the hospital and lecturers in the university. A little 
 before the expiration of his term of five years at the 
 hospital, he accepted the position of surgeon and super- 
 cargo on an East India merchantman. In the two trips 
 to India which he made in this capacity, he acquired 
 a practical acquaintance with many of the diseases of 
 tropical climates. On his return from the East he de- 
 voted himself assiduously and faithfully to the duties of 
 his profession, in which he gradually rose to the very 
 highest rank. Among the many distinguished physicians 
 and surgeons that Philadelphia has produced, in sagacity 
 and sound judgment, as well as in a thorough acquaint- 
 ance with all the resources of his art, he has had few 
 equals, and probably no superior. During the latter 
 period of his life he was very extensively employed as a 
 consulting physician. He died the 20th of August, 1850. 
 Dr. Hartshorne was a firm and devout believer in the 
 great truths of Christianity, and his moral and religious 
 convictions went hand in hand. One who knew him well 
 said of him, "He was the most scrupulously truthful 
 man I ever knew. On whatever subject he spoke, it 
 never occurred to his auditor that an idea or word could 
 be at variance with his real opinion or inconsistent with 
 the fact as he understood it." — Of his sons, Dr. Edward 
 Hartshorne has attained a high and just reputation 
 both as physician and surgeon, and has written ably 
 on medical jurisprudence, surgery, and other subjects. 
 Hknry, another son, formerly a successful practitioner 
 and medical writer, is now professor of hygiene in the 
 University of Pennsylvania, and of organic science and 
 philosophy at Haverfoid College. 
 
 See S D. Gross. " American Medical Biography ;" " Biographical 
 Notice of Dr. Joseph Hartshorne," by Dr. Chaklbs Evans, 1851 ; 
 ' Lives ot Eminent Philadelphi.tus," 1859. 
 
 Hartsoeker, haRt'sou'ker, (Niki.aas,) a Dutch natu- 
 ral philosopher and optician, born at Gouda in March, 
 1656. In his childhood he was interested in astronomy, 
 which he studied furtively at night in his own apartment. 
 Having observed the spherical form produced accident- 
 ally by fusing a glass filament in a flame, he obtained in 
 this way a powerful microscope, and discovered animal- 
 cules in animal fluids. While a student at Leyden, about 
 1676, he was encouraged in his favourite inquiries by 
 Huyghens, who introduced him to Cassini in Paris. 
 There he constructed a telescope equal or superior to 
 any then in use. In 1694 he published in Paris his 
 "Essay on Dioptrics," ("Essai de Dioptrique,") which 
 contains, besides the principles of that science, novel 
 and ingenious theories on the properties of bodies. 
 He developed his system more fully in " Principles of 
 Physics," ("Principes de Physique, 1696.) He lived 
 in Holland from 1696 to 1704. About 1700 he taught 
 mathematics to Peter the Great, who invited him to 
 Russia; but he did not accept the invitation. In 1704 
 he was chosen professor of mathematics and philosophy 
 in Dusseldorf. Prompted by a love of controversy, he 
 published in 1722 an attack on the system of Newton 
 and another on the theories of Leibnitz. Died in 1725. 
 
 See Fontbnellk, "£loge de Hartsoeker;" Nicbron, " Me- 
 moires." 
 
 Hart'stene, (Henry J.,) an American naval officer, 
 born in South Carolina, was sent by the United States 
 government in 1855 to the Arctic regions in search of 
 Dr. E. K. Kane and his party, whom he rescued. (See 
 Kane.) Died in 1868. 
 
 Hart'sufl; (George L.,) an American general, born 
 in the State of New York about 1830, graduated at West 
 Point in 1852. He was appointed a brigadier-general in 
 the spring of 1862, and was wounded at the battle of 
 
 Antietam, September 17 of that year. This wound dis- 
 abled him for active service. 
 
 Hartzenbusch, haRts'en-boosh', (Juan Eugenio,) 
 a Spanish dramatic poet, of German extraction, born in 
 Madrid in 1806. In 1836 he produced "The Lovers of 
 Teruel," a successful drama. Among his works, which 
 are admired for a vivid imagination and an energetic 
 style, are " The Visionary," a comedy, (1840,) " Honoria," 
 (1842,) and " Primero Yo," a drama, (1842.) 
 
 Hartzheim, haRts'him, (Joseph,) a learned German 
 Jesuit and historian, born at Cologne in 1694, was pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and theology in his native city. He 
 wrote a valuable collection entitled "Bibliotheca Colo- 
 niensis," (1747,) containing notices of the lives and 
 writings of authors who lived in the diocese of Cologne, 
 and edited five volumes of the "Councils of Germany," 
 (" Concilia Germanise," 1759-63.) Died in 1763. 
 
 See Mbusbl, "Gelehrtes Detttschland." 
 
 Hartzoeker, haRt'soo'ker, (Theodorus,) a skilful 
 Dutch painter, born at Utrecht in 1696; died in 1740. 
 
 Harun-al-Raschid, (or -ar-Rashid.) See Haroun- 
 al-Raschid. 
 
 Har'vard, (John,) an English nonconformist divine, 
 born in 1608, graduated at Cambridge University in 1631. 
 After having been ordained, he emigrated to Massachu- 
 setts, and officiated a short time at Charlestown. At 
 his death he left a legacy of ^779 to endow a school at 
 Cambridge, and thus became memorable as the founder 
 of the university which bears his name. Died in 1638. 
 One hundred and ninety years after his death, a granite 
 monument was erected over his grave in Charlestown. 
 
 Har'vey, (Sir Eliah,) an English admiral, a descend- 
 ant of the celebrated Dr. William Harvey, born in 1759, 
 entered the navy in 1771. During the French Revo- 
 lution he served as captain in the West Indies and in 
 tlte Channel fleet. In 1805 he distinguished himself at 
 Trafalgar, and was raised to the rank of rear-admiral 
 the same year. He became vice-admiral in 1810, and 
 full admiral in 1819. In 1825 he was made a G.C.B. 
 He was elected to Parliament m 1780, and again in 1806, 
 Died in 1830, aged about seventy. 
 
 Harvey, (Gabriel,) LL.D., an English lawyer and 
 poet, born about 1545, was a Fellow of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, and practised law in London. He was an 
 intimate friend of the poet Spenser, and author of an 
 admired poem entitled "Hobbinol," prefixed to the 
 " Fairy Queen." He published several letters and ora- 
 tions in English and Latin. Died about 1630. 
 
 Har'vey, (George,) a popular Scottish painter, born 
 near Stirling in 1806. He became a member of the 
 Scottish Academy about 1828, and devoted his talents 
 to the illustration of the national character, scenery, 
 and history of Scotland. Among his works are "Cove- 
 nanters Preaching," (1830,) "The Battle of Drumclog," 
 (1836,) "A Highland Funeral," (1844,) "Glen Enter- 
 kin," (1846,) "The Past and Present," (1848,) and "The 
 Bowlers," (1850.) He is regarded as one of the most 
 original and earnest masters of the Scottish school. 
 
 Harvey, (Gideon,) an English physician ami writer, 
 bom in Svtrrey, was the medical attendant of Charles II. 
 in his exile, and was subsequently physician to William 
 III., and to the Tower of London. Died in 1700. 
 
 Harvey, (William,) an English anatomist, celebrated 
 for his discovery of the circulation of the blood, was 
 born at Folkestone, Kent, in April, 1578. He entered 
 Caius College, Cambridge, in 1593, and graduated in 
 1597, after which he studied medicine and anatomy 
 under Fabricius ab Acquapendente at Padua. He re- 
 turned home about 1602, married a lady named Browne, 
 and commenced the practice of medicine in London. 
 In 1609 he was appointed physician to Saint Bartholo- 
 mew's Hospital. He was chosen by the College ot 
 Physicians in 1615 to deliver lectures on anatomy and 
 surgery, and soon after that date made the important 
 discovery of the circulation of the blood, which he 
 taught in London in 1619, but which was not published 
 until 1628. In this year he produced "Essays on the 
 Motion of the Heart and the Blood," ("Exercitationes 
 de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis.") His new theory was 
 generally rejected by the physicians of his time, and was 
 so unpopular that he complained that his practice de- 
 
 ik; casr; %hard; gas/; a, H, v., guttural ;x,n<ual; R, trilled; 5as*/thasin this. (jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HARVEY 
 
 1 1 40 
 
 HASENCLEVER 
 
 clined after the publication of the treatise above men- 
 tioned. Parisanus, Riolamis, and others wrote against 
 Dr. Harvey on this subject ; but, after the truth of his 
 doctrine was generally recognized, attempts were made 
 to deprive him of the honour of the discovery. He be- 
 came physician to Charles I. about 1630, and attended 
 him during the civil war which began about 1642. This 
 service caused him to neglect his duties at Saint Bar- 
 tholomew's Hospital. In the latter part of the civil war 
 a party of soldiers plundered his house and burned 
 some valuable manuscripts. He gave much attention 
 to the subject of generation, and published a work "De 
 Generatione Animalium," (1651,) in which he maintained 
 that every animal is produced from an egg. He was 
 elected president of the College of Physicians in 1654; 
 but he declined, on account of his advanced age. He 
 died in June, 1657. An edition of his Works was pub- 
 lished by the College of Physicians, in 2 vols., 1666. 
 
 "Harvey is entitled," says Hume, "to the glory of 
 having made, by reasoning alone, without any mixture 
 of accident, a capital discovery in one of the most im- 
 portant branches of science. He had also the happiness 
 of establishing at once this theory on the most solid and 
 convincing proofs." ("History of England," chap, lxii.) 
 "It is manifest," says Hallam, "that several anato- 
 mists of the sixteenth century were on the verge of com- 
 pletely detecting the law by which the motion of the 
 blood is governed. ... It may, indeed, be thought won- 
 derful that Servetus, Columbus, or Caesalpin should not 
 have more distinctly apprehended the consequences of 
 what they maintained ; . . . but the defectiveness of 
 their views is not to be alleged as a counter-balance to 
 the more steady sagacity of Harvey." ("Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe," vol. ii.) 
 
 See Dr. Lawrence, "Life of William Harvey," prefixed to the 
 edition of his Works above mentioned, 1666; "Lives of Brirtsh 
 Physicians," London, 1857. 
 
 Harvey, (William,) an English artist, born at New- 
 castle-on-Tyne about 1796, was a pupil of the famous 
 engraver Bewick. He settled in London at an early age, 
 and became distinguished as a designer for engravings 
 on wood. His skill was displayed in the illustration of 
 various works, among which are "The Zoological Gar- 
 dens," "The Pilgrim's Progress," and "The Arabian 
 Nights' Entertainments." 
 
 Harvey, (William Henry,) professor of botany 
 in the University of Dublin, was born at Limerick in 
 181 1. He published a " History of British Sea-Weeds," 
 (3 vols., 1846-51,) a work of high character, "Nereis 
 Australis ; or, Illustrations of the Algae of the Southern 
 Ocean," (1848,) "The Sea- Side Book," (3d edition, 
 1854,) and "Flora Capensis," (3 vols., 1865.) He ex- 
 plored the coasts of Australia and the South Sea 
 islands in 1853-55, and obtained the chair of botany in 
 Dublin in 1856. Died in May, 1866. 
 
 See Asa Gray, " Notice of W. H. Harvey," in " Silliman's Jour- 
 nal," republished in the "Report of the Smithsonian Institution" 
 for 1867. 
 
 Har'wood, (Sir Busic,) an English anatomist, born 
 at Newmarket about 1745. He became processor of 
 anatomy at Cambridge in 1785, and published lectures 
 on that science. Died in 1814. 
 
 Harwood, (Edward,) an English Unitarian minister, 
 bom in Lancashire in 1729. He had charge of a con- 
 gregation in Bristol from 1765 to 1770, after which he 
 lived in London. He excelled as a classical and biblical 
 scholar, and published numerous able works, of which 
 the most important are "An Introduction to the Study 
 of the New Testament," (1767,) a "View of the Various 
 Editions of the Greek and Roman Classics," (1775,) "An 
 Edition of the Greek Testament, with English Notes," 
 (1776,) and " Biographia Classica," (new edition, 2 vols., 
 1778.) Died in 1794. 
 
 Has'dru-bal or As'dru-bal, [Gr. ' kcipovSn^ a dis- 
 tinguished Carthaginian general and a popular leader 
 of the democratic party, was a son-in-law of Hamilcar 
 Barca, with whom he went to Spain in 238 B.C. After 
 the death of Hamilcar Barca, 229 H.c, he obtained the 
 chief command in Spain. He founded the city of New 
 Carthage, (Carthagena,) which became one of the rich- 
 est in the world, and greatly extended the power of 
 
 Carthage in Spain, partly by his victories in battle and 
 partly by his political talents. He made a treaty with the 
 Romans, stipulating that the river Ebro should be the 
 boundary between the two nations. He was assassin- 
 ated by a slave in Spain in 221 B.C. 
 
 Hasdrubal or Asdrubal, a son of Gisco, was a gen- 
 eral of the second Punic war. He entered Spain with an 
 army in 214 B.C., and shared with Mago the chief com- 
 mand in that country after the other Hasdrubal marched 
 to Italy, 207 B.C. They were defeated in a decisive battle 
 at Silpia or Elinga, by Scipio, in 206. In 204 he was 
 general-in-chief of a large army raised to oppose Scipio, 
 who had invaded Africa. His camp near Utica was 
 fired by the Romans, and nearly all his army, It is said, 
 perished in the flames or by the sword. 
 
 Hasdrubal or Asdrubal, an able Carthaginian gen- 
 eral, and brother of the great Hannibal, commanded in 
 Spain in the second Punic war, in 218 B.C., while Hanni- 
 bal crossed the Alps and invaded Italy. He maintained 
 the war against the Romans under Publius and Cneius 
 Scipio with various success until 212, when he gained a 
 complete victory, in which both the Scipios were killed. 
 Five years later, he marched across the Alps to rein- 
 force his brother in Italy ; but before he could effect 
 this design he was attacked by the Romans at the river 
 Metaurus, defeated, and killed, in 207 B.C. His head was 
 cut off and thrown into the camp of Hannibal. The 
 Roman writers represent him as a very able commander. 
 
 Hasdrubal or Asdrubal, a Carthaginian officer, who 
 served under Hannibal in Italy. He contributed greatly 
 to the victory of Cannae, (216 B.C.,) where he commanded 
 the left wing and completed the rout of the enemy by a 
 cavalry charge on their rear. 
 
 Hasdrubal or Asdrubal, an able Carthaginian gen- 
 eral, who had the chief command in the third Punic war. 
 He defeated the consul Manilius at Nepheris about 148 
 B.C., and obstinately defended Carthage against the be- 
 sieging army of Scipio Africanus in 146 B.C., and assumed 
 despotic power in that city. He finally surrendered to 
 Scipio, who spared his life, the remainder of which he 
 passed in captivity. 
 
 Hase, ha'zeh, (Hf.inrich,) a German antiquary, born 
 at Altenburg in 1789, published a "Treatise on Greek 
 Antiquities," (1828,) and other works. Died in 1842. 
 
 Hase, (Karl August,) an eminent German theolo- 
 gian, born at Steinbach, Saxony, in 1800. He became 
 professor of theology at Jena about 1830. He endea- 
 voured to reconcile the Lutheran faith with the progress 
 of modern science, in his "Evangelical Dogmatics," 
 (1823,) and his work called "Gnosis," (3 vols., 1828.) 
 He wrote other able works, among which is a " History 
 of the Church," (Kirchengeschichte," 1834; 6th edi- 
 tion, 1848,) which, by avoiding all sectarian partiality, 
 has obtained general favour. 
 
 Hase, (Karl Benedict,) an eminent Hellenist, born 
 near Naumburg, in Prussian Saxony, in 1780. He be- 
 came professor of Greek palaeography and modern Greek 
 in Paris in 1816. He was admitted into the Academy 
 of Inscriptions about 1824. He published, besides other 
 works, an edition of Leo Diaconus, (1819.) 
 
 Soe "Nouvelle Biographie Gt5neYale." 
 
 Hase, von, fori ha'zeh, (Thf.odor,) a German Lu- 
 theran divine, born at Bremen in 1682. He wrote 
 "Critical Dissertations." Died in 1731. 
 
 Hasenclever, ha'zen-kla'ver, (Johann Peter,) an 
 excellent German painter of genre, born at Remscheid, 
 Prussia, in 1810, was a pupil of Schadow, of Dusseldorf. 
 He worked at the latter city, and gained much popu- 
 larity by his humorous productions, among which are 
 " The Return of Job from College," and other pictures, 
 the subjects of which are derived from the " Jobsiad," a 
 comic poem. He was a member of the Academy of Fine 
 Arts, Berlin. Died in 1853. 
 
 Hasenclever, (Peter,) a German merchant and 
 manufacturer, distinguished by the magnitude of his 
 operations and his influence on the commerce and in- 
 dustry of two continents, was born at Remscheid, Prus- 
 sia, in 1716. He made improvements in the fabrication 
 of iron and of woollen stuffs. About 1763 he formed in 
 London a company, and became director of a great in- 
 dustrial enterprise in New York and New Jersey, where 
 
 S,e,T, o,u,y, /««£■,• a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, 5 s , short; a, e, i,Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; mft; not; good; moon; 
 
HASENMULLER 
 
 114! 
 
 HASTINGS 
 
 they worked mines of iron and prepared that metal for 
 use. He settled at Landshut, in Silesia, in 1775, where 
 he carried on an extensive linen-trade. Died in 1 793. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hasenmiiller or Hasenmueller, ha'zen-muTler, 
 (Daniel,) a German Orientalist, born at Eutin (IIol- 
 stein) in 1651, was professor of Oriental languages at 
 Kiel, and published a Hebrew Grammar and Dictionary, 
 (1691.) Died in 1691. 
 
 Haser or Haeser, ha'zer, (HEtNRiCH,) a German 
 physician and medical writer, born at Rome in 181 1. 
 
 Hasius. See Haas, (Johann.) 
 
 Has'lam, (John,) a British physician, born in 1764, 
 published in 1798 " Observations on Insanity." He after- 
 wards practised in London. Died in 1844. 
 
 Haslewood, ha'z'1-wood, (Joseph,) an English bibli- 
 ographer, born in London in 1769; died in iS;;. 
 
 Has'sall, (Arthur. Hill,) a British physician, micro- 
 scopist, and naturalist, a nephew of Sir James Murray, 
 was born in Middlesex in 1817. He wrote, among other 
 works, a " History of British Fresh-Water Algx," (1845,) 
 and "Food and its Adulterations," (London, 1855.) 
 The latter, digested from the reports of a sanitary com- 
 mission, produced considerable sensation. 
 
 Hassan, his'san, a caliph, born in 625 a.d., was a son 
 of Alee, and grandson of Mohammed. He succeeded his 
 father in 660 ; but a few months later he resigned the 
 throne to his rival Moaweeyah. He had a high reputation 
 for piety. Died in 669 A.I>. 
 
 See Elmacin, "Historia Saracenica;" Weil, "Geschichte der 
 Chalilen." 
 
 Hassan-Pasha, (or -Pacha.) See Gazee-Hassan. 
 
 Hasse, has'seh, (Friedrich Christian August,) 
 a German historical writer, born at Kehfeld, near Herz- 
 berg, in 1773. He became professor in the Cadettenhaus 
 of Dresden in 1798, and obtained a chair of history at 
 Leipsic in 1828. He wrote a " History of Lombard)-," 
 (4 vols., 1828,) and other works, and was one of the 
 editors of the "Conversations-Lexikon" published by 
 Brockhaus. Died in 1848. 
 
 Hasse, (Johann Adolf,) a celebrated German com- 
 poser, born at Bergedorf, near Hamburg, in March, 1699. 
 He was called by the Italians IL Sassone, ("the Saxon.") 
 He went to Italy about 1724, and became a pupil of A. 
 Scarlatti at Naples. There he produced in 1726 the 
 opera " II Sesostrate," by which he gained a high repu- 
 tation. His "Miserere" (1727) is called a masterpiece 
 of sacred music. He afterwards lived in Venice, Dresden, 
 London, and Vienna, and composed the operas of" Ar- 
 laserse," " Arminio," (1745,) etc. Died in 1783. The 
 words of his operas were composed by Metastasio. 
 
 See Burney, " History of Music;" Kandi.er, "Cenni storico- 
 criiiti intorno alia Vita ed alle Opere di G. A. Hasse," Venice, 1820; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie G^ne>a!e." 
 
 Hasse, (Karl Ewald,) a physician, and a son of 
 Friedrich Christian August, noticed above, was born at 
 Dresden in 1810. He published "A Description of the 
 Diseases of the Organs of Circulation and Respiration," 
 (184!,) which he announced as the first volume of a large 
 work on pathological anatomy. He was chosen pro- 
 fessor of pathology at Heidelberg in 1852, and professor 
 of the same at Gottingen in 1856. 
 
 Hassel, has'sel, (Johann Georo IIeinrich,) a Ger- 
 man statistician, born at Wolfcnhiiltel in 1770. He 
 became director of the bureau of statistics of Westphalia 
 in 1809. He published, besides other works, "Text- 
 Book (Lehrbuch) of the Statistics of the European 
 States," (1812,) a "Complete Manual of Modern ( 
 raphy and Statistics," (1816-20,) and a "General 
 graphical Dictionary," (2 vols., 1818.) He lived mostly 
 at Weimar after 1814, and was one of the editors of 
 Ersch and Gruber's "Encyclopaedia." Died in 1829. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Hasselquist, h.ls'sel-kwist', (Fredrik,) a Swedish 
 naturalist, born at Tornvalla in 1722, was one of the 
 most eminent pupils of Linnaeus, under whom he studied 
 at Upsal. In 1747 he wrote an able thesis on the "Vir- 
 tues of Plants." Having heard Linnaeus express a wish 
 that some naturalist would explore Palestine, in order 
 to develop its natural history, then but little known, he 
 prepared himself for the jaurney, and embarked in 1749. 
 
 He explored Egypt, Arabia, and Palestine, and was 
 about to return, with a rich collection of plants, minerals, 
 fishes, insects, etc., when he died at Smyrna in 1752. 
 His valuable journal, observations, and descriptions were 
 published by Linnaeus in Swedish, with the title of " Iter 
 Paloestinum ; or, A Tour through Palestine, with Memoirs 
 and Remarks on Objects of Natural History," (2 vols., 
 '757i) which is an excellent scientific work. 
 
 See " Biographiskt- Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man," 
 33 vols.; Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch," 1797; 
 A. Baeck, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver F. Hasselquist," 1758. 
 
 Hassencamp, has'sen-kamp', (Johann Matthaus,) 
 a German Orientalist, born at Marburg in 1743, pub- 
 lished a," Commentary on the Pentateuch," (1765,) and 
 "Annals; of Theological Literature," (1789-96.) Died 
 in 1797. 
 
 Hassenfratz, /;a's6N'fKits',(jEAN Henri,) a French 
 chemist, born in Paris in 1755. He was director or 
 foreman of Lavoisier's laboratory about 1 785, and was 
 an active Jacobin in the Revolution. In 1797 he became 
 tutor of physics in the ficole Polytechnique. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "Cours de Physique celeste," 
 (1803,) and "The Art of Smelting Iron-Ore," (4 vols., 
 1812.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Hassenpflug, has'sen-pflooo', (Hans Daniel Lud- 
 wic. Friedrich,) a German politician, born at Hanau 
 in 1793. Having shown himself a partisan of abso- 
 lutism, he was appointed minister of justice and the in- 
 terior at the court of Hesse-Cassel in 1832. He became 
 very unpopular, and in 1837 went into exile. In 1841 
 he obtained a seat in the superior court ( Obertribunal ) 
 of Berlin. He was recalled to Cassel in 1850 as prime 
 minister, and renewed his arbitrary acts, which provoked 
 a popular revolt in 1855. The Elector was forced to fly 
 from his capital, and his minister resigned. Died in 
 October, 1862. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Hassenstein, has'sen-stln', (Bogislaus,) Baron von 
 Lobkowitz, (lop-ko'wits',) a Bohemian poet and noble- 
 man, was a liberal patron of letters. He wrote a volume 
 of Latin poems, called "Farrago Poematum," (1570.) 
 He was secretary of state of Hungary. Died in 1510. 
 
 See Ionaz Cornova, "Der grosse Bbhme B. von Lobkowitz 
 nach seinen eigenen Schriften geschildert," 1808; J. C. Count, 
 " Dissertatio de Vita B. Hassensteinii," 1719. 
 
 Hassler, hass'ler, (Ferdinand R.,) a Swiss mathe- 
 matician, born at Geneva in 1769. He was appointed 
 superintendent of the United States Coast Survey in 
 1815 or 1816. The operation was discontinued about 
 1818, but he was again employed in that service from 
 1832 until his death in 1843. 
 
 Has'ted, (Edward,) an English antiquary, born at 
 Ilawley, Kent, in 1732. He published a valuable "His- 
 tory and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent," 
 (4 vols., 1788-99.) Died in 1812. 
 
 Has 'ting or Has'tings, a daring and successful 
 adventurer or sea-king, is supposed to have been a Dane 
 or Norman by birth. In the reign of Charles the Bald 
 he ravaged the western coast of France with his pi- 
 ratical crew. He ascended the Loire in 867, attacked 
 Anjou and Poitou, and captured Angers. In 894, with 
 a large fleet and an army of Northmen, he invaded Eng- 
 land, and, after many fierce conflicts, he was defeated by 
 Alfred, and driven out of the island, in 896 a.d. 
 
 See Depping, " Histoire des Expeditions maritimes des Nor- 
 raands." 
 
 Has'tings, (Lady Elizabeth.) born in England in 
 1682, was the daughter of Theophilus Hastings, Earl of 
 Huntingdon, and sister-in-law of the well-known Lady 
 Huntingdon. She built churches., established schools, and 
 was eminent for piety and benevolence. Died in 1739. 
 
 See Thomas Bernard, "Life of Lady E. Hastings." 
 
 Hastings, (Lady Flora,) daughter of the Marquis 
 of Hastings, was born in 1806, and became lady of the 
 bed-chamber to the Duchess of Kent. She was an 
 excellent scholar, and author of a number of graceful 
 poetical effusions, among which are "The Rainbow" and 
 "The Cross of Constantine." Died in 1839. 
 
 Hastings, (Francis Rawdon,) Marquis of Hastings, 
 the eldest son of the Earl of Moira, w;is born in 1754. 
 He took part in the battle of Bunker Hill in 1775, a "J 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this. (^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HASTINGS 
 
 1 142 
 
 HAUCH 
 
 became adjutant-general in 1778. In 1 781 he defeated 
 the Americans at Camden, South Carolina. In 1783 he 
 was raised to the peerage, as Baron Kawdon, and in 1 793 
 succeeded his father as Earl of Moira. He fought 'as 
 major-general against the French in Flanders in 1794. 
 On the formation of a Whig ministry in 1806, he was 
 named master-general of the ordnance. From 1813 to 
 1823 he held the office of Governor-General of India, 
 and maintained war against the Mahrattas and Goorkas. 
 His administration, on the whole, was accounted pros- 
 perous, and his policy liberal. In 1816 he was created 
 Viscount Loudoun, Earl of Rawdon, and Marquis of 
 Hastings. In 1824 he was appointed Governor of Malta. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Hastings, (Hans Francis.) See Huntingdon, 
 Eakl. 
 
 Hastings, (Selina.) See Huntingdon, Countess 
 of. 
 
 Hastings, (Warren,) the first Governor-General of 
 British India, was born in Worcestershire in 1732. His 
 father, Pynaston, was the son of the rector of Uaylesford, 
 who belonged to a noble and once wealthy family. War- 
 ren was educated at Westminster, where he formed an 
 intimacy with the poet Cowper, his fellow-student. In 
 1750 he obtained a clerkship at Calcutta in the service 
 of the East India Company. A few years afterwards, 
 he was selected to negotiate with the native princes, be- 
 cause, in addition to his other qualifications, he was 
 master of the Persian and Hindostanee languages, which 
 few Englishmen at that time could speak. He served as 
 a member of the Council of Bengal from 1761 to 1764, 
 after which he returned to England, having realized a 
 moderate fortune, which was soon dissipated by his 
 liberality or imprudence. 
 
 After a repose of four years, he again offered his ser- 
 vices to the directors, who appointed him a member of 
 the Council at Madras, where he managed affairs with 
 such ability and success that in 1772 he was made presi- 
 dent of the Council of Bengal. In 1773, by an act of 
 Parliament, the control of all British India was given to 
 the Council of Bengal, consisting of four members besides 
 the president, who now obtained the title 1 of governor- 
 general and a large accession of power, except in the 
 contingency that a majority of the council should op- 
 pose his measures, — which presently occurred. Sir Philip 
 Francis, combining with two other members, obtained for 
 about two years the chief control, and thwarted the policy 
 of the governor. When the account of Hastings's cruelty 
 and ambition in respect to the Rohilla war, etc. reached 
 England, the directors condemned his conduct ; and, as 
 his agent in London had presented to them a conditional 
 resignation received from Hastings, they gladly accepted 
 it, and appointed Mr. Wheler to succeed him. But in 
 the mean time one of his opponents in the council had 
 died, and the governor, having the casting vote, was 
 again absolute. He asserted that he had not resigned ; 
 and, with the sanction of the supreme court, (who pro- 
 nounced his resignation invalid,) and with the popular 
 feeling in his favour, he was able to keep the office. 
 
 In 1780, Hastings having said in the council that the 
 conduct of Francis was void of truth and honour, the 
 latter challenged him, and in the exchange of shots was 
 severely wounded. Soon after this, the governor had 
 to contend against Hyder Ali, the King of Mysore, who 
 invaded the Carnatic with 90,000 men, (led by French 
 officers,) defeated several detachments of English, cap- 
 tured their forts, and threatened to subvert their empire. 
 By the prompt, energetic, and politic measures of Has- 
 tings the government passed safely through this crisis, 
 and the ambitious designs of Hyder Ali were blasted by 
 the British victory at Porto Novo. 
 
 To supply the deficit in the treasury occasioned by 
 this war, he resorted to those violent and unscrupulous 
 measures which provoked his impeachment and have left 
 a stain on his character that even his great talents and 
 services cannot efface. He resolved to plunder Cheyte 
 Sing, the rich Rajah of Benares. By repeated extortions 
 he provoked him to resist, and then punished that re- 
 sistance by expelling him from his dominions and con- 
 fiscating his revenue. The spoliation of the Begums of 
 Oude, under circumstances of peculiar atrocity, was an- 
 
 other crime laid to his charge. In 1785 he resigned his 
 office and returned to England. After two sessions had 
 been spent in preparation for his impeachment, the case 
 was formally opened in 1788, by Burke, Fox, and others, 
 and terminated in his acquittal in 1795. F'or a full ac- 
 count of his trial, see Macaulay's " Essay on Warren 
 Hastings." The company rewarded Hastings with an 
 annuity of ^4000, and lent him ,£50,000 without interest 
 for eighteen years. He purchased the manor of Dayles- 
 ford, the home of his ancestors, and retired from public 
 life. A few years before his death he was admitted into 
 the privy council, and stood high in the royal favour. 
 Died in 1818. 
 
 See Macaulay, "Essays;" Gleig, " Life of Warren Hastings," 
 3 vols., 1841 ; James Mill, " History of British India ;" Wilhelm 
 Hahking, " W. Hastings; Vortrag," etc., Berlin, 1S44. 
 
 Haszkarl, has'kaRl, (Justus Karl,) a German bota- 
 nist, bom at Cassel in 181 1, made in 1836 a voyage to 
 Java, which he explored for six years. He published a 
 treatise "On the Utility of the Plants of Java," (1844,) 
 and (in Latin) "The Rare Plants of Java," (1847.) 
 
 Hatch, (John- P.,) an American general, born in the 
 State of New York, graduated at West Point in 1845. 
 He commanded a division at South Mountain, where he 
 was severely wounded, September, 1862, and was em- 
 ployed in South Carolina in 1864 as commander of 
 several districts. 
 
 Ha-tee'fee or Hatifl, (Moolana Abdalla, mdo- 
 la'na ab-dal'la,) a Persian poet, was a nephew of Jamee. 
 Died in 520. 
 
 See Haji-Khalfah, "Lexicon Bibliographicum ;" Sir W. G. 
 Ouseley, " Biographical Notices of Persian Poets." 
 
 Hat'field, (Thomas,) an English divine, became 
 Bishop of Durham in 1345. He founded Trinity Col- 
 lege, Oxford. Died in 1381. 
 
 Hatherley, Lord. See Wood, (William Page.) 
 
 Hatifi. See Hateefee. 
 
 Hat'sfll, (John,) an Englishman, born at Cambridge 
 in 1742. lie was clerk of the House of Commons many 
 years, ending about 1796. He published an important 
 work called " Precedents of Proceedings in the House 
 of Commons, with Observations," (1781 ; 4th edition, 4 
 vols., 1818.) Died in 1820. 
 
 Hat'tpn, (Sir Christopher,) an English statesman 
 and favourite coin tier of Queen Elizabeth, born in 1540 
 at Holdenby. He was appointed lord chancellor in 15S7, 
 and, though not a lawyer by profession, he performed 
 the duties of that office with credit. His character and 
 capacity are represented to have been excellent. The 
 public were much astonished when it was announced 
 that the queen had selected for this dignity one whom 
 Lord Campbell describes as "a gay young cavalier, 
 never called to the Bar, and chiefly famed for his hand- 
 some person, his taste in dress, and his skill in dancing." 
 Some persons ascribe to Hatton the fourth act of "Tan- 
 cred and Gismund," and several legal treatises. Died 
 in 1591. 
 
 See Sir N. Harris Nicolas, " Life and Times of Sir Christopher 
 Hatton," 1847; Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" 
 Foss, "The judges of England." 
 
 Hatzfeldt, von, fon hSts'felt', (Franz Ludwig,) 
 Prince, a Prussian general, born in 1756. He was 
 governor of Berlin when that city was taken by the French 
 in 1806. Died in 1827. 
 
 Hauber, how'ber, (Eiserhard David,) a German 
 theologian, born in Wiirtemberg in 1695. He wrote a 
 work against magic, entitled " Bibliotheca Acta et Scripta 
 Magica continens," (3 vols., 1741.) Died in 1765. 
 
 Haubold, how'bolt, (Christian GOTTLIEB,) an emi- 
 nent German jurist and writer, born at Dresden in 1766. 
 He began to give, as privat-docent, a course of lectures 
 on the history of Roman law at the University of Leipsic 
 in 1786. In 1796 he obtained there a chair of Saxon law. 
 Among his works are a "History of Roman Law," 
 (" Historia Juris Romani," 1790,) and " Institutiones 
 Juris Romani I.iterariae," (1809.) Died in 1824. 
 
 See Otto. " Necrolog Hatibolds," 1824; Ersch uml Oruher, 
 "Allgemeine Encvklopaedie ;" Friederici, " Lebensbeschreibung 
 des Dr. Haubold." 1826. 
 
 HaucaL See HaukAl. 
 
 Hauch, von, fon howK, (Johannes Carstf.n.) a 
 popular Danish poet, born .at Frederikshald in 1791. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon: 
 
HAUDEBOURT 
 
 'H3 
 
 HAUSMANN 
 
 He became professor of natural science at Soroe. Al>out 
 1828 he published two volumes of dramas, including 
 " Tiberius," " Kajazet," and " Hamadryaden," a dramatic 
 epic. His "Lyric Poems" (" Lyriske Digte," 1S42) had 
 great success. He also wrote several romances, among 
 which are "The Alchemist," and "Robert Fulton," 
 (1853.) In 1850 he was chosen professor of belles-lettres 
 at Copenhagen. 
 
 See Kkslhw, " Forfatter-Lexicon :" P. L. Mollkr, article in the 
 "Dansk Pantheon:" "North British Review" for September, 1867. 
 
 Haudebourt, //od'booR', (Antoinette Cecils Hor- 
 tense Lescot — les'ko',) a skilful French painter of 
 genre, born in Paris in 1784; died in 1845. 
 
 Hauenschild, von, fon how'en-shllt', (Richard 
 GeorG Spieler,) a German poet, whose nom de plume 
 is M ax Waldau, was born at Breslau in 1S22. He pub- 
 lished a volume of lyric poems, called "Leaves in the 
 Wind," ("Blatter im YVinde," 1848,) a novel, entitled 
 "After Nature," (" Nach der Natur," 3 vols., 1850,) and 
 other works. Died in 1855. 
 
 Hauff, howf, (Wii.hei.m,) a German novelist, born at 
 Stuttgart in 1802. He was educated at the University 
 of Tubingen, and produced in 1826 " Lichtenstein," a 
 historical novel, which is greatly admired. He after- 
 wards published "The Man in the Moon," a satire, a 
 number of popular tales, among which is "The Portrait 
 of the Emperor," (" Das Bild des Kaisers,") and a hu- 
 morous, fantastic work, called " Phantasien im Bremer 
 Rathskeller," (1827.) He died prematurely, and much 
 regretted, in November, 1827. Hauff belonged to the 
 school of Hoffmann, but was inferior to him, perhaps, in 
 richness of imagination. 
 
 See "HaufTs Leben," by G. Schwab, prefixed loan edition of his 
 Works, 36 vols., rS,jo, and 10 vols., 1837. 
 
 Haug, howG, (Johann Christian Friedrich,) a 
 German poet, born in Wiirtemberg in 1761 ; died in 
 1829. 
 
 Haug, (Johann Christoph Friedrich,) a celebrated 
 German epigrammatist, born in the duchy of Wiirtem- 
 berg in 1761. His works are distinguished for elegant 
 versification, and brilliant wit without causticity. In con- 
 junction with Weisser, he published in 1807 an "Epi- 
 grammatic Anthology," in 10 vols. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversalions-Lexikon." 
 
 Haughton, haw'ton, (Sir Graves Champney,) an 
 English author, born in 1787. He was professor at 
 the East India College, Haileybury, from 1817 to 1827. 
 He published, besides other works, a " Bengali, San- 
 scrit, and English Dictionary," and " An Inquiry into 
 the First Principles of Reasoning," (1839.) Died near 
 Paris in 1849. 
 
 Haughton, (William,) an English dramatist in the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth, wrote a comedy called " Eng- 
 lishmen for my Money," (1616,) and was one of the 
 authors of the comedy of " Patient Grissill," printed in 
 1603. 
 
 Haugwitz, von, fon howe'wits, (Christian Hein- 
 RICH Kari.,) COUNT, a Prussian statesman, born near 
 Oels, in Silesia, in 1752. He was sent as ambassador to 
 the court of Vienna in 1790, and became minister of 
 foreign affairs in 1792. He favoured an alliance with 
 France, and was superseded by Hardenberg in 1804. 
 After the success of Napoleon at Ulm, Haugwitz was 
 recalled and sent to Vienna to treat with the victor, in 
 November, 1805. In the ensuing December he signed 
 a treaty of alliance with France, by which Hannvci was 
 ceded to Prussia. He was prime minister in 1806 until" 
 the battle of Jena, before which he had made efforts to 
 preserve peace with France. His administration was 
 unpopular. After the disastrous campaign of 1806 he was 
 excluded from all political employment. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Minutoli, " Der Graf von Haugwitz und Job von Witzleben," 
 1844. 
 
 Haukal, (Haucal or Haoucal,) Ibn, Tb'n h6w-kal', 
 (Abool- (or Abul-) Kasem -Mohammed, a'bool ki'- 
 sein mo-ham'med,) called also simply Haukal, a dis- 
 tinguished Arabian traveller and geographer, was born 
 probably at Bagdad. Departing from that city in 943 
 A.D., he traversed for many years the countries which lie 
 between the Indus and the Atlantic. He wrote alxjut 
 975 A.n. an important work, entitled "A Book of Koads 
 
 and Kingdoms," which is furnished with maps and it 
 considered reliable. 
 
 See Uiji.bnbrokk, "Dissertatio de Ibn-Haukalo Geographo," 
 1S22 ; " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Hauks'bee or Hawks'bee, (Francis,) an English 
 philosopher, who was made a Fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety in 1705, and was one of the earliest experimenters 
 and discoverers in electricity, which he perceived was 
 excited by the friction of glass. In 1709 he published 
 his " Experiments on Various Subjects, touching Light 
 and Electricity, "which was translated into Italian and 
 French. 
 
 Haupt, howpt, (Herman,) an American engineer, 
 born in Philadelphia in 1817, graduated at West Point 
 in 1835. He published a "General Theory of Bridge- 
 Construction," (1853,) and before the war of 1861-65 was 
 distinguished as a civil engineer. He was appointed 
 a brigadier-general about August, 1862. 
 
 Haupt, howpt, (Moritz,) an eminent German phi- 
 lologist, born at Zittau, in Saxony, in 1808. He was 
 appointed professor of German literature at Leipsic in 
 1843, but was removed in 1850 because he had taken 
 part in the political movements of 1849. He edited 
 several old German poets, and published a number 
 of works on classical philology, among which is " Ob- 
 servations critical," (1841.) A "Review of German 
 Antiquities," founded and edited by him, (1841-60,) is 
 called an excellent work. 
 
 Hauptmann, howpt'man, (Moritz,) a German com- 
 poser, born at Dresden in 1792. He was employed in 
 the chapel of the Elector of Hesse-Cassel from 1822 to 
 1842. He composed masses, sonatas for the piano and 
 violin, an opera named "Matilda," and other works, 
 which are admired for purity of style. He also wrote a 
 treatise on music, "Harmonik und Metrik," (1855.) 
 
 Haureau, /;6'ra'6', ( Barthelemy, ) an eminent 
 French author, born in Paris in 1812. He was keeper 
 of the manuscripts of the National Library from 1848 to 
 1852. Among his works, which have a high reputation, 
 are a " Literary History of Maine," (4 vols., 1843-47,) 
 an "Essay on the Scholastic Philosophy," (2 vols., 1850, 
 crowned by the Institute,) and "Francis I. and his 
 Court," (1853.) He wrote articles for Didot's "Biogra- 
 phie Generale," which see. 
 
 Hauser, how'zer, (Kaspar,) the celebrated Nurem- 
 berg foundling, whose mysterious history excited intense 
 interest throughout Europe, was first observed on the 
 26th of May, 1828, at Nuremberg, by a citizen of that 
 place. He was apparently about sixteen years of age, 
 walked with difficulty, and manifested childish ignorance 
 on the most common affairs of life. When interrogated, 
 he replied in a few broken sentences, and presented a 
 letter purporting to be from a Bavarian peasant, who 
 stated that the boy had been left at his door and had 
 been secretly maintained by him. Having been received 
 into the house of the burgomaster Binder, it was gradu- 
 ally ascertained that Kaspar Hauser, as he called him 
 self, had been kept from infancy in a dark, subterranean 
 prison, provided with bread and water, and otherwise 
 cared for, during his sleep, by an unknown keeper. A 
 short time previous to his escape, however, a man had 
 appeared who, after teaching him to write and to walk, 
 had put him on the road to Nuremberg, lie was next 
 taken into the family of Professor Daumer, of Nurem- 
 berg, where he showed an eager desire for knowledge, 
 and a surprising memory. While near his patron's 
 house, he was (rounded one day by a person who sud- 
 denly disappeared and evaded all search, lie was BOOB 
 after this taken under the protection of L>rd Stanhope, 
 who sent him to Anspach to be educated. In December, 
 1833, he was invited to a rendezvous with a person who 
 promised him information of his origin, but who, while 
 Hauser was reading a paper presented to him, inflicted 
 upon him a wound ol which he died in three days. 
 
 SeeMRKKKR,"k 1," 1830: Dalmi.k. " Mitlheilun- 
 
 K.i |. it II , SiMa-k. " I , H.m- 
 
 v-r's," 1*14 : Cow) Stanhope, u Materiallen zorGetchicnte Kaspar 
 
 Hamer'H," 1H35; A. von Kkukkbach, "Account of an Individual 
 
 kept in ;i Dungeon." 
 
 Hausmann, howss'tnan, (Johann Friedrich I.ud- 
 wig,) a German geologist, born at Hanover in 1782. 
 He obtained in 181 1 the chair of geology and mineralogy 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (jjy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HAUSSER 
 
 1 144 
 
 HAJJY 
 
 at Gottingen. He published a " Manual of Mineralogy," 
 (3 vols., 1813,) which is highly esteemed, a "Journey 
 through Scandinavia," (5 vols., 1 8 1 8, ) and a work "On 
 the Formation of the Hartz Mountains," (1842.) 
 
 Hausser or Haeusser, hois'ser, (Ludwig,) a German 
 historian, born in Alsace in 1818. Among his works, 
 which are highly esteemed, is a " History of Germany 
 from the Death of Frederick the Great to the Formation 
 of the Germanic Confederation," (4 vols., 1855.) 
 
 Haussez, d', do'sa', ( Charles Lemercher de 
 Longpre — leh-meVsha'deh 16n'pr4',) Baron, a French 
 minister of state, born in Normandy in 1778. He was 
 minister of marine from August, 1829, to July, 1830. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Haussmann, Aoss'm8N',(GEORGES Eugene,) Baron, 
 a French administrator, a grandson of Nicolas, noticed 
 below, Was born in Paris in 1809. He obtained in 1853 
 the important office of prefect of La Seine, (at Paris.) 
 By a lavish expenditure of the public treasure he adorned 
 Paris with new boulevards and other costly public works. 
 He was made a senator in 1857. 
 
 Haussmaim, (Jean Michel,) a French chemist and 
 manufacturer, born at Colmar in 1749, made improve- 
 ments in the art of dyeing or printing calico. Died in 1824. 
 
 Haussmaim, (Nicolas,) brother of the preceding, 
 born in 1761, was an active member of the Convention, 
 (1792-95.) Died in 1846. 
 
 Haussonville, d', do'sdN'vel', (Joseph Othenin 
 Bernard de Cleron — deh kla'roN'.) Comte, a French 
 litterateur, born in 1809, was elected to the Chamber of 
 Deputies in 1842 and in 1846. He published a " History 
 of the Foreign Policy of the French Government from 
 1830 to 1848," (2 vols., 1850,) and other works. 
 
 Hautefeuille, /rot'ful' or /iot'fuh'ye, (Laurent Ba- 
 sils,) a French jurist, distinguished as a writer on mari- 
 time law, was born in Paris in 1805. His principal works 
 are "Legislation criminelle maritime," (1839,) "Code of 
 Maritime Fishery," (1844,) and "The Rights and Duties 
 of Neutral Nations in Time of Maritime War," (4 vols., 
 1848-49.) His works have a high reputation on both 
 sides of the Channel. 
 
 Hautefeuille, de, deh Aot'ful' or /zot'fuh'ye, (Jean,) a 
 French ecclesiastic and mechanician, born at Orleans in 
 1647. The Duchess of Bouillon patronized him and gave 
 him a pension. Among his inventions was the spiral 
 spring which moderates the movements of the balance 
 of a watch, (1674.) This invention was also claimed by 
 Huyghens. He wrote an " Essay on the Cause of the 
 Echo," (1718,) and many treatises on mechanics, etc. 
 Died in 1724. 
 
 Hautefort, d', dot'foR', (Marie,) Duchesse de 
 Schomberg, a favourite of Louis XIII. of France, was 
 born in 1616. She gained the favour of the king about 
 1630, and became a maid of honour to the queen, Anne 
 of Austria, with whom she maintained confidential rela- 
 tions. Richelieu induced the king to dismiss her from 
 court in 1640. Died in 1691. 
 
 See "Vie de Madame d'Hautefort," anonymous; Victor Cousin, 
 " Madame d'Hautefort." 
 
 Hautemer, d', dot'maiR', (Guillaume,) Comte de 
 Grancey and Seigneur de Fervaques, (i?R'vfk',) a French 
 general, born in 1538. He fought with distinction against 
 the Spaniards at Saint-Quentin and Gravelines, (1558,) 
 and entered the service of Henry IV., who made him a 
 marshal of France in 1595. Died in 1613. 
 
 Hauterive, d', dot'rtv', (Alexandre Maurice 
 Blanc de Lanautte — L16n deh If not',) Comte, an 
 able French diplomatist, born at Aspres (Hautes-Alpes) 
 in 1754. Having been ordered by Bonaparte to com- 
 pose a manifesto to foreign powers, he produced in 1800 
 "On the State of France at the End of the Year VIII." 
 He became the confidential secretary of the First Consul, 
 and in 1803 was made a councillor of state. In 1807 he 
 was appointed keeper of the archives of France. He 
 was often consulted by the emperor on foreign affairs, 
 and acted as minister ad interim while Champagny and 
 Caulairtcourt followed the army. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Aktaud de Montoh, " Histoire de la Vie et des Travaux 
 politiques du Comte d'Hauterive," 1839; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge"neVale." 
 
 Hauteroche. See Allier, (Louis.) 
 
 Hauteroohe, d', dot'rosh', (Noel le Breton,) 
 Sieur, a French dramatist and actor, born in Paris about 
 1617. He produced several popular comedies, among 
 which is "Crispin Medecin," (1670.) Died in 1707. 
 
 Haute-Serre, d', dot'saiR', (Antoine Dadin — 
 di'daN',) a French jurisconsult, born in the diocese of 
 Cahors, became in 1644 professor of law in Toulouse. 
 He published learned works on the law and on the early 
 history of France. Died in 1682. 
 
 Hautesrayes. See Deshautesrayes. 
 
 Hauteville, /rot'vel', or Hanvill, de, deh //BN'vel', 
 (Jean,) a French poet, who lived about 1150-90. He 
 left a Latin poem, called "Archithrenius," which was 
 once popular. 
 
 Hautpoul, d', do'pool', (Alphonse Henri,) Mar- 
 quis, a French general, born at Versailles in 1789. 
 He became marechal-de-camp in 1823, and obtained the 
 rank of lieutenant-general in 1841. In 1849 he was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief of the army of Rome, and 
 showed himself hostile to the republican regime. He 
 was minister of war for several months in 1849 and 1850, 
 and was made a senator in 1852. 
 
 Hautpoul, d', (Anne Marie de Montgeroult — deh 
 m6N'zheh'roo',) Comtesse, a French authoress, born in 
 Paris in 1763, published "Sappho to Phaon," a poem, 
 (1790,) and several novels. Died in 1837. 
 
 Hautpoul-Salette, d', do'pool' si'leV, (Jean Jo- 
 seph,) a French general, born in 1754 of a noble family 
 in Lang'aedoc. He became general of division under 
 Moreau, and in 1805 distinguished himself at the battle 
 of Austerlilz, soon after which he was made a senator. 
 He contributed to the victory at Jena in 1806, and was 
 killed at Eylau in February, 1807. 
 
 Haiiy, /41'we' or /;f ii-e', (Rene Just,) Abhe, a dis- 
 tinguished French mineralogist, born at Saint-Just, 
 Picardy, on the 28th of February, 1743. He was edu- 
 cated at the College of Navarre, Paris, in which he was 
 appointed professor of Latin in 1764. His interest in 
 mineralogy wss first excited by hearing a lecture from 
 Daubenton, alter which he became a diligent student 
 under that professor. By a happy accident, he made an 
 important discovery in crystallography in 1781. As he 
 was examining a prism of calcareous spar in the cabinet 
 of a friend, it fell and was broken into fragments, which 
 presented crystalline faces different from those of the 
 prism, and revealed to him the germ of a new science. 
 Continuing his observations, he demonstrated that the 
 structure of crystals is conformed to invariable laws, that 
 the same mineral contains uniformly the same primary 
 form as the basis of its crystallization, and that they may 
 be cloven in such directions as to lay bare their peculiar 
 primitive forms which lie concealed within them. These 
 discoveries opened a new era in mineralogy, and, when 
 modestly announced to the Academy of Sciences, made 
 a profound sensation. In 1783 Haiiy was chosen a 
 member of that Academy. In 1792 he was imprisoned 
 a short time by the revolutionists for refusing to take the 
 required oath. In 1794 the Convention intrusted to him 
 the charge of the cabinet of the School of Mines, and 
 in 1802 he became professor of mineralogy in the Museum 
 of Natural History. Napoleon granted him a pension*, 
 and named him canon of Notre-Dame and a member of 
 the legion of honour. At the formation of the University 
 he obtained the chair of the faculty of sciences. Amidst 
 the homage of the great world he preserved the modest 
 simplicity of his manners which had distinguished his . 
 •early life. He published a "Treatise on Mineralogy," 
 (1801,) a standard work of great merit; an "Elementary 
 Treatise on Physics," (1803;) and a "Treatise on Crys- 
 tallography," (1822.) He refused an offer of 600,000 
 francs for his collection of minerals. Cuvier has observed 
 that the discoveries of Haiiy, like those of Newton, far 
 from losing in generality with the lapse of time, will 
 continually gain in that respect. Died in 1822. 
 
 " From the moment that the genius of Haiiy discov- 
 ered the general fact that they could be clov,n or split 
 in such directions as to lay bare their peculiar primitive 
 or fundamental forms, (which lay concealed within them 
 as the statue might be conceived encrusted in its marble 
 envelope,) from that moment mineralogy ceased to be an 
 unmeaning list of names, a mere laborious cataloguing 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
HAUY 
 
 "45 
 
 HAWKESWORTH 
 
 of stones and rubbish." (Sir John Merschel, " Prelimi- 
 nary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy.") 
 
 See O'Viek's " Memoir on R. J. Haily," and translation of the 
 same in ".Smithsonian Report" tor 1S60; Luir.i CoNPVGUACHI, 
 " Memorie intornoalla Vita ed alleOperedei due Natnralisti Werner 
 e H.uiy," i827;Qu4kard, "La France LitteVaire ;" " Nouvellc Uio- 
 grapliie Grfn^rale." 
 
 Haiiy, (Valentin,) brother of the preceding, was 
 bom at Saint-Just, in France, in 1745. He was noted 
 for his zeal and success in the education of the blind, a 
 branch of instruction which had !>een entirely neglected 
 before he, with the aid of the Philanthropic Society, 
 opened a school in Paris in 1784. His success having 
 attracted the attention of the public, Matiy received the 
 title of interpreter and secretary to the king, who took 
 his school tinder the protection of the state. He pub- 
 llshed an "Essay on the Education of the Wind," (1786.) 
 About 1800 he ceased to be director of the institution, 
 and his services were acknowledged by the grant of a 
 pension of two thousand francs. A few years later, he 
 founded an institution for the blind in Saint Petersburg. 
 Died in Paris in 1822. 
 
 Hav'tj-lock, (Sir Hknry,) a distinguished British 
 general, born at Bishop's Wearmouth, Durham, on the 
 5th of April, 1795. He entered the army in 1815, as 
 lieutenant, and was ordered to India in 1823. He dis- 
 tinguished himself by his attention to the religions in- 
 struction of the men under his command, and was a 
 strict disciplinarian. About 1828 he married Hannah, a 
 daughter of the Rev. Mr. Marshman, a missionary. In 
 consequence of his earnest and zealous religious char- 
 acter he was stigmatized as a fanatic by many of his 
 fellow-officers. 1 lis promotion was slow. He obtained 
 the rank of captain in 1838, and served on the staff of 
 Sir W. Cotton in the Afghan war. He came to England 
 on sick-leave in 1849, and remained there about two 
 years. In the spring of 1854 he was appointed quarter- 
 master-general. He became adjutant-general in the 
 ensuing winter, and commanded a division in the war 
 against Persia which began in 1856. He returned to 
 India about the beginning of the great Sepoy mutiny 
 which broke out in February, 1857. In July he de- 
 feated the Sepoys at Futtehpore, Amy, and Cawnpore. 
 Having driven Nana Sahib out of Cawnpore, he ad- 
 vanced with about 1500 men to the relief of Lucknow, 
 in which a small garrison was besieged by a large army 
 of Sepoys ; but his army was so reduced by disease and 
 the casualties of battle that he was compelled to fall 
 back and await reinforcements. In the mean time Gene- 
 ral Outram, superior in rank to Havelock, arrived ; but 
 he generously waived his rank, and offered to serve as a 
 volunteer, declaring that Havelock was entitled to the 
 honour of relieving Lucknow. He entered that place 
 about the 25th of September, and defended it until the 
 arrival of Sir Colin Campbell. He was promoted to 
 the rank of major-general in September, 1857, and died 
 in India in November of the same year. 
 
 See J. T. Headlev. " Life of General H. Havelock," 1859; John 
 Marshman, "Life of Sir H. Havelock," i860; "British Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1S60. 
 
 Havemaiin, ha'veh-man', (Wii.hei.m,) a German 
 historian, bom at Luneburg in 1800, became professor 
 of history at Gottingen in 1838. Among his works is a 
 "History of Brunswick and Luneburg," (2 vols., 1838.) 
 
 Ha'vfn, ( Alice, ) originally Family Bradley, an 
 au th o r ess, born at Hudson, New York, about 1825. Her 
 first husband was Joseph C. Neal, of Philadelphia, editor 
 of Neat's "Saturday Gazette." She produced juvenile 
 stories, among which are "Helen Morton," and "No 
 such Word as Fail." 
 
 Haven, (Erastus Otis,) D.D., an American Meth- 
 odist divine, born in Boston in 1820. He graduated at the 
 Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, in 1842, 
 and subsequently became professor of Latin and Greek in 
 the University of Michigan. In 1856 he was appointed 
 editor of "Zion's Herald and Wesleyan Journal," pub- 
 lished in Boston. 
 
 Haven, (Nathaniel Appleton,) an American jour- 
 nalist, bom at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1790. 
 He graduated at Harvard in 1807, and from 1S21 to 
 1825 was editor of the "Portsmouth Journal." Died in 
 1S26. A volume of his writings, consisting chiefly of 
 
 poems and orations, with a memoir of the author's life, 
 by George Ticknor, was published in 1827. 
 
 See " North American Review" for July, 1828. 
 
 Havercamp, haVer-kamp', (Sigehert,) a celebrated 
 Dutch critic and author, born at Utrecht in 1683. He 
 succeeded Gronovius in 1721 as professor of Greek at 
 Leyden, where he afterwards obtained the chair of his- 
 tory and eloquence. Among his most important works 
 are "Dissertations on the Coins of Alexander the Great," 
 (1722,) "Universal History explained by Medals," (in 
 Dutch, 1736,) "Introduction to Roman Antiquities," (in 
 Latin, 1740,) several treatises on Medals, and good 
 editions of Lucretius, (1725,) Josephus, (1726,) and Sal- 
 lust, (1742.) Died at Leyden in 1742. 
 
 See Eksch und Gri'Bek, "Allgememe Encyklopaedie;" Mokeki, 
 " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Haverman, ha'ver-man', (Margaret,) a skilful 
 painter of flowers and fruits, born at Amsterdam in 1720. 
 She worked in Paris. Died about 1795. 
 
 Havernick or Haevernick, ha'ver-nik', ( Hein- 
 RICH,) a German theologian and critic, was professor at 
 Rostock and at Konigsberg. He published an " Intro- 
 duction to the Old Testament," (1836-44,) and other 
 works. Died in the prime of life in 1846. 
 
 Hav'ers, (Clopton, ) an English anatomist, who 
 lived about 1690, wrote "Osteologia Nova," (1691.) 
 
 Havet, /;i'v&', (Akmand Ernest Maurice,) a French 
 physician and botanist, born at Rouen in 1795 ; died in 
 Madagascar in 1820. 
 
 Hav'I-land, (John,) an architect, bom near Taunton, 
 in England, in 1792, emigrated to the United States in 
 his youth. He designed the United States Mint, Phila- 
 delphia, the Hospital for the Insane, at Harrisburg, 
 Pennsylvania, the Eastern State Penitentiary, at Phila- 
 delphia, and other public edifices. Died in 1852. 
 
 Haweis, hau'wis, ? (Thomas,) an English theologian, 
 born at Truro in 1734, was chaplain to the Countess of 
 Huntingdon. He published, besides other works, "The 
 Communicant's Spiritual Companion," (1763,) and a 
 " History of the Church of Christ," (3 vols., i8co.) Died 
 in 1820. 
 
 Hawes, hauz, (Joel,) an American writer and Con- • 
 gregational minister, born in Medway, Massachusetts, 
 in 1789. He graduated at Brown University in 1813, 
 and preached many years at Hartford, Connecticut. 
 Among his works are " Lectures to Young Men," (1828,) 
 and "The Religion of the F-ast," (1845.) H>ed in 1867. 
 
 Hawes, hauz, (Stephen,) an English poet, who lived 
 about 1500, was a native of Suffolk, and became groom 
 of the privy chamber to Henry VII. He published in 
 l5i7"The Pastime of Pleasure," an allegorical poem, 
 which displays much learning and reflection. Warton 
 says, " If the poems of Rowley are not genuine, the ' Pas- 
 time of Pleasure' is almost the only effort of imagination 
 and invention which had appeared in our poetry since 
 Chaucer." 
 
 Hawes, (William,) an English physician, born at 
 Islington in 1736, practised in London the most of his 
 life. He distinguished himself by his zealous efforts in 
 behalf of the Humane Society, instituted in 1774. He 
 published several medical works, and an "Account of 
 Dr. Goldsmith's Last Illness." Died in 1808. 
 
 Hawke, bank, (Edward,) Lord, an English ad- 
 miral, born in 1715, became a captain in 1734, rear- 
 admiral in 1747, and vice-admiral of the blue in 1748. 
 He commanded the fleet which in 1759 defeated the 
 French near Belleisle. In 1765 he was named first lord 
 of the admiralty, and in 1776 was raised to the peerage. 
 Died in 1781. 
 
 See Campbkll, " Lives of British Admirals." 
 
 Haw'ker, (Robert,) an English Calvinistic divine, 
 born at Exeter in 1753. He was for fifty years vicar of 
 a church in Plymouth. He published a valuable "Com- 
 mentary on the Old and New Testament," (9 vols., 1816,) 
 and other religious works. Died in 1827. 
 
 Hawkesworth, hauks'worth, (John,) an English 
 essayist, born in London between 1715 and 1 719. He 
 began his literary career as a contributor to the "Gen- 
 tleman's Magazine" about 1740. In 1752, 1753, and 
 1754 he gained distinction as the editor of the "Adven- 
 turer," a series of essays, in which he was assisted bv 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in thii. (jy-See Explanations, p. 23.} 
 
HAWKINS 
 
 1 146 
 
 HAWTHORNE 
 
 Dr. Johnson and others. About half of these were his 
 own composition. In 1 761 he published an edition of 
 Swift's Works, with a life of that author, which is highly 
 commended. He received from government ^6000 for 
 writing an account of Captain Cook's First Voyage, 
 (1773.) Hawkesworth is accounted one of the most 
 elegant essayists of his time. Dr. Johnson, in his " Life 
 of Swift," represents him as one "capable of dignitying 
 his narrations with elegance of language and force of 
 sentiment." Died in 1773. 
 
 See Drake, " Essays;" W. H. Prescott, " Miscellanies." 
 
 Haw'kins, (Benjamin Waterhouse,) an English 
 naturalist, artist, and geologist, born in London in 1S07. 
 He published several educational works, among which 
 is "Elements of Form," (1842.) He lectured in New 
 York in 1868. He is eminently skilful in delineating the 
 forms of animals and in restoring fossil remains. 
 
 Hawkins, (Sir John,) M.P., (called by the Italian and 
 Spanish writers of that day Achillea or Aquines,) an 
 able English naval officer, born at Plymouth about 1520. 
 After following the slave-trade several years, he was de- 
 feated by the Spanish in 1567 near San Juan de Ulloa. 
 As rear-admiral, in 1588, he served with distinction 
 against the Spanish Armada, and was rewarded with 
 the honour of knighthood. In 1595 Hawkins and Drake 
 commanded a large fleet sent against the Spanish colo- 
 nies in the West Indies ; but they were unsuccessful. 
 He is said to have been the first Englishman who was 
 engaged in the slave-trade. Died in 1595. 
 
 See Campbell, " Livesof British Admirals ;" Froude, " History 
 of England," vol. vii. ; J. Barrhw, " Memoirs of the Naval Worthies 
 of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," 1S45. 
 
 Hawkins, (Sir John,) a descendant of the preceding, 
 born in London in 1719, was educated for the law. In 
 1749 he was admitted a member of Johnson's literary 
 club that met in Ivy Lane. In the early part of his lite 
 he contributed to the "Gentleman's Magazine." Having 
 married in 1753 a wealthy lady named Storer, he retired 
 from the practice of law. In 1763 he was elected a mem- 
 ber of the celebrated literary club to which Burke, John- 
 son, and Goldsmith belonged, and in 1772 he was knighted 
 for his active services in the magistracy. His principal 
 productions are a " History of Music," (in 5 vols., 1776,) 
 (which was coldly received, but is now more esteemed,) 
 and a " Life of Dr. Johnson," (1787.) He was an inti- 
 mate friend of Johnson, who chose him as one of his 
 executors. He died in 17S9, and was buried in West- 
 minster Abbey. 
 
 Hawkins, (John Sidney,) eldest son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born about 1757. He wrote a "Life of Da 
 Vinci," and essays on various subjects. Died in 1842. 
 
 Hawkins, (LjBTITM Matilda,) a sister of the pre- 
 ceding, wrote "The Countess and Gertrude," a novel, 
 (4 vols., 181 1,) "Memoirs, Biographical Sketches, and 
 Anecdotes," (2 vols., 1824,) and other works. 
 
 Hawkins, (Sir Richard.) an English mariner, son of 
 the rear-admiral, noticed above, was born about 1555. 
 He commanded one of the ships which encountered the 
 "Invincible Armada" m 1588. In 1593 he led an ex- 
 pedition of three ships to the South Sea, and was cap- 
 tured by the Spaniards near Peru. After his release he 
 published "Observations" on the voyage. Died in 1622. 
 
 See J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen 
 Elizabeth's Reign," 1845. 
 
 Hawkins, (Sir Thomas,) an English translator, lived 
 in the reign of Charles I. He produced a version of the 
 Odes of Horace, (1631.) 
 
 Hawks, hanks, (Francis Lister,) D.D., an American 
 clergyman and author, born at Newbern, North Carolina, 
 in 1798. He studied law and was admitted to the bar ; 
 but his religious convictions induced him in 1821 to enter 
 the ministry of the Episcopal Church. In 1829 he became 
 pastor of a church in Philadelphia. In 1830 he assumed 
 the pastoral charge of Saint Stephen's Church in New 
 York, and afterwards of Saint Thomas's. In 1837 he 
 and Dr. C. S. Henry commenced the "New York Re- 
 view," which they continued to publish until 1841. He 
 preached in New Orleans for five years, (1844-49,) anc ' 
 became rector of Calvary Church, New York, about 
 1850. Among his various works are " Egypt and its 
 Monuments," (1849,) anda '.' History ofNorth Carolina," 
 
 (1857 et seq.) He edited the " Romance of Biography," 
 and other juvenile works. Died at New York in 1866. 
 
 Hawks'moor,(NlCHOl.AS,)an eminent English archi- 
 tect, born in 1666, was a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren. 
 He was employed on several churches of London, and 
 made additions to All-Souls College, Oxford. It is said 
 that he was associated with Vanbrugh on the palace of 
 Blenheim and Castle Howard. One of his most admired 
 and original- works is Saint George's Church, Blooms- 
 bury, which Walpole criticised as "a master-stroke of 
 absurdity." Died in 1736. 
 
 Hawk'wood, (Sir John,) an English military adven- 
 turer, was the leader of a band of outlaws who entered 
 Italy about 1360. He rendered himself famous by his 
 skill, audacity, and success, and was hired to fight by 
 the Florentines and the Visconti of Milan. He died at 
 Florence in 1394. 
 
 Haw'ley, (Gideon,) a missionary, who laboured 
 among the American Indians, was born in Connecticut 
 in 1727. He became pastor at Marshpee, Massachusetts, 
 in 1758, and remained there until his death in 1S07. 
 
 Hawley, (Joseph,) an American patriot, born at 
 Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1724, graduated at Yale 
 in 1742. He practised law in his native place, and 
 attained eminence in his profession. In the contest be- 
 tween the colonies and the mother-country he gained 
 distinction by his political wisdom, eloquence, and pa- 
 triotism. He was chosen a member of the Massachu- 
 setts legislature in 1764. In 1776 ill health induced him 
 to retire from public life. Died in 1788. 
 
 Ha'wprth, (Adrian,) an English naturalist of Cot- 
 tenham, Yorkshire. He wrote, among other treatises, 
 "Lepidoptera Britannica," (4 parts, 1803-28,) which is 
 called a work of great value. Died in 1833. 
 
 Haw'thorne,(NATHANiEi,) a distinguished American 
 author, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th 
 of July, 1804. His father, a ship-captain, died at Havana 
 about 1810. Nathaniel graduated at Bowdoin College 
 in 1825, Longfellow the poet being one of his classmates. 
 He was endowed by nature with an acute and subtle 
 intellect, and with imaginative powers of no common 
 order ; but these were associated with an extreme and 
 almost morbid sensibility. While at college, his health 
 was delicate, and he is said to have suffered from ex- 
 cessive diffidence and from occasional fits of gloom and 
 deep dejection. Under these circumstances he made 
 the acquaintance of Franklin Pierce, (afterwards Presi- 
 dent of the United States,) who did much to cheer and 
 encourage him in his moments of despondency. The 
 friendship thus begun lasted through life. After leaving 
 college, Hawthorne spent several years mostly in seclu- 
 sion and study, writing occasional tales for the papers 
 and periodicals. In 1837 he issued a volume entitled 
 "Twice-told Tales," so named because they had pre- 
 viously been published in another form. This book at- 
 tracted the notice of Mr. Longfellow, who spoke of it in 
 terms of high praise in the " North American Review." 
 In 1843 Mr. Hawthorne removed to Concord, and re- 
 sided for some time in an old manse, from the win- 
 dows of which, it is said, the minister of the parish looked 
 out upon the battle fought between his fellow-townsmen 
 and the British troops on the memorable 19th of April, 
 1775. In 1846 appeared a volume entitled "Mosses 
 from an Old Manse," a collection of sketches and tales 
 written by him while occupying the manse at Concord, 
 In 1846, under Mr. Polk's administration, he was ap- 
 pointed surveyor of the port of Salem, a position which 
 he held for three years. He published in 1850 his cele- 
 brated " Scarlet Letter," a romance of extraordinary 
 power, which raised its author at once to the first rank 
 among American prose writers of fiction. In 1851 ap- 
 peared his "House of the Seven Gables," in 18^2 his 
 " Blithedale Romance," and in 1S60 his " Marble Faun," 
 regarded by some as the best of all his works. He had 
 published in 1852 a life of his friend Franklin Pierce, 
 (the Democratic candidate for the Presidency,) who, 
 after his inauguration, appointed his biographer United 
 States consul for Liverpool, perhaps the most lucrative 
 position within the gift of a President. He held this 
 office for four vears, after which he spent some time in 
 travelling on the continent of Europe. Soon after his 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, it, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
HAWTREY 
 
 1147 
 
 HAYES 
 
 return to the United States, Mr. Hawthorne published 
 "Our Old Home," containing sketches of English life 
 and character. He died in 1864. Since his death a very 
 attractive work, entitled " Hawthorne's Notes," has been 
 published, (2 vols., 1869,) consisting of his observations 
 on a great variety of subjects. , 
 
 Mr. Hawthorne's merits as an author are of a peculiar 
 and very high order. As a novelist, all critics acknow- 
 ledge his power to awaken a deep, intense, and sustained 
 interest; but some of the reviewers object that the tone 
 of his works is not healthful. "The Scarlet Letter," 
 says "Blackwood" for May, 1S55, "glows with the fire 
 of a suppressed, secret, feverish excitement : it is not the 
 glow of natural life, but the hectic of disease, which 
 burns upon the cheek of its actors." " The House of the 
 Seven Gables is not less remarkable nor less unwhole- 
 some than its predecessor." But, whatever may be 
 thought of the tone of his works, all must concede to 
 him not only great originality, but a rare power of subtle 
 analysis, a delicate and e.xqui. ite humour, and a marvel- 
 lous felicity in the use of language. His style, indeed, 
 may be said to combine almost every excellence, — ele- 
 gance, simplicity, grace, clearness, and force. 
 
 See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America ;" Duyckinck, " Cy- 
 clopedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; " Blackwood's Magazine" 
 tut November, 1863; "North American Review" for July, 1S37, July, 
 1850, and Jami.iry, 1853; "Atlantic Monthly" for May, i860, (by 
 E. P. Whipple.) and September, 1S6S. 
 
 Haw'trey, (Edward CRAVEN,) D.D., an English 
 scholar, born in 1789, became head-master of Eton about 
 1834, and afterwards provost of the same. Died in 1862. 
 
 Haxo, /;ik'so', (Francois Nicolas BknuiT,) an able 
 military engineer, bom at Luneville in 1774. He directed 
 the operations at the siege of Saragossa, (1809.) In 1812 
 he held a high command in the Russian campaign, and 
 was made general of division. He commanded the corps 
 of engineers during the Hundred Days, and was at Water- 
 loo. In 1832 he conducted the siege of Antwerp as 
 commander-in-chief of the engineers. Died in 1838. 
 
 See Mengin, " Notice sur General Baron Haxo," 183S. 
 
 Haxo, (Nicolas,) a French general, uncle of the 
 preceding, was born at Luneville about 1750. He dis- 
 tinguished himself at the battle of Chollet, and gained 
 a victory at Noirmoutiers. He was killed in 1794. 
 
 Hay, (David Ramsay,) a British artist and eminent 
 writer on the principles of form and colour, was born in 
 Edinburgh in 1798. He learned the trade of house- 
 painter, and was employed by Sir Walter Scott in the 
 decoration of Abbotsford. In 1828 he published "The 
 Laws of Harmonious Colouring," (6th edition, 1847.) 
 He wrote, among other works, " Proportion, or the Geo- 
 metric Principle of Beauty Analyzed," (1843,) "Science 
 of Proportions of the Human Head and Countenance," 
 (1849,) and "The Science of Beauty as Developed in 
 Nature and Applied in Art," (1856.) 
 
 Hay, (James,) a Scottish diplomatist, employed by 
 James I. He was raised to the English peerage as Earl 
 of Carlisle. Died in 1636. 
 
 Hay, (William,) born in Sussex, England, about 1700, 
 represented Seaford in Parliament from 1734 to 1755. 
 He published an "Essay on Civil Government," (1728,) 
 and a few other works. Died in 1755. 
 
 Haydn, ha'd'n, [Ger. pron. hid'n,) (Joseph,) a cele- 
 brated and original composer, was born at Rohrau, on 
 the frontier of Austria and Hungary, March 31, 1732. 
 His father was a poor mechanic. When he was about 
 eight years old, his voice attracted the notice of Reuter, 
 chapel-master of the cathedral in Vienna, under whom 
 he passed eight years as chorister. Afterwards, being 
 left to his own resources, he endured extreme poverty 
 for several years, during which he became acquainted 
 with the poet Metastasio, from whom he learned Italian. 
 He received some lessons in composition from Porpora, 
 and between the ages of nineteen and twenty-six com- 
 posed many sonatas, concertos, and symphonies, which 
 were admired. In 1760 he was appointed cha|x.l-master 
 to Prince Esterhazy at Eisenstadt. With this patron 
 and his heir he passed about thirty years, and enjoyed 
 •jrospcrity, excepting the troubles of an ill-assorted 
 marriage, from which he was relieved by a divorce. 
 Having composed a great number of works and acquired 
 
 a wide reputation, he produced in London in 1791 six 
 grand symphonies, which were received with great en- 
 thusiasm. His noble master-piece the oratorio of " The 
 Creation" was performed in Vienna in 1798, and pro- 
 cured his admission into the French Institute. He sur- 
 passed his predecessors in symphonies, and displayed 
 extraordinary fertility of invention. Among his last works 
 is a piece of church music called "The Seasons," (1801.) 
 Died at Vienna, May 31, 1809. Haydn appears to have 
 been exempt from the spirit of rivalry and envy. On 
 one occasion he designated Mozart as the first composer 
 of the world. His happy and genial temperament is 
 reflected in his compositions. 
 
 See C. A. Griesenger, " Biographische Notizen iiber Joseph 
 H.iydn," 1810; "Letters on the Life and Works of Haydn," in 
 Italian, by Carpani, (" Le Haydine,"etc.) 1812; Framerv, " No'.ice 
 sur Joseph Haydn," 1810; Le Breton, "Vie de Joseph Haydn," 
 1810; Fans, " Biographie Universelle des Musicians;" A. C DIBS, 
 "J. Haydn's Biographie, " 1S10; L. A. C. de Bbyi.k, (under the 
 pseudonym of Bombkt.) "Vie de Haydn, Mozart et M-iiastase," 
 Paris, 1817: English version of the same, 1817, and Boston, 18311; 
 " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1817. 
 
 Haydn, ha'd'n, (Joseph,) an Fnglish author, who 
 published a " Dictionary of Dates and Universal Refer- 
 ence," which is highly commended ; also a " Hand-Book 
 of Dignities." Died in London in 1856. 
 
 Haydn, (Michael,) a brother of Joseph Haydn the 
 musician, was born at Rohrau in 1737. He was an ex- 
 cellent organist and composer, and became chapel-master 
 in the cathedral of Salzburg. He composed numerous 
 oratorios, masses, Te Deunts, and other works. His 
 brother Joseph considered him the greatest composer of 
 sacred music of his time except Mozart. Died in 1808. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Hay'don, (Benjamin Robert,) an eminent English 
 painter, born at Plymouth in 1786. He went to London 
 in 1804, and was admitted as a student at the Royal 
 Academy. In 1807 he exhibited a painting of the Holy 
 Family resting during their flight to Egypt. In 1S09 
 his " Dentatus" gained the first prize in the exhibition 
 of the British Institution. His "Judgment of Solo- 
 mon" was purchased for seven hundred guineas. la 
 the early part of his career he quarrelled with the Acad- 
 emy, and when he applied for admission as an associate 
 he was refused. In 1815 he opened a school of painting, 
 in which several eminent artists were formed ; but ill 
 pecuniary matters he was not successful. While (in- 
 filled in prison for debt in 1827, he painted the "Mock 
 Election," for which George IV. paid him five hundred 
 guineas. "Napoleon Musing at Saint Helena" was one 
 of his most admired productions. In 1837-38-39 he 
 gave lectures on Painting, which were very popular, and 
 were published in 1844. The lastyears of his life were 
 rendered unhappy by pecuniary difficulties, and his mind 
 became so disordered that he committed suicide in June, 
 1846. His merit as a painter is variously estimated. 
 The Landseers were his pupils. 
 
 See his Life, by Thomas Taylor, 1853, 3 vols. ; " London Quar- 
 terly Review" for October, 1853 ; " Edinburgh Review" for October, 
 1853; " Blackwood's Magazine" for November. 1853. 
 
 Haye, La. See Cormenin and Delahaye. 
 
 Hayer, //3'ya', (Jean Nicolas Hubert,) a French 
 monk, born at Sarre-Louis about 1708. He defended 
 revealed religion against infidels in several works. Died 
 in 1780. 
 
 Hayer du Perron, le, leh/Mi'va'du pi'rAs', (Pikrki :,) 
 a French poet, born at Alencon in 1603 ; died after 1678. 
 
 Hayes, hiiz, (AUGUSTUS Allen,) an American chem- 
 ist, born at Windsor, Vermont, in 1806. He made seve- 
 ral important discoveries, and contributed to Sillitnan's 
 "Journal of Science," and other scientific publications. 
 
 Hayes, haz, (CATHERINE,) a popular vocalist, bom 
 at Limerick, Ireland, about 1820. She performed with 
 success in the theatres of Italy, Vienna, and London. 
 In 1851 she visited the United States, and sang in the 
 principal cities. Died in 1861. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for September, 1861. 
 
 Hayes, (Charles,) an English mathematician, born 
 in 1678, wrote learned and ingenious works, among 
 which are treatises on " Fluxions and Conic Sections," 
 on "Longitude," and "Chronology of the Septuagint." 
 Died in 1760. 
 
 « as k; c as s ; g hard; g as>; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. (JtySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HATES 
 
 1 148 
 
 HATTER 
 
 Hayes, (Isaac I.,) an American explorer, born in Ches- 
 ter county, Pennsylvania, in 1832, graduated as M.D. at 
 the University of Pennsylvania in 1853. The same year 
 he accompanied Dr. Kane on an exploring expedition 
 to the North Pole. After passing two winters in the 
 northern regions, blocked up in the ice, and suffering 
 incredible hardships, they returned in the autumn of 
 1855. (See Kane, Elisha K.) Dr. Hayes published 
 an interesting account of his share in this expedition, 
 entitled "An Arctic Boat Journey," (Boston, i860.) In 
 i860 he conducted a second expedition to the Arctic 
 regions, and returned in the autumn of 1861. He has 
 since written a tale, entitled "Cast away in the Cold," 
 first published in the pages of "Our Young Folks." 
 
 Hayes, (William,) an English musical composer, 
 born in 1708; died in 1777. 
 
 Hayez, S'yV, ? (Francesco,) an Italian historical 
 painter and excellent colorist, bom at Venice in 1792. 
 Among his works are " Laocoon," and "The Two Fos- 
 cari." 
 
 See "Westminster Review" for April, 1841. 
 
 Hay'ley, (William,) an English author, born at 
 Chichester in 1745, resided at Eartham, and enjoyed an 
 easy fortune in literary pursuits. In 1792 he became 
 acquainted with the poet Cowper, whose life he after- 
 wards wrote, (1804.) He published a variety of works 
 in prose and verse, which once were very popular, but 
 are not now ranked above mediocrity. His chief poems 
 are "An Essay on History," (1780,) "Triumphs of Tem- 
 per," (1781,) "An Essay on Painting," and "An Essay 
 on Epic Poetry," (1782.) He was not without taste, 
 and possessed some skill in versification ; but his poetry 
 is feeble and infected with mawkish sentiment. Southey 
 once remarked, " Every thing about that man is good 
 except his poetry." Died in 1820. 
 
 See " Memoirs of W. Hayley," by himself, 1823 ; Carey, " Lives 
 of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke White ;" " London Quar- 
 terly Review" for December, 1824. 
 
 Haym, him, (Niccol6 Francesco,) a musician and 
 bibliographer, born in Rome about 1680. He composed 
 several admired sonatas, and published a valuable work 
 on Italian bibliography, called "Notices of Rare Books 
 in the Italian Language," (1726.) Died in London in 
 1730. 
 
 Hay'man, (Francis,) an English historical painter, 
 born at Exeter in 1708, lived chiefly in London. He 
 was one of the earliest members of the Royal Academy. 
 Among his principal productions are his illustrations of 
 Shakspeare and Milton. Died in 1776. 
 
 Haymo or Haimo, hi'mo, or Aimo, T'mo, a Ger- 
 man ecclesiastic, whose writings had a high reputation, 
 became Bishop of Halberstadt in 841 a.d. He wrote 
 "Commentaries on the Scriptures." Died in 853. 
 
 Haynau, von, fon hi'now, (Julius Jakob,) Baron, 
 an Austrian general, born at Cassel in 1786, was a natu- 
 ral son of the Elector of Hesse-Cassel. He entered the 
 Austrian service in 1801, became colonel in 1830, and 
 field-marshal-lieutenant in 1844. In the suppression of 
 a revolt in Italy in 1848 and 1849, he displayed some 
 military skill and became notorious for his cruelty. He 
 obtained in May, 1849, the chief command of the Aus- 
 trian army in Hungary, and defeated the Hungarians in 
 several actions. The execution of the vanquished chiefs 
 and patriots by his orders excited general indignation. 
 He was deprived of his command in 1850. During a 
 visit to London in 1850, he was assaulted and roughly 
 treated by the draymen of Barclay & Perkins's brewery. 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G(<n<*rale." 
 
 Hayne, (Arthur P.,) a brother of Robert Y. Hayne, 
 noticed below, was born at Charleston, South Carolina, 
 in 1790. He entered the army in 1807, served during 
 the war of 1812, distinguished himself at the battle of 
 New Orleans, January, 181 5, and obtained the rank of 
 adjutant-general. He resigned his commission in 1820, 
 and became a lawyer. In 1858 he was chosen a United 
 States Senator. 
 
 Hayne, hl'neh, (Friedrich Gottlob,) a German 
 botanist, born in 1763, became professor of botany at 
 Berlin. He published, besides other works, an excellent 
 " Description and Representation of Plants used in Medi- 
 
 cine," (11 vols., 1802-31, with 600 plates designed by 
 himself.) Died in 1832. 
 
 See Caixisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 
 
 Hayne, (Isaac,) an officer, born in South Carolina in 
 1745, became a wealthy planter. He served against the 
 British at the siege of Charleston in 1780, was taken 
 prisoner and paroled. The British by threats induced 
 him to subscribe a declaration of allegiance, and after- 
 wards required him to take arms for the king. To avoid 
 this necessity, he joined the American army, was taken 
 prisoner, and hung in August, 1781. 
 
 Hayne, (Julia Dean,) a popular American actress, 
 born at Pleasant Valley, New York, in 1830, has per- 
 formed with success in the United States and England. 
 
 Hayne, (Paul H.,) a poet, and nephew of Robert Y. 
 Hayne, noticed below, was born at Charleston, South 
 Carolina, in 183 1. He published a volume of Poems in 
 1854. 
 
 Hayne, (Robert Young,) a distinguished American 
 orator, born in the parish of Saint Paul, South Carolina, 
 in 1791, was a grand-nephew of Isaac Hayne, who was 
 executed by the British in 1781. He studied law with 
 Langdon Cheves, and became eminent in his profession. 
 In 1818 he was chosen Speaker of the legislature of 
 South Carolina, which he represented in the national 
 Senate from 1823 to 1832. In January, 1830, he made 
 an eloquent speech in the Senate, to which Webster 
 replied in one of his most successful and memorable 
 efforts. He was Governor of his native State from 1832 
 to 1834, and advocated nullification. Died in 1840. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,'' 
 vol. ii. 
 
 Hayne, (Rev. Thomas,) an English critic and teacher, 
 bom in Leicestershire in 1581, was a graduate of Ox- 
 ford, and an excellent linguist. He published a "Latin 
 Grammar," a "Life of Luther," a "General View of the 
 Holy Scripture," and other works. Died in 1645. 
 
 Haynes, hanz, (Hopton,) born in 1672, was assay- 
 master of the English mint, and a friend of Sir Isaac 
 Newton. He wrote zealously in defence of Unitarian 
 doctrines. Died in 1749. 
 
 Haynes, (John,) an Anglo-American governor, was 
 born in Essex, England, and removed to Boston in 1633. 
 In 1635 he was chosen Governor of Massachusetts. In 
 1636 he became one of the chief founders of Connecticut, 
 of which he was chosen the first Governor in 1639, and 
 was afterwards several times re-elected. Died in 1654. 
 
 Haynes, hanz, (Lemuel,) an eminent coloured min- 
 ister, born in West Hartford, Connecticut, in 1753. He 
 early displayed a remarkable thirst for knowledge, and, 
 by devoting all his leisure to study, became in a few 
 years a good Latin and Greek scholar. In 1775 he 
 joined the American army, and the next year served in 
 the expedition to Ticonderoga. Licensed to preach in 
 1780, he was thirty years pastor in West Rutland, Ver- 
 mont. From 1822 until his death, in 1833, he preached 
 to a congregation in Granville, New York. His famous 
 sermon against Universalism, in reply to Hosea Ballon, 
 has been widely read. A memoir of his life was pub- 
 lished by the Rev. Dr. Cooley. 
 
 Hays, haz, (Alexander,) an American general, born 
 in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, about 1824, graduated at 
 West Point in 1844. He became a brigadier-general of 
 volunteers in September, 1862, commanded a division at 
 Gettysburg, July, 1863, and was killed at the battle of 
 the Wilderness in May, 1864. 
 
 Hays, (William Jacob,) a painter of animals, was 
 born in the city of New York in 1830. He produced 
 many pictures of dogs and game. 
 
 Hay'ter, (Sir George,) an English painter of history 
 and portraits, was born in London about 1792. He 
 studied for several years in Italy, and after his return 
 obtained the title of first painter to the queen, by whom 
 he was knighted in 1842. Among his finest productions 
 are "Victoria taking the Oath at the Coronation," and 
 "The Trial of Lord Russell." Died in 1871. 
 
 Hayter, (Rev. John,) an Englishman, who was em- 
 ployed to superintend the process of unrolling the Greek 
 manuscripts found at Herculaneum. He published a 
 "Report on the Herculaneum Manuscripts," (l8u.) 
 Died in 1818. 
 
 i, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 0, ii, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall. BX: m6t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
HATWARD 
 
 "49 
 
 HEARNE 
 
 Hay'ward, (Sir John,) an English historian, who 
 published in 1599 "The First Part of the Reign of Henry 
 IV." He was knighted in 1619. He also wrote the 
 lives of William I., William H., and Henry I. Died 
 in 1627. 
 
 Haywood, (Ei.iza.) See Heywood. 
 
 Hay'wood, (Elizabeth,) an English authoress, 
 born in London in 1693, wrote "The Female Spectator," 
 and other works. Died in 1756. 
 
 Haz'ard, (Eisenezer,) born in Philadelphia about 
 1744, was postmaster-general of the United States from 
 1782 to 1789. He published "Historical Collection of 
 State Papers," etc., (1792.) Died in 181 7. 
 
 Hazard, (Samuel,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 in Philadelphia in 1784. He published in 1828-36 the 
 " Register of Pennsylvania," containing historical docu- 
 ments, etc. He also wrote the " Annals of Pennsylvania 
 from 1609 to 1682." 
 
 Ha'zen, (William B.,) an American general, born in 
 Vermont in 1830, graduated at West Point in 1855. He 
 served as colonel at the battle of Shiloh, April 7, 1862, 
 and as brigadier-general at the battles of Stone River, 
 which ended in January, 1863, and Chickamauga, Sep- 
 tember 19 and 20 of the same year. He commanded a 
 division of the army of General Sherman in the campaign 
 against Atlanta, and in the march from that place to the 
 sea, in 1864 ; and he was made a major-general of vol- 
 unteers in December of that year. 
 
 Ha'zle-rig, written also Heselrige, (Sir Arthur,) an 
 English Puritan, who took a prominent part in the oppo- 
 sition to Charles I., was born about 1612. He represented 
 Leicestershire in the Long Parliament, and was one of 
 the five members whom the king attempted to arrest 
 in 1642 on a charge of treason. During the civil war 
 he served in the army of Parliament as colonel. In 
 1649 he was chosen a member of the council of state, 
 and in 1658 was created a peer by Cromwell, but pre- 
 ferred to retain his seat in the House of Commons. 
 Died in 1660. 
 
 Haz'litt, (William,) an eminent English critic and 
 miscellaneous author, born at Maidstone, April 10, 1778, 
 was the son of a Unitarian minister. After making 
 creditable essays in the art of painting, he adopted lite- 
 rature as a profession, and in 1803 obtained employment 
 as a reporter for the London newspapers. In 1805 he 
 published his first work, " An Essay on the Principles 
 of Human Action," followed by "The Eloquence of the 
 British Senate," (1808,) with critical notes. In 1808 he 
 married Miss Stoddart. Between 1813 and 1818 he de- 
 livered lectures on philosophy and English poetry, some 
 of which were published and favourably received. Of 
 his very numerous and various works the following are 
 perhaps the principal: "Characters of Shakspeare's 
 Plays," (1817,) "Original Essays," (l82l,)"The Spirit 
 of the Age," (1824,) "The Plain Speaker," "Political 
 Essays," "Table-Talk," (1824,) and "The Life of Na- 
 poleon," (4 vols., 1828.) In the latter part of his life he 
 contributed to the " Edinburgh Review." He enjoyed 
 a high reputation as a critic ; but allowance must be 
 made for his prejudice against living authors. Sir Ar- 
 chibald Alison expressed the opinion that "in critical 
 disquisitions on the leading characters and works of 
 the drama, he is not surpassed in the whole range of 
 English literature." Died in 1830. 
 
 See " Literary Remains of W. Hazlitt, with a Notice of his Life, 
 by his Son," etc., 2 vols., 1S36. For a full account of Hazlilt's Works, 
 see " List of the Writings of William Hazlitt and Leigh Hunt, chro- 
 nologically arranged," etc, by Alexander Ireland, London, 1H6S: 
 William Carhw Hazlitt, "Memoirs of William Hazlitt," Lon- 
 don, 1867; see also the " Edinburgh Review" for August, 1817, and 
 January, 1837 ; " Monthly Review" for 1826. 
 
 Hazlitt, (William,) Jr., a lawyer, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born about 1810. He has distinguished 
 himself as the translator of various works, among which 
 are a " Life of Luther," (1846,) Guizot's " History of the 
 English Revolution," (1846,) and Thierry's " History of 
 the Conquest of England by the Normans," (1847.) 
 He has edited the Works of De Foe, (1840,) and those 
 of his father. 
 
 His son, William Carew H., born in 1834, pub- 
 lished a " History of the Republic of Venice," (4 vols., 
 i860.) 
 
 Head, hed, (Sir Edmund Walker,) an English colo- 
 nial governor, born near Maidstone, Kent, in 1805. He 
 was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick 
 in 1847, and succeeded Lord Elgin as Governor-General 
 of Canada in 1854. He wrote a "Hand-Book of the 
 History of the Spanish and French Schools of Painting," 
 (1848,) a work of merit. Died in January, 1868. 
 
 Head, (Sir Francis Bond,) a popular English writer, 
 born near Rochester, Kent, in 1793. He was a captain 
 in the army when, in 1825, he went to South America 
 as agent of a mining association, and in 1S26 published 
 " Rough Notes of a Journey across the Pampas," etc., 
 which was received with much favour. In 1833 he pro- 
 duced a successful humorous book, called " Bubbles from 
 the Brunnen of Nassau." He became in 1836 Lieutenant- 
 Governor of Upper Canada, in which an insurrection 
 broke out in 1837. After the suppression of this he 
 resigned, and returned to England in 1838. He wrote 
 "The Emigrant," (6th edition, 1852,) and other works. 
 
 See "Sir F. Head; a Narrative;" "Edinburgh Review" for 
 April, 1847 ; " London Magazine" for October, 1826. 
 
 Head, (Sir George,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 born near Rochester in 1782. He served in the army in 
 the Peninsula from 1809 to 1814, when he was ordered 
 to Canada and Nova Scotia. After his return to Eng- 
 land he published "Forest Scenes and Incidents in the 
 Wilds of North America," (1829,) and several other 
 books of travel. In 1849 appeared his "Rome: a Tour 
 of Many Days," said to be a standard work. He was 
 made a knight in 1831. Died in 1855. 
 
 Head, (Richard,) an Irish dramatist, wrote comedies. 
 He was drowned at sea in 1678. 
 
 Headley, hJd'le, (Henry,) an English author, born 
 at Norwich in 1766, was educated at Oxford. In 1786 he 
 published a volume of poems, and wrote several articles 
 for the "Gentleman's Magazine," and No. 16 in "Olla 
 Podrida." In 1787 he published "Select Beauties of 
 Ancient English Poets, with Remarks." His biographer, 
 Rev. H. Kett, says, " His principles of criticism are 
 sound, and his remarks pertinent. . . . His biographical 
 sketches of the old English poets may be considered as 
 a rich cabinet of exquisite portraits." Died in 1788. 
 
 See H. Kett, "Sketch of H. Headley," prefixed to his "Select 
 Beauties of Ancient English Poets," 1810. 
 
 Headley, hM'le, (Joel Tyler,) an American writer, 
 born in Delaware county, New York, in 1814, graduated 
 at Union College in 1839. Among his numerous works 
 are "Napoleon and his Marshals," (2 vols., 1846,) a 
 "Life of Oliver Cromwell," (1848,) and a " History of the 
 Second War between England and the United States," 
 (2 vols., 1853.) In 1855 he was elected secretary of state 
 for New York. 
 
 See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Hea'ljf, (George Peter Alexander,) an American 
 portrait-painter, born in Boston in 1808. He worked 
 for some years in Paris, and obtained a medal of the 
 second class there in 1855. Among his works are " Web- 
 ster's Reply to Hayne,' and "Dr. Franklin before Louis 
 XVI. of France." 
 
 See Tockerman, " Book of the Artists," 1867. 
 
 Hea'p^, written also Heaphy, (Thomas,) an English 
 portrait-painter, born about 1775 ; died in 1835. 
 
 Hearne, hern, (Samuel,) an English traveller, born 
 in London in 1745, was for several years a midshipman 
 in the royal navy. Having entered the service of the 
 Hudson Bay Company, he was sent in 1769 on an ex- 
 pedition to discover a Northwest passage, and was the 
 first F^uropean who penetrated to the ocean north of 
 America. Of this journey an account was published in 
 1795. Died in 1792. 
 
 Hearne, (Thomas,) an eminent English antiquary and 
 collater of manuscripts, was born at White Waltham, 
 Berkshire, in 1678. He became assistant librarian of 
 the Bodleian Library, Oxford, in 1712; but, being a 
 zealous Jacobite, he refused to take the oath to George 
 I., and lost his office. He published accurate editions, 
 with annotations, of many old works, among which are 
 Livy's " History," (1708,) Spelman's " Life of Alfred the 
 Great," (1710,) Leland's " Itinerary," (9 vols., 1710,) and 
 Camden's "Annals," (3 vols., 1717.) He is introduced 
 
 € as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; in as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HEJRNE 
 
 1 1 50 
 
 HEBERDEN 
 
 in Pope's " Dunciad" under the name of " Wormius." 
 Died in 1735. 
 
 See Huddksford, "Life of Thomas Hearne," 1772. 
 
 Hearne, (Thomas,) an English artist, born at Marsh- 
 field in 1744, was a landscape-painter in water-colours, 
 and a topographical designer. Died in 181 7. 
 
 Heath, (Benjamin,) an English lawyer and scholar, 
 who published in 1740 an "Essay on the Divine Exist- 
 ence, Unity, and Attributes," and in 1765 a " Revisal of 
 Shakspeare's Text." Died in 1766. 
 
 Heath, (Charles,) an English editor and engraver, 
 born in 1784, gained distinction by the publication of 
 the " Shakspeare Gallery," " Waverley Gallery," " Book 
 of Beauty," and other annuals. Died in 1848. 
 
 Heath, (James,) a historical writer, born in London 
 in 1629. He wrote a "Chronicle of the Late Intestine 
 War in the Three Kingdoms," (1661,) "The Glories 
 of Charles II.'s Restoration," (1662,) and other works. 
 Died in 1664. 
 
 Heath, (James,) an eminent English engraver, born 
 about 1760. Among his principal works are " The Death 
 of Lord Nelson," after West, and a portrait of Washing- 
 ton, after Stuart. He was the father of Charles Heath, 
 noticed above. Died in 1834. 
 
 Heath, (Nicholas,) born in London about 1500, be- 
 came Archbishop of York and lord chancellor in 1556, 
 in the reign of Queen Mary. Having refused to take 
 the oath of supremacy, he was deprived of his office by 
 Queen Elizabeth in 1558, and confined in the Tower. 
 Died in 1579. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Heath, (William,) an American general, born at 
 Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1 737, was a farmer when the 
 Revolution began. In 1775 he was appointed a briga- 
 dier-general, and in August, 1776, a major-general. He 
 commanded near King's Bridge, New York, in 1776, and 
 in the next year was transferred to the Eastern army, 
 stationed near Boston, where he had temporary charge 
 of the troops of Burgoyne who had surrendered at Sara- 
 toga. He returned to the main army in 1779, and was 
 employed in the Highlands of the Hudson until the end 
 of the war. In 1798 he published a volume of military 
 " Memoirs." Died in 1814. 
 
 Heath'coat, (John,) an English mechanical genius, 
 born in Leicestershire in 1784. He settled at Notting- 
 ham as a "setter-up" of hosiery and warp frames, and 
 invented a machine for making lace. Died in 1861. 
 
 Heath'cote, (Ralph,) an English clergyman and 
 author, born in Leicestershire in 1721. He became vicar 
 of Barkby in 1748, and prebendary of Southwell in 1768. 
 He wrote a " History of Astronomy," and a " Sketch of 
 Lord Bolingbroke's Philosophy," besides other works 
 on various subjects. Died in 1795. 
 
 Heathfield, Lord. See Elliot, (George Augus- 
 ius.) 
 
 Hebbel, heb'bel, (Friedrich,) a lyric poet and dra- 
 matist, born in Ditmarsch, in Holstein, in 1813, lived 
 many years in Vienna. He wrote tragedies entitled 
 " Genoveva" and " Maria Magdalena," and poems which 
 were well received. 
 
 See Emil Kuh, " F. Hebbel ; eine Characteristic" 1854. 
 
 He'be, [Gr."H« 7 ; Fr. Hint, a'bi',1 a goddess of the 
 Greek mythology, and the personification of youth, was 
 represented as a daughter of Jupiter and Juno, (Hera.) 
 According to Homer, she was a minister of the gods, 
 and it was one of the duties of her office to fill their 
 cups with nectar. She became the wife of Hercules 
 after his apotheosis. 
 
 Hebel, ha'bel, (Johann Peter,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man poet, born at Bale in 1760, became in 1808 rector of 
 the Academy of Carlsruhe, and in 1819 provost of the ec- 
 clesiastic chapter, ( Kirchen-Commission.) His poem; in 
 the Suabian dialect ("Allemannische Gedichte," 1803) 
 rendered his name popular throughout Germany. He 
 describes nature in a simple and effective style. He 
 published " Bible Histories for Youth," and several other 
 works. Died in 1826. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" J. G. Schui.t- 
 heiss, " Lebensbeschreibung von J. P. Hebel," 1831; Ersch und 
 Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Gkrvinus, " Geschichte der 
 peutschen Dichtung;"and the articieentitled " The German Burns" 
 in the "Atlantic Monthly" for April, 1862, (by Bayard Taylor.) 
 
 Hebenstreit, ha'ben-stRlt', (Johann Christian,) a 
 German theologian, born in 1686; died in 1756. 
 
 Hebenstreit, (Johann Ernst,) a German naturalist 
 and physician, born at Neustadt on the Orla, Saxony, in 
 1703, was professor of medicine at Leipsic. He wrote 
 an admired Latin poem on Man, " De Homine Sano et 
 yEgroto," (1758,) " Palaeologia Therapiae," (1779,) and 
 an interesting account of a "Journey to Algiers, Tunis, 
 etc.," which he made in 1732. Died in 1757. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Johann 
 August Ernesti, " Memoria J. E. Hebenstreitii," 1750. 
 
 He'ber, (Reginald.) an excellent English poet and 
 prelate, born at Malpas, in Cheshire, on the 2ist of 
 April, 1783. He was the second son of Reginald Heber, 
 rector of Hodnet. In 1800 he entered Brazennose Col- 
 lege, Oxford, where he produced in 1803 his beautiful 
 prize poem "Palestine." He made a tour on the con- 
 tinent in 1805 and 1806, obtained the living of Hodnet 
 irl 1807, and married Amelia Shipley in 1809. In 1812 
 he published a volume of poems, containing translations 
 from Pindar, and a poem entitled "Europe: Lines on 
 the Present War." He afterwards composed more than 
 fifty " Hymns adapted to the Weekly Church Service." 
 "These hymns," says D. M. Moir, "have been by far 
 the most popular of his productions, and deservedly so ; 
 for in purity and elevation of sentiment, in simple pathos 
 and eloquent earnestness, it would be difficult to find any- 
 thing superior to them in the range of lyric poetry." He 
 was elected preacher to Lincoln's Inn in 1822, and ap- 
 pointed Bishop of Calcutta in January, 1823. After 
 visiting many remote parts of his very extensive diocese, 
 he died of apoplexy, at Trichinopoli, on the 3d of April, 
 1826, leaving a high reputation for genius, piety, and 
 liberality. His journal of a "Journey through India from 
 Calcutta to Bombay, with Notes on Ceylon," (2 vols., 
 1828,) is called by the "London Quarterly Review" 
 "one of the most delightful books in the language." 
 " Independently of its moral attraction," says Lord Jef- 
 frey, "we are induced to think it the most instructive 
 and important publication that has ever been given to 
 the world on the actual state and condition of our In- 
 dian empire." The same critic pays this high tribute to 
 his character : " Learned, polished, and dignified he was 
 undoubtedly; yet far more conspicuously kind, humble, 
 tolerant, and laborious ; — zealous for his church, too, and 
 not forgetful of his station ; but remembering it more for 
 the duties than for the honours that were attached to it, 
 and infinitely more zealous for the religious improve- 
 ment and for the happiness of his fellow-creatures of 
 every tongue, faith, and complexion ; indulgent to all 
 errors and infirmities ; liberal in the best and truest 
 sense of the word; humbly and conscientiously diffident 
 of his own excellent judgment and never-failing charity." 
 
 See " Life of Reginald Heber," by his widow, 4 vols., 1830 ; Rev. 
 Geokge Bonnrr, " Memoir of R. Heber J" Krohn, " Hebers Le- 
 ben," Berlin, 2 vols., 1831 ; Thomas Taylor, " Memoirs of the Life 
 and Writings of the Rev. Reginald Heber;" "Edinburgh Review" 
 for December, 1828. 
 
 Heber, (Richard,) a bibliomaniac and an excellent 
 classical scholar, a half-brother of the preceding, was 
 born in Westminster in 1773. He was educated at Ox- 
 ford. In 1804 he inherited his father's estate at Hodnet, 
 and represented the University of Oxford in Parliament 
 from 1 82 1 to 1826. He indulged an extravagant passion 
 for collecting books, on which he is said to have spent 
 about ^180,000. He owned large libraries in London, 
 Oxford, Paris, Antwerp, Ghent, Hodnet, and other 
 places. He edited Silius Italicus and Claudian in 1792. 
 Died in 1833. Sir Walter Scott dedicated to him the 
 sixth canto of "Marmion." 
 
 HSb'er-den, (William,) an eminent physician, born 
 in London in 1710, was educated at Cambridge. In 
 1748 he began the practice of medicine in London, in 
 which he acquired a high reputation. In 1750 he became 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society, to whose " Transactions" 
 he contributed. He was reputed one of the best classical 
 scholars of his time. His greatest work, " Medical Com- 
 mentaries," (1802,) was written in elegant Latin. His 
 moral character was excellent. Died in 1801. His son, 
 William Hererden, M.D., wrote a "Treatise on the 
 Increase and Decrease of Different Diseases," (1801.) 
 
 I, e, i, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon j 
 
HEBERER 
 
 1 1,-1 
 
 HEDGE 
 
 Heberer, ha'beh-rei, (MICHAEL,) a German traveller, 
 born in Baden about 1550. lie passed about three 
 years as a captive and slave in Egypt and Turkey, and 
 published a Narrative of his adventures. Died in 1610. 
 Hubert, Aa'baiR', (Antoine AUGUST* Ernest,) a 
 French historical painter, born at Grenoble in 181 7, was 
 a pupil of David of Angers. He gained the first grand 
 pri/.e in 1839 for his picture of "The Cup found in the 
 Sack of Benjamin." Among his works, which are ad- 
 mired for vigour of expression, are "Tasso in Prison," 
 " The Malaria," (1850,) and " Les Filles d'Alvito," (1855.) 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 Hebert, (Jacques Ren£,) a French demagogue, born 
 at Alencon in 1755, came to Paris when quite young, 
 and was a desperate adventurer when the Revolution 
 began. He gained notoriety by editing a scurrilous 
 Jacobin paper named " Pere Duchene." Hebert and 
 Chaumette were the authors of the atheistic festivals of 
 Reason. Having been proscribed by Robespierre and 
 Danton and charged with a conspiracy to massacre the 
 Convention, he was executed in March, 1794. 
 
 Hebert, (Michel Pierre Alexis,) a French advo- 
 cate, born at Granville (Manche) in 1799. 
 
 Hebert, (Paul O.,) an American general in the Con- 
 federate service, born in Louisiana. He served in Mexico 
 in 1S47, became Governor of Louisiana in 1854, and was 
 made a brigadier-general in 1861. 
 
 Hebrail, -Sa'bRal' or Aa'bRt'ye, (Jacques,) a French 
 bibliographer, born at Castelnaudary in 1716. He pub- 
 lished "La France litteraire," (2 vols., 1769,) which is 
 praised for accuracy. Died about 1800. 
 
 Hecart, Ai'kSR', (Gabriel Antoine Joseph,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Valenciennes in 1755; died 
 in 1838. 
 
 Hecatseus, hek-a-tee'us, [Gr. 'EwzTaioc ; Fr. He- 
 catEE, ha'kS'ta',] OF Abde'ra, a Greek historian, who 
 lived about 330 B.C. He wrote a work on the Hyper- 
 boreans, and another on Egypt. Fragments of these are 
 extant. 
 
 Hecataeua of Mi-le'tus, son of Hegesander, lived 
 about 500 B.C. He was an eminent geographer, and one 
 of the earliest Greek historians. Like Herodotus, he 
 travelled in Egypt and other countries to obtain mate- 
 rials for history. His works were highly esteemed by 
 the ancients. 
 
 See Klalsen, " De Vita et Scriptis Hecatxi ;" C. MUcler, " De 
 Vila et Scriptis Hecataei." 
 
 Hecate, heVa-te or hek'at, [Enurr/,] in Greek my- 
 thology, was the daughter of Perses and Asteria. She 
 is first mentioned by Hesiod, and appears to have been 
 unknown in the age of Homer. Her attributes were 
 various and apparently contradictory : she was said to 
 dispense blessings and avert misfortunes, and was also 
 described as a cruel infernal deity, presiding over magic 
 and nocturnal incantations. She was represented with 
 a hideous aspect, having her head surrounded with ser- 
 pents, and infernal dogs howling around her. 
 
 Hec'a-ton, [Gr. 'Ekutuv,] a Greek Stoic philosopher, 
 born at Rhodes, lived in the first century after Christ. 
 
 Hecht, heKt, (Christian,) a German philologist and 
 Lutheran divine, born at Halle in 1696; died in 1748. 
 
 Heck, van, vtn h?k, (Jan,) an excellent Flemish 
 painter of landscapes, flowers, and fruit, born near 
 Oudenarde about 1625. He worked in Rome and Ant- 
 werp. Died after 1660. 
 
 Heck, van der, vln der h?k, (Niklaas.) a Dutch 
 painter of Alkmaar, was born about 1580. He excelled 
 in landscape and history, was a good colorist, and skil- 
 ful in chiaroscuro. Died in 1638. 
 Heck, von. See Hegius. 
 
 Heckel, hek'el, (Johann Friedrich,) a German 
 philologist, born at Gera about 1640; died in 1715. 
 
 Hecker, hek'ker, (August Friedrich,) a German 
 physician and medical writer, born near Halle in 1763 ; 
 died in 181 1. 
 
 Hecker, (Friedrich Karl Franz,) a German radi- 
 cal politician and lawver, born in Baden in 181 1. After 
 the revolution of 1848-49 he emigrated to the United 
 States, and settled at Belleville, Illinois. 
 
 Heck'er, (Isaac Thomas,) an American theologian, 
 born in New York in 1819. He became a Roman 
 
 Catholic priest about 1848. He published "Question* 
 of the Soul," (1855,) and other works. 
 
 Hecker, (Justus Friedrich Karl,) son of August 
 Friedrich, noticed above, was born at Erfurt in 1795. 
 He published "The Black Death in the Fourteenth 
 Century," and other valuable medical treatises. Died 
 in 1850. 
 
 Heckewelder, heVeh-weTder, (Rev. John,) a Mora- 
 vian missionary, born in Bedford, England, in 1743, was 
 employed many years among the Delaware Indians. He 
 wrote an interesting, but' rather flattering, account of the 
 " History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations," 
 (1819.) " His account," according to General Cass, "is 
 pure unmixed panegyric." His death is variously dated 
 1810, 1823, and 1826. 
 
 See E. Rondthaler, "Life of J. Heckewelder," Philadelphia, 
 
 «S47. 
 
 Heckscher, hek'sh?r, (Johann Gustav Moritz,) a 
 German politician, born at Hamburg in 1797. As a 
 member of the Parliament of Frankfort, he voted for 
 the Archduke John as vicar of the empire, and was ap- 
 pointed by him minister of justice and of foreign affairs 
 in 1848. He was removed from office before 1849. 
 
 Hecquet, /$&'ki', (Philippe,) an eminent French phy- 
 sician, born at Abbeville in 1661. In 1688 he began to 
 practise at Port-Royal, where he adopted habits of rigid 
 abstinence and other austerities, to which he adhered to 
 the end of his life. In 1697 he became a member of the 
 Faculty of Paris, who employed him as professor of ma- 
 teria medica. He advocated the free use of the lancet, 
 and wrote numerous professional treatises, one of which 
 is called " Novus Medicinse Conspectus," (1722.) It is 
 said that Hecqnet was the prototype of " Doctor San- 
 grado" in " Gil Bias." He was sometimes called " the 
 French Hippocrates." Died in 1737. 
 
 See Saint-Marc, "ViedeP. Hecquet ;"" Biographie MHicale." 
 
 Hec'tor, [Gr. 'E/crop; It. Ettore, et-to'ra,] a famous 
 Trojan hero, the eldest son of Priam and Hecuba, was 
 the most valiant defender of Troy when that city was 
 besieged by the Greeks. His character is one of the 
 most admirable conceptions of Homer's genius. After 
 performing prodigies of valour, fighting single combats 
 with Ajax and Diomed, and slaying Patroclus, he was 
 killed by Achilles. 
 
 See Homer's " Iliad," passim. 
 
 Hec'u-ba or Hek'a-be, [Gr. 'Eku/?j?,- Fr. HEcube, 
 a'kiib',] was the second wife of Priam, King of Troy. 
 She was the mother of nineteen children, among the most 
 celebrated of whom were Hector, Paris, Cassandra, and 
 Helenus. Having, after the fall of Troy, been enslaved 
 by the Greeks, she threw herself into the sea. Other 
 accounts state that she was stoned by the Greeks and 
 was metamorphosed into a dog. 
 
 Hecube. See Hecuba. 
 
 Hed'dlng, (Elijah,) an American Methodist bishop, 
 born in the State of New York in 1780. He was elected 
 a bishop about 1824. Died at Poughkeepsie in 1852. 
 
 H^delin. See Aubicnac, d\ 
 
 Hedenborg, hii'den-boRg', (Johan,) a Swedish phy- 
 sician and traveller, born at Heda in 1787, visited the 
 Levant in 1825. He published "The Manners and Cus- 
 toms of the Turks," (1839-42,) and "Travels in Egypt 
 and the Interior of Africa," (1843.) 
 
 Hederich, ha'deh-riK', or Hed'er-ic, (Benjamin,) 
 an eminent German lexicographer, was born at Geithain, 
 in Saxony, in 1675. He was rector of the College of 
 Grossenh'ain for forty-two years, and published ninny 
 useful school-books, among which are a " Lexicon Mnnu- 
 aleGrsecum," (1722,) and a "Dictionary of Mythology," 
 (1724.) The former was extensively used in Germany 
 and England. An improved edition was published by 
 Ernesti in 1766. Died in 1748. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruher, "Allgemeioe Encyklopaedie ;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gc*ne>ale." 
 
 Hedge, (Frederick Henry,) D.D., a distinguished 
 scholar and Unitarian divine, born at Cambridge, Mas- 
 sachusetts, December 12, 1805. He studied in Germany; 
 after his return he graduated, in 1825, at Harvard, where 
 also he was a student in divinity. He officiated for some 
 years in West Cambridge; and in 1835 he removed to 
 Bangor, Maine. In 1847 he visited Europe a second 
 time, and on his return was settled for a few years in 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, h, K, guttural; N, nasal; %, trilled; I as t; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HEDGE 
 
 1 1 52 
 
 HE E REN 
 
 Providence, Rhode Island. He was invited in 1856 to 
 take the pastoral charge of the Unitarian church at 
 Brookline, Massachusetts, where he still resides. In 
 1857 he was chosen professor of ecclesiastical history at 
 the divinity school of Harvard. The same year he be- 
 came editor of the "Christian Examiner," to which he 
 has made many valuable contributions. Of his numerous 
 publications the most important are "The Prose Writers 
 of Germany," (1848,) "Reason in Religion," (1865,) and 
 "The Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition," (1870.) 
 Dr. Hedge is distinguished for his varied learning and 
 high literary culture, as well as for strength, originality, 
 and acuteness of intellect ; and his writings are destined, 
 we doubt not, to take a permanent piace in his country's 
 literature. 
 
 See " North American Review" for , 1848. 
 
 Hedge, (Levi,) the father of the preceding, born at 
 Warwick, Massachusetts, in 1767, was for many years 
 professor of logic and metaphysics at Harvard. His 
 "System of Logic" (1818) had a great success, and was- 
 translated into German. Died in 1843. 
 
 Hedg'es, (Sir Charles,) an English politician, gradu- 
 ated at Oxford in 1675. In 1700 he was appointed one 
 of the chief secretaries of state. About the same time 
 he was returned to Parliament, in which he sat many 
 years. The Whigs dismissed him from the office of 
 secretary in 1706. Died in 17 14. 
 
 Hediu, ha-deen', (Sven Anders,) a Swedish medical 
 writer, born in Smiland in 1750, was a pupil of Linnaeus. 
 He became first physician to the King of Sweden in 
 1798. He wrote, besides other works, a "Eulogy on 
 Linnaeus," (1808.) Died in 1821. 
 
 Hedio, ha'de-o, (Kaspar,) a German Protestant 
 divine, born at Ettlingen, in Baden, in 1494. He be- 
 came about 1520 court preacher at Mentz, whence he 
 removed to Strasburg in 1523. He preached in the 
 cathedral of this city, and made many converts. He 
 wrote a work on the history of his times, called " Chron- 
 icon Germanicum," (1530,) and other works. Died in 
 1552. 
 
 See Melchior Adam, " Vita; Germanorum Philosophorum ;' 
 MM. Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Hedlinger, het'ling-er, (Johann Karl,) an eminent 
 Swiss engraver of medals, born at Schwitz in 1691, 
 learned his art with Saint-Urbain, of Nancy. He went 
 to Paris in 1717, after which Charles XII. of Sweden 
 appointed him director of the mint. In 1735 he accepted 
 an invitation from the Russian court, which rewarded 
 him with large presents. He also engraved for other 
 European courts. He is thought to approach the per- 
 fection of the ancients more closely than any other 
 modern artist. Died in 1771. 
 
 See Nagi.er, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Hedouin, ^a'doo-a.N', (Charles Francois,) a French 
 naturalist, born in Paris in 1761 ; died in 1826. 
 
 Hedouin, (Edmond,) a French painter of landscapes 
 and genre, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1819. 
 
 Hedouin, (Pierre,) a French litterateur and musician, 
 born at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 17S9. 
 
 Hedouin de Pons-Ludon, /;a'doo-aN' deh p6s lu'- 
 d6N', (Joseph Antoine,) a French poet and litterateur, 
 born at Rheims in 1739; died in 1817. 
 
 Hedouville, <4a'doo'vel', (Gabriel Theodore Jo- 
 seph,) Count, a French general, born at Laon in 1755. 
 He succeeded Hoche in 1797 as general-in-chief of the 
 army of the West, where the royalists were in arms. He 
 served as chief of the staff of Jerome Bonaparte in the 
 campaign of 1806. Died in 1825. 
 
 Hed'wig, written also Hedwige and Jadwiga, 
 Queen of Poland, born in 1371, was a daughter of Louis 
 of Hungary, and was chosen by the Polish nobles to 
 succeed him on the throne in 1384. She was married 
 to Jagellon, Duke of Lithuania. Historians represent 
 her as beautiful and wise. Died in 1399. 
 
 Hed'wig, hgd'wig, (Johann,) a celebrated German 
 botanist, born at Cronstadt, in Transylvania, in 1 730. 
 He made several important discoveries with the micro- 
 scope, which he used with great skill. He published in 
 1795 his "Analytic Description and Designs of New 
 and Doubtful Cryptogamous Plants," (4 vols, fol.,) which 
 is esteemed a standard work ; also, " Observations on 
 
 the True Parts of Generation in Mosses," which he wis 
 the first to discover. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" "Edin- 
 burgh Encyclopaedia." 
 
 Heede, van, vSn ha'deh, (Vigor,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Fumes in 1659. He worked in Fiance and Italy, 
 and his native place. Died in 1718. 
 
 Heede, van, (Willem,) a skilful painter, a brother of 
 the preceding, was born in 1660. He worked at Rome, 
 Venice, and Vienna, where he was patronized by the 
 emperor. His colouring, design, and composition are 
 praised. Died in 1728. 
 
 Heem, van, vin ham, (Jan David,) an excellent 
 Dutch painter of fruit, flowers, and still life, born at 
 Utrecht in 1600. He is regarded as one of the greatest 
 painters in his department of art. His works have an 
 exquisite finish without the appearance of effort, and 
 were sold for very high prices. Died in 1674. 
 
 His son, Cornklis, was a painter of similar subjects. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Heemskerk, van, vin hams'kjRk, written also 
 Hemskerk, (Jacob,) a brave and skilful naval officer, 
 born at Amsterdam. He commanded an expedition sent 
 in 1595 to explore a northeast passage to China, but 
 was not successful, his progress being obstructed by ice. 
 Having obtained the rank of admiral, and the command 
 of a fleet of twenty-six vessels, he signally defeated the 
 Spaniards near Gibraltar in 1607. Heemskerk and the 
 Spanish admiral were both killed in this action. 
 
 See Engelberts Gerrits, " Leven en Daden der Zeehelden J. 
 van Heemskerk en P. P. Hein," 1825; Motley, "United Nether- 
 lands," vol. iv. chaps, xl.-xlvii. 
 
 Heemskerk, van, (Martin,) an eminent Dutch his- 
 torical painter, born at Heemskerk in 1498. His family 
 name was Van Veen. He studied with J. Schoorel, 
 and produced at Haarlem a fine picture of "Saint Luke 
 Painting the Virgin Mary." About 1532 he visited 
 Rome, where he consulted and imitated Michael Angelo. 
 He afterwards returned to Haarlem. His design is cor- 
 rect rather than elegant. Among his works is "Mars 
 and Venus surprised by Vulcan." Died in 1574. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Heerbrand, hau'bRant, (Jakob,) a German Lutheran 
 divine, born at Giengen, in Suabia, about 1520, studied 
 under Luther at Wittenberg. He was professor of the- 
 ology at Tubingen for about forty years, and wrote 
 "Compendium Theologiae," (1573.) Died in 1600. 
 
 Heere, de, deh ha'reh, (Lucas,) a skilful Flemish 
 painter and poet, born at Ghent in 1534, was the son 
 of John de Heere, a noted sculptor. He was patronized 
 by the court of France, and worked some years in Eng- 
 land, where he painted portraits of Queen Elizabeth and 
 of some of the nobility. Among his works are "The 
 Pentecost," and a " Resurrection." He wrote, in Flemish, 
 "The Garden of Poetry," (a poem.) Died in 1584. 
 
 See Houbkaken, "Vies des Peintres;" Descamps, "Vies des 
 Peintres Flamands," etc.; P. Blommaert, " Levensschets van L. 
 de Heere," 1853. 
 
 Heeren, ha'ren, (Arnold Hermann Ludwig,) an 
 eminent German historian, born near Bremen in October, 
 1760. Having studied philology at Gottingen under 
 Heyne, he visited Italy, Paris, and the Netherlands. 
 He published in 1801 an edition of the "Eclogae 
 Physics et Ethicae" of Stobaeus, and about the same 
 time became professor of history at Gottingen, having 
 previously married a daughter of Heyne. His " Ancient 
 History" ("Geschichte der Staaten des Alterthums") 
 appeared in 1799, and his "History of the Political Sys- 
 tems and Colonies of Europe" in 1809. His greatest 
 work, " Ideas on the Politics, Commerce, and Trade of 
 the Principal Nations of Antiquity," ("Ideen iiber die 
 Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten 
 Volker," etc., in 5 vols.,) was completed in 1824, and is 
 generally allowed to possess merits of the highest order. 
 Heeren was editor for a time of the "Gelehrten An- 
 zeigen" at Gottingen, and also had a share in the publi- 
 cation of the " Library of Ancient Literature and Art." 
 He was a member of the principal learned societies of 
 Europe. Died at Gottingen in 1842. 
 
 See C. Hoeck, "A. H. L. Heeren: Gedachtnissrede," 1843; 
 Jacob Geei.. "Levensschets van A. H. I.. Heeren," Delft, 1822; 
 " Nouvelle Riographie GeneVale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 January, 1S38; North American Review" for January, 1829. 
 
 I. e, 1, 6, ft, J, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good: modn; 
 
HE ER KENS 
 
 '•53 
 
 HE IB ERG 
 
 Heerkens, haVkens, (Gerard Niki.aas,) a Dutch 
 physician, and writer of Latin verse, born at Groningen 
 in 1728. He owed his reputation chiefly to his discovery 
 of the country-house of Horace in Italy. He composed, 
 besides other Latin poems, " Iter Venetum," ("A Vene- 
 tian Tour," 1760,) and gave an interesting account of 
 his travels in Italy in a book called " Notabilia," (1765.) 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 Heermann, haR'mln, (Johannes,) a German divine 
 and poet, born in Silesia in 1585. His sacred songs, 
 entitled " Music of the House (or Home) and Heart," 
 (1644,) are highly esteemed, and many of them are still 
 used in the churches. Died in 1647. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Heers, van, vtn haRs, (Hendrik,) of Liege, a Flem- 
 ish medical writer, brim about 1570; died about 1636. 
 
 Heffter, hef'ter, (August Wh.helm,) a German jurist 
 and legal writer, born at Schweidnitz in 1796. 
 
 Heffter, (Moritz Wii.hf.lm.) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was the author of a treatise " On the Religion of 
 the Greeks, Romans, Ancient Egyptians, and Indians," 
 (2d edition, 1848,) and other works. 
 
 Hegel, ha'gel, (Gf.org Wilhelm FRiF.DRiCH,)one of 
 the most eminent philosophers of the German school of 
 metaphysics, was born at Stuttgart in 1770. At the age 
 of eighteen he entered the University of Tubingen as 
 student of theology. Here he formed an intimate ac- 
 quaintance and friendship with Schelling, although the 
 two friends became subsequently rival candidates for the 
 leadership of German philosophy. On leaving the uni- 
 versity he engaged as a private teacher, first at Berne and 
 afterwards at Frankfort-onthe-Main. He became in 
 1801 a lecturer in the University of fena. In the same 
 year appeared his first important work, "On the Differ- 
 ence between the Philosophical Systems of Fichte and 
 Schelling." In 1806 he became professor-extraordinary 
 of philosophy at Jena ; but, that town having soon after 
 been taken by the French, he was thrown out of employ- 
 ment. For some time he edited a political paper at Bam- 
 berg. Here was published (1807) his " Phaenomenology," 
 the first part of his "System of Knowledge." In 1808 
 he was appointed rector of the gymnasium at Nurem- 
 berg, where he finished his "Science of Logic," ("Wis- 
 senschaft der Logik," in 3 vols., 1812-16.) In 181 1 he 
 married Marie von Tucher, a lady of strong religious 
 convictions and rare moral virtues. He was devotedly 
 attached to her, and their union was eminently a happy 
 one. He was called in 1816 to the chair of philosophy 
 at Heidelberg, and while here published his "Encyclo- 
 paedia of the Philosophical Sciences," in which his whole 
 scheme of philosophy is comprised. In 1818 he suc- 
 ceeded at Berlin to the professorship of philosophy left 
 vacant by the death of Fichte. He died of cholera in 
 183 1. Soon after his death his works were collected 
 and published at Berlin, in 18 vols., (1832-41.) 
 
 The philosophy of Hegel is regarded by his followers 
 as by far the most logical, complete, and comprehensive 
 of all the pantheistic systems. With our narrow limits 
 it would be impossible to give even a satisfactory out- 
 line of his scheme. Suffice it to say that it is generally 
 regarded as the completion of the great philosophic 
 edifice of which Kant had laid the foundations, and to 
 which Fichte and Schelling had contributed important 
 materials. One of the most striking peculiarities of 
 I legel's philosophic system is the complete identification 
 of logic with metaphysics. The Hegelians have been 
 divided into three classes, (according to the nomenclature 
 of the French legislative assemblies,) namely, the right, 
 the centre, and the left. The right maintain that the 
 Hegelian philosophy is perfectly harmonious with ortho- 
 dox Christianity : in other words, it is Christianity viewed 
 in its philosophic aspects. The left, represented by such 
 writers as Strauss, Michelet, Ruge, etc., for the most part 
 deny the personality of God, as well as the truths of 
 Christian revelation, though they differ as to whether the 
 universe is purely material or spiritual in its essence. 
 The centre (it is scarcely necessary to say) occupy mid- 
 dle ground : here belong Rosenkrautz, Vatke, Gans, etc. 
 "Hegel's system, [of philosophy, |" says Dr. Hedge, 
 "has produced a profound impression upon the German 
 mind. The theological and philosophical controversies 
 
 of the day rage around it. It is reputed to be the most 
 comprehensive and analytic of pantheistic schemes. Its 
 author and some of his disciples have asserted that it is 
 the same system, in the form of philosophy, which Chris- 
 tianity gives us in the form of faith. But its present 
 position is that of hostility to Christianity." ("Prose 
 Writers of Germany.") 
 
 For a full account of Hegel's system, see J. M. Sterling, " Secret 
 of Hegel," 2 vols. svo, London, 1865; F. Adolf Trendelenburg, 
 "Logische Untersiiclmngen," 2 vols., 2d edition, 1862; ]. Wii.i.m,' 
 " Histoire de la Philosophic Allemande depuis Kant jusqu'a Hegel.'"' 
 (Pans, 4 vols.. 1S46.) vol. iii. See, also, K. F. Goeschkl, " Hegel 
 und seine Zeit," lierlio, 1832; Rosenkrantz, "G W. F. Hegel's 
 Leben," 1844 ; Prevost, " Hegel, Exposition de sa Doctrine," 1844: 
 C. de Remitsat, "De la Philosophic Allemande," 1X45; Haym, 
 "Hegel und seine Zeit," 1857; Cousin, "Souvenirs d'un Voyage 
 en Allemagne," 1857. 
 
 He-ge'mon ['Hy^uwi'] of Thasos, an Athenian comic 
 poet, flourished about 450 B.C. Aristotle attributes the 
 invention of parody to him. 
 
 Hegemon, an Athenian orator, who favoured the 
 Macedonian party. Died in 317 B.C. 
 
 Hegendorf, ha'gen-douf, (Christoph,) a German 
 philologist, and friend of Luther, born at Leipsic in 
 1500 ; died in 1540. 
 
 He-ge'sl-as, I'Hv^o-far,] a Greek orator and historian, 
 was born at Magnesia, and lived about 300 or 250 B.C. 
 He wrote a " History of Alexander the Great," which 
 appears to have had little merit. Several ancient critics 
 censure the inflated style of his oratory, which was one 
 of the first examples of the " Asiatic" style. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Grids." 
 
 Hegesias, a Cyrenaic philosopher, who is supposed 
 to have lived about 300 B.C., was a disciple of Aristippus. 
 He founded a new sect, called Hegesiacs, maintained 
 that happiness is impossible, and that death is prefera- 
 ble to life. His doctrines induced so many to commit 
 suicide that Ptolemy closed his school. 
 
 Hegesias the sculptor. See Hegias. 
 
 Hegesippe. See Hegesippus. 
 
 Heg-e-sip'pus, [Gr. 'HyijatTnroc; Fr. H«g6sippe, 4'- 
 zh&'zep',) an Athenian orator, who lived about 340 11. c. 
 He advocated a declaration of war against Philip of 
 Macedon, and was a colleague of Demosthenes in an 
 embassy to the Peloponnesians. 
 
 Hegesippus, an ecclesiastical historian, was a Jew by 
 
 birth, and lived at Rome in his later years. Having been 
 
 converted to Christianity, he wrote a " History of the 
 
 Church," which was the first essay ever made in that 
 
 department. A few fragments of his work have been 
 
 preserved by Eusebius. Died about 180 A.D. 
 
 See Ai.i.emand-Lavigbrie, "De Hegesippo Disquisitio his- 
 torica," 1850. 
 
 Hegetschweiler, ha'get-shwTle/, (Johann,) a Swiss 
 botanist, born at Richerschweil in 1789, produced a 
 " Flora" of Switzerland. Died in 1839. 
 
 Hegewisch, ha'geh-ftish', (Dietrich Hermann,) a 
 German historian, born near Osnabriick in 1740. He 
 wrote a "History of Charlemagne," (1772,) and a "His- 
 tory of the Emperor Frederick II. ,"(1792.) Died in 1812. 
 
 He'gl-as, I'llyfar, I a famous Greek sculptor, who lived 
 about 450 B.C. and was a contemporary of Phidias. 
 Among his works was a statue of Minerva mentioned by 
 Pliny. By some writers he is regarded as identical with 
 Hegesias, an eminent sculptor of the same period. 
 
 Hegira, (Hejra.) See Mohammed. 
 
 Hegius, ha'ge us, or von Heck, fon hek, (Ai.kx- 
 andkr,) a German scholar, bom at Heck, in Westphalia, 
 about 1440, was a pupil of Thomas a Kempis. He taught 
 the classics for thirty years in the College of Deventer, 
 where Erasmus and other eminent men were hi> pupils, 
 and was the first who introduced the study of Greek into 
 Holland. 1 Ic wrote Latin verses, and dialogues " De Sci- 
 entia," etc., and " De Rhetorica." Erasmus classes He- 
 gius among the restorers of classic learning. Died in 1498. 
 
 See Sax, " Onomasticon Literarium." 
 
 Heiberg, hr'Wuc, (Johan Ludwig,) a popular 
 Danish dramatis! and poet, born at Copenhagen in 1791. 
 He produced in 1811 a drama called "Tvcho Hrahe's 
 Prediction," and passed several yean In Prance, from 
 which he introduced the vaudeville Into Denmark. 
 Among his successful tjramaa Ol that kind are Solomon 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled; s as »; th as in this. 
 
 11 
 
 (JJ^^See F.xplanations, p. 33.) 
 
HE IB ERG 
 
 1154 
 
 HEIMDJLL 
 
 and the Hatter," (1S26,) and "The Danes in Paris," 
 (1833.) He received in 1829 the title of royal dramatic 
 poet and translator. He published several metaphysical 
 works, among which is "The Significance of the Phi- 
 losophy of the Present Day," (" Ueber die Bedeutung 
 der Philosophic der Gegenwart," 1833.) His poetical 
 works were published in 9 vols., (1833-41.) Died in Paris 
 in i860. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations- Lexikon;" Howitt, "Litera- 
 ture and Romance of Northern Europe," vol. ii. 
 
 Heiberg, (Johanne Louise,) whose maiden name 
 was Johanne Louise Paiges, born at Copenhagen in 
 1812, was the wife of the preceding, and was the favourite 
 actress of that capital. She was successful in comedy, 
 tragedy, and the opera. 
 
 Heiberg, (Peder Andreas,) a distinguished Danish 
 dramatic poet, born at Vordingborg in 1758, was the 
 father of Johan Ludwig Heiberg. Having been banished, 
 on a charge of seditious writing, in 1799, he went to Paris, 
 where he was employed until 1814 by Napoleon and 
 Talleyrand as translator in the department of foreign 
 affairs. He wrote, in Danish, " Heckingborn," a comedy, 
 "The Voyager to China," and other dramas; also a 
 " Historical and Critical Summary of the Danish Mon- 
 archy," (1820,) and various other works. Died in Paris 
 in 1841. His wife, Thomasina Christina Buntsen, 
 an authoress, is noticed in this work under Gyli.em- 
 bourg, which see. 
 
 See Memoirs of Heiberg's Life in France, by himself, entitled 
 "Erindringer at min politiske og literaire Vandel i Kiankrige," 
 1830; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Peder An- 
 dreas Heiberg. " Tre Aar i Bergen ; autobiografisk Episode," 1S29. 
 
 Heidanus, hl-da'nus, (Abraham,) a theologian and 
 Cartesian philosopher, born in the Palatinate in 1597, 
 became professor of theology at Leyden about 1647. 
 Died in 1678. 
 
 Heideck. See Heidegger, (Karl Wii.hei.m.) 
 
 Heidegger, hl'dek'er, (Joha.nn Heinrich,) a Swiss 
 author and Protestant divine, born in the canton of Zurich 
 in 1633. He became professor of Hebrew at Heidelberg 
 in 1656, and of theology at Zurich in 1666. He wrote, 
 in Latin, a "Biblical Manual," (1680,) a "History of the 
 Papacy," (1684,) "Anatome Concilii Tridentini," (1672,) 
 and other works on theology. Died in 1698. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Historia Vila; J. H. Heideggeri," 1698. 
 
 Heidegger, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss adventurer, 
 born at Zurich in 1659 or 1660, was called "the Swiss 
 Count." He was patronized by George II. of England 
 as master of revels, manager of operas, etc. Died in 1 749. 
 
 Heidegger, von, ton hi'dek'er. or Heideck, hl'dek, 
 (KARL Wii.hei.m,) a German general and artist, born at 
 Saaralben, Lorraine, in 1788, was Baron von Heideck. 
 He fought as an officer for the liberation of Greece about 
 1826. In 1830 he settled at Munich as an artist, and 
 produced many remarkable pictures, the subjects of 
 which are taken from Grecian history or scenery. He 
 painted in the Glyptothek a fresco of the " Four-Horse 
 Chariot of the Sun." About 1832 he went to Greece 
 with King Otho, whom he served as chamberlain. He 
 afterwards obtained the rank of general in the Bavarian 
 army. Died in February, 1861. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Heideloff, hl'deh-lof, (Karl Alexander,) a German 
 architect, son of Victor Peter, noticed below, was born 
 at Stuttgart in 1788. He built the castles of Landsberg 
 . and Altenstein, restored the cathedral of Bamberg, and 
 designed many fine structures at Nuremberg. Among 
 his writings is a "Treatise on the Orders of Architec- 
 ture," (1827.) 
 
 Heideloff, (Victor Peter,) a German painter, born 
 at Stuttgart in 1757 ; died in 1818. 
 
 Heidenstein, hl'den-stln', (Reinhold,) a German 
 historian, born in 1555, wrote, in Latin, a "History of 
 Poland," (1672.) Died in 1620. 
 
 Heil, van, vfn hil, (Daniel,) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Brussels in 1604, had a high reputation as a painter 
 of landscapes and conflagrations. Among his master- 
 pieces is "The Burning of Troy." 
 
 Heil, van, (Jean Baptiste,) a good painter of history 
 and portraits, brother of the preceding, was born at Brus- 
 sels in 1609. He died after 1661. His brother Leo 
 painted insects and flowers with success. 
 
 Heilbronner, hll'bRon'ner, (Johann Christoph,) a 
 German mathematician, born at Ulm about 1700, pub- 
 lished "Historia Matheseos universal," (1742.) Died 
 about 1747. 
 
 Heilmann, hil'man, [Lat. Heilman'nus,] (Johann 
 David,) an eminent German Hellenist, born at Osna- 
 briick in 1727, obtained the chair of theology at Gbttin- 
 gen in 1758. Among his works are a good German 
 translation of Thucydides, (1760,) and, in Latin, a "Com- 
 pendium of Dogmatic Theology," (1761,) which is re- 
 markable for elegance of style. Died in 1764. 
 
 See G. G. Hevne, "Heilmanni Memoria," 1764. 
 
 Heilmann, hil'man, (Johann Kaspar,) a historical 
 painter, born at Mulhausen, (Mulhouse,) in Alsace, in 
 1 7 18. He studied at Rome, and removed in 1742 to 
 Paris, where his portraits were in great request. He 
 also employed his talent with success on paintings for 
 churches and on landscapes. Died in 1760. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgeineines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Heilmannua. See Heilmann. 
 
 Heim, him, (Ernst Ludwig,) a German physician 
 and medical writer, born in 1747, practised in Berlin. 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 Heim, /iaN, (Francois Joseph,) a French historical 
 painter, born at Belfort (Haut-Rhin) in 1787. He gained 
 the grand prize in 1807, went to Rome, with a pension, 
 afterward* worked in Paris, and was chosen a member 
 of the Institute in 1829. Among his works are "The 
 Clemency of Titus," (1819,) "The Defeat of the Cimbri 
 by Marin's," (1853,) and portraits of many eminent men. 
 
 See T. Gautier, " Les Beanx-Arts en Europe." 
 
 Heim, (Georg Christoph,) a naturalist, brother of 
 Ernst Ludwig, noticed above, was born at Solz in 1743. 
 He published a " German Flora," (" Deutsche Flora," 
 2 vols., 1 799-1800.) Died in 1807. 
 
 Heim, ( Johann Ludwig, ) a German geologist, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Solz in 1741. He 
 wrote a "Treatise on the Geology of the Mountains of 
 Thuringia," (6 vols., 1796-1812.) Died in 1819. 
 
 Heimbach, hlm'baK, (Carl Wilhelm Ernst,) a 
 German jurist, born at Merseburg in 1803. 
 
 Heimburg, hlm'bdoKG, [Lat. Hkimisur'gius,] (Gre- 
 gor,) an eminent German jurist, was born at Wiirzburg. 
 At the Council of Bale he opposed the pretensions of 
 the pope, and in 1431 settled at Nuremberg. He died 
 in 1472, and left several legal works, which exhibit an 
 acute intellect and a noble spirit of freedom. 
 
 See J. A. Bai.lenstadius. "Vita Heimburgii," 1737- 
 
 Heimburgius. See Heimburg. 
 
 Heimdall, him'dal, or Heimdallr, [etymology un- 
 certain,] a god in the Northern mythology, regarded as 
 the watchman of the ^Esir, and the warder of heaven, is 
 called a son of Odin, but on the maternal side is de- 
 scended from the Jotun race. He drinks mead in his 
 bright hall, called Himinbjorg, (" Heaven's Castle,") at 
 the bridge-head where the rainbow (Bifrost*) reaches 
 heaven. He sleeps less than a bird, and sees by night, 
 as well as by day, more than a hundred leagues around 
 him. His hearing is so acute that he can hear the grass 
 grow in the meadows of the earth, and the wool on the 
 back of the sheep. When he blows upon his trumpet, 
 called Gjallar-hom, (or Gjaller-horn,) it is heard through 
 all the worlds. His teeth are said to be of gold, and he 
 has a horse with a golden mane. It is not improbable 
 that the name of this god may be some change or cor- 
 ruption of Heimdellingr, (" home of dawn,") as the dawn 
 seems to keep still watch in heaven for the approach of 
 day, and may well be said to ride on a horse with a 
 golden mane. The original fable of Heimdall, if it ever 
 had any distinct allegorical significance, would seem to 
 have been not a little confused by incongruous additions, 
 made probably at a later period. 
 
 See Mallet, "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. Fable XV.; 
 Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," voL i. p. 200 rt scq. ; Kbvser, 
 " Religion of the Northmen ;" Pete rsen, " Xordisk Mythologt. 
 
 * The name Hi frost, >'""' '"/". to "tremble," and rilst, a "road" 
 or "way," signifying the " trembling or swinging way," was applied 
 to the rainbow, perhaps on account of its apparent want of stability, 
 i,r its inconstancy. Its curved form may have suggested the idea of 
 Heimdall 's great horn, (the Gjallar-horn, i.e. the "yelling or loud- 
 sounding hunt,") which he blows on the approach of any extraordinary 
 danger. It was actually believed that at the " end of the rainbow" a 
 golden treasure was hidden, and that golden money fell from the bow. 
 
 5, e, T, 5, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
HEIN 
 
 »>SS 
 
 HE IN ROTH 
 
 Heiii or Heyn, liln, (Pieter,) a brave Dutch admiral, 
 bum at Delftshaven in 1570, was the son 01" a common 
 sailor. In 1628 he captured in the Day of Matan/.as a 
 Spanish fleet, with a rich cargo of silver. For this ex- 
 ploit he was made a vice-admiral. In 1629 he defeated 
 the French near Dunkirk, and lost his life in the action. 
 
 See Engblberts Gerrits, " Leven en Daden der Zeehelden J. 
 viu Hcemskerk en P. P. Hem," 1825; Southey, "History of Bra- 
 zil;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Heine, (Christian Gottlob.) See Heyne. 
 
 Heine, hl'neh, (Heinrich,) a celebrated German 
 poet and author, of Jewish extraction, born at Dussel- 
 dorf in 1800. He studied law at Bonn, Berlin, and Gbt- 
 tingen, and took his degree at the Gottingen university. 
 His first poems appeared in 1822, and were followed by 
 the tragedies of "Almansor" and " Radcliff," (1823.) In 
 1825 he renounced the Jewish faith, and professed Chris- 
 tianity; but he subsequently became an avowed unbe- 
 liever. His " Pictures of Travel" ("Reisebilder,"4 vols., 
 1831) were received with great favour, and were after- 
 wards translated by him into French, under the title of 
 "Tableaux de Voyages." His other principal world 
 are the "Book of Songs," (" Buch der Lieder," 1827,) 
 "Contributions to the History of Recent lielles-Lettres 
 in Germany," (" Heitrage zur Geschichte der neuern 
 schonen Literatur in Deutschland," 2 vols., 1833,) "Dei- 
 Salon," (4 vols., 1835,) "The Romantic School," ("Die 
 Romantische Schule," 1836,) and the poem of "Atta 
 Troll, a Summer Night's Dream," (1847.) Heine had 
 removed in 183 1 to Paris, where he married a French 
 lady, and where he resided till his death. About 1848 
 his health became very much impaired, and he lost his 
 sight; but he still employed himself in literary composi- 
 tion, with the assistance of an amanuensis. Among the 
 works he produced at this period are the " Romanzero," 
 (1851,) "Doctor Faust," (1851,) "Das Buch des Laza- 
 rus," (1854,) and the "New Spring," (" Neuer Fruh- 
 ling," 1855.) After an illness of eight years, a great part 
 of which time had been passed in extreme suffering, he 
 died in February, 1856. Several years before his death 
 he had renounced infidelity. The spirit of satire seems 
 to have been innate in Heine ; but it is not in satire 
 alone that he excels. For a certain simplicity and 
 grace of style, as well as for an exquisite vein of humour, 
 which is occasionally lighted up with flashes of the most 
 brilliant wit, Heine has no superior among the poets or 
 prose writers of Germany. His prose is remarkable for 
 its transparent beauty, and is perhaps unequalled by that 
 of any other German author except Goethe. 
 
 " Heine," says a critic in the " Westminster Review" 
 for January, 1856, "adds to Teutonic imagination, sensi- 
 bility, and humour, an amount of esprit that would make 
 him brilliant among the most brilliant Frenchmen. He 
 is a surpassing lyric poet, who has uttered our feelings 
 for us in delicious songs ; an artist in prose literature, 
 who has shown even more completely than Gbthe the 
 possibilities of German prose." 
 
 See "Heinrich Heine." in Matthew Arnold's "Essays;" 
 " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1835 ; " Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1856; "North British Review" for May, i860 ; 
 " Eraser's Magazine" for November, 1866. 
 
 Heine, (Salomon,) an opulent German banker and 
 philanthropist, born at Hanover in 1766, was a Jew, and 
 uncle of Heine the poet. He lived at Hamburg, and 
 gave large sums of money for charitable institutions. 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 See J. Mknuelssohn, "S. Heine, Blatter der Wurdigung und 
 Erinnerung," 1845. 
 
 Heineccius, hi-neVse-us, or Heinecke, hl'nJk-keh. 
 (Joiiann GOTTLIEB,) an eminent German jurist, born at 
 Kisenberg in September, 1681. He became professor 
 of philosophy at Halle in 1713, obtained a chair ol law 
 there in 1720, and removed to Franeker in 1723. He 
 afterwards lectured a few years at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
 was appointed prolcssor of law at Halle in 1733, and 
 published numerous works, which were esteemed as high 
 authority. He invented a new method of teaching juris- 
 prudence, called "the axiomatic." Among his principal 
 works are " Klements of Civil Law according to the 
 Order of the Institutes," ("Flcmcnta Juris civilis secun- 
 dum Ordinem Institutionum," 1725,) " Klements of Civil 
 Law according to the Order of the Pandects," ("Lle- 
 
 menta Juris civilis secundum Ordinem Pandectarum," 
 1728,) "Elements of the Law of Nature- and Nations," 
 ("Elements Juris Naturae et Gentium," 1730,) and a 
 " History of Roman and German Law," (in Latin, 1733.) 
 Died in 1741. 
 
 See " Commentarius de Vita et Scriptis T. G. Heineccii," by his 
 son, Johann Christian Gottlieb, 1765; Hiksching, "Histonsch- 
 literarisches Hantlbucli," 17 vols., 1794-1815; Ersch und Gkuber, 
 " AHgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Heineccius or Heinecke, (Johann Michael,) a 
 writer and eloquent preacher, brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Eisenberg in 1674. He became pastor at 
 Halle about 1710. He published several antiquarian 
 works. Died in 1722. 
 
 Heinecke. See Heineccius. 
 
 Heinecken, hl'nek-ken, (Christian Heinrich,) 
 known as " the Boy of Lubeck," born in that city in 
 1721, was a brother of Karl Heinrich von Heinecken, 
 noticed below. He was one of the most remarkable in- 
 stances of mental precocity on record. At the age of 
 two years he was well versed in the history of the Bible, 
 in his third year learned French and Latin, and in his 
 fourth studied ecclesiastical history. He died in 1725, 
 
 See C. von Schonhich, " Leben, Tliaten, etc. des Knaben von 
 Lubeck," Lubeck, 1726. 
 
 Heinecken, von, fori hi'neVken, or Heinecke, 
 (Karl Hejnrich,) a German writer on art, bom at 
 Lubeck in 1706. He published in 1755 a splendid work 
 entitled "Collection ol Prints from the Most Celebrated 
 Pictures of the Royal Gallery at Dresden," and " Diction- 
 naire des Artistes, etc. dont nous avons des Kstampes," 
 (4 vols., 1778-90, unfinished.) Died in 1791. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "AHgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Heinicke, hl'nik-keh, (Samuel,) born at Weissenfels 
 in 1729, was the founder of a system of instruction for 
 deaf-mutes. About 1778 he established at Leipsic the 
 first institution for the education of the deaf and dumb 
 in Germany, of which he continued director till his death, 
 in 1790. He published a treatise "On the Dispositions 
 of Deaf-Mutes," and other works. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "AHgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Heinlein, hln'lln', (Heinrich,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man landscape-painter, born at Nassau- Weilburg in 
 1803, worked for many years in Munich. Among his 
 favourite subjects are sombre forests and Alpine glaciers. 
 
 Heinrich, (Emperors or Princes of Germany.) See 
 Henry. 
 
 Heinrich, hin'riK, (Karl Friedrich,) a learned 
 German critic, born in the duchy of Saxe-Gotha in 1774. 
 He was successively professor of Greek and of eloquence 
 at the Universities of Kiel and Bonn. He edited the 
 works of Juvenal and 1'crsius, and Cicero's " De Re 
 Publica," and was the author of "Epimenidesaus Creta," 
 an essay on Epimenides and his works, which is highly 
 esteemed. Died in 1838. 
 
 Heinrich der Glichezare, hin'riK ch?R gliK'et-sa'reh, 
 a German poet, supposed to have been the author of 
 " Reineke (or Reinhart) Fuchs," lived about 1150-90. 
 
 See J. Grimm, " Reinhart Kuchs;" Gervinus, "Geschichte der 
 Deutsche!) Literatur." 
 
 Heinrich der Grosse. See Henry IV., (of France.) 
 Heinrich der Lowe. Sec Henry the Lion. 
 Heinrich der Stolze. See Henry hie Proud. 
 Heinrich von Anhalt, hin'riK fou nn'halt, a Ger- 
 man poet, of noble birth, lived in the thirteenth century. 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 Heinrich von Breslau, hin'riK fori bues'low, a Ger- 
 man poet, and Duke of lireslau, lived about 1 280. 
 See Longfku.iiw. " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 Heinrich von Moriing, hin'riK fon mo'rdong, a 
 German minnesinger of the early part of the thirteenth 
 century. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 Heinrich von Rispach, hin'riK Ion ris'paK, a Ger- 
 man minnesinger, surnamed HIE VirtuousClerk, lived 
 about 1 1 70-90. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 Heinroth, hln'iot, (JoHANN Christian Fkii drich 
 Auoust,) a German physiologist, was lxjrn at Leipsic 
 in 1773. He became professor of medicine at Leipsic 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, Y.,guttural; K, natal; R, trilled; s as *; »h as in this. (jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HEINSE 
 
 .56 
 
 HEL 
 
 in 1812, and published, besides other works, a "Treatise 
 on Nosology," -(1810,) a "Manual of Anthropology," 
 (1822.) and a work on psychology, (1827.) Died in 1843. 
 
 Heinse, hin'seh, (Johann Jakob Wilhf.lm,) a Ger- 
 man litterateur, born in Thuringia about 1748. He visited 
 Italy in 1780-83, and became secretary to the Elector 
 ofMentz in 1787. He published translations of Tasso's 
 "Jerusalem Delivered," (1781,) and of Ariosto's "Or- 
 lando," and several immoral fictitious works, the style of 
 which is admired. His romance "Ardinghello" (1787) 
 contains eloquent criticisms on painting. Died in 1803. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Heinsius, lun'se-us, (Antoon,) an eminent Dutch 
 statesman, born in 1641, was elected in 16S9 grand pen- 
 sionary of Holland, and re-elected at the end of each 
 successive term of five years until his death. He per- 
 formed an important part in the political affairs of his 
 time, especially in the coalition against Louis XIV. of 
 France. Heinsius, Prince Eugene, and Marlborough 
 formed a triumvirate which directed the affairs of the 
 allied powers. He enjoyed in a high degree the con- 
 fidence of William III. of England, to whom he ren- 
 dered great services. Among the allies he was the last 
 to assent to the peace with Louis XIV. He was an 
 accomplished negotiator, reserved but polite in manner, 
 simple and moderate in his way of life. Died in 1720. 
 
 See Van der Heim, " Dissertatio historico-politica He A. Hein- 
 sio," 1834; Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV ;" Rapin, "History 
 of England ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais ;" Saint Simon, 
 "Meiuoires;" Macaulay, " History of England," vol. iii. chap. xi. 
 
 Heinsius, (Daniel,) a distinguished Dutch scholar 
 and linguist, born at Ghent in 1580, studied at the 
 Hague and at Leyden, where he became the pupil and 
 friend of Scaliger. About 1600 he was appointed Latin 
 and Greek tutor, and in 1606 professor of history and 
 politics, in the University of Leyden. His reputation 
 for learning was such that several sovereigns invited him 
 to their courts ; but he declined to leave his native land. 
 Gustavus Adolphus conferred on him the dignity of 
 privy councillor, and the States of Holland appointed 
 him their historiographer. In 1618 he officiated as sec- 
 retary of the Synod of Dort. His Latin poems, published 
 in 1602, were admired by his contemporaries ; but his 
 reputation now rests chiefly on his editions of Aristotle, 
 Horace, Livy, Ovid, and other Greek and Latin classics. 
 He wrote also Latin orations, Dutch verses, and Greek 
 verses. "Grotius," says Hallam, " had the reputation 
 of writing with spirit and elegance ; but he is excelled 
 by Heinsius, whose elegies may be ranked high in 
 modern Latin." (" Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe.") Died in 1655. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Fop- 
 pens, "Bibliotheca Belgica ;" T. Creuzer, "Zur Geschichte der 
 classischen Philologie." 
 
 Heinsius, (Niklaas,) an eminent philologist, a son 
 of the preceding, was born at Leyden in July, 1620. 
 After he had visited the principal seats of learning in 
 Europe, and had become distinguished as a scholar and 
 critic, he accepted in 1649 an invitation from Christina, 
 Queen of Sweden, and remained in her service about 
 five years. In 1654 he was appointed minister of the 
 United Provinces at the court of Sweden. His leisure 
 hours were passed in the cultivation of poetry and in 
 classic studies. In 1667 he was sent on an embassy to 
 the court of Russia, from which he returned in 167 1. 
 He published editions of Claudian, (1650,) Ovid, (1652.) 
 Virgil, (1664,) and Valerius Flaccus, (1680.) He also 
 wrote several Latin poems, (1666,) which are com- 
 mended for purity and elegance. Died in 1681. 
 
 See Burmann, " N. Heinsii Vita," prefixed to the "Adversaria" 
 of Heinsius. 1742; Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopae- 
 die;" Foppens, "Bibliotheca Belgica." 
 
 Heinsius, hTn'se-us, (Otto Frikdrich Theodor,) 
 a German philologist, born in Berlin in 1770. He be- 
 came director of the College of Graue-Kloster. Among 
 his works, which are much esteemed, are a " History of 
 German Literature," (1810; 6th edition, 1843,) and a 
 "Popular German Dictionary," (4 vols., 1818-32.) Died 
 in 1849. 
 
 Heintzelman, hTnt'sel-man', (Samuel P.,) an Ameri- 
 can general, born in Pennsylvania about 1807, graduated 
 at West Point in 1826. He served as colonel at Bull 
 
 Run, July, i86l,soon after which he became a brigadier- 
 general. He commanded a corps in the battles near 
 Richmond in June, 1862, and took part in the second 
 battle of Bull Run, August, 1862. 
 
 Heinz or Heintz, hints, (Joseph,) a distinguished 
 Swiss painter, born at Berne about 1555. He was em- 
 ployed by the emperor Rudolph at Prague, and after- 
 wards in Italy, where he copied the works of the best 
 masters. Among his works is "The Rape of Proser- 
 pine." He died at Prague about 1600. 
 
 Heinz, (Joseph,) a son of the preceding, was a painter 
 of high reputation. He adorned the churches and pal- 
 aces of Venice. Died in 1660. 
 
 Heinze, hint'seh, (Valentin August,) a German 
 historian, born at Liineburg in 1758. He published, be- 
 sides other works, a " History of Humanity," (5 vols., 
 1780-85.) Died in 1801. 
 
 Heinzman, hlnts'man, (Karl Friedrich,) an emi- 
 nent German landscape-painter, born at Stuttgart in 
 1795. He worked at Munich. 
 
 Heiss, von, fon hiss, (Johann.) a historian, born in 
 Germany, wrote, in French, a " History of the Empire, 
 containing its Origin, Progress, etc.," (3 vols., 1685.) 
 Died in Paris in 1688. 
 
 Heister, hTs'ter, (Lorenz,) an eminent German sur- 
 geon, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1683, was pro- 
 fessor of surgery at Helmstedt from 1719 to 1758. He 
 published a treatise "On Surgery," ( 1 7 1 9, ) and an 
 "Anatomico-Surgical Lexicon," (1753.) The former is 
 a standard work of its kind, and has been translated into 
 the principal European languages. Died in 1758. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Hir- 
 sching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch,-" 17 vols. ; Meelbaum, 
 "Leichenpredigt auf Dr. L. Heister," 1758. 
 
 Hejra or Hejrah. See Mohammed. 
 
 Hekabe. See Hecuba. 
 
 HS1 or He'la, [Icelandic pron. ha'la; from hilan, to 
 "conceal,"] in the Norse mythology, the goddess of 
 death, and the queen of the world of shades. She is 
 represented as the offspring of Loki and the giantess 
 Angurboda. Soon after her birth, the /Esir, fearing her 
 growing power, cast her down into Niflheim,* (the 
 " home or habitation of fogs or mist,") and gave her the 
 rule over nine realms or worlds, to the nine entrances 
 of which Gray makes allusion in the following lines : 
 
 " Down the yawning steep he rode 
 That leads to Hela's drear abode, 
 Till full before his fearless eyes 
 The portals nine of Hell arise." 
 
 Her hall is called Eliudnir, said to signify the "wide 
 place of clouds or storms;" her dish is Hunger, and her 
 knife Starvation, (Stilt.) Under one of the three roots 
 of the great life-tree Yggdrasil, in Niflheim, is the foun- 
 tain Hvergelmir, from which flow the streams of Hell. 
 In this fountain dwells the malignant serpent or monster 
 Nidhogg, who constantly gnaws at the root of the tree 
 of life. (See Nidhogg.) As, on the one hand, all those 
 men who fell bravely in battle belonged either to Odin 
 or Freyia and were brought by the Valkyries to Val- 
 halla, so, on the other, all those who died of sickness or 
 old age belonged to Hela, and were inexorably doomed 
 to dwell in some one of her gloomy realms. 
 
 The following lines descriptive of " Hela's dreat 
 abode" are from Matthew Arnold's poem entitled 
 " Balder Dead :" 
 
 "And he beheld spread round nim Hela's realm, 
 The plains of Niflheim, where dwell the dead, 
 And heard the thunder of the streams of Hell. 
 For near the wall the river of Roaring flows, 
 Outmost ; the others near the centre run, — 
 The Storm, the Abvss, the Howling, and the Pain ; 
 
 And from the dark flocked up the shadowy tribes, 
 Women, and infants, and young men who died 
 Too soon for fame, with white ungraven shields; 
 And old men known to glory, but their star 
 Betrayed them, and of wasting age they died. 
 Not wounds ; yet dving they their armour wore, 
 And now have chief regard in Hela's realm." 
 
 The aspect of Hela herself is usually represented as 
 peculiarly grim and horrid, the upper part of her body 
 being livid, as from congealed blood. In one of the fables 
 
 * Nifl is related etymologically to the Greek veif}f\tj, Latin nebula, 
 (German Nebel,) a "cloud" or "mist." 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, h, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, 11, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£ t; nftt; good; moon; 
 
HELD 
 
 1157 
 
 HELLOT 
 
 of the Edda, however, she makes her appearance as a 
 toothless old woman. (See Thor.) 
 
 Sec Tiioki'k, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Keyser, " Religion 
 of the Northmen;" Mallet. "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. 
 - XVI., XXV., and XXVI.; Petersen, " Nordisk My 
 thologi." 
 
 Held, helt, (Willibald,) a German writer on law, 
 born at Erolzheim in 1726; died in 1789. 
 
 Hele, hal, or Hales, sometimes written D'Hele, 
 (Thomas,) an English dramatic writer, born in Glouces- 
 tershire in 1740. He settled in Paris about 1770, and 
 learned to write in French with ease and elegance. He 
 produced, in French, several successful comedies, among 
 which are "The Judgment of Midas," (1778,) and "The 
 Jealous Lover." Died about 1780. 
 
 HSl'en, JGr. 'Eaew?; Lat. Hkl'ena ; Fr. Hei.enk, 
 a'lin'; It. Elena, i-la'na,] a Grecian princess, cele- 
 brated for her transcendent beauty, was the daughter 
 of Leda and the Spartan king Tyndarus, or, according 
 to other authorities, of Leda and Jupiter. At an early 
 age her hand was sought by some of the most renowned 
 princes of Greece, among whom were Ulysses, Ajax, 
 1 tiumedes, and Menelaus. At the suggestion of Ulysses, 
 Tyndarus bound the suitors by an oath to submit to 
 the choice which Helen should make, and to unite in 
 her defence if any attempt should be made to carry her 
 away from her husband. She selected Menelaus, from 
 whom, after a short union, she was abducted by Paris, 
 son of Priam, upon which the Greek kings declared war 
 against Troy. After the death of Paris, Helen married 
 his brother Deiphobus, whom, after she became recon- 
 ciled to Menelaus, she betrayed into the hands of the 
 latter. The accounts of her death are various : the most 
 probable is that she was put to death by Polyxo, Queen 
 of Rhodes, whose husband had been killed at Troy. 
 Helena, the Latin of Hklen, which see. 
 Hel'e-na, Saint, [Fr. Sainte-Helene, saN'ta'l&n'; 
 It. Sant' Elena, sant-a-la/na,] mother of the emperor 
 Constantine, was born of a humble family at Drepa- 
 num, in Pithynia, about 250 A.D. She became the wife 
 of Constantius Chlorus, who, having been raised to 
 the rank of Caesar in 292 a.d., divorced her in order to 
 marry Theodora. The accession of Constantine to the 
 throne restored her to prosperity and honour. About 
 325 she made a pilgrimage to Palestine, where she 
 built the church of the Holy Sepulchre and that of the 
 Nativity. Died in 327. 
 
 Helena, daughter of Constantine the Great, was mar- 
 ried at Milan in 355 a.d. to her first-cousin Julian, who 
 had just become a Caesar and was afterwards Emperor 
 of Rome. She died at Vienne, in Gaul, in 359. 
 
 Hel'e-nus, [Gr. 'EX^oc ; Fr. Hei.enus, i'la'niis',] 
 a son of Priam and Hecuba, was celebrated as a sooth- 
 sayer. Having been captured by the Greeks, he declared 
 that Troy could not be taken unless Philoctetes would 
 repair to the siege. After the fall of Troy he fell to the 
 share of Pyrrhus, who gave him Andromache in mar- 
 riage and left him at his death a portion of his kingdom. 
 Heli, a Sanscrit name of the sun. See SOrya. 
 Heli, the French for Eli, which see. 
 Heliade, hel'e-ad, (John,) a celebrated poet, born 
 at Turgowiste, (Tergovist,) in Rumania, about 1800. He 
 founded in 1831 a journal called " The. Wallachian 
 Courier." Among his poems are " Mircea," a drama, 
 (1844,) and a national poem, "Michael the Hrave," (1846.) 
 Hel-I-co-uI'a-des, a name given to the Muses, be- 
 cause they lived on Mount Helicon. (See Mus/E.) 
 
 Helie, /fca'le', (Faustin,) a French jurist, bom at 
 Nantes about 1798, published "Traite de l'Instruction 
 criminelle," (8 vols., 1845-58.) He was elected a mem- 
 ber of the Institute in 1855. 
 
 Helinand, //i'le'iids', (DAN,) a French poet, who had 
 a high reputation in his time. Died about 1225. 
 Heliodore. See Heliodori's. 
 He-H-o-do'rus, [Gr. 'H/itorlupoc ; Fr. Heliodore, 
 4'le'o'doR',] a Greek statuary of an uncertain epoch, is 
 favourably mentioned by Pliny. His master-piece was a 
 marble group called " Symplegma," which was at Rome 
 in the time of Pliny. 
 
 Heliodorus, a Greek surgeon, lived at Rome, and 
 was a contemporary of Juvenal, who mentions him in 
 his Tenth Satire. 
 
 Heliodorus, born at Emessa, in Syria, in the fourth 
 century, became Bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly. He 
 wrote in his youth a celebrated Greek romance entitled 
 " ^Ethiopica,' f which narrates the adventures of two 
 lovers, named Theagenes and Chariclea. It was first 
 printed in 1534, and has been translated into many lan- 
 guages. The style is pure and polished, the incidents 
 are novel and natural, and the characters are admirably 
 sustained. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Hayi.e, "Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary ;" Dunlop, " History of Fiction ;" Eksch und 
 Guuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Villemain, "Notice sur 
 les Romans Grecs." 
 
 Heliodorus of Larissa, a Greek mathematician of 
 an uncertain epoch, wrote a short treatise on Optics, 
 which is extant. 
 
 Heliogabale and Heliogabalus. See Elagabalus. 
 
 HeTI-os, [Gr. "Haioc, Lat. He'lius,) the god of the 
 sun in the Greek mythology, represented as the son of 
 Hyperion. He was partially identified with Apollo by 
 the Romans ; but, in the poems of Homer, Helios and 
 Apollo were distinct persons. (See Al'OLLO.) 
 
 Hell, hel, (Maximilian,) an able Hungarian astrono- 
 mer, born at Schemnitz in 1720, became a Jesuit about 
 1738. From 1756 to 1792 he held the official position 
 of astronomer and director of the Observatory at Vienna. 
 He distinguished himself by a successful observation 
 of the transit of Venus which he made in Lapland in 
 June, 1769, and of which he published an account, " De 
 Transitu Veneris," etc., (1770.) He published annually 
 from 1757 to 1786 " Ephemerides," which were esteemed. 
 Among his works (in Latin) are a "Treatise on the Par- 
 allax of the Sun," (1773,) and "Methodus Astronomica 
 sine Usu Quadrantis vel Sectoris," (1774.) Died in 1792. 
 
 See Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 
 Hell, (THE.ODOR.) See Winkler, (Karl Gottfried.) 
 
 Hel-la'dl-us, a Greek grammarian, born in Egypt, 
 lived about 325 a.d. He composed, in Iambic verse, a 
 " Chrestotnathie," of which some fragments are preserved. 
 
 Helladius, a Greek grammarian, born at Alexandria, 
 lived in the fifth century after Christ. 
 
 Helladius, (Alexander,) a Greek of Thessaly, who 
 lived about 1700. He wrote a curious Latin work, entitled 
 "The Present State of the Greek Church," published in 
 1714 at Altorf, Germany, where he then resided. 
 
 Hel-la-ni'cus ['E/'J'luvucoc] of Mitylene, an early 
 Greek prose writer and historian, was born probably 
 about 495 B.C. He was the best or most distinguished 
 writer of the class called logographers. Among his 
 works were a " History of Argos," a " History of Attica," 
 and a "History of Persia." Only small fragments of 
 his writings are extant. He died about 410 B.C. 
 
 See Pkku.kk. " Dissertatio de Hellanico Lesbio Historico," 1840; 
 C M0LLSR, "De Hellanico." 
 
 Hel'le, [Gr. 'Eaaj/,] a daughter of Athamas and Ne- 
 phele. The poets relate that she was persecuted by her 
 step-mother too, and was rescued by a golden-fleeced 
 ram, on the back of which she rode through the air; but 
 she fell into the sea, (since called Hellespont, or "sea 
 of Helle,") and was drowned. 
 
 Hel'len, [Gr. "FJui)v,] the mythical ancestor of the 
 Helle'nes, or Greeks, was supposed to be a son of Deu- 
 calion and Pyrrha, and the father of /Eolus, Dorus, and 
 Xuthus. The name Hellenes was afterwards applied to 
 the whole Greek nation. 
 
 Heller, hel'ler, (JOSEPH,) a German writer on art, 
 born at Bamberg in 1708. lie published a " Manual for 
 Amateurs of Engravings," (3 vols., 1823-36,) ".Docu- 
 ment! (Bttirag) for the History of Art," (182S,) "The 
 Life and \V,,rks of Albert Diirer," (1827-31,) and other 
 works. Died in 1849. 
 
 Heller, hel'ler, (Stkpiikn.) a Hungarian composer, 
 born at Pesth in 1813, became a resident nl Pari*. His 
 compositions lor the piano are much admired in Cet- 
 manv, and are regarded by some criin s as equal to those 
 
 ot Mendelssohn. 
 
 Hellichius, (Abraham.) See (Iistai skoi.d. 
 Hellot, /<J'lo', (Jkan,) a French chemist, born in 
 Paris in 1685, He was a Fellow of the Royal Society 
 
 of London and of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. 
 He edited the "Gazette de Prance" from 171S to 1732, 
 
 « as k; s as s; g hard; g as>; c, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; r, trilled; 3 as 1; th as in this. (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HELLV1G 
 
 1 1 58 
 
 HELST 
 
 and wrote a valuable treatise On the Art of Dyeing 
 Woollen Stuffs." Died in 1766. 
 
 Hellvig or Helwig, von, fon hel'vio, (Amalie,) 
 a German poetess, born at Weimar in 1776; died in 
 183 1. 
 
 Helm, (Benjamin Hardin,) an American general, 
 son of Governor John L. Helm, was born in Kentucky 
 in 1831. He graduated at West Point in 1851, took 
 arms against the Union in 1861, and was killed at the 
 battle of Chickamauga, September 20, 1863. 
 
 Helman, khVmbn', (Isidore Stanislas,) a French' 
 engraver, born at Lille in 1743 ; died about 1806. 
 
 Helmbreeker, helm'bRa'ker, (Diederik.) a skilful 
 Dutch painter, bom at Haarlem in 1624, worked mostly 
 lit Rome, and painted history and landscapes. Among 
 his works are a " Mater Dolorosa" and a " Nativity." 
 Died in 1694. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Helmers, hSI'mers, (Jan Frederik,) a popular Dutch 
 epic and lyric poet, born in Amsterdam in 1767. He 
 produced an ode entitled "Night," (1787,) a poem on 
 Socrates, (1790,) and an epic poem, called "The Dutch 
 Nation," ("De Hollandsche Natie," 1812,) the style and 
 versification of which are admired. He published his 
 minor poems in 2 vols., 1810. Died in 1813. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" H. H. 
 Klijn, "J. F. Helmers, geschetst in eene Redevoenng," 1815. 
 
 Helmersen, von, fon hel'nier-sSn', (Gregor, ) a 
 Russian geologist and traveller, born near Dorpat m 
 1803. Having explored Russia, Sweden, etc., he pub- 
 lished, in 1S31, "Observations on the Geology of the 
 Southern Ural." 
 
 Helmfeldt, helm'felt, (Simon Grundel,) Baron of, 
 a Swedish field-marshal, born at Stockholm in 1617, 
 distinguished himself ill the campaigns of Poland under 
 Charles X. He was killed at the battle of Landscrona, 
 in 1677. 
 
 Helmholtz. hSIm'holts, (Hermann Ludwig Ferdi- 
 nand,) an eminent German physiologist, mathematician, 
 and natural philosopher, born at Potsdam in 1821. He 
 became professor of physiology at Heidelberg in 1858, 
 and wrote some able treatises on the relations of physical 
 forces. One of these has been translated into English by 
 Professor John Tyndall, under the title of " Essay on the 
 Interaction of Natural Forces." Helmholtz stands in 
 the foremost rank among the living physiologists and 
 natural philosophers of Europe. He is a member of 
 the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and of 
 the learned societies of the other principal capitals of 
 Europe. 
 
 Helmich, hSI'miK, (Werner,) a Dutch Protestant 
 minister, born at Utrecht about 1550, preached at Utrecht 
 and Amsterdam, and promoted the Reformation in Hol- 
 land. Died in 160S. 
 
 Helmold, hel'molt, [Lat. Helmol'dus,] a German 
 historian and ecclesiastic, born near Lubeck, travelled 
 as a missionary among the Slavonians. He was the 
 author of a "Chronicon Slavorum," which, though rude 
 in style, is valuable for its accuracy. Died about 1 177. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis;" J. Moller, " Diatriba 
 de Helmoldo," 1782. 
 
 Helmoldus. See Hki.moi.d. 
 
 Helmont, van, vSn hel'mont, (Francis Mercurius,) 
 a physician, son of the following, born in Belgium in 
 1618, inherited his father's taste for the occult sciences, 
 on which he wrote several treatises. He professed to 
 believe in a universal remedy and the philosopher's 
 stone, and pretended thawhe had discovered the original 
 language. Died in 1699. 
 
 Helmont, van, (Jan Baptista,) a famous chemist, 
 physiologist, and visionary, was born at Brussels in 1577. 
 He studied medicine, which he practised gratis, and had 
 numerous disciples, though he was hostile to the doc- 
 trines of the Galenists. He seems to have been an 
 honest enthusiast, infected with the delusions of alchemy, 
 and to have spent much time and money in chemical 
 experiments, by which he made important discoveries. 
 " Van Helmont," says Dr. Iloefer, "is much superior to 
 Paracelsus, whom lie took in some measure as his model. 
 He had the durable glory of revealing scientifically the 
 existence of invisible, impalpable substances, — namely, 
 
 gases." He was the first who used the word gas as the 
 name of all elastic fluids except common air. He con- 
 tributed to the progress of physiology by an experiment 
 on a willow-tree, which he found to gain one hundred 
 and sixty-four pounds, while the soil in which it grew lost 
 only a few ounces! Among his works are one on the 
 magnetic cure of wounds, (" De magnetica Vulnerum 
 naturali Curatione," 1621,) and one on "The Origin of 
 Medicine," etc., (" Ortus Medicinse, id est Initia Physical 
 inaudita," 1648.) He died near Vilvorde in 1644. 
 
 See Loos, " Biographic des J. B. van Helmont," 1807 ; Caij.cau, 
 "Memoire sur Van Helmont," 1819; Kraknkel, " Dissertatio, Vita 
 et Opiniones Helmontii," 1837; Cuvier, "Histoire des Sciences 
 ualutelles ;" H0SP8R, " Histoire de laChimie ;" Rixn'er und Siber, 
 "J. B. Helmont," 1826. 
 
 Helmont, van, (Lucas Gassel,) an able Flemish 
 landscape-painter, who lived about 1595. 
 
 Helmont, van, (Matthew,) a Flemish painter of 
 Antwerp, born in 1653, painted markets, shops, etc. 
 with success. Died in 1726. 
 
 Helmont, van, (Segues Jacob,) an eminent Flem- 
 ish painter of history, born at Antwerp in 16S3, was a 
 pupil of his father, Matthew. He worked at Brussels, 
 and derived his subjects mostly from sacred history. 
 Among his chief works are "The Sacrifice of Elijah," 
 "Joseph Recognized by his Brethren," and "The Tri- 
 umph of David." His manner is noble, his colour good, 
 and his design correct. He was ranked among the 
 greatest Flemish painters of his time. Died in 1726. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Fiamands," etc. 
 
 Helmsdorf, helms'dORf, (Friedrich,) an able Ger- 
 man landscape-painter, born at Magdeburg in 17S4. 
 
 Heloise, i'lo'ez', Eloise, or Louise, a beautiful and 
 renowned Frenchwoman, born at Paris about 1100, was 
 a niece of Fulbert, canon of Notre-Dame. She was dis- 
 tinguished for her attainments in languages and philoso- 
 phy, and became successively the pupil, mistress, and 
 wife of Abelard. Soon after their marriage she entered 
 the convent of Argenteuil, of which she became prioress. 
 She afterwards acquired a high reputation for piety and 
 devotion. Her letters, written in elegant Latin, and 
 printed with those of Abelard, are the expressions of a 
 noble and fervent spirit. Died in 1 164. (See ABELARD.) 
 
 See LAMARTfrjE, "Celebrated Characters." 
 
 Helps, (Arthur,) a popular English essayist and 
 historian, born about 1818. He graduated at Cambridge 
 in 1835, and produced in 1843 "Catherine Douglas, a 
 Tragedy," in verse, which was received with favour. In 
 1847 he published, anonymously, a volume of dialogues 
 on moral questions, entitled "Friends in Council: a 
 Series of Readings and Discourses thereon," which was 
 generally admired for graceful style and original insight. 
 His nextwork was " Companions of my Solitude," (1S51,) 
 which a critic in " Blackwood's Magazine" considers 
 "far the most interesting of all Mr. Helps's essays." 
 Among his later works are "The Conquerors of the 
 New World, and their Bondsmen," (2 vols., 1848-52,) a 
 "History of the Spanish Conquest of America, and its 
 Relations to the History of Slavery," (3 vols., 1855-57,) 
 " Realmah, a Tale," and a " Life of Columbus," (1869.) 
 "A true thinker, who has practical purpose in his think- 
 ing," says Ruskin, "and is sincere, as Plato, or Carlyle, 
 or Helps, becomes in some sort a seer, and must be 
 always of infinite use to his generation." He held for 
 many years an office in the civil service, and became 
 clerk or secretary of the privy council about i860. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1859 ; " Blackwood's Ma- 
 gazine" for October, 1851; "Eraser's Magazine" for September, 
 1857- 
 
 Hel'sham, (Richard,) professor of physic and natural 
 philosophy in the University of Dublin. He was an 
 intimate friend of Dean Swift. Died in 1738. His lec- 
 tures on philosophy were published in 1739, and have 
 been often reprinted. 
 
 Heist, van der, vin der hSlst, (Bartholomew,) an 
 excellent Dutch portrait-painter, born at Haarlem in 
 1613. He painted landscapes in his youth, but he after- 
 wards confined himself mostly to portraits, and settled in 
 Amsterdam, Among his works is a picture of the militia 
 or trained bands, which is in the Stadt-House of Am- 
 sterdam, and which Sir Joshua Reynolds is said to have 
 
 a, e, f, 6, S, y, loftg; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HELVETIUS 
 
 "59 
 
 HEMSKERCK 
 
 pronounced " the best picture of portraits in the world." 
 Died about 1670. 
 
 See Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters;" Descamps, " Vies des 
 
 Pcintres Kiamands, Hollandais," etc, 
 
 Helvetius, heM-vee'she^us, [Fr. pron. eTva'se'iis',] 
 (Claude Adrien,) a celebrated French author and 
 philosopher, born in Paris in 1 7 1 5, was the son of Jean 
 Claude Adrien, noticed below, who destined him for 
 financial pursuits. At the age of twer.ty-three he ob- 
 tained, through the influence of the queen, a place as 
 farmer-general, which was worth one hundred thousand 
 crowns per annum. In 1751 he resigned this office, and 
 married an accomplished lady named l)e Ligniville or 
 \ i lie. He published in 1758 an ingenious meta- 
 physical work, entitled "On the Mind,'' ("De 1'Esprit,") 
 which was condemned by the court, the Jesuits, and the 
 bishops as the summary of the creed of the Encyclopae- 
 dists, and was burned by order of Parliament, thus ac- 
 quiring additional celebrity and a wider circulation. The 
 author publicly apologized, and disclaimed any pur- 
 pose to assail the Christian doctrines. He is admitted to 
 have been generous, and his life and character appear to 
 have been better than his writings, which, deriving all 
 virtue from self-interest, and condemning as folly all 
 actions proceeding from any higher motive, are in the 
 highest degree demoralizing. He wrote a poem "On 
 Happiness," and a treatise on "Man, his Faculties and 
 his Education," (1772.) In 1765 he was an invited and 
 honoured guest in the palace of Frederick the Great 
 Died ill 1771. 
 
 See Saint-Lambert, " Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages d'Helve- 
 tius;" J.i.MuMi.v. "Notice sur C. A. Helvelins," 1S23: William 
 MUDFORD, "Life of Helvetius," London, 1807; Voltaire, "C'OI- 
 mpondance:" Makmontel, "Me'moires;" Damikon, " Memoire 
 sur Helvetius," 1S53. 
 
 Ann'. CATHERINE de Ligniville, (len'ye'vcl',) Ma- 
 Dame Helvetius, the wife of the preceding, was born in 
 Lorraine in 1719. After the death of her husband her 
 house at Auteuil was the rendezvous of celebrated men, 
 among whom were Dr. Franklin, Turgot, and Thomas 
 Jefferson. Died in 1800. 
 
 See ]>r. ItouaBEL, " Notice sur Madame Helvetius." 
 Helvetius, heTvee'she^is, (Jan,) a classical scholar 
 and Latin poet of the eighteenth century, was born in 
 Amsterdam. He described in elegant verses his travels 
 in England, " Iter Britannicum," and wrote other works. 
 Helvetius, (Jkan Adrien,) a Dutch physician, born 
 about 1660. He was present in Paris on a visit during 
 the prevalence of dysentery, which he treated with such 
 success that Louis XIV. urged him to divulge the 
 remedy. He said it was ipecacuanha, and received from 
 the king a present of one thousand louisd'ors. He settled 
 in Paris, and became physician to the regent of the king- 
 dom, the Duke of Orleans. He wrote several treatises 
 on medicine. Died in 1727. 
 
 See " Biographic M^dicale ;" Moreri," Dictionnaire Historique." 
 Helvetius, (Jean Claude Adrien,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in Paris in 1685, graduated as physician in 
 1708. Having given proof of his professional skill, he 
 was in 1 7 19 called to attend Louis XV., then an infant, 
 whom he cured of a dangerous illness. After this he 
 enjoyed the confidence of the royal family, and was made 
 councillor of state, and first physician to the queen, 
 Marie Leczinski. He was a member of the Academies 
 of Sciences of Paris, Berlin, and London, and wrote 
 several professional treatises, among which is a "Method 
 of Curing the Principal Diseases," (1737.) Died in 1765. 
 See " Biographie Medicate;" Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 Helvicus, hel-vee'kus, or Helwig, hel'wig, (CHRIS- 
 Torn,) an eminent German- philologist, born near Frank- 
 fort in 1581. He could speak Latin, Greek, and Hebrew 
 at the age of fourteen, and became professor of Greek at 
 Giessen in 1605. Among his works are a "System of 
 Chronology," ("Theatrum Chronologicum," 1609,) and 
 a "General Grammar." Died in 1617. 
 
 Helwig, hel'wig, or Helwing, hel'wing, (Georg 
 Andreas,) a Prussian naturalist, born at Angerburg in 
 1666, became minister of the church at that town in 
 1705. 1 le wrote, besides other works, " Flora Quasimo- 
 dogenita," (1712,) a description of the indigenous plants 
 of Prussia, Died in 1748. 
 
 OI 1 I IIMJ.U l/ltll III I /-+''- 
 
 « as *; c as /; g Hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R. 
 
 Helwig, (Johann Otto,) a German physician and 
 alchemist, born in Thuringia in 1654. He became first 
 physician to the Elector-palatine, who appointed him pro- 
 at Heidelberg. He wrote a curious work, entitled 
 "Introitus in verani et inauditam Physicain," (1678,) and 
 several treatises on alchemy. Died in 1698. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Helyot, //i'le-o', (Pierre,) called also Pere Hip- 
 polyte, a French monk, born in Paris in 1660. He 
 wrote a " History of Military and Religious Monastic 
 Orders," said to be the most complete work on that 
 subject. Died in 17 16. 
 
 Hem'ans, (Felicia Dorothea,) an amiable and ex- 
 cellent English poetess, born in Liverpool on the 25th 
 of September, 1794, Was the daughter of a merchant 
 named Browne. About the year 1800 he removed with 
 his family to Grwy'ch, in North Wales. Her first volume 
 of poems was published in 1808. In 1812 she was mar- 
 ried to Captain Hemans, of the British army ; but the 
 union was not a happy one, and after the lapse of six 
 years they finally separated, their five children remain- 
 ing with the mother. In 1825 she removed to Rhyllon, 
 in Wales, and in 1828 resided at Wavertree, near Liver- 
 pool. She cherished a passionate love of poetry and 
 of natural scenery, and became the most popular of 
 English poetesses. Lord Jeffrey pronounced her poetry 
 " infinitely sweet, elegant, and tender, touching, perhaps, 
 and contemplative, rather than vehement or overpower- 
 ing. . . . We do not hesitate to say that she is the most 
 touching and accomplished writer of occasional verses 
 that our literature has yet to boast of." " In her poetry," 
 says Moir, " religious truth, moral purity, and intellectual 
 beauty ever meet together." The following are the titles 
 of some of her poems: "Domestic Affections," (1812,) 
 " Modern Greece," (181 7,) " Vespers of Palermo," (1823,) 
 "The Forest Sanctuary," (1826,) " Records of Woman," 
 (1828,) "National Lyrics," (1834,) and "Scenes and 
 Hymns of Life." Her character may be said to be truly 
 portrayed in her writings. She resided in Dublin from 
 1831 until her death, which occurred in 1835. 
 
 See H. F. Ciioki.ey, "Memoirs of Mrs. Hemans," 1S37: 
 "Memoir of Mrs. Hemans," by her sister. 1830; Saintk -Bkuve, 
 "Causeries du Lumli," tome iii. : Mrs. Ei.w<hu>, " Memoirs of the 
 Literary Ladies of Kneluid from the Commencement of the Last 
 Century ;" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 182a. 
 
 Hemelar, ha'meh-laV, (Jan,) a Dutch medallist and 
 poet, born at the Hague, wrote a commentary on Roman 
 medals. Died in 1640. 
 
 Hemert, van, vSn ha'inert, (Paui,) a Dutch philoso- 
 pher, born at Amsterdam in 1756. He published " Ele- 
 ments of the Philosophy of Kant," (4 vols., 1795,) and 
 other works. Died in 1825. 
 
 He-mi'na, ? (L. Cassius,) a Roman historian, who 
 flourished between 200 and 150 H.c. He wrote a history 
 or annals of Rome from the origin of the city to his own 
 time, which has not come down to us. This work is 
 often cited by Pliny, Nonius, and Aulus Gellius. 
 
 Hemingford, de, deh hem'ing-ford, (Walter,) was 
 a canon of Gisborough Ablwy, and wrote a "History of 
 England from 1066 to 1308." Died in 1347. 
 
 Hemling. See Memi.ing, (Hans.) 
 
 Hemmerlein. See Hammerlein. 
 
 Hemmiuga, hSm-ming'ga or hem-ming'Ha, (Sixtus,) 
 a Dutch mathematician, born in 1533; died in 1570. 
 
 Hem'pel, (Charles Julius,) a medical writer, born 
 at Solingen, Prussia, in 181 1, emigrated to the United 
 States about 1835. He produced, besides other works, 
 a "System of Homoeopathic Materia Medica and Thera- 
 peutics," (18^9.) 
 
 Hemprich, hem'pRiK, (Friedrich Wii.iiei.m,) a 
 German naturalist, was born at Glatz in 1796. He 
 accompanied Ehrenberg in the exploration of Egypt 
 and Arabia, and died at Massowah in 1825. He left 
 "Rudiments (Gruudriss) of Natural History," (1820.) 
 
 Hemskerck, hems'keRk ', (Eciiert,) called THE* >i .d, 
 an able Dutch painter, born at Haarlem about 1610, was 
 an attentive student of nature His favourite subjects 
 were lairs, leasts, and familiar scenes among the lower 
 classes, Died about 1680. 
 
 Hemskerck, (EGBERT,) the Young, born at Haar- 
 lem in 1645, was probably a son of the preceding. He 
 
 trilltd; 3 as a; th as in this. (jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HEMSKERK 
 
 1160 
 
 HENGSTENBERG 
 
 painted rural sports and wild, fanciful, or humorous 
 scenes. Died in London in 1704. 
 
 Hemskerk. See Heemskerk, van. 
 
 Hemsterhuys, hem'ster-hois', [Lat. Hemsterhu'- 
 SIUS,] (P'rans,) a meritorious philosopher, writer, and 
 moralist, born at Groningen in 1720, was a son of Tibe- 
 rius, noticed below. He passed the greater part of his 
 mature life at the Hague, where he was assistant secre- 
 tary or first clerk of the council of state. Among his 
 characteristic traits were simplicity, modesty, and libe- 
 rality of spirit. Like Plato, of whom he was an admirer, 
 he directed towards the ideal the intellectual and moral 
 activity of man. His favourite topics were the theory 
 of beauty in the arts, and questions of practical philoso- 
 phy. He wrote, in French, a " Letter on Sculpture," 
 (1769,) a "Letter on the Desires," (1770,) a "Letter on 
 Man and his Relations," (1772,) and.two dialogues, en- 
 titled " Sophyle, or on Philosophy," and " Aristee, or on 
 the Divinity," ("Aristee, ou de la Divinite," 1779.) Died 
 in 1790. 
 
 See Meyboom, "Comment, de Hemsterhusii Meritis," 1840; Van 
 de Weyer, " Notice sur Hemsterhuvs," 1827; Tijdeman, " Proeve 
 eener Lofrede op F. Hemsterhuvs," 1834; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GiSnirale." 
 
 Hemsterhuvs, (Tiberius,) a Dutch philologist, and 
 one of the most learned Hellenists of his time, was 
 born at Groningen in 1685. He became professor of 
 philosophy and mathematics at Amsterdam in 1704, and 
 continued the study of Greek until he had read all the 
 authors in that language. He was chosen professor of 
 Greek at Franeker in 1720, and obtained the same chair 
 at Leyden in 1740. In consequence of his efforts, the 
 study of Greek, which had been neglected, again became 
 popular in Holland. He published Lucian's " Dialogues," 
 (1708,) the " Plutus" of Aristophanes, (1744,) " Notes 
 on Xenophon of Ephesus," " Latin Orations," (1784.) 
 and other works. Died in 1766. 
 
 See Rinck, "T. Hemsterhuvs und David Ruhnken," 1801 : 
 David Ruhnken, " Elogium T. Hemsterhusii," 1768: Ersch und 
 Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Nouvelle Biographic Ge- 
 nerale." 
 
 Henao, a-na'o, (Gabriel,) a Spanish Jesuit, born at 
 Valladolid in 161 1, was for fifty years professor of posi- 
 tive theology at the University of Salamanca, of which 
 he was also rector. He gained a high reputation as a 
 casuist, and wrote numerous theological works. Died 
 in 1704. 
 
 Henault, /Sa'no', (Charles Jean Francois,) a 
 French historian, born in Paris in 1685. In youth he 
 cultivated literature and obtained a prize in the French 
 Academy, of which he became a member in 1723. His 
 wit, amenity, and politeness rendered him a favourite in 
 fashionable society, for which he composed ingenious 
 verses and songs. He became president of the first 
 Chambre aux Enquetes in 1710, and, a few years later, 
 superintendent of the queen's household. He gained 
 a conspicuous position among French authors by his 
 "Compendium of the History of France," ("Abrege 
 chronologique de 1'Histoire de France;" 2 vols., 1744,) a 
 work of great merit, which was often reprinted. Henault 
 wrote, besides other dramas, " Marius," a tragedy, (1715,) 
 and the "Awaking of Epimenides," a comedy, (1757,) 
 both of which were performed with success. Died in 1770. 
 
 See " M£moires du President Henault, Rentes par lui-meme," 
 1854 : Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi," tome xii. 
 
 Henault, (Jean.) See Hesnault. 
 
 HenckeL See Henkel. 
 
 Hen'der-son, (Alexander,) an able Scottish divine, 
 born in Fife in 1583, was a leader among the Covenanters. 
 He was repeatedly appointed a commissioner to treat 
 with Charles I., and was an adherent of Parliament in 
 the civil war. He contributed much to effect a union 
 between the Covenanters and the English Parliament. 
 Died in 1646. 
 
 See Aiton, "Life and Times of A. Henderson;" Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hen'der-son, (Ebknezf.r,) an eminent British biblical 
 critic, born at Dunfermline in 1784. He was employed 
 by the Bible Society to supply the people of Iceland 
 with a version of the Scriptures in 1814. He published 
 a "Journal of a Residence in Iceland," (2 vols., 1818,) 
 and " Biblical Researches and Travels in Russia," (1826.) 
 
 His commentary on Isaiah (of which he made a new 
 version, 1840) is highly commended. He was professor 
 of theology and minister of the Independents at High- 
 bury, near London. Died in May, 1858. 
 
 See Erslew, "Almindeligt Forfatter- Lexicon." 
 
 Henderson, (John,) a celebrated English actor, born 
 in London in 1746. In 1772 he performed at Bath, under 
 the name of Courtney, and in 1777 came to London, 
 where he attracted crowded houses in Drury Lane and 
 Covent Garden. He performed with great applause 
 the parts of " Falstaff," "Shylock," "Richard HI.," etc. 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 Henderson, (John,) born in Ireland in 1757, was dis- 
 tinguished for his genius and eccentricity. After teaching 
 Latin at the age of eight, and Greek four years later, he 
 was sent to Oxford University, where he was regarded 
 as a prodigy in learning and mental capacity. A fellow- 
 student, being vanquished by him in an argument, threw 
 a glass of wine into the face of Henderson, who calmly 
 remarked, "This is only a digression, sir: let us now 
 examine your argument." He wrote a few small poems 
 and essays. Died in 1788. 
 
 Henderson, (Thomas,) a Scottish astronomer, born 
 at Dundee in 1798, pursued for some years the profession 
 of an attorney. About 1830 he was employed as secre- 
 tary by Lord Jeffrey. Having devoted his leisure time 
 to astronomy, he was appointed in 1832 director of the 
 observatory at the Cape of Good Hope. He obtained 
 in 1S34 the charge of the Edinburgh Observatory, as 
 first astronomer-royal for Scotland, and performed the 
 duties of this post with credit until his death, in 1844. 
 Many of his astronomical treatises and observations 
 have been published, and are highly esteemed. About 
 1840 he ascertained that the star a Centauri has a paral- 
 lax of nearly one second, and is, consequently, about 
 18,918,000,000,000 miles from the sun. This was the 
 first fixed star of which the parallax has been measured. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement;) "Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale. " 
 
 Hen'dricks, (Thomas A.,) an American Senator, 
 born in Muskingum county, Ohio, in 1819. He studied 
 law, and settled in Indiana. He represented a district 
 of Indiana in Congress from 185 1 to 1855, was commis- 
 sioner of the general land office from 1855 to 1859, and 
 was elected a Senator of the United States for six years, 
 1863-69. In 1868 he was the Democratic candidate for 
 Governor of Indiana, and was defeated. 
 
 Henel von Hennefeld, ha'nel fon hen'neh-felt', 
 (Nikolaus,) a German jurist and historian, born in 
 Silesia in 1582. He was author of several legal and 
 historical works. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 He'n'frey, (Arthur,) F.R.S., an eminent English 
 botanist, born at Aberdeen on the 1st of November, 
 1819. He translated several botanical works from the 
 German, and wrote "Outlines of Structural and Physio- 
 logical Botany," (1847,) "The Vegetation of Europe," 
 (1852,) and an " Elementary Course of Botany, Structu- 
 ral, Physiological, and Systematic," (1857.) The last is 
 a work of high character. He co-operated with Dr. 
 Griffith in a " Micrographic Dictionary," (1857,) which is 
 highly prized. In 1854 he was chosen professor of botany 
 in King's College, London. Died in 1859. 
 
 Hengist, heng'glst, a Saxon chief, who founded the 
 kingdom of Kent, in England. About 450 A.D. the 
 Britons solicited the aid of the Saxons to defend them 
 against the Picts and Scots. Hengist and his brother 
 Horsa, at the head of a small army, came over, and, 
 after defeating the Picts and Scots, turned their arms 
 against their British allies. After many battles, in one 
 of which Horsa was slain, Hengist, aided by reinforce- 
 ments from Saxony, obtained possession of Kent, where 
 he reigned thirty years. Died in 488. 
 
 See Turner, " History of the Anglo-Saxons." 
 
 Hengstenberg, heng'sten-beur,', (Ernst Wii.helm,) 
 an eminent German orthodox theologian, born at Frdn- 
 denberg, in Prussia, in 1802. He became professor 
 of theology in the University of Berlin in 1829, and 
 chief editor of an influential religious journal, "Evan- 
 gelische Kirchenzeitung." He published several com- 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
HENJSCH 
 
 1 1 6 1 
 
 HENNIKER 
 
 mentaries on the Holy Scriptures, and " Christologie 
 des Alten Testaments," (" Christology of the Old Testa- 
 ment," 3 vols., 1829-35,) which has been translated into 
 English. He was one of the principal leaders of the 
 orthodox or Lutherans of Germany. Died in June, 1869. 
 
 Henisch, ha'nish, (Georg,) a philologist, born in 
 Hungary in 1549, published "Thesaurus Linguae et Sa- 
 pientiae Germanicae," ( 1 6 1 6, ) said to be the first good 
 dictionary of the German language, (though not ex- 
 tending beyond the letter H.) Hied in 1618. 
 
 Henkart, henk'art, (Pierre Joseph,) a lielgian poet 
 and judge, born at Liege in 1761 ; died in 1815. 
 
 Henke, henk'eh, (Adolf Christian Heinrich,) a 
 German physician, born at Brunswick in 1775, became 
 professor at Erlangen in 1805. He published a valuable 
 " Treatise on Legal Medicine," (1812; 12th edition, 1851.) 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Henke, (Heinrich Philipp Konrad,) an able Ger- 
 man theologian, born in the duchy of Brunswick in 1752, 
 became professor of theology at Helmstedt in 1780, and 
 subsequently vice-president of the Consistory at Bruns- 
 wick. He published, besides other works, an " Eccle- 
 siastical History," (6 vols., 1788-1804,) a work displaying 
 great learning and research, and "Lineamenta Insti- 
 tutionum Fidei Christians," (1783.) Died in 1809. 
 
 See F. A. Ludewig, "Abriss einer Lebensgeschichte Henkes;" 
 i ann und Wolff. " H. P. C. Henke, Denkwurdigkeiten aus 
 semem Leben," 1816; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Eucyklo- 
 paedie." 
 
 Henke, (Hermann Wilhelm Eduard,) a jurist, 
 brother of Adolf Christian Heinrich, noticed above, was 
 born in 1783. 
 
 Henkel or Henckel, hjnk'el, (Joachim Friedrich,) 
 a skilful Prussian surgeon, born in 1712. He practised 
 and lectured in Berlin, and published, besides other 
 works, "Medical and Surgical Observations," (1744.) 
 Died in 1779. 
 
 Henkel, (Johann Frif.drich,) an able chemist and 
 mineralogist, born at Freiberg, in Saxony, in 1679. He 
 was appointed couysellor of mines by King Augustus 
 II., and improved the porcelain fabrics of Meissen. He 
 wrote "Flora Saturnizans," (1722,) " Principles of Mine- 
 ralogy," (1747,) and other works. Died in 1744. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubbr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Henkle, henk'el, (Moses Montgomery,) D.D., an 
 American Methodist divine, born in Pendleton county, 
 Virginia, in 1798. In i86o-he removed to Philadelphia. 
 He wrote, besides other works, "Primary Platform of 
 Methodism," (1851.) 
 
 Henle, hen'leh, (Friedrich- Gustav Jakob,) a Ger- 
 man physician, born in Franconia in 1809, lwcame pro- 
 fessor of anatomy and director of the Anatomical Insti- 
 tute at Gottingen in 1852. He published a "Manual of 
 Rational Pathology," (1846-52,) and other medical works. 
 
 Hen'ley, (Anthony,) an English scholar and writer, 
 born in Hampshire, was educated at Oxford. In 1698 
 he was elected to Parliament, where he acquired much 
 influence. He was a person of distinguished wit, refine- 
 ment, and accomplishments, possessed a large fortune, 
 and was a liberal patron of literary men. He contributed 
 to the " Tatler" and the " Medley," and wrote lyric verses. 
 Died in 171 1. 
 
 His son Robert became lord chancellor 
 
 Henley, (John,) often called Orator Hf.NI.BY, was 
 Jy»m at Melton-Mowbray in 1692, and educated at Cam- 
 bridge. Before he had left the university, he wrote a 
 letter inserted in the 396th number of the " Spectator." 
 In I7i9he published a "Universal Grammar." Having 
 taken holy orders, he came to London and opeped a 
 chapel, where large crowds were attracted by his elocu- 
 tion and by his questionable modes of courting popu- 
 larity. Pope commemorates him in the "Dunciad as 
 "the Zany of his age." On Sundays he lectured on 
 theology, and on Wednesdays on politics, fashions, and 
 affairs In general. He edited a paper called the "Hyp 
 Doctor," — a farrago of nonsense, — by which, it is Mid, 
 he made one hundred pounds a year. Died in 1756. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. xiv., 1836 ; Disraeli, " Calami- 
 ties of Authors." 
 
 Henley, (Joseph "Warner,) a British conservative 
 legislator, born about 1794. He was elected to the 
 
 House of Commons for Oxfordshire in 1841. He was 
 appointed president of the board of trade by Lord Derby 
 in 1852, and again in 1858. On account of his hostility 
 to the Reform Bill, he resigned in 1859. 
 
 Henley, (Robert,) Lord Northington, son of An- 
 thony Henley, was born in 1708, and educated at Oxford. 
 He was called to the bar in 1732, and began to practise 
 in the Western Circuit, of which he afterwards became 
 the leader. In 1747 he was returned to Parliament for 
 Bath, and became an active debater. In 1756 he ob- 
 tained the place of attorney-general. According to Lord 
 Campbell, " Henley had not the most distant notion of 
 the great seal being offered to him ; but his mediocrity 
 was the real cause of his elevation;" and in 1757 he 
 was named lord keeper by Pitt, then one of the chiefs 
 of the ministry. After the accession of George HI., he 
 received in 1761 the title of lord chancellor, and was 
 created Earl of Northington. In 1766, after overturning 
 the Rockingham ministry, with which as a Tory he could 
 not agree, he resigned his office, and accepted that of 
 president of the council. He acquitted himself respect- 
 ably as a judge. Died in 1772. 
 
 See R. Henley, "Memoir of Robert Henlev, Earl of Northing- 
 ton ;" Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors ;" Foss, 
 "The Judges of England." 
 
 Hen'ne-pin, [Fr. pron. ^en'paN' or /ven'neh-paN',] 
 (Louis,) a missionary, was born in Flanders about 1640. 
 Having; a passion for exploring remote regions, he 
 embarked for Canada, arriving at Quebec in 1675, and 
 joined the party of La Salle in 1678. When they had 
 reached the Illinois River, La Salle being forced to re- 
 turn, Hennepin proceeded without him, in 1680, and 
 explored the Upper Mississippi as far as the falls, to 
 which he gave the name of Saint Anthony, and which 
 had not before been visited by any European. He re- 
 turned to Quebec in 1680, and sailed to France, where 
 he published in 1683-84 an account of his travels, under 
 the title of a "Description of Louisiana." Thirteen 
 years later, he published his " New Discovery of a Vast 
 Country situated in America," etc., which contained the 
 same matter as the former, with the addition oi an ac- 
 count of his voyage down the Lower Mississippi, which, 
 according to Professor Sparks, is a fabrication, copied 
 from Le Clercq's narrative. (Sparks's " Life of La 
 Salle.") Hennepin receives credit for courage and reso- 
 lution, and for general accuracy in his descriptions of 
 Indian life, etc 
 
 See Felix van Hulst, "Notice sur le Pere Hennepin d'Ath," 
 1845; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Hennequin, //en'kaN', (AmEdEe,) an advocate and 
 writer, a son of the following, born in Paris in 181 7, 
 wrote "The Conquest of Algeria," (1857,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Hennequin, (Antoine Louis Marie,) a distin- 
 guished French lawyer, born at Monceaux, near Paris, 
 in 1786. He had a high rank as an eloquent pleader, 
 and acted as counsel in many political trials. He de- 
 fended Peyronnet, ex-minister, in 1830, and was elected 
 to the Chamber of Deputies in 1834. In politics he was 
 a legitimist. His principal work is a " Treatise on Legis- 
 lation and Jurisprudence," (2 vols., 1838.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Hennequin, (Pierre Augusts,) a French historical 
 painter, born at Lyons in 1 763, was a pupil of David. 
 He studied in Rome, and was a zealous partisan of the 
 Revolution, after which he worked in Paris. Among 
 his capital works is "Orestes pursued by the Furies." 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 Heunet, //i'ni', (Albin Joseph Ui.pien,) a French 
 writer, born at Maulieuge in 1758. Among his wi.tks is 
 a " History of the French Academy," (6 vols., in manu- 
 script.) Died in 1828. 
 
 Henniges, von, <an hen'ne-ges', (Heinrich,) a Prus- 
 sian publicist, born at Wcissenburg in 1645. He repre- 
 sented Prussia at the Diet of Kalisbun in 1709, and at 
 that of Frankfort in 1711. Among his work* aie "Ob- 
 servations on Grotias, ( 1673,1 and " Reflections im the 
 Treaty of Minister," (1706.) Hied in 1711. 
 
 Heh'nl-ker, (Sir FREDERICK,) an English traveller, 
 born in London in 1793. He published in 1824 an 
 amusing narrative, entitled "Notes during a Visit to 
 Egypt, Nubia," etc. Died in 1825. 
 
 C as k; c as /; g hard; g asy; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as «; th as in this. (jry~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HENNIN 
 
 1162 
 
 HENRY 
 
 Hennin, M'naN', (Pierre Michel) a French lin- 
 guist, who corresponded with Voltaire, and left "Diplo- 
 matic Correspondence," (1796.) Died in 1807. 
 
 Hen'niug, (John,) a Scottish sculptor, born at Paisley 
 in 1 77 1, worked some years in Edinburgh, whence he 
 removed to London in 181 1. He executed reduced 
 copies of the Panathenaic frieze. Died in 1851. 
 
 Henninges, hen'ning-es, or Henniges, (Hierony- 
 MUS,) a German genealogist, of great learning, born at 
 Liineburg about 1550, published "Theatrum Genealogi- 
 cum," etc., (5 vols., 1598.) Died in 1597. 
 
 Hennings, hen'nings, (August Adolf Friedrich,) 
 born in Holstein in 1746, wrote " Philosophic Essays," 
 (2 vols., 1780,) and other works. Died in 1826. 
 
 Heimuyer, le, leh hen'nii-e'ya', (Jean,) born at Saint- 
 Quentin, in France, in 1497, became Bishop of Lisicux 
 in 1560. He held the office of first almoner to Henry 
 II., Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry III. Died in 
 1578. 
 
 Henri, (Kings of France.) See Henry. 
 
 Henri de Bourgogne, A&s're' deh booR'gofi', sur- 
 named THE Great, was the first proprietary Duke of 
 Burgundy. In 987 his brother, Hugh Capet, having 
 become King of France, gave him the duchy of that 
 province as his proper heritage. Died in 1002. 
 
 Henri de Bourgogne, ancestor of the first branch 
 of the kings of Portugal, was born about 1035. He was 
 nephew of Henry [., King of France. About 1060 he 
 went to Spain, and fought against the Moors under 
 Alphonso VI. of Castile, who made him count souverain 
 of the country between the Douro and the Minho. In 
 1 103 he took part in the crusade in Palestine. He died 
 about 1 1 12. His son ALFONSO was the first King of 
 Portugal. 
 
 Henri de Lausanne, /iS.N're' deh lo'zfn', an eloquent 
 monk and zealous reformer. He preached in various 
 parts of France, attacked boldly the vices of the clergy, 
 and made many converts. He was opposed by Saint 
 Bernard, and was cast into a prison, where he died in 
 1 148. 
 
 See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1S67. 
 
 Henri de Saint-Ignace, hS.Vre' deh saN'ten'ytss', 
 a Flemish theologian, born at Ath ; died about 1720. 
 
 Henri de Vaiois. See Henry III., (of France.) 
 
 Henri le Grand. See Henry IV. 
 
 Henri le Lion. See Henry the Lion. 
 
 Henri le Superbe. See Henry the Proud. 
 
 Henrici, hen-rit'see, (Christian Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man poet, whose assumed name was Picander, born at 
 Stolpe, Saxony, in 1700 ; died in 1764. 
 
 Henriet, //ON're-A',(ISRAF.L,) an able French engraver, 
 born at Nancy in 1608. He imitated the designs and 
 engravings of his friend Callot with success, and was 
 selected as master of design to Louis XIV. Died at 
 Paris in 1661. 
 
 Henricus, the Latin for Henry, which see. 
 
 Henricus Auceps. See Henry the Fowler. 
 
 Henricus Leo. See Henry the Lion. 
 
 Henricus Magnus. See Henry IV., (of France.) 
 
 Henricus Superbus. See Henry the Proud. 
 
 Henricus Valesius. See Henry III., (of France.) 
 
 Hen-rl-et'ta Anne, a daughter of Charles I. of Eng- 
 land and of Henrietta Maria, was born at Exeter in 1644, 
 and was married in 1661 to the Duke of Orleans, brother 
 of Louis XIV., of whose court she was regarded as one 
 of the brightest ornaments. At Her funeral, in 1670, Bos- 
 suet pronounced one of his most eloquent discourses. 
 
 See W. H. D. Adams, " Famous Beauties and Historic Women," 
 London, 1S65. 
 
 Hen-rl-et'ta Ma-ri'a, [Fr. Henrieite Marie,] 
 Queen of England, born in 1609, was a daughter of 
 Henry IV. of France and Mary de Medici. She was 
 married in 1625 to Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I. 
 of England, and it was stipulated that she should enjoy 
 liberty to use the Catholic forms of worship. " Ky her 
 sense and spirit, as well as beauty, she justified the fond- 
 ness of her husband." In 1645 she was compelled to 
 retire to France. She died near Paris in 1669. 
 
 See Hume. " History of England ;" Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis 
 XIV;" Agnks Strickland, "Queens of England." 
 
 Heiiriette Marie. See Henrietta Maria. 
 
 Henrion, //SN're'oN', (Denis,) a French mathemati- 
 cian, who translated Euclid into French, (1632,) was the 
 first Frenchman who published a table of logarithms. 
 Died about 1640. 
 
 Henrion, (Mathieu Richard Auguste,) a French 
 Catholic writer, born at Metz in 1805, published a " His- 
 tory of the Papacy," (3 vols., 1832,) and other works. 
 Died in 1862, 
 
 Henrion, (Nicolas,) a French numismatist, born at 
 Troyes in 1663; died in 1720. 
 
 Henrion de Pansey, ^SN're'dN' deh poN'si', 
 (Pierre Paul Nicolas,) a learned French judge and 
 jurist, born near Ligny, in Lorraine, in 1742. He gained 
 distinction by pleading the cause of a negro claimed as 
 a slave, who obtained his liberty. About 1770 he opened 
 an office for consultation, and in 1779 published an ex- 
 cellent " Dissertation on Feudal Law." In 1S10 Napoleon 
 appointed him a member of the council of state, saying, 
 " You should have been in the council these last ten 
 years : I have scolded Cambaceres for not speaking of 
 you sooner." He became first president of the court of 
 cassation in 1828. He wrote several able works on civil 
 and public law. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Louis Hozkt, " Notice sur la Vieet les Ouvrages de Henrion 
 de Pansey," 1829 : I.. D. Bernard, " Notice historiqtie sur Henrion 
 de Pansey," 1N29: T.ui.landier, " Notice sur Henrion de Pansey," 
 1829 ; " Nouveile Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Henriot or Hanriot, /i&s're'o', (Francois,) born at 
 Nanterre in 1761, was one of the miscreants who gained 
 a bad eminence m the reign of terror by their atrocities. 
 He was chosen by the Commune leader of the armed 
 populace which in May, 1793, surrounded the Conven- 
 tion and extorted from that body by violence and terror 
 the proscription of the Girondists. At the time of Robes- 
 pierre's downfall, in 1794, Henriot made desperate efforts 
 to rescue him, but failed, and was executed with him. 
 
 Henrique. See Henry the Navigator. 
 
 Henriquet-Dupont, /;6N're'l<A' dU'poN / , (Louis 
 Pierre,) an eminent French engraver, born in Paris in 
 1797, engraved portraits (after Freirch artists) of Andrew 
 Chenier, Mirabeau, and Montaigne ; also, " The Virgin 
 and Child," after Raphael. 
 
 Henriquez, gn-ree'keth, (Crisostomo,) a Spanish 
 author, born at Madrid in 1594, wrote biographies of 
 saints, etc., and some historical works. Died in 1632. 
 
 Henry (Heinrich) I, surnamed the Fowler, |Lat. 
 Henri'cus Au'ckps ; Fr. Henri l'Oiseleur, h6,N're' 
 lwaz'lUR',1 Emperor of Germany, born in 876 A.D., was 
 the son of Otho, Duke of Saxony, and the first German 
 emperor of the Saxon house. Though he had previously 
 been engaged in a war with the emperor Conrad I., he was 
 recommended by that sovereign on his death-bed for his 
 successor, and he was elected in 919. After waging war 
 for some time against the Hungarians without success, 
 he gained a decisive victory over them near Merseburg 
 m 933' Henry was the first German emperor who 
 granted municipal privileges. He died in 936, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Otho I. 
 
 See N. H. Gundling, " Liber de Henrico Aucupe," 1711 ; J. P. 
 LuuKwiG, "Henricus Auceps, Historia anceps," 1713; E. Burck- 
 hakdt, " Disserlatio de Henrico I. Germanorum Rege," 1831; 
 AdulboU), "Vita Henrici Aucupis," in the " Scriptores Rerum 
 Brunswicensium" of Leibnitz. 
 
 Henry (Heinrich) II, called the Saint, was the 
 son of Henry, Duke of Havana, and great-grandson of 
 Henry the Fowler. He was born in 972. Having ac- 
 companied the emperor Otho III. to Rome, where he 
 died, Henry took possession of the crown jewels, and 
 in 1002 caused himself to be crowned emperor at Mentz. 
 He was engaged in numerous broils with hjs brother 
 Bruno, Henry, (the Marquis of Schweinfurt,) and Ilar- 
 duin of Ivrea. He died in 1024, and was succeeded by 
 Conrad II. 
 
 See A. Crammer, " Admiranda Vita S. Henrici," 1770 ; J. Rion, 
 "Das heilige Kaiserpaar, oder Leben tind Thaten des heiligeu Hein- 
 richs," etc., 1S32. 
 
 Henry (Heinrich) 111., born in 1017, was the son of 
 Conrad II., and was chosen emperor in 1039. He curbed 
 the power of his principal nobles, carried on successful 
 wars in Bohemia, Hungary, and Northern Italy, and in 
 1046 deposed successively the popes Benedict IX., Syl- 
 vester III., and Gregory IV., and raised Clement II. to 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 6, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
HENR T 
 
 1 163 
 
 HENRT 
 
 the pontificate. He died in 1056, having previously 
 caused his son Henry to be elected emperor. Henry III. 
 was endowed with commanding talents and great energy 
 of character, and ranks among the ablest of German 
 rulers. 
 
 See Nku, "Themata cinsedani selection! de Henrico III.," 1718. 
 
 Henry (Heinrich) IV., son of Henry HI., born in 
 1050, was five years of age at his father's death. In 1065, 
 in an assembly at Worms, he was declared of age, through 
 the influence of his preceptor, Adalbert, Archbishop of 
 Bremen, who assumed the chief power. About 1073 
 Henry became engaged in a contest with Magnus, Duke 
 of Saxony, in the course of which he appealed to l'ope 
 Gregory VII. The latter, having in vain remonstrated 
 with the emperor for selling sees and benefices in his 
 dominions, now summoned him to Rome to answer the 
 charges preferred against him. Upon this, Henry, in a 
 Diet at Worms in 1076, deposed the pope, and was soon 
 after excommunicated by him. The emperor, finding 
 his subjects inclined to revolt, and fearing the loss of his 
 crown, set out for Italy with his wife and child in the 
 midst of winter, and, meeting the pope at the castle of 
 Canossa, was required to stand barefoot for three days 
 in an open court-yard before the ban was removed. A 
 civil war now ensued, attended by new excommunica- 
 tions 011 the part of the pope and another deposition on 
 that of the emperor, till at length the latter, whose son 
 Henry had rebelled against him, took refuge at Liege, 
 where he died in 1106. (See Gregory VII.) 
 
 See J. Mascov, " CommenUrii de Rebus Imperii Romano Ger- 
 manic! sub Henrico IV. et Henrico V.." 1748 ; J. Avhntinvs, "Vila 
 Hrnrici IV.," 1518: J. Stumpf, "Historic Kayser Heinrichs IV.," 
 
 Henry V., born in 1081, was the son of Henry 
 IV., and the last emperor of the Salic line. During 
 his father's lifetime he had, at the instigation of Pope 
 Paschal II., been acknowledged as emperor in 1106. 
 Though at first inclined to favour the pope, he soon 
 showed his determination to maintain his right of inves- 
 titure, and Paschal at length consented to crown him in 
 till, at which time he married Matilda, daughter of 
 Henry I. of England. After a contest with the papal 
 party, he succeeded in deposing the pope, and set up 
 Gregory VIII. in his stead. This measure was opposed 
 by the cardinals, who chose Gelasius II., on whose death 
 Calixtus II. succeeded to the tiara. With the latter 
 Henry concluded a treaty in 1 122, by which he gave 
 up the right of investiture. He died in 1 125, and was 
 succeeded by Lothaire of Saxony. 
 
 See J. Mascov, " Commentarii de Rebus Imperii Rnmano-Ger- 
 manid," 174H; E. Ghkvais, "Geschichte Deutschlands unter der 
 Regierung Kaiser Heinrichs V.," 1842. 
 
 Henry VI., born in 1 165, was the son of Frederick 
 Barbarossa, whom he succeeded as Emperor of Germany 
 in 1 190. With the view of subduing Sicily, which he 
 claimed by right of his wife Constance, he invaded that 
 country, but, being unsuccessful, was obliged to return 
 to Germany. Here, with the ransom-money which he 
 received for his prisoner Kichard Coeur de Lion, he 
 fitted out another expedition. Alter taking Naples and 
 bringing Sicily into subjection, he caused himself to be 
 crowned at Palermo. His conduct towards the Sicilians 
 was marked by great tyranny and cruelty, and his death, 
 which took place in 1197,'is supposed to have been 
 caused by poison. Henry VI. was the third emperor of 
 the llohenstaufen line. He was succeeded by Philip of 
 Suabia and Gtho IV., between whom the crown was 
 contested for several years. (Sec Ohio IV.) 
 
 \V. Jaokr, "Geschichte Kaiser Heinrichs VI," 1700. 
 
 Henry VII., born in 1262, was the son of Henry, 
 Count of Luxemburg, and was chosen emperor in 1308. 
 Soon after his accession he marched into Italy and 
 sought to restore peace in that country, then distracted 
 by the war of the Guelphs and Ghibcbnes. He was on 
 the point of attacking Naples, when he died suddenly in 
 1313, — as is generally believed, by poison. 
 
 See F. H. Barthoi t>. "Der ROmtriug Kiinig Heinrichs von 
 LMwrburg," 1830: Iakob Paul von Gundi.inc, "Geschichte Kay- 
 ter Heinrichs VII. ,'• 1719. 
 
 Henry L, King of England, surnamed Bkai'CI.krc, 
 born at Selby, Yorkshire, in 1068, was the fourth son 
 
 of William the Conqueror by Matilda of Flanders. As 
 his surname indicates, he received a better scholastic 
 education than was then usual even among princes. His 
 father at his death left him a legacy of five thousand 
 pounds. Henry was hunting with his brother William 
 Kufus in the New Forest in August, 1100, when the latter 
 was killed. The eldest brother, Robert, being absent in 
 foreign travel, Henry usurped the throne. The people 
 were the more disposed to acquiesce as he presently 
 issued a charter in which their rights and liberties were 
 reaffirmed. He married Maud, or Matilda, a Scottish 
 princess, the niece of Edgar Atheling. In 1101 Robert 
 entered England with an army ; but the contest was 
 settled without a battle, and Henry remained in quiet 
 I jsMssion of the throne. A few years after, Henry 
 required Robert to cede to him the duchy of Normandy 
 tor a sum of money, and, on his refusal, invaded Nor- 
 mandy in 1 106, defeated Robert at Tenchebrai, and 
 deprived him of his dominions and liberty. In 11 13 
 I.nuis VI. of France attempted with an army to assert 
 the right of Robert's son, but without success. Henry's 
 only son William perished at sea in 1 120, after which the 
 father was never seen to smile. His daughter Matilda 
 was declared his heir in 11 26, and next year was married 
 to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou. The issue of 
 this marriage became Henry II. Though the character 
 of Henry was far from amiable, he possessed a large 
 share of kingly qualities, including judgment, eloquence, 
 and bravery. He died in 1 135, and was succeeded by 
 his nephew, Stephen of Blois. 
 
 See Hcmh, "History of England." chap. vi. : John Haywaru, 
 " Lives of Three Norman Kings of England," 1613. 
 
 Henry II., King of England, founder of the Planta- 
 genet dynasty, was born at Le Mans, France, in 1133. 
 His father was Geoffrey Plantagenet, (so named from 
 the broom-plant — in Latin, planta genista — which he wore 
 in his cap,) and his mother was Matilda, daughter of 
 Henry I. In the contest which followed the death of 
 Henry I., Stephen obtained England, and the infant 
 Henry was recognized as heir of Normandy, to which 
 at the death of his father, in 1151, Anjou, Touraine, 
 and Maine were added. The next year he married 
 Eleanor, Duchess of Guienne, (whom Louis, King of 
 France, had divorced,) whose dowry was Poitou and 
 Guienne ; and he thus became master of nearly half of 
 France. In 1 153 he invaded England ; but, before much 
 blood was spilled, a treaty was made, by which Stephen 
 retained the crown during his lifetime, and Henry was 
 recognised as his successor. Stephen died in 1 154. 
 
 Henry began his reign by discharging the foreign 
 troops, razing to the ground the castles of the rebellious 
 barons, and bv other energetic and politic measures. 
 He was several times involved in war with the King of 
 France, without important results. His reign was greatly 
 disturbed by the usurpations of the pope and clergy, and 
 by a contest with the haughty Thomas a Pecket, whom 
 he had made prime minister and Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury. In 1164 a council of nobles and prelates adopted 
 the famous Constitutions of Clarendon, which recognized 
 the supremacy of the crown over the church. Becket was 
 murdered in 1 170 by an over-officious servant of the king, 
 who in 1 174 performed severe penance at his tomb, and 
 soon after the Constitutions above named were repealed. 
 The conquest of Ireland was effected by Henry's arms 
 between It6q and 1 1 75. His last years were rendered 
 unhappy by the rebellion of his sons, who w ere instigated 
 bv Queen Eleanor and supported by Louis of France, 
 "Henry was," says Hjme, "the greatest prince of his 
 time for wisdom, virtue, and abilities, His character 
 in private as well as public life is almost without a 
 blemish." But Michelet charges him with sensuality 
 and other vices. He died at Chinon, in France, in I1S9, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Richard I. 
 
 See Hums, " History of England," diaps, viii and ix. ; Mkhk- 
 1. ft. "History of France :" F., Bolton, " Life of Henry II. :" Lord 
 I.vttkiton. "History of Henry II," 1764-67; Herincton, "Life 
 of Henry II.," 1700. 
 
 Henry HI., King of England, surnamed of Win- 
 CHIC8TF.lt, from the place of his birth, was born in 1206, 
 and was the eldest son of King John by his queen, 
 Isabella of Angouleme. He was acknowledged king in 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as^'y G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; F, trilled; S as *; th as in this. (Jry~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HENR r 
 
 1164 
 
 HENRY 
 
 1216, and the Earl of Pembroke was appointed regent 
 during the minority. In 1222 Henry was declared of 
 age to exercise some of the functions of royalty. In 
 1230 he invaded France, with which he had been at war 
 for several years, but returned without any important 
 achievement. He married Eleanor, daughter of Ray- 
 mond, Count of Provence, in 1236, and a few years after- 
 wards renewed hostilities against Louis IX. of France, 
 by whom he was defeated. His feeble character, mis- 
 government, and ill success rendered him an object of 
 contempt among his people and provoked many con- 
 tests with his Parliaments. He confirmed the Magna 
 Charta, but repeatedly violated it. In 1258 the barons, 
 headed by the ambitious and popular Simon de Mont- 
 fort, Earl of Leicester, revolted against the king, who 
 was forced to yield his power to a committee of twenty- 
 four. For several years a civil war was waged between 
 the king and the barons, with various success, until the 
 latter, in 1264, obtained a decisive victory at Lewes, 
 where the king and his son Edward were taken prison- 
 ers. The Earl of Leicester then became dictator of the 
 country. In 1265 Prince Edward escaped, raised an army, 
 and defeated the barons at Evesham, where De Montfort 
 was slain, and the royal authority was restored. After a 
 reign of fifty-six years, — the longest in the English annals, 
 — Henry died in 1272, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Edward I. This reign presents the first example of a 
 Parliament constituted, as at present, of representatives 
 from the counties, cities, and boroughs. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England," chap. xii. : R. Cotton, " Life 
 of Henry HI.," 1627; W. Prynne, " Life of Henry III.," 1670. 
 
 Henry IV., King of England, surnamed Boling- 
 brokk, was the eldest son of John of Gaunt, Duke of 
 Lancaster, who was the fourth son of King Edward the 
 Third. His mother was Blanche, daughter of Henry 
 Plantagenet, a descendant of Henry II. He was born 
 at Bolingbroke in 1366. In 1397 he married Mary de 
 Bohun, daughter of the last Earl of Hereford, and was 
 created Duke of Hereford. The next year he was ban- 
 ished for ten years by Richard II. By the death of his 
 "father, in 1399, he became Duke of Lancaster; but the 
 king refused to give him possession of his estate. With 
 the avowed purpose of vindicating his right, Henry re- 
 turned to England, where he was joined by other nobles, 
 and soon assembled an army of 60,000 men. The king, 
 unable to resist, and deserted by his disaffected subjects, 
 was deposed by Parliament in 1399, and Henry succeeded 
 him, with the general consent of the nation, although the 
 Earl of March was the more legitimate heir. In 1402 a 
 Scottish army, which invaded England with the pretext 
 of restoring Richard, was defeated at Homildon Hill. 
 Soon afterwards his throne was menaced by the rebel- 
 lion of the famous Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, in 
 concert with the Welsh chieftain Owen Glendower and 
 others. At the battle of Shrewsbury, where the king 
 fought with desperate courage, the rebels were com- 
 pletely defeated, and Percy, their leader, was slain. 
 Glendower maintained for several years an irregular war- 
 fare in the mountains of Wales; and the Percy family 
 again revolted in 1408, but were finally defeated at Bran- 
 ham, where the Earl of Northumberland was killed. The 
 popularity which Henry enjoyed at his accession was not 
 retained in the latter part of his reign. Hume says, 
 "His prudence, vigilance, and foresight in maintaining 
 his power were admirable ; and he possessed many 
 qualities which fitted him for his high station, and which 
 rendered his usurpation of it, though pernicious in after- 
 times, rather salutary during his own reign to the Eng- 
 lish nation." He died in 1413, and was succeeded by 
 his son, Henry V. Henry IV. gives the name to one 
 of Shakspeare's most popular dramas, in two parts. 
 
 See Ht'ME, "History of England," chap, xviii. ; Sir J. Hay- 
 wakd, "Life and Reign of Henry IV.," 1599; G. P. R. James, 
 "Life of Henry IV." 
 
 Henry V., King of England, born at Monmouth in 
 1388, was the eldest son of Henry IV. and of Mary de 
 Bohun. In his father's reign he displayed courage at the 
 battle of Shrewsbury, and gave proof of great military 
 talents in the war with the Welsh. In 1413 Henry was 
 proclaimed king, with abundant expression of the popular 
 favour, and began his reign with several acts of gene- 
 
 rosity. He released the Earl of March (the lawful heir 
 of the crown) from prison, and restored the heir of Percy 
 to his title and estate. Having resolved to assert his 
 claim to the throne of France, which was then a prey to 
 civil dissensions, he embarked in 1415 with an army of 
 30,000 men. After taking Harfleur, and losing a large 
 part of his army by disease, he was marching home- 
 ward, when his progress was opposed by D'Albret, Con- 
 stable of France, with an army about four times more 
 numerous than his own. On the 25th of October, 1415, 
 was fought the memorable battle of Agincourt, in which 
 the French were defeated, with a loss of about 24,000 
 men, including prisoners. The victor returned to Eng- 
 land without delay. 
 
 In 141 7, profiting by the imbecility of the French king 
 and the feuds among the nobles, he renewed hostilities, 
 captured Rouen, and threatened Paris. In 1420 a treaty 
 of peace was made at Troyes, with the conditions that 
 Henry should marry Catherine, the daughter of King 
 Charles VI., and should inherit the crown at the death 
 of the latter. One of the French factions, however, headed 
 by the dauphin, did not consent to this disgraceful trans- 
 action, and made a brave stand for the national cause. 
 Henry's, brother, the Duke of Clarence, was defeated 
 and slain at Bauge ; but at other places the English 
 were successful, and Henry seemed on the point of real- 
 izing his ambitious projects, when he died prematurely 
 in 1422, (a few weeks before Charles VI.,) leaving an 
 infant son, who afterwards reigned as Henry VI. After 
 his death, his widow Catherine married Owen Tudor, a 
 Welshman, whose posterity became the royal family of 
 England. The frankness and energy of his character 
 and the glory of his victories rendered Henry the idol 
 of the English people ; but his glory is obscured or 
 stained by the injustice of the enterprise in which his life 
 was chiefly spent. Henry V. gives the name to one of 
 Shakspeare's historical dramas, and constitutes a promi- 
 nent and interesting character in both parts of the two- 
 fold drama entitled " Henry IV." 
 
 See Hume, "History of England," cliap. xix. ; Ei.ham, "Vita 
 et Gesta Henrici V ;" Goodwin, " Life of Henry V.," 1604 : P. F. 
 Tytler, "Memoirs of the Life and Character of Henry V.," 1830; 
 " Henry of Monmouth; or, Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Henry V. 
 of England," bv J. Enoell Tvi.er. 
 
 Henry VI., King of England, surnamed of Wind- 
 sor, from the place of his birth, was the only son of 
 Henry V. and Catherine of France. He was born in 
 1421, and was only nine months old when he became 
 king. His uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, was appointed 
 Regent or Protector of England. At the death of Charles 
 VI. of France, in 1422, Henry was proclaimed king at 
 Paris ; but a large party of the French openly sided with 
 the dauphin, who was styled Charles VII. Henry's 
 uncle, the Duke of Bedford, acted as regent and repre- 
 sentative of the English power in France. In 1424 the 
 English gained a victory at Vemeuil, after which their 
 power gradually declined. The city of Orleans in 1429 
 was delivered from siege by the enthusiasm with which 
 the heroic Joan of Arc inspired her countrymen. In 1436 
 the English garrison of Paris was forced to surrender. 
 In 1445 Henry married a French lady, Margaret of 
 Anjou, daughter of Rene, titular King of Sicily. She 
 was superior in ability and energy to her husband, over 
 whom she easily acquired a permanent ascendant. 
 
 Victory continued to attend the French arms, and 
 before the close of 145 1 not a single province of France 
 remained in the power of the English. And now Eng- 
 land in her turn was destined to experience the evils of 
 an imbecile ruler, a disputed title, and an intestine war 
 between the houses of York and Lancaster. The Duke 
 of York, who claimed the crown as a descendant of 
 Edward the Third's second son, was supported by many 
 powerful nobles, among whom was the Earl of Warwick, 
 "the King-maker." The battle of Satnt Alban's, (1455,) 
 in which the partisans of York were victorious and 
 Henry was taken prisoner, was the beginning of a wai 
 which lasted, with interruptions, for thirty years, and 
 in which the English nobility were nearly annihilated. 
 As a consequence of the victory of Saint Alban's, the 
 Duke of York became Protector. After vain attempts 
 to reconcile the contestants, in 1460 another battle was 
 fought, at Northampton, where the royalists were de- 
 
 i,e, 1, 6, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, 1,9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt;n6t; good; moon; 
 
HENRY 
 
 1165 
 
 HENRT 
 
 feated, and Henry was again made prisoner by the Earl 
 of March, the son of the Duke of York. His queen, Mar- 
 garet, escaped to Scotland, and continued the war several 
 years with vigour and partial success. At the battle of 
 Wakefield the Duke of York was defeated and killed ; but 
 his son was proclaimed king in 1461, with the title of 
 Edward IV. Henry, after being several times liberated 
 and recaptured, died in prison, or, as some suppose, was 
 murdered, in 147 1. He was remarkably gentle and in- 
 offensive, and seemed to feel little interest in the quarrel 
 maintained on his account. Henry VI. furnishes the 
 name to one of Shakspeare's historical dramas, in three 
 parts, in which are represented the principal events of 
 his reign. 
 
 Sec Hume, " History of England, " chaps, xx. and xxi. 
 
 Henry VII., King of England, the founder of the 
 royal line of Tudor, was born at Pembroke Castle in 
 1456. By his father, Edmond Tudor, Earl of Richmond, 
 he was descended from the royal family of France ; by 
 his mother, Margaret Beaufort, he derived a claim to 
 the English crown, as one of her ancestors was John of 
 Gaunt, the head of the house of Lancaster. His father 
 dying in 1456, Henry became Earl of Richmond. He 
 was confined as a prisoner by Edward IV. for several 
 years, and when the Lancastrians were finally defeated, 
 in 1471, he escaped with his uncle, the Earl of Pembroke, 
 to Brittany, where he remained until the accession of 
 Richard HI., in 1483. As Henry was now recognized 
 as the head of the Lancastrian party, many people looked 
 to him as the most eligible person to deliver them from 
 Richard, who was generally detested. The leaders of 
 both the rival houses, therefore, invited Henry to assume 
 the royal power. The first attempt to dethrone Richard, 
 made in 1483, was a failure. Renewing his enterprise 
 in 1485, he landed in Wales with about 2000 men, and, 
 after receiving large accessions, encountered Richard 
 at Bosworth, where the latter was defeated and slain, 
 August 22, 1485. 
 
 In accordance with a plan previously formed to recon- 
 cile the rival parries of York and Lancaster, Henry, in 
 i486, married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., — an 
 event which gave great satisfaction to the people. For 
 several years his reign was disturbed by the seditious 
 attempts of the impostors Lambert Simnel and Perkin 
 Warbeck, the latter of whom pretended to be Richard, 
 the younger brother of Edward V., and was supported 
 by the court of France and by many English nobles. He 
 was executed in 1499, after which the kingdom enjoyed 
 internal tranquillity. Henry lost somewhat of the popu- 
 lar favour by his partiality for the Lancastrians and his 
 severity towards the other party, as well as by his rapa- 
 city in raising money. Empson and Dudley became 
 notorious as the agents of his exactions. In 1501 the 
 king's eldest son, Arthur, was married to Catherine, a 
 Spanish princess ; and, though he died about six months 
 after, the remote consequences of the match were very 
 momentous. (See Henry VIII.) In 1503 a treaty of peace 
 with James IV. of Scotland was confirmed by the mar- 
 riage of James with Margaret, daughter of Henry VII., 
 which was one of the first steps towards a permanent 
 union of the two kingdoms. The ministers and council- 
 lors who possessed the greatest favour and influence in 
 this reign were Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury, and 
 Fox, Bishop of Winchester. Henry possessed prudence, 
 vigour, and an excellent capacity, but seems to have been 
 deficient in the better qualities of the heart. Avarice 
 was his ruling passion. His reign, though rather arbi- 
 trary, was accounted fortunate for the nation, and forms 
 an important era in history, in which the discovery of 
 America and the invention of printing gave a wonderful 
 impetus to the human mind. He died in 1509, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Henry VIII. 
 
 See Humk. " History of England," chaps, xxiv., xxv., and xxvi. ; 
 Francis Bacdh, " Historia Regni Henrici VII.." ift-ts ; Ai.hvn, 
 "History of Henry VII.," inverse, 1638 ; Marsoi.i.ikr, " Histi.ire 
 de Henri VI I^iAo,?. 
 
 Henry VIII., King of England, the second son of 
 Henry VII. and of Elizabeth of York, was born at 
 Greenwich in 1491. By the death of his brother Arthur, 
 in 1502, he became heir-apparent of the crown, and as- 
 sumed the title of Prince of Wales. The next year he 
 was, against his will, obliged by his father to affiance 
 
 himself to his brother's widow, Catherine of Aragon. 
 His accession at the death of his father, in 1509, was the 
 occasion of great rejoicing among the people, who were 
 prepossessed in his favour by his personal advantages 
 and other popular qualities. He appears to have been 
 in early life one of the most exemplary and most accom- 
 plished princes in Europe. (See Froude's " History of 
 England," vol. i. chap, ii.) His marriage with Catherine, 
 who was his senior by six years, was solemnized a few 
 months after his accession. In 1512 he was induced to 
 join the pope, the King of Spain, and the emperor in 
 a league against the King of Fiance, and sent 10,000 men 
 to invade Guienne ; but the expedition was a total failure. 
 The next year he invaded France in person, and defeated 
 the French at Guinegaste. In 1 5 14 a treaty of peace 
 was made, the chief condition of which was that Louis 
 XII. should marry Henry's sister Mary. In 15 13, James 
 IV. of Scotland, the ally of France, having marched 
 across the border, was defeated and slain, at the great 
 battle of Flodden, by the English under the Earl of 
 Surrey. 
 
 In the beginning of this reign the chief competitors 
 for favour and influence at court were Thomas Howard, 
 Earl of Surrey, who was treasurer, and Fox, Bishop of 
 Winchester, who held the office of secretary. The latter 
 introduced to the king Thomas Wolsey, who soon sup- 
 planted them both by his insinuating arts and became 
 the prime favourite and sole minister. For about fifteen 
 years he directed the affairs of state with almost absolute 
 authority. In 1515 he was made Archbishop of York, 
 and soon after a cardinal. In the long contest for su- 
 premacy between Charles V. and Francis I., Henry, 
 whose friendship was courted by both, might have de- 
 rived great advantage from his position ; but, guided 
 rather by impulse than policy, his actual influence was 
 inconsiderable. Charles having secured Wolsey's in- 
 fluence by promising to concur in his election to the 
 papacy, Henry in 1522 declared war against France, 
 which was invaded by an English army the next year. 
 But the cardinal had become estranged from Charles 
 after the election of Pope Adrian, and in 1525 he con-* 
 eluded a treaty of peace with Francis. In 1526 Henry 
 was declared protector of the "Holy League" formed 
 by the pope against Charles V. ; but after this period 
 the foreign transactions of his reign are unimportant and 
 overshadowed by the domestic events. 
 
 The impression made on the king by the beauty of 
 Anne Boleyn, and the scruples which he felt or feigned 
 respecting the lawfulness of his former marriage, induced 
 him in 1527 to apply to the pope for a divorce. This 
 question of divorce was rendered more exciting and 
 momentous by its bearing on the Reformation, which 
 about that time began to agitate the Church, — Anne Bo- 
 leyn favouring the Protestants, and Catherine being a 
 zealous Catholic. The pope gave him specious promises, 
 but interposed the delay of a legal process for several 
 years. In 1529 Wolsey was disgraced, and Cranmer, a 
 Protestant, became Archbishop of Canterbury. Henry, 
 whose passions and interest inclined him to favour the 
 Reformers, as his quarrel with the pope increased both 
 his power and revenue, was declared in 1531 supreme 
 head of the Church. After the Convocations of York 
 and Canterbury had pronounced the marriage with Cath- 
 erine invalid, Henry, without the pope's permission, 
 married Anne Boleyn, in 1533. Queen Catherine died 
 in 1536. By acts of Parliament, the English church and 
 people were declared independent of the court of Rome, 
 and many innovations were made in religion. The mon- 
 asteries, six hundred and forty-five in number, were 
 gradually abolished, under the direction of Thomas 
 Cromwell, secretary of state and vicar-general, and a 
 new translation of the Bible was made by royal authority. 
 
 In 1536, Queen Anne, having lost the favour of the 
 king, became the victim of his jealousy, which has gene- 
 rally been supposed to have had no other ground on her 
 part than slight indiscretions and levity of manner. But 
 Fnmde takes a different view, which he supports by 
 many forcible arguments. (See " History of England, 
 chap, xi.) But, whatever opinion we may form of the 
 guilt or innocence of the queen, it is impossible to justify 
 the conduct of Henry, who married his new favourite, 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, m, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; I as %; th as in this, (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HENRT 
 
 1166 
 
 HENRT 
 
 the beautiful Jane Seymour, the next day after the exe- 
 cution of Anne. Queen Jane died in 1537, on giving 
 birth to a son, afterwards Edward VI. In 1540 Henry 
 married a Flemish princess, Anne of Cleves, who was 
 divorced about six months afterwards. The same year 
 he married, as his fifth wife, Catherine Howard. In 1538 
 the pope published a bull against Henry, and formally 
 delivered his soul to the devil. The king, however, 
 maintained several of the Catholic dogmas, (among which 
 was that of the real presence,) and many Protestants, 
 refusing to conform, fell victims to his arbitrary power. 
 In 1542 Queen Catherine was beheaded, on a charge of 
 infidelity to her marriage-vow, and the next year her 
 place was supplied by Catherine Parr. Notwithstanding 
 his cruelty and excesses, Henry seems to have retained 
 the affection of his subjects in general to the close of 
 his life. "He possessed," says Hume, "great vigour 
 of mind, courage, vigilance, and inflexibility." But the 
 catalogue of his vices, it must be confessed, includes 
 some of the worst qualities of human nature. He, how- 
 ever, who would form a just estimate of Henry's char- 
 acter, should read the first four volumes of Froude's 
 " History of England," which contain by far the most 
 complete account of his reign that has yet been written. 
 He died in 1547, and was succeeded by his son, Edward 
 VI. Henry VIII. furnishes the title to one of Shak- 
 speare's historic dramas. 
 
 See, besides FRonnE, Godwin, " History of the Reign of Henry 
 VIII.," 1616; Lord Herbert of Cherbury, "Life and Reign of 
 Henry VIII.," 1649; P. F. Tytler, "Life of Henry VIII.;" 
 Hume's and Lingard's "Histories of England;" Strickland, 
 "Queens of England." 
 
 Henry I., King of Castile, born in 1204, was the son 
 of Alfonso III. of Castile. After a reign of three years, 
 he died in 121 7. 
 
 Henry II., King of Castile, often called Henry ok 
 Transtamare, born at Seville in 1333, was the natural 
 son of Alfonso XI. He received the title of Count of 
 Transtamare from his brother, King Pedro the Cruel. 
 After striving to supplant Pedro by intrigue, he joined 
 the King of Aragon in a war against Castile, was de- 
 feated, and fled to France. There he raised an army, 
 and again invaded Castile in 1366, but was beaten by 
 Pedro's ally, the English Black Prince. In a third at- 
 tempt, with a French army led by Du Guesclin, he was 
 more successful. Pedro was defeated and killed in 1368, 
 after which Henry reigned in such a manner as to secure 
 the favour of his subjects. He died in 1379, and left the 
 throne to his son, John I. 
 
 See Ferreras, "Histoire ge'ne'rale d'Espagne," 16 vols., 1700; 
 Puffendorf, " Histoire universelle," 10 vols., 1722; P. Lop;-"Z DE 
 Ayala, " Cronicas de los Reyes de Castilla," 1495, and 4V0IS., 1779. 
 
 Henry HI., King of Castile, born in 1379, succeeded 
 his father John in 1390, and married Catherine of Lan- 
 caster. The early part of his reign was disturbed by 
 the rebellion of the Duke of Benavente and the Count 
 of Gijon, whom he defeated. Having exercised his au- 
 thority in certain points of church government, Pope 
 Boniface declared him a schismatic, and absolved his 
 subjects from allegiance to him. After this Henry re- 
 cognized the rival pope, Benedict XIII., in 1403. He 
 resisted successfully the aggressions of the Portuguese, 
 and was engaged in a war against the Moors of Granada 
 when he died in 1406, leaving the reputation of a wise 
 and good king. He was succeeded by his son, John II. 
 
 See C. Romey, " Histoire d'Espagne," 12 vols. ; Gonzales Da- 
 vit. a, " Historia de la Vida y Hechos del Rev Henrique III. de 
 Castilla," 1638. 
 
 Henry IV., King of Castile, the son of John II., was 
 born at Valladolid in 1423, and was surnamed THIS IM- 
 POTENT. Having wasted his youth in vice and dissi- 
 pation, he succeeded his father in 1454. He married 
 Joanna of Portugal, whose character was so depraved 
 or doubtful that the Cortes would not acknowledge her 
 child Joanna to be the legitimate heir. In 1465 several 
 grandees, encouraged by the prevalent disaffection of 
 the people, revolted, and proclaimed Henry's brother, 
 Alfonso, king. Henry raised an army, and a civil war 
 followed until 1468, when Alfonso died. A peace was 
 then made, Henry consenting to disinherit Joanna and 
 adopt as heiress his sister, the well-known Isabella of 
 Castile, who was married to Ferdinand of Aragon in 
 
 1469. For many years Henry waged war against the 
 Moors of Granada without any important advantage. 
 He died in 1474. His reign was remarkable for anarchy, 
 oppression, and misery. 
 
 See Prbscott, "Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. chaps, iii. and 
 iv. ; Enriquez de Castillo, " Cronica del Rey D. Henrique el 
 Quarto," 17.S7 ; Zurita, " Histoire d' Aragon," 7 vols. 
 
 Henry [Fr. Henri, fibx'ie'] I., King of France, a son 
 of Robert, and grandson of Hugh Capet, born about 
 1005, ascended the throne in 1031. He was soon in- 
 volved in a civil war with his younger brother Robert, 
 who was favoured by their mother, Constance. Aided 
 by the Duke of Normandy, Henry maintained his throne, 
 and ceded to Robert the duchy of Burgundy. At thirty- 
 nine he married Anna, daughter of Yaroslaf, Duke of 
 Russia. He was almost continually at war with his vas- 
 sals or neighbours, among others with William, Duke 
 of Normandy, who conquered England. He died in 
 1060, and was succeeded by his son, Philip I. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Henry II., King of France, second son of Francis I. 
 and of Queen Claude, was born at Saint-Germain-en- 
 Laye in 1518, and came to the throne in 1547. He mar- 
 ried Catherine de' Medici, (or de Medicis.) In 1550 he 
 concluded a peace with England, by which Boulogne was 
 restored to the French. In 1552 he formed an alliance 
 with the Protestant princes of Germany against Charles 
 V., and took Metz, Toul, and Verdun. The Germans 
 having made a separate peace, Henry alone sustained the 
 war against the Spaniards. A truce of five years was 
 signed in 1556 between Henry and Charles ; but the war 
 was renewed the next year by Philip II. of Spain, whose 
 army gained a great victory at Saint-Quentin. In 1558 
 Calais was taken by the French, after having been held 
 by the English more than two hundred years. A treaty 
 of peace was signed at Cateau-Cambresis in 1559, by 
 which France retained Calais, Metz, and Verdun, and 
 gave up Savoy. Among the results of this treaty was 
 a marriage between Henry's daughter Elizabeth and 
 Philip II. of Spain. At a tournament given on this 
 occasion, Henry by accident received a mortal wound, 
 in 1559, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Francis II. 
 
 See A. Varillas, "Histoire de Henri II," 1692; C. F. Lam- 
 bert, " Histoire et Regne de Henri II," 1752; Michelet, "His- 
 toire de France." 
 
 Henry HI., [often called in French Henri de Vai.ois, 
 hbti'rfi' deh vtl'wa', in latin Henri'cus Vale'sius, 
 i.e. "Henry of Valois,"] King of France, third son of 
 Henry II. and of Catherine de Medicis, was born at Fon- 
 tainebleau in 1 551, and succeeded his brother, Charles 
 IX., in 1574. Previously to this he was styled Due 
 d'Anjou, had defeated the Calvinists at Jarnac and 
 Moncontour, and in 1573 was elected King of Poland, 
 the people of which country made unavailing efforts to 
 retain him. He found his French kingdom a prey to a 
 civil or religious war between two factions, the Catholics 
 under Henry of Guise, and the Huguenots under Henry 
 of Navarre, the founder of the Bourbon dynasty. In 
 1575 he married a French lady, Louise, daughter of the 
 Count of Vaudesmont. Henry having issued an edict 
 of pacification favourable to the Protestants in 1576, the 
 Catholics formed a general league, sworn to defend the 
 interest of their Church even with the sacrifice of their 
 loyalty to the king, who seems to have been justly dis- 
 trusted by both parties, but thought it his policy to 
 declare himself the head of the League. His court was 
 disgraced by favouritism, intrigues, bigotry, and licen- 
 tiousness ; and his personal character was not such as 
 to command the popular respect. Henry's brother, the 
 Duke of Alencon, died in 1584, and, as the king, had no 
 children, the question of the succession assumed great 
 importance ; and it is thought that the Duke of Guise 
 aspired to the throne. In 1587 Henri of Navarre gained 
 the battle of Coutras ; and soon after the Duke of Guise 
 and his ligueurs took arms at Paris against the king, who 
 was compelled to flee to Rouen. In 1588 the Duke of 
 Guise was assassinated, probably by the order of Henry, 
 who for this crime was excommunicated by the pope 
 The king then applied to Henry of Navarre for aid 
 against the League, which was generously granted, and 
 they were pressing the siege of Paris, when Henry III. 
 
 \, e, T, 6, v,,y,hng; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e,1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, Cj,o/iscure;fkr, fall, fit; mSt; n6t;good; moon; 
 
HEAR Y 
 
 1 167 
 
 HEAR T 
 
 was assassinated by a monk named Jacques Clement, 
 in 15S9. He was the last king of tlie house of Valois. 
 
 S« I "De Via Henrici III. Libri IX.," 162S; Va- 
 
 ruxas, M Histoire, de Henri III," 1694; Aukies uk Valois, "De 
 
 Vita Henrici Valeaii," 1677; Sauvigny, "Histoire de Henri III," 
 
 I.'EsTorr.F. "Journal des Glioses memorable* advemies du- 
 
 rani le Regne de Henri 111," 1621. 
 
 Henry IV., (often called in French Henri i.k Grand, 
 ^on'ic' leh eroN ; l.at. 1 Iknri'cus Mag'nus, i.e. " 1 lenry 
 the Great,"] King of France and of Navarre, and founder 
 of the royal house of Bourbon, was born at 1'au, De- 
 cember 14, I5S3- His father was Antoine de Bouillon, 
 Hue de Vendome, a lineal descendant of Loom IN., 
 and his mother was Jeanne d'Albret, only child and 
 hein ss of Henri d'Albret, King of Navarre. She was a 
 woman of superior merit, ardently devoted to the Prot- 
 estant faith, in which she educated her son. In 1569, the 
 civil war being renewed, Henry, then styled Prince of 
 Beam, joined the Protestant aimy, led by his uncle, the 
 Prince of Conde, (who recognized him as the chief of 
 the party,) and was present at the battles of Jarnac and 
 Muncontour. The Protestants having gained a victory 
 at Arnay-le-Duc, a treacherous peace was offered by the 
 court and accepted in 1570. To inspire the Huguenots 
 witli greater confidence, a marriage was negotiated be- 
 tween Henry and the king's sister Margaret. While 
 the Queen of Navarre was making preparation at Paris 
 for the marriage of her son, she died suddenly, in 1572, 
 and he liecame King of Navarre. A few days after the 
 marriage was celebrated occurred the Massacre of Saint 
 li artholomew. (See Charlks IX.) Henry's life was 
 spared on condition that he would adopt the Roman 
 Catholic religion ; but he was confined and strictly 
 watched for several years. In 1576 he escaped to Ro- 
 chelle, and assumed the command of his friends, then 
 menaced by the Catholic League. He displayed great 
 skill and bravery in several campaigns, the operations 
 ol which were, however, for the most part on a small 
 In 1587 the Huguenots gained a decisive victory 
 at Coutras. The King of France died in 1589, and 
 named for his successor the subject of this article, who, 
 since the death of the king's brother, was presumptive 
 heir of the crown. His claim was disputed by a large 
 army under the Due de Mayenne, and by the fanatical 
 populace of Paris, who kindled bonfires to show their 
 joy at the death of Henry III., and whose resistance 
 -timulated by Spanish gold. Baffled in his attempt 
 to obtain possession of his capital, he marched towards 
 Dieppe, where his army was increased by 5000 English 
 sent by his ally Elizabeth. In 1590 he gained a decisive 
 victory at Ivry over the Duke of Mayenne, after electrify- 
 ing his army with this brief harangue : " Fellow-soldiers, 
 you are Frenchmen; behold the enemy! If you law 
 of your ensigns, rally around my plume : you will 
 always find it on the high road to honour !" In 1592 he 
 defeated a Spanish army under Farnese, the celebrated 
 Prince of Parma, near Yvetot 
 
 His devotion to the interest of France (we may chari- 
 tably suppose) now induced him to conciliate his ene- 
 mies by a profession of the Roman Catholic religion in 
 1593, — the Protestants at the same time being assured 
 of the continuance of his favour and protection. In 
 1594 he entered Paris without resistance, and granted a 
 general pardon. After numerous battles and siee.es, a 
 treaty of peace was made at Vervins with Philip II. of 
 Spain in 1598, and Henry was acknowledged by the 
 whole kingdom. The same year he gave liberty ol con- 
 science to his subjects by the edict of Nantes. Directing 
 his attention to the finances, agriculture, and industrial 
 arts, in which he was seconded by his minister Sully, 
 he proved himself a wise and able statesman, and ren- 
 dered himself very popular by his sympathy with the 
 lower classes and his generosity to all. His popularity 
 was increased by the spirited and eloquent public ad- 
 dresses which he made on various occasions, and by the 
 frank simplicity of his manners. In 1600 he married 
 an Italian princess, Marie de' Medici, having obtained a 
 divorce from his first wife. The last half of his reign 
 was peaceful and prosperous. He founded a hospital, 
 a college, and a public library in Paris, and encouraged 
 learned men, among whom were Casaubon and Grotfus. 
 His memory is more cherished by the French than 
 
 that of any other of their kings, and his character is 
 regarded by them as the beau-ideal of a Frenchman, 
 a warrior, a monarch, and a statesman. On the 14th 
 ol May, 1610, while riding in his carriage, he was as- 
 sassinated by a fanatic named Ravaillac. He left the 
 crown to his son, Louis XIII. 
 
 See Motley, " United Netherlands," vol. i. cl-ap. ii. p. 45 et seq., 
 and vol. ii. chap. xvii. p. 340; P. Hooft, " Hel Leven van Kbnig 
 Hendrik IV.," 1626; J. PttLBtm, "Histoire de la Vie de Henri le 
 Grand," 1613-16; G. Sossius, "De Vita Henrici Magni Libri IV.," 
 1622; Hakdouin uk Pekbkixe, "Histoire du Roi Henri le Grand," 
 1661 ; De BpitY, " Histoire de la Vie de Henri IV," 1763 : MusSET- 
 Pathav, "Vie militaire et privee de Henri IV," 1803; Poirson, 
 " Histoire du Kegne de Henri IV," 3 vols., 1S57 ] G. P. R. James, 
 "Life of Henry IV.," 3 vols., 1847; Dauhk.nk, " Histoire nni- 
 verselle;" Michelet, " Histoire de France;" L 'Estoilk, "Jour- 
 nal du Regne de Henri IV ;" Davii.a, " History ol the Civil Wars 
 in France;" K. A. Mionkt, "Histoire de la Ligue et du Regne de 
 Henri IV," 5 vols., 1829; also a review of the "Letters of Henry 
 IV.," in the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1S42. 
 
 Henry, Prince of Walks, the eldest son of James I, 
 of England, was born at Stirling in 1 594. He is repre- 
 sented to have been unlike his father, brave, generous, 
 and constant, was fond of maritime adventure, and earn- 
 estly opposed to popery. He befriended Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, and used to say that no king but his father 
 would keep such a bird in a cage. Died in 1612. 
 
 See T. ItlKCH, "Life of Henry, Prince of Wales," 1760; Gar- 
 diner, " History of England from 1603 to 1616," cliaps. viii. and x. ; 
 Harney, " History of England," chap, xlvii. ; Cohnwallis, " Life 
 of Prince Henry," in the " Somers Tracts." 
 
 Henry, (Heinrich,) or Priedrich Heinrich Ltid- 
 wig, a Prussian prince, distinguished for his skill in 
 strategy, born in Berlin in 1726. was a brother of Frede- 
 rick the Great. He commanded the right wing at the 
 battle of Prague, 1757, and decided the fortune of the 
 day. He outgeneralled the enemy in the campaign of 
 1758, and obtained some advantages in 1759. In 1760, 
 with 35,000 men, he held in check a superior force of 
 Russians by skilful marches, and prevented their junc- 
 tion with the Austrians. He gained a signal victory at 
 Freyburg in October, 1762, which was the last important 
 action of the Seven Years' war. He was less enter- 
 prising as a general than his brother, who in 1763 
 saluted him "as the only general that in this war has 
 not committed a single fault." Died in 1802. 
 
 See " Schilderung des Privatlebens des Prinzen Heinrich von 
 Pieuvst-n," 17*4; "Anecdoten und Characteivaige ausdem Leben dea 
 Prinzen Heinrich von Preussen," 1804; Guyton, " Vie privee d'un 
 Homme celebre, ou Details des Loisirsdu Prince Henri de Prusse," 
 1784; HouiLl.B uu Chakol, " Vie du Prince Henri de Prusse," 1809. 
 
 Henry of Aucmaar. See Ai.kmau. 
 
 Henry of CHAMPAGNE, (shfiN'pan',) born in 1180, 
 was the nephew of Richard Cceur de Lion. In the third 
 crusade he distinguished himself at the siege of Saint- 
 Jean-d'Acre. By his marriage with Isabella, widow of 
 Conrad of Tyre, and with the consent of the chiefs, he 
 became King of Jerusalem. He died during the fourth 
 crusade. 
 
 Henry of HAINAULT, [Fr. Hk.nri i>f IIainault, 
 //ft.N'ie' deli ii'nS',] born at Valenciennes in 1 174, was 
 a brother of Baldwin of Flanders. In 1202 he took part 
 in the crusade against the Turks, and in 1206 succeeded 
 his brother Baldwin as Emperor of Constantinople. lie 
 is represented as a brave and prudent prince. Died, 
 without issue, in 1216. 
 
 Henry of HUNTINGDON, an English historian, who 
 lived about 1150, became Archdeacon of Huntingdon. 
 He wrote a general history of England from the earliest 
 accounts to the death of Stephen, (1 154,) which was 
 published by Sir Henry Savile in 1596. lie also wrote 
 Latin poetry, which is not without merit. 
 
 Henry (or Henrique) of Portugal. See Henry 
 ■ .1 Pi ki.imjv. 
 
 Henry [Port. IIfnrique, en-ree'ka] of Portugal, 
 [Fr. iifnri 61 Portugal, zV&N're' deli poVtU.'gtf,] a 
 
 celebrated patron of science, sometimes called HENRY 
 IMF NAVIGATOR, was born at Oporto in 1394. He was 
 a younger son of John I. of Portugal, and a nephew of 
 Henry IV. of England. He was distinguished for his 
 attainments in mathematics, geography, and navigation. 
 About 1419 he founded an observatory and nautical 
 sc lino] in Algarve, and enlisted the most skilful mariners 
 in enterprises of maritime discovery. Under his auspices 
 the west coast of Africa was explored as fat as Sierra 
 
 1 i; c as s; g hard; g as ;'; G, H, K.,gutturaJ; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. ( jy"See Explanations, p, 23.) 
 
HENRT 
 
 1168 
 
 HENR V 
 
 Leone, and Madeira and the Azores were discovered. 
 Died in 1463. 
 
 See Francisco Joze Freire, " Vida do Infante D. Henrique por 
 Candido Lusitano/' 1758; AliBE de Cournand, " Vie de Henri de 
 Portugal," Paris, 2 vols., 1761 ; R. H. Major, " Life of Prince Henry 
 the Navigator," London, 1868. 
 
 Henry (or Henrique) of Portugal third son of 
 Emanuel, King of Portugal, was born in Lisbon in 1512. 
 He was educated for the church, and became Archbishop 
 of Ev'ora ill 1540. He consented to the establishment 
 of the Inquisition in his diocese. At the death of his 
 nephew, Kim? Sebastian, in 1578, he succeeded to the 
 throne. He was urged to designate which of the claim- 
 ants should succeed him, but delayed, and died, without a 
 decision, in 1580. Philip H. of Spain was his successor. 
 Henry of Transtamare. See Henry II. of Cas- 
 tile. . , 
 
 Hen'ry, (Caleb Sprague,) an American author, 
 born in Rutland, Massachusetts, in 1804, graduated at 
 Dartmouth College in 1825. He took orders in the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church about 1835, and became 
 professor of philosophy and history in the New York 
 University in 1839. He published, besides other works, 
 "Cousin's Psychology," (1834,) and a "Compendium of 
 Christian Antiquities," (1837.) 
 
 Hen'ry. (David,) born at Aberdeen in 1710, removed 
 to London at an early age, and was employed by Cave,, 
 (the publisher of the " Gentleman's Magazine,") whose 
 sister he married in 1736. He was a frequent contributor 
 to the above magazine, and at the death of E. Cave, m 
 1754, he became a partner in its management. He was 
 the author of the "Complete English Farmer," and of a 
 few other works. Died in 1792. 
 
 Henry, //6.N're', (Etiennk Ossi an,) a French chemist, 
 born in Paris about 1798. He distinguished himself by 
 researches into the action and composition of mineral 
 waters, and gained the Montyon prize for a method of pro- 
 ducing sulphate of quinia. He published, besides other 
 chemical works, a " Manual of the Chemical Analysis of 
 Mineral Waters," (1825,) in which his father assisted. 
 
 Henry, (Joseph,) an American savant and natural phi- 
 losopher, born at Albany, New York, in 1797. He began 
 a series of experiments in electricity about 1827, and is 
 said to have invented the first machine moved by the 
 agency of electro-magnetism. He wrote on electricity 
 and magnetism several papers inserted in " Silliman's 
 Journal." In 1832 he was appointed professor of natural 
 philosophy in the College of New Jersey at Princeton. 
 He published "Contributions to Electricity and Mag- 
 netism," (1839,) and became secretary of the Smith- 
 sonian Institute in 1846. He has contributed numerous 
 valuable papers to the various scientific periodicals m 
 the United States. 
 
 Henry, (Marie Joseph,) a French historian, born 
 in Basses-Alpes in 1778, published a History of Egypt, 
 ("L'Egypte Pharaonique," 2 vols., 1846,) and other 
 works. Died in 1850. . 
 
 Hen'ry, (MatTKEW,) an eminent English divine, born 
 in Iscoyd township, Flintshire, in October, 1662. After 
 receiving a liberal education, he accepted in 1687 the 
 charge of a dissenting church in Chester. In 1712 he 
 removed to Hackney, where he preached until his death, 
 in 1 7 14. He published many sermons and theological 
 works, of which the most important is his "Commentary 
 on the Old and New Testament," (1710.) This is thought 
 by some to be the best work of that kind ever published. 
 It was highly commended by Robert Hall, Dr. Dod- 
 dridge, and Adam Clarke. The latter, speaking of 
 certain abridgments of the above work, says, "Every 
 one of them, while professing to lop off his redundancies 
 and supply his deficiencies, falls, by a semi-diameter of 
 the immense orb of literature and religion, short of the 
 author himself." 
 
 See Tong, "Life of Matthew Henry," 1716 ; Williams, "Me- 
 moirs of the Life. Character, and Writings of M. Henry, 
 
 1828. 
 
 Henry, (Noel Etif.nne,) a French chemist, father 
 of fitienne Ossian, noticed above, was born at Beau- 
 vais (Oise) in 1769. He wrote a "Treatise on Phar- 
 macy, Practical and Theoretical," (1828.) Died at Paris 
 in 1832. 
 
 See " Notice biographique sur Noel fitienne Henry," by Baron 
 
 SlLVESTRE. 
 
 Henry, (Patrick,) a celebrated American orator and 
 patriot, born at Studley, Hanover county, Virginia, May 
 29, 1736. His father, John Henry, was a native of 
 Scotland, and a nephew of the eminent historian Robert- 
 son. His mother's maiden name was Sarah Winston. 
 Under his father's tuition he learned the common Eng- 
 lish branches and acquired a smattering of Latin ; but 
 he had little inclination to book-learning. In his youth 
 he was passionately addicted to dancing, hunting, and 
 fishing. Finding him indisposed for literary and pro- 
 fessional pursuits, his father set him up in mercantile 
 business about 1753. His success in trade was hindered 
 by his negligent and indolent habits. About the age of 
 eighteen he married a Miss Shelton. Having become 
 insolvent, he abandoned mercantile pursuits and began 
 to cultivate a small farm ; but after an experiment of two 
 years he sold his land and returned to merchandise. 
 He failed again in trade about 1760, and then resolved to 
 try the profession of the law. After he was admitted to 
 the bar, he passed several years in poverty and obscurity; 
 but he gained sudden distinction in 1 763 by his speech 
 against the clergy, who undertook to enforce the payment 
 of their salaries in tobacco.* This cause, called "the 
 Parsons' Cause," which had produced much excitement 
 in the country, was tried before a court over which Patrick 
 Henry's father presided as judge. "On this occasion 
 he rose very awkwardly," says Wirt, " and faltered much 
 in his exordium." . . . Rut, "as his mind rolled along 
 and began to glow from its own action, all the exuviae 
 of the clown seemed to shed themselves spontaneously." 
 The result of this plea, the first he ever made in court, 
 was a verdict for the people. 
 
 In 1765 he was elected a member of the House of 
 Burgesses, and offered in that body a series of resolutions 
 against the famous Stamp Act. He advocated these 
 resolutions by a powerful speech, in which he exclaimed, 
 "C«esar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, 
 and George the Third"— here he was interrupted by loud 
 cries of " Treason !" from all parts of the House — " may 
 profit by their example. If this be treason, make the 
 most of it." His resolutions passed the House by a 
 small majority in May, 1765. " During the period be- 
 tween this date and the Revolution, Mr. Henry," says 
 Alexander H. Everett, "was constantly in advance of 
 the most ardent patriots. He suggested and carried into 
 effect, by his immediate personal influence, measures that 
 were opposed as premature and violent by all the other 
 eminent supporters of the cause of liberty." In 1774 
 he was chosen a delegate to the Continental Congress. 
 Among the greatest triumphs of his unrivalled eloquence 
 was a speech in the Virginia Convention (March, 1775) 
 for the passage of a resolution " that the colony be im- 
 mediately put in a state of defence." He insisted on 
 the necessity of fighting for independence, and closed 
 with the words "Give me liberty, or give me death!" 
 
 He was elected Governor of Virginia in 1776, and, by 
 successive re-elections, held that office until 1779. In 
 this capacity he rendered important services to the popu- 
 lar cause. In 1784 and 1785 he was again chosen Gov- 
 ernor. As a member of the Virginia Convention of 1788, 
 he opposed the adoption of the Federal Constitution, 
 against which he made several speeches of extraordinary 
 eloquence. He said the Constitution had "an awful 
 squinting towards monarchy." He died June 6, 1799, 
 leaving the reputation of the greatest of American orators. 
 lie was a devout believer in Christianity, but was not a 
 member of any religious denomination. 
 
 See William Wirt, " Life and Character of Patrick Henry," 
 1817; A. H. Everett, "Life of Patrick Henry," in Sparks'* 
 "American Biography," vol. xi. ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate;" 
 " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1840. 
 
 Henry, (Philip,) an English dissenting minister, born 
 in London in 1631, was father of Matthew Henry the 
 commentator. He was ejected from his living for non- 
 conformity at the restoration. In the latter part of his 
 life he resided at Broad Oak, where his labours in the 
 ministry were highly approved. Died in 1696. 
 
 See " Life of Philip Henry," by his son Matthew, 1606; Wil- 
 liam Bates, "Life of Philip Henry," 1699. 
 
 * By virtue of an old statute, each clergyman was entitled to 
 16,000 jiounds of tobacco per annum. 
 
 l,i, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, /all, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
HENR T 
 
 [i 69 
 
 HEPHESTION 
 
 Henry, ( I'ikkkk Francois,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Nancy in 1759, translated from the English Marshall's 
 " Life of Washington," and many other works. He also 
 wrote the article on Washington in the " Biographie 
 Universelle." Died in 1833. 
 
 See Querard. "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Henry, (Rev. Robert,) a Scottish historian, born at 
 Muirtown in 1718. He was licensed to preach in 1746, 
 and officiated at Carlisle from 1748 to 1760. In 1768 he 
 removed to Edinburgh, where he became minister of 
 the New Grey-Friars' Church. From 1776 to 1790 he 
 was colleague-minister of the Old Church. His reputa- 
 tion as an author is founded on his " History of Great 
 Britain," (6 vols., 1771-93.) It embraces the period 
 from the first invasion of the Romans to the death of 
 Henry VIII., and is composed on an original plan, since 
 adopted in the more popular history of Charles Knight. 
 The plan is to treat the history of politics, of religion, of 
 learning, of manners and customs, etc. in separate divi- 
 sions. Henry's work is executed .with great erudition 
 and fidelity; but the style is not attractive. It was acri- 
 moniously criticised by Gilbert Stuart when it first ap- 
 peared, but was commended by Hume. Died in 1790. 
 
 See a " Life of R. Henry," in the sixth volume of his " History;" 
 ChAM BUM, " Biographical Dictionaryof Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Henry, (Rev. Robert,) born at Charleston, South 
 Carolina, in 1792, graduated at the University of Edin- 
 burgh in 1814. He was chosen president of the College 
 of South Carolina in 1842, resigned in 1845, and then 
 became professor of Greek in that institution. He con- 
 tributed to the "Southern Review." Died in 1856. 
 
 Henry, (Wii.i.iam,) an English chemist, born at Man- 
 chester in 1775. 'I e graduated as M.D. at Edinburgh 
 in 1807, and practised with success at Manchester. He 
 had previously made valuable researches in chemistry, 
 on which he contributed numerous memoirs to the 
 " Philosophical Transactions" of the Royal Society. In 
 1803 he ascertained the law of the absorption of gases 
 by water of different temperatures. In 1808 he was 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, which the next 
 year awarded to him Sir G. Copley's donation, as a tes- 
 timonial of his scientific merit. He is the author of well- 
 written sketches of Davy, Priestley, and Wollaston ; also 
 of an excellent work, entitled " Elements of Experimental 
 Chemistry," (1800,) which passed through many editions. 
 His moral character is represented as excellent. Died 
 in 1836. 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Henry the Lion, [Ger. Heinrich der Lowe, h7n'- 
 riK d^R 16'weh,] born in 1 129, was the son of Henry the 
 Proud, Duke of Saxony, and grandson of the emperor 
 Lothaire. On his succeeding his father, in 1146, he 
 demanded the restoration of Bavaria, which had been 
 wrested from his family, and which in 1 1 54 was conceded 
 to him. While on a crusade in Palestine, his dominions 
 were invaded by his enemies, whereby he was involved 
 in numerous contests after his return. He died in 1 195, 
 leaving the reputation of a wise ruler and a patron of 
 learning and commerce. He married as his second wife 
 Matilda, daughter of Henry II. of England. 
 
 See Karl Wilhelm BSttic.er, "Heinrich der Lowe," 1819; 
 Raumer, " Geschichte der Hohenstaufen." 
 
 Henry the Minstrel. See Harry, (Blind.) 
 
 Henry the Proud, | Kr. Henri i.e Supekbe, hoN're' 
 leh su'piRb'; Ger. Heinrich der Stolze, hin'riK dcR 
 stolt'seh ; Lat. Henri'cus Super'bus,] Duke of Bavaria 
 and Saxony, born in 1 102, was an able and warlike prince. 
 Died in 1 139. He was the father of Henry the Lion. 
 
 See Ai.bekicus, "De Vita Henrici Superbi." 
 
 Henrys, A&N're', (Claude,) a French jurisconsult 
 and legal writer, born at Montbrison in 1615. He co- 
 operated with Chancellor Siguier in his effort to estab- 
 lish a uniform system of jurisprudence. Died in 1662. 
 
 Hen'rjF-son, (Robert,) a schoolmaster of Dunferm- 
 line, lived about 1460-90, and was one of the best Scot- 
 tish poet* of his time. He wrote " Orpheus Kyng," 
 "The Testament of Cressid," and " Robene and Ma- 
 kyne," thought to be the earliest of Scottish pastoral 
 poems. 
 
 See "Memoir of Robert Henryson," by D. Lainc, 1866; Cham- 
 bers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hens, van, vtn hgns, (Abraham,) a Dutch painter 
 of plants and insects, born at Utrecht about 1645 ; died 
 after 1705. 
 
 Hensel, hen'sel, (Wii.hei.m,) a German painter, born 
 in the province of Brandenburg in 1794. Among his 
 best pictures are "Christ before Pilate," and excellent 
 portraits of the Duke of Brunswick and of the cele- 
 brated composer Mendelssohn. His wife, Fanny Hen- 
 sel, sister of Felix Mendelssohn, was distinguished for 
 her skill and taste in music, and produced several ad- 
 mired compositions. Died in 1847. 
 
 See Nagi.kr, "Nevies Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 HSu'shaw, (John Prentice Kewley,) D.D., Bishop 
 of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was born in Middle- 
 town, Connecticut, in 1792. After graduating at Mid- 
 dlcbury College, Vermont, in 1808, he embraced the 
 tenets of the Episcopal Church. Through his zealous 
 labours, several new churches were organized in Ver- 
 mont. In 1817 he became pastor of Saint Peter's Church 
 in Baltimore. He was elected Bishop of Rhode Island 
 in 1843. Died in 1852. 
 
 Henshaw, (J. SIDNEY,) changed from J. Henshaw 
 Belcher, an American lawyer and writer, born in Boston 
 in 1814. He published, besides other works, " Philos- 
 ophy of Human Progress," (1835,) and "Round the 
 World," (2 vols., 1840.) Died in 1859. 
 
 Hensler, hens'ler, (Philip Gabriel,) a Danish phy- 
 sician, born at Oldenswortb, in 1733, became physician 
 to the King of Denmark in 1775. Died in 1805. 
 
 HSiiS'low, (Rev. John Stevens,) a distinguished 
 English botanist, born in 1796. He took the degree of 
 B.A. at Cambridge in 1818, and was appointed professor 
 of botany in that university about 1825. In 1837 he 
 became rector of Hitcham, in Suffolk, where he con- 
 tinued to reside until his death. He was a popular lec- 
 turer, and contributed memoirs on botany and other 
 parts of natural history to the Transactions of several 
 societies. His principal productions are " Principles of 
 Descriptive and Physiological Botany," (1835,) a ""fk 
 of great merit, which has been extensively used as a 
 text-book, and a "Catalogue of British Plants." Died 
 in 1861. 
 
 See Jenyns, " Life of J. Henslow," 1862; "Gentleman's Maga- 
 zine" for July, 1 86 1. 
 
 Hentz, hgnts, (Caroline Lee,) born at I-ancaster, 
 Massachusetts, about 1804, was the daughter of General 
 John Whiting. In 1825 she was married to Professor 
 N. M. Hentz. Her tragedy " De Lara, or the Moorish 
 Bride," gained a prize of five hundred dollars; and sev- 
 eral of her tales and novelettes had a wide circulation. 
 She wrote, among other tales, "The Planter's Northern 
 Bride," "Linda," and " Ernest Linwood." Died in 1856. 
 
 Hentzner, h£nts'ner, (Paul,) born in Silesia in 1558, 
 was the author of a "Journey through Germany, France, 
 Italy, etc.," written in elegant Latin. Part of it was 
 translated into English. Died in 1623. 
 
 See L. Brightwell, " By- Paths of Biography;" Motley, 
 " History of the United Netherlands," vol. i. chap. vi. 
 
 Hepburn, (James.) See Bothwei.i. 
 
 Hep'burn, (James Bonaventura,) a Scottish phi- 
 lologist, born in 1573. After travelling in Europe and 
 Asia, he entered a convent near Avignon. It is said that 
 he knew seventy-two languages. He produced a Hebrew 
 and Chaldean Dictionary, and an Arabic Grammar. Po| < 
 Paul V. appointed him keeper of the Oriental books and 
 manuscripts of the Vatican. Died in 1621. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hephaestus, he-fes'ttts,[Gr.*H0o((7TOc,Fr. 1 1 itrn 1 > 1 1 , 
 i'fest , or Haihesi i, 3'fest',] the Greek name of the 
 god Vulcan, which see. 
 
 Hephestion or Hephaestion, he-feYtl on, [Gr. 
 'Wijxuariuv,] a Macedonian courtier, the sun ot Amyn- 
 tor of Pi lla. In -I ame a favourite of Alexander tin- < Ireat, 
 whom he followed in the invasion ol IVtsi.i ami India. 
 In the return ot this expedition, 1 lephrstion and Craterus 
 commanded a separate part of the army. Whet] Alex- 
 ander married Koxana, daughter of Darius, hi- gave her 
 sister, Drypctis, to I lephestion. He died soon alter 
 that event, in 325 B.C. The grief of Alexander l"t his 
 loss was so profound that he tasted no food for three days. 
 
 See Arrian, "Anabasis;" Thirlwai.l, " Huttory of Greece." 
 
 eas/C; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R,(rilled; 5 as »,- th as in this. 
 
 74 
 
 (B3^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HEPHESTION 
 
 1170 
 
 HERAUD 
 
 Hephestion, a grammarian of Alexandria, lived about 
 150 A.D., and wrote a treatise entitled " Enchiridion de 
 Metris." 
 
 He'ra, [Gr. 'Hpa or "Upri,\ a goddess of the Greek 
 mythology, was the daughter of Cronos, (Saturn,) and the 
 wife of Jupiter, and was identical with the Juno of the 
 Romans. The chief seats of her worship were Argos 
 and Samos. (See Juno.) 
 
 Heracleidae. See HeracliD/E. 
 
 Heracleides. See Heraclides. 
 
 Heracleitus. See Heraclitus. 
 
 He-rac'le-on, [Gr. 'HpnxAeuv,] a Gnostic or heretic 
 of the second century. He adopted the doctrines of 
 Valentine, with modifications. 
 
 He-rac-le-o'nas, the son of the emperor Heraclius, 
 was born in 626 A.D. At the death of his father, in 641, 
 he succeeded to the throne in partnership with his half- 
 brother Constantine. A few months later the latter was 
 poisoned by Martina, the mother of Heracleonas. In 
 consequence of this and other crimes, the guards of the 
 palace revolted and seized Martina and her son, who 
 were banished by the senate. He was succeeded by 
 his nephew, Constans II. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 He>'a-cle§, [Gr. 'Hpas/U/c,] the Greek form of the 
 name of Hkrcui.es, which see. 
 
 Heraclidae or Heracleidse.her-a-kli'dee, [Gr. 'Hpa- 
 KAeldat.: Fr. Heraclides, a'rS'kled'; Ger. Hkrakliden, 
 hi-ra-klee'den,] a name applied to a noble and powerful 
 Grecian race, who were, or claimed to be, descendants 
 of Hercules, (Heracles.) The sons of Hercules took 
 refuge in Attica from the persecution of Eurystheus. In 
 alliance with the Dorians, the Heraclidae invaded Pelo- 
 ponnesus, parts of which they claimed as their heritage. 
 This expedition was called the return of the Hcraclidse. 
 After several failures, they conquered the Peloponnesus. 
 
 Heraclide. See Heraci.ides. 
 
 HSr-a-oll'dea or Her-a-clei'des, [Gr. 'Hpa/cMffyc ; 
 Fr. Heraclide, a'rS'kled',] a Syracusan general, who 
 aided Dion to dethrone Dionysius the Younger. Having 
 become an enemy of Dion, he was put to death, by his 
 order, in 354 B.C. 
 
 Heraclides, a Greek historian, born probably in 
 Egypt, lived about 170 B.C. 
 
 Her-a-cli'des of Pon'tus, [ Fr. Heraclide nu 
 Pont, a'rS'kled' du pdN,] a Greek philosopher, born 
 at Heraclea, lived in the fourth century before Christ. 
 He studied under Speusippus and Aristotle, and is 
 classed among the Peripatetics by Diogenes Laertius. 
 He wrote, on history, philosophy, politics, and other 
 subjects, many works, which are lost, except fragments 
 of his treatise on the constitutions of various states, 
 
 flept ■KokLTUijV VTTU/lVll/ia. 
 
 See Diogenes Laertius; Vossiur, " De Histortcis Grsecis :" 
 Roulez, "Commentatiode Vitaet Scriptis Heraclids Pontici," 1828. 
 
 Heraclides of Tarf.ntum, a Greek physician, lived 
 in the second or third century before Christ. He is 
 quoted and praised by Galen. 
 
 Heraclite. See Heraclitus. 
 
 Heraclitus or Heracleitus, her-a-klT'tus, [Gr. 'Hpu- 
 uleiroc ; Fr. Heraclite, a'rS'klet' ; It. Eraclito, 4-ra- 
 klee'to,] surnamedTHE Naturalist, a celebrated Greek 
 philosopher, and the founder of a sect, was a native of 
 Ephesus, and lived about 500 B.C. According to several 
 accounts, he studied the Pythagorean philosophy under 
 Hippasus and Xenophanes ; but he professed to be self- 
 taught. His father was one of the principal citizens of 
 Ephesus, the chief magistracy of which was offered to 
 Heraclitus, but was refused. The current notion that 
 he was addicted to habitual weeping on account of the 
 vices and follies of men, appears to be unfounded ; but 
 his gloomy and unsociable temper, or his love of study, 
 caused him to decline intercourse with the world and 
 to retire to the solitude of a mountain. When Darius 
 of Persia invited him to his court, he rather rudely re- 
 fused the intended honour. He founded a new school 
 of philosophy, which did not, however, survive as a dis- 
 tinct school long after his own time.* His principal work 
 
 * Nevertheless, Heraclitus may be said to have anticipated some 
 of the most "advanced" ideas of the most distinguished physicists of 
 the present age. After observing that the "world (Kosmos or Uni- 
 
 was a "Treatise on Nature," of which fragments only 
 are extant. Socrates, alter reading it, said that so 
 much of it as he could understand was good, but that 
 he found it for the most part unintelligible. He affected 
 an obscure and concise style, comparing himself to the 
 Sibyl, who utters in mysterious language the austere 
 oracles of inspiration, and received the epithet oKoretvoc, 
 the "obscure." He taught that fire is the principle of 
 all things ; that death is only a change of form ; that natu- 
 ral phenomena are produced by the antagonism of two 
 opposite forces, namely, attraction and repulsion ; that 
 motion is essential to matter, and, as a result of this in- 
 cessant change, "no man has ever floated twice on the 
 same stream." He attached little value to worldly wis- 
 dom or human lore, saying that the science of men is 
 only ignorance; their grandeur, meanness; and their 
 pleasure, pain. He represented contentment as the chief 
 good. He died about the age of sixty. 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Bio- 
 graphical History of Philosophy ;" Lassaij.e, "Die Philosophie des 
 Heracleitos," Berlin, 2 vols., 1858; F. Schleiekmachhr, "Hera- 
 clitus of Ephesus," (in German.) 1S0S; F. Mknz, " Programma 
 de Heraclito Ephesio," 1736; Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 Heraclitus, an elegiac poet, born at Halicamassus, 
 lived about 250 B.C., and was a friend of Callimachus. 
 
 Her-a-cli'us [fir. 'HptkAttoc] I., a Roman Emperor 
 of the East, son of Heraclius, Governor of Africa, born 
 about 575 A.D., was a native of Cappadocia. By the 
 violent death of the tyrant Phocas, in 610, Heraclius, 
 who had served in the army with credit, obtained the 
 imperial power; and soon after he married Eudoxia. In 
 the early part •of his reign the empire was ravaged by 
 pestilence and the barbarian armies of Chosroes, (Khos- 
 roo,) King of Persia. In 622 he led an army against 
 Persia, defeated Chosroes at Tauris, and fought several 
 successful campaigns, in which he displayed great mili- 
 tary talents and personal courage. Having made peace 
 with Persia, he returned to Constantinople in 628, and 
 abandoned himself to inglorious ease, sensual vices, and 
 the subtleties of Monothelism, of which he became the 
 supporter, while the victorious progress of the Mussul- 
 man arms threatened to subvert his empire. He died 
 in 641. His character is a puzzle, and presents sur- 
 prising contradictions. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire ;" Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire." 
 
 Heraclius II. See Constantine III., Emperor of 
 the East. 
 
 Herakleides. See Heraclides. 
 
 Herakleitus or Herakleitos. See Heraclitus. 
 
 Herakl den. See Heraclidae. 
 
 Heraldu?. See Heraui.d. 
 
 H§r'a-path, (John,) an English mathematician and 
 writer on physics, born at Bristol in 1793. He was 
 the editor of "Herapath's Railway Journal." Besides 
 several treatises on physics, he wrote two volumes 
 on "Mathematical Physics," (1847.) Died in 1868. 
 
 Herapath, (William,) an eminent English chemist, 
 born at Bristol in 1796, was the son of a brewer, whom 
 he succeeded in his business. He made important dis- 
 coveries in toxicology, and was consulted as a chemist 
 in the trials of persons suspected of causing death by 
 poison. For many years he held the place of first teacher 
 of chemistry in the Bristol Medical School. He wrote 
 several chemical memoirs. He was a prominent Liberal 
 in politics. Died in 1868. 
 
 His son, William Bird Herapath, is a physician, 
 and author of several medical treatises. 
 
 Heraud, ha'ro', ? (John A.,) an English poet and 
 dramatic writer, born in London about 1800. He pro- 
 verse) was made neither by any of the gods, nor by any man, it was 
 and is and ever shall be an ever-living tire, in due measure self-kin- 
 dled, and in due measure self-extinguished," he goes on to say, " Al.L 
 is convertible INTO fike, AND kire into all, just as gold is con- 
 vertible into wares, and wares into gold." If we take the word lire 
 to include heat, light, and electricity, (lightning.) a sense in which it 
 was not unfrequently used by the ancients, we shall perceive a strik- 
 ing analogy between the thought of the preceding passage and that 
 of the following from Herbert Spencer: "Those modes of the Un- 
 knowable which we call motion, heat, light, chemical affinity, etc. are 
 alike transformable into each other, and into those modes of the 
 Unknowable which we distinguish as sensation, emotion, thought: 
 these in their turns being directly or indirectly re-transformable into 
 the original shapes." ("First Principles," chap. ix. p. 280.) 
 
 a, S, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short: a, e, |, o, oftcure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HERAULD 
 
 n 7 i 
 
 HERBERT 
 
 duced "The Judgment of the Flood," a poem, (1834,) 
 " Videna," a tragedy, (1854,) and other works. 
 
 Herauld, ttrrV, [Lat Hkral'dus,] (Didier.) a 
 French Protestant lawyer and critic, born about 1579. 
 In youth he obtained the chair of Greek at Sedan, and 
 afterwards practised law with* success at Paris. He 
 gained distinction as a critical scholar, and was highly 
 eulogized by Grotius. He published notes on Martial, 
 Minutius Felix, and Tertullian, and several other works. 
 Died in 1649. 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" MM. Haac, 
 "La France protestante." 
 
 Herault de Sechelles, il'rc/ deh si'shel', (Marie 
 Jean,) a French revolutionist, born of an aristocratic 
 'family in Paris in 1760. He gained distinction as a law- 
 yer and orator before the Revolution. Elected to the 
 -alive Assembly in 1791, he became a leader of the 
 Jacobins, and was president of the Convention in June, 
 1793, when the Girondists were proscribed. He was the 
 author or redatteur of the document called the "Con- 
 stitution of 1793," and was president and chief speaker 
 at the national festival of August 10, 1793. In the same 
 year he was a member of the sanguinary committee of 
 public safety. Proscribed by Robespierre and accused 
 of complicity in a conspiracy, he was executed with 
 Danton in April, 1794. "He died," says Lamartine, 
 "with the serenity of a just man who glories in being a 
 martyr of liberty." He is described by Lord Brougham 
 (in a sketch of Danton) as a man of unsullied charac- 
 ter. He left a work entitled "Theory of Ambition," 
 (1802.) 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Girondists;" Thiers, "His- 
 tory of the French Revolution;" " Nouvelle Biographic G&ie>ale." 
 
 Herbart, heVbiRt, (Johann Frif.drich,) an emi- 
 nent German philosopher, born at Oldenburg in May, 
 1776. He was a pupil of Fichte in the University of 
 Jena. In 1805 he published a treatise on Platonic phi- 
 losophy, " De Platonici Systematis Fundamento," and 
 became adjunct professor of philosophy at Gottingen. 
 He produced in 1808 a "General Practical Philosophy," 
 and "The Chief Points of Metaphysics," (" Hau'pt- 
 punkte der Metaphysik.") He was professor at Konigs- 
 Irerg from l8o9to 1833, during which period he published, 
 besides other works, an "Introduction to Philosophy," 
 (1814,) and " Psychology as a Science newly based on Ex- 
 perience, Metaphysics, and Mathematics," (" Psychologie 
 als Wissenschaft neu gegriindet auf Erfahrung, Meta- 
 physik und Mathematik," 2 vols., 1825.) In 1833 he 
 obtained the chair of philosophy at Gottingen. He 
 originated a peculiar system of philosophy. Died at 
 Gottingen in August, 1841. 
 
 See Hartrnsteik, " Herbart's Leben," 1S43 : Sciiii.i.ino, " Lehr- 
 buch der Psychologie," 1851; " Nouvelle Hiographie Generate. 
 
 Herbel, AeVbel', (Chari.es,) a French painter and 
 engraver, born at Nancy; died in 1703. 
 
 Herbelin, /ijRb'laN', (JEANNE Mathii.de,) an emi- 
 nent French painter of miniatures, a daughter of Baron 
 Hubert, born at Brunoy about 1818. She won first-class 
 medals at Paris in 1847 an<jl '855. 
 
 Herbelot, d', deVblo', (Bar thei.emy,) an eminent 
 French Orientalist, born in Paris in 1625. Having 
 learned Arabic, Hebrew, Persian, etc., he was employed 
 as Oriental secretary and interpreter by the king, who 
 granted him a pension : he was also appointed pro- 
 of Syriac in the College Royal. He published 
 a "Bibliotheque Orientale," or " Universal Dictionary, 
 containing generally all that regards the Knowledge 
 of the Eastern Nations," a work of great labour and 
 erudition, which was not quite finished at his death in 
 1695. It was published in 1697. 
 
 See Perrault, " Hommes illustres;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Ge'nirale." 
 
 Herberay, d', diRb'rJ', (Nicolas,) Seigneur des 
 Essarts, a French officer, who, by order of Francis I., 
 translated the first eight books of "Amadis de Gaule" 
 into French, (1548.) Died about 1550. 
 
 Herberstein, von, fon heVl>er-stTn', (Sigismund,) 
 Baron, a German historian, born in Carniola or Styria 
 in 14S6. He was employed in several important mis- 
 sions, and rose to be president of the college of finance. 
 His "Commentaries on Russian History" (Rerum Mos- 
 
 coviticarum Commentarii," 1549) is esteemed the most 
 
 valuable historical work on the early Russians. 
 
 See F. Adelung, "Siegmund Freiherr von Herberstein," etc. 
 1818. 
 
 Her'bert, (Hon. Algernon,) an English author and 
 lawyer, born in 1792, was the youngest son of Henry, 
 Earl of Carnarvon. He wrote several learned works, 
 among which are "Nimrod: a Discourse on Certain 
 Passages of History and Fable," and "Britannia after 
 the Romans." Died in 1855. 
 
 Herbert, (Edward,) Lord Herbert of Cherbury, an 
 English author and courtier, was born at Montgomery, 
 Wales, in 1581, and was a descendant of the Earl of 
 Pembroke. About 1610 he served in the English army 
 in the Netherlands, and received the title of knight from 
 James I. In 1618 he was sent as ambassador to France, 
 where he published in 1674 his first and principal work, 
 a Latin treatise "On Truth as it is distinguished from 
 Revelation, from Probability, from Possibility, and from 
 Falsehood," which Hallam represents as a "monument 
 of an original, independent thinker," although "justly 
 deemed inimical to every positive religion." In 1631 he 
 was raised to the peerage. He was also the author of 
 a "History of the Life and Reign of Henry VIII.," 
 ('649.) which Horace Walpole calls a "master-piece of 
 historic biography," and "The Life of Lord Herbert, 
 written by himself," (1764.) He was reputed one of the 
 most eminent English statesmen and philosophers of 
 the age in which he lived. Died in 1648. 
 
 See Hai.lam, " Introduction to the Literature of Europe ;" Hor- 
 ace Walpole, Preface to Herbert's Autobiography; C11. de Remu- 
 sat, " Notice of Herbert," in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," 1854 ; 
 " Retrosjwctive Review," vol. vii., 1823. 
 
 Herbert, (George,) an English poet, a brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Montgomery, Wales, in 1593. 
 In 1619 he was chosen public orator of Cambridge 
 University, of which he was a graduate. Having taken 
 orders, he was made, in 1626, prebendary of Layton 
 Ecclesia, and in 1630 was presented by the king to the 
 living of Bemerton. His poetical writings were once 
 very popular, and have been admired by such men as 
 Cowper and Coleridge ; but they are censured by modern 
 critics for quaint and ludicrous conceits. His principal 
 prose work is "The Country Parson." Coleridge re- 
 marks that "the quaintness of some of his thoughts — 
 not of his diction, than which nothing can be more pure, 
 manly, and unaffected— has blinded modern readers to 
 the great general metits of his poems, which are for the 
 most part exquisite in their kind." Died in 1632. 
 
 See IzaaK Walton, "Life of Herbert;'* Wili.mott, "Lives 
 of the English Sacred Poets;" '" Retrospective Review," vol. iii., 
 1821 ; " British Quarterly Review" for July, 1867. 
 
 Herbert, (HenkyWii.i.iam,) born in London in 1807, 
 was the son of the Rev. William Herbert, noticed below, 
 and a lineal descendant of the Earls of Pembroke. He 
 emigrated to the United States in 1831. He displayed 
 remarkable versatility of talents in his voluminous works, 
 consisting of novels, fugitive poems, historical sketches, 
 etc. Under the name of Frank Forester, he wrote 
 "The Field Sports of the United States," (1849,) 
 "The Deer-Stalkers," (1849,) and other sporting works. 
 Professor Felton represents him as " a poet of vivid 
 imagination, a successful novelist, and an able and ac- 
 complished critic." He committed suicide in 1858. 
 
 See " North American Review." vol. ixix. 
 
 Herbert, (John Rogers,) an eminent English painter 
 of history and portraits, was born at Maiden, Essex, in 
 1810. He studied in the Royal Academy, and for some 
 years painted portraits with success. Having become a 
 Roman Catholic, he changed his style, and devoted him- 
 self to religious subjects. He produced "The First In- 
 troduction of Christianity into Britain," \ 1S42.) and "John 
 the Baptist reproving Herod," (184K.) lie was elected 
 a Royal Academician in 1848, anil painted frescos illus- 
 trating " King Lear" in the new palace oi Westminster, 
 about 1849. 
 
 Herbert, (Mary,) nle Sidney. See SIDNEY. 
 
 Herbert, (Sidney,) of Lea, BARON, an English states- 
 man of eminent merit, born in 1810, was the second son 
 of the Earl of Pembroke. He graduated at Oxford in 
 1831, and entered Parliament as a Conservative in 1S32. 
 In 1841 he was appointed secretary to the admiralty, and 
 
 r .i> k; 9 as J-, g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R. trilled; s as 7.; th as in t/u't. (J53^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HERBERT 
 
 1172 
 
 HERCULES 
 
 in 1845 became secretary at war in the cabinet of Sir 
 Robert Peel. Having gradually adopted liberal princi- 
 ples, he favoured the repeal of the corn-laws in 1846, and 
 retired from office with his political chief in the summer 
 of that year. On the formation of the Aberdeen minis- 
 try, in December, 1852, he was again appointed secretary 
 at war. He resigned, in company with other Peelites, 
 about February, 1855. From June, 1859, until July, 1861, 
 (when he resigned on account of ill health,) he filled the 
 same office in the cabinet of Palmerston, with eminent 
 ability. As a war minister he appears to have been 
 universally popular. In January, 1861, he was raised 
 to the peerage, as Baron Herbert of Lea. He married 
 about 1846 a daughter of General A'Court. He erected 
 on his estate at Wilton a church which is an admirable 
 model of the Italian or Romanesque style. " He com- 
 bines," says the "Spectator," "with the administrative 
 ability which is the claim of the Peelites to power, great 
 personal tact, and enough of oratorical ability to hold his 
 own in the House of Commons." Died August 2, 1861. 
 
 Herbert, (Sir Thomas,) an English writer, born at 
 YorU about 1608, was related to the Earl of Pembroke,- 
 who procured him an office under the ambassador to 
 Persia in 1626. In 1634 he published a " Relation of 
 Travels in Africa and Asia," which contains a better 
 account of Persia than any which had previously ap- 
 peared. During the civil war he was chosen by Parlia- 
 ment one of the commissioners to treat with the king, 
 and in 1647 was selected by Charles I. to wait on his 
 person in his confinement. He wrote an account of the 
 last two years of Charles I., under the title of " Threnodia 
 Carolina," (1678.) Died in 1682. 
 
 See " Biographia Britanoica ;" Wood, "Athens Oxonienses;" 
 "Memoires de Sir Thomas Herbert, Valet-de-Chambre de Charles 
 I, - ' Paris, 1823. 
 
 Herbert, (William,) Earl of Pembroke, bom at 
 Wilton, England, in 1580, was lord-steward of the king's 
 household about 1626. He wrote indifferent verses, and 
 is supposed to be the person to whom Shakspeare's 
 Sonnets were addressed. Pembroke College was named 
 in honour of him. Died in 1630. 
 
 Herbert, (William,) an English antiquary, born in 
 1718. After spending some years in London as a mer- 
 chant, he went to the East Indies as purser's clerk. He 
 is chiefly known as the editor of " Ames's Typographical 
 Antiquities," published in 1785. Died in 1795. 
 
 Herbert, (Rev. William,) an English author, born 
 at Highclere Castle, Bucks, in 1778, was the third son 
 of the Earl of Carnarvon. After distinguishing himself 
 in the House of Commons, he took holy orders, became 
 rector of Spofforth in 1814, and Dean of Manchester in 
 l8}0. He contributed to the "Edinburgh Review," and 
 published a great variety of works in prose and verse, 
 among which is an epic poem, called " Attila, King of 
 the Huns; or, The Triumph of Christianity," (1838,) 
 "a production," says Hallam, " displaying a union of 
 acuteness and erudition with great poetical talents." 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1S15, and January. 1S3S : Sir 
 Walter Scott, critique on Herbert's Poems, in the "Edinburgh 
 Review" for October, 1X06, vol. ix. 
 
 Herbigny. See Favart d'Herbiony. 
 
 Herbigny.d', deVben'ye',(PiERRK Francois Xavier 
 Bourguignon — boon'gen'yoN', ) a French political 
 writer, born at Laon in 1772, was a partisan of the 
 Bourbons. Died in 1846. 
 
 Herbin, //eVbaN', (Auguste Francois Jui.ien,) a 
 French Orientalist, born in Paris in 1783. He excelled 
 in the Oriental languages at a very early age. He pub- 
 lished an Arabic Grammar, an Arabic-French Diction- 
 ary, a "History of Persian Poets," and other works. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Herbinius, he>-bee'ne-us, (Johann,); a learned Lu- 
 theran minister, born in Silesia in 1633. He preached 
 at Stockholm, Wilna, etc., and published, besides other 
 books, a curious work on cataracts and other aqueous 
 phenomena, " De admirandis Mundi Cataractis, supra et 
 subterraneis," etc., (1670.) Died in 1676. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Herbst, b$Rpst, (Johann Andreas,) a German mu- 
 sician and writer on music, born at Nuremberg in 1588; 
 died in 1660. 
 
 Herbst, (Johann Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German 
 pulpit orator and entomologist, born at Petershagen, in 
 Prussia, in 1743, was pastor of several churches of Berlin. 
 Among his works are an "Introduction to the Study of 
 Insects," (3 vols., 1784-87,) and a "Natural System of 
 Butterflies," (7 vols., 1783-95.) Died in 1807. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Herculano de Carvalho, gR-koo-15'no di kaR-v51'- 
 yo, (Alexandre,) a Portuguese poet and historian, 
 born at Guimaraens about 1809, was educated in Paris. 
 He published in 1826 "A Voz de Propheta," ("The 
 Voice of a Prophet,") a poem. His " History of Por- 
 tugal" (6 vols., 1848-52) is commended. 
 
 Hercule. See Hercules. 
 
 Her'cu-les, [Gr. 'UpaK^f/c, ( ' Herakles ; ) Lat. Her'cu- 
 les; Fr. Hekcule, in'kUl'; It. Ercole, eVko-la,] called 
 also Al-91'des, [Gr. 'AAkwo^c,] the most celebrated hero 
 of antiquity, was, according to Homer, the son of Jupiter 
 and Alcmena, the wife of Amphitryon. Thebes was gene- 
 rally supposed to have been his birthplace. His birth 
 is said to have been delayed by Juno because it had 
 been ordained that of the two, Hercules and Eurys- 
 theus, the younger should serve the other. While he 
 was an infant in the cradle, he strangled two serpents 
 which Juno sent to destroy him. According to a popular 
 story, when he had arrived at the age of a young man, 
 Virtue and Pleasure appeared to him, each offering to 
 be his guide. He preferred the former, and soon became 
 renowned for his heroic exploits, the first of which was 
 his victory over the lion of Cithaaron. He afterwards 
 delivered Thebes from the annual tribute of a hundred 
 oxen which that city was required to pay to Erginus. 
 As a reward for this service, Creon, King of Thebes, 
 gave him his daughter Megara in marriage. 
 
 Having consulted the oracle of Apollo, he was directed 
 to serve Eurystheus for twelve years, after which he 
 should become immortal. Eurystheus, who regarded 
 him with jealousy and enmity, imposed on him a number 
 of arduous enterprises, called the Twelve Labours of 
 Hercules. The result of his first labour was the death 
 of the Nemean lion, which he choked in his den. He 
 afterwards wore the skin of this animal. His next task 
 was to kill the Lemean hydra, which infested the vicinity 
 of Argos, and had seven (or, according to some writers, 
 nine) heads, the middle one of which was immortal. He 
 cut off several of its heads, but two new heads grew in 
 place of each one amputated, until he seared the wounded 
 part by burning. He buried the immortal head under a 
 rock, and dipped his arrows in the gall of the hydra, so 
 that the wounds which they inflicted were incurable. 
 The third labour was to bring to Eurystheus a certain 
 stag which had golden horns and was exceedingly swift 
 of foot. He pursued it for a whole year, and at length 
 caught it, after he had wounded it with his arrow. He 
 was next ordered to bring alive to Mycenae a wild boar 
 that ravaged the vicinity of Ery man thus. He chased 
 this animal into a snow-drift, bound him with fetters, 
 and carried him to Eurystheus. In this expedition he 
 encountered and vanquished the Centaurs. (See CEN- 
 TAUR!.) The fifth labour was to cleanse in one day the 
 stables of King Augeas, who kept many cattle, the dung 
 from which had accumulated for years. He performed 
 this task by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus into 
 the Augean stables. Eurystheus objected to count this 
 among the twelve labours, because Hercules had worked 
 for hire. (See Augeas.) His sixth labour was the destruc- 
 tion of the Stymphalian birds, which had brazen claws 
 and beaks, discharged their feathers as arrows, and in- 
 fested Lake Stymphalus in vast numbers. His seventh 
 exploit was the capture of a mad bull which ravaged the' 
 island of Crete. He carried the bull alive to the con- 
 tinent and let it loose. It afterwards did much mischief 
 at Marathon. Eurystheus next ordered him to bring 
 from Diomedes of Thrace his horses, which fed on human 
 flesh. The hero killed Diomedes and performed the 
 appointed task. The subject of the ninth labour was the 
 girdle of Hippolyte, Queen of the Amazons, which he 
 was required to bring. He was accompanied in this 
 expedition by Theseus and other heroes, and obtained 
 the girdle after he had defeated the Amazons in fight. 
 He was next commanded to bring the oxen of the 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, it, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; : ood; moon; 
 
HERDER 
 
 1173 
 
 HERE WARD 
 
 monster Geryon from the fabulous island of Erythea, 
 situated in the far-distant west. In the course of this 
 expedition he erected on the Strait of Gibraltar two 
 pillars, called the pillars of Hercules, and performed 
 several exploits besides the killing of Geryon. His 
 eleventh labour was to bring some golden apples which 
 were guarded by a dragon in the garden of the Ilespei i- 
 des. He did not know where this garden was ; but he 
 obtained information from Nereus. As he was passing 
 through Egypt in his route, he killed Busiris, the king 
 and tyrant of that country. By the advice of Prometheus, 
 whom he delivered from penal suffering, he sent Atlas 
 for the apples, and supported the heavens in his place 
 until Atlas returned with the fruit.* 
 
 The last and most dangerous service was his descent 
 to Hades to bring up the dog Cerberus. He obtained 
 the consent of Pluto to take the monster, provided he 
 would not use any weapon. He accordingly seized 
 Cerberus, carried him alive to Eurystheus, and then 
 returned him to Pluto. 
 
 Having been affected with insanity, he consulted an 
 oracle, which advised him to sell himself as a slave for 
 three years. He became a slave to Omphale, Queen of 
 Lydia, in whose service he wore the dress of a woman 
 and was employed in spinning. He afterwards con- 
 ducted a successful expedition against Troy to punish 
 Laomedon for a breach of his promise. 
 
 He married Dejanira, (daughter of the King of Caly- 
 don,) to whom the centaur Nessus once offered violence. 
 Hercules, with a poisoned arrow, killed Nessus, who, as 
 he was about to die, persuaded Dejanira to preserve his 
 blood as a love-charm. She became jealous, and applied 
 this blood to a tunic, which he put on. He was poisoned 
 by this garment, which produced violent pain, and stuck 
 to his flesh when he tried to pull it off. He was about 
 to seek relief by voluntary death on Mount CEta, when 
 he was conveyed by a cloud to Olympus and rewarded 
 with immortality. He was afterwards worshipped as a 
 divinity by all the Greeks. In the character of Hercu- 
 les it is difficult or impossible to distinguish the purely 
 mythical or allegorical from what may be considered as 
 mere exaggerations built upon a historic basis. 
 
 See Guigniaut, "Religions de l'Antiquite," Pans, 1825-29, vol. 
 li. book iv. chaps, v. and vi. 
 
 Herder, von, fon heVder, (Iohann Gottfried,) 
 one of the most remarkable and gifted writers that Ger- 
 many has produced, was born at Mohrungen, in East 
 Prussia, in 1744. He commenced the study of surgery 
 
 * Several of the most remarkable exploits of Hercules are vividly 
 described by Darwin : 
 
 " So mighty Hercules o'er many a clime 
 Waved his vast mace in Virtue's cause sublime ; 
 Unmeasured strength, with early art combined. 
 Awed, served, protected, and amazed mankind. 
 First, two dread snakes, at Juno's vengeful nod, 
 Climbed round the cradle of the sleeping god : 
 Waked by the shrilling hiss, and rustling sound, 
 And shrieks of fair attendants trembling round, 
 Their gasping throals with clenching hands he holds, 
 And Death untwists their convoluted folds. 
 Next in red torrents from her sevenfold heads 
 Fell Hydra's blood on Lema's lake he sheds ; 
 Grasps Achelous with resistless force, 
 And drags the roaring river to his course ; 
 hinds, with loud bellowing and with hideous yell, 
 The monster Hull, and threefold Dog of hell. 
 Then, where Nemea's howling forces wave, 
 He drives the I.ion to his dusky cave, 
 Seized by ihe throat, the growling fiend disarms. 
 And tears his gaping jaws with sinewy arms; 
 Lifts proud Antarus from his mother-plains. 
 And with strong grasp the struggling giant strains', 
 Hack falls his fainting head, and clammy hair, 
 Writhe his weak limbs, and flits his life in air; — 
 By steps reverted, o'er the blood-dropp'd fen 
 He tracks huge Cacus to his murderous den, 
 Where, breathing flames through brazen li|«, he fled, 
 And shakes the rock-roofed cavern o'er his head. 
 Last, with wide arms the solid earth he tears, 
 Pilea rock on rock, on mountain mountain rears; 
 Heaves up huge Abyla on Afric's sand. 
 Crowns with high Calpe Europe's salient strand, 
 Crests with opposing towers the splendid scene, 
 And puuis from urns immense the sea between. 
 Loud o'er her whirling floods Charybdis roars, 
 Affrighted Scylla bellows found hit aborts, 
 Vesuvio groans through all his echoing caves, 
 And Etna thunders o'er the insurgent waves " 
 
 Botanic Garden, Canto I. 
 
 in Kbnigsberg, (1762;) but, having fainted at the first 
 operation which he witnessed, he turned his attention *c 
 theology. His thirst for knowledge was boundless, and 
 his acquisitions embraced an immense variety of subjects. 
 While in Kbnigsberg, he became acquainted with Kant, 
 who permitted him to attend his lectures without any 
 charge. Towards the close of 1764 he was appointed 
 teacher, and afterwards preacher, at the cathedral school 
 in Riga. While here, he awakened in his pupils an 
 enthusiastic attachment and devotion. In 1770 he was 
 invited to liuckelmrg, where he became court preacher, 
 and soon acquired great distinction as a divine, in con- 
 sequence of which he received a call to the professorship 
 of theology at Gbttingen. While he was still hesitating 
 whether or not to accept the invitation, he was offered 
 the position of court preacher, general superintendent, 
 and counsellor of the Upper Consistory at Weimar, 
 whither he removed in October, 1776. As an eloquent 
 preacher, a zealous friend of education, and an encour- 
 ager of rising talent, he won the esteem and love of both 
 prince and people. The remainder of his life was spent 
 in Weimar. In 1793 he was made vice-president, and 
 in 1801 president, of the Upper Consistory. Died in 1803. 
 
 Among his multifarious writings there is, perhaps, not 
 one complete work : yet he is admitted to have exercised 
 a most important influence upon German literature, 
 criticism, and philosophy. His greatest work (unfinished) 
 is entitled " Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of 
 Mankind," ("Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der 
 Menschheit.") Among his other publications we may 
 name his "Spirit of Hebrew Poetry," ("Geist der He- 
 braischen Poesie,") and his " Volkslieder," a collection 
 of the popular songs of different nations. Alluding to 
 the difficulty of understanding or describing Herder's 
 many-sided intellect, Richter observes, "The starry 
 heaven no star-map paints, although painting may rep- 
 resent a landscape." In another place he says, " It was 
 Herder's fault that he was not a star of the first mag- 
 nitude or any other magnitude, but a clump of stars 
 out of which each one spells a constellation to please 
 himself." A complete edition of Herder's works was 
 issued at Stuttgart, in 45 vols., (1S06-20,) and a pocket 
 edition afterwards appeared, in 60 vols. 
 
 See Kaki. L. Ring, " Herder's Leben," 1S22; H. Doking, "Her- 
 der's Leben," 1824: Emil G. von Herder, "J. G. von Herder's 
 Lebensbild," etc., 3 vols., 1847; HBtHSIUS, "Herder nach seinein 
 Leben und Wirken," 1847; L. G. Kopp, " Etudes sur Herder," etc., 
 1852; F. H. Hedge, "Prose Writers of Germany;" E. P. Whip- 
 ple, " Characteristics ot Men of Genius," vol. i. ; "Foreign Quar- 
 terly Review" for July, 1846. 
 
 Herder, vou, (Sigmund August Wolfgang,) a min- 
 eralogist, born in 1766, was a son of the great Herder. 
 Died in 1838. His brother, Wn.iiil.M Gottfried, 
 born in 1774, was a physician. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie. " 
 
 Hereau, Ak'ro', (Edme Joachim,) a French littera- 
 teur, born in Paris in 1791. He killed himself in 1836. 
 
 Heredia, a-ra-dce'a, (Jose Maria,) a popular poet, 
 born at Santiago de Cuba in 1803. He was appointed 
 ministro de la audiencia by the President of Mexico in 
 1826. Among his most admired poems are "The Teo- 
 callis of Choluca," " Ode to the Ocean," " To the Greeks 
 in 1821," ("A los Griegos en 1821,") and verses on Ni- 
 agara, ("Al Niagara.") The most complete edition of 
 his poems is that published recently in New York. Died 
 at Toluca in 1839. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge^ieVale ;" Foknaris V I.hmn-, "Cuba poetica ;" J. 
 Kennedy, " Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain," 1852. 
 
 Heredia, de, da i-ra-Dee'a, (Pedro Mic.tni.,) born 
 at Valladolid in 1590, was first physician to Philip IV. 
 Died in 1659. 
 
 Hereford, Hisiiopof. See Hampden, (Ken.n Dick- 
 son.) 
 
 Heresbach, ha'res-baK', (Cu.nrad,) a German writer, 
 born at Heresbach, in Cleves, about 1502. He wrote 
 an esteemed work on agriculture, " Kei Kusticae Libri 
 quatuor," (1570.) Died in 1576. 
 
 See BftscH and Grusbr, "All .Llop.u-die ;" A. G. 
 
 Schweitzer. deC. Heresbachii Vita ct Scriptil," 1849; 
 
 Nkbron, "M^moires." 
 
 HeVe-ward, an English captain, distinguished in the 
 war of the Norman conquest. Died in 1072. 
 
 I as k; c as s; g hard; g asy'; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as *; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
HER J 
 
 1174. 
 
 HER MANT 
 
 Herl. See Hari and HF.RY. 
 
 Hericart de Thury, M're'kiR' deh tii're', (Louis 
 Eitenne Francois,) Vicomte, a French engineer and 
 agriculturist, born in Paris in 1776. As engineer-in-chief, 
 he directed the immense works of the catacombs of Paris 
 for about twenty years, (1810-30.) He wrote a work on 
 "Artesian Wells," (1823,) and many treatises on mines, 
 ores, etc. Died in 1854. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Hericourt, de, deh />a're'kooR', (Louis,) a learned 
 French lawyer and canonist, born at Soissons in 1687. 
 From 1714 to 1736 he contributed to the " Journal des 
 Savants," the earliest of modern reviews. His principal 
 work is "The Ecclesiastical Laws of France, placed in 
 their Natural Order," (1719.) Tabaraud designates him 
 "the most celebrated French canonist." Died in 1752. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 HSr'I-ot, (George,) a Scottish goldsmith, born about 
 1563, founded a hospital in Edinburgh, which bears his 
 name, and in which many boys are educated gratuitously. 
 It was finished in 1659. Died in 1624. 
 
 See "Memoirs of George Heriot ;" Chambers, "Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Sir Walter Scott, " Fortunes 
 of Nigel." 
 
 Heriot, (John,) a Scottish writer, born at Haddington 
 in 1760. During the French Revolution he edited papers 
 in London, called "The World" and "The True Briton," 
 in support of the English ministry. Died in 1833. 
 
 Herirl See Hareeree. 
 
 Herissant, //a're'sdN', (Francois David,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Rouen in 1714 ; died in 1773. 
 
 Herissant, (Louis Antoink Prosper,) a French 
 writer and physician, born ill Paris in 1745, wrote "Ty- 
 pography," a poem, and articles on natural history for 
 the "Bibliotheque historique de France." Died in 1769. 
 
 See Jean Gooms, " filoge de L. A. P. Herissant," 1769. 
 
 Herissant, (Louis Theodore,) a French litterateur, 
 brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1743. He 
 published "My Little Portfolio," (2 vols. 121110, 1774,) 
 and various other works, and compiled the last volume 
 of the "Bibliotheque de Societe," (begun by Chamfort, 
 4 vols., 1771.) Died in 1811. 
 
 Heritier. See L'Heritier. 
 
 Heritier de Villandon. See L'Heritier de Vil- 
 
 UNDdN. 
 
 Her'ki-mer, a general of the New York militia. In 
 1777 he commanded the militia of Tryon county, who 
 marched to relieve the garrison of Fort Stanwix, on the 
 Mohawk, then besieged by the British. In an engage- 
 ment a few miles from the fort, he was mortally wounded. 
 
 Herlioius, heit-lit'se -us, (David,) a German astrolo- 
 ger, born at Zeitz in 1558 ; died in 1636. 
 
 Herloszsohn, heVlos-son', (GeorO Karl,) a Ger- 
 man romancer, born at Prague in 1802, published "The 
 Hungarian," (" Der Ungar," 1832,) "The Venetian," 
 (2d edition, 1837,) and "Forest Flowers," (" Waldblu- 
 men," 1847.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Her-mag'o-ras | 'Epfiayopas] of Temnos, a Greek 
 rhetorician, lived about 50 B.C. 
 
 Her'mann or Her'man, (or heVman,) [Lat. Armin'- 
 IUS ; Dutch, Armijn, aR-'mTn'; Ger. Armin, aR-meen',1 
 a celebrated German hero, born 16 B.C., was the son of 
 Sigimer, chief of the Cherusci. He is called Armenios 
 by the Greek writers, and Arminius by the Romans. 
 He entered the Roman army at an early age, and ob- 
 tained the privileges of knighthood and of citizenship at 
 Rome. Indignant at the oppression which his country 
 was suffering under Quintilius Varus, then governor, 
 he formed on his return a plan for its deliverance. By 
 false pretences he induced the Roman commander to ad- 
 vance with his army beyond the Rhine, where, entangled 
 in the forest and marshes near the Lippe, they suffered a 
 signal defeat in 9 a.d. In 16 A.D., Germanicus, with a 
 large army, invaded Germany, and completely defeated 
 Hermann near Hanreln, on the Weser. Nevertheless, 
 Hermann not long after overthrew Maroboduus, (Mar- 
 bod,) chief of the Suevi ; but, being suspected of aiming 
 at supreme dominion, he was assassinated by his own 
 relatives, in the thirty-seventh year of his age. "Unlike 
 »ther kings and commanders, says Tacitus, " he had 
 the boldness to attack the Roman people, not in the 
 
 beginning, but in the fulness, of their power; in battle 
 not always victorious, but unconquered in war." 
 
 See Tacitus, "Annates;" Fi.orus, "History;" Roth, "Her- 
 mann und Marbod," 1 S 1 7 ; Von Ledebur, "Das Land und Vollt 
 der Kructerer," 1K27; Massmann, "Arminius Cheruscorum Dux el 
 DeciuC 1839: KcWig. "Armin der Cherusker ; zum Denkmal im 
 Teutoburger Wald," 1840. 
 
 Hermann, heVman, (Jakob,) a Swiss mathematician, 
 born at Bale in 1678. By the favour of Leibnitz, he ob- 
 tained the chair of mathematics in the University of 
 Padua. In 1724 he accepted an invitation from Peter 
 the Great to teach the grand duke. His principal work 
 is a Latin " Treatise on the Forces and Movements of 
 Solid and Fluid Bodies," (1715.) Died in 1733. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hermann, /;eVm6N', (Jean,) an able French natu- 
 ralist, born at Barr, near Strasburg, in 1738. He ob- 
 tained at Strasburg the chair of philosophy in 177S, and 
 that of pathology in 1782. In 1784 he became professor 
 of botany and chemistry. He wrote many short treatises 
 on natural history, furnished materials for the large work 
 of Buffon, and published a treatise on the affinities of 
 animals, entitled "Tabula Affinitatum Animalium," 
 (1783.) Died in 1800. 
 
 His son, Jean Frederic, (1768-93,) wrote a thesis 
 on Osteology, and a " Memoir on Wingless Insects," 
 which Cuvier says "were excellent for the time." 
 
 See T. Lauth, " Vie de Jean Hermann," 1801 ; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generate." 
 
 Hermann, (Jon ANN Gottfried Jakob,) an eminent 
 German philologist and critic, born at Leipsic on the 
 28th of November, 1772. He became in 1809 professor 
 of eloquence and poetry at Leipsic, where his lectures 
 on archaeology and the Greek classics attracted great 
 numbers of students. Among his principal works are 
 " Elements of Metrical Doctrine," ("Elementa Doctrinx 
 Metricae," 1816,) "On the Metres of Pindar," (" De Me- 
 tris Pindari," 1817,) and " Opuscula," (7 vols., 1827-30,) 
 consisting of essays and odes written in elegant Latin. 
 He also prepared editions of several Greek writers, of 
 which those of Bion and Moschus were published in 
 1849. Died in December, 1848. 
 
 See Jahn, "J. G. Hermann: eine GedSclltnissrede," Leipsic, 
 1849: Cahi. F. Ameis, "G. Hermann's padagogischer Einfluss," 
 1850: Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie, " under 
 "Philologie;" "Nouvelle Biograpllie Generate. " 
 
 Hermann, (Karl Frikdrich,) a German antiquary, 
 born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1804, became in 1842 
 professor of eloquence at Gottingen. He published a 
 " Manual of Greek Antiquities," (1841,) and other works. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Hermann, (Karl Hf.inrich,) a German historical 
 painter, bom at Dresden in 1802, was a pupil of Cor- 
 nelius at Dusseldorf. Among his master-pieces are the 
 frescos in the Konigsbau and the Arcade of the Hof- 
 garten at Munich. 
 
 Hermann, (MARTIAL Joseph Armani),) a French 
 revolutionist and lawyer, born at Saint-Pol in 1750. In 
 1793, as a partisan of Robespierre, he became president 
 of the Revolutionary Tribunal. He was executed in 1795. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Hermann, (Paul,) an eminent German botanist, born 
 at Halle in 1646. He practised medicine about eight 
 years in the East Indies, and became professor of botany 
 at Leyden in 1679. Among his works, which are illus- 
 trated with fine engravings, are a "Catalogue of the 
 Botanic Garden of Leyden," (1687,) and "Batavian 
 Garden," (" Paradisus Batavus," 1698.) Died in 1695. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Bio- 
 grapllie Medicate." 
 
 Hermann, (Pmi.ll'P,) an excellent painter on glass, 
 adorned the cathedral of Metz, where he died in 1392. 
 
 Her'mann Con-trac'tus, one of the early German 
 historians, born in 1013, was a monk in the cloister 
 of Reichenau. He wrote a "Chronicon," which comes 
 down to 1054 and bears some resemblance to that of 
 the Venerable Bede. Died in 1054. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hermant, /Wr'ition', (Godefroi,) a French b ! og- 
 rapher and Jansenist theologian, born at Beauvais in 
 161 7, wrote, besides other works, a "Life of Saint John 
 
 g, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; ii, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
HERMANT 
 
 1175 
 
 HERMOCRJTES 
 
 Chrysostom," (1664,) a " Life of Athanasius," (1671,) 
 and a "Life of Saint Ambrose," (1678.) Died in 1690. 
 See A. Baillkt, "Vie de M. G. Hermant," 1717; Moreri, 
 "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Hermant, (Jean,) a French priest, born at Caen in 
 1650 ; died in 1725. He wrote a history of heresies. 
 
 Hermaphrodite. See Hermai'Hkoditus. 
 
 Her-maph-ro-di'tus, [Gr. 'Eji/iatyjotSiror ; Fr. HER- 
 MAPHRODITE, eR'mi'fRo'det',] in classic mythology, the 
 offspring of Mercury (Hermes) and Venus, (Aphrodite,) 
 was said to combine both sexes. 
 
 See Ovin, " Metamorphoses." 
 
 Her-mar'-ehus, ['Ep/iapx<K,] a Greek philosopher, 
 born in Mitylene, was a disciple of Epicurus, who be- 
 queathed .to him his garden. He succeeded Epicurus 
 as the head of the school about 270 H.c. His works are 
 lost. 
 
 Her'mas, a Christian writer of the first century, is 
 supposed by some to be the person mentioned by Saint 
 Paul in the Epistle to the Romans, chapter xvi. He 
 lived in Italy, and wrote, in Greek, a book entitled " The 
 Pastor, or Shepherd," composed of visions, precepts, and 
 similitudes. It was frequently quoted and highly es- 
 teemed by the ancient Fathers of the Church. Origen, 
 Irenaeus, and Clement of Alexandiia regarded it as 
 divinely inspired. It is prized as a relic of the pri mi - 
 tive Church, and as a medium of interesting traditions. 
 The original is nearly all lost; but a Latin version is 
 extant. 
 
 See Nkanuer, " History of the Church;" Cave, " Historia Ltte- 
 raria ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." 
 
 Hermbstadt, heRmp'stet, (Sigismund Friedrich,) 
 a German chemist, born at Erfurt in 1760 ; died in 1833. 
 
 Hermelin, heVme-leen', (Samuel Gustavus,) a 
 learned Swedish baron and mineralogist, born at Stock- 
 holm in 1744. He was a member of the council of 
 mines, and spent many years in travel in order to ex- 
 plore and develop the mineral resources of Sweden. In 
 1782 he visited the United States, with credentials as an 
 agent of the king, to obtain information on mineralogy 
 and metallurgy. On these subjects he published several 
 useful works, also on statistics and geography. A new 
 and correct atlas of Sweden was the result of his labours. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See C. P. Haelustkoem, "Biographi Bfver Bergs-RUdet S. G. 
 Hermelin." 1821 ; " Biographiskt- Lexicon ofver naninkunnige Sven- 
 ska Man." 
 
 Hermengarde. See Ermengarde. 
 
 Hermenric. See Ermeric. 
 
 Her'mes, [Gr. 'Epnw ; Fr. Hermes, eVmSs',] the 
 name which the Greeks gave to the herald of the gods, 
 corresponding nearly with the Mercurius of the Roman 
 mythology. (See Mercury.) Hermes was identified 
 with the Egyptian Thoth or Thot, the inventor of arts 
 and sciences. 
 
 Hermes, heVmes. (Georg,) a celebrated Catholic 
 theologian, born in Westphalia, in Germany, in 1775. 
 was the founder of a philosophical school of Christian 
 doctrine. In 1807, when appointed professor of the- 
 ology in Minister, he distinguished himself by his opposi- 
 tion to the system of Kant and Fichte. He became in 
 1820 professor at the University of Bonn, where he was 
 highly esteemed for his abilities as a lecturer and his 
 amiable character. He had published in 1819 his 
 "Introduction to Christian Catholic Theology," which, 
 though not assailing any dogmas of the Church, was 
 made the occasion of a charge of heresy. In 1835 a 
 brief was issued by the pope, condemning the work, and 
 a warm controversy was long carried on between the 
 papal and the Hermesian party. Died in 1831. 
 
 See W. Ksser, "Denkschrift anf G. Hermes," 183a; Elvenich, 
 " Der Hermesianismusund Johannes Perrone," 1844. 
 
 Hermes, (Ioiiann August,) a German Protestant 
 writer on theology, born at Magdeburg in 1736. His 
 " Manual of Religion" was translated into French, Swe- 
 dish, and Dutch. Died in 1822. 
 
 See J. H. Fkitsch, "J. A. Hermes," 18*7 ; Eksch undGRUBER, 
 ** Allgemeine F.ncyklopaedie." 
 
 Hermes, (Johann Timothf.us,) a German novelist, 
 born in Pomerania in 1738, was the originator of the 
 romances called psychological. His principal work is 
 
 "The Journey of Sophia from Memel to Saxony," (6 
 vols., 1770-78.) Died in 1821. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hermes, jKarl Heinrich,) a German historical 
 writer, born at Kalisz, in Poland, in 1800, published a 
 "History of the Last Twenty-Five Years," (1842; 6th 
 edition, 3 vols., 1853.) 
 
 Her'mes Tris-me-gis'tus, [Gr. 'Epfir/c Tpto/ieyioTOc , 
 Fr. Hermes Trismegiste, eVnieV tRes'nia'zhest',1 
 called by Milton the " thrice great Hermes," the reputed 
 author of many Greek works which were probably written 
 in Egypt in the first three centuries of the Christian era. 
 Some of them are still extant. According to one opinion, 
 Hermes was an Egyptian priest. The principal work 
 which has come down to us under his name is "Poe- 
 mander," which treats of "the nature of all things and 
 of the creation of the world." 
 
 See J. H. Uksinus, "Exercitatio de Mercurio Trismegisto," 
 1661 ; Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Baumgakten-Ckusius, 
 "DeLibrornm Hermeticorum Ovigine et Indole," 1827. 
 
 Her-mi'as, (or her-ml'as,) [Gr. 'E/J/iw'ac or 'Ep/uac,] a 
 friend and patron of Aristotle, was a slave in his youth, 
 lie became tyrant or ruler of Assos and Atarneus, in 
 Mysia, and entertained Aristotle with honour at his 
 court about three years, 348-345 B.C. Hermias was put 
 to death by the King of Persia about 345 H.c. Aristotle 
 afterwards married Pythias, the adopted daughter of 
 Hermias, and celebrated his memory in a beautiful poem 
 entitled a " Hymn to Virtue," which is extant. 
 
 See Diogenes Laertius: Diodorus. 
 
 Hermias, a Christian philosopher, who lived in the 
 second century A.D. He ridiculed the pagan philosophy 
 in a small Greek book entitled Araoiip/ior rim efw §i~M- 
 oo<j>ui>, a work of merit, which is still extant. 
 
 Hermida, eR-mee'Di, (Benito y Porras-Ber- 
 mudez-Maldonado — e por'ras beR-moo'neth mal-do- 
 na'uo,) a Spanish minister of state, born at Santiago in 
 1736. He took a prominent part at the siege of Sara- 
 gossa and in resistance to the French invasion. He was 
 chosen by the central junta minister of grace and justice 
 in 1S08. He translated " Paradise Lost" into Spanish 
 verse, (1814.) Died in 1814. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Hermilly, d', deR'me'ye', (N. Vaquette,) a French 
 litterateur, born in Paris about 1710. He translated from 
 the Spanish Ferreras's " History of Spain," (1742,) and 
 Cainoens's "Lusiad," (1776.) Died in 1778. 
 
 Her-min'I-us, a Roman warrior, was one of the three 
 who defended the Sublician bridge against Porsena. 
 
 Her-mi'o-ne, ['Epiuovy,] in classic mythology, was 
 a daughter of Menelaus and Helen. She was promised 
 to Orestes, her cousin, but was married to Pyrrhus, ac- 
 cording to some authors. After the death of Pyrrhus 
 she became the wife of Orestes. 
 
 Her-mip'pus, ['Ep/jotjtoc,] an Athenian poet of the 
 old comedy, was a brother of the poet Myrtilus, and 
 lived about 450 B.C. He inserted satires against Pericles 
 in his plays. Plutarch says he prosecuted Aspasia for 
 impiety. 
 
 Hermippus of Smyrna, an eminent Greek philoso- 
 pher, of whom little is known, was surnained the Cal- 
 LIMACHEIAN. Hence it is inferred that he was a dis- 
 ciple of Callimachus, and flourished about 250 or 225 B.C. 
 He wrote the lives of Pythagoras and other philosophers, 
 and was often quoted by ancient writers. None of his 
 works have come down to us. 
 
 See Vossius, "l>e Historicis GraecU." 
 
 Hermite. See Ermite. 
 
 Hermite, eVmet', (Chari.es,) a French mathema- 
 tician, born at Dicuze (Meurthe) in 1822, was admitted 
 into the Institute in 1856. 
 
 Hermoorate. See Hermocrates. 
 
 Her-moc'ra-tei, [Gr. Xftuatpdnjf; Fr. Hermocrate, 
 eR'mo'kKSt',1 an eminent Syracusan general and states- 
 man. He was one of the three generals to whom the 
 people confided the defence of Syracuse against the 
 Athenians in 414 B.C. Having been defeated in the first 
 actions of the war, he and his colleagues were deprived 
 of command. He held a high command at the naval 
 battle of Cynossema, and was banished in 409 B.C. In 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; % hard; g as/; G. H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; i as *: *h as in this. ($&- See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HERMOD 
 
 1 176 
 
 HEROD 
 
 an attempt to reinstate himself, or make himself master 
 of Syracuse, he was killed there about 406 B.C. He left 
 a high character for patriotism, energy, and incorrupti- 
 bility, though his later acts in inaugurating a civil war 
 cannot be justified. 
 
 See Grote, " History of Greece," vol. x. chap, lxxxi. 
 
 Her'mod or Hermodr, written also Hermode, 
 [etymology uncertain,] the son and messenger of Odin, 
 corresponding in several respects to the Hermes or 
 Mercury of classic mythology. 
 
 See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Mallet, " North- 
 ern Antiquities," vol. ii. Fable XXIX. 
 
 Hermodore. See Hkrmodorus. 
 
 Her-nio-do'rus [Gr. 'Ep/toSapoc; Fr. Hermodore, 
 eR'mo'doR'] OF Ephesus, a Greek philosopher, who 
 lived about 450 ls.c. According to Pomponius, he aided 
 the Roman decemviri in compiling the Twelve Tables. 
 
 See Gratama, " De Hermodoro Ephesio vero XII. Tabnlarum 
 Auctore," 1818. 
 
 Hermodorus of Salamis, a Greek architect, lived 
 about 150 B.C., and built a temple of Mars in Rome. 
 
 Hermogene. See Hermogenes. 
 
 Her-mog'e-nes, [Gr. 'Ep/xoycvric ; Fr. Hermogene, 
 eR'mo'zhin',] an Athenian philosopher, a son of Hip- 
 ponicus, lived about 450 B.C. He is an interlocutor in 
 the "Cratylus" of Plato. 
 
 Hermogenes surnamed Xyster, [Zvori/p,] a cele- 
 brated Greek rhetorician, born at Tarsus, in Cilicia, 
 lived in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, (161-180 A.D.) 
 He was a remarkable instance of precocious genius. At 
 the age of fifteen he was a professor of rhetoric at Rome, 
 and had acquired fame by his eloquent discourses. About 
 two years later he wrote a work on Rhetoric, (Tex>"l 
 d7}TopiKj/,) which was for a long time used as a text-book 
 in the schools. He was author of other works on 
 rhetoric. At the age of twenty-five he lost his memory 
 and all capacity for usefulness, which he never recovered, 
 though he survived many years. His works are extant. 
 
 See Philostratus, " Vitae Sophistarum ;" Fabricius, " Biblto- 
 theca Grasca." 
 
 Hermogenes, a Greek architect, was a native of 
 Alabanda, in Caria. It is not known when he lived. 
 Vitruvius mentions him among the most eminent archi- 
 tects of antiquity, and as having contributed to the pro- 
 gress of the art by his improvements and discoveries. 
 He invented the pseudo-dipterus, and built a temple to 
 Diana in the city of Magnesia. 
 
 Hermogenes, a painter, lived about 170-200 a.d., 
 and was accused of heresy by Tertullian, who wrote 
 a book against him, — "Adversus Hermogenem." He 
 was originally a pagan. 
 
 Her-mo-ge-nl-a'nus or Her-mog'e-nes, a Roman 
 jurist, lived under Honorius, in the fourth century. 
 
 Her-mo-la'us, [Gr. 'Ep^oAaoc,] a page of Alexander 
 the Great, who formed a conspiracy against his sovereign, 
 and was put to death about 327 B.C. 
 
 Hermolaus Barbaras. See Barbaro. 
 
 Hermotime. See Hermotimus. 
 
 Her-mo-ti'mus [Gr. 'Ep/ionuoc ; Fr. Hermotime, 
 eR'mo'tem'] of Clazomen,*, a Greek philosopher, lived 
 about 500 B.C. According to Aristotle, he first advanced 
 the doctrine that the I'oic (mind, or spirit) is the cause 
 of all things. 
 
 See Aristotle, "Metaphysics;" Diogenes Laertjus; Den- 
 Zingkr, " De Hennotinio Clazomen. Commentatio," 1825. 
 
 Hernandes, e^R-nan'deth, (Francisco,) a Spanish 
 physician and naturalist, who was born at Toledo, and 
 received from Philip II. a commission to visit North 
 America and to describe the plants, animals, and min- 
 erals found therein. The result of his labours was a 
 valuable work (in Spanish) entitled a "Natural History 
 of Trees, Plants, and Animals of New Spain," etc., 
 (1615.) He was the first European naturalist who ex- 
 plored this region for the benefit of science, and appears 
 to have performed the task with creditable fidelity. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova ;" " Biographic 
 Medicale." 
 
 Hernandez-Velasco, eR-nan'deth va-las'ko, (Gre- 
 GORIO,) a Spanish priest and poet, born at Toledo about 
 1550, translated the "/Eneid" of Virgil into Spanish verse, 
 
 (1585.) Though the style is rather inflated, the version 
 is correct, and presents some elegant passages. 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Hernando de Soto. See De Soto. 
 
 Hern'don, (William Lewis,) an American naval 
 officer and writer, born in Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 
 1813. He entered the navy in 1828, and served in the 
 war with Mexico. In 1851 he commenced, under the 
 direction of the United States government, his explora- 
 tions of the Amazon River. Ascending the Andes from 
 Lima, he struck the head-waters of the Huallaga, a tribu- 
 tary of the Amazon, and, after nearly seven hundred 
 miles of canoe-navigation, he entered the main channel 
 of the great river. Forty thousand copies of his " Ex- 
 ploration of the Valley of the Amazon," with maps and 
 plates, were published by Congress in 1853. In 1857, 
 Lieutenant Herndon sailed from Havana for New York, 
 in command of the steamer Central America, with 475 
 passengers and about $2,000,000 in gold. While off the 
 coast of Georgia, the steamer, in a violent gale, sprung 
 a leak, and he was drowned, along with the greater num- 
 ber of the passengers. 
 
 Heme, hern, (Thomas,) a native of Suffolk, England, 
 a Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. He wrote several 
 controversial works on theology. Died young in 1722. 
 
 Hernquist, hCRn'kwist, (PEttR,) a Swedish naturalist, 
 born in .the parish of Skara in 1726, studied under Lin- 
 naeus at Upsal. He founded a veterinary school at 
 Skara, and wrote " Anatomia Hippiatrica," and other 
 works. Died in 1808. 
 
 See J. Wai.i.in, " Minne af P. Hernquist," 1818 : L. Tidex, " Are- 
 minne bfver P. Hernquist," 1818. 
 
 Hero. See Heron. 
 
 He'ro, [Gr. 'Hpu,| a priestess of Venus at Sestos in 
 Thrace, was loved by Leander, a youth of Abydos, who, 
 it is said, swam across the Hellespont every night to 
 visit her. He was at length drowned in a storm, and 
 Hero, in despair, threw herself into the sea. This story 
 has formed the subject of poems by Musseus, Schiller, 
 and others. 
 
 Heroard, //i'ro'tR', (Jean,) a French physician, born 
 at Montpellier, graduated in 1575. He was patronized 
 by Charles IX., and was afterwards first physician to 
 Louis XIII. Died in 1627. 
 
 HSr'od, [Or. 'Hpwffyr; Lat. Hfro'des ; Fr. Herode, 
 a'rod' ; It. Erode, a-ro'da,] surnamed the Great, 
 King of Judea, born at Ascalon in 72 B.C., was the son 
 of Antipater the Idumxan, who made him Governor of 
 Galilee about the year 47. After the death of Julius 
 Caesar, he at first sided with Brutus and Cas'sius, 
 but on their defeat made peace with Antony, by whose 
 influence he was appointed King of Judea, 40 B.C. He", 
 married Mariamne, a granddaughter of the high-priest 
 Hyrcanus. In the civil war between Octavius and An- 
 tony, Herod joined the latter, and fought for him' against 
 the Arabians, but was pardoned by the victorious Oc- 
 tavius. Among other acts of cruelty by which his reign 
 was disgraced, was the execution of Hyrcanus and the 
 brother of Mariamne, who herself at length became the 
 victim of his jealousy. It is said he. suffered great re- 
 morse for this act ; but it did not restrain him from taking 
 the life of her two sons, on which occasion Augustus re- 
 marked that he would rather be Herod's swine than his 
 son. He erected several grand edifices in his capital, 
 and rebuilt the Jewish temple on a magnificent scale;. 
 The birth of the Messiah, which occurred in his feign, 
 became the signal for the indiscriminate massacre of in- 
 fants recorded in Matthew, chap. ii. Herod died within 
 a year after that event, and left the throne to his son 
 Archelaus. His name has become proverbial for mur- 
 derous violence and remorseless cruelty. 
 
 See Josephus, " History of the Jews:" Dion Cassius, "His- 
 tory;" Sen LI PA L, " Dissertatiode Herode Magno," 1711 ; Schi.osskk, 
 "Gescltichte der Familie des Herodes," 1818; Milman, "History 
 of the Jews." 
 
 Her'od A-grip'pa [Gr. 'Hp(j(% 'Aypf'mrnc] I., born 
 about 1 A.D., was the son of Aristobu'lus by Berenice, 
 the daughter of Herod the Great, and received a part of 
 his education at Rome. At the accession of Caligula, 
 in 37 a.d., he was released from prison, in which he had 
 been confined by Tiberius, and was made ruler of several 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat j met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
HEROD 
 
 »I77 
 
 HEROET 
 
 tetrarchies, viz., Abilene, Auranitis, and Trachonitis, to 
 which in 39 Galilee was added. Under the emperor 
 Claudius his power was increased, and he became King 
 of Judea and Samaria. To promote his popularity with 
 the Jews, he persecuted the Christians, as is related in 
 the twelfth chapter of the Acts. He died suddenly in 
 44 a.d., when, in the language of Scripture, "he was 
 smitten by an angel, because he gave not God the glory." 
 Herod Agrippa IL, a son of the preceding;, mi 
 born about 27 a.d. Judea having been reduced to a Ro- 
 man province, the emperor Claudius gave him in 48 the 
 kingdom of Chalcis, which was afterwards exchanged 
 for Gaulonitis, Trachonitis, Batansea, and other districts. 
 His dominions were subsequently extended by Nero. 
 The subject of this article is the Agrippa of Scripture, 
 before whom the Apostle Paul, in the year 60, made that 
 sublime and noble argument which almost persuaded 
 a king to be a Christian. (Acts xxvi.j When the Jews 
 revolted against Vespasian, Herod Agrippa adhered to 
 the Romans ; and after the capture of Jerusalem he 
 retired to Rome, where he died about too A.b. 
 See Josepiius, " History of the Jews." 
 
 HSr'pd An-ti'pas, [(Jr. 'Hpudij^ 'Avrnroc,] son of 
 Herod the Great and Malthace, after his father's death 
 obtained the office of Tetrarch of Galilee, with the con- 
 sent of the emperor Augustus. Having married the 
 daughter of an Arabian prince, (Aretas,) he divorced her 
 iii 33 A.D., and took in her place Herudias, the wife of 
 his brother Philip, who was then living. For this sinful 
 act John the Baptist reproved him, and was put to death. 
 (Mark vi. 17-28.) His interview with the Saviour, who 
 was sent to him by Pilate and treated with indignity, is 
 related in the twenty-third chapter of Luke. Herod was 
 banished in 39 a.d. by Caligula, and died in obscurity. 
 Herode, the French for Herod, which see. 
 Herodes, the Latin for Herod, which see. 
 He-ro'des, (Tibbrius Claudius Arncus,) [Fr. Ht- 
 KODE Arncus, A/rod' a'te'kiis',] an Athenian orator and 
 statesman, born at Marathon about 1 10 a.d., was the son 
 of Julius Atticus, from whom he inherited a large fortune. 
 Having gained distinction as a rhetorician, he gave pub- 
 lic lectures on eloquence at Athens, which were attended 
 and admired by the elite of that city, and was employed 
 by the emperor Antoninus Pius as tutor of his adopted 
 sons, M. Aurelius and Lucius Verns. He became a 
 Roman consul in 143, married a Roman lady named Annia 
 Regilla, and a few years after returned to Greece. He 
 built a theatre or Odeon at Athens, and other costly edi- 
 fices in different places of Greece and Asia. He is said 
 to have been the greatest orator of his time. His speeches 
 and writings are all lost, except one harangue printed in 
 Grater's collection in 1609. He died about 185 a.d. 
 
 See Piiii.dstkaius, " Vitse Sophutaruni ;" Burignv, "Surla Vie 
 d'Herode Atticus," in the "Minioires de l'Academie des Inscrip- 
 tions." 
 
 He-ro'des Phil-ip'pus, a son of Herod the Great 
 
 and Marianine, was the first husband of Herodias, the 
 
 1 utor of John the Baptist. He is called simply 
 
 Philip by the Evangelists. (See Matthew xiv. 3, Marie 
 
 vi. 17, and Luke iii. 19.) 
 
 He-ro'dl-an, IGr. 'Ibrwilratwc; Lat. Herodia'nus ; 
 Fr. IIekodien, a'ro'de'aN',] a historian of the third 
 century, is thought to have lived at Rome, and to have 
 performed a respectable part in political affairs ; but the 
 time and place of his birth are not known. He wrote, in 
 Greek, a history of the Roman emperors whose reigns he 
 had witnessed, comprising the period from 180 A.D. to 238, 
 in which no less than seventeen emperors assumed the 
 purple. His work, which is extant, is commended for 
 veracity, moderation, and elegance of diction, and is the 
 more prized as it is almost the only contemporary ac- 
 count of that eventful period. 
 
 See Vossius, "lie HiMoricM Gracis ;" Woi.f, " Narratio de 
 Herodiano," prefixed to his edition of Herodian'* "History," Halle, 
 1792: Lkisnkk, " Prohisio de Herodiano Historico," 1761. 
 
 Herodian, (the Grammarian.) See Herodianus 
 Muus. 
 
 Herodianus. See Herodian. 
 
 He-ro-dl-a'nus (or Herodia'nos) JE'lI-us, (cc'le- 
 us,) [Gr. Ai/ior'Hi,t.,Aiari«; Fr. 1 1 Enoiit I N, i'ro'de'as',] a 
 celebrated grammarian of the second century after 
 Christ, was a son of Apollonius Dyscoliis, and was born I 
 
 at Alexandria. He became a resident of Rome, and 
 enjoyed the favour of Marcus Aurelius. He wrote many 
 works on grammar, which are not extant. Fragments 
 of some of them have been preserved. His work on 
 prosody (Meyii?.?/ Iljx>au6ia) was highly prized. 
 
 See Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Gra;ca;" August Wbttin, "Com- 
 mentatio de Herodiano Granimatico," 1842; Smith, "Dictionary 
 of Greek and Roman Biography." 
 
 He-rod'I-cus, J'H,*xio«>c,] a Greek physician, born 
 at Selymbria, in 1 hrace, lived in the fifth century B.C., 
 and was one of the masters of Hippocrates. 
 
 Herodieu. See Herodian. 
 
 Herodot or Herodote. See Herodotus. 
 
 He-rod'o-tus, [Gr. 'HpocVoc; Fr. Hekodote, i'ro'- 
 dot' ; Ger. Herodot, ha'ro-dot; It. Erodoto, i-rod'- 
 o-to,| a celebrated Greek historian, born at Halicar- 
 nassus, a Dorian colony in Caria, about 484 u.c. He 
 was the son of Lyxus and Uryo, and the nephew of the 
 poet Panyasis. He is the earliest of the Greek histo- 
 rians whose works have been preserved entire, and is 
 frequently styled "the Father of History." Cicero men- 
 tions him as "the first who adorned this species of com- 
 position." Little is known of his life, except what may 
 be collected from his writings. Before he attained the 
 age of thirty he took a prominent part in the expulsion 
 of Lygdamus, the tyrant of Halicarnassus. But, having 
 failed to gain the popular favour, he soon left his native 
 country, spent a. few years in Athens, and settled in the 
 Athenian colony of Thurium, in Italy, in 443, where he 
 is said to have died. Before he wrote his great national 
 work (one of the most precious memorials of antiquity) 
 he prepared himself by travelling over the principal 
 countries of the civilizecl world, viz., Egypt, Tyre, Baby- 
 lon, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, and by studying 
 their manners, customs, and institutions. Throughout 
 his narrative, however, he maintains a modest reserve 
 respecting the extent of his travels; and it is a doubtful 
 question in what period of his life they were performed. 
 The principal subject of his history is the war between 
 the Greeks and Persians, comprised in a period of sixty- 
 eight years, from the time of Cyrus the Great to the tri- 
 umph of the Greeks in 478 u.c. By way of episode, he 
 inserts sketches of the different nations which he had 
 visited in person. His account of Egypt is the most 
 abundant and reliable source from which we derive our 
 knowledge of the ancient history of that country. He 
 is more highly appreciated by the moderns than he was 
 by his contemporaries. Some of his marvellous stories 
 which once excited ridicule and incredulity have been 
 confirmed by modern discoveries. His work is pervaded 
 by a deep religious sentiment, and by a liberal spirit 
 towards foreigners. He unites in a high degree accu- 
 racy of observation, rectitude of intention, and the faculty 
 of graphic description. His style is easy, natural, and 
 sometimes poetical. Plutarch and Eusebius state that 
 Herodotus recited his history at a public festival of the 
 Athenians, who rewarded him with a present of ten talents. 
 "Of the romantic historians," says Macaulay, "He- 
 rodotus is the earliest and the best. His animation, 
 his simple-hearted tenderness, his wonderful talent for 
 description and dialogue, and the pure, sweet How of 
 his language, place him at the head of narrators. He 
 reminds us of a delightful child. . . . But he lias not 
 written a good history. . . . The faults of Herodotus 
 are the faults of a simple and imaginative mind. . . . 
 He wrote as it was natural that be should write. He 
 wrote for a nation susceptible, curious, lively, insatiably 
 desirous of novelty and excitement ; for a nation in 
 which the fine arts had attained their highest excellence, 
 but in which philosophy was still in its infancy." (See 
 "Essay on History," in the "Edinburgh Review," 1828.) 
 
 Sec CrBUZBJC, " Herodot und Thncydides," ty.yS; IMhimann, 
 
 "Herodot aus seinem Buchc. sein Lebep," 1823 ; Hevsr, "De Hero- 
 doti Vila et Itineiilnw," >&»6 ; l:i iM. "Herodot und Kleaias cr°e 
 Iruhesten Gesclnclitsiorscher des Orients," 18J6 : Smith. " Diction- 
 ary of Greek ami Roman Bioarapbj i K , "Allga- 
 ineine Kncyklopaedie ;" Dh QuiNCKY, "Historical and Critical 
 Eaaays." vol. i. 
 
 Herodotus, a Greek physician, who practised at Rome 
 probably about 100 a.d., left works whii h are often cited 
 by Galen. 
 
 Heroet, AVro'4', (Antoini,] a French poet, bom in 
 Paris, became Bishop of Higne in 1552. Died in 1568. 
 
 « as> *; 9 as s ; g hard; g as /; C, H, \s.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; i as s; th as in this. (By-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HER OLD 
 
 1 178 
 
 HERRGOTT 
 
 Herold, ha'rolt, (Johann Basil,) a German writer 
 and Protestant minister, born at Hochstadt, on the 
 Danube, in 1511, edited a good edition of the Latin 
 works of Petrarch, (1581,) and several original treatises. 
 Died about 1570. 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Herold, //a'rold', (Louis Joseph Ferdinand,) an emi- 
 nent French composer, born in Paris in 1791. He pro- 
 duced, in 1826, " Marie," an opera, which was completely 
 successful. His capital works are "Zampa," (1831,) and 
 "Le Pre aux Geres," (1832.) He is called one of the 
 first among modern French composers. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universale des Musiciens." 
 
 He'ron or He'ro, [Gr. *Hpuv,] an eminent mathemati- 
 cian and writer, lived in Alexandria about 100 B.C. He 
 obtained a high reputation by his skill in geometry, me- 
 chanics, pneumatics, etc., on which he wrote several 
 treatises. One of these mentions a machine of which 
 steam is the motive power. His name is rendered fa- 
 miliar by connection with the experiment in pneumatics 
 called " Hero's fountain." Another philosopher of this 
 name, who is supposed to have lived in the seventh cen- 
 tury, was noted as a writer on warlike machines, on 
 geometry, and on military tactics. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Kiblintheca Grseca;" R. C. Wagner, " Disser- 
 tatio de Heronis Alexandrini Vita. Scriptis et Inventis," 1714; Mon- 
 tucla, " Histoire des Mathematiques." 
 
 HSr'on, (Robert,) a Scottish writer, born at New 
 Galloway in 1764, wrote a "History of Scotland," a 
 " Universal Geography," etc. He also translated several 
 works, and contributed to periodicals. Died in 1807. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Heron de Villefosse, /;i'r6N' deh vel'foss', (An- 
 TOINE Marie,) a French engineer, born in Paris in 1774, 
 became inspector-general of mines in 1807, and published 
 a useful work, entitled "On Mineral Riches," ("De la 
 Richesse minerale," 3 vols., 1810-19.) Died in 1852. 
 
 Herophile. See Herophii.us. 
 
 He-roph'I-lus, [Gr. 'Hpo^Ooc : Fr. Herobhii.e, i'ro'- 
 fel',] a celebrated physician of Chalcedon, in Bithynia, 
 was born about 344 B.C., and lived in Alexandria in the 
 reign of Ptolemy Lagus. He was contemporary with 
 Erasistratus, and is accounted the greatest anatomist of 
 antiquity, as well as the first who dissected human sub- 
 jects. He enriched the science with many discoveries 
 in the nervous system, the arterial pulsations, the lacteal 
 vessels, and the structure of the eye. The term retina 
 originated with him. His writings are all lost, except 
 extracts made from them by Galen and Ccelius Aurelia- 
 nus. 
 
 See Haller, " Bibliotheca Anatomica ;" Sprengf.l, " Geschichte 
 der Medicin :" Karl F. H. Marx, " Connnentatiode Herophili Vita, 
 Scriptis," etc., 1840. 
 
 Herostrate. See Herostratus. 
 
 He-ros'tra-tua or E-ros'tra-tus, [Gr. 'HpoorpaToc; 
 Fr. Herostrate, a'ros'tRit',] an incendiary, who, to 
 immortalize his name, set fire to the temple of Diana at 
 Ephesus, in 356 B.C. The authorities of Ephesus vainly 
 attempted to frustrate his design by ordering that his 
 name should never be mentioned. 
 
 Herpin, zieVpaN', (Jean Chari.es,) a French writer 
 on rural economy, born at Metz in 1798. 
 
 Herregouts, hen'goo', (Henri,) a Flemish historical 
 painter, bom at Malines in 1666, worked mostly at 
 Antwerp. Lacaze praises his design, colour, and the 
 expression of his figures. Among his works are "The 
 Last Judgment," and a penitent Magdalene. He had a 
 son, called Herregouts le Jeune, ("the Younger,") 
 who was a skilful painter. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Herrenschwand, heVren-shwant', (Jean Fr£d*£- 
 ric,) born at Morat, in Switzerland, in 1715, became 
 physician to Stanislas, King of Poland. Died in 1796. 
 
 Herrera, er-ra'ra, (Ai.onzo,) a Spanish painter of re- 
 ligious subjects, born at Segovia in 1559' 
 
 Herrera, de, da er-ra'rf, (Fernando,) an eminent 
 Spanish poet, sumamed THE Divine, born at Seville 
 about 1534. Very little is known of his history. He 
 was one of the most popular lyric poets of his time, — 
 which is accounted the golden age of Spanish poetry. 
 He made bo.ld innovations in poetical language. " Her- 
 
 rera was a poet," says Bouterwek, " of powerful talent 
 liut amid traits of real beauty his poetry everywhere 
 presents marks of affectation." According to Hallam, 
 " his odes appear to possess a lyric elevation and rich- 
 ness of phrase derived in some measure from the study 
 of Pindar. Those on the battle of Lepanto are the most 
 celebrated ; they pour forth a torrent of resounding song 
 in those rich tones which the Castilian language so abun- 
 dantly supplies." (" Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe.") His poems were published collectively in 
 15S2. He died about 1595, or, as others say, in 1589. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Ticknor, 
 " History of Spanish Literature ;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca His- 
 pana Nova.*' 
 
 Herrera, de, (Francisco,) sumamed el Viejo, 
 ("the Elder,") a skilful Spanish painter, born at Seville 
 in 1576. He studied under Luis Fernandez, and re- 
 formed the style of the Seville school. He excelled in 
 design, colouring, and rapidity of execution. He founded 
 a new school, in which the famous Diego Velasquez was 
 his pupil. Among his works is the " Last Judgment," in 
 the church of San Bernardo, Seville. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Cean Bermudez, " Diccionario historico ;" Quilliet, " Dic- 
 tionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Herrera, de, (Francisco,) sumamed el Mozo, 
 ("the Younger,") a son of the preceding, born at Seville 
 in 1622, was a painter and architect. After studying at 
 Rome, he worked at Seville, where he painted for the 
 churches. In 1660 he was chosen vice-president of the 
 Academy, of which Murillo was president. Impatient of 
 the presence of a superior, he removed to Madrid, where 
 he gained a high reputation in oil-painting and fresco. 
 He was appointed principal painter to Philip IV. "The 
 Ascension of the Virgin," a fresco at Madrid, is one of 
 his most admired works. Died in 1685. 
 
 See Raphael Mengs, "Las Obras;" Quilliet, " Dictionnaire 
 des Peintres Espagnols," 1826. 
 
 Herrera, de, da er-ra'ra, (JosE Joaquin,) a Mexican, 
 born in the eighteenth century, became President of 
 Mexico about the end of 1844, was deposed in December, 
 1845, ar| d re-elected in June, 1848. Died in 1851. 
 
 Herrera, de, (Juan,) an eminent Spanish architect, 
 who was employed on the Escurial after 1567. He 
 built the royal pleasure-house at Aranjuez. According 
 to Prescott, he was the pupil of Toledo, and completed 
 the Escurial, begun by that architect. Died in 1597. 
 
 See Prescott, "History of Philip II.," vol. iii. 
 
 Herrera-Barnuevo, er-ra'ra baR-nwa'vo, (Sebas- 
 TIANo,) a Spanish painter and sculptor, born at Madrid 
 in 1619, worked for the king in the Escurial. He ex- 
 celled in design and colour. Died in 1671. 
 
 Herrera y Tordesillas, er-ra'ra e toR-da-sel'yas, 
 (Antonio,) an eminent Spanish historian, born at Cuellar 
 in 1549, was the son of a man named Tordesillas; Herrera 
 was the name of his mother. Philip II. gave him the title 
 of first historiographer of the Indies and of Castile. He 
 published in 1601 his "General History of the Acts of 
 the Castilians on the Islands and Terra Firma of the 
 Ocean from 1492 to 1554," (4 vols.) His work is praised 
 by Dr. Robertson for its accuracy and candour, and has 
 served as the guide of later historians who have treated 
 of that period. He wrote several other historical works. 
 Died in 1625. 
 
 See Prescott, "Conquest of Mexico," vol. ii. book iii., and 
 "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. part ii. ; Ticknor, 
 " History of Spanish Literature;" N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca His- 
 pana Nova." 
 
 Herreros, er-ra'r6s, (Manuel Breton de loa — 
 bRa-t6n' di 16s,) a popular Spanish poet, born at Quel, 
 in Logrono, about 1798. He produced in 1824 a suc- 
 cessful comedy, "A la Vejez Viruelas," and in 1834 was 
 chosen keeper of the National Library in Madrid. He 
 composed and translated many dramas, remarkable for 
 grace and energy of diction, for comic power, and for 
 true portraiture of character. He also wrote successful 
 satires, among which is "The Carnival," (1833.) 
 
 See James Kennedy, "Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain," 
 1852. 
 
 Herrgott, hdii/got, (Marquard,) a monk and anti- 
 quary, born at Friburg, in Hrisgau, in 1694. He ac 
 quired a great reputation by his writings, among which 
 are a history of the House of Hapsburg, (" Genealogia 
 
 i, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
HER RICH 
 
 1179 
 
 HERSCHEL 
 
 ")**>* 
 
 diplomatica Gentis Habsburgicae," 2 vols., 1738,) and 
 ".Monuments of the Imperial House of Austria," (3 
 vols., 1750-60,) with plates. Died in 1762. 
 
 See Ersch und Okuoer, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 Herrich Schaffer or Schaeffer, her'riK shefTer, 
 (GOTTLIEB August,) a German entomologist, born at 
 Ratistxm in 1799, has published, among other works, a 
 continuation of Panzer's " Fauna Insectoruni Germanise," 
 and " Nomenclator Entomologicus," (unfinished.) 
 
 HeVrick, (Robert,) an English poet and clergyman, 
 bom in London in 1591. For about twenty vears he was 
 vicar of Dean Prior, in Devonshire, from which he was 
 ejected by Cromwell. In 1648 he published a volume 
 of poems, entitled " Mesperides ; or, Poems Human and 
 Divine." Of these, the "human" excel the divine in 
 literary merit. The tenor of them is amorous, and in 
 some parts licentious. " Hen ick has," says Hallam, 
 " as much variety as the poetry of kisses can well have. 
 He has much of the lively grace that distinguishes 
 Anacreon and Catullus." ("Introduction to the Lite- 
 rature of Europe.") He was restored to his living in 
 1660. Died about 1674. 
 
 See Drake. " Literary Hours," and the " Retrospective Review," 
 «oI. v., 1822; Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Herries, heVrJz, (John Charles,) a British financier, 
 born about 1780. He became secretary of the treasury 
 in 1823, and in 1827 chancellor of the exchequer in the 
 ministry of Goderich, which was dissolved in 1828. He 
 was secretary of war in a Tory cabinet for a few months 
 in 1S34 and 1835, and was afterwards a prominent mem- 
 ber of the protectionist party. In 1852 he was appointed 
 president of the India Board. Died in 1855. 
 
 Hgr'ring, (John Frederick,) an English painter of 
 animals, was born in Surrey in 1795. He was a coach- 
 driver in his youth. He excelled in the representation 
 of horses, hounds, and other animals. For many years 
 he painted the winners at the Doncaster races. Among 
 his works are "The Country Bait," "The Roadside," 
 "The Members of the Temperance Society," and "The 
 Baron's Charger." Died in 1865. 
 
 Herring, (Thomas,) an English prelate, born in Nor- 
 folk in 1691. He became Bishop of Bangor in 1737, 
 Bishop of York in 1743, and Archbishop of Canterbury 
 in 1747. His sermons and letters were published, 1763— 
 77. Died in 1757. 
 
 Herrliberger, heVle-b£ Rc'er, (David,) an able Swiss 
 engraver, born at Zurich in 1697. He published a " New 
 Topographical Description of Switzerland," with plates. 
 Died in 1777. 
 
 HeVrpn, (Francis J.,) an American general. He 
 served at the battle of Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and was 
 appointed a brigadier-general in the same year. He 
 commanded at the battle of Prairie Grove, Arkansas, In 
 December, 1862. 
 
 Heraan, hh r'son', (Marc Antoine,) a French pro- 
 fessor and Latin poet, born at Compiegne in 1652. His 
 Latin verses were published under the title of " Selecta 
 Cannina." Died in 1724. 
 
 Herschel, her'shel, (Caroline Lucretia,) born in 
 Hanover in 1750, was sister of Sir William Herschel, 
 whom she assisted in his astronomical observations and 
 computations. She lived with him near Windsor, Eng- 
 land, from 1772 until his death, sharing his daily labours 
 and nightly vigils, and inscribed her name with indelible 
 and luminous characters in the records of astronomy. 
 She has the credit of discovering five new comets be- 
 tween 1786 and 1797. In 1798 she published a valu- 
 able "Catalogue of Five Hundred and Sixty-One Stars 
 observed by Flamsteed." In 1828 the Astronomical 
 Society awarded her a gold medal for her Catalogue of 
 Nebula; and Clusters of Stars. Died in 1848. 
 
 Herschel, (Sir John FREDERICK William,) an emi- 
 nent astronomer and philosopher, the only son of Sir 
 William Herschel, was born at Slough, near Windsor, 
 in 1790. He was educated in Saint John's College, 
 Cambridge, where he displayed superior talents tor 
 mathematics. Between 1825 and 1833 he spent eight 
 years in reviewing the nebulae discovered by his father, 
 of which he published a "Catalogue arranged in the 
 ^rder of Right Ascension," (1833.) He produced in 
 1830 an excellent "Preliminary Discourse on the Study 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as /'; C, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; 5 as 1; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, 
 
 of Natural Philosophy," which acquired a great popu- 
 larity and is a standard work. "This discourse," says 
 the "London Monthly Review," "as a collection of 1 im- 
 portant facts interesting to every human being, is without 
 a rival." 
 
 In 1834 he established, at his owh expense, an obser- 
 vatory at Cape Town, Africa, where he passed four years 
 in the survey of the heavens with a reflecting telescope 
 of twenty feet focus and eighteen and one-quarter inches 
 clear aperture. The Royal Society awarded him a gold 
 medal in 1836. He published in 1847 "Results of As- 
 tronomical Observations made during 1834-38 at the 
 Cape of Good Hope, being the Completion of a Tele- 
 scopic Survey of the Whole Surface of the Visible 
 Heavens," one of the most important astronomical 
 works of the nineteenth century. His "Outlines of 
 Astronomy" (1849) was received with favour, and has 
 passed through five or more editions. He edited an 
 important collection of treatises, entitled "Manual of 
 Scientific Inquiry," (1849,) published by the govern- 
 ment. Sir John was appointed master of the mint in 
 1850, but resigned his office in 1855. The same year 
 he was chosen a foreign associate of the Institute of 
 France. Among his recent works are "Essays from the 
 Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews," (1857,) the articles 
 "Meteorology" and "Physical Geography" in the "En- 
 cyclopaedia Britannica," (1857-59,) and "Familiar Lec- 
 tures on Scientific Subjects," (1866.) Died in 1871. 
 
 "Sir John Herschel," says the "London Journal of 
 Science" for April, 1868, "combines in his own person 
 the assiduous astronomical observer, the acute mathe- 
 matician, the deep-thinking philosopher, and the graceful 
 poet. It is not to many men that intellectual powers of 
 so high order have been given ; it is not in many men 
 that we find such perfect balancing of those varied 
 powers ; it is in few men that we discover such profound 
 humility and such a deep sense of reverence for the 
 Creator of those works the study of which has been a 
 life-labour of love. . . . Sir John Herschel has ever 
 maintained the serene dignity of a true philosopher, and 
 his utterances of truths which have inspired him with 
 their divinity have ever been received with delight by 
 those who have listened to his subdued but impressive 
 eloquence." 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1833 ; " London Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1849; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 
 1831 ; "North british Review" for February, 1848. 
 
 Herschel, (Sir William,) one of the greatest astrono- 
 mers that any age or nation has produced, was born at 
 Hanover on the 15th of November, 1738. His lather 
 was Jacob Herschel, a skilful musician, who, having 
 six sons, was not able to give them a very complete 
 education. They all, however, became excellent musical 
 performers, and William adopted the profession of mu- 
 sician. Before he left the paternal roof he took lessons 
 in French and cultivated a taste for metaphysics. In 
 1759, in company with his brother Jacob) he went to 
 England in search of employment ; but for two or three 
 years he received no encouragement, and suffered great 
 privation. About 1761 he was employed to instruct a 
 military band at Durham, or in that vicinity, and in 1765 
 obtained the situation of organist at Halifax. Here, by 
 intense study, he learned Latin and Italian and acquired 
 a thorough knowledge of mathematics. The last science 
 he studied as preliminary to the theory of music. In 
 1766 he became organist of the Octagon Chapel, Bath, 
 where his skill was in great request at oratorios, public 
 concerts, and reunions of fashion. It appears that he 
 was about thirty years of age before he directed his 
 attention to astronomy and optics, in which his talents 
 found their most congenial arena and the basis of his 
 permanent renown. A casual view of the starry heavens 
 through a small telescope sufficed to rouse his enthu- 
 siasm and to kindle the latent ardour of genius. He 
 must be an astronomer; he must have a telescope of 
 greater power; and, as the price demanded by opticians 
 exceeded his resources, he resolved to construct one with 
 his own hands. After a multitude of trials and several 
 years of persistent application, he completed in 1 774 a re- 
 flecting telescope of five feet focal length, and, stimulated 
 by this success, did not relax his efforts until he obtained 
 
HERSENT 
 
 1 1 80 
 
 HERVEY 
 
 one of dimensions four times greater, with which in 1779 
 he Ijegan a systematic survey of the sidereal universe. 
 
 His arduous vigils and well-directed labours were 
 rewarded in March, 1781, by the discovery of a new pri- 
 mary planet, which was named by him Georgium Sidus, 
 in honour of King George, and is since called Uranus. 
 Besides the eclat thrown around his name by this signal 
 success, he received from George III. a pension of ^400, 
 with the title of private astronomer to the king. He was 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, who awarded to 
 him their annual gold medal. Herschel now fixed his 
 residence at a village near Windsor, named Slough, — 
 " a name," says Arago, " which the sciences will trans- 
 mit to the remotest posterity ; for there exists no spot on 
 the earth which has been rendered memorable by more 
 numerous and surprising discoveries." Continuing his 
 observations with unremitting assiduity, he discovered 
 two new satellites of Saturn and six satellites of Uranus. 
 He measured the rotation of Saturn, and observed the 
 volcanic structure of the lunar mountains and the sur- 
 prising phenomena of Saturn's ring. After he had made 
 several telescopes of twenty feet focal length, he com- 
 pleted, in 1789, with pecuniary aid from the king, his 
 gigantic instrument of forty feet in length, which was 
 far superior to any that had previously been made. 
 
 He was now enabled to penetrate farther into space 
 than his predecessors, and by his sublime speculations 
 on the constitution of the nebulae he made some approach 
 to a conception of the illimitable extent and variety of 
 the celestial phenomena. In 1803 he ascertained the 
 motion of the double stars around each other, — the grand- 
 est fact in sidereal astronomy, — attesting the universal 
 influence of that attractive force which binds the mem- 
 bers of the solar system. He soon after announced that 
 the whole solar system is progressing in the direction of 
 the constellation Hercules. Between 1780 and 1820 he 
 contributed seventy-one memoirs to the "Philosophical 
 Transactions." His discoveries were so far in advance 
 of his time, they had so little relation or resemblance to 
 those of his predecessors, that he may be said to have 
 initiated a new era in astronomy, and almost to have 
 founded a new science, by revealing the immensity of 
 the scale on which the universe is constructed. He was 
 married in 1788, and left one son, Sir John, noticed 
 above. Died in August, 1822. 
 
 See Arago, " Memoir of Herschel," (translated into English.) 
 Boston, 1850; "Edinburgh Review," vol. i. : " Edinburgh Philo- 
 sophical Journal" for April, 1823; Ersch und Grubkr, "Allgemeine 
 Encyklopaedie ;" Dr. Hoefkr, Notice in the " Nouvelle Biographie 
 3e"neVale ;" Zach, " Monatliche Correspondent," vol. v. 
 
 Hersent, /;Jr's5n', (Charles,) a French priest and 
 pulpit orator, born in Paris about 1595, was made chan- 
 cellor of the church of Metz in 1625. He published in 
 1640, as a warning against Cardinal Richelieu's alleged 
 design to make a schism in the church, a book called 
 " Optatus Gallus," which was burned by order of Par- 
 liament. He wrote other theological treatises. Died 
 after 1660. 
 
 Hersent, (Louis,) an eminent French painter of his- 
 tory, born in Paris in 1777, was admitted into the Insti- 
 tute in 1822. His design is correct and elegant. Among 
 his works is "Daphnis and Chloe." 
 
 Her-sil'I-a, a Sabine woman, the wife of Romulus. 
 One account makes her the wife of Hostus and mother 
 of Hostus Hostilius. 
 
 Heraleb, hSits'leb, (Peter,) a Norwegian divine and 
 writer, born at Stod in 1689, became Bishop of Copen- 
 hagen in 1737. Died in 1757. 
 
 Hert, hSRt, or Hertius, heRt'se-us, (Johann Niko- 
 I.AUS,) a German jurist, born near Giessen, in Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, in 1651, became professor of public law in 
 Giessen about 1690. He wrote, in Latin, several valu- 
 able works, among which is "Elementa Prudentiaa civi- 
 lis," (1689.) Died in 1710. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Her'tha, Her'thus, or Ner'thus, [allied etymologi- 
 cally to the English Earth, Anglo-Saxon EorSe, Ger- 
 man ERDE, Scandinavian Jore), Alemannic Ertha, 
 Mceso-Gothic AlRTHA.] Hertha was the goddess Faith 
 among the ancient Germans, regarded by some as the 
 wife of Thor, by others as the wife of Odin, and hence 
 
 synonymous with Frigga. She may be considered as 
 the personification of fertility. Herthus, or Nerthus, 
 was a male deity, with the same or similar attributes. 
 
 See Grimm, "Deutsche Mythologie ;" Rabus, "Dissertatio de 
 Dea Hertha," Augsburg, 1842. 
 
 Hertz. See Herz. 
 
 Hertz, heiUs, (IIeiman Adolph,) a Danish poet, son 
 of Johan Michael, noticed below, was born in 1796. He 
 wrote a historical poem called "Gustavus Vasa," (1S56.) 
 
 Hertz, (Henurik,) an eminent Danish poet and dram- 
 atist, born at Copenhagen in 1798. lie produced many 
 comedies, among which are "The Moving- Day," (" Flyt- 
 tedagen," 1828,) "Cupid's Master-Strokes," ("Amors 
 Geniestreger," 1830,) and "The Plumage of the Swan," 
 (" Svanehammen," 1 84 1 . ) A lyrical drama, entitled 
 " King Rene's Daughter," (1845,) is considered his mas- 
 ter-piece. He traces characters with much ability. He 
 is author of a didactic poem "On Nature and Art," 
 (1832,) a poem called "Tyrfing," (1840,) and a fiction 
 of great merit, entitled "Svend Dyring's House," (1837.) 
 
 See P. L. Mollkr, " Notice of Hertz" in the " Dansk Pantheon," 
 1844; Erslkw, "Almindeligt Forfatter- Lexicon ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GtSnerale." 
 
 Hertz, (Johan Michael,) a Danish poet, and Bishop 
 of Ribe, born near Vordingborg in 1766. His principal 
 work is "The Deliverance of Israel," ("Det befriede 
 Israel," 1804,) a poem. Died in 1825. 
 
 Hertzberg. See HerzreRG. 
 
 Hertzen or Herzen, heRt'sen, (Alexander,) a Rus- 
 sian socialist, and an able republican writer, born in 
 Moscow in 1812. He published "Dilettantism in Sci- 
 ence," (1842,) "Letters on the Study of Nature," (1845,) 
 and a romance called " Whose Fault is it ?" (" Kto Vino- 
 vat," 1847.) ln '847 lie quitted Russia, to the govern- 
 ment of which he vowed implacable hostility. He after- 
 wards resided in England, where he founded a "Russian 
 Free Press" and issued several works in Russian. 
 Among his publications are " Letters from France and 
 Italy," (1850,) and memoirs of his life, entitled "My 
 Exile," (2 vols., 1855.) Died in Paris in 1870. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G&ie'rale." 
 
 Hervas, eVvis, (Jose Martinez,) Marquis of Alma- 
 nara, a Spanish diplomatist, born at Uxyar in 1760. In 
 1806 he was sent as minister to Constantinople. Return- 
 ing to Spain in 1809, he became minister of the interior 
 under Joseph Bonaparte. Died in 1830. 
 
 Hervas y Paaduro, eVvasepan-doo'ro, (Lorenzo,) 
 a Spanish Jesuit and philologist, born at Horcajo in 1735. 
 He made extensive researches into the origin and affinity 
 of languages, and published a " Catalogue of the Known 
 Languages, with Remarks on their Affinity and Diver- 
 sity," (1784,) "Polyglot Vocabulary of more than One 
 Hundred and Fifty Tongues, with Introductory Observa- 
 tions," and a "Collection of the Versions of the Lord's 
 Prayer in more than Three Hundred Tongues," (17S7.) 
 Died in 1809. 
 
 See Adfo.ung, " Mithridates ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Herve, eR'va', born in Champagne, became Arch- 
 bishop of Rheiins in 900 a.d., and grand chancellor of 
 France in 911. Died in 922. 
 
 Herve-Fierabras, eit'va' fe'eh-ri'bRa', a French 
 physician, born at Rouen, lived about 1550. He pub- 
 lished an able treatise on Surgery, (1550.) 
 
 Hervet, //eR-vi', (( Jen ti an,) a learned French theo- 
 logian, born near Orleans in 1499, distinguished himself 
 at the Council of Trent, (1545,) and wrote against Cal- 
 vinism, lie translated some works of the Greek Fathers 
 into Latin. Died in 1584. 
 
 See Nickron, " Memoires;" DbThou, " lLloges,"with additions 
 of Tkissikr. 
 
 Her'vey, (Augustus John,) third Earl of Bristol, 
 son of Lord John, noticed below, was born in 1724. He 
 became a post-captain in 1747, and displayed courage in 
 several battles in the Mediterranean and in the West 
 Indies. In 1771 he was appointed one of the lords of 
 the admiralty, and in 1775, by the death of an elder 
 brother, became Earl of Bristol. Soon after this he was 
 created an admiral. He died in 1779, and his title was 
 inherited by his brother Frederick, Bishop of Deny. 
 
 Hervey, (Eleonora Louisa,) an authoress, whose 
 maiden name was Montague, born at Liverpool in 181 1. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mJt; nit; good; moon; 
 
HER VET 
 
 1 1 8 1 
 
 HESIOD 
 
 She began to write graceful verses for the periodicals at 
 an early age, and published in 1839 "The Landgrave,"' 
 a dramatic poem. In 1843 she was married to Thomas 
 K. Hervey, noticed below. Among her works are tales 
 in prose, entitled " Margaret Russell," (1849,) and "The 
 Pathway of the Fawn," (1851.) 
 
 Hervey, (Frederick,) fourth Earl of Bristol, born in 
 1730, was a brother of Augustus John, noticed above. 
 He became Bishop of Derry in 1768, and succeeded to 
 the earldom on the death of his brother, in 1779. He 
 was eccentric in habits, and was a liberal patron of the 
 fine arts. Died at Albano, Italy, in 1803. 
 
 Hervey, (James,) an English divine and author, born 
 at Hardingstone, near Northampton, in 1714, was edu- 
 cated at Oxford University, and was a good classical 
 scholar. Having taken orders, he became curate of 
 Dummer in 1736, and of Bideford in 1738. From 1743 
 until 1750 he was curate of Weston Favell, of which his 
 father was rector, and at the death of the latter, in 1752, 
 the son obtained that living. He was noted for piety and 
 benevolence. His "Meditations and Contemplations," 
 published in 1746, were extensively popular, notwith- 
 standing his faulty style, which is too flowery and subli- 
 mated to please the most correct taste. These very 
 faults probably rendered him a greater favourite with 
 the common people, as Southey represents the book as 
 equally "laudable in purport and vicious in style, and 
 therefore one of the most popular that ever was written." 
 It is or was generally found on the shelves of English 
 cottages by the side of the Bible and " Pilgrim's Pro- 
 gress." Hervey also wrote "Theron and Aspasia, a 
 Series of Dialogues and Letters," and a few minor works. 
 Died in 1758. 
 
 See Cole, "Herveiana; or. Graphic and Literary Sketches of 
 James Hervey," 1822-26; John Brown, "Life and Character of 
 J. Hervey," 1822. 
 
 Hervey, (Lord John,) an English writer, born in 
 1696, was the eldest son of the first Earl of Bristol. He 
 obtained a seat in Parliament soon after the accession 
 of George I., and in 1730 became a privy councillor. In 
 1733 ' ie was raised to the peerage, as Baron Hervey of 
 Ickworth, and in 1740 was appointed lord privy seal in 
 the cabinet of Walpole. He wrote able political pam- 
 phlets, verses, and an " Epistle from a Nobleman to a 
 Doctor of Divinity," the last of which was an answer to 
 Pope, who satirized him, in the character of Sporus, as 
 " the mere white curd of asses' milk." He also wrote 
 interesting "Memoirs of the Court of George II." Died 
 in 1743. 
 
 See Horace Walpole, " Royal and Noble Authors ;" " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for October, 1848. 
 
 Hervey, (Thomas Kibble,) an English poet and 
 editor, born in Manchester in 1804. He studied at Cam- 
 bridge and Oxford. In 1824 he published "Australia, 
 and other Poems," which was received with favour. 1 lis 
 " Poetical Sketch-Book" appeared in 1829. He after- 
 wards produced " Illustrations of Modern Sculpture," 
 (1832,) a work of merit, and "The Book of Chris; 
 (1836.) From 1846 to 1854 he was chief editor of the 
 "Athenaeum." Died in February, 1859. 
 
 Herwarth von Bittenfeld, heR'waRt fon bit'ten- 
 felt', a Prussian general, commanded a corps of the army 
 which entered Bohemia under the crown-prince and 
 contributed to the victory of Sadowa, July 3, 1866. 
 
 Herwart von Hohenburg, heVwaitt fon ho'en- 
 IxhiK!/, (Johann Georg,) a German scholar, born at 
 Augsburg in 1 554 ; died in 1622. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopacdie." 
 
 Herwegh, heR'weG, (Georg,) a popular German lyric 
 poet, born at Stuttgart in 1817. He published at Zurich, 
 in 1841, a volume of republican or liljcral poems, enti- 
 tled " Gedichte eines Lebendigen," (" Poems of a Living 
 Man,") which had great success. He lwcame a citizen 
 of Bale, and about 1845 joined the radicals of Paris. In 
 the spring of 1848 he raised a legion and invaded Baden 
 with a design to revolutionize it ; but he failed, and took 
 refuge in Switzerland. 
 
 See Longfkllow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" F. Lipp, " G. 
 Herwcgh's vicrlapge trr- und Wanderfanrt mit der Pariscr Deutsch- 
 demokratischen Legion," etc., 1850; " Foreign Quarterly Review" 
 for April, 1843. 
 
 Hery, de, deh //a're', (Thierry,) a skilful French 
 surgeon, born in Paris about 1505. Having piactised 
 with success in Paris, he was employed by Francis I. in 
 the army of Italy, and acquired a great reputation by 
 the cure of syphilis, on which he wrote an original anoi 
 able treatise, — the first ever written in French on that 
 subject. Died in 1599. 
 
 See BfJor, " Dictionnaire de la Me'decine." 
 
 Herz, h^Rts, (Hkinrich,) a celebrated pianist and 
 composer, born at Vienna in 1806. He met with bril- 
 liant success in London, Edinburgh, and Paris, and 
 afterwards resided several years in America. As a 
 performer he is scarcely surpassed, and his pieces for 
 the piano are general favourites. 
 
 Herz, (HENRIETTA,) a German lady, distinguished 
 for her wit and beauty, born in Berlin in 1764. She 
 married M. Herz about 1780. Her house in Berlin was 
 frequented by many eminent men. Died in 1847. 
 
 Herz, (MARCOS,) a German physician, born at Berlin 
 in T747; died in 1803. 
 
 Herzberg or Hertzberg, von, fon heRts'beRG, 
 (Ewald Friedrich,) a celebrated Prussian statesman, 
 born near Neustettin in 1725. He filled several impor- 
 tant posts under Frederick the Great, and, after nego- 
 tiating a treaty of peace with Russia and Sweden in 1762, 
 was appointed second minister of state. He was made 
 a count by Frederick's successor, and also curator of the 
 Academy at Berlin. Died in 1795. He was a zealous 
 patron of learning, particularly of German literature. 
 
 See Possklt, "Ewald Friedrich Graf von Hertzberg," 1798 ; 
 Weddigi:n, " 1'ia^inente ausdem Leben des Grafen von Hertzberg," 
 1796; *' Nouvelle IJiographie Generate." 
 
 Heselrige. See Hazlerig. 
 
 Hesham, (Hescham,) hesh-im', or Hisham, hish- 
 lm', (or, more fully, Hesham-Ibn-Abd-el-Malek, 
 hesh-im' Ib'n abd-el mii'ek, i.e. " Heshlm the son of 
 Abd-el-Malek,") the tenth caliph of the house of Omey- 
 yah, succeeded his cousin, Omar II., in 724 A.D. During 
 the reign of Hesham, Abd-er-Rahman, one of his gen- 
 erals, invaded France, where he was defeated and slain 
 by Charles Mattel, October 25, 732. HeshSm died in 
 743, leaving the reputation of an eminently just and 
 virtuous sovereign. 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. xiv. 
 
 Hesham (or Hisham) I., (or, more fully, Hesham- 
 Abool (-Aboul or -Abul) -Waleed, (-Walid,) 
 a'bool wa-leed',) second Emir or King of Cordova of the 
 Omeyyah dynasty, succeeded his father, Abd-er- Rahman, 
 in 788 A.D. He waged a successful war against the 
 Christians of Galicia, Astorga, etc., founded schools, 
 and promoted the arts. Died in 796. 
 
 Hesham (or Hisham) II., (El- (or A1-, 51) Muyyed- 
 Billah, el mdo'e-yed bil'lah,) sometimes corrupted into 
 Issam or Issem by the Spanish historians, was born in 
 965, and succeeded his father, Hakem II., on the throne 
 of C6rdova, in 976 A.D. In his minority the kingdom 
 enjoyed prosperity under the ministry of the famous Al- 
 Mansoor, who gained victories over the Kings of Leon 
 and Navarre. After the death of Al-Mansoor the reign 
 was disturbed by rebellions and anarchy, and the feeble 
 king became a prisoner of Soleimin, and died, or" was 
 killed, about 1012. 
 
 See Al-Makkari, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in 
 Spain." 
 
 Hesham (or Hisham) III, (El-Mo'tad-Bil'lah, 
 or Al-Mutadd- (SI mdVtad) Billah,) became King 
 of C6rdova in 1026, and was the last of the Omeyyah 
 dynasty. Several nobles having refused allegiance to 
 him, he attempted, without success, to subdue them by 
 arms. In 103 1 a sedition in the capital forced him 10 
 abdicate. Died in 1036. 
 
 Heshusius, hes-hoo'ze-us, (Tii.i.emannus,) a Ger- 
 man Lutheran divine, born at Wesel in 1526, was an 
 opponent of Calvinism. Died in 1588, 
 
 Hesiod, hee'she-od, [Gr. 'Ho-ioooc; Lat. He'siodusj 
 Fr. HEsiode, a'ze'od'; Ger. Hi sic. n, hB'ze-ot; It. I.si- 
 0D0, a -see'o-do,] an eminent Greek poet, born at Ascra, 
 in Boeotia, at the foot of Mount Helicon, lived probably 
 about 800 B.C. According to most modern critics, his 
 period was posterior to that of Homer, with whom some 
 writers have conjectured that he was contemporary. 
 
 « as k ■ 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Yi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (ijy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HESIONE 
 
 1182 
 
 HESSEL1NK 
 
 From his own writings the fact is derived that he was a 
 competitor in a poetical contest at Chalcis on the occa- 
 sion of the funeral of Amphidamas, and that he gained 
 the prize. It appears that he was employed in pastoral 
 and rural pursuits, his knowledge of which is evinced 
 by his most famous poem, entitled 'Epya icai 'H/ispat, 
 (" Works and Days.") This work contains reflections 
 and precepts on farming and rural economy, interspersed 
 with maxims of morality and mythical fables. Aristotle, 
 Plato, and Cicero eulogize this poem, and Virgil derived 
 from it the idea of his " Georgics," in which he has 
 surpassed his model. According to Pausanias, the Boeo- 
 tians regarded this as the only genuine work of Hesiod. 
 The other poems commonly ascribed to the Ascraean 
 bard are entitled "Theogony" and "The Shield of 
 Hercules." The former purports to be an account of 
 the origin of the world and the birth of the gods, and is 
 the most ancient composition we have on the subject of 
 Greek mythology. It is characterized by a rude sim- 
 plicity which sometimes rises into sublimity, and by that 
 speculative tendency which was afterwards so largely 
 developed in the Hellenic philosophy. "The Shield 
 of Hercules" is a fragment or collection of fragments, 
 supposed to be written by different authors. Quintilian 
 says, apparently in reference to the " Works and Days," 
 " He is distinguished by useful sentences of morality and 
 a sweetness of expression, and he deserves the palm in 
 the middle style of writing." According to Plutarch, 
 Hesiod was murdered at Locris, in revenge for a crime 
 of which he was erroneously suspected. 
 
 See Pausanias, ix. and x. ; Lucian, "Dialogue on Hesiod;" 
 Creuzer und Hermann, " Briefe iiber Homer und Hesiod," 1817 ; 
 Heyne, " De Theogonia ab Hesiodo Condita," 1779; Hermann, 
 " De Hesiodi Theogoniaa Forma antiquissima," 1844; Ersch und 
 Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Giovanni Lamj, " Saggiq 
 delle delizie dei dotti e degli ertiditi, risgnardante le Vite e gli Scrim 
 dei due primi grandi Uomini dell' Antichita, Esiodo ed Omero," 
 1775 '• " Quarterly Review" for March, 1832. 
 
 He-si'o-ne, (Gr. 'Hoiovri,] a daughter of Laomedon, 
 King of Troy. The poets feigned that Hercules deliv- 
 ered her from a sea-monster after her father had promised 
 to give him the horses he had received from Jupiter ; 
 but Laomedon failed to keep his word. She became 
 the wife of Telamon and mother of Teucer. 
 
 Hesnault or Henault, /;a'no', (Jean,) a French poet, 
 born in Paris, was educated by Gassendi. He appears 
 to have been an Epicurean or materialist. In 1670 he 
 published a volume of sonnets, letters, etc. He trans- 
 lated a large part of Lucretius. Died in 1682. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Hesperiden. See Hkspkridks. 
 
 Hes-peVI-des, |Gr. 'Eamp'uk c ; Fr. HespArides, es'- 
 pa'red'; Ger. Hesperiden, hes-pa-ree'den,] the "chil- 
 dren of Hesperus," (or "of the evening,") the name of 
 three or four celebrated nymphs of classic mythology, 
 who guarded the golden apples growing in an enchanted 
 garden in the western part of the world. According to 
 some authors, they were the daughters of Atlas, and 
 hence were called Atlan'tides. A large dragon as- 
 sisted them to guard the golden apples which were the 
 subject of one of the twelve labours of Hercules. 
 
 Hes-pe'ri-us, a Roman civil officer, was a son of the 
 poet Ausonius. He was proconsul of Africa about 376 
 A.n., and afterwards praetorian prefect of Rome. 
 
 Hes'pe-rus, (Gr. Eottc/joc; Fr. Hesper, Ss'paiR', or 
 Hesp£ros, es'pi ros',] a personage of classic mythology, 
 said to l>e a son or brother of Atlas. According to one 
 tradition, he ascended Mount Atlas to observe the stars, 
 and disappeared. He received divine honours, and was 
 identifiedwiththeeveningstar. One account says hecame 
 to Italy, which received from him the name of Hesperia. 
 
 Hess, (Johann Jakob,) one of the most eminent of 
 the Swiss Protestant theologians, was born in Zurich in 
 1741. He wrote, in German, "The Three Last Years of 
 the Life of Jesus," (6 vols., 1768-73 ; 8th edition, 1828,) 
 "On the Kingdom of God," (1774,) a " History of the 
 Israelites before Jesus," (12 vols., 1776-88,) and other 
 works. He became first minister of Zurich in 1795. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 See Georc Gessnrr, "J. J. Hess, voorgesteld in eenege Om- 
 trekken vanzijn Leven en Werk/.amheid," 1830; Ersch und Gruber, 
 "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" H. Escher, "J. J. Hess, Skizze 
 •eines Lebens," etc., 1837. 
 
 Hess, (Karl Adolf Heinrich,) a German artist, 
 born at Dresden in 1769, acquired a high reputation 
 as a painter of horses. Among his master-pieces we 
 may cite "The March of the Cossacks through Bohemia 
 in 1799." Died in 1849. 
 
 Hess, (Karl Ernst Christoph,) a German en- 
 graver, bom at Darmstadt in 1755. He was appointed 
 in 1782 professor in the Academy of Arts at Dusseldorf, 
 where he was afterwards employed to engrave the pic- 
 tures of the gallery. Among his best works are "The 
 Ascension of Mary," after Guido, and a " Holy Family," 
 after Raphael. About 1806 he settled at Munich, where 
 he died in 1828. 
 
 See Fuessli, "Schweizer Kiinstler." 
 
 Hess, (LuD\viG,)an excellent Swiss landscape-painter, 
 born at Zurich in 1760. He painted many pictures of 
 Alpine scenery. " His works," says the " Biographie 
 Universelle," "surpass all that we know in their kind 
 for correctness of design, for the taste displayed in the 
 composition, for truth of colouring, and for the trans- 
 parency of the water." He engraved some of his own 
 designs. Died in 1800. 
 
 Hess, (Peter,) a brother of the painter Heinrich von 
 Hess, noticed below, was born at Dusseldorf in 1792. 
 In 1839 he was invited to Russia, where he painted eight 
 large pictures representing the battles of 1812. He is 
 regarded as one of the first battle-painters of recent 
 times. 
 
 See Nac.lkr, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Hess, von, fon hess, (Heinrich,) Baron, an Austrian 
 general, born in Vienna in 1788. He fought at Wagram, 
 (1809,) and became colonel in 1829. In 1842 he was 
 made a lieutenant field-marshal. As quartermaster- 
 general, he rendered important services in Italy in 1848. 
 The chief merit of this campaign is ascribed to him. He 
 was appointed chief of the staff of the Austrian army, 
 (Chef da Generahtabs,) and master of the ordnance, 
 ( ' Felclzeugmeister,) in 1849. He succeeded Gyulai soon 
 after the battle of Magenta, formed the plan of the battle 
 of Solferino, July, 1859, and, after the emperor left the 
 army, was the commander-in-chief. 
 
 Hess, von, (Heinrich,) a distinguished historical 
 painter, a son of the engraver Karl Ernst Hess, noticed 
 above, was born at Dusseldorf in 1798. He became pro- 
 fessor in the Academy of Munich in 1826. The frescos 
 in the Basilica of Saint Boniface and in the church of 
 All Saints in Munich are among his master-pieces. 
 
 Hesse, //ess, (Jean Baptiste Alexandre,) a French 
 painter, a nephew of the following, was born in Paris in 
 1806. Among his best works is "The Funeral Honours 
 rendered to Titian," (1833.) 
 
 Hesse, (Nicolas Auguste,) a French painter of his- 
 tory, born in Paris in 1795, won a medal of the first 
 class in 1838. 
 
 Hesse, hes'seh, (Philipp,) Landgrave of, surnamed 
 the Magnanimous, was born in 1504. He avowed 
 himself a convert to the Reformed religion in 1526, 
 signed the creed called the Confession of Augsburg jn 
 1530, and entered into a league with the Protestant 
 princes by the treaty of Schmalkalden in 153 1. He dis- 
 tinguished himself in the war which the German Prot- 
 estants waged against Charles V. in 1546, but was taken 
 captive and imprisoned four years. He died in 1567. 
 
 See Hartmann, " Historia Hessiaca," 1741 : TutKHBIM, " His- 
 toire de la Maison souveraine de Hesse," 2 vols., 1819-20. 
 
 Hesse, (Wilhelm IV.,) Landgrave of, a son of the 
 preceding, surnamed THE Wise, was born at Cassel 
 about 1545. He reigned in peace, and was distinguished 
 as a patron of sciences, especially astronomy, which he 
 cultivated himself with diligence. He founded an obser- 
 vatory at Cassel in 1 561, and made observations for many 
 years. The results of these labours were published by 
 W. Snellius, (1628.) Died in 1597. 
 
 Hesse-Philippsthal, von, fon hes'seh fee'lips-til', 
 (Ludwig,) a German general, born in 1766, was a son 
 of the Landgrave of Hesse. Died in 1816. 
 
 Hesselbach, hes'sel-baK', (Franz Kaspau,) a Ger- 
 man anatomist, born near Fulda in 1759; died in 1816. 
 
 Hesselink, hes'seh-link, sometimes written Hesse- 
 ling, (Gerard,) a Dutch writer and Anabaptist preacher, 
 born at Groningen in 1755. He published a "Herme- 
 
 i, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, ?, short: a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, tit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HESSELIUS 
 
 1183 
 
 HEFELIUS 
 
 neutical Dictionary of the New Testament," and several 
 other works. Died in 181 r. 
 
 See Koopmans " Hulde aan G. Hesselink," 1812. 
 
 Hes-se'11-us, [Sw. pron. hes-sTI'le-us,] (Anders,) a 
 poet of Swedish extraction, born in North America, 
 became a teacher of English at Upsal. He wrote 
 "Eric IX.," (1739,) "The Twelve Charleses," (of Swe- 
 den,) ("De Tolf Caroler," 1748,) and other works. He 
 was living in 1755. 
 
 Hesselius, hes-sa'le-us, (Frans,) a Dutch philologist, 
 born at Rotterdam in 1680 ; died in 1746. 
 
 Hesselius, (Johan,) a Swedish savant, born at Fah- 
 lun in 1687; died in 1752. 
 
 Hessels, h&'sels, or Hesselius, (Jean,) born at 
 Louvain in 1 522, was noted as a theologian. He was a 
 member of the Council of Trent, and author of many 
 theological works, among which are a "Catechism," and 
 "Commentaries on Scripture." Died in 1566. 
 
 Hessus. See Eoban. 
 
 He'sus, a deity of the ancient Cauls, corresponding 
 to the Mars of the Romans. See Mars. 
 
 He-s^ch'I-us, [Gr. 'Hm^ioc, ] the author of a valuable 
 Greek Lexicon, (first printed by Aldus in 1514,) which 
 explains technical terms, unusual words found in the 
 works of poets, orators, and physicians, terms used in 
 sacrifices, divinations, and such as depart from ordinary 
 usage. It is supposed that the existing text is an abridg- 
 ment or imperfect copy of the original. The time in 
 which Hesychius lived is not known ; but it was proba- 
 bly since the Christian era, as numerous scriptural 
 glosses or phrases are found in his work. 
 
 See Pearson, "Adversaria Hesychiana," 2 vols., 1844; Ersch 
 und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hesychius Or Miletus, [Lat. Hesych'ius Mii.k'- 
 sius,] sumamed the Illustrious, lived in the sixth 
 century. He wrote (in Greek) a universal history from 
 Belus to his own times, (about 520 a.d.,) of which some 
 fragments only are now extant. He left also an abridg- 
 ment of the "Lives of the Philosophers," derived chiefly 
 from Diogenes Laertius. This was published by J. C. 
 Orelli, Leipsic, 1820. 
 
 See Thorschmid, "De Hesvchio Milesio illustri Christiano 
 Commematio," in Orelli's edition just mentioned. 
 
 Hgth, (Henry,) born in Virginia, became a brigadier- 
 general in the Confederate service in 1862. 
 
 Hetherington, heth'e-rlng-tgn, (William M.,) a 
 Scottish theologian and historian of the present century, 
 wrote a "History of the Church of Scotland," (1841,) 
 and other works. 
 
 Hetsch, hgtsh, (Gust a v Friedrich, ) a German 
 architect, born at Stuttgart in 1788, lived in Copenhagen. 
 
 Hetsch, von, fon hetsh, (Philipp Friedrich,) a 
 painter, father of the preceding, was born at Stuttgart 
 in 1758. Among his works are "Paris and Helen," and 
 "Marius among the Ruins of Carthage." Died in 1838. 
 
 Hettner, liet'ner, (Hermann Julius Thkodor,) a 
 German archaeologist, born in Silesia in 1821, wrote 
 "The Plastic Arts among the Ancients," (1848.) 
 
 Hetzel or Hezel, het'sel, (Johann Wilhf.lm,) a 
 German Orientalist, born at Kbnigslierg, in Franconia, 
 in 1754, published grammars of the Hebrew, Arabic, and 
 Syriac languages, and "The Old and New Testament, 
 with Notes," (10 vols., 1780-91.) Died in 1829. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hetzel, het'sel', (Pierre Jules,) a French litterateur, 
 whose pseudonym is P. J. StaHL, born at Chartres in 
 1814. He has 'published "Scenes from Animal Life," 
 "The Devil in Paris," "History of a Man with a Cold," 
 "Beasts and People," and other attractive works. 
 George Sand has compared him to Sterne. 
 
 Heugh, hu, (HUGH,) a Scottish divine, born in 1782. 
 ' He published, besides other works, "The State of Re- 
 ligion in Geneva and Belgium," (1844.) Died in 1846. 
 
 See his "Life and Select Works," by H. MacGiU, 1850; Cham- 
 bers, " Bupraphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "North 
 British Review ' for November, 1850. 
 
 Heumann, hoi'man, (Christoph August,) a Ger- 
 man writer on various subjects, born in Saxe-Wehnar in 
 1681. He became professor of theology at Gottingen 
 in 1734. Among his works are "Acts of the Philoso- 
 phers," ("Acta Philosophorum," 3 vols., 1715-27,) and 
 
 an "Exposition of the New Testament," (1750-63.) 
 Died in 1764. 
 
 See Hhvnh. " Memorta Heumanni," 1764: Cassius, "Leben»- 
 beschreibnnj; Heumanns," 1768; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine 
 Eucyklopaedie." 
 
 Heuinanu von Teutschenbrunn, hoi'man fon 
 toitsh'en-bRoon', (Johann,) a German jurist and writer, 
 born in Bavaria in 171 1 ; died in 1760. 
 
 Heun, hoin, (Karl Goiti.ob Samuel,) a German 
 novelist, born in Lusatia in 1771. He wrote under the 
 pseudonym of H. Clauren. Died in 1854. 
 
 Heures. See IIoR/E. 
 
 Heurn.van. See Heurnius. 
 
 Heurnius, huR'ne-us, [in Dutch, Van Heurn, vSn 
 hURn,] (Jan,) an eminent physician, born at Utrecht in 
 1543, was appointed in 1581 professor of medicine at 
 Leyden, and physician to Maurice of Nassau. He wrote 
 a good commentary on Hippocrates, (1609,) and other 
 medical works. Died in 1601. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Heurteloup, ^URt'loo', (Charles Louis,) a French 
 surgeon, born in Paris in 1793, made improvements 
 in lithotrity, which were generally adopted, and wrote 
 several treatises on that subject. 
 
 Heurteloup, (Nicolas,) an eminent French surgeon, 
 father of the preceding, born at Tours in 1750. About 
 1800 he was appointed first surgeon of the French armies, 
 and received the title of baron. Died in 1812. 
 
 Heus, bus or hos, or Heuscrh, van, vSn hush, (Wil- 
 LP.M,) a Dutch landscape-painter, born at Utrecht about 
 1630, was a pupil of John Both. His pictures of scenery 
 on the Rhine are commended. Died at Utrecht about 
 1700. His nephew and pupil, Jacob, born at Utrecht 
 in 1657, was a good landscape-painter. "His land- 
 scapes," says the "Nouvelle Biographie Generate, " "are 
 full of nature, his touch easy, and his colour true." Died 
 in 1701. 
 
 See Descamps, " Viesdes Peintres Flatnands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Heusch, van, v3n husK or hdsK, (Abraham,) a Dutch 
 painter of plants, insects, etc., was born at Utrecht in 
 1650 ; died in 1712. 
 
 Heuschling, husK'ling or hush'laN', (Cttenne,) a 
 Belgian philologist, born at Luxemburg in 1762, was 
 professor of Hebrew at Louvain. Died in (847. 
 
 Heuschling, (Philippe FRANgois Xavier,) a Bel- 
 gian economist, a nephew of the preceding, born at 
 Luxemburg in 1802, published an " Essay on Universal 
 Ethnographic Statistics," (1847-49.) 
 
 Heusde, hus'deh, [Lat Heus'dius,] (Phii.ippus 
 Wili.em,) an eminent Dutch writer, born at Rotterdam 
 in 1778, became professor of eloquence and history at 
 Utrecht, where he lectured with great success. He 
 published several works on philosophy, history, and 
 education, among which is "The Socratic School," ("De 
 Socratische School," 4 vols., 1834-39.) Died in 1839. 
 
 See KlST, " Memoria Heusdii," 1839; Stockfeld, "Andenken 
 an den grossen Professor P. W. van Heusde," 1840 ; Rovers, " Me- 
 moria Heusdii," 1841; Roulez, "Notice biographique sur P. G. 
 van Heusde," 1841. 
 
 HeuscVius. See Heusde. 
 
 Heusinger, hoi'zing'er, (Jakob Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man philologist and scholar, born at Useborn in 1719, 
 was rector of the College of Wolfenbiittel. His edition 
 of Cicero's " De Otficiis" (1783) is called a master-piece 
 in respect to criticism. Died in 1778. 
 
 Heusinger, (Johann Michael,) an uncle of the pre- 
 ceding, was born near Gotha in 1690, and was an able 
 philologist. He taught at Gotha and Eisenach, and 
 published editions of Julian's "Emperors" and .rEsop's 
 "Fables," (1741.) Died in 1751. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" F. A. 
 Toepper. "Vita J. M. Heusingeri," 1751. 
 
 Heusinger, (Karl Friedrich,) a physician, born 
 near Eisenach in 1792, published, liesides other works, 
 "Outlines of an Encyclopaedia and Methodology of Natu- 
 ral and Medical Sciences," (3 vols., 1844-53.) 
 
 Heuzet, /luh'/.y, (Jean,) a French classical scholar, 
 born at Saint-Quentin about 1660; died in 1728. 
 
 Hevel. See Hkvei.ius. 
 
 He-ve'11-us, [Ger. pron. ha-va'le-os,] (Joannes or 
 John Hevel — ha'vel, written also Hovel and He- 
 
 ft as /7c as s;% hard;%i&j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; Vi, trilled; §as»; »h as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
HEV1N 
 
 1184 
 
 HETNIUS 
 
 welcke,) an eminent astronomer, born at Dantzic in 
 161 1, was a pupil of Kruger. His parents were noble 
 and wealthy. After studying at Leyden and making the 
 tour of Europe, he devoted his uninterrupted attention 
 to astronomy for nearly fifty years. In 1641 he built an 
 observatory at his own residence, which he furnished with 
 telescopes and other instruments made by his own hands. 
 In 1647 he published "Selenographia," a description of 
 the moon, with plates, followed by letters on the " Libra- 
 tion of the Moon," and on Eclipses, (1654.) His treatise 
 on the phases of Saturn appeared in 1656, and his "Ob- 
 servations on the Transit of Mercury"in 1661. He wrote, 
 also, "Cometographia," a general description of comets, 
 (1668.) Hevelius was chosen a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society of London in 1664. He was repeatedly elected 
 consul and judge by his fellow-citizens, by whom he was 
 highly esteemed. In 1673 he published the first part 
 of his "Machina Ccelestis," a description of his obser- 
 vatory, instruments, and modus operandi, the second 
 part of which appeared in 1679. In the latter year a 
 fire consumed his observatory, library, and nearly all 
 the copies of the book just named. After his death his 
 widow published "Harbinger of Astronomy," (" Pro- 
 dromus Astronoiniae,") and " Firmamentum Sobieska- 
 num," dedicated to John Sobieski, King of Poland. 
 In skill, accuracy, and diligence in observation, he was 
 an astronomer of a very high, if not of the first, order. 
 Died in 1687. 
 
 See H. Westphal, "Leben, Studien und Schriften des J. Heve- 
 lius," iS-jo; Hutton, " Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary," 
 article " Hevelius ;" Montucla, " Histoire des Math^matiques ;" 
 Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hevin, ,4a'vaN', (Pierre,) a French jurist, born at 
 Rennes in 1621 ; died in 1692. 
 
 Hevin, (Prudent,) a French surgeon, born in Paris 
 in 1 7 1 5. Having distinguished himself as royal professor 
 of therapeutics, he was employed by Louis XV. to attend 
 the dauphiness. Some years later he became first sur- 
 geon to the dauphin. In 1780 he published a "Course 
 of Pathology and Therapeutics." Died in 1789. 
 
 Hewelclre. See Hevelius. 
 
 Hewes, huz, (Joseph,) an American patriot, born in 
 New Jersey in 1730, settled at Edenton, North Carolina, 
 about 1760. In 1774 he represented a district of North 
 Carolina in Congress, and signed the Declaration of 
 Independence in 1776. Having been re-elected to Con- 
 gress, he died at his post, in Philadelphia, in 1779. 
 
 See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence." 
 
 Hew'itt, (Mary Elizabeth,) originally Miss Moore, 
 an American poetess, born in Maiden, Massachusetts. 
 In 1829 she removed to New York. Her principal works 
 are " Songs of Our Land, and other Poems," (1845,) ant ' 
 the " Heroines of History," (in prose, 1856.) 
 
 See Griswoi.d, " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Hew'son, (William,) an English surgeon, born at 
 Hexham in 1739. In 1759 he attended the lectures of 
 John and William Hunter in London, with whom he was 
 afterwards associated as a lecturer on anatomy. In 1771 
 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, which 
 awarded him the Copley medal for his researches in the 
 lymphatic system of birds and fishes. In 1772 he pub- 
 lished " Experimental Inquiries into the Properties of 
 the Blood." He was an eminent anatomist, and made 
 valuable discoveries in the nature of blood. Died in 1774. 
 
 Hexham, (Richard of.) See Richard of Hexham. 
 
 Hey, ha, (John,) a learned divine of the Anglican 
 Church, born in England in 1734. From 1780 to 1705 
 he was first Norrisian professor of divinity at Cambridge. 
 He wrote an " Essay on Redemption," (a prize poem,) 
 " Lectures on Divinity,"- and other esteemed works. 
 Died in 181 5. 
 
 Hey, (William,) F.R.S.,an English surgeon of Leeds, 
 born in 1736; died in 1819. 
 
 See his Life, by John Pearson. 
 
 Heyden, van der, vin der hl'den, or Heyde, hl'deh, 
 an eminent Dutch painter, born at Gorcum about 1637. 
 He exercised his talents with great success on architec- 
 tural subjects and landscapes. He excelled in chiaro- 
 scuro. His pictures of cities, temples, palaces, and ruins 
 are admired for their general effect, mellow tints, and 
 
 exquisite finish. The figures in some of his works are 
 painted by A. van der Velde. Died at Amsterdam in 1712. 
 See J. C. Weyerman, "De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders ;" 
 Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Fiamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Heyden, von, fon hl'den, Count, born in 1772, en- 
 tered the Russian service, and became a rear-admiral in 
 181 7. He commanded the Russian fleet at the battle of 
 Navarino, in 1827. Died in 1850. 
 
 Heyden, von, fon hl'den, (Friedrich August,) a 
 German poet, born near Heilsberg, in East Prussia, in 
 1789. He was one of the governors of the prince-royal 
 of Prussia, and in 1826 became royal councillor at Breslau. 
 Among his chief works are " Conradin," and other suc- 
 cessful dramas; "Reginald," a poem, (1831,) which is 
 admired; and "The Shepherd of Ispahan," ("Der 
 Scliafer von Ispahan," 1850,) an excellent romantic 
 poem. Died in 1851. 
 
 See T. Mundt, "Das Leben Heydens," 1852. 
 
 Heydenreich, hl'den-riK', (Karl Heinrich,) an in- 
 genious philosophic'writer, born at Stolpen, in Saxony, 
 in 1764, was a disciple of Kant. He became professor 
 of philosophy at Leipsic in 1789. He wrote verses on 
 " Solitude," and other short poems, of some merit, which 
 were published in 2 vols., 1792. Among his prose works 
 are "Letters on Atheism," (1796,) "Psychological De- 
 velopment of Superstition," (1797,) and "Philosophy 
 considered with Respect to the Sufferings of Humanity," 
 (2 vols., 1798.) Died in 1801. 
 
 See Scheixe, " Characteristik C. H. Heydenreich's," 1802; 
 Wohlfahrt, "Die letzten Lebensjahre C. H. rieidenreich's," 1S02 ; 
 Eichiiorn. "Geschichte der Literatur," vol. iv. 
 
 Heydt, von der, fon deR hit, (August,) a Prussian 
 statesman, born in Elberfeld in 1801. He was appointed 
 minister of commerce, industry, and public works in 
 December, 1848. 
 
 Heyking.von, fon M'king,(HEiNRtcn Karl,) Baron, 
 born in Koorland (Courland) in 1 75 1, was appointed 
 a senator by Paul I. of Russia. Died in 1809. 
 
 Heylin, ha'lln, ? (Peter,) an English writer, born at 
 Bui ford in 1600. In 1621 he wrote his "Microcosmos." 
 In 1629 he became chaplain to Charles I., and obtained 
 several benefices, from which in the civil war he was 
 ejected as a partisan of Laud and the High Church. 
 He wrote a " Life of Bishop Laud," a " Defence of the 
 Church of England," (1658,) and other theological works. 
 Died in 1662. 
 
 See George Vernon, " Life of P. Heylin," 16S1 ; Dr. Barnard, 
 " Life of P. Heylin," 1682. 
 
 Heym. See Heim. 
 
 Heyn, (Pieter.) See Hein. 
 
 Heyne, hl'neh, [Lat. Hey'nius,] (Christian Gott- 
 LOB,) an illustrious German scholar and critic, was born 
 at Chemnitz, in Saxony, in 1729. Owing to the poverty 
 of his family, he enjoyed few advantages of education ; 
 but, having by nature an irrepressible desire for know- 
 ledge, he improved to the utmost the opportunities which 
 he possessed, so that in 1763 he succeeded Gesner as 
 professor of eloquence at Gottingen. He was soon 
 after made chief librarian of the university. His lectures, 
 illustrating the history and mythology of the ancients in 
 the most attractive manner, gained him a high reputa- 
 tion, which was increased by his numerous and excellent 
 writings. Among the most important of these are editions 
 of Tibullus, (1755,) Virgil, Epictetus, (1756,) Pindar, etc., 
 with commentaries, and "Opuscula Academica," (6 vols., 
 17S5-1812.) Died at Gottingen in July, 1812. 
 
 "Nothing," says Sir William Hamilton, " has contrib- 
 uted so decisively to maintain and promote the study 
 of classical literature, as the combination which Heyne 
 has effected of philosophy with erudition, both in his 
 commentaries on the ancient authors and in those works 
 in which he has illustrated various points of antiquity." 
 (" Encyclopaedia Britannica.") 
 
 See Heeren, "C. G. Heyne, biographisch dargestellt," 1812; 
 Dacier, " FJoge de Heyne;'" Van Assbn, " Huide aan C. G. 
 Heyne," Amsterdam, 1S16; Hecher, " Programma nd Memorial!! 
 C. "G. Hevnii," 1812; " Nouvelle Biographic G£ne>a!e;" "Edin- 
 burgh Review" for July, 1803. 
 
 Heyne, (Christian Lebrecht.) a German littira~ 
 tear, whose pseudonym was Anton Wall, was born 
 near Meissen in 1751 ; died in 1821. 
 
 Heynius. See Heyne, (Christian Gottlob.) 
 
 a, S, T, 6, u, y, long ; a, e,6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
HE THICK 
 
 1185 
 
 HICKS 
 
 Heyrick, ha'rTk, (Elizabeth,) an English philan- 
 thropist, born about 1770, was originally named Cow- 
 man. She became a member of the Society of Friends, 
 and was eminent for her active benevolence. She 
 published in 1824 a treatise entitled "Immediate, not 
 Gradual, Emancipation," which principle she was the 
 first to advocate. Died in 1831. 
 
 Heyse, hl'zeh, (Johann Christian August,) a Ger- 
 man grammarian and writer, born at Nordhausen in 
 1764; died in 1829. 
 
 Heyse, (Karl Wilhf.lm LUDWIG,) an able German 
 philologist, born at Oldenburg in 1797, was a son of the 
 preceding. He was chosen professor at Berlin in 1829. 
 He published, besides other works, an excellent "Dic- 
 tionary of the German Language," (3 vols., 1833-49.) 
 Died in 1855. • 
 
 Heyward, ha'ward, (Thomas,) born at Saint Luke's, 
 South Carolina, in 1746, studied in London, returned 
 home and became a lawyer. In 1775 ' ,e was elected 
 a member of Congress, and next year signed the Declara- 
 tion of Independence. In 1778 he was appointed ajudge. 
 He was taken prisoner at Charleston by the British in 
 1780. He retired from the bench.in 1798. Died in 1809. 
 
 See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence." 
 
 Heywood, ha'wdod, (Eliza,) an English novelist, 
 born in London about 1695. Her maiden name was 
 Fowler. She resorted to authorship to gain a sub- 
 sistence for herself and her children, and wrote several 
 novels, which procured her a place in Pope's "Dun- 
 ciad." She offended less against decorum in her subse- 
 quent works, viz., "The Female Spectator," " Husband 
 and Wife," etc. Died in 1756. 
 
 Heywood, (Jasper,) an English poet and Jesuit, 
 born in London in 1535, wrote "The Paradise of Dainty 
 Devices," (1573.) Died in 1598. 
 
 Heywood, (John,) one of the earliest English drama- 
 tists, lived in the reign of Henry VIII., at whose court 
 he wis received with favour as a jester. He was intimate 
 with Sir Thomas More. He wrote numerous epigrams 
 and indifferent plays or interludes. Died about 1565. 
 
 See Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Heywood, (Oliver,) an English nonconformist di- 
 vine, born in Lancashire in 1629. His works, in 5 vols., 
 were published in 1827. Died in 1702. 
 
 See his Life, by Fawcett, 170S, and by Joseph Hunter, 184a. 
 
 Heywood, (Thomas,) an English actor and dramatic 
 author, who lived in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., 
 and Charles I. He produced numerous dramas, in verse 
 and prose, which were once popular and are still ad- 
 mired. " Heywood," says Charles Lamb, " is a sort of 
 prose Shakspeare. His scenes are to the full as natural 
 and affecting." Among his best dramas are "The Eng- 
 lish Traveller," " A Woman Killed with Kindness," and 
 "A Challenge for Beauty." The second of these is com- 
 mended by Hallam. He also wrote a "General History 
 of Women," etc. The dates of his birth and death are 
 not known. 
 
 See his Life, by J. P. Collier, 1S50 ; " Retrospective Review," 
 vol. xi., 1825. 
 
 Hez-e-ki'ah, [Heb. irrpm or TTpin ; Fr. Ezechias, 
 i'za'ke'&s',] King of Judah, a son of Ahaz, was born about 
 750 H.c, and began to reign in 726. He took prompt 
 measures to restore the true religion, which had been 
 forsaken by his father. He broke the images or statues, 
 and the brazen serpent of Moses, to which the people 
 had burnt incense. He rebelled against the King of 
 Assyria, to whom his father had paid tribute. In the 
 fourteenth year of his reign, Sennacherib, King of As- 
 syria, invaded Judah and besieged the capital. In this 
 crisis the divine favour was invoked by the king and 
 Isaiah, the latter of whom prophesied the safety of Zion 
 and the defeat of her proud invader. (Isaiah, chap. 
 xxxvii.) The angel of the Lord smote the Assyrians, so 
 that 185,000 died in one night. Hczekiah died after a 
 reign of twenty-nine years. 
 
 See II. Kings, chaps, xviii., xix., XX. 
 
 Hezel. See Hki/.ki, 
 
 Hi-a-coo'mes, an American Indian, who is said to 
 have open the first Indian convert to Christianity in 
 
 New England, became pastor of an Indian church at 
 Martha's Vineyard in 1670. Died about 1690. 
 
 Hiaerue. See Hjarne. 
 
 Hib'bard, (Kreeisorn Garretson,) an American 
 divine of the Methodist Episcopal Church, born at New 
 Rochelle, New York, in 181 1. He published several 
 works on theology. 
 
 Hig'e-tas [Gr. 'Ucrar or 'Ikcttjq] of Syracuse, an 
 ancient Pythagorean philosopher, is noticed by Diogenes 
 Laertiusand Cicero. The latter informs us that he taught 
 that the earth revolves on its axis, and that the heavenly 
 bodies were stationary. 
 
 Hickes, hiks, (George,) D.D., an eminent English 
 divine and philologist, born at Newsham in 1642. He 
 took orders in 1666, and became Dean of Worcester in 
 1683. For refusing to take the oath to William HI. he 
 was deprived of his deanery in 1689, and in 1694 was 
 consecrated Bishop of Thetford by the nonjuring San- 
 croft. He was a profound scholar, and author of many 
 polemical and other works, among which the following 
 are now most prized, viz., "Treasure of Ancient North- 
 ern Languages," and "Institutes of Anglo-Saxon and 
 Mceso-Gothic Grammar," (1689.) "Of all the English- 
 men of his time," says Macaulay, " he was the most 
 versed in the old Teutonic languages." (" History of 
 England," vol. iii. chap, xiv.) Died in 1715. 
 
 See, also, " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Hick'ey, (Rev. William,) an Irish clergyman and 
 rural economist, born in the county of Cork in 1790. He 
 published, under the assumed name of Martin DoYI.lt, 
 a valuable work called " Hints to Small Farmers," and 
 other works on farming. 
 
 Hick'man, (Henry,) an English nonconformist di- 
 vine, bom in Worcestershire; died at Leyden in 1692. 
 
 Hick'ok, (Laurens Perseus,) D.D., an American 
 divine and metaphysician, born in Danbury, Connecticut, 
 in 1798. He graduated in 1820 at Union College, in 
 which he accepted (1852) the professorship of mental 
 and moral science. His principal works are "Rational 
 Psychology," (1848,) "Empirical Psychology," (1854,) 
 and " Rational Cosmology," (1858.) 
 
 Hicks, (Elias,) a noted preacher of the Society of 
 Friends, or Quakers, was born in Hempstead, Queen's 
 county, Long Island, in 1748. He began to speak in 
 public as a minister of the gospel in 1775. lie was 
 early convinced of the iniquity of slavery, and felt it to 
 lie his dutv to abstain, as far as practicable, from all partici- 
 pation in the products of slave labour, — a duly which he 
 appears to have scrupulously observed throughout the 
 remainder of his life. For many years he was a zealous 
 and approved minister in the Society of which he was a 
 member ; but early in the present century he began to 
 promulgate religious views widely different from those 
 held by a large majority of the Quakers. He advocated 
 the most radical Unitarian doctrines, and asserted that 
 Christ came as a Saviour to the Israelites only, his spe- 
 cial mission being limited to that nation. He even went 
 so far as to express the opinion that the Scriptures had 
 been "the cause of fourfold more harm than good to 
 Christendom since the apostles' days." In consequence 
 of the expression of these and similar views, he was se- 
 verely censured and denounced by many of those who 
 were anxious to maintain unchanged the doctrines of the 
 early Quakers. The result was a schism in tin Society, 
 The elders of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting had taken 
 a leading part in the opposition to Elias Hicks ; and it 
 was in that Yearly Meeting (in April, 1827) that the first 
 separation took place, which was followed, in 1S2S. by 
 divisions in the Yearly Meetings of New Yqrk, Baltimore, 
 Ohio, and Indiana. The two parties were respectively 
 known as the "Orthodox" and the " Hicksites." In tne 
 Philadelphia and Ohio Yearly Meetings the two sections 
 were nearly equal; but those called " Hicksites" were 
 greatly in the majority in the Yearly Meetings of New 
 York and Baltimore, while in Indiana the "Orthodox" 
 were numerically much superior to the other party. 
 
 It is proper to observe that among those who most 
 admired the bold and stirring eloquence of Hicks there 
 were probably but few, comparatively speaking, wno 
 fully endorsed his extreme views ; yet, regarding him as 
 the representative of liberal and progressive ideas, they 
 
 eas,c; 5 as s; gAarJ; gasy; G, H, y., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas«; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 75 
 
HICKS 
 
 1186 
 
 HIGDEN 
 
 warmly espoused his cause. On the other hand, many 
 who strongly disapproved — and under other circum- 
 stances would perhaps have severely condemned — his 
 innovating doctrines, yet believing that he had been un- 
 fairly and harshly dealt with by the "Orthodox" elders, 
 made common cause with what they considered the 
 persecuted party, and contributed greatly to swell the 
 number of his adherents. It may be proper to add that 
 the anti-orthodox division of the Society do not acknow- 
 ledge the name of "Hicksites," alleging, not without 
 reason, that as a large majority of their members had 
 espoused the cause of Hicks in the interest of religious 
 liberty, and not because they approved of his peculiar 
 views, it is unjust to apply to them as a religious society 
 a name which would naturally give the impression that 
 they were, strictly speaking, his followers, and that they 
 accepted, if not all, at least the greater part, of his re- 
 ligious teachings. They claim, on the contrary, to be 
 the followers of no man ; and although they accept the 
 doctrine of the inward light, and many other of the 
 views of the early Friends, it is not because of the 
 authority of Fox, Penn, or Barclay, but simply because 
 those views commend themselves to that divinely given 
 or intuitive perception of right which, as they maintain, 
 has been bestowed in a measure upon every human 
 being. Elias Hicks died on the 27th of February, 1830, 
 having maintained through life a blameless and exem- 
 plary moral character. 
 
 See " Elias Hicks's Journal of his Life and Labours," Philadel- 
 phia, 182S; Jannev, "History of the Society of Friends," vol. iv. 
 chap, v., also the second part of the same volume, entitled "The 
 Separation ;" " Life of Stephen GreHet." 
 
 Hicks, (Francis,) a Greek scholar, born in Worces- 
 tershire, England, in 1566. He produced a translation 
 of l.ucian, (1634.) Died in 1630. 
 
 Hicks, (Thomas,) an American painter, born at 
 Newtown, Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1823. He 
 went to Europe in 1845, al, d passed several years at 
 Rome, where he copied the works of old masters, and 
 painted portraits. He has resided for many years in the 
 city of New York. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists," p. 465. 
 
 Hicks or Hickes, (William,) was an English cap- 
 tain in the time of Charles I., and author of the first 
 Jest- Book in the English language, published at Oxford, 
 (1669.) 
 
 Hidalgo, (Jose Garcia.) See Garzia. 
 
 Hidalgo y Costilla, e-Dal'go e kos-tel'ya, (Don 
 Miguel,) a Spanish priest, who was curate of Dolores, 
 in Mexico. He acquired great influence among the 
 natives, of whom he became the leader in the revolution 
 of 1810. After losing several battles, he was taken by 
 the Spaniards and executed in 181 1. 
 
 Hi-emp'sal, a Numidian prince, a son of Micipsa, 
 was murdered by Jugurtha, according to Sallust. 
 
 Hien-Fung, he-eV fung, Emperor of China, born 
 about 1830, was a younger son of Taoo-Kooang. He 
 ascended the throne in 1850, and appointed ministers 
 who wished to maintain an exclusive policy towards 
 foreigners. In the same year began a great insurrection, 
 raised and directed by Tien-Te or Tai-Ping-Wang. The 
 insurgents were generally victorious, and captured Nan- 
 kin in 1853. (See Tai-Ping-Wang.) A war broke out 
 between the Chinese and the British, who entered Pekin 
 in triumph in i860. Died in 1861. 
 
 Hiero. See Hieron. 
 
 Hi-Sr'o-cles, [Gr. 'hpoufcft,] an eminent Platonic phi- 
 losopher, who was the head of a flourishing school in 
 Alexandria in the fifth century. He is the author of 
 a "Commentary on the Golden Verses of Pythagoras," 
 which has been preserved entire, and of a " Treatise on 
 Providence (or Foreknowledge) and Fate," of which 
 some fragments remain. The former is written in Greek, 
 and is admired for the beauty of the thoughts and of 
 the style. 
 
 See Andre 1 Dacier, "Vie de HieYocles," 1706. 
 
 Hierocles, the author of a work on veterinary medi- 
 cine, addressed to Cassianus Bassus, lived in the third 
 or fourth century of our era. 
 
 Hierocles, a grammarian, who is supposed to have 
 lived in the sixth century, wrote, in Greek, a " Hand- 
 
 Book forTravellers,"(2i)ve/c<%zoc,) which contains descrip- 
 tions of the towns and provinces of the Eastern empire. 
 
 There was also a Stoic philosopher named Hieroci.es, 
 of whom we have little information. He is supposed to 
 have lived in the second century. Another Hierocles 
 compiled or wrote a collection of anecdotes and ridicu- 
 lous sayings of pedants, students, etc., with the Latin 
 title of "Facetiae Hieroclis." 
 
 Hierocles of Alabanda, a Greek rhetorician, lived 
 about 100 B.C. He composed orations in the style which 
 Cicero calls the "Asiatic." 
 
 Hierocles of Bithynia was the principal author of 
 the persecution of the Christians in the reign of Diocle- 
 tian, (about 300 a.d.) He wrote two books against 
 Christianity, entitled " Sincere Discourses to the Chris- 
 tians," (Aoyoi (pdahrjOeii,) in which he maintains that 
 the Scripture is full of contradictions. He was prefect 
 of Bithynia and of Alexandria. 
 
 Hi'e'-ron or Hi'e-ro [Gr. 'Upuv] I., King of Syra- 
 cuse, succeeded his brother Gelon in 478 B.C. The first 
 part of his reign was tyrannical. He expelled the citi- 
 zens of Naxos and Catana, and colonized those towns 
 with his own subjects. He is applauded for his pa- 
 tronage of literature and his appreciation of genius. His 
 court was the resort of the most eminent poets and sages 
 of his time, among whom were Pindar, /^schylus, Si- 
 monides, and Epicharmus. Pindar wrote several odes 
 on the occasion of Hieron's victories at the Olympic 
 games, and Simonides enjoyed his friendship and bounty. 
 Died in 467 B.C. 
 
 See Xenophon, "Hieron." 
 
 Hieron (or Hiero) II., King of Syracuse, was the son 
 of Hierocles, a private citizen. Having served in the 
 army of Pyrrhus, who left Sicily in a state of anarchy, 
 Hieron was chosen general by the soldiers in 275 B.C., 
 and recognised as king about 270. At the beginning of 
 the first Punic war he took side with the Carthaginians, 
 and was defeated by the Romans about 264 B.C. He then 
 made peace with the victors by the payment of tribute, 
 and was ever after a faithful ally of Rome. Under his 
 wise rule the kingdom for many years enjoyed peace 
 and prosperity. Died in 216 B.C. Archimedes lived in 
 Syracuse in this reign, and exercised his mechanical 
 genius in constructing machines and ships of great size. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome," books xxi.-xxiv. ; Diodorus 
 Siculus, books xxii.-xxvi. ; Drovsen, " Hellenismus," vol. ii. 
 
 Hi'e-ron, (Samuel,) an English Puritan, born at 
 Epping in 1572, was rector of Modbury, and published 
 sermons and other works on theology. Died in 1617. 
 
 Hieronyme. See Hieronymus. 
 
 Hi'e-ron'y-mus, [Gr. 'lepuvv/tog; Fr. Hieronyme, 
 e'a'ro'nem',] King of Syracuse, was the grandson of 
 Hieron II., whom he succeeded in 216 B.C., at the age 
 of fifteen. He broke the alliance with the Romans, who 
 had recently been defeated at Cannae, and formed a 
 league with the Carthaginians. He was on the point of 
 taking an active part in the war, when he was killed by 
 his own subjects about a year after his accession. He 
 left no issue ; and the Syracusans thenceforth dispensed 
 with royalty. 
 
 Hieronymus was the Latin name of Saint Jerome, 
 one of the Fathers of the Church. 
 
 Hieronymus of Caruia, [Fr. Hieronyme, e'a'ro'- 
 nim', (or Jer6me, zha'rom',) de Cardie, deh kSit'de',] 
 a Greek historian, who flourished about 300 B.C. He 
 entered the service of Eumenes, who employed him on 
 a mission to Antipater in 320. He was afterwards an 
 adherent of Demetrius, who appointed him Governor of 
 Boeotia in 292 B.C. He wrote historical memoirs of the 
 successors of Alexander the Great, — a work which is often 
 cited by the ancients, but has not come down to us. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Graecis;" Sevin, "Recherches sur 
 la Vie et les Ouvrages de Jerome de Cardie." 
 
 Hieronymus of Rhodes, a Greek philosopher, and 
 disciple of Aristotle, lived about 300 B.C. 
 
 Hif'fer-nan, (Paul,) born in the county of Dublin, 
 Ireland, in 17 19, lived many years in London as a lite- 
 rary hack, and wrote several mediocre dramas, etc. His 
 habits were eccentric. Died in 1777. 
 
 Hig'den, (Ranulph or Ralph,) an English monk, 
 connected with a Benedictine monastery at Chester, 
 
 a, e, T, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
HIGGINS 
 
 1187 
 
 HILDESLET 
 
 wrote " Polychronicon," a Latin chronicle. He died, at 
 a great age, about 1370. 
 
 Hig'gins, (GODFREY,) an English antiquary, born in 
 Yorkshire in 1771, wrote "The Celtic Druids," and other 
 works. Died in 1833. 
 
 Higgins or Higiiis, (John,) an English writer, born 
 about 1544, was a clergyman and school-teacher. He 
 published the " Flosculi" of Terence, a popular school- 
 book, and contributed to the " Mirror for Magistrates," 
 of which he published a new edition. 
 
 Higgins, (Matthew James,) an English journalist, 
 born about 1815, wrote under the assumed name of 
 Jacob Omnium. He contributed many articles to the 
 London "Times," the "Pall Mall Gazette," and other 
 journals. His writings were mostly devoted to the ex- 
 posure of abuses in the social and military systems of 
 England. Died in 1868. 
 
 Hig'gin-spn, (Francis,) a distinguished divine, born 
 in England in 1588. He was educated at Cambridge 
 University, and appointed rector of a church in Leices- 
 ter, in which position he laboured with great zeal and 
 success until removed for nonconformity. He came to 
 Massachusetts in 1629, and the next month was ordained 
 with Mr. Sketon, the first minister of Salem. Died in 
 1630. He was the author of "New England's Planta- 
 tion," (1630.) 
 
 Higgihson, (John,) born in England in 1616, ac- 
 companied his father Francis to Massachusetts in 1629. 
 He was minister of the church at Salem from 1660 until 
 his death in 1708, and published sermons and other 
 theological works. He was regarded as the most able 
 and eloquent American author of his time. Among 
 his works is his "Attestation to Cotton Mather's Mag- 
 nalia." 
 
 Hig'gons, (Sir Thomas,) was born in Shropshire, 
 England, in 1624. He married the notorious Countess 
 of Essex, (see Carr, Robert,) at whose funeral in.1656 
 he pronounced an oration, which was printed. He was 
 sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1673. Died in 1691. 
 His son, Bevil, born in 1670, wrote, besides several 
 poems, a "Short View of English History," (1723.) He 
 was a zealous Jacobite, and went into exile with James 
 II. Died in France in 1735. 
 
 High'more, (Joseph,) an English portrait-painter, 
 born in London in 1692, was a pupil of Kneller. He 
 executed portraits of the Knights of the Bath, and was 
 employed by George I. to paint some members of the 
 roval family. In 1742 he painted the portraits of the 
 Prince and Princess of Wales. He wrote a treatise on 
 Perspective. Died in 1780. 
 
 Highmore, (Nathaniel,) an eminent English phy- 
 sician, born at Fordingbridge in 1613, practised with 
 success at Sherborne. He wrote able treatises on anat- 
 omy. Died in 1684. 
 
 Hilaire. See Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire. 
 
 Hilaire. See Hilary. 
 
 Hi-la'rl-on, Saint, a noted ascetic or hermit of Pales- 
 tine, and pioneer of monastic life, was torn at Tabatha, 
 near Gaza, about 292 a.d. At an early age he went to 
 Alexandria as a student, and was converted to Chris- 
 tianity. Returning to Palestine, he retired from the 
 world, passed many years in the desert, and gained a 
 wide reputation by his austerities. Many monasteries 
 were founded by him or by the influence 0? his example. 
 Died about 372. 
 
 See Saint Jerome, '^Vita Hilarioni;" Baillet, "Vies des 
 Saints." 
 
 Hilarius. See Hilary. 
 
 Hi-la'rf-us, sumamed Diac'onus, a native of Sar- 
 dinia, lived about 350 A.D., and became a deacon of the 
 church in Rome. He was an adversary of Arianism. 
 
 Hil'a-ry, |Lat. Hila'rius; Fr. Hilaire, e'laR',] a 
 native of Sardinia, was chosen Bishop or Pope of Rome in 
 461 A.D., as successor to Leo I. In 449 he had officiated 
 as legate at the Council of Ephesus, where he zealously 
 opposed the Eutychians. The events of his pontificate 
 were unimportant. It appears that he claimed the pre- 
 eminence of the see of Rome. He died in 467, and was 
 succeeded by Simplicius. 
 
 Hilary or Hilarius, [Fr. Hilaire, e'lSR',1 Saint, 
 an orthodox theologian, was born at Poitiers, (Pictavi,) 
 
 in Gaul, of which place he became bishop about 350 A.D. 
 He took a prominent part in defence of Athanasius 
 against the Arians, for which he was banished to Phrygia 
 in 356. In 359, at the Council of Seleucia, he defended 
 the doctrine of the Trinity, and afterwards published a 
 violent invective against the Arian emperor Constantius, 
 whom he denounced as Antichrist. Having returned 
 to Italy and Gaul, he laboured zealously to purge the 
 churches of heresy. He wrote a "Treatise on Synods," 
 a " Commentary on Saint Matthew," and a few other 
 works. Died in 367 A.D. 
 
 See Cave, " Scriptores Ecclesiastici*," Tiixemont, "Me'moires." 
 
 Hilary or Hilarius, Saint, was born about 400 
 A.D., probably in Gaul or Belgium. He became Bishop 
 of Aries in 429, and was highly esteemed for piety and 
 learning. His contest with Leo, Bishop of Rome, forms 
 an important epoch in the history of the Gallic Church. 
 Celidonius, a bishop, having been deposed by a council 
 at which Hilarius presided, appealed to Leo, who rein- 
 stated him, and, supported by an edict of the emperor 
 Valentinian III., deprived Hilarius of his bishopric 
 because the latter refused to own the supremacy of 
 Rome. This was one of the first efforts made to build 
 up the papal power. Died in 449. His "Eulogy on 
 Honoratus" is much admired. 
 
 See Bki.larmin, "De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis ;" Tillemont, 
 "Memoires;" "Gallia Christiana." 
 
 Hll'da, Saint, a grand-niece of Edwin, King of North- 
 umbria, was converted to Christianity in her childhood, 
 became abbess of the convent of Heorthen (afterwards 
 Whitby) about 660, and died in 680 A.D. 
 
 HITde-bald, [Lat. Hildebal'dus,] King of the 
 Ostrogoths in Lombardy. After Belisarius had con- 
 quered the Ostrogoths, they proclaimed Hildebald their 
 king at Pavia in 540 A.D. The next year he gained a 
 victory over the Romans, soon after which he was assas- 
 sinated by one of his guards. 
 
 See Joknandes, "De Regnorum Successione ;" Gibbon, "His- 
 tory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 HH'de-bert, [Lat. Hildeber'tus,] a French prelate 
 and poet, born at Lavardin in 1057, became Archbishop 
 of Tours in 1125. He was eminent for his piety and 
 learning, and was one of the best writers of his time. 
 His works are written in Latin, and consist of epistles, 
 sermons, and poems. Died in 1 134. 
 
 See " Gallia Christiana ;" " Vita Hildeberti," prefixed to his Works, 
 published by Beaucendre in 1708. 
 
 Hildebertus. See Hildebert. 
 
 Hildebrand. See Gregory VII. 
 
 Hildebrandt, MI'deh-bRant', (Ferdinand Theo- 
 dor,) a German historical painter, and one of the most 
 eminent masters of the Dusseldorf school, was born at 
 Stettin in 1804. He studied under W. Schadow at Ber- 
 lin, and settled at Dusseldorf. Among his works aro 
 "King Lear and Cordelia," (1826,) "Tancred and Clo- 
 rinda," (1828,) and "Othello relating his Adventures 
 to Desdemona," (1848.) 
 
 Hildebrandt, (Gi.org Frifdrich,) a German phy- 
 sician and naturalist, born at Hanover in 1764, wrote, 
 besides other works, a "Manual of Human Anatomy," 
 (4 vols., 1789-92.) Died in 1816. 
 
 HII'de-gard' or Hildegarde, Saint, a German nun, 
 bom in 1098, became abbess of Saint Rupert's Mount, 
 near Bingen, on the Rhine. Died in 11 80. 
 
 See J. C. Dahl, "Die beilige Hildegardis; historische Abhand- 
 lung," 1833. 
 
 Hildenbrand, von, fon Ml'den-bRant', (Valentin 
 Johann,) a German medical writer, born in Vienna in 
 1763 : died in 1818. 
 
 HQ'ders-ham, (Arthur,) an English Puritan divine, 
 born in Cambridgeshire in 1563. He held the living of 
 Ashby-de-la-Zouch from 1593 until his death. He was 
 a grand-nephew of Cardinal Pole, and was related to 
 the royal family. He wrote various theological works, 
 and was esteemed a shining light among the Puritans. 
 Died in 1631. 
 
 Hfl'dei-ley, (Mark,) an English theologian, born in 
 Kent in 1698. He became Bishop of Sudor and Man 
 in 1755, and caused the Bible to be translated into the 
 Manx language. Died in 1772. 
 
 See Weedon Butler, " Memoirs of M. Hildesley," 1709. 
 
 ■ as i ; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; S as z; th as in Ms. (Jr^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HILDRETH 
 
 1 1 88 
 
 HILL 
 
 Hll'dreth, (Richard,) an American journalist and 
 historian, was born in Deerfield, Massachusetts, June 
 28, 1807. He graduated at Harvard in 1826, and, while 
 studying law, contributed numerous articles to magazines. 
 Admitted to the bar in Boston in 1830, he abandoned 
 the legal profession at the expiration of two years, to 
 accept the position of associate editor of the " Boston 
 Atlas," which soon became one Of the ablest Whig jour- 
 nals in New England. His health having failed, he spent 
 the year 1835 in Florida, and while there wrote " Archy 
 Moore," an anti-slavery novel. It was republished and 
 favourably reviewed in England, and an enlarged edition, 
 under the title of "The White Slave," was issued in the 
 United States in 1852. In 1837 he furnished to the 
 columns of the "Atlas" a series of articles which con- 
 tributed powerfully towards defeating schemes then on 
 foot for the annexation of Texas. He took a conspicuous 
 part in the Presidential canvass which resulted in the 
 nomination and election of General Harrison. He also 
 gave to the public during this period his " Despotism 
 in America," an able review of the social, political, and 
 economical aspects of slavery in the United States, to 
 which he added in 1854 a chapter on the " Legal Basis of 
 Slavery." His health having again failed, he embarked 
 in 1840 for British Guiana, and, during a residence of 
 three years at Georgetown, the capital, wrote his "Theory 
 of Morals," published in 1844, and "Theory of Politics, 
 or an Inquiry into the Foundation of Governments and 
 the Causes and Progress of Political Revolutions," issued 
 in 1853. Mr. Hildreth is best known, however, by his 
 "History of the United States of America," from the 
 discovery of the continent to the close of the Sixteenth 
 Congress in 1820, (6 vols. 8vo, 1849-52.) ' It was pro- 
 jected while the author was a student at Harvard. The 
 work has been variously criticised ; but all agree in 
 classing it among the standard histories of our country. 
 Hied at Florence in July, 1865. 
 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia ot American Literature," vol. ii. ; 
 Cleveland, " Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Hildreth, (Samuki. Prescott,) M.D., an American 
 physician, born in Massachusetts in 1783. He settled 
 in Ohio in 1806. His principal works are a "Pioneer 
 History of the Ohio Valley," (1848,) and " Biographical 
 and Historical Memoirs of the Early Settlers of Ohio," 
 (1852.) Died at Marietta, Ohio, in 1863. 
 
 Hill, (Aaron,) an English writer, born in London in 
 1685. About the age of sixteen he went to Constanti- 
 nople, and by the aid of his kinsman, Lord Paget, visited 
 several countries of the East. In 1709 he published a 
 " History of the Ottoman Empire." Soon after he became 
 manager of Drury Lane Theatre, and wrote " Elfrida," 
 a tragedy, which was followed by several other dramas. 
 The most successful of these are "Alzira" and "Zata," 
 adapted from Voltaire. He wrote a satire on Pope, who 
 had noticed him in the "Dunciad" in terms which some 
 think rather complimentary. Died in 1750. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica. 
 
 Hill, (AhraHAM,) an English gentleman and scholar, 
 born in 1632. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 A volume of his "Letters" was published in 1767. Died 
 in 1721. 
 
 Hill, (Ambrose Powell,) an American general, born 
 in Culpepper county, Virginia, about 1825, graduated at 
 West Point in 1847. He fought against the Union at 
 Bull Run, July, 1861, and became a major-general about 
 June, 1862. He commanded a division at the battles of 
 Mechanicsville and Gaines's Mill in June, and at the 
 second battle of Bull Run, August 29, 1862. In the 
 next month he served at Harper's Ferry and Antietam. 
 He commanded a division at the battle of Fredericks- 
 burg, December, 1862, and at Chancellorsville, May, 
 1863. For his services in the latter action he was pro- 
 moted to the rank of lieutenant-general. He directed a 
 corps at the battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, and in 
 the several battles fought by Generals Grant and Lee 
 in 1864, at the Wilderness, Spottsylvania Court-House, 
 Cold Harbour, etc. He was killed in a battle near 
 Petersburg on the 2d of April, 1865. 
 
 See "Southern Generals," New York, i86.<;; Tenney, "Military 
 And Naval History of the Rebellion." 
 
 Hill, (Daniel II.,) an American general, born in South 
 Carolina about 1824, graduated at West Point in 1842. 
 
 He commanded a division at the battles of Mechanics- 
 ville and Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862, and South Moun- 
 tain, September, 1862. He attempted to take Newbern, 
 North .Carolina, in March, 1863, but failed, and served 
 under General Bragg at Chickamauga the same year. 
 He commanded at Augusta, Georgia, in February, 1865. 
 
 Hill, (DavidOctavius,) a Scottish landscape-painter, 
 born at Perth in 1802. He has been for many years 
 secretary to the Royal Scottish Academy. His subjects 
 are chiefly Scottish scenes. He produced an illustrated 
 work entitled "The Land of Burns." 
 
 Hill, (Frederick,) a brother of Sir Rowland Hill, 
 noted for his efforts to reform prison-discipline and to 
 prevent crime, was appointed about 1835 inspector of 
 prisons in Scotland. He published an able work, entitled 
 " National Education : its Present State and Prospects," 
 and "Crime : its Amount, Causes, and Remedies," (1853.) 
 
 Hill, (George,) D.D., a Scottish divine, born at Saint 
 Andrew's in 1750. He was principal of Saint Mary's 
 College, in his native town, and succeeded Dr. Robert- 
 son as leader of the General Assembly. He published, 
 liesides other works, "Lectures on Divinity," which are 
 commended by Dr. Chalmers, who said, " I am not sure if 
 I can recommend a more complete manual of divinity." 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 See Geokge Cook, " Life of George Hill." 
 
 Hill, (George,) an American contemporary poet, 
 born at Guilford, near New Haven. Among his prin- 
 cipal poems are " The Ruins of Athens," and "Titania." 
 
 See Griswold's " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Hill, (Isaac,) a journalist, born in Ashburnham, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1788. He was for many years editor of 
 the " New Hampshire Patriot," a Democratic journal, 
 was elected a United States Senator for New Hampshire 
 in 1830, and Governor of that State in 1836. Died in 1851. 
 
 Hill, (Sir John,) an English writer and literary quack, 
 borrt at Spalding in 1 7 16. He obtained skill as a botanist, 
 made and sold quack medicines, and edited "The In- 
 spector," a journal which owed its success to the scandal 
 it contained. He was refused admission to the Royal 
 Society on account of his doubtful character, and sought 
 revenge by writing a review of their works. His " Vege- 
 table System," in 26 vols., with splendid plates, sold 
 at one hundred and sixty guineas per copy. He was 
 knighted by the King of Sweden, to whom he had pre- 
 sented a copy of the last-named work. Died in 1775. 
 
 Garrick has defined his merits in the following epigram: 
 " For physic and farces, his rival there scarce is; 
 His farces are physic, his physic a farce is." 
 
 See Disraeli, " Quarrels of Authors." 
 
 Hill, (Joseph,) an English scholar, born near Leeds 
 in 1625, became minister of an English church at Mid- 
 detburg, Holland. He published an improved edition 
 of Schrevelius's "Greek Lexicon," (1676.) Died in 1707. 
 
 Hill, (Matthew Davenport,) a brother of Frederick, 
 noticed above, born in Birmingham about 1792, became 
 a barrister. He was one of the active members of the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and 
 laboured with zeal and success to procure amendments 
 of the laws. He was one of the chief promoters of 
 "juvenile reformatories." 
 
 Hill, (Sir Richard,) born in 1733, a brother of Row- 
 land, was member of Parliament for Salop, and some- 
 times preached in the Calvinistic Methodist chapels. He 
 wrote a few religious works. Died in 1808. 
 
 Hill, (ROBERT,) a self-taught English linguist, born at 
 Miswell in 1699, was a tailor by trade. He was master 
 of several ancient languages, and wrote "Criticisms on 
 Job," and a few other works. Died in 1777. 
 
 See " Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. ]., 1S30. 
 
 Hill, (Rev. Rowland,) a popular preacher and dis- 
 ciple of Whitefield, was born at Hawkstone, England, 
 in 1744. He was the son of Sir Rowland Hill, and uncle 
 of General Lord Hill. After leaving college he was 
 ordained a deacon of the Anglican Church, but soon 
 became a zealous and eloquent preacher among the Cal- 
 vinistic Methodists. Addressing the people in the streets, 
 the open air, or wherever he could gain audience, he 
 made many converts in various parts of the kingdom. 
 In 1783 he built Surrey Chapel, London, in which he 
 preached about fifty winters. He was the author of " Vil- 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
HILL 
 
 1189 
 
 HILTON 
 
 lagc Dialogues," and other works. Southey, in refer- 
 ence to a particular occasion, says, " His manner was 
 animated and striking, sometimes dignified and impress- 
 ive. The purport of his sermon was good,— aiothing 
 fanatical, nothing enthusiastic." Died in 1833. 
 
 See J. Sherman, " Memorial of the late Rev. R. Hill, chiefly 
 consisting of Anecdotes," etc., London, 1S51 ; E. Sidney, " Life of 
 the Rev. Rowland Hill." 1S34; William Jones, "Memoirs of the 
 Life of Rev. Rowland Hill." 
 
 Hill, (Rowland,) Viscount, an English general, born 
 at I'rees, Shropshire, in 1772, was the second son of Sir 
 John Hill, and nephew of the Rev. Rowland Hill. He 
 entered the army as ensign in 1790, and obtained the 
 rank of colonel in 1800. In 1806 he was made a major- 
 general and appointed on the staff. In 1808 he served 
 in Portugal, under Sir Arthur Wellesley and Sir John 
 Moore, until the battle of Corunna. Promoted to the 
 rank of lieutenant-general in 1809, he was employed 
 several years in the Peninsular war, and gained a high 
 reputation in his profession. In 1814 he was raised to 
 the peerage, as Baron of Almarez and Hawkstone. He 
 took part in the battle of Waterloo in 181 5, and after- 
 wards was second in command of the army of occupation 
 in France. Lord Hill was commander-in-chief of the 
 army from 1828 until 1842, when he resigned and was 
 created a viscount. He died in 1842, and left the title to 
 his nephew, Sir Rowland Hill. 
 
 See E. Sidney, "Life of Viscount Hill," 1850; Napier, "His- 
 tory of the Peninsular War." 
 
 Hill, (Sir Rowland,) an Englishman, known as the 
 author of the cheap postage system, was born at Kid- 
 derminster in 1795. In 1837 he wrote a pamphlet on 
 " I'ost-Office Reform, its Importance and Practicability." 
 Through his persistent efforts, a bill was passed in the 
 session of 1839-40 to reduce the rate of postage and 
 render it uniform. The postage has since been further 
 reduced, and letters are now carried for one penny each 
 to any part of the United Kingdom. The people ex- 
 pressed their gratitude for this benefit by a present of 
 ^13,000 raised by subscription. He was appointed 
 secretary to the postmaster-general in 1846, and sole 
 secretary to the post-office in 1854. 
 
 Hill, (S. W.,) a recent American painter, of the Pre- 
 Raphaelite school, has particularly distinguished himself 
 by his landscapes and fruit-pieces. 
 
 Hill, (Thomas,) a mathematician and Unitarian min- 
 ister, born at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1818, 
 graduated at Harvard in 1843. He published, besides 
 other works, " Geometry and Faith," and contributed 
 many articles to the "North American Review" and the 
 "Atlantic Monthly." In 1859 he succeeded Horace 
 Mann as president of Antioch College, Ohio. He in- 
 vestigated the properties of curves with success. 
 
 Hill, (Thomas Ford,) an English antiquary and philol- 
 ogist, published "Ancient Erse Poems." Died in 1795. 
 
 Hill, (William,) D.D., an American divine, born in 
 Cumberland county, Virginia, in 1769. He graduated 
 at Hampden-Sidney College in 1788. From 1800 to 
 1834 he was pastor of the Presbyterian church in Win- 
 chester, where he died in 1852. 
 
 Hil'lard, (Gkorge Stii.lman,) an eminent American 
 writer, lawyer, and orator, born in Machias, Maine, in 
 1808. While pursuing his collegiate course at Harvard, 
 (where he graduated in 1828,) he is said to have been 
 especially distinguished in declamation and, English 
 composition. He was afterwards for some time asso- 
 ciated with George Bancroft in his Round Hill Seminary 
 at Northampton, Massachusetts, and in 1833 was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in Boston. Besides attending to 
 an extensive professional business, he has since twice 
 visited Europe, and has been a member of both branches 
 of the Massachusetts legislature. He is author of a great 
 number of orations, lectures before the Lowell Institute, 
 and contributions to the "Christian Examiner," "North 
 American Review," etc. In 1852 he was selected by the 
 authorities of Boston to deliver the eulogy on the char- 
 acter of Daniel Webster. The next year appeared his 
 "Six Months in Italy," (in 2 vols. 121110,) which had 
 reached the fifth edition in 1855. " Mr. Ilillard's work," 
 says the "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1858, 
 "is that of a scholar and a gentleman, a man of sense 
 as well as of taste and feeling. His style is pointed and 
 
 full of happy expressions and striking images." Among 
 other literary labours, Mr. Hillard has edited the 
 Poetical Works of Spenser, (in 5 vols. 8vo.) He was 
 for some time associate editor of the " Jurist,",and was 
 for several years one of the principal editors of the 
 "Boston Courier." He contributed several important 
 articles to the "New American Cyclopaedia," including 
 those on Alexander and Edward Everett and Rufus 
 Choate. 
 
 Hillebrand, hil'leh-bRant', (Joseph,) a German phi- 
 losophical writer, born near Hildesheim in 1788. He 
 published, among other works, "The Philosophy of the 
 Spirit," (2 vols., 1835,) and "The German National 
 Literature since the Beginning of the Eighteenth Cen- 
 tury," (2 vols., 1845.) 
 
 Hil'lel, a famous Jewish rabbi, born at Babylon about 
 no B.C., was descended from King David. He went 
 to Jerusalem at the age of forty, acquired a thorough 
 knowledge of the law, and was chosen president of the 
 Sanhedrim about 30 B.C. The origin of the Talmud or 
 Mishna is ascribed to Hillel, who was the leader of a 
 numerous school or party. He died at the age of one 
 hundred and twenty years. 
 
 Hillel, a noted rabbi, supposed to have lived about 
 300 A.I>., was a descendant of the preceding. He re- 
 formed the Jewish calendar by means of a cycle of nine- 
 teen years. 
 
 Hiller, hil'ler, (Ferdinand,) a celebrated German 
 composer, born of Jewish parents at Frankfort, October 
 24, 1811. His oratorio of the "Destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem" (1840) was received with great applause. In 1851 
 he was made director of the Italian Opera at Paris. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Hiller, (Matthaus,) a German Orientalist, born at 
 Stuttgart in 1646, was professor of Oriental languages 
 and theology at Tubingen. He wrote a "Latin-Hebrew 
 Lexicon," (1685.) Died in 1725. 
 
 Hiller, von, ton hil'ler, (Johann,) Baron, an Aus- 
 trian general, born at Neustadt, near Vienna, in 1754. 
 In 1809 he obtained command of the sixth corps of the 
 army of the archduke Charles. Although he was de- 
 feated by Napoleon at Landshut in April, he contributed 
 greatly to the success of the Austrians at Aspern in the 
 next month. Died in 1819. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkuber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hillerup, hil'leh-rup', (Fkederik Christian,) a 
 Danish poet, born at Vedelsborg in 1793, published a 
 work called " Italica," (1829,) and " New Poems," (" Nye 
 Digte,") in 1854. 
 
 HlU'house, (James,) an American lawyer, born in 
 Connecticut in 1754. He was a Senator of the United 
 States from 1794 to 1810. Died in 1832. 
 
 Hillhouse, (James A.,) an American poet, son of the 
 preceding, born at New Haven in 1789. He removed 
 to New York City, and married Cornelia Lawrence in 
 1824. His first poem, "The Judgment, a Vision," ap- 
 peared in 1812. He also wrote the following admired 
 dramas : " Percy's Masque," " Hadad," and " Demetria." 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 See Griswold, " Poetn and Poetry of America:" Duyckinck, 
 "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Cleveland. " Com- 
 pendium of American Literature ;" " North American Review" for 
 January, 1840. 
 
 Hilliard, hll'yard, (Henry W.,) a lawyer ajul poli- 
 tician, born in Cumberland county, North Carolina, in 
 1808. He was a Whig, and represented a district of 
 Alabama in Congress from 1845 to 1851. In 1857 he 
 joined the Democratic party. 
 
 Hilliard, hll'yard, (Nicholas,) an English painter, 
 born at Exeter in 1547, learned the trade of a jeweller, 
 and afterwards l>ecame eminent as a miniature-painter. 
 He executed an admired portrait of Mary Queen of Scots, 
 and was patronized by Queen Elizabeth and James I. 
 Died in 16 19. 
 
 Hll'ton, (John,) an English composer and musician, 
 was admitted to the degree of bachelor of music at 
 Cambridge in 1626. He composed anthems, songs, 
 catches, etc. Died about 1656. 
 
 Hilton, (WALTER,) an English monk of the fifteenth 
 century, lived at Sheen, and wrote "The Ladder of Per- 
 fection." 
 
 «as/t; 9 as.;; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled '; § as *; th as in this. (£iy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HILTON 
 
 1 1 90 
 
 H1PPAR CHUS 
 
 Hilton, (William,) a successful English historical 
 painter, born at Lincoln in 1786. About 1800 he became 
 a student in the Royal Academy, and in 1804 exhibited 
 his " H«ctor reinspired by Apollo." In 1819 or 1820 
 he was elected a member of the Academy, and in 1825 
 succeeded Fuseli as keeper of that institution. He at- 
 tained a high rank among the English artists of his time. 
 Among his best works are " Nature blowing Bubbles," 
 and " The Graces teaching Cupid to play on the Lyre." 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 See Pilkington's " Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Hi-me'rI-us, ['IjUtpjoc,] an eminent Greek sophist of 
 Prusa, Bithynia. He became master of a celebrated school 
 in Athens, and afterwards secretary of the emperor Julian 
 at Antioch about 362 a.d. He composed many orations, 
 of which about twenty are extant. His style is rather 
 bombastic. Among his pupils were Gregory Nazianzen 
 and Saint Basil. He was always a pagan, but moderate 
 or friendly to the Christians. 
 
 Hl-mil'co or Hi-mil'con, a Carthaginian navigator, 
 the date of whose adventures is unknown. Pliny states 
 that he sailed northward from Gades on a voyage of dis- 
 covery about the time that Hanno explored the western 
 coast of Africa. K. Festus Avienus quotes him as his 
 authority for an account of the islands of' the Hiberni 
 and Albioni. 
 
 Himilco or Himilcon, an able Carthaginian general, 
 who was joined with Hannibal in the command of a large 
 army in the war against Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. 
 He took Agrigentum after a long siege, during which 
 the death of Hannibal left him sole commander, (406 
 B.C.) He defeated Dionysius about 405, soon after which 
 peace was concluded. The war having been renewed in 
 397 B.C., Himilco raised an army of 100,000 men, with 
 which he marched victoriously to the gates of Syra- 
 cuse. \Vhile he was besieging this city, his army was 
 wasted by pestilence and defeated by the Syracusans. 
 He escaped to Carthage and killed himself. 
 
 See Diodorus Siculus, books xiii., xiv., and xx. 
 
 Himilco or Himilcon was commander of the fleet 
 of Carthage, on the coast of Sicily, in 214 B.C., while 
 Marcellus commanded the Romans in that island. He 
 landed an army in 213, gained some advantages, and, 
 having failed in an attempt to relieve Syracuse, died of 
 pestilence in 212 B.C. 
 
 Himly, him'lee, (Karl Gustav,) a German physician, 
 born at Brunswick in 1772, was professor of medicine at 
 Gottingen. He was distinguished for his skilful treat- 
 ment of diseases of the eyes, on which he published a 
 valuable work. Died in 1837. 
 
 Himmel, him'mel, (Friedrich Heinrich,) a Ger- 
 man composer, born in the duchy of Brandenburg in 
 1765, was appointed chapel-master at Berlin about 1796. 
 Among his best works are the operas of " Fanchon" and 
 "The Sylphs." Died in 1814. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Hinch'cliffe, (John,) an English divine and orator, 
 born at Westminster in 1731. He became head-master 
 of Westminster School in 1764, and Bishop of Peter- 
 borough in 1769. Died in 1794. 
 
 Hinckeldey, hink'kej-dl, (Karl Ludwig Fried- 
 rich,) a Prussian administrator, born near Meiningen 
 in 1S03: He became minister or prefect of police in 
 Berlin in 1848. He was killed in a duel in 1856. 
 
 Hinckelmann, hink'ke>man', (Abraham,) a Ger- 
 man Orientalist, born at Dbbeln in 1652, published an 
 edition of the Koran, (1694,) said to be the first ever 
 printed in Arabic. Died in 1695. 
 
 Hinck'ley, (John,) an English clergyman, born in 
 161 7, was rector of Drayton. Died in 1695. 
 
 Hincmar, hink'mar, a learned French prelate, born 
 in 806 a.d., entered the Abbey of Saint-Denis in child- 
 hood. He acquired much influence, and became a fa- 
 vourite at the court of Charles the BaW. In 845 he was 
 elected Archbishop of Rheims. He distinguished him- 
 self by his firmness in defending the Church against the 
 encroachments of the papal and royal power. He wrote, 
 besides other works, two treatises on Predestination, in 
 one of which he attempts to refute the famous Erigena. 
 He is censured for his severity to Godeschalcus, who 
 
 was confined in a dungeon for his heretical opinions on 
 the question of predestination. Died in 882 a.d. 
 
 See "Gallia Christiana ;" W. F. Gess, " Merkwiirdigkeiten aua 
 deni Leben und den Schriften Hincmar's," 1806; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Geneiale." ^ 
 
 Hincks, (Rev. Edward,) distinguished for his know- 
 ledge of Assyrian and Egyptian inscriptions, was born in 
 Cork, Ireland, about 1791. Died about 1866. 
 
 Hind, (John Russell,) an eminent English astron- 
 omer, born at Nottingham in 1823. He obtained in 
 1840 a situation in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. 
 In 1845 ' ,e removed to another observatory in Regent's 
 Park, London, where he has had remarkable success as 
 an observer. He discovered, besides several comets, ten 
 telescopic planets, namely, Iris, (1847,) Flora, (1847,) 
 Victoria, (1850,) Irene, (1851,) Melpomene, Fortuna, 
 Calliope, and Thalia, (all in 1852,) Euterpe, (1853,) and 
 Urania, (1854.) He wrote several works, among which 
 is " The Solar System : a Descriptive Treatise on the 
 Sun, Moon, and Planets," (1852.) 
 
 Hind'man, (Thomas C.,) an American general, born 
 in Tennessee about 1818. He lived in Arkansas before 
 the civil war, and was a member of Congress. He com- 
 manded the rebel forces at Prairie Grove, Arkansas, in 
 December, 1862, and served as major-general at the 
 battle of Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. 
 
 Hinojosa y Carbajal, e-no-H5'sa e kaK-na-iial', 
 (Alvaro DE,) a Spanish poet, who lived about 1620. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Hinrichs, hin'riKs, ( Hermann Friedrich Wil- 
 helm,) a German philosopher, born in Oldenburg in 
 1794, published "The Genesis of Science," ("Genesis 
 des Wissens," 1835,) and other works. 
 
 Hin'ton, (John Howard,) an English writer on his- 
 tory and theology; was born probably about 1800. He 
 became minister of a Baptist congregation in Devon- 
 shire Square, London. He published, besides other 
 works, "The History and Topography of the United 
 States of North America," (2 vols., 1832.) 
 
 Hiob, the German of Job, which see. 
 
 Hiooen- or Hiouen-Thsang or Youen-Thsang, 
 yoo'en-tsang, a celebrated Chinese traveller and priest 
 of Booddha, was born about 602 a.d. He travelled 
 in Hinciostan and other countries, of which he wrote de- 
 scriptions. He translated into the Chinese many Hindoo 
 works on the religion of Booddha. Died in 664 A.D. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Hip-par'-ehus, [ Gr. 'Ijnzapxoc; Fr. Hipparque, 
 e'piRk',] son of Pisistratus, an Athenian, who, in part- 
 nership with his brother Hippias, obtained the chief 
 power in the state in 527 B.C. He was assassinated by 
 Harmodius and Aristogiton in 514. Hippias survived; 
 but, having rendered himself unpopular by cruelty and 
 suspicious habits, (although it is said he was previously 
 mild and affable,) he was expelled from Athens in 511. 
 He afterwards passed many years at the court of the 
 Persian king Darius, served as guide to the Persian 
 army which invaded Greece, and was at the battle of 
 Marathon, where, according to some writers, he was 
 killed, 490 B.C. 
 
 See Herodotus, books ii., v., vi., and vii. ; Thirlwall, "His- 
 tory of Greece." 
 
 Hipparchus, [Gr. "l777rap,voc; Fr. Hipparque; It. 
 IpPARCOf ep-paR'ko,] the founder of the science of as- 
 tronomy, and the greatest astronomer of antiquity, was a 
 native of Nicaea, in Bithynia. He was of Greek extrac- 
 tion, and flourished about 150 B.C. Many of his obser- 
 vations were made at Rhodes. His writings are all lost, 
 except a "Commentary on Aratus," which is the least 
 important ; but the knowledge of his discoveries has been 
 preserved by Ptolemy in his " Syntaxis." The first who 
 made systematic observations, he was also the first who 
 discovered that fundamental fact in astronomy, — the 
 precession of the equinoxes. A discovery so important 
 would have sufficed to immortalize him ; but he also 
 greatly enriched the science of mathematics, and was 
 the first who understood trigonometry, both plane and 
 spherical. He invented the planisphere and the stereo- 
 graphic projection, and gave rules for the calculation of 
 eclipses, by means of which he determined the longitude. 
 According to Pliny, who calls him the confidant and 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
HIPPARCHUS 
 
 1 191 
 
 HIPPONAX 
 
 V 
 
 interpreter of nature, Hipparchus, having perceived a 
 new star that suddenly appeared in his time, was stimu- 
 lated by it to form his Catalogue of one thousand and 
 ghty stars, which is preserved in the " Almagest" of 
 lolciny. In this operation he used the astrolabe, which 
 was probably invented by him. He originated a more 
 complete system of geography, and the mode of de- 
 termining the position of towns by circles drawn on 
 the earth corresponding to those of the celestial sphere. 
 Among his lost works were "On the Magnitudes and 
 Distances of the Sun and Moon," "The Movement of 
 the Moon in Latitude," and "On the Retrogradatipn of 
 the Equinoctial and Solstitial Points." 
 
 See Pliny, "Natural History;" Montucla, "Hisioire des 
 Mathetliatiquefl :" Uelambre, " Hisioire de rAstronomieancienne;" 
 Dr. HoKPKK's nrticle in the " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale ;" J. 
 A. Schmidt, " Ihssertatio de Hipparcho," etc., i6Sq. 
 
 Hipparchus, an Athenian comic poet, who lived 
 probably about 300 B.C. 
 
 Hipparque. See Hipparchus. 
 
 Hip'pa-sus, [Or. 'Imraooc,] a Pythagorean philoso- 
 pher, bum at Metapontum, held, it is said, the doctrine 
 that fire was the origin of all things. 
 
 Hippeau, e'po', (Cei.estin,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Niort in 1803, published, besides other works, a 
 "History of Ancient and Modern Philosophy," (1833.) 
 
 Hippel, von, fon hip'pel, (Tiieodor GOTTLIEB,) a 
 German humorist and original thinker, born at Gerdauen, 
 in Prussia, in 1741. He studied law, and became in 1780 
 burgomaster of Kbnigsberg. He claimed for women 
 admission to civil offices and a greater social equality. 
 Among his works are a " Treatise on Marriage," (" Ueber 
 die Ehe," 1774,) "Designs after Nature," (1790,) an Au- 
 tobiography, (1800,) and "The Education of Women," 
 (1801.) His character was eccentric. Died in 1796. 
 
 See Gervinus, " Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtunj*," fourth edi- 
 tion, vol. v. ; W. G. Keber, " Nachrichten uud Bemerkungeu dell 
 geheimen Kriegsrath von Hippel betretTend," 1802 ; " Biographie T. 
 G. von Hippel's zum Theil von Una selbst verfasst," 1800. 
 
 Hippias. See Hipparchus and Harmodius. 
 
 Hip'pl-as, ['linriac,] a Greek sophist, born at Elis, 
 was a contemporary of Socrates. His character is ex- 
 hibited by Plato in his dialogue called " Hippias Major." 
 
 Hip'pis-ley or Hippesley, (Sir John Coxe,) an 
 Englishman, bom in Somersetshire in 1765, was returned 
 to Parliament about 1790. He wrote a "Treatise on 
 Prison Discipline," (1823.) Died in 1825. 
 
 Hip'po or Hip'pon, [Tjnrw,] a Greek philosopher, 
 who is supposed to have lived in the fifth century B.C., 
 and to have been a native of Samos, or of Rhegium. He 
 held that moisture, or water, is the principle of all things, 
 and derived much of his system from Thales. 
 
 See Brucker, " History of Philosophy." 
 
 Hippocrate. Se»- H 1 ppocr ates. 
 
 Hip-poc'ra-tei, [Gr. 'Imro/cpunfc ; Fr. Hippocrate, 
 eV/kkaV ; It'. I ppocr ATE, ep-pok'Ra-ta,] the most emi- 
 nent physician of aiiticjuity, justly styled the " Father of 
 Medicine," was born in the island of Cos in 460 B.C., 
 and was contemporary with Socrates and Plato. He was 
 the son of Heraclides, a descendant of Esculapius, from 
 whom he derived his first lessons in medicine. His 
 family, the Asclepiadae, for many generations had prac- 
 tised the same art. The materials for writing his per- 
 sonal history are deficient. He is said to have studied 
 medicine at Athens under Herodicus, and to have learned 
 philosophy of Gorgias of Leontini, after which he prac- 
 tised and taught In Cos, also in Thessaly, and at the court 
 of Perdiccas, King of Macedonia, etc Soranus relates 
 that he acquired fame by checking the ravages of the 
 plague in Athens, and was rewarded with the Ireedom 
 of that city, and with other honours. The story that 
 he refused' the invitation and magnificent offers of Ar- 
 taxerxes, is by some discredited. 
 
 His superior talents, his rare sagacity, his signal sur- 
 cess, and his devoted humanity, inspired universal con- 
 fidence and respect. He had a great numlier of pupils, 
 from whom he exacted an oath that they would never 
 abuse their trust by criminal practice, nor divulge pro- 
 nal secrets. He held that the bodvis composed 
 of four primary elements, fire, air, earth, and water, 
 which produce the four cardinal humours, blood, phlegm, 
 bile, and black bile, lie knew but little of anatomy. 
 
 He carried forward the reform begun by his ancestors, 
 in substituting experiment and observation for specula- 
 tive theories. He paid more attention than pis prede- 
 cessors to diet and changes of weather. Among the 
 most remarkable of his discoveries is that of critical days 
 in fevers. Of the numerous (Greek) works ascribed to 
 him, it is probable that some were composed by other 
 writers, as there were several noted physicians of the 
 same name. He died at Larissa, at an age which is 
 variously stated between eighty-five and one hundred 
 and nine years. As an inventor he is unrivalled by 
 any physician of ancient or modem times. Among his 
 chief works are " Prognostics," " Epidemics,"' " Apho- 
 risms," and "On Air, Water, and Locality." 
 
 See Soranus, "Vila Hippocratis," in Fabricius, " Bibliotheea 
 Grxca ;" Boerhaavk, " De Studio Hippocratis," 1721 ; A. de Hal- 
 ler. "Bibliotheea Medico-practica," 1776; G. Cramkk. "Disscr 
 talion sur Hippocrate," 1748; Houcluros, " Essai historique et 
 critique sur la Vie et les Ecrits d'Hippocrate," 1840; G. Sprengkl, 
 "Apoloziecles Hippocrates mid seiner Grundsatze," 2 vols., 17X9- 
 92: C. P. Gesnkr, "De Divino Hippocrate," 1739: Karl F. Mar- 
 cus, " Dissertatio de Vita Hippocratis," 1838 ; A. Oettingek, 
 "Hippocratis Vita," 1836. 
 
 Hippocrates, a Syracusan, shared with his brother 
 Epicydes the command of the army which defended 
 Syracuse against Marcellus, 213 B.C. Died in. 213 B.C. 
 
 Hippocrates of Chios, a noted Greek geometer, 
 who lived in the fifth century before Christ. He studied 
 at Athens, where he opened a celebrated school. He 
 first discovered the quadrature of the lime. 
 
 Hip-po-da-mi'a JGr. 'l-Kodufieia] or Hip-pod'a-me, 
 a daughter of CENOMAVS, which see. 
 
 Hip-pod'a-mus ['iTnroAafioc:] of Miletus, an emi- 
 nent Greek architect, lived about 440 B.C. He built 
 the Piraeus of Athens, under the order of Pericles, and 
 planned the city of Rhodes, about 408 B.C. 
 
 Hippolyte. See Hippolytus. 
 
 Hip-pol'y-te, |'In-n-o/ttm?,] the Queen of the Amazons, 
 was called a daughter of Mars. The poets feigned that 
 she had a girdle coveted by Eurystheus, who ordered 
 Hercules to bring it to him. She was killed by Hercules. 
 
 Hip-pol'^-tus, [Fr. Hippolyte, e'po'let'; It. Ippo- 
 lito, ep-pol'e-to, ] Saint, a Christian martyr and 
 ecclesiastical writer, who has recently attracted great 
 attention on the part of scholars and theologians. He 
 was Bishop of Portus Romanus, the harbour of. Rome, 
 and the author of numerous learned works, highly ex- 
 tolled by Eusebius, Jerome, and other Christian Fathers. 
 After occupying the see of Portus Romanus eighteen 
 years or more, he suffered martyrdom about 238 A.D. 
 
 In 1842 M. Minas found at Mount Athos a Greek 
 manuscript on "Heresies," which, at first ascribed to 
 Origen, was proved by Bunsen to be the lost work of 
 Hippolytus, entitled a "Refutation of all the Heresies." 
 This is a work of great interest and importance as a 
 monument of the social state, intellectual improvement, 
 and doctrinal belief of the Christians of the third cen- 
 tury. Bunsen published in 1852, in English, " Hippoly- 
 tus and his Age ; or. The Doctrine and Practice of the 
 Church of Rome under C,ommodus and A. Severus, and 
 Ancient and Modern Christianity Compared," (in 4 vols.) 
 
 See Eusebius, "Hisioria Eedesiastica ;" Saint Jerome, " De 
 Viribusillustribus;" Baronius "Annales;" Cave, "Historia Lite- 
 raria;" C. Wordsworth, "Saint Hippolylus and the Church of 
 Koine." etc., 1853; Dollingek, " Hippolytus uud Kallistus," 1853; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1853. 
 
 Hippolytus, [ iw7roAuTOf ,] a son of Theseus and Hip- 
 polyte, or Antiope. The poets relate that his step- 
 mother Phaedra made to him amorous overtures which 
 he rejected, that she then by calumny induced Theseus 
 to curse him, and that, at the request of Theseus, Nep- 
 tune caused the horses of Hippolytus to become unruly, 
 and to drag him until he was dead. 
 
 Hip-pom'e-don, ['l7nro/iE(k>i', | a Spartan warrior, 
 was a son of Agesilaus, and a cousin of King Agis IV. 
 II. supported Agis in his efforts to refoim the Spartan 
 institutions. He was living in 220 B.C. 
 
 Hip-po'na, the name of a goddess who presided over 
 hone*. Her' statues were placed in stables. 
 
 Hip'po-nax, ['ljr7r<iia|,| a Greek poet, who lived 
 
 aliout 540 B.C., was a native of Ephcsus. Having been 
 
 expelled from that city by its tyrants, he removed to 
 
 I < la/.omene. He wrote satires, ot which only a few frag- 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; c, H, v.,guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; \ as «; 4h as in this, (^f See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HIRAM 
 
 1192 
 
 HJjERNE 
 
 ineiits now remain. He was the first who employed the 
 modification of the Iambic metre termed Choliambic. 
 
 Hi'ram, King of Tyre, began to reign about 1025 B.C. 
 He was contemporary with David and Solomon, with 
 whom he formed an alliance and always maintained 
 friendly relations. He was a wise and successful ruler. 
 
 See 1. Kings v., and I. Chronicles xiv. 
 
 Hiranyakasipu. See Narasingha. 
 
 Hire, de la. See La Hire. 
 
 Hiinheim, htTgRn'him, or Hernhaym, heRn'hlm, 
 (Hieronymus,) a German monk and writer, born at 
 Troppau in 1635; died in 1679. 
 
 Hirsch, he"eRsh, (Johann Christoph,) a German 
 economist and numismatist, born in 1698; died in 1780. 
 
 Hirscher, h&Rsh'er, (Johann Baptist,) a Swiss 
 Catholic theologian, born near Altorf in 1788. His prin- 
 cipal work is "Christian Morality," ("Christliche Mo- 
 ral," 3 vols., 5th edition, 1851.) 
 
 Hirschiiig, heSRsh'ing, (Friedrich Karl Gottlob,) 
 a German antiquary, born at UfTenheim in 1762, became 
 professor of philosophy at Erlangen in 1792. He pub- 
 lished several useful works, among which are a "De- 
 scription of the Best Libraries of Germany," (4 vols., 
 1790,) and a "Historical and Literary Manual of Emi- 
 nent Persons who died in the Eighteenth Century," 
 (" Historisch-literarisches Handbuch beriih inter Perso- 
 nen," etc., 1794-1815, 17 vols.) The last 12 volumes of 
 this were edited by J. H. M. Ernesti. Died in 1800. 
 
 See Ersch und Grubkr, "Allgeineine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hirschvogel, hetRsh'fo'gel, (Augustin,) a German 
 painter and engraver, born at Nuremberg in 1506 ; died 
 in 1560. 
 
 Hirst, (Henry B.,) an American poet, born in Phila- 
 delphia in 1813. He studied law, and was admitted to 
 the bar in 1843. His first poems appeared in "Graham's 
 Magazine," and were favourably received. He after- 
 wards published "The Coming of the Mammoth, the 
 Funeral of Time, and other Poems," (1845,) and " Endy- 
 mion, a Tale of Greece, in four cantos," (1848.) 
 
 Hirt, heSRt, (Aloys,) a German antiquary and critic, 
 born in Baden in 1759. He published "Architecture 
 according to the Principles of the Ancients," (1809,) and 
 other works. Died in 1836. 
 
 HirtorHirth, (Johann Friedrich,) a German Orien- 
 talist and writer, born at Apolda in 1 719, was professor 
 of theology at Jena. Died in 1784. 
 
 Hirtius, hir'she-us, (Aulus,) a Roman consul and gen- 
 eral, was a patrician by birth. Cicero, who was his inti- 
 mate friend, speaks highly of his talents. He served 
 under Caesar in the Gallic war, and supported his party 
 in the civil war. After the death of Caesar, Hirtius 
 joined Brutus against Antony, and was elected consul 
 with C. Vibius Pansa. In 43 B.C. these consuls gained 
 a victory over Antony at Mutina, (Modena;) but Hirtius 
 was killed in the action. He is supposed to be the 
 author of the continuation of " Caesar's Commentaries" 
 which forms the eighth book of the "Gallic War," and 
 also of two other treatises on the campaigns of Caesar, 
 viz., the Alexandrian and the African. 
 
 See Cicero, " Philippics;" Dion Cassius, books xliv., xlv., xlvi. ; 
 Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis;" Niebuhh, "Lectures on Roman 
 History." 
 
 Hirzel, heTJRt'sel, (Bernhard,) a Swiss Orientalist, 
 born at Zurich in 1807, translated the "Sakuntala" of 
 Kalidiisa from the Sanscrit into German. Died in 1847. 
 
 Hirzel, (Hans Caspar,) a Swiss physician and sen- 
 ator, born at Zurich in 1725, wrote a "Treatise on Rural 
 Economy," and "The Rustic Socrates," (1761-74.) Died 
 in 1803. 
 
 Hisely, hez'le', (Jean Joseph,) a Swiss historian, 
 born in 1800, wrote, in French, " Researches on William 
 Tell," (1843,) a "d other works on Swiss history. 
 
 Hisham. See HeshAm. 
 
 Hisinger, hee'sing-er, or Hising, hee'sing, (Wil- 
 helm,) a Swedish mineralogist, born in 1766, published, 
 besides other works, " Lethea Suecica, seu petrificata 
 Sueciae," (1837-40.) Died in 1852. 
 
 Hiatiaeus, his-te-ee'us, [Gr. 'Iotuuoc ; Fr. Histiee, 
 es'te'i',) an able and crafty ruler of Miletus, to whom 
 Darius intrusted the duty of guarding a bridge over the 
 Danube during his invasion of Scythia, about 512 B.C. 
 
 He refnsed to desert Darius at the instigation cf Mil- 
 tiades ; but he afterwards revolted, and was put to death 
 by the Persians about 494 B.C. 
 
 Histiee. See Histi/eus. 
 
 Hita, de, da ee'ta, (Gines Perez,) a Spanish chroni- 
 cler, born in Murcia, lived between 1550 and 1600. He 
 wrote an interesting work, entitled "The Civil Wars of 
 Granada." 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Hitch'cock, (Edward,) an eminent American geol- 
 ogist, born at Deerfield, Massachusetts, May 24, 1793. 
 He became pastor of the Congregational church in Con- 
 way, Massachusetts, in 1821, and professor of chemistry 
 and natural history in Amherst College in 1825. In 1840 
 he published his "Elementaiy Geology," a valuable 
 work, which passed through twenty-five or more edi- 
 tiohs. From 1845 to 1854 he was president of Amherst 
 College, the prosperity of which increased greatly under 
 his direction. He became about 1845 professor of natu- 
 ral theology and geology in that institution. Having 
 been appointed State geologist for Massachusetts, he 
 made a geological survey of that State, and wrote 
 " Reports on the Geology of Massachusetts," (1S33-41.) 
 Among his numerous works are "The Geology of the 
 Connecticut Valley," (1823,) "The Religion of Geology 
 and its Connected Sciences," (1851,) and "Illustrations 
 of Surface-Geology," (1857.) By his exposition of the 
 fossil footprints of the Connecticut valley he originated 
 a new branch of science, called Ichnology. He published 
 in 1848 " Fossil Footprints in the United States." He 
 was the chief founder and first president of the American 
 Geological Association. Died in 1864. 
 
 See " Si'.hman's Journal," vol. xli. ; " North British Review" for 
 February, i860. 
 
 Hitchcock, (Ethan Allen,) an American writer and 
 military officer, a grandson of Ethan Allen, was born in 
 Vergennes, Vermont, in 1798. He graduated at West 
 Point in i8i7,and served in the Seminole war in Florida. 
 In the war with Mexico he was attached to the staff of 
 General Scott, and in 1847 promoted to the rank of 
 brigadier-general. He was subsequently sent to Cali- 
 fornia, as commandant of the Pacific division, but- he 
 returned in 1854, and the next year resigned his com- 
 mission. He wrote "Swedenborg a Hermetic Philo- 
 sopher," (1858.) Died in 1870. 
 
 Hitchcock, (Peter,) an American jurist, born in 
 Cheshire, Connecticut, in 1780, graduated at Yale in 
 1801. He represented a district of Ohio in Congress 
 from 1817 to 1819, and was subsequently judge of the 
 supreme court of the State for twenty-eight years, for 
 six years of which period he was chief justice. Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 Hittorf, hit'toRf or /;e'toRf , (Jagques Ignace,) an emi- 
 nent architect and antiquary, born at Cologne in 1793, 
 was a pupil of Belanger. He was appointed architect to 
 the King of France in 1818, after which he visited Italy. 
 He commenced about 1834 the church of Saint Vincent 
 de Paul, (in the Italian style,) and designed the remark- 
 able works of the Place de Concorde. Among his capital 
 works are the Grand Circus, (1840,) the Panorama, the 
 roof of which is supported by twelve iron cables, and 
 the Cirque-Napoleon, (1851.) M. Hittorf acquired a 
 European reputation by these structures, and by his 
 writings on classical art, namely, "Polychromic Archi- 
 tecture of the Greeks," (1830,) "Modern Architecture 
 of Sicily," (1837,) and "Ancient Architecture of Sicily." 
 He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1867. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G&ieYale." 
 
 Hitzig, hit'sic, (Ferdinand,) a German biblical critic, 
 born in Baden in 1807. He became professor of theology 
 at Zurich in 1833. '^' s principal works are a " Transla- 
 tion and Exposition of Isaiah," (1833,) and commentaries 
 on the other greater prophets, (1841-50.) 
 
 Hjaeroe or Hiaeme, he-eVneh, (Urban,) a Swedish 
 physician and naturalist, born in 1641, became first phy- 
 sician to the king Carl XI., and vice-president of the 
 Council of Mines. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "Acta et Tentatnina chintica," (" Chemical Experiments," 
 1712,) and " Oryctographia Suecana," (1716.) Died in 
 1724. 
 
 See " Biographiskt-Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 a, e, T, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nflt; good : moon; 
 
HJELM 
 
 i»93 
 
 HOBBES 
 
 Hjelm, he-ein>', (Peter Jacob,) a Swedish mineralo- 
 gist, born at Wexio in 1746, was president of the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences. Died in 1813. 
 
 fijort, he-oRt' or hyoRt, (Peder,) a Danish gram- 
 marian, born near Copenhagen in 1793. After an ex- 
 tensive tour in France and Italy, he became professor 
 of German at Sorde. He wrote several successful works 
 on grammar, among which are "Tydsk Grammatik for 
 Dansktalende," ("German Grammar for the Use of 
 Danes," 5th edition, 1851,)" Tydsk Lasebog for Dansk- 
 talende," (" German Reader for the Use of Danes," 3d 
 edition, 1843,) a,, d "Den Danske Bdrneven," ("The 
 Danish Child's Friend," 6th edition, 1852.) 
 
 Hlin, hleen, Hlina, hlee'na, or Lyna, lee'na, [sup- 
 posed to be derived from hlyna, to " warm" or " become 
 warm,' ] in the Northern mythology, a goddess, whose 
 office it is to watch over those whom Frigga wishes to 
 guard from peril. As Frigga represents the earth's 
 fertility, so Hlin typifies the mild warmth which protects 
 the tender plants from the breath of the Frost-giants. 
 
 Hlodyii, hlo'din, [in all probability the same as Hlu- 
 dana, the Latin name of a deity of the ancient Germans,] 
 in the Norse mythology, the mother of Thor, and prob- 
 ably another name for Fiorgyn or Fiorgvin, (also called 
 the mother of Thor,) the goddess of the earth. Thorpe 
 derives it from /i/aHa, (allied to the English "lade" and 
 "load,") to "heap up," to "load." Fiorgynn (as a mas- 
 culine noun) was said to be the father of Frigga. 
 
 See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 21 and 170. 
 
 Hlubek, hloo'Wk, (Franz Xaver Wii.hf.i.m,) a Ger- 
 man writer on rural economy, born in Silesia in 1802. His 
 principal works are " The Nutrition of Plants and Statics 
 of Agriculture," (1841,) and a "Complete Treatise on 
 Rural Economy," (2 vols., 1846.) 
 
 Hoad'ley or Hoadly, (Benjamin,) an English divine, 
 bom at Westerham in 1676, took orders about 1700. 
 His zeal for religious liberty and opposition to the High- 
 Church principles caused his promotion in 1715 tothesee 
 of Bangor. In 1717 he preached a sermon before the king, 
 from which arose the great Bangorian controversy. This 
 was maintained by Snape, Law, and other partisans of 
 the High Church on one hand, and Hoadley on the other. 
 He was made Bishop of Hereford in 1721, and of Win- 
 chester in 1734. He wrote a "Life of Dr. Samuel 
 Clarke," and a few other works. Died in 1 761. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Hoadley, (Benjamin,) M.D., eldest son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in London in 1705, and graduated in 
 1729. In 1742 he was appointed physician to the king's 
 household, and in 1746 to that of the Prince of Wales. 
 He wrote "The Suspicious Husband," a comedy, which 
 was successful, and assisted Hogarth in the "Analysis 
 of Beauty." Died in 1757. 
 
 Hoadley, (Rev. John,) LL.D., brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was bom in 171 1. He took orders in 1735, 
 and obtained the livings of Wrington, Alresford, etc. 
 He wrote several short poems and dramas. Died in 
 1776. 
 
 Hoar, (Ei.KNKZER Rockwood,) an able lawyer, the 
 son of Samuel Hoar, noticed below, was born at Con- 
 cord, Massachusetts, in 1816. His mother was a daugh- 
 ter of the celebrated Roger Sherman. He graduated at 
 Harvard in 1835, studied law, was admitted to the bar 
 about 1840, and practised in Boston. In 1859 he was 
 appointed a justice of the supreme court of Massa- 
 chusetts, and attorney-general of the United States in 
 March, 1869. 
 
 Hoar, (Samuel,) a lawyer, born at Lincoln, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1778, was the father of the preceding. He 
 was sent by the Governor of Massachusetts to South 
 Carolina in 1844, to protect the rights of certain free 
 sailors who had been imprisoned In Charleston; 
 but he was driven from that city by a mob before he 
 could perform his mission. Died in 1856. 
 
 Hoare, (Prince,) an English artist and dramatist, 
 born at Bath in 1754, was the son of William Hoare, 
 noticed below. He studied painting at Rome, and in 
 1799 was chosen foreign secretary of the Rival Acad- 
 emy. He is chiefly known as the author ol tamas. as 
 "No Song, No Supper," " Lock and Key," eic. Died 
 i" 1S34. 
 
 Hoare, (Sir Richard Colt,) a noted English anti- 
 quary, born in 1758, married in 17S3 the daughter of 
 Lord Lyttleton, and inherited the title of baronet in 1787. 
 He gained distinction as a topographer and antiquarian 
 by his " Ancient and Modern History of Wiltshire," and 
 wrote several other works. Died in 1838. 
 
 Hoare, (William,) R.A., an English historical and 
 portrait painter, born at Bath about 1706. He was one 
 of the original members of the Royal Academy. After 
 studying many years at Rome, he returned to Bath, and 
 worked with great success, especially in portraits. Died 
 .in 1792. 
 
 Ho'bart, (Sir Henry,) was lord chief justice of the 
 court of common pleas in the reign of James I. "Ho- 
 bart's Reports" (1641) have been often reprinted. 
 
 Ho'bart, (John Henry,) D.D., born in Philadelphia 
 in 1775, was ordained in 1798. He was successively 
 pastor at New Brunswick, Hempstead, and Trinity 
 Church, New York, and was chosen Bishop of New 
 York in 1816. He published numerous theological 
 works. Died In 1830. 
 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Hobbemaor Hobbima, hob'be-ma, (Minderhout; 
 Ger. Meindekt; Fr. Minard,) an excellent Flemish 
 landscape-painter, was born probably at Coevorden about 
 1610. Little is known of his personal history. His 
 favourite subjects were simple rural and sylvan scenes 
 diversified by a winding stream, a ruined tower, or a dis- 
 tant village. He excelled in perspective and colouring. 
 His works are rare, and command very high prices. 
 About fifteen thousand dollars has been offered for one. 
 
 See Pilkington's "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Hobbes, h6bz, (Thomas,) a famous English philos- 
 opher, born at Malmesbury in 1588. As tutor in the 
 family of the Earl of Devonshire, he travelled several 
 times on the continent with his pupils, and became ac- 
 quainted with Gassendi, Descartes, etc. In 1628 he pub- 
 lished a Latin translation of Thucydides, and in 1642 
 a treatise on government, — "Elementa Philosophica de 
 Cive." He was a royalist in the civil war, and an ad- 
 vocate of unconditional obedience to the king. In 1647 
 he was mathematical tutor to the Prince of Wales, 
 (Charles II.,) then in Paris. His treatise on "Human 
 Nature" (1650) was followed by the " Leviathan," (a 
 complete system of his philosophy, including his politi- 
 cal, moral, and theological views,) which made a great 
 sensation, and gave offence to theologians, and — though 
 it was hostile to liberal principles — even to the royalists. 
 In 1666" this work and his "De Cive" were censured by 
 Parliament. Soon after the restoration, he received a 
 pension of one hundred pounds. His paradoxical opin- 
 ions were warmly controverted by Cudworth, Clarendon, 
 and others. In 1675 he published a translation in verse 
 of the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey," which drew from 
 Pope the assertion that "his poetry is too mean for 
 criticism." In his old •age, which was passed at the 
 seat of his patron, the Earl of Devonshire, he published 
 a "History of the Civil War from 1640 to 1660," and 
 other works. "A permanent foundation of his fame," 
 says Mackintosh, "consists in his admirable style, which 
 seems to be the very perfection of didactic language. 
 Short, clear, precise, pithy, his language never has more 
 than one meaning, which never requires a second 
 thought to find. . . . His little tract on 'Human Na- 
 ture' has scarcely an ambiguous or a needless word. . . , 
 Perhaps no writer of any age or nation, on subjects so 
 abstruse, has manifested an equal power of engraving 
 his thoughts on the mind of Mb readers. . . . Hisstyleso 
 stimulates attention that it never tires, and, to those who 
 are acquainted with the subject, appears to have as much 
 spirit as can be safelv blended with reason." In another 
 place he says, " Hobbes having thus struck affections out 
 of his map of human nature, and having totally misunder- 
 stood (as will appear in a succeeding part of tins disserta- 
 tion) the nature even of the appetites, it is no wonder that 
 we should find in it not a trace of the mural sentiments/' 
 "HobbeS," says Macaulay, "had, in language more pre- 
 cise and luminous than has ever been employed by any 
 other metaphysical writer, maintained that the will of 
 the prince was the standard of right and wrong. . . . 
 Thousands eagerly welcomed a theory which, while it 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. ({jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HOB HOUSE 
 
 J194 
 
 HODT 
 
 exalted the kingly office, relaxed the obligations of mo- 
 rality, and degraded religion into a mere affair of state." 
 ("History of England," vol. i. chap, ii.) 
 
 " Hobbes's politics," says Hume, in his " History of 
 England," " are fitted only to promote tyranny, and his 
 ethics to encourage licentiousness. Though an enemy 
 to religion, he partakes nothing of the spirit of skepticism, 
 but is as positive and dogmatical as if human reason 
 could attain a thorough conviction in these subjects." 
 He lived, however, in formal communion with the An- 
 glican Church. Died in 1679. 
 
 See " Vita Thomae Hobbes," in Latin verse, by himself, 1679 ; 
 44 Life of Hobbes," by Richard Blackburne, 1681 ; 4t Biographia 
 Britannica;" Life prefixed to Wood's 4 ' Annals;" Brucker, "His 
 tory of Philosophy;" Mackintosh, 4i View of the Progress of Ethi- 
 cal Philosophy;" Allibone, ''Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Hob'house, (Sir Benjamin,) M.P., an English states- 
 man, born in 1757, was a prominent member of the House 
 of Commons from 1797 to 1818, held several civil offices, 
 and was attached to the party of Fox. He wrote a 
 14 Treatise on Heresy," and " Remarks on France and 
 Italy." Died in 1831. 
 
 Hobhouse, (John Cam,) Lord Broughton, an Eng- 
 lish statesman and writer, born in 1786, was a son of the 
 preceding. He became intimate at college with Lord 
 Byron, in company with whom he visited Spain, Greece, 
 and Turkey in 1809. He published in 1812 44 A Journey 
 through Albania, and other Provinces of Turkey, with 
 Lord Byron,'" which is the best account of that country, 
 and, in 1816, •' Letters on the Hundred Days, or Last 
 Reign of Napoleon," (in 2 vols.) 'He was elected to Par- 
 liament by the Radicals or Liberals of Westminster in 
 1819, and obtained some success as a speaker. In 1831 
 he became secretary of war in the Whig ministry. He 
 was appointed secretary of state for Ireland in 1833, and 
 was president of the board of control from 1846 to 1851. 
 Died in June, 1869. 
 
 See 44 London Quarterly Review" for October, 1813. 
 
 Hoc'cleve or Oc'cleve, (Thomas,) an early English 
 poet and lawyer, is supposed to have been born about 
 1370. He wrote "The Story of Jonathan," and other 
 poems. " His poetry," says Hallam, "abounds with 
 pedantry, and is destitute of all grace and spirit." 
 
 Hoche, zS6sh or /;osh, (Lazare,) a French general, who 
 rose from a very humble rank in society, was born at 
 Montreuil, near Paris, in 1768, and entered the French 
 guards at the age of sixteen. He favoured the Revolu- 
 tion of 1789, and was made a lieutenant in 1792. Hav- 
 ing studied tactics, and served with credit at Thionville, 
 Dunkirk, etc., he became in a short time successively 
 general of brigade and general of division, and at the 
 age of twenty-four commanded the army of the Moselle. 
 In 1793 he defeated Wurmser and drove him out of Al- 
 sace, soon after which he was arrested by the Jacobin 
 leader Saint-Just and imprisoned at Paris. The fall of 
 Robespierre in 1794 restored him to liberty and com- 
 mand. Employed to subdue the royalists of La Vendee, 
 he effected much by his address and moderation, and in 
 1795 defeated the enemy at Quiberon. In 1797, com- 
 manding the army of the Sambre and Meuse, he opened 
 the campaign against the Austrians by a daring passage 
 of the Rhine in their presence, and defeated them in 
 several actions. In the contest between the Directory 
 and the Legislative Councils, Hoche favoured the former, 
 who invoked the aid of his army, but soon issued counter- 
 orders and employed another in the service. He died, 
 of poison, (as was suspected,) in 1797. He was one of 
 the noblest spirits and ablest generals that the Revo- 
 lution produced, and, if he had lived, might have been a 
 formidable rival of Bonaparte. 
 
 SeeDAUNOu, " filoge du General Hoche," 1798; Privat, " Notes 
 historiques sur la Vie du General Hoche," 1798; Rousselw, "Vie 
 de Lazare Hoche," 1798; "Vie et Pens^es du General Hoche," 
 Berne; Champrobert, " Notice historique sur Lazare Hoche," 
 1840; DoURiLi.E, " Histoire de Lazare Hoche," 1844; J. J. Abel, 
 "Geschichte der Kraukheit und des Todes des Obeigenerals L. 
 Hoche," 1798. 
 
 Hochstetter, hoK'steYter, (Andreas Adam,) a Ger- 
 man Protestant divine, born at Tubingen in 1688; died 
 in 1717. 
 
 Hocquincourt, d\ do'kaN'kooR', (Chari.es de 
 Monchy,) born in Picardy in 1599, became marshal of 
 
 France in 165 1, and commanded the royal army which 
 was defeated by the Prince of Conde in 1652. He'de- 
 serted to the Spaniards, and was killed at Dunkirk in 1658. 
 
 Ho'der, Ho'dur, (HoSr,) or Hod, written also 
 Hoder, the blind god in the Norse mythology. Through 
 the cunning malice of Loki, he became the slayer of his 
 brother Balder, whose death Vali avenged by killing 
 Hoder. (See Balder, and Vali.) 
 
 Hodge, (Charles,) D.D., an eminent American 
 theologian, born in Philadelphia in 1797. He graduated 
 at Princeton in 1815, and studied divinity at the Princeton 
 Theological Seminary, in which he became professor of 
 Oriental and Biblical literature in 1822. In 1840 he suc- 
 ceeded to the chair of didactic and exegetical theology, 
 and in 1852 added to it the professorship of polemic 
 theology. In 1825 Dr. Hodge established, and, with but 
 one brief interruption, has since edited, the " Biblical 
 Repertory and Princeton Review." It is now the oldest 
 theological quarterly in America. It was the chief organ 
 of the Old-School division of the Presbyterian Church. 
 Two volumes of his contributions to this " Review," en- 
 titled " Princeton Theological Essays," were published 
 in 1846-47, and a third volume, " Reviews and Essays," 
 in 1857. 
 
 Hodges, h&j'ez, (Nathaniel,) an English physician, 
 who practised in London, and gained distinction by his 
 faithful services during the great plague of 1665, when the 
 most of the doctors fled from the danger. He wrote, in 
 Latin, an account of this calamity, (1672.) He died in 
 prison for debt in 1684 
 
 Hodges, (William,) R.A., an English painter, born 
 in London about 1744. He painted landscapes with 
 moderate success, and was employed as draughtsman 
 in Captain Cook's second voyage, (1772.) He after- 
 wards visited India and painted some Indian views. He 
 published " Select Views in India," (2 vols., 1788,) and 
 44 Travels in India in 1780-83," (1793.) Died in 1797. 
 
 H6dg'kin-son, (Eaton,) born at Anderton, Cheshire, 
 in 1789, is distinguished for his researches respecting the 
 strength of iron pillars, rails, etc. He discovered that 
 an iron rail in the form of an inverted letter T will sup- 
 port a greater pressure than any other. From numerous 
 experiments he derived formula; for solid and hollow 
 iron pillars, which are generally adopted. He co- 
 operated with Mr. Stephenson in the construction of the 
 tubular Britannia bridge about 1845. He wrote several 
 valuable treatises on the strength of iron and other ma- 
 terials used in building. Died in 1861. 
 
 HSdg'son, (Francis,) an English poet, born in 1781, 
 was a friend of Lord Byron, and provost of Eton College. 
 He produced a version of Juvenal, (1808,) "Sacred 
 Lyrics," (1842,) and other poems. Died in 1852. 
 
 Hodgson, (Rev. John,) an English antiquary, pub- 
 lished a " History of Northumberland," (vol. i., 1827 ; 
 vol. iii., 1S41.) Died in 1845. 
 
 Hodgson, (Robert,) an English divine, was a nephew 
 of Bishop Porteus. He became Dean of Carlisle in 1820. 
 He published, besides numerous sermons, a " Life of 
 Bishop Porteus," (1811,) and edited the works of Porteus, 
 (6 vols., 1816.) Died in 1844. 
 
 Hodierna, o-de-eVna, or Adierna, a-de-eVna, (Gr- 
 amisattista,) a Sicilian astronomer and priest, born at 
 Ragusa in 1597, verified the positions of the fixed stars, 
 and discovered the motions of Jupiter's satellites.' His 
 "Medicxorum Ephemerides" (1656) is the first book, 
 says Lalande, "in which we find observations on the 
 eclipses of Jupiter's satellites." He wrote a treatise on 
 the System of Saturn, (1657,) and other works. Died 
 in 1660. 
 
 Hodius. See Hody. 
 
 Ho'djf, [Lat. Ho'dius,] (Humphry,) D.D., an Eng 
 lish divine and eminent scholar, born at Oldcombe in 
 1659. About 1694 he became chaplain to Archbishop 
 Tillotson. He was chosen professor of Greek at Oxford 
 in 1698, and Archdeacon of Oxford in 1704. He pub- 
 lished an excellent work "On the Original Texts of the 
 Bible, and the Greek and Latin Versions," (" De Bibli- 
 orum Textis Originalibus," etc., 1705,) also, "On the 
 Illustrious Greek Restorers of the Greek Language," 
 (1742,) which is commended by Hallam. Died in 1706. 
 
 See Dr. Jebb, " Notitia de Vita et Scriptis H. Hodii." 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m£t; nftt; good; moon; 
 
HOE 
 
 1195 
 
 HOFFMANN 
 
 Hoe, (Kichakd March,) born in New York City in 
 181 2, is known as the inventor of Hoe's type-revolving 
 printing-press, which makes the impression on both sides 
 of the sheet at the same time. It is capable of striking 
 off, it is said, fifteen thousand copies per hour, and is 
 especially useful in large newspaper establishments. 
 
 Hoe, or Hoe von Hoenegg, ho'eh fon ho'eh-neV, 
 (Matthias,) a German theologian and controversialist, 
 b"rn in 15S0; died in 1645. 
 
 Sej Taubner, " Memoria M. Hoe ab Hognegg," Dresden, 1792. 
 
 Hoeck. See vEpinus and Hoek. 
 
 Hoefer, ho'fer, |Fr. proa. ho'fair',| (Joiiann Chris- 
 tian Ferdinand, a German writer, distinguished for 
 his learning and versatility, was bom at Doeschnitz, in 
 Thuringia, in 181 1. He became in 1834 secretary to 
 Victor Cousin, whom he assisted in the translation of 
 the works of Plato. He left Cousin in 1836, after which 
 he studied medicine, and practised several years in Paris. 
 In 1843 he was sent to Germany by M. Cousin to 
 examine the German methods of medical instruction 
 and practice. He published, besides other works, a 
 "History of Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the 
 Present," (2 vols., 1842.) In 1851 he was selected by 
 MM. Didot to direct their great biographical dictionary, 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," for which he wrote 
 able articles on Aristotle, Caesar, Columbus, Descartes, 
 Erasmus, and others. 
 
 Hoefken. See Hofkf.n. 
 
 Hoefnaeghel, hoof'na'gel or hoof'na'nel, (George,) 
 a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1545, was painter 
 to the F.lector of Bavaria. He excelled in water-colour 
 painting. Died at Vienna in t6oo. 
 
 Hoek or Hoeck, van, van hook, also written Houk, 
 (TAN,) a Flemish painter of history, born at Antwerp 
 about 1600, was one of the most skilful pupils of Rubens. 
 He worked for a long time in Germany, and was patron- 
 ized by the emperor Ferdinand II. He passed his latter 
 years in Antwerp. His design and colouring are highly 
 praised He was very successful in portraits. Among 
 his master-pieces are "Samson and Delilah," and "Christ 
 on the Cross," (at Bruges.) Died in 1650. 
 
 See J. C. Weyerman, "De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders." 
 
 Hoek, (Robert,) a brother of the preceding, born 
 In 1609, was a skilful painter. He painted miniatures 
 which were admired for extreme fineness of touch and 
 beauty of colour. His principal works are "The Twelve 
 Apostles," an army, and a camp. Died in 1668. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Hoelderlin. See Holderlin. 
 
 Hoelty. See H61.1v. 
 
 Hoeltzlinus. See Holtzlinus. 
 
 Hoenir or Hdnir, ho'nir, [etymology unknown,] in 
 the Norse mythology, a god who, with Lodur, assisted 
 Odin in creating mankind. He is supposed to have con- 
 tributed as his portion sense or perception, while Odin 
 gave breath and vitality, and Lodur animal warmth and 
 the flowing (or circulating) blood. (See ODIN.) 
 
 Hoepfner. See Hopfner. 
 
 Hoepken. See Hopken. 
 
 Hoerberg. See Horberg. 
 
 Hoeschel. See Hoschel. 
 
 Hoest. See Host. 
 
 Hoet, hoot, (Gerard,) an eminent Dutch historical 
 painter, born at Bommel in 1648. He worked mostly at 
 Utrecht and the Hague. Among his chief works are 
 the " Rape of the Sabines," and the " Sacrifice of Dido." 
 "The talent of Hoet," says Descamps, "is known 
 throughout Europe. He composed with much genius, 
 and his works display vast erudition." Died in 1733. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peinlres Flamands, Hollandais," etc 
 
 Hoeven, van der, vSn der hoo'ven, (Jan,) an able 
 Dutch naturalist, born at Rotterdam in 1801, became 
 professor of zoology at Leyden in 1835. His principal 
 work is an excellent "Manual of Zoology," ("lland- 
 boek der Dierkunde," 2 vols., 1827-33,) which has been 
 translated into English, (London, 1854.) His brother 
 Abraham (1798-1855) was professor of theology at 
 Amsterdam and Utrecht, and was considered one of 
 the most eloquent orators of Holland. 
 
 Hoeyer. See Hoyer. 
 
 Hofacker, hofak'er, (Carl Christoph,) a German 
 jurist, born in Wiirtemberg in 1749; died in 1793. 
 
 Hofer. See Hoefer. 
 
 Hofer, ho'fer, (Andreas,) a celebrated Tyrolese pa- 
 triot, born in the valley of the Passeyr in 1767. On 
 the breaking out of the insurrection against the French 
 and the Bavarian government, to which the Tyrol had 
 been lately transferred, he entered into secret negotiations 
 with the archduke John for the deliverance of the coun- 
 try. In April, 1809, with the assistance of an Austrian 
 army, Hoefer, at the head of the Tyrolese peasantry, 
 defeated the French and Bavarian troops at the Ste'r- 
 zinger Moose. In the May following, the Austrians, 
 under General Chasteler, suffered a defeat from the 
 superior numbers of the enemy near Wdrgl. Soon after 
 this the Tyrolese were again victorious in an engagement 
 near Mount Isel ; but, the Austrian army being with- 
 drawn after the battle of Wagram, the country was once 
 more invaded by Marshal Lefebvre. On the 13th of 
 August, 1809, Hofer, with his army of Tyrolese peasants, 
 signally defeated the French commander near Mount 
 Isel, after a long and obstinate conflict ; but, overpowered 
 at last by the reinforcements sent from Fiance, he took 
 refuge in the mountains. Being soon after betrayed by 
 a former friend, he was tried at Mantua, and was shot 
 in February, 1810. 
 
 See " Andreas Hofer und die Tyroler Insurrection," Munich, 
 i8n: Hormayh, "Geschichte Andreas Hofer's Sandwirlhs," etc., 
 1N09; Bklkek, " Andreas Hofer und der Freiheitskampf in Tyrol," 
 3 vols., 1X42; "Memoirs of Andrew Hofer," translated from the 
 German by C. H. Hall; " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1817. 
 
 Hoff. von, fon hoff, (Karl Ernst Adolf,) a German 
 geologist, born at Gotha in 1771, wrote a " History of 
 the Natural Changes of the Surface of the Globe," (5 
 vols., 1822-41,) a,1( l edited, from 1801 to 1816, "The 
 Almanac of Gotha," a statistical publication of very 
 high character. Died in 1837. 
 
 Hoffbauer, hof'bow'er, (Johann Christoph,) a Ger- 
 man writer, born at Bielefeld in 1766, published, besides 
 other works, " Researches into the Diseases of the Soul," 
 (3 vols., 1802-07.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Hdff'man, (Charles Fenno,) a popular American 
 poet and novelist, born in New York in 1806, graduated 
 at Columbia College. He studied law, and was admitted 
 to the bar about 1828. In 1835 he produced a successful 
 descriptive work entitled " Winter in the West." He 
 edited successively "The American Monthly Magazine" 
 and "The New York Mirror." Among his works are 
 "The Vigil of Faith, and other Poems," and a number 
 of songs. "No American," says R. W. Griswold, "is 
 comparable to him as a song-writer." He published in 
 1840 "Greyslaer," a novel. Since about 1850 he has 
 been afflicted with a mental derangement. 
 
 See Gkiswolu, " Poets and Poetry of America," and " Prose 
 Writers of America ;" Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Lite- 
 rature," vol. ii. 
 
 Hoffman, (David,) an eminent American lawyer, 
 born in Baltimore in 1784, was professor of law in the 
 University of Maryland from 1817 to 1836. He after- 
 wards resided in Philadelphia. He published a "Course 
 of Legal Study," which has been highly commended. 
 According to Judge Story, "it contains by far the most 
 
 Cerfect system for the study of the law that has ever 
 een offered to the public." He also wrote or compiled 
 " Chronicles selected from the Originals of Cartaphilus 
 tl»; Wandering Jew," (2 vols., 1855.) Died in 1854. 
 See " North American Review" for January, 1830. 
 
 Hoffman, hoi'mbx', (Francois Benoit,) an able 
 French critic and dramatic poet, born at Nancy in 1760. 
 He produced many successful operas and dramas, among 
 which are " Pha-dra," (1786,) "Adrien," (1792,) and 
 " Stratmiicc," a comedy, (1792.) He wrote literary cri- 
 tiques for the "Journal de ['Empire" and the "Journal 
 des Debats" for many years. "He had," says Sainte- 
 Beuve, " many qualities of a true critic, — conscience and 
 independence. ... He was learned with variety and 
 without pedantry." Died in 1828. 
 
 See Saintk-Ukuvk, " Causeriesdu Lundi" for February 25, 1850; 
 " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Hoffmann, hofiniu, ( Andreas Goi 11 ieb,) a German 
 theologian, born In the county of Mansfeld in 1796, be- 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as 1; t h as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HOFFMANN 
 
 1 1 96 
 
 HOFLAh 
 
 came professor of theology at Jena in 1822. He pub- 
 lished a "Treatise on Hebrew Antiquities," (1832,) and 
 wrote many articles for the "Encyclopaedia" of Krsch 
 and Gruber. 
 
 Hoffmann, (August Heinrich,) an eminent lyric 
 poet and philologist, called also Hoffmann von Fal- 
 lersleben, (fil'lers-la'ben,) was born at Fallersleben, in 
 Hanover, in 1798. He studied at Gottingen and Bonn, 
 and became in 1835 professor of the German language 
 and literature at Breslau. He published "German Social 
 Songs of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," 
 and "Mines for the History of the German Language 
 and Literature ;" also ballads, songs for children, war 
 lyrics, and other poems, which are greatly admired for 
 their simplicity, fervour, and pathos. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" " Levens- 
 schets van A. H. Hoffmann von Fallersleben." 
 
 Hoffmann, (Caspar,) a German physician, born at 
 Gotha in 1572, published numerous works on medicine. 
 ] )ied at Altdorf in 1648. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hoffmann, hof'man, (Charles Alexander,) a 
 Polish writer, born in Masovia in 1798, produced in 1827 
 a Polish translation of the works of Dr. Franklin. 
 Having been identified with the insurrection of 1830, he 
 was driven into exile in 1832. He was the husband of 
 Clementina Hoffmanowa, noticed below. 
 
 Hoffmann, (Christian Gottfried,) a German juris- 
 consult, bom at Lauban, in Lusatia, in 1692, became 
 professor of law at Leipsic in 1718, and afterwards at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He acquired a high reputation 
 by his writings, (in Latin,) among which are a "History 
 of the Roman Law of Justinian," (1720-24,) and "Li- 
 brary of German Public Law," (" Bibliotheca Juris pub- 
 lici Germanici," etc., 1734.) Died in 1735. 
 
 See Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Hir- 
 sching. " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Hoffmann, (Christoph Ludvvig,) an eminent medi- 
 cal writer, born at Rheda, in Westphalia, in 1721, was 
 physician to the Electors of Cologne and Mentz. Among 
 his principal works are treatises "On the Small-Pox," 
 (2 vols., 1778,) and "On the Sensibility and Irritability 
 of the Diseased Parts," (1779.) Died in 1807. 
 
 Hoffmann or Hoffmanowa, hof-ma-no'vi, (Cle- 
 mentina,) a popular Polish authoress, whose maiden 
 name was Tanska, was born at Warsaw in 1798, and 
 liberally educated. She produced about 1820, in Polish, 
 her "Memorial of a Good Mother," which had a great 
 popularity. She was married to Charles A. Hoffmann, 
 with whom she removed to Paris about 1832. Among 
 her works, which were published collectively in 1833, (in 
 10 vols.,) are letters, historical tales, essays, and biog- 
 raphies of eminent Poles. Died in 1845. 
 
 Hoffmann, (Daniel,) a German Lutheran divine, 
 born at Halle about 1538, was professor of theology at 
 Helmstedt. He was censured for teaching that the 
 truths of philosophy conflict with the truths of religion. 
 Died in 161 1. 
 
 Hoffmann, (Ernst Theodor Wolfgang; aftet- 
 wards called Ernst Theodor Amadeus,) one of the 
 most remarkable and original of German story-tellers, 
 (Erzahler,) was born at Kbnigsberg in 1776. He studied 
 law, and subsequently received several minor appoint- 
 ments under the government. In 1816 he became coun- 
 sellor of the royal court of judicature at Berlin. Di|d 
 in 1S22, his health having been previously undermined 
 by dissipation. His gifted and versatile mind led him 
 to the cultivation of music, poetry, and art. But he "is 
 celebrated chiefly," says Dr. Hedge, "for his successful 
 use of the magic and demoniac element in fiction. He 
 does not seek to make the flesh creep and the hair bris- 
 tle, but aims rather at the diaphragm. He views all 
 these infernalia on the humorous side ; and if any one 
 trait is particularly prominent in his writings, it is irony." 
 Menzel, after alluding to the strange combination which 
 his mind exhibited of manliness, humour, poetry, and 
 morbid sensibility, remarks, " From the devil down to a 
 wry-faced child's doll, from the dissonance of life which 
 rends the soul down to a dissonance in music which only 
 rends the ear, the immeasurable kingdom of the ugly, 
 the repulsive, the annoying, was gathered around him, 
 
 and his descriptions paint alternately these tormenting 
 objects, and the torments which they prepare for a beau- 
 tiful soul, with inimitable vividness and truth." Again, 
 he says, " Hoffmann's innermost being was music ; and 
 the prayer of Saint Anthony is never wanting to his 
 hellish caricatures, nor the Christmas bell to the witches' 
 sabbath." Among his principal works are " Phantasie- 
 stiicke in Callot's Manier," (4 vols., 1814,) and"Sera- 
 pions Briider," (4 vols., 1819-21.) His various other 
 tales, etc. would fill several volumes. 
 
 See Funck, "Aus dem Leben zweier Dichter E. T. W. Hoff- 
 mann und F. G. Wetzel," 1836; J. E. Hitzig, "Aus E. T. W. 
 Hoffmanns Leben," etc., 2 vols., 1823; Gervinus, "Geschicbte der 
 Deutschen Dicbtung," 1S53; Ehsch und Gruber, "Allgemeine 
 Encyklopaedie ;" " Nouvelle Biogiaphie GeneYale ;" " Foreign Quar- 
 terly Review" for July, 1827. 
 
 Hoffmann, [Lat. Hoffman'nus,] (Friedrich,) an 
 illustrious German physician, was born at Halle in 1660. 
 He studied at Jena, and, after travelling in England and 
 Holland, settled as a physician at Halberstadt in 1688. 
 On the establishment of the university at Halle he was 
 appointed in 1693 its first professor of medicine by 
 the Elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg. On the 
 invitation of Frederick I. of Prussia, he removed in 
 1708 to Berlin, where he was made royal physician, but 
 still retained his professorship. He returned in 1712 
 to Halle, where he died in 1742. Hoffmann rendered 
 most important services to practical medicine by his ex- 
 periments with various remedies: his " Elixirium Vis- 
 cerale" and " Liquor Anodynus Mineralis," commonly 
 called " Hoffmann's Anodyne," are still popular, and he 
 was one of the first to bring mineral waters into more 
 general use. He wrote, in Latin and German, numerous 
 medical works, among which is " Medicina Rationalis 
 systematica," (9 vols., 1718-40.) His complete works 
 were published in 6 vols, quarto, (1740.) 
 
 See Schulzh, "Vita F. Hoffmanni," prefixed to bis Works, 1730; 
 Baloingkr, "Programmade F. Hoffmanni et H. Boerhavii Mentis 
 in Medicinam practicam," 1772; Loven, "Dissertatio de F. Hoff- 
 manno ejusque Medicina Rationali systematica," 1846; "Nouvelle 
 Biograpbie GeWrale." 
 
 Hoffmann, (Johann Gottfried,) a German writer 
 on political economy, born at Breslau in 1765. He be- 
 came councillor of state in Berlin in 1808, and attended 
 the Congress of Vienna in 1814. Among his works is 
 "The Science of Money," ("Die Lehre vom Gelde, - ' 
 1838.) Died in 1847. 
 
 Hoffmann, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss scholar, born 
 at Bile in 1635, obtained in 1667 the chair of Greek in 
 his native city. His principal work is a "Universal 
 Lexicon, Historical, Geographical, Political," etc., (in 
 Latin, 1667.) Died in 1706. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hoffmann, (Moritz,) a German physician and bota- 
 nist, born at Furstenwalde in 1622, became professor of 
 surgery at Altdorf, and published several medical and 
 botanical works. Died in 1698. 
 
 His son, Johann Moritz, born at Altdorf in 1653, 
 was a physician and botanist. He practised at Anspacn 
 with success, and wrote on anatomy, eta Died in 1727. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Hoffmann, hof'man, (Tycho,) a Danish writer, was 
 keeper of the seals of Denmark. He wrote " Historical 
 Portraits of Eminent Danes." Died in 1754. 
 
 Hoffmaiinsegg, von, fon hof'man-seg', (Johann 
 Centurius,) Count, a German botanist, bom at Dres- 
 den in 1766. Having explored the botanical riches of 
 Portugal for several years, he returned to Germany in 
 1804, and published with M. Link his magnificent "Por- 
 tuguese Flora," (in French, 22 parts, 1809-33.) ^ ied in 
 1849. 
 
 Hoffmannus. See Hoffmann. 
 
 Hofken or Hoefken, hof'ken, (Gustav,) a German 
 writer on national economy, born at Hattingen, in Prus- 
 sia, in 181 14 He published, besides other works, "The 
 Condition, Policy, and Development of the Power of 
 England," (2 vols., 1846.) 
 
 HofTaiid, (Barbara,) a popular English writer, born 
 at Sheffield in 1770, was the daughter of Robert Wreaks. 
 She became the wife of Thomas Hofland, the painter, 111 
 1808. She wrote numerous novels and moral tales, which 
 had a wide circulation. The "Son of a Genius" (1813) 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; nfit; good; moon; 
 
HOFLAND 
 
 I '97 
 
 HOHENSTAUFEN 
 
 a prnbalily her most successful work. She was patron- 
 ized by Queen Charlotte. The name of her first husband 
 was Hoole. It is said that three hundred thousand 
 copies of her books were sold in Great Britain. Among 
 the titles of them are " Decision," "Fortitude," "Bea- 
 trice," and "Self-Denial." Died in 1844. 
 See T. Ramsay, "Life of Barbara Holland," 1849. 
 Hofland, (Thomas Christopher,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish landscape-painter, born at Worksop, in Nottingham- 
 shire, in 1777. He married Mrs. Hoole, who, under the 
 name of Hofland, became well known as a novelist, and 
 resided mostly in or near London. His subjects were 
 chosen from the river and lake scenery of the British 
 Islands. He published a richly illustrated volume called 
 "The British Angler's Manual," (1839.) Died in 1843. 
 Hofmann, hoi'man, (August Wiliielm,) a German 
 dhcmist, born at Giessen in April, 1818. He has made 
 discoveries in organic chemistry, on which he has con- 
 tributed several memoirs to the " Philosophical Trans- 
 actions," and has attained eminence as a lecturer on 
 chemistry at the Royal Institution. In 1855 he was 
 appointed chemist to the mint. He edited Fownes's 
 "Chemistry," (1858.) 
 
 Hofmann, (Johann Christian Konrad,) a Prot- 
 estant German theologian, born at Nuremberg in 1810. 
 Among his principal works is "Prophecy and Fulfil- 
 ment," (2 vols., 1841-44.) 
 
 Hofmannswaldau, von, fon hofmans-wal'dow, 
 sometimes written Hofmandswaldau, (CHRISTIAN 
 Hofmann,) a German poet, born at Breslau in 1618. 
 He published in 1673 a collection of poems, entitled 
 " Sinnreiche Heldenbriefe." Died in 1679. 
 
 See Gekvinus, "Geschichte der Deutschen Nationalliteratur." 
 Ho'gan, (John,) an Irish sculptor, born at Tallow, 
 Watcrfo'rd county, in 1800. He studied in Rome, 1823 
 -29, and settled in Dublin. Among his chief works is 
 "The Drunken Faun," for which he received a medal 
 at the Exposition of Paris in 1851. Died about 1858. 
 
 Ho'garth, (George,) a Scottish writer on music, born 
 about 1796, is the father-in-law of Charles Dickens, the 
 novelist. He published "Musical History, Biography, 
 and Criticism," (2 vols., 1836,) which is highly com- 
 mended, and " Memoirs of the Musical Drama," (2 vols., 
 1838.) He became musical and dramatic critic for the 
 London "Daily News" in 1846. Died in 1870. 
 
 Hogarth, (WILLIAM,) a celebrated satirical painter, 
 born in London in 1697, was apprenticed to a silversmith, 
 whom he left in 1718. He then earned a subsistence 
 for some time by engraving, and studied drawing in the 
 academy of Sir* James Thomhill, whose daughter he 
 married in 1730. He acquired skill in portraits, but 
 soon exchanged that branch of art for one more suited 
 to his original genius, — the dramatic or satirical species, 
 in which he is unrivalled. In 1733 he published a 
 series of engravings called the " Harlot's Progress," 
 which had a large sale, and was followed by the " Rnke's 
 Progress," "Marriage a la Mode," "Industry and Idle- 
 ness," " Beer Lane," and " The Enraged Musician." I lis 
 pictures abound in comic humour, and display great skill 
 in caricature, as well as great originality and fertility of 
 invention. His works have also the merit of conveying 
 useful lessons of morality. In 1753 he published his 
 "Analysis of Beauty," in which he maintains that a 
 waving line or curve is the essential element of beauty. 
 In 1757 he became painter to the king. Died in 1764. 
 See Charles Lamb, "On the Genius of Hogarth ;" "Am 
 
 of Hogarth, bv himself, with an Essay on his Lite" by Nn *, 
 
 1833; " Encyclopa:dia Kritannica ;" John Ireland, ' Hogarth 
 Illustrated," 3 vols., 1791-98; "Historical Sketches of the Reign 
 "tge II.," in "Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1S69 ; 
 "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1836. 
 
 Hogendorp, van, vtn ho'gen-doRp', (Dyrk,) COUNT, 
 a Dutch general, born at Rotterdam in 1761, was minister 
 of war under King Louis in 1806. In 181 1 he became 
 general of division and aide-de-camp to Napoleon, whom 
 he followed in the Russian campaign. After the battle 
 of Waterloo he went to Brazil, where he died in 1830. 
 
 Hogendorp, van, (GijsbeRtKaUL,) COUNT, a Dutch 
 statesman, brother of the preceding, born at Rotterdam 
 in 1762. He united with several others to form a pro- 
 visional government in 1813, and was president of the 
 commission which framed a new constitution. He was 
 
 minister of foreign affairs, and vice-president of the 
 council, until he resigned in 1816. He wrote " Constdei- 
 ations on the Political Economy of the Low Countries," 
 (10 vols., 1818-23.) Died in 1834. 
 
 See Vreedb, "Jetsbijde Dood van G. K. van Hogendorp," r'34. 
 
 H6gg,(jAMKS,)" the Ettrick Shepherd," born in Ettrick 
 Forest, in Scotland, in 1772, was the son of a shepherd, 
 and followed his father's employment until he was thirty 
 years of age. In 1803 a collection of his poems was pub- 
 lished, under the title of "The Mountain Bard," the 
 proceeds of which (about £300) enabled him to take a 
 farm. He failed, however, in this enterprise. After many 
 struggles with adversity, he went to Edinburgh, to try 
 his fortune in authorship, about 1810. Having issued a 
 literary periodical called "The Spy," without success, he 
 was encouraged by his friends to devote himself to poetry, 
 and in 1813 gave to the public the "Queen's Wake," 
 which procured him a high reputation as a poet. It is 
 generally considered as his best work. His success stimu- 
 lated him to the rapid production of many other poems, 
 among which are "The Pilgrims of the Sun," (1815,) 
 "Poetic Mirror," "Sacred Melodies," and "The Border 
 Garland," (1819.) He wrote, in prose, "The Brownie 
 of Bodsbeck, and other Tales," (1818,) "Winter Even- 
 ing Tales," (1820,) "The Three Perils of Man," etc., 
 and contributed to "Blackwood's Magazine." In 1820 
 he married Margaret Phillips, and resided afterwards 
 on a farm at Altrive. Hogg is one of the principal 
 actors and interlocutors in Christopher North's fatuous 
 " Noctes Ambrosianae." Died in 1835. "The Queen's 
 Wake," says Professor Wilson, " is a garland of fair 
 forest-flowers, bound with a band of rushes from the 
 moor. Some of the ballads are very beautiful ; one or 
 two even splendid. 'Kilmeny' alone places our (ay, 
 mr) shepherd among the undying ones." 
 
 See Wilson, " Memoir of James Hogg," prefixed to an edition 
 of Hogg's Works, Edinburgh. 5 vols., 1850; R. S. Mackenzie, 
 '■ Life 0? James Hogg," prefixed to an edition of "Noctes Ambro- 
 ■iaiue," New York. 1855; Lord Jeffrey's article in the "Edin- 
 burgh Review" for November, 1814, (vol. xxiv. ;) Chambers, " Bio* 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" William Jerdan, 
 "Men I have known," London, 1866; "Edinburgh Review" for 
 November, 1819; "Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1833. 
 
 Hohenhausen, von, fon ho'en-hfiw'zen, (Elizabeth 
 Philippine Amai.ie,) Baroness, a German poetess, 
 bom near Cassel in 1789, wrote lyric poems entitled 
 " Spring Flowers," (1817,) and translated Byron's "Cor- 
 sair," and some of the works of Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, ho'en-lo'eh ing'el-fing'en, 
 (Friedrich Litdwig,) 1'kince, a Prussian general, born 
 in 1746. He distinguished himself in the campaigns of 
 1792 and 1793, and obtained command of an army in 1795. 
 lie commanded the Prussian forces which were defeated 
 by Napoleon at Jena on the 14th of October, 1806. On 
 the 16th the king gave him command of all the troops 
 that had escaped from Jena and Atterstadt. He was 
 compelled to abandon Beriin to the enemy, and soon alter 
 was taken prisoner, with about 15,000 men, at Prcnt/low. 
 He retired to private life, and died in 1817 or 1818. 
 
 Hohenlohe - Walden burg - Schillingsfurst, h o'- 
 en-lo'eh wal'den-bdoRG' shil'lings-fuRst', (ALEXANDER 
 Leopold Franz Emmerich,) Prince of, a Hungarian 
 prelate, born at Kupferzelle in 1 794. He pretended to 
 cure disease by prayer. Died in 1849. 
 
 Hohenstaufen, ho'en-stow'fen, I from hoch, "high," 
 and StatifiH, "hill" or "eminence,'] in the singular, 
 Hohenstaufe, ho'en-stow'feh, a celebrated family of 
 German princes, who reigned from 1 138 to 1254. The 
 first of the line, FRIEDRICH von BOren, received the 
 name on account of having removed his dwelling from 
 a valley auf (ten Slaufcn, ("up the hill" or "mountain. ") 
 His son, Friedrich von Staifen, was rewarded by 
 the emperor Henry IV. for his eminent services by the 
 duchy of Suabia and the hand of his daughter Agnes. 
 lit my also made him Regent of Germany while he fought 
 It the pope in Italy. Fliedrich died in 1105, leaving 
 two sups, Friedrich and Conrad, the latter of whom was 
 crowned King of Germany, with the title of Conrad 
 III. His nephew, Friedrich Bariiarossa, the most 
 celebrated of the line, was chosen emperor in 1 152. (See 
 Frederick I. of Germany, and Kyihiai sir.) The 
 istaufen line ended with CONRADIN in 1268. 
 
 e as k; 9 as t; g hard; g a»j; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. (ESfSee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HOHENZOLLERN 
 
 1 198 
 
 HOLDEN 
 
 Hohenzollern, ho'en-tsol'leRn, the name of an an- 
 cient princely German family, from which the Kings of 
 Prussia are descended. The name is derived from the 
 castle of Zollern, in Suabia, which is said to have been 
 built by Tassillon or Thasilio about 800 A.D. 
 
 Hoijer, ho'e-yer, (Benjamin Carl Henrik,) an emi- 
 nent Swedish philosopher, born in Dalecarlia in 1767. 
 His promotion was hindered by the liberal political 
 principles of his youth. He produced a treatise " On 
 the Progress of Critical Philosophy," an " Outline of 
 the History of the Fine Arts," and other works. In 1808 
 he became professor of philosophy at Upsal, where he 
 gained a high reputation as a lecturer. Died in 1812. 
 
 Ho'kan-son, (Olof,) a Swedish orator, originally a 
 peasant, bom in the province of Bleking in 1695, was 
 elected in 1726 to the Diet, in which he acquired great 
 influence by his prudence and eloquence. Died in 1769. 
 
 Holauda, de, da o-lan'da, (Francisco,) a Portuguese 
 painter, born in 1518, studied in Rome, and appears to 
 have returned to Portugal. He painted portraits for 
 Charles V. of Germany, and was skilful in miniature. 
 Under the patronage of John III. he painted oil pictures 
 for the palaces and churches of Lisbon. Died in 1584.. 
 
 Holbach, d', dol'baK or dol'btk', (Paul Thierry or 
 Thyry, also given as Paul Heinrich Dietrich and 
 Paul Friedrich,) Baron, a skeptical philosopher, 
 born at Heidelsheim (Palatinate) in 1723. He inherited 
 a fortune, and passed all his life, except childhood, in 
 Paris, where he was the patron and associate of the 
 Encyclopaedists. Diderot, Helvetius, Grimm, Rousseau, 
 and other authors often met at his table. He translated 
 from the German several works on chemistry and mine- 
 ralogy. His atheistic opinions were developed in his 
 " System of Nature," (" Le Systeme de la Nature," 1770,) 
 under the pseudonym of MlRABAUD, the morality of 
 which book Voltaire stigmatized as execrable. It was 
 also refuted by Frederick the Great. Holbach was the 
 reputed author of other works, among which were "The 
 Social System," (1773,) and "La Morale universale," 
 (1776.) Died in 1789. 
 
 See Diderot, " Memoires/'/fcuiiM; Rousseau, " Confessions ;" 
 Damiron, " Memoire sur Thierry d'Holbach," 1851. 
 
 Holbein, hol'bln, (Franz,) a popular German drama- 
 tist and actor, born near Vienna in 1779. 
 
 Holbein, (Hans,) the Elder, a German painter of 
 Augsburg, born about 1450. Among his master-pieces 
 are the scenes from the life of Saint Paul in the church of 
 Saint Paul at Augsburg. He died in 1526, leaving three 
 sons, Ambrose, Bruno, and Hans, who were artists; 
 the last-named rose to great eminence. 
 
 Holbein, (Hans,) the Younger, one of the most 
 celebrated German painters, born at Grunstadt in 1497. 
 At an early age he removed to Bile, where, after prac- 
 tising his art for a time, he was recommended by Erasmus 
 to the English chancellor, Sir Thomas More. After 
 residing in his family about three years, Holbein was 
 introduced to King Henry VIII., who gave him abundant 
 employment and bestowed upon him a large pension. 
 He devoted himself, while in England, chiefly to portrait- 
 painting ; and his numerous productions in this depart- 
 ment are esteemed master-pieces. His drawings, upwards 
 of eighty in number, representing the principal person- 
 ages of Henry's court, are characterized by Walpole as 
 " exceedingly fine, and possessing a strength and vivacity 
 equal to the most perfect portraits." Holbein died in 
 London, of the plague, in 1554, or, according to R. N. 
 Wornum and others, in 154J. Among his greatest his- 
 torical pictures are the celebrated " Dance of Death," 
 the " Adoration of the Shepherds and Kings," and a 
 " l^ast Supper." His portraits of Sir Thomas More and 
 of Erasmus also deserve especial mention. " His works," 
 observes Cunningham, "have sometimes an air of stiff- 
 ness, but they have always the look of truth and life. 
 He painted with great rapidity and ease, wrought with 
 his left hand, and dashed off a portrait at a few sittings." 
 Holbein was also a skilful architect and wood-engraver. 
 
 See Hegner, " Leben Hans Holbein's," Berlin, 1827 : Des- 
 camps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Allemands," etc. : R. N. VVor- 
 num, "Life of Holbein;" Nagler, "Allgeineines Kiinstler-Lexi- 
 kon;" Cunningham, "Lives of Painters, Sculptors," etc.: Karl 
 Friedrich von Rumohr, "H. Holbein der Jiingere in seinem Ver 
 haltniss zum Deutschen Formschniltwesen," 1830; " Edinburgh 
 Review" for April, 1867. 
 
 Holbein, (Sigismund,) a German painter and en. 
 graver, is supposed to have been an uncle of the pre- 
 ceding. Died after 1540. 
 
 Holberg, von, fon hol'beRG, (Ludwig,) Baron, an 
 eminent Danish author and comic poet, born of poor 
 parents, at Bergen, Norway, in 1684. In youth he was 
 employed as a private tutor, and learned French, Italian, 
 and English. He studied philosophy at Oxford, England, 
 for about two years. Impelled by a love of travelling, 
 he visited many countries of Europe, and was afterwards 
 professor of eloquence at Copenhagen. About 1720 he 
 published his heroic-comic poem " Peder Paars," which 
 was immensely popular; His celebrity was increased 
 by numerous comedies which appeared between 1723 
 and 1 746. One of his best comedies is " The Busy Idler ; 
 or, The Man who never has Time." His fertile mind 
 enriched nearly every department of literature, and raised 
 him to affluence. His talent for satire is displayed in 
 "Niels Klim's Subterranean Journey," in Latin, (174.1,) 
 the plan of which resembles "Gulliver's Travels." He 
 also wrote a "History of Denmark," (1735,) and a 
 " Universal History." Frederick V. created him a baron 
 in 1747. He is the founder of the Danish theatre, and 
 the first Danish author who excelled in humorous and 
 satirical composition. Died in 1754. 
 
 See his Autobiography, in Latin, 1727-44, (English translation, 
 London, 1827 ;) and his Life, in German, by Robert Prutz, 1857 ; 
 K. L. Rahhek, "Om L. Holberg som Lystspildigier," etc., 2 vols., 
 1S15-16: P. T. Wandal, "Leveusbeschrijvmg van L. Holberg," 
 1765 ; Weri.auff," Historiske Antegnelser til L. HolbergsLystspil," 
 1838; Howitt, "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," 
 chap. xxi. ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" C. L. Brightwell, 
 "Annals of Industry and Genius," London, 1863; "North British 
 Review" for July, 1S69. 
 
 Hol'bourne, (Sir Robbrt,) M.D., an eminent Eng- 
 lish lawyer, was a member of Charles I.'s privy council 
 during the civil war. He published several legal treat- 
 ises. Died in 1647. 
 
 Hol'brook, (John Edwards,) M.D., a distinguished 
 American naturalist, born in Beaufort, South Carolina, 
 in 1795. He graduated at Brown University in 1815; 
 and, having taken his medical diploma at Philadelphia, 
 he prosecuted his professional studies for four years in 
 Europe. He returned to the United States in 1822, and 
 in 1 824 succeeded to the chair of anatomy in the Medical 
 College of South Carolina. In 1842 appeared his "Amer- 
 ican Herpetology, or a Description of the Reptiles in- 
 habiting the United States," (5 vols. 4to,) which is said 
 to have laid the foundation of that branch of science in 
 this country. 
 
 Hol'croft, (Thomas,) an English dramatist and trans- 
 lator, born in London in 1744. He was successively a 
 groom, shoemaker, school-master, and actor. He wrote 
 numerous dramas and several novels. His comedies 
 "Duplicity," (1781,) and "The Road to Ruin," (1792,) 
 were very successful. He made good translations of 
 numerous French and German works, among which are 
 Lavater's " Essays on Physiognomy," " The Posthumous 
 Works of Frederick the Great," (1789,) and "Tales of 
 the Castle." He was indicted for treason with Hardy 
 and Home Tooke in 1794, but was discharged without a 
 trial. Died in 1809. 
 
 See "Memoirs of his Life," by himself, 3 vols., 18-5; " Ed ; n- 
 burgli Review" for April, 1804, and October, 1806. 
 
 Holda, h61'da or hoi 'da, written also Holle, [probably 
 from the German hold, "kind," "propitious," "lovely,"' 
 an ancient German goddess, corresponding in some le- 
 spects to the Frigga of the Northmen. She presides over 
 aerial phenomena, and imparts fertility to the earth. 
 
 See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i. p. 277. 
 
 Hol'den, (George,) an eminent English Hebraisl, 
 born near Lancaster in 1 793, became perpetual curate 
 of Mayhull, at Liverpool. Among his principal works 
 are "An Attempt towards an Improved Translation of 
 the Proverbs of Solomon," (1819,) and "The Scripture 
 Testimonies to the Divinity of our Lord," (1820.) 
 
 See Au.ibone's " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Holden, (Henry,) a learned Roman Catholic priest, 
 born in Lancashire, England, in 1596, lived for many 
 years in Paris. He wrote, in Latin, an "Analysis of 
 Divine Faith," (1652,) which was commended by Dupin, 
 and other works on theology. Died in 1662. 
 
 i, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, i, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon j 
 
HOLDER 
 
 1 199 
 
 HOLLAR 
 
 Hol'der, (WlLLIAMj F.R.S., an English writer, born 
 in Nottinghamshire in 1614, published, besides other 
 works, " Elements of Speech," (1669,) and "Treatise on 
 tlie Natural Grounds and Principles of Harmony," (1694,) 
 which, says M. Fetis, "is one of the best works on that 
 subject." It is said that he taught a deaf-mute to speak. 
 Died in 1697. 
 
 Holderiin or Hoelderlin, hbl'der-leen', (Johann 
 Christian Frif.drich,) a German poet, born at Lauffen 
 in or about 1770. He wrote " Hyperion, or the Hermit 
 in Greece," (2 vols., 1799,) a romance, which has some 
 beautiful passages, and "Lyric Poems," (1826,) which 
 are admired for fervour of fancy and depth of thought. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 See Waiblinger, " Notice sur Holderiin ;" A. Jung, " F. Hoel- 
 derlin und seine Werke," 1848; F. Hallenslbben, " Beitrage zur 
 Characteristic Hoelderlin's," 1849. 
 
 Hol'dich, (Joseph,) a Methodist minister and writer, 
 born in England about 1800, emigrated to the United 
 States in his youth. He became secretary to the 
 American Bible Society about 1850. 
 
 Holds'worth, (Edward,) an English scholar, born in 
 1688, was educated at Oxford. He wrote a Latin poem, 
 called "Muscipula," ("Mouse-trap.") Died in 1747. 
 
 Holdaworth, written also Holsworth, Oldsworth, 
 and Oldisworth, (Richard,) an English divine, born 
 at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1590. He became professor 
 of divinity at Gresham College in 1629, and master of 
 Emanuel College in 1637. He left, besides other works, 
 "Valley of Vision," in twenty-one sermons, (1651.) 
 Died in 1649. 
 
 Hole, (Matthew,) an English religious writer, born 
 about 1640, was vicar of Stoke Courcy, in Somersetshire. 
 He wrote " Discourses on the Liturgy of the Church of 
 England," (6 vols., 1714-16,) and other works. Died 
 about 1730. 
 
 Hole, (Richard,) an English poet, born at Exeter. 
 He produced a poetical version of Homer's "Hymn to 
 Ceres," (1781,) "Arthur," a poetical romance, (1789,) 
 and a few other works. He- became rector of Fairing- 
 don in 1792. Died in 1803. 
 
 Hole, (William,) an English engraver of little merit, 
 flourished about 1613. 
 
 Hol'ins-hed or HollngS-hed, (Raphael,) an Eng- 
 lish annalist, the date and place of whose birth are 
 unknown. He published valuable chronicles of England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, (1577.) Modern historians have 
 borrowed largely from him. Died about 1580. 
 
 Hol'kar, (Jeswunt Rao, jeVwiint ri'o,) a son of 
 Tuckagee", noticed below, was an able warrior, and a 
 formidable enemy of the British. He defeated Scindia 
 in 1802, and raised a large army. In the spring of 1804 
 war broke out between him and the British. Holkar 
 defeated Colonel Monson's division of 12,000 men in 
 July, near the Chumbul and Bannas Rivers. In Novem- 
 ber of 1804 he was surprised and routed by Lord Lake 
 at Furruckabad. He made a treaty of peace in January, 
 1806. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Mux, " History of British India;" Grant Duff, " History 
 of the Mahrattas," 3 vols., 1826. 
 
 Holkar, (Mul'har Ra'o or Row,) a Mahratta chief, 
 born at Hoi, in the Deccan.in 1693. Having distinguished 
 himself in war, he became ruler of a large part of Malwa. 
 He died in 1766. 
 
 A daughter-in-law of the preceding, named Ahalya 
 BASK, (a'-ha'le-l ba'ee,) or Alya Bhye, (then a widow,) 
 succeeded to the government on the death of Mulhar 
 Rao Holkar, and during an administration of more than 
 thirty years displayed extraordinary virtues both as a 
 woman and a ruler. She was equally distinguished for 
 her wisdom, her humanity and benevolence, and her 
 moderation and sense of justice. 
 
 Fora very interesting account of her character and administration, 
 see Sir John Malcolm's " History of Central India." 
 
 Holkar, (Tuckagee,) supposed to be a nephew of 
 Mulhar Rao Holkar, obtained possession of his do- 
 minions in 1767. He" was the ally of Scindia against 
 the Rajpoots. Died in 1797. 
 
 See Grant Duff, " History of the Mahrattas," 3 vols, 1816. 
 Holl, hoi, (Elias,) an eminent German architect, born 
 at Augsburg in 1573, studied his art in Venice. K : s 
 
 capital work is the Rathhaus, or Town Hall, of Augs- 
 burg, (l6l8,)one of the finest structures for that purpose 
 in Germany. He built also the arsenal, the church 
 called " Mariahilf," and other public edifices of Augs- 
 burg. Died in 1636. 
 
 Holl, (Franz Xaver,) a German Jesuit, born in the 
 Upper Palatinate ill 1720; died in 1784. 
 
 Hol'land, (Edwin Clifford,) an American poet and 
 journalist, born in Charleston, South Carolina, about 
 1794. Heedited for some time the "Charleston Times,' 
 and became noted as a satirist and controversialist. In 
 1814 he published a volume of "Odes, Naval Songs, 
 and other Poems," originally contributed to Dennie's 
 "Port-Folio." Died in 1824. 
 
 Hol'land, (Henry,) an eminent English architect, 
 born about 1746. He was patronized by the Prince of 
 Wales, (afterwards George IV.,J for whom he designed 
 the Pavilion at Brighton, and Carlton House, the portico 
 of which was much admired. He was architect of the 
 old Drury Lane Theatre, begun about 1790, and after- 
 wards burned. Died in 1806. 
 
 Holland, (Sir Henry,) M.D., F.R.S., an eminenc 
 English physician, born at Knutsford, in Cheshire, in 
 October, 1788. Having graduated at Edinburgh in 181 1, 
 he made the tour of Europe, and published, on his re- 
 turn, "Travels in the Ionian Isles, Albania, and Greece," 
 (1815.) He settled in London, and gradually rose to 
 great distinction in his profession. He became phy- 
 sician-in-ordinary to Prince Albert in 1840, and to Queen 
 Victoria in 1852. In 1853 he was created a baronet. 
 His principal work is " Medical Notes and Reflections," 
 (1836.) He married in 1834 Saba, eldest daughter of 
 the Rev. Sydney Smith. She wrote a " Memoir of the 
 Rev. Sydney Smith," (2 vols., 1855.) She died in 1867. 
 
 Holland, (Henry Richard Vassall Fox,) Lord, 
 an English peer, born in Wiltshire in 1773, was the only 
 son of Stephen Fox, second Lord Holland, and Mary 
 Fitzpatrick. By the death of his father he succeeded to 
 the peerage in 1774, at the age of one year. He inher- 
 ited a large share of the talents and noble dispositions 
 of the family of Fox. He was educated at Oxford, and 
 married Lady Webster in 1797. In the House of Lords 
 he spoke frequently against the administration, and sup- 
 ported the measures of his uncle, the famous orator 
 Charles James Fox. His powers as a speaker were of 
 a very high order. In 1802 he visited Paris, in company 
 with his uncle and Lady Holland. He held the office 
 of privy seal a few months in 1806. Throughout his 
 career he was constant to the Whig party ; and when 
 they came into power in 1830 he was appointed chan- 
 cellor of the duchy of Lancaster. He published an 
 excellent "Life of Lope de Vega," (1817,) and "Three 
 Comedies from the Spanish," which are rendered with 
 great poetical felicity. His "Foreign Reminiscences" 
 appeared after his death, which occurred in 1840. In 
 his time Holland House was the favourite resort, as 
 Macaulay says, "of wits and beauties, of painters and 
 poets, of scholars, philosophers, and statesmen." 
 
 See Macaulav, "Essays:" "London Quarterly Review" for 
 Julv. 1852, and April, 1S54; " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1851 ; 
 "Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1S51. 
 
 Holland, (Josiaji Gii.iiert,) M.D., a popular Amer- 
 ican author, born at Belchertown, Massachusetts, in 1819, 
 has written under the assumed name of Timothy Tit- 
 comb. Among his works are " Letters to the Young," 
 (1858,) "Bitter Sweet," a poem, (1858,) and a "Life of 
 Abraham Lincoln," (1865.) He also published a " His- 
 tory of Western Massachusetts,'' (2 vols., 1855.) 
 
 Holland, Lord. See Fox, (Henry.) 
 
 Holland, (Nathaniel) See Dance. 
 
 Holland, (Philemon,) a physician and teacher, born 
 at Chelmsford, England, in 1551, rendered valuable 
 services to his country by translating Livy, Pliny, Plu- 
 tarch's "Morals," Xenophon, etc., and received the 
 title of translator-general. Died in 1636. 
 
 Hollanda. See Holanda. 
 
 Hollar, hol'liR, (Wenzel or Wenceslaits,) a cele- 
 brated Bohemian engraver and designer, born at Prague 
 in 1607. Having met with the Earl of Arundel in Co- 
 logne, he accompanied him on his return to London, 
 and was employed to engrave some of the pictures of his 
 
 4! as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; i as z; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 13.) 
 
HOLLERIUS 
 
 1200 
 
 HOLMES 
 
 gallery. In 1639 he brought out his " Ornatus Mulie- 
 bris Anglicanus," an admirable work, illustrating the 
 dress of Englishwomen of all classes at that time. 
 Owing to the troubled state of the country, he was, not- 
 withstanding his genius and industry, soon reduced to 
 great poverty. Many of his works are etchings. Died 
 in London in 1677. 
 
 See Bkvan, " Dictionary of Painters and Engravers ;" Nagler, 
 11 Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Hollerius. See Houllier. 
 
 Holies. See Mollis. 
 
 Hol'ley, (Horace,) D.D., born at Salisbury, Con- 
 necticut, in 1781, graduated at Yale College in 1803. 
 He became minister of the Hollis Street Unitarian 
 Church, Boston, in 1809, and president of Transylvania 
 University, Kentucky, in 1818. He published a volume 
 of sermons. Died in 1827. 
 
 See a " Memoir of Dr. Holley," by his widow. 
 
 Hol'lins, (George N.,) an American naval officer, 
 born in Baltimore about 1800. He became a commander 
 in 1841, and bombarded Greytown, in Nicaragua, in 1852. 
 He took arms against the Union in 1861, and commanded 
 the naval forces which were defeated by Captain Farragut 
 below New Orleans in April, 1862. 
 
 Hol'lins, (John,) an English painter of genre and 
 portraits, born at Birmingham in 1798; died in 1855. 
 
 Hol'lis or Hol'les, (Denzil,) Lord, an English poli- 
 tician, second son of the Earl of Clare, and brother-in- 
 law of the Earl of Strafford, was born at Haughton in 
 1597. In the reign of Charles I. he was one of the 
 leaders of the opposition in Parliament, and in 1629 was 
 condemned to imprisonment during the king's pleasure. 
 He was one of the five members whom the king rashly 
 attempted to arrest in the House of Commons on a 
 charge of treason, (1642.) After the division between 
 the Presbyterians and Independents occurred, Hollis 
 was the leader of the former. He was expelled from Par- 
 liament at the time of Pride's Purge, and (led to France. 
 He favoured the restoration, was created a peer by 
 Charles II. in 1660, and was sent as ambassador to 
 France in 1663. Died in 1680. 
 
 See "Memoirs of Denzil Holies," 1699; Hitme, "History of 
 England;" " Biographia Britannica;" Guizot, "Monk's Contem- 
 poraries," London, 1865. 
 
 Hollis, (Thomas,) a munificent benefactor of Har- 
 vard College, born in England in 1659. He was for 
 many years a successful merchant in London, where he 
 died in 173 1. He founded two professorships in Harvard, 
 — the Hollis divinity professorship and the professorship 
 of mathematics. Besides books and philosophical ap- 
 paratus, his bequests to the college in money amounted 
 to about ^5000, — probably equal to more than five times 
 as much as these figures would represent at the present 
 time. 
 
 Hollis, (Thomas,) F.R.S., an English gentleman and 
 republican, born in London in 1720, was an ardent friend 
 of civil and religious liberty, and noted for his public 
 spirit. He possessed a large fortune, which he used 
 liberally for charitable purposes and in the publication 
 of books. He published good editions of Toland's " Life 
 of Milton," (1761,) and Algernon Sidney's Works. Died 
 in 1774. 
 
 See Hollis's " Memoirs," compiled by Rev. Francis Black- 
 burn, privately printed in 17S0, 2 vols., with many fine portraits. 
 
 Hollis, (Thomas Brand,) an English gentleman, was 
 a friend and the heir of Thomas Hollis, noticed above, 
 (1720-74.) He contributed to Harvard College. Died 
 in 1804. 
 
 See J. Disnev, "Memoirs of Thomas B. Hollis," 180S. 
 
 Hollis, (Thomas Pelham.) See Newcastle, 
 Duke of. » 
 
 Hollmann, hol'man, (Samuel Christian,) a Ger- 
 man philosopher, born at Stettin about 1696, was pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Gottingen for about fifty years. 
 He wrote, in Latin, several works on philosophy, meta- 
 physics, and logic. Died in 1787. 
 
 Hol'lo-way, (Thomas,) a skilful English engraver, 
 born in London in 1748. He engraved the plates for 
 Lavater's " Physiognomy," and the Cartoons of Raphael 
 at Windsor. He spent several years on the latter, and had 
 the title of engraver of history to the king. Died in 1827. 
 
 Hol'man, (James,) an Englishman, distinguished as 
 " the Blind Traveller," was born about 1788. He served 
 for some years in the royal navy, until he became blind, 
 (about 1812.) He performed a journey through several 
 countries of Europe, (1819-21,) of which he published 
 a narrative in 1822. After that date he visited the other 
 continents, and published "Travels through Russia, 
 Siberia," etc., (1825,) and a " Voyage round the World," 
 (4 vols., 1840.) He was arrested as a spy by the Rus- 
 sians. Died in 1857. 
 
 Holman, (Joseph George,) an actor and dramatist, 
 born in London. After performing in London and Dub- 
 lin, he emigrated to the United States in 1800, and was 
 manager of the Charleston Theatre. He wrote a few 
 comic operas. Died in 1817. 
 
 Holmes, homz, (Ariel,) D.D., an American divine, 
 born at Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1763, graduated at 
 Yale in 1783. He was pastor of the First Congrega- 
 tional Church, Cambridge, Massachusetts, from 1792 to 
 1832. In 1805 he published "American Annals," the 
 result of great industry and research. " We consider 
 it," says Professor Sparks, "among the most valuable 
 productions of the American press." He was the father 
 of Dr. O. W. Holmes, noticed below. Died in 1837. 
 
 See "Quarterly Review" for November, 1S09, (by Southkv.) 
 
 Holmes, homz, (George,) an English antiquary, born 
 in Yorkshire in 1662, was clerk to the keepers of the 
 records in the Tower. Died in 1749. 
 
 Holmes, (Isaac Edward,) a political leader in South 
 Carolina, born in Charleston in 1796, rose to eminence 
 at the bar of Charleston, took a conspicuous part in the 
 nullification movement of South Carolina in 1832-33, and 
 from 1839 to 1851 was a representative in Congress. 
 
 Holmes, (Nathaniel.) See Homes. 
 
 Holmes, (Oliver Wendell,) M.D., a distinguished 
 American author, wit, and poet, was born in Cambridge, 
 Massachusetts, August 29, 1809. He graduated at Har- 
 vard in 1829, and commenced the study of law, but soon 
 abandoned it for medicine. Early in 1833 he visited 
 Europe, where for nearly 'three years he pursued his 
 medical studies, attending the hospitals of Paris and 
 other large cities. He returned to his native country 
 in 1835, and took the degree of doctor of medicine at 
 Harvard in 1836. In 1838 he was elected professor of 
 anatomy and physiology in Dartmouth College. About 
 two years afterwards he resigned this position, and in 
 1847 was chosen to fill the same chair at Harvard Uni- 
 versity, as successor to Dr. Warren. Holmes had dis- 
 tinguished himself as a poet even before he left college. 
 In 1836 he read before the Phi Beta Kappa Society, at 
 Cambridge, " Poetry, a Metrical Essay," which was soon 
 after published in a small volume, with a number of his 
 other poems. In 1857-8 he contributed to the "Atlantic 
 Monthly" a series of papers entitled "The Autocrat of 
 the Breakfast-Table," which were followed in 1859 by 
 another series, called "The Professor at the Breakfast- 
 Table." These contributions abound in humour and wit, 
 and exhibit at the same time a shrewd insight into human 
 character. Dr. Holmes has more recently given to the 
 world two prose works of fiction, which have proved 
 a decided success, — "Elsie Venner," (1861,) and "The 
 Guardian Angel," (1868.) Both of these works were 
 first published in the columns of the " Atlantic Monthly." 
 He has also written ably on various subjects connected 
 with the medical profession. 
 
 As a poet, Dr. Holmes is especially distinguished tor 
 wit and humour joined with a remarkable felicity of ex- 
 pression. As a song- writer he has few, if any, superiors 
 in America ; but he more particularly excels in the play- 
 ful vein. Among his effusions of this class we could not, 
 perhaps, select an example which better exhibits his 
 playful fancy or his wonderful facility and fertility of re- 
 sources as a versifier, than his lines addressed to Agassiz 
 when setting out on his scientific tour in South America. 
 
 See Duvckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. : 
 Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America;" Cleveland, "Com- 
 pendium of American Literature ;" " North American Review" for 
 January, 1847 ; also an article on " American Humour" in the " North 
 British' Review" for November, i36o ; " Littell's Living Age" for 
 March, 1849, (by Whittikk.) 
 
 Holmes, (Robert,) D.D., an English divine, born in 
 Hampshire in 1749. In 1790 he was chosen professor 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
HOLMES 
 
 1201 
 
 HOLZER 
 
 ->f poetry at Oxford, and in 1804 Dean of Winchester. 
 He wrote odes, tracts, and sermons, and commenced an 
 edition of the Septuagint, which was finished by Parsons. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 Holmes, (Theophii.US H.,) an American general, 
 born in North Carolina, graduated at West Point in 
 1829. He became a general in the Confederate army 
 in 1S61, and commanded in Arkansas in 1862-63. Died 
 in August, 1S63. 
 
 Holmskiold, holm'ske-old', (Throdor,) a Danish 
 physician and naturalist, born in 1732. He published a 
 fine work on the Fungi in 1790. Died in 1793. 
 
 Holmstrom or Holmstrcem, holm'stRom, (Israel,) 
 a popular Swedish poet, born at Stockholm, followed 
 Charles XII. in his campaigns, with the title' of councillor 
 of war. Died in 1708. 
 
 Hol-o-fer'nei, an Assyrian general, who lived at an 
 uncertain epoch, and was killed by Judith, a patriotic 
 Jewess. 
 
 See the Apocryphal Book of Judith. 
 
 Hol'royd, (John Baker,) Earl of Sheffield, an English 
 political writer and military officer, born in Yorkshire in 
 1741. He edited some posthumous works of Gibbon. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 Hoist, hoist, (Hans Peter,) a Danish poet, born at 
 Copenhagen in 181 1. He published "National Ro- 
 mances," (1832,) " Poems," (" Digte," 1840,) and other 
 works, written in an elegant style. His poem called 
 "Adieu" ("Farvel," 1840) has been translated into 
 many languages. 
 
 See P. L. Moller, notice in the " Dansk Pantheon." 
 
 Holste. See IIoi.stenius. 
 
 Holstein, hol'stin, (Johan Ludwig,) a worthy Dan- 
 ish statesman, born at Ltibtz in 1694, became prime 
 minister in 1735, and president of the Royal Academy 
 of Sciences in [742. Died in 1763. 
 
 See Kofod Ancher, "Cursus Vitae Holsteinianas." 
 
 Hol-ste'nI-us, [Ger. pron. hol-sta'neos,] (Lucas,) 
 the Latin form of the name of Lucas Holste, (hol'steh,) 
 an eminent German scholar, born at Hamburg in 1596. 
 He studied at Leyden, and went to Paris, where he joined 
 the Roman Catholic Church in 1626. His friend Peiresc 
 recommended him to Cardinal Harberini, whom he ac- 
 companied to Rome in 1627. He became librarian to 
 Barberini in 1636, and librarian of the Vatican in the 
 pontificate of Innocent X. He projected great literary 
 works, some of which he left unfinished. In 1630 he 
 published a Greek and Latin edition of Porphyry's " Life 
 of Pythagoras," to which he added an excellent notice 
 of Porphyry. Among his other published works is 
 " Demophili, Democratis et Secundi Sententiae Morales 
 Gia>ce et Latine," ("The Moral Maxims of Demophilus, 
 Democrates, and Secundus, in Greek and Latin," with 
 note*, 1638.) Died in 1661. 
 
 See Wilkkns, " Leben des gelehrten Lucje Holstenii." 1723: 
 NiCKiiijv. "Mimoires," vol. xxxi. ; MOli.br, "Cimbria Literata;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Holt, (Francis Ludlow,) an English barrister, was 
 queen's counsel and vice-chancellor of Lancashire from 
 1826 to 1844. For many years he was editor of Bell's 
 "Weekly Messenger." Died in 1844. 
 
 Holt, (Sir John,) an eminent English judge, born at 
 Thame in December, 1642, was entered at Gray's Inn in 
 1658, and called to the bar in 1663. Having become 
 eminent in his profession, he was chosen recorder of 
 London; but for his firm opposition to the despotic 
 measures of James II. he was removed. He distin- 
 led himself in the Convention Parliament of 1688, 
 and at the accession of William III. was appointed lord 
 chief justice of the king's bench in 1689. In 1700 he 
 declined the office of lord chancellor. He performed 
 the duties of chief justice with wisdom, honour, and 
 courage, until the end of his life. "His name," says 
 Mackintosh, "never can be pronounced without venera- 
 tion as long as wisdom and integrity are revered among 
 men." Died in 1709. 
 
 See Lord Campbrli, "Lives of the Chief Justices;" "Life 
 of Sir John Holt," (anonymous,) 1764; Koss, "The Judges of 
 England." 
 
 Holt, (John,) an English writer and teacher, born in 
 Cheshire in 1742. He wrote, besides a few other works, 
 
 " Characters of the Kings and Queens of England," (3 
 vols., 17S6-88.) Died in 1801. 
 
 Holt, (Joseph,) an American minister of state, born 
 in Breckinridge county, Kentucky, about 1807. He 
 practised law at Louisville. In March, 1859, he was 
 appointed postmaster-general. He succeeded John B. 
 Floyd as secretary of war in December, i860, and by his 
 energy and zeal for the Union rendered important 
 services in the critical times which ensued. About Sep- 
 tember, 1862, he became judge-advocate-general of the 
 army. 
 
 Holte, holt, (John,) an English school-master, born 
 in Sussex about 1470, wrote the first Latin grammar 
 ever printed in F.ngiand, which was dated about 1497. 
 
 Holtei, von, ton hol'tl', (Karl,) a German poet and 
 dramatist, born at Breslau in 1797. He produced many 
 comedies and dramas, among which are "The Old 
 General," and "Glory and Poverty," a volume of poems, 
 ("Gedichte," 1826,) "German Songs," (1834,) and me- 
 moirs of his life, entitled" Forty Years,"(8 vols., 1843-50.) 
 
 Holty or Hoelty, hol'tee, (Ludwig Helnrich 
 Christoph,) an excellent German lyric poet, born at 
 Mariensee, near Hanover, in 1748. He studied at Got- 
 tingen, where he formed friendships with Voss, Stoll- 
 berg, and others. He supported l.imself for a time by 
 translating from the English, and giving lessons, until his 
 health failed. His elegies, idyls, and odes are admired 
 for tenderness of feeling, artless grace, and naivete. He 
 died prematurely in 1776. The first edition of his poems 
 appeared in 1783. 
 
 See J. M. Miller, " Etwas fiber Holty's Character," 1776: Bou- 
 terwek, "Geschichte der Poesie," etc.; Longfellow. "Poets 
 and Poetry of Europe ;" notice of Holty in ait edition of his works 
 published by Voss in 1804. 
 
 Holtzlinus, holts-lee'nus, (Jeremias, ) a German 
 philologist, born at Nuremberg; died at Leyden in 1641. 
 
 Holtzmaun, holts'man, (Adolf,) a German philolo- 
 gist, born at Carlsruhe in 1810, wrote, among other 
 works, " Indian Legends," (" Indische Sagen," 3 vols., 
 1845-47.) 
 
 fiol'well, (John Zephaniah,) born in Dublin in 171 1. 
 Having studied surgery, he went to India in 1732, and 
 became a member of the council at Calcutta about 1755. 
 He was one of those who survived the confinement in 
 the " Black Hole," of which he published a narrative, 
 (1757.) He succeeded Colonel Clive as Governor of 
 Bengal in 1759. Holwell also published "Interesting 
 Historical Events relative to Bengal and Hindostan, with 
 the Mythology of the Gentoos," (3 vols., 1764-71.) Died 
 in 1798. 
 
 Hol'y-day, (Barten,) D.D., an English divine, born 
 at Oxford in 1593, was chaplain to Charles I. He wrote 
 "Survey of the World," a poem, and translated Juve- 
 nal and Persius. Died in 1661. 
 
 Holyoak, hol'yok, (Francis,) an English clergyman, 
 born in Warwickshire about 1567, published a "Dic- 
 tionary of Latin Words," (1606,) which was enlarged 
 by his son Thomas. Died in 1653. 
 
 Holyoke, hol'yok, (Edward Augustus,) M.D., an 
 American physician, was born in Marblehead, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1728. He graduated at Harvard in 1746, 
 and for seventy-nine years followed his profession with 
 eminent success in Salem, where he died, March 31, 1829. 
 At the age of ninety-two he performed the operation of 
 paracentesis, and on his hundredth anniversary partook 
 of a public dinner given him by the physicians of Salem 
 and Boston. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Edward A. Holyoke," Boston, 18*9. 
 
 Hol'y-wood, Hall-fax, or Sao'ro Bos'co, (John.) 
 a noted mathematician of the thirteenth century, wis 
 professor of mathematics in the University of Paris, 
 The time and place of his birth are unknown. He wrote 
 a work entitled " De Sphaera Mundi." 
 
 Holzbauer, holts'b5w'?r, (Ignaz.) a German com- 
 , born in Vienna in 1711, produced operas, sym- 
 phonies, etc. " He has a good style," says Mozart, "and 
 composes very fine fugues." Died in 1783. 
 
 Holzer, holt's^r, (Johann,) an eminent German 
 fresco-painter and engraver, was born near Marienburg, 
 in the Tyrol, in 1709. He painted numerous frescos in 
 Augsburg of religious subjects, among which is "The 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as *; th as in this. 
 
 76 
 
 (UJP See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HOLZHAUSER 
 
 120Z 
 
 HOMER 
 
 Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian." He produced spirited 
 etchings of "The Adoration of the Magi," after Berg- 
 miiller, of the "Ecce Homo," after his own design, and 
 of other paintings. Died in 1740. 
 
 See Zapf, '* Holzers Leben," 1781, in Meusel's " Miscellanien 
 Artistischen Inhalts. " 
 
 Holzhauser, holts'how'zer, (Bartholomaus,) a Ger- 
 man devotee, born at Langenau in 1613, founded a com- 
 munity called " Bartholomaer." Died in 1658. 
 
 Homann, ho'man, (Johann Baptist,) a German 
 geographer and engraver of maps, born at Kamlach, in 
 Suabia, in 1664. He settled ill Nuremberg, and published 
 many maps, which were more than ordinarily accurate. 
 He formed a large collection of the same, under the title 
 of "Atlas," (1716.) His establishment, called "Officina 
 Homanniana," was well known throughout Europe. 
 Died in 1724. ' 
 
 Homberg, hom'b?RG, (Wilhelm,) M.D., an excel- 
 lent chemist, born of German parents at Batavia, in Java, 
 in 1652, came to Europe at an early age. He studied 
 chemistry and other natural sciences'with Otto Guericke 
 and Boyle, and visited the principal capitals of Europe 
 in pursuit of knowledge. About 1685 he practised medi- 
 cine at Rome with success, and in 1691 removed to 
 Paris, where he was chosen a member of the Academy 
 of Sciences, to which he contributed many memoirs. 
 He was patronized by the Duke of Orleans, who chose 
 him as his first physician. He discovered boracic acid 
 and Homberg's pyrophorus. Died in Paris in 1715. 
 
 See Fontenei.le, " Ejoge de Honiberg ;" Niceron, " M^- 
 moires ;" F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie," tome ii. ; " Nou- 
 velle Hiographie GeneYale." 
 
 Home, (David.) See Hume. 
 
 Home, (David,) a Scottish Protestant minister, who 
 lived in France during the reign of James I. of Eng- 
 land. He wrote "Apologia Basilica," (1626.) 
 
 Home, (Sir Everard,) an eminent Scottish surgeon, 
 born in the county of Berwick in 1756, studied medicine 
 with his brother-in-law, 'the celebrated John Hunter. 
 He practised in London with distinction, and was presi- 
 dent of the Royal College of Surgeons. He published 
 " Lectures on Comparative Anatomy," and other pro- 
 fessional works. Died in 1832. 
 
 Home, (Henry,) Lord Karnes, a Scottish judge, born 
 at Karnes in 1696, was called to the Edinburgh bar in 
 1724. After publishing several legal treatises, which 
 were well received, he was appointed in 1752 a judge of 
 the court of sessions, and took the title of Lord Karnes. 
 In 1758 he wrote a valuable work, entitled " Historical 
 Law Tracts." His greatest work, " Elements of Criti- 
 cism," (1762,) was regarded by some as an admirable per- 
 formance, and is highly commended by Dugald Stewart. 
 Dr. Johnson said, "The Scotchman has taken the right 
 method in his 'Elements of Criticism.'" He was ap- 
 pointed one of the lords of justiciary in 1763. Died in 1782. 
 
 See Lord Woodhouselee, " Memoirs of the Life of Henry 
 Home," 1807-10, 2 vols.; William Smellie, "Life of Lord 
 Karnes," 1800; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen." 
 
 Home or Hume, (John,) a popular Scottish drama- 
 tist, born at Ancrum in 1724. He was licensed to preach 
 in 1747, and settled at Athelstaneford. In 1756 he 
 became at once distinguished by the publication of his 
 " Tragedy of Douglas," which was performed first at Edin- 
 burgh with unbounded applause, and is still very popular 
 on the stage. " I think nobody can bestow too much praise 
 on Douglas," says Professor Wilson. "There has been 
 no English tragedy worthy of the name since it ap- 
 peared." It rendered the author so obnoxious to the 
 elders of the Kirk that he retired from the ministry. 
 He was patronized by the Earl of Bute, who procured 
 him a pension of £300. Home wrote several other 
 dramas, much inferior to "Douglas," and a "History of 
 the Rebellion in 1745." Mrs. Siddons once said "she 
 never found any study [which, in the technical language 
 of the stage, means the getting verses by heart] so easy 
 as that of Douglas." Died in 1808. 
 
 See Sir Walter Scott's critique on the "Life and Writings of 
 John Home," in the "Quarterly Review" for June, 1827; Henry 
 Mackenzie, "Life of John Home," prefixed to a collection of his 
 works, 3 vols. 8vo, 1822; " Noctes Ambrosianae" for April. 1822; 
 Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Ho'mer, [Gr. "Ojirifmc ; Lat. Home'rus ; Fr. Homere, 
 o'tnaiR'; Ger. Homer, ho-maR';* It. Omero, o-ma'ro,] 
 the reputed author of the two great epics the " Iliad" and 
 the "Odyssey," and the most celebrated poet that ever 
 lived, is generally supposed to have been born at Smyrna, 
 or Chios.t (Scio,) and to have flourished about one thou- 
 sand years before the Christian era; but both the place 
 and the century of his birth are involved in the greatest 
 uncertainty. The best ancient authorities, including 
 Aristotle and Aristarchtts, represent him as contemporary 
 with the Ionian migration which occurred about one 
 hundred and forty years after the Trojan war. Of the 
 two great poems above named, the " Iliad" has been 
 aptly called " the beginning of all literature." In the 
 opinion, indeed, of the greatest critics of antiquity, it was 
 not only the beginning, but the end ; it was not merely 
 the first attempt at the production of a great poem, but 
 the faultless model which excited alike the admiration and 
 despair of all succeeding poets. In the words of Aris- 
 totle, 'O/iiipoc . . . Aefet Kai diavoitt ■ku.vto; vneptisji'kijKe.X 
 " Hicbmnes sine dubio,"saysQuintilian,"in omni genere 
 eloquentiae procul a se reliquit."§ Some other ancient 
 writers speak in even stronger terms of praise. 
 
 Among the ancients, none appears ever to have doubted 
 that Homer was a real personage, and that he was the 
 author of the most wonderful poem of antiquity, (the 
 " Iliad.") But before or about the time of the Christian 
 era there was a class of critics who denied that the 
 " Iliad" and " Odyssey" were the productions of the same 
 author. They were called Xupi^nvrer, or "Separators." 
 It cannot be denied that there is a remarkable difference 
 between those works, not in one or two points only, but 
 in several important respects. Perhaps the most striking 
 difference is that which exists in respect to the character 
 of the gods in the two poems. The gods of the " Iliad" 
 are completely human in their character, — unless it be 
 that they have more than human foibles or vices. They 
 are capricious and selfish, and seldom, if ever, show 
 much regard for justice. The deities of the "Odyssey" 
 appear as the rewarders of merit and the avengers of 
 sin or crime. There is, moreover, a marked difference 
 in the spirit or tone of the two poems. To explain this 
 difference, Longinus tells us that the "Iliad" was com- 
 posed by Homer when he was in the vigour of life, while 
 the " Odyssey" was the production of his old age. 
 
 Modern critics had seemed disposed to leave the ques- 
 tion of Homer's age and the authorship of the Homeric 
 poems very much where they had been left by the writers 
 of antiquity, until a little before the close of the last cen- 
 tury, when F. A. Wolf startled the world by announcing 
 a new theory respecting the Homeric poems, (1795.) He 
 maintained that, as writing was not in use among the 
 Greeks until long after the time in which those poems 
 must have been composed, it would have been wholly 
 impossible for any poet, however great his genius, to 
 compose and retain in memory even ot;e such work as 
 the "Iliad" or "Odyssey." For this and other reasons, 
 he concludes that the two great epics which go under the 
 name of Homer were really produced by a number of 
 different authors, and that these separate productions 
 were, after the introduction of the art of writing, thrown 
 
 * See principles of German pronunciation, in the Introduction. 
 
 t If the weight of authorities is in favour of Smyrna, the greater 
 number would seem to be on the side of Chios. (See Smith's " Clas- 
 sical Dictionary,") Byron appears to give the preference to the lat- 
 ter ; for he calls Homer 
 
 "The blind old man of Scio's rocky isle." 
 
 Bride of Abydos, canto ii 
 
 It has been suggested (and it seems highly probable) that Homer, 
 though born at Smyrna, may have afterwards removed to Chios, 
 where his family, or a branch of it, (the Homerid.-e,) are said to have 
 lived for several generations. Seven different cities are said to have 
 disputed for the honour of having given birth to Homer, as expressed 
 in the following couplet by Antipater of Sidon: 
 
 'Ettto. iroAei? fiapvavro ao^rjv 6ta pi^av 'O/xiflpou, 
 Sftvpi'a, XttK, KoAo^uh-, 19aKjj, IlvAos, "Apyos, 'Adr/vat. 
 Literally, "Seven cities (or states) contended for the wise race 01 
 Homer, [i.e. the race or origin of the wise Homer,] Smyrna, Chios, 
 Colophon, Ithaca, Pylos, Argos, and Athens." Some writers substi- 
 tute Salamis for Ithaca. 
 
 + " Homer has surpassed all [otherwriters] in diction (or expres- 
 sion) and in thought." 
 
 § " In every kind of eloquence he undoubtedly has left all [others 
 far behind him." 
 
 a. e. T. o, ii, y. long • 4. e. o. same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; m§t; not; gdod; moon 
 
HOMER 
 
 1203 
 
 HONDEKOETER 
 
 together as they happened to fit, so as to form a continu- 
 ous whole. The inconclusiveness, not to say absurdity, 
 of such a train of reasoning must, we think, be obvious 
 to every unbiassed mind. We meet, even now, with 
 persons who by two or three perusals can commit to 
 memory the whole of such a poem as the " Lady of the 
 Lake." "Who can determine," says Miiller, "how 
 many thousand verses one thoroughly filled with his sub- 
 ject . . . might produce in a year and confide to the 
 faithful memory of disciples devoted to their master and 
 his art ?" When we take into consideration the fact 
 that the mental activity of the ancients, instead of being 
 divided and diluted among an endless variety of studies 
 or pursuits, was concentrated and constantly exercised 
 on a comparatively few, the retaining of even two such 
 works as the "Iliad" and "Odyssey" will not, perhaps, 
 seem more incredible than many feats of memory which 
 are known to have been performed in modern times. 
 Nor must it be forgotten that the poetry of Homer k unlike 
 that of many of our great modern poets, is, generally 
 speaking, remarkable for the simplicity and directness of 
 its language ; and these qualities, added to the marvellous 
 facility and animation of the narrative, render the verse 
 extremely easy to be learned and retained in memory. 
 
 The consummate art with which the various parts of 
 the " Iliad" (though sometimes seemingly disconnected) 
 are arranged and adapted so as to delay the denouement 
 and yet to heighten the interest till near the very end, 
 proves the poem to have been, beyond all reasonable 
 doubt, the work of one master-mind. But this master- 
 mind may very probably have used materials prepared 
 for him by preceding poets, just as the consummate 
 architect, when erecting an edifice designed to be the 
 admiration of all coming time, may avail himself of the 
 materials, and, for subordinate parts of the building, even 
 of the designs, furnished by inferior workmen. There 
 seem, indeed, to be strong reasons for believing that 
 before the time of Homer there existed many poems 
 treating of the events of the Trojan war, and that he, in 
 selecting and combining the facts necessary to the plot 
 of his great work, occasionally adopted some of the finest 
 lines of his predecessors, at the same time changing or 
 adapting others to suit his purpose, so as to give the 
 whole poem the impress of his matchless skill and tran- 
 scendent genius. This supposition will perhaps best 
 explain the introduction into the poem of such a great 
 variety of words or phrases differing in different parts of 
 the work, as well as the marked diversity of dialects. It 
 is well known that Shakspeare used freely, in some of 
 his historic dramas, not only the ideas, but, in repeated 
 instances, the very lines, of some of the poets that had 
 gone before him. At other times he appears to have 
 adopted some of the leading ideas, and perhaps many 
 of the expressions, of previous dramatists, and yet to 
 have so cast them into the mould of his own mind, and so 
 coloured them with the hues of his wonderful imagina- 
 tion, that he may be said to have surpassed the fabled 
 achievements of the alchemists, and transmuted his crude 
 materials into something far more precious than gold. 
 
 But, while we claim it as a point established, that the 
 " Iliad" is virtually and essentially the production of a 
 single poet, we must admit that the question is still un- 
 decided whether the same Homer was also the author 
 of the "Odvssey." "If," says the learned and accom- 
 plished critic already quoted, "the completion of the 
 ' Iliad' and ' Odyssey' seems too vast a work for one 
 man, we may perhaps have recourse to the supposition 
 that Homer, after having sung the ' Iliad' in the vigour of 
 his youthful years, in his old age communicated to some 
 devoted disciple the plan of the ' Odyssey,' which had long 
 been working in his mind, and left it to him for comple- 
 tion." (K. O. Muller's " History of Greek Literature.") 
 
 The prevailing belief that Homer was blind appears to 
 have taken its origin from one of the so-called Homeric 
 hymns addressed to the Delian Apollo, the author of 
 which calls himself the blind poet who lived in rocky 
 Chios. The hymn in question was considered by some 
 of the most judicious of the ancient writers to be the 
 production of Homer himself; but this view is not ac- 
 cepted by the best modern critics. The wonderful accu- 
 racy of many of the descriptions in the "Iliad" utterly 
 
 precludes the idea of their having been written by a 
 poet who had not himself been an eye-witness of the 
 scenes which he paints so admirably. But he might, per- 
 haps, have described in his blind old age scenes which 
 had been indelibly stamped upon his memory in youth 
 or early manhood. (See, on the various questions con- 
 nected with the Homeric poems, Colonel W. Mure's 
 Critical History of the Literature, etc. of Ancient 
 Greece," (1850,) and the able article on " Homerus," in 
 Smith's " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.") 
 See, in addition to the works referred to in the article, OloP 
 Celsius, "Dissertatio de Homeri Vita et Scriptis," 1714 ; Ludolpl 
 Kuestek, " Historia critica Homeri," 1696; Thomas Blackwkix, 
 "Enquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer." 1735 ; Koppen, 
 " Ueber Homer's l.eben nnd Gesange," 1788 ; Carl Ernst Schu- 
 barth, " Ideen iiber Homer und sein Zeitalter," 1821 ; Matthias 
 Asp, " Disputationes de Homero," 1714; J. E. Tlkr, "Homerus 
 en zijn Schriften," 1810; Alphonse i>e Lamartine, " Homere," 
 1852 : Fortia d'Urban, " Homere et ses Fxrits," 1832 : Bernard 
 Thiersch, " Das Zeitalter des Homer," 1824; J. Paschius, "Dis- 
 sertatio de Poetarum Principe Homero," 1687; Edouahd Juste, 
 " Dissertation sur l'Origine des Poemes attributes a Homere,' 1849 ; 
 " Homer and his Successors in Epic Poetry," in the " London Quar- 
 terly Review" for January, 1857; Matthew Arnold's admirable 
 observations "On Translating Homer," in his " Essays," 1865. 
 
 Ho'mer, (Rev. Henry,) an English scholar, born at 
 Birdingbury in 1752, was educated at Cambridge. He 
 edited several Latin authors, and, in partnership with 
 Dr. Combe, published a complete edition of Horace. 
 Died in 1791. 
 
 Homere. See Homer. 
 
 Homeridae, ho-mer'e-dee, (singular, Ho-mgrT-des,) 
 or Ho'mer-ids, the name applied to the family of the 
 poet Homer. (See Homer, note t.) 
 
 Homerus. See Ho.mkr. 
 
 Homes or Holmes, homz, (Nathaniel,) D.D., an 
 English theologian, ejected for nonconformity in 1662, was 
 a believer in the fifth monarchy. He wrote the " Resur- 
 rection Revealed," and other works. Died in 1678. 
 
 Ho-mil'I-us, [Ger. pron. ho-mee'le-us,] (Gottfried 
 August,) an eminent German organist and composer of 
 church music, born at Rosenthal, in Bohemia, in 1714. 
 Among his best works are a cantata for Christmas, and 
 a number of motets. He was organist and director of 
 music at Dresden. Died in 1785. 
 
 Hommaiie de Hell, ho'm&v.' deh //el, (Ignace 
 Xavier Morand,) a French geologist, born at Altkirch 
 in 1812, explored the regions which border on the Black 
 and Caspian Seas, and left an account of his travels, in 
 3 vols. Died at Ispahan in 1848. 
 
 Hommel, hom'mel, [Lat. Homme'lius,] (Karl Fer- 
 dinand,) a learned jurist and ingenious writer, born at 
 Leipsic in 1722. He became professor of feudal law at 
 Leipsic in 1752, and of civil institutes in 1756. Among 
 his works are " Literatura Juris," (1 761,) a very piquant 
 treatise on legal literature, " Rhapsodia Quaestionum in 
 Foroquotidie obvenientum," ("Questions occurring daily 
 in the Forum," 5 vols., 1765-79 ; 4th edition, 7 vols., 
 1787,) and "Sceleton Juris civilis," ("Skeleton of Civil 
 Law," 4th edition, 1767.) Died in 1781. 
 
 See Ernesti, " Hnmmelii Memoria," 1783, and Rossig, "Vita 
 Hommetii," 1782, both of which may be found in the 7th vol. of 
 Hommel's "Rhapsodia," 1787; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ie'rale." 
 
 Hommelius. See Hommel. 
 
 Hompesch, von, fon hom'pSsh, (Ferdinand,) the 
 last grand master of the Knights of Malta, was born at 
 Dusseltlorf in 1744; died in 1803. . 
 
 Honain, (or Honein,) ho-nin', (Aboo-Yezeed or 
 Abu- (Abou-) Yezid, a'boo yeh-zecd',) otherwise 
 called Honain-Ben-Ishak, (ben is'hak',) an Arabian 
 physician, born at Heerah, (Hirah,) in Mesopotamia, lived 
 mostly at Bagdad. Died about 875 A.D. I le translated 
 into Arabic the works of Hippocrates, Galen, Euclid, etc 
 
 See Ibn-Khai.likan, " Biographical Dictionary ;" Haji-Khalfa, 
 " Lexicon Bibliographicum." 
 
 Hondekoeter, hon'deh-koo'ter, (Giles,) a noted 
 Dutch landscape-painter, born at Utrecht in 1583, was 
 the son of the Marquis of Westerloo. He often added 
 to his landscapes highly-finished figures c.f birds. 
 
 Hondekoeter, (GVSBRECHT,) a son of the preceding, 
 and a painter of poultry, was born in 1613 ; died in 1653. 
 
 Hondekoeter, (Mklchiok,) an excellent painter 
 son of the preceding, was born at Utrecht in 1636. He 
 studied with his father and his uncle, John B. Weenix. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as »; th as in this. (OySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HONDIUS 
 
 1204 
 
 HOOD 
 
 He painted poultry, pea-fowls, and other birds, with a 
 skill that has never been surpassed. The backgrounds 
 of his pictures are adorned with beautiful landscapes. 
 Among his works is "The Entrance of the Animals into 
 the Ark." Died in 1695. 
 
 See Jakob Campo Weyekman, "De Schilderkonst der Neder- 
 landers." 
 
 Hondius, hon'de-us, or Hondt, h6nt, (Abraham,) a 
 Dutch painter and engraver, born at Rotterdam in 1638. 
 He painted hunting-scenes, animals, and landscapes 
 with success. " He often equals the best masters," says 
 Descamps. Among his works are "The Burning of 
 Troy," and " The Animals entering the Ark." He worked 
 some years in England, where he died about 1692. 
 
 Hondius, (Hendkik,) an engraver of maps and por- 
 traits, born at Ghent in 1573. His principal work is a 
 series of portraits of one hundred and forty-four artists, 
 mostly Flemings. He also engraved some pictures by 
 Albert Durer and Holbein. Died at the Hague in 1610. 
 
 See Basan. " Dictionnaire des Graveurs ;" Strutt, " Dictionary 
 of Engravers." 
 
 Hondius or De Hondt, deh hint, (Henry,) called 
 the Younger, born in London in 1580, was accounted 
 the best engraver of the family. He engraved portraits, 
 landscapes, and history after several Flemish painters. 
 Among his works are portraits of Queen Elizabeth and 
 James I. Died at Amsterdam about 1650. 
 
 See Basan, "Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Hondius orDe Hondt, (JossEor Jono'cus,) a skilful 
 Flemish engraver and geographer, born at Wacken about 
 1550, was the father of the preceding. He had a high 
 reputation as an engraver on copper. He worked in 
 London, and afterwards settled in Amsterdam, where he 
 engraved maps of superior quality, and published new 
 editions of the "Grand Atlas" of Mercator. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Hondt, hint, (Wii.lem,) a Flemish engraver, a bro- 
 ther of Henry the Younger, born at the Hague in 1601. 
 
 Hone, ho'neh, (Georg Paul,) a German lawyer, born 
 at Nuremberg in 1662, wrote "Iter Juridicum," and other 
 works. Died in 1747. 
 
 Hone, (Nathaniel,) a portrait-painter, born in Dub- 
 lin about 1730; died in 1784. 
 
 Hone, (William,) an English writer, born at Bath in 
 1779, resided in London, and failed several times as a 
 bookseller. He wrote "The Political House that Jack 
 Built," a satire, which was illustrated by Cruikshank 
 and ran through fifty editions. He was prosecuted for 
 his Parody on the Liturgy in 1818, and, having ably 
 defended himself, was acquitted. In 1826 he began to 
 issue in weekly numbers his " Every-Day Book," which 
 had a large sale, and was commended by Professor 
 Wilson, Scott, Lamb, and Southey. It was followed by 
 the " Table-Book" and the " Year-Hook," which were 
 well received, but did not save the author from insol- 
 vency. He was in prison for debt about three years. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 See "The Early Life and Conversion of William Hone," written 
 by himself. 
 
 Honestis, (Petrus re.) See Damianl 
 
 Honeywood, hiin'ne-wood, (Saint John,) an Amer- 
 ican poet, born in Massachusetts in 1765 ; died in 1798. 
 
 See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America," 
 
 Honore de Sainte-Marie, o'no'ra' deh saNt'mS're', 
 [Lat. Honorius de. Sancta Maria,] called, after he 
 entered the cloister, Blaise Vauxelle, (v5-s§]',) a 
 learned monk, born at Limoges in 1651 ; died in 1729. 
 
 Ho-no'rI-us I., a native of Campania, was elected 
 Pope or Bishop of Rome in 626 a.i». He is charged 
 with assenting to the heresy of Monothelism. The Council 
 of Constantinople, held in 680, condemned his doctrine 
 on this point. Died in 638. 
 
 Honorius II., Pope, previously known as Cardinal 
 Lamberto and Bishop of Ostia, succeeded Calixtus II. 
 in 1 124. Tebaldus was chosen pope at the same time 
 by a number of bishops, but forbore to contest his 
 claim. Honorius died in 1 130. 
 
 Honorius III, elected Pope in 12 16, was a Roman 
 by birth. His proper name was Cencio Savelli. He 
 crowned Frederick II. Emperor of Germany in 1220, in 
 the hope that he would lead a crusade against the Turks. 
 He was more successful in instigating the King of France 
 
 to a crusade against the Albigenses. He died in 1227, 
 and was succeeded by Gregory IX. 
 
 Honorius IV., Pope, (Cardinal Giacomo Savelli,) 
 a native of Rome, was elected in 1285 as successor to 
 Martin IV. Died in 1287. 
 
 Ho-no'rI-us, (Fi.avius,) a Roman emperor, the sec- 
 ond son of Theodosius the Great, was born at Constan- 
 tinople in 384 A.n. At the death of his father, in 395, he 
 inherited the Western Empire, (his elder brother Arca- 
 dius having obtained the Eastern,) under the guardian- 
 ship of Stilicho, a famous general, whose daughter he 
 married. His court was held at Milan, and afterwards 
 at Ravenna. About 402 Alaric the Goth invaded Italy, 
 and was defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia. In 408 Stili- 
 cho was put to death by order of Honorius, who was a 
 man of weak and vicious character. From this event 
 may be dated the fall of the Roman power. Rome 
 was taken and pillaged by Alaric in 410, and the empire 
 went rapidly to ruin. He died, without issue, in 423, 
 and was succeeded by Valentinian III. 
 
 See Girbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire;" Sozomkn, " Historia Ecclesiastica;" Jornandes, "De 
 Rebus Geticis ;" Tiixemont, "Histoire des Empereurs." 
 
 Honorius de Sancta Maria. See Honors de 
 Sainte-Marie. 
 
 Hontheim, von, fon hont'hlm, (Johann Nikolaus,) 
 a German jurist and Catholic priest, born at Treves in 
 1701. He became Bishop ( in partibns ) of Myriophis in 
 1748, and suffragan of the see of Treves. He published 
 under the pseudonym of Justinius Febronius a famous 
 book against the usurpations of the popes, entitled " De 
 Statu Ecclesiae et legitima Potestate Romani Pontificis," 
 (5 vols., 1763,) which was often reprinted. Died in 1790. 
 
 Honthorst. hint'horst, or Hundhorst, hunt'hoRst, 
 (Gerard,) a Flemish painter, called also by the Italians 
 Gkrardo deli.a Notte, ("Gerard of the Night,") be- 
 cause he excelled in nocturnal scenes. He was born at 
 Utrecht in 1592, and was a pupil of A. Bloemaert. He 
 worked in Rome and in England, where he painted 
 portraits of the royal family and gained a high repu- 
 tation. Among his works is "The Prodigal Son." He 
 was a good colorist, and excelled in design. Died at 
 the Hague in 1660. His brother Willem was a suc- 
 cessful portrait-painter. Died at Berlin in 1683, aged 
 about eighty. 
 
 See Pilkington, "Dictionary of Painters;" Descamps, "Vies 
 des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Hood, hood, (Alexander,) Viscount Bridport, an 
 English naval officer, was a younger brother of Lord 
 Samuel Hood, noticed below. After having gained dis- 
 tinction in subordinate stations, he was made rear- 
 admiral in 1780. In 1784 he was second in command 
 under Lord Howe, in the Channel fleet. The next year 
 he took three French ships, and in 1796 succeeded 
 Lord Howe as commander of the fleet. In 1801 he 
 was raised to the peerage, as Viscount Bridport. Died 
 in 1814. 
 
 Hood, (Edwin Paxton,) an English dissenting min- 
 ister, born at Weston about 1820. He wrote numerous 
 works, among which are " Self-Formation," and " Wil- 
 liam Wordsworth," a biography, (1856.) 
 
 Hood, hood, (John B.,) an American general, born 
 in Bath county, Kentucky, in 1831, graduated at West 
 Point in 1853. He commanded a division of Lee's army 
 at Antietam, September, 1862, and at Gettysburg, July 
 1-3, 1863. He lost a leg at the battle of Chickamauga, 
 September 20, 1863, soon after which he was promoted 
 to be a lieutenant-general. In the spring of 1864 he 
 commanded a corps of the army opposed to General 
 Sherman in Northern Georgia. He succeeded General 
 Johnston in July as commander-in-chief of that army, 
 which was then near Atlanta. General Johnston was 
 removed because he had adhered to a cautious and de- 
 fensive policy. Hood assumed the offensive, and attacked 
 General Sherman on the 22d of July, and again on the 
 28th, but was repulsed with heavy loss. He was com- 
 pelled to abandon Atlanta on the 1st of September, 1864. 
 (See Sherman, W. T.) After he had damaged the rail- 
 road by which Sherman's army was supplied, General 
 Hood invaded Middle Tennessee, attacked Generai 
 Schofield at Franklin, November 30, and besieged Nash- 
 
 a. e, T, 6, u, y, long : a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mlt;n6t; good; moon; 
 
HOOD 
 
 120; 
 
 HOOK 
 
 ville. He was defeated on the 16th of December, 1864, 
 by General Thomas, at the decisive battle of Nashville, 
 where he lost fifty pieces of cannon, and was relieved of 
 the command in January, 1865. 
 
 See " Southern Generals," New York, 1865. 
 
 Hood, (Robin,) a famous English outlaw, who is sup- 
 posed to have lived in the reign of Richard I. Sherwood 
 Forest was his head-quarters. His exploits are the sub- 
 ject of many popular ballads, which applaud his gal- 
 lantry to the ladies and his generosity in sharing among 
 the poor the spoils of the rich. He was the chief of a 
 nuniLiuus band, who seem to have lived chiefly on the 
 products of the chase. 
 
 See W. YV. Campbell, " Historical Sketch of Robin Hood and 
 Captain Kirld," New York, 1853; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 
 1*4- ; " Noith American Review" for January, 1S57. 
 
 Hood, (SAMUEL,) Viscount, an English admiral, 
 bom at IJutley in 1724, entered the navy in 1740, and 
 became captain in 1754. In 1780 he was made a rear- 
 admiral, and was second in command in the West Indies. 
 The next year he succeeded Rodney in command of the 
 fleet, with which he fought l)e Grasse near the mouth of 
 the Chesapeake, but failed to relieve the British army at 
 Yorktown. He took part in the victory over De Grasse 
 in April, 1782, and was rewarded with the title of Baron 
 Hood of Catherington. In 1784, after a close contest 
 with Fox, he was elected to Parliament, and in 1788 ap- 
 pointed a lord of the admiralty. In 1793 he commanded 
 against the French in the Mediterranean and at the siege 
 of Toulon. He was made, in 1796, Viscount Hood of 
 Whitley, and afterwards an admiral. Hied in 1816. 
 
 See Campbell, " Lives of British Admirals." 
 
 Hood, (Sir Samuei,) cousin of the preceding, was a 
 vice-admiral in the British navy, and a brave and skilful 
 officer. He took part in the victory of Rodney over De 
 Grasse in 1782, and in the battle of the Nile, (1798.) In 
 1806 he was returned to Parliament for Westminster, 
 and captured three French ships near Rochefort. He 
 wai afterwards appointed to command in the East Indies, 
 where he died in 1814. 
 
 Hood, (THOMAS,) a famous English humourist and 
 popular author, born in London in 1798, was the son of 
 a bookseller. He served an apprenticeship to an en- 
 graver, but soon exchanged that employment for literary 
 pursuits, In 1S21 he became sub-editor of the " London 
 Magazine," by which he gained access to the society of 
 many author* who have since risen to eminence. His 
 "Whims and Oddities" (1826) displayed an abundant 
 vein of inimitable wit and comic power. He issued the 
 " Comic Annual" from 1830 to 1842, which was followed 
 bv his •• Comic Album," " Whimsicalities," and " Hood's 
 Own." His tales and novels were less successful than 
 his humorous works. Among his most popular poems 
 are the " Song of the Shirt," (which first appeared in 
 " Punch,") the " Bridge of Sighs," and the " Dream of 
 Eugene Aram." He was editor of "The Gem" for one 
 year, and, in the latter years of his life, editor of the 
 " New Monthly Magazine." Like poor Yorick, he was 
 "a fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy." As 
 a punster he is unrivalled. Some of his serious poems 
 are exquisitely tender and pathetic. In 1844 he began to 
 "Hood's Magazine," for which he wrote until his 
 last illness. A pension of £100 which had been granted 
 to him was transferred to his widow. Died in 1845. 
 
 See "Life of Hood." bv his children, i860; E. P Whipple, 
 tya ami Reviewa;" K. H. Hornr, " New Spirit of the Age," 
 iR 4< : ''Edinburgh Review" for April, 1846; "Quarterly Review 
 for October. 1863: "Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1827; 
 "London Magazine" for December, 1826; " British Quarterly Re- 
 view" for October, 1867. 
 
 Hooft, hoft, (Niki.aas,) a Dutch historical painter, 
 born at the Hague in 1664; died in 1748. 
 
 Hooft or Hoofft, (1'iKiF.R CoKNF.i.is,) an excellent 
 Dutch poet and historian, born in Amsterdam in March, 
 1581. After leaving college he travelled in France and 
 Italy, and filled several civil offices. He published about 
 1602 "Granida," a tragi-comedv, which is a master-piece. 
 He wrote other dramas, and erotic poems of great 
 merit, and translated Tacitus into Dutch. His chief 
 prose works are a " Life of Henry IV. of France," (1626,) 
 and a " I listory of the Netherlands,"!" De Ncderlandsche 
 Hntorien," 2 vols., 1642-54,) which is esteemed a model 
 
 of grace, purity, and vigour, both in thought and style. 
 He has the honour of rendering his vernacular language 
 more polished and classical than it was before his time. 
 He was a friend of Grotius. " Though deeply religious," 
 says the " Biographie Universelle," "he never ranged 
 himself under the banner of any outward communion." 
 Died in 1647. 
 
 See Eksch und Grubkr, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" and Van 
 Kampkn's article on " Hollandiscne Sprache und Literatur," in the 
 same work ;aIso,"Nouvelle Biographie Geherale;" Jan van Keuyff, 
 " Lofreden of P. C. Hooft," 1S10; Jacob Koning, " Geschiedenis 
 van het Slot te Muideli, en Hoofts Leven op het zelve," 1827 : Van 
 Hbusdb, " Commentatio literaria de Hooftio cum Tacito comparato," 
 1S3S; Longfellow. "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Eraser's 
 Magazine" for March, 1854. 
 
 Hooge, de, deb. ho'ceh or ho'neh, written alsoHoogh, 
 (Pieter,) a Dutch painter of genre, born about 1644. 
 Little is known of his history. His colour is good, his 
 design correct, and his manner natural. He represents 
 the effects of light with great skill. Among his works 
 (which command high prices) are a " Supper," an " In- 
 terior," and a "Guard-Room." Died in 1708. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Holiandais," etc. 
 
 Hooge or Hooghe, de, (Romeyn,) an eminent Dutch 
 designer and engraver, was born at the Hague about 1640, 
 or, as others say, about 1650. He worked for a long time 
 in Paris, and passed his latter years at the Hague. He 
 had a rich imagination and great facility, but was deficient 
 in correctness. Among his works are " The Entrance of 
 Louis XIV. into Dunkirk," and "The Assassination of 
 De Witt." Died in 1725. 
 
 See J. C. Weyerman. "De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders." 
 
 Hoogeveeii, h6'geh-van' or ho'neh-van', sometimes 
 written Hoogeven, (HenDRIK,) a Dutch Hellenist, born 
 at Leyden in 1 712, was successively rector of the gym- 
 nasiums of Breda, Dort, and Delft, and was an excellent 
 grammarian. He is the author of a valuable treatise 
 on "Greek Particles," (" Doctrina Particularum Lingua? 
 Graecas," 2 vols., 1769,) and "Dictionarium Analogrturn 
 Lingua; Graecae," (Cambridge, 1800.) Died in 1791. 
 
 SeeERscH und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Harless, 
 " Vitae Philologorum." 
 
 Hoogstaad, van, vfn hoc'stSt', (Gerart,) a Flemish 
 painter of history and portraits, born at Brussels, was 
 living in 1661. 
 
 Hoogstraaten, van, vin hor/stRa'ten, (David,) a 
 Dutch scholar, a nephew of the following, was born at 
 Rotterdam in 1658, and became a classical professor at 
 Amsterdam. He compiled a I^tin-Dutch Dictionary, 
 (1704,) and wrote several elegant Latin poems, " Poe- 
 mata," (1 710.) Died in 1724. 
 
 Hoogstraaten, van, (Samuei.,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at Dort in 1627, was a pupil of Rembrandt, and 
 the master of Houbraken. He painted portraits, land- 
 scapes, etc. with success, and wrote a good work on the 
 theory of painting. Died in 1678. 
 
 His father, Dirck, born at Antwerp in 1596, was also 
 a skilful landscape-painter. Died in 1640. 
 
 See Pilkington's " Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Hoogvliet, hoc/vleetor hoH'vleet, (Arnold,) a popu- 
 lar Dutch poet, born at Vlaardingen in 1687, was edu- 
 cated for a merchant, and held the position of cashier in 
 his native place. His reputation is founded on an epic 
 poem, called "Abraham the Patriarch," (1727,) which 
 was received with extraordinary and durable favour. 
 "No book in Dutch literature," says Marron, J'hM 
 been honoured with a more decided national adoption." 
 (" Biographie Universelle.") He afterwards published a 
 collection of poems on various subjects, which are not 
 unworthy of his name. Died in 1 763. 
 
 See Jan van Kruvff, "Leven van A. Hoogvliet," 1782; W11.- 
 LRM Terpstra, "Oratiode A. Hoogvlietio Poeta," 1816. 
 
 Hoogzaat, hoc/zlt, (Jan,) an able Dutch painter, 
 bom at Amsterdam in 1664. He decorated the chateau 
 of Loo for William III. of England Died in 1712. 
 
 Hook, hook, (James,) an English composer and mu- 
 sician, born at Norwich in 1746. He was employed as 
 organist at Vauxhall Garden, London, for many years, 
 and composed numerous popular ballads, songs, con- 
 , etc. Died in 1827. 
 
 Hook, (James,) I.L.D., an English writer, brother of 
 Theodore E. Hook, was born in London about 1 771. He 
 was educated for the church, and in 1825 was appointed 
 
 e as i; 9 as j; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; § as t; th as in this. (JrySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HOOK 
 
 1206 
 
 HOOKER 
 
 Dean of Worcester. His principal works are two 
 novels, called " Pen Owen" and " Percy Mallory." Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Hook, (James Clarke,) an English historical painter, 
 born about 1820. In the early part of his career he 
 painted subjects from Italian history, among which are 
 " Bianca Capello," and a " Dream of Venice." He after- 
 wards produced "The Defeat of Shylock," (1851,) and 
 other scenes from Shakspeare. He became a Royal 
 Academician in 1859. 
 
 Hook, (Theodore Edward,) born in London in 
 1788, was the son of James, the musical composer, noticed 
 above. He was an excellent vocalist, an expert mimic, 
 and a prodigy of colloquial power. In 1805 he wrote 
 "The Soldier's Return," an operatic farce, which was 
 very successful. He was addicted to punning, to extrava- 
 gant dissipation, and to audacious practical jokes. His 
 brilliant wit and marvellous faculty of improvisation 
 rendered him an idol of the gay world, and commended 
 him to the favour of the prince-regent, who procured his 
 appointment in i8l2as treasurer to the colony of Mauri- 
 tius, with a salary of about ^2000. In 1818, a large de- 
 ficit being found in his treasure-chest, he was sent home 
 charged with peculation. The legal inquiry, however, 
 proved nothing against him except a culpable negligence 
 of his official duties. In 1820 he became editor of the 
 "John Bull" newspaper, which was very successful in a 
 pecuniary respect and obtained great notoriety. Among 
 his most popular works are " Sayings and Doings," (of 
 which he issued three series,) " Maxwell," a novel, and 
 " Gilbert Gurney," a novel, which contains an autobiog- 
 raphy of himself. In 1836 he was editor of the "New 
 Monthly Magazine." Died in 1841. 
 
 See R. H. Barham, "Life and Writings of Theodore Hook," 
 184S; "Life of T. Hook," from the "Quarterly Review," London, 
 1852; R. H. Hokne, "New Spirit of the Age." 1844: "Quarterly 
 Review" for May, 1843, (vol. Ixxii. ;) " Noctes Ambrosianse ;" Mom, 
 " Poetical Literature of the Past Half-Century;" Samuel Smiles, 
 "Brief Biographies;" "Memories of Authors," in the "Atlantic 
 Monthly" for April, 1865. 
 
 Hook, (Walter Farquhar,) an English theologian, 
 a nephew of the preceding, was born in London in 
 1798. He became vicar of Leeds in 1837, and Dean 
 of Chichester in 1859. Among his works are "Hear 
 the Church," (28th edition, 1838,) "Ecclesiastical Biog- 
 raphy," (8 vols., 1845-52,) "Church Dictionary," (7th 
 edition, 1854,) and "Lives of the Archbishops of Can- 
 terbury," (of which the first volume was published in 
 i860, and the seventh appeared in 1868, — not yet finished, 
 1869.) He is noted for his zeal and success in the cause 
 of church extension. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1862. 
 
 Hooke, hook, (Nathaniel,) a Roman Catholic his- 
 torian, born about 1690, was an intimate friend of Pope the 
 poet. His principal work is "The Roman History from 
 the Building of Rome to the End of the Commonwealth," 
 (4 vols. 4to, 1733-71,) which was often reprinted, and is 
 commended as a faithful compilation. He was employed 
 by Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough, as editor of her 
 Memoirs, (1742.) Died in 1764. 
 
 Hooke, (Robert,) M.D., an English philosopher, 
 born at Freshwater, in the Isle of Wight, in 1635, and 
 noted for his inventive faculty, mechanical genius, and 
 scientific acquirements. In 1662 he was chosen curator 
 of experiments to the Royal Society, of which he was 
 a Fellow, and afterwards secretary. About 1666 he 
 became professor of geometry in Gresham College, and 
 city surveyor of London. Among his multifarious 
 accomplishments was skill in architecture, which he 
 exercised in drawing the plan of Bedlam and other 
 public buildings in London. He wrote many memoirs 
 on various branches of natural science. He had a 
 dispute with Hevelius on the subject of the telescope, 
 and attacked Newton's theory of light and colours. 
 He claimed the invention of the barometer, quadrant, 
 balance-spring for watches, etc. Died in 1702. 
 
 See "Kiographia Britannica ;" Waller, "Life of R. Hooke;" 
 Wood, "Gresham Professors." 
 
 Hook'er, (Herman,) an American Episcopalian di- 
 vine, born at Poultney, Rutland county, Vermont. He 
 published, among other works, "The Portion of the 
 Soul," etc., (1835,) "The Philosophy of Unbelief in 
 
 Morals and Religion," arid "Uses of Adversity," (1846.) 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 See Gkiswold, " Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Hook'er, (hook'er,) otherwise called V6w'ell, 
 (John,) M.P., an English historian, born at Exeter 
 about 1524, was uncle of Richard Hooker, noticed 
 below. He represented Exeter in Parliament in 1571. 
 He compiled a large part of Holinshed's "Chronicles," 
 (1586,) and wrote a treatise on the order and usage of 
 Parliaments, and a few other works. Died 111*1601. 
 
 Hook'er, (Joseph,) an American general, born in 
 Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1819, graduated at West 
 Point in 1837. He served as captain in the Mexican 
 war, (1846-47,) and gained the brevet of lieutenant- 
 colonel at Chapultepec. Having resigned his commis- 
 sion about 1853, he lived several years in California. He 
 was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers about 
 May, 1861, served at the battle of Williamsburg, and in 
 the "seven days' battles" near Richmond, June 26-July 
 1, 1862. He became a major-general in July, and com- 
 manded a corps at the battle of Antietam, September 
 17, 1862, a few days after which he was promoted to 
 the rank of brigadier-general in the regular army. He 
 commanded a grand division under General Burnside 
 at Fredericksburg in December, 1862, and succeeded 
 Burnside as commander of the army of the Potomac in 
 January, 1863. This army, which probably amounted 
 to 100,000 men or more, engaged the enemy at Chan- 
 cellorsville, May 2 and 3, and was defeated, but was not 
 pursued. During this battle he was stunned by a 
 cannon-ball. He was relieved of the command on the 
 28th of June, 1863, and was sent to Tennessee with two 
 corps in September of that year. He contributed to the 
 victory gained by General Grant at Lookout Mountain, 
 November 24 and 25, 1863, and commanded a corps of 
 the army which General Sherman moved from Dalton 
 to Atlanta, May-August, 1864. He had command of 
 the Northern department from September, 1864, to 
 July, 1865. 
 
 Hooker, (Joseph Dalton,) F.R.S., an eminent 
 botanist and traveller, a son of Sir William Jackson 
 Hooker, was born in 1817. He studied medicine, and 
 in 1839 sailed as surgeon with the expedition of Sir 
 James Ross to the Antarctic Ocean. On his return he 
 published "Flora Antarctica," (2 vols., 1844-47,) the 
 descriptions and illustrations of which are highly com- 
 mended. Between 1848 and 1852 he explored the bo- 
 tanical productions of the Himalayas. The results of 
 this arduous enterprise appeared in a very interesting 
 work called " Himalayan Journals," (2 vols., 1854,) and 
 in his " Flora Indica." Among his other works are 
 "The Rhododendrons of Sikkim Himalaya," (1851,) a 
 " Flora of New Zealand," (1852-54,) and " On the Vege- 
 tation of the Carboniferous Period." 
 
 Hooker, (Richard,) an eminent English divine and 
 author, born at Heavytree, near Exeter, in 1553. After 
 graduating at Oxford, he took orders in 1581, and in an 
 unguarded hour married a scolding wife. By the favour 
 of Sandys, Bishop of London, he became Master of the 
 Temple in 1585. Here he was involved in a controversy 
 with Mr. Travers, a Calvinist, who was also a lecturer 
 in the Temple. One of the consequences of this dispute 
 was the production of his great argument for the consti- 
 tution and discipline of the Anglican Church, entitled 
 "The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity." After he began 
 this work, desiring a more retired station than the 
 Temple, he obtained in 1591 the rectory of Boscombe, 
 to which the prebend of Salisbury was added. From 
 1595 until his death he was rector of Bishopsbourne. 
 His work above-named was published from 1594 to 
 1597. It is regarded as a great bulwark of the Church, 
 a monument of sound learning, and a noble model of 
 literary excellence. According to Hallam, "the finest 
 as well as the most philosophical writer of the Eliza- 
 bethan period is Hooker. The first book of his 'Eccle- 
 siastical Polity' is at this day one of the master-pieces 
 of English eloquence. ... So stately and graceful is the 
 march of his periods, so various the fall of his musical 
 cadences upon the ear, so rich in images, so condensed 
 in sentences, so grave and noble his diction, that I 
 know not whether any later writer has more admirably 
 
 i, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Ci, % short; a, e, i, 9. obscure; far, fall, fit; mfit; not, good; moon; 
 
HOOKER 
 
 1207 
 
 HOPE 
 
 displayed the capacities of our language, or produced 
 passages more worthy of comparison with the splendid 
 monuments of antiquity." ("Introduction to the Litera- 
 ture of Europe.") Died in 1600. 
 
 See Izaak Walton, "Life of Richard Hooker," 1666; " Bio- 
 graphia Britannia;" " Life of Hooker," in Gauden's edition of his 
 works. 1662, and in Keble's edition, Oxford, 4 vols., 1836; "North 
 British Review" for February, 1857. 
 
 Hooker, (Rev. Thomas,) one of the founders of Con- 
 necticut; was born at Marfield, England, in 1586. After 
 preaching in Holland, he emigrated in 1633 to Boston, 
 Massachusetts, and was the first pastor of Cambridge, 
 In 1636, in company with Samuel Stone, he founded the 
 city of Hartford, where he was minister until his death. 
 He was a very influential man in the churches, and wrote 
 many treatises, among which is the " Application of 
 Redemption." Died in 1647. 
 
 See E. W. Hooker, "Life of Thomas Hooker," 1849. 
 
 Hooker, ( Wn.i. 1 am Jackson.) F.R.S., a distinguished 
 English botanist, born at Norwich in 1785. He pub- 
 lished in 181 1 "A Journal of a Tour in Iceland in 1809," 
 and described, with Dr. Taylor, British mosses in 
 "Muscologia Rritannica," (1818.) His " Flora Scotica" 
 appeared in 1821. He produced an excellent "Flora 
 Exotica," (3 vols., 1823-27.) For many years he was pro- 
 fessor of botany in the University of Glasgow. Among 
 his greatest works are "Icones Filicum," or "Figures 
 and Descriptions of Ferns," (with Dr. Greville, 2 vols., 
 1829-31,) " Flora Boreali-Americana," (2 vols., 1829-40,) 
 and a "British F'lora," (1830; 6th edition, 1850,) which 
 gives a complete description of British plants, arranged 
 after the natural method. He was appointed about 1840 
 director of the royal gardens at Kew, which have been 
 greatly improved under his superintendence, and are 
 said to surpass all other gardens in the world in the 
 number and variety of the plants. He was the father 
 of Dr. J. D. Hooker, noticed above. Died in 1865. 
 
 Hoolakoo, Houlakou, Hvllakvi, hoo'll-koo', or 
 Hoolagoo, hoo-la-goo', sometimes verv improperly 
 written Hulakoo, a grandson of Jengis Khan, born in 
 121 7, was the first of the Eel-Khans^ (Ilkhansor Ilchans,) 
 or Mongol kings of Persia. He was commanded by 
 his elder brother Mangoo (the father of Kooblai Khan) 
 to complete the conquest of Persia, which he accom- 
 plished about the year 1255. He exterminated the Is- 
 maeelians, or Assassins, and afterwards directed his forces 
 against Bagdad, which he took in February, 1258, and 
 delivered up to pillage and massacre. If we may believe 
 the statements of the Moslem historians, nearly 800,000 
 persons, including Motassem (the last of the Abbasside 
 caliphs) and his eldest son, peris+ied on that occasion. 
 As a warrior, Hoolakoo was distinguished for his san- 
 guinary crueltv : he was nevertheless a patron of science, 
 and the celebrated Eel-Khanee (or -Khannee) astro- 
 nomical tables were prepared under his auspices, and 
 derive their name from his title of Eel-Khan, signifying 
 the prince or chief of the tribe. He died in 1265, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Abaka Khan. 
 
 See Malcolm, "History of Persia," vol. i. chap. x. : Von 
 Hammer, " Geschichte der Ilchane;" D'Ohsson, "Histoire des 
 Mongols." 
 
 Hoole, hdol, (Rev. Charles,) born at Wakefield, 
 England, in 1610, taught school with credit in London, 
 etc., and was afterwards rector of Stock. He wrote a 
 "Latin Grammar," and other school-books. Died in 1666. 
 
 Hoole, (Elijah,) an English Orientalist and Wesleyan 
 minister, born at Manchester about 1798. He served as 
 a missionary in India, and published " Madras, Mysore, 
 and the South of India." 
 
 Hoole, (John,) an English dramatist and translator, 
 born in London in 1727, was educated in Grub Street. 
 He was a friend of Dr. Johnson, and was a clerk in the 
 East India House about forty years. He wrote several 
 tragedies, and translated into bad or insipid verse the 
 great poems of Tasso and Ariosto. In reference to his 
 version of Tasso, (published in 1763,) Sir Walter Scott 
 called Hoole a " noble transmuter of gold into lead." 
 His "Orlando Furioso" appeared in 5 vols., '773" 8 3- 
 Died in 1803. 
 
 See " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Hcole, Mrs. See Hofland, (Barbara.) 
 
 Hoomayoon or Humayfin, hoo'mi'yoon', Emperor 
 of Hindostan, of the dynasty of the Great Moguls, was 
 the eldest son of Baber. He was born at Cabool in 1508, 
 unci ascended the throne in 1530. Agra was his capital. 
 He was defeated by the Afghans in 1540. His brothers 
 having rebelled against him, he was driven out of his 
 kingdom, and took refuge at the court of Persia. In 
 1 545 he returned with an army and recovered his throne. 
 He gained decisive victories over the Afghans, under 
 Sekunder Shah, on the Sutlej, in 1554, and at Sirlnnd in 
 1555. He died in 1556, and was succeeded by his son, 
 the celebrated Akbar. He was versed in astronomy, and 
 wrote several poems. 
 
 See " Private Memoirs of Houmaioon," translated from the Per- 
 sian by Ma jok C. Stewaht; Ferlshta, " History of the Rise of 
 the Mnhomedan Power in India," translated by General Hriggs; 
 W. EnsKIRE, " History of India under Baber and Humayun," 2 vols., 
 1854 ; Abool-Fadhl, " Akbar- Nameh." 
 
 Hoop'er, (George,) D.D., an English prelate, born 
 at Grimley in 1640, was educated at Oxford, and was 
 an excellent classical and Oriental scholar. In 1677 he 
 was almoner to Mary, Princess of Orange, and in 1691 
 became chaplain to William and Mary, and Dean of Can- 
 terbury. He obtained the bishopric of Saint Asaph in 
 1703, from which he was afterwards transferred to that 
 of Bath and Wells. He published numerous religious 
 works. Died in 1727. 
 
 See Todd, " Lives of the Deans of Canterbury." 
 
 Hooper or Hoper, (John,) an English reformer and 
 martyr, born in Somersetshire about 1495. While a stu- 
 dent at Oxford, he was converted to the Protestant faith. 
 In 1539, to escape the Bloody Statutes of Henry VIII., he 
 retired from England and passed several years at Zurich. 
 At the death of Henry he settled in London, where he 
 became an eminent and eloquent preacher. In 1550 he 
 was made Bishop of Gloucester, and in 1552 received 
 the bishopric of Worcester in commemiam. Soon alter 
 the accession of Mary he was condemned as a heretic, 
 and, refusing to recant, was burned at the stake in 1553. 
 He wrote numerous theological works. 
 
 See Fox, " Book of Martyrs ;" Burnet, " History of the Reforma- 
 tion." 
 
 Hoop'er, (Lucy,) an American writer, born at New- 
 buryport, Massachusetts, in 1816, wrote sketches entitled 
 "Scenes from Real Life," (1840,) "The Poetry of Flow- 
 ers," and other works. She died in 1 841, and her "Literary 
 Remains" were published in 1842, with a Memoir. 
 
 See Griswold, "Female Poets of America;" "Democratic Re- 
 view" for July, 1842. 
 
 Hooper, (RoltERT,) a British medical writer, born in 
 the eighteenth century. Among his works are a "Medi- 
 cal Dictionary," (1798; 8th edition, by Dr. Grant, in 
 1839,) and "Surgeon's Vade-Mecum," (3d edition, en- 
 larged by Dr. Dunglison, 1824.) 
 
 Hooper, (William,) an American patriot, was born 
 in Boston in 1742. He graduated at Harvard in 1760, 
 studied law with James Otis, and rose to eminence in 
 his profession in Wilmington, North Carolina. In 1774 
 he was chosen one of the delegates to the first Conti- 
 nental Congress. Soon after signing the Declaration of 
 Independence, in 1776, he resigned his seat. Died in 1790. 
 
 Hoorn van Vlooswyck, hoRn vin vl6s'wIk,(PiKTKK 
 Niklaas,) Baron, a Dutch nobleman, born at Amster- 
 dam in 1 742, possessed an immense fortune. Having a 
 taste for art, he formed a splendid collection of gems, 
 cameos, mosaics, etc. Died in 1809. 
 
 Hoornbeek or Hoornbeck, hoRn'bak, (Jan,) a 
 Dutch writer on theology, born at Haarlem about 1616, 
 was professor at Utrecht. Died in 1666. 
 
 Hoorne, Count. See Horn. 
 
 Hoorne, van, vSn hoR'neh, or Home, (Jan,) a Dutch 
 anatomist, was born at Amsterdam in 1621. He became 
 professor of surgery at Leyden about 1650, and gained a 
 high reputation. He published, besides other works on 
 anatomy, a "Brief Introduction to the History of the 
 Human Body," (" Brevis Manuductio ad Historiam 
 Corporis humani," 1660,) a work of much merit. Died 
 in 1670. 
 
 See ERSCHundGRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Charles 
 Drelincourt, " Oratio de J. van Home," 1670. 
 
 Hope, (Alexander James Bf.resford,) M.P., an 
 author and connoisseur, son of Thomas Hope, noticed 
 
 easAVcasx/g/iaraVgas/; g,h, K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; las*; th as in this. (jjy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HOPE 
 
 1208 
 
 HOPKINS 
 
 below, was born in London in 1820. Among his works 
 are an essay on " Newspapers and their Writers," (1858,) 
 and "The English Cathedral of the Nineteenth Cen- 
 tury," (1861.) 
 
 Hope, (Rev. Frederick William,) F.R.S., an Eng- 
 lish entomologist, born about 1800, wrote " The Coleop- 
 terist's Manual." Died in 1862. 
 
 Hope, (Sir Henry,) a British admiral, born in 1787; 
 died in 1863. 
 
 Hope, (James,) a British physician of the present cen- 
 tury, was physician to Saint George's Hospital, London, 
 and published " Principles and Illustrations of Morbid 
 Anatomy," (1834,) and a "Treatise on Diseases of the 
 Heart and Great Vessels," (1839.) Died about 1840. 
 
 Hope, (John,) M.D., F.R.S., a Scottish botanist, born 
 in 1725, was educated at Edinburgh and Paris, and 
 practised in the former city. In 1761 he was appointed 
 king's botanist in Scotland, and superintendent of the 
 royal garden, and in 1786 regius professor of botany in 
 the University of Edinburgh. He commenced a work 
 on botany, which he did not live to finish. Died in 1786. 
 
 See Andrew Duncan, " Life of John Hope," 1786. 
 
 Hope, (John,) Earl of Hopetoun, a British general, 
 born near Linlithgow in 1766, was a younger son of the 
 second Earl of Hopetoun. After passing through the 
 inferior grades, he was made a colonel in 1796, and re- 
 turned to Parliament. In 1800 he served as adjutant- 
 general under General Abercrombie in Egypt, and in 
 1802 obtained the rank of major-general. Having been 
 made lieutenant-general in 1808, he took part in the 
 battle of Corunna, in 1809, and at the death of Sir John 
 Moore succeeded him in the command. He was com- 
 mander-in-chief in Ireland about 1812. In 1814 he was 
 raised to the peerage, as Baron of Niddry, and at the 
 death of his elder brother, in 1816, inherited his title. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hope, (Sir Thomas,) a Scottish lawyer, born in Edin- 
 burgh. He was knighted and appointed king's advocate 
 in 1627, after gaining distinction at the bar. He wrote 
 valuable legal treatises. His father, Henry Hope, was 
 related to the wealthy family of Hope in Amsterdam. 
 Died in 1646. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hope, (Thomas,) an English novelist and miscellane- 
 ous writer of rare merit, born about 1770, was a member 
 of the wealthy family of Hope of Amsterdam. After 
 traversing Europe, Asia, and Africa, to gratify his pas- 
 sion for architecture, and retiring from business with an 
 immense fortune, he settled in London, and distinguished 
 himself as a patron of the fine arts. He formed galleries 
 of paintings and statues, and magnificent collections of 
 rare works of art. In 1807 he published a work on 
 " Household Furniture," which produced quite a revolu- 
 tion in upholstery and an improvement in the public 
 taste. Soon after appeared "The Cosfume of the An- 
 cients," and " Modern Costumes," which evince great 
 antiquarian lore. In 1819 he published, anonymously, 
 " Anastasius ; or, Memoirs of a Modern Greek," which 
 was attributed to Byron, and made a vivid sensation 
 by its surprising combination of Oriental romance and 
 classic learning. "Mr. Hope will excuse us," says Syd- 
 ney Smith, "but we could not help exclaiming, in read- 
 ing it, 'Is this Mr. Thomas Hope? — is this the man of 
 chairs and tables ? — the CEdipus of coal-boxes ? — he who 
 meditated on muffineers and planned pokers? Where 
 has he hidden all this eloquence and poetry up to this 
 hour ?' The work ljefore us places him in the highest 
 list of eloquent writers and of superior men." Byron 
 said he would have given his two most approved poems 
 to have been the author of "Anastasius." Hope also 
 wrote an "Essay on the Origin and Prospects of Man," 
 and a " Historical Essay on Architecture," (1835,) which 
 was received with favour. He married in 1807 Louisa 
 Beresford, a daughter of W. Beresford, Archbishop of 
 Tuam. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Svdnev Smith's article in the " Edinbursh Review" for 
 March, 1821, (vol. xxxv.,) also for July, 1807; "Quarterly Review," 
 vol. xxiv. 
 
 Hope, (Thomas Charles,) an eminent teacher of 
 chemistry, born in Edinburgh in 1766, was a son of John 
 
 Hope, the botanist, noticed above. He became professor 
 of chemistry at Glasgow in 1787, and discovered a new 
 earth, which he named "Strontites," about 1792. In 
 1798 he succeeded Dr. Black in the chair of chemistry 
 in Edinburgh, where he lectured until 1843. He was 
 reputed the most popular teacher of chemistry in Great 
 Britain. He wrote several short treatises, one of which 
 is "On the Point of Greatest Density of Water," (1805.) 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 Hope, (Sir William Johnstone,) M.P., a British 
 naval officer, born at Finchley in 1766. As post-captain, 
 he served with distinction under Lord Howe against the 
 French in 1794. In 1819 he was raised to the rank of 
 vice-admiral, and the next year became a lord of the admi- 
 ralty. He was knighted in 1825. He was a member of 
 the House of Commons for thirty years. Died in 1831. 
 
 Hoper. See Hooper, (John.) 
 
 Hopfner or Hoepfner, hopf'ner, (Johann Gf.org 
 Christian,) a German archaeologist, born at Leipsic in 
 1765. He published, besides other works, a " Manual 
 of Greek Mythology," (1795.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Hopital. See L'Hopital. 
 
 Hdpken or Hoepken, hop'ken, (Anders Johan,) 
 a Swedish statesman and writer of great merit, born 
 in 1 7 12, became a member of the senate in 1746. He 
 was one of the first who formed the Swedish language 
 on the models of Greece and Rome. His Eulogies on 
 Count Tessin and Ekeblad are greatly admired. Died 
 in 1789. 
 
 See E. M. Fant," Aminnelse-Tal bfver A. J. von Hopken," 1789; 
 Gyldenstolpe. "Aminnelse-Tal ofver A. J. von Hopken," 1789. 
 
 Hop'kins, (Charles,) born at Exeter in 1664, was 
 the son of Bishop Ezekiel Hopkins. He was intimate 
 with Dryden and Congreve, wrote several tragedies, 
 and translated Ovid's "Art of Love." Died in 1699. 
 
 His brother John, born in 1675, was the author of a 
 collection of poems entitled "Amasia," (3 vols., 1700,) 
 and other poems, among which is " The Triumphs of 
 Peace, or the Glories of Nassau," (1698.) Died after 
 1700. 
 
 Hop'kinS, (Edward,) Governor of Connecticut, born 
 in London in 1600, emigrated to Boston, Massachu- 
 setts, in 1637. He was chosen Governor of Connecticut 
 in 1640, and was re-elected every other year until 1654. 
 Soon after this he returned to England, where he was 
 appointed warden of the fleet and commissioner of the 
 admiralty, and was elected to Parliament. Died in 1657. 
 
 Hopkins, (Eskk,) an American naval officer, born 
 in Scituate, Rhode Island, in 1718. He was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the navy in 1775. He captured 
 a British fort at New Providence, and several vessels of 
 war, in 1775 or 1776. Died in 1802. 
 
 Hopkins, (EZEKIEL,) an English Calvinistic divine, 
 born at Sandford, Devonshire, in 1633, was a popular 
 preacher, and one of the standard theologians of Eng- 
 land. He became Bishop of Raphoe in 1671, and Bishop 
 of Londonderry in 1681. He was driven from this place 
 by the Catholic insurgents in 1688. Among his works 
 (which are admired even by many who are not Calvinists) 
 are a "Treatise on the Vanity of the World," (1663,) 
 " Sermons," (4 vols., 1691-96,) the " Doctrine of the Two 
 Covenants," and " Exposition on the Lord's Prayer," 
 (1692.) His style is remarkable for sententious brevity. 
 Died in 1690. 
 
 Hopkins, (John,) an English teacher, who graduated 
 at Oxford in 1544, is chiefly noted for his share in the 
 poetical version of David's Psalms by Sternhold and 
 Hopkins. He is supposed to have been a clergyman. 
 
 Hopkins, (John Henry,) an Episcopal theologian, 
 born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1792, came to the United 
 States in 1800. He became rector of a church at Pitts- 
 burg in 1824, and was chosen Bishop of Vermont in 
 1832. Among his numerous works are "The Primitive 
 Creed Examined and Explained," (1834,) a "Scriptural, 
 Ecclesiastical, and Historical View of Slavery," (i864,)in 
 which work he advocates the Southern view of slavery, 
 and "The Law of Ritualism," (1866.) Died* in 1868 
 
 Hopkins, (Lemuel,) M.D., born at Waterbury, Con- 
 necticut, in 1750. He practised medicine at Litchfield 
 from 1776 to 1784, and at Hartford until 1801. He wrote 
 "The Hypocrite's Hope," and other poems. He was 
 
 a, e, i, \ 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, (all, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
HOPKINS 
 
 1209 
 
 HORACE 
 
 associated with Barlow and Trumbull in writing "The 
 Anarchiad," a poem. Died in 1801. 
 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Hopkins, (Mark,) a Presbyterian minister and 
 writer, born in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in 1802, 
 graduated at Williams College in 1824. He became 
 professor of moral philosophy in that college in 1830, 
 and president of the same in 1836. He published, be- 
 sides other works, "Miscellaneous Essays and Dis- 
 courses," (1847.) 
 
 Hopkins. (Samuel,) an American divine, born at 
 Waterbury, Connecticut, in 1721, is called the founder 
 of the Hopkinsian school. He studied theology under 
 Jonathan Edwards, was ordained a minister in 1 743, and 
 began in that year to preach at Ilousatonnoc, now 
 Great Harrington. In 1769 he removed from that place 
 to Newport, Rhode Island. "Dr. Hopkins," says Allen, 
 " was a very humble, pious, and benevolent man. ... His 
 life was spent chiefly in meditation ; his preaching had 
 but little effect." He published a "System of Doctrines 
 contained in Divine Revelation Explained and Defended," 
 (2 vols., 1793.) He also wrote a "Dialogue against 
 Slavery," (1776,) and other works. He forms a promi- 
 nent character in Mrs. Stowe's "Minister's Wooing." 
 Died in 1803. 
 
 See a " Life of Dr. Hopkins," prefixed to his Works, 3 vols., 1S53. 
 
 Hopkins, (STEPHEN,) an American statesman, born 
 at Scituate, Rhode Island, in 1707, was a farmer in his 
 youth, and afterwards a merchant. He was chief justice 
 of the superior court from 1751 to 1754, and subsequently 
 Governor of Rhode Island. In 1774 he was elected to 
 Congress, and signed the Declaration of Independence 
 in 1776. The unsteadiness of his hand indicated by his 
 signature was occasioned not by fear, but by a nervous 
 affection. He continued in Congress until 1779. Died 
 in 17S5. 
 
 See Goodrich, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence." 
 
 Hopkins, (Rev. William,) a learned antiquary, born 
 at Evesham, England, in 1647, was made prebendary of 
 Worcester in 1675, and vicar of Lindridge in 1686. Died 
 in 1700. 
 
 See Dk. Hicks, "Life of W. Hopkins." 
 
 Hopkins, (William,) an English Arian writer, born 
 at Monmouth in 1706, became vicar of Holney in 1731. 
 He wrote a treatise in favour of Arianism, and translated 
 the book of Exodus, (1784.) Died in 1786. 
 
 Hop'kin-son, (Francis,) an eminent author, wit, and 
 patriot, bom in Philadelphia in 1737. He graduated at 
 the college of his native city, and chose the profession 
 of the law. Having visited England in 1765,2nd passed 
 two years there, he returned home, settled at Borden- 
 town, and married Miss Ann Borden. From 1774 to 
 1777 he published " The Pretty Story," "The Prophecy," 
 and the " Political Catechism," three humorous and 
 popular essays, which contributed to foment the spirit 
 of freedom and to prepare the people for national inde- 
 pendence. He represented New Jersey in the Conti- 
 nental Congress of 1776, and signed the Declaration of 
 Independence. He was appointed judge of the admi- 
 ralty of Pennsylvania in 1779, and in 1790 judge of the 
 district court of the United States. Besides the above 
 essays, he wrote the " Battle of the Kegs," a ballad, and 
 other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1791. 
 
 See Sandkkson, "Biography of the Signers to the Declaration 
 of Independence; "National Portrait -Gallery of Distinguished 
 
 Hopkinson, (Joseph,) LUC, an American jurist, 
 author of "Hail Columbia," and son of the preceding, 
 was born in Philadelphia in 1770. He was educated at 
 the University of Pennsylvania, studied law, and rose to 
 eminence in his profession in his native city. He was 
 the leading counsel for Dr. Rush in his famous libel 
 suit against William Cobbett in 1799, and was also em- 
 ployed in 'he trials under the alien and sedition laws 
 before Judge Chase in 1800, and in the impeachment of 
 the latter for alleged misdemeanour in office during these 
 trials, before the United States Senate, in 1805. From 
 181 5 to 1819 he was a representative in Congress, in 
 which he distinguished himself as a speaker, particu- 
 larly in opposition to the United States Bank, and on 
 
 the Seminole war. In 1828 he was appointed by Presi- 
 dent Adams judge of the United States court for the 
 eastern district of Pennsylvania, which position he held 
 till his death, in 1842. 
 
 See " Lives of Eminent Philadelphians," 1850. 
 
 Hop'per, (Isaac Tatem,) a distinguished philanthro- 
 pist, a member of the Society of Friends, born near Wood- 
 bury, New Jersey, in 1771. He resided many years in 
 Philadelphia, but passed the latter part of his life in New 
 York. He was a man of great energy, courage, and intel- 
 lectual acuteness, and distinguished for his lifelong efforts 
 to promote benevolent and humane objects, — especially 
 negro emancipation. In the controversy which resulted 
 in the separation of the Society of Friends in 1827, he 
 w;is one of the most zealous adherents of the anti- 
 orthodox party. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Lvdia M. Ciui.n, "Life of I. T. Hopper," 1853; " Lives of 
 Eminent Philadelphians," 1859. 
 
 Hop'per, (Thomas,) an English architect, born at 
 Rochester about 1775. After being employed by the 
 prince-regent on Carleton House, he erected many castles 
 and mansions for the nobility, among which Penrhyn 
 Castle is regarded as one of the best. He possessed 
 superior conversational powers, and associated freely 
 with people of distinction. Died in 1856. 
 
 Hoppers, hop'pers, or Hopper, hop'per, (Joachim,) 
 '[Lat. Hoppe'rus,] a Dutch jurist, born in Friesland in 
 1523. In 1566 he became privy councillor at Madrid, 
 and chancellor for the affairs of the Netherlands. He 
 was more moderate than the other ministers of Philip 
 II. Among his works is one " On the Legal Art," (" De 
 Juris Arte Libri tres," 1553.) Died in 1576. 
 
 See Motley, " Rise of the Dutch Republic," part ii. chap, v., 
 and part iv. chap. iv. 
 
 Hop'pin, (Augustus,) an American artist, born in 
 Providence, Rhode Island, in 1828. He pursued a col- 
 legiate course at Brown University, and entered upon 
 the profession of law, but subsequently devoted himself 
 to drawing on wood. He has illustrated "The Autocrat 
 of the Breakfast-Table," the poem of" Nothing to Wear," 
 and numerous other subjects. 
 
 Hoppin, (Thomas F.,) an American painter and de- 
 signer, brother of the preceding, was born in Providence, 
 Rhode Island, in 1816. Among the most important of 
 his designs are the figures on the great window of Trinity 
 Church, New York. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Hopp'ner, (John,) R.A., an excellent English por- 
 trait-painter, born in London in 1759. He studied in 
 the Royal Academy, and was patronized by the Prince 
 of Wales. For many years he was the most fashionable 
 portrait-painter of London, except Sir Thomas Lawrence. 
 Hoppner was very successful in portraits of women. His 
 colouring is natural and powerful, and his tones are 
 mellow and deep. His works have a charming air of 
 facility and negligence. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Conninomam, "Lives of Painters," etc. 
 
 Hop'ton, (Arthur,) a learned English mathema- 
 tician, born in Somersetshire in 1588, was intimate with 
 Selden. He wrote "Speculum Topographicum," (161 1,) 
 and a few other works. Died in 1614. 
 
 Hopton, (Sir Ralph,) an English royalist officer, who 
 fought for Charles I. in the civil war. He obtained some 
 success in Cornwall in 1643. I" '646 he commanded 
 about 8000 men at the battle of Torrington, where he 
 was defeated by Fairfax. Died about 1652. 
 
 Hopton, (Susanna,) an English authoress, born in 
 1627, wrote " Hexameron, or Meditations on the Six 
 Days of Creation." Died in 1709. 
 
 Horace, hor'ass, [Lat. Hora'tius; Fr. Horace, 
 o'rJUs'; Or. Horaz, bo-rits'; It. Orazio, o-rat'se-o,]or, 
 more fully, Quin'tus Hora'tius Flac'cus, an excellent 
 and popular Latin poet, born at Venusia, (now Venosa,) 
 in Italy, in December, 65 B.C. His father was a freed- 
 nian, who gained a competence as a coactor, (collector of 
 indirect taxes or of the proceeds of auctions,) and pur- 
 chased a farm near Venusia, on the bank of the Aufidus, 
 (Ofanto.) At an early age he was sent to Koine, and 
 became a pupil of the noted teacher Orbilius Pupillus, 
 with whom he learned grammar and the Greek language 
 
 c as /; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, j> vttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jjy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HORjE 
 
 1210 
 
 HORN 
 
 About his eighteenth year, he went to prosecute his 
 studies in the groves of the Academy at Athens, — then 
 the principal seat of learning and philosophy, — where he 
 remained until the death of Julius Cassar (in 44 B.C.) 
 involved the empire in a civil war. As Brutus passed 
 through Athens, Horace, with patriotic ardour, joined 
 his army, was made a military tribune, took command 
 of a legion, and witnessed the fatal defeat of the cause at 
 Philippi, where he threw away his shield. (Carmina, ii. 
 7.) 1 lis estate having been confiscated, he went to Rome, 
 where he supported himself a short time by acting as clerk 
 in the treasury. His early poems having excited the 
 interest of Virgil and Varius, they recommended him to 
 Maecenas, in whom he found a liberal patron and intimate 
 friend. Thenceforth his life was eminently prosperous, 
 and serenely passed in congenial studies and patrician 
 society. Preferring independence to the tempting prizes 
 of ambition, he refused the office of private secretary 
 to Augustus, who treated him with particular favour. 
 He had a true relish for rural pleasures and the charms 
 of nature, which he often enjoyed at his Sabine farm or 
 his villa in Tibur. Died in November, 8 B.C. He was 
 never married. He was of short stature, and had dark 
 eyes and hair. His character, as deduced from his writings, 
 is well balanced, and unites in a high degree good sense, 
 good nature, urbanity, and elegant taste. His poems, 
 consisting of odes, satires, and epistles, may all be con- 
 tained in one small volume. His chief merits are a calm 
 philosophy, a graceful diction, an admirable sense of 
 propriety, and a keen insight into human nature, which 
 have attracted an admiration growing from age to age, 
 and have rendered him, next to Virgil, the most illus- 
 trious poet of ancient Rome. " It is mainly," says " Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for April, 1868, "to this large and 
 many-sided nature of the man himself that Horace owes 
 his unrivalled popularity, — a popularity which has indeed 
 both widened and deepened in its degree in proportion 
 to the increase of modern civilization." His " Epistles" 
 are among the few poems which represent the most per- 
 fect and original form of Latin verse. There is no very 
 good English translation of Horace's entire works : that 
 of Francis (4 vols., 1747) is perhaps the best. Lord Lyt- 
 ton's translation of the Odes (1869) is highly praised. 
 
 See Suetonius, "Vita Horatii ;" Masson, "Vita Horatii," 1708; 
 Henky H. Milman, " Life of Q. Horatius Flaccus," 1854: Van 
 Ommkkn, "Horni als Mensch und Biirger von Rom," 1802; C. 
 Fkancke, " Fasti Horatianl," 1839; Wai.ckenaer, "Histone de la 
 Vie et des Poesies d'Horace," 2 vols., 1840; J. Murray. "Ori- 
 ginal Views of the Passages in the Life and Writings of Horace," 
 1851 ; J. (or F.) Jacob, " Horaz und seine Freunde," 1852; Ersch 
 undGRUBER, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" see, also, the excellent 
 article on Horatius in Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Biography," by the late Dean H. H. Milman, (author of the "Life 
 of Q. Horatius Flaccus;") "Horace and his Translators," in the 
 " London Quarterly Review" for October, 185S : " Horace and 
 Tasso," in the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1850. 
 
 Horse, ho'ree, [Gr. 'Qpai ; Fr. Heures, ur, or Hores, 
 or, ] the Hours or Seasons, which the ancients imagined to 
 have charge of the gates of heaven or doors of Olympus. 
 They appear to have been originally personifications 
 of the order of nature and of the seasons. They were 
 also regarded as goddesses of justice, peace, and order. 
 'Milton associates them with the Graces : 
 "while universal Pan, 
 Knit with the Graces and the Hours in dance, 
 Led on the eternal Spring." 
 
 Paradise Lost, book iv. 
 
 Ho-ra-pol'lo or Ho'rus A-pol'lo, [Gr. 'Qpa-aoXKuv ; 
 Fr. Horapollon, o'rS'po'loN',] the celebrated author 
 of a Greek treatise on the Egyptian hieroglyphics. His 
 name and the epoch in which he lived have been the 
 subject of much discussion. Recent critics favour the 
 opinion that he lived at Alexandria about the fifth century. 
 
 See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography;" A. S. 
 Corky, "The Hieroglyphics of Horapollo," 1840; Goulaniof, 
 "Essai sur !es Hie>oglyphes d* Horapollon," 1827. 
 
 Horapollon. See Horapoli.o. 
 
 Horatius. See Horace. 
 
 Horatius, ho-ra'she-us, (in the plural, Horatii, ho- 
 ra'she-I,) a hero of the"early Roman legends, who with 
 his two brothers fought against the three Curiatii for 
 the supremacy of Rome over Alba. His brothers fell in 
 the first onset. By a feigned flight he separated his 
 antagonists, and slew them one after the other. 
 
 Horatius Codes. See Cocles. 
 
 Horberg or Hoerberg, Iior'Mrg, (Pehr,) an emi- 
 nent Swedish painter, born in Smaland in 1746. He 
 practised his art with success at Olstorp, chiefly on reli- 
 gious subjects, and received the title of historical painter 
 to the king. Died in 1816. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," (in Swedish,} published in 1817, and 
 translated into German by Schildener, iStg ; C. Molbech, " Leben 
 und Kunst des Malers P. Hoerberg," 1819; " Biographiskt-Lexicon 
 bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Hor'be-ry, (MATTHEW,) D.D., an English divine, 
 born in Lincolnshire in 1707, was educated at Oxford. 
 He became canon of Lichfield, vicar of Hanbury, and 
 rector of Standlake. His sermons were published in 
 several volumes, (1745-74,) and were pronounced excel- 
 lent by Dr. Johnson. Died in 1773. 
 
 Horebout, ho'reh-bowt', (Gerard or Guerard,) a 
 Flemish painter of high reputation, was born at Ghent. 
 He removed to England, and became first painter to 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 Hores. See Hor^e. 
 
 Horfelin, de, da oR-fa-leen', (Antonio,) a Spanish 
 painter of history and portraits, born at Saragossa in 
 1597 ; died in 1660. 
 
 Horleman or Harleman, hoR'leh-man', (Cari,) 
 Baron, a Swedish architect, born at Stockholm in 1700, 
 designed the cathedral of Calmar, and completed the 
 royal palace at Stockholm. He was ranked among the 
 greatest architects of Sweden. Died in 1753. 
 
 Hor'man, (William,) of Eton College, an English 
 botanist, born at Salisbury. He published " Herbarum 
 Synonyma." Died in 1535. 
 
 Hofmayr, von, fon hoR'miR, (Joseph,) a German 
 historian, born at Innspruck in 1781. He fomented a 
 revolt in the Tyrol against the French in 1809, and was 
 appointed historiographer of Austria In 1815. He be- 
 came councillor for the foreign department of Bavaria 
 in 1S28, and minister from Bavaria to Hanover in 1832. 
 Among his works are a " History of Tyrol," (1808,) "The 
 Austrian Plutarch, or Lives of all the Austrian Princes," 
 (20 vols., 1807-20,) "General History of Modern Times, 
 178710 1S15," (181 7—19, 3 vols.,) and "Vienna, its History 
 and Curiosities," (9 vols., 1823-25.) Died in 1848. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations- Lexikon ;" " Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" for January, 1845. 
 
 Hor-mis'das [Persian, Hormooz] I., King of Persia, 
 son of Shahpo'or (or Sapor) I., began to reign in 271 
 a.d. After an uneventful reign of fourteen months, he 
 died in 272, and was succeeded by his son, Bahrain I. 
 
 See Firdousee, "Shah Namah ;" Mirkhond, "Histoire des 
 Sassanides." 
 
 Hormisdas II., King of Persia, of the Sassanide 
 dynasty, was the son of Narses, whom he succeeded 
 in 303 A.D. He died in 311, leaving the throne to his 
 infant son, Shahpoor II. 
 
 Hormisdas III, a son of Yezdejerd III., became 
 King of Persia in 457 a.d. He was defeated and deposed 
 by his brother Fyrooz about 460. 
 
 Hormisdas IV, King of Persia, a son of Chosroes 
 (Khosroo) I., began to reign in 579 A.D. He waged war 
 against Tiberius, Emperor of the East, by whose army 
 he was defeated in several battles. Provoked by his 
 tyranny, his subjects revolted against him, and he was 
 deposed and put to death in 591 A.D. 
 
 SeeABnoLFARA;, "Historia Dynastiarum ;" Mirkhond, "His- 
 toire des Sassanides," 1793 ; Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire." 
 
 Hor-mis'das, a native of Frusino, Italy, was elected 
 pope in 514 A.b., as successor to Symmachus. He used 
 his influence against the Eutychians and against Acacius. 
 Patriarch of Constantinople. He died in 523. 
 
 Hormuzd. See Ormuzd. 
 
 Horn, hoRn, (Arvid Bernard,) Count, a Swedish 
 statesman, born in 1664. His influence secured the 
 elevation of Frederick of Hesse-Cassel to the throne in 
 1720. He became the head of the party of "Bonnets," 
 which was in power until 1738. Died in 1742. 
 
 See Gustav Horn, "A. B. Horn," 1852; Thomaeus, "Svensk 
 Plutarch." 
 
 Horn or Home, (Charles Edward,) born in Lon- 
 don in 1786, was noted as a composer of music. He was 
 the author of "The Deep, Deep Sea," and other popular 
 songs. He died in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1850. 
 
 S, e, T, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HORN 
 
 121 I 
 
 HORNER 
 
 Horn, hoRn, (Franz Christoph,) a German critic, 
 born at Brunswick in 1 781. He published several novels, 
 a "Critical History of German Poetry and Eloquence," 
 (4 vols., 1S22-29,) and "The Dramatic Works of Shak- 
 speare," (" Shakespeare's Schauspiele," 5 vols., 1823- 
 31.) Died in 1837. 
 
 See " Frant Horn : biographisches Denkmal," Leipsic, 1839. 
 
 Horn, hoRn, (Fredrick,) Count of Aminne, a Swedish 
 general in the French service, born at Husby in 1725. 
 As aide-de-camp of Marshal D'Estrees, he had an im- 
 portant part in the victory of Hastenbeck, (1757.) He 
 obtained the rank of lieutenant-general in the Swedish 
 army in 1778. Died in 1796. 
 
 1 1 is son, COUNT HORN, was an accomplice in the as- 
 sassination or' ("tustavus III. in 1792, for which he was 
 banished for life. Died in 1823. 
 
 Horn, [Lat Hor'nius,] (Georg,) a German historian, 
 born at Greossen in 1620. He became professor of his- 
 tory at Leyden about 1648, and wrote, in Latin, works 
 on history and geography, among which are an " Eccle- 
 siastical and Political History," (1665,) and "Noah's 
 Ark, or a History of the World," (1666.) Died in 1670. 
 
 See Johann Adam Flbssa, "Dissertatio de Vita G. Hornii," 
 I73< 
 
 Horn, ^ustaf,) Count of, an able Swedish general, 
 born in Upland in 1592. Having served with credit in 
 Poland and Livonia, he was appointed a senator about 
 1624. At the battle of Leipsic, in 1631, he commanded 
 the left wing, and contributed to the victory. After 
 Gustavus Adolphus was killed at Lutzen, Horn gained 
 some advantages over the enemy, but was taken prisoner 
 at Nordlingen in 1634. Restored to liberty in 1642, he 
 was made commander-in-chief of the Swedish army in 
 the war against Denmark, in which he was successful. 
 The queen rewarded him (about 1652) with the office of 
 Constable of Sweden and the title of count. Died in 1657. 
 
 See Emporagius, " Likpredikan ofver G. C. Horn," 1660; Flo- 
 ranpbr, " Encomium Militia; Homianae," 164S; J. F. AP Lund- 
 blao, " Svensk Plutarch, "1823 ; " Biographiskt-Lexicon Sfvernamn- 
 kunuige Svenska Man." 
 
 Horn, (Uffo Daniel,) a German litterateur, born at 
 Tratenau, in Bohemia, in 1S17. 
 
 Horn or Hoorn, de, deh hoRn, also written Hoorne 
 and Homes, (Philippe de Montmorency-Niveli.e,) 
 Count, a Flemish noble, born in 1522, was the son of 
 Joseph de Nivelle and Anne of Egmont. After the death 
 of his father, his mother married Count de Horn, whose 
 name and vast fortune he inherited. He distinguished 
 himself at the battles of Saint-Quentin and Gravelines, 
 and served Philip II. of Spain many years as admiral 
 of the I»w Countries, president of the council of state, 
 governor of Gueldres, etc. Arrested by the Duke of 
 Alva, with Count Egmont, on a charge of treason, he 
 was unjustly condemned and executed in 1568. 
 
 See Motley, " Kite of the Dutch Republic ;" Prescott, " His- 
 tory of Philip II.," vol. ii. 
 
 Horu'blow-er, (JOSEPH C.,) an American jurist, 
 born at Belleville, New Jersey, in 1777. He was chief 
 justice of the supreme court of New Jersey front 1832 
 to 1846. He decided in 1856 that Congress had no 
 right to pass a law for the rendition of fugitive slaves. 
 Died at Newark in June, 1864. 
 
 Home, horn, (GEORGE,) D.I)., an English bishop and 
 author, born at Otham, in Kent, in 1730, was a good He- 
 brew scholar. He was chosen vice-chancellor of Oxford 
 in 1776, Dean of Canterbury in 1781, and Bishop of 
 Norwich in 1 790. He wrote against the philosophy of 
 Newton, and published treatises in favour of John Hut- 
 chinson, and other works on theology. His "Commentary 
 on the Book of Psalms" (2 vols., 1771) is esteemed an 
 excellent performance, and has often been reprinted. 
 He was a friend of Dr. Samuel Johnson. Died in 1792. 
 
 Sec William Jones, "Memoirsof the Life and Writing» of the 
 Rev. <;. Home," 1795. 
 
 Home, (Richard Henry,) an English poet and 
 dramatist, bom in London about 1802. He produced, 
 besides other dramas, a tragedy entitled " Gregory the 
 Seventh," (1840.) His reputation is founded on "Orion, 
 an Epic Poem," (1843,) which was announced at the 
 price of one farthing, as a sarcasm upon the low esti- 
 mation into which epic poetry had fallen. After three 
 editions had been sold, the price was raised to one 
 
 shilling, and finally to five shillings. This poem found 
 many admirers. Among his other works are "The 
 New Spirit of the Age," (2 vols., 1844,) and " Ballads and 
 Romances," (1846.) In 1852 he removed to Australia. 
 
 Home, (Thomas Hartweli.,) D.D., an eminent 
 English author, bom in 1780, was educated in London. 
 He passed eight years in the labour of a barrister's 
 clerk, and acquired some knowledge of law, while his 
 leisure was diligently improved in literary studies. In 
 1818 he published his principal work, the "Introduction 
 to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures," (3 vols., 1818; 10th edition, enlarged, 1856,) which 
 is considered the most complete and valuable work on 
 that subject, and was soon adopted as a class-book in all 
 the universities and colleges of England and in some of 
 those in the United States. Having no sectarian tend- 
 ency, it is appreciated bv Christians generally, and has 
 conduced greatly to the diffusion of sound biblical litera- 
 ture. In 1819 Home was ordained by the Bishop of 
 London, and obtained a prebend in Saint Paul's Cathe- 
 dral, besides other livings. Among his other numerous 
 publications are " Deism Refuted," ( 1819,) and a " Manual 
 of Biblical Bibliography," (1839.) Died in January, 1861. 
 
 See " Reminiscences of Thomas H. Home," London, 1862 
 
 Home Tooke. See Tooke. 
 
 Home, van, (Jan.) See Hoorne. 
 
 Homeck, hoR'nek, (Anthony,) D.D., was born at 
 Bacharach, in Germany, in 1641, removed to England 
 about 1660, and became prebendary of Exeter, West- 
 minster, and Wells. He wrote many devout religious 
 works, among which are "The Great Law of Consider- 
 ation," (1677; nth edition, 1729,) and "The Happy 
 Ascetic," (1681.) His writings were commended by 
 Doddridge as " exceedingly pathetic and elegant." Died 
 in 1696. 
 
 See his Life, by Bishop Kidder. 
 
 Homeck, von, fon hoR'nek, (Ottokar,) called also 
 OTTOKAR von Steiermark, (sti'er-maRk',) one of the 
 earliest who wrote in the German language, was the 
 author of a " History of the Great Empires of the World 
 to the Death of Frederick II.," (1280,) and a chronicle 
 in rhyme. It has been published in Petz's " Austrian 
 Historians," and is valued for its interesting account of 
 the manners and customs of that age. 
 
 See T. Jacobi, " Dissertatio de Ottocari Chronico Austriaco," 
 ■839- 
 
 Horneman, hoR'neh-man', (Jens Wilkf.n,) a Dan- 
 ish botanist, born at Marstal in 1770, became professor 
 of botany at Copenhagen in 1808. He continued the 
 " Flora Danica," a magnificent work, which other natu- 
 ralists commenced, and which appeared in 14 vols. 
 folio, (1806-40.) He wrote "Economical Botany for 
 Denmark," (1798,) and other works. Died in 1841. 
 
 See his Autobiography ; Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon." 
 
 Homemann, hoR'neh-man', (Friedrich Conrad,) 
 a German traveller, born at Hildesheim in 1772, at- 
 tempted in 1797 to explore Northern and Central Africa. 
 He left Moorzook with a caravan bound for Bornoo in 
 April, 1800, after which date he was never heard from. 
 
 Hor'ner, (Francis,) an eminent British statesman 
 and lawyer, born in Edinburgh in 1778, was educated in 
 the university of that city, and studied law with his friend 
 Henry Brougham. Having removed to London in 1803, 
 he was welcomed by the leading Whigs, such as Fox, 
 Mackintosh, and Romilly, who hastened to enlist his 
 eminent abilities in the public service. In 1806 he was 
 returned to Parliament for Saint Ives. The death of 
 Fox having produced a change of ministry and a disso- 
 lution of the House, Horner was returned for Wendover 
 in 1807. He acquired great influence in Parliament by 
 his integrity, wisdom, liberality, and knowledge of politi- 
 cal economy. In 1810 he was a member of the Bullion 
 committee and author of a part of the "Bullion Report," 
 and made an able speech on that question. In 1813-14 
 he was recognized as one of the leaders of his party, and 
 in 1816 he made a speech on Catholic claims, which was 
 his last speech in the House. Compelled by ill health 
 to retire from business, he set out on a journey to the 
 south of Europe, and died, greatly lamented, at Pisa, in 
 1817. He was one of the originators of the " Edinburgh 
 
 e as A; 9 as s; g hard; g as/- G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this. (ft^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HORNER 
 
 I 21 2 
 
 H0RST1US 
 
 Review," for which he wrote numerous articles. " He 
 died at the age of thirty-eight," says Lord Cockbum, 
 "possessed of greater public influence than any other 
 private man." " No eminent speaker of Parliament," 
 says Sir J. Mackintosh, " owed so much of his success 
 to his moral character. His high place was therefore 
 honourable to his audience and to his country." 
 
 See " Memoirs and Correspondence of F. Horner," published by 
 his brother, Leonard Hokner, in 1843: Chambers, "Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Edinburgh Review" lor Octo- 
 ber, 1843; " London Quarterly Review" for May, 1843. 
 
 Horner, (Leonard,) F.R.S., a British geologist, and 
 younger brother of the preceding, took a prominent part 
 in the organization of the London University, of which 
 he was appointed warden in 1827. About 1833 he be- 
 came inspector of factories, in which capacity he con- 
 tributed largely to the moral and physical improvement 
 of the operatives. He wrote articles on the " Mineral 
 Kingdom" for the " Penny Magazine," "On the Employ- 
 ment of Children in Factories," (1840,) and other short 
 works. Died in 1864. 
 
 Hor'ner, (William E.,) an American anatomist, 
 born in Virginia about 1790, became in 1816 demon- 
 strator of auatomy to Dr. Wistar, of the University of 
 Pennsylvania, and in 1831 succeeded Dr. Physick as 
 professor of anatomy in that institution. Died in 1853. 
 (See Wistar, Caspar.) 
 
 See Gross, " American Medical Biography," 1861 ; Carson, 
 " History of the Medical Department of the University of Pennsyl- 
 vania," 1869. 
 
 Hornius. See Horn, (Georg.) 
 
 Horrebow or Horreboe, hoR'reh-bo, (Christof- 
 Fer.) a Danish astronomer, born at Copenhagen in 1718. 
 He succeeded his father as professur of astronomy 
 about 175c? and published, besides other works, a Latin 
 treatise "On the Annual Parallax of the Fixed Stars," 
 (1747.) Died in 1776. 
 
 See Kraft og Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Horrebow, (Nikolaus,) a Danish author, born at 
 Copenhagen in 1712, became a judge of the supreme 
 court. In 1750 he was sent by government to explore 
 Iceland, of which he wrote a description, said to be very 
 correct. Died in 1750. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Horrebow or Horreboe, (Peder,) an eminent Dan- 
 ish astronomer, the father of Christoffer, noticed above, 
 was born in Jutland in 1679. He became professor 
 of astronomy at Copenhagen in 1710. He determined 
 the parallax of the sun more exactly in his "Clavis As- 
 tronomiae," a treatise on physical astronomy, in which 
 he favours the theory of Descartes. He wrote other 
 works, among which is "Copernicus Triumphans, sive 
 tie Parallaxi Orbis Annul," (1727.) Died in 1764. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyerup, "Litteraturlexicon;" Nverup, " Uni- 
 versitaets Annalen." 
 
 Horrebow, (Peder,) a son of the preceding, born in 
 1728, observed the transit of Venus in 1761, and wrote 
 an account of it. Died in 1812. 
 
 Hor'rocks w Hor'rox, (Jeremiah,) a distinguished 
 English astronomer, born at Toxteth, near Liverpool, in 
 1619, was educated at Cambridge, took orders, and be- 
 came curate of Hoole. He was the author of the true 
 theory of lunar motion, and was the first who observed 
 the transit of Venus, (in 1639,) which he had successfully 
 foretold, and of which he wrote an account, entitled 
 " Venus sub Sole visa." His other works on astronomy 
 were published by Dr. Wallis in 1672. "His investiga- 
 tions," says the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1843, 
 "are ali stamped with the clear indications of a genius 
 of the first order; and he doubtless would have achieved 
 fat greater discoveries had not his privations and suc- 
 cesses, his toils and triumphs, been together cut short by 
 his premature death, in 1641." 
 
 See A. B. Whatton, "Memoir of the Life and Labours of J. 
 Honox," 1859. 
 
 Horsburgh, hors'btir-eh, or Horsbury, hors'ber-e, 
 (Jamks,) F.R.S., a Scottish hydrographer, born at Elie 
 in 1762, was for some years captain of a merchant-ship 
 navigating the East Indian seas. In 1809 he was ap- 
 pointed hydrographer of the East India Company. He 
 was author of a valuable work entitled " Directions for 
 
 Sailing to and from the East Indies, China," etc., (1809.) 
 Died in 1836. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Sv;otsmen," 
 (Supplement;) " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Horse'field, (Rev. Thomas W.,) an English anti- 
 quary, published the " History and Antiquities of Sus- 
 sex. Died in 1837. 
 
 Hors'field or Horsefield, (Thomas,) M.D., F.R.S., 
 an eminent naturalist and traveller, born in Pennsylvania 
 in 1773. He explored the natural history of Java for 
 many years, and returned to England about 1820. He 
 published "Zoological Researches in Java," etc., (1821- 
 24.) The plants which he collected were described in 
 an excellent work entitled "Plantoe Javanicae Rariores," 
 (1838-52, with fifty coloured engravings,) in which he 
 was aided by Robert Brown and J. J. Bennett. lie also 
 wrote several smaller works. Died in London in 1859. 
 
 Hors'ley, (Chari.es,) an English composer, born at 
 Kensington in 1821. He composed oratorios entitled 
 "David" and "Joseph," (1852.) 
 
 Horsley, (John,) F.R.S., an eminent British anti- 
 quary, born in Mid-Lothian in 1685, became pastor of a 
 dissenting church at Morpeth. He wrote an excellent 
 work entitled "The Roman Antiquities of Britain," 
 (" Britannia Romana," 1732.) Died in 173 1. 
 
 See Rev. J. Hodgson, " Memoirs of the Life, etc. of John Hors- 
 ley," London, 1K31 : Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Emi- 
 nent Scotsmen;" Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Horsley, (John Cali.cott,) an English historical 
 painter, born in London in 1817. His cartoon of "Saint 
 Augustine Preaching" (1843) received one of the prizes 
 of j£20O from the Commission of Fine Arts. He was 
 one of the artists commissioned to adorn the House 
 of Lords, in which he painted a fresco of the " Spirit of 
 Religion," (1845.) Among his master-pieces are " L' Alter 
 gro and II Penseroso," (1851,) "Lady Jane Grey and 
 Roger Ascham," (1853,) and a "Scene from Don Quix- 
 ote," (1855.) 
 
 Horsley,(SAMUEL,) LL.D., an eminent English bishop 
 and writer, born in London in 1733, was educated at Cam- 
 bridge. In 1759 he obtained the rectory of Newington 
 Butts, and, after receiving other preferments, became 
 Bishop of Saint David's in 1788, of Rochester in 1793, 
 and of Saint Asaph in 1802. To superior talents he 
 joined profound learning, both classical and scientific. 
 He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767, 
 and secretary of the same in 1773. In 1783 he gained 
 distinction by a controversy with Dr. Priestley on Unita- 
 rianism, in which it is usually conceded that Horsley 
 had the advantage. He published in 1796 an excellent 
 treatise "On the Prosodies of the Greek and Latin Lan- 
 guages," and "Critical Disquisitions on the Eighteenth 
 Chapter of Isaiah." Among his numerous publications 
 are sermons, treatises on mathematics, and several ad- 
 mired performances in biblical criticism. Died in 1806. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for February, 1811; "London Quar- 
 terly Review" for May, 1810, (vol. xvii.) 
 
 Hors'man, (Edward,) a British lawyer and poli- 
 tician, born 'in 1807. He represented Stroud in Parlia- 
 ment from 1853 to 1868. He is one of those who were 
 called " Adullamites," who voted against the Reform 
 bill in 1866, although elected as Liberals. 
 
 Horst, hoRst, [Lat. Hor'stius,) (Gregor,) a German 
 physician, was born at Torgau, in Saxony, in 1578. He 
 became professor at Ulm in 1622, and was surnamed 
 the German vEsculapius. Among his chief works 
 are " On Diseases and their Causes," (" De Morbis 
 eorumque Causis," 1612,) and "Anatomy of the Human 
 Body," (1617.) Died in 1636. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Erscii und 
 Gruber, "Allgemeine EncyklOpaedie ;" Freher, "Theatrum Em- 
 ditorum." 
 
 Horst, vail der, vin der hoRst, (Nikoi.aas,) a Flem- 
 ish painter of history and portraits, born at Antwerp, 
 was a pupil of Rubens. His works are highly prized. 
 Died in 1646. 
 
 Horstius. See Horst. 
 
 Horstius, hoR'ste-us, (Jacobus,) a Dutch religious 
 writer, originally named Meri.er, was born at Horst 
 about 1597. He wrote, in elegant Latin, "Paradise of 
 the Christian Soul," (" Paradisus Animae Christiana?," 
 1630.) Died in 1644. 
 
 a, e, I, o, it, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m£t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
HORSTIUS 
 
 1213 
 
 HOSIUS 
 
 Horstius, hoR'ste-us, (Jakob,) a German physician, 
 born at Torgan in 1537 ; diet! in 1600. 
 
 Hort or Horte, (Josiah,) an English theologian, 
 educated at a dissenting academy with Dr. Watts, who 
 expressed a high opinion of him. He became Bishop 
 of K.ilmore and Ardagh in 1727, and Archbishop of 
 TuaiYi in 1742. A collection of his sermons was pub- 
 lished. He died at an advanced age in 1751. 
 
 Hortemels, /«>K'teh-inels' or /joRt'mel', (Fr£d6ric,) 
 a French engraver, born at Paris about 1688. 
 
 Hortemels, (MARIS Madklune.,) an able engraver, 
 born in Paris about 16S8, was the wife of the celebrated 
 engraver Nicolas Cochin. Died in 1777. 
 
 Hortense Eugenie de Beauharnais, or'i5nss' 
 th'zhi'ne'deh bo'SR'ni', Queen of Holland, and mother 
 of the emperor Napoleon III., was born in Paris in 
 She was the daughter of Alexandre, Vicomte de 
 Beauharnais, and Josephine Tascher, afterwards Empress 
 of France. Her personal charms and amiable character 
 rendered her a favourite with Napoleon and the ornament 
 of his court. Against her own inclination, and through 
 the influence of her mother, she became in 1802 the wife 
 of Louis Bonaparte, with whom she did not live happily. 
 It is said that she wept abundantly at the performance 
 of the ceremony. In 1806 her consort Louis was made 
 King of Holland. On this occasion Hortense said she 
 would have preferred the throne of Naples. " I would 
 have rekindled," said she, "the flame of the fine arts 
 in Italy." She disliked the Dutch fogs, and deemed 
 sunshine and Parisian society indispensable blessings. 
 
 Hortense was the mother of three sons, whom by the 
 edicts of 1804 and 1805 the emperor had preferred as 
 successors to his crown : I. Napoleon Louis Chari.es, 
 who died in 1807; 2. Napoleon Louis, who died at 
 Pesaro in 1831 ; 3. Charles Louis Napoleon, the 
 present Emperor of France. In 1 810 Louis abdicated 
 his throne, and was separated from his wife, who, with 
 her sons, returned to Paris. At the restoration of 1814 
 she was created Duchess of Saint-Leu, through the favour 
 of some of the allied powers. Louis XVIII., after an 
 interview with her, declared he had never seen a woman 
 who united so much grace and dignity. After sharing the 
 brief and brilliant triumphs of the Hundred Days, she 
 was compelled to fly from France. The authorities of 
 Geneva refused her an asylum ; but she received a 
 hospitable offer from the canton of Thurgau, where she 
 purchased the castle of Arenenberg in 1817. For many 
 years she passed the summer at this place and the winter 
 at Rome. When Louis Napoleon was exiled to the 
 United States, in 1836, she wished to go with him, but 
 had not sufficient strength to bear the voyage; and she 
 died in 1837, in the arms of her son, who, learning her 
 illness, had returned home. We should not omit to 
 mention that she excelled in music, and composed the 
 popular air of " Partant pour la Syrie," one of the 
 favourite national songs of France. 
 
 See Lasceu.es Wraxall, " Memoirs of Queen Hortense;" 
 Comte de Lagakde, " fcsquisse biographique sur la Reine Hor- 
 tense," 1853; "Foreign Quarterly Review" lor July, 1838. 
 
 Hortensius. See Desjardins. 
 
 Hor-ten'sl-us, (Lambert,) a Dutch philologist, born 
 at Montiort about 1500. He wrote " On the German 
 War," (" De Bello Germanico," 1560,) and annotations 
 on Virgil's "/Eneid," (1567.) Died about 1575. 
 
 Hortensius, hor-ten'she^us, (Quintus,) an eminent 
 Roman orator, born of an equestrian family in 114 B.C. 
 At an early age he acquired celebrity in the Forum, 
 where, a few years afterwards, he maintained a spirited 
 and generous rivalry with Cicero, who applauds his elo- 
 quence and calls him his friend. After serving in the 
 army of Sulla in Asia, he became successively quaestor, 
 aedile, praetor, and, in 69 B.C., consul. In the previous 
 year he was counsel for Verres, when Cicero made his 
 memorable speech for the prosecution. His orations 
 and other works are all lost. His eloquence is said to 
 have been ornate, flowery, Oriental in exuberance, and 
 enlivened with sententious and brilliant passages. He 
 had a retentive memory, a sonorous voice, and a grace- 
 ful gesture. Died in 50 B.C. 
 
 See Onomasticon Tuu.ianum : Pliwv, "Natural History," 
 books ix., x ., xxxiv ; Qi'intilian, books iv., x., xL, xu. ; Linden, 
 " Dissertatio de Hortensio Oratore," Abo, i8m. 
 
 Horto, ab, 5b oR'to, or de la Huerta, da IS weR'tJ, 
 (Garcia,) called also Garcia da Orta, a Portuguese 
 botanist, went to India as physician to the viceroy, and 
 wrote "On the Plants and Drugs of India," (1563.) 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Hor'ton, (Thomas,) D.D., born in London about 
 toco, was professor of divinity in Greshain College, and 
 published a number of sermons. Died in 1673. 
 
 Ho'rus, [Gr. 'B/mc, probably related etymologically 
 to the Sanscrit Surya, Lat. Sol, and Sp. Sur,] the Egyp- 
 tian god of the Sun, was regarded as the son of Isis and 
 Osiris. (See Osiris and Harpocrates.) For the ety- 
 mology of Horns, see SOrya. 
 
 Horus Apollo. See Hokapollo. 
 
 Horush. See Barbarossa. 
 
 Horvath, hoR'vit, (Michael,) a Hungarian histo- 
 rian, bom at Szentes in 1S09. He became Bishop of 
 Csanad in 1848, and minister of public instruction in 
 1849. After the defeat of the patriotic cause he went 
 into exile in 1849. He wrote a valuable " History of 
 the Magyars," (4 vols., 1842-46.) 
 
 Hos'ack, (David,) LL.D., F.R.S., an eminent Ameri- 
 can physician, born in New York City in 1769. After 
 graduating in Philadelphia in 1791, and prosecuting his 
 studies in Edinburgh and London, he returned to New 
 York, and became professor of botany and materia 
 medica in Columbia College in 1795. He taught clinical 
 medicine and obstetrics in the College of Physicians and 
 Surgeons nearly twenty years, between 1807 and 1826. 
 For many years he was one of the most successful prac- 
 titioners and most influential citizens of New York. 
 From 1820 to 1828 he was president of the New York 
 Historical Society. His first wife was the sister of 
 Thomas Eddy, and his second the widow of Henry A. 
 Costar. He wrote a treatise on Vision, published by the 
 Royal Society of London, (1794,) "Memoirs of De Witt 
 Clinton," (1829,) a "System of Practical Nosology," 
 (1829,) " Lectures on the Theory and Practice of Physic," 
 (1838.) several volumes of medical essays, and other 
 works. Died in 1 835. 
 
 See J. W. Francis " Memoir of Dr. Hosack :" Gross, "Ameri- 
 can Medical Biography," 1861 ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Dis- 
 tinguished Americans." vol. ii. 
 
 Hoschel or Hoeschel, hb'shel, [Lat. Hof.sche'- 
 Lius,] (David,) a distinguished German Hellenist, born 
 at Augsburg in 1556. He was professor of Greek and 
 keeper of the public library at Augsburg. He edited 
 numerous Greek works, among which are the Homilies 
 of Saint Basil and Saint Chrysostom, apd the book of 
 "Origen against Celsus," (1605.) His "Catalogue of 
 the Greek Manuscripts in the Augsburg Library" (1595) 
 is highly esteemed. Died in 161 7. 
 
 See Brucker, " De Mentis in Rem literariam D. Hoeschelii," 
 173s ; Bavlk, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron. 
 "Memoires;" J. A. Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grseca."' 
 
 Ho-se'a or O-se'a, [Heb.i'tyin; Fr. Ostv, o'zi',] one 
 of the twelve minor Hebrew prophets, of whom little is 
 known, except that he lived in the "days of Uzziah, 
 Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, Kings of Judah." It is 
 inferred that his prophetic career extended from about 
 785 to 725 B.C. His language is remarkably obscure. 
 " He is the most difficult and perplexed of all the pro- 
 phets," says Lowth. He is quoted in Matthew ii. 15, 
 ix. 13, Roman* ix. 25, (where his name is written Oste,) 
 and Revelation vi. 16. 
 
 Ho-she'a or Ho-se'a, JHcb. J'BMil.] the last King 
 of Israel, began to reign' about 730 B.C., after he had 
 assassinated King Pekah. (See II. Kings xv. 30 and 
 xvii. 1 to 7.) After a reign of nine years, his capital, 
 Samaria, was taken by Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, 
 who carried Hoshea with his subjects as captives to 
 llalah, Habor, and the cities of the Medes. Since 
 this event the fate of the ten tribes has been involved 
 in mystery. 
 
 Ho'sl-us, (Stanislas,) an eminent cardinal, born at 
 Cracow, in Poland, in 1504. After holding responsible 
 civil offices, he entered the Church, and was made suc- 
 cessively Bishop of Culm and of Wannia. He was .1 
 violent opponent of heretics and Protestants. In 1561 
 he received a cardinal's hat from Pius IV., who sent him 
 as legate to the Council of Trent. He wrote the "Con- 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; It, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (jrySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HOSKING 
 
 1214 
 
 HOTTING ER 
 
 fession of the Catholic Faith," (155 1,) and other works. 
 Died far. 1579. 
 
 See Rescius, "Vita Hosii," Rome, 1587; Rayle, "Historical 
 and Critical Dictionary ;" Ersch und Grubkr, "Allgemeine Ency- 
 Idopaedie. M 
 
 Hos'king, (William,) an English architect and 
 writer on architecture, born in Devonshire in 1800. He 
 became a resident of London in his youth, and acquired 
 distinction by a "Treatise on Architecture and Building," 
 republished from the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," (1839.) 
 About 1840 he was chosen professor of civil engineering 
 and architecture at King's College, London. He wrote 
 " Guide to the Regulation of Buildings as a Means of 
 Securing the Health of Towns," (1848.) 
 
 Hos'kins or Hos'kyns, (John,) Sr., an English 
 writer and lawyer, born in Herefordshire in 1566. He 
 was noted for skill in Latin and English poetry, and 
 wrote epigrams, law treatises, etc. According to Wood, 
 it was Hoskins who " polished Ben Jonson the poet," and 
 revised Sir Walter Raleigh's History before it went to 
 press. Died in 1638. 
 
 Hoskins, (John,) an English portrait-painter, patron- 
 ized by Charles I. Died in 1664. 
 
 Hos'mer, (Harriet,) an American sculptor, born in 
 Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1831, studied in Rome, 
 where she fixed her residence. Among her works are 
 "Medusa," "Beatrice Cenci," and an admired statue of 
 "Zenobiain Chains," ("Zenobia Captiva.") 
 
 See Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists." 
 
 Hosmer, (William,) an American divine of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, born in Brimfield, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1810. He was editor of the "Northern 
 Christian Advocate," published at Auburn, New York, 
 and of the " Northern Independent," a religious anti- 
 slavery journal. He wrote, besides other works, " Chris- 
 tian Beneficence," etc., (1855.) 
 
 Hosmer, (William Henry Cuyler,) an American 
 poet, born at Avon, in the Genesee valley, New York, 
 in 1814, studied in Geneva College, and practised law 
 in his native town. He spent much time among the 
 Indians. In 1854 he took up his residence in New York. 
 He wrote, besides other works, " Indian Traditions and 
 Legends of the Senecas," etc., (1850.) A complete 
 edition of his Poetical Works, in 2 vols., was pub- 
 lished in 1854. 
 
 See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Hos-pin'I-an, [Ger. pron. hos-pe-ne-an'; Fr. Hospi- 
 Nien, hos'pe'n'e-aN'; Lat. Hospinia'nus,] (Rudolf,) an 
 eminent Swiss Protestant theologian, born at Altorf in 
 1547. He became the minister of a church near Zurich, 
 and wrote a number of learned works, in Latin, among 
 which are " On the Origin and Progress of Ceremonies, 
 Rites, and Holydays ( Festis) among Christians," (1585,) 
 "History of Sacraments," ("Historia Sacramentaria," 
 I598,)anda" Historyof the Jesuits, "(1619.) Died in 1626. 
 
 See John H. Heidegger, " Historia Vita Rodolphi Hospiniani," 
 1681 ; Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Hospiniaiius. See Hospinian. 
 
 Hospinien. See Hospinien. 
 
 Hospital. See L'HSpital. 
 
 Hossch. See Hosscmus. 
 
 Hosschius, hos'ke-us, or Hossch, hosK, (Sidonius,) 
 a Flemish Jesuit, born at Merckhem in 1596, published 
 in 1635 a collection of Latin elegies, which were much 
 admired. Died in 1653. 
 
 Host or Hoest, host, (Georg,) a Danish traveller, 
 born in Jutland in 1734, became secretary for foreign 
 affairs, etc. He wrote an " Account of the Kingdoms 
 of Morocco and Fez," (I779-) 
 
 Host or Hoest, (Jens Kragh,) a Danish historian, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Saint Thomas, in the 
 Antilles, in 1772. He was the author of "Politics and 
 History," (5 vols., 1 8 1 6, ) "Johann Friedrich Struensee 
 and his Ministry," (3 vols., 1824,) and other works. 
 Died near Copenhagen in 1844. 
 
 See J. K. Hoest, " Erindringer ;" Erslew, "Almindeligt For- 
 fatter-Lexikon." 
 
 Host, host, (Nikolaus Thomas,) an Austrian, born 
 in 1763. was first physician to the Emperor of Austria, 
 and published " Flora Austriaca," (2 vols., 1827.) Died 
 in 1834. 
 
 Hoste, hot, (Jean,) a French geometer, born at 
 Nancy, became professor of mathematics at Pont-a- 
 Mousson. He published several treatises on geometry. 
 Died in 163 1. 
 
 Hoste, L', lot, (Paul,) a French Jesuit, born at Pont- 
 de-Vesle in 1652, was professor of mathematics in Tou- 
 lon. He wrote a treatise on the "Construction of Ships 
 and Naval Tactics," (1697.) Died in 1700. 
 
 Hos-til'I-an, [Fr. Hostilien, os'te'le-aN',] or, more 
 fully, Cai'us Va'lens Mes'sius Quin'tius Hostjlia'- 
 nus, second son of the Roman emperor Decius. At the 
 death of his father, 251 A.D., he was acknowledged by 
 some as a partner in the empire with Gallus ; but he 
 died a few months after, in 252. 
 
 Hostilien. See Hostilian. 
 
 Hos-til'I-us, (Tullus,) the third King of Rome, and 
 the successor of Numa, reigned about 650 n c. Among 
 the principal events of his reign, which is semi-fabulous, 
 was the war against Alba, terminated in favour of Rome 
 by the victory of Horatius over the Curiatii. 
 
 Hostrup, hos'tRup, (Christoffer,) a Danish drama- 
 tist, born in 1819, produced many successful comedies, 
 among which are "The Neighbours," (" Gjenboerne,") 
 and "The Intrigues." 
 
 Hostus, hos'tus, (Matihaus,) a German antiquary, 
 born in 1509; died in 1587. 
 
 Ho'tham, (Henry,) an English vice-admiral, born in 
 1776. In 1815 he commanded the Channel fleet, was 
 charged after the battle of Waterloo to blockade the 
 west coast of France, and received Napoleon as a pris- 
 oner on board his flag-ship, the Bellerophon. He was 
 appointed one of the commissioners of the admiralty in 
 1818. Died in 1833. 
 
 Hotho, ho'to, (Keinrich Gust a v,) a German writer 
 on art, born in Berlin in 1802. He became professor of 
 philosophy at the University of Berlin in 1S29, and was 
 considered one of the chief representatives of the school 
 of Hegel. He wrote a " History of Painting in Germany 
 and the Low Countries," (2 vols., 1840-43.) 
 
 Hotmail, ^ot'moN', (Antoine, ) a French jurist, 
 a brother of Francois, noticed below, was born about 
 1525 ; died in 1596. 
 
 Hotmail or Hottomann, [ Lat. Hotoman'nus 
 and Hottoman'nus,] (Francois,) an eminent French 
 jurist and Protestant, born in Paris in 1524, was a friend 
 of Calvin. He was deeply versed in jurisprudence, 
 literature, and antiquities. He became professor of law 
 at Strasburg about 1550, and at Valence in 1561. By 
 concealment he escaped the Massacre of Saint Bar- 
 tholomew, (1572,) after which he retired to Geneva and 
 Bale. He was appointed councillor of state by Henry 
 IV. about 1580. He performed an important part in the 
 scientific revolution which was produced in jurisprudence 
 in the sixteenth century. His famous work on public 
 French law, entitled "Treatise on the Government of 
 the Kings of Gaul," ("Franco-Gallia, sive Tractatus de 
 Regimine Regum Galliae," 1573,) had an immense influ- 
 ence. He wrote, in elegant Latin, many other works, 
 among which are a "Commentary on Legal Words," 
 (" Commentarius de Verbis Juris," 1558,) and "Cele- 
 brated Questions," ("Quaestiones illustres," 1573.) Died 
 at Bale in 1590. His son Jean (1 552-1636) was a diplo- 
 matist and writer. 
 
 See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary:" Haag, "I,a 
 France protestante ;" Nevelet, "Vita Hottomatmi," prefixed to 
 Hotman's Works, about 1600; Dareste, "Essai sur F. Hotman," 
 1850; " Nouvelle Biopraphie Gdne'rale." 
 
 Hotmann or Hottomann. See Hotman. 
 
 Hotmannus or Hottomannus. See Hotman. 
 
 Hottinger, hot'ting-er, (Johann Hiinrich, ) an 
 eminent Swiss Orientalist and Protestant divine, born at 
 Zurich in 1620. After studying in his native city, at Ge- 
 neva, and Levden, and becoming one of the best Oriental 
 scholars of his time, he was chosen in 1648 professor of 
 theology and Oriental languages at Zurich. In 1655 he 
 accepted the chair of Oriental languages at Heidelberg, 
 where he remained until 1661, when he was elected rector 
 of the University of Zurich. The University of Leyden 
 persuaded him to accept their chair of theology ; but be- 
 fore he arrived at that scene of labour he was accidentally 
 drowned, in 1667. Among the numerous monuments of 
 his vast erudition, the following are, perhaps, the prin- 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
HOTTINGER 
 
 1 21 5 
 
 HOUSSATE 
 
 cipal: "Oriental History," (" Historia Orientalis," 1651,) 
 "Ecclesiastical History of the New Testament," (9 vols., 
 1651-67,) and "Etyinologicum Orientale," a lexicon of 
 seven languages, (1661.) 
 
 See J. H. Heidegger. "Historia Vita; J. H. Hottingeri," 1067; 
 ISavi.k. "Historical and Critical Dictionary:" G. H. Haiin, " Un- 
 terauchung ob des gelehrten Hotlinger's wirkliche Lebensgefahr," 
 etc.. 1742: NlCEKON, "Nfemoires." 
 
 Hottinger, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss theologian, a 
 son of the preceding, was born at Zurich in 1652. From 
 1698 until his death he was professor of theology in his 
 native city. He wrote, besides other works, an " Eccle- 
 siastical History of Switzerland," in German, (4 vols., 
 1708-29.) Died in 1735. 
 
 Hottinger, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss professor and 
 philologist, born at Zurich in 1750. He taught Greek 
 and Latin in his native city, and published several 
 good editions and translations' of classic authors. Died 
 in 1 819. 
 
 Hottinger, ( Johann Jakob,) a Swiss writer, born 
 in 1783 at Zurich, where he became professor of his- 
 tory, and published, besides other works, a " History of 
 the Schism in the Swiss Church," in German, (2 vols., 
 1827.) 
 
 Hotze, von, fon hot'seh, (David,) an Austrian gene- 
 ral, born near Zurich about 1740. He commanded the 
 army which was opposed to Massena in Switzerland in 
 1709. He was killed in a battle near Zurich, in Sep- 
 tember, 1799. 
 
 Houard, 00'aV,* (David,) a French jurist, born at 
 Dieppe in 1725 ; died in 1802. 
 
 Houbigant, /ioo'be'gftN',* (Charles Francois,) a 
 French priest, born in Paris in 1686, was a member of 
 the Oratory, and an excellent biblical scholar. After 
 teaching rhetoric at Marseilles and philosophy at Sois- 
 sons, he became deaf about 1722, and thenceforth de- 
 voted himself to study and writing. He gave especial 
 attention to Hebrew, with a view to correct the text 
 of the Bible. The principal fruit of his labours is an 
 edition of the Hebrew Bible, with Critical Notes and 
 a Latin Version, (4 vols., 1753,) which is highly com- 
 mended. Died in Paris in 1783. 
 
 See J. F. Adry. "Notice sur la Vie de C. F. Houbigant," 1806; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^i^rale. " 
 
 Houbraken, how'bRa'ken, (Arnold,) a Dutch 
 painter, engraver, and critic, born at Dort in 1660. He 
 painted history and portraits with success at Amsterdam, 
 and wrote (in Dutch) " The Lives of Dutch and Flemish 
 Painters," with portraits, (3 vols., 1718,) a work of much 
 merit. Died in 1719. 
 
 See Jakob Campo Weyerman, "De Schilderkonst der Neder- 
 'anders. 
 
 Houbraken, (Jacob,) son of the preceding, was born 
 at Dort in 1698. He worked many years at Amsterdam, 
 was almost unrivalled as an engraver, and executed 
 several hundred portraits, among which are a collection 
 of " Illustrious Persons of Great Britain," (London, 
 1748.) He also engraved the "Sacrifice of Manoah," 
 after Rembrandt, and the portraits in his father's " Lives 
 of the Dutch and Flemish Painters." Died in 1780. 
 
 See Hasan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Houchard, oo'shtR',» (Jean Nicolas,) a French 
 general, born at Forbach in 1740. He served in the 
 army l>efore the Revolution, in which he espoused the 
 popular party. In 1792 he succeeded Custine in the 
 command of the armies of the Moselle and of the North. 
 In August, 1793, he gained a victory at Hondschoote, 
 and forced the llritish to raise the siege of Dunkirk; 
 but he was arrested by the dominant faction, and exe- 
 cuted, in 1793, on the charge that he had permitted the 
 enemy to escape after the battle just mentioned. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Houdard. See Motte, La. 
 
 Houdart de la Motte. See Motte, La. 
 
 Houdetot, oo'deh-to',* (Elisabeth Francoise 
 Sophie de la Live de Beli-hcarde.) Countess, a 
 French lady, born about 1730, was the wife of General 
 
 * There is perha\« no question in French pronunciation attended 
 with more difficulty than that respecting the aspiration of the letter A. 
 The best French authorities differ in regard to die initial h of many 
 rimes. Some respectable authorities assert that the h should never 
 
 Houdetot, the sister-in-law of Madame fipinay, and a 
 favourite of Rousseau, to whose passion and indiscretion 
 she chiefly owes the publicity of her name. Her liaison 
 with M. Saint-Lambert was well known. Died in 1813. 
 
 Houdon, 00'dA.N',* (Jean Antoine,) an eminent 
 French scuiptor, born at Versailles in 1741. About 1760 
 he won the grand prize for sculpture at the Academy, 
 and went to Rome with a pension. After remaining 
 there ten years, during which he executed an admired 
 statue of Saint Bruno, he returned to Paris, and was 
 admitted into the Royal Academy in 1775. About 1785 
 he received from Dr. Franklin a commission to execute 
 the marble statue of Washington which adorns the State- 
 House at Richmond, Virginia. He came to Philadelphia 
 to obtain the model of this work. His reputation was 
 increased by his statues of Voltaire and Cicero, and his 
 busts of Rousseau, Buffon, Franklin, D'Alembert, Napo- 
 leon, Ney, etc. His heads of young girls are highly 
 successful in the expression of modesty and innocence. 
 Houdon was a member of the Institute. His personal 
 character was amiable and estimable. Died in 1828. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Houdry, oo'dRe',* (Vincent,) a French Jesuit, born 
 at Tours in 163 1, was employed as preacher in the chief 
 cities of France. He published sermons, and a compila- 
 tion entitled "Bibliotheque des Predicateurs," (23 vols., 
 1 712 et seq.) Died in 1729. 
 
 Houel, Aoo'bV* (Jean Pierre Louis Laurent,) a 
 French landscape-painter and engraver, born at Rouen 
 in 1735. In a journey through Italy, Sicily, etc., he col- 
 lected materials for an interesting work, entitled " A 
 Picturesque Tour through Sicily, Malta, and the Lip.iri 
 Islands," (4 vols., 1782-87, with 264 engravings.) Died 
 in 1813. 
 
 Hough, huf, (John,) D.D., an English scholar, born 
 in Middlesex in 1651, was elected president of Magda- 
 lene College, Oxford, in 1687, in opposition to the illegal 
 dictation of James II. The king then sent a mandate 
 to the Fellows to elect Parker, a Catholic. In this 
 contest Hough firmly maintained his rights and those of 
 the college, and the king's agents broke open the door 
 in order to place Parker in the president's chair. In 
 1688 Hough was reinstated, and in 1690 was made 
 Bishop of Oxford. Translated to the see of Lichfield 
 and Coventry in 1699, he refused the Archbishopric of 
 Canterbury in 1715, and became Bishop of Worcester 
 in 1717. He was eminent for piety and learning. Died 
 in 1743- 
 
 See John Wilmot, " Life of Rev. John Hough," 1812; Mac- 
 aulay, " History of England," vol. ii. chap. viii. 
 
 Houghton, ho'ton, (Douglas,) M.D., a naturalist, 
 born at Troy, in New York, about 1810. He was ap- 
 pointed State geologist for Michigan in 1837, and was 
 drowned in Eagle River in 1845. 
 
 Houghton, Lord. See Milnes, (Richard Monk- 
 ton.) 
 
 Houghton, ho'ton, Major, an English traveller, who 
 was sent by the African Company to explore the source 
 of the Niger. He started in 1790, ascended the Gambia 
 many hundred miles, and afterwards proceeded by land. 
 It is supposed that he died near Jarra, in 1791 ; but his 
 papers were never recovered. 
 
 Houlakou or Houlagou. See Hooi.Akoo. 
 
 Houlieres, dea. See Deshoulieres. 
 
 Houllier, ^ool'e-i', |Lat. Hoi.i.e'rhis,] (Jacques,) 
 an eminent French physician, born at Etampes, obtained 
 a large practice in Paris, and was chosen Dean of the 
 Faculty in 1546. He wrote able commentaries on Hip- 
 pocrates, (1579,) and other works. Died in 1562. 
 
 Houmayoun or Houmaioon. See Hoomayoon. 
 
 Houseman, (C.) See Huysman. 
 
 Houssaye. See Amelot de la Houssavf. 
 
 HousBaye, //oo'sj', (Arsenk,) a successful French 
 litterateur and poet, born near Laon in 1815. He pro- 
 duced "La Couronne des Bluets," (1836,) and many 
 other novels. His "History of Flemish and Dutch 
 Painting" (1846) was received with favour. In 1844 he 
 
 be sounded in any case . others maintain that in certain words »nd 
 nanvs it should be slightly sounded, while in others it is entirely mute. 
 Resecting this subject, see the remarks on French pronunciation in 
 the Introduction. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,/ruttu-al; N, nasal; R, hilled; s as t; th as in this. (HySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HOUSTON 
 
 1216 
 
 HOWARD 
 
 published a " Gallery of Portraits of the Eighteenth 
 Century," (1st series, 2 vols.,) which was completed in 
 5 vols, about 1850. From 1849 to 1856 lie was director 
 of the Theatre Francais. He also wrote able critiques 
 on art, and published a volume of poems, " Poesies 
 completes," (1849,) and " Le Roi Voltaire," (1858.) He 
 was chosen inspector-general of the works of art and 
 Musees in 1856. 
 
 See Bourquelot, "La Literature Francaise contemporaine ;" 
 Charles RoniN, " Biographie d' A. Houssaye," 184S ; Clement 
 de Ris, " Portraits a la Plume :" Alfred de Musset, "A. Hous- 
 saye," etc., 1853; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale;" "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for June, 1851. 
 
 Houston, hu'ston, ? (George Smith,) an American 
 Democratic politician, born in Tennessee in 181 1. He 
 studied law, which he practised at Huntsville, Alabama, 
 and was elected a member of Congress in 1841. He 
 was chairman of the committee of ways and means in 
 the House of Representatives during two terms, 185 1-55. 
 
 Houston, hu'ston, (Sam,*) an American general, 
 born near Lexington, Virginia, in 1793, was taken to 
 Tennessee in his childhood. He studied law, which he 
 practised at Nashville, was elected a member of Congress 
 in 1823, and Governor of Tennessee in 1827. In 1829 
 he resigned his office, and, renouncing civilized society, 
 passed several years with the Cherokee Indians, who 
 lived west of Arkansas. About the end of 1832 he 
 emigrated to Texas, where he took an active part in the 
 ensuing revolt against the Mexican government. Having 
 been chosen commander-in-chief of the Texan army, he 
 defeated and captured Santa Anna at San Jacinto, April 
 21, 1836. He was elected President of Texas in July, 
 1836, and re-elected for a term of three years in 1841. 
 After the annexation of Texas to the Union, (1845,) he 
 was chosen a United States Senator, and at the end of 
 his term in 1853 was elected for a second term. He 
 made an able speech against the Kansas-Nebraska bill 
 in March, 1854, about which time he joined the Ameri- 
 can (Know-Nothing) party. He was chosen Governor 
 of Texas in 1859. On the breaking out of the civil war 
 he favoured the Union, but was overborne by a large 
 majority of the people. Died in 1862. 
 
 See "Sam Houston and his Republic," by Charles E. Lester, 
 1855- 
 
 Hous'ton, (William,) F.R.S., an English surgeon 
 and naturalist, born about 1695, studied under Boerhaave, 
 at Leyden, in 1728-29, and made there, with Van Swieten, 
 experiments respecting the respiration of animals. About 
 1732 he made a voyage for scientific purposes to the 
 West Indies, where he died in 1733, after collecting and 
 describing many rare plants. The results of his botanical 
 labours were published by Sir Joseph Banks. 
 
 See " Biographie Me'dicale." 
 
 Houteville or Houtteville, /zoot'vel', (Claude 
 Francois,) a French priest of the Oratory, born in Paris 
 in 1686. He published, in 1722, "The Truth of the 
 Christian Religion proved by Facts," which attracted 
 much attention and hostile criticism. In 1723 he was 
 chosen a member of the French Academy. He was 
 elected perpetual secretary of the Academy in 1742, and 
 died in the same year. 
 
 See Moheri, " Dictiounaire Historique." 
 
 Houtman, howt'man, (Cornelis,) a Dutch navigator, 
 born at Gouda, was the pioneer or founder of the com- 
 merce between Holland and the East Indies. As agent 
 of a company, he made the first voyage in 1595, and re- 
 turned home in 1507. In 1598 he renewed the enterprise 
 with two ships, and landed at Acheen, in Sumatra, where 
 he was arrested with some of his men, and kept a prisoner 
 several years, until his death. Died about 1605. 
 
 See Ravnal, " Histoire philosophique des deux Indes;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Houtman, (Frederik,) a navigator, born about 1570, 
 was a brother of the preceding, whom he accompanied 
 in his voyage to the East Indies in 1598. He was after- 
 wards Governor of Amboyna, and published a "Malay 
 Dictionary," (1603.) Died about 1613. 
 
 Houtteville. See Houteville. 
 
 Hove, van, vfn ho'veh, (Antoon,) a Dutch historian 
 and Latin poet, bom about 1505 ; died in 1568. 
 
 * So called by himself. 
 
 Hoveden, hiiv'den or hov'den, de, (Roger,) an 
 English historian, born at York, lived about 1170-1200. 
 He was professor of theology at Oxford, and filled re- 
 sponsible offices at the court of Henry II. He wrote, in 
 Latin, a " History of England from 731 to 1202," which 
 is commended by Leland, Seidell, and others for its 
 fidelity. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis." 
 
 Hovel. See Hevelius. 
 
 Hovey, hiiv'e, (Ai.vah,) an American divine and 
 author, born in Chenango county, New York, about 1820. 
 He graduated at Dartmouth in 1843, and about 1850 be- 
 came a professor in the Baptist Theological Seminary at 
 Newton. His principal work is the "Life and Times of 
 Backus," (1857.) 
 
 Hovey, (Ai.van P.,) an American officer, who en- 
 tered the service as major of an Indiana regiment in 
 1861, and became a brigadier-general about April, 1862. 
 He commanded a division and contributed to the victory 
 at Champion's Hill, May 16, 1863. 
 
 Hovey, (Charles Edward,) an American officer, 
 born at Hartford, Vermont, in 1827, removed to Illinois, 
 and was made a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1862. 
 
 H6w, (William,) M.D., born in London in 1619, 
 became a captain in the royal army in the civil war, and 
 afterwards practised medicine in his native city. He 
 is said to have been the author of the first English Flora, 
 ("Phytologia Britannica," 1650,) which contains twelve 
 hundred and twenty plants. Died in 1656. 
 
 HSw'ard, the name of an ancient and noble family 
 of England, the head of which is the Duke of Norfolk 
 and the premier peer of Great Britain. The Earls of 
 Carlisle and Suffolk also belong to the Howard family. 
 
 Howard, (Anne,) daughter of Charles, Earl of Car- 
 lisle, was married to Richard, Viscount Irwin. She wrote 
 a "Poetical Essay on Pope's Characters of Women," 
 and other poems. Died in 1760. 
 
 Howard, (Charles,) Lord Effingham, or Lord 
 Howard of Effingham, an English admiral, born in 1536, 
 was the son of William, Lord Effingham, and grandson 
 of Thomas Howard, second Duke of Norfolk. After 
 important civil and military services, he was appointed 
 in 1585 lord high admiral by Queen Elizabeth, and suc- 
 cessfully opposed the Invincible Armada in 1588. In 
 1596 he was associated with the Earl of Essex in the 
 victorious expedition against Cadiz, and was rewarded 
 with the title of Earl of Nottingham. About three years 
 later, when another Spanish invasion was expected, the 
 sole command of the army and navy for a short time was 
 committed to him, with the title of lieutenant-general of 
 England. He retained his honours and offices under 
 James I. Died in 1624. 
 
 See Campbell, " Lives of British Admirals ;" J. Barrow, " Me- 
 moirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth's Reign," 1S45. 
 
 Howard, (Charles,) Earl of Carlisle, born about 
 1630, was employed in the reign of Charles II. in diplo- 
 matic missions to Muscovy, Sweden, and Denmark, of 
 which an account was published in 1669. Died in 1686. 
 
 Howard, (Chari.es,) tenth Duke of Norfolk, (pre- 
 viously Hon. Charles Howard, of Greystock Castle, 
 Cumberland,) succeeded to the dukedom in 1777. He 
 published "Thoughts, Essays, and Maxims, chiefly Re- 
 ligious and Political," (1768,) and " Historical Anecdotes 
 of some of the Howard Family." Died in 1786. 
 
 Howard, (Charles,) eleventh Duke of Norfolk, an 
 English nobleman, born in 1746, was the son of the tenth 
 Duke. In 1780, being then styled the Earl of Surrey, 
 he exchanged the Catholic faith for that of the Anglican 
 Church. Representing Carlisle in Parliament, he acted 
 with the opposition during the ministries of Lord North 
 and Lord Shelburne. At the death of his father, in 17S6, 
 he became Duke of Norfolk. As a memlier of the 
 House of Lords, he opposed the measures of Pitt. Died 
 in 1815. 
 
 Howard, (Hon. Edward,) an English writer, a son 
 of Thomas, Earl of Berkshire, lived about 1650. He 
 wrote several unsuccessful dramas, and "The British 
 Princes ; a Heroic Poem," in which occur these lines, 
 often quoted in ridicule : 
 
 " A painted vest Prince Vortigem had on. 
 Which from a naked Pict his grandsire won." 
 
 I,e,i, o, u, y, long;\, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, u, j?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t;go6d; moon; 
 
HOWARD 
 
 1217 
 
 HOWARD 
 
 Pope, in the " Dunciad," alludes to him in these terms : 
 
 "And high-bom Howard, more majestic sire, 
 With fool of quality completes the choir." 
 
 Howard, (Edward,) a popular English novelist, was 
 a lieutenant in the royal navy. Me published "The 
 Old Commodore," (1837,) "Ratlin the Reefer," (1838,) 
 "Outward-Bound," etc. Died in 1842. 
 
 Howard, (FRANK.) an able English designer and 
 writer on art, a son of Henry Howard the painter. He 
 published "The Spirit of the Plays of Shakspeare, ex- 
 hibited in Outline Plates," (5 vols., 1827-33,) and the 
 "Science of Drawing," (1840.) Died in 1866. 
 
 Howard, (Frederick,) fifth Earl of Carlisle, an 
 English poet and statesman, born in 1748, was the son 
 of Henry, and grandson of the third Earl, noticed above. 
 He succeeded to the family title in 1758. In 1778 he 
 was one of the commissioners sent to persuade the 
 people of the United States to submit to the British 
 rule. He acted with the Whig party until the French 
 Revolution, after which he supported the ministry. He 
 published a volume of Poems, and several tragedies, 
 one of which, called " The Father's Revenge," was com- 
 mended by Dr. Johnson. His mother, Isabella Byron, 
 daughter to the fifth Lord Byron, was first-cousin to the 
 rather of the poet Byron. Died in 1825. 
 
 Howard, (George Edmund,) a British poet and 
 architect, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He 
 published in 1782 several volumes of miscellaneous 
 works, the most important of which treat on the ex- 
 chequer, revenue, and trade of Ireland. Died in 1786. 
 
 Howard, (George William Frederick,) Earl of 
 Carlisle and Viscount Morpeth, a statesman and author, 
 born in 1802, was a grandson of Frederick, fifth Earl 
 of Carlisle. He was stvled Lord Morpeth before the 
 death of his father, which occurred about 1848. Under 
 the Whig ministry which was dissolved in 1841 he was 
 secretary for Ireland. He visited the United States 
 between 1842 and 1846, and, after his return, imparted 
 to the public some observations on that country in a 
 lecture. In 1854 he published a " Diary in Turkish and 
 Greek Waters," which is a work of merit. He was lord- 
 lieutenant of Ireland about three years, (1855-58,) and 
 was reappointed to that office by Palmerston in June, 
 1859. He had the reputation of a liberal statesman and 
 benevolent man. Died in 1864. 
 
 Howard, (Henry,) Earl of Surrey, a celebrated 
 English poet, born about 15 16, was the son of Thomas, 
 third Duke of Norfolk, and of Elizabeth Stafford. He 
 excelled in the accomplishments of a scholar, courtier, 
 and soldier, and cultivated as well as patronized the 
 fine arts. About 1535 he married Lady Frances Vere. 
 In 1544 he accompanied Henry VIII. in his invasion of 
 France, was made a field-marshal, and was appointed 
 governor of Boulogne after it was captured by the 
 English. Soon after this he became the object of the 
 king's suspicion. He was recalled in 1546, arrested 
 with his father, condemned, and executed in 1547. He 
 left two sons and three daughters. (With respect to 
 Surrey's guilt or innocence, see Froude's " History of 
 England," vol. iv. chap, xxiii.) 
 
 Surrey is the first who used blank verse in our lan- 
 guage, and is considered the first English classical 
 poet. He did much to improve the style of versification. 
 One of his principal productions is a translation into 
 blank verse of the second book of the "/Eneid," which 
 is admired for its fidelity and poetic diction. He also 
 wrote numerous sonnets and songs. There is some 
 doubt of the reality of his romantic passion for Geral- 
 dine, who is the subject of his most admired effusions. 
 She was a child of thirteen, named Lady Elizabeth Fitz- 
 
 ferald. who afterwards became the wife of the Earl of 
 .incoln. 
 
 See Hai.i.am, "Introduction to the Literature of Europe;" 
 Warton, "History of English Poetry :" Johnson and Chaihkrs, 
 "Lives of. the English Poets;" " Edinburgh Review," vol. xlii. 
 
 Howard, (Henry,) Earl of Northampton, second 
 son of the preceding, was born at Norfolk about 1539. 
 He was a person of much learning, but of bad principles. 
 He became a privy councillor at the accession of James 
 I., who made him Earl of Northampton. In 1608 he 
 was appointed lord privy seal. He was suspected of 
 
 complicity in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury, and 
 in the disgraceful conduct of his relative, the Countess 
 of Essex. Died in 1614. 
 
 See Gardiner's " History of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. 
 i. chap. ii. pp. 63 and 64 ; also, chaps, x. and xii. 
 
 Howard, (Henry,) born in 1757, was the son of 
 Philip Howard of Corby Castle, England, and a de- 
 scendant of the noble Earl of Surrey. He published 
 " Indication of Memorials, etc. of the Howard Family," 
 (1834,) and other works. Died in 1842. 
 
 Howard, (Henry,) an English painter, born in 1769, 
 entered the Royal Academy as a student in 1788. In 
 1790 he won two of the highest premiums, — a gold 
 medal for the best historical painting, and a silver medal 
 for the best drawing from life. After a visit to Rome 
 he was chosen a member of the Royal Academy in 1808, 
 and secretary of that body in 181 1. His favourite sub- 
 jects are classical and poetical, and are treated with 
 elegant taste. Among his best works are "The Birth 
 of Venus," "The Solar System," "The Circling Hours," 
 and "The Story of Pandora." Died in 1847. 
 
 Howard, (Sir John,) was a son of Sir Robert Howard 
 and Margaret, a daughter of Thomas Mowbray, Duke 
 of Norfolk. He was a partisan of the house of York 
 during the wars of the Roses. He was created Duke 
 of Norfolk in 1483, and was killed with Richard III. at 
 Bosworth in 1485. 
 
 Howard, (John,) F.R.S., a celebrated English philan- 
 thropist, born at Hackney, near London, in 1726. He 
 was the son of a London tradesman, who died in his 
 minority and left him an independent fortune. Having 
 made a tour on the continent, he returned home and 
 took lodgings with a widow named Loidore, by whom he 
 was kindly nursed when his health required such atten- 
 tion, and whom he married out of mere gratitude In 1752, 
 although she was more than twenty years his senior. 
 After their marriage she lived only three or four years. 
 In 1756 he embarked for Lisbon, in the desire to relieve 
 the miseries caused by the great earthquake of 1755, but 
 during the passage was taken by a French privateer, and 
 detained in prison long enough to excite his lasting sym- 
 pathy with prisoners and to impress him with the neces- 
 sity of a reform in their treatment. After he was re- 
 leased he returned home, and married in 1758 Henrietta 
 Leeds, with whom he lived happily at Cardington until 
 her death in 1765. He had by this marriage one son, 
 whose vicious habits produced first disease and then 
 incurable insanity. Having been appointed sheriff of 
 the county of Bedford in 1773, he witnessed with pain 
 the abuses and cruelties to which prisoners were usually 
 subjected. After visiting most of the county jails of Eng- 
 land, and collecting much information respecting them, 
 he induced the House of Commons in 177410 begin a 
 reform in prison discipline, to which his life thenceforth 
 was constantly, heroically, and successfully devoted. In 
 1777 he published a valuable volume on "The State of 
 the Prisons in England," etc. From 1778 until his death 
 he was almost continually employed in traversing all 
 parts of Europe, visiting prisons and hospitals, relieving 
 the sick, and, as Burke expresses it, "taking the gauge 
 and dimensions of misery, depression, and contempt." 
 He died of fever in 1790, at Cherson, on the Black Sea. 
 His habits were simple, temperate, and self-denying. 
 Having been educated among Protestant dissenters, he 
 continued in their fellowship through life. 
 
 See " Life of Howard," by W. Hepworth Dixon. 1S49 : another 
 Life, by John Field, 1850; Aikin, " Life of |ohn Howard," 1703; 
 J. It. Brown, ".Memoirs of the Life of John Howard," 1S1S; " En- 
 cyclopaedia Britannica;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 185a 
 
 H6w'ard, (John Eager,) an officer, born in Balti- 
 more county, Maryland, in 1752. He commanded a regi- 
 ment which distinguished itself by its brilliant bayonet- 
 charge at Cowpens, January, 1781, and its gallantry at 
 Guilford Court- House, March, 1781, and Eutaw Springs, 
 in September of that year. He was chosen Governor of 
 Maryland in 1788, and was a United States Senator from 
 1790 to 1803. Died in 1827. 
 
 See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans. 
 
 Howard, (Luke,) an English meteorologist, born 
 about 1770, published an " Essay on Clouds," (1802,) and 
 other works on meteorology, foied in 1864. 
 
 € as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as x; *h as in this. (29" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 77 
 
HOWARD 
 
 1218 
 
 HOWE 
 
 Howard, (Oliver Oils,) an American general, born 
 at Leeus, Kennebec county, Maine, in November, 1830. 
 He was educated at Bowdoin College and at the Military 
 Academy of West Point, where he graduated in 1854. He 
 became first lieutenant of ordnance in 1857, and colonel 
 of the Third Maine Volunteers in, May, 1861. He com- 
 manded a brigade at Bull Run, July 21, and obtained the 
 rank of brigadier-general in September, 1861. At the 
 battle of Fair Oaks, May 31, 1862, he lost his right arm. 
 He commanded a division at the battle of Antietam, 
 September 17, and at Fredericksburg, December, 1862. 
 In November, 1862, he was appointed a major-general 
 of volunteers, and in April, 1863, obtained command of 
 the eleventh army corps, which he led at Chancellors- 
 ville, and at Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863. He served 
 with distinction at the battle of Missionary Ridge and 
 Chattanooga, November 25, 1863. In his report of this 
 campaign General Sherman commends him as "exhibit- 
 ing the highest and most chivalrous traits of the soldier." 
 General Howard commanded the fourth corps of the 
 army which, under General Sherman, fought its way 
 from Chattanooga to Atlanta, May-September, 1864. 
 He was appointed, July 27, commander of the army of 
 the Tennessee in place of McPherson, who was killed 
 near Atlanta. In the memorable march of Sherman's 
 army from Atlanta to the sea, Howard led the right 
 wing, and was the second or third in command. (See 
 Sherman, William T.) In May, 1865, he was ap- 
 pointed chief of the Freedmen's Bureau. He has the 
 reputation of being a model Christian soldier. He is 
 a brigadier-general of the regular army by a commission 
 dated December, 1864. 
 
 Howard, (Philip,) of Corby Castle, England, was a 
 descendant of the eminent poet the Earl of Surrey, and 
 father of Henry, noticed above, (1757-1842.) He wrote 
 the " Scriptural History of the Earth and of Mankind," 
 (1797.) Died in 1810. 
 
 Howard, (Sir Robert,) M.P., an English poet, liorn 
 in 1626, was a brother of the Hon. Edward Howard, 
 noticed above. He was a royalist in the civil war, and, 
 after the restoration, was appointed auditor of the ex- 
 chequer. His most successful dramas were "The Com- 
 mittee" and "The Indian Queen." He was the original 
 hero of "The Rehearsal," in which he is called Bilboa. 
 "The poetry of the Berkshire Howards," says Macaulay, 
 "was the jest of three generations of satirists." The 
 poet Dryden married Howard's sister. Died in 1698. 
 
 See Macaui.av, " History of England," vol. iii. chap. xiv. ; Cib- 
 ber, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Howard, (Samuel,) an English musical composer, 
 who flourished about 1750, produced several popular 
 ballads. Died in 1783. 
 
 Howard, (Thomas,) second Duke of Norfolk, and 
 Earl of Surrey, was a son of John, first Duke. He fought 
 for Richard III. at Bosworth, where his father was killed, 
 in 14S5. He commanded the English army which gained 
 a great victory over the Scotch at Flodden in 1513, and 
 received the title of Duke of Norfolk for this service, 
 before which he was styled Earl of Surrey. He died in 
 1524, aged about seventy, and was succeeded by his son 
 Thomas. 
 
 Howard, (Thomas,) third Duke of Norfolk, a son of 
 the preceding, and an eminent English statesman and gen- 
 eral, was born about 1473. In 1 513 he was chosen high 
 admiral of England, and, in co-operation with his father, 
 defeated the Scotch at the battle of Flodden. For this 
 service he was made Earl of Surrey, while his father 
 was made Duke of Norfolk. In 1523 he became lord 
 high treasurer, and in 1524, at the death of his father, 
 inherited his title. His devotion to the Church of Rome 
 made him hostile to Anne Boleyn, though she was his 
 own niece. After Henry VIII. had married Catherine 
 Howard, the duke, who was her uncle, had much influ- 
 ence in the royal councils, and used it for the persecu- 
 tion of the Protestants. In 1547 he was arrested on a 
 charge of treason, and ordered for execution ; but before 
 the fatal day came the king died. Norfolk was released 
 from prison in 1553, and (lied the next year. His son, 
 the Earl of Surrey, was executed in 1547. 
 
 See Froudk, " Historv of the Reign of Henrv VIII.," particu- 
 larly vols. iii. and iv. ; Hume's and Lingakd's Histories of England. 
 
 Howard, (Thomas,) fourth Duke of Norfolk, was a 
 grandson of the preceding. He was the only peer who 
 at that time possessed the highest title of nobility; and, 
 as there were no princes of the blood, his rank, together 
 with his great wealth and abilities, rendered him the first 
 subject in England. He is represented as generous, 
 prudent, and moderate, and sincerely attached to the 
 Protestant religion. In 1559 Elizabeth appointed him 
 her lieutenant in the northern counties. By aspiring to 
 become the husband of Mary Queen of Scots, he gave 
 offence to Elizabeth, and was committed to the Tower 
 in 1569. Having been released, he renewed his suit, 
 received a promise of marriage from the captive queen, 
 and joined a conspiracy for her liberation. For this he 
 was condemned and executed in 1572. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England;" Frou-de, " History of Eng- 
 land," vols. ix. and x. 
 
 Howard, (Thomas,) Earl of Arundel, a branch of 
 the ancient and noble family of Howard, was employed 
 in foreign embassies by Charles I. In 1639 he was 
 appointed commander of an army raised to subdue 
 the Scotch ; but peace was made before any important 
 action occurred. He formed an extensive collection of 
 Grecian antiquities and productions of ancient artists, 
 parts of which were presented by one of his heirs to the 
 University of Oxford, under the name of the Arundelian 
 marbles. His grandson Henry became sixth Duke of 
 Norfolk. The earl wrote several relations of his em-. 
 bassies and voyages. Died in 1646. 
 
 H6w'den, (John Francis Caradoc,) Baron, a 
 British general, born in 1762, was the son of John Cra- 
 dock, Archbishop of Dublin. He entered the army in 
 1777. In 1S01 he was one of Abercrombie's staff, and 
 was engaged in several battles in Egypt. He afterwards 
 commanded the British army in India, and in Portugal 
 in 1808. In 1 83 1 he was raised to the peerage, as Baron 
 Howden. Died in 1839. 
 
 Howden, (John Hobart Caradoc,) Baron, an Eng- 
 lish diplomatist, ason of the preceding, was burn in 1799. 
 He served in the army, and gained the rank of major- 
 general. He was sent as ambassador to Madrid in 1850. 
 
 H8we, (Albion P.,) an American general, born in 
 Maine about 1818, graduated at West Point in 1S41. 
 He became a brigadier-general in April, 1862, served at 
 Antietam, September 17, and commanded a division at 
 the battles of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862, and 
 Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863. 
 
 Hbwe, (Charles,) born in Gloucestershire, England, 
 in 1661, was employed as a diplomatist by James II. 
 He wrote " Devout Meditations," of which the poet 
 Young says, " A greater demonstration of a sound head 
 and a sincere heart I never saw." Died in 1745. 
 
 Howe, (Ei.ias,) an eminent American inventor, born 
 at Spencer, Massachusetts, about 1819. While employed 
 as a machinist he made many experiments for the inven- 
 tion of a sewing-machine, and about 1844 entered into a 
 partnership with Mr. George Fisher, of Cambridge, who 
 agreed to give him pecuniary assistance on condition of 
 becoming proprietor of half the patent. In April, 1845, 
 he finished a machine, which in essential points is es- 
 teemed by competent judges equal to any that have suc- 
 ceeded it. He obtained a patent in 1846. His invention 
 not meeting in the United States with the success which 
 he had anticipated, he resolved to visit England. He 
 resided several years in London in great destitution, and 
 returned in 1849, without having succeeded in making 
 known the merits of his invention. Meanwhile the sew- 
 ing-machine had been brought into general notice and 
 favour, various improvements having been added by Mr. 
 Singer, with whom, as an infringer of his patent, Mr. 
 Howe had a law-suit, which was decided in his favour 
 in 1854. Soon after the breaking out of the rebellion in 
 1861, Mr. Howe raised and equipped at his own expense 
 a regiment, in which he served as a private until ill health 
 obliged him to resign. 
 
 See the "History of the Sewing-Machine," in the "Atlantic 
 Monthly" for May, 1867, by James Parton. 
 
 Howe, (John,) an eminent English dissenting min- 
 ister and author, born at Loughborough, May 17, 1630, 
 was educated at Cambridge. Soon after he was ordained 
 he was appointed domestic chaplain to Cromwell, then 
 
 i, e, T, 5, u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon j 
 
HOWE 
 
 1219 
 
 HOW ITT 
 
 Protector, at whose death he was retained in the same 
 office by Richard Cromwell. After the latter was de- 
 posed, Howe preached at Great Tbrrlngtort, until he 
 was ejected for nonconformity, in 1662. In 1675 he be- 
 came minister of a Puritan congregation in London, 
 where he continued to labour (except during a few 
 years of absence) until his death. He was eminent for 
 piety, for wisdom, for profound learning, and for classical 
 scholarship. As an author he is highly applauded for 
 his originality, sublimity, and evangelical spirit. Among 
 his principal works are "The Living Temple," (1674- 
 1702,) "The Blessedness of the Righteous," "The Re- 
 deemer's Tears," (16S4,) and " The Vanity of this Mortal 
 Life." Robert Hall said, "I have learned more from 
 John Howe than from any other author I ever read." 
 "Nothing in the language," says • William Jay, "can 
 equal, as a whole, Howe's 'Living Temple.'" He is 
 accounted the most philosophical thinker among the 
 Puritan divines. Died in 1705. His complete works 
 were published in 8 vols., 1810-22. 
 
 See Edmund Cat.amy, " Life of John Howe," 1724; H. Rogers, 
 " Life of John Howe," 1S36; Thomas Taylor, "Memoir of John 
 Howe," 1835; Samuel Dunn, "Life of John Howe," 1836; " Bio- 
 graphia Briunnica;" Macadlay, "History of England," vol. ii. 
 cha;>s, vii. and viii. ; R. Southey, article on Howe, in "Quarterly 
 Review" for October, 1813, (vol. x. ;) " Encyclopaedia Hritannica." 
 
 Howe, (John,) M.P., a noted English politician and 
 versifier, was returned to the Convention Parliament for 
 Cirencester in 1689, and was several times re-elected. 
 He was conspicuous in the House for his volubility, 
 asperity, and audacity of speech. Having turned Tory, 
 he became in the reign of Anne a member of the privy 
 council, and paymaster of the army. He wrote a " Pane- 
 gyric on William HI.," and several short poems. Died 
 in 1721. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. iii. chaps, xi. and xiv. 
 
 Howe, (JosiAH,) an English poet and clergyman, 
 became a Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1637, 
 and preached before Charles I. at Oxford in 1644. He 
 wrote some epigrammatic verses prefixed to the works 
 of Beaumont and Fletcher. Died in 1701. 
 
 Howe, (Julia Ward,) an American poetess, daughter 
 of Samuel Ward, a banker in New York, was born in 
 1819. She was educated with great care, and in 1843 
 w;is married to Dr. Samuel G. Howe, of Boston, with 
 whom she has twice visited Europe, making on each occa- 
 sion an extensive tour. Some of her poems possess 
 merit of a very high order. Among the principal are 
 " Passion-Flowers," published in 1854, and "Words for 
 the Hour." She is the author of the deservedly popular 
 song entitled " Battle Hymn of the Republic." 
 ! euswoLD, "Female Poets of America." 
 
 Howe, (Richard,) Earl, a distinguished English 
 admiral, born in 1725, was the second son of Lord 
 Emanuel Scrope Howe. He entered the navy about the 
 age of fourteen, and obtained the rank of captain about 
 1747. He distinguished himself in the Seven Years' war 
 against the French. At the death of his elder brother, 
 in 1 7^8, he inherited the title of viscount. In 1763 and 
 1764 he occupied a seat at the board of admiralty, and 
 in 1770 he became a rear-admiral of the blue, antl com- 
 manded the Mediterranean fleet. From 1776 to 1778 he 
 commanded on the coast of the United States, where he 
 maintained his credit by skilful operations against the 
 French fleet under D'Estaing. He was promoted to the 
 rank of admiral of the blue in 1782, and in the next 
 year acted as first lord of the admiralty. In 1788 he was 
 created Earl Howe. On June I, 1794, he gained a de- 
 victory over the French fleet, of which he captured 
 seven ships of the line. Died in 1799. He was regarded 
 as the first sea-officer of his time. 
 
 Sre Campbell, "Lives of British Admirals:" Geohcr Mason. 
 'Life of Richard, Earl Howe;" John Barrow, "Life of Lord 
 Richard Howe," 1838. 
 
 Howe,(l)r. Samui.i. Gridiky.) an eminent American 
 philanthropist, born in Boston in 1 01. He graduated 
 at Brown University in 1821, and entered upon the 
 study of medicine in his native city. In 1824 he went to 
 1 e, and fought valiantly in the war of independence. 
 
 When famine threatened that country in 1827, he came 
 to the United States and procured large contributions 
 of provisions, clothing, and money, which he distributed 
 
 among the Greek patriots. On his return to his native 
 city, in 183 1, he entered with ardour into a plan for 
 establishing in that city a school for the blind; and he 
 visited Europe, to procure information, teachers, etc. 
 The next year (1832) he opened the institution, (Perkins 
 Institution for the Blind,) of which he became the prin- 
 cipal. His success in the case of Laura Bridgeman, a 
 deaf blind mute, whom he taught to read from raised 
 letters and instructed in religion, morality, etc., attracted 
 great attention. (See Bkiix.kman, Laura.) Dr. Howe 
 has also devoted much attention to the education of 
 idiots, for whom a school has been established in South 
 Boston. Besides his other labours, he distinguished him- 
 self by the active part he took in the anti-slavery cause. 
 lie is the author of a " Historical Sketch of the Greek 
 Revolution," (1828,) a " Reader for the Blind," and of 
 various essays and reports on the education of the 
 blind and the idiotic, and other subjects. 
 
 Howe, (Sir William.) an English general, was a 
 younger brother of Admiral Richard Howe, noticed 
 above. In 1774 he was returned to Parliament for Not- 
 tingham, professing to disapprove the policy of the min- 
 isters in relation to the Americans. In 1775 he was 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the army sent to sub- 
 due the colonies, though deficient in nearly all the quali- 
 ties which constitute a great general. His constituents 
 censured him for accepting the command. His first 
 exploit after this promotion was the battle of Bunker 
 Hill, (1775,) in which he lost one-third of his men 
 present in the action. In August, 1776. he gained the 
 battle of Long Island and took New York City. He 
 obtained an advantage over the Americans at Brandy- 
 wine in September, 1777, in consequence of which 
 Philadelphia was occupied by his army. At his own 
 request, he was recalled in 1778, and was succeeded 
 by Sir Henry Clinton. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Bancroft, " History of the United States," vol. ix. chaps. 
 v., vi., x., xiv.j xxiii., xxv. 
 
 How'el thk Good, or Hy'wel Dda, a Cambrian 
 prince of the tenth century, noted as a legislator, suc- 
 ceeded his father Cadcll as King of Wales. After visit- 
 ing Rome about 926, he framed a code of laws, which 
 continued in force a long time. 
 
 How'el or H5w'ell, (Laurfncf,) a learned English 
 nonjnring divine, graduated at Cambridge in 1688. He 
 wrote a "Synopsis of the Canons of the Latin Church," 
 and other works on theology. For his pamphlet on the 
 " Schism in the Church of England" he was convicted 
 of sedition in 1716, and confined in Newgate until his 
 death, in 1720. 
 
 . HSw'ell, (James,) *a British author, born in Carmar- 
 thenshire about 1595. Soon after leaving college he went 
 to London, and, as agent of a glass-manufactory, made a 
 tour on the continent.where he learned several languages. 
 He was returned to Parliament in 1627, and exercised 
 his versatile talents in several civil offices until 1643, when 
 he was imprisoned, for reasons not positively known. 
 He was released about 1649, and at the restoration be- 
 came historiographer-roval, being the first who had that 
 honour. He wrote " Dodona's Grove, or the Vocal 
 Forest," a poem, (1640,) and various prose works. His 
 "Familiar Letters" (1645) are very entertaining, and 
 passed through ten editions before I 750. Died in 1666. 
 
 See " liiographia liritannica." 
 
 Howell, (William,) an English writer, of whose life 
 little is known. He was at one time chancellor of the 
 diocese of Lincoln. He wrote a " History of the World 
 from the Earliest Times to the Kuin of the Roman Em- 
 pire." a work of some mi lit. Died in 1683. 
 
 How'ellS, (William.) a popular English preacher, 
 born in 1778. He was minister of Long .Vie Episcopal 
 Chapel, and belonged to the Evangelical school, Seve- 
 ral volumes of his sermons were published. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Chari.es Bowdler, " Memoir of William Howells," prefixed 
 to bis Sermons, 3 vols., 1835. 
 
 Howick, Lord. See Grky. Earl of. 
 
 H5w'itt, (Anna Mary,) an artist and writer, a 
 
 daughter of William and Mary Ilowitt, was bom about 
 1830. She has produced a work lied "The 
 
 Art-Student in Munich," (2 vols., 1853.) and "The 
 School of Life," (Boston, 1855,) which is highly corn- 
 
 eas k; 9 as s; g/tard; gasyV c, H, K, guttural; ti,tmsal; K, trilled; sas*;thas in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HOW ITT 
 
 ■1220 
 
 HUBE 
 
 mended. She was recently married to a son of the poet 
 Alaric Watts. 
 
 Howitt, (Mary,) a popular English authoress and 
 moralist, born at Uttoxeter about 1804. Her maiden 
 name was Botham. She was educated as a member 
 of the Society of Friends, and was married to William 
 Howitt in 1823. They published jointly "The Forest 
 Minstrel, and other Poems," (1823,) "The Desolation of 
 Eyam, and other Poems," (1827,) "The Book of the 
 Seasons," (1831,) and "The Literature and Romance of 
 Northern Europe," (1852,) the most complete work on 
 that subject in English. Mary Howitt is sole author 
 of numerous instructive books, among which are " Hope 
 jn, Hope ever," (3d edition, 1844,) " Hymns and Fire- 
 side Verses," (1839,) "Sowing and Reaping," .(1840,) 
 and "Sketches of Natural History," (8th edition, 1853.) 
 She has translated many works of Frederika Bremer, 
 and several stories of Hans Christian Andersen. "Her 
 language," says Professor Wilson, "is chaste and sim- 
 ple, her feelings tender and pure, and her observation 
 of nature accurate and intense." (" Blackwood's Maga- 
 1 zine," vol. xxiv.) 
 
 Howitt, (Richard,) a poet and physician, a brother 
 of William Howitt. He published in 1830 "Antediluvian 
 Sketches, and other Poems," which was noticed favour- 
 ably by the reviewers. " Richard too," says Professor 
 Wilson, " has a true poetical feeling and no small poeti- 
 cal power." He settled in Melbourne, Australia, and 
 wrote " Impressions of Australia Felix," (1845.) 
 
 Howitt, (William,) an eminent English author, born 
 at Heanor, in Derbyshire, in 1795, was educated as a 
 member of the Society of Friends. His first published 
 work was "The Forest Minstrel, and other Poems," 
 (1823,) partly written by his wife. Their other joint 
 productions have been noticed in the article on Mary 
 Huwrrr. He wrote a "History of Priestcraft," (1834,) 
 which was very successful, and often reprinted, " Rural 
 Life of England," (1837,) and "Colonization. and Chris- 
 tianity," (1839.) In 1840 William and Mary Howitt 
 removed to Heidelberg, where they passed several years. 
 His "Rural and Domestic Life in Germany" (1842) 
 was received with favour both by the English and Ger- 
 mans. He published " Homes and Haunts of the Most 
 Eminent British Poets Illustrated," (2 vols., 1847,) be- 
 sides various other original works, and translations from 
 the German, and edited " Hewitt's Journal" (weekly) 
 for about three years, (1847-49.) He described his 
 adventures and labours in Australia (where he passed 
 about two years) in his "Land, Labour, and Gold," (2 
 vols., 1855.) Among his important works are " Visits 
 to Remarkable Places, Old Halls, Battle-Fields," etc.,. 
 (2 vols., 1839-41,) and a " History of England," (6 
 vols., 1861.) 
 
 See Professor Wilson, " Noctes AmbrosianaV' in " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for April, 1831 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" 
 " Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1847 ; *' North American Re- 
 view" for April, 1843, (by W. B. O' Peabody.) 
 
 H5w'ley, (William,) an English prelate, born at 
 Ropley, in Hampshire, in 1765. He became Bishop of 
 London in 1813, and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1828. 
 He published several sermons. Died in 1848. 
 
 H5w'son, (John,) an English theologian, born in 
 London in 1556. After having occupied the see of Ox- 
 ford, he became Bishop of Durham in 1628. He wrote 
 and preached numerous discourses against the Roman 
 Catholics, which were printed. Died in 1631. 
 
 Howson, (John Saul,) an English* divine, born 
 about 1815. He published, with W. J. Conybeare, 
 "The Life and Epistles of Saint Paul," (2 vols., 1850-52.) 
 
 H6yer, ho'yer, (Andreas,) a Danish historian and 
 jurist, born at Karlum, published a "Life of Frederick 
 IV.," (1732,) and other works. Died in 1739. 
 
 Hoyer, ho'yer, (Johann Gottfried, 1 ) a German 
 military officer and writer, born at Dresden in 1767, 
 published a " Dictionary of Artillery." Died in 1848. 
 
 Hoy'er, [Fr. pron. hwa'yi',] (Michel,) a Flemish 
 priest and Latin poet, born in 1593 ; died in 1650. 
 
 Hoyle, hoil, (Edmund,) an Englishman, born in 1672, 
 wrote popular treatises on Whist and other games. 
 Died in 1769. 
 
 Hoyt, (Epaphras,) a historical and military writer, 
 born in Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1765. He published 
 
 "Cavalry Discipline," (1797,) and "Antiquarian Re- 
 searches," (1824.) He was a major-general of militia. 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Hoyt, (Ralph,) an American Episcopal clergyman 
 and poet, born in New York in 1810. He published 
 "The Chaunt of Life, and other Poems," (1844.) 
 
 H021, de la, da la 6th, (Juan,) a Spanish dramatic 
 poet, born at Madrid about 1620, wrote an admired 
 comedy, " El Castigo de la Miseria." Died after 1689. 
 
 Hozier, d'. See D'Hozier. 
 
 Hrimfaxi. See Norvi. 
 
 Hrotsvitha, h Rots' vee'ta, also written Hrosuitha, 
 Hroswitha, and Roswitha, a celebrated German 
 poetess of the tenth century, born in Lower Saxony, was 
 educated in the convent of Gandersheim. She wrote Latin 
 poems, which are valuable monuments of the literature 
 of that time, and six dramas, (in Latin,) that rank among 
 the best productions of the kind in the middle ages. 
 Among her poems was one in hexameters, containing 
 the history of Otto I., only half of which is extant. 
 
 See Gustav Frevtag, " Dissertatio de Hrosuitha," 1839: Dau- 
 ber. "Die Nonne von Gandersheim," 185S; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Hruiignir, hrung'nir, in the Norse mythology, a giant, 
 who, on his horse Gullfaxi, ("Goldmane,") visited As- 
 gard, and, having become intoxicated, defied the gods, 
 and threatened to carry Valhalla to Jotunheim, (the 
 " habitation of the giants.") He was slain by Thor, who 
 gave Gullfaxi to his own son Jarnsaxa. Some explain 
 the foregoing myth by supposing Hrungnir (whose name 
 they derive from hruga, to "heap up") to be a lofty 
 mountain piled up to the sky, thus appearing to menace 
 heaven itself. Its summit being smitten and rent by the 
 lightning, is compared by the Norse poets to the head 
 of a giant whose skull Thor ("thunder") broke with his 
 terrible hammer. 
 
 See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 69-71, 174. 
 
 Hrym, hreem, sometimes written Rymer, in the 
 Northern mythology, the leader of the Frost-giants (Hrim- 
 thursar) in the great battle against the gods at Ragna- 
 rock. The name is clearly another form of Hrim, " frost," 
 and cognate with the Latin rima (" hoarfrost") and the 
 Sanscrit htmi, (Gr. *«/«!,) "frost," or "winter." 
 
 Hua, /m'a", (Eustache Antoine,) a French lawyer, 
 born at Mantes in 1759, was a moderate member of the 
 Legislative Assembly in 1791. He became in 1818 attor 
 ney-general in the court of cassation. Died in 1836. 
 
 Huabalde. See Huhald. 
 
 Huarte, 00-aR'ta, (Juan de Dios,) a Spanish phy 
 sician and philosopher, born in Navarre about 1535. 
 He published about 1580 a remarkable book, entitled 
 "Examen de Ingenios para las Scienzias," which was 
 often reprinted and translated. The English version 
 was called " Trial of Wits." It contains some new truths, 
 with many bold paradoxes. Died about 1600. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Ticknor, 
 " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Huascar, hwas'kar, an Inca of Peru, a son of Huayna 
 Capac, whom he succeeded in 1525, was defeated in battle 
 and dethroned by his brother Atahualpa in 1532. (See 
 Atahualpa.) 
 
 Huayna Capac, hwl'na ka-pak', Inca of Peru, as- 
 cended the throne in 1493. He extended his dominions 
 by conquest, and enriched them by the arts of peace. 
 Died in 1525. 
 
 Hu'bald, written also Huabalde, Hucbald, and 
 Hugbald, [Lat. Huisal'dus,] a Flemish monk of Saint- 
 Amand, born about 840 a.d., wrote a treatise on music, 
 and Latin verses in praise of baldness, in which every 
 word begins with C ; for example, 
 
 "Carmina Clarisonaj Calvis Cantate Camcenae." 
 Died in 930. 
 
 Hub'bard, (William,) a historian, born in England 
 in 1621, was ordained minister at Ipswich, Massachusetts, 
 about 1656. He died in 1704, leaving in manuscript a 
 " History of New England," which was published by the 
 Massachusetts Historical Society in 1815. 
 
 Hube, noo'beh, (R..) a Polish jurist, born at Warsaw 
 in 1803, published "Principles of Penal Law," (1830,) 
 and other works. He was appointed councillor of state 
 at Saint Petersburg in 1843, after which he was employed 
 in the compilation of a new penal and civil code. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, Q, J, short ; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
 
HUBER 
 
 I 221 
 
 HUDDE 
 
 Huber, hoo'ber, (Francis,) a Swiss naturalist, born at 
 Geneva in 1750. The taste for nature and the habit of 
 observation which he derived from his father were con- 
 firmed by the lectures of Saussure. At the age of fifteen 
 his sight began to fail, and was before long quite lost. 
 Soon after the occurrence of this privation he married 
 Mdlle. l.ullin, and was blessed with domestic happiness. 
 Pursuing his researches into the economy and habits of 
 bees, by the aid of his servant, he made many interesting 
 discoveries, and in 1792 published "New Observations on 
 Bees," which excited a great sensation. He was chosen 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and of 
 other similar institutions. He also wrote a " Memoir on 
 the Origin of Wax," and a few other treatises. Died in 
 1830 or 1S31. 
 
 See Augustin Pvrame Decandolle. " Notice sur la Vie et les 
 Ecrits de F. Huber," 1832; "Monthly Review," in the Appendix 
 of vol. Ixxxii., 1817. 
 
 Huber, (Joiiann.) an artist, born in Geneva in 1722, 
 was intimate with Voltaire, of whose domestic life he 
 drew several pictures. He was noted for skill in cutting 
 profiles in paper or parchment, and wrote "Observations 
 on the Flight of Birds of Prey," (1784.) Died in 1790. 
 
 Huber," (Johann Jakoii,) an eminent Swiss anato- 
 mist, born at Bale in 1707. was a pupil of Haller, whom 
 he assisted in his " Swiss Flora." He was chosen pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Gottingen about 1737, and became 
 professor and court physician at Cassel in 1742. He 
 Was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. His 
 principal work is a "Treatise on the Spinal Marrow," 
 (1739.) Died in 177S. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruhkr, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Huber, (JOHAMN RUDOLF,) an eminent Swiss painter, 
 born at Bile in 1668, studied several years in Italy. He 
 woi ked mostly in his native place. He painted portraits 
 and history with rapidity and success. On account 
 of his brilliant colouring, he was sumamed THE Swiss 
 TlNTORET. Died in 1748. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Huber, Att'bailt' or hoo'ber, (Louis Ferdinand,) a 
 distinguished litterateur, son of Michael, noticed below, 
 was born in Paris in 1764. In 1794 he married Theresa, 
 the widow of John George Forster and daughter of the 
 eminent philologist Heyne. He became in 1798 editor 
 of the "Allgemeine Zeitung" at Stuttgart. He wrote 
 several dramas, and a collection of popular tales. Died 
 in 1804. 
 
 Huber, (Marie.) a Swiss authoress and Protestant 
 theologian, remarkable for her peculiar religious views, 
 which appear to have been a mixture of rationalism and 
 mvsticism, was born at Geneva in 1695. She wrote, be- 
 sides other religious and moral works, " Letters on the 
 Religion essential to Man, as distinguished from that 
 which is Conventional," (aeeessoire,\(iy^S,) in which she 
 uses a very subtle dialectic, and "The Insane (or Foolish) 
 World preferred to the Wise," ("Le Monde fol pre- 
 fere au Monde sage," 2 vols., 1731-44.) Died at Lyons 
 in 1753- 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale. ' 
 
 Huber, (Michael,) a German translator, born at 
 Frontenhausen, in Bavaria, in 1727. He lived many 
 years in Paris, and became professor of French at Leip- 
 sic in 1766. He made good French translations of many 
 German works, among which were Gessner's poems 
 and Winckelmann's " History of Ancient Art," (3 vols., 
 1781.) Died in 1804. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Huber, (PETER, or Pierre,) son of Francis, noticed 
 above, published a " History of the Habits of Indigenous 
 Ants," "Observations on Drones,*' and other zoological 
 treatises. Died in 1841. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for July. 181 2, and October, 1815. 
 
 Huber, (Therese,) a German novelist, Ixirn at Got- 
 tingen in - 1764, was a daughter of C. G. Heyne, the 
 philologist. She was married to John George Forster, 
 an eminent author, in 17S4, and 'to I.udwig F. Huber 
 (noticed above) in 1794. Died at Augsburg in 1829. 
 
 Huber, (Victor Aime,) a historian and critic, son of 
 I lis Ferdinand, noticed above, was born at Stuttgart 
 in i8co. He popularized Spanish literature* in Germany 
 
 by his "History of the Cid" (1829) and his "Sketches 
 Of Spain," (4 vols., 1828-35.) For many years he was 
 professor of languages and history at Marburg and Berlin. 
 
 Huber, hii'ber, [Lat. Hube'rus,] (Ui.rich,) a Dutch 
 jurist, born at Dokkum in 1636. In 1665 he was chosen 
 professor of law at Franeker. He published many able 
 treatises on civil law, among which are " De Jure Civi- 
 tatis," (1672,) and " Pradectiones ad Pandectas," (1686.) 
 From the former Rousseau derived many of the ideas 
 or principles of his "Contrat Social." Died in 1694. 
 
 See Vitringa, "Oratioin Excessum U. Huberi," 1694; "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate:" Jocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten- 
 Lexikon. 
 
 Hubert, //u'baiR', (Francois,) a F'rench engraver, 
 born at Abbeville in 1744; died in 1809. 
 
 Hubert, (Mathieu,) an eloquent French preacher, 
 born near Mayenne in 1640. He taught belles-lettres in 
 various colleges, preached in Paris and the provinces, 
 and died in 1717. His Sermons were published in 5 
 vols., (1725.) 
 
 Huberus. See Huber. (Ulrich.) 
 
 Hiibner or Huebner, lvBp'ner, (Johann,) a German 
 geographer and teacher, born at or near Zittau in 1668. 
 His "Questions on Ancient and Modern Geography" 
 (1693) was often reprinted. Died in 1731. 
 
 Hubner or Huebner, (Rudolf Julius Benno,) a 
 skilful German historical painter, born at Oels, in Silesia, 
 in 1806, was a pupil of Schadow. He settled at Dresden 
 in 1839, and became a professor in the Academy of Arts 
 in that city in 184L His works are admired for grace 
 of expression and beauty of colour. Among his master- 
 pieces are "Boaz and Ruth," "Christ and the Evan- 
 gelists," "The Golden Age," and "Felicity and Sleep." 
 
 Hubner, von, fon hup'ner, (Joseph Alexander,) 
 an Austrian diplomatist, born in Vienna in 181 1, was 
 ambassador to the French court, and signed the treaty 
 of peace at the Congress of Paris in 1856. 
 
 Hiibsch or Huebsch, hfipsh, (Heinrich,) a German 
 architect, born at Weinheim, Baden, in 1795. 
 
 Hue, //iik, (Abbe Evariste Regis,) a French Catho- 
 lic missionary and traveller, born at Toulouse in 1813. 
 He went to China in 1839, learned the Chinese lan- 
 guage, and laboured as a missionary. About the end 
 of 1845 ne visited Lassa, the capital of Thibet, where he 
 was permitted to remain only a few weeks. Having 
 returned to France in 1852, he published his very curious 
 and amusing "Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China," 
 (" Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la Tartaric," etc., 2 vols., 
 1852,) which obtained a wide popularity, and was trans- 
 lated into English by W. Hazlitt, Jr. He afterwards 
 published "The Chinese Empire," (2 vols., 1854,) and 
 "Christianity in China, Tartary, and Thibet," (3 vols., 
 1857.) Died in i860. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for July, 1857 ; "Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1855. 
 
 Hucbald. See HubaLD. 
 
 Huch. See /Epinus. 
 
 Huchtenburgh, van, vin hiiK'ten-buRr/, written 
 also Hugtenburg, (Jakob,) a skilful Dutch landscape- 
 painter, born at Haarlem in 1639, was a pupil of Berg- 
 hem. He went in his youth to Rome, where he worked 
 with success until his death, in 1669. 
 
 Huchtenburgh, Hugtenburg, or Huchtenburg, 
 van, (Jan,) an excellent Dutch painter, brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Haarlem in 1646. He studied in 
 Italy and Paris with Van der Mculcn, acquired a high 
 reputation for battle-pieces, and was employed by Prince 
 Eugene to paint those actions in which he and Marl- 
 borough commanded. He was also a skilful engraver. 
 I lied in 1733. 
 
 Sec Pkscamps. "Vie des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc 
 
 Hud'dart, (Joseph,) F.R.S., an English navigator 
 and hydrograplier, born at Allonby in 1741, was for many 
 years a captain in the service of the East India Com- 
 pany. He was a skilful nautical surveyor, and published 
 some valuable charts. Died in 1816. 
 
 Hudde, hild'deh, (Jan,) born at Amsterdam about 
 1636, was councillor, treasurer, and burgomaster of his 
 native city. He was well versed in mathematics, on 
 which he wrote some able treatises. Died in 1704. 
 
 See Montucla, " Histoire de* Mathematlqucs." 
 
 e as i; c as /; g hard; g as>; c, H, K, guttural; a, nasal; R, trilled; i as *; th as in this, (tff- See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HUDDESFORD 
 
 1222 
 
 HUGFORD 
 
 Hud'des-ford, (George,) a humorous English poet, 
 who lived about 1S00. He wrote several burlesque 
 poems, which had some success, viz., "Topsy-Tin vy," 
 (1790,) " Salmagundi," (1793,) and "Imperial Mush- 
 rooms," (1805.) 
 
 Huddesford or Hud'ders-ford, (William,) D.D., 
 an English antiquary, was principal of Trinity College, 
 Oxford, and wrote the Lives of Leland, Hearne, and 
 Anthony Wood. Died in 1772. 
 
 Huddlestou, hud'dels-ton, (Rohert,) a Scottish an- 
 tiquary, born in 1776, published a new edition' of Toland's 
 ,; History of the Druids," (1814.) Died in 1S26. 
 
 Hud'son, (Henry or Hendrik,) an eminent English 
 navigator, of whose early life nothing is known. In 1607 
 he commanded a vessel sent by some London merchants 
 to discover a direct route to India by way of the North 
 pole or Northern Ocean. Having advanced beyond So 
 north latitude, he was prevented by the ice from making 
 farther progress, and returned. He made several other 
 unsuccessful attempts in that direction. In the service of 
 the Dutch East India Company, he discovered in 1609 
 the river of New York which bears his name. He re- 
 newed the enterprise in April, 1610, and discovered and 
 explored Hudson Bay, in which he passed the winter 
 and suffered much for want of provisions. As he was 
 returning in 161 1, his crew mutinied, and, forcing the 
 captain with eight men into a small boat, abandoned 
 them to their fate. They were never heard of afterwards. 
 A few of the mutineers returned to Ireland. 
 
 See Prevost, "Histoire ge'ne'iale des Voyages;" Purchas's 
 "Collection;" " Life of Henry Hudson," in Spahks's "American 
 Biography," vol. x., (by H. R. Cleveland ;) " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate ;" J. M. Read, " Historical Inquiries concerning Henry 
 Hudson," 1S66. 
 
 Hud'son, (Henry Norman,) an Episcopal clergy- 
 man, born in Cornwall, Vermont, in 1814, published 
 "Lectures on Shakspeare," (2 vols., 1848,) and edited 
 the Works of Shakspeare, (II vols., 1S50-57.) 
 
 Hudson, (John,) D.D., a learned English critic, born 
 in Cumberland in 1662, was for many years a tutor in 
 Oxford University, and from 1701 until his death libra- 
 rian of the Bodleian Library. He published excellent 
 editions of Thucydides, Longinus, Josephus, "/Esop's 
 Fables," etc. Died in 1719. 
 
 Hudson, (Thomas,) an English portrait-painter, born 
 in Devonshire in 1701. He was a pupil of Richardson, 
 after whose death he was the most fashionable or suc- 
 cessful artist in that line in London until he was sur- 
 passed by his own pupil, Joshua Reynolds, about 1754. 
 Among his works is a portrait of Handel. Died in 1779. 
 
 Hudson, (William,) E.R.S., an eminent English bot- 
 anist, born in Westmoreland in 1730, resided in London 
 as an apothecary. He was one of the first in England 
 that adopted the Linnxan system, and in 1762 published 
 an "English Flora," ("Flora Anglica,") which procured 
 him admission into the Royal Society. Died in 1793. 
 
 Hue, /Hi, (Francois,) born at Fontainebleau, France, 
 in 1757, became a valet to the dauphin. In the reign of 
 terror he served the royal family at the risk of his lite, 
 and was imprisoned. He wrote "The Last Years of the 
 Reign and Life of Louis XVI.," (1S06.) Died in 1819. 
 
 Huebner. See HOhner. 
 
 Huebsch. See Htiuscn. 
 
 Huegel. SeeTIuGKi.. 
 
 Huel, /ra'el', (JOSEPH Nicolas,) a French philosopher, 
 born at Mattaincourt in 1690 ; died in 1769. 
 
 Huellmaiin. See Hullmann. 
 
 Huerta. See Hokto. 
 
 Huerta, de la, da la weit'ta, (Vincente Garcia,) a 
 popular Spanish poet, born atZafra in 1 729, was the leader 
 of the national school of poetry, in opposition to the par- 
 tisans of the French models. He produced in 1778 the 
 tragedy of " Rachel," (" Raquel,") which was performed 
 with great applause in Madrid and in Italy. He wrote 
 other poems, ("Obras poeticas," 2 vols., 1778,) and was 
 the editor of the "Spanish Theatre," ("Teatro Esparto],") 
 a selection from the best Spanish dramatists, with notes, 
 (17 vols., 1788.) Died in 1797. 
 
 See Buuterwek, "Histoire de la Literature Espagnole." 
 
 Huet,/ht'eV, (Paul,) a French landscape-painter, born 
 in Paris in 1804, gained medals of the first class in 1848 
 and 1855. 
 
 Huet, (Pierre Dan I el,) an eminent French critic and 
 scholar, born at Caen in February, 1630, was educated 
 at Paris. In 1652, in company with Boehart, he visited 
 the court of Christina of Sweden, which then offered 
 rare attractions to the learned ; but he soon returned to 
 Caen, and passed many years in various studies. He was 
 appointed in 1670 sub-preceptor of the dauphin, and was 
 the principal editor of the well-known series of the Latin 
 classics "ad usum Delphini," ("for the use of the dau- 
 phin.") In 1674 he became a member of the French 
 Academy, and in 1685 Bishop of Avranches. He wrote 
 numerous able critical and religious works, (in Latin and 
 French,) among which the best-known is his " Detnon- 
 stratio Evangelica," (1679.) This was for a long time a 
 standard work on the Evidences of Christianity. Died 
 in 1721. # 
 
 See D'Alembert, " FJoge de Huet;" Saint-Maurice, "floge 
 de 1). Huet," 1S50; Huet's Autobiographic Memoirs, entitled 
 "Commentarius de Rebus ad eum pertinentibus," 171S, (translated 
 into English by John Aikin, 3 vols., 1810;) "Huetiaua," i'aris, 
 1722; Brucker, ■•HiMorv of Philosophy ;" Abbe Klottes, '"Etude 
 sur Daniel Huet," 1S57 ; Nouvelle Biographie Genei ale;" '" London 
 Quarterly Review" for August, 1S10. 
 
 Huet de Froberville, //ii'i' deh fRo'beu'viK, 
 (Claude Jean Bartiste,) a French writer, born at 
 Romorantin in 1752; died in 1S38. 
 
 Huette, /Hi'eV, (I.ouis,) a French optician, born at 
 Rennes in 1756; died in 1805. 
 
 Hufelaud, hoo'feh-lant', (Christoph WilHelm,) an 
 excellent German physician and medical writer, was 
 bom at Laugensalza (Prussian Saxony) in 1762. He 
 became professor at Jena in 1793, and afterwards phy- 
 sician to the King of Prussia. In 1809 he obtained the 
 chair of special pathology and therapeutics at Berlin. 
 He produced in 1796 a celebrated work on the "Art 
 of Prolonging Life," (" Makrobiotik, Oder die Kunst 
 das menschliche Leben zu verlangern,") often reprinted 
 and translated. Among his other works are a "System 
 of Practical Medicine," (2 vols., 1S00-05,) and "Enchiri- 
 dion Medicum," (1836; 9th edition, 1851.) Died in 1836. 
 
 See F. L. AucaisTiN, " Hufelands Leben und Wiiken fur Wis- 
 senschaft, Slaat und Menschheit," 1S37 ; Stourdja, " Hut'eland, 
 Ksquisse de sa Vie et de sa Mort," 1837. 
 
 Hufelaud, (Gottlieb,) a German jurist, born at D ant- 
 zic in 1760, was professor of law at Halle, where he died 
 in 1817. He wrote a "Manual of the Law of Nature." 
 
 Hiifnagel. See Hoknaegel. 
 
 Hug, hdSc, (JoHann Leonhard,) a German Catholic 
 theologian, born at Constance in 1763. His "Intro- 
 duction to the Books of the New Testament" is highly 
 esteemed, and has been translated into French and Eng- 
 lish. Died in 1846. 
 
 Hugbald. See Huhald. 
 
 Hiigel or Huegel, von, fon hii'gel, (Karl ALEX- 
 ANDER Anselm,) Baron, a German traveller and natu- 
 ralist, was born at Ratisbon in 1796. He performed a 
 scientific exploration of Greece, Egypt, India, and other 
 parts of Asia, about 1831-36, and brought home large 
 collections of objects of natural history, coins, etc. He 
 published "Cashmere and the Dominion of the Sikhs," 
 (4 vols., 1842,) "The Basin of Cabool," ("Das Becken 
 von Kabul," 2 vols., 1852,) and other works. Died, 1S70. 
 
 Hugenius. See IIuvoens. 
 
 Huger, u'jee', (Benj am in.) an American general, born 
 at Charleston, South Carolina, about 1806, graduated at 
 West Point in 1S25. He led a division of the army that 
 fought against the Union at Fair Oaks, May 31, and at 
 Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862. 
 
 Huger, (Francis Kinlock,) an officer, born in South 
 Carolina in 1764. He joined Dr. Eric Bollman in an 
 attempt to release La Fayette from the dungeon of 
 Olmutz ; but they failed, anefwere imprisoned. He served 
 as a colonel in the war of 1812. Died in 1S55. 
 
 Huger, (Isaac,) an uncle of the preceding, was born 
 about 1725. He served as a brigadier-general in the 
 Revolution, and rendered distinguished service at the 
 sieges of Savannah and Charleston. In the battle of 
 Guilford Court-House he commanded the right wing of 
 the American army. Died in 1782. 
 
 Hug'ford, ( Icnazio, ) an artist, born of English 
 parents at Florence in 1703, was a noted connoisseur 
 and a skilful painter. Died in 1778. 
 
 I, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short: a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HUGO I AS 
 
 1223 
 
 HUGO 
 
 Hag'giuS, (William,) KK.S.,.111 English astronomer 
 of the preset . cialiv distinguished tor his obser- 
 
 vations and discoveries maile with the spectroscope on 
 the sun and stirs, lie is secretary of the Koyal Astro- 
 nomical Society. 
 
 Hugh, lift, Ir'r. lhci'ts, /nig,] a French prelate, emi- 
 nent in t.iiints and piety, was chosen Archbishop of 
 con in to; I. Died in 1066. 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) I., Duke ol Burgundy, was the son 
 of Henry, and grandson of Duke Robert, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 1075. In 1078 he retired into a convent, resign- 
 ing his dukedom to his brother Ktides. Died in 1093. 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) II., Duke of Burgundy, nuphew of 
 the preceding, succeeded in 1 102 Ids father Eudes, who 
 we;;', on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Died in 1142. 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) HI., Duke of Buigundy, succeeded 
 his father, Ernies II., in 1 162. About 1 190 he followed 
 Philip Augustus of France in a crusade, and when that 
 king turned back, Ungues took command of the French, 
 lie died at Tyre in 1192, and left his dukedom to his son, 
 Eudes III. 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) IV., son of Eudes III., born in 1212, 
 inherited the dukedom in 1218. He died in 1272, and 
 was succeeded by his son Robert. 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) V., Duke of Burgundy, son of Robert 
 II., inherited the title in 1308, and died prematurely in 
 1315, leaving the dukedom to his brother, Eudes IV. 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) de Ci.i : ny, (deh klii'ne',) a French 
 monk, born at Semur about 1024, became Abbot of Cluny 
 in 1048. He was consulted on important questions by 
 several kings and popes. Died in 1 109. 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) d'Amiens, (di'mg^N',) a French 
 prelate and writer, reputed one of the most learned 
 theologians of his time, was chosen Archbishop of Rouen 
 in 1 130. Died in 1164. 
 
 See "Gallia Oiristiana," tome ii. 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) de Fi.avigny, (deh flS'ven'ye',) a 
 French monk, born in 1065, was chosen Abbot of Fla- 
 vigny in 1097. He wrote the "Chronicle of Verdun," 
 which contains valuable historical data. 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) de Fi.kuky (deh fluh're') or de 
 Sainte-Marik, (deh saNt'mS're',) a French monk, who 
 was eminent for his knowledge. lie asserted the divine 
 right of kings in an able treatise "On Royal Power and 
 Sacerdotal Dignity," and wrote a general History. Died 
 about 1 1 25. 
 
 Hugh of Provence, King of Italy, was a son of 
 Theobald, (or Thibault,) Count of Provence. Favoured 
 by the pope, John X., and by many Lombard chiefs, 
 he obtained the crown of Italv in 926 A.D., but was 
 expelled by Berenger in 947, and died the same year. 
 
 See Eksch mid Grubeh, " AH^eiiieinc Lncyklopaedie." 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) de Saint-Cher, (deh sis'sham',) 
 a learned French monk and cardinal, was born near 
 Vienne. His most important work was a concordance 
 of the Bible, said to be the first ever compiled. He 
 used the Latin in this wink. Died in 1263. 
 
 Hugh (Hugues) de Saint-Victor, (deh sax'vek'- 
 toR',) a monk, bom near Vpres, entered the monastery 
 of Saint-Victor, in Paris, in 11 18. He wrote theological 
 works which had a high reputation. Died in 1140. 
 
 Hugh Capet. See Capet. 
 
 Hugh the Great, [Fr. Huoufes i.e. Grand, hug leh 
 rr6.n,j Duke of France and Count of Paris, a powerful 
 noble, was the son of Robert, Count of Paris, and the 
 father of Hugh Capet. He married a sister of Otho, 
 King of Germany, and waged war against Louis d'Outre- 
 Mer. Died in 956. 
 
 Hugh the Great, Count of Vermandois, third son 
 of Henry I., King of France, born in 1057, was noted for 
 chivalrous courage. He departed in 1096 on a crusade, 
 and distinguished himself at the siege of Antioch. He 
 was killed in battle in 1 102. 
 
 See Micimuo, " History of the CruMdes." 
 
 Hughes, huz, (Rev. Griffith,) an English minister 
 of Saint Lacy's parish, Baibadocs, published in 1750 a 
 " Natural History of Barbaii- 
 
 Hughes, (JaBEZ,) an English writer, born in 1685, 
 1 brother of John Hughes, the poet, noticed below. 
 He published translations frortl Claudian, Lucan, Sueto- 
 nius, and Cervantes. Died in 1731. 
 
 Hughes, (John,) an English poet and essayist, bom 
 at Marlborough in 1677, was educated in London, where 
 he mostly resided. He filled, besides other civil posts, 
 that of secretary to the commissioners of the peace. 
 His character and talents secured him the friendship of 
 Addison, Pope, and Congreve. He contributed nume- 
 rous well-written essays to the "Spectator," "Tatler," 
 and " Guardian," ami once had a fair reputation as a 
 poet. His best poem is "The Siege of Damascus," a 
 tragedy, which was first performed on the last night 
 of the author's life, and was very successful. He made 
 good translations from Fontenelle and Vertot. Swift 
 having classed him in the ranks of mediocrity, Pope 
 answered, "What he wanted in genius he made upas 
 an honest man." Addison had so good an opinion of 
 his abiljty that he requested him to write the fifth act of 
 " Cato," which, however, he declined. Died in 1720. 
 
 See Johnson, Lives of the English Poets ;" " Biographia Bri- 
 taunica." 
 
 Hughes, huz, (John,) an eminent Roman Catholic 
 prelate, born in Ireland in' 1798. He came to America 
 in 1817, and preached several years in Philadelphia. He 
 became Bishop of New York about 1840, and was raised 
 to the rank of archbishop in 1850. He published seve- 
 ral sermons and lectures. He was a man of great 
 ability, and was particularly distinguished for his skill 
 in dialectics. Died in 1864. 
 
 See John R. G. Hassakd, " Life of John Hushes," 1866. 
 
 Hughes, (John.) an English writer and artist, was 
 the father of Thomas Hughes, M. P. He published in 
 1822 an " Itinerary of Provence and the Rhone," (with 
 good etchings by himself,) which was praised by Sir 
 Walter Scott. He also wrote some poetical pieces. 
 
 Hughes, (Thomas,) an English author, social econo- 
 mist, and barrister, born in Berkshire in October, 1823. 
 His father was John Hughes, noticed above, whom 
 Christopher North calls "Bullar of Brazennose." He 
 acquired celebrity by a work of fiction entitled "Tom 
 Brown's School-Days," (1857,) which quickly passed 
 through several editions. This story is continued in 
 his "Tom Brown at Oxford." He is a warm friend of 
 the working-classes, and represented Lambeth in Par- 
 liament, to which he was elected in 1865 by the Liberals. 
 In 1868 he was returned as a member for Frome. 
 
 Hughes, (Thomas Smart,) an English historian, 
 graduated at Cambridge as M.A. in 181 1. He became 
 prebendary of Peterborough in 1827, and rector of Hard- 
 wick in 1832. He wrote, besides other works, a " His- 
 tory of England from the Accession of George III. to 
 the Accession of Victoria, 1760-1837," (7 vols., 1836,) a 
 continuation of Hume and Smollett. Died in 1847. 
 
 See a "Memoir of T. S. Hushes, prefixed to his "Essay 011 
 the Political System of Europe," 1855. 
 
 Hugi, hoo'gee, (Franz Joseph,) a Swiss naturalist, 
 born at Grenchen in 1795. Among his works is a 
 "Treatise on Glaciers," (1842.) 
 
 Hugo, Mi'go', (Charles Louis,) a French monk, 
 born at Saint-Mihicl in 1667, became Abbe of Estiva). 
 He wrote, befeideS other winks, a "Life of Saint Nor- 
 bert," (1707,) and a "History of Moses," (1709.) Died 
 in 1739. 
 
 Hugo, (Francois Victor,) a son of Victor Marie, 
 noticed below, was born in Paris in 1S28. He prodmed 
 a version of Shakspcare's Sonnets, (1857.) 
 
 Hugo, hoo'go, (Gustav,) a German jurist, distin- 
 guished for his profound knowledge of Roman law, was 
 born at Lorrach, in Baden, in 1764. He studied at 
 Oottingen, and l>ecamc professor of law in that city in 
 1792. His principal work, a "Manual of a Course of 
 Civil Law," consisting of seven volumes, with different 
 titles, ranks among the standard produt lions of modern 
 jurisprudence. Died at Gottingcn in 1844. 
 
 See H. Eyssrnhardt, "Zur Eriniierung an G. Hugo," 1845. 
 
 Hu'go, (Herman,) a learned Jesuit, born at Brussels 
 in 15S8, became chaplain to General Spinola. He was 
 the author of a treatise on the invention of letters, " De 
 prima Scribendi Origine," (1617,) and a few other works. 
 Died in 1629. 
 
 Hugo, (J. An El.,) a French litthateur, brother of 
 Victor Hugo, was botn about 1798. Among his works 
 are " Picturesque France," (3 vols., 1833,) and "Military 
 
 « as it; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; G, H, v.,guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; i as »; th as in this. (JGjf"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HUGO 
 
 1224 
 
 HULLS 
 
 France," a history of the French armies from 1792 to 
 1833. (5 vols., 1834.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Hugo, (Joseph Leopold Sigisbert,) a French gen- 
 eral and count, born at Nancy in 1774- After serving 
 Joseph Bonaparte as marshal of the palace at Naples, 
 lie fought for him in Spain as general of brigade from 
 1809 to 1813, gained several victories, and was raised to 
 the rank of general of division. In 1823 he published 
 " Memoirs of General Hugo." Died in 1828. 
 
 See Jui.es Nollet Fabert. '* Le General J. L. S. Hugo," 8vo, 
 1853 ; Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Hugo, hii'go', (Victor Marie,) Vicomte, a celebrated 
 French lyric poet and novelist, a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Besancon in 1802. His mother, Sophie 
 Trebuchet, was a Vendean royalist, with whose polit- 
 ical sentiments he sympathized in his youth. His first 
 poem, "On the Advantages of Study," (1817,) obtained 
 an honourable mention from the Academie Francaise. 
 He received prizes for several royalist odes in 1818, and 
 married Mdlle. Foucher in 1822. In the same year he 
 published the first volume of his "Odes and Ballads," 
 which quickly raised him to the first rank among the 
 French poets of his time. He produced " Cromwell," 
 a drama, (1827,) and a volume of odes, entitled " Les 
 Orientales," (1828,) remarkable for richness of imagina- 
 tion. The literati of France having ranged themselves 
 in two hostile schools, styled the Classic and the Ro- 
 mantic, Victor Hugo became the recognized chief of the 
 latter, formed mostly of young men. Of his dramas, 
 " Hernani" (first acted in 1830) and "Marion Delorme" 
 (1831) proved brilliant successes. Among his most suc- 
 cessful and popular works are " Notre Dame de Paris," 
 a romance, (1831,) "Le Roi s'amuse," a drama, (1832,) 
 "Les Miserables," a novel, (1862,) "The Toilers of the 
 Sea," (1865,) and poems entitled "The Leaves of Au- 
 tumn," (" Les Feuilles d'Automne,") which, says a 
 French critic in the "Nouvelle' Biographie Generale," 
 "contain beauties of the first order." He was admitted 
 into the French Academy in i84i,and raised to the rank 
 of a peer in 1845. He £ ave ms cordial adhesion to the 
 republic of 1848, and was elected to the Constituent As- 
 sembly by the voters of Paris. He opposed Cavaignac, 
 and in 1849' joined the party of advanced democrats, of 
 whom he became a leader and distinguished orator. For 
 his opposition to the coup d'etat of December 2, 185 1, he 
 was banished. He retired to the island of Guernsey, where 
 he has since resided. During his exile he published sev- 
 eral works, including a historical work entitled " Napo- 
 leon le Petit," (" Napoieon the Little," 1852,) and poetical 
 "Contemplations," (2 vols., 1856,) which are much ad- 
 mired. Of his more recent publications, "L'Homme 
 qui rit" (1869) is perhaps the most important. 
 
 See De Lomenie, " Galerie des Contemporains illustres ;" Sainte- 
 Beuve, "Portraits contemporains," 1846: Charles Robin, "Bio 
 graphie de V. Hugo," 1S4S ; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of 
 Europe ;" " Quarterly Review" for March, 1S43. and October, 1862 ; 
 " Edinburgh Review'"' for January, 1863 ; also " F laser's Magazine" 
 for March, 1S63. and June, 1S66: "Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 July, 1S31 : " British Quarterly Review" for July, 1800, and January, 
 1863: "Westminster Review" for April, 1855, and October and 
 January, 1863; "North American Review" for July, 1836, (by Mrs. 
 F. A. Remble.) 
 
 Hu-go-li'nus, (or hoo-gu-le'nus,) an Italian jurist and 
 legal writer, born at Bologna ; died about 1233. 
 
 Hugtenburg. See Huchtenburg. 
 
 Hugues Capet. See Capet. 
 
 Huijgens. See Huygens. 
 
 Huillard-Breholles, u-e'lSR' bRa'ol', (J. L. Al- 
 phonse,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 181 7, 
 published, with M. E. Ruelle, a " History of the Middle 
 Ages," (2 vols., 1843.) 
 
 Hulaku or Hulakoo. See Hoolakoo. 
 
 Huldericus. See Huldrich. 
 
 Huldrich, hoolt'riK, [Lat. Hui.deri'cus/] (Johann 
 Jacob,) a Swiss divine, born at Zurich in 1683, was a 
 professor of law in the university of that town. He 
 published a few religious works, and " Miscellanea Tigu- 
 rina," (3 vols., 1722.) Died in 1731. 
 
 See Zimmermann, " Vita Hulderici," 1732. 
 
 Hulin or Hullin, ^U'laN', (Pierre Augustin,) a 
 French general, born in Paris in 1758. He became 
 general of brigade in 1804, commandant at Vienna in 
 1805, and in 1807 general of division. He had the chief 
 
 command at Paris when the conspirator Malet made his 
 daring attempt in 1812, and was shot in the face by 
 Malet. He was banished in 1815. Died in 1841. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Hu.U,( Edward,) an English geologist, born about 1810, 
 published several works on the geology of Great Britain, 
 
 Hull, (Isaac,) an American commodore, born in 
 Derby, Connecticut, in 1775. • He distinguished himself 
 in the war with Tripoli, (1804-5,) was promoted to the 
 rank of captain in 1806, and at the commencement of the 
 war of 1812 was in command of the frigate Constitution. 
 In July of the same year, while cruising off New York, 
 he fell in with a British squadron, which pursued him in 
 hot chase for three days and nights, but which, by his 
 skill in seamanship, he managed to escape. On August 
 19 following, he captured, after a close action of thirty 
 minutes, the British frigate Guerriere, Captain Dacres, 
 with the loss of only fourteen in killed and wounded, 
 while that of the Guerriere was seventy-nine. This was 
 the first naval action after the declaration of war; and 
 in acknowledgment of Captain Hull's distinguished ser- 
 vices Congress presented him with a gold medal. He 
 subsequently commanded the United States squadron 
 in the Pacific and in the Mediterranean. Died in Phila- 
 delphia in 1843. 
 
 Hull, (Thomas,) an English actor and poet, born in 
 London in 1728, composed and altered numerous plays. 
 His most popular poem is " Richard Plantagenet," a 
 legendary tale, (1774.) Died in 1808. 
 
 Hull, (William,) an officer in the American Revolu- 
 tion, born in Derby, Connecticut, in 1753. He joined 
 the Revolutionary army at Cambridge at the head of a 
 company of volunteers in 1775. He took part in many 
 of the battles of the war, and for his gallant services in 
 conducting the expedition against Morrisiana he was 
 honoured with a vote of thanks by Congress. After the 
 war he became a major-general in the Massachusetts 
 militia, and in 1805 was appointed by Jefferson Governor 
 of the Territory of Michigan. , On the breaking out of 
 the second war with Great Britain, in 1812, he was ap- 
 pointed to the command of the Northwestern army ; and 
 in August of the same year he surrendered with 2000 
 troops to the British under General Brock, at Detroit. 
 For this act he was tried by court-martial, in 1814, and 
 sentenced to be shot. President Madison approved the 
 sentence, but remitted its execution in consideration of 
 General Hull's age and services in the Revolution. He 
 published a defence of himself before the court-martial, 
 (1814.) Died in 1825. 
 
 See, also, " Life and Services of General W. Hull," by his daugh- 
 ter, Maria Campbell, 1848. 
 
 Hul'lah, (John Pyke,) an English composer and 
 popular teacher of music, was born in 1812. He com- 
 posed the music of Dickens's comic opera " The Vil- 
 lage Coquettes," (1836.) About 1840 he introduced a 
 new system of instruction in vocal music, which was 
 very successful. He became professor of vocal music in 
 King's College, London, in 1844. 
 
 Hullin. See Hulin. 
 
 Hull'man'del, (Charles Joseph,) an excellent lith- 
 ographer, born in London in 1789. He made several 
 improvements in the art of lithography, and invented 
 the process of lithotint. He published, in 1824, "The 
 Art of Drawing on Stone." Died in 1850. 
 
 Hullmann or Huellmaim, hul'man, (Karl Die- 
 trich,) a German historian and antiquary, born at Eide- 
 born in 1765, became a professor at Bonn. He published, 
 besides other works, a " History of the Origin of Ranks 
 or Orders (Stande) in Germany," (3 vols., 1808,) and a 
 " History of the Commerce of the Greeks," (1839.) 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 Hul'lock, (Sir John,) an English lawyer, born in the 
 county of Durham about 1764, practised in London with 
 success, and was made one of the barons in the ex- 
 chequer court in 1823. Died in 1829. 
 
 Hulls, (Jonathan,) an English mechanician and in- 
 ventor, obtained in 1736 a patent for a "machine for 
 carrying ships out of, or into, any harbour against wind 
 and tide." This machine was to be moved by steam- 
 power, but failed because he did not use the proper 
 means to transfer the motion from the piston to the axle. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, hug; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
HULOT 
 
 I22J 
 
 HUMBOLDT 
 
 Hulot, Aii'lo', (Henri,) a French lawyer, born in 
 Paris in 1732, translated into French fifty books of Jus- 
 tinian's Pandects, (7 vols., 1803.) Died in 1775. 
 
 Hulse, hiilss, (Rev. John,) bom at Middlewich, Eng- 
 land, in 1708, founded the Hulsean Lecture of the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, in which he had graduated. Died 
 in 1790. 
 
 Hulsemaun, hool'seh-man',(JoHANN,) a learned Ger- 
 man Lutheran divine, born at Essen in 1602, was professor 
 qf divinity at Lelpsic. Died in 1661. 
 
 Hulsitis, hul'se-us, (Antoon,) a Protestant scholar 
 and theologian, born in 1615, became professor of divinity 
 and Oriental languages at l,eyden. Died in 1685. 
 
 Hulsius, (Hendrik,) a theological writer, son of the 
 preceding, was born at Breda in 1654; died in 1723. 
 
 Hulst, van der, vtn der hulst, (Pieter,) a Dutch 
 painter, born at Dort in 1652, was successful in painting 
 flowers, fruits, etc. He studied or worked in Rome. 
 Died in 1708. 
 
 Hulthem, van, vtn hiil'tem, (Charles Joseph 
 Emvni;fi,) a Belgian bibliomaniac, born at Ghent in 
 1764. lie made a vast collection of books, manuscripts, 
 etc., which were purchased by the Belgian government 
 for 279,400 francs. Died in 1832. A catalogue of his 
 library was published in 6 vols., 1836. 
 
 Hultz, hooks, (JoHANN,) a German architect, of whom 
 little is known. The completion of the great tower of 
 the cathedral of Cologne is ascribed to him. It was 
 finished in the first half of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Htimanu, /ni'man', (Jean Georges,) a French finan- 
 cier, bom at Strasburg in 1780, became minister of 
 finance in 1832 ; died in 1842. 
 
 Humayun. See Hoomayoon. 
 
 Humbert, //u.s'baiR', a French Dominican monk and 
 writer, born at Romans about 1200; died in 1277. 
 
 Huni'be>rt, Cardinal, an eminent French .Benedic- 
 tine monk, born in Burgundy ; died about 1063. 
 
 Humbert, //CiN'baiR', (Jean,) a Swiss Orientalist, 
 born at Geneva in 1792, published, besides other works, 
 an "Arabian Anthology," with French versions, (1819.) 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 Humbert, (Joseph Amarle,) a French general, born 
 of humble parents at Rouvray, in Lorraine, about 1760. 
 Having a fine figure, a pleasing address, and great au- 
 dacity, he was rapidly promoted, and in 1795, as general 
 of brigade, served under Hoche against the Vendean 
 royalists. In 1798, as general of division, he commanded 
 the army of about 1500 men which invaded Ireland, 
 where, after gaining a victory over General Lake, he was 
 forced to surrender to Lord Cornwallis. In 1802 he was 
 employed in the expedition to Hayti under Leclerc, at 
 whose death he returned to France in company with 
 Pauline, the widow of Leclerc, and sister of Bonaparte. 
 By aspiring to her hand he offended the First Consul. 
 He consulted his safety by emigrating to the United 
 States, where he lived in obscurity. Died at New Or- 
 leans in 1823. 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic (i-inerale." 
 
 Humboldt, htim'bolt, von, [Ger. pron. fon hdom'- 
 bolt,] (Frikdrich Heinrich Alexander,) Baron, an 
 illustrious German savant and traveller, born in Berlin 
 on the 14th of September, 1769. He was a son of Major 
 von Humboldt, who served as adjutant or aide-decamp 
 to the Duke of Brunswick in the Seven Years' war. In 
 1786 he entered the University of Frankforton-the-Oder, 
 where he studied natural science and political economy. 
 He became a pupil of Heyne, Blumenbach, and Eich 
 horn, at Gottingcn, in 17S8. In 1790 he travelled in 
 France, Holland, and England, and published a treatise 
 "On the Basalts of the Rhine." He studied mineralogy 
 under Werner at Freiberg in 1791, and was appointed 
 diicctor-gcneral of the mines of Anspach and Baireuth 
 in 17112. He published in 1792 a work on subterranean 
 plants, "Specimen Flora! subterranean Fribergensis." At 
 an early age he cherished a passion to visit far-distant and 
 unexplored regions of the glolie. With this view he re- 
 signed sisorBi e about 1796, and passed some time at Jena, 
 
 where he fo <1 friendships with Goethe and Schiller. 
 
 His reputation was extended by a treatise ".On tin- Irri- 
 tability of Muscles and Nervous Fibres," (1797.) Several 
 
 of his projects for undertaking a voyage of discovery 
 were frustrated by the wars that followed the French 
 Revolution. At length, in June, 1799, he joined Aime 
 Bonpland in a voyage to South America. They spent 
 about four years in the exploration of the northern 
 part of South America, especially those portions which 
 are drained by the Oronoco and the Rio Negro. They 
 ascended the Magdalena as far as they could by water, 
 and penetrated by land to Quito. In June, 1S02, they 
 ascended Chimborazo to a point nineteen thousand feet 
 or more above the level of the sea, the highest point of 
 the Andes ever reached by man. They passed nearly a 
 year in the exploration of Mexico, visited the United 
 States, and returned to Europe in July, 1804, with rich 
 collections of plants, animals, and minerals. Humboldt 
 became a resident of Paris, where he remained about 
 twenty years, the greater part of which he spent in digest- 
 ing ancl publishing the results of his observations. In 
 this task he was assisted by Bonpland, Cuvier, Oltmanns, 
 Arago, Kunth, and others. Between 1807 and 1817 they 
 published, in French, a "Journey to the Equinoctial 
 Regions of the New Continent," (3 vols.,) "Astronomical 
 Observations and Measurements by the Barometer," (2 
 vols., 1808-10,) a "View of the Cordilleras, and Monu- 
 ments of the Indigenous Peoples of America," (1810,) a 
 " Collection of Observations on Zoology and Compara- 
 tive Anatomy," (2 vols.,) a " Political Essay on the 
 Kingdom of New Spain," (2 vols., 181 1,) and "General 
 Physics and Geology." He made an important con- 
 tribution to botanical geography by his Latin work "On 
 the Geographical Distribution of Plants according to 
 the Temperature and Altitude," (1817.) His botanical 
 collections were classed and described by S. Kunth in a 
 work entitled "Nova Genera et Species Plantarum quas 
 in Peregrinatione ad Plagam aequinoctialem Orbis novi 
 collegerunt A. Bonpland et A. de Humboldt,"' (7 vols., 
 1815-25.) An English translation of his " Personal Nar- 
 rative of Travels" was made by Helen Maria Williams, 
 (5 vols.,*l8l4-2l.) In 1810 he was chosen a member of 
 the French Institute in place of Cavendish. He removed 
 to Berlin in 1826, and received, with tire title of coun- 
 cillor, many marks of royal favour. At the request of 
 Nicholas, Emperor of Russia, and at his expense, Hum- 
 boldt, Ehrenberg, and Rose made in 1829 a scientific 
 exploration of Asiatic Russia. Among the results of this 
 extensive expedition was an excellent work by Hum- 
 boldt, entitled "Central Asia: Researches on the Chains 
 of Mountains and the Comparative Climatology," (3 
 vols., 1843.) He was sent to Paris on several political 
 missions by the King of Prussia between 1830 and 1848. 
 He published a " Critical Examination of the Geography 
 of the New Continent," (5 vols., 1835-38.) When he 
 was more than seventy-four years old, he composed his 
 celebrated work entitled " Kosmos ; Entwui f einer phy- 
 sischen Weltbeschreibung," (" Cosmos ; Essay of a Phys- 
 ical Description of the Universe,") the first volume of 
 which appeared in 1845, and .the fourth in 1858. "The 
 first volume," says the author, "contains a general view 
 of nature, from the remotest nebulae and revolving 
 double stars to the terrestrial phenomena of the geo- 
 graphical distribution of plants, of animals, and of races 
 of men, — preceded by some preliminary considerations 
 on the different degrees of enjoyment offered by the 
 study of nature and the knowledge of her laws, and or. 
 the limits and method of a scientific exposition of the 
 physical description of the universe." "The author of 
 the remarkable book before us," says the "Edinburgh 
 Review" for January, 1S48, "is assuredly the person in 
 all Europe best fitted to undertake and accomplish such 
 a work. Science has produced no man of more rich and 
 varied attainments, more versatile in genius, more inde- 
 fatigable in application to all kinds of learning, more 
 energetic in action, or more ardent in inquiry, and, we 
 may add, more entirely devoted to her cause in every 
 period of a long life. At every epoch of that life, from 
 a comparatively early age, he has been constantly before 
 the public, realizing the ideal conception of a perfect 
 traveller ; a character which calls for almost as great a 
 variety of excellences as those which go to realize Cicero's 
 idea of a perfect orator. . . . Above all things is neces- 
 sary a genial and kindly temperament, which excites no 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; Jt, trilled; I as t; th as in this. [$f See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HUMBOLDT 
 
 1226 
 
 HUME 
 
 enmities, but, on the contrary, finds or makes friends 
 everywhere. No man in the ranks of science is more 
 distinguished for this last characteristic than Baron von 
 Humboldt. We believe that he has not an enemy." 
 The "Kosmos" has been translated into French by H. 
 Fa ye and Oh. Galusky, (1848-57,) and into English by 
 Mrs. Sabine. He received from the French government 
 the title of grand officer of the legion of honour, and 
 was a member of all the principal Academies of the 
 world. Among his other works is "Aspects of Nature," 
 (" Ansichten der Natur," 1808 ; 3d edition, 2 vols., 1849.) 
 He died in Berlin, May 6, 1859, in his ninetieth year. 
 
 See Juliette Bauer, " Lives of the Brothers Humboldt," Lon- 
 don. 1S52; H. Ki.knckk or Ki.etkk, "A. von Humboldt; ein bio- 
 g'raphisch O 1 > .-nUma," 1852 ; Review of the " Kosmos" in the " Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review," vol. Ixxvii. ; K. H. Stoddard, " Life of 
 Alexander von Humboldt," New York, 1S59; Aoassiz, " Eulogy on 
 Humboldt" in the "Living Age" for October 2, 1S69: Pnuvs van 
 Dkk Hokvkn, "A. von Humboldt, Interpres Nalur.e," 1S4:;; " Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for January and July, 1816, October, 1817, 
 April, iSio, July, 1S21, December. 1845, and January, 1S54: '"Edin- 
 burgh Review" for June, 1815; " Eraser's M:tga/.ine" for February, 
 1848. 
 
 Humboldt, von, (Karl Wilhf.i.m,) Baron, a cele- 
 brated German philologist and statesman, born at Pots- 
 dam an the 22d of June, 1767, was a brother of the 
 preceding. Mis early education was directed by Joachim 
 Catnpe, a distinguished philanthropist. About 1788 he 
 entered the University of Gottingen, where he studied 
 philology under G. Heyne. Among the intimate friends 
 of his youth was George Forster, the traveller. In July, 
 1789, he visited Paris, and hailed with enthusiasm the 
 advent of the new regime. He afterwards studied at 
 Jena, and there formed an intimate and lasting friendship 
 with the poet Schiller, who encouraged and directed him 
 in his literary pursuits. Humboldt became also the friend 
 and literary counsellor of Goethe. About 1791 he mar- 
 ried Caroline von Dachenroden. Among his early works 
 was an excellent " Essay on the Greeks," (1792.) In 1799 
 he produced an admirable critical essay on Goethe's 
 "Hermann and Dorothea," which established his repu- 
 tation as a critic. He was appointed minister to Rome 
 by the King of Prussia about 1802, and soon after that 
 date produced a poem entitled " Rome," (" Rom.") He 
 returned to Prussia in 1808, and was appointed minister 
 of public instruction about the end of that year. He 
 took a prominent part in the foundation of the University 
 of Berlin. About iSiohe resigned his office, and was sent 
 as ambassador to Vienna. While thus employed in the 
 public service, he devoted his leisure time to the study of 
 languages, in many of which he was profoundly versed. 
 He acquired distinction as a diplomatist, and induced 
 Austria to join the coalition against Napoleon in August, 
 1813. He represented Prussia at the Conference of 
 Chatillon and the Congress of Vienna, 1814. Talley- 
 rand's opinion of him is said to have been expressed in 
 these words : " Europe does not possess three statesmen 
 of such power," (" L'Europe n'a pas trois hommes d'etat 
 de cette force.") He was sent as ambassador to London 
 about 1816, and was appointed minister and privy coun- 
 cillor at Berlin in iSi9. He advocated a liberal constitu- 
 tion, and, when he found that the king was determined to 
 adopt a reactionary policy, he resigned his office about 
 the end of 1819, after which he took no part in political 
 affairs. He composed numerous poems, the most of 
 which remained in manuscript until his death, and many 
 treatises on language, philology, etc. Among his prin- 
 cipal works are an " Essay on the New French Consti- 
 tution," (1792,) a metrical translation of the "Agamem- 
 non" of /Eschylus, (1S16,) which is highly commended, 
 " Researches on the Aborigines of Spain by Means of 
 the Basque Language," (1821,) and a " Memoir on Com- 
 parative Linguistic." He was one of the greatest philoso- 
 phers and critics of his time, and has been called the 
 creator of comparative philology. The interesting corre- 
 spondence between Schiller and Wilhelm.von Humboldt 
 was published in 1830. In the latter part of his life he 
 devoted his attention to the study of the languages of 
 barbarous tribes of America and Asia. He died at 
 Tegel, near Berlin, April 8, 1835, leaving unfinished an 
 extensive and excellent work, entitled "On the Kawi 
 Language in the Island of Java," (" Ueber die Kawi 
 Sprache auf der Insel Java,") which was published in 
 
 1836. His works were collected and edited .by hi* 
 brother Alexander, under the title of "Wilhelm von 
 Humboldts Gesammelte Werke," (4 vols., 1841-52.) 
 
 See Gustav Scih.esier, "Wilhelm von Humboldts l.eben," 
 Ki.f.nckh, "W. von Humboldts Leben," (translated into English 
 by Jui.tF.TTE Bauer in 1852;) Schlesier, " Erinnerungen an Wil- 
 helm von Humboldt," 2 vols., 1843-45 ; Robert Havm, " Wiiheltn 
 von Humboldt Lebensbild und Charakteristik," 1856; "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for January, 1842 ; " London Quarterly Review" 
 for April, 1868. 
 
 Hume, (Rev. Auraham,) an English antiquary, born 
 about 1 Si 5. He became incumbent of a parish in Liver- 
 pool about 1846, and distinguished himself as a promoter 
 of education. He wrote, besides other works, "The 
 Learned Societies and Printing-Clubs of the United 
 Kingdom," (1847.) 
 
 Hume, (Alexander,) a Scottish poet and minister, 
 born about 1560. preached at Logie. He published a 
 volume of " Hymns or Sacred Songs," which were ad- 
 mired, especially the " Day Estival." Died in 1609. 
 
 See Chambers. * Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hume or Home, (David,) of Godscroft, a Scottish 
 minister and writer, supposed to have been born about 
 1560. He preached some years in Fiance. He wrote 
 some Latin poems, "Apologia Basilica," ("Apology or 
 Defence of the King," 1626,) and "The History of'the 
 House and Race of Douglas and Angus," (1644.) 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen. 
 
 Hume, (David,) an eminent English historian and 
 philosopher, born in Edinburgh on the 26th of April, 
 171I. He was a younger son of Joseph Hume or Home, 
 who, though related to the Earl of Home, was not 
 wealthy. In his Autobiography he says, " My studious 
 disposition, my sobriety, and my industry gave my family 
 a notion that the law was a proper profession for me ; 
 but I found an insurmountable aversion to everything 
 but the pursuits of philosophy and general learning; 
 and, while they fancied I was poring upon Voet and 
 Vinnius, Cicero and Virgil were the authors which I 
 was secretly devouring." For the sake of economy, he 
 Went to France in 1734 or 1735, and spent about two years 
 at Rheims and La Fleche, where he wrote his "Treatise 
 on Human Nature." This was published in London in 
 1738, but was treated with discouraging neglect. He 
 says himself, " It fell from the press without reaching 
 such distinction as even to excite a murmur among the 
 zealots." Mackintosh calls this work " the first systematic 
 attack on all the principles of knowledge and belief, and 
 the most formidable, if universal skepticism could ever 
 be more than a mere exercise of ingenuity." He passed 
 several ensuing years in Scotland in his favourite studies, 
 and issued in 1742 the first part of his " Essays, Moral, 
 Political, and Literary," which was moderately successful. 
 These contain new, ingenious, and suggestive ideas on 
 commerce, political economv, and other subjects. 
 
 In 1746 he was appointed secretary to General Saint 
 Clair, with whom he passed two years on the continent. 
 Returning to his brother's residence in Scotland, he 
 composed an " Enquiry concerning the Principles of 
 Morals," and the second part of his Essays, which ap- 
 peared in 1752, with the title of "Political Discourses." 
 The latter of these was received with favour abroad and 
 at home, while the other was scarcely noticed. About 
 this time he commenced his most celebrated work, the 
 " History of England," the first volume of which (corrt'- 
 prising the reigns of James I. and Charles I.) was pub- 
 lished in 1754. He describes its reception in these 
 terms : " I was assailed by one cry of reproach, disap- 
 probation, and even detestation : English, Scotch, and 
 Irish, Whig and Tory, churchman and sectary, free 
 thinker and religionist, patriot and courtier, united their 
 rage against the man who had presumed to shed a gene- 
 rous tear for the fate of Charles I. and the Earl of Straf' 
 ford ; and after the first ebullitions of their fury were 
 over, what was still more mortifying, the book seemed 
 to sink into oblivion. Mr. Millar told me that in a 
 twelvemonth he sold only forty-five copies of it." The 
 subsequent volumes, however, were better appreciated, 
 and the whole work became very popular and raised 
 the author to affluence. The last volume was published 
 in 1761. His style is generally admired, as graceful, 
 natural, and perspicuous. But the value of his history 
 
 a, e, I, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon, 
 
HUME 
 
 I*2 7 
 
 HUMPHREY 
 
 ts materially lessened by his partiality and inaccuracy. 
 He was, as a skeptic, prejudiced against religion, and 
 in civil government was inclined to favour prerogative. 
 He is not profoundly versed in the philosophy of history, 
 or in the progressive development of the liritish con- 
 stitution. " He was far too indolent," says Alison, "to 
 acquire the vast stores of facts indispensable for correct 
 generalization on the varied theatre of human affairs." 
 Macaulay compares him to "an accomplished advocate, 
 whose insidious candour only increases the effect of his 
 vast mass of sophistry." 
 
 Respecting his merits as a political economist, Lord 
 ham says, "Of the ' Political Discourses' it would 
 be difficult to speak in terms of too great commendation. 
 They combine almost every excellence which can belong 
 to such a performance. The great merit, however, of 
 these discourses is their originality." In 1763 Hume 
 accepted the office of secretary to the Earl of Hertford, 
 ambassador to Kir is, and having returned in 1766, much 
 delighted by the caresses of the Parisians, he was em- 
 ployed two years as under-secretary of state. In 1769 he 
 retired from office, and, with an income of ,£1000 a year, 
 took up his residence in Edinburgh, "where he died in Au- 
 gust, 1776. Resides the works above named, he wrote the 
 "Natural History of Religion," (1755,) am ' "Dialogues 
 concerning Natural Religion," (1783.) He was never 
 married. His personal character appears to have been 
 amiable and resectable on the score of morality. "The 
 Life of Mr. Hume,"savs Mackintosh, " written by himself, 
 is remarkable above most, if not all, writings of that sort 
 for hitting the degree of interest between coldness and 
 egotism which becomes a modest man in speaking of 
 his private history. Few writers, wiiose opinions were 
 so obnoxious, have more perfectly escaped every per- 
 sonal imputation." 
 
 See Hume's "Autobiography," 1777: David Dalrymple, "Life 
 of D. Hume," 1787; John Hill bPKTOM, " Life ami Correspond- 
 ence of ]>. Hume," 2 vols., 1S46; T. E. KiTcuiK, "Account of the 
 Life and WMtfnjESOfD. Hume,"lS07; MACKINTOSH, " Progress of 
 Ethical Philosophy,'* 1 vol. 8ro; Brenner, "Das Genie <les Herrn 
 Hume." etc.. 1774: Briu-ghvm. " Lives of Men of Letters of the 
 Time of GeoijEe III.;" K. Pratt, "Apology for the Life of D. 
 Hume." 1777: M vcaulav, " History of England,** vol. iv. chap, 
 nix. ; ■' Ertinbunjll Review" for January. 1S47 : "Quarterly Review" 
 for March. 1S44, and June, 1S46; " Historical Sketches ot the Times 
 of Georcte II.," in " Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1869 : " Weftt- 
 min sler Review" for September, 1S46; also, an elaborate article on 
 Hume in A 1. 1. on ink's " Dictionary of Authors;" Chambers, " Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of F.minent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hume, (David,) an able Scottish lawyer, born in 
 1756, was a nephew of the preceding. He was professor 
 of Scottish law in the University of Edinburgh, and a 
 baron of the court of exchequer. He wrote a valuable 
 legal text-book, entitled "Commentaries on the Law of 
 Scotland respecting the Description and Punishment of 
 Crimes," (1797.) Died in 1838. 
 
 Hume, (Grizki.,) a Scottjsh heroine, born in 1665, 
 was a daughter of Sir Patrick, noticed below. She 
 endured much hardship in efforts to conceal her father 
 from his pursUerS, and attended him in exile. In 1690 
 she was married to Mr. Baillie. She wrote poetry which 
 is admired. Died in 1746. 
 
 See a Memoir of her life, by her daughter, T.Anv Murray. 
 
 Hume, (HUGH Campkki.i,) third Earl of Marchmont, 
 born in 1708, was a grandson of Patrick, the first Earl. 
 ][, \, prominent part in Parliament as an opponent 
 
 of Walpolc, and was keeper of the great seal of Scot- 
 land from 1764 to 1794. Died in 1794, without male 
 
 issue. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of F.minent Scotsmen." 
 
 HtUUe, (JAMES DRACO!'),)' aft English financier, bom 
 
 at Ntwiitgton in 1774, obtained in 1700 a clerkship in the 
 
 Lou Ion custom-house. Having given proof of ability 
 
 and energy in responsible positions, he was employed 
 
 m 1823 in the arduous task of simplifying and reducing 
 
 to order the multitude of discordant statutes by which 
 
 the transactions of the custom-house were complicated 
 
 and perplexed. For this important service he received 
 
 from government a present of five thousand pound*, and 
 
 in 1829 he WM appointed assistant secretary of the board 
 
 of trade. He resigned in 1840, and died in 1842. 
 
 F) Hume." 
 
 Hume, (JOSRPM,) M.P., a liritish statesman of the 
 
 Radical party, was born at Montrose, Scotland, in 1777. 
 
 Having studied surgery, he entered as suigeon the ser- 
 vice of the East India Company in 1797. He learned 
 the native languages of India, and, by combining the 
 functions of interpreter and paymaster with those of 
 army-surgeon, he acquired a handsome competence, and 
 returned home in 1S08. By a careful study of the na- 
 tional resources and the condition of the people, he pre- 
 pared himself for the task of a legislator and reformer, 
 and entered Parliament in 1812. Erom 1818 to 1830 he 
 represented Montrose in Parliament, where he gained 
 great distinction by his industry and independence and 
 by his important services to the working-classes. He 
 was for many years pre-eminent in the House as a finan- 
 cial reformer and a sturdy opponent of monopolies and 
 high taxes. He declined political preferment on several 
 occasions, and continued to serve in the House of Com- 
 mons until his death, in 1855. 
 
 See Harriet Martineau, "History of Thirty Years' Peace;*' 
 14 Biographical Sketches," by the same, London, 1 
 
 Hume, (Sir Patrick,) Earl of Marchmont, a Scottish 
 patriot, was born in 1641. He was persecuted in the 
 reign of Charles II., and escaped to Holland in 16S4. 
 Having returned in 1688, he was made lord chancellor 
 in 1696, and Ear] of Marchmont. Died in 1724. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England;" Chambers, "Biographi- 
 cal Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hume, (Patrick,) a Scottish critic, who taught school 
 in London. He published in 1695 " Annotations on Mil- 
 ton's Paradise Lost," which was the first attempt to 
 illustrate that author, and was commended by Bishop 
 Newton. His critical labours have been appropriated 
 by later commentators. According to "Blackwood's 
 Magazine," Hume is "the father of that style of com- 
 parative criticism which has been so much employed 
 during these later days in illustrating the works of our 
 great poet." 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Humieres, d', du'me-aiR', (Louis de Crevant — 
 deh kkeh-vON',) Due, a French general and courtier of 
 Louis XIV., was created marshal in 1668, and com- 
 manded the right wing at the victory of Cassel, in 1677. 
 He commanded the army in Flanders which was de- 
 feated by Waldeck in 1689. Died in 1694. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Sismondi, " Histoire 
 des h'rancais." 
 
 Hummel, hoom'mel, (Johann Erdmann,) a German 
 painter, born at Cassel about 1770. He worked in Ber- 
 lin, and became in 1809 professor of perspective, etc. in 
 the Royal Academy of that city. Died in 1827. 
 
 Hummel, hoom'mel, (Johann Nkpomuk,) an excel-, 
 lent composer and pianist, born at Presburg, Hungary, 
 in 1778. About the age of eight he became a pupil of 
 Mozart in Vienna, and at the age of sixteen he was ac- 
 counted one of the most skilful performers in Germany. 
 He entered the service of Prince Esterhazy in 1803, and 
 became chapel-master to the King of Vvurtemberg in 
 1816. He was chapel-master to the Duke of Weimar 
 from 1818 until his death, during which period he 
 performed with applause in London, Paris, and Saint 
 Petersburg. Among his best works ate concertos and 
 sonatas for the piano. Died in 1837. 
 
 See Ketis, " Biographie Untverselle des Musiciens ;*' "Nouvelle 
 
 . I ( '.rll<'T.l!<'." 
 
 HummeliuB, hcTom ma'le-us, or Hummel, (Johann,) 
 a German mathematician, born at Memmingen in 1518, 
 was professor at Leipsic. Died in 1562. 
 
 Humphrey, hiim'fre,* (Hkman,) D.D., an American 
 divine, born in Simsbury, Connecticut, in 1779. He 
 graduated at Vale in 1S05. He was six years minister 
 in 1'ittsfield, Massachusetts. He became president of 
 Amherst College in 1823, and was succeeded in that 
 office by Dr. Edward Hitchcock in [845, when he re- 
 moved to Pittsfield. He wrote several valuable Works, 
 among which are a "Tour fn Kraut r, ( beat Britain, and 
 Belgium," (2 vols., 1S3S,) " Domestic Education," (1*40,) 
 ami " letters to a Son in the Ministry," (1845.) Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 •This name is pronounced differently In different parts Of the 
 tlnii.il Slates: some families writing their names Ht MnikKV or 
 Hi mi-iikkys always omit the initial h m pronunciation. 
 
 « as*; 9 as s; g hard; % as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K,trilUd; iasi; th as in Mir. (3y*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HUMPHREY 
 
 1228 
 
 HUNT 
 
 Humphrey, hfim'fre, (Lawrence,) an English Cal- 
 vinistic divine, born at Newport- Pagnel about 1527. 
 In 1555 he retired to Zurich to escape persecution, and 
 returned after the death of Queen Mary. He became 
 professor of divinity in Oxford in 1560, and Dean of 
 Winchester in 1580. He published several able theo- 
 logical works. Died about 1590. 
 
 Humphrey or Humphry, (Ozias,) R.A., an English 
 portrait-painter, born at Iloniton in 1743, settled in Lon- 
 don in 1763. He painted a miniature for the queen, was 
 received into the Royal Academy, and rose to eminence 
 in his branch of art. Died in 1810. 
 
 Humphreys, hum'frez * (Andrew A.,) an American 
 general, born in Pennsylvania about 1812. He became 
 a brigadier-general about April, 1862, and commanded 
 a division at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. He commanded 
 a corps in the battles near Petersburg, February-April, 
 1865. 
 
 Humphreys, (David,) an American poet, born in 
 Derby, Connecticut, in 1753. He entered the army 
 about 1776, and became in 1780 a colonel and aide-de- 
 camp to General Washington. In 1784 he went to 
 Europe with Jefferson, as secretary of legation. He 
 aided Barlow and other poets in " The Anarchiad," and 
 wrote other works, among which are a " Poem on the 
 Happiness of America," and an " Address to the Armies 
 of the United States," (1772.) He was sent as minister 
 to Portugal in 1790, and to Spain in 1797. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America ;" Duyckinck, 
 " Cyclopedia of American Literature," vol. i. ; "National Portrait- 
 Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. 
 
 Humphreys, hum'frez, (Henry Noel,) a British 
 antiquary and numismatist, born at Birmingham in 1810. 
 He published "The Coins of England," (1847,) "Ten 
 Centuries of Art," (1851,) and other works. 
 
 Humphreys, (James,) an English lawyer, born in 
 Montgomeryshire, published a valuable work on " Eng- 
 lish Laws of Real Property," (1820.) Died in 1830. 
 
 Humphreys or Humphrey, (Pelham,) an English 
 composer and musician, born in 1647. He composed 
 anthems and songs. Died in 1674. 
 Humphry, Old. See Mogridge. 
 Hu'nald, [Lat. Hunal'dus,] Duke of Aquitaine, 
 succeeded his father Eudes in 735 A.D., and defended 
 his domain against Charles Martel and his sons. He 
 was defeated by Charlemagne about 769, and was killed 
 in 774, at the siege of Pavia, being the last prince of the 
 Merovingian race. 
 
 Huna'uld, /m'no', (Francois Joseph,) a learned 
 French physician, born at Chateaubriant in 1701, resided 
 in Paris. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences, 
 and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1730 
 he became professor of anatomy in the Jardin des Plantes. 
 He wrote dissertations on osteology, etc. Died in 1742. 
 See QuriRARD, "La France Litteraire." 
 Hund, hdont, (Wiguijeus,) a German genealogist, 
 born in 1514, became aulic councillor at Munich in 1540. 
 Died in 1588. 
 
 See J. T. Kohlkr, '* Leben und Schriften Hunds," 1750. 
 Hundeshagen, hoon'des-ha'gen, (Johann Chris- 
 tian,) a German writer on forests, was born at Hanau 
 in 1783. Among his works is an "Encyclopaedia of the 
 Science of Forests," (2 vols., 1821.) Died in 1834. 
 
 Hundeshagen, (Karl Bern hard,) a theologian, son 
 of the preceding, was born in Hesse-Cassel in 1810. He 
 became professor at Heidelberg in 1847, and published 
 "German Protestantism: its Past and Present," (1846.) 
 Hundhorst. See Honthorst. 
 Hundt, hoont, (Magnus,) a German naturalist and 
 writer, born at Magdeburg in 1449. He taught physics 
 in the University of Leipsic. Died in 1519. 
 
 Hun'e-ric or Hun'ue-ric, [Gr. 'Ovupix<K,\ second 
 King of the Vandals of Africa, was the eldest son of 
 Genseric, whom he succeeded in 447 a.d. ; but he did 
 not inherit his father's abilities. He married the daugh- 
 ter of the emperor Valentinian HI. His reign was 
 extremely cruel and tyrannical. As an Arian, he perse- 
 cuted the Catholics in particular. He died in 484, and 
 left three sons, of whom Hilderic was the eldest; but 
 
 * See note on page 1227. 
 
 Gondamond, a nephew of Huneric, was proclaimed hta 
 successor. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.' 
 
 Hu-ni'a-de§ or Hun'ya-des, [Hun. Hunyady, 
 hoon'yody"; Fr. Huniade, hu'ne-Sd',] (Joan'nes Cor- 
 vi'nus,) a brave Hungarian general, who about 1440 
 was chosen Vaivode of Transylvania. Soon after Ladis- 
 laus, King of Poland, was killed at the battle of Varna 
 by the Turks, (1444,) Huniades was made captain-gen- 
 eral of his army and Governor of Hungary. His chief 
 exploit was the successful defence of Belgrade against 
 Mahomet II., in 1456. He died of wounds received in 
 this action. His son, Matthias Corvinus, was elected 
 King of Hungary. 
 
 See MajlXth, "History of the Magyars;" Pray, "Annales 
 Regum Hungariae;" G. Bessenyei, " Hunyadi Jinos," etc., 1788; 
 G. Fejer, "Genus, Incunabula et Virtus J. Corvini de Hunyad, 
 etc., Buda, 1844. 
 
 Hun'nis, (William,) chapel-master to Queen Eliza- 
 beth, wrote several volumes of psalms and hymns, (pub- 
 lished from 1550 to 1588.) 
 
 Hunnius, hoon'ne-us, (/Egidius,) a Lutheran theo- 
 logian, noted for intolerance, was born at Winnenden, in 
 Wiirtemberg, in 1550. He was professor at Wittenberg, 
 and wrote, besides other works, " Calvinus Judaizans," 
 (1593.) Died in 1603. 
 
 See Hutter, "Threnologia de Vita Hunnii," 1603; Johann 
 Georg Neumann, " Programina de Vita Hunnii," 1704 ; S. Gesner, 
 " Leichenpredigt auf A. Hunnius nebst dessen Lebenslauf," 1603. 
 
 Hunnius, (Nikolaus,) an able Lutheran theologian, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Marburg in 1585. He 
 was superintendent of all the churches of Lubeck from 
 1623 to 1643. He wrote against Popery, Calvinism, and 
 Socinianism. _ Died in 1643. 
 
 See L. Heller. " N. Hunnius, sein Leben und Wirken," 1843. 
 Hunold, hoo'nolt, (Christian Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man litterateur, who wrote unde* the pseudonym of 
 Men antes, born near Amstadt in 1680. His works 
 include romances, tales, and poems. Died in 1721. 
 
 Hunt, (Edward B.,) an American military engineer, 
 born in Livingston county, New York, in 1822. He 
 graduated at West Point in 1845, was employed as 
 engineer on several forts and light-houses, invented a 
 submarine battery, and gained the rank of captain in 
 1859. Died in 1863. 
 
 Hunt, (Frederick Knight,) an English editor, born 
 in Buckinghamshire in 1814. After writing for the " Il- 
 lustrated London News," etc., he was chief editor of the 
 London "Daily News" from 1851 until his death. He 
 wrote " The Book of Art," and " The Fourth Estate ; or, 
 Contributions to the History of Newspapers," etc., (1850.) 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Hunt, (Freeman,) an editor, born in Quincy, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1804. He became in 1839 the editor and 
 owner of the " Merchants' Magazine," issued monthly in 
 New York. He published, besides other works, "Lives 
 of American Merchants," (2 vols., 1856.) Died in 1858. 
 Hunt, (George Ward,) an English politician, born 
 in 1825. He was elected a member of Parliament for 
 the county of Northampton in 1857, as a Conservative. 
 He was re-elected, and gained distinction by a bill to 
 counteract the cattle-plague of 1866. He became chan- 
 cellor of the exchequer about March I, 1868, and re- 
 signed in December of that year. 
 
 Hunt, (HENRY,) M.P., an English Radical, born in 
 Wiltshire in 1773, acquired popularity with his party by 
 his intrepid audacity and by his inflammatory harangues. 
 He often presided at the meetings against the corn-laws. 
 In 1820 he was arrested at Manchester, while addressing 
 a political meeting, and punished with a fine and several 
 years' imprisonment. He was returned to Parliament 
 for Preston in 1831, defeating the Earl of Derby, his op- 
 ponent, and witnessed the triumph of the Reform bill, 
 for which he had toiled and suffered. Died in 1835. 
 
 Hunt, (Isaac,) a native of the West Indies, was edu- 
 cated in Philadelphia. He took the royalist side in the 
 Revolution, removed to England, and became a preacher 
 at Paddington about 1780. He published "The Rights 
 of Englishmen." He was the father of Leigh Hunt. 
 
 Hunt, (James Henry Leigh,) a popular English 
 poet and litUrateur, born at Southgate, near London, in 
 1784, was the son of Isaac Hunt, noticed above, and 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; &, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, All, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
HUNT 
 
 1229 
 
 HUNTER 
 
 Mary Shewell, of Philadelphia. He left school at the age 
 of fifteen, and acted as clerk in the War Office until 1808, 
 when he formed a partnership with his brother John 
 to issue " The Examiner," a journal of liberal politics, 
 which attained under his editorship a high reputation for 
 literary merit. In 1812 the brothers were condemned 
 to pay each a fine of five hundred pounds, and to be 
 imprisoned two years, for a satirical article in which the 
 prince-regent was styled an "Adonis of fifty." While 
 in prison, he wrote "Rimini," ( 1 8 1 6, ) one of his most 
 admired poems, "The Descent of Liberty," and "The 
 Feast of the Poets." At this period he was intimate with 
 Byron, Moore, Shelley, and Keats. From l8i8to 1822 he 
 edited "The Indicator," a series of periodical essays, ad- 
 mired for genial humour, easy style, and brilliant fancy. 
 In 1822 he was associated with Byron and Shelley as an 
 editor of "The Liberal," a political and literary journal ; 
 and for this object he resided with Byron in Pisa and 
 Genoa. But Shelley was drowned, Byron and Hunt 
 became estranged, and after the issue of four numbers 
 "The Lilieral" was discontinued. Hunt returned to 
 England about 1824, and published "Recollections of 
 Byron," (1828,) which gave great offence to Byron's 
 friends. He was editor of "The Companion" and the 
 " London Journal," and wrote for several periodicals. 
 Among the multifarious productions of his versatile 
 genius are a popular poem entitled "Captain Sword 
 and Captain Pen," (1835,) "Stories from the Italian 
 Poets," "Men, Women, and Books," (1847,) "Imagina- 
 tion and Fancy," and his "Autobiography," (3 vols., 
 1850.) A pension of two hundred pounds was granted 
 him in 1847. Died August 28, 1859. Professor Wilson, 
 of Edinburgh, speaks of Hunt as " the most vivid of poets 
 and most cordial of critics." (" Recreations of Christo- 
 pher North.") 
 
 See his "Autobiography," 1850: Hazlitt, "Spirit of the Age," 
 and his "Table-Talk;" Lord Jeffrey, critique in the " Edinburgh 
 Review" for June, 1S16, (vol. xxvi. ;) E. P. WHrppi.E, " Essays and 
 Reviews;" W. Gifford, critique in the "Quarterly Review" for 
 January, 1816, (vol. xiv. ;) " Brief Biographies." by Samuel Smm.es. 
 For a full account of the writings of Leigh Hunt, see a " List of 
 the Writings of William Hazlitt and Leigh Hunt," by Alexander 
 Ireland, London, 1868; "North British Review" for November, 
 1850, and November, i860; "London Quarterly Review" for Janu- 
 ary, 1816. 
 
 Hunt, (Jeremiah,) an English dissenting minister, 
 born in London in 1678, preached for many years at 
 Pinners' Hall. Died in 1744. 
 
 Hunt, (Leigh.) See Hunt, (James Henry Leigh.) 
 
 Hunt, (Richard Morris,) a distinguished American 
 architect, born in Brattleborough, Vermont, October 31, 
 1829. He was several years in the Boston High School. 
 In 1842 he went to Europe, and studied architecture 
 in Paris and Geneva. He subsequently visited various 
 parts of Europe, and also Asia Minor and Egypt, for the 
 purpose of becoming better acquainted with the archi- 
 tecture of different countries. After his return to Paris, 
 he was appointed inspector at the Louvre; in 1867 he 
 was a member of the jury on architecture at the Expo- 
 sition Universelle. He has since resided in New York. 
 
 Hunt, (ROBERT,) an English author and philosopher, 
 born at Devonport in 1807. His youth was passed in 
 poverty, from which he was relieved by William Allen, 
 the chemist, who procured him a situation in London. 
 In 1832 he opened a druggist's shop in Penzance, having 
 previously been a diligent student of chemistry and other 
 sciences. He published his discoveries of the chemical 
 action of the solar rays in an interesting work entitled 
 "Researches on Light," (1844,) and in 1849 he gave to 
 the world " The Poetry of Science." His " Panthea ; or, 
 The Spirit of Nature,'Ml849,) is designated by a writer 
 in the "North British Review" as "a work of a very 
 peculiar character, in which philosophy and poetry are 
 finelv blended, and where great truths and noble senti- 
 ments are expressed in language full of beauty and elo- 
 quence." Among his later productions are "Elementary 
 Physics," (1S51,) and "Memoirs of the Geological Sur- 
 vey of Great Britain," (1855.) He has a high reputation 
 as a lecturer on science. 
 
 See " North British Review" for May, 1850; " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for April, 1849. 
 
 Hunt, (Thomas,) D.D., an English scholar, born in 
 1696, became in 1747 professor of Hebrew in Oxford 
 
 University. He wrote "Observations on the Book of 
 Proverbs." Died in 1774. 
 
 Hunt, (Thomas Sterry,) a distinguished American 
 chemist and geologist, born in Norwich, Connecticut, in 
 1826. He studied medicine for some time in his native 
 town, and afterwards became assistant chemist to Pro- 
 fessor Silliman at Yale College. About 1847 he became 
 connected with the geological survey of Canada, and 
 professor of chemistry at Quebec. Besides his contribu- 
 tions to the London " Philosophical Magazine" and the 
 Transactions of the Royal Society, French Academy of 
 Sciences, etc., he has published above seventy papers 
 in the "American Journal of Science." While acting as 
 a juror to the International Exhibition at Paris in 1855, 
 Mr. Hunt had conferred on him the cross of the legion 
 of honour by Napoleon III. ; and in 1859 he was elected 
 an honorary member of the Royal Society of London. 
 
 Hunt, (Thornton,) an English journalist, the eldest 
 son of Leigh Hunt, was born in 1810. He wrote, besides 
 other works, "The Foster-Brother," a romance, (1845.) 
 
 Hunt, (William Henry,) an English painter in water- 
 colours, born in London in 1790. His subjects are simple 
 and homely, such as a "Peasant Boy" in various moods 
 and phases, a " Farm-House Beauty," flowers, fruits, 
 and other objects of still life. His works are admirable 
 for colouring and perfection of finish. "I have seen," 
 says Ruskin, "frequent instances of very grand ideality 
 in treatment of the most commonplace still life by our 
 own Hunt." ("Modern Painters.") Died in 1864. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for October, 1865. 
 
 Hunt, (William Holman,) an eminent historical 
 painter, one of the chief founders of the pre-Raphaelite 
 school of England, was born in London about 1827. He 
 began to exhibit at the Royal Academy in 1846. About 
 1850 he and several other artists assumed the name of 
 " Pre-Raphaelite Brethren," proposing to restore the art 
 of painting from the degenerate style of Raphael and his 
 coevals. His works are very minutely finished, and are 
 close imitations of nature. Among his master-pieces are 
 "Our English Coasts," (1853,) "The Awakening Con- 
 science," (1854,) and "The Light of the World," (1854,) a 
 symbolic figure of the Saviour. " Hunt's 'Light of the 
 World,' " says Ruskin, " is, I believe, the most perfect 
 instance of expressional purpose with technical power 
 which the world has yet produced." (" Modern Painters.") 
 
 Hunt, (William Morris,) an American artist, born 
 at Brattleborough, Vermont, about 1825, studied at Dus- 
 seldorf and in Paris. His works are chiefly portraits 
 and genre pictures. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Hunt'er, (Alexander,) F.R.S., a Scottish physician, 
 born in Edinburgh in 1729, practised at Beverley and 
 York. He was the principal founder of a lunatic-asylum 
 at York. He wrote, besides professional treatises, 
 "Georgical Essays," (a work on rural economy,) and 
 edited Evelyn's "Sylva." Died in 1809. 
 
 Hunter, (Anne,) wife of the great surgeon John 
 Hunter, and sister of Sir Everard Home, was born in 
 Scotland in 1742. She wrote "My Mother bids me 
 braid my Hair," and other songs, set to music by Haydn. 
 Her poems, published in 1802, were praised by " Black- 
 wood's Magazine." Died in 1821. 
 
 Hunter, (Christopher,) an English physician and 
 antiquary, born in Durham in 1675 ; died in 1757. 
 
 Hunt'er, (David,) an American general, born in 
 Washington, District of Columbia, in 1802, graduated at 
 West Point in 1822. He became a colonel in May, 1861, 
 served in the battle of Bull Run, July 21, was appointed 
 a major-general of volunteers about August, and took 
 command of the army and department of Missouri in 
 November, 1861. About the 1st of April, 1862, he was 
 appointed commander of the army at Port Royal, or 
 Hilton Head. In May ensuing he issued an order that 
 the "persons heretofore held as slaves in South Carolina, 
 Georgia, and Florida are declared forever free." This 
 order was annulled by the President as premature. He 
 defeated General W. E. Jones at Piedmont, Virginia, 
 June c, 1864, after which he attacked Lynchburg (June 
 18) without success. He retreated westward by way 
 of the Kanawha River, and was superseded by General 
 Sheridan in August, 1864. 
 
 «3»i; 9 as s; %hard; gas>; c,h,k., guttural; N, nasal; %,trilUd; ias*/th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HUNTER 
 
 1230 
 
 HUNTINGTON 
 
 Hunter, (Henry,) D.D., a Scottish divine and author, 
 born at Culross in 1741, was a man of superior talents. 
 From 1771 until his death he was pastor of a Scottish 
 church in London. lie was the author of a popular work 
 styled "Sacred Biography," (1783-1802,) and translated 
 Lavater's "Essays on Physiognomy," Saint-Pierre's 
 " Studies of Nature," and other French works. His 
 translation of Lavater, finely illustrated, sold for forty 
 guineas a copy. Died in 1802. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hunter, (Humphrey,) a patriot of the American 
 Revolution, born in Ireland in 1755. About 1760 his 
 widowed mother emigrated with her family to Mecklen- 
 burg, North Carolina. He entered the Revolutionary 
 army in 1776, and rendered distinguished service at 
 the battle of Kutaw Springs. He was ordained in 1789, 
 and from 1805 till his death, in 1827, was pastor of the 
 Presbyterian church at Steele Creek, North Carolina. 
 
 Hunter, (John,) an eminent British anatomist and 
 surgeon, born at Long Calderwood, near Glasgow, in 
 1728, was the youngest of ten children. After receiving 
 a very defective education, he worked a few years with a 
 cabinet-maker in Glasgow. In 1748 he went to London, 
 where he was employed by his brother William as an 
 assistant in the dissection-room. Having pursued the 
 study of anatomy with ardour and remarkable success, 
 he was received in 1754 as a partner in his brother's 
 school, and lectured regularly for about five years. In 
 1760, for the sake of his health, he exchanged this em- 
 ployment for that of army-surgeon, and at the peace 
 of 1763 returned to London. In 1767 he was elected a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, and soon after surgeon of 
 Saint George's Hospital. He was eminent for surgical 
 skill, and acquired greater celebrity by his researches 
 in comparative anatomy, physiology, and natural history, 
 on which he wrote several treatises. His museum is said 
 to have cost £-jo,ooo. Died in 1793. He is admitted 
 to be the greatest British anatomist of the eighteenth 
 century, and was noted for originality, independence, 
 and estimable moral qualities. Among his best works 
 are a "Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, and Gun- 
 Shot Wounds," and another on " Certain Parts of the 
 Animal Economy." 
 
 See Everard Home, "Life of John Hunter;" Jesse Foote, 
 "Life of J. Hunter," 1794; Joseph Adams, " Memoirs of ihe Life 
 and Doctrines of J. Hunter," 1816; Chambers, "Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gen<£- 
 rale." 
 
 Hunter, (John.) a British naval officer, born at Leith 
 in 1738, obtained the rank of vice-admiral. Died in 1821. 
 
 Hunter, (John,) a Scottish critic, born at Closeburn 
 in 1747, was for many years professor of humanity in 
 Saint Andrew's, and published good editions of Horace, 
 (1797,) Virgil, (1800,) and Juvenal, (1806.) Died in 1837. 
 
 Hunter, (Rev. Joseph,) an English antiquary, born 
 at Sheffield in 1783. He was for many years minister 
 of a congregation of dissenters at Bath. He published 
 several valuable works, among which are a '"History 
 and Topography of the Deanery of Doncaster," (2 vols., 
 1828,) and "Illustrations of the Life and Studies of 
 Shakspeare," (2 vols., 1845.) He was assistant keeper 
 of the public records. Died in 1861. 
 
 Hunter, (Robert,) an English officer and writer, was 
 appointed Governor of New York in 1710, and acted as 
 Governor of Jamaica from 1728 until his death. He 
 wrote a "Letter on Enthusiasm," ascribed to Swift and 
 Shaftesbury. Died in 1734. 
 
 Hunter, (Robert Mercer Taliaferro,) an Ameri- 
 can statesman, born in Essex county, Virginia, April 21, 
 1809. He graduated at the University of Virginia, 
 studied law, and commenced its practice in his native 
 town in 1830. He voted for Jackson in 1832, and was 
 elected to the legislature of Virginia in 1833. He was 
 chosen a representative to Congress in 1837. His first 
 speech in this body was in favour of the independent 
 treasury and against a national bank. He also took 
 strong grounds in opposition to the protective policy of 
 Mr. Clay, and in all his subsequent career was an able 
 advocate of free trade. In 1839 he was chosen Speaker of 
 the House, and for his dignified and impartial discharge 
 of its duties received, at the close of the term, in 1841, 
 a unanimous vote of thanks. He favoured the election 
 
 of James K. Polk, and supported his policy with regard 
 to Texas and the tariff. The warehousing system, which 
 was first incorporated in the tariff bill, was originated 
 and drawn up by Mr. Hunter. He was elected in 1847 
 to the United States Senate, in which he served through 
 two full terms, and was elected for a third term ending 
 in 1865. He supported the Douglas Kansas- Nebraska 
 bill in 1854, and the admission of Kansas under the 
 Lecompton Constitution in 1858. He was secretary of 
 state of the Southern Confederacy from July, 1861, to 
 February, 1862, and was one of the two Senators who 
 represented Virginia in the Senate at Richmond from 
 February, 1862, to 1865. 
 
 Hunter, (William,) a distinguished anatomist and 
 physician, born at Long Calderwood, near Glasgow, in 
 1 7 18, was a brother of John Hunter, noticed above. He 
 received a liberal education in the University of Glasgow, 
 and formed a professional connection with Dr. Cullen, 
 who afterwards became so eminent as a medical writer. 
 In 1741 he removed to London, where he acquired a 
 high reputation as a lecturer on anatomy and a medical 
 practitioner. He formed a partnership with his brother 
 John in 1748. Having obtained a large and lucrative 
 practice, he was appointed in 1764 physician-extraordi' 
 nary to the queen. In 1767 he was chosen a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society, to whose " Transactions" he contrib- 
 uted. About 1770 he founded in London an anatomical 
 museum, to which were attached a classical library, and 
 a cabinet of rare medals, which cost ,£20,000. The 
 most important of his publications is the "Anatomy of 
 the Gravid Uterus," (1774.) He died in 1783. 
 
 See S. F. Simmons, " Life and Writings of William Hunter,'' 
 1783; "Lives of British Physicians," London, 1S57 ; Chambers, 
 "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Hunter, (William,) a British surgeon, born at Mont- 
 rose, was employed in the service of the East India 
 Company in Bengal. He published an " Account of 
 Pegu," (1785,) " Caverns near Bombay," a " Hindostanee 
 Dictionary," and several medical treatises. He was 
 eminent as an Orientalist, and from 179410 1808 was 
 secretary of the Asiatic Society. Died in 1815. 
 
 Hunt'ing-don, (Selina,) Countess of, an English 
 lady, eminent for her piety and munificence, was the 
 daughter of the Earl of Ferrers. Her maiden name was 
 SHIRLEY. She was born in 1707, and in 172S was married 
 to Theophilus Hastings, Earl of Huntingdon. After her 
 husband's death, about 1746, she lived in fellowship 
 with the Calvinistic Methodists, chose Whitefield for her 
 chaplain, and was noted for her zeal and devotion. 
 She founded at Trevecca a seminary for preachers, built 
 chapels, and spent large sums for religious purposes. 
 Her sect was known as the "Countess of Huntingdon's 
 Connection." Died in 1791. 
 
 See " Life and Times of Selina, Countess of Huntingdon," 1839; 
 "The Women of Methodism," by Abel Stevens. 
 
 Hunt'ing-ford, (George Isaac,) D.D., an English 
 theologian, born at Winchester in 1748. He was made 
 Bishop of Gloucester in 1802, and of Hereford in 1815, 
 He published several Greek and Latin school-books, 
 " Thoughts on the Trinity," and sermons. Died in 1832. 
 
 Hunt'ing-ton, (Daniel,) a distinguished American 
 painter, born in New York in 1816. He became about 
 1835 a pupil of Professor Morse at New York, and in 
 1839 visited Florence and Rome, where he painted his 
 " Sibyl" and "Shepherd Boy of the Campagna." Having 
 returned to New York, he painted numerous portraits 
 and historical subjects. He was elected president of the 
 National Academy of Design in 1862. Among his works 
 are "Lady Jane Grey and Feckenham in the Tower," 
 and "Henry VIII. and Catherine Parr." 
 
 See Tuckehman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Huntington, (Frederick D.,) D.D., an American 
 divine and author, born in Hadley, Massachusetts, in 
 1819. He graduated at Amherst in 1839, studied divinity 
 at Cambridge, and from 1842 to 1855 was minister of the 
 South Congregational Church in Boston. He became 
 preacher and professor of Christian morals in Harvard 
 University. Although formerly a Unitarian, he has re- 
 cently embraced the faith of the Episcopal Church. He 
 became Bishop of Central New York in April, 1869. He 
 published " Set 1110ns for the People," (6th edition, i860.) 
 
 M, 
 
 , 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ti, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nit; good ; moot 
 
HUNTINGTON 
 
 1231 
 
 HUSK IS SON 
 
 Huntington, (Jedkdiah Vincent,) an author, a 
 brother of Daniel, noticed above, was born in New York 
 ill 1S15. He became an Episcopalian priest about 1840, 
 and afterwards joined the Roman Catholic Church, lie 
 WOte, besides other works, a volume of Poems, (1843,) 
 and "Lady Alice, or the New Una," a novel, (1849.) 
 
 Huntington, (ROBERT,) D.D., an English Orientalist, 
 bom at Deerhurst in 1636. From 1670 to 1680 he was 
 chaplain to a factory at Aleppo, and collected many valu- 
 able manuscripts in the Levant. lie was chosen bishop 
 of Raphoe in 1701, and died in the same year. He wrote 
 a "Letter on the Porphyry Pillars in Egypt," (published 
 in the "Philosophical Transactions," No, 161.) 
 
 Huntington, (Samuel,) president of the American 
 Congress, was born in Windham, Connecticut, in 1732. 
 He distinguished himself in the Colonial Council of 
 1775 by his opposition to the aggressive policy of Great 
 Britain', and in 1776 took his seat in Congress and signed 
 the Declaration of Independence. In 1779 he succeeded 
 John Jay as president of the Congress of the Confedera- 
 tion, and was again chosen to the same office in 17S0. 
 He again served in Congress in 17S3, and was shortly 
 after appointed chief justice of Connecticut. In 1786 he 
 was elected Governor of the State, as the successor of 
 Roger Griswold. and was annually re-elected to the same 
 office till his death, in 1796. 
 
 See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence." 
 
 Huntington, (William,) an English Methodist 
 preacher, born in Kent in 1744, was originally a poor 
 labourer. He became a popular preacher among the 
 Calvinistic Methodists in London, and published many 
 tracts and controversial works. Died in 1813. 
 
 See notice in the "Quarterly Review" for January, iSai, (by 
 
 SOL'THKY.) 
 
 Hun'tpn, (Philip,) an English nonconformist divine, 
 born in Hampshire, was appointed provost of Durham 
 College in 1657. He wrote a "Treatise on Monarchy," 
 (1644,) which gave great offence to the High-Church 
 partv. Died about 1682. 
 
 Hunts'nian, (Benjamin,) an English artisan, born in 
 Lincolnshire 'in 1704, is said to have been the inventor 
 of cast steel. He lived in Sheffield. Died in 1776. 
 
 See Smh.es, "Industrial Biography." 
 
 Hunyades. See Huniades. 
 
 Hunyady. See Huniades. 
 
 Huot, Au'o', (Juan Jacques Nicolas,) a French 
 naturalist, born in "Paris in 1790, published a "Complete 
 Manual of Mineralogy," (2 vols., 1841,) and revised and 
 continued the "System of Universal Geography," which 
 Mahe-Brun left unfinished. The last two volumes of 
 this were written by M. Huot. Died in 1845. 
 
 See "Vie de J. J. N. Huot," by his son, Paul Huot, 1846. 
 
 Hupfeld, hoop'felt, (Hermann,) a German theolo- 
 gian and Orientalist, born at Marburg in 1796, became 
 professor of theology at Halle in 1843. He published, 
 besides other works, "De Vera Festorum apud Hebrseos 
 Ratione," (2 vols., 1852,) and a version of the Psalms, 
 (1855.) He was an excellent Hebrew scholar. Died at 
 Halle in April, 1866. 
 
 Huppazoli, oop-pad-zo'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian, 
 noted for longevity, born at Casal in 1587, was at one 
 time a merchant, and in 1669 was appointed Venetian 
 1, at Smyrna; He was abstemious in his habits, 
 and retained the use of his faculties to the last. Died 
 in 1702. 
 
 Hurault. See Chivfrny. 
 
 Kurd, (Richard,) D.D., an eminent English writer 
 and eritic, born at Congreve in 1720, was educated at 
 Cambridge, and became a friend of Warburton. He was 
 appointed Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1775, and 
 translated to the see of Worcester in 1781. The arch- 
 bishopric of Canterbury was offered to him, but was 
 declined. Among his works, which .are very numerous 
 and able, are "Dialogues, Moral and Political," " Letters 
 on Cbivaliv.'' (1762,) "Commentary on Horace's Ars 
 Poetica," "Lectures on the Prophecies," and a "Life of 
 Warburton," (1704.) "Hnrd has perhaps," says Hal- 
 lam, "the merit of being the first who, in this country, 
 aimed at philosophical criticism : he had great ingenuity, 
 a good deal of reading, and a facility in applying it ; but 
 
 he did not feel very deeply, was somewhat of a coxcomb, 
 and assumes a dogmatic arrogance which offends the 
 reader." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 Died in 1808. 
 
 See Francis Kii.verT, "Memoirs of Bishop Hurd," i860; "Life 
 of R. Hurd," by himself, in an edition of his Works, 8 vols., 1811 ; 
 " North British Review" for May, 1861. 
 
 Hur'dis, (Rev. James,) an English poet, born in 
 Sussex in 1763, was a friend of the poet Cowper. In 
 1784 he. became tutor to the Earl of Chichester's son, 
 and in 1793 professor of poetry at Oxford. He wrote 
 "The Village Curate," (1788,) "Sir Thomas More," a 
 tragedy, and other poems. Died in 1801. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. i.. 1820. 
 
 Hure, /ni'na', (Charles,) a French Jansenist writer, 
 born at Champigny-sur-Yonne in 1639, was for many 
 years an eminent professor of languages in the Univer- 
 sity of Paris. He published an approved " Dictionary 
 of the Bible." Died in 1717. 
 
 Huret, /ni'i,y, (Gr£goire,) a French engraver, born 
 at Lyons in 1610. His work is easy and mellow, and 
 his heads expressive. Died in 1670. 
 
 Hurl'but, (Stephen A.,) an American general, born 
 at Charleston, South Carolina, about 1815, commanded 
 a division of General Grant's army at Shiloh, April 6-7, 
 1862. With the rank of major-general, he directed a 
 corps of General Sherman's army in the raid to Meridian 
 in February, 1864. 
 
 Hurl'stpne.lFREDERiCK Yeates,) an English painter 
 of history and portraits, was born in London in 1801. 
 Soon after 1830 he joined the Society of British Artists, 
 of which he became president. Among his works are 
 "The Spanish Beauty" and "The Last Sigh of the Moor." 
 His portraits are much admired. Died in 1869. 
 
 Hurtado de Mendoza. See Mendoza. 
 
 Hurtault, ^iiR'to', (Maximii.ien Joseph,) a French 
 architect, born at Huningue in 1765. He was appointed 
 architect of the Fontainebleau Palace, in which he re- 
 stored the gallery of Diana. Died in 1824. 
 
 Hurter, hdwter, (Friedrich Emanuel,) a German 
 historian, born at Schaffhausen in 1786, published a 
 "History of Pope Innocent III.," (4 vols., 1834-42,) 
 and a "History of the Emperor Ferdinand II. and his 
 Family," (Elte'rn,) (9 vols., 1850-57.) 
 
 Hus'bands, (Herman,) a native of Pennsylvania, 
 became a leader of the " Regulators" in North Carolina 
 in 1768, and fought against Governor Tryon in 1771. 
 Died about 1794. 
 
 Huschke, hdosh'keh, (Emanuel Gottlieb,) a Ger- 
 man philologist, born in 1 761, published a good edition 
 of Til Jul his, (1819,) and other works. Died in 1828. 
 
 Huschke, (Gi.org Phii.ipp Eduard,) a German 
 jurist, born at Miinden in 1801, published "Studies on 
 Roman Law," (1830,) and other works. 
 
 Hus'kls-son, (William,) an English statesman and 
 financier, born in Worcestershire in 1770, went to Paris 
 in 1783, where he lived with one of his uncles and learned 
 the French language. Sympathizing with the Revolution, 
 he was present at the storming of the Bastille, and he 
 became a prominent member of the " Societe de 1789." 
 In 1790 he was employed as secretary to Lord Gower, 
 then ambassador at Paris, with whom he returned 
 to England in 1792. Having attracted the favourable 
 notice of Pitt, he was appointed in 1795 under-sccre- 
 tary in the department of war and the colonies, and the 
 next year was returned to Parliament for Morpeth. He 
 was secretary of the treasury from 1804 until the death 
 of Pitt, and again from 1807 until 1809, when, as a 
 friend of Canning, he resigned with him. In Parliament 
 he represented successively Harwich, Chichester, (1812- 
 23,) and Liverpool, (1823-30.) He gained distinction 
 bv his knowledge of finance and commerce, and by his 
 methodical and luminous reports. In 1823, under the 
 auspices of Canning, he became president of the board 
 of trade, treasurer of the navy, and a member of the 
 cabinet. From the death of Canning (1827) to 1829 he 
 acted as colonial secretary. In the latter part of his life 
 he inclined to the policy of the Liberal party in respect 
 to electoral reform, the corn-laws, and other restriction* 
 on commerce. He resigned in May, 1S20, because he 
 differed from the Tory ministry. At the opening of the 
 
 «as4. C3S s;%hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as*/ th as in this. (Jry-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HUSS 
 
 1232 
 
 HUTCHINSON 
 
 Liverpool and Manchester Railway he was killed by an 
 engine, September 15, 1830. 
 
 See " Speeches and Biography," by Wright, 3 vols., 1831 ; Wm. 
 Jeruan, "Men I have knowli," London, 1866; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Ge^nerale." 
 
 Huss, (John,) [Ger. Johann Huss, yo'han hdoss ; Lat. 
 Johan'nes Huss,] a celebrated reformer of the Church, 
 was born at Husinec, (or Hussinetz,) in Southern Bohe- 
 mia, in 1373. Being appointed in 1402 preacher at the 
 Bethlehem Chapel in Prague, he became a zealous advo- 
 cate of the doctrines of Wickliffe, whereby he incurred 
 the censure of the Catholic clergy. As rector of the Uni- 
 versity of Prague, he had the works of Wickliffe trans- 
 lated into Bohemian ; but they were soon after burned by 
 order of Archbishop Sbinko. In 1412 he denounced the 
 papal bull issued by John XXII [. against Ladislaus, 
 King of Naples, and with his coadjutor, Jerome of Prague, 
 condemned the sale of indulgences. He was excommu- 
 nicated the next year, upon which he wrote his work " On 
 the Church," exposing the abuses of popery. Cited 
 before the Council of Constance in 1414, and provided 
 with a pass by the emperor Sigismund, he was arrested 
 on his arrival, and, as he adhered firmly to his opinions, 
 he was burned by order of the treacherous emperor. 
 
 See Gmile de Bonnechose, " Les ReTormateurs avant la R6- 
 fonne," 2 vols., 1S47: "J. Huss et Hieronymi Prageusis Historia et 
 Moiunnenta," Nuremberg, 1558; J. CocHLEE, "Historia Hussi- 
 tarum," 1549; Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 
 1867; August Neander, "Ziige aus dem Leben des unvergesshchen 
 J. Huss," Berlin, 1819; Wm. Gilpin, " Lives of John Wickliffe and 
 of the Most Eminent of his Disciples, Lord Cobham, J. Huss," etc., 
 1765; Georg Lommel, " J. Huss," 1847; Helfert, " Huss und 
 Hieronyinus von Frag," 1853 ; " North American Review" for Octo- 
 ber, 1847, (by H. W. Torrey.) 
 
 Hussein Pasha, hoos'sin' pa'sha', a famous Turkish 
 admiral, born about 1750, was a favourite of Selim III., 
 who in 1789 appointed him capudan-pasha. He pos- 
 sessed superior talents, and served his master with fi- 
 delity in reforming the discipline, and management of 
 the navy. He commanded the fleet which in 1801 co- 
 operated with the English against the French on the 
 coast of Egypt. Died in 1803. 
 
 Hussein Pasha, (or Pacha,) last Dey of Algiers, 
 born at Smyrna about 1773. At the death of Ali Pasha, 
 in 1818, he was proclaimed his successor. To avenge 
 an insult received by the French consul, the French 
 government sent in June, 1830, an army which, after 
 several days' fighting, forced Hussein to capitulate. He 
 was deposed, and died in 1838. 
 
 See A. Nettement, " Histoire de la ConquSte d' Alger," 1857. 
 
 Htts'sey, (Giles,) an English painter, born in 1710, 
 studied in Italy, and settled in London in 1742. _ He 
 excelled in portraits, and attempted to apply to his art 
 the hypothesis of harmonic proportions. Died in 1788. 
 
 Husson, //u'son', (Jean Honore Aristide,) a skil- 
 ful French sculptor, born in Paris in 1803. He gained 
 the grand prize of Rome in 1830. Among his works 
 are "~ Dante and Virgil," a bas relief, (1836,) a statue of 
 Voltaire, (1839,) and a marble statue of " Haidee," (1850.) 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Hu'ston, (Lorenzo Dow,) a Methodist minister, born 
 in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1820, preached in Kentucky, and 
 edited several papers. 
 
 Hutch'e-son, [Lat. Hutcheso'nus,] (Francis,) a 
 metaphysician, born in the north of Ireland in 1694, was 
 educated at Glasgow, and was ordained as a Presbyterian 
 minister. While employed as principal of an academy 
 in Dublin, he published about 1725 an excellent work, 
 entitled" an " Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of 
 Beauty and Virtue," which was followed by an "Essay 
 on the Passions and Affections," (1728.) In 1729 he was 
 appointed professor of moral philosophy in the Uni- 
 versity of Glasgow. Died in 1747. His greatest work, "A 
 System of Moral Philosophy," was published in 1755. 
 Sir J. Mackintosh thinks Hutcheson "was the father 
 of the modern school of philosophy in Scotland." He 
 adopted the opinions of Lord Shaftesbury in moral philos- 
 ophy, and maintained that disinterested affections and a 
 distinct moral faculty are essential parts of human nature. 
 
 See William I.eechman, "Life of F. Hutcheson," prefixed to 
 his " System of Moral Philosophy," 1755; " Kiographia Britannica^" 
 (Supplement;) Sir J. Mackintosh, ''Preliminary Dissertation" in 
 the "Encyclopedia Britannica ;" Jacob Baart de la Faille, 
 " Di3sertatio de Vita et Scriptis F. Huichesoni," 1812. 
 
 Hutchesonus. See Hutcheson*. 
 
 Hutch'ins, ( Rev. John,) born at Bradford-Peverel, in 
 England, in 1698, wrote the " History and Antiquities 
 of the County of Dorset." Died in 1773. 
 
 Hutch'ins, (Thomas,) an American geographer, born 
 in Monmouth county, New Jersey, about 1735. He was 
 appointed geographer to the United States by Congress, 
 and published, besides other works, a "Topographical 
 Description of Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and 
 North Carolina," (1778.) Died in 1789. 
 
 Hutch'in-son, (Ann,) a religious enthusiast, born in 
 Lincolnshire, England, about 1600. She was the wife of 
 William Hutchinson, whom she accompanied to Boston 
 in 1636. She taught many doctrines which were con- 
 demned as heretical by the Synod of 1637. Mrs. Hutchin- 
 son herself was banished, and in 1642 removed to what 
 is now Westchester county, New York. The next year 
 her house was set on fire by the Indians, and she and all 
 her family, consisting of sixteen persons, (except a child 
 taken captive,) either perished in the flames or were 
 killed by the savages. 
 
 See " Life of Anne Hutchinson," by George E. Ellis, in 
 Sparks's "American Biographv," vol. vi., 2d series; Hildreth's 
 " History of the United States," vol. i. chap. ix. 
 
 Hutchinson, (John,) Colonel, an English Puritan 
 and regicide, born at Nottingham in 1616. In 1638 he 
 married Lucy Apsley. (See Hutchinson, Lucy.) In 1642 
 he obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the army 
 of Parliament, and next year was appointed governor 
 of the town and castle of Nottingham, which he bravely 
 defended in along siege against the royalists. He was one 
 of the judges who condemned Charles I., and afterwards 
 was a member of the council of state. He was hostile 
 to the government of Cromwell. After the restoration 
 he was included in the act of amnesty, but, on aground- 
 less suspicion of a treasonable conspiracy, was confined 
 in the Tower and Sandown Castle from 1662 to his death 
 in 1664. His character was excellent, and free from the 
 austere errors to which the Puritans were most inclined. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson," by his wife, 1806. 
 
 Hutchinson, (John,) an English writer, born at 
 Spennithorne in 1674, was the founder of the Hutchin- 
 sonian or mystical school of biblical interpretation. He 
 was employed as steward by the Duke of Somerset, and 
 afterwards as his riding-purveyor. His first work, called 
 "Moses' Principia," was designed to refute the argu- 
 ments of Newton's "Principia." He published, also, a 
 "Treatise on Power, Essential and Mechanical," "Glory 
 or Gravity, Essential and Mechanical," "The Hebrew 
 Writings Complete," " Moses sine Principio," and other 
 works. His leading idea is that the Hebrew Scriptures 
 contain the elements of natural philosophy as well as 
 of religion. His views excited much controversy, and 
 were adopted by Bishop Home, Parkhurst, and other 
 eminent divines. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Julius Bates, "Defence of John Hutchinson's Tenets," 
 1751 ; Floyd, " Bibliotheca Biographica." 
 
 Hutchinson, (John Hei.y,) an Irish statesman and 
 lawyer, born in 1715, resided in Dublin, and became 
 secretary of state. Died in 1794. 
 
 Hutchinson, (John Hely,) a British general, born 
 in 1757, was the second son of the preceding. He 
 entered the army in 1774. Having gained distinction in 
 the Irish rebellion, he was made major-general in 1796. 
 In 1800 he went to Egypt as second in command under 
 Sir Ralph Abercroinbie. When the latter was killed, in 
 March, 1801, Hutchinson succeeded to the command, 
 and obliged the French army under Menou to capitulate 
 at Alexandria in the same year. He was rewarded for 
 these services by the title of Baron Hutchinson. In 
 1825, on the death of his brother, he inherited the title 
 of Earl of Donoughmore. Died in 1832. 
 
 Hutchinson, (Lucy,) an English authoress of great 
 merit, was the daughter of Sir Allan Apsley, lieutenant 
 of the Tower of London, in which Tower she was born 
 in 1620. She was married in 1638 to Colonel John 
 Hutchinson, noticed above, after having received a liberal 
 education. She shared the counsels and dangers of her 
 husband in the civil war, attended him in prison, and 
 wrote Memoirs of his life, (1806,) which are greatly 
 admired. " We have not often met with anything," says 
 
 i, e, 1, 5, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 0. J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
HUTCHINSON 
 
 1233 
 
 HUXLET 
 
 Lord Jeffrey, "more interesting and curious than this 
 rolume. ..." It challenges our attention as containing an 
 accurate and luminous account of military and political 
 affairs from the hand of a woman, and as exhibiting the 
 most liberal and enlightened sentiments in the person 
 of a Puritan. The views which it opens into the char- 
 acter of the writer and the manners of the age will be to 
 many a still more powerful attraction." 
 
 Sec " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by Louisa S. Cos- 
 thllo, London, 1844: "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1808, 
 (vol. xiii. :) " Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot, London, 1S65. 
 
 Hutchinson, (Richard Hely,) Earl of Donough- 
 inore, born in Dublin in 1756, was the eldest son of John 
 H. Hutchinson, noticed above. He served in the army 
 during the Irish rebellion of 1798, and in 1800 was raised 
 to the peerage, as Earl of Donoughmore. In 1805 he 
 obtained the rank of major-general. In Parliament he 
 advocated with zeal and constancy the claims of the 
 Catholics. He was created a peer of the United King- 
 dom in 1821. Died in 1825. 
 
 Hutchinson, (Roger,) an early English Reformer, 
 became Fellow of Saint John's College, Cambridge, in 
 1543. He left theological works, which were published 
 in 1842. Died in 1555. 
 
 Hutchinson, (Thomas,) a royal governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, was born in Boston in 1711. He became a 
 judge of probate in 1752, and chief justice of Massachu- 
 setts in 1760. His course in relation to the Stamp Act 
 rendered him very unpopular. He succeeded Bernard 
 as governor in 1769, and pursued a policy which tended 
 to provoke a revolt in the colonies. When the tea was 
 brought to Boston in 1773, the inhabitants, in town- 
 meeting, resolved that it should not be landed, but be 
 returned to its owners. Hutchinson, however, refused to 
 grant the ships a pass. The result was the destruction 
 of the tea by citizens in the disguise of Indians. In 1772, 
 Dr. Franklin, colonial agent in London, had sent over 
 to Massachusetts confidential letters written by Hut- 
 chinson to England, which showed that his whole policy 
 had been characterized by duplicity and evasion, — that, 
 professing to be the friend of the colony, he had secretly 
 advised the sending of troops to Boston, and other 
 obnoxious measures. He retired to England in 1774. 
 Died near London in 1780. His principal works are a 
 " History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay from 
 1628 to 1749," (2 vols. 8vo, issued in 1764-67,) and a 
 "Collection of Original Papers relative to the History 
 of Massachusetts Bay," (1769.) The "North American 
 Review" calls his work "a mine of wealth to all future 
 historians and antiquaries." "It is written," savs Ban- 
 croft, "with lively inquisitiveness and lawyer-like, criti- 
 cism, though without a glimpse of the great truths which 
 were the mighty causes of the revolution he describes." 
 See Allen's " American Biographical Dictionary." 
 Huth, hoot, (Georg Leonhard,) a German natu- 
 ralist, born at Nuremberg in 1705; died in 1761. 
 
 Hutin, /;'ii'taN', (Charles,) a French painter and 
 sculptor, born in Paris in 1715, worked mostly at Dres- 
 den, where he died in 1776. 
 
 Hutten, von, fon hoot'ten, [Lat. Huttf/nits,] (Ul- 
 rich,) a German poet, and one of the earliest Protestant 
 Reformers, born near Fulda in 1488. He studied at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and afterwards at Pavia, in Italy. 
 Alxjut 1520 he repaired to Mentz, where he published a 
 succession of severe attacks on the Roman clergy, and 
 soon after became acquainted with Luther, whose cause 
 he openly espouse* Owing to the persecution he now 
 encountered, he wasobliged totake refuge in Switzerland, 
 where he died in 1523. He possessed rare talents, but 
 lacked discretion. Among his works are " Epistolae Ob- 
 scuroruni Virorum," satires on certain pedants, (1516.) 
 
 SeeScHURART, " Leben Ulrich von Hntten's," 1701: BuRCKHARD, 
 " Commentarins de Fatis et Meritis Ulrici Hiitieni.' >?«£"Jli 
 Strauss. " Ulrich von Hntten," 185H; Bayi.k, " Historical andLnti; 
 cal Dictionarv;" Wacrnskil, "U. von Hutten nach seinem l.eben, 
 etc, 182:1: Zri.i.rr. "U.de Hutten, sa Vie, ses CEuvres. son Temps. 
 Paris, 1840; Grrvinus. "Genchichte der Deutsche!! National- Lile- 
 ralur;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" " Frawr • Magazine 
 for August, 1849. 
 Huttenus. See HuriEN. 
 
 Hutter, hdot'ter, (Eu as,) a German linguist, born at 
 Ulm about 1555. He published an edition of the Bible 
 in Hebrew, and a Polyglot Bible. Died about 1602. 
 
 Hutter, [Lat. Hutte'rus,] (Leonhard,) a German 
 theologian, a brother of the preceding, was bom at Ulm 
 in 1563. He was noted for his rigour and excessive zeal 
 for Lutheranism. He was professor of theology at Wit- 
 tenberg from 1 596 until 1616. Among his numerous works 
 is a " Compendium of Theological Subjects," (" Compen- 
 dium Locorum theologicorum," 1610.) Died in 1616. 
 
 See Bavle, " Hisiorical and Critical Dictionary ;" J. G. Neu- 
 mann, " Programma de Vita L. Hutteri," 1706. 
 
 Hutterus. See Hutter. 
 
 Hut'ton, (Charles,) LL.D., an eminent English 
 mathematician, born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1737, 
 was employed for some years as a teacher in his native 
 place. Here he published treatises on arithmetic and 
 mensuration. From 1773 to '8°6 he was professor of 
 mathematics in the Military Academy at Woolwich. In 
 1774 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, which 
 he also served as foreign secretary and enriched with 
 able scientific memoirs. He acquired celebrity by nu- 
 merous works, among which are " Mathematical fables," 
 (1785,) " Elements of Conic Sections," a "Mathematical 
 and Philosophical Dictionary," (1795,) a "Course of 
 Mathematics," (1798,) etc. From 1804 to 1809 he assisted 
 Shaw and Pearson in abridging the " Philosophical Trans- 
 actions." He was eminent for benevolence, modesty, 
 and simplicity of character. In 1807 his services were 
 rewarded by a pension of ,£500. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyclopaedic ;" "Gen- 
 tleman's Magazine" for 1823. 
 
 Hut'tpn, (James,) M.D., a philosopher and geologist, 
 distinguished as the author of the Plutonian theory of 
 geology, was born in Edinburgh in 1726. He gradu- 
 ated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749. About 1768 he became 
 again a resident of Edinburgh, where he published, be- 
 sides other works, a " Dissertation on the philosophy 
 of Light, Heat, and Fire," (1794,) and "Theory of the 
 Earth," (1795.) His geological theory excited much 
 discussion and opposition, being attacked byK'rwan and 
 defended by Professor Playfair, who wrote " Illustra- 
 tions of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth," (1802.) 
 Died in 1797. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 "Edinburgh Review," vol. ii. 
 
 Hutton, (Matthew,) an English prelate, born in 
 1529, was made Bishop of Durham in 1589, and Arch- 
 bishop of York in 1594. He wrote a work on Predes- 
 tination. Died in 1605. 
 
 Hutton, (Matthew,) became Archbishop of York 
 in 1747, and was translated to Canterbury in 1757. He 
 published several sermons. Died in 1758. 
 
 Hutton, (William,) an English antiquary and author, 
 born of poor parents at Derby in 1723. He received a 
 defective education. At the age of fifty-six he commenced 
 his career as an author. His chief works are a " History 
 of Birmingham," (1781,) a " History of Derbt," (1790,) 
 "Edgar and Elfrida," a poem, "The Rom™ Wall," 
 (1801,) and an instructive volume of "Autobiography," 
 (1816.) His daughter Catherine wrote " the Miser 
 Married," a novel. He died in 1815. 
 
 See his "Autobiography;" " Pursuit of Knowledge under Diffi- 
 culties," vol. i. 
 
 Huve, /zii'va', (Jean Jacques Marie,) a French 
 architect, born at Versailles in 1783. He succeeded 
 Vignon as architect of the grand church La Madeleine, 
 which he finished. He was admitted into the Institute 
 in 1838. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Charles Lrnormand, " Notice »ur J. J. M. HuW," 183J. 
 
 Hux'ham. (John,) an English physician, born at 
 
 Halberton in 1694, studied under Boerhaave at Leyden, 
 
 and practised with success at Plymouth. He wrote 
 
 several popular books on medicine, one of which is an 
 
 iy on Fevers," (1 750.) Died in 1768. 
 
 Hux'ley, (Thomas Henry,) F.R.S., an eminent 
 English physiologist and naturalist, born .11 Ealing, 
 Middlesex, in 1825. He was in his youth a sin 
 in the royal navy. About 1848 he produced a treatise 
 "On the Anatomy and Affinities of the Family of the 
 MedllM." He succeeded E. Forbes as piofessor of 
 palaeontology In the School of Mines about 1854, and 
 became professor of physiology at the Royal Institution. 
 Among nis principal works is a" History of the Oceanic 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; c, h, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as .; th as in this. (Jfjf-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
HVTDECOPER 
 
 1234 
 
 HYACINTHE 
 
 Hydrozoa," (1857,) "Man's Place in Nature," (1863,) 
 " Lectures on the Elements of Comparative Anatomy," 
 (1864,) and an essay entitled " Protoplasm ; or, The 
 Physical Basis of Life," (1869.) In 1869 he was chosen 
 president of the British Association for 1870. He con- 
 tributed numerous memoirs to the Transactions of the 
 Royal Geological and Zoological Societies. He is a very 
 popular lecturer on natural science, and stands in the fore- 
 most rank among British physiologists and naturalists. 
 In natural science he favours the Darwinian theory. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1863; "London Quarterly 
 Review" for October, i86q. 
 
 Huydecoper, hoi'deh-ko'per, (Balthasar,) a Dutch 
 poet and excellent critic, born at Amsterdam in 1695. 
 He produced " Arsaces," (1722,) and three other trage- 
 dies, a good metrical version of the Satires, Epistles, and 
 "Ars Poetica" of Horace, (1737,) and other poems.' 
 His "Essays, Philological and Poetical, or Observations 
 on Vondel's Dutch Version of Ovid's Metamorphoses," 
 (1730,) are highly commended. "All that he has done 
 in this department," says the " Biographie Universelle," 
 "is classical." Died in 1778. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Van 
 Effen, " Hollandische Spectator," vol. iv. ; Schotel, "Commen- 
 tatio de B. Huydecoperi in Linguam Literasque Belgicas Meritis," 
 Leyden, 1830. 
 
 Huygens or Huyghehs, hl'gens, [Dutch pron. almost 
 hoi'nens ; Lat. Hugk'nius,] (Christian,) a celebrated 
 Dutch astronomer and geometer, born at the Hague, 
 April 14, 1629. He inherited the title of Lord of Zuy- 
 lichem. About the age of sixteen he went to Leyden, 
 where he studied law and mathematics under Vinnius 
 and Schooten. Soon after leaving the university, he 
 began to distinguish himself by his admirable scientific 
 discoveries and mechanical inventions. In 165 1 he pub- 
 lished his "Theorems on the Quadrature of the Hyper- 
 bola," etc., and in 1656 discovered a satellite of Saturn 
 with a telescope of his own construction. In 1657 he 
 rendered important service to science and society by 
 improving the clock, being the first to apply the pendu- 
 lum to the measurement of time. Two years later he 
 published, in his " System of Saturn," a description of 
 Saturn's ring, which he had discovered with a telescope 
 of twenty-two feet focal length. These and other 
 successes had rendered him pre-eminent among the 
 contemporary savants and philosophers of all nations. 
 Newton was then a young student preparing to rival 
 or surpass him. The years 1660 and 1661 were passed 
 by Huygens in France and England. In 1663 he was 
 chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. From 
 1665 to 1681 he resided in Paris, whither Colbert had 
 invited him in order to add klat to the newly-founded 
 Academy of Sciences. In this period he demonstrated 
 the law of the impact of bodies, (1669,) wrote an elegant 
 treatise on Dioptrics, and published his great work 
 entitled " Horologium Oscillatorium," (1673,) dedicated 
 to Louis XIV. Besides the theory of the pendulum, 
 this work contains several very important mechanical 
 discoveries, among which are the fact that the cycloid 
 is the curve all the arcs of which, measured from the 
 lowest point, are synchronous, and the theory (without 
 demonstration) of the centrifugal force in circular mo- 
 tion, by which he made a near approach to those laws 
 of gravitation afterwards proved by Newton. He has 
 the credit of inventing the spiral spring which is used 
 to regulate the balance of watches, which invention was 
 also claimed by Hautefeuille. In 1681 Huygens returned 
 to Holland, where he spent some years in constructing 
 a planetarium, and telescopes of enormous dimensions, 
 one of which had a focal length of two hundred and ten 
 feet. In 1690 appeared (in French) his " Treatise on the 
 Cause of Gravity," and a "Treatise on Light," which is 
 esteemed one of his greatest works. It contains argu- 
 ments in favour of the undulatory theory, which was first 
 proposed by him and is now generally adopted. Died 
 in 1695. He left a work styled " Cosmotheoros," (printed 
 in 169S,) in which he advances bold speculations or con- 
 jectures on the constitution of the planets, which he 
 believed to be inhabited. Huygens was never married. 
 He loved retirement, and maintained a good character 
 as a man. He kept up a friendly correspondence with 
 
 Leibnitz and Newton, the latter of whom called him 
 " Summus Hugenius." 
 
 See "Vita Hugenii," prefixed to his "Opera Vara," 1724; Con- 
 dorcet, " Eloge de Huygens;" Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine 
 Encyklopaedie;" Montocla, " Histoire des Mathematiques:" Dk- 
 uambre, " Histoire de 1'Astronomie moderne;" P. H. Peerlkamp, 
 "Annotatio in Vitam C. Hugenii," 1821; M. Lemans, " Lebens- 
 beschrijving van C. Huijgens;" Dr. F. Hoefkr, article in tile 
 "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Huygens or Huijgens, (Constanttjn,) Seigneur of 
 Zuylichem, (or Zulichem,) born at the Hague in 1596, was 
 the father of the preceding. He acted with credit as 
 secretary to three successive princes of Orange, the last 
 of whom was William III. of England. He wrote Latin 
 epigrams, and other poetical performances, which were 
 received with favour. Died in 1687. 
 
 See his Autobiography, in verse, entitled "De Vita propria Ser- 
 mones;" Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary," tin Z ;) Long- 
 fellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe :" Schinkel, " Bijdrage tot 
 de Kennis van het Karakter van C. Huijgens," 1842; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for May, 1854. 
 
 Huyghens, noi'Hens, (Gomarus,) a Dutch Roman 
 Catholic theologian, born in Brabant in l63l;diedin 1702. 
 
 Huyot, /ni'yo', (Jean Nicolas,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1780. He passed several years in the 
 Levant, exploring the ruins of Ephesus, Thebes, Athens, 
 and other cities. Died in 1840. 
 
 Huysman, hois'man, sometimes written Houseman, 
 (Cornelis,) an eminent Flemish landscape-painter, born 
 at Antwerp in 1648. He worked mostly at Malines, 
 (Mechlin.) His colouring is praised by Descamps, who 
 also observes that he had a great talent for painting 
 mountains. Among his works is " The Disciples Going 
 to Emmaus." Died in 1727. 
 
 See J. C. Wevkrman, "De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders." 
 
 Huysman or Houseman, (Jacob,) a Flemish painter 
 of history and portraits, born at Antwerp in 1656; died 
 in London in 1696. 
 
 Huysum, van, vSn hoi'sum, (Jacob,) brother of Jan, 
 noticed below, was born at Amsterdam about 1680. He 
 excelled in flower-painting, and copied several of his 
 brother's works with accuracy. Died in London in 1740. 
 
 Another brother, Justus, born in 1684, excelled in 
 battle-pieces, but died prematurely in 1706. 
 
 Huysum, van, (Jan,) a celebrated Dutch painter, 
 born in Amsterdam in 1682, was a pupil of his father, 
 Justus. His favourite subjects were flowers and fruits, 
 in which he is thought to be unrivalled. His works unite 
 tasteful composition, richness and harmony of colour, 
 freedom of touch, and exquisite finish. His pictures 
 were often adorned with insects, dew-drops, birds' nests, 
 etc. He had a peculiar art of preparing his colours, 
 which he always kept secret. Died in 1749. 
 
 See Pilkington, " Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Huysum, van, (Justus,) the Old, a Dutch land- 
 scape-painter, born at Amsterdam in 1659, was the father 
 of the preceding. Died in 1716. 
 
 Huzard, //U'zIr', (Jean Baptiste,) a noted French 
 veterinary physician, born in Paris in 1755, was a member 
 of the Institute. He wrote numerous able and popular 
 works on the veterinary art and rural economy, and he 
 had collected a library of forty thousand volumes per- 
 taining to his speciality. Died in 1839. 
 
 See Pariset, " £loge de Huzard;" Baron Silvestre, "Notice 
 sur Huzard." 
 
 Hvergelmir. See Nidhogg. 
 
 Hvitfeld, hvit'feld, (Arild,) a Danish historian, 
 born in 1549. In 1586 he attained thi dignity of senator, 
 and afterwards was chancellor of the kingdom. He wrote 
 a " Chronicle of the Kingdom of Denmark," which is 
 considered authentic. Died in 1609. 
 
 See Kraft og Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon for Daneniark." 
 
 Hwiid, hweed, (Andreas Christian,) a Danish critic, 
 born at Copenhagen in 1749, was educated for the church, 
 and was skilled in Oriental languages. He published a 
 " Life of Cyrus the Great and the Younger," and several 
 commentaries on Scripture. Died in 1788. 
 
 Hyacinthe. See Hyacinthus. 
 
 Hyacinthe, e't's&Nt', (Chaki.es Loyson,) Pere, an 
 eminent French pulpit orator, born at Orleans about 
 1828. He became a Carmelite monk, preached for some 
 time in Lyons, and removed about 1865 to Paris, where 
 his conferences in the church of Notre-Dame attracted 
 
 \. e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; gd"6d; moon; 
 
HTACIKTHUS 
 
 '235 
 
 HTLL US 
 
 much attention. In September, 1869, he published, in 
 a letter to the general of his order, a protest against the 
 ultramontane doctrines and practices of the Roman 
 Church, called forth by the Encyclical letter by which 
 the pope had convened a general council. This protest 
 caused a great commotion in the religious world. " Since 
 Luther," says Mr. Bigelow, " there has been no such 
 signal revolt against the authority of the Romish hier- 
 archy." About October, 1869, he visited the United 
 States. It appears that he has not formally separated 
 from the communion of the Catholic Church. 
 
 See notice of " Father Hyacinthe and his Church," in " Putnam's 
 Monthly Magazine" for January, 1870, (by John Bigelow.) 
 
 Hy-a-cin'thus, [Gr. Twavtfas ; Fr. Hyacinthf, e'if- 
 saNt',] a beautiful Spartan youth, beloved by Apollo, by 
 whom he was accidentally killed in a game of discus. 
 The poets feigned that Apollo changed him into the 
 Sower called Hyacinth. 
 
 Hy'a-deS, [Gr. 'Totfec,] Anglicised as Hy'ads, nymphs 
 of classic mythology, and daughters of Atlas. According 
 to the poetic legend, they were changed into stars, and 
 now form part of the constellation of Taurus. When 
 they rose and set with the sun, it was regarded as a sign 
 of rainy weather. 
 
 Hy'att, (John,) a Calvinistic Methodist preacher, 
 born in 1767, officiated in the Tabernacle, London. He 
 published several volumes of sermons. Died in 1826. 
 
 Hyb're-as, ['TSprac,] an eminent Greek orator, a 
 native of Caria, flourished about 40 B.C. 
 
 Hyde, (Anne,) a daughter of Lord Clarendon, was 
 born in 1637. She was married about 1660 to the Duke 
 of York, afterwards James II. She was the motRer of 
 Queen Mary and Queen Anne. Died in 1671. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by Louisa Stuart 
 Costei.i.o. 
 
 Hyde, (Edward.) See Clarendon, Earl of. 
 
 Hyde, (Henry.) See Clarendon, Earl of. 
 
 Hyde, (Lawrence,) M. P., son of Sir Nicholas Hyde, 
 distinguished himself by his successful efforts in pro- 
 moting the escape of Charles II. after the battle of Wor- 
 cester. The king passed one night in the house of 
 Lawrence Hyde's tenant, and thence was conducted by 
 Hvde to the seashore. Died in 1682. 
 
 Hyde, (Lawrence,) first Earl of Rochester, was the 
 second son of Edward, Earl of Clarendon. He was 
 in ultra Tory, and was the leader of the High-Church 
 party in the reign of Charles II. He became first com- 
 missioner of the treasury in 1679. At the accession 
 of James II., in 1685, he was appointed lord treasurer, 
 (prime minister.) Though extremely subservient to the 
 policy of the king, he was removed from office in Decem- 
 ber, 1686, because he would not turn Roman Catholic. 
 After the flight of James II., Hyde gave his adhesion to 
 William III. Died in 171 1. 
 
 See Macaulav, " History of England," vol. i. chaps, ii. and iv., 
 vol. ii. chaps, vi., ix., and x. 
 
 Hyde, (Sir Nicholas,) an English iudge, born in 
 1572, was the father of Lawrence Hyde, and uncle of the 
 first Earl of Clarendon. He was appointed chief justice 
 of the king's bench in 1626, and presided when Sir John 
 Eliot was unjustly condemned to prison. Died in 1631. 
 
 Hyde, (Thomas,) D.D., a learned English divine, born 
 in Shropshire in 1636, became Archdeacon of Gloucester 
 in 1678, professor of Arabic at Oxford in 1691, and regius 
 professor of Hebrew in 1697. He excelled in Oriental 
 languages, and was interpreter of the same to Charles 
 II., James II., and William III. From 1665 to 1701 he 
 wns principal librarian of the Bodleian Library. He pub- 
 lished a treatise on Chinese weightsand measures, (1688,) 
 and one on "Oriental Games," (1694.) His principal 
 work, a " History of the Religion of the Ancient Per- 
 sians and Magi,' 1 in I-atin, (1700,) displays a vast erudi- 
 tion, and for a long time had a great reputation. "The 
 variety and novelty of its contents," says 1 lallam, " gave 
 this book a credit which in some degree it preserves; 
 but Hyde was ignorant of the ancient language of Persia, 
 and is said to have been often misled by Mohammedan 
 authorities." ("Introduction to the Literature of Eu- 
 rope.") He wrote other works, and compiled dictiona- 
 ries of the Persian and Turkish languages. Died in 1703. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica ;" Wood, " Athena: Oxonienses." 
 
 Hyde de Neuville, hed deh nuh'vel', (Jean Guil- 
 LAUMF.,) a French politician, born in the department of 
 Nievre in 1776. He was an active royalist during the 
 republic and the empire. After the restoration he acted 
 with the ultra rovalists as a deputy in 1815, and was 
 minister to the United States of North America from 1816 
 to 1821. He was minister of the marine in the Mar- 
 tignac cabinet for a short time in 1828. Died in 1857. 
 
 Hyder, the German of Hydra, which see. 
 
 Hyder-Alee or Hyder-Ali, hi'der S'lee, [sometimes 
 written, in French, Hai'der-Ali,] a celebrated Hindio 
 prince, born about 1718, entered the army of the Rajah 
 of Mysore. His military talents procured his promotion 
 to the command of an army, with which he captured Ban- 
 galore and fought against the Mahrattas. About 1759, by 
 a bold and successful coup d'etat, he obtained the chief 
 power in Mysore, leaving his former master the title of 
 rajah and a pension. The English, alarmed by his en- 
 croachments, formed a league with the Mahrattas against 
 him, (1766.) In the war that ensued, Hyder gained such 
 advantages that the English sued for peace and entered 
 into alliance with him, (1769.) In 1771 he was defeated 
 by the piratical Mahrattas, the English having failed 
 to aid him according to the treaty. Having made an 
 alliance with the French and the Mahrattas against the 
 English, he suddenly invaded the Carnatic in 1 780, took 
 several fortresses, defeated some detachments, and rav- 
 aged the country almost to the walls of Madras. In 
 1782 he was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Porto Novo, 
 and died in the same year, leaving his throne to his son. 
 Tippoo Sahib. Hyder was a Mussulman. He is reputed 
 the most able enemy the British have had to contend 
 with in India. 
 
 See Meer Hussein Am Khan Kirmain, " History of Hyder Ali," 
 (translated into English by Colonel W. Miles, 1842;) F. Robson, 
 " Life of Hyder-Ali," 1786; M. Carpani, "Memorie sopra la Vita 
 d'Hvder Ali," 1784; Joseph Michaud, "Histoire du Progres et de 
 la Chute de i'Empirede Mysore," etc., 2 vols., 1801. 
 
 Hy'dra, |Gr. "Xipa; Vr. Hydre, edR; Ger. Hyder, 
 hee'der ; It. Idra, ee'dRa,] a monster which infested the 
 Lernean marsh and was destroyed by Hercules. It was 
 said to have had nine heads. (See Hercules.) 
 
 Hydre. See HYDRA, 
 
 Hy-ge'ia or Hy-gl-ei'a, [Gr. 'Tyteia ; Fr. Hygie, 
 e'zhe', or Hyg£e, e'zhi',] written also Hygea or Hygia, 
 the goddess of health, in Greek mythology, said to be the 
 daughter of Asclepias. She was represented as holding 
 a cup in one hand, and in the other a serpent, drinking 
 from the cup. 
 
 Hygie or Hygee. See Hygeia. 
 
 Hy-gl'nus |Fr. Hygin, e'zhjN'] became Bishop of 
 Rome in 138 a. p., and died in 142. He is supposed to 
 have been a Greek. 
 
 Hy-gi'nus or Higinus, (Caius Julius,) a Roman 
 grammarian, born in Spain or Alexandria. Originally 
 a slave, he was set free by Augustus Csesar, who gave 
 him charge of the Palatine Library. He wrote a " Com- 
 mentary on Virgil," and other esteemed works, which 
 are lost. Other works bearing his name are extant, viz., 
 " Mythological Fables," and " Poeticon Astronomicon," 
 but are supposed to have been written by a Hyginus 
 who lived at a later date. 
 
 See Bunte, " Dissertatio de C J. Hygini Vita et Scriptis," 1846. 
 
 Hyksos. See Shepherd Kings. 
 
 Hylander, hu-lan'der, (Anders,) a Swedish Orien- 
 talist, born at Tunhem in 1750; died in 1830. 
 
 Hylaret, ^e'll'r^', (Maurice,) a French monk and 
 preacher, born at Angouleme in 1539, was a partisan of 
 the League. Died in 1591. 
 
 Hy'las, [Gr. TfAac,] a favourite of Hercules, whom he 
 accompanied in the Argonautic expedition. The Naiads, 
 enamoured with his beauty, drew him into the water, so 
 that he was lost to Hercules forever. 
 
 Hyll, hil, (?) (Alban,) an English physician, who prac- 
 tised in London with a high reputation. He wrote a 
 "Commentary on Galen." Died in 1559. 
 
 Hyilus, [Gr. 'Y/l'.oc,] a son of Hercules and Dejanira, 
 was persecuted by Eurystheus, and after the death of 
 his father was the leader of the Heracli'dx. Aided by 
 the Athenians, he invaded Peloponnesus, and defeated 
 Eurystheus, whom he killed with his own hand. 
 
 e a* k; c as s; g hard; g as>; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. ( fcy~See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
HYMEN 
 
 1236 
 
 HTWELL 
 
 Hy'men or Hymenaeus, him-e-nee'us, [Gr. 'tpi v or 
 'Ypevaioc; Fr. Hymen, e'men', or Hymenee, e'mi'na',] 
 the god of marriage of the Greeks and Romans, was 
 represented as a handsome youth, crowned with flowers, 
 and holding a nuptial torch in his hand. According to 
 one tradition, he was a son of Apollo and one of the 
 Muses. Another account makes him the son of Bac- 
 chus and Venus. 
 
 Hymir, hl'mir, written also Eymer, [supposed to be 
 derived from hu'mr, the "sea,"] the name of a great giant 
 mentioned in the Norse mythology as the owner of a 
 huge kettle, a mile deep, which Thor carried off, haying 
 first placed it over his head, so that he was entirely 
 hidden by it. It was the same giant with whom Thor 
 went a fishing and caught the World-serpent. 
 
 See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Mallet, "North- 
 ern Antiquities." vol. ii. Fable XXVII 
 
 Hym'ul-a, [Gr. 'tfivia ; Fr. Hymnie, em'ne',] a sur- 
 name of Diana, under which she was worshipped in 
 Arcadia. 
 
 Hymnie. See Hymnia. 
 
 Hynd'ford, (John Carmichael,) Eari. of, a Scot- 
 tish diplomatist, born in 1701. In 1741 he was employed 
 with credit as ambassador to the Prussian court, and 
 in 1744 was sent in the same capacity to Russia. After 
 successful efforts to terminate the war of the Austrian 
 succession by a treaty of peace, he acted as envoy to 
 Vienna ill 1752. In 1764 he was appointed lord vice- 
 admiral of Scotland. He died in 1767. 
 
 Hypatia, hT-pa'she^, IGr. 'Twar/a; Fr. Hypatie, 
 e'pt'te',] a celebrated female philosopher and mathema- 
 tician, born at Alexandria in the latter part of the fourth 
 centurv. She was the daughter of Theon, and displayed 
 even greater talents than this famous mathematician in 
 the study of philosophy and the sciences. She pursued 
 her studies with great assiduity, often studying late in the 
 night. After having improved herself by travelling and 
 attending lectures at Athens of the most distinguished 
 teachers of philosophy, she returned to Alexandria, 
 where she was invited by the magistrates of the city 
 to teach philosophy. She favoured the Neo-Platonic 
 philosophy. She had many celebrated disciples, some 
 of whom embraced Christianity and cherished through 
 life feelings of friendship for her, although she con- 
 tinued to worship the heathen deities of Greece. She 
 was noted for her virtue, her beauty, her simplicity of 
 dress, her accomplishments, and her strength of mind. 
 Orestes, the prefect of Alexandria, admired her wisdom, 
 and often availed himself of her counsels. Cyril, the 
 Christian patriarch, and his fanatical monks, appear to 
 have regarded Hypatia as the principal supporter of the 
 old religion ; and at last their frenzy reached such a point 
 that they tore her from her chariot as she was going to 
 her school, and murdered her. This occurred in March, 
 415 a.d. The works of Hypatia were destroyed when 
 the Mohammedans burned the library of Alexandria. 
 Among these were a "Commentary on Diophantus," 
 an "Astronomical Canon," and a "Commentary on the 
 Conies of Apollonius of Perga." The titles of all her 
 other works are lost. 
 
 See Tillkmont, "Memoires;" Wernsdorf, "Qttatre Disserta- 
 tions sur Hypatie ;" Chari.es Kingsi.ey's historical romance entitled 
 " Hypatia." 
 
 Hypatie. See Hypatia. 
 
 Hy-per'bo-lus, ['TmpSotoc,] an Athenian dema- 
 gogue, born about 450 B.C., was a leader of the demo- 
 cratic party after the death of Cleon. He was ostracised 
 by a coalition of Nicias and Alcibiades in 415. Died 
 about 410 lt.c. 
 
 Hyperide. See Hyperides. 
 
 Hy-per-i'des, [Gr. Tjrrpnifyf or 'Tirepi&ric ; Fr. Hype- 
 ride, e'pi'red',] a famous Athenian orator, was the 
 son of Glaucippus, and a pupil of Plato. He was iden- 
 tified with the party that opposed Philip of Macedon. 
 After the battle of Chaerone'a, (338 B.C.,) he proposed 
 to recall the exiles, to liberate the slaves, and to take 
 other vigorous measures, which were adopted, and pro- 
 cured peace on favourable terms. Having refused to 
 touch the gold with which Harpalus corrupted other 
 
 orators of Athens, he was chosen to conduct the prose- 
 cution against Demosthenes for his share in that trans- 
 action. Hyperides was put to death by Antipater in 
 322. Cicero ranks him next to Demosthenes ; and other 
 ancient critics agree that his eloquence was of the highest 
 order. He is the only one of the Ten Orators of Athens 
 whose orations have all been lost. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Vitse Decern Oratorum ;" Grote, " History of 
 Greece;" Cicero, " Brutus," "De Oratore," and "Orator;" Kiess- 
 linc, " De Hyperide Oratore Attico," 1737 ; Quintilian, book xii. ; 
 Thirlwall, " History of Greece." 
 
 Hy-per-i'on, (or hi-pee're-on,) [Gr. "Cmpiuv,] in 
 Greek mythology, the name of a Titan, a son of Uranus 
 and Ge, (or Terra,) and the father of Aurora and Helios. 
 In Homer, Hyperion is a name of the sun. 
 
 Hy-pe'rI-us, [Dutch pron. he-pa're-iis,] (Andre Ge- 
 rard,) an eminent Protestant theologian, born at Ypres 
 in 151 1. He was professor of theology at Marburg from 
 1542 to 1564. Among his works are " De Formandis 
 Concionibus sacris," ("On the Composition of Ser- 
 mons," 1555,) and " De Theologo seu de Ratione Studii 
 theologici," ("On the Theologian, or on the Method of 
 Theological Study," 1556.) Died in 1564. 
 
 See VVit.HELM Wills, " Programma de A. Hyperio Hassorum 
 Theologo," 1788; Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Hy-perm-nes'tra, [Gr. 'Tmpiivf/arpa; Fr. Hyperm- 
 nestre, e'peum'nestR',] one of the Danaides, which 
 see. 
 
 Hjfp'sI-cleS, ['Tt/jocAk,] a Greek mathematician of 
 an uncertain epoch, is supposed to have lived at Alex- 
 andria in the second century. He wrote a treatise 
 " On the Right Ascension of the Constellations of the 
 Zodiac," which is extant. He is regarded by some as 
 the author of the fourteenth and fifteenth books of the 
 " Elements" of Euclid. According to Delambre, he 
 lived about 146 B.C. 
 
 Hjfp-sip'j?-le, [Gr. Ti/><7riJA7/,] a queen of Lemnos, 
 who, according to tradition, saved the life of her father 
 when the other women of the island killed their husbands 
 and male relations. She was afterwards sold into slavery 
 by the Lemnian women. 
 
 See Lempriere's "Classical Dictionary." 
 Hyrcan. See Hyrcanus. 
 
 Hyr-ca'nus [Gr. 'Tpxavoc; Fr. Hyrcan, eR'koN'] I, 
 (John,) high-priest of the Jews, was the son of Simon 
 Maccabeus, whom he succeeded in 135 B.C. After the 
 death of Antiochus Sidetes, 130 B.C., he conquered the 
 Idumeans and destroyed the city of Samaria. Though 
 educated as a Pharisee, in the latter part of his life- he 
 favoured their rivals the Sadducees. He died in the 
 year 103, leaving his office to his son Aristobu'lus. 
 
 See Josepiius, "History of the Jews;" Apocryphal Book of 
 Maccabees. 
 
 Hyrcanus XI., high-priest of the Jews, succeeded his 
 father, Alexander Jannaeus, in 76 B.C. His brother Aristo- 
 bu'lus having usurped the regal power, Hyrcanus, who 
 was a weak prince, appealed to the Roman Pompey, 
 who restored him to the throne and priesthood. An- 
 tigonus, son of Aristobulus, with the aid of the Parthians, 
 deposed Hvrcanus about 38 B.C., and was soon after 
 supplanted bv Herod, who married Mariamne, the grand- 
 daughter of Hyrcanus, and put the latter to death, 30 B.C. 
 See Josephus, " History of the Jews." 
 Hyrtl, hfeVt'l, (Joseph,) an able anatomist, born at 
 Eisenstadt, Hungary, in 181 1. He became professor of 
 anatomy in Vienna in 1 845. He published, besides other 
 works, a "Text-Book of Human Anatomy," (" I.ehrbuch 
 der Anatomie des Menschen," 2 vols., 1847,) which has 
 been adopted by the German universities as a standard. 
 Hystaspe. See Hystaspes. 
 
 Hys-tas'pel, [Gr.Toruo-mjc; Fr. Hystaspe, es'tSsp'; 
 Persian, GushtAsp,] a satrap of Persia, and the father 
 of Darius I., lived about 550 B.C. He is said to hav* 
 been the first who introduced into Persia the learning 
 of the Indian Brahmans. According to one account, he 
 was the chief of the Magians, which accords with the 
 Persian tradition that Gushlasp patronized the religion 
 of Zoroaster. (See Gitshtasp.) 
 Hywell. See Howki.i. the Good. 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1,8,0, ?, short; a, e, i, Q, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nftt ; good; m65nj 
 
UCCHUS 
 
 1237 
 
 IBN-KHALLIKAN 
 
 I. 
 
 I-ac'ehns, [Gr. "Iaxjoc,] a surname or synonym of 
 Bacchus, which see. 
 
 I-am'be, [Gr. 'Iujij3>i,] a servant-maid of Metanira, 
 Queen of Eleusis, was said to be a daughter of Pan. By 
 her jokes or tricks she amused Ceres when the latter 
 was in distress. Iambic poetry is supposed to have 
 derived its name from her. 
 
 Iamblichus. See Jambi.ichus. 
 
 I-ap'e-tus, [Gr. 'Iairrroc; Fr. Japet, zht'pk/,] in classic 
 mythology, a Titan, and a son of Uranus. He was the 
 father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Mencetius. 
 He is by some considered to be the same as the Japheth 
 of Scripture. Iapetus was regarded by the ancient 
 Greeks and Romans as the ancestor of the human race,* 
 and, according to Scripture, the descendants of Japheth 
 inhabited the "isles of the Gentiles," (Genesis x. 5,) 
 which would seem to signify the numerous islands along 
 the coasts of Europe and Asia Minor, and probably 
 also the adjacent portions of the two continents ; in other 
 words, all that part of the world with which the early 
 Greeks were acquainted. 
 
 I-a'sI-on [Gr. 'Iocu'w] or I-a'sI-ua, a fabulous son of 
 Jupiter and Electra, (or of Minos and Corythus.) He 
 is said to have been beloved by Ceres, who bore him a 
 son, Plutus, the god of riches. 
 
 Ibarra, e-nar'ra, (Joaquin,) a Spanish printer, born 
 at Saragossa in 1725, carried on business in Madrid. 
 He was distinguished for the perfection of his publica- 
 tions, especially for his editions of" Don Quixote," ( 1 780,) 
 and a Spanish version of Sallust, (1772.) Died in 1785. 
 
 I'bas, a Syrian priest of the fifth century, acted a 
 prominent part in the disputes about Nestorianism. He 
 was chosen Bishop of Edessa in 436 A. D. At the Coun- 
 cil of Ephesus, in 449, he was deposed on the charge of 
 favouring the Nestorians; but he was reinstated by the 
 Council of Chalcedony in 451. Died in 457. 
 
 Ib'bet-spn, (Mrs. Agnes,) an English botanist, born 
 in London in 1757. She investigated the structure of 
 plants, and wrote botanical papers which were inserted 
 in Nicholson's "Journal" and the " Philosophical Maga- 
 zine," (1809-17.) Died in 1823. 
 
 Ibbetson, (JULIUS C/Esak,) an English landscape- 
 painter, born at Scarborough, copied and imitated with 
 success the works of Berghem. He wrote an " Accidence 
 or Gamut of Oii-Painting for Beginners." Died in 1817. 
 
 Ib'bpt, (Benjamin,) an English divine, born near 
 Sw»ffliam, in Norfolk, in 1680. He became chaplain 
 to George I. in 1716, and prebendary of Westminster 
 in 1724. He delivered the Boyle lectures in 1 713-14. 
 Died in 1725. Two volumes of his sermons were pub- 
 lished in 1726. 
 
 See Dr. S. Clarke, " Life of Benjamin IbboL" 
 
 Iberville, d', de'beVvel', (I.emoine or I.kmovne,) 
 a Canadian navigator, born at Montreal in 1642, distin- 
 guished himself in many actions against the English. 
 He commanded a vessel sent by the French government 
 to explore the mouth of the Mississippi, which he dis- 
 covered in March, 1699. He ascended the river, and 
 built a fort on its border. Died at Havana in 1706. 
 
 Ibi, ee'bee, (Sinibai.do,) an Italian painter, a pupil 
 of Perugino, was born at Perugia, and flourished between 
 1505 and 1528. 
 
 /BA', ib'n, an Arabic word signifying "son," and 
 forming a part of many names; as, Ibn-Hanbai., the 
 "son of Ilanbal," etc It is often written Ben; as, Ali- 
 Ben-AhI-Talif, for Alee-Ikn-Abee (-Abi) Tai.ib. 
 
 Ibn-Abeeti -Abi i-Yakoob.lor-TTakub,) Ib'n a'bee 
 ya'koob' lAbool-Faraj, a'lx50l far'aj.) otherwise called 
 An-Nadeem (-Nadim )-Mohammed-Ibn-Ishak, an- 
 na-deem' mo-ham'med Ib'n is-hlk', an Arabian writer, 
 chiefly known as the author of a valuable catalogue of 
 books in the Arabic language, with brief and excellent 
 
 • See Horace, lib. i.. Carmen 3. in which the phrase* "Gens hu- 
 tnana" and " lapeti genus" are used almost synonymously, 
 t See note on page 35. 
 
 notices of their authors. Nothing is known of his life, 
 except that he wrote in the latter part of the tenth century. 
 
 Ibn-Al-Atseer, (-Atsyr,) Ib'n al at-seeR', (Abooi- 
 Hassan- Alee, or Aboul (-Abul) -Hassan- All, a'bool 
 hls'san a'lee,) surnamed Az-ed-Deen, (Azzeddyn,) (i.e. 
 the "Splendour of Religion,") an Arabian historian, borr. 
 in Mesopotamia about 1160, became a citizen of Mosul. 
 He excelled in the science of prophetic traditions, and 
 had great knowledge of history, as appears by his 
 Complete Chronicle from the origin of the world to 
 his own time. Died in 1233. 
 
 See Hatf-Khalfah, "Lexicon Bibliographicum ;" Von Hammer- 
 Pukgstai.l, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber." 
 
 Ibn-Al-Atseer (or -Al-Atsyr)-Nasr- Allah, Ib'n 51- 
 at-seeR.' nas'r al'lah, written also Alatyr and Alatir, an 
 Arabian writer, a brother of the preceding, was born at 
 Jezeereh-Benee-Omar, on the Tigris, in 1162. He visited 
 the court of Saladin, who engaged him as vizier to his 
 son and heir, Melik-Afdhal. He was eminent for his learn, 
 ing, and wrote a treatise on Prosody, and other works. 
 
 See Ibn-Khallikan, "Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 Ibn-Bajab. See Avenpace. 
 
 Ibn-Batuta. See Batootah. 
 
 Ibn-Doreid, Ib'n do'rad', (or do'rld',) a celebrated 
 Arabian poet, born at Bassorah in 838 A.D. He culti- 
 vated various kinds of poetry with distinguished success. 
 Died at Bagdad ih 933. 
 
 Ibn-Hanbal, Ib'n han'bal, (Ahmed, Sii'med,) the 
 founder of the fourth sect of orthodox Mohammedans, 
 was born at Bagdad (or, as some say, at Meru) in the 
 year of the Hejrah 164. He attained a great reputation 
 for virtue and knowledge of the traditions of Mohammed. 
 He received many traditions from Shafei, with whom he 
 was intimate. For his refusal to acknowledge the Koran 
 to have been created, he was scourged and imprisoned 
 by the caliph Motassem. He died at Bagdad in a.d. 
 855. The sect became very numerous after his death. 
 
 See Sale's " Koran." 
 
 Ibn-HaukaL See Haukal. 
 
 Ibn-Ishak, (or -Ishaq,) Ib'n is-hSk', an Arabian his- 
 torian, who, at the request of the caliph Al-Mansoor, 
 wrote a life of Mohammed the prophet. He is an elo- 
 quent but not a trustworthy writer. Died in 768 A.D. 
 
 See Sprenger, " Life of Mohammad," p. 69 et seq. 
 
 Ibn-Khakan, (or -Khacan.) See Ai.-Fath. 
 
 Ibn-Khaldoon, (-Khaldoun or -Khaldun,) Ib'n 
 Kal'doon' ( Walee-ed - Deen- (or Waly - Eddyn- ) 
 Aboo-Zeid-Abd-er-Rahman, wa'lee ed-deen' a'boo 
 zld abd-er-rah'man,) a celebrated Arabian historian, born 
 at Tunis in 1332. He removed to Cairo, where he distin- 
 guished himself by his uprightness as a judge, and was 
 chosen chief of the Cadees (Cadis) of the sect of Malek- 
 ites in 1384. Afterwards, while on a journey to Syria, 
 he was made prisoner by Taimoor, (the famous Tamer- 
 lane,) by whom he was treated with great kindness and 
 respect. His principal work is a valuable "History of 
 the Arabs, Persians, and Berbers, with Preliminary 
 Observations,'' which was recently published in France. 
 "We cannot but conceive, in reading this," says Sil- 
 vestre de Sacy, "a very high idea of his judgment, 
 sagacity, and erudition, and of the great variety of his 
 knowledge." Died in 1406. 
 
 See his Autobiography, published in the "Journal Asiatique" of 
 1K44; SilvestkrdkSacy, ClireslomathieArabe;" Casiri, "iiibli- 
 otheca Arabico Hispana." 
 
 Ibn-Khallikan, Ib'n Kal'le-kin', written also Ebn- 
 Khalican or -Khilcan. (Shems-ed-Deen (or -Eddin ) 
 Abool- (Abottl- or Abul-) Abbas-Ahmed, shems 
 ed-deen' a'brjol ab'bis' ail'med,) a celebrated Arabian 
 historian, born at Arl>ela in 121 1. He became grand 
 Cadec (Cadi) of Damascus about 1261. His chief work 
 is a " Biographical Dictionary of Famous Moslems," 
 which contains over eight hundred articles. An English 
 translation of it was l>egun by Mr. Slanc, the first volume 
 of which was published in 1841. Died in 1282. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g Aard;j>isj; c, H, v.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as *y Ih as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
1BN-K0TEYBAH 
 
 1238 
 
 IDA 
 
 Ibn-Koteybah or Abdallah-Ibn-Koteybah, ab- 
 dal'lah Ib'n ko-ta'bah or ko-ti'bah, written also Cotey- 
 bah and Qotaybah, an Arabian historian and critic, born 
 at Bagdad in 828 A.n. ; died in 889. 
 
 See Ibn'-Khallikan, " Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 Ibn-Maimoon, (-Maimuii or -Maimoun.) See 
 Maimonides. 
 
 Ibn-Rosched, (or -Roahd.) See Averroes. 
 
 Ibn-Siiia. See Avicenna. 
 
 Ibn-Tofail, (-Tofayl.) See Aboo-Bekr-Ibn-Tofail 
 
 Ibiiul-Abbar. See Kodhaee. 
 
 Ibii-Yoonas, (-Younas or -Yunas,) Ib'n yoo'nas, 
 sometimes spelled Ibn-Youuis, (Alee- (or All-) Ibn- 
 Abderrahman, a'lee Ib'n abd-er-rah'man,) one of the 
 most eminent Arabian astronomers, was born in 979 a.d. 
 He made at Cairo a series of observations, the results of 
 which he published in a work called the "Table of Ibn- 
 Yoonas." Died in 1008. 
 
 Ibn-Zohr. See Avenzoar. 
 
 Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) written also Ibrahym, the 
 Arabic name of the patriarch Abraham, which see. 
 
 Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,*) ib-ra-heem', thirteenth caliph 
 of the Omeyyad dynasty, was the son of Waleed (Walid) 
 I. He began to reign in Damascus in 744 A.n., and a 
 few months after was deposed by Merwan. The Arab 
 historians disagree respecting his subsequent fate. 
 
 Ibraheem (Ibrahim) I., (Aboo-Abdallah, a'boo 
 ab-dal'lah,) founder of the dynasty of Aglabides in Africa, 
 was the son of Aglab, and a native of Arabia. About 
 800 a.d. he was appointed Governor of Africa by Haroun- 
 al-Raschid. After the death of the latter, (808,) Ibraheem 
 assumed the royal power. Died about 813. 
 
 Ibraheem (Ibrahim) I., a Turkish Sultan, brother 
 of Amurath IV., was proclaimed in 1640, at the age of 
 twenty-three. His cruelty and other vices excited against 
 him a powerful and successful conspiracy, by which he 
 was deposed and strangled in 1648 or 1649. He was 
 succeeded by his son, Mahomet IV. 
 
 Ibraheem (Ibrahim) II., Emperor of Hindostan, the 
 son of Iskander, began to reign in 15 17, being the third 
 of the Afghan dynasty. He was a very unpopular ruler. 
 In 1526 the Mogul Baber invaded India, a battle was 
 fought at Paniput, where IbrSheem was defeated and 
 killed, and the Mogul dynasty was established in India. 
 
 Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) a favourite of Sultan Solyman 
 II., was a Genoese by birth, and was taken to Constan- 
 tinople by pirates in his infancy. He became grand 
 vizier about 1523, and signalized his courage in the war 
 against Hungary in 1527. He was put to death, at the 
 instigation of the Sultana, in 1535. 
 
 Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) born at Aleppo, was the most 
 eminent among the Ottoman jurists. His fame rests upon 
 a great work styled the " Confluence of the Seas," (" Mul- 
 teka al-Abhar,") which is a complete code of laws. Died 
 in 1549. 
 
 Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) Pasha of Egypt, the son of 
 Mehemet Alee, (Ali,) was bom in Rumelia in 1789. He 
 conquered the Wahabees, in Arabia, about 1818. In 
 1824 he commanded an army and fleet which Mehemet 
 Alee sent against the Greeks. Having landed in the 
 Morea with 10,000 men in 1825, he took several towns 
 and committed many atrocities. The success of the allies 
 at Navarino and the French invasion of the Morea forced 
 him to retire to Egypt in 1828. In a war waged between 
 the Viceroy of Egypt and the Sultan, Ibraheem took 
 Aleppo and defeated the Turks in a great battle at 
 Konieh, in Syria, in 1832. His victorious progress was 
 arrested by the intervention of the European powers in 
 1833. Died in 1848. 
 
 See Labat, "L'figypte, ancienne et moderae." 
 
 Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Bey, a famous Mameluke 
 chief, born in Circassia about 1735. He went to Egypt 
 
 * The Arabic texts are by no means uniform in regard to the 
 penultima of this name ; it is often made short, but, if we mistake 
 not, more frequently long, as given above. It is proper, however, to 
 remark that a single instance of the insertion of the Alif (the sign of 
 the long vowel) ought to outweigh several omissions, as the latter 
 might more easily be the result of neglect or haste. The frequent 
 omission of the long vowel in the manuscript of writers who are 
 generally correct, merely proves that the insertion is not deemed 
 Absolutely indispensable. Its omission may be compared to the 
 neglecting to dot one's rs in writing English, — a fault, undoubtedly, but 
 a fault often committed by writers otherwise remarkable for accuracy. 
 
 in his youth, and entered the service of Mohammed Bey. 
 After the death of the latter, Ibraheem shared with Moorad 
 Bey the sovereignty of Egypt. When Bonaparte invaded 
 Egypt in 1798 and defeated Moorad, Ibraheem retired 
 to Syria. In 1800 he took part against the French at 
 Cairo, etc, and, after they evacuated Egypt, was again 
 Governor of Cairo, until supplanted by Mehemet Alee. 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Effendi, (ef-fen'dee,) a learned 
 Turk, who was born about 1640, and filled considerable 
 offices at Constantinople. He was converted to Chris- 
 tianity, was baptized in 1671, retired to Venice, and as- 
 sumed the name of Paul Antonio Effendi. He translated 
 several books of the Bible into Arabic. Died in 1697. 
 
 Ibraheem (Ibrahim) Khau-Ogli,(o'glee,) was grand 
 vizier of Turkey when Mahomet I. died, in 142 1. He 
 took measures to secure the succession of Mahomet's 
 son, Amurath II., who was then absent from the capital. 
 To reward this service, Amurath gave him the title of 
 Khan, with hereditary privileges which made his family 
 the first in the empire. 
 
 Ibrahim. See Ibraheem. 
 
 Ibrahym. See Ibraheem. 
 
 Ib'jf-cus, ['Iffwcoc,] a Greek lyric poet, born at Rhe- 
 gium, in Italy, flourished about 560 B.C., and passed part 
 of his life at Samos. His poems, which were chiefly 
 love-songs, are lost, except a few fragments. He was 
 the fifth lyric poet of the Alexandrian canon, and had 
 a high reputation. He is said to have been killed by 
 robbers. His death has furnished the subject of one 
 of the finest of Schiller's minor poems, "Die Kraniche 
 des Ibycus." 
 
 19a. See Isa. 
 
 Icard, e'kf r', (Charles,) a French Protestant min- 
 ister and writer, born in Languedoc in 1636. He was 
 driven into exile by persecution in 1682, and settled at 
 Bremen in 1688. 
 
 Icare. See Icarus. 
 
 I-ca'rl-ua, [Gr. 'I/tupwc,] also called Icarus, an Athe- 
 nian, to whom Bacchus is said to have taught the cultiva- 
 tion of the vine. He was killed by some shepherds, to 
 whom he had given wine and who suspected that he had 
 poisoned them. The legend adds that he was changed 
 into the constellation Bootes. 
 
 Icarius, a Lacedaemonian, the father of Penelope. 
 He urged her to remain at Sparta after she was married 
 to Ulysses ; but she preferred to follow her husband. 
 
 Ic'a-rus, [Gr. 'I/capoc; Fr. Icare, e'kaR',] son of Dae- 
 dalus, with whom, according to the Greek mythology, 
 he was imprisoned in the Labyrinth of Crete. Having 
 attempted to fly by means of artificial wings made with 
 wax, they were melted by his approaching too near the 
 sun, and he fell into the sea, near the island of Samos, 
 which received from him the name of the Icarian Sea. 
 
 Iccius, ik'she-us, a Roman philosopher, lived about 
 30 B.C., and was a friend of Horace, who addressed to 
 him an epistle and an ode. 
 
 Icher, e'shaiR', (Pierre,) a French physician and 
 Hellenist, born at Montpellier in 1658; died in 1713. 
 
 I-cil'I-us, (Lucius,) a Roman tribune, who was affi- 
 anced to the celebrated Virginia. He was elected tribune 
 of the people in 456 B.C., and favoured the cause of the 
 plebeians. He was one of the leaders of the successful 
 revolt against the Decemviri about 450 B.C. 
 
 See Nikbuhr, "History of Rome." 
 
 Ic-ti'nua, ['l/crfvoc,] a celebrated Grecian architect, 
 who flourished about 450 B.C. He built several grand 
 temples, among which was that of Apollo Epicurius in 
 Arcadia. The most memorable monument of his genius 
 is the Parthenon of Athens, built by order of Pericles. 
 Callicrates was associated with Ictinus as architect of 
 this edifice, which is probably the most perfect speci- 
 men of Grecian architecture in any age. Its length was 
 227 feet and its breadth about 100. (See Callicrates.) 
 
 See Pausanias, book viii. 
 
 Icwara. See Iswara. 
 
 I'da, [Fr. IDS, ed,] Countess of Boulogne, born about 
 1040, was the mother of Godfrey of Bouillon, crusader 
 and King of Jerusalem. She was eminent for wisdom 
 and piety. Died in 11 13. 
 
 See Haillet, " Vies des Saints." 
 
 y, i, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
1DACE 
 
 '239 
 
 IHRE 
 
 Idace. See Idacius. 
 
 Idacius, e-da'she-us, [Fr. Idace, e'dtss',1 a Spanish 
 chronicler, born at Lamego about the end of the fourth 
 century. He became Bishop of Chaves, (Aquae Flaviae,) 
 in Portugal. He was author of a "Chronicon" of the 
 period from 379 to 468 a.d., which was printed in Paris 
 by Sirmond in 1619. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 I'das, [Or. "l&ic,] a son of Aphareus, took part in the 
 Argonautic expedition, ard was renowned for valour. 
 Idas and his brother I.ynceus having quarrelled with 
 the Dioscu'ri, Idas killed Castor, and was in turn killed 
 by Pollux. 
 
 Ide. See Ida. 
 
 Ideler, ee'deh-ler, (Christian Ludwig,) a Prussian 
 astronomer and linguist, born near Perleberg in 1766. 
 lie was appointed in 1816 tutor to the princes William 
 Frederick and Charles, and in 1821 became professor at 
 the Berlin University. He was the author of " Historical 
 Researches on the Astronomical Observations of the 
 Ancients," (1806,) "On the Calendar of Ptolemy," and 
 other similar treatises. He was a member of the French 
 Institute, and the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. -Died 
 in Berlin in 1846. 
 
 Ideler, (Julius Ludwig,) a physician, a son of the 
 preceding, was Iwrn at Berlin in 1809. He published 
 " Meteorology of the Ancient Greeks and Romans," 
 (1832,) "Hermapion, or Rudiments of the Hieroglyphic 
 Literature of Ancient Egypt," ( 1 84 1 , ) and other anti- 
 quarian treatises. Died in 1842. 
 
 Ideler, (Karl WiLHELM,)a Prussian physician, born 
 in 1795, lived in Berlin. He is known as a writer on 
 mental maladies. 
 
 Ides, ee'des, (Everard Isbrantz,) a German travel- 
 ler, born in Holstein about 1660. He was sent to Pekin 
 by Peter the Great in 1692 to negotiate a treaty of com- 
 merce, and returned in 1694. A narrative of his journey, 
 published in 1704, is a work of some merit. 
 
 Idinan, id'man, (Nils,) a Swedish philologist, pub- 
 lished in 1778 "Researches on the Finnish People, and 
 the Relations between the Finnish Language and the 
 Greek." 
 
 Idomeuee. See Idomeneus. 
 
 I-dom'e-neus, [Gr. 'lio/tevnx ; Fr. Idom£nee, e'do'- 
 ma'nk',] King of Crete, a semi-fabulous Greek hero, said 
 to be a grandson of Minos. According to Homer, he 
 fought bravely at the siege of Troy. Having been ex- 
 pelled from Crete by his subjects, he went to Italy and 
 founded a city. 
 
 Idomeneus, [Gr. tttptvt t g , ] a Greek historian, born 
 at Lampsacus, lived about 300 B.C. He was a friend and 
 disciple of Epicurus. His works are not extant. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Gnecis." 
 
 Iduna, e-doo'na, or Idun, sometimes written Idun- 
 na, [etymology doubtful,] In the Norse mythology, the 
 goddess of immortality, who keeps a casket of apples, of 
 which if the gods partake they never grow old. (See 
 Thiassi.) Iduna is said to be the wife of Bragi, the god 
 of poetry, who in one sense may be said to possess the 
 gift of immortality. 
 
 See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i. 
 
 Iefremoff or Iefremov. See Yefremof. 
 
 Ienicben. See Jknichen. 
 
 Iermak. See Yf.rmak. 
 
 Iezdedjerd. See Ykzdejerd. 
 
 Ifiland, ifflant, (August Wilhelm,) a celebrated 
 German actor and dramatist, born at Hanover in 1759. 
 He became director of the National Theatre at Berlin in 
 1796, and in 1811 was appointed director-general ofthe 
 royal plays. Among his most popular dramas are "The 
 Hunters," (" Die Jager,") "The Advocates," and "The 
 Old Bachelors," ("Die Hagestolzen.") He also pub- 
 lished several treatises on the dramatic art. "It is 
 impossible," says Madame de Stael, "to have more 
 originality than Iffland ; and he is as superior in the 
 theory as in the practice of his art." Died in 1814. 
 
 See hi. " Autobiographv" in the first volume of his Drama*, l8 
 vols., 1798-1800 ; J. L. Formey, "A. W. Inland's Krankheits- 
 geschichte," 1814: Konz. " Aus dem Leben tweier Scliauspieler : 
 Inland's und Devrient's," 1838. 
 
 Igdrasil, (YggdrasU.) See Odin. 
 
 Iglesias de la Casa, e-gla'se-as di 11 ka'sj, (Josf.,) 
 a Spanish poet, born at Salamanca in 1753 ; died in 1791. 
 
 See Lonc;feli.ow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Ignace. See Ignatius. 
 
 Ignarra, en-yar'ra, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian antiquary 
 and priest, born near Naples in 1728, was a good clas- 
 sical scholar. He became professor of divinity in the 
 Royal University of Naples in 1771, director of the royal 
 printing-office in 1782, and preceptor of the prince Fran- 
 cis de Bourbon in 1784. He wrote, besides other works, 
 an esteemed commentary "De Palaestra Neapolitana," 
 (1770.) Died in 1808. 
 
 See Castaldi, " Ignarra; Vita," prefixed to his " Opuscoli," 1807. 
 
 Ignatius, ig-na'she-us, [Gr. 'lyvanoc; Fr. Ignacf, 
 en'ySss'; Ger. Ignaz, ig-nats'; It. Ignazio, en-yat'se-o,j 
 surnamed Thkoph'orus, one of the earliest Christian 
 Fathers, and one of the most eminent among the imme- 
 diate successors of the apostles, is supposed to have 
 been a native of Syria. About 67 A.D. he became bishop 
 or minister of the church of Antioch by the appointment 
 of Saint Peter, or, according to some writers, of Saint 
 John. He had filled this station acceptably about forty 
 years, when the emperor Trajan began a persecution 
 of the Christians. Ignatius was brought before Trajan 
 at Antioch, and, refusing to renounce his religion, was 
 condemned, and suffered martyrdom at Rome in 107, 
 being exposed to wild beasts in the amphitheatre. His 
 epistles to the Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrneans, and 
 to Polycarp are extant, and are regarded as precious 
 memorials of the primitive Church. In one of his last 
 epistles he wrote, " Now I begin to be a disciple : I weigh 
 neither visible nor invisible things, that I may win Christ !" 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria ;" Prarson, " Vindicia; Ignatianse," 
 Cambridge, 1672; W. Currton, " Viudicix Ignatiana;, or the Genu- 
 ine Writings of Saint Ignatius vindicated from the Charge of Heresy," 
 8vo, 1846; CottTLOSQUKT, " Vie de Saint- Ignace, Eveque d' Antioch," 
 1857 : Mrs. Jameson, " History of Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople, born in 799 
 A.D., was the son of the emperor Michael Curopalates. 
 When the latter was deposed, Ignatius entered a monas- 
 tery, and became eminent for piety and wisdom. In 846 
 he was raised to the dignity of patriarch. Eleven years 
 after, he was banished and cruelly treated for his opposi- 
 tion to Bardas, an uncle of Michael III., who appointed 
 in his place the ambitious Photius. The schism between 
 the Greek and Roman Churches began while Photius 
 was in office, and has continued ever since that time. In 
 867 the emperor Basilius reinstated Ignatius, who as- 
 sembled in 869 an cecumenical council at Constantinople, 
 which condemned Photius and his party. Died in 877. 
 
 See David Nicrtas, " Vita S. Ignatii," 1604. 
 
 Ignatius Loyola. See Loyola. 
 
 Igor (ee'gor) I., third Grand Duke of Russia, a son 
 of Rurik, was born about 875, and succeeded Oleg ir 
 912 A.D. He led an expedition against Constantinople in 
 941, and compelled the Greek emperor to sue for peace, 
 which was granted by a treaty in 945. Igor was killed 
 in an ambuscade in 945. After his death his widow Olga 
 was converted to Christianity. 
 
 See Solovief, " Histoire de Russie." 
 
 Igor II., or Igor Olgovitoh, Grand Prince of Russia, 
 began to reign at Kief about 1145. His claim was con- 
 tested by Iziaslaf, who defeated him in 1 146. Igor was 
 confined in a convent, and assassinated in 1147. 
 
 See Karamzin, " Histoire de Russie." 
 
 Hire, ee'reh, (JoHAN,) a Swedish scholar, eminent in 
 philology, born at Lund in 1707, graduated with the 
 highest honour at Upsal in 1730. After visiting France, 
 England, etc., he returned to Upsal and liecame professor 
 of poetry and of theology in the university of that place. 
 In 1738 he obtained the chair of belles-lettres and political 
 science, which he occupied about forty years, acquiring 
 great celebrity as a lecturer and author. In 1769 he 
 published his "Swedish Glossary," ("Glossarium Suio- 
 gothicum,") a monument of his immense learning and 
 critical sagacity, containing a philosophic treatise on the 
 filiation of languages, besides remarks on the origin 
 and affinity of Swedish words. He also wrote several 
 hundred excellent academical dissertations, and is justly 
 ranked among the best critics of the eighteenth century. 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as;; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; g as z; th as in this. ( Jr^-See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
IHRE 
 
 1240 
 
 IMPERIAL. 
 
 In 1759 he was decorated with the order of the Polar 
 Star. Died in 1780. 
 
 See Floderus, " Parentation ofver J. Ihre," 1781 ; Gezklius, 
 44 Biographiskt- Lexicon ofver namnknnnige Svenska Man.*' 
 
 Ihre, (Thomas,) a Swedish writer, father of the pre- 
 ceding, born at VVisby in 1659 ; died in 1720. 
 
 See T. Ruden, "Trognas Strid och Seger, Likpredikan ofver T. 
 Ihre," 1720. 
 
 Iken, ee'ken, (Conrad,) a German theologian, born 
 at Bremen in 1689. He became professor of theology at 
 Bremen, and wrote, besides other works, " Antiquitates 
 Hebraics," (1730.) Died in 1753. 
 
 Iken, (Hkinrich Frikdrich,) a German religious 
 writer, bom at Neuenkirchen in 1791; died in 1820. 
 
 Ildefonse. See Ii.defonso. 
 
 Il-de-fon'so, [Lat. Ildefon'sus ; Fr. Ii.defonse, 
 ildeh-foNs',] SAINT, a Spanish prelate, born at Toledo 
 in 607 A.D., was a pupil of Saint Isidore. He became 
 Archbishop of Toledo in 658. He wrote, besides several 
 theological treatises, a continuation of Saint Isidore's 
 work 4 ' De Viris illustribus." Died in 669. 
 
 See Cixila, " Vita Ildefonsi ;" Gregorio Mayans, 4 ' Vida de S. 
 Ildefonso," 1727. 
 
 Ilepooshin or Hepouschin, il-e-poo'shen, a Rus- 
 sian poet of the present age, lived near Saint Petersburg. 
 He wrote pastoral poems. 
 
 Ilgeu, il'gen, (Karl David,) a distinguished philolo- 
 gist, born in Prussian Saxony in 1763. He became in 
 1794 professor of the Oriental languages at Jena. His 
 principal works are entitled " Hymm Homerici," and 
 44 Convivial Songs of the Greeks," ( 44 Scholia sive Car- 
 niina convivialia Grxcorum.") Died in 1834. 
 
 See F. C. Krafft, ,4 VitaC. D. Ilgeni," 1837: R- Stern, " Nar- 
 ratio de CD. Ilgenio," 1839; "Ugeuiana: Ennnerungen an Dr. C 
 D. iigeu," Leip.ic, 1853. 
 
 Ilia. See Rhka Silvia. 
 
 I-lith-y-i'a or Eileithyia, [Gr. E'ueidvia, ] written 
 also Eleithyia and Eleutho, a Greek goddess, who 
 presided over birth. Though originally distinct from 
 Diana, (Artemis,) she seems later to have become identi- 
 fied with her. (See Lucina.) 
 
 Hive, I'liv, ? (Jacob,) an English printer, who became 
 noted by his fictitious " Book of Jasher," (1 751,) which he 
 pretended to have translated from Alcuin. Died in 1763. 
 
 Illescas, el-yes'kas, (Gonsalvo,) a Spanish monk, 
 wrote a 44 Histoiy of the Popes," (1570.) Died in 1580. 
 
 Illgen, il'gen, (Christian Frikdrich,) a German 
 Protestant divine, born at Chemnitz in 1786, wrote sev- 
 eral works, and edited a journal at Leipsic. Died in 1844. 
 
 Illyricus. See Francowitz. 
 
 Ilmoni, il-mo'nee, (Immanuei.,) a Finnish physician, 
 born in 1797, wrote 4 ' Contributions to the History of the 
 Nosology of the North," (3 vols., 1846-53.) Died in 1856. 
 
 I'lus, [Gr. "1aoc,| the founder of Ilium, (Ilion,) or Troy, 
 was a son of Tros, (which see.) 
 
 Imad-ed-Deen, (-Eddyn or -Eddin,) e-mid' ed- 
 dcen', (i.e. the 44 Pillar of Religion,") (Mohammed, 
 mo-hani'med, ) surnanied Al-Kateb, was born at Is- 
 pahan in 1 125 A.D. He went in 1167 to Damascus, 
 where he became the secretary of Noor-ed-Deen. After 
 the death of Noor-ed-Deen, he enjoyed the favour of the 
 famous Saladin, whose victories he celebrated in an ode, 
 and whom he served as private secretary until the death 
 of that prince. ImSd-ed-Deen wrote a 44 History of the 
 Conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin," and ,4 Memoirs of 
 the Moslem Poets of the Sixth Century of the Hejrah." 
 Died in 1201. 
 
 See Ibn-Khalukan, "liiograpliical Dictionary." 
 
 Imad-ed-Dowlah, (or -Eddaulah,) e-mSd'ed-d5w'- 
 lah, (i.e. " Pillar of the State,") (Alee-Abool-Hassan- 
 Alee-Ibn-Booyah, a'lee a'bool has'san a'lee Tb'n boo'- 
 'ah,) King of Persia, was the founder of the dynasty of 
 
 Souides, and began to reign in 933 A.D. He conquered 
 the Caliph of Bagdad, and died in 949, leaving the throne 
 to his nephew, Adhad-ed-Dowlah. 
 
 See Ibn-Khalukan, 4t Biographical Dictionary;" Weil, "Ge- 
 schichte des Chalifen." 
 
 Imberdis, aN'beit'dess', (Andre,) a French writer, 
 born at Ambert about 1810, published a 4< History of the 
 Religious Wars in Auvergne during the Sixteenth and 
 Seventeenth Centuries," (2 vols., 1841.) 
 
 I 
 
 Imbert, a.N'baiR', (Barthelemy,) a French poet, born 
 at Nimes in 1747. He produced at the age of twenty 
 44 The Judgment of Paris," a graceful poem, which was 
 much admired. The plan was ingenious, and the style 
 natural and elegant. Died in 1790. 
 
 See Qubrard, 4 ' La France Litteraire." 
 
 Imbert, (Guillaume,) a French littSrateur, born at 
 Limoges about 1743 ; died at Paris in 1803. 
 
 Imbert, (Jean,) a French jurist, born at La Rochelle 
 about 1522, published "Institutiones Forenses," (1542,) 
 often reprinted. Died about 1600. 
 
 Imbert, (Joseph Gabriel,) an eminent French 
 painter, born in Marseilles in 1654, was a pupil of Le- 
 brun and of Van der Meulen. At the age of thirty-four 
 he took the monastic vows, after which he painted only 
 sacred subjects. His chief work is a 44 Calvary." Died 
 in 1740. 
 
 Imbonati, em-bo-na'tee, (Carlo Giuseppe.) an Ital- 
 ian bibliographer, born at Milan, wrote "Bibliotheca 
 Latino-Hebraica," (2 vols., 1696.) Died after 1696. 
 
 Imhof or Imhoff, im'hof, (Gustav Wii.lem,) born 
 in Amsterdam in 1705, was appointed Governor of Cey- 
 lon h> 1736. Having gained general confidence by his 
 conduct and capacity, he became about 1742 Governor- 
 General of the Dutch East Indies. Died in 1750. 
 
 Imhof, von, fon im'hSf, (Jakob Wilhelm,) a Ger- 
 man genealogist, born at Nuremberg in 1651. He was 
 well versed in the history of the royal and noble families 
 of Europe, and wrote many works on genealogy, among 
 which is one in 2 vols., (1684.) Died in 1728. 
 
 See Koeler, " Lebensgeschichte Imhofs." 
 
 Imilcon. See Himilcon. 
 
 Im'I-son, (John,) an English mechanician, wrote ■<. 
 valuable work entitled "The School of Arts," which 
 passed through several editions. In 1807 Professor J. 
 Webster published an improved edition, with the title 
 of 44 Elements of Art and Science." Died in 1788. 
 
 Immermaiin, im'mer-man', (Karl Lebrecht,) a 
 German dramatist and poet, born at Magdeburg in 1796, 
 was the author of a comedy entitled "The Princes of 
 Syracuse," (1821,) "The Valley of Ronceval," "King 
 Periander," (1823,) and other tragedies. He also pub- 
 lished a number of tales and lyric poems. Died in 1840. 
 
 See Karl Immermann, " Memorabilien," 3 vols., 1840-43; F. 
 Freiliorath, " C. Immermann, Blatter der Ewnnerung an ihn," 
 1842 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1843. 
 
 Imola. See Francucci. 
 
 Imparato, em-pa-ra'to, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Naples about 1530, was a pupil of Titian, 
 whose style he imitated with some success. Died after 
 1565. 
 
 Imperiale, em-pa-re-a'li, (Francesco,) born at 
 Genoa about 1370, went to Spain, and became attached 
 to the court of Henry III. of Castile. He was regarded 
 as one of the best Spanish poets of that time. 
 
 Imperial!, em-pa-re-a'lee, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian physician and author, born at Vicenza in 1568, 
 graduated at Padua, and practised with success in his 
 native city. He wrote Latin poems, which were admired, 
 also a collection of observations entitled "Exotericae 
 Exercitationes," (1603.) Died in 1623. 
 
 His son Giovanni, bom at Vicenza in 1602, was also 
 a physician, and wrote "Musaaum Historicum et Physi- 
 cuni," consisting of eulogies and memoirs of eminent 
 literary men. Died in 1670. 
 
 Imperiali, (Giovanni Vincentf.,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Genoa about 1570, served the state as a diplo- 
 matist, and held a high command in the navy. He wrote, 
 besides other poems, " Lo Stato rustico," (1611,) which 
 was received with favour. Died about 1645. 
 
 See Soprani, "Scrittori Liguri." 
 
 Imperiali, (Giuseppe Renato,) an Italian cardinal, 
 distinguished for his patronage of learning, was born of 
 a noble family at Genoa in 1651. It is said he would 
 have been elected pope in 1730, if the court of Spain 
 had not interposed against him. Many learned men were 
 recipients of his bounty. Died in 1737. He left a noble 
 library, which, by his will, was kept open to the public 
 
 See Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italian! illuslri." 
 
 Imperiali-Lercariim-pa-re-a'lee leR-ka'ree, (Fran- 
 cesco Mario,) was Doge of Genoa when that city was 
 
 i, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
impet 
 
 1241 
 
 INES 
 
 bombarded by the fleet of Louis XIV. in 1684. Hos- 
 tilities having been suspended by the mediation of the 
 pope, the Doge went as ambassador to Paris, and a 
 treaty of peace was signed in 1685. 
 
 Im pey, (Sir Elijah,) an infamous judge, who offi- 
 ciated in India during the administration of Warren 
 Hastings. 
 
 See "Memoirs of Sir Elijah Impey," by E. B. Impby, 1846; 
 Macaulay, " Essay on Warren Hastings." 
 
 Impiccati, degli, a surname of Andrea del Cas- 
 XAGNO. (See Castagno.) 
 
 I'na or I'uas, King of the West Saxons, and one of 
 the chiefs of the Heptarchy, succeeded Ceadwalla in 689 
 A.D. He appears to have possessed superior talents, 
 and is regarded as one of the principal legislators among 
 the ancient Anglo-Saxons. He waged war successfully 
 against the people of Kent and the Britons about 710. 
 In 728 he resigned his crown, and died at Rome the 
 same year. 
 
 See William of Malmesbury, " Gesta Regum Anglorum." 
 
 In'a-ehus, [Gr. 'Ivajoc,] a mythical personage, the 
 son of Oceanus, and father of Io, is said to have been 
 the first King: of Argos. Having been chosen as umpire 
 by Neptune and Juno when they disputed about the 
 possession of Argos, he decided in favour of Juno. 
 
 Iiica, ing'ka, (plural Incas.) a Peruvian or Quichua 
 word, signifying "chief," and applied to the dynasty reign- 
 ing in Peru on the arrival of the Spaniards in that coun- 
 try in the early part of the sixteenth century. As the 
 Peruvians did nut possess the art of writing, we have no 
 means of ascertaining, or even forming a satisfactory 
 conjecture respecting, the earliest date of their power. The 
 Incas claimed to be the descendants of Manco Capac and 
 his wife Mama Ocllo, who were the children of the sun. 
 (See Manco Capac.) The empire of the Incas, at the 
 period of their greatest power, extended through nearly 
 forty degrees of longitude, and contained an area of 
 between one and two million square miles. Their sub- 
 jects, though unacquainted with letters, had in many 
 respects advanced to a high degree of civilization. They 
 understood the working of the precious metals, archi- 
 tecture, and many other arts, and were especially dis- 
 tinguished for the general liberality and wisdom of their 
 state policy ; though some of their laws and regulations 
 »ere, according to the standard of Christian civilization, 
 iotli unjust and inhuman. 
 
 See Prescott's " Conquest of Pent," book i. chap. i. 
 
 Inch'bald, (Elizabeth,) a popular English actress, 
 novelist, and dramatist, born at Stanningfield in 1 753, 
 was the (laughter of a farmer named Simpson. At the 
 age of sixteen she came to London with the intention of 
 becoming an actress, and was married to Mr. Inchbald, 
 who had obtained some success on the stage. After 
 performing with her husband several seasons at Edin- 
 otirgh and other towns, she made her debut at Covent 
 Garden in 1780, and was very successful. Her success 
 is ascribed in a great measure to her personal beauty 
 and virtuous character. In 1789 she retired from the 
 stage. She wrote "Such Things Are," "Every One 
 has his Fault," "To Marry or Not to Marry," and many 
 other plays. Her greatest productions are two novels, 
 "A Simple Story," (1 791,) and "Nature and Art," (1796,) 
 which obtained extensive and durable popularity. Her 
 '"Nature and Art,'" says Hazlitt, "is one of the most 
 interesting and pathetic stories in the world." The 
 other work is highly commended by Miss Edgeworth. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 See her Life, by Boadf.n, 183.1: Mrs. Elwood, " Memoin of 
 the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of the 
 Last Century," vol. i., 1843. 
 
 Inch'}-qutu, (Morroch O'Brien.) Baron of, a 
 famous Irish soldier, born about 1618. lie acted a 
 prominent part in the civil war, fighting alternately for 
 Charles I. and against him. Me was a royalisl from 1640 
 to 1645, and gained several victories. About 1649 he 
 entered the French service, with the rank of general. 
 Died in 1674. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1814. 
 
 Iiichofer, ing'Ko'fcr, (Meichiok,) a Jesuit, born in 
 Vienna in 1584, lived in various cities of Italy, and wrote 
 several learned works, among which is the " Ecclesias- 
 
 tical History of Hungary," (1644, unfinished.) He had 
 more learning than critical judgment. Died in 1648. 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Iucledon, ink'el-d<?n, (Benjamin Charles,) an Eng- 
 lish vocalist, born in Cornwall in 1764, served several 
 years in the royal navy. He first appeared in a London 
 theatre in 1790, and performed many years with success. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Indaco, 1', len'da-ko, (Francesco,) a painter of the 
 Florentine school, flourished about 1530. 
 
 Indaco, 1', (Jacopo da Firenze,) a Florentine painter, 
 a brother of the preceding, was a pupil of Ghirlandaio, 
 and worked at Rome. 
 
 See Vasaki, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 India, en'de-a, (Tullio, ) called the Elder, a 
 painter of the Venetian school, was born at Verona, and 
 flourished in 1545. He was a skilful painter in fresco, 
 and an excellent copyist. 
 
 His son Bernardino, a painter, was born at Verona. 
 One of his later works is dated 1584. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 In-dibl-lis, a Spanish chief, who flourished during 
 the first Punic war, in which he fought for and betrayed 
 both sides. He fought for the Carthaginians in the 
 battle at which Publius Scipio was killed, in 213 B.C. 
 His army was defeated by the younger Scipio in 207. 
 He was killed in battle by the Romans in 205 B.C. 
 
 See Livv, " History of Rome," books xxii. and xxv.-xxix. 
 
 Indra, In'dRa, [etymology doubtful ; possibly related 
 to the Latin imber, (Gr. (fyiifyoc,) a " shower" or " rain- 
 storm,"] the regent of the firmament, in the Hindoo 
 mythology, is the son of Kasyapa and Aditi. As the 
 god of storms and thunder, he may be said to correspond 
 very nearly to the Roman Jupiter and Greek Zeus. In 
 the early period of the Hindoo mythology he was (like 
 Jupiter) regarded as the most powerful of the gods ; but, 
 after the introduction of the deities of the Hindoo triad, 
 Hrahma, Vishnu, and Siva, Indra, Varuna, and Agni 
 were deposed from their high rank and made to occupy 
 a far inferior position. Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, is 
 represented, while still an infant, as baffling with the 
 utmost ease the mightiest efforts of the god of thunder. 
 (See Krishna.) Indra is supposed to preside over all 
 atmospheric changes ; the clouds are his war-elephants, 
 one of which, represented with three trunks and called 
 Iravat,* (I-ri'vat,) is his vahan, (or "vehicle,"t) and his 
 most terrible weapon is his vajra, (pronounced by the 
 modern Hindoos vuj'ra or biij'ra,) or "adamantine thun- 
 derbolt. "J The heaven or paradise of Indra is called 
 Swarga or Swerga, (pronounced swur'ga.) Here dwell 
 the Apsaras, the beautiful dancing-girls of his court, who 
 may lie said to correspond to the Hoorees (Houiis) of 
 Mohammed's paradise, and the Gandharvas, or celestial 
 minstrels. The consort of Indra is named Indrani, (in- 
 dKi'nee.) His capital city is called Amravati, (iim-rl'- 
 va-tee,) or the "city of immortality." 
 
 See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon;" Coleman's " Mythology of the 
 Hindus;" Sir William Jones's Works, vol. xiii., (or vol. vi, of 
 another edition;) H. H. Wilson's "Translation of the Rig-Veda,' 
 and " Essays on the Religion of the Hindus." 
 
 Indtino, cn-doo'no, (Domf.nico,) an Italian painter 
 of history mi, genre, born at Milan in 1815. He gained 
 the grand prize in 1837. 
 
 Indutiomare. See Indutiomarus. 
 
 Indutiomarus or Induciomarus, in-du-she-om'a- 
 rus, [Kr. Indutiomark, iN'du'se'o'maV,] a chief of the 
 Treviri, fought against Julius Cxsar, and was killed in 
 54 B.C. 
 
 Ifiea (cn'yes) or l&ez de Castro, en'yeth dl kis'tRo, 
 sometimes Anglicised as Agnks de C astro, a beautiful 
 Spanish lady, whose tragical fate is commemorated by 
 Camoens in the " Lusiad," was bom of a noble family 
 in Castile in the fourteenth century. Having been a 
 maid of honour at the court of Alphonso IV. of Por- 
 tugal, she won the love of his son Don Pedro, who 
 privately married her. The king, on learning the fact, 
 
 • Iravat signifies " watery," " full of rain," (in Latin,//OT<V«fci.) 
 t See note under Garuda. 
 
 J This word {vajra) signifies both " thunderbolt" and " adamant,' 
 or "diamond." 
 
 t; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; t h as in this. {$&~ See Explanations, p. 2J.) 
 
 can 
 
INF ANT ADO 
 
 1242 
 
 INGLES 
 
 was violently enraged, and, after vain efforts to dissolve 
 their union, authorized her assassination in 1355. She 
 was eminent for virtue, grace, and intelligence. Her 
 story is the subject of numerous dramas, legends, etc. 
 
 See Mrs. Behn, "The History of Agnes de Castro;" Lope de 
 Vega, "Donna Inez de Castro;" J. B. Gomez, Jr., " Nova Castro," 
 Lisbon, 1817. 
 
 Infautado, de, da en-fan-ta'Do, Duque, a Spanish 
 statesman, born in 1773, was an intimate friend of the 
 Prince of Asturias, (Ferdinand VII.) In 1808 he ac- 
 companied that prince to Bayonne, and signed the con- 
 stitution which Napoleon imposed on Spain. In 1809 
 he commanded an army which was defeated by the 
 French at Saint Sebastian. Ferdinand VII. appointed 
 him president of the council of Castile in 1814. He 
 resigned in 1820, and was prime minister for a short 
 time in 1825. Died in 1841. 
 
 Ingalls, ing'galz, (Rufus,) an American general, born 
 in Oxford county, Maine, about 1820, graduated at West 
 Point in 1843, and was appointed a brigadier-general 
 of volunteers in September, 1862. He served as chief 
 quartermaster of the army of the Potomac in 1863-65. 
 
 Ingeburga, ing'eh-booR'ga, sometimes written Ing- 
 elburge or Ingerburga, a Danish princess, was the 
 sister of Canute VI. In 1 192 she became the wife of 
 Philip Augustus of France, who soon after divorced 
 her without good reason. She appealed to the pope, 
 Innocent III., who decided in her favour; and after the 
 kingdom of Philip had been laid under an interdict, 
 he was induced to reinstate her. Died in 1236. 
 
 See De Thou, " Histoire universelle." 
 
 Ingegneri, en-jeii-ya'ree, (Angiolo,) an Italian litte- 
 rateur, born in Venice about 1550, was secretary of Car- 
 dinal C. Aldobrandini at Rome, whose service he quitted 
 in 1598. He wrote a pastoral called "The Dance of 
 Venus," (" La Danza di Venere,") " Buon Segretario," 
 and a few other worUs, in prose and verse. He was a 
 friend of Tasso. Died in 1613. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Ingegno, L\ See Luigi, (Andrea.) 
 
 Ingelman, ing'el-man', (C. G.,) a Swedish poet, born 
 in 1788; died in 1845. 
 
 In'ge-lo, (Nathaniel,) D.D., an English clergyman, 
 wrote "Bentivolio and Urania," a romance, (1660,) also 
 a few sermons. Died in 1683. 
 
 Iu'ge-low, (Jean,) a popular English writer and 
 poetess, born about 1825, published "Poems," (1863,) 
 "Studies for Stories," (1865,) "A Story of Doom," 
 (1867,) and "Mopsa the Fairy," (1869.) 
 
 Ingemann, ing'eh-man', (Bernhard Severin, ) a 
 popular Danish poet and novelist, was born in the island 
 of Falster, May 28, 1789. He produced a volume of 
 lyric poems (" Digte") in 1811, and an epic poem, called 
 "The Black Knights," (" De Sortie Riddere,") in 1814. 
 His tragedies "Blanca" and " Masaniello" (1815) were 
 performed with great success. About 1820 he published 
 an admired dramatic poem, called " The Deliverance of 
 Tasso." He was chosen professor of Danish at the Acad- 
 emy of Soroe in 1822. He is author of several popular 
 historical novels, among which are " Waldemar the Vic- 
 tor," (1826,) and "Prince Otho of Denmark," (1835.) 
 
 See William and Maky Howitt, "The Literature and Romance 
 of Northern Europe," vol. ii., 1852 : LoNGKELmw, " Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe;" Erslew, "Almindeligt K oifatter- Lexicon ;" M6li.er. 
 "Dansk Pantheon ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for Apnl, 183S. 
 
 Ingen or Inghen, van, vSn ing'gen or ing'nen, (Wil- 
 LEM,) a Dutch painter, born in 1651, studied under C. 
 Maratta at Rome. He worked in Venice and Naples, 
 and settled in Amsterdam. His works have considera- 
 ble merit. Died about 1710. 
 
 Ingenhousz, ing'gen-hows', (Jan,) an eminent Dutch 
 physician and chemist, born at Breda in 1730. About 
 1767 he visited London, where he became intimate with 
 Dr. Pringle, president of the Royal Society, by whose 
 recommendation he became physician to the empress 
 Maria Theresa in 1772. He was made a member of 
 the aulic council in Vienna, and received a pension for 
 life. After remaining in Vienna a number of years, he 
 travelled in France, Italy, etc., pursuing his scientific 
 studies and experiments, and at last settled in London, 
 and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He in- 
 vented an electrophorus, and discovered that growing 
 
 plants exposed to the light exhale oxygen gas, (1779.) 
 His principal works (which are all written in English) 
 are " Experiments on Vegetables, discovering their Power 
 of Purifying the Air," (1779,) an " Essay on the Food of 
 Plants," and " Experiments and Observations on Various 
 Physical Subjects." The invention of the plate electrical 
 machine is attributed to him. Died in 1799. 
 See " Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Iageraoll, ing'ger-sol, (Charles Tared,) a lawyer 
 and writer, a son oi" Jared, noticed below, was born in 
 Philadelphia in 1782. He was elected to Congress in 
 1812, and was appointed district attorney for Pennsyl- 
 vania by President Madison in 1815. He was chosen 
 a Democratic member of Congress in 1840, 1842, and 
 
 1844. Among his works are "Chiomara," a poem, 
 (1800,) and a "Historical Sketch of the Second Wax 
 between the United States of America and Great Britain," 
 (4 vols., 1845-52.) Died in 1862. 
 
 See Duvckinck, "Cyclopedia of American Literature." vol. ii. 
 
 Ingersoll, (Jared,) LL.D., an American jurist, born 
 in Connecticut in 1749. He graduated at Yale in 1766, 
 studied law at the Temple in London, and on returning to 
 America took up his residence in Philadelphia. Though 
 the son of a royalist, he zealously advocated the rights 
 of the colonies in the Revolution. He rose to great dis- 
 tinction in his profession, was twice attorney-general of 
 Pennsylvania, once United States district attorney, and in 
 the latter part of his life president-judge of the district 
 court of Philadelphia. He served in the convention that 
 framed the Federal Constitution in 1787, and in 1812 was 
 the candidate of the Federal party for the Vice-Presidency 
 of the United States. Died in 1822. 
 
 Ingersoll, (Joseph Reed,) D.C.L., son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in Philadelphia, June 14, 1786. He 
 graduated at Yale College in 1808, and attained to a high 
 rank in the legal profession in his native city. He was a 
 representative in Congress from 1835 to 1837, and was 
 reelected by the Whig party in 1841, and again in 1843, 
 
 1845, and 1847. He took a prominent part in the debates 
 on the tariff, and was for some time chairman of the 
 committee on the judiciary. He was appointed minister 
 to England by President Fillmore in 1852. Died in 186S. 
 
 Ing'ham, (Charles C.,) an eminent American por- 
 trait-painter, born about 1797. He worked in the city 
 of New York, where he died in December, 1863. His 
 pictures are remarkable for their high finish. 
 
 See Dunlap, "Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in 
 America." 
 
 Inghen. See Ingen. 
 
 Inghirami, en ge-ra'mee, (Cavaliere Francesco,) 
 an eminent Italian antiquary, born at Volterra in 1772, 
 devoted many years to researches into ancient art, and 
 acquired .a European reputation by his writings. The 
 most important of these is his "Monumenti Etruschi," 
 (10 vols., 1821-27,) which is the most complete de- 
 scription of the antiquities of Etruria. He wrote, also, 
 "Galleria Omerica," (3 vols., 1827-38,) illustrative of 
 Homer's poems, and " Letters on Etruscan Erudition, 
 etc.," (1828.) Died in 1846. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Inghirami, (Tommaso Ff.dra,) an eminent Italian 
 scholar and orator, born at Volterra in 1470, settled at 
 Rome in early youth, and obtained high preferments. 
 He acquired the fame of being one of the most eloquent 
 men of modern Rome ; and Erasmus informs us that he 
 was styled the Cicero of his age. He was patronized 
 by Julius II., who appointed him keeper of the Vatican 
 Library. He left in manuscript a "Commentary on 
 Horace's Art of Poetry," "An Abstract of Roman His- 
 tory," and other works. Died in 1516. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Tira- 
 boschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 In'gl-ald, (almost in'jald,) King of Sweden, surnamed 
 Illrada, ("the Bad,") reigned in the seventh century, 
 and was the last of his dynasty. In consequence of his 
 crimes, some of his subjects revolted with success, and 
 he destroyed himself. Iwar, Prince of Scania, succeeded 
 him; 
 
 Ingles, ing-glSs', (Master Jorge,) a Spanish painter, 
 was eminent in history and portraits. He worked at 
 Granada in 1455. 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
INGLES 
 
 1243 
 
 INMAN 
 
 Ingles, (Don JosE,) a Spanish fresco-painter, born at 
 Valencia in 1 718 ; died in 1786. 
 
 Inglis, ing'glis, (Henry David,) a Scottish writer of 
 travels, born in Edinburgh in 1795. ^ e travelled exten- 
 sively in Europe, and published excellent books of travel, 
 viz., •' Solitary Walks through Many Lands," (3d edition, 
 1S43,) a "Journey through Norway, Sweden, and Den- 
 mark," (1829,) "Tour through Switzerland, the South of 
 France," etc., (1830,) " Spain in 1830," (from which Lord 
 Aberdeen said he had derived more' information than 
 from all the state documents he ever perused,) " The 
 Tyrol, with a Glance at Bavaria," (1834,) and " Rambles 
 in the Footsteps of Don Quixote." Died in 1835. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Iuglis or English, (Sir James,) a poet, born in Scot- 
 land m the reign of James IV., is supposed to be the 
 author of a book entitled "The Complaint of Scotland," 
 published at Saint Andrew's in 1548, said to be the most 
 ancient Scottish prose work that is extant. Died in 1530. 
 
 Inglis, (John,) D.D., born in Edinburgh in 1763, 
 was one of the ministers of the Greyfriars' Church in 
 that city. He published a " Vindication of the Christian 
 Faith," (1830,) and a few other works. Died in 1834. 
 
 Inglis, (John,) an eminent Scottish advocate, a son 
 of the preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1810. He 
 became lord advocate in May, 1852, and was elected 
 dean of the faculty in the same year. Having retired 
 from office with the Derby ministry in December, 1852, 
 he was restored to the same in 1858, and became lord 
 justice clerk in the same year. 
 
 In'glis, (Sir John Eardi.ey Wilmot,) a British gen- 
 eral, born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, about 1815, was a son 
 of the Bishop of Nova Scotia. He distinguished himself 
 in the campaign of the Punjab in 1848-49, and obtained 
 the rank of lieutenant-colonel. His regiment was at 
 Lucknow when that place was besieged by the Sepoys 
 in the summer of 1857. On the death of Sir Henry 
 Lawrence he succeeded to the command of the garrison. 
 He received the brevet of major-general for his heroic 
 defence of Lucknow. Died at Homburg, Germany, in 
 September, 1862. 
 
 Inglis, (Sir Robert Harry,) M.P., born in 1786, was 
 the only son of Sir Hugh Inglis, chairman of the East 
 India Company. He was first elected to Parliament in 
 1824. From 1829 to 1853 he represented the University 
 of Oxford, and constantly voted with the Tories against 
 the Reform bill, the relief of the Catholics, etc Died 
 in 1855. 
 
 Iuglis, (Sir William,) a British general, born in 1762, 
 served with distinction in the Peninsular war. Died 
 in 1835. 
 
 Ingoldsby, ing'go!z-be, (Thomas,) the assumed name 
 of Richard H. Barham. (See Barham.) 
 
 Ing'on I., surnamed the Good, King of Sweden, was 
 the son and successor of Stenkil, and began to reign 
 about 1080. He favoured the propagation ofChristianity 
 among his subjects. Died in 1112. 
 
 Ingon U., a nephew of the preceding, was one of his 
 successors, and snared the royal power with his brother 
 Philip. Slavery was gradually abolished in his reign. 
 Died in 1130. 
 
 Ingoni, en-go'nce, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Modena in 1528; died in 1608. 
 
 Ingoni, (Mattko,) a painter of the Venetian school, 
 born at Ravenna in 1587; died in 1631. 
 
 Ingouf, aN'gooP,) Francois Robert,) a skilful French 
 engraver, born in Paris in 1747. He engraved "The 
 Nativity," after Raphael, and some of the plates for the 
 "Musee Francais." Died in 1812. His brother, Pierre 
 Charles, born in Paris in 1746, was also a successful 
 engraver. Died in 1800. 
 
 Ingraham, ing'gra-am, (Duncan Nathaniel,) a 
 naval commander, born in Charleston, South Carolina, 
 in 1802. He gained distinction by his spirited conduct 
 in procuring the release from an Austrian war-vessel, 
 at Smyrna, in June, 1853, of Martin Koszta, a Hungarian, 
 who had legally declared his intention to become a 
 citizen of the United States. As a mark of its approval, 
 the general government presented Ingraham with a medal. 
 He was raised to the rank of captain in 1855. 
 
 Ingraham, (Joseph H.,) an American writer, born 
 at Portland, Maine, in 1809. Among his productions 
 are the romances of " Lafitte," " Captain Kyd," and 
 "The Dancing Feather." He has also written "The 
 Prince of the House of David," and other similar works. 
 
 Ingram, ing'gram, (Herbert,) an English printer, 
 born at Boston in 181 1, founded the " Illustrated Lon- 
 don News" in 1842. He was elected to Parliament in 
 1856, and visited the United States in i860. In Sep- 
 tember of that year he was drowned in Lake Michigan, 
 in consequence of a collision. 
 
 Ingram, (James,) D.D., an English clergyman, born 
 in Wiltshire in 1774, became president of Trinity College, 
 Oxford, in 1824, and rector of Garsington. He published 
 an edition of the " Saxon Chronicle," (1823,) "Memorials 
 of Oxford," (1834-37,) which was favourably received, 
 and several other works. Died in 1850. 
 
 Ingram, (Robert,) an English clergyman, born at 
 Beverley, Yorkshire, in 1727. He became vicar of Orston 
 and Boxled, and published, besides other works," Isaiah's 
 Vision," (1784,) and "The Seventh Plague," (1787.) Died 
 in 1804. 
 
 Ingrassia, en-gRas'se-a, written also Ingrassias, 
 (Giovanni Filippo,) an eminent Sicilian physician and 
 anatomist, born at Palermo about 1510, taught anatomy 
 at Naples. In 1563 he was chosen by Philip II. first 
 physician of Sicily, and in 1575 he checked the ravages 
 of the plague at Palermo. He wrote a "Commentary 
 on the Bones," and other able treatises on anatomy. 
 Died in 1580. 
 
 See Eloy, " Dictionnaire historiqne de la Medecine." 
 
 Ingres, aNgR, (Jean Auguste Dominique,) a cele- 
 brated French historical painter, born at Montauban in 
 1780 or 1781, was a pupil of David. He gained the first 
 prize in 1801 for a picture of "Achilles receiving in his 
 Tent the Envoys of Agamemnon." He worked about 
 twenty years (1804-24) in Rome and Florence, choosing 
 Raphael as his model. During this period he painted 
 "CEdipus and the Sphinx," "Raphael and La Fornarina," 
 and "Odalisque," (1819.) He returned to Paris in 1824, 
 became the founder of a school, and exhibited " The 
 Vow of Louis XIII.," one of his best works, which 
 opened to him the doors of the Institute in 1825. In 
 1827 he painted on the ceiling of the Louvre "The 
 Apotheosis of Homer," which is called his master-piece. 
 At the Exposition of 1855 a. salon was reserved exclu- 
 sively for his works, which are said to have had a wide 
 influence on the style of French and foreign artists. He 
 is called the representative of correct design and ideal 
 composition. Died in January, 1867. 
 
 See L. dk LomSnik, " M. Ingres, par un Homme de Rien," 1842, 
 Frederic Mekcey, "Peintres et Sculpteurs modernes : J. Ingres,' 
 1846; " Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale. 
 
 Inguimbert, d'.d&N'gaN'baiR', (Joseph Dominique,) 
 a French bishop, born at Carpentras in 1683, assumed 
 the name of Dom Malachie. He became an intimate 
 counsellor of Pope Clement XII., who appointed him 
 domestic prelate, and in 1733 Bishop of Carpentras. He 
 built a hospital in that town, and founded a large public 
 library there. He wrote and translated several religious 
 works. Died in 1757. 
 
 See Vita us, "Notice surla Viede Malachie d' Inguimbert," 181a 
 
 Ingulf. See Ingulphus. 
 
 In-gul'phus or In'gulf, a monk, born in London 
 about 1030, became secretary and favourite of William, 
 Duke of Normandy, in 1051. After that prince had 
 become King of England, Ingulphus was made abbot of 
 the monastery of Croyland. He died in 1109. He was 
 the reputed author of a History of the above monastery, 
 in Latin, containing much curious and important infor- 
 mation ; but Sir Francis Palgrave has proved that it is a 
 forgery. 
 
 See Oxdkncus Vilalis, " Historia Ecclesiastica." 
 
 Iu'I-go, an English engraver, whose proper name was 
 John Collet, was born about 1725. He excelled in 
 the same line as Hogarth, and displayed an original 
 genius for humorous design. He left but few works, 
 among which is a " Monkey pointing to a Very Dark 
 Picture of Moses striking the Rock.'.' Died in 1780. 
 
 In'man, (Henry,) an American portrait-painter, born 
 at Utica, New York, in i8ot, was a pupil of Jarvis. He 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as t; th as in this. (2^"See Explanations, p. 2\.) 
 
1NMAN 
 
 1244 
 
 INNOCENT 
 
 worked mostly in the city of New York. During a visit 
 to England, in 1844, he painted portraits of the poet 
 Wordsworth, Dr. Chalmers, and T. 1$. Macaulay. Among 
 his other works are portraits of Chief-Justice Marshall 
 and Bishop White. He was commissioned by Congress 
 to adorn the national capitol with historical paintings ; 
 but before he had finished them he died, in 1846. 
 
 See Duni.ap, " Kise and Progress of the Arts of Design in 
 America;" Tuckerman, " Hook of the Artists." 
 
 Innian, (John,) a brother of the preceding, born at 
 Dtica, New York, in 1805, was an associate editor of 
 the "New York Mirror" and "The Commercial Adver- 
 tiser." Died in 1850. 
 
 In'nes, (Louis,) a Roman Catholic priest, born of a 
 Scottish family about 1650. He became secretary to 
 James II. after he was deposed from the English throne. 
 He is the reputed author of " Memoirs of James II.," part 
 of which was published by J. Stanier Clarke in 1816. 
 
 lanes, (Thomas,) a brother of the preceding, born 
 in 1662, studied in Paris, was ordained a priest, and suc- 
 ceeded Louis as principal of the Scottish College. He 
 wrote a " Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of 
 the Northern Parts of Britain," (1729,) which is highly 
 :ommended for sound learning, judicious criticism, and 
 valuable information. Died in 1744. 
 
 SeeCHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 In'no-cent [Lat. Innocen'tius; It. Innocenzo, en- 
 no-cheVzo ; Ger. Innocenz, in'no-tsSnts ; Span. Ino- 
 CENCIO, e-no-i/ih\'t/ie-o] I., a native of Albano, chosen 
 Bishop of Rome in 402 A.D., was contemporary with 
 Augustine and Jerome. During his pontificate, Rome 
 was pillaged by Alaric the Goth. Innocent strenuously 
 asserted the supremacy of the see of Rome, and con- 
 demned the doctrines of Pelagius. Died in 417, and was 
 succeeded by Zosimus. 
 
 See Bruys, " Histoire des Papes," 5 vols., 1735. 
 
 Innocent II., Pope, was elected in 1130 as successor 
 to Honorius II. Another party elected a rival pope, 
 under the name of Anacletus II., whose partisans drove 
 Innocent out of Rome. The latter was recognized as pope 
 by the Kings of France, England, and Germany, and his 
 rival was supported by Roger of Sicily. In 1138, Inno- 
 cent, assisted by Lotharius of Germany, recovered the 
 papal power, and, his rival having died in the same year, 
 the unity of the Church was restored. In 1 139 Arnaldo 
 da Brescia was banished from Rome for preaching doc- 
 trines that were deemed unsound. Innocent died in 
 J 143, and was succeeded by Celestine II. 
 
 See Pi.atina, " Vite de' sumnii Pontefici." 1613 ; Alletz, " His- 
 toire des Papes," 1776: J. Hartmann, "Vita Innocenlii II. Pon- 
 tificis," 1744: Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pon- 
 tifes," 1847-49. 
 
 Innocent HI., whose proper name was Lotharius, 
 
 was the son of Trasimund, a>Roman count, and was born 
 in Rome in 1161. He was unanimously elected pope in 
 January, 1 198, as successor to Celestine III. With su- 
 perior abilities, improved by diligent study, he combined 
 great resolution, industry, and austerity of character, and 
 availed himself of every opportunity to magnify his office 
 and to assert the supremacy of the papal power. In 1 199 
 he placed the kingdom of France under an interdict be- 
 cause the king, Philip Augustus, had repudiated his wife ; 
 and thus he compelled him to reinstate her. About 1200 
 he instigated the fourth crusade, the principal result of 
 which was the capture of Constantinople from the Greeks 
 by the crusaders. In 1212 he excommunicated and de- 
 posed Otho, Emperor of Germany, and crowned Frede- 
 rick of Sicily in his place. A memorable quarrel occurred 
 between this pontiff and King John of England, respect- 
 ing the appointment of the Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 (1207,) the right to appoint being obstinately asserted by 
 each. England was laid under an interdict, which lasted 
 two years, at the expiration of which, as John was still 
 refractory, the pope declared him to be deposed, and 
 authorized Philip Augustus of France to execute the 
 decree. While the latter was preparing to invade Eng- 
 land, John submitted to the pope, in 1213, and signed a 
 disgraceful treaty, in which he consented to hold Eng- 
 land and Ireland as fiefs of the Church of Rome, and to 
 pay an annual tribute of one thousand marks. In 1214 
 Innocent raised a cruel persecution or crusade against 
 
 the Albigenses for heresy. During his pontificate the 
 papal power attained its greatest height. He was perhaps 
 the most learned man and the most able statesman of 
 his age. He wrote " letters," and other works, which are 
 highly commended. Died in 1216, and was succeeded by 
 Honorius III. 
 
 See F. Hurter, "Geschichte Innocenz III.," 2 vols., 1835, (and 
 French version of the same, 4 vols., 1838-43 ;) D. Lrssmann, " Pabst 
 Innocenz III. und Fiirst Michael Glinski," 1830; Jorry, "Histoire 
 du Pape Innocent IIL" 1852; Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des 
 souverains Pontifes," 1847-49 : }■ H. Gurney, " Four Ecclesiastical 
 Biographies," London, 1864. 
 
 Innocent IV., (Sinibaldo de' Pieschi— da fe-es'- 
 kee,) a native of Genoa, was elected pope as successor to 
 Celestine IV. in 1243. He soon found himself involved 
 in a quarrel with the emperor Frederick II., (who had 
 been excommunicated by Gregory IX.,) and retired for 
 security to Lyons. Here he summoned a council, in 
 1245, and renewed the excommunication of Frederick, 
 who was also formally deposed. The emperor, however, 
 refused to submit to this assumption, and waged war 
 against the pope for several years, until his death in 1250. 
 Innocent then returned to his capital, and proclaimed a 
 crusade against Conrad, the son of Frederick ; but again 
 his malignity was baffled. He died in 1254, and was 
 succeeded by Alexander IV. 
 
 See J. Hartmann, "Vita Innocentii IV.." 1738; Paolo Panza, 
 "Vita del gran Pontefice Innocenzio Quarto," 1601. 
 
 Innocent V., ( Peter of Tarantasia, ) born at 
 Moutier, in Savoy, was elected in 1276 as successor to 
 Gregory X. After holding office a few months, he died 
 in the same year. 
 
 Innocent VI., ( Etienne Aubert — 6'baiR', ) a 
 Frenchman, born near Pompadour, was elected pope 
 in 1352. He succeeded Clement VI., who had made 
 him a cardinal and Bishop of Ostia. His court was kept 
 at Avignon throughout his pontificate. He reformed 
 some abuses in the Church, and appears to have acted 
 with more moderation and propriety than most of his 
 predecessors. Died in 1362. 
 
 See Bruys, "Histoire des Papes," 1735: Sismondi, "Histoire 
 des Francais." 
 
 Innocent VII., (Cardinal Cosmo Migliorati — mel- 
 yo-ra'tee,) born at Sulmona about 1338, was elected pope 
 in 1404, as successor to Boniface IX. At that time there 
 was an extensive schism in the Church, and Benedict 
 XIII. held a rival court at Avignon. Died in 1406. 
 
 See Pi.atina, " Vite de' summi Pontefici," 1613. 
 
 Innocent VHI., (Giovanni Battista Cibo — chee'- 
 bo,) born at Genoa in 1434, was elected pope in 1484, as 
 successor to Sixtus IV. He laboured without success 
 to unite the sovereigns of Europe against the Turks, 
 and was himself engaged in war with Ferdinand, King 
 of Naples. He died in 1491, and was succeeded by 
 Alexander VI. 
 
 See F. Serdonati, "Vita d'Innocenzo VIII.," 1829: F. M. 
 Vialardo, " Istoria della Vita d'Innocenzo VIII.," 1613. 
 
 Innocent IX., (Antonio Facchinetti — fak-ke- 
 net'tee,) born at Bologna, succeeded Gregory XIV. in 
 October, 1591, but only survived two months after his 
 election. lie left a good reputation for virtue and 
 wisdom. Clement VIII. was his successor. 
 
 See Ranke, " History of the Popes." 
 
 Innocent X., (Giovanni Battista Panfili — pan- 
 fee'lee,) elected in place of Urban VIII. in 1644, was 
 born in Rome about 1570. He owed his promotion to 
 the Barberini, who soon became his enemies. The Jan- 
 senist controversy having made a great commotion in 
 the Church, Innocent appointed a commission of car- 
 dinals to settle it, and in 1653 issued a bull aim occasione, 
 in which he condemned the five propositions of Jansen. 
 Historians differ widely as to the character of this pontiff. 
 He died in 1655, and was succeeded by Alexander VII. 
 
 See Ranke. " History of the Popes:" Ciaconius, " Vitae et Res 
 gesta Pontificum Romanorum," 4 vols., 1677. 
 
 Innocent XI, (Cardinal Benedict Odescalchi — 
 
 o-des-kal'kee,) born at Como in 161 1, succeeded Clement 
 X. in 1676. He had been made a cardinal in 1647, and 
 had sustained a respectable character. He soon mani- 
 fested his zeal to reform abuses and restore strict disci- 
 pline, and his inflexible resolution to maintain the papal 
 
 1, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, sAor/;a.,e, i,o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
INNOCENT 
 
 1245 
 
 IPH1TUS 
 
 prerogatives. His pontificate was signalized by a re- 
 markable contest with Louis XIV. of France in relation 
 to the rfgale and the privileges or exemptions of foreign 
 ambassadors at Rome. The pope wished to abolish the 
 DM ge which rendered the ambassador's palace, with the 
 adjacent premises, an asylum for malefactors, etc., inac- 
 cessible to the officers of justice. Louis XIV. in 1687 
 sent his ambassador Lavardin with orders to maintain 
 his rights, and with an armed retinue of eight hundred 
 men. The pope persisted, and excommunicated Lavar- 
 din, who returned without effecting his object ; and the 
 quarrel was not ended until after the death of Innocent, 
 which occurred in 1689. It seems that his enmity to Louis 
 induced this pontiff to favour the English in resistance 
 to fames 1 1. ; and some one remarked that the peace of 
 Europe would be promoted if James would become a 
 Protestant, and the pope a Catholic. 
 
 See Ughelli, ''Italia sacra," 10 fills., 1717-22; Rankb, "His- 
 tory of the Popes;" Sismondi, "Histoire des Franc.iis;" F. 
 lH'i.NAMki. " De Vita et Rebus gestis Innocentii XI.," 1776, 
 
 Innocent XII., (Antonio Pignatelli — pen-va-tel'- 
 lee,) born in Naples in 1615, became Cardinal and" Arch- 
 bishop o! Naples during the pontificate of Innocent XI., 
 and succeeded Alexander VIII. as pope in July, 1692. 
 He proposed to take Innocent XI. as his model, and 
 appears to deserve credit for his economy, regular habits, 
 liberality, and works of utility. In his pontificate a re- 
 conciliation was effected with the French court by mutual 
 concession. Quietism also received its quietus, in 1699, 
 by a papal brief condemning Fenelon'g " Maximes des 
 Saints." He died in 1700, and was succeeded by Clem- 
 ent XI. 
 
 See Ranke, "History of the Popes;" Bruys, "Histoire des 
 Papes," 1735. 
 
 Innocent XIII., (Michelangelo Conti — kon'tee,) 
 bom in Rome in 1655, was the son of the Duke of 
 Poli, and attained the dignity of cardinal in 1706. He 
 succeeded Clement XI. as pope in 1721, and exercised 
 his power so prudently that his subjects regretted the 
 brevity of its duration. He died in 1724, and his place 
 was supplied by Benedict XIII. 
 
 See Bruvs, " Histoire des Papes," 1735 ; " Leben Pabst Innocenz 
 XIII.," Cologne, 1734. 
 
 Imiocentius. See Innocent. 
 
 Innocenz. See Innocent. 
 
 Innocenzo. See Innocent - . 
 
 I'no, [Gr. 'Ii'u,] a daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, 
 was the wife of Athamas, King of Thebes. According 
 to tradition, she incurred the enmity of Juno, who de- 
 prived Athamas of his reason. In a fit of insanity he 
 killed a son of Ino, who threw herself into the sea and 
 was changed into a sea-goddess, named Leucothea. Her 
 story was dramatized by several Greek poets. 
 
 Inocencio. See INNOCENT. 
 
 Interiano de Ayala,en-ti-re-a'no da i-a'la, (Juan,) 
 a Spanish author and monk, born in 1656, became 
 preacher to the king. He published, besides other works, 
 (mostly in Spanish,) " I'ictor Chiistianus Eruditus," 
 (1730,) in which he exposes the prevalent errors of 
 painters who treat of religious subjects. His style is 
 pure and elegant. Died in 1730. 
 
 See Ticknor. " History of Spanish Literature ;" Moreri, " Dic- 
 tionnairc Historique." 
 
 Inthiema, in-te-a'ma, (Hero,) a Dutch poet and jurist, 
 born in 1576; died in 1623. 
 
 Intieri, en-te-a'ree, ( Bartolommko, ) an Italian 
 economist and mechanician, born at Pistoia about 1674. 
 He founded a chair of political economy at Naples, and 
 wrote "On the Conservation of Grain." Died in 1757. 
 
 Intorcetta, en-toK-chet'ta, (Pkosi'kro,) a Jesuit mis- 
 gionary, born in Sicily in 1625, laboured in China, and 
 published Latin translations of some works of Confu- 
 cius. Died in 1696. 
 
 Inveges, en-va'jis, (AucusrtN,) a Sicilian historian 
 and ecclesiastic, born at Sciacca in 1595, published a 
 "History of Palermo," (3 vols., 1649-51,) which was 
 much esteemed. Died in 1677. 
 
 In'wood, (Charles Frederick,) son of William 
 Inwood, noticed below, was born in 1798. Heco-opcrated 
 with his father as architect of Westminster Hospital and 
 other edifices. Died in 1840. 
 
 Inwood, (Henry William,) an English architect, 11 
 brother of the preceding, was born in 1794. He was 
 associated in his profession with his father, and pub- 
 lished "Studies of the Architect from Nature," and an 
 illustrated work on Athenian architecture, called "The 
 Erechtheion at Athens," (1827.) He perished by ship- 
 wreck in 1843, while making a voyage to Spain. 
 
 Inwood, (William,) an English architect, born about 
 1770, was employed on many buildings in London, and 
 also followed the profession of surveyor. He was assisted 
 in his architectural labours by his two sons, noticed 
 above. Saint Pancras Church, London, finished in 1822, 
 was erected by him and his son Henry. He published 
 "Tables for Purchasing Estates," etc. Died in 1843. 
 
 I'o, [Gr. 'iu,] a fabulous personage, whom the Greek 
 poets represent as a daughter of Inachus and a priestess 
 of Juno. It was said that, having been transformed by 
 Jupiter into a white cow, she was tormented by a gadHy, 
 (sent by Juno,) to escape from which she swam across 
 the Ionian Sea and wandered through various parts of 
 the world. Her story is related by /Eschylus in his 
 " Suppliants." 
 
 I-o-la'ua [Gr. 'IoAaor] or I'o-las, [Gr. 'IoAac,] a per- 
 sonage of classic mythology, was a relative and faithful 
 companion of Hercules, whom he aided in his contest 
 against the Lernean Hydra. 
 
 I'o-le, [Gr. 'l<i/U/,[ the daughter of Eurytns, King of 
 CEchalia, who promised her in marriage to Hercules. 
 But, Eurytus having afterwards refused to perform his 
 engagement, Iole was forcibly carried off by her lover. 
 On the death of the latter, caused by Dejanira's jealousy, 
 (see Dkjanira,) Iole was married to Hyllus, the son of 
 Hercules. 
 
 I'on, [Gr. 'Iuv,] the mythical ancestor of the Ionians, 
 was supposed to be the son of Apollo and Creusa. His 
 story was dramatized by Euripides. 
 
 Ion, ["low,] a Greek tragic poet, who was born at 
 Chios, (Scio,) and flourished about 450 B.C. He lived 
 at Athens, where he became a friend of yEschylus and 
 gained a prize for one of his tragedies. He composed, 
 besides tragedies, elegies, lyric poems, and some prose 
 works, all of which are lost. He was included in the 
 canon of the five Athenian tragic poets by the Alexan- 
 drian critics. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Kayshr, " Historia cri- 
 tica Trayicorum Grecorum," 1845: Karl Nibberding, " Dc Ionil 
 Chii Vita, Moribus et Studiis," 1836. 
 
 I'p-phon, [Gr. 'Io^uv,] an Athenian tragic poet, a son 
 of Sophocles the poet, lived about 420 B.C. He gained 
 the second prize in 429, when Euripides received the 
 first prize. Among the titles of his plays are " Achilles," 
 " Actaeon," and " Pentheus." His works are not extant. 
 Died after 405 B.C. 
 
 See Kavser, " Historia critica Tragicorum Gr-ecorum," 1845. 
 
 Iouzef or Iouzaf. See Yoosef. 
 
 Iphicrate. See Iphicratks. 
 
 I-phic'ra-tei, [Gr. 'tyocpar»/c ; Fr. Iphicrate, e'fe'- 
 kRSt',] a skilful Athenian general, who rose from a 
 humble rank in society and obtained the chief command 
 of the Athenian army. About 392 B.C. he defeated the 
 Spartans near Corinth, and afterwards gained applause 
 by his defence of Corcyra against the Spartans and Syra- 
 cusans. He made important changes in the armour and 
 tactics of his troops, by exchanging the heavy buckler 
 for a light target and increasing the length of the speai 
 and the sword. He was associated with Timothetis and 
 Chares in the command of an expedition against Byzan- 
 tium about 357 B.C. 
 
 See C.rote, "History of Greece :" Cornelius Nepos, " Iphi- 
 crate* ;" DroDoRl'S StcULUS, books xiv., xv., and xvi. ; XsNOPMOlf, 
 " Hellenica." books iv. and vi. ; Rkhdantz, "Vitas Iphicralis, Cha- 
 briae et Timothei," Berlin, 184s. 
 
 Iph-I-ge-ni'a or Iph-I-6e-nei'a, [Gr. "\tfyeveia; Fr. 
 Ipiiioenie, e'fe zha'ne',| a daughter of Agamemnon and 
 Clytemnestra. The ancient poets relate that Diana 
 detained the Greek fleet at Aulis by a calm, because 
 Agamemnon had offended her, and that the soothsayer 
 Calchas declared Diana could be appeased only by the 
 sacrifice of Iphigenia. When she was on the point of 
 being immolated, she was rescued, it is said, by Diana, 
 who carried her to Tauris, where she became a priestess 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; O, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; I as *; th as in this. ( jjy See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
1PHIGENIE 
 
 1246 
 
 IRETON 
 
 in the temple of the goddess. Her story is the subject 
 of two of the dramas of Euripides. 
 
 Iphigenie. See Iphigenia. 
 
 Iph'I-tus, [Gr. "I^jroc,] a king of Elis, who revived 
 the Olympic games about 884 B.C., four hundred and 
 seventy years after their first institution. They were 
 celebrated everv fifth year, at Olympia, on the banks 
 of the Alpheus. Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, was 
 associated with Iphitus in this affair. 
 
 Ipparco, the Italian of Hipparchus, which see. 
 
 Ippocrate. See Hippocrates. 
 
 Ippolito. See Hiitolytijs. 
 
 Irailh, e'rtl', (Augustin Simon,) a French historical 
 writer, born at Puy-en-Velay in 1719, became canon 
 of Monistrol. He wrote an interesting work entitled 
 "Literary Quarrels, or Memoirs of the Revolutions in 
 the Republic of Letters from the Time of Homer to 
 the Present," (4 vols., 1761,) also a " History of the 
 Reunion of Bretagne with France," (2 vols., 1764.) Died 
 in 1794. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte"raire." 
 
 Irala Yuso, e-ra'la yoo'so, (Matias Antonio,) a 
 Spanish painter and engraver, born at Madrid in 1680; 
 died in 1753. 
 
 Ir'bjf, (Charles Leonard,) an English traveller, and 
 a commander in the royal navy. In conjunction with 
 James Mangles, he wrote a book entitled "Travels in 
 Egypt, Nubia, Syria, and the Holy Land," privately 
 printed in 1823. It has since been published, and is 
 reputed a valuable work. (See Mangles, Captain.) 
 
 Irby, (Frederick Paul,) a British naval officer, born 
 in 1779, commanded the Amelia in an indecisive action 
 against the French in 1813. Died in 1844. 
 
 Ire'dell, (Tr'del,) (James,) a distinguished jurist, born 
 in England in 1751, settled in North Carolina in 1768. 
 He was admitted to the bar in 1770, and in 1777 became 
 judge of the supreme court of North Carolina. This 
 position he resigned in 1779. He was one of the ablest 
 and most influential members of the convention called 
 in 1788 to consider the Federal Constitution, and from 
 1790 till his death, in 1799, was judge of the supreme 
 court of the United States. He published, under the 
 authority of the legislature, the "Laws of North Caro- 
 lina, 1715-1790," (1791.) 
 
 See G. J. McRee, "Life of James Iredell," 1857. 
 
 Iredell, (James,) a lawyer, a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Edenton, North Carolina, in 1788. He was 
 Governor of North Carolina in 1827, and was a Senator 
 of the United States from 1828 to 1831. He was sub- 
 sequently reporter to the supreme court of his native 
 State, and published thirteen volumes of law and eight 
 of equity reports. Died in 1853. 
 
 Ire'land, (John,) D.D., an English writer, born at 
 Ashburton in 1761, became prebendary of Westminster 
 in 1802, and Dean of Westminster and rector of Islip in 
 1816. He founded a professorship at Oxford, and several 
 scholarships. He was a contributor to the "London 
 Quarterly Review," and the author of several approved 
 works of divinity, among which is " Paganism and Chris- 
 tianity Compared." Died in 1842. 
 
 Ireland, (John,) an English writer, born in Shrop- 
 shire, removed to London, where he became a con- 
 noisseur of art and a dealer in pictures. He compiled 
 "Memoirs of Henderson" the actor, and published 
 " Hogarth Illustrated," which was favourably received. 
 Died^in 1808. 
 
 Ireland, (Samuel,) born in London, was a weaver 
 of Spitalfields in his youth. He became subsequently a 
 dealer in rare prints, curiosities, etc. Having acquired 
 some skill in drawing and engraving, he employed it 
 in illustrating various countries, of which he published 
 "Picturesque Tours." He was the author of "Graphic 
 Illustrations of Hogarth," and the publisher of the Shak- 
 speare Papers forged by his son. (See below.) Died 
 in 1800. 
 
 Ireland, (William Henry,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born in London in 1777. He acquired notoriety 
 in 1795 by forging legal documents under the seal of 
 Shakspeare, and by practising on the public credulity in 
 relation to dramas which he pretended to have found at 
 Stratford. One of these, called " Vortigern," was pur- 
 
 chased by Sheridan, and performed at Drury Lane before 
 the imposture was detected. The audience were ex- 
 tremely disgusted at the quality of the play, and Ireland, 
 lieing required to explain how he had obtained it, con- 
 fessed the forgery to his father, and afterwards published 
 a written confession, which displays more vanity than 
 penitence. ..Died in 1835. 
 
 Irenseus, e-ra-na'us, (Falkovski,) a learned Russian 
 prelate and writer on theology, born in 1762; died in 
 1823. 
 
 Irenseus, (Klementievski,) a Russian theologian, 
 born in 1753, became Archbishop of Pskof. He wrote 
 commentaries on Scripture, and translated from the 
 Greek some works of the Fathers. Died in 1818. 
 
 Irenseus, ir-e-nee'us, [Gr. TZiprivalog ; Fr. Irenee, e'ra'- 
 na'; It. Ireneo, e-ra-na'o,] Saint, a Christian martyr, 
 born about 130 or 140 A.D., was a Greek by birth, and 
 was probably a native of Asia Minor, as he was a pupil 
 of the eminent Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna. About 177 
 he became Bishop of Lyons, (Lugdunum,) in France, in 
 place of Pothinus, who was the first that occupied that 
 see. He ministered to his churches with wisdom and 
 general acceptance. To counteract the errors of the 
 Gnostics and others, he wrote a treatise against Heresies., 
 which is still extant, (in a Latin translation.) He also 
 wrote several Letters, and other works, which are lost, 
 except some fragments. It is generally supposed that 
 he suffered martyrdom under Septimus Severus ; but 
 the learned are not agreed whether it occurred in 202 
 or 208. He was well versed in ancient philosophy, as 
 well as in evangelical doctrine. His book on Heresies 
 is highly appreciated as a historical monument and a 
 vindication of the primitive faith. He was a believer in 
 the Millennium, and entertained opinions on that subject 
 which some consider extravagant. 
 
 See Saint Jerome, " De Viris itlustribns ;" Eusebius, " Historia 
 Ecclesiastica ;" Henry Dodwell, "Dissertationes in Irenauim," 
 16S9; Gkrvaise, " Vie de S. Irenee, second* fiveque de Lyon," 1723; 
 J. M. Prat, " Histoire de Saint-Ire'n^e," 1843 : James Bbavkn, 
 "Account of the Life and Writings of Saint Irenjeus." 
 
 I-re'ne, [Gr. Eipi/vy ; Fr. Irene, e'rin',] Empress of 
 Constantinople, was born at Athens about 752, of very 
 obscure parentage, and in 769 a.d. became the wife of 
 Leo IV., Emperor of the East. At his death, in 780, he 
 left a son of ten years, named Constantine, during whose 
 minority Irene acted as regent. She was remarkable for 
 her beauty, energy, and talents. In order to decide the 
 quarrel between the Iconoclasts and their opponents, to 
 whom she was partial, she assembled a council in 787, 
 which formally sanctioned the worship of images. When 
 her son attained his majority, her ambition so far pre- 
 vailed over natural affection that she dethroned him and 
 deprived him of sight. In 802 she was deposed by a 
 conspiracy of her subjects, and Nicephorus was chosen 
 emperor. She died in exile in 803. 
 
 See L-b Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" Vincent Mignot, 
 "Histoire de l'lmpe'ratrice Irene," 1762; Gibbon, "History of the 
 Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Irenee. See IrenjEUS. 
 
 Ireneo. See Iren^us. 
 
 Ireton, Ir'ton, (Henry,) an eminent English repub- 
 lican, born in 1610. He was a student of law when the 
 civil war began, in which he became an ardent leader 
 of the popular cause. Entering the army as captain of 
 cavalry, he was rapidly promoted, and became highly 
 distinguished for his courage and capacity both in the 
 battle-field and the council-chamber. At the battle of 
 Naseby, (1645,) with the rank of commissary-general, he 
 commanded the left wing, and was wounded and taken 
 prisoner ; but, his friends having gained the victory, he 
 recovered his liberty the same day. In 1646 he married 
 Bridget, daughter of Oliver Cromwell. The latter, as 
 Hume remarks, "had great deference for the counsels 
 of Ireton ;" and the republicans generally reposed the 
 highest confidence in him, as a statesman of incorruptible 
 honour. About 1646 he was elected to Parliament, where 
 he projected various wise legal and constitutional re- 
 forms and was eminent for his skill in drafting ordi- 
 nances. While Charles I. was a prisoner at Hampton 
 Court, he had conferences with Cromwell and Ireton, 
 who, it is said, were inclined to reinstate him in a limited 
 royalty, until they intercepted one of his letters which 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 0, u, y, short; a, e, j, q, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
I R I ARTE 
 
 1247 
 
 IRVING 
 
 convinced them of his insincerity. Ireton was a member 
 of the court which tried the king ; and he signed the 
 warrant for his execution, January, 1649. In reference 
 to this affair, Burnet says, " Ireton was the person that 
 drove it on ; for Cromwell was all the while in some 
 suspense about it." In July, 1649, he went to Ireland 
 as second in command under Cromwell, whA, returning 
 after the lapse of a few months, left to Iretoh the chief 
 command, with the title of lord deputy. After gaining 
 several victories and taking Limerick, he died there of 
 the plague in 1651. Hume, who svas not partial to his 
 cause, denominates him "a memorable personage, much 
 celebrated for his vigilance, industry, capacity even for 
 the strict execution of justice in that unlimited command 
 which he possessed in Ireland. It was believed by many 
 that he was animated by a sincere and passionate love 
 of liberty." (" History of England.") 
 
 See, also, " Biographia Britannica ;" Guizot, "Histoire de la 
 Revolution d'Angleterre." 
 
 Iriarte or Yriarte, e-re-aR'ta, (Bernardo,) nephew 
 of Don Juan de Iriarte, noticed below, was born in Tene- 
 riffe about 1734. He became a member of the council 
 of state, and held other important offices under the 
 Spanish government. Died in 1814. 
 
 Iriarte, (Domingo,) brother of the preceding, born 
 in Teneriffe in 1746, was sent as minister plenipotentiary 
 of Spain to Poland, and employed in other embassies. 
 Died in 1795. 
 
 Iriarte, (Francisco Diego de Ainsay— In -si',) a 
 Spanish writer, born at Huesca, published an account 
 of his native city, entitled " F'undacion, Eccelencias, 
 Grandezas, etc. de la antiquisima Ciudad de Huesca," 
 
 (1619) 
 
 Iriarte, (Ignacio,) a celebrated Spanish landscape- 
 painter, born in Guipuscoa in 1620, was a pupil of the 
 elder Herrera. He worked in Seville, and became a 
 friend of Murillo, who painted the figures for some of his 
 landscapes. He was one of the founders of the Academy 
 of Seville. Iriarte was regarded as the best landscape- 
 painter of his country and his time. Connoisseurs admire 
 in his works the lightness of the foliage, the transparency 
 of the sky, the limpidity of the water, and the mastery 
 of chiaroscuro. Died in 1685. 
 
 See Raphael Mf.ngs, " Las Obras,"etc, 1780; Quilliet, "Dic- 
 tionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Iriarte, de, da e-re-aR'ti, (Don Juan,) an eminent 
 linguist and scholar, born in the island of Teneriffe in 
 1702. He studied in Paris at the College of Louis le 
 Grand, and subsequently visited London and Madrid, 
 where he was appointed in 1732 one of the librarians 
 in the Royal Library. He became official translator to 
 the principal secretary of state in 1740, and in 1743 was 
 elected a member of the Royal Academy. Among his 
 works may be named a " History of the Canary Islands," 
 (in manuscript,) a collection of Spanish proverbs in 
 Latin verse, and translations from Martial. Iriarte is 
 said to have added two thousand manuscripts and more 
 than ten thousand printed volumes to the Royal Library 
 during the thirty-nine years in which he officiated as 
 librarian. Died in 1 771. 
 
 Iriarte, de, (Tomas,) youngest brother of Bernardo, 
 noticed above, was born in Teneriffe about 1750. He be- 
 came a proficient in the ancient and modern languages 
 under the tuition of his uncle, and subsequently became 
 archivist to the principal secretary of state, and editor 
 of the " Madrid Mercury." He was author of a poem 
 entitled "La Musica," (1779,) which was received with 
 great favour and translated into the principal European 
 languages, and " Literary Fables," (" Fabulas literarias.") 
 The latter are written in various metres, and are re- 
 markable for their graceful versification. They enjoyed 
 great popularity at the time, and are still ranked among 
 the classics of the language. An English version of 
 these fables, by George H. Devereux, appeared in 1855. 
 Iriarte also published a comedy entitled "The Spoiled 
 Child," ("El Sefiorito mimado,") a number of sonnets 
 and critical essays, and a metrical translation of Horace's 
 "Art of Poetry." Died about 1790. 
 
 See LoNGPELl-ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe :" Joly, no- 
 tice of the Life of Tomas de Iriarte, in the " Repertoire de Litera- 
 ture." 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard: g as./; G, H, K, guttural ': N, nasal; R, 
 
 Irico, e-ree'ko, (Giovanni Andrea,) an Italian priest 
 and savant, born at Trino in 1704. He wrote several 
 religious and antiquarian works. Died in 1782. 
 
 I'ris, [Gr. *Iptc,] in Greek mythology, the goddess of 
 the rainbow, said to be a daughter of Thaumas, and 
 sometimes called Thaumantias. Homer represents her 
 as the messenger of the gods, employed to carry mes- 
 sages from Ida to Olympus and from gods to men. 
 
 Irland, eR'l6.\', (Konaventure,) a French jurist, of 
 Scottish descent, born at Poitiers in 1551 ; died in 1612. 
 
 Irnerius,eR-na' re-us, sometimes written WarneriuB, 
 a celebrated Italian jurisconsult, born at Bologna in the 
 eleventh century. He became the renovator or restorer 
 of the Roman law, which had been neglected, and on 
 which he wrote commentaries, called "Glossae." He 
 obtained the office of judge, and was sent by the emperor 
 to Rome in 11 18 to expedite the election of a pope. 
 
 See B. Nihusius, "Irnerius," Cologne, 1642: Fantizzi, "Scrit- 
 tori Bolognesi." 
 
 Iron Mask. See Masque de Fer. 
 
 Ir'vlne, (Wiu.iam,) a general, born near Enniskillen, 
 Ireland, about 1742, emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1763. 
 He became a colonel in 1776, and a brigadier-general 
 in 1779. From 1781 to 1783 he commanded the troops 
 stationed at Fort Pitt for the defence of the western 
 frontier. He was chosen a member of Congress in 1787, 
 and again in 1793. Died in 1804. 
 
 Ir'ving, (David,) LL.D., a Scottish biographer and 
 writer on law. He published " Lives of Scottish Poets," 
 (1804,) "Lives of the Scottish Writers," (1839,) and "The 
 Table-Talk of John Selden," (1854.) He also wrote the 
 article "Civil Law" in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Irving, (Edward,) a celebrated and eloquent Scottish 
 pulpit orator, born at Annan in 1792, was a graduate of 
 the University of Edinburgh. Having been employed 
 as rector of an academy at Kirkaldy about seven years, 
 he was ordained a Presbyterian minister. From 1819 to 
 1822 he was engaged as assistant in the pulpit of Dr. 
 Chalmers, Glasgow, where he acquired a good reputation. 
 He accepted a call from the Scottish Church, Cross 
 Street, London, in 1822, and soon became an admired 
 and fashionable preacher. His original genius and his 
 extraordinary eloquence attracted crowded audiences, 
 among whom were found the most eminent authors and 
 statesmen, and nobles of the highest rank. In 1823 he 
 published a series of discourses entitled " For the Ora- 
 cles of God, Four Orations," etc. In 1829 he removed 
 into a larger church built for him in Regent Square. A 
 charge of heresy having been preferred against him in 
 the presbytery of London in 1830, he was condemned 
 by that body, and ejected from the church, in 1832. 
 After this event he obtained another place, and attracted 
 crowds by his exhibition of the gift of unknown tongues, 
 which he ascribed to divine inspiration. He published 
 " Babylon and Infidelity Foredoomed of God," and other 
 theological treatises. Died at Glasgow in December, 
 1834. " He was unquestionably," says De Quincey, "by 
 many degrees the greatest orator of our times." It is 
 probable that his devotion was sincere, but not guided 
 by discretion, and that in the latter part of his career 
 his mind was affected with insanity. Carlyle, who was 
 his friend, thinks that " bodily and spiritually, perhaps, 
 there was not (in that November, 1822) a man more full 
 of genial, energetic life in these islands." He left three 
 children. The collected writings of Edward Irving have 
 been published under the editorship of his nephew, the 
 Rev. G. Carlyle, London, 1864-65. 
 
 See "Life of Irving," by Mrs. Oliphant, 1862: De Quincey, 
 " Lilerary Reminiscences," vol. ii. ; " Edinburgh Review" lor Octo- 
 ber, 1862; "Edward Irving, an Ecclesiastical and Literary Biogra- 
 phy," by W. Wilks : Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Emi- 
 nent Scotsmen," (Supplement ;) Michael Hohl, " Bruchstiicke aus 
 dem Lebenundden Schriften E. Irving's." 1839: Lehmann, " Ueber 
 die Irvingianer," 1853; "Westminster Review" for January, 18x4; 
 "Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1858, and June, 1862; 
 "Eraser's Magazine" for January, 1835; "North British Review" 
 for August, 1862. 
 
 Ir'ving, (John Treat,) an American judge and writer, 
 brother of Washington Irving, was born in 1778. He 
 was a popular contributor, (political,) both in prose and 
 verse, to the "Morning Chronicle," and from 1821 till 
 his death, in 1838, was presiding judge of the court 
 of common pleas in New York. 
 
 trilled; s as z; th as in this. (&^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
IRFING 
 
 1248 
 
 ISABEL 
 
 Irving, (John Treat,) an American lawyer and writer, 
 son of the preceding, and a resident of New York, is au- 
 thor of a volume of " Indian Sketches," (1835,) and two 
 novels, entitled "The Attorney," and " Harry Harson ; 
 or, The Benevolent Bachelor," which originally appeared 
 in the "Knickerbocker Magazine." 
 
 Irving, (PETER,) an American journalist, born in 1 771. 
 He became in 1802 the editor and proprietor of the 
 " Morning Chronicle," a Democratic journal of New 
 York. In conjunction with his brother Washington, he 
 projected " Knickerbocker's History of New York." He 
 wrote "Giovanni Sbogarro, a Venetian Tale," (1820.) 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 Irving, (Theodore,) LL.D., an American author, 
 and minister in the Protestant Episcopal Church, was 
 born in New York in 1809. He spent some time in 
 Europe with his uncle, Washington Irving, was professor 
 of history and belles-lettres in Geneva College, New 
 York, from 1836 to 1849, and afterwards filled for several 
 years the chair of belles-lettres in the New York Free 
 Academy. He entered the ministry in 1854. He has 
 written "The Conquest of Florida by Hernando de 
 Soto," in 2 vols., (Philadelphia and London, 1835,) and 
 "The Fountain of Living Waters," (1854.) 
 
 Irving, (Washington,) a distinguished American 
 author and humourist, born in the city of New York, 
 April 3, 1783, was a son of William Irving, a native of 
 Scotland. About 1800 he left school and commenced 
 the study of the law. For the benefit of his health, he 
 performed in 1804 a voyage to Europe, visited France, 
 Italy, Switzerland, and England, and returned in 1806. 
 Soon after his return he was admitted to the bar ; but 
 he preferred to devote himself to literary pursuits, and 
 never practised law. In conjunction with his brother 
 William and with James K. Paulding, he issued in 1807 
 a humorous and satirical magazine, entitled "Salma- 
 gundi, or the Whim-Whams and Opinions of Launcelot 
 Langstaff, Esq., and others." Of this amusing and popular 
 work only twenty numbers were issued. He published 
 in 1809 another humorous work, "The History of New 
 York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker," in which he was 
 assisted by his brother Peter. It was very favourably 
 received. " I have never," says Sir Walter Scott, " read 
 anything so closelv resembling the style of Dean Swift 
 as the Annals of Diedrich Knickerbocker." (Letter to 
 Henry Brevoort, April 23, 1813.) 
 
 In 1810 he became a silent partner with his brothers 
 in an extensive commercial house in New York. He 
 sailed in 1815 to Europe, where he remained mnny 
 years, and in 1817 visited Sir Walter Scott at Abbots- 
 ford, who became his constant friend. He was reduced 
 to poverty by the failure of the firm of which he was a 
 member, in 1817. His next important work was "The 
 Sketch-Book," (1818,) by Geoffrey Crayon, which was 
 written in England. It enjoyed great popularity, and 
 raised Irving to the highest rank of American authors. 
 Lord Jeffrey, in the "Edinburgh Review" for August, 
 1820, commended "The Sketch-Book" as "written 
 throughout with the greatest care and accuracy, and 
 worked up to great purity and beauty of diction on the 
 model of the most elegant and polished of our native 
 writers." He published in London, in 1822, "Brace- 
 bridge Hall, or the Humourists," which was received 
 with great favour both in England and America. Com 
 menting on this work, Lord Jeffrey says, "We happen 
 to be very intense and sensitive admirers of those soft 
 harmonies of studied speech in which this author is apt 
 to indulge himself, and have caught ourselves oftener 
 than we shall confess, neglecting his excellent matter to 
 lap ourselves in the liquid music of his periods." ("Edin- 
 burgh Review" for November, 1822.) For his "Tales 
 of a Traveller," (1824,) Murray, the London publisher, 
 gave him .£1500 before he saw the manuscript. 
 
 Mr. Irving afterwards spent some years in France and 
 Spain, where he composed his " History of the Life 
 and Voyages of Christopher Columbus," (4 vols., 1828,) 
 which was very successful. "This is one of those works," 
 says Alexander H. Everett, "which are at the same time 
 the delight of readers and the despair of critics. It is 
 as nearly perfect as any work well can be." ("North 
 
 mv 
 
 American Review" for January, 1829.) In 1829 he pro- 
 
 duced an imaginative and romantic work entitled "The 
 Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada, from the Manu- 
 scripts of Fray Antonio Agapida." He was appointed 
 secretary of legation to the A merican embassy at London 
 in 1829, and returned to the United States in 1832. Among 
 his later works are "The Alhambra,"(l832 ;) a "Tour on 
 the Prairijs," (1835;) "Astoria," (3 vols., 1836;) "The 
 Adventures of Captain Bonneville," (2 vols., 1837;) 
 "Oliver Goldsmith, a Biography," (1849;) "Mahomet 
 and his Successors," (1850 ;) and "The Life of George 
 Washington," (5 vols., 1855-59.) He was minister to 
 Spain from 1842 to 1846. He passed the latter part of 
 his life at Suunyside, on the Hudson River, where he 
 died, November 28, 1859. He was never married. 
 
 For an easy elegance of style, Irving has no superior, 
 perhaps no equal, among the prose writers of America. 
 If I Iawthorne excels him in variety, in earnestness, and in 
 force, he is perhaps inferior to Irving in facility and grace ; 
 while he can make no claim to that genial, lambent 
 humour which beams in almost every page of " Geoffrey 
 Crayon." 
 
 See the "Life and Letters of Washington Irving," by Pierre M. 
 Irving, 1863; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ameri- 
 cans," vol. i. ; Griswold, "Prose Writers of America ;" Prescott, 
 "Miscellanies:" "Edinburgh Review" for August, 1820. November 
 1822, and September, 1828 ; " London Quarterly Review" for April. 
 1821, March, 182s, and July, 1863; "North American Review" fot 
 July, 1835, and January, 1837. (both by Edward Everett,) anc 
 April, 1858; "Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1820: " Fraser'i 
 Magazine" for October, 1835; "Westminster Review" for January 
 1837: Allirone, " Dictionary of Authors;" Cleveland, "Com 
 pendium of American Literature;" "Atlantic Monthly" for Novem 
 ber, i860, and June, 1S64. 
 
 Irving, (William,) a brother of the preceding, war 
 born in New York in 1766. He married a sister of 
 James K. Paulding in 1793, became a merchant in Nev. 
 York, and was a member of Congress during thre< 
 terms, (1813-19.) He aided his brother and Mr. Pauld' 
 ing in the " Salmagundi," of which he wrote the poetical 
 parts. Died in 1821. 
 
 Ir'win, (Eyles,) a poet, born in Calcutta, of Irisr. 
 parents, in 1748, was employed in the civil service of 
 the East India Company. He wrote several odes and 
 eclogues, and "Adventures during a Voyage up the Red 
 Sea," (1780.) Died in 181 7. 
 
 Irwin, Viscountess. See Howard, (Anne.) 
 
 Isa, ee'sa, written also 15a and Isha, one of the names 
 of Siva, which see. 
 
 Isaac, I'zak, [Heb.pnV or prw ; It. Isacco, e-slk'- 
 ko; Arabian, IshXk, is'hSV,] a Hebrew patriarch, the 
 son of Abraham and Sarah, was born about 1890 R.c. He 
 married Rebecca, and became the father of Esau and 
 Jacob. " Of all the patriarchs," says Bishop Hall, " none 
 made so little noise in the world as Isaac." He removed 
 to Gerar, in the land of the Philistines, and acquired 
 riches as a planter. He died at the age of one hundred 
 and eighty. 
 
 See Genesis xxi., xxii.. xxiv., xxvi., xxvii., xxviii.. and xxxv. 29; 
 Matthew xxii. 32; Luke xx. 37; Galatians iv. 28; Hebrews xi. 17. 
 
 Isaac I., or Isaac Com-ne'nus, [Gr. 'Iovkuhoc 6 
 Ko^w/voo,] Emperor of Constantinople, was chosen by 
 the army as successor of Michael VI. in 1057. Two 
 years later, in consequence of a malady which he sup- 
 posed mortal, he resigned the throne to Constantine 
 Ducas, and entered a convent. Died in iofir. 
 
 Isaac II., or Isaac An'ge-lus, [Gr. 'loauntoc 6 'Kyyi- 
 /loc,l Emperor of Constantinople, was proclaimed in 
 1185 as successor to Androni'cus, who was dethroned 
 by a popular revolt. He rendered himself very un- 
 popular by his vices and misgovernment. In 1195 his 
 brother Alexis usurped the throne and imprisoned Isaac, 
 who was liberated and restored in 1203 by an army of 
 crusaders. In 1204 he was again supplanted by Alexius 
 Ducas, and died or was killed the same year. Constan- 
 tinople was speedily taken by the crusaders, who electee" 
 Baldwin emperor. 
 
 Isaac, ee'zik, (Heinrich,) a German musician, whorr 
 the Italians called Arrigo Tedesco, {i.e. the "German 
 Henry,") was born about 1440. He removed to Italj 
 about 1475, and was patronized by Lorenzo de' Medici 
 He composed sacred music. 
 
 Isaacson, I'zak-son, (Hf.nry,) born in London ir 
 1581, wrote a work on Chronology. Died in 1654. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ISABEL 
 
 iz 4 9 
 
 1SAIE 
 
 Isabel, the Spanish of Elizabeth, which see. 
 
 Isabel I. Sec Isai-.ki.i.a OF Castile. 
 
 Is'a-bel [Sp. pron. e-sa-bel'] H., (or, more fully, 
 Maria Isabel Luisa,) Queen of Spain, born at Madrid 
 in October, 1830, is a daughter of Ferdinand VII. and 
 Maria Christina. She succeeded her father on the 29th 
 of September, 1833, when her mother became regent. 
 Her claim was disputed by her uncle, Don Carlos, in a 
 civil war, which ended in the defeat of the Carlists in 
 1840. The queen-regent having been driven from power 
 by a popular revolt in October, 1S40, Espartero became 
 regent. Isabel was declared of age in November, 1843, 
 and in October, 1846, was married to her cousin, Fran- 
 cisco de Assis, a son of Francisco de Paula, who was a 
 brother of Ferdinand VII. She has a son, Francisco, 
 born in 1857. Her reign was agitated by many revolu- 
 tions, coups ditat, and changes of constitution. In Sep- 
 tember, 1868, she was deposed by her revolted subjects 
 almost without a struggle. 
 
 Isabella. See Elizabeth. 
 
 Is-a-bel'la of Austria, (Ci.ara Eugenia,) the 
 daughter of Philip II. of Spain and Elizabeth of France, 
 was born in 1566. As the niece of Henry III. of France, 
 she claimed the French crown at his death, but was 
 excluded by the Salic law, though she was favoured by 
 the chiefs of the League. In 1597 she became the wife 
 of Archduke Albert, son of the Emperor of Germany. 
 Died in 1633. 
 
 Isabella of Bavaria, daughter of Stephen, second 
 Duke of Bavaria, born in 1371, became Queen of France 
 in 1385 by marriage with Charles VI. She was remark- 
 able for beauty and for her voluptuous and dissolute 
 character. When her imbecile consort became incapable 
 of ruling, she aspired to royal power, and made a coali- 
 tion with the English against the dauphin, her son. Died 
 in 1435. 
 
 Isabella [Span. Tsaiiei, e-sa-bH's Fr. Isabelle, e'zt'- 
 beV] oe Castii.k, daughter of John II., King of Cas- 
 tile, was born at Madrigal in 1451. The malcontent 
 subjects of her brother, Henry IV., forced him to ac- 
 knowledge her as his heir, after which her hand was 
 solicited by several princes of Europe, and she became 
 the wile ot Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469. In 1474 she 
 was proclaimed Queen of Castile and Leon, the sove- 
 reignty of which she did not resign to her husband, but 
 kept in her own hands. Historians agree in applauding 
 her beauty, virtue, magnanimity, piety, learning, and 
 political wisdom. It was under her auspices that Co- 
 lumbus discovered America, after his project had been 
 treated with neglect by Ferdinand. Died in 1504. (See 
 Fi 1 ill. \'\M) V.) Isabella had blue eyes and auburn hair, 
 and possessed great beauty of features, sweetness of 
 expression, and dignity of presence. 
 
 PrrscOtt, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella;" Juan de 
 Molina, " Sumario de la Vida y Hechos de los catdlicos Reyes D. 
 Fernai 1587 ; Fernandez i>k 1'ci.uar, "! Rerum 
 
 a Ferdinftndo et E ;irum Rej*ibns Gestarum Decades 
 
 II." t«45; i > Elofrio de la Reina catolica Dona 
 
 I kc.k Anita, "Memoirs of Queen Isabella of 
 
 Dlidon, 1X50. 
 
 Isabelle. See Isabella. 
 
 Isabelle of France See Elizabeth of France. 
 
 Isabelle (t'zit'l el') OF France, Queen of England, 
 daughter of Philip the Fair, King of France, was born 
 in 1292, and was married to Edward II. in 1308. The 
 issue of this union was a son, who became Edward III. 
 About 1324 she went to Paris to negotiate between her 
 consort and the French king, where she formed a con- 
 spiracy with malcontent nobles, and returned to England 
 with the avowed intention to remove from power the 
 king's unworthy favourite, Spencer. Entering London 
 without resistance, in 1326, the partisans of the queen de- 
 d Edward II. and proclaimed his son king. Isabelle 
 and her favourite, Mortimer, exercised the royal power 
 a lew years during the minority of her son ; and there 
 ubt that they contrived the murder 
 of Edward II. She was imprisoned for nearly twenty 
 years, and died in prison in 1358. She w-as surnamed, 
 on account of her cruelty, "the she-wolf of France." 
 
 Isabelle of France, Queen of England) bom in 
 1389, was a daughter of Charles VI. She was married 
 to Richard II. of England in 1396. Died in 1409. 
 
 Isabelle, e'zt'bel', (Charles Edouard,) a French 
 architect, born at Havre in 1800, wrote "The Circular 
 Edifices and Domes Classed," etc., (1843-56.) 
 
 Isabelle d'Angouleme, e'zS'bSl' d&N'goo'lim', a 
 French princess, was a daughter of Aymar, Count of 
 Angouleme. She was married to John, King of Eng- 
 land, in 1201. Died in 1245. 
 
 Isabey, e'zi'b.V, (Eugene Louis Garriei,) an emi- 
 nent painter of marine views, born in Paris in 1804. He 
 obtained a first-class medal in 1824, and produced in 
 1827 "The Coast of Honfleur," and a "Tempest near 
 Dieppe." Among his best works are the " Battle of the 
 Texel," (1839,) "The Departure of Queen Victoria," 
 (1845,) and the "Embarkation of De Ruyter," (1851.) 
 He received a first-class medal at the Exposition of 1855. 
 
 Isabey, ( [e an Baptiste,) a celebrated French minia- 
 ture-painter, born at Nancy in 1767, was a pupil of 
 David, and father of the preceding. About 1S02 he 
 became the most fashionable artist of Paris in his depart- 
 ment of the art. He was liberally patronized by the 
 emperor Napoleon, who had been his friend when both 
 were obscure citizens. He executed many admired 
 portraits of the Bonaparte family and of the generals 
 of the empire. It is said that most of the sovereigns of 
 Europe have been the subjects of his pencil. Among 
 his works are the "Table des Marechauxj" a picture on 
 porcelain of Napoleon and his marshals, and "The 
 Congress of Vienna," (1817.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Isacs, ee'z.lks. (Pieter,) a skilful Dutch portrait- 
 painter, born at Helzevor in 1569; died about 1620. 
 
 Isaeus, T-see'us, [Gr. 'loaZoc; Fr. Isee, e'za',] a famous 
 Greek orator, who flourished about 400 B.C., was a 
 native of Chalcis, or, according to some authorities, of 
 Athens. Having been a pupil of Isocrates, he opened 
 a celebrated school in Athens, and had the honour of 
 being the preceptor of Demosthenes. Isaeus is one of 
 the ten Athenian orators of the Alexandrian canon. His 
 style is at once elegant and vehement, but is less natural 
 than that of Lysias. He had great skill in dialectics 
 and in the distribution of his arguments. Only eleven 
 of his orations are now extant ; and these are all forensic. 
 He is said to have survived the recession of King Philip 
 of Macedon, 348 B.C. 
 
 See J. A.Lirhmann, "Delsaji Vita etScriptis," 1831 ; E. JsNIK*, 
 .uiones in Is&um," 1838. 
 
 Isaeus, a Greek sophist and orator, born in Assyria, 
 lived in the first century after Christ. His eloquence 
 is extolled by Pliny. 
 
 Isaiah, I-za'yah' or e-zf'a, [I Ieb. lri'JftJf ; Gr. 'Wcninc ; 
 Lat. Esai'as; Fr. Isaie, e'zt'e', or Esa'ie, a'zS'e' ; It. 
 Isaia, e-sa-ee'a ; Sp. Isaias, e-sa-ee'as,] the first of the 
 great Hebrew prophets, was a contemporary of Hosea, 
 Joel, Amos, and Micah. He prophesied during a period 
 of about fifty years, beginning about 760 B.C. He lived 
 at Jerusalem, and exerted great influence in public affairs. 
 Little is known of his personal history, except that he 
 had a wife, who is called a prophetess, and two sons. 
 There is a doubtful tradition that Isaiah suffered death 
 by being sawn asunder, at the command of King Ma- 
 nasseh. As a writer he is remarkable for versatility of 
 genius, and merits the first rank among the prophets by 
 the majestic simplicity and sublimity of his compositions. 
 He declared more amply and clearly than any other 
 prophet the eternal divinity, vicarious sufferings, and 
 glorious kingdom of the Messiah, and hence is often 
 called the evangelical prophet. No other prophet is so 
 often quoted by Christ and his apostles. (See Malt. i. 
 22, iii. 3, viii. 17, xii. 18-20, xiii. 14; Luke iv. 17; Acts 
 xxviii. 25; Kom. ix. 27, and x. 16; Phil. ii. 10.) In our 
 translation of the New Testament he is always called 
 Esaias. He has been pronounced by some critics not 
 inferior to Homer in poetical genius; and all agree that 
 his book is a master-piece of beauty and sublimity both 
 in thought and style. 
 
 Among the commentators on Isaiah are Saint Jerome, 
 Vitringa, I.owth, Calmet, Eichhorn, Doderlein, Gcsenius, 
 Gataker, Ilitzig, Koscnrmiller, and Henderson J and, in the 
 United States, Dr. Alexander and Mr. Albert Barties. 
 
 See, also, Kim hi, " Lexicon Kabbinicnm ;" EwaLD, "l>ie Pro- 
 pheien des alien Bundes," and "Geschichle des Volkes Israel bit 
 Christus;" Knoiiki., " Prophdtisme des H<5breux." 
 
 Isaie. See Isaiah. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as,/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R. trilled; S as z; th as in this. (jjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 79 
 
ISAMBERT 
 
 1250 
 
 ISLA 
 
 Isambert, e'z&N'baiR', (Emile,) a French physician 
 and biographer, a son of Francois Andre, noticed below, 
 was born at Auteuil in 1828. 
 
 Isambert, (Francois Andre,) a French jurist and 
 Protestant, born at Aunay (Enre-et-Loire) in 1792. He 
 distinguished himself about 1825 as the defender of the 
 rights of the free people of colour in Martinique, and 
 " performed in France," says Taillandier, " a service like 
 that which Clarkson and Wilberforce rendered in Eng- 
 land." In 1830 he was appointed a judge (conseiller) of 
 the court of cassation. lie was a Liberal member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies from 1830 to 1848, and supported 
 Cavaignac and the cause of order in the Assembly of 
 1848. He was secretary of the French Society for the 
 Abolition of Slavery, of which he is said to have been 
 the founder. Among his works are a " Manual for the 
 Publicist and Statesman," (4 vols., 1826,) and a "History 
 of Justinian," (1856.) He wrote many able articles for 
 the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." Died in 1857. 
 
 See Taillandier, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie GeueVale." 
 
 Isarn, e'ztRn', (Samuf.i.,) a French poet, born at Cas- 
 tres in 1637, wrote " The Speaking Pistole," (" La Pistole 
 parlante," 1660,) which had great success. Died in 1673. 
 
 Isauricus. See Leo III. 
 
 Is-ca'nl-us or Is-ca'nus, (Joseph,) sumamed also 
 Devo'nius, an English poet, born at Exeter, derived his 
 name from Isca, the place of his education. He accom- 
 panied Richard I. on a crusade to Palestine, and wrote 
 a Latin poem "On the Trojan War," and another en- 
 titled " Antiocheis." Died about 1224. 
 
 Isee. See Is^eus. 
 
 Iselin, ez'laN', (Isaac,) a Swiss writer, born at Bale 
 in 1728. He was assistant secretary of state from 1756 
 to his death. He became the enlightened advocate of 
 reform in morals, education, and legislation, on which 
 he wrote articles for the journals. His chief work is 
 entitled " On the History of Mankind," (" Ueber die 
 Geschichte der Menschheit." 1764.) Died in 1782. 
 
 See J. G. Schlosser, "Rede auf Iselin," 1783; S. Hirzel, 
 "Denkmal I. Iselin gewidmet," 1782. 
 
 Iselin, [Lat. Iseli'nus,] (Jacques Christophe,) an 
 eminent Swiss philologist and divine, born at Bale in 
 1681. He spoke Greek with facility, and excelled in 
 Oriental languages. He became protessor of history at 
 Bale in 1707, and was promoted to the chair of divinity 
 in 1711. He wrote an admirable Latin poem on "The 
 Gauls Crossing the Rhine," (1696,) a treatise on the 
 "Latin Historians of the Classic Period," (" De Histo- 
 ricis Latinis Melioris M\i," 1697,) a treatise "On the 
 Domination of the Magi in Persia," (1707,) and other 
 minor works. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Beck, "Vita Iselini," in the 3d vol. of "Tempe Helvetica;" 
 J. R. Isei.in, " Laudatio funebris consecrandx Memoria: Viri incom- 
 parabilis J. C. Iselini," 1739. 
 
 Iselin, (Jean Rodolphe,) a Swiss jurist, born at 
 Bale in 1705, wrote "On Eminent Domain," ("De Do- 
 minio Eminente," 1726,) and other works. Died in 1779. 
 
 Isembert (e'zSN'baiit') of Xaintes, a French archi- 
 tect, lived about 1200, and is supposed to have built the 
 old London Bridge. 
 
 Isendooni, van, vln ee'zen-doRn', or Ysendoorn, 
 (Gijsbkrt,) a Dutch philosopher, born in Gelderland ill 
 1601, published "Effata Philosophies, " (1633,) " Ethica 
 Peripatetica," (1659,) and other works. Died in 1657. 
 
 Isfendiyar, is-ten'dee-yau', or Asfandiyar, asfan'- 
 dee-yiR', one of the most celebrated heroes in Persian 
 history, lived between the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., 
 and is said to have been the first convert to the religion 
 of Zoroaster, in which he was followed by his father 
 Gushtasp (Darius Hystaspis) and the whole Persian 
 empire. This change of religion led to the invasion of 
 Persia by Arjasp, King of Turan, in which Isfendiyar, 
 by his bravery and heroism, not only saved his father's 
 kingdom, but conquered India, Arabia, and the West. 
 He was killed in battle by the celebrated Roostum. 
 
 See Malcolm, "History of Persia;" J.Atkinson, "Abridg- 
 ment of the Shah Naiueh of Kirdousi." 
 
 Ish'mael, [Heb. Sx>'OB? - ; Arabic, IsMAEELor Ismail, 
 is-ma-eel'; Fr. Ismael, es'mt'el',] the son of Abraham 
 and Hagar, born about 1900 B.C., was the ancestor of 
 the Ishmaelites or Arabians. (See Genesis xvi., xxi.) 
 
 Ishwara. See Iswara. 
 
 Isi, ee'see, written also 15! and Ishi, (the consort of 
 Isa or Siva,) one of the many names of ParvatT, which 
 see. She is identified by some writers, including Sir W. 
 Jones, with the Isis of the Egyptians. (See Isis.) 
 
 Isiaslaf. See Iziaslaf. 
 
 Is'I-dore [Gr. 'IfftAjfjo?; Lat. Isido'rus ; Fr. Isidore, 
 e'ze'dou'; It. Isidoro, e-se-do'ro] of Charax, a Per- 
 sian, who is supposed to have lived in the first century 
 of our era, wrote a work called " Parthian Itinerary, ' 
 which contains a list of the eighteen provinces of Parthia 
 and of the chief towns, with the distances of the towns 
 from each other. 
 
 Isidore of Moscow, a Russian prelate, was chosen 
 Primate of Russia in 1437. He favoured the reunion of 
 the Greek and Latin Churches at the Council of Florence, 
 (1437.) Died at Rome in 1463. 
 
 Isidore, Saint, an eminent Spanish scholar and 
 bishop, born at Carthagena about 570 A.D., was a brother 
 of Leander, Archbishop of Seville. He understood 
 Greek, Hebrew, and Latin, and was very influential in 
 the Spanish Church. About 600 he was appointed 
 Bishop of Seville. The Council of Toledo, held in 650, 
 denominated him "the glory of the Catholic Church, 
 and the most learned man of his age." Among his most 
 important works are, in Latin, "A Chronicle from the 
 Origin of the World to 626 A.D.," and "Twenty Books 
 of Etymologies," which, says Dr. Hoefer, " is one of the 
 most precious monuments for the history of human 
 knowledge." Died in 636 a.d. 
 
 See Saint Ildefonso, "De Viris illustrious ;" Tritheim, "De 
 Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis;" Roeslkr, " Dissertatio ; Isidori His- 
 toria Gothorum, Vandalorum," etc., 1803. 
 
 Isidore, Saint, of Alexandria, born in Egypt about 
 318 A.D., was a friend of Athanasius, by whom he was 
 ordained a priest. Died in 404. 
 
 Isidore, Saint, of Pelusium, is supposed to have 
 been born between 360 and 390 A.D. He lived as a 
 hermit in Egypt, and had a high reputation for piety and 
 wisdom. He wrote, in Greek, a great number of short 
 letters, of which more than two thousand are now ex- 
 tant. They are said to contain sound doctrine and good 
 instruction in morals. Died about 450 A.D. 
 
 See Hermann. "Dissertatio de Isidoro Pelusiota," 1737; Nik- 
 Meyer, "Dissertatio de Isidoro Pelusiota," 1825. 
 
 Is'I-dore Mer-ca'tor or Pec-ca'tor, the supposed 
 name of a person who in the eighth or ninth century 
 fabricated a famous code of canon law or collection of 
 decretals, often called the "Collection of the Pseudo-Isi- 
 dore." Some popes availed themselves of this means 
 to extend their temporal power. 
 
 Isidorus. See Isidore. 
 
 Is-I-do'rus of Miletus, a Greek architect of the 
 sixth century, who was employed by the emperor Jus- 
 tinian to build the magnificent church of Saint Sophia 
 in Constantinople, which is now used as a mosque. 
 
 I'sis, [Gr. 'Iff!?,] one of the chief deities of the ancient 
 Egyptians, was called the wife of Osiris and mother of 
 Hoi us. She was worshipped as the goddess of fecun- 
 dity, and appears to have represented nature or the earth. 
 The cow was sacred to Isis. She had many worshippers 
 in Greece and Rome. There were famous temples of 
 Isis at Memphis and Denderah. She has been identified 
 with the Hindoo Isi, (which see.) 
 
 Isla, es'IS, (Jos£ Francisco,) a witty and popular 
 Spanish author, born at Segovia in 1703. He became a 
 Jesuit and an eminent preacher. He effected a reform 
 in the vicious style and bad taste that prevailed among 
 the Spanish priests, which he ridiculed in his famous 
 satirical romance "The Life of the Popular Preacher 
 Fray Gerundio de Campazas," (3 vols., 1758,) which 
 is called the best picture of Spanish manners of the 
 eighteenth century. This work was condemned by the 
 Inquisition. He made a Spanish version of "Gil Bias," 
 under this title : "Adventures of Gil Bias, stolen from 
 Spain, adopted in France by Le Sage, and restored to 
 his Native Country and Language," (6 vols., 1787.) The 
 Jesuits having been expelled from Spain in 1767, he 
 retired to Bologna, where he died in 1781. 
 
 See J. I. ue Sai.as, " Vida de Juan de Isla," 1S03. Ticknok, 
 " History of Spanish Literature ;" Everett, "Critical and Miscella- 
 neous Essays." 
 
 S.e 
 
 I, 0. u, y, long: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mft; n8t; good; moon; 
 
ISLEIF 
 
 I 2? I 
 
 1TT1G 
 
 Isleif, is'lif, an Icelandic historian, was ordained a 
 priest in Rome about 1056, and returned home. lie 
 wrote "Annals of Iceland and of Norway." Died about 
 1080. 
 
 Isocrate. See Isocratf.s. 
 
 I-soc'ra-tes, [Gr. 'loonpitTtK ; Fr. Isocrate, e'zo'- 
 lcRSt'; It. Isocrate, e-sok'ra-ta,] one of the ten great 
 Athenian orators, born at Athens in 436 B.C., received 
 lessons from Gorgias, Prodicus, and Theramenes, and 
 was an intimate friend of Plato. He soon surpassed 
 these masters in the rhetorical art ; but his insuperable 
 constitutional timidity defeated his political aspirations, 
 and disqualified him for a public debater or an oracle 
 of the "fierce democracy." He opened a school if elo- 
 quence, which numbered among its pupils many eminent 
 men, such as Isa^us, Timotheus, Xenophon, and Hyperi- 
 des. Cicero compared his school to the wooden horse 
 of Troy, from which issued the principal Grecian chiefs. 
 He composed orations and forensic arguments for clients 
 or others, and discourses on moral and political questions. 
 His style is extremely polished and harmonious, but 
 perhaps too artificial and diffuse. His character was 
 honourable, his political principles were moderate and 
 sincerely patriotic. He was one of the few who had the 
 courage to appear in mourning for the death of Socra- 
 tes. It is said that the disastrous battle of Chxronea 
 affected him so deeply that he refused to eat afterwards, 
 and died at the age of ninety-eight. Twenty-one of his 
 orations are extant 
 
 See Plutarch, "Vitx Decern Oratorum ;" Bilmark. "De 
 Isocrate Oratore Gr;eco," 179S; Pfvnd, "De Isocratis Vita et 
 Scriptis," 1S33; Lichtenauer, " De Isocrate," 1R43; O. MOller, 
 "History of the Literature of Ancient Greece;" P. Ekerman, " Iso- 
 crates Patre loquentise," 1743. 
 
 Ismaeel or Ismail, is-mi-eel', a Moslem priest, was 
 ImSmofthe Sheeitesin the second century of the Hejrah. 
 At his death a division occurred among the Sheeites in 
 respect to the succession. Those who adhered to the 
 son of Ismaeel were called Ismaeelites or Ismaeelians, 
 and became a powerful sect in Egypt and Persia. 
 
 Ismaeel, Ismail, or Ismail Shah, is-mi-eel' shah, 
 founder of the dynasty of Sofees of Persia, was born in 
 1487, and assumed royal power about the age of four- 
 teen. He acquired several provinces of Persia by con- 
 quest, and died in 1524, leaving the throne to his son, 
 Aboo-Modhaffer. Ismaeel is venerated by the Persians, 
 who call him King of the Sheeites, (a religious sect.) 
 
 See Malcolm, " History of Persia :" Von Hammer-Purgstall, 
 "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Isma-eel (Ismail) II., King of Persia, the son of Aboo- 
 Modhaffer, began to reign in 1576, and made himself de- 
 tested by his sanguinary temper. After executing many 
 innocent persons, he died in 1577, and was succeeded by 
 his brother, Mohammed Meerza, (Mirza.) 
 
 See Malcolm, " History of Persia." 
 
 Ismael, the French for Ishmaf.i., which see. 
 
 Isnard, cs'naV, (Achii.i.e Nicolas,) a French politi- 
 cal economist and writer, born in Paris; died about 1803. 
 
 Isnard, (Maximin,) a French Girondist, republican, 
 and orator, born at Grasse, in Provence, in 1751, was 
 chosen a member of the Legislative Assembly in 1701. 
 He was one of the most able and enthusiastic partisans 
 of the Revolution, to which he often gave a new impulse 
 l>v his brilliant, impetuous, and inflammatory eloquence. 
 Ite was one of the first members of the committee of 
 public safety, the formation of which he first proposed, 
 and was president of the Convention a few days in May, 
 1793, during the struggle between his party and the Ja- 
 cobins. He was involved in the fatal proscription of the 
 Girondists, bat escaped death by concealment. In 1795 
 he was chosen a member of the Council of Five Hun- 
 dred. He retired from political life when Napoleon be- 
 came consul, and published an essay on the " Immortality 
 of the Soul," (1801,) in which he professes himself a con- 
 vert to revealed religion. He maintained a fair reputation 
 for honour and probity, and died about 1S30. I-amartine, 
 who calls him the Danton of the Girondc, savs, "His 
 speeches were magnificent odes, which exalted discussion 
 into lyric enthusiasm." ("History- of the Girondists.") 
 " Isnard was the man of the Girondist party," says 
 Charles Nodier, " who possessed in the highest degiee 
 
 the gift of those vehement inspirations which burst like 
 thunder in sudden and terrible explosions." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Thiers, " History of th* 
 French Revolution." 
 
 Isnardi, ts-naR'dee, (Giambattista,) an Italian sa- 
 vant, born near Nice in 1749, wrote a "Memoir on the 
 Monuments of India and Egypt." Died in 1830. 
 
 Isolani, eso-la'nee, (Isidoro,) an Italian theologian, 
 born at Milan, lived between 1480 and 1550, and wrote 
 many works against the doctrines of Luther. 
 
 Isolani, e-zo-la'nee, (Juiiann Ludvvig Hector,) 
 Count, an Austrian general, born in 1586, served in 
 the Thirty Years' war. For the part he took in the 
 betrayal of Wallenstein he received the title of count. 
 Died in 1640. 
 
 Isore, e'zo'ri', (Jacques,) a French politician, born 
 at Cauvigny in 1758, was a member of the Convention 
 in 1792, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Isourd, d', de'zooR', (Joachim Jean Xavier,) a 
 French ecclesiastic, born at Aix in 1766. He became a 
 cardinal in 1827, and in 1829 was made a peer < f France, 
 with the title of duke. After refusing several archbishop- 
 rics, he accepted that of Lyons in 1839 ; but he died 
 before the end of that year. 
 
 Is'rael, [Heb. ;X"!iff ; Gr. 'lapar/?.,] a name often given 
 by the inspired writers to the patriarch Jacob, whose 
 descendants are called Israelites. (See Jacob.) 
 Israeli See Disraeli. 
 
 Is'selt, van, (Michael,) a Dutch historian and Cath- 
 olic priest, born at Dokkum, adhered to the Spanish 
 party in the civil war. He wrote " Historia Belli Colo- 
 niensis," (1584,) and other works. Died in 1597. 
 
 Is'ter, [Gr. "IoTpoc,] a Greek historian and poet, lived 
 about 250 B.C., and was a friend or pupil of Callimachus. 
 He wrote a history entitled Attiku, and other works, 
 none of which are extant. 
 
 Isthvaufi, Isht'vin-fee, [Lat. Isthvan'fius,] (Nicho- 
 las,) a Hungarian noble, born about 1535, was rewarded 
 for his services by the office of Vice-Palatine of Hungary. 
 He wrote, in Latin, a " History of Hungary from 1490 to 
 1606," (1622.) Died in 161 5. 
 Isthvanfius. See Isthvanfi. 
 Istria, Duke of. See Bessieres. 
 Isturiz, de, daes-too-reth', (Don Francisco Xavier,) 
 a Spanish politician, born at Cadiz in 1790. He pro- 
 moted the revolution of January, 1820, was elected to 
 the Cortes in 1822, and became a leader of the Liberal 
 or democratic party. He was minister of foreign affairs 
 for a few months in 1836, and was driven into exile by 
 an hneute. Having returned in 1837, he was diosen 
 president of the Cortes in 1839. He negotiated the 
 marriage of the queen Isabel, (1846,) was sent as minister 
 to England in 1850, and to Russia in 1857. He became 
 president of the council in February, 1862. 
 
 IswarS, ecs'wa-ra, or Ishwara, ecsh'wa-ra, written 
 
 also Icwaia, one of the thousand names "f Siva, though 
 
 sometimes applied to other Hindoo deities. He is by 
 
 some writers identified with the Osiris of the Egyptians. 
 
 See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Itale. See Italus. 
 
 It'a-lus, [Gr. 'ItoXoc; Fr. ITALIC, e'til',] an ancient 
 king cif Italv, from whom that country is supposed to have 
 derived its name. He married Electra, a daughter of 
 Latinus. He is considered as fabulous by seme authors. 
 Itard, e'tiR', (Jean Mauik GaSPABD,) a French phy- 
 sician, born at Oraison in 1775, removed to Paris about 
 1706, and practised with success. In 1799 he was ap- 
 pointed physician to the Institution for Deal-Mutts, which 
 position he filled for many years. He wroU .1 "Treatise 
 on Diseases of the Kar,"'(2 vols., 1821.) Died in 1838. 
 Ith'a-cus, |Gr. 'Iflax-oc ; Fr. ItHAQUK, e'iSk',] a name 
 of Ulysses, which see. 
 Ithaque. See Ithacus. 
 
 Ittig, it'tio, [Lat. Itttg'ius,] (Thomas,) a German 
 theologian, born in 1643 at Leipsic, where he became 
 Mir of divinity. I le wrote numerous «n <i ks, among 
 which are one "(in the Heresiarchs of the Apostolic 
 Age," (1690,) and " Bibliothcca Patrum Apostolicorum 
 Graeco-I-atina," (2 vols., 1699.) Died in 17 10. 
 
 See F. Kerm, "De Vila et Scriptia T. lttigii," 1710; Ersch und 
 Geuree, " AllRcmeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; C, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 1 as t; th as in this, (jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ITU R BIDE 
 
 1252 
 
 IZARD 
 
 Iturbide, e-tooR'be-Da, (Don Augustin,) Emperor 
 of Mexico, born at Valladolid (Mexico) in 1784, (one ac- 
 count says 1790.) He fought against the insurgents in the 
 war of independence which began in 1810, and rose to 
 the rank of general. About the end of 1821 he became 
 the master-spirit of a successful plot for the liberation 
 of Mexico from the Spanish rule. He was proclaimed 
 emperor in May, 1822 ; but his power was resisted by a 
 large party in the Congress and by many generals, who 
 preferred a republic. Finding hi's position untenable, 
 he abdicated, and was banished in May, 1823. In July, 
 1S24, he returned almost alone, and, just after he landed, 
 was arrested and shot as a traitor. 
 
 See M. J. Quin, "Memoirs of Iturbide," and French version of 
 the same, by J. T. Parisot, 1824. 
 
 Iule. See Iui.us. 
 
 I-u'lus, [Or. "Ioivioc; Fr. Iule, e'til',] a son of ^Eneas. 
 (See Ascanius.) 
 
 Ivan or Iwan (e-van') I., a Russian prince, who began 
 to reign in Moscow at the death of his brother George, 
 in 1328, and was tributary to the Tartars. His dominions 
 consisted of Vladimir, Moscow, and Novogorod. His 
 reign was peaceful, and lasted twenty-two years. 
 
 His grandson, Ivan H., son of Simeon, born in 1325, 
 was recognized by the Tartars as heir to the throne in 
 1353. The events of his short reign were unimportant. 
 In his last illness he took, according to usage, the mon- 
 astic vows, and died in 1358. 
 
 See Karamzin. "Histoire de Russie." 
 
 Ivan III., (Vasilievitch,) son of Basil IV., ascended 
 the Russian throne in 1462, and is sometimes styled 
 Ivan I., Czar of Muscovy. He liberated his realm 
 from the tribute which the Tartars had exacted by right 
 of conquest from his predecessors, and is regarded as 
 the founder of the empire. About 1475 he defeated, in 
 several actions, the Tartar chief Ahmed, (or Akhmet,) 
 and extended his dominions by the conquest of various 
 princes. He embellished Moscow, the capital, with fine 
 edifices, and patronized the industrial arts. In i486 he 
 assumed the title of "Sovereign of all the Russias." He 
 died in 1505, aged sixty-six, and was succeeded by his 
 son Basil. 
 
 See Heberstein, " Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii," 1540. 
 
 Ivan IV., or Ivan Vasilievitch II., surnamed the 
 TERRIBLE, grandson of the preceding, inherited the 
 throne at the death of Basil, his father, in 1533, when 
 he was four years of age. He assumed the titles of Czar 
 and Autocrat about the age of fifteen. He conquered 
 Kazan and Astrachan from the Tartars, and waged war 
 against Sweden and Poland without decisive results. 
 Siberia was discovered and partially subdued in his 
 reign. About 1582 the first printing-press was estab- 
 lished by him in Russia. He displayed energy and 
 ability in promoting civilization, but is charged with 
 excessive cruelty in the exercise of his unrestrained 
 power. Died in 1584. 
 
 See Oderkokn, "Joannis Basilidis Vita," 1600; Heidenstein, 
 "De Hello Moscovitico," 1600: S. Ciampi, '' Esanie ciitico con 
 Document! inediti della Storia di Ivan Wasiliewitsch," 1827. 
 
 Ivan V., (Alexievitch,) born in 1666, was the heir 
 of the Russian crown at the death of his brother Feodor 
 III. in 1682 ; but on account of his imbecility his younger 
 brother Peter (the Great) was proclaimed in his stead. 
 Ivan was permitted to retain the title of Czar, but had 
 no ambition to rule. Died in 1696. 
 
 Ivan VI., sometimes styled Ivan HI., born in 1740, 
 was the son of Anthony Ulric of Brunswick and Anne of 
 Russia, (niece of the empress Anne.) The latter, at her 
 death in 1740, appointed the infant Ivan her successor; 
 but Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, obtained 
 the imperial power. Ivan was confined in prison, where, 
 it is said, he was killed in 1764, when Mirovitch made 
 a rash attempt to raise him to the throne. 
 
 See E. Mauvillon, " Histoire de la Vie et do Regne d'hvan VI," 
 1766: "Geschichle von dem Lc-ben und Regiening Ivans III., Kaiser 
 von Russland," 1766; " Nouvelle Biographic Generaie." 
 
 Ivanof, e-va'nof, [written in German, Iwwow,] 
 (FEODOR,) a Russian dramatist, born in 1777, served in 
 the army, and wrote, besides several successful comedies, 
 a tragedy called "Martha." Died in 1816. 
 
 Ivara. See Juvara. 
 
 Ivernois, d', de'veit'iiwa', (Francois,) a Swiss politi- 
 cal writer, born at Geneva in 1757, represented his native 
 city at the Congress of 'Vienna in 1814. He wrote a 
 " History of the Revolutions of Geneva in the Eighteenth 
 Century," (3 vols., 1 791,) and other works. Died in 1842. 
 
 See ''Nouvelle Biographic GeneYale." 
 
 Iversen, ee'ver-sen, (Christian,) a Danish writer, 
 born at Copenhagen in 1748, published, among other 
 works, the "Literary Progress of Denmark," (4 vols., 
 1781-89.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon." 
 
 I'ver-son, (Alfred,) a Democratic politician, born 
 in Burke county, Georgia, in 1798, was elected to Con- 
 l;i cs> in 1847, succeeded W. C. Dawson as United States 
 Senator from Georgia in 1853, and was a prominent 
 advocate of disunion. Having entered the Confederate 
 army, he was made a brigadier-general in 1862. 
 
 Ives, Ivz, (EDWARD,) an English surgeon, who went 
 with Admiral Watson to the East Indies in 1754, and 
 published a valuable account of his voyage and of the 
 operations of the English army in 1755, 1756, and 1757. 
 Died about 1780. 
 
 Ives, Ivz, (Eli,) an American physician, born at New 
 Haven, Connecticut, in 1779. He was professor of medi- 
 cine at Yale College about twenty years. Died in 1861. 
 
 Ives, (John,) F.R.S., an English antiquary, born at 
 Yarmouth in 1 75 1, was educated at Cambridge. He 
 published " Remarks on the Garianonum of the Romans," 
 and other antiquarian treatises. Died in 1776. 
 
 Ives, (Levi Sili.iman,) a theologian, born in Meriden, 
 Connecticut, in 1797. He became an Episcopal clergy- 
 man about 1824, and Bishop of North Carolina in 183 1. 
 In 1852 he joined the Roman Catholic Church. He 
 wrote, besides other works, "The Trials of a Mind in 
 its Progress to Catholicism," (1854.) 
 
 Ives or Yves, [modern Fr. pron. ev,] written also 
 I'vo, Saint, a French theologian, born in 1035, became 
 Bishop of Chartres. Died in 1115. 
 
 Iveteaux. See Des Yveteaux. 
 
 Ivo. See Ives, Saint. 
 
 I'vo-l^r, (James,) F.R.S., an eminent British mathe- 
 matician, born at Dundee in 1765. After he left college, 
 he engaged in teaching and other pursuits. In 1804 he 
 obtained the chair of mathematics in the Royal Military 
 College, Marlow, which he retained about fifteen years. 
 He contributed numerous able papers on physical as- 
 tronomy and mathematics to the "Transactions" of the 
 Royal Society. He was a corresponding member of the 
 Institute of France and of other foreign Academies. In 
 183 1 he received the Guelphic order of knighthood and 
 a pension of ,£300. Died in 1842. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men," (Supplement.) 
 
 Iwan. See Ivan. 
 
 Ix-i'on, [Gr. '!;/<.»>,] a fabulous king of the Lapithae. 
 The poets feigned that after he had committed a murder, 
 Jupiter purified him and invited him to his table. Ixiofl 
 "attempted to seduce Juno, but embraced a cloud instead 
 of that goddess. To punish him for this crime, he was 
 chained to a fiery wheel which revolved perpetually. 
 
 See Virgil, "Georjrica," book iv. 484. 
 
 Ixtlilxochitl, ikst-lel-no-cheetl', ? (Fernando de 
 Alva,) a Mexican historian, born at Tezcuco about 1568, 
 was a descendant of the royal family of Tezcuco. lie 
 wrote " Historia Chichimeca," and other chronicles on 
 Mexican history. The first-named work has been trans- 
 lated into French by Ternaux-Compans. Died about 
 164S. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i. 
 book i. 
 
 Izaacke, T'zak, ? (Richard,) an English antiquary, 
 born, at Exeter in 1624; died in 1700. 
 
 Iz'ard, (GF.ORGE,) a general, born in South Carolina 
 in 1777. He became a colonel in 1812, served in the 
 war that ensued, and was raised to the rank of major- 
 general. Died in 1S2X. 
 
 Izard, (Ralph,) a Senator, born in South Carolina in 
 1742. settled in London in 1771. Having returned to the 
 United States in 1780, he was chosen a member of Con- 
 
 a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fi, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
IZIASLAF 
 
 i*53 
 
 JACKSON 
 
 giessin 1781, and nasaUnited States Senator (for South 
 Carolina) from 1789 to 1795. He was an able debater, 
 and a constant supporter of Washington's administra- 
 tion. Died in 1804. 
 
 See his " Life and Correspondence," by his daughter, 1844. 
 
 Iziaslaf or Isiaslav (e-zeas-laf) X, written also 
 Isiaslaw, (Dmitri or Demetrius,) Grand Duke of 
 Russia, succeeded his father, Yaroslaf, in 1054. His 
 reign was disturbed by wars with his brothers and other 
 princes, among whom Russia was divided. He was killed 
 in battle in 1078, and left the throne to his son. 
 
 Iziaslaf or Isiaslav II., Grand Prince of Russia, was 
 the son of Mstislaf. He began to reign in 1146, as suc- 
 cessor to Igor II., whom he defeated in battle. He was 
 thrice driven from his throne, but as often recovered it. 
 He died in 1 154. 
 
 Iziaslaf or Isiaslav HI., surnamed Davidovitch, 
 son of David, became Grand Prince of Russia in 1 157. 
 He was killed in battle about 1 161. 
 
 Iziocalt, e-se-o-kalt', King of the Mexicans, ascended 
 the throne in 1433, and is called the founder of the 
 Mexican empire. He formed a code of laws, which was 
 adopted by several adjacent nations. Died in 1445. 
 
 Izmailbf, is-ma'e-lof, (ALEXANDER,) a Russian fabu- 
 list, born at Moscow in 1779. He became a resident of 
 Saint Petersburg, and edited several reviews or journals. 
 He published a volume of fables, (1804,) which are highly 
 commended. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Grrtch, " History of Russian Literature," 1819-22. 
 
 Izma'ilof, ( Vladimir Vasilievitch,) a Russian writer, 
 born at Moscow in 1773. He wrote "Travels in 
 Southern Russia," (1802,) and translated some works of 
 Rousseau and Chateaubriand. 
 
 Izquierdo de Ribera, eth-ke-eVdo da re-na'i a, (Don 
 EuGENIO,) a Spanish diplomatist, bom at Saragossa, 
 He was sent to Paris as plenipotentiary in iSco, and 
 negotiated a treaty for the partition of Portugal. Died 
 in 1813. 
 
 Jaafar, Jafar, Djafar, or Giafar, ja'a-far or ji'far, 
 surnamed SaDIK, an eminent Mussulman doctor of 
 Medina ; died in 764 A.r>. 
 
 Jaafar, Jafar, Jafer, Djafar, or Giafar, a Barmecide, 
 who became the ravourite of Harouu -al-Raschid, and 
 to whom, it is said, the Caliph gave his own sister Ab- 
 basa in marriage, on condition that the intercourse of the 
 married pair should be strictly Platonic. Abbasa having 
 borne a son to Jaafar, llaroun, in his rage, mercilessly 
 destroyed both father and son. (See Barmecides.) 
 
 Jaafar-Ibn-Tofail. See Aboo-BekrIun-Tofail. 
 
 Jablonowski, ya-blo nov'skee, ( STANISLAUS, ) a 
 Polish general, bum in 1631, commanded the right wing 
 of the army of Sobieski when he defeated the Turks at 
 Vienna in 1683. He afterwards had the chief command 
 during the illness of the king. Died in 1702. 
 
 See De Jonsac, "Histoire de Stanislas Jablonowski," 4 vols., 
 Leipsic, 1774. 
 
 Jablonowski, von, fon ya-blo-nov'skee, (Joseph 
 Alexander,) a Polish or German prince, born in 171 1, 
 was a patron of science. He founded at Leipsic a sci- 
 entific association which bears his name, and wrote, 
 besides other works, "Museum Polonicum," (1752.) 
 Died in 1777. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkubkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Jablonski, yS-blon'skee, (Daniel Ernst,) an emi- 
 nent German Protestant theologian, born at Dantzic in 
 1660. He became pastor at K6nigsl>erg in 1690, and 
 preacher or chaplain to the king at Berlin in 1693. He 
 published a Hebrew Bible, with notes and a preface, 
 (1699,) and wrote several works on theology. He la- 
 boured to effect a union of various Protestant sects. 
 Died in Berlin in 1 741. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkubkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Jablonski or Jablonsky, (Johann Theodor,) a 
 brother of Daniel Ernst, noticed above, was born at 
 Dantzic about 1654. He published a "French-German 
 and German-French Dictionary," (1711.) Died in 1731. 
 
 Jablonski, (PAUL ERNST,) an eminent Prussian 
 scholar and divine, a son of Daniel Ernst, noticed above, 
 was born in Berlin in 1693. He devoted himself par- 
 ticularly to the study of the Coptic and other Oriental 
 languages. Among his numerous works are " Pantheon 
 itiorum," 13 vols., 1750-52,) a work relating to the 
 on of the Egyptians, and "Of the Memnon of the 
 Greeks and Egyptians." Died in 1757. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruskr, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Jablonsky, ya-blon'.skcc, IKari. Gustav,) a Prus- 
 sian eiltOI >rn in 1756, published a "System 
 of all the Known Insects, arranged according to the 
 Method of Linnsens." Died in 1787. 
 
 Jacetius. See CattaNI da Diaceto. 
 
 Jachseus. See Jack. 
 
 Jack, 1 1. at. Jach.+/is.| (Gilbert,) a Scottish meta- 
 phvsician, born at Aberdeen about 1578. He became 
 professor of philosophy at Leyden in early life. He 
 
 published several works, among which is " Institutiones 
 Physical," (1612.) Died in 1628. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Jack, (THOMAS,) a Scottish minister of Eastwood, 
 wrote "Onomasticon Poeticum," (1592.) Died in 1596. 
 
 Jack'son, (Andrew,) a celebrated American general 
 and statesman, born in the Waxhaw settlement, North 
 or South Carolina, on the 15th of March, 1767. Parton 
 states that he was born in Union county, North Caro- 
 lina, but adds that "General Jackson always supposed 
 himself to be a native of South Carolina," for in his 
 proclamation to the nullifiers of South Carolina he thus 
 addresses them : " Fellow-citizens of my native State." 
 lie was a son of Andrew Jackson, an Irishman, who 
 emigrated to America in 1765 and died poor in 1767. 
 The name of his mother was Elizabeth Hutchinson. We 
 have little definite information about the schools that he 
 attended. According to Parton, " he learned to read, to 
 write, and cast accounts ; — little more. . . . He was never 
 a well-informed man." Having taken arms against the 
 British in 17S1, he was captured, and afterwards wounded 
 by an officer because he refused to clean his boots. 
 About 1785 he began to study law at Salisbury, North 
 Carolina. He was addicted in his youth to gambling, 
 horse-racing, and other sports. He was an excellent 
 horseman, " a capital shot," was very dignified in man- 
 ner, and was distinguished for his courage and activity. 
 His stature was six feet and one inch high. 
 
 In 17S8 he removed to Nashville, Tennessee, where 
 he began to practise law. He speedily obtained a large 
 practice, of which disputed land-claims formed the prin- 
 cipal subject. About 1792 he married Rachel Robards, 
 originally Rachel Donelson, whose first husband was 
 living and had taken preliminary measures to obtain 
 a divorce, which was legally completed in 1793. l" e 
 marriage ceremony was again performed in 1794. Jack- 
 son, following a custom then extremely common in the 
 South and West, fought a number of duels in the early 
 part of his life. lie was a member of the Convention 
 which framed the Constitution of Tennessee in 1796, and 
 in the autumn of that year was elected representative to 
 Congress l>y the people of Tennessee, which was then 
 entitled to only one member. He supported Thomas 
 Jefferson in the Presidential election of 1796. In 1797 
 he became a Senator of the United States for Tenni 
 He resigned his scat in the Senate in 1798, "partly be- 
 lie felt himself out of place in so slow and digni- 
 fied a body, but chiefly for pecuniary reasons." He was 
 a judge of the supreme court of Tennessee from 170S to 
 1804. In 1806 he challenged and kill. Mirk. 
 
 inson In a duel with pistols, receiving himself a severe 
 wound. This affair impaired for many years Ins popu- 
 larity in Tennessee and other parts of the United States, 
 
 In 1S07, while the trial of Aaron Burr was still unde- 
 termined, Jackson "harangued the crowd, | at Richmond,] 
 defending Burr, and angrily denouncing Jefferson as a 
 i persecutor." (Barton's "Life.") After war had been 
 
 « as Jk; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (jgfSee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JACKSON 
 
 I2S4 
 
 JACKSON 
 
 declared against Great Britain, General Jackson (who 
 several years before had been appointed major-general 
 of militia) offered his services, and those of 2500 volun- 
 teers, in June, 1812. He was ordered to New Orleans, 
 and led a body of 2070 men in that direction ; but at 
 Natchez he received an order dated February 6, 1813, by 
 which his troops were dismissed from public service. In 
 September, 1813, he had an affray with Colonel Thomas 
 H. Benton at Nashville, and was severely wounded by his 
 brother, Jesse Benton. In October next he took the field 
 against the Creek Indians, whom he defeated at Talla- 
 dega in November. By his services in this Creek war, 
 which ended in 1814, he acquired great popularity, and 
 in May, 1814, he was appointed a major-general in the 
 regular army. He was soon after ordered to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, to oppose an expected invasion of the British. 
 In November he seized I'ensacola, which belonged to 
 Spain but was used by the British as a base of operations. 
 About the 1st of December he moved his army to New 
 Orleans, which was then ill prepared for defence. The 
 British fleet, conveying an army of veterans who had 
 fought under Wellington, entered Lake Borgne Decem- 
 ber 13, and captured several gunboats. General Jackson 
 proclaimed martial law in the city on the 16th. On the 
 23d the enemy advanced to a point about nine miles be- 
 low the city, and were attacked in the night by General 
 Jackson, who had about 2100 men. The result of this 
 action was favourable to the defenders of the city, who 
 gained time to fortify their position. On the 25th of 
 December Sir Edward Pakenham arrived and took com- 
 mand of the invaders, whose number was about 12,000. 
 Jackson, who had a much smaller army, composed partly 
 of the unerring marksmen of Tennessee and Kentucky, 
 repulsed an attack on the 1st of January, 1815. On the 
 8th of January the British made a general assault on the 
 American lines, but were defeated with great loss by 
 the deadly fire of the riflemen and artillery. Generals 
 Pakenham and Gibbs were killed. " Seven hundred 
 killed," says Parton, "fourteen hundred wounded, and 
 five hundred prisoners, were the' dread result of that 
 twenty-five minutes' work. Jackson's loss was eight 
 killed and thirteen wounded." The victory of New 
 Orleans, which was one of the most brilliant and de- 
 cisive ever gained by an American army, raised Jackson's 
 reputation as a general to the highest point, and made 
 him the idol of a large portion of the American people. 
 This was the last battle of the war, a treaty of peace 
 having been signed in Europe in December, 1814. 
 
 In March, 1815, while that city was still under mar- 
 tial law, Judge Hall, of New Orleans, granted a writ of 
 habeas corpus for the release of Mr. Louaillier, who had 
 been arrested by order of Jackson, for exciting discontent 
 among the troops. The latter, instead of obeying the 
 writ, had the judge arrested and kept in custody. Peace 
 having been formally proclaimed, Hall was set at liberty. 
 General Jackson was then summoned to answer for con- 
 tempt of court. He was found guilty, and sentenced to 
 pay a fine of one thousand dollars. He immediately 
 paid the fine ; but it was afterwards refunded with the 
 interest by an act of Congress passed in February, 1844. 
 
 In 181 7-18 he waged a successful war against the 
 Seminoles jn Florida, seized Pensacola, and executed 
 Arbuthnot and Ambrister, two British subjects, accused 
 of inciting the savages to hostile acts against the Ameri- 
 cans. He was appointed Governor of Florida in 1821. 
 Before this date he had built, near Nashville, a mansion 
 called the " Hermitage," in which he resided many years. 
 In 1823 he was elected a Senator of the United States, 
 and nominated as candidate for the Presidency by the 
 legislature of Tennessee. His competitors were John 
 Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William H. Crawford. 
 Jackson received ninety-nine electoral votes, Adams 
 eighty-four, Cra.v f ord forty-one, and Clay thirty-seven. 
 As no candidate had a majority, the election devolved 
 on the House of Representatives, voting by States, each 
 State having one vote. Through the influence of Mr. 
 Clay, John Quincy Adams was elected, by the vote of 
 thirteen States. General Jackson, who received the 
 vote of seven States, became the implacable enemy of 
 Mr. Clay, whom he stigmatized as "this Judas of the 
 West." He habitually attributed the conduct of his 
 
 political opponents to mean or improper motives, and, 
 accordingly, hated Crawford, Clay, Adams, and Calhoun. 
 
 In [828 he was elected President, receiving one hun- 
 dred and seventy-eight electoral votes, while Mr. Adams 
 received eighty-three. Calhoun became Vice-President. 
 Martin Van Buren was appointed secretary of state. 
 Jackson was the first President who proscribed public 
 servants for political opinions. He made more removals 
 in one year than all the other Presidents in forty years 
 before. At a banquet in April, 1830, the President gave 
 this famous toast: "Our Federal Union: it must be 
 preserved." In April, 1831, he reorganized his cabinet, 
 appointing Edward Livingston secretary of state, Louis 
 McLane secretary of the treasury, Lewis Cass secretary 
 of war, Levi Woodbury secretary of the navy, and Roger 
 B. Taney attorney-general. 
 
 Among the principal events of his first term was his 
 veto of the bill which granted anew charter to the Bank 
 of the United States, (July, 1832.) This subject became 
 the chief issue between the partisans of Jackson and his 
 opponents, who supported Henry Clay in the Presiden- 
 tial election of 1832. General Jackson was re-elected, 
 receiving two hundred and nineteen electoral votes out 
 of two hundred and eighty-eight, which was the whole 
 number, and Martin Van Buren succeeded Calhoun in 
 the Vice-Presidency. In November, 1832, a Convention 
 in South Carolina adopted an ordinance of nullification, 
 by which they ordained that the tariff-law of 1828 "is 
 null and void." The President electrified the country 
 by his memorable proclamation against the nullifiers, 
 December II, 1832, in which he announced his resolu- 
 tion to crush any disunion movement with the strong 
 hand. He was censured by the Senate for removing 
 the public deposits from the Bank of the United States, 
 September, 1833. 
 
 He used his influence to procure the election of Mar- 
 tin Van Buren to the Presidency in 1836, and retired 
 finally from public life March 4, 1837. He afterwards 
 joined the Presbyterian Church. In his last illness Dr. 
 Edgar asked "what he would have done with Calhoun 
 and the other nullifiers if they had kept on." "Hung 
 them, sir, as high as Hainan,!' was his reply. He 
 died, without issue, at the Hermitage, on the 8th of 
 June, 1845. 
 
 See Eaton, "Life of Jackson," 1824; William Corbett, "Life 
 of Andrew Jackson," 1834 ; J. S. Jenkins, " Life of General An- 
 drew Jackson," 1850; J. 'I*. Headlky, " Life of Andrew Jackson," 
 1852 : Amos Kendall," Life of Andrew Jackson," 1844; Alkxamjkk 
 Walker, "Jackson and New Orleans," 1856: Jambs Pakton, " Life 
 of Andrew Jackson," 3 vols., i860, (by far the most complete life of 
 the Hero of New Orleans that has been published ;) " National Por- 
 trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. ; "New American 
 Cyclopaedia;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1862. 
 
 Jack'spn, (Arthur,) an English Puritan minister, 
 born in Suffolk in 1593, preached at Saint Faith's, Lon- 
 don, until 1662, when he was ejected. He wrote "An- 
 notations on the Old Testament," (1643-58.) Died in 
 1666. 
 
 Jackson, (Charles,) I.L.D., an American jurist, 
 was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1775. He 
 graduated at Harvard with the highest honours of his 
 class in 1793, studied law with Theophilus Parsons, and 
 obtained an extensive practice in his native town. In 
 1803 he removed to Boston, where he practised law for 
 many years. In 1813 he was made judge of the supreme 
 court of Massachusetts, the duties of which he discharged 
 for ten years. He was placed at the head of the com- 
 missioners appointed by the State in 1832 to revise her 
 legislative enactments. Died in Boston in 1855. He 
 published a "Treatise on the Pleadings and Practice in 
 Real Actions, with Precedents," etc., (1828.) 
 
 Jackson, (Charles Thomas,) M.D., an American 
 chemist and geologist, born at Plymouth, Massachusetts, 
 in June, 1805. He took the degree of M.D. at Harvard 
 in 1829, after which he continued his studies in Paris, 
 and passed several years in visits to various countries 
 of Europe. In conjunction with Francis Alger, he pub- 
 lished a work called "Mineralogy and Geology of Nova 
 Scotia," (1832.) He became a resident of Boston about 
 1833, was appointed State geologist of Maine in 1836, 
 and produced a " Report on the Geology of the State 
 of Maine," (1837.) His second and third Reports on 
 the same subject appeared in 1838 and 1839. He was 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
JJCKSON 
 
 1JCJ 
 
 J4CKS0N 
 
 appointed geologist of the State of New Hampshire in 
 1840. lie claims to be the original discoverer of anas 
 thetics, and was involved in a long controversy on this 
 subject with Dr. W. T. G. Morton. 
 
 Jackson, (Conrad Feokr,) an American general, 
 born in Pennsylvania. He served as colonel in the 
 Union army at Gaines's Mill, June 27, 1862, commanded 
 a brigade at the battle of Antietam, September 17, and 
 was killed at Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862. 
 
 Jackson, (CYRIL,) Dr., a noted English divine, born 
 at Stamford in 1742. He was offered the primacy of 
 Ireland and an English bishopric, both of which he de- 
 clined. He was tutor to the Prince of Wales, (George 
 IV.) Died in 1819. 
 
 Jackson, (Henry R.,) was born in Georgia in 1810. 
 lie served as a colonel in the Mexican war, and was 
 appointed minister to Austria in 1S53. This position be 
 held till 1858. He published in 1851 " Tallulah, and 
 o'her Poems." 
 
 Jackson, (James,) a lawyer, born in Devonshire, 
 England, in 1 757, emigrated to America in 1772. He 
 fought with distinction against the British in Georgia 
 in 1776-82, was elected to Congress in 1789, and was a 
 United States Senator for Georgia from 1792 to 1795. 
 In 1798 he became Governor of Georgia, and in 1801 
 was again elected a Senator of the United States. Died 
 in 1804. 
 
 See "National Portrait- Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. 
 
 Jackson, (James S.,) an American lawyer and gene- 
 ral, born in Kentucky about 1822. He was elected a 
 member of Congress in i860 by the voters of the second 
 district of Kentucky, but he resigned his seat and joined 
 the Union army in 1S61. He was killed at the battle 
 of Perryville, October 8, 1862. 
 
 Jackson, (John,) a clergyman of the Anglican 
 Church, born in Yorkshire, England, in 1686. He was a 
 zealous advocate of the Arian doctrines, which prevented 
 his advancement in the church. Died in 1763. He wrote 
 a valuable work entitled "Chronological Antiquities," 
 (3 vols., 1752,) and numerous controversial treatises. 
 
 See Dr. Sutton, "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of John 
 Jackson," 1764. 
 
 Jackson, (John,) an able English engraver on wood, 
 flourished about 1 725-45. 
 
 Jackson, (John,) an eminent English portrait-painter, 
 born at Lastingham, Yorkshire, in 1778, became a resi- 
 dent of London about 1797, and was elected a member 
 of the Royal Academy in 181 7. Among his best works 
 are portraits of Canova and Flaxman. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Cunningham, " Lives of British Painters." 
 
 Jackson, (Joskih,) an English letter-founder, born 
 probably in London in 1 733 ; died in 1 792. 
 
 Jackson, (Nathaniel J.,) born in New England, 
 became brigadier-general in the Federal army in 1862. 
 
 Jackson, (Patrick Tracy,) a merchant and manu- 
 facturer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1780. 
 He organized in 1821 the Merrimac Manufacturing 
 Company, and founded Lowell. Died in 1847. 
 
 See J. A. Lowell, " Life of P. T. Jackson," in Hunt's "Lives 
 of American Mt-rchanLs," vol. i., 1858. 
 
 Jackson, (Rohert,) an English physician, born in 
 1751. He served as surgeon in the army, and wrote, 
 besides other works, a "Treatise on the Fevers of 
 Jamaica," (1791.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Jackson, (Samuel,) a distinguished physician and 
 physiologist, lx>rn in Philadelphia March 22, 1787. He 
 was elected in 1835 to the chair of the institutes of medi- 
 cine in the University of Pennsylvania, which he filled 
 with great credit to himself and the institution for 
 twenty-eight years. He resigned in 1863. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "Principles of Medicine," (1832,) 
 and an " Introduction to Lehman's Chemical Physi- 
 ology," (1856.) 
 
 Jackson, (Thomas,) a learned English divine, l>orn 
 in Durham in 1579. He was the author of a "Com- 
 mentary on the Apostles' Creed," and of several devo- 
 tional treatises. He became Dean of Peterborough in 
 1638. His works are highly praised by Southey. Died 
 in 1640. 
 
 See E. Vaughak, " Life of Thomas Jackson," 1673. 
 
 Jackson, (Thomas Jonathan,) commonly known by 
 the name of Stonewall Jackson, a distinguished Amer- 
 ican general, bom in Lewis county, Virginia, January 21, 
 1824, graduated at West l'oint in 1846, standing seven- 
 teenth in a class of fifty-nine. He was considered at 
 West l'oint to be rather a dull and slow student. In the 
 Mexican war (1846-47) he served as first lieutenant with 
 distinction. Having resigned his commission in 1852, 
 he became a professor in the Military Institute at Lex- 
 ington, Virginia. About 1853 he married Miss Junkin, 
 a daughter of Dr. Junkin, of Lexington. He was ap- 
 pointed a colonel of the Virginian troops in April, 1861, 
 and commanded the force that was attacked by the Union 
 army at Martinsburg, July 2. He served as brigadier- 
 general at the battle of Hull Run, July 21, 1861, and was 
 promoted to the rank of major-general in the following 
 September. It has been currently stated that he received 
 his surname from the fact that he and his men " stood like 
 a stone wall" at the battle of Bull Run ; but, according to 
 one of his biographers, the name " Stonewall" was first 
 applied to his brigade because it was recruited in a stone- 
 wall country, — the counties of Jefferson, Page, Frederick, 
 etc. He was defeated by General Shields near Win- 
 chester, March 23, 1862, and retreated up the valley to 
 Harrisonburg, pursued by General Banks. Having been 
 reinforced, he resumed the offensive with about twenty 
 thousand men, attacked General Banks near Strasburg, 
 May 23, and drove him back to the Potomac. On the 
 approach of General Fremont from the west, General 
 Jackson moved hastily up the valley to Harrisonburg. 
 His army was overtaken by General Fremont at Cross 
 Keys, where an indecisive battle was fought on the 8th 
 of June. Before the end of June he moved his army 
 to Richmond and joined that of General Lee. He 
 commanded a corps at the battle of Gaines's Mill, June 
 27, and at that of Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862. On the 
 9th of August he defeated a small army under General 
 Banks at Cedar Mountain, Virginia. He captured 
 Harper's Ferry, with eleven thousand Union prisoners, 
 on the 15th of September, and joined General Lee in 
 time to take part in the battle of Antietam, September 
 17. He contributed to the victory at Fredericksburg, 
 December 13, 1862, for which service he was promoted 
 to the rank of lieutenant-general. He remained inactive 
 for several months, (January-April, 1863,) employed 
 partly in preparing official reports. On the 1st of May 
 he was ordered by General Lee to execute a flank move- 
 ment on the right wing of General Hooker's army. He 
 surprised and routed the eleventh corps, near Chancel- 
 lorsville, on the evening of the 2d of May. As he was 
 riding with his staff from the front towards the rear 
 during that battle, he received a volley from his own 
 men, who in the darkness mistook the staff for a party 
 of Federal cavalry. General Jackson received three 
 wounds, of which he died at Guinea's Station on the 
 loth of May, 1863. " His loss," says Mr. Greeley, " was 
 the greatest yet sustained by either-party in the fall of a 
 single man ; though Sidney Johnston had probably mili- 
 tary talents of a higher order. But Jackson's power over 
 his men was unequalled ; and it was justified by the 
 soundness of his judgment, as well as the intrepidity of 
 his character. Contrary to the vulgar notion, his attacks 
 were all well considered, and based on a careful cal- 
 culation of forces ; and he showed as high qualities in 
 refusing to squander his men at Antietam, and again at 
 Fredericksburg, as he did in his most brilliant charges. 
 . . . It is doubtful if all the advantages, including pre*- 
 tige, which the rebels gained around Chancellorsville, 
 were not dearly purchased by the loss of Thomas J. 
 Jackson." ("American Conflict," vol. ii. pp. 359-60.) 
 Stonewall Jackson was a man of deep and earnest re- 
 ligious conviction! ; and in his general character, as well 
 as in his serene, indomitable courage and the extraor- 
 dinary influence which he exerted over the minds of his 
 soldiers, he reminds us of the great Puritan leaders who 
 fought under Cromwell, 
 
 See Da»n«v. " Life of General T. J. Jackson," and a " Life of 
 General T. J. Jackson," in " Southern Generals," 1865. 
 
 Jackson, (Thomas K.,) born in South Carolina about 
 1829, was made a brigadier-general in the Confederate 
 army in 1861. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g Hard; g as>; c, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; a, trilled; 3 as 1; th as in thit. (JtySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JACKSON 
 
 1256 
 
 JACOBI 
 
 Jackson, (William,) a clergyman of the Anglican 
 Chinch, burn in Ireland about 1737. In 1794 he was 
 detected in a treasonable correspondence with France, 
 in which he recommended the invasion of Ireland. He 
 was tried and found guilty of high treason, but died 
 from the effects of poison, before sentence was passed 
 upon him, in 1795. 
 
 Jackson, (William,) an eminent English musician 
 and landscape-painter, was born at Exeter in 1730. 
 Among his musical compositions are "Twelve Popular 
 Songs," " Six Sonatas for the Harpsichord," and " Twelve 
 Canzonets for Two Voices." He published "Thirty 
 Letters upon Various Subjects," (1782,) and "The Four 
 Ages," (1798.) Died in 1803. 
 
 See Fans, " fiiographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Jackson, (Dr. William,) Bishop of Oxford, and 
 brother to Dr. Cyril Jackson, noticed above, was born 
 at Stamford in 1750. He published several sermons. 
 Died in 1815. 
 
 Ja'cob, [Heb. 3p>'"; Gr. 'laxuj},] a celebrated Hebrew 
 patriarch, a son of Isaac, and the great progenitor of the 
 Israelitish nation. He was also called Israel. 
 
 See Genesis xxv., xxvii., xxviii., xxtx., xxx. 
 
 Ja'cob, a Hungarian adventurer, and chief of the 
 Pastoureaux. About 1250 he incited the common people 
 to enlist in a crusade for the liberation of Saint Louis, 
 who was then a captive. He mustered a vast multitude 
 of French peasants, who massacred priests and com- 
 mitted other outrages in France. Jacob was killed, and 
 his dupes were dispersed. 
 
 See Sismonui, " Histoire des Frangais." 
 
 Ja'cob, (Edward,) a topographical and. antiquarian 
 writer of Kent, England. Died in 1788. 
 
 Jacob, (Gilks,) an English author, born in Hamp- 
 shire in 1686. Among his works are "The Poetical 
 Register," (1723,) composed of memoirs of the English 
 dramatic poets, and a "Law Dictionary," (1729,) which 
 has passed through many editions. Died in 1744. 
 
 Jacob, (Henry,) an English Puritan and Independ- 
 ent minister, born in Kent about 1562. He founded in 
 London the first Independent Congregational church 
 that existed in England, and published several works. 
 In 1624 he removed to Virginia, where he died about 
 1626. 
 
 Jacob, (Hknry,) a philologist and Orientalist, born 
 in 1606 or 1607, was a son of the preceding. He became 
 a Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and published 
 "Graeca et Latina Poemata." Died in 1652. 
 
 Ja'cob, (Jr.iiuiiAii Leon,) a Jew of the seventeenth 
 century, born in Spain, resided in Holland. He wrote 
 a " Description of the Temple of Solomon," also a 
 description of the Tabernacle, and an "Exposition of 
 the Psalms." 
 
 Jacob, (John,) a British general, born in 1812 or 
 1813. He distinguished himself in India in 1843 as 
 commander of the Sinde Horse. Died in India in 1858. 
 
 Jacob, (John,) an Armenian carpenter, lived about 
 1650. He is distinguished for having introduced the art 
 of printing into Persia. 
 
 Jacob of Edkssa. See Barad^sus. 
 
 Jacob or James [Gr. 'IukuSoc; Lat. Jaco'isusI OF 
 Nisihis, surnamed the Great, a Christian bishop, who 
 was regarded as a prophet and was distinguished for his 
 ascetic life. He became Bishop of Nisibis, and attended, 
 in 325 A.D., the Council of Nice, where he advocated the 
 orthodox creed. He is said to have delivered Nisibis 
 from the besieging Persians by his prayers. His death 
 is variously dated from about 340 to 350 A.D. 
 
 See Saint Jkkohk, " De Viris illustribus ;" Fabricius, " Bibli- 
 otlieca Grjeca;" Cave, "Historia Literaria." 
 
 Ja'cob Ben Ash'er, a learned Jew, born in Ger- 
 many, wrote a work called "Arba Thourim." Died at 
 Toledo about 1340. 
 
 Ja'cob Ben Haj'im or Chajim, a Jewish rabbi 
 of the sixteenth century, distinguished for his learning, 
 was born at Tunis. He edited the Masora and Hebrew 
 Bible, with commentaries, and a Chaldean paraphrase, 
 "Biblia Kabbinica Bombergiana," (4 vols., 1525.) 
 
 Ja'cob Ben Naph'ta-H, a learned Jewish rabbi of 
 the fifth century, educated at Tiberias. To him is chiefly 
 
 attributed the invention of the Masoretic points used in 
 distinguishing the Hebrew vowels. 
 
 Jacob de Saint-Charles, zhit'kob' deh saN sIySrI, 
 (Louis,) a French author and bibliographer, born at 
 Chalons-sur-Saone in 1608. He became a monk of the 
 order of Carmelites. Among his works are a "Treatise 
 upon the Finest Libraries of the World," (1644,) "The 
 Parisian Library," and "The French Universal Library," 
 (1646.) Died in 1670. 
 
 Jacob-Kolb, zhS'kob' kolb, (Gerard,) a French 
 antiquary, born at Rheims in 1775. He made valuable 
 collections of Greek and Roman medals, autographs, 
 and books. He wrote " Historical Researches on the 
 Crusades and the Templars." Died in 1830. 
 
 Jacob le Bibliophile. See Lacroix, (Paul.) 
 
 Jacobaa or Jacobaea. See Jacqueline. 
 
 Jacobaeus, ya-ko-ba'us, or Jacobi, ya-ko'bee, (Oli- 
 ger,) a distinguished physician and philosopher, born 
 at Aarhuus, in Jutland, in 1650, became professor of 
 medicine and natural philosophy in the University of 
 Copenhagen. He wrote several works on natural 
 history, and elegant Latin poems. Died in 1701. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteratur- 
 lexicon." 
 
 Jacobazzi, ya-ko-bat'see, (Domenico,) an Italian 
 cardinal, born at Rome about 1443, wrote a " Treatise 
 on Councils," (1538.) Died in 1527. 
 
 Jacobi. See Jacoiiaeus. 
 
 Jacobi, ya-ko'bee, (Hf.inrich Friedrich,) an emi- 
 nent German writer and thinker, born at Dusseldorf in 
 1743. His father was a merchant, and young Jacobi 
 was destined to the same calling, although his tastes led 
 him to other pursuits. At the age of sixteen he was 
 sent to school at Frankfort. He afterwards went to 
 Geneva, where he remained three years, applying him- 
 self to literary studies. During this period he acquired 
 such a mastery of the French language as has rarely 
 been equalled by any of his countrymen. On returning 
 to Dusseldorf, he conducted his father's business for 
 several years, without, however, abandoning his favourite 
 pursuits. Afterwards, through the influence of his friend 
 and patron the Count of Goltstein, he received an ap- 
 pointment under the government, and was thus enabled 
 to devote his principal attention to philosophy and lite- 
 rature. About this time he married Betty von Clermont, 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle, a lady of considerable wealth as well 
 as of great accomplishments and personal attractions. 
 In 1779 Jacobi was invited to Munich, where he became 
 privy councillor. But, having exposed the abuses of the 
 Bavarian system of customs, he fell into disfavour with 
 the government, and withdrew to his estate near Dus- 
 seldorf. In 1804 he was again called to Munich, to aid 
 in the establishment of the new Academy of Sciences 
 in that city, of which institution he became president 
 in 1807. He resigned this position in 1S13, and died 
 in 1819. 
 
 Among the works of Jacobi may be named "Edward 
 Allwill's Correspondence," (" Eduard Allwill's Brief- 
 sammlung," 1781,) "On the Doctrine of Spinoza," 
 (" Ueber die Lehre des Spinoza," 1785,) in a series of 
 letters to Mendelssohn, "David Hume on Faith, or 
 Idealism and Realism," ("David Hume iiber den Glau- 
 ben, oder Idealismus und Realismus," 1787,) " Wolde- 
 mar," (2 vols., 1799,) and "Of Divine Things and their 
 Revelation," (" Von gottlichen Dingen und ihrer Offen- 
 barung," 181 1.) 
 
 "As a writer of fiction," observes Mrs. Austin, "Ja- 
 cobi is distinguished for vigorous painting, admirable 
 delineation of nature and the human heart, warmth and 
 depth of feeling, and a lively, bold, yet correct turn of 
 expression. As a philosopher, he is admired for his 
 rare depth of thought, for the fervour of his religious 
 feelings, and for the originality and beautv of his style." 
 Again she says, " His character is rich m all that can 
 attract the wise and good." "Jacobi is ranked, and 
 justly," says Dr. Hedge, "among the philosophers of 
 modern Germany, although his philosophy, far from 
 shaping itself into a system, denies, — and that denial 
 may be regarded as one of its leading characteristics, — 
 on philosophical grounds, the possibility of a system, 
 and maintains that any system of philosophy, carried to 
 
 1, e, J, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ti, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; gopd; moon; 
 
JACOBI 
 
 1257 
 
 JACQUELINE 
 
 its legitimate results, must lead to fanaticism. He vin- 
 dicated the 'affective' part of man's nature, which the 
 Kantian exaltation of pure reason had seemed to dis- 
 parage, at least to neglect, and gave to feeling its due 
 place and authority as a medium and interpreter of truth. 
 . . . He differed from contemporary philosophers in being 
 a devout believer in revelation, — m the Christian revela- 
 tion. The gospel was to him the test and criterion of all 
 truth. For the rest, he was an eclectic, and welcomed light 
 from whatever quarter it came. In philosophical insight 
 he is surpassed by none ; and, though his fixed idea of 
 the impossibility of a systematic philosophy may have 
 somewhat vitiated his view of existing philosophies, his 
 criticisms on some of them are among the best that 
 have been essayed." 
 
 See J. Kuhn, "Jacobi und die Philosophic seiner Zeit," 1834; 
 1. Jacobi, nach seinera Leben, Leliren und Wiiken," 1819; 
 F. Hkkb.st, "J. G. Hainann ; F. H. Jacobi," 1830; Euscu und 
 Gru bkk, " Allgemeine Kncyklopaedie ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rate." 
 
 Jacobi, (Johann Georg,) brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Dusseldorf in 1740. He became professor 
 of philosophy and eloquence at Halle, and in 1784 
 professor of belles-lettres at Freiburg. He published 
 a collection of poems. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Rotteck, "Gedachtnissrede auf Jacobi," 1814 ; Eksch und 
 Gruhek, "Ailgemeine F.ncyklopaedie. " 
 
 Jacobi, (Karl Gustav Jakob,) an eminent German 
 mathematician, bom at Potsdam in 1804, became in 1829 
 professor of mathematics at Kdnigsberg. He wrote 
 " Foundations of the New Theory of Elliptical Func- 
 tions," (1829,) and "Canon Arithmeticus," and contrib- 
 uted a number of able treatises to the Academy of 
 Sciences, of which he was a member. Died in Berlin 
 in 1851. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Jacobi, (Mi >K 1 17. H krm an n,) brother of the preceding, 
 born about 1 790, was the inventor of Galvanoplastic, 
 (1840,) on which he published a treatise, and the appli- 
 cation of electro-magnetism to the moving of machinery. 
 Ja'cobs, [Ger. pron. ya'kops,](FRiKDRicH Christian 
 Wii.hei.m,) an eminent German scholar and writer, born 
 at Golha in 1764. He studied at Gbttingen under Heyne 
 in 17S4, and in 1807 became a teacher of ancient literature 
 in the Lyceum at Munich, and member of the Academy 
 of Sciences of that city. In i8to he was appointed 
 chief librarian and director of the cabinet of coins at 
 Gotha. Among his numerous critical writings, which 
 are distinguished for profound learning and elegance of 
 style, are "Animadversions on Euripides," ("Animad- 
 versiones in Euripidem," 1790,) " Critical Emendations 
 on Ancient Writers," (" Emendationes criticae in Scrip- 
 tores veteres," 1796,) and " Emendations on Greek 
 Anthology," (" Emendationes in Anthologiam Graecam.") 
 He also prepared editions of Achilles Tatius, liion and 
 Mnschus, and other classics. He made translations from 
 the Orations of Demosthenes, the Greek Anthology, and 
 Velleius, and contributed a number of excellent treatises 
 to Wicland's "Attic Museum" and to the "Library of 
 Ancient Literature and Art." He also wrote "Glean- 
 ings from the Journal of the Pastor of Mainau," (1823.) 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 See his Aulobiocra|hv, (" Personalien,") in the eighth volume of 
 \ ermiscbte Schriften," 8 vols., 1829-44: " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge'nerale." 
 
 Jacobs, ya'kops, (Jurikn,) a distinguished Swiss 
 painter of animals and hunting-scenes, born in 1610; died 
 in 1664. 
 Jacobs, (Lucas.) See I.ucas van Lkyden. 
 Jacobs, (PAUL F.mii.,) a German painter, son of 
 Friedrtch Christian Wilhelm, noticed above, was born 
 at Leipsic about 1800. 
 
 Jacobs, va'kops, (Simon,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 Gouda, was killed at the siege of Haarlem in 1572. 
 Jacobsen, va'kop-sen, (LEVIN,) a Danish sin 
 born ai Copenhagen in 1783. He invented an instru- 
 ment called the "lithoclaste," and Wrote several works. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 See H. C. Orrsted, "Tale ved Jaeobsens I.Ugfilrd." 
 Jacobsen or Jacopsen, ya'kop-sen, (Michaei,) a 
 naval commander, born at Dunkirk. He served in the 
 
 and, by his skilful management, saved several vessels. 
 Died in 1633. 
 
 Jacobson. ya'kop-son, (Johann Karl Gottfried,) 
 a Prussian technologist, born at Elbingen in 1726, pub- 
 lished a "Technological Dictionary of Useful Trades, 
 Arts," etc. Died in 1789. 
 
 Jacometti, ya-ko-met'tee, (Pietro Paulo,) a sculp- 
 tor, founder, and painter of the Roman school, born at 
 Ricanati in 1580; died in 1655. 
 
 Jacomb, jak'om, ? (Thomas,) an English dissenting 
 minister, born in Leicestershire in 1622. He wrote a 
 'Commentary on the Eighth Chapter of Romans," a 
 " Treatise of Holy Dedication," and other works. Died 
 in 1687. 
 
 Jacopo di Pietro, ya'ko-po de pe-a'tRO, an Italian 
 sculptor, born in Tuscany, was a pupil of Andrea Or- 
 cagna. He died after 1368. 
 
 Jacopo Tedesco, (architect.) See I.apo. 
 
 Jacopone da Todi, yi-ko-po'na da to'dee, or Ja- 
 copo, ya'ko-po, sometimes called Benedetto, an Italian 
 monk and poet, born at Todi. He wrote poems which 
 were approved by the Academy della Crusca. The 
 " Stabat Mater Dolorosa" is ascribed to him by some 
 writers. Died in 1306. 
 
 See G. Modio, " Vita di Jacopone," 1558 ; Ginguene, " Histoire 
 litteVaire d'llalie." 
 
 Jacopsen. See Tacohsen. 
 
 Jacotin, zhS'ko'taN', (Pierre,) a French officer of 
 engineers, born near Langres in 1765, was distinguished 
 for his knowledge of topography. He drew a map of 
 Egypt and Syria which was taken from actual survey. 
 Died in 1827. 
 
 Jacotot, zhi'ko'to', (Joseph,) a French teacher, born 
 at Dijon in 1770. Under Napoleon I. he was a member 
 of the Chamber during the Hundred Days. He gained 
 distinction by his earnest efforts in the cause of national 
 education, for which he advocated a new and improved 
 system and on which subject he wrote several works. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 See A. Guvard, "Jacotot et sa Methode," 1840; C. F. Wukm, 
 " Hamilton und Jacotot," 1831 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Jacquand, zhS'kfiN', (Claudius,) a French historical 
 painter, born at Lyons in 1805, settled in Paris in 1833, 
 and obtained a medal of the first class in 1836. 
 
 Jacquard, zhS'kSR', (Joseph Marie,) a Frenchman, 
 celebrated for his inventions in the art of weaving, was 
 born in Lyons, July 7, 1752. At an early age, being 
 employed as a type-founder, and afterwards as a cutler, 
 he exhibited an uncommon mechanical genius. In 1793 
 he assisted in the defence of his native city against the 
 army of the Convention. He subsequently served for a 
 short period in the army of the Rhine. In 1801 he com- 
 pleted his great invention for weaving the finest and 
 richest kinds of figured cloth. This apparatus, which 
 bears his name, — the Jacquard loom, — though at first 
 strongly opposed by the weavers of France, has been 
 lirought into general use both in Europe and in America, 
 and, instead of destroying the occupation of labourers, it 
 has greatly increased the number of operatives employed 
 in the manufacture of figured stuffs. Jacquard also in- 
 vented a machine for weaving nets, tor this invention 
 he received a gold medal in 1804 from the inspectors of 
 Paris. While in that city, he was introduced to Napo- 
 leon I. Died in 1S34. In 1840 a public statue was 
 raised to his memory by the citizens of Lyons. 
 
 See I)E Foktis, " filoge historique de Jacquard," 1S38; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate ;" Lamaktink, ''Memoirs of Celebrated 
 Character*, 1856. 
 
 Jacquelln, zhtk'laN', (Jacques Andre,)- a French 
 dramatist, born in Paris in 1776; died in 1827. 
 
 Jacqueline, zhjk'len', Jac-o-bae'a or Jac-o-ba'a, 
 [Ger. pron. yd-ko ba'a,] of Bavaria, Countess of I lolland, 
 and heiress of William VI. of Bavaria, was born in 1400. 
 She was married successively to John the Dauphin of 
 France and son of Charles VI., to her cousin John of 
 Brabant, and to Humphrey Duke of Gloucester and 
 . r of Henry V. After a long contest with her 
 cousin Philip the Good of Burgundy, she was compelled 
 to give up to him her possessions, Died in 1436. 
 
 See Petit, "Chronique aucienne et underlie tic la Hollande;" 
 A. VAN Ovkkstkati-.n, " Jacuba van Beijeren, ill V. Boekeu," 1790; 
 
 famous Spanish Armada sent against England in 1588, 1 Mont*!, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 c as t; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, %,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as r; th as in this. (jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JACQUELOT 
 
 1258 
 
 JAL 
 
 Jacquelot or Jaquelot, zhik'lo', (Isaac,) a learned 
 Protestant theologian, born in Champagne, France, in 
 1647. He wrote "On the Existence of God," (1697,) 
 a "Dissertation on the Messiah," (1699,) and on "The 
 Inspiration of the Old and New Testaments," (1715.) 
 Died in Berlin in 1708. 
 
 jee David Durand, "La Vie de Jaquelot," 1785; Nickron, 
 " Memoires." 
 
 Jacquemard, zhik'niin.', (Etienne,) a grammarian, 
 born in Paris in 1772, wrote a valuable "Elements of 
 French Grammar." Died in 1830. 
 
 Jacquemont, zhtk'm6N', (Victor,) a distinguished 
 naturalist, born in Paris in 1801. After making scientific 
 excursions through France and Switzerland, he sailed 
 in 1826 for America, and visited Canada, the United 
 States, and Hayti. He returned to France in 1827, with 
 a choice collection of plants and minerals. In 1828 he 
 went to the East Indies, and explored the greater part of 
 Hindostan and Thibet. He was author of a "Geological 
 Treatise on the Alps," " Correspondence of Victor Jacque- 
 mont with his Family and many of his Friends during his 
 Journey in India," and "Travels in India from the Year 
 1828 to the Year 1832." Died at Bombay in 1832. 
 
 See E"douard de Warren, "La Vie et les CEuvres de Jacque- 
 mont," 1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Foreign Quar- 
 terly Review" for February, 1834. 
 
 Jacques, zhfk, (Amedee,) born in Paris in 1813, 
 wrote several works 011 philosophy, and edited the 
 works of Leibnitz. 
 
 Jacques, Frere. See Baulot. 
 
 Jacques, (Mai hieu Joseph,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 and professor of theology at Lyons, was born in 1736. 
 He wrote " Convincing Proofs of the Christian Religion," 
 and .other theological works. Died in 1821. 
 
 Jacques, (Nicolas,) a French miniature-painter, born 
 near Nancy in 1780; died in 1844. 
 
 Jacques de Chison, zhik deh she'zd.\', a French 
 poet, who lived about 1250, was highly esteemed by his 
 contemporaries. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Jacquet, zht'ki', (Eugene Vincent Stanislas,) a 
 distinguished Orientalist, born at Brussels in 181 1, was 
 particularly skilled in the Sanscrit. In 1829 he was 
 admitted a member of the Asiatic Society of Paris, and 
 soon became known by his writings. Died in 1838. 
 
 See Felix Neve, " M6moire sui la Vied'Eugene Jacquet," 1856; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Jacquet, (Louis,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Lyons 
 in 1732, wrote a " Parallel between the Greek and French 
 Tragic Writers," and a prize essay upon the Discovery 
 of America. Died in 1794. 
 
 Jacquier, zhS'ke-i', ( Francois, ) a distinguished 
 French mathematician, born at Vitry-le-Francais in 1711, 
 was appointed professor of philosophy at the Roman 
 College by Pope Benedict XIV. He edited the " Prin- 
 cipia" of Newton, and wrote, with Le Sueur, a " Treatise 
 on Algebra," and other scientific works. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Jacquin, zhaVkaN', (Arm and Pierre,) a French 
 writer, born at Amiens in 1721 ; died about 1780. 
 
 Jacquin, zhi'ka.N',? (Joseph Franz,) a German bota- 
 nist and chemist, son of Nikolaas Joseph, noticed below, 
 was born about 1766. He was professor in the University 
 of Vienna, and wrote on natural history. Died in 1839. 
 
 Jacquin, (Nikolaas Joseph,) a celebrated botanist, 
 born at Leyden in 1 727. Having removed to Vienna, 
 he was sent by Francis I. to the West Indies, whence he 
 returned a.t the end of six years, with a choice collection 
 of plants. He was subsequently appointed professor 
 of chemistry and botany in the University of Vienna, 
 and created baron and councillor of mines and coinage. 
 He wrote numerous works on botany, among which may 
 be mentioned his magnificent" Florae Austriacae," which 
 contained five hundred coloured engravings, (1773-77.) 
 Died in Vienna in 1817. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkubkr, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Meusel, 
 "Gelehrtes Deutschland ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Rai- 
 hann, " Rede zur Gedachtnissfeier des N. J. Jacquin," 1818. 
 
 Jacquinot, zhfke'no', (Charles Claude,) a French 
 general, born at Melun in 1772, commanded two divisions 
 of cavalry at Waterloo. Died in 1848. 
 
 Jacquinot - Pampelune, zht'ke'no' pSsip'Siin', 
 (Claude Francois Joseph,) a French advocate and 
 politician, born at Dijon in 1771 ; died in 1835. 
 
 Jacquot, zhi'ko', (Georges,) a French statuary, born 
 at Nancy in 1794, gained the grand prize in 1820, and 
 went to Rome with a pension. 
 
 Jadelot, zhSd'lo', (Nicolas,) a learned French phy- 
 sician, born at Pont-a-Mousson in 1738, became professor 
 of anatomy and physiology at Nancy. He wrote nume- 
 rous professional works, among which are a " Treatise 
 upon the Causes of the Pulsation of the Arteries," and 
 a "Complete Course of Anatomy." Died in 1793. 
 
 Jadin, zhi'daN', (Louis Emmanuel,) a French com- 
 poser of dramatic music, born at Versailles in 1768; died 
 in 1853. 
 
 Jadin, (Louis Godefroy,) a French landscape-painter, 
 a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1805. 
 
 Jadwige. See Hedvvig. 
 
 Jaeger. See Jager. 
 
 Jaerta, (Johan or Hans.) See Jarta. 
 
 Jagellou, ya-gel'lon, Duke of Lithuania, born about 
 1354. He embraced Christianity, and married Hedwig, 
 Queen of Poland, thus uniting the two territories under 
 one government. He also caused Christianity to be 
 established in Lithuania. Died in 1434. 
 
 See Roepell. "Geschichte Polens." 
 
 Jagemann, ya'geh-man', (Christian Joseph,) a Ger- 
 man littfriiteiir, born at Dingelstadt in 1735, spent many 
 years in Italy. He translated several Italian works into 
 German. Died in 1804. 
 
 Jager or Jaeger, ya'ger, (Gustav,) a German histor- 
 ical painter, born at Leipsic in 1808, painted some frescos 
 in the royal palace of Munich. His works (among 
 which are oil-paintings) are highly commended. 
 
 Jager or Jaeger, (Johann Wolfgang,) a German 
 Lutheran divine and theological writer, born at Stuttgart 
 in 1647 ; died in 1720. 
 
 Ja'go, (Richard,) an English clergyman and poet, 
 born in Warwickshire in 1 71 5. Among his poems may 
 be mentioned an "Elegy on the Death of a Blackbird," 
 "Edgehill," and "Labour and Genius." Died in 1781. 
 
 Jahan-Geer or Jahanguire. See Jehan-Gkek. 
 
 Jahn, yan, (Ferdinand Hendrik,) a Danish histo- 
 rian, born at Neumunster in 1789. He wrote on Danish 
 history. Died in 1828. 
 
 Jaliii, ySn, (Friedrich,) a German medical writer, 
 born at Meiningen in 1766; died in 1813. 
 
 Jahn, (Friedrich Ludwig,) a German writer, born 
 at Lanz in 1778, published several treatises on gym- 
 nastics, an essay "On German Nationality," (1S10,) and 
 other works. Died in 1852. 
 
 Jahn, (Johann,) a German Orientalist and Roman 
 Catholic priest, born in Moravia in 1750. He was 
 professor of Oriental languages at Vienna from 1789 to 
 1806. He wrote, besides other works, an "Introduction 
 to the Old Testament," (1793,) and " Biblical Antiquities," 
 (1805,) both of which were censured as unsound and put 
 in the "Index" by the court of Rome. Died in 1816. 
 
 See "Vindiciae J. Jahn." Leipsic, 1823; Ersch und Gkuper, 
 " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale ;" 
 Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland," vols, iii., x., xi., xiv., and xviii. 
 
 Jahn, (Orro,) a German archaeologist, born at Kiel 
 in 1813. He became professor of philology at Leipsic 
 in 1847, and published a "Life of Mozart," (1856,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Jaillot, zht'yo', (Charles Hubert,) a French geog- 
 rapher and engraver, published some accurate maps of 
 France. Died in 1 712. 
 
 Jaillot, (Jean Baptiste Renou,) a French geogra- 
 pher, published " Researches in the City of Paris," (5 
 vols., 1772.) Died in 1780. 
 
 Jaime. See James I. of Aragon. 
 
 Jaina and Jains. See Jina. 
 
 Jakob, von, fon yi'kop, (Ludwig Heinrich,) a 
 learned German writer, born at Wettin in 1759, became 
 professor of political economy at Halle in 1816. He 
 published a " Manual of National Economy," (1805.) 
 and other esteemed works. Died in 1827. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Jal, zhSl, (Auguste,) a French litterateur and archae- 
 | ologist, was born at Lyons about 1791. He published, 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, j?, short; a, ?, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mit; n6t; good; moon; 
 
JALABERT 
 
 12J9 
 
 JAMES 
 
 besides criticisms on art, " De Paris a Naples ; Etudes 
 de .Mceurs, de Marine et d'Art," (2 vols., 1835,) and 
 "An heologie navale," (2 vols., 1839.) The latter is an 
 important work on ancient ship-building, published by 
 order of the king. 
 
 See " Nouvelle lliographie G^nerale." 
 
 Jalabert, zhi'li'baiR', (Charles Francois,) a French 
 historical painter, born at Mimes about 181 5, obtained a 
 medal of the first class in 1855. 
 
 Jalal-ed-Deen, (or -eddin.) See Jelal-ed-Dekn. 
 
 Jaley, zht'li', (Jean Louis Nicolas,) a skilful Krench 
 statuary, born in Paris in 1802. Among his works are 
 statues of "La Pudeur" and " I-a Priere," (1855.) 
 
 Jallabert, zhS'lt'baiR', (Etienne,) a French natural 
 philosopher and writer, born in 1658; died in 1724. 
 
 Jallabert, (Jean,) a son of the preceding, born in 
 Geneva in 1712, filled the office of syndic of the repub- 
 lic, lie wrote "Experiments upon Electricity," (1748,) 
 and several other scientific works. Died in 1768. 
 
 ! >i-:s< iKNKTTHs, notice in the " Biographic Medicale ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Jam'bll-€hus, a native of Syria, who was enslaved 
 by the Romans under Trajan, flourished in the second 
 century. He subsequently obtained his liberty, and 
 wrote a romance, in Greek, entitled "Babylonics, or 
 the Loves of Sinonis and Rhodanes." 
 
 JamblichuB or JarnblicuB, a Platonic philosopher, 
 and native of Syria. He flourished under the reign of the 
 emperor Julian, who dedicated numerous epistles to him. 
 
 Jam'bll-ehus or I-am'blI-€hus -ehal-ci-de'nus, 
 [Gr. '\aii.ih\(ii ; Fr. J amuliquk, zhox'blek',1 an eminent 
 heathen philosopher, born at Chalcis, in Syria, flourished 
 in the reign of Constantino- the Great, (306-37 A.D.) He 
 was a pupil of Porphyry, and was attached to the Neo- 
 Platonic school. Many of the Neo-Platonists encouraged 
 a life of ascetic meditation and a belief in magic and 
 divination. Their system was built on the doctrine 
 of emanation, — that the souls of all beings, after the 
 requisite purification, return to the Source from which 
 they emanated. Jamblichus wrote a " Life of Pythago- 
 ras," a treatise on the "Mysteries of the Egyptians," 
 and several other works. To his influence is ascribed 
 the prevalence of magic, sacrifices, and superstition in 
 the Neo-Platonic philosophy. 
 
 See Eunapius, " Vita: Sopliislarum ;" Rittkr, " History of Phi- 
 losophy." Fabkicu:*, " Bibhotheca Graca;" Hebenstkkit, "Dis- 
 sertalio de Janiblichi Doctrina," 1764. 
 
 Jamblicus. See Jamhlichus. 
 
 Jamblique. See Jamulichus. 
 
 Jamee, Jami, or Djami, ja'mee, (Moolla-Noor- 
 ed-Deen- iNonr-ed-Diu-) Abd-er-Raliman, mool'la 
 n<5oR-ed-deen' Jbd eR-rall'man, ) written also Djamy 
 and Dschami, a celebrated Persian poet, born at Jam, (or 
 Djam,) in Khorassan, in 1414, lived at Herat, where he 
 enjoyed the bounty of the Sultan Aboo-Saeed, (Alxiu- 
 Said.) Among his principal works are "The Chain 
 of Gold," (Sil'silet-zah'ab or -zeh'eb,) a collection of 
 satires, and "The Loves of Joseph and Zuleika, and Mej- 
 noon and Ixila." He also wrote " BeharistSn," (" Abode 
 of Spring,") a treatise on morality, in prose and verse, 
 which is admired for its graceful style as well as for its 
 sentiments. Jimee has sometimes been called "the Per- 
 sian Petrarch." He was devoted to the doctrine of the 
 Soofees; and many of his poems are characterized by 
 the spiritual or mystical ideas of that sect. Died in 1492. 
 
 S;e " Nouvelle Biographic Generale," article" Djami ;"Ovmurr, 
 •I:, graphical Notices of Persian Poets;" " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 Nriv~nil)t_-r, 1856. 
 
 Jameray-DuvaL See Duval. 
 
 James |Sp. Jaime, Hi'ma] I, King of Aragon, sur- 
 named the Conqueror, succeeded to the throne in 
 121 v He quelled an insurrection formed against him 
 by his nobles, and checked the encroachments of papal 
 power. Died in 1276. He was succeeded by his son, 
 III. 
 
 See T. Dl Soto. " Vida del Rev Don Jaime I. de Arason," 1631. 
 
 James IX, King of Aragon, surnamed the Just, 
 son of Peter HI., was lxirn in 1261. He ascended the 
 throne in 1291. He annexed Catalonia and Valencia to 
 his territory, and carried on long wars against Navairc 
 and the Moors. He was a brave, magnanimous, and 
 benevolent prince. Died in 1327. 
 
 James L of England and VI. of Scotland was born in 
 the Castle of Edinburgh in June, 1566. He was the only 
 child of Mary Queen of Scots and her husband Henry 
 Lord Darnley, (called, after his marriage, King Henry.) 
 Both Queen Mary and Lord Darnley were grandchildren 
 of Margaret Tudor, sister of Henry VIII. of England. 
 It was through this princess that James claimed the 
 throne of England. In 1567 Lord Darnley was mur- 
 dered, James was placed under the care of the Earl of 
 Mar, and Queen Mary married Bothwell, and was soon 
 after made prisoner by the insurgent lords. Mary was 
 forced to abdicate in favour of her son, who was crowned, 
 as James VI., on the 29th of July, 1567. During his 
 minority Scotland was fearfully rent by contending 
 factions and the violent disputes of the Protestants and 
 Catholics. The regent Morton having rendered himself 
 odious by his tyrannical acts, a successful conspiracy 
 was formed against him by a majority of the Scottish 
 nobles. Morton, however, on account of his Protestant 
 proclivities, soon regained his former influence. James 
 from the commencement of his reign exhibited a weak 
 and frivolous passion for favourites. His cousin Ksme 
 Stuart, Lord D'Aubigny, a native of France, obtained 
 the principal ascendency over his vouthful mind. Cap- 
 tain James Stuart held the second place in the king's 
 esteem. Lord D'Aubigny was created Duke of Lennox, 
 and Captain Stuart Earl of Arran. Both eagerly plotted 
 the destruction of Morton, who was put to death in 
 1581. In 1582 a company of nobles seized King James, 
 confined him in the castle of Ruthven, in Perthshire, im- 
 prisoned Arran, and forced Lennox to retire to France. 
 This revolt is known in history as the Raid of Ruthven. 
 At the expiration of ten months, James recovered his 
 liberty and reinstated Arran in his former power. In 
 1585 a treaty was concluded between the English and 
 Scottish sovereigns. Elizabeth conferred upon James 
 an annual pension of five thousand pounds, and through 
 her influence deprived the Earl of Arran of all emolu. 
 ments. In 1586 James formed another treaty with Eng- 
 land, offensive and defensive, for the protection of the 
 Protestant religion. In 1587 Mary Queen of Scots was 
 executed. James at first appeared insulted and enraged ; 
 he threatened to invade the dominions of Elizabeth; 
 but, feeling more interested for the inheritance of the 
 crown of England than for his honour or for filial duty, 
 he was soon pacified. In 1589 he married Anne, daugh- 
 ter of the King of Denmark. In 1594 he quelled a 
 rebellion of the Catholic lords. Bothwell also, having 
 taken part in this revolt, was obliged to fly from the 
 country, to which he never returned. James was an 
 earnest advocate of Episcopacy, and made strenuous 
 efforts to establish it in his dominions, in opposition to 
 the wishes of the people. On this account a tumult 
 was raised in Edinburgh in 1596, from which his life 
 appeared to be in imminent danger. But James, ex- 
 hibiting for him an unusual share of spirit and energy, 
 dexterously turned this to his own advantage. In 1600 
 he was decoyed to the castle of the Earl of Gowrie, 
 where Ruthven, brother of the earl, made an attempt 
 on the king's life, on which occasion both the noblemen 
 were slain. The Gowrie Conspiracy has always been 
 veiled in mystery, — no historian having yet unravelled it. 
 On the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, James became 
 King of England. He displeased his new subjects by 
 the prodigality of his gifts to his Scottish favourites. He 
 continued the foreign policy of Elizabeth by concluding 
 a treaty with Henry IV. of France for assisting Holland 
 against Spain. In 1605, chiefly through King James's 
 penetration, the Gunpowder Plot was discovered. (See 
 1' awki.s, GUV.) The year 1612 was marked by the death 
 of 1 lenrv, Prince of Wales, who by his manlv and noble 
 qualities had been far more successful than oil father in 
 winning the affections of the English people. In 1613, 
 James's daughter, the princess Elizabeth, was married 
 to Frederick, the Elector-Palatine. Among the kind's 
 favourites were successively Sir George Hume, Philip 
 Herbert, Earl of Montgomery, and Robert Carr or 
 Ker, a young Scotchman who by his handsome person 
 monopolized the royal favour. He was created Earl 
 of Somerset. In 1615 Carr was tried and convicted on 
 a charge of poisoning his friend Sir Thomas Overbury. 
 
 « aa k; c as s; g hard; g asy; C, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, irilltd; i as t; th as in this. (25F~See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
JAMES 
 
 1260 
 
 JAMES 
 
 This made room for a new favourite, named Villiers, who 
 was created Duke of Buckingham, and who retained 
 his influence over the king during the remainder of the 
 reign. In 1617 James visited Scotland, where he was 
 very zealous in introducing episcopal forms into the 
 Established Church. In 1618 Sir Walter Raleigh was 
 executed on the pretended charge of conspiracy, but in 
 fact to conciliate the court of Spain. The public con- 
 tempt which this excited against James was increased 
 by his behaviour towards the Elector-Palatine, whom 
 the Bohemians had chosen as their king, and who was 
 attacked by the united forces of Austria and Spain. 
 James pusillanimously refused to give his son-in-law 
 any assistance or encouragement. Frederick had been 
 the Protestant champion of Europe, and the people of 
 Britain hesitated not to express their grief and rage. 
 During a long period James had wished to form a Span- 
 ish alliance for Prince Charles ; and he now hastened 
 the negotiations. This alliance was, however, broken 
 off through the rashness and insolence of Buckingham. 
 Finally, in 1624, war was declared against Spain, and 
 an army was fitted out to assist the Elector. Owing to 
 pestilence and mismanagement, this army never entered 
 the Palatinate, which remained in the possession of the 
 Duke of Bavaria. James died in March, 1625, after a 
 reign of nearly fifty-eight years, during twenty-two of 
 which he sat on the throne of England. He had seven 
 children by his queen, Anne of Denmark, of whom only 
 Prince Charles and the Princess Elizabeth survived him. 
 
 "No prince," says Hume, "so little enterprising and 
 so inoffensive, was ever so much exposed to the opposite 
 extremes of calumny and flattery, of satire and panegyric. 
 . . . Many virtues, it must be owned, he was possessed 
 of; but scarce any of them pure or free from the conta- 
 gion of the neighbouring vices. His generosity bordered 
 on profusion; his learning on pedantry, his pacific dis- 
 position on pusillanimity, his wisdom on cunning, his 
 friendship on light fancy and boyish fondness." (Hume's 
 " History of England," chapter xlix. Respecting the 
 character of James, see, also, Gardner's " History," 
 referred to below, vol. i. chap. ii. pp. 55-57.) James was 
 the author of numerous works, which displayed con- 
 siderable learning and no little pedantry ; but the most 
 important of his labours was the supervision of the 
 present translation of the Bible, which will remain as a 
 lasting monument of his industry and munificence. The 
 translation was not only made under his immediate 
 superintendence, but the excellent rules by which the 
 translators were governed were drawn up by James him- 
 self. Among his works we may cite "Basilicon Doron, 
 or his Majesties Instructions to his Dearest Son, Henry 
 the Prince," "The Essays of a Prentice in the Divine 
 Art of Poesy," " The True Law of Free Monarchies," 
 " Daemonology," and "A Counterblast to Tobacco." 
 
 See Arthur Wilson," Life and Reign of King James I.,*' 1653; 
 W. Harris, " Life of James I.," 1753; Rohertson, " History of Scot- 
 land ;" "Secret Histories of the Court of James I.," by Osborne, 
 Wkluon, and Sir E. Peyton, with notes by Sir Walter Scott, 2 
 vols., 1S11 ; Gardiner, " History of England from tbe Accession of 
 James I. to the Disgrace of Chief-Justice Coke," London, 1863. 
 
 James II. of England and VII. of Scotland, son of 
 Charles I., and younger brother of Charles II., was born 
 at Saint James's, London, in 1633, and soon after was 
 created Duke of York. He was taken prisoner by the 
 Parliamentarians in 1646. In 1648 he escaped to Hol- 
 land, and went to Paris, where he remained nearly four 
 years. Having received a commission in the French 
 army, he served under Marshal Turenne until the peace 
 concluded between Cromwell and the French obliged 
 him to leave the kingdom. At the restoration, in 1660, 
 James accompanied his brother to England, where he 
 received the appointments'of lord high admiral and lord 
 warden of the Cinque Ports. The same year he married 
 Anne, daughter of 'Chancellor Hyde. In 1664 the Duke 
 of York was an earnest advocate of the war with Hol- 
 land. He took command of the fleet, and in June, 1665, 
 gained an important victory over the Dutch. In 1671 
 the Duchess of York died, and James avowed himself a 
 Roman Catholic. In 1672 war was renewed against Hol- 
 land, and James, as lord admiral, assumed the command 
 of the navy. In 1673 the Test Act was passed against 
 Catholics and dissenters. By it the Duke of York was 
 
 compelled to resign the command of the navy, and all 
 other offices which he held under government. The same 
 year he married Maria Beatrice Eleonora, daughter of 
 the Duke of Modena. In 1677, greatly to the satisfaction 
 of the English nation, Mary, daughter of the Duke of 
 York, was married to her cousin William, Prince of 
 Orange, who was a Protestant. 
 
 In 1679, during the commotions of the Oates Popish 
 Plot, James retired to the continent. In his absence 
 a bill for excluding him from the throne was brought 
 before the Parliament. It was passed by the Commons, 
 but was rejected by the Lords. Upon the death of King 
 Charles, in 1685, James as'-ended the throne unopposed, 
 and promised to maintain and defend the Established 
 Church. He summoned a Parliament, which voted him 
 all the revenues his brother had enjoyed. Having de- 
 clared his intention of continuing the alliance formed 
 by Charles with France, he received from Louis XIV. 
 500,000 livres. Strong suspicions were soon excited 
 against the king by his arbitrary measures. It became too 
 manifest that he only intended to keep his promises until 
 he could break them with safety. He sent an agent to 
 Rome to promote the restoration of Roman Catholicism 
 in England; he publicly attended the illegal celebration 
 of the mass, and laboured earnestly for the repeal of 
 the Test Act. The blindness of his zeal was so apparent 
 that even the pope advised him to exercise more caution. 
 In June, 1685, England was invaded by the Duke of 
 Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II. Monmouth 
 was totally defeated at Sedgemoor on the 5th of July, 
 was captured two days after, and executed. James now 
 exhibited his true character. Colonel Kirke and the in- 
 famous Judge Jeffreys were sent to the western counties, 
 which had been the principal scene of Monmouth's insur- 
 rection, and, by the king's express authority, perpetrated 
 a series of butcheries. Men were shot and hung with- 
 out the form of trial, and women were burned at the 
 stake for sheltering fugitives. In opposition to law, he 
 admitted Catholics to the highest rank in the army and 
 the navy. Protestants holding high offices of state were 
 discharged, and a court resembling that of the high com- 
 mission under Charles I. was established. Episcopal 
 dioceses were given to professed Catholics, and the Prot- 
 estant clergy were driven from the colleges of Oxford and 
 Cambridge to make room for foreign priests. In June, 
 1688, the queen gave birth to a son, who was suspected 
 to be spurious. Previous to this period, Mary, Princess 
 of Orange, had been regarded as the licit -apparent to 
 the crown, and the English people had hoped that at 
 length they would again be governed by a Protestant 
 sovereign. These hopes being now blighted, they ap- 
 plied to the Prince of Orange for assistance in an effort 
 to depose the king. He was prepared to accept the in- 
 vitation which they sent him ; and iti November, 1688, 
 he landed in Devonshire, with about fourteen thousand 
 men. The king, deserted by the nobility, the gentry, 
 the army, his friends, and his servants, quitted the island 
 in December, and fled to France, where he was kindly 
 received by Louis XIV. Soon after, the Prince and 
 Princess of Orange were crowned, as King William III. 
 and Queen Mary. In 1689 James landed in Ireland with 
 a small force given him by Louis. He besieged London- 
 derry, which he was unable to take. On the 1st of July, 
 l6yo, King William, who commanded in person, totally 
 defeated James's army at the battle of the Boyne, and 
 firmly established his own power. James soon returned 
 to France, and resided at Saint Germain's until his death, 
 which occurred in September, 1701. As a king, he was 
 brave, determined, energetic. He did much for the im- 
 provement of the British navy ; he was industrious, and 
 frugal of the public money. But he was implacable in 
 revenge, and his blind bigotry cost him three kingdoms. 
 James had by his first wife, Anne Hyde, eight children, 
 of whom only Queen Mary and the Princess Anne sur- 
 vived him. By his second wife, Mary of Modena, he 
 had six children, two of whom outlived him. He also 
 had four children by Arabella Churchill, a sister of the 
 Duke of Marlborough, and one by Catherine Sedley. 
 
 See David Jones, "Life of James II.," 1702; J. S. Clarice, 
 " Life of James II., King of England," 2 vols., 1S16; Burnet, "His- 
 tory of Ins Own Times;" Macaulay, tt History of England;" C. 
 J. Fox, " History of the Early Part of the Reign of James II.," 1808. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
JAMES 
 
 1 261 
 
 JAMES 
 
 James I., King of Scotland, of the house of Stuart, 
 and son of Robert III., was born about 1394. In 1405 
 his father sent him to France, in order that he might 
 escape the intrigues of the Duke of Albany; but he was 
 seized by a British fleet, carried as prisoner to Lon- 
 don, and thrown into the Tower, whence, after remaining 
 there more than two years, he was taken to Windsor. 
 In 1417, when King Henry V. invaded France, James was 
 obliged to accompany him. In 1424, alter a captivity "I 
 nineteen years, he was released and restored to his king- 
 dom. While the young king was in England, Henry V. 
 had given him a good education ; and, upon his acces- 
 sion to power, James commenced with energy and firm- 
 ness to reform the laws and customs of Scotland. During 
 Ilis captivity Scotland had been governed successively by 
 the two Dukes of Albany as regents, who had increased 
 their own power and that of the feudal lords, to the 
 detriment of the royal authority. On the recovery of his 
 kingdom he resolved to check with a strong hand the 
 arrogance and lawlessness of the nobles. He seized his 
 Consul Mar do, Duke of Albany, his sons, the Earls of 
 Douglas, Lennox, Angus, and many other peers and 
 barons. All were reconciled to the king except the Duke 
 of Albany, his sons, and the Eatl of Lennox, who were 
 tried and executed. This blow struck terror into the order 
 of nobles. The king continued to conduct his reforms 
 with ability and prudence. One part of his policy was 
 to raise the ecclesiastical power in order to balance that 
 of the barons. James had married Joanna Beaufort, a 
 lady of the blood-royal of England. Although the earls 
 at first received the innovations of the king in a spirit 
 of submission, they at length, perceiving the rapid decline 
 of their authority, formed a conspiracy against him, and 
 assassinated him in 1437. James had the reputation of 
 being one of the most accomplished princes of his day. 
 He produced several poetical pieces and songs, which 
 were greatly admired, and in which much literary taste 
 was displayed. There yet remains his "Kings Quhair." 
 Robertson justly remarks that "it was the misfortune of 
 James that his maxims and manners were too refined for 
 the age in which he lived. Happy had he reigned in a 
 kingdom more civilized. His love of peace, of justice, 
 and of elegance would have rendered his schemes suc- 
 cessful ; and, instead of perishing because he attempted 
 too much, a grateful people would have applauded and 
 seconded his efforts to reform and improve them." 
 
 See Buchanan, "Rerum Scoticarum Historia;" Burton, "His- 
 tory of Scotland," vol. iii. chap, xxvii. ; Robertson, "History of 
 Scotland." . 
 
 James II., son and successor of the preceding, was 
 born in 1430. He had for his adviser an able man, 
 named Crichton, who during his minority obtained chief 
 control of the government. Crichton impressed on the 
 mind of the young monarch the necessity of further hum- 
 bling the nobility. But what James I. had attempted 
 slowly and by legal means, his son and Crichton 
 pursued with an impetuosity as unscrupulous as it was 
 unwise. William, sixth Earl of Douglas, having defied 
 the royal authority, was decoyed by Crichton to an in- 
 terview in the Castle of Edinburgh, where both he and 
 his brother were murdered. James stabbed with his 
 own hand William, eighth Earl of Douglas. This led 
 to a revolt, and the house of Stuart appeared to be in 
 imminent peril. The Earl of Douglas commanded the 
 greater number and more warlike followers; but, owing 
 to his want of energy, nearly all his retainers deserted 
 him before a battle was fought, and he was obliged to 
 fly to England. James would in all probability have 
 succeeded in his plans, had he not been killed in 1460 
 by the bursting of a cannon. 
 
 See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap. xx<oii. ; 
 Robkktson, '• History of Scotland." 
 
 James UX, the son and successor of James II., was 
 born in 1453. During his minority the kingdom was 
 governed successively bv Bishop Kennedy and Lord 
 Boyd. James married Margaret of Denmark about 
 1470. He had respectable abilities, and was a lover of 
 the fine arts and literature. The nobles weie offended 
 because he neglected them and chose for his associates 
 artists, musicians, and other persons of inferior rank. 
 The king's brothers, the Duke of Albany, and tb< 
 
 of Mar, conspired with the malcontent nobles against 
 James, who was defeated by them in battle near Ban- 
 nockbttrn in 1488, and was murdered as he fled from 
 the field. 
 
 See Burton, "History of Scotland;" Robertson, "History of 
 Scotland." 
 
 James IV., King of Scotland, succeeded his father, 
 James III., in 1488, at the age of fifteen. He was gen- 
 erous and brave, loved magnificence, delighted in war, 
 and was eager to obtain fame. During his reign the 
 ancient and hereditary enmity between the king and the 
 nobles appears almost entirely to have ceased. During 
 the revolt which had cost James III. his life, his son 
 had been compelled or persuaded to set himself at the 
 head of it, and was openly declared king. He was sub- 
 sequently troubled by remorse for this deed, and, not 
 being free from superstition, he received from the pope, 
 as penance, an iron belt to be worn without cessation lot 
 the remainder of his life. He also performed several pil- 
 grimages on foot. James founded (1497) the University 
 of Aberdeen, and he also created the order of Knights 
 of the Thistle, (or of Saint Andrew.) In 1 5 13, in oppo- 
 sition to the advice of his sagest counsellors, he rashly 
 invaded England with one of the most loyal and gallant 
 armies that ever a Scottish king had commanded, and 
 was defeated at the famous battle of Flodden, where 
 the flower of the Scottish chivalry perished. The king, 
 with twelve earls, thirteen lords, and a great number of 
 barons, died upon the field, in September, 15 13. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap. xxx. ; Rob- 
 ertson, " History of Scotland." 
 
 James V., a son of James IV., was born in 1512, and 
 succeeded his father in 1 5 13. The regency was conferred 
 upon his cousin, the Duke of Albany, a man of enter- 
 prise and ability, who was desirous to extend the royal 
 authority; but, in spite of all his exertions, the aris- 
 tocracy retained their power, and the duke resigned his 
 authority about 1525. The king was then in his thir- 
 teenth year, and the nobles agreed that he should assume 
 the government. The Earl of Angus, however, by his 
 intrigues, obtained the chief control of affairs, and. kept 
 the young king as a prisoner in his own palace. James, 
 after suffering this for some time, escaped, and Angus was 
 obliged to fly from the country. Firmly seated upon the 
 throne, James continued the policy of his predecessors 
 in humbling the nobility. Commencing very cautiously, 
 he found loyal supporters among the clergy, the prin- 
 cipal of whom was Cardinal Beaton. The nobles had 
 received too severe a blow at Flodden to resist, and 
 James pushed forward his plans in an unscrupulous 
 and arbitrary manner. He married Mary of Guise in 
 1538. Henry VIII. of England declared war against 
 him in 1542, and he was obliged to seek the assistance 
 of those nobles whom he had oppressed. They took 
 up arms at his command, were led by him against the 
 English, and were at first successful ; but, owing to the 
 lateness of the season, and to other causes of discontent, 
 they refused to follow up their good fortune. A second 
 expedition across the border was still less successful : 
 nearly ten thousand Scots were taken prisoners, or, as 
 some say, went deliberately over to the English. This 
 proved too great a blow to the proud and ambitious 
 monarch, who died of a broken heart in December, 
 1542, in the thirty-first year of his age, leaving the 
 crown to his only legitimate child, the unfortunate M.ny 
 Queen of Scots.' He had several natural children, one 
 of whom was the famous Regent Murray. 
 
 See Burton, " Historvof Scotland," vol, iii. chaps, xxxi.-xxxiii. ; 
 Frocijh, "History of KnttiamI," vol. iv. chaps. x\iii. and xix. ; 
 Robertson, " History ot Scotland ;" Hums, " History of tngland." 
 
 James VX of Scotland. See Jamks I. of 1 '■'- 
 I.ANIi. 
 
 James, |Gr. '\IikuCoc ; Lat. Jaco'bus ; Ger. Jakob, 
 va'kob; Kr. Jacqi'F.s, zl.ik ; Sp. SANTIAGO, sin-te-a'go ; 
 It. GlACOMO, ja'komo,| one of the twelve apostles, 
 commonly called SAINT Jamfs, son of Zebedee, and 
 brother of Saint John. He was one of the three apostles 
 who appeared to be the most intimately d with 
 
 our Saviour. He suffeted martyrdom about 44 A.D.,by 
 the order of Herod Agrippa. 
 
 See Matthew iv. 21, x. a, xvii. ; Luke viii. 51. 
 
 tui; qiss;gAard;gu/;G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as z; th as in this. (&y~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JAMES 
 
 1262 
 
 JAMESON 
 
 James, called the Less, was one of the twelve apos- 
 tles, and is generally supposed to have been the brother 
 of our Saviour, and the author of the Epistle bearing 
 that name. Josephus states that he was put to death 
 by the high-priest Ananias about 62 or 63 A.D. 
 
 See Matthew x. 3, xiii. 55, xxvii. 56; Mark iii. 18, vi. 3, xv. 40; 
 Luke vi. 15 ; Acts i. 13. 
 
 James, (Chari.es T.,) an American Senator and in- 
 ventor, born in West Greenwich, Rhode Island, about 
 1805. In 1851 he was elected a Senator of the United 
 States for six years by the legislature of Rhode Island. 
 He invented a rifled cannon, and was killed at Sag Har- 
 bour, Long Island, in October, 1862, by the explosion of 
 a shell on which he was experimenting. 
 
 James, zhSm, (Constantin, ) a French medical 
 writer, born at ISayeux in 1813. He edited Magendie's 
 "Lectures on Physiology," etc., (1837-39.) 
 
 James, (Gkokge Payne Rainsford,) a very volu- 
 minous novelist and historian, born in London in 1801. 
 Before attaining the age of seventeen he had written a 
 series of Eastern tales, entitled "The String of Pearls." 
 In 1825 he published "Richelieu," which had previously 
 received the commendation of Sir Walter Scott and 
 Washington Irving. This is thought to be his best pro- 
 duction. In 1852 Mr. James was chosen British consul 
 at Norfolk, in Virginia, and in 1858 received the same 
 appointment for Venice. His works amount to one 
 hundred and eighty-nine volumes. Of these we may 
 mention "Philip Augustus," (1831,) "Adra, or the Peru- 
 vians, a Poem," " Memoirs of Great Commanders," (3 
 vols., 1832,) "History of Charlemagne,'* (1832,) "Lives 
 of Foreign Statesmen," (5 vols., 1832-38,) and "Came- 
 ralzaman," a dramatic poem, (1848.) Died in 1S60. 
 
 See " New Spirit of the Age," by R. H. Horne, London, 1844 ; 
 Alliiionh. " Dictionary of Authors ;" "North American Review" 
 for April, 1844, (by E. P. Whipple.) 
 
 James, (Henry,) an able and original writer on the- 
 ology, born at Albany in 181 1. About 1843 he became 
 acquainted with the writings of Swedenborg, whose 
 leading doctrines he appears to have fully embraced, 
 without, however, joining himself to the ecclesiastical 
 organization of Swedenborgians. He has published, 
 besides other works, " Moralism and Christianity," (1852,) 
 "Christianity the Logic of Creation," (1857,) and "The 
 Secret of Swedenborg. being an Elucidation of his Doc- 
 trine of the Divine Natural Humanity," (1869.) 
 
 See "Old and New" for January, 1S70. 
 
 James, (John Angell,) an eloquent English dissent- 
 ing minister and popular writer, born at Blandford, Dor- 
 set, in 1785. He was for many years an Independent 
 minister of Birmingham, and acquired great influence by 
 his oral ministry and his numerous writings, which have 
 had an immense circulation. Among his works are 
 "The Anxious Inquirer," "Christian Fellowship," (nth 
 edition, 1855,) " Family Monitor," (9th edition, 1848,) 
 "The Church in Earnest," (4th edition, 1851,) and " Fe- 
 male Piety," (4th edition, 1855.) Died in 1859. 
 
 See " Life and Letters of John Angel) James." by R. W. Dale ; 
 Rev. Robert Steel, "Burning and Shining Lights," 1864. 
 
 James, (John Thomas,) Bishop of Calcutta, born at 
 Rugby in 1786. Upon the death of Bishop Heber he 
 was appointed to the diocese of Calcutta, and sailed for 
 India in 1827. He was the author of a "Tour through 
 Germany, Sweden, Russia, and Poland," (1816,) "Treat- 
 ise on the Italian, French, Dutch, and German Schools 
 of Painting," (1822,) and "The Semi-Sceptic, or the 
 Common Sense of Religion considered." Died in 1828. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Bishop James," by bis brother, 183a 
 
 James, (Richard,) an English divine, linguist, and 
 traveller, and nephew of Thomas James, (1571-1629,) 
 was born at Newport, in the Isle of Wight, in 1592. 
 Among his works are manuscripts upon Russia, and a 
 " Poem upon the Death of Sir Robert Cotton." Died 
 in 1638. 
 
 James, (Robert,) an English physician, born in Staf- 
 fordshire in 1703. He was the inventor of a celebrated 
 fever-powder which bore his name, and the author of a 
 "Medicinal Dictionary," (1743-45,) (in which he was 
 assisted by Dr. Samuel Johnson,) treatises on the " Prac- 
 tice of Physic" and " On Canine Madness," and a "Dis- 
 sertation on Fevers," (1778.) Died in 1776. 
 
 James, (Thomas,) a learned divine, born at Newport, 
 in the Isle of Wight, in 1571. He was distinguished as 
 an able and industrious writer against the Catholics. 
 Among the most important of his works are "A Treat- 
 ise of the Corruptions of the Scriptures, Councils, and 
 Fathers by the Church of Rome," (1612,) and "The 
 Jesuits' Downfall." Died in 1629. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 James, (Thomas,) an English navigator, who sailed 
 in 1631 in search of a northwest passage. He made 
 some discoveries on the shores of Hudson's Bay, and to 
 the country lying west of it he gave the name of New 
 Wales. On his return to England he published "The 
 Strange and Dangerous Voyage of Captain Thomas 
 James for the Discovery of a Northwest Passage to the 
 South Sea." 
 
 James, (Thomas,) an English teacher, became head- 
 master of Rugby School in 177.6. He published a "Com- 
 pendium of Geography." He was the father of Bishop 
 John T. James, noticed above. Died in 1804. 
 
 James, (Thomas C.,) M.D., an American physician 
 and scholar, born in Philadelphia in 1766. He graduated 
 at the University of Pennsylvania in 1788, and followed 
 his profession with eminent success in his native city. 
 In 181 1 he was appointed professor of midwifery in the 
 above institution. Died in Philadelphia in 1835. He 
 is said to have been versed in the Greek, Latin, French, 
 and German languages, and to have possessed some 
 acquaintance with the Hebrew. He contributed several 
 short but beautiful poems to Dennie's " Portfolio." 
 
 See "Memoir of Thomas Chalkley James," by J. R. Tyson, 
 Philadelphia, 1S36; Gross, "American Medical Biography /'Car- 
 son, " History of the Medical Department of the Uuiversity of 
 Pennsylvania." 
 
 James, (William,) an English land-agent and sur- 
 veyor, born in Warwickshire in 1771. He was the first 
 to project the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, and is 
 generally regarded as "the father" of the railway-system 
 in England. Died in 1837. 
 
 James, (William,) an Englishman, known as the 
 author of "The Naval History of Great Britain from 
 the Declaration of War by France in 1793 to the Ac- 
 cession of George IV. in 1820," (5 vols., 1822,) a work 
 evincing great research. Died in 1827. 
 
 James. (Sir William,) an English naval officer of 
 high rank, born at Milford Haven about 1721. He dis- 
 tinguished himself in the East India service and in the 
 American war. Died in 1785. 
 
 James (or Jacques, zhSk) de Vitri, (deh ve'tRe',) a 
 distinguished cardinal and historical writer, born at Vitri, 
 near Paris, in the twelfth century. He preached against 
 the Albigenses, and about 1218 joined the crusade against 
 the Saracens. He wrote, besides other works, a " His- 
 tory of the East and West." Died in 1240. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 James (or Giacomo, ja'Uo-mo) de Voragine, (di 
 vo-ra'je-na,) a Romish prelate, born at Voragpio, near 
 Genoa, about 1230. In 1292 he was ordained Archbishop 
 of Genoa. Died in 1298. He wrote various ecclesias- 
 tical works, and a famous collection of the lives of the 
 saints, entitled the " Golden Legend." 
 
 James Francis Edward, called the first Pretender, 
 and Chevalier de Saint George, born in 16S8, was the 
 son and heir of James II. of England. He was educated 
 in France, and was a Roman Catholic. At the death 
 of his father he was recognized as King of England by 
 Louis XIV. He entered the French army, and charged 
 at the head of the cavalry at Malplaqnet in 1709. Lord 
 Bolingbroke formed a design to secure for him the suc- 
 cession to the throne, but was defeated by the death of 
 Queen Anne. In 1715 the Scottish Jacobites took arms 
 to assert the title of the Pretender, and, under the com- 
 mand of the Earl of Mar, were defeated at Sheriffmuir. 
 Another army of his partisans surrendered at Preston. 
 James Francis Edward landed in Scotland in December, 
 1715; but, finding his cause in a desperate state, he 
 returned to France the next month. Diet! in 17580^765. 
 
 See Jesse, " Memoirs of the Pretenders and their Adherents," 
 1845- 
 
 Ja'me-son, (Anna,) a celebrated writer, born in 
 Dublin in 1797, was the daughter of Mr. Murphy, a 
 
 a, e, i, 5, 5, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,I, 0, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, ftll, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
JAMESON 
 
 1263 
 
 JANIN 
 
 painter. She married in 1824 a barrister named Jame- 
 son, with whom she went to live in Canada ; but, various 
 circumstances causing a separation, Mrs. Jameson re- 
 turned to England, to employ herself in literature and 
 the fine arts. She was an earnest labourer for the fuller 
 development of the usefulness and mental culture of the 
 women of England. Her productions evince great dis- 
 crimination, learning, and refinement. Among the most 
 important of these we may mention "The Diary of an 
 Ennuvee," (1826,) afterwards enlarged and published 
 with the title of "Visits and Sketches at Home and 
 Abroad," (2 vols., 1834,) " Loves of the Poets," (1829,) 
 "Memoirs of Celebrated Female Sovereigns," (2 vols., 
 1831,) "The Beauties of the Court of Charles II.," 
 "Lives of the Early Italian Painters," (2 vols., 1845,) 
 and " The Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art," (2 
 vols., 1848.) Died in i860. 
 
 See Harriet Martineau, " Biographical Sketches," London, 
 1869; "New Spirit of the Age." by R. H. Horne; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for October, 1834, and April, 1S49: " Blackwood's Mar- 
 line" for July, 1S53 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for Hatch, 1840; " Twelve 
 Biographical Sketches," by B. R. Parkes, London. 1S66. 
 
 Ja'me-son, (Chari.es Davis,) an American general, 
 born at Gorham, Maine, in 1827. He distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Bull Run, with the rank of 
 colonel, July, 1861, and commanded a brigade at Fair 
 Oaks, May,' 1862. Died at Oldtown, Maine, in Novem- 
 ber, 1862. 
 
 Ja'me-son, (Robert,) an eminent Scottish naturalist, 
 born at Leith in 1774 or 1773. He published " Mineral- 
 ogy of the Scottish Isles," (2 vols., 1800,) " A System of 
 Mineralogy," (3 vols., 1804-08,) and other works. He 
 was professor of natural history in the University of 
 Edinburgh from 1804 until 1854. In 1819 Professor 
 Jameson and Sir David Brewster founded the " Edin- 
 burgh Philosophical Journal," which the former edited 
 many years. He also contributed to the " Hjicyclopae.dia 
 Britannica." He had a high reputation as a professor. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1804, and April, 1805; 
 "Annual Register" for 1854. 
 
 Ja'me-sone, (George,) an eminent painter, called 
 "the Van Dyck of Scotland," was born at Aberdeen in 
 1586. About 1616 he went to Antwerp, where, with Van 
 Dvck, he studied under Rul>ens. " His excellence," says 
 Walpole, "consisted in delicacy and softness, with a 
 clear and beautiful colouring." It is said that, in 1633, 
 when Charles I. visited Edinburgh, the magistrates of 
 that city employed Jamesone to paint the portraits of 
 some of the Scottish monarchs. Charles was so much 
 pleased with the result that he sat for his own portrait, 
 and presented the artist with a diamond ring from his 
 finger. Jameson was also a painter of historical and 
 landscape scenes. Died in 1644. 
 
 See Allan Cinningham, " Lives of the Most Eminent British 
 Painters," elc. : Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting;" Chambers 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Jamet, zhfmj', (Pierre Chari.es,) a French writer, 
 bom near Sens in 1701. Among his works are "Meta- 
 physical Essays," (1732,) " Letters on Taste and the Doc- 
 trine of Bayle," (1740,) and "The Mongol Philosopher 
 Dane-Che-Men-Kan," (1740.) Died about 1770. 
 
 Jami. See Tamee. 
 
 Ja'mie-son; (John,) D.D., a learned divine, born in 
 Glasgow in 1759, became in 1797 pastor of a church in 
 Edinburgh, where he remained until his death. The 
 decree of doctor of divinity was conferred upon him by 
 the College of New Jersey. He published, besides other 
 works, " Socinianism Unmasked," ( 1 788,) " The Sorrows 
 of Slavery," a poem, "The Use of Sacred History," (2 
 vols., 1802,) an " Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish 
 Language," (2 vols., 1809,) which is highly esteemed, 
 and " An Historical Account of the Ancient Ctildees of 
 Iona,"(i8n.) Died in 1838. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen :" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1809, and May, 1828 : " Monthly 
 Review" for September, 1810. 
 
 Jamin, zhfmaN', (Jean Baptiste,) Vicomtp, a 
 French general, born in 1772 ; died in 1848. 
 
 Jamin, (Jui.es Cei.estin,) a French natural philoso- 
 pher, born in 1818. He became professor of physics in 
 the Polytechnic School at Paris. He commenced in 1858 
 
 the publication of an important work, entitled "Court 
 de Physique." 
 
 Jamin de Bermuy, zhJ'maN' deh beVmit-e', (Jean 
 BAPTIST! Auguste Marie,) one of the best French 
 cavalry officers of his time, was born in jirctagne in 
 1773. He became colonel of the royal guards of light 
 cavalry about 1807, and went to Spain, where be dis- 
 tinguished himself at the battle of Ocafia in 1809. As 
 general of brigade, he won additional honours at the 
 battle of Vitoria, in 1813. For his various services he 
 was created baron of the empire and Marquis de Ber- 
 muy. He fell at the battle of Waterloo, 1815. 
 
 See J. Nollet-Fabert, "Le General Jamin," 1853. 
 
 Jamsheed. See Jemsheed. 
 
 Jamshid. See Jemsheed. 
 
 Jamyn, zhi'maN', (Amadis,) a French poet, born 
 in Champagne about 1540. His productions attracted 
 the attention of Ronsard, who became a warm friend and 
 liberal patron of Jamyn and procured for him the situa- 
 tion of secretary and reader to Charles IX. He wrote 
 poems on various subjects, and made translations of the 
 last three books of the " Iliad" and the first three of the 
 "Odyssey." Died in 1585. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Janachen, yan-a'ken, (i.e. Jan (or John) Achen.) 
 See Achen. 
 
 Jane of Navarre. See Joan. 
 
 Janes, jtiw, (Edmund S.,) a bishop of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, was born in Salisbury, Connecticut, 
 about 1805. In early life he was principal of an academy 
 in New Jersey. About 1836 he became minister of a 
 church in Philadelphia, and in 1839 was transferred to 
 Mulberry Street Church, in New York. He was chosen 
 in 1841 financial secretary of the American Bible So- 
 ciety, and travelled through most of the States in plead- 
 ing the cause of the Bible. He was elected a bishop in 
 1844. 
 
 Janet, a French painter. See Clouet. 
 
 Jane'way, (James,) an English nonconformist divine, 
 born in Hertfordshire in 1636. He was a preacher of 
 great power, and was very actively employed at the time 
 of the plague both in the pulpit and in visiting the sick. 
 Ho wrote a "Life of John Janeway," his brother, and 
 "The Saint's Encouragement to Diligence," (1675.) 
 Died in 1674. 
 
 Jani, ya'nee, (Christian David,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born near Halle in 1743. He published a good 
 edition of Horace, (2 vols., 1778-82,) and other works. 
 Died in 1790. 
 
 Janicon, zhf ne's6s', (Francois Michel,) a noted 
 journalist, born in Paris in 1674. Being an avowed 
 Protestant, he went to receive his education in Holland, 
 which became his adopted country. In early life he 
 entered the army, but finally devoted himself to litera- 
 ture. Among his works are " Present State of the 
 Republic of the United Provinces and their Dependen- 
 cies," (1729,) a production of great merit, and "Serious 
 and Satirical Letters upon the Works of the Savants," 
 (12 vols., 1740 et seq.) Died in 1730. 
 
 See MorerI, " Diclimmaire Historique ;" Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Janin, zha'naN', (Jules Gaurikl,) a celebrated French 
 critic and litteniltur, born at Saint-fitienne in 1804. He 
 contributed successively to the "Figaro" and the "Quo- 
 tidienne," and about 1830 became one of the editors 
 of the "Journal des Debats," for which he furnished a 
 number of brilliant and original articles on politics and 
 literature. He was for a long time the dramatic critic 
 of that journal, lit also wrote for the " Revue tics Deux 
 Monties," etc. Among his other productions are the 
 romances of " Barnave, ' (1831,) " New Literary Tales," 
 " Journey in Italy," (1839,) and " The Nun of Toulouse," 
 (1850.) He also' Wrote an abridgment of " Clarissa liar- 
 lowe," and a "History of Dramatic Literature," (4 
 vols., 1851-56.) His eritiipies consist mostly of literary 
 gossip, written in a sparkling and po"shei( style. He 
 was admitted to the French Academy in 1870. 
 
 See SaintrBeive. "Causeries du I.undi ;" Qi-eraru, "La 
 France Lilteraire;" " Xnuvellc Bii>graphie Gtncnlc." 
 
 Janin de Combe - Blanche, zht'naN' deh koN'- 
 blflNsh', (Jean,) a celebrated surgeon and oculist, born 
 
 «r as *; c as s; g hard; fc as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; *, trilled; las *; th as in this. ($g~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JANITIUS 
 
 1264 
 
 JANSSENS 
 
 in Carcassonne, France, in 1 731. lie was the author 
 of a "Treatise upon the Lachrymal Fistula," and seve- 
 ral other works on diseases of the eye. Died about 1790. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Janitius, ya-nlt'se-us, or Janicki, ya-nit'skee, (Cle- 
 ment,) a learned Polish writer, born in 1516. At fifteen 
 he wrote elegant Latin poetry. Among his works is 
 "Lives of the Kings of Poland." Died in 1543. 
 
 Jannabee 01 Jaimabi, Al, al-jan-na'bec, |Lat. Al- 
 Janna'bius, or simply Janna'hius,] (Aboo-Moharn- 
 med-Mustafa — moos'ta-fa,) written also Djaunaby 
 and Dschaiinabi, an Arabian historian, of whose life 
 scarcely anything is known. He wrote an abridgment 
 of universal history, entitled " Bahar-al-Zokkar," from 
 the creation of the world down to his own time. Died 
 in 15811 
 
 Jannabi. See Jannahee. 
 
 Jaunabius. See Jannahee. 
 
 Jamiequin, zhin'kaN', (Claude,) SieurdeRochefort, 
 a French traveller, sailed for Africa in 1637, and, after 
 his return, published a " Voyage to Libya, to the King- 
 dom of Senegal, and the Hanks of the Niger," etc., {1643.) 
 
 Jarmequin, (Clement,) a French or Flemish mu- 
 sician of superior merit, flourished about 1550. He- 
 composed masses, canzoni, chansons, etc. In 1544 
 he published " Inventions nuisicales a quatre et cinq 
 Parties," which displayed much inventive genius. 
 
 See Hurnky, " History of Music ;" F'etis, " Biographie Univer- 
 sale des Musiciens." 
 
 Jan'ney, (Samuel M.,) an American writer, born in 
 Loudon county, Virginia, January 11, 1801. Both his 
 parents were members of the Society of Friends, or 
 Quakers ; and his mind appears to have been at an early 
 age deeply impressed with the truth and high importance 
 of the religious principles in which he was educated. 
 Besides some smaller works, he has written "Conver- 
 sations on Religious Subjects," (1835;) "A Teacher's 
 Gift, consisting of Essays in Prose and Verse," (1840 ;) 
 "An Historical Sketch of the Christian Church during 
 the Middle Ages," (1847,) and two valuable biographies, 
 viz., a " Life of William Penn," (1852,) and a "Life of 
 George Fox," (1855.) His last and most important 
 publication is a " History of the Religious Society of 
 Friends from its Rise to the Year 1828," (4 vols., 1867.) 
 This work treats, among other subjects, of the causes 
 and events of the separation which occurred in the 
 Society in 1S27-28. The writer belongs to the anti- 
 orthodox division of the Quakers; and, though not pro- 
 fessing strict impartiality, he has evinced, in his treatment 
 of this delicate and difficult subject, great moderation, 
 a scrupulous regard for the facts of the case, and, on 
 the whole, a liberal and kindly spirit. He is a highly- 
 esteemed minister of the Society of which he is a member. 
 Early in 1869 he was appointed by President Crant 
 superintendent of Indian affairs in the Northern Super- 
 intendency. 
 
 Janozki, ya-nozh'kee, or Janotzki, ya-nots'kee, 
 sometimes written Janisck, (John Daniel,) a Polish 
 or Russian author, born at Viborg in 1720. He was 
 appointed superintendent of the Zaluski Library at 
 Warsaw. Among his works, which principally relate 
 to the literature of Poland, are " Letters on Criticism," 
 "A Dictionary ol the Living Authors of Poland," and 
 "Polish Literature of our Time." Died in 1786. 
 
 Jansemin. See Jasmin. 
 
 Jansen, jan'sen or yan'sen, or Jan-se'iri-us, [Dutch 
 pron. yan-sa'ne-fis,] (Cornelis,) Bishop of Ypres, cele- 
 brated as the founder of the sect of Jansenists, born near 
 Leerdam, in Holland, in October, 15S5. He pursued his 
 studies at Paris, and in 1617 was chosen professor of di- 
 vinity in the University of Louvain. About 1634 he bitterly 
 attacked the French government, in his " Mars Gallicus," 
 for having formed a treaty of alliance with the 1 hitch Prot- 
 estants. This provoked the enmity of Cardinal Richelieu, 
 but obtained the favour of the King of Spain, who raised 
 Jansenius to the see of Ypres in 1635. His principal 
 production was entitled " Augustinus," (Louvain, 1640,) 
 in which he advocated the doctrines of Saint Augustine 
 in regard to the atonement, divine grace, free will, and 
 predestination. This work was finished a short time 
 previous to his death, in 1638, and by his will he referred 
 
 it to the judgment of the Holy See ; but his executors 
 published the book, and suppressed that part of the will 
 which related to it. The opinions which he advocated 
 were directly opposed to those advanced by the Jesuits, 
 who made great efforts to obtain a decision against them 
 by the pope. Finally the bishops of France reduced the 
 doctriwes of Jansenius to five propositions for condemna- 
 tion, — viz. : 1. That there are divine precepts which good 
 men are unable to obey for want of God's grace, although 
 desirous to do so. 2. That no person can resist the in- 
 fluence of divine grace when bestowed. 3. That for 
 human actions to be meritorious, it is not requisite that 
 they should be exempt from necessity, but only from 
 constraint. 4. That the Semi-Pelagians err grievously in 
 maintaining that the human will is endowed with power 
 of either receiving or resisting the aids and influences 
 of preventive grace. 5. That whoever maintains that 
 Jesus Christ made expiation by his sufferings and death 
 for the sins of a// mankind is a Semi-Pelagian. Innocent 
 X. condemned the first four of these propositions as 
 simply heretical, but the last as rash, impious, and in- 
 jurious to the Supreme Being. Many bulls were also 
 issued by the succeeding popes, by which the Jansenists, 
 several of whom were among the most learned and emi- 
 nent ecclesiastics of France, were deprived of office arid 
 declared to be heretics. Louis XIV., at the instigation 
 of his Jesuit confessor, ordered them to be persecuted 
 and their monastery at Port-Royal to be suppressed. 
 Notwithstanding these attempts to crush them, the Jan- 
 senists continued to increase, comprising among their 
 champions Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole, and many other 
 celebrated men. 
 
 See Levdecker, " Historia Jansenismi," 1605; Bayi.e, " His- 
 torical and Critical Dictionary;" Sainte-Beuve, " Port- Royal," 
 tomes i., ii. ; Hkkser, " Histonsch Verhaal van tie Geboorte, I.even, 
 etc. van C. Jansenius," 1727; "Nouvelle Biographie Geneiale." 
 
 Janaen, yan'sen, (Hendrik,) a noted writer and trans- 
 lator, born at the Hague in 1741. He fixed his residence 
 in Paris about 1770, where he became librarian to Tal- 
 leyrand. His works were chiefly of a historical and 
 philosophical character. Died in 1812. 
 
 Jauseiiius. See Jan sen. 
 
 Jansenius, yan-sa'ne-us, (Cornelis,) a learned Flem- 
 ish ecclesiastic, born at Ilulst in 1510. In 1568 he was 
 ordained first Bishop of Ghent. Of his works we may 
 mention "Concord of the Evangelists," and a "Para- 
 phrase on the Psalms." Died in 1576. 
 
 Jansenius, (Jakob,) a Dutch scholar, born at Am- 
 sterdam in 1547, became in 1595 regius professor of the. 
 Sacred Scriptures at Louvain. Among his works arc 
 Expositions of the Prophet Job, of the Psalms of David, 
 and of the Gospel of John. Died in 1625. 
 
 Janson or Jenson, zIion'sAn', (Nicolas,) a French 
 engraver, printer, and type-founder, settled in Venice 
 about 1470. He produced there a number of celebrated 
 editions between 1470 and 1480. He is called the in- 
 ventor of the Roman type now generally used. Died 
 about 1481. 
 
 See G. Sardini, " Esanie n) i Principj della Francesa ed Italians 
 Tipografia, ovvero Storia critica di N. Jenson," 3 vols., 1796-9.$. 
 
 Janssen, yans'sen, or John'son, (Cornelis,) a noted 
 artist, born in Amsterdam in 1590. In 1618 he visited 
 England, where he was employed by James I. to paint 
 the portraits of the royal family. He was also patronized 
 by the nobility. He possessed neither the freedom nor the 
 grace of Van Dyck, but in other respects was regarded as 
 his equal, and in finishing was considered even superior 
 to him. His carnations have been particularly admired ; 
 and his pictures yet retain their original lustre, in conse- 
 quence perhaps of the ultramarine which he used. Died 
 in 1665. 
 
 Janssens, yans'sens,( Abraham,) a celebrated painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1569. His designs were elegant and 
 spirited. He was a good colorist, and a rival of Rubens. 
 He excelled in painting subjects illuminated by torches, 
 where the brilliant light and deepest shade were placed 
 in a striking contrast. His most important works are 
 the " Resurrection of Lazarus," and a " Descent from the 
 Cross." Died at Antwerp in 1631. 
 
 Janssens, (Erasmus,) a Dutch Unitarian theologian, 
 born alxiut 1540, preached at Clausemburg. Died after 
 1595- 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
JJNSSEKS 
 
 1265 
 
 JARS 
 
 Janssens, (Jan Wii.lem,) a distinguished Dutch 
 general, born at Xvmwegen in 1762. In 1802 he was 
 appointed governor and general-in-chiefof the colony of 
 the Cape of Good Hope, where he was defeated by the 
 English, who took possession of that country in 1806. 
 After the abdication of Louis Bonaparte, under whom 
 he had held the office of minister of war, Napoleon made 
 him Governor-General of Holland and the East Indies. 
 In this capacity he bravely defended Batavia against the 
 h in 181 1, but was finally obliged to surrender. 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 NV'iivelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Janssens, (Victor Honokius,) a noted Flemish 
 painter, born at Brussels in 1664. He studied in Rome 
 the woi ks of Raphael, selected Albano for his model, 
 and excelled all his contemporaries in that style. At 
 the expiration of eleven years he returned to Brussels, 
 where he painted numerous large pictures for palaces 
 and churches. Died in 1739. 
 
 Janszoon. See Kostkr. 
 
 Januario. See J ani 'arius. 
 
 Jan-u-a'rI-us, [Fr. Janvihr, zIiSn'v^A'; It. Janua- 
 rio, ya-noo-J're-o,) Saint, Bishop of benevento, was 
 beheaded during the persecution of Diocletian, about 
 305. A cathedral was erected over his grave at Naples, 
 where it is believed that his blood exerts great power in 
 checking the eruptions of Vesuvius. 
 
 Ja'nus, an ancient Latin deity, represented with two 
 faces. He was regarded as the opener of the day and 
 11 having charge of the gates of heaven.* He seems to 
 have presided over the commencement of enterprises. 
 The word Janata ("gate") is supposed to have been de- 
 rived from him ; also the name of the month January. 
 The temple of Janus Quirinus at Rome was kept open 
 in time of war and closed during peace. It has been 
 conjectured by some scholars that the name and attri- 
 butes of Janus may be traced to Ganesa, (or Ganesha,) 
 the Hindoo deity of prudence and circumspection, who, 
 among his other offices, had those of presiding over the 
 commencement of undertakings, guarding gates and 
 doors, etc. 
 
 See GurcviAUT, " Religions* de rAntiqnite'," Paris, 1S25-29, vol. 
 ii. book v. sect. 2, chap. iii. ; Keightlev, " Mythology." 
 
 Janvier. See Januarius. 
 
 Janvier, zhftN've-i', (Antidf.,) an ingenious and cele- 
 brated horologist, was born at Saint-Claude, in France, 
 in 1751. He invented numerous improvements for 
 watches and for different kinds of astronomical appa- 
 ratus. In 1784 he became watchmaker to the king. 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 Janvier, (Dom Rf.n£ Ambroisf,) a learned French 
 monk, born in 1614. He made a Latin translation of 
 the " Rabbi David Kimchi's Hebrew Commentary on 
 the Psalms." Died in 1682. 
 
 Japet See 1a fetus. 
 
 Japettts. See Iapktus. 
 
 Ja'pheth, [Heb. n3',] a patriarch, one of the three 
 sons of Noah, and the supposed ancestor of the Cauca- 
 sian race. (See Iapetus.) 
 
 See Genesis vi., vii., ix. 
 
 Japix, Japicx, or Japiks, ya'piks, (GYSBEUT,) a 
 celebrated Frisian poet, born at Bolsward in 1603. But 
 few incidents in his early life are known. Japix was the 
 first, and in fact the only, writer in Frisian of any note of 
 that period. In 1763,' at Dr. Johnson's request, 
 well, then at Utrecht, sent a copy of Japix as a specimen 
 isian, and at the same time remarked that "it was 
 the only book which they had ; that there were no treat- 
 (devotion, ballads, or story-books in the language." 
 Japix died of the plague in 1666. 
 
 See Hai.bektsma, " Hulde aan G. Japiks," 1827; " Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for January, 1829. 
 
 Jaquelot See Jacquei.ot. 
 
 Jaquotot, zhi'ko'u/, (MARIS Victoire,) a skilful 
 French painter on porcelain, born in Paris in 1778. She 
 copied several works of Raphael on porcelain, and 
 painted the dessert-service presented by Napoleon I. to 
 the Czar of Russia after the peace of Tilsit. Died in 1855. 
 
 Dies, 
 
 Some writers suppose Janus to be a corruption of Dianus, (from 
 r, " Day,") because he was the opener of the day. 
 
 Jarchi, zhaVshe', (Solomon Ben Isaac,) sometimes 
 called Raschi, a distinguished Jewish writer, born at 
 Troves, in France, about 1040. After finishing his edu- 
 cation at the Jewish Academy in that city, he travelled 
 through Egypt, Western Asia, Greece, Russia, and Ger- 
 many. On his return to Prance he wrote Annotations 
 on the Five Hooks of Moses, the Mishna, and the Gemaia. 
 These works obtained a high reputation, and procured 
 for the author the title of "Prince of Commentators." 
 Died in 1 105. 
 
 Jardin or Jardyn. See Du Jardin. 
 
 Jar'dlne, (George,) born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, 
 in 1742, was professor of logic in the University of Glas- 
 gow from 1774 to 1824, and made improvements in the 
 mode of teaching. He published "Outlines of Philo- 
 sophical Education," (1818.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See Chamrf.rs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 "Monthly Review" for July, 1819. 
 
 Jardine, (Sir WILLIAM,) a Scottish naturalist, born 
 in Edinburgh about 1800. He studied botany, orni- 
 thology, etc. He published, besides other works, " Illus- 
 tration's of Ornithology," (3 vols., 1829-45.) He was 
 one of the authors of the "Naturalist's Library," (40 
 vols., 1833-43,) and joint editor of the "Edinburgh Phi- 
 losophical Journal." 
 
 Jardinier, zhSu'de'nc^', (Claude Donat,) a French 
 engraver, born in Paris hTT726. Among his works is the 
 "Virgin- and the Infant Jesus," from C. Maratta. Died 
 in 1774. 
 
 Jardins, des, da zhtR'daN', (Marie Catherine,) 
 Madamf. de Vii.ledieu, a talented and profligate French 
 authoress, was born in 1640. She removed to Paris, 
 where she supported herself by writing romances and 
 dramas. Her works were quite successful, and, not- 
 withstanding her very exceptionable conduct, she was 
 much courted by persons of distinction. Her active 
 and vivid imagination produced a new era in French 
 romances, changing their old and tedious style into that 
 of the modern novel. Died in 1683. 
 
 Jard-Panvillier, zhtK'pfi.N've'ye-i', (Louis Alex- 
 andre,) a French politician, born near Niort in 1757. 
 In 1792 he was elected to the National Convention, 
 where he distinguished himself by his bold defence of 
 the king. Napoleon created him baron of the empire 
 and president of the court of exchequer. Died in 1822. 
 
 Jardyn or Jardin, (Karfl de.) See Dujardin. 
 
 Jarnac, de, deh zhSR'ntk', (Gut Charot,) Seigneur, 
 a French soldier, who in 1547 killed La Chateigneraye 
 in a duel which was fought in the presence of King Henry 
 II. Died about 1560. 
 
 See Tavannfs, " Memoires ;" Brantome, " Memoires," tome iii. 
 
 Jarnowich, yaR'no-vik', or Giornovichi, joR-no- 
 vee'kee, (GIOVANNI Maria,) a celebrated and eccentric 
 violinist, born at Palermo, Sicily, in 1745. He spent 
 several years in France, Prussia, and England. He sub- 
 sequently visited Saint Petersburg, where he died in 1804. 
 
 Jaroslaf. Sec Yaroslaf. 
 
 Jarrige, zhi'rezh', (Pierre,) a French Jesuit, born at 
 Tulle in 1605. He embraced Protestantism, and wrote 
 a work against the society of which he had been a mem- 
 ber, entitled "The Jesuits upon the Scaffold ;" but sub- 
 sequently he was reconciled to them, and published a 
 refutation of his previous work. Died in 1660. 
 
 Jarry, zhi're', (Nicolas,) a French calligraphist, born 
 in Paris about 1620, was famous for the beauty of his 
 penmanship. 
 
 Jarry, du, dii zhi're', (Laurent Juilhard— zhli-e'- 
 ySit',) a celebrated ecclesiastic, poet, and orator, bom 
 near Saintes, in France, about 1658. He went 10 Paris, 
 where he was patronized by Bossuet and the Dui 
 Montausier. In 1714 he gained a poetical prize at the 
 French Academy over Voltaire and other competitors. 
 He wrote "The Evangelical Ministry, or Reflections 
 upon the Eloquence of the Pulpit," (1726,) "Poems, 
 Christian, Heroic, and Moral," and several other works. 
 Died in 1730. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Jars, zhtR, (Garriei„) a distinguished mineralogist, 
 and member of the French Academy of Sciences, bom 
 at Lyons, in France, in 1732. In 1757 he was sent to ex- 
 
 € as k: 9 as s; giard: g as/; G, H, v., guttural : N, na;al: R. trillrd: s as t: *h as in this. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 So 
 
JJRS 
 
 1266 
 
 JAFELLO 
 
 amine the mines of Germany and Hungary, and in 1765 
 visited England, Scotland, Norway, and Sweden for the 
 same purpose. He died in 1769, leaving manuscripts from 
 which his brother compiled "Observations upon a Great 
 Number of Gold and Silver Mines," (3 vols., 1774-81.) 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Jars, de, deh zhtR, (Francois df. Rochechouart — 
 rosh'shoo-ik',) Chf.vai.ier, a French officer and cour- 
 tier. He was arrested by Cardinal Richelieu in 1632, 
 because he refused to give evidence in the prosecution 
 o! his friend Chateauneuf, keeper of the seals. After 
 an imprisonment of eleven months in the Bastille, and 
 twenty-four examinations, during which nothing could 
 be extorted from him that would criminate Chateauneuf, 
 he was convicted on false evidence and sentenced to 
 death. A reprieve, however, arrived from the king after 
 Jars had placed his head upon the block. lie obtained 
 his liberty after a long imprisonment. Died in 1670. 
 
 See Richelieu, "Memoires." 
 
 Jarta or Jaerta, yeVta, (Johan or Hans,) a Swedish 
 statesman, born in Dalecarlia in 1774, was minister of 
 finances from 1809 to 181 1, and assisted in framing the 
 present Constitution of Sweden. Died in 1847. 
 
 Jar'ves, (James Jackson,) a writer and traveller, 
 born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1818. He produced, 
 besides other works, a " History of the Hawaiian or 
 Sandwich Islands," (1843,) and "Art Hints," (1855.) 
 
 Jar'vjs, (Abraham,) D.D., Bishop of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church, was bom at Nor walk, in Connecticut, 
 in 1739. He graduated at Yale in 1761, was ordained 
 in England in 1764, and became Bishop of Connecticut 
 in 1797. Died in 1813. 
 
 Jar'via, (John,) an artist, born in Dublin about 1749, 
 had a great reputation for his paintings on glass and his 
 exquisite manner of finishing single subjects. Among 
 his principal works is the west window of New College 
 Chapel, Oxford, from a design of Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 Jarvis, (John Wesley,) a distinguished artist, born 
 in the north of England in 1780, came at an early age to 
 New York, where he gained a high reputation by his 
 portraits. He was also noted for his eccentricities and 
 genial humour. 
 
 See Duni.ap, "Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in 
 America;" Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Jarvis, (Samuel Farmer,) D.D., LL.D., an Ameri- 
 can clergyman and author, son of Bishop Jarvis, was 
 born in Middletown, Connecticut, in 1786. He graduated 
 at Yale in 1805, and was for some time professor of 
 Oriental literature in Washington (now Trinity) College 
 at Hartford, and from 1837 to 1842 was rector of Christ 
 Church in his native town. He wrote "A Chronological 
 Introduction to the History of the Church," etc., (1845,) 
 and " The Church of the Redeemed ; or, The History 
 of the Mediatorial Kingdom," (1850.) 
 
 Jasikov or Jazikov. See Yazikof. 
 
 Jasmin, zhts'maN', or Jansemiu, zhSNss'maN', 
 (Jacques or Jaquou,) the "Barber Poet of Agen," born 
 at that town in 1798. His poems, which are written 
 in the Provencal patois, enjoy the highest popularity in 
 France, and display great powers of humour and pathos, 
 with a charming simplicity of diction. Among the most 
 admired are "The Curl-Papers," ("Los Papillotos,") 
 and "The Blind Girl of Castel-Cuille," ("L'Abuglo de 
 Castel-Cuille.") The latter has been translated into 
 English by Longfellow. Died in 1864. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Catisertes du Lundi;" " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie GeneVale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1849. 
 
 Ja'son, [Gr. 'luauv,] a semi-fabulous Greek hero, cele- 
 brated as the leader of the Argonautic expedition, which 
 was supposed to have occurred before the siege of Troy. 
 The Argonauts went to Colchis to fetch a golden fleece 
 which was guarded by a dragon. Jason succeeded in 
 this enterprise by the aid of Medea, a sorceress, whom 
 he married. (See Medea.) 
 
 Jason, tyrant of Pherae, and chief magistrate of Thes- 
 saly, was ambitious and enterprising. He obtained 
 control of Thessaly in 374 B.C., and aspired to be master 
 of all Greece. He was assassinated in 369 B.C. 
 
 Jas'per, (William,) (known in history as Sergeant 
 Jasper,) a brave soldier of the American Revolution, 
 
 born in South Carolina about 1750. When the American 
 flag was shot away in the attack on Fort Moultrie, June 
 28, 1776, he leaped outside the walls of the fort, amidst 
 a perfect storm of cannon-shot, replaced the flag, and 
 returned to his post without injury. For this gallant 
 service Governor Rutledge presented to him his own 
 sword. He afterwards served with distinction under 
 Marion, and was killed at Savannah in October, 1779. 
 
 Jaubert, zho'baiR', (Francois,) Comte, a French 
 lawyer, born at Condom in 1758. In 1804 he became 
 president of the Tribunate. In 1806 he was appointed 
 councillor of state. Died in 1S22. 
 
 Jaubert, (Hippolyte Francois,) a French minister 
 of state, and naturalist, a nephew of the preceding, was 
 born in Paris in 1798. He became minister of public 
 works in 1S40. He published " Illustrationes Plantarum 
 Orientalium," (2 vols., 1842-46.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Jaubert, (Pierre Amed4e Emilien Probe,) a French 
 Orientalist, born in Provence in 1779, accompanied Na- 
 poleon to Egypt as first secretary-interpreter in 1799. 
 He was appointed, after his return, professor of Persian 
 in the College of France, was elected to the Academy 
 of Inscriptions in 1830, and made a peer of France in 
 1841. He contributed to the "Journal Asiatique," and 
 wrote a number of learned works. Died in 1847. 
 
 See E. Biot, " Notice biographique sur M. Jaubert ;" Querard, 
 "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Jaucourt, de, deh zho'kooR', (Arnail Francois,) 
 Marquis, a French politician, born in Paris in 1757, 
 was a moderate member of the Legislative Assembly 
 in 1 791. In June, 1814, he acted as minister of foreign 
 affairs in the absence of Talleyrand. He founded the 
 Projestant Bible Society of Paris. Died in 1852. 
 
 Jaucourt, de, (Louis,) Chevalier, an accomplished 
 French writer and scholar, born in Paris in 1704. He 
 studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden, and was a 
 pupil of Boerhaave in medicine. He published in 1734 
 a " History of the Life and Works of Leibnitz," which 
 is much admired. He wrote many articles on natural 
 philosophy, natural history, literature, etc. for the great 
 French Encyclopaedia of Diderot. His principles were 
 more consistent with the Christian religion than those 
 of the other Encyclopaedists. He wrote a voluminous 
 Medical Lexicon, but lost the manuscript at sea, and 
 contributed largely to the " Bibliotheque raisonnee des 
 Ouvrages des Savants de l'Europe," (1728-40.) Died 
 at Compiegne in 1779. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" MM. Haag, "La France 
 protestante." 
 
 Jauffret, zho'n<k', (Gaspard Jean Andr£ Joseph,) 
 a French writer on theology, born in Provence in 17^9, 
 became chaplain to Napoleon about 1804, Bishop of Metz 
 in 1806, and Archbishop of Aix in 18,11. Died in 1823. 
 
 Jauffret, (Louis Franqois,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was bom in Paris in 1770. He was secretary of 
 the Academy of Marseilles, and wrote several valuable 
 juvenile books. Died about 1850. 
 
 Jaugeon, zho'zhAN', (N.,) an able French mechani- 
 cian, who wrote several works on natural history and 
 physiology. Died in 1725. 
 
 Jault, zho, (Augustin Francois,) a physician and 
 Orientalist, born in Franche-Comte in 1700, became 
 professor of Greek and Syriac in the Royal College at 
 Paris. He translated Ockley's " History of the Sara- 
 cens" (1748) from the English, and several medical works 
 from the Latin. Died in 1757. 
 
 Jauregui y Aguilar, de, da How-ra'gee e a-ge-laR', 
 (Juan,) Chevalier de Calatrava, a Spanish poet and 
 painter, born at Toledo about 1570. In 1607 he visited 
 Rome, where he studied Italian and improved himself 
 in the art of painting. He translated into his native 
 tongue the "Pharsalia" of Lucan and the "Aminta" of 
 Tasso, (1607.) The latter is an excellent version. He 
 introduced a superior style among the Spanish painters. 
 Died in 1650, or, according to some, in 1640. 
 
 SeeTicKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Quilliet, "Dic- 
 tionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Javello, ya-vel'lo, (Crisostomo,) a learned philoso- 
 pher and theologian of the Dominican order, was born 
 near Milan about 1471. 
 
 t, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; nSt; good; moon; 
 
jTJFOLENUS 
 
 1267 
 
 JAT 
 
 Jav-o-le'uus,(PRiscus,) a Roman jurist, supposed to 
 have lived under the reigns of Nerva and Hadrian. He 
 wrote an " Epitome of the Ijbri Posteriores of Labeo," 
 and several treatises on law. 
 
 Jay, zhj, (Antoine,) a French journalist and littera- 
 teur, born in the Gironde in 1770. He was for many 
 years chief editor of the "Constitutionnel," a daily paper 
 of Paris, and the "Minerve." In politics he was liberal. 
 He spent seven years in the United States, 1795-1802. 
 In 1832 he was chosen a member of the French Academy. 
 His most important work is a "History of the Ministry 
 of Cardinal Richelieu," (1815,) which is highly praised 
 by Henri Martin. Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Ja Y. (John,) an illustrious American statesman, first 
 chief justice of the United States, was born in Xcw York, 
 December 12, 1745. He was descended on his father's 
 side from Pierre Jay, a Huguenot merchant of La Ro- 
 chelle, who fled to England on the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes. Jay graduated at King's (now Columbia) 
 College in 1764, and was admitted to the bar of New 
 York in 1768. At this period he combined in a remark- 
 able degree the dignity and gravity of manhood with the 
 ardour of youth. His talents soon procured for him 
 both an extensive legal practice and gieat influence in 
 the political assemblies called to consider the aggressive 
 policy of the British government. Elected to the first 
 Continental Congress at Philadelphia in 1774, he took 
 a leading part in all its proceedings, and, as one of a 
 committee of three, drew up the address to the people 
 of Great Britain, which at once procured for its author 
 the reputation of being one of the ablest and most elo- 
 quent writers in America. He also prepared the address 
 issued by Congress in 1775 to the people of Canada. In 
 the general debates he took strong ground in favour of 
 the central authority and against separate colonial action. 
 Having been recalled from Philadelphia in May, 1776, 
 to take part in the deliberations of the New York pro- 
 vincial Congress, his name does not appear on the 
 Declaration of Independence, which, however, received 
 his cordial support. He exerted great influence in the 
 convention which met in August of the same year to 
 frame a State government for New York. To arouse 
 the people from the despondency occasioned by the 
 disasters to our arms, he prepared, in December, an 
 address to the country, which was issued by the con- 
 vention and ordered by Congress to be translated into 
 German. He also reported to the New York conven- 
 tion, in March, 1777, a bill of rights, and had a chief 
 share in framing the Constitution. Before its adjourn- 
 ment, May, 1777, the convention appointed Jay chief 
 justice of New York. 
 
 In December, 1778, he again took his seat in Congress, 
 and a few days after was chosen its president. His dig- 
 nified and impartial discharge of the duties of this posi- 
 tion won the esteem of all parties. In September, 1779, 
 he resigned the offices both of president and chief justice, 
 to accept the appointment of minister to Spain to nego- 
 tiate for a loan of $5,000,000 and for the free navigation 
 of the Mississippi. After many months of vexatious 
 and fruitless labours at Madrid, he proceeded to Paris, 
 and took part with Adams, Franklin, and others in ne- 
 gotiating the treaty of peace between the United States 
 and Great Britain, signed September 3, 1783. Jay re- 
 turned to New York in July, 1784, and, learning that 
 Congress had already appointed him secretary of foreign 
 affairs, then probably the most important office in the 
 government, he accepted this position in December 
 following, and discharged its duties until the election of 
 Washington as President of the United States in 1789. 
 To answer the objections of the opponents to the Federal 
 Constitution as it came from the General Convention of 
 1787, Jay united with Hamilton and Madison in writing 
 "The Federalist." "No constitution of government, 
 says Chancellor Kent, "ever received a more masterly 
 and successful vindication." Jay contributed greatly 
 towards overcoming the majority against the Constitution 
 in the New York convention called to adopt or reject 
 it in 1788, (at first the vote stood only eleven for, to 
 forty-y x against it ; afterwards thirty for, to twenty-seven 
 against,) and on the reorganization of the government 
 
 under it in 1789 he was offered by Washington, it is said, 
 the choice of the offices in his gilt. He accepted that of 
 chief justice of the supreme court. " His general learn- 
 ing and ability," says Daniel Webster, " and especially 
 the prudence, the mildness, and the firmness of his char- 
 acter, eminently fitted Mr. Jay to be at the head of such 
 a court." In 1792 Jay received a majority of the votes 
 for Governor of New York; but, on some technical 
 grounds, George Clinton, the Republican candidate, was 
 declared elected. In writing of this result to his wife, he 
 said, " A few years will put us all in the dust ; and then 
 it will be of more importance to me to have governed 
 myself than to have governed a State." In 1794 Jay 
 accepted with reluctance the appointment of special 
 minister to England to negotiate a settlement of the dif- 
 ficulties between the two countries, well knowing that 
 in the state of public feeling no adjustment that could be 
 effected would give satisfaction to all parties. He con- 
 cluded a treaty on the 19th of November of the same year. 
 It provided, among other things, that pre-revolutionary 
 debts owed to British subjects should be paid by the 
 United States, that the British government should indem- 
 nify Americans for losses sustained by illegal captures, etc. 
 (About $10,000,000 were afterwards paid on this account.) 
 This treaty was at once assailed with almost unexampled 
 violence by the party favourable to France. Mobs lighted 
 bonfires with it in the principal cities, and in Boston Tay 
 himself was burned in effigy. On the other hand, Ham- 
 ilton defended the treaty with an ability that extorted 
 the admiration even of its opponents, and Fisher Ames, 
 in one of the greatest efforts of American eloquence, 
 declared that the "treaty had justly raised the character 
 of the nation." It was finally carried into effect by a 
 vote of fifty-eight to fifty-one. While Jay was absent 
 in England, he was elected, without his knowledge or 
 consent, Governor of New York, — an office which he 
 held for six years. It was under his administration that 
 slavery in that State was abolished. In writing to a 
 friend, in 1780, he had declared, "Till America comes 
 into this measure, [the abolition of slavery,] her prayers 
 to Heaven for liberty will be impious." Five years later 
 (1785) he was made president of a society in New York 
 "to promote the manumission of slaves." Having de- 
 clined a re-election at the close of his second guberna- 
 torial term, Jay was nominated and confirmed by the 
 Senate to succeed Oliver Ellsworth in his former office 
 of chief justice of the United States; but this honour he 
 also declined, and for the remainder of his life resided 
 on his estate at Bedford, Westchester county, New York. 
 He died May 17, 1829. "In lofty disinterestedness," 
 says Hildreth, "in unyielding integrity, in superiority 
 to the illusions of passion, no one of the great men of 
 the Revolution approached so near to Washington," 
 (as Jay.) Jay was a member of the Episcopal Church, 
 and was a man of deep religious as well as earnest moral 
 convictions ; the Bible is said to have been his con- 
 stant study. In stature he was somewhat less than six 
 feet in height ; he was well formed, but rather thin, face 
 colourless, with deep-blue eyes, and aquiline nose. 
 
 See a " Life of John Jay, with Selections from his Writings," by 
 his son, William Jay, 3 vols., 1833; James Khnwick, " Lives of 
 John Jay and Alexander Hamilton," 1840; Hhnhy Flanders, 
 Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the United States," 
 1855; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. 
 ii. ; " North American Review" for July, 1823, and October, 1833. 
 
 Jay, (JOHN,) an eminent lawyer, a grandson of the 
 preceding, and a son of Judge William Jay, was born in 
 New York in 1817. He graduated at Columbia College 
 in 1836, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1839. 
 He distinguished himself as an opponent of slavery, and 
 was counsel for several fugitive slaves in the courts of 
 law. In April, 1869, he was appointed minister to Aus- 
 tria. He was thrice chosen president of the Union League 
 of New York. 
 
 Jay, (William,) a popular English dissenting minis- 
 ter and writer, born at Tisbtiry, Wiltshire, in 1700. He 
 was the pupil and protege of the Rev. Cornelius Winter. 
 He began to preach about the age of sixteen, and be- 
 came in 1791 minister of Argyle Chapel, Bath, where 
 he continued to preach for sixty-two years. He was 
 called the "prince of preachers" by the eminent John 
 Foster. Among his works are " Morning and Evening 
 
 « as *; 9 as j; g hard; gas j; G, H, K, guttural; ft, nasal '; K, trilled; sas«; th as in this. (JI^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JAT 
 
 1268 
 
 JEBB 
 
 Exercises," (1842,) "Lectures on Female Scripture 
 Characters," (1854,) a "Life of Cornelius Winter," 
 "Mornings with Jesus," (1854,) and "Evenings with 
 Jesus," (1854.) Died in December, 1853. 
 
 See his Autobiography, edited bv George Reoford and John 
 Angell James, 1854 ; " Memoir of William Jay," by S. S. Wilson, 
 1S54. 
 
 Jay, (William,) an American philanthropist, second 
 son of Chief-Justice Jay, was born in New York in 1789. 
 He graduated at Yale in 1807, and on the death of his 
 father, in 1829, succeeded to the family estate at Bedford. 
 He had previously, in 1820, been appointed first judge 
 of Westchester county, in which office he was continued 
 till superseded, in 1842, on account of his anti-slavery 
 opinions. He early entered upon his philanthropic 
 labours, and continued to exert himself in behalf of 
 the temperance reform, the abolition of slavery, educa- 
 tional and missionary enterprises, Sunday-schools, tract 
 and Bible societies, etc., for the remainder of his life. He 
 was for several years the president of the American 
 Peace Society, and was one of the chief founders of the 
 American Bible Society. His principal works are the 
 " Life of John Jay, with Selections from his Writings," 
 (2 vols., 1833,) "An Inquiry into the Character and 
 Tendency of the American Colonization and American 
 Anti-Slavery Societies," (1835,) "A View of the Action 
 of the Federal Government in Behalf of Slavery," (1839,) 
 " War and Peace," (1848,) and " A Review of the Causes 
 and Consequences of the Mexican War," (1849.) Died 
 at Bedford, New York, in 1858. 
 
 Jay, le, (Guy Michkl.) See Le Jay. 
 
 Jayadeva or Djayadeva, ji-a-da'va, a celebrated 
 Hindu poet, known as the author of the " Gita Govinda," 
 (" Song of Krishna,") a famous Sanscrit poem in honour 
 of Krishna. The time and circumstances of his life are 
 unknown. An Oriental critic refers to Jayadeva as a 
 poet in the following terms: "Whatever is delightful 
 in the modes of music, . . . whatever is exquisite in 
 the sweet art of love, whatever is graceful in the strains 
 of poetry, — all that let the happy and wise learn from 
 the songs of Jayadeva." 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon;" "Asiatic Researches," vol. iii. 
 p. 207. 
 
 Jazet, zhi'zj', (Jean Pierre Marie,) a French en- 
 graver, born in Paris in 1788. He perfected the art of 
 engraving in aquatint, and reproduced the works of 
 Horace Vernet and other masters. 
 
 Jeacocke, ja'kok, ? (Caleh,) a baker of London, 
 known as the author of the " Vindication of the Moral 
 Character of the Apostle Paul against the Charges of 
 I [ypocrisy and Insincerity brought by Bolingbroke, Mid- 
 dleton, and Others," (1765.) Died in 17S6. 
 
 Jean or France. See John". 
 
 Jean Bon Saint-Andre, zIiSn Ij6n saN'toN'dRa', 
 BaRON, a French revolutionist, born at Montauban in 
 1749. He studied theology, and became a Protestant 
 minister. He was chosen deputy to the National Con- 
 vention in 1792, joined the Jacobins, voted for the death 
 of the king, and was elected one of the committee of 
 public safety. He was appointed prefect of Mayence, 
 (Mentz,) where he won great esteem by the firmness, in- 
 tegrity, and wisdom of his administration. Died in 1815. 
 
 Jean Jacques. See Rousseau. 
 
 Jean de Matha. See Matha. 
 
 Jean de Paris, zh6\ de pi' re', a French Dominican, 
 and professor of theology at Paris, wrote " De Regia 
 Potestate et Papali," in which he maintained the cause 
 of King Philip against the pope. Died in 1304. 
 
 Jean Paul. See Rich i er. 
 
 Jeanes, jeenz, (Henry,) an English divine, born at 
 Allensay, in Somersetshire, in 1611. He wrote a treatise 
 on " Abstinence from Evil," one entitled "The Image 
 Unbroken," (1651,) in defence of Charles I., and a work 
 in reply to the " Iconoclastes" of Milton. Died in 1662. 
 
 Jeanne d'Albret, zhin dil'buj', or Joan, Queen of 
 Navarre, born in 1528, was the only child of Jean II. 
 d'Albret, King of Navarre, and Marguerite, sister of the 
 French monarch Francis I. Her earliest suitor was Philip, 
 the son of Charles V. of Germany; but Francis I. opposed 
 the union, and gave her in marriage to Antoine de Bour- 
 bon, Duke of Vendorne, in 1548. Through her husband's 
 
 influence she embraced the Calvinistic faith, caused it to 
 be introduced into Navarre, and in a short time was re- 
 garded as one of the chief supporters of Protestantism in 
 France. On the 13th of December, 1553, she gave birth to 
 a son, afterwards known as the illustrious Henry IV. In 
 1555, with her husband, she succeeded to the sovereignty 
 of Navarre. Two years later, her husband, having been 
 appointed lieutenant-general of France, was killed at 
 the siege of Rouen. Jeanne died at Paris in 1572. She 
 was distinguished for her talents, virtues, and heroic 
 qualities. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais;"Ds Thou, " Historia 
 sui Temporis ;" D'Aubigne, "Memoirs*." 
 
 Jeanne d'Arc. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 Jeanne of Naples. See Joan of Naples. 
 
 Jeanne of Navarre. See Joan of Navarre. 
 
 Jeannin, zhi'naN', (Pierre,) a French statesman and 
 diplomatist of high reputation, born at Autun in 1540. 
 He held an office at Dijon in 1572, when a royal order 
 came for the massacre of the Protestants. Although he 
 was a zealous Catholic, he persuaded the local authori- 
 ties to disobey or suspend the execution of the order, 
 which in a few days was countermanded. He afterwards 
 became president of the Parliament of Dijon. In 1594 
 he gave his adhesion to Henry IV., who employed him 
 on important foreign missions. He gained the confidence 
 of the king in a high degree. After the death of Henry 
 IV., (1610,) the queen, Marie de Midicis, appointed 
 Jeannin controller of the finances, and confided to him 
 the chief direction of affairs. He died in 1622, leaving 
 "Memoirs of his Negotiations," (1656.) 
 
 See Pierre Saumaise, " FJosie de Jeannin ;" Thiroux, " Fjojje 
 de M. Jeannin ;" De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis;" Guvton DE 
 MORVKAU, " Fjoge du President Jeannin," 1766; Grotius, " An- 
 nates et Historiae Belgica? ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" 
 Motley, " United Netherlands," vol. iv. chap. 1. et scg. 
 
 Jeanron, z1i6n'i-6n', (Philippe Auguste.) a French 
 painter, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1809. 
 
 Jeaurat, zho'ri', (Edme Sehastien,) a French as- 
 tronomer, born in Paris in 1724. He published in 1750 
 a valuable "Treatise on Perspective." In 1753 he was 
 appointed professor of mathematics in the Military School 
 of Paris, where he caused an observatory to be estab- 
 lished. Among his works is " Observations on the Solar 
 Eclipse of 1793." He became a member of the Institute 
 in 1796. Died in 1S03. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Jebb, (John,) M.D., a celebrated divine, born in Lon- 
 don in 1736. In 1768 he delivered a course of lectures 
 on the Greek Testament at Cambridge. He obtained 
 the living of Ovington, in Norfolk, in 1764, and became 
 chaplain to the Earl of Harborough. Having subse- 
 quently embraced Socinian views, he resigned all his 
 ecclesiastical appointments and commenced the study 
 of medicine. He obtained his degree at Saint Andrew's, 
 and practised with success. He .was much engaged in 
 political controversy, and earnestly advocated the Amer- 
 ican cause during the Revolutionary war. Died in 17S6. 
 
 See Disnev, "Life of John Jebb," 17S7. 
 
 Jebb, (John,) an Irish Protestant bishop and clas- 
 sical scholar, born at Drogheda in 1775, was educated 
 at Trinity College, Dublin. He published, in 1S19 or 
 1S20, an important work on "Sacred Literature," which 
 is highly praised by several critics. "It has the highest 
 claims," says T. H. florae, "to the attention of every 
 biblical student." In 1823 he was appointed Bishop of 
 Limerick. Among his works is "Practical Theology," 
 (2 vols., 1830.) Died in 1833. 
 
 See Charles Forster, " Life of Bishop Jebb," 2 vols., 1837. 
 
 Jebb, (Sir Richard,) Bart., son of Dr. Samuel Jebb, 
 noticed below, was born at Stratford, in Essex, in 1729. 
 He studied medicine in London, and afterwards at the 
 University of Leyden, where he obtained the degree of 
 M.D. He became physician-extraordinary to George 
 HI. about 1777, and physician-in-ordinary to the Prince 
 of Wales in 1780. Died in 178.7. 
 
 Jebb, (Samuel,) M.D., a noted English physician 
 and classical scholar, born in Nottinghamshire, was an 
 uncle of John Jebb, M.D., noticed above. He embraced 
 the principles of the nonjurors, and became librarian to 
 the celebrated Jeremy Collier. He edited the " Dialogue 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, li, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met, n5t> good; moonj 
 
JEE-JEE-B'HOr 
 
 1269 
 
 JEFFERSON 
 
 of Justin Martyr with Trypho the Jew, in Greek and 
 Latin," the "Opus Majus" of Roger Bacon, and several 
 other works. Died in 1772. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes of Bowyer." 
 Jee'jee-b'hoy', (Sir Jamsk.i'ju:,) a Hindoo mer- 
 chant and munificent benefactor of Bombay, was born 
 in 1783. He amassed a large fortune, and gave vast 
 sums to benevolent institutions. The honour of knight- 
 hood was conferred on him by Queen Victoria. Died in 
 
 1859. 
 
 . >rth American Review" for July, 1851, (by C. E. Norton.) 
 
 Jefferson, (Thomas,) an eminent American statesman, 
 and the third Presid ent of the United States, was born, 
 April 2, 1743, at Shadwell, Virginia, near the spot which 
 afterwards became his residence with the name of Mon- 
 ticello. He was the oldest son in a family of eight 
 children. His father, Peter Jefferson, was a man of 
 great force of character and of extraordinary physical 
 strength. His mother, Jane Randolph, of Goochland, 
 was descended from an English family of great respecta- 
 bility. Young Jefferson began his classical studies at 
 the age of nine, and at seventeen he entered an advanced 
 class at William and Mary College. On his way thither 
 he formed the acquaintance of Patrick Henry, who was 
 then a bankrupt merchant, but who afterwards became 
 the great orator of the Revolution. At college Jefferson 
 was distinguished by his close application, and devoted, 
 it is said, from twelve to fifteen hours a day to study. 
 He became well versed, we are told, in Latin, Greek, 
 Italian, Krench, and Spanish, making at the same time 
 a respectable proficiency in his mathematical studies. 
 After a five years' course of law under Judge Wythe, 
 he was admitted to the bar in 1767. His success in the 
 legal profession was remarkable ; his fees for the first 
 year amounted to nearly three thousand dollars. In 
 1769 Jefferson commenced his public career as a member 
 of the Virginia House of Burgesses, in which he had, 
 while a student of law, listened to Patrick Henry's great 
 speech on the Stamp Act. 
 
 In 1773 he united with Patrick Henry and other pa- 
 triots in devising the celebrated committee of corre- 
 spondence for disseminating intelligence between the 
 colonies, of which Jefferson was one of the most active 
 and influential members. Elected the next year to a 
 convention to choose delegates to the first Continental 
 Congress at Philadelphia, he drew up for their instruc- 
 tion his famous " Summary View of the Rights of British 
 America," which, though rejected by the convention as 
 being too radical, was subsequently issued by the House 
 of Burgesses, and, after some revision by Edmund Burke, 
 passed through several editions in Great Britain. June 
 I, 1775, Jefferson reported to the Assembly the reply of 
 Virginia to Lord North's conciliatory proposition, and 
 on the 21st of the same month took his seat in the 
 Continental Congress. His reputation as a statesman 
 and accomplished writer at once placed him among the 
 leaders of that renowned body. He served on the most 
 important committees, and, among other labours, drew 
 up the reply of Congress to the above proposal of Lord 
 North, and assisted John Dickinson in preparing, in be- 
 half of the Colonies, a declaration of the cause of taking 
 up arms. The rejection of a final petition to the king 
 having at length destroyed all hope of an honourable 
 reconciliation with the mother-country, Congress, early 
 in the session of 1776, appointed a committee to draw 
 up a declaration of independence, of which Jefferson was 
 made chairman. In this capacity he drafted, at the re- 
 quest of the other members of the committee, (Franklin, 
 Adams, Sherman, and R. R. Livingston,) and reported to 
 Congress, June 28, that great charter of freedom known 
 as the " Declaration of American Independence," which, 
 on July4, was adopted unanimously, and signed by every 
 member present except John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. 
 It may be doubted if in all history there be recorded so 
 important an event, or if a state paper has ever l>een 
 'framed that has exerted, or is destined to exert, so great 
 an influence on the destinies of a large portion of the 
 human race. The Declaration of Independence, says 
 Edward Everett, "is equal to anything ever born on 
 parchment or expressed in the visible signs of thought." 
 -"The heart of Jefferson in writing it," adds Bancroft, 
 
 "and of Congress in adopting it, beat for all humanity.'' 
 In October following, Jefferson resigned his seat in 
 Congress, and also the appointment of commissioner to 
 Fiance, to take part in the deliberations of the Virginia 
 Assembly. A State Constitution had previously been 
 adopted, to which he had furnished the preamble ; and 
 he now applied himself to a radical revision of the laws 
 of the commonwealth, in which he was engaged for two 
 years and a half. Among other reforms, he procured 
 the repeal of the laws of entail, the abolition of pri- 
 mogeniture, and the restoration of the rights of con- 
 science, — reforms which, he believed, would eradicate 
 "every fibre of ancient or future aristocracy." He also 
 originated a complete system of elementary and collegiate 
 education for Virginia. 
 
 In June, 1779, Jefferson succeeded Patrick Henry as 
 Governor of Virginia, and held the office during the 
 most gloomy period of the Revolution. He declined 
 a re-election in 1781, assigning as a reason that at that 
 critical juncture "the public would have more confidence 
 in a military chief." Two days after retiring from office, 
 his estate at Elk Hill was laid waste, and he and his 
 family narrowly escaped capture by the enemy. Jefferson 
 was twice appointed, in conjunction with others, minister* 
 plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great 
 Britain, — viz., in June, 17S1, and in November, 1782, — 
 but was prevented, by circumstances beyond his control, 
 from action in either instance. Returned to Congress 
 in 1783, he reported to that body, from a committee of 
 which he was chairman, the definitive treaty of peace, 
 (concluded, at Paris, September 3, 1783,) acknowledging 
 the independence which had been announced in the De- 
 claration of July 4, 1776. He also p r op o s ed, and carried 
 through Congress at its next session, a bill establishing 
 the present Federal system of coinage, which took the 
 place of the English pounds, shillings, pence, etc., and 
 reported a plan of government for the territory of the 
 United States. In May following, (1784,) Congress ap- 
 pointed him minister-plenipotentiary to act with Frank- 
 lin and Adams in negotiating treaties of commerce and 
 amity with foreign powers; and in 1785 he succeeded 
 Dr. Franklin as resident minister at Paris. It was dining 
 this sojourn in Fran.ce, which was one of the happiest 
 periods of Jefferson's life, that he formed that strong 
 predilection for the French nation over the English 
 which marked so conspicuously his subsequent career. 
 He published, while abroad, his famous "Notes on Vir- 
 ginia," relating to politics, commerce, manufactures, etc., 
 (Paris, 1784,) which at once attracted general attention 
 throughout Europe. Having obtained permission to 
 return to America, he left Paris in September, 1789, and 
 reached Virginia soon after the election of Washington 
 as first President of the United States. The Federal 
 Constitution, then recently adopted, did not meet with 
 his approval. He declared that he did not know whether 
 the good or the bad predominated. Subsequently! how- 
 ever, he thought more favourably of it. In organizing 
 the government, Washington offered him a seat in his 
 cabinet as secretary of state, which Jefferson accepted. 
 
 With Washington's administration began the fierce 
 struggles between the two great political parties of the 
 country, the Republicans and Federalists, — the former 
 under the lead of Jefferson, and the latter under that 
 of Alexander Hamilton, then secretary of the treasury. 
 Jefferson opposed Hamilton's funding system, his United 
 States bank, and other financial measures ; and when the 
 war broke out between England and France he was in 
 favour of aiding the latter with our arms, while Hamilton 
 advocated the observance of a strict neutrality. These 
 differences between the two rival chiefs, which were the 
 occasion of many stormy discussions in the cabinet and 
 of an almost unexampled political excitement throughout 
 the country, culminated shortly after the dismissal of the 
 French minister Genest, (Genet,) and Jefierson re- 
 ins office, December 31, 1793, and retired to Monti 
 At the close of Washington's second term he was again 
 called into public life, as the Presidential Candida 
 the Republican party, John Adams being the noniioi 
 the Federalists. In the ensuing election Adams received 
 the highest number of votes, and was declared I 
 and, according to a rule then in force, Jefferson, being 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s is 5; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
JEFFERSON 
 
 1270 
 
 JEFFRET 
 
 the next highest candidate, became Vice-President. By 
 virtue of this office he took his seat, March 4, 1797, 
 as president of the Senate. The disputes with France, 
 and other difficult questions, rendered the administration 
 one of extraordinary turbulence. At its close, Jefferson 
 and Adams were again the respective candidates of the 
 Republican and Federal parties. In this election the Re- 
 publicans triumphed, but cast an equal number of votes 
 for Jefferson and Aaron Burr, — seventy-three : Adams 
 received but sixty-five. As it was necessary that the 
 person chosen to the first office should have a plurality 
 of votes, the election, in these circumstances, devolved 
 upon the House of Representatives, which, on its thirty- 
 sixth ballot, declared Jefferson President and Burr Vice- 
 President, their terms of office to commence March 4, 
 1801. Jefferson was re-elected in 1804 by an electoral vote 
 of one hundred and forty-eight to twenty-eight, and in 
 1809 retired voluntarily from office, after a prosperous ad- 
 ministration of eight years. Among the important events 
 that occurred during his term of office were the purchase 
 of Louisiana, (1803,) the brilliant victories of our fleets in 
 the Mediterranean, and peace with Morocco and Tripoli, 
 in 1803, Lewis and Clark's overland exploring expedi- 
 tion to the Pacific, sent out by the President in 1804, the 
 arrest and trial of Aaron Burr for treason, 1807, and the 
 attack, the same year, of the British war-frigate Leopard 
 on the American frigate Chesapeake, which led to Jeffer- 
 son's embargo act and ultimately to the second war with 
 Great Britain. Washington and Adams had opened Con- 
 gress with a speech; but Jefferson preferred a written 
 message, as being more democratic. He also initiated 
 the policy of removing incumbents from office on the 
 grounds of a difference in political opinion. After par- 
 ticipating in the inauguration of his friend and successor, 
 James Madison, Jefferson retired to Monticello, where 
 he passed the remainder of his life in attending to his 
 private affairs, receiving the numerous calls of friends 
 and strangers, and in the exercise of a most liberal hos- 
 pitality. In 1819 he took the chief part in founding the 
 University of Virginia, at Charlottesville, near Monti- 
 cello, and acted as its rector till his death, which occurred 
 on the same day with that of John Adams, July 4, 1826, 
 — the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence. The following epitaph, written by himself, is 
 inscribed on his tombstone, a small granite obelisk, at 
 Monticello : " Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author 
 of the Declaration of Independence, of the Statute of 
 Virginia for Religious Freedom, and Father of the Uni- 
 versity of Virginia." As the author of the Declaration of 
 Independence and the founder of the Republican (Demo- 
 cratic) party, Jefferson has probably exerted a greater 
 influence on the institutions of this country than any other 
 American except Washington. He was regarded as the 
 very embodiment of democracy. All titles of honour 
 —even that of Mr. — were distasteful to him. Dressed 
 in the plainest apparel, he was as accessible to the 
 yeoman in his every-day garments as to a foreign dig- 
 nitary of state. In his intercourse with others he was 
 distinguished for his affability. His conversation was 
 fluent, imaginative, various, and eloquent. " In Europe," 
 wrote the Due de Liancourt, "he would hold a distin- 
 guished rank among men of letters." His adroitness in 
 politics and in the management of men has rarely been 
 surpassed. In religion he was what is denominated a 
 free-thinker. "His instincts," says Bancroft, "all in- 
 clined him to trace every fact to a general law, and to 
 put faith in ideal truth." Slavery he considered a moral 
 and political evil, and declared in reference to it that he 
 "trembled for his country when he remembered that 
 God is just." His extreme views of State rights in 
 later life were very much modified, and he owned that 
 it was necessary for the general government sometimes 
 "to show its teeth." 
 
 In his prime, Jefferson was six feet two and a half 
 inches in height, with a sinewy, well-developed frame, 
 angular face, but amiable countenance, and ruddy com- 
 plexion delicately fair. He had deep-set, light-hazel eyes, 
 and hair of a reddish chestnut colour, very fine. He 
 was married in 1772 to Mrs. Martha Skeljon, daughter 
 of John Wales, a distinguished Virginia lawyer. She 
 brought him a large dowry in lands and slaves, about 
 
 equal in value to his own property ; but his liberality 
 and generous living left him insolvent at his death. One 
 daughter and ten grandchildren survived him. "The 
 Memoirs, Correspondence, and Private Papers of Thomas 
 Jefferson," in 4 vols. 8vo, edited by his grandson, Thomas 
 Jefferson Randolph, was published at Charlottesville in 
 1829, and republished in London and Boston the same 
 year, and in New York in 1830. In 1848 his manuscripts 
 were purchased by Congress, and published under the 
 title of "The Writings of Thomas Jefferson," in 9 vols. 
 Svo, 1853-55. H' s "Manual of Parliamentary Practice" 
 is still in use among legislative bodies in this country. 
 
 See, in addition to the works already mentioned, Henry S. Ran- 
 dall, " Life oJ'T. Jefferson," 3 vols., 1S5S ; George Tucker, " Life 
 of Thomas Jefferson." 1836: B. L. Rayner, " Life of Thomas Jef- 
 ferson," 1S34; Theodore Dwicht, "Character of T. Jefferson," 
 1830; W. Linn, " Life of T. Jefferson," 1835; Nicholas Hiddle, 
 "Eulogy on T. Jefferson," 1S27; Griswoi.d, "Prose Writers of 
 America;" Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," 
 vol. i. ; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S30, and October, 1837; 
 "North American Review" for April, 1830, and January, 1^35; 
 "Westminster Review" for October, 1830; and an excellent article 
 on Jefferson in the "New American Cyclopaedia," (by John E. 
 Cooke.) 
 
 Jeffery or Jeffrey, (John,) an English divine, born 
 at Ipswich in 1647. He was chosen rector of Kirton 
 and Falkenhani, in Suffolk, in 1687, and was appointed 
 Archdeacon of Norwich in 1694. He published the 
 religious works of Sir Thomas Browne. Dr. Jeffrey was 
 strongly opposed to religious controversy. Died in 1720. 
 
 See " Life of Jeffery," prefixed to his " Sermons." 
 
 Jeffery or Jeffrey, (Thomas,) an English dissent- 
 ing minister, born at Exeter about the year 1700. He 
 was the author of several religious works, in which he 
 displayed great ability. Of these we may mention "The 
 True Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion," 
 and "The Divinity of Christ proved from Holy Scrip- 
 ture." Died about 1728. 
 
 Jeffrey, (Francis,) Lord, a distinguished Scottish 
 critic and essayist, born in Edinburgh on the 23d of Oc- 
 tober, 1773. He was sent to the University of Glasgow 
 in 1787, and removed in 1791 to Queen's College, Ox- 
 ford, where he remained but a few months. In 1794 he 
 was admitted an advocate to the Scottish bar, but for 
 several years obtained scarcely any practice. About 
 this time he became a member of the Speculative Soci- 
 ety of Edinburgh, where he formed the acquaintance of 
 several young men afterwards eminent in the literary 
 and political world. Among these were Sydney Smith 
 and Henry (afterwards Lord) Brougham, with whom he 
 projected the "Edinburgh Review," the first number 
 of which was issued in October, 1802. Three numbers 
 were edited by Smith ; but upon his removal to London 
 the entire charge devolved upon Jeffrey, who held the 
 position of editor for the ensuing twenty-six years. It 
 was successful from the first, and in a short time the 
 circulation had increased to about nine thousand, and 
 in 1813 it considerably exceeded twelve thousand. As 
 Jeffrey himself expressed it, "it stood on two legs, the 
 one being the criticism of current literature, the othei 
 being Whig politics." The commencement of the "Ed- 
 inburgh Review" formed a new era in English literature, 
 and completely changed the style of the popular maga- 
 zines. Jeffrey was the principal contributor; and his 
 articles in both politics and criticism attracted great atten- 
 tion. Scott, Byron, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Moore, and 
 other distinguished poets of that period were severely — 
 sometimes unjustly — criticised ; but most of them after- 
 wards became warm friends of the great reviewer. About 
 1802 he married his second-cousin, Catherine Wilson, 
 who died in 1805. In 1813 he married an American lady 
 in New York, named Charlotte Wilkes. Though Jeffrey 
 devoted so much of his time to editorial labours, his 
 practice as a lawyer greatly increased. In rapidity, flu- 
 ency, and eloquence he had no equal at the Scottish bar. 
 Once, while conducting the prosecution of a libel-suit 
 at Glasgow, he poured forth such a torrent of words that 
 the opposing counsel declared " that, by calculation with ' 
 his watch, that man had actually spoken the English 
 language twice over in three hours." In 1820 he was 
 elected lord rector of the University of Glasgow. Nine 
 years later he became dean of the faculty of advocates, 
 and thereupon resigned the editorial chair of the* 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; &, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, 6, 5, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
JEFFRETS 
 
 1 271 JELAL-ED-DEEN-ROOMEE 
 
 "Edinburgh Review." In 1830 he was elected to the 
 first Parliament of William IV. He continued in Par- 
 liament four years, and held the office of lord advocate 
 of Scotland under the administration of Grey. He re- 
 ceived the appointment to a Scottish judgeship in 1S34, 
 with the honorary title of Lord. As a Judge he was 
 highly esteemed for his conscientiousness and his busi- 
 ;ualitications. Lord Jeffrey's contributions to the 
 " Edinburgh Review" extend over a period of nearly 
 fifty years, and amount to over three hundred articles. 
 The greater part of these were published, in 4 vols., in 
 1S43. Died in January, 185a 
 
 See Lord Cockburn, "Life of Lord Jeffrey," 2 vols., 1852; 
 
 ALUBONB, " Dictionary of Authors ;" '* London Quarterly Review" 
 
 for July, is;j; " Blackwood^ Magaxiae" fur September and October, 
 
 i's Magazine" for -May, 1852; "North British Review" 
 
 for May. rS5o, and August, 1S52. For an able, though somewhat 
 
 Severe, review trf Jeffrey's character as a critic, see article entitled 
 
 h Critics," published in the second volume of Whipple's 
 
 ys aud Reviews," New York, 1S49: (it first appeared in the 
 
 "North American Review" for October, 1845.) 
 
 Jeffreys, (I .ord George,) Baron Wem, the infamous 
 minion of James II., was born at Acton, in Denbighshire, 
 and studied law at the Middle Temple. At first he pro- 
 fessed to be a Roundhead, and was chosen recorder of 
 London, and city judge. During his practice at the Old 
 Bailey bar he had acquired a boundless command of the 
 language in which the depraved express hatred and con- 
 tempt ; and on the bench he hesitated not to pour forth 
 torrents of oaths, curses, and vituperative epithets on 
 attorneys, jurymen, witnesses, and prisoners. Age and 
 merit were treated in the same manner ; for when Baxter 
 was brought before him, on a charge of nonconformity, 
 he railed in such a manner at that eminent divine and 
 his counsel that it was impossible to obtain a fair trial. 
 His voice and manners were always disagreeable; but 
 these, which he considered natural advantages, he had 
 improved to such a degree that in his paroxysms of rage 
 few could hear him unmoved. His eye had a terrible 
 fascination for the prisoner on whom it was fixed. He 
 appeared to delight in misery merely for its own sake. 
 Such was the man who became the court favourite of 
 James and chief justice of England. Jeffreys, perceiving 
 that he had obtained all that could be expected from 
 his old friends, sought the favour of the court. He 
 received great attention from the Duke of York ; but 
 the king regarded him with contempt and disgust. Not- 
 withstanding these views, however, Jeffreys was soon 
 made chief justice of the king's bench. Upon James's 
 accession to the throne he was raised to the peerage, 
 with the title of Baron Wem, and was subsequently 
 made lord high chancellor of England. He gained great 
 notoriety during the trials of those who had participated 
 in the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth. Pen can 
 scarcely portray the atrocities committed under his juris- 
 diction. He delighted in torturing, burning, hanging, 
 and beheading men, women, and children, after the 
 merest shams of trials. All these actions appeared to 
 give great satisfaction to his sovereign. Yet his decisions 
 are said to have been generally just and impartial where 
 political purposes were not to be subserved. When the 
 Prince of Orange came to England, the lord chancellor 
 attempted to escape to the continent; but as he was 
 in a l>eer-house at Wapping, dressed as a sailor, he 
 was discovered by an attorney whom he had formerly 
 abused. This person gave the information to the popu- 
 lace, who immediately seized Jeffreys and carried him 
 before the mayor, from whence he was sent to the 
 Lords. By them he was committed to the Tower, where 
 he died in 1689, from the effects of his intemperance and 
 misfortunes. 
 
 See Woolrvch, " Memoirs of the Life of G. Jeffreys," 1S27 : 
 Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," 1856; M/c- 
 AUl.AY, " History of England," vols. i. and ii. 
 
 Jeffreys, (Geokc.k,) an English poet, born in North- 
 amptonshire in 1678. He studied at Cambridge, and 
 was admitted to the bar, but never practised. Among 
 his productions were several tragedies, and an oratorio, 
 entitled "The Triumph of Truth." Died in 1755. 
 
 See Baker, " Biogniphia Drainatka." 
 
 Jeffries, jeffrez, (Tons.) M.D., an American physi- 
 cian, born in Uostonin 1744. He graduated at Harvard 
 
 in 1763, and took his medical degree at Edinburgh. In 
 the Revolution he sided with the British, and became 
 surgeon-major to the royal army in America. In 17S0 
 he resumed his profession in London. While making 
 some investigations in atmospheric temperature, in 1785, 
 he crossed from England to France in a balloon. This 
 was the first successful experiment in aeronautics on 
 an extensive scale. He returned to Boston in 1789, 
 and died in 1819. 
 
 Jehan-Geer or Jahangir, je-hln'geer', written also 
 Djahanguir, Djehauguire, Djahaii G-byr, and 
 Dschehangir, {i.e. the "Conqueror of the World,") 
 one of the Mogul emperors of Hindostan, succeeded his 
 father, the great Akbar, in 1605. Jehangeer left Memoirs 
 of his own life. He died in 1627. He inherited nothing 
 of the ability of his father. It was during the reign of 
 this emperor that the celebrated embassy of Sir Thomas 
 Roe arrived from England at the court of Delhi. 
 
 See Collin de Bar, "Histoire dp Hade;" "London Quarterly 
 Review" for March, 1834. 
 
 Je-ho'a-llaz, [Heb.inXlST; Fr. Joacuaz, zho'i'kSz',] 
 son of Jeliu, ascended the throne of Israel 856 B.C., and 
 reigned seventeen years. 
 
 See II. Kings xiii. 1-10. 
 
 Jehoahaz, also called Shallum, succeeded his father 
 Josiah on the throne of Judah, and reigned three months. 
 Died about 610 B.C. 
 
 See II. Chronicles xxxvi. 1-4. 
 
 Jehoash. See Joash. 
 
 Je-hoi'a-kim, [Heb. D'p'lTV ; Fr. Joachim, zho'a"'- 
 kaN ', ] wliose name was changed by Pharaoh-Necho 
 from Eliakim, succeeded to the throne of Judah 608 B.C., 
 and reigned eleven years. 
 
 See II. Chronicles xxxvi. 4-g. 
 
 Je-hoi'a-kin or Jec-o-iii'ah was the son of the pre- 
 ceding, whom he succeeded as King of Judah in 597 B.C., 
 and reigned three months. 
 
 See II. Kings xxiv. ; II. Chronicles xxxvi. 8-10. 
 
 Je-ho'ram or Jo'ram, [Heb. Dlin - ,] King of Israel, 
 son of Ahab, succeeded to the throne 896 B.C. He was 
 killed in battle by Jehu in 884 B.C. 
 
 See 1 1. Kings i.-x. 
 
 Jehoram or Joram, son of Jehoshaphat, ascended 
 the throne of Judah 893 or 892 B.C. Died in 885 or 884. 
 
 See II. Kings viil. 15-25; II. Chronicles xxi. 
 
 Je-hosh'a-phat, [Heb. D3Bnrr ; Gr. 'Iurraciar; Fr. 
 Josaphat, zno'zi'fit',] King of Judah, a son of Asi, was 
 bom about 950 B.C. He began to reign in 914, formed 
 an alliance with Ahab, King of Israel, and reigned 
 twenty-five years. He had a high reputation for piety 
 and justice. 
 
 See II. Chronicles xvii.-xxii. 
 
 Je'hu, [Heb. X1H',] King of Israel, was an officer in 
 the army of King Jehoram, when he was anointed king 
 by a young prophet sent by Elisha in 884 B.C. He killed 
 Jehoram, and reigned about twenty-eight yeai*. 
 
 See II. Kings ix. and x. 
 
 Jek'jHl, (Sir JOSEPH,) a distinguished lawyer and 
 statesman, born in Nottinghamshire in 1664. He was 
 a prominent member of the Whig party during the reign 
 of Queen Anne, and was knighted upon the accession 
 of George I. lie was afterwards master of the rolls, and 
 privy councillor. Died in 1738. 
 
 Jekyll, (Joseph,) M.P., a witty English barrister, 
 born about 1752, was distinguished by his talent for 
 epigram and repartee. lie became solicitor-general to 
 the Prince of Wales in 1805. Died in 1837. 
 
 Jelal-ed-Deen or Djelal-Eddin, jeh-lll' ed-deen', 
 (i.e. the " Splendour (or Glorv) of Religion,") written also 
 Jalal-ed-Deen and Djalal-Eddin, Kingot "Khorasmia, 
 who succeeded his father, Ala-ed-l)een, in 1218, was re- 
 nowned for his military ability and enterprise. He fought 
 numerous battles against Jengis Khan with various suc- 
 It is said that he afterwards abandoned himself to 
 indolence and pleasure, and when a Mongol army in- 
 vaded his capital he tied, and was killed, in 1231. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographic C.eneYale." 
 
 Jelal-ed-Deen-Roomee, (Jelal-ed-Din-Rflml or 
 Djelal-ed-dyn-Roumy,) jeh-lal'cd-cleen-roo'mec, one 
 of the most eminent Persian poets, born at Btilkh or 
 Balkh, in Khorassan, about 1200. His father was a 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as t; th as in this. (JJ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JELLACHICH 
 
 1272 
 
 JENNENS 
 
 noted doctor and preacher of the Soofee sect, who set- 
 tled at Iconium, (Konieh,) in Asia Minor, (called in Arabic 
 and Persian Room, because it was part of the empire 
 of Rome.) At his death, in 1233, Jelal-ed-Deen became 
 the chief of the Soofees. His " Mes'newee" ("Mesnewi") 
 or " Mesnevee," (i.e. poem with rhyming couplets,) less 
 correctly written " Metsnewee" or " Metsnevi," is re- 
 garded as an excellent model of the mystical style. 
 '•This precious pearl of the- ocean of mysticism departed 
 from this fragile world" in 1272. 
 
 Jellachich von Buzini, von, fon yel'la-Kiit' fon 
 boot'sim, (Kranz,) BaRON, an Austrian general, born in 
 1746, fought with distinction in the principal campaigns 
 of the French Revolution, and rose to be lieutenant- 
 field-marshal in 1800. Died in 1810. 
 
 Jellachich von Buzini, von, (Joseph,) Ban of Cro- 
 atia, son of the preceding, was born at Peterwardein in 
 iSot. In the revolution of 1848 he was appointed Ban, 
 or commander-in-chief, of the Croats, and had the prin- 
 cipal share in the victory of Schwechat, near Vienna, 
 over the Hungarians. He gained several advantages 
 over General Bern, but was at length defeated, (1849,) and 
 forced to retreat with considerable loss. Died in 1859. 
 
 See Bai.leydier, " Histoire de la Guerre tie Hongrie." 
 
 Jellinek, yel'le-nek', (Adolph,) a German philologist, 
 of Jewish extraction, born in Moravia in 1820, has written 
 on the Cabala and on Oriental philology. 
 
 See Jost, " Adolplie Jellinek et la Kabbale," 1852. 
 
 Jem or Djem, jem, sometimes called Zizim, a Turkish 
 prince, burn in 1459, was a son of Mahomet II., and 
 younger brother of Bayazeed, (Bajazet.) At the death of 
 his father he aspired to sovereign power, but was de- 
 feated in battle by Bayazeed, (1481.) Jem became an exile, 
 passed some years in France, and died in Italy in 1495. 
 
 Jemlah or Djemlah, jem'la, [Hindoo pron. jum'ia.,1 
 (Mohammed, mo-ham'med,) called AMEER (or Emir) 
 AL Omra, (i.e. "Prince of the Nobles,") a famous states- 
 man and general, born near Ispahan. In 1652 he entered 
 the service of Aurung-Zel), and was raised to the rank ot 
 first vizier of the Mogul empire. Having been appointed 
 Viceroy of Bengal, he commanded in 1659 an expedition 
 against Assam, in which he displayed great talents and 
 prudence. Died in 1665. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Jemsheed or Jemshid, jem-sheed', written also 
 Djemchyd, Dschemschid, and Jamshid, an ancient 
 Persian king, supposed to have ascended the throne 
 about 800 B.C. He greatly improved and embellished 
 the city of Istakhar, or Persepolis, the ruins of which are 
 now known by the name of Chilminar, (" Forty Pillars.") 
 Tradition ascribes to him the introduction of the solar 
 year among the Persians, and the invention of tents. He 
 was dethroned by Zohak, an Arabian. 
 
 See Atkinson, "Abridgment of the shah Nameh of Firdausi;" 
 D'Hskbblot, " Bibliotheque Orientate.*' 
 
 Jemslftd or Jemschid. See Jimsiii.ii>. 
 
 Jengis Khan, jen'gis Kan, (written also Djenguiz 
 Khan, Dschengis Chan, Tchenguyz Khan, Cliingis 
 Khan, and in various other modes,*) a celebrated Tartar 
 conqueror, born in 1 164, was the son of a Mongolian chief. 
 Having subdued a number of Mongol and Tartar tribes, 
 he caused himself to be proclaimed khan of the nation, 
 and about 1210 invaded China, took Peking, (1215,) an'd 
 in a few years gained possession of the northern prov- 
 inces. In 1218 he marched against Mohammed Koteb- 
 ed-I)cen, King of Khorasmia, whom he defeated, and 
 afterwards destroyed Bokhara, Samarcand, and other 
 cities. Having subjected the whole of Persia, he gained 
 a victory over the King of Tangoot, and was proceeding 
 towards the south of China, when he died in 1227, leaving 
 the principal part of his empire to his son Oktai. Jengis 
 Khan is said to have caused the destruction of five mil- 
 lions of human beings. He gave a code of laws, which 
 is still called by his name. 
 
 See De Guignes, "Histoire geneVale des Huns," etc. ; Petis 
 de r.A Cttoix, "Histoire du grand Genghizcan ;" A. Kemusat, 
 "NouvclUs Melanges Asiatiques;" Vun Hammek-Purgstai.i., 
 " Geschichte der Goldenen Horde in Kiptschak," 1840; Antoine 
 GaI'BIL, "Histoire de Gentchiscan," 1730; Abooi.feda, " Annales 
 Moslemici ;" Karamzin, "Histoire de Uussie." 
 
 * This name is written in more than twenty different modes, not 
 Counting such forms (like Gentchiscan) as are manifest errors. 
 
 Jenichen or Ienichen, ya'ne-Ken, (Gottlob Au- 
 gust,) a German jurist and bibliographer, born at Leipsic 
 in 1709; died in 1750. 
 
 Jenisch, von, fon ya'nish, (Bernhard,) Baron, a 
 German Orientalist, born at Vienna in 1743, became 
 in 1772 keeper of the Imperial Library. He pub- 
 lished "Persian Anthology," ("Anthologia Persica," 
 1778,) and a "History of the Early Kings of Persia 
 after the Establishment of the Mohammedan Religion," 
 (" Historia priorum Regum Persarum post firmatum in 
 Regno Islamismum ex Mohamede Mirkhond," 1792.) 
 Died in 1S07. 
 
 Jenischius, yi-nis'Ke-us, (Paul,) a Dutch or Flemish 
 writer, born at Antwerp in 1558. He published "Thea- 
 trum Animarum." Died in 1647. 
 
 Jenk'in, (Robert,) an English divine, born in the 
 isle of Thanet in 1656. He was educated at Can. bridge, 
 and received several preferments; but, refusing to take 
 the oaths of allegiance to William and Mary, he was 
 deprived of them all. He wrote "The Reasonableness 
 of the Christian Religion," (1696,) and several other 
 works. Died in 1727. 
 
 Jenkin or Jenk'yn, (William,) an English Puritan 
 minister, born at Sudbury in 1612. He preached many 
 years in London, and published an " Exposition of the 
 Epistle of Jude," (1652,) which is called an excellent 
 work. His ministry was highly commended by Baxter. 
 He died in Newgate prison in 1685. 
 
 See J. Sherman, " Memoir of William Jenkin," 1839. 
 
 JSnk'ins, (Albert G.,) an American general, born 
 in Cabell county, Virginia, about 1830. He represented 
 a district of Virginia in Congress, 1857—61. He served 
 under General Lee at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, and 
 was killed at the battle of the Wilderness, May 5, 1864. 
 
 Jgnk'ins, (David,) a Welsh judge, was born in Gla- 
 morganshire in 1586. After the commencement of the 
 civil war he condemned to death several persons who 
 had fought against the king. He was taken prisoner by 
 the Parliamentary forces, and confined in the Tower, in 
 1645. "Having been brought before the House of Com- 
 mons on a charge of high treason, he refused to kneel, 
 and called the House "a den of thieves." He was fined 
 ^1000, and imprisoned in Newgate. He was released 
 about 1660. He wrote several legal works. Died in 1667. 
 
 See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses." 
 
 JSnk'ins, (Henry,) an Englishman, celebrated for 
 his longevity, born in Yorkshire in 1501 ; died in 1670. 
 
 Jenkins, (John,) an English musician and composer, 
 born at Maidstone in 1592; died in 1678. 
 
 Jenkins, (John S.,) an American biographer of the 
 present century. He published, besides other works, 
 " Lives of the Governors of the State of New York," a 
 " Life of Silas Wright," and a " Life of Andrew Jack- 
 son," (1847.) 
 
 Jenkins, (Sir Leoline,) a British civilian and states- 
 man, born in Glamorganshire in 1623. He fought on the 
 king's side in the civil war, and on the death of Charles 
 became tutor to several families in Wales. He was sub- 
 sequently obliged by Parliament to leave the country. 
 After the restoration he was chosen principal of Jesus 
 College, Cambridge. In 1665 he was appointed judge 
 in the court of admiralty, and in 1672 ambassador to 
 Holland. On his return he became secretary of stale. 
 He was twice chosen member of Parliament for the 
 University of Oxford. His letters and manuscripts, con- 
 taining valuable diplomatic information, were published, 
 in 2 vols., in 1724. Died in 1685. 
 
 See Wynne, " Life of Sir L. Jenkins," 1724 ; " Biographia Bri- 
 tannica. " 
 
 Jgnk'in-son, (Anthony,) an Englishman, travelled 
 in Russia and Persia about 1560. His Adventures were 
 published by Hakluyt and Purchas. 
 
 Jenkinson, (Charles.) See Liverpool, Earl of. 
 
 Jenkinson, (Robert.) See Liverpool, Earl of. 
 
 Jenks, (Benjamin,) an English religious writer, born 
 in 1646, was curate of Kenley and Harley. He wrote 
 " Prayers and Offices of Devotion," (1697,) and " Medi- 
 tation's on Important Subjects," (1701.) Died in 1724. 
 
 Jen'nens, (Charles,) a rich and vain Englishman, 
 called "Solyman the Magnificent." He composed or 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
JENNER 
 
 1273 
 
 JEROME 
 
 •elected the words of some of Handel's oratorios, and 
 edited several plays of Shakspeare. Died in 1773. 
 
 Jgn'ner, (EDWARD,) M.D., celebrated for having in- 
 troduced the practice of vaccination, was born at licrkc- 
 ley, in Gloucestershire, England, in 1749. He studied 
 surgery at Sodbury, and afterwards went to London, 
 where he attended the lectures of the celebrated John 
 Hunter, with whom he formed an intimate friendship. 
 He commenced practice at Berkeley, and obtained a 
 high reputation for skill. His attention was first called 
 to the subject of vaccination by hearing a countrywoman 
 remark that she could not take the smallpox, because sin- 
 had had the cow-pox. Upon investigating the subject, 
 he ascertained that milkers frequently caught a disease 
 from an eruption on the cow's udder, and that to such per- 
 sons it was impossible to communicate the smallpox by 
 inoculation. Tenner related the circumstance to several 
 eminent men in the profession ; but they treated it with 
 ridicule. By further experiments he clearly demonstrated 
 the fact that from one of the several eruptions to which 
 cows were subject, the true cow-pox, as he termed it, 
 could be propagated to the human body, and then from 
 one person to another, and that this was a preventive of 
 the smallpox. After nearly twenty years of experiments, 
 he published " An Enquiry into the Causes and Effects 
 of the Variola; Vaccina;," (1798;) and soon after more 
 than seventy physicians and surgeons signed a declara- 
 tion of their entire confidence in the truth of Tenner's 
 theory. He was rewarded by Parliament for his dis- 
 covery by a present of j£io,ooo in 1802, and a grant of 
 ,£20,000 in 1807. He also received marks of distinction 
 from the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia. 
 Died in 1S23. 
 
 See Dr. John Bakon, "Life of Dr. Jenner." 1827; Dr. Valen- 
 tin, " Notice historique surleDocleur Jenner," Nancy, 1824; Wan- 
 lop, "Hulde aan L. Jenner," Rotterdam, 1812; J. A. Dupau, 
 41 Notice historique sur le Dr. E. Jenner," 1S24; " Nouvelie Bio- 
 graphic Generate ;" "Encyclopaedia Brilannica." 
 
 Jenner, (William,) F.R.S., an English physician, 
 born at Chatham in 1815, graduated in London in 1844. 
 He became professor of anatomy in University College 
 in 1848, and professor of clinical medicine there in 1857. 
 He was appointed physician-in-ordinary to the queen in 
 1862, and physician-in-ordinary to the Prince of Wales 
 in 1863. 
 
 JSn'nings, (David,) a learned dissenting minister, 
 in Leicestershire, England, in 1691. He was ap- 
 pointed to an Independent church in Wapping, where 
 he preached about forty years. He wrote "An Appeal 
 to Reason and Common Sense for the Truth of the 
 Holy Scriptures," "An Introduction to the Knowledge 
 of Medals," (1763,) and a "Treatise on Jewish Antiqui- 
 11766, often reprinted.) Died in 1762. 
 
 Jennings, (Henry Constantink,) an English an- 
 tiquary and virtuoso, born at Shiplake, Oxfordshire, in 
 1731. He had a passion for the collection of medals, 
 antiquities, and works of art, by the purchase of which 
 he ruined his fortune. Died in 1819. 
 
 Jennings, (Sarah.) See Marlborough, Duchess 
 
 OR 
 
 Jeu'pur, (ALFRED,) an English divine and scholar, 
 was rector of Kittisford, in Somersetshire. He pub- 
 lished in 1830 a "Translation of Isaiah, with Notes," 
 (2 vols.) 
 
 Jenson, (Nicholas.) See Janson. 
 
 Jeui'yns, (Soamf,) a distinguished writer and politi- 
 cian, bom in London in 1704, was educated at Cam- 
 bridge. At the age of twenty he married a young lady 
 of a large fortune, from whom he soon after separated. 
 He was several times elected to Parliament, and in 1755 
 made a lord of trade. In politics he was a Tory. 
 His writings are conspicuous for elegance of style, wit, 
 and discrimination. Among them we may mention "A 
 Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin ot Evil." (1757,) 
 "View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Reli- 
 gion," (1776,) a work which attracted great attention, 
 and several poetical productions. Died in 1787. 
 
 See C. Nklson Cole. " Life el -." '7«°: Johnson 
 
 and Chalmebs, "Lives of the English fuels;" " Retrospective 
 Review," vol. ii.. 1820. 
 
 Jeph'son, (Kohkrt,) a dramatic writer, and captain in 
 the English army, was born in Ireland in 1736. He wrote, 
 
 besides other works, the tragedies of "Braganza,"( 1775,) 
 and "The Count of Narbonne," which were successful, 
 and a poem entitled "Roman Portraits," (1797.) He 
 was master of the horse under twelve successive viceroys 
 of Ireland. Died in 1803. 
 
 Jeph'thah, [Heb. rijTfl\] a judge of Israel, about 
 1 200 u.c. 
 
 See Judges xi. and xii. 
 
 Jer'dan, (William,) a writer and critic, born at 
 Kelso, in Scotland, in 1782. He formed a connection 
 about 1805 with a newspaper in London called the 
 "Aurora," and in 1817 established the "Literary Ga- 
 zette," which he edited in an able manner until 1850. 
 At this time he was granted a pension by government 
 of one hundred guineas per annum. He published an 
 interesting work, entitled "Men I have known," (1866.) 
 Died in 1869. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," 4 vols., 1852-53. 
 Jereer, Jerir, or Djerir, jfh-reeR', fin German, 
 DsCHERlR,] or, more fully, Jereer-Ibn-Ateeyah-At- 
 temeemee, (Atteniimi,) Ib'n a'tee'yah at-te-mce'mee, 
 surnamed AbOO- (A11O-) Hazraii, (a'boo haz'ia,) a 
 celebrated Arabian poet, who lived at Bassora, (Basra,) 
 whence he was called El-Basree, (or -BasrV.) He 
 excelled in almost every kind of poetry, in panegyric, 
 and in amatory pieces, but was most distinguished for 
 his wit and satiric powers. He died about 730 (or, 
 according to some authorities, about 700) A.n. 
 
 See article "Djerir" in the " Nouvelie Biographie G&Srale." 
 J6r-e-mi'ah,|Heb.n , OTor lrVDT ; Lat. Jerkmi'as j 
 Fr. Jeremie,' zha'ra'me'; Ger. Jf.remias, ya-ri-mee'as ; 
 It. Geremia, ja-ra-mee'a,] a prophet of Judah, who 
 lived about 600 B.C., was one of the four great prophets 
 of the Bible. He was the author of the greater part of 
 the book in the Old Testament which bears his name, 
 and of all the book of Lamentations, lie is called 
 lEREMT in the New Testament. (Matthew xxvii. 9.) 
 Died about 580 B.C. 
 
 Jeremiah was Patriarch of Constantinople in 1572. 
 The Lutherans sent him a copy of the Confession of 
 Augsburg, hoping to obtain his approval of it; but, on 
 the contrary, he condemned it in many of his writings. 
 Jeremie. See Jeremiah. 
 
 Jeremie, jer'e-me, (Sir John,) an eloquent lawyer, 
 born in Guernsey in 1795, at the age of twenty was 
 admitted to the bar. In 1824 he was appointed chief 
 justice of Saint Lucia, in the West Indies. When he first 
 went to that island he was opposed to the abolitionists; 
 but, improving the opportunities which he possessed 
 of investigating the subject of slavery, he formed very 
 different views. During the time that he held office in 
 Saint Lucia he ably enforced the laws for the ameliora- 
 tion of the condition of the slaves. On his return to 
 England, in 1831, he published "Four Essays on Colonial 
 Slavery." In 1836 he became justice of the supreme 
 court of Ceylon, and four years later Governor and Cap- 
 tain-General of Sierra Leone, where he died in 1841. 
 He was the author of a "Letter on Negro Emancipation 
 and African Civilization." 
 Jerlr. See Jekkku. 
 
 Jermolov, (Alexis Petrovitch.) See Ykrmolof. 
 Jerningham,jer'ning-am, (EDWARD,) an English poet, 
 born in 1 727. Of his productions we may cite "The 
 Rise and Fall of Scandinavian Poetry," "Essay on the 
 Mild Tcnour of Christianity," and "The Shakspeare 
 Gallery," which was praised by Edmund Burke. Died 
 in 1812. 
 
 Jgr-o-bo'am [Heb. DjOV] I., first King of Israel, 
 was elected king by the ten tribes who had revolted 
 from Rehoboatn, the son of Solomon, 975 B.C. Died 
 about 954 B.C. 
 
 See I. Kings xi. to xv. ; II. Chronicles ix. to xiv. 
 Jeroboam IL, a son of Joash, became King of Israel 
 in 834 or S25 B.C., and reigned forty-one J 
 I I. Kings xii. 
 Jerome, jc-rom'or je/'om, [Lat. Hn ; Fr. 
 
 JEHO.MI, zhi'roin'; Ger. Ill; 'mm; ll. ' 
 
 il'l-mo ; Sp. Gkronimo, Ha-ron'c-mo,] S aim', 
 or, more fully,Eu-se'bI-usHi-er-on'y-rnus So-phro'- 
 nl-ua, one of the most learned of the Lai in Fathers of 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.giittural; N, muni; R, trilled; 5 as *; t h as in this. (j^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JEROME 
 
 1Z74 
 
 JESSENIUS 
 
 the Church, was born at Stridon, in Dalmatia or in Pan- 
 nonia, about 340 a.d. After receiving his education at 
 Rome, he visited Gaul, where he collected a valuable 
 library. He next travelled through Thrace, Pontus, and 
 Cappadocia, and finally fixed his residence in Syria. He 
 subsequently went to Jerusalem to study Hebrew. About 
 382 he returned to Rome, and became secretary to Pope 
 Damasus. Upon the death of that pontiff he removed 
 to a monastery at Bethlehem, where he died in 420 a.d. 
 A large portion of his writings were of a controversial 
 character, exhibiting great learning, eloquence, and in- 
 genuity, though too often betraying bigotry, passion, and 
 bitterness. But the works by which he will ever be 
 remembered and honoured are a treatise on the " Lives 
 and Writings of the Elder Christian Fathers," " Com- 
 mentaries on the Prophetical Books of the Old Testa- 
 ment, the Gospel of Saint Matthew, and several of the 
 Epistles of Saint Paul," and a translation of the Old and 
 New Testaments into Latin, known in the Romish 
 Church as the " Vulgate." 
 
 See Erasmus, "Vita Doctoris Hieronymi," Rale, 1519 : Schrokh, 
 "Kirchengeschichte," vol. xi. ; Martianay, "Vie de Saint-Jerome," 
 1706: F. Z. Coi.i-ombet, "Histoire de Saint- Jerome," 1S44; Jose 
 DE Siguenza, " Vida de San Geronimo," Madrid, 1595 ; Sebastiano 
 Doi.ci," Maximus Hieronymus Vit^esuae Scriptor,"etc, 175S ; Ville- 
 main, "Tableau de l'Eloquence chretienne au quatrieme Siecte," 
 1857; Vincenzo Romani, "Compendio storico delia Vita e degli 
 Scvitti di S. Girolamo," 2 vols., 1844; Ersch und Gruber, " Allge- 
 meine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Jerome of Santa Ft, (san'ta fa,) a learned Spanish 
 
 {ew, who lived about 1420. His Hebrew name was 
 OSHUA Larchi. After making a careful examination 
 of the prophecies in regard to the Messiah, he was con- 
 vinced of the truth of Christianity. He wrote a treatise 
 on the errors of the Jewish faith, and another against 
 the Talmud. 
 
 Jerome de Cardie. See Hieronymus. 
 
 Jerome of Prague, [Lat. Hieron'ymus Pragen'sis,] 
 one of the most distinguished followers of John Huss, 
 was born in the city from which he took his surname. He 
 studied at the Universities of Paris, Heidelberg, and Co- 
 logne, each of which conferred upon him the diploma of 
 D.D. About 1400 he became acquainted with John Huss, 
 whose doctrines he soon after began to preach with great 
 effect in Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland. In 1415, when 
 Huss was arrested, Jerome prepared to go to Constance 
 to defend him. Being informed, however, of the great 
 hostility felt there towards reputed heretics, he retired 
 to Eberlingen, and afterwards attempted to return to 
 Bohemia, but was arrested, and placed in the custody 
 of the Prince of Salzburg, who sent him in chains to 
 Constance, where he was thrown Into prison and treated 
 with great cruelty. On a third examination before the 
 council, he signed a recantation of the doctrines of Huss 
 in regard to transubstantiation ; but a few months after he 
 bitterly repented of this, and declared that fear of a cruel 
 death alone induced him to do it. He was thereupon 
 condemned as a heretic, and sentenced to be burnt on 
 the 30th of May, 1416. He suffered with the greatest 
 firmness, serenity, and Christian heroism, and his death 
 excited the highest admiration even in his enemies. 
 
 See "J. Hussi et Hieronymi Pragensis Historia et Monumenta;" 
 CochljEus, "Historia Hiissitarum." 
 
 JSr'ram, (Charles,) an English theologian, born in 
 1770, was vicar of Chobham, Surrey. He published, 
 besides other works, " Conversations on Infant Baptism," 
 (2d edition, 1826.) Died about 1853. 
 
 See " Memoirs of C. Jerram," by his son, 1855. 
 
 Jer'rold, (Douglas William,) celebrated as a hu- 
 mourist, a journalist, and a dramatical and satirical 
 writer, was born in London in 1803. He was the son 
 of the manager of Sheerness Theatre, where he imbibed 
 his taste for dramatic literature. He was apprenticed 
 to a printer in London, in which situation he diligently 
 improved his leisure hours in the study of literature and 
 the languages. Shakspeare was his favourite book. His 
 first production was an essay on the opera of " Der Frei- 
 schiitz," which he enclosed anonymously to the editor 
 by whom he was then employed. The article was highly 
 commended, and Jerrold had the satisfaction of placing 
 it in type. Thus encouraged, he wrote " Black-Eyed 
 Susan," (about 1824,) one of the most popular dramas 
 ever acted on the English stage. This was followed by 
 
 several other plays of great merit. He afterwards be- 
 came a contributor to " Punch," the popularity of which 
 was rapidly increased by his satirical and witty produc- 
 tions. He also edited successively "The Heads of the 
 People," "The Illuminated Magazine," "The Shilling 
 Magazine," and " Lloyd's Weekly." All of these were 
 very successful, and the last had an immense circulation. 
 Many of his writings have been issued in volume form, 
 among which we may mention "Mrs. Caudle's Curtain 
 Lectures," (new edition, 1846,) "Chronicles of Clover- 
 nook," (1846,) "Saint Giles and Saint James," (1851,) 
 "Prisoner of War," "Time Works Wondeis," (1854,) 
 and the "Bubbles of the Day." Died in 1857. 
 
 See "The Wit and Opinions of Douglas Jerrold," edited by his 
 son, W B. Jerrold, 1858: "Life and Letters of D. Jerrold," by 
 W. R. Jkrrold, 1850: " New Spirit of the Age," bv R. H. Horne, 
 London, 1844; "North Hritish Review" for May, iS.ig. 
 
 Jerrold, (William Blanchard,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in London in 1S26. He published, 
 besides other works, " A Brage-Beaker with the Swedes, 
 or Notes from the North," (1853,) and "Life of Douglas 
 Jerrold," (1859.) He succeeded his father as editor of 
 " Lloyd's Weekly News." 
 
 Jerusalem, ya-roo'za-ISm', (Johann Friedricii 
 Wii.helm,) a celebrated Protestant divine and pulpit 
 orator, born at Osnabriick, in Germany, in 1709. He 
 was appointed in 1740 court preacher to Duke Charles 
 of Brunswick, and soon after became tutor to his son, 
 Prince Charles William. Through his influence the 
 Caroline College was established at Brunswick. In 1771 
 he was created vice-president of the consistory at Wc4- 
 fenbiittel. He published, besides sermons, "Contem- 
 plations on the Principal Truths of Religion," (5 vols., 
 1768-79.) Died in 1789. The suicide of his son, Karl 
 Wilhelm, suggested to Goethe the story of " Werther." 
 
 See Jerusalem, " Entwurf einer Selbstbiographie;" " Lebens- 
 geschichte des seeligen Jerusalem," 1790. 
 
 Jer'vas, (Charles,) a portrait-painter, and native of 
 Ireland, born about 1675. His chief excellence lay in 
 copying. He gave lessons to Pope the poet, who highly 
 praises him in the " Epistle to Jervas." Died in 1739. 
 
 See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Jer'via, (John,) Earl of Saint Vincent, and admiral of 
 the British fleet, born at Meaford, in Staffordshire, in 
 1734. He entered the navy when ten years old, and in 
 1760 became a post-captain. In 1778 he commanded an 
 eighty-gun ship in Keppel's action against the French, 
 and in 1782 captured the Pegase, of seventy-four guns. 
 He sat in Parliament several years for various boroughs, 
 until the commencement of the French Revolution, when 
 he sailed at the head of a squadron to the West Indies, 
 with the rank of rear-admiral. He captured Martinique, 
 Guadeloupe, and Saint Lucia. In 1795 he was made 
 admiral of the blue, and commander of the naval force in 
 the Mediterranean. He encountered the Spanish fleet 
 Off Cape Saint Vincent in February, 1797, and, though 
 their force was double his own, he gained a complete 
 victory. For this exploit he received the thanks of both 
 Houses of Parliament, and a pension of ^3000, and was 
 raised to the peerage, with the titles of Earl of Saint Vin- 
 cent and Baron Jervis of Meaford. He was appointed 
 first lord of the admiralty in 1801, and retired from that 
 office in 1804. He became admiral of the fleet in 1821. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 See E. P. Bhenton, " Life of Earl Saint Vincent," 2 vols., 183S. 
 
 Jesabel, the French of Jezebel, which see. 
 
 Jesi, ya'see, (Samuele,) an Italian engraver, born at 
 Milan about 1789, executed a number of excellent plates, 
 after Raphael. Died in 1853. 
 
 Jesid. See Yezeed. 
 
 Jes'se, (Edward,) an English naturalist and writer, 
 published, besides other works, " Gleanings in Natural 
 History," (3 vols., 1832-35,) and "Scenes and Tales of 
 Country Life," (1844.) Died in 1868. 
 
 Jesse, (John Heneage,) an English poet and his- 
 torical writer of the present age. Among his works are 
 "Memoirs of the Court of England during the Reign of 
 the Stuarts," (4 vols., 1839-40,) and "Memoirs of the 
 Pretenders and their Adherents," (2 vols., 1845.) 
 
 Jessenius, y?s-sa'ne-us, (Johann,) a physician, born 
 in Hungary in 1566, was employed by the Emperor of 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m?t; nftt; good; moon; 
 
JESSEr 12 
 
 Germany. In 1621 he was condemned and executed for 
 having attempted to incite his countrymen to revolt 
 against the house of Austria. 
 
 JeVsey, (Henry,) a learned English divine, bom in 
 Yorkshire about 1600. He was ordained after the Epis- 
 copal forms, and obtained a living. He subsequently 
 became minister of a Baptist congregation. He com- 
 menced a new translation of the Bible, but, from the 
 persecutions which he suffered for his religious belief, 
 was unable to finish it. He died in prison in 1663. 
 
 JeVsup, (Thomas S.,) an American general, bom in 
 1790 ; died in i860. 
 
 Je'sus or Jesh'u-a, son of Sirach, a learned Jew, and 
 the author of the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus. He 
 was a native of Jerusalem, and is supposed to have lived 
 about 200 B.C. 
 
 Je't?r, (Jeremiah B.,) D.D., an American Baptist 
 divine and author, born in Bedford county, Virginia, in 
 1S02, became pastor in Richmond. He published several 
 porks. 
 
 Jeuffroy, zhuh'fRwa', (R. V.,) a distinguished French 
 eagravei of gem and medals, born at Rouen in 1749. 
 He was a member of the Institute. Died in 1826. 
 
 Jeuiie, le, leh zhun, (Jean,) a celebrated French 
 preacher, born in Franche-Comte in 1592 ; died in 1672. 
 lii> sermons were published in 10. vols. 
 
 Jevhery or Djevhery, jev'hi-ree, (Ismaeel-Ibn- 
 Ham'madJ an Arabian lexicographer, born at Farab. 
 After travelling through various countries, he settled at 
 Nishapoor, in Persia, where, in 999, he published one 
 of the most perfect of Arabian dictionaries, of which 
 Golius made extensive use in his "Lexicon Arabicum." 
 Died about 1005. 
 
 Jev'on, (THOMAS,) an English dramatic writer and 
 actor, who died in 1688, aged about thirty-five. 
 
 Jew'ell or Jew'el, (John,) Bishop of Salisbury, one 
 of the earliest champions of the Episcopal Church, born 
 at linden, in Devonshire, in 1522. He studied at Oxford, 
 and graduated in 1540. Under the reign of Edward VI. 
 he openly avowed the Protestant faith, and assisted Peter 
 Martyr in his dispute with the Catholic theologians at 
 Oxford. After the accession of Mary he fled to Ger- 
 many, (1555,) and at Strasburg again met Martyr, whom 
 he assisted on some of his works. When Elizabeth 
 ascended the tjirone, Jewell returned to England, and 
 was ordained Bishop of Salisbury in 1559 or 1560. In 
 this position he continued to labour diligently for the 
 advancement of the Protestant religion. He died in 
 1 57 1, greatly esteemed for his eminent piety and vast 
 theological knowledge. His writings are principally 
 of a controvrsial nature, and are still highly valued. 
 The most important of these is "Apologia Ecclesiae 
 Anglicanse," ("Apology for the Church of England," 
 1562,) written in elegant Latin, and translated into 
 English by the mother of Lord Bacon. Versions were 
 also rendered of it into Dutch, French, German, Greek, 
 Italian, and Spanish ; and it is said to have done more 
 for the promotion of the Reformation than any other 
 work. Jewell also wrote a "Defence of the Apology," 
 (1567,) in answer to Harding, a Roman Catholic, who 
 had attacked him. 
 
 See L. Humfrev, " Life of Jewell," 1573: C. W. Le Bas, " Life 
 of Bishop Jewell," 1835 ; Burnet, " History of the Reformation ;" 
 " Biographia Ilrilannica." 
 
 Jews'bur-jf, (Geraldink Endsor,) younger sister 
 Df Mrs. Fletcher, noticed below, was born at Manchester 
 in 1821. She published a number of novels, among 
 which mav be named "Zoe, or the History of Two 
 Lives," (1845,) "Marian Withers," (1851,) and "The 
 Sorrows of Gentility," (1856.) 
 
 Jewsbury, (Maria Jane,) an English authoress, 
 born in Warwickshire about 1800. Among her principal 
 works are " Phantasmagoria, or Sketches of Life and 
 Literature," (1825,) "Lays of Leisure Hours," (1829,) 
 and "Three Histories." Having been married in 1832 
 or 1833 to the Rev. William Fletcher, she accompanied 
 him to India, where she died in 1833. She was an 
 intimate friend of Wordsworth, who has eulogized her 
 character and talents. He said he considered her 
 "unrivalled in one quality,— quickness in the motions 
 of her mind." 
 
 ^5 7QJV 
 
 J6z'e-beL [Heb. ^STM; Fr. Jesabel, zha'zS'bel',] a 
 daughter of Ethbaal, King of the Zidonians, and wife of 
 Aha!), King of Israel. She was notorious for her cruelty 
 and ill faith. She was killed by being thrown out of a 
 window by the order of Jehu. 
 
 See I. Kings xvi. ; II. Kings ix. 
 
 Jezid or Jezed. See Yezeed. 
 
 Jezzar or Djezzar Ahmed, jez'zar att'ined, a Pasha 
 of Acre and Sidon, notorious for his cruelty, was born 
 in Bosnia. After being a slave of Ali Bey in Egypt, he 
 became governor of Cairo. In 1775 he was appointed 
 Pasha of Acre and Sidon, and about 1784 he received 
 the Three Tails. In 1799 he was defeated by the French, 
 and shut himself in Saint-Jean-d'Acre, which, with the 
 aid of Sir Sidney Smith, he successfully defended against 
 Bonaparte. Died in 1804. 
 
 Jma, jin'a, [a Sanscrit word signifying "victorious,"! 
 one of the many names applied to Vishnu : also the 
 name of a celebrated sage, (called also Jaina, ji'na,) 
 the founder of the sect of Jains or Jainas. As the 
 Hindoos have no trustworthy history, it seems impos- 
 sible to determine positively the character of the Jains. 
 They are commonly regarded as a division or ofislioot 
 of the Booddhists; although in one passage of the 
 " Bhagavat" Jina is spoken of as the father of Booddha. 
 Thus much only is certain, that in some of their tenets 
 and customs the Jains closely resemble the Booddhists. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon," and an excellent article on the 
 Jains, by Mr. Colkbrooke, in "Asiatic Researches," vol. ix. p. 2S8. 
 
 Jo'ab, [Heb. 3X1',] chief captain of the armies of 
 Israel under King David. 
 
 See II. Samuel iii., iv., x., xviii., xix., xx. ; I. Kings ii. 
 
 Jo'a-ehim, [It. GiOACCHiNo,jo-ak-kee'no,|an Italiau 
 monk, founded the monastery of Flora, in Calabria. He 
 wrote several heretical works, in which he advanced 
 the doctrines of tritheism. Died in 1202 or 1207. 
 
 Joachim, (George.) See Rhveticus. 
 
 Joachim, yo'a-Kim, (Johann Fkieurich,) a German 
 historian and medallist, born at Halle in 1 713. He was 
 professor of history and law at Halle, and wrote several 
 works on history and numismatics. Died in 1667. 
 
 Joachim Mm at. See Murat. 
 
 Joan or Jo-an'na [Fr. Jeanne, zhSn ; It. Gio- 
 vanna, jo-van'na] 1, Queen of Naples, a daughter of 
 Charles, Duke of Calabria, was born in 1327. She was 
 married to Andrew, Prince of Hungary, and in 1343 suc- 
 ceeded her grandfather, Robert, King of Naples. In 1345 
 Andrew was murdered by conspirators, probably with 
 the connivance of Joan, who soon after married Prince 
 Louis of Tarentum. To avenge the death of Andrew, 
 Louis, King of Hungary, invaded Naples and expelled 
 Joan from the kingdom. Having gained the favour of the 
 pope by ceding Avignon to him, she was restored to the 
 throne in 1352. She was married in 1376 to her fourth 
 husband, Otho of Hrunswiek, but continued to be child- 
 less. In 1381 Naples was invaded by Charles Durazzo, 
 who captured Joan and put her to death in 1382. 
 
 See "Historical Life of Joanna of Sicily," London, a vols., 1824; 
 Giann'onk, " Storia civile del Regno di N.<|k>li." V. Mignot, '* His- 
 toirede Jeanne I, Reinede Naples," 1764; D. Ckivki.i.i, " Delia prima 
 e della second.! Giovanua, Regine di Napoli." 1832 ; " Nouvelle BtO" 
 gr.iphie Generale," (under "Jeanne ;") London Quarterly Review" 
 for December, 1S24. "Monthly Review" for December, 1S24. 
 
 Joan (or Giovanua) II., daughter of the Duke of 
 Dtira/.zo, succeeded her brother Ladislaus on the throne 
 of Naples in 1414. She was notorious for her licentious 
 conduct and the number of her favourites. She died in 
 1435, leaving the kingdom in a very unsettled state. 
 
 See D. Crivkli.i. " Della prima e della seconda Giovanni, Rcgine 
 di Nai>oli," 1832 ; " Nouvelle lliographie GeneraJe." 
 
 Joan, Pol'E, supposed by many to have been a fabu- 
 lous character, is placed by several writers in the ninth 
 century. Having assumed male attire, she went to Rome, 
 and became so celebrated for her ecclesiastical know- 
 ledge that upon the death of I.eo IV. she was unani- 
 mously elected pope. She was, however, OUfl day seized 
 with tiie pains of childbirth as she was proceeding 10 the 
 I-ateran liasilica, and died in the street, after a pontificate 
 el two years, five months, and lour days. She was buried 
 without honours. Other aOQOUOtl slate that upon the 
 discovery of the imposture she w. is stoned to death by the 
 |>opulace. The Protestants have been accused of labri- 
 
 «as*; 9 as/; ghard; gas>; G, H,K, guttural; K, natal; n,trilUJ; Sas»; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JOAN 
 
 1276 
 
 JOAO 
 
 eating the account ; but it has been satisfactorily proved 
 that it was in circulation as early as the twelfth century. 
 See J. Lenfant, " Histoire de la Papesse Jeanne," 1730; S. 
 Baring-Gould, " Curious Myths of the Middle Ages," 1867. 
 
 Joan, Queen of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella the Catholic, was married in 1496 to Philip, 
 Archduke of Austria. In 1500 she gave birth to Prince 
 Carlos, afterwards Charles V. of Germany. She soon 
 after lost her reason ; and when, upon the death of Isa- 
 bella, she became Queen of Castile, it was necessary that 
 a regent should be appointed. Died in 1555. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella;" Mariana, 
 "Historiade Espana." 
 
 Joan, (Jeanne,) daughter and heiress of Henry I. 
 of Navarre, and queen of Philippe le Bel of France, 
 was born in 1272. Upon her marriage with the French 
 monarch she retained authority over her hereditary do- 
 minions of Navarre and Champagne. She carried on 
 a successful war against the Castilians and Aragonese, 
 assisted her husband in the councils and administration 
 of affairs in France, established a college in Navarre, 
 and was a liberal patroness of learning. In 1297, Count 
 de Bar having invaded Champagne, the queen marched 
 against him at the head of her troops, cut his army in 
 pieces, and carried him prisoner to Paris. Died in 1305. 
 
 Joan d'Albret. See Jeanne dWlbret. 
 
 Joan of Arc, or Jeanne Dare, zhtn daitk, surnamed 
 the Maid of Orleans, [Fr. La Pucelle d'Orleans, 
 II pu'sel' doRla'oN',] the most illustrious of the hero- 
 ines of history, was born in the hamlet of Dom-Remy, 
 in Lorraine, about 1411. She was the daughter of 
 poor and religious peasants, who implanted in her heart 
 at an early age the seeds of that exalted enthusiasm 
 which subsequently obtained so absolute an ascendency 
 over her character. At this time the rival factions of 
 the Orleanists or Armagnacs and the Burgundians deso- 
 lated France by their wars. The former supported the 
 claims of Charles VII. ; while the latter had sworn al- 
 legiance to Henry V. of England. Joan from infancy 
 had imbibed the principles of the Orleanists, by whom 
 she was surrounded. Her devotion to their cause was 
 increased by the cruelties which she frequently saw the 
 enemy commit. She was untiring in her efforts to re- 
 lieve the sufferings of the poor around her, and even sold 
 her bed and the greater part of her clothing in order to 
 procure them supplies. She afterwards stated that as 
 early as the age of thirteen she received commands from 
 Heaven to go and liberate France. These commands 
 continued to be repeated ; but her parents endeavoured 
 to suppress her enthusiasm. She, however, obtained 
 the assistance of an uncle, who introduced her to De 
 Baudricourt, the commander of a neighbouring fortress, 
 before whom her voices, as she termed them, had or- 
 dered her to lay her divine commission. That officer at 
 first treated her assertions with scorn ; but finally, on 
 account of the disasters that his prince had suffered, he 
 gave her the assistance which she had requested, and 
 in February, 1429, with a guard of five or six men, she 
 set out on her journey for Chinon, where Charles then 
 held his court. At this time his cause appeared to be 
 almost desperate. Orleans, which was the only place of 
 importance that remained to him, was closely besieged 
 by the English. Joan appeared before him, and declared 
 that her mission was to raise the siege and to conduct 
 him to Kheims to be crowned. At this period she had 
 reached her eighteenth year, and possessed a very beau- 
 tiful countenance and noble form. Charles was convinced 
 of the truthfulness of her statements, and, notwithstand- 
 ing the opposition of his ecclesiastics and courtiers, 
 raised her to the rank of a military commander, and 
 placed a considerable body of troops at her disposal. 
 She entered Orleans about the last of April, 1429, with 
 a convoy of provisions, and in one week raised the siege. 
 In battle Joan displayed great personal bravery. She 
 subsequently gained the battles of Jargeau and l'atay, in 
 the latter of which the noted Talbot was made prisoner. 
 Several important cities surrendered to her without resist- 
 ance ; and in less than three months from the time that she 
 received her military command, Charles was crowned at 
 Rheims, in the cathedral consecrated to the coronation of 
 the French sovereigns. She then petitioned the king that 
 
 she might be permitted to return home ; but he prevailed 
 on her to continue in the army. The following spring, as 
 she was making a sortie against the Burgundians near 
 Compiegne, she was captured by them and subsequently 
 handed over to the English, who, with the Bishop of 
 Beauvais and the University of Paris, urgently demanded 
 her execution as a sorceress. The King of England 
 granted their request, and Joan, after a mock-trial at 
 Rouen, was condemned to be burnt. On the 31st of 
 May, 1431, she was dressed in the garb of the victims of 
 the Inquisition, and, amidst the clamours of assembled 
 thousands, conducted to the stake, where, in a short 
 time, her body was consumed. She died declaring that 
 her voices had not deceived her, and with the name of 
 Jesus on her lips. Many of those who had most eagerly 
 sought her death were melted to tears ; and even the 
 executioner declared that he had committed an unpar- 
 donable sin. A secretary of the King of England also 
 said, "We are lost! we have burned a saint." Thus 
 perished the Maid of Orleans, against whom not the 
 slightest crime could be proved. If the inspiration which 
 she received came not from the source to which she 
 attributed it, it was at least the offspring of bravery, of 
 generosity, of patriotism, of those virtues which have 
 raised to immortality so many of the great and good. 
 In the high-coloured, and eulogistic account given of 
 her by Michelet, he remarks, "She had the goodness of 
 the ancient martyrs, but with this difference : the early 
 Christians remained pure and virtuous only in retiring 
 from the encounter and in separating themselves from 
 the struggles and temptations of the world, while she 
 was benign in the fiercest conflicts, good among the bad, 
 gentle even in war; 'into war, that triumph of the devil, 
 she carried the spirit of Heaven.' This tenderness of 
 heart she had for all men. She wept after the victories, 
 and relieved the sufferings of the wounded English." 
 Her death stamped indelible infamy on all the parties 
 connected with the war, — on the Burgundians for de- 
 livering her to her iaveterate enemies, on the English 
 and their French allies for their inhuman cruelty and 
 thirst for revenge, and on her own prince and party for 
 not making a powerful attempt to save her. 
 
 See Rarthrlemy he Beauregard, " Histoire de Jeanne d'Arc," 
 2 vols., 1847; Desjardins, " Vie de Jeanne d'Arc," 1854; VallbT 
 de Virivili.e, " Nouvelles Recherches sur la Famille, etc. de Jeanne 
 Dare," 1854; Lhnglet-DufresnoY, " Histoire tie Jeanne d'Arc," 
 1753; Le Brun de Chakmettes. "Histoire de Jeanne d'A;c," 
 4 vols., 1817; Ai.phonse de I.amartine, "Jeanne d'Arc," i^;2; 
 Jui.es MlCHKLBT, ''Jeanne d'Arc," 1853; R. M. Evans, '' Story 
 of Joan of Arc," 1847; A. M. Meneghklli, " Giovanna d'Arc," 
 Padua, 1841 : Michelet, "History of France;" Carl Lirbblt, 
 " Dziowica Orleanska ustep dziejow Francyi," Posen, 1S47; GlIIDC 
 Goerres, "Die Jungfrau von Orleans," 1S34 ; Harriet Parr, 
 "Life and Death of Jeanne d'Arc," 1866; Thomas Db QuinlEY, 
 " Miscellaneous Essays;" "London Quarterly Review" for March, 
 1842. 
 
 Joan [Sp. Juana, Hoo-an'ya] Henriquez, (en-ree'- 
 k?th,) Queen of Aragon and Navarre, daughter of Fred- 
 erick Henriquez, of the blood-royal of Castile, and 
 admiral of that kingdom. In 1444 she was married to 
 John II. of Aragon, and in 1452 gave birth to Ferdinand 
 the Catholic. She was a princess of great energy of 
 character and of uncommon mental endowments ; and 
 to her advice and assistance many of the successes of 
 John II. are to be attributed. Died in 1468. 
 
 Joanes.-Ho-a'ncs, or Juanes, Hoo-a'nes, (Vincents,) 
 an eminent Spanish painter, born in Valencia in 1523, 
 studied at Rome, and was regarded as the greatest artist 
 of the Valencian school. Died in 1579. Among his 
 most important works may be mentioned Christ after 
 death borne by the angels, the Saviour with the two 
 prophets, and a Saint Francis. 
 
 Joannes. See John. 
 
 Joannes Cornnenus. See Cai.o- Joannes. 
 
 Joannes Massiliensis. See Cassian, (John.) 
 
 Joannet, zho't'ni', (Claude,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Dole in 1716 ; died in 1789. 
 
 Joanny, zho't'ne', the assumed name of Jean Bap- 
 tiste Bernard Brissebarue, a famous French tragic 
 actor, born at Dijon in 1775, and who is said to have 
 been nearly equal to Talma. Died in 1849. 
 
 Joao (or Joam) of Portugal. See John. 
 
 Joao or Juan, surnamed De Dios or De Dieu. See 
 Dieu. 
 
 a. e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, li, j?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
JOASH 
 
 1277 
 
 JOHANiSJT 
 
 ish [Ikb. BW] or Je-ho'ash, King of Judah, 
 in a Ahaziah. He ascended the throne when 
 
 Jo'ash 
 and son ot Ahaziah. He ascended the throne" when 
 seven years of age, and reigned virtuously forty years. 
 He wag assassinated by his servants in 838 n.c. 
 
 See It. Chronicle* xxiii. and xxiv. ; 1 1. Kings xi. and xii. 
 Joash or Jehoash, King of Israel, succeeded his 
 father, Jehoahaz, 839 or 840 B.C., and reigned sixteen years. 
 See II. Kinxs xiii. ; II. Chronicles xxv. 17. 
 
 Job, [Heb. 2VN; Gr. luff; Arabic, AtvooB, (Aiyoub 
 or AiyCii,) I'voob'; Ger. II10B, hee'op ; It. GfOBBE, 
 job'bi,] a patriarch of Uz, (a country which is believed 
 by many to be the sariie as Idnmsea,) who is supposed to 
 have lived in a very remote antiquity. One of the most 
 sublime books of the Old Testament' bears his name and 
 gives an account of his life and virtues. By many it has 
 thought that Job was an allegorical character ; but 
 there appears to be little reason for this supposition. 
 He is mentioned by the prophet Ezekiel,(xv. 16,) and 
 by Saint James, (v. 11,) as a real person. Much con- 
 troversy has arisen about the age in which he lived, and 
 the author of the book ; but both these points remain 
 unsettled. This work was written in Hebrew, with a 
 mixture of Arabic. 
 
 Job or Aiyoob, I'yool/, (Solomon,) an African 
 prince, son of a king of Bondoo, in Senegambia. In 
 1730 he was sold to the English, who carried him to 
 M.i 1 yland, where he became a slave. His story interested 
 General Oglethorpe and others, who ransomed him and 
 sent him to England in 1733. He was presented at 
 court, and attracted much attention. He produced an 
 interesting- geographical account of his native country, 
 ami wrote from memory, it is said, three copies of the 
 Koran. He returned to Bondoo about 1735. 
 
 Jobard, zho'bii*', (J. B. A. M„) a writer on social 
 economy, born in Haute-Mame, France, in 1792. He 
 lived in Belgium.' Died in 1861. 
 
 Jobert, zho'baiu', (I.oins,) a French Jesuit and anti- 
 quary, born at Paris in 1637. For some time he was 
 a professor of rhetoric in his native city, and afterwards 
 became celebrated as a preacher. He was the author 
 of several treatises on medals. Died in 1719. 
 
 Jobert de LambaUe, zho'baiu' deh l&N'biT, (An- 
 tOINft JOSEPH,) an eminent French surgeon, born at 
 balle in 1799. He lectured in Paris, and published, 
 besides other works, a "Treatise on Plastic Surgery," 
 ("Traite de Chirurgie plastique," 2 vols., 1849.) He 
 became surgeon to the emperor in 1854. Died in 1867. 
 Jo-cas'ta or Jo-cas'te. IGr. loKWrnj ; Fr. JoCASTE, 
 zlv/kjst',] sometimes called Epicaste, the wife of Lams, 
 and the mother of CEdipus. According to tradition, she 
 was married to CEdipus without knowing who he was, 
 and hung herself after she discovered the relationship 
 between them. 
 
 See the "CEdipus" of Sophocles. 
 Jocaste. See Jocasta. 
 
 Joc'e-lyn, (Robert,) Lord, M.P., an English poli- 
 tician, born in 1816, visited China about 1840, and pub- 
 lished " Six Months in China." Died in 1854. 
 
 Jo-€ha'nan or Jo-ha'nan Ben E-H-e'zer, a Jewish 
 rabbi, born in Palestine about 184 A.D. He compiled 
 the "Jerusalem Gemara," a part of the Talmud. He is 
 sairl to have died in 279 a.d. 
 
 Jocher or Joecher, yri'Ker, (Christian Gottlieb,) 
 
 an eminent German scholar and writer, born at Leipsfc 
 
 in 1694. He became professor of philosophy and his- 
 
 .1 I.eipsic about 1730. His most important work 
 
 is a " Universal Dictionary of Learned Men," ("Allge- 
 
 meines Gelehrten-Lexikon," 4 vols., 1750-51,) which is 
 
 highly esteemed. Supplements have been published by 
 
 ung and others. Died in 1758. 
 
 See ERNJtSTI, "Memoria C. G. IScheri," 1758: Ersch und 
 
 R, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ■?' Adelung's Supplement to 
 
 Jocher. 
 
 Jochmus, yoK'mfls, (Ai.brecht,) a German general, 
 born at Hamburg in 1808. About 1838 he was sent by 
 Lord Palmerston to Constantinople to plan a campaign 
 in Syria. He became gcneral-in-chicf of the allied 
 armies of England and Turkey in December, 1840. He 
 was appointed minister of foreign affairs by the Archduke 
 John, Vicar of the German empire, in May, 1849, and 
 resigned in Dcceml>er of that year. 
 
 Jocondus. See G10COND0, (Giovanni.) 
 
 Jode, de, deh yo'deh, (Arnold,) son of Pieter, Jr., 
 noticed below, was born about 1636. He is said to 
 have been inferior to his grandfather and father as an 
 ver. While in London, in 1667, he engraved for 
 Charles I. "Mercury Instructing Cupid," by Correggio. 
 Among his other works is "The Infant Jesus embracine 
 Saint John." " 
 
 See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Jode, de, (Pieter,) a Flemish engraver, born in 1570 ; 
 died in 1634. Among the most important of his pin. 
 ductions may be mentioned "The Last Judgment," by 
 Cousin, and "Jesus Christ giving the Keys to Saint 
 Peter," by Rubens. 
 
 Jode, de, (Pieter or Petrus,) Jr., son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Antwerp about 1606. He engraved 
 numerous pictures from Rubens, Van Dyck, Titian, and 
 other artists. Among his best works is "The Visita- 
 tion of the Virgin," after Rubens. Died after 1660. 
 
 Jodelle, zho'del', (Etienne,) Lord of I.vmodin, born 
 at Paris in 1532. He was one of the seven French poets 
 termed the " Pleiades." He is said to have been the first 
 to write plays in the French language and to introduce 
 choruses alter the Greek manner. It is said that his 
 fluency of composition was so great that on a wager he 
 composed in one night five hundred Latin ve rses on a 
 given subject. He died poor in 1573. His principal 
 production was the tragedy of "Cleopatra," (1552.) 
 
 See Lonc.feu.ow, " Poets and Poetrv of Europe ;" Bavi.e, " His- 
 torical and Critical Dictionary;" Nicbron, "Memoires;" Sainte- 
 Beuve, " Poesie Francaise an seizienie Siecle." 
 
 Jo'drell, (Richard Paul,) an English dramatic 
 writer, born in 1745. He produced "A Widow and no 
 Widow," a farce, "The Persian Heroine," a tragedy, 
 (1786,) and " Philology of the English Language," (1820'.) 
 Died in 1831. 
 Joecher. See Jocher. 
 
 Jo'el, [Heb. SnT; Gr. 'IwipA,] one of the twelve minor 
 Hebrew prophets, is supposed to have lived in the reign 
 of Uzziah, 'about 800-750 B.C. A passage of his prophecy 
 is quoted in Acts ii. 17. 
 Joerdens. See Jordens. 
 Joffredus. See Jouffroi. 
 
 Jof'frid, an English abbot of Lincolnshire, lived in 
 the twelfth century. Peter de lilois, a writer of the time 
 of Henry II., states that Joffrid was the founder of the 
 University of Cambridge. 
 
 Jogues, zhog, (Isaac,) a French Jesuit, born at Or- 
 leans in 1607, spent manyyearsin Canada as a missionary. 
 He was killed by the Mohawks in 1646. 
 Johann, (princes of Germany.) See John. 
 Johanneau, zho't'no', (fii.0'1,) a French antiquary, 
 born near Blois in 1770. He was one of the founders 
 of the Academie Celtique. In 18' I he became imperial 
 censor of books. He wrote on botany, Celtic monuments, 
 and other subjects. Died in 1851. 
 Joharmaeus, (Finnus.) See Jonsson, (Finn.) 
 Johannes, the Latin for John, which see. 
 Johannes Antiochenus. Sec John of Antioch. 
 Johannes Climacus. See Ci.imacus. 
 Johannes Secundus. See Evekard, (Johannes.) 
 Johannot, zho'J'no', (Charles.) eldest son of Fran- 
 cois, noticed below, was born at Frankfort about 1790. 
 He was a skilful engraver, and produced illustrations of 
 the life of Saint Genevieve of Brabant. Died in 1825. 
 
 Johannot, (Charles Henri Alfred,) an engraver 
 and painter, second son of Francois, noticed below, 
 was born at Offenbach in 1801. lie acquired a high 
 reputation for his vignette-designs illustrating the French 
 translations of Byron, Scott, and Cooper. Among his 
 best paintings are "The Entrance of Mademoiselle 
 Montpensier into Orleans during the Fronde." and " Mary 
 Stuart leaving Scotland." Died in 1S37. 
 See " NouveJIe Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Johannot, (Francois,) a German designer and en- 
 graver, of French extraction, was bom o,,,. 
 stadt, and lived about 1790. He settled at Paris with 
 his partner, Charles Andri. 
 
 Johannot, (ToKY,) a painter and wood-engraver, a 
 son of the preceding, was born at Offenbach In 1803. 
 He gained a wide reputation as a designer and engraver 
 
 •e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (Jt^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JOHN 
 
 1278 
 
 JOHN 
 
 of vignettes for books. Among the works which he 
 illustrated are " Werther," the plays of Moliere, " Manon 
 Lescaut," " Jerome Paturot," and " The Vicar of Wake- 
 field." Died in Paris in 1852. 
 
 John [Gr. 'luuvvw ; Lat. Johan'nes ; Fr. Jean, zh8N ; 
 It. Giovanni, jo-van'nee] TH8 Divine, commonly called 
 Saint John the Evangelist, with his brother James, 
 was among the first to become a disciple of our Saviour 
 when He commenced his ministry. John was made 
 one of the twelve apostles ; and his gentle, loving spirit 
 appears to have especially endeared him to his divine 
 Master. He spoke of himself as "the disciple whom 
 Jesus loved." He was with his Master in the garden of 
 Gethsemane. When our Saviour was nailed to the cross, 
 He commended his mother to the care of the beloved 
 disciple. After the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, 
 Saint John became one of the most prominent of the 
 propagators of the Christian religion. Syria and Asia 
 Minor were the principal scenes of his labours. We 
 are told by Tertullian and Saint Jerome that under the 
 reign of Domitian, by the order of a Roman proconsul, 
 he was immersed in a caldron of boiling oil, and that in 
 this terrible ordeal he was miraculously preserved, so 
 that he sustained not the slightest injury. After this 
 he was banished to the isle of Fatmos, where he wrote 
 the Apocalypse, or Revelation. He also wrote three 
 Epistles, and the Gospel according to Saint John. He 
 is supposed to have died at Ephesus in 99 a.d., at the 
 age of ninety-four. 
 
 Among all the disciples of Christ, John appears to 
 have most fully comprehended the character and spirit 
 of his divine Master. He first announced in clear and 
 concise terms the great central truth of Christianity, 
 that " God is love," — a truth which, in his view, finds 
 its fullest proof in the great fact that God gave His 
 Son for the salvation of the world. (See John iii. 16, 
 17; and I. Epistle iv. 8, 9, 10.) The soul of "the be- 
 loved disciple" seems ever filled with the one theme. 
 Love, not fear, is to be the motive of obedience : — " If ye 
 love me, keep my commandments." The love to which 
 he refers is not a mere sentiment, but a living power: — 
 " This is the love of God, that we keep his command- 
 ments." (See John xiv. 15, 21, 23; I. Epistle iv. 7, 8, 
 16, 18, 20; v. 2 and 3.) 
 
 See F. A. Thoi.uck, " Commentary on the Gospel of John, 1 ' the 
 7th edition of which was translated into English by Dr. C. P. 
 Krautu, Philadelphia, 1859; Wegscheider, "Introduction to the 
 Gospel of Saint John," Gbttingen, 1S06; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gscrerale." 
 
 John I., surnamed Zimis'ces, [Gr. TQ/uoktjc] became 
 Emperor of the East in 969 a.d. He carried on a suc- 
 cessful war against the Rossi, or Russians, and quelled 
 serious disturbances in his eastern provinces. He died 
 of poison, as he was returning to Constantinople, in 975. 
 He is said to have been a man of superior talents. 
 
 John III., of the family of Ducas, surnamed Vatat'- 
 zes, born in Thrace in 1 193, succeeded his father-in-law, 
 Theodore Lascaris, in 1 222, as Emperor of the East. 
 Constantinople being then in possession of the Latins, 
 John fixed his capital at Nicsea, in Bithynia. In 1235 he 
 besieged Constantinople, but was repulsed. He, how- 
 ever, reconquered all the other possessions belonging to 
 the Greek Empire which had been taken by the Latins. 
 John was a liberal patron of the useful arts, and did much 
 to promote the welfare of his subjects. Died in 1255. 
 
 John IV. (Las'caris) succeeded his father Theodore 
 as Emperor of the East in 1259, when he was aged but 
 six years. He was deprived of the crown in 1261 by 
 Michael Palseologus, who put out his eyes and im- 
 prisoned him during the remainder of his life. 
 
 John V. See Cantacuzenus. 
 
 John VI., (Faleeol'ogus,) born in 1332, was a son of 
 Andronicus, whom he succeeded on the imperial throne 
 of Constantinople in 1341. He was afterwards impris- 
 oned by one of his sons. During these intestine troubles 
 the Turks attacked the capital, and forced John to con- 
 clude a disgraceful treaty. He left the throne to his son 
 Manuel. Died in 1391. 
 
 John VII. (Falaeologus) succeeded his father Man- 
 uel on the throne of Constantinople in 1425. Being 
 unable to oppose the Turkish invaders, he sought the 
 assistance of the Latins ; and, in order to cement the 
 
 union, he formed a reconciliation between the Eastern 
 and Western Churches, which, however, lasted but a 
 short period. Died in 1448. He was succeeded by his 
 brother, Constantine XIII. 
 
 See Lb Beau, " Histoire dtt Bas- Empire." 
 
 John [Sp. Juan, Hoo-an'] I_, son of Peter (Pedro) IV., 
 was born in 1350, and ascended the throne of Aragon in 
 1387. Died in 1395. 
 
 John (Juan) II., King of Aragon and Navarre, born 
 in 1397, was one of the bravest and most enterprising 
 of the Spanish sovereigns. In 1425 he ascended the 
 throne of Navarre, as the husband of Queen Blanche, 
 and three years later was appointed by his brother Al- 
 fonso V. to. the government of Aragon. Blanche died 
 soon after, and in 1447 he married Joan Henriquez, of 
 the blood-royal of Castile, who became the mother of 
 Ferdinand the Catholic. He became King of Aragon in 
 1458. He carried on long and successful wars against 
 Henry IV. of Castile and Louis XI. of France. He also 
 suppressed a formidable rebellion of the Catalans. Died 
 in 1479. 
 
 See Prbscott, " Ferdinand and Isabella," chap. ii. ; Ersch und 
 Gkuber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 John (Juan) I., King of Castile and Leon, was bom 
 in 1358. He succeeded his father Henry (Henrique) II. 
 in 1379. He subsequently invaded Portugal, but met 
 with a total defeat at Aljubarota in August, 1385. Died 
 in 1390. 
 
 John H., King of Castile and Leon, son of Henry 
 (Henrique) III., born in 1404, was proclaimed sovereign 
 two years later. He carried on successful wars against 
 the Kings of Aragon and Navarre and the Moors of 
 Granada. By his first wife, Maria of Aragon, he left 
 three children, one of whom succeeded him as Henry 
 (Henrique) IV. By his second queen, Isabella, he had a 
 daughter, afterwards illustrious as Isabella the Catholic. 
 Though a feeble sovereign, he was a liberal patron of 
 learning, and his reign was distinguished for the revival 
 of literature in Castile. Died in 1454. 
 
 See Prescott, " Ferdinand and Isabella," chap. i. ; Ersch und 
 Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 John (Hans, hans) I. of Denmark and II. of 
 Sweden, son of Christian I., of the house of Oldenburg, 
 born in 1455, ascended the throne in 1481. About the 
 year 1500 the Swedes rebelled against him because he 
 had garrisoned the fortresses with Danish and German 
 troops. He was finally obliged to resign all claims to the 
 Swedish crown. Died in 1 5 13. 
 
 John, King of England, surnamed Sansterre,(" Lack- 
 land,") the youngest son of Henry II. by his queen, Elea- 
 nor of Guien te, was born at Oxford in 1166. The king 
 at first create 1 him Earl of Montague, in Normandy, and 
 in 1 178 made him Lord of Ireland. In 1 189 he married 
 the daughter and sole heiress of William, Earl of Glou- 
 cester. The same year he was a confederate in the 
 rebellion of his brother Richard. On the accession of 
 the latter to the throne he gave John several earldoms, 
 including about one-third of the kingdom. Soon after 
 Richard's departure on the crusade for the Holy Land, 
 John formed plans to obtain the crown on the event of 
 the king's death, in opposition to the rights of his nephew 
 Arthur, Duke of Bretagne, whom Richard had recognized 
 as his heir. When John was informed of his brother's 
 imprisonment in Germany, he immediately attempted to 
 usurp the throne, but was kept in check by the loyalty 
 of the nobles. On the king's return to England, in 
 1 194, he deprived John of all his estates and compelled 
 him to make a humble submission. Richard died in 
 France in 1199, leaving his kingdom to John, who was 
 then with him. That prince hastened to establish his 
 authority in Normandy and his other dominions, and 
 was crowned at Westminster in May, 1 199. In 1201 he 
 obtained a divorce from his wife, and married Isabella 
 of Angouleme. Philip Augustus of Fiance espoused 
 the cause of Arthur, who commenced hostilities against 
 John and gained several victories, but was subsequently 
 taken prisoner by his uncle and conveyed to Rouen. 
 Nothing further was heard from him ; but the probability 
 is that he was murdered. The war afterwards went 
 entirely against the King of England, who in the course 
 of two years lost the greater part of his continental 
 
 t, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
JOHN 
 
 1279 
 
 JOHN 
 
 possessions. During- this period he drew upon himself 
 the hostility of the Roman pontiff by insisting on his 
 right to appoint the Archbishop of Canterbury, that see 
 being then vacant. The pope excommunicated him and 
 laid the kingdom under an interdict, (1208.) John, how- 
 ever, paid no attention to the thunders of the Vatican, 
 but imprisoned or banished the bishops and clergv who 
 obeyed the pope's orders. Meanwhile he reduced Lle- 
 wellyn, a Welsh prince, to subjection, and suppressed a 
 rebellion in Ireland. Finally the pope, having formally 
 deposed him and absolved his subjects from their oaths 
 of allegiance, instigated the French king to invade Eng- 
 land. John, perceiving his danger, made an abject sub- 
 mission to the papal legate, and resigned to hiin the 
 kingdoms of England and Ireland, (1213.) Philip was 
 then forbidden to prosecute his enterprise. For a long 
 time John's tyranny had excited the hatred of his barons. 
 This was increased by Langton, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, who, presenting them with the charter of Henry I., 
 exhorted them to obtain the liberties therein granted. A 
 numerous body of barons solemnly swore to regain their 
 rights or to levy an unceasing war on the king. King 
 John, being supported by the pope, scornfully refused to 
 make any concessions to the barons, who raised a power- 
 ful force and marched to London, where the citizens 
 gladly received them. On the 15th of June, 1215, John 
 consented to grant all that they required, and signed at 
 Runnymede the famous Magna Charta. Scarcely had 
 he done this before he induced the pope to absolve him 
 from these obligations and to excommunicate several 
 of his opponents. He also brought into England large 
 bodies of foreign troops, and gained several victories 
 over the barons. The latter then chose Louis, Dauphin 
 of France, as their king. This prince landed at Sand- 
 wich in May, 1216. John would probably have been 
 successful, (for dissensions were already breaking out in 
 the camp of Louis,) had he not been carried off by a 
 fever in October of that year. John has left one of the 
 darkest names in the history of the English kings. He 
 was extremely cruel, fickle, and licentious, without a 
 redeeming virtue. He had, by his queen Isabella, five 
 children, the eldest of whom succeeded him as Henry 
 III. The second, Richard, was elected King of the 
 Romans in 1257. 
 
 See Hume, *' History of England;" Hali.am, "Constitutional 
 History of England;" Joseph Berington, " History of Henry II. 
 and of Richard I. and John, his Sons," 1790; Lingard, "History 
 of England." 
 
 John [Fr. Jean, zhftN] I., a posthumous son of Louis 
 X., King of France, was born in 1316. Though he lived 
 but eight days, he is recorded among the French mon- 
 archs. 
 
 See N. de MoNMERQud, "Dissertation historique sur Jean I, 
 Roi de France," 1844. 
 
 John (Jean) II., surnamed le Bon, ascended the 
 throne of France upon the death of his father, Philip 
 of Valois, in 1350. Charles, King of Navarre, having ac- 
 cepted an invitation to meet John at Rouen, was there 
 imprisoned, and several of his lords put to death. The 
 people of Navarre applied to England for assistance, and 
 Edward the Black Prince invaded France at the head of an 
 army. John marched against him with 60,000 men, was 
 defeated and made prisoner at the battle of Poitiers, fought 
 in 1356, and conducted to London, where he was received 
 with great honour by Edward HI. While he remained 
 in England a civil war broke out in France with the peas- 
 antry known in history by the name of" La Jacquerie." 
 In this revolt the castles of the nobility were plundered 
 and burnt and the inmates massacred. These ravages 
 continued for two years, until the dauphin, assisted by 
 several powerful lord9, defeated the peasants, putting 
 thousands of them to the sword. In 1360, peace having 
 been concluded between France and England, John re- 
 turned to his capital ; but, finding much opposition made 
 by the nobles to the conditions of the treaty, he again 
 visited England, to confer with King Edward. He was 
 soon after taken ill, and died in London in 1364. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais;" Froissart, "Chroni- 
 cles;" Michei-et, "Histoire de France;" Henri Martin, " HU- 
 toire de France." 
 
 John I. of Navarre. See John II. of France. 
 John IT of Navarre. See John II. of Aragon. 
 
 John ITX of Navarre, or Jean d'Albret, zh5N 
 Jtl'bR.V, began to reign in 1494. In 1512 Ferdinand 
 the Catholic invaded Navarre and drove J«,hn from the 
 throne. Died in 15 16. 
 
 John I., King of Poland, a son of Casimir IV., was 
 born in 1459, and succeeded his father in 1492. He 
 waged war against the Tartars and Turks. Died in 1501. 
 
 John II. of Poland. See Casimir V. 
 
 John III. of Poland. See Sobikski. 
 
 John [Port. Joao or Joam, zho-owN'] I., surnamed THE 
 Great, King of Portugal, the natural son of Peter I., 
 was born in 1357. On the death of his brother Ferdi- 
 nand, in 1385, he assumed the regal power in opposition 
 to the rights of Ferdinand's daughter Beatrix, who had 
 married John I., King of Castile. This led to a war with 
 Spain, in which the Portuguese monarch gained several 
 important victories and firmly established his power. He 
 subsequently carried on a successful war against the 
 Moors of Africa. During his reign the Portuguese com- 
 menced those maritime expeditions which soon after 
 rendered them so celebrated. Under the commar, i of 
 his son, Prince Henry, they discovered Madeira, the 
 Canaries, the Azores, and several places on the western 
 coast of Africa. Died in 1433. 
 
 See La Clede, "Histoire generate de Portugal;" Fernando 
 Lopez, "Chronica del Rev Jo5o I.," 3 vols., 1644; Manuel Mon- 
 teiro, "Joannes Porrugalia: Reges," 1742. 
 
 John (Jo3o) II., King of Portugal, surnamed the 
 Perfect, son of Alfonso V., was born in 1455, and 
 ascended the throne in 1481. At the age of sixteen 
 years he fought against the African Moors and took Ar- 
 zile and Tangiers, and five years later gained the battle 
 of Toro over the Castilians. Soon after his coronation 
 he quelled a powerful conspiracy formed against him 
 by his nobles. He encouraged the spirit of enterprise 
 among the Portuguese, and fitted out a squadron destined 
 for the East Indies and the Eastern Seas. Died in 1495. 
 
 See Vasconcellos. " Vida y Acetones del Rev Don Juan II.," 
 1639. (translated into French. 1641:) DamiAo de' Goes, "Chronica 
 do Principe Dom Joao Rev," etc., 1567; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale." 
 
 John (Jo3o) m., King of Portugal, born in 1502, 
 succeeded his father, Emanuel the Great, in 1521. In 
 1524 he married Catherine of Austfia, to whose brother, 
 Charles V., he gave his sister Isabella in marriage. He 
 colonized Brazil, and sent to the Eastern Seas a fleet, 
 by which Japan was discovered. He established the 
 Inquisition in Portugal and its colonies. Died in 1557. 
 
 John (JoHo) IV., surnamed the Fortunate, chief 
 of the dynasty of Braganza, was born in 1604. He threw 
 off the authority of Spain, to which Portugal had been 
 subjected since the days of Philip II., and became king 
 in 1640. He enacted many wise and beneficial laws, and 
 died, greatly regretted by the nation, in 1656. 
 
 See Vertot, " Histoire des Revolutions de Portugal," 16S9. 
 
 John (Jo3o) V., King of Portugal, born in 1689, suc- 
 ceeded his father, Peter II., it* 1707. He joined the allies 
 against France and Spain about 1702. After the peace 
 of Utrecht (1713) he devoted his time to the encourage- 
 ment of education and commerce. Died in 1750. 
 
 See " Vida, Successos e Fallecimento do Rey Joao V.," Lisbon, 
 1750; Ferdinand Denis, "Portugal." 
 
 John (Jo3o) VX of Portugal, was born in 1769, and 
 .was appointed Regent of Portugal in 1793 on account of 
 the derangement of his mother, Maria I., who was then 
 queen-regnant. In 1S07, when the French invaded 
 Portugal, he sailed to Brazil, where he received the title 
 of emperor. He returned in 1821, soon after which the 
 Brazilians revolted and declared themselves independent. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 See " Histoire de Jean VI, Roi de Portugal," 1S27; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^neVale. 
 
 John, King of Scotland. See Baliol. 
 
 John of Russia. See Ivan. 
 
 John (Johan, yo'hin) I., King of Sweden, the last 
 of the dynasty of Sverker, succeeded Eric in 1216. He 
 was very active.in establishing Christianity. Died in 1222. 
 
 Johii II. of Swedf.n. See John I. of Denmark. 
 
 John ITX, King of Sweden, the second son of Gus- 
 tavus Vasa, was born in 15,37. He married Catherine 
 Jagellon, daughter of Sigismund, King of Poland. In 
 1560 he visited England, to negotiate a marriage between 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, Y.,giittural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; s as »; th as in this. (23T~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JOHN 
 
 1280 
 
 JOHN 
 
 his elder brother Eric and Queen Elizabeth, in which he 
 was unsuccessful. In 1568 he deposed Eric and ascended 
 the throne in his stead. Influenced by his queen, he 
 attempted to re-establish the Catholic religion, but was 
 effectually resisted by his brother Charles, Duke of 
 Sudermania, at the head of the Protestants. Died 
 in 1592. 
 
 John (Jean) I, Duke of Bretagne, was born in 1217. 
 Having attempted to check the papal encroachments, 
 the pope excommunicated him, and he was obliged to 
 go to Rome to obtain absolution. Died in 1284. 
 
 John II., son of the preceding, was born in 1239. He 
 married lieatrix, daughter of Henry III. of England, 
 from whom he received the title of Count of Richemont. 
 He was also made a peer of France by Philippe le Bel. 
 He was killed at the ordination of Clement V. at Lyons 
 by the falling of a wall. 
 
 John III., Duke of Bretagne, surnamed the Goon, 
 succeeded his father, Arthur II., in 1312. He is said 
 to have been a just and benevolent prince. Died in 
 
 I34I- 
 
 John IV., Duke of Bretagne, known as Jean de 
 MoNTFORT, half-brother of the preceding, was born in 
 1293. John (Jean) III., having no children, willed the 
 dukedom to Charles de Blois ; but Jean de Montfort, re- 
 garded by many as the legitimate heir, soon reduced all 
 the towns and provinces to his subjection, and went to 
 England to render homage to King Edward for his estates. 
 On his return he was summoned before the court of peers 
 to prove his claims to Bretagne. The peers decided 
 against him, and he raised an army to defend his lights, 
 but was shortly after taken prisoner by the Duke of Nor- 
 mandy and confined in the tower of Louvre at Paris. 
 In the mean time the war was carried on with energy 
 by his duchess, Jeanne of Flanders. At the expiration 
 of nearly four years, John escaped, disguised as a mer- 
 chant. He died soon after, in 1345. 
 
 See Daru. " Histoire de Bretagne." 
 
 John (Jean) V., (or John IV., according to some 
 authorities,) Duke of Bretagne, born in 1338, was a 
 son of the preceding. He married Mary, a daughter 
 of Edward HI. of Eugland. By a decisive victory over 
 his competitor, Charles de Blois, at Auray, in 1364, he 
 obtained possession of Bretagne. He afterwards fought 
 for the English against the French, who drove him out 
 of Bretagne about 1374 ; but he was soon restored. Died 
 in 1399. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 John (Jean) VI., son of the preceding, became Duke 
 of Bretagne in 1399, when he was ten years of age. He 
 carried on a war against the Count of Penthievre and 
 the Duke of Burgundy, and afterwards joined the Eng- 
 lish under the Duke of Bedford against France. Died 
 in 1443. 
 
 See D'Argentre, "Histoire Ae Bretagne," etc. 
 
 John.surnamed the Fearless, [Fr. Jean SansPf.ur, 
 zh6N s6n pUR,l Duke of Burgundy, born at Dijon in 
 1371, was the eldest son of Philip the Bold. At the age 
 of twenty-five he assisted Sigismund, King of Hungary, 
 against the Turks, by whom he was made prisoner at the 
 battle of Nicopolis. When taken before the Sultan Haya- 
 zeed, (Bajazet,) he evinced so much courage that that 
 sovereign gave him his liberty and the surname of Sans 
 Peur, (the "Fearless.") After his return to France he 
 was engaged in fighting the English and in political in- 
 trigues at the French court. He was appointed guardian 
 of the dauphin of France in 1406. He caused the assas- 
 sination of his rival, the Duke of Orleans, in 1407, and 
 obtained almost unlimited power in the kingdom. He 
 was murdered in 1419, at the instigation of the dauphin, 
 son of Charles VI. 
 
 See De Barante, " Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne ;" Miche- 
 let, " Histoire de France." 
 
 John, [Ger. Johann, yo'han,] surnamed the Con- 
 stant, a son of the Elector Ernest, was "born in 1467, 
 and became Elector of Saxony in 1525. He was a zealous 
 defender of the Protestant faith, and in 1530 caused the 
 Confession of Augsburg to be proclaimed in the Diet 
 assembled at that city. Died in 1532. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine lincyklopaedie," 
 
 John [Lat. Johan'nf.s; Fr. Jean, zhoN ; It. Gio- 
 vanni, jo-van'nee| I., a native of Tuscany, was raised to 
 the Roman see noon the death of Hormisdas, in 523. 
 He was sent on an embassy to Constantinople by King 
 Theodoric to obtain toleration for the Arians; and on 
 his return, having displeased that monarch, he was 
 thrown into prison, where he died in 526. 
 
 John II., surnamed Mercurius, was a native of 
 Rome, and succeeded Boniface II. in 532 or 533. Died 
 
 >n 535- 
 
 John III., a native of Rome, succeeded Pelagius I. 
 in 560. Died about 573, and was succeeded by Bene- 
 dict I. 
 
 John IV., a Dalmatian, succeeded Severinus in 640. 
 He condemned the doctrines of the Monothelites and the 
 edict of the emperor Heraclius, called " The Exposition 
 of Faith," which was issued in their defence. Died in 
 642, and was succeeded by Theodorus. 
 
 John V., a native of Antioch, in Syria, was chosen 
 pope on the death of Benedict II., in 685, and died in 
 687. Conon succeeded him. 
 
 John VI., a Greek, succeeded Sergius I. in 701. During 
 his pontificate Wilfred, Archbishop of York, was tried 
 and acquitted of the charges preferred by the English 
 clergy. Died in 705. 
 
 John VII., a native of Greece, was elected successor 
 to the preceding. Died in 707. Sisinnius succeeded 
 him. 
 
 John VIII., (called John IX. by those who admit the 
 truth of Pope Joan's history,) was a native of Rome, and 
 succeeded Adrian II. in 872. He crowned the emperor 
 Charles the Bald, and afterwards Charles le Gros. He 
 confirmed Phocius Patriarch of Constantinople. In 878 
 the Saracens invaded Italy and compelled him to pay 
 tribute. Died in 882. He was succeeded by Martin II. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontiles." 
 
 John IX., an Italian, became pope in 898, after the 
 death of Theodore II. Died about 900. 
 
 John X. was elected in 915, through the influence of his 
 mistress Theodora, as successor to Laudo. He crowned 
 Berengarius as emperor. Subsequently, with the assist- 
 ance of this sovereign, he marched against the Saracens, 
 who had invaded Italy, defeated them, and drove them 
 from the country. At this time Guido, Duke of Tus- 
 cany, with his wife, the infamous Marozia, possessed 
 great power in Rome. John, having offended them, was 
 seized in his palace by "their soldiers and put in prison, 
 where he is said to have been killed in 928. 
 
 John XI., elected pope in 931, was the son of Maro- 
 zia, as some suppose, by Pope Sergius HI. Alberico, 
 another son of Marozia, raised a revolt against his 
 mother, whom he imprisoned with John in the castle 
 of Sant' Angelo. The latter died about 936, and was 
 succeeded by Leo VII. 
 
 John XII., son of Alberico, was elected successor to 
 Agapetus II. 111956, when he was but eighteen years old. 
 He changed his name from Octavianus. Four years 
 later he crowned Otho I. Emperor of Germany and 
 King of Italy. Subsequently he became so notorious for 
 his oppression and licentiousness that Otho returned to ' 
 Rome in 963 and caused John to be deposed and l.eo 
 VIII. to be chosen in his place. But, as soon as Otho 
 left Italy, John entered Rome at the head of a powerful 
 party, drove out Leo, and committed great atrocities. 
 He died in 964. One of his mistresses, named Juan, 
 exercised much influence at Rome during his pontificate ; 
 and it has been suggested that this may have given rise 
 to the story of " Pope Joan." 
 
 See Baronius, " Anuales." 
 
 John XIII., Bishop of Narni, was raised to the papa] 
 see in 965 by the influence of the emperor Otho I. The 
 Romans, however, being opposed to this election, im- 
 prisoned John. Otho marched to Rome, liberated him, 
 and hanged several of his opponents. John crowned 
 Otho II., son of Otho I., as emperor. Died in 972, and 
 was succeeded by Benedict VI. 
 
 John XIV., Bishop of Pavia, was'raised to the papal 
 see, as successor to Benedict VII., about 984. After a 
 pontificate of nine months, he was deposed by Boniface 
 VII. and put in prison, where he is supposed to have 
 been poisoned in 985. 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; mf t; not; good; moon 
 
JOHN 
 
 1281 
 
 JOHN 
 
 John XV, elected successor to John XIV., died a few 
 davs after. By some be is left out of the order of popes. 
 
 John XVI, a native of Rome, became pope about 
 986. During his pontificate, a patrician, named Cres- 
 centius, caused great disturbances and drove the pope 
 from Rome. He was, however, reinstated in his au- 
 thority by the emperor Otho. Died in 996, and was 
 succeeded by Gregory V. 
 
 John XVTX, whose previous name was Phii.aga- 
 thii's, a native of Calabria, and Hishop of Piacenza, was 
 chosen pope in 997 by the faction of Crescentius, in op- 
 position to Gregory V. Otho III., espousing the cause 
 of the latter, executed Crescentius with his adherents, 
 and imprisoned John after having horribly mutilated him. 
 
 John XVHX was elected successor to Sylvester II. 
 in 1003. and died four months afterwards. 
 
 John XIX, elected pope in 1004. He sent Saint 
 Bruno to preach Christianity to the Russians, and healed 
 the schism between the Churches of Rome and Constan- 
 tinople. Died in 1009, and was succeeded by Sergius IV. 
 
 John XX., previously named Romanus, was the son 
 of Count Gregory of Tuscany, and brother of Benedict 
 VIII., whom he succeeded in 1024. In 1027 he crowned 
 Conrad as emperor. He died in 1033 or 1034, and was 
 succeeded by Benedict IX. 
 
 John XXL, born in Lisbon, was elected successor to 
 Adrian V. about 1276. He died after a pontificate of a 
 few months. Nicholas III. succeeded him. 
 
 John XXII, a native of Cahors, in France, and pre- 
 viously known as Jacques d'Euse, or James of Ossa, 
 was chosen to succeed Clement V. in 1316. He was 
 consecrated at Lyons, and made his residence at Avignon. 
 At this period there was a competition for the throne of 
 Germany between Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of 
 Austria. John, who declared that he had the right to 
 appoint the emperor, excommunicated Louis in 1324 or 
 1327, and advanced the claims of Robert, King of Naples. 
 This led to a long war in Italy between the Guelphs, 
 who were allies of Robert, and the Ghibelines, who were 
 assisted by the troops of Louis. At first the Guelphs had 
 the advantage ; but their opponents soon gained ground, 
 and in 1327 Louis visited Italy and received the iron 
 crown of Milan. At Rome the Bishops of Venice and 
 Aleria crowned him emperor, after which he deposed 
 John and appointed Peter de Corvara in his place, with 
 the name of Nicholas V. After the return of Louis to 
 Germany the Guelphs began to obtain the ascendency. 
 John died at Avignon in 1334. He possessed extraor- 
 dinary abilities, was devoted to study, and wrote some 
 medical treatises. His avarice, however, was the most 
 prominent trait in his character ; and to him is attributed 
 the introduction of the Annates, or First-Fruits. He left, 
 besides his jewels, eighteen millions of golden florins in 
 his coffers. 
 
 See ArtaI'o de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes;" 
 Platina, " Historia de Vitis Pontincum Rotnanorum ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 John XXHZ, (or XXIX, according to some authori- 
 ties,) (Cardinal Cossa,) a Neapolitan, was elected as suc- 
 cessor to Alexander V. in 1410, during a schism of the 
 Church. His title was disputed by two rivals, Benedict 
 XIII. and Gregory XII. He was a man of depraved 
 morals and of insatiable cupidity. A quarrel between 
 John and Ladislaus of Naples resulted in the expulsion 
 of the former from Rome. John applied for support 
 to the emperor Sigismund, who convoked at Constance 
 in 14 14 a general council. This council (at which John 
 was present) required him to abdicate the popedom. 
 He pretended to comply, but left Constance disguised, 
 and fled towards Rome with the intention to resist the 
 decree of the council. He was quickly arrested and 
 brought back to Constance, where he was convicted of 
 many heinous offences, and formally deposed, in 141 5. 
 He was confined in prison about three years. He died 
 at Florence in 1419- 
 
 See Ranke, "History of the Popes;" Ai.letz, "Histoire des 
 Papes," 1776; Tit. de Niem, " Historia de Vita Joannis XXIII.," 
 1620. 
 
 John, (Juan,) Don, of Austria, one of the most cele- 
 brated military and naval commanders of the sixteenth 
 century, was the natural son of the emperor Charles V. 
 and Barbara Blomberg, a native of Germany. He was 
 
 born at Ratisbon in 1 546, and passed as the son of a 
 Spanish nobleman named Quixada, by whom he was 
 educated. Charles V. on his death-bed recommended 
 him to the protection of Philip II., who soon after ac- 
 knowledged John as his brother and made appropria- 
 tions which enabled him to live in princely state. At 
 the age of twenty-two he was appointed commander-in- 
 chief of the forces sent against the Moriscoes of Granada, 
 whom he vanquished in several battles and finally re- 
 duced tocomplete subjection. In 1571, war having been 
 declared between Philip II. and the Sultan, Don John 
 was appointed generalissimo of the combined fleets of 
 Spain and Italy. He sailed from Messina in the middle 
 of September with two hundred and fifty ships of war 
 and about fifty thousand men, and on the 71I1 of October 
 encountered the Turkish fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto, 
 where he gained one of the greatest naval victories of 
 which history makes mention. Soon after the battle 
 of Lepanto he received an embassy from thf Greeks of 
 Albania and Macedonia, requesting him to sssist them 
 against the Turks and to receive the sovereignty of their 
 countries. Don John was prevented from accepting the 
 offer by Philip, who, jealous of his brother's reputation, 
 refused the assistance necessary for the enterprise. Don 
 John, in a subsequent expedition against Africa, took 
 Tunis, Biserta, and several other important places. He 
 was appointed in 1576 Governor of the Netherlands, 
 which were then in a state of rebellion. He at first used 
 conciliatory measures; but the States, suspecting him 
 of duplicity, declined his overtures and prepared for war. 
 Don John soon after took Namur by stratagem, and on 
 the 1st of January, 1578, gained the decisive victory of 
 Gemblours. He afterwards reduced Louvain, Nivclle, 
 and other towns belonging to the insurgents. While 
 thus actively engaged, in October, 1578, he was seized 
 with an illness which carried him to the grave. Strong 
 suspicions were entertained by many that he was poisoned. 
 
 See L. van der Hammen, "Vida de Don Juan," 1627: Mrusi.b 
 de Montpleinchamp, " Vie de Don Juan d'Autriche," 1600 ; Alexis 
 Dumesn-ii, "Vie de Don Juan d'Autriche," 1827; MoTl.EY, " Rise 
 of the Dutch Republic." vol. iii. part v. chaps, i.-v. ; PrESCOTT, 
 '• History of Philip 1 1," vol. ii. ; J. P. Lyskr, " Erzherzog Johann, 
 der Freund des Volkes," 184S; Schneidewind, " Leben des Erz- 
 herzogs Johann von Oesterreich," etc., 1849; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeneVale," 1848. 
 
 John or Johann, (Nepomuk Maria Joseph,) born in 
 1801, succeeded his brother Frederick Augustus as King 
 of Saxony in 1854. He was distinguished for great virtues 
 as a ruler, and for his literary attainments, and published 
 a translation of Dante's "Divine Comedy." He was an 
 allv of Austria in the war against Prussia in 1866. 
 
 John of Bayeux, [Fr. Jean de Bayeux, zIion deh 
 bi'yuh',) a haughty and violent French prelate. He 
 became Archbishop of Rouen in 1070. Died in 1079. 
 
 John of Brienne, [Fr. Jean de Brienne, zho.s deh 
 bRe'Sn',] King of Jerusalem, and Regent of Constanti- 
 nople, was born in France. He assisted in the taking 
 of Jerusalem in 1204, and in 1218, at the head of a Latin 
 army, he took Damietta. In 1226 he was compelled to 
 resign Jerusalem to the emperor Frederick II. Three 
 years later he was elected, by the French barons in the 
 East, Regent of Constantinople, which he bravely de- 
 fended against the Greek emperor John Ducas. Died 
 in 1237. 
 
 John of Bruges. See Eyck, (John van.) 
 
 John of Caitadocia, a theologian, became Patriarch 
 of Constantinople about 518. He co-operated with the 
 pope Hormisdas in the restoration of union between 
 the Eastern and Western Churches. Died in 520. 
 
 John IX OF Cappadocia became Patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople about 582 a.d. Died in 596. 
 
 John, sumamed Climacus or Climachus. See 
 Climacus. 
 
 John of Gis'cala or Gischai.a, a Jewish captain, 
 was an enemy of Josephus the historian. He was the 
 chief of one of the factions of zealots and outlaws that 
 fought against each other and against the Romans in Je- 
 rusalem while that city was besieged by Titus, in 70 A.D. 
 On the capture of the city he was imprisoned for life. 
 
 John of LUXEMBURG, sumamed the Blind, son ol 
 the emperor Henry VII., was born in 1295. '" T 3°9 
 he was elected King of Bohemia, and in 1322 he con- 
 
 « as i; c as s; g Hard; g an/; c, H, m, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. (By See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 8l 
 
JOHN 
 
 1282 
 
 JOHNSON 
 
 quered Silesia. In 1331 he formed a league with Louis 
 of Bavaria, Emperor of Germany, against Pope John 
 XXII., and entered Italy. The pope then offered to 
 recognize him as King of Italy. The emperor, in order 
 to prevent this, invaded Bohemia. John left the com- 
 mand of his army in Italy to his son, returned to Bo- 
 hemia, and drove out Louis. He was soon after attacked 
 with a disease in his eyes, which produced blindness, 
 but did not in the least affect his spirit of enterprise. 
 He invaded Poland, reduced it to subjection, and formed 
 an alliance with Philip of France against the English. 
 He was mortally wounded at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, 
 after having performed great feats of valour. 
 
 See Froissart, "Chronicles;" Sismondi, "Histoire des Fran- 
 cis." 
 
 John of Ragusa, a learned Romish prelate, was in 
 1426 sent by Martin V. to the Council of Bale, over which 
 he presided in 1431. He distinguished himself by his 
 controversies with the followers of Huss. 
 
 John ok Salishury, a learned scholastic philosopher 
 and writer, born at Salisbury about 1 120. He entered 
 the service of Thomas a Becket, and became his secre- 
 tary. In 1 176 he was appointed Bishop of Chartres. 
 He wrote, besides other valuable works, " Polycraticus 
 de Nugis Curialium et Vestigiis Philosophorum," which 
 is a satire on the follies of courtiers, etc., and a " Life 
 of Thomas a Becket." Died in 1 180. His works were 
 published by J. A. Giles, Oxford, (5 vols., 1848.) 
 
 See " Gallia Christiana," tome viii. ; B. Haukeau, " De la Philo- 
 sophic scholastique ;" "Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 John of Seville or De Luna, a learned Jewish 
 convert of the twelfth century. He translated into Span- 
 ish many valuable Arabic works. 
 
 John of Suabia, surnamed the Parricide, born 
 in 1289, was a nephew of the emperor Albert I. The 
 latter, having withheld from him his hereditary domains, 
 was murdered by John and a band of conspirators. 
 
 See Brantome, " Vies des grands Capitaines." 
 
 John of Udine. See Giovanni. 
 
 John (Johann) Baptist, (Joseph Fabian Sebas- 
 tian,) Archduke of Austria, born in 1782, was a son of 
 Leopold II. He succeeded Kray in 1800 as commander 
 of the Austrian army, and was defeated by General 
 Moreau at Hohenlinden, in December of that year. In 
 the campaign of 1809 he directed the operations in the 
 Tyrol, and gained a victory over the viceroy Eugene. In 
 June, 1848, he was elected Vicar of the German empire 
 by the Parliament at Frankfort. He resigned that office 
 in December, 1849. Died in 1859. 
 
 John Cas'I-mir, [Ger. Johann Casimir, yo'han 
 ka'ze-miR,] Count Palatine, born in 1543, was the second 
 son of the Elector-Palatine Frederick III. He was a 
 zealous Calvinist, and in 1568 raised an army with which 
 he invaded Lorraine to aid the French Huguenots. In 
 1575 he again entered France, as the ally of the Prince 
 of Conde. His court at Neustadt became the centre 
 of the Calvinist policy. After the death of his father, 
 John Casimir was the political chief of the Reformers. 
 Died in 1592. 
 
 See De Thou, " Histoire Universale ." Daniel Parens, "His- 
 toria Palatina ;" F. Junius, " Ecloga in Obitum Joannis Casimiri," 
 1592; "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 John Comnenus. See Cai.o-Joannes. 
 John Damascenus. See Damascenus. 
 John Frederick [Ger. Johann Friedrich, yo'han 
 freed'riK] I. of Saxony, surnamed the MAGNANIMOUS, 
 
 was a son of the Elector John the Constant, whom he 
 succeeded in 1532. Having joined the Protestant League 
 of Schmalkalden, he was taken prisoner at the battle of 
 Miihlberg, but was released through the intervention of 
 his cousin, Maurice of Saxony. Died in 1554. 
 
 See Eksch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Caspar 
 Sagittarius. "Historia Joannis Friderici Electoris," etc., 1678; C. 
 I'.uuKK. " Nachricht von der Kurfiirst Johann Friedrich's zu Sach- 
 sen," 1755. 
 
 John Frederick II., Duke of Saxony, and a son of 
 the preceding, was born in 1529. He began to reign 
 in 1554. Died in 1595. 
 
 John Gsorge [Ger. Johann Gkorg, yo'han ga'oRG] 
 X, Elector of Saxony, born in 1585, began to reign in 
 161 1. During the Thirty Years' war his course was 
 
 vacillating, alternately favouring the cause of the emperor 
 and of the Protestant allies. In 1635 he made a disad- 
 vantageous peace with Ferdinand II. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Karl August MOller, " Kurfiirst Johann Georg I., seine 
 Familie," etc., 183S; Seeligmann, "Dissertatio de Vita Joannis 
 Georgii I.," 1676. 
 
 John George II., Elector of Saxony, born in 1613, 
 began to reign in 1656, and distinguished himself as a 
 legislator. Died in 1680. 
 
 See Stockmann, "Programma: Elector Joannes Georgius II. 
 Saxonia? et Lusatia; Legislator," 1780. 
 
 John of Antioch, or John the Scholastic, [Lat. 
 Johan'nes Antioche'nus, or Johan'nes Schohs'ti- 
 cus; Fr. Jean d'Antiochk, zhON doN'te-osh',] a Greek 
 canonist, born at Antioch, became Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople in 565 A.D. He published a collection of canons. 
 Died in 578. (See Malala.) 
 
 John of Bologna. See Bologna. 
 
 John of Damascus. See Damascenus. 
 
 John of Gaunt or Ghent, Duke of Lancaster, a 
 younger son of Edward III. of England, was born in 
 1340. He served under his brother Edward the Black 
 Prince in the French wars, where he gained great dis- 
 tinction for his skill and bravery. He married Constance, 
 a natural daughter of Peter the Cruel, King of Castile 
 and Leon, and, on the death of that monarch, laid claim 
 to the sovereignty of those kingdoms, but was defeated by 
 Henry of Trastamara. He subsequently gave hisdaughter 
 in marriage to the heir-apparent of the crowns of Castile 
 and Leon, upon which he resigned his own claims. His 
 third wife was a sister-in-law of the poet Chaucer, to 
 whom he proved a liberal patron. Died in 1399. His 
 son, surnamed Bolingbroke, afterwards ascended the 
 throne of England, with the title of Henry IV. 
 
 John of Leyden, sometimes called Johann Bock- 
 elson or Beccold, a notorious fanatic, born at Leyden 
 in 1 5 10. Having joined the Anabaptists, he associated 
 himself with Matthys, and with his followers took pos- 
 session of the city of Minister. After committing the 
 greatest excesses and cruelties, he was taken prisoner 
 by the Bishop of Minister, and executed in 1536. 
 
 See Jochmus, "Geschiclite der Munsterschen Wiedertaufer ;" 
 Robertson, " History of Charles V.," book v.; C. A. Vulpius, 
 "Johann von Leyden," 1793; J. C. Wali.mann, "Johann von Ley- 
 den," 1S44; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 John the Baptist, | Fr. Jean Baptiste, z1i6n bip'- 
 test'; It Giovanni Battista, jo-van'nee bat-tis'ta,] 
 son of Zacharias, a Jewish priest, and his wife Elisabeth. 
 It was foretold of him that he should come in the spirit 
 and power of Elias, to prepare the way of the Lord. 
 (Luke i. 17.) Our Saviour also said that no prophet 
 was greater than John the Baptist. (Luke vii. 28.) He 
 began to preach and to baptize in the desert country 
 through which the Jordan flowed. It was here that 
 Jesus received baptism and was proclaimed by him as 
 the promised Messiah. He was subsequently cast into 
 prison, and beheaded by the order of Herod. 
 
 See Mark vi. 16-30. 
 
 Johnes, jdnz, ? (Thomas,) an English scholar and 
 bibliomaniac, born at Ludlow, in Shropshire, in 1748. 
 He was twice elected a member of Parliament. He 
 translated Froissart's "Chronicle," and other literary 
 works, from the French. Died in 1816. 
 
 Johu'son, (Alexander B.,) an author and tanker, 
 born in Gosport, England, in 1786. He settled in Utica, 
 New York, in 1801, and engaged in banking o petitions 
 in that town. He devoted his leisure to the study of 
 the nature of human knowledge, or ideas irrespective of 
 the words by which they are expressed. The results of 
 his investigation are his " Philosophy of Human Know- 
 ledge, or a Treatise on Language," (1828,) a " Treatise on 
 Language, or the Relation which Words bear to Things," 
 (1836,) and other publications on the same subject. His 
 "Physiology of the Senses" (1856) was highly com- 
 mended by the " Westminster Review." He has also 
 published a "Treatise on Banking." 
 
 John'son, (Andrew,) the seventeenth President of 
 the United States, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, 
 in 1808. He learned the trade of a tailor, which he fol- 
 lowed for many years at Greenville, Tennessee. He was 
 self-educated, and, it is said, never attended any school. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u,y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a,e, j, Q,oiscure; fir, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
JOHNSON 
 
 1283 
 
 JOHNSON 
 
 In 1828 he was elected alderman, and in 1830 mayor, of 
 Greenville. After he had served several terms in the 
 legislature of Tennessee, he was elected a member of 
 Congress by the Democrats in 1843, and continued in 
 that body for ten years. He was chosen Governor of 
 Tennessee in 1S53, and again in 1855. In 1857 he was 
 elected a United States Senator for six years. Having 
 taken a decided stand against the disunion movement in 
 i860 and 1861, he was appointed Military Governor of 
 Tennessee by President Lincoln in 1862. 1 le was elected 
 Vice-President of the United States by the Republicans 
 in November, 1864, and, on the death of Mr. Lincoln, 
 became President in April, 1865. On his accession to 
 office he displayed at first a spirit of great severity 
 against the rebels, but soon afterwards adopted a line of 
 policy in relation to the reconstruction of the seceded 
 Slates which was very favourable to them. His policy, 
 which tended to restore the domination of the secession- 
 ists and to reduce the freedmen again to many of the 
 evils of slavery, was rejected by a majority of Congress ; 
 »nd a violent contest ensued between that body and the 
 President, who vetoed numerous acts passed by Con- 
 gress for the reconstruction of the Southern States, etc. 
 His vetoes, however, were overruled by a majority of 
 two-thirds in each House, and the policy of Congress 
 prevailed. In the course of a tour from Washington to 
 Chicago, in 1866, he made many undignified political 
 speeches, which rendered him very unpopular, and in 
 the next elections his opponents, the Radicals, obtained 
 large and increased majorities. He opposed impartial 
 suffrage, recommended repudiation, and co-operated with 
 the Democratic party. He pardoned a large number 
 of counterfeiters. In August, 1867, he suspended Mr. 
 Stanton, secretary of war, and appointed General Grant 
 secretary ad interim. The Senate of the United States 
 reinstated Mr. Stanton in January, 1868, and President 
 Johnson quarrelled with General Grant because he gave 
 up the war office to Mr. Stanton. Great excitement was 
 produced by the attempt of the President to remove Mr. 
 Stanton in February, and he was impeached of high 
 crimes and misdemeanours by a large majority of the 
 House of Representatives. Among the crimes charged 
 against him was the violation of the "Act regulating 
 the Tenure of certain Civil Offices," by the removal of 
 Mr. Stanton without the consent of the Senate. The 
 trial before the Senate began about March 13, and ended, 
 May 26, in his acquittal. Thirty-five Senators voted that 
 he was guilty, and nineteen voted not guilty. Among 
 the latter were seven Republicans. 
 
 Sec "Life of Andrew Johnson," New York, 1866; "The Trial 
 of Andrew Johnson," (official,) 3 vols., 1868. 
 
 Johnson, (Ren.) See Jonson, (Ben.) 
 
 Johnson, (Chapman,) an eminent American lawyer, 
 born in Virginia in 1779. He began the practice of law 
 at Staunton, and rose to the first rank in his profession. 
 He served as aide-de-camp to General James Brecken- 
 ridge in the second war with Great Britain. Died in 1849. 
 
 John'son, (Charles,) an English dramatic writer, 
 born in 1679, is mentioned in Pope's "Dunciad," particu- 
 larly on account of his obesity. The comedy of the 
 "Country Lasses" was the most popular of his plays. 
 Died in 1748. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Johnson, (Cuthp.kkt W.,) an English writer on agri- 
 culture, bom at Bromley, Kent, about 1800. He pub- 
 lished "The Farmer's Encyclopaedia and Dictionary of 
 Rural Affairs," (1842.) 
 
 Johnson, (Eastman,) an American painter of por- 
 traits and genre, born near Freyburg, Maine. Among 
 his works are "The Old Kentucky Home," "Savoyard 
 "The Woodsman," "The Chimney-Comer," and 
 other admirable delineations of common life. 
 
 See Tuckerman, "Hook of the Artists." 
 
 Johnson, (Edwari>,) one of the earliest historians of 
 New England, born in Kent, England, about 1600. He 
 emigrated to Charlestow 11, Massachusetts, in 1630. Died 
 in 1672. His valuable "History of New England from 
 the English Planting in 1628 till 1652" was published in 
 London In 1650, and afterwards in the Massachusetts 
 Historical Collections. 
 
 Johnson, (EDWARD,) an American general, born in 
 Kentucky, graduated at West Point in 1838. He com- 
 manded a division of Lee's army at Gettysburg, Julv 1-3, 
 1863, and was taken prisoner at Spottsylvania Court- 
 House, May 12, 1864. 
 
 Johnson, (Gabriel.) See Johnston. 
 
 Johnson, (Hester.) See Swift, (Jonathan.) 
 
 Johnson,(IsAAC,) one of the founders of Massachusetts 
 colony, came from England with Governor Winthrop in 
 1630. He and three others organized, July 30, the church 
 of Boston at Charlestown ; but, for the want of good 
 water, they removed to Shawmut, now Boston, which 
 was settled under Johnson's supervision. Died in 1630. 
 
 Johnson, (James,) an Irish physician, born about 
 1777, practised in London. He published, besides other 
 medical works, a "Treatise on the Influence of Tropical 
 Climates on* European Constitutions," and "The Econ- 
 omy of Health." Died in 1845. 
 
 See " Life of Dr. James Johnson," by his son, 1846. 
 
 Johnson, (John,) a learned nonjuring divine, born 
 in Kent, England, in 1662. He was the author of " Holy 
 David and his Old English Translation Cleared," written 
 in Answer to one of the works of Baxter, "The Clergy- 
 man's Vade-Mecum," (1708,) and several other works. 
 Died in 1725. 
 
 See Thomas Brett, "Life of John Johnson," 174S. 
 
 Johnson, (Sir John,) a general, son of Sir William, 
 noticed below, was born in 1742. He was a royalist in 
 the Revolution, instigated the Indians to fight for the 
 king, and conducted several raids from Canada against 
 the State of New York. Near the close of last century 
 he was appointed Governor of Upper Canada. Died in 
 1830. 
 
 Johnson, (Joseph,) M.D., brother of Judge William 
 Johnson, was born in Charleston in 1776. He practised 
 as a physician in his native city, and in 1807 was chosen 
 president of the Medical Society of South Carolina. He 
 took an active part in the literary and political move- 
 ments of Charleston, was long mayor of the city, and a 
 prominent leader of the party which opposed nullifica- 
 tion in 1832-33. He wrote a valuable work entitled " Tra- 
 ditions and Reminiscences of the Revolution," (1851.) 
 
 Johnson, (Manuel John,) an English astronomer, 
 born about 1805. He was astronomer of the Radcliffe 
 Observatory of Oxford, and published "Astronomical 
 Observations," (13 vols., 1845-55.) Died m 1 %S9- 
 
 Johnson, (Martin,) an English landscape-painter 
 and seal-engraver of the time of Charles II. Died 
 about 1685. 
 
 Johnson, (Maurice,) an English lawyer and antiqua- 
 rian, born in Lincolnshire. He founded an antiquarian 
 society at Spalding, and wrote several commentaries. 
 Died in 1755. 
 
 Johnson, (Revf.rdy,) an American lawyer, son of 
 Judge Johnson, was born in Annapolis, Maryland, May 
 21, 1796. He studied at Saint Tohn's College, was 
 admitted to the bar in 1815, and followed his profession 
 with great success in Baltimore. He has also been 
 extensively engaged in cases before the supreme court of 
 the United States. In 1845 he was elected by the Whigs 
 to the United States Senate. This position he resigned 
 in 1849 to accept the attorney-generalship of the United 
 States, tendered him by President Taylor. On the death 
 of General Taylor, in July, 1850, Mr. Johnson resumed 
 his profession in Baltimore. In connection with Thomas 
 Harris, he has published seven volumes of reports of 
 the Maryland court of appeals, (from 1800 to 1826.) He 
 was elected a Senator of the United States for six years, 
 (1863-69,) and appointed minister to England in June, 
 1868. He negotiated in relation to the Alabama claims 
 a convention which the Senate of the United States 
 rejected almost unanimously. He was recalled early 
 in 1869. 
 
 Johnson, (Richard,) a commentator and gramma- 
 rian, born in England. Among his works are "Noctes 
 Nottinghamicae, and "Grammatical Commentaries." 
 Died in 1721. 
 
 Johnson, (Richard Mentor,) ninth Vice-President 
 of the United States, was born near Louisville, Kentucky, 
 in 1780. He studied at Transylvania University, and 
 practised law with success. Elected a representative 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; c, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (f^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JOHNSON 
 
 1284 
 
 JOHNSON 
 
 to Congress in 1807, he zealously supported the admin- 
 istration of President Madison, and was regularly re- 
 elected for a period of twelve years. On the breaking 
 out of the war of 1812, he raised and commanded a 
 regiment of mounted riflemen on the Indian frontier. In 
 1813 he again took the field, and contributed greatly to 
 Harrison's victory of the Thames, (October 5, 1813.) 
 The Indian chief Tecumseh, who fell in this battle, is 
 generally believed to have been killed by Colonel John- 
 son, who was dangerously wounded. In 1819 he was 
 transferred to the United States Senate, of which he 
 was a member for ten years. He was again returned to 
 the House of Representatives in 1829, and was regularly 
 re-elected till chosen Vice-President in 1837, Van Buren 
 being the President. None of the candidates for Vice- 
 President having on that occasion received a majority 
 of votes in the electoral college, Colonel "Johnson was 
 elected by the United States Senate. He was again 
 the candidate for the Vice- Presidency on the ticket with 
 Van Buren in 1840, but was defeated. Died in 1850. 
 
 Johnson, (Richard \V.,) an American general, born 
 in Kentucky about 1827, graduated at West Point in 
 1849. He commanded a division at the battle of Stone 
 River, December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863, afid at Chick- 
 amauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. He served under 
 General Sherman in Georgia in May, 1864. 
 
 John'son, (Samuel,) an English divine, memorable 
 for his undaunted support of the Protestant cause, was 
 born in Staffordshire in 1649. Soon after he had taken 
 orders he removed to London. He became an earnest 
 advocate of the bill of exclusion against James, Duke 
 of York, and published a tract entitled "Julian the 
 Apostate," (1682,) in which he refuted the arguments in 
 favour of passive obedience. For writing this article he 
 was tried and imprisoned ; but during his confinement he 
 issued several treatises against popery. In 1686 he wrote 
 "An Humble and Hearty Address to all the English 
 Protestants in the Present Army." For the production 
 of this essay he was sentenced to stand three times in 
 the pillory, to pay a fine of five hundred marks, and to 
 be publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn. He bore 
 all these sufferings with great firmness. He subsequently 
 wrote in favour of the Revolution, and also of William 
 of Orange, on whose accession he was rewarded with 
 a present of ^1000 and an annuity of ^300. Died in 
 
 Johnson, (Samuel,) an eccentric English dramatic 
 writer, born in Cheshire about 1705. He wrote, besides 
 other comedies, " Hurlothrumbo, or the Supernatural." 
 Died in 1773. 
 
 See Bakek, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Johnson, (Samuel,) one of the most eminent Eng- 
 lish writers of the eighteenth century, a son of Michael 
 Johnson, a bookseller, was born at Lichfield, September 
 18, 1709. He commenced his studies in his native town, 
 and subsequently continued them at a school in Stour- 
 bridge. In 1728 he entered Pembroke College, Oxford. 
 From boyhood he had been afflicted with the scrofula, 
 which greatly impaired his eyesight and weakened his 
 constitution. To this may be attributed the natural in- 
 dolence which he never fully succeeded in overcoming. 
 Notwithstanding these obstacles, he acquired such stores 
 of knowledge that, when he was examined at Oxford, 
 one of the officers pronounced him to be the best pre- 
 pared among all those who had entered since his re- 
 membrance. Three years afterwards he was under the 
 necessity of leaving college, on account of the narrowness 
 of his resources. The same year, his father dying under 
 pecuniary embarrassments, he obtained employment as 
 usher to a school in Market-Bosworth. The duties of 
 this office, however, soon became so irksome that he 
 threw it up and removed to Birmingham, where he had 
 made an engagement to contribute to a newspaper. It 
 was there, also, that he produced his first book, an 
 abridged translation from the French of " Father Lobos' 
 Voyage into Abyssinia," for which he received the small 
 compensation of five guineas. In 1736 he married Mrs. 
 Porter, the widow of a mercer. This lady is described 
 as being nearly twice his age, and as having vulgar 
 manners, a loud voice, and florid complexion. Johnson 
 said, however, that it was a love-match on both sides. 
 
 Not long after, he attempted to establish an academy at 
 Edial Hall, where he obtained only three pupils, one of 
 whom was David Garrick. In 1737 he went to London, 
 accompanied by Garrick. In a short time he produced, 
 in imitation of the third Satire of Juvenal, a poem on 
 London, which attracted great attention. Pope remarked 
 "that the author, whoever he was, would not be long 
 concealed." It was in the metropolis that Johnson 
 formed a friendship for the poet Savage, with whom he 
 frequently walked the streets at night because they were 
 too poor to procure lodgings. In 1740 he wrote the 
 parliamentary speeches for the "Gentleman's Magazine," 
 and in 1744 published the "Life of Richard Savage." 
 Three years later he commenced his English Dictionary. 
 In March, 1749, the first number of the " Rambler" was 
 issued. Johnson continued this periodical until his wife's 
 death, in 1752, which affected his mind so deeply that he 
 suspended many of his literary labours. In 1762 George 
 III. grauted him a pension of ^300 per annum; and 
 from that time he was enabled to live in ease and inde- 
 pendence. He became a member of the famous literary 
 club to which Burke, Goldsmith, Reynolds, and many 
 other celebrated men belonged. He received the degree 
 of LL.D. in 1765 from the University of Dublin, but did 
 not assume the title until several years later, when the 
 same honour was conferred on him by the University of 
 Oxford. He was also treated with marked attention by 
 the king, to whom he was introduced at the library in 
 Buckingham House. In 1773 he made an excursion to 
 the Western Islands of Scotland, of which he wrote 
 an account, and two years later visited Paris. In 1781 
 he finished the "Lives of the British Poets," the last of 
 his literary works. He died in 1784, from the effects 
 of dropsy and asthma. 
 
 Johnson's intellect was incisive, comprehensive, and 
 profound ; and, when free from the influence of prejudice 
 or passion, his judgments are, generally speaking, re- 
 markably just. He seemed to seize, instantaneously and 
 without effort, the essential features of the subject under 
 discussion, and his decisions are often expressed with a 
 clearness and force that make a vivid and indelible im- 
 pression upon the minds of his readers. He was pre- 
 eminently distinguished for his conversational powers ; 
 in society he was original, pointed, logical, and fond of 
 argument, in which no one but Burke could successfully 
 encounter him. Much of the intolerance and ill temper 
 which he too often betrayed on such occasions must be 
 ascribed to distressing and deep-rooted bodily infirmi- 
 ties, which powerfully reacted upon his mind. If his 
 disposition was irritable, his heart was essentially kind 
 and generous. Few persons, with means so limited as 
 his, ever spent more for charitable or benevolent pur- 
 poses. " He loved the poor," says Mrs. Thrale, " as I 
 never yet saw any one else love them. . . . He nursed 
 whole nests of people in his house, where the lame, the 
 blind, the sick, and the sorrowful found a sure retreat." 
 Francis Barber, the servant and friend of Dr. Johnson, 
 was originally a Jamaica slave. It is related that John- 
 son, on making his will, asked his physician what would 
 be a sufficient annuity for a faithful servant. Being told 
 that fifty pounds a year would be regarded as adequate 
 in the case of a nobleman, "Then," he said, "I shall 
 be nobilissimus; for I mean to leave Frank seventy pounds 
 a year." "That, with all his coarseness and irrita- 
 bility," says Macaulay, (who will scarcely be accused of 
 any undue partiality to Johnson,) " he was a man of 
 sterling benevolence, has long been acknowledged. But 
 how gentle and endearing his deportment could be was 
 not known till the ' Recollections of Madame D'Arblay ' 
 were published." Although certainly not wanting in a 
 proper respect for dignities, he possessed a true Saxon 
 independence of character.'of which his well-known letter 
 to Lord Chesterfield furnishes a fine illustration. He 
 was a sincere and humble believer in the great truths 
 of Christianity, which he ably upheld and defended. 
 
 Johnson was great in all the branches of literature to 
 which he devoted his attention. Few men have exerted 
 so great an influence while living, — an influence which 
 will probably be felt far into the future. His poems, 
 which are chiefly descriptive and satirical, have been 
 greatly admired by some of the most eminent critics. 
 
 5, e, T, 0, u, y, long; a, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 11, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; mooni 
 
JOHNSON 
 
 1285 
 
 JOHNSTON 
 
 " I have had," said Sir Walter Scott, " more pleasure 
 in reading 'London' and the 'Vanity of Human Wishes' 
 than any other poetical composition that I can mention." 
 Of the latter Byron remarks, " 'Tis a grand poem, all 
 the examples and mode of giving them sublime." His 
 romances and plays attracted less attention. He was 
 particularly unsuccessful with his female characters. 
 Burke aptly remarked that among his dramatic persona; 
 "all the ladies introduced were Johnsons in petticoats." 
 I lis excellence in literary criticism lies in his strength, 
 perspicuity, and originality of thought. His critical 
 observations are generally extremely just (as already 
 intimated) when not biased by prejudice. He had not, 
 however, that nice discrimination or sensibility requisite 
 in order to appreciate poetical beauties of a delicate or 
 subtle kind. His most important critical works are the 
 * Preface and Notes to Shakspeare," and "The Lives 
 of the British Poets," His English Dictionary, upon 
 which he bestowed vast labour for several years, is 
 probably the most remarkable work of the kind ever 
 produced by a single person. His style, precise and 
 stately, was much admired and imitated during his 
 lifetime ; but at present the prevailing taste in literature 
 has pronounced it too artificial and elaborate to be ever 
 used as a model. 
 
 See linswKi.i.. "Life of Johnson;" review of Choker's edition 
 of Boswki.l's "Life of Johnson," in Macaulay's ''Essays; 1 ' 
 "Anecdotes of Dr. Johnson," by Madame P102I1, (Mrs. Thkalh.) 
 1786; Anderson, "Life of Johnson," 1795; Thomas Caki.ylh, 
 " Heroes and Hero- Worship ;" Scott's Miscellaneous ProM 
 Works; Cakv, "Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke 
 White;" "London Quarterly Review" for November, 1S31, June, 
 1S50, April, 1S5S, and January, 1*50; "Westminster Review" for 
 October, 1S31 ; see, also, ihe excellent and elaborate article in Ai.1.1- 
 1 " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Johnson, (SAMUEL.) D.D., born in Guilford, Con- 
 necticut, in 1696, graduated at Yale in 1714 Having 
 become an Episcopalian, he took holy orders in England 
 in 1722, and on his return settled at Stratford. He was 
 n president of King's College in 1754. This posi- 
 tion be resinned in 1763. Died in 1772. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " System of Morality." 
 
 Johnson, (Thomas,) a lieutenant-colonel in the royal 
 army, distinguished as a botanist, was born at Selby, 
 in Yorkshire. He received from the University of Ox- 
 ford the title of M.D. He was mortally wounded at 
 ihe siege of Basinghouse, in 1644. He wrote several 
 botanical works. 
 
 Johnson, (Thomas,) an English scholar, born in 
 Oxfordshire, was educated at Cambridge, where in 1692 
 he received the degree of M.A. He edited Sophocles, 
 (1705,) and other classical works. Died about 1750. 
 
 Johnson, (WALTER Rogers,) an American chemist 
 and geologist, born in Leominster, Massachusetts, about 
 1794. He graduated at Harvard in 1819; and, while 
 professor of mechanics, natural philosophy, etc. in the 
 Philadelphia High School, he contributed largely by 
 lectures and essays towards introducing an improved 
 system of common-school education in Pennsylvania. 
 lie afterwards made important investigations in the 
 geology of that State, particularly the coal formations, 
 filled lor four years (1839-43) the chair of chemistry in 
 the Medical University of Pennsylvania, and in 1844 
 published, by order of' Congress, 'his " Keport on the 
 Different Varieties of Coal." Died in 1852. 
 
 Johnson, (William,) judge of the supreme court of 
 the United States, was born in Charleston, South Caro- 
 lina, in 1771. He was a brother of Joseph, noticed above. 
 He graduated at Princeton, with the highest honours of 
 in 1790, rose to distinction at the bar of his 
 native State, and was appointed judge by Jefferson in 
 l8ci. He died, while undergoing a surgical operation, 
 in New York, in 1834. He published "The Life and 
 Correspondence of Major-General Greene," (2 vols., 
 1822. 1 
 
 Johnson, (Sir William.) a British military officer, 
 born about 1715, was employed in North America, and 
 had great influence over the Indians. He Commanded 
 an expedition sent against Crown Point in 1755, and 
 defeated the French and their Indian allies, lie wrote 
 a short work "On the Customs and Languages of the 
 American Indians." Died in New York in 1774. 
 
 See "Life and Times of Sir W.John on." by W. L. Stone, 1865. 
 
 OCc Ljiit; stun x iiiicb ui ..>■» »■ • j""" «••» •-/ •- ■ — — - » j- 
 
 e as i; s as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K.guttural; V, nasal; R, 
 
 Johnson, (William B.,) a Baptist minister, born near 
 Charleston, South Carolina, in 1782. He presided over 
 the Baptist Convention of South Caiolina for twenty five 
 years or more. He was the author of several religious 
 winks. 
 
 Johnson, (William Samuel,) F.R.S., an eloquent 
 American lawyer and scholar, born at Stratford, Con- 
 necticut, in 1727, graduated at Yale in 1744. Having 
 been sent as a colonial agent to England in 1766, he 
 became an acquaintance of the celebrated Dr. Johnson, 
 with whom he corresponded for many years. He was 
 elected to Congress in 1785, was a member of the con- 
 vention which formed the Federal Constitution in 1787, 
 and was elected a United States Senator for Connecticut 
 in 1789. He was president of Columbia College, New 
 York, from 1791 until 1800. Died in 1819. 
 
 Johns'ton, (Ai.ukkt SYDNEY,) an eminent American 
 general, born in Mason county, Kentucky, in 1803, 
 graduated at West Point in 1826. Having resigned his 
 commission in 1834, he enlisted as a private soldier in 
 the army of Texas in 1836. He soon became commander- 
 in-chief, in place of F. Houston, with whom he fought 
 a duel about 1837. He was secretary of war of the 
 republic of Texas, 1838-40, and served as colonel of 
 the army of the United States in the Mexican war, 
 (1846-47.) In 1849 he was appointed paymaster of the 
 army of the United States. Having been raised to the 
 rank of colonel, he commanded the expedition sent to 
 Utah against the Mormons in 1857. In i860 he took 
 command of the department of the Pacific. He offered 
 his services to the secessionists in 1861, and was ap- 
 pointed commander of the department of Kentucky 
 and Tennessee. He occupied a fortified position at 
 Bowling Green in the autumn of 1861. The capture 
 of Fort Donelson, February 16, 1862, having rendered 
 this position untenable, he moved hastily southward 
 into Tennessee, and formed a junction with the army 
 of General Beauregard at Corinth. About six weeks 
 were spent in this disastrous retreat. He collected a 
 force of about 50,000 men at Corinth, and attacked the 
 army of General Grant at Shiloh on the 6th of April, 
 1862. He was killed about two P.M. on the first day 
 of this battle, by a ball, which cut an artery of his leg. 
 "A. S. Johnston," says Mr. Greeley, "was probably 
 the ablest commander at any time engaged in the rebel 
 service." ("American Conflict.") 
 
 See Life of A. S. Johnston in "Southern Generals," (anony- 
 mous.) 1865; Tenney, "Military and Naval History of the Rebel- 
 lion," 1S65. 
 
 Johns'ton, (ALEXANDER,) a Scottish painter, born in 
 Edinburgh in 1816. His works mostly represent familiar 
 scenes of Scottish life, or events in Scottish history. 
 
 Johnston, (ALEXANDER KBtTH,) an eminent geog- 
 rapher, was born at Rirkhill, in Scotland, in 1X04. In 
 order to be thoroughly informed upon geography, he 
 made himself acquainted with the French, Spanish, 
 Italian, and German languages. His first important 
 work, the "National Atlas," was issued in 1843. In 
 1848 he published a valuable " Physical Atlas," which 
 greatly extended the celebrity of it's author. He wa9 
 elected a member of the Geographical Societies of Ber- 
 lin and Paris, of the Geological Society of London, and 
 the Koyal Society of Edinburgh. Of the other works 
 of Mr. Johnston may be mentioned "A Dictionary of 
 Geography," (1850,) and an "Atlas of the Historical 
 Geography of Europe." 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1849. 
 
 Johnston, (Dr. Arthur,) a Scottish physician and 
 poet, eminent for his classical learning, was born in Aber- 
 deenshire in 1587. He pursued his studies mostly on 
 the continent, and in 1610 received the degree of M.l>. 
 at Padua. He afterwards resided at Paris several years, 
 and on his return to England, in 1632, was appointed 
 physician-in-ordinary to Charles I. Died in 1641. lie 
 contributed to Sir John Scott's collection of Latin 
 is, and composed, in Latin, "Poetical Paraphrase* 
 
 of the Psalms of David," (1637.) "I am inclined to 
 think," says 1 1, ill. tin, "that Johnston's Ps.tlnis do not 
 fall far short of those of Buchanan, either in elegance 
 of style or in correctness ol I.atinity." 
 
 S'-c Inving, "Lives of Scom-.li Writers;" Chambers, "Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jry-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JOHNSTON 
 
 1286 
 
 JOHNSTONE 
 
 Johnston, (Gahrif.i.,) a native of Scotland, was ap- 
 pointed colonial governor of North Carolina in 1734; 
 died in 1752. 
 
 Johnston, (George,) a distinguished naturalist, was 
 born at Simprin in 1789, and graduated as a physician at 
 the University of Edinburgh in 1819. Among his inter- 
 esting and valuable contributions to science may be men- 
 tioned " History of British Zoophytes," (1838,) " History 
 of British Sponges and Lithophytes," (1842,) papers on 
 " British and Irish Annelides," a work on Conchology, 
 (1850,) and " Botany of the Eastern Borders," (1854.) 
 He practised medicine at Berwick-on-Tweed for many 
 years. Died in 1855. 
 
 See a notice of G. Johnston in the " Gentleman's Magazine" 
 for September, 1855. 
 
 Johnston, (James T. W.,) a noted agricultural chem- 
 ist, was bom at Paisley, in Scotland, about 1796. He 
 studied in Sweden, under Berzelius. In 1833 he was 
 appointed professor of chemistry in the University of 
 Durham. He also visited America, where he became 
 distinguished as an agricultural chemist. Among his 
 works are the " Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and 
 Geology," (1842,) " Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry 
 and Geology," (1844,) a work which has been translated 
 into nearly every European language, "Contributions 
 to Scientific Agriculture," (1849,) "Notes on North 
 America," (1851,) and "Chemistry of Common Life," 
 (2 vols., 1854-55.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Johnston, (John,) a Scottish poet and scholar, was 
 professor of divinity in the College of Saint Andrew's. 
 He wrote, besides other poems, " Heroes ex Omni His- 
 toria Scotica Lectissimi," (1603.) Died in 1612. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Johnston, (John,) an eminent physician and natural 
 philosopher, born in Poland in 1603. He graduated at 
 the Universities of Leyden and Cambridge. He wrote, 
 besides other works, in Latin, the " Wonders of Nature, 
 divided into Ten Classes," which was a natural history 
 of beasts, birds, fishes, and insects. Died in 1675. 
 
 Johnston, (Joseph Eggleston,) an able American 
 general, born in Prince Edward county, Virginia, about 
 1809. His mother, whose maiden name was Wood, was 
 a niece of Patrick Henry. He graduated at West Point 
 in 1829, gained the rank of captain in 1846, and served 
 with distinction in the Mexican war, 1846—47. In June, 
 i860, he was appointed quartermaster-general, with the 
 rank of brigadier-general. He resigned his commission 
 It April, 1861, and was immediately appointed a major- 
 general, or general, by Jefferson Davis. He took com- 
 mand of a force at Harper's Ferry in May, 1861, and was 
 opposed in that vicinity by General Patterson. Having 
 eludi Patterson, he moved his army rapidly to Ma- 
 nassas, and effected a junction with the army of Beau- 
 regard on the 20th or 21st of July. General Johnston 
 was superior in rank to Beauregard, but he waived his 
 claim to precedence in the battle If Bull Run, July 21. 
 He remained inactive at Manassas Junction during the 
 autumn of 1861 and the ensuing winter. About the 8th 
 of March, 1862, he changed his base and retired behind 
 the Kapidan. He soon moved his army to the peninsula 
 to oppose McClellan, and, having been repulsed at Wil- 
 liamsburg, May 5, retreated towards Richmond. On 
 the 31st of May he attacked a part of the Union army at 
 Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines. In this battle he received 
 a severe wound, which disabled him for several months. 
 In November, 1862, he was assigned to the command of 
 a department comprising Tennessee, Alabama, and Mis- 
 sissippi. He reported in April, 1863, that he was still 
 unfit for active service in the field. After General Grant 
 approached Vicksburg from, the south, General Johnston 
 moved a small army to relieve that place, and reached 
 Jackson on the 13th of May. He was defeated on the 
 14th, abandoned Jackson, and retreated to Canton. On 
 the 29th of May he wrote to General Pemberton, " I am 
 too weak to save Vicksburg. Can do no more than 
 attempt to save you and your garrison." In December, 
 1863, he took command in person of the army which had 
 recently been defeated by General Grant near Chatta- 
 nooga, and which was required to oppose the advance 
 of General Sherman towards Atlanta. He began this 
 campaign with about 55,000 men, occupying a strong 
 
 and fortified position at Dalton, Georgia. This position 
 having been turned by the Union army, Johnston fell 
 back to Resaca, where he was attacked on the 15th of 
 May. After a severe battle, he retreated in the ensuing 
 night, closely pursued, and reached Cassville, near the 
 Etowah River, on the 19th. Having crossed the Etowah 
 under cover of the night, General Johnston made another 
 stand in the strong position of Allatoona Pass, to dis- 
 lodge him from which General Sherman ordered a flank 
 movement to Dallas. General Johnston attacked the 
 Federals at Dallas on the 28th of May, was repulsed, 
 and on the 4th of June retreated to Kenesaw Mountain. 
 On the 27th of June, General Sherman made an unsuc- 
 cessful assault on the works at Kenesaw, but he resorted 
 again to a flank movement, which compelled General 
 Johnston to abandon Kenesaw on the 2d or 3d of Jul)', 
 and to retreat across the Chattahoochee. He was re- 
 moved from the command on the 18th of July, 1864. 
 Before this date he had attained the rank of general, 
 the highest in the service. He obtained command of 
 an army in South Carolina about February, 1865, and 
 on the 1 8th of March attacked the advance of General 
 Sherman's army at Bentonville, North Carolina. He 
 retreated to Smithfield on the 21st of March, and 
 surrendered his army to General Sherman on the 26th 
 of April, 1865, on the same terms as were granted to 
 General Lee. (See Shekman, W. T.) 
 
 See a " Life of General J. E. Johnston" in " Southern Generals," 
 1865. 
 
 Johnston, (ROBERT,) a Scottish historical writer, was 
 the author of a "History of his Own Times," (1642, in 
 Latin.) Died about 1636. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Johnstone (jons'ton) or Johnston of Warriston, 
 (Archibald,) a Scottish statesman, and leader of the 
 Presbyterians. He held several high offices, and was 
 an adherent of the Parliament in the civil war which 
 began in 1642. He became lord advocate in 1646, and 
 was created a peer by Cromwell. He was executed as 
 a rebel in 1663. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Johnstone, (Bryce,) an eminent Scottish divine, born 
 in Dumfriesshire in 1747. He studied at the University 
 of Edinburgh, which in 1786 unanimously conferred upon 
 him the degree of D.D. Among his works may be men- 
 tioned " Commentary on the Revelation of Saint John 
 the Divine," (1794,) "Essay on the Influence of Religion 
 on Civil Society and Civil Government," and a treatise 
 on agriculture. Died in 1805. 
 
 See a " Life of Biyce Johnstone," by his nephew, John John- 
 stone, 1808. 
 
 Johnstone, Johnson, or Johnston, (Chari.es,) an 
 author, born in Ireland about 1720, was educated for the 
 bar. The most important of his productions was a po- 
 litical romance, entitled "Chrysal, or the Adventures of 
 a Guinea," (1760,) which met with a great sale. Besides 
 this, he wrote "The Reverie, or a Flight to the Paradise 
 of Fools," (1762,) "Arsaces, Prince of Betlis," and other 
 works. Died in Calcutta in 1800. 
 
 See Sir Walter Scott's Miscellaneous Prose Works. 
 
 Johnstone, (George:,) a diplomatist and post-captain 
 in the royal navy, the son of a Scottish baronet. In 1763 
 he was made Governor of West Florida. During the 
 American Revolution he was appointed (in 1778) one of 
 the commissioners sent with Lord Carlisle to the United 
 States to treat with Congress. Died in 1787. 
 
 Johnstone, (James,) a distinguished Scottish physi- 
 cian, born at Annan in 1730, was educated at Edinburgh 
 and Paris. He was very successful in malignant fevers, 
 on which he wrote a treatise. He is also said to have been 
 the first to recommend the use of mineral acids in those 
 diseases. Among his other works may be mentioned 
 " Medical Essavs and Observations, with Disquisitions 
 relating to the Nervous System," (1795.) He practised 
 at Worcester, where he died in 1802. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary o( Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Johnstone, (John,) son of the preceding, was born 
 in 1768, and educated at Oxford. He was equally 
 celebrated as a skilful physician and an accomplished 
 scholar. He wrote the "Life of Dr. Parr," (1828,) with 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6. u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
JOHNSTONE 
 
 1287 
 
 JOMBERT 
 
 whom he was very intimate ; also several medical works. 
 He practised in Birmingham about forty years. Died 
 in 1836. 
 
 See a notice of J. Johnstone in the "Gentleman's Magazine" for 
 IfaVi » s 37. 
 
 Johnstone, (John Henry,) a celebrated comic actor 
 and vocalist, born in Ireland in 1750; died in 1828. 
 
 Johnstone, jons'ton, de, Chhvai.ikr, a native of 
 Edinburgh, entered in 1745 the army of the Pretender, to 
 whom he soon became aide-de-camp. He served at the 
 battle of Prestonpans and in subsequent engagements. 
 After the battle of Culloden he escaped to Paris, and re- 
 ceived an appointment in the French army. He wrote, 
 in French, " Memoirs of the Rebellion in 1745 and 1746," 
 which was translated and published in London in 1820. 
 Died in France at an advanced age. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for May, 182a. 
 
 Joinville, zhwaN'vel', (Edmond,) a French landscape- 
 painter, born in Paris in 1801 ; died in 1849. 
 
 Joinville, de, deh join'vil or zhwaN'vel', (Francois 
 Ferdinand Philippe Louis Marie d'OrliSans,) 
 Prince, the third son of King Louis Philippe, was born 
 in 1818. He served in the navy, and obtained the rank 
 of captain for his conduct at the attack on Vera Cruz in 
 1838. In 1840 he was sent to Saint Helena to bring the 
 remains of Napoleon to France. He commanded the 
 naval division which bombarded Tangier in 1 844, and gave 
 an impulse to the construction of steam ships of war by 
 his " Note sur les Forces navales de la France," (1S44.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Joinville.de, (Jean or Jehan,) Sire, a French noble- 
 man and chronicler of high reputation, born in Cham- 
 pagne in 1224. He grew up at the court of Thibaut, King 
 of Navarre and Count of Champagne, and in 1248 raised 
 several hundred armed men from among his tenants and 
 accompanied Louis IX. in his first crusade to the Holy 
 Land. He soon became a great favourite with this 
 monarch. Joinville distinguished himself for bravery at 
 the capture of Damietta in Egypt, and was subsequently, 
 with Louis, made prisoner at Mansoorah. He returned 
 to Fiance with the king in 1254. He wrote a very in- 
 teresting work entitled "History of Saint Louis IX., 
 King of France, by Jehan .Sire de Joinville." "In this 
 history," says Ambrose Firmin Didot, "which is one of 
 the most precious monuments of ancient or modern 
 times, the Christian, the man of the world, the friend of 
 the king, and the fflzy historian, display themselves with 
 such naturalness, simplicity, and candour that the reader 
 can penetrate the inner heart of the author by the simple 
 recital which he has given us. . . . His natural and 
 easy style has all the charm of conversation." (" Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale.") He is supposed to have 
 died about 1317. 
 
 See F. Feriel, " Notice sur Jean de Joinville," 1853 : Chezjean, 
 "Notice historique sur Sire de Joinville," 1853; Saintk-Bkuve, 
 "Causeries du Lundi." 
 
 Joliet, zho'le-5', (Louis,) a French traveller, was one 
 of the first white men that explored the Mississippi 
 River. He had resided some time at Quebec before 
 lf>73> when he and Marquette were sent to explore that 
 river. (See Marquette.) After the end of that voyage 
 it appears that he returned to Quebec. Died about 1730. 
 
 Joliveau de Segraifl, zho'le'vo' deh seh'gRi', (Ma- 
 rie Madh.eine Nicole Alexandrine,) a French 
 poetess, bom at liar-sur-Aube in 1756; died in 1830. 
 Sin wrote " New Fables in Verse," etc. 
 
 Jolivet, de, deh zho'le'vj', (Jean Baptistf. Moyse,) 
 rr, a French advocate, born in 1754, was elected 
 in 1791 to the Legislative Assembly, in which he boldly 
 .denounced the Jacobins. On the accession of Napoleon 
 he was created councillor of state. Died in 1818. He 
 wrote various works on political economy. 
 
 See Qurrard, " La France Liueraire." 
 
 Jollivet, zho'le'vj', (Adoi.phe,) a French politician, 
 born in 1799, wrote many works against the abolition of 
 slavery. He was Willed in Paris during the revolution 
 of February, 1848. 
 
 Jollivet, (Pierre Jules,) a French painter of history, 
 born in Paris in 1803, gained a medal of the first class 
 in 1835. 
 
 Jollois, zho'lwa', (Jean Baptiste Prosper,) a F'rench 
 antiquary and engineer, born in Burgundy in 1776. He 
 was chief engineer of the department of Seine, (Paris.) 
 He published many works on French antiquities. Died 
 in 1842. 
 
 See Alfred Maury, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. B. 
 P. Jollois," 1846; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Joly, zho'le', (Benigne,) a French religious writer, 
 born at Dijon in 1644, wrote a number of devotional 
 works. Died in 1694. 
 
 Joly, (Claude,) a F"rench writer and ecclesiastic, born 
 in Paris in 1607, wrote "A Collection of True Maxims 
 for the Education of a King, against the Pernicious 
 Policy of Cardinal Mazarin," (1652,) a copy of which 
 was burnt by the common executioner. He became a 
 canon of the Church of Paris in 1631. Died in 1700. 
 
 See Moreki, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Joly, (Claude:,) a French preacher, born in Loiraine 
 in 1610, became Bishop of Agen, and left several volumes 
 of sermons, (1692-94.) Died in 1678. 
 
 Joly or Jolly, zho'le', (Francois Antoine,) a French 
 comic poet, born in Paris in 1662. He wrote several 
 comedies, and published accurate editions of Moliere 
 (6 vols., 1734) and Corneille, (5 vols.) Died in 1753. 
 
 Joly, (Gui,) a French writer, a nephew of Claude Joly, 
 noticed above, became confidential secretary to Cardinal 
 de Retz. He is known as the author of the historical 
 " Memoirs" from 164810 1665, (1718.) An English trans- 
 lation of this work was published in 1755. His " Memoirs" 
 are designed to explain and complete those of De Retz. 
 
 Joly, (Joseph Romain,) a F'rench monk and writer, 
 born in 1715 ; died in 1805. 
 
 Joly, (Marc Antoine,) a French dramatist, born in 
 1672, wrote "The School of Lovers," and "The Jealous 
 Wife." Died in 1753. 
 
 Joly or Jolly, (Marie Elisareth,) a noted French 
 actress, born at Versailles in 1761. In 1793 she was 
 imprisoned by the revolutionists, but regained her free- 
 dom on condition that she should perform at the theatre 
 of the Republic. Died in 1798. 
 
 Joly, (Philippe Louis,) a learned French ecclesiastic 
 and philologist, born at Dijon about 1712. Among his 
 works are " Critical Remarks on the Dictionary of Bayle," 
 (1748,) and a " Treatise on F'rench Versification," (1751.) 
 Died in 1782. 
 
 See Qurrard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Joly de Bevy, zho'le' deh bi've', (Louis Philippe 
 Joseph,) a French judge and religious writer, born at 
 Dijon in 1736; died in 1822. 
 
 Joly-Clerc, zho'le' klaiit, (Nicolas,) a French natu- 
 ralist, wrote a number of works on botany. Died in 1S17. 
 
 Joly de Fleury, zho'le' d?h fluh're', (Guillaume 
 Francois,) a learned and eloquent French advocate and 
 magistrate, was born in Paris in 1675. For more than 
 twenty years he was attorney-general in the Parliament of 
 Paris. He wrote several treatises on law. Died in 1756. 
 
 Joly de Fleury, (Jean Francois,) a French financier, 
 a son of the preceding, was born in 1718. He succeeded 
 Necker as minister of finances in 1781, and resigned in 
 1783. Died in 1802. 
 
 Joly de Fleury, (Jean Omer — o'main',) a French 
 priest, nephew of Guillaume F'rancpis, noticed above. 
 Died in 1755. 
 
 Joly de "Maizeroy. See Maizeroy. 
 
 Jomard, zho'inaV, (Emu Francois,! a French 
 archaeologist and geographer, born at Versailles in 1 777. 
 He accompanied the army to Egypt in 1798, returned 
 in 1802, and was appointed secretary of the Egyptian 
 commission. He contributed to the redaction of the 
 great "Description of Egypt," and, as imperial com- 
 missary, directed the engraving and impression of the 
 same for twenty years, (1807-26.) The portions of this 
 work written 1>y Jomard were published separately, 
 with the title of " Observations on Ancient and Modern 
 Egypt, or a Historical and Picturesque Description of 
 its Monuments," (4 vols., 1830.) He was a member of 
 the Institute. Died in 1862. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Jombert, zlm.N'baiR', (Charles Antoine,) a French 
 writer on art, born in Paris in 1712 ; died in 1784. 
 
 «as k; {as s;%hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; n, trilled; Iia%; th mm this. (JiyStc Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JOMELll 
 
 1288 
 
 JONES 
 
 Jomelli, yo-mel'lee, (Niccol6,) a celebrated Italian 
 composer, bora at A versa, near Naples, in 1714. He 
 studied under Feo, Leo, and Martini. His first opera, 
 " L'Errore amoroso," produced when lie was twenty- 
 three years of age, rendered him so famous that he was 
 soon after invited to Rome, where he composed two 
 more operas and was patronized by the Cardinal of 
 York. In 1742 he went to Vienna, where he formed an 
 intimate friendship with Metastasio and gave instruc- 
 tions in music to the empress Maria Theresa. He was 
 employed as musician or chapel-master in Saint Peter's 
 at Rome from 1749 to 1754. The Duke of Wurtemberg 
 having invited him to enter his service as chapel-master 
 to the court, Jomelli removed to Stuttgart, where he 
 passed about seventeen years, (1754-70.) Died at Naples 
 in August, 1774. Among his best productions are operas 
 entitled " Didone,"(l745,) " Euniene,"(i746,) "Merope," 
 (1 747,) and " Ezio," (1 748,) several oratorios and masses, 
 and a miserere for two voices. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" Pietro 
 Alfikri, "Notizie biografiche di N. Jomelli," 1S45; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie GiSneVale;" Chokon et Fayolle, " Dictionnaire des 
 Musiciens." 
 
 Jomini, zho'me'ne', (Hknri,) Karon, an able general 
 and eminent writer on strategy, was born at I'ayerne, 
 in the Swiss Canton de Vaud, in 1779. He entered the 
 French army, became aide-de-camp to Ney about 1804, 
 and presented to Bonaparte on the field of Austeriitz 
 his "Treatise on the Grand Operations of War." A 
 few days after this event he was appointed chief of the 
 staff of Ney. He received the title of baron for his 
 conduct at Jena in 1806, and was employed in Spain in 
 1S08. In 1811 he became a general of brigade, and in 
 1812 French governor of Wilna. He contributed greatly 
 to the victory of Bautzen in 1813. His promotion having 
 been obstructed by the enmity of Berthier, he quitted 
 the French service in iSi3, and entered that of Russia, 
 with the rank of lieutenant-general, and became aide-de- 
 camp to the emperor Alexander. Died about April 1, 
 1869. Among his chief works are "Traite des grandes 
 Operations militaires, ou Histoire critique et militaire des 
 Guerresde Frederic II comparees a celles de la Revolu- 
 tion," (5 vols., 1805,) a "Critical and Military History of 
 the Campaigns of the Revolution from 1792 to 1801," 
 (15 vols., 1819-24,) and " Precis de I' Art de la Guerre," 
 (5th ed., 2 vols., 1838.) The works of Jomini are among 
 the best that have ever been written on the art of war. 
 
 See Pascal, "Observations sin la Vie et les Ouvragps de Baron 
 Jomini;" Qurkard, "La France Litteiaire ;" " Nonvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generaie ;" "Monthly Review," vol. xci., 1820, (Appendix.) 
 
 Jon Areson. See Areson, (Jon.) 
 
 Jon, du, (Francis.) See JUNIUS. 
 
 Jonae, yo'na, (Pktkr,) Bishop of Strengnas, in Swe- 
 den, was professor of theology at Upsal when John III. 
 attempted to re-establish the Catholic religion. Jona: 
 boldly opposed this proceeding. Died in 1607. 
 
 Jo'nah or Jo'uas, [Heb. ilJV ; Gr. 'luiuc: Lat. 
 Jonas,] one of the minor Hebrew prophets, and the 
 subject of the book bearing his name, is supposed to 
 have lived under the reign of Jeroboam II., about Soo 
 B.C. ; but some place him under that of Jehu. 
 
 See 1 1. Kings xiv. 25 ; Matthew xii. 39, 41 ; Luke xi. 29, 32. 
 
 Jonas. See Jonah. 
 
 Jonas, yo'nas, Jonee, yo'na, or Jousson, yon'son, 
 (Arngrim,) a learned historian, antiquary, ancl divine, 
 born in Iceland about 1568, is said to have studied 
 astronomy under Tycho Brahe. Most of his works 
 relate to the history of Iceland. Died in 1648. 
 
 Jonas, yo'nas, (Justus,) an eminent German Re- 
 former and writer, born at Nordhausen in 1493. He 
 became in 1521 professor of theology at Wittenberg. 
 lie assisted Luther in the translation of the Old Tes- 
 tament, accompanied him to the Diet at Worms and at 
 Augsburg, and had a share in the composition of the 
 so-called Torgau Articles. He also translated a number 
 of Luther's works, and Melanchthon's "Defence (Apol- 
 ogy) of the Augsburg Confession," from the Latin into 
 German. Died in 1555. 
 
 See P. Ekekman, "Vita et Acta Dr. J. Jonas," Upsal, 1761 ; G. 
 C. KnaPP, " Narratio de Juslo Jona Theulogo," etc., 1S17; Ersch 
 und Gkuuek, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale;" L. Kkimiakd, "Life of Justus Jonas," (in Latin,) 1731. 
 
 Jonas or Jonse, (Runoi.ph,) a scholar and author, 
 born in Iceland, graduated at Copenhagen, where he 
 fixed his residence after 1649. He wrote " Elements 
 of the Northern Languages," and " Rudiments of the 
 Icelandic Grammar." Died in 1654. 
 
 Jon'a-than, [Heb. jjlJliT>] son of King Saul, and the 
 most intimate friend of the psalmist David. The death 
 of this prince, who fell with his father, near Mount Gilboa, 
 while fighting the Philistines, furnished the subject of 
 one of the most beautiful of David's songs. 
 
 See I. Samuel xviii., xix., xx. ; II. Samuel i. 17-27. 
 
 Jon'athan Ap'phus, (af'fus, ) a celebrated Jewish 
 leader and high-priest, succeeded his elder brother, Judas 
 Maccabseus, in 161 H.C., as chief ruler of his nation. For 
 seventeen years he governed with wisdom and justice, and 
 carried on successful wars with many of the surrounding 
 nations. During the civil dissensions in the kingdom 
 of Syria he was decoyed into the city of Ptolemais and 
 massacred with his entire escort. 
 
 Jonathan Ben TJz-zi'el (or uz'ze-el) or TJ-zi'el, 
 a Jewish rabbi, supposed to have been contemporary 
 with the prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. He 
 was the author of the "Targtmi," a Chaldaic paraphrase 
 of most of the Hebrew prophetical books. 
 
 Joncourt, de, deli zhoN'koou', (Elie,) a Dutch writer, 
 of French extraction, born at the Hague in 1707. He 
 was one of the editors of the " Bibliothtque des Sciences 
 et des Arts," (50 vols., 1754-80,) and wrote various 
 works. Died about 1775. 
 
 Jonctys, yonk'tis, (Daniel,) a Dutch litterateur and 
 physician, born at Dort, lived many years at Rotterdam. 
 Among his works was an able treatise against torture. 
 Died in 1654. 
 
 Jones, jonz, (Anson,) an American physician, Presi- 
 dent of the republic of Texas at the time of its annexation, 
 was bom in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1798. 
 He settled in Brazoria, Texas, in 1833, to °k a promi- 
 nent part in the political and military movements which 
 resulted in the independence of that republic, was min- 
 ister to the United States in 1838, and afterwards for 
 three years secretary of state under President Houston. 
 In 1844 he succeeded Houston as President. Died by 
 his own hand in 1858. 
 
 Jones, jonz, (David,) a Welsh poet, born in Caer- 
 narvonshire, was also a collector of Welsh manuscripts. 
 Died about 1780. 
 
 Jones, ( David R.,) an American general, born in 
 South Carolina about 1827, graduated at West Point in 
 1846. He served as brigadier-general in the army of 
 General Lee at Antietani, September 17, 1862. Died 
 in 1S63. 
 
 Jones, (Edward,) a Welsh musician and bard, born 
 in Merionethshire about 1750. He published, besides 
 other works, " Musical and Poetical Relics of the French 
 Bards," (1784.) Died in 1821. 
 
 Jones, jonz, (Ernest,) M.P., an English poet and 
 Chartist. He became the leader of the Chartist move- 
 ment about 1S46. He was imprisoned about two years 
 for his radical political speeches, (1848-49.) Among his 
 works are "The Wood Spirit," (1841,) and "Chartist 
 Lvrics." He was elected a member of Parliament in 
 1869, and died the same year. 
 
 Jones, (GRIFFITH,) a clergyman, born in Wales in 
 1684, was very active in supporting schools and in cir- 
 culating the Bible among his indigent countrymen. He 
 wrote several educational treatises in Welsh and English. 
 Died in 1761. 
 
 Jones, (Griffith,) an English author, born in 1721. 
 He edited at different times several periodicals, and was 
 connected with Dr. Johnson in the " Literary Magazine" 
 and with Goldsmith in the "British Magazine." Among 
 his works are "Great Events from Little Causes," and 
 several "Liliputian Histories." Died in 1786. 
 
 Jones, jonz, (Henry,) an Irish poet and dramatic 
 writer, born at Drogheda about 1720, was by trade a 
 bricklayer. His productions attracted the attention of 
 the Earl of Chesterfield, then lord lieutenant of Ireland, 
 who took him to England and procured a large sub- 
 scription for his poems. Among his works we may cite 
 the "Tragedy of the Earl of Essex," (1753,) and "The 
 Cave of Idra." Died in 1770. 
 
 a. e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, 9, i, 9, obscure; far, fal I, fit; ruetj not; good; moon; 
 
JONES 
 
 1289 
 
 JONES 
 
 Jones (Inigo,) a distinguished architect, styled "the 
 English Palladio," was born in London about 1572. 
 Being apprenticed to a joiner, his talent for designing 
 attracted the attention of the Earl of Pembroke, who 
 furnished him with means to travel through Europe. 
 While in Italy, he accepted an invitation from Christian 
 IV. to visit Denmark. The sister of that monarch was 
 the queen of James I. of England ; and thus the wav 
 was paved to the royal patronage when he reached his 
 native land in 1605. In a short time he was appointed 
 architect to the queen and to Prince Henry, in which 
 position he formed a friendship with Ben Jonson. They 
 subsequently quarrelled, and the poet ridiculed him in 
 several plays. In 1612 he visited Italy a second time; 
 and it was at this period that he fully adopted the classic 
 style of architecture, which was then but little known in 
 England. On his return he became surveyor-general of 
 the royal buildings. He died in 1653. Of the edifices 
 designed and constructed by him may be mentioned the 
 palace at Whitehall, and the west front of Old Saint 
 Paul's. He was an accomplished classical scholar, and 
 wrote a work entitled "Stonhenge Restored." 
 
 See Pkter Cunningham, " Life ot" Inigo Jones," 1848: Camp- 
 bkli., '" Yimivius Bmannicus," 3 vols., 1767; Ukitton, " Dictionary 
 of Architecture," 1S30-38. 
 
 Jones, (Jacob,) Commodore, an American naval 
 officer, born in Kent county, Delaware, in 1770. He 
 became a lieutenant about 1801, and in October, 1S12, 
 commanded the sloop-of-war Wasp, with which he cap- 
 tured the British sloop Frolic, which carried more guns 
 than the Wasp. He was promoted to the rank of post- 
 captain in 1813, and obtained command of the frigate 
 Macedonian. Died in Philadelphia in 1850. 
 
 Jones, (JAMBS Chamhf.klain,) a United States Sen- 
 ator, born in Davidson county, Tennessee, in 1809. In 
 1841 he was chosen by the Whigs Governor of the State, 
 James K. Polk being his competitor. He was re-elected 
 n\ 1843, when Mr. Polk was again the opposing can- 
 didate. In the National Whig Convention of 1848 
 Governor Jones strenuously advocated the nomination 
 of Henry Clay ; but after the selection of General Taylor 
 as the choice of the Convention he entered the canvass 
 warmly in his support, and spoke to large audiences 
 in different States of the Union. He was elected to the 
 United States Senate in 1851, and served the full term 
 of six years. He supported the Kansas-Nebraska bill 
 in 1854, and thenceforward acted principally with the 
 Democratic party. Died in 1859. 
 
 Jones, (J kkkmiah,) a learned and eloquent English 
 dissenting minister, born in 1693, published an important 
 work entitled a "New and Full Method of Settling the 
 Canonical Authority of the New Testament," (2 vols., 
 1726,) which is said to be the best English work on the 
 subject. Died In 1724. 
 
 Jones, (JoHN,) a physician and medical writer, sup- 
 posed to have been born in Wales about 1500. He was 
 educated at Cambridge, and practised at Bath, in Eng- 
 land. Among his works was "The Art and Science of 
 Preserving the Body and Soul in Health," (1579.) 
 
 Jones, (John,) a Benedictine, born in London in 
 1575. He studied at Oxford, where he roomed with 
 Laud, afterwards the celebrated archbishop. Having 
 become a Roman Catholic, he went to Spain, became a 
 monk, and continued his studies at Compostella. He 
 was subsequently appointed professor of Hebrew and 
 divinity at Douay. He was the author of several theo- 
 logical works. Died in London in 1636. 
 
 Jones, (John.) a Welsh antiquary, who collected and 
 transcribed numerous old manuscripts in his native lan- 
 guage. Fifty large volumes of these are yet preserved, 
 lie is supposed to have died about 1600. 
 
 Jones, (John,) the author of "Adrasta, or the 
 Woman's Spleen," (1635,) and other dramatic works, 
 lived in England during the reign of Charles I. 
 
 Jones, (John,) a clergyman of the Church of Eng- 
 land, born in Wales in 1700, and educated at Oxford. 
 In 1751 he became rector ol Boulne-Hurst, and in 1755 
 vicar of Hitchin. Four years later he was chosen by Dr. 
 Young, the [wet, to l)e his curate. He wrote "Catholic 
 Faith and Practice," (1765,) and other religious works. 
 Died about 1770. 
 
 Jones, (John,) LL.D., a Unitarian minister, born in 
 Carmarthenshire about 1765. About 1795 he was ap- 
 pointed pastor of a congregation at Plymouth Dock, and 
 afterwards at Halifax, in Yorkshire. He subsequently 
 removed to London. He was the first to introduce 
 the use of Greek-and-English dictionaries. Previous 
 to his time the Greek had been studied entirely with the 
 aid of books written in Latin. Of his numerous works 
 we may mention " Illustrations of the Four Gospels, 
 founded on Circumstances peculiar to our Lord and the 
 Evangelists," (1808,) and " A Greek-and-English Lexi- 
 con," (1823.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Jones, (John,) a lawyer and writer, born in Carmar- 
 thenshire in 1772, was admitted to the bar in 1803. 
 Among his works are "A History of Wales," and 
 "Cyfamod Newydd," a translation of the New Testament 
 from the Greek into Welsh. Died in 183S. 
 
 Jones, (John Gale,) an English political orator, born 
 in 1 77 1, advocated republican or radical opinions. He 
 was prosecuted for some political offence, defended by 
 Romilly, and acquitted. Died in 1838. 
 
 Jones, (John M.,) an American general, born in 
 Virginia about 1820, graduated at West Point in 1841. 
 He became a captain in 1853, and resigned his commis- 
 sion in 1861. He served as a brigadier-general in the 
 army of General Lee, and was killed near Spottsylvania, 
 May 10, 1864. 
 
 Jones, (Colonel Leslie Grove,) an English political 
 writer, born in 1779. He served in the Peninsula as 
 aide-de-camp of the Duke of Wellington. He con- 
 tributed letters to the "London Times." Died in 1839. 
 
 Jones, (Noble Wimberi.y,) a physician and patriot, 
 born in Georgia in 1725. He was an early and active 
 promoter of the Revolution, was a delegate to Con- 
 gress in 1775, and was taken prisoner at Charleston in 
 1780. In 1781 he was again elected to Congress. Died 
 in 1805. 
 
 Jones, (Owen,) an antiquary, born in Denbighshire, 
 Wales, in 1740. He published a large collection of 
 ancient Welsh poetry, and the "Archaeology of Wales," 
 containing several historical documents. Died in 1814. 
 
 Jones, (Owen,) an architect, born in Wales about 
 1S09. In 1837 he visited Granada, and in 1842 published 
 " Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details of the Al- 
 hambra," with a translation of the Arabic inscriptions, 
 and a historical account of the sovereigns of Granada 
 from the Spanish. He chiefly devoted his attention to 
 ornamental architecture, in which he soon acquired 
 distinction. In 1852 he was appointed "Director of 
 Decorations" at the Crystal Palace in London. He 
 displayed his taste and artistic knowledge with a very 
 happy effect in arranging and ornamenting the various 
 courts of that building. Among his writings are "De- 
 signs for Mosaic and Tessellated Pavements," (1842,) and 
 the "Grammar of Ornament," (1856.) 
 
 Jones, (Paul; originally John Paul,) a famous naval 
 officer, born at Arbigland, 1:1 Scotland, in 1747. He emi- 
 grated to Virginia, entered the colonial naval service in 
 1 775, was appointed a Captain in August, 1776, and took 
 command of the Ranger, a vessel of eighteen guns, about 
 June, 1777. He sailed to Europe in that year, cruised on 
 the coast of Scotland, and made a bold attack on White- 
 haven, where he burnt some shipping. He also captured, 
 the Drake, a sloop of war. Early in 1779 he w.is trans. 
 fcrred to the Bonhomme Richard, which carried about 
 forty-five guns. Having several smaller vessels under 
 his command, he captured or destroyed many lliitish 
 vessels. In September he attacked the Scrapis. a frigate 
 of forty-four guns, which surrendered after a long battle. 
 His own ship was so much damaged in this action that 
 she sank a few hours after. Congress voted Captain 
 Jones a gold medal for this victory. He entered the 
 Russian service, with the rank of rear-admiral, in 1788; 
 but, having quarrelled with one of the Russian admirals, 
 he was soi in removed from the command. He died in 
 Paris in 1792. 
 
 See I. H. SiiKRiiot'RNK, "Life of J. P. Jones," 2 vols., 1835; 
 Hamilton, "' Life of Rear-Admiral J. P. Jones, " 1S4S; A. 
 S. MACKRNZIS, "life of J. P. Jones." 2 vo,s., iXji; "H«t Leven 
 van J. P. Jones," Groningen, 1SS9: W. (\. Simms. " Life ol J. P. 
 Jones." is.,*; "National Portrait- Gallery of Distinguished Ameri- 
 cana, vol. UL: " Monthly Review" for .September, 1825. 
 
 « »&i; casj; %hard; gas./; G, H, K, guttural; s, nasal; R, trilled; 8 ass; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JONES 
 
 1290 
 
 JONSON 
 
 Jones, (Rice,) a Welsh poet, born in 1715. He pub- 
 lished "Welsh Anthology," (1770.) Died in 1S01. 
 
 Jones, (Richard,) a Welshman, published about 
 1654 "Gemma Cambricum," a work of great ingenuity, 
 in which all the books and chapters of the Bible were 
 abbreviated and written in his native dialect. 
 
 Jones, (Roger,) an American general, born in Vir- 
 ginia. He fought against the British on the northern 
 frontier in 1813 and 1814, and became adjutant-general 
 in 1825. Died in 1852. 
 
 Jones, (Samuel,) an American major-general, born 
 in Virginia, graduated at West Point in 184:. He took 
 arms against the Union in 1861, and commanded in 
 Western Virginia in 1862-63. He was killed at the 
 battle of the Wilderness, May 5, 1S64. 
 
 Jones, (STEPHEN,) born in London in 1763. He was 
 the editor of the Whitehall "Evening Post," the "Bio- 
 graphia Dramatica," and a " Biographical Dictionary," 
 (2d edition, 1796.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Jones, (Sir Thomas,) chief justice of the common 
 pleas during the reign of James II. He openly opposed 
 the encroachments of the king on the laws of England, 
 and was dismissed from office in 1686. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. ii. chap. vi. 
 
 Jones, (Thomas M.,) born in Virginia about 1835, 
 became a brigadier-general in the Confederate army 
 about 1862. 
 
 Jones, (Thomas Rymer,) an English physician and 
 surgeon, distinguished as a comparative anatomist and 
 physiologist, was born about 1810. He was educated 
 at London and Paris. He was appointed professor of 
 comparative anatomy in King's College, London, and 
 in 1840 became Fullerian professor of physiology in 
 the Royal Institution of Great Britain. In 1844 he was 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Among his 
 works may be mentioned " A General Outline of the 
 Animal Kingdom," (1841,) and "The Natural History 
 of Animals," (1st vol., 1844.) 
 
 Jones, (Thomas Wharton,) a British oculist and phy- 
 siologist, born at Saint Andrew's, Scotland, about 1808. 
 He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on Oph- 
 thalmic Medicine and Surgery," and became professor 
 of ophthalmic medicine in University College, London. 
 
 Jones, (Sir William,) an English judge under James 
 I. and Charles I., was born in 1566.. He wrote several 
 legal works, and became a judge of the king's bench in 
 1625. Died in 1640. 
 
 Jones, (William,) an able mathematician, bom in 
 the island of Anglesey in 1680. He taught mathematics 
 for several years, and corresponded with the most dis- 
 tinguished scientific men of that age. He was the friend 
 of Newton and "of Halley, and the father of the emi- 
 nent Orientalist Sir William Jones. He held the office 
 of vice-president of the Royal Society. Died in 1749. 
 Among his productions are "A Compendium of the Art 
 of Navigation," (1702,) and several works in defence 
 of the theories of Newton. 
 
 Jones (William) of Nayland, a learned Episcopal 
 divine and multifarious writer, born in Northampton- 
 shire, England, in 1726, graduated at Oxford in 1749. 
 Of his productions we may mention " Catholic Doctrine 
 of the Trinity proved from Scripture," (1756,) an " Essay 
 on the First Principles of Natural Philosophy," (1762,) 
 " A Course of Lectures on the Figurative Language of 
 the Hjly Scriptures," (1786,) and two political treatises 
 against the French Revolution, entitled "A Letter from 
 Thomas Bull to his Brother John," and "The Scholar 
 armed against the Errors of the Times." He was per- 
 petual curate of Nayland. Died in 1800. 
 
 See William Stevrns, " Life of W. Jones of Nayland," 1801. 
 
 Jones, [Lat. Jonk'sius,] (Sir William,) an eminent 
 Orientalist, son of William Jones, noticed above, (1680- 
 1749,) was born in London September 28, 1746. He 
 lost his father when he was three years of age ; but his 
 mother, a lady remarkable both for her learning and 
 accomplishments, ably superintended his education. In 
 1753 he was placed at the Harrow School, of which Dr. 
 Thackeray was preceptor. Jones early distinguished 
 himself for his classical acquirements, and at the age of 
 seventeen entered University College, Oxford, with more 
 learning than many good scholars have carried thence. 
 
 The following year he left Oxford, to become tutor to 
 the son of Earl Spencer, in whose family he continued 
 to reside for five years. During this period he devoted 
 much of his time to the acquirement of the Oriental 
 languages. He was also versed in nearly all the Euro- 
 pean tongues. In 1768, at the request of the King of 
 Denmark, he translated the " Life of Nadir Shah" from 
 the Persian into French. The year following he issued 
 a valuable Persian Grammar. In 1770 he began the 
 study of law, and in 1774 he was admitted to the bar. 
 In March, 1783, he was appointed judge of the supreme 
 court of judicature at Fort William, in Bengal, and re- 
 ceived the order of knighthood. Soon after he married 
 Anna Maria Shipley, a daughter of the Bishop of Saint 
 Asaph. In the following September Sir William Jones 
 reached India, where he continued to pursue his Oriental 
 studies with unabated zeal. He also organized (about 
 1785) the " Asiatic Society," for the purpose of obtaining 
 further information relative to the sciences, antiquities, 
 languages, and history of Asia. He died at Calcutta 
 on the 27th of April, 1794, after a short illness. In the 
 branch of literature to which he devoted his attention 
 he undoubtedly surpassed all other Europeans. He is, 
 however, to be equally esteemed for his noble qualities 
 and Christian virtues as for his vast erudition. Among 
 his numerous works are "Commentaries on Asiatic 
 Poetry," commenced in his twenty-first year, and contain- 
 ing translations from the most distinguished Hebrew, 
 Persian, Arabic, and Turkish poets, treatises " On the 
 Gods of Greece, Italy, and India," " On the Second 
 Classical Book of the Chinese," " On the Musical Modes 
 of the Hindus," and a translation of the " Institutes 
 of Manu," and a prose translation of Kalidasa's cele- 
 brated poem " Sacontala," (" Sakoontala,") both from 
 the original Sanscrit. He was also author of several 
 works on the laws of England and of India. 
 
 See Lord Teignmouth, " Life of Sir William Jones," 1804 ; 
 " Autobiography of William Jones," published by his son, London, 
 1846; H. A. Hamaker, "Oratiode Vita et Mentis p. Jonesii," 
 Leyden, 1822; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" "Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for January, 1805; Carv, "Lives of English Poets from 
 Johnson to Kirke White." 
 
 Jones, (William Alfred,) an American writer and 
 critic, was born in 1817. He graduated at Columbia 
 College in 1836. He has contributed largely to various 
 periodicals, and published several volumes of essays. 
 His "Characters and Criticisms" (2 vols., 1857) was 
 highly commended by Washington Irving. 
 
 Jonesius. See Jones, (Sir William.) 
 
 Jong, de, deh yong, (Ludolf,) a Flemish painter 
 of battle- and hunting-scenes, born near Rotterdam in 
 1616; died in 1697. 
 
 Jongelingx, yong'eh-links', (Jacob,) a Flemish sculp- 
 tor, born at Antwerp in 1531. Among his works is a 
 monument to Charles the Bold at Bruges. Died in 1606. 
 
 Jonin, zho'naN', (Gilbert,) a French Jesuit and poet, 
 born in Auvergne in 1596. He translated into Latin, 
 with many modifications, the Odes of Anacreon, which 
 he published under the title of " The Christian Anacreon." 
 He wrote several Greek and Latin odes. Died in 1638. 
 
 Jonsius, yon'se-us, (Johann,) a German scholar, born 
 at Flensburg in 1624. He wrote, besides other works, 
 " De Scriptoribus Historian Philosophicae," (1659,) which 
 was once highly prized. Died at Leipsic in 1659. 
 
 Jon'son or Johnson, (Ben,) one of the most cele- 
 brated English poets and dramatists, was born at West- 
 minster in 1574. His father, a Protestant clergyman, 
 died a month previous to his birth. Jonson's mother 
 subsequently married a master-bricklayer, who sent him 
 to Westminster, then under the charge of Camden, to 
 whom he afterwards dedicated the drama entitled " Every 
 Man in his Humour." Jonson regarded his preceptor 
 through life with esteem and affection. In his sixteenth 
 year he entered the University of Cambridge ; but, on 
 account of his straitened circumstances, he was obliged 
 to leave college and to assist his step-father as a mason. 
 Becoming disgusted with this employment, he enlisted 
 in the army in Flanders, and greatly distinguished himself 
 by his bravery. When he returned, as Gifford observes, 
 " he brought little but the reputation of a brave man, a 
 smattering of Dutch, and an empty purse." He soon 
 afterwards joined a company of actors ; but, having killed 
 
 a, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fix, fall, fat; mSt; n8t; good; mooni 
 
JONSSON 
 
 1 29 1 
 
 JORDENS 
 
 one of them in a duel, he was thrown into prison, and 
 narrowly escaped with his life. During his confinement 
 he was converted by a priest to the Roman Catholic 
 religion. Subsequently, after a careful examination, 
 he renounced his adopted faith, and was again received 
 into the communion of the Church of England. In 1598 
 he produced " Every Man in his Humour," a drama, 
 which at once brought him into notice. One of the 
 characters of this play is said to have been performed 
 by Shakspeare. It was followed by numerous produc- 
 tions, which added to the fame he had already acquired. 
 About 1605 he assisted Chapman and Marston in writing 
 "Eastward Hoe." This was regarded as a libel on the 
 Scots, and his associates were thrown into prison, whither 
 he voluntarily accompanied them. The three poets were 
 condemned to lose their ears and noses; but, through 
 Jonson's influence at court, they escaped. He was shortly 
 afterwards created poet-laureate by James I., with an 
 annual pension of £ 100 and a tierce of Spanish wine. 
 Jonson died in 1637. On his death-bed he expressed 
 the deepest penitence for the profanity that he had intro- 
 duced into his plays, which, with this exception, are far 
 purer in morals than the other dramas of that age. Jon- 
 son's convivial habits (perhaps his greatest weakness) 
 caused him to suffer from poverty in his declining years. 
 He was accustomed to meet Shakspeare and other dis- 
 tinguished persons at the drinking-houses of London. 
 He also gave costly entertainments at his own residence. 
 He was brave, generous, and benevolent, and governed 
 by the highest principles of honour. Towards his friends 
 he was unwavering in his attachment, and was easily 
 reconciled to those who had injured him. As a poet he 
 exhibits uncommon classical learning, great intellectual 
 power, and acuteness of perception. He unquestionably 
 deserves much praise for refining English poetry and 
 the morals of the English stage. " I think him/' says 
 Dryden, "the most learned and judicious writer which 
 any theatre ever had. ... If I would compare him with 
 Shakspeare, I must acknowledge him the most correct 
 poet, but Shakspeare the greater wit. Shakspeare was 
 the I Iomer or father of dramatic poets. Jonson was the 
 Virgil, the pattern of elaborate writing. I admire him, 
 but I love Shakspeare." Jonson was most successful in 
 satirical comedies, the style of which he obtained from 
 the ancients. To the refinement and thought displayed 
 in his writings may be attributed the ill success which 
 many of them first met with among the English people, 
 whose taste had been vitiated by the low wit and ob- 
 scenity which they had been accustomed to hear from 
 the stage. Among the most important of his dramas 
 are "Cvnthia's Revels," (1600,) "Sejanus," (1603,) " Vol- 
 pone,"'(i6o5,) "The Alchemist," (1610,) and "Catiline's 
 Conspiracy," (161 1.) 
 
 See Chetwood, " Life of Ben Jonson," 1756 : " Memoir of Pen 
 fixed to an edition 01 his works (9 vols., iSi6,)by\V. 
 km ; Baker, " BiocrsrpmS Dramatic* :" Von BAonwsm, " B. 
 Jonson und seine Schule," j vols., 1836; " Lives of British Drama- 
 tists," by Campiieu., Lem;ii Hunt, etc. : " Retrospective Review," 
 vol. i., 1820; "North British Review" for February, 1856. 
 
 Joiisson, (Arngkim.) See Jonas. 
 
 Jousson, yons'son, (Finn,) [Lat. Fin'nus Johan- 
 N/k'us,] a clergyman and historical writer on the church 
 and literature of Iceland, was born in that island in 
 1704. After receiving his education at the University 
 of Copenhagen, he returned to Iceland. Died in 17.9. 
 His most important work is the "Ecclesiastical History 
 of Iceland," ("Historia Ecclesiastica Islandiae."). 
 
 Jonston, (ARTHUR.) See Johnston. 
 
 Jordaens, you'd Ins, (JaKOBJ a distinguished painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1594. He studied under Van Oort, 
 but w;is indebted for the most of his artistic knowledge 
 to Rubens, by whom he was subsequently employed. He 
 painted with rapidity and ease, and his colouring was 
 rich and harmonious ; but he was deficient in elegance 
 and loftiness of conception. Among his numerous works 
 arc "Jesus Christ in the Midst of the Doctors," (a paint- 
 ing which has been frequently attributed to Rubens,) 
 "The Adoration of the Shepherds," "Saint I'eter Cut- 
 ting off the Ear of Malchus," and "The Satyr and the 
 Man who Blew Hot and Cold." Died in 1678. 
 
 See Demamps, -Vies de» Peinlres Flamands,' 
 Ai.vin, " J Jordaens," 1S44 ; J. Campo Wkykkman, " De Schilder- 
 konst der Nederlanders." 
 
 Jordan, zhoR'dfiN', (Camille,) a French politician 
 and orator, born at Lyons in 1771. He was distinguished 
 for his moderate principles during the Revolution, and 
 his attachment to the Catholic religion, which he bravely 
 defended. Having been proscribed by the Directory, he 
 sought an asylum in Switzerland in 1797, and afterwards 
 in Germany, where he became acquainted with Goethe, 
 Schiller, and other men of note. Jordan returned to 
 France about 1800. During Ronaparte's administration 
 he led a private life ; but upon the accession of Louis 
 XVIII. he was ennobled, and elected to the Chamber 
 of Deputies. He wrote several works of a political 
 nature. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" Pierre Simon 
 Bai.i.anche, " £iot;e de C. Jordan," 1823; Thiers, "History of 
 the French Revolution ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Revue 
 des Deux Mondes," vol. lx., 1868. 
 
 Jordan, (Ciiari.es Etienne,) a French Protestant 
 minister and writer, born at Berlin in 1700. He was 
 appointed privv councillor by Frederick the Great in 
 1740. He rendered important services to Berlin by the 
 suppression of mendicity and the promotion of educa- 
 tion. Among his works is "Travels in France and 
 England," (1735.) Died in 1745. 
 
 See MM. Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Jor'dan, (Dorothea.) or Dorothy Bland, a cele- 
 brated actress, born at Waterford, Ireland, about 1762. 
 In 1785 she made her appearance in London at Drurj 
 Lane Theatre, where she enjoyed the highest popularity, 
 She subsequently became the mistress of the Duke of 
 Clarence, (afterwards William IV.,) to whom she bore 
 ten children. This connection being suddenly broken 
 off by the duke in 181 1, Mrs. Jordan retired to France, 
 where she died in 1816 in great poverty. As an actress 
 she possessed uncommon versatility, and excelled both 
 in comedy and tragedy. 
 
 See J. BoADBK, "Life of D. Jordan," 2 vols., 1831 ; Oxberry, 
 " Dramatic Biography." 
 
 Jordan, HOR-dan', (Esteban,) a Spaniard, born at 
 Valladolid in 1543, excelled in painting, architecture, 
 and sculpture, but devoted his attention chiefly to the 
 last-named art. Philip II. appointed him his first 
 sculptor. Among his most admired productions are 
 "Saint Peter," "Saint Paul," and "The Adoiation of 
 the Kings." Died in 1605. 
 
 Jordan, yoR'dan, (Johann Christoph,) a noted anti- 
 quary, and privy councillor to the King of Bohemia, 
 was the author of annotations on Livy, Dionysius of 
 Halicarnassus, I'olybius, and Diodorus Siculus. Died 
 about 1740. 
 
 Jordan, (Sir Joseph,) an English admiral, who com- 
 manded at the victory of Solebay, which was gained over 
 the Dutch in 1672. 
 
 Jordan, (Rudolf,) a German painter, born at Berlin 
 about 1810. His delineations of fisher-life in Helgoland 
 are greatly admired : among these we may name "The 
 Shipwreck" and "The Death of the Pilot." 
 
 Jordan, (Sylvester,) a German jurist and politician, 
 born near Innspruck in 1792. He was imprisoned about 
 twelve years for his liberal opinions, and was released 
 in 1845. Died in 1861. 
 
 Jordan, (Thomas,) an English poet and dramatist, 
 lived in I-ondon ; died about 1685. 
 
 Jor'dan, (Thomas,) an American officer in the Con- 
 federate service, born in Virginia about 1821, was made 
 a brigadier-general in 1862. 
 
 Jordanes. See Jornandes. 
 
 Jordano, (Luca.) See Giordano. 
 
 Jordano Bruno. See Bruno. 
 
 Jor'den, (Edward,) an English physician and scien- 
 tific writer, born in Kent in 1569. He was a graduate 
 of the University of Padua. Died in 1632. 
 
 Jordens, yoR'dens, (Gkorg,) a Dutch jurist, born at 
 Deventer in 1718, was known as the author of two legal 
 treatises,— one in defence of the University of Utrecht, 
 and the other on the Mosaic, Greek, and Roman laws. 
 Died in 1771. 
 
 Jordens or Joerdens, yoR'dens, (Karl Heinrich,) 
 a German philologist and biographer, born in the county 
 ol M.irisfcld in 1757. He was rector of an academy at 
 Lauban. His chief work is an excellent "Dictionary of 
 
 « ss i; c as s; g hard; g as>; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as t; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JORDT 
 
 \V)Z 
 
 JOSEPH 
 
 German Poets and Prose Writers," (6 vols., 1805-11.) 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 See Ersch unci Gruder, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Jordy, zhoR'de', (Nicolas Louis,) a French general, 
 born at Abreschwiller in 175S ; died in 1825. 
 
 Jore, zhoR, (Claude Francois,) a French printer, 
 lived about 1750, was a friend of Voltaire, for whom 
 he published several works. He wrote "Six Letters to 
 Voltaire," and some other productions. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Correspondance generale. " 
 
 Jorgenson, yoR'gen-son, written also Jiirgensen, 
 (JoRGKN,) a Danish adventurer, born at Copenhagen 
 in 1779. Having gone to England in early youth, he 
 was some years later promoted to the command of an 
 English vessel, and during the war between England 
 and Denmark sailed for Iceland. On the 25th of June, 
 1809, he landed with twelve English sailors and took 
 the governor, Count Trampe, prisoner, and proclaimed 
 that Iceland was free and independent of Denmark. 
 With a force of eight Icelanders, he continued to exer- 
 cise undisputed sway over the island until August, when 
 the British restored it to its former government. During 
 this revolution not a gun was fired nor a drop of blood 
 shed. The inhabitants feared to resist, as their capital 
 lay exposed to the guns of Jorgenson's vessel. Soon 
 after his return to England he became very dissipated, 
 and was finally convicted and transported to New South 
 Wales, where he is supposed to have died. While in 
 Newgate, before his transportation, he wrote a work en- 
 titled "The Religion of Christ the Religion of Nature." 
 
 See Sir Wm. Hooker, "Tour in Iceland;" Skui.ason, "J. Jiir- 
 gensens Usurpation i Island," 1S32 ; Ersi.ew, " Forfatter- Lexicon." 
 
 Jorisz, yoR'is, (Augustin,) a Dutch painter and en- 
 graver, born at Delft in 1525 ; died in 1552. 
 ■ Jorisz, (David.) See David George. 
 
 Jorjauee, Jorjani, or Djordjani, jor-ja'nee, (Saeed 
 Shereef Zeiu-ed-Deen Abool Ha3san, or Said 
 Scherif Zein-ed-Din Abou'l Hassan, sa-eed' shSr- 
 eef' zan (or zin) ed-deen' a'bool has'san,) a renowned 
 Arabian writer, born in Tagoo, (Tagou.) in the district 
 of Asterabad and the region called Jorjan, in 1339. He 
 was the author of numerous works, among which per- 
 haps the most important is an extremely valuable dic- 
 tionary, entitled " Tarafat," (i.e. " Definitions.") Jorjanee 
 enjoyed the favour of the great conqueror Tamerlane. 
 Died in 1413. 
 
 Jor-nan'des or Jor-da'nes, a distinguished Gothic 
 historian of the sixth century, was secretary to the Gothic 
 kings of Italy. Having embraced Christianity, he was 
 ordained Bishop of Ravenna in 552. The most important 
 of his works is a " History of the Goths" until the reign 
 of Vitiges, who was conquered by Belisarius, (" I)e Ge- 
 tarum sive Gothorum, Origine et Rebus gestis.") It was 
 first printed at Augsburg in 1 51 5, and is highly prized. 
 He also wrote an abridgment of universal history, en- 
 titled "De Regnorum et Temporum Successione." 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis;" Eksch und Gruber, 
 " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" D. W. Moller, " Disputatio Circu- 
 lates de Jornande," 1690. 
 
 Jor'tiii, (John,) D.D., an English divine and critic, 
 of French extraction, born in London in 1698. Soon 
 after graduating at Cambridge he settled in his native 
 city, where he gained great distinction for his eloquence 
 and learning. He was appointed Archdeacon of London 
 in 1764. Of his works may be mentioned a volume of 
 "Latin Poems," (1722,) which are classed among the 
 most finished of the modern productions in that lan- 
 guage, " Miscellaneous Observations on Authors, An- 
 cient and Modern," (2 vols., 1732,) "Remarks upon 
 Ecclesiastical History," (5 vols., 1751-73,) and the "Life 
 of Erasmus," (1758.) Died in 1770. "Jortin's sermons," 
 says Dr. Johnson, " are very elegant," 
 
 See John Disney, "Life of Jortin," 1792. 
 
 Josaphat. See Jehoshaphat. 
 
 Jo'seph, [Heb. "^DV ; Gr. 'Itjov?c> : Lat. Jose'phus ; 
 It. Josef, yo-sgf; Sp. Josef, no-sef',] one of the twelve 
 patriarchs, and the favourite son of Jacob, was born in 
 Mesopotamia about 1525 B.C. At an early age, on ac- 
 count of their jealousy, he was sold by his brothers to 
 some Ishmaelitish merchants, who carried him as a slave 
 into Egypt, over which kingdom he was subsequently 
 
 appointed governor by Pharaoh. The descendant.; of his 
 sons Ephraim and Manasseh formed the two half-tribes, 
 which exerted no little influence in the Hebrew nation. 
 
 See Genesis xxxv.-l. 
 
 Joseph [Ger. pron. yo'sSf] I., Emperor of Germany, 
 of the house of Hapsburg, and son of Leopold I., was 
 born in 1676. In 1687 he was proclaimed King of Hun- 
 gary, and in 1690 King of the Romans. At the death 
 of his father, in 1705, he ascended the imperial throne. 
 He carried on a successful war against Louis XIV., in 
 which he was assisted by England, Holland, and Savoy. 
 The allied armies were commanded by Prince Eugene 
 and the Duke of Marlborough. Joseph granted, through 
 the influence (it is said) of Charles XII. of Sweden, nume- 
 rous privileges to his Protestant subjects. Died in 171 1. 
 
 See G. Lange, " Leben und Thaten des Kaysevs Joseph I.," 1712; 
 Franz Wagner, " Historia Joseph! I. Cssaris Augusli," 174s; 
 Ersch und Giuiber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, the eldest son of 
 Francis of Lorraine and Maria Theresa of Austria, was 
 born in Vienna in 1741. In 1764 he was elected King 
 of the Romans, and in the following year succeeded his 
 father on the throne of Germany. He married Isabella, 
 a daughter of the Duke of Parma, in 1760, and Maria 
 Josepha, a daughter of the emperor Charles VII., about 
 1764. In 1772 he signed, witli the sovereigns of Russia 
 and Prussia, the treaty by which Poland was divided 
 between them. At the death of his mother, in 17S0, 
 he came into possession of Hungary and all the other 
 hereditary dominions of the house of Austria. He 
 united with Catherine of Russia, six years later, in a 
 Turkish war, in which his general Laudon gained 
 several important victories. During his reign he intro- 
 duced many civil and ecclesiastical reforms, which would 
 probably have been very beneficial to his subjects had 
 he acted with more calmness and deliberation. He 
 abolished feudal serfdom, regulated the taxes, allowed 
 liberty of conscience and rights of citizenship to all 
 denominations of Christians, mitigated the condition of 
 the Jews, suppressed several convents, greatly abridged 
 the power of the pope and clergy in his dominions, and 
 encouraged manufactures and industry. But his zeal in 
 correcting the abuses of the Roman Church caused an 
 insurrection in Belgium; while his attempt to establish 
 the German as the universal language in his dominions 
 induced the Hungarians to revolt. He died, without issue, 
 in February, 1790, and was succeeded by his brother, 
 Leopold II. 
 
 See Paganei., " Histoire de Joseph II," 1843: F. X. Hubrr, 
 "Geschichte Kaiser Joseph's II.," 2 vols.. 1792; L. A. dsCaraC- 
 cioi.i, "Vie de Joseph II, Enipereur d'Alletnagne," 1790; Jonaz 
 Cornova, "Leben Joseph II., Romischen Kaisers," 1X02; C. T. 
 Hevne, " Geschichte Kaiser Joseph's II.," 2 vols.,t84S ; Ramshorn, 
 " Kaiser Joseph II. nnd seine Zeit," 1845. 
 
 Joseph, FATHER, [It. Fra Giuseppe,] an Italian mis- 
 sionary, whose family name was SEBASTIANI. He went 
 to Persia, and obtained no little influence at the court of 
 the Shah. He used his power in favour of the English 
 interests and against those of the French. He was 
 acquainted with several of the Oriental languages, and 
 translated the works of the Persian poet Hafiz into 
 Latin. 
 
 Joseph, zho'ze'f, (Francois Leclerc du Trem- 
 blay — dii tRom'bli',) called Father Joseph, a French 
 monk, born in Paris in 1577, became the agent and 
 confidant of Cardinal Richelieu, who employed him in 
 negotiations and intrigues. Died in 1638. 
 
 See Abbe Richard, "Vie du Pere Joseph," 2 vols. ; " Le veri- 
 table Pere Joseph." 1704; Richelieu, "Me'moires;" " Nouvelle 
 Itiographie Generale." 
 
 Joseph of Exeter. See Iscanus. 
 
 Joseph Al'bo, a Jew, distinguished for his learning,' 
 born at Sora, in Spain, in the fourteenth century. He 
 was the author of a work on Jewish faith, entitled " Se- 
 pher Ikkarim." Died in 1430. 
 
 Joseph Ben Gorion. See Gorionides. 
 
 Joseph Emanuel, [Port. JozE Manoel, zho-za' ma- 
 no-el',] King of Portugal, born in 1714. In 1750 he suc- 
 ceeded his father, John V. In 1755 his kingdom suffered 
 from a great earthquake, which destroyed a large part 
 of Lisbon and killed about sixty thousand persons. In 
 1758 an attempt was made to assassinate him, in which 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t; n8t; good; moon; 
 
JOSEPH 
 
 1293 
 
 JOSUH 
 
 he was severely wounded. He discovered that the Jesuits 
 were implicated in the plot, and immediately caused all 
 against whom any evidence was brought to be executed. 
 He also issued an edict by which all the Jesuits in Por- 
 tugal were declared traitors. In 1762 he united with 
 England in a war against Franco and Spain. He enacted 
 1 laws to encourage education and to advance 
 religious toleration, and restricted (lie powers of the 
 Inquisition. Died in 1777. 
 
 See "Leben Joseph Emmanuels Kbnigs von Portugal," Nurem- 
 berg, 1778. 
 
 Joseph Meir, (m5R,) a French Jew, bom at Avignon 
 in 1496. He wrote a work, in Hebrew, on the Kings of 
 France and the Sultans of Turkey. Died in 155+ 
 
 Josephe, the French of Josephus, which see. 
 
 Josephine, jo'ze-feen', [ Fr. prom, zho'za'len',] origin- 
 allv Marie Joseph Rose Tascher de la Pagerie, 
 (ijrshl' c!eh 14 pSzh're',) wife of Napoleon I. of France, 
 was born in 1763 in the island of Martinique. At a 
 very early age she attracted attention by her remark- 
 able beauty and vivacity. About 1778 she went to 
 reside in France with an aunt by whom she had been 
 adopted, and thus became the heiress to a large for- 
 tune. She was soon after married to Viscount de Beau- 
 hainais, one of the most polished noblemen of the French 
 court. In 1780 she gave birth to Eugene, who was sub- 
 sequently appointed Viceroy of Italy by Bonaparte, and 
 in 17S3 to Hortense, afterwards Queen of Holland, and 
 mother of Napoleon III. Jealousies having arisen be- 
 tween Beauharnais and his wife, the former sued for a 
 divorce before the Parliament of Paris. The case was 
 decided in favour of Josephine, who in a short time 
 sailed for Martinique with her daughter. At this period 
 her circumstances were so straitened that she was glad 
 to accept from the captain of the vessel a pair of shoes 
 for Hortense. At the expiration of three years she re- 
 turned to France and was reconciled to her husband. 
 During the French Revolution Beauharnais boldly op- 
 posed the measures of the Jacobins, by whom he was 
 executed in 1794. His wife, who was then in prison, 
 escaped the same fate only by the sudden fall of Robes- 
 pierre. Through the influence of lianas and Tallien, 
 she regained part of her husband's property, which had 
 been confiscated. She now became one of the leaders 
 of fashion. Her talents and personal attractions enabled 
 her also to exert no little influence in the politics of that 
 period. In 1796 she was married to Bonaparte, who had 
 recently been appointed commander-in-chief of the army 
 in Italy. At the time Josephine was thought by her 
 friends to have formed a mesalliance. After Bonaparte 
 became First Consul, she exerted all her influence to alle- 
 viate the sufferings of the royalists, and even endeavoured 
 to persuade him to restore the Bourbons. While Napo- 
 leon was in Egypt, she had bought for her favourite resort 
 the estate of Malmaison, which she fitted up with royal 
 magnificence. At length her expenditures for this and 
 other luxuries became so enormous as to occasion the 
 First Consul serious embarrassment. Winn Napoleon 
 was raised to the imperial throne and she became Empress 
 of France, to her was due in a great measure the honour of 
 having imparted to the court of the Toiler ics the splendour 
 and taste for which it was then distinguished. From the 
 time of her coronation her influence over the emperor 
 rapidly diminished ; and, as there was no longer bope o{ 
 her bringing him an heir, he finally resolved to divorce 
 her. The announcement of this decision plunged the 
 empress into the deepest despair. Napoleon himself 
 is said to have been greatly affected ; but his resolu- 
 tion was fixed, and the bill of divorce was passed in 1809. 
 Josephine, still retaining her former dignities and titles, 
 retired to Malmaison. Napoleon occasionally visited 
 her, and appeared to cherish a sincere affection for her. 
 When the allied armies invaded France, she was treated 
 with the greatest respect by the emperor Alexander. 
 She died in 1814, soon after the abdication of Napoleon. 
 The character of Josephine has been greatly admired. 
 The cause of this is to be attributed nunc to her pleasing 
 manners than to any exalted virtue which she poa 
 It is said that there was a fascination in her countenance 
 which no painter could transfer to canvas. She had a 
 very remarkable memory, was accomplished, educated, 
 
 and witty ; but vanity seems to have had an unlimited, 
 ascendency over her, and it does not appear that she > 
 was endowed with so many uncommon qualities as several' 
 modern writers have attributed to her. (See Bo.na- 
 
 partb, Napoleon.) 
 
 See "Josephine, " in the " Nouvelle P.iographie Ge'ne'rale," vol. 
 xxxvii. For the private life of Josephine, the reader may consult 
 Acbknas' " Htstone de l'lmpeVatrice Josephine," 2 vo!s. 8vo, Puis, 
 ,s 57~59: si' 50 the letters of Naiioleon to Josephine, and of Josephine 
 to X.i)*>leon and to her daughter. For a very curious account of 
 the empress Josephine's descendants, see "London Review" for 
 June, 1866; Marie Anne I,e Normano. "Memnires historiques 
 et secrets de Josephine," 2 vols., 1820, (English version of the same, 
 184S:) P. C. Headley, "Life of the Empress Josephine," 1852. 
 
 Jo-se'phus, [Fr. Josephk, zho'zef; It. Gioseffo, 
 jo-seffo,) or, more fully, Fla'vl-us Jo-se'phus, [Gr. 
 •Jv.tiJtoc 'luoT/jror,] the most celebrated of Jewish historians, 
 was born at Jerusalem A.D. 37. His mother was of the 
 royal house of the Asmonxans, and his father belonged to 
 the sacerdotal order from which the chief pontiffs were 
 chosen. He pursued his studies in his native city with 
 such assiduity that at the age of fourteen he was often 
 consulted on abstruse points of Jewish law. He after- 
 wards joined the sect of the Essenes, and passed three 
 years with a hermit in the desert. At the age of nine- 
 teen he became a Pharisee. In the year 63 he visited 
 Rome, in order to procure the liberation of some Jew- 
 ish priests whom the governor Felix had sent there as 
 prisoners. He was favourably received at the imperial 
 court, and succeeded in his enterprise through the in- 
 fluence of Poppa;a, the wile of Nero. On his return to 
 Judea he opposed the revolutionary spirit that was then 
 gaining ground among his countrymen. Perceiving his 
 efforts to be of no avail, he accepted the government of 
 the twoGalilees, and in 67 A.D. bravely defended for forty- 
 seven days the city of Jotapata against a powerful Roman 
 army under Vespasian. The Romans finally triumphed, 
 however, and of the Jewish warriors Josephus alone was 
 saved, on account of his predicting that Vespasian would 
 soon receive the imperial purple. He was treated with 
 the greatest respect by Vespasian and Titus, and at the 
 destruction of Jerusalem his influence procured the 
 liberation of his brother and fifty of his friends. He 
 afterwards accompanied Titus to Rome, where Vespasian 
 granted him a pension and raised him to the rank of a 
 Roman citizen. As a mark of gratitude for these and 
 other favours, Josephus assumed the emperor's family 
 name of Flavins. The date of his death is unknown ; 
 but some writers have placed it A.D. 95. The most im- 
 portant works of Josephus are his " History of the Jew- 
 ish War," in seven books, " The Antiquities of the Jews," 
 {'lavtauai 'Apymozojt'a,) in twenty books, two treatises 
 " Against Apion of Alexandria," a " Discourse on the 
 Martyrdom of the Maccabees," and an account of his 
 own life. All of these were written in Greek, with the 
 exception of the first, which was originally composed in 
 Syro-Chaldaic and afterwards translated into Greek by 
 himself. On account of the beauty of his style, he has 
 been called "the Grecian Eivy." His works have been 
 translated into Latin and most of the modern languages 
 of Europe. 
 
 See G. R. van Hoeveu., " F. Josephi Vita," 1835: J. F. Eck- 
 hakii, " Biographic des beruhmten K. Josephus," 17S5; Fapriuus, 
 " Bibliotheca Cra-ci ;" Cave, " Scriptortim ecclestasticorum Historia 
 iilrr.nii "< . I BoSHMKRT, " Ueher des Flavius Josephus Zeugnisa 
 Utn,"iH23; Phii.areteChasi.es, " De I'Autorite histoiique 
 de F. Josephe," 1X41. 
 
 Josepin. See Cfsari, (Giuseppe.) 
 
 Josh'u-a, [ I leb. i'tfin' ; Gr. 'Ir/mvi ; Fr. JosUE, zho'- 
 zii'a',] or O'she-a, the son of Nun, (Numbers xiii. 16,) 
 became commander of the Israelites on the death of 
 Moses. He was distinguished for his bravery and mili- 
 tary skill, and gained numerous important victories over 
 the different Canaanite princes. Much controversy has 
 arisen in regard to the authorship of the book of Joshua. 
 Many suppose it to have been compiled from manuscripts 
 written by himself; others attribute it to Samuel. Died 
 about 1425 H.C. 
 
 Jo-si'ah I Hcb. lrrtyX" ; Fr. Toms, zho'sc'as'] suc- 
 ceeded his father Anion on the throne of Judah 641 B.C., . 
 at the age of eight years. He was an able and pious 
 prince, and during his reign of thirty-one years many 
 wise and beneficial laws were enacted: idolatry was 
 suppressed, the Temple was repaired, and the true forms 
 
 t as t; c as / g hard; g as/; G, U, Y^guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; § as 1; th as in this. (Uy~ See Explanati ins, p. 23 ) 
 
yosus 
 
 1294 
 
 JOUFFROT 
 
 of worship were restored. He was killed in a battle 
 against Pharaoh-Necho, King of Egypt, about 610 B.C. 
 See II. Kings xiii., xxii. ; II. Chronicles xxxiv., xxxv. 
 Josias. See Josiah. 
 
 Josika, yo'she-koh, (Miklos,) a Hungarian nobleman 
 and celebrated novelist, born in 1796 at Torda, in Tran- 
 sylvania. His first and most successful work, "Abaft," 
 a historical tale, appeared in 1836. He produced about 
 sixty volumes of romances, which were very popular with 
 the Hungarians. In 1848, as a member of the upper 
 house of nobles, he took a bold stand against the en- 
 croachments of Austria, and advocated the measures of 
 Kossuth. After the defeat of the Hungarians in 1849 he 
 lived in exile. Died in 1865. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 Josquin Desprez or Depres. See Despres. 
 Josselin de Courtenay, zhos'laN' deh kooRt'n^', a 
 French nobleman, who went on a crusade to Palestine in 
 1 101. He was created Count of Edessa by the King of 
 Jerusalem, and won great distinction by the numerous 
 victories which he gained over the Saracens. Died in 1 147. 
 Jost, yost, (Isaak Marcus,) a learned Jew, born at 
 Bernburg, in Germany, in 1793, studied philology at 
 Gottingen and Berlin. His principal work is a " History 
 of the Israelites," (10 vols., 1846.) He also published a 
 translation of the " Mishna," with a text and commen- 
 tary. Died in 1862. 
 Josue\ See Joshua. 
 
 Jo'tham, [Heb. DOT,] King of Judah, was the son 
 of Uzziah, whom he succeeded H.c. 757. 
 See II. Kings xv. 32, 38; II. Chronicles xxvii. 
 Jotun, yo'tun, in the plural Jotuns, [an old Norse 
 word signifying "giant," supposed to be derived from 
 an ancient form of the verb to "eat," (Anglo-Saxon 
 taten,) the most prominent characteristic of the Jotuns 
 being their prodigious voracity. (See Thorpe's " North- 
 ern Mythology," vol. i. p. 148,)] in the Norse mythology, 
 the name applied to certain mythical beings supposed 
 to be hostile to men and to the beneficent /Esir. The 
 Jotuns, or Giants, are types of the disturbing, untamable, 
 or destructive forces of nature. Hence the wolf Fenrir, 
 (supposed to typify volcanic fire,) Midgard's Serpent, 
 (the vast untamable ocean,) and Hela (the goddess of 
 death) are all represented as of Jotun birth. Loki him- 
 self is considered to be of Jotun origin, and is the father 
 of the mightiest and most terrible beings belonging to 
 that race. Cold or frost, being one of the principal causes 
 of desolation and death, is represented as the parent of 
 a powerful family of Jotuns, termed Frost-giants. The 
 abode of the Jotuns is called Jotunheim or Utgard, 
 (oot'gard, i.e. "outer ward,") and comprises the desert 
 regions on the outermost boundary of the world. The 
 Jotuns (i.e. the elements of disorder and desolation) are 
 represented as being always at war with the ^Esir, the 
 powers presiding over life and order. (See /Esir.) The 
 opposition is eternal ; they are never reconciled, as in the 
 case of the Vanir and Aish; (see Vanir,) because there 
 can be no reconciliation between order and confusion, or 
 between life and death. 
 
 See, besides the work above referred to, Kevser, "Religion of 
 the Northmen:" Mallet, "Northern Antiquities;" Petersen, 
 " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Jouannet, zhoo'S'ni', (Francois Vatar,) a French 
 antiquary and statistician, born in 1765 ; died in 1845. 
 See Lamothe, "Jouannet, sa Vie et ses Ecrits," 1847. 
 
 Jouannin, zhoo'S'tiax', (Joseph Marik,) a French 
 Orientalist, born in Bretagne in 1783 ; died in 1844. 
 
 Joubert, zhoo'baiR', (Barthelemy Catherine,) a 
 French general, born at Pont-de-Vaux, in Hresse, in 
 1769. In 1 791 he enlisted in the army of the Rhine, 
 and served with distinction against the Austrians. Two 
 years later he was taken prisoner by the Sardinians. He 
 soon after regained his liberty and returned to France, 
 where he boldly opposed the Jacobins. In 1794 he re- 
 ceived the appointment of adjutant-general, and in 1795, 
 having displayed great bravery at Loano, he was raised 
 to the rank of a brigadier-general on the field of battle. 
 He subsequently gained distinguished honours at several 
 battles in Italy and in the Tyrol. In 1799 he was ap- 
 pointed general-in-chief of the army in Italy, and fell at 
 
 the battle of Novi, in August of that year. " He united 
 with great military talents," says the "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale," " all the virtues of a citizen. He was 
 admired by all parties, and devoted exclusively to the 
 glory and happiness of his country." 
 
 See I). J. Garat, " Eloge de B. C Joubert," 1799: J. Laval- 
 lee, "Eloge de Joubert," 1800; Guilbert, " Notice sur la Vie de 
 Joubert," etc., 1799; H. Lesuecr, in the "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale :" J. J. Le Francois de Lalande, " Sur ]e General Jou- 
 bert," 1799; Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Joubert, (Francois,) a French priest and Jansenist, 
 distinguished for his learning, born at Montpellier in 
 1689. On account of his principles, he was persecuted 
 by the Jesuits and was imprisoned in the Bastille. He 
 wrote commentaries on the Apocalypse and on a number 
 of the Hebrew prophecies. Died in 1763. 
 
 Joubert, (Joseph,) a French Jesuit, born at Lyons, 
 known as the author of a valuable work, entitled "French 
 and Latin Dictionary, taken from the Original and Clas- 
 sical Authors in both Languages." Died in 1719. 
 
 Joubert,_(JosEPH,) a fVench moralist, born at Mon- 
 tignac (Perigord) in 1734, became a resident of Paris 
 about 1778. He was an intimate friend of Fontanes, by 
 whose influence he was appointed inspector-general of 
 the University of Paris in 1809. He died in 1824, leaving 
 many manuscripts, a part of which Chateaubriand edited, 
 with the title of "Pensees." A more complete edition 
 of the "Pensees, Essais," etc. appeared in 2 vols., 1842. 
 
 See "Notice sur J. Joubert," by his brother Arnaud, 1824; 
 Sainte-Beuvb, "Portraits Litteraires,"and " Causeries du Lundi," 
 tome i. ; Paul Ravnal, "Notice sur J. Joubert," prefixed to his 
 'Pensees," etc., 1842; "Essays in Criticism," by Matthew Ar- 
 nold, 1865. 
 
 Joubert, (Joseph Antoine Rene,) a French general, 
 born at Angels in 1772. He served with distinction at 
 Ilcliopolis, Wagram, (1809,) Smolensk, (1812,) and Lut- 
 zen, (1813.) Died in 1843. 
 
 Joubert, (Laurent,) an eminent French physician, 
 born at Valence in 1529. He graduated at the Univer- 
 sity of Montpellier, of which he was afterwards chosen 
 chancellor. He was also appointed first physician-in- 
 ordinary to Henry III. He wrote "Popular Errors in 
 regard to Medicine," (1578-79,) which was often re- 
 printed, and a "Treatise on Laughter." Died in 1583. 
 See Amoreux, " Notice sur la Vie de L. Joubert," 1814; Bayle, 
 " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Nic^ron, " Memoires." 
 
 Joubert, (Leon,) a French biographer of the present 
 century, wrote many able articles for the " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 Jouenneaux. See Juvenal. 
 Jouftroi, de, deh zhoo'fRwi', [Lat. Joffre'dus,] 
 (Jean,) a French prelate, born at Luxeuil about 1412. 
 He obtained the favour of Louis XI., who procured for 
 him a cardinal's hat in 1461, and made him his almoner. 
 Died in 1473. 
 
 Jouffroy, zhoo'fRw.V, (Francois,) a French sculptor, 
 born at Dijon in 1806. He gained the grand prize in 
 1832, and went to Rome with a pension. He became 
 a member of the Academie des Beaux-Arts in 1857. 
 
 Jouffroy, (Theodore SrMON,) a French philosophical 
 writer, born near Mottthe (Doubs) in 1796, was a pupil 
 of Victor Cousin, who influenced the development and 
 direction of his mind.- He was appointed a tutor of 
 philosophy (ttive rlpltiteur) in the Normal School in 
 1817. This school having been suppressed in 1822, he 
 began to write for several journals in Paris'. In 1830 he 
 became a professor in the Normal School, then re-estab- 
 lished. He produced a version of the complete works 
 of Thomas Reid, (6 vols., 1828-35.) In 1833 he w;i s 
 appointed professor of Greek and Latin philosophy in 
 the College de France. He exchanged this position in 
 1838 for the office of librarian to the University, and 
 succeeded Laromiguiere as professor of philosophv in 
 1837. Among his works are " Melanges philosophiqucs," 
 (1833,) and "Cours d'Esthetique," (1843.) He a| so 
 produced a version of Dugald Stewart's "Essays on 
 Moral Philosophy," (1826,) to which he wrote a valuable 
 preface. Died in 1842. 
 
 See Mignet, "Notice sur Jouffroy," 1853; Adolphe GaR- 
 nikr, article "Jouffroy" in the " Dictionnaire des Sciences philoso- 
 phiques," tome iii. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Ge"ne>ale." 
 
 Jouffroy, de, deh zhoo'fRwa', (Claude Franqois 
 Dorothee,) Marquis, an ingenious Frenchman, born 
 
 5, e, I, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
JOUKOFSK1 
 
 1295 
 
 JOUFENET 
 
 in Franche-Comte, about 1750. He studied the con- 
 struction of different vessels, and went to Paris, where 
 he conceived the idea of propelling boats by steam. His 
 first vessel of this kind was launched in 1776. Although 
 this attempt was far from being successful, Jouffroy was 
 
 uttroy 
 
 completed another steam-vessel, one hundred and forty 
 feet long, with which he ascended the Saone several 
 miles, but, on account of his limited means, was unable 
 to carry his invention to a higher state of perfection. 
 The inventions of Jouffroy were highly spoken of by 
 Robert Fulton. Died in 1832. 
 
 See F. A. A. Mignet,_ " Notice historique sur la Vie et les Tra- 
 vaux de M. Jouffroy," Paris, 1853 ; " Nouvelle biographic G^nerale." 
 
 Joukofski, (Vasili Andreivitch.) See Zhookof- 
 
 SKt. 
 
 Joule, jool, ? (James P.,) F.R.S., an English experi- 
 mental philosopher, born at Salford, near Manchester, 
 in 1S1S. He was a pupil of the celebrated Dalton. He 
 made some discoveries in electro-magnetism, and in the 
 theory of heat. He is considered by some. persons as 
 the founder of the modern theory of the correlation of 
 forces. 
 
 Jourdain, zhooR'dax', (Amable Louis Marie Mi- 
 chii. Brechillet — bRa'she'vi',) a distinguished French 
 writer and Orientalist, born in Paris in 1788. Among 
 his principal works is "Persia; or, A Description of the 
 History, Government, Religion, and Literature of that 
 Empire," (5 vols., 1814.) He was a contributor to the 
 " Biographie Universelle." Died in 1818. 
 
 Jourdain, (Anselme Louis Bernard Brechillet,) 
 an eminent surgeon-dentist, the father of the preceding, 
 was born in Paris in 1734. He invented several instru- 
 ments used by dentists, and wrote numerous treatises on 
 dentistry. Died in 1816. 
 
 See J. R. Duval, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Jourdain," 
 1816. 
 
 Jourdain, (Charles Marie Gabriel Brechillet,) 
 a philosopher, a son of Amable, noticed above, was born 
 in Paris in 1817. He published, besides other works, 
 " La Philosophic de Saint Thomas d'Aquin," (2 vols., 
 1858.) 
 
 Jourdain, (Claude,) a French Benedictine and 
 antiquarian writer, born at Poligny in 1696; died in 
 1782. 
 
 Jourdan, zhooR'd&N', (Andre Joseph,) a French 
 statesman, born in Provence. In 1795 he was elected 
 to the Council of Five Hundred, where he opposed the 
 laws against the emigrants. For this reason, in 1797 he 
 was obliged to seek an asylum in Spain. On the acces- 
 sion of Louis XVIII. Jourdan was chosen councillor of 
 state. Died in 183 1. 
 
 Jourdan, (Antoine Jacques Louis,) born in Paris 
 In 1788, published a "Dictionary of Terms used in the 
 Natural Sciences," (2 vols., 1834.) Died in 1848. 
 
 Jourdan, (Jean Baptiste,) a French dramatist, born 
 at Marseilles in 1711 ; died in 1793. 
 
 Jourdan, (Jean Baptiste,) a marshal of France, born 
 at Limoges in 1762, was the son of a poor surgeon, who 
 paid but little attention to his education. At the age 
 of sixteen he entered the French army, and fought for 
 the Americans in the Revolutionary war until 1782, 
 when he returned home on account of ill health. In 
 1791 he again entered the army, and soon after received 
 the command of a battalion, and served under La Fa- 
 yette and Dumouriez. In 1793 he was appointed general 
 iif division. Having distinguished himself at the battle 
 of Hondschoote, in 1793, he was chosen commander-in- 
 chief of the French army. He then gained a decisive 
 victory over the Austrians at Wattignies, near Mau- 
 betige, and raised the siege of that town. He was sub- 
 sequently called to Paris by the committee of public 
 safety to consult upon the future movements of the 
 armv. He was at first received with great enthusiasm j 
 but, having given offence by the candour with which 
 he expressed his sentiments, he was deprived of his 
 authority, and Pichegru was chosen in his place. In 
 1794, however, he was appointed commander of the 
 army of the Moselle against the Atisirians, over whom, 
 in a few weeks, he won the important battles of Ailon 
 and Fleurus. He also captured Charleroi and many 
 
 other towns. In the autumn of 1794 he gained the 
 victories of Ayvaile and Aldenhoven. He afterwards 
 took Luxemburg, Dusseldorf, Frankfort, and Wurzburg, 
 but in September, 1796, was signally defeated by the 
 Archduke Charles near the last-named place. Jourdan 
 soon after resigned, and, having returned to Paris, was 
 chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred, of 
 which a few months later he was elected president. It 
 1798 he was appointed to the command of the army or 
 the Danube. In 1799, having met with two decisive 
 defeats from the Archduke Charles, he was succeeded 
 by Massena. The same year he was dismissed from the 
 Council of Five Hundred for having opposed the ambi- 
 tious projects of Napoleon. He was sent as ambassador 
 to the Cisalpine Republic in 1800. Though created a 
 marshal of the empire in 1804, no military command of 
 importance was given to him until he accompanied Jo- 
 seph Bonaparte to Spain as major-general. He remained 
 with that monarch through all his vicissitudes, and was 
 the nominal commander of the French forces when they 
 were defeated at Vitoria by Wellington in 1813. In 1818 
 Louis XVIII. created Jourdan a peer of France. Died 
 in 1833. He was the author of two works, — "Opera- 
 tions of the Army of the Danube under the Orders of 
 General Jourdan," and " History of the Campaign of 
 1796, containing the Operations of the Army of the 
 Sambre-et-Meuse." Napoleon, at Saint Helena, con- 
 fessed that he had ill-treated Jourdan, whom he charac- 
 terized as a " true patriot." 
 
 See Thiers, "Histoire du Consulat et de I'Empire;" De Cour- 
 cei.i.es, "DictiomiairedesGeneYaux Francais;" Michaud, " Notices 
 historiques sur le Marechal Jourdan, les Generaux Kalckreuth, Kil- 
 maine," etc. ; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge"nerale." 
 
 Jourdan, (Mathieu Jouve,) surnamed Coupe-Tete, 
 koop'teV, (" cut-throat,") a French revolutionist, noto- 
 rious for his inhumanity, was born in Vivarais in 1749. 
 He was executed in 1794. 
 
 Jourde, zhooRd, (Gilbert Amable,) a French law- 
 yer, born in Auvergne in 1757, in 1795 was elected a 
 member of the Council of Five Hundred. Died in 
 
 1837- 
 
 Jourdeuil, zhooR'dul' or zhooR'duh'ye, (Didier,) a 
 French Jacobin, was one of the chief instigators of the 
 massacre in September, 1792. Died about 1800. 
 
 Jourgniac Saint-Meard, zhooRn'ye-ik' sax ma'iR', 
 (Chevalier Francois,) a French satirical writer and 
 royalist, born at Bordeaux in 1745. In 1792 he was 
 arrested on a charge of treason, but was acquitted. Died 
 in 1827. 
 
 Jousse, zhooss, (Daniel,) an eminent jurist, bom 
 at Orleans, in France, in 1704. He entered a college 
 in Paris, where he gained distinction in mathematics. 
 He subsequently began the study of law. Among his 
 numerous works are a " Historical Detail of the City 
 of Orleans," and " New Commentary upon the Criminal 
 Ordinance." Died in 1781. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Joussouf, Joussef, or Joussof. See Yoosuf. 
 
 Jouvancy or Jouvency, zhoo'vo.\'se', (Joseph,) a 
 celebrated French Jesuit, born at Paris in 1643. He 
 was chosen professor of rhetoric in the college of Louis 
 le Grand, and was afterwards called by his superiors to 
 Rome to assist in writing the history of the Jesuits. His 
 style is remarkable for its purity and elegance. Among 
 his works are " Notes upon Juvenal, Persius, Terence, 
 Horace, Martial, and the Metamorphoses of Ovid," and 
 the fifth volume of the "History of the Jesuits" from 
 1591 to 1616. Died in 1719. 
 
 See Morbri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Quiirard, " La France 
 Litteraire." 
 
 Jouvency. See Iouvancy. 
 
 Jouveuet, zhoov / n&', (Jean,) a celebrated historical 
 painter, born at Rouen, France, about 1646. He was a 
 pupil of his uncle, Laurent Jouvenet, and aftctwatds 
 studied in Paris and was admitted into the Academy of 
 Tainting. He was subsequently patronized by Louis 
 X 1 V., who granted him a pension of 1700 livres. Having 
 lost the use of his right hand by a paralytic stroke, he 
 ascertained that he could use his left with equal facility, 
 and soon after painted one of his best pictures, a repre- 
 sentation of Innocence followed by Falsehood and seek- 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, VL,gutturaJ; N, nasal; R, trilltd; 8 as t; th as in thii. (25#"*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JOUFENNEJUX 
 
 1296 
 
 JOYEUSE 
 
 ing protection in the arms of Justice. Among his other 
 works are "Esther before Ahasiierus," "Jesus Christ 
 driving the Money-Changers from the Temple," "The 
 Resurrection of Lazarus," and the " Descent from the 
 Cross." 
 
 See D'Argenviu.e, " Vies des Peintres ;" " Nouvel'e Biographic 
 GdneVale." 
 
 Jouvenneaux. See Juvenal. 
 
 Jouy, de, deh zhoo'e', (Louis Francois,) a French 
 lawyer, and advocate of the Parliament of Paris, where 
 he was born in 1 714 ; died in 1771. 
 
 Jouy, de, (Victor Joseph Ettenne,) an eminent 
 French writer, born at Jouy, near Versailles, in 1764 or 
 1769. He entered the army at an early age, and in 1790 
 favoured the Revolution; but during the reign of terror 
 he fled for safety to Switzerland. In 1794 he returned to 
 France, and, after serving for some time in the army, which 
 he quitted in 1797, fixed his residence in Paris and turned 
 his attention to literary pursuits. Among his works are 
 the operas of "The Vestal" (1807) and of "The Ama- 
 zon," the tragedy of " Sylla," (1822,) "Cecil," a novel, 
 (1827,) and a series of essays entitled "The Hermit of 
 the Chaussee d'Antin," (5 vols., 1812-14.) The last 
 work, which somewhat resembles Addison's " Spec- 
 tator," obtained a European reputation. He was elected 
 to the French Academy in 1815, and appointed chief 
 librarian of the Louvre in 1831. Besides the works 
 above named, he wrote "The Hermit in the Province," 
 ("L'Hermite en Province," 14 vols., 1818 et scq.,) and 
 "The Hermits in Prison," (" Les Hermites en Prison," 
 2 vols., 1823,) which was very popular. Died in 1846. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Littiraire ;" Chari.es Nisaru, in the 
 "Diclionnaire de la Conversation;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rate ;" " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1S22. 
 
 Jove. See Jupiter. 
 
 Jovellanoa, de, da Ho-v?l-yJ'n6s, (Gaspar Mel- 
 CHIOK,) a Spanish statesman, author, and scholar, born 
 of noble parentage at Gijon, in Asturias, in 1744. He 
 studied at the Universities of Oviedo, Avila, and Alcala, 
 In 1770 he was chosen a member of the Royal Academy 
 of Madrid, and was soon after appointed councillor of 
 state by Charles Hi. In 1778 he became a judge of 
 the criminal court at Madrid. Afterwards, through the 
 instrumentality of Don Manuel Godoy, Prince of Peace, 
 he was banished to Majorca, where for more than seven 
 years he remained a prisoner. He returned to Spain 
 in 1808, and in a short time became a member of the 
 supreme junta. Among his works are several valuable 
 treatises on political economy, the tragedy of " Pelayo," 
 (1790,) the comedy of "The Honourable Delinquent," 
 a " Dissertation on English Architecture," and an ex- 
 cellent "Memoir on Law applied to Agriculture," (" In- 
 forme sobre la Ley agraria.") Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Cean Rer- 
 mudez, " Memovias para la Vida del Don G. Jovellanos," 1814; 
 Antili-ON, " Noticias histnricas de G. M. de Jovellanos," 1812; 
 " Foreign Quarterly Review" for February, 1S30. 
 
 Jo'vl-au, [Lat. Jovia'nus; Fr. Jovien, zho've-4N r ; 
 It. Gioviano, jo-ve-4'no,] or, more fully, Jo-vl-a'nus 
 Fla'vi'-us Clau'dl-us, Emperor of Rome, was born in 
 Pannonia, 331 A.D. He early distinguished himself as 
 a commander in the Roman army, and, though an avowed 
 Christian, received many marks of distinction from Julian 
 the Apostate, whom he accompanied on his unsuccessful 
 expedition into Persia. At the death of that sovereign, 
 in 363, Jovian was elected emperor by the army. The 
 Roman troops were at that time in imminent clanger, 
 both on account of the superior Persian forces by which 
 they were hemmed in, and the great scarcity of provi- 
 sions. Jovian, after bravely repelling several attacks of 
 the enemy, formed a treaty, by which he agreed to give 
 up the Roman conquests west of the Tigris. Returning, 
 he spent some time at Antioch, where he annulled 
 Julian's laws against the Christians and re-established 
 the orthodox religion. He died in 364, at Dadastana, 
 in Galatia, as he was proceeding to Constantinople. 
 
 See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas-Kmpire ;" Tillemont, " His- 
 toire des Empereurs ;" Schenkel, " Historia Joviaui," 1617; La 
 Bletterie, " Histoire de PEmpereur Jovien," 2 vols., 1748. 
 
 Jovianus. See Jovian. 
 
 Jovien, the French for Jovian, which see. 
 
 Jovin. See Jovinus. 
 
 Jo-vinl-an, [Lat. Jovinia'nus ; Fr. Jovinien, zho'- 
 ve'ne^.N',1 an Italian monk, distinguished for his bold 
 opposition to the growing superstition and encroachments 
 of the Roman Church. He particularly censured celi- 
 bacy, fasting, and the austerities of the convent. For 
 the propagation of these principles he was condemned 
 for heresy by the Bishops of Rome and of Milan, and 
 in 398, by the orders of the emperor Honorius, was 
 scourged and banished. Died about 410 A.D. 
 
 See Saint Jerome," Contra Jovinianuin ;" Baronius, " Annales 
 Ecclesiasttci." 
 
 Jovinianus. See Jovinian. 
 
 Jovinien. See Jovinian. 
 
 Jo-vi'nus, [Fr. Jovin, zho'viN',] a native of Rheims, 
 was created a Roman consul by the emperor Valentinian 
 in 367 A.D. He received the command of the cavalry ii\ 
 Gaul, and soon after cut in pieces a German army which 
 had invaded that country. He built in his native city a 
 church, in which he was buried in 370 A.D. 
 
 Jovinus, a Roman general, who in 41 1 A.D., under the 
 reign of Honorius, assumed the imperial title and pos- 
 sessed himself of part of Gaul. In 412 he was defeated 
 by Ataulphus, King of the Visigoths, an ally of Hono- 
 rius. He was soon after taken and executed. 
 
 Jovius, (Paul.) See Giovio, (Paolo.) 
 
 Jow'ett, (Rev. William,) an English missionary, 
 born about 1787. He published "Christian Researches 
 in Syria and the Holy Land," (1825,) and other works. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Joy, Joye, or Gee, (George,) an early English Re- 
 former, born in Bedfordshire. He graduated at Cam- 
 bridge in 1 513. Being accused of heresy, he retired to 
 Germany, where he remained several years. He is sup- 
 posed to have died in 1553. He assisted in the transla- 
 tion of Tyndale's Bible which was printed at Antwerp in 
 1534, and wrote several religious works, among which is 
 one " On the Unity and Schism of the Ancient Church." 
 
 See Lewis, " History of the Translations of the Bible." 
 
 Joyant, zhwa'yflN', (Jules Komain,) a skilful French 
 landscape-painter, born in Paris in 1803. He produced 
 views of Venice, which were much admired. Died in 1854. 
 
 Joyce, jois, (Jeremiah,) an English writer and Uni- 
 tarian minister, born in 1764. He was principal editor 
 of the "Cyclopaedia" which appeared under the name 
 of William Nicholson, and was the author of a justly 
 popular work, "Scientific Dialogues," "Letters on Nat- 
 ural Philosophy," and other productions of a similar 
 nature. He was arrested in 1794 with Home Tooke and 
 others on a charge of treason, but was released without 
 trial after the acquittal of Tooke. Died in 1816. 
 
 Joyeuse, de, deh zlnv.Vyuz', (Anne,) Due, a French 
 nobleman, born about 1561. He married Margaret of 
 Lorraine, sister of the queen of Henry HI. About 1586 
 he received the command of the army sent against the 
 Huguenots. He at first gained some advantages, and 
 committed great cruelties upon the Protestants, but in 
 October, 1587, was defeated and slain at the battle of 
 Coutras by Henry of Navarre. 
 
 See SisMONDt, "Histoire des Francais;" D'Aubignb, " Me- 
 moires." 
 
 Joyeuse.de, (Franqois,) Cardinal, brother of the 
 preceding, was born 411 1562. He was the confidential 
 minister of Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII. In 
 1614 he became dean of the cardinals of Avignon. Died 
 in 1615. ■ 
 
 See Auberv, " Histoire du Cardinal de Joyeuse, "etc., Paris, 1654. 
 
 Joyeuse, de, (Guili.aumf.,) Viscount, a French 
 military commander, born about 1520. He was made 
 lieutenant-general of Languedoc, and in 1562 distin- 
 guished himself in the wars against the French Protest- 
 ants. In 1582 he was created a marshal. Died in 1592. 
 
 Joyeuse, de, (Henri,) Due, born in France in 1567. 
 The death of his wife, about 1587, affected him so deeply 
 that he entered the order of the Capuchins. In 1592 he 
 obtained a dispensation releasing him from his vows, and 
 received the command of the army in Languedoc. Henry 
 IV. created him marshal of France. He afterwards be- 
 came again a Capuchin. Died in 1608. 
 
 See I'rousse, "Viede Henri, Due de Joyeuse," Paris, 1621. 
 
 Joyeuse, de, (Jean Armand,) Marquis, a French 
 nobleman, born in 163 1. He served with distinction in 
 
 i, e, T, 6, fi, y, long; a, I 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, j?, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
JOTNER 
 
 1297 
 
 JUDAS 
 
 Flanders under Turenne, and was afterwards created 
 marshal of France. Died in 1710. 
 
 Joy'ner, (William,) sometimes called Lyde, an 
 English Catholic and author, born near Oxford in 1622 ; 
 died in 1706. Among his works are "The Roman Em- 
 press," a comedy, and several English and Latin poems. 
 
 See Bakhr, " Biographia Pramatica." 
 
 Joze, zho-za', (Antonio,) a Portuguese Jew and cele- 
 brated dramatist. He excelled in wit and saicasm, which, 
 in one of his comedies, he directed against some of the 
 Catholic ceremonies. He was soon after seized by the 
 officers of the Inquisition, tortured, and finally burned at 
 an auto-de-fe in 1745. Among the best of his comedies 
 are "Esop" and "The Enchantments of Medea." 
 • Joze Manoel. See Joskph Emanuel. 
 
 Juan, Don. See John, Don, of Austria. 
 
 Juan, Hoo-in', Don, natural son of Philip IV. of 
 Spain and Maria Calderona, an actress, was born in 
 Madrid in 1629. In 1647 he received the command of 
 the Spanish army in Italy, where he took the city of 
 Naples and gained many other advantages. Afterwards 
 he was defeated by Turenne in the Netherlands, at the 
 battle of Dunes, and compelled to evacuate the country. 
 His brother, Charles II., subsequently made him prime 
 minister. Died in 1679. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." • 
 
 Juan de Santa Cruz. See Juan de Yepez. 
 
 Juan de Yepez, Hoo-an' di ya'peth, or Juan de 
 Santa Cruz, a saint of the Roman calendar, was born 
 in Old Castile in 1542. He, with Saint Theresa, estab- 
 lished the order of Barefooted Carmelites. Died in 1591. 
 
 Juan y Santacilia, Hoo-an'e san-ta-thee'le-a,( Jorge,) 
 Don, a celebrated Spanish mathematician and naval 
 officer, was born at Orihuela, in Valencia, in 1712. He 
 was sent about 1735, with several Spanish and French 
 servants, to measure the degree of the meridian at the 
 equator. He devoted much attention to naval archi- 
 tecture. He wrote "Observations on Astronomy and 
 Physics made in the Kingdom of Peru," (5 vols., 1748,) 
 and a treatise on the construction of vessels, (2 vols., 
 1761.) Died in 1774. 
 
 See La Condamwe, "Journal du Voyage fait a l'Equateur," etc. 
 
 Juana of Spain. See Joan. 
 
 Juarez, joo-a're'z, ISp. pron. Hoo-a'rSth,] (Benito,) 
 a Mexican statesman, born in Oajaca about 1S07, is said 
 to be of pure aboriginal stock. He studied law, was 
 elected to Congress in 1846, and was Governor of Oa- 
 jaca from 1848 to 1852. In 1853 he was banished by 
 Santa Ana. He joined the party of Alvarez, who became 
 president in 1855, and served under him as minister of 
 justice. In 1857 he was appointed secretary of state by 
 Comonfort, who was driven from power in January, 1858. 
 Juarez was recognized as the successor of Comonfort by 
 the Liberals, but was opposed by the clerical party in a 
 long civil war. He was elected president about 1861, 
 soon after which Mexico was invaded by a French army. 
 Having gained several victories, the French took the 
 city of Mexico in June, 1S63, and Maximilian of Austria 
 assumed the imperial power, under the patronage of 
 Napoleon III. Juarez was reduced to a critical position, 
 and his cause seemed desperate ; but at length the French 
 army was withdrawn in 1866, and the Liberals quickly 
 recovered the ascendency. (See Maximilian.) He was 
 elected president again in Octolier, 1867. 
 
 Ju'ba |Or. 'Io«af| 1 succeeded his father, Hiempsal, 
 on the throne of Numidia about 50 B.C. In the war 
 between Caesar and Pompey he supported the cause of 
 the latter, and gained a decisive victory over Curio, a 
 lieutenant of Caesar. After Pompey's defeat at Phar- 
 salia, Juba continued to support his cause in Africa, and 
 for some time held even Caesar in check. He was, how- 
 ever, defeated by the dictator at the battle of Thapsus, 
 and soon after killed himself, 42 n.c, in preference to 
 gracing the triumph of the conqueror. His kingdom 
 was reduced to a Roman province, of which the historian 
 Sallust was appointed the first governor. 
 
 See Cksar, " Bellum Civile:" Dion Casmus, "History of 
 Rome;" Appian, " Bellum Civile." 
 
 Juba U., son of the preceding, was carried to Rome 
 by Caesar, who gave him a liberal education. He served 
 
 in the army of Augustus, from whom he received the 
 kingdom of Mauritania about 30 B.C. He married Cle- 
 opatra Selena, the daughter of the celebrated Cleopatra, 
 Queen of Egypt, by Antony. Juba was distinguished 
 for his learning, ability, and justice. He was the author 
 of several works, written in Greek, upon various subjects. 
 Pliny, Plutarch, Tacitus, and other historians mention his 
 writings with just commendation. He died about 20 B.C. 
 See Vossius, " De Hisloricis Gracis ;" Eckhel, " Doctrina Nu- 
 mnrum ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Jub6, zhii'ba', (Auguste,) a French historian and 
 general, born in 1765. He wrote a "Military History 
 of the Wars of France from 1643 to 181 5,"' (2 vols.,) 
 and other works. Died in 1824. 
 
 JuW, (Jacques,) a French Jansenist, born near Paris 
 in 1674; died in 1745. 
 
 Jubinal, zhu'be'ntl', (Michel Louis Achille,) a? 
 French writer and politician, born in Paris in 1810. 
 
 Juda, zhii'dS', (Leon,) a French Protestant, born in 
 Alsace in 1482, was the natural son of Jean Juda, a 
 priest. In 1502, having formed a friendship with Zuin- 
 glius, he was led to embrace the principles of the Re- 
 formers, and became pastor of Saint Peter's Church in 
 Zurich. He was distinguished for his zeal in promoting 
 the Reformation, both from his pulpit and by his pen. 
 Died in 1542. He commenced a translation of the Old 
 Testament into Latin, which was finished after his death, 
 and was regarded by the Protestants, and even by many 
 Catholic divines, as the best version extant He was 
 the author of several religious works. 
 
 See M. Adam, "Vita Theologoruin Germanorum ;" Haag, "La 
 France protestante." 
 
 Ju'dah, [Heb. mirr,] fourth son of Jacob, and one 
 of the twelve Hebrew patriarchs, was born in Mesopo- 
 tamia, B.C. 1755. When Joseph was thrown into the 
 cave by his brethren, it was through Judah's influence 
 that they sold him to the Ishmaelites, instead of taking 
 hisjifeas they had previously intended. (Genesis xxxvii. 
 26.) Jacob, on his death-bed, foretold that Judah's pos- 
 terity would become the principal tribe of Israel, and 
 also referred to the coming of the Messiah, who was to 
 be his lineal descendant. (Genesis xlix. 8-12.) 
 
 Ju'dah, (Henky M.,.) an American general, born at 
 Snow Hill, Maryland, about 1821, graduated at West 
 Point in 1843, a "d was a captain before the civil war 
 began. He became a brigadier-general of Union volun- 
 teers early in 1862, and commanded a division at Resaca, 
 Georgia, May 15, 1864. 
 
 Judah or Je-hu'dah Hak'ka-dosh', (or Hakka- 
 dosoh,) a learned Jewish rabbi, born in Galilee about 
 120 A.n. He is believed to have compiled, at the re- 
 quest of the Roman emperor Marcus Antoninus, the 
 Mifhna, (Mischna,) which contains the various Jewish 
 laws and institutions not found in the Old Testament. 
 In a short time the Talmud was ranked among the 
 sacred books of the nation, and it has since received ad- 
 ditions from several learned rabbis. Died in 190 a.d. 
 
 See Wolp, " Bibliotheca Hebraica." 
 
 Ju'dah Hioog, (or Hioug,) he-oog', a Jewish rabbi 
 and physician, who gained great distinction for his learn- 
 ing and skill, was born at Fez, in Africa, and lived about 
 1040. He wrote several works (in Arabic) on the Hebrew 
 language, and is now regarded by his nation as their first 
 and perhaps their greatest grammarian. His name is 
 sometimes written Judah Chiug. 
 
 Judah Rav or Rab, a celebrated Jewish doctor, 
 who lived near Babylon in the third century of our era, 
 is said to have been the principal author of that portion 
 of the Talmud known as the "Babylonish Geniara." 
 
 Ju'das Is-carl-ot, one of the twelve apostles chosen 
 by Jesus. He lietrayed his Master to the officers of the 
 chief priests for thirty pieces of silver. Afterwards, being 
 stung with remorse, he returned the money to the priests 
 and "went and hanged himself." 
 
 See Matthew x. 4, xxvi. 47-50, xxvii. y-% ; Mark xiv. 18-31, 43. 
 
 Ju'das Le-vi'ta or Hal'le-vl, a learned Spanish Jew 
 and poet, born in 1090 or 1080, wrote a work in Arabic 
 in defence of the Jewish religion, entitled " Sepher IIoc- 
 cori," which was translated into Hebrew, Ijitin, and 
 Spanish. Died in 1 140. 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,guttura/; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as »/ th as in this. 
 
 82 
 
 (33^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JUDAS 
 
 1298 
 
 JUGURTHA 
 
 Ju'das Maccabae'us, (mak-ka bee'us,) [Gr. 'Iotj<5ao 6 
 HaKKaiSaioc; Fr. Judas Machabee, zhu'dfe mt'ki'bi',] 
 of the royal line of the Asmonceans, became leader of the 
 Jews upon the death of his father, Mattathias, B.C. 166. 
 He conquered and cut in pieces several Syrian armies 
 which had been sent against him by Antiochus, subdued 
 the Idumeans, Ammonites, and other neighbouring na- 
 tions, and restored the worship of the true God in the 
 Temple of Jerusalem. He was afterwards besieged in 
 that city by Antiochus Eipator, who was, however, soon 
 obliged to return to Syria, on account of a civil war which 
 had broken out in his kingdom. Judas, wishing to form 
 an independent government in Judea, and being unable 
 to contend against the whole power of Syria, concluded 
 a treaty of alliance with the Romans. But, before any 
 assistance could arrive, a large army of Syrians again 
 invaded Judea. Judas marched against them with a body 
 of three thousand men, which was soon reduced by de- 
 sertion to eight hundred. He nevertheless attacked the 
 enemy, and, after a severe battle, was defeated and slain, 
 160 B.C. 
 
 Judd, (Sylvester,) a Unitarian minister and writer, 
 born in Westhampton, Massachusetts, in 1813. He 
 graduated at Yale in 1836, studied divinity at Harvard, 
 and from 1840 until his death, in 1853, was pastor of the 
 Unitarian church in Augusta, Maine. His principal 
 work, " Margaret, a Tale of the Real and Ideal," (1845,) 
 is pronounced by the "North American Review" "the 
 most emphatically American book ever written." It has 
 since been beautifully illustrated by Darley. Among his 
 other works are " Philio," a didactic poem. 
 
 See "Life and Character of Sylvester Judd," Boston, 1854; 
 Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of. American Literature," vol. ii. ; " Fra- 
 ser's Magazine" for July, 1867. 
 
 Jude, [Gr. 'lotxiar,] Saint, one of the twelve apos- 
 tles. He is supposed to be the author of the book 
 bearing his name. He was surnamed Lebbeus and 
 Thaddeus. 
 
 See Matthew x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18. • 
 
 Judicael, ju'de-kal, became ruler of Bretagne about 
 632, and assumed the title of royalty. After a reign of 
 six years, he entered a monastery, and was succeeded by 
 his son Alain. 
 
 Ju'dith, [Heb. miH' ; It. Giuditta, joo-det'ta,] a 
 Jewish heroine, of uncertain epoch. According to tradi- 
 tion, she lived at Bethulia when that town was besieged 
 by Holofernes, a general of the King of Assyria. Having 
 by insidious arts gained admission to his tent and per- 
 suaded him that she designed. to betray the town to him, 
 she cut off his head and carried it in a sack to Bethulia, 
 which was, consequently, saved from capture. 
 
 See the Apocryphal Book of Judith; Alfonso Niccolai, "La 
 Giuditta; Dissertazione," 1765. 
 
 Jud'spn, (Adoniram,) an eminent Baptist mission- 
 ary, born in Maiden, Massachusetts, in 1788, graduated 
 at Brown University in 1807. He was sent as a mis- 
 sionary to Burmah in 1812, founded a mission at Ran- 
 goon, and learned the Burmese language. In 1823 he 
 printed a Burmese translation of the New Testament. 
 He was thrown into prison in 1824, and kept in close 
 confinement eighteen months or more, during which he 
 and his companions suffered extremely. He completed 
 a Burmese translation of the Bible in 1834. He married 
 successively Ann Hasseltine, Sarah Hall Boardman, and 
 Emily Chubbuck, each of whom is noticed below. Having 
 visited the United States in 1845, ne returned to Burmah 
 in 1846, and resumed his labours at Maulmain. He died 
 at sea in April, 1850. 
 
 See Francis Wayi.and, "Memoir of the Life of A. Judson," 2 
 vn's.. 1853 ; James Clement, " Life of the Rev. A. Judson," 1850: 
 H. C. Conant, "The Earnest Man ' a Skelch of the Character and 
 Labours of A. Judson," 1856 ; William Hague, ." Life of A. Jud- 
 son," 1851. 
 
 Judson, (Ann,) (originally Miss Hasskltine,) a 
 missionary to India, wife of the Rev. Dr. Adoniram 
 Judson, was born in Bradford, Massachusetts, in 1789. 
 (See preceding article.) A " Memoir of her Life," by 
 the Rev. J. D. Knowles, appeared soon after her death 
 in 1S26. 
 
 Judson, (Emily,) (originally Miss Chubbuck,) an 
 American authoress, known by the nom de plume of 
 " Fanny Forester," was born at Eaton, in New York, 
 
 in 1817. She wrote for the " New York Mirror," and 
 published two volumes of her essays, sketches, and 
 poems, under the title of " Alderbrook," (1846.) She 
 was married in 1846 to Dr. Judson, and immediately 
 sailed with him for India. While in Burmah, she com- 
 posed some of her best poems. After the death of her 
 husband, in 1850, she returned to America, and died at 
 Hamilton, New York, in 1854. (See Judson, Adoniram.) 
 
 Judson, (Sarah,) (originally Miss Hall,) a mission- 
 ary to India, born in Alstead, New Hampshire, in 1803. 
 In 1825 she was married to the Rev. George Dana 
 Boardman, and the same year sailed with him for Bur- 
 mah. They established the Baptist Mission at Maul- 
 main, and subsequently at Tavoy. After the death of 
 her husband, in 1831, she continued her missionary, 
 labours with great success. In 1834 she was married to 
 Rev. A. Judson, noticed above. Died at Saint Helena 
 in 1845. 
 
 Juel, yoo'el, (J.,) a Danish admiral, was a brother 
 of Niels, noticed below, with whom he co-operated in 
 several battles. He was one of the negotiators of the 
 treaty of Lund in 1679. Died about 1700. 
 
 See N. Jonge, " Vice-Admiial J. Juels Liv og Lcvrietsbeskri- 
 velse," 1755. 
 
 Juel, (Niels or Nicholas,) a celebrated Danish ad- 
 miral, born in 1629. After serving in the Dutch navy 
 under Van Tromp and De Ruyter, he entered the Danish 
 service, and greatly distinguished himself by several im- 
 portant victories which he gained over the Swedes. The 
 King of Denmark created him an admiral, knighted him, 
 and conferred upon him other honours. Died in 1697. 
 
 See T. DE Hofman, " Portraits historicities des Homines il- 
 lustres de Danemarck;" Hagkrup, " Ligtale over N. Juel," 1795; 
 H. G. Garde, " N. Juel," 1842; Marcus Gjoe, " Ligtale over N. 
 Juel," 1753. 
 
 Juenin, zhu-i'n&N', (Gaspard,) a French priest, 
 writer, and professor of philosophy in Paris, born at 
 Varambon, in Bresse, in 1650; died in 1713. 
 
 Juglaris, yoo-gla'res, (Aloisio,) an Italian Jesuit and 
 professor of rhetoric, born at Nice in 1607. He was also 
 employed as preceptor to Prince Charles Emanuel of 
 Savoy. He wrote numerous panegyrics on Louis XIII. 
 and other persons of distinction. Died in 1653. 
 
 Jugleb, ydoo'le'p, or Jugler, ydoc/ler, (Johann 
 Friedrich,) a German writer, born near Naumburg in 
 1718. He published "Biographical and Critical Notices 
 of Eminent Jurists and Statesmen of Europe," (6 vols., 
 1773-80,) and other works. Died in 1791. 
 
 Ju-gur'tua, [Gr. 'Iouyoi>p0ac or 'IoyopOar,] an African 
 prince, remarkable for his crimes and tragical death, was 
 a natural son of Manastabal. He was brought up at the 
 court of his uncle, Micipsa, King of Numidia, and at an 
 early age served under Scipio /Emilianus in the Roman 
 army. During the war with Numantia he gained great 
 distinction, and at its conclusion was highly commended 
 to his uncle by Scipio. Micipsa soon after created him 
 joint heir with his own sons Adherbal and Hiempsal. 
 Upon the death of that monarch, Jugurtha caused 
 Hiempsal to be murdered, and forced Adherbal to seek 
 protection at Rome. Commissioners were sent out by 
 the Roman senate to divide the kingdom between Ad- 
 herbal and Jugurtha; but the latter, having bribed them, 
 received the largest portion of the territory, and was 
 declared to be innocent of the murder of Hiempsal. 
 Resolving, however, to obtain the entire kingdom, he 
 captured Adherbal in the city of Cirta, while he was yet 
 under the protection of the Roman senate, and put him 
 to death with the greatest cruelty. War was imme- 
 diately declared against him by the Romans; but he 
 succeeded in forming an advantageous treaty with the 
 consul Calpurnius, who had been sent to reduce him to 
 subjection. The senate refused to ratify this treaty, and 
 summoned Jugurtha to Rome to answer the charges 
 brought against him. He obeyed the mandate ; but 
 while in that city he procured the assassination of his 
 cousin Massiva, another claimant of the Numidian crown. 
 Upon the commission of this outrage he was commanded 
 to leave Rome. As he was taking his last view of the 
 capital, he is said to have exclaimed, " Mercenary city, 
 thou waitest only for a purchaser to sell thyself'; and 
 thou wilt perish if one is found." After his return to 
 Numidia he defeated a Roman army under Aulus Post- 
 
 al e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a,e,T, o, ii,y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m It; not ; good ; moon; 
 
JUIGNE 
 
 1299 
 
 JULIAN 
 
 humius, compelling it to pass under the yoke and to 
 evacuate the country. The war was afterwards con- 
 tinued by Metellus; and, though Jtlgwrtha was one of 
 the ablest commanders of that age, he was unable to 
 resist the Roman general, whose skill and prudence made 
 him ever victorious on the field of battle, and whose 
 stern integrity rendered him invincible to the golden 
 otters of the Numidian usurper. Jugurtha, having been 
 twice defeated by Marius, the successor of Metellus, was 
 delivered to his enemies by the treachery of his ally, 
 Bocchus, King of Mauritania. He was carried in chains 
 to Rome, where he graced the triumph of Marius. He 
 was then thrown into the Mamertine prison. His death, 
 which occurred six days later, is generally supposed to 
 have been caused by starvation. The Jugurthine war, 
 which was terminated B.C 106, is the subject of one of 
 the histories of Sallust. 
 
 See Sallust, " Jupurtha;" Plutarch, "Marius;" Livy, " Epi- 
 tome," books Ixii., Ixiv., Ixvii. ; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate." 
 
 Juigne,de,deh7.hu-en'ya',(ANTotNKEL£oNORKL£oN 
 Lkci.ekc,) a French prelate, born in Paris in 1728, dis- 
 tinguished himself by his persecution of the Jansenists. 
 In 17S1 he became Archbishop of Paris. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Laxibert, "Vie de Messire A. E\ Leclerc de Jui~neV' 1S21. 
 
 Juigne-Broissiniere, de, deh zhii-en'ya' bRwa'se'- 
 ne-aiR', a French lawyer and compiler, was born in 
 Anjou, and lived about 1650. His principal work is a 
 "Theological, Historical, Poetical, and Cosmographical 
 Dictionary," (1644.) 
 
 Juillard or Juilhard. See Jarry. 
 
 Jukes, jiiks, (Joseph Beete,) F.R.S., an English 
 geologist, born near Birmingham about 1812. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, " Popular Physical Geology," 
 
 (i»53-) 
 
 Jules, the French for Julius, which see. 
 
 Ju'H-a, [ Fr. Julie, zhii'le',] a Roman lady, remarka- 
 ble for her beauty and virtues, was the daughter of Julius 
 Caesar. She first married Cornelius Caepio, but, by her 
 father's command, procured a divorce and became the 
 wife of Pompey the Great. She died 53 K.C., before the 
 dissensions arose between her father and her husband. 
 
 Julia, only daughter of Augustus Caesar, born about 
 39 11.C, was distinguished for her beauty, accomplish- 
 ments, and disgraceful intrigues. She was married to 
 Marcellus, upon whose death she became the wife of 
 Agrippa, by whom she was the mother of five children. 
 After the death of her second husband she was given in 
 marriage to Tiberius, who divorced her, and afterwards 
 caused her to be poisoned, 14 A.D. ' 
 
 Julia, a daughter of the preceding, born about 18 B.C., 
 was married to L. /Emilius Paulus. Her character is 
 said to have resembled that of her mother. Some writers 
 identify her with the Corinna of Ovid. Died 28 a.d. 
 
 Julia, a daughter of Drusus and Livia, born about 5 
 A.D., was a niece of Germanicus. She was married to 
 Nero, who was her cousin-german. 
 
 Julia, daughter of Caesar Germanicus, was born 17 A.D. 
 At the age of sixteen she was married to a Roman scna 
 tor named Vinucias. She was soon after suspected of 
 conspiracy and banished by her brother Caligula, but 
 was subsequently recalled by Claudius. She was put 
 to death in her twenty-fourth year, at the instigation 
 of Messalina. 
 
 Julia de Fontenelle, zhii'le-i' deh f6N'teh-n<!l', 
 (JEAN Seiiastien Euc.ene,) a French chemist, born at 
 Narbonne in 1790, published a "Manual for Glass- 
 makers," and other works. Died in 1842. 
 
 See Henri Julia dh Fontrnrllk, " Notice sur M. Julia de Fon- 
 tenelle." 184J. 
 
 Ju'H-a Dom'na, wife of the Roman emperor Septi- 
 mius Severus, and the mother of Caracalla and Geta, was 
 burn in Syria about 170 A.n. She was the daughter of 
 Bassianus, a priest of the sun. After the death of Seve- 
 rn- she endeavoured to heal the dissensions lietwecn her 
 sons, but in vain ; Geta was murdered in her presence 
 in 212, by his brother's orders. During the remainder of 
 Caracalla's reign she exerted great influence in the affairs 
 of government. Died in 217. 
 
 Julia Mammeea. See Mamm.f.a. 
 
 Ju'll-an, I I-at. Tulia'nus; Pr.JtrLIEK, zhii'le-^N',1 
 or, more fully, Ju-ll-5'nua F15'vl-'us Clau'dl-us, stir- 
 
 named the Apostate, a Roman emperor, was born in 
 Constantinople in 331 a.d. He was the son of Julius 
 Constantius, and a nephew of Constantine the Great. 
 On the death of the latter, the soldiers, in order to 
 secure the succession of his sons, massacred all the other 
 members of the Flavian family except Julian and his 
 elder brother Gallus. The jealousy of the emperor 
 Constantius afterwards banished the brothers to Cap- 
 padocia, where they were educated in the principles of 
 the Christian religion and officiated as lecturers in the 
 church of Nicomedia. In 351 Gallus was created Caesar 
 by the emperor, and Julian was permitted to return to 
 his native city, but in a short time was again exiled to 
 Nicomedia. He subsequently embraced the philosophy 
 of the Platonists, and, having obtained permission to 
 visit Athens, he pursued his studies in that city and was 
 privately initiated in the mysteries of the religion of 
 Greece. After the execution of his brother, in 355, he 
 was recalled to Constantinople through the influence of 
 the empress Eusebia. Constantius created him Caesar, 
 and gave him command of the armies in Gaul. Julian 
 also received in marriage Helena, sister of the emperor. 
 He made four successful campaigns against the Germans, 
 who had overrun Gaul, expelled them from that country, 
 took captive Chnodomarius, their most powerful king, 
 invaded Germany, and gained a high distinction for 
 military skill and personal bravery. Constantius, 
 envious of the fame of Julian, and wishing to destroy his 
 power, commanded him to send his best troops to 
 the East, in order that they might assist in the Persian 
 war. The soldiers, who had become greatly attached to 
 Julian, refused to obey, and, notwithstanding his remon- 
 strances, proclaimed him Augustus. It is even stated 
 that they threatened him with death if he refused the 
 purple. He then sent an embassy to Constantius, re- 
 questing that he might be recognized as Augustus in 
 Gaul. This not having been granted, he marched 
 towards Constantinople ; but the sudden death of the 
 emperor, in 361, enabled Julian to ascend the imperial 
 throne unopposed. Immediately after his accession he 
 threw off the hypocrisy which had shielded him for 
 so long a time, and, renouncing Christianity, in which 
 probably he was never a true believer, declared his faith 
 m the divinities of Greece and Rome. He proclaimed 
 liberty of conscience to all, commanded the pagan tem- 
 ples to be reopened, and even attempted to restore Ju- 
 daism by rebuilding the Temple at Jerusalem. He was 
 prevented from completing this project by remarkable 
 eruptions of fire, which rendered it impossible for the 
 workmen to continue their labours. In the spring of 
 363 he set out from Antioch, at the head of 65,000 well- 
 disciplined troops, on his contemplated invasion of Per- 
 sia. He crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, and gained 
 several important victories over the Persians; but the 
 oppressive heat and the scarcity of provisions compelled 
 him to retreat, and in June of the same year, as he was 
 bravely repelling an attack of the enemy, a javelin 
 wounded him fatally in the side. He died the following 
 evening, while he was calmly conversing with his friends 
 on philosophy. Julian was the author of an account of 
 his Gallic and German wars, which has been lost, "The 
 Caesars," "Misopogon," a satire against the citizens 
 of Antioch, whom he had offended by his philosophical 
 austerity and his slovenly habits, and of about eighty 
 letters upon various subjects. 
 
 See August Nkanper, " Ueber Kaiser Julian und sein Zeilal- 
 ter," 1S12. (translated into English by G. V. Cox, 1850;) La Bunt 
 TKRIK, "Vie de l'Empereur Julien." 1735; JoNDOT, " Histoire de 
 rEmp'-reur Julien," 2 vols., 1S17 ; William W.vkiur ton. "Julian, 
 or ,1 1 )i course concerning the Earthquake and Fiery Eruption which 
 defealed that Emperor's Attempt to rebuild the Temple otjerusalem," 
 1750: Abki. Dksjahuins, " tfiude sur l'Empereur Julien." 1S45: J. 
 Koknhk. " Kaistjr J inlander Abtrtfnnige/'etC, 18 * His- 
 
 tory of the Decline and Kail of the Roman Eni] ire ;" So. rates, 
 " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Milman, " History of Christianity." 
 
 Julian, lloo-le-an', Count, Governor of Andalusia 
 under the Gothic kings of Spain. After King Roderick 
 had ravished the daughter of Julian, the latter formed a 
 treaty with the Moslems for the invasion of Spain, and 
 rendered them efficient service at the battle of Xeres, 
 where Roderick was defeated in 711 a.d. 
 
 See MvRPHY, " History of the Mahometan Empire in Spain;" 
 SouriiKV, "Roderick, the Last of the Goths." 
 
 c as X'.-c as /; g hard; g as_/; c, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; sast; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23. i 
 
JULIAN 
 
 1300 
 
 JVNCKER 
 
 Ju'll-an, [Lat. Julia'nus; Fr. Julien, zhii'le-aN'; 
 It. Giuliano, joo-le-a'no,j an Italian bishop, distin- 
 guished for his opposition to the doctrines of Saint Au- 
 gustine, was born about 380, and studied theology under 
 Pelagius. In 416 Innocent I. raised him to the see of 
 Eclanum ; but about 420 he was banished from Italy on 
 account of his Pelagian doctrines. Having been con- 
 demned by several councils, he settled in Sicily. Died 
 about 455. 
 
 Julian, Archbishop of Toledo, and a saint of the 
 Roman calendar, was born in Spain, of Jewish descent. 
 He was raised to the see of Toledo in 6S0, and presided 
 over four different councils held in that citv. He was 
 the author of a work on death, the resurrection, and the 
 final judgment. Died in 690. 
 
 Julian, (Marcus Aurki.ius,) a Roman Governor of 
 Venetia, who in 285, while aspiring to the imperial 
 purple, was defeated and slain near Verona by Carinus. 
 
 Julian Cesarini. See Cesarini, (Giulia'no.) 
 
 Ju-U-a'na, a woman of Portuguese descent, born in 
 Bengal in 1658. Having gained the favour of Aurung- 
 Zeb, she was appointed governess to his son, Shah Alum, 
 who succeeded to the crown in 1707. In a battle between 
 that prince and his brothers, who disputed the succession, 
 she rode by his side on an elephant and greatly contrib- 
 uted to his success. Shah Alum raised her to the rank 
 of a princess, and conferred upon her many other honours. 
 
 See "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Julianus. See Julian. 
 
 Ju-U-a'nus or Julian, (Salvius,) a celebrated Roman 
 jurist, and great-grandfather to the emperor Didius, was 
 born about 100 A.D. He was twice chosen consul. His 
 principal work is entitled "Digesta," in ninety books, 
 and is often referred to by writers on Roman law. 
 
 See J. G. Heineccius, "Programma de S. Juliano," 1733. 
 
 Julie. See Julia. 
 
 Julien, the French for Julian, which see. 
 
 Julien, zhii'le-aN', (Pierre,) a celebrated French 
 sculptor, born at Saint-Paulien in 1 73 1. He commenced 
 his studies at Lyons, under Perache, whom he left in 
 1765 to become the pupil of Coustou, the king's sculp- 
 tor, at Paris. In 1768 he went to Rome, where he re- 
 mained four years, to perfect himself in his art. In 1779 
 his statue of " The Dying Warrior" gained his admission 
 to the Academy of Painting and Sculpture in Paris. 
 Died in 1804. Among his most admirable productions 
 are "La Baigneuse," the statues of La Fontaine and 
 Poussin, and copies of Apollo Belvedere and "The Dying 
 Gladiator," from the Italian. 
 
 See J. Lebrrton, " Notice historique sur la Vie et les Ouvrages 
 de P. Julien," 1805. 
 
 Julien, (Simon,) or Julien of Parma, a French artist, 
 born at Toulon in 1736, studied in Paris under Vanloo, 
 resided ten years at Rome, and after his return was 
 elected a member of the Academy of Painting. He was 
 called Julien the Apostate, because he abandoned 
 the French style. Died in 1800. 
 
 Julien, (Stanislas,) an eminent French Orientalist, 
 born at Orleans in 1799. He studied under Abel Re- 
 mnsat, and devoted himself particularly to the Chinese 
 language. He succeeded Abel Remusat as professor of 
 Chinese in 1832, and afterwards became administrator, in 
 the College of France. He made translations from Meng- 
 tseu (Mencius) and other Chinese authors, and pub- 
 lished " Practical Exercises of Chinese Syntax and Lexi- 
 cography," (1842.) Julien enjoys the reputation of one 
 of the first Chinese scholars of his time. He was a 
 member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and of the prin- 
 cipal learned societies of Europe. Among his works is one 
 of great interest, "Voyages des Pelerins Bouddhistcs," 
 (3 vols., 1853-58,) translated from the Chinese. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Julio Romano. See Giulio Romano. 
 
 Julius [Fr. Jules, zhiil ; It. Giulio, joo'le-o] I., a 
 Roman by birth, succeeded Marcus in the papal see in 
 336. In 340 he convoked a council at Rome to settle 
 the dispute between Athanasius, the orthodox Bishop 
 of Alexandria, and the Arians, who had expelled him 
 from his office. Athanasius appeared ; but his enemies 
 called at Antioch a council which condemned him. 
 
 Julius, finding his interpositions to be in vain, sum- 
 moned the General Council of Sardica, which restored 
 the bishop to his see and introduced the custom of 
 appealing to the pope in all ecclesiastical disputes. Died 
 in 352 A.D. 
 
 Julius II., (Cardinal Giui.iano della Rovere — 
 del'la ro-va'ra,) born in 1441, was elected to the see of 
 Rome upon the death of Pius HI., in 1503. Haughty 
 and warlike in his disposition, he immediately turned his 
 ambition to the aggrandizement of the papal authority. 
 He drove Cajsar Borgia from the Romagna, and attempted 
 to expel the Venetians from Ravenna, Rimini, and other 
 parts of his dominions. Failing in this, he formed the 
 League of Cambrai with the King of France, the Emperor 
 of Germany, and the Duke of Ferrara, for the destruction 
 of the Venetian republic. Julius, soon discovering, how- 
 ever, that he had more to fear from the French than 
 from the Venetfans, made a treaty with the latter in 
 1 5 10, and took the field in person against the French, 
 over whom he gained some slight advantages. In 1512 
 he allied himself with the English, Spaniards, Swiss, 
 and Venetians, and finally succeeded in expelling the 
 French from Italy. But little was gained by this success ; 
 for the Swiss and Spaniards gave him as much trouble 
 as the French had previously done. He died before 
 these new difficulties were adjusted, in 15 13. Julius 
 displayed a great taste for the fine arts. He was the 
 first to commence Saint Peter's Cathedral at Rome, and 
 was the patron of Michael Angelo, Raphael, and other 
 men of distinction. Leo X. was his successor. 
 
 See Ranke, "History of the Popes;" Bruys, " Histoire des 
 Papes," 1732 : "LaViedu Pape Jules II," (anonymous,) Paris, 15 15. 
 
 Julius IH., (Cardinal Giocci — jot'chee,) born in 1487 
 at Arezzo, succeeded Paul III. in February, 1550. His 
 pontificate was marked by quarrels with the King of 
 France, the Venetians, and other powers. Died in 1555. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor. " Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 
 Jullian, zhii'le-dN', (Pierre Louis Pascal,) a French 
 historical writer and politician, born at Montpellier about 
 1769. He wrote " Fragments historiques," (1804,) and 
 " Souvenirs de ma Vie," (1808.) Died about 1836. 
 
 Jullien, zhu'lg^N', (Andre,) awriter upon the culture 
 of the vine, born at Chalons-sur-Saone, in France, in 
 1766 ; died in 1832. 
 
 Jullien, (Louis,) a popular French composer of music 
 and director of concerts, was born in 1812. He com- 
 posed music for balls, operas, etc., and performed in 
 Paris and London. Died in i860. 
 
 Jullien, (Marcel Bernard,) a French grammarian 
 and writer, born in Paris in 1798. 
 
 Jullien de la Drome, zhii'le-aN' deh IS dRom, (Marc 
 Antoine,) a French Jacobin, distinguished for his vio- 
 lence, was born in Dauphine in 1744; died in 1821. 
 
 Jullien de Paris, zhii'le-aN' deh pi're', (Marc An- 
 toine,) a politician and journalist, born in Paris in 1775, 
 was a son of the preceding. During the Revolution he 
 was a Jacobin. He published several works on politics, 
 education, etc., and founded in 1818 the " Revue Ency- 
 clopedique." Died in 1848. 
 
 See Qi'erard. " La France I.itte?raire ;" " Nonrelle Binsraphie 
 Generale i" Boileau n'Auxv, " Biographie de M. J. de Paris," 1842. 
 
 Julus. See lui.i's. 
 
 Jumel, zhii'mel', (Jean Charles,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and writer, born in Paris ; died in 1824. 
 
 Jumelin, zhiim'laN', (Jean Baptiste, ) a French 
 savant, physician, and writer, born in 1 745, visited Greece, 
 where he directed his attention to the botany as well as 
 to the antiquities of that country. Died in 1807. 
 
 Jumilhac, de, deh zhii'me lik', (Antoine Pierre 
 Joseph Chapei.le,) Marquis, a French royalist, dis- 
 tinguished as a cavalry officer, was born in 1764. In 
 1791 Louis XVI. 'appointed him lieutenant-colonel of 
 his guard. He served under Napoleon. Died in 1826. 
 
 Jumlah. See Temi.ah. 
 
 Jumonville, de, deh zhii'moN'vel', (Coui.on,) a 
 French officer, born about 1725, signalized his bravery 
 in the Canadian wars. He is said to have been treache- 
 rously killed in 1753 by the English, to whom he was 
 bearing a message. 
 
 Juncker, yoonk'ker, (Christian,) a German phi- 
 lologist and historian, was born at Dresden in 1668. He 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, it, y\ short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
JUNCKER 
 
 1301 
 
 JUNIUS 
 
 published several works on German history, and a "Life 
 of Luther," (1699.) Died at Altenburg in 1714. 
 
 Sec Schadkn, " Ehrengedachtniss Junckers," 1714; Ersch und 
 Gkubkr. "Ailgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Gellius, " Epistola ad J. 
 A. Fabricium de C. Junckero," 1714. 
 
 Juncker or Junker, (Gottlob Johann,) a German 
 physician, born near Giessen in 1680. He became pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Halle in 1729, and maintained the 
 doctrines of Stahl He wrote numerous medical works. 
 Died at Halle in 1759. 
 
 Juncosa, noon-ko'sa, (Fra Joaquin,) a skilful Span- 
 ish painter, born in the diocese of Tarragona in 1631 ; 
 died near Rome in 1708. 
 
 Junc-ti'irus, the Latin name of Francesco Giuntini, 
 an Italian astrologer and monk, born at Florence in 1522. 
 He wrote several works on astrology, etc. Died in 1590. 
 
 Jung, ydong, or Junge, yoong'eh, [Lat. Jung'ius,] 
 (Joachim,) a German physician and botanist, born at 
 Lubeck in 1587, became successively professor of mathe- 
 matics at Giessen and Rostock. He was one of the most 
 able opponents of the scholastic philosophy, and for his 
 acuteness was compared by Leibnitz to Copernicus and 
 Galileo. He also, it is said, first suggested, in his "Isa- 
 goge Phytoscopica," (1678,) the classification of plants 
 afterwards developed by Linnaeus. He was rector of a 
 school at Hamburg from 1629 until his death. Died at 
 Hamburg in 1657. 
 
 See Martin Vogel, " Historia Vita? et Mortis J. Jungii," 1657; 
 GVHRAVBK, "J. Jungius und sein Zeitalter," 1850; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GeneVale." 
 
 Jung, (Johann Heinrich,) commonly known by the 
 pseudonym of Stilling, an original German writer, 
 born at Im-Grund, in the duchy of Nassau, in 1740. 
 While studying medicine at Strasburg, he formed an 
 intimacy with Goethe, who has given an interesting ac- 
 count of him in his Autobiography. In 1804 he became 
 professor of political economy at Heidelberg. He pub- 
 lished in 1777 " Henry Stilling's Youth, Early Years, and 
 Wanderings," which was followed soon after by "Henry 
 Stilling's Domestic Life." Among his fictitious writings 
 we may cite "Theobald, or the Enthusiast," "The Chris- 
 tian Philanthropist," and " Scenes from the Spirit-Land." 
 Stilling appears to have been a man of great earnestness 
 as well as simplicity of character, with a strong tendency 
 to religious enthusiasm and mysticism. Died in 181 7. 
 
 See J. H. JUNG. " H. Stilling's Jueeud, Jiinglingsjahre. Wan- 
 detschaft und hausliches Leben," 3 vols. 1777-79: enlarged under 
 the title of " Lebensbeschre-ibung J. H. Jungs." 5 vols.. 1S06: 
 Schwarz, " Jung-Slillings Alter," 1817; John Wright, " Life of 
 H. Stilling," abridged by Samuel Jackson, 1847 ; " Foreign Quar- 
 terly Review" for July, 1S38. 
 
 Jung-Bahadoor, (or -Bahadur,) jiing (or jiing) ba- 
 ha'door, [i.e. "brave in war,") [from the Hindostanee 
 jiing. " battle," " war," and bah&durox bahadoor, " brave,"] 
 the name, or rather surname, of several Indian princes, 
 among whom the recent minister of Nepaul and virtual 
 sovereign of that country deserves particular mention, 
 lie was the son of a Nepaulese general, was born about 
 1815, and by his unscrupulous audacity, combined with 
 rare talents for intrigue, he soon raised himself to the 
 highest position in the state. About 1850 he visited 
 England as ambassador, and while in that country was 
 the object of much attention. In 1857 he offered the 
 English government his co-operation in suppressing the 
 mutiny of the Sepoys, and, with about 9000 Goorkhas, 
 (a race of Tartar origin,) took part in the capture of 
 Lucknow, for which, and other services, he received from 
 Queen Victoria the grand cross of the order of the Bath. 
 
 Junger, ydong'er, (Johann Friehkh'ii,) a German 
 litterateur, born at I.eipsic in 1759. He was the author 
 of numerous popular romances and dramatic works. 
 Among his novels are " Vetter Jakobs Launen," (6 vols., 
 1786-92,) and "Der Schein trtigt," (1787.) Died in 1797. 
 
 Jungermann, yd6ng'er-man',( Go 11 fried,) a German 
 philologist, born at Ix-ipsic. He published " Longi Pas- 
 toralia Graece cum Latina Versione," (1605,) and other 
 classical works. Died in 1610. 
 
 Jungermann, (LllDWlG,) a botanist, born at Leipsic 
 in 1572, was a brother of the preceding. He was pro- 
 1 of botany at Altdorf. Died in 1653. 
 
 Junghuhn, 'vooiig'hoon, (FKANZ Wii.hei.m,) a Prus- 
 sian naturalist,' bom at Mansfeld in 1812. He was em- 
 
 ployed as army physician or officer of health in India, 
 and explored the island of Java. He published, besides 
 other works, an account of the topography, botany, and 
 geology of Java, ("Java, seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke 
 und innere Bauart, 3 vols., 1852,) which is esteemed 
 the best work on that subject. 
 
 Jungius. See Jung. 
 
 Jungmann, yoong'man, (Joseph Jakob,) a learned 
 Slavonian philologist, born at Hudlitz, in Bohemia, in 
 1773. He was appointed in 1815 professor of languages 
 and rhetoric at the Gymnasium of Prague, where he was 
 afterwards prefect. I lis greatest work is a " Bohemian- 
 German Dictionary," (5 vols., 1835,) which gives evi- 
 dence of immense learning and industry. He also wrote 
 a " History of the Bohemian Language and Literature," 
 (1825,) and a "Bohemian Chrestomathy." He wrote 
 other works, in prose and verse, and made a number of 
 translations from eminent English and French writers. 
 Jungmann is regarded as one of the most zealous and 
 efficient promoters of Slavonian literature. Died in 1847. 
 
 See L. Cklakovsky, "Dodavky ke Slovniktt J. Jungmanna," 
 1S50; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1828. 
 
 Ju-nilT-us, a bishop who flourished in Africa about 
 550 A.D. He wrote a Latin work "On Parts of the 
 Divine Law," which was printed at Bale in 1545. 
 
 Ju'nl-us, the assumed name of a political writer who 
 in January, 1769, began to issue, in London, a series 
 of famous letters, which first appeared in Wood fall's 
 " Public Advertiser." Junius opposed the ministry then 
 m power, and denounced several eminent persons with 
 great severity of invective and pungency of sarcasm. 
 His style is eminently pure, terse, and vigorous. These 
 letters had a great popularity, and powerfully promoted 
 the cause of civil liberty. "The myrmidons of the court," 
 said Burke, in the House of Commons, "have been long, 
 and are still, pursuing him in vain. They will not spend 
 their time upon me, or you, or you. No: they disdain 
 such vermin when the mighty boar of the forest, that 
 has broken through all their toils, is before them. . . . 
 Kings, Lords, and Commons are but the sport of his 
 fury. Were he a member of this House, what might 
 not be expected from his knowledge, his firmness and 
 integrity !" Among the numerous persons to whom 
 these letters have been attributed were Sir Philip Fran- 
 cis, Lord Chatham, Edmund Burke, Henry Grattan, 
 Colonel Barre, Gibbon the historian, John HomeTooke, 
 Horace Walpole, John Wilkes, and Wedderburn, (after- 
 wards Lord Loughborough.) The publication of the 
 Letters of Junius continued until January, 1772. In 
 his dedication to the people of England, he said, " I am 
 the sole depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish 
 with me." 
 
 A multitude of books and essays have been written in 
 the attempt to solve this mystery. But all the efforts 
 in that direction seemed for a long time to be wholly 
 unsuccessful ; so much so that a very able lawyer and 
 antiquary. Sir N. H. Nicolas, writing in 1843, declared 
 his conviction that all the Junius-seekers had completely 
 failed in their undertaking. Macaulay, however, in his 
 essay on Warren Hastings, (1841,) says that "the evi- 
 dence [against Sir P. Francis] would support a verdict 
 in a civil — nay, in a criminal — proceeding." At the 
 present time (1870) the question appears to be no longer 
 doubtful. A great number of circumstances (some of 
 which have only very lately come to light) seem to point 
 with unerring certainty to Sir Philip Francis as the true 
 Junius. Among the various incidental proofs bearing on 
 this question, one of the most curious and decisive is 
 given in " Lippincott's Magazine" for January, 1870, p. 1 18, 
 
 See John Tavlor, "The Identity of Junius with a Distinguished 
 Living Ctaracter Established," 1S16; John Mason Good, 
 on Junius and his Writings ;" Macaui.av, review of Gieig's "Life 
 of Warren Hastings:" Lord Brougham, article in the " F^dinburgh 
 Review" for November, 1817, (vol. xxix. :)_" London Quarieriy k'j- 
 view" for December, 1851 ; Ai.libonk. " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Ju'nl-us, (Francis,) |Fr. Francois du Jon, froN'- 
 swa' dii zh6N,| a learned Protestant theologian, was born 
 at Boutges, in France, May I, 1545. He studied at Lyons 
 and Geneva, and was appointed pastor of a Walloon 
 church in Antwerp in 1565, but at length was com- 
 pelled to fly to Germany to escape the tortures of the 
 Inquisition. In 1568 he became chaplain to the army 
 
 €as^;cas,r;g>5tfr</;gasy; G,H,K,futtural; N, nasal; v., trilled; 5asz; thasin this. (JJ3f~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JUNIUS 
 
 1302 
 
 JUPITER 
 
 of the Prince of Orange. Five years later, at the re- 
 quest of the Elector-Palatine, he went to Heidelberg, 
 where, with the assistance of Tremellius, he translated 
 the Old Testament into Latin, (1575-79.) This work, 
 which established his reputation, is known as the version 
 of Junius and Tremellius. He afterwards filled succes- 
 sively the chairs of theology at Neustadt, Heidelberg, 
 and Leyden. He wrote numerous works on divinity and 
 the classics. Died at Leyden in October, 1602. 
 
 See "Vita F. Junii Biturigensis ab ipsomet conscripta," 1595: 
 Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary:" Niceron, "Me- 
 nioires;" F. Gomar, "Oratio funebris in Obitum F, Junii," 1602. 
 
 Junius, (Francis or Franciscus,) an eminent phi- 
 lologist, son of the preceding, was born at Heidelberg 
 in 15S9, and was educated at Leyden. He passed over 
 to England about 1620, and became librarian to Thomas 
 Howard, Earl of Arundel, with whom he remained thirty 
 years. He devoted his attention chiefly to the study of 
 the Teutonic languages. He published a rare and valu- 
 able work, — a translation of the Gospels into the ancient 
 Gothic, (made by Bishop Ulphilas about 360 A.D.,) with 
 a Commentary, (1665.) Junius was the author of a work 
 "On the Fainting of the Ancients," ("De Fictura 
 Veterum," 1637,) and of an Etymological Dictionary, 
 (" Etymologicum Anglicanum," 1743,) in which he ex- 
 plains the derivation and origin of numerous English 
 words. He left his choice collection of manuscripts to 
 the University of Oxford. Died at Windsor in 1677. 
 
 See Gr-^vics, " Life of Francis Junius," in the 2d edition of his 
 "De Pictura Veterum," 1694; Bavi.e, " Historical and Critical Dic- 
 tionary;" Nicekon, " Memoiies;" Wood. " Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Junius, de, deh yoo'ne-us, or Jonghe, yong'eh, 
 (Adriaan,) a learned Dutch physician, was born at 
 Hoorn, in Friesland, in 1512. He went to England 
 near the close of the reign of Henry VIII., and became 
 physician to the Duke of Norfolk. " After the accession 
 of Edward VI. he published a Greek -and- Latin Lexi- 
 con, which he dedicated to that sovereign. For this he 
 was severely censured by the Roman pontiff. He wrote 
 in honour of the marriage of Queen Mary with Philip 
 of Spain a Latin poem entitled " Philippeis." About 
 1564 he was appointed physician to the King of Den- 
 mark. Died at Middelburg in 1575. As a philologist 
 and linguist his contemporaries regarded him as second 
 only to Erasmus. In addition to the works previously 
 mentioned are his "Nomenclature of All Things," a 
 vocabulary in seven difTerent languages, several Latin 
 poems and epistles, and various commentaries on the 
 writings of the ancient authors. 
 
 See P. S01EI.TEMA, "Diatribein H. Junii Vitam ingeniumet Merita 
 literaria," 1836. 
 
 Junker, yoonk'er, or Juniker, yoo'ne-ker, (Gkorg 
 Adam,) a teacher and translator, born at Hanau about 
 1720. He translated numerous German dramas, etc. 
 into French. Died in 1805. 
 
 Ju'no, [Fr. Junon, zhii'nON' ; It. Giunone, joo-no'- 
 nl,] a goddess of the Roman mythology, called the queen 
 of heaven and the wife of Jupiter, corresponding to the 
 Greek Hera, (Hpa or "Hp7/.) She was regarded as the 
 protecting deity of the female sex, and as the patroness 
 of marriage and maternity. She was surnamed Matrona 
 and Rkc.ina, and was worshipped by the Roman women 
 at an annual festival called Matronalia. As the patroness 
 of marriage, she was called Pronuba, Gamelia, Jugalis or 
 Juga, and various other names. Her aid was implored 
 by women in childbirth under the name of Lucina, (which 
 see.) She is usually represented as a majestic woman, 
 crowned, with her favourite bird, the peacock, near her. 
 The name Juno is in all probability related etymologically 
 to the Sanscrit word Yon!,* signifying "matrix," and 
 hence denoting maternity and femineity. 
 
 See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and 
 Mythology;" Keightlev, "Mythology," article "Hera;" Gui- 
 gniaut, "Religions del' Antiquit^," vol. ii. chap. ii. 
 
 Junon. See Juno. 
 
 * It is scarcely necessary to remind the etymologist lmu m-nrly it is 
 related to o: in Arabic and Peisian they have but a single letter to 
 represent both ; in Norwegian and Swedish there is but little differ- 
 ence in the pronunciation of the two vowels, being pronounced pre- 
 cisely like the Italian or German u. J {i.e., i consonant) in the Latin 
 (as it does in many of the modern languages) corresponded to our 
 K The terminal o in Juno is merely the fvminine termination so 
 common in Greek and Latin proper names. 
 
 Junot, zhii'no', (Andochk,) Due d'Abrantes, a distin- 
 guished French general, was born near Semur in 1771. 
 At the age of twenty he enlisted as a common soldier, 
 but, on account of his uncommon bravery, was soon made 
 lieutenant. While serving at the siege of Toulon, he 
 gained the approbation of Bonaparte, who made him his 
 first aide-de-camp, with the rank of captain. He ac- 
 companied that general on his Italian campaigns, and 
 fought with his accustomed bravery at the battles of Lodi 
 Areola, Castiglione, and Lonato. During the invasion of 
 Egypt and Syria he became the favourite of Bonaparte, 
 and gained great distinction at the battle of Nazareth, 
 where, with three hundred horsemen, he attacked and 
 held in check a body of three thousand Moslems. After 
 his return to France he rendered efficient service to 
 .Bonaparte in the subversion of the Directory. In 1800 
 he was appointed commandant of Paris, and afterwards 
 governor of that city and colonel-general of hussars. 
 He also received the decoration of the grand eagle of 
 the legion of honour, and was sent as ambassador to 
 Portugal. He took part in the battle of Austerlitz, in 
 1805. In 1807 he commanded an army which invaded 
 Portugal and took Lisbon. He was soon afterwards 
 created Due d'Abrantes. In August, 1808, he was 
 defeated by Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimiera, and com- 
 pelled to evacuate Portugal. The emperor then deprived 
 him of the governorship of Paris, but appointed him 
 Captain-General and Governor of the Illyrian provinces. 
 His misfortunes and disgrace shortly after affected his 
 mind so deeply that he was obliged to retire from public 
 life. He died at Motitpellier in July, 1813. 
 
 See Madame d'Abrantes, " Memoires ;" Thiers, " Histoire du 
 Consulatet de l'Empire;" Napoleon, " Correspondance ;" Alison, 
 " History of Europe ;" " Nouvelle Kiograpbie Generale." 
 
 Junot,(LAUREPKRMON,)MADAMK, Dttchesse d'Abran- 
 tes, was born in Montpellier in 1784, and was married 
 to General Junot about 1800. Her family was related to 
 that of Bonaparte, to whom her mother had shown great 
 kindness before he became a general. At her marriage 
 Mademoiselle Pennon received from the First Consul 
 one hundred thousand francs as a marriage-portion. 
 In 1806 she accompanied her husband to Lisbon, and 
 in 1807 became Duchesse d'Abrantes. On the restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons she was kindly received by Louis 
 XVIII. She wrote, besides other works, " Memoirs or 
 Historical Souvenirs of Napoleon, the Revolution, the 
 Directory, etc.," (iS vols., 1831-34.) Died in 1S38. 
 
 See A. D. Roosmalen, " Les derniers Moments de la Duchesse 
 d'Abrantes," Paris, 1S3S; Ignazio Canto, " Relatione della Du- 
 chessa d'Abrantes," 1837; "Nouvelle Bingraphie Generale." 
 
 Junquieres, de, deh zhuN'ke-aiR', (Jean Baptiste,) 
 a French poet and officer, born~~at Paris in 1713; died 
 in 1786. 
 
 Junta or Junte, (Fii.ippo.) See Giunta. 
 
 Junta, (Tommaso,) a Venetian physician, floutished 
 about 1550. He wrote a treatise "On the Battles of 
 the Ancients," which displays considerable erudition. 
 
 Junte. See Giunta. 
 
 Junterbuck, ydon'ter-bdok', (James,) a Polish writer, 
 and professor of theology at Erfurt, was born about 1385 ; 
 died in 1465. He wrote various works, among which is 
 a "Tract on Mental Apparitions." 
 
 Ju'pl-ter or Jup'pl-ter, [Fr. pron. zhii'pe'taiR' ; It. 
 Giove, jo'va, whence the English Jove,*] the supreme 
 deity of the Roman mythology, corresponding to the 
 Greek Zeus, and represented as the eldest son of Saturn 
 and Rhea. He Was the greatest of all the gods of the 
 classic mythology, and was supposed to control all earthly 
 and human affairs and to foresee futurity. The Romans 
 ascribed to him power over all changes in the sky, and 
 the phenomena of rain and lightning, and hence applied 
 to him the epithets of" Pluvius," (" rainy," or " raining,") 
 "Tonans,"(" thundering,")" Fulminator,"("thunderer,") 
 etc. As presiding over marriage, he is sometimes called 
 Gamelius; and as the protector of the rights of hospi- 
 tality, he was invoked as Jupiter Hospitalis. He was 
 sometimes called Jupiter Capitolinus, because his tera- 
 
 * Or, to speak more accurately, both the Italian and English are 
 derived from Java, the Latin genitive case of Jupiter. The German, 
 .Spanish, and Portuguese names for Jupiter, in spelling and accen- 
 tuation, are the same as the Latin. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, 3, y, long; a, e, 6,. same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; flr, fall, fit; met; n6t: g6Sd; moon; 
 
JVPPIN 
 
 '3°3 
 
 JVSSIEU 
 
 pie at Rome stood on the Capitol. He was the father 
 of Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Minerva, Venus, etc. Ac- 
 cording to the Greek mythology, he kept his court on 
 Olympus. His most famous Greek temple was at 
 Olympia, in Klis. He is usually represented as seated 
 on a throne, with a thunderbolt in his right hand, in his 
 left a sceptre, and near him his favourite bird the eagle. 
 The name Jupiter (who was also called Diespiter) is 
 probably a corruption of Diu-pater, (or Dioris pater,) 
 ("lather of the heavens," or "heavenly father.") Dium, 
 Oh'iim, and Dies originally signified the same, — viz., the 
 "sky," or "heaven." Others derive it from the Greek 
 Zeus Pater or Zeu Pater, (i.e. "father Zeus.") Respect- 
 ing the probable identity between Jupiter (or Zeus) and 
 the Hindoo god Siva, see Siva. 
 
 See Smith, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and 
 tfythology;" GviGNIAUT, "Religions de I'AMiquite'," vol. ii. chap, 
 i. ; RbigBTLKY, *• Mythology." 
 
 Juppin, zhu'paN', (Jean Bafiiste,) a Flemish land- 
 scape-painter, born at Namur in 167S. He studied in 
 Brussels, and afterwards visited Italy. Among his works 
 is the "Crater of Vesuvius." Died in 1729. 
 
 Juret, zhii'r.y, (Francois,) a French critic and poet, 
 born at Dijon in 1553, became canon of Langres. He 
 published " Seneca; ad I.ucilium Epistolarum Liber," 
 (1602,) and "Panegyrici Veteres cum Notis," (2 vols., 
 1652.) Died in 1626. 
 
 Jurieu, zhu're-uh', (Pierre:,) a learned French theo- 
 logian and controversialist, was born at Mer, in Orleanais, 
 in 1637. He became pastor of a Protestant congregation 
 in Mer after he had studied at Saumur and Sedan. He 
 was subsequently appointed professor of theology and 
 Hebrew at Sedan. On the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes, in 168$, he retired to Rotterdam, where he was 
 appointed professor of theology. He wrote numerous 
 religious works, among which are a "History of Cal- 
 vinism and Popery compared," (1682,) and a "Critical 
 History of Doctrine and Worship, Good and Had," 
 (1704,) both in French. Died in 1713. 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Ju'riii, (James,) an English physician and philosopher, 
 was born in 1684, and was educated at Cambridge. He 
 was elected a member of the Royal Society, of which 
 he became secretary, and was chosen president of the 
 College of Physicians. He wrote several treatises on 
 philosophy and physiology. Died in 1750. 
 
 Jurine, zhu'ren', (Louis,) a Swiss physician and natu- 
 ralist, born at Geneva in 1751, resided in Paris. He 
 wrote, besides other works, a treatise on ascertaining the 
 salubrity of the atmosphere. Died in 1819. 
 
 Jussieu, jfis-su', de, [French pron. deh zhii'se-uh',] 
 (Adrien,) a celebrated French botanist, son of Antoine 
 Laurent, noticed below, was born in Paris, December 23, 
 1797. He gained the first prize at the competition of 
 1814, and applied himself to the study of natural history 
 and medicine. He succeeded his father as professor of 
 rural botany in the Museum of Natural History in 1826, 
 and was admitted to the Institute in 1831. He published 
 a series of memoirs and monographs which have placed 
 him in the first rank of botanists. Among his best works 
 are a "Monograph of the Malpighiacese," (1843,) and 
 an " Elementary Course of Botany," which has been 
 translated into. all the languages of Europe. In 1845 
 he became professor of vegetable organography to the 
 Faculte des Sciences. Died in June, 1853. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gtfne'rale." 
 
 Jussieu, de, (Alexis,) a French journalist and ad- 
 ministrator, born in 1797, was a nephew of the great 
 botanist Antoine Laurent. He was prefect of Ain and 
 of Vienne in the reign of Louis Philippe. 
 
 Jussieu, de, (Antoine,) professor of botany in the 
 Royal Garden of Paris, was born at Lyons in 1686. He 
 travelled in France, Spain, and Italy for the purpose 
 of making botanical explorations, succeeded Tournefort 
 as professor of botany in 1708, and was the author of 
 several treatises on that science. He published anew 
 edition of Tournefort's "Institutions." Died in 1758. 
 
 See *' Nouvelle Biographie Gc'ne'rale.'* 
 
 Jussieu, de,(A.s 1111.NE I,AURENT,)acelebrated French 
 botanist, born at Lyons in April, 1748, was the 
 
 eminent memlier of a family which has been called "the 
 Botanical Dynasty." In 1765 he went to Paris to study 
 medicine, and became the protege and pupil of his uncle, 
 Bernard de Jussieu, who lectured on botany in the Jar- 
 din (lu Roi, and was meditating a natural method of 
 classification, near the close of a life memorable in the 
 records of botanical science. This uncle, whose advanced 
 age and dimness of sight indisposed him to the labours 
 of authorship, freely communicated his mature reflections 
 to young Jussieu, who zealously enlisted in the important 
 enterprise. In 1770, having just graduated as M.D., he 
 was appointed demonstrator of botany in the Jardin du 
 Roi, as the substitute of I.cmonnier, chief physician to 
 the king. His first production was an excellent mono- 
 graph on the " Kanunculaceae," (1774,) which opened to 
 him the Academy of Sciences and determined him to 
 apply himself almost exclusively to botany. 
 
 In 1774 the arrangement of the plants in the Royal 
 Garden, which was conformed to the system of Tourne- 
 fort, was exchanged for one proposed by Jussieu, founded 
 on natural affinities. While performing his duties as 
 professor, he continued to digest and perfect his new 
 system, until 1788, when he developed the same in his 
 great Latin work, " Genera Plantarum secundum Ordines 
 naturales disposita," "which," says Cuvier, "forms in 
 the sciences of observation an epoch perhaps as im- 
 portant as the ' Chemistry' of Lavoisier in the sciences 
 of experiment." Although the success of his book was 
 retarded by the political convulsions of France, his philo- 
 sophical system has gradually prevailed and superseded 
 the artificial method of Linnaeus. The idea of such a 
 system had occurred to other botanists ; but Jussieu is 
 entitled to the honour of laying its broad and impreg- 
 nable foundations. 
 
 In 1793 the school of the Royal Garden was reor- 
 ganized, under the title of "Museum of Natural His- 
 tory," and the chair of botany was given to Jussieu, who 
 was also chosen director of the institution. A few years 
 later he became a memlier of the Institute, and in 1S0S 
 was appointed a councillor of the Imperial University. 
 At the restoration of the Bourbons he lost the office last 
 named, but retained the professorship until 1826, when 
 he resigned it in favour of his son. Between 1800 and 
 1820 he wrote many botanical treatises on natural orders 
 and families, which were inserted in «he records of the 
 Institute or the "Annates du Museum." These are 
 characterized by the same merits, as his principal work, 
 — profound knowledge, patient observation, a correct 
 estimate of the value of characters, and an admirable 
 sagacity in perceiving affinities. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Flocrkns, " Eloge de A. L. de Jussieu," 1838 ; A. T. Bronci- 
 niart, Notice liislorique sur A. L. de Jussieu," 1S37; Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate." 
 
 Jussieu, de, (Bernard,) a celebrated botanist, 
 brother of Antoine, noticed above, was born at Lyons in 
 1699. After studying in his native city, he accompanied 
 his brother on several scientific tours. On returning 
 to France he entered the medical course at Montpellicr, 
 where he graduated in 1720. Six years later he was 
 chosen Doctor of the Faculty of Medicine at Paris. He 
 was the first to conceive the idea of the classification of 
 plants according to their affinities. This method was per- 
 fected by his nephew, the celebrated Antoine Laurent de 
 Jussieu. He was held in high esteem by Louis XV., to 
 whom he gave valuable advice upon the formation of the 
 garden at Trianon. Jussieu visited F.ngland, and was 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1777. 
 
 See Condokcet, "filoge de Jussieu;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Gine'rale." 
 
 Jussieu, de, (Joseph,) brother of Antoine and Bernard 
 de Jussieu, was born in Lyons in 1704. In 1735 he ac- 
 companied, as a botanist, the French and Spanish savants 
 who had been sent by their respective governments to 
 Peru. He remained in that country and other parts of 
 South America until 1771, and collected valuable infor- 
 mation on natural history. Died at Paris in 1779. 
 
 Jussieu, de, (Laurent Pierre,) a French moralist 
 
 and writer, born at Lyons in 1792, was a brother of 
 
 Alexis, noticed above. He wrote a number of popular 
 
 lional works, among which arc " Simon de Mantua," 
 
 (1818,) and "Antoine et Maurice," (1821.) His " Pott" 
 
 € as /•; 9 as s; g hard; g asy'; o, 11, v.,gul!ural; M, nasal; R, trilled; S as 1; 4h as in this, (J5^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JUSSOW 
 
 1304 
 
 JUSTINIAN 
 
 humous Works of Simon de Nantua" (1829) obtained 
 the Montyon prize. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Jussow, ydos'so, (Heinrich Christoph,) a German 
 architect, born at Cassel in 1754. He designed a church 
 at Neustadt, a wing of the royal palace of Wilhelmshohe, 
 and the Chinese Gallery at Cassel. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Jussy, zhii'se', (Jacques Philippe,) a French phy- 
 sician, born at Besancon about 1716. He introduced a 
 new and successful method of lithotomy. Died in 1798. 
 
 Just, Saint. See Saint-Just. 
 
 Juste, zhiist, (Theodore,) a Belgian historian, born 
 at Brussels in 1818. He published, besides other works 
 in French, a "Popular History of Belgium," (183S,) a 
 "History of the Belgian Revolution of 1790," (3 vols., 
 1846,) and a " History of the Middle Ages," (5 vols., 
 1848.) 
 
 Justel, zhiis'tel', (ChristopHE,) a French Protestant 
 statesman, and secretary to Henry IV., was born in Paris 
 in 1580. He was distinguished for his knowledge of 
 ecclesiastical history and of canon law, upon which he 
 wrote several books. He also wrote some historical 
 works, among which is a " History of the Family of 
 Turenne," (1645.) D' e d '» 1049- 
 
 See Sax, " Onomasticon ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" 
 Haag, "La Fiance protestante." 
 
 Justel, (Henri,) a canonist, born in Paris in 1620, 
 was a son of the preceding, whom he succeeded as 
 secretary to the king. He collected an extensive library, 
 especially rich in manuscripts, and was a liberal patron 
 of literary men. For the sake of religious liberty he 
 emigrated to England in 16S1, and became librarian to 
 Charles II. He published " Bibliotheca Juris Canonici 
 veteris," (2 vols., 1661.) Died in 1693. 
 
 See Sax, "Onomasticon;" Haag, "La France protestante;" 
 "Nonvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 ' Justen. See Juusten. 
 
 Justi, yoos'tee, (Joiiann Heinrich Gottlieb,) a 
 German writer on political economy and philosophy, 
 born in Thuringia about the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century. Among his numerous works are a "Treatise 
 on Manufactures and Fabrics," (3 vols., 1758-61,) and 
 "Moral and Philosophical Writings," (2 vols., 1760-61,) 
 both in German. Died at Kustrin in 1 77 1. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Jus'tin, [I,at. Justi'nus, or Justi'nus Fronti'nus,] 
 a Latin historian of uncertain period, and of whose life 
 nothing is known. He wrote a work entitled " Histo- 
 riarum Philippicarum Libri XLIV.," which, as he informs 
 the reader in his preface, is extracted or abridged from 
 the History of the World written by Trogus Pompeius. 
 As the original work is lost, Justin's history, although 
 it has no great intrinsic merit except an elegant style, 
 supplies much valuable information not found in other 
 histories. The most ancient writer that mentions Justin 
 is Saint Jerome ; and it is supposed that the former lived 
 between 150 and 350 A.I). 
 
 See D. W. Moi.ler, " Disputatio de Justino," 16S4; Zembsch, 
 " Justinus Trogi Pompeii Epitomator," 1804. 
 
 Jus'tin or Justi'nus, surnamed the Martyr, one 
 of the earliest and most learned of the Christian fathers, 
 was born of Greek parentage at Neapolis, in Palestine, 
 about 103 A.D. He was educated in the pagan religion 
 and in the philosophy of Plato. About 132 he embraced 
 Christianity. He afterwards removed to Rome, where 
 he wrote, in Greek, his first apology for the Christian 
 religion. It was addressed to the emperor Antoninus, 
 from whom Justin procured some concessions for the 
 Christians. His other apology was addressed to Marcus 
 Aurelius. He also wrote an account of his discussions 
 with Trypho, a learned Jew, upon the Messiah. He 
 suffered martyrdom at Rome under Marcus Aurelius, 
 for refusing to sacrifice to the heathen gods, about 165. 
 His writings are considered very valuable. 
 
 See John Kaye, "Life of Justin Martyr," London, 1S36; Cari. 
 Semiscii, "Justin der Martyrer," 2 vols., 1840-42; VOUCMAB, 
 " Ueber Justin den Martyrer," etc , 1S53 : Junius. " Dissertatio de 
 Justino Martyre," 1836; Rittkr. " History of Christian Philoso- 
 phy;" Eusebius, " Ecclesiastical Historv;" Neandeh, " History of 
 the Church ;" Fleurv, " Histoire ecclesiaslique." 
 
 Justin or Justinus I., Emperor of the East, was 
 born a peasant in Dacia in 450 A.D. At an early age he 
 went to Constantinople, where he enlisted in the im- 
 perial guards of Leo I. He distinguished himself by 
 his military abilities, and rose in rank until he was suc- 
 cessively appointed general and commander of the 
 guards. In 518, on the death of the emperor Anasta- 
 sius, Justin was proclaimed his successor by the soldiers 
 and the people. Through his instrumentality the Greek 
 and Roman Churches were reconciled. He is generally 
 regarded as a just prince. Died in 527, soon after re- 
 signing the thtone to his nephew Justinian. 
 
 See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" Zonaras, " History." 
 
 Justin or Justinus II. was a nephew of Justinian I., 
 whom he succeeded as Emperor of Constantinople in 
 565. During his reign the Longobards under Alboin 
 invaded Italy, the northern part of which they wrested 
 from the Eastern Empire, and the Persians made several 
 important conquests in the Asiatic provinces. In 574, 
 perceiving his inability to govern, he resigned in favour 
 of Tiberius, the captain of his guards. Died in 578. 
 
 See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" MbnandSR, "His- 
 toriarum Libri VII I.," Paris, 1609; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Jus-ti'na, [Fr. Justine, zhUs'ten',] Saint, a Chris- 
 tian martyr, who is supposed to have suffered death 
 under Diocletian, (A.D. 304.) She was the patroness of 
 Venice and of Padua. In the latter town a church was 
 built in her honour in the fifth century. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, " History of Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 Jus-tin'I-an or Jus-tin-i-a'nus [Fr. Justinien, 
 zhus'te'ne-aN '] I., one of the most celebrated of the Em- 
 perors of the East, and nephew of Justin I., was born in 
 Dardania, May 11,483 a.d. Justin at his coronation in 
 518 appointed Justinian his colleague, and in 527 invested 
 him with supreme authority. Soon after ascending 
 the throne, Justinian commenced an active persecution 
 against the Arians, Jews, and Pagans. About 532 se- 
 rious revolts occurred, in one of which the church of Saint 
 Sophia and other buildings were destroyed by fire. This 
 sedition, in which thirty thousand insurgents are said to 
 have fallen, was incited by the factions of the circus, and 
 was only quelled by the prompt resolution of Bclisarius at 
 the head of the imperial guards. Justinian showed great 
 clemency to those of his rebellious subjects who were 
 made prisoners. He immediately began to repair the 
 damages of the conflagration. The magnificent church 
 of Saint Sophia, which is one of the most remarkable 
 edifices of any age or country, was rebuilt upon the plan 
 furnished by the architect Anthemius. Justinian also 
 exhibited his liberality and architectural skill in the con- 
 struction of temples, convents, roads, bridges, aqueducts, 
 and fortifications in many parts of his vast empire. But 
 by far the greatest work of his reign was the revision of 
 the Roman law and the publication of the Codes, Pan- 
 dects, and Institutions which bear his name, and which 
 were compiled under his supervision by the eminent 
 jurist Tribonian. The "Codes," consisting of twelve 
 books, were completed in 534. The " Digests" or " Pan- 
 dectae," embracing all that was taken from the decisions, 
 arguments, and expositions of the civilians of Rome, were 
 subsequently issued in fifty books. The " Institutiones" 
 were an abridgment of the first principles of the law for 
 the use of students. Justinian also composed many new 
 laws, mostly in Greek, entitled " Constitutiones No- 
 vellas." While he was thus, rendering such eminent 
 service to the world by the publication of his Codes and 
 Pandects, his celebrated generals Belisarius and Narses 
 carried the terror of his arms into Persia, Italy, and 
 Africa, and made their master the sovereign of nearly 
 all the territory over which the first Caesars had held 
 dominion. (See Belisarius, and Narses.) Justinian 
 gave liberal encouragement to the industrial arts, and 
 was the first to introduce silk-worms and the manu- 
 facture of silken goods into Europe, lie died in 565, 
 after a reign of rnore than thirty-eight years, and was 
 succeeded by his nephew, Justin II. Justinian, although 
 justly censurable for his occasional intolerance, was dis- 
 tinguished for his general justice and humanity, as well 
 as for his knowledge of theology, philosophy, law, poetry, 
 and architecture, for his administrative powers, and for 
 his exceedingly virtuous and temperate life, — qualities 
 
 a, e, T. o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ti, y, short; a, e, i, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
JUSTINUN 
 
 1305 
 
 JUXON 
 
 which would have placed him in the highest rank as a 
 monarch, even if he had not produced thoae Codes which 
 have immortalized his name. 
 
 See Procopius, u HistoriasuiTemporis," (translated into English 
 by Holcropt, 1653:) Ludewig, " Vita Justiniani," 1731 : Isambbrt, 
 " 11:- uirede Justinien," 1856; Corvinus DK Bkldern, "' liu|>erator 
 Tustinianus Catholicus," 161S : G. Peehin, " Vita Justiniani," 1576 ; 
 Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ; Montrs 
 " Grandeur et Decadence des Romains,'' chap, xx. ; H. Vocp.i., " 1 »i< 
 sertatio de Justiniano," 1672: P. Gaudbnzio, "Gloria Justiniani 
 Imperatoris vindicata," 1639; " Nouvelle Biographie Genetale." 
 
 Justinian [Lat Justinia'nus] II., son of Constan- 
 tine III., ascended the throne of Constantinople in 685. 
 He gained important advantages over the Saracens, and 
 compelled them to relinquish some of their conquests. 
 Finally, his great cruelties to his subjects, and also, it is 
 said, his intention of burning Constantinople, caused his 
 general Leontius to depose him, to cut off his nose, and 
 to banish him to the Crimea. He subsequently escaped 
 from the Crimea, and married the daughter of a Turkish 
 chief, with whose assistance, and that of the Bulgarians, 
 he regained his crown. He put Leontius, and many 
 others, to horrible deaths. He was preparing to execute 
 further cruelties, when he was killed in 711 by Philip- 
 picus Bardanes, who succeeded him. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fallot" the Roman Empire;" Le Beau, 
 "Histoire du Bas- Empire ;" Zonaras, "History;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G£ne>ale." 
 
 Justiniani See Gii'stiniani. 
 
 Justinianus. See Justinian. 
 
 Justinien. See Justinian. 
 
 Justinus. See Justin. 
 
 Jus'tu-lus, (yoos'too-lus,) (Pietro Francesco,) a 
 Latin pott, and secretary to Caesar Borgia, a native of 
 Italy, lived about' 1500. His poems are distinguished 
 for their purity and elegance. 
 
 Jusuf. See YoOSUF. 
 
 Ju-tur'na, [Fr. Juturne, zhu'tuRn',] a nymph or 
 
 foddess of the Roman mythology, was said to be beloved 
 y Jupiter. According to Virgil, she was a sister of 
 1 urnus. The water which the Romans used in sacrifices 
 was mostly drawn from the fountain of Juturna. 
 
 Juturne. See Juturna. 
 
 Juusten or Justen, yoos'ten, (Paul,) Bishop of Abo, 
 in Finland, was born at Viborg. He was sent in 1569 by 
 John III. of Sweden as an ambassador to Ivan, Czar of 
 Russia. That monarch, on some false pretence against 
 John, threw Juusten in prison, where he was confined for 
 three years. Died at Abo in 1575. 
 
 Juvara, yoo-va'ra, or Ivara, e-vi'ra, (Fiuppo,) first 
 architect to the Duke of Savoy, was born at Messina, in 
 Italy, in 1685, and educated at Rome under Fontana. 
 He constructed a palace at Messina, and several edifices I 
 in Turin. In 1724 he went to Lisbon, where he super- ; 
 intended the building of the royal palace and other edi- 
 fices, for which he received the order of knighthood and ] 
 a pension of about three thousand dollars. He died in j 
 1735, at Madrid. Among his best works are the hunting- 1 
 palace of Stupinigi,' and the Birago di Borgaro palace, 
 both in Turin. 
 
 See Mmjzia, "Meniorie degli Architetti ;" Quatrpmere ns 
 
 g"Vies des Architectes ceMebres;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 enerale." 
 
 Ju've-nal, [Lat. Jiivena'us ; Fr. Juvenal, zhii'vl'. 
 nil'.j or, more fully, Dec'I-mus Ju'nl-U8 Ju-ve-na'- 
 Us, one of the most celebrated of the Latin satirical pods, 
 is believed to have been born in Aquimim, a Volscian 
 town, about A.r>. 40. But few authentic facts have been 
 preserved respecting his history: it is said, however, that 
 he was the son of a wealthy frecdman, and that he 
 devoted the early part of his life to the study of rhetoric 
 and declamation. He afterwards became a pleader in 
 the courts of law, where he appears to have been suc- 
 cessful. He was an intimate friend of the poet Martial, 
 who mentions him in two of his epigrams. None of 
 the productions of Juvenal were given to the public 
 until he had passed the age of sixty years. His poems, 
 
 which he then recited, gained him universal admiration. 
 One of his earliest satires had been written against an 
 actor named Paris, who was a great favourite with the 
 emperor Domitian. It was not published until the reign 
 of Hadrian, who, imagining that it reflected on one of 
 his own favourites, sent Juvenal into an honourable exile 
 by making him the prefect of a legion in Egypt, where 
 he is said to have died about ah. 125. Sixteen of his 
 satires have been preserved. Several translations of 
 them have been made into English, of which the most 
 prominent are those of Dryden and Gifford. In these 
 satires Juvenal severely lashes the prevailing vices cf 
 his time ; but it may well be doubted whether his vivid 
 pictures of the licentiousness of that age do not tend to 
 fan those very passions which thev seem intended to 
 restrain. He was distinguished for his force of intellect, 
 his flow of language, and his never-failing wit. "Juvenal 
 gives me," says Dryden, "as much pleasure as I can 
 bear. He fully satisfies expectation ; he treats his sub- 
 ject home. . . . When he gives over, 'tis a sign that the 
 subject is exhausted, and that the wit of man can carry 
 it no further." His works, differing equally from the 
 austere moral dialogues of Persius and the genial raillery 
 of Horace, are rhetorical rather than poetical. They are 
 brilliant and sonorous declamations, and master-pieces 
 of denunciation. 
 
 "Magnificent versification," says Macaulay, "and in- 
 genious combinations rarely harmonize with the expres- 
 sion of deep feeling. In Juvenal and Dryden alone we 
 have the sparkle and the heat together. Those great 
 satirists succeeded in communicating the fervour of their 
 feelings to materials the most incombustible, and kindled 
 the whole mass into a blaze at once dazzling and destruc- 
 tive." (" Essay on Dryden.") Among the best editions 
 of Juvenal is that of Ruperti, (Leipsic, 2 vols., 1801,) to 
 which are prefixed all the ancient documents for the 
 biography of the satirist. 
 
 See J. V. Francke, " Examen criticum D. J. Juvenalis Vitae," 
 1S20, and " Programma de Vita D. J. Juvenalis Quesiio altera," 1827 ; 
 Voi.krk, "Juvenal, Lehens- und Charakterbild," 1S51 ; Bauer, 
 " Kritische Bemerkungen iiber einige Nacluichten aus dem Leben 
 Juvenals," 1833 : Bahr, "Gescbichte der Rbmischen Litteratur." 
 
 Juvenal, zhiiv'nil', (Gui J6uvenneaux,zhoo'vA'n5', 
 or Jouennaux, zhoo'A'no',) a French philologist and 
 ecclesiastic, born about 1460, was educated at Paris. 
 Among his works are "Commentaries on the Comedies 
 of Terence," and "Monastic Reformations Vindicated." 
 Died in 1505. 
 
 Juvenal des TJrsins. See Ursins. 
 
 Ju-ven'cus, (Ca'ius Vkc'tius (vek'she-us) Aquili'- 
 NUS,) one of the earliest Christian poets, was born in 
 Spain about 330 a.d. His principal production is the 
 " Life of Christ," written in Latin poetry and taken lite- 
 rally from the four Evangelists. 
 
 See A. *R. Gerser, "Dissertatio de C. V. A. Juvenci Vita et 
 Scriplis," 1827; EsftCH und GrubeR, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Juvenel, zhiiv'nel', (Felix,) a French historical writer, 
 born at Pezenas in 1669, published " Principles of His- 
 tory." Died in 1760. 
 
 Juvigny. See R1001.1.Y DE Juvignv. 
 
 Jttx'on, (William,) Archbishop of Canterbury, born 
 in Chichester in 1582, graduated at Oxford. 11*1621 he 
 was appointed president of Saint John's College, and 
 afterwards received various offices in the Church through 
 the patronage of Archbishop Laud. In 1633 he was 
 successively raised to the sees of Hereford and London. 
 Two years later he was appointed by Charles I. lord 
 high treasurer of England. For about six years he ful- 
 filled the duties of this station with so much justice and 
 ability that, although great hostility was excited that an 
 ecclesiastic should be chosen to that office, no cha 
 were made against his administration. He remained 
 with Charles through his trial, and accom|xinied him to 
 the scaffold, where he received the dying injunctions of 
 that monarch. On the restoration he was raised to the 
 see of Canterbury. Died in 1663. 
 
 e as k; 9 as /; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; %h as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KAAB 
 
 1306 
 
 KALCKREUTH 
 
 K. 
 
 Kaab, ka'ab, a distinguished Arabian poet, who flour- 
 ished about 650 A.D. He was at first a bitter enemy of 
 Mohammed ; but afterwards, becoming reconciled to 
 him, he wrote a poem, which is regarded as the most 
 beautiful of the eulogiums addressed to the founder of 
 the Moslem faith. The prophet was so much pleased 
 that he gave Kaab his green mantle. The poem was 
 hung up in the Temple of Mecca. Kaab died in 662 A.D. 
 
 See D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheque Orientale." 
 
 Kaas, Ids, [Lat. Kaa'sius,] (Nikolaus,) a Danish 
 statesman, born in 1535, and educated in Germany, where 
 he studied theology under Melanchthon. In 1573 he 
 was appointed chancellor of Denmark, and in 1588 be- 
 came first regent of the kingdom during the minority 
 of Christian I. He performed the duties of that office 
 with commendable ability and patriotism. Died in 1594. 
 Kaas actively promoted the cause of education. 
 
 See Hofmann, " Portraits historiques des Homines c^lebres du 
 Danemarck ;" Folder, " Exegesis Virtutum et Rerum gestaruni N. 
 Kaasii," 1580; P. J. Winstrup, " Ligpraediken over N. Kaas," 
 1594 ; J- Calundanus, "Descriptio Vitas N. Kaasii," 1637. 
 
 Kaasius. See Kaas. 
 
 Kaau-Boerhaave, kow booR'ha'veh, (Abram,) a 
 Dutch physician, and nephew of Herman Boerhaave, 
 was born at the Hague in 17 13, and educated at Leyden. 
 In 1740 he was invited to Saint Petersburg, where he 
 became councillor of state, and in 1748 first physician to 
 the imperial court. Died at Moscow in 1753. 
 
 Kabbete, kab'beh-teh, (Jan,) a Dutch landscape- 
 painter. Some of his pictures were engraved by Perelle. 
 Died in 1660. 
 
 Kabel, van der, vin der ka'bel, (Adriaan,) a Dutch 
 landscape-painter and engraver, born at Riswyck in 163 1. 
 His designs were natural and vigorous. Died in 1695. 
 
 See Pilkington, "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Kabtis or Kabous. See Caboos. 
 
 Kadlubek, kad-loo'bek, (Vincent,) sometimes writ- 
 ten Kodlubko or Kalubko, a Polish historian and 
 prelate, was born in Galicia. In 1208 he was raised to 
 the see of Cracow. Died in 1223. He wrote a valuable 
 and accurate history of Poland to the year 1202. 
 
 See Ossolinski, " V. Kadlubek, ein historisch-kritischer Beitrag," 
 etc., 1822. 
 
 Kaempfer. See Kampfer. 
 
 Kaestner. See Kastner. 
 
 Kager, ka'ger, (Johann Matthias,) a German 
 painter of history, born at Munich in 1566; died at 
 Augsburg in 1634. 
 
 Kahle, kl'leh, (Ludwig Martin,) a German philos- 
 opher and jurist, born at Magdeburg in 1712. Among 
 his works is "The Balance of Europe," (" De Trutina 
 Europa:," 1744.) Died in 1775. 
 
 Kahler, ka'ler, (Johann,) a German Lutheran divine, 
 born at Wolmar, Hesse-Cassel, in 1649, was a Cartesian 
 in philosophy, and wrote several works. Died in 1727. 
 
 Kah^is, ka'nis, (Karl Fiuedrich August,) a Ger- 
 man theologian, born at Greitz in 1814. He studied 
 under Tholuck, and became professor of theology at 
 Leipsic in 1850. He published a valuable work, entitled 
 " Lutherische Dogmatik," (2 vols., 1861-68.) 
 
 Kaianian or Caiaiiiaii, ki-a'ne-an, the name of the 
 most celebrated of all the ancient Persian dynasties, so 
 called from its founder, Kai-Kobad, who, according to 
 the Persian legends, was placed on the throne by the 
 famous hero and conqueror Roostum, (or Rustem.) Of 
 this dynasty, Cyrus the Great (called by the Persians 
 Kai-Khosroo or Kai-Khosrau, Kos-row') was the chief 
 ornament and glory. (See Cyrus.) Darius the Younger, 
 conquered by Alexander the Great, was the last of the 
 Kaianian kings. 
 
 See Atkinson, " Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Firdausi," 
 London, 1832; "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of Sir W. 
 Jones's Works. 
 
 Kai-Kaoos, (-Kaus or -Kaous,) Id ka'oos', an an- 
 cient king of Persia, (or Iran,) was the son of Kai-Kobad. 
 His general, the famous Roostum, carried on successful 
 
 wars against the Kings of Tfirari. Sir William Jones 
 places the date of this prince's accession at .B.C. 610. 
 Kai-Kaoos is said to have founded an observatory in 
 Babylon. He was succeeded by his grandson, Kai-Khos- 
 160, (Cyrus the Great.) 
 
 See Mirkiiond, "Raouset;" Atkinson, "Abridgment of the 
 Shah Nameh." 
 
 Kai-Kaoos, (-Kaus or -Kaous,) ki ka'oos', 1, 
 seventh Sultan of the dynasty of the Seljookides of 
 Anatolia, succeeded his father, Kai-Khosroo, about A.D. 
 12 10. He was engaged in wars with the Grecian em- 
 peror and several of the neighbouring princes. Died in 
 1219, and was succeeded by his brother, Kai-Kobad 
 Ala-ed-Deen, (Ala-eddin.) 
 
 See Ferishta, "History." 
 
 Kai-Kaoos (or -Kaus) II, Azzed-ed-Deen, (Az- 
 zed-Eddin,) az'zed ed-deen', succeeded his father, 
 Kai-Khosroo II., in the sovereignty of Anatolia, about 
 A.D. 1244. His reign was occupied by long wars with 
 his brother, Kilij-Arslan, and with the Grand Khan 
 ofTartary. Died in 1278. 
 
 Kai-Khosrau. See Cyrus. 
 
 Kai-Khosroo (-Khosrou) the Eider. See Cyrus. 
 
 Kai-Khos'roo'I, sixth Sultan of the dynasty of the 
 Seljookides, became sovereign of Anatolia a.d. 1192. 
 He was killed in battle in 1210 by Theodore Lascaris, 
 Emperor of Constantinople. 
 
 Kai-Khosroo II. succeeded his father, Kai-Kobad 
 Ala-ed-Deen, (Ala-eddin,) on the throne of Anatolia in 
 1237. In 1244 he was defeated by the Tartars, and was 
 compelled to become a tributary to their grand khan. 
 He died the same year. 
 
 Kai-Khosroo III., twelfth of the dynasty of the 
 Seljookides, became Sultan about 1266. Died in 1283. 
 
 Kailasa or Cailasa, kl-la'sa, called in the common 
 dialect Kailas, kl-lSs', the name of a very high mountain- 
 peak near the northern extremity of India, supposed to 
 be the favourite abode of Siva and Parvati. (See Siva.) 
 
 Kain. See Le Kain. 
 
 Kaiook, Kaiuk, or Kaiouk, ki-ook', a grandson 
 of Jengis Khan, was proclaimed Grand Khan ofTartary 
 in 1246. This prince granted numerous privileges to 
 the Christians of his dominions. He died in 1248, as he 
 was raising an immense army for the invasion of Europe. 
 
 Kairis, ka'ris, (Theophilos,) a Greek ecclesiastic, 
 born in the island of Andros in 1780. In 1839 he was 
 banished by the Synod of Athens to a cloister for having 
 taught deism. He wrote a burlesque on the prayers of 
 the Christian Church. In 1852 he was sent to prison, 
 where he died in 1853. 
 
 Kaiser, ki'zer, (Friedrich,) a German engraver, born 
 at Ulm in 1775, worked in Vienna. Died in 1819. 
 
 Ka'kig I., King of Armenia, of the dynasty of Pagrat- 
 ides, succeeded his brother, Sempad II., in 9S9. Kakig 
 assumed the surname Siiahan-Shah, (" King of kings.") 
 In 998 he assisted David, a Georgian prince, to defeat the 
 Mohammedans under Mamloon the Ameer. Died in 1020. 
 
 Kal a, ka'la, or Kal, a Sanscrit word, signifying " time," 
 [from kal,* to "count" or "reckon,"] and forming one of 
 the many names of the destroying god Siva, (which see.) 
 
 Kalauaga. See Kaliya. 
 
 Kalaun or Kalaoun. See KelAoon. 
 
 Kalb, de. See De Kai.ii. 
 
 Kalckreuth.vou, fon kSlk'roit', (Friedrich Adolf,) 
 Count, born at^Sangerhausen, in Prussia, in 1737, served 
 in the war of the Bavarian succession, and afterwards 
 in the campaigns of Holland and France. For his gallant 
 defence of Dantzic against the French, in 1807, he was 
 made field-marshal. In July, 1807, he concluded with 
 Talleyrand a treaty of peace between Prussia and 
 France. Died in 1818. 
 
 See L. G. Michaud, " Notices historiques stir le Marecha] Jour- 
 dan et les Generaux Kalckreuth et Kilmame." 
 
 * This word is related etymologically to the middle syllable of the 
 Latin " interaz/aris," denoting the reckoning of a day or space of 
 time between other days. The word "kalends" is not improbably 
 from the same root. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, j?, short; a, e, i, g, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nSt; good; moon; 
 
KALDI 
 
 1307 
 
 KALRAAT 
 
 Kaldi, kal'dee, (George,) a learned and eloquent 
 Hungarian Jesuit, born in Tirnau about 1572, was pro- 
 fessor of theology at Olmiitz. Died at Presburg in 1634. 
 He translated the Bible into the Hungarian language. 
 
 Kale. See Kai.k. 
 
 Kalee. See Kai.1. 
 
 Kaleigis, ka-lek'gis, (Demetrius,) a Greek general 
 and politician, born in Taganrog about 1802. He fought 
 for independence against the Turks. Abort 1843 he be- 
 came a general, and governor of Athens. He was min- 
 ister of war for about two years, (1854-56.) Died in 1867. 
 
 Kalf, kilt', written also' Kale, (Wh.iiki.m,) a distin- 
 guished Dutch painter of still life, born in Amsterdam 
 in 1630. He especially excelled in painting fruit, gold 
 and silver vessels, gems, crystals, etc Died in 1693. 
 
 Kail or Kalee, ka'lee, the feminine of Kala, (a name 
 of Siva,) forming the common appellation of Siva's con- 
 sot t in her destroying character. She is often called 
 Muha Kali, (ma-lil' ka'lee,) or the "Great Kali," and 
 Bhadra (b'hud'ra) Kali, (from Uhadra, one of the many 
 appellations of Siva,) and various other names. She is 
 represented sometimes with four and sometimes with 
 eight hands, and her person is decorated with a necklace 
 of human skulls. Her images are usually painted black 
 or of a dark colour. In her character of Maha Kali she 
 sometimes represents eternity. (See Coleman's "My- 
 thology of the Hindoos," p. 91.) As active or militant 
 virtue, she is called Durga; in her ordinary and more 
 peaceful character she is known as l'arvati, (i.e. the 
 "mountain goddess," in allusion to her dwelling on the 
 inaccessible heights of the Himalayas,) or as Devi, (da'- 
 vee,) which signifies the " goddess" far excellence. (See 
 Dukga, and Parvati.) 
 
 Kalidasa, Calldasa, ka'lT-tla'sa, or Kalidasas, 
 called "the Shakspeare of India," the most illustrious 
 of Hindoo poets, is supposed to have lived about 50 
 B.C., under the magnificent reign of Vikramaditya I. He 
 was the author of several dramas, of which the most 
 celebrated, "Sakoontala," (or "Sakontala,") was first 
 made known to the nations of the West through the prose 
 translation of Sir William Jones. The appearance of 
 this remarkable production excited a deep interest and 
 general admiration among the critics of Europe. Of its 
 author, Alexander Humboldt observes, "Tenderness in 
 the expression of feeling, and richness of creative fancy, 
 have assigned to him his lofty place among the poets of 
 all nations." Goethe expresses his admiration in a still 
 higher strain : 
 
 "Willst du die IilUthe des friilien, die Friiclite des spateren Jahres, 
 Wjllsl du was rei/t mid entziickt, wills! du was satlipt uud niihrt, 
 Willst in den Himmel, die Knle, mil einetn Nainen begreiicn? 
 Neon' ich Sakontala dich, und so ist alles gesagt."* 
 
 A new translation of Sakoontala, by Monier Williams, 
 the present professor of Sanscrit at Oxford, was pub- 
 lished at Hertford in 1856. In this version the metrical 
 portions of the original play were for the first time 
 rendered into English verse. Besides the drama already 
 referred to, there have come down to us two others by 
 Kalidasa, viz., " Vikrama and Urvasi," which abounds in 
 lyrical beauties, and a comedy entitled "Agnimitra and 
 Malavika." His two epic poems, " Raghuvansa" and 
 "Kumara-Sambhava," possess, with many individual 
 beauties, comparatively little merit, taken as a whole. 
 Among his lyrical poems, " Megha-dtita," or the " Cloud- 
 Messenger," is remarkable for its deep feeling and grace- 
 ful delineations of nature. The " Nalodava," a sort of 
 poetical romance, which, in spite of much that would 
 strike a European reader as ridiculous or absurd, has 
 many charming passages, is also commonly ascribed to 
 Kalidasa. 
 
 See the notice of Kalidasa prefixed to Professor Williams's 
 translation of " Sakoontala," already referred to : Wilson's " Iiuliin 
 Theatre," in which there are English translations ot the " Mcgha- 
 dula" and an analysis of " Agnimitra and Mslavlkft," aluo BROCK- 
 hals, " Conversation* Learikon." The " Nalodaya" has been trans- 
 lated info English verse by the Rev. W. Yatks, Calcutta, 1844. 
 
 • " Wouldst thou the blossoms of the early, the fruits of the later year, 
 
 Wouldst thou what charms a»d enraptures, what satisfies and nour- 
 ishes [the soul, J 
 
 Wouldst thou comprehend heaven and earth (in short] under one 
 name ? 
 
 When I name thee, O Sakoontala, then everything is said." 
 
 Kallya, ki'll-ya, [from the Sanscrit k&lti, " black," and 
 hence "terrible" or "deadly,"] called also Kalanaga, 
 (ka'la-na'ga,) in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a 
 terrible serpent destroyed by Krishna. As the latter is 
 by some identified with the Apollo of the Greeks, so 
 Kaliya is supposed to be the Python of classic mythology. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Kalkar. See Calcar. 
 
 Kalkar, kal'kar, (Christian Andreas Herman,) a 
 Danish theologian, born at Stockholm in 1802. He be- 
 came first minister of the diocese of Sceland in 1843. 
 Among his works is a " Manual of Exegesis," (2 vols., 
 1836-38.) 
 
 Kalkbrenner, kalk'bRen'ner, (Christian,) a Ger- 
 man musician and composer, born at Minden in 1755. 
 He composed dramatic and instrumental music, and 
 became chapel-master to the queen at Berlin in 1788. 
 Died in Paris in 1806. 
 
 See Fins, " Biographie Untverselle des Musiciens." 
 
 Kalkbrenner, (Friedrich,) a German musical com- 
 poser and pianist, born in Berlin in 1788, was a son of 
 the preceding. He visited Vienna in 1803, where he 
 studied under Albrechtsberger. He settled in Paris in 
 1824, and, in conjunction with Pleyel, founded one of the 
 most celebrated piano-manufactories of that city. As a 
 musician he holds the first rank, and his numerous com- 
 positions for the piano are highly esteemed. Died in 1849. 
 
 See L. Boivin, " Kalkbrenner," Paris, 18.12 ; I' etis, " Biographifl 
 Universelle des Musiciens:" " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Kal'ki, [modern Hindoo pron. kul'ki ; from the San- 
 scrit kal, to "count'' or "reckon,"] the only one of the 
 avatars of Vishnu yet to come. Vishnu, mounted on a 
 white horse, with a flaming sword in his hand, will bring 
 the present (or Kali) age to an end, to be followed by an 
 era of purity. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Kail, kal, (Abraham,) an eminent Danish scholar, 
 bom in Jutland in 1743, graduated at the University of 
 Copenhagen, where in 1778 he became professor of the 
 history and mythology of the North. In 1785 he founded 
 a society for the promotion of the study of foreign lite- 
 rature, and in 1808 was appointed historiographer of the 
 kingdoms of Denmark and Norway. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon." 
 
 Kallgreen. See Kellgr^n. 
 
 Kallias. See Cai.lias. 
 
 Kallicrates. See Cali.icrates. 
 
 Kallicratidas. See Callicratidas. 
 
 Kallimachus. See Callimachus. 
 
 Kallinicus. See Cai.i.inicus. 
 
 Kallimis. See Cai.linus. 
 
 Kallicvpe. See Calliope. 
 
 Kallippus. See Calliitus. 
 
 Kallisthenes. See Cai.usthenes. 
 
 Kallistratus. See Cailistratus. 
 
 Kalliwoda, kil'le-wo'da, (Joiiann Wenzei.,) a noted 
 violinist and composer, born at Prague about 1800. 
 
 Kalm, kalm, (Pehr,) a Swedish naturalist, born in 
 1715. In 1748, under the direction of the Academy of 
 Sciences in Stockholm, he sailed for North America, 
 where he remained about three years, prosecuting the 
 study of natural history. On his return to Sweden he 
 published an account of his travels, under the title of 
 "A Voyage to North America," (1753.) The first part 
 of this valuable work relates to Sweden, Norway, and 
 England. He was afterwards elected a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, and created knight 
 of the order of Vasa. He wrote several other scientific 
 works. Died in 1779. The genus Kalmia was named 
 in honour of him. ' 
 
 See J. L. OnliElius, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver P. Kalm," 1780; 
 A i.i- it-:,.., Supplement to Jocher's " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexi- 
 kon." 
 
 Kalo-Joannes. See Cai.o-Joannks. 
 
 Kali aat, van, vSn kal'rSt', (Aiiram,) a Dutch painter 
 and sculptor, bom at Dort in 1643. I lis paintings are 
 chiefly of flowers and fruits. Died in 1699. 
 
 Kalraat, van, (Bernard or Parent,) brother of the 
 preceding, born in 1650, studied under Albeit Cuvp. 
 He was distinguished for the elegant finish which he 
 
 ; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as 1; th as in this. ([jy-See Explanations, p. 23 J 
 
 € astt 
 
KALVBKO 
 
 1308 
 
 KANE 
 
 gave to his landscapes. He painted scenes on the Rhine. 
 Died in 1721. 
 
 See Dkscamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 Kalubko. See Kadluhek. 
 
 Kalypso. See Calypso. 
 
 Kamadeva, ka'ma-da'va, or Kamadeo, ka'ma-da'o, 
 [from the Sanscrit kdmi, "desire" or "love," and dh'd, 
 a "god,"] written also Camadeva, Camadeo, and 
 Camdeo, sometimes called simply Kama or Cama, 
 the god of love of the Hindoos, is said to be the son of 
 Maya, ("Illusion.) He is represented as a beautiful youth, 
 sometimes as riding on a parrot, and sometimes as con- 
 versing with his mother Maya, or his wife Red, (or Rati,) 
 {i.e. " Affection.") He has a bow made of sugar-cane, (or, 
 according to some authorities, of flowers.) The points 
 of his arrows are tipped with flowers. Vasanta (the 
 " Spring") is said to be his most intimate friend. The 
 most remarkable event in Kamadeva's history is his 
 encounter with Siva. It is related that he once pre- 
 sumed to aim one of his arrows at the destroying deity, 
 who with one glance of his eye reduced the love-god to 
 ashes. Since that catastrophe Kamadeva has ceased to 
 possess any corporeal form ; but his actual power seems 
 thereby to have been increased rather than diminished, 
 as he can now more easily, and with less suspicion, exert 
 his sway over the minds of men. 
 
 See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon ;" Sir William Jones's Works, 
 vol. vi., (or vol. xiii. of another edition.) 
 
 Kamadhenu, ka'ma-d'ha'noo, [i.e. "wish-cow," from 
 the Sanscrit k&md, "desire" or "wish," and dlienu, a 
 "cow,"] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a won- 
 derful cow, produced by the churning of the ocean, having 
 power to grant to those whom she favoured whatever 
 they might desire. She is also called Surabhi, (soo'- 
 ra-b'hi,) and is in fact a goddess of no mean pretensions, 
 and would appear to occupy nearly the same rank as 
 Vishnu's consort Lakshmi, who also was produced from 
 the churning of the ocean. It is not unusual for the 
 Hindoos, when praying for prosperity or happiness, to 
 say, " May Lakshmi, who resides among the gods, (or 
 "who reposes on the bosom of Vishnu,") become a boon- 
 granting cow to me." (See Lakshmi, and KCrma.) 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Kaniala or Kernala, [modern Hindoo pron. kiim'- 
 a-la'; from kdmdld, the "lotus," which is in its turn 
 derived from kdmd, "beauty," "radiance,"] one of the 
 names of Lakshml, (which see.) 
 
 Kambyses. See Camryses. 
 
 Kamehamelia (ka-ina-ha'ma-ha') III., King of 
 Hawaii, or the Sandwich Islands, was born about 181 7 ; 
 died in 1854. 
 
 Kamehamelia IV., a son of the preceding, born in 
 1833, was educated by Protestant missionaries, lie 
 visited Europe in 1852, and succeeded his father in 1S54. 
 
 Kamel. See Camelli. 
 
 Kamenski, ka-men'skee, (Count Michael Fedoro- 
 VITCH,) a Russian, born about 1735, was created field- 
 marshal by the emperor Alexander in 1802. Four years 
 later he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army 
 sent against the French, but was soon after succeeded 
 by Benningsen. He died, or was killed, in 1809. 
 
 Karnes, Lord. See Home, (Henry.) 
 
 Kam-Hi. See Khang-Hke. 
 
 Kampen, van, (Jacob.) See Campen. 
 
 Kampen, van, van kam'pen, (Nicolaas Godfried,) 
 a Dutch historian, b'orn at Haarlem in 1776. In 1829 
 he was professor of Dutch history and literature in Am- 
 sterdam. Among his works may be mentioned " His- 
 tory of the French Ascendency in Europe," (8 vols., 1815 
 -23,) and "Geographical and Statistical Account of the 
 Kingdom of the Netherlands," (1837.) Died in 1839. 
 
 See Muli.er, " Leven van N. Kampen," 1840; Van dkn Brink, 
 *' N. G. van Kampen," etc., 1839. 
 
 Kampenhausen, kam'pen-how'zen, (Balthasar,) 
 Baron, born near Riga, in Russia, in 1772, wrote several 
 political and topographical works. Died in 1823. 
 
 Kampfer or Kaempfer, keinp'fer, (Engelhrecht,) 
 an eminent German botanist and traveller, was born at 
 Lemgo in 1651. He studied medicine and the languages. 
 In 1683 he accompanied the Swedish ambassador to 
 Persia. Having passed into the service of the Dutch 
 
 East India Company as surgeon, he visited Bengal, 
 Java, Sumatra, and Japan. He returned to Europe in 
 1693, and published an important work entitled "Amoe- 
 nitates Exoticas," (1712,) which contains the results of 
 his researches in Persia, etc. He also wrote a valuable 
 " History of Japan and Siam," which was published by 
 Sir Hans Sloane in English, (1727.) It was also pub- 
 lished in German in 1777. Died at Lemgo in 1716. 
 
 See Hirschjng, " Historisch-literarisches Haulbuch ;" "Noq- 
 velle Biographie G^n^rale." 
 
 Karnphuizen. See Camphuysen. 
 
 Kamptz, von, fon kampts, (Karl Ai.hkecht Chris- 
 TOPH Heinrich,) an able Prussian statesman, born at 
 Mecklenburg in 1769, was successively appointed min- 
 ister of the interior and of the police, and in 1830 min- 
 ister of justice. Died in 1849. He published "Civil 
 Law of the Duchy of Mecklenburg," and " Contributions 
 to Public and International Law." 
 
 Kanada, (the name of a sage.) See Kasyapa. 
 
 Kanaris, ka'na-ris, (Constantine,) a famous naval 
 hero of modern Greece, born in the island of Ipsara 
 about 1790. In 1822 he blew up the Turkish admiral's 
 ship in the channel of Chios, and in 1824 saved the island 
 of Samos by burning a large Turkish frigate and several 
 transport-ships which were destined to attack it. In 
 1S27 he represented Ipsara in the Greek National Con- 
 vention, and in 1848 was appointed minister of the marine 
 and president of the cabinet. He resigned in 1855. 
 
 See A. Sourzo, " Histoire de la Revolution Grecque." 
 
 Kaudace. See Can dace. 
 
 Kandaules. See Candaui.es. 
 
 Kaudeh Rao, kan'deh ra'o, [perhaps from the San- 
 scrit kaitda, a "horse," and rao, a modern Hindoo word, 
 signifying "prince,"] written also Kandarahu, the 
 name of an avatar of Siva, in which that god is always 
 represented on horseback. (See Siva.) Kandeh Rao 
 is worshipped chiefly among the Mahrattas. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Kandjatou. See Kanjatoo. 
 
 Kaudler, kant'ler, (Johann Joachim,) a German 
 artist and modeller in porcelain, born in Saxony in 1706. 
 He worked at Meissen. Died in 1776. 
 
 Kane, (Ei.isha Kent,) M.D., a distinguished Ameri- 
 can explorer, born in Philadelphia on the 20th of Feb- 
 ruary, 1820. He was the son of Judge John K. Kane. 
 He studied medicine, and graduated in the University 
 of Pennsylvania in 1842, on which occasion he wrote an 
 inaugural thesis on " Kyestein." In 1843 he sailed to 
 China with Commodore Parker, as surgeon or physician 
 to the embassy. He visited India, Ceylon, and the Phil- 
 ippine Isles, and was impelled by his adventurous spirit 
 into several perilous enterprises. In 1845 he made an 
 excursion to the Himalaya Mountains, ascended the 
 Nile to Nubia, and traversed Greece on foot. He re- 
 turned home in 1846. He served in the Mexican war in 
 1847. In May, 1850, he sailed as surgeon to the expedi- 
 tion which Lieutenant De Haven conducted in search of 
 Sir John Franklin. He published, in 1S54, " The United 
 States Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John Frank- 
 lin." He commanded a second expedition sent out for 
 the same purpose, and sailed from New York in the 
 Advance in May, 1853. He failed to find any traces of 
 Franklin, returned home in October, 1855, and related 
 the adventures and sufferings of his party in his "Arctic 
 Explorations," (2 vols., 1856.) In this voyage he had 
 discovered the existence of an open Polar sea. He re- 
 ceived a gold medal from the Royal Geographical Society 
 of London. To recruit his failing health, he made a voy- 
 age to England in October, 1856, and passed thence to the 
 West Indies. He died at Havana in February, 1857. 
 
 See William Elder, " Biography of Klisha Kent Katie," 1S58: 
 Schmuckek, " Lite ol Klisha Kent Kane;" " North British Review" 
 for February, 1857. 
 
 Kane, (Sir Robert,) M.D., a distinguished chemist, 
 born in Dublin in 1810. After filling professorships in 
 several scientific societies, he was appointed in 1849 
 president of Queen's College, Cork. He had previously 
 been knighted by the lord lieutenant. He wrote various 
 works on chemistry, pharmacy, and other sciences. 
 
 Kane, (Thomas I..,) a general, brother of Dr. E. K. 
 Kane, was born in Philadelphia about 1822. He was sent 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
KANJATOO 
 
 1309 
 
 KAO-TSOONG 
 
 on an important mission to the Mormon insurgents of 
 Utah in 1858. He was wounded in a battle near Har- 
 risonburg, Virginia, in June, 1862. 
 
 Kanjatoo, Kandjatou, or Kanjatu, l<an-ja-too', 
 fifth Mongol sovereign of the dynasty of Jengis Khan, 
 began to reign over Persia A.D. 1291. A conspiracy 
 having been formed against him by his nobles, he was 
 killed in 1295. 
 
 Eaune, kan'neh, (Johann Arnold,) a learned and 
 eccentric German writer, born at Detmold in 1773, 
 studied philology and theology at Gottingen. In 1818 
 he became professor of Oriental literature at Erlangen, 
 where he died in 1824. Among his various works we 
 may name "Anthology of Greek Epigrams," ("Florile- 
 gium Epigrammatum Graecorum,") "System of Indian 
 Myths," and " Biblical Researches." 
 
 Kannegiesser, kan'neh-gees'ser, (Gottlieb Hein- 
 rich,) a German medical writer, born at Gotha in 1712; 
 died at Kiel in 1792. 
 
 Kannegiesser, (Karl Friedrich Ludwig,) a Ger- 
 man scholar, born at Wendemark in 1781, is known for 
 his numerous and excellent translations into German. 
 Among these are the dramas of Beaumont and Fletcher, 
 Dante's "Divine Comedy," extracts from the writings 
 of Byron, Madame de Stael, Mickiewicz, and other cele- 
 brated authors. He also made translations from Horace, 
 Sappho, and Anacreon, and published original dramas 
 entitled "Mirza" and "Dorothea." 
 
 Kansa. See Krishna. 
 
 Kant, (Immanuel,) one of the profoundest metaphy- 
 sicians that have ever lived, the founder of the Critical 
 (popularly called the Transcendental) school of philoso- 
 phy in Germany, was born at Konigsberg, April 26, 1724. 
 His father was a saddler, and is said to have been of 
 Scottish extraction. Both his parents are represented 
 as having been endued with a severe and inflexible vir- 
 tue ; and to the influence of their precept and example 
 must be ascribed, in no small measure, the pure moral 
 character and that profound respect for moral obliga- 
 tion which Kant exhibited through the whole of his 
 life. Having gone through a course at the gymnasium, 
 (the Collegium p'redericianum,) he entered in 1740 the 
 university of his native city. Here he commenced the 
 study of theology, but soon abandoned it for other pur- 
 suits, and devoted his attention to the natural sciences, 
 mathematics, and philosophy. On leaving the university 
 he maintained himself for several years as a private tutor. 
 During this period he published his first work," Thoughts 
 on the True Estimation of the Living Powers," (" Ge- 
 danken von der wahren Schatzung der lebendigen 
 Krafte.") About 1755 he began to give lectures on 
 logic, physics, metaphysics, and mathematics. In 1762 
 he was offered the professorship of poetry in the Uni- 
 versity of Konigsberg ; but he declined the position, on 
 the ground that he had not the proper qualifications. 
 He had already established his reputation as an original 
 and profound thinker, when at length, in 1770, he was 
 appointed to the chair of logic and metaphysics in the 
 University of Konigsberg. When he entered upon his 
 professorship, he delivered a discourse on the World of 
 the Senses and that of the Understanding, ("De Mundi 
 sensibilis et intelligibilis Formi et Principiis,") containing 
 the germs of the philosophical system which he after- 
 wards developed in his great work entitled "Critique 
 of Pure Reason," (" Kritik der reinen Vernunft,") first 
 published in 1781. He had previously, in his work on 
 "Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens," 
 ("Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theori* des Him- 
 mels," 1755,) in which he may be said to have anticipated 
 the discovery of the planet Uranus, given proof of his 
 sagacity in questions relating to physical science. Among 
 his various other works may l>e named "Observations 
 upon the Sentiment of the' Beautiful and Sublime," 
 (" Beobachtungen iilwr das Gefuhl des Schbnen und Kr- 
 halienen," 1764,) "Critique of Practical Reason," ("Kritik 
 der praktischen Vernunft," 1790,)— that is, reason con- 
 sidered in its application to our moral conduct, — "Cri- 
 tique of the Faculty of Judging," ("Kritik der Urthcils- 
 kraft," 1793,) and his essay "On a Plan f<>r an Everlasting 
 Peace," ("turn ewigtn FriedtH?') (1795) YavX died 
 February 12, 1804, having never, it is said, in the whole 
 
 course of his life travelled above seven miles from hU 
 native city. Although his writings embrace a great va- 
 riety of subjects, his fame rests chiefly upon his achieve- 
 ments as a metaphysician. As a deep and close thinker 
 he has perhaps never been equalled.* Our limits will 
 not permit us to give even an outline of the Kantian 
 system of philosophy, which could only be rendered 
 intelligible in an extensive treatise. It will be sufficient 
 here to observe that Kant's great aim was to determine 
 the laws and limits of the intellect of man, and thus to 
 guard, on the one hand, agamst the arrogant dogmatism 
 of those who overestimate, and, on the other, against 
 the absurd skepticism of those who underestimate, the 
 powers of the human mind. He does not pretend to 
 have made any important discoveries respecting ques- 
 tions which belong properly to religion, (such, for ex- 
 ample, as the immortality of the soul, the moral attributes 
 of the Deity, etc.,) but he claims that the great points 
 of faith are not only undisturbed by his system, but are 
 rendered more secure against the attacks of those who 
 use their reputation for philosophic insight to give weight 
 to arguments against religion, in questions where, from 
 the necessary laws of the human intellect, the profoundest 
 philosopher can know no more than the great mass of 
 mankind. " Only by this means," (i.e. by a critique 
 determining the laws and limits of the human reason,) 
 says he, " can the roots of materialism, fatalism, atheism, 
 . . . be cut off;" and he proposes in this manner "to 
 make an end for all future time of all objections against 
 morality and religion, by presenting the clearest proofs 
 of the ignorance of their assailants." It is claimed by 
 some of the admirers of Kant (indeed, he himself sug- 
 gested the parallel) that he performed for mental phi- 
 losophy a service similar to that which his countryman 
 Copernicus performed for astronomy. As the latter may 
 be said to have determined the relative importance as 
 well as the true position of the earth in the solar system, 
 so the former has determined the proper limits and true 
 position of the human intellect In relation to the objects 
 of knowledge ; and as Copernicus has demonstrated that 
 many of the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies 
 are not real, but caused by the motion of the earth, (the 
 standpoint of the observer,) so Kant has shown that 
 many mental phenomena are to be explained, not by 
 referring them, as most philosophers have done, to in- 
 dependent external causes, but to those essential laws 
 which regulate the movements of the mind itself. 
 
 For an excellent popular notice of the influence exerted 
 by Kant's philosophy, the reader is referred to De Quin- 
 cey's chapter on German Literature in the volume of his 
 works entitled "Life and Manners." He will also find 
 many interesting observations on Kant and his writings 
 in Madame de Stael's "Germany," Part III. chap. vi. 
 
 See, also, F. Boutehwek, "I. Kant, em Denkmal," 1S04; F. 
 W. ScHUBKRT, "I. Kant's Biographie," etc., 1842 ; Jachmann. "I. 
 Kant, geschildert in Briefen," etc., 1804; Borowski, " Darstelhmg 
 des Lebens und Characters I. Kant's, 1804: F. T. Rinck, " An- 
 sichtt-n aus I. Kant's Leben," 1805; Amand Saintes, " Histoire 
 de la Vie et de la Philosophic de Kant," 1844 ; J. W'tt.lM. " Histnire 
 de la Philosophic AUemande depuis Kant jusqu'a Hegel," Paris, 
 4 vols., 1846 ; M. V. Cousin, " Kant dans les dernieres Anne*es de sa 
 Vie," 1857; Hasse, " Letzte Aeusseruncen Kant's," 1804; Wasi- 
 anski, " Immanuel Kant," etc.. 1M04; F. Hokfek, article in the 
 "Nouvelle Biographic tleneYale;" Hkugk, " Prose Writers of Ger- 
 many;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1827, (by DeQuin- 
 cey.) and August, 1830 ; " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1803. 
 
 Kantacuzenus. See Cantacuzenus. 
 
 Kantemir. See Cantkmir. 
 
 Kao-Tsoo or Kao-Tsou, ka'o tsoo, the name of 
 several emperors of China, of whom one reigned in the 
 seventh and two others in the tenth century. 
 
 Kao-Tsoong or Kao-Tsoung (ka'o tsoong) I., of 
 the dynasty of Tang, succeeded his father, Thai- T foung, 
 on the imperial throne of China about 648 A.n. He was 
 a wise and just ruler, and enacted many good laws, 
 lie reduced the Khan of the Turks to complete subjec- 
 tion. Died in 684. 
 
 See Mailla, "Histoire generale de la Chine;" Pautimer, 
 "Chine ancienne." 
 
 • M. Stapler, author of the article on Kant in the " Hiographie 
 Universale," cails him "the tfoynd thinker with whom tin 
 
 hittory of the human mind has mane us acquainted," (*' le penseur 
 lc DM profomi que nous faase connaitre 1'hintoire de I'esprit hu- 
 man). ") 
 
 c as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 1 as ■; *h as in this. (Jt^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KAO-TSVV-OOTEE 
 
 1310 
 
 KARSTEN 
 
 Kao-Tsoo-Ootee or Kao-Tsou-Outi, kj'o-tsoo'oo'- 
 tee, called also Soong-Ootee or Soung-Outi, soong- 
 oo'te, Emperor of China, and founder of the dynasty of 
 Soong, was born about A.D. 355. By his intrigues and 
 military skill he reduced many of the rival chiefs to 
 subjection, and, after putting the emperor and his son 
 to death, ascended the imperial throne. Died in 422. 
 
 Kap'I-la or Capila, [Hindoo pron. kupl-la,] an In- 
 dian philosopher, regarded as an avatar of Siva, was 
 the founder of a celebrated sect named Sankhya, and of 
 a philosophic system called the Sankhya philosophy, 
 supposed to have been the germ or commencement of 
 Booddhism. The Sankhya philosophy was a system of 
 rationalism pushed to the borders of atheism. (See 
 Vasudeva.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale," under " Capila." 
 
 Kapnist, kap'nist, (Vasili Vasilievitch,) a cele- 
 brated lyric poet and dramatist, born in Russia in 1756. 
 His translation of the Odes of Horace first fixed his 
 reputation as a man of letters. He was an intimate 
 friend of the poet Derzhavin, and a member of the Im- 
 perial Academy of Saint Petersburg. Among his works 
 are the comedy of " Iabeda," and an " Essay upon the 
 Odvssey." Died in 1813. 
 
 Kapodistria. See Capo d'Istrias. 
 
 Kara-George. See Czerni-George. 
 
 Kara-Moustapha. See Cara-Mustafa. 
 
 Kara-Yusuf. See Cara-Yoosef. 
 
 Karajitch, Karadjitch, or Karadscnitsch, ka-ra'- 
 jitsh, a learned Servian, was born near Losnitza in 1787. 
 Having fled to Vienna in 1813 to escape the cruelties 
 of the Turks, his attention was turned to the national 
 ballad-poetry of his country, said to exceed in richness 
 and extent that of almost every other nation. His 
 collection was issued in Vienna in 1814, under the title 
 of" Servian National Songs." He published a Servian 
 Grammar, a Servian-and-German Dictionary, and various 
 other works. 
 
 See Bowring, " Servian Poetry ;" Jungmann, "History of Bo- 
 hemian Literature." 
 
 Karamzin or Karamsin, ka-rim-zeen' or ka ram- 
 zin', (Nikolai Mikhaei.ovitch,) one of the most emi- 
 nent of Russian historians, was born in the province of 
 Orenburg in December, 1765, and was educated in Mos- 
 cow. In 1789 he commenced a tour through England, 
 France, Switzerland, and other countries of Europe. On 
 his return he published " Letters of a Travelling Rus- 
 sian." He afterwards issued various literary productions, 
 which were written in a finished and elegant style. He 
 was one of the editors of the "European Messenger," a 
 literary journal. In 1803 he was appointed historiogra- 
 pher of Russia, and the same year commenced his great 
 work, the " History of the Russian Empire," (11 vols., 
 1815-24.) He did not live to finish the work, which ends 
 about the year 1610. No work in the Russian language 
 has obtained greater popularity. The first edition, of 
 eight volumes, brought the author 100,000 rubles. The 
 emperor Alexander created him councillor of state and 
 knight of the order of Saint Anne ; and after the death of 
 the historian his widow received from the same monarch 
 an annual pension of 50,000 rubles. " The History of 
 the Russian Empire" has been translated into French, 
 German, and Polish. Died in May, 1826. 
 
 See Depping, notice of Karamzin in the " Revue Encyclop^dique ;" 
 Prince A. Galitzin, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'- 
 rale ;" " British and Foreign Review" for September, 1828 ; " Monthly 
 Review." vol. xci., 1820, (Appendix;) " Foreign Quarterly Review" 
 for September, 1828. 
 
 Karburis. See Carburis. 
 
 Karim or Kareem. See Kereem. 
 
 Karl, (Friedrich August,) Duke of Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz, born at Hanover in 1785. Having distinguished 
 himself in several actions against the French, he was ap- 
 pointed lieutenant-general by the King of Prussia in 1813. 
 He entered Paris at the head of the royal guard in 1815. 
 In 1825 he became a general of infantry and president 
 of the council of state. Died in 1837. 
 
 Karl Albrecht, Elector of Bavaria. See Charles 
 VII., Emperor. 
 
 Karl Alexander, Duke of Wurtemberg, born in 1684, 
 was the successor of Ludwijr Eberhard. He was an 
 ally of the emperor Leopold in the war of the Spanish 
 
 succession. He distinguished himself at the battle of 
 Turin in 1706, defended Landau against Marshal Villari 
 in 1713, and obtained the rank of field-marshal. Died 
 in 1737. 
 
 Kail der Fiinfte. See Charles V. 
 
 Karl der Giosse. See Charlemagne. 
 
 Karl Eugen, (oi-gan',) or Charles Eugene, a son 
 of Karl Alexander, noticed above, was born in 1728, 
 and became Duke of Wiirtemberg in 1737. He pro- 
 moted commerce, arts, and agriculture, and founded the 
 university called Carolina, at Stuttgart. Died in 1793. 
 
 Karloman. See Carloman. 
 
 Karlstadt. See Carlstadt. 
 
 Karmarsch, kaR'niaush, (Karl,) a German savant, 
 and director of the Polytechnic School at Hanover, born 
 at Vienna in 1803. He wrote " First Sketches of Me- 
 chanical Technology," and other scientific works. 
 
 Karmat, Karmath, Carmath, kaK'niit, or Kar- 
 mathi, kaR'ma-tee, called also Hamdan, ham-din', the 
 founder of a fanatical and numerous sect which made 
 great ravages in the Arabian empire in the ninth cen- 
 tury. He attempted to establish a community of property, 
 and taught a contempt for religion and morality. His 
 followers were called Karmatians (Carmatians) or Kar- 
 mattians. Died about 900 A.D. 
 
 See D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheque Orientale." 
 
 Karneades. See Carneadks. 
 
 Karnkowski, kaRn-kov'skee, written also Karn- 
 cov, kaRn'kov, or"Karnowski, (Stanislas,) a distin- 
 guished prelate, born in Poland about 1525. In 1581 
 he was created Archbishop of Gnesen and Primate of 
 Poland. He was a liberal patron of learning, and a 
 successful promoter of reforms among the priests. He 
 wrote a " History of the Interregnum in Poland," and 
 several other works". Died in 1603. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Karoly, ka'rol, written also Karoli, (Jasper,) a 
 Protestant minister, who lived in Hungary about 1580. 
 He was distinguished for his knowledge of philosophy, 
 theology, and philology. He produced a valuable trans- 
 lation of the Bible from the original Hebrew into the 
 Hungarian, (1589.) 
 
 Karpinski, kaR-pen'skee or kaR-pin'skee, (Francis,) 
 a Polish poet, born in Galicia about 1760. He wrote a 
 tragedy entitled "Judyta," and a number of popular 
 songs and idyls. Died in 1823. 
 
 Karpinski, kar-pen'skee, (Hyacinth,) a Russian 
 theological writer, bom in Ukraine in 1721 ; died in 
 Moscow in 1798. 
 
 Karpocrates. See Carpocrates. 
 
 Karr, fetR, (Jean Baptiste Alphonse,) a popular 
 French novelist, born at Munich in 1808, was a s.on of 
 Henri Karr, a pianist. He produced in 1832 a novel 
 entitled " Sons les Tilleuls," in which the public admired 
 the mixture of irony and sentiment, of fancy and good 
 sense. About 1837 he became editor of the " Figaro," 
 and of a satirical monthly periodical called "The Wasps," 
 (" Les Guepes,") Among his numerous novels are " F'a 
 dieze,"(i834,) "Vendredi Soir," (1835,) and "La Famille 
 Alain," (1848.) He also wrote an ingenious work on 
 flowers and gardens, "Voyage autour de mon Jardin," 
 (2 vols., 1845.) 
 
 See "Revue des Deux Mondes," February, 1842; Ci.emknt nit 
 Rts, " Portraits a la Piume," 1853 ; " Fraser's Magazine'' for May, 
 1851, and February, 1854: " Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1S52; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Karsch, kaRsh, or Karschin, kaRsh'ln, (Anna 
 Luise,) a German poetess, whose original name was. 
 DURBACH, was born near Schwiebus in 1722. After 
 living a long time in poverty and obscurity, she visited 
 Berlin, where she was patronized by Gleim and Men- 
 delssohn. Her "Select Poems," published in 1764, were 
 very favourably received, and procured for her the title 
 of "the German Sappho." Died in 1 791. 
 
 See L. von Klkuke, " Lebeuslauf der Karschin," 1702; Hir- 
 sching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Karsten, kau'sten, (Dietrich Ludwig Gustav,) a 
 German mineralogist, born at Biitzow in 1768. He wrote 
 many able treatises on mineralogy. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Leopold von Buch, "Lobrede auf Karsten," in tbe " Ab- 
 handlungen der Berliner Akademie," 1814; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate." 
 
 a, e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat ; inet;jiot; gd"od: moon; 
 
KARSTEN 
 
 1311 
 
 KAULBACH 
 
 Karsten, (Fka.nz Christian Lorenz,) a German 
 agriculturist and writer, an uncle of the preceding, was 
 born at Butzow in 1751 ; died in 1S29. 
 
 Karsten, (Karl JfOHANN Bernhardt an eminent 
 Prussian mineralogist, son of the preceding, was born at 
 Butzow in 1782. He was appointed privy councillor of 
 mines in the ministry of the interior in 1819. He pub- 
 lished a treatise " On the Carbonaceous Substances of 
 the Mineral Kingdom," (1826,) a "System of Metallurgy," 
 (5 vols., 1832,) a " Philosophy of Chemistry," (1843,) an( ' 
 other important works. In his peculiar department of 
 science Karsten occupied the highest rank. Died in 1853. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Kartlkeya, kaR-tl-ka'ya, written less correctly Car- 
 ticeya or Cartikiya, otherwise named Skan'da, a 
 son of Siva and Parvati, and brother of Ganesa, is the 
 Hindoo god of war and commander of the celestial armies. 
 He is sometimes called AgnibhOs or Agnihhu'va, 
 ("born of Agni" or Fire,) Srimana, and many other 
 names. One of his greatest exploits was the destruction 
 of the mighty giant Tripurasura, who had acquired such 
 power that Indra and the other gods trembled for their 
 dominion. 
 
 See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Kartikiya. See Kartikeya. 
 
 Kashyapa. See Kasyapa. 
 
 Kassiopeia. See Cassiopeia. 
 
 Kastner or Kaestner, kest'ner, (Abraham Gott- 
 Hki.k,) an eminent German mathematician, astronomer, 
 and poet, born at Leipsic in September, 1 719. He be- 
 came assistant professor of mathematics at Leipsic in 
 1746, and obtained the chair of mathematics and physics 
 at Gottingen in 1756. In 1762 he succeeded Tobias 
 Mayer as director of the Observatory at Gottingen. He 
 wrote, besides numerous works on mathematics and 
 astronomy, and witty epigrams, a " History of Mathe- 
 matics from the Revival of Science to the End of the 
 Eighteenth Century," (in German, 4 vols., 1 796-1800.) 
 Died in June, 1800. 
 
 See "Vita Kaestneri," by himself, Leipsic, 1787; Kirsten, "De 
 A. G. Kseslnero," 1787 ; C. G. Heyns, " Llogium Kjestneri," 1801 ; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Kastner, kast'ner, (Karl Wii.hei.m Gottlop.,) a 
 German physician and naturalist, born at Greifenberg, 
 in Pomerania, in 1783. In 1821 he was professor of 
 chemistry and medicine at Erlangen. He wrote, among 
 other treatises, " Outlines of Physics and Chemistry," 
 (1821,) and a "Manual of Meteorology," (3 vols., 1823- 
 30.) Died in 1857. 
 
 Kas'ya-pa or CasyapSL, (modern Hindoo pron. 
 kiis'ya-pa,) [etymology obscure ; perhaps from the San- 
 scrit kas or kac, to "shine,"] written also Kashyapa 
 and Kacyapa, in th« Hindoo mythology, the name of 
 a celebrated sage (Rishi) or demigod, the father (by 
 Aditi) of the Suras, including Indra, and (by Diti) of 
 the Asuras, or giants. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon :" Monies Williams, "Transla- 
 tion of Sakoontala," (by KalidAsa.) 
 
 Kasyapa, kas'ya-pa, called also Kan'a-da, a cele- 
 brated Hindoo sage or philosopher, was a son of the 
 preceding. 
 
 Kate, Ten, ten ka'teh, (Lambert,) a Dutch clergyman, 
 who lived about 1720. He is known for his valuable 
 grammar of the Dutch language, (Amsterdam, 1 723.) He 
 also wrote "On the Connection between the Gothic and 
 Dutch Languages," and a "Life of Jesus Christ." 
 
 See Sax, "Onomasticon." 
 
 Ka'ter, (Hk.nry,) F.R.S., a skilful mathematician, 
 born in Bristol, England, in 1777, was educated in the 
 Royal Military College in Sandhurst. He was distin- 
 guished for his investigations of the principles of reflect- 
 ing telescopes ; for his experiments to determine the 
 exact length of the seconds-pendulum ; for his important 
 advice and improvements on measures and weights ; and 
 especially for his invention of the floating collimator, an 
 instrument for adjusting the telescope. In 1814, when 
 the emperor Alexander of Russia visited England, Kater 
 was decorated by him with the order of Saint Anne. 
 He wrote several mathematical treatises. Died in 1835. 
 
 Katona, kot'o-noh, (Stephen,) an eminent Hungarian 
 scholar and historian, was born at Papa in 1732, and 
 
 became a Jesuit at the age of eighteen. He afterwards 
 filled the chairs of poetry, rhetoric, and history in the 
 University of Buda. Died in 181 1. His chief produc- 
 tion is a History of Hungary, written in Latin, (" Historia 
 critica Regum Stirpis Austriacae," 41 vols., l"]<)$ et seq.) 
 This is regarded as the most valuable and accurate 
 work upon the subject. It closes with the year 1801. 
 Katona was also the author of several other historical 
 works, in the Latin and Hungarian languages. 
 
 See G. Fejek, " Memoria S. Katonas," 1812. 
 
 Katt, von, fon kit, a Prussian officer, born in 1681, 
 was an intimate friend of Prince Frederick, afterwards 
 Frederick the Great. For having aided him in his 
 attempt to escape to England, Katt was executed before 
 the prison-windows of the prince. 
 
 Kauer, kow'er, (Ferdinand,) a German musical com- 
 poser, born in Moravia in 1751. His works, amounting 
 in all to nearly two hundred, consist of church music, 
 operas, symphonies, concertos, etc. Died in 1831. 
 
 Kftuffmann, kowf man, ( Maria Angelica, ) the 
 daughter of a portrait-painter, was born at Coire, in 
 Switzerland, about 1741. After studying painting in 
 Italy, she went under trie patronage of Lady \V4ntw0rth 
 to England, where in a short time she gained consider- 
 able celebrity in her art. Her popularity was probably 
 as much due to her accomplished manners and her supe- 
 rior education as to any excellence which she possessed 
 as an artist. In 1781 she was married to Antonio Zucchi, 
 a Venetian painter, whom she accompanied to Italy in 
 the following year. She still retained her maiden name 
 of Kauffmann. Died at Rome in 1807. 
 
 See G. de Rossi, "Vita di Angelica Kauffmann," iSto; A. Fr. 
 Leon de Waillv, "Angelica Kauffmann," Paris, 2 vols., 1838; 
 Konijnknburg, " Kunstverdiensten van A. Kauffmann en Raphael," 
 1810; "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Kaufmann, kowf'man, (Johann Gottfried,) a Ger- 
 man mechanician, born at Chemnitz, in Saxony, in 1 752, 
 was the inventor of several very ingenious instruments, 
 among which was a flute- and harp-clock, {Floten- und 
 Harfenuhr,) which was purchased by the Elector Fred- 
 erick Augustus. His son Frederick, born in 1782, 
 invented the automaton trumpeter and other similar 
 works. Died in 1818. 
 
 Kaulbach. kowl'baK, (Wii.hei.m,) one of the most 
 eminent painters of recent times, was born in the princi- 
 pality of Waldeck, Germany, in 1805. Though destined 
 by his father to be an artist, he showed little inclination 
 for painting, until a collection of engravings illustrating 
 Schiller's tragedies fell into his hands and gave the first 
 impulse to his genius. He began his studies under 
 Cornelius at the Academy of Dusseldorf about 1822, and 
 in 1829 finished his picture of the "Mad-House,"("Irren- 
 haus,") a work displaying such originality and power as 
 entitled him at once to a place among great painters. 
 About this time he executed the frescos of "Apollo and 
 the Muses," in the Odeon, and "Cupid and Psyche," in 
 the palace of Duke Max, at Munich. In 1837 he com- 
 pleted his " Battle of the Huns," founded on the tradition 
 of the combat before the gates of Rome, between the 
 Romans and the spirits of the Huns who were slain, 
 which, rising in the air, continued the fight. This won- 
 derful production, so strange and unique in its character, 
 was received with general applause, and is justly re- 
 garded as a miracle of art. His second great historical 
 piece, "The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus," was 
 finished in 1838; and a copy of it, executed in oil at the 
 request of King Louis of Bavaria, occupies a conspicuous 
 place in the Pinakothek. Kaulbach also illustrated, 
 somewhat in the style of Hogarth, Schiller's " Criminal 
 from Lost Honour,'"' Goethe's " Faust," and " Renard the 
 Fox," (" Reineke Fuchs :") the last displays exquisite 
 humour. Besides the above-mentioned works, he h ts 
 painted a number of portraits, and furnished illustrations 
 for Shakspeare and other poets. Kaulbach excels in the 
 highest qualities of his art, and has been eminently suc- 
 cessful in blending in his style the ideal and symbolic 
 with the real. He is director of the Academy of Arts at 
 Munich, and is a member of nearly all the similar institu- 
 tions of Europe. 
 
 See A. Raczinski, "Histoire de 1'Art moderne en Allemagne;" 
 H. Fcirtoul, "De l'Art en Allemagne;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate. " 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/' G, H, K.gutturaJ; N, nasal; k, trilled; 3 as 1; th as in this. (B^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KAUNITZ 
 
 I 31 2 
 
 KEANE 
 
 Kaunitz, von, fon kow'nits, (Wenzel Anton,) 
 Prince, a celebrated Austrian statesman and diploma- 
 tist, born at Vienna in February, 1711. After travelling 
 in England, France, and Italy, he was appointed by the 
 emperor Charles VI. aulic councillor, (1735.) On the 
 accession of Maria Theresa he was made in 1745 minis- 
 ter-plenipotentiary to Charles of Lorraine, Governor of 
 the Netherlands. ' In 1748 he was a member of the Peace 
 Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle, and was soon after created 
 minister of state and knight of the Golden Fleece. 
 Having been sent as ambassador to France in 1750, he 
 negotiated the secret alliance between that country and 
 Austria. He was soon after appointed chancellor of 
 state and chancellor of Italy and the Netherlands. He 
 enjoyed the unbounded confidence of the empress, to 
 whose service he was devoted, and the principal measures 
 of her government are to be ascribed to his influence. 
 He acted a prominent part in the ecclesiastical reforms 
 of Joseph II. The court of Rome, offended by these 
 innovations, called Kaunitz "the heretical minister," 
 ("il ministro eretico.") For a long time he was consid- 
 ered as the oracle of diplomacy, and exercised such an 
 influence over the direction of affairs that he was jest- 
 ingly called "The Coachman of Europe." Kaunitz was 
 a generous patron of learning and the arts, and was 
 himself an accomplished scholar. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV;" Grimm, "Correspon- 
 dance;" Obekmayer, "Trailer am Grabe des W. A. Fiirsten von 
 Kaunitz," 1794; "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Kausler, von, fon kows'ler, (Franz,) a German 
 officer and military writer, born at Stuttgart in 1794, 
 served in the campaigns against the French from 181 2 
 to 1815. He published a "History of the Wars of all 
 Nations and Times," (5 vols., 1826-32,) and a " Life of 
 Prince Eugene of Savoy," (2 vols., 1839.) Died in 1848. 
 
 Kavanagh, ktv'a-naH. (Julia,) a distinguished writer 
 of tales and romances, born in the county of Tippe- 
 rary, Ireland, in 1824. In 1848 she published "Made- 
 leine," a tale from real life, which was very successful, 
 and her romance of "Nathalie" (1851) was still more 
 admired. She also wrote a biographical work entitled 
 " Woman in France during the Eighteenth Century," 
 (2 vols., 1850.) Her writings are remarkable for their 
 beautiful delineation of character and graceful simplicity 
 of style. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for March, 1851. 
 
 Kay, (John,) an English poet, was the first that re- 
 ceived in England the title of poet-laureate. He flourished 
 about 1480. 
 
 Kay, (John,) a miniature-painter and engraver, born 
 near Dalkeith, in Scotland, in 1742. For several years 
 he gained a livelihood as a barber in Edinburgh ; but, 
 having exhibited a talent for sketching, he was assisted 
 by a wealthy gentleman, that he might devote himself 
 entirely to art. His paintings were distinguished for 
 their correct and exact likeness to the original. He 
 etched about nine hundred plates, which contained por- 
 traits of the distinguished or eccentric personages of 
 Edinburgh at that date. These were published, under 
 the title of " Kay's Edinburgh Portraits." Died in 1826. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen. " 
 
 Kay or Key, ki, (Willf.m,) a Flemish historical 
 painter, born in Breda in 1520. Of his most admired 
 productions we may mention a portrait of Cardinal 
 Granvelle, and a large painting in which the chief magis- 
 trates of Antwerp were introduced of the size of life. 
 Died in 1568. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peinlres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Kay-Shuttleworth,shitt'tel-worth,(Sir James Phil- 
 lips,) an English lawyer, born in 1804. He is noted for 
 his activity in advancing the interests of public schools. 
 For several years he held the office of secretary to the 
 committee of the privy council on education. 
 
 Kaye. See Caius. • 
 
 Kaye, ka, (John.) an Englisi ecclesiastic, born in 1 783, 
 became Bishop of Lincoln about 1827. Died in 1853. 
 
 Kaye, (John William,) an English historical writer, 
 born in London about 1814. He published, besides other 
 works, a " History of the War in Affghanistan," (1851,) 
 a " Life of Sir John Malcolm," (1856,) and a " History 
 of the Sepoy War," (1866.) 
 
 Kazinczy, koz'int-se, (Francis,) a Hungarian noble- 
 man, distinguished for his contributions to the litera- 
 ture of his country, was born at Er-Semlyn in 1759. 
 He devoted his attention to the restoration of the 
 Hungarian language, which the emperor Joseph II. was 
 attempting to extirpate. This dialect had then partially 
 fallen into disuse, and many terms to express modern 
 significations were required to be added in order to give 
 it a reasonable degree of completeness. To effect this, 
 Kazinczy translated numerous works from the French, 
 German, and English, adding words where the original 
 Hungarian was deficient. In this undertaking he appears 
 to have been eminently successful. In 1788 he established 
 the first Hungarian magazine, entitled " Magyar Mu- 
 zeum," and two years later commenced the "Orpheus." 
 In 1794 he was arrested on a charge of conspiracy and 
 condemned to death. This sentence, however, was com- 
 muted to imprisonment, and after the expiration of about 
 six years he regained his liberty. He wrote various 
 poems, and several works in prose. Died of cholera 
 in 1831. 
 
 Kazwyny, (Zacharia Ben Mohammed.) See Caz- 
 
 WKENEE. 
 
 Keach, keech, (Benjamin,) an English Baptist min- 
 ister, born in Buckinghamshire in 1640. After the resto- 
 ration he was bitterly persecuted on account of the 
 principles which he had advanced in his writings. He 
 preached some years in London after 1668. The most 
 important of his works are the "Key to open Scripture 
 Metaphors," (1682,) and "Exposition of the Parables," 
 (1704.) He also wrote two works in imitation of Bunyan, 
 viz., "Travels of True Godliness," and "Travels of Un- 
 godliness." Died in 1704. 
 
 See Crosby, " History of the Baptists." 
 
 Kean, (Charles J.,) a distinguished actor, the son 
 of Edmund Kean, was born in Waterford, Ireland, in 
 1811, and studied at Eton. He made several visits to 
 America, the last of which was in 1866. About 1S46 he 
 became the manager of the Princess's Theatre, London, 
 to the popularity of which he contributed greatly by the 
 introduction of the most admirable machinery, such as 
 had never before been exhibited to the British public. 
 He was also employed to superintend the royal theatri- 
 cals at Windsor Castle. Died in 1868. 
 
 Kean, (Edmund,) a celebrated tragedian, born in 
 London about 1787. He was the son of an actress 
 named Ann Carey, and, while very young, was brought 
 upon the stage to play those parts in which children 
 were represented. In this capacity he performed before 
 George III. at Windsor Castle, greatly to the satisfaction 
 of that monarch. In 1814 he first appeared at Drury 
 Lane Theatre, in the character of "Shylock," with such 
 distinguished success that he not" only fully established 
 his own fame, but also retrieved the declining popularity 
 of the theatre. He afterwards visited America, where 
 he remained two years. Died in 1833. As a tragedian 
 Kean is considered not inferior to any one that has ap- 
 peared on the English stage. His remarkable success 
 was owing to his great application in the study of his 
 characters and the intensity of passion which he threw 
 into them. He especially excelled in his representations 
 of "Shylock," "Othello," and " Richard IE." 
 
 See Procter, "Life of E. Kean," 1835; F, W. Hawkins, 
 "Life of Edmund Kean i" Oxberry, "Dramatic Biography;" 
 " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835. 
 
 Keane, keen, (John,) Lord, a celebrated British 
 general, was born at Belmont, in the county of Water- 
 ford, in 1 78L He entered the army at the age of thirteen. 
 In 1799 he was promoted to the grade of captain, and 
 was appointed aide-de-camp to Earl Cavan in Egypt 
 In 1812 he served as colonel in Spain under Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, and was 
 present at the engagements of Vitoria, Toulouse, and 
 other important battles. He was subsequently sent to 
 America, where, with the rank of major-general, he 
 took part in the battle of New Orleans, January, 1815. 
 In 1833 he was appointed commander of the forces of 
 Bombay, and in 1838 became general-in-chief of the 
 British army sent against the Afghans. In 1839 he be- 
 sieged the fortress of Ghuznee, which had been regarded 
 as impregnable, and which was garrisoned with 350c 
 
 a, e, I, 6, ii, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 0, it, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon ; 
 
KEARNEY 
 
 '3<3 
 
 KEFER STEIN 
 
 men, well supplied with all the munitions of war. The 
 place was, however, taken by assault in forty-eight hours, 
 with a loss of only two hundred on the side of the British. 
 For this victory General Keane was raised to the peerage; 
 with the title of Karon Keane of Ghuznee. Died in 1 844. 
 
 Kearney or Kearny, kar'ne, (Philip,) an able 
 American general, born in the city of New York in June, 
 1815. He was sent to Europe by the government to 
 study the French cavalry tactics about 1838. Me ob- 
 tained the rank of captain in 1846, served in the Mexican 
 war, and lost his left arm near Mexico in 1847. Having 
 resigned his commission in 1851, he passed several years 
 in Europe, and served in the French army at Solferino, 
 (1859.) He became a brigadier-general of the Union 
 armv in 1861. He commanded a division at the battles 
 of Williamsburg, May 5, Fair Oaks, May 31, White Oak 
 Swamp, June 30, and Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862. In 
 the month last named he was raised to the rank of 
 major-general. He was killed at the battle of Chantilly, 
 .September 1, 1862. 
 
 Kearny, (Stephen Watts,) a major-general in the 
 United States army, an uncle of the preceding, was born 
 in Newark, New Jersey, in 1794. He entered the army 
 as lieutenant in 1812, and distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Queenstown. Promoted to the rank of briga- 
 dier-general on the breaking out of the Mexican war in 
 1846, he marched westward from the Arkansas, con- 
 quered New Mexico, and established a provisional gov- 
 ernment at Santa Fe. He was brevetted major-general 
 for his gallantry at the battle of San Pasqual, December 
 3, 1846. In the following spring he was for some time 
 Governor of California. Died in 1848. 
 
 Keate, keet, (Gkorgk,) F.R.S., an English author, 
 born in Wiltshire in 1729. During his travels on the 
 continent he made the acquaintance of Voltaire, with 
 whom he was a correspondent for a long time. Of his 
 works we may mention the poems of "Ancient and Modern 
 Rome," (1760,) and "The Alps," (1763.) Hecompiledan 
 account of the " Pelew Islands" (1788) from manuscripts 
 placed in his hands by Captain Wilson. Died in 1797. 
 
 Keat'ing, (GeoFPREVJ D.D., a Catholic priest and 
 historical writer, was born in Tipperary, Ireland, about 
 1600. His chief production is a "History of Ireland 
 from the Time that it was Planted after the Flood until 
 the Seventeenth Year of the Reign of Henry II." This 
 work, which is replete with fables and traditions, was 
 translated from the Irish by Dermot O'Connor, and 
 published in London, in 1738. 
 
 Keats, (John,) a celebrated English poet, born in 
 on in 1795 or 1796, and educated in the classics at 
 Enfield. He published his first poems in 181 7, at the 
 recommendation of Leigh Hunt. His " Endymion," 
 which appeared soon after, was severely criticised by 
 Gifford in the " Quarterly Review." As Keats was of a 
 very sensitive disposition, it is supposed that this criti- 
 cism aggravated the disease under which he was suffer- 
 ing. He died in 1821 at Rome, whither he had gone to 
 reside on account of his health. The poetry of Keats, 
 though exhibiting a vivid perception of the beautiful, and 
 great powers of fancy, is deficient in intensity and force ; 
 and his celebrity is perhaps to be attributed as much to 
 the circumstances attending his early death as to his 
 poetical abilities. Besides the "Endymion," we may 
 mention, as among the most important of his works, 
 "Hyperion," "Lamia," and "Isabella." 
 
 "We had never happened," says Lord Jeffrey, "to 
 «ec eith;r of these volumes ["Endymion" and "The 
 Eve of Saint Agnes"] till very lately, and have been 
 exceedingly struck with the genius they display, and the 
 spirit of poetry which breathes through all their extrava- 
 gance. . . . Mr. Keats, we understand, is still a very 
 young man ; and his whole works, indeed, bear evidence 
 enough of the fact. They are full of extravagance and 
 irregularity, rash attempts at originality, interminable 
 wandeiing's, and excessive obscurity. They manifestly 
 require, therefore, all the indulgence that can be claimed 
 for a first attempt ; — but we think it no less plain that 
 they deserve it; for they are flushed all over with the 
 rich lights of fancy, and so coloured and bestrewn with 
 the flowers of poetry, that, even while perplexed and be- 
 wildered in their labyrinths, it is impossible to resist the 
 
 intoxication of their sweetness, or to shut our hearts t 
 the enchantments they so lavishly present." ("Edin 
 burgh Review" for August, 1820.) 
 
 See Richard Monckton Mii.nks, "Life, Letters, and Literary 
 Remains of John K.eais," 2 vols., 1S48; "London Quarterly Re- 
 view" lor A'pril, 1818; "Westminster Review" for January. 1*49; 
 " Atlantic Monthly" for January, 1861; " Monthly Review' lor July, 
 1820. 
 
 Keats, (Sir Richard Goodwin,) an English admiral, 
 born in Hampshire in 1757. In 1778 he was promoted to 
 a lieutenancy in the ninety-eight-gun ship Prince George, 
 where the Duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.) 
 was placed under his command. He served with dis- 
 tinction against the Americans and the French. In 1782 
 he received a commander's commission, and in 1807 
 became rear-admiral. Died in 1834. 
 
 Keble, kee'bel or kee'b'l, (John,) an English divine 
 and poet of high reputation, was born at Fairford, in Glou- 
 cestershire, on the 25th of April, 1792. He was educated 
 at Oxford, elected a Fellow of Oriel College about 1810, 
 and ordained a priest in 1816, soon after which date he 
 left the university. For twenty ensuing years he was 
 employed as his father's curate at Fairford. He was an 
 intimate friend of John Henry Newman, and one of the 
 leaders of the Tractarian movement in favour of High- 
 Church doctrines, or Puseyism. According to Dr. New- 
 man, Keble was the primary author of this movement. 
 In 1827 he published "TheChristian Year: Thoughts 
 in Verse for the Sundays and Holidays throughout the 
 Year," which obtained almost unbounded popularity, 
 and passed through fifty editions or more. He was 
 appointed professor of poetry at Oxford in 1833, and 
 became vicar of Hursley in 1835. About this time he 
 married Charlotte Clarke. He contributed to the " Tracts 
 for the Times," (1834-36,) and published a number of 
 sermons. Among his popular works is "Lyra Innocen- 
 tium : Thoughts in Verse on Christian Children, their 
 Ways and Privileges," (1846.) "To English church 
 people without number," says the "North British Re- 
 view," "'The Christian Year' has long been not only a 
 cherished classic, but a sacred book, which they place 
 beside their Bible and their Prayer-Book. . . . Popularity 
 is no word to express the fact that this book has been 
 for years the cherished companion, in their best moods, 
 of numbers of the best men, of the most diverse charac- 
 ters and schools, who have lived in our time." Died in 
 March, 1866. 
 
 See Sm John T. Coi bridge, "Memoir of the Rev. John Keble," 
 i860; "N>rih British Review" for September, 1866; "Quarterly 
 Review" for April and July, 1869; "British Quarterly Review" lor 
 July, 1867; " biackwood's Magazine" for April, 1869. 
 
 Keble, (Joseph,) an English writer upon law, born 
 in London about 1632; died in 1710. Of his numerous 
 works we may cite "An Explanation of the Laws against 
 Recusants," (1681.) 
 
 Keckermann, kck'ker-man', (Barthoi.omaus,) a 
 learned German writer on science, born at Dantzic in 
 1571. He wrote, besides other works, "Systems Ethi- 
 enm," (1610,) and "Systema Mathematices," (1617.) 
 Died in 1609. 
 
 Keder, kn'der, (Nils or Nicholas,) a Swedish an- 
 tiquary, born at Stockholm in 1659. He wrote his auto- 
 biography, and several treatises upon the ancient medals 
 of the North. He was ennobled in 1719. Died in 1735. 
 
 Keene, keen, (Ki>mi:nj>,) an English prelate, born at 
 Lynn in 1713. In 1752 he was raised to the see of 
 Chester, and in 1770 to that of Ely. He was distinguished 
 for his learning and benevolence. Died in 1781. 
 
 Keen'er, (John Christian,) D.D., a Methodist 
 divme, born in Baltimore in 1819. He graduated at 
 Wesleyan University, Connecticut, in 1834. lie wrote 
 a popular work entitled "The Post-Oak Circuit." 
 
 Kee-Tse or Ki-Tse, kee-tsuh, [written in French, 
 Ki-Tsei!,] a Chinese philosopher, who lived in the twelfth 
 century K.C. He became the adviser of the emperor 
 Woo-Wang, the founder of the third Chinese dynasty. 
 
 See Pauthier, "Chine ancienne;" " Nouvelle Hiographie G6)£- 
 rale." 
 
 Keferstein, ka'fer-stln', (Christian,) a German 
 geologist, born at Halle in 1784. He published, besides 
 other works, " Geognostic Observations on the Basaltic 
 Structure of Western Germany," (1820,) in which he 
 
 e as i; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s 1 
 
 83 
 
 : th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KEIGHTLET 
 
 »3H 
 
 KELLER 
 
 successfully maintains the volcanic nature of basalt, and 
 "The Natural History of the Earth," (2 vols., 1834.) 
 
 Keightley, kit'le, (THOMAS,) a historical and bio- 
 graphical writer, born in Dublin about 1790. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, "Mythology of Ancient 
 Greece and Rome," (3d edition, 1854;) a " History of 
 England," (1837 ;) a " Life of John Milton," (1855 ;) and 
 a " History of Rome." 
 
 Keil, kil, (Johann Gkorg,) a German scholar and 
 litterateur, born at Gotha in 1781. He published in 1814 
 an " Elementary Book of the Spanish Language." In 
 1813 he was chosen a member of the Royal Spanish 
 Academy. He also wrote a number of lyrical poems. 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 Keil, (Kari. August Gottlieb,) a German theolo- 
 gian, born at Grossenhain in 1754. He published, be- 
 sides other works, a "Manual of Hermeneutics.of the 
 New Testament," in German, (1810.) Died in 181S. 
 
 Keill, keel, (James,) a physician, brother of John, 
 noticed below, was born at Edinburgh in 1673. He 
 studied medicine in his native city and at Leyden, and 
 lectured on anatomy in the Universities of Oxford and 
 Cambridge. He wrote a work entitled " Anatomy of 
 the Human Body," and several physiological treatises. 
 Died in 1719. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Keill, (John,) a distinguished mathematician, born 
 at Edinburgh in 1671, and educated at Oxford. In 1700 
 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society. He wrote 
 several works in defence of the theories of Newton against 
 Leibnitz. In 171 1 he was chosen to decipher papers for 
 the queen, for which position he was well qualified. He 
 became professor of astronomy at Oxford, where he had 
 received the degree of doctor of physic. Among his 
 works are " An Introduction to Natural Philosophy," 
 and "An Introduction to the True Astronomy," both 
 of which were published in Latin and English. Died 
 in 1 721. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Keim, kim, (Franz Xaver,) a German architect, 
 born in 1769 ; died in 1864. 
 
 Keim, kim, (William H.,) an American general, born 
 at Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1813. He was elected a 
 member of Congress by the voters of Berks county 
 in 1858, and was appointed a brigadier-general in the 
 autumn of 1861. Died at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 
 in May, 1862. 
 
 Keisar, kj'sar or ki'zar, (Wii.i.em,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Antwerp about 1647; died about 1693. 
 
 Keiser. See Kieser, (Dietrich Georg.) 
 
 Keiser, kl'zer, (Keinhakd,) one of the earliest opera 
 composers in Germany, born in Leipsic in 1673, was the 
 author of more than a hundred operas, besides several 
 concertos and pieces of church music. His productions 
 were highly esteemed by Handel. Died in 1739. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G&ieVale ;" Burney, " History of 
 Music." 
 
 Keith, keeth, (George,) fifth Earl Marischal of 
 Scotland, distinguished as a munificent patron of learn- 
 ing, and as the founder of Marischal (mar'shal) College, 
 Aberdeen. He studied in Paris, and afterwards at 
 Geneva, where he had the celebrated Theodore Beza for 
 a preceptor. He succeeded his grandfather as earl 
 marischal in 1581. During the reign of James VI. he was 
 appointed to several high offices of state. Died in 1622. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen. " 
 
 Keith, (George,) hereditary Earl Marischal of Scot- 
 land, was born in that country about 1693. He entered 
 the army, and was appointed by Queen Anne the captain 
 of her guards. At the death of that sovereign he made 
 strenuous but unsuccessful efforts to have the Pretender 
 proclaimed in London. After the accession of George 
 I., in 1714, his property was confiscated, and sentence 
 of death passed against him by the British Parliament. 
 Keith escaped to the continent, and served for some 
 time in the Spanish army. He subsequently removed 
 to Berlin, where he spent the remainder of his days in 
 high favour with Frederick the Great. Died in 1778. 
 
 See D'Ai.embert, " Eioge de Milord Marshal, " 1779. 
 Keith, (George,) a Scottish religionist, who at an 
 early age embraced the principles of George Fox, in 
 
 the defence of which he displayed much zeal and elo- 
 quence. He subsequently advocated manv views at va- 
 riance with those held by the Quakers, for which he was 
 "disowned" or excommunicated by the Society. Before 
 his death his views again changed, and he died in the 
 communion of the Church of England. He wrote " The 
 Standard of the Quakers Examined," (1702,) intended as 
 a refutation of Barclay's " Apology." 
 
 See Janney, " History of Friends." vol. iii. chap. iii. ; Gough, 
 " History of the Quakers;" Smith, " History ol Pennsylvania." 
 
 Keith, (James,) field-marshal of Prussia, and brother 
 of George Keith, (1693-1778,) was born in Scotland in 
 1696. Having entered the army of the Pretender, he 
 took part in the disastrous battle of Sheriffmuir, where 
 he was wounded. He afterwards served in Spain and 
 in Russia, where he obtained distinction as a warrior and 
 statesman and was raised to the rank of lieutenant-gen- 
 eral. Soon after the accession of the empress Elizabeth 
 he removed to the court of Frederick the Great, by whom 
 he was created field-marshal of Prussia, and in 1749 
 governor of Berlin. He fell at the battle of Hochkirchen, 
 in October, 1758. 
 
 See A. Henderson, "Memoirs of Field-Marshal Keith," 1759: 
 Varnhagen von Esse, "Leben des Feld-Marschalls J. Keith," 
 Berlin, 1S44; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen." 
 
 Keith, (Robert,) a Scottish Episcopal clergyman and 
 antiquary, born in Kincardineshire in 1681, was conse- 
 crated a bishop in 1727. He was the author of a " His- 
 tory of the Affairs of Church and State in Scotland from 
 the Beginning of the Reformation in the Reign of James 
 V. to the Retreat of Queen Mary into England," (1734.) 
 Died in 1757. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Keith, (Sir Robert Murray,) a British diplomatist, 
 born about 1730. He was for many years ambassador 
 at the court of Vienna. Died in 1795. 
 
 See his " Memoirs and Correspondence, Official and Familiar," 
 etc., published by Mrs. Gillespie Smyth, 2 vols., 1849. 
 
 Keith, (Thomas,) an English mathematician, born in 
 Yorkshire in 1759. He wrote the "Complete Practical 
 Arithmetician," a work on Trigonometry, and other 
 works. Died in 1824. 
 
 Keith, Viscount. • See Elphinstone, (G. Keith.) 
 
 Keitt, commonly pronounced kit, (Lawrence M.,) a 
 politician, born in South Carolina in 1824. In 1853 he 
 was elected a representative to Congress, and re-elected 
 in 1855, 1857, and 1859. In 1856 he was associated with 
 Preston S. Brooks in his assault upon Charles Sumner 
 on the floor of the United States Senate. He took an 
 active part in the Southern disunion movement of i860. 
 He was killed in battle near Richmond in June, 1864. 
 
 Kelaoon, Kelaoim, or Kelau.11, kSl'8 oon', (Alma- 
 lek- Almansoor-Seif-ed-Deen, (or -Almansour- 
 Saiffeddyn,) al-mSl'ek al-man-sooR' sifed-deen',) Sul- 
 tan of Egypt, was brought to that country as a slave in 
 1249 a.d. He rapidly rose in rank, and in 1279, having 
 revolted against Almalek-al-Saeed, he was proclaimed 
 Sultan of Egypt and Syria. He subsequently conquered 
 Tripoli, and other places of importance in Northern 
 Africa. Died in 1290. 
 
 Kelij-Arslan. See Kilij-ArslXn. 
 
 Keller. See Cei.i.arius. 
 
 Keller, kel'ler, (Georg,) a German Catholic theolo- 
 gian, born near Bomdorf, in the Black Forest, in 1760. 
 He became in 1806 pastor at Aarau, where his opinions, 
 which leaned towards Protestantism, gave great offence 
 to the Catholic clergy. He published, among other 
 works, "The Catholicon." Died in 1827. 
 
 Keller, kel'ler, (GODFREY,) a Swiss poet, born at Zu- 
 rich in 1819. He published in 1846 a volume of poems, 
 which were received with favour. Died in i860. 
 
 Keller, (Jakob,) a German Roman Catholic writer, 
 born at Seckingen in 1568. He wrote several polemical 
 works against the Protestants. Died in 163 1. 
 
 See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Keller, (Jean Bai.tiiasar,) a brass-founder, born in 
 Zurich, Switzerland, in 1638. He removed to Paris, 
 where he gained distinction by the bronze statues which 
 he executed, several of which were purchased to orna- 
 ment the garden of Versailles. Died in 1702. 
 
 a. e. T. o. u. y, long; i, e, 6, same, less pro'onged; a. e, 1,6 u y 1 s/wrt; a, e, i, 9, ris. we: f:.r, I'll, fa 1 ; ueijt i 
 
KELLER 
 
 131S 
 
 KEMBLE 
 
 Keller, (Joseph,) an able German engraver, born at 
 Linz, on the Rhine, in 1815, became professor of en- 
 graving at Dttsseldorf. Among his works are a large 
 engi aving of Raphael's " Dispute of the Sacrament," 
 and several prints after Overbeck. 
 
 Keller von Steinbock, kel'ler fon stln'bok, (Fried- 
 rich Ludwig,) a Swiss jurist and legal writer, born at 
 Zurich in 1799, became professor of law at Halle in 
 1843. 
 
 Kellerhoven, kel'ler-ho'ven, (Moritz,) a German 
 painter and engraver, born at Altenrath, duchy of Berg, 
 in 1758, became court painter at Munich about 1806. 
 He excelled in portraits, and engraved many of his own 
 works. Died in 1830. 
 
 Kellermann, de, deh kJ'leVmoN', (Francois Chris- 
 TOPHE,) Duke of Valmy, a distinguished French mar- 
 shal, of German extraction, born at Strasburg in 1735. 
 After serving in the Seven Years' war, he was made a 
 lieutenant-general in 1792, and was soon after appointed 
 to command the central army on the Moselle. He gained 
 a decisive victory over the Duke of Brunswick at Valmy 
 in September, 1792. Having been accused of treachery 
 by Custine and others, he was imprisoned for ten months, 
 and only released after the fall of Robespierre. In 1795 
 he became commander of the army of the Alps, and 
 after his return to Paris was appointed inspector-general 
 of cavalry, in 1798. He was created in 1804 senator and 
 marshal of France, and in 1806 he obtained from Napo- 
 leon the command of the reserve army 6n the Rhine, and 
 other distinctions. On the accession of Louis XVIII. 
 he was made a peer, and received the grand cross of the 
 order of Saint Louis. Died in 1820. 
 
 See De Salve, " Fragments historiques sur le Marechal de Kel- 
 lermann," 1807; Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire:" 
 Botidoux, "Esquisse de la Carriere militaire de F. C. de Keller- 
 nann," 1817: "Nouvelle Biographic GeneVaie." 
 
 Kellermann, de, (Francois Christophe Edmond,) 
 Duke of Valmy, a son of Francois Etienne, noticed below, 
 was born in Paris in 1802. He was elected to the 
 Chamber of Deputies in 1839, 1842, and 1844. 
 
 Kellermann, de, (Francois Etienne,) Duke of 
 Valmy, born at Metz in 1770, was a son of General Kel- 
 lermann, noticed above. He served as adjutant-general 
 under Bonaparte in Italy in 1796, became a general 
 of brigade in 1797, and contributed greatly to the victory 
 at Marengo in 1800. About 1802 he obtained the rank 
 of general of division. He was wounded at Austerlitz, 
 where he directed several charges of cavalry. In 1815 
 he fought for Napoleon at Waterloo. Died in 1835. 
 
 Kel'ley, (Benjamin Franklin,) an American gen- 
 eral in' the Union army, born in New Hampshire about 
 1807. He gained a victory at Philippi, Virginia, in June, 
 
 1861. In March, 1862, he was appointed commander of 
 the " railroad district" in Northwestern Virginia. 
 
 Kel'ley, (Edward,) a noted astrologer, born at Wor- 
 cester, England, in 1555. He was an accomplice of the 
 notorious Dr. Dee, whom he accompanied to Germany. 
 While there, he was imprisoned as an impostor by the 
 emperor Rudolph; but, having afterwards obtained his 
 release, he won the favour of the emperor, by whom he 
 was knighted. He, however, resumed his old practices, 
 and was again imprisoned. In an attempt to regain 
 his liberty, he fell from his window, and was mortally 
 wounded, in 1595. He wrote various works upon al- 
 chemy and astrology. 
 
 See Wood, "Athense Oxonienses." 
 
 Kelley, (Wiixiam D.,) born in Philadelphia about 
 18 14, studied law, and was elected as a Democrat a judge 
 of the court of common pleas. About 1856 he Ixjcame 
 an active Republican, and was in i860 an ardent sup- 
 porter of Lincoln for the Presidency. He was elected 
 a meml>er of Congress from Philadelphia in i860, in 
 
 1862, in 1864, in 1866, and in 1868. In the House of 
 Representatives Judge Kelley has uniformly acted with 
 the radical Republicans. 
 
 Kellgren, chel'gRen, (Johan Henrik,) an eminent 
 Swedish poet, born in West Gothland in 1751, was edu- 
 cated at the University of Abo, in Finland. In 1786 
 Gustavus III. appointed him a member of the Swedish 
 Academy, and likewise chose him for his private secre- 
 tary and librarian. His works, consisting of lyric poetry | 
 
 and four operas, were published in 1796, in 3 vols., under 
 the title of "Samlade Skriftes." Died in 1795. 
 
 See Longfellow. "Poets and Poetiy of Europe;" N. von Ro- 
 senstein, "J. H. Religions Lefnad," 1796. 
 
 Kellie, Earl of. See Erskine. (T. Alexander.) 
 
 Kel'll-son, (Matthew,) an English Roman Catholic 
 priest, born in Northamptonshire about 1560. He filled 
 the offices of chancellor of the University of Rheims and 
 president of the College of Douay. He wrote numerous 
 religious and controversial works. Died in 1641. 
 
 Kel'iy, (Alfred,) an American lawyer, born at Mid- 
 dletown, Connecticut, in 1787. Having removed to 
 Cleveland, Ohio, he contributed greatly to the internal 
 improvement of the State by canals, and was several 
 times elected to the legislature. Died in 1859. 
 
 Kel'ly\ (Sir Fitzroy,) a British lawyer, born in Lon- 
 don in 1796. He was ibr many years a Conservative 
 member of Parliament, and was attorney-general in 
 1S58-59. 
 
 Kelly, (Hugh,) a dramatic and political writer, born 
 at Killamey, in Ireland, in 1739. He removed to Lon- 
 don, where he became the editor of several periodicals. 
 Me published a pamphlet entitled a "Vindication of the 
 Administration of Mr. Pitt," and the plays of " False 
 Delicacy," (1768,) "A Word to the Wise," (1770,) and 
 the "School for Wives," (1774.) Died in 1777. 
 
 See " Life of Kelly," prefixed to the edition of his Works, 1778. 
 
 Kelly, (John,) a clergyman of the Church of Eng- 
 land, born at Douglas, in the Isle of Man, in 1750. lie 
 translated the Bible into the Manks language, a dialect 
 of the ancient Celtic, in which he was exceedingly well 
 versed, and wrote "A Practical Grammar of the Ancient 
 Gallic, or Language of the Isle of Man." Died in 1809. 
 
 Kelly, (Michael,) a celebrated singer and musical 
 composer, born at Dublin in 1762. At the age of sixteen 
 he went to Naples, and received lessons there from 
 Fineroli and Aprili. He performed with eminent success 
 in Italy, and also in Germany, where he was a favourite 
 with the emperor Joseph and an intimate friend of the 
 great Mozart. He afterwards became first singer at 
 Drury Lane Theatre, London. He wrote an interesting 
 work entitled " Reminiscences" of his contemporaries 
 and friends. Died in 1826. 
 
 See "Musical Biography," London, 1814; "Monthly Review" 
 for November. 1825. 
 
 Kem'ble, (Charles,) a brother of Mrs. Siddons and 
 J. P. Kemble, was born in South Wales in 1775. He 
 was educated at Douay, in France, and became an actor 
 at the age of eighteen. In 1792 he performed at Drury 
 Lane as "Malcolm" in " Macbeth," and continued upon 
 the stage as a successful actor until 1840. Died in 1854. 
 
 See Oxberry's "Dramatic Biography;" "Eraser's Magazine" 
 for December, 1854. 
 
 Kemble, (Elizabeth,) a daughter of Roger Kemble, 
 was born in Lancashire, England, in 1761. She made 
 her first appearance in London in 17S3. In form and 
 expression, as well as in the applause which she re- 
 ceived, she has been compared to her sister, Mrs. Sid- 
 dons. In 1785 she married an actor named Whitlock, 
 whom she accompanied to America in 1792. In this 
 country she became a great favourite, and performed 
 several times before General Washington. Died in 1836. 
 
 Kemble, (Frances Anne,) often called Fanny 
 Kemki.e, a popular English actress and writer, born in 
 London in i8u, was a daughter of Charles Kemble. She 
 performed both tragedy and comedy with eminent suc- 
 cess. About 1832 she accompanied her father to the 
 United States, where she married Pierce Butler, from 
 whom she was divorced in 1849. She published a "Jour- 
 nal of a Residence in America," (1835,) "The Star of 
 Seville," a drama, "Journal of a Residence on a Georgian 
 Plantation in 1838-39," (1863,) etc. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for Ju'y. 183^, and September, 
 1847; rf' Edinburgh Review" for July, 1835; "Eraser's Magazine" 
 for May, 1832, and September. 1835. 
 
 Kemble, (George Stephen,) another brother of the 
 Kemble family, and a distinguished actor, was bom in 
 Herefordshire in 1758. He first appeared at Covent 
 Garden in 1783, and afterwards was successively the 
 manager of the theatres of Glasgow, Edinburgh^ and 
 Drury Lane. Died in 1822. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; s as t; th as ic thil. ( Jty~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 
KEMBLE 
 
 1316 
 
 KEN 
 
 Kemble, (John Mitchell,) an Anglo-Saxon scholar 
 and historian, son of Charles Kemble the actor, was 
 born in 1807, and was educated at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. For several years he was the editor of the 
 "British and Foreign Quarterly Review." He became 
 a member of various foreign scientific and historical 
 societies. His chief work is entitled "The Saxons in 
 England ; a History of the pjiglish Commonwealth till 
 the Period of the Norman Conquest," (2 vols., 1849.) 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for March and May, 1857. 
 
 Kemble, (John Philip,) an eminent English trage- 
 dian, brother of the celebrated Mrs. Siddons, and son 
 of Roger Kemble, was born at Prescot, in Lancashire, 
 in 1757. He first appeared on the stage at the age of 
 ten years. He was afterwards educated at the Roman 
 Catholic seminary at Douay, France. In 1776 he again 
 went on the stage, and rose rapidly to the first rank in 
 his profession. In 1783 he first performed as " Hamlet" 
 in London at the Drury Lane Theatre. He .subsequently 
 became a shareholder and manager in the Covent Garden 
 Theatre. He retired from his profession in 181 7. On 
 this occasion a public dinner was given him, at which 
 Lord Holland presided. On account of ill health, he 
 then went to reside in the south of France, and after- 
 wards at Lausanne, in Switzerland, where he died in 1S23. 
 
 A competent and impartial critic thus states his im- 
 pressions of Kemble as an actor : " His performances 
 throughout evince deep stu'dy and application, joined to 
 amazingly judicious conception. They are correct and 
 highly-finished paintings, but much laboured. . . . Though 
 my head is satisfied, and even astonished, yet my heart is 
 seldom affected. . . . Once, I must own, however, I was 
 completely overpowered by his acting. It was in the 
 partofZanga. . . . I could not have believed that tragic 
 representation could so far deceive the senses and the 
 judgment." (" Life and Letters of Irving," vol. i. p. 156.) 
 As an actor, Kemble excelled in the highest order of 
 tragedy. He possessed an elegant and discriminating 
 taste, and was learned and refined. His manners were 
 uncommonly attractive. He enjoyed a high character as 
 a gentleman and a man of honour. 
 
 See Boaden, "Memoirs of John P. Kemble," 2 vols., 1S25 : 
 " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1826 ; " Westminster Review" 
 for April, 1825. 
 
 Kemble, (Priscii.la,) an English actress, wife of the 
 preceding, was born about 1755; died in 1845. 
 
 Kemble, (Roger,) a distinguished actor, born in Here- 
 ford, England, in 1721. In 1753 he married Sarah Ward, 
 an actress, by whom he had twelve children. Among 
 these were Mrs. Siddons, John Philip Kemble, Eliza- 
 beth Kemble, and Charles Kemble, all of whom are 
 mentioned in this work. 
 
 Kemeny, k£m'an, (Sigmund,) Baron of, a Hunga- 
 rian writer and journalist, born in 1816. In 1849 he was 
 elected to the National Assembly at Pesth, where he 
 advocated the revolutionary cause. The next year he 
 became one of the editors of the "Respublica." He 
 wrote several popular romances. Hied in 1852. 
 
 Kemp, (George Micki.e,) the designer of the Scott 
 monument at Edinburgh, was born at New Hall, in 
 Scotland, about 1794. He was employed for a time as a 
 draughtsman, and, when plans were requested for the 
 Scott monument, he furnished one which was preferred, 
 though he did not live to see the execution of it. Died 
 in 1844. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Kemp, (James,) D.D., Bishop of the Protestant Epis- 
 copal diocese of Maryland, born in Scotland in 1764, 
 came to the United States in 1787, and for more than 
 twenty years was rector at Great Choptank, Maryland. 
 He was bishop of that diocese, and provost of the Uni- 
 versity of Maryland, from 1816 until his death, in 1827. 
 
 Kemp, (John,) an English prelate, born in Kent about 
 1400, was elected Archbishop of Canterbury in 1452, and 
 subsequently became lord chancellor. He had distin- 
 guished abilities both as a primate and statesman. Died 
 in 1454. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 Tol. v. chap. xx. 
 
 Kemp, (Joseph,) a distinguished musical composer, 
 and organist of the cathedral of Bristol, was born at 
 Exeter in 1778; died in 1824. Among his productions 
 are the anthems " I am Alpha and Omega," "A Sound 
 of Battle is in the Land," and "The Siege of Ischia," 
 an opera. 
 
 Kempelen, von, fon kem'peh-len, (Wolfgang,) a 
 famous mechanical genius, and the inventor of the chess 
 machine, was born at Presburg in 1734. His remarkable 
 talent for chess-playing made him a favourite at the 
 court of Maria Theresa, who created him an imperi d 
 councillor. In 1769 he exhibited to the empress his 
 chess-player, representing a man of usual size sitting 
 before a table which held a chess-board. Though op- 
 posed by the best players, the machine was nearly always 
 victorious, and would correct a false move of the other 
 party. He visited France and England, where his in- 
 vention caused a great sensation. In 1728 he invented 
 the speaking-machine, having the form of a wooden 
 box provided with a bellows. This was made to speak 
 words distinctly in a voice like that of a child. Kem- 
 pelen wrote a treatise "On the Mechanism of Human 
 Speech." Died in 1804. 
 
 Kemper, kem'per, (Jan Mf.lchior,) an able Dutch 
 jurist, born at Amsterdam in 1776. He became pro- 
 fessor of law at Leyden in 1809, and published a nuinbei 
 of works on lasv. Died in 1824. 
 
 See M. Siegenbeek, " Memoria J. M. Kemperi," 1824. 
 
 Kem'per, (Reuben,) an American officer, born in 
 Fauquier county, Virginia. Pie distinguished himself in 
 various engagements against the Spaniards in Florida 
 and Mexico, and took part in the defence of New Orleans 
 under General Jackson. Died in 1826. 
 
 Kemph, kemf, (Nikoi.aus,) a German theologian 
 and writer, born at Strasburg in 1397 ; died in 1497. 
 
 Kempis, £, akem'pis, (THOMAS)) or Thomas Ham'- 
 er-ken, a celebrated German ascetic writer, born at 
 Ketnpen, in the diocese of Cologne, about 1380. He 
 became an inmate of the monastery of Mount Saint 
 Agnes, and spent much time in copying religious books. 
 He is said to have employed fifteen years in writing a 
 copy of the Bible. He also wrote several original treat- 
 ises. His reputation is founded on the well-known work 
 entitled " De Imitatione Christi ;" but it remains an 
 unsettled question whether he composed or only tran- 
 scribed it. Many volumes have been written on each 
 side of this question. Died in 147 1. 
 
 See Brewer. " Thoma? a Kempis Biograpbia," 1676: Baehrtng, 
 "Thomas von Kempen," etc., 1854; M00BBN, "Nachrichten u'ber 
 Thomas a Kempis." Crefeld, 1S55, (said to be the best of all the 
 biographies of T. a Kempis;) Mai.ou, " Recherches sur le veritable 
 Auteifr de I'lmitation," 1*5^: Hodgson, "Reformers and Mar- 
 tyrs," Philadelphia. 1867 ; Chari.es Hoffmann. " T. a Ketui-is el Ml 
 Edits," 1848; J. P. Sii.rkkt, "Gersen, Gerson unci Kemi is, ndev 
 ist Einer von diesen Dreien der Verlasser," etc., 1828; "NouvL'lle 
 Biographic Ge^ie'rale." 
 
 KSn, (Thomas,) a celebrated English prelate, born at 
 Berkhamstead in 1637, and educated at Oxford. About 
 1679 he went to Holland as chaplain to the Princess 
 of Orange. He was afterwards appointed chaplain to 
 Charles II., who raised him to the see of Hath and Wells 
 in 1684. "He was," says Macaulay, "a man of, parts 
 and learning, of quick sensibility and stainless virtue. . . . 
 Before he became a. bishop, he had maintained the 
 honour of his gown by refusing, when the court was at 
 Winchester, to let Eleanor Gwinn [a mistress of Charles] 
 lodge in the house which he occupied there as a preben- 
 dary. The king had sense enough to respect so manly 
 a spirit. Of all the prelates he liked Ken the best." 
 Deprived of his bishopric as a nonjuror upon the coro- 
 nation of William III., he was regarded with the highest 
 esteem even by his opponents. Queen Anne, upon her 
 accession, granted him a pension. He was the author 
 of several volumes of elaborate sermons, and of many 
 poetical productions of a religious character. "His 
 Morning and Evening Hymns," says the writer above 
 quoted, "are still repeated daily in thousands of dwell- 
 ings." He died in 1711. 
 
 See VV. Hawkins, "Life of Bishop Ken," 1715; W. I„ Bowt.es, 
 " Life of Thomas Ken." 1830; Macaulav, "History of England," 
 vol. i. chap, v.: "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1851; 
 .Miss Stkicki.And, "Lives of the Seven Bishops," etc., London, 
 1866 : " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1832. 
 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u,y,long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1,6, fi, y, short; a, e, i,o, obscure: far, fall, fat; met: nit; good; moon; 
 
KENDAL 
 
 >3«7 
 
 KENNICOTT 
 
 KSn'dal, (Gf.orgk,) an English nonconformist minis- 
 ter, born in Devonshire, was a Calvinist. He became 
 rector of Blissland, in Cornwall, from which he was 
 ejected about 1662. Died in 1663. 
 
 Ken'dall, (Amos,) an able American statesman, born 
 at Dunstable, Massachusetts, in 1789. He graduated at 
 Dartmouth College in 181 1, and subsequently, removing 
 to Kentucky, became a tutor in the family of Henry 
 Clay, lie supported General Jackson in the Presiden- 
 tial campaign of 1829, and was afterwards appointed by 
 him an auditor of the treasury department. He was 
 made postmaster-general in 1835, and continued to fill 
 that post till 1840. He began about 1844 a Life of 
 General Jackson, of which the first volume was pub- 
 lished several years ago. Died in 1869. 
 
 See notice in the "Democratic Review" for March, 183S, (with a 
 portrait :) " Life of Jackson." 
 
 Ken'dall, (G.,) an English missionary, who laboured 
 in New Zealand, and opened a school there in 1816. He 
 acquired a thorough knowledge of the language of that 
 country, and wrote a "Grammar and Vocabulary of the 
 Language of New Zealand," (1820.) He was drowned 
 at sea in 1835. 
 
 Kendall, (George Wii.kins,) an American writer 
 and journalist, born at Amherst, New Hampshire, in 
 1810. He removed in 1835 to New Orleans, where he 
 became associated with Mr. Lumsden as editor of the 
 " Picayune." In 1841 he accompanied the Santa Fe ex- 
 pedition from Texas, of which he published an account 
 alter his return. He brought out in 1851 a work entitled 
 "The War between the United States and Mexico," with 
 coloured plates of the principal conflicts. 
 
 Kendall, (John,) an English writer, and member of 
 the Society of Friends, born about 1725; died in 1814. 
 Among his works are a "Life of Thomas Story," and 
 "Precepts of the Christian Religion." 
 
 Kendi, Al. See Alchindus. 
 
 KSn'drick, (Asaiiki. C.,) D.D., an American scholar 
 and Baptist clergyman, born at Poultney, Vermont, in 
 1800. He graduated at Hamilton College, New York, 
 in 183 1. He was afterwards appointed professor of 
 Latin and Greek at Madison University, and in 1850 
 Greek professor in the University of Rochester, New 
 York. He has published a number of religious and 
 miscellaneous works. 
 
 Kendiick, (\\ i hanif.i.,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born 
 in Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1777, was appointed 
 professor of theology and moral philosophy in Hamilton 
 College (now Madison University) in 1822. His labours 
 contributed greatly to the prosperity of the institution. 
 Died in 1848. 
 
 Kenicius, ka-nee'she>us, (Peter,) Archbishop of 
 I'p.-al, Sweden, during the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 h;is born in 1555. He rendered important service to 
 the cause of education, and owing to his efforts parish 
 hospitals were established throughout Sweden. He 
 wrote several theological works. Died in 1636. 
 
 Ken'ly, (JOHN R.,) an American lawyer and general, 
 born in Baltimore about 1820. He commanded a small 
 force which was attacked at Front Royal by the army 
 of Stonewall Jackson, May 23, 1862. He was wounded 
 and captured in this action. 
 
 Ken'na-way, (Sir JOHN,) a British diplomatist, bom 
 at Exeter in 175S. He became a captain of the army in 
 India in 1780, and negotiated an important treaty with 
 Tippoo Saib in 1792. Died in 1836. 
 
 Ken'ne-dy\ (Grace,) a popular Scottish authoress, 
 born in Ayrshire in 1782. She published several moral 
 and religious tales of great merit. Among these we 
 may name "Anna Ross," "The Decision," and "Jessy 
 Allan," which have been translated into German; also 
 "Fattier Clement," (1825.) Died in 1825. 
 
 Kennedy, (Ii mkonmO a Scottish Benedictine and 
 scientific writer, lmrn at Muthel in 1721, was secretary 
 
 1 the Academy of Sciences at Munich. Died in 1804. 
 Kennedy, (Jams*,) a Scottish prelate, and grandson 
 of Koliert III., was born aliout 1405. He was raised in 
 
 ... > to the see of Saint Andrew's, and was subsequently 
 
 liosen a lord of the regency until James III. obtained 
 his majority. He was distinguished for the salutary re- 
 '..mis which he effected among the Scottish clergy. 1 It- 
 
 was the founder of the University of Saint Salvator, at 
 Saint Andrew's. Died in 1466. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Kennedy, (John,) a physician and antiquary, born 
 in Scotland. He wrote a treatise on the coins of the 
 emperor Carausius. Died in 1760. 
 
 Ken'n§-d;y>, (John,) an English author, and rector of 
 Bradley, in Derbyshire. Among his works is "A Scrip- 
 ture Chronology," (1752.) Died about 1770. 
 
 Ken'ne-dy, (John Pendleton,) an American states- 
 man and popular writer, born at Baltimore, Maryland, in 
 1795. He served in the war of 1812, and was elected in 
 1820 to the Maryland House of Delegates. He was sub- 
 sequently three times elected to the United States House 
 of Representatives, where he actively supported the lead- 
 ing measures of the Whig party. He was appointed 
 secretary of the navy in 1852. He has published several 
 popular works of fiction, among which we may name 
 "Swallow Barn, or a Sojourn in the Old Dominion," 
 (1832,) and " Horse-Shoe Robinson, a Tale of the Tory 
 Ascendency," (1835 ;) a ' so a "W* °f William Wirt," 
 besides other works. Died in August, 1870. 
 
 See Griswold, "Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Ken'net, (Basil.) a clergyman of the Church of 
 England, and brother of Bishop Kennet, born in Kent 
 in 1674, was educated at Oxford. He became chaplain 
 to the English factory at Leghorn. He returned to 
 England on account of ill health. He wrote various 
 antiquarian and historical works, among which are "The 
 Antiquities of Rome," (1696,) relating to the history of 
 the republic, and " Lives and Characters of Ancient 
 Greek Poets," (1697.) Died in 1 71 5. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Kennet, (WHITE,) an English prelate and author, 
 born at Dover in 1660, was educated at Westminster 
 School and at Oxford. In 1699 he received the degree 
 of D.D., and in 1718 was ordained Bishop of Peterbo- 
 rough. He was distinguished as a preacher of great 
 eloquence and as a scholar of indefatigable industry and 
 perseverance, as well as for his opposition to the High- 
 Church party. Died in 1728. Of his numerous works 
 we may mention " Parochial Antiquities attempted in 
 the History of Ambrosden, Burcester, and other Ad- 
 jacent Places in the Counties of Oxford and Bucks," 
 (1695,) and "A Register and Chronicle, Ecclesiastical 
 and Civil," (1728,) relating to the reign of Charles II. 
 
 See W. Newton, "Life of White Kennet," 17301 "Biographia 
 Britannica." 
 
 Ken'neth I., King of Scotland, died, after a short 
 reign, in 606, and was succeeded by Eugene HI. 
 
 Kenneth II. succeeded his father, Alpin, as King of 
 the Scots, in 834. He carried on a successful war against 
 the Britons, and reduced the Picts to subjection. He is 
 said to have been the first sovereign who swayed a 
 sceptre over all Scotland. Died about 858 A.D. 
 
 Kenneth III. ascended the throne of Scotland in 970. 
 He repelled the invasions of the Danes, established a 
 just and efficient government in his dominions, ami is 
 said to have been the first monarch who gave Scotland 
 a written code of laws. He was assassinated in 994. 
 
 See Buchanan, " History of Scotland." 
 
 Ken'nf-cott, (Benjamin,) a learned divine and He- 
 brew scholar, born at Totness, in Devonshire, England* 
 in 1718. While a student at Oxford, he wrote two dis- 
 sertations, one "On the Tree of Life in Paradise," and 
 the other "On the Oblations of Cain and Abel," which 
 procured for him, free of exj^ense and before the usual 
 period, the degree of B.A. He was soon after elected 
 a Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, became canon of 
 Chrift Church, and obtained the degree of M. A. in 1750. 
 In 1753 he published a treatise on "The State of the 
 Printed Hebrew Text of the Old Testament," in which 
 he unfolded his plan of collating the Hebrew mamisci ipts 
 of the Old Testament. Although his effort* nut with 
 opposition from some of the clergy, a large sum was 
 raised to aid him in his enterprise, and several men 
 ..I learning were employed to assist him in his labours, 
 His "Hebrew Bible," the result of these labours, was 
 issued in 1 7 76, with the various readings attached. Dr. 
 Kennicott and his assistants in this valuable work con- 
 
 E as h; c as /; g hard; g mjl G, h, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KEKNON 
 
 i 3 >8 
 
 KEKl'ON 
 
 ,) an American land- 
 Connecticut, in 1818. 
 1845 exhibited at the 
 
 suited sixteen Samaritan and over six hundred Hebrew 
 manuscripts. Died at Oxford in 1783. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Ken'non, (Robert Lewis,) a Methodist divine and 
 physician, born in North Carolina in 1789. He excelled 
 in various branches of science, particularly geology, and 
 is said to have been the first to call attention to the coal- 
 fields of Alabama. Died in 1838. 
 
 K8n'rick, (Francis Patrick,) D.D., a Catholic 
 prelate, born at Dublin in 1797, emigrated in 1 82 1 
 to America. In 1842 he succeeded Dr. Conwell as 
 Bishop of Philadelphia. He was created Archbishop of 
 Baltimore in 1851, and was afterwards appointed by 
 the pope " primate of honour," having precedency over 
 all other Catholic prelates of the country. He enjoyed 
 a high reputation for learning, and published, among 
 other works, " Dogmatic Theology," and " Moral The- 
 ology," (both in Latin.) Died in 1863. 
 
 Kemick, (Peter Richard,) D.D., brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Dublin in 1806. Having re- 
 moved to Philadelphia, he became editor of the "Cath- 
 olic Herald." On the death of Dr. Rosati, in 1843, he 
 succeeded him as Bishop of Saint Louis, and in 1847 
 was made first archbishop of that city. He has founded 
 several charitable institutions, and has been active in 
 promoting the cause of education. 
 
 K8n'rick, (William,) an English writer, noted for 
 his quarrelsome disposition, born in Hertfordshire about 
 1720, published "Epistles, Philosophical and Moral," 
 in poetry, (1759,) "A Review of Dr. Johnson's New Edi- 
 tion of Shakspeare," (1765,) which caused a controversy 
 with Johnson's friends, a " Dictionary of the English 
 Language," and a poem called " Love in the Suds," for 
 which he was sued for damages by Garrick, whom he 
 had libelled in it. Died in 1779. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Ken'sett, (John Frederick 
 scape-painter, bom in Cheshire, 
 He studied in London, and 
 
 Royal Academy his " View of Windsor Castle." He 
 afterwards visited Rome, where he executed several 
 excellent pictures of Italian scenery. Among his best 
 American landscapes may be named " Sunset in the 
 Adirondacks," " Franconia Mountains," and "Hudson 
 River from Fort Putnam." He became a member of 
 the National Academy of Design in 1849. 
 
 See Tuckhrman, "Book of the Artists." 
 
 Kent, (Edward,) Dukeof, father of Victoria, Queen 
 of Great Britain, and the fourth son of George HI., was 
 born in 1767. He studied at Gottingen and Geneva. In 
 1790 he entered the army, and three years later assisted 
 in the capture of Saint Lucia. In 1796 he was appointed 
 lieutenant-general, and in 1799 was created Dukeof Kent 
 and Strathern and Earl of Dublin. In 1802 he became 
 Governor of Gibraltar ; but, his rigid discipline producing 
 a mutiny, he was soon after recalled. In 1 Si S he married 
 a daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg. The Duke of 
 Kent was a liberal patron of benevolent enterprises. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See "Life of Edward, Duke of Kent." by Erskine Neale, 1850. 
 
 Kent, (Edward,) I.L.D., an American judge, bom in 
 Concord, New Hampshire, in 1802. He graduated at 
 Harvard, and in 1825 settled as a lawyer in Bangor, 
 Maine. He was afterwards twice Governor of the State, 
 and became an associate justice of the supreme court of 
 Maine in 1859. 
 
 Kent, (James,) a distinguished organist and musical 
 composer, born at Winchester in 1700. He became one 
 of the children of the Chapel Royal in London. Upon 
 finishing his education, he was successively chosen or- 
 ganist of Trinity College, Cambridge, and of Winchester 
 Cathedral. He published a popular work containing 
 "Twelve Anthems" of his composition. Died in 1776. 
 
 See Burney, "History of Music." 
 
 Kent, (James,) an eminent American jurist, born in 
 Putnam county, New York, in July, 1763. He graduated 
 at Yale College in 1781, studied law, and commenced the 
 practice of his profession at Poughkeepsie. In politics 
 he was a Federalist. He was profoundly versed in legal 
 knowledge. He became a resident of the city of New 
 
 York about 1793, and a friend of Alexander Hamilton. 
 In 1798 he was appointed a judge of the supreme court 
 of New York, and in 1804 became chief justice. He 
 lectured on law at Columbia College. His important 
 decisions in law and equity have been preserved in the 
 Reports of Johnson and Caines. He became chancellor 
 in 1814, and retired from that office in 1823, after which 
 he was again professor of law in Columbia College. He 
 published "Commentaries on American Law," (4 vols., 
 1826-30,) which is a standard work of high authority 
 and a production of great literary merit. Referring to 
 this work, Judge Story remarks, "These Commentaries 
 have already acquired the reputation of a juridical classic, 
 and have placed their author in the first rank in the 
 benefactors of the profession. They embody the prin- 
 ciples of law in pages as attractive by the persuasive 
 eloquence of their style as they are instructive by the 
 fulness and accuracy of their learning." (" On the Con- 
 flict of Laws.") "It will be a proud distinction to Kent 
 and Story," says the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 
 1852, (p. 340,) "that they have done more than any other 
 men to put an end to the indifference of English lawyers 
 to the learning of their American brethren." Judge 
 Kent had a high reputation for virtue. He died in New 
 York in December, 1847, leaving one son, William. 
 
 See John Duer, " Discourse on the Life of J .lines Kent ;" " Na 
 tional Portrait Gallery of Distinguished American*," vol. ii. ; Ai.Ll 
 bone, "Dictionary of Authors," vol. ii. ; Duvckinck, "Cyclopaedia 
 of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Kent, (Maria Louisa Victoria,) Duchess of, born 
 in 1786, was a daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg, 
 She was married about 1803 to Prince Emich Karl of 
 Leiningen, and again to the Duke of Kent in 1818. Vic- 
 toria, Queen of England, was the issue of her second 
 marriage. Died in 1861. 
 
 Kent, (William,) the founder of the English style 
 of landscape-gardening, was born in Yorkshire about 
 1685. He studied painting, which he soon abandoned 
 for ornamental architecture. Among his best designs is 
 that of the temple of Venus at Stowe. His fame, how- 
 ever, rests chiefly on the great improvement he effected 
 in landscape-gardening, by substituting the close imita- 
 tion of nature for the stiff and formal style of the French 
 and Dutch. Walpole has styled him "the creator of 
 modern gardening." Died in 1748. 
 
 See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Kent, (William,) an American lawyer, son of James 
 Kent, the eminent jurist, noticed above, was born in 
 1802. He was appointed by Governor Seward a judge 
 of the circuit court of New York. Having resigned 
 that office, he practised law in New York City. Died in 
 January, 1861. 
 
 Kent'I gem, Saint, a Scottish ecclesiastic, became 
 Bishop of Glasgow. He is said to have converted many 
 of the natives to Christianity. Died about 600. 
 
 Ken'tou, (Simon,) an American soldier, born in Fau- 
 quier county, Virginia, was one of the associates of 
 Daniel Boone, the Kentucky pioneer. He fought against 
 the Indians on the Western frontier, and subsequently 
 in the war of 1812. Died in 1836. 
 
 See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Ken'yon, (John,) an English poet, born in Jamaica 
 about 1783, inherited an ample fortune. He published 
 "A Day at Tivoli, with other Poems." Died in 1S56. 
 
 See "Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1838; "North 
 American Review" for April, 1S39, (by Prbscott.) 
 
 Kenyon, (Lloyd,) Lord, an eminent English law- 
 yer, and chief justice of the king's bench, was born at 
 Greddington, in Flintshire, October 5, 1732. He be- 
 came in 1754 a member of Lincoln's Inn, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1761. With too high a sense 
 of honour to employ artifice, and having no influential 
 friends to assist him, several years elapsed before he 
 obtained practice! In 1779 he distinguished himself by 
 his able defence of Lord George Gordon, on trial for 
 treason. Three years later he was made attorney-general. 
 In 1 788 he was appointed chief justice of the king's bench 
 and was raised to the peerage, with the title of Lord Ken- 
 yon, Baron Greddington. He died in 1802, after having 
 amassed a large fortune. Lord Kenyon was generally 
 
 a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, \,q,obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; not; good; moon; 
 
KEOGH 
 
 1319 
 
 KERCKHERDERE 
 
 popular, though his extremely parsimonious habits, added 
 to his overbearing and haughty manner towards the bar- 
 risters as well as towards his associate judges, made him 
 no favourite with the members of his profession. As a 
 justice, he was distinguished for his strict adherence to 
 the letter of the law, and for his impartial severity upon 
 offenders of eveiy rank. 
 
 Sec Lord Camphell, " Lives of the Chief Justices:" "Sketch 
 of the Life, etc. of Lord Keuyon," London, 1S02 ; Foss, "The Judges 
 of England." 
 
 Keogh, ka'oH, ? (William,) an Irish lawyer, born at 
 Galway in 1S17. He published "The Practice of the 
 Court of Chancery in Ireland." In 1856 he became a 
 judge of the common pleas. 
 
 Kepler, kfp'ler, or Keppler, (Lat. Kepi.e'rus,] 
 (Johann,) a celebrated German astronomer, born at or 
 near Weil, in Wiirtemberg, on the 27th of December, 
 1571. His father, Henry Kepler, lost nearly all his prop- 
 erty by becoming surety for a friend, and was reduced 
 to the position of tavern keeper at Elmendingen. About 
 1586 he entered the monastic school of Maulbronn, 
 where he was educated at the expense of the Duke of 
 Wiirtemberg. He continued his studies at Tubingen, 
 which lie quitted in 1591 with the degree of master. 
 In 1594 he was appointed professor of mathematics at 
 Gratz, in Styria. He published, under the title of 
 " Mysterium Cosmographicum," (1596,) an account of 
 his inquiries and speculations in relation to the number, 
 distances, and periodic times of the planets. In 1597 he 
 married a widow named Barbara von Muller. Kepler 
 and the other Protestant professors were driven from 
 Gratz by persecution about 1600. He visited Tycho 
 Brahe, who then resided near Prague, and who intro- 
 duced him to the emperor Rudolph. At the request of 
 Rudolph, he began to assist Tycho in the formation of 
 astronomical tables. 
 
 On the death of Tvcho, in October, 1601, Kepler suc- 
 ceeded him as principal mathematician to the emperor, 
 with a salary of 1500 florins, and inherited his unpub- 
 lished observations. He published in 1604 an important 
 contribution to the science of optics, entitled a "Supple- 
 ment to Vitellio." After he obtained the patronage of 
 the emperor he resided for some years at Linz. In 1609 
 he produced his greatest work, "Astronomia nova, seu 
 Physica celestis tradita Commentariis de Motibus Stellae 
 Martis," in which he announced two of the laws which 
 regulate the periods and motions of the planets, and 
 which are known as Kepler's Laws. These are : 1, that 
 the orbits of the planets are elliptical ; 2, the radius- 
 vector, or line extending from a planet to the sun, de- 
 scribes or passes over equal areas in equal times ; 3, the 
 squares of the periodic times of planets are proportional 
 to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. 
 "These laws constitute undoubtedly," says Sir John 
 Herschel, "the most important and beautiful system of 
 geometrical relations which have ever been discovered 
 by a mere inductive process, independent of any con- 
 sideration of a theoretical kind. They comprise within 
 them a compendium of the motions of all the planets, 
 and enable us to assign their places in their orbits at any 
 instant of time, past or to come." "This beautiful and 
 simple law," says Professor Playfair, in reference to the 
 third law, " had a value beyond what Kepler could pos- 
 sibly conceive ; yet a sort of scientific instinct instructed 
 him in its great importance. He has marked the year 
 and the day when it became known to him : it was on 
 the 8th of May, :6t8." His third law was discovered 
 with infinite satisfaction in 1618, and announced in his 
 " Harmonice Mundi," (1610,) the title and contents of 
 which recall the ideas of Pythagoras on celestial har- 
 mony. Kepler imagines that in this music of the spheres 
 Saturn and Jupiter perform the bass, Mars the tenor, 
 and the Earth and Venus the hautc-contre. He con- 
 sidered the sun to be the source of motion as well as of 
 light and heat. The treasury of the emperor was so 
 exhausted by war that Kepler could not obtain the pay- 
 m nt of his salafy and often felt the pressure of poverty. 
 Aftr the death of Rudolph, (1612,) he was appointed 
 pro esaor of mathematics at I.inz. His first wife having 
 died he married Susanna Rettinger, about 1614. In 
 1620 he was visited by Sir Henry Wotton, an English 
 
 ambassador, who invited him to remove to England : 
 but he declined. He expended the labour of several 
 years on his " Rudolphine Tables," which were published 
 in 1627 and were highly prized. Among his important 
 works is his " Dioptrica," (1611,) in which he describes 
 the astronomical telescope with two convex lenses. The 
 invention of this form of telescope is ascribed to him. 
 Kepler was so devoted to science, and had so little re- 
 gard for riches, except those of the mind, that he used 
 to say he would rather be the author of the works he 
 had written than possess the duchy of Saxony. He died 
 at Ratisbon in November, 1630, leaving four sons and 
 three daughters. 
 
 See Drinkwater Bethune, " Life of Kepler," in the " Library 
 of Useful Knowledge;" BrkitsCHWerd, " Keplers Leben und Wir- 
 ken," 1831 : Sir David BrSWSTER, "Martyrs of Science," 1841; 
 Arago, " Notices biographiques," tome ii. ; 1)r. F. Hoefer. article 
 in the " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale :" " Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 view" for June, 1835; "Atlantic Monthly" for April, i860. 
 
 Kepler, (Ludwig,) a German physician, son of the 
 preceding, was born at Prague in 1607. He practised 
 at Hale, Strasburg, and Konigsberg, and wrote several 
 works. Died in 1663. 
 
 Keplerus. See Kepler, (Johann.) 
 
 Kep'pel, (Augustus,) an English admiral, son of 
 William, Earliof Albemarle, was born in 1725. In 1761, 
 as commander of a small squadron, he captured Belle- 
 Isle, and the following year was created rear-admiral of 
 the blue. In 1778 he became admiral. He was subse- 
 quently raised to the peerage, as Viscount Keppel, Baron 
 Eldcn, and was twice appointed first lord of the admi- 
 ralty. He was Accused by Sir Hugh Palliser of neglect 
 of duty in an action against the French in July, 1778, and 
 was tried by a court-martial, by which he was honourably 
 acquitted. Died in 1786. 
 
 See "Life of Viscount Keppel," by Thomas Keppri.; Kippis, 
 "Life of Lord Anson;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1842 
 
 Keppel, Earl of Albemarle. See Albemarle. 
 
 Keppel, (George Thomas,) an English officer, born 
 in 1799, was a son of the Earl of Albemarle. He was 
 elected to Parliament in 1832 and in 1847. He published 
 a "Journey across the Balkan." 
 
 Keppel, (Sir Henry,) an English naval officer, a 
 younger son of the Earl of Albemarle, was born in 1809. 
 He became a captain about 1837, and commanded the 
 naval forces operating against China in 1857-58. He 
 wrote a work entitled "An Expedition to Borneo." 
 
 Keppler. See Kepler. 
 
 Ker, ker or kar, (John,) of Kersland, a Scottish 
 philologist, was professor of Hebrew at Edinburgh, lie 
 was employed as a political agent by William III., and 
 published " Memoirs and Secret Negotiations," (3 vols., 
 1726.) 
 
 Ker, (John,) an eminent bibliographer, born in London 
 in 1740, was the son of Robert, Duke of Roxburgh, whom 
 he succeeded in 1755 in the Scottish dukedom, and also in 
 the British peerage as Earl and Baron Ker of Wakefield. 
 He died in 1804. In the accumulation of his library, 
 which is said to have been the most valuable private 
 collection in Great Britain, he exhibited remarkable 
 industry and rare judgment. The sale of these books 
 after his death produced a great sensation in the lite- 
 rary world. One — " 11 Decamerone di Boccaccio" — was 
 sold for ,£2250. 
 
 Ker, (ROBERT.) See Carr. 
 
 Ker Porter. See Porter, (Robert Ker.) 
 
 Keralio, de, d?h keh-ri'le'o', (Louis I'ei.ix Guine- 
 ment — gen'mc-N',) a French officer and litterateur, born 
 in Brittany in 1731. He wrote, besides ether works, 
 one upon the "General Principles of Tactics." Died in 
 
 '7<>3- 
 
 Keratry, de, deh ka'rt'tRe', (Auguste Hilarion,) 
 a French litterateur and statesman, born at Rennet in 
 1769. He was twice chosen a member of the Chamber 
 of Deputies, in 1818 and in 1827, and was made a peer in 
 1837. Among his principal works are " Moral and Physi- 
 ological Inductions," (181 7,) and several romances and 
 poems. Died in 1859. 
 
 See Ql'BRARD, " La France LitteVaire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate. " 
 
 Kerckherdere, k?Rk'heVdeh-reh, (Jan Geraart,) 
 a Dutch philologist itnd theologian, born near Maestricht 
 
 e as <•; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (J3^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KERCKHOVE 
 
 1320 
 
 KETBOGA 
 
 about 1678. He was professor at Louvain, and wiote 
 several works. Died in 1738. 
 
 Kerckhove, van deu, vin d?n keRk'ho'veh, (Jan 
 Polyander,) a Protestant theologian, of Dutch extrac- 
 tion, born at Metz in 1568. In 1609 he was appointed 
 to the chair of theology in the University of I.eyden, of 
 which he was subsequently chosen rector eight times. 
 Died in 1646. 
 
 Kerckhove, van den, written also Kerckchove, 
 (Joseph,) an able Flemish painter, born at Bruges in 
 1669. He painted sacred history. Died in 1724. 
 
 Kerckring, keuk'ring, (Theodorus,) a physician and 
 anatomical writer, born at Amsterdam ; died in 1693. 
 
 Kereem- (Kerim- or Keryra-) Khan, kcr-eem' Kin, 
 became sovereign of Persia in 1750. He was an able 
 warrior, lawgiver, and statesman. Died about 1780. 
 
 Kerguelen-Tremarec, de, deli keVga'lSN' tRa'mS'- 
 rek', (Ives Joseph,) a celebrated French navigator, born 
 at Quimper, in Brittany, in 1745. Having previously 
 visited the North Sea, he set out in 1771 on a voyage to 
 the South Sea, and the following year discovered, in 498 
 south latitude, the island to which Captain Cook gave, 
 in 1776, the name of Kerguelen's Land. He published 
 a "Narrative of a Voyage to the North Sea and the 
 Shores of Iceland, Greenland," etc., (1771,) and "An 
 Account of Two Voyages in the South Sea and the 
 Indies," (1782.) Died in 1797. 
 
 Kerhallet, de, deh ki'ii'lj', (Charles Philippe,) 
 a French hydrographer, born in Brittany in 1809. He 
 became a captain in the navy, and was employed many 
 years in surveying the coast of Africa. lie published a 
 " Manual fur the Navigation of the West Coast of Africa," 
 (3 vols., 1853.) Died in Paris in 1S63. 
 
 Keri, ka'ree, (Francis Borgia,) a historian and Jesuit, 
 born at Zemplin, in Hungary, wrote a " History of the 
 Empire of the East." Died in 1769. 
 
 Keri, (John or JAnos,) a learned Hungarian bishop, 
 who wrote " Ferocia Martis Turcici," a history of the 
 different Turkish invasions of Hungary. Died in 1685. 
 
 Kerim-Khan. See KereemKhan. 
 
 Keri, keid, (Johann Caspar,) a German composer 
 and organist, born in Saxony in 1625. He was chapel- 
 master to the Elector of Bavaria. Died about 1685. 
 
 Kern, keitu, (J. Conrad,) a Swiss statesman of the 
 Liberal party, was born at Berlingen in 1808. He be- 
 came president of the Federal Tribunal in 1850. 
 
 Kern, kei<n, (Vincenz,) a skilful German surgeon, 
 bom at Gratz in 1760. He became professor of surgery 
 in the University of Vienna, and is said to have intro- 
 duced important reforms in the practice of surgery. He 
 published several professional works. Died in 1829. 
 
 Kernell, keit'nel, (Pehr Ulrik,) a Swedish litterateur, 
 born in 1797; died in 1824. 
 
 Kerner, keVner, (Andreas Justinus,) a German 
 lyric poet, born at Ludwigsburg in 1786. He published 
 in 1811 "Travelling Shadows, by the Magic-Lantern 
 Player," a work of great humour and originality. His 
 "Visionary of Prevorst" (1829) had great success. 
 
 See a long notice of Kerner in Hknri Blaze's " E*crivains et 
 Poetesde l'Alleinagne," 1851 ; "Nouvelle liiographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Keroual, keYioo-Sl', or Querouaille, ka'roo'SP or 
 k&'roo'S'ye, (Louise Penhoet,) Duchess of Portsmouth, 
 a mistress of Charles II. of England, was born in France 
 about 1652. She went to England as maid of honour to 
 Henriette, the queen of Charles I., and received the title 
 of Duchess of Portsmouth in 1673. She is said to have 
 used her influence to promote the designs of Louis XIV. 
 Died in 1734. 
 
 See Evelyn, "Diary;" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV." 
 Kerr, ker or kar, (Robert,) a Scottish surgeon and 
 scientific writer, born about 1755, was a member of the 
 Royal and Antiquarian Societies of Edinburgh. Among 
 his works are " The Animal Kingdom or Zoological 
 System of Linnaeus," "The Natural History of Quad- 
 rupeds and Serpents," and a "History of Scotland during 
 the Reign of Robert Bruce." The first and second are 
 translations. Died in 1813. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Kersaint. See Duras, de, (Claire Lechat.) 
 Kersaint.de, deh kcVsaN', (ArmandGui Simon,) 
 Count, a French naval commander, born in Paris about 
 
 1741. After the commencement of the Revolution he 
 made his residence in Paris, where he became a member 
 of the Jacobin Club. He afterwards joined the Girondists, 
 and, as a member of the Convention, boldly opposed the 
 execution of the king and the extreme measures of the 
 Jacobins. He was proscribed and executed in Decem- 
 ber, 1793. 
 
 Kersenbrock, ker'sen-bitok', (Hermann,) aGcnn.in 
 historian, born in the county ,of Lippe in 1526. His chief 
 work is a " History of the Anabaptists of Minister," (in 
 Latin.) Died in 1585. 
 
 Ker'sey, (John,) an English mathematician, lived in 
 the reign of Charles II., and wrote a work on Algebra, 
 
 (1673-) 
 
 Kersseboom, keRs'seh-bom , (Willem,) a Uutch 
 statistician, born in 1691, wrote a number of valuable 
 works on population, mortality, etc. Died in 1771. 
 
 See Hkiisciiling, "Notice sur la Vie de Kersseboom," 1857; 
 " Nouvelle liiographie GeneVale." 
 
 Kervillars, de, deh keit've'ya'R', (Jean Marie,) a 
 French Jesuit, born at Valines in 1668. He produced a 
 version of Uvid's Elegies, (1724.) Died in 1745. 
 
 Kesava, ka'sa-va, written also Cesava and Kecava, 
 [from the Sanscrit word iesd, "hair," probably cognate 
 with the Latin casaries, having the same signification,] 
 {i.e. "having beautiful hair,") an epithet of Krishna, 
 (which see ;) also, a surname of Booddha. 
 
 Kessel, van, vin kes'sel, (Ferdinand,) a distin- 
 guished painter, born at Antwerp in 1660, was patronized 
 by John Sobieski, King of Poland, and William III. of 
 England. His death is variously dated in 1696 and about 
 1710. 
 
 See Pilkington, " Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Kessel, kes'sel, or Kessels, van, vSn kes'sels, (Jan,) 
 the Elder, a Dutch artist, born at Antwerp in 1626, 
 excelled in painting animals, fruits, and flowers. His 
 portraits and landscapes were also of superior merit. 
 He was the father of the preceding. Died about 1692. 
 
 Kessel, van, (Jan,) the Younger, the son, or, ac- 
 cording to some writers, the nephew, of the preceding, 
 was born at Antwerp about 1648. He was one ol the 
 best portrait-painters of his time ; and some of his works 
 have been mistaken for those of Van Dyck. Having 
 visited Spain, he was appointed in 1686 court painter to 
 Charles II. His portraits of the two queens of Charles 
 and that of Philip V. of Spain are ranked among his 
 master-pieces. Died in 1708. 
 
 See Pilkington, "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Kessel, van, (Nicolaas,) a painter, bom at Antwerp 
 in 1684, was a nephew of Ferdinand, noticed above; He 
 adopted the style of David Teniers. Died in 1741. 
 
 Kessel, van, (Theodorus,) a Flemish engraver, born 
 at Antwerp about 1620, engraved some works of Rubens, 
 and historical subjects after several Italian masters. 
 
 Kessels, kes'sels, (Matthias,) one of the most dis- 
 tinguished Dutch sculptors of recent times, was bom at 
 Maestricht in 1784. Among his best works are a colossal 
 scene from the Deluge, a " Madonna," a "Cupid sharp- 
 ening his Arrow," ahd a "Discobolus." Died at koine 
 in 1836. 
 
 See Filippo Gekardi, " Vita di M. Kessels," 1837 ; Nagi.er, 
 " Allgemeines kiin^iitr-Lexikon." 
 
 Kestner, kest'ner, (Christian Wilhelm,) a German 
 physician, born in Thui ingia in 1694, published " Biblio- 
 theca Meclica," (1746.) Died in 1747. 
 
 Ket or Kett, (Kcuiekt,) a tanner, of Norfolk county, 
 England, was the chief leader in a rebellion which 
 occurred in 1549, during the protectorate of Somerset. 
 After several considerable successes, he was at length 
 defeated by Dudley, Earl of Warwick. Soon alter he 
 was taken prisoner and hung at Norwich Castle. Ket's 
 rebellion — or, as it is commonly called, the Norfolk re- 
 bellion — was "remarkable," says Froude, "among other 
 things, for the order which was observed among the 
 people during seven weeks of lawlessness." (" History 
 of England," vol. v. chap, xxvi.) 
 
 Ket, (William,) of Norfolk, an Englfsh rebel, brother 
 of the preceding, was one of the leaders of the insurgents 
 who took Norwich. He was hanged in 1549. 
 
 Ketboga or Ketbogha, ket-bo'ga, a Mongolian by 
 birth, and Sultan of Kgypt, was brought to that country 
 
 a, e, i, 5, 6, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ft, y\ short; a, e, i, 0, ooscure; far, fill, lit; met; n6t; good ; moon; 
 
KETCHUM 
 
 1321 
 
 KHALEEL 
 
 as a slave in a.d. 1288. He rapidly rose in rank, and 
 finally made himself the sovereign of Egypt in 1294. In 
 1296 he was driven from the country by his favourite 
 Lajeen, (Lajin or Ladjyn,) who succeeded him. 
 
 Ketch'um, (William Scott, ) an American officer 
 in the Union army, born at Norwalk, Connecticut, in 
 1813. He served in the Mexican war, and in 1862 was 
 made brigadier-general of volunteers. 
 
 Ketel, ka'tel, (Cornelis,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 Gouda in 1548. Me commenced his studies in Paris; 
 but, being a Protestant, he was soon driven from France 
 by Charles IX. About 1574 he went to England, where 
 he painted the portraits of Queen Elizabeth and of 
 several English noblemen. Died after 1602. Among 
 his pictures is " Force Conquered by Wisdom," which 
 he painted in England. 
 
 See Pilkington, "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Ketelaer, ka'teh-lSR', (Nicolaas,) one of the earliest 
 of Dutch printers, nourished at Utrecht about 1480. 
 
 Kett, (HeMRY,) a learned English divine and author, 
 born at Norwich in 1761, graduated at Oxford in 1783. 
 He was drowned, while bathing, in 1825. Among his 
 works are "History the Interpreter of Prophecy," (3 
 vols., 1798-99,) "Elements of General Knowledge," (3 
 vols., 1802,) and " Flowers of Wit," (1814.) 
 
 Kett, (Robert.) See Ket. 
 
 Kettlewell, ket'tel-wel, (John,) an English nonjuring 
 divine, born in Yorkshire in 1653. He published in 
 1678 "Measures of Christian Obedience," which was 
 highly esteemed. He became rector of Coleshill about 
 16S2, refused to take the oath of allegiance to William 
 III. in 1689, and was ejected. His "rare integrity" is 
 commended by Macaulay. Died in 1695. 
 
 See Nelson, " Life of Kettlewell," 1718. 
 
 Kettner, ket'ner, (Friedrich Ernst,) a German 
 writer on history and theology, born at Stollberg in 
 1 67 1 ; died in 1722. 
 
 Ketu, ka'too, or K6tus, ka'toos, [perhaps etymologi- 
 cally related to the Greek K-riToe, a "sea-monster,"] a 
 monster of the Hindoo mythology; in astronomy, the 
 dragons tail, or descending node. (See Rahu.) 
 
 Keuchen, ko'Ken, (Robert,) a poet and historical 
 writer, born at Geldern, flourished about 1660. 
 
 Keulen, van, ytn ko'len or kuh'len, (Janszons,) a 
 Dutch painter, born in 1580. He was employed in Eng- 
 land by Charles I., and afterwards fixed his residence at 
 the Hague. Died in 1665. 
 
 Keulen, van, (Luihh.ph,) a Dutch mathematician, 
 born at Hildesheim. Me wrote a treatise on the circle, 
 (" Van den Cirkel," 1596,) and "Geometrical Problems." 
 Died at Leyden in 1610. 
 
 Keux, Le. See Lk Keux. 
 
 Kew, written also K'ew and Kieou, one of the names 
 given to Confucius. 
 
 See Lkgce's " Life and Teachings of Confucius," ch. v. p. 58. 
 
 Kexler, kels'ler, (Simon,) a Swedish scholar, born in 
 1602, wrote various mathematical works. Died in 1669. 
 
 Key. See Caius. 
 
 Key, (Francis Scott,) an American jurist and poet, 
 born in Frederick county, Maryland, in 1779. Having 
 removed to Washington, he became district-attorney of 
 the District of Columbia. Me was the author of the 
 popular national song of "The Star-Spangled Banner," 
 and a number of other poems. Died in 1843. 
 
 Key. (THOMAS HjtWITT,) an English philologist, born 
 near London in 1799. Having graduated at Cambridge, 
 he w;is invited in 1824 to fill the chair of mathematics in 
 the University of Virginia, then recently founded. Alter 
 his return he became, in 1828, professor of Latin in the 
 University of London. Among his principal winks are 
 a " 1 .atin Grammar," (1846,) and numerous valuable con- 
 tributions to the " Fenny Cyclopaedia" and the "Journal 
 of Education." He has been many years engaged on 
 a Latin-English dictionary. 
 
 Key, ki, (Wili.em,) a portrait-painter, born at Breda, 
 in the Netherlands, in 1520; died in 1 568. 
 
 Keyes, keez, (ERASMUS IX, ) an American general, 
 bom in Massachusetts about 1S1 1, graduated at West 
 Point in 1832. Me became a colonel in the regular army 
 in 1861, and commanded a brigade at Bull Run, July 21. 
 
 He commanded a corps at the battle of Fair Oaks, May 
 31, 1862, and at other battles in June of that year. 
 
 Keying, kfing', or Ky-In, kl'in', a Chinese diplo- 
 matist, negotiated with the English the treaty of Nankin 
 in 1842, after which he was governor of Canton. He 
 favoured a friendly policy towards Europeans, and was 
 disgraced by Hien-Fung in 1850, but restored in 1852. 
 
 Keylhau, kil'how, (Eberhart,) a painter, known in 
 Italy under the name of Monsu Bernardo, was born 
 at Helsingor, in Denmark, in 1624. After studying under 
 Rembrandt, he went to Rome, where he died 111 1687. 
 
 Keyser, de, deli kl'zer, (Nicaise,) an eminent Belgian 
 painter, was born near Antwerp in 1813. In 1836 he 
 exhibited at Brussels his picture of "The Battle of the 
 Golden Spurs." Among his other works are "The Battle 
 of Wceringen," one of the most admired works of the 
 Belgian school, "The Antiquary," and a "Crucifixion." 
 
 Keyser, van, vtn kl'zer, sometimes written De 
 Keyser, (Hendrik,) a Dutch architect and sculptor, 
 born at Utrecht in 1565. In 1619 he completed the 
 monument of William I., Prince of Orange. Died in 
 1621. 
 
 Keyser, van, (Theodorus,) a skilful L utch portrait- 
 painter, flourished about 1630-50. 
 
 Keyserling, von, fon ki'zet-ling', (Tp ierry,) a Prus- 
 sian general and litterateur, born in C< inland in 1698, 
 was a friend of Frederick the Great. Tied in 1745. 
 
 See If aui-kktuis, "£*Ioge de Keyserling." 
 
 Keysler, kls'Ier, (JoHANN Georg,) a German anti- 
 quary, born at Thurnau in 1683. He published "Travels 
 in Germany, Italy," etc., (2 vols., 1741,) and other works. 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 See HXbeklin, " Keysler's Leben," 1743. 
 
 Khadijah, Khadeejah, or Khadidja, Ka-dee'ji, [in 
 German, CHADIDSCHA,] written also Chadijah, a rich 
 widow of Mecca, who married Mohammed the prophet. 
 At the time of their marriage she was about forty years 
 of age, while he was only twenty-five. She bore him eight 
 children, all of whom died young except Fatimah, who 
 became the wife of his cousin and favourite, Alee, (AH,) 
 the son of Aboo-Talib. (See Mohammed.) 
 
 Khadyjah. See Khadijah. 
 
 Khaisang, k'ln'sang', surnamed Woo-tsoong, (the 
 " Honourable Warrior,") called by the Tartars Kaishan- 
 Kulluk-Khan, ki'shan' kdol'look kSu, a sovereign of 
 the Mongolian dynasty, succeeded to the imperial throne 
 of China A.D. 1308, at the age of twenty-nine. Me was 
 distinguished for his abilities as a commander, and for 
 his patronage of men of letters. Died A.D. 131 1. 
 
 Khalaf, Ka-lSf, ascended the throne of Seistan, in 
 Eastern Persia, about A.D. 963. He was a bold and skil- 
 ful warrior and an able diplomatist, but was treacherous, 
 cruel, and tyrannical. After a reign of forty years, he 
 was conquered by the emperor Mahmood of Ghazna, 
 who imprisoned him till his death, a.d. 1008. 
 
 See Malcolm, "History of Persia." 
 
 Khaled or Chaled, Ka'led, written also Caled, a 
 celebrated Arabian general, bom in '582 A.D. In the 
 third year of the Hejrah he completely routed the army 
 of Mohammed at the battle of Ohod. Me subsequently 
 embraced the Moslem faith, gained numerous important 
 victories over its enemies, and received from the prophet 
 the title of "The Sword of God." Eastern writers asciibe 
 to this warrior almost superhuman valour, which, how- 
 ever, was often stained with cruelty. Died about 642 A.D. 
 
 See OctCLKY, "Histmyn! tin.- Saracrns ;" K.I.HMCIN, "Hisloiia 
 Saracer.nruin :'' Aiiooli-mm, "Annales Mnsleniici.'' 
 
 Khaled-Ben |or-Ibn) -Barmek. See Uarmi < ides. 
 
 Khaleel (Khalil) or Chalil, Ka-leeF, (Aboo-Abd- 
 er-Rahman, a'bdoabd-cr-raii'nian,) a celebrated Arabic 
 gr amm arian of Kassora, bom about 719 a.d. ; died in 786. 
 
 Khaleel, (Khalil,) surnamed Mi 1.1 k- \i Amiraf, 
 mel'ik al-ash'raf, (i.e. the "Illustrious King,") eighth 
 Sultan of Egypt and Syria, succeeded his father Kelaoon 
 (Kclaun) A.D. 1290. Me took Acre from the European 
 Christians, whom he finally drove from Syria. IK was 
 assassinated by his aniens, a.d. 120;. 
 
 Khaleel- (Khalil- or Chalil-) Beg, Ka-U< 1' beg, of 
 
 the Turkoman dynasty, succeeded his father, lln/i on 
 
 (Uzun) Hassan, on the throne of Persia, A.D. 147S. Mis 
 
 live cruelty and oppression caused several revolts 
 
 * as k: c, as 1; g hara; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jr,jr"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KHAIEEL 
 
 1322 
 
 KHOSROO 
 
 among his subjects, during one of which he was slain 
 on the field of battle. 
 
 Khaleel ( Khalil or Chalil) Pasha, grand vizier to 
 the Ottoman Sultan Amurath II. In 1444 he gained 
 at Vaina a decisive victory over the Christian allies. 
 In this battle Ladislaus, King of Hungary, fell. Upon 
 the accession of Mahomet II. Khaleel still retained his 
 power, and commanded the Turkish army at the capture 
 of Constantinople, in 1453. He was a few days after 
 condemned on a charge of bribery, and executed. 
 
 Khalil. See Khai.eel. 
 
 Khallikan. See Ihn-Khai.likan. 
 
 Khang-Hee, (or -Hi,) k'hanghee, Emperor -of China, 
 of the dynasty of the Mantchoo Tartars, was born about 
 1653 a.d. He succeeded his father, Shun-Chee, (Chun- 
 tchl,) at the age of seven years. In 1675 he quelled a 
 formidable rebellion raised against him by the Chinese 
 under Oo-san-Kwei. He afterwards carried on success- 
 ful wars against the neighbouring nations, and reduced 
 nearly all the princes of Tartary to vassalage. Historians 
 speak in the highest terms of the justice, candour, libe- 
 rality, and tolerant spirit of this monarch. Died in 1722. 
 
 See Bouvet, "Life of Cang-Hy, Present Emperor of China," 
 London, 1699; Mailla, " Histoire g^n^rale de la Chine;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge^terale." 
 
 Khatchadoor, Khatchadour, or Khatchadur, 
 
 Ka-cha-doou', an Armenian poet and bishop, born at 
 Caesarea, in Cappadocia, about 1600. His poems are 
 chiefly of a religious and moral character. 
 
 Khatchig (Ka'chig) I. was elected Patriarch of Ar- 
 menia in 972. He founded numerous monasteries, and 
 encouraged literature and the fine arts. Died in 992. 
 
 Khatchig II., sometimes written Khatchadoor, be- 
 came Patriarch of Armenia in 1058. He was imprisoned 
 at Constantinople by Constantine Ducas, who afterwards 
 banished him to Cappadocia. Died in 1064. 
 
 Khell, kSI, (Joseph von Khellhukg,) a German 
 numismatist, born at Linz in 1714, published several 
 works in Vienna. Died in 1772. 
 
 Khemnitzer, (Ivan Ivanovitch.) See Chem- 
 
 NITZKR. 
 
 Kheraskof or Kheraskov, Ker'as-kof, [written, in 
 German, Cheraskow,] (Michael Matvievitch,) a 
 distinguished Russian poet, born in 1733. Among his 
 principal works may be mentioned " Rossi ada," (1785,) 
 an epic on the event of the Russians liberating them- 
 selves from their Tartar oppressors. Died in 1807. 
 
 Khevenhuller, Ka'ven-huTler, (Franz Christoph,) 
 a German historian, born in 1589, rose to be imperial 
 minister of state. He wrote "Annales Ferdinandei," a 
 history of the reign of Ferdinand II. Died in 1650. 
 
 Khilkof or Khilkov, Kil'kof, (Andrei Yakof Le- 
 VITCH,) a Russian prince, sent as ambassador to Sweden 
 by Peter the Great in 1700. War having been soon 
 after declared between the two countries, Charles XII. 
 ordered Khilkof to be thrown into prison. During his 
 confinement of eighteen years he wrote his celebrated 
 " History of Russia." He died at the isle of Aland, on 
 his return to Russia, in 1718. 
 
 Khlesl, klesl, (Melchior,) a German cardinal, born 
 at Vienna in 1553, became first minister of the emperor 
 Matthias, whom he had assisted in usurping the throne 
 of Rudolph II. Died in 1630. 
 
 See Von Hammeh-Purgstall," Leben des Cardinals M. Khlesl," 
 Vienna, 4 vols., 1847-51. 
 
 Khoda-Beudeh, Ko'dah bJn'deh, ( Mohammed, ) 
 sovereign of Persia, of the dynasty of the Sofees, (or 
 Sofys,) began to reign in 1578. He was a weak and 
 effeminate prince. During his reign the Turks and Tar- 
 tars ravaged his dominions. Died about 1587. 
 
 See Malcolm, " History of Persia." 
 
 Khomarooyah or Khomarouyah, Ko-ma-roo'yah, 
 succeeded his father, Ahmed, as Sultan of Egypt and 
 Syria, 884 A.D., at the age of fifteen. He carried on a 
 war with the caliph Mootamed, whom he obliged to sue 
 for peace, and invaded the Greek empire, from which 
 he carried a rich booty. He was assassinated in 896. 
 
 Khomiakof, Ko-me-a'kof, Khomiakov, or Khomi- 
 akow, Ko-me-a'kov,(Ai.EXis Stefanovitch,) a popular 
 Russian poet, born about 1802. He published historical 
 dramas, called " Yermak" (or " Iermak") and "The False 
 
 Demetrius," also lyrical poems, and some able prose 
 works. 
 
 Khondemeer, Khondemir, or Khondemyr, Kon- 
 de-meeR', a surname of Giyaa-ed-Deen* (Giyas- 
 eddin) Mohammed, ge-Sss' ed-deen' 1110-him'med, a 
 Persian historian, and a son of the eminent historian 
 Mirkhond, was born at Herat in the second half of the 
 fifteenth century. He wrote a valuable universal his- 
 tory, extending from the creation to 147 1, also a work 
 called "The Friend of Biographies and Eminent Men," 
 which is highly commended. Died after 1522. 
 
 See Abel Rf.musat, "Melanges Asiatiqnes ;" D'Herbelot, 
 " Bibliotheqne Orientale." 
 
 Khoong-Foo-taze. See Confucius. 
 
 Khoaroo or Khoaru, Kos'roo', written also Khos- 
 rou, Khosrau, Kos'row, and Khosrevy, |Gr. Xooywijc; 
 I.at. Chos'roes,] surnamed in Persian NOUSHIRVAN, 
 now'shlR-vin', or NooshirvAn, (NuschirvvAn,) said to 
 signify " Generous Soul," the greatest of the Sassanide 
 sovereigns, was the son of Kobad, (Cabades,) whom 
 he succeeded on the throne of Persia, a.d. 531. At an 
 early age he displayed extraordinary talents lor govern- 
 ment, and upon his accession to the throne immediately 
 commenced a reform, which the corrupt reign of his 
 father had rendered necessary. By the retrenchment 
 of expenditures, and other means, he greatly improved 
 the state of the finances. He appointed none but the 
 most efficient men to offices ; he established a strict 
 and impartial justice throughout his dominions ; he re- 
 modelled his army, and suppressed the Zendiks, who 
 were promulgating doctrines immoral and dangerous to 
 the state. He also concluded a peace with the emperor 
 Justinian, who paid the Persian monarch ten thousand 
 pounds of gold. He afterwards carried on wars with 
 various Asiatic nations, extending his empire as far as 
 the Indus. Alarmed at the successes of Belisarius in 
 Italy and Africa, he resolved to strike a sudden blow. 
 In 540 he invaded Syria, pillaged and burned several 
 cities, including Antioch, and took a multitude of pris- 
 oners and an immense amount of booty. The next year 
 he was Opposed by Belisarius, one of the greatest gene- 
 rals of that or of any age. The Roman commander, with 
 a small number of ill-disciplined soldiers, succeeded in 
 holding in check the innumerable hosts of Persia. But 
 in 542 this great general was recalled, and Khosroo, 
 having now nothing to fear, went from victory to victory. 
 The war continued until 562, when Justinian purchased 
 a treaty for thirty thousand pieces of gold. Hostilities 
 were again renewed under the emperor Justin, and the 
 King of Persia met at length with a total defeat, in 578, 
 from Justinian, the general of the emperor Tiberius. 
 Khosroo died in 579. The long and beneficent reign of 
 this prince is mentioned by Oriental poets as the golden 
 age of Persia. His virtues, his wise and efficient meas- 
 ures for the welfare of his subjects, his conquests, his 
 liberal encouragement of literature and science, attested 
 by the numerous colleges and libraries which he founded, 
 all rendered it worthy of this eminent distinction. A 
 Pehlvi translation of the celebrated Bidpay or Pilpay 
 Fables of India was made under the auspices of this 
 prince. He was succeeded by Hormisdas IV. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Mirk- 
 hond, "Histoire des Sassanides," translated by De Sacv ; D'Her- 
 belot, " Bibliotheqne Orientale," article " NoiischirvSn ;" Le Beau, 
 " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Khoaroo, Khoaru, or Kho3rau (or Choaroes) H., 
 surnamed Parvkez or ParwIz, par'veez', i.e. the " Gene- 
 rous," son of Hormisdas IV., and grandson of Khosroo 
 I., was raised to the throne of Persia upon the deposition 
 of his father, A.D. 590. He was soon after driven from 
 his capital by the rebel Bahram, and obliged to seek the 
 protection of Maurice, the Emperor of the East. This 
 sovereign, with a powerful army, overthrew the rebels 
 and reinstated Khosroo. In 602 Maurice was assassin- 
 ated by the usurper Phocas. Khosroo immediately took 
 up arms to avenge his death, and by a series of victories 
 in a few years subjugated the greater part of the Greek 
 empire, and at length appeared before the gates of Con- 
 stantinople. Heraclius, the successor of Phocas, having 
 vainly attempted to obtain a favourable peace, resolved 
 
 * Written also Gaiatheddin. See Introduction, p. 15. 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, jf, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
KHOSROO 
 
 '3*3 
 
 K1KKERT 
 
 bravely to meet his foe in the field. He gained repeated 
 victories, and in five years drove the Persians out of 
 every province which they had wrested from the empire. 
 Khosroo was assassinated in 62S. He had married a 
 Christian lady named Shereen, (Shirin,) distinguished for 
 her exquisite beauty. She poisoned herself at his grave. 
 The romantic and unchanging affection of these royal 
 lovers, together with their tragic end, has furnished the 
 subject of many an Oriental poem. 
 
 See Malcolm, "History of Persia;" La Beau, " Histoire du 
 Bas- Empire." 
 
 Khosroo, Khosrou, or Khosru I., King of Armenia, 
 surnamed THE Great, a brave prince and able general, 
 ascended the throne 198 A.D. He conquered the nations 
 of the Khazars and Basiliens, and overran the greater part 
 of the Persian dominions. He was assassinated in 232. 
 
 Khosroo, Khosrou, or Khosru II, the second 
 Christian King of Armenia, and a contemporary and 
 ally of Constantine the Great, ascended the throne in 
 314. Died in 325. 
 
 Khosroo, Khosrou, or Khosru HX was placed 
 upon the throne of Persian Armenia by the King of 
 Persia in 3S7, whilst the legitimate king Arsaces ruled 
 that part of Armenia which belonged to the Romans. 
 Khosroo gained several important victories over the 
 neighbouring nations, and upon the death of Arsaces 
 annexed Roman Armenia to his own dominions. In 392 
 the King of Persia, suspecting Khosroo of the design 
 to render himself independent, took him prisoner, and 
 placed another prince on his throne. After remaining 
 in captivity twenty-one years, he was restored to his 
 kingdom. His death occurred soon after. 
 
 See Le Beau, "Histoire du Bas- Empire." 
 
 Khoung-Fou-Tseu or Khoung-Tseu. See Con- 
 fucius. 
 
 Khowarezmi. See Ai.-Khowarezmi. 
 
 Khulleel. See Khai.eel. 
 
 Kick, kik, (Cornelis,) an artist, celebrated as a 
 painter of flowers and portraits, was born in Amsterdam 
 in 1635 ; died in 1675. 
 
 See PtLKlNGTON, " Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Kidd, (JOHN,) an English chemist, born in 1775, was 
 professor of chemistry, or medicine, at Oxford. He 
 wrote, besides other works, the Bridgewater Treatise 
 "On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical 
 Condition of Man." Died in 1851. 
 
 Kidd, (SAMUEL,) an English Orientalist, bom at Hull 
 in 1801. He went as missionary to Malacca, and after 
 his return was professor of Chinese in the University of 
 London. He published "Illustrations of the Symbols 
 of China," (1841.) Died in 1843. 
 
 Kidd, (WILLIAM,) a notorious American pirate, born 
 about 1650. In 1696 he was intrusted by the British 
 government with the command of a privateer, and sailed 
 from New York for the purpose of suppressing the 
 numerous pirates then infesting the seas. He went to 
 the East Indies, where he began a career of piracy, and 
 returned to New York in 1698 with a large amount of 
 plunder. He was soon after arrested, sent to England 
 for trial, and executed in 1701. 
 
 See a " Historical Sketch of Robin Hood and Captain Kidd," by 
 W. W. Campbell, 1853. 
 
 Kid'der, (Daniel Parish,) D.D., an American 
 Methodist clergyman, born in Genesee county, New 
 York, in 1815. He graduated at the Wesleyan Uni- 
 versity, Connecticut, and in 1836 settled as a pastor at 
 Rochester, New York. In 1837 he went as a missionary 
 to Brazil, where he introduced the Scriptures in the 
 Portuguese language. He published, besides other 
 works, "Sketches of a Residence and Travels in Bra- 
 zil," (1845,) which was republished, with large additions, 
 bv Rev. James C. Fletcher, in 1858. 
 
 Kid'der, (Richard,) a learned English theologian, 
 entered Cambridge University in 1649, and, after various 
 preferments, was appointed 1 lean of Peterborough in 1689. 
 tie was raised by William III. to the see of Bath and 
 Wells in 1691, as successor to Bishop Ken. He wrote 
 "A Commentary on the Pentateuch," a " Demonstration 
 of the Messias," and several other works. Died in 1703. 
 SeeMACAULAY, " History of England," vol. v. ; Wood, "Afhenx 
 Oxonienses." 
 
 Kid'der-min'ster or Kyd'er-myn'ster, (Rich- 
 ard,) an English monk, distinguished as a preacher 
 and scholar, was born in Worcestershire. He published 
 a Latin treatise against the doctrines of Luther. Died 
 in 1 53 1. 
 
 Kiel, (Cornelis van.) See Kii.ian. 
 
 Kielrneyer, von, fon keel'nri'er, (Karl Friedrich,) 
 a German naturalist and professor, born near Tubingen 
 in 1765. He published a "Treatise on the Relations of 
 Organic Forces," (1793.) Cuviei, who was his pupil, 
 speaks of him as the founder of the modern philosophical 
 school. Died in 1844. 
 
 See Von Martius, " Denkrede auf C. F. von Kielrneyer," 1845. 
 
 Kielsen, keel'sen or ke-ei'sen, (Frederic Chris- 
 tian,) a Danish naturalist, born at Copenhagen in 
 1774, wrote on zoology and botany, a "Natural History 
 of Birds," (1810,) and other works. 
 
 Kien-Loong, (or -Lung,) ke-en'ldong, written also 
 Kien-Long, born in 1710, succeeded his father, Yung- 
 Tching, on the imperial throne of China in 1735. lie 
 reduced Calmuck Tartary and Thibet to subjection, and 
 established numerous fortresses throughout his vast em- 
 pire. It was in 1770, during the reign of this emperor, 
 that the Torgoots, a Mongolian tribe numbering about 
 300,000 and inhabiting the country near the Volga, left 
 their homes, and, travelling eastward, after incredible 
 sufferings, finally reached the confines of China. Kien- 
 Loong welcomed them warmly, and allotted them ample 
 territory for their future home. As a prince, he was wise, 
 just, and beneficent. He was noted for his love of lite- 
 rature, and for the liberal encouragement which he gave 
 to learned men of every nation. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Fortia d'Urban, " Discours sur I'Empcreur Kien-Long," 
 1841; Abel Remusat, " Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiqjies," tome 
 ii. ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." For an interesting account 
 of the migration of the Torgoots.see De Quincey, "Narrative and 
 Miscellaneous Papers," etc.. vol. i. 
 
 Kien-Lung. See Kien-Loong. 
 
 Kieou, (pronounced almost kew,) a name given to 
 Confucius in his childhood. (See Confucius.) 
 
 Kiepert, kee'p^Rt, (Heinrich,) a German geogra- 
 pher, born in Berlin in 1818, published a number of 
 excellent maps, among which are the "Atlas of Hellas 
 [Greece] and the Hellenic Colonies," " Maps of Asia 
 Minor," and an "Historical-Geographical Atlas of the 
 Ancient World," (1848.) 
 
 Kierings, kee'rings, (Alexander,) a skilful land- 
 scape-painter, born in Holland in 1590; died in 1646. 
 
 Kierman, keeR'ntan, (Gustaf,) a Swedish patriot, 
 born in 1702. He was elected seven times a member of 
 the Diet. Died in 1766. 
 
 Kiernander or Kjernander, kyeVnan'der, (Johan 
 Zecharias,) a missionary, born in Sweden in 171 1, 
 was sent to India by the English Society for Promoting 
 Christian Knowledge. Died at Calcutta in 1799. 
 
 Kieser, kee'zer, (Dietrich Georg,) a German natu- 
 ralist and medical writer, born at Harburg, in Hanover, 
 in 1779 ; died in 1862. 
 
 Kiesewetter,kee'zeh-wet't?r,(JoHANN Chris 10PH,) 
 a learned German writer, born at Oberweissbach in 1666. 
 He wrote, in Latin, many works. Died in 1744. 
 
 Kiesewetter, (Rafael Georg,) a German writer on 
 music, born in Moravia in 1773. Among his productions 
 are treatises "On the Music of the Modern Greeks" and 
 "On the Music of the Arabians." Died in 1850. 
 
 KiesLing, kees'ling, (Johann RUDOLPH,) a German 
 Protestant theologian, born at Erfurt in 1706; died in 
 1778. 
 
 Kiesling, (LEOPOLD,) an eminent German sculptor, 
 1 m. 11. at Schoneben, in Austria, in 1770. He worked ill 
 Vienna, and became sculptor to the court. Among his 
 works are a bust of the Archduke Charles, and the 
 monument of Von Hammer-l'urgstall. Died in 1827. 
 
 See Naglkr, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Kif'fin or Kif'fen, (WILLIAM,) an English merchant 
 and preacher, born in 1616. He amassed a large fortune 
 by trade, and afterwards became a dissenting minister. 
 Died in 1701. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. ii. chap. vii. 
 
 Kik'ke-rt, (Antoon,) a Dutch admiral, born at Vlie- 
 I land in 1762; died about 1835. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,gnttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KILBOURNE 
 
 "324 
 
 KIMBERLET 
 
 Kilbonrne, kil'burn, (James,) an American pioneer, 
 born in New Britain, Connecticut, in 1770. He organized 
 about 1802 the Scioto Company which settled in Ohio, 
 and was a member of Congress from 1813 to 1817. Died 
 in 1850. 
 
 Kilbye, kil'be, ? (Richard,) an English divine, born 
 at Ratcliffe, in Leicestershire, about 1550. He was pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew at Oxford, and one of the translators 
 of the Bible. Died in 1620. 
 
 Kilbye, (Richard,) an English minister, author of 
 "The Burden of a Loaded Conscience." Died in 1617. 
 
 Kil-dare', (Thomas Fitzgerald,) Earl of, an Irish 
 nobleman, born about 1 5 14, was a son of Gerald, Earl 
 of Kildare. He rebelled against the King of England 
 in 1534, and was taken prisoner, sent to England, and 
 executed at Tyburn in 1537. 
 
 Kilian, kee'le-an' or kil'e-an, (Bartolomaus,) a skil- 
 ful engraver, born in Augsburg in 1630, was the son and 
 pupil of Wolfgang, noticed below. Died in 1696. 
 
 Kilian, kee'le-an, or van Kiel, (vln keel,) (Corne- 
 l.is,) a learned author, born in Brabant. Among his 
 works are an " Etymology of the Teutonic Languages, 
 or a Teutonic-and-Latin Dictionary," and several pieces 
 if Latin poetry. Died in 1607. 
 
 Kilian, (Georg Christoph,) an engraver, born at 
 Augsburg in 1709, was a brother of Philipp Andreas, 
 noticed below. Died in 1 781. 
 
 Kilian, (Lucas,) one of the most distinguished of 
 German engravers, born at Augsburg in 1579- He en- 
 graved with uncommon ease and rapidity. Among his 
 best works are "The Resurrection," by Paul Veronese, 
 and " Christ after Death," by Michael Angelo. Died 
 in j 63 7. 
 
 Kilian, (Philipp Andreas,) an eminent engraver, 
 was born in Augsburg in 1714. Augustus III., King of 
 Poland and Elector of Saxony, appointed him his court 
 engraver, and Kilian executed several designs at Dres- 
 den, though he continued to spend most of his time at 
 Augsburg. Among his works are the "Adoration of 
 the Kings," by Paul Veronese, and portraits of Francis 
 I. and Maria Theresa. Died in 1759. 
 
 See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lc.xikon." 
 
 Kilian, (Wolfgang,) brother of Lucas, noticed above, 
 was born in 1581. He studied engraving at Augsburg 
 and Venice. The most important of his numerous works 
 is the "Celebration of the Westphalian Peace in Augs- 
 burg in 1649," which contains about fifty portraits. Died 
 in 1662. 
 
 See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Kilij- (or Kilidj-) Arslan, kil'lij aR'slin', written 
 •also Kelij-Arslan, I., Sultan of Iconium, began to reign 
 in 1092. He was defeated by the crusaders under God- 
 frey of Bouillon at Nicaea in 1097. In 1101 he gained a 
 complete victory over a large army of crusaders. Having 
 revolted against the Sultan of Persia, he was killed in 
 battle in 1 107. 
 
 See Aboolfeua, "Annales." 
 
 Kilij- (or Kilidj-) Arslan IL, surnamed Azz-ed- 
 Deen or Azzeddyn, iz'ed-deen', (" Splendour of the 
 Faith,") Sultan of Anatolia,commenced his reign at Ico- 
 nium in 1 155 a.D. He carried on long and doubtful 
 wars against the Greek empire, but finally succeeded in 
 annexing several provinces to his dominions. He was 
 distinguished for his skill, energy, and generosity. Died 
 in 1 192. 
 
 See Michaud, " Histoire des Croisades." 
 
 Kil'H-grew, (Anne,) an English lady, to whom Dry- 
 den has addressed his most beautiful elegy, was cele- 
 brated for her virtues and accomplishments. She was 
 the daughter of Dr. Henry Killigrew, and was born in 
 1660. She excelled both as a poetess and as an artist. 
 A volume of her poems was published shortly after 
 her death, which occurred in 1685. She executed por- 
 traits of James II. and his queen, and several historical 
 paintings. 
 
 See Ballard, "Memoirs of Several Ladies of Great Britain," 
 etc. : " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by L. S. Costeu.0, 
 1844. 
 
 Killigrew, (Catherine,) the wife of Sir Henry Kil- 
 ligrew, was born about 1530. She was distinguished for 
 
 her poetical effusions and for her knowledge of the 
 classical and Oriental languages. She was a daughter 
 of Sir Anthony Cooke, and a sister of Lord Bacon's 
 mother. Died in 1600. 
 
 Killigrew, (Dr. Henry,) a dramatist, and a brother 
 of Sir William Killigrew, was born in 1612. He served 
 as chaplain to the Cavaliers, and subsequently gradu- 
 ated as D.D. at Oxford in 1642. He wrote a tragedy, 
 "The Conspiracy," and other works. Died abo it 1688. 
 
 See Wood. " Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Killigrew, (Margaret,) wife of William Cavendish, 
 Duke of Newcastle. She wrote a life of her husband, 
 and several philosophical works. Died in 1673. 
 
 Killigrew, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, born in 
 Middlesex in 161 1, was a page to Charles I. After the 
 commencement of the rebellion he accompanied Charles 
 II. on the continent, and married one of the queen's 
 maids of honour. Upon the restoration he was made 
 groom of the bed-chamber, and, on account of his wit 
 and oddities, became a highly-privileged person at court. 
 He wrote several plays. Died in 1682. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Killigrew, (Sir William,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born in 1605. For his faithful adherence to Charles 
 I. he was knighted at the restoration, and was soon after 
 appointed vice-chamberlain. He wrote several plays, 
 and two works entitled " Midnight and Daily Thoughts" 
 and "Artless Midnight Thoughts of a Gentleman at 
 Court." Died in 1693. 
 
 See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Kilmaine, kil-man', (Charles Joseph,) a general, 
 born in Dublin in 1754, entered the French army, and 
 served with distinction under Bonaparte in Italy. Died 
 in 1799. 
 
 Kilmarnock, Earl of. See Boyd, (William.) 
 
 Kil-pat'rick, (Judson,) an American general, born 
 in New Jersey in 1838, graduated at West Point in April, 
 1861. He served as captain at the battle of Big Bethel, 
 and in the autumn of 1861 became a lieutenant-colonel 
 of cavalry. In 1862 he took part in various operations of 
 the army of the Potomac. He was appointed a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers in May, 1863, after which he was 
 employed in a raid to Richmond for the release of Federal 
 prisoners. He commanded the cavalry of Sherman's 
 army in its march from Atlanta to Savannah, November- 
 December, 1864. 
 
 Kil'vert, (Rev. Francis,) an English scholar and 
 author, born in 1793 ; died in 1863. 
 
 Kilwardeby, kil-ward'bc, (Robert,) an English 
 prelate, became Archbishop of Canterbury in 1272, and 
 cardinal in 1277. Died in 1279. 
 
 Kil-war'den, (Arthur Wolfe,) Lord, an Irish 
 judge, born about 1740. He was called to the bar in 
 1766, became attorney-general in 1789, and chief justice 
 of the king's bench in 1798. He was massacred by a 
 mob of insurgents in Dublin in 1803, during a revolt, of 
 which Robert Emmet was the leader. 
 
 Kim'ball, (Nathan,) an American general, born in 
 Indiana. He commanded a division of the Union army 
 at the siege of Vicksburg, June-July, 1863, and at the 
 battle of Franklin, November, 1864. 
 
 Kimball, (Richard Burleigh,) an American writer 
 and lawyer, born at New Lebanon', New Hampshire, in 
 1818. He graduated at Dartmouth College, and sub- 
 sequently travelled in England and on the continent. 
 Among his principal works are "Reminiscences of an 
 Old Man," "Cuba and the Cubans," (1850,) and "Ro- 
 mance of Student-Life Abroad," (1853.) 
 
 Kim'ber, (Edward,) son of Isaac Kimbcr. born in 
 1 7 19, produced some historical works, and a novel en- 
 titled "Adventures of Joe Thompson." Died in 1769. 
 
 Kimber, (Isaac,) an English dissenting minister, born 
 in Berkshire in 1692. He wrote the Lives of Bishop 
 Beveridge and of Oliver Cromwell, (1714,) and compiled 
 a " History of England," (1745.) Died in 1758. 
 
 Kim'ber-ley, (John Wodkhoitsk,) Karl ok, an 
 English statesman, born in 1826, graduated at Oxford in 
 1847. He was under-secretary of state for foreign affairs 
 from 1852 to 1856, was sent as ambassador to Saint Pe- 
 tersburg in the latter year, and returned in 1858. He 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not- good; moou; 
 
KIMBOLTON 
 
 '3*5 
 
 KING 
 
 was again appointed under-secretary for foreign affairs 
 in June, 1859, resigned in August, 1861, and was lord 
 lieutenant of Ireland from October', 1864, to July, 1866. 
 In June, 1866, he was raised to the peerage, as Earl of 
 Kimberley, and in December, 1868, he was appointed 
 lord privy seal in the new Liljer.il cabinet. 
 
 Kimbolton, Lord. See Manchester, Earl of. 
 
 Kimchi, kim'kee or k&N'she', (DAVID,) an eminent 
 Jewish rabbi, born in the south of France. He is regarded 
 by his nation as the greatest Hebrew grammarian. In 
 1232, on account of his influence and vast erudition, he 
 was appointed by the French and Spanish Jews to decide 
 in a controversy which then existed between them in 
 regard to the doctrines of Maimonides. His principal 
 works are a Hebrew Grammar, a "Dictionary of He- 
 brew Roots," and commentaries on nearly all the books 
 of the Old Testament. Died about 1240. 
 
 See Wolf, " Bibliotheca Hebraica ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge"neV.ile." 
 
 Kimchi, (Joseph,) a learned rabbi, the father of the 
 p r ecedin g, flourished at Narbonne about 1 160. He wrote 
 treatises on grammar. 
 
 Kinaston. See Kynaston. 
 
 Kind, kint, (Johann Friedrich,) a German //ft'/ra/Vttr 
 and poet, born at Leipsic in 1768. He wrote novels, 
 dramas, and poems. His most famous production is the 
 opera " Der Freischiitz," set to music by Weber. Died 
 at Dresden in 1843. 
 
 Kind, (Karl Theodor,) a German writer, distin- 
 guished for his knowledge of the modern Greek language 
 and literature, was born at Leipsic in 1 799. He published, 
 among other works, " Modern Greek Popular Songs in 
 the Original and with a German Translation." 
 
 King, (Charles,) an American journalist, son of 
 Rufus King, noticed below, was born in New York 
 in 17S9. He became in 1823 associate editor of the 
 "New York American," a literary and political journal 
 of a conservative character. He was subsequently one 
 of the editors of the "Courier and Enquirer," in New 
 York, and in 1S49 was chosen president of Columbia 
 College. Died near Rome in 1867. 
 
 King, (EDWARD,) an English poet, who is said to have 
 been the subject of Milton's monody of " Lycidas." He 
 was drowned in 1637, aged about twenty-seven years. 
 
 King, (Edward,) a learned English antiquary and 
 lawyer, born in Norfolk in 1735. In 1767 he was elected 
 a F'ellow of the Royal Society. He wrote, besides other 
 works, "Observations on Ancient Castles," and a treatise 
 on English architecture previous to the Norman con- 
 quest. Died in 1807. 
 
 King, (GREGORY,) an English engraver and writer on 
 heraldry, born at Lichfield about 1648; died in 1712. 
 
 King, (Dr. Henry,) an English divine and poet, born 
 in 1591, became Bishop of Chichester. He wrote " A 
 Poetical Version of the Psalms," "Poems, Elegies, Para- 
 doxes, and Sonnets," (1659,) and various sermons and 
 religious treatises. Died in 1669. 
 
 See Wood, "Athens Oxonienses." 
 
 King, (John,) a clergyman and writer, brother of 
 Bishop Henry King, was born about 1596; died in 1639. 
 
 King, (John,) an English theologian, born in the 
 county of Bucks about 1559, was the father of Henry, 
 noticed above. He became chaplain to Queen Elizabeth, 
 and was an eloquent preacher. In 161 1 he was appointed 
 Bishop of Ijondon. Died in 1621. 
 
 King, (John,) an English divine, born in Cornwall in 
 1652. He preached for some time at Chelsea, and be- 
 came prebendary of York in 1731. Died in 1732. 
 
 His son John, born in 1696, was a physician, and 
 published an edition of the "Orestes," "Hecuba," and 
 "Phcenissae" of Euripides, (1726.) Died in 1728. 
 
 King, (John Crookshanks,) born in Ayrshire, Scot- 
 land, in 1806, emigrated in 1829 to America, where he 
 soon became distinguished as a sculptor. Among his 
 principal works are busts of John Q. Adams, Daniel 
 Webster, and other eminent Americans. 
 
 King, (John Glen,) a clergyman and writer, was born 
 in Norfolk, England, about 1735. He was chosen in 
 1763 chaplain to the English factory at Saint Petersburg. 
 Died in 1787. Of his works maybe mentioned "The 
 Rites and Ceremonies of the Greek Church in Russia; 
 
 containing an Account of its Doctrine, Worship, and Dis- 
 cipline." 
 
 King, (John P.,) an American lawyer, born in Ken- 
 tucky about 1800, was elected by the Democratic part* 
 to the United States Senate in 1833. He was again 
 elected, but resigned before the term was completed. 
 
 King, (.Mitchell,) LED., a distinguished jurist and 
 scholar, born in Scotland in 1783. He removed to 
 Charleston, South Carolina, where he devoted himself 
 to the study of law. He was one of the founders of the 
 Philosophical Society at Charleston, and was appointed 
 in 1819 judge of the city court. 
 
 King, (PETER,) Lord, an eminent lawyer and high 
 chancellor of England, born at Exeter in 1669, was the 
 son of a grocer. His talents and application attracted 
 the attention of his maternal uncle, the celebrated John 
 Locke, through whose influence he was sent to the 
 University of Leyden. After his return to England he 
 studied law, gained admission to the bar, and rapidly 
 rose in his profession. He was elected about 1700 a 
 member of Parliament for Beer-Alston, which seat he 
 retained for several years. In 1708 he was appointed 
 recorder of London, and was knighted. Notwithstand- 
 ing the arduous duties of his profession, King found time 
 to write two able theological works, which alone would 
 have made him celebrated. They are an " Inquiry into 
 the Constitution, Discipline, Unity, and Worship of the 
 Primitive Church," (1691,) (in which he favoured the 
 rights of the Protestant dissenters,) and the "History 
 of the Apostles' Creed, with Critical Observations on its 
 Several Articles," (1702.) In 1 7 14 Sir Peter King was 
 created chief justice of the common pleas, and in 1725 
 was made lord chancellor, and raised to the peerage, as 
 Baron King of Ockham. He was attached to the Whig 
 party. He resigned the seals in 1733, on account of ill 
 health. Died in 1734. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors ;" " Selec- 
 tion from the Speeches and Writings of Lord King;" Foss, "The 
 Judges of England." 
 
 King, (Peter,) Lord, an English statesman, born 
 in 1775, was a great-grandson of the preceding. He 
 entered the House of Lords about 1796, and became a 
 political and personal friend of Charles James Fox. He 
 published a " Life of John Locke," (1829.) He died in 
 1833, leaving a son William, Earl of Lovelace, who 
 married Lord Byron's daughter Ada. 
 
 See Lord Brougham. " Sketches of Statesmen of the Time at 
 George III.," (second series.) 
 
 King, (Peter John Locke,) an English legislator, a 
 son of the preceding, was born at Ockham, Surrey, in 
 1811. He was elected to Parliament in 1847, and ob- 
 tained the repeal of one hundred and twenty sleeping 
 statutes in 1856. 
 
 King, (Philip Parker,) an English navigator, born 
 in the island of Norfolk in 1793. He commanded an 
 expedition sent in 1826 to explore and survey the coasts 
 of South America. The results were published in a 
 "Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S. Ad- 
 venture and Beagle, between the Years 1826 and 1836," 
 (1839.) Died in 1855. 
 
 King, (Preston,) an American statesman, born in 
 Ogdensburg, New York, in 1806. He embraced the 
 profession of law, and was a representative in Congress 
 from 1843 to 1847, and again from 1849 to 1853. He was 
 transferred to the United States Senate in 1853, took an 
 active part in the senatorial debates, and, during the dis- 
 union movement of t86o-6i, advocated a firm adherence 
 to the principles of the Republican party. He was ap- 
 pointed collector of the port of New York about 1864. 
 Died at New York in November, 1865. 
 
 King, (Richard,) an English divine and polemical 
 writer, born in Bristol about 17^0. Among his princi- 
 pal works are "Letters from Abraham Plymley to his 
 Brother Peter on the Catholic Question," and a "Treat- 
 ise on the Inspiration of the Scriptures." Died in 1810. 
 
 King, (Sir Richard,) an English admiral, bom in 
 Dorsetshire in 1771. He rendered important services 
 at the battle of Trafalgar, where he fought as captain, 
 (1805.) He became a vice-admiral in 1821. Died in 1834. 
 
 King, (Rufits,) an American statesman, born in Scar- 
 borough, Maine, in 1755, graduated at Harvard In 1777. 
 
 € as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (Jr^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KING 
 
 1326 
 
 KINGSLET 
 
 He studied law, was admitted to tlie bar in 1780, and 
 became an eloquent pleader. In 1784 he was elected 
 a delegate to the Continental Congress, in which he 
 offered in 1785 a resolution "That there be neither 
 slavery nor involuntary servitude in any of the States 
 described in the resolution of Congress of April, 1784," 
 i.e. the Northwest Territory. He married Mary Alsop, 
 of New York City, in 1786. He took a prominent part 
 in the Convention which in 1787 formed the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States, and became a leader of the 
 Federal party. Having fixed his residence in the city 
 of New York in 1788, he was elected a Senator of the 
 United States in 1789. He advocated Jay's treaty in 
 several eloquent speeches, was re-elected to the national 
 Senate ill 1795, and was appointed minister-plenipoten- 
 tiary to Great Britain in 1796. He performed the duties 
 of this position with much ability for eight years, and 
 retired to private life in 1804. In 1813 he was elected 
 a United States Senator by a legislature of adverse poli- 
 tics. Having been again elected in 1819 or 1820, he 
 continued in that body until 1825, and made an able 
 speech against the extension of slavery on the occasion 
 of the admission of Missouri. He was appointed min- 
 ister to England in 1825, returned about a year later, and 
 died in April, 1827. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. 
 
 King, (Rufus,) an American general, a son of Charles 
 King, noticed above, was born in the city of New York 
 in 1814. He graduated at West Point in 1833, and was 
 employed as an engineer for several years. About 1838 
 he became adjutant-general of New York. He after- 
 wards edited a paper at Milwaukee. He was appointed 
 a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1861, and commanded 
 a division under Generals McDowell and Pope in the 
 summer of 1862. He was minister at Rome from Oc- 
 tober, 1863, to July, 1867. 
 
 King, (Susan Petigru,) an American writer, daugh- 
 ter of James L. Petigru, was born at Charleston, South 
 Carolina. She has published " Busy Moments of an Idle 
 Woman," " Sylvia's World," and other tales of fashion- 
 able life. 
 
 King, (Thomas,) an actor and dramatist, born in 
 London in 1730. Among his productions are " Love at 
 First Sight," "A Peep behind the Curtain, or the New 
 Rehearsal," and " Wit's Last Stake." Died in 1805. 
 
 See " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 King, (T. Butler,) an American politician, born in 
 Hampshire county, Massachusetts, in 1804. He studied 
 law, and removed to Georgia about 1824. He was elected 
 a member of Congress in 1839, 1841, and 1845, and be- 
 came a secessionist in 1861. Died in 1864. 
 
 King, (Thomas Starr,) an American Unitarian di- 
 vine, born in New York in 1824. He became in 1848 
 pastor of the church in Hollis Street, Boston, and in 
 i860 sailed for San Francisco, where he assumed charge 
 of the Unitarian church in that city. He had a high 
 reputation as a lecturer, and published, among other 
 works, "The White Hills: their Legends, Landscapes, 
 and Poetry," (1859.) Died in 1864. 
 
 See "A Tribute to Thomas Starr King," by R. Frothingham. 
 
 King, (William,) a Protestant prelate, was born in 
 Antrim, Ireland, in 1650. He opposed the Catholics 
 under James II., and favoured the Revolution. In 1703 
 he was created Archbishop of Dublin. He wrote "The 
 Inventions of Men in the Worship of God," (1694,) 
 intended to reconcile the Irish Presbyterians to the 
 Episcopal ceremonies, and a treatise, in Latin, on "The 
 Origin of Evil," ("De Origine Mali," 1702,) which was 
 attacked by Bayle and Leibnitz. Died in 1729. 
 
 King, (William,) a learned and satirical writer, born 
 in London in 1663. About 1702 he was appointed in Ire- 
 land to the offices of judge of the admiralty, keeper of the 
 records, and commissioner of prizes. Among his works 
 are " Animadversions upon the Pretended Account of 
 Denmark," (1694,) > n answer to a work by Lord Moles- 
 worth, "The Transactioneer," a satire on the Royal So- 
 ciety, (1700,) and "Original Works in Prose and Verse," 
 (3 vols., 1776.) A Memoir of his life is prefixed to the 
 last. Died in 1712. 
 
 King, (William,) an English writer, born near Lon- 
 don in 1685. Among his works are several Latin tracts 
 on various subjects, and his autobiography, entitled 
 "Political and Literary Anecdotes," (1819,) containing 
 an interesting account of a number of his contemporaries. 
 He was principal of Saint Mary's Hall, Oxford. Died 
 in 1763. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1819; "Monthly Review" 
 for February, 181Q. 
 
 King, (William,) born at Scarborough, Maine, in 
 1768, was president of the convention which framed the 
 Constitution of his native State. He was afterwards 
 elected first Governor of Maine. Died in 1852. 
 
 King, (William Rufus,) an American statesman of 
 the Democratic party, born in Sampson county, North 
 Carolina, in 1786. In 1810 he was elected to Congress. 
 He was United States Senator from Alabama from 1819 
 to 1840, being re-elected four times. He supported 
 General Jackson in the Presidential campaigns of 1824, 
 1828, and 1832, and was appointed minister to France by 
 President Tyler in 1844. He was elected president of 
 the Senate in 1850, and in 1852 Vice-President of the 
 United States. Died in 1853. 
 
 King'Iake, (Alexander William,) an English au- 
 thor and barrister, born at Taunton in 1809, was edu- 
 cated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He 
 was called to the bar in 1837, after which he made a 
 tour in the Levant, and published a book of travel 
 called " Eothen," (1844,) which was highly successful. 
 He accompanied the British army to the Crimea in 1854, 
 and wrote a "History of the Crimean War." In 1857 
 he was elected a member of Parliament. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1S44, and April, 
 1863; " Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1863. and Januaiy, i860; 
 " Edinburgb Review" for April, 1863 ; " North British Review" for 
 May, 1863. 
 
 Kingo, king'o, (Thomas,) a Danish poet and prelate, 
 born at Slangerup in 1634, became Bishop of Fiinen. 
 His sacred poems were highly esteemed by his contem- 
 poraries, and he has been compared by English readers 
 to Dr. Watts. Died in 1723. 
 
 See Longfeu.ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Kingsborough, kingz'biir'eh, (Edward King,) Vis- 
 count, an English antiquary, born in 1795, was a son 
 of the Earl of Kingston. He published "Antiquities of 
 Mexico, comprising Fac-Similes of Ancient Mexican 
 Paintings," etc., (9 vols., 1830 et scq.) Died in 1837. 
 
 Kings'ley, (Calvin,) D.D., an American Methodist 
 clergyman, born in Oneida county, New York, in 1812, 
 became editor of the "Western Christian Advocate", in 
 1856. He was elected a bishop in 1864. Having made 
 a tour round the world, he died on his return, at Jeru- 
 salem, in 1870. 
 
 Kings'ley, (Rev. Charles,) a popular English writer, 
 born at Holne Vicarage, in Devonshire, in June, 1819. 
 He was educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge,' was 
 ordained a briest of Trie Anglican Church in 1843, and 
 became rector of Eversiey, Hampshire, in 1844. About 
 this date he married Miss Grenfell, whose sister is the 
 wife of Froude the historian. He published in 1848 a 
 dramatic poem called "The Saint's Tragedy." He 
 united with his friend the Rev. J. F. D. Maurice in efforts 
 to improve the condition of the working-men by the 
 formation of co-operative associations. His interest in 
 the sufferings and trials of the working-classes in large 
 towns was manifested in his novel of "Alton Locke, 
 Tailor and Poet," (18,5ft) which attracted much attention. 
 In 1853 he produced a philosophical romance entitled 
 " Hypatia," which appeared first in " Fraser's Magazine" 
 and is regarded as one of his most powerful works. 
 He afterwards published "Alexandria and her Schools," 
 "Glaucus; or, The Wonders of the Shore," (1855,) 
 "Two Years Ago," a novel, (1857,) "Westward Ho," 
 and other works. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1S50, June, 1855, 
 and August, 1S58 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1848, and June, 
 1858; " North British Review" for August, 1851. 
 
 Kingsley, (James Luce,) I.L.D., born in Windham, 
 Connecticut, in 1778, graduated at Yale College in 1799, 
 and in 1805 became professor of Hebrew, Latin, and 
 Greek in that institution. He wrote the "Life of Ezra 
 
 a, e. I, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a,$,\,Q,obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; not; good moon; 
 
KINGSMILL 
 
 1327 
 
 KIRCHMA1ER 
 
 Stilts" in Sparks's " American Biography," and pub- 
 lished several educational works. Died in 1S52. 
 
 Kings'mill, (ANDREW,) an English Puritan minister, 
 born at Sidmonton in 1538. lie preached at Oxford and 
 at Geneva, and published several religious works. Died 
 at Lausanne in 1569. 
 
 Kinga'ton, (ELIZABETH Chudi.eigh,) Duchess ok, 
 an English beauty, born in 1720. She was privately 
 married to Harvey, who became Earl of Bristol, and 
 from whom she was soon separated. In 1769 she was 
 again married to the Duke of Kingston. She was tried 
 on a charge of bigamy, and convicted. Died in 1788. 
 
 " An Authentic Detail of Particulars relative to the Duchess 
 of Kingston," London, 17S8. 
 
 Kinkel, kink'el, (Joiiann Gottfried,) a German 
 patriot, poet, and 'writer upon art, born at Oberk'assel in 
 1815. He published in 1846 a " History of the Plastic 
 Art among Christian Nations," and a poem entitled 
 "Otto the Archer." In 1848 he established a journal 
 called " Spartacus," in which he was a zealous advocate 
 of democratic principles. Having taken part in the 
 storming of the arsenal at Siegburg, and the insurrec- 
 tion of the Palatinate, he was in June, 1849, taken by the 
 Prussians and imprisoned at Spandau. In November, 
 1850, assisted by his friend Carl Schurz, he made his 
 escape to England. 
 
 See Strodtmann, " Kinkels Leben," 2 vols., 1850; LqpiGFEL- 
 low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." ' 
 
 Kinkel (Johanna,) the wife of the preceding, born 
 about 1807, was distinguished as an authoress and 
 musician. Died in 1858. 
 
 Kinker, kink'er, (Jan,) a Dutch author and poet, 
 born near Amsterdam about 1760; died about 1825. 
 
 Klnnara, kin'a-ra, [etymology uncertain,] sometimes 
 improperly written Cinnara, the name given to the male 
 dancers of Swerga, or the paradise of India. The Kin- 
 naras are represented with the body and limbs of a man 
 and the head of a horse. 
 
 See Moor. " Hindu Pantheon ;" Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary" 
 
 Kinsbergen, van, vin kins'beR'nen, (Jan Hen- 
 DRIK,) a Dutch admiral, bom at Doesburg in 1735. In 
 1767 he entered the Russian service under Catherine II., 
 and soon after gained a brilliant victory over the Turks. 
 In 1781 he assisted in the famous battle of Doggersbank, 
 fought between the Dutch and English. He was created 
 Count of Doggersbank by Louis, King of Holland. Died 
 in 1820. 
 
 See M. C. van Hall. "Leven en Karakter van den Admiraal 
 Jnnkheer J. H. van Kinsbergen," 1841; "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Gene'rale." 
 
 Kinschot, van, vin kins'Kot, (Hendrik,) a Belgian 
 jurist, born near Antwerp in 1541 ; died in 1608. 
 
 Kinschot, van, (Kaspar,) a Dutch writer of Latin 
 poetry, born at the Hague in 1622; died in 1649. 
 
 Kihsky, kin'skee, (Franz Joseph,) Count, an Aus- 
 trian general, born at Prague in 1739, served with dis- 
 tinction against the French in 1793-96. Died in 1805. 
 
 Kinson, kin'son, or Kinsoen, kin'soon, (Frans,) a 
 skilful Flemish portrait-painter, born at Bruges in 1774 
 or 1770, worked in Paris and Brussels. Died in 1839. 
 
 Kip, (William Ingraham,) D.D., an American prel- 
 ate, born in New York in 181 1. He graduated in 1831 
 at Yale College, and was consecrated in 1853 missionary- 
 bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in California, 
 He published " Early Conflicts of Christianity," and 
 " Domestic and Religious Life in Italy." 
 
 Kip'ling, (Thomas,) D.D., professor of theology at 
 Cambridge, and Dean of Peterborough, born in F.ngland 
 about 1755. He wrote "The Articles of the Church of 
 England proved not to be Calvinistic," and various other 
 works. Died in 1821. 
 
 Kipping, kip'ping, [Lat. Kippin'giiis,! (Heinricii,) 
 a German philologist, born near Rostock about 1623, 
 was the author of numerous works on philology, history, 
 and antiquities. Died in 1678. 
 
 See H. E. Herren, "Oratiode H. Kippingio," etc., 1755. 
 
 Kippingius. See Kipping. 
 
 Kip'pis, (Andrew,) an English dissenting minister 
 and eminent biographer born at Nottingham in 1725. 
 He preached for some years in London, whither he 
 removed in 1753, and was appointed teacher in Coward's 
 
 Academy for the education of dissenting ministers, in 
 1763. About 1780 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society. His most important work is a new and enlarged 
 edition of the " Biographia liritannica," of which he pub- 
 lished 5 vols, in 1778-79. This work is highly esteemed, 
 but was left unfinished, terminating at the letter E". He 
 wrote a "Life of Captain Cook," (17S8.) Died in 1795. 
 See Rees, " Cyclopaedia. " 
 
 Kjr'bjf, (John Joshua,) F.R.S., an English artist 
 and antiquary, born in Suffolk in 1716. He published 
 "The Perspective of Architecture," (1761,) and "A Map 
 of Suffolk." Died in 1774. 
 
 See Nichols, " Biographical Anecdotes of Hogarth." 
 
 Kirby, (Rev. William,) an eminent English ento- 
 mologist, born in Suffolk in 1759, was a nephew of the 
 preceding. He was educated at Cains College, Cam- 
 bridge, and became curate of Barham. He studied 
 various branches of natural history, and was one of the 
 first members of the LinnKan Society, to which he 
 contributed several papers. He acquired a European 
 reputation by his work on English Bees, "Monographia 
 Apium Angliae," (2 vols., 1802.) In conjunction with Mr. 
 Spence, he published an excellent " Introduction to En- 
 tomology," (4 vols., 1815-26.) He also wrote the Bridge- 
 water Treatise entitled "The Habits and Instincts of 
 Animals." Died in 1850. 
 
 See J. Freeman, " Life of William Kirby," 1852 ; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for October, 1835 ; " Monthly Review" for January, 
 1803, and November, 1817. 
 
 Kirch, 1<SSrk, (Christfried,) a distinguished as- 
 tronomer and writer, born at Guben in 1694. He was a 
 member of the Academies of Science at Paris and Saint 
 Petersburg, and director of the Observatory in Berlin. 
 Died in 1740. 
 
 Kirch, (Gottfried,) father of the preceding, was 
 born in Lower Lusatia in 1639. He was appointed di- 
 rector of the Observatory and royal astronomer at Berlin. 
 He wrote " Observations upon the Comet that appeared 
 in Italy in 1676," (1677,) "Astronomical Tables," and 
 "Christian, Jewish, and Turkish Calendar to the Year 
 1685." Died in 1710. 
 
 Kirch, (Marie Margarethe Winckelmann,) an 
 astronomer, wife of the preceding, was born in Upper 
 Lusatia in 1670. She assisted her husband in his astro- 
 nomical labours, and published almanacs. Died in 1720. 
 
 Kjr'cher, [Ger. pron. kSeVKer; Lat. Kirche'rus,] 
 (AthanaSius,) aleamed German Jesuit, distinguished for 
 his talents and versatility, was born near Fulda in 1601. 
 Having studied at Avignon, he was invited to Rome by 
 the pope to fill the chair of mathematics in the Roman 
 College. He wrote numerous treatises on philology, 
 hieroglyphics, and antiquities, which display profound 
 learning, but are deficient in sound criticism, and many 
 of them are rather interesting than reliable. Among 
 these may be named " Prodromus Coptus," (1636,) 
 "CEdipus Egyptiacus," (3 vols., 1652-55,) being an ex- 
 planation of hieroglyphics, "Mundus Subterraneus," 
 (1665,) and "Description of Latium considered in its 
 Ancient and Modern Aspect," (" Latium, id est nova et 
 parallela Labi, turn veteris, turn novi, Descriptio," 1669.) 
 He also published several valuable scientific treatises; 
 and to him is generally ascribed the invention of the 
 magic-lantern. Died in 1680. 
 
 See his autobiography, "Vita Kircheri," in the "Fasciculus 
 EpiStolamm Kircheri," 16S4 : Bavle, " Historical and Criiical Dic- 
 tionary ;" Niceron, " Metnoires ;" " Nouvelle Biograplu'e GeneVale." 
 
 Kircher, (Conrad,) a German philologist and writer, 
 born in Augsburg. His chief work is a Greek and He- 
 brew Concordance of the Old Testament, (1607.) Died 
 after 1620. 
 
 Kirchhoff, kfigRK'hof, (G.,) a German astronomer of 
 the present age, distinguished for his observations and 
 discoveries with the spectroscope. He published " Re- 
 searches on the Solar Spectrum," (1862.) 
 
 Kirchmaier or Kirchmayer, ke^RK'niT'er, (Georg 
 Kaspar,) a German chemist and scholar, born in Fran- 
 conia in 1635. He wrote commentaries on several classic 
 authors. The discovery of the art of etching on glass 
 with fluoric acid is attributed to him. Died in 1700. 
 
 See Jochfr, " Allgemeinea Gelehrten-Lexik-on ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic Gene'rale." 
 
 « as k; 9 as s: g hard; g as/'; G, H, ^guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; 3 as 1; th as in this. (2^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KIRCHMA1ER 
 
 1328 
 
 KISFAL UD r 
 
 Kirchmaier, (Thomas,) a Lutheran minister, born in 
 Bavaria about 15 11. He took the Greek name of Nao 
 Georgos. He is the author of numerous Latin poems 
 and theological and polemical works, mostly written in 
 the Latin language. He preached at Stuttgart, Esslingen, 
 and Wisloch. Hied in 1563. 
 
 See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Sax, " Onc- 
 masticon." 
 
 Kirchman, keTSRK'man, a Russian electrician, of Ger- 
 man extraction, was professor of philosophy at Saint 
 Petersburg. He was killed by the electric fluid, in the 
 act of attracting it from the clouds, in 1753. 
 
 Kirchmann, keeRK'man, (Joiiann,) a German au- 
 thor and scholar, born at Lubeck in 1575, became in 
 1603 professor of poetry at Rostock. He wrote a " Dis- 
 sertation on the Funeral Ceremonies used among the 
 Rinnans," (1605,) and " De Annulis,'* a treatise on an- 
 cient rings. Died in 1643. 
 
 See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^ron, 
 " M^moires." 
 
 Kirgener, keRzh'naiR', (Joseph,) a French general, 
 born in Paris in 1766, was killed at Markersdorf in 1813. 
 
 Kirk, (Edward N.,) an American general, born in 
 Ohio. He was a citizen of Illinois when the civil war 
 began. He commanded a brigade of the Union army at 
 the battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7, 1862, and was killed 
 at the battle of Stone River, January, 1863. 
 
 Kirk, (Kdward Norris,) D.D., an American Con- 
 gregationalfst divine, was born in New York in 1802. 
 He graduated at Princeton College, New Jersey, and 
 became in 1828 pastor of a church at Albany. He was 
 afterwards appointed secretary of the Foreign Evangelical 
 Society, and in 1842 settled as pastor of the Mount Ver- 
 non Church, Boston. 
 
 Kirk'al, (Edward,) an English engraver, born in 
 Sheffield about 1700. 
 
 Kirkaldy, ker-kau'de, (Sir William,) of Grange, 
 one of the earliest Protestants of Scotland, was the son 
 of Sir James Kirkaldy, high treasurer under the reign of 
 James V. Sir William was implicated in the assassina- 
 tion of Cardinal Beaton, for which he was imprisoned. 
 He finally escaped to France, where he was distinguished 
 as one of the most valiant and chivalrous knights in the 
 court and army of Henry II. After his return to Scot- 
 land, he became a leader of the Protestants. He fought 
 bravely against the French, who had been sent over to 
 assist the Catholics, and made Queen Mary prisoner. He 
 vainly attempted to capture Bothwell, whom he pursued 
 as far as the coast of Norway. About 1570 Kirkaldy 
 espoused the cause of the queen, of whose party he 
 became the leader. He refused to obey the mandates 
 of the regent, and after several months of fighting, in 
 which great ferocity was displayed on both sides, sus- 
 tained a siege in Edinburgh Castle. He was, however, 
 finally obliged by his soldiers to make an unconditional 
 surrender. He, with several of his friends, was hung 
 in August, 1573. John Knox, who had formerly been 
 his intimate friend and fellow-sufferer in the Protestant 
 cause, deeply deplored his change of principles and his 
 untimely end. 
 
 See " Memoirs and Adventures of Sir Wm. Kirkaldy," Edinburgh, 
 184Q : Rohkktson, " History of Scotland ;" Chambers, " Biographi- 
 cal Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Froude, " History of Eng- 
 land :" "Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1849. 
 
 Kirk'bride, (Thomas S.,) M.D., an American phy- 
 sician, born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1809. 
 Having graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, he 
 became resident physician of the Pennsylvania Hospital, 
 and in 1840 superintendent of the Hospital for the In- 
 sane. He has published an excellent work entitled 
 " Rules and Regulations of the Pennsylvania Hospital 
 for the Insane," (1850.) 
 
 Kirke, kerk, (Pkrcy,) Colonel, a British officer, 
 notorious for cruelty, lived in the reigns of James II. and 
 William III. He served in the army which suppressed 
 the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth, (1685.) His 
 men were called "Kirke's lambs." 
 
 See Pepys, "Diary;" Macaui.av, " History of England." 
 
 Kirke White. See White. 
 
 Kirk'land, (Mrs. Caroline Matilda St.ansrury,) 
 an American writer, born in the city of New York, was 
 
 married about 1830 to Professor William Kirkland, of 
 Hamilton College. After a residence of nearly three 
 years in Michigan, she published, under the assumed 
 name of" Mary Clavers," "A New Home — Who'll Fol- 
 low ?" (1839,) " Forest Life," (1842,) and " Western Clear- 
 ings," (1846,) which soon obtained a wide popularity. 
 She became editor of the " Union Magazine," in New 
 York, in 1847. Among her other works may be named 
 "An Essay on the Life and Writings of Spenser," (1S46,) 
 and " Personal Memoirs of George Washington," (1S5S.) 
 Mrs. Kirkland's delineations of Western pioneer-life are 
 among the most admirable of their kind, abounding in 
 humorous incidents, shrewd sense, and picturesque de- 
 scriptions. Died in 1864. 
 
 See Griswoi.d, '* Prose Writers of America:" Duyckinck, " Cy- 
 clopaedia" of American Literature," vol. ii. ; CLEVELAND, "Compen- 
 dium of American Literature ;" " North American Review" for 
 January, 1840. 
 
 Kirkland,(JoHN Thornton,) D.D., LL.D., an Amer- 
 ican scholar and divine, born at Little Falls, New York, 
 in 1770. Having graduated at Harvard in 17S9, he 
 became pastor of the Congregational church in Summei 
 Street, Boston. He was elected, in 1810, president ol 
 Harvard College. He wrote a " Life of Fisher Ames," 
 and several other works. Died in 1840. 
 
 Kirk'land, (Thomas,) an English physician and 
 medical writer, born in 1721. He graduated as M.D. at 
 the University of Edinburgh. Died in 1798. 
 
 Kirk-pat'rick, (William James,) an Oriental 
 scholar, born about 1760, was a member of the Asiatic 
 Society of Calcutta, and major-general in the English 
 army at Bengal. He wrote a " Biography of the Persian 
 Poets," "Description of the Kingdom of Nepaul," (1S11,) 
 and several other works. Died in 1812. 
 
 Kiraberger, kee'Rn'beJtG'er, (Joiiann Philipp,) a 
 German musician and writer on art, born in Thuringia 
 in 1721 ; died in 1783. 
 
 Kirsten, keeVsten, or Kirchstein, kSERK'sfln, 
 (Georo,) a physician and writer on surgery and anatomy, 
 born at Stettin, in Pomerania, in 1613; died in 1660. 
 
 Kirsten, (Michael,) a learned physician and scientific 
 writer, born in Moravia in 1620; died in 1678. 
 
 Kirsten, [Lat. Kirstk'nius,] (Peter,) a distinguished 
 physician and Oriental scholar, born at Breslau in ic.77- 
 He studied at the most celebrated universities of Ger- 
 many, and travelled extensively in Europe. He was sub- 
 sequently irivited to Sweden bv Chancellor Oxenstiern, 
 where he was appointed physician to Queen Christina 
 and medical professor in the University of Upsal. He 
 is said to have been master of twenty-six languages. 
 He wrote, among other works, an " Arabic Grammar," 
 (1608-10,) and "Notes on the Gospel of Saint Matthew, 
 from the Collation of Arabic, Syriac, Egyptian, Greek, 
 and Latin Texts," (1611.) Died at Upsal in 1640. 
 
 See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^ron, 
 " M^moires." 
 
 Kirstenius. See Kirsten, (Peter.) 
 
 Kirwan, ker'wan, (Richard,) a distinguished chemist 
 and geologist, born at Gahvay, in Ireland, about 1733, 
 or, as others say, in 1750. He was elected president of 
 the Royal Irish Academy, Fellow of the Royal Society 
 of London, and member of various scientific associations 
 on the continent. He published "An Essay on the 
 Constitution of Acids," (1787,) which was translated 
 by Lavoisier and refuted by him, "Elements of Mine- 
 ralogy," (1794,) an "Essay on the Analysis of Mineral 
 Waters," " An Estimate of the Temperature of Different 
 Latitudes," and other scientific works. Died in 1812. 
 
 See CuvtER, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles." 
 
 Kirwan, (Walter Blake,) an Irish clergyman, dis- 
 tinguished for his eloquence, bom at Galwav in 1754. 
 He was educated as a Catholic priest, but joined the 
 Church of England in 1787, after which he preached in 
 Dublin. Died in 1805. 
 
 Kis, kfsh, (Stephen, ) a Hungarian theologian, born at 
 Szegedin in 1505, was a disciple of Luther. He preached 
 at Temesvar, and published several works. Died in 1572. 
 
 Kischtasp. See GushtAsp. 
 
 Kisfaludy, klsh'foh-loody, almost kish'foh-looj, 
 (Karoly,) a celebrated dramatist, the founder of Hun- 
 garian comedy, was born at Tete in March, 1790. On 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m2t; nSt; good; moon; 
 
KISFALUDT 
 
 1329 
 
 KLAPROTH 
 
 account of his fiery and turbulent disposition, he was 
 placed in the Austrian army at an early age. He served 
 as an officer in Italy in 1805 against Napoleon, and was 
 afterwards taken prisoner by the French. Having been 
 exchanged, he fought in Germany in 1809. He left the 
 army in 1810, and fixed his residence at Vienna, where 
 he gained a IHtng as an artist In 1819 he acquired a 
 sudden celebrity by his play "The Tartar in Hungary." 
 Soon after he produced "Ilka," a tragedy, "Stiberthe 
 Chieftain," and several other plays, all of which were 
 received with the greatest applause. Among the most 
 popular of his comedies are the "Student Matthias," 
 of which the emperor Matthias Corvinus is the hero, 
 "The Suitors," and "The Insurgents." Kisfaludy es- 
 tablished an able and successful literary annual, entitled 
 the "Aurora." Died in November, 1830. 
 
 See T. Mi'n'dt, "Geschichte der Literatur der Gegenwart ;" 
 Franz Schedei., " Kisfaludy K. filete," Buda-Pesth, 183=; "North 
 American Review" for April, 1850, (by Mrs. Putnam.) 
 
 Kisfaludy, (Sandor,) an elder brother of the pre- 
 ceding, and one of the most eminent of the poets of 
 Hungary, was born in the county of Szalad in 1772. He 
 entered the army in 1793, and formed an attachment for 
 the beautiful Rosalia Szegedy, who rejected him. He 
 , subsequently served against Napoleon in Italy, and was 
 taken prisoner by the French. While a captive in the 
 place where Petrarch had poured forth his immortal 
 strains to Laura, the young Hungarian resolved to ad- 
 dress the object of his love in a similar poem. In 1800 
 he regained the affections of the lady Rosalia, to whom 
 he was married. He left the army and retired to his 
 paternal estate. The same year the anonymous publica- 
 tion of his poem, under the title of " Himfy," produced 
 a sensation among men of letters never equalled in 
 Hungary. In 1807 he made himself known in publish- 
 ing a poem entitled "Happy Love." He afterwards 
 wrote several other poems and dramas, of which "John 
 Huniades" and " Ladislaus the Rumanian" were greatly 
 admired. Died in 1844. Three years later his complete 
 works were published at Pesth, in 6 vols. Several 
 extracts from " Himfy" have been translated into English. 
 
 See T. Mundt, "Geschichte der Literatur der Gegenwart," 
 Leipsic. 1853; also the aiticle on the "Language and Literature 
 of the Magyars" in the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for September, 
 1828. 
 
 Kiss, kis, (Augustus,) adistinguished Prussian sculp- 
 tor, born at Pless, in Upper Silesia, in 1802. He studied 
 under the celebrated Rauch. He was professor in the 
 Academy of Fine Arts of Berlin. Among his most 
 admirable work# are an equestrian statue of Frede- 
 rick the Great, and two colossal groups in bronze, — an 
 "Amazon attacked by a Tiger," and "Saint George 
 and the Dragon." Died in 1862. 
 
 Kisselef, Kisseleff, or Kisselew, kis'seh-lef, (Ni- 
 cholas,) Count, a Russian diplomatist, born in 1800. 
 He was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to Paris in 
 1851, and was sent as Russian minister to Rome in 1856. 
 
 Kisselef, (Paul,) Count, a Russian general and 
 diplomatist, a brother of the preceding, was born at 
 Moscow in 1788. He was appointed minister of the 
 domains of the emperor in 1837, and sent as ambassador 
 to France in 1856. 
 
 See " Notivelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Kisselew. See Kisselef. 
 
 Kitch'en-er, (William,) an English physician and 
 writer on gastronomy, born in London about 1775. He 
 was the author of "The Cook's Oracle," "The Art of 
 Invigorating and Prolonging Life," "The Traveller's 
 Oracle," "Observations on Vocal Music," and other 
 works on various subjects. Died in 1827. 
 
 See William Jeroan, "Men I have known," London, 1866; 
 "Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1827. 
 
 Kite, (CHARLES,] an English physician and writer, 
 born at Gravesend about 1768 ; died in 181 1. 
 
 Ki-Tseu or Ki-Tse. See Kee-Tse. 
 
 Kit'to, (Ioiin,) an English writer, distinguished as a 
 biblical scholar, born at Plymouth in 1804. He suffered 
 much privation and neglect in his childhood in conse- 
 quence of the intemperance of his father. About the 
 age of twelve he was rendered incurably deaf by a fall 
 from the roof of a house. He liecamc an inmate of the 
 poor-house, where he manifested such an earnest desire 
 
 to improve his mind that some persons procured for 
 him admission to a college in Islington. As tutor to the 
 children of Mr. Grove, he travelled in Russia, Arme- 
 nia, and Persia in 1829-32. About 1833 he was engaged 
 by Charles Knight to write for the " Penny Magazine." 
 He edited "The Pictorial Bible" published by Charles 
 Knight, (1838,) and produced numerous valuable and 
 successful works, among which are "The Cyclopaedia 
 of Biblical Literature," (4 vols., 1845-50,) "The Lost 
 Senses — Deafness and Blindness," which contains an 
 autobiography, and " Daily Bible Illustrations," (7 vols., 
 1849-53.) '^ e was married about 1833. He died at 
 Cannstadt, Wiirtemberg, in 1854. 
 
 See J. E. Ryi.and, "Memoirs of John Kitto," 1856; "Brief 
 Biographies," by Samuel Smiles;. "North British Review" for 
 February, 1847. 
 
 Kiuperli. See Koprili. 
 
 Kj oping or Kjoeping, cho'ping, (Nikolaus Mat- 
 son,) a Swedish traveller, born in 1630. In 1648 he 
 sailed to the East Indies, and afterwards visited Persia, 
 Farther India, Arabia, and Egypt. An account of his 
 travels was published after his death. Died in 1667. 
 
 Klapka, kl&p'koh, (General George,) born at Te- 
 mesvar, in Hungary, in 1820. He became a cadet in 
 an artillery regiment about 1838, and lieutenant-colonel 
 in 1847. In 1848 he joined the Hungarian revolutionists, 
 and greatly distinguished himself by his daring courage 
 and his ability as a commander. He soon after received 
 a general's commission and was appointed secretary of 
 war. In 1849, while defending the fortress of Comorn, 
 he made a sally at midnight, totally routed the Austrian 
 army, and took several pieces of artillery. He forced 
 his enemies toevacuate Raab, and cut off their commu- 
 nication with Austria. A few days after he received the 
 information that the Hungarian army in the South had 
 surrendered to the Austrians, and also a command from 
 Gorgey to yield up the fortress of Comorn. This man- 
 date General Klapka refused to obey ; but two months 
 later, having obtained honourable terms from Haynati 
 for himself and troops, he capitulated, in October, 1849. 
 He then went to London, and afterwards to Geneva. 
 He wrote " Memoirs of the War of Independence in 
 Hungary," (2 vols., 1850,) and a work upon the war in 
 the East and the siege of Sebastopol, (1855.) 
 
 Klaproth, klap'rot, sometimes Anglicised in pronun- 
 ciation as klap'roth, (Heinrich Julius,) an eminent 
 German Orientalist and traveller, born at Berlin, October 
 II, 1783, was a son of Martin II. Klaproth, noticed below. 
 At an early age he acquired, without a teacher, consid- 
 erable knowledge of the Chinese language, and in 1802 
 founded the " Asiatisches Magazin" at Weimar. On the 
 recommendation of Count Potocki, he was invited in 1805 
 to Saint Petersburg, where he was made adjunct for the 
 Oriental languages and literature at the Academy ot 
 Sciences. In the capacity of interpreter to the Russian 
 embassy to China, he travelled through Siberia as far as 
 Irkootsk in 1805, and collected valuable books and docu- 
 ments, which he used in the composition of his " Asia 
 Polyglotta." In 1807 he was sent by the Russian govern- 
 ment on a scientific expedition to the Caucasus, and on, 
 his return, in 1809, was appointed aulic councillor, audi 
 received a title of nobility and other distinctions. He- 
 resigned his offices in Russia in 1812. In 1816, through 
 the influence of William von Humboldt, Klaproth re» 
 ceived from the King of Prussia the honorary title of 
 professor ot Oriental languages and literature at Berlin, 
 together with a large pension, and permission to reside 
 in Paris. Among his numerous worksjM rr\ay. mention 
 "Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia,. •(3,v,oJs., - iS>ia- 
 14,) "Geographical and Historical Description ofithe 
 Eastern Caucasus," (1814,) " Historical Pictures of Asia 
 from the Monarchy of Cyrus to the Present Time," 
 (1824,) "Asia Polyglotta," or a classification of Orien- 
 tal nations according to their languages, (1829,) and 
 " On the Origin of Paper Money in China." Besides 
 these productions, which enjoy the highest reputation 
 throughout Europe, he published a number of excellent 
 maps and geographical treatises, and wrote valuable 
 articles for the " Biographie Universelle." Died in 
 Paris in 1835. Klaproth was one of the greatest linguists 
 of his time. His sagacity, judgment, and memory were 
 
 « as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s ; 
 
 84 
 
 • th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
R LAP ROTH 
 
 1330 
 
 KLEIST 
 
 extraordinary. " Since Klaproth's death," says the " En- 
 cyclopaedia Britannica," " his fame has continued to rise. 
 His merits as a philologer are very great ; but his merits 
 as a linguist are greater still. . . . His memory, both for 
 comprehensiveness and accuracy, was unrivalled." 
 
 See Landresse, " Notice liistorique et littornire sur Klaproth ;" 
 Fischer, " Denkschrift auf Klaproth," Berlin : " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale ;" " Monthly Review" for October, 1814. 
 
 Klaproth, (Mar tin Heinrich,) an eminent German 
 analytical chemist and mineralogist, born at Wernigerode, 
 in Prussian Saxony, in December, 1743. He served an 
 apprenticeship as an apothecary, and about 1768 went to 
 Berlin, where he studied chemistry. Having gained dis- 
 tinction by the analysis of mineral substances and by 
 discoveries in chemistry, he was elected a member of the 
 Academv of Berlin in 1788, and a foreign associate of the 
 French institute. He discovered the metals Uranium 
 and Titanium, and the earth Zirconia. He published the 
 results of his researches and experiments in his "Con- 
 tributions to the Chemical Knowledge of Mineral Bodies," 
 (5 vols., 1796-1810.) About 1809 he became professor 
 of chemistry in Berlin. Died in Berlin in 1817. 
 
 See " Biographie Midicale ;" Kopp, "Gescbichte der Chemie." 
 
 Klass, klas, (Friedrich Christian,) a German land- 
 scape-painter, born at Dresden in 1752; died in 1827. 
 
 Klass, (Karl Christian,) a historical painter, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Dresden in 1747. 
 Died in 1793. 
 
 Klauber, klow'ber, (Ignaz Sebastian,) a German 
 engraver, was born in Augsburg in 1754. He was 
 invited to Saint Petersburg by the empress Catherine, 
 who appointed him professor in the Imperial Academy 
 of Fine Arts. Died about 1820. Among his engravings 
 is a portrait of the empress Catherine. 
 
 Klauber, (Joseph,) an engraver, born at Augsburg 
 in 1 7 10, was an uncle of the preceding. Died in 1768. 
 
 Klaus, a surname of Nicolas von der Flue. See 
 Flue, de. 
 
 Kleander or Kleandros. See Cleander. 
 
 Kleanthes. See Cleanthes. 
 
 Klearchus. See Clearchus. 
 
 Kle'ber, [Fr. Kleber, kla'baiR',] (Jean Baptists,) 
 a celebrated French general, born at Strasburg in 1754. 
 Having studied at the military school of Munich, he 
 returned to France in 1788, and soon attained the rank 
 of adjutant-major. For his gallant conduct at the siege 
 of Mayence, in 1793, he was made general of brigade. 
 He subsequently gained several advantages over the 
 Vendeans ; but his generous treatment of the prisoners 
 called down upon him the censures of the committee of 
 safety. He was removed to the army of the North, in 
 which, as general of division, he served tinder Jourdan. 
 He gained distinguished laurels in 1794 at the battle 
 of Fleurus, where he commanded the left wing of the 
 French army. He soon after captured Mons and the 
 fortress of Maestricht. In 1797, displeased with the 
 Directory, he retired to a country-seat near Paris ; but 
 he left this retreat at the request of Bonaparte, whom he 
 accompanied in 1798 to Egypt. He was severely wounded 
 at the siege of Alexandria, of which city he was appointed 
 governor. The following winter he marched into Syria 
 at the head of the French vanguard, reduced El Arish, 
 Gaza, and Jaffa, and gained in April, 1799, the decisive 
 victory of Mount Tabor. On his return to Egypt he 
 added to his already brilliant reputation at Jhe battle of 
 Aboukir. In August, 1799, he was made commander- 
 in-chief by Bonaparte, who returned to France. Though 
 Kleber was very popular, this event caused general dis- 
 satisfaction in the army. The soldiers were greatly re- 
 duced in numbers, and provisions were scarce. The grand 
 vizier, with over 40,000 men and several English officers, 
 having captured the important fortress of El Arish, was 
 marching against the French. For these reasons Kleber 
 formed a treaty with the Turks and the English admiral 
 Sir Sidney Smith, by which, upon the surrender of all 
 the fortresses in h ; s possession except three, he was to 
 receive from the Turks a large amount of gold and per- 
 mission to return peaceably to France. He accordingly 
 delivered up several strongholds, and was preparing to 
 sail from Egypt, when he was informed by Admiral Keith 
 that the English government, on the ground that Smith 
 
 was not vested with full authority, would not consent 
 that the French should leave the country except as pris- 
 oners of war. This infraction of the treaty thoroughly 
 aroused the French general. He attacked the Turks, 
 gained over them the brilliant and decisive victory of 
 Heliopolis, drove their army from Cairo, and within a 
 month regained every position which he had previously 
 abandoned. He then turned his attention to the im- 
 provement of his conquests. He distributed land among 
 his troops, formed several companies of native soldiers, 
 and was using practicable and efficient means to render 
 Egypt a valuable colony of France, when he was assassin- 
 ated in June, 1800, by a Mohammedan fanatic. Kleber 
 stands as one of the very first of the many distinguished 
 generals of that period. To his great intellectual powers 
 were joined the generosity of a lofty mind and the. hatred 
 of avarice and cruelty. "Kleber," said Napoleon at 
 Saint Helena, " was an irreparable loss to France and to 
 me. He was a man of the brightest talents and of the 
 greatest bravery. Of all the generals I have had under 
 me, Desaix and Kleber possessed the greatest talents." 
 See Cousin u'Avallon, "Histoire des Generaiix Desaix et 
 Kle'ber," 1802; Lubf.rt de Hericourt, "Vie du General Kleber," 
 1S00; Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" E. Bakkois, 
 "Notice sur le General Kle'ber," 1839; "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale." 
 
 Kleeman, kla'man, (Christian Friedrich Karl,) 
 a German naturalist and painter of insects, etc., was 
 born near Nuremberg in 1735. He wrote several works 
 on entomology. Died in 1789. 
 
 Klefeker, kla'feh-ker, (Johann,) a German writer, 
 born in Hamburg in 1698 ; died in 1775. 
 
 Klein, klin, (Bernhard,) a German composer, born 
 at Cologne in 1794. Among his principal works are the 
 oratorios of " Job" and " David," and an opera entitled 
 "Dido." Died in 1832. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographic Universale des Musiciens." 
 
 Klein, klaN, (Dominique Louis Antoine,) a French 
 general, born at Blamont in 1761 ; died in 1845. 
 
 Klein, (Ernst Ferdinand,) a learned jurist, born 
 at Breslau in 1743, became privy councillor at Berlin. 
 He wrote " Principles of German and Prussian Penal 
 Law," (1795,) "System of Prussian Civil Law," (1830,) 
 and other legal works. Died in 1810. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " E. F. Klein's Selbstbiographie," 1810. 
 
 Klein, ( Jakob Theodor, ) a celebrated writer on 
 natural history, born at Konigsberg in 1685. He was 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences of Saint Peters- 
 burg and of the Royal Society of Lpndon. Linnaeus 
 gave the name of Kleinia to a new plant in honour of 
 this naturalist. The works of Klein are regarded as 
 valuable contributions to science. Died in 1759. 
 
 See Christian Srndel, " Lobrede auf Hcrrn J. T. Klein," 1750; 
 Hirsching, "Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Gene'rale." 
 
 Klein, (Johann Adam,) a distinguished German 
 painter of landscapes and animals, and a skilful engraver, 
 was born at Nuremberg in 1792. He visited Rome 
 about 1820. 
 
 See Nagi.er, "Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Kleinarts. See Ci.Unard. 
 
 Kleinau, kll'now, (Johann,) Baron von Janowitz, 
 an Austrian general, born in Bohemia about 1760. He 
 commanded a corps at Wagram, and rendered important 
 services at Leipsic, 1813. Died in 1819. 
 
 Kleist, von, fori kllst, (Ewald Christian,) a popu- 
 lar German poet, was born near Koslin, in Pomcrania, 
 in 171 5. He studied at Konigsberg, and afterwards 
 entered the Danish army. In 1740 he left Copenhagen, 
 and received a commission in the service of Frederick 
 the Great. He greatly distinguished himself at the battle 
 of Kunnersdorf in 1759, where he was mortally wounded. 
 His most celebrated work is a poem entitled " Spring," 
 ("Der Fruhling," 1749.) Besides this, he wrote several 
 hymns and idyls, a series of essays, and a treatise on 
 military tactics. 
 
 See Longfellow. "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" F. Nicolai, 
 " EhrengedSchtniss E. C. von Kleist's," 1759; Gervinus, "Ge- 
 scbichte der Deutschen Dichtung," 1853. 
 
 Kleist, von, (Heinrich,) a German poet and novel- 
 ist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1776. He fought 
 in the Prussian army against France. In 1808 he was 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, *, I, o, u, % short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mix ; not; good; moon; 
 
KLEIST 
 
 '33' 
 
 KLOPSTOCK 
 
 associated with Adam Muller in the publication of the 
 " Phoebus." A victim of hypochondria, he committed 
 suicide in i8n. Gervinus places him above all the dra- 
 matic poets of his time. His works include dramas, lyric 
 poems, novels, and tales, among which are the tragedies 
 entitled "The Prince of Homburg" and "The Battle of 
 Hermann," (1809,) and "Michael Kohlhaas," a tale. 
 
 See BOlow, "Heiurich vnn Kleist's I.eben und Briefe," 1848; 
 Gehvinus, "Gescliichle tier Deutschen Dichtung," 4th edition, 1853; 
 "Foreign Quarterly Review" tor June, 1828; "British Quarterly 
 Review" for October, i860. 
 
 Kleist vort Nollendorf, klTst fon nol'len-doRf, 
 (EM 1 1. Friedrich,) Count, a Prussian commander, 
 bom at Berlin in 1762. He served with distinction in 
 the Russian campaign of 1812, and at the battle of Baut- 
 zen, after which, as Prussian plenipotentiary, he concluded 
 the truce. After the battle of Dresden and the retreat 
 of the allies, he gained a signal victory over Vandamme 
 at Nollendorf, (August, 1813.) He was' created a field- 
 marshal in 1821, having previously received the order of 
 the Black Eagle and been made commander-general of 
 Saxony, Died in 1823. 
 
 Kleistheiies. See Cltsthenes. 
 
 Kleitarchoa. See Clitarchus. 
 
 Kleitomachos. See Clitomachus. 
 
 Kleitos. See Clitus. 
 
 Klemm, klem, (Friedrich Gustav,) a German lit- 
 terateur, born at Chemnitz in 1802. He published a 
 "History of Bavaria," (3 vols., 1828,) a "Manual of 
 German Archaeology," (1835,) a "General History of 
 Human Civilization," (10 vols., 1843-50,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Klengel, kleng'el, (Johann Christian,) a German 
 painter and engraver, born near Dresden in 1751. 
 Among his best pictures are an "Italian Landscape at 
 Twilight," and "The Wheat Harvest." Died in 1824. 
 
 Klenze, klent'seh, (CLEMENS August Kari.,) a Ger- 
 man jurist, a brother of the following, was born near 
 Hildesheim in 1795. He wrote a "Manual of Common 
 Penal Law," (1833,) and other works. Died in 1838. 
 
 Klenze, von, fon klent'seh, (Leo,) an eminent Ger- 
 man architect, born at Hildesheim in 1784. He studied 
 at Brunswick and at Berlin, and afterwards in France, 
 England, and Italy. In 1813 he went to Munich, where 
 he was patronized by the crown-prince Ludwig, and two 
 years later was appointed court architect to the King of 
 Bavaria. In 1833 he was ennobled. Among the most 
 important of his designs are the Glyptothek, a building 
 to receive statuary and gems, completed in 1830 ; the 
 Odeon and the Pinakothek (picture-gallery) at Munich, 
 completed in 1837 ; and the Walhalla, or hall of heroes, 
 a magnificent marble edifice near Ratisbon, finished in 
 1839. This building, the exterior of which resembles the 
 Parthenon, is one of the most remarkable monuments 
 erected in modern times. Klenze, in his designs for 
 buildings, displays an uncommon knowledge of the 
 various styles of architecture ; though he regards the 
 Grecian models as superior to all others. He also 
 erected at Saint Petersburg, under the auspices of the 
 emperor Nicholas, the Imperial Palace (completed in 
 1851) and the Imperial Museum. Klenze published, 
 among other works, an " Essay on the Restoration of 
 the Tuscan Temples," "The Walhalla in its Artistic and 
 Technical Relations," and several collections of Grecian 
 designs. He was likewise skilled in painting, and pro- 
 duced several landscapes and architectural pieces. Died 
 in 1864. 
 
 See R. Wieomann, " Ritter L. von K1en« und nnsere Kunst," 
 k. " Alli;emeines Kiinstier-Lexikon :" " Nouvelle B10- 
 gr.11 hie Generale;" Kortoui., " De l'Art en AllemaEiie," tome L 
 
 Kleobulos. See Cleobulus. 
 
 Kleombrotos. See Cleombrotus. 
 
 Kleomedes. See Ci.komedes. 
 
 Kleomenes. See CleoMKNEs. 
 
 Kleon. See Ci.kon. 
 
 Kleopatra. See Cleopatra. 
 
 Kleophon. See Ci.eoi-iion. 
 
 Kleostratoa. Sec Ci.eostratus. 
 
 Klerck, kleKk, (IIendrik,) an artist and poet, born 
 in Brussels about 1570. Among his paintings are "The 
 Resurrection of Jesus Christ," and "The Martyrdom of 
 Saint Andrew." 
 
 Kletten, klet'ten, (Georg Ernst,) a German medical 
 writer, born near WUrzburg in 1759; died in 1827. 
 
 Klettenberg, klet'ten-WRG', (Susanne Catherine,) 
 bom at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1723, was an intimate 
 friend of Goethe's mother, and has been celebrated by 
 the poet in his " Wilhelm Meister," under the name uf 
 "the Beautiful Soul." She wrote a number of religious 
 essays and hymns. Died in 1774. 
 
 Kleuker, kloi'ker, (Johann F'riedrich,) a German 
 scholar, born at Oslerode in 1749. He became in 1798 
 professor of theology at Kiel, where he died in 1827. 
 He translated the " Zend A vesta" of Zoroaster from the 
 Persian, (1776,) and wrote a treatise "On the Religious 
 System of the Brahmins," (1797.) 
 
 See Ratjbn, "J. F. Kleuker und Briefe seiner Freunde," etc., 
 1841. 
 
 Klicpera, klits'peh-ra, ? (Wenceslaus,) a Bohemian 
 dramatist, born at Chlumec in 1792 ; died in 1859. 
 
 Klimrath, klaN'rSt', (Henri,) a French jurist, born 
 at Strasbourg in 1807 ; died in 1837. 
 
 Klingemann, kling'eh-man', (Ernst August Fried- 
 rich,) a German dramatic poet, and director of the court 
 theatre at Brunswick, where he was born in 1777. Among 
 his best works are "Luther," "Henry the Lion," and 
 "German Fidelity," ("Deutsche Treue.") Died in 1831. 
 
 See "Foreign Quarterly Review" for November, 1827. 
 
 Klingenstierua, kling'en-sheVna, (Samuel,) an 
 eminent Swedish philosopher and mathematician, born 
 near Linkoping about 1690, was educated at Upsal. 
 Having visited Germany, he became the friend and dis- 
 ciple of the celebrated Wolf. Upon his return to Swe- 
 den, in 1730, he was appointed professor of mathematics, 
 and was subsequently chosen tutor to the crown-prince, 
 (Gustavus III.) He performed the duties of this office 
 with great ability, receiving as a reward the order of the 
 Polar Star and the title of councillor of state. He was 
 a Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and of Upsal. 
 Klingenstiema wrote a work on refracting telescopes, 
 which obtained the prize offered by the Academy of 
 Sciences of Saint Petersburg, a treatise on the height of 
 the atmosphere, (1732,) and various other productions. 
 Died at Stockholm in 1785. 
 
 See Martin Stkormrr, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver S. Klingen- 
 stiema," 1785; Adei.ung and Tocher, "Allgemeines Gelehrten- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Klinger, kling'er, (Friedrich Maximilian,) a Ger- 
 man litterateur, bom at Frankfort-on-the-Main in Febru- 
 ary, 1753. Having visited Russia in 1780, he became 
 reader to the grand duke Paul, whom he accompanied 
 on his travels. In 1811 he was created lieutenant-general. 
 He published poems, dramas, and romances. Died at 
 Saint Petersburg in 1831. His drama entitled "Storm and 
 Stress, or Impulse," ("Sturm und Drang," 1775,) had a 
 great success, and gave a name to a period of German 
 literature, (" Die Sturm-und-Drang Periode,") which, 
 says Gervinus, "was an epoch of the revolt of nature 
 against civilization, of simplicity against conventionality, 
 of youth against age, of the heart against reason," etc. 
 
 See Gkhvinus, "Geschiclite der Deutschen Dichtung;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Klingsor von Ungerland, kling'soR fon oong'er- 
 lant', a German minnesinger and astrologer of the thir- 
 teenth century, supposed by some writers to have been 
 the author of the famous " Nibelungen-Lied," while 
 others regard him as a fabulous personage. 
 
 Klingstadt, Klingstaedt, or Klingstet, kling'stlt, 
 (Claudius Gustav,) a miniature-painter in the suite 
 of the regent Duke of Orleans, born at Riga in 1657; 
 died at Paris in 1734. 
 
 Klio. See Clio. 
 
 Klocker, klok'ker, or Kloker, klo'ker, (David,) a 
 portrait and historical painter, born at Hamburg in 1629. 
 In early life he went as secretary of legation to Sweden, 
 where he was appointed to give lessons in drawing to 
 Queen Christina. He was afterwards liberally patron- 
 ized by Charles X. Died at Stockholm in 1698. 
 
 See KRSCM mid GrubRR, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Kloosterman. See Ci.osterman, (Johann.) 
 Kiopstock, kiop'stok, (Friedrich SottuebJ a 
 
 celebrated German poet, born at Quedlinburg, July 2, 
 1724. He early cherished the ambition of writing an epic 
 poem. About 1746 he went to Jena to study theology, 
 
 €as/t; casj.g hard; gas j;a, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; it as *, th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 73.) 
 
KLOSE 
 
 1332 
 
 KNAPP 
 
 and in 1747 removed to Leipsic. He produced in 
 1748 the first three cantos of his "Messiah," which 
 had immense success and opened a new era in German 
 poetry. In 1749 he was employed as tutor in a family 
 at Langensalza. He removed in 1751 to Copenhagen, 
 at the invitation of the king, Frederick V., who gave 
 him a pension of four hundred thalers that he might 
 have leisure to complete his great poem. In 1754 he 
 married Margaret (Meta) Moller, an accomplished and 
 literary woman, whom he has commemorated in odes 
 and elegies under the name of "Cidli." He remained 
 twenty years at Copenhagen, where he was patronized 
 by Count Bernstorff and Count Moltke. In 1755 he pub- 
 lished five more cantos of the "Messiah." He cherished 
 the idea that he had a great poetical mission. " This 
 idea of an epic priesthood," says Taillandier, "gradually 
 became a reality. He transferred to his poem the events 
 of his life ; he regulated his life by the inspirations of 
 his poem." " By his character and conduct," says Goethe 
 in his Autobiography, "Klopstock had succeeded in 
 creating attention and respect for himself and other men 
 of talent. ... At this time Klopstock came forward 
 and offered his 'Learned Republic' for subscriptions. 
 Although the later cantos of the 'Messiah' could not 
 have the effect of the earlier, partly on account of their 
 contents, partly on account of their mode of treating the 
 subject, which came pure and innocent into a pure and 
 innocent time, the esteem for the poet remained un- 
 changed." The same writer remarks, " On the whole, 
 one might have taken him for a diplomatist. He carried 
 himself with the self-conscious dignity of a person who 
 has a great moral mission to fulfil." 
 
 In 1758 he was greatly afflicted by the death of his 
 wife. He settled at Hamburg in 1771, and published 
 in 1773 the last cantos of his "Messiah." The general 
 sentiment of his contemporaries in relation to this poem 
 is thus expressed by Madame de Stael, in her "Tableau 
 de l'Allemagne :" " When the reader commences this 
 poem, he receives an impression like that of a person 
 entering a grand cathedral filled with the music of an 
 organ." His admirers compared him to Homer and 
 Milton ; but more sober critics censure his sentimen- 
 tality, monotony, and lack of action. Although his 
 " Messiah" is seldom read at the present time, all the 
 German schools unite in the expression of honour and 
 gratitude to the author for the impulse which he gave 
 to the national literature. The finest qualities of his 
 genius are displayed in his odes, some of which are con- 
 sidered as classic models of the noble and the graceful. 
 He also wrote a number of sacred dramas, among which 
 is " The Death of Adam." About 1 792 he married a 
 widow named Von Winthem. He died at Hamburg in 
 March, 1803. 
 
 See Heinrich Doming, " F. G. Klopstock's Biographie," 1853; 
 Cramek, "Klopstock er und iiber ihn," 5 vols., 1780-93; Miss 
 Benger, " Klopstock and his Friends," 1814; H. DoiUNG, "Klop- 
 stock's Leben," 1825; Johann G. Gruber, "Klopstocks Leben," 
 1832; Bon Joseph Dacieh, "Ejoge de Klopstock," Paris, 1805; 
 F. L. M01.TKE, " Ara D. M. F. G. Klopstock," Altona, 1818 ; Long- 
 fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 view" for January, 1S43; Gkrvinus, "Geschichte der Deutschen 
 Dichtung ;" Alexander Tolhausen, " Klopstock, Lessing, and 
 Wieland: Treatise on German Literature," London, 1848; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Klose, klos, (F. J.,) an English musical composer and 
 skilful pianist, was born in London ; died in 1830. 
 
 Klotz, klots, |Lat. Klot'zius,] (Christian Adol- 
 phus,) a learned German critic and poet, born at Bischofs- 
 werda, near Dresden, in 1738. He studied at Leipsic 
 and Jena, and in 1762 became professor of philosophy 
 at Gottingen. He was appointed by the King of Prussia 
 professor of rhetoric at Halle in 1765, with the title of 
 aulic councillor. He wrote numerous commentaries and 
 short treatises, among which are " Ridicula Literaria," 
 (1762,) "Acta Literaria," (7 vols., 1764-73,) and "Lec- 
 tiones Venushue," (1771.) Died in 1771. 
 
 See C. Hausen, " Leben und Charakter C. A. Klotzens," 1772 ; 
 C. G. von Murr, "Denkmal zur Ehre des Herm Klotz," 1772; 
 Mangelsdorf, " Vila et Memoria Klotzii," 1772. 
 
 Klotz, (Matthias,) a German painter of portraits 
 and landscapes, born at Strasburg in 1748; died in 1821. 
 His three sons, Caspar, Simon, and Joseph, acquired 
 distinction in the same departments of painting. 
 
 Klotz, (Reinhold,) a German critic and scholar, born 
 at Stollberg in 1807, succeeded Hermann as professor of 
 philology at Leipsic in 1849. He published editions of 
 Terence, of the " Phoenissae" and " Medea" of Euripides, 
 and other works. 
 
 Klotz, (Simon,) a German painter of history and 
 landscapes, born at Mannheim in 1777, was a son of 
 Matthias, noticed above. Died in 1825. 
 
 Klotzius. See Ki.otz, (Christian Adolphus.) 
 
 Klotzius, klot'se-iis, (STEPHEN,) a German theolo- 
 gian, born at Lippstadt in 1606; died in«i668. 
 
 Kliiber or Klueber, klii'ber, (Johann Ludwig,) a 
 German jurist and writer of high reputation, was born 
 near Fulda in 1762. He became professor of law at 
 Heidelberg in 1807, soon after which date he was coun- 
 cillor of state at Carlsruhe. In 1817 his friend Prince 
 Hardenberg procured for him a high office in the min- 
 istry of foreign- affairs at Berlin. He acquired distinc- 
 tion by a history of the Congress of Vienna, " Acten des 
 Wiener Congresses in den Jahren 1814 und 1815," (9 
 vols., 1815-35,) and other works. Died in 1837. 
 
 See Morstadt, "Kliibers Leben," prefixed to Ki.Ober's " Of- 
 fentliches Recht des Deutschen Bundes," 1840; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Klueber. See Ki.uber. 
 
 Kluegel. See Ki.ugel. 
 
 Kliigel, klii'gel, (Georg Simon,) a German mathema- 
 tician, born at Hamburg in 1739. He became in 1766 
 professor of mathematics at flelmstedt. Among his 
 principal works is "Elements of Astronomy," (1819.) 
 Died in 1812. 
 
 Kluit, kloit, (Adriaan,) a Dutch historical writer, born 
 at Dort in 1735. In 1779 he was appointed professor 
 of the archaeology of I loll and .and of diplomatic history 
 at Leyden. Among his works are a "History of the 
 Political Administration of Holland" until 1795,(5 vols., 
 1802-05,) and the " Political Economy of Holland." Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 Kluk, klook, (Christopher,) a Polish naturalist, 
 born in Podlachia in 1739, published a " Dictionary of 
 Plants," (3 vols. 1786-88.) Died in 1796. 
 
 Klupfel, kloop'fel, (Emmanuel Christoph,) a Ger- 
 man, born in Saxe-Gotha, became, in 1764, editor of the 
 well-known "Almanach de Gotha." Died in 1776. 
 
 Klyn or Klijn, kiln, (Hendrik Herman,) a Dutch 
 poet, born at Amsterdam in 1773, wrote a poem on 
 Astronomy, (1S09,) and other works. 
 
 Klytemnestra. See Ci.ytemnestra. 
 
 Kmety, kma'tee, (George,) General, the son of a 
 Protestant minister, was born in the county of Gomor, 
 in Hungary, in 1810. He'entered the Austrian army, 
 in which he obtained a commission. In 1848 he joined 
 the Hungarian army which fought against the Austrian?, 
 and signalized his bravery on several occasions. After 
 the surrender of Gtirgey, he embraced the Moslem faith, 
 and enlisted in the Turkish service, with the title of 
 Ismael Pasha. He distinguished himself as a general in 
 the Crimean war, particularly in a battle with the Rus- 
 sians before Kars. Died in 1865. 
 
 Knapp, knap or k'nap, (Ai.iirecht,) a German divine, 
 born in the duchy of WUrtemberg in 1798, has published 
 several collections of hymns and sacred poems, which 
 are highly esteemed. 
 
 Knapp, (GEORG Christian,) a German theologian, 
 born at Halle in 1753. He was professor of theology at 
 Halle about fifty years, and was distinguished in sacred 
 criticism. He was moderately orthodox, endeavouring 
 to reconcile revelation with the demands of reason. He 
 published "Lectures on Christian Theology," (2 vols., 
 1827,) and other works. Died at Halle in 1S25. 
 
 See A. H. Nie.meyer, " Epicedien dem AndenkenG. C. Knapp's," 
 etc., 1825. 
 
 Knapp, (Johann,) a German painter of flowers and 
 animals, was born in Vienna in 1778 ; died in 1833. 
 
 Knapp, nap, (Samuel Lorenzo,) a miscellaneous 
 writer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1784. 
 Among his principal works are " Biographical Sketches 
 of Eminent Lawyers, Statesmen, and Men of Letters," 
 "Travels in North America, by AH Bey," "Lectures 
 on American Literature," and "American Biography." 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 , e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y\ short; a, e, i, q, obscure; fir, fall, fatjmSt; not; good; moon- 
 
KNAPTON 
 
 '333 
 
 KNIGHT 
 
 Knapton, nap'ton, (George,) an English portrait- 
 painter, born in London in 1698, painted in crayons. 
 Died in 1 788. 
 
 Knaust, knowst or k'nowst, (Heinrich,) a German 
 poet, born in 1541 ; died in 1577. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Knaut, knowt or k'nowt, (Christian,) a German 
 botanist, born at Halle in 1654; died in 1716. 
 
 Knaut, (Christoph,) a botanical writer, father of the 
 preceding, was born at Halle in 1638; died in 1694. 
 
 Knauth, knowt, (Christian,) a German historian, 
 born at Gorlitz in 1706; died in 1784. 
 
 Knebel, kna'l>§l, (Emmanuel Theophilus,) a Ger- 
 man medical writer, born at Gorlitz in 1772 ; died in 1809. 
 
 Knebel, von, fon kna'bel, (Karl Ludwig,) a Ger- 
 man litterateur, born at Wallerstein, in Franconia, in 
 1744. He published an excellent translation of the 
 Elegies of Propertius (1798) and the " De Rerum 
 Natura" of Lucretius, (1821 and 1831.) His interesting 
 "Correspondence with Goethe" came out after Knebel's 
 death, which took place in 1834. He was intimate with 
 Mendelssohn, Gleim, Jacobi, and other eminent writers. 
 
 See T. Mundt, " Knebels Leben," prefixed to his " Literarischer 
 Nachlass," 1S35-40: Schwarz, "Zur Erinnerung an K. L. von 
 Knebel: Rede an seinem Grabe gesprochen," 1834; Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 January, 1838. 
 
 Kneller, nel'ler, [Ger. pron. knel'!?r,] (Godfrey,) 
 a celebrated portrait-painter, was born at Lubeck in 
 1648. He commenced his studies under Rembrandt, 
 and pursued them in Italy. He afterwards went to Eng- 
 land, where he was successively court painter to Charles 
 II., James II., William III., Queen Anne, and George I. 
 The last-named created him a baronet. Kneller was also 
 made a knight of the Roman empire by the emperor 
 Leopold. In addition to the distinguished personages 
 of the English court, he painted portraits of Louis XIV. 
 and Peter the Great. Died about 1723. 
 
 See W. A. Ackekmann, " Der Portraitmaler Sir Godefrey Kneller 
 im Verhaltniss zur Kunstbildung seiner Zeit dargeslellt, Lubeck, 
 1845- 
 
 Kniazhnin, kne-azh'nin, written also Kniaschnin 
 and Kniajnin, (Vakof Borissovitch,) a Russian poet 
 and dramatist, was born at Pskov in 1742. Among his 
 principal works are the tragedies of " Dido" and " Sopho- 
 nisba," and a number of odes, songs, and fables. At the 
 request of the empress Catherine, he translated from 
 the Italian " La Clemenza di Tito" of Metastasio. Died 
 in 1791. 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Princess Daschkoff," 1840. 
 
 Kniaziewicz, kne-azh'yi-vitch, ? (Karl,) a Polish 
 general, born in 1762. He fought bravely, though un- 
 successfully, in the defence of his country in 1794, and 
 afterwards entered the French army and distinguished 
 himself in the Italian campaign of 1798. He was made 
 a commander of the legion of honour in 1804. Died in 
 1842. 
 
 See L. Chodzko, " La Pologne illustree," 1840. 
 
 Kniaznin, kne-azh'nin, ? (Francis Dionysius,) a 
 Polish poet, born in the government of Vitepsk in 1750, 
 became teacher in the Jesuits' College at Warsaw, and 
 was afterwards secretary to Prince Adam Czartoryski. 
 He was the author of lyric poems, and published various 
 tranSations of ancient poets into Polish. Died in 1807. 
 
 Kuibb, nib, (Rev. WILLIAM,) an English Baptist mis- 
 sionary, noted for his courageous opposition to slavery 
 in Jamaica, was born at Kettering, in Northamptonshire, 
 about 1800. He laboured zealously to ameliorate the 
 condition of the slaves ; and by his representations to 
 the people of England he aided not a little in the negro 
 emancipation of Jamaica, as well as in the subsequent 
 abolition of the apprentice system. He made a powerful 
 anti-slavery speech at Exeter Hall in 1840. Died in 1845. 
 
 See Jas. Ho»v," Memoir of Wm. Knibb," 1839; J. H. HlNTON, 
 M Memoirs of Win. Knibb," 1847. 
 
 Knicanin, kne-ka-neen'. ? (Stepiian Petrovitcii.) a 
 .mi general, born In 1808, distinguished himself in 
 the revolution of 1848, and in 1852 was made a general 
 and senator. Died in 1855. 
 
 Knickerbocker, (DtEDRICH.) See Irving. 
 
 Kniep, kneep, (Christoph Hkinhkii,) a German 
 painter, born at Hildesheim in 1748. He travelled in 
 
 Italy with Goethe, and worked in Naples. His drawings 
 in sepia and crayons, of Italian landscapes and antiqui- 
 ties, are much admired. Died in Naples in 1825. 
 
 Knigge, von, fon knik'keh, (Adolf Franz Fried- 
 rich,) Baron, a German philosopher and writer, born 
 near Hanover in 1752. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "The Romance of my Life," (" Roman meines Lebens," 
 4 vols., 1781,) and "On the Art of Living with Men," 
 ("Ueber den Umgang mit Menschen," 1788.) Died in 
 1796. 
 
 See Godeke, "Adolf von Knigge, sein Leben und Blicke in seine 
 Zeit," 1844; " Kurze Biographie des A. von Knigge," 1825. 
 
 Knight, nit, (Charles,) an eminent English editor 
 and author, born at Windsor in 1791. He settled in 
 London about 1823, and commenced business as a pub- 
 lisher. He was one of the first members of the Society 
 for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, under whose 
 auspices he published "The Penny Magazine" (1832-45) 
 at his own risk, and "The Library of Entertaining 
 Knowledge." Among the works which he has published 
 or edited are "The Penny Cyclopaedia," (30 vols., 1833- 
 46,) "The Pictorial History of England," (about 1844,) 
 and a valuable "English Cyclopaedia," (24 vols., 1854- 
 61,) which is in fact a recast of the " Penny Cyclopaedia," 
 with important changes and additions. This is separated 
 into divisions for biography, geography, etc. He has also 
 published a number of popular works, among which are 
 a "Life of Shakspere," prefixed to his " Pictorial Shak- 
 spere," (1839,) "Knowledge is Power," (1855,) and his 
 "Popular History of England," (1856-62.) 
 
 See "Passages of a Working-Life," by Charles KnighT; 
 " British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1S64. 
 
 Knight, (Cornelia,) an English authoress, born 
 about 1758, was for a time companion to the princess 
 Charlotte. She resided many years in Italy. Among 
 her works is "Dinarbas," (1790,) which is a sequel to 
 Johnson's "Rasselas." Died about 1837. 
 
 See "Autobiography of Miss Cornelia Knight." London, 1861 ; 
 Bessie R. Parkes, "Twelve Biographical Sketches," London, 
 1866; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1862; "British 
 Quarterly Review" for January, 1862. 
 
 Knight, (Edward,) an English comic actor, born at 
 Birmingham in 1774; died in 1826. 
 
 Knight, (Godwin,) F.R.S., an English philosopher, 
 graduated at Oxford in 1742. He published an " Attempt 
 to demonstrate that all the Phenomena of Nature may 
 be explained by Attraction and Repulsion," (1748.) Died 
 in 1772. 
 
 Knight, (HENRY Gai.ly, ) an English antiquary, 
 traveller, and writer, born in 1786. He wrote poems 
 and treatises on architecture. Died in 1846. 
 
 Knight, (James,) an English navigator, who in 1719 
 was sent by a mercantile company with two vessels to 
 search for a northwest passage and for mines of copper. 
 None of this party ever returned. 
 
 Knight, (John Prescott,) an English painter, born 
 at Stafford in 1803, is the son of a noted comedian. He 
 painted portraits with success. 
 
 Knight, nit, (Jonathan,) an American surgeon, born 
 at Norwalk, Connecticut, in 1789. He became professor 
 of anatomy at Yale College in 1813, and was professor 
 of surgery at the same college from 1838 to 1864. Died 
 in 1864. 
 
 Knight, (Richard Payne,) an English antiquary and 
 Greek scholar, born in Herefordshire in 1750. lie was 
 several times elected to Parliament for the boroughs of 
 Leominster and Ludlow. He made a large collection 
 of Greek coins, bronzes, and various works of art, valued 
 at fiftv thousand pounds, which he bequeathed to the 
 British Museum. Among other works, he wrote "An 
 Analytical Enquiry into the Principles of Taste," (1805.) 
 He contributed to the "Edinburgh Review," and wrote 
 a mediocre poem on "The Progress of Civil Society," 
 (1796,) which furnished Canning and others a subject for 
 a parody in "The Anti-Jacobin." Died in 1824. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1806. 
 
 Knight, (Samuel,) an English clergyman and biogra- 
 pher, bom in London in 1674. He wrote the Lives of 
 Erasmus (1724) and of Dr. John Colet, (1726.) He 
 became chaplain to George II. in 1730, and Archdeacon 
 of Berks in 1735. Died in 1746. 
 
 < as /•; 9 as s; g hunt; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in tail. (J[^" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KNIGHT 
 
 1334 
 
 KNOX 
 
 Knight, (Thomas Andrew,) a distinguished vege- 
 table physiologist and horticulturist, born in 1758, was a 
 brother of R. P. Knight, noticed above. He succeeded 
 Sir Joseph Hanks as president of the British Horticul- 
 tural Society. He wrote "A Treatise on the Culture 
 of the Apple and Pear, and on the Manufacture of Cider 
 and Perry," (1797,) and other works. He produced new 
 and valuable varieties of fruits from seeds, and made 
 experiments in vegetable fecundation, in the germination 
 of seeds, and in other processes of vegetable physiology. 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 Knighton or Knyghton, nl'ton, (Henry,) a his- 
 torical writer and ecclesiastic, flourished in England 
 about 1380-1400. His principal works are a chronicle 
 of events from the invasion of W.illiam the Conqueror, 
 and a history of Richard II. 
 
 Knill, nil, (Rev. Richard,) an English Methodist mis- 
 sionary, born in Devonshire in 1787. He was sent in 
 1816 bv the London Missionary Society to India, where 
 he spent three years, and subsequently resided sixteen 
 years in Russia, where he laboured with great zeal and 
 success. Died in 1857. 
 
 See Charles M. Birhki.l, " Life of Richard Knill, with a Review 
 of his Life and Character," by J. Angell James, London, 1860. 
 
 Knipperdolling, knip'per-dol'ling, (Bernhard,) a 
 German fanatic, born in Minister, was associated with 
 the principal leaders of the Anabaptist insurrection of 
 1533. He was executed in 1536, with his accomplice, 
 John of Leyden. 
 
 Knipstrovius. See Knipstrow. 
 
 Knipstrow, knip'stRo, or Kniepstrow, kneep'stRO, 
 [Lat. Knii'STRo'vius,] (Johann,) a German reformer, 
 born at Sandow, in Silesia, in 1497. He distinguished 
 himself in a public dispute against Tetzel in 1518. In 
 1539 he became professor of theology at Greifswalde, 
 and in 1547 rector of the university at that place. Died 
 in 1556. 
 
 See Maykr, "Vita Knipstfovii." 
 
 Knjaschnin or Knjaznin. See Kniazhnin. 
 
 Knobelsdorf, km/bels-doitf', (Hans Gkorg Wen- 
 CESLAUS,) a distinguished Prussian architect, born in 
 1697, was appointecl bv Frederick the Great superin- 
 tendent of the royal buildings. Among his best works 
 are the castle of Sans-Souci and the Opera-House at 
 Berlin. Died in 1753. 
 
 Knoblecher, knop'leK-er, (N.,) a German mission- 
 ary and traveller, born about 1800. In company with a 
 trading-party, he ascended the White Nile in 1849-50 
 to about 4° north latitude, but was unable to reach the 
 source of the river. 
 
 Knoller, von, fon knol'ler, (Martin,) an eminent 
 historical painter, born at Steinach, in the Tyrol, in 1725, 
 studied several years in Rome. Among his best works 
 are the frescos painted from incidents in the life of 
 Cardinal Borromeo, and a large fresco at Munich of the 
 "Ascension of the Virgin." Knoller received a patent 
 of nobility from the empress Maria Theresa. He worked 
 many years in Milan. Died in 1804. 
 
 See Enrico Glausen, " Memoria della Vita e delle Opere di M. 
 Knoller," Milan, 1838; Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Knolles, nolz, (Richard,) an English writer, born 
 in Northamptonshire about 1545. Among his works 
 are " General History of the Turks from the Origin of 
 this Nation until the Elevation of the Ottoman Family," 
 (1610,) and a "Compendium of the Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew Grammar." His " History of the Turks" was 
 praised by Dr. Johnson. Died in 1610. 
 
 Knolles or Knowles, nolz, (Robert,) a celebrated 
 English general under the reign of Edward III., was 
 born about 1317 ; died about 1406. 
 
 See Froissart, "Chronicles." 
 
 Knollis or Knowles, nolz, (Sir Francis,) an English 
 statesman, born in Oxfordshire about 1530. He pro- 
 moted the Reformation in the reign of Edward VI. On 
 the accession of lilizabeth, (1558,) he was appointed 
 chamberlain of the household and privy councillor. Died 
 in 1596. 
 
 See Turner, " History of the Reign of Edward VI.," etc. 
 
 Knorr, knoR, (Georg Wolfgang,) a German en- 
 graver, born at Nuremberg in 1705 ; died in 1761. 
 
 Knorr von Rosenroth, knoR fon ro'zen-rot', (Chris- 
 tian,) Baron, a German scholar and statesman, bora 
 near Liegnitz in 1636. He wrote an " Evangelical His- 
 tory," and "Kabbala Denudata," an exposition of the 
 transcendental, metaphysical, and theological doctrines 
 of the Hebrews. Died in 1689. 
 
 Knott, not, (Edward,) an English Jesuit and con- 
 troversial writer, whose proper name was Matthew 
 Wilson, was born in Northumberland in 1580. Among 
 his principal works is " Infidelity Unmasked," (1652,) in 
 answer to Chillingworth's " Religion of Protestants." 
 Died in 1656. 
 
 Knowler, no'ler, ? (William,) an English clergyman, 
 born about 1700, translated part of Saint Chrysostom's 
 works. Died in 1767. 
 
 Knowles, nolz, (James Davis,) an American writer 
 and Baptist clergyman, born at Providence, Rhode Island, 
 in 1798. He graduated at Columbian College, Wash- 
 ington, D.C., and in 1825 became pastor of a church 
 in Boston. He wrote Memoirs of Roger Williams and 
 of Mrs. Ann H. Judson, and was the founder of the 
 "Christian Review." Died in 1838. 
 
 Knowles, nolz, (James Sheridan,) a popular drama- 
 tist and actor, born at Cork, in Ireland, in 1784. At 
 twelve years of age he wrote his first play, and at four- 
 teen produced an opera, "The Chevalier de Grillon." 
 He visited America in 1835, where he performed on the 
 stage and met with a flattering reception. Four years 
 later, an annual pension of two hundred pounds was con- 
 ferred upon him by the British government. Among the 
 most celebrated ot his numerous plays may l)e mentioned 
 "Leo the Gipsey," "Caius Gracchus," (1815,) " Vir- 
 ginius," (1820,) and "The Hunchback," (1832.) Several 
 years before his death he left the stage and became a 
 Baptist preacher. Died in 1862. 
 
 See R, H. Horne, "New Spirit of the Age," 1844: "Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1833; " Fraser's Magazine" for April. 1S36; 
 •' Hlackwood's Magazine" for October, 1S63 ; Allibone, "Diction- 
 ary of Authors." 
 
 Knowles, (Thomas,) an English clergyman and 
 writer, born at Ely in 1723. He wrote "Advice to 
 Voting Clergymen," "Primitive Christianity, in Defence 
 of the Trinity," and "Lectures for Passion Week." 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 Knowlton, nol'ton, (Thomas,) an English botanist, 
 born in 1692; died in 1782. 
 
 Knox, noks, (Hen'rv,) an able American general and 
 statesman, born at Boston, July 25, 1750, was a book- 
 seller in his youth. He married an accomplished lady 
 named Lucy Fluker. He took part in the battle of 
 Bunker Hill, and in the beginning of the Revolution 
 distinguished himself by his skill as an engineer and 
 artillerist. In 1775 he was appointed commander of 
 the artillery. He was raised to the rank of brigadier- 
 general in 1776, and served under Washington in the 
 battles of Trenton and Princeton, January, 1777. He 
 directed the artillery at the battle of Brandywine, Sep- 
 tember, 1777, and at Monmouth, June, 1778. He also 
 contributed to the defeat and capture of the British army 
 at Yorktown, in October, 1781, soon after which he was 
 promoted to be a major-general. He enjoyed in a high 
 degree the esteem and confidence of General Wash- 
 ington. He succeeded General Lincoln as secretaiy of 
 war in March, 1785, before the adoption of the Consti- 
 tution, and was appointed to the same office by President 
 Washington in 1789. In politics he was a Federalist. 
 He resigned his office in December, 1794, after which he 
 lived in Maine. He had seven or more children. He 
 died at Thomaston, Maine, in October, 1806. 
 
 See Bancroft. " History of the United States ;" " National 
 Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. 
 
 Knox, noks, (John,) the greatest of the Scottish Re- 
 formers, was born at Gifford, in East Lothian, in 1505. 
 He was educated at the University of Saint Andrew's, 
 and in theology was a pupil of John Major or Mair. He 
 was ordained a priest about 1530, soon after which a great 
 change took place in his religious opinions. In 1542 
 he openly renounced the Roman Catholic religion, and 
 became a zealous preacher of the Protestant doctrines, 
 which at that time had few adherents in Scotland. The 
 storm of persecution soon began to beat against him, 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, Jf, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
KNOX 
 
 I33J 
 
 KOCH 
 
 and it is stated that Cardinal Beaton employed assassins 
 to take his life. In 1547 he retired far safety to the castle 
 of Saint Andrew's, which was occupied by a party of 
 Protestants who had conspired against and killed Cardi- 
 nal Beaton. During the siege of this place he preached 
 with great power and converted many of its inhabitants. 
 The castle at length was captured by Regent Arran and 
 his French allies, who carried Knox as a prisoner to 
 Rouen. He was confined nineteen months in the French 
 galleys, and released in 1549, after which he preached 
 at Berwick and Newcastle for several years. He was 
 appointed chaplain to Edward VI. about 1551, and was 
 intimate with Cranmer. In 1553 he married Marjory 
 Bowes. On the accession of Queen Mary, (1553,) he 
 was induced by the urgent entreaties of his friends to 
 retire to the continent. He visited Scotland in 1555, 
 after which he passed about three years at Geneva, where 
 he formed a friendship with Calvin, studied Hebrew, and 
 wail employed as pastor of a church. In 1558 he pub- 
 lished "The First Blast of the Trumpet against the 
 Monstrous Regiment of Women." The Scotch Prot- 
 estants in the mean time had increased in number, and 
 the conflict between the opposing ideas had reached a 
 crisis which required the inflexible resolution and un- 
 flinching courage of Knox. He returned to Scotland in 
 May, 1559, and became the master-spirit of the Refor- 
 mation in that country, which was then ruled by Marie, 
 the queen-regent, a French princess of the family of 
 Guise. The Protestants raised and maintained an army 
 for self-defence, and were animated by the vehement 
 harangues of Knox, who thundered continually against 
 the idolatry of the Romish Church. The Parliament in 
 1560 renounced the authority of the pope, and adopted 
 a confession of faith proposed by Knox. In 1561 the 
 young queen Mary arrived in Scotland, and had with 
 Knox several interviews, with no satisfactory results. 
 " At my interview with the queen," he wrote to Cecil, 
 "she showed more artifice than I ever found in a person 
 so young." At her instigation, Knox was accused of 
 treason, and tried, but was acquitted, (1563.) His first 
 wife having died, he married in 1564 Margaret Stewart, 
 a daughter of Lord Ochiltree. The projects and influ- 
 ence of Knox were promoted by the alxlication of the 
 queen and the appointment of Murray as regent. But 
 in his latter years he was greatly afflicted by the assas- 
 sination of Murray (1 570) and the confusion and disorders 
 which followed that event. He died in November, 1572. 
 Among the Reformers of that age, Knox was distin- 
 guished for his courage and sagacity, as well as for his 
 earnestness and the inflexible austerity of his principles. 
 The regent Morton, in a short funeral oration, said of 
 him, " Here lies he who never feared the face of man." 
 Of Knox, Froude remarks that he was "perhaps in 
 that extraordinary age its most extraordinary man, and 
 whose character became the mould in which the later 
 fortunes of his country were cast." (" History of Eng- 
 land," vol. iv. chap, xviii.) In another place he says, 
 " No grander figure can be found in the entire history of 
 the Reformation in this island than that of Knox. . . . 
 The one man without whom Scotland, as the modern 
 world has known it, would have had no existence. . . . 
 His was the voice which taught the peasant of the 
 Lothians that he was a free man, the equal in the sight of 
 God with the proudest peer or prelate that had trampled 
 on his forefathers. He was the one antagonist whom 
 Mary Stuart could not soften nor Maitland deceive ; he 
 it was that raised the poor commons of his country into 
 a stern and rugged people, who might be hard, narrow, 
 superstitious, and fanatical, but who nevertheless were 
 men whom neither king, noble, nor priest could force 
 again to submit to tyranny." (See "History of England," 
 vol. x. chap, xxiii. pp. 452-456 etseq.) 
 
 See McCxik. "Life of John Knox," 2 vols., 1812; Burton, 
 " History of Scotland." more particularly chap, xxxviii : RoHEXT 
 son, " History of Scotland ;" Froudk, " History of Falkland," volt 
 v., vii., ix., x. ; Nibmfyhr. "Leben Hes J. Knox mid der beiden 
 Marin," iSn; " Encyclopedia liritannica ;" " Wesliinn 
 vie*" for July, 1853: (Jhambkrs, " Biographical Dictionary of Emi- 
 nen Scotsmen ." " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812, April, 1832, 
 and July, 1853. 
 
 Knox, noks, {John,) an English benefactor, born 
 about 1720, was a bookseller of London. He acquired a 
 
 fortune by business, and spent much time and money in 
 plans,to improve the condition of the poor in the High- 
 lands of Scotland, which he visited sixteen times. He 
 wrote a "Systematic View of Scotland." Died in 1790. 
 
 Knox, (John,) a native of Edinburgh, and captain 
 in the English navy, wrote a historical account of the 
 campaigns, naval battles, etc. in America during the 
 years 1757, 1759, and 1760. Died in 1790. 
 
 Knox, (Kuhekt,) of the British East India naval 
 service, was born about 1640. In 1660 he was wrecked 
 on the island of Ceylon, where he remained a captive 
 twenty years. After his escape he published a " His- 
 torical Relation of the Island of Ceylon," (1681.) Died 
 about 1700. 
 
 Knox, (VlCF.siMus,) D.D., a celebrated English cler- 
 gyman and author, born at Newington Green, in the 
 county of Middlesex, in 1752. The title of D. I). was 
 conferred upon him by the University of Pennsylvania. 
 Of his numerous works may be mentioned " Essays, 
 Moral and Literary," (1777,) "Personal Nobility, or 
 Letters to. a Young Nobleman," "Christian Philoso- 
 phy," (1795,) "On the National Importance of Classical 
 Education, and "Considerations on the Nature and 
 Efficacy of the Lord's Supper." As a preacher he was 
 very popular. He obtained the united rectories of Rum- 
 well and Ramsden Crays in Essex, and was master of 
 Tunbridge School, which he conducted for many years. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 Knox, (William,) a Scottish poet, bom about 1788. 
 Among his poems are " The Lonely Hearth," and " Ma- 
 riainne." Died in 1825. 
 
 Knud. See Canute. 
 
 Knupfer, knoop'fer, (Nikolaus,) a German painter 
 of battles and mythological subjects, born at Leipsic in 
 1603 ; died in 1600. 
 
 Kutit See Canute. 
 
 Knutzen, knoot'sen, (Martin,) a German writer, and 
 professor of philosophy in the University of Konigsberg, 
 was born in that city in 17 13 ; died in 1 75 1. 
 
 Knutzen, Knuzen, or Cnutzeu, knoot'sen, (Mat- 
 thias,) an atheist or skeptic, was born in Holstein, and 
 educated at Konigsberg. He made numerous proselytes, 
 who, from his doctrine that reason and conscience were 
 sufficient to guide all men, have been called Conscieu- 
 tiarians. Died after 1674. 
 
 Knuzen. See Knutzen. 
 
 Kuyphausen, knip'how'zen, (Baron,) a German 
 general, born in Alsace about 1730. He obtained in 1776 
 command of an army of Hessians who were hired by 
 the British ministry to fight against the Americans. He 
 took part in the battle of Brandy wine, September, 1777, 
 and in other actions of the Revolutionary war. Died in 
 Berlin in 1789. 
 
 Kobad. See Cabades. 
 
 Kobell, ko'bSI, (Ferdinand,) an able German land- 
 scape-painter and engraver, born at Mannheim in 1740. 
 He worked for some years at Munich, where he died in 
 1799. His etchings are highly prized. 
 
 Kobell, (Franz,) a German landscape-painter, brother 
 of the preceding, was born at Mannheim in 1749. He also 
 executed with his pen a large number of pictures, which 
 have been greatly admired. Died in 1822. 
 
 Kobell, (Franz,) a German poet and mineralogist, 
 a grandson of Ferdinand, noticed above, was born at 
 Munich in 1803. He published several good works on 
 mineralogy, and a number of popular poems. 
 
 Kobell, ko'Wl, (Hendrik,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 Rotterdam in 175 1. He painted landscapes, marine 
 pieces, and naval battles with success. Died in 17H2. 
 
 Kobell, (Jan,) a skilful painter of landscapes and 
 animals, born at Utrecht in 1782, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. Died in 1814. 
 
 Kobell, (W11.111 i.m,) an eminent German painter 
 of landscapes and battles, born at Mannheim in 1766, 
 was a son of Ferdinand, noticed above. He worked at 
 Munich. Died in 1S53. 
 
 Kobenzl. See Coiienzl. 
 
 Koch, von, fon koK, (Christoph Wii.iiii.m,) a 
 French Protestant and historical writer, of German 
 parentage, was born at Bouxviller, in Alsace, in 1737. 
 He studied at Strasbnrg under Schopflin, and gained dis- 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in tins. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
KOCH 
 
 1336 
 
 KOHL 
 
 tinction as a lecturer on history, public law, etc. in that 
 city. In 1791 he represented Bas-Rhin in the Legisla- 
 tive Assembly. He was imprisoned during the reign of 
 terror, and became a member of the Tribunate in 1802. 
 Among his important works are "Tableau des Revolu- 
 tions de l'Europe depuis le Bouleversement de l'Empire 
 Roniain," (1771,) and an "Abridged History of the 
 Treaties between the European Powers since the Peace 
 of Westphalia," (4 vols., 1796.) Died in 1813. 
 See Schweighauser, " Notice biographique de Koch." 
 
 Koch, (Jean Baitiste Frederic,) a general, nephew 
 of the preceding, was born at Nancy in 1 782. He wrote 
 " Memoirs towards the History of the Campaign of 1814," 
 (3 vols., 1819,) and aided Jomini in his " History of the 
 Wars of the Revolution," (5 vols., 1819-24.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Koch, (Joseph Anton,) an eminent landscape and 
 historical painter, born in the valley of Lech, near Augs- 
 burg, in 1768. He studied in Rome, where he fixed his 
 residence. Among his best pieces are the " Sacrifice of 
 Noah," " Francesca da Rimini," and the frescos from 
 Dante in the villa Massimi. He also etched twenty 
 plates of Italian landscapes, which are esteemed master- 
 pieces. Died at Rome in 1839. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Koch, (Karl Heinrich Emanuei.,) a German natu- 
 ralist, born at Weimar in 1809. He travelled in Southern 
 Russia, Turkey, and the Caucasus, and published, after 
 his return, his " Journey through Russia to the Caucasian 
 Isthmus," (2 vols., 1842,) "Wanderings in the East," (3 
 vols., 1846,) and a " Flora of the Levant," (" Beitrage zu 
 einer Flora des Orientes," 1848-54.) 
 
 Koch, (Wilhei.m Daniel Joseph,) a German phy- 
 sician and botanist, born near Deux-Ponts in 1771, be- 
 came, in 1824, professor of botany and medicine at Erlan- 
 gen. He published a treatise "On European Willows," 
 (" De Salicibus Europasis," 1818,) " Synopsis of the Flora 
 of Germany and Switzerland," (1835-37,) and other works 
 on botany. Died in 1849. 
 
 Koch-Sternfeld, koK steRn'felt, (Joseph Ernst,) 
 a German historical writer and antiquary, born at Mit- 
 tersill in 1778. Among his works are "The Kingdom 
 of the Longobards in Italy," (1839,) and "Historical 
 Studies on Civilization in the Alps," (2 vols., 1852.) 
 
 Kochanowski, ko'Ka-nov'skee, (John,) a Polish 
 nobleman and celebrated poet, born in 1532. For his 
 translations of the Psalms into Polish verse he received 
 the title of "the Pindar of Poland." His other poems 
 were published at Warsaw, (1803-05.) Died in 1584. 
 
 See Bbntkowski, " History of Polish Literature." 
 
 Kock, (Matthew.) See Cock. 
 
 Kock, de, deh kok, (Charles Paul,) a French ro- 
 mance-writer and dramatist, of Dutch extraction, born 
 at Passy,'near Paris, in 1794. His works, though pos- 
 sessing little merit as literary productions, and ranking 
 among the most immoral of French novels, enjoy great 
 popularity both in France and other countries of Europe. 
 Some French critics consider him an excellent painter 
 of French manners, of Parisian roguery, rustic bonhomie, 
 and the absurdity of the bourgeois. Died in 1871. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1837; "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for February, 1830, and October, 1839; "North 
 American Review" for April, 1843. 
 
 Kochly or Koechly, kbK'lee, (Hermann August 
 Theodok,) a German philologist, born at Leipsic in 
 1815. He published, among other works, a valuable 
 "History of the Art of War among the Greeks," (1852.) 
 
 Kodde, van der, vtn der kod'deh, (Jan, Amriaan, 
 and Gysbert,) three brothers, who lived at Warmond, 
 near Leyden, and founded a religious society, called Col- 
 legiants, about 1620. 
 
 Kodhaee or Kodhai, Al, al ko-dha'ee, (Abdallah- 
 Ibn-Abi-Bekr-Ibnul-Abbar, ab-dal'lah Ib'n a'bee 
 bek'r ib-nool' ab-baR',) often called simply Ibmil- (or 
 Ibnool-) Abbar, a celebrated Spanish Arabian author, 
 born at Valencia, in Spain, in the thirteenth century. 
 His style is elegant, pure, and terse. Among his writings 
 are two biographical works on the Arabian poets and 
 authors. 
 
 Kodros. See Codrus. 
 
 Koeberger, koo'bfRG-er, (Venceslaus,) a Flemish 
 painter and architect, born in Antwerp about 1550. He 
 studied in his native city, and afterwards at Rome, where 
 he greatly distinguished himself. Among his paintings 
 are the "Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian," and "Christ 
 taken from the Cross and supported by Angels." Died 
 in 1634, or, according to some authorities, in 1610. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc 
 
 Koecher. See Kocher. 
 
 Kcechlin, keVlaN', (Daniel,) a French chemist and 
 manufacturer of cotton, born at Mulhouse about 1780, 
 was one of the firm of Nicolas Koechlin freres. He 
 greatly promoted the prosperity of Mulhouse by the 
 invention of a process of adorning printed muslins with 
 rich designs and brilliant colours. 
 
 Kcechlin, (Nicolas,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 born at Mulhouse in 1781. He was a manufacturer of 
 fine muslins ( indiennes ) at Mulhouse, and a liberal mem- 
 ber of the Chamber of Deputies. Died in 1852. 
 
 Koechly. See Kochly. 
 
 Koeck, kook, (Pieter,) a Flemish painter, engraver, 
 and architect, was born at Alost about 1500. He studied 
 in Italy, and afterwards visited Turkey. Among his 
 works are seven large and well-executed paintings to 
 illustrate the manners of the Turks. He also made 
 engravings of these pictures. Koeck was first painter 
 to Charles V. Died in 1553. 
 
 See P11.KINGTON, "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Koegler. See Kogi.er. 
 
 Koehler. See Kohler. 
 
 Koekkoek, kook'kook, (Bernard Cornelis, ) a 
 Dutch landscape-painter, born at Middelburg in 1803, 
 published in 1841 "Recollections and Communications 
 of a Landscape-Painter." His works are commended 
 for fidelity to nature and other merits. Died in 1858. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Koelcsey, (Francis.) See Kolcsey. 
 
 Koeler. See Kohler. 
 
 Koelliker. See Kolliker. 
 
 Koelreuter. See Kolreuter. 
 
 Koenig. See Konig. 
 
 Koenigshoven. See Konigshoven. 
 
 Koenigsmarck. See Konigsmarck. 
 
 Koeppen. See Koppen. 
 
 Koepsteln. See Capito, (Wolfgang.) 
 
 Koerner. See KOrner. 
 
 Koerte. See Korte. 
 
 Koerten-Block. See Block. 
 
 Koes, (F.) See Kos. 
 
 Koestlln. See Kostlin. 
 
 Koets, koots, (Roelof,) a Dutch portrait-painter, 
 born at Zwolle in 1655. Among his works are the por- 
 traits of William HI. of England, and of several distin- 
 guished Flemings, Germans, and Englishmen. Died in 
 1725. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Pemtres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Kofod, ko'fod, (Johan Ancher,) a Danish writer, 
 born near Bornholm in 1777, published several histories 
 and a "Conversations-Lexicon," (28 vols., 1816-28.) 
 Died in 1829. 
 
 See Ersi.kw, " Forfatter- Lexicon." 
 
 Kogler or Koegler, koc'Ier, (Ignaz, ) a learned 
 Jesuit, born in Bavaria in 1680. In 1715 he was sent as 
 a missionary to China, where he received many marks 
 of distinction from the emperor Kang-Hee, (Kang-Hi.) 
 He died in Pekin in 1 746. 
 
 Kohen Attar, ko'hen at-tiR', written also Cohen 
 Atthar and Kuhan Atthar, a learned Egyptian phy- 
 sician, lived about 1 150, and wrote on materia medica. 
 
 Kohl, kol, (JoHANN Georg,) a German traveller and 
 popular writer, was boui at Bremen in 1808. Among his 
 principal works are "Travels in the Interior of Russia 
 and Poland," (1 841,) "Travels in Styria and the Bavarian 
 Highlands," (1842,) "Travels in England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland," (1844,) and "Travels in the Netherlands," 
 (1850.) He also wrote "Sketches from Nature and 
 Common Life," (2 vols., 1851.) His fine descriptive 
 powers and attractive style entitle him to rank among 
 the best writers of travels in recent times. Died in 1871, 
 
 See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1841, and January, 
 1842 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1846. 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long ; 4, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fl, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not, good; moon; 
 
KOHLER 
 
 >337 
 
 KONIG 
 
 Kohler or Koehler, ko'ler, (Johann Bernhard,) 
 a German scholar, born at Lubeck in 1742. In 1781 he 
 was appointed to the" chair of the Greek and Oriental 
 languages in the University of Konigsberg. He wrote 
 "Remarks on Dion Chrysostom," "Tracts on Roman 
 Law," and several other works. Died in 1802. 
 
 Kohler, Koehler, or Koeler, (Johann David,) a 
 German author and antiquary, born near Leipsic in 
 1684. In 1710 he was appointed professor of logic at 
 Altorf, and about 1725 was chosen professor of history 
 at Gottingcn. His numerous works relate to history, 
 bibliography, and literature. Died in 1 755. 
 
 See J. M. Gesner, " Memoria Koehleri," 1755; Gatterer und 
 J. II. KftwjBR, "J I)- Kbhlers I.eben," in the last volume of his 
 " Mun/belustiginigeu," 22 vols., 1729-55. 
 
 Kohler or Koehler, (Johann Tobias,) a German 
 numismatist, born at Altorf in 1720, was a son of the 
 preceding. He published a "Cabinet of Ducats," 
 ("Ducaten-Cabinet," 2 vols., 1758-60.) Died in 1768. 
 
 Kohlrausch, kol'rowsh, (Heinrich Friedrjch 
 Theodor,) born near Gottingen in 1780, published a 
 " I Iistory of Germany." 
 
 Kbhiie, ko'neli, (Frederick,) born in Prussia in 
 1757, emigrated to America in 1 780, and made a large 
 fortune at Charleston, South Carolina. He died in 1829, 
 leaving a great part of his property to the charitable 
 institutions of Pennsylvania and South Carolina, for the 
 benefit of the coloured as well as the white population. 
 
 Kolb. See Kolbe, (Peter.) 
 
 Kolbe, kol'beh, (Karl Wilhelm,) a skilful German 
 engraver and writer, born at Berlin in 1757. He etched 
 numerous landscapes after his own designs, and wrote, 
 among other works, a treatise " On the Riches of the 
 German and French Languages, and the Capacity of 
 both for Poetry," (1806.) Died in 1835. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Mein Lebenslauf und mein Wirken," 
 1825: Nacler, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Kolbe, (Karl Wilhei.m,) a German painter, nephew 
 of the preceding, born at Berlin in 1781 ; died in 1853. 
 
 Kolbe, written also Kolb, kolp, or Kolben, kol'b? n, 
 (Peter,) a naturalist, born at Wunsiedel, in Bavaria, 
 in 1675. He passed some years in Southern Africa, 
 and wrote, among other works, "A Description of the 
 Cape of Good Hope," (1719.) His book, containing 
 much valuable information, was translated into the 
 French, Dutch, and English languages. Died in 1726. 
 
 See G. C. Oertel, "Dissertatio de Vita et Mentis P. Kolbii," 
 1758- 
 
 Kolben. See Kolbe, (Peter.) 
 
 Kolcsey, kol'cha, (Francis,) one of the greatest of 
 Hungarian orators, celebrated also as a poet, critic, and 
 lawyer, was born in Middle Szolnok in 1790. At an 
 early age he formed a friendship with Kazinczy and Paul 
 Szemere, and in 1826 was associated with the latter as 
 editor of a journal entitled "Life and Literature." He 
 published in this periodical a number of critical essays, 
 regarded as the best in the Hungarian language, the 
 object of which was the improvement of the national 
 literature of Hungary. He was a deputy to the Diet 
 of 1832-36, where he was distinguished for his rare elo- 
 quence and his unswerving course in the support of 
 liberal principles. Died in 1838. His complete works, 
 consisting of poems, tales, essays, and philosophical and 
 miscellaneous writings, were published the same year. 
 
 Sec an article on the " Language and Literature of the Magyars," 
 in the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for September, 1828. 
 
 Koler. See Koiii.fr. 
 
 Ko-let'tia or Co-let'tis, (Joannis,) a modern Greek 
 statesman and democrat, born near Janina in 1788, was 
 one of the most active promoters of the insurrection of 
 1821. On the accession of King Otho he was appointed 
 minister of the interior and president of the cabinet. 
 1 It became in 1844 minister of foreign affairs, which post 
 he held until his death, in 1847. 
 
 See L. DE Lomenie, "M. Colettis, par un Homme de Rien," 
 1842. 
 
 Kollar, kol'lak, (Jan,) a distinguished ecclesiastic, 
 poet, and antiquary, born in Northern Hungary in 1793. 
 He endeavoured by his writings to establish a common 
 language and feeling of nationality between the various 
 Slavonic races in Europe. This spirit pervades all his 
 
 poetry, for which he used the Bohemian language, re- 
 garding his native Slovakian as deficient in dignity and 
 comprehensiveness. After the revolt of the Hungarians, 
 to whom he was bitterly opposed, he removed to Vienna, 
 where he became professor of archceology. Died in 1852. 
 His principal poem is entitled " Slawy Dcera," (" Daugh- 
 ter of Glory," 1824.) Among his prose works are "Treat- 
 ises on the Names and Antiquities of the Slavonic 
 Nation," and "On the Literary Reciprocity between the 
 Races and Dialects of the Slavonic Tribes," (1831.) 
 
 See Dr. J. Bowring, "Servian Poetry;" "Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" for April, 1828. 
 
 Kolli, kol'lee, de, (Baron,) a political adventurer, 
 born in Piedmont about 1775. He made an attempt in 
 1810 to release from prison the Spanish prince, (after- 
 wards Ferdinand VII.,) but, his plan having been be- 
 trayed, he was imprisoned four years in the castle of 
 Saumur. Died about 1825. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Baron de Kolli," by himself; " Edinburgh 
 Review" for October, 1823. 
 
 Kolliker or Koelliker, kol'le-ker, (Albert,) a Ger- 
 man physiologist of high reputation, born about 1818. 
 He gained distinction by his minute investigations with 
 the microscope. Among other works, he published 
 " Manual of Human Histology," (" Handbuch tier Gewe- 
 belehre des Menschen," 1852,) which has been translated 
 into English by Busk and Huxley. He became professor 
 of anatomy and physiology at Wiirzburg. 
 
 Kollmann, kol'man, (August Friedrich Karl,) a 
 German composer, born near Hanover in 1756. He was 
 an organist in London, and wrote a "Theory of Musical 
 Harmony," (1806.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Kollontaj or Kolontaj, kol'lon-ti', (Hugo,) written 
 also Kollontay, a Polish patriot, born in the government 
 of Sandomir in 1750. He had the principal share in 
 drawing up the constitution of the 3d of May, 1791, but, 
 after the meeting of the confederation of Targowitza, was 
 forced to leave the country. He was afterwards impris- 
 oned for a time at Olmiitz by the Austrians. He was the 
 author of several able political treatises. Died in 1812. 
 
 Kolmar. See Colmar. 
 
 Kbln. See Coi.n. 
 
 Kol-o-ko-tro'nis or Colocotronis, (Theodore,) 
 a modern Greek patriot, born in Messenia in 1770. He 
 distinguished himself in many engagements with the 
 Turks, and rose to be commander-in-chief of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus in 1823. In 1835 he was made a councillor 
 of state by King Otho, and obtained other distinctions. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 See Quinet, " La Grece moderne dans ses Rapports avec l'An- 
 tiquit<. 
 
 Kolowrat or Kolowrat-Liebsteinski, ko'lo-rat' 
 leep-stln'skee, (Franz Anton,) a Bohemian minister of 
 state, born at Prague in 1778. He became a member 
 of the council of ministers at Vienna in 1825, and had 
 charge of the department of finances for many years. 
 
 Kolowrat, ko'lo-rat', or Kollowrath, kol'lo-rat', 
 (LEOPOLD Krakowski,) a statesman of Austria under 
 the reigns of Francis I., Maria Theresa, Joseph II., 
 Leopold II., and Francis II. He held the offices of 
 minister of the interior and grand chancellor of Bohemia. 
 Died in 1809. 
 
 Kolreuter or Koelreuter, kol'roi'ter, (Joseph 
 Gottlieb,) a German botanist, born at julz, on the 
 Ncckar, in 1733; died in 1806. 
 
 Koltzof or Kolzov, kolt'sof, (Ai.exei .Vasii.ie- 
 vitch,) a Russian poet, born in the government of 
 Voronezh in 1809. His "Russian Songs and Ballads" 
 are ranked among the best productions of the kind in 
 the language. Died in 1842. 
 
 KomnenoB. See Comnknus. 
 
 Konarski, ko naR'skee, (Stanislas Jerome,) a. 
 Polish poet and litterateur, born at Konary, near Cracow, 
 in 1700. He founded a college of Piarists at Warsaw. 
 He published numerous works which contributed to 
 reform the national literature. Died in 1773. 
 
 See KkAjp.wsKl, " Flloge historiquc de Konarski." \Vars;iw, 1783. 
 
 Kong-Fou-Tse. See Confucius. 
 Kong-Fu-Tse. Sec Confucius. 
 Kouig or Koenig, ko'nio, (Christian Gottlieb,) a 
 German poet, born at Altorf in 1711 ; died in 17S2. 
 
 1.3&k;<ii&s;%hard;%vbi; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K,trilltd; Sasz; th as in Mm. (Jty~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KONIG 
 
 '338 
 
 KOOTOOZ 
 
 Konig or Koenig, kb'nic, (Emanuel,) a Swiss natu- 
 ralist and medical writer, born at Bale in 1658. Among 
 his works is " Regnum Vegetabile," (1680.) Died in 
 17^1. 
 
 Konig or Koenig, (Friedrich,) the inventor of the 
 steam-press, was born at Eisleben, in Germany, in 1775. 
 About 1807 he visited London, where he was aided in 
 carrying out his plans by Bensley, Taylor, and Woodfall. 
 In 181 1 a sheet of the " Annual Register" was printed, 
 being the first that was done by a printing-machine by 
 which the paper was applied to the type by a revolving 
 cylinder. In November, 1814, a number of the "Times" 
 was printed by a steam press on the principle of Konig's 
 invention : it is said to have been the first newspaper 
 ever printed by steam-power. After his return to Ger- 
 many, Konig, in conjunction with his friend Bauer, es- 
 tablished at Oberzell, near Wiirzburg, a manufactory 
 for the construction of printing-machines, four hundred 
 of which had in 1853 been sent forth from it. After the 
 death of Konig, in 1833, the business was carried on by 
 Bauer. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Genemle." 
 
 Konig or Koenig, (Gkorg Matthias,) a German 
 writer and scholar, born at Altdorf, in Franconia,in 1616, 
 was appointed in 1667 professor of poetry in his native 
 city. Among his works are a " Latin-and-German Lexi- 
 con," (1668,) and a Biographical Dictionary of Authors, 
 (" Bibliotheca Vetus et Nova," 1678.) Died in 1699. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 " Memoires." 
 
 Konig or Koenig, (Heinrich Joseph,) a German 
 novelist, born at Fukla in 1790. Among his best works 
 are "The Waldenses," (1836,) " William Shakspeare," 
 (1839,) and "The Clubbists of Mentz," ("Die Clubisten 
 von Mainz," 1847 :) the last named, a historical romance, 
 is especially admired. He was secretary of finance at 
 Hanau from 1819 to 1835. Died in 1869. 
 
 See N. Gretch, " H. Konig und seine I.iigen : Seitenstiick zu 
 Nic. Gretsch mid die Russische Literatur in Deutschland." 1840. 
 
 Konig or Koenig, (Joiiann Gerard,) a botanist, and 
 pupil of Linnaeus, born in Livonia in 1728. He visited 
 Iceland and the East Indies, and wrote several treatises 
 on botany, which he left in manuscript. Died at Tran- 
 quebar in 1785. 
 
 Konig or Koenig, (Samuel,) an eminent mathema- 
 tician, son of Samuel Heinrich, noticed below, was born 
 at Biidingen in 1712. He was professor of mathematics 
 at Franeker, and professor of philosophy and law at the 
 Hague. Died in 1757. 
 
 Konig or Koenig, (Samuel Heinrich,) a Swiss 
 Orientalist and theologian, born about 1670 at Berne, 
 where he became professor ofmathematics and Oriental 
 languages in 1731. Died in 1750. 
 
 Konig or Koninck, (Solomon.) See Coninck. 
 
 Kbnigshoven or Koenigshoven, kd'nios-ho'ven, 
 also known as James Twinger, an ecclesiastic, born at 
 Strasburg in 1346. He wrote, in Latin and German, 
 *' Chronicles of Strasburg." Died in 142a 
 
 See Oberlin, " De JacoboTwingero," etc., 1789. 
 
 Konigsmarck or Koenigsmarck, von, fon ko'- 
 nios-nwRk', written also Konigsmark, [Lat. Konic.s- 
 mar'kius,] (Joiiann Christoph,) Count, a celebrated 
 general, born in Germany in 1600, entered the service 
 of Gustavus Adolphus in 1630. After the death of the 
 King of Sweden, he defeated the Austrians in the battle 
 of Wolfenbiittel. He also invaded Bohemia, and captured 
 Prague, in 1648. He was afterwards appointed Governor 
 of the duchies of Bremen and Verden. Queen Christina 
 created him count and field-marshal. Died in 1663. 
 
 See " Eterna Gloria J. C. Kbnigsmarkii," Holm, 1664. 
 
 Konigsmarck, Koenigsmarck, or Konigsmark, 
 ▼on, (Maria Aurora,) Countess, a granddaughter of 
 the preceding, celebrated for her beauty and accomplish- 
 ments, was born in Bremen about 1670. She was the 
 mistress of Frederick Augustus, Elector of Saxonv and 
 King of Poland, by whom she had a son, Maurice Count 
 de Saxe, afterwards famous as a French general. In 
 1702 she was sent by the Elector to treat with Charles 
 XII. That monarch refused to see her; "but she 
 returned," says Voltaire, "with the satisfaction of be- 
 lieving that she was the only person feared by the King of 
 
 Sweden." The Countess of Konigsmarck spoke several 
 languages with great fluency and correctness. She com- 
 posed a poem on Charles Xll.fwritten in the purest 
 French. Died in 1728. 
 
 See Cramer, "Denkwiirdigkeiten der M. A. Konigsmark," 2 
 vols., 1836; CoKViN-WiKKsBiTZKY, "Maria Aurora Grafin von 
 Konigsmark," 1841 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1837. 
 
 Konigsmarck, von, (Otto Wii.helm,) Count, son 
 of Johann Christoph, noticed above, was bom in West- 
 phalia in 1639. He subsequently served with great dis- 
 tinction in the French army under Turenne and with 
 the Swedish army in Germany. In 1686 he was created 
 generalissimo of the Venetian republic, for which he 
 gained several victories over the Turks. Died in 1688. 
 
 Konigsmark or Koenigsmark, kb'niGs-mauk', (Fi- 
 lipChristoeer,) Count, a Swedish officer, born about 
 1640, was a favourite lover of Sophia Dorothea, the wife 
 of George, Elector of Hanover. This prince, it is said, 
 caused him to be assassinated in 1694. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Memoires ;" Blaze de Bury, " Episode de 
 l'Histoire du Hanovre." 
 
 Konigsmarkiu3. See Konigsmarck. 
 
 Koninck. See Coninck. 
 
 Koning, ko'ning, (Cornelis,) a Dutch engraver, born 
 at Haarlem about 1524, engraved portraits of celebrated 
 men, including Luther and Calvin. 
 
 Koning, (Jacoii,) a Dutch painter of landscapes and 
 history, born at Amsterdam about 1645. He went to 
 Copenhagen, and worked for the King of Denmark. 
 
 Koning, de, (David.) See Coninck. 
 
 Koning or Koninck, de, deh ko'ning, (Philipp,) 
 an able Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1619, was 
 a pupil of Rembrandt. He was a good colorist, and 
 excelled in landscapes and portraits. Died in 16S9. 
 
 Konon. See Conon. 
 
 Konstantijn or Konstantyn. See Constantinb 
 the Great. 
 
 Kontski, kont'skee, (Martin,) a Polish general, born 
 in 1635, served with distinction under John Sobieski. He 
 directed the artillery in the great battle against the Turks 
 at Vienna in 1683. Died in 1710. 
 
 Konz, (Karl Philipp.) See Conz. 
 
 Kooang or Kouang, koo-ang', (almost kwang,) a 
 Chinese statesman and celebrated historian, born in the 
 province of Shen-see or Chen-si about 1018 A.D. He 
 wrote an important work on the history of China. Died 
 in 1086. 
 
 See Mailla, " Histoire geneiale de la Chine." 
 
 Kooblai (Koublai or Kublai) Khan, koo'bli' Kin, 
 (Shee-Tsoo or Chi-Tsou, shee-tsoo,) the founder of 
 the Mongol dynasty of China, was a grandson of Jengis 
 Khan. He began to reign over the north part of China 
 about 1260, soon after which date he conquered the 
 southern provinces and became master of a vast empire 
 extending from the Polar Sea to the Straits of Malacca, 
 and including Thibet, Tartary, Siam, etc. He is said to 
 have been an able ruler. In his reign Marco Polo visited 
 China. Died in 1294. 
 
 Koogen, van der, vin der ko'gen, (Leonard,) a 
 Flemish painter, born at Haarlem in 1610, was also an 
 etcher. Died in 1681. 
 
 Koolee Khan. See Nadir Shah. 
 
 Koolnef, Koulneff, or Kulnew, kool-nef , (Yakof,) 
 a Russian general, born in 1763. He was killed at the 
 battle of the Drissa, in July, 1812. 
 
 Koorakin or Kourakin, koo'ra-keen' or koo'ra-kin', 
 (Alexander Borisovitch,) Prince, a Russian diplo- 
 matist, born in 1752, was a favourite courtier of Paul I. 
 He was ambassador at Paris from 1808 to 1812. Died 
 in 1818. 
 
 Koorakin or Kourakin, (Boris Ivanovitch,) 
 Prince, a Russian diplomatist, born in 1677, was a 
 brother-in-law of Peter I. He was sent to Rome on a 
 political mission by that emperor. Died in 1727. 
 Kooruhert See Cornhert. 
 
 Kooten, van, vSn ko'ten, (Theodorus,) a Latin poet, 
 born in Holland in 1749; died in 1814. 
 
 Kootooz or Kutftz, (Kothouz,) koo-tooz' or koti'- 
 tooz',* written also Kotouz, (Mahmood Seif-ed- 
 
 * There is some discrepancy in the mode of writing this name. 
 Abttlpharagius more frequently gives both syllables long. Se« 
 Pocock's edition, Oxford, 1663. 
 
 1, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, ft, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m£t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
KOOTOOZOF 
 
 '339 
 
 KORTHOLT 
 
 Deen Malek Modhaffer, maii'mood' slf ed-deen' mo'- 
 dhif fer,) became Sultan of Egypt in 1259 bv usurpation. 
 He defeated the Tartars in Syria. He was assassinated 
 by Bibars in 1260. 
 
 Kootoozof, Koutouzof, Koutousof, or Kutu- 
 bow, koo-too'zof, (Michael Laurionovitch Goleni- 
 tchef.) a celebrated Russian commander, born in 1745, 
 served against the Poles and the Turks, and rose to be 
 lieutenant-general in 1789. In 1793 he was ambassador 
 to Constantinople, and on the accession of the emperor 
 Paul was charged with a mission to Berlin. After the 
 assassination of that sovereign he was appointed gov- 
 ernor-general of Saint Petersburg, and in 1805 was 
 created commander-in-chief of the first corps of the 
 Russian army against the French. He gained a victory 
 over Marshal Mortier at Diirrenstein, and soon after 
 commanded the allied army under the emperor Alex- 
 ander at Austerlitz, (1805.) In 1812, at the age of sixty- 
 seven, he succeeded Barclay de Tolly as commander- 
 in-chief of the Russian army, a few days before the 
 battle of Borodino. For his victories over Ney and 
 Davoust the emperor bestowed upon him the surname 
 of Smolenskoi. He died in 1813, at Buntzlau, where a 
 monument was erected to him. 
 
 See Sbguk, " Histoire de Napoleon et de la grande Armee :" 
 Mikmam.ovskv-Danilkvskv, "Vie du Feld-Marechal Koutouzoflf," 
 ited from the Russian by FiZHUKR, 1850; "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phic Generale." 
 
 Kopernicus. See Copernicus. 
 
 Kopernik. See Copernicus. 
 
 Kopievitch, ko-pe-a'vitch, written also Kopieu- 
 vicz, (Elias,) a Russian philologist, who was sent by 
 Peter the Great to Holland in order to complete his 
 studies. Among his works are a Latin Grammar for Rus- 
 sian schools, and a Slavonic-and-German Dictionary. 
 
 Kopisch, ko'pish, (August,) a German poet and 
 artist, born at Breslau in 1799 ; died in 1853. 
 
 Kopitar, ko'pe-taR', (Baktholomaus,) a philologist, 
 born in Carniola in 1780, was appointed first keeper of 
 the Imperial Library at Vienna, (1843.) He published 
 in 1808 a " Grammar of the Slavonian Language in Car- 
 niola, Carinthia, and Styria." Died in 1844. 
 
 Kopp, kop, (Johann Adam,) a German publicist, 
 born at Offenbach in 1698. He wrote, besides other 
 works, a " History of the Law which now prevails in 
 Germany," (" Historia Juris quo hodie in Germania 
 utimur," 1 741.) Died in 1748. 
 
 Kopp, kop, (Joseph Eutych,) a Swiss historian, born 
 at Munster, in Lucerne, in 1793. Among his works is a 
 " History of the Swiss Leagues," ( Biinde,) (4 vols., 1845- 
 57,) which is commended as very interesting. Kopp 
 discredits the popular tradition of William Tell. 
 
 Kopp, (Ulrich Friedrich,) a German antiquary, 
 born at Cassel in 1762, became director of the court 
 archives in 1802. His " Palaeographia critica" (1817) is 
 much esteemed. Died in 1834. 
 
 Koppe, kop'peh, (Johann Benjamin,) a German 
 theologian, born at Dantzic in 1750. He published 
 several exegetical works, and left unfinished an edition 
 of the New Testament in Greek, (3 vols.) Died in 1 791. 
 
 See Hoppenstedt, " Ueber den verstorbenen J. B. Koppe," 
 1701. 
 
 Koppen or Koeppen, kop'pen, (Adolphus Louis,) 
 a Danish scholar and writer, born at Copenhagen in 
 1804. In i834he visited Greece, where he was appointed 
 professor of history, archaeology, and modern languages 
 at the military college in jligina. He removed in 1846 to 
 America, where he became in 1854 professor of history, 
 aesthetics, and modern languages in Franklin and Mar- 
 shall College, Pennsylvania. He has published "The 
 World in the Middle Ages," (1854,) and other works. 
 
 Koppen or Koeppen, kop'pen, (Carl Friedrich,) 
 a German writer, born about 1800, became assistant pro- 
 fessor in one of the principal gymnasiums of Berlin. He 
 published in 1848 a treatise "On the Divine Right of 
 Kings," ("De Jure Divino,") which was condemned by 
 the government and forbidden to be reprinted. His 
 work entitled "The Religion of Booddha and its Origin" 
 (" Die Religion des Buddha und ihre Entstehung," 1857) 
 is regarded as one of the best treatises on that subject. 
 He also published "The Lamaic System of Religion," 
 etc., ("Lamaische Hierarchie," 1859.) 
 
 Koppen or Koeppen, kop'pen, (Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man writer on philosophy, born at Lubeck in 1775. Ha 
 became pastor of a church at Bremen in 1804, and pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Erlangen in 1827. Among his 
 works is "The Philosophy of Christianism," (2 vols., 
 1813-15.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Koppen or Koeppen, (Johann Heinrich Justus,) 
 a German philologist, born at Hanover in 1755. He 
 published a Greek Anthology, (3 vols., 1787,) "Com- 
 mentary on Homer's Iliad," (5 vols., 1787-92,) and other 
 works. Died in 1791. 
 
 K6ppen, kop'pen, (Peter,) a Russian writer, born at 
 Kharkov in 1793, has published several works on the 
 antiquities and statistics of Russia, and a valuable " Eth- 
 nographical Chart of European Russia," (1851.) 
 
 Koprili, ko'pre-lee, written also Coprogii and Kiu- 
 perli, (Mehemet,) an eminent Turkish commander, 
 born at Kopri, in Asia Minor, in 1585, rose from the 
 station of a cook to be grand vizier at Constantinople in 
 1656. He took Tenedos and Lemnos from the Vene- 
 tians, and obtained other advantages over the enemies 
 of the Sultan. As a ruler he showed great energy and 
 prudence, and effected important reformations in the 
 condition of the country. Died in 1661. 
 
 Koprili, (Mustafa,) sumamed the Virtuous, son 
 of the preceding, was appointed grand vizier by Solyman 
 III. in 1689. Died in 1691. 
 
 Koprili-Fazil-Ahmed, (or -Achmed.) ko'pre-lee 
 fa'zil all'med, a brother of the preceding, born in 1626, 
 succeeded Mehemet Koprili as grand vizier. He gained 
 several important victories over the Hungarians and the 
 Poles, and took the island of Candia. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Kops, kops, (Jean Baptiste,) a Belgian landscape- 
 painter, born about 1800. 
 
 Koray. See Cokay. 
 
 Kordea, koR'de's, (Bernhard,) a German writer, 
 born at Lubeck in 1762. He lived at Kiel. Died in 1823. 
 
 Koren, (Moses of.) See Moses Chorenensis. 
 
 Korenatz. See Moses Chorenensis. 
 
 Korf, koRf, (Andrei,) Baron, a Russian publicist 
 and senator, born near Mittau in 1 71 5 ; died in 1823. 
 
 Korf, (Nicholas,) Baron, a Russian minister of state 
 under Peter III., was born in 1710; died in 1766. 
 
 Korinna. See Corinna. 
 
 Kornelisz. See Cornei.isz. 
 
 Kdrner or Koerner, koR'ner, (Christian Gott- 
 fried,) born at Leipsic in 1756, was the father of Theo- 
 dor Komer, and an intimate friend of Schiller. He was 
 also a correspondent of Goethe. It was in his beautiful 
 vineyard near Dresden that Schiller wrote " Don Car- 
 los.'' Died in 1831. 
 
 Komer or Koerner, (Karl Theodor.) one of the 
 most celebrated German poets, was born in Dresden in 
 1 791. He studied at Leipsic and Berlin, and displayed 
 at an early age a rare poetical genius. Among his first 
 productions were the popular comedies of "The Green 
 Domino," (1812,) and "The Watchman," (1812.) He 
 was one of the first to enlist in the war against Napoleon ; 
 and, inspired with patriotic enthusiasm and a keen sense 
 of his country's wrongs, he produced some of the most 
 spirited and beautiful martial lyrics in the German lan- 
 guage. These were published under the title of "The 
 Lyre and the Sword," (1814.) Komer was also the 
 author of two popular tragedies, "Rosamunda," (1812,) 
 and "Zriiiy," (1813.) He fell in battle near Rosenberg, 
 in 1813, at the age of twenty-two. 
 
 See K. W. I.hhmann, " Lebensbeschretbung K. T. Koerner's," 
 1819 : H. A. Ekiiard, "T. Koerner's Leben,"etc., iSai ; H. Bi.azh, 
 " Ecrivains et Pontes de 1'Allemagne," 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale ;" Longpkm.ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for October, i8w>, and February, 1821. 
 
 Kornmann, koRn'man, (Heinrich,) a German writer 
 and lawyer, born in WUrtemberg ; died about 1620. 
 
 KorosL See Csoma. 
 
 Korte or Koerte, koVteh, (Wii.helm,) a German 
 writer, born at Aschersleben in 1766. He published, 
 among other works, a "Life of Gleim," (181 1,) who was 
 his great-uncle, and a "Life of Carnot," (1820.) Died 
 in 1846. 
 
 Kortholt, koRt'holt, (Lat. Korthoi/tus,] (Chris- 
 tian,) a Lutheran theologian and ecclesiastical historian, 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, If, K, pittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KORTHOLT 
 
 '34° 
 
 KOSSUTH 
 
 bom at Burg, in Holstein, in 1633. About 1665 he was 
 appointed professor of divinity in the University of Kiel. 
 He published numerous religious treatises, of which we 
 may name "On the Pagan, Mohammedan, and Jewish 
 Religions," (1666,) "Of the Three Impostors Herbert, 
 Hob'bes, and Spinosa," (1680,) "On the Origin and Na- 
 ture of Christianity," and "On the State and Progress 
 of Schools and Academies, especially in Germany." Died 
 in 1694. 
 
 See Lindemann, "Memoria C. Kortholti," 1694. 
 Kortholt, (Christian,) a Danish or German theo- 
 logian, son of Sebastian, noticed below, was born at 
 Kiel in 1709. He became professor of divinity at Got- 
 tingen. He published "The Letters of Leibnitz, "_ (4 
 vols., 1 734-42,) and wrote, besides other works, (in Latin,) 
 an "Essay on the Enthusiasm of Mohammed," (1745.) 
 Died in 175 1. 
 
 See Ayrer, "Memoria C. Kortholti," 1751. 
 Kortholt, (Sebastian,) a son of Christian, noticed 
 above, (1633-94,) and the father of the preceding, was 
 born at Kiel about 1670. He was a man of great learn- 
 ing, and wrote many literary essays. Died about 1740. 
 Kortholtus. See Kortholt. 
 Kortum or Kortuem, koR'tiim, (Johann Friedrich 
 Christoph,) a German historian, born in Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz in 1788, became professor of history at Heidel- 
 berg in 1840. He wrote, among other works, a " History 
 of the Political Constitution of Greece," and a "History 
 of the Middle Ages," (2 vols., 1837.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Kortum or Kortuem, (Karl Arnold,) a German 
 physician and satiric poet, born at Mulheim-an-der-Ruhr 
 in 1745, published a mock-heroic poem entitled "The 
 Jobsiad; or, The Life, Opinions, and Deeds of Jerome 
 Jobs the Candidate," (1784.) Died in 1824. An English 
 translation of "The Jobsiad, "by Rev. Charles T. Brooks, 
 was published in Philadelphia in 1863. 
 
 Kosciusko, kos-se-iis'ko, [Polish, Kosciuszko, k6sh- 
 yoo'sko,) (Thaddeus,) an illustrious Polish patriot and 
 general, of a noble family, was born in Lithuania about 
 1750. Having studied at the military academy of Ver- 
 sailles, he embarked about 1777 for America, where he 
 fought with distinction at New York and Yorktown and 
 acquired the friendship of Washington. He returned 
 to Poland in 1786, but, his country being soon after sub- 
 jected to Russia, he retired to Leipsic. On the break- 
 ing out of the revolution of 1794, he was appointed 
 commander of the Polish army, and defeated the Russians 
 with greatly superior numbers at Raclawice. For two 
 months he defended Warsaw against the united forces 
 of Russia and Prussia, but, overpowered at last by fresh 
 troops advancing under Fersen, suffered a total defeat at 
 Maciejowice, where he was wounded and taken prisoner 
 in October, 1794. After two years' imprisonment, he was 
 released by the emperor Paul, who offered him his sword, 
 which Kosciusko refused, saying "he had no need of a 
 sword, since he had no longer a country." When solicited 
 by Napoleon to aid him in his ambitious schemes with 
 regard to Poland, he steadily refused ; and the proclama- 
 tion to the Poles, which appeared in the "Moniteur" 
 under his name in 1806, was declared by him a forgery. 
 He died in 1817, at Soleure, in Switzerland, having 
 previously written to the emperor Alexander entreat- 
 ing him to give to Poland a free constitution. He also 
 abolished serfdom on his Polish domain. 
 
 See M. A. Jui.i.ien, "Notice sur Kosciuszko," 181S; Falken- 
 strin, "Kosciuszko," Leipsic. 1825; L. CimuZKn, " Hi«toire mili- 
 taire, politique et privie de Kosciuszko." 1837; Jui.es MlCHELBT, 
 "Kosciuszko, Lejenda deniocratyczna," translated from the French 
 by Godkbhski, 1S51 : " Nouvelle Hiographie GeneVale ;" " Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for March, 1835. 
 
 Kosegarten, ko'zeh-gaR'ten, (Johann Gottfried 
 Ludwig,) son of Ludwig Theobul, noticed below, was 
 born in the island of Riigen in 1792. Having studied 
 philology in Paris, he became in 1824 professor of Ori- 
 ental languages at Greifswalde. He translated into 
 German the Hindoo poem " Nala," (1820,) and made 
 several versions from the Persian. He also published 
 editions of the "Moalakat," and other Arabic works. 
 Died in 18I0. 
 
 Kosegarten, (Ludwig Theobul,) a German divine 
 and poet, was born at Grevismuhlen, in Mecklenburg, 
 
 in 1758. He became in 1808 professor of history at 
 Greifswalde, and subsequently of theology, and rector 
 of the university. His romance of " Ida von Plessen," 
 (1788,) as well as his "Legends" and lyric poems, enjoy 
 a wide popularity. He also made several translati.v.is 
 from the Danish and English : among the latter is Rich- 
 ardson's "Clarissa." Died in 1818. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Koslof, kos'lof, or Kozlov, koz'lof, (Ivan Ivano- 
 vitcii,) a Russian poet, born in 1774, made a number 
 of excellent translations from the English. His poems, 
 written after he became blind, are distinguished for their 
 melody of versification and tender pathos. Among the 
 most admired of these is "The Monk," ("Tchernets.") 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 See E. Mkcherski, "Les Poetes Russes." 
 
 Koslovski, (M. I.) See Kozi.ofski. 
 
 Kos-lov'ski, (Ossip Antonovitch,) a popular Rus- 
 sian composer, produced, among other works, a " Re- 
 quiem" of great beauty, and composed the music for 
 Oserof's tragedy of " Fingal." Died in 1831. 
 
 Kosmas. See Cosmas. 
 
 Kossuth, kosh'oot, (Louis,) an eminent Hungarian 
 orator and statesman, born of a noble family at Monok, 
 in the county of Zeinplin, in 1802. He studied law at the 
 Protestant college of Sarospatak, and joined the popular 
 party in opposing the despotic policy of Austria. Having 
 offended the government by his writings, he was impris- 
 oned three years, (1837-40.) The Diet of 1840 refused to 
 grant supplies during the imprisonment of Kossuth, who 
 was consequently liberated. In 1841 he married Theresa 
 Meszlenyi, and began to edit a daily paper at Pesth, called 
 "Pesti-Hirlap," the tone of which was liberal, but not 
 radical or democratic. * He was elected a member of the 
 Diet by the national party of Pesth in 1847, and acquired 
 a high reputation as an orator. In March, 1848, the 
 Diet adopted a proposition made by Kossuth, the object 
 of which was the appointment of a responsible Hun- 
 garian ministry, as a pledge of constitutional reforms. 
 Kossuth and others were sent as a deputation to Vienna, 
 and obtained the assent of the emperor, then conscious 
 of the pressure of a powerful revolutionary movement. 
 Kossuth induced the Diet to vote the perfect equality of 
 civil rights and public burdens for all classes, and to 
 extend the right of suffrage. He became minister of 
 finance in the new ministry formed in April, 1848. Al- 
 though the benefits of these reforms were shared by the 
 Croatians and Servians, an anti-Magyar party was soon 
 formed in Croatia by the intrigues of Austrian agents. 
 The Croatians, directed by Jellachich and secretly aided 
 by Austria, revolted against Hungary, and began hos- 
 tilities by the massacre of villagers on the frontier. In 
 June, 1848, the Austrian court openly sanctioned the 
 movements of the Croatian insurgents. Kossuth believed 
 that the time had come to defend by arms the constitu- 
 tion and the national independence. He called for the 
 levy of 200,000 men, which was granted by the Diet. In 
 September, 1848, Jellachich was defeated in battle, and 
 Kossuth was elected president of a committee of de- 
 fence. After the second insurrection at Vienna, October, 
 1848, the Hungarian army advanced to the assistance 
 of the Liberals of that capital, but was repulsed at 
 Schwechat. The Austrian general Windischgratz then 
 invaded Hungary, took Pesth, and committed great atro- 
 cities. A war of extermination followed, and the Austrian* 
 were defeated in several battles. In April, 1849, the 
 Hungarians renounced allegiance to the house of Haps- 
 burg, and chose Kossuth governor or dictator. But the 
 intervention of Russia rendered the heroic efforts and 
 sacrifices of the Hungarians unavailing. The victories 
 gained by Dembinski, Klapka, and Bern served merely 
 to prolong the national agony. Kossuth, after a dis- 
 agreement with Gorgey, whom he accused of treachery, 
 resigned his office on the nth of August, 1849, and went 
 into exile. He retired to Turkey, and was imprisoned 
 at Kutaieh. Through the intervention of England and 
 the United States, he was released in August, 1851. He 
 then visited England, where he was received with en- 
 thusiastic popular demonstrations, and made several 
 admirable speeches in the English language. In the 
 autumn of 185 1 he came to the United States, the 
 
 a, e, I, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, q, tlaMty; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
KOSTA 
 
 1341 
 
 KRASHENINNIKOF 
 
 citizens of which gave him a very warm and flattering 
 reception. 
 
 See P. C. Headi.ev, " Life of L. Kossuth," 1852 ; Horn, m Louis 
 Kossuth," 1S51 ; "Kossuth, von einem Ungarn," Leipsic, 1854; 
 "Kossuth in England und seine Reden," etc., 1S51 ; Klafka, " Me- 
 moiren," 1S50 : "L. Kossuth, Dictator von Ungam*" Mannheim. 
 x84q: "Hungary and its Revolutions, with a Memoir of L. Kossuth." 
 
 Ko.sta-Ibn-Looka. (or -Lfika,! kos'til fb'n loo/k5, 
 written also Costha-Ben-Louka, an excellent Arabian 
 scholar and translator, born at Balbec, flourished from 
 about 87010900 a.d. He translated several Greek works 
 into Arabic, and wiote original treatises on philosophy, 
 logic, medicine, etc. 
 
 Koster. See Coster. 
 
 Kos'ter or Cos'ter, (Laurens Janszoon,) a Dutch 
 printer, born at Haarlem about 1370, is supposed by 
 some writers to have invented the art of printing. Ac- 
 cording to one tradition, he kept his art a secret, but it 
 was stolen by one of his workmen, named John Fust. 
 Died about 1440. 
 
 See A. F. Didot, "Essai sur la Typographic:" Auguste Ber- 
 nard, " Histoire de l'Origine de rimprimerie." 
 
 Kostlin or Koestlin, kbst-leen', (Christian Rein- 
 hoi. !>,) a German jurist and novelist, born at Tubingen 
 in 1813 ; died in 1856. 
 
 Kostrof, Kostrov, or Kostrow, kos'tRof, (Ermil 
 Ivanovitch,) a Russian poet, born in the province of 
 Viatka ; died in 1796. 
 
 Kothouz. See Kootooz. 
 
 Kotouz or Kotfiz. See Kootooz. 
 
 Kotter or Cotter, kot'ter, (Ciiristoph,) a German 
 enthusiast, born in Silesia in 1585. He obtained notoriety 
 by visions and predictions. Died in 1647.' 
 
 Kotzebue, von, fon kot'seh-boo, (August Fried- 
 rich Ferdinand,) a prolific and popular German 
 dramatist, born at Weimar in 1761. He went to Saint 
 Petersburg in 1781, and was appointed president of the 
 government of Esthonia. He produced in 1789 "The 
 Indians in England," and "The Stranger," which were 
 very successful. About 1800 he settled in Berlin. He 
 wrote abusive articles against Goethe and other great 
 German authors, who had refused to admit him into 
 their literary circle at Weimar. Between 1802 and 1806 
 he made journeys in different countries of Europe, and 
 published "Souvenirs of Paris in 1804," (2 vols., 1805.) 
 After the battle of Jena (1806) he took refuge in Russia, 
 and edited two journals, called "The Bee," (1808-10,) 
 and "The Cricket," (1811-12,) in which he wrote against 
 Napoleon. In 1817 he was sent to Germany by the 
 Russian government to watch and report the state and 
 tendency of public opinion. He expressed such hostility 
 and contempt for liberal principles and institutions that 
 he rendered himself odious to many Germans, especially 
 the students. He was assassinated at Mannheim in 1819 
 by Karl Ludwig Sand, who was actuated by a fanatical 
 zeal against one whom he considered a traitor to liberty. 
 Among his dramas are "The Two Klingsbergs," a 
 comedy, (1807,) and " Pizarro," (" Die Spanier in Pet a") 
 His works, which were very numerous, were formerly 
 more popular than they are at the present time. Kot- 
 zebue possessed a ready invention and a great facility in 
 composition; but his productions are deficient in depth 
 and power. 
 
 See F. Cramer, " Kotzebue's Leben," 1820; " Kotzebue, sein 
 Leben, Wirken und trauriges Ende," Frankfort, 1819; H. D&ttNG, 
 "Kotzebue's Leben," 1830: Geishr, " Kotzebue als Knabe. Ring- 
 finjG Maim, Schriftstellernnd Exillant," 1803: " Literary and Political 
 Lite of Aug. Kotzebue," translated from the German ; Lonofku.ow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Nouvelie Biographic (lenerale ;" 
 " Monthly Review" for January, 1801, September, 1S05, and August, 
 1806. 
 
 Kotzebue, von, (Otto,) a son of the preceding, born 
 at R;val, in Russia, in 1787. After having made the 
 voyage around the world with Krusenstern, he set sail 
 again in 1815, accompanied by Chamisso, Eschscholtz, 
 and others. He discovered several islands in the Smith 
 Sea. and the sound southeast of Behring's Strait called 
 by his name. He published, after his return, a "Voyage 
 of Discovery in the South Sea and to Behring's Strait, 
 to find a Northeast Passage," (1821.) Having sailed 
 for the third time in 1823, he made other discoveries, 
 which are described in his " New Voyage around the 
 World in 1823-26," (1830.) He died at Reval in 1846. 
 
 See " Nouvelie Biographic G^ncrale." 
 
 Kotzeluch, kot'sJh-ldoK', (Leopold,) a Bohemian 
 composer and musician, born at Welwarn in 1753. He 
 succeeded Mozart as composer to the court at Vienna, 
 (1792.) He composed operas, symphonies, and sonatas, 
 which were once very popular. Died in 1814. 
 
 Kouang. See Kooang. 
 
 Koublai Khan. See Kooisi.ai Khan. 
 
 Kouck, kowk, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter, born in 
 1500 or 1501, worked at Antwerp. He was patronized 
 by Charles V. Died in 1550. 
 
 Kouli Khan. See Nadir ShAh. 
 
 Koulneff. See Kooi.ni a ■: 
 
 Koumas, koo'mas, (Constantine Michael,) a 
 modern Greek scholar and author, was born at Larissa 
 about 1775. He published a "Greek Lexicon," (1826,) 
 " Elements of Philosophy," (4 vols.,) and other scientific 
 works. Died at Trieste In 1836. 
 
 Koung-Fou-Tseu. See Confucius. 
 
 Kourakin. See Koorakin. 
 
 Kourma or Kourmavatara. See KCr.ma. 
 
 Koutouz. See Kootooz. 
 
 Koutouzof or Koutousof. See Kootoosof. 
 
 Kouwenberg, van, vSn kow'en-beRg', (Kkistiafn,) 
 a Dutch painter of history, born at Delft in 1604; died 
 at Cologne in 1667. 
 
 Koziofski, koz-lof'skee, or Koslovski.kos-lov'skee, 
 (Michail IvanoVITCH,) a Russian sculptor, became 
 professor in the Academy of Arts at Saint Petersburg. 
 Among his master-pieces are the statue of Suwarow at 
 Saint Petersburg, and the statue of Catherine II. as 
 Minerva. Died in 1803. 
 
 Kozlov. See Kosi.of. 
 
 Kozniian,koz'me-an,?(GAF.TANorCAjETAN,)aPnlish 
 poet, born in Lublin in 1771. He wrote odes which were 
 highly esteemed, — "The Georgics of Poland," — and an 
 epic poem entitled " Stephen Czarniecki." Died in 1856. 
 
 See F. Morawski, "Notice sur Kozmian," Posen, 1856. 
 
 Krafft, kitaft, (Adam,) a German sculptor, born at 
 Nuremberg about 1429. Among his master-pieces are 
 the tabernacle in the church of Saint Lawrence at Nu- 
 remberg, the celebrated Ciborium in the minster at Ulm, 
 and a number of beautiful bas-reliefs. Died in 1507. 
 
 Krafft, (Joseph,) a portrait-painter, born at Hanau in 
 1787, was a brother of Peter, noticed below. He worked 
 in Vienna. Died in 1828. 
 
 Krafft, (Peter,) a German painter, and professor at 
 the Academy of Vienna, born at Hanau in 1780. Among 
 his works we may name " Rudolph of Habsburg" and 
 " Belisarius." Died in 1856. 
 
 Kraft. See Crato. 
 
 Kraft, kkaft, or Krafft, (Gf.org Wolfgang,) a Ger- 
 man natural philosopher, born in Wtirtemberg in 1701, 
 was professor of physics at Tubingen, and wrote several 
 works on geometry and physics. Died in 1 754- 
 
 Kraft von Toggenburg, kitaft fon tog'gen-botJRG', a 
 German minnesinger. Died in 1259. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Kraitsir, kitit'sir, (Charles,) a Hungarian physician 
 and scholar, born in 1804. He emigrated to America 
 in 1833, and became in 1842 professor of modern lan- 
 guages and history in the University of Virginia. He 
 published "Glossology," and several other works. Died 
 in Westchester county, New York, in i860. 
 
 Kramer. See Cramer. • 
 
 Kramp, kRON, (Chretien,) a French mathematician 
 and medical writer, born at Strasburg ; died about 1828. 
 
 Kranach. See Cranach. 
 
 Krantor. See Crantor. 
 
 Kiantz or Crantz, kRants, (Al.nERT,)a German his- 
 torian and diplomatist, born at Hamburg about 1450, 
 was emploved on several important embassies to K.ng- 
 land and France. Among his principal works, which 
 are written in Latin, are "Chronicles of the Kingdoms 
 of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway," and "Ecclesiastical 
 History of Saxony." Died in 1 5 1 7. 
 
 See Wii.kfns "Leben Albertii Cranlzii," 1722: Bavi.f, "His- 
 torical and ('riiical Dictionary ;" NiciJron, " Memoires ;" Moi.i.kr, 
 " Clmbria Literata." 
 
 Kranz, (David.) See CtANZ. 
 Kraaheninnikof or Krascheninnikov, kitash-en- 
 nm'ne-kql . (StI nun PrrttOVrrCH,) a Russian natural- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; %hard; gas/'; g, 11, K, guttural; N, nasal; Y.,trilltd; las*; *h as in thit. (jJ^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KRASICKI 
 
 »34 2 
 
 KREUTZER 
 
 ist, born at Moscow in 1713. He travelled in Siberia 
 and Kamtschatka, and wrote a " Description 0/ Kanit- 
 schatka," (2 vols., 1755.) Died in 1755. 
 
 See Gretch, " Essai sur l'Histoire de la Literature Russe." 
 
 Krasicki, kRa-set'skee,( Ignatius,) an eminent Polish 
 poet and litterateur, born at Dubiecko in 1734. Having 
 taken orders as a priest, he rose to be Bishop of Ernie- 
 land in 1767, and in 1795 Archbishop of Gnesen. His 
 wit and conversational powers made him a favourite 
 with Frederick the Great of Prussia, who once said to 
 him, " I hope, my lord bishop, you will take me into 
 Paradise with vou under your mantle." "No, sire," he 
 replied, (alluding to the loss of some revenues:) "your 
 majesty has made it so short that I cannot conceal any- 
 thing contraband under it." Among his principal works 
 we may name the mock-heroic poem entitled "The 
 Mousiad," ("Myszeis,") founded on the tradition of King 
 Popiel being devoured by rats and mice, " War of the 
 Monks," (" Monachomachia,") and a number of fables 
 and satires, of great merit His novel of" Pan Podstoli" 
 is also highly esteemed. Died in 1801. 
 
 See S. K. Potocki, "Essai sur la Vie, etc de Krasicki," 1808 ; 
 *' Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" Dmochowski, " Jsloge de Kra- 
 sicki," 1801. 
 
 Krasinski, kRa-sin'skee, (Valerian,) Count, a dis- 
 tinguished Polish writer and scholar, born in White 
 Russia about 1780. After the suppression of the Polish 
 revolution of 1830 he repaired to England, where he 
 published, among other works, a " History of the Re- 
 formation in Poland," (2 vols., 1840,) " Panslavism and 
 Germanism," (1848,) and " Religious History of the Sla- 
 vonic Nations," (1851.) Died in Edinburgh in 1855. 
 
 Kraszewski, kRa-sheVskee, (Joseph Ignatius,) a 
 Polish novelist and miscellaneous writer, born at War- 
 saw in 1812. His works, which are very numerous, con- 
 sist of novels, poems, travels, and historical treatises. 
 His romances are very popular in Poland, and have in a 
 great measure superseded the French novels. Among 
 the best are "The Magic- Lantern," (1843,) "Ulana," 
 (1843,) and "Sviat i Poeta." His epic poem " Ana- 
 fielas," and a " History of Wilna," are also ranked among 
 his best productions. 
 
 Krateros. See Craterus. 
 
 Krates. See Crates. 
 
 Kratinos. See Cratinus. 
 
 Kratippoa. See Cratippus. 
 
 Kratzenstein, kRat'sen-stln', (Christian Gott- 
 lieb,) a German natural philosopher, mechanical inventor, 
 and writer, born at Wernigerode in 1723, became pro- 
 fessor of physics at Copenhagen in 1754. Died in 1795. 
 
 Kraus, kRowss, (Christian Jakob,) a learned Ger- 
 man writer, professor of philosophy, etc. at Kbnigsberg, 
 was bom at Osterode in 1753. He published a treatise 
 on " Political Economy," and other works. Died in 1807. 
 
 Kraus, (Franz,) a German historical painter, born in 
 Suabia about 1704; died about 1750. 
 
 Kraus or Krauss, krowss, (Johann Baptist,) a 
 German prelate and historical writer, born at Ratisbon 
 in 1700. He was prince-abbot of the monastery of Saint 
 Emmeran. Died in 1762. 
 
 See Petri, " Ehrengedachtniss des PrSlaten J. B. Kraus," 1762. 
 
 Kraus, (Johann Ulrich,) a German engraver, born 
 at Augsburg about 1645 ; died in 1719. 
 
 Kraus, (Martin.) See Crusius. 
 
 Krause, ki<ow'zeh, (Georg Friedrich,) a German 
 economist and writer on the science of forests, born at 
 Prenzlow in 1768; died in 1836. 
 
 Krause, (Georg Mei.chior,) a German painter and 
 engraver, born at FVankfort in 1737; died in 1806. 
 
 Krause, (Johann Christoph,) a German historian, 
 born at Artern in 1749. Among his works is a "His- 
 tory of Europe," (5 vols., 1789-98.) Died in 1799. 
 
 Krause,(JoHANN Gottlieb,) a German bibliographer, 
 born in Silesia in 1684, published, besides other works, 
 " Umstandliche Biicher-Historie," (3 vols., 1716.) He was 
 professor of eloquence at Wittenberg. Died in 1736. 
 
 See KiRCHMAiEH, " Programma ad Exequias J. G. Krausii," 1736. 
 
 Krause, (Karl Christian Friedrich,) a German 
 philosopher and masonic writer, bom at Eisenberg in 
 1781. He devoted several works to the display of the 
 merits of freemasonry, of which he was a zealous advo- 
 
 cate. Among his other works is "Urbild der Mensch- 
 heit," ("The Type of Humanity," 1811.) Died in 1832. 
 See Lindemann, "Darstellung des Lebens und der Wissen- 
 schaftslehre Krauses," 1S39. 
 
 Krause, (Wilhelm,) a German landscape and marine 
 painter, born at Dessau in 1803. He has produced some 
 excellent pictures of Norwegian 'scenery. 
 
 Kraut, kRowt, (Wilhelm Theodor,) professor of 
 law at Gbttingen, was born at Liineburg in 1800. He 
 wrote a number of legal works. 
 
 Krauth, krawth, (Charles Porterfield,) D.D., a 
 Lutheran divine and accomplished scholar, the son of 
 Dr. Charles Philip Krauth, (late president of Pennsyl- 
 vania College at Gettysburg,) was born at Martinsburg, 
 Virginia, March 17, 1823. He graduated at Pennsyl- 
 vania College in 1839. Ordained in 1842, he became 
 pastor of a church in Baltimore, and was subsequently 
 settled at Winchester, Virginia, and Pittsburg, Pennsyl- 
 vania. In 1859 he was called to the pastoral charge of 
 Saint Mark's Lutheran Church, Philadelphia, where he 
 remained four years. In 1861 he became editor of "The 
 Lutheran and Missionary," issued in Philadelphia, and 
 in 1864 professor of theology, church history, etc. in the 
 Lutheran Seminary of that city. In 1868 he was unani- 
 mously elected to the chair of moral and intellectual 
 philosophy in the University of Pennsylvania. Among 
 his various publications we may name his edition of 
 Fleming's "Vocabulary of Philosophy," to which he 
 added a valuable bibliographical and synthetical Index, 
 etc., and his translation of Tholuck's "Commentary on 
 Saint John," (1859,) which has been reprinted in Eng- 
 land. He has now (1870) in press "The Conservative 
 Reformation and its Theology," (pp. 800, 8vo.) 
 
 Kray, von, fon kRi' or Krajof, von, fon kRi'of, 
 (Paul,) Baron, an Austrian general, born at Kesmark, 
 in Hungary, in 1735. He fought against the French in 
 the Low Countries and on the Rhine in 1793-95, and 
 became a field-marshal-lieutenant in 1796. In 1799 
 he obtained the chief command of the army, defeated 
 Scherer twice in Italy, and took Mantua. Having 
 failed in a campaign against Moreau in Germany in 1800, 
 he was removed from the command. Died in 1804. 
 
 See Alison, " History of Europe." 
 
 Krayenhoff, kRl'en-hof, written also KraijenhofiE, 
 (Cornelis Roei.f,) a Dutch general, born at Nymwegen 
 in 1758, became minister of war under Louis Bonaparte. 
 He published several excellent charts. Died about 1840. 
 
 Krayer. See Crayer. 
 
 Krebs, l<R?ps, (Johann August,) a learned German 
 writer, born at Heinaugen in 1681 ; died in 1713. 
 
 Krebs, (Johann Tobias,) a German scholar and an- 
 tiquary, born in Thuringia in 1718 ; died in 1782. 
 
 Krehl, kual, (August Ludwig,) a German Protestant 
 theologian, born at Eisleben in 1784, became professor 
 of theology at Leipsic in 1834. Died in 1855. 
 
 Kreil, kRil, (Karl,) an able astronomer, born at Ried, 
 in the Tyrol, in 1798, became director of the Observatory 
 of Prague in 1845. He published a treatise " On the 
 Nature and Motion of Comets," (1843.) 
 
 Kreitmayer or Kreytmayr, ki<Tt'mTR, written also 
 Kreittmayr, (Alovs Wigulaus,) a German statesman 
 and jurist, born at Munich in 1705. Among his works 
 we may name "Code of Bavarian Judicial Law,"(i75i,) 
 and "Bavarian Civil Code." Died in 1790. 
 
 See J. A. Kalb, "Biographie des Staatskanzlers A. W. von 
 Kreittmayr," 1825. 
 
 Kremer, kita'mer, (Christoph Jakob,) a German 
 historian, born at Worms in 1722. He wrote several 
 works on German history. Died in 1777. 
 
 Kremer, kRa'mer, (Peter,) an eminent Belgian 
 painter of history and genre, born at Antwerp in 1801. 
 Among his works are " Marius at Carthage," and " David 
 Teniers Designing after Nature." 
 
 Kresa, kna'sa, Father, a Moravian priest and lin- 
 guist, born in 1648; died in 1715. 
 
 Kretschmann, kRetsh'man, (Karl Friedrich,) a 
 German poet, born at Zittau in 1738, published "Songs 
 of the Bard Ringulph," and other works. Died in 1809. 
 
 Kreutzer, kkoit'ser, (Konradin,) a German com- 
 poser of operas and songs, born in the duchy of Baden 
 in 1782; died in 1849. 
 
 a e, 1, 6,u, y, long;\ e,6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1,5, u, $?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
KREUTZER 
 
 •343 
 
 KR UGER 
 
 Kreutzer, kRUt's.-iin', (Rudolf,) a celebrated com- 
 poser and musician, of German extraction, born at Ver- 
 sailles in 1766, became violinist at the imperial chapel, 
 and a member of the Conservatory in Paris. Among 
 his liest works are the operas of "Lodoiska" and "Paul 
 and Virginia." Died in 1831. 
 
 See Fins, " Biographte Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Kreysig, kRl'ziG, (Friedrich Ludwig,) a medical 
 writer, born near Leipsic in 1770, studied medicine at 
 P.tvia under Spallanzani. In 1803 he was appointed 
 physician to the Elector Frederick Augustus, afterwards 
 King of Saxony. He became in 1815 professor of thera- 
 peutics and pathology at Dresden. Died in 1839. 
 
 Kreysig, (Gf.org Christoph,) a German historian, 
 born near Annaberg in 1697. He wrote on the history 
 of Saxonv. Died in 1758. 
 
 Kreyt'mayr. See Kreitmayer. 
 
 Kiichna. See Krishna. 
 
 Kriloff or Krilov. See Krylof. 
 
 Krishna. Crishna, Krichna, or Krischna, kRish'- 
 na, [a Sanscrit word, signifying "dark blue :" see below,] 
 in the Hindoo mythology, the eighth avatar of Vishnu, 
 usually regarded as the most glorious of all the manifesta- 
 tions of that deity. It is said by the votaries of Krishna 
 that in the other avatars Vishnu manifested only a 
 portion of his godhead, but that in this instance he ap- 
 peared in all the fulness of his power and glory. He 
 was born in the kingdom of Mathura ; his mortal parents 
 were VfLsudeva and D6vaki. It had been predicted that 
 the son of Devaki should deprive Kansa, the tyrannical 
 king of that country, of his life and crown. Kansa there- 
 fore sought by force and stratagem to destroy the young 
 child ; but the parents, assisted and guided by power 
 divine, succeeded in baffling all his efforts. It is related 
 that, when Krishna was only seven years old, Indra, 
 jealous of the popularity of the child-god, attempted to 
 destroy the worshippers of the latter by a fearful storm 
 of lightning, rain, and hail. But Krishna raised above 
 them on the tip of his little finger Mount Goverdhen, 
 the Hindoo Parnassus, thus affording complete shelter 
 to his trembling followers. 
 
 " Them the heavenly child 
 Called, and with looks ambrosial smiled; 
 Then with one finger reared the vast Goverdhen, 
 Beneath whose rocky burden, 
 On pastures dry, the maids and herdsmen trod : — 
 The lord of thunder felt a mightier god." 
 
 Sir William Jones: Hymn to Indra. 
 
 One of Krishna's earliest exploits was the destruction of 
 the great serpent Kaliya, (or Kalinaga,) which poisoned 
 the wateTS of the river Jumna. Not long afterwards 
 he slew his malignant enemy Kansa, having first para- 
 lyzed him with fear. A remarkable resemblance between 
 Krishna and the Grecian Apollo has been pointed out 
 by Sir William Jones and other writers. "In honour of 
 Krishna's triumph," (over Kaliya,) says Moor, "games 
 and sports are annually held in India, as the Pythic 
 games at stated times were exhibited in Greece. . . . 
 Apollo and Krishna are both inventors of the flute. 
 One was disappointed by Daphne, who was turned into 
 the Laurus, hence sacred to Apollo; Krishna's coy 
 nymph was transformed into the Ttilasi, alike sacred to 
 him." Krishna was pre-eminently a pastoral god, and 
 his followers were principally milkmaids and herdsmen. 
 Apollo was regarded as the protector of flocks and herds, 
 (his name of Nomios theos (voyuoc 0edc) is derived from 
 nome, (vo/rf/,) a " meadow" or " pasture ;") and, when 
 compelled to pass some time on earth, he employed him- 
 self in tending the flocks of Admetus, King oflhessaly. 
 
 The pictures of Krishna arc usually painted a dark 
 blue, (the colour of Vishnu, which see,) this colour cor- 
 responding to the signification of his name. Among his 
 other names are Bhagavat, (modern Hindoo pron. 
 b'hug'a-vut,) the "adorable;" Kesava (ka'sa-va) or 
 KfisHAVA, "having fine or beautiful hair;" GoviNDA or 
 G&pala, the "cow-herd," etc. 
 
 " Biographic Universelle," (Partie mythologique ;) Moor, 
 "Hindu Pantheon;" Column, "Hindu Mythology ;" Sin W. 
 Tones, "On the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India." in "Asiatic 
 Researches." vol. i ; see, also, the episode of the " Mahabhlraia," 
 entitled ■ BhajtSvSt Glti," («'.». the "Song of Krishna.") 
 
 Kritiaa. See Critias. 
 
 Kritolaos. See Critolaus. 
 
 Kriton or Krito. See Crito. 
 
 Kroeyer. See Kroyer. 
 
 Krohn, kRon, (Hermann Georg,) a German jurist, 
 born in 1705; died in 1756. 
 
 Kromayer, kRo'mlR, (Hieronymus,) a German 
 Protestant theologian, born at Zeitz in 1610, wrote " His- 
 toria Ecclesiastica," and other works. Died in 167c 
 
 See G. Lehmann, " Leichpredigt auf H. Kromayer," 1670. 
 
 Kromayer, (Johann,) a German theologian, born 
 in Misnia in 1576, was an uncle of the preceding. He 
 became superintendent (Protestant bishop) at Weimar, 
 and published several works. Died in 1643. 
 
 Krommer, kRom'mer, (Franz,) a German composer, 
 born at Kamenitz, in Moravia, in 1759; died in 1831. 
 
 Krosick, von, fori kito'zik, (P.ernhard Frikdkicii,) 
 Baron, a German savant, born in 1656, erected a private 
 observatory at Berlin. Died in 1714. 
 
 Kroyer or Kroeyer, kRo'yer, ( H endrik Nicola us,) 
 a Danish naturalist, born at Copenhagen in 1799. He 
 was sent on a mission to South America in 1840. He 
 published, besides other works on natural history, "The 
 Fishes of Denmark," (2 vols., 1838-43.) 
 
 Kriidener or Kruedener, (Juliana,) a Russian 
 mystic or enthusiast, born at Riga in 1766, was the 
 daughter of Baron Vietinghof, and was married at the 
 age of fourteen to Baron Krudener, from whom she was 
 divorced in a few years. She was intimate with Madame 
 de Stael. Having lived for a time in fashionable dissipa- 
 tion, she adopted the views of the Pietists about 1806, 
 and gave herself up entirely to preaching the gospel and 
 prophesying. After travelling in Germany, where she 
 formed an acquaintance with Stilling, she visited Paris, 
 but, owing to the disturbances caused by her meetings, 
 was obliged to leave the city, and soon after her arrival 
 in Germany she was ordered by the government to return 
 to Russia. She died in 1824. She was the author of a 
 romance entitled "Valeria," (1803.) She is said to have 
 had much influence over Alexander, Czar of Russia, who 
 heard her preach in Paris in 1815, and who submitted to 
 her revision his plan of the Holy Alliance. In the latter 
 part of her life she abounded in works of charity towards 
 the poor. 
 
 See Ch. Evnard, " Vie de Madame de Kriidener," 1849; Adei.b 
 do Thou, "Notice sur Julienne de Krtidener," 1827 ; " Vie de Ma- 
 dame de Krudener," Paris, 3 vols., 1840; Saintf.-Beuve, "Por- 
 traits de Fenimes ;" W. T, Krug, " Gesprach unter vier Augen mit 
 Frau von Kriidener," 1818; "Westminster Review" for January, 
 1852. 
 
 Krueger. See Kruger. 
 
 Kruenitz. See Krunitz. 
 
 Krug, kRooG, (Johann Phii.ipp,) a German historian 
 and numismatist, born at Halle in 1764, wrote on Rus- 
 sian history and coins. Died in Saint Petersburg in 1844. 
 
 Krug, (Wii.helm Traugott,) a German philoso- 
 phical writer, born near Grafenhaynchen, in Prussian 
 Saxony, in 1770. Having studied at Gottingen and Wit- 
 tenberg, he became professor of philosophy at Leipsic 
 in 1809. He was chosen in 1833 a deputy to the first 
 constitutional Diet, where he was a warm advocate 
 of liberalism. Among his principal writings are his 
 " Fundamental Philosophy," (1803,) and " History of the 
 Philosophy of the Ancients, especially of the Greeks 
 and Romans," (1815.) He professed a system called 
 "transcendental synthetism," which was very popular 
 in Germany. Died in 1842. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Meine Lebensreise in sechs Stationen," 
 1816: Emil K. VoGOL, "Dr. W. T. Krug, in drei vertraulichen 
 l'.iiefen an einen Freund im Auslande biographtsch-literarisch ge- 
 schildert," 1844; "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 Kruger or Krueger, kRiit;'er, (Kphraim GoTTLiEn,) 
 a German engraver, born at Dresden in 1756. Among 
 his master-pieces is "Ariadne at Naxos." Died in 1S34. 
 
 Kruger or Krueger, (Franz,) a skilful German 
 painter, born at Anhalt-Dessau in 1796. He worked 
 in Berlin, where he painted good portraits and became 
 court painter. His favourite subjects were hunting- 
 scenes and landscape's with animals. Died in 1857. 
 
 See Naolkr, " Allgemeincs KUmtler-Lexikon." 
 
 Kruger, (Johann Gottloh,) a German naturalist, 
 born at Halle in 1715, published, besides other works, 
 a "Treatise on Physics," ("Naturlehre," 3 vols., 1740- 
 49.) Died in 1759. 
 
 « as A; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 1; th as in this, (Jry See Explanations, p. 2j.) 
 
KR UGER 
 
 '344 
 
 KUGLER 
 
 Krtiger, (Thkodor,) a learned German writer, born 
 at Stettin in 1694; died in 1 7 5 1 . 
 
 Kruger, (Tiieodor,) a German engraver, born about 
 1575 ; died at Rome in 1650. 
 
 Kruilof. See Kryi.of. 
 
 Krummacher, kRoom'maK'er. (Friedrich Adolf,) 
 a distinguished German theologian and writer, born at 
 Tecklenburg, in Westphalia, in 1768. He was succes- 
 sively professor of theology at Duisburg, councillor of 
 the consistory, and court preacher at Bernburg. His 
 " Parables" (in verse) (1805) enjoy great popularity both 
 in Germany and in other countries. Among his other 
 works are "Die Kinderwelt," consisting of religious 
 poems for children, " Sufferings, Death, and Resurrec- 
 tion of our Lord Jesus Christ," (1817,) "Cornelius the 
 Centurion," (1829,) and "The Life of Saint John," 
 (1833.) He was attached to evangelical religion as 
 distinguished from rationalism. Died in 1845. 
 
 See M81.LER, " F. A. Krummacher und seine Freunde," 2 vols., 
 1849. 
 
 Krummacher, (Friedrich Wilhei.m,) an eminent 
 pulpit orator and writer, son of the preceding, was born 
 about 1796. He was for a time pastor in Wupperthale, 
 where he was a zealous advocate of the older Lutheran- 
 ism, and gave great offence by his denunciation of the 
 rationalists. As preacher of a reformed community, 
 he went to New York in 1843. After a few years he 
 returned to Germany, and settled at Berlin in 1847. 
 Among his principal works we may name " The Church's 
 Voice of Instruction," "Elijah the Tishbite," and "Sab- 
 bath Bells," (1851.) Died in December, 1868. 
 
 Krummacher, (Gottfried Daniel,) an uncle of 
 the preceding, was born at Tecklenburg in 1774. He 
 became in l8 1 6 reformed preacher at Elberfeld, where 
 he was one of the principal leaders of the Pietists. 
 Among his works are a series of sermons, entitled "The 
 Wanderings of the Israelites through the Wilderness to 
 Canaan," (1850,) and " Daily Manna," which have been 
 translated into English. Died in 1837. 
 
 See Friedrich W. Krummacher, "G. D. Krummacher's Le- 
 ben," 1S3S. 
 
 Krtinitz or Kruenitz, kRu'nits, (Johann Georg,) a 
 German physician and scholar, born at Berlin in 1728, is 
 principally known as the- publisher of the " Economico- 
 technologlcal Encyclopaedia," seventy-three volumes of 
 which had appeared at the time of his death, in 1796. 
 The work has been continued by the brothers Flbrke 
 and others, and in 1853 numbered two hundred and 
 fourteen volumes. 
 
 Kruse, kRoo'zeh, (Friedrich Karl Hermann,) a 
 German historian, born at Oldenburg in 1790. In 1825 
 he published his principal work, entitled "Hellas," and 
 in 1828 was appointed professor of universal and Russian 
 history at the University of Dorpat. He also wrote a 
 valuable "Chronicle of the Northmen," (1850.) 
 
 Kruse, (Karsten or Christian,) a learned German 
 writer, the father of the preceding, was born in Olden- 
 burg in 1753. He published " Atlas and Tables for the 
 Survey of the History of all European Countries," (1804.) 
 Died in 1827. 
 
 Kruse, kuoo'zeh, (Laurids or Laurent,) a Danish 
 litterateur, born at Copenhagen in 1778. Among his nu- 
 merous works are comedies, novels, etc. He translated 
 into Danish and German some works of Ingemann, and 
 others. Died in Paris in 1839. 
 
 See his Memoirs of his Life, " Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben," 
 2 vols., 1S29. 
 
 Kruseman, kRoo'zeh-man', (Cornei.is,) a Dutch 
 historical painter of great merit, born at Amsterdam in 
 1797. Among his master-pieces are "A Burial-Scene," 
 "The Preaching of John the Baptist," and " Belisarius." 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 Kruseman, (Jan Adam,) a painter of portraits and 
 sacred history, a brother of the preceding, was born at 
 Haarlem in 1804. 
 
 Krusemark, kRoo'zeh-maRk',(FRtEDRicH Wilhei.m 
 Ludwig,) a Prussian commander and diplomatist, served 
 against the French in the campaigns from 1806 to 1813, 
 and rose to the rank of lieutenant-general. He was 
 employed successively on important missions to Saint 
 Petersburg, Paris, and Vienna. Died in 1822. 
 
 Krusenstern, kRoo'zen-steRn', (Adam John,) acele- 
 brated Russian navigator and traveller, born in Esthonia 
 in 1770. In 1803 he sailed from Cronstadt, and during 
 an absence of three years discovered the Orloff Islands, 
 and obtained much information respecting countries pre- 
 viously little known. He brought out in 1810 his " Voy- 
 age around the World from 1803 to 1806," (3 vols., 
 with an atlas and 104 plates,) which was translated into 
 the principal European languages. He also published 
 "Contributions to the Hydrography of the Greater 
 Oceans," " Atlas of the Pacific Ocean," and other similar 
 works. Krusenstern was the first Russian navigator who 
 sailed around the world. Died in 1846. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale;" "Monthly Review" for 
 June and July. 1814. 
 
 Krylof, kitelof, or Kruilof, almost kRwe-lof, (Ivan 
 Andreievitch,) written also Krylow, Kriloff, and 
 Krilov, a celebrated Russian fabulist, born at Moscow 
 in 1768. At an early age he became familiar with the 
 French language, and read with avidity the works of 
 Moliere, Racine, and Boileau. His first compositions 
 were dramas, which were not favourably received. He 
 was successively editor of "The Spirit Post," "The 
 Spectator," and the "Petersburg Mercury," and in 1801 
 was appointed secretary to Prince Gallitsin. In 1808 he 
 published a collection of fables, which met with great 
 favour. He was elected to the Petersburg Academy in 
 181 1, and subsequently received a large pension from 
 the emperor Alexander, who also loaded him with hon- 
 orary distinctions. His " Fables," which vie wirji those 
 of La Fontaine in naivete" and humour, are the delight 
 of all ages and classes in Russia, and many sentences 
 in them have become proverbs. They have been trans- 
 lated into German, French, and Italian ; but no version, 
 it is thought, does justice to the original. Krylof was 
 intimate with Pooshkin, (Pushkin,) Karamzin, and other 
 eminent writers. Died in 1844. 
 
 See Pi.etnef, " Life of Kriloff," prefixed to his Works ; " Revue 
 des Deux Mondes" for September 1, 1852; Alfred Boukkault, 
 "Kryloff, on le La Fontaine Rnsse, sa Vie et ses Fables," Paris, 
 1S52 : " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale :" also an article on the Rus- 
 sian Fabulists, in " Fraser's Magazine" for February, 1830. 
 
 Kryns or Krijns.kRlns, (Everard,) a Dutch painter 
 of history and portraits, lived at the Hague about 1600. 
 
 Kshat'rl-yS, [modern Hindoo pron. kshut'n-ya,] 
 written also Kshetriya and Kshattriya, the name of 
 the second or military caste among the Hindoos. It 
 originally included all princes and professional warriors. 
 But at the present time there are many exceptions to 
 this general rule : many of the Brahmans nowadays are 
 professional soldiers. (See Brahmanism.) 
 
 Kublai Khan. See Koobi.ai Khan. 
 
 Kiicken or Kuecken, kuk'ken, (Friedrich Wil- 
 hei.m,) a popular German composer, born at Bleckede in 
 1810. His songs ai\d ballads are great favourites both 
 in Germany and England. In 185 1 he was appointed 
 court chapel-master at Stuttgart. He has produced two 
 successful operas. 
 
 Kuecken. See Kucken. 
 
 Kuegelgen. See Kugelgen. 
 
 Kuehn. See KfJiiN. 
 
 Kuehne. See Kuhne. 
 
 Kuehnoel. See KOhnol. 
 
 Kuesel. See KOskl. 
 
 Kuester. See Kuster. 
 
 Kugelgen or Kuegelgen, ku'gel-gen, (Karl and 
 Gerhard,) German painters, born at Bacharach, on 
 the Rhine, in 1772, were twin-brothers, and pursuec 
 their studies together at Rome. In 1799 they visiter) 
 Saint Petersburg, where they married two sisters of 
 high rank. Karl remained in Saint Petersburg, where 
 he was patronized by the emperor Alexander, while Ger- 
 hard returned to Dresden. He perished by the hand of 
 a robber near that city in 1820. His works are chiefly 
 portraits and historical pictures. Among Karl's pro- 
 ductions are a series of Crimean and Finnish landscapes 
 executed by order of the emperor. In 1823 he publisher 1 
 "A Painter's Journey in the Crimea." Died in 1832. 
 
 See Hasse, "Leben G. von Kugelgen," etc., 1824; Nagler, 
 " Allgemeines Kfinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Kugler, kooG'ler, (Franz Theodor,) an eminent 
 German critic and writer on art, born at Stettin in 1808, 
 became in 1833 professor of the history of art in the 
 
 a,e 
 
 , 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
KUH 
 
 '345 
 
 KURTZ 
 
 Academy at Berlin. About 1835 he visited Italy, and 
 in 1S37 brought out his "Hand-Book of the History 
 of Painting from Constantine the Great to the Present 
 Time," which was followed by his equally valuable 
 "Manual of the History of Art, (1841,) and other simi- 
 lar works. Died in Kerlin in 1858. 
 
 See M Nouvelle Hiographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Kuh, koo, (Ephraim Moses,) a German poet, of 
 Jewish parentage, born at Breslau in 1731, wrote songs, 
 odes, fables, and epigrams. He was a friend of Lessing 
 and Mendelssohn. Died in 1790. 
 
 Kuhl, kool, (Heinrich,) a German naturalist, born 
 at Hanau in 1797; died at Java in 1821. 
 
 See T. van Swinderen, " Hijdrat;en tot eene Schets van het 
 l«even, het Karakter, etc. van H. Kuhl," 1822. 
 
 Kuhlau, koo'low, (Kriedrich Daniel,) a German 
 musician and composer, born in Hanover in 1786 or 
 1787. He composed operas which were popular, and 
 music for the flute. Died in 1832. 
 
 Kuhlmanu,kuTmoN',(CHARi.Es Frederic,) a French 
 chemist and writer, born at Colmar in 1803. 
 
 Kuhlmann, kool'man, (Quirinus,) a German vision- 
 ary, born at Breslau in 1651. He led a wandering life, 
 and published several extravagant writings. He was 
 burned at Moscow in 1689. 
 
 See <i. Wkknsdorf, " De Fanaticis Silesiorum et speciatim de 
 Q. Kuhimanno," 1698. 
 
 Kuhn, koon, or Kuhnius, koo'ne-ns, (Joachim,) a 
 German philologist, born at Greifswalde in 1647. He 
 was professor of Greek at Strasburg in 1676. Among his 
 works is " Quaestiones Philosophical ex Sacris Veteris 
 et Novi Testamenti Scriptoribus,"(i698.) Died in 1697. 
 
 Kiihn or Cttehn, kiin, (Karl Gotti.or,) a German 
 physician, born near Merseburg in 1754, published a 
 complete edition of the " Extant Works of the Greek 
 Physicians," ("Opera Medicorum Graecorum quae super- 
 sunt,") in the original, with a Latin translation, 29 vols., 
 (1821.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Kiihne or Kuelme, kii'neh, (GustavJ a German 
 littcniteiir, born at Magdeburg in 1806, published "Clois- 
 ter Novels," (" Klostemovellen,") and other romances. 
 
 Kiihner, ku'ner, (Rafael,) a German philologist, 
 born at Gotha in 1802, published a "Complete Gram- 
 mar of the Greek Language," (1834,) and "Elementary 
 Grammar of the Greek Language," (1837.) 
 
 Kuhnius. See Kuhn. 
 
 Kiihnol or Kuehnoel, kii'nol, (Christian Gott- 
 lieb,) a German biblical critic, born at Leipsic in 1768. 
 He became professor of theology at Giessen about 1809, 
 and published " Commentaries on the New Testament," 
 (4 vols., 1807-18.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Kuick See Kuyk. 
 
 Kuli Khan. See Nadir ShAh. 
 
 Kullack or Kullak, kdol'lak, (Theodor,) a Ger- 
 man composer and pianist, born in Posen in 1818. He 
 received the title of pianist to the King of Prussia in 1846. 
 
 Kulm, kdolm, (JoHann Adam,) a German anatomist 
 and physiologist, born at Breslau in 1689; died in 1745. 
 
 Kulmann, kool'man, (Elisabeth,) a Russian poetess, 
 of German extraction, born at Saint Petersburg in 1808. 
 She spoke many languages, and composed lyric poems, 
 published in three volumes in 1833. Died in 1825. 
 
 Kummer, kdom'mer, (Georg Adolf,) a German 
 naturalist, born at Ortrand in 1786; died near Kakonda, 
 Africa, in 181 7. 
 
 Kummer, (Karl Wii.hfxm.) a German geographer, 
 born about 1780, was a brother of the preceding. He 
 produced globes and maps en relief. Died about 1840. 
 
 Run, van der, (Pkter.) See Cuna.us. 
 
 Kunckel, kdonk'kel, (Johann,) a German chemist, 
 £>:rn at Kendsburg in 1630. He is said to have dis- 
 covered phosphorus. Died at Stockholm in 1702. 
 
 See M6U.ER, " Cimbria Literata;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gini- 
 rale." 
 
 Kundmann, kdont'man, (Johann Christian,) a 
 German numismatist and naturalist, born at Breslau in 
 1684 ; died in 1751. 
 
 Kunigunde, the German of Cunf.gonde, which see. 
 
 Kunrath, kdon'rit, (Heinrich,) a German chemist 
 and alchemist, born at Leipsic about 1 560; died in 1605. 
 
 Kunst, koonst, (Cornelis,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 Lejden in 1493 ; died in 1544. 
 
 Kunth, von, fon koont, (Karl Sigismund,) an emi- 
 nent German botanist, born at Leipsic in June, 1788. He 
 was patronized by Alexander von Humboldt, who fur- 
 nished him with the means to study in the University of 
 Berlin, and took him to Paris in 1813. He became pro- 
 fessor of botany at Berlin in 1819. He published, besides 
 other works, " Nova Genera et Species Plantarum quas 
 collegerunt Bonpland et Humboldt," which treats of the 
 plants collected in America by Bonpland and Humboldt, 
 (7 vols., 1815-25,) "The Grasses of South America," (a 
 vols., 1825-33,) an d an "Enumeration of all the Plants 
 hitherto known," (5 vols., 1833-50.) Died in 1850. 
 
 Kuntz, koonts, (Karl,) a skilful German painter of 
 animals and landscapes, born at Mannheim in 1770, was 
 also an engraver. He worked mostly at Carlsruhe, where 
 he was court painter. He engraved Claude Lorrain's 
 picture of " Abraham Sending away Hagar." Died in 
 1830. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgemeines Ku'nstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Kuntz, (Rudolf,) a German lithographer and painter 
 of horses, son of the preceding, was born in 1797. 
 
 Kunzen, koont'sen, (Friedrich Ludwig EMIT,) a 
 musical composer, born at Lubeck in 1761, produced a 
 number of successful operas. Died in 1817. 
 
 Kupetzky or Kupetzki, koo-pets'kee, (Johann,) an 
 eminent German portrait-painter, born at Pesing, on the 
 borders of Hungary, in 1667. After a residence of many 
 years in Italy, where he was patronized by John Sobieski, 
 he returned to Vienna. He was treated with great dis- 
 tinction by the emperors Joseph I. and Charles VI., 
 whose portraits he painted, as well as those of the prin- 
 cipal nobles of the court. He painted in the style of 
 Rembrandt, and ranks among the best artists of the 
 time in his department. Died in 1740. 
 
 See J. C. FtiRssi.i, " Leben G. P. Rugendasund J. Kupetzki, "1758. 
 
 Kurma, kooR'ma, called also Kurmavatara, koor- 
 mi'va-ta'ra, (i.e. the "avatar of the tortoise,") the second 
 of the avatars of Vishnu, on which occasion he took the 
 form of a tortoise that he might furnish a support to 
 Mount Mandara while the gods and Asms churned 
 the ocean. The mountain being the chum-stick, the 
 great serpent Sesha was made use of for the string.* 
 The churning of the ocean is one of the most famous 
 and popular fables related in the mythology of the Hin- 
 doos. It resulted in the production of the fourteen gems, 
 as they are called, — namely, I. Chandra, (the moon ;) 2. 
 Lakshmi, the incomparable consort of Vishnu ; 3. Sur4- 
 devi, or the goddess of wine ; 4. Oochisrava, a won- 
 derful eight-headed horse; 5. Kustubha^a jewel of ines- 
 timable value ; 6. Parijata, a tree that yielded whatever 
 one might desire ; 7. Surabhi or Kamadhenu, a cow 
 similarly bountiful ; 8. Dhanwantara, a wondrous phy- 
 sician ; 9. Iravata or Iravat, the elephant of Indra ; 10. 
 Shank, a shell which conferred victory on whoever 
 sounded it; II. Danusha, an unerring bow; 12. Vish,t a 
 remarkable drug or poison ; 13. Rembha, (or Rambha,) 
 an Apsard possessed of surpassing charms ; 14. Amrita, 
 or Anirit, the beverage of immortality. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Kurmavatara. See Kurma. 
 
 Kurreem Khan. See Kereem KhAn. 
 
 Kurrer, kdor'rer, (Jakob Wii.helm Heinrich,) born 
 in Wurtemberg in 1781, wrote "On the Art of Dyeing 
 and Printing Cloth," (3 vols., 1848-50,) and other works. 
 
 Kurschner, (Conrad.) See Pei.lican. 
 
 Kurtz, kdoRts, (Johann Heinrich,) a Prussian theo- 
 logian, born at Montjoie in 1809, became in 1850 pro- 
 fessor of ecclesiastical history at Dorpat. He wrote a 
 treatise on " The Unity of the Book of Genesis," and 
 other religious works. 
 
 • It may be projier to observe that in India churning is usually 
 performed by causing a !>ody, termed the chum-stick, to revolvo 
 rapidly in the cream or milk, by means of a string, in the same man- 
 ner a* a drill is made to revolve. In some of the Hindoo pictures of 
 the churning of tbe ocean, the gods are represented as standing on one 
 side of Mount Mandara, and the Asurs on tbe other, both grasping 
 in their hands the serpent Sesha. which is wound round tbe nimmiain. 
 This rests upon the liack of the tortoise. (Vishnu.) At tbe same 
 time, the preserving deity, in consequence c.f his ubiquitous character, 
 is seen standing among tbe gods and grasping Sesha, and aiso as 
 dancing on the top of Mandara. (See Plate 49 in Moor's " Hindu 
 Pantheon.") 
 
 f Called Bikh in some of the modern Hindoo dialects. 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as t; *h as in this. 
 
 8S 
 
 (JJ^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
KURZ 
 
 '34 6 
 
 LABARRE 
 
 Kurz, kooRts, (Heinrich,) a. litterateur and Oriental 
 scholar, of German extraction, born in Paris in 1805. 
 He wrote chiefly in German. 
 
 Kiisel or Kuesel, kii'sel, (Matthias, ) a German 
 engraver, born at Augsburg in 1621 ; died in 1682. 
 
 Kiisel or Kuesel, (Melchior,) a skilful engraver, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Augsburg in 1622. 
 He engraved (with the burin) and etched portraits, sacred 
 history, and landscapes. He resided mostly at Augsburg. 
 Died in 1683. 
 
 Kiister or Kuester, kus'ter, (Georg Gottfried,) a 
 German historian, born at Halle in 1695. He wrote, 
 besides other works, " Ancient and Modern Berlin," (3 
 vols., 1752-59.) Died in 1776. 
 
 Kiister, (Ludoi.ph,) an eminent German scholar, 
 born at Blomberg, in Westphalia, in 1670. He published 
 " Historia Critica Homeri," (1696,) and was a contributor 
 to the "Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanorum" of Grae- 
 vius. He also published editions of Suidas (3 vols., 1705) 
 and Aristophanes, (1710.) He was a member of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions in Paris. Died in 1716. 
 
 Kiittner, kth'ner, (Karl Gottlor,) a German trav- 
 eller, born near Delitzsch in 1755. He published severa, 
 books of travel and descriptive works on England, 
 France, and other countries of Europe. Died in 1S05. 
 
 Kutuzof or Kutusow. See Koptoozof. 
 
 Kuvera or CuvSra, koo-va'ra, [a Sanscrit word sig- 
 nifying "deformed," "lazy," "slow,"*] the name of the 
 Hindoo Plutus or god of riches, said to be a half-brother 
 of the famous giant Ravana. He is said to reside in the 
 splendid city of Alaka, and is sometimes borne through 
 the air in a gorgeous car called Push'paka. His consort 
 (Sakti) is called Kauveri, (kow-va'ree.) 
 
 See Moon, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Kuyk, koik, or Kulck van Wouterszoon, (vin 
 wow'ter-z5n',) (Jan,) a skilful Dutch painter on glass, 
 born at Dort in 1530. Having opposed the Jesuits, he 
 was charged with heresy, and burned at Dort in 1572. 
 
 Kuyp. See Cuyp. , 
 
 Kiizing or Kiitzing, kiit'sing, (Frikdrich Trau- 
 GOiT,) a German naturalist, born in Thuringia in 1807, 
 published, among other works, "Elements of Philo- 
 sophical Botany." 
 
 Kvasir, kva'sir, [etymology unknown,] a mythic per- 
 sonage mentioned in the Norse legends. He was so 
 wise and knowing that no one could ask him a question 
 which he conld not answer. He was, however, entrapped 
 and slain by two dwarfs who had invited him to a feast. 
 With his blood .they mingled honey, and thus composed 
 a mead which makes. every one who drinks of it a skald, 
 or wise man. 
 
 See Thorpe's " Northern Mythology," vol. i. 
 
 * The signification of the name of Kuvera has doubtless allusion to 
 the tact that, to those engaged in the pursuit of wealth, it usually 
 seems to come with a very slow and hobbling pace. In like manner 
 the Plutus of the Greeks was represented as not only blind, (because 
 he bestowed his favours with so little discernment,) but lame, because 
 he seemed to come so slowly and reluctantly to those who sought 
 him. 
 
 Kyau, von, fon kee'ow, (Friedrich Wilhf.lm,) 
 Baron, a Prussian nobleman, celebrated for his wit and 
 blunt honesty, was born in 1654. He was a favourite of 
 Augustus II., King of Poland, who made him adjutant- 
 general. Died in 1733. 
 
 Kyd, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, flourished 
 about 1580, a short time before Shakspeare. His only 
 works extant are entitled "Cornelia, or Pompey the 
 Great his fair Cornelia's Tragedy," " The First Part of 
 Geronimo," and " The Spanish Tragedy, or Hieronymo 
 is mad again." The last-named production displays 
 uncommon power, and is supposed to have suggested 
 to Shakspeare some parts of " Hamlet." 
 
 See Collier, " History of Dramatic Poetry." 
 
 Kydermynster. See Kidderminster. 
 
 Kyffhauser, ldf'hoi'zer, an ancient palace (now in 
 ruins) of the emperors of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, is 
 situated on a high eminence near the village ot Tilleda, 
 in Germany. There is a popular tradition that at the 
 KyfThauser, in a magnificent subterranean palace, Fred- 
 erick Barbarossa (" Red-beard") exists in a state of en- 
 chantment, with his knights and squires seated round 
 a stone table, through which his beard has grown. Once 
 in one hundred years (or, as some say, in sixty years) 
 he partially awakes from his enchanted sleep, and sends 
 out some one to inquire how the time is passing. It is 
 supposed that after a certain period he will awake and 
 revisit his empire, and then a better time will prevail. 
 One of Freiligrath's finest poems, entitled " Barbaros- 
 sa's First Awaking," ("Barbarossa's erstes Erwachen,") 
 has reference to the above tradition. 
 
 See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. iii. pp. 100-102; S. 
 Baring-Gould, "Curious Myths of the Middle Ages," p. 103. 
 
 Kylian, kll'e-an, (Jacoii,) a Bohemian astronomer, 
 born at Prague in 1714 ; died in 1774. 
 
 Kjrn'as-ton or Kin'as-ton, (Sir Francis,) an Eng- 
 lish poet, born in Shropshire in 1587, translated Chau- 
 cer's "TroDus and Cressida" into Latin, and was the 
 author of a poem entitled " Leoline and Sydanis." He 
 was the founder of the Museum Minervae in Covent 
 Garden. Died in 1642. 
 
 See \yoOD, " Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Kynaston, (John,) an English divine, born at Ches- 
 ter in 1728, was a Fellow of Brazennose College, Oxford. 
 Died in 1783. 
 
 Kyper, kee'per, (Albrecht,) a German medical 
 writer, born at Konigsberg about 1605. He became 
 first physician to the Prince of Orange, and professor 
 of medicine at Leyden in 1648. Died in 1655. 
 
 Kypke, kip'keh, (Georg David,) a German Oriental- 
 ist, born in Pomerania in 1724, wrote " Observationes 
 Sacrae in Novi Foederis Libros," (1755.) Died in 1779. 
 
 Kyrle, keii, (John.) an English benefactor, eulogized 
 by Pope in the verses on the Man of Ross, was born 
 about 1664. He was a' native or resident of Ross, in 
 Herefordshire, where he built a church and endowed a 
 hospital. He owned an estate of £S°° a year. Died 
 in 1754, aged ninety. 
 
 L. 
 
 Laale, lau'leh, (Pf.der,) a Danish poet of the fifteenth 
 century, was born at l.olland. He wrote "Latin-Danish 
 Proverbs," ("Adagia Latino-Danica.") 
 
 Laar. See Laer, van. 
 
 Labadie, li'bi'de', (Jean,) a French Protestant min- 
 ister, regarded by some as a mystic or a fanatic, was born 
 at Bourg, in Guienne, in 1610. After joining the Jesuits 
 and obtaining success as an eloquent preacher, he turned 
 Protestant in 1650, and was for eight years pastor of a 
 church at Montauban. He subsequently preached at 
 Geneva, Middelburg, etc., where he made many prose- 
 lytes or friends, among whom were Anna M. Sclnir- 
 mann and the Princess Elizabeth of the Rhine. The 
 sect called Labadists, which he formed in Germany, 
 continued for nearly a century. Died in 1674. 
 
 See Maucdimct, "Avis charitable a Messieurs de Geneve tou- 
 chant la Vie du Sieur Jean Labadie," etc., Lyons, 1664; Niceron, 
 " Me"moires." 
 
 La'ban, [Heb. [37,1 the son of Bethuel, lived at 
 Haran, in Mesopotamia, about 1740 B.C. He had two 
 daughters, Leah and Rachel, who became the wives of 
 Jacob. (See Genesis xxix. and xxx.) 
 
 Labanof (Labanov or Labanow) de Rostof, 
 la-ba'nof deh ros'tof, (Prince Alexander,) a Russian 
 general and writer, born in 1788, served as aide-de-camp 
 to the emperor from 1817 to 1828. His principal work 
 is "Letters, Instructions, and Memoirs of Mary Stuart, 
 Queen of Scots," (7 vols., 1844.) 
 
 La Barbinais le Gentil, IS baR'be'nJ' leh zIion'- 
 te', a French traveller, born probably at Saint-Malo. 
 He visited Chili, Peru, and China, as a merchant, about 
 1715, and published "A New Voyage round the World 
 with a Description of China," (3 vols., 1727.) 
 
 Labarraque, lS'bS'rSk', (Antoine Germain,) a 
 French chemist, born at Oloron in 1777; died in 1850. 
 
 Labarre. See Bar re. 
 
 e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, J, short ; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m? t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
LABARRE 
 
 '347 
 
 LAB1TTE 
 
 Labarre, lt'btR', (£loi,) a French architect, born in 
 Picauly in 1764, built the Bourse and Tribunal of Com- 
 merce in Paris, (finished about 1826.) He was admitted 
 into the Institute in 1827. Died in 1833. 
 
 Labarre, (Theodore,) a French composer, and a 
 skilful performer on the harp, was Born in Paris in 1805. 
 He composed several popular ballads and operas. 
 
 Labarre de Corcelles, de, deh li'baR' deh koR'sel', 
 (FRANCOIS Tirecuy — teR'kii-e',) a French liberal poli- 
 tician, born in 1801. fie was a friend of Cavaignac, 
 who in 1848 sent him on a mission to the pope. 
 
 La Barre-Duparc, de, deh IS ''baV dii'paRk', (Nico- 
 las Edouard,) a Fiench military writer arid officer, born 
 at Saint-Cloud in 1819. 
 
 Labarthe, la'biRt', (Pierre,) a French geographer 
 and writer, born at Dax in 1760; died in 1824. 
 
 La Bastie, de, deh IS bSs'te', (Joseph Bimard,) 
 Baron, a French antiquary, born at Carpentras in 1703 ; 
 died in 1742. 
 
 Labat, la'ba', (Jean Baptiste,) a French monk and 
 successful author, born in Paris in 1663. He went in 
 1694 to the West Indies as a missionary, and, having 
 returned to France in 1706, published a "Description 
 of the West Indies," (6 vols., 1722,) a work of some 
 merit. In 1728 he published an excellent Description 
 of Senegal and adjacent regions, (" Relation de l'Afrique 
 occidentale," 5 vols., 1728,) the data of which were fur- 
 nished by De Brue. Died in 1738. 
 
 Labat, (Leon,) a French traveller and physician, 
 born at Agde in 1803. He cured the Shah of Persia, 
 who gave him the title of prince. Died in 1847. 
 
 Labbe, lab, (Philippe,) a French Jesuit and volumi- 
 nous writer, born at Bourges in 1607. He lived many 
 years in Paris, and published several useful works on 
 history and chronology, among which is "Chronological, 
 Technical, and Historical Agreement," ("Concordia 
 Chronologica, Technica et Historica," 1656.) He is 
 chiefly known at the present time by his valuable work 
 on Latin pronunciation, entitled "Eruditae Pronuntia- 
 tionis Catholici Indices," which was enlarged by E. 
 Leeds and republished in London in 1 751. Died in 1667. 
 See NtotUoN, " Me'moires." 
 
 Labbe de Monveron, la'ba' deh moN'va'rAN', 
 (Ch\ri.es,) a French philologist and advocate, born in 
 Paris in 1582. He published, as editor, besides other 
 works, "Glossaries of Cyrillus, Philoxenus, and other 
 Ancient Writers," ("Cyrilli, Philoxeni et aliorum vete- 
 rum Glossaria," 1679.) Died in 1657. 
 
 Labe, li'ba', (Louise,) a French lady, known by the 
 name of La BELLE Cordiere, was born at Lyons in 1 526, 
 and became the wife of Ennemond Pen in, a merchant 
 who dealt in cordage. She was learned in languages 
 and celebrated for her beauty and ardent imagination. 
 She composed elegies, sonnets, and a drama 'named 
 " Debat de la Folie et de l'Amour." Died in 1566. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe:" C. J. de Ruolz, "Discours sur la Personne et les 
 Ouvrages de L. LabeV' 1750. 
 
 La Bedolliere, If ba'do'le-aiR', (Smile Gigault,) 
 a French litterateur, born at""X"miens in 1812. He be- 
 came an editor of the "Siecle." Among his works are 
 a " Life of La r'ayette," (1833,) and a "History of the 
 and Private Life of the French," (3 vols., 
 1847. 1 He translated into French Fenimore Cooper's 
 works, Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin." and the 
 Waverley Novels. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate." 
 
 Labedoyere or La Bedoyere, de, deh la"ba'dw.V- 
 yaik', (Ciiari.i s AngEliqi:k Hn 111.1,1 Count, a French 
 ral, noted for graceful manners and chivalrous spirit, 
 was born in Paris in 1786. He l>ecame aide-de-camp to 
 Marshal Lannes in 1808. At Essling, in 1809, he was 
 wounded by the side of I.annes, who was lulled at the 
 same time. He was aide-de-camp 10 Eugene Beauhar- 
 nais in 1812, and distinguished himself at the Monkwa 
 and Berezina. In 1814 he accepted from Louis XVIII. 
 the command of a regiment stationed at Grenoble. I le 
 was one of the first officers that in 1815 joined the stan- 
 dard of Napoleon, who raised him to the rank of general 
 01 division ; and he was one of the last to leave the field 
 
 at the battle of Waterloo. Having been arrested in 
 Paris and tried by court-martial, he was shot, in 1815. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 La'be-o, (Quintus Antistius,) a Roman jurist, who 
 flourished about 50 B.C. He fought for Brutus at Phi- 
 lippi, and, after the battle was lost, died by his own hand 
 His son, Quintus or Marcus Antistius Labeo, was 2 
 more eminent jurist, a man of great learning, and an 
 inflexible republican. He lived during the reign of Au- 
 gustus, to whom he sometimes expressed his mind with 
 boldness. He was the founder or head of a school of 
 law, and was the rival of Capito. He wrote Commen- 
 taries on the Twelve Tables, and many treatises, extracts 
 from which are preserved in the Digest. Labeo and 
 Capito are styled " ornaments of Peace" (" decora Pads") 
 by Tacitus. The disciples of Labeo were called Procu- 
 Hani, from Proculus, his successor. 
 
 See Aulus Gei.lius. " Noctes Attica:;'' C. va\_ Ecu, " Disser- 
 tatio de Vita, Moribus et Studiis Q. Antistii Labeonis," 1692. 
 
 Laberge, de, deh IS'biRzh', (Charles Auguste,) 
 an excellent French landscape-painter, born in Paris it) 
 1805. He represented human nature with surprising 
 fidelity in a picture of a " Diligence passing through a 
 Village and announcing the Revolution of 1830." His 
 "Country Physician" (1832) is called his master-piece. 
 His works are finished very minutely, without impairing 
 the general effect. Died in 1842. 
 
 Labergerie, de, deh la'bcKzh're', (Jean Baptiste 
 Rougier,) Baron, an eminent French agriculturist, born 
 in Touraine in 1759. He published several approved 
 historical works on the agriculture of the ancient Greeks, 
 Romans, and Gauls, also treatises on Practical Agricul- 
 ture. Died in 1836. 
 
 La-be'rl-us, (Decimus,) a Roman knight, distin- 
 guished as a writer of mimes, was born about 107 H.c 
 In the year 45 Caesar signified a wish that he should act 
 his mimes in public. He reluctantly complied, such 
 practice being deemed degrading, and acquitted him- 
 self with credit, at the same time availing himself of the 
 opportunity to turn his wit against the dictator. The 
 prologue which he spoke on this occasion has been 
 preserved, and is much admired. Only small fragments 
 of his works are extant. Died in 43 B.C. 
 
 La-bl-e'miB, (Quintus,) was a son of Titus, noticed 
 below. He commanded an army of Parthians which 
 defeated the forces of Mark Antony in Cilicia. Having 
 been captured by the Romans, he was put to death in 39 
 B.C. His brother, TlTUS Lakienus, was an eloquent 
 orator, and an enemy of Augustus Caesar. He died in 
 12 A.I). 
 
 Labienus, (Titus,) a Roman general, born 98 B.C., 
 was chosen tribune of the people in 63, and praetor a few 
 years later. About 60 B.C. he became lieutenant of Caesar. 
 He was the ablest general that served under Caesar in 
 the conquest of Gaul, where he gained victories over the 
 Treviri. He abandoned his late chief at the passage of 
 the Rubicon, and took arms for Pompey and the senate in 
 49 B.C. After the battle of Pharsalia he commanded in 
 Africa, and was killed in the battle of Munda, in Spain, 
 in 45 B.C. 
 
 See Cesar, "De Bello Gallico ;" Dion Cassius, "History of 
 Rome." 
 
 Labillardiere or La Billardiere, de, deh li'be'yiR*- 
 de-aiR', (Jacques Jui.ien Hoi ion,) a Fiench botanist, 
 bom at Alencon in 1755. After he had explored Cyprus, 
 Syria, and Mount Lebanon as a botanist, he was em- 
 ployed as naturalist in the expedition which was sent in 
 search of La Perouse in 1791. Having returned to 
 Paris, he published two valuable works, viz., "Narrative 
 of a Voyage in Search of La Perouse," (1800,) and a 
 " Flora of New Holland," (1804-06.) The former has 
 enriched the various branches of natural history. He 
 was a member of the Institute. Died in 1834. 
 
 See P. Flourens, " filoge de J. J. de Labillardiere," 1837 : 
 " Nmivelle Biographie Gine'rale." 
 
 Labitte, lS'bet', (Charles,) a French critic, bom at 
 Chateau-Thierry in 1816, became professor of foreign 
 literature at Hennes in 1840. He wrote for the " Revue 
 des Deux Mondes" able articles on M. J. Chcnier and 
 other authors. Died in 1845. Two volumes of his 
 •'Etudes litteraires" were published in 1846. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, m,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as t; th as in Ms. (23p-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LABLACHE 
 
 1348 
 
 LA CALPRENEDE 
 
 Lablache, li'blish', (Louis,) a celebrated singer and 
 actor, born of French parentage in Naples in 1794. He 
 performed many seasons in Paris and London. His 
 Toice embraced two full octaves ; it was firm and sonorous, 
 powerful and expressive. He was successful both in 
 the serious and comic opera. It is stated that he gave 
 lessons in music to Queen Victoria. " He has given 
 form and life," says M. D'Ortigue, "to the immortal 
 types traced by musicians of genius ; he has delighted 
 civilized Europe for nearly half a century as a tragedian 
 full of dignity and as an inimitable buffoon." Died in 
 1858. 
 
 See Castii.-Bi.aze, " Biographie de Lablache;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lablee, li'bla', (Jacques,) a French writer of fiction 
 and verses, born at Beatigency in 1751 ; died in 1841. 
 
 La Boetie. See Boetie. 
 
 La Borde. See Borde. 
 
 Laborde, (General.) See Delaborde, (Henri F.) 
 
 Laborde, It'bord', (Maximilian,) an American phy- 
 sician, of French extraction, born in Edgefield, South 
 Carolina, in 1804. He became in 1838 secretary of state. 
 In 1842 he was appointed professor of logic and belles- 
 lettres in South Carolina College, and afterwards of 
 metaphysics and physiology in the same institution. 
 
 Laborde, li'boRd', (Vidien,) a French priest, born at 
 Toulouse in 1680. He lived in Paris, and was patronized 
 by Cardinal de Noailles. He published a "Treatise on 
 the Essence, Distinction, and Limits of the Spiritual and 
 Temporal Powers," " Familiar Conferences," and other 
 admired religious works. Died it) 1748. 
 
 Laborde, de, d?h li'boRd', (Alexandre Louis Jo- 
 seph,) Count, a French antiquary and litterateur, born 
 in Paris in 1774, was a son of Jean Joseph, (1724-94.) 
 He accompanied Lucien Bonaparte in his embassy to 
 Spain in 1800, after which he devoted some years to the 
 study and delineation of Spanish monuments, scenery, 
 etc. He published the results in a large and costly 
 work, — " Picturesque and Historic Journey in Spain," 
 ("Voyage pittoresque et historique en Espagne," 4 vols., 
 1807-18, with 900 engravings,) which is highly com- 
 mended. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies 
 in 1822 and 1827, and risked his life for the popular 
 cause in July, 1830, after which he became a councillor 
 of state. Among his important works are "The Monu- 
 ments of France classed Chronologically," (24 parts, 
 1816-26,) and a "Picturesque Journey in Austria," (3 
 vols., 1821-23.) He was a member of the Institute. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" "Monthly Review" for 
 August and October, 1810. 
 
 Laborde, de, (Jean Joseph,) Marquis, a French 
 financier, born at Jacca, Aragon, in 1724. He acquired 
 a very large fortune by commerce, and was distinguished 
 for his liberality. He was appointed banker to the 
 court by the Duke of Choiseul, who gave him the title 
 of marquis. He was guillotined in 1794, on suspicion 
 of having conspired against the dominant party. 
 
 Laborde, de, (Leon Emmanuel Simon Joseph,) 
 Count, a French traveller and writer on art, a son of 
 Count Alexandre Louis Joseph, noticed above, was born 
 in Paris in 1807. He became aide-de-camp to La Fa- 
 yette in 1830, and was elected to the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties in 1840. In 1842 he was admitted into the Academy 
 of Inscriptions. He produced a splendid work entitled 
 "Travels in the East," ("Voyage en Orient," etc., con- 
 taining four hundred views in Asia Minor and Syria, 36 
 parts, 1837-55,) "The Renaissance of the Arts at the 
 Court of France," (1850-55,) and other works on art. 
 In 1857 he was chosen director of the archives of the 
 empire. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale ;" " London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for June, 1837. 
 
 Labouchere, 19'boo'shaiR', (Henry,) Baron Taun- 
 ton, an English Whig minister of state, born in Lon- 
 don in 1798, was descended from a family of French 
 Protestants. He was returned to Parliament for Taunton 
 in 1830, became privy councillcr in 1835, and president 
 of the board of trade in 1839. Having resigned with 
 his party in 1841, he was chosen chief secretary for Ire- 
 land in 1846. He was president of the board of trade 
 
 from July, 1847, till February, 1852, and wis colonial 
 secretary from the accession of Palmerston, in 1855, until 
 February, 1858. His mother was a Baring, sister of 
 Lord Ashburton. Died in July, 1869. 
 
 Labouchere, li'boo'shain', (Pierre Antoine,) a 
 French historical painter, was born at Nantes in 1807. 
 Among his works are "The Colloquy of Geneva in 1549 : 
 Calvin, Beza, and Farel," and "Luther at the Diet of 
 Worms," (1857.) 
 
 Labouderie, li'bood're', (Jean,) a French religious 
 writer and abbe, born in Auvergne in 1776 ; died in 1849. 
 Laboulaye, It'boo'LY, (Edouard Rene Lkfehure,) 
 a French jurist and historical writer, born in Paris in 
 181 1. He acquired a high reputation by his writings, 
 among which are a "History of the Law of Landed 
 Property in Europe," (1839,) a "History of the United 
 States of America," (3 vols., 1855.) and an ingenious 
 and witty work entitled " Paris in America." He trans- 
 lated into French several of the works of Dr. Channing, 
 (1S53.) In 1845 ne was chosen a member of the Acad- 
 emy of Inscriptions. He was a warm friend of the Union 
 during the great civil war, (1861-65,) a "d ' s a Liberal in 
 French politics. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Labourdonnaie or La Bourdonnaie, de, deh If- 
 booR'do'ni', (ANne Francois Augustin,) Count, a 
 French general, bom at Guerande in 1747. In 1792 he 
 was made a general, and, having obtained command of 
 the army of the North, was denounced by Dumouriez for 
 obstructing his operations in Belgium, and was recalled. 
 He afterwards commanded the army of the Pyrenees. 
 Died in November, 1793. 
 
 Labourdonnaie, de, (Francois Reois,) Count, a 
 French legislator, born at Angers in 1767. In 1815 
 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, where for 
 about fifteen years he was one of the chief orators of 
 the extreme royalists. He obtained the portfolio of the 
 interior in the Polignac ministry in 1829, but resigned 
 about the close of that year. Died in 1839. 
 
 Labourdonnais, de, (Mah£.) See Mahe. 
 
 Labourdonnais, de, deh IJ'booR'dii'ni', (Mah£, 
 mt'a',) a Frenchman, surnamed "The King of Chess," 
 was born in 1795. After the death of Philidor he was 
 probably the most skilful chess-player in France, lie 
 wrote a " Life of Mahe de Labourdonnais," (his grand- 
 father.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Laboureur, Le, leh li'boo'rUR', (Jean.) a French 
 priest, whose works have thrown light on the history of 
 France, was born at Montmorency in 1623. He became 
 one of the almoners of the king. He published " Monu- 
 ments of Illustrious Persons," (1641,) "Memoirs of 
 Michel de Castelnau," (1659,) and other works. Died 
 in 1675. 
 
 Labrador, la-bRa-o6R', (Juan,) a Spanish painter of 
 the Seville school, was born in Estremadura. He painted 
 flowers and fruits with great success. His works are 
 highly prized in Spain. Died in 1600, at an advanced age. 
 
 Labrousse, de, deh It'bRooss', (Clotm.de Suzanne 
 de Courcelles — deh kooR'sel',) a French enthusiast, 
 born in Pcrigord in 1747. She professed to be a pro- 
 phetess. In the Revolution she advocated the popular 
 cause. Died in 1821. 
 
 LaBrousae, de, (Nicolas,) Comtede Verteillac, (deh 
 veR'ti'ytk.',) a French general, born in 1648, was killed 
 near Mons in 1693. Louis XIV. said, "I have lost in 
 the Count of Verteillac the best officer of infantry that I 
 have had since Turenne." 
 
 La Brune, de, deh li bRun, (Jean,) a French Prot- 
 estant minister and writer, lived about 1690-1720. 
 
 La Brunerie, de, deh IS bRiin're', (Guillaume,) Vi- 
 comte Dode, a French general, born in Isere in 1775. 
 He had the chief command of the engineers of the army 
 which invaded Spain in 1823, and directed the fortifica- 
 tions of Paris, (1840-45.) He was made a marshal of 
 France in 1847. Died in 1851. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 La Bruyere. See Bruyerk, de la. 
 
 La Caille. See Caili.e, de la. 
 
 La Calleja, de, da la kal-ya'na, (Andres,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at La Rioja in 1705 ; died in Madrid in 1785. 
 
 La Calprenede. See Calprenede, de la. 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mft; ndt; good; moon; 
 
LACARRY 
 
 '349 
 
 LACORDAIRE 
 
 Lacarry, 15'ki're', (Gii.les,) a learned French Jesuit 
 and historian, horn in the diocese of Castres in 1605, was 
 for many years rector of the College of Cahors. He pub- 
 lished several esteemed historical works, among which 
 is a " History of Rome from Julius Caesar to Constan- 
 tine I.," (167 1.) Died in 1684. 
 
 Lacaussade, lit'ko'sid', (Auguste,) a French poet 
 and critic, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1820. He made 
 a good version of Ossian's poems, (1842,) and became 
 secretary to M. Sainte-Heuve. In 1852 he published 
 " Poemes et Paysages," (" I'oems and Landscapes.") 
 
 Lacaze, de, den ij'ktz', (Louis,) a French medical 
 Writer, l>orn in Beam in 1703. Among his works is 
 " Idee de 1'IIoinme physique et moral," (" Ideal of the 
 Physical and Moral Man," 175=;.) Died in 1765. 
 
 Lacepede, de. deh lj'sa'pid', (Bernard Germain 
 Etienne de la Vii.i.e,) Count, an eminent French 
 naturalist, born at Agen in 1756. He was carefully edu- 
 cated at home by his father, who was of a distinguished 
 family, and in early vouth chose natural history as his 
 favourite study and Buffon as his model. Having sent 
 to Buffon an account of some experiments on electricity 
 and received a complimentary answer, he went to Paris 
 in 1777, and formed an intimacy with that naturalist and 
 Daubenton. He published an "Essay on Electricity" 
 in 1 781, and soon after became the favourite pupil of 
 Buffon, who selected him to continue his "Natural His- 
 tory." In 1785 Lacepede was appointed curator and 
 sub-demonstrator in the Cabinet du Roi. He published, 
 as a sequel to Buffon's work, in 1788, a "Natural His- 
 tory of Oviparous Quadrupeds and Serpents," which 
 was commended by Cuvier. In 1 791 lie entered the 
 Legislative Assembly as a moderate friend of the new 
 ie, and during the reign of terror found refuge in the 
 country. He obtained a chair of zoology in the Museum 
 of Natural History in 1795, and was admitted into the 
 Institute in 1796. His "Natural History of Fishes" (6 
 vols. 4to, 1798-1803) is elegant in style, but defective in 
 philosophy. Having been chosen president of the senate 
 in 1801, grand chancellor of the legion of honour in 
 1803, and minister of state in 1804, he was very assiduous 
 in the performance of his public duties. His "Natural 
 History of Cetacea" (2 vols., 1804) is called his best 
 work. After the restoration he was made a peer of 
 France. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Cuvier, " £loge historiqtie du Comte de Lacepede," 1826 ; 
 
 vavh, " filoge historique du Comte de Lacepede," 1826; 
 
 RIC, Notice sur la Vie et les QwvrageS de M. Ie Comte de 
 
 I ><:de :" Querard, "La France LitteVaire ;" "Nouveile Bio- 
 
 graphic CJenerale." 
 
 La Cerda. See Cf.rda, dp. la. 
 
 Lacerda e Almeida, de, da la sftt'da a al-ma'e-da, 
 (Francisco Jo/.E,) a Portuguese traveller, cxplorecTparts 
 of Brazil, and portions of Africa between io"and 26 south 
 latitude. Died in Africa about 1798. 
 
 La Chabeaussiere, de, deh IS shS'bo'se^ajR', (Anof. 
 Etienne Xaviek Poisson,) a French comic poet, born 
 in Paris in 1752 ; died in 1820. 
 
 La Chaise or Lachaise, de, deh IS sh&z, (Francois 
 d'Aix,) or La Chaise d'Aix, (Francois hi:,) Perk, 
 a French Jesuit, born in Forez in 1624. After teaching 
 philosophy at Lyons, he obtained in 1675 the place of 
 confessor to Louis XIV., which he kept for thirty-four 
 years. He had much influence with the king, and ap- 
 pears to have acted with moderation and prudence. 
 Voltaire calls him a "mild person, with whom the ways 
 of conciliation were always open." He is partly respon- 
 sible, however, for the revocation of the edict of Nantes. 
 Died in 1709. A large cemetery of Paris bears the name 
 of Pere La Chaise. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Siecle de Lout* XIV;" Saint Simon, "Mi- 
 moires;" "Nouveile Biographic Generate. " 
 
 La Chalotais. See Chai.otais, de la. 
 
 Lachatnbeaudie, li'shdx'bo'de', (Pierre,) a French 
 fabulist, born at Sarlat in 1806. He joined the Saint- 
 Simonians alxiut 1832, and published, in 1839, " Popular 
 Fables," (7th edition, 1849,) which gained a prize of 2000 
 francs from the French Academy. 
 
 La Chambre. See Chamiikk, de la. 
 
 Lachapelle or La Chapelle, de, deh IS'shS'p?!', 
 ;Armand Boiabeleau— bwa'lieh'lo',) a French Prot- 
 estant minister, was born in Saintonge in 1676. After 
 
 preaching in London, he became pastor of a church at 
 the Hague in 1725. He was the editor of the last ten 
 volumes of the " Bibliotheque Anglaise," or " Literary 
 Journal of Great Britain," (15 vols., 1717-27,) which was 
 commenced by Laroche, and wrote several theological 
 works. Died in 1746. 
 
 La Chapelle, de, (Jean,) a mediocre French poet, 
 born at liourges in 1655, became a memljer of the French 
 Academy. He wrote several successful tragedies, among 
 which was " Zai'dc," and "The Amours of Catullus, 
 (1680.) Died in 1723. 
 
 La€h'a-re§, [Aajrupttf,] an Athenian demagogue and 
 tyrant, who obtained the chief power at Athens in 296 
 11. C. He was expelled by Demetrius in 295. 
 
 La Chatre, de, deh U'shatR', (Claude,) a French 
 general and courtier, born about 1536; died in 1614. 
 
 La Chaussee. See Chaussee. 
 
 La'ches, [Aur.>7C,] an Athenian general, commanded 
 an expedition sent to Sicily in 427 B.C. He was one of 
 the commanders of the army sent to Argos in 418 B.C., 
 and was killed at Mantinea in that year. 
 
 Laeh'e-sis, [A&reffif,] a Greek word signifying "lot" 
 or "destiny," the name of one of the P\KCM, (which see.) 
 
 La Chetardie. See Cheiardie, de la. 
 
 Lachmann, laK'man, (Karl,) an eminent German 
 critic and philologist, born at Brunswick in March, 1793. 
 He studied at Ixipsic and Gottingen. After having 
 lectured in the University of Kbnigsberg, he became 
 in 1827 professor in that of Berlin, where he acquired 
 a high reputation. In 1830 he was admitted into the 
 Academy of Sciences of Berlin. He published excellent 
 critical essays on Homer and on the " Niebelungen- 
 Lied." Between 1829 and 1845 ' le edited the works of 
 Catullus, Tibullus, Terence, and Avianus. He published 
 an edition of Lucretius, (1850.) He also wrote " De 
 Choreis Systematis Tragicorum Graecorum," (l8l9,)and 
 many other works. Died in Berlin in 185 1. 
 
 See Jacob C.kimm, " Rede auf Lachmann," 1R51 ; Martin 
 Hertz, " K. Lachmann, eine Biographie," 1851 ; " Nouveile Bio- 
 graphic GeneVale;" "London Quarterly Review" for September, 
 1847- 
 
 Lachner, laK'ner, (Franz,) a German musical com- 
 poser, born at Rain, in Bavaria, in 1804. He composed 
 symphonies, which are his chief title to fame, and sev* 
 eral operas and oratorios. After acting as chapel-master 
 in Vienna some years, he became royal chapel-master in 
 Munich in 1836. He ranks among the greatest com- 
 posers of symphonies in recent times. In 1852 he was 
 chosen general director of music in Munich. 
 
 Lackemacher, lak'keh-maK'er. (Johann Gott- 
 fried,) a German Orientalist, born at Osterwick in 
 1695 ; died in 1736. 
 
 Lack'ing-ton, ^James,) an English bookseller, born 
 about 1745; died in 1816. • 
 
 See his " Autobiographic Memoirs," 1792. 
 
 Lackmann, lak'man, (Adam Heinrich,) a German 
 historian, born at Weningen in 1694; died in 1753. 
 
 La Clede or Laclede, de, deh lS'klid', (N.,) a French 
 historian, was a friend of Voltaire. He published a " Gen- 
 eral History of Portugal," (2 vols. 4to, 1735,) of which 
 a Portuguese version appeared in 16 vols., (1781-97.) He 
 died young in 1736. 
 
 Laclos or La Clos, de, deh li'klo', (Pierre Am- 
 broise Francois Choderlos — sho'deVIos',) a French 
 officer, bom at Amiens in 1741. He was secretary to 
 the Duke of Orleans during the Revolution. In the 
 army he served as marechal-de-camp under the Republic. 
 He published a licentious romance, "The Dangerous 
 Liaisons*" Died in 1803. 
 
 La Colonie, de, deh li ko'lo'ne', (Jean Martin,) a 
 French historical writer, born at Bordeaux in 1674, He 
 wrote a " History of Bordeaux," (3 vols., 1757.) Died 
 in 1759. 
 
 Lacombe, li'kdMb', Uacques,) a mediocre French 
 writer, born in Paris in 1724. Among his numerous 
 works, in prose and verse, are a " Dictionary of the Fine 
 Arts," (1759,) a "History of Revolutions in Russia," 
 (1763,) and a " Dictionary of Arts and Trades," (8 vols., 
 1789-91.) Died in 1S1 1. 
 
 La Condamine. See Condamine, La. 
 
 Lacordaire, li'koR'djR', (Jean Bai'Tiste Henri,) a 
 celebrated French preacher, and founder of a new order 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; s as a; %h as in this. (Jty~See Explanations, p. 23,1 
 
LACORDAIRE 
 
 i3>o 
 
 LACR UZ 
 
 of Dominicans, was born at Recey-sur-Ource (Cote d'Or) 
 in 1802. He was educated for the law, which he re- 
 nounced in 1823 for the church, having been converted 
 from Voltairian views by the " Essay on Indifference" 
 of Lamennais. In 1830 he was associated with Lamen- 
 nais and Montalembert as an editor of the " Avenir," 
 which was ultramontane in religion but liberal or radical 
 in politics. His unity and co-operation with Lamen- 
 nais ceased in 1832, after a visit to Rome with his two 
 friends above named, and after the pope had denounced 
 the " Avenir." In 1835 the archbishop opened to him 
 the pulpit of Notre-Dame, Paris, where he attracted 
 immense crowds by the novel and brilliant style of his 
 sermons, in which he availed himself freely of the various 
 interests and excitements of the time. He became a 
 Dominican friar in 1840, and published a "Life of Saint 
 Dominic." In 1848 he was elected to the Constituent 
 Assembly; but he resigned his seat in May of that year, 
 having failed as a parliamentary speaker. He after- 
 wards preached in Paris and other cities. He pub- 
 lished "Considerations on the Philosophic System of 
 Lamennais," (1834,) "Sermons (Conferences) at Notre- 
 Dame," (3 vols., 1835-50,) "Letter on the Holy See," 
 (1838,) and other works. In 1859 or t86o he was elected 
 to the French Academy in place of De Tocqueville. 
 Died in November, 1861. 
 
 See Montalembekt, " Vie de Lacordaire ;" " Notice sur Lacor- 
 daire," Lyons, 1845; S unte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi," tome 
 i. ; L. de Lo.menie, " Le Pere Lacordaire," 1S44: Pierke Lokhain, 
 " Biographic liistorique de Lacordaire," 1847 ; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GiSneVale ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1863 ; " London 
 Quarterly Review" for July, 1864; P&NE Chocakne, " Vie du Pere 
 Lacordaire." (and English translation of the same, Dublin and New 
 York, 186;.) 
 
 Lacordaire, (Jean Theodore,) a French naturalist, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born at Recey-sur-Ource 
 in 1801. He travelled extensively in South America 
 between 1825 and 1S32. Among his works are an " In- 
 troduction to Entomology," (2 vols., 1834-37,) and a 
 " Natural History of Insects : Genera of Coleoptera," 
 (4 vols., 1857.) 
 
 Lacoste, li'kost', (Ei.ie,) a French Jacobin, born at 
 Montagnac, was elected to the Convention in 1792. On 
 the gth Therm idor, 1794, he spoke with energy against 
 Robespierre, and procured the suppression of the revo- 
 lutionary tribunal. Died in 1S03. 
 
 Lacour, li'kooR', (Pierre,) a French painter and 
 archaeologist, born at Bordeaux in 1778. 
 
 Lacretelle, de, deh 18'kiteh-tel', (Jean Ch\ri.ks 
 Dominique,) a popular French historian, born at Metz 
 in 1766. He was in Paris during the Revolution, and was 
 a zealous partisan of the moderate Constitutionalists. 
 After the fall of Robespierre he became one of the chiefs 
 of the jeunesse doree, and gained distinction as an elo- 
 quent writer and editor r>f a political journal. On the 
 18th Fructidor, 1797, he was arrested on the charge of 
 being a royalist, and imprisoned twenty-three months. 
 He published a " History of the French Revolution," (5 
 vols., 1801-6,) which obtained great success, a "His- 
 tory of France since the Restoration," (3 vols., 1829-35,) 
 and many other works on French history. Among his 
 best productions is a " History of France during the 
 Eighteenth Century," (6 vols., 1808,) and "The National 
 Convention," (3 vols., 1825.) He was admitted into the 
 French Academy in 181 1, and was professor of history 
 at the Faculty of Letters from 1809 to 1848. In 1827 he 
 was the prime mover of a protest which the French 
 Academy made against a proposed law to subvert the 
 freedom of the press. Died in 1855. 
 
 See " Nonvelle Biographic GtSnerale :" Tastei., " Histoire des 
 quarante Kauteuils de 1'AcadtSmie Francaise," 4 vols., 1S55; " Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for April, 1814; "Edinburgh Review" for 
 January, 1K05. 
 
 Lacretelle, de, (Pierre Louis,) a French lawyer and 
 successful writer, brother of the preceding, was born at 
 Metz in 1751. He became a resident of Paris at an early 
 age. He gained reputation by his "Eloge de Montau- 
 sier," by a prize essay "Sur la Prejuge des Peines infa- 
 mantes," ("On the Prejudice against [the Families of 
 those who suffer] Infamous Penalties," 1784,) and other 
 works, for which the Academy in 1786 awarded him the 
 prize founded for the work most useful to morals. In 
 1791 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly, where 
 
 he acted with the moderate Constitutionalists. About 
 1802 he was admitted into the French Academy ill place 
 of La Harpe. After the restoration of 1814 he was one 
 of the editors of the "Minerve Francaise." He was 
 author of " Portraits and Tableaux" and "Melanges of 
 Philosophy and Literature," (5 vols., 1802-07.) Died in 
 1824 or 1825. 
 
 Lacroix, IS'kuwa', (Jules,) a French novelist and- 
 poet, born in Paris in 1809, published "The Parasites," 
 (2 vols., 1837,) " Memoirs of a Somnambulist," (5 vols., 
 1845,) and other novels. 
 
 Lacroix, (Paul,) a prolific writer and novelist, brother 
 of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1807, and is 
 known under the pseudonym of P. L. Jacoh utuliophile. 
 He published a " History of the Sixteenth Century in 
 France," (4 vols, 1834,) a "History of Napoleon HI.," 
 (4 vols., 1854,) and other historical works. The manners, 
 arts, and sciences of Europe in the middle ages and in 
 the filteenth and sixteenth centuries are illustrated in his 
 "Moyen-Ageet la Renaissance," (5 vols., 1847-51,) which 
 is regarded as a valuable and important work. Among 
 his novels are " Soirees of Walter Scott at Paris," (2 vols., 
 1829-31,) "The Good Old Time," (1835,) and "Lover 
 and Mother," (" Amante et Mere," 2 vols., 1839.) 
 
 Lacroix, (Sii.vestre Francois,) a French mathema- 
 tician, born in Paris in 1765. He was professor in the 
 Polytechnic School, the Sorbonne, and the College of 
 France for about sixty years, and rendered important 
 services to science by his elementary works on geometry, 
 algebra, etc. He published a "Treatise on the Differ- 
 ential and Integral Calculus," (2 vols., 1797,) which is 
 highly esteemed. He was a member of the Institute. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Gene>ale." 
 
 Lacroix or La Croix, de, deh li'kRwa', (Emeric,) 
 a French writer against war, born in Paris about 1590. 
 Among his works is "The New Cyneas." 
 
 Lacroix, de, (Francois Joseph Pamphile,) Vi. 
 comte, a French general, born in Languedoc in 1774; 
 died in 1842. 
 
 Lacroix, de, (J. P.,) a French regicide and lawyer, 
 was born at Pont-Audemer in 1754. He was an active 
 member of the Convention, and became a political friend 
 of Danton, with whom he was executed in April, 1794. 
 
 Lacroix, de, (Louis Antoine Nicoi.le,) a French 
 geographer, born in Paris in 1704. He published a 
 " Modern Geography," (1747,) which was used in colleges 
 for about fifty years. Died in 1760. 
 
 Lacroix, de, (Marie Nicolas Chrestien,) a French 
 engineer and topographer, born in Paris in 1754. He 
 enjoyed high consideration as chief of the topographical 
 bureau in the department of foreign affairs. Died in 1836. 
 
 Lacroix du Maine, de, deh lS'kuwa' dii m&n, 
 (Francois Grude,) StF.UK, a French bibliographer, burn 
 at Mans in 1552. 1 laving collected many books and lite- 
 rary materials, he published in 1584 his " Bibliotheque 
 Francaise," which contains valuable information on 
 French works and their authors, and is commended for 
 accuracy. He was assassinated in 1592 by some fanatics 
 who suspected that he secretly favoured the Reformed 
 religion. 
 
 Lacrosse, de, deh lS'knoss', (Bernard Theohai.d 
 Joseph,) Baron, a French politician, born at Brest in 
 1796. In December, 1848, he was appointed minister of 
 public works. He became a senator in 1852. 
 
 Lacrosse, de, (Jean Baptists Raymond,) Baron, 
 a French admiral, the father of the preceding, was born 
 at Meilhan in 1765. In 1804 he was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the flotilla at Boulogne. Died in 1829. 
 
 Lacroze, de, deh li'kRoz', (Mathurin Veyssieke,) 
 a French Orientalist, born at Nantes in 1661, became 
 librarian of the King of Prussia in 1697, and professor 
 of philosophy in Berlin. He wrote an " Egyptian Dic- 
 tionary," and several historical treatises. Died in 1739. 
 
 Lacruz or La Cruz, de, da li-kpooth', (Juan,) a 
 skilful Spanish painter of history and portraits, was born 
 at Valencia in 1545, and was surnamed PantoJA. He 
 was patronized by Philip II., for whom he painted por- 
 traits and religious pieces for the Escurial. 
 
 Lacruz, de, (Juana Inez,) a Spanish or Mexican 
 poetess, born near Mexico in 1651. She published in 
 
 a, e, T, 6, 6, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
LACR VZ 
 
 135' 
 
 LAENNEC 
 
 1670 a volume of dramas and other poems, religious and 
 secular, which were greatly admired for grace and sensi- 
 bility. She retired to a convent in 1668, and died in 
 1695. She was often called "the Tenth Muse." 
 
 Lacruzy Cano, de, da la-kRooth'e ka'no,'(RAMON,) 
 a Spanish dramatic poet, born at Madrid in 1 73 1. He 
 had great facility in versification, and excelled in ridicule 
 or facetiae. He produced many successful comedies, in 
 which characters are skilfully treated. Died in 1795. 
 
 Lacshmi. See Laksiimi. 
 
 Lactance. See I.actantius. 
 
 Lactantius, lak-tan'shc^us^Fr. Lactancf., lik tftNss'; 
 It Lattanzio, liit-tan'ze^] (Lucius Ciei.ius Fikmi- 
 anus,) an eloquent Latin Father, who flourished in the 
 third and fourth centuries, and is supposed to have been 
 a native of Africa. He was a pupil of Arnobius. About 
 290 a. D., Diocletian employed him as teacher of rhetoric 
 at Nicomedia. Some writers think he was converted 
 from paganism after that date. Between 310 and 320 he 
 was preceptor of Crispus, the son of the emperor Con- 
 stantine, and during that period lived in Gad). His 
 principal work is "Institutiones Divinae," ("Divine In- 
 stitutions,") a -defence of Christianity. He is reputed 
 the most eloquent and polished of the Latin Fathers, 
 and was called by Saint Jerome "the Christian Cicero." 
 Died probably about 325 A.D. 
 
 See Brooke Mountain, " Summary of the Writings of Lactan- 
 tius," London, 1S30; Fi.euky, " Hisioire eccleViastique ;" Sunt 
 Jekome, "De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis ;" P. Kckekman, " Disser- 
 tatjo de I. actantio, Cicerone Chrisliano," 1754 ; " Nouvelle Hiogra- 
 phie G^nerale." 
 
 Lacuee, IS'kii'a', (Gerard Jean,) Comte de Cessac, 
 a French general and administrator, born near Agen in 
 1752. He became a member of the Institute, minister 
 of state, (1807,) and minister of the administration of 
 war in 1810. Died in 1841. 
 
 Lacuna. See Lacuna. 
 
 La'cy\ (John,) an English actor and dramatist, born 
 at Doncaster, He obtained such popularity as a comic 
 actor that Charles II. had his portrait painted in several 
 characters. He wrote, besides other comedies, "The 
 Dumb Lady," and "Sir Hercules Buffoon." Died in 1681. 
 
 Lacy, de, di li'Aiee', (Luis,) an able Spanish general, 
 born near Gibraltar in 1775. Having failed in an attempt 
 to restore the authority of the Cortes, he was shot in 1817. 
 
 Lacy, von, (Joseph Franz Mouitz.) See Lascv. 
 
 La-cy'des, [Aa/a'<!;;c,] a Greek philosopher of the Pla- 
 tonic school, was a native of Cyrene. He was a pupil 
 of Arcesilaus, whose successor he became at Athens 
 about 240 B.C. I lis writings are not extant. Died 
 about 215 B.C., (one account says 241 H.C.) 
 
 Ladd, (William,) an American philanthropist, born 
 at Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1778, was one of the 
 originators of the American Peace Society, of which he 
 became president. He was successively editor of the 
 " Friend of Peace" and the " Harbinger of Peace," and 
 wrote several essays on that subject. Died in 1841. 
 
 See the "Democratic Review" for March, 1842. 
 
 Ladenberg.von, fon ll'den-biuo', (Adalbert,) born 
 at Anspach in 1798, filled many important posts under 
 the Prussian government. Died in 1855. 
 
 Ladenberg, von, (I'iiilipp,) a Prussian lawyer, the 
 father of the preceding, born at Magdeburg in 1769, 
 became in 1837 privy minister of state. Died in 1847. 
 
 Ladislaus, lad'is-'lawss or la'dis-lowss, | Fr. Ladisi.as, 
 Ifde'slas'; Polish, Wi.adislaw, vli'de-slav' or vla'de- 
 slaf',] I., King of Hungary, and Saint, born in 1041, was 
 a son of Belt I. He began to reign in 1078, and died in 
 1095. He was canonized by the pope. 
 
 See OXnoczv, " Dissertatio de S. Ladislao," etc., Vienna, 1775. 
 
 Ladislaus II., of Hungary, a son of liela II., was 
 born about 1 1 34 ; died in 1162, after a reign of about 
 six months. He is omitted from some lists of the kings 
 of Hungary. 
 
 Ladislaus H. or HZ, King of Hungary, born about 
 I185, was a son of Tumeric. He was elected in 1204, and 
 died in 1205. 
 
 Ladislaus HX or IV., surnamed CVMAN, King of 
 Hungary, succeeded his father, Stephen IV., in 1272 In 
 his reign Hungary was ravaged by the Tartars or Mon- 
 gols. He was assassinated in 1290. 
 
 Ladislaus IV. or V., King of Hungary, born about 
 1400 was a son of Jagellon or Ladislaus. He inherited 
 the throne of Poland in 1434, and was elected King of 
 Hungary in 1440. His army gained several victories 
 over the Turkish invaders. (See Huniades.) He was 
 killed at the battle of Varna by the Turks in 1444. He 
 was succeeded by the infant son of Albert II., who 
 was styled Ladislaus VI., and who died in 1457, aged 
 seventeen. 
 
 See Fksslek, "Geschichte der Ungarn." 
 
 Ladislaus VI. or VII., King of Hungary, born about 
 1450, was a son of Casimir IV. of Poland. He. was 
 elected King of Hungary in 1490. During his reign the 
 conquests of Matthias Corvinus in Austria were lost. 
 He died in 1516, leaving the throne to his son Louis. 
 
 See Count von Mailath, " Geschichte der Ungarn." 
 
 Ladislaus or Lancelot, King of Naples, was the 
 son of Charles III., and began to reign in 1386. His 
 rival, Louis II., had possession of Naples, but was ex- 
 pelled in 1399. Ladislaus excited the Romans to revolt 
 against Innocent VII., and in 1408 made himself master 
 of Rome. Died in 1414. 
 
 Ladislaus of Poland. See Vladislaus. 
 
 Ladniiral, lid'me'ral', (Jan,) a Dutch engraver, of 
 French descent, born at Leyden in 1680. 
 
 Ladoucette, de, deh 13'doo'seY, (Jean Charles 
 F"rancois,) Baron, a meritorious French administrator, 
 bom at Metz in 1770; died in 1848. 
 
 Ladowski, la-dov'skee, (Remie,) a Polish naturalist, 
 born at Volhynia in 1738, published a "Natural History 
 of Poland," (1783.) Died in 1798. 
 
 Ladvocat, iSd'vo'kS', (Jean Baptists,) a French 
 doctor of the Sorbonne, born at Vaucouleurs in 1709,. 
 was learned in philosophy, history, Oriental languages, 
 etc. He became professor of divinity in the Sorbonne, 
 and published, besides other works, a Hebrew Grammar, 
 " Bibliotheque annuelle," (1748-51,) and a "Historical 
 Dictionary," (2 vols., 1752.) An enlarged edition of the 
 last was published in 5 vols, in 1822. Died in 1765. 
 
 See Quekard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Ladvocat, (Louis Franqois,) a French philosophica. 
 writer, born in Paris in 1644. He became a counsellor 
 and dean of the chamber of accounts. He wrote several 
 metaphysical works, one of which is entitled a " New 
 System of Philosophy." Died in 1735. 
 
 Ladvocat, (N.,) a French publisher and bookseller, 
 born in 1790; died in 1854. 
 
 Laelius, lee'le-us, (Caius,) surnamed Nepos, an emi- 
 nent Roman general. He had a high command under 
 Scipio Africanus in the expedition against Spain in 210 
 B.C. In 205 he gained a victory over Syphax in Africa, 
 for which he received a crown of gold. He was elected 
 praetor in 197, and consul in 190. His notes furnished 
 Polybius with materials for his history of Scipio's cam- 
 paigns in Spain. 
 
 Laelius, (Caius,) surnamed Sapiens, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, studied philosophy with Diogenes the Stoic, and 
 became an eminent orator. He served with distinction 
 under his friend Scipio the Younger at the siege of Car- 
 thage, and was chosen consul in 140 B.C. He favoured the 
 aristocratic party, and was an opponent of T. Gracchus. 
 The celebrity of the friendship between Laelius and 
 Scipio caused Cicero to place the name of the former at 
 the head of his dialogue " De Amicitia." Horace com- 
 mends his mild philosophy, — "mitis sapientia Lcelii," 
 (Sarm. ii. Sat. 1.) Died about 115 H.C. 
 
 See Cicero, " Brutus" and " De Oratore ;" Hbndrik Hana, 
 " Dissertatio de C. 1.,-clio Sapiente," 1833. 
 
 Laennec, li'ncV, (Guillaume Francois,) a French 
 physician, born at Quimper in 1748, was the uncle of 
 the following. He became physician-in-ordinary to the 
 king in 1779. Died in 1822. 
 
 Laennec, (RkneTiieiidoreHyacintiie,) an eminent 
 French physician, born at Quimper in February, 1781, 
 went to Paris in 1800 to pursue his studies. He gave 
 special attention to anatomy, in which he made several 
 discoveries. He had already acquired a reputation by his 
 practice and writings, when he invented the stethoscope 
 in 181 5, and opened a new era in medicine by his impor- 
 tant discovery of auscultation. 1 laving l>een chosen chief 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z: th as in this. ((jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LAENSBERGH 
 
 «35* 
 
 LA FAYETTE 
 
 physician of the Hopital Necker in 1816, he studied the 
 diseases of the thorax with great diligence, sagacity, and 
 success. His "Treatise on Mediate Auscultation," etc. 
 ("Traite de l'Auscultation mediate et des Maladies des 
 Poumons et du Cceur," 2 vols., 1S19) produced a great 
 sensation, and may be regarded as the most important 
 contribution to medical science made in the present cen- 
 tury. He was appointed professor of medicine in the 
 College of France in 1822, and obtained the chair of 
 clinic medicine in 1822 or 1823. He died of consump- 
 tion in 1826. 
 
 See Parisrt, " £loge de Laennec," 1840 ; A. L. J. Bayle, " No- 
 tice historique sur R. T. H. Laennec," 1826; "Nonvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Laensbergh, lins'beRH or lans'bSng, ( Mathieu,) 
 a Fleming, who lived about 1630, was the author of a 
 famous almanac, first published about 1635. An almanac 
 bearing his name continues to be publislvd at Liege. 
 
 La Euzina or Encina. See Enzina. 
 
 Laer or Laar, van, vSn 15r, (Pieter,) a celebrated 
 Dutch painter, born at Haarlem in 1613. He studied 
 and worked sixteen years in Rome, where he was inti- 
 mate with N. Poussin and Claude Lorrain and received 
 the surname of Bamboccio. In 1639 he returned to 
 Holland and settled in Haarlem. His favourite subjects 
 were hunting-scenes, rural sports, fairs, fisheries, and 
 rustic festivals, which he treated with great vivacity. He 
 excelled in design, colour, and aerial effects. His etch- 
 ings of his own designs are also much admired. Died 
 in 1673. 
 
 Laerte. See Laertes. 
 
 La-er'te§, [Or. Aaepn/c; Fr. Laerte, It'SRt',] King 
 of Ithaca, and father of Ulysses, is said to have been 
 •one of the Argonauts. He resigned the crown to his 
 f>on just named. 
 
 Laertius, (Diogenes.)- See Diogenes. 
 
 Laet, van, vSn lit, (Jan,) a Flemish geographer, born 
 at Antwerp, was well versed in languages and history. 
 He published valuable descriptive works on Spain, Italy, 
 Persia, etc. His " Description of the West Indies" (1640) 
 is highly commended. Died about 1650. 
 
 See Niceron, " M^moires." 
 
 Las villus, le-vl'mis, (Marcus Valerius,) a Roman 
 general, who, having obtained the office of praetor in 214 
 B.C., fought with success against Philip, King of Mace- 
 don, at Oricum. He became consul in 210 B.C., and 
 obtained by lot the command of Italy, which was then 
 invaded by Hannibal ; but he exchanged this province 
 with Marcellus for Sicily. He quickly expelled the Car- 
 thaginians from this island. Died in 200 B.C. 
 
 See Livv, " History of Rome ;" Polybius, " History." 
 
 Laeviiius, (Publius Valerius,) a Roman general, 
 who was consul in 280 B.C. lie obtained the chief com- 
 mand in the war against Pvrrhus and the Tarentines. 
 His army was defeated by Pvrrhus in a great battle on 
 the Siris, near Heraclea, in 280 B.C. 
 
 Lsevinus, la-vee'nus, (Torrentius, ) called also 
 Vander Beken, vSn der ba'ken, a Flemish prelate, 
 born at Ghent about 1525, was distinguished as a Latin 
 poet. He founded a college of Jesuits at Louvain, and 
 became Bishop of Mechlin. Died in 1595. 
 
 Laevius, lee've-us, a I^atin poet, of whom little is 
 known. He lived in the first century before Christ, and 
 wrote " Erotopasgnia." 
 
 Lafabrique, lSTS'bRek',(NicoLAS,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Namur ; died at Liege in 1736. 
 
 La Fage, IS iSzh, (Raimond,) a French designer and 
 engraver, born at Lisle (Albigeois) about 1650, studied 
 and worked at Rome and at Paris. He was renowned 
 for boldness of touch and facility of execution. The 
 pen was his favourite instrument in design. He left 
 many etchings. His habits were very intemperate. 
 Died about 1690. 
 
 La Faille, de, deh IS fSI or fS'ye, (Clement,) a 
 French naturalist, born at La Rochelle in 1718 ; died in 
 1782. 
 
 Lafaist. See Lafaye. 
 
 La Fare, de, deh IS fSit, (Charles Augustf.,) Mar- 
 quis, a French litterateur, born at Valgorge in 1644. He 
 served several campaigns in the army, (1667-74,) and 
 became a friend of Turenne. Besides some trifling 
 
 poetical pieces, he wrote " Memoirs and Reflections on 
 the Principal Events of the Reign of Louis XIV.," 
 (1715,) which is commended. Died in 1712. 
 
 La Farge, IS fSRzh, (Joachim,) a French financier, 
 born in Paris about J 750, originated a system of tontine 
 which is called by his name. Died about 1825. 
 
 La Farge, (Marie Cappelle, ) a Frenchwoman, 
 notorious for her crimes, was born in Picardy in 1816. 
 She was the daughter of a colonel of artillery, and was 
 married in 1838 to M. La Farge, who died soon after, it 
 was supposed, from the effects of poison administered 
 by his wife. About the same time she was accused of 
 having stolen from one of her friends some diamonds of 
 great value. The trial which followed was of the most 
 exciting kind, several eminent chemists having declared, 
 alter an examination of the remains, that there were no 
 marks of poison, while M. Orfila asserted that irsajtie 
 was present. Madame La Farge was condemned to 
 imprisonment for life, but after twelve years she was 
 released, on account of ill health, and died in 1S52. 
 
 See " M^mnires de Marie Cappelie Veuve La Farge," by herself, 
 4 vols., 1S40 ; '' Edinburgh Review" for July, 1842. 
 
 La Farina, la fa-Rec'na, (Giuseppe,) an Italian lawyer 
 and historical writer, born at Messina in 1815. He 
 founded several liberal journals, which were successively 
 suppressed by the government. He afterwards settled 
 at Florence, where he found more liberty, and published 
 a democratic anti-papal journal, " L'Alba." He took a 
 prominent part in the unsuccessful revolution in Sicily 
 in 1848, after which he again became an exile. Among 
 his works are a "History of Italy from 1815 to 1850, 
 (6 vols.,) and a "History of the Revolution of Sicily in 
 1848-49," (2 vols.) 
 
 Lafaye, IS'lV, (Antoine,) a French Protestant min- 
 ister, born at Chateaudun, became professor of theology 
 at Geneva in 1584. He wrote several theological works, 
 and a "Life of Beza," (1606.) Died in 1615. 
 
 Lafaye or Lafaist, IS'fi', (Pierre Benjamin,) a 
 French philologist, born in the department of Yonne in 
 1808. His chief works are "French Synonymes," (1841,) 
 crowned by the Institute, and a " Dictionary of the 
 Synonymes of the French Language," (1858.) 
 
 Lafaye, de, deh IS'lV, (Jean Elie,) an able French 
 engineer, born at Vienne in 1671. He served in the 
 army many years as engineer, and made discoveries in 
 the science of war. Died in 1718. 
 
 Lafaye, de, (Jean Francois,) a French diplomatist, 
 distinguished for his wit and accomplishments, brother 
 of the preceding, was born at Vienne in 1674. He was 
 a member of the French Academy. Died in 1731. 
 
 La Fayette or Lafayette, de, deh lS'fi'et', (George 
 Washington,) the only son of General La Fayette, was 
 born in 1779. He entered the army young, and served 
 in Italy about 1796. As aide-de-camp of General Grour 
 chy, he made the campaigns of Austria, Prussia, and 
 Poland, (1805-07.) He was elected to the Chamber of 
 Deputies in 1822, and again in 18 7, by the voters of 
 Seine^et-Mame, whom he continued to represent until 
 1848. In politics he was an advanced liberal. DiediniS49. 
 
 La Fayette, de, (Gilbert,) a French general, born 
 about 1380. He fought for the dauphin Charles against 
 the English, and became a marshal of France in 1420. 
 He was afterwards one of the chief counsellors of 
 Charles VII., and contributed to the victory of Jean 
 of Arc at Orleans in 1429. He aided in expelling the 
 English from Normandy in 1449. Died in 1462. 
 
 See " Nonvelle Biographie G^n^rale." 
 
 La Fayette, de, (Louise,) a French lady, born in 
 1616, was a daughter of Count Jean de la Fayette. 
 She gained the affection of Louis XIII. about 1634, and 
 encouraged him to become more independent of Riche- 
 lieu. She entered a convent about 1636. Died in 1665. 
 
 La Fayette or Lafayette, de, (Marie Jean Paui, 
 Roch Yves Gilbert Motier — rosh ev zhel'baiR' mo'- 
 te-i',) Marquis, an illustrious French statesman and 
 patriot, was bom at Chavagnac, September 6, 1757. His 
 father, who was a marquis and marechal-de-camp, was 
 killed at the battle of Minden in 1757. After leaving 
 the College Du Plessis, in Paris, he married in 1774 
 Mdlle. d'Ayen, a daughter of the Duke of Ayen. He 
 was the heir of an immense fortune, and had brilliant 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
LA FAYETTE 
 
 '353 
 
 LAFERTE 
 
 prospects at court, when, with generous enthusiasm for 
 liberty, he offered his services to the new-born republic 
 of America. Silas Deane, commissioner of the United 
 States in Paris, accepted his offer, and promised him 
 the grade of major-general, which was confirmed by the 
 American Congress. In the spring of 1777 he arrived 
 in the United States, and in the same year took part in 
 the battle of the Brandywine, where he was wounded. 
 He gained the favour and confidence of Washington, 
 and received the thanks of Congress for his conduct at 
 Monmouth in 1778. The French court having recog- 
 nized the independence of the United States, La Fayette 
 recrossed the ocean in 1779 and returned with material 
 aid to the scene of war. He commanded the advanced 
 guard of Washington in 1780, and contributed to the 
 decisive victory of Yorktown, (1781,) wheie the war was 
 virtually ended. 
 
 On his return to France, with a prestige magnified 
 by distance, he was received with unbounded applause, 
 which reanimated or confirmed his devotion to the cause 
 of liberty. In 1787 he advocated the rights of the French 
 Protestant* and various reforms in the government. His 
 principal parliamentary act in the States-General of 1789 
 was his Declaration of the Rights of Man, which was 
 adopted by that body. In that year he was chosen by ac- 
 clamation commandant of the Parisian militia, to which 
 he gave the name of the National Guard. At this period 
 he was the popular favourite of the nation. "The federa- 
 tion of 1790," says Lamartine, "was the apogee of La 
 Fayette. He overshadowed on that day both the king 
 and the Assembly." ("History of the Girondists.") 
 Aiming to reconcile his loyalty to the king with his duty 
 to the cause of freedom, he acted with the Feuillants, 
 the friends of constitutional monarchy. In the main- 
 tenance of order he often risked his life, and he enforced 
 martial law against the insurgents in the Champ-de-Mars 
 in July, 1791, soon after the arrest of the king at Va- 
 rennes. Before the end of that year he resigned his com- 
 mand, and was a candidate for the mayoralty of Paris ; but 
 the intrigues of the queen and court, who hated or feared 
 him, decided the election in favour of Pethion, who was 
 a radical revolutionist. The large majority of Pe"thion 
 showed that the star of La Fayette was declining. In the 
 winter of 1791-92 he was chosen commander of one of 
 the three armies, and, war having been declared against 
 Austria in April, he directed some small operations on 
 the frontier of Flanders, at the same time striving, with- 
 out success, to defeat the Jacobins at Paris. Indignant 
 at the attack on the Tuileries, (June 20, 1792,) La Fayette 
 went, with a single officer, to Paris, and, in a short 
 harangue before the bar of the Assembly, demanded the 
 punishment of the offenders. " In this attempt to act as 
 dictator," says Lamartine, "the motive was generous, 
 the peril great, but the means null." Returning to the 
 army, he devised a plan to save the king by transferring 
 him from the capital to his camp; but the court rejected 
 the offer. 
 
 The insurrection of August 10 gave the ascendency to 
 the republicans, who deprived La Fayette of his command. 
 He then fled towards Holland, intending to emigrate to 
 the United States, but was arrested by the Austrians and 
 detained in the dungeons of Neiss and Olmiitz, where 
 he was treated with much rigour. In a treaty with Aus- 
 tria in 1797, Bonaparte insisted on his liberation, which 
 was effected in Septemlwr of that year. Having passed 
 about two years in Holland, he returned to France in 
 1800, and, refusing several offers of public employment 
 under Bonaparte, maintained his political consistency in 
 retirement at I. a Grange. Some one having complained 
 that I.a Favctte censured the government, the First 
 ill replied, "Let him alone: he will not say more 
 against me than he has expressed openly before me." 
 
 In the Chandler of Deputies in 1815, he opposed the 
 claims of Bonaparte and of the Honrbons, and wished to 
 rally round the standard of 1 789 for "liberty, equality, 
 and order." After the restoration of the Bourbons he 
 spoke frequently in the Chamber in opposition to the 
 ministry. In 1824 he revisited the scene of his youthful 
 exploits, where he was received with cordial demonstra- 
 tions of honour and gratitude, and passed about a year 
 in a triumphal progress through the twenty-four States of 
 
 the Union. The Congress of the United States voted 
 §200,000 in recompense for his services in the war of 
 independence. The arbitrary measures of Charles X. 
 again roused him to political action. He took a promi- 
 nent part in the revolution of 1830, as the chief of the 
 popular camp in Paris, and president of the commission 
 which exercised a sort of dictatorship after the expul- 
 sion of Charles X. He was also chosen commander 
 of all the National Guards of France. He acquiesced 
 in »he accession of Louis Philippe, which Lamartine 
 thinks he might easHy have prevented by proclaiming 
 a republic. On this occasion he said to the new king, 
 " You know that I am a republican, and that I regard 
 the Constitution of the United States as the most perfect 
 that ever existed." He died May 20, 1834, leaving one 
 son and several daughters. Perhaps no man ever lived 
 through such vicissitudes of fortune, and such severe 
 trials of his virtue, with a character more free from just 
 reproach than La Fayette. The high-toned consistency 
 of his conduct is expressed in the assertion of Madame 
 de Stael, " that you could certainly predict what he would 
 do in every contingency." 
 
 See Sarrans, " Lafayette et la Revolution de 1830," 2 vols., 
 1S34 ; Cloquet, " Souvenirs de la Vie de La Fayette," 1836 ; " Me- 
 moires et Correspondance du General Lafayette," (published by 
 his family,) 6 vols., 1838 ; J. Q. Adams, " Oration on the Life and 
 Character of Lafayette," 1834; Wlt-I.IAM Cutter, " Life of General 
 Lafayette," New York, 1849 ; L. de Lomenie, " M. de Lafayette, par 
 un Homme de Rien," 1S42 ; P. C. Headlev, "Life of Lafayette," 
 Auburn, 1851 ; Sainte-Heuve, " Critiques et Portraits litteraires," 
 tome v. ; £mii.e de la Bedoi.liere, "Vie politique du Marquis de 
 Lafayette," 1S33 : Bancroft, " History of the United States," vol. 
 ix. ; "North American Review" for January, 1825, (by GsoRGB 
 Ticknok,) and January, 1830, (by Edward Everett;) "London 
 Quarterly Review" for December, 1832; "Foreign Quarterly" for 
 October, 1832 : " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1833. 
 
 La Fayette, de, (Marik Madeleine Pioche de la 
 Vergne — pe'osh' deh 14 vArR,) Countess, a popular 
 French authoress, born in Paris in 1634, was eminently 
 beautiful. She married the Count de la Fayette in 1655, 
 and her house became the resort of La Fontaine, La 
 Rochefoucauld, Menage, and other eminent authors. 
 She wrote two successful novels, "Zayde," (1670,) and 
 "The Princess of Cleves," (1678,) which were the first 
 French works of fiction that truly represented the man- 
 ners of the higher classes. She left also " Memoirs of 
 the French Court" for the years 1688 and 1689, (1731,) 
 and a few other works. Died in 1693. 
 
 Bee Lkmontev, " Notice sur Madame de la Fayette," 1822 : 
 Sainte-Heuve, " Portraits de Femmes," 1844; Auger, "Notice 
 biographique sur Madame de Lafayette," (prefixed to her Letters,) 
 1823 ; Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 La Payette, de, (Oscar,) a son of George W., noticed 
 above, was born in Paris in 1816. He served in the 
 army in Africa, and obtained the rank of captain. In 
 1846 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and in 
 1848 to the Constituent Assembly, in which he voted 
 with the republicans. 
 
 Laferriere or La Ferriere, l3'f4're-aiR', (Louis 
 Fir.min Jwi.ien,) a French jurist, and a member of the 
 Institute, was born at Jonzac in 1798. His principal 
 work is a " History of the Civil Law of Rome and of 
 French Law," (6 vols., 1846-53.) Died in 1861. 
 
 La Ferriere, de, deh IS i'4're-aiR', (Louis Marie,) 
 Count, born at Redon in 1776, became a general of 
 division. He lost a leg at Craonne in 1814. Napoleon" 
 left him a legacy of 100,000 francs. Died in 1834. 
 
 La Fert^-Imbault, de, deh IS feVta' aN'lx/, (Marie 
 ThSkesk (ii-oi i'kin,) Marquise, a literary French lady, 
 bom in Paris in 1 7 1 5, was a daughter of the well-known 
 Madame de Geoffrin. She was trained up in the society 
 of such men as Fontenelle and Montesquieu, who were 
 habitues of her mother's salon. Her moral or pious prin- 
 ciples caused her to close her door against D'Alcmbcrt 
 and the other Encyclopaedists. She wasgrand mui/ivtse 
 of the order of Lanturelus, designed for literary diver- 
 sion, and composed several volumes of moral maxims. 
 Died in 1791. 
 
 See Marmontkc, " Memoires." 
 
 La Ferte-Senneterre, de, deh IS feVta' sen'tain', 
 (HiNiti,) Due, a French marshal, born in 1600, com- 
 manded a wing at the battle of Rocroy, (1645.) He 
 became a marshal of France in 165 1, after which Tu- 
 renne and he recovered Liar, Arras, and other towns 
 
 li; casr; %hard; gas/; g,h,k, guttural; a, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as*; thasinMw. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LA FEU ILL AD E 
 
 '35+ 
 
 LA FONTENELLE 
 
 which the Prince of Conde had captured. Died in 
 1681. 
 
 La Feuillade. See Feuillade, de la. 
 
 Laffitte, li'fet', (Jacques,) an eminent French finan- 
 cier and liberal statesman, born at Bayonne in 1767, was 
 the son of a carpenter. In 1788 he entered as clerk the 
 banking-house of Perregaux at Paris. He became a part- 
 ner about 1802, and the head of the firm in 1809. In 
 the latter year he was chosen governor of the Bank of 
 France. The great fortune which he had acquired *was 
 freely offered for the defence of Palis from the invaders 
 in 1814, and for the restoration of the public credit in 
 1815. Napoleon deposited with him 5,000,000 francs 
 just before his departure to Saint Helena, with the ex- 
 pression of perfect confidence in his honesty. In 1816 
 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, in which lie 
 acted with the Liberal opposition and spoke with ability 
 on financial questions. " Placed in the vanguard of the 
 defenders of the Charter," says M. de Lomenie, "as 
 popular by his opinions as by his princely munificence, 
 the opulent banker beheld himself surrounded by all the 
 notabilities of the press and the tribune." He took an 
 active part in the dethronement of Charles X. in 1830, 
 and used his influence in favour of Louis Philippe, to 
 whom in a critical hour he wrote, "No more hesitation ! 
 Choose between a crown and a passport." He entered 
 the first ministry of the new reign as minister without a 
 portfolio. This ministry having been speedily dissolved, 
 Laffitte, on the 3d of November, 1830, became prime 
 minister (president du conseil) and minister of finance. 
 Failing to command a majority in the chamber, he re- 
 signed in March, 1831. The financial crisis which fol- 
 lowed ruined his fortune, which had been reduced by 
 large donations to the popular cause in 1830. A national 
 subscription relieved him from embarrassment about 
 1833. Died in 1844. 
 
 See M. C. Marchal, "Souvenirs de J. Laffitte, racontes par lui- 
 meme," 1S44 ; "Jacques Laffiite," Paris, 1844; "Vie de M. Laffitte," 
 Paris, 1844; Lomenie, " Gaierie des Conteinporains illustres." 
 
 Laffon de Ladebat, lf'f6N' deh li'da'bf, (Andre 
 Daniel,) a French financier, born at Bordeaux in 1746, 
 was a merchant in early life. He was a moderate mem- 
 ber of the Assembly in 1 79 1, and of the Council of Elders 
 in 1795. The coup d'etat of September 4, 1797, sent him 
 as an exile to Guiana. After his return to France he 
 published several treatises on finance, economy, etc. He 
 was one of the founders of the Protestant Bible Society 
 in 1818. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution ;" Haag, " La 
 France protestante." 
 
 Lafitau, If'fe'to', (Joseph Francois,) a French Jes- 
 uit, born at Bordeaux. Having been for many years a 
 missionary in Canada, he returned to France, and pub- 
 lished " Manners of the American Savages compared 
 with the Manners of Primitive Ages," and two other 
 works. Died in 1 740. • 
 
 Lafitau, (Pierre Francois,) a French priest and 
 writer, born at Bordeaux in 1685. He wrote a " Life 
 of Clement XI.," (1752,) and other works. He became 
 Bishop of Sisteron in 1719. Died in 1764. 
 
 Lafite, li'fet', (Marie Elisabeth Bouee — boo'i',) 
 a French authoress, born in Paris about 1750. She 
 wrote several juvenile books, among which are "Moral 
 Conversations and Tales," etc., (1781,) often reprinted. 
 Died in 1794. 
 
 Lafitte, It-fit' or li'fet', (Jean,) a notorious French 
 privateer, born about 1780, became about 1813 the leader 
 of a band of pirates who established themselves at 
 Grande Terre, in Barataria Bay, in the Gulf of Mexico. 
 In 1814 he was offered a large sum of money, and a 
 commission in the navy, on condition of his assisting 
 the British in their attack on New Orleans. He refused 
 these proposals, and offered his services to defend Loui- 
 siana on condition of pardon to himself and followers, 
 which offer was accepted. The time and circumstances 
 of his death are unknown. The adventures of Lafitte 
 have formed the subject of several tales and romances. 
 
 Lafolie, 13'fo'le', (Charles Jean,) a French littera- 
 teur, born in Paris in 1780, published "Notices of the 
 Public Monuments, Palaces, Museums, Colleges, etc. 
 of Paris," (1820.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Lafolie, (Louis Guillaume,) a French chemist, born 
 at Rouen in 1739. He discovered the yellow dye ex- 
 tracted from gaude, (dyer's weed,) and wrote an imagina- 
 tive work called the " Philosopher without Pretension," 
 (" Philosophesans Pretention," etc., 1775.) Died in 1780. 
 
 Lafon, li'f6.N', (Pierre,) a famous French tragic 
 actor, born in Perigord in 1775, made a successful debut 
 in Paris in 1800, and was considered by his admirers a 
 rival of Talma. Died in 1846. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Lafons, de, deli lS'foN', (Francois Joseph Alex- 
 andre,) Baron de Mellicocq, a French botanist and 
 antiquary, born at Noyon, Oise, in 1802. 
 
 Lafout, li't&N', (Charles Philippe,) a popular mu- 
 sician, born in Paris in 1781, was appointed in 1809 first 
 violinist to the emperor Alexander of Russia, and on his 
 return to Paris in 1815 filled the same office at the royal 
 chapel. Died in 1839. 
 
 Lafont, (Pierre Ch£ri,) a French actor, born at Bor- 
 deaux in 1801. 
 
 Lafont, de, deh li'f6N', (Joseph,) a French dramatist, 
 born in Paris in 16S6, wrote successful comedies, among 
 \vh ch was " The Festivals of Thalia," (" Les Fetes de 
 Thalie," 1714.) Died in 1725. 
 
 Lafontaine, li'foN'tin', (August Heinrich Julius,) 
 a popular novelist, of French origin, born at Brunswick 
 about 1758. Having taken holy orders, he was employed 
 as pastor or professor at Halle. He published, in Ger- 
 man, a great number of novels, which had a temporary 
 success and were translated into French. Among them 
 are "The Singular Man," ("Der Sonderling,") "The 
 Family De Halden," and "Agnes and Bertha," (1818.) 
 Died at Halle in 183 1. His style is easy and agreeable, 
 but his sentimentality is considered excessive. 
 
 See Johann G. Gruber, "A. Lafontaine's Leben und Wirken," 
 1833; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 view" for February, 1834. 
 
 La Fontaine or Lafontaine, de, deh liTdN'tan', 
 
 (Jean,) a famous French fabulist, born at Chateau- 
 Thierry, July 8, 1621, was the most popular French poet 
 of his time. He was remarkable for an easy, careless, 
 and indolent temper, and passed the age of twenty-one 
 before he manifested his poetical genius. He married 
 Marie Hericart to please his father, who procured for 
 him the office of master of waters and forests ; but he 
 soon sold his office and separated from his wife. The 
 Duchess de Bouillon, pleased with his first literary 
 efforts, became his patroness and took him to Paris. He 
 received a pension from Fouquet, and about 1662 com- 
 posed an admirable elegy on the fall of that minister. 
 He enjoyed for about twenty years the hospitality of 
 Madame Sabliere, a lady of Paris, who generously pro- 
 tected him from the effects of his improvidence and 
 incapacity for business. His first tales appeared in 1664, 
 and six books of Fables in 1668. Ten years later, he 
 produced the last six books of those inimitable works. 
 At the death of Colbert (1683,) La Fontaine and Boileau 
 were rival candidates for the place which he left vacant 
 in the French Academy ; and the former was successful. 
 Moliere and La Fontaine are reckoned the two most 
 original writers of the brilliant age of Louis XIV. Many 
 anecdotes are related of his simplicity, naivete, and ab- 
 sence of mind. "His lines," says Hallam, "have a 
 proverbial truth and a humour of expression which 
 render them constantly applicable. . . . Many of his 
 fables are admirable: the grace of the poetry, the happy 
 inspiration that seems to have dictated the turns of 
 expression, place him in the first rank among fabulists." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") He died 
 in Paris in April, 1695, having expressed penitence for 
 the licentious passages in his tales. 
 
 See La Harpe, " Fjoge de Lafontaine," 1774: Wacckenaer, 
 " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de J. de La Fontaine," 1820 ; 
 Mar a is, " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de J. de La Fontaine," 
 181 1 ; Chamfort, " E*loge de La Fontaine," 1774: SainTB-Bihjvk, 
 " Portraits litteVaires," tome i., and "Causeriesdu Luiuli," tome vii. ; 
 Des Renaudes, "Notice sur la Vie de J. de Lafontaine," 1852; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe ;" " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1820. 
 
 La Fontenelle or Lafontenelle, de, deh li f6Nt'nel', 
 (Armand Desirf,,) a French antiquary and biographer, 
 bom in Poitou in 1784. Among his works are a " His- 
 
 2, e, 1, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, J, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
LAFOSSE 
 
 •355 
 
 LAGRANGE 
 
 torv of Oliver de Clisson," (2 vols., 1826,) and the " Life 
 and Correspondence of Du Plessis-Mornay," (with Au- 
 guis, 12 vols., 1822-42.) Died in 1847. 
 
 Lafosse, lit fuss', (Philippe Eitenne,) a French vete- 
 rinaiy physician, wrote "The Farrier's "Guide," (1766,) 
 and a "Manual of Veterinary Medicine," (1803.) Died 
 ii 1820. 
 
 Lafosse or La Fosse, de, deh li foss, (Antoine,) 
 a Fiench dramatist and poet, bom in Paris in 1653, 
 was accounted by some the first tragic poet of his time. 
 He produced, besides other dramas, " Polyxene," (1686,) 
 and "Manlius Capitolinus," (1698,) a tragedy, which is 
 highly praised by La Harpe. Died in 1708. 
 
 Lafosse, de, (Chaki.es,) a French historical painter 
 of high reputation, born in Paris in 1640, was an uncle 
 of the preceding. lie studied under I.ebrun, and in 
 Rome. He was employed by Louis XIV. to adorn the 
 Trianon and the Hotel des Invalid**, the frescoed dome 
 of which is called his master-piece. He was admitted 
 into the Academy of Painting in 1683, when he exhibited 
 the "Abduction of Proserpine." Died in 1716. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographic Generate. " 
 
 Lafosse, de, (Jean Baptiste Joseph,) a skilful 
 French engraver, was born in Paris in 1721 ; died about 
 '775- 
 
 Lafrery, lSfVre' or li'fReh-re', (Antoine,) a French 
 engraver, born at Salins in 1512. He worked in Rome, 
 where he published maps and engravings, and "Mirror 
 of Roman Grandeur," ("Speculum Romans Magni- 
 tudinis," in 118 plates, 1554—73.) 
 
 La Fuente. See Fuente, La. 
 
 La Fuente, la fweu'ta, (AlcAntara Miguel,) a 
 Spanish historian and lawyer, born in the province of 
 Malaga in 181 7. He died at Havana in 1S50, soon after 
 he had been made fiscal (attorney-general) of Cuba. His 
 chief work is a "History of Granada," (4 vols., 1843-48.) 
 
 Lagalla, li-gal'lS, (Giui.io Cksaki:,) an Italian phy- 
 sician and philosopher, born at Padula in 1576, was 
 professor of philosophy in the Roman College from 1597 
 till his death. He published a "Treatise on Comets," 
 (1613,) and "De Immortalitate Animornm," (1621,) an 
 effort to prove that Aristotle admitted the immortality 
 of the soul. Died in 1624. 
 
 La Gallissoniere. See Gallissoniere, de la. 
 
 Lagaraye, de, deh la'gi'rA', (Claude Toussaint 
 M AiiuT,) Co.mte, a French chemist and philanthropist, 
 born at Rennes in 1675. He founded infant-schools, 
 and hospitals for the sick and aged. He made some 
 improvements in vegetable analysis, and published a 
 treatise on "Hydraulic Chemistry," ("Chimie hydrau- 
 lique," 1746.) Died in 1755. 
 
 See " Lea Kpoux chariubles, ou Vies du Comte et de la Conitesse 
 de La Garaye," Rennes, 1782. 
 
 Lagarde. See Deshoulieres. 
 
 La Gardie. See Gardie, de la. 
 
 La Gasca. See Gasca, de la. 
 
 Lagerbring, la'ger-bRing, (Sven or Sven Bring,) 
 a Swedish historian, born in 1707, was for many years 
 professor of history in the University of Lund. He 
 published a "History of Sweden" down to 1457, (3 vols., 
 171 9-76,) a work of much research, but defective in 
 style and method. Died in 1788. 
 
 See C. Wot.lin, "Parentation ofver S. Lagerbring," 1788. 
 
 Lagerlof orLagerloef, la'ger-lof, (Pehr,) a Swedish 
 scholar and writer, born in 1648, liecame professor of 
 rhetoric at Upsal. He was learned in languages, and 
 wrote Latin verse with much purity of style. He pub- 
 lished several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1699. 
 
 See Tocher, " Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Lagerstrom or Lagerstroem, von, fon 13'ger-st Rom', 
 (M -nils,) a Swedish savant, born at Stockholm in 1696, 
 was a friend of Linnaeus. He translated French and 
 German works into Swedish, and availed himself of his 
 advantages as director of the East India Company to 
 collect scientific facts and specimens and to promote 
 researches in natural history. Died in 1759. 
 
 See Krygek. " Aininnelse-Tal ofver M. Lagerstroem," 1760. 
 
 Lagny, de, deh lin'ye', (Thomas Fan i et,) a French 
 mathematician, born at Lyons in 1660. He removed to 
 Paris in 1678, was admitted into the Academy of Sciences 
 
 in 1695, and chosen professor of hydrography at Roche- 
 fort in 1697. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of 
 London. He published, besides other ingenious treatises, 
 ."The Cubature of the Sphere," (1703J "which," says 
 Fontenelle, "would prove him to be a great geometer." 
 Died in 1734. 
 
 See Fontenelle, "FJoge de M. de Lagny." 
 
 Lagomarsini, 15 go-maR-see'nee, (Girolamo, ) an 
 eminent Italian philologist and Jesuit, born in 1698. He 
 was professor of rhetoric in Florence for many years, and 
 about 1750 became professor of Greek in the Roman 
 College. He published Latin orations (1746) and epis- 
 tles, a poem "On the Origin of Springs," ("De Origine 
 Fontium," 1749,) and other works. Died in 1773. 
 
 See Fabkoni, "Vita. 1 Italortini doctrina excelientium ;" Parthe- 
 nuts, "De Vita et Studiis H. Lagomarsini," 1801. 
 
 La Grange, (Antoine.) See Rivet de la Grange. 
 
 Lagrange or La Grange, IS gRONzh, (Joseph Louis,) 
 one of the most eminent geometers of modern times, was 
 born at Turin on the 25th of January, 1736. His parents 
 were of French origin. He was educated in the College 
 of Turin, where his mathematical genius was rapidly 
 developed and was specially directed to the study of 
 modern analysis. It has been said that all he learned 
 seemed to be only a reminiscence of what he had before 
 known. Having examined Euler's work on " Isopcri- 
 metrical Problems," he sent to the author in 1755 the 
 first essays of his " Method of Variations," which alone 
 would immortalize his name, and which he had invented 
 to respond to the desire of Euler. About the age of 
 nineteen he was chosen professor of mathematics in the 
 military college of Turin. The first volume of the " Me- 
 moirs of the Academy of Turin" (1759) consisted chiefly 
 of the admirable essays of Lagrange on the most im- 
 portant and difficult points of analysis and mechanics, 
 such as the propagation of sound and the vibration of 
 chords. He published in 1762 some applications of his 
 great discovery, which was afterwards called the " Method 
 of Variations." In 1764 he gained the prize offered by 
 the French Academy of Sciences for a "Theory of the 
 Libration of the Moon." Invited by Frederick the 
 Great, be removed to Berlin in 1766, and was for twenty 
 years director of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, which 
 he enriched with numerous treatises on "Tautochronous 
 Curves," " Numerical Equations," the " Integral Cal- 
 culus," "Partial Differences," and on the most arduous 
 questions of general astronomy and celestial mechanics. 
 He was chosen a foreign associate of the Academy of Paris 
 in 1772. The persuasion of Mirabeau and the offer of a 
 pension from the king induced him to settle in Paris in 
 1787. He published in 1788 his magnificent work "La 
 Mecanique analytique," ("Analytical Mechanics,") which 
 is considered one of the master-pieces of the human in- 
 tellect. His interest was vividly excited by the Revolu- 
 tion, in which, however, he took no active part. In 1792 
 he married Mademoiselle Lemonnier. He was the first 
 professor of geometry in the Polytechnic School, founded 
 about 1794; and his name was the first inscribed on the 
 list of the members of the Institute, founded in 1795. 
 Napoleon, who highly appreciated the great talents of 
 one so incapable of intrigue and adulation, gave him the 
 office of senator and the titles of count of the empire and 
 grand officer of the legion of honour. He died in April, 
 1813. "Among the inventors who have most enlarged 
 the boundaries of our knowledge," says La Place, " New- 
 ton and Lagrange appear to have possessed in the highest 
 degree the power which, by the discovery of general 
 principles, constitutes the true genius of science." "After 
 Newton's discovery of the elliptic orbits of the planets," 
 says Playfair, "Lagrange's discovery of their periodical 
 inequalities is, without doubt, the noblest truth in phy- 
 sical astronomy; and, in respect of the doctrine of final 
 causes, it may truly be regarded as the greatest of all." 
 
 See_ Pelamiire, " FJoge de Lagrange:" Virev et Potei, 
 "Precis histmique snr la Vie de Lagrange," 1813; Piktko Cossw.f, 
 "Elogio di G. 1.. Lagrange," iSi 3 ; Magistnint. " Discorso in Lode 
 di Lagrange," 1819; "Nouvelle Hiographie Generate. " 
 
 La Grange, (N.,) a French lith'ratair, born in Paris 
 in 1738, translated the great poem of Lucretius " De 
 Rertun Natura," with notes, (1768,) and the works of 
 Seneca, (7 vols., 1779.) The former passes for one of 
 the best versions in the French language. Died in 1775. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Mis. {JB&See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LA GRANGE 
 
 1356 
 
 LAIGNELOT 
 
 La Grange or Lagrange, de, deh If git&Nzh, (Ade- 
 laide Blaise Francois i.e Lievre,) Marquis c!e Rm k 
 rilles, born in Paris in 1766, became general of division 
 in 1809. Died in 1833. 
 
 La Grange, de, (Adelaide Edouard,) Marquis, a 
 son of the preceding, and a member of tlie Institute, was 
 born in Paris in 1796. He was an active member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies from 1834 to 1848, and voted with 
 the friends of Louis Napoleon in the Assembly of 1849. 
 In 1852 he became a senator. He wrote, besides other 
 works, treatises on numismatics. 
 
 La Grange, de, ( A.mand Charles Louis i.e Lievre,) 
 a French general, born in 1783, served with distinction 
 under Napoleon I. 
 
 Lagrange, de, (Joseph,) Comte, a French general, 
 born in 1763; died in 1836. 
 
 La Grange, de, (Joseph de Chancel,) a French 
 dramatic and satiric poet, commonly called La Grange- 
 Chancel, was born at Perigueux in 1676. His drama 
 of " Jugurtha" was performed with success in 1694. He 
 produced other tragedies, among which " Amasis" (170O 
 and " Ino and Melicerta" (1713) are called the best. He 
 was imprisoned or exiled some years for three remark- 
 able odes, named " Philippiques," (1720,) which were 
 libellous satires against the Regent of France. " As a 
 satiric poet," says the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," 
 "he has left a work which, in spite of its imperfections 
 and crying injustice, is the monument of satire in France." 
 Died in 1758. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Saint-Simon, " Mi- 
 moires." 
 
 Lagrene, de, deh lSgR'na' or lS'gReh-na', (Theodose 
 Marie Mei.chior Joseph,) a French diplomatist, was 
 born at Amiens in 1800. He went to Athens as minister 
 in 1836, and to China in 1844. 
 
 Lagrenee, 13'gRa'na', (Jean Jacques,) a French his- 
 torical painter, born in Paris in 1 740. He worked in Paris 
 with success, and reproduced antique paintings by incrus- 
 tation on marble and glass. Died in 1821. 
 
 Lagrenee, (Louis Jean Francois,) called Aine, a 
 French historical painter, brother of the preceding, was 
 born in Paris in 1724. He was surnamed "the French 
 Albano." He studied at Rome, became Academician 
 in 1755, and for some time was first painter to the Em- 
 press of Russia. He afterwards worked in Paris. Died 
 in 1805. 
 
 See Rknou, " Notice sur Lagrenee Paine 1 ," 1815. 
 
 La Gueronniere or Lagueronniere, de, deh IS gi'- 
 ro'ne-aiR', (Arthur,) Vicomte, a French political 
 rrriteTand Bonapartist, bom in 1816. He became chief 
 editor of Lamartine's new journal, the " Pays," in 1850. 
 A dissension arose between him and Lamartine on the 
 Bitbject of a historical study on Louis Napoleon, which 
 the former published in the " Pays," and which increased 
 his reputation as a brilliant writer. He was elected a 
 deputy in 1852, and appointed a councillor of state in 
 1854. His pamphlet entitled "Napoleon III. and Eng- 
 land" (1858) produced a great sensation on both sides 
 of the Channel. He became an editor of the "Consti- 
 tutionnel." 
 
 Laguerre or La Guerre, IS'gaiR', (Louis,) a French 
 painter, born in 1663, was a pupil of Le Brun. He went 
 to England about 1684, and worked with or for Verrio. 
 He painted "The Labours of Hercules" in Hampton 
 Court Palace. Died in 1721. 
 
 La Guiche or Laguiche, de, deh IS gesh, (Phili- 
 rf.rt,) a French general, born about 1540. He refused to 
 execute the order of the court for the massacre of Prot- 
 estants in 1572. He commanded the artillery at Ivry, 
 and contributed largely to the victory. Died in 1607. 
 
 His nephew, Jean Franqois, born in 1569, was a 
 marshal of France. Died in 1632. 
 
 Laguille, IS'gel' or li'ge'ye, (Louis,) a French Jesuit, 
 born at Autun in 1658, wrote an " Ancient and Modern 
 History of Alsace," (2 vols, folio, 1727.) Died in 1742. 
 
 Laguna, la-goo'na, or Lacuna, la-koo'na, (Andres,) 
 a learned Spanish physician, born at Segovia in 1499. 
 He obtained the confidence of Charles V., who appointed 
 him physician of the army in Flanders. He practised 
 in Metz, (1540-46,) and in Rome, where he was patron- 
 ized by the pope, who made him a count. He died in 
 
 Spain in 1560, leaving numerous works, among which 
 are Commentaries on Galen and Hippocrates, and 
 "Anatomica Methodus," (1535.) 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Laharpe or La Harpe, li'//$Rp', (Frederic Cesar,) 
 a Swiss officer and republican, born in the Pays de Vaud 
 in 1754. He was for some years preceptor of Alexander, 
 afterwards Czar of Russia, and about 1798 became the 
 chief or most powerful director of the Helvetic Republic. 
 He went out of power in 1800. In 1814 he enjoyed the 
 favour of Alexander, who was in Paris and gave him the 
 rank of general in his army. He wrote several treatises 
 on Swiss politics. Died in 1838. 
 
 See Charles Monnard, " Notice biographique sur le General 
 F. C. de Laharpe," 1838; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 La Harpe or Laharpe, de, deh 117/iRp', (Jean 
 Francois,) a celebrated French critic and dramatist, 
 born in Paris in 1739, was educated at the College of 
 Harcourt. He produced in 1 763 the tragedy of " War- 
 wick," which was very successful, and wrote to Voltaire a 
 letter on the dramatic art which procured him the favour 
 and patronage of that philosopher. He composed, be- 
 sides other dramas, the applauded tragedies of " Me- 
 lanie," (about 1770,) and " Philoctete." His talents 
 found a congenial employment in academic competitions. 
 He wrote admirable eulogies on Fenelon, Henry IV., 
 Lafontaine, and others, and he received several prizes 
 from the French Academy, of which he was chosen a 
 member in 1776. About 1786 he began to lecture at 
 the Lycee of Paris on literature. These lectures, en- 
 titled "Cours de Litterature, ancienne et moderne," (18 
 vols.,) constitute his most durable title to fame. His 
 criticisms on French authors are much better than those 
 on the ancient classics. "The seventeenth century," says 
 Sainte-Beuve, "in some of its parts and some of its 
 works, was never better analyzed," [than by La Harpe.] 
 At the beginning of the French Revolution he was a 
 republican. He was imprisoned a few months during 
 the reign of terror. Died in 1803. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuvk, " Causeries du Lundi," tome v.; Lrov 
 Thiesse, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Laharpe," iS.it; 
 Mkly-Janin, " Vie de J. F. de La Harpe," 1813 ; Daunou, " Notice 
 sur La Harpe;" Saint-Surin, "Notice sur La Harpe," 1S22; 
 Auger, "Vie de La Harpe," 1813; Serieys, "J. F. de La Harpe, 
 peint par lui-meine," 1S17. 
 
 La Haye, (French engraver.) See Delahayf.. 
 
 Lahire or Lahyre, l8'/4eR', (F/itenne Vignoles— 
 ven'yol',) a famous French captain or bandit. He per- 
 formed many exploits against the English in France in 
 the reign of Charles VII. He never obtained a very 
 high rank in the army. Having failed in an attempt to 
 rescue Joan of Arc at Rouen, he was taken prisoner,'but 
 soon escaped. Died in 1442. 
 
 La Hire or Lahyre, de, deh lSV/eR', (Laurent,) an 
 eminent French painter and engraver of merit, born in 
 Paris in 1606. He adorned many of the churches of 
 Paris with his works, among which the " Apparition of 
 Christ to the Three Marys" is called the master-piece. 
 His easel-pictures are very finely finished. He received 
 the title of painter to the king, and was one of the 
 founders of the Royal Academy. Died in 1656. 
 
 Lahire, de, (Philippe,) a French geometer, son of 
 the preceding, born in Paris in 1640. He was admitted 
 into the Academy of Sciences in 1678, am', was employed 
 by the government in continuing the measurement of the 
 meridian commenced by Picard. For many years he was 
 professor of mathematics in the College of France. He 
 was also versed in experimental physics. Among his 
 principal works are "Conic Sections," (16S5,) a "Treat- 
 ise on Mechanics," (1695,) and "Astronomical Tables,"' 
 (1702.) Died in 1718 or 1719. 
 
 See Fontenellk, " filoge de Lahire;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 La Huerta. See Huerta. 
 
 Lahyre. See La Hire. 
 
 Laid'law, (William,) a British poet, born in 1780; 
 died in 1845. 
 
 Laignelot, ljn'yeh-lo', (Joseph Francois,) a French 
 dramatist and Jacobin, born at Versailles in 1750, com- 
 posed a tragedy called " Rienzi." He was an active 
 member of the Convention from 1792 to 1795, and voted 
 for the death of the king. Died in 1829. 
 
 i, €, 1, 6, 5, y, long; a, t, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; ill, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
LAINE 
 
 «3>7 
 
 LAKE 
 
 Lainti, lj'ni', (Joseph Henri Joachim,) Vicomtk, 
 an eminent French orator and statesman, born at Bor- 
 deaux in 1767. He acquired distinction as an advocate 
 at Bordeaux, supported the popular cause in the Revo- 
 lution, and was for several years under the empire a 
 member of the legislative body. In 1813, as chairman 
 of a committee of that house, he made an important 
 t on the state of the nation, which gave great offence 
 '.-.< Napoleon Having become a royalist, he was chosen 
 president of the Chamber of Deputies in 1814 and in 
 1815. He was admitted into the French Academy and 
 appointed minister of the interior in 1816, He retired 
 from office in December, 1818, became secretary of state 
 without a portfolio in 1S21, and was created a peer of 
 France in 1823. He was one of the leaders of the mode- 
 rate royalists. Died in 1835. " M. Laine and De Serres," 
 says Lamartine, "were the two greatest characters and 
 the two most pathetic orators of the restoration." 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Restoration;" " Nouvelle Ko- 
 graphie Gei.er.ile." 
 
 Lainez, l&'na', ( Alexandre, ) a French poet and 
 linguist, born at Chiraay about 1650. After travelling 
 several years in Europe and Asia, he became a resident 
 of Pag i.». He was courted by the great for his brilliant 
 conversation and extensive knowledge, and composed 
 brief poetical effusions, which were admired for grace 
 and vivacity. Died in 1710. 
 
 Lainez or Laynez, 11-neth', sometimes improperly 
 written Leynez, ( J ago or Diego,) the second general 
 of tiie order of Jesuits, was born in Castile, Spain, in 
 1512. About 1536 he was associated with Ignatius Loy- 
 ola in organizing the society of Jesuits. (See Loyola.) 
 He was deputed by the pope to the Council of Trent, 
 where he signalized his zeal for the interests of the 
 court of Rome. In 1558 he succeeded Loyola as gen- 
 eral of the order. The Council of Trent having re- 
 sumed its session, he made there a famous speech, in 
 which he argued the necessity of a supreme head of 
 the Church. Died in 1565. The polity of the Jesuits 
 appears to have been mainly the product of the intelli- 
 gence and subtlety of Lainez. 
 
 See Ribadeneira, " Vida del P. V. D. Laynez," i6o«; F. Sol.IRR, 
 "Vie du P. J. Laynez," 1509; F. Rainaldi, " Vita di J. Laynez," 
 Rome, 1672. 
 
 Laing, lang, (Alexander Gordon,) Major, a resolute 
 Scottish traveller, born in Edinburgh in 1793, enlisted in 
 the army in 1810. In 1822 the Governor of Sierra Leone 
 sent him on a mission to the Mandingo country. He 
 also explored Solimana and adjacent regions. In 1824 
 he was raised to the rank of major, and was employed 
 by Lord Bathurst to explore the Niger. Proceeding 
 from the north, he arrived in August, 1826, at Timbuctoo, 
 after having been wounded by the Tuariks. On his way 
 to Sansanding he was murdered by his guide, an Arab 
 sheik, in September, 1826. His journal has not been 
 recovered. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 " Monthly Review" for September, 1825. 
 
 Laing, (Malcolm,) an able Scottish historian and 
 lawver, born in Orkney in 1762. He practised law in 
 Edinburgh, where he was admitted to the bar in 1785. 
 In 1S00 he published a " History of Scotland from the 
 Onion of the Crowns [1603] to the Union of the King- 
 doms in the Reign of Queen Anne," which is a work 
 of merit and remarkable for critical acumen, but defect- 
 ive in style. He wrote a treatise against the authenticity 
 of Ossian's poems, and a few other works. He became 
 a member of Parliament, and he was a friend of Charles 
 J. Fox. His political principles were liberal. Died in 
 r8t8. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biocraphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 " Monthly Review" for October, i8oi. 
 
 Laing, (Samuel,) a British lawyer and politician, a 
 nephew of the preceding, was born in Scotland in 1810. 
 He was elected to Parliament as a Liberal in 1852, and 
 was president of the company which owned the Crystal 
 Palace at Sydenham, from 1850 to 1854. lie was ap- 
 pointed chancellor of the exchequer in India in i860. 
 
 Lair, IftR, (Pierre AimE,) a French writer on agricul- 
 ture, born at Caen in 1769, was noted for his beneficence. 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 Laire, liR, (Francois Xavier,) an eminent French 
 bibliographer and monk, born at Vadans in 1738. Dur- 
 ing the Revolution he saved valuable historical documents 
 from destruction. He published a "Series of Aldine 
 Editions," a " Specimen of Roman Typography of the 
 Fifteenth Century," an "Index of Books from the In- 
 vention of Printing to the Year 1500," and other works. 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 Laire, ll'reh, (Sigismond,) a German painter, born in 
 Bavaria about 1550; died in Rome in 1636. 
 
 Lairesse, l&'rlss', (Gerard,) a skilful Flemish his- 
 torical painter and engraver, born at Liege in 1640, was 
 a pupil of his father. He settled in Amsterdam. His 
 facility as an artist was remarkable. He had a rich 
 imagination, and was skilful in costume and composi- 
 tion. His engravings are much esteemed. He died in 
 171 1, leaving an able "Treatise on Painting." 
 
 La'is, [Aaic,] a celebrated Greek courtesan, lived at 
 Corinth in the fifth century B.C., and was notorious for her 
 avidity and caprice. Among her lovers was the phi- 
 losopher Aristippus. The citizens of Corinth erected a 
 monument to her. Another courtesan of that name was 
 supposed to have been a native of Sicily. She lived at 
 Athens or Corinth about 400 B.C. 
 
 La'I-us, I (Jr. Aoi'oc,] a king of Thebes, and the father 
 ot'CEdipus. An oracle having declared that he should 
 be killed by his own son, he exposed his son soon after 
 birth on Mount Cithaeron. The child was preserved by 
 strangers, was named OZdipus, and remained ignorant 
 of his parentage. (See OEdipus.) 
 
 Lajard, iS'zhiu/, (Jean Baptiste Felix,) a French 
 antiquary, born at Lyons in 1783, went to Persia as sec- 
 retary of embassy in 1807. He was admitted into the 
 Academy of Inscriptions in 1830. Among his works is 
 " Researches into the Public Worship and the Mysteries 
 of Mithra in the East and West," (1848.) He pro- 
 pounded a novel theory on the relations of the Greeks 
 with the Oriental races, which has since been partially 
 confirmed. Died in 1858. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lajard, de, deh li'zhaV, (Pierre Auguste,) an able 
 French statesman, born at Montpellier in 1757, was 
 minister of war in 1792. During the empire he was a 
 member of the legislative body. Died in 1837. 
 
 La Jonckere, de, deh If zhiN'shaiR', (Etienne Le- 
 CUYER,) a French engineer, born in Auvergne in 1690. 
 He projected the connection of the Sa&neand the Yonne 
 by a canal, the construction of which, however, was given 
 to another engineer. Died about 1740. 
 
 Lakanal, la"ka"nfl', (Joseph,) a French republican, 
 born at Serres (Ariege) in 1762. As a member of the 
 Convention, (1792-95,) he protected the interests of the 
 arts and sciences. He took a prominent part in the 
 organization of the Institute, of which he was a member. 
 In 1814 he retired to the United States, was welcomed 
 by Jefferson, and obtained from Congress five hundred 
 acres of cotton-land. He was afterwards president of 
 the University of Louisiana, and returned to France in 
 1833. Died in Paris in 1845. 
 
 See I. Groffroy Saint-Hii.airr, "Lakanal, sa Vie, sesTmvaux 
 h la Convention," etc., 1849; Mignrt, "Notice historique sur M. 
 Lakanal," 1857. 
 
 Lake, (Arthur,) a learned English preacher, born at 
 Southampton, was appointed Dean of Worcester in 1608, 
 and Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1616. Died in 1626. 
 Sevefal volumes of his sermons were published. 
 
 Lake, (Gerard,) Viscount Lake, a British general, 
 was born in 1744. Having served in the American wai 
 and in the war against the French republic, he was ap- 
 pointed commander of the army in Ireland during the 
 rebellion which began in 1797, and was defeated by the 
 French at Castlebar. In 1800 he obtained the chief 
 command in India, and in 1803 gained a victory over 
 the Mahrattas near Delhi. He defeated them again the 
 same year at Laswarree. Between 1804 and 1806 he 
 waged a successful war against Holkir, and received 
 the title of Baron Lake of Delhi, etc. He returned to 
 England in 1807, and was created a viscount. Died in 
 1808. 
 
 Lake, (John,) born in Yorkshire in 1624, became 
 Bishop of Chichester in 1685. He was imprisoned, in 
 
 
 « as k; c as /; g hard; g as>; G, H, K,guttura/; N, nasal; R, trilltd; % as z; th as in this. (%&- See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LAKSHMI 
 
 ■358 
 
 LALL1 
 
 company with six other prelates, in the Tower of London 
 in 1688. Died in 1698. 
 
 See Agnes Strickland, "Lives of the Seven Bishops." 
 
 Laksh'mi, [modern Hindoo pron. luksh'mee ; ety- 
 mology obscure,] called also Sri* suee, or Shrt, shuee, 
 in the Hindoo mythology, the goddess of" wealth, and the 
 consort of Vishnu, is fabled to have sprung from the 
 churning of the ocean. (See KOrma.) There is a striking 
 analogy between the origin of Lakshmi and that of the 
 Venus' (Aphrodite) Anadyomene of the Greeks, who 
 also is said to have sprung from the foam of the sea. 
 (See Venus.) But Lakshmi, though represented as 
 extremely beautiful, is not, like Venus, the patroness of 
 love, but the goddess of wealth and prosperity. She is 
 represented with four arms and arrayed with the most 
 beautiful ornaments and gems. She is sometimes called 
 Padma, (from p&dmil, the- "lotus,") in allusion, perhaps, 
 to her divine beauty, and by many other names. She Us 
 sometimes identified with the beautiful Apsar& Rambha, 
 (or Kembha.) 
 
 See Moor's " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Lalamant or Lallemant, If l'm8N', (Jean,) a French 
 physician and scholar, who lived about 1550-90, was a 
 native of Autun. He produced, besides works on medi- 
 cine, history, etc., a French version of Demosthenes' 
 
 "Philippics," (1549-) . . 
 
 Lalande, de, deh 18'loNd', (Jacques,) a meritorious 
 French jurist, born at Orleans in 1622. He published 
 "Specimen Juris Romano-Gallici ad Pandectas," (1690.) 
 Died in 1703. 
 
 Lalande, de, (Joseph Jer6me Lefrancais,) one of 
 the most eminent French astronomers, was born at 
 Bourg (Ain) in July, 1732, and was the only child of 
 Pierre Lefrancais. He manifested at an early age the 
 love of fame which was his ruling passion. He was a 
 student in a college of Lyons when the great eclipse of 
 July, 1748, inspired him with a determination to be an 
 astronomer. Having been sent by his parents to Paris 
 to study law, he attended the lectures of Messier and 
 Lemonnier on astronomy and mathematics, and became 
 the favourite pupil of both professors. The Academy 
 having resolved to send -an astronomer to Berlin to 
 make observations and to second La Caille, who was 
 stationed at the Cape of Good Hope, Lalande was 
 selected in 1751, through the influence of Lemonnier. 
 Returning in 1752, his labours were approved, and he 
 was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in 
 his twentieth year. He next ascertained the diameter 
 of the moon, and began to work on the theory of the 
 planets, which became one of the most constant occu- 
 pations of his life. He assisted Clairaut in computing 
 the effect of planetary perturbations on the return of 
 Halley's comet about 1759. 
 
 He was chosen in 1760 editor of the "Connaissances 
 des Temps," in the plan of which he introduced impor- 
 tant improvements, and succeeded Delisle as professor 
 of astronomy in the College of France in 1762. For 
 forty-six years he discharged the functions of this place 
 with great zeal and Mat. In 1764 he published his great 
 "Treatise on Astronomy," ("Traite d'Astronomie,") in 
 which the theory and practical part of the science are 
 extensively treated. He produced in 1772 a "Memoir 
 on the Transit of Venus of 1769," and a year later a 
 speculation on the possibility of a collision of comets 
 with the earth, which caused a panic among the un- 
 learned, although he had arrived at the conclusion that 
 such a collision was very improbable. He wrote many 
 articles for the " Encyclopedie Methodique" and the 
 "Journal des Savants," and published "The History, 
 Theory, and Practice of Navigation," ("Abrege de Na- 
 vigation,'' etc., 1793.) Among his other works are 
 "Astronomical Bibliography," (1803,) " Histoire celeste 
 Francaise," (1801,) containing the observations of many 
 French astronomers, and "Memoirs on the Parallax of 
 the Moon." He died in 1807. "Though in many re- 
 spects only an astronomer of the second order," says 
 Delambre, "he was the foremost of all as a professor, 
 and did more than any other to promote the study of 
 
 1 I.e. "prosperity:" also "beauty" or "splendour." 
 
 the science." His temper was irritable, but candid and 
 benevolent. 
 
 See Dei.ambre, " Eloge de Lalande ;" " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale." 
 
 Lalande, de, (Michel Jean Jer6me Lefrancais,) 
 an astronomer, a nephew of the preceding, was born in 
 Normandy in 1766. Under the direction of his uncle he 
 made observations in Paris, and ascertained the theory 
 of the orbit of Mars. He became a member of the In- 
 stitute and of the Bureau of Longitudes. Died in 1839. 
 
 Lalande, de, (Michel Richard,) a French com- 
 poser, born in Paris in 1657, became superintendent of 
 music of Louis XIV. about 1683. He composed many 
 motets. " He was," says Denne-Baron, " the most skilful 
 French composer of religious music of his time." Died 
 in 1726. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 La Landelle or Lalandelle, de, deh IS ISN'del', 
 (Guillaume Joseph Gauriei.,) a French novelist, born 
 at Montpellier in 1812, wrote "The Naval Crown," (9 
 vols., 1848,) and other maritime novels. 
 
 Lalanne, li'lSn', (Jean Baptists,) a French didactic 
 poet, born at Dax in 1772. 
 
 Lalanne, (Leon Louis Chretien,) a French civil 
 engineer and writer, born in Paris in 181 1. 
 
 Lalanne, (Marie Ludovic Chretien,) a French 
 writer, brother of the preceding, born in Paris in 1815. 
 Among his works is "Curiosites litteraires," (1845.) 
 
 Lallemand, lil'mo.N', (Charles Francois An- 
 toine,) Baron, a French general, called Lallemand 
 Aine, was born at Metz in 1774. He served in Spain, 
 where he obtained the rank of general of brigade, (181 1.) 
 During the Hundred Days he joined Bonaparte, and 
 commanded a division at Waterloo. As a fugitive, he 
 sought refuge in the United States, and attempted to 
 found a colony in Texas about 1818, but failed. In 1830 
 he returned to France, was restored to the rank of gene- 
 ral, and entered the Chamber of Peers. Died in 1839. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lallemand, (Claude Francois,) an eminent French 
 medical writer, born at Metz in 1790. He was professor 
 of clinical surgery at Montpellier from 1819 to 1823, and 
 again from 1826 to 1845. In the latter year he was 
 elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and 
 settled in Paris. He wrote, besides other medical treat- 
 ises, an important work entitled "Anatomico-Pathologic 
 Researches on the Brain," (5 vols., 1820-36,) which was 
 translated into many languages. He was once called to 
 Egypt to attend Ibraheem Pasha. Died in 1854. 
 
 See Qu^rard, "La Fiance Litteraire." 
 
 Lallemand, (Henri Dominique,) born in 1777, was 
 a brother of Charles Francois Antoine, noticed above, 
 and a brave partisan of Napoleon, who made him general 
 of division in the Hundred Days. He fought at Water- 
 loo, (1815,) after which he went as an exile to the United 
 States. Died at Bordentown in 1823. 
 
 Lallemand, (Jean Baptiste,) a French painter of 
 landscapes and sea-views, born at Dijon in 1710, worked 
 some years in Rome, and painted several pieces for the 
 Vatican. Died in 1802. 
 
 Lallemandet, lSTm6N'd£', (Jean,) a theologian, born 
 at Besancon in 1595, wrote "Philosophical Decisions," 
 (" Decisiones Philosophies," 1644,) and other works. 
 Died in 1647. 
 
 Lallemant See Lalamant. 
 
 Lallemant;, ISl'mftN', (Jacques Philippe,) a French 
 Jesuit, born near Abbeville about 1660. He published 
 a remarkable work, entitled "The True Spirit of the 
 New Disciples of Saint Augustine," (4 vols., 1706 et 
 seq.,) and " Moral Reflections, with Notes, on the New 
 Testament," (II vols., 1714.) Died in 1748. 
 
 Lallemant, (Pierre,) a mystical French writer, born 
 at Rheims in 1622, published " The Spiritual Testament," 
 (1672,) and other works. Died in 1673. 
 
 Lalli, lal'lee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian poet 
 and diplomatist, born at Norcia, in Umbria, in 1572, 
 was employed in several negotiations by the courts of 
 Rome and of Parma. He acquired a high reputation 
 by his epic poem "Titus Vespasian, or the Destruction 
 of Jerusalem," (" II Tito Vespasiano, overo La Geru- 
 
 5, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
LALLY 
 
 «359 
 
 LAMART1NE 
 
 salemme Desolata," 1629.) lie also produced some 
 popular burlesque poems, among which is "The .Eneid 
 Travestied," (1633.) Died in 1637. 
 
 Lally, de, deh lS'le', (Thomas Arthur,) Count, 
 Baron of T0llend.1l, in Ireland, a French general, of 
 Irish descent, born in Dauphine about 1700. For his 
 conduct at Fontenoy, in 1745, he was made brigadier- 
 general. He fought for the Pretender in Scotland in 
 the same year. In 1756, while FYance was at war with 
 England, he was appointed commandant-general of the 
 French possessions in India, commissary of the king, 
 and syndic of the French East India Company. He 
 took Fort Saint David in 1758, and attacked Madras 
 without success. His plans were thwarted by the cor- 
 rupt agents of the company. In 1761 he surrendered 
 Pondicherry to Sir E. Coote, and was taken as prisoner 
 to England. After having been imprisoned for four years 
 in the Bastille, he was executed for treason in 1766. In 
 1 77S the royal council annulled his sentence, the injustice 
 of which was generally recognized. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Steele de Louis XV." 
 
 Lally-Tollendal, de, deh lS'le' to'l8N'dfl', (Tro- 
 piiime GERARD,) Marquis, a French orator and writer, 
 a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1751. He 
 devoted many years to the successful vindication of his 
 father's memory. In 1789 he was deputed by the no- 
 blesse to the States-General, and was one of the minority 
 of his order who united with the Tiers-Etat and favoured 
 reform. He emigrated to England in 1792, and returned 
 to France in 1800. In 1S15 he entered the Chamber of 
 -. where he showed himself a moderate royalist He 
 Has admitted into the French Academy in 1816. He died 
 in 1830, leaving many political treatises. 
 
 See Qurrard, "La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 La Longe or Lalonge, IS 16Nzh, (Hubert or Ro- 
 bert,) called Ii. F'iammingo, (i.e. "the Fleming,") a 
 skilful painter, born at Brussels, lived mostly in Italy. 
 Died in 1709. 
 
 La Loubere. See Loubere, La. 
 
 La Luzerne. See Luzerne, La. 
 
 Lama, li'ma, (Giovanni Bernardo,) an Italian 
 painter of the Neapolitan school, was born about 1510. 
 I le painted religious subjects and portraits with success. 
 Died about 1580. 
 
 Lam'a-ehus, \Adutix»c.,\ an Athenian general, born 
 about 470 B.C., was the son of Xenophanes, and, accord- 
 ing to Plutarch, was a man of great courage and honour. 
 In 415 Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus were chosen 
 generals of the expedition against Syracuse. The people 
 having recalled Alcibiades, Nicias had the principal 
 direction of the enterprise, though Lamachus was the 
 abler general. He was killed at Syracuse in 414 B.C. 
 
 Lamalle. See Dureut. 
 
 Lamanon, de, deh lS'mS'n6N', (Robert de Paul,) 
 
 Chevalier, a French naturalist, born at Salon in 1752. 
 
 He lived some years in Paris, wrote memoirs on fossil 
 
 bones, etc., and accompanied the expedition of La 
 
 ;se as naturalist in 1785. He was murdered by 
 
 natives of one of the Navigator Islands in 17S7. 
 
 La-mar', (MlRABEAU B.,) an American statesman, 
 
 born at Louisville, Georgia, in 1798. He removed in 
 
 to Texas, and was elected first Vice-President in 
 
 and in 183b President of the republic. Died in 1859. 
 
 Lamarche or La Marche, IS mSRsh, (Joseph 
 
 DrOUOT,) a French general, born in Vosges in 1733. 
 
 ie death of Dampierre (1793) the chief command 
 
 devolved on Lamarche, until he was superseded by 
 
 Custine in July, 1793. Died about 1800. 
 
 La Marche. (Oi.Ivier.) See Marche, La. 
 
 La Marck, (ROBERT.) See Marck, La. 
 
 Lamarck or La Marck, de, deh Ii mSRk, (Jean 
 BAPTIST! Pierre Antoine de Monet.) Chevalier, a 
 celebrated French naturalist, born in Picardy, August 
 I, 1744. He was educated for the church at a college of 
 Amiens, but entered the army in 1761 and fought in one 
 campaign with distinction. Having been disabled for 
 action By an accidental injury, he went to Paris, where 
 he studied medicine, which, however, he did not prac- 
 tise. He devoted himself to botany, in the classification 
 of which he made some innovations, and published 
 
 in 1778 "Flore Franchise," ("French Flora,") which 
 opened to him the Academy if Sciences. Taking the 
 most general conformations a; the point of departure, 
 proceeding by a dichotomic path, and presenting at 
 each step a choice between two opposite characters it 
 was found a convenient guide. Having received a com- 
 mission as botanist to the king, he was employed in 
 botanical researches in Holland and Germany, from 
 which he returned in 1782. He extended his reputation 
 by the article Botany in the " Encyclopedic Methodique." 
 (about 1783.) In 1788 he became an assistant Of the 
 director of the Jardin du Roi, which was reorganized in 
 1793, under the name of the "Museum of Natural His- 
 tory." Lamarck was appointed professor of zoology in 
 that institution. His sagacious and zealous researches 
 and writings in the department of invertebrata (which 
 devolved on him because the other professors deemed 
 them beneath their notice) constitute his principal title 
 to celebrity, and raise him to the rank of a legislator in 
 the animal kingdom. In 1809 he propounded, in his 
 " Philosophie zoologique," several novel or absurd hy- 
 potheses on the production of animals, — as the theory 
 of metamorphosis or progressive development, and that 
 of spontaneous generation. His capital work, entitled 
 "Natural History of Invertebrate Animals," ("llis- 
 toire naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres," 7 vols., 
 1815-22,) ranks among the noblest monuments of human 
 science. He had published an outline of the same in 
 1801. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Cuvier, " filoge de Lamarck ;" Gkoffrov Saint-Hii.aire, 
 "Discours prononce sur la Tombe de Lamarck;" "Nouvelle Bio* 
 Rraphie Generale ;" "Monthly Review," vol. Ixv., iSti et seg. t 
 (Appendix.) 
 
 Lamare-Ficquot, lt'maV pe'ko', (N.,) a French 
 naturalist, born at Bayeux about 1785, travelled in the 
 East Indies, from which he brought specimens of zoology 
 of eight hundred and fifty-five species. Between 1841 
 and 1848 he explored North America. 
 
 La Marmora. See Marmora, Delia. 
 
 Lamarque, li'mSRk', (Francois,) a French regicide, 
 born in Perigord about 1755, was elected to the Con- 
 vention in 1792. He was one of the four deputies who 
 attempted to arrest Dumouriez at the head of his army 
 in 1793, and who were by him delivered to the Austrians. 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 Lamarque, (Maxim ilien,) an able French general 
 and orator, born at Saint-Sever (Landes) in 1770. He 
 served as a general of brigade at Austerlitz in 1805, 
 obtained command of a division in 1807, and took Capraea 
 from the English in 1808. At the battle of Wagram, in 
 1809, his courage was conspicuous. He joined the 
 standard of Napoleon on his return from Elba, and 
 commanded with success in several actions against the 
 Vendeans in 1815. In 1828 he became a liberal member 
 of the Chamber of Deputies. Died in 1832. A bloody 
 conflict occurred between the troops and the populace 
 at his funeral in Paris. 
 
 See Louis Bi.anc, " Histoire de dix Ans ;" " Memoires et Sou- 
 venirs du General Lamarque, " published by Ins family, 3 vols., 1835- 
 36; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 La Martelliere or Lamartelliere, IS m$R'ti'le-aiR', 
 (JEAN HENRI F'erdin \ni>,) a French dramatic author, 
 born at Ferrette in 1761 ; died in 1830. 
 
 Lamartine, de, deh lS'mSu'ten', (Ai.phonse,) a 
 French poet, orator, and historian of great celebrity, was 
 born at M^con, on the Sa&ne, on the 21st of October, 
 1792. His father served for a short time in the army 
 as captain or major, and was imprisoned as a royalist 
 in the Revolution. His mother's name was Alix des 
 Roy8. The name of De Prat has been erroneously given 
 to the subject of this article by some biographers. He 
 was educated at the College of Belley, which he left 
 about 1809, and afterwards passed some time at home, 
 where he read and admired Dante, Petrarch, Shakspcare, 
 Milton, and Ossian. In 1811-12 he visited Rome and 
 Naples. He entered the life-guards of Louis XV HI. in 
 1814, and when his company was disbanded on the re- 
 turn of Bonaparte from Elba, he retired into Switzerland, 
 where he remained during the Hundred Days. In 1820 
 he published a volume of poems entitled " Meditations 
 poetiques," which excited general admiration, and of 
 which 45,000 copies were sold in four years. This volume 
 
 c as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; gas z; *h as in this. (£ySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LAMARTINE 
 
 1360 
 
 LAMB 
 
 contained "The Lake," (" Le Lac,") a beautiful elegy, 
 (composed in 1817,) in which he expresses the contrast 
 between the permanence of nature and the instability of 
 human affairs. Lamartine was appointed in 1820 secre- 
 tary of legation at Florence, (or, as one writer says, at 
 Naples,) and married an English heiress named Eliza 
 Marianna Kirch. His " Nouvelles Meditations poetiques" 
 appeared in 1823. He was charge-d'affaires at Florence 
 for several years, ending in 1829, and was elected to the 
 French Academy in 1830. He professed devotion to the 
 church and the throne in his " Harmonies poetiques et 
 religieuses," (1830,) which are considered by some critics 
 as his best productions. 
 
 After the Revolution of 1830 he adopted more liberal 
 political principles, and resolved to make a change ill his 
 pursuits. He offered himself as a candidate for election 
 to the Chamber of Deputies, but was defeated. In 1832, 
 accompanied by his wife and daughter Julia, he visited 
 Palestine, the favourite scene of his youthful reveries and 
 aspirations, travelling like a prince in a vessel which he 
 had chartered. His daughter Julia died at Heyroot. He 
 returned in the autumn of 1833, and published, in prose, 
 "Souvenirs, Impressions, Pensees et Paysages pendant 
 un Voyage en Orient," (3 vols., 1835,) tlie English ver- 
 sion of which is entitled "A Pilgrimage to the Holy 
 Land." During his absence he had been elected by the 
 voters of liergues to the Chamber of Deputies, in which 
 he maintained a position independent of party, but spoke 
 often with success on questions of social and political 
 philosophy. He displayed a marvellous affluence of 
 pure sentiments and beautiful images in his poem of 
 " Jocelyn," (1836,) announced or designed as an episode 
 ot a great poem on the progressive phases of humanity. 
 He became the representative of MScon in the Chamber 
 in 1837, and was classed for some years among the 
 "progressive conservatives ;" but he censured the im- 
 mobility of Guizot's policy, and in 1843 became a deter- 
 mined opponent of the ministry and conservative party. 
 The public were greatly surprised by the avowal of 
 democratic principles and sympathies which he made in 
 his eloquent and brilliant " History of the Girondists," 
 (8 vols., 1847,) which had an important political influ- 
 ence as a cause of the Revolution of 1848. He is cen- 
 sured for inaccuracy as a historian, and for his imitation 
 of a habit of many ancient writers who ascribe to historical 
 persons imaginary speeches. "This work," says the 
 " Edinburgh Review for January, 1848, " brings before 
 us that most stirring and important period with a clear- 
 ness and vividness that all previous descriptions, except 
 some of Carlyle's, have failed to realize: it presents us 
 on the same page with distinct, highly-finished sketches 
 of the principal actors. ... M. de Lamartine seems to 
 us, on the whole, to have brought to the consideration 
 of the Revolution a more candid spirit and more whole- 
 some sympathies than any preceding writer." He kept 
 himself aloof from the reform banquets of 1847, and took 
 no part in the first two days of the ensuing revolution. 
 On the 24th of February he entered the Chamber, and, 
 rejecting the claims of the falling dynasty, advocated 
 the formation of a provisional government. As a mem- 
 ber of the government formed in that momentous crisis, 
 he assumed the functions of minister of foreign affairs. 
 He became at once the master-spirit and moderator of 
 the Revolution, and repressed the spirit of anarchy and 
 homicide by memorable demonstrations of eloquence, 
 courage, and magnanimity. His harangue to the se- 
 ditious and infuriated bands who demanded the red flag 
 instead of the tricoloured (February 25) was one of the 
 most remarkable triumphs of eloquence recorded in 
 history. He addressed a pacific manifesto to Europe, 
 (March 4,) and was successful in averting a general war. 
 For some months his popularity was immense among 
 nearly all classes. In April he was elected by ten de- 
 partments to the Constituent Assembly which met on 
 the 5th of May. He was the fourth on the list of the 
 Executive Commission of Five chosen by the Assembly 
 on the 10th of May. The decline of his popularity 
 shown by this fact is ascribed to his connection or col- 
 lusion with Ledru-Rollin, — a collusion which he com- 
 pared to that of the lightning-rod with the pernicious 
 power which it averts. Lamartine and his colleagues 
 
 resigned in consequence of the insurrection of June 22, 
 which they were unable to suppress. 
 
 On the 6th of October he made a remarkable speech 
 in the Assembly, in which he advocated the election of 
 president by the people, and said, " If the republic suc- 
 ceeds, I have won my game (partie) against destiny. If 
 it fails, either in anarchy or in a reminiscence of despot- 
 ism, my name, my responsibility, and my memory will 
 fall with it." He also expressed his foreboding that the 
 result of the popular vote would not accord with his own 
 choice. At the election of president in December, 1848, 
 he received only about 8000 votes. After the coup d'etat 
 of December, 1851, he took no part in political affairs. 
 He published in 1849 a " History of the Revolution of 
 1848," (2 vols.,) " Les Confidences," containing memoirs 
 of his early life, and " Raphael, Pages de la vingtieme 
 Annee." Among his later works are a " History of the 
 Restoration," (7 vols., 1851-52,) " Histoire des Cons- 
 tituents," (4 vols., 1854,) and a " History of Turkey," 
 (8 vols., 1855.) Many of his works have been translated 
 into' nearly all European languages. His neglect of 
 economy and his expensive habits involved him, many 
 years ago, in pecuniary embarrassments, which his great 
 literary industry and success failed to relieve. His friends 
 in 1858 opened a national subscription in his favour ; but 
 the results of this appeal to the public gratitude were 
 not very satisfactory. Died in February, 1869. "There 
 is in the most imperfect sketches of Lamartine," says an 
 anonymous French critic, " a grand current of inspiration 
 which imparts to each passion and idea its appropriate 
 life and lustre. God and man, society and nature, religion 
 and politics, all objects of thought and sentiment, con- 
 tribute to this resplendent focus of universal poetry." 
 
 See Charles Robin, " Biographie de Lamartine," 1S48; Cha- 
 puys Monti. avju.e, " Vie de Lamartine;" Lomenie, " Galerie des 
 Contemporains ;" Sainte-Bruve, " Portraits conlemporains," tome 
 i. ; Lurinb, "Histoire de A. de Lamartine," 1S4S ; Longfki.i.dw, 
 ''Poets and Poetry of Europe;" E. Fkrnsdokpp, "Lamartine," 
 Berlin, 1848; Cormenin,' "Lamartine et le Gouvernement provi- 
 soire." 1848; A. de Lamartine, "Trois Mnisan Hon voir, "(and Eng- 
 lish version of the same, entitled " Three Months in Power: a History 
 and a Vindication ;") " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835, and 
 March, 1852; ".Edinburgh Review" for January, 1848, and January, 
 f85o; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1844, and September, 
 1847; "Westminster Review" for January, 1836: "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for August, 1849. 
 
 La Martiniere. See Martiniere, de la. 
 
 Lamb, lam, (Lady Caroline,) an English authoress, 
 daughter of Frederick Ponsonby, Earl of Uesborough, was 
 bom in 1785. She was married in 1805 to William Lamb, 
 afterwards Lord Melbourne. Her romances, entitled 
 " Glenarvon," "Graham Hamilton," and "Ada Reis," 
 procured her some literary reputation. Her friendship 
 or love for Lord liyron attracted much attention, and 
 gave rise to some scandal. Died in 1828. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for October, 1.822; Madame Guic- 
 CIOI.I, " Recollections of Lord Byron," pp. 100-101 et seg. 
 
 Lamb, (Chari.es,) a popular English essayist and 
 humorist, was born in London in February, 1775, and 
 was educated at Christ's Hospital, where he formed an 
 intimacy with Coleridge. In 1792 he entered the ser- 
 vice of the East India Company as clerk in the India 
 House, London. He began his literary career with a 
 small volume of poems published in 1798 in connection 
 with some verses of Coleridge and Lloyd. After the 
 faithful performance of his irksome duties at the desk 
 for thirty-three years, he retired in 1825, with a pension 
 of .£441. His reputation is founded chiefly on his prose 
 works, especially the " Essays of Elia," (1830.) His 
 exquisite taste and critical sagacity are manifested in 
 his " Essays on the Tragedies of Shakspeare," and other 
 works. His character was amiably eccentric, abounding 
 in whims and quaint humours, and most of his writings 
 are strongly expressive of his mental individuality. He 
 remained unmarried, and lived with his sister Mary, who 
 in a fit of insanity killed her mother about 1796. She 
 was restored to a sound mind, and found an affectionate 
 guardian in her brother until his death in 1834. His 
 sister died in 1847. 
 
 See T. N. Tai.kourd, "Life of Charles Lamb:" Bryan W. 
 Procter, " Charles Lamb: a Memoir," 1S66: De Quincrv, "Lite- 
 rary Reminiscences," vol. i. : Percy Fitzgerald, "Charles Limb 
 and his Friends:" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1837 ; " Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for August, 1818, and August, 1840; "British 
 Quarterly Review" for April, 1867. 
 
 «,€, 1, 6, 5, y, Jong; k, i, l>, same, less prolonged; a, e, !, 6, u, J, short; a,e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
LAMB 
 
 1361 
 
 LAMBERT 
 
 Lamb, (George,) an English author, born in 1784, 
 was a younger son of the first Lord Melbourne, and a 
 brother of prime minister Lord Melbourne. He was 
 elected to Parliament by the Whigs in 1818, and was 
 several times re-elected He contributed to the " Edin- 
 burgh Review," of which, said Byron, "Jeffrey and Lamb 
 were the Alpha and Omega," and published a trans- 
 lation of Catullus. In 1832 he was appointed under- 
 secretary of the home department. Died in 1834. 
 
 See the" Monthly Review" for January, 1822. 
 
 Lamb, (Sir J wf.s Hland Burges.) an English poli- 
 tician and writer, born at Gibraltar in 1752 : died in 1824. 
 
 Lamb, (William.) See Melbourne, Loud. 
 
 Lamballe, de, deh loN'bSl', (Maria Thf.kf.se Louise 
 de Savoie - Carignan — deh st'vwi' kaVien'yoN', ) 
 Princess, born at Turin in 1740, was a member of the 
 royal family of Sardinia, and distinguished for beauty 
 and virtue. In 1767 she became the wife of the Prince 
 of Lamballe, (the son of the Duke of Penthievre,) and one 
 year later was left a widow. She was a favourite attendant 
 of Queen Marie Antoinette, whose danger and adverse 
 fortune she shared during the Revolution. Having been j 
 imprisoned in La Force, she was massacred, with cir- I 
 cumstances of great atrocity, in September, 1792. 
 
 See " M^moires He la Princesse de Limballe." par Madame 
 kt), 4 vols,, 1S01 ; Lamartine, " History of the Girondists. " i 
 
 Lam'barde, (William,) an eminent English lawyer 
 and antiquary, was born in London in 1536. He be- ! 
 came a master in chancery in 1592, keeper of the rolls • 
 in 1597, and keeper of the records of the Tower in j 
 1600. He published a work on old Saxon laws, entitled j 
 " Archaionomia," (1568,) "The Perambulation of Kent," , 
 and "Eirenarcha ; or, The Office of the Justices of the 1 
 Peace." He founded a hospital for the poor at Green- 
 wich. Died in 1601. 
 
 See Nichols, " Life of L^mbarde.** 
 
 Lambeccius or Lambecius. See Lamreck. 
 
 Lambeck, lam'hek, |Lat. Lamhec'cius or Lamt:f.'- 
 Cius,] (Peter,) an eminent German bibliographer, born 
 at Hamburg, April 13, 1628. He became professor of 
 history in his native place in 1652, and librarian of the 
 Emperor of Austria, at Vienna, about 1662. Among his 
 works are a "History of Hamburg," (1652,) and "A 
 Catalogue of the Imperial Library of Vienna," ("Com- 
 mentaria de Augusta Bibliotheca Coesarea Vindobo- 
 nensi," 8 vols., 1665-79,) said to be the most extensive 
 ever compiled. Died in Vienna in 1680. 
 
 See " Leben des Petri Lambeccii," Hamburg, 1724. 
 
 Lamberg, von, fan laWbeRG, (JnsF.ru Maximilian,) 
 COUNT, a learned and ingenious German writer, born 
 at Briinn, Moravia, in 1729, corresponded with Voltaire 
 and Hume. He published (in French) an "Essay on 
 the Impossible," (1764,) and "Memoriel d'un Mondain," 
 ("Memorial of a Worldling," 1775.) Died in 1792. 
 
 Lam'bert, the son of Gui. Duke of Spoleto, Emperor 
 and King of Italv, succeeded his father at an early 
 age, in 894 A.r>. His rivals Herenger and Arnulf were 
 masters of parts of Italy. He took Milan in 895, and 
 was killed by falling from a horse in 89S. 
 
 Lam'bert, (Ayi.mfr Bourkf,) an English botanist, 
 born in 1762, contributed memoirs to the "Linnasan 
 Transactions," and was a liberal patron of scientific 
 men. His herbarium was one of the finest in England. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Lambert, los'baiR', (Charles Joseph,) called Lam- 
 bert Bey, a French engineer, born at Valenciennes in 
 1804. About 1832 he entered the service of Mehemet 
 Ali of Egypt, who appointed him director of the Poly- 
 Mchrie School and the Observatory of Bpolak. 
 
 Lambert, ICuriiK Francois,)' a French compiler, 
 born at Dole, lived in Paris. He published numerous 
 mediocre works, among which was a "History of all 
 Nations.'' (15 vols., 1750.) Died in 1765. 
 
 Lambert, (Daniel,) a famous giant, born at Leicejf- 
 tct, England, in 1770. He was five feet eleven inches in 
 it, and at twenty-three years of age weighed four 
 hundred and forty -eight pounds. lie was also remark- 
 able for his strength, and performed wonderful It 
 a swimmer and pedestrian. At the time of his death 
 (1809) he weighed seven hundred and thirty-nine pounds. 
 
 Lambert, [Lat. Lamber'tus,] (Francois,) a French 
 Protestant Reformer, born at Avignon in 1487, became a 
 monk in early youth. Having embraced the Reformed re- 
 ligion, he fled to Switzerland in 1522, assumed the name 
 of Johannks Sekranus, and was appointed professor 
 of theology at Marburg in 1527. He published com- 
 mentaries on the Bible, and other works. He contributed 
 greatly to the propagation of the Reformed doctrines in 
 Thuringia and Hesse. His system of theology is ex- 
 plained in his " Farrago of almost all Theological Mat- 
 ters," (" Farrago Omnium fere Rerum Theolpgicarum.") 
 Died in 1530. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Johann W. 
 Baum, " F. Lambert von Avignon nach seinein Leben," etc., 1840 
 Niceron, "Meinoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Lambert, (George,) an eminent English painter and 
 engraver, born in Kent about 1710. He painted land- 
 scapes in the manner of Gaspard Poussin, and had a 
 great talent for etching. He was the founder of the 
 Beefsteak Club. Died in 1765. 
 
 Lambert, ISm'beRt, (Joiiann Heinrich,) a profound 
 and original philosopher and mathematician, was born of a 
 French Protestant family at Miilhouse, Alsace, in August, 
 1728. From 1748 to 1759 he was preceptor to the sons 
 of Count de Salis. About 1763 he became a resident 
 of Berlin and a pensioned member of the Berlin Acad- 
 emy of Sciences. He was afterwards employed in civil 
 affairs, with the title of councillor. He cultivated with 
 great success mathematics and astronomy, on which he 
 wrote many treatises, and he demonstrated the incom- 
 mensurability of the circumference and diameter of a 
 circle. His "Cosmological Letters" ( 1 761) attracted 
 much attention. He produced, in German, a celebrated 
 work on dialectics entitled "Novum Organon," (1763,) 
 and " Photometria, sive de Gtadibus Luminis," ("On 
 the Degrees of Light," etc.) He belonged to the Prot- 
 estant church. Died in Berlin in 1777. 
 
 See Matthias Graf, " J. H. Lamberts Leben," 1829; Formev, 
 " FJoge de Lambert ;" Daniel Hurf.r, "J. H. Lambert nach seinein 
 Leben und Wirken," 1829: " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Lambert, (John,) a prominent English republican 
 general, born about 1620, was a favourite of the Inde- 
 pendents. He entered the army of the Parliament, fought 
 as colonel at Marston Moor in 1644, and at the end of 
 the first civil war had obtained the rank of general. He 
 was second in command under Cromwell in Scotland 
 in 1649, and led the van at Dunbar in 1651. In 1653 he 
 made the proposition that the title of Protector should 
 be given to Cromwell. " Lambert, his creature," says 
 Hume, "who, under an appearance of obsequiousness 
 to him, indulged an unbounded ambition, proposed to 
 temper the lilwrty of a commonwealth by the authority 
 of a single person." After the death of Oliver he plotted 
 against Richard Cromwell in 1659, and commanded the 
 army in opposition to the Parliament until the triumph 
 of the royalists under Monk. In 1662 he was condemned 
 to death ; but this penalty was commuted to banishment 
 in Guernsey, where he survived thirty years. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England;" Granger, "Biographical 
 History of England." 
 
 Lambert,(JoSEPH,) a French ecclesiastic and moralist, 
 born in Paris in 1654, became prior of Saint-Mai tin -de- 
 Palaijeau. Among his works are "The Evangelical 
 Year, or Homilies on the Gospels," (7 vols., 1693-97,) 
 and " Instruction respecting the Creed," ( Symbole,) (2 
 vols., 1728; 9th edition, 1830.) Died in 1722. 
 
 Lambert, llm'bcrt, (Jossf,) a Flemish printer and 
 engraver, lived at Ghent, and died in 1556 or 1557. 
 
 Lambert, (Michf.i,) a French musician, bom near 
 Poitiers in 1610, was patronized by Richelieu and praised 
 by Boilcau. His songs and cantatas were greatly ad- 
 mired. Died in 1696. 
 
 Lambert, (N.,) a French dramatist, lived about 1650. 
 Among his works is a drama in verse, called "Magic 
 without Magic," (" La Magie sans Magic," 1668.) 
 
 Lambert, Saint. See Saint L&MBKRf. 
 
 Lambert, Saint, Bishop of Maestricht, was assassin- 
 ated in 708 by order of Alpheide, mother of Charles 
 Martel, for having censured her prolligai v. 
 
 Lambert, de, deh loN'bam', (Anne Th£rese df. 
 Margtienat de Courcelles — ml Bg'nf deh kooR'slt'J 
 Marquise, a French authoress, bom in Paris in 1647, 
 
 « as (■, 9 as /; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, patitr.il ': n, nasal; K. trilled; i as z; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
 86 
 
LAMBERT 
 
 1362 
 
 LA MESNARDIERE 
 
 was the wife of General Henri Lambert, noticed below. 
 She was a friend of Fenelon and Fontenelle. She wrote 
 "Treatises on Friendship, Taste, and Riches," (1732,) 
 ."Advice of a Mother to her Daughter," (1734,) and 
 other works, commended for purity of style and of morals. 
 Died in 1733. 
 
 Her son, Hknri Francois, (1677-1754,) became a 
 lieutenant-general in 1720. 
 
 See Fonteneli.e, " E*loge de la Marquise de Lambert," prefixed 
 to her " CEuvres completes," 1767; Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du 
 I.undi." tome iv. 
 
 Lambert, de, (Henri,) Marquis de Saint-Bris, a 
 French general, born in 163 1 ; died in 16S6. 
 
 Lambert le Chanoine, ld.N'baiR' leh shS'nwan', a 
 learned compiler, produced a book called "Liber Flori- 
 dus." Died at Saint Omer in 1 125. 
 
 Lambert von Aschaffenburg, lam'beRt fon a-shaf- 
 fen-booRc/, a German historical writer, born about 1020, 
 was author of well-written "Annals" published in 1525. 
 Died about 1080. 
 
 Lamberti, lam-beVtee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Venice in 1757; died in 1832. 
 
 Lamberti, (Bonaventura,) an Italian painter, bori. 
 at Carpi in 1651, was a pupil, and one of the best imi- 
 tators, of Cignani. He worked in Rome. Died in 1 72 1. 
 
 Lamberti, (Luigi,) an Italian Hellenist, born at 
 Reggio about 1758. In 1797 he became a member of 
 the grand council of the Cisalpine Republic, and in the 
 next year a member of the Directory of the same. He 
 was afterwards professor of rhetoric in the College of 
 Milan, and was admitted into the Italian Institute. His 
 most important work was a beautiful edition of Homer, 
 (3 vols., 1808.) He published an ode to Napoleon, and 
 other mediocre poems. Died in 1813. 
 
 Lambertim, lam-beR-tee'nee, (Michei.f.,) a painter 
 of the Bolognese school, lived from 1426 to 1469. He 
 painted a celebrated Madonna in fresco at Bologna. 
 
 Lambertmi, (Prosper.) See Benedict XIV. 
 
 Lambertus. See Lambert, (Francois.) 
 
 Lambilotte, lo.v'be'lot', (Fere Louis,) a French 
 composer, born atCharleroi in 1797. His fugues, motets, 
 etc. had great success. The " Restoration of the Gre- 
 gorian Chant" is called his master-piece. Died in 1855. 
 
 Lambin, ISN'baN', [Lat. Lamhi'nus,] (Denis,) a 
 learned French professor and classical scholar, born at 
 Montreuil-sur-Mer, in Picardy, about 1516. He was 
 appointed professor of Greek in the Royal College of 
 Paris in 1561. He published esteemed editions of 
 Cicero, Horace, (1561,) and Lucretius, (1363,) and Latin 
 versions of Demosthenes and Aristotle, (in part.) He 
 died of grief for the massacre of the Protestants in 1572. 
 
 See Ghilin'i, " Teatro degli Uomini illnstri ;" Teissier, "Eloges 
 des Homines savantes." 
 
 Lambinet, 16N'be'n&', (Emii.e,) a French landscape- 
 painter, born at Versailles about 1812. 
 
 Lambinet, (Pierre,) a French bibliographer, born 
 near Mezieres in 1742, wrote "Researches into the Ori- 
 gin of Printing," (1798.) Died in 1813. 
 
 Lambinus. See Lambin. 
 
 Lamblardie, Ifltr'bltR'de', (Jacques Ei.if.,) a French 
 engineer, born at Loches, in Touraine, in 1747. 1 le wrote 
 an able "Memoir on the Coasts of Upper Normandy in 
 Relation to the Collection of Shingle," (Galct,) (1789.) 
 lb- was the first director of the "Ecole centrale des 
 Travaux publics," the name of which was changed to 
 Polytechnic School in 1795. Died in 1797. 
 
 Lam'brun, (Margaret,) a Scottish woman, whose 
 zeal for the cause of Mary Stuart induced her to make 
 an attempt against the life of Queen Elizabeth. Her 
 pistol having dropped from her hand when she was 
 about to fire, her design was frustrated, and she was 
 pardoned. 
 
 Lambruschini, lam-bRoos-kee'nee, (Luigt,) an Ital- 
 ian cardinal, born at Genoa in 1776. He was appointed 
 secretary of foreign affairs by Gregory XVI. In 1846 
 he obtained more votes for pope in the first scrutiny 
 than any other candidate, but was not elected. He be- 
 came a member of Pius the Ninth's council of state in 
 1846, and fled from Rome during the short triumph of 
 the popular cause in 184S. Died in 1854. 
 
 Lambton, (John George.) See Durham, Earl of. 
 
 Lambton, lam'ton, (William,) Lieutenant-Colo- 
 nel, an English officer, who acquired distinction by his 
 astronomical and geodesic labours in Hindostan, was 
 born about 1748. He was employed by the Marquis of 
 Wellesley about 1801 to direct the trigonometrical sur- 
 veys which were designed to connect, by a series of tri- 
 angles, the eastern with the western coast of India. By 
 the assiduous labour of more than twenty years, he had 
 extended his operations from the Carnatic to Eilichpoor, 
 and measured an arc of the meridian 12 in extent. He 
 died in India, of fever, in 1823. The Records of the 
 Asiatic Society contain several Memoirs on the opera- 
 tions above mentioned. 
 
 Lame, li'ma', (Gabriel,) a French geometer and 
 engineer, born at Tours in 1795, became professor of 
 physics at the Polytechnic School in Paris about 1832. 
 He published, besides other works, an able " Treatise 
 on Physics," (3 vols., 1836,) "Lessons on the Inverse 
 Functions of Transcendents," etc., (" Lecons sur les 
 Fonctions inverses des Transcendantes," etc.,) and 
 "Lectures on the Mathematical Theory of the Elasticity 
 of Solid Bodies," (1852.) He was elected a member of 
 the Institute. 
 
 La'meeh, [Heb. ~]01,] the son of Methusaleh, and 
 the father of Noah, died five years before the Flood, 
 aged seven hundred and seventy-seven years. Another 
 Lamech, a descendant of Cain, is the first patriarch 
 mentioned in Scripture as having more than one wife. 
 
 See Genesis iv., v. 
 
 La Meilleraie or Meilleraye. See Meillfraie, La. 
 
 Lamennais or La Mennais, de, deh IS mj'n^', 
 (Hugues Fet.icite Robert,) Abb6, a celebrated French 
 writer on religion and politics, was born at Saint-Malo in 
 June, 1782. He was educated at home, where he learned 
 Greek, Latin, etc. without a teacher. Having received 
 the tonsure in 181 1, he was ordained a priest at Rennes 
 in 1816, and acquired sudden celebrity by the publication 
 of his eloquent "Essay on Indifference to Religion," 
 (" Essai sur 1'Indifference en Matiere de Religion," 4 
 vols., 1817-23,) in which he appeared as an orthodox 
 champion of the Catholic Church. In 1824 he visited 
 Rome, and declined the offer of a cardinal's hat from 
 Leo XII. He published in 1825 "Religion considered 
 in its Relations with the Civil and Political Order," 
 which favoured the ultramontane doctrines. Before the 
 revolution of 1830 his mind had made great progress 
 towards liberal or democratic principles, without depart- 
 ing from his religious faith. In that year he founded the 
 " Avenir," a journal which, in bold and fervent words, 
 advocated religions and political reforms. Lacordaire 
 was his disciple and coadjutor in this journal, which was 
 condemned by the pope in 1832 and suppressed. He 
 announced in 1834 his final revolt from the Church of 
 Rome, in his " Words of a Believer," (" Paroles d'un 
 Croyant,") which is one of his most important and 
 powerful productions and was stigmatized by the pope 
 as "small in volume but immense in perversity." A 
 great outburst of enthusiasm and indignation followed the 
 publication of this work. He became ultra-democratic, 
 and wrote several political works, among which were 
 "The Affairs of Rome," (1836,) and "The Book of the 
 People," (1837.) His "Outlines of Philosophy" ("Es- 
 quisse d'une Philosophic," 1840-46) obtained great suc- 
 cess. In 1840 he was sentenced for one of his writings 
 to an imprisonment of one year. He was elected to the 
 Legislative Assembly in 1848. Died in 1854. His com- 
 plete works appeared in 12 vols. 8vo, 1837. 
 
 See E. Renan, "Lamennais et ses E"crits," in the "Revue de* 
 Deux Mondes," August, 1857: SainTK-BkUVR, "Portraits contem- 
 porains," 1846, vol. i. ; E. Rorinet, "Etudes sur P Abbs' de La- 
 mennais," 1835: Madroi.le, " Histoire secrete du Partie et de 
 l'Apostasie de M. de Lamennais," 1843: L. de Lomenie. "M. de 
 Lamennais. par un Homme de Rien," 1840: " Nouvelle Biograrhie 
 Gene'rale :" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1838 ; " West- 
 minster Review" for April, 1859. 
 
 • Lamennais, de, (Jean Marie Robert,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Saint-Malo about 1775, was a brother 
 of the preceding. He wrote several religious works, and 
 became canon of the diocese of Rennes. Died in i860. 
 La Mesnardiere, de, deh IS mi'naR'de-aiV, (Hippo- 
 lyie Jules Pii.et,) a mediocre French poet, born at 
 Loudun in 1610 ; died in 1663. 
 
 E, e, I, o, u, y, long; it, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, li, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; go6d; moon; 
 
LAMET 
 
 •363 
 
 LAMORICIERE 
 
 Lamet,de,deh li'm5',(ADRiEN Augusts de Bussy.) 
 a French doctor of the Sorbonne, bom in 1621. He 
 wn>te "Solutions of Many Cases of Conscience," (1714.) 
 Died in 1691. 
 
 Lameth, de, deh lt'm&', (Alexandre,) Count, a 
 French revolutionist, born in Paris in 1760. In 1789 he 
 was one of the deputies of the noblesse who united with 
 the Third Estate to form the National Assembly, and he 
 acted the part of a zealous patriot in that body. After 
 the death of Mirabeau, (1791.) Barnave and the Lameths 
 were for a short time among the master-spirits of the 
 Assembly. He co-operated with his brother and La 
 Fayette in their efforts to defend the constitution and the 
 king alter his arrest at Varennes. He was a general in 
 La Fayette's army when the crisis of August 10, 1792, 
 compelled him to fly with his general, and both fell 
 into the hands of the Austrians. Lameth recovered his 
 liberty in 1795, and returned to France in 1800. In 1820 
 he acted and voted with La Fayette in the Chamber of 
 Deputies. He published a "History of the Constituent 
 Assembly," (2 vols., 1829.) Died in 1829. 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" Querard, 
 " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lameth, de, (Charles Malo Francois,) Count, 
 a French politician, brother of the preceding, was born 
 in Paris in 1757. He served at Yorktown, Virginia, 
 in 17S1. In 1789 he was elected to the States-General, 
 in which he acted with the popular party. He was a 
 political friend of Barnave, and aspired to be a rival of 
 Mintbeau. Changing his course in 1791, he became the 
 friend of the king, and resisted the progress of the Revo- 
 lution to extreme issues. He emigrated about 1793, and 
 returned home in 1S01. Under the regime of Napoleon 
 he was a general of brigade. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Thiers. " History of the French Revolution;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 Lameth, de, (Theodore,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was bom in Paris in 1756. He obtained the rank -of 
 marechal-de-camp in 1791, and was in that year a mem- 
 ber of the Legislative Assembly, in which he voted with 
 the constitutional royalists. He defended the king and 
 queen by his voice with courage and energy, and was an 
 exile from 1792 to 1800. Died in 1S54. 
 
 La Metherie, de, deh It ma'tue', (Jean Claude.) a 
 French naturalist, born in Maconnais in 1743. He pub- 
 lished " Principles of Natural Philosophy," (2 vols., 
 1787,) "Considerations on Organized Beings," (2 vols., 
 1805,) "lectures on Geology," (3 vols., 1816,) and other 
 works. He became professor of natural sciences at the 
 College of France in 1812. Died in 1817. 
 
 La Mettrie. See Mettrie, La. 
 
 Lamey, la'mi, (Andreas,) a German historical writer, 
 born at Miinster in 1726, was perpetual secretary of the 
 Academy of Mannheim. He wrote, besides other works, 
 a " Diplomatic History of the Counts of Ravensberg," 
 (1779.) Died in 1802. 
 
 Lami or Lamy, It'me', (Bernard,) a learned French 
 priest of the Oratory, born at Mans in 1640. He taught 
 philosophy and theology at Saumur, Angers, and other 
 places, and was a disciple of Descartes. He published 
 successful works on religion and science, among which 
 are a " Treatise on Rhetoric," " Elements of Geometry," 
 (1685,) "Apparatus Biblicus," (1696,) and a "Descrip- 
 tion of the Temple and Holy City of Jerusalem," (in 
 Latin, 1720.) His work called " Conversations on the 
 Sciences" (" Entretiens sur les Sciences," 1684) was 
 highly esteemed by J. J. Rousseau. Died in 171 5. 
 
 See Bot'tt.t.tPF, " Histoire du Cartesianisme ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Generale." 
 
 Lami or Lamy, (Dom Francois,) a French Bene- 
 dictine monk, born near Chartres in 1636. He passed 
 his last twenty years in the abltey of Saint-Denis. He 
 was noted for bra skill and alacrity in disputation, and 
 the author of several theological works, the most 
 remarkable of which is " On the Knowledge of One's 
 Self," (6 vols., 1694-98.) Died in 171 1. 
 
 Lami, la'mee, (GlOVAWW,) an Italian antiquary and 
 litttrtticur of high reputation, born at Santa Croce, a 
 village lwtween Pisa and Florence, in 1697. He was a 
 good classical scholar, and became professor of eccle- 
 siastical history at Florence about 1732. From 1740 to 
 
 1770 he edited an able literary periodical named "No- 
 velle Letterarie." He contributed much to explain or 
 elucidate the civil and literary history of Tuscany, and 
 published, besides other works, "Delights of Learned 
 Men," (Deliciae Eruditorum," 18 vols., 1736-69,) and the 
 lives of many eminent Italian literati, " Memorabilia 
 Italorum Eruditione praestantium," (3 vols., 1742-48) 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 See his Autobiosrraphy in the 15th volume of his " Deliciae Eru- 
 ditorum ;" Fontani, "Elogio di Lami," 1789; Fabroni, "Vita? 
 Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Lami, (Pierre Remi Crussolle,) a French littb-ateur, 
 born in Paris in 1798; died in 1832. 
 
 La'ml-a, an Athenian courtesan, renowned for wit 
 and profusion, was the mistress of Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 about 300 B.C. 
 
 Lamiae, la'ml-ee, [Gr. \a/uat : Fr. Lamies, It me',] 
 fabulous monsters of classic mythology, sometimes rep- 
 resented as having the head and breast of a woman and 
 the body of a serpent. They were supposed to have the 
 power of changing their forms. According to one tradi- 
 tion, there was a queen of Libya named Lamia, who was 
 notorious for her cruelty and was accustomed to murder 
 children. The name of Lamia was used to frighten 
 children in the nurseries of antiquity. 
 Lamies. See Lamiae. 
 
 Lamlin or Laemlin, lem-leen', (Alexander,) a Ger- 
 man painter, born at Hohenfeld, Bavaria, in 1 81 3, became 
 a citizen of Paris in his youth. Among his works are " The 
 Awaking of Adam,"(l8'4l,)"The Ladder ofjacob," (1847,) 
 and portraits for the palace of Versailles. 
 
 Lamoignon, de, deh ■ la'mwan'yAN', (Chretien 
 Francois,) a French magistrate, eminent for his integ- 
 rity and talents, born fn Paris in 1644, was the eldest son 
 of President Guillaume de Lamoignon. He was chosen 
 master of requests about 1668. For twenty-five years 
 (1673-98) he performed with honour the duties of advo- 
 cate-general to the Parliament. He was made president 
 a mortier in 1690. He was intimate with Racine, and 
 with Boileau, who addressed to him his Sixth Epistle. In 
 1704.be became a member of the Academy of Inscrip-, 
 lions, after declining afauteuii in the Academie Fran- 
 chise. Died in 1709. 
 
 His son Guillaume, Seigneur de Malesherbes, born 
 in 1683, lKcame successively advocate-general, president 
 of the Parliament of Paris, and chancellor of France, 
 (1750.) He maintained the virtuous reputation of his 
 family, and died in 1772, leaving a son, who was the 
 eminent Malesherbes. 
 
 Lamoignon, de, (Chretien Francois,) a French 
 judge, born probably in Paris in 1735. He became 
 president a mortier in 1758, and shared the exile of Par- 
 liament in 1772. He was appointed keeper of the seals 
 in 1787. Died in 1789. 
 
 Lamoignon, de, (Guillaume,) an eminent judge, 
 and first president of the Parliament of Paris, was born 
 in 1617. His father, Chretien de Lamoignon de Baville, 
 was a highly meritorious magistrate. Guillaume became • 
 master of requests in 1644, and first president pf the 
 Parliament in 1658. In announcing his nomination, tht 
 king said to him, " If I had known a better man, I should 
 have appointed him." He received much praise for the 
 part he took in relation to the ordinances of 1667 and 
 1670, and in several instances preferred the claims of 
 duty to the favour of the court. He laid the basis 
 of an important judiciary reform in his "Decisions," 
 ("Arretes,") printed in 1702. Died in 1677. 
 
 See Gaillabd, " Vie de Lamoignon." 1782 : Fi.echikr, " Funeral 
 Oration;" Saint- Simon, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle liiographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Lamoignon de Baville, lft'mwan'vAs' deh b.Vvel', 
 (Nicolas,) the fifth son of the preceding, was born in 
 1648. He was appointed master of requests in 1673. 
 Died in 1724. 
 
 Lamoignon-Malesherbes. See Malesherbes. 
 
 La Monnoye. See Monnoyb. 
 
 Lamoriciere.de, deh It'im/re'se-aiR', (Cims'rorHE 
 LOUTS Leon Juchault — zhii'sho',) a French general, 
 born at Nantes in 1806. He gained distinction as colonel 
 of zouaves in Algeria, and became a marechal-de-camp 
 in 1840. He obtained the rank of lieutenant-general in 
 1843, returned to France in 1846, and was elected a 
 
 cas 
 
 *; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as z; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LA MOT HE 
 
 1364 
 
 LAMP SON 
 
 deputy in 1847. In the Resolution of 1848 he made 
 strenuous efforts to support the Orleans dynasty. He 
 was, elected to the Constituent Assembly, and com- 
 manded a division of the army in the fight against the 
 insurgents of Paris in June, 1848. He was Cavaignac's 
 minister of war about six months ending in December, 
 1S48. Having shown hostility to the power of Louis 
 Napoleon, he was arrested on the 2d of December, 1851, 
 and confined a few weeks in the Castle of Ham. He be- 
 came general-in-chief of the army of the pope in i860, and 
 was defeated by the Sardinians at Castelfidardo. He was 
 taken prisoner soon after this action. Died in 1865. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic G^neVale ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" 
 for Kebmary, 1866. 
 
 La Mothe. See Mothe, La. 
 
 La Mothe, It mot, (N.,) a French historian, born 
 about 1680, was also called La Hode. He wrote " His- 
 tory of the Revolutions of France," (1738,) and a " His- 
 tory of Louis XIV.," (5 vols., 1740.) Died about 1740. 
 
 Lamothe, de, deh li'mot', (Pierre Lambert,) a 
 French priest, born in 1624. He went as a missionary 
 to Siam about 1662, and died there in 1679. 
 
 La Mothe-Houdancourt, de, deh It mot hoo'dfiN 1 '- 
 koor', (PHILIPPE,) Due de Cardone, a French general, 
 born in 1605, gained successes over the Spaniards, and 
 received a marshal's baton in 1642. Having been de- 
 feated at Lerida in 1644, he was deprived of command. 
 Died in 1657. 
 
 Lamothe- Langon, de, deh li'mot' 18N'g6N', (Eti- 
 enni: Leon,) Baron, a French litterateur, born at Mont- 
 pellier in 1786. Among his numerous works are poems, 
 historical memoirs, and romances. 
 
 La Mothe le Vayer. See Mothe, La. 
 
 La Motte. See Motte, La. 
 
 Lamotte, li'mot', (Jeanne de Luz de Saint-Remy 
 be Vai.ois,) Madame, an artful Frenchwoman, who 
 acquired notoriety in the affair of the " Diamond Neck- 
 lace," was born, probably, at Barsur-Aube about 1750. 
 She became the wife of a person who styled himself 
 Count Lamotte. Having practised with success on the 
 , credulity of Cardinal Rohan, she induced him to nego- 
 tiate for a diamond necklace valued at about a million 
 and a half of francs, which he designed as a present to 
 the queen. Her husband absconded with the diamonds, 
 which she had obtained by fraud. She was whipped 
 and imprisoned for this offence, and died in 1791. 
 
 See "Menioires jusiificatifs de la Comtesse de Valois de la 
 Motte." by herself, London, 1788; Mlle. Bertin, " Menioires sin- 
 la Reme Marie Antoinette." 
 
 Lamotte- (or. La Motte-) Fouque, li'mot' foo'ka', 
 (Caroline,) a German authoress, wife of the following, 
 was born at Nennhausen in 1773. She published suc- 
 cessful novels entitled " Feodora," " Lady of Falken- 
 stein," and "Ida," also "Letters on Female Education" 
 and " Letters on Greek Mythology," which were received 
 with favour. Died in 1831. 
 Lamotte-Fouque, de, deh IS'mot' foo'ka', (Fried- 
 ' rich 1 1 ei N rich Karl,) often called simply Fouque, 
 Baron, a German poet and romance-writer of rare genius, 
 •was born at Brandenburg, February 12, 1777. He was a 
 grandson of Henry Augustus Fouque. (See Fouque.) 
 Having served in several great battles of the war against 
 Napoleon, about 1813 he retired from the army on ac- 
 count of ill health, with the rank of major, and afterwards 
 resided in Paris, at Halle, and on his estate of Nenn- 
 hausen. He found a congenial sphere for his fertile 
 imagination in the Northern traditions and the old Ger- 
 man poetry, and produced many beautiful poems and 
 works of fiction, among which are "Undine,"* a tale, 
 (1813,) one of the most exquisite creations of German 
 genius, "Corona," a poem, (1814,) "Der Zauberring," 
 ('The Magic Ring," 1816,) "Eginhard and Emms," 
 a drama, and " Bertram! du Guesclin," an epic poem, 
 (1821.) Died in 1843. 
 
 See his Autobiography, entitled " Lebensgeschichte," etc., 1840; 
 Gkkvinus, "Gescliichte der Dentschen Dichtung;" "Monthly Re- 
 view" for October, 1820. 
 
 Lamourette, li'moo'ret', (Adrien,) Arbe, a French 
 ecclesiastic, born in Picardy in 1742. He became an 
 auxiliary of Mirabeau in 1789, and wrote the address on 
 
 * Called in French Ondine. 
 
 the civil constitution of the clergy which that orator pro- 
 nounced. In 1 791 he was chosen Bishop of Rhone-et- 
 Loire, and deputed to the National Assembly. Having 
 resisted the extreme measures of the dominant party, he 
 was guillotined in 1794. He had published several re- 
 ligious works. 
 
 Lamouroux, li'moo'roo', (Jean Vincent Felix,) a 
 French naturalist, born at Agen in 1779. He went to 
 Paris in 1807, and was chosen professor of botany or 
 natural history at Caen about 1S10. He gave special 
 attention to those marine productions which are found 
 on the borders between the animal and vegetable king- 
 dom, and which he described in several capital works. 
 Among these is a "Description of Coral-forming Polypi 
 or Zoophytes," (" Histoire des Polypiers coralligenes 
 flexibles," 1816.) He also published "Lectures on Phys- 
 ical Geography." Died in 1825. 
 
 See " Notice biograpbique stir Lmnouroux," by his brother, 1829. 
 
 Lampadius, lam-pa'de-iis, (Wilhei.m August,) a 
 German chemist, called the founder of metallurgy, was 
 born in the duchv of Brunswick in 1772. He became 
 professor of chemistry or metallurgy at Freiberg in 1795. 
 His principal work is a " Manual of General Metal- 
 lurgy," (3 vols., 1801-09.) Died in 1842. 
 
 See Cai.msbk, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;" " Bio- 
 graphie Me'dicale." 
 
 Lampe, lim'peh, (Friedrich Adoi.ph,) a German 
 Protestant theologian, born at Detmold in 1683. He 
 became professor of theology at Utrecht in 1720, and 
 published sermons and other works, among which was 
 a "Commentary on the Gospel of Saint John." Died 
 in 1729. 
 
 Lampe, (Johann Friedrich,) a German composer of 
 songs and operas, born about 1692, lived in London. 
 Died in 1756. 
 
 Lampetia, lam-pee'she-a, [Gr. An/nrrn'j/ ; Fr. Lam- 
 petik, Id.N'pa'te',] a daughter of Helios, whose flocks 
 and herds she tended in the island of Thrinakia. Ulysses 
 having been long detained on the island by stress of 
 weather, his companions killed some of the sacred oxen, 
 for which the offended gods afterwards sent against them 
 a great tempest, in which all perished except Ulysses, 
 who saved himself on the piece of a mast. 
 
 Lampetie. See Lampetia. 
 
 Lampillas, lam-peel'yas, or Llampillas, Iam-peel'- 
 yas, (Francisco Xavier,) a Spanish Jesuit, bom in 
 Catalonia in 173 1. He lived at Genoa after the expul- 
 sion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767. His principal 
 work is a defence of Spanish literature against Bettinelli 
 and Tiraboschi, "Saggio storico-apologetico della Let- 
 teratura Spagnuola," (6 vols., 1778-81.) Died in 1810. 
 
 Lamplugh, lam'ploo, ? (Thomas,) an English prelate, 
 born in Yorkshire in 161 5. He became Bishop of Exeter 
 in 1676, and was a partisan of James II. in 1688, but 
 after his flight recognized William III., who appointed 
 him Archbishop of York. Died in 1691. 
 
 Lampredi, lam-pRa'dee, (Giovanni Maria,) an Ital- 
 ian publicist and writer on law, born near Florence in 
 1732 ; died in 1793. 
 
 Lampredi, (Urban,) an Italian philologist, born at 
 Florence in 1761 ; died in 1838. 
 
 Lampride. See Lampridius. 
 
 Lampridio, lim-pRee'de-o, (Benedetto,) a Latin 
 poet, born at Cremona. After being professor of Greek 
 in Koine, he opened a school in Padua in 1521. He 
 composed admired odes, epigrams, and elegies. "It 
 cannot be denied," says Tiraboschi, "that he has imi- 
 tated Pindar happily in nobleness of ideas and in imagi- 
 native power." Died about 1540. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratnra Italiana;" Paolo 
 GlOVIO, " Elogia Virornm illustrhim." 
 
 Lam-prid'l-us, [Fr. Lampride, 16N'pRed',] (^Eliu\) 
 a Latin historical writer, who flourished about 310 a.d. 
 He was one of the authors of the " Augusta Historia," 
 to which he is said to have contributed the lives of 
 Commodus, Diadumenus, Heliogabalus, and Alexander 
 Severus. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis ;" D. W. Moli.er, "Dis- 
 putatio circularis de A. Lampridio," 1688. 
 
 Lampson, lamp'son, [Lat. Lampsonius, lamp-so'ne- 
 us,] (Dominic,) a Flemish painter and Latin poet, born 
 
 i,e,I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
LAMPSOKIUS 
 
 1365 
 
 LANDEN 
 
 at Bruges in 1532. His paintings are rare and esteemed. 
 Died in 1599. 
 
 Lampsonius. See Lampson. ' 
 
 Lampugnani, lam-poon-ya'nee, (Agostino,) an Ital- 
 ian poet, born at Milan in 15S8. He wrote many works 
 which were once popular. Died in 1668. 
 
 Lamy. See Lami, (Bernard.) 
 
 Lana, la'na, (Ll'iGi,) an Italian painter, born at M6- 
 dena in 1597. He worked in that city, and imitated 
 Guercino with success. His picture of "Modena de- 
 livered from the Plague" is called his master-piece. 
 Hied in 1646. 
 
 Lana-Terzi, li'na-teRd'zee or -teRt'zee, (Francesco,) 
 (or Francesco Terzi-Lana,) an Italian Jesuit and natu- 
 ral philosopher, born at Brescia in 163 1. He was at one 
 time professor of philosophy in his native place, and was 
 a diligent observer and experimenter in natural science. 
 He published, besides a few other works, "Magisterium 
 Naturajet Artis,"(3 vols., 16S4-92,) which treats of natu- 
 ral philosophy. Hied in 1687. 
 
 La Nauze, de, deh IS noz, (Louts Jouard,) a French 
 scholar and writer, bom at Villeneuve d'Agen in 1696; 
 died in 1773. 
 
 Lanc'as-ter, (Edmund,) Earl of, the son of Henry 
 III. of England, was born in London in 1245. Edward 
 I. rent him with an army to conquer Guienne, but, before 
 he could effect that purpose, he died in 1296. His son 
 THOMAS, Earl of Lancaster, was the most powerful sub- 
 ject of his time in England. He was a mortal enemy 
 to Piers Gaveston, whose death he procured in 1312. 
 Having rebelled against Edward II., he was defeated 
 and beheaded in 1322. His brother Henry became his 
 heir, and aided Queen Isabella to depose the king in 
 1326. He was appointed guardian of the young king 
 Edward III. in 1327. 
 
 Lancaster, (Sir James,) an English navigator, who 
 made a voyage to India in 1 591, and conducted the first 
 expedition which the East India Company sent to that 
 region (1600-03) f° r tne purpose of forming commercial 
 relations. He made a treaty with the King of Acheen. 
 Died in 1620. Narratives of his voyages may be found 
 in Hakluyt and Purchas. An inlet of Baffin's Bay was 
 named, in honour of him, Lancaster Sound. 
 
 See J. Barrow, "Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen 
 Elizabeth's Reign." 
 
 Lancaster, (John of Gaunt,) Duke of. See John 
 of Gaunt. 
 
 Lancaster, (Joseph,) an Englishman, who acquired 
 distinction as the founder of " Lancasterian Schools," 
 was born in London between 1771 and 1778, and was a 
 member of the society of Friends. About the age of 
 twenty he opened a school in Southwark, and tried with 
 success the system of mutual instruction. He was pa- 
 tronized by the Duke of Bedford and other noblemen. 
 liv lectures and writings he rendered his system popular, 
 and gave an impulse to the cause of education in Eng- 
 land and other countries. Having become insolvent, he 
 wri,i to the United States about 1818, and continued to 
 labour in the same cause. Died in New York in 1838. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1811 ; " Living 
 I April, 1845. 
 
 Lancaster, (Nathaniel,) a learned English writer, 
 bom in Cheshire about 1700. He was for some time 
 Kit r of Stamford-Rivera. His principal work is an 
 " Essay on Delicacy," (174S,) a poem. Died in 1775. 
 
 Lance, (GEORGE,) an excellent English painter of 
 fruit and still life, was born in Essex in 1802. He re- 
 ceived lessons in "high" or" historical" art from Haydon, 
 and pursued his master's favourite branches of painting, 
 until he discovered that his genius was more adapted to 
 the treatment of fruit, flowers, game, etc. In this depart- 
 ment he is considered to have excelled all the English 
 oil-painters of his time. He produced some historical 
 pieces and tableaux de genre. Died in 1864. 
 
 Lance, (William,) an American lawyer and political 
 writer, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1791. Ik- 
 published a" Life of Washington" in Latin. Died in 1840. 
 
 Lancelot, Ions'Io', (Ahtoinr,) a French litterateur 
 and antiquary, born in Paris in 1675. He was a memlier 
 of the Academy of Inscriptions, for which he wrote many 
 learned antiquarian treatises. For a few years he had 
 
 the office of secretary to the king, which he sold in 1725. 
 Died in 1740. 
 
 Lancelot, (Dom Claude,) an able French gram- 
 marian, born in Paris in 161 5. He became one of the 
 recluses of Port-Royal in 1638, and was the first regent 
 of the schools of Port-Royal, which flourished from 1646 
 to 1660 under the care of such men as Arnauld and Pas- 
 cal. Lancelot was the first master of Racine. " He threw 
 some additional lustre," says Hallam, " around Port- 
 Royal by the Latin and Greek Grammars (1644 and 
 1655) which are more frequently called by the name of 
 that famous cloister than by his own." They were used 
 for a long time in the French schools. He published in 
 1660 "Grammaire generale et raisonnee," a treatise on 
 the philosophy of all languages, which is esteemed a 
 work of the first class. Died in 1695. 
 
 SeeSAiNTH-BEUVE. " Port-Royal;" Moreri, "Dictionnahe His 
 torique;" Nicbkon, " Memoires." 
 
 Lancelot of Naples. See Ladislas. 
 
 Laucelotti, lan-cha-lot'tee, written also Lanceloti, 
 (Giovanni Paolo,) an Italian jurist, born at Perugia in 
 1511. He wrote, in Latin, "Institutes of Canon Law," 
 which were approved by Pope Paul IV. Died in 1591. 
 
 Lancillotti, lan-chel-lot'tee, or Lancelloti, lan-chel- 
 lo'tee, (Seco.ndo,) an Italian author and priest, born at 
 Perugia in 1575. He published in 1630 a successful work 
 entitled "To-Day," (" L'Hoggidi,") intended to prove 
 that the world was not morally or physically worse than 
 it had been in ancient times. He wrote other learned 
 works. Died in Paris in 1643. 
 
 Lancilotti, lan-che-lot'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 painter and poet, born at Florence, lived about 1500. 
 He excelled in nocturnal scenes. 
 
 Lancisi, lan-chee'see, (Giovanni Maria,) an eminent 
 Italian physician and scholar, born at Rome in 1654. For 
 thirteen years he lectured on anatomy with eclat at the 
 College of Sapienza, Rome. He became the chief phy- 
 sician of Pope Innocent XI. in 1688, and served Clement 
 XI. in the same capacity. Besides other professional 
 works, he published, in Latin, a "Treatise on Sudden 
 Deaths," (1707,) and one "On the Noxious Effluvia of 
 Marshes," (1717.) Died in 1720. 
 
 See Assai.ti, "Vie de Lancisi," prefixed to his treatise " De 
 Mom Cordis;" Fabroni, "Vitae Italorum," etc. ; G. M. Crbscim- 
 bkni, " Vita di G. M. Lancisi," 1721 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rate." 
 
 Lancival. See Luce de Lancival. 
 
 Lancjean, I&n'zIion', (Remi, ) a skilful Flemish 
 painter of history, born at Brussels, was a pupil of Van 
 Dyck. Died in 1671. 
 
 Lancre, loNkR, (Pierre,) a French lawyer, and writer 
 on demonology and sorcery, was born at Bordeaux ; died 
 in 1630. 
 
 Lancret, 18N'kR&', (Nicolas,) a French painter, born 
 in Paris in 1690. He imitated the manner of Watteau 
 with success. His reputation was higher in his own 
 time than at the present. Died in 1743. 
 
 Lancrinck or Lankriuk, lan'kRink, (Prosper 
 Henry,) a skilful landscape-painter, of German ex- 
 traction, born about 1628. He worked in England, and 
 was employed by Sir Peter Lely to paint the landscapes, 
 flowers, etc. of his pictures. Died in 1692. 
 
 Lancia, de.da lan'da, (Juan,) a Spanish painter, lived 
 at Pampeluna from 1570 to 1630. 
 
 Landais or Landois, l&N'd.V, (Pierre,) a French 
 parvenu of low birth, born at Vitre, became the favourite 
 of Francis II., Duke of Brittany, who gave him absolute 
 power. Landais was hated by the nobles, who conspired 
 against him and put him to death in 1485. 
 
 Lande. See LalAMDK. 
 
 Landelle, ISN'del', (Charles,) a French historical 
 painter, born at I .aval, Mayenne, about 1816. He ob- 
 tained a medal at the Great Exposition of 1855 for his 
 picture of the " Repose of the Virgin." 
 
 Lan'den, (John,) an English mathematician, born at 
 Peakirk in 1 719. He began to write for the "Ladies' 
 Diary" in 1744, and published in 1755 "Mathematical 
 Lucubrations," in which various parts of high analysis 
 are treated. In 1766 he was admitted into the Royal 
 Society. He wrote several treatises on dynamics and 
 the integral calculus. Among his principal works is his 
 "Residual Analysis," (1764.) Died in 1790. 
 
 C i&i;^3ss;^hard; g ujj G, II, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; sasz; thasin this. (JJ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LANDER 
 
 1366 
 
 LAN DOR 
 
 Lan'der, (Frederick William,) an American en- 
 gineer and general, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 
 1822. He commanded an expedition to open a wagon- 
 road across the plains to California in 1S58. It is stated 
 that he made five explorations across the continent, 
 having been employed by the government to survey a 
 route for a Pacific railroad. In July, 1861, he was ap- 
 pointed a brigadier-general. He was wounded at Ed- 
 wards's Ferry, October, 1861, and signalized his courage 
 at Blooming Gap, Virginia, in February, 1862. He died 
 at Pawpaw, Virginia, in March, 1862, leaving a high 
 reputation for enterprise and bravery. 
 
 Lan'der, (John,) an English traveller, born ill 1807. 
 He accompanied his brother Richard in an expedition to 
 explore the river Nigerin 1830. (See Lander, Richard.) 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 Lander, (Louisa,) an American sculptor, born at 
 Salem, Massachusetts, about 1835, studied at Rome 
 under Crawford. Among her best works may be named 
 statues of " Evangeline" and of " Virginia 'Dare," and 
 a bust of Hawthorne. 
 
 Lander, (Richard,) an English traveller, who has 
 rendered his name memorable by solving the problem 
 of the course of the Niger, was bom at Truro in 1804. 
 He had been employed as a servant by several gentle- 
 men before 1825, when, hearing of Captain Clapperton's 
 proposed expedition to Africa, he offered his services 
 and was engaged by that officer as his confidential ser- 
 vant. (See Clapperton, Hugh.) After performing 
 the last offices to his master, near Saccatoo in April, 
 1827, he returned with the papers of Clapperton to 
 England, where he arrived in 1828. The offer which 
 he "made to renew the enterprise was accepted by gov- 
 ernment. Accompanied by his brother John, he sailed 
 from England in January, 1830, traced the Niger from 
 Vaoori (or Yauri) to its mouth in the Bight of Benin, 
 and returned home in 1831. A "Journal of an Expe- 
 dition to Explore the Course and Termination of the 
 Niger," (2 vols.,) by Richard and John Lander, was 
 published in 1832. The voyage from Yaoori to the 
 mouth of the river occupied about four months, from 
 August 2 to December I, 1830. Having undertaken 
 another expedition to Western Africa in the service of 
 a mercantile company, he was killed by the natives in 
 1835. The most prominent trait of his character was 
 indomitable perseverance. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S32; " North American Re- 
 view" for October, 1S32. 
 
 Landi, lan'dee, (Costanzo,) Count, an Italian phi- 
 lologist and numismatist, born at Piacenza in 1521 ; died 
 in 1564. 
 
 Landi, (Gasparo,) Chevalier, an Italian painter of 
 history and portraits, born at Piacenza in 1756. He 
 worked mostly in Rome, and became professor of paint- 
 ing in the Academy of Saint Luke. He excelled in car- 
 nation tints and in truth of expression. Some Italian 
 critics considered him as one of their best painters. 
 Among his principal works is "The Assumption of the 
 Virgin." Died at Rome in 1830. 
 
 Landi, (Giui.10,) Count, an Italian writer, born at 
 Piacenza about 1500, wrote a romance entitled "The 
 Life of Cleopatra," (1551.) Died about 1580. 
 
 Landi, (Ortensio,) a witty and extravagant Italian 
 writer, born at Milan. He was for some time in the 
 service of the Bishop of Trent, and passed many of his 
 later years in Venice. He published several scandalous 
 and paradoxical works, among which are a " Dialogue 
 on the Death of Erasmus," (1540,) " Paradoxes," (" Para- 
 dossi,") and the "Scourge of Ancient and Modern Au- 
 thors," (1550.) Died about 1560. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratitra Italians." 
 
 Landi, (Stefano,) an Italian composer, born in Rome, 
 lived about 1630. He composed sacred music, and was 
 distinguished for his inventive genius. 
 
 Landini, lan-dee'nee, or Laudino, lan-dee'no, 
 (ChristoforcO an Italian critic and scholar, born at 
 Florence in 14*4, was reputed one of the principal orna- 
 ments of the Platonic Academy of that city. He became 
 professor of belles-lettres at Florence in 1457, and was 
 chosen by Pietro de' Medici to finish the education of 
 his two sons. He wrote several Latin poems, and es- 
 
 teemed commentaries on Horace, Virgil, and Dante, 
 Died in 1504. 
 
 See Ginguene, "Histoirede la Literature Italienne;" Negri, 
 " Istoria de' Scrittori Fiorentini." 
 
 Landini, (Taddeo,) a Florentine sculptor, who worked 
 in Rome and was employed by Gregory XIII., Sixtus V., 
 and Clement VIII. Died about 1594. 
 
 Landino, (Francesco,) an Italian organist and com- 
 poser, sttrnamed Cieco, (the " Blind,") was born at Flor- 
 ence about 1325 ; died in 1390. 
 
 Lan'do or Lan'don, a native of Sabina, was elected 
 pope, as successor to Anastasius III., in 913. He died 
 in 914 A.D., and was succeeded by John X. 
 
 Lando, lan'do, (Pietro,) was elected Doge of Venice 
 in 1539. During his reign the Venetians made peace 
 with the Turks, and resisted the efforts of Charles V. 
 and Francis I. to engage them in new hostilities. Died 
 in 1545, aged eighty-four. 
 
 Landon, 16n'c16n', (Charles Paul,) a French painter 
 and writer on art, born in Normandy in 1760. He 
 studied in Rome as a pensioner of the king, and worked 
 in Paris, but acquired more reputation by his writings 
 than by his paintings. He published many magnificent 
 illustrated works, among which are "The Lives and 
 Works of the Most Eminent Painters of all Schools," 
 (25 vols., 1803 et seq.,) and "Annals of the Museum," 
 etc., ("Annalesdu Musee et de l'Ecole des Beaux-Arts," 
 (33 vols., 1 80S.) Died in 1826. 
 
 See Queraru, "La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generaie." 
 
 Lan'don, (Letitia ELIZABETH,) a popular English 
 poetess, born in a suburb of London in 1802. She began 
 to write verse about the age, of thirteen, and in 1820 
 became a contributor to the " Literary Gazette," under 
 the signature of L. E. L. These poetical efforts pro- 
 cured for her an extensive reputation, and enabled her 
 to support herself. She produced, anonymously, two 
 novels, entitled "Romance and Reality" and "Ethel 
 Churchill," and poems called "The Troubadour," "Ze- 
 nana," etc. Her poems are chiefly of a Sentimental or 
 romantic character. In 1838 she was married to George 
 Maclean, Governor of Cape Coast Castle, Africa, whither 
 they went to reside. Her death, which occurred in 1839, 
 is ascribed to prussic acid, which she was in the habit of 
 taking as medicine. 
 
 See Laman Blanchard. "Life and Literary Remains of L. E. 
 L.," 3 vols., 1840: "Autobiography ofWiliiara Jeidan," vol. iii. ; 
 Mrs. Ei.wood, "Memoirs ot' the Literary Ladies of England from 
 the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1843; Allibone, 
 "Dictionary of Authors;" "Monthly Review" for July, 1825; 
 "Atlantic Monthly" for March, 1865. 
 
 Lan'dor, (Walter Savage,) an eminent English 
 author, born at Ipsley Court, Warwickshire, January 
 30, 1775, was a son of Walter Landor, who married a 
 rich heiress named Elizabeth Savage. He was edu- 
 cated at Rugby and at Trinity College, Oxford, became 
 master of an independent fortune, and followed no pro- 
 fession except that of author. He published a volume 
 of poems in 1795, and a poem entitled "Gebir" in 1798. 
 In 1806 he sold his large estates, quitted England in 
 disgust, and removed to the continent. He served as a 
 colonel in the Spanish army against Napoleon from 1808 
 to 1814. In 1811 he married Julia Thuillier, of Bath. 
 He became a resident of Florence about 1816, and occu- 
 pied the palace of the Medici for several years. He pub- 
 lished in 1820 Latin poems, entitled "Idyllia Heroica." 
 His reputation was extended by his "Imaginary Con- 
 versations of Literary Men and Statesmen," (5 vols., 
 1824-29,) which presented many novel and paradoxical 
 ideas. Among his other works are "Count Julian," a 
 poem, (1831,) " Pericles and Aspasia," (1836,) "Andrea 
 of Hungary," a drama, (1839,) "The Hellenics," (1S47,) 
 and "The Last Fruit of an Old Tree," (1853.) He was 
 a friend of Robert Southey. Died at Florence in Sep- 
 tember, 1864. 
 
 See John Foster. "Walter S. Landor; a Biography," 1869; 
 "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1824, February, 1S37, 
 and October, i8.3g; "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1846, and April, 
 1850; "North British Review" for November, 1846, and July, 1N60; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generaie;" R. W. Emerson, "English 
 Traits;" " Biographical Sketches," by Harriet Martineau; Miss 
 Field, "Last Days of W. S. Landor," in the "Atlantic Monthly" 
 for April, May, and June, 1866. 
 
 2, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o, u, y, short; a, e, 1,9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; nfttjgood; moon; 
 
LANDRIANI 
 
 1367 
 
 LANGBAINE 
 
 Landriani,lSn-dRe-i'nee,(PAOLoCAMiLi.o,)a painter 
 of the Milanese school, born about 1 570; died about 161 8. 
 
 Land'seer, (Charles,) an English painter, a son of 
 John Landscer, noticed below, was barn in 1799. He 
 received lessons from Haydon, and acquired a fair repu- 
 tation as an artist. His subjects are chiefly taken from 
 English history and poetry. His "Monks of Melrose" 
 (1843) gained a prize of about ^300. He was chosen 
 an Academician in 1845, and keeper of the Academy in 
 
 Landseer, (Sir Edwin,) the most celebrated modern 
 fainter of animals, was born in London in 1803. He 
 teamed to draw after nature in his childhood, under the 
 direction of his father, began to exhibit in 1817, and at 
 the age of eighteen painted his admirable " Dogs of Saint 
 Gothard." Between 1821 and 1830 he produced "The 
 Prowling Lion," "The Return from Deer-Stalking," 
 (1827,) and " Hunting of Chevy Chase." He was elected 
 Royal Academician in 1830, after which he exhibited " Sir 
 Walter Scott and his Dogs," (1833,) "Bolton Abbey in the 
 Olden Time," "The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner," 
 (1837,) highly praised by Ruskin "as one of the most per- 
 fect poems or pictures (I use the words as synonymous) 
 which modern times have seen." His humorous picture 
 of "Laying Down the Law" appeared in 1S40. His 
 marvellous technical skill is subordinated to the expres- 
 sion of sentiment or pathos in a " Pastoral Scene," (1845,) 
 "Peace" and " War," (1846,) and other works. Among 
 his master-pieces are a portrait of a Newfoundland dog, 
 styled "A Member of the Humane Society," (1838,) "A 
 Scene from the 'Midsummer Night's Dream,'" (1851,) 
 and "The Children of the Mist," (1853.) Many of his 
 works have been engraved. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1856. 
 
 Landseer, (John,) an English engraver, the father of 
 the preceding, was born at Lincoln in 1769. Having 
 acquired reputation by excellent engravings of animals, 
 after Rubens and other artists, he was chosen associate 
 engraver of the Royal Academy about 1807. He lec- 
 tured on art in London, and published several treatises 
 on art, one of which is entitled "Sabasan Researches," 
 (1823.) Died in 1852. 
 
 Landseer, (Thomas,) an English artist and eminent 
 engraver, son of the preceding, was born before 1800. 
 Among his most admired productions are engravings of 
 his brother Edwin'* pictures of animals, and of Rosa 
 Bonheur's " Horse-Fair." 
 
 Lan'dulph, [Fr. Landulphk, loVdiilf,] a mediaeval 
 historian and priest, born at Milan about 1080, was a 
 pupil of Anselm of Laon. He wrote, in Latin, a " His- 
 tory of Milan from 1095 to 1 137." 
 
 Lane, (EDWARD William,) an English Orientalist, 
 born at Hereford in 1801, He resided several years in 
 Egypt, and published an interesting and valuable work 
 "On the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyp- 
 tians," (1836,) and a very complete "Arabic-and-Eng- 
 lish Lexicon," (in two Parts, 1863-65.) 
 
 Lane, (HENRY S.,) an American Senator and lawyer, 
 born in Montgomery county, Kentucky, in 181 1, removed 
 to Indiana. He represented a district of Indiana in Con- 
 gress, 1841-43, and was elected Governor of that State 
 as a Republican in 1861. Having been chosen a Sen- 
 atoi of the United States in 1861, he resigned the office 
 of Governor, 
 
 Lane, (James H.,) an American general, born at Law- 
 rencehurg, Indiana, in 1814. He was elected to Congress 
 in 1852, and removed in 1855 to Kansas, where he be- 
 came a leader of the Free State party. He was elected 
 major-general by the legislature of Kansas in 1857, and 
 a Senator of the United States in 1861. He commanded 
 a brigade in the first year of the civil war, but retained 
 his seat in the Senate. Died by suicide in July, 1866. 
 
 Lane, (JOSEPH,) an American general and politician, 
 born in North Carolina in 1801. He distinguished him- 
 self in the principal engagements of the Mexican war of 
 1846-47, and rose to the rank of major-general. He 
 became Governor of Oregon Territory in 1848, and was 
 elected United States Senator from the State of Oregon 
 in 1859. In i860 he was the Democratic candidate for 
 Vice-President, John C. Breckinridge being the nominee 
 for President. 
 
 Lane, (Sir Richard,) an English lawyer, born ia 
 Northamptonshire. He was counsel for the Earl of 
 Strafford in 1640, and was an adherent of the king in the 
 civil war. In 1645 he became keeper of the great seal. 
 Died in 165 1. 
 
 Lane, (Richard James,) an English lithographer, 
 born in Hereford about 1800. 
 
 Lan'franc, [Lat. Lanfran'cus ; It. Lanfranco, Ian- 
 fRan'ko,] a distinguished prelate, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, was born at Pavia about 1005. Having embraced 
 the monastic life, he became celebrated for piety and 
 learning. He was a counsellor of William of Normandy 
 before his conquest of England, and in 1070 was chosen 
 Archbishop t>f Canterbury. " His zeal in promoting the 
 interests of the papacy," says Hume, "was indefati- 
 gable." He enjoyed in a high degree the confidence 
 of the kin;;, who consulted him in affairs of state. He 
 crowned William Ruftis in 1087, and died in 1089, leaving 
 several works on theology. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. ii. chap. ii. ; A. Charma, " Lanfranc, Notice biographique, lit- 
 teVaire," etc., 1849 ; " Nouvelle Biograpbie Gene'raie.^ 
 
 Lanfranco. See Lanfranc. 
 
 Lanfranco, lan-fKan'ko, or Lanfranc, lan-fRank', 
 [Lat. Lanfran'cus,] an Italian surgeon, born at Milan 
 about 1250. He removed in 1295 to Paris, where he 
 practised and lectured with a high reputation. He 
 wrote a treatise on surgery, entitled " Chirurgia magna 
 et parva," (1490.) 
 
 Lanfranco or Lanfranc, (Giovanni,) an eminent 
 Italian painter, born at Parma in 1581. He received 
 lessons from the three Caracci, whom, in design and 
 expression, he imitated. He worked in Rome for the 
 Dukes Famese and the Borghese family, and afterwards 
 in Naples. His painting on the cupola of San Andrea 
 della Valle, Rome, was much admired. His works in oil 
 and fresco are very numerous. Died at Rome in 1647. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy." 
 
 Lanfrancus. See Lanfranc and Lanfranco. 
 
 Lang, (Joiiann Michael) See Lange. 
 
 Lang, lang, (Karl Nikolaus,) a Swiss physician, 
 born at Lucerne in 1670. He practised medicine with 
 success in his native place, cultivated natural history, 
 and acquired fame by his work' on the figured stones of 
 Switzerland, " Idea Historian naturalis Lapidum figurato- 
 rum Helvetia:," (1705.) Died in 1741. 
 
 Lang, (Lotus,) born in Wiirtemberg, Germany, in 
 1814, studied painting in Paris, and subsequently at 
 Rome. In 1845 he settled in New York City, where 
 he has executed numerous works. 
 
 Lang, von, fon lang, (Karl Heinrich,) a German 
 historical writer, born in Suabia in 1764, was appointed 
 in 181 1 director of the archives of the kingdom at Munich, 
 He published a " History of the Jesuits in Bavaria," and 
 other works relative to that country. Died in 1835. 
 
 See Karl Hp.inrich Lang, "Memoiren," 1842. 
 
 Langallerie, de, deh loN'gSTre', (Philippe de Gen- 
 tils,) Marquis, a French military adventurer, born at 
 Lamotte-Charente in 1656. He gained the rank of gene- 
 ral in the French army, and afterwards fought under 
 Prince Eugene against the French. He died in 171 7, 
 leaving two volumes of Memoirs, (1709,) which have 
 been translated into English. 
 
 Langara, de, da lin-ga'ra, (Don Juan,) a Spanish 
 admiral, born about 1730. He was defeated near Cape 
 Saint Vincent in 1780 by an English fleet under Rodney, 
 but was in the same year made lieutenant-general of the 
 navy. He commanded the Spanish fleet which took 
 Toulon in 1793. Died in 1 800. 
 
 Langbaine, lang'ban, (Gerard,) D.D., an English 
 scholar, born in Westmoreland about 1608. He became 
 a Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and in 1644 keeper 
 of the archives of the university. He edited Longinus, 
 and left several useful catalogues, which remain in manu- 
 script. Died in 1658. 
 
 Langbaine, (Gerard,) the son of the" preceding, was 
 born at Oxford in 1656. Having collected many old 
 plays, (nine hundred and eighty,) he published .-^cata- 
 logue of the same, called " Momus Triumphans," which 
 was improved and reprinted in 1691, with the title of 
 
 € as *; c as /; g hard;'%3&j; G,H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled ; lass; thasin this. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LJNGBEIN 
 
 1368 
 
 LANGHORNE 
 
 "Account of the English Dramatic Poets." This work 
 is prized for the information it affords, but has little 
 critical merit. Died in 1692. 
 
 Langbein, lang'bin, (August Friedrich Ernst,) a 
 German poet and writer of fiction, born at Radeburg, 
 near Dresden, in 1757. He became a resident of Berlin 
 in 1800. He published a numljer of romances, songs, 
 and humorous poems, which had a transient popularity. 
 Among his prose works are " Talismans against Ennui," 
 "The Wings of Time," and "Ganymeda," (1823.) He 
 had an agreeable style, but little imagination. Died in 
 
 I835- 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Langdale, Lord. See Bickersteth, (Henry.) 
 
 Lang'dale, (Sir Marmaduke,) an English general, 
 born in Yorkshire. He fought for the king in the civil 
 war, and commanded with success at the siege of Ponte- 
 fract Castle. He commanded the left wing at Naseby 
 in 1645, and was defeated by Cromwell at Preston in 
 1648. On the restoration he returned to England in 
 1660, after many years of exile, and was chosen lord 
 lieutenant of Yorkshire. Died in 1661. 
 
 Lang'dpn, (John,) LL.D, an American statesman, 
 born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1739. He 
 became successively a delegate ro the General Congress, 
 member of the United States Senate in 1789, and Gov- 
 ernor of New Hampshire several times between 1S05 
 and 181 1. He acted with the Republican party. Died 
 in 1819. 
 
 Langdon, (Samuel,) D.D., an American divine and 
 theological writer, born at Boston about 1723, became 
 president of Harvard College in 1774, and resigned in 
 1780. Died in 1797. 
 
 Lange, lang'eh, (Joachim,) a German linguist and 
 writer, born at Gardelegen in 1670. He became pro- 
 fessor of theology at Halle in 1709, and published, be- 
 sides some theological works, a Latin Grammar and a 
 Greek Grammar, which were successful. Died in 1744. 
 
 Lange, [Lat. Lan'gius,] (Johann,) a learned German 
 physician, born at Lemberg, in Silesia, in 1485. He 
 was first physician to several Electors-Palatine. He 
 wrote professional works which are commended. Died 
 in 1565. 
 
 Lange or Lang, lang, (Johann Michael,) a German 
 Protestant divine, eminent as an Orientalist, born at 
 Ezelwangen in 1664. He lived as inspector at Prentzlau 
 from 1710 until his death, in 1731. He published a 
 treatise "On Mohammedan Fables," (1697,) and several 
 critical essays. 
 
 Lange, (Joseph.) a German philologist, born at Kai- 
 sersberg. He published editions of Martial, Juvenal, and 
 Persius, also " Florilegium," (1598.) Died about 1630. 
 
 Lange, (Joseph,) a celebrated actor, born at Wiirz- 
 burg, Bavaria, in 1751. He became a favourite on the 
 theatre of Vienna, where he performed many years. Died 
 about 1820. 
 
 Lange, lang'eh, (Lars,) a Danish or Swedish traveller, 
 born at Stockholm. Having entered the Russian service 
 as an officer of engineers, he was sent as minister to 
 Pekin in 17 19, and again in 1726. Several narratives of 
 these journeys were published. The Journal of Lange 
 contains some interesting notices of the nomadic tribes 
 of Siberia. 
 
 Lange, [Lat. Lan'gius,! (Rudolph,) of Minister, a 
 German writer, born about 1438. He published some 
 Latin poems. Died in 1519. 
 
 Lange, de, deh lang'eh, written also Langhe, [Lat. 
 Lan'gius,] (Charles^) an eminent Flemish philologist 
 and critic, born at Ghent or Brussels. He edited Cicero's 
 treatises "De Officiis," " De Amicitia," and " De Senec- 
 tute." Lipsius pronounced him the most learned Fleming 
 of his time. Died at Liege in 1573. 
 
 See Fei.txvan Hulst, "C. de Langhe (Carolus Langius) et Lievin 
 Van'lerbeke," 1846. 
 
 Langeac, de, deh l&N'zhaV, (N. de l'Espinasse,) 
 Chevalier, a French poet, born about 1748. He pro- 
 duced, besides a number of original poems, a version of 
 Virgil's "Bucolics." (1806.) Died in 1839. 
 
 Langebeck, lang'eh-bek', (jACon,) a learned Danish 
 writer, born in Jutland in 17 10. He was employed by 
 the king to collect manuscripts, inscriptions, etc. He 
 
 became keeper of the national archives, and councillor 
 of state. His principal work is a great collection of 
 Danish writers, under the title of "Darish Historians 
 of the Middle Ages," ("Scriptores Rerum Danicarum 
 medii /Evi," 1772.) Died in 1774. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Langeland. See Longi.and. 
 
 Langenbeck, lang'en-bek', (Konrad Johann Mar- 
 tin,) a German surgeon and anatomist, born in the king- 
 dom of Hanover in 1776, wrote a " Manual of Anatomy," 
 (1806,) " Icones Anatomicas," (8 vols., 1826-39,) and 
 other valuable works. Died in 1851. 
 
 See Saint-Maurice Cabanv," C.J. M. Langenbeck," etc., 1852. 
 
 Laugendyk, lano'en-dlk', (Pieter.) a Dutch poet, 
 born at Haarlem in 1662. He excelled in humorous 
 composition, and was the author of several epigrams 
 and comedies, among which is " Don Quixote at the 
 Wedding of Camacho." Died in 1735. 
 
 Langenn, von, fon lang-en', (Friedrich Albrecht,) 
 a German jurist, born at Merseburg in 1 798, was appointed 
 in 1835 tutor to Prince Albert, 
 
 Langenstein, lang'en-stin', (Heinrich,) a German 
 astronomer and theologian, born in Hesse, was called 
 Hknricus de Hassia. Died at Vienna in 1397. 
 
 Langer, Ling'er, (Johann Peter,) a German painter, 
 born in 1756, became successively director of the Acad- 
 emy of Arts at Dusseldorf and at Munich, where he 
 obtained great reputation and success as a teacher. His 
 best picture represents "Christ Blessing Children." 
 Died in 1824. His son Robert, born at Dusseldorf in 
 1783, was distinguished as a fresco-painter and designer. 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 Langeron, de, deh lo\zh'r6N', (Andrault,) Count, 
 a general, born in Paris in 1763. He emigrated in 1789, 
 entered the Russian service, and became a lieutenant- 
 general in 1799. He commanded a Russian division at 
 Austerlitz, in 1805, and gained some advantages over the 
 French in the campaign of 1813. Died in 1831. 
 
 Langetti, lan-jet'tee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Ital- 
 ian painter, born at Genoa in 1635 ; died in 1676. 
 
 Langham, lang'am, de, (Simon,) an English car- 
 dinal, born in Rutlandshire. He was appointed by the 
 king chancellor in 1364, became Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury in 1366, and a cardinal in 1368. He was hostile 
 to Wycliffe, whom he removed from the mastership of 
 a college at Oxford. The temporalities of his see were 
 seized by Edward HI. about 1368. Died in 1376. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. iv. chap. xiii. 
 
 Langhans, lang'hans, (Karl Gotthard,) an eminent 
 German architect, born at Landshut in 1733. He was 
 appointed director of the public buildings of Berlin, and 
 adorned that city with several fine structures, among 
 which are the Brandenburg Gate and a theatre. He 
 was the author of some treatises on architecture. Died 
 in 1808. 
 
 Langhe, de, (Charles.) See Lange. 
 
 Lang'horne, (Rev. Daniel,) an English antiquary, 
 born in London. He published " Chronicle of the 
 Kings of England," ("Chronicon Regum Anglorum," 
 1679.) Died in l68l. 
 
 Langhorne, (John,) an English poet and translator, 
 born in Westmoreland in 1735. Having taken holy 
 orders, he obtained a curacy in London in 1764. He 
 wrote a nurr.ber of successful sentimental works in prose 
 and verse, among which are " Letters of Theodosius and 
 Constantia," and " The Fatal Prophecy," a drama. About 
 1768 he obtained the living of Blagden, Somersetshire. 
 His reputation rests chiefly on his translation of Plu- 
 tarch's "Lives," (1770,) which is correct and literal. 
 He was assisted in this by his brother William. He 
 vindicated the Scotch against the satire of Churchill in 
 a poem called " Genius and Valour." His versification 
 is easy and harmonious. Died in 1779' 
 
 See Johnson and Chalmers, "Lives of the English Poets;' 
 CAMPBELL, "Si>eciinens of the British Poets." 
 
 Langhorne, (William,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born in 1 72 1, and became rector of Folkstone. He 
 assisted his brother in the translation of Plutarch, and 
 published " Job, a Poem," and a paraphrase in verse of 
 a part of Isaiah. Died in 1772. 
 
 »,e 
 
 , I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon, 
 
LANGINI 
 
 1369 
 
 LANJUINAIS 
 
 Langini, lan-jee'nee, (Anton lo,) called also Antonio 
 da Carrara, because he was bom at Carrara, an Italian 
 sculptor, lived about 1530. 
 
 Larjgius. See Langk. 
 
 Langlade, de, deh loN'gltd', (Jacques,) Baron de 
 Saumieres, a French writer, born in Perigord about 
 1620. He was secretary to Cardinal Mazarin. Died 
 in 1680. 
 
 Langle, 15N'gla', (Honore Francois Marie,) an able 
 writer on music, born at Monaco in 1 741. He published 
 a "Treatise on Harmony and Modulation," (1797,) and 
 composed several operas. Died in 1807. 
 
 Langle, de, deh l&.vgl, (Jean Maximilien,) a French 
 Protestant minister and writer, born at Evreux in 1590 ; 
 died at Rouen in 1674. 
 
 Langle, de, (Paul Antoine Marie Fi.ruriot,) an 
 able French naval officer, born in 1744. He sailed as 
 second in command of La Perouse's exploring expe- 
 dition. He was killed by the savages on one of the 
 Navigator Islands in 1787. 
 
 Langles, ldN'gless', (Louis Mathieu,) a French Ori- 
 entalist, born near Saint-Didier in 1763. He gave special 
 attention to Arabic and Persian, became a member of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions, professor of Persian in 
 Paris, and keeper of the Oriental manuscripts of the 
 National Library, (1795.) Among his numerous works 
 are a French version of the " Political and Military 
 Institutes of Tamerlane," translations from the Eng- 
 lish of several books of travels in the East, a Mantchoo 
 Dictionary, and "Ancient and Modern Monuments of 
 Hindustan," (S vols., 1812-21, unfinished.) Died in 1824. 
 
 See Abrl Remusat, " Nouveattx Melanges Asiatiques;" J. P. 
 A. Remus at, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de L. M. Langles," 
 1825; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Langlet. See Lf.nglet. 
 
 Lang'ley, (Hatty,) an English architect, who pro- 
 1 to improve the Gothic style of architecture by an 
 absurd imitation of the Grecian orders. He published 
 several works on architecture. Died in 1751. 
 
 Langlois, loVghvi', (Eustache Hyacinths,) a skil- 
 ful French designer and engraver, born in Normandy in 
 1777, worked chiefly at Rouen. His reputation is said 
 to have increased since his death. He published a 
 "Collection of Views, Sites, and Monuments of France," 
 and several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1837. 
 
 See Gilbert, " Notice biographique sur M. I.anglt'is," 1839. 
 
 Langlois, (Jean,) a French engraver, born in Paris 
 in 1649, became a resident of Rome. 
 
 Langlois, (Jean Charles,) a French painter of bat- 
 tles and panoramas, born in Calvados in 1789. Among 
 his works are panoramas of the "Battle of Moskwa," 
 (1835,) and the " Burning of Moscow," (1839.) 
 
 L'Anglois, 18N'glwa', (Michel,) [Lat. Michael 
 AMii.i'cus,] a Flemish priest and Latin poet, born at 
 Beaumont about 1470. 
 
 Langlois, (Simon Alexandre,) a French Orientalist, 
 born in 1788. He was elected a member of the Acad- 
 emy of Inscriptions in 1835. Among his works is " Rig 
 Veda, ou Livre des Hymnes," translated from the San- 
 scrit, (4 vols., 1849-52.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Langrish, lang'grish, (Browne,) an English physi- 
 cian, born about 1700, wrote several works on medicine. 
 Died in 1759. 
 
 Langsdorff, langs'doRf, (Georg Heinrich,) Baron, 
 a German naturalist and physician, born in Suabia in 
 [ 774, accompanied Krusenstern's expedition to the 
 Noith, (1803,) and afterwards visited Brazil. He pub- 
 lished a Treatise on " Plants collected during the Rus- 
 sian Voyage around the World," (1810,) and other works. 
 Died in' 1852. 
 
 Lang'toft, (Peter,) an English chronicler, who lived 
 about 1300, was a canon-regular of the order of Saint 
 Austin at Bridlington. He compiled a "Chronicle of 
 England," (in French verse:,) which extends to the year 
 1307. He is supposed to have died in the reign of Ed- 
 ward II. 
 
 Lang'ton, (Stephen,) an English cardinal, Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. In 1206 he went to Rome, and 
 Ml made a cardinal. The election of Archbishop of 
 Canterbury being contested in 1207, Innocent III. com- 
 pelled the monks to choose I^ngton, whom King John 
 
 refused to recognize until the pope, by laying his king- 
 dom under an interdict, reduced him to submiss ->n in 
 1213. He co-operated with the insurgent barons in 
 asserting the national liberties against King John in 
 1215, and was suspended by the pope for refusing to 
 publish the sentence of excommunication against the 
 barons. Died in 1228. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. ii. chap. xii. 
 
 Languet, lftN'gJ', (Hubert,) a French Protectant 
 and political writer, born in Burgundy in 1518, was a 
 friend of Sir Philip Sidney. He entered the service of 
 Augustus, Elector of Saxony, in 1568, and was the envoy 
 of that prince to Paris at the time of the Massacre of 
 Saint Bartholomew, from which he escaped. He was 
 afterwards employed as negotiator by William, Prince 
 of Orange. In 1579 he published, under the name of 
 Junius Brutus, a famous work, entitled " Vindiciae contra 
 Tvrannos," a bold assertion of the right of resistance to 
 tyrants. Died in 1 581. 
 
 See Philirert dr i.a Mare, "Vie d'Hubert Languet," 1700; 
 Chevreui., "Hubert Languet," 1852; Bavi.e, "Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gene'rale." 
 
 Languet de Gergy, ldN'gi' deh zheVzhe', (Jean 
 Baftiste Joseph,) a French philanthropist and bene- 
 lactor, was born at Dijon in 1675. He became vicar of 
 Saint-Sulpice, Paris, and built the 'magnificent church 
 of Saint-Sulpice, finished in 1745. He also founded in 
 Paris an institution in which poor women and girls were 
 supported and educated. It is said that he several times 
 refused a bishopric. Died in 1750. 
 
 Languet de Gergy, (J fan Joseph,) a French theo- 
 logian, born at Dijon in 1677, was a brother of the pre- 
 ceding* He was a zealous adversary of the Jansenists, 
 and gained distinction by his polemical writings. He 
 became a member of the French Academy in 1721, and 
 Archbishop of Sens in 1730. He published Catechisms, 
 and other religious books. Died in 1753. 
 
 Lanier or Laniere, la-ne-aiR', (Niccol6,) an Italian 
 painter and musician, was born in 1568. He lived in Eng- 
 land in the reign of Charles I., who patronized him and 
 employed him to purchase pictures. He was more eminent 
 as a musician than as a painter, and became the king's 
 chapel-master in 1626. Lanier was also a dealer in 
 pictures, and purchased several at the sale and dispersion 
 of the collection of Charles I. Died about 1660. 
 
 Lanl-gan, (John,) an Irish writer and Roman Cath- 
 olic priest, bom at Cashel in 1 758. Among his works is 
 an "Ecclesiastical History of Ireland," (4 vols., 1822.) 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 Lanino, la-nee'no, or Lanini, la-nee'nee, (Bernar- 
 dino,) an eminent Italian painter, born at Vercelli, was 
 a pupil of Gaudenzio Ferrari, whom he imitated. He 
 worked at Milan and Novara. His design and composi- 
 tion are admired. Among his master-pieces are " Scenes 
 in the Life of the Virgin," "The Sibyls," (at Novara,) 
 and " The Martyrdom of Saint Catherine," (in fresco,) at 
 Milan. Died about 1570. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " Storia pittorica." 
 
 Lanjuinais, loN'zhii-e'nJ', (Jean Denis,) Count, a 
 French lawyer and liberal legislator, born at Rennes in 
 1753. He was deputed to the States-General in 1789, 
 and to the Convention in 1792. In the latter body he 
 boldly defended the king during his trial, and resisted 
 the terrorists with great energy. His defence of the 
 Girondists in May, 1793, is praised by Lamartine. He 
 was proscribed with the Girondists, but escaped, and 
 kept himself concealed during the reign of terror. He 
 was chosen a senator in 1800, and a member of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions in 1808. He published many 
 political, religious, and historical treatises. Died in 1827. 
 
 See Dupin, " Notice sur Lanjuinais," 1S27 : IIacihr, " Notice sur 
 
 la Vie et les Ouvrages de Lanjuinais;" Michki. Bkrr. "Notice 
 
 : Mqne sur le Comte Lanjuinais," 1827 ; V. DE Lanjuinais 
 
 "Notice nistorique sur J. T>. de Lanjuinais," 1832: Lamartine, 
 
 " History of tbe Girondists;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Lanjuinais, (Joseph,) a French writer, uncle of the 
 preceding, was born in Bretagne. Having removed to 
 Moudon, in Switzerland, he turned Protestant, and became 
 a school-teacher. He published, besides other works, 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, K, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2ySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LANJUINAIS 
 
 '37° 
 
 LANTARA 
 
 "The Accomplished Monarch ; or, Prodigies of Goodness 
 and Wisdom which make the Eulogy of the Emperor 
 Joseph II.," (3 vols., 1774.) Died in 1808. 
 
 Lanjuinais, (VICTOR,) a French lawyer, a son of Jean 
 Denis, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1802. He was 
 elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1838, and to the 
 Constituent Assembly in 1848. 
 
 Lank'es-ter, (Edwin,) F.R.S., an English naturalist 
 and popular lecturer, born at Melton, in Suffolk, in 1814, 
 graduated as M.D. at Heidelberg in 1839. He was chosen 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1S45, and professor of 
 natural history at New College, London, in 1850. He 
 lectuied on natural history at the Royal Institution and 
 other places, and contributed scientific papers to various 
 periodicals. He became joint editor of the "Quarterly 
 Journal of Microscopical Science" in 1853. Among his 
 works are an article on sanitary science in the " Ency- 
 clopaedia Britannica," and " Half-Hours with the Micro- 
 scope," (1859.) 
 
 Lankrink See Lancrink. 
 
 Lanner, lan'ner, (Joseph Franz Karl,) a German 
 composer, born at Vienna in 1802. His works consist 
 chiefly of overtures, ballet-pieces, marches, and waltzes. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Lanues, lSn, (Jean,) Duke of Montebello, one of the 
 most celebrated marshals of the French empire, was 
 born of humble parentage at Lectoure (Gers) in 1769. 
 He entered the army as a volunteer in 1792, and was 
 rapidly promoted until the coup d'itat of the 9th Thermi- 
 dor, 1794, when he was forced to retire from the army. 
 As chef-de-bataillon, he served under Bonaparte in Italy 
 in 1796, and was made a colonel for his conduct at Mon- 
 tenotte. In 1798 he followed Bonaparte to Egypt, where 
 he became a general of division and rendered important 
 service at Aboukir. His courage and capacity were very 
 conspicuous at the battles of Montebello and Marengo, 
 in 1800. He was sent on a diplomatic mission to Por- 
 tugal in 1801, and on his return, in 1804, was created a 
 marshal of the empire and Duke of Montebello. 
 
 Lannes commanded the left wing of the grand army 
 in the campaign of 1805, and added to his already 
 brilliant reputation at Austerlitz and Jena, (1806.) His 
 military skill was exerted with success at the memorable 
 siege of Saragossa, where he commanded in chief, in 
 1809. In the second war against Austria he contributed 
 to the victory at Eckmiihl, (1809,) and directed the suc- 
 cessful attack on Ratisbon, where, when his men faltered, 
 he seized a scaling-ladder and ran forward through " the 
 imminent deadly breach." He was mortally wounded at 
 the battle of Aspern and Essling, in May, 1809. In the 
 midst of the conflict, Napoleon paused to address the 
 dying general, who said, "Adieu, Sire! Live for the 
 world ; but bestow a few thoughts on one of your best 
 friends, who in a few hours will be no more." The em- 
 peror is said to have been more deeply affected by this 
 scene than he ever was before. " Lannes was at once," 
 said Napoleon, " the Roland of the army and a giant in 
 capacity. He had been in fifty-four pitched battles. He 
 was cool in the midst of fire, and possessed a clear, 
 penetrating eye. Violent and hasty in his temper, some- 
 times even in my presence, he was yet ardently attached 
 to me. As a general, he was greatly superior to Moreau 
 or Soult. I found him a mere swordsman ; I raised him 
 to the highest point of art." He left a son, Napoleon 
 Auguste, Duke of Montebello? 
 
 See Rene Perin, " Vie militairede J. Lannes," 1S10: Chateau- 
 neuf, "Vie du Marecha! Lannes," 1813: Thiers, " History of the 
 French Revolution;" " Nouvelle Biographic G£ne>ale." 
 
 Lannes, (Napoleon Auguste.) Duke of Montebello, 
 a son of the preceding, was born in 1802. He was sent 
 as ambassador to Naples in 1838, and became minister 
 of the marine in 1847. In 1849 he was elected to the 
 Legislative Assembly, in which he voted with the ma- 
 jority. He was appointed ambassador to Russia in 1858, 
 and commander-in-chief of the French army at Rome 
 about June, 1862. 
 
 Latino, If no', (Francois Gaspard Aime,) a French 
 sculptor, born at Rennes in 1800. He gained the first 
 prize in 1827 for his Mucins Scxvola. Among his works 
 are statues of Fenelon and Pascal. 
 
 Lannoi. See Lannoy. 
 
 Lannoy, If nwa', (Juliana Cornelia,) Baroness ok, 
 an eminent Dutch poetess, born at Breda in 1738. Her 
 poetical talents were displayed in satires, odes, and epis- 
 tles, which are admired for elegance and spirit-stirring 
 power. She produced three successful tragedies, " Leo 
 the Great," (1767,) "The Siege of Haarlem," (1770,) and 
 "Cleopatra," (1776.) Died in 1782. 
 
 Lannoy or Lannoi, de, deh If nwa', (Charles,) a 
 famous general of the Spanish armies, was born in Flan- 
 ders about 1470. Having served with distinction in 
 various campaigns, he received the badge of the Golden 
 Fleece in 1516, and was appointed Viceroy of Naples by 
 Charles V. in 1521. After the death of Prosper Colonna, 
 he commanded the imperial armies, and in 1525 gained 
 the decisive victory of Pavia, where he exchanged swords 
 with Francis I. Died in 1527. (6ee Avalos, Fe^dinando 
 d', Marquis de Pescara.) 
 
 His son Ferdinand, Duke of Boyennes, born in Italy 
 about 1510, was versed in mathematics, and was reputed 
 the inventor of the demi-cannon. He attained the rank 
 of general of artillery in the Spanish army, and was after- 
 wards Governor of Holland and of Gray. Died in 1579. 
 
 La Noue. See Noue, La. 
 
 Lanoue, If 1100', (Felix Hippolyte,) a French land- 
 scape-painter, born at Versailles in 1812. He gained the 
 first prize for landscapes in 1841. 
 
 Lansberg, lilns'beRG', or Lansperg, lans'p?Ro', 
 (Johann,) an ascetic German writer and monk, born at 
 Landsberg, in Bavaria. Died in 1539. Among his chief 
 works is a "Manual of the Christian Warfare," ("En- 
 chiridion Militia; Christiana," 1546,) which he wrote in 
 opposition to the " Miles Christianus" of Erasmus. 
 
 Lansberg, lans'beRgor lans'beuH, written alsoLans- 
 berghe, (Philippus,) a Dutch astronomer and geometer, 
 born in Zealand in 1561. He was for many years pastor 
 of the Protestant church at Ter-Goes. He published, 
 besides other works on mathematics, a " Treatise on the 
 Diurnal and Annual Motion of the Earth," (1630,) in 
 which he advocates the Copernican system, and "Geom- 
 etry of Triangles," (1631.) Died in 1632. 
 
 See Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Foppens, 
 " Bibliotheca Belgica." 
 
 Lansdowne. See Granville, (George.) 
 
 Lansdowne, lanz'down, (Henry Petty Fitz-Mau- 
 RICE,) third Marquis of, an eminent English statesman, 
 born in 1780, was the second son of the first Marquis. 
 (See Shelburne.) About 1795 he was placed under 
 the tuition of Dugald Stewart in Edinburgh, and several 
 years later he graduated at Cambridge. In 1802 Lord 
 Henry Petty entered the House of Commons, where he 
 at length became a successful debater. He was ap- 
 pointed chancellor of the exchequer when the Whig 
 ministry of Grenville and Fox came into power in 1806, 
 but retired from that office in March of the ensuing 
 year. He married a daughter of the Earl of Uchester 
 in 1808. At the death of his brother, in 1809, he in- 
 herited the title of marquis, and passed into the House 
 of Lords. He cordially supported at different times the 
 efforts to abolish slavery, spoke ably in favour of Catholic 
 emancipation, and acted generally with the Whig party. 
 In 1827 he was secretary for the home department under 
 Canning for three or four months ; and during the brief 
 ministry of Lord Goderich, which resigned about the 
 end of 1828, he was secretary of foreign affairs. On the 
 formation of a Whig ministry by Lord Grey in 1831, Lord 
 Lansdowne became president of the Council, which po- 
 sition he filled with credit until 1841. He was the leader 
 of the opposition in the House of Lords from 1841 until 
 1846, when he entered the cabinet of Lord John Russell 
 as president of the Council. He resigned in 1852. Died 
 about February 1, 1863. 
 
 His son, the fourth Marquis of Lansdowne, born in 
 1816, died in July, 1S66. 
 
 Lansdowne, Marquis of. See Shelburne, Earl 
 of. 
 
 Lantara, ldN'tf rf , (Simon Mathurin,) an excellent 
 French landscape-painter, born nearMilly in 1729, or, as 
 some say, in 1745. He worked in Paris, and passed his 
 life in poverty, caused by his indolent and improvident 
 habits. His manner reminds one of Claude Lorrain. 
 He excelled in aerial perspective, and represented in a 
 
 S, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mi t; nit; good; moon; 
 
LANTERI 
 
 »37' 
 
 LAO-TSE 
 
 
 marvellous manner the different periods of the day. The 
 skies of his pictures present a vapory tone and an ex- 
 quisite lightness of touch. Died in Paris in 1778. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres ;"_ La Chavignk- 
 rik. " Recherches historiques, biographiques et litleraires sur le 
 Peintre Lantara," 1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lanteri, lan-ta'ree, (Francksco,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Briga in 1801. Among his works is a " History 
 of the House of Savoy," (" Storia della Monarchia di 
 Casa Savoja," 1835.) Died in 1843. 
 
 Lanthenas, l&Nt'naV, (Francois,) a French revolu- 
 tionist, bom in Forez about 1740. lie was a member 
 of the National Convention, and was proscribed with the 
 Girondists in Mav, 1793 ; but his name was erased from 
 the fatal list by Marat with an expression of contempt. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 Lantier, de, deh loN'te-4', (Etienne Francois,) a 
 popular French author, bofrfat Marseilles in 1734, was 
 called "the Anacharsis of the Boudoirs." His comedy 
 " I.'Impatient" was performed with great applause in 
 1778. He is ranked by some critics among the best 
 disciples of the school of Voltaire. During the reign 
 of terror (1793) he was imprisoned at Lyons. He after- 
 wards produced a fictitious narrative of the " Travels of 
 Antenor," ("Voyages d'Antenor," 1798,) which had a 
 prodigious success and was translated into nearly all 
 modern languages. At the age of ninety he composed 
 a poem, called " Geoffroy Rudel, or the Troubadour." 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lanusse, li'nuss', (Francois,) a French general, 
 born at Habas (Les Landes) in 1772. As general of 
 brigade he rendered important services at Lodi and 
 Castiglione, and as general of division followed Bona- 
 parte to Egypt in 1798. He commanded in the Delta 
 during the expedition against Syria, and was killed by 
 the English at the battle of Alexandria, or Aboukir, in 
 March, 180,1. 
 
 See Aijrirn Pascai, " Biographies du Lieut. -General de Lanusse 
 et du Lieut -General Baron de Lanusse," 1843. 
 
 Lan'yon, (Chari.es,) an English architect and civil 
 engineer, born in Sussex in 1813. He designed Queen's 
 College, in Belfast, and other public edifices. 
 
 Lanzani, lin-za'nee, or Lanzano, lan-za'no, (An- 
 drea,) an Italian painter, born at Milan about 1648, 
 studied under Carlo Maratta. He worked at Milan and 
 Vienna, where he was employed by the emperor. Among 
 his works are a Saint Charles Borromeo, and a "Holy 
 Family." Died at Vienna in 1712. 
 
 Lanzano. See Lanzani. 
 
 Lanzi, lin'zee, (Luici.) an eminent Italian antiquary 
 and writer on art, was born near Macerata in 1732. He 
 became a good classical scholar, and had acquired the 
 reputation of an able professor and writer, when the 
 suppression of the order of Jesuits, of which he was a 
 member, opened to him a new career. He was chosen 
 sub-director of the Gallery of Florence in 1773. In 1789 
 he published an "Essay on the Etruscan Language," (3 
 vols.,) which was highly prized by the learned. His 
 reputation was increased by his " History of Painting 
 in [taly from the Renaissance of Art to the End of the 
 Eighteenth Century," ("Storia pittorica della Italia," 
 etc., 1792 ; 3d edition, 6 vols., 1809,) which is character- 
 ized by good taste and judicious criticism. It was trans- 
 lated into English by Thomas Roscoe. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Zannoni. " Elogio storico di L. Lanz!:" Mauro Boni, 
 to di SlndJ di L. Lami," i8i<: A. CaPPI, "Blografia di L. 
 Lanzi," 1S40; "Edinburgh Review" for Septenilier, 1828. 
 
 Lanzoni, lan-zo'nee, (Giuseppe,) an eminent Italian 
 physician, born at Ferrara in 1663. He obtained in 1684 
 a professorship of philosophy at Ferrara, which he re- 
 tained until his death. His works have been collected 
 under the title "Opera Omnia Medico- I'hysica et Philo- 
 sophica," (3 vols., 1738.) Died in 1730. 
 
 La-oc'o-on, (f Jr. Aaoxouv,] a Trojan hero, and a priest 
 of Apollo or of Neptune, was variously represented ;is :i 
 son of Antenor or a son of Priam. He strenuously 
 opposed the admission of the wooden horse into the city 
 of Troy, and thrust his spear into that structure. While 
 he was offering a sacrifice to Neptune with his two sins, 
 two huge serpents, issuing from the sea, attacked them 
 
 and crushed them all to death. His story was a favourite 
 subject with the ancient poets and artists, and has derived 
 especial celebrity from a magnificent marble group of 
 Laocoon and his sons which is preserved in the Vatican 
 in Rome, and which was described by Pliny as superior 
 to all other master-pieces of ancient sculptors. This 
 group was executed by Agesander, his son Athenodorus, 
 and Polydorus. 
 
 See VrKGiL's "^Eneid," book ii. 41-50 and 199-233; also, Les- 
 sing's " Laocoon." 
 
 Laodameia. See Laodamia. 
 
 La-o-da-mi'a or La-o-da-mei'a, [Gr. Aatxta/ieia ; 
 Fr. Laodamie, if'o'dS'me',] a daughter of Acastus, and 
 wife of Protesilaus, the first Greek who fell at Troy. To 
 keep alive the memory of her husband, whom she ten- 
 derly loved, she caused a wooden image of him to be 
 made. Her father, in the hope of dispelling her grief, 
 ordered it to be burned, when she threw herself into the 
 flames and perished with it. 
 
 Laodamie. See Laodamia. 
 
 La-od'I-ce, [AaoA'/o?,] the name of several Grecian 
 princesses, one of whom was the mother of Seleucus Ni- 
 cator, founder of a Syrian dynasty. Another was the 
 wife of Antiochus Theos, whom she poisoned in 246 B.C. 
 Her son, Seleucus Callinicus, then became king. 
 
 La-orn'e-don, [(Jr. Aao/teduv,] the king and founder 
 of Troy, and the father of Priam. According to ancient 
 legends, Neptune and Apollo were condemned to serve 
 Laomedon for one year, and the former built the walls 
 of Troy for a stipulated price, but after the work was 
 finished the perfidious king refused to pay Neptune. 
 Laomedon was killed by Hercules for another breach 
 of faith. 
 
 Laomedon, a Greek general in the service of Alex- 
 ander the Great, enjoyed the confidence of that king in 
 a high degree. After the death of Alexander he became 
 governor of Syria, in 323 B.C. He was driven out by the 
 army of Ptolemy about 321 B.C. 
 
 Lao-Tse, la'o'tseh' or la'o'tsuV, or Lao-Tseu, laV- 
 tsuh', written also Laou-Tsze andLao-Tze, sometimes 
 called Lao-Kiim, (kyoon,) a celebrated Chinese phi- 
 losopher or sage, who was born, it is said, in the province 
 of Honan, 565 years before Christ, or fourteen years be- 
 fore the birth of Confucius. He was born, we are told, 
 with white hair and eyebrows, whence he was named 
 Lao-Tse, the "hoary or aged child," and Lao-Kiitn,^\-\t 
 "aged prince." His white hair seems to have been re- 
 garded as an indication of his early wisdom. Many other 
 marvels are told concerning his birth, which need not be 
 related here. It seems probable that Lao-Tse was not 
 wholly unacquainted with the religious doctrines of India, 
 not only those of the Brahmans, but perhaps also of the 
 Booddhists. For some years he was archivist and his- 
 toriographer to one of the Chinese princes. He was, it 
 is said, profoundly versed in the doctrines and institutions 
 of the ancients. He taught the existence of a supreme 
 Being, under the name of Tao, or the "supreme reason." 
 His followers are called Tao-Sse (ta'o sa) or Taose, — 
 that is, the "disciples of Reason." Instead of referring, 
 like Confucius, to the authority of the ancient sages, tie 
 taught that we must seek for the principles of right 
 within ourselves, in complete retirement from all worldly 
 pursuits and thoughts. On one occasion Confucius had 
 an interview with Lao-Tse, who cautioned him against 
 seeking the honours of the world. Lao-Tse observed 
 that the possessor of true wisdom seeks rather to hide 
 than to display his riches. Confucius left him deeply 
 impressed with his extraordinary character, and evidently 
 regarded him as something wonderful, if not divine. We 
 are told that after this interview Confucius said to his 
 disciples, " It does not astonish me to see the birds fly, 
 the fishes swim, or the beasts run ; I know that the fishes 
 mav be taken with nets, the beasts with snares, and that 
 the birds may be shot with an arrow. But I cannot tell 
 how the dragon* can fly on the wind through the clouds 
 and raise himself to heaven. To-day I have seen Lao- 
 Tse : he can be compared only to the drfgon." The 
 date of Lao-Tse's death is unknown. He was undoubl- 
 
 * The dragon of the Chinese is regarded as a supernatural or 
 divine being. 
 
 zask; 9 as j;g hard; gas/; g,h, K.gutttirai; ti,nasal; v., trilled; sasz; th as in this. (Jf^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 ^■\r~ or ths 
 
 rnw t v t?, ii 
 
LAO-TSEU 
 
 1372 
 
 LAPLACE 
 
 edly an extraordinary man, and his influence is not yet 
 lost in China. The following sayings of his may serve 
 to give an idea of the cast and calibre of his mind : " He 
 only can be called wise (or enlightened) who knows him- 
 self; he only can be called valiant who subdues him- 
 self; he only can be called rich who knows what is 
 necessary." Like the Brahmans of India, Lao-Tse 
 taught the final absorption of pure and enlightened souls 
 into the supreme eternal Spirit, and that, " having thus 
 become one with the supreme Reason, they will exist 
 eternally." He inculcated universal benevolence : we 
 ought to show kindness not only to the sincere and vir- 
 tuous, but also to the insincere and wicked. "Those 
 who are holy," he says, "will treat all men as a father 
 treats his children." The religion of the Tao-Sse, at 
 the present day, seems closely allied to Booddhism ; 
 and many of its votaries of both sexes, like the followers 
 of Gautama, spend their lives in monasteries. The 
 modern Tao-Sse are much addicted to superstitious 
 observances, and deal largely in sorcery. They are very 
 popular with the common people, and in some parts of 
 the empire their influence rivals that of the Booddhists. 
 See Pauthikr, "Chine," pp. 110-120; Leggk, " Life and Teach- 
 ings of Confucius," chap, v., London, 1867, Tri»bner& Co. ; Bkock- 
 hmis "Conversations-Lexikon," article " Lao-Tse;" Loomis," Con- 
 flicts and the Chinese Classics," p. 278 et seq. ; J. P. A. Rbmusat, 
 " M^inoire sur la Vie et les Opinions de Lao-Tseu," 1S29. 
 
 Lao-Tseu. See Lao-Tse. 
 
 Laou-Tse or Laou-Tsze. See Lao-Tse. 
 
 La Paix, the French of Eirene, which see. 
 
 Laparelli, la-pa-rel'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 architect, born at Cortona in 1521. He planned the 
 city of Valetta, Malta, and assisted Michael Angelo in 
 the design of Saint Peter's, at Rome. Died in 1570. 
 
 La Perouse. See Pekouse, de la. 
 
 La Peyrere. See Peyrere, La. 
 
 La Peyronie, de,deh 1 J pj'ro'ne', (Francois Gicot,) 
 a French surgeon, born at Montpellier in 1678. He re- 
 ceived the title of first surgeon to the king, (Louis XV.,) 
 and wrote a "Treatise on Diseases of the Brain," (1708.) 
 Died in 1747. 
 
 La Peyrouse, de, deh IS pi'rooz', (Philippe Picot,) 
 Baron, a French naturalist, born at Toulouse in 1744. 
 He published, besides other works, a "Flora of the Pyr- 
 enees," (1795-1801.) Died in 1818. 
 
 See Decamps, " E*ioge de M. le Baron de La Peyrouse," 1819. 
 
 Lapham, lap'am, (Increase A.,) an American natu- 
 ralist, born at Palmyra, New York, in 181 1. He has 
 published "Wisconsin; its Geography and Topography, 
 History, Geology, and Mineralogy," (1844,) "Antiquities 
 of Wisconsin," (1855,) and other scientific works. 
 
 Lapi, la'pee, (Niccol6,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Florence in 1661, was a pupil of Luca Giordano. The 
 gallery of Florence contains a "Transfiguration" by him. 
 Died in 1732. 
 
 Lapide, a, a la'pe-da', called also Steen, (stan,) 
 (Cornelius,) a Flemish Jesuit, born in the diocese of 
 Liege. He wrote "Commentaries on the Bible." Died 
 in 1657. 
 
 Lapis, Ia'pess, (Gaetano,) a painter of the Roman 
 school, born in Umbria in 1704; died in 1776. 
 
 Lapisse, li'pess', (Pierre Belon,) Baron de Sainte- 
 Helene, a French general, born at Lyons in 1762, was 
 killed at Talavera in July, 1810. 
 
 Lapithae, lap'I-///ee, [Gr. Aanidai ; Fr. Lapithes, 1S'- 
 pet / ,] a fabulous tribe of Thessalians, whose story is 
 intimately connected with that of the Centaurs. They 
 were ruled by a chief named Pirithous, to whose mar- 
 riage the Centaurs were invited. At this marriage-feast 
 occurred the celebrated fight of the Lapithae and the 
 Centaurs, which was a favourite subject with the ancient 
 poets and artists. 
 
 Lapithes. See Lapith/e. 
 
 Lapito, lS'pe'to', (Louis Augusts,) a French land- 
 scape-painter, born near Paris in 1805. Many of his 
 works are in the royal galleries of Luxembourg, Tuile- 
 ries, etc. 
 
 Laplacerli'pliss', (Cyrii.i.e Pierre Theodore,) a 
 French navigator, born in 1 793. He commanded two 
 scientific expeditions, of which he gave accounts in the 
 following works: a "Voyage around the World, per- 
 
 formed in 1830-31-32," (5 vols., 1S33-39,) and "Circum- 
 navigation of the Artemisia, 1837-40," (4 vols., 1845-48.) 
 He was made a vice-admiral in 1853. 
 
 La Place, (Pierre.) See Place, de la. 
 
 Laplace, (Pierre Simon,) one of the greatest as- 
 tronomers and mathematicians of any age or country, 
 was born at Beaumont-en-Auge, (Calvados,) in France, 
 March 23, 1749. His father was a peasant or poor 
 farmer. After making great progress in the high mathe- 
 matics at the Academy of Beaumont, he went to Paris, 
 where, through the influence of D'Alembert, he became 
 professor of mathematics in the military school about 
 1 768. He was chosen a membre-adjoint of the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1773, and about that time produced a capital 
 "Memoir on Differential Equations and the Secular In- 
 equalities of the Planets." Addressing himself to the 
 arduous questions of mathematical astronomy, he began 
 to confirm the theories of his predecessors and to demon- 
 strate in detail the principles of Newton. In 1785 he 
 became a titular member of the Academy of Sciences, 
 which he enriched with memoirs on pure mathematics, 
 general astronomy, and the theory of the planets. He 
 favoured the popular cause in the Revolution, and offered 
 homage to the rising star of Bonaparte, who in 1 799 nomi- 
 nated him minister of the interior, thinking, perhaps, 
 that the man who ascertained the laws of the planetary 
 perturbations might also regulate the disturbing forces 
 of the social and political spheres. This experiment was 
 a failure, and Laplace was removed from that office to 
 the senat conservateur in December, 1799. "He was," 
 said Napoleon, "below mediocrity as a minister. He 
 looked at no question in its proper point of view, but, 
 always searching for subtleties, aimed to conduct the gov- 
 ernment on the principles of die infinitesimal calculus." 
 
 In 1796 he published important discoveries in his 
 " Exposition of the System of the Universe," (" Exposi- 
 tion du Systeme du Monde,") which is a kind of trans- 
 lation into popular language, without analytical formulas, 
 of his greater work, " La Mecanique celeste'." It was 
 the " Exposition" that procured for him the reputation 
 of a pure and elegant writer, and eventually opened to 
 him the Academie Francaise in 1816. The clearness 
 and facility with which he explains and demonstrates the 
 great laws of astronomy render this work one of the most 
 admirable resumes which have ever appeared. " No work 
 of that kind existed at that time," says Parisot, "which 
 combined the same merits in the same degree." He 
 received the title of count in 1806. He was for many 
 years a member, and eventually president, of the bureau 
 of longitudes. In 1814 he voted to erect a provisional 
 government on the ruins of Napoleon's empire, and he 
 remained aloof from the Imperialist party during the 
 Hundred Days. He was created Marquis Laplace in 
 1817, and in the same year was chosen president of the 
 Academy of Sciences. He had been chosen an associate 
 of many foreign Academies. Among his important pro- 
 ductions are " The Analytic Theory of Probabilities," 
 (1812,) and a "Philosophic Essay on Probabilities," 
 (1814.) The capital monument of his genius is his 
 "Treatise on Celestial Mechanics," ("Traite de la Me- 
 canique celeste," 5 vols., 1 799-1825,) which will doubt- 
 less preserve his memory to the latest posterity. Among 
 his great discoveries are the theory of Jupiter's satel- 
 lites, and the causes of the grand inequality of Jupiter 
 and Saturn, and of the acceleration of the moon's mean 
 motion, fie shares the honour of proving the stability 
 of the planetary system with Lagrange, than whom he 
 has attained a higher celebrity by ranging over a wider 
 field of discovery. One of his last expressions was, 
 " What we know is but little, (pen de chose;) that which 
 we know not is immense." Died in 1827. 
 
 See FouRiKR. " l£loge de La Place ;" Arago, " Bingraphie da 
 La Piace," (and English version of the same, published in 1859;) 
 " Nonvelle Biographic Oe'ne'rale ;" Puisnu-x et Charles, "No- 
 tices snr Malherbe, Laplace," etc.,- 1847: "London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for February. 1809: " Edinburgh Review" for J;innarv. 1808. 
 and January, 1S10; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for September, 1828. 
 
 La Place or Laplace, de, deh li'pliss', (Charles 
 Emile Pierre Joseph,) Marquis, a son of the great 
 astronomer, was born in Paris in 1789. He entered 
 the army young, and served in the campaigns of Ger- 
 many, (1809,) of Russia, (1812,) and of France, (1814.) 
 
 i, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
LA PLACE 
 
 '373 
 
 LARDNER 
 
 In 1S27 he was admitted into the Chamber of Peers. He 
 became a lieutenant-general in iS4;,aml a senator in 1853. 
 
 La Place, de, [Cat. Plac.+;'us,| (Jost't) a French 
 Protestant theologian, Ijom in Bretagne about 1605. He 
 became professor of theology at Saumur in 1633. Among 
 his works are a treatise " On the Imputation of the First 
 Sin of Adam," (" De Imputatione Primi Peccati Adami," 
 1655,) in which he opposes the doctrine that the sin of 
 Adam is imputed to all his posterity, and " An Argument 
 for the Divinity of Christ," (1657.) Died in 1665. 
 
 La Placett'e, IS plS'set', (Jean,) a French Protestant 
 divine and moralist, born at Pontac in 1639. He emi- 
 grated when the edict of Nantes was revoked, in 1685, 
 and was pastor of the French church in Copenhagen 
 from 1686 to 17H. Among his works, which are highly 
 esteemed, are " Essays on Morality," (2d edition, 4 vols., 
 1697,) and "Christian Morals reduced to Three Princi- 
 pal Duties : the Repentance of Sinners, the Perseverance 
 of the Righteous, and Growth in Grace," (1695.) Died 
 in 1718. 
 
 See Nic^ron, " Me'moires ;" Qu£rard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 La Planche. See Regnier, (Louis.) 
 
 Lapo, la'po, a Florentine architect, was the pupil of 
 Niccolo de Pisa, and a friend of Arnolfo di Lapo. Va- 
 sari represents him as a German, (whose proper name 
 was Jacob or Jacopo,) and as the father of Arnolfo ; but 
 others have disproved both of these statements. He 
 adorned Florence with many fine edifices, which time 
 has destroyed. Died about 1275. 
 
 Lapo, (diminutive of Jacopo,) an Italian canonist, 
 born in Tuscany, taught canon law at Florence more than 
 twenty years, and was chosen captain or chief of the 
 Guelph party. He gained distinction by his researches 
 for manuscripts of classic authors, and had the good for- 
 tune to find Cicero's oration for Milo and the Philippics, 
 which he sent to his intimate friend Petrarch. Died in 1381. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Lapo Gianni, la'po jan'nee, an Italian poet, a native 
 of Florence, lived about 1250. 
 
 See Lon'Gfkli.ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Lapo, di, de la'po, (Arnoi.FO,) a celebrated Italian 
 architect and sculptor, born near Florence about 1232, 
 was the son of Cambio, and the pupil of Cimabue in de- 
 sign. He had the reputation of being the greatest Tuscan 
 architect in his time. About 1294 he began to erect 
 the church of Santa Croce in Florence. His greatest 
 work is the church of Santa Maria del Fiore, called also 
 the Duomo, or Cathedral, of Florence, which, however, 
 he left unfinished. Its noble and beautiful dome was 
 the work of Brunelleschi. Among his master-pieces of 
 sculpture is the tabernacle of the basilica of San Paolo, 
 near Rome. Died about 1300. 
 
 See Vasart, *' Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." 
 
 Lapointe, IS'pwaNt', (Savinien,) a French poet, born 
 at Sens (Yonne) in 1812, was a shoemaker in his youth. 
 He was befriended by Beranger and Victor Hugo, with 
 whose aid he published a volume of verses called "A 
 from Below," ("Une Voix d'en bas," 1844.) He 
 wrote interesting "Memoirs of Heranger," (1857.) 
 
 Laponneraye, IS'pon'rJ', (ALBERT,) a French his- 
 torical writer, born at Tours in 1808, published, besides 
 other works, a " History of the French Revolution from 
 1789 to 1840," (3 vols., 1840.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Laporte or La Porte, de, deh IS'poRt', (Hippoi.ytf.,) 
 Marquis, a French Wth-attur, born in Paris in 1770. 
 Among his works are " Ivclina," (3 vols., 1830,) and 
 "Recollections of an Emigrant," (1843. ) Died in 1852. 
 
 La Porte, de, (Joseph,) A rue, a French critic and 
 compiler, bom at Befort in 1713. The most important 
 or popular of his compilations was the "French Trav- 
 eller," ("Voyageur Francois,") a melange of romantic 
 adventures and historical narratives, (42 vols., 1765-95.) 
 Died in 1779. 
 
 Laporte du Theil. See Duthf.il de i.a Porte. 
 
 Lappe, lap'peh, (KARL,) a popular German poet, bom 
 near Wolgast in 1774, published "Funereal Garlands," 
 I" l-'iii dliol'skr'rinze,") and other works. 
 
 Lappenberg, lap'pen-bcRo', (Johann Martin,) an 
 able German historian, bom at Hamburg in 1794. He 
 studied in Edinburgh, London, and Berlin, and was ap- 
 
 pointed minister to the court of Berlin in 1820. In 1823 
 he became keeper of the archives of the senate of Ham- 
 burg. He published, besides other works, a continua- 
 tion of Sartorius's "Authentic History of the Origin 
 of the German Hanse Towns," (1830,) and a valuable 
 "History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings," 
 (2 vols., 1834-37,) which has been translated into Eng- 
 lish by Thorpe. Died in 1865. 
 
 Lappoli, lap'po-lee, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 painter, born in 1492. He worked in Rome and at 
 Arezzo. Died in 1552. 
 
 Laprade, de, deh iS'pRSd', (Pierre Marin Victor 
 Richard,) a French poet, born at Montbrison in 1812, 
 is called a disciple of Lamartine. His "Symphonies" 
 (1856) opened to him the doors of the French Academy 
 in 1858, and are praised by M. Villemain. 
 
 La Primaudaye, de, "deh li pne'ino'di', (Pierre,) 
 a French writer, born about 1545. Among his works 
 was "L'Academie Fran50i.se," (1577, often reprinted.) 
 
 La Quintinie. See Quinti.me, de la. 
 
 Larauza, iS'ro'zS', (Jean Louis,) a French teacher, 
 born in Paris in 1793. He wrote an "Essay on the Pas- 
 sage of the Alps by Hannibal," (1826.) Died in 1825. 
 
 La Ravardiere, de, deh IS rS'vSR'de-ain', (Daniel 
 DC I.A Tousohe,) Sieur, a French explorer, born in 
 Poitou about 1570. He conducted an expedition to 
 Brazil in 161 1, and planted a colony on the island of 
 Maranham ; but they were expelled by the Portuguese in 
 1615. Died after 1630. 
 
 Larcher, iSu'sha', (Pierre Henri,) a French littera- 
 teur and Hellenist, born at Dijon in 1726. After trans- 
 lating several works from the English, he published in 
 1767 an able work, entitled " Supplement to the Phi- 
 losophy of History," which was designed to refute Vol- 
 taire, from whom it drew a sarcastic reply. His chief 
 work is a translation of Herodotus into French, with u 
 commentary, (1786,) which is highly prized as a monu- 
 ment of learning, but has no beauty of style. He was a 
 member of the third class of the Institute or Academy 
 of Inscriptions. Died in 1812. 
 
 See Dacikr, "filoge de Larcher;" Hoissonade, "Notice sur 
 la Vie et les ficrits de M. Larcher," 1S13; "Nouvelle Biographid 
 G^nerale." 
 
 Lardizabal, de, da laR-de-thl-bal', (Don Manuei,) 
 a Spanish minister of state, born in Biscay about 1750. 
 In 1814 Ferdinand VII. appointed him minister of the 
 Indies. Soon after that date he was imprisoned for some 
 unknown reason, and died in exile in 1823. 
 
 Lard'ner, (Dionysius,) LL.D., a distinguished scien- 
 tific writer and editor, was born in Dublin in 1793, 
 and educated at Trinity College. He wrote at college a 
 "Treatise on Algebraic Geometry," (1823.) His " Popu- 
 lar Lectures on the Steam Engine" (1828) passed through 
 many editions. In 1828 he became professor of natural 
 philosophy in the London University, and projected the 
 "Cabinet Cyclopaedia," to which Herschel, Brewster, 
 and other eminent authors contributed. For this work, 
 which appeared in 134 volumes, (1830-44,) Dr. Lardner 
 wrote the treatises on hydrostatics, pneumatics, geome- 
 try, etc. Between 1840 and 1S45 he delivered in the 
 chief cities of the United States scientific lectures, which 
 were published, and favourably received. He became 
 a resident of Paris in 1S45, after which he published 
 hand-books of natural philosophy, astronomy, and other 
 sciences. Died in 1859. 
 
 Lardner, (NATHANIEL,) D.D., an English theologian 
 of great merit, was born in Kent in 1684. He studied 
 at Utrecht and Leyden, and became a dissenting minis- 
 ter. From 1713 to 1729 he was chaplain in the family 
 of LadyTreby. He began to preach to the Presbyterian 
 congregation of Gld Jewry, London, in 1723. In 1727 
 he published the first part of his "Credibility of the 
 Gospel History," a work of profound reasoning and 
 research, and one of the most successful arguments in 
 defence of Christianity ever given to the world. Re- 
 ferring to this work, Sir James Mackintosh remarks that 
 it "soon wearies out the greater part of readers, though 
 the few who are more patient have almost always been 
 gradually won over to feel pleasure in a display ol know- 
 ledge, probity, charity, and meekness unmatched by an 
 avowed advocate in a case deeply interesting his warmest 
 
 e as k; c as $; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilltJ; § as z; th as in this. (JJ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LA RENAUDIERE 
 
 •374 
 
 LAROON 
 
 feelings." (See his remarks on Paley in the "View of 
 the Progress of Ethical Philosophy.") Between 1733 
 and 1743 he produced five more volumes of the same 
 work. He was the author of other treatises, one of 
 which ("Letter on the Logos," or "Word") advocates 
 Socinian doctrines. Died in 1768. 
 
 SeeKlPPis, " Life of N. Lardner," prefixed to Ms complete Works, 
 11 vols., 1788; "Memoirs of the Life of the Rev. N. Lardner," 
 London, lytq. 
 
 La Renaudiere, de, deh IS reh'no'de-aiR', (Philippe 
 Francois,) a French geographer, born at Vire, in Nor- 
 mandy, in 1781, was associated with Malte-Brun as editor 
 of the "Annales des Voyages," (54 vols., 1826-39.) He 
 published several geographical works. Died in 1845. 
 
 Larentia. See Acca Laurentta. 
 
 La'res, a name applied to genii, or inferior gods of 
 human origin, worshipped by the ancient Romans. The 
 Lares were believed to preside over houses and families, 
 and were divided into several classes, as Lares domestici, 
 Lares publici, Lares urban), etc. They were supposed 
 to be the spirits of good men who had died, and were 
 partly identified with the Manes. (See Manes.) 
 
 Lareveillere-Lepaux or Larevelliere-Lepeaux, 
 de, deh IS'ii'vAKyejajR' la'po', a French republican, 
 born at Mortagne in 1753. He was deputed to the Con- 
 vention in 1792, voted for the death of the king, and 
 defended the proscribed Girondists in 1793, for which he 
 was doomed to die, but escaped by concealing himself. 
 In 1795 he resumed his place in the Convention, where 
 he acquired the reputation of an effective speaker, and 
 in October of that year was elected a member of the 
 Executive Directory. He presided over the department 
 of science, morals, and religion, and showed his hostility 
 to the Catholics, who stigmatized him as a fanatic and 
 "theophilanthropist." He acted with Barras and the 
 majority of the Directors in the coup d'tiat of the 18th 
 Fructidor, (September, 1797.) The Directors became 
 divided into two parties, in which Lepaux was opposed 
 to Barras, and, finding himself in a minority, he re- 
 signed in June, 1799. Died in 1824. 
 
 See, also, Thiers, " History of the French Revolution ;" " Nou- 
 relle Biographie G^ne"rale." 
 
 Lareveillere-Lepeaux, (Ossian,) a French littera- 
 teur, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1797. 
 He wrote important articles for the " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generate. " 
 
 Largilliere, ISK'zhe'ye-aiR', (Nicolas,) a skilful 
 French painter of portraits and history, born in Paris in 
 1656, was called "the French Van Dyck." He worked 
 some years in London, where he painted portraits of 
 James II. and his queen. In 1686 he was elected a 
 member of the Academy of Paris. He surpassed all his 
 French rivals in portraits except Rigaud, worked with 
 great facility, and was a good colorist. Among his works 
 are portraits of Louis XIV. and diaries Lebrun. Died 
 in 1746. \ 
 
 See Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres :" Horace Wal- 
 pole, " Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 La Riboisiere or Lariboisiere, de, deh li're'bwa'- 
 ze-aiR', (Jean Amhroise Baston,) a French general, 
 bom at Fougeres in 1759. He became a general of di- 
 vision in 1807, and directed the artillery with skill at 
 Eylau, Dantzic, and Friedland. Died in 1813. 
 
 La Rive, de, deh If rev, (Auguste,) a Swiss natural 
 philosopher, born at Geneva in 1790, was a son of the 
 following. He became professor of physics in his native 
 city, and wrote many treatises on electricity, the voltaic 
 pile, etc. 
 
 La Rive or Larive, de, (Charles Gaspard,) a Swiss 
 chemist and physician, born at Geneva in 1770. He gave 
 special attention to voltaic electricity, and about 1820 
 constructed a pile of five hundred pairs. He was one 
 of the first to demonstrate the action of the electric 
 current on the magnetic needle. Died in 1834. 
 
 Larive or La Rive, de, deh IS rev, (Jean Mauduit 
 — mo'dii-e',) a popular French tragedian, born at La Ro- 
 chelle about 1746. He made his dJdut in Paris in 1770, 
 and for many years was a prime favourite. His voice and 
 gestures were admirable. No actor of his time possessed 
 m such perfection the tone of command, of disdain, of 
 irony, and of menace. He performed " Achilles," " Spar- 
 
 tacus," "Philoctetes," "Bayard," and "William Tell" 
 with great success. He was imprisoned more than a 
 year by the Jacobins in 1793-94. Died in 1827, 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Larivey, de, deh It're'va', (Pierre,) a French drama- 
 tist, born at Troyes about 1550. lie published in 1579 
 the "Laquais," and other comedies, which in humour 
 are compared to those of Moliere. He was one of the 
 first in France who chose subjects for comedy from real 
 life, and the first Frenchman who wrote original dramas 
 in prose. Died about 1612. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 La Riviere. See Riviere. 
 
 Lariviere, IS're've-ain', (Charles Philippe,) a 
 French historical painter, born in Paris about 1802. He 
 obtained the grand prize in 1824, and a medal of the first 
 class at the Exposition of 1855. Among his works is 
 " Bayard wounded at Brescia," (about 1838.) 
 
 Lariviere or La Riviere, de, deh IS're've-aiV, 
 (Pierre Joachim Henri,) a French lawyer and orator 
 of the Girondist party, was born at Falaise in 1761. He 
 was elected to the Convention in 1792, and took an active 
 part in the struggle which resulted in the defeat of the 
 Girondists in May, 1793. He found refuge in Calvados, 
 and resumed his seat in 1795. Died in 1838. 
 
 Larmessin, laVmi'saN', (Nicolas,) a skilful French 
 engraver, born in Paris about 1640, produced numerous 
 portraits of illustrious men. His son, Nicolas, born in 
 1683, surpassed his father in the same art. He engraved 
 portraits and history with equal success, and received 
 the title of engraver to the king. Died in 1755. 
 
 Larnac, 1Sr'iiSI<', (Francois,) a French poet, born 
 at Nimes in 1760; died in 1840. 
 
 Lar'ned, (Rev. Sylvester,) an American Presbyte- 
 rian divine, born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in 1796. He 
 studied theology at Princeton, and soon acquired a high 
 reputation as a pulpit orator. He subsequently became 
 pastor of a church at New Orleans, where he died during 
 the prevalence of the yellow fever in 1820. A collection 
 of his sermons was published in 1844. 
 
 Laroche or La Roche, lS'rosh', (Benjamin,) a 
 French poet and translator, born in 1797, produced good 
 translations of "The Vicar of Wakefield," Shakspeare's 
 works, (6 vols.,) Byron's complete works, (4 vols.,) and 
 the complete works of Sir Walter Scott He wrote a 
 poem called "The Funeral of Liberty," (1820.) Died 
 in 1852. 
 
 Laroche, lS'rosh', (Marie Sophie,) a German mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born at Kaufbeuren in 1731, was the 
 author of "Moral Tales," " Rosalie's Letters," and sev- 
 eral popular romances. Died in 1807. 
 
 Laroche du Maine. See Luchet, (Jean Pierre 
 Louis.) 
 
 La Rochefoucauld. See Rochefoucauld. 
 
 Larochejacquelin. See Rochejaquelein. 
 
 La Rochejaquelein. See Rochejaquelein. 
 
 Larorniguiere, iS'ro'me'gsxiJR', (Pierre,) an eminent 
 French metaphysical philosopher, born in Rouergue 
 (now Aveyron) in November, 1756. He became pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Toulouse in 1784. Having 
 removed to Paris, he was admitted into the Institute in 
 1796. As professor of philosophy in the Faculty of 
 Letters, he delivered, in 181 1 and 1812, a series of lec- 
 tures which were attended and admired by the elite of 
 the capital. He retained the title of professor after 181 2, 
 but ceased to lecture, and published in 1815 "Lectures 
 on Intellectual Philosophy, or on the Cause and Origin 
 of our Ideas," ("Lecons de Philosophie sur les Principes 
 de l'lntelligence, ou sur les Causes et stir les Origines 
 de 110s Idees," 2 vols.) This work was adopted by the 
 government as a text-book for public instruction. Died 
 in August, 1837. " He left a fair and pure renown," says 
 M. Cousin, who delivered an oration at his funeral. 
 
 See Daunou. " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Larorni- 
 guiere," 1S39; Mignet, "Notice llistorique sur la Vie et les £ciits 
 de Larorniguiere," 1856; Valette, ° Larorniguiere et I'Fxlectlsme," 
 1842; article by C. Mallet in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Laroon, la-ron', (Marcellus,) a Dutch painter, born 
 at the Hague in 1653, was skilful in copying the wo'ks 
 of great masters. He worked some years in England. 
 Died in 1705. 
 
 Z, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, 11, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; flr, fill, tat; met; ndt; good; ni(55n; 
 
LARRA 
 
 1375 
 
 LA SALLE 
 
 Larra, de, di lir'ra, (Don Mariano Jose,) a popular 
 and witty Spanish author, born at Madrid in 1809. He 
 had no profession except literature. In 1832 he pub- 
 lished a satirical journal, "El Pobrecito Hablador," 
 which was suppressed after the appearance of the four- 
 teenth number, and a few years later, as chief editor of 
 the "Spanish Review," (" Revista Espafiola,") produced, 
 under the signature of " Figaro," able articles on Span- 
 ish politics, manners, literature, etc. He published 
 " Macias," and other dramas. AH his works bear the 
 decided stamp of the Spanish national character. He 
 committed suicide in 1837, before which he had been 
 subject to deep melancholy. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Larramendi, lav-ia-meVdee, (Manuel,) a Spanish 
 philologist, born in Guipuzcoa. He wrote on the Basque 
 language. Died in 1750. 
 
 Larrey, l£'r&', (Claude Francois Hii.aire,) a French 
 physician and writer, born in 1774, was a brother of 
 Dominique Jean, noticed below. He practised at Nimes. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Larrey, (Dominique Jean,) Baron, a French surgeon 
 of great merit, born near Bagneres-de-Bigorre (Haut- 
 Pyrenees) in 1766. Having served a short time in the 
 navy, he entered the land-army about 1792, and rendered 
 important services by the invention of the ambulances 
 volantes, (flying hospital.) He accompanied Bonaparte 
 to Egypt in 1798, and published a "Historical and Sur- 
 gical Account of the Expedition to the East," (1S03.) 
 He received the title of baron about 1810, and became 
 surgeon-in-chief of the grand army in 1812. At the 
 battle of Waterloo, in 181 5, he was wounded and taken 
 prisoner. Under the restoration he was chief surgeon 
 of the royal guards and of the Hotel des Invalides until 
 he resigned in 1836. He died in 1842, leaving a high 
 reputation for virtue and talents. He had published 
 "Memoirs of Medicine and Military Surgery," (1812-18,) 
 "Collection of Treatises on Surgery," ("Recueil de Me- 
 moires de Chirurgie," 1821,) and other excellent works. 
 Bonaparte in his will mentions Larrey as "the most 
 virtuous man I have ever known." 
 
 See Louis de Lom^nie, "Le Baron Larrey, par un Homme de 
 Rien," 1840: J. Saint-Amour, "Notice necrologique sur D. J. 
 Larrey," 1844; Querard, " La France Litteraire :" " Biographie 
 Me'riicale ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " Edinburgh Review" 
 for March, 1819. 
 
 Larrey, (F£i.ix Hippoi.yte,) a French surgeon and 
 writer, a son of the preceding, was born about 1810. He 
 became surgeon-ordinary to Napoleon III., and in 1858 
 metlecin-inspecteur of the army. 
 
 Larrey, de, deh 19'ri', (Isaac,) a French Protestant 
 historian, born at Montivilliers in 1638. Having become 
 an exile for the sake of religion, he took up his residence 
 in Berlin, and was appointed an aulic councillor by the 
 Elector. He published, besides other works, a " History 
 of Augustus," (1690,) a "History of England," (1697- 
 1713,) and a " History of the Seven Sages of Greece," 
 (1713-16,) which were favourably received. Died in 
 Berlin in 1 719. 
 
 Larrivee, 13're'va', (Henri.) a celebrated French 
 operatic performer and singer, born at Lyons in 1733. 
 He made his debut in Paris in 1755, and maintained 
 his reputation in the opera for thirty years. Died in 
 1802. 
 
 Larroque, li'rok', (Daniel,) born at Vitre in 1660, 
 became a Catholic, and lived in Paris, where he was a 
 clerk in the bureaus of De Torcy, secretary of state. 
 He displayed literary talents in several works, among 
 which are "The Proselyte Abused," (1684,) and the "Life 
 of Mezeray." Died in 1 73 1. 
 
 Larroque, de, deh IS'iok', (Mathieu,) an eminent 
 French Protestant theologian, the father of the preceding, 
 was born at Lairac, near Agen, in 1619. He was pastor 
 of the church of Vitre from 1643 to 1669, after which he 
 hed at Rouen. His "History of the Eucharist" 
 (1669) was highly esteemed. He wrote several other 
 Died in 1684. 
 
 See " Life of M. Larroque," by hi* son, prefixed to his " Adver- 
 tari.i .Sacra," 168S; Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Larruga, lar-roo'ga, (Don Eugenio,) a Spanish writer 
 on political economy, commenced a work entitled " Po- 
 
 litical and Economical Memoirs on the Industry, Mines, 
 and other Resources of Spain." Forty-eight volumes 
 had been issued at his death, in 1804. 
 
 La Rue or Larue, de, deh IS'ru', [Lat. Ru/E'us,] 
 (Charles,) a French poet and eloquent preacher, born 
 in Paris in 1643. He composed, in Latin, tragedies and 
 other poems, one of which, on the victories of Louis 
 XIV., was translated into French by P. Corneille, 1 1667.) 
 His Sermons were published in 4 vols., 1719. His 
 tragedy of " Sylla" is commended. He prepared an 
 edition of Virgil "in usum Delphini," (1675,) often re- 
 printed. Died in 1725. 
 
 La Rue, It rii, [Lat. Ru>e'us,] (Francois,) a Flemish 
 naturalist, born at Lille about 1520; died in 1585. 
 
 La Rue, IS rii, (Pierre,) a Dutch poet and biographer, 
 born at Middelburg in 1695. 
 
 Larue, de, (Gervais.) See Delarue. 
 
 La Sabliere. See Sabliere, de la. 
 
 La Sabliere, de, deh IS sS'ble-aiK', (Antoine de 
 Rambouillet,) Sieuk, a French~~poet and financier, 
 born in Paris in 1624; died in 1679. 
 
 Lasagni, la-sdn'yee, (Bartolommeo Vincenzo Giu- 
 seppe,) an Italian jurist, born at Rome in 1773. He was 
 a judge or counsellor in the French court of cassation 
 in Paris from 1810 to 1850. Died in 1857. 
 
 La Sale or La Salle, de, deh IS sal, (Antoine,) a 
 French writer, born about 139S. He wrote, besides other 
 works, a satire entitled " Les quinze Joyes de Mariage," 
 ("The Fifteen Comforts of Matrimony,") which was often 
 reprinted. Died after 1461. 
 
 La Sale, de, (Robert Cavelier.) See La Salle. 
 
 Lasalle or La Salle, de, deh IS stl, (Antoine,) a 
 French metaphysician, born in Paris in 1754, published 
 "The Natural Balance," (1788,) and "Moral Mechanics," 
 (2 vols., 1789.) He translated the works of Lord Bacon 
 into French, (15 vols., 1800.) Died in 1829. 
 
 Lasalle, de, (Antoine Charles Louis Coi.i.inet,) 
 Count, a French officer, born at Metz in 1775, served 
 in several campaigns in Italy. In 1798 he followed 
 Bonaparte to Egypt, where he gave proof of courage 
 at the Pyramids and Thebes. As general of brigade, 
 he contributed to the victories of Austerlitz (1S05) and 
 Jena, (1806.) At the end of 1806 he was made general of 
 division. In the second Austrian war he commanded 
 the cavalry of the advanced guard at Kaab, Essling, and 
 finally at Wagram, where he was killed in July, 1809. 
 
 See E. A. Begin, "Vie militaire du Comte de Lasalle," 1S30: 
 Pigault- Lebkun.^ " E*loge hislorique du General de Lasalle," 
 1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 La Salle or La Sale, de, (Robert Cavelier — kiv'- 
 le-4',)an enterprising Frenchman, who has rendered his 
 name memorable by his exploration of the Valley of the 
 Mississippi, was born at Rouen about 1635. He emigrated 
 to Canada in 1667, and engaged in the fur-trade, making 
 long excursions among the native tribes. In 1675 he was 
 appointed by Colbert governor of Fort Frontenac, and 
 was encouraged to pursue discoveries which his own 
 ambition or enterprising spirit had suggested. Having 
 built a vessel on Lake Erie, he began his voyage in 
 August, 1679, and passed through Lakes Huron and 
 Michigan. He built a fort at Peoria, Illinois, and, as his 
 vessel had been wrecked, returned by land to Frontenac 
 in 1680. In 1682 he renewed the enterprise with a nume- 
 rous parry, and descended the Mississippi in canoes from 
 the Illinois River to its mouth, where he arrived in April, 
 1682. The part of this river below the Arkansas had never 
 before been explored by a European. In 1683 he went 
 to France, and, having obtained a commission to plan', 
 a colony in Louisiana, undertook a voyage to that region 
 by the Gulf of Mexico in 16S4, but failed to find the 
 mouth of the Mississippi, and landed in Texas. There 
 he encountered great difficulties, and at last was niur 
 dered by his own mutinous crew, in March, 1687. "His 
 capacity for large designs," says Professor Jared Sparks, 
 " and for procuring the resources to carry them forward, 
 has few parallels among the most eminent discoverers. 
 To him must be mainly ascribed the discovery of the 
 vast regions of the Mississippi Valley." 
 
 See " Memoir of La Salle." in Sparks's "American Biography," 
 vol. L 2d series: "Journal historique du dernier Voyage de La 
 Salle," par Michki, 1723; Hii.dreth, "History of die United 
 States," vol. it chap, xviii. ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 e as k; 9 as j ; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. (JJ^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LA SANTE 
 
 1376 
 
 LASOURCE 
 
 La Sante or Lasante, de, deh IS s5.Nt, (Gilles 
 Anne Xavier,) a French Jesuit and Latin poet, born 
 in Bretagne in 1684, taught belles-lettres in Paris, and 
 numbered Turgot among his pupils. Died in 1762. 
 
 Lasaulx, von, fon iS'so', (Ernst,) a German phi- 
 lologist and writer of classic antiquities, was born at 
 Coblentz in 1805. He became professor of philology 
 at Munich in 1844, and wrote, besides other works, * Oh 
 the Oracle of Dodona," (1841,) "On the Myth of Pro- 
 metheus," (1843,) and "Studies on Classical Antiquity," 
 (1854.) Died in 1861. 
 
 La Saussaye, de, deh IS so'sj', (Jkan Francois de 
 Paui.k Louis Petit,) a French antiquary, born at Blois 
 in 1S01. His "Numismatics of Narbonese Gaul" ("Nu- 
 mismatique de Gaule Narbonnaise," 1842) opened to him 
 the Academy of Inscriptions. 
 
 Lasca, las'ka, (Antonio Francesco Grazzini,) an 
 Italian poet and dramatist, born at Florence in 1503. In 
 1540 he founded the Florentine Academy, and assumed 
 the name of Lasca, (" Mullet.") He afterwards conceived 
 the idea of a new Academy, called Delia Crusca, the aim 
 of which should be to perfect the Tuscan language. His 
 most famous work is a collection of tales, entitled " The 
 First and Second Supper," (" La prima e la seconda 
 Cena.") He also composed sonnets, satirical poems, and 
 " Gelosia" and other comedies in prose. His works are 
 recognized as authorities ( testi di lingua ) by the Academy 
 Delia Crusca. Died in 1583. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histotre Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Lascaris or Lascari. See Carburis, (Marino.) 
 
 Lascaris, las'ka-res, (Agosttno,) Marquis of Vinti- 
 miglia, an Italian general and agriculturist, born at Turin 
 in 1776. He wrote several treatises on agriculture. Died 
 in 1838. 
 
 Las'ca-ris, (Andreas Johannes,) surnamed Rhyn- 
 DACENUS, a noble Greek scholar. About 1454 he went 
 as a fugitive to the court of Lorenzo de' Medici, by whom 
 he was patronized. In or before 1495 ' le removed to 
 Paris, where he taught Greek to Budaeus and others. 
 Leo X. placed him at the head of a Greek college in 
 Rome about 1508. Between 1518 and 1534 he resided 
 chiefly in Paris or Venice, whither Francis I. sent him 
 as ambassador. He edited "The Greek Anthology," 
 (1494,) " Commentaries on Sophocles," (1518,) and other 
 Greek works. Died in 1535. 
 
 See Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Paolo Grovio, 
 " Elogia Virorum illustrium." 
 
 Lascaris, (Constantine,) a Greek scholar, who 
 contributed much to the revival of learning, was a de- 
 scendant of the royal family of Constantinople. After 
 the conquest of that city by the Turks, he took refuge in 
 Italy, (1454,) and was employed by the Duke of Milan 
 to give lessons in Greek to his daughter Ippolita. He 
 afterwards taught Greek at Rome, Naples, and Messina, 
 where he died about 1494. His Greek Grammar (1476) 
 is said to have been the first work printed in Greek 
 characters. 
 
 See Homus, " De Grjecis illustribus;" Villemain, "Lascaris, 
 ou les Grecs du quinzieme Steele," 1825. 
 
 Lascaris, lSs'ki'ress', (Paul Louis,) a French trav- 
 eller, born in Provence in 1774. In the service of Bona- 
 parte, he traversed Syria and Asiatic Turkey between 
 1803 and 1814 for the purpose of gaining the friendship 
 of the Bedouins and preparing the way for an expedi- 
 tion to India. He died at Cairo in 1815, leaving notes, 
 which were published by Lamartine. 
 
 Lascaris, (Theodore I.,) a Greek emperor, eminent 
 for political and military talents, born about 1175. He 
 married about 1200 the daughter of Alexis III., who 
 had usurped the throne of his brother Isaac. After a 
 brave resistance to the crusaders, who took Constanti- 
 nople in 1204, he was elected emperor and made himself 
 master of Bithynia. He was crowned as emperor at 
 "Nicaea in 1206. He waged war for several years against 
 the French or Latins, and defeated Alexis (above named) 
 near Antioch in 1210. He died in 1222, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son-in-law, John Ducas Vatatzes. 
 
 Lascaris, (Theodore II.,) the son of John Ducas, 
 became Emperor of Nicaea in 1255. He waged a suc- 
 cessful war against the Bulgarians. He died in 1259, 
 
 leaving an infant son, John, whose throne was usurped 
 by Michael Palasologus. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Ml- 
 chaud, " History of the Crusades;" Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas- 
 Empire." 
 
 Las Casas. See Casas, de las. 
 
 Las Cases, de, deh las kaz, (Emmanuel Augustin 
 Dieudonne Marin Joseph,) Marquis, a French officer, 
 distinguished as a companion of Bonaparte at Saint 
 Helena, was born near Revel, in Languedoc, in 1766. 
 He served some years in the navy, emigrated in 1789, 
 fought for the royal cause at Quibefon, and returned to 
 France in 1800. He became chamberlain to Bonaparte 
 in 1810, and followed him into exile in 1815. In Novem- 
 ber, 1816, he was sent to the Cape of Good Hope, where 
 he was imprisoned several months, after which he was 
 taken to Europe. He had kept a journal of Napoleon's 
 conversation, which he published, under the title of " Me- 
 morial of Saint Helena," (8 vols., 1822-23.) Hied in 1842. 
 
 See " Memoires d'E. A. D. Comte de Las Cases, communiques 
 par lui meme," etc., 1819; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale ;" 
 " Mouthy Review" for March and May, 1823. 
 
 Las Cases, de, (Emmanuel Pons Dieudonne,) a 
 
 son of the preceding, was born in Finisterre in 1800. He 
 
 fought for the popular cause in Paris in July, 1830, and 
 
 ■ sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1830 to 1848. He 
 
 became a senator in 1852. 
 
 Lasco or Laski. See A Lasco. 
 
 Las'cy, (or La'cy.) de, (Peter,) Count, an Irish 
 general, father of the following, was born in Limerick 
 in 1678. Having entered the Russian service, he was 
 rapidly promoted, and in 1709 commanded the left wing 
 at Pultowa. The Czar Peter appointed him general-in- 
 chief of the infantry about 1722. In 1734 he commanded 
 an army against the Poles under Stanislas, and obtained 
 the rank of field-marshal. He gained an important 
 victory over the Swedes at Helsingfors in 1742. Died 
 in 1 75 1. 
 
 Lascy or Lacy, von, fon las'see, (Joseph Francis • 
 Maurice,) Count, a general in the Austrian army, born 
 in Saint Petersburg in 1725. Having saved the army at 
 Lowositz in 1756, he was promoted from the rank of 
 colonel to that of general. For his services at Hoch- 
 kirchen, in 1758, he was made general of artillery. He 
 received from Maria Theresa a marshal's baton in 1762. 
 After the peace he entered the aulic council, and dis- 
 played much ability as minister of war. Died in 1801. 
 
 See " Huidigung dargebracht der Wahrheit und den Manen des 
 Grafen von Lascy," 1801. 
 
 La Sena, la sa'na, or La Seine, IS sjm, (Pietro,) 
 also written Lascena, an Italian philologist, born in 
 Naples in 1590, practised law in that city. He wrote 
 " Homeri Nepenthes, seu de Abolendo Liictu Liber," 
 (1621,) and several treatises on philology. Died in 16361 
 
 See Buccardi, " Vita P. La Senas," 1637. 
 
 Laserna. See Santander. 
 
 Lasinio, 15-see'ne-o, (Carlo,) Count, an able Italian 
 engraver, born at Treviso about 1765. He engraved 
 numerous works of early Italian masters. Among his 
 plates is a collection called " Etruria pittrice." Died 
 about 1837. 
 
 His son, Giovanni Paolo, was an engraver at Flor- 
 ence. 
 
 Lasius, la'ze-us, (Lorenz Otto,) a German philolo- 
 gist, born at Ruden in 1675 ; died in 175 1. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Lebensbeschreibung," 1730. 
 
 Lasne, Ian, (Michel,) a French designer and engraver, 
 born at Caen in 1596, engraved chiefly after Italian mas- 
 ters. Died in 1667. 
 
 Lasnier, l.Vne-i', (Remi,) a French surgeon and 
 celebrated oculist, practised in Paris. He was very 
 successful in the treatment of cataract. Died in 1690. 
 
 Laso, (Garcias.) See Garcilaso. 
 
 Lasource, IS'soorss', (Marie David Albin, ) a 
 French Girondist revolutionist, born near Montpellier 
 in 1762. As a member of the Convention in 1792, he 
 strove to establish order in the republic. He was one 
 of the first members of the committee of public safety. 
 He attacked Robespierre in a speech in April, 1793, 
 was arrested about June I, and executed with the other 
 Girondist chiefs in October of that year. 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ti, J?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, tit; met; n6t; good; moTm; 
 
LASPHRISE 
 
 '377 
 
 LJTHROP 
 
 Lasphrise, de, deh li'fRez', ( Marc df. Papillon — 
 pfpe'voN',) Skignkur, a French poet, born at Amboise 
 in 1555, composed many admired sonnets, songs, elegies, 
 and epitaphs. He was living in 1599. 
 
 Lassaigne, 13'.<in', (Jean Louis,) a French chemist, 
 born in Paris in 1800. He became professor of chem- 
 istry or pharmacy at Alfort in 1828. Among his dis- 
 coveries were delphine, cathartine, and phosphoric ether. 
 He published an " Elementary Treatise on Organic and 
 Inorganic Chemistry," (2 vols., 1829.) Died in 1859. 
 
 Lassala, las-sa'la, or Lasala, (Manuel,) a Spanish 
 historian and poet, born at Valencia in 1729. He be- 
 came a Jesuit, and as such was banished in 1767, after 
 which he lived at Bologna. He published an "Essay 
 on Ancient and Modern History," (3 vols., 1755.) Died 
 in 1798. 
 
 Lassay, de, deh la"s&', (Armand Leon de Madail- 
 i.an dk I.esparre,) Marquis, a French officer, distin- 
 guished for his gallantry and talents, was born in 1652. 
 He was intimate with Fontenelle and Voltaire. He died 
 in 1738, leaving a volume entitled "Recueil de differentes 
 Choses," or "Memoirs of the Marquis de Lassay." 
 
 See Paui.in Paris, " Le Marquis de Lassny et l'Hotel de Las- 
 say.' i*4>S; Sainte-Beuvh. " Causeries du Lundi," tome ix. 
 
 Las'sels, (Richard,) born in Yorkshire, England, in 
 1603, was converted to the Roman Catholic religion. 
 He wrote "Travels in Italy," (2 vols., 1670.) Died at 
 Montpellier in 1668. 
 
 Lassen, lis'sen, (Christian,) a Norwegian scholar, 
 distinguished for his profound knowledge of the Ori- 
 ental languages and Indian antiquities, was born at Ber- 
 gen in 1800. He studied at Heidelberg and at Bonn, 
 where in 1S40 he was appointed professor of the ancient 
 Indian language and literature. He rendered most im- 
 portant services to philology by his excellent editions of 
 standard works in Sanscrit, and published "Contribu- 
 tions to the History of the Greek and Indo-Scythian 
 Kings in Bactria, Cabool, and India," "Indian Antiqui- 
 ties," (2 vols., 1844-52,) and "The Old Persian Inscrip- 
 tions in the Arrow-Headed Characters," which he was 
 the first to decipher and explain. His "Institutiones 
 Lingua; Pracriticx" (1837) is esteemed the best work 
 that has appeared on the subject of the ancient popular 
 dialects of India. 
 
 See"Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nirale ;" "Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 view" for October, 1837. 
 
 Lassis, lS'sess', (N.,) a French physician an.d writer, 
 born at Chatillon-sur-Loing in 1772, devoted his atten- 
 tion chiefly to the subject of contagion. He practised 
 in the army in 1812 and 1813, during the prevalence of 
 the typhus fever. Died in 1835. 
 
 Lasso, di, de las'so, (Orlando,) [Lat. Orlan'dus 
 Las'sus,] sometimes called Roland de Lattrk, (cieh 
 IStR,) a famous musical composer, born at Mods, in Flan- 
 ders, in 1520. At the age of sixteen he was taken to Italy 
 by Gonzago, Viceroy of Sicily. After passing a few years 
 in Rome and Antwerp, he was invited by the Duke of 
 Bavaria to Munich, whither he went in 1557 and became 
 maitre-de-chafelle. He was invited to Paris by Charles 
 IX. in 1574; but that king died before the arrival of 
 Lasso. By the number, originality, and richness of his 
 compositions he acquired a higher rank than any com- 
 poser of his time except Palestrina. Among his works 
 are masses, motets, magnificats, songs, and other music. 
 Died about 1595. 
 
 See Fins, " Biographic Universale des Musiciens :" Dki.motte. 
 "Notice sur R. Delattre," 183ft; Mathihu, "Roland de I.attre," 
 1838; Bvrney, " History of Music;" F. C. KtST, " Levensgeschie- 
 denis van O. de Lassus/' 1841. 
 
 Lasso or Lassus, von, fon las'sus, (Rudolf,) a mu- 
 sician, born at Munich, was a son of the preceding. He 
 was organist to the Duke of Bavaria. Died in 1625. 
 
 Lassone, IS'son', (Joseph Marie Francois,) a 
 French physician, born at Carpentras in 1717. Having 
 practised with success in Paris for many years, he became 
 physician to the queen in 1751. After her death he was 
 appointed first physician to Louis XVI. He wrote 
 treatises on medicine and chemistry, which were inserted 
 in the collections of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 
 1788. 
 
 See Frfux Vice* d'Azyr, " FJoge de J. M. F. Lassone," 1789. 
 
 Lassus. See Lasso and Lasus. 
 
 Lassus, li'siis', (Pierre,) a French surgeon and 
 writer, born in 1741, was professor of external pathology 
 in Paris for many years. Died in 1807. 
 
 Lasteyrie, de, deh Its't&'re', (Ferdinand,) an anti- 
 quary, born in Paris in 1S10. He acted with the Liberal 
 party in the Chamber of Deputies, (1842-48,) and with 
 the moderate republicans in the Assembly, (1848-50.) 
 He published a" History of Painting on Glass,"( 183 7-58.) 
 
 Lasteyrie, de, (Jules,) a grandson of Genera] La 
 Fayette, was born in 1810. He was elected a deputy in 
 1842 and in 1S46. After the revolution of 1848 he be- 
 came a member of the Assembly. He has written articles 
 for the " Revue des Deux Mondes." 
 
 Lasteyrie-Dusaillant, de, deh Its't&'re' du'zi'ydN', 
 (Charles Philiisert.) Count, a French philanthro- 
 pist and economist, the father of Ferdinand, noticed 
 above, was born in Correze in 1759. He wrote treatises 
 on agriculture and on the natural history of the sheep, 
 the horse, etc Died in 1849. 
 
 Lastic, de, deh ISs'tek', (Jean Bonpar,) a brave 
 French captain, born in Auvergne about 1370. He was 
 chosen grand master of the order of Saint John of Jem- 
 salem in 1437. In 1444 he defended the city of Rhodes 
 with success against the Sultan of Egypt. Died in 1454. 
 
 See Vertot, " Histoire de 1'Ordre de Saint Jean de Jerusalem ;'* 
 "Achievements of the Knights of Malta," by Alexander Suther- 
 land, Philadelphia, 1846. 
 
 Lastman, last'man, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter and 
 engraver of high reputation, boru at Haarlem between 
 1562 and 1581. He visited Rome in 1604. He was one 
 of the masters of Rembrandt. His son Nicolas, born 
 at Haarlem in 1619, was a skilful artist. 
 
 La'sus, [Aucoc,] an eminent Greek dithyrambic poet, 
 born at Hermione, in Argolis, flourished at Athens in the 
 sixth century B.C. He is said to have been the master 
 of Pindar. His works are not extant. He was some- 
 times reckoned among the Seven Wise Men. 
 
 La Suze. See Coi.igni, (Henriette.) 
 
 Latapie, lt'tt'pe', (Francois de Paul,) a French 
 botanist, born at Bordeaux in 1739; died in 1S23. 
 
 Laterrade, lit'ti'rid', (Jean Francois,) a French 
 botanist of Bordeaux, born about 1780; died in 1858. 
 
 La'tham, (John,) F.R.S., an English naturalist and 
 physician, born at Eltham, in Kent, in 1740. He began 
 to practise at Dartford in 1763, and, in the intervals of 
 business, pursued the study of natural history, especially 
 ornithology. Between 1 781 and 1787 he produced his 
 "General Synopsis of Birds," (6 vols., with plates,) a 
 work of much merit. In 1796 he removed to Romsey, 
 in Hampshire, and ceased to practise medicine. He 
 afterwards received the title of physician to the prince- 
 regent. He also wrote, besides medical treatises, a "Gen- 
 eral History of Birds," (1821-24,) of which the figures 
 were drawn and engraved by his own hand. Died in 
 
 I837- 
 
 Latham, (Robert Gordon,) F.R.S.,an eminent Eng- 
 lish philologist and ethnologist, born in Lincolnshire in 
 1812. He took the degrees of B.A. and M.D. at Cam- 
 bridge, where he acquired proficiency in ancient and 
 modern languages. In 1840 he was appointed professor 
 of English literature in University College, London. He 
 published "The English Language," (1841,) which is con- 
 sidered a standard book, and several English grammars, 
 which are extensively used in the schools. Among his 
 other productions are an excellent work entitled " Natu- 
 ral History of the Varieties of Man," (1850,) "Man and 
 his Migrations," (1851,) "Ethnology of Europe," (1852,) 
 and " Nationalities of Europe," (1863.) Dr. Latham 
 has attained eminence as a physician. He was suc- 
 cessively physician to the Saint George's and the Saint 
 James's Dispensary. 
 
 La'throp, (John.) born at Boston in 1772, was the 
 author of a poem. entitled " Speech of Canonicus, or an 
 Indian Tradition," (1803.) Died in 1820. 
 
 See Duyckinck, " Cyclopaidia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Lathi op, (Rev. Joseph,) D.D., an American Presby- 
 terian divine, born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1731. 
 Having graduated at Vale College, he became pastor 
 of the Congregational church at West Springfield. He 
 published a collection of sermons, entitled " Wolves in 
 
 « as i; c as $; g hard; g a&j; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t: th as in this. (jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LATIMER 
 
 1378 
 
 LA TOURETTE 
 
 Sheep's Clothing," which obtained extensive popularity. 
 Died in 182a 
 
 Lat'I-mer, (Hugh,) a celebrated English Reformer, 
 distinguished for his courage, zeal, and piety, was born 
 in Leicestershire about 1472. Having graduated at Cam- 
 bridge and entered into holy orders, he gained distinction 
 as a zealous and eloquent preacher of the Reformed re- 
 ligion. He was patronized by. Thomas Cromwell, who 
 in 1529 gave him a benefice in Wiltshire and saved him 
 from persecution which certain bishops raised against 
 him. He became chaplain to Anne Boleyn and Bishop 
 of Worcester in 1535. On account of the passage of the 
 act of six articles in 1539, he resigned his bishopric, and 
 was imprisoned in the Tower until the death of Henry 
 VIH., in 1547. He was again arrested in 1553, and 
 compelled by his enemies to be present at a dispute on 
 transubstantiation at Oxford in 1554. In 1555 he was 
 burned at the stake, in company with Ridley, to whom 
 he said, " Be of good cheer, brother ; we shall this day 
 kindle such a torch in England as I trust shall never be 
 extinguished." 
 
 See W. Gii.pin, " Life of Hugh Latimer," 17S0 : Froude, " His- 
 tory of England," vol. ii. chap. vi. ; " Retrospective Review," vol. vi., 
 1822; "Monthly Review" for July, 1755. 
 
 Latimer, (William,) an English scholar and reviver 
 of classical learning. He became Fellow of a college at 
 Oxford in 1489, and taught Greek to Erasmus, who ex- 
 pressed a good opinion of him. Died in 1545. 
 
 Latini, la-tee'nee, (Bruneito,) a celebrated Italian 
 poet, orator, and grammarian, born at Florence about 
 1230. He taught philosophy and grammar in Florence, 
 where Dante was his pupil, and he held some of the 
 highest offices in the republic. He was attached to the 
 Guelph party. His greatest work, entitled "The Trea- 
 sure," (" Le Tresor,") is written in French, and consists 
 of extracts and translations from classic authors on his- 
 tory, philosophy, rhetoric, etc. He also composed "The 
 Little Treasure," (" II Tesoretto,") a poem, and a treatise 
 on rhetoric. Died in 1294. 
 
 See Negri, " Istoria degli Scrittori Fiorentini :" Tiraboschi, 
 "Storiadella Letteratura Italiana;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Latini, la-tee'nee, or Latinio, la-tee'ne-o, (Latino,) 
 [Lat. Lati'nus Latin'ius,] a learned and judicious 
 Italian critic, was born at Viterbo in 15 13. He became 
 a resident of Rome in 1552, and served as secretary to 
 several cardinals, among whom was Cardinal Colonna. 
 He published "Letters, Conjectures, and Observations," 
 (1659,) in Latin, which treat of many points of history, 
 antiquity, and criticism. Died in 1593. 
 
 Latino. See Latin us. 
 
 La-ti'nus,[Gr. Aarivoc ; It. Latino, la-tee'no,] a legen- 
 dary king of Latium, a son of Faunns, and the father of 
 Lavinia, who became the wife of /Eneas. According to 
 some authors, he was an incarnation of Jupiter Latiaris. 
 
 See Virgil's "^Eneid," book vii. 
 
 Latinus Latinius. See Latini. 
 
 Lat'o-mus, (or IS'to'rmiss',) the Latin name of a Flem- 
 ish theologian, sometimes called Jamks Masson, who 
 was born in Hainault about 1475. He was professor of 
 theology at Louvain, and was one of the ablest adver- 
 saries of Luther. He wrote several works against the 
 doctrines of the Reformers. Died in 1544. 
 
 Latomus, (Barthelemy,) a scholar, born in Luxem- 
 burg about 1485, became professor of eloquence in the 
 College Royal of Paris in 1534. He wrote notes on 
 Cicero, and other works. Died in 1566. 
 
 La-to'na, [Gr. Ar/ru ; Fr. Latone, lS'ton',] in classic 
 mythology, a daughter of the Titans Coeus and Phoebe, 
 was the wife of Jupiter, and the mother of Apollo and 
 Diana. The poets relate that, persecuted by Juno, she 
 wandered about until she came to Delos, which was 
 then a floating island, but became stationary when she 
 touched it. Here Apollo and Diana were born. Latona 
 received from Niobe an affront which Apollo and Diana 
 severely revenged. 
 
 Latone. See Latona. 
 
 Latouche or La Touche, de, deh lS'toosh', (IIva- 
 CINTHE Thabaud,) a French poet and romancer, born 
 at La Chatre, in Berry, in 1785, was known by the name 
 of Henri de Latouche. He edited the posthumous 
 
 poems of Andre Chenier about 1819. Among his best 
 works are the fictitious "Correspondence of Clement 
 XIV. and Carlin," (1827,) and several short poems. 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi," toineiii. ; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 La Touche-Treville, de, deh IS toosh tRa'vel', 
 (Louis Rene Madeleine i.e Vassor,) a French admiral, 
 born at Rochefort in 1745. He was elected to the Stales- 
 General in 1789, and became a rear-admiral in 1792. He 
 commanded in a naval battle against Nelson in 1S01. 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 Latour. See Tour, de la. 
 
 Latour or La Tour, li'tooR', (Dominique,) a French 
 physician and medical writer, born in 1749, was chief 
 physician to Louis Bonaparte while he was King of 
 Holland. Died about 1820. 
 
 Latour, (Jean Raimond Jacques Amedee,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Toulouse in 1805. He founded 
 in 1847 tne " Union Medicale," a journal. 
 
 Latour, de, (Cagniard,) Baron. See Cagniard. 
 
 Latour, de, deh li'toon', (Louis Antoine Tenant,) 
 a French poet and litterateur, born in Haute-Vienne in 
 1808, published "Far from the Fireside," ("Loin du 
 Fewer," 1841,) and other poems. 
 
 Latour, de, (Maurice QuENTiN,)an eminent French 
 portrait-painter, born at Saint-Quentin in 1704. He 
 removed to Paris about 1727, and became a fashionable 
 painter of portraits in pastel. In 1750 he received the 
 title of painter to the king. Among his works are por- 
 traits of Voltaire and Rousseau. Died in 1788. 
 
 Latour, von, fon lS'toon', (Karl Anton Maximilian 
 Baillet,) Count, an Austrian general, born in 1737. 
 He obtained command of the army of the Lower Rhine 
 in 1796. In this campaign he was opposed to Moreau, 
 and, in concert with the Archduke Charles, fought seve- 
 ral battles, in which the Austrians were worsted. He 
 became president of the council of war, and died in 1806. 
 
 La Tour (or Latour) d'Auvergne, de, deh li'tooR' 
 do'viRfi', (TiiEoi'iui.E Malo Corret,) a brave officer, 
 surnamed " the first grenadier of France," was born at 
 Carhaix in 1743. He was eminent for modesty and 
 generosity. Having become captain about 1789, he re- 
 fused further promotion ; but in 1793 he became com- 
 mander of a division of 8000 grenadiers, which formed 
 the vanguard of the army of the Pyrenees and was called 
 "the infernal column." By the rapidity of his move- 
 ments he usually decided the victory before the main 
 body of the army reached the field of battle. Napoleon 
 having presented him a sabre inscribed to "the first 
 grenadier of France," he answered, "Among us soldiers 
 there is no first nor last." He was killed at the battle of 
 Oberhausen, in 1800. He learned many languages, and 
 published "Researches into the Language, Origin, and 
 Antiquities of the Bretons," (1792.) 
 
 See Bl'HOT dk Krrskrs, " Histoire de La Tour d'Auvergne," 
 1841; Calohar, "Notice stir La Tour d'Auvergne," 1S41 ; Roux 
 de Rochelle, "Notice stir La Tour d'Auvergne," tSoo ; Pmou, 
 "Notice suv T. M. de La Tour d'Auvergne," 1S43; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Latour du Pin Gouvernet, de, deh li'tooR' dii 
 paN goo'veVn.V, (Jean Frederic,) Cotnte de Paulin, 
 a French general, born at Grenoble in 1727. He was 
 elected in 1789 to the States-General, and was minister 
 of war from August, 1789, to November, 1790. He was 
 executed in 1794. 
 
 Latour - Maubourg, de, deh li'tooR' mo'booR', 
 (Marie Charles Cesar Fay,) Count, a French gene- 
 ral, born in 1758. He was one of the three commis- 
 saries who escorted the king from Varennes to Paris ::, 
 1791, after which he was marechal-de-camp in the army 
 of La Fayette. He escaped with La Fayette in 1792, 
 and shared his long captivity in Austria. Died in 1831. 
 
 Latour - Maubourg, (Marie Victor de Fay,) 
 Marquis, a general, brother of the preceding, was born 
 in 1766. Having become a general of division in 1S07, 
 he distinguished himself in Spain and Russia, and lost a 
 leg at Leipsic, (1813.) He was minister of war about 
 two years, (1820-21.) Died in 1850. 
 
 See A. Sai.a, "Le General de Maubourg," Paris, 1850; "Nou 
 velle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 La Tourette. See Tourette, de la. 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
LATREILLE 
 
 1379 
 
 LAUDERDALE 
 
 
 Latreille, lit'tR&r or It'tRji'ye, (Pierre Andre,) an 
 eminent French naturalist, surnamed "the Prince of 
 Entomology," was born at Brives (La Correze) in 1762. 
 While a student in the college of Cardinal Lemoine, 
 Paris, he gained the favour of Abbe Iiauy. In 1786 he 
 retired to his native province, where he spent all his 
 leisure in the study of insects, having adopted the pro- 
 fession of a priest. In consequence of the revolutionary 
 troubles, he abandoned that profession, and applied him- 
 self to his favourite science as his chief business. He 
 published in 1796 a treatise " On the Generic Characters 
 of Insects." About 1798 he was employed to arrange 
 insects in the Museum of Paris, in which position he 
 remained nearly thirty years. In 1814 he was chosen a 
 member of the Institute, and in 1829 he succeeded La- 
 marck as professor of zoology. He had published " The 
 Natural History of Ants," (1802,) "The Natural History 
 of Reptiles," (1802,) "A Memoir on the Sacred Insects 
 of the Egyptians," and many other works. Latreille was 
 the author of the entomological part of Cuvier's " Regne 
 Animal," and of the portion of Bufibn's and Sonnini's 
 work which treats of Crustacea and insects. His capital 
 work is "The Genera of Crustacea and Insects, arranged 
 according to the Natural Order," (" Genera Crustaceo- 
 rum et Insectorum secundum Ordinem naturalem dis- 
 posita," 4 vols., 1806-09.) Died in 1833. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale;" Qubrard, " I. a Franc- LitteVaire ;" 
 V, AVDOUIN, "Discours prononce sur la Tombe de M. Latreille," 
 " Nmivelle Biographie Generate ;" "Monthly Review," vol. 
 . (Appendix.) 
 
 La Tremouille. See Trimouii.i.e, df. la. 
 
 La Trimouille, de, deh 14 tRe'mool' or li tRe'moo'ye, 
 (CLAUDE,) Due, a French Protestant commander, born 
 in 1566, was a brother-in-law of the prince Henri de 
 Condi. He distinguished himself at Ivry. Died in 1604. 
 
 His son II ink 1, bom in 1599, became a general in the 
 service of Louis XIII. His mother was a daughter of 
 William the Silent, Prince of Orange. Died in 1674. 
 
 La'tro, (M. Porciits,) a Latin rhetorician, born about 
 50 B.C, was a friend of Seneca the elder. He had a blah 
 reputation as a dcclaimer, and was master of a cele- 
 brated school in Rome, where Ovid was his pupil. He 
 was called by Quintilian "imprimis clari nominis pro- 
 fessor." Died in 4 B.C. 
 
 Latrobe, lS'trob', (Benjamin Henry,) an architect, 
 born in England in 1 763. He emigrated to America in 
 1795, and was employed as engineer by the State of Vir- 
 He was architect of the United States Bank in 
 Philadelphia, and of the first Hall of Representatives at 
 Washington. Died in 1820. 
 
 Latrobe, (Chari.es Joskpii,) an English traveller, 
 who visited the United States and Mexico in 1832, pub- 
 lished "The Rambler in North America," (London, 
 1835,) also entitled "The Rambler in Mexico."_ It is 
 commended by Prcscott and other competent critics. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1835; "West- 
 Review" for January, 1837. 
 
 Lattaignant. See A ttaignant, de L\ 
 
 Lattanzio. See Lactantius. 
 
 Lattre. See Lasso. 
 
 Latude. See Masf.rs. 
 
 Laube, 18w'beh, (Hf.inrich,) a German poet and lit- 
 Uraleur, born in Silesia in 1806. His "Tales of Travel," 
 (" Keisenovellen,") published in 1834, resemble those 
 of Heine, and are by some critics preferred to them. 
 Among his other productions we may cite "The Countess 
 Chateaubriand," a romance, (1843,) "Prinz Friedrich," 
 and other dramas, and an interesting work entitled "The 
 First German Parliament," (3 vols., 1849.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 L'Aubespine. See AUBRSPINR, de l\ 
 
 Laud, lawd, (William,) a celebrated Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, was Wn at Reading, in Berkshire, in 1573, 
 and was educated at Oxford. He became one of the chap- 
 lains of the king alxiut 1615, Bishop of Saint David's in 
 1621, and Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1626. After the 
 ■t Charles I. he rose rapidly into great influ- 
 i| court. In 1628 he was translated to the see of 
 London, and became the chief minister or favourite of 
 the king. He disgraced himself by the persecution d 
 the Puritans, and was suspected of a strong bias in favour 
 
 of popery. In 1633 he was appointed Archbishop of 
 Canterbury. "Of all the prelates of the Anglican 
 Church," says Macaulay, " Laud had departed farthest 
 from the principles of the Reformation and had drawn 
 nearest to Rome." "Of all men then living," says Gar- 
 diner, "he [Laud] was the least fitted to be intrusted 
 with political power. . . . His thorough belief in the 
 unbounded efficacy of external forms and institutions, 
 combined with his complete ignorance of human nature, 
 would be sufficient to goad to madness any nation which 
 might be subjected to his control." (" History of Eng- 
 land from 1603 to 1616," vol. ii. chap. x. p. 41.) In 1640 
 he was impeached by the Commons and committed to 
 the Tower. After he had been tried for treason, without 
 obtaining a judicial sentence, the Commons passed an 
 ordinance for his execution, and he was beheaded in 
 1645. "His zeal was unrelenting," says Hume, "in the 
 cause of religion, — that is, in imposing bv rigorous meas- 
 ures his own tenets and pious ceremonies on the obsti- 
 nate Puritans, who had profanely dared to oppose him." 
 See "Life of Laud." by Prvnne, 1644, Heylin, 1671, Lawson, 
 1829, Bainks, 1855; Wharton, "Troubles and Trial of W. Laud, 
 to which is prefixed the Diary of his own Life," 1794; Hume, " His- 
 tory of England," chap. lii. ; " Retrospective Review," vol. vii., 1823. 
 
 Laudati, low-da'tee, (Gioseffo,) an Italian painter 
 of the Roman school, born at Perugia in 1672, was a 
 favourite pupil of Carlo Maratta. Died after 1718. 
 
 Lau'der, (Sir John,) Lord Fountainhall, an eminent 
 Scottish lawyer, born in Edinburgh in 1646. He became 
 a member of Parliament, and opposed the arbitrary 
 policy of James II, Died in 1722. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Lauder, (Robert Scott,) a Scottish painter, born 
 near Edinburgh in 1803. Among his best works are 
 "The Bride of Lammermuir," "Trial of Efrie Deans," 
 and other scenes from Scott. He worked mostly in 
 London and Edinburgh. 
 
 Lauder, (Sir Thomas Dick,) a Scottish author, borri 
 in 1784, inherited a baronetcy from his father, and lived 
 near Edinburgh. He was one of the early contributors 
 to " Blackwood's Magazine," and author of various 
 works, among which are " Lochandhti," a novel, "High- 
 land Kambles," (1837,) and a "Tour round the Coasts 
 of Scotland." Died in 1848. 
 
 See Chambers " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen.'' 
 
 Lauder, (William,) a Scotchman, who gained no 
 toriety by literary impostures designed to prove that 
 Milton was a plagiarist. In 1751 he published an "Es- 
 say on Milton's Use and Imitation of the Moderns in 
 his Paradise Lost," in which he charged Milton with 
 making too free use of the ideas of Grotius and others. 
 He was convicted of having interpolated in Grotius's 
 Latin drama "Adamus Exsul" several verses copied 
 from an obscure version of Milton's poem. He died in 
 Barhadoes in 1 77 1. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Lau'der-dale', (James Maitland,) Eaki.of, an able 
 Scottish Whig statesman, born in 17510, was the son of 
 the seventh Earl of Lauderdale, and was first styled 
 Lord Maitland. About 1 781 he was elected to the 
 Mouse of Commons, where he acted as the political 
 friend of Fox, and in 1787 was chosen one of the man- 
 agers of the impeachment of Hastings. He inherited the 
 title of earl in 1789, and was chosen one of the Scottish 
 representative peers in 1790. He favoured the French 
 republic, and opposed the war against the French which 
 began in 1793. In 1806 he l>ecame a peer of the United 
 Kingdom, and keeper of the seal of Scotland, and was 
 sent by Mr. Fox to Paris with full powers to negotiate 
 a peace, but without success. On the fall of the Whig 
 ministry in 1E07 he gave up the seal of Scotland. He 
 died in 1839, leaving his title to his son James. 1 lc wtote 
 several treatises on finance and political economy. 
 
 Lauderdale, (John Maitland,) Dikkoi, a British 
 courtier, born at Lethington in 1616, was a grandson 
 of John Lord Maitland. Chancellor of Scotland. His 
 father was first Earl of Lauderdale. 1!< * i~ conspicu- 
 ous among the Scottish insurgents of 163S, and began his 
 public career as a zealous supporter of the Covenant, 
 After the restoration of 1600 he became the prime fa- 
 vouiite of Charles II., and in 1670 was a member of that 
 
 « as *; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; O, H, K.guiturai; N, uaial; R, trilUJ; I as «; »h as in this. {tffSte Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LAUDIFIO 
 
 1380 
 
 LAURENCE 
 
 corrupt cabinet called the Cabal. "Under the outward 
 show of boisterous frankness," says Macaulay, " he was 
 perhaps the most dishonest man in the whole Cabal." 
 He was created duke in 1672. In 1678 he became min- 
 ister for Scottish affairs, which he managed in a violent 
 and arbitrary manner. "He had the fortune, beyond 
 any other minister," says Hume, "to maintain an ascend- 
 ant over Charles II. during the greater part of his reign." 
 (" History of England.") Died in 1682. As he left no 
 male issue, his brother inherited the earldom. 
 
 See Macaulay, "History of England;" Burnet, " History of 
 his Own Time." 
 
 Laudivio, 16w-dee've-o, (Zaccaria,) an Italian poet, 
 born near Genoa, lived about 1470. He wrote " Letters 
 of the Grand Turk," ("Epistolae Magni Turci," 1473,) 
 often reprinted, and " On the Praises of Wisdom and 
 Virtue," ("De Laudibus Sapientiaa et Virtutis.") 
 
 Laudon, von, fon low'don, written also Laudohn 
 and Loudon, (Gideon Ernst,) Baron, a famous field- 
 marshal of the Austrian army, was born in Livonia in 
 1 7 16. He entered the service of Maria Theresa in 1743, 
 and for his exploits in several campaigns was rewarded 
 with the rank of general in 1757. The next year he was 
 made lieutenant-general, and contributed greatly to the 
 victory of Hochkirchen over the Prussians. In 1759 he 
 gained a complete victory at Kunersdorf, where Frederick 
 the Great commanded in person. He was raised to the 
 rank of field-marshal in 1778, gained several victories 
 over the Turks in 1788, and was chosen generalissimo 
 in 1789. Died in 1790. 
 
 See Toi.nav, "Laudon's Elirendenkmal ;" Johann Bezzl, "Le- 
 bensgesdiiclite Laudon's," 1790; Frikdrich von der Trrnck, 
 "Dentinal und Trauerrede bei dem Grabe des Feldmarschalls Lau- 
 don," 1790; "Leven en Heldendaden van G. E. van Loudon," 1792. 
 
 Lauffer, lowf'fer, ( Jakob, ) a Swiss historian and 
 Protestant divine, born at Zoffingen in 1688. He wrote, 
 in German, a " History of Helvetia," (or Switzerland,) 
 (" Helvetische Geschichte," 18 vols., 1736-3S.) Died 
 
 i» '734- 
 
 Laugel, lo'zh?l', (Auguste,) a French writer, visited 
 the United States of North America in 1864. He pub- 
 lished a work entitled "The United States during the 
 War," (" Les Etats-Unis pendant la Guerre," 1866.) 
 There is a good English translation of it, said to be by 
 the author. 
 
 Laugier, lo'zhe-i', (Andre,) an able French chemist, 
 born in Paris in 1770. In 1809 he succeeded Fourcroy 
 as professor of chemistry in his native city. His lectures 
 were published with the title of " Cours de Chimie gene- 
 rale," (3 vols., 1828.) He excelled in chemical analysis, 
 and wrote numerous memoirs on the analysis of minerals. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 See P. J. Robiquet, " Notice historique sur A. Laugier," 1832; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Laugier, (Ernest,) an astronomer, a son of the 
 preceding, born in Paris in 1812, obtained in 1841 the 
 Lalande medal for the discovery of a comet and the cal- 
 culation of its orbit. 
 
 Laugier, (Jkan Nicolas,) a French engraver, born 
 at Toulon in 1785, worked in Paris. Among his works 
 are "Leonidas at Thermopylae," and " Trance of Saint 
 Paul," after Poussin. 
 
 Laugier, (Marc Antoine, ) a French writer and 
 priest, born at Manosque in 1713. He preached in sev- 
 eral pulpits of Paris, and afterwards obtained the abbey 
 of Ribeaute in 1757. He published, besides other works, 
 a successful "Essay on Architecture," (1753-55,) an d a 
 " History of Venice," (12 vols., 1759-68,) which was the 
 best which had appeared until that of Daru was pub- 
 lished in 1819. Died in 1769. 
 
 Laugier, de, deh lo'zhe-i', (Cesar de Bei.lecour,) 
 Count, a general, was born in the isle of Elba in 1789. 
 He is ranked among the best military writers of Italy. 
 In May, 1848, he obtained the chief command of the Tus- 
 can corps raised to fight against Austria. With about 
 5000 men he resisted 30,000 Austrians for six hours near 
 Mantua. He was minister of war under Leopold II. in 
 1850 and 1851. Among his works is "Annals and Vicis- 
 situdes of the Italian Peoples from 1801 to 1815," (13 
 vols., 1829-32.) 
 
 Laujon, To'zh6N', (Pierre,) a French poet, born in 
 Paris in 1727. He composed admired songs and lyrical 
 
 dramas. In 1807 he was chosen a member of the Insti- 
 tute. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See " Monthly Review," vol. Ixviii., 1812, (Appendix.) 
 
 Lauman, law'man, or Lan'man, (Jacob G.,) an 
 American general, born in Maryland in 1813. He com- 
 manded a brigade at the battle oT Shiloh, April 6 and 7, 
 1862, and a division at the siege of Vicksburg, June and 
 July, 1863. 
 
 Laumont, de, deh lo'moN', (Francois Pierre Ni- 
 colas Gillet — zhe'yi',) a French mineralogist, born in 
 Paris in 1747. He discovered several minerals, and 
 wrote memoirs which were printed in the "Annales des 
 Mines" and other journals. Died in 1834. 
 
 Launay, de, deh lo'ny, (FRANgois,) a French jurist, 
 born at Angers in 161 2. He was professor of French 
 law at the College Royal, and published several legal 
 works. Died in 1693 
 
 Launay, de, (Pierre,) a French Protestant theo- 
 logian, born at Blois in 1573. He received the title of 
 counsellor to the king, and taught Greek gratis at the 
 Academy of Saumur. He wrote a "Paraphrase on the 
 Epistles of Saint Paul," (2 vols., 1650,) and other com- 
 mentaries on Scripture, which were highly esteemed. 
 Died in 1661. 
 
 Launey, de, deh lo'nj', (Bernard Rene Jourdan,) 
 the last governor of the Bastille, was born in Paris in 
 1740, and became governor in 1776. The storming of 
 that state prison by the populace, being the first violent 
 symptom of the Revolution, has rendered his name 
 historical. On the 14th of July, 1789, he repulsed the 
 insurgents for several hours with cannon and other 
 guns, and attempted to blow up the building by firing 
 the magazine, but was prevented. He was massacred 
 immediately after the capture of the place. 
 
 Launey, (Emmanuel de.) See Entraigues, d\ 
 
 Launoi or Launoius. See Launoy. 
 
 Launoy or Launoi, de, deh lo'nwa', [Lat. Launo'- 
 ius,] (Jean,) a French doctor of the Sorbonne, born near 
 Valogne in 1603, had a high reputation for learning. In 
 1643 he was chosen royal censor of books. He published, 
 besides many works on theology, a " History of the Col- 
 lege of Navarre," (1677,) and defended the liberties of 
 the Gallican Church against the pretensions of the court 
 of Rome. He was noted for his zeal and sagacity in 
 expunging the names of spurious saints from the calen- 
 dar, and was said to have dethroned more saints than 
 ten popes had canonized. Died in 1678. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 " Me"moires ;" J. Reiser, "J. Launoius Theologus," etc., 1685. 
 
 Laura. See Noves, de, and Petrarch. 
 
 Laura, (Fii.ippo.) See Lauri. 
 
 Lauraguais, de, deh 15'rfgi', (Louis Leon Fei.i- 
 citE,) Comte, Due de Brancas, an eccentric French 
 nobleman, born at Versailles in 1733. He patronized 
 literature and science, and by his chemical experiments 
 associated his name with those of Lavoisier and Daicet. 
 He wrote many political treatises. Died in 1824. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Laurati. See Lorenzktti, (Pietro.) 
 
 Laurati, low-ra'tee,(PlETRO,) an Italian fresco-painter, 
 born at Sienna in 1282; died in 1340. 
 
 Laurel. See Laukelius. 
 
 Laurelius, lovv-nr'le-us, or Laurel, low'rel, (Oi.aus,) 
 a Swedish theologian, born in West Gothland in 1585. 
 He became Bishop of WesterAs in 1647. He published, 
 besides other works, a "System of Theology," (1641,) 
 which was esteemed a standard work. Died in 1670. 
 
 Laurenberg, low'ren-b?KG', or Lauremberg, 18w'- 
 rem-beRC.', (Johann,) a poet and philologist, born at 
 Rostock in 1590. He ranked high among the poets of 
 his time. ' Among his works are four poetical satires, 
 (1652-70,) and "Graecia Antiqua," a description of 
 ancient Greece, (1661.) Died in 1658. 
 
 Laurenberg, (Peter,) a botanist and anatomist, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Rostock about 
 1575. He became professor at Rostock in 1624, and 
 published several works on anatomy. Died in 1639. 
 
 Lau'rence or Law'rence, (Dr. French,) an eminent 
 English civilian and author, born at Bristol, graduated 
 at Oxford about 1780. "He was," says Lord Brougham, 
 " one of the most able, most learned, and most upright 
 
 i, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
LAURENCE 
 
 1381 
 
 LAUZUN 
 
 men that ever adorned the legal profession. ... He 
 united in himself the indefatigable labour of a Dutch 
 commentator with the alternate playfulness and sharp- 
 ness of a Parisian wit." He was a member of Parlia- 
 ment about twenty years. About 1797 he was chosen 
 professor of civil law at Oxford. He was the intimate 
 friend and executor of Edmund Burke. He wrote some 
 of the " Probationary Odes," and contributed largely to 
 the epigrams and satires, in prose and verse, of "The 
 Rolliad." Died in 1809. 
 
 Laurence, (Richard,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Bath in 1760. He became professor of 
 Hebrew at Oxford in 1814, and Archbishop of Cashel 
 in 1S22. Died in 1838. 
 
 Laurencin, de, deh lo'rfiN'sa.N', (Jean Esperance 
 Blandtnb,) Comte, a French poet, born near Valence 
 in 1733 ; died in 1812. 
 
 Laurens. See Du Laurens. 
 
 Lau'rens, (Henry,) an American statesman, born at 
 Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. Soon after the 
 breaking out of the Revolution he was elected a dele- 
 gate to the General Congress, of which he subsequently 
 became president, in November, 1777. While on his 
 voyage as ambassador to the Hague, in 1780, he was 
 taken by the British and imprisoned for fourteen months 
 in the lower of London. In conjunction with Franklin 
 and Jay, he afterwards signed the preliminaries to a treaty 
 with England, November, 1782. Died in 1792. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Laurens, (JOHN,) an American patriot and soldier, 
 born in South Carolina about 1756, was a son of the 
 preceding. He entered the army early in 1777, became 
 an aide-de-camp to Washington, and was wounded at 
 Germantown. It is stated that he distinguished him- 
 self in every action of the army which Washington 
 commanded. He was an intimate friend of General 
 Hamilton. In 1781 he was sent to France on a special 
 mission, for which he was selected by Washington. He 
 was successful, and returned in time to take part in 
 the victory at Yorktown, October, 1781. He was killed 
 in a battle on the Combahee River, South Carolina, 
 in August, 1782. Colonel Laurens is represented as 
 having been a man of rare endowments, as blending in 
 harmonious union the character of a gallant officer, a 
 fine scholar, and an accomplished gentleman. 
 
 Laurent. See Lawrence, Saint. 
 
 Laurent, 16'rft.N', (Augusts,) a French chemist, born 
 near Langres in 1807. He became assayer of the mint 
 at Paris in 1848, and wrote a "Method of Chemistrv," 
 (1854.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Laurent, (Paul Marie.) a French historian, born in 
 Ardeche in 1793. His principal work is a "History of 
 Napoleon," with 500 designs by Horace Vernet, (9 vols., 
 1838-42.) 
 
 Laurent, (Pierre,) a skilful French engraver, born 
 at Marseille! in 1739, worked in Paris. He excelled in 
 landscapes and animals, and published engravings of 
 the master-pieces of the Louvre. Died in 1809. 
 
 Laurent, (Pierre Joseph,) a skil/ul Flemish mecha- 
 nician, born at Bordeaux in 1 71 5. He was appointed 
 director of the canals of Flanders at the age of twenty- 
 one, and gained reputation by the junction of the Somme 
 with the Scheldt. He was very skilful in the fabrication 
 of artificial limbs. Died in 1773. 
 
 Laurentie, 18'rON'te', (Pierre Sehastien,) a French 
 historical and political writer, born at Houga (Gets) in 
 1793. lie edited several royalist journals in Paris, and 
 
 Iiublished "Studjes, Literary and Moral, on the Latin 
 1 ians," (2 vols., 1822,) and a "History of France," 
 (1841-43.) 
 
 LaurentiiiB, (Joannes.) See Lydus. 
 
 Laureutius, (LYDUS.) See Lydus. 
 
 Laurentzen, low'rent-zen, or Lorentaen, lo'rent- 
 m 11, 1 [oh \N,) a Danish historical writer, born at Ribe.' 
 lb. wrote on Danish history, and produced a Danish 
 version of the Bible, (1719.) Died about 1728. 
 
 Lauretti, low-ret'tce. or Laureti, low-ri'tee, (Tom 
 ma-'M an Italian painter, born at Palermo, worked at 
 Rome lor Gregory XIII., and became president of the 
 Academy of Saint Luke. His picture* of" Brutus Judging 
 
 his Sons" and " Horatius Codes Defending the Bridge" 
 
 were much admired. Died about 1600, aged eighty. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Lauri low'ree, (Balthasar,) a Flemish landscape- 
 painter, born at Antwerp about 1570; died at Rome in 
 1642. 
 
 Lauri or Laura, low'ra, (Filippo,) an eminent painfer 
 of history and landscapes, son of the preceding, was born 
 in Rome in 1623. Filippo painted in preference small 
 cabinet pictures which were remarkable for imagination 
 and spirit. He also painted figures for the landscapes 
 of Claude Lorrain. His design and composition are 
 highly commended by E. Breton in the " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." Died in 1694. His brother 
 Francesco was a promising artist when he died in 
 1635, a ged twenty-five. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Lamia, (Roger de.) See Loria. 
 
 Lauriere, de, deh lo're-aiR', (Eusebe Jacob,) a pro- 
 found French jurist, born in Paris in 1659. He was 
 thoroughly versed in legal science, and attained great 
 proficiency in literature. Among his numerous works 
 are "The Origin of the Law of Amortizement," (1692,) 
 and "Library of Common Law," ("Bibliotheque des 
 Coutumes," 1699.) Died in 1728. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Laurillard, 16're'ytR', (Charles Leopold,) a French 
 naturalist and artist, born at Montbeliard in 1783, was a 
 pupil of Cuvier, who employed him in the execution of 
 his anatomical designs. He published "The Mammifera 
 and Human Races," (1849.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Lam im an us. See Lauwerman. 
 
 Lauriston, de, deh lo'res'tiN', (Jacques Alexan- 
 dre Bernard Law,) Marquis, a marshal of France, 
 was born in India in 1768, and was great-nephew of 
 John Law, the famous projector. In 1800 he became 
 aide-de-camp to Bonaparte, and served at the battle of 
 Marengo. He was made a general of brigade in 1802, 
 general of division in 1805, and governor-general of 
 Venice in 1807. Having received the title of count, 
 as commander of the artillery of the imperial guard, he 
 took part in several victories over the Austrians in 1809. 
 He was sent as'ambassador to Russia in 181 1, and com- 
 manded a corps in the campaign of 1813. He was created 
 a marquis in 1817, became minister of the royal house- 
 hold in 1821, received a marshal's baton in 1S23, and 
 was appointed minister of state in 1824. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Dh Courcei.i.es, "Llictionnaire des GeneVanx Francais ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale. " 
 
 Lauro, low'ro, (Giovanni Baitista,) a modern Latin 
 poet, born at Perugia in 1581 ; died at Rome in 1629. 
 
 Laus du Perret. See Duperret. 
 
 Lauterbach, low'ter-baK', (Wolfgang Adam,) a 
 German jurist, born in 1618, wrote a work on the Pan- 
 dects, (3 or 4 vols., 1690-1714.) Died in 1678. 
 
 Lauth, lot, (Alexandre,) a skilful French anatomist, 
 born at Strasbourg in 1803. He published a " Manual 
 for the Anatomist," (1829,) and other able professional 
 works. Died in 1837. 
 
 Lautrec, lo'meV, (Odet de Foix,) Marshal, a 
 brave French general, was a cousin of Gaston de Foix. 
 He was wounded at Ravenna in 1512. Just after Con- 
 stable Bourbon had resigned the command, Francis I. 
 appointed Lautrec his lieutenant-general in Italy, (1516.) 
 He was defeated at Bicoque in 1522, and fought by the 
 side of Francis 1. at Pavia in 1525. In 1527 he resumed 
 command of the army in Italy, and was besieging Naples, 
 when he died of fever in 1528. 
 
 See Sismoniii, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Lauwerman, low'er-man',|I.at. Laurima'nus,'| (Cor- 
 nh is,) a Dutch teacher and Latin poet, born at Utrecht 
 about JJ20 ; died in 1573. 
 
 Lauzun, Due he. Sec Biron, (Armand Louis i e.) 
 
 Lauzun, de, deh 15'zun', (Antoine Nomiak he 
 Caumoni,) In kf, a French courtier and general, whose 
 
 life present! n markable vicissitudes, was bom in ( .ascony 
 in l6w. He became a favourite of Louis XIV., who 
 gave him a high rank in the army before he had merited 
 it by services. In 1671 he commanded the army which 
 
 1 1; 9 as s; g hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural; N, tuual; R, trilled; i as t; th as in this. (JSy See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
 
LAVAL 
 
 1382 
 
 LA VERNE 
 
 accompanied the king to Flanders. He was engaged to command of the Catholic army at Coutras in 1578, but 
 
 Anna Maria, Duchess of Montpensier, a granddaughter 
 of Henry IV., but the match was broken off, and, having 
 incurred the enmity of Madame Montespan, he was im- 
 prisoned from 1671 to 1681, when his penalty was com- 
 muted into exile from court. It is supposed that he was 
 secretly married to the lady first above named. When 
 the throne and person of James II. of England were 
 menaced by revolution, (1688,) that king confided his 
 wife and son to Lauzun, who escorted them to Paris 
 and by that service regained the favour of Louis XIV. 
 He commanded the French army sent to Ireland to fight 
 for James II., was defeated at the battle of the Boyne in 
 1690, and returned to Fiance about the end of that year. 
 Died in 1723. "His lite was like a romance," said La 
 Bruyere, "except that it lacked probability." , 
 
 See La Beuvere, " Caracteres ;" Saint-Simon, " M<5moires :" 
 Dangeau, " Journal ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" DelORT, 
 " Histoire de la Detention de Fouquet, de Pellisson et de Lauzun," 
 3 vols., 1S29; "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1822. 
 
 Laval, If vil', (Anne Adrien Pierre df. Mont- 
 morency,) Due de Laval, born in Paris in 1768, was 
 the son of the Due de Laval. He was sent as ambas- 
 sador to Spain in 18 14, to Rome about 1820, and to 
 Vienna in 1828. In 1829 he was transferred to the court 
 of Saint James. Died in 18^7. 
 
 Lavalette, de, deh Ifvflet', (Pere Antoinf,) a 
 French Jesuit, born in 1707. He was chosen superior- 
 general of the missions of South America in 1 754- He 
 engaged in mercantile speculations which resulted in a 
 disgraceful bankruptcy. This affair was one of the 
 causes or pretexts of the abolition of the order of Jesuits 
 in France in 1762. 
 
 Lavalette, de, (Charles Jean Marie Felix,) Mar- 
 quis, a French diplomatist, born at Senlis in 1806. He 
 was minister-plenipotentiary to the Sublime Porte from 
 1851 to 1853, and was raised to the dignity of senator in 
 the latter year. In 1865 he was appointed minister of 
 the interior. He became minister of foreign affairs in 
 December, 1868. 
 
 La Valette, de,( Than Parisot.) See Valette, de i. a. 
 
 Lavalette, de, (Marie Chamans,) Count, a favour- 
 ite officer and minister of Bonaparte, was born in Paris 
 in 1769. He entered the army in 1792, and obtained 
 the grade of captain at Areola in 1796. Soon after this 
 date, Bonaparte employed him in important missions, 
 and gave him for his wife Emilie de Beauharnais, a 
 niece of Tosephine. During the Egyptian campaign 
 (1798) he was one of Bonaparte's favourite attendants. 
 In 1800 he was called to preside over the post-office 
 department, first with the title of commissary, and soon 
 after with that of director-general. At the restoration 
 of 1814 he retired to private life, but on the return of 
 Napoleon from Elba he resumed his functions as post- 
 master-general on the 20th of March, 1815. In the same 
 year he was arrested by the agents of Louis XVIII. and 
 condemned to death. Just before the day of execution, 
 Madame Lavalette visited him in prison, and remained 
 in his place while he escaped disguised in her dress. By 
 the aid of Sir R. Wilson and other Englishmen, he 
 reached Flanders safely. He was pardoned by the king 
 in 1822, and died in 1830, leaving two volumes of me- 
 moirs of his life,- (1831.) He wife was tried and ac- 
 quitted, but became permanently insane in consequence 
 of the exertion and excitement. 
 
 See Lavalette, " Memoires et Souvenirs," 2 vols., 1831, and 
 " Noiice biographique sur le Comte de La Valette," Paris, 1H30. 
 
 La Vallee, 19 vt'li', (Joseph,) Marquis de Bois-Ro- 
 bert, a French writer, born at Dieppe in 1747. Among 
 his works is a piquant journal called " Semaines cri- 
 tiques," (4 vols., 1797.) Died in London in 1816. 
 See the "Monthly Review," vol. Ixxxv., 181S, (Appendix.) 
 
 Lavallee, (Theophile Sebastien,) a French histo- 
 rian, born in Paris in 1804. He published a " History 
 of the French from the Time of the Gauls to 1830," (3 
 vols., 1839; 10th edition, 1854,) and other works. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review." vol. Ixxxiv., 1S17, (Appendix.) 
 
 La Valliere. See Valliere, de la. 
 
 Lavardin, de, deh If vtR'daN', Marshal, a French 
 general, whose proper name was Jean de Beaumanoir, 
 was born in Maine in 1551. He fought as second in 
 
 entered the service of Henry IV. in 1595, and was 
 then made a marshal of France. He was riding in the 
 carriage with the king when the latter was assassinated 
 in 1610. Died in 1614. 
 
 Lavardin, de, (Henri Charles de Beaumanoir,) 
 Marquis, was a great-grandson of the preceding. In 
 1687 he was sent as ambassador to Rome, with a large 
 retinue of armed men, for the purpose of maintaining a 
 claim to .certain privileges or franchises which the pope 
 refused to grant. (See Innocent XI.) Lavardin en- 
 tered Rome as a victor at the head of an army, but was 
 excommunicated, and returned to France in 1689. Died 
 in 1701. 
 
 Lavater, la'vi-ter or lfvftaiR', (John Caspar,) a 
 celebrated Protestant minister and writer on physiog- 
 nomy, born at Zurich in 1741. He was educated for the 
 church, which profession was congenial to his character. 
 In 1763 he made a journey to Berlin with Henry Kuseli 
 the artist. He produced in 1767 his admirable " Swiss 
 Songs," and in 1768 an ingenious work entitled " Pros- 
 pects into Eternity," ("Aussichte in die Ewigkeit.") He 
 was ordained a deacon in 1769, and a few years later 
 became pastor of a church in Zurich. His sermons 
 were much admired, and widely diffused by the press ; 
 but he was censured by some for a tendency to paradox, 
 superstition, and mystical theology. In 1775-78 he pub- 
 lished, in German, his celebrated "Physiognomic Frag- 
 ments for the Promotion of the Knowledge and Love 
 of Mankind," (" Pliysiognomischen Fragmente zur Be- 
 forderung der Menschenkenntniss und Menschenliebe," 
 4 vols.) This is the result of multiplied' and curious 
 observations generalized into an ingenious system. He 
 was the author of numerous religious and moral works 
 in prose and verse, among which are " Pontius Pilate," 
 (1782,) and two poems, "the Messiah" (4 vols., 1783-86) 
 and "The Human Heart," (1789.) He was a friend of 
 Goethe, with whom he corresponded. In the commo- 
 tions which followed the French Revolution he displayed 
 courage and firmness in opposing the French party, 
 (though not with carnal weapons ;) and at the capture 
 of Zurich by Massena, in September, 1799, he was shot 
 in the street by a soldier. After suffering from the wound 
 more than a year, he died in 1801. His character was 
 eminently honest and noble. "Lavater's spirit," says 
 Goethe, in his Autobiography, "was altogether im- 
 posing. Near him, you could not resist his decided in- 
 fluence ; and I had to submit to observing brow and 
 nose, eyes and mouth, in detail, and to weighing their 
 relations and proportions to each other. . . . Many 
 times in my after-life I had occasion to think about this 
 man, who is, one among the most excellent with whom I 
 have ever attained to so intimate a relation." 
 
 See Meister, "J. C. Lavater," 1802; Gbssner, "Lavater's 
 Lebensbeschreibung." 3 vols., 1802: Goethe, " Briefe an Lavater," 
 1833; BoDSMANN, "Life ol "Lavater," iSsfi: P. I- Hkisch, " Me- 
 moirs of J. C. Lavater," London, 1842; C. L. Hali.er, "DenVmal 
 auf Lavater," rSoi ; F. W. Jong, " Erinnerungen an Lavater." 1812; 
 F. Hekiist, "Lavater nach seinem Leben und Wirken," 1832. 
 
 Lavater, (Louis,) a Swiss Protestant clergyman, born 
 in 1527. He lived in Zurich, and wrote many theological 
 and other works, among which is a curious treatise on- 
 spectres, apparitions, etc., (1570.) Died in 1586. 
 
 Laveaux, If vo',( Jean Charles Thibault,) a French 
 grammarian, born at Troyes in 1749. He published, 
 besides other works, a " Dictionary of the French Lan- 
 guage," (1826.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Lavergne, de, deh If viitiY, (Louis Gabriel Leonce 
 Guilhaud — ge'lo',) a French economist and writer, born 
 at Bergerac in 1809. Among his works are a "Memoir 
 on the Rural Economy of France," (1857,) and many 
 important articles in the " Revue' des Deux Mondes" 
 on Spanish history, literature, etc. 
 
 La-ver'na, [Fr. Laverne, If vJrii',] in Roman my- 
 thology, was' regarded as the patroness of thieves and 
 impostors. 
 
 Laverne. See Lwerna. 
 
 La Verne, de, deh 19 vfiRfl, (Lf.cer M\rii- Philippe 
 Tranchant — troN'shSN',) Comte, a French tactician 
 and writer on the art of war, born near Vesoul in 1 769. 
 Among his works is a " History of General Suwarow," 
 (1809.) Died in 1815. 
 
 J, e, 1, 6, 5, y, long; a, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
LAVES 
 
 1383 
 
 LAWES 
 
 Laves, li'vSs, (Gk.org I.i-dwh; Friedricii,) an emi- 
 nent Genua architect, and chief director of buildings 
 fcr the kingdom of Hanover, was born at Uslar in 1789. 
 In 1852 lie finished the new theatre at Hanover, which is 
 regarded as his best work. 
 
 Lavigne, de, deh li'vefi', (Anne,) a French poetess, 
 bom at Vernon, in Normandy ; dieil in 1684. 
 
 La Ville de Mirmout, de, deh li vel deli me,R'm6x', 
 (Alk.wmike Jkan Joseph,) a French dramatic poet, 
 born at Versailles in 1782. His drama "Le Libere" 
 (1835) gained the Montyon prize of the French Acad- 
 em\. Died in 1S45. 
 
 La Villemarque, de, deh It vel'maVka', (Theodore 
 Clal'HE Henri Hersart — heVsaV,) Vico.m ie, a French 
 philologist, born at Quimperle in 1815. He published 
 "The Popular Songs of Bretagne," (1839,) with a French 
 version, and other works. 
 
 Lav'iug-ton, (George,) a learned English prelate, 
 born in Wiltshire in 1683. He became a canon of Saint 
 Paul's, London, in 1732, and Bishop of Exeter in 1747. 
 He published, liesides sermons, "The Enthusiasm of the 
 Methodists and Papists Compared." Died in 1762. 
 
 La-viu'I-a, [Fr. Lavinie, U've'ne',] a daughter of 
 Latinus, King of Latium, and his wife Amata, who 
 promised her to Turnus. She was married to /Eneas 
 instead of Turnus because an oracle had declared that 
 she should be the wife of a foreign prince. She was the 
 mother of /Eneas Sylvius. 
 
 See VutGIL, "/Eneid," book vii. 
 
 Lavinie. See I.avinia. 
 
 Lavocat, li'vo'kS', ( An toine,) a French mechanician 
 and inventor, born near Nancy in 1707; died in 1788. 
 
 Lavoisier, li'vwa'ze-i', (Antoine Laurent,) an 
 illustrious French chemical philosopher, and the chief 
 founder of modern chemistry, was born in Paris on the 
 26th of August, 1743. After leaving the College Maza- 
 rin, where he obtained high honours, he pursued with 
 zeal the study of astronomy, mathematics, and especially 
 chemistry. In 1766 he gained the prize offered by the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1763 for an improved method 
 of lighting the streets of Paris, and in 1768 was chosen 
 an associate of that institution. About this period he 
 entered the public service as farmer-general, in order to 
 obtain the funds required for his scientific researches, 
 to which he devoted the greater part of his time. He 
 acquired durable celebrity by the discovery of a new 
 chemical theory of combustion, (called the anti-phlo- 
 gistic,) which was partially developed in 1773 in a work 
 entitled "Physical and Chemical Essays," ("Opuscules 
 physiques et chimiques,") and which forms a great epoch 
 in the science of chemistry. In a memoir which he read 
 to the Academy in 1775, he announced that calcination 
 and combustion are the results of the union of a "highly 
 respirable gas" (oxygen) with combustible bodies, and 
 soon after proposed the theory that the heat produced 
 during combustion was disengaged from that respirable 
 air. "These two propositions/' **y» Cuvicr, " belong 
 to Lavoisier in his own right, and form the basis and 
 fundamental character of the new chemical theory." In 
 1776 he was appointed to superintend the fabrication of 
 saltpetre and gunpowder, of which he greatly improved 
 the quality. Co-operating with other French chemists, he 
 rendered an important service by reforming the chemical 
 nomenclature, and published in 1787 "Method of Chemi- 
 cal Nomenclature," (" Methode de Nomenclature chi- 
 mique,") in which a simple, systematic, and expressive 
 terminology was substituted for the absurd or fanciful 
 terms of the alchemists. He displayed his admirable 
 talent for explaining the truths which he had discovered 
 in his "Elementary Treatise on Chemistry," ("Traite 
 elenientaire de Chimie," 2 vols., 17S9.) He invented the 
 pneumatic cistern, the gasometer, and other chemical 
 apparatus. His glorious career was prematurely closed 
 by an unjust suspicion against the farmers of the revenue, 
 although in this service he had acquitted himself with 
 great honour and success. In the reign of terror La- 
 voisier and many of his colleagues were condemned to 
 death on frivolous charges, one of which was that they 
 moistened with water the tobacco of which they had the 
 monopoly. His request for a respite of a few days, in 
 order to finish some important experiments, was refused, 
 
 and he was executed in May, 1794. About that time he 
 had published two volumes of a large and important 
 work on chemical philosophy, entitled "Memoires de 
 Chimie," which remained unfinished. 
 
 See article on Lavoisier, by Cuvier, in the " Biographic Univer- 
 selle;" Fockcroy. " Notice sur Lavoisier," 1796; J. J. Le Francois 
 de Lalanije, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Lavoisier," 
 1796; Dr. F. Hokfer, article in (he " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'- 
 rale;" Kireevsky, " HistuiredesLegislateurs-Chimistes : Lavoisier, 
 Berthollet, H. Davy," 1845. 
 
 Law, (Edmund,) D.D., an eminent English metaphy- 
 sician, born in Lancashire in 1703, was the father of Lord 
 Ellenborough. He was educated at Cambridge, and, 
 while a student there, published a translation of King's 
 " Essay on the Origin of Evil," with notes, and an " En- 
 quiry into the Ideas of Space and Time." He became 
 rector of Graystock, Cumberland, in 1737, and arch- 
 deacon of Carlisle in 1743. Soon after this date appeared 
 his admired "Reflections on the Life and Character of 
 Christ." He was appointed master of Peter-House, 
 Cambridge, about 1755, professor of casuistry in 1764, 
 and prebendary of Durham in 1767. In 1769 he was 
 made Bishop of Carlisle. He published in 1777 an 
 edition of the works of Locke, with a life of the author, 
 of whom he was a disciple. He belonged to the rational 
 and liberal school of theology. Died in 1787. 
 
 Law, (Edward.) See Ellenborough. 
 
 Law, (John,) of Lauriston, a famous Scottish pro- 
 jector and financier, was born at Edinburgh in 1671, 
 and inherited an estate called I^auriston. About 1694 
 he went to London, where, by means of his handsome 
 figure and graceful address, he gained admission into 
 fashionable society, and supported himself by gaming. 
 Having killed a man in a duel, he fled to the continent, 
 where he followed the trade of a gambler with great 
 success in Paris, Venice, Genoa, etc. About 1715 he 
 persuaded the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France, to 
 favour a scheme by whicH he promised to greatly im- 
 prove the financial condition of the kingdom. In 1716 
 he obtained a charter for a general bank of issue and 
 discount, under the name of Law & Company. In 
 connection with this bank he formed the Mississippi 
 Company, with a capital of one hundred million francs, 
 and with the exclusive right of the trade between France 
 and Louisiana, China, India, etc. The stock of these 
 companies was bought up with avidity, and the former 
 was soon erected into the Royal Rank, with the privilege 
 of coining gold and silver. The hope of enormous profits 
 infatuated the public so generally that the stock of the 
 company rose to twenty times its original value. In 
 January, 1720, Law was appointed contrdleur-gcueral of 
 finances, (i.e. prime minister.) The fall of his baseless 
 fabric was sudden and ruinous in 1720, when the public 
 confidence began to fail, and the notes of his bank fell 
 to one-tenth of the nominal value. Law was compelled 
 to leave F'rance; and he died poor at Venice in 1729. 
 His system is often called the "South Sea Bubble." 
 
 See John Philip Woou, " Memoirs of John Law of Lauriston," 
 1824: A. CoCHUT, "Law, sou Systeme et sou Epoqua," 1S53: Le- 
 vasseuh, "Recheiches sur le Nvsteuu- de Law," 1S57; Theodore 
 Vial, "J. Law rt le Sysleme du Papier Monnate de 1716," 1849: 
 J. Hkvmann, "Law uud sein System," 1853; Chambers, "Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Law, (William,) a pious and mystical English au- 
 thor, born at King's Cliff, Northamptonshire, in 1686. 
 He liecame a Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 
 but forfeited his fellowship by refusing to take the re- 
 wired oath at the accession of George I. in 1714. He 
 lived some years as tutor in the family of Gibbon, (father 
 of the historian,) to whom he was related, and was after- 
 wards chaplain to Miss Hester Gibbon at King's Cliff. 
 He adopted the mystical doctrines of Jacob Bbhnie, (or 
 Behmen,) which he inculcated in his " Way to Know- 
 ledge," "Spirit of Love," and "Letters." Mr. Law 
 published many other works, of which the most popular 
 is his "Serious (all to a Devout and Holy Life," (1729.) 
 This was praised by Dr. Johnson and by Gibbon. " In 
 mere dialectical skill," says Macaulay, "he had very few 
 superiors." Died in 1761. 
 
 See Richard Tighk, "The Life and Writings of the Rev. Wil- 
 liam l«iw," 1813. 
 
 Lawes, lawz, (Henry,) an eminent English composer, 
 born probably at Salisbury in 1600. He was one of the 
 
 t; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.J 
 
 casi- 
 
LAWES 
 
 1384 
 
 LAWRENCE 
 
 gentlemen of the royal chapel, and clerk of the cheque 
 to Charles I., in whose service he continued until 1649. 
 He composed the music for Milton's "Comus," (per- 
 formed in 1634,) in which the poet compliments him as 
 
 one 
 
 "Whose artful strains have oft delayed 
 The huddling brook to hear his madrigal, 
 And sweetened every musk-rose of the dale." 
 
 In 1653 he published " Ayres and Dialogues," consisting 
 of songs, duets, and trios. " Milton probably took lessons 
 [in music) from him." (Masson.) Died in 1662. 
 
 Lawes, (William,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 a skilful musician and composer, and was one of the 
 gentlemen of the royal chapel. He fought for the king 
 in the civil war, and was killed at Chester in 1645. He 
 composed music for Sandys's paraphrase of the Psalms, 
 and many other works. 
 
 Law'less, (John,) an Irish agitator and orator, born 
 in Dublin in 1772, was often called " honest Jack Law- 
 less." Died in London in 1837. 
 
 See Thomas McGee, " Sketches of O'Connell and his Friends." 
 
 Lawless, (Valentine.) See Cloncurry. 
 
 Law'rance, (John,) a judge, born in Cornwall, Eng- 
 land, in 1750. He emigrated in 1767 to the city of New 
 York, where he practised law, and rose to distinction in 
 his profession. He was a delegate to the Congress of 
 the Confederation in 1785-87, and represented the city 
 of New York in the Congress of the United States from 
 1789 to 1793. In 1794 he was appointed a judge of the 
 district court for New York. He was elected a Senator 
 of the United States for New York in 1796, and resigned 
 his seat in 1800. He was a Federalist, and a personal 
 friend of Alexander Hamilton. Died in 1810. 
 
 Law'rence, (Abbott,) an eminent American mer- 
 chant and philanthropist, born in Groton, Massachusetts, 
 in 1792. As the partner of his brother, Amos Law- 
 rence, he acquired a large fortune, a portion of which 
 was invested by them in the cotton-factories of Lowell, 
 which owes its prosperity chiefly to these enterprising 
 merchants. He was elected to Congress in 1839, and in 
 1843 was appointed one of the commissioners to settle 
 the northeast boundary question with Great Britain. He 
 was United States minister to England in 1849. He 
 died in 1855. Among his numerous and munificent do- 
 nations was that of $100,000 to Harvard University to 
 found the scientific school called by his name. He also 
 bequeathed the sum of $50,000 towards erecting model 
 lodging-houses. 
 
 See Appleton, " Life of Abbott Lawrence ;" Hunt, " Lives of 
 American Merchants." 
 
 Lawrence, (Amos,) a distinguished philanthropist, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Groton, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1786. Having acquired an immense fortune 
 as a merchant, he spent a great part of it in various 
 charities and donations to public institutions ; and the 
 amount of his benefactions is estimated at $700,000. 
 Among the colleges to which he gave large sums were 
 Kenyon College, Ohio, Williams College, and the Theo- 
 logical Seminary at Bangor, Maine. He died in 1852, 
 and his "Life and Correspondence" was published by 
 his son in 1855. 
 
 Law'rence, (Sir Henry Montgomery,) an English 
 officer, born in Ceylon in 1806, served with distinction 
 in the campaigns of the Sutlej. He was appointed presi- 
 dent of the board of government in the Punjaub about 
 1850, and chief commissioner of Otitic in 1857. He 
 rendered important service by the defence of Lucknow 
 against the mutinous Sepoys, and was killed during the 
 siege of that city in July, 1857. 
 
 See J. W. Kaye, "Lives of Indian Officers," London, 1S67 ; 
 "Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1857; "North British Review" 
 for May, i860. 
 
 Lawrence, (James,) an American naval officer, of 
 distinguished bravery, born at Burlington, New Jersey, 
 in 1 781. He served under Commodore Decatur in the 
 Mediterranean, and was afterwards appointed succes- 
 sively to the command of the Vixen, the Wasp, the Argus, 
 and the Hornet. In 1813 he captured the Peacock from 
 the British after a short engagement, and was soon after 
 made post-captain, and commander of the frigate Ches- 
 apeake. On the 1st of June, 1813, he encountered near 
 
 Boston the British frigate Shannon, and after a severe 
 contest, in which he was mortally wounded, his vessel 
 was boarded and taken by the English. It was on this 
 occasion that he uttered the memorable words, " Don't 
 give up the ship." The remains of Captain Lawrence 
 were subsequently removed to Trinity church-yard, 
 where a monument has been erected to him. He left a 
 widow and two children. He had been in command of 
 the Chesapeake only a few days, and was a stranger to 
 the crew, who were not well disciplined. 
 
 Lawrence, (John,) an English agriculturist, bom at 
 Colchester in 1756, became a merchant in London. He 
 published a "Philosophical and Practical Treatise on 
 Horses," and several treatises on rural economy. Died 
 about 1836. 
 
 .Lawrence, (Sir John Laird Mair,) an English 
 administrator of great ability, a brother of Sir Henry M. 
 Lawrence, was born in 1810. He entered the civil service 
 of the East India Company about 1830, and became chief 
 commissioner of the Punjaub soon after the conquest of 
 that country. He was knighted for his services in the 
 suppression of the mutiny of 1857, and was appointed 
 Governor-General of India in November, 1863. 
 
 See "Blackwood's Magazine" for April, May, and June, 1869; 
 " British Quarterly Review" for July, 1S69. 
 
 Lawrence, (Jonathan,) an American poet and law- 
 yer, born in New York in 1807. He died in 1833, leaving 
 a number of poems and prose essays. 
 
 See Gkiswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Law'rence, [Eat. Lauren'tius; Fr. Laurent, Io'- 
 rftN';. It. Lorenzo, lo-ren'zo ; Ger. Lorenz, lo'rents,] 
 Saint, a martyr, born in Rome in the third century, 
 was in 257 appointed by Pope Sixtus treasurer of the 
 Church. In consequence of edicts issued against the 
 Christians by Valerian, he suffered martyrdom in 258. 
 It is said he was burned to death on a gridiron. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, "Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 Lawrence, (Stringer,) an English general, born in 
 1697, commanded in India for many years. Died in 1775. 
 
 Lawrence, (Thomas,) an eminent English physician, 
 born in Westminster in 171 1. He became a Fellow of 
 the College of Physicians in 1744, and was president of 
 the same from 1767 to 1774. He wrote a "Life of Wil- 
 liam Harvey," and several medical treatises in Latin. 
 He was an intimate friend of Dr. Johnson. Died in 1783. 
 
 Lawrence, (Sir Thomas,) a celebrated English por- 
 trait-painter, born at Bristol in 1769. His artistic talents 
 were marvellously developed in early childhood, when 
 he was also remarkable for his memory, musical voice, 
 and personal beauty. It is stated that he drew with a 
 crayon accurate likenesses of eminent persons about the 
 age of six years. In 1782 he became a pupil of Prince 
 Hoare at Bath, and soon acquired the grace, inspiration, 
 and delicacy of manner which rendered him unrivalled 
 among contemporary English artists in the expression 
 of female beauty. He removed to London in 1787, and 
 was admitted as an associate of the Royal Academy in 
 1791. In 1792 he succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as 
 first painter to the king. From that time he was abun- 
 dantly patronized at the rate of one hundred guineas for 
 a full-length portrait. In 1797 he painted a portrait of 
 Mrs. Siddons, which is one of his master-pieces. _ Be- 
 tween 1814 and 1820 he painted, by order of the prince- 
 regent, the King of Prussia, the Emperor of Austria, 
 Pope Pius VII., Wellington, and many famous generals 
 and statesmen. He received the honour of knighthood 
 in 1815, and visited Vienna and Rome in 1819. On the 
 death of Benjamin West, in 1820, Sir Thomas was elected 
 president of the Royal Academy. Died in 1830. He 
 excelled in the art of imparting ideal beauty to his sub- 
 jects without departing, from the reality. Among his 
 master-pieces are portraits of Benjamin West, John 
 Kemble, Curran, Lord Erskine, Lady Cowper, and the 
 Duchess of Sutherland. 
 
 See D. E. Williams, " Life and Correspondence of Sir T. Law- 
 rence," 3 vols., 1831 ; Chari.es Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres ;" 
 Bryan. ''Dictionary of Painters;" "Edinburgh Review" for De- 
 cember, 1831. 
 
 Lawrence, (William,) F.R.S., an English surgeon, 
 born about 1785. He became professor of anatomy 
 and surgery to the Royal College of Surgeons, London, 
 
 , e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ft, f, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nit; good; moon; 
 
LAWSON 
 
 >385 
 
 LAZZARO 
 
 about 1816, and delivered "Lectures on the Physiology, 
 Zoology, and Natural History of Man," which attracted 
 much attention. Among his works are " Anatomico- 
 Chirurgical Descriptions and Views of the Nose, Mouth, 
 Larynx, and Fauces," a "Treatise on Ruptures," (5th 
 edition, 1838,) and a "Treatise on Diseases of the Eye." 
 Died in 1867. 
 
 Law'son, (George,) a learned Scottish divine, born 
 in West Linton in 1749; died in 1820. His memory 
 was so extraordinary that he knew nearly the whole 
 of the Bible by heart. It was his own belief that if the 
 Holy Scriptures should be destroyed he could restore 
 them all from his memory, with the exception of two or 
 three chapters in the Old Testament 
 
 See the " Sketch of Professor George Lawson" in the "Watch- 
 man and Reflector," 1867. 
 
 Law'son, (Henry,) F.R.S., an English savant, born 
 at Greenwich in 1774. He erected an observatory at 
 Hath, and published a "History of the New Planets," 
 (1847.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Lawson, (Sir John,) an English admiral, born at 
 Hull, became a captain before the end of the civil war. 
 He co-operated with Monk in the restoration of Charles 
 H., and was made rear-admiral. About 1664 he and De 
 Ruvter were sent with combined fleets into the Medi- 
 terranean in order to chastise the pirates of Barbary. 
 He was killed in a battle against the Dutch in 1665. 
 
 See Campbell, "Lives of the British Admirals." 
 
 Lawson, (John,) a native of Scotland, emigrated to 
 America, where he became surveyor-general of North 
 Carolina. He was captured and put to death by the 
 Indians in 1712. He published "A New Voyage to 
 Carolina," etc., (1709.) 
 
 Law'ton, (Alexander R.,) an American officer, born 
 in Georgia about 1820, became a brigadier-general in the 
 Confederate army in 1861. 
 
 Lax, (Rev. William,) an English astronomer, born in 
 1751. He became professor of astronomy and geometry 
 at Cambridge in 1795. Died in 1836. 
 
 Laxmann, liks'man, (Adam,) a Russian officer, who 
 in 1792 was sent by his government to Japan for the 
 purpose of opening commercial intercourse with the 
 Japanese. He failed in this object, and wrote a succinct 
 narrative of his journey. 
 
 Lay, (BENJAMIN,) an eccentric philanthropist, born in 
 England, became a resident of Abington, Pennsylvania. 
 He was one of the earliest and most zealous opponents 
 of slavery in the United States, and the coadjutor of 
 Franklin and lienezet. He was a member of the Society 
 of Friends, in which he bore a faithful testimony against 
 the practice of slaveholding, then prevalent among them. 
 He resolutely refused to partake of any food or wear any 
 clothing which was wholly or in part produced by the 
 labour of slaves. Died in 1760. 
 
 See "Life of Benjamin Lay," by R. Vaux, Philadelphia, 1S15. 
 
 Laya, 13'vi', (Alexandre,) a. French jurist and 
 Writer, wns born in Paris in 1806. He published a work 
 on English law, "Droit Anglais, ou Resume de la Legis- 
 lation Anglaise,"etc, (2 vols., 1845,) and "Studies on 
 the Life of M. Thiers," (2 vols., 1846.) 
 
 Laya, (Jean Louis,) a French dramatist, father of 
 the preceding, was born in Paris in 1 761. His comedy 
 "The Friend of the Laws" was received with great 
 favour in 1793, but was proscribed by the terrorists. 
 He wrote various other works, and was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the French Academy in 1817. Died in 1833. 
 
 See "Notice bftngraphbiua sur J. L. Laya,*' Paris, 1833: "Nou- 
 velle I'.ionraphie Generate. ' 
 
 Laya, (Leon,) a French dramatist, son of the pre- 
 ceding, wis born in Paris in 1809. He produced many 
 popular comedies, among which are "Emma, or the 
 Guardian Angel," (1844,) and" An April Fool," ("Un 
 Poison d'Avril," 1845.) 
 
 Lay'ard, (Austen Henry,) an Orientalist and anti- 
 
 ?uary, agrandson of the following, was bom in I'ai is, of 
 English parents, in March, 1817. He visited Asia Minor, 
 Persia, etc. about 1840, and a few years later discovered 
 the ruins of Nineveh near Mosul. Under the auspices 
 of Lord Stratford de Kedcliffe, and in conjunction with 
 M. Hotta, he made extensive excavations at Nimroud, 
 where he found monuments marked with cuneiform 
 
 inscriptions, and colossal emblematic figures in the form 
 of winged bulls and lions, — memorials of a civilization 
 which existed before the commencement of profane his- 
 tory. These sculptures, bas-reliefs, etc. are now deposited 
 in the British Museum. Mr. Layard returned to England 
 in 1847, and published an account of his researches in 
 " Nineveh and its Remains," (2 vols., 1849.) He resumed 
 the enterprise in 1849, and published a second work, 
 entitled "Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Baby- 
 lon, with Travels in Armenia, Kurdistan, and the Desert," 
 (1853.) In 1852 he was elected a member of Parliament. 
 He was under-secretary of state for foreign affairs from 
 August, 1861, to June, 1866. He is a member of the 
 Liberal party. In December, 1868, he was appointed 
 commissioner of public works, and ambassador to Spain 
 in 1869. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1848 ; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for April, 1849 ; " North British Review" lor May, 1853. 
 
 Layard, (Charles Peter,) an English divine, of 
 French descent, born about 1748, was grandfather of 
 the preceding. He obtained the Seatonian prize for 
 poetry at Cambridge about 1774. In 1800 he was 
 appointed Dean of Bristol. Died in 1803. 
 
 Layens, de, deh IT'ens or IfydN', ( Mathieu, ) a 
 Flemish architect of Louvain. He designed the Hotel- 
 de-Ville of Louvain, an excellent specimen of what is 
 termed ogival architecture. Died in 1484. 
 
 Laynez. See Lainez, (Jago.) 
 
 Lazare. See Lazarus. 
 
 Laz'a-rus, [Gr. Aufapoc ; Fr. Lazare, U'ziR' ; It. Laz- 
 ZARO, lat'sa-ro,] one of the personal friends of Christ, and 
 a brother of Mary and Martha. The Saviour wrought 
 one of his most memorable miracles by recalling Lazarus 
 to life after he had been dead four days. 
 
 See John xi. and xii. 
 
 Lazeri, lad-za'ree, ? (Pietro,) an Italian writer on eccle- 
 siastical history, born at Sienna in 1710; died in 1789. 
 
 Lazius, lat'se-us, (Wolfgang,) a German antiquary, 
 born at Vienna in 1 5 14, practised medicine in that city. 
 About 1550 the emperor Ferdinand appointed him his 
 physician. He published, besides other works, "On 
 the Migrations of Nations and Origin of Languages," 
 etc., (" De Gentium aliquot Migrationibus, Linguarumque 
 Initiis," etc., 1557.) Died in 1565. 
 
 See Nic^ron, "Memoires;" Sax, "Onomasticon." 
 
 Lazzarelli, lat-sa-rel'lee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an 
 Italian satirical poet, born at Gubbio in 1621. His 
 principal works are "La Cicceide," a personal satire, 
 and "Cosmopoli," (1691.) " He was," says Tiraboschi, 
 " among the small number of poets who did not follow 
 the bad taste of his age." Died in 1694. 
 
 Lazzarelli, (Luigi,) a Latin poet, born at San Seve- 
 rinoin 1450. lie wrote "The Cup of Hermes," ("Crater 
 Hermetis,") and " Bombyx," a poem on silk-worms, 
 (1518.) Died in 1500. 
 
 Lazzari. See Bramante, (Donato Lazzari.) 
 
 Lazzaiini, lat-sa-ree'nee, (Domenico,) an Italian 
 poet, born near Macerata in 1668. He composed a 
 lew dramas, sonnets, and other poems. Died in 1734. 
 
 Lazzaiini, (Giovanni Andrea,) a skilful Italian 
 painter and elegant writer, was born at Pesaro in 1 710, 
 and became a canon of the church. His master-piece 
 is a " Virgin with Saint Catherine," (at Gualda,) some 
 figures of which Lanzi pronounces "truly Raffaelesque." 
 He wrote a "Treatise on the Art of Painting," which 
 was often reprinted. Died in 1786, or, as others say, in 
 1801. "Lazzarini was perfectly master of good painting 
 as well as good writing," says Lanzi ; "easy, yet always 
 studied in every part ; at once noble and graceful, . . 
 yet free from affectation and parade." 
 
 See Montanari, " Biografia del Car.onico G. A. Lazzarini," 
 1S361 Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Fantuzzi, " Nuii/ie 
 del Canonico Lazzarini." 
 
 Lazzaiini, (GitECOftIO,) an Italian painter of history, 
 born at Venice in 1655. He excelled in design and 
 colouring. His " S. Lorenzo Giustiniani" was greatly 
 admired. He was one of the best Venetian painters 
 of his time. Died in 1730 or 1740. 
 
 See L \nzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Lazzaro. See Lazarus. 
 
 i k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in this, (gy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LEA 
 
 1386 
 
 LEBAS 
 
 Lea, lee, (Henry C.,) a son of Isaac Lea, noticed 
 below, and a grandson of Mathew Carey, was born in 
 Philadelphia, September 19, 1825. He wrote " Supersti- 
 tion and Force — Essays on the Wager of Law, the Wager 
 of Battle, the Ordeal and Torture," (1866,) and " Studies 
 in Church History," etc., (1869.) Mr. Lea is the present 
 representative of the celebrated publishing-house estab- 
 lished towards the close of the last century by Mathew 
 Carey & Sons, which for a long period held the first 
 place among- all the establishments of the kind in the 
 United States. 
 
 Lea, (Isaac,) LL.D., an American naturalist, born 
 at Wilmington, Delaware, in 1792. He became in 1821 
 the partner of his father-in-law, Mathew Carey, a promi- 
 nent publisher in Philadelphia. His "Observations on 
 the Genus Unio" came out in 1827, and was followed 
 by "Contributions to Geology," (1833.) He also pub- 
 lished " Fossil Footmarks in the Red Sandstones of 
 Pottsville," " Synopsis of the Family of Naiades," and 
 other scientific treatises. He was elected president of 
 the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, in 1858. 
 Mr. Lea's contributions on conchology to the "Trans- 
 actions" of the American Philosophical Society are 
 esteemed among the most valuable that have appeared 
 on that subject. 
 
 Lea, (Thomas Gibson,) a botanist, a brother of the 
 preceding, was born in Wilmington, Delaware, in 1785 ; 
 died in 1844. 
 
 Leach, leech, (William Elford,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish naturalist and physician, born at Plymouth in 1790. 
 He took the degree of M.D. at Edinburgh about 1812, 
 and was appointed curator of the natural history depart- 
 ment of the British Museum in 1S13. Thenceforth he 
 devoted his time to the study of natural history, espe- 
 cially zoology. In 1815 he published the first part of 
 his excellent " History of the British Crustacea," which 
 was never completed. He largely promoted the intro- 
 duction into England of the natural system which La- 
 marck and Cuvier had adopted. About 1 821 he resigned 
 the place of curator, on account of ill health. Died in 
 Italy in 1836. 
 
 Lead or Ledde, led, (Jane,) an English mystical 
 writer, born in 1623, was a disciple of Jacob Bohmen. 
 She wrote a number of works, among which is "The 
 Wonders of the Creation in Eight Different Worlds, as 
 they were revealed to the Author," (1695.) Died in 1704. 
 
 See Lee, "Life of Jane Lead." 
 
 Leake, leek, (Sir John,) an English admiral, born in 
 Surrey in 1656, was the son of Captain Richard Leake, 
 noticed below. He served with distinction in the battle 
 of La Hogue, in 1692, and displayed skill as commander 
 at Gibraltar in 1705. He commanded the fleet which 
 took Alicante, Majorca, etc. in 1706. In 1707 he was 
 made an admiral and chosen commander-in-chief of the 
 fleet, and in 1709 became a lord of the admiralty. Died 
 in 1720. 
 
 See S. M. Leake, " Life of Sir John Leake," 1750. 
 
 Leake, (John,) an English physician, born at Ain- 
 stable. He practised with success in London, and ex- 
 celled in obstetrics. He wrote treatises " On Puerperal 
 Fever," the "Diseases of Women," etc. Died in 1792. 
 
 Leake, (Richard,) an English naval officer, born at 
 Harwich in 1629. He displayed great courage in a battle 
 against the Dutch in 1673, and was appointed master- 
 gunner of England. Died about 1690. 
 
 Leake, (Stephen Martin,) a nephew of Sir John, 
 noticed above, was born in England in 1702. He ob- 
 tained a high office in the Heralds' College, and pub- 
 lished a "History of British Coins," (1726,) and a "Life 
 of Sir John Leake," (1750.) Died in 1774. 
 
 Leake, (Colonel William Martin,) an English trav- 
 eller, distinguished by his researches in the antiquities 
 o( Greece, was born in 1777. Having obtained the rank 
 of lieutenant-colonel in the army, he commenced about 
 1800 his travels in Asia Minor, the Morea, and other 
 parts of Greece. He returned to England in 1S10, and 
 afterwards published a number of valuable works, — viz., 
 " Researches in Greece,"( 1 81 4,)" Topography of Athens," 
 (1821,) "Travels in the Morea," (1830,) "Travels in 
 Northern Greece," (1835,) and "Numismata Hellenica," 
 a catalogue of Greek coins, (1854.) By his thorough 
 
 research and critical sagacity he has done more, probably, 
 than any other traveller to illustrate the history and 
 geography of ancient and modern Greece. Died in i860. 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1814. 
 
 Le-an'der, [Gr. Aa'awSpoc ; F'r. Leandre, l&'&NdR',] 
 a youth of Abydos, and a lover of Hero. He swam 
 across the Hellespont every night to visit Hero at Sestos. 
 As he was once attempting to cross in a storm, he was 
 drowned. (See Hero.) 
 
 Leander, [Fr. Leandre,] Saint, Archbishop of Sev- 
 ille, in Spain, was a brother of Saint Isidore. He was 
 a zealous opponent of Arianism. He died about 600 
 A.D., leaving a work " De Institutione Virginum," ("On 
 the Education of Virgins.") 
 
 Leandre. See Leander. 
 
 Leaiig-Oc-Tee, (or -Ou-Ti,) li'ing'oo'tee, Emperor 
 of China, and founder of the Leang dynasty, usurped the 
 throne about 502 A.D. Through devotion to the doc- 
 trines of Fo and the mysticism of the Bonzes, (priests 
 of Fo or Booddha,) he neglected the care of the empire. 
 He died in 549, soon after he had been dethroned by 
 one of his officers, Heoo-King. 
 
 Leaa See Leo. 
 
 Leao, la-owN', or Liao, do, do le-6wN', (Duarte 
 Nunez,) a Portuguese historian, born at Ev'ora in 1608. 
 
 Lea'por, (Mary,) an English poetess, born in North- 
 amptonshire in 1722, was the daughter of a gardener, 
 and received the usual education of the lower class. At 
 her death, in 1746, she gave her father several poems 
 which she had kept secret, and which have considerable 
 merit. One of them is called "The Temple of Love." 
 
 Lear, leer, (Tobias,) a diplomatist, born at Ports- 
 mouth, New Hampshire, about 1760. He became pri- 
 vate secretary to General Washington in 1785, and 
 negotiated a peace with Tripoli in 1805. Died in 1816. 
 
 Le-ar'chus, [Gr. Aeap^oc; Fr. Learque, la'aTtk',] an 
 ancient Greek statuary of Rhegium, liyed about 600 or 
 700 B.C. Pausanias states that he saw at Sparta a bronze 
 statue of Jupiter executed by Learchus. 
 
 Learque. See Learchus. 
 
 LebailUf, leh bS'yef, (Alexandre Claude Martin,) 
 a French natural philosopher, born at Saint-Fargeau in 
 1764. He constructed excellent micrometers and elec- 
 trometers, and invented a sideroscope. Died in 1831. 
 
 Lebailly, leh-bi'ye', (Antoine Franqois,) a French 
 fabulist, born at Caen in 1756. He published a collec- 
 tion of fables in 1784, and another in 1811. They are 
 praised for wit, imagination, style, and good morality. 
 He also wrote operas, etc. Died in 1832. 
 
 Lebarbier, leh-blR'be-i', (Jean Jacques Franqois,) 
 a French historical painter, born at Rouen in 1738, 
 worked in Paris. He was a member of the Royal 
 Academy. Died in 1826. 
 
 Lebas or Le Bas, leh-bi', (Jacques Philippe,) an 
 eminent French engraver, born in Paris in 1707. He 
 was for a long time the most popular of French engravers. 
 In 1743 he was admitted into the Academy of Painting. 
 He engraved many works of Teniers, Wouwerman, and 
 Vernet, and some of his own designs, which are also 
 admired. In 1782 he received the title of engraver to 
 the king. Died in 1784. 
 
 See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Lebas or Le Bas, (Jean Baptists Apollinaire,) 
 a French engineer, born in the department of Var in 
 1797. He superintended the removal of an obelisk from 
 Luxor, Egypt, to Paris in 1836, and published an account 
 of that difficult enterprise. 
 
 Le Baa, (Louis Hippolyte,) a French architect, born 
 in Paris in 1782. He was a member of the Institute. 
 His principal works are the church of Notre Dame de 
 Lorette, commenced about 1825, and the prison of La 
 Roquette, Paris. 
 
 Lebas, (Philippe,) a French archaeologist, son of the 
 succeeding, was born in Paris in 1794. He l>ecame in 
 1820 the preceptor of Louis Napoleon, (late emperor,) 
 returned to France in 1828, and in 1842 was sent on 
 a scientific mission to Greece and Asia Minor. The 
 results of this mission were published by order of the 
 government in his "Antiquarian Journey in Greece and 
 Asia Minor," (" Voyage archeologique en Grece et en 
 Asie Mineure," about 12 vols., 1847 et seq.) 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; si, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, ?, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
LEBAS 
 
 1187 
 
 LEBR UN 
 
 Lebas, (Philippe Francois,) a French Jacobin, born 
 near Arras in 1765. He became the devoted personal 
 friend and partisan of Roliespierre, and voted for the 
 death of the king in the Convention. As the commis- 
 sary of the Convention in the departments of the Rhine, 
 he seconded Saint-Just in the direction of the army, and 
 arrested several generals. At his own request, he was 
 included in the decree against Robespierre on the 9th 
 Thermidor, 1794, and killed himself on the same day. 
 
 Set THISKSj "History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Lebeau or Le Beau, leh-bo', (Charles,) a learned 
 French historian, born in Paris in 1701. He obtained 
 the chair of eloquence in the College of France in 1752, 
 and was chosen perpetual secretary of the Academy of 
 Inscriptions in 1755. He published Latin verses, ("Car- 
 mina," 3 vols., 1782,) and a " History of the Lower Em- 
 pire from the Time of Constantine the Great," (" I listoire 
 du Bas-Emprre en commencant a Constantin le Grand," 
 22 vols. I2mi>, 1757-79,) which is a judicious and accu- 
 rate resume of the Byzantine historians, but is faulty 
 in style. Having been left unfinished by Lel>eau, it was 
 completed by Ameilhon and published 'in twenty-seven 
 volumes. A revised edition was published by Saint- 
 Martin and Brosset, (21 vols., 1836.) Died in 1778. 
 
 See Chaki.es F. Dupuis, " FJoge de C. Lebeau," 1779; " Nou- 
 vellc Biographic Gen^rale ;" " Monthly Review" tor July and August, 
 1770. 
 
 Lebeau, (JBAH Louis Joseph,) a Belgian minister of 
 state, born at Huy in 1794. He was minister of foreign 
 •fairs from April, 1840, to April, 1841. Died in 1865. 
 
 See L. dh Lomenie, " M. Lebeau, parun Homme de Rien," 1844. 
 
 Lebedef, leVeh-def, (Guerasim or Herasim,) a 
 Russian traveller and Orientalist, born in 1749. He 
 1 1 some years at Madras and Calcutta, and pub- 
 lished a "Grammar of the Pure and Mixed East Indian 
 Is," (London, 1801.) Died after 1815. 
 
 Lebeed, Lebid, or Lebyd, leb-eed', a popular Ara- 
 bian poet, born about 530 A. D. He had acquired a great 
 reputation when, at the age of ninety, he was converted 
 to Islamism by Mohammed, whom he followed in his 
 flight to Medina. Under the reign of Omar he settled 
 at Koofah, where he died about 673 A.D., at the extra- 
 ordinary age of one hundred and forty-five. Another 
 account states that he died in 662, aged about ninety. 
 His poems are said to abound in original ideas. 
 
 See 1)k Sacy, "Notice sur le Poete Lebyd:" D'HeRnEi.oT, 
 ■theque < )rieniale ;" Caussin de Perceval, " Essat sur 
 l'Histcnt: des Arabes." 
 
 Leberecht, von, fori la'beh-r?Kt', (Karl,) a German 
 engraver of medals, born at Mciningen in 1749. He 
 settled in Saint Petersburg in 1775, and became in 1800 
 director of the Russian mint, or Cour dts Monnaies. 
 Died in 1S27. 
 
 Le Berriays, leh bJ're'J', (Rene,) a French horticul- 
 turist, born near Avranches in 1722, wrote a valuable 
 "TrcatUe on Gardens," (2 vols., 1775.) Died in 1807. 
 
 Lebeuf, leh-bt if", (Jean,) a French antiquary and 
 priest, born at Auxerre in 1687. In 1740 he was chosen 
 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, for which he 
 wrote many memoirs. He published several dissertations 
 on French history. Died in 1760. 
 
 Lebid. See Leiieed. 
 
 Leblanc or Le Blanc, leh-bl5.N', (Francois,) a 
 French numismatist, born in Dauphine' ; died in 1698. 
 
 Leblanc or Le Blanc, (Jean Bernard,) Abbe, a 
 mediocre French writer, born at Dijon in 1707. He 
 published various works, two of which had a transient 
 popularity, viz., "Abensaid," a tragedy, and "Letters 
 of a Frenchman on the English Nation," (3 vols., 1745.) 
 Died in 1781. 
 
 Leblanc, (Louis,) a French surgeon, born at Pon- 
 toi.-i , practised at Orleans about 1770. 
 
 Le Blanc or Leblanc, (M akci .1.,) a French Jesuit, 
 who was sent to Siani in the reign of Louis XIV. He 
 •TM taken prisoner by the English, and not released 
 until 1690. He wrote a f History of the Revolutions 
 of Sum," (1692.) Died at Mozambique in 1693. 
 
 Le Blanc, (Nicolas,) a French chemist, born at 
 Issmidun in 1753, was attached as a surgeon to the 
 household of the Duke of Orleans. He discovered about 
 1790 a method of obtaining soda from sea-salt, and thus 
 
 rendered an important service to the industrial arts. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Le Blanc, (Thomas,) a French author, born at Vitry 
 in 1599, wrote many works for the promotion of religion 
 and morality. Died in 1669. 
 
 Leblanc de Castillon, leh-ljldx' deh kaVte'ydn', 
 (Jean Francois Andre,) a French magistrate, born at 
 Aix in 1719, was eminent for his legal knowledge and 
 eloquence. Died in 1800. 
 
 Leblanc de Guillet, leh-bloN' deh ge'yV, (Antoine 
 Blanc,) a French dramatist, born at Marseilles in 1730. 
 He produced, besides other works, two tragedies," Manco 
 Capac," (1763,) and " The Druids," (1772 ) Died in 1799. 
 
 Leblond, leh-bldN', (Auguste Savinien,) a French 
 naturalist and writer, born in Paris in 1760. Among his 
 works is a "Dictionary of Celebrated Men of Antiquity 
 and Modern Times," (2 vols., 1802.) Died in 1S11. 
 
 Leblond or Le Blond, (Gaspard Michel,) a French 
 antiquary and ecclesiastic, born at Caen in 1738, lived 
 in Paris. He was keeper of the Mazarin Library* and 
 a member of the Institute, and wrote several treatises 
 on medals. Died in 1809. 
 
 Leblond, (Guillaume,) a French mathematician, 
 born in Paris in 1704. He was selected in 1751 by Louis 
 XV. to teach mathematics to the princes-royal. He 
 published "Elements of Fortification," "Elements of 
 Tactics," and other works. Died in 1781. 
 
 Leblond, (Jean Baptiste,) a French naturalist, born 
 at Toulongeon in 1747. He travelled in South America 
 many years between 1767 and 1802, and published 
 "Travels in the Antilles and South America," (1813.) 
 Died in 1815. 
 
 Lebon or Le Bon, leh-b6N', (Jean,) a French medi- 
 cal writer, born in Champagne, was physician to Charles 
 IX. He published numerous works, (1554-76.) 
 
 Lebon, (Joseph.) a French revolutionist, who ren- 
 dered his name infamous by his cruelties, was born at 
 Arras in 1765. He became a partisan of Robespierre 
 and a member of the Convention in 1793. He was 
 executed in 1795. 
 
 Lebon, (Philippe,) a French chemist and engineer, 
 born near Joinville in 1769. He is said to have invented 
 the use of gas for illumination. Died in 1804. 
 
 Lebossu, leh-bo'sii', (Ren£,) a French writer, born 
 in Paris in 163 1. He joined the canons-regular of Saint- 
 Genevieve in 1649, and taught the humanities in various 
 schools. He published a "Treatise on Epic Poetry," 
 (1675,) which was praised by Boileau as one of the best 
 works on poetry that have appeared in the language. 
 Died in 1680. 
 
 Le Boucq, leh book, (Simon,) a French antiquary, 
 born at Valenciennes in 1 591. He wrote on the history 
 and antiquities of Valenciennes. Died in 1657. 
 
 Le Bouvier, leh-boo've-4', (Gili.es,) a French chroni- 
 cler, bom at Bourges in 1386, wrote a "History of 
 Charles VII. of France." Died about 1460. 
 
 Lebret, la'bRet or Ieh-1>R&', (Johann Friedrich,) 
 born in Wiirtemberg in 1732, wrote a " History of Ger- 
 many," (1772,) and other works. Died in 1807. 
 
 Lebreton or Le Breton, leh-bReh-t6.N', (Andre 
 FRANCOIS,) a French bookseller, born in Paris in 1708. 
 He was the publisher of Diderot's "Encyclopedic," 
 commenced in 1751, and took the liberty to suppress 
 or modify furtively some passages which were offensive 
 to the court and clergy. Diderot was extremely angry 
 when he detected the fact. Died in 1779. 
 
 Lebreton, (Joachim,) a French litterateur, born in 
 Bretagne in 1760 ; died at Rio Janeiro in 1819. 
 
 Lebreton, (Theodore,) a French poet, born at Rouen 
 in 1803. He was befriended by Beranger and Lamar- 
 tine, and published a collection of poems, "Leisure 
 Hours of a Workman," (" Heures de Repos d'un Ou- 
 vrier," 1837.) 
 
 Lebrixa, (Antonio.) See Nebrissensis. 
 
 Lebrun or Le Brun, leh-bruN', (Anne Charles,) 
 Duke of Piacenza, (Plaisance,) a French general, born in 
 Paris in 1775, was the eldest son of the statesman C F. 
 Lebrun. I le was aide-de-camp of Desaix at Marengo, 
 (1800,) distinguished himself at Jena, (1806,) and became 
 a general of brigade in 1807. He was an aide to Napo- 
 leon at Eylau and Wagram in 1809, and was made a 
 
 t as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. ( jrySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LEBRUN 
 
 1388 
 
 LECCHI 
 
 general of division in 181 2. During the Hundred Days 
 he took the field for Napoleon. He inherited the title 
 of duke in 1824. In 1852 he was appointed a senator. 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 See " Biographie des Membres du Senat," 1852. 
 
 Lebrun or Le Brun, (Antoine Louis,) a French 
 poet, born in Paris in 1680, wrote verses in Latin and 
 French. Among his best works is a collection of fables, 
 (1722.) Voltaire imputed to Lebrun the authorship 
 of the satire for which the former was confined in the 
 Bastille. Died ill 1743. 
 
 Lebrun or Le Brun, (Charles,) a celebrated French 
 painter, born in Paris in March, 1619. He was a pupil 
 of Vouet in Paris, and afterwards studied six years with 
 Poussin at Rome. In 1648 he was admitted into the 
 Academy of Painting, and, having acquired a high repu- 
 tation, lie became first painter to Louis XIV. in or before 
 1662. He displayed his genius as a painter, and his ex- 
 traordinary powers of invention, in a series of pictures of 
 the battles of Alexander the Great, which are among his 
 most admired productions. "The Family of Darius" is 
 called his master-piece. He was appointed president 
 of the Royal Academy and director of the Gobelin 
 manufactory, and exercised a sort of dictatorship in 
 the arts for many years. He published a " Treatise on 
 Physiognomy." Died in 1690. 
 
 See Felibien, "Vies des Peintres ;" Chari.es Blanc, " His- 
 toire des Peintres;" Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lebrun or Le Brun, (Charles Francois,) Duke of 
 Piacenza, a French statesman and author, born in Nor- 
 mandy in 1739. He was versed in ancient and modern 
 languages. He composed many discourses and edicts 
 for his patron Mattpeou during his contest with the par- 
 liaments. In 1776 he published an esteemed version 
 of Homer's " Iliad." Elected to the States-General in 
 1789, he acted with the moderate friends of reform. 
 Lebrun became one of the ablest members of the Coun- 
 cil of Elders in 1796, and was appointed Third Consul 
 by Bonaparte in 1799. He enjoyed the confidence of 
 the First Consul, (who afterwards designated him as one 
 of the best writers of France, and a man of strict probity.) 
 He was appointed chief treasurer in 1804, and made Duke 
 of Piacenza (Plaisance) in 1808. In 1810 he was chosen 
 Viceroy or Lieutenant-General of Holland, the throne of 
 which Louis Bonaparte had just resigned. The Dutch 
 were pleased with his modest temper and methodical 
 habits. From 181 r to 1813 inclusive he was Governor- 
 General of Holland. He published an admired version 
 of Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," and other works. 
 Died in 1824. 
 
 See Makie du Mesnil, " M^moire snr le Prince Lebrun, Due 
 de Plaisance," 1828 ; Thiens, " History of the French Revolution ;" 
 " Opinions, Rapports et Clioix d'£crits politiques de C. F. Lebrun," 
 preceded by a "Notice biographique" by his son Charles, 1828; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lebrun, (Denis,) a French jurist, became an advo- 
 cate in the Parliament of Paris in 1659 ; died in 1706. 
 
 Lebrun, (Jean Baptiste Pierre,) a French picture- 
 dealer, critic, and amateur, born in Paris in 1748. He is 
 said to have been the best connoisseur of paintings in 
 Europe. His wife, in her " Souvenirs," says he ruined 
 her fortune by his passion for gaming and other vices. 
 They lived separately many years. Died in 1813. He 
 published a " Gallery of Flemish, Dutch, and German 
 Painters," containing two hundred plates. 
 
 Lebrun, leh-bruN', (Karl August,) born at Halber- 
 stadt, in Germany, in 1792, acquired celebrity as an actor, 
 and wrote several successful dramas. Died in 1842. 
 
 Lebrun, Madame, [nit Marie Louise Elisabeth 
 Vigee — ve'zha',) a French lady, eminent for her beauty 
 and her skill as a portrait-painter, was born in 1755. In 
 1 776 she was married to J. B. P. Lebrun, a painter and 
 dealer in pictures. She became a fashionable artist, and 
 was welcomed in aristocratic society as an accomplished 
 woman. Between 1779 and 1789 she painted several 
 portraits of Marie Antoinette. Her soirees were thronged 
 with people of rank and celebrity. After her return to 
 Paris, in 1801, she painted Lord Byron, Madame de Stael, 
 etc. In 1835 she published well-written "Souvenirs" 
 of her life. The number of her portraits is over six 
 hundred. Died in 1842. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1837. 
 
 Lebrun, ( Pierre, ) a French theologian, born at 
 Brignolles in 1661, was professor in several colleges. 
 He wrote, among other works, a "Critical History ot 
 Superstitious Practices which have seduced the People," 
 (1702.) Died in 1729. 
 
 Lebrun, (Pierre,) a French lawyer, born at Mont- 
 pellier in 1761. He wrote agreeable verses, and was 
 the author of the version of Horace's " Ars Poetica" 
 published by Count Daru, who was his brother-in-law. 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 Lebrun, (Pierre Antoine,) a popular French lyric 
 and dramatic poet, born in Paris in 1785. In 1805 he 
 received a pension for his " Ode to the Grand Army." 
 His tragedy " Ulysses" was received with favour in 1814. 
 After the restoration he produced "Joan of Arc" and 
 other odes, and a poem on the death of Napoleon, 
 (1821,) which was much admired. His drama "Marie 
 Stuart" (1820) had a great success, and is called his 
 capital work. In 1828 he was elected to the French 
 Academy in place of Francois de Neufchateau. From 
 1831 to 1848 he was director of the royal printing-estab- 
 lishment, and in 1839 he was admitted to the Chamber 
 of Peers. He became a senator in 1853. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, " Portraits contemporains ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Lebrun, (Pierre Henri Helene Marie Tondu,) a 
 French Girondist, born at Noyon in 1763. He was ap- 
 pointed minister of foreign affairs in August, 1792, and 
 was executed in 1793. 
 
 Lebrun, (Ponce Denis Ecouchard, ) a popular 
 French lyric poet, born in Paris in 1729, was called Le- 
 brun Pin dare, (paN'dtR',) or the French Pindar. In 
 early life he began a poem on Nature, which was never 
 finished. He composed a number of beautiful odes 
 before the Revolution, and during the Republic favoured 
 the popular cause. He was patronized by the Conven- 
 tion, and afterwards by Napoleon, who in 1801 granted 
 him a pension of 6000 francs. In 1803 he produced a 
 National Ode on the prospective invasion of England. 
 "Although he excelled in epigram," says Marie J. Che- 
 nier, " and though he displayed remarkable beauties in 
 poems which he left unfinished, he will owe chiefly to 
 his odes his durable reputation, and will pass to pos- 
 terity as one of the three great French lyric poets."* 
 La Harpe judged him less favourably. He was a member 
 of the Institute. Died in 1807. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Notice sur Lebrun," prefixed to an edition of 
 Lebrun's works, 4 vols., 1811; M. J. Chenier, "Tableau de la 
 Litterature ;" Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits Htteraires," tome i., and 
 " Causeries du Lundi." tome v. : "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" 
 *' Monthly Review," vol. lxvii., 1812, (Appendix.) 
 
 Lebrun de Charmettes, leh-bRuN' deh shf R'm?t', 
 (Philippe Alexandre,) a French poet and historian, 
 born at Bordeaux in 1785. Among his works are a 
 "History of Joan of Arc," (4 vols., 1817,) and "L'Orle- 
 anide," a poem, (2 vols., 1819.) 
 
 Lecamua. See Camus, Le, (Antoine and Etienne.) 
 
 Lecanu, leh-k3'nu', (Louis Rene,) a French chemist, 
 born in 1800, published numerous works. 
 
 Lecat, leh'k3', (Claude Nicolas,) an eminent French 
 surgeon, born in Picardyin 1700. He settled about 1733 
 at Rouen, where he lectured on anatomy and practised 
 with success. In 1744 he founded a Royal Academy at 
 Rouen. He was a skilful lithotomist, and published 
 several treatises on that branch of surgery. He wrote a 
 "Treatise on the Senses," (1740,) and other professional 
 works. Died in 1768. 
 
 See L. A. Valentin, " FJoge de Lecat," 1760: Monfalccn, in 
 the "Biographie Medicate ;" Haller, " Bibhutheca Chirurgica ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lecchl, lek'kee, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 mathematician, born at Milan in 1702. He obtained in 
 1739 the chair of mathematics in Pavia, where he taught 
 with great success for twenty years. He was afterwards 
 appointed by Maria Theresa mathematician of the court 
 at Vienna. He published, besides other works, "Ele- 
 ments of Geometry," (1753,) a "Theory of Light, including 
 Optics," (1759,) and a "Treatise on Hydrostatics," (1765.) 
 Died in 1776. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 * J. B. Rousseau and Malherbe being the other two. 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, e, Ci, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moonj 
 
LECENE 
 
 '389 
 
 LECLUSE 
 
 Lecene, leh-sjn', (Charles,) a learned French Prot- 
 estant theologian, born at Caen about 1647. He retired 
 to Holland in 1685, and afterwards to London, where 
 he attempted to found an Arminian church, but failed, 
 because he was suspected of holding Socinian views. 
 He made a French translation of the Bible, (1741,) 
 which deviates too much from the literal sense, and 
 wrote several works on theology. Died in London In 1703. 
 
 Lechevalier or Le Chevalier, leh sheh-vS'le-i', 
 (Jk\n Baptiste,) a French traveller and savant, born 
 neai Coutances in 1752. In 1784 he went to the Levant 
 as st retary of Choiseul-Gouffier, ambassador to the 
 Ottom.in Porte, and made diligent researches in the 
 plain ol Troy, which attest the accuracy of Homer's 
 descriptions. He published his " Voyage de la Troade," 
 (1798 or 1800,) and a "Voyage to the Propontis and the 
 Euxine," (1S00.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Leck'jr, (\V. E. H.,) an English philosopher, pub- 
 lished in 1865 a "History of the Rise and Influence of 
 the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe," (London, 2 vols.) 
 "We closed them," says the "Edinburgh Review," 
 (April, 1865,) "with the conviction that Mr. Lecky is 
 one of the most accomplished writers and one of the 
 most ingenious thinkers of the time." He also wrote 
 a " History of European Morals, from Augustus to 
 Charlemagne," (1869.) 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1869 ; " British 
 Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1S65; " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for November, 1865, and September, 1S60. 
 
 Leclerc or Le Clerc, leh-klaik', (Daniel,) a Swiss 
 physician, born at Geneva in 1652, was a brother of 
 jean the eminent critic. He practised with distinction 
 in Geneva, became a counsellor of the republic, and 
 published, besides some other works, a "Complete 
 Surgery," (1695,) and a "History of Medicine," (1696,) 
 which was translated into English. Died in 1728. 
 
 Leclerc, (David,) a Swiss Protestant theologian, born 
 at Geneva in 1591 ; died in 1654. 
 
 Leclerc, (David,) a skillul Swiss portrait-painter, 
 born at Kerne in 1680, worked many years in Frankfort, 
 and painted portraits in oil and miniature of numerous 
 German princes. Died in 1738. 
 
 Leclerc, leh-klaiR', (Gaukiei.,) a French physician, 
 practised in Paris. He became physician-in-ordinary to 
 Louis XIV., and published between 1694 and 1706 several 
 professional works, one of which is entitled " Convenient 
 Medicine," ("La Medecine aisec.") 
 
 Leclerc, [Lat. Cler'icus,] (Jean,) an eminent Swiss 
 critic and divine, born at Geneva in 1657. He became 
 a champion of Arminianism, and removed to Holland in 
 1683. After preaching for a short time in the church of 
 the Remonstrants in Amsterdam, he obtained in that city 
 the chair of philosophy and Hebrew, which he retained 
 until his death. In 1686 he commenced the " Biblio- 
 theque Universelle," the first of those three celebrated 
 series of reviews to which he owes much of his fame, 
 and which was issued monthly until 1693. It was fol- 
 lowed by the " Bibliotheque Choisie," (1703-13,) and the 
 "Bibliotheque ancienneet moderne," (1714-27.) "These 
 journals," says Hallam, "enjoyed an extraordinary in- 
 fluence over Europe) and deserved to enjoy it. . . . He 
 is generally temperate and judicious, and displays a very 
 extensive erudition." (" Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe.") He published many other valuable works, 
 among which are "Ars Critica," (2 vols., 1696,) "Par- 
 ihaiiana," (2 vols., 1699-1701,) and a "Commentary on 
 the Bible." Died in 1736. 
 
 See J. Ci.erici. "Vita et Opera ad Annum 17H Amici ejus Opus- 
 culuin;'' Van dkk Hoeven, " Dissertationes II. de J. Oerico et 
 ..•a l.imborch," 1843; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" 
 MM Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Leclerc, (Jean Baptiste,) a French legislator and 
 writer, born at Angers in 1756. He was a member of 
 the Convention, (1792-95,) and of the Council of Five 
 Hundred, (1795-99.) He wrote "Pastoral Poems," 
 (1786,) and other literary works. Died in 1826. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Leclerc, (Jean Louis.) See Buffon. 
 
 Leclerc, (Joseph Victor,) a French classical scholar, 
 was born in Paris in 1789. He obtained the chair of Latin 
 eloquence at the F'aculty of Letters in 1824, and was ad 
 
 mitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1834. He 
 published, besides some original works, "The Thoughts 
 of Plato," in Greek and French, (1818,) and "The Com- 
 plete Works of Cicero," with a French version, (30 vols., 
 1821-25.) 
 
 Leclerc, (Laurent,) a French priest, born in Paris in 
 1677, was a son of Sebastien Leclerc the engraver. He 
 published, besides other works, "A Critical Letter on 
 Bavle's Dictionary." Died in 1736. 
 
 Leclerc, (Michel,) a French poet and advocate, 
 born at Albi in 1622. His principal work is "Virginia 
 the Roman Girl," ("Virginie Roniaine," a tragedy, 
 1645.) He was a member of the French Academy. 
 Died in 1691. 
 
 Leclerc, (Nicolas Gabriel.) See Clerc. 
 
 Leclerc, (Oscar,) known as Leclerc Thoiiin, an 
 agriculturist, born in Paris in 1798, was a son of Jean 
 Baptiste, noticed above, and a naphew of Andre Thoiiin. 
 He published treatises on agriculture. Died in 1845. 
 
 Leclerc, (Sebastien,) a skilful French designer and 
 engraver, born at Metz in 1637, removed to Paris in 
 1665. In 1672 he was chosen professor of perspective 
 in the Academy of Painting. His works were nearly 
 all designed by himself. Louis XIV. appointed him 
 engraver of his cabinet and professor in the Ecole des 
 Gobelins. Leclerc published a "System of Vision," 
 (" Systeme sur la Vision," 1679,) and an esteemed treat- 
 ise on Architecture, (1714.) Died in 1714. 
 
 See Vai.i.emont, " Eloge de M. Leclerc Dessinateur," etc., 1715 ; 
 Qu^rard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Leclerc or Le Clerc, (Sebastien,) a good his- 
 torical painter, born in Paris about 1684, was a son of 
 the preceding. He was chosen a member of the Royal 
 Academy about 1704. Died about 1765. 
 
 Leclerc or Le Clerc, (Victor Emmanuel,) a French 
 general, born at Pontoise in 1772. He served at the 
 siege of Toulon, (1793,) where he formed a friendship with 
 Bonaparte, and distinguished himself in the Italian cam- 
 paign of 1796. lie followed Bonaparte to Egypt in 179S, 
 and promoted the success of the coup d'etat of 1 8th Bru- 
 maire, 1799. Soon after this event he married Pauline 
 Bonaparte, with the consent of her brother, the First 
 Consul, who in 1801 gave him command of a large 
 armament (35,000 men) sent to subjugate the revolted 
 negroes of Hayti. He obtained some successes, and 
 sent Toussaint L'Ouverture as a captive to France ; but 
 his army was wasted by the yellow fever, of which he 
 died in November, 1802. 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution," and "His- 
 tory of the Consulate and the Empire;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Leclerc des Essarts, leh-klaiR' d& z^'sf r', (Louis 
 Nicolas Marin,) a French general, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Pontoise in 1770. For his services 
 at Eckmuhl, Wagram, etc., in 1809, he received the title 
 of count. He commanded a division in Russia in 1812, 
 where he distinguished himself by his courage and skill. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Leclercq or Le Clercq, leh-kljRk', (Chretien,) a 
 French missionary, born in Artois about 1630. In 1655 
 he was sent to Canada, where he laboured many years. 
 After his return to France he published "The History 
 of the French Colonies in New France, and of Lasalle's 
 Expedition to Explore the Mississippi," (1691.) 
 
 Leclerq, (Michel Theodore,) a French dramatist, 
 born in Paris in 1777. He published " Dramatic Pro- 
 verbs," (4 vols., 1823-26,) which were very popular. 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 Lecluse or L'ficluse, de, deh la'kliiz', written also 
 LEscluse, (Charles,) [Lat. Car'olus Clu'sius,] a 
 savant, who made important contributions to the science 
 of botany, was born at Arras in 1526. He studied at 
 Louvain, Wittenberg, and Montpellier. At the last-named 
 place he graduated as physician in 1555. After travelling 
 many years in France, Spain, etc., for botanical informa- 
 tion, he was director of the emperor's garden at Vienna 
 from 1573 to 1587. He published, in Latin, a "Descrip- 
 tion of the Rare Plants of Spain," (1576,) and a "De- 
 scription of the Rare Plants of Austria," (1583,) both of 
 which were afterwards united in his "Rariorum Plan- 
 
 € as k; 9 as 1; g hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in thit. fl&^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LECLUSE 
 
 1390 
 
 LEDESMA 
 
 tarum Historia," ("History of the Rarer Plants," 1601,) 
 with figures. In 1593 he became professor of botany at 
 J<eyden, where he died in 1609. He was endowed with 
 a great memory and a rare sagacity, and excelled in 
 description. He left a work on foreign animals and 
 plants, entitled "Exoticorum Libri Decern, quibusAni- 
 maliuin, Plantarum, Aromatumque Historia; describun- 
 tur," (160.5.) 
 
 See Hai.ler, " Bibiintheca Botanica;" Niceron, " Me'moires;" 
 £loy, " IJictiounaire de la Medecine ;" Mourbn, " A la Meinoire 
 de C. de L'Escluse, un des Peies de la Botanique," etc., Liese, 1853. 
 
 Lecluse, de, (Fleury,) a French Hellenist, born in 
 Paris in 1774. Among his works is a " History of Greek 
 and Latin Literature, (2 vols., 1837.) Died in 1845. 
 
 Lecomte. See Cointe, Le. 
 
 Lecointe-Puuaveau, leh-kwaNt' pii-e'rS'vo', (Mi- 
 chel Mathieu,) a French legislator, born at Saint- 
 Maixent about 1750, was an active member of the Con- 
 vention, (I792-95-) Dfed in 1825. 
 
 Lecoiiitre, leh-kwaNtR', (Laurent,) a French regi- 
 cide. He voted for the death of the king in the Con- 
 vention, and instigated the execution of the queen. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 Lecomte or Le Comte, leh-l<6Nt', (Felix,) a French 
 sculptor, born in Paris in 1737, was a pupil of Falconet. 
 He was received as Academician in 1771. By order of 
 the king, he executed statues of Fenelon and Rollin. 
 He is classed in the second rank of French sculptors. 
 Died in 1817. 
 
 Lecomte, (Jui.es,) an able French litterateur, born at 
 Boulognc-sur-Mer in 1812. He edited several journals, 
 and published "Letters on French Authors," (1837,) a 
 " History of the Revolution of 1848," (1850,) and "The 
 English Pontoons," (" Lea Pontons Anglais," a maritime 
 novel, 5 vols., 1850-52.) Died in 1864. 
 
 Lecomte, (Louis,) a French Jesuit, born at Bor- 
 deaux, was one of six mathematicians sent as mission- 
 aries to China in 1685. He laboured some years in 
 the mission of Shensee, (Chensi,) and, having returned 
 to France, published in 1696 " Memoirs on the Present 
 State of China," which was censured by t'ie Faculty of 
 theology. Died in 1729. 
 
 Leconte, leh-UoNt', [Lat. Con'tius,] (Antoine,) a 
 French jurist, born at Noyon, was a cousin-german of 
 Calvin, but an opponent of his doctrines. He lectured 
 on law at Orleans and Bourges, and left several legal 
 works. Died in 15S6. 
 
 Le Conte, le-kSnt, (John,) an American naturalist, 
 and officer in the corps of United States engineers, was 
 born near Shrewsbury, New Jersey, in 1784. He pub- 
 lished "Descriptions of the Species of North American 
 Tortoises," "Monographs of the North American Spe- 
 cies of Utricularia," etc., and other works. Died in 1861. 
 
 Leconte, (John L.,) M.D., a son of the preceding, 
 born in New 'York in 1825, is distinguished as an ento- 
 mologist. He has published numerous treatises, etc. 
 on entomology, among which is one " On the Classifi- 
 cation of the Carabidae of the United States." 
 
 Leconte, (John,) M.D., an American naturalist and 
 physician, born in Liberty county, Georgia, in 1818. He 
 became in 1856 professor of natural and mechanical 
 philosophy in South Carolina College, Columbia. 
 
 Leconte, (Tosf.ph,) M.D., brother of the preceding, 
 was born in Liberty county, Georgia, in 1823. In 1851 
 he accompanied Professor Agassiz on a scientific tour in 
 Florida, and in 1856 became professor of chemistry and 
 
 Leooq or Le Coq, leh-kok', (Henri,) a French nat- 
 uralist, born at Avesnes (Nord) in 1802. He wrote 
 treatises on geology, chemistry, and botany. His most 
 important work is " Studies on the Botanical Geography 
 of Europe," (7 vols., 1854-57.) 
 
 Lecoq, von, fon leh-kok', (Karl Christian Erd- 
 MANN Edi.er,) an able German general, born at Tolgiu 
 in 1767. He fought for the French at Wagrani in 1809, 
 and commanded a division of Saxon troops in the Rus- 
 sian campaign of 1812. After 1815 he received the 
 chief command of the Saxon army. Died in 1830. 
 Le Courayer or Le Courrayer. See Courayer, I E. 
 Lecourbe or Le Courbe, leh-kooRb', (Claude 
 Joseph,) a French general, born at Lons-le-Saulnier in 
 1760. In 1799 he defeated tlie Austrians in Switzerland. 
 Having been selected by Moreau to command the right 
 wing of his army in 1800, he distinguished himself at 
 Hochstadt and other places. On account of his attach- 
 ment to Moreau, he was deprived of command in 1S04, 
 Died in 1815. 
 
 Lecouvreur or Le Couvreur, leh-koov'ruR', ( Adri- 
 enne,) a popular French actress, born near fipernay 
 about 1690. She excelled in tragedy, and was a great 
 favourite in Paris from 1717 until her death. Voltaire 
 and other poets offered poetical homage to her talents. 
 Died in 1730. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi." 
 Lect, lekt, [Lat. Lec'tius,] (Jacques,) a learned 
 Swiss jurisconsult, born in 1560, at Geneva. He obtained 
 a chair of law in that city in 1583, and the next year was 
 chosen a member of the council of state. In the critical 
 times which followed he showed firmness and ability. 
 He wrote several legal works, an edition of" Poetas Grasci 
 veteres Carminis.heroici Scriptores," (1606,) and short 
 Latin poems, " Ffc<:mata Varia," (1609.) Died in 161 1. 
 Lectius. See Lect. 
 
 Lecurieux, leh-kU're'uh'.fjACQUES Joseph,) a French 
 historical painter, born at Dijon in 1801. Among his 
 works are "Saint Louis at Damietta," and "Mary of 
 Burgundy." 
 
 Le'da, [Gr. Aytia,] the wife' of Tyndareus, King of 
 Sparta, and mother of Castor, Pollux, Helen, and Cly- 
 temnestra. According to the popular legend, two of 
 these were the offspring of Jupiter, who, when he visited 
 Leda, assumed the form of a swan. 
 
 Le Dain, leh daN, (Olivier,) a Flemish barber, who 
 became a favourite of Louis XI. of France. He was 
 hung by Charles VIII. in 1484. 
 
 Ledebour, von, fon la'deh-booR',(K a'rl Friedrich,) 
 an eminent German botanist, born at Stralsund in 1785. 
 He was professor of botany at Dorpat from 1811 to 1836, 
 and, after a journey to the Altai Mountains, published 
 " Flora Altaica," (4 vols., 1829-34.) His"Flora Rossica" 
 (3 vols., 1842-51) is regarded as the best work that has 
 appeared on the flora of Russia. He also published 
 " Illustrations of New Russian Plants, in five hundred 
 coloured plates," (5 vols., 1829-34.) Died in 1851. 
 
 Ledebur, von, fon la'deh-booR', (Leopold Karl 
 Wii.helm August,) a German writer, born at Berlin 
 in 1799, published a number of geographical, historical, 
 and antiquarian works. 
 
 Lederlin, leh-deR'laN', (Jean Henri,) a French 
 philologist, born at Strasburg in 1672. He published 
 editions of the "Onomasticon," by Pollux, of /Elian's 
 History, (1713,) End of other works. Died in 1737. 
 Ledermuller, la'der-moTler, (Martin Frohenius,) a 
 
 geometry in South Carolina College He has published Germ distinguished for his'researches with the micro 
 
 ............1 ^Lflmi^l Tnd rT^r»lrnrirnl work's. ° . » T , ... n. l.i:..l 
 
 several chemical and geological works. 
 
 Leconte de Lisle, leh-kftNt' deli lei, (Charles 
 Marie,) a French poet, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 
 1820, removed to Paris in 1847. He produced in 1852 
 a volume of " Poemes antiques," which obtained a prize 
 of the French Academy, and in 1854 "Poesies nou- 
 velles." " His character," says Sainte-Beuve, " is one of 
 the most decided (frononcl) and most worthy among 
 the poets of our time." " His art," says Villemain, " is 
 at the same time skilful and bold, more worthy of glory 
 than sure of popularity." The form of his poetry is 
 compared to an exquisitely-finished antique statue. 
 
 See " Rapports de M. Villemain a I'Academie Franchise sur les 
 Prix decernes en 1853," etc.; Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi,' 
 tome v. 
 
 scope, was born at Nuremberg in 1719. He published 
 " Microscopic Studies," (1759,) and " Microscopic Amuse- 
 ments," ("Mikroskopische Gemuths- und Auge'nergot- 
 zen," 3 vols., 1760-64,) often reprinted. Died in 1769. 
 
 Ledesma, de, da la -Des'ma, (Alonzo,) a Spanish 
 poet, born at Segovia in 1552. He was a disciple of 
 Gongora, and, notwithstanding the obscurity and othet 
 defects of his poetry, acquired a high reputation. Lope 
 de Vega, in his "Laurel d'Apollo," mentions him in 
 favourable terms. He published "Spiritual Thoughts," 
 ("Conceptos Espirituales," 1600-16,) and other poems. 
 Died in 1623. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 M, 
 
 1, 6, u, y long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, Jf, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
LEDESMA 
 
 1391 
 
 LEE 
 
 Ledesma, de, (Josft.) a Spanish painter, born at Bur- 
 gos in 1630 ; died in 1670. • 
 
 Ledieu, leh-de-t'h', (Francois,) AiiRft, a French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Peronne, was private secretary to 
 the celebrated liossuct, Bishop of Meaux. He wrote 
 "Memoirs of the Life and Works of Uossuet," (4 vols., 
 1856.) Died in 1713. 
 
 Ledoux, leh-doo', (Claude Nicolas,) a French 
 architect, lx>rn at Dormans in 1736. The most remark- 
 able monuments of his invention are the Barrieres 
 of Paris, lie published a "Treatise on Architecture." 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Ledran. leh-dRox', (Henri Francois,) an eminent 
 French surgeon, born in Paris in 1685, became a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society of London. He wrote, besides other 
 professional works, a "Treatise on Lithotomy," (1730,) 
 "Observations on Surgery," (1731,) and "Practical Re- 
 flections on Gunshot Wounds," (1737.) Died in 1770. 
 
 Ledru, leh-dRii', (AndkE Pierre,) a French priest 
 and naturalist, born in Maine in 1 761, was employed 
 as botanist in Baudin's expedition to the Canaries and 
 the Antilles in 1796. He wrote several works. Died 
 Ibont 1S25. 
 
 Ledra, (Nicolas Philippe,) a French experimenter 
 in natural philosophy, born in Paris in 1731, was a 
 grandfather of I.edru-Rollin. He made discoveries in 
 magnetism. Died in 1807. 
 
 Ledru-Rollin, le-dru' rol'lin or leh-dRii' ro'laN', 
 (Alexandre Auouste,) a distinguished French socialist 
 and radical republican, born in Paris in 1S08. His family 
 name was Ledru, to which he added that of Rollin. He 
 became an advocate about 1830, and was employed as 
 counsel for the defence in many political trials between 
 1832 and 1848. In 1841 he was elected to the Chamber 
 of Deputies by the voters of Mans, and became the chief 
 orator of the extreme gauche, or ultra-democrats. As a 
 tribune and popular agitator he was distinguished for his 
 audacity and vehemence, but had not much influence 
 in the Chamber. He founded " La Reforme," a political 
 journal, and took a prominent part at the reform ban- 
 quets of 1847. 
 
 During the Revolution of February, 1848, he entered 
 the Chamber when the regency of the Duchess of Or- 
 leans was under discussion. By the exertion of great 
 phvsical force he occupied the tribune, and, amidst the 
 violent tumult, spoke against the regency. He was chosen 
 by acclamation as a member of the provisional govern- 
 ment, and became minister of the interior. (See Lam mi- 
 tine.) His measures in this capacity were not approved 
 by the majority of his colleagues. He was censured for 
 an attempt to proscribe the defeated party ; but he is said 
 to have saved the government from the violence of the 
 insurgents on the 16th of April. At the election of five 
 members of the executive commission by the Assembly 
 in Mav, he was the lowest of the successful candidates', 
 receiving four hundred and fifty-eight votes out of about 
 eight hundred. 1 (e owed this election to the influence 
 of I.amartine. He lost his popularity with the massss, 
 and retired from power in June, 1848, when Cavaignac 
 became dictator. In December, 1848, Ledru-Rollin re- 
 ceived onlv 370,119 votes for president, having failed to 
 obtain the support of the socialists. He was the chief 
 of the " Mountain" in the Assemblies of 1848 and 1849, 
 to the lalter of which he was elected by five departments, 
 and made eloquent speeches against the government. 
 In lune, 1849. he demanded the impeachment of the 
 president, and, when this was refused, called on his 
 partisans to rifec in arms. The few who obeyed this call 
 were quicklv dispersed by the troops, and Ledru-Rollin 
 escaped to England, where he remained many years. In 
 h's al)sence he was condemned to deportation. He pub- 
 lished a book "On the Dcc'.ine of England," (2 vols., 
 1850,) and united with Kossuth and Maz/.iui to form a 
 revolutionary committee for the promotion of the demo- 
 cratic cause' in Europe. Among his publications is 
 " French Jurisprudence," etc., (" Jurisprudence Fran- 
 chise, on Repertoire du Journal du Palais," 8 vols., 
 1843-48.) Availing himself of the general amnesty, he 
 returned to France in 1870. 
 
 See M. CALLOW, " Vie politique fte I-edru-Rnllin," 1850; " Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for August, r8jo; " Nouvelle Biographie Cini- 
 rale." 
 
 Leduc or Le Due, leh-duk', (Jan,) a Dutch painter 
 and engraver, born at the Hague about 1638, was a pupil 
 and skilful imitator of Paul Potter. He painted interiors, 
 guard-rooms, robbers, etc. About 1671 he entered the 
 ! army, in which he obtained the rank of captain, and 
 abandoned his art. 
 
 LSd'wicb., (Edward,) an Irish antiquary, born in 
 1739, became vicar of Aghaboe. He published a valu- 
 able work entitled "The Antiquities of Ireland," (1794,) 
 and a few other treatises. He offended many of his 
 countrymen by denying the truth of the legend of Saint 
 Palrick. Died in 1823. 
 
 Led'yard, (John,) a celebrated American traveller, 
 born at Groton, in Connecticut, in 1751. At an early 
 age he took passage as a common sailor on a vessel 
 bound for Gibraltar, and thence repaired to London, 
 where in 1776 he set sail with Captain Cook on his third 
 voyage around the world. After his return, in 1780, he 
 published a journal of the voyage, including an account 
 of the circumstances attending the death of Captain 
 Cook. Having projected an expedition to the Arctic 
 regions, he set out in 1786, and, after a journey of great 
 hardships, he arrived at Irkootsk in January, 1787. Here 
 he was arrested as a spy by order of the empress, and 
 forbidden again to enter Russia. He next went to Lon- 
 don, where he was most kindly received by Sir Joseph 
 Banks, and in June, 1788, under the patronage of the 
 African Association, set out on a voyage of discovery 
 to Central Africa. He reached Cairo in August, but, 
 while making preparations for his journey, was attacked 
 by a fever, of which he died. The news of his death 
 was heard with deep regret by his friends in England, 
 who had formed the highest opinion of his qualifica- 
 tions for the arduous task of African exploration. He 
 was described by Mr. Beaufoy, secretary of the African 
 Association, as "adventurous beyond the conception of 
 ordinary men, yet wary and considerate, and appeared 
 to be formed by nature for achievements of hardihood 
 and peril." 
 
 See Sparks, " Life of Ledyard," in his "American Biography ;" 
 "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. ii. : "London 
 Quarterly Review" for July, 1S2S, (by Southey ;) "North American 
 Review" for October, 1828; Cleveland, " Compendium of Ameri- 
 can Literature." 
 
 Ledyard, (William,) Colonel, an American officer, 
 born in Connecticut about 1750, commanded at Fort 
 Griswold during the attack made by the British in 1781. 
 He was brutally stabbed by the English commander, 
 Major Bromfield, after he had delivered up to him his 
 sword. He was an uncle of the distinguished traveller 
 John I^edyard. 
 
 Lee, (Alfred,) an American theologian, born at 
 Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1807, was consecrated 
 Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Delaware in 1841. He 
 has published a " Life of the Apostle Peter," and a " Life 
 of Saint John." 
 
 Lee, (Anne,) founder of the sect called Shakers, was 
 born at Manchester, in England, in 1735. Having re- 
 moved to America, she settled near Albany, New York, 
 where she gathered a number of proselytes around her. 
 She taught many strange doctrines, — among others, that 
 all marriage is sinful, and is to be shunned under all 
 circumstances. She was usually styled by her fol- 
 lowers "Mother Anne." She died in 1784. Among 
 the principal settlements made by her followers are those 
 at New Lebanon, near Albany, and at Harvard, Massa- 
 chusetts. 
 
 See Allen's "American Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 Lee, (Arthur,) an American statesman and revolu- 
 tionist, born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, in 1740, 
 was a brother of Richard Henry Lee. He studied medi- 
 cine in Edinburgh, and subsequently became a student 
 of law in London. He there published a number of 
 eloquent political essays, under the name of "Junius 
 Americanus," in which he advocated the cause of the 
 American people. He was sent as minister to France 
 in 1776; and, in conjunction with Franklin and Deane, 
 he negotiated a treaty with the French. He was recalled 
 in 1779. After his return he was elected to Congress 
 in 1782, and was subsequently made a counsellor of the 
 supreme court of the United States, and a member of 
 the board of treasury, (1784.) He was never married. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g a*/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *,• th as in this. (Jty See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LEE 
 
 1392 
 
 LEE 
 
 He was a good classical scholar, and an intimate friend of 
 Sir William Jones. Died in 1792. 
 
 See R. H_Lee, "Life of Arthur Lee," 2 vols., 1829; "North 
 American Review" tor April, 1830; " Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Lee, (CHARLES,) a distinguished officer in the American 
 Revolutionary war, was a native of Wales. Having served 
 for a time in the British army, he removed to America. 
 He was appointed major-general by Congress in June, 
 1775* In 1776 he was appointed to the chief command 
 of the Southern colonies. He was surprised and taken 
 prisoner by the English while marching through New 
 Jersey to join Washington in Pennsylvania, (December, 
 1776;) but after the surrender of Burgoyne, in October, 
 1777, he was exchanged. Having disobeyed General 
 Washington's orders at the battle of Monmouth, in 1778, 
 he was tried by a court-martial, and suspended from 
 service for a year. Died in 1782. General Lee was the 
 author of several political works. 
 See "Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Lee, (Edward,) an English prelate, born in Kent in 
 1482. He became chaplain of Henry VIII., who em- 
 ployed him in several diplomatic missions. In 1529 
 he was sent to Rome to negotiate for the divorce of the 
 king, and in 1531 was appointed Archbishop of York. 
 He opposed the doctrines of Luther, but favoured the 
 innovations which Henrv VIII. made in the Church. 
 He wrote " Epicedia Ciarorum Virorum," and other 
 works in Latin. Died in 1544. 
 
 Lee, ( Eliza Buckminster, ) an American writer, 
 daughter of the Rev. Joseph liuckminster, was born at 
 Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Among her principal 
 works are " Sketches of a New England Village," and 
 "Naomi, or Boston Two Hundred Years Ago." She 
 has also translated the "Life of Jean Paul Richter," and 
 portions of Richter's works, from the German. 
 
 Lee, (Ezra,) an American officer, who served in the 
 Revolutionary war, was born in 1749; ( '' et ' m 1821. 
 
 Lee, (Fitz-Hugh,) an American general, a nephew 
 of General Robert E. Lee, was born in Virginia in 1835. 
 He graduated at West Point in 1856, and commanded 
 a division of cavalry in the Confederate army in the 
 summer of 1863. 
 
 Lee, (FRANCIS Liohtfoot,) an American statesman 
 and patriot, born in Westmoreland county, Virginia, in 
 October, 1734, was a younger brother of Richard Henry 
 Lee. He inherited a large estate, and married a daugh- 
 ter of Colonel John Tayloe in 1772. He was elected to 
 the General Congress in 1775, and signed the Declaration 
 of Independence in 1776. Having been re-elected, he 
 continued to serve in Congress until 1779. He was too 
 diffident to gain distinction as a debater, but took an 
 active part in legislative business. Died without issue, 
 at Richmond, in 1797. He was eminent for conversa- 
 tional powers, and was a general favourite in society. 
 
 Lee, (Frederick Richard,) a popular English land- 
 scape-painter, born at Barnstaple about 1800. He began 
 to exhibit at the Royal Academy about 1824, and was 
 chosen an Academician in 1S38. He is most successful 
 in river-scenery and in landscapes where trees are promi- 
 nent objects. His pencil has been employed exclusively 
 on British scenery. Among his works are "The Mill," 
 "The Storm on the Lake," and "The Avenue of Sho- 
 brooke Park." 
 
 Lee, (Hannah F.,) an American novelist and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts. 
 Her "Three Experiments of Living," published in 1838, 
 passed through numerous editions both in America and 
 Europe. Among her works are "Grace Seymour," 
 "Eleanor Fulton," "Luther and his Times," and a 
 "History of Sculpture and Sculptors." 
 
 Lee, (Harriet,) an English writer of fiction, was 
 bom in London in 1756. In partnership with her sister 
 Sophia, she taught school for many years (1780-1803) 
 at Bath. After publishing "Clara Lennox" and other 
 novels, which are now neglected, she produced between 
 1797 and 1805 five volumes of the "Canterbury Tales," 
 which were very successful. Died 1111851. Lord Byron, 
 referring to " Kruitzner" in Lee's " Canterbury Tales," 
 (from which he took the subject of his " Werner,") says, 
 " I am not sure it ever was very popular ; . . . but I 
 have generally found that those who had read it agreed 
 
 with me in their estimate of the singular power of mind 
 and conception whiqji it develops. . . . Amongst those 
 whose opinions agreed with mine upon this story I could 
 mention some very high names." (See Preface to the 
 tragedy of " Werner.") 
 
 Lee, (Henry,) an eminent American general, born in 
 Westmoreland county, Virginia, in January, 1756. His 
 father, Henry Lee, was a first-cousin of Richard Henry 
 Lee. He became a captain of cavalry in- 1776, joined 
 the main army in September, 1777, and performed several 
 daring exploits. He captured a British fort at Paulus 
 Hook in July, 1779. He was raised to the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-colonel about 1780, after which year he served in 
 the army of General Greene as an officer of cavalry. He 
 rendered important services at Guilford Court- 1 louse, 
 March, 1 781, and at the attack on Fort Ninety-Six. His 
 legion of cavalry also contributed to the victory at Eutaw 
 Springs, September 8, 1781. He was appointed a dele- 
 gate to the General Congress in 1786, and was elected 
 Governor of Virginia in 1791 or 1792. He was again a 
 member of Congress in 1799, and was selected by Con- 
 gress to pronounce a eulogy on Washington, whom he 
 characterized as "first in war, first in peace, and first in 
 the hearts of his countrymen." He wrote about the yeai 
 1809 valuable "Memoirs of the War in the Southern 
 States." In 1814 he was severely injured by a Baltimore 
 mob, against which he fought to defend a printing-office 
 and editor. He never recovered from this injury, and 
 died in Georgia in March, 1818, leaving four sons, — 
 Henry, Charles C, Robert E., (the famous general,) and 
 Sidney Smith. He was often called Light- Horse 
 Harry. In a letter to Henry Lee, General Greene 
 wrote, "Everybody knows I have the highest opinion of 
 you as an officer. . . . No man in the progress of the 
 campaign had equal merit with yourself." 
 
 See Duvckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. ; 
 " Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Lee, (Jesse,) an American Methodist divine, born 
 in Virginia in 1758, was for many years a chaplain to 
 Congress. Died in 1816. 
 
 Lee, (John,) D.D., a Scottish professor of divinity, 
 born about 1780. He became principal of the University 
 of Edinburgh about 1840, and afterwards professor of 
 divinity there. Died in 1859. 
 
 Lee, (Lf.roy Madison,) D.D., an American clergy- 
 man of the Methodist Episcopal Church, born at Peters- 
 burg, Virginia, in 1808. He published several religious 
 works, and in 1836 became editor of the Richmond 
 "Christian Advocate." 
 
 Lee, (Luther,) D.D., an eminent American divine 
 of flie Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Scho- 
 harie county, New York, in 1800. He was editor of the 
 "New England Christian Advocate" and "The True 
 Wesleyan." He became president and professor of the- 
 ology in Michigan Union College in 1856. He has pub- 
 lished, among other works, "Slavery Examined in the 
 Light of the Bible," and "The Immortality of the Soul." 
 
 Lee, (Mary E.,) born at Charleston, South Carolina, 
 in 1813, was the author of "Tales from History," and 
 made a number of translations from the French, Italian, 
 and German. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Griswold, "Female Poets of America." 
 
 Lee, (Nathaniel,) an English dramatist, born about 
 1658. After he had appeared as an actor on the London 
 stage without success, he composed thirteen tragedies, 
 two of which — viz., "Alexander the Great" and "Theo- 
 dosius" — obtained public favour. He was confined in 
 Bedlam for insanity in 1684, and released about 16S8. 
 Died in 1691. His imagination is extravagant, and in- 
 clined to bombast. " Among our modern English poets," 
 says Addison, "there is none who was better turned for 
 tragedy than Lee, if, instead of favouring the impetuosity 
 of his genius, he had restrained it within proper bounds. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. iii., 1821. 
 
 Lee, (Rachel F'anny Antonina,) an eccentric Eng- 
 lish authoress, originally named Dashwood, was born 
 about 1770. She wrote an "Essay on Government," 
 which was commended by Wordsworth. Died in 1829. 
 
 See Dp. Quincey, " Autobiographic Sketches," chap. iv. 
 
 Lee, (Richard Henry,) an American statesman and 
 orator, and one of the signers of the Declaration of In- 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, ?, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mi t; not; good; moon: 
 
LEE 
 
 >393 
 
 LEE 
 
 dependence, was born in the county of Westmoreland, 
 Virginia, in 1732. He was educated in England, and, 
 after his return, was elected about 1757 to the House of 
 Burgesses in Virginia. He married Sliss Aylett in early 
 life. In 1765 he eloquently defended the resolutions 
 against the Stamp Act, introduced by Patrick Henry. 
 He was a delegate from Virginia in 1774 to the Conti- 
 nental Congress, and took a prominent part in the pro- 
 ceedings of that body. The memorial to the people of 
 British America, authorized by the Continental Congress, 
 is attributed to his pen. In June, 1776, he introduced 
 into Congress the measure declaring the colonies free 
 and independent States, which motion he supported by 
 a most eloquent and powerful speech. Mr. Lee was 
 again elected to Congress in 1778 ; he became president 
 of that body in 1784, and was elected a United States 
 Senator from Virginia in 1789. Like most other Vir- 
 ginians, he disapproved the Federal Constitution. Died 
 in 1794. 
 
 See Goodrich, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of In- 
 dependence ;" " Memoirs of the Life of R. H. Lee,'* by his grand- 
 son, R. H. Lee, 2 vols., 1825 ; " North American Review" for April, 
 (by Edward Everett.) 
 
 Lee, (Kobkrt,) D.D., a theologian, born at North Dur- 
 ham in 1S04, was a minister of the Established Church of 
 Scotland. He became professor of biblical criticism in 
 the University of Edinburgh in 1846. Died in 1868. 
 
 Lee, (Koiiert Edmund,) a celebrated American 
 general, a son of General Henry Lee, noticed above, 
 was born at Stratford, Westmoreland county, Virginia, 
 in 1806. His mother's name was Anne Carter. He 
 graduated at the head of his class at West Point in 1829, 
 and married in 1832 a daughter of George Washington 
 Parke Custis, who was the adopted son of General 
 Washington. He obtained the rank of captain in 1838, 
 and served in the Mexican war (1846-47) as chief engi- 
 neer of the army of General Scott, by whom his conduct 
 was highly commended. For his services in Mexico he 
 was raised to the rank of brevet colonel. He was 
 superintendent of the Academy at West Point from 
 September, 1852, to April, 1855. By his marriage he 
 became proprietor of the Arlington House, on the Poto- 
 mac, where his family resided when the civil war began. 
 He was appointed a colonel of cavalry in March, 1861. 
 On the 20th of April, 1861, he resigned his commission 
 by a letter to General Scott, to whom he wrote, " My 
 resignation would have been presented at once, but 
 for the struggle it has cost me to separate myself from 
 a service to which I have devoted all the best years of 
 my life." 
 
 About the 21st of April he was appointed major- 
 general in command of all the forces of Virginia. In 
 July ensuing, his rank was fixed as brigadier-general in 
 the Confederate army, and he took command of a force 
 in Northwestern Virginia. He was opposed to General 
 Rosecrans in this campaign, the results of which were 
 rather favourable to the Unionists ; though no impor- 
 tant battle was fought. About December, 1861, he was 
 ordered to take charge of the coast-defences of South 
 Carolina and Georgia. He returned to Richmond in 
 March, 1862, and on the 3d of June took the chief com- 
 mand of the army destined to defend the capital. On 
 the 26th of June he attacked the army of General 
 MtClellan at Mcchanicsville. The conflict was renewed 
 on the 27th at Gaines's Mill, where both armies suffered 
 heavy losses. Having been attacked at Savage's Sta- 
 tion on the 29th, the Union army retired to Malvern 
 Hill, close to the James River. Lee's army was defeated 
 at Malvern Hill, July I, losing about 6500 killed and 
 wounded. General McClellan was, nevertheless, soon 
 after compelled to retreat, and to abandon the siege of 
 Richmond. The seat of war having been transferred 
 to the northern part of Virginia, General Lee gained a 
 victory over General Pope at Bull Run, or Manassas, 
 on the 29th and 30th of August, and invaded Maryland 
 about the 4th of September. He commanded in person 
 at the great battle of Antictam, September 17, where he 
 had, according to Pollard, about 70,000 men. Hia k>M 
 at South Mountain and Antictam is reported to have 
 been 1842 killed and 9399 wounded, besides several 
 thousand prisoners. General Lee retired to Virginia on 
 
 the 18th, but was not pursued, and occupied a strongly, 
 fortified position at Fredericksburg, where General 
 Burnside attacked him on the 13th of December and 
 was repulsed with heavy loss. On the 2d and 3d of 
 May, Generals Lee and Hooker fought a great battle at 
 Chancellorsville, where the former had the advantage; 
 but the losses were nearly equal, and the retiring Union 
 army was not pursued. Having been largely reinforced, 
 he assumed the offensive with an army of about 95,000 
 men, and crossed the Potomac on the 24th of June, 1863, 
 for the invasion of Pennsylvania. Marching against 
 Harrisburg, he was confronted at Gettysburg by the 
 Union army, commanded by General Meade and posted 
 on a range of hills. The Union army acted on the 
 defensive in the battle of Gettysburg, which began on 
 the 1st of July and was renewed on the 2d without a 
 decisive result. On the 3d, General Lee made several 
 desperate assaults, which were repulsed, and the Union 
 army was finally victorious. According to the report of 
 General Meade, the Federals took here 13,621 prisoners, 
 including the wounded. General Lee retired in the 
 night of the 4th of July, through the rain, and returned 
 to Virginia. His army was not engaged in any great 
 battles during the ensuing winter. 
 
 The campaign of 1864 was opened about the 4th of 
 May by General Grant, who crossed the Kapidan and 
 advanced towards Richmond. A severe and indecisive 
 battle ensued at the Wilderness on the 5th and 6th of 
 May. General Grant continued to approach his objective 
 point by a series of flank movements, alternating with 
 great battles at Spottsylvania Court-House, May 9-12, 
 at the North Anna River, May 23, and Cold Harbour, 
 June 3. In these battles General Lee acted mostly on 
 the defensive in fortified positions, and his losses were 
 probably less than those of Grant. General Grant, how- 
 ever, relerring to those battles, says, "Bloody and terrible 
 as they were on our side, they were even more damaging 
 to the enemy." Having crossed the James River about 
 June 15, the Union army commenced the long siege of 
 Petersburg, near which several actions were fought in 
 July and August. (See Grant, Ui.ysses S.) 
 
 In February or March, 1865, General Lee was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of all the Confederate armies. During 
 the winter of 1S64-65 the army of Virginia had been 
 mostly inactive, and greatlv trammelled by the necessity 
 of delending Richmond ami Petersburg. About the 30th 
 of March the armies operating against these cities began 
 to move, and to cut the Danville and Southside Railroads, 
 by which Lee's army received supplies. The right wing 
 of his army was defeated by General Sheridan at Five 
 Forks on the 1st of April, and General Grant made a 
 general and successful assault on the works at Peters- 
 burg on the 2d. General Lee evacuated Richmond and 
 Petersburg in the night of April 2, and retreated towards 
 Danville with about 35,oco men. He was pursued by 
 the cavalry under General Sheridan, who attacked him 
 on the 6th near the Appomattox River and took about 
 6000 prisoners. He received pacific overtures from 
 General Grant on the 7th, and surrendered his army at 
 Appomattox Court-Honse on the 9th of April, 1865. It 
 was then agreed by the contracting parties that "each 
 officer and man will be allowed to return to his home, 
 not to be disturbed by United States authority so long 
 as they observe their paroles and the laws in force where 
 they reside." Soon after the end of the war, General Lee 
 became president of Washington College, at Lexington, 
 Virginia. Speaking of the character of Lee as a general, 
 Mr. Greeley remarks that he knew how to make the 
 most of a good defensive position, "the single point in 
 which (but it is a vital one) his admirers can justify 
 their claim for him of a rare military genius. No other 
 American has ever so thoroughly appreciated and so 
 readilv seized 'the enormous advantage which the in- 
 creased range, precision, and efficiency given to musketry 
 by rifling have insured to the defensive, when wielded 
 by a commander who knows how speedily a trench nay 
 be dug and a slight breastwork thrown up, which will 
 stop nine-tenths of the bullets." ("American Contlict," 
 vol. ii. p. 581.) lie died, at Lexington, October 12, 1S70. 
 
 See " Southern Genera's," (anonymous.) New York, 1S65 ; E. A. 
 Pollard, "Lee and his Lieutenants, "1867. 
 
 e as h; 9 as s; g hard; g uj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (By See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
LEE 
 
 '394 
 
 LETEBVRE 
 
 Lee, (Samuel,) an English nonconformist minister, 
 born in London in 1625. He preached in London for 
 some years, and emigrated to New England about 1686. 
 He published several religious works, among which is 
 "The Temple of Solomon." Died in 1691. 
 
 Lee, (Samuel,) D.D., an eminent English Orientalist, 
 born at Longnor, in Shropshire, in 1783. He learned 
 the trade of a carpenter, which he followed for some 
 years, during which he studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
 Syriac, Arabic, etc. About 181 7 he took the degree of 
 B.A. at Cambridge, and entered holy orders. He was 
 chosen professor of Arabic at Cambridge in 1819, and 
 professor of Hebrew about 1832, after which date he 
 obtained the rectory of Barley. He published a Hebrew 
 Grammar, (1830,) a "Hebrew, Chaldaic, and English 
 Lexicon," (1840,) an " Inquiry into the Nature, Progress, 
 and End of Prophecy," (1849,) and other works. Died 
 in 1852. 
 
 Lee, (Samuel P.,) an American naval officer, born in 
 Virginia, became a midshipman in 1825. He commanded 
 the Oneida in the battle against the forts and gun- 
 boats below New Orleans in April, 1862, and in 1863 
 was promoted to the command of the North Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron. 
 
 Lee, (Sarah,) (Mrs. Bowdich,) an English writer, 
 born about 1800, was the wife of T. E. Bowdich, whom 
 she accompanied to South Africa. She wrote "Stories 
 of Strange Lands," (1825,) a " Memoir of Baron Cuvier," 
 (1833,) and other works. She was married again to a 
 Mr. Lee. Died in 1856. 
 
 Lee, ( Sophia, ) an English dramatist and novelist, 
 born in London in 1750, was a sister of Harriet, noticed 
 above. She began her literary career in 1780 by the 
 "Chapter of Accidents," a comedy, which was success- 
 ful, and was followed by novels entitled "The Recess," 
 (1785,) and "The Life of a Lover." In 1796 she com- 
 posed " Almeyda, Queen of Granada," a tragedy, of which 
 Mrs. Siddons performed the principal rdle with applause. 
 She wrote two of the "Canterbury Tales" published by 
 her sister, and other works. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Boaden, " Life of Mrs. Siddons," chap. vi. p. 103. 
 
 Lee, (Thomas,) a Virginian planter, distinguished for 
 his talents, was president of the Council of Virginia. He 
 was the father of Richard Henry, Francis Lightfoot, and 
 Arthur Lee. Died in 1750. 
 
 Lee, (Thomas,) an American jurist, born at Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, in 1769. He was appointed by 
 President Monroe judge of the United States district 
 court for South Carolina in 1823. Died in 1839. 
 
 Lee, (Thomas Bland,) an American politician, born 
 in Virginia about 1762. He was a member of Congress 
 from 1789 to 1795. Died in 1827. 
 
 Leeb, lap, (Johann,) a German sculptor, born at 
 Memmingen in 1790 ; died about 1856. 
 
 Leech, (John,) an English artist and caricaturist, 
 born in London about 1816. He is chiefly known as the 
 designer of the humorous figures which illustrate the 
 London " Punch." His sketches are excellent as works 
 of art, though drawn with rapidity and haste. He pub- 
 lished "Pictures of Life and Character," and "The 
 Rising Generation," (1848,) which display a rare percep- 
 tion of the varieties of character and the keenest sense 
 of the ludicrous. Died in 1864. 
 
 See the " North British Review" for March, 1865. 
 
 Leech'man, (William,) a learned Scottish theolo- 
 gian, born in Lanarkshire ill 1706. He was professor of 
 theology at Glasgow for seventeen years. His lectures 
 in defence of revealed religion against Voltaire and Hume 
 are commended. He published a collection of sermons, 
 and a work "On the Nature, Reasonableness, and Ad- 
 vantages of Prayer," (1743.) Died in 1785. 
 
 Leeds, Duke of. See Danby, Earl of. 
 
 Leemans, la'mlns, (Conrad,) a Dutch archaeologist, 
 born at Zalt Boemel in 1809, published an extensive 
 work "On the Egyptian Monuments of the Museum of 
 Leyden," (1835-52.) 
 
 Leepe, van der, vSn der la'peh, (Jan Antoon,) a 
 Flemish landscape-painter, born at Brussels in 1664, 
 excelled in marine views. His execution is easy, his 
 touch light, and his colour good. Among his works is 
 a " Flight into Egypt." Died in 1720. 
 
 Lee'ser, (Isaac,) a Jewish theologian and religion! 
 writer, born in Westphalia in 1S06, emigrated to Amer- 
 ica, and became in 1829 rabbi of the principal synagogue 
 of Philadelphia. Died in 1868. 
 
 Leeu, Leuw, or Leeuw, van der, vfn der 16 or luh, 
 (Gabriel,) a Dutch painter of animals, born at Dort in 
 1643. He worked at Amsterdam, Paris, Naples, and 
 Rome with success, and adopted the Italian manner. 
 His touch was grand and decided. His works represent 
 flocks of sheep, herds of cattle, etc. Died in 1688. 
 
 Leeu or Leeuw, van der, (Pietf.r,) a painter ot land- 
 scapes and cattle, a brother of the preceding, was born 
 about 1645. His style resembles that of Van der Velde. 
 He was a good colorist, and painted with facility. Died 
 about 1705. 
 
 Leeuw or Leuw, van der, vSn der 16 or luh, (Wil- 
 lem,) a Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp in 1600. 
 He engraved many works of Rubens, among which is 
 " Daniel in the Lions' Den," and several works of Rem- 
 brandt, including " David Playing on the Harp." Died 
 about 1665. 
 
 Leeuwen, van, vSn luh'wen or 16'wen, (Simon,) a 
 Dutch jurist, born at Leyden in 1625 ; died in 1682. 
 
 Leeuwenhoeck. See Lkuwenhoek. 
 
 Leeves, leevz, (Rev. William,) an English composer, 
 born in 1749, was the author of the air of " Auld Robin 
 Gray." Died in 1828. 
 
 Lefebure, leh-fa'biiR', (Louis Henri,) a French 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1754. He wrote a prize 
 essay against lotteries, besides several treatises on music 
 and botany. Died in 1839. 
 
 Lefebure de Fourcy, leh-fa'biiR' deh fooR'se', 
 (Louis,) a French mathematician, born at Saint Do- 
 mingo in 1785. He succeeded Lacroix as professor in 
 the Faculty of Sciences in Paris, and published "De- 
 scriptive Geometry," (4th edition, 1843,) and "Analytic 
 Geometry," (1827.) 
 
 Lefebvre. See Lefevre. 
 
 Lefebvre, leh-f&vR' or leh-fevR', (Charlemagne 
 ThEophile,) a' French traveller, born at Nantes in 
 
 181 1, became an officer in the navy. He wrote " Travels 
 in Abyssinia," (6 vols., 1845-50,) a scientific work of 
 much merit. 
 
 Lefebvre, (FRANgois Joseph,) Duke of Dantzic, a 
 French marshal, born at Ruffach, in Alsace, in 1755. He 
 was rapidly promoted in the war which began in 1 792, and 
 became a general of division in January, 1794. lie con- 
 tributed greatly to the victories of Fleurus (1794) and 
 Altenkirchen, (1796.) In August, 1799, he was appointed 
 by the Directory commander of the military division of 
 which Paris was the head-quarters. On the 18th Bru- 
 maire he acted as lieutenant of Bonaparte, to whom he 
 rendered important services in that coup d'etat which 
 made him dictator. He was made a marshal of the 
 empire in 1804, commanded the foot-guards at the battle 
 of Jena, and was rewarded for his success at the siege 
 of Dantzic in 1807 by the title of Duke of Dantzic. In 
 the Austrian campaign of 1809 his skill and courage 
 were conspicuous at Eckmiihl and Wagram. He com- 
 manded the imperial guard in the Russian campaign of 
 
 1812, and defended France at Montmirail, etc. in 1814. 
 On the return of Bonaparte from Elba, Lefebvre ac- 
 cepted a place in his Chamber of Peers, and conse- 
 quently was excluded from that of Louis XVIII. in 
 1816. He was reinstated in his military rank in 1819. 
 Died in 1820. He had the reputation of being one of 
 the best generals of the army, uniting great intrepidity 
 with superior judgment, and had the faculty of animating 
 his men as if by an electric influence. "His military 
 genius," says Marshal Suchet, "found on the scene of 
 action, an] without any previous combination, extraor- 
 dinary resources to decide the victory." 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution," and " History 
 of the Consulate and the Empire;" De Coukcei.i.es, "Dictioniiaire 
 des Generaux Francais;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lefebvre, (Tanneouy.) See Lefevre. 
 
 Lefebvre or Lefevre, (Valentin.) See Ferre, Le. 
 
 Lefebvre de Cheverus, (Jean Louis Anne Made- 
 leine.) See Cheverus. 
 
 Lefebvre - Desnouettes, leh-ftvR' di'noo'St', 
 (Charles,) Count, a French general, born in Paris in 
 
 I, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
LEFEVRE 
 
 •395 
 
 LEG ARE 
 
 1773. He entered the army in 1792, and was chosen 
 one of Bonaparte's aides-de-camp in 1800. As colonel 
 he distinguished himself at Austerlitz in 1805. He be- 
 came a general of division in 1808, commanded the chas- 
 seurs of the emperor's guard in 1809, and was employed 
 near Napoleon's person in Russia, (1812.) At the first 
 restoration he was retained in his command by Louis 
 XVIII.; but he joined the standard of Bonaparte in 
 March, 181 5, and fought at Waterloo. Having been 
 condemned to death by a council of war, he escaped to 
 the United States in 1816. He perished in the wreck 
 of the Albion packet-ship, as he was returning to Europe, 
 in April, 1822. 
 
 Lefevre. See Caumartin, Dacier, Fevre, Le- 
 febyke, and Faker, (Jean.) 
 
 Lefevre, (Chari.es Shaw.) See Eversley. 
 
 Lefevre or Lefebvre, (Claude.) See Fevre, Le. 
 
 Lefevre, leh-favR', (Jean,) a French astronomer, 
 born at I.isieux, became a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1682. He edited the "Connaissances des 
 Temps" from 16S4 to 1701. Died in 1706. 
 
 Lefevre, (Jean Jacques,) a liberal French publisher, 
 born at Neufchateau in 1779, settled in Paris in his 
 youth. He published excellent editions of many Greek, 
 Latin, and French classics, for some of which he wrote 
 notes. Died in 1858. 
 
 Lefevre, (Nicolas,) an able French chemist, eini- 
 
 f rated to England in 1664 at the invitation of Charles 
 I., who gave him the direction of a laboratory in his 
 palace. He wrote "Theoretical and Practical Chem- 
 istry," (1660.) Died in 1674. 
 
 Lefevre, (Pierre Francois Alexandre,) a French 
 dramatist and poet, born in Paris in 1741, produced 
 tragedies entitled "Zuma," (1776,) and "£lisa!>eth de 
 France," (1783,) also " Gustavus Vasa," an epic poem. 
 Died in 1813. 
 
 Lefevre, (Robert,) a French portrait-painter, born 
 at Bayeux, in Calvados, in 1756, removed to Paris in 
 1784. Having acquired a high reputation, he painted 
 portraits of Napoleon and Josephine, which were so 
 much admired that more than twenty copies were or- 
 dered by various cities, courts, and other parties. About 
 1815 he received the title of first painter to the king. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 Lefevre or Lefebvre, leh-fAvR', (Tannegui or TAn- 
 neguy, tSn'ge',) [Lat. Tanaquil'lus Fa'ber,] an emi- 
 nent French scholar and critic, born at Caen in 1615, was 
 the father of the renowned Madame Dacier. He was 
 appointed by Cardinal Richelieu inspector of the royal 
 printing-establishment in Paris. After the death of 
 Richelieu he joined the Protestants, and was chosen a 
 professor in the Academy of Saumur about 1655. He 
 published annotated editions of Lucretius, (1662,) Lon- 
 ginus, (1663,) Horace, (1671,) Virgil, and other classics, 
 and translated into French several Greek works. Died 
 in 1672. 
 
 See F. Graveroc, " M^moires pour servir a la Vie de T. Le- 
 fevre," 1686: Niceron, "Memoires;" MM. Haag, "La France 
 protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Lefevre de la Boderie, leh-f&vR' den li bod're', 
 (Guy,) a French Orientalist, born near Falaise in 1541. 
 He co-operated with Arias Montanus in the Polyglot 
 Bible of Antwerp, for which he edited and translated 
 into Latin the Syriac version of the New Testament, 
 (1572.) He also wrote some poems. Died in 1598. 
 
 Lefevre d'fitaples, leh-f&vR' di'tipl', [Lat. Fa'ber 
 Stai'iii.n'sis,] (Jacques,) an eminent French scholar 
 and theologian, born at Etaples about 1455. He was 
 condemned as a heretic by the Sorbonne, but was justi- 
 fied by Francis I., who employed him as preceptor to 
 his son. Lefevre produced the first complete French 
 version of the Bible, (1530.) His version is used in the 
 French Protestant churches. He wrote commentaries 
 on the works of Aristotle. Erasmus expressed veneration 
 for his character, (singularem vita sanctimoniam veneror.) 
 Died in 1537. 
 
 See C. H. Graf, "EMai sur la Vie et les F.crits de J. Lefevre 
 d'Staples," 1841: Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" 
 II ■ 1G, " La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Lefevre de Saint-Remy, leh-f&vk' deh slN ra'me', 
 (Jean,) a French chronicler, born near Abbeville about 
 1394 ; died in 1468. 
 
 Lefevre-Deumier, leh-fJ\R' duh'me-4', (Jules,) a 
 French poet, born about 1804. He became private 
 librarian of President Louis Napoleon in 1849, and 
 librarian at the Tuileries in 1852. Died in 1857. 
 
 Leflo, leh-fio', (Adolphe Charles Emmanuel,) a 
 French general, born at Lesneven in 1804. He was sent 
 as ambassador to Russia in 1848, and was banished in 
 1852. 
 
 Lefort or Le Fort, leh-foR', (Francois,) a Swiss 
 general, was born at Geneva in 1656. He entered the 
 Russian service, and fought several campaigns against 
 the Turks before the peace of 1681. He rendered valu- 
 able service to the Czar Peter in his contest with Sophia, 
 his sister and rival ; and when that prince triumphed, in 
 1689, Lefort became his favourite and chief minister, a 
 dignity which he merited by his virtues and talents. He 
 gave wise counsels to the young autocrat, and was the 
 author of many of the reforms which marked that reign. 
 Lefort was appointed general-in-chief and admiral about 
 1693. Died in 1699. 
 
 See Basseville, "Vie de F. Lefort," 1784; Goi.ikof, "Vie de 
 Lefort," Moscow, 1800; Voltaire, "Histoire de Pierre le Grand." 
 
 Lefranc. See Pompignan. 
 
 Lefranc, (Martin.) See Franc, Le. 
 
 Lefranc, leh-fRoN', (Victor,) a French advocate and 
 writer, born at Garsin in 1809. 
 
 Lefrancais. See Lalande. 
 
 Lefren, la'fuen or lii'fucn, (LARS TjLOF,) a Swedish 
 Orientalist, born in 1722; died in 1803. 
 
 Lefuel, leh-fu-eY, (Martin Hector,) a French archi- 
 tect, born at Versailles in 1810. In 1853 he succeeded 
 Visconti as architect of the structures by which the 
 Louvre is joined to the Tuileries. He designed the 
 facades and distributed the interiors of this work, which 
 was finished in 1857. He designed the palace of the 
 Universal Exposition of 1855. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Legallois or Le Gallois, leh-gS'lwa', (Julien Jean 
 Cesar,) a French physiologist, born near Dol, in Bre- 
 tagne, in 1770. In 1801 he took the degree of M.D., 
 and wrote an able treatise entitled " Is the Blood iden- 
 tical in all the Vessels through which it passes?" He 
 merited a high rank among physiologists and experi- 
 menters by his " Experiments on the Principle of Life, 
 especially on that of the Movements of the Heart and 
 on the Seat of this Principle," (1812.) Died in 1814. 
 
 See BotssEAU, in the " Biographie Medicale ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 gTaphie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Le Gallois, (Pierre,) a French bibliographer, born 
 in Paris. He published a " Treatise on the Finest Libra- 
 ries of Europe," (1680.) 
 
 Legate, pronounced leh-gree', (Hugh Swinton,) an 
 American statesman and scholar, of Huguenot descent, 
 was born at Charleston, South Carolina, January 2, 1797. 
 He graduated at the South Carolina College about 1815, 
 after which he pursued his studies in Paris and Edin- 
 burgh. He was well versed in Greek and other lan- 
 guages. He also studied law, and gave much attention 
 to juridical philosophy. In 1830 he was elected attorney- 
 general of South Carolina. He contributed many able 
 articles to the " Southern Review," and was an adherent 
 of the Union when nullification was agitated in his State. 
 Having served as charge-d'affaires at Brussels for about 
 three years, he returned home in 1836, and was elected 
 by the voters of Charleston a member of Congress, in 
 which he served one term, (1837-39.) As a lawyer he 
 stood high in his profession. In 1840 he advocated the 
 election of General Harrison to the Presidency by seve/al 
 eloquent speeches in New York, Virginia, etc. He was 
 appointed in September, 1841, attorney-general of the 
 United States under President Tyler. He died at Boston 
 in June, 1843. Among his writings are an "Essay on 
 Classical Learning," an "Essay on Roman Literature," 
 and "The Constitutional History of Greece." "The 
 impression left by his collected writings," says R. W. 
 Griswold, "is that his mind was of the first order, but that 
 it did not hold in that order a very prominent place." 
 
 See GRtswol.n, " Prose Writers of America," and a Memoir pre- 
 fixed to Legare"s collected works, 2 vols., 1846. 
 
 Legare, (Bullen,) (Maky Swinton,) sister of Hugh 
 S. Legare, noticed above, was born at Charleston, South 
 
 « as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; c, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as »; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. z%.) 
 
LEGAZPI 
 
 '396 
 
 LEGOUFE 
 
 Carolina, about 1S00. She has acquired distinction as an 
 artist. 
 
 Legazpi, de, da li-gath-pee', (Miguel Lopez,) a 
 Spanish commander, born at Zubarraja. He went to 
 Mexico in 1545, and commanded an expedition sent in 
 1564 against the Philippine Isles, which he conquered 
 about 1565-70. Died in 1572. 
 
 Legendre or Le Gendre, leh-zhoNdR', (Adrien 
 Marie,) an eminent French geometer, and one of the 
 most profound analysts of his time, was born at Tou- 
 louse in 1752. He was educated at Mazarin College, 
 Paris, and in early life obtained a chair of mathematics 
 in the Ecole militaire of that city. Having written a 
 prize essay on the balistic problem, and a memoir on 
 the attraction of spheroids, (1782,) he was admitted into 
 the Academy of Sciences in 1783. He was associated 
 in 1787 with Cassini and Mechain in the operation to 
 connect the Observatories of Paris and Greenwich by a 
 series of triangles. In 1794 he published his admirable 
 " Elements of Geometry," which has been extensively 
 Used as a text-book in various languages, and has done 
 more to popularize his name than any other work. He 
 was a member of the bureau of longitudes, and from 
 1807 to 1815 an honorary councillor of the Imperial 
 University. In 1807 he produced an important work 
 called "Exercises on Integral Calculus," etc., ("Exer- 
 cices de Calcul integral sur divers Ordres de Transcen- 
 dantes," 3 vols.,) which contains his discoveries on the 
 subject of elliptic functions. This subject was more 
 fully developed in his "Traite des Fonctions elliptiques 
 et des Integrates Euleriennes," (3 vols., 1827.) He also 
 made valuable additions to the theory of numbers, on 
 which he published an essay. Died in 1833. Laplace, 
 Lagrange, and Legendre formed a mathematical trium- 
 virate, which the French consider entitled to pre- 
 eminence among European geometers of that age. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale;" "Memoir of Legendre" 
 in the " Report of the Smithsonian Institution" for 1867, translated 
 from the French of £lie de Beaumont; "North American Re- 
 view" for July, 1828. 
 
 Legendre, (Louis,) a French historian, born at 
 Rouen in 1655. He became a canon of the church of 
 Notre-Dame, Paris, and published, besides other works, 
 a " History of France, ending at the Death of Louis 
 XIII.," (3 vols., 1718.) Died in 1733. 
 
 Legendre, (Louis.) a subaltern demagogue of the 
 French Revolution, born in 1756. He was deputed in 
 1792 to the Convention, in which he voted with the 
 " Mountain." " He was," says Lamartine, " the most 
 courageous friend of Danton, and was by turns the 
 agitator and moderator'of the people." The next day 
 after the arrest of Danton, Legendre openly defended 
 him in the Convention by a speech. Died in 1797. 
 
 Legendre, (Nicolas,) a French sculptor, born at 
 Etampes in 1619, worked in Paris. His subjects are 
 chiefly religious. Died in 1671. 
 
 Le Gentil. See La Barbinais. 
 
 Legentil de la Galaisiere, leh-zhftN'te' deh IS gt'- 
 14'ze-aiR', (Guillaume Joseph Hyacinthe Jean Bap- 
 tiste,) a French astronomer and traveller, born at 
 Coutances in 1725. In 1769 he went to Pondicherry to 
 observe the transit of Venus, but failed, because the sun 
 was hidden by clouds. He published a "Voyage in the 
 Indian Seas," (1779,) which contains valuable observa- 
 tions on monsoons, currents, and tides, and information 
 respecting the manners, religion, and science, of the 
 Hindoos. Died in 1792. 
 
 See Jean Dominique Cassini, "E*Ioge de M. Legentil," 1810. 
 
 Leger, li'zha' or la'zhaiR', (Antoine,) a Protestant 
 divine, born in Savoy in 1594. He was professor of 
 theology and Oriental languages at Geneva from 1645 
 until his death, in 1661. He published a Greek edition 
 of the New Testament, (1638.) 
 
 Leger, (Antoine,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 in Geneva in 1652, and was ordained a minister. He 
 filled the chair of philosophy for twenty-four years at 
 Geneva with eminent success. He published several 
 scientific treatises and many sermons. Died in 1719. 
 . Leger, (Jean,) a cousin of the preceding, was born 
 in Savoy in 1615. He was a pastor of a church of the 
 Waldenses, and, having escaped from the massacre of 
 
 1655, he went to France, and solicited the intervention 
 of the court for his countrymen. In 1663 he became 
 pastor of a Walloon church in Leyden. He wrote a 
 " History of the Churches of the Valleys of Piedmont," 
 (the Waldenses, 1669.) Died about 1670. 
 
 See " AbnSge" de la Vie de Jean Leger, e'crite par lui-meme," at 
 the end of his " History of the Waldenses." 
 
 Leger, Saint. See Saint-Leger. 
 
 Legge, leg, (George,) Lord Dartmouth, an English 
 admiral, born about 1648. He distinguished himself in 
 the war against the Dutch in 1671, was made Baron of 
 Dartmouth in 1682, and admiral in 1683. At the acces- 
 sion of James II., in 1685, he was appointed master of 
 the horse and general of the ordnance. He commanded 
 the fleet in 1688, and made an ineffectual effort to pre- 
 vent the landing of the Prince of Orange. After taking 
 the oath to William III., he joined a Jacobite conspiracy 
 in 1690. " He laid a plan," says Macaulay, "for betray- 
 ing Portsmouth to the French." He was arrested for 
 treason, and sent to the Tower, where, after a short 
 confinement, he died of apoplexy in 1691. 
 
 Leg'gett, (William,) an American journalist and 
 miscellaneous writer, born in New York in 1S02. In 
 1828 he founded in his native city a literary gazette en- 
 titled "The Critic," which was subsequently united with 
 "The Mirror." To these journals he contributed a num- 
 ber of spirited tales and sketches, afterwards published 
 under the titles of "Sketches of the Sea" and "Tales by 
 a Country Schoolmaster." He married Elmira Waring 
 in 1828, and became associated with Mr. Bryant as. 
 editor of the "Evening Post" in 1829, and in 1836 estab- 
 lished " TJie Plaindealer," (issued weekly,) which soon 
 acquired a high reputation for its independent spirit and 
 the distinguished ability with which it was conducted. 
 He was appointed a diplomatic agent from the United 
 States to the republic of Guatemala in April, 1838, but, 
 while preparing for his departure, died suddenly, on 
 the 29th of May, 1838. Two volumes of his political 
 writings, with a Memoir, were published by his friend 
 Mr. Theodore Sedgwick, who says, in his preface, " It is 
 not the suggestion of a too fond affection, but the voice 
 of a calm judgment, which declares that, whatever public 
 career he had pursued, he must have raised to his 
 memory an imperishable monument," 
 
 See R. W. Griswoi.d, "Poets and Poetry of America ;" Duvc- 
 kinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. if.; "London 
 Quarterly Review," 182S; "Democratic Review" for January, 1840, 
 (with portrait.) 
 
 Legillon, leh-zhe'y6N', (Jean Francois,) a Flemish 
 painter, born at Bruges in 1739; died in Paris in 1797. 
 
 Legipont, leh-zhe'pAN', (Oliver,) a learned monk 
 and writer, born at Soiron, in Limburg, in 1698; died 
 in 1758. 
 
 Le Glay, leh glj, (Andre, Joseph Ghislain,) a 
 French historian, born at Arleux in 1785. 
 
 Legnani, Un-ya'nee or lin-ya'nee, (Stefano,) an 
 Italian painter, also called Legnanino, born at Milan in 
 1640, was a pupil of Cignani and Carlo Maratta. He 
 painted frescos at Milan. Died in 1715. 
 
 See E. Corazzi, " Elogio storico di S. Legnani," 1720. 
 
 Legobien, leh-go'be^N', (Charles,) a French Jesuit, 
 born at Saint-Malo in 1653, became secretary of the 
 missions to China. He published, about 1702, a collec- 
 tion of letters from missionaries in China, etc., entitled 
 "Lettres ediSantes et curieuses ecrites des Missions 
 etrangeres." This interesting publication was continued 
 by Duhalde. Died in 1708. 
 
 Le Gonidec, leh go'ne'deV, (Jean Francois Marie,) 
 a French philologist, born at Conquet, in Bretagne, in 
 1775. He published a good " Dictionnaire Breton- 
 Francais," (1821.) Died in 1838. 
 
 Legote, li-go'ta, (Pablo,} a Spanish painter, bom 
 about 1600 ; died at Cadiz about 1670. 
 
 Legouve, leh-goo'vi', (Ernest Wilfrid,) a French, 
 poet .and novelist, born in Paris in 1807. He' obtained a 
 prize of the French Academy for his poem "On the In- 
 vention of Printing," (1829,) and produced several dramas. 
 He was admitted into the French Academy in 1855. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Legouve, (Gabriel Marie Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 dramatic poet, father of the preceding, was born in Paris 
 
 5, e, I, 0, u, y, long; it, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
LE GOUZ 
 
 *397 
 
 LEHNBERG 
 
 in 1764. He produced "The Death of Abel," (1792,) 
 which was very successful, and other tragedies. He be- 
 came a member of the Institute in 1798. His tragedy 
 "Henry IV. of France" (1806) displays dramatic skill 
 and elegant diction. He composed several popular 
 poems, one of which is entitled "Female Merit," ("Me- 
 lite des Femmes," 1800.) Died in 1812, or, according 
 to some authorities, in 1814. 
 
 See '* Notice of Legouve," prefixed to his works, by Bouii.lv and 
 Maim, 1826; Qukkaku, "La France LitttSraire ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 craphie Generale." 
 
 Le Gouz. See Gouz. 
 
 Legoyt, leh-gwa', (Alfred,) a French economist and 
 statistician, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1815, became 
 chief of the bureau of general statistics, and published, 
 besides other works, " La F'rance statistique," (1843.) 
 
 Legrain or Legrin, leh-gkis', (Jean Baptistk,) a 
 French historian, was born in Paris in 1565. He held 
 some office at the court of Henry IV., and was master 
 of requests of the queen Marie de Medicis. He 
 wrote a History of the Reign of Henry IV., ("Decade 
 contenant la Vie et les Gestes," etc., 1614,) and "The 
 History of Louis XIII. from 1610 to 161 7," (1618.) 
 Died in 1642. 
 
 Legrand or Le Grand, leh-gRON', (Antoine,) a 
 French writer and monk, born at Douay, lived about 
 1650-80. He was professor of philosophy and theology 
 in Douay, and was a disciple of the Cartesian philosophy, 
 on which he wrote several treatises. He published a 
 " Sacred History from the Creation to Constantine the 
 Great," (1685,) and other works. 
 
 Le Grand, (Baptists Alexis Victor,) a meritorious 
 French engineer and administrator, born in Paris in 
 1791. He became engineer-in-chief of the first class, 
 and in 1834 was appointed director-general of bridges, 
 roads, and mines. He was elected to the Chamber of 
 Deputies five times. It is stated that no person con- 
 tributed more to the success of the vast plan conceived 
 in his time to increase the riches of France by facility of 
 transport. His moral dignity, public spirit, and various 
 merits are highly commended by M. Villemain, who 
 calls him a true model of the able and zealous adminis- 
 trator. Died in 1848. 
 
 See Villemain's article in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Legrand, (Claude Just Alexandre,) a French 
 general, born in the department of Oise in 1762. As 
 general of division, he. commanded under Moreau at 
 Hohenlinden, (1800,) and served at Austerlitz, (1805.) 
 He maintained his reputation at Jena (1806) and at 
 Wagram, (1809.) He commanded the second corps- 
 d'armee at the Berezina, (1812.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Legrand, (Jacques Guillaume,) an eminent French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1743, was a pupil of Clerisseau, 
 whose daughter he married. After he had travelled in 
 Italy and acquired a pure taste, he was employed as 
 architect of several public edifices in Paris, among which 
 are the Halle aux Bles, (Corn-Market, 1783,) Halle aux 
 Draps, (Cloth-Market, 1786,) and Theatre Feydeau, 
 (1790.) Molinos was associated with him in these works. 
 Xegrand published a " Comparison between Ancient and 
 Modern Architecture," (1799,) and wrote an "Essay on 
 the History of Architecture," (1809.) Died in 1807. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Legrand, (Joachim,) a French historian and abbe, 
 born at Saint-Lo in 1653, was a person of great erudi- 
 tion. He was secretary of legation in Spain about 1702, 
 and was afterwards employed in the foreign office. He 
 published a " History of the Divorce of Henry VIII. of 
 England," (1688,) and a few other historical works. 
 Died in 1733. 
 
 Legrand, (Louis,) a French theologian, born in Bur- 
 gundy in 171 1. He became professor or mailre des etudes 
 in the seminary of SaintSulpice, Paris, and published, 
 besides other works, a "Treatise on the Incarnation of 
 the Word," (1751.) He composed the # censures which 
 the Faculty of Theology published against Rousseau's 
 " Iniile" (1762) and Button's "Epoques de la Nature." 
 Died in 1780. 
 
 Legrand, (Marc Antoine,) a French dramatist and 
 actor, born in Paris in 1673. He composed a numlier 
 of popular comedies, among which are "The Blind 
 
 Clairvoyant," ( 1 7 1 6, ) and " Roi de Cocagne," 1719. Died 
 in 1 728. 
 
 Legrand d'Aussy, leh-gR5N' do'se', (Pierre Jean 
 Baptiste,) a French litterateur, born at Amiens in 1737. 
 He wrote, besides other works, " Fabliaux, or Tales of 
 the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries," (1779.) In 1795 
 he was chosen keeper of the French manuscripts of the 
 National Library. Died in 1800. 
 
 Legranzi, la-gRan'zee, or Legrenzi, la-gRen'zee, 
 (Giovanni,) an Italian composer, born near Bergamo 
 about 1625 ; died about 1690. 
 
 Legras, leh-gu.V, (Antoine,) a French scholar and 
 writer, born in Paris about 16S0. He published, besides 
 other works, "The Works of the Fathers who lived in 
 the Time of the Apostles, with Notes," (1717.) Died 
 in 1751. 
 
 Legraverend, leh-gRSv'RftN', (Jean Marie Ema- 
 nuel,) a French jurist, born at Rennes in 1776, published 
 a "Treatise on Criminal Legislation in France," (1816,) 
 and other approved works. Died in 1827, 
 
 LegrenzL See Legranzi. 
 
 Legrin. See Legrain. 
 
 Legris-Duval, leh-gite' dii'vtl', (Rene Michel,) a 
 French priest, born in Bretagne in 1765, was a zealous 
 and efficient promoter of benevolent institutions. Died 
 in 1819. 
 
 Legroing de la Maisonneuve, leh-gRwaN' deh 
 It m.Vzo'nuv', (Francoise Therese Antoinette,) 
 Countess, a French authoress, born in Lorraine in 1764. 
 She wrote "Zenobia," a novel, (1800,) an " Essay on the 
 Education of Women," (1801,) and a "History of the 
 Gauls and of France from the Earliest Timesto the End 
 of the Reign of Hugh Capet," (1830.) Died in 1837. 
 
 Legros or Le Gros, leh-gRo', (Nicolas,) a French 
 Jansenist theologian, born at Rheims in 1675. He passed 
 the last twenty-five years of his life in Holland, to which 
 he retired for refuge from persecution. Among his works 
 are a French translation of the Bible, (1739,) which is 
 esteemed for fidelity, and a "Manual for the Christian," 
 (1740.) Died in 1751. 
 
 Legros, (Pierre,) a French sculptor, born in Paris 
 in 1666. He studied in Rome, where he executed many 
 admired works. His statue of Saint Dominic is reckoned 
 among the master-pieces of the Basilica of Saint Peter. 
 He also adorned the chateau of Versailles. He sacri- 
 ficed less to the depraved taste of the time than most 
 other French artists. Died in Rome in 17 19. 
 
 Le Guaspre. See Ditghet. 
 
 Lehmann, la'man, (Christian Gottfried Wil- 
 HELM,) a German scholar, born at Halberstadt in 1765". 
 He published a " Summary of the Natural History of 
 Man," (1799.) Died in 1823. 
 
 Lehmann, (Heinrich,) a skilful German painter of 
 history and portraits, born at Kiel in 1814. He became 
 in youth a resident of Paris, where he obtained medals 
 of the first class in 1840, 1848, and 1855, and was em 
 ployed by the emperor to adorn the palace of Luxem 
 bourg. 
 
 Lehmann, (Johann Georg,) a German topographer 
 born in 1765, invented about 1793 a new method of sur- 
 veying, since called by his name. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Lehmann, (Johann Georg Christoph,) a German 
 botanist, born about 1794, was professor of botany at 
 Hamburg. He wrote monographs of several genera, 
 and other works. Died in 1861. 
 
 Lehmann, (Johann Gotti.ob,) a German philoso- 
 pher, who acquired a European reputation as a mine- 
 ralogist. In 1761 he removed from Berlin to Saint 
 Petersburg, in compliance with an invitation from the 
 empress, who gave him a place in the Academy of that 
 city. He published a work on mineralogy for the use 
 of schools, (1759,) and other treatises on that science. 
 Died in 1767. 
 
 Lehmann, (Rudolf,) a painter, and a brother of 
 Heinrich, was born at Hamburg in 1810. lie worked 
 mostly in Rome, and received medals at the S.ilon of 
 Many of his works represent the manners, cos- 
 tumes, and scenery of Italy. 
 
 Lehnberg, lan'WRG, (Magnus,) an eloquent Swedish 
 writer and pulpit orator, I10111 in 1758, became Bishop 
 of Linkbping. Died in 1809. 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as t; th as in this. ( Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LEHOC 
 
 1398 
 
 LE1DY 
 
 Lehoc, leh-ok', (Louis Gregoire,) a French littera- 
 teur, born in Paris in 1743. Among his works is "Pyr- 
 rhus," a tragedy, (1807.) Died in 1810. 
 
 Lehrberg, ISr'Mrg, (Aron Christian,) a Russian 
 scholar, bom at Dorpat, in Livonia, in 177a He re- 
 moved to Saint Petersburg, and wrote " Inquiries into 
 the Early History of Russia," (1814.) Died in 1813. 
 
 lie Huerou, leh hii-a'Roo', (Julien Marie,) a French 
 historian, born at Prat in 1807. He wrote on the history 
 of the Franks, Gauls, etc. Died in 1843. 
 
 Leibnitz or Leibniz, von, fon lib'nlts or lip'n!ts, 
 [Lat. Leibnitz'ius,] (Gottfried Wilhelm,) Baron, a 
 German philosopher and mathematician of the first 
 order, pre-eminent among the moderns as a universal 
 genius, was born at Leipsic on the 6th of July, 1646. 
 He was a son of Friedrich Leibnitz, professor of moral 
 philosophy at Leipsic. After learning Latin and Greek 
 at the school of Saint Nicholas, he entered the University 
 of Leipsic at the age of fifteen, and studied law, philoso- 
 phy, mathematics, etc. He acquired a profound know- 
 ledge of the works of Plato and Aristotle, whose systems 
 he endeavoured to harmonize. In 1666 he produced a 
 remarkable treatise on the combination of numbers and 
 ideas, " De Arte Combinatorial' and took the degree of 
 doctor of laws at Altorf. He accepted in 1667 the office 
 of councillor of state at Frankfort, and published his 
 "New Method of Learning and Teaching Jurispru- 
 dence," ("Nova Methodus discendae docendaeque Juris- 
 prudential," 1668,) an ingenious and profound essay on 
 Roman law, which raised him to the first rank of philo- 
 sophic writers. 
 
 Attracted by a tendency to universality in science, he 
 meditated the plan of an encyclopaedia, which became 
 one of his favourite projects, and produced in rapid 
 succession works on politics, religion, and philosophy, 
 in Latin and French, — for he scarcely ever wrote in his 
 mother-tongue. He advanced new and bold theories of 
 motion in his "Theory of Concrete Motion" ("Theoria 
 Motus concreti") aim "Theory of Abstract Motion," 
 ("Theoria Motus abstract]'," 1671.) In 1672 he visited 
 Paris, where he met Cassini and Huyghens, and declined 
 to enter the Academy of Sciences with the condition that 
 he should abjure the Protestant religion. Proceeding 
 to London, he formed an acquaintance with Newton, 
 Boyle, and others, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society. In 1676 he removed to Hanover, having been 
 appointed by the Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg his coun- 
 sellor [Hofrath) and librarian. About this time he made 
 the great discovery of the infinitesimal calculus, nearly 
 identical with Newton's method of fluxions. Many 
 years later an acrimonious controversy was carried on 
 between the friends of these two rivals, respecting the 
 priority of claim to this discovery. A committee of 
 the Royal Society of London (about 1705) decided in 
 favour of Newton ; but M. Biot maintains that Leibnitz 
 anticipated Newton in respect to publicity by a letter to 
 Oldenburg in 1676, and accords to both the honour of 
 the original invention. Leibnitz developed the power 
 of this calculus with a marvellous felicity in its applica- 
 tion to the theory of curves, to mechanical problems, etc. 
 
 In 16S2 he became editor of the "Acta Eruditorum" 
 of Leipsic, a journal which he rendered celebrated. He 
 wrote in 1693 a treatise on geology, entitled " Protogasa," 
 "which," says Hallam, "no one can read without per- 
 ceiving that of all the early geologists Leibnitz came 
 nearest to the theories which are most received in the 
 English school at this day." He was appointed presi- 
 dent of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1702, with- 
 out being required to change his residence or to retire 
 from the service of the Elector of Brunswick. Charles 
 VI. of Germany gave him the titles of baron and of aulic 
 councillor, but could not prevail on him to enter his 
 service. Between 1690 and 1700 he was engaged in a 
 long epistolary negotiation with Bossuet in order to re- 
 store the unity of the Catholic and Protestant churches. 
 He crowned his career as author by his great work 
 entitled " Essay of Theodicea on the Goodness of God, 
 the Liberty of Man, and the Origin of Evil," ("Essai de. 
 Theodicee sur la Bonte de Dieu, la Liberte de 1'Homme, 
 et 1'Origine du Mai," 1710.) According to his system, 
 God is the supreme Reason of the universe, the first and 
 
 last term in the series of efficient causes, as in that 
 of final causes. In forming the world He has realized 
 the ideal models of truth, beauty, and perfection which 
 existed eternally in His mind. To the parallelism estab- 
 lished in the divine mind between the reign of efficient 
 causes and that of final causes, corresponds another har- 
 mony, of a superior order, between the kingdoms of nature 
 and of grace. From the infinite perfection of the divine 
 attributes he deduces the celebrated theory of Optimism, 
 — that among all possible plans of creation the Almighty 
 has chosen the best, the one which combines the greatest 
 variety with the greatest order, — in which matter, space, 
 and time are most wisely economized. He died at Hano- 
 ver, November 14, 1716. Among his important works 
 is one entitled "New Essays on the Human Understand- 
 i"g>" ("Nouveaux Essais sur l'Entendement humain," 
 about 1 765,) in which he controverts the opinions of Locke. 
 Another of his works is called " Pre-Established Har- 
 mony," (" Harmonie pre-etablie.") His " Monadologie," 
 (1714,) in which his metaphysical system is developed, 
 is one of the most remarkable monuments of his intel- 
 lectual power. "There was only one man in the world," 
 says Hallam, "who could have left so noble a science as 
 philosophical jurisprudence for pursuits of a still more 
 exalted nature and for which he was still more fitted; 
 and that man was Leibnitz himself." ("Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe.") He was never married. His 
 disposition was cheerful, his manners were affable, and 
 his habits temperate. A complete edition of his works 
 has recently been published by Foucher de Careil, Paris. 
 
 See Fontenelle, " FJoge de Leibnitz;" J. A. Eherhard, 
 "Characteristik des Freiherrn von Leibnitz," 1817; Lamprecht, 
 " Leben des Freiherrn G. W. von Leibnitz," 1740; Hissmann, 
 "Versncb iiber das Leben des Freiherrn von Leibnitz." 17M3 : Da 
 Jaucouht, " Vie de Leibnitz," 1734 ; Gl'HRAUEK, "G. \V. von Leib- 
 nitz, Biographic" 2 vols., 1S45; G. Schilling, "Leibnitz als 
 Denker." 1846; Jean Svlvain Bailly, " FJoge de Leibnitz," 1769; 
 John M. Mackie, "Lite of G. W. Leibnitz," Boston, 1S45; Emil 
 F. Vogel, "G. W. von Leibnitz," Leipsic, 1846; Dr. F. Hoeff.r, 
 article in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" Biot, article in th« 
 " Biographie Universale ;" "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S46 ; 
 " Atlantic Monthly" for June, 1858. 
 
 Leibnitzius. See Leibnitz. 
 
 Leicester, Earl of. See Dudley, (Robert.) 
 
 Leicester, les'ter, of Hoi.kham, (Thomas William 
 Coke,) Earl of, an eminent English agriculturist, was 
 the son of Wenman Roberts, of Norfolk, and was born 
 in 1752. His father assumed the name of Coke when 
 he inherited the estates of his uncle Thomas Coke, who 
 was Earl of Leicester and a descendant of Sir Edward 
 Coke. From 1776 to 1832 he represented the county of 
 Norfolk in Parliament, and was a constant supporter of 
 the Whig party. He owned a very large and highly- 
 cultivated estate at Holkham, and became distinguished 
 for his liberality and zeal in the improvement of agricul- 
 ture. After the death of the Duke of Bedford (1802) he 
 was reputed to hold the highest place among English 
 cultivators. In 1S37 he was raised to the peerage, as 
 Earl of Leicester of Holkham. The last name of this 
 title was annexed to distinguish him from another Earl 
 of Leicester. Died in 1842. 
 
 Leich, 11k, (Johann Heinrich,) a German philolo- 
 gist, born at Leipsic in 1 720, became professor of phi- 
 losophy at that city in 1748. He wrote the "Life and 
 Reign of Constantinus Porphyrogenitus," and several 
 other works. Died in 1 750. 
 
 Leichner, liK'ner, (Eccard,) a German naturalist 
 and physician, born in Thuringia in 1612. He practised 
 at Erfurt, where he died in 1690. 
 
 Leichner, (Johann Georg Heinrich,) a German 
 painter, born at Erfurt in 1684; died in 1769. 
 
 Leidy, li'de, (Joseph,) M.D., LL.D., a distinguished 
 American naturalist, of German extraction, bom in 
 Philadelphia, September 9, 1823. He graduated as M.D. 
 at the University of Pennsylvania in 1844, and the same 
 year commenced the practice of his profession, but soon 
 abandoned it for more congenial pursuits. From 1846 
 to 1852 he gave private courses of lectures on anatomy 
 and physiology. In 1853 he was elected professor of 
 anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania, which positioi 
 he still holds. Besides anatomy, human and compara- 
 tive, he has devoted much attention to natural histor 
 more especially zoology and palaeontology. Since 184 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 8, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m£t; ndt; good; moor 
 
LEIGH 
 
 1399 
 
 LEKAIN 
 
 he has occupied the position of chairman of the curators 
 in the Academy of Natural Sciences. The third volume 
 of the "Catalogue of Scientific Papers," compiled and 
 published by the Royal Society of London, gives a list 
 of one hundred and eleven of his published papers up 
 to i860. Among the most important of these are the 
 "Flora and Fauna within Living Animals," and the 
 "Ancient Fauna of Nebraska," both published by the 
 Smithsonian Institution. Since i860, besides publishing 
 an " Elementary Treatise on Human Anatomy," he has 
 largely added to his list of scientific papers. Among 
 the must important of these are the "Cretaceous Rep- 
 tiles of the United States," published in the fourteenth 
 volume of the "Smithsonian Contributions to Know- 
 ledge," in 1865, and "The Extinct Mammalian Fauna 
 of Dakota and Nebraska, together with a Synopsis of the 
 Mammalian Remains of North America," (4to, with 30 
 plates,) published as the seventh volume of the "Journal 
 of the Academy of Natural Sciences" of Philadelphia. 
 
 Leigh, lee, (Benjamin Watkins,) an American jurist 
 and statesman, born in Chesterfield county, Virginia, in 
 1781. He practised law at Richmond, and became one 
 of the most prominent politicians in the State. He was 
 elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature 
 of Virginia in 1834 or 1835, and resigned his seat in 1837. 
 Died in 1849. 
 
 Leigh, lee, (Charles,) F.R.S., an English naturalist, 
 bom in Lancashire about 1650. He practised medicine 
 in London and other cities, and published several works, 
 the most important of which is a " Natural History of Lan- 
 cashire, Cheshire, and the Peak of Derbyshire," (1700.) 
 Leigh, (Sir Edward,} an English writer and biblical 
 scholar, bom in Leicestershire in 1602, was educated for 
 the law. In the civil war he favoured the popular cause, 
 and was a member of Parliament, from which he was 
 expelled in 1648 by the extreme opponents of the king. 
 He displayed much learning in his " Critica Sacra, 
 or the Hebrew Words of the Old and the Greek of the 
 New Testament," (1639,) and published a "Treatise of 
 Divinity," (1646,) and other esteemed religious works. 
 Died in 167 1. 
 
 Leighton, la'ton, (Alexander,) a Scottish clergy- 
 man, born at Edinburgh in 1568. He was professor of 
 moral philosophy in that city for several years prior to 
 1613, when he removed to London and obtained a lec- 
 tureship. For libellous or offensive expressions against 
 the king, queen, and the bishops in his book called 
 "Zion's Plea," (1629,) he was punished by the Star 
 Chamber with mutilation, the pillory, and long imprison- 
 ment. He was released in 1640, and died about 1646. 
 Laud appears to be responsible for the cruel treatment 
 of Leighton. 
 
 Leighton, la'ton, (Robert,) a British divine of emi- 
 nent merit and piety, born in London about 1612, was 
 the son of the preceding. About 1641 he became min- 
 ister of the Presbyterian church at Newbottle, near 
 ■Edinburgh. Finding that his moderation was unaccept- 
 able to the contentious spirit and fierce zeal which then 
 prevailed, he retired from the pulpit, and was chosen 
 principal of the University of Edinburgh. When Charles 
 II. resolved to restore Episcopacy in Scotland, (about 
 1661,) Leighton was made Bishop of Dumblane. About 
 1670 he became Archbishop of Glasgow. His conduct 
 was more conciliatory than that of the other bishops. 
 He had a high reputation as a preacher, and published 
 sermons and other works, which are greatly esteemed. 
 His commentary on the first epistle of Peter was often 
 reprinted. In 1674 he resigned his archbishopric, prob- 
 ably from an abhorrence, of the violent contest which 
 disturbed the Church and State. Died in 1684. 
 
 See John N. Pkarson, " Life of R. I-eighton," 1X3*: Gkorck 
 Tekmknt, "Remains of the Life of R. Leighton," 1808; Burnkt, 
 •'History of his Own Time;" "R. Leighton em apostolischer 
 Mann," etc., Berlin, 1834; Chambers, "Biographical Dicuon.iry 
 of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Leiningen, von, fon li'ning-en, (Charles,) Prince, 
 a German prince, born in 1804, was a half-brother of 
 Victoria, Queen of England. Died in 1856. 
 
 Leinster, lin'ster or leen'ster, (William Robert 
 FnzGKRALD,) Duke of, an Irish peer, born in 1749, 
 entered the British House of Lords in 1776, and acted 
 with the Tories. Died in 1805. 
 
 Leisewitz, li'zeh-wits', (Johann Anton,) a German 
 dramatist, botn at Hanover in 1752, wrote a popular 
 tragedy, entitled "Julius von Tarent." Died in 1806. 
 
 Leisler, lis'ler, (Jacob,) an adventurer and revolu- 
 tionist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, in Germany, emi- 
 grated to America in 1660, and became a resident of 
 Albany. He was appointed one of the commissioners 
 of the court of admiralty in 1683. In 1689 he was the 
 leader of a mob which seized the fort and public funds 
 of New York, " for the preservation," as he said, "of the 
 Protestant religion." Having declared himself for the 
 Prince of Orange, he strengthened the fort, and was 
 proclaimed by his adherents commander-in-chief of the 
 province. Sloughter having been soon after appointed 
 Governor of the colony, Leisler was arrested, and exe- 
 cuted in 1 691. 
 
 See a " Life of Jacob Leisler," by C. F. Hoffman, in Sparks's 
 " American Biography," vol. iii. 2d series. 
 
 Leismann, lis'man, (Johann Anton,) a German 
 painter, born at Salzburg in 1604. He settled in Venice, 
 painted landscapes and battles, and had a high reputa- 
 tion. His manner is said to resemble that of Salvator 
 Knsa. Died in 1608. 
 
 Leith, leeth, (Sir James,) a British general, born in 
 Aberdeenshire, Scotland, in 1763. He served as major- 
 general under Sir John Moore in the Peninsula, and 
 took part in the battle of Corunna, in 1809. He was 
 appointed commander of the forces in the West Indies 
 in 1814. Died in 1816. 
 
 Lejay, leh-zhi', (Gabriel Francois,) a French Jes- 
 uit, born in Paris about 1660. He was eminent as a 
 professor of rhetoric in Paris, where Voltaire was his 
 pupil. He published, lxisides other works in Latin, 
 "Bibliotheca Rhetorum," (" Library of Orators," 1725,) 
 which is said to be a valuable systematic treatise on 
 eloquence. Died in 1734. 
 
 Lejay or Le Jay, (Gin Michel,) a Frenchman, known 
 by the Polyglot Bible which bears his name, was born 
 in Paris in 1588. He expended the labour of seventeen 
 years and a large patrimony in the publication of his 
 " Bible in Hebrew, Samaritan, Chaldee," etc., (" Biblia 
 Hebraica, Samaritana, Chaldaica, Graeca, Syriaca, Latina, 
 Arabica," 1645,) which is a master-piece of typography. 
 Lejay was assisted in editing this work by Morin, Gabriel 
 Sionita, and other learned men. He was made a privy 
 councillor. Died in 1674. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 Lejeune, leh-zhun', (Claude,) a famous French 
 musician and composer, born at Valenciennes about 
 1540. He received the title of composer to Henry IV. 
 Died about 1600. 
 Le Jeune, (Jean.) See Jeune, I.e. 
 Lejeune or Le Jeune, (Louis Francois,) Baron, 
 a French general and painter, born at Strasburg in 1775. 
 For his conduct at Austerlitz he was made chef-de-batnil- 
 lon in 1805. He obtained the rank of general of brigade 
 at Borodino in 1812, and is said to have saved the army 
 of Oudinot at Hoyerswerda. He painted, besides other 
 subjects, "The Battle of Marengo," (1801,) "The Battle 
 of Lodi," (1804,) and "The Battle of the Moskwa," 
 (1824.) Died in 1850. 
 
 Lejeune, (Paul,) a French missionary, born in 1592, 
 laboured in Canada for many years. He published a 
 descriptive work on Canada and its native tribes, (7 
 vols., 1640.) Died in 1664. 
 Lejeune-Dirichlet, (Gustav.) See Dirichlet. 
 Lekain, leh-ka.N', (Henri Louis,) a famous French 
 actor, born in Paris in 1728. He was patronized by 
 Voltaire, who discerned in him the germ of great talent 
 while he was acting in a private troupe. He made his 
 debut in 1750, and attained a celebrity scarcely equalled 
 by that of any actor of modern times except Garrick. 
 Lekain was most successful in tragedy and : n the ex- 
 pression of deep emotion. Voltaire designated him as 
 the only truly tragic actor. In the latter part of his 
 career ne performed at Berlin, by request of Frederick 
 the Great. Died in 1778. 
 
 See " Memotres de I.ekain," published by his son, 1801 : F. J. 
 Tai.ma, "Me'moire sur Lekain et sur l'Art dramatique," 18*7; 
 Voi.tairb, " Correspondance ;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" 
 "Monthly Review," vol. xxxvi., 1801, (Appendix.) 
 
 c as *; 9 as /; g hard; g a»>; G, 11, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in Ms. (jry See Explanations, p- *$>) 
 
LE KEVX 
 
 1400 
 
 LEMA1RE 
 
 Le Keux, leh-kooks, ? (Henry,) a skilful English 
 engraver, born in 1788. He engraved some works of 
 Turner and Prout, illustrations of Sir Walter Scott's 
 Poems, etc. Died in 1868. 
 
 Le Keux, (John,) an English architectural engraver, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born in London in 1783 
 or 1784. He excelled in the engraving of Gothic ar- 
 chitecture, the principles and details of which he had 
 diligently studied. His works have contributed much 
 to the diffusion of a taste for the Gothic style in England. 
 He engraved part of Britton's " Cathedral Antiquities," 
 and of Pugin's "Antiquities of Normandy" and "Gothic 
 Specimens," and other works. He died in 1846. 
 
 Le Keux, (John Henry,) an excellent engraver and 
 draftsman, a son of the preceding, was born about 1812. 
 He acquired a high reputation as engraver of architec- 
 ture. Among his works are numerous plates in Raskin's 
 "Modern Painters." 
 
 Le Laboureur, (Jean.) See Laboureur, Le. 
 
 Le'land, (Charles Godfrey,) an American littera- 
 teur, born at Philadelphia in 1824. He was a contributor 
 to the " Knickerbocker Magazine" and other periodicals. 
 He published in 1855 the "Sketch-Book of Meister 
 Karl" and "The Poetry and Mystery of Dreams," and 
 in 1856 a translation of Heine's "Pictures of Travel," 
 ("Reisebilder.") 
 
 Lel'and or Laylonde, la'lond, (John,) an eminent 
 English antiquary and linguist, born in London soon 
 after 1500. He learned the ancient and modern lan- 
 guages at Oxford and Paris. • Having entered into holy 
 orders, he became chaplain to Henry VIII., who em- 
 ployed him as librarian and in 1533 gave him the title 
 of his antiquary, with orders to explore the antiquities 
 of England. He spent about seven years in collecting 
 materials for history, and in 1545 compiled his "Account 
 of British Authors," (" Commentarii de Scriptoribus Bri- 
 tannicis.") He became insane in 1550, and died in 1552, 
 leaving many manuscripts, which were deposited in the 
 Bodleian Library. His "Itinerary" (9 vols.) was edited 
 by Hearne in 17 10. 
 
 See Huddesford, " Lives of Leland, Hearne, and Wood," 1772 ; 
 Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Wood, "Athenje 
 Oxonienses." 
 
 Leland, (John,) an English dissenting minister, born 
 in Lancashire in 1691. He became pastor of a Presby- 
 terian congregation in Dublin in 17 16. In 1733 he pub- 
 lished an "Answer to Tindal's 'Christianity as Old as 
 the Creation.'" He wrote other approved treatises in 
 defence of Christianity, and in 1754 published his chief 
 work, a "View of the Principal Deistical Writers that 
 have appeared in England in the Last and Present Cen- 
 tury." Died in 1766. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for March, 1754, March, 1755, and 
 June, 1764. 
 
 Leland, (John,) an American Baptist divine, born at 
 Grafton, Massachusetts, in 1754. He published nume- 
 rous sermons, and essays on various subjects. Died in 
 1841. 
 
 Leland, (Thomas,) a classical scholar and historical 
 writer, was born in Dublin in 1722. He took orders, and 
 became eminent as a preacher. In 1756 he produced 
 the first volume of an excellent translation of Demos- 
 thenes' Orations, which was finished in 1770. He was 
 appointed professor of oratory in Trinity College in 1763. 
 His principal works, besides the above-named, are a 
 " History of the Life and Reign of Philip of Macedon," 
 (1758,) a " Dissertation on the Principle of Human Elo- 
 quence," (1764,) and a "History of Ireland," (1773.) 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 See the "Monthly Review" for August, 1758, and September and 
 November, 1773. 
 
 Lsleux, leh-luh', (Adolphe, ) a popular French 
 p&inter of genre, born in Paris in 1812. Among his 
 works are " The Spanish Smugglers," and " The Return 
 from Market," (1847.) 
 
 Leleux, (Armand,) a painter of genre, etc., a brother 
 of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1818. 
 
 Lelewel, li-la'vel, ? (Joachim,) one of the most emi- 
 nent Polish historians of modern times, was born at 
 Warsaw in 1786. He conspired with the insurgents at 
 Warsaw against Constantine of Russia in November, 
 
 1830, and was proposed for dictator; but Chlopicki was 
 preferred. Lelewel held several high offices in the new 
 government for a short time, until the victories of the 
 Russians drove him into exile in 1831. After 1S33 he 
 resided at Brussels. Among his most popular works 
 are a "History of Poland," (1829,) a " History of Poland 
 under Stanislas Augustus," (1831,) and "Poland of the 
 Middle Ages," (1846-51.) He published (in French) an 
 important work on "Mediaeval Geography," (1852,) and 
 various other books. Died in 1861. 
 
 See L. Chodzko, "Notice biographique sur J. Lelewel," 4th 
 edition, 1834. 
 
 Lelli, lel'lee, (Ercole,) an Italian painter and modeller 
 of the Bolognese school, born in 1702. He excelled in 
 the art of anatomical preparations. Died in 1766. 
 
 Lelong, leh-li.s', (Jacques,) a French priest and 
 bibliographer of high reputation, born in Paris in 1665, 
 was learned in languages and literary history. Hebe- 
 came librarian in the Maison Saint-Honore, at Paris. 
 Among his principal works are "Bibliotheca Sacra; or, 
 Syllabus of nearly all Editions and Versions of the 
 Scriptures," (2 vols., 1709,) and "Bibliothequehistorique 
 de la France," (1719,) containing a catalogue of works 
 which treat on French history, with notes. An enlarged 
 edition of the latter was published by Fevret de Fon- 
 tette, (5 vols., 1768-78.) Died in 1721. 
 
 See " Nouvelle liiographie Generale." 
 ■ Le Lorrain, leh lo'raN', (Louis Joseph,) a French 
 engraver and mediocre painter, born in Paris in 1715; 
 died in Saint Petersburg in 1760. 
 
 Lelorrain or Le Lorrain, (Robert,) a French sculp- 
 tor, born in Paris in 1666, was a pupil of Girardon. He 
 was chosen a member of the Royal Academy in 1701, 
 His works display good talents, but are censured for 
 mannerism. Died in 1743. 
 
 Leilut, WW, (Louis Francois,) a French physician, 
 born in Haute-Saone in 1804. He wrote able treatises 
 on psychology, insanity, etc. 
 
 Le'ljr, (Sir Peter,) or Van der Faes, vin der fas, a 
 successful portrait-painter, of Dutch descent, was born 
 at Soest, in Westphalia, in 1617. He removed to Lon- 
 don in the reign of Charles I. He excelled in the repre- 
 sentation of female beauty, and became one of the most 
 fashionable artists of that time. After the restoration 
 in 1660, he received the title of first painter to Charles 
 II., the beauties of whose court were the subjects of 
 his master-pieces. His works are generally censured for 
 immodesty. Died in 1680. 
 
 See Krvan, " Dictionary of Painters;" Walpole, "Anecdotes 
 of Painting." 
 
 Lemaire, leh-maR', (Henri,) a French novelist, born 
 at Nancy in 1756. He wrote, besides other works, "The 
 French Gil Bias, or Adventures of Henri Lancon," (3 
 vols., 1792.) Died in 1808. 
 
 Lemaire, leh-maV, (Jacques,) a Dutch navigator and 
 merchant, who was director-general of a company which 
 in 161 5 sent an expedition to find a new route to the 
 Pacific Ocean. He discovered the strait which bears 
 his name and separates Staten Land from Terra del 
 Fuego, in 1616, doubled Cape Horn for the first time, 
 and sailed to the East Indies. He died at sea in 1616. 
 C. Schouten was captain of the ship which made this 
 voyage. 
 
 See A. G. Chotin, " Notice sur J. Lemaire, Navisateur." 
 
 Lemaire, (Jean,) a Belgian poet and historian, born 
 in Hainault about 1473. He entered the service of 
 Margaret of Austria as librarian. His principal work 
 is entitled "Illustrations of the Gauls," ("Illustrations 
 des Gaules," 1512.) Died about 1548. 
 
 Lemaire, (Nicolas Ei.oi,) a French classical scholar 
 and Latin poet, born at Triancourt (Mense) in 1767. He 
 was chosen professor of Latin poetty in the Faculty of 
 Letters, Paris, in 181 1. He composed Latin verses with 
 remarkable facility. Among his productions is a Latin 
 "Ode on the Birth. of the King of Rome," (1812.) He 
 acquired reputation among classical literati by the pub- 
 lication of all the best Latin authors, in 154 vols. 8vo, 
 under the title of " Bibliotheca Classica Latina." This 
 is said to be the best collection of the classics that exists. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 See " Notice sur N. E. Lemaire," Paris, 1842. 
 
 i, e, f, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, j?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ZEMA1RE 
 
 1401 
 
 LEMOINE 
 
 Lemaire, (Philippe Henri,) a French sculptor, a 
 member of the Institute, was born at Valenciennes in 
 1798. He gained the first prize in 1821, and studied in 
 Kome. His design for the fronton or pediment of the 
 church of Madeleine, Paris, was preferred in 1836. This 
 vast composition is called his capital work. 
 
 Lemaire, (Pierre Auguste, ) a French classical 
 scholar, a nephew of Nicolas filoi, noticed above, was 
 born at Triancourt in 1802. He edited Lucan, Lucre- 
 tius, and other classic authors. 
 
 Lemaistre, l?h-m&tR', (Antoine,) a French advocate, 
 born in Pari* in 1608, was a brother of Lemaistre de Sacy. 
 He acquired a great reputation by his eloquence, and 
 afterwards retired to the cloister of Port-Royal. He was 
 a friend of Pascal, and a nephew of Arnauld d'Andilly. 
 Referring to his published forensic speeches, Hallam 
 says, " Lemaistre is fervid and brilliant ; he hurries us 
 with him. Both Lemaistre and Patru do great honour 
 to the French bar." He was one of the translators of 
 the Port-Royal New Testament. Hied in 1658. 
 
 See Philippe Simon Di'pin, "Notice sur A. Lemaistre," 1822; 
 Voltaire, "Steele de Louis XIV;" Fournhl, "Histoire des Avo- 
 cats ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Lernaistre, (Jean,) a French magistrate, who in 1591 
 was nominated first president of the Parliament of Paris 
 by the chiefs of the League. At a critical period in the 
 contest between the League and Henry IV. he procured 
 a decree of Parliament in favour of the latter, (1593.) 
 Lied in 1596. 
 
 Lemaistre de Saci or Sacy, leh m|tR' deh si'se', 
 (Isaac Louis,) a French Jansenist theologian, born in 
 Paris in 1613, was a nephew of Antoine Arnauld le 
 Grand. He was ordained a priest in 1650, and became 
 confessor or principal director of the recluses of Port- 
 Royal. He was confined in the Bastille two years, (1666- 
 68,i during which he made a French translation of the 
 Old Testament. He was one of the translators of the 
 New Testament of Mons, (1667,) which was often re- 
 printed. In consequence of renewed persecution, he left 
 Port-Royal in 1679. He published French versions of 
 several works, among which were the fourth and sixth 
 books of the "/Eneid." Died in 1684. 
 
 See Fontaine, "Memoires sur Port-Royal;" Sainte-Beuve, 
 'Port- Royal," tome ii. : Lelong, " Bibliotheque sacre"e;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge"neVale." 
 
 Lemaitre, leh mitR'.fFRiDitRic,) a celebrated French 
 actor, bom at Havre in 1798, was called "the Talma 
 of the Boulevards." He was successful in tragedy and 
 comedy, and excelled in the romantic drama. 
 
 Le'man, (Kev. Thomas,) an English antiquary, born 
 in 1751 ; died in 1827. 
 
 Le Marchant, leh miR'shoN', (Jacques,) a Flemish 
 historian, born at Fumes in 1537, wrote several works 
 on the history of Flanders. Died in 1609. 
 
 Lemare, leh-miR', (Pierre Alexandre,) a French 
 grammarian, born in Franche-Comte in 1766, published 
 several successful works on grammar. Died in 1835. 
 
 Lemazurier, leh-mfzu're-a', (Pierre David,) a 
 French writer, born at Gisors in 1775; died in 1836. 
 
 Lembke, lfmp'keh, (Johann Philipp,) a German 
 painter and engraver, bom at Nuremberg in 163 1, painted 
 battles, sieges, and hunting-scenes with success. He 
 was invited to the court of Sweden by Charles XI., who 
 gave him the title of painter to the king. Died in 1721. 
 
 Lemchen. See Lemnius, (Simon.) 
 
 Lemene, la-ma'na, (Francesco,) Count, an Italian 
 poet, born at Lodi in 1634. He composed many elegant 
 Latin verses, but his principal poems were written in the 
 Italian language. He had a rich and poetic imagination, 
 and contributed much to reform the poetry of his country. 
 Died in 1704. 
 
 See Tommaso Ceva, " Memorie di alcune Virtu del Sijrnor 
 Conte F. di Lemene," 1706; TlRAboscm, " Storia della Lctteratura 
 Italiana." 
 
 Lemens, van, vin la'mens, (Bai.thasar,) a Flemish 
 painter of history, bom at Antwerp in 1637, worked in 
 London. Died in 1 704. 
 
 Lemercier, leh-meVse-A', (Jacques,) a French archi- 
 tect, born at Pontoise about 1600. By order of Cardinal 
 Richelieu, he built about 1635 the church of the Sor- 
 bonne at Paris, and the Chateau Richelieu. He obtained 
 the title of chief architect to the king. Among his most 
 
 admired works are the church of the Annonciade at 
 Tours, and that of Saint-Roch in Paris. Died in 1660. 
 
 See Fontenav, "Dictionnaire des Artistes ;" "-Nouvelle Bfagrfe 
 phie Gene>ale ;" Quatkkmere de Quincy, " Vies des plus celibrei 
 Archilectes." 
 
 Lemercier, (Louis Jean N£poMUcfeNE,) a popular 
 French poet and dramatist, born in Paris, April 21, 
 1771. He was a republican in the Revolution and 
 through all the changes which followed. His tragedy 
 of "Agamemnon," in verse, (1797,) procured for him 
 a triumph of which the annals of the theatre offer few 
 examples. He afterwards produced "Ophis," "Louis 
 XL," (1821,) and other successful tragedies. He was 
 chosen a member of the French Academy in 1S10. He 
 wrote a poem entitled "The French Ages," (1803,) and 
 many other works. Talleyrand is reported to have said 
 that Lemercier conversed better than any other man in 
 France. Died in 1840. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Lemery, lam're', (Louis,) a skilful physician and 
 chemist, a son of Nicolas, noticed below, was born in 
 Paris in 1677. He was a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences, for which he wrote many memoirs. For thirty- 
 three years he was physician to the Hotel-Dieu, Paris. 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 Lemery, (Nicolas,) M.D., a French chemist, born 
 at Rouen in 1645, was educated a Protestant. In 1672 
 he settled in Paris, where he lectured on chemistry with 
 Idat, and published a "Course of Chemistry," ("Cours 
 de Chimie," 1675,) which was very successful. It was 
 often reprinted, and was translated into many languages. 
 After suffering much persecution for religion, he abjured 
 Calvinism in 1686. He was received into the Academy 
 of Sciences in 1699. Died in 1715. 
 
 See Paul Antoine Cap, " Eloge de N. Le'mery," 183^ ; J. Ton- 
 net, " Notice sur N. Lemery," 1844 ^ Fontenelle, " Eloge de N. 
 Lemery," 1715; "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Lemierre, leh-me-aiR', (Antoine Marin,) a French 
 dramatic poet, was born in Paris in 1723. He produced 
 in 1758 " Hypermnestre," a tragedy, which was com- 
 pletely successful. His tragedies "William Tell" (1766) 
 and "The Widow of Malabar" (1770) were often per- 
 formed with applause. He composed a poem on Painting, 
 (1769,) which contains several fine passages. He was 
 chosen a member of the French Academy in 17B1. Died 
 in 1793. 
 
 See Pekrin, " Notice de Lemierre," prefixed to an edition of his 
 works, Paris, 3 vols., 1810; "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Lemire, leh-meR' or leh-meeR', [ Lat. Mir^/us, ] 
 (Auhf.rt,) a Flemish compiler, born at Brussels in 1573. 
 He studied for the clerical profession, and became vicar- 
 general at Antwerp in 1624. He published, besides other 
 Latin works, "Eulogies of Eminent Belgian Authors," 
 (1602,) and "Annals of Belgium," ("Rerum Belgicarum 
 Annales," 1624.) Died in 1640. 
 
 See Nic^ron, " Me'inoires ;" Foppens, " Bibliotheca Belgica." 
 
 Lemire, leh-meR', (Noel,) a French engraver, born 
 at Rouen in 1724, was a pupil of Lebas. He engraved 
 landscapes, portraits, etc., and excelled in vignettes. 
 "The Partition of Poland" (designed and engraved by 
 him) is called his master-piece. Died in 1S01. 
 
 Lemmens. See Lemnius. 
 
 Lemnius, lem'ne-us, or Lemmens, lem'inens, (I.ie- 
 vin,) a Dutch physician and philosopher, born at Zierikzee 
 in 1505. He practised in his native place, and acquired 
 a European reputation by his skill. He wrote, in elegart 
 Latin, "De occultis Naturae Miraculis," ("The Secret 
 Wonders of Nature," 1559,) and other scientific or moral 
 works, which were very successful. Died in 1568. 
 
 See Harderwijck, "Jets over L. Lemnius," 1843; M. Adam, 
 "Vitic Medicorum Germanorum." 
 
 Lemnius, lem'ne-us, (Simon,) a Swiss poet, whose 
 proper name was Lemchen, (lcrvt'Ken,) was born in the 
 Orisons. He studied at Wittenberg, whence he was 
 banished by the influence of Luther or Melanchthon 
 about 1538, probably on account of his writings. He 
 published Latin epigrams and otherverses. Died in 1550. 
 
 Lemoine, leh-mwin', (Antoine,) a French officer, a 
 'brother of O'lberville, was born at Montreal in 1683, He 
 became Governor of Cayenne, where he died about 1730. 
 (See Iberville, d'.) 
 
 ,« as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as *; th as in this. {&g~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LEMOINE 
 
 1402 
 
 LENAU 
 
 Lemoine or Lemoyne, leh-mwan', (Charles,) a 
 brother of the preceding, was born in 1656, at Montreal, 
 of which he afterwards became governor. Died in 1729. 
 
 Lemoine or Lemoyne, (Etiknne,) a French Prot- 
 estant divine and Orientalist, born at Caen in 1624, 
 wrote " Varia Sacra." Died in 1689. 
 
 Lemoine, (Francois,) an eminent French historical 
 painter, bom In Paris in 1688, was a pupil of Galloche. 
 He was admitted into the Royal Academy in 1718, in 
 consideration of his " Hercules and Cacus." He made 
 a short visit to Italy in 1723, and at his return was chosen 
 professor of painting in the Academy. His master- 
 piece is "The Apotheosis of Hercules," (1736,) an oil- 
 painting, which adorns a ceiling in the palace of Ver- 
 sailles, and is said to be the largest in Europe, (64 feet 
 by 54.) He excelled in composition, and had probably 
 a higher reputation than any French painter of his time ; 
 but his design was incorrect. In 1736 he became first 
 painter to the king, and in the next year committed 
 suicide. 
 
 See Bryan, "Dictionary of Painters. * 
 
 Lemoine, (Jean,) a French cardinal and canonist, 
 born at Crecy. He founded in Paris the college which 
 bears his name. Died in 1313. 
 
 Lemoine, (Joseph,) brother of Charles, noticed above, 
 was born in Montreal in 166S. In 1719 he took Pen- 
 sacola from the Spaniards. Died in France in 1734. 
 
 Lemoine or Lemoyne, (Pierre,) a French poet 
 and Jesuit, born at Chaumont, in Bassigny, in 1602. He 
 took part in the dispute between the Jesuits and Jan- 
 senists. His principal work is a bombastic epic poem en- 
 titled " Saint Louis, or the Holy Crown recovered from 
 the Infidels," (1653,) which obtained little favour with 
 the public. His " Devotion Made Easy" (" La Devotion 
 aisee," 1652) was criticised by Pascal in the eleventh of 
 his " Provincial Letters." Died in 1671. 
 
 Lemoine, (Sauvolle,) brother of Joseph, noticed 
 above, was born in Montreal about 1671. He accom- 
 panied his brother DTberville on his western expedition, 
 and was appointed by Louis XIV. governor of the 
 colony of Louisiana in 1699. Died in 1701. 
 
 Lemoine d'lberville. See Iberville, d'. 
 
 Lem'on, (George William,) an English gramma- 
 rian, born in 1726. He published an "Etymological 
 English Dictionary." Died in 1797. 
 
 Lemon, (Mark,) an English dramatist, humorist, 
 and editor, born in London in 1809. He produced a 
 large number of farces, melo-dramas, etc., among which 
 are "The Serious Family" and "The Ladies' Club." 
 Several of his plays are quite popular. He became 
 editor of the London " Punch" soon after its first pub- 
 lication, and literary editor of the "Illustrated London 
 News." Died in May, 1S70. 
 
 Lemonnier, leh-mo'ne-i', (Anicet Charles Ga- 
 briel,) a French painter, was born at Rouen in 1743. 
 Among his works are "Cleombrotus" and the "Death 
 of Antony." Died in 1824. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Lemonnier, (Guillaume Antoine,) a French abbe 
 and litterateur, born in 1721, produced French trans- 
 lations of Terence and Perseus, and wrote a volume of 
 " Fables and Tales." Died in 1797. 
 
 Lemonnier or Le Monnier, (Louis Guillaume,) 
 a French physician and botanist, born in 171 7, was a 
 brother of Pierre Charles, noticed below. He succeeded 
 Bernard Jussieu as professor of botany in the Jardin du 
 Roi in 1777, and received the title of first physician to 
 the king about 1780. He was for some time chief phy- 
 sician of the army. He rendered considerable service 
 to the science of botany, and wrote several treatises 
 which were inserted in the collection of the Academy 
 of Sciences. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Challan, " Essai historique surlaVie de L. G. Lemonnier," 
 1800. 
 
 Le Monnier, (Pierre,) a French astronomer, born 
 in Normandy in 1675. He was professor of philosophy 
 at the College of Harcourt, and published a work called 
 " Course of Philosophy," (" Cursus Philosophise," 6 vols., 
 1750.) Died in 1757. 
 
 Lemonnier or Le Monnier, (Pierre Charles,) a 
 distinguished French astronomer, born in Paris in 1715, 
 
 was a son of the preceding. He was chosen a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences in 1736, and assisted Mau- 
 pertuis and Clairaut in measuring a degree of the me- 
 ridian at Tomea, within the polar circle, in 1736-37. In 
 1746 he ascertained the inequalities of Saturn caused by 
 the attraction of Jupiter, and in 1748, during an eclipse, 
 measured the diameter of the moon on the disc of the 
 sun. He was for many years a professor of physics 
 in the College of France. He published " Histoire ce- 
 leste," (1 741,) "Astronomic Institutes," ("Institutions 
 astronomiques," 1746,) a good elementary work on 
 astronomy, "Nautical Astronomy," (1771,) and other 
 treatises on astronomy, navigation, etc. Died in 1799. 
 SeeLALANDE, " Bibliographic ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 Lemontey, leh-moN'tJ', (Pierre Edouard,) an able 
 French historical writer and lawyer, born at Lyons in 
 1762. He was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 
 1791. During the empire he gained the confidence of 
 Napoleon, who ordered him to write the " History of 
 France in the Eighteenth Century." He published in 
 1818 an "Essay on the Monarchical System ( Etablisse- 
 ment) of Louis XIV.," and was admitted into the French 
 Academy in 1819. Died in 1826. In 1832 appeared his 
 " History of the Regency and the Minority of Louis 
 XV.," a part of his unfinished " History of France." 
 
 See Villemain, "Discours prononce" aux FuneYailles de Lemon- 
 tey;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Passeron, "Notice sur 
 Lemontey." 
 
 Lemos, la'mAs, (Tomas,) a Spanish theologian, born 
 in Galicia, was professor at Valladolid in 1594 when the 
 Thomists and Molinists began a controversy about grace. 
 He took a prominent part in favour of the former, and 
 wrote many works, one of which was entitled " Panoply 
 of Grace," (" Panoplia Gratise," 1676.) Died in 1629. 
 
 Lemos, de, da la'm6s, (Don Pedro Fernandez de 
 Castro,) Count, a Spanish statesman, born at Madrid 
 about 1564. He became president of the Council of the 
 Indies in 1603, and Viceroy of Naples about 1610. He 
 was a patron of Cervantes. Died in 1634. 
 
 Lemot, leh-mo', (Francois Frederic,) a French 
 sculptor, born at Lyons in 1773. Having gained the 
 grand prize about 1790, he went to Rome with a pension. 
 He afterwards worked in Paris, and was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the Institute. Among his admired works are 
 statues of Henry IV., Lycurgus, Leonidas, Brutus, and 
 Cicero. Died in 1827. 
 
 See J. S. Passeron, " Notice sur Lemot." 
 
 Lemoyne. See Lemoine. 
 
 Lemoyne, leh-mwin', (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 sculptor, born in Paris in 1704; died in 1778. 
 
 Lemoyne, (Jean Baptiste Moyne.) a French com- 
 poser, born in Perigordin 1751. He composed " Phedre," 
 (1786,) and other successful operas. The poem of 
 "Phedre" was written by Hoffman. Died in 1796. 
 
 L'Empereur. See Empereur, L\ 
 
 Lempriere, lem'pre-er or lem-preer', (John,) D.D., 
 a teacher and classical scholar, born in the island of 
 Jersey about 1760. He published in 1788 an excellent 
 classical dictionary, which has enjoyed a wide popularity 
 and is still in extensive use. After acting as master of 
 the grammar-school at Exeter, he obtained the rectory 
 of Meeth, in Devonshire, about 1S11. He also pub- 
 lished a "Universal Biography," (1808.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Lgm'u-res, [Fr. Lemures, la'miiR',] a name applied 
 by the ancient Romans to spectres or_ departed spirits, 
 which, as they believed, returned to the world. If benefi- 
 cent, they were called Lares; and if malign, Larva. 
 Some authors, however, considered the Lemures and 
 Larvae as identical. To propitiate them or counteract 
 their influence, solemn rites were annually performed. 
 
 Lenaeus, le-nee'us, (Pompeius,) a grammarian, born 
 at Athens, lived about 50 B.C. He was once a slave of 
 Pompey the Great, who liberated him. He defended 
 Pompey against the charges of Sallust. 
 
 Lenain. See Tili.emont. 
 
 Lenau, la'now, (Nikoi.aus,) an eminent poet, born 
 in Hungary, August 15, 1802. His family name in full 
 was Niembsch von Strehi.enau, (neempsh fon stRa'- 
 leh-now'.) After he left the University of Vienna he 
 studied law, medicine, and natural sciences, and visited 
 the United States in 1832. He produced about 1832 a 
 
 J, e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, h, 6, same, less prolonged; S, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; modn; 
 
LENCLOS 
 
 1403 
 
 LSNOIR 
 
 collection of lyric poems in German, which had great 
 success. He also wrote several epic poems, among 
 which is "The Albigenses," ("Die Albigenser," 1841.) 
 He is ranked by the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale" 
 among the first lyric poets of Germany. Died in 1850. 
 
 See Uffo Horn, " N. Lenau, seine Ansichten und Tendenxen," 
 :?3S ; Throdoe Opitz, " N. Lenau; austiihrliche Characteristik 
 des Dicluers," 1S50; L. A. Fkankl, "Zu Lenau's Biographie," 
 1854. 
 
 Lenclos or L'Enclos, de, deh loN'klo', (Anne ; 
 commonly called Ninon,) a French courtesan, celebrated 
 for her wit and beauty, was born in Paris in 1616. She 
 was courted by many men of high rank and of eminent 
 talents, with whom she formed liaisons. Among her 
 female friends were Madame de Maintenon and Madame 
 de La Fayette. She was never married. It appears that 
 venality was not one of her vices. Her letters are 
 marked by an elegant simplicity of style. Moliere is 
 said to have had such a high opinion of her literary 
 taste that he often consulted her. Died in 1706. 
 
 See Brkt. " Memoire sur Ninon de L'Enclos," 1750; Guvon DE 
 Sarlmbke, "Viede Ninon de L'Enclos;" L. Damours, " Lettres 
 de Ninon de Lenclos au Marquis de Sevigne', augmentees desa Vie," 
 3 toIs., 1752, (translated into English, London, 1761.) 
 
 Lenet, leh-ni', (Pierre,) a French historian, born at 
 Dijon, was devoted to the Prince of Conde during the 
 war of the Fronde. He wrote "Memoirs of the Civil 
 War which began in 1649," (2 vols,, 1729.) Died in 1671. 
 
 lie Neve, leh-neev', (John,) an English antiquary, 
 born about 1679. He published " Fasti Ecclesiae Angli- 
 canae." Died about 1740. 
 
 Le Neve, (Peter,) an English antiquary, born in 
 1662, became Norroy king-at-arms. Died in 1729. 
 
 Lenfant, lfiN'foN', (Alexandre Chari.es Anne,) a 
 French Jesuit, eminent as a preacher, was born at Lyons 
 in 1726. He preached in Paris and other cities, and 
 was reputed one of the most eloquent pulpit orators of 
 his time. He was one of the victims of the massacre 
 in Paris in September, 1792. 
 
 Lenfant, (Jacques,) a French Protestant divine of 
 great merit, born at Bazpche in 1661. He was educated 
 at Saumur and Geneva, and in 1689 removed to Berlin, 
 where he preached forty years. About 1705 he became 
 chaplain to Frederick William of Prussia, and in 1724 
 was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences. He 
 was the author of many valuable works, among which 
 are a "History of the Council of Constance," (2 vols., 
 1714,) a "Preventive against Reunion with the See of 
 Rome," (1723,) and a "History of the Wars of the 
 Hussites and of the Council of Basle," (2 vols., 1731.) 
 In partnership with Beausobre, he produced a French 
 translation of the New Testament, with notes and a 
 learned introduction by Lenfant, ( 1 7 1 8. ) Died in 172S. 
 His histories are admitted to be impartial and moderate. 
 
 See Nicekom, " Memoires;" Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Leng, (John,) an English scholar, born at Norwich 
 in 1665. He became chaplain to George I., who ap- 
 pointed him Bishop of Norwich in 1723. He pub- 
 lished "The Clouds" of Aristophanes, (1695,) and a 
 good edition of Terence, (1701.) Died in 1727. 
 
 Lengard. See Lennard. 
 
 Lengerke, von, fon leng'er-keh, (Alexander,) a 
 celebrated agricultural writer, born at Hamburg in 1802. 
 Among his principal works is the "Agricultural Con- 
 versations-Lexicon," (4 vols., 1835-38.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Lengerke, von, ( Casar, ) a learned theologian, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Hamburg in 1803. 
 His principal works are "Commentaries on the Prophet 
 Daniel and the Psalms." 
 
 Lenglet-Duiresnoy.l&N'glJ'du'fRl'nwa', (Nicolas,) 
 a French abbe, noted asa voluminous and sarcastic writer, 
 was born at Beauvais (Oise) in 1674. He was several 
 times confined in the Bastille for his freedom or impru- 
 dence as a writer. He displayed great erudition in his 
 numerous works, which are chiefly historical. Among 
 his most important works are "Method for the Study 
 of History" (2 vols., 1713) and "Method for the Study 
 of Geography," (4 vols., 1716.) He also wrote a " His- 
 tory of the Hermetic Philosophy," (3 vols., 1742,) and 
 edited the works of various authors. Died in 1755. 
 
 See Micmaui.t, " Memoire de Lenglet-Dufresnoy," 1761 ; Que- 
 ■ard, "La France Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lenguich, leng'niie, (Gottfried,) a Prussian his- 
 torian and publicist, born at Dantzic about 1690. He 
 published a "History of Polish Prussia from 1526 to 
 1748," (9 vols., 1723-48,) "The Public Law of Poland," 
 (1742,) and other works. Died in 1774. 
 
 Lengnich, (Karl Benjamin,) a German numismatist 
 and antiquary, born at Dantzic in 1742 ; died in 1795. 
 
 Lenhossek, de, deh len-hosh'ek, ? (Michael,) a 
 Hungarian physician, born at Presburg in 1773. He 
 obtained the title of first physician of Hungary, and 
 published many able professional works. Died in 1840. 
 
 Len'nard or Lengard, leng'gard, (Sampson,) an 
 English antiquary, who fought under Sir Philip Sidney 
 at Zutphen. He translated from the French Charron's 
 " La Sagesse," and other works. Died in 1633. 
 
 Lenne, l&'ni', (Peter Joseph,) born at Bonn in 1789, 
 acquired a high reputation throughout Germany for his 
 skill and taste in landscape-gardening. 
 
 Lennep, van, via len'nep, (David Jacoh,) a Dutch 
 poet and philologist, born at Amsterdam in 1774. He 
 became professor of eloquence at Leyden, and was 
 eminent as a classical scholar. He wrote philological 
 essays and elegant verses, and published editions of 
 Hesiod and of Ovid. Died in 1853. 
 
 See Koenen, " Lijkrede op D. J. van Lennep," 1853. 
 
 Lennep, van, (Jacob,) a celebrated novelist, a son 
 of the preceding, was born at Amsterdam in 1802. He 
 chose the profession of the law, in which he attained 
 eminence. Among his early productions are poems 
 entitled "National Legends," (" Vaderlandsche Legen- 
 den.") In 1830 he produced "The Village on the 
 Frontier," a political farce, which had immense success. 
 He published many popular novels, among which are 
 "Our Forefathers, ("Onze Voorouders,") and "The 
 Rose of Dekama." He translated into Dutch some plays 
 of Shakspeare, and poems of Byron and Tennyson. He 
 is often called " the Walter Scott of Holland." 
 
 Lennep, van, (Jan Daniel,) a Dutch linguist and 
 critic, born at Leeuvvarden in 1724. He was professor of 
 Latin and Greek at Groningeu from 1752 to 1768. He 
 gained a high reputation by a work "On the Analogy 
 of the Greek Language," and by his " Etymology of the 
 Greek Language," ("Etymologicum Linguae Graecae,") 
 (published by Scheide, 2 vols., 1790.) Died in 1771. 
 
 See Sax, " Onomasticon." 
 
 Lenngren, len'gucn,(ANNA Maria,) a Swedish writer, 
 originally named Malmstedt, (malm'stet,) born at Upsal 
 in 1754, was the author of poems of a humorous character. 
 Died in 181 7. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Len'nox, (Charlotte,) an ingenious authoress, born 
 at New York in 1720, was the daughter of Colonel Ram- 
 say, lieutenant-governor of that place. She went to Eng- 
 land in her youth, and appears to have been dependent 
 on her literary talents for support before and after her 
 marriage with Mr. Lennox. She wrote "The Female 
 Quixote," (1752,) "Henrietta," a successful novel, (1758,) 
 and other works of fiction. In 1753 she published 
 "Shakspeare Illustrated," a collection of tales on which 
 the plays of that dramatist are founded, translated from 
 various languages. She enjoyed the friendship of Dr. 
 Johnson, who expressed a high opinion of her works. 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 Lenoble, leh-nobl', (Eustachf,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Troyes in 1643. He wrote many works in prison, 
 where he was confined for forgery, and acquired some 
 popularity as a gay, sprightly writer. Among his works 
 are "Political Dialogues," (1690,) and "The School of the 
 World." Died in 171 1. 
 
 Lenoir, leh-nwdR', (Alexandre,) a French antiquary 
 and artist, born in Paris in 1761. In the Revolution he 
 saved from destruction many monuments and works of 
 art found in convents and churches. He was chosen 
 keeper (administrateur) of the Museum of French Monu- 
 ments in 1801. He published, besides other works, 3 
 " History of Painting on Glass," (1804,) and a " History 
 of the Arts in France proved by Monuments," (1S10,) 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lenoir, (Alexandre Ai.hert,) an architect, a son 
 of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1801. He was 
 
 «»»*; 9 as .r;g /Jon/,- gas/; a, u,K, guttural; a, nasal; v., trilled; sas«; ih as in //«>. (JQ^— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LENOIR 
 
 r 4°4 
 
 LEO 
 
 architect of the museum formed by the union of the 
 Palais des Thermes with the H6tel de Cluny. 
 
 Lenoir, (Etienne,) a Frenchman distinguished for 
 his skill in the fabrication of astronomical and mathe- 
 matical instruments, was born at Mer in 1744. He fur- 
 nished the instruments for the expeditions of La Perouse 
 and Baudin, and those used by the savants whom Bona- 
 parte took to Egypt in 1798. Died in 1832. 
 
 Lenoir, (Nicolas,) called Le Romain, a French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1726. He was employed as an 
 architect by Voltaire at Femey. Died in 1810. 
 
 Lenormand, leh-noR'm6N', (Marie Anne Ade- 
 laide,) a French fortune-teller, born at Alencon in 1772. 
 She wrote, besides other works, " Memoirs of the Em- 
 press Josephine," (1829,) which has been translated into 
 Englis'h. Died in 1843. 
 
 See F. Girault, " Mademoiselle Le Normand, sa Biographie, ses 
 Predictions," etc., 1843. 
 
 Lenormant, leh-noR'm5N', (Charles,) a French 
 antiquary, born in Paris in 1802. He accompanied 
 Champollion to Egypt in 1828, and was chosen a substi- 
 tute of Guizot as professor of history in Paris in 1835. 
 He wrote an " Introduction to Oriental History," (1838,) 
 and other works. 
 
 Len6tre, leh-notR', (Andre,) a French architect and 
 designer of the royal gardens, was born in Paris in 1613. 
 He displayed his inventive genius in adorning the park 
 and garden of Versailles for Louis XIV., and designed 
 or embellished other royal gardens at Chantilly, Saint- 
 Cloud, and the Tuileries. In 1675 the king granted 
 him letters of nobility. Died in 1700. "The gardens 
 of the Tuileries and of Versailles," says the " Bfographie 
 Universelle," "will always be the master-pieces of the 
 style invented by Lenotre." 
 
 See, also, Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G^nerale." 
 
 Lenourry, leh-noo're', (Denis Nicolas,) a learned 
 French monk, born at Dieppe in 1647. He devoted 
 many years to a work entitled "Apparatus ad Bibliothe- 
 cam maxiniam Patrum Veterum," etc., (2 vols., 1694-97,) 
 which contains critical dissertations on the works of the 
 Fathers. Died in 1724. 
 
 LSn'ox, (Matthew Stuart,) Earl of, a Scottish 
 nobleman, was the father of Lord Darnley. In 1544 he 
 was driven out of Scotland by the hostility of the regent 
 Arran, and went to the court of Henry VIII., who gave 
 him his niece Margaret Douglas in marriage. He was 
 invited to return to Scotland with his son in 1564. In 
 1570 he was chosen Regent of Scotland by the party 
 which was hostile to Queen Mary. Her partisans sur- 
 prised him at Stirling in 1572, and, perceiving thathis 
 friends were likely to rescue him, instantly put him to 
 death. 
 
 See Robertson, " History of Scotland." 
 
 Lens, Uns or l&N, (Andreas Cornells,) a Flemish 
 painter, born at Antwerp in 1739. He worked in Brus- 
 sels, and painted history and portraits. He excelled in 
 design, colouring, and chiaroscuro. Died in 1822. 
 
 See De Stassart, "A. C. Lens," 1846. 
 
 Lens, (Bernard,) a Belgian painter and engraver, 
 excelled in miniature. He became court painter to 
 George II. of England. Died in 1741. 
 
 Lenstiom or Lenstroem, len'strbm, (Karl Julius,) 
 a Swedish writer, born at Gefle in 181 1. He became 
 professor of philosophy at his native place, and pub- 
 lished, besides other works, a "History of the Theories 
 of Art," (2 vols., 1839,) and a "History of Swedish 
 Poetry," (1840.) 
 
 Leuthal or Lenthall, lent'al, ? (William,) an English 
 statesman and lawyer, born in Oxfordshire in 1591. He 
 was returned to Parliament in 1639, and in 1640 was 
 chosen Speaker of the Commons by the popular or re- 
 publican party. When the king attempted to arrest 
 Hampden, and four other members, in the House, and 
 asked Lenthal if they were present, he prudently re- 
 plied, "I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak 
 in this place, but as the House, whose servant I am, is 
 pleased to direct me." In 1653 he ceased to be Speaker, 
 the Parliament having been violently dissolved by Crom- 
 well, but was elected by the new House to the same 
 
 office in 1654. He also acted as Speaker for a shorts 
 time in 1660, before Charles II. was restored. Died in 
 1682, or, according to some authorities, in 1662. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England;" Clarendon, "History of 
 the Rebellion." 
 
 Len'tu-lus, the name of a noble Roman family, a 
 branch of the gens Cornelia, which produced several 
 distinguished men. Publius Cornelius Lentulus 
 Sura, a man of corrupt character but popular manners, 
 was chosen consul in 73 B.C., and was afterwards ex- 
 pelled from the senate for some misconduct. He was ' 
 an accomplice in Catiline's conspiracy, and was per- ' 
 suaded by the soothsayers that he was the third member 
 of the Cornelia gens destined by the fates to have the 
 chief power in Rome. By the orders of Cicero and the 
 senate, he was put to death in 62 B.C. 
 
 P. Cornelius Lentulus Spinther was consul in 
 57 B.C., when he promoted the recall of Cicero. In the 
 civil war he took arms for Pompey, was made prisoner 
 and liberated by Caesar, but fought for Pompey at Phar- 
 salia, and fled to Rhodes. Nothing further is known 
 respecting him. 
 
 Lentulus, leVtoo-lus, (Cyriacus,) a German publi- 
 cist, born at Elbingen about 1620. He published, in Latin, 
 "Arcana of Kingdoms and Republics," (1653,) and" The 
 Absolute Prince," (1663,) which, with his other works, 
 form an ample commentary on Tacitus. Died in 1678. 
 
 Lenz, lents, (Heinrich Friedrich Emil,) a German 
 physician, bom at Dorpat in 1804. He was chosen a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Peters- 
 burg in 1834, and was afterwards professor of medicine 
 at the university in that city, and numbered among his 
 pupils the imperial princes. 
 
 Lenz, (Jakob Michael Reinhold,) a German poet 
 and intimate friend of Goethe, born in Livonia in 1750. 
 He became insane in consequence of an unrequited 
 passion for Frederica Brion, who has been celebrated 
 by Goethe. He wrote several comedies. Died in 1792. 
 
 See A. Stober, " Der Dichter Lenz und Friederike von Sesen- 
 heim," 1842. 
 
 Lenz, (Karl Gotthold,) a German philologist and 
 writer, born at Gera in 1763 ; died at Gdtha in 1809. 
 
 Lenz, (Samuel,) a German historian, born at Stendal 
 in 1686; died about 1760. 
 
 See Huch, "S. Lenz's Leben," 1758. 
 
 Le'o [Fr. L£on, li'oN'J I., Fla'vLus, Emperor of 
 Constantinople, was a native of Thrace. At the death of 
 Marcianus, in 457 A.D., he held a high rank in the army, 
 by which he was proclaimed emperor through the influ- 
 ence of Aspar, who designed to make him only a nominal 
 monarch. Having gained a victory over the Huns, he 
 sent an expedition against Genseric in Africa, which was 
 unsuccessful. He is represented as an able ruler. He 
 died in 474 A.D., having named as his successor his 
 grandson, Leo, an infant, who died after a nominal reign 
 of a few months. Zeno, the father of Leo II., then began 
 to reign. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le Beau, 
 "Histoire dn Bas-Empire," edited by Saint-Martin. 
 
 Leo II., born about 470A.D., succeeded Leo I. in 474, 
 and died the same year. 
 
 Leo III, called Isau'ricus, one of the most able 
 emperors of the East, was born in Isauria, of obscure 
 parentage. In the army of Justinian II. he rose to the 
 highest rank. When Anastasius II. was dethroned, in 
 716 A.D., Leo and Theodosius aspired to succeed ; and 
 the'former prevailed in 717. The first important event 
 of his reign was his great victory over the Saracens, who 
 had besieged Constantinople for two years, (718-19.) 
 The prosperity of his reign was soon blasted by a dis- 
 pute about the use of images, which Leo prohibited 
 in 727, and which the Greek patriarch and the pope 
 defended. Thus began the schism of the Iconoclasts, 
 which convulsed the empire with persecutions, revolts, 
 and great calamities to the end of his reign, and caused 
 the final separation of the Latin from the Greek Church. 
 He died in 741 A.D., and was succeeded by his son, 
 Constantino Copronymus. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Le Beauj 
 "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" Theophanes, "History;" "Nouvelle 
 .Biographie Gtm^rale." 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, f, short; a, e, j, 0, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
LEO 
 
 1405 
 
 LEO 
 
 Leo IV., Emperor of Constantinople, born in 751 
 A.D., was the son of Constantine Copronymus, whom he 
 succeeded in 775. His wife was the ambitious Irene. 
 He was a zealous Iconoclast, and is charged with perse- 
 cuting the orthodox or image-worshippers. He died in 
 780, leaving the throne to his minor son, Constantine VI. 
 
 See Cedrenus, " History.*' 
 
 Leo V., Emperor of the East, is called the Armenian, 
 because his father was a native of Armenia. Supported 
 bj the army, which he had corrupted, he rebelled against 
 Michael Rangabe, and usurped the throne, in 813 A.D. 
 He defeated the Bulgarians, who invaded his dominions, 
 in 814. He was a zealous Iconoclast, and violently per- 
 secuted the image-worshippers, who appear to have been 
 the majority. He was assassinated in 820 A.D., and 
 Michael the Stammerer became emperor. 
 
 See GtnBoN, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Leo VI, surnamed the Philosopher, Emperor of 
 the East, born in 865 A.D., was the son of Basilius the 
 Macedonian, whom he succeeded in 886. He exiled the 
 patriarch Photius. His empire was invaded by the Sara- 
 cens, who gained several victories. After a weak and 
 inglorious reign, he died in 911, and was succeeded by 
 his son, Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Leo was more 
 successful as an author than as a ruler. He wrote an 
 esteemed treatise on Tactics, a poem on the desolation 
 of Greece, moral discourses, and other works. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le 
 Beau, " Histoire du Has- Empire :" Fabricius," Bibliotheca Grsca." 
 
 Le'o[Fr. L£on, la'oN';"It. Leone, la-o'ni; Sp. Leon, 
 lion'; Port. LeXo, li-owN'] I., Pope, called THE 
 Great, an ambitious and able pontiff, was a native of 
 Rome, and was chosen bishop of that see in 440 A.D., as 
 successor to Sixtus III. His talents and learning had 
 been approved in several important missions. In 445 
 he reversed the decision of Hilaire, (Hilarius,) a French 
 bishop, on a question of discipline. It was the con- 
 stant aim of his policy to promote the supremacy of the 
 Bishops of Rome. He pronounced against the heresy 
 of Eutyches, which was condemned in the oecumenic 
 Council of Chalcedon in 451. Tradition informs us that 
 Attila, marching against Rome in 452, was persuaded 
 by the prayers of Leo to spare that city. He failed 
 to prevent the pillage of Rome by the Vandal king 
 Genseric in 455. He died in 461 A.D., leaving many 
 sermons and epistles, which are valuable for the light 
 they throw on the history of the age. Hilarius I. was 
 his successor. 
 
 See P. de Mornay, "Histoire pontificale," 1612 : P. Dtjmoui.in, 
 "Vie et Religion de deux bons Panes, Leon I et Gregoire I," 1650; 
 E. Perthei., "Pap«t Leo's I. Leben und Lehren," 1843: W. A. 
 Arp.ndt, " Leo der Grosse und seine Zeit," 1835; Saint-Cheron, 
 " Histoire du Pontifical de S. Leon le Grand," 2 vols., 1845. 
 
 Leo II., Pope, a native of Sicily, succeeded Agathon 
 in 682 A.D. He is praised for virtues and learning by 
 Catholic writers. He died in May, 684, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Benedict II. 
 
 Leo LIL, a Roman by birth, was chosen pope in 795 
 A.D., in place of Adrian I. His first act was the recog- 
 nition of his subjection or allegiance to Charlemagne, to 
 whom he sent the keys of Saint Peter's. In 799 he was 
 attacked by a band of conspirators, and escaped with 
 several wounds. Charlemagne visited Rome in 800, and 
 was crowned by the pope as Emperor of the Romans, 
 with the title of Augustus. Thus the Western Empire 
 was restored, after it had been subverted three hundred 
 and twenty-five years. Leo died in 816 a.d., and was 
 succeeded by Stephen IV. 
 
 See J. G. Fabrr, "Dissertatio de Leone III. Papa Romano." 
 17 IS- 
 
 Leo IV., a native of Rome, was chosen pope in 847 
 A.D., in place of Sergius II. He bravely defended Rome 
 against the Saracens, who, however, pillaged the basilica 
 of Saint Peter. He built a suburb of his capital, which 
 was named Leonina. His character is said to have been 
 good. He died in 855, and was succeeded by Benedict 
 III. The fabulous female pope Joan was supposed by 
 gome writers to have been the successor of Leo IV. 
 
 See Baronius, "Annales." 
 
 Leo V., a native of Ardea, was elected pope in 903 
 A.D., after the death of Benedict IV. About two months 
 
 after his election he was deposed by his rival Christopher, 
 and died in prison, according to one account, in 903. 
 
 Leo VI. succeeded John X. in 928 A.D., when the 
 Church was in a deplorable state and Italy was filled 
 with disorder. After a reign of seven months, he died, 
 in 029, and was succeeded by Stephen VII. 
 
 Leo VII. was chosen pope .after the death of John 
 XI., in 937 A.D. He has the reputation of a wise and 
 pious pontiff. His reign was not marked by important 
 events. He died in 939, and Stephen VIII. then became 
 pope. 
 
 Leo VIII. was elected pope in 963 A.D., in place of 
 John XII., who had been deposed by a council. John 
 returned, expelled Leo from Rome, and held the place 
 until his death, in 964. The Romans then elected Bene- 
 dict V. ; but Leo was restored by the emperor Otho. He 
 died in 965, and was succeded by John XIII. 
 
 See Pi.atina, "Vita; Pontificum Romanorum." 
 
 Leo IX., originally Bruno, bRoo'no, was born in 
 Alsace in 1002, and was a cousin-german of the emperor 
 Conrad the Salic. He was noted for learning, and be- 
 came Bishop of Toul. In 1049 he succeeded Damasus 
 II. He held frequent councils, and laboured zealously 
 to reform the morals of the clergy Having raised an 
 army to oppose the Normans, he was defeated by them 
 and made prisoner, but was at last released. He died in 
 1054, and was succeeded by Victor II. 
 
 See F. X. Hunki.er, "Leo IX. und seine Zeit," 1851; Mura- 
 tori. "Rerum Italicarum Scriptores," vol. Hi., 1733. 
 
 Leo X., (Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici — da med'- 
 ee-chee,) celebrated as a munificent patron of literature 
 and the arts, the second son of Lorenzo de' Medici, (the 
 Magnificent,) was born at Florence in 1475. He was 
 created a cardinal at the age of thirteen. In 1512 he 
 was made prisoner by the French at Ravenna, but soon 
 regained.his liberty. Julius II. having died, Cardinal de' 
 Medici was elected pope, March II, 1513, and assumed 
 the name of Leo X. He announced his patronage of 
 literature by choosing two eminent authors, Bembo and 
 Sadolet, as his apostolical secretaries. The pontificate of 
 Leo is a memorable epoch in religion, politics, and the fine 
 arts. In 15 1 5 he negotiated and signed, with Francis I. of 
 France, an important concordat, which remained in force 
 nearly three centuries and gave to the king the right of 
 nominating bishops in his own dominions. One of the 
 most momentous acts of his administration was the im- 
 mense issue and sale of indulgences.which were authorized 
 in 1517, (ostensibly for the completion of the cathedral 
 of Saint Peter's,) and which impelled Luther to denounce 
 the corruptions and defy the power of the Church of 
 Rome. (See Luther.) He is censured by many Catho- 
 lics for his lenity towards Luther. By violence and craft 
 he annexed Urbino and Perugia to the Papal State. In 
 1521 he made a treaty with Charles V., and became the 
 ally of that prince in a war against Francis I. The 
 capture of Milan had just been achieved by the allies, 
 when Leo died in December, 1 521, not without suspicion 
 of poison. He was succeeded by Adrian VI. It is 
 generally admitted that Leo was rather worldly and 
 luxurious as the head of the Church. His fondness lor 
 buffoonery gave much offence to the stricter Catholics. 
 As a temporal ruler he is considered more meritorious. 
 Under his auspices Michael Angelo obtained celebrity 
 at Florence and the splendid works of Raphael were 
 completed in the Vatican. He restored its alienated 
 revenues to the Roman University, in which one hundred 
 professors received salaries, founded a Greek college at 
 Rome, and liberally patronized poets, scholars, and 
 artists. The part of the sixteenth centurv in which learn- 
 ing and art flourished most remarkably is generally 
 designated as the " age of Leo the Tenth. 
 
 SeeW. Roscor, " Life of Leo X.," 3d edition, 1840; A. FARRnN-r. 
 " Vita LeonisX.," 1797: A untN, " Histoire deLeonX," 1S44: Paulo 
 GlOVKX. "Vita Leonis X," i6jt ; Artaud de Montor, " Histoire 
 des souverains Pontifes," vol. iv. : Bayle, " Historical and Critical 
 Dictionary;" Guicciardini, " Istoria d'ltalia;" Ranke, "History 
 of the Poj>es;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1806; "Monthly 
 Review" for October and November, 1806. 
 
 Leo XL, (Cardinal Ai.essandro de' Medici — di 
 med'e-chee,) was advanced in years when he succeeded 
 Clement VIII. on the ist of April, 1605. He died on 
 the 27th of the same month, probably from the fatigue 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; gas_/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this. (gySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LEO 
 
 1406 
 
 LEONHARD 
 
 of the coronation. He had been legate to France under 
 Clement VIII., and had the reputation of a virtuous and 
 moderate prelate. Paul V. was his successor. 
 
 Leo XII., (Cardinal Annibai.e della Genga— del'lS 
 jen'gi,) was borh in the district of Spoleto in 1760. Having 
 acted for some years as nuncio in Germany and France, 
 he became a cardinal in 1816. In September, 1823, he 
 succeeded Pope Pius VII. He proclaimed a jubilee in 
 1825, and made reforms in the civil administration. His 
 biographers give him credit for political prudence. In 
 a circular letter of 1825 he denounced the Bible Socie- 
 ties. He died in February, 1829, and was succeeded by 
 Pius VIII. 
 
 See P. Rudoni, "Leone XII. e Pio VIII.," 1829: C. Schmid, 
 " Tr.iuerrede anf Leo XII," 1829: Aktaud DE Montor, " Histoire 
 du Pape Leon XII.," 2 vols., 1843; Cardinal Wiseman, "Recol- 
 lections of the Last Four Popes." 
 
 Leo, an astronomer, who lived at Constantinople. 
 He was invited to Bagdad by the caliph Al-Mamoon, 
 but the emperor refused to part wjth him. He was ap- 
 pointed Archbishop of Thessalonica, but was deprived 
 of that office, for his opposition to image-worship, in 
 849 A.D. 
 
 Leo [Gr. Aewv] of Byzantium, [Fr. Leon de By- 
 zance, li'6N' deh be'zSNss',] a philosopher, who lived 
 about 350 B.C., was a disciple of Plato. He was sent as 
 ambassador to Philip of Macedon. His writings have 
 not come down to us. 
 
 Leo of Modena, a celebrated Jewish rabbi, whose 
 proper name was Juda Arie or Arje, (aR'ya,) was born 
 at Venice about 1572, and lived mostly in that city. He 
 wrote verses in Hebrew and Italian, and published, be- 
 sides other works, a Hebrew dictionary, and an "Ac- 
 count of the Rites and Customs of the Jews," (1637.) 
 Died about 1650. 
 
 See Wolf, "Bibliotheca Hebraica." 
 
 Leo of Orvieto, [Lat Leo Urbeveta'nus,] an 
 Italian chronicler, who flourished about 1320. He wrote, 
 in barbarous Latin, a chronicle of the emperors, ending 
 in 1308, and a chronicle of the popes, ending in 13 14. 
 
 Leo, la'o, (Heinrich,) an eminent German historian, 
 born at Rudolstadt in 1799. He obtained about 1828 
 the chair of history at Halle, which he filled for twenty- 
 five years or more. In 1830 he published a " Manual of 
 Mediaeval History" and a "History of the Italian States," 
 (5 vols.,) which were received with favour. He is an 
 adversary of the Liberal or radical party in politics. 
 Among his other works is a " Guide to Universal His- 
 tory,"!" Leitfaden der Universal-Geschichte," 1838-40.) 
 
 See Eduard Meven, " H. Leo der verhallerte Pietist," etc., 1830. 
 
 Leo, la'o, (Juan,) surnamed Africa'nus, a Moorish 
 geographer, born at Granada, was a child when his pa- 
 rents, flying from the victorious Spaniards, took him to 
 Africa in 1491. He travelled extensively in Africa and 
 Asia, was taken captive by Christian corsairs, and pre- 
 sented to Pope Leo X. about 1 51 7. He abjured Islam- 
 ism, and wrote, in Arabic, a " Description of Africa," 
 (51526,) which was published by Ramusio in 1550 and 
 was for a long time the best work on that subject. 
 
 See Casiri, " Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana." 
 
 Leo, la'o, (Leonardo,) an eminent Italian composer, 
 born in Naples in 1694, was a pupil of Scarlatti. He 
 composed admired Italian operas, but acquired a more 
 durable reputation by his " Miserere," " Dixit Domimis," 
 and other pieces of sacred music, in which a grand effect 
 is produced by means comparatively simple. He was 
 the master of Piccini and of other excellent composers. 
 His death is variously dated 1742, 1745, or 1755. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 Leo Allatiua. See Allatius. 
 
 Le'o Di-ac'o-nus, a Byzantine historian, was born at 
 Caloe, in Ionia, about 950 A.D., and became a lesident 
 of Constantinople. He wrote a narrative of events from 
 959 to 975, which is called a valuable supplement to the 
 Byzantine history. 
 
 Leo the Grammarian, one of the Byzantine his- 
 torians. He wrote about 1013 (as a continuation of 
 Theophanes) a history of Leo V. and seven succeeding 
 emperors, entitled "Chronographia Res a recentioribus 
 Imperatoribus gestas complectens," from 813 to 929. 
 
 Leo the Great. See Leo I., Pope. 
 
 Leo Juda. See Juda, (Leo.) 
 
 Leo Pi-la'tus or Leon'tius (le-on'she-us) Pila'tus 
 [Fr. Leonce Pilate, la'6Nss' pe'lat',] a Greek scholar, 
 who taught Greek at Florence, and is said to have been 
 the first who translated Homer into Italian or Latin. He 
 was killed by lightning at sea about 1364. 
 
 See Hodius, "De Gra*cis illustribus ;" Petrarch, "Epistobe," 
 v. and vi. 
 
 Leo Urbevetanus. See Leo of Orvieto. 
 
 Le-o«h'a-re§, [A«jyapj?c,] an excellent Greek sculp- 
 tor, flourished at Athens in the fourth century before 
 Christ. His master-pieces were the " Rape of Gany- 
 mede," a statue of Apollo wearing a diadem, and one 
 of Jupiter Tonans, which was placed in the Capitol of 
 Rome. He executed, in gold and ivory, portrait-statues 
 of King Philip and Alexander the Great. Died after 
 338 B.C. 
 
 Le-od'a-mas, [Aeadu/iac,] an Athenian orator of high 
 reputation, was a disciple of Isocrates, and flourished 
 about 400-350 B.C. 
 
 Leon, the French for Leo, which see. 
 
 Leon, la-6n', (Diego,) a Spanish general, born in 
 1804. In the civil war which began in 1833 he fought 
 for the queen against Don Carlos. He was reputed the 
 best general of cavalry in Spain. In 1840 he became a 
 partisan of Christina in her contest with Espartero, and 
 was appointed by her captain-general of Madrid. He 
 conspired against Espartero, was made prisoner, and 
 executed in 1841. , 
 
 Leon, (Ponce de.) See Ponce de Leon. 
 
 Leon de Saint-Jean, la'oN' deh sa.N zhftN, or Leo 
 of Saint John, a French theologian, born at Rennes 
 in 1600. He wrote "Studium Sapientia; universalis." 
 Died in 1671. 
 
 Leonard, la'o'ntR', (Nicolas Germain,) a French 
 poet, born at Guadeloupe in 1744, came to France in 
 early youth. He wrote a poem on the seasons, and 
 several idyls, (1766.) Died at Nantes in 1793. 
 
 Leonard de Limousin, la'o'ntR' deh le'moo'zaN', 
 or Limosin, le'mo'zaN', a French painter and enamel- 
 Ier, born at Limoges about 1500. He was director of a 
 manufactory of enamels which Francis I. founded at 
 Limoges. His works are admirable in design and colour. 
 He copied the master-pieces of Raphael, Giulio Romano, 
 and other Italian painters. Died about 1580. 
 
 Leonardi, la-o-naR'dee, or Leonardoni, li-o-naR- 
 do'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Venice 
 in 1654, excelled in portraits. Died at Madrid in 171 1. 
 
 Leonardo, li-o-naR'do, (Augustin,) a Spanish 
 painter and friar, born at Valencia about 1580. He 
 painted history and portraits with success in Seville and 
 Madrid. Died about 1640. 
 
 Leonardo (or Lioiiardo, le-o-naR'do) da Pisa, 1k- 
 o-naR'do da pee'sa, called also Lionardo Pisano 
 (pe-sa'no) and Leonardo Bonacci (bo-nat'chee) or 
 Fibonacci, (fe-bo-nat'chee,) an Italian mathematician, 
 who flourished about 1200. He was probably the first 
 who introduced into Europe the Arabic numeration and 
 the knowledge of algebra, which he derived from the 
 Saracens. He wrote a work which remained in manu- 
 script and is described in Cossali's " History of Algebra." 
 
 See Guglihlmini, " Elogio di Lionardo Pisano," 1813. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci. See Vinci. 
 
 Leonarducci, la-o-nas-doot'chee, (Gaspare,) an Ital- 
 ian poet, born at Venice in 1685. His principal poem is 
 "Providence," ("La Providenza," 1739.) Died in 1752. 
 
 Leonatus. See Leonnatus. 
 
 Leonbruno, la-on-bRoo'no, (Lorenzo,) a painter of 
 the Mantuan school, born in 1489; died about 1537. 
 
 See Prandi, " Notizie spettanti la Vita di L. Leonbruno," 1825. 
 
 Leonce. See Leontius. 
 
 Leonce Pilate. See Leo Pilatus. 
 
 Leone. See Leo. 
 
 Leonelli, li-o-nel'Iee, (Zecchini,) an Italian mathe- 
 matician and architect, born at Cremona in 1776; died 
 in 1847. 
 
 Leonhard, von, fon la'on-haRt', (Karl Caesar,) an 
 eminent German geologist, born near Hanau in 1779. 
 He studied at Gbttingen, and in 1818 was appointed 
 professor of geol ogy at Heidelberg. A mong h is n umerous 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, u, J?, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
LEON HARD I 
 
 1407 
 
 LEOPARDI 
 
 works we may name his "Topographical Mineralogy," 
 (3 vols., 1805-09,) and "Geology, or Natural History of 
 the Earth," (8 vols., 1836-45,) which have been trans- 
 lated into English, French, and Dutch. 
 
 Leonhardi, la-on-hak'dee, (Johann Gottfried,) a' 
 German physician, bom at Leipsic in 1746. He became 
 physician to the Elector of Saxony. Died in 1823. 
 
 Leoni, la-o'nee, (Giacomo,) a Venetian architect, who 
 removed to England. Died about 1746. 
 
 Leoni, (Leone,) a skilful sculptor and engraver of 
 medals, born at Arezzo, in Tuscany. He was patronized 
 by Charles V., for whom he worked at Brussels and 
 Madrid. He made marble statues of Charles and his 
 empress, and a colossal bronze statue of the former at 
 Madrid. Died about 1592. His son Pompeio was also 
 skilful in the same arts, and was enriched by the favours 
 of Philip II. of Spain. Pompeio died at Milan in 1660. 
 
 See Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura." 
 
 Leoni, (Luigi,) an Italian painter, sculptor, and en- 
 graver, surnamed Padovano, was born at Padua in 
 1 53 1. He practised his three arts at Rome with nearly- 
 equal success. His paintings are landscapes and his- 
 torical pieces. Died in 1606. 
 
 Leoni, (Ottavio,) surnamed il Padovano or Pado- 
 vanino, the son and pupil of the preceding, was born in 
 Rome about 1576, and became one of the most famous 
 portrait-painters of his time. He was chosen principal 
 of the Academy of Fine Arts in Rome. Died about 1630. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Leoniceno, la-o-ne-cha'no, [Lat. Leonice'nus,](Nic- 
 COL6,) an eminent Italian physician, born at Lonigo, in 
 the Vicentine, in 1428. He was professor of medicine 
 or philosophy at Ferrara, and gained a high reputation 
 by his writings. He was the first who translated Galen's 
 work into Latin. Among his works is a treatise "On 
 Syphilis," (" De Morbo Gallico," 1497.) Died in 1524. 
 
 See Paolo Gtovio, " Elojjia Virorum illustrium ;" Tiraboschi, 
 "Storia della Letteratura Itaiiana." 
 
 Leonicenus. See Leoniceno. 
 
 Le-on-I-ce'nus Om-nl-bo'nus, [It. Ocnibu&no di 
 LONIGO, on-ye-boo-o'no de lo-nee'go,] an eminent Ital- 
 ian grammarian, born at Lonigo about 1420. He lived 
 in Venice, where it is supposed he taught rhetoric. He 
 published a Latin "Treatise on Grammar," (1473,) and 
 Commentaries on Lucan, Cicero, and other classics. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Latina mediae et iufimse JEtatis." 
 
 Leonico, li-on'e-ko, (Tommaso Niccoi.6,) an Italian 
 classical scholar, born at Venice in 1456. He translated 
 some works of Aristotle and other ancient Greeks. Died 
 in 1531. 
 
 Le-on'I-das, [ Keuviiar, ] a heroic king of Sparta, 
 renowned for his invincible courage, patriotic devotion, 
 and noble and tragical end, was the son of Anaxandrides. 
 He succeeded his brother, Cleomenes I., in 492 B.C. When 
 Xerxes invaded Greece with his countless myriads, in 
 480, the Greek Congress resolved to defend the pass of 
 Thermopylae, and Leonidas commanded the small band 
 to which that task was confided. With about 4000 men, 
 he resisted the Persian army for several days, until a 
 treacherous Greek guided 10,000 of the enemy through 
 a secret path over the mountain. Leonidas, perceiving 
 that his position was turned, dismissed all his men ex- 
 cept 300 Spartans and about 1000 other Greeks. The 
 Spartans maintained their post until they were all slain. 
 The Persians are said to have lost there 20,000 men. The 
 monument raised on the grave of the Spartans bore this 
 Inscription : "Go, traveller, and tell at I.icedsemon that 
 we fell here in obedience to her laws." He left a son, 
 Pleistarchus, who became king. 
 
 See Herodotus books v. and »ii. ; Grote, " History of Greece:" 
 Justin, book ii. ; P. Eckerman, " Dissertatio de Virtute Leonidx," 
 1762. 
 
 Leonidas XI., King of Sparta, the»son of Cleonymus, 
 ascended the throne in 256 B.C. He factiously opposed 
 the reforms of Agis IV., his colleague, who wished to 
 restore the regulations of I.ycurgus. After having been 
 deposed for a short time, he regained his power in 240, 
 and procured the death of Agis. In 236 B.C. he died, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Cleomenes HI. 
 
 Leonidas of Tarentum, a Greek poet, born at 
 Tarentum, flourished about 275 B.C. He wrote about 
 
 one hundred epigrams, which are preserved in the Greek 
 Anthology and are much admired. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotbeca Grjeca." 
 
 Leonio, la-o'ne-o, (Vincenzo,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Spoleto in 1650. He was one of the founders of the 
 Academy of Arcades, and contributed by his precepts 
 and example to reform Italian poetry. Died in 1720. 
 
 Leonnat. See Leonnatus. 
 
 Le-on-na'tus or Le-o-na'tus, [Gr. Arovwiroc ; Fr. 
 Leonnat, la'o'ni',] a Macedonian general of Pella, ac- 
 companied Alexander the Great in his invasion of Persia 
 in 334 B.C. He was one of the officers employed al>out 
 that king's person and on occasions requiring entire 
 confidence. In the attack on Malli the life of Alexander 
 was saved by the personal bravery of Leonnatus and 
 Peucestas. At the death of his chief he obtained the 
 satrapy of Phrygia Minor, and was soon urged by An- 
 tipater to aid him against the revolted Greeks. For 
 this purpose he marched with an army into Thessaly, 
 where he was killed in battle in 322 B.C. 
 
 See Arrian, "Anabasis," books ii., iii., iv., vi., and vii. ; Dio- 
 DORCS Siculus, "History." 
 
 Le-on-tl'a-des, [Gr. Afot'Tvuifyc,] a leader of the oli- 
 garchical party which, aided by the Spartan army, ob- 
 tained the mastery at Thebes about 382 B.C. He was 
 killed in his own house by Pelopidas in 379 B.C. 
 
 Leontief or Leontiew, li-on'te-ef, (Alexis Leon- 
 tievitch,) a Russian savant, who obtained in 1779 the 
 title of aulic councillor, and held other high offices. He 
 was deeply versed in the Chinese literature, and trans- 
 lated into Russian several Chinese works on history, 
 geography, etc. Died in 1786. 
 
 Leontium, le-on'shg-um, [Gr. Acovnav,] an Athenian 
 courtesan, the disciple and mistress of Epicurus. She 
 acquired some distinction as a philosopher, and com- 
 posed in answer to Theoph;astus a work on philosophy, 
 the style of which is praised by Cicero as written "scito 
 quidem sermone et Attico."* Among her various lovers 
 was Metrodorus, the disciple and intimate friend of Epi- 
 curus. 
 
 Leontius, le-on'she-us, [Gr. Acovrtof; Fr. LtfoNCE, 
 la'oNss',] Emperor of tlie East, was born about 650 a.d. 
 He became a general, and gained several victories. In 
 695 a.d. he rebelled against Justinian II., and usurped 
 the throne. He was deposed by Apsimerus in 698, 
 and in 705 a.d. was put to death by Justinian, who had 
 recovered his power. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Leontius of Byzantium, called Schdi.as'ticus, an 
 ecclesiastical writer, lived about the end of the sixth 
 century. He wrote "De Sectis," and other works. 
 
 Leontius Pilatus. See Leo Pilatus. 
 
 Leopardi, la-o-paR'dee, (Ai.f.ssandro,) an excellent 
 Italian sculptor and architect, born at Venice. Among 
 his works are the mausoleum of Doge Andrea Vcndra- 
 mini, (Venice,) and the three bronze columns in the 
 Piazza di San Marco, on which the standards of the re- 
 public were suspended. The elegance and proportions 
 of these are equally admirable. Died in 1515. 
 
 See Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura ;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario." 
 
 Leopardi, (Giacomo,) Count, an eminent Italian 
 poet and philologist, born at Kecanati, in the Papal 
 States, in June, 1798. Between 1818 and 1820 he won a 
 place among the first lyric poets of Italy by eontoni "To 
 Italy," and "On the Monument which Florence was 
 about to erect to Dante." In 1S22 he removed to 
 Rome, where he produced an excellent criticism on the 
 publication of the "Chronicon" of Eusebius by Mai 
 and Zohrab, (1823.) His poems, published collectively 
 under the title of "Canti," (1831,) contain passages of 
 great eloquence and pathos. His prose essays, " ( Ipei ette 
 morali,"(i827,) are esteemed among the finest models of 
 Italian prose which the present century has produced. 
 Died in Naples in 1837. " We believe," says the "Quar- 
 terly Review" for April, 1850, "it may be said without 
 exaggeration that he was one of the most extraordinary 
 men whom this century has produced, both in his powers 
 and likewise in his performances, achieved as they were 
 under singular disadvantages. For not only did he die 
 
 • I.e. " In a skilful and elegant style." 
 
 « aa *; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as «; th as in this. (2l^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LEOPOLD 
 
 1408 
 
 LEOPOLD 
 
 »t thirty-eight, almost net mezzo del cammin di nostra 
 vita, but likewise ' Heaven's unimpeached decrees,' in 
 his case, nearly 
 
 1 Made that shortened span one long disease.' 
 With a life thus limited, . . . Count Giacomo Leopardi 
 amassed great stores of deep and varied learning, proved 
 himself to be possessed of profound literary judgment, 
 exquisite taste, and a powerful imagination, and earned 
 in his own country the character summed up in the words 
 of one of his editors, as sommo filologo, sommo poeta e 
 sommo filosofo." Leopardi sympathized with the efforts 
 to liberate Italy from foreign domination. 
 
 See Montanari, " Biografia del Conte Leopardi," 183S ; Sainte- 
 Beuve, " Portraits contemporains,"tome iii. : Nouvelie Biographie 
 Generale;" " Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 December, 1848. 
 
 Le'o-pold fit. Lf.opoldo, la-o-pol'do] I., often called 
 Leopold the Great, [Ger. Leopold der Grosse, 1S'- 
 o-polt d?R gRos'seh ; Lat. Leopol'dus Mag'nus,] Em- 
 peror of Germany, of the house of Austria, the second son 
 of Ferdinand III. and of Maria Anna of Spain, was born 
 in June, 1640. He became King of Hungary in 1655, 
 and King of Bohemia in 1657. After the death of his 
 father, and a competition with Louis XIV. of France, 
 Leopold was elected emperor on the 18th of July, 1658. 
 The Turks, having invaded Hungary with a large army, 
 were defeated at Saint Gothard in 1664, and Leopold 
 then made with them a truce of twenty years. In 1674 
 he commenced war against Louis XIV., which, after 
 indecisive campaigns on the Rhine, was ended by the 
 treaty of Nymwegen in 1678. The Hungarians, driven 
 by his despotic measures to revolt, chose Tekeli as their 
 leader in 1682, and were aided by a Turkish army, of 
 200,000 men, which besieged Vienna in July, 1683. So- 
 bieski, King of Poland, saved the capital by a decisive 
 victory over the Turks in September of that year. The 
 Austnans, commanded by Prince Eugene, finished the war 
 by a victory at Zenta in 1697, in which year also a second 
 war against France was ended by the peace of Ryswick. 
 The claim of his family to the throne of Spain, vacated 
 by the death of Charles II. in 1700, involved Leopold 
 in another war with Louis XIV. He renewed his alli- 
 ance with England and Holland in 1701. His army, 
 commanded by Prince Eugene, gained several victories 
 in Italy in 1701-02, and shared the triumph of the allies 
 at Blenheim in 1704. Before the termination of this 
 long war of the Spanish succession, he died, in May, 
 1 705, and was succeeded by his son, Joseph I. He had 
 had three wives, the first of whom was a Spanish prin- 
 cess, Margarita Theresa. His prosperity is ascribed to 
 the merit of his ministers and generals, rather than to 
 his own abilities. Among the important events of his 
 reign was the recognition of Ernest Augustus of Hanover, 
 in 1692, as an Elector of the empire. 
 
 See "Life of Leopold I.," London. 1706; Menckr, "Leben 
 Leopolds I.," 1707; Wagner, "Historia Leopoldi Magni," 1719-31 ; 
 Rinck, " Leben und Thaten Leopolds des Grossen," 1708 ; Reina, 
 "Vita ed Imperio di Leopoldo I.," 1710; "Nouvelie Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Leopold II. of Germany, the second son of the 
 empress Maria Theresa, was born May 5, 1747. At the 
 death of his father, Francis I., in 1 765, he inherited the 
 grand duchy of Tuscany, which he ruled twenty-five 
 years in a wise and liberal spirit. During this period 
 he made many reforms in the administration. He sup- 
 pressed the Inquisition, abolished the penalty of death, 
 and co-operated with Ricci, Bishop of Pistoia, in the 
 reformation of monastic discipline, which caused an 
 angry contest between him and the court of Rome. On 
 the death of his brother, Joseph II., February 20, 1790, 
 Leopold became heir of the Austrian monarchy, which 
 was then not in a prosperous condition. The Low Coun- 
 tries were in revolt, Hungary was discontented, Turkey 
 and Prussia were hostile, and France was estranged from 
 Austria by the Revolution. He quickly reduced the 
 Low Countries to obedience by an army, and pacified 
 his other subjects by a conciliatory policy. In 1791 he 
 concluded peace with Turkey at Sistova, and was elected 
 Emperor of Germany. The alarming progress of the 
 French Revolution induced him to form an alliance with 
 Prussia at Pilnitz, in 179I, for the restoration of Louis 
 XVI. Hostilities were about to begin, when he died 
 
 suddenly on the 1st of March, 1792, leaving the repu- 
 tation of an able and just ruler. His wife was Maria 
 Louisa, daughter of Charles III. of Spain. He was 
 succeeded by his son, Francis II., (of Germany,) who 
 in reference to Austria is styled Francis I. 
 
 See "Leben Leopolds II.," Prague, 1791 ; Foucault, "Histoire 
 de Leopold II," 1791; Alxinger, " Ueber Leopold II.," 1792; 
 Sartori, " Leopoldinische Annalen," 2 vols., 1792; J. B. SCHBI.S, 
 " Leopold II.," 1837. 
 
 Leopold I., King of Belgium, Duke of Saxony, and 
 Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, was born at Coburg in 
 1790. He was a son of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saal- 
 feld, was a brother of the Duchess of Kent, and uncle of 
 the British queen Victoria. In May, 1816, he married 
 the princess Charlotte, daughter of George IV. and heir- 
 apparent to the throne of Great Britain, who died in 
 childbirth before the end of that year. He refused the 
 crown of Greece, offered to him in 1830. On the 4th of 
 June, 1831, he was elected King of. the Belgians, who 
 were separated from Holland by the revolution of 1830. 
 Hostilities were renewed by the Dutch, and a French 
 army came to the aid of the Belgians. In 1832 Leopold 
 married Louise Marie Therese. a daughter of King Louis 
 Philippe. He was quite popular among his subjects, 
 towards whom his policy was marked by liberality and 
 a scrupulous regard for their constitutional rights. He 
 died in December, 1865, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Leopold II. 
 
 See L. Hymans, " Histoire du Regne de Leopold I." 1864 : Ras- 
 toul DE Mongeot, " Leopold I, Roi des Beiges, sa Vie tnilitaire et 
 IKjlmque," 1850; Theodore Juste, "Leopold, Roi des Beiges," 
 186S ; " Nouvelie Biographie Generale ;" " London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for April, 1S69; "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1866. 
 
 Leopold I., Duke of Austria, was born in 1157. He 
 served under Richard I. of England at the siege of Acre. 
 In 1 193, to gratify his avarice and to revenge an insult 
 he fancied he had received from Richard, he arrested 
 him at Vienna on his homeward journey and threw him 
 into prison. He received a large sum of money for the 
 transfer of the royal captive to the emperor Henry VI, 
 Died in 1194. 
 
 Leopold II., Duke of Austria, born in 1292, was the 
 third son of Albert I., Emperor of Germany, who was 
 killed in 1308, leaving his dominions in joint-tenancy to 
 his sons. Leopold ruled Suabia, Alsace, and Switzer- 
 land. His brothers, Frederick and Louis of Bavaria, 
 were competitors for the imperial throne. In 1315 Leo- 
 pold attacked the Swiss, (who favoured the cause of 
 Louis of Bavaria,) and was defeated at Morgarten. In 
 1325 a treaty was made between the two parties, and it 
 was agreed that Louis and Frederick should reign jointly. 
 Leopold died about 1326. 
 
 See Lichnowsky, " Geschichte Hauses Habsburg." 
 
 Leopold HI., Duke of Austria, the son of Albert II., 
 was born about 1350. He became ruler over Suabia, 
 Tyrol, etc. War having broken out between him and 
 the Swiss cantons, he was defeated and killed in 1386 at 
 the famous battle of Sempach, where Arnold of Win- 
 kelried decided the victory by throwing himself on the 
 Austrian spears and breaking the phalanx. 
 
 See Kt'RZ, "Oestreich unter Albrecht III." 
 
 Leopold L of Tuscany. See Leopold II., (Em- 
 peror.) 
 
 Leopold II., Grand Duke of Tuscany, was bom at 
 Florence in 1797, and was a son of Ferdinand III., whom 
 he succeeded in 1824. He conceded a constitution to 
 Tuscany in 1847. In consequence of the triumph of 
 the democratic party, he retired from Florence, but was 
 restored by the Austrian army in July, 1S49. He was 
 forced to abdicate by the revolutionary movements of 
 the spring of 1859, and Tuscany was annexed to Sardinia. 
 He published a fine edition of the works of Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, (4 vols., 1825.) Died in 1870. 
 
 Leopold ok Anhalt-Dessau. See Anhalt-Dessau. 
 
 Leopold of Lorraine. See Lorraine. 
 
 Leopold, la'o-pold', (Carl Gustaf,) an eminent 
 Swedish poet, born at Stockholm in 1756. In 1778 he 
 composed an "Ode on the Birth of the Prince- Royal 
 Gustavus Adolphus," and in 17S8 he became private 
 secretary of Gustavus III., who treated him with much 
 favour and confidence. He produced two successful 
 tragedies, "Odin" (1790) and "Virginia," and sang the 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, 6, it, J, short ; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
LEOPOLD 
 
 1409 
 
 LEPIDUS 
 
 martial exploits of the Swedes in several admired odes. 
 He was appointed secretaryof state in 1818. Died in 1829. 
 See Macncs At Pontin, " Minne af C. G. Leopold," 1830; 
 Ehkhnstroem, "Nolice biographique sur M. de Leopold," 1838; 
 Skjoeldebkasd, "Tal vid C. G. af Leopolds Graf," 1829; Long- 
 fellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Leopold Friedrich, la'o-polt' fReed'riK, Duke of 
 Anhalt- Dessau, was born in 1794. On the death of his 
 grandfather, in 1817, he succeeded to the government, 
 and in 1853 to that of Anhalt-Kothen. 
 
 Leopold Friedrich Franz, la'o-polt' fReed'riK 
 fRants, Duke of Dessau, born in 1740. In 1758 he 
 assumed the government, and distinguished himself by 
 his able administration and his patronage of learning 
 and the arts. He died in 181 7, and was succeeded by 
 his grandson, the subject of the preceding article. 
 Leopoldo. See Leopold I., Emperor of Germany. 
 Leosthene. See Leosthenes. 
 Le-os'the-neS, [Gr. Aeuoeevric ; Fr. Leosthene, li'- 
 os'tjn',] an Athenian general, who makes his first ap- 
 pearance in history about the time of the death of Alex- 
 ander the Great, 324 B.C. He was attached to the party 
 of Demosthenes, and seems to have had a high repu- 
 tation, as he was chosen commander of the combined 
 Greek army in the Lamian war, the object of which was 
 to liberate Greece from the Macedonian yoke. He de- 
 feated Antipater in Thessaly, and besieged him in Lamia. 
 At this siege Leosthenes was killed, in 323 B.C., after 
 which success deserted the Athenian arms. 
 
 See Grote, "History of Greece;" Thirlwall, "History of 
 Greece." 
 
 Leotaud, li'o'to', (Vincent,) an able French geome- 
 ter, born in the diocese of Embrun in 1 595. He was a 
 professor at the College of Dole. Among his works 
 are "Elements of Practical Geometry," (" Geometries 
 practical Elementa," 1631,) and " Cyclomathia," etc., 
 (1663.) Died in 1672. 
 
 Le-o-tjteh'I-dei, [Gr. Aturoriotjc; Fr. Leotychide, 
 li'o'te'ked',] a Spartan king, the son of Menares, suc- 
 ceeded Demaratus, who was deposed about 491 B.C. 
 Leonidas I. was his colleague in the government. He 
 obtained command of the Greek fleet, and shared with 
 Xanthippus the honour of the signal victory over the 
 Persians at Mycale in 479 B.C. Having been accused of 
 receiving a bribe from some Thessalians, he was banished 
 in 469, and died in exile at Tegea. 
 
 See Herodotus, " History," books vi., viii., and ix. 
 Leowitz, la'o-<vits', [Lat. Leovi'tius,] (Cyprian,) 
 a Bohemian astronomer, born near Hradisch in 1524; 
 died in 1574. 
 
 Le Paige, leh-pjzh', (Thomas,) a French religious 
 writer, born in Lorraine in 1597 ; died in 1658. 
 
 Lepaute, leh-p5t', (Jean Andre,) a French clock- 
 maker, born at Montmedy in 1709. He lived in Paris, 
 and was celebrated for the perfection of his works. He 
 made time-pieces for many public edifices of Paris, and 
 for the most of the observatories of Europe. He pub- 
 lished a " Treatise on Clockwork," ( Horlogerie. ) Died 
 in 1789. 
 
 His wife, nit Nicole Reine Etable de Labriere— 
 i'tib'l' deh lit'bKe'aiR', born in Paris in 1723, acquired 
 distinction as an astronomer. She was a friend of Clai- 
 raut and Lalande, whom she assisted in the calcula- 
 tions on the return of Halley's comet, (1757.) She was 
 the author of "Observations" inserted in the "Connais- 
 sances ties Temps," of "Tables of the Sun, Moon, and 
 Planets," and of several memoirs on astronomy. Died 
 in 17S8. 
 
 Lepuutre or Lepdtre, leh -pot r', ( Antoine,) a French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1614. He was first architect 
 of Louis XIV. In 1652 he published an esteemed work 
 entitled "The Architecture of A. Lepautre." He had 
 an excellent talent for decoration, and abounded in new 
 inventions. The church of Port-Royal, in a suburb of 
 Paris, was designed by him. Died in 1691. 
 See Moreri, "Diclionnaire Historique." 
 Lepautre, (Jean,) a brother of the preceding, born 
 in Paris in 1617, was a skilful designer and engraver. 
 He designed and etched many subjects which are ad- 
 mirable models for architects and other artists. Died 
 in 1682. • 
 
 Lepautre, (Pierre,) a French sculptor, born in Paris 
 in 1660, was a son of Antoine, noticed above. He studied 
 and worked in Rome for fifteen years, and then returned 
 to Paris, where he obtained success, though his works 
 are defective in taste. His chief production is the group 
 of /Eneas and Anchises, at the Tuileries. Died in 1744. 
 
 Lepaux. See LarEvkii.i.ere. 
 
 Le Pays, de, deh leh p&'e', ( Rene, ) Sieur Plessis- 
 Villeneuve, a gay and witty French versifier, born at 
 Nantes or Fougeres in 1636. He was for many years 
 director-general of the salt-tax (gabelle) in Dauphine and 
 Provence. He was noted for his bans mots. His " Friend- 
 ships, Loves, and Little Loves" ("Amities, Amours et 
 Amourettes," 1664) had a great success. He published 
 many letters, sonnets, etc. Died in 1690. 
 
 See Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Morehi, 
 " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Lepee, (Aung.) See Ep£e, de l'. 
 
 Lepekhin or Lepeohin, ]?p-eh-Keen' or lip-eh-Kin', 
 (Ivan Ivanowitch,) a Russian naturalist, born about 
 1740. He was charged by Catherine II. to explore 
 Russia, and published the results in a "Journal of 
 Travels through the Various Provinces of the Russian 
 Empire," (3 vols., 1771-80.) Died in 1802. 
 
 Lepelletier, leh-pel'te^k', (Claude,) a French theolo- 
 gian, born in Franche-Comte about 1670, ljecame canon 
 of Rheims. He wrote polemical treatises against the 
 Jansenists, and many religious works. Died in 1743. 
 
 Lepelletier or Le Pelletier, (Jean,) a French an- 
 tiquary and merchant, born at Rouen in 1633. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " Treatise on Noah's Ark," (1704.) 
 Died in 171 1. 
 
 Lepelletier (or Le Peletier, leh peh-leh-te-a') de 
 Saint-Fargeau, leh-pel'te-a' deh sa.N'laVzho', (Louis 
 Michel,) a French revolutionist, born in Paris in 1760, 
 was president & mortier of the Parliament of Paris, and 
 was the owner of an immense fortune. He became a 
 partisan of the new regime, and in 1792 was an influen- 
 tial member of the Convention. It appears that he had 
 given the royalists reason to expect he would favour 
 lenity in the king's trial, but was impelled by the ter- 
 rorism of the Jacobins to vote for death. For this act 
 he was assassinated by Paris, a royalist, in January, 1793. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution;" Felix Le- 
 pelletier, "Vie de M. Lepelletier," 1793. 
 
 Le Pere, leh paiR, (Jean Bafiistf.,) a French archi- 
 tect, born in Paris in 1761. He accompanied the expe- 
 dition to Egypt in 1798, and was directed by Bonaparte 
 to draw up a plan for the restoration of the canal across 
 the Isthmus of Suez. Died in 1844. 
 
 Lepicie, la'pe'se-A, (Bernard,) a skilful French en- 
 graver and painterrwas born in Paris in 1698. He went 
 to England, and engraved Raphael's Cartoons at Hamp- 
 ton Court. He afterwards worked in Paris, and became 
 secretary of the Academy in 1740. His manner is broad 
 and mellow, and his design correct. Died in 1755. 
 
 Lepicie, (Nicolas Bernard,) a French historical 
 painter, son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 
 1735. He was a pupil of C. Vanloo, became professor 
 in the Royal Academy, and received the title of painter 
 to the king. His works are marred by the faults which 
 prevailed in the French school at that time. Died 
 in 1784. 
 
 Lepl-da Do-mi'tt-a, (do-mish'e-a,) a Roman lady 
 of great personal beauty but infamous character. She 
 was the daughter of Drusus, and aunt of the emperor 
 Nero. 
 
 Lepl-dus, the name of a celebrated Roman family 
 of the patrician gens /Emilia. Marcus /Kmilius Lepi- 
 DUS was elected consul in 187 B.C., pontifex maximus 
 in 180, and censor in 179. He was six times chosen by 
 the censors frinctps Stnattis. Died about 152 B.C. The 
 triumvir of the same name was his lineal descendant. 
 
 Lepidus, (Marcus /EMii.trs,) a Roman orator, a 
 grandson of the preceding, was consul in 137 B.C. In 
 the next year he commanded in several battles in Spain, 
 and was defeated. Cicero represents him as the greatest 
 orator of his age. 
 
 Lepidus, (Marcus /Emii.ius,) the father of the tri- 
 umvir, was praetor in Sicily in 81 B.C. In 79 he was 
 chosen consul by the partisans of Marius, and attempted 
 
 « as k; 5 as /; g Hard; g as/'; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; s as z; th as in this. (jry~See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
 89 
 
LEPIDUS 
 
 1410 
 
 LERMA 
 
 to nullify or repeal the measures of Sulla, who had just 
 died. A violent contest ensued between the factions. In 
 77 Lepidus was declared by the senate a public enemy, 
 and was defeated in battle by Pompey near Rome. He 
 died about 76 11.C. 
 
 Lepidus, (Marcus ^Emilius,) the Triumvir, was 
 praetor when the civil war broke out between Pompey 
 and Caesar, in 49 B.C. He joined the party of Caesar, 
 who, at his departure for Spain, left Lepidus in charge 
 of the capital. In 48 he obtained the province of Nearer 
 Spain, with the title of proconsul, and in 46 became the 
 colleague of Caesar in the consulship. He was master 
 of the horse when Caesar was killed, in 44 B.C. When 
 the senate and Antony came to an open rupture, Lepidus 
 joined the latter with an army, and in October, 43, he 
 united with Antony and Octavian to form the famous 
 triumvirate. He put his own brother on the list of the 
 proscribed who were sacrificed by this coalition. In 
 the division of provinces, Spain and Narbonese Gaul 
 were allotted to Lepidus, who remained in Italy, while 
 the other two led their army against Brutus. After their 
 victory at Philippi, Octavius and Antony ceased to treat 
 him as their equal, and deprived him of his provinces 
 in 42, but gave him a command in Africa. When the 
 triumvirate was renewed, however, (37 B.C.,) he was 
 nominally included in it. In 36 he failed in an attempt 
 to recover power, and, being deserted by his troops, sur- 
 rendered to Octavius, who spared his life but banished 
 him from Rome. He died in 13 B.C. 
 
 See Dion 'Cassius. "History of Rome;" Appian, " Bellum 
 Civile ;" Merivale, "The Romans under the Emperors." 
 
 Lepidus, (Marcus ^Fmii.ius,) a son of the preceding, 
 formed a conspiracy, in 30 B.C., to kill Augustus on his 
 return to Rome after the battle of Actium. Maecenas 
 detected the plot, and, sent Lepidus to Augustus, who 
 put him to death. 
 
 Lepidus, (Paui.us ./Emilius,) a brother of the tri- 
 umvir, became aedile about 55 B.C., praetor in 53, and 
 consul in 50. After the death of Caesar, 44 B.C., he acted 
 with the aristocratic party in opposition to the triumvirs. 
 Died about 40 B.C. 
 
 Leplat, leh-plS', (Josse,) a Belgian jurist and canonist, 
 born at Malines in 1732 ; died in 1810. 
 
 Lepois. See Pois, Lb, 
 
 Le Poittevin, leh pwat'vaN', a successful French 
 painter of landscapes, genre, and marine pieces, was 
 born in Paris in 1806. His proper name is Edmonde 
 Modeste Eugene Poidevin. He gained a medal of 
 the first class in 1836. 
 
 Le Prevost d'Iray, leh pRa'v5' de'ri', (Chretien 
 Simeon,) a French poet and antiquary, born in Nor- 
 mandy in 1768. Among his works is a "History of 
 Egypt under the Romans," (1816.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Leprince or Le Prince, leh pR&Nss, (Jean,) a French 
 painter, born at Metz in 1733. He worked several years 
 in Saint Petersburg, where he adorned the imperial 
 palace. He returned to France many years before his 
 death, which occurred in 1781. 
 
 Le Prince de Beaumont, leh praNss deh bo'miN', 
 (Marie,) a sister of the preceding, was born at Rouen 
 in 171 1. She was divorced from M. Beaumont in 1745, 
 and removed to London, where she was employed as 
 governess or teacher for many years. She published 
 many useful and successful juvenile books, moral tales, 
 etc. Her "Magazine for Children" (" Magasin des En- 
 fants," 1757) was often reprinted and translated. She 
 was author of a popular " Magazine for Young Ladies," 
 'The Modern Mentor," (1772,) "Complete Education," 
 etc. About 1764 she went to reside at Annecy, in Savoy. 
 Died in 1780. 
 
 Lepsius, l?p'se-us, (Karl Peter,) a German anti- 
 quary, bom at Naumburg, on the Saale, in 1775, was the 
 father of Karl Richard, noticed below. He studied law, 
 and obtained several civil offices under the Saxon and 
 Prussian governments. He published a "Treatise on 
 the Mediaeval Architectural Monuments of Saxony and 
 Thuringia," and a few other works. Died in 1853. 
 
 Lepsius, (KARL Richard,) a German philologist and 
 antiquary, highly distinguished for his Egyptian re- 
 searches, was a son of the preceding. He was born 
 at Naumburg, in Prussian Saxony, December 20, 1813, 
 
 and received his first instruction from his father. He 
 pursued his studies in the Universities of Leipsic and 
 Gottingen, giving special attention to languages and phi- 
 lology. In 1834 he published " Palaeography as an Aid 
 to Philology," which obtained a prize from the French 
 Institute, and was followed by an " Essay on the Affinity 
 of the Semitic, Indian, Ancient Persian, Egyptian, and 
 Ethiopian Languages," (1835.) In 1836 he visited Rome, 
 where he formed an intimate friendship with Btinsen, 
 and wrote a " Letter to Rosellini on the Hieroglyphic 
 Alphabet," (1837,) which attracted great attention. He 
 visited England in 1838, and afterwards became a resi- 
 dent of Berlin. He produced a treatise on the " Etrurian 
 and Oscan Dialects," (1841,) and "Obituary of the Egyp- 
 tians," ("Das Todtenbuch der Aegypter," 1842.) Lep- 
 sius having projected a great historical and antiquarian 
 work on Egypt, the King of Prussia was induced by 
 Btinsen and Humboldt to send to Egypt an expedition 
 under his direction. Assisted by artists of various 
 sorts, he investigated the antiquities of that country from 
 1842 until 1846. On his return he was chosen a pro- 
 fessor in the University of Berlin, and in 1849 produced 
 the first volume of his "Chronology of the Egyptians." 
 He published the interesting and important results of 
 his late expedition in a splendid work entitled "The 
 Monuments of Egypt and Ethiopia," (" Denkmaler aus 
 Aegypten und Aethiopien," 1849-59.) Among his prin- 
 cipal works are " Letters on Egypt, Ethiopia, and the 
 Peninsula of Sinai," (1852,) and " Universal Linguistical 
 Alphabet," ("Das allgemeine linguistische Alphabet," 
 
 I8S5-) 
 
 Leptine. See Leptines. 
 
 Lep'tl-nes, [Gr. Aejrn'v^c; Fr. Leptine, lep'ten',] a 
 Syracusan commander, was a brother of Dionysius the 
 Elder. He contributed greatly to the defeat of the 
 Carthaginians at Syracuse about 396 B.C. He was killed 
 at the battle of Cronium, in 383 B.C. 
 
 Lequien, leh-ke-aN', (Michel,) a learned French 
 monk, born at Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1661. Among his 
 works are a " Defence of the Hebrew Text, and of the 
 Vulgate," (1690,) and "Oriens Christianus," (3 vols., 
 1740,) an account of the churches, patriarchs, etc. of 
 the East, which is commended. Died in 1733. 
 
 Lequien de la Neuville, leh-ke-aN' deh M nuh'vel', 
 (Jacques,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1647. He 
 accompanied the French ambassador to Lisbon in 1713, 
 and there composed his principal work, a "History of 
 Portugal," (2 vols., 1700-20.) Died in 1728. 
 
 Leray, leh-r^', (Theodore Constant,) a French 
 admiral, born £t Brest in 1795 ; died in 1849. 
 
 Lerche, l&it'Keh, (Johann Jakob,) a German natu- 
 ralist, born at Potsdam in 1703; died at Saint Peters- 
 burg in 1780. 
 
 Lerchenfeld, leVKen-fSlt', (Maximilian,) Baron 
 of, a German statesman of liberal opinions, born at 
 Munich in 1779 ; died in 1843. 
 
 Lerebours, leh-reh'book', (Noel Jean,) a French 
 optician, born in Normandy in 1762. He made tele- 
 scopes of superior quality, and other optical instruments. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Leri, de, deh leh-re', (Jean,) a French Protestant 
 minister, born in 1534. He laboured in Brazil about two 
 years, (1556-58,) and published "An Account of his 
 Voyage to Brazil," (1577.) Died in 161 1. 
 
 Lerma, de, da leVma, (Francisco de Roxas (or 
 Rojas) de Sandoval,) Duke, a Spanish statesman of 
 moderate ability. He was equerry to Don Philip, who 
 in 1598 became king as Philip III. and appointed the 
 subject of this article prime minister. He was then 
 created Duke of Lerma, having previously been called 
 Marquis of Denia. He equipped a large fleet which 
 was ordered to cruise on the English coast, but was 
 destroyed by a storm, after which he made a peace on 
 terms favourable to England. For twenty years he 
 retained the favour of the king, and had entire control 
 of the government. His policy was mild, pacific, and 
 prudent in some respects, but was not successful in 
 relation to finances. He was supplanted in 1618 by his 
 son, the Duke of Uzeda. Died in 1625. 
 
 See Watson, " History of Philip II.;" Motley, " United Nether- 
 lands," vol. iv. chap, xlviii. 
 
 i, e, ?, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, J", short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mJt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
LERM1NIER 
 
 14 1 1 
 
 LE SAGE 
 
 Lerminier, leVme'ne^i', (Jean Louis Eugene,) a 
 French publicist and lawyer, born in Paris in 1803. He 
 obtained in 1831 a chair of legislation in the College of 
 France, where his eloquent lectures were much admired 
 by the ardent youth. Among his works are "The Phi- 
 losophy of Law," (2 vols., 1831,) and a "History of the 
 Legislators and Constitutions of Ancient Greece," (2 
 vols., 1S52.) He wrote the article "Guizot" in the " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." He was remarkable for 
 animation of style, vigour of images, and nobleness of 
 expression. Died in 1857. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lerminier, (Theodoric Nelamond.) a French phy- 
 sician, born at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme in 1770. In 
 1808 he was appointed physician par quartier for the 
 service of the imperial household. He attended Na- 
 poleon in the campaigns of Spain, Russia, (1812,) and 
 Saxony, and gave proof of great professional talent 
 and courage. Died in Paris in 1836. 
 
 L'Ermite. See Ermite, L\ 
 
 Lermontof,Iiermontov, or Lermontow, leVmon- 
 tof, (Mikhail Ivanovitch,) a popular Russian poet, 
 born in l8u, became an officer in the guards. In 1837, 
 by a poem " On the Death of Pushkin," he offended the 
 emperor, who ordered him to join the army of the Cau- 
 casus. While serving there in the army, he wrote "The 
 Circassian Boy," and other popular poems, and a suc- 
 cessful novel, called "A Hero of our Own Time," (1S40.) 
 He was killed in a duel in 1841. Like Byron, he ex- 
 presses his own character and feelings in his writings, 
 and is the principal person in the tales or pictures which 
 his imagination produces. 
 
 See Saint-ReniS Taiixandier, "Le Poete du Caucase," in the 
 "Revue des Deux Mondes" for February 1, 1855; "Nouvelle liio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Lernsean Hydra. See Hydra. 
 
 Lernout, leVnoo', (Jean,) [Lat. Ja'nus Lernu'tius,] 
 a Latin poet, born at Bruges in 1545. He was made 
 prisoner by the English in 1587, and detained five years. 
 His "Carmina," odes, epigrams, etc., published in 1579, 
 are said to have considerable merit. Died in 1619. 
 
 LernutiuB. See Lernout. 
 
 Leroi See Leroy. 
 
 Leroux, leh-roo', (Jean Jacques,) a French physician, 
 born at Sevres in 1749. Having been elected to a high 
 municipal office in Paris in 1790, he exposed his life in 
 his efforts to defend the royal family, for which he was 
 proscribed. Died in 1832. 
 
 Leroux, (Pierre,) a French socialist, born in Paris in 
 1798. He founded, in partnership with Madame George 
 Sand, the "Revue Independante." His principal work 
 is "On Humanity: its Principle and its Prospects,"* 
 (" De 1'Humanite : de son Principe et de son Avenir," 
 2 vols., 1840.) 
 
 Leroy, leh-Rwa', (Charles,) a French physician, born 
 in Paris in 1726, was a son of Julien, noticed below. He 
 published two valuable works, viz. : "Memoirs and Ob- 
 servations on Medicine," and " Melanges of Philosophy, 
 Chemistry," etc., (1771.) Died in 1779. 
 
 Leroy, (Jean BAPTISTS,) a natural philosopher, born 
 t\ Paris, was a son of Julien, noticed below. He became 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1751, and wrote 
 several memoirs on electricity. Died in 1800. 
 
 Leroy, (Jean BaptisteO.nEsime,) a French dramatic 
 writer, born at Valenciennes in 1788. He produced suc- 
 cessful comedies. 
 
 Leroy or Le Roy, (Julien,) a French watchmaker, 
 born at. Tours in 1686. He settled in Paris, and ac- 
 quired a European reputation by the excellence of his 
 workmanship. He obviated the changes of temperature 
 by a mechanism of compensation, invented horizontal 
 clocks, and made many improvements in the art. In 
 '739 he received the title of horloger to the king. Died 
 in 1759. His sons Charles, Jean Baptists, Julien 
 David, and Pierre are noticed in this work. 
 
 Leroy or Leroi, (Jui.ien David,) a French architect, 
 of the preceding, was born in Paris about 1726. 
 
 greatly to reform the vitiated taste that prevailed in 
 
 France before its appearance. The lectures which he 
 gave for forty years as professor of architecture finished 
 the revolution which that book commenced. He wrote, 
 also, " Observations on the Edifices of Ancient Nations," 
 (1767,) and other works. Died in 1803. 
 
 Sec Gabht, "Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Leroy orLe Roy,[Lat. Re'gius,1(Louis,) an excellent 
 French classical scholar, born at Coutances. He trav- 
 elled much in his youth, and on his return home gained 
 distinction by translations of Demosthenes' " Philippics" 
 and of some works of Plato. He was an old man when 
 he obtained the chair of Greek in the College Royal in 
 1572. Among his works are a "Life of Budaeus," in 
 elegant Latin, (1540,) "The Origin and Excellence of 
 the Art of Government," (T Art politique,) (1567,) and 
 "The Vicissitude and Variety of Things," (1576.) He 
 is reputed one of the first French writers who attained 
 harmony in prose. Died in 1577. 
 
 See NtciBON, "Me'moires;" Teissier, " filoges." 
 
 Leroy, (Pierre,) a French satirical writer, who lived 
 about 1590, was a canon of the cathedral of Rouen. He 
 was one of the principal authors of a very popular satire 
 and master-piece of pleasantry, entitled "Menippean 
 Satire on the Virtue of the Spanish Catholicon,"("Satyre 
 Menippee de la Vertu du Catholicon d'Espagne," 1593,) 
 " which," said Voltaire, " was as profitable to the cause 
 of Henry IV. as the battle of Ivry." 
 
 Leroy, (Pierre,) a skilful watchmaker, born in Paris 
 in 171 7, was the son of Julien, noticed above. He was 
 chiefly noted for the perfection he attained in marine 
 lime-pieces, and received a prize from the Academy for 
 the best method of measuring time at sea. He has the 
 •credit of discovering the isochronism of spiral springs. 
 He published several remarkable treatises on his art, 
 — one called "fitrennes chronometriques pour 1'Annee 
 1760." Died in 1785. 
 
 Leroy d'IStiolles, leh-Rwa' da'te'ol', (Jean Jacques 
 Joseph,) a French surgeon, born in Paris in 1798, is 
 distinguished as the inventor of instruments used in 
 lithotrity. This invention was also claimed by M. Ci- 
 viale ; but a committee of the Academy of Sciences 
 awarded a prize to Leroy d'Etiolles "for having first 
 made known |in 1822] the instruments which he had 
 invented." He invented other surgical instruments. 
 
 Leroy de la Corbinaye, leh-Rwa' deh It koR'be'ni', 
 (Charles,) a French' lexicographer, bom at Saint-Brieuc 
 in 1690. He published a valuable "Treatise on French 
 Orthography, in the Form of a Dictionary," (1739,) which 
 is praised for accuracy, method, etc. Died in 1739. 
 
 Leroy de Saint- Arnaud, leh-Rwa' deh saNt aVno', 
 (Arnaud Jacques,) a French general, born in Paris 
 about 1800. He distinguished himself in Algeria, and 
 obtained the rank of marechal-de-camp in 1847, and that 
 of general of division in 1851, as a reward for his suc- 
 cessful operations against the Kabyle tribes. Having 
 become minister of war in October, 1 851, he promoted 
 the coup dVtat of December 2, and was made a marshal 
 of France iri December, 1852. He obtained the chief 
 command in the Crimean war, which began in 1854, 
 and, although suffering severely from disease, displayed 
 his usual energy and skill at the battle of the Alma, 
 September 20, 1854. He was obliged by the state of his 
 health to resign the command, and he died on the ?9th 
 of September, 1854. 
 
 See Dupkrrei. Sainte-Marie, " M. le General Leroy de S.iint- 
 Ariiaud." 1S52; Charras, " Les trois Marechaux MM. de Stint* 
 Arnaud. Magnan et Castellane," 1851. 
 
 L^ry, la/re', or Le>i, (Jean,) a French Protestant and 
 traveller, bom at Margelle in 1534. He went as a mis- 
 sionary to Brazil in 1556, and returned in 1558. He 
 published, in French and in Latin, " A Narrative of a 
 Voyage to Brazil," with a good description of that re- 
 gion, (1578.) Died in 161 1. 
 
 Le Sage or Lesage, leh s5zh, (Alain Rene,) a cele- 
 brated French romancer and dramatist, born at Sarzeau, 
 near Valines, (Morbihan,) May 8, 166S. He was the son 
 of a lawyer, was educated at the College of Vanncs, and 
 is supposed to have been employed several years in the 
 collection of taxes. In 1692 he went to Paris to study 
 law and philosophy. There his handsome figure and his 
 intelligence and fine literary taste procured for him free 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (;y See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
LE SAGE 
 
 1412 
 
 LESDIGUIERES 
 
 access to the most polished and aristocratic society. In 
 1694 he married Mademoiselle Huyard, of Paris, and was 
 admitted as advocate of the Parliament, but soon relin- 
 quished all other pursuits that he might devote himself 
 to literature. He studied Spanish, and improved his 
 style by translating or imitating several Spanish come- 
 dies. His comedy " Don Caesar Ursin," imitated from 
 Calderon, was a failure; but his "Crispin Rival de son 
 Maitre" ("Crispin the Rival of his Master"). was per- 
 formed with brilliant success in 1 707. In the same year he 
 produced "Le Diable boiteux," [i.e. "The Lame Devil," 
 popularly called in English "The Devil on Two Sticks," 
 and sometimes " Asmodeus,") a romance, the idea and 
 name of which he derived from a work of Luis Velez de 
 Guevara. By its satire on all conditions, its nervous 
 style, and its truthful portraits, this book attained great 
 popularity. He increased his reputation by an original 
 prose play called "Turcaret," which exposed the iniqui- 
 ties of the traitants and other agents of the revenue. 
 These parties offered him one hundred thousand francs 
 to suppress the piece ; but he refused the bribe, and it 
 was performed with immense applause in 1709. It is 
 superior to any play which he imitated from the Spanish. 
 
 In 1715 Le Sage published two volumes of his most 
 celebrated work, "Gil Bias de Santillane," which is 
 perhaps a more universal favourite than any other novel, 
 and owes its success to its admirable and natural pictures 
 .of human life in all its conditions and all its phases. 
 It has been translated into all the languages of Europe. 
 Voltaire and others attempted, without success, to 
 convict him of borrowing or purloining the story from 
 some Spanish writer. Their charges have been refuted 
 by Francois de Neufchateau. He employed the period 
 between 1713 and 1738 chiefly in writing comic operas 
 and other pieces, which were exhibited at the fair of 
 Saint-Germain and were extremely popular. He pub- 
 lished " Roland l'Amoureux," (1717-21,) an imitation of 
 "Orlando Innamorato," and "The Adventures of Guz- 
 man d'Alfarache," (1732,) an amusing novel, superior 
 to the Spanish work of which it is a version or imitation. 
 In 1735 he produced a dialogue full of witty, wise, and 
 original thoughts, entitled " A Day of the Parcae," (" Une 
 Journee des Parques,") and finished the last volume of 
 "Gil Bias." After composing several other works and 
 enjoying a large share of domestic happiness, he died at 
 Boulogne in Novemljer, 1747. H% had the reputation 
 of a high-minded and honourable man. His eldest son, 
 who assumed the name of Montmenil, became a famous 
 play-actor. 
 
 See Auimffret, " Notice sur A. R. Lesage," 1822 ; Sir Walter 
 Scott, "Biographical Notice of Le Sage," (in his Miscellaneous 
 Works;) Mai.itourne, "E*logede Le Sage," 1S22 : Sainte-Beuve, 
 " Causeries du Lutidi," tome ii. ; Henri Patin, " Eloge de Lesage," 
 1822; Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature ;" Vii.i.emain, 
 " Literature Franchise du dix-huitieme Siecle," tome i. ; Saint- 
 Marc Girardin, " E*loge de Lesage," 1822; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale;" "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807. 
 
 Le Sage or Lesage, (Bernard Marie,) a French 
 revolutionist, was a member of the Convention in 1792, 
 and voted for the death of the king. As a Girondist he 
 was proscribed and outlawed in 1793, but escaped by 
 flight. Died in 1796. 
 
 Le Sage or Lesage, (George Louis,) a Swiss phi- 
 losopher, born at Geneva in 1724 He studied medicine, 
 but did not practise it. His favourite studies were natural 
 philosophy, mathematics, and mechanics. In 1750 he be- 
 came a teacher of mathematics at Geneva. He published 
 an "Essay on Mechanical Chemistry," (1758,) an inge- 
 nious treatise called "Newtonian Lucretius," ("Lucrece 
 Newtonien," 1782,) and "Fragments on Final Causes," 
 and left many works in manuscript. He was a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society of London, and corresponded with 
 D'Alembert and other eminent savants. Died in 1803. 
 
 See P. Preatjst, "Notice sur la Vie de G. L. Lesage," 1805: 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Le Sage (or Lesage) de Montmenil, leh sSzh deh 
 m6N'ma'nel', (Rene Andre,) a son of the author of " Gil 
 Bias," was born in Paris in 1695. He made his dllnit on 
 the stage in 1726, and performed various rS/es in comedy 
 with success. He soon became one of the most cele- 
 brated French actors of that time. His private character 
 is said to have been noble. Died in 1743. 
 
 LSs-bo'nax, [Affffiuraf,] a Greek sophist and rheto- 
 rician of Mitylene, who lived in the first century B.C., in 
 the time of Augustus. He was the father of Polemon, 
 the preceptor of Tiberius. His philosophic works have 
 not come down to us ; but we have two orations of some 
 merit, which are ascribed to him. Another Lesbonax, a 
 Greek grammarian, is supposed to have lived in a later 
 period. He was author of a small work on grammatical 
 figures, Hepl 1xW' iruv i which is extant. 
 
 See Suidas, "Lesbonax." 
 
 Lescaille, li'kaf or l&'kS'ye, (Catherine,) a Dutch 
 poetess, born at Amsterdam in 1649, was called "the 
 Sappho of Holland." She wrote tragedies, — "Genseric," 
 "Cassandra," "Herod and Mai iatnne," etc. Died in 1711. 
 
 See Mor^ri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Lescaille, (Jacques,) a Flemish or Dutch poet and 
 publisher, born in 1610, was the father of the preceding. 
 Died in 1677. 
 
 Lescale. See Scai.iger. 
 
 Lescallier, ]&'k8'le_-&' or li'kil'ya', (Daniel,) a 
 French officer of the marine, born at Lyons in 1743. He 
 wrote a " French-English Vocabulary of Marine Terms," 
 (1777,) and "Travels in England, Russia," etc., (1800.) 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 Lescarbot, la'ki R'bo', (Marc,) a French writer and 
 lawyer, born at Vervins. He contributed to form the 
 first French colony in Canada, and, having returned to 
 France, published in 1609 a " History of New France." 
 
 Lescene-Desmaisons.li'sin'di'mi^N', (Jacques,) 
 a French historical writer, born at Granville in 1750. 
 He published in 1 781 a " History of the Last Revolution 
 in Sweden," and in 1789 a "Political History of the 
 French Revolution." Died in 1808. 
 
 Leschassier, l&'shf se-a', (Jacques,) a French jurist, 
 born in Paris in 1550; died in 1625. 
 
 Leschenault de La Tour, hlsh'no' deh If tooR, 
 (Jean Baptiste Louis Claude Theodore,) a French 
 naturalist and traveller, born at Chalnns-sur-Sa&ne in 
 1773. He travelled in Hindostan about five years, (1S16- 
 21.) Among his works is a " Treatise on the Vegetation 
 of New Holland." Died in 1826. 
 
 Les'-ehes [Aeo,ctc] or LSs'cheus, [Aeo^ct?,] a Greek 
 poet, born in the island of Lesbos, lived about 700 or 
 600 B.C. He is the reputed author of a poem called 
 "The Little Iliad," ('l/diic juxpa.) 
 
 L'Escluse. See L'Fxi.use. 
 
 Lesconvel, de, deh li'koN'vel', (Pierre,) a French 
 writer of fiction, born about 1650; died in Paris in 1722. 
 
 Lescot, leVko', (Pierre,) an eminent French archi- 
 tect, born in Paris about 15 10. Little is known of his 
 life, except that he was abbe of Clagny. He designed 
 the Louvre, which was begun about 1541. The part of 
 this palace called the Facade de l'Horloge is considered 
 a master-p'ece. Another specimen of his good taste is the 
 Salle des Caryatides, in the same edifice. "He will ever 
 be regarded," says the "Biographie Universelle," "as 
 one of the greatest architects of France." Died in 1571. 
 
 See Quatremerb DE Quincy, " Vies des plus illustres Archi- 
 tectes;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Lescun, de, deh leVkuV, (Thomas de Foix,) Sei- 
 gneur, a French general, was a younger brother of 
 Lautrec. He was made a marshal of France in 1521. 
 After fighting the armies of Charles V. at several places 
 in Italv, he was mortally wounded at Pavia in 1525. 
 
 Les'cure, de, deh nykilK', (Louis Marie,) Marquis, 
 a French royalist and Vendean chief, was born in 1766, 
 and was a cousin of Larochejaquelein. He was the most 
 scientific officer in the Vendean army, and was noted for 
 his cool bravery. He distinguished himself at Fonttnay 
 and Torfou, and was mortally wounded at Tremblaye 
 in October, 1793. "His humanity," says Alison, "was 
 angelic. Alone of all the chiefs in that memorable 
 struggle, it could be said with truth that his glorv was 
 unstained by human blood." (" History of Europe.") 
 
 See Madame de la Rochejaquelein, "MtSmoires." 
 
 Lesdiguieres, de, deh 1 i'de'gf^ai r', (Francois de 
 Bonne,) Duke, a distinguished French marshal, born in 
 Dauphine in 1543. He fought for the Protestants in 
 the civil war which began about 1562, and obtained the 
 chief command of the Protestant army in 1575. He was 
 one of those who most effectually aided Henry IV. in 
 
 », e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, o, B, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; m£t; ndt; g(56d; moon; 
 
LESEUR 
 
 H>3 
 
 LESLIE 
 
 obtaining the throne. In 1608 he was rewarded with the 
 rank of marshal and a dukedom, and about 1610 com- 
 manded the army in Italy, where he defeated the Span- 
 iards. He was accused by some writers of conspiring 
 with other Protestant leaders to form a republic after 
 the death of Henry IV. ; but he refused to fight against 
 the court in the civil war that began about 1620. In 
 1622 he abjured Calvinism, and was appointed Con- 
 stable of France. Died in 1626. Henry IV. once said 
 he would acknowledge his own inferiority to no captain 
 in Europe except Lesdiguieres. 
 
 See Louis Videl, "Vie dit Mare"chal de Lesdiguieres," 1638; 
 Bran tom k, "Vies des grands Capitaines ;" DeThou, " Historia sui 
 Temporis;" J. C. Martin, "Histoire abr^g^e de la Vie de F. de 
 Bonne," 1802: " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Leseur, leh-zuR', (Thomas,) an able French geometer, 
 born at Rethel in 1703. He became a professor of ma- 
 thematics in the College of Sapienza, in Rome. There 
 he formed an intimacy with F. Jacquier, whom he as- 
 sisted in two works, viz., a " Commentary on Newton's 
 Principia" and "Elements of the Integral Calculus," 
 (1748.) Died in 1770. 
 
 Leske, les'keh, (Nathaniel Gottfried,) a German 
 naturalist, born at Muskau in 1757; died in 1786. 
 
 Lesley. See Leslie, (Alexander.) 
 
 Lesley, (John,) Bishop of Ross, a Scottish Catholic 
 prelate, chiefly noted for his zeal and fidelity in the 
 service of Mary Queen of Scots, was born in 1527. He 
 escorted Mary from France to Scotland in 1561, and was 
 soon after appointed Bishop of Ross. When Queen 
 Mary was detained as a prisoner in England, and com- 
 missioners were ordered to examine her cause in 1568, 
 Lesley was one of the commissioners whom she chose 
 to defend her. Having taken part in the matrimonial 
 intrigue between Mary and the Duke of Norfolk, he was 
 imprisoned in the Tower in 1571, and released in 1573. 
 He passed the remainder of his life in exile. He wrote a 
 Latin work "On the Origin, Customs, and Achievements 
 of the Scotch," (1578,) eloquent arguments in defence of 
 Queen Mary, and other works. Died in 1596. 
 
 See Robertson, "History of Scotland;" Laing, "History of 
 Scotland;" Burton. "History of Scotland," vol. iv. chap. xli. ; 
 KkornE, "History of England;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- 
 tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Leslie (les'le) or Lesley, (Alexander,) Earl of 
 Leven, an eminent Scottish general. He served some 
 years under Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who pro- 
 moted him to the rank of field-marshal. In 1628 he 
 defended Stralsund with success. Having returned 
 home in 1639, when the Covenanters were preparing to 
 resist Charles I., he was chosen general-in-chief of their 
 army ; but before any battle was fought a treaty of peace 
 was made. War was renewed in 1640. Leslie defeated 
 the king's army at Newburn, and another treaty followed. 
 He commanded the large Scottish army which, in Jan- 
 uary, 1644, marched to assist the English Parliament. 
 Having effected a junction with the army of Fairfax, he 
 led a division at Marston Moor, (1644,) where he was 
 driven off the field, though his allies gained the victory. 
 In May, 1646, Charles I. delivered himself up to the 
 army of Leslie, then encamped at Newark. On account 
 of his great age, he resigned his command in 1650. Died 
 in 1661. 
 
 See Hume. "History of England;" Chambers, "Biographical 
 Pictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Leslie, (Chari.ks,) a British polemical writer on 
 ,>oJitics and religion, was born in Ireland about 1650. 
 ili: took orders about 1680 in the Anglican Church, and 
 gained distinction as a disputant against the Catholics. 
 In the Revolution, however, (1688.) he was a staunch 
 Jacobite and nonjuror, at the sacrifice of his preferment 
 in the church. He wrote several controversial works 
 against the Jews, Deists, Socinians, and other sects. In 
 his " Snake in the Grass" he attacked the Society of 
 Friends. After the death of James II., Leslie joined the 
 court of the Pretender in France. He died in Ireland 
 in 1722. His most esteemed work is a "Short and 
 Easy Method with the Deists," (1694.) Dr. Johnson 
 pronounced him the only one of the nonjurors that 
 could reason. 
 
 See Burnet, "History of his Own Time;" Mokrki, "Diction- 
 naire Historique." 
 
 Leslie, (Charles Robert,) an eminent English his- 
 torical painter, born of American parents in London in 
 1794, was a brother of Eliza Leslie the authoress. After 
 passing twelve years in Philadelphia with his parents, 
 he removed in 1813 to London, where he was instructed 
 in the study of art by West and Allston. Among his 
 first successful works was " Sir Roger de Coverley going 
 to Church," (1820.) He was elected an Associate of the 
 Royal Academy in 1821, and Royal Academician in 1826. 
 His subjects are mostly of a homely and familiar char* 
 acter, illustrative of the works of Shakspeare, Moliere, 
 Cervantes, and other humorous writers. Among his 
 most admired productions are his illustrations of "Don 
 Quixote." He was also successful in portraits. In 1847 
 he was chosen professor of painting in the Royal Acad- 
 emy. He published a " Life of John Constable," (1843,) 
 and a "Hand-Book for Young Painters," (1855.) Died 
 in 1859. '.'The more I learn of art," says Ruskin, "the 
 more respect I feel for Mr. Leslie's painting as such. 
 Given a certain quantity of oil-colour to be laid with one 
 touch of the pencil so as to produce at once the subtlest 
 and largest expressional result possible, and there is no 
 man now living who seems to me to come at all near Mr. 
 Leslie, his work being in places equal to Hogarth for 
 decision." 
 
 See Ruskin, "Modern Painters;" C. R. Leslie, "Autobio- 
 graphic Recollections," edited by Tom Taylor. Boston, 1865; 
 "London Quarterly Review" for April, i860; "North American 
 Review" for January, 1861. 
 
 Leslie or Lesley, (David,) an able Scottish general. 
 After serving with distinction under Gustavus Adolphus 
 of Sweden, he returned to Scotland about 1642. He 
 had obtained the rank of major-general when he fought 
 against Charles I. at Marston Moor in 1644. The sucr 
 cess of this action was ascribed chiefly to Cromwell and 
 Leslie. In 1646 he defeated Montrose at Philiphaugh. 
 On the resignation of the Earl of Leven, (1650,) Leslie 
 was chosen commander-in-chief of the Scottish army 
 raised to restore Charles II. He intrenched his army 
 between Edinburgh and Leith, and prudently declined 
 Cromwell's offer of battle. Leslie followed the English 
 army to Dunbar, where they were reduced to extremi- 
 ties for want of provisions. Against his own judgment, 
 he was induced by the clergy to descend from his ad- 
 vantageous position and offer battle. The result was a 
 signal defeat of the Scotch, September 3, 1650. Leslie 
 was second or third in command at Worcester in 1651. 
 In the retreat from this battle he was made prisoner, and 
 was confined in the Tower until 1660. He received the 
 title of Lord Newark in 1661. Died in 1682. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England ;" Chambers, "Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Clarendon, " History of the 
 Rebellion." 
 
 Leslie, (Eliza.) an American writer, sister of Charles 
 Robert, noticed above, was born in Philadelphia in 1787. 
 She was the author of numerous tales and sketches, 
 which display uncommon powers of humour and satire 
 and acquired extensive popularity. Among the principal 
 of these are "Pencil Sketches, or Outlines of Character 
 and Manners," (1833,) " Atlantic Tales," "The American 
 Girl's Book," and "Althea Vernon," (1841.) She also 
 published "The Domestic Cookery Book," the " Beha- 
 viour Book," and other similar works. Died in 1857. 
 
 See " North American Review" for October, 1833. 
 
 Leslie, (JbHJ*,) born in Scotland about 1570, was the 
 father of Charles I^eslie, (1650-1722.) He spoke Latin 
 and several modern languages. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Raphoe in 1633, and built a strong castle, 
 which he defended against Cromwell in the civil war. 
 He. is said to have been the last in Ireland to submit 
 to the victor. In 1661 he became Bishop of Clogher, 
 Died in 1671. 
 
 SeeCHAMBRRs, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Leslie, (Sir John,) an eminent Scottish geometer and 
 natural philosopher, born at Largo, in Kifcshire, in 1766. 
 He was educated at Saint Andrew's and Edinburgh, and 
 became a resident of London in 1790. In 1793 he pro- 
 duced a translation of Buffon's " Natural History of 
 Birds," which was very favourably received. About 
 1795 he invented the Differential Thermometer. He 
 published in 1804 his ingeni.."- " Experimental Inquiry 
 
 « as k; 9 as /; g hard; gas/; G, H, K,gultural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas»; th asin//»'r. (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LESPINJSSE 
 
 1414 
 
 LESSING 
 
 into the Nature and Propagation of Heat," for which 
 the Royal Society awarded him the Rumford medal. In 
 1805 he was elected professor of mathematics in the 
 University of Edinburgh, although the clergy formally 
 protested against his election, because he had com- 
 mended Hume's "Theory of Causation." He succeeded 
 Playfair as professor of natural philosophy in Edinburgh 
 in 1819, and contributed much to the perfection of the 
 apparatus and experiments of that department. He 
 wrote many scientific articles for the " Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica" and "Edinburgh Review." Among his 
 separate publications were " Elements of Geometry," 
 etc., (1809,) and "Elements of Natural Philosophy," 
 (1S23.) Me wrote an interesting and -excellent "Dis- 
 course on the Progress of Mathematical and Physical 
 Sciences during the Eighteenth Century," which is one 
 of the preliminary dissertations in the first volume of 
 the new edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica." His 
 treatise on " Heat," above noticed, indicates a remarka- 
 ble original genius, and constitutes an era in the history 
 of that branch of science. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Macvby Napier, "Memoir of Sir John Leslie," 1838 ; 
 ''Encyclopedia Britannica;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary 
 of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1805, and 
 July, 1812. 
 
 Lespinasse. See Espinasse, de l'. 
 
 Lespi11as.se, les'pe'naV, ( Augustin, ) Count, a 
 French general, born at Preuilly in 1737. In 1796 he 
 fought under Bonaparte in Italy, and directed the artil- 
 lery at Mantua, Castiglione, and Areola with great skill, 
 and obtained the rank of general of division. Died in 1816. 
 
 Lessart, de, deh li'sitt', (Antoine de Vai.dec,) a 
 French minister of state, born in Guienne in 1742. He 
 was appointed minister of the interior about January I, 
 1791, and minister of foreign affairs in December of that 
 year. His policy offended the dominant party, which 
 impeached him in March, 1792. He was imprisoned, 
 and perished in the massacre of September, 1792. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Lesseps, de, deh l&'sej/, (Ferdinand,) a French 
 diplomatist, born at Versailles in 1805. He became 
 consul at Cairo about 1833, and in 1842 was appointed 
 consul at Barcelona. During the bombardment of this 
 city by Espartero, Lesseps performed perilous acts of 
 humanity, for which he received testimonials of honour 
 from several governments. He was minister at Madrid 
 from April, 1848, to February, 1849. In May, 1849, he 
 was sent to Rome to negotiate a peace between the 
 popular party and the French army. He was recalled 
 in disgrace in June of that year, because he was too 
 favourable to the Roman republic. He expended many 
 years in a great project to construct a ship-canal across 
 the Isthmus of Suez, for which purpose a joint-stock 
 company was formed under his direction. This canal, 
 about one hundred miles long, was completed and 
 opened in November, 1869, at a cost of nearly sixty 
 millions of dollars. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Lesseps, de, (Jean BAPTISTS Barthelemi,) a French 
 traveller and civil officer, born at Cette in 1766. As 
 interpreter he accompanied La Perouse's expedition in 
 1785, and on their arrival at Kamtchatka (1787) was 
 sent home by land with despatches, etc. He published 
 a Journal of his Travels from Kamtchatka to France, 
 (1790.) Died in 1834. 
 
 Lesser, les'ser, (Friedrich Christian,) a German 
 naturalist and theologian, born at Nordhausen in 1692. 
 He became pastor of a church in Nordhausen in 1739. 
 His most popular work is the "Theology of Insects," 
 (1738.) "The plan of this work is excellent," says 
 Walckenaer ; "but the art of describing with precision 
 and narrating with elegance is not found in it." He also 
 wrote the "Theology of Stones," (1735.) Died in 1754. 
 
 See J. P. F. Lesser, " Nachricht von dem Leben und den 
 Schriften F. C. Lessers," 175s; Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 
 Lesser, de, (Augustin Creuze.) See Crkize. 
 
 Lessing, les'sing, (Gotthold Ephraim,) an eminent 
 author, regarded as the father of the new era of German 
 literature, was born at Kamentz, in Upper Lusatia, in 
 1729. When twelve years old, he was sent to the high 
 school at Meissen, where he distinguished himself by 
 
 his application and his rapid acquisition of knowledge. 
 Being destined by his parents to the ministry, he entered, 
 at the age of seventeen, the university at Leipsic While 
 here, his taste for general literature and his fondness for 
 the theatre caused him to neglect, and ultimately to 
 abandon, the study of theology, that he might devote 
 himself wholly to his favourite pursuits. Not to mention 
 several dramas of minor importance, Lessing brought 
 out in 1755 "Miss Sarah Sampson," a tragedy, which 
 was received by the German public with extraordinary 
 favour, and was translated into other languages. In 
 1757 he commenced, in concert with Mendelssohn and 
 Nicolai, the publication of the " Bibliothek der schonen 
 Wissenschaften," (literally, the " Library of the Beautiful 
 Sciences,") — a literary journal of great merit. He pub- 
 lished in 1766 his " Laocoon, or the Limits of Poetry 
 and Painting." This work has exerted a great and per- 
 manent influence on the science of criticism in Germany, 
 both in literature and art. In 1768 appeared the " Dra- 
 maturgic, " — another critical work, in which Les.sing 
 opposes the French and defends the English drama. 
 He completed in 1772 his "Emilia Galotti," which has 
 been styled "the master-piece of German tragedy, as 
 the ' Laocoon' is the master-piece of German criticism ;" 
 and in 1775 he brought out his "Minna von Barn-helm," 
 regarded as the most perfect of his comedies. His 
 last important work was "Nathan the Wise," ("Nathan 
 der Weise,") — a sort of controversial drama in iambic 
 verse, directed against religious intolerance. Our limits 
 will scarcely permit us to do more than allude to his 
 various minor productions, nearly all of which, in a 
 greater or less degree, bear the decided impress of an 
 earnest, independent, and original mind. We may, 
 however, mention his " Letters on Literature," (" Lite- 
 raturbriefe,") his "Education of the Human Race," 
 ("Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts,") and especially 
 his " Fables," so rich in wit and original thought : many 
 of these have a literary application. 
 
 One of the great objects for which Lessing earnestly 
 laboured was to build up a national literature. The 
 Germans had previously, to a great extent, neglected 
 or despised the rich native resources of their own 
 tongue. Lessing sought by precept and example to re- 
 call his countrymen from the almost exclusive study of 
 the French, recommending in preference the English 
 dramatic models, as superior in themselves and better 
 adapted to the genius of the German people. 
 
 In 1760 Lessing was made a member of the Royal 
 Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and soon after accom- 
 panied General Tauenzien, Governor of Silesia, as his 
 secretary, to Breslau, where he resided five years. During 
 this period he became addicted to gambling; but this 
 vice does not appear to have materially interfered with 
 his application to literature. In 1770 he obtained the 
 office of head librarian of the Wolfenbuttel Library. 
 Soon after, he discovered and published the famous 
 " Wolfenbuttel Fragments," (on the discrepancies of the 
 gospel narratives,) by Reimarus, who, however, at that 
 time was not known as the author. This publication 
 brought upon Lessing much censure and reproach : he 
 was accused of a deliberate design to undermine Clnis- 
 tianity. If, however, we may believe his friend Herder, 
 he gave those "Fragments" to the public "purely for 
 the interests of truth, for the sake of freer inquiry and 
 of examination and confirmation on all sides." A candid 
 examination of Lessing's own writings will, we are per- 
 suaded, go far to justify, if not fully to confirm, Herder's 
 opinion. The extraordinary activity and incessant appli- 
 cation of Lessing's mind at length wore out his physical 
 constitution. He died at Brunswick 1781, aged fifty-two. 
 
 See E. P. Evans, "Life and Works of G. E. Lessing," from the Ger- 
 man of Adolf W. T. Stahr, 2 vols., 1S67 ; Danzei., ** G. E. Lessing. 
 sein Leben und seine Werke," 1S50 : C. G. Lessing, " G. E. Lessing's 
 Leben," etc., 3 vols., 1793; Doking, "G. E. Lessing's Biographic," 
 1853; D11.1.EK, " Erinm-i ungen an G. E. Lessing," 1841 ; ScHlNKa 
 " Characterislik G. E. Lessing's," 1825: Grossmann, " Lessing'! 
 Denkmal," 1791 ; A. Tni.n u-skn, "Kiopstock, Lessing, and Wie- 
 laitd," London, 1S4S; H. G. Graeve. "G. E. Lessing's L-'bensge- 
 schicbte," etc., 1829 ; F. Schi.egei., "Characteristics and Criticisms" 
 ('" Characteristiken und Kritiken") on L'-ssing." 1801 ; "Charac- 
 teristics of Men of Genius," by E. P. Whipple, 1840: " Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for November, 1826. (by De Quincev;) Hedge, 
 "Prose Writers of Germany," 1847; "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 I, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon 
 
LESSING 
 
 1415 
 
 LETELL1ER 
 
 Leasing, (Karl Frikdrich,) an eminent German 
 painter, and grand-nephew of the celebrated critic, was 
 born at Wartenberg in 1S0S. He studied architecture 
 for a time, but soon yielded to his stronger attraction 
 for painting. In 1S25 he finished his picture of "The 
 Church-Yard," which excited great admiration. He 
 soon after studied historical painting under Schadow at 
 Dusseldorf. In this department he produced in 1829 
 "The Battle of Iconium," and completed other illustra- 
 tions of the life of Frederick Barbarossa, left unfinished 
 by Cornelius. His next productions, representing scenes 
 from Burger's " Lenore" and Uhland's " Royal Mourn- 
 ers," display great originality and poetic fancy. Among 
 his master-pieces we may also name " Huss before the 
 Council of Constance," "The Robber and his Child," 
 and a " Scene in the Eifel," with several other exqui- 
 site landscapes. Leasing, while retaining many of the 
 peculiar excellencies of the ideal or romantic school, 
 has avoided the formality of style into which it has 
 sometimes degenerated. 
 
 See Nagler. " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 Leasing, (Karl Gdtthelf,) a German dramatist, 
 bom in 1 740, was a brother of the great author. He 
 published several comedies, and a " Life of Gotthold 
 Ephiaim Lessing." * 
 
 Lessius, les'se-us, (LEONARD,) a Flemish Jesuit, born 
 at Brechtan, in Brabant, in 1554. He lectured on the- 
 ology with eclat at I.ouvain from 1585 until 1623. He 
 wrote several popular works, among which are one 
 "On Justice and other Cardinal Virtues," (1621,) and 
 another " On the Power of the Pope." He was charged 
 with favouring semi-Pelagianism. Died in 1623. 
 
 Iiessmanri, les'man, (Daniel,) a German litterateur, 
 born at Soldin in 1794. He wrote lyric poems, and 
 a number of novels and tales. He died in 183 1, it is 
 supposed by suicide. 
 
 Lesson, I&'s6n', (RenB Primevere,) a French natu- 
 ralist, born at Rochefort in 1794. Among his numerous 
 works are a "Manual of Ornithology," (2. vols., 1828,) 
 and a "Supplement to the Works of Buffon," ("Com- 
 plement des CEuvres de Buffon," 10 vols., 1828^/^.) 
 Died in 1849. 
 
 See Am^dee Lefkvre, " filoge historique de R. P. Lesson," 
 1850. 
 
 Les'ter, (Charles Edwards,) an American littera- 
 teur, born in New London county, Connecticut, in 181 5. 
 He published the "Life and Voyages of Americus 
 Vespucius," " Artists of America," and various other 
 works, and made several translations from the Italian. 
 See the " North American Review" for April, 1846. 
 Lestiboudois, les'teTWdwa', (Jean Baptiste,) a 
 French botanist, born at Douay in 1715; died in 1804. 
 His grandson, Tiiemisiocles, born at Lille in 1797, is 
 a physician and writer on botany, etc. 
 
 Lestocq or Lestoq, les'tok', (Johann Herman,) 
 a surgeon, born of French parents in Hanover about 
 1695. He removed in 1713 to Saint Petersburg, and 
 became surgeon to Peter the Great. In 1725 he was 
 appointed surgeon to the princess Elizabeth. He was 
 the master-spirit of the plot or revolution which made 
 her empress in 1741. For some years afterwards he 
 was treated with much favour, and took an influential 
 part in affairs of state; but in 1750 he was disgraced 
 and exiled. He was recalled by Peter HI. in 1762. 
 Died in 1767. 
 Lestoile or Letoile. See Etoile, de i.'. 
 L'Estrange, lestranj', (Sir ROGER,) an English par- 
 tisan writer, born in Norfolk in 1616, was a zealous 
 royalist in the civil war. Having been detected in a plot 
 to surprise Lvnn, he was sentenced to death as a spy in 
 1644, but obtained a respite, and escaped in 1648. After 
 passing a few years in exile, he returned in 1653 and 
 obtained from Cromwell a release from the sentence. In 
 the reign of Charles II. he was censor of the press. He 
 translated the works of Josephus, Seneca's "Morals," 
 and /Esop's Fables, and wrote many popular political 
 tracts. His style is censured for vulgarity, and his works 
 abound in slang. After the restoration he edited several 
 political journals. "His .-Esop's Fables," says Hallam, 
 "will present everything that is hostile to good taste." 
 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 
 1704. 
 
 See "Biographia Brilannic.i." 
 
 Lesueur or Le Sueur, leh-su'uR', (Charles Alex- 
 andre,) a French naturalist and designer, born at Havre 
 in 1778. He explored with Peron the coasts of Aus- 
 tralia, and wrote many memoirs on mollusca, etc. Died 
 in 1846. 
 
 Lesueur, (Ciceron Than Baptiste,) a French archi- 
 tect, born near Raniboiiillet in 1794, became a member 
 of the Institute. He published a "Chronology of the 
 Kings of Egypt," (184S-50.) 
 
 Lesueur, '(Ei'stache,) an excellent painter of history, 
 sumamed "the French Raphael," was born in Paris in 
 1617. He was a pupil of Vouet. He excelled in com- 
 position, expression, and chiaroscuro. Among his works 
 are "Saint Paul Preaching at Ephesus," "The Annun- 
 ciation," "The Life of Saint Bruno," (in 22 pictures,) 
 and "The Death of Tabitha." The first is called a 
 master-piece of invention and style. He died prema- 
 turely in 1655. 
 
 See Chari.es Blanc, "Vies des Peintres Francais," and " fitude 
 sur E. Lesueur," 1S45: Louis Vitet, " E. Lesueur, sa Vieiet ses 
 (Euvus," 1833: L. Dussieux, "Nouvelles Recherches sur la Vie 
 d'E. Lesueur," 1852. 
 
 Lesueur, (Jean,) a French historian and Protestant 
 minister. He wrote a " History of the Church and Em- 
 pire from the Birth of Christ," (1672.) Died in 16S1. 
 
 Lesueur or Le Sueur, (Jean Francois,) a cele- 
 brated French composer, born near Abbeville about 
 1760. Having gained reputation by his motets and 
 masses, he was chosen chapel-master of Notre-Dame, 
 Paris, in 1786. His opera "La Caverne" (1792) was 
 very successful. In 1804 he became chapel-master of 
 Napoleon, and produced " The Bards," (" Les Bardes,") 
 an opera, which was greatly applauded. He was chosen 
 a member of the Institute in 181 5. He composed other 
 operas, an " Essay on Sacred Music," and a "Treatise 
 on Ancient Music," which are highly commended. Died 
 in 1837. 
 
 See Fetis " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Le Sueur, (Nicolas,) a French philologist, born in 
 Paris about 1540, became president of the Chamber of 
 Inquests in the Parliament of Paris. He made a good 
 translation of Pindar's Odes into Latin verse, (1575.) 
 Died in 1594. 
 
 Lesueur, (Nicolas,) a French engraver of cameos, 
 born in Paris in 1690 ; died in J764. His uncle Pierre, 
 born at Rouen in 1636, was one of the best engravers on 
 wood of his time. Died in 1716. 
 
 Leszczinski. See STANISLAS. 
 
 Letanduere, de, deh la'toN'dii'aiR', (Henri Fran- 
 cois Deshekihers,) Marquis, an able French naval 
 officer, born at Angers in 1682. He was made chef i/'es- 
 cadre \n 1745. In that year he captured four English 
 frigates near Brest. Died in 1750. 
 
 Letellier. See LOUVOIS, Courtanvaux, de, and 
 Esthers, d\ (Louis Cesar.) 
 
 Letellier, leh-t&'le-a', a French painter, born at Rouen 
 in 1614, was a nephew and pupil of the celebrated 
 Poussin. His favourite subjects were devotional. He 
 excelled in expression and linear perspective. Among 
 his best works are a " Holy Family," an "Ascension," 
 and an "Annunciation." Died in 1676. 
 
 Letellier or Le Tellier, (Michei,) a French slates- 
 man, born in 1603. By the patronage of Mazarin, he 
 was appointed secretary of state for the war department 
 soon after 1642. During the troubles of the Fronde he 
 was an adherent of Mazarin. The latter having with- 
 drawn from France about 1651, Letellier was employed 
 as minister by the queen-regent during the short period 
 of his absence. In 1677 he was appointed chancellor 
 of France. He sealed with alacrity the fatal edict against 
 the Protestants which in i685revoked the edict of Nantes. 
 Died in 1685. Louvois, the minister of Louis XIV., was 
 his son. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XIV;" Choisv, "Memnires." 
 Letellier, (Michel,) a French Jesuit, born at Vire, 
 in Normandy, in 1643. He edited Qnintus Curtius for 
 
 1 k; c as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in thit. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LETHE 
 
 1416 
 
 LEURET 
 
 the use of the dauphin (in usum Delphini) in 1678, and 
 wrote against Jansenism. In 1709 he became confessor 
 to Louis XIV., with the privilege of presenting subjects 
 for benefices. D'Alembert and others accuse him of 
 giving the king perfidious counsels. At the death of 
 Louis XIV. (1715) he was exiled. Died in 1719. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, "M£- 
 moires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Le'the, [\ydii,] a Greek word signifying "forgetful- 
 ness" or "oblivion," and forming the name of one of 
 the streams of Hades. See Pluto. 
 
 Lethiere, leh-te-aiR', (Guillaume Guii.lon, ) an 
 eminent French landscape- and historical painter, was 
 born in Guadeloupe in 1760. He studied in Rome, and 
 worked in Paris with success. Among his works are 
 " The Death of Caesar," " The Judgment of Paris," and 
 "Homer reciting his Poems." Died in 1832. 
 
 Lethington. See Maitland, (William.) 
 
 Leti, la'tee, (Gregorio,) an Italian historical writer, 
 born at Milan in 1630. He went to Geneva, turned 
 Protestant, and opened a school in 1660. In 1669 he 
 published a "Life of Sixtus V.," which is his most 
 popujar work. His satirical humour involved him in 
 difficulties, which compelled him to leave Geneva in 
 1679. He passed some time at the court of Charles 
 II. of England, and was ordered to quit that kingdom 
 in 1682. He died in Amsterdam in 1701, leaving many 
 histories and biographies, which are unreliable. 
 
 See Niceron, "Meinoires." 
 
 Leto. See Latona. 
 
 Leto, (Pomponio.) See Pomponius L^tus. 
 
 Letoumeur, leh-toon'nuR', (Charles Louis Fran- 
 cois Honoke,) a Director of the French republic, was 
 born in Basse-Normandie in 1751. He was deputed to 
 the Convention in 1792, and voted with the Girondists 
 for the death of the king. He was one of the members 
 of the Executive Directory elected in October, 1795 or 
 1796. He was exiled as a legicide in 1816, and died 
 in 1817. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." 
 
 lie Tourneur, (Pierre.) See Tourneur, Le. 
 
 Letronne, leh-tRon', (Jean Antoine,) an eminent 
 French antiquary and critic, born in Paris in 1787, was 
 remarkable for sagacity, mental activity, and variety of 
 acquirements. After returning from his travels in Italy 
 and other countries, he was chosen a member of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions in 1816. In 1823 he published 
 a "Historical Essay on Egypt during the Domination 
 of the Greeks and Romans." He wrote able articles 
 for the " Biographie Universelle" and " Revue des Deux 
 Mondes." He was appointed professor of history in the 
 College of France about 1831, and keeper of the archives 
 of France in 1840. Among his principal works is "A 
 Collection ofthe Greek and Latin Inscriptions of Egypt," 
 (2 vols. 4to, 1842-48.) He proved that the zodiac of 
 Denderah belonged to the time ofthe Roman emperors, 
 thus exploding the theory of Dupuis. Died in 1848. 
 
 See Burnouf et Quatremere, " Discours prononc^s aux Fune'- 
 railles de Letronne," 1848; Walckenaer, " Eloge de Letionne," 
 1850; Edmono Garnier, " Notice sur Letronne ;" Alfred Maurv, 
 " Notice sur Letronne," 1849 ; " Nouvelle Biographie GiSneVale." 
 
 Letrosne, leh-tRon', (Guillaume Franqois,) a 
 French advocate and economist, born at Orleans in 172S. 
 He published a treatise in favour of free trade in grain, 
 and other works on political economy. Died in 1780. 
 
 Lette, let'teh, (Wii.hk.lm Adolph,) a Prussian econ- 
 omist and liberal politician, born at Kienitz in 1799. 
 He was elected to the legislative assembly of Prussia 
 several times between 1850 and 1856. 
 
 Lettice, let'tiss, (John,) an English poet and clergy- 
 man, born in Northamptonshire in 1737. His poem on 
 the conversion of Saint Paul gained a prize at Cam- 
 bridge in 1764. He attained eminence as a pulpit orator. 
 In 1785 he was presented to the living of Peasemarsh, 
 Sussex. He was author of " Fables for the Fireside," 
 (1812,) "Strictures on Elocution," (1821,) sermons, and 
 other works. Died in 1832. 
 
 Lett'som, (John Coakley,) an English physician, 
 born in the West Indies, near Tortola, about 1744. His 
 parents were members of the Society of Friends. He 
 studied in Edinburgh, Paris, and Leyden, and in 1769 
 
 settled in London, where, through the influence of Dr. 
 Fothergill, he obtained a large practice. He acquired an 
 extensive scientific reputation, and was elected Fellow 
 of the Royal Society in 1771. Besides several profes- 
 sional treatises, he published "The Natural History of 
 the Tea-Tree," (1772,) the "Naturalist's and Traveller's 
 Companion;" (1774,) and a " Life of Dr. Fothergill," 
 (1783.) Died in 1815. 
 
 See "Memoirs of J. C. Lettsom," hy T. J. Pettigrew, 1817; 
 DmulWH 1111, in the "Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Leu, loi, [ft. pron. luh,] (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss 
 writer, born at Zurich in 1689. His most important 
 work is a "Universal Dictionary of Switzerland," (20 
 vols., 1746-63,) which treats of the civil, religious, 
 literary, and natural history of that country. Died in 
 1768. 
 
 Leuchtenberg, Duke of. See Beauharnais, de, 
 (Eugene.) 
 
 Leuchtenberg, de, deli loiK'ten-beRr/, (Karl Au- 
 gust Napoleon,) Prince, .the eldest son of Eugene de 
 Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy, was born at Milan in 
 1810. His mother was Augusta Amelia, daughter ofthe 
 King of Bavaria. He passed his youth in Bavaria, 
 About 1834 he was made the first peer of Bavaria by 
 his uncle, Louis I. He married Maria, Queen of Por- 
 tugal, in January, 1835, and was created Duke of Santa 
 Cruz, but died before the end of the year. 
 
 Leucippe. See Leucippus. 
 
 Leu-cip'pus, [Gr. Aeviammc; Fr. Leucippe, luh'sep',1 
 a famous Greek philosopher, who is generally reputed 
 the author ofthe atomic philosophy. He was a disciple 
 of Zeno of Elea. The time and place of his birth are 
 unknown ; but, as he was the teacher of Democritus, he 
 probably lived earlier than 450 B.C. Different accounts 
 state that he was born at Elea, Abdera, or Miletus. His 
 works have not come down to us. His doctrines are 
 supposed to have been similar to those of Democritus. 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Philosophy ;" Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 Leuckfeld, loik'feit, (Johann Georg,) a German 
 historian, born in Thuringia in 1668; died in 1726. 
 
 Leu'ccm, [Aeviujv,] an Athenian poet of the old 
 comedy, was a contemporary and rival of Aristophanes. 
 
 Leu'-coth'e-a, (or lu-ko'the-a,) [Gr. AnmoOea ; Fr. 
 Leucothee, luh'ko'ta',] i.e. "White Goddess," a name 
 given to Ind, which see. 
 
 Leucothee. See Leucothea. 
 
 Leunclavius, loin-kli've-us, (Johann,) an excellent 
 German scholar, whose proper name was Lowenklau 
 or Loewenklau, (16'<ven-kl6w',) was born at Amel- 
 bauern, in Westphalia, in 1533. He was well versed in 
 Greek, Latin, and public law. A large part of his life was 
 passed at the courts of the Duke of Savoy and of other 
 princes. He published editions with Latin versions of 
 Xenophon, (1569,) Dion Cassius, Zosimus, (1579,) Pro- 
 copius, and other Greek authors. Scaliger, Bayle, and 
 others praise him highly as a translator. He wrote a 
 few original works, among which was a "History of 
 the Moslems," ("Musulmaniae Histotia: Libri XYTll.," 
 '595-) Died at Vienna in 1593. 
 
 See Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 " Memoires :" M. Adam, "Vilas Philosophorum Germanorum." 
 
 Leupold, loi'polt, (Jakob.) an ingenious Saxon 
 mechanician, born at Planitz in 1674. He excelled in 
 the fabrication of mathematical and philosophical instru- 
 ments. The Elector of Saxony appointed him a member 
 of the Council of Mines. He published in 1723-27 an 
 important work called "Theatre of Machines," ("Thea- 
 truni Machinaruni,") which treats of machines, statics, 
 hydrostatics, mechanical sciences, etc. Died in 1727. 
 
 See Tettelbach, " Lebensbeschreibung J. Leupolds," 1735. 
 
 Leupoldt, loi'polt, (Johann Michael,) a German 
 physician, born at Weissenstadt, Bavaria, in 1794. H« 
 published a number of treatises on pathology, physi- 
 ology, and hygiene, and a " General History of Medi- 
 cine," (1825.) 
 
 Leuret, luh'ri', (Francois,) a French physician, 
 born at Nancy in 1797. Having given special attention 
 to mental maladies, he acquired distinction by his " Psy- 
 chological Fragments on Insanity," (1834,) and othei 
 works, among which is one " On the Moral Treatment 
 
 a, 8, 1, 5, fl, y,long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1,5, u,'y, snort; a, e, i, p, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n6t;good; m<55n; 
 
LEUSDEN 
 
 1417 
 
 LEFERRIER 
 
 of Insanity," (1840.) He became chief physician of the 
 Bicetre in Paris. Died in 1851. 
 
 See U. Tkelat, " Notice sur f. Leuret," 1851 ; Chaki.es Hb- 
 QUKT, " Notice biographique sur la Vie du Docteur Leuret," 1852. 
 
 Leusden, lus'den, [Lat. Leusdk'nius,] (Jan,) a 
 Dutch philologist, eminent as a Hebrew scholar, was 
 born in 1624, at Utrecht. He studied the Oriental lan- 
 guages in that city and Amsterdam. In 1649 he obtained 
 the chair of Hebrew at Utrecht, which he held until his 
 death. He explained many curious Biblical questions 
 in three works, entitled " Hebrew Philologist," (" Philo- 
 logus Hebraeus," 1656,) " Philologus Hebrseo-Mixtus," 
 (1663,) and " Hebrew-Greek Philologist," ("Philologus 
 Hehraeo-Graecus," 1670.) Among his other works are 
 "Scholia Syriaca," "Compendium Biblicum," (1674,) 
 and a Greek edition of the New Testament, (1675.) 
 Died in 1699. 
 
 See Nicrkun, " Memoires :" Burmann, "Trajectum Eruditum ;" 
 G. he Vkies, "Oratio in Obitum J. Leusdenii," 1699. 
 
 Leusdenius. See Leusden. 
 
 Leutholf. See Ludolfh, (Jon.) 
 
 Leutinger, loi'ting-er, (Nikolaus,) a German his- 
 torian, born in Brandenburg in 1547. He published 
 about 1587 a "History of Brandenburg." Died in 1612. 
 
 Leutze, loit'seh, (Emanuel,) a distinguished his- 
 torical painter, born at Gmiind, in Wiirtemberg, in 
 1816. At an early age he accompanied his father to 
 Philadelphia, where his talents attracted the notice of 
 Mr. Carey, by whose assistance he was enabled to visit 
 Europe. He studied at Dusseldorf under Lessing, and 
 about 1842 produced his "Columbus before the Council 
 at Salamanca," which gave him a high reputation. 
 Among his pictures, many of which illustrate American 
 history, we may mention "The Landing of the North- 
 men," "Washington Crossing the Delaware," "John 
 Knox and Mary Stuart," " Washington at Princeton," 
 and "Columbus before the Queen." Died at Washing- 
 ton in July, 1868. 
 
 See H. T. Tuckf.rman, "American Artist Life," 1867, and 
 " I'.nnk of tbe Artists." 
 
 Leuwenhoek, van, vin luh'wen-hook', (Antoon,) 
 sometimes written Leeuwenhoek or Leeuwenhoeck, 
 a celebrated Dutch naturalist, born at Delft in 1632. 
 He first acquired reputation by his skill in the fabrica- 
 tion of microscopes. By his successful use of the micro- 
 scope in researches into the intimate structure of the 
 human system and the composition of animal fluids, he 
 afterwards obtained celebrity as an anatomist and physi- 
 ologist. He communicated many of his discoveries to 
 the Royal Society of London, of which he was chosen a 
 Fellow'in 1680. He discovered the so-called animalcules 
 in the spermatic fluid in 1677. About 1690 he proved 
 the continuity of the arteries with the veins, and success- 
 fully combated the prevalent hypothesis of the fermen- 
 tation of the blood. He described with accuracy the 
 structure of the lamina which compose the crystalline 
 lens of the eye. In 1698, Peter the Great, passing 
 through Delft, requested the favour of seeing Leuwen- 
 hoek and his microscopes, which was accorded. Died 
 in 1723. Leuwenhoek's works were printed in the 
 "Philosophical Transactions," (London.) Four vol- 
 umes of his collected works were published at Leyden 
 in 1724, under the title of "Opera Omnia." 
 
 ( van Haastekt, " A. van Leemvenboeck, vereerend Her- 
 dac'tit io'eene korte Levensschets." etc., 1823-; Hai.bkrtsma, "Dis- 
 sertatio historico-medica de A. Leeuwenhoeckii Mentis," etc., 1843. 
 
 Leva. See Leyva. 
 
 Le Vacher de Chamois. See Charnois, de. 
 
 Le Vaillant. See Vaillant, Lk. 
 
 Leval, leh-vtl', (Than Francois,) a French general, 
 born in Paris in 17*61. As general of division, he ob- 
 tained success at Philipsburg in 1799. He took part in 
 the battle of Jena, in 1806. Died in 1834. 
 
 Levasseur, leh-vi'sUR.', a French anatomist, who 
 wrote about 1540. "He appears," says Hallam, "to 
 have known the circulation of the blood through the 
 lungs, as well as the valves of the arteries and veins, 
 and their direction and its purpose, — treading closely 
 on an anticipation of Harvey." 
 
 Levasseur, (Jean Charles,) a French engraver, 
 born at Abbevil't in 1734- He engraved some works 
 of Boucher, Ixm in*, Vanloo, etc. Died about 1810. 
 
 Levasseur de la Sarthe, leh-vS'sUR' deh 1J siRt, 
 (Rene,) a French Jacobin, born in Maine in 1747, voted 
 in the Convention of 1792 for the death of the king, and 
 was a violent enemy of the Girondists. Died in 1834. 
 See Achille Roche, "Memoires de R, Levasseur," 2 vols., 1829, 
 Levassor, lehvS'soR', (Michel,) a French historian 
 and priest, born at Orleans. About 1675 he became a 
 Protestant, and emigrated to Holland. He afterwards 
 removed to England, and published a " History of Eu- 
 rope in the Reign of Louis XIII.," (10 vols., 1700-11.) 
 Voltaire calls him " un declamateur odieux," (" an odious 
 declaimer,") and says he was thought to be erroneous in 
 nearly all his judgments. Died in 1718. 
 
 Levati, la-va'tee, (Carlo Ambrogio,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Biassono in 1790. Among his works is 
 a "Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious Women of all 
 Ages and Nations," (3 vols., 1822.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Levau or Leveau, leh-vo', (Louis,) a French archi- 
 tect, born in 1612. He built the Hotel Lambert and 
 Hotel Colbert, at Paris. He obtained the title of first 
 architect to Louis XIV., by whose order he added to the 
 chateau of the Tuileries the Pavilions de Flore and de 
 Marsan. Died in 1670. 
 
 See Quatremerk de Quincy, " Vies des plus illustres Archi- 
 tectes." 
 Le Vayer. See Mothe, La. 
 Leven, Earl of. See Leslie, (Alexander.) 
 Leveque, la'vfk', (Pierre,) an able French mathe- 
 matician, born at Nantes in 1746. To a sound judgment 
 he added extensive acquirements in various sciences and 
 languages. He published "The Navigator's Guide," 
 (1779,) which was praised by Lalande, and other nautical 
 works. He was elected to the Institute in 1801. Died 
 in 1814. 
 
 See Delambre, " filoge de LeV&me," 1816; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Le'ver, (Sir Ashton,) an English naturalist, born 
 near Manchester. He formed a museum of natural his- 
 tory. Died in 1788. 
 
 Le'ver, (Charles James,) a popular Irish novelist, 
 was born in Dublin in 1806. He practised medicine a 
 few years, but abandoned that profession when he be- 
 came editor of the "Dublin University Magazine," about 
 1842. He has written a multitude of novels, among 
 which are "Harry Lorrequer," "Charles O'Malley," 
 "The Knight of Gwynne," (1854,) "The Daltons," and 
 "Davenport Dunn," (1859.) After 1845 he resided for 
 many years at Florence. In 1858 he was appointed 
 vice-consul at Spezzia, and transferred to Trieste in 1867. 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1862 ; " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for September, 1S40, and October, 1842. 
 
 Lever, (Thomas,) an eloquent English divine, born 
 in Lancashire. He was ordained a Protestant minister 
 in 1550. On the accession of Mary (1553) he retired to 
 the continent. He afterwards dissented from the Angli- 
 can Church, from a partiality to Calvinism. He pub- 
 lished sermons, and other religious works. Died in 1577. 
 Lev'e-rett, (Frederick Percival,) an American 
 scholar, born at Boston in 1803. He published a " Lexi- 
 con of the Latin Language," an edition of Caesar's "Com- 
 mentaries," and other educational works. Died in 1836. 
 Leverett, (Sir John,) born in England in 1616, 
 emigrated to America, where he was elected in 1673 
 Governor of Massachusetts. He was made a baronet 
 by Charles II. Died in 1679. 
 
 'Leverett, (John,) grandson of the preceding, born in 
 Boston in 1662, became president of Harvard University 
 in 1708. He was a distinguished jurist and scholar, and 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1724. 
 
 Lev'§-ridge, (Richard,) an English singer, song- 
 writer, and musical composer, was born about 1670. H« 
 published two volumes of hja own songs/and composed 
 the music for nianv of I'urcell's songs. Died in 1758. 
 
 Leverrier or Le Verrier, leh v.Yre-&', (Uriiain 
 Ikan |om en,) an eminent French astronomer, born at 
 Saint-Li d.a Manche) in March, 1811. He entered the 
 Polytechnic School about 1830, and after leaving it de- 
 oin-elf with success to chemistry and mathematics. 
 1 le became a tutor ( rfyftiteur) in the Polytechnic School, 
 and In 1S39 wrote two treatises on astronomy, which pro- 
 cured for him the friendship of Arago. In January, 1846, 
 
 e as k; 5 as /; g hi 'd; g as/; c, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilltJ; 3 as z; th as in Ms. (»Ey=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LE VERT 
 
 1418 
 
 LEWIS 
 
 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences. 
 Before that date he had undertaken to rectify the tables 
 of Uranus, the orbit of which was subject to perturba- 
 tions from an unknown cause. Conjecturing this cause 
 to be a planet, he calculated its orbit, mass, and position, 
 and announced the results in a memoir to the Academy 
 of Sciences in June, 1846. The planet was observed by 
 telescope near the place indicated, by Galle, of Berlin, in 
 September of that year, and received the name of Nep- 
 tune. Leverrier acquired a just celebrity by this great 
 discovery, and was appointed professor of astronomy in 
 the Faculty of Sciences, Paris. In 1849 he was elected 
 to the Legislative Assembly. Having supported Louis 
 Napoleon's policy, he was chosen a senator in 1852. He 
 succeeded Arago in 1853 as astronomer to the bureau 
 of longitudes and director of the Imperial Observatory. 
 He has published, besides other works, "Annales de 
 1'Observatoire de Paris," (1856.) About i860 he pre- 
 sented to the Institute an interesting memoir on Mer- 
 cury. He observed a movement of the perihelion of that 
 planet which suggested the existence of a small planet 
 between Mercury and the sun. In 1870 he was removed 
 from the position of director of the Observatory. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Biographie des Membres 
 du Senat," 1852. 
 
 lie Vert, Ieh vert, (Octavia Walton,) an American 
 writer, born in Georgia about 1820. She has published 
 "Souvenirs of Travel," (1S57,) and made various con- 
 tributions to English and American periodicals. 
 
 Levesque, li'vik', (PlERRE Charles,) a French his- 
 torian and translator, born in Paris in 1736. He became 
 professor of belles-lettres in Saint Petersburg in 1773. 
 In i7Sohe returned to Paris, and published his " His- 
 tory of Russia," (" Histoire de Russie," 6 vols., 1782,) 
 which is esteemed a classic work. He afterwards was 
 chosen a professor in the Royal College and a member 
 of the Institute. In 1795 he produced a successful trans- 
 lation of Thucydides. He wrote other historical works, 
 and translated some of the writings of Plutarch and 
 Xenophon. Died in 1812. 
 
 See Dacier, "Elope de Ldvesque ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^ne'rale ;" " Monthly Review," vol. liv., 1807 et seq., (Appendix.) 
 
 Levesque de Burigny. See Burigny, de. 
 
 Levesque de la Ravaliere, li'vik' deli 13 ri'vf- 
 le-aiR', (Pierre Alexandre,) a French writer, born at 
 Troves in 1697. He was chiefly known by his edition 
 of the poems of Thibault de Champagne, King of Na- 
 varre, (1742,) which was accompanied by an " Essay on 
 the Revolutions of the French Language from Charle- 
 magne to Saint Louis." Died in 1762. 
 
 Levesque de Pouilly, li'vik' deli poo'ye', (Louis 
 Jean,) a French llltMiteur, bom at Rheims in 1691. He 
 was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1722. 
 He corresponded with Fontenelle, Voltaire, and Lord 
 Bolingbroke. His principal work is the "Theory re- 
 specting the Agreeable Sentiments," ("Theorie des 
 Sentiments agreables," 1747,) revised and enlarged in 
 1749. Died in 1750. 
 
 His son, Jean Simon, (1734-1820,) wrote a "Life 
 of Chancellor L'Hopital," (1764,) and a work called 
 "Theory of the Imagination," (1803.) 
 
 Le'vi, [Heb. 'w ; Gr. Aei/i,] a Hebrew patriarch, a 
 son of Jacob and Leah, was born in Mesopotamia about 
 1750 B.C. He died in Egypt, aged one hundred and 
 thirty-seven, leaving three sons, one of whom was the 
 grandfather of Moses. 
 
 See Genesis xxix., xxxiv., xlix., and Exodus vi. 16. 
 
 Levi, (David,) a learned Jew, born In London in 1740. 
 He published, besides other works, " Lingua Sacra, or a 
 Grammar and Dictionary of the Hebrew, Chaldee, and 
 Talmudic Dialects," (3 vols., 1789.) Died in 1799. 
 
 Levi, la'vee, (Leone,) a writer on commerce and 
 commercial law, born at Ancona in 1821. He became 
 professor of commercial law in King's College, London. 
 Among his works is an important treatise on " The Com- 
 mercial Law of Great Britain," (4 vols., 1850-52.) 
 
 Levieil, leh-ve-il', (Pierre,) a French painter on 
 glass, was born in Paris in 1708. He restored the 
 painted windows of Notre-Dame, and wrote a com- 
 plete technical " Treatise on Painting on Glass." Died 
 in 1772. 
 
 Levieux, leh-ve-yh', (Rf.naud,) a French painter of 
 history, born at Nismes about 1630. By correctness of 
 design and brilliancy of colour he merited a place 
 among artists of the second order. 
 
 Lev'ing-ston, (Tames,) Earl ofCallendar, a Scottish 
 officer, fought for Charles I. in the civil war. Died in 
 1672. 
 
 Levis, de, deh li've' or li'vess', (Francois,) Due, 
 marshal of France, was born in Languedoc in 1720. He 
 succeeded Montcalm, who was killed at Quebec in 1759, 
 and took up his winter-quarters at Montreal. He de- 
 fended Canada several months ; but he was forced by 
 want of stores to capitulate to the English about 1760. 
 He was made a marshal in 1783. Died in 1787. 
 
 Levis, de, (Pierre Marc Gaston,) Due, a son of 
 the preceding, was born about 1760. In 1789 he was de- 
 puted to the Constituent Assembly, in which he favoured 
 moderate reforms. He emigrated in 1792 to England, 
 and returned in 1800. He acquired literary distinction 
 by his "Maxims and Reflections" (1808) and "Souve- 
 nirs and Portraits," (1813,) and wrote several other 
 works. In 1816 he became a member of the French 
 Academy and of the privy council. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Le Bas, " Dictionnaire encyclope'dique de la France." 
 
 Levita. See Elias Levita. 
 
 Levitschnigg, la'vit-shnik', (Heinrich,) a popular 
 Austrian poet, born at Vienna in 1S10, is the author of 
 a number of lyric and romantic poems. 
 
 Levizac, de, deh leh-ve'ztk', (Jean Pons Victor 
 Lecoutz,) AtiBE, a French grammarian, born in Langue- 
 doc. Having been driven into exile by the Revolution, 
 he emigrated to London, where he taught French. He 
 published in 1797 a "Grammar of the French Lan- 
 guage," which was extensively used by persons to whom 
 the French is a foreign tongue. He wrote other educa- 
 tional works. Died in 1813. 
 
 Levret, leh-vRi', (Andre,) a French surgeon, born in 
 Paris in 1703, had a high reputation for skill in accouche- 
 nients. He was called to court to attend the dauphiness, 
 mother of Louis XVI. He wrote excellent works on 
 obstetrics, among which is "The Accoucheur's Art 
 demonstrated by Physical and Mechanical Principles," 
 (" L'Art des Accouchements demontre par des Principe* 
 de Physique et Mecanique," 1753.) Died in 1780. 
 
 Lewald, la' wilt, (Fanny,) a popular authoress, and 
 a relative of the writer noticed below, was born at 
 Konigsberg in 181 1. Her principal works are novels, 
 tales, and sketches of travel. She was married to Adolf 
 Stahr, the author, about 1854. 
 
 Lewald (Johann Karl August,) a German littera- 
 teur, born at Konigsberg in 1792. He produced a number 
 of dramatic works, novels, and tales, and in 1835 founded 
 a journal entitled " Europe, or Chronicle of the Educated 
 World." 
 
 See " Aquarelle aus dem Leben," 4 vols., 1837. 
 
 Lewenhaupt. See Lowenhaupt. 
 
 Lewes, lu'iss, (GEORGE Henry,) a popular English 
 author, distinguished for his learning and versatility, was 
 born in London in 181 7. He studied medicine, but soon 
 exchanged that profession for literature, in which his 
 labours have been very abundant and diversified. He 
 contributed many literary, historical, scientific, and phi- 
 losophical essays to the " Edinburgh," " Westminster," 
 and other quarterly reviews. He also wrote articles for 
 Blackwood's and Fraser's Magazines and the " Penny 
 Cyclopaedia." Among his principal separate works we 
 may mention "Biographical His 'hrlosophy," 
 
 (1845,) " Rose, Blanche, and Vi< :1, (1S48,) 
 
 "Comte's Philosophy of the Sc ; ,3,) "The 
 
 Life and Works of Goethe," (1S55,) which is one of 
 his most popular productions, an Studies," 
 
 (1858.) He is the author of a su edy, "The 
 
 Noble Heart," (1850,) and of of In 1S65 
 
 he became for a short time t' tor of the 
 
 " Fortnightly Review." 
 
 See " British Quarterly Review" for July ani* October, 1864. 
 
 LewisorLudwig,lood'wiG,(KARL Aur,rsT,)I., King 
 of Bavaria, born in August, 17,' , ;on of King 
 
 Maximilian Joseph. He marri' I in '0 the princess 
 Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen accession he 
 
 «, e, T, o, 0, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, 3, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met , ftfitj good; moon; 
 
LEWIS 
 
 1419 
 
 LEWIS 
 
 built the Glvptothek, a splendid museum for the master- 
 pieces of sculpture. He became king in 1825, and made 
 economical reforms in the government. His reign is 
 remarkable for the great impulse given by his liberality 
 and taste to the fine arts, especially architecture. He 
 assembled in his capital many scholars and artists, and 
 adorned Munich with numerous fine edifices, among 
 which are the Odeon, the Pinakothek, the royal palace, 
 university, and several churches. He built the famous 
 Walhalla at Ratisbon, (Regensburg,) and made a canal 
 which bears his name. In 1829 he published a collection 
 of poems. The latter part of his reign did not correspond 
 with the beginning. He excited disaffection by restoring 
 convents and restricting the political and religious liber- 
 ties of his subjects. The influence of Lola Montez over 
 the king was another cause of offence. Stimulated by 
 the revolution in France, (1848,) the Bavarians revolted, 
 demanding reforms, in consequence of which he abdi- 
 cated in March, 1848, in favour of his son, Maximilian 
 TI. Otho, ex-King of Greece, is his second son. Died 
 at Nice in February, 1868. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lewis, (Kings of France.) See Louis. 
 
 Lew'is or Louis, loo'is, [Ger. Ludwig, lood'wiG ; 
 Lat. LiDovi'cus,] I., King of Germany, styled le Ger- 
 man ioik, (or German'icus,) the third son of Louis le 
 Debonnaire, was born in S06, and became King of Ba- 
 varia in 817 A.r>., when his father divided his dominions 
 among his three sons. Having revolted against his 
 father, he seized Saxony, and assumed the title of King 
 of Germany. In alliance with Charles the Bald, he 
 defeated his brother, Lothaire I., at Fontenoy in 841. 
 He died in 876 A.D., leaving three sons, Carloman, 
 Lewis, and Charles. 
 
 See H. Lcdfm, "Geschichte des Deutschen Volkes," 12 vols., 
 1825-37 ; *' Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lewis (Ludwig) H. or III. of Germany was the 
 second son of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 876. 
 The same year he defeated his uncle, Charles the Bald, 
 who had invaded his kingdom. He died at Frankfort 
 in 882, while waging war with the Normans. 
 
 Lewis (Ludwig) IH. or IV., called the Infant, 
 (das Kind,) born in 893 a.d., was the son of the 
 emperor Arnulph, and became King of Germany in 
 900. He died in 912, and was the last prince of the 
 race of Charlemagne in Germany. 
 
 Lewis IV. or V., Emperor of Germany, born in 1286, 
 was the son of Lewis, Duke of Bavaria, and Matilda, 
 who was a daughter of the emperor Rudolph of Maps- 
 burg. After the death of Henry VII. (1314) Lewis 
 and his cousin, Frederick of Austria, were rival candi- 
 dates for the throne, and both claimed to have been 
 elected. A long civil war was the result, in which the 
 Ghibelines fought for Lewis and the Guelphs for Frede- 
 rick, who was taken prisoner in 1322. Lewis released 
 him after he had signed an act of renunciation- of the 
 empire, and was crowned at Rome in 1328. About 
 '.his time he was excommunicated by Pope John XXII., 
 against whom he retorted the charge of heresy. In 1346 
 Clement VI. issued a bull against Lewis, and attempted 
 to transfer the crown to Charles IV. ; but Lewis defended 
 himself until his death, in 1347. 
 
 See Conrad Manvert, "Kaiser Ludwig IV.," 1812; N. Bur- 
 QqMDUft, "Historia Bavarica, sive Ludovicus IV.," etc., 1636; J. 
 Scjm.ftt. " Biographic von Kaiser Ludwig dem Bayer," 1822; Kot- 
 Geschichte Kaiser Ludwiga IV.," 1812. 
 
 Lewis L, surnamed the Great, King of Hungary 
 and Poland, born in 1326, was the son of Charobert, 
 whom he succeeded on the throne of Hungary in 1342. 
 He waged successful wars against the Venetians and 
 against Joan, Queen of Naples. After the death of his 
 uncle Casimir, in 1370, he was elected King of Poland. 
 He died in 1382, leaving three daughters, one of whom 
 was married to Sigismund, Emperor of Germany. He 
 is said to have been a just and wise ruler. 
 
 See Bonfinius, *' De Rebus Hungaricis;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Lewis TX of Hungary and Bohemia was l>orn in 
 1506, and succeeded his father, Ladislaus VI., in 1516. 
 Owing to his youth and the factious conduct of the 
 nobles, his power was only nominal. In 1521 he mar- 
 
 ried Mary, a sister of the emperor Charles V. Hit 
 kingdom was invaded by the Turks, and his army com- 
 pletely defeated at Monies, where I^ewis was killed in 
 1526. He left no issue, and Ferdinand I. of Austria 
 became master of Hungary. 
 
 Lewis, (Kings of Italy and Spain.) See Louis. 
 
 Lewis |Sp. Luis, loo-ess'] L of Spain, the eldest son 
 of Philip V., was born in 1707. Philip V., having fallen 
 into a melancholy mood, retired to the solitude of Saint 
 Iidefonso, and resigned the crown to Lewis, who was 
 proclaimed in January, 1724. A few months after his 
 accession he died of smallpox, and Philip V. resumed 
 the cares of royalty. 
 
 Lewis [Ger. Ludwig, lood'wiG] I, Grand Duke of 
 Hesse- Darmstadt, born in 1753, succeeded his lather in 
 1790. He joined the alliance against Napoleon in 1813. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 See Steiner, " Ludwig I. von Hessen-Darmstadt," 1S42. 
 
 Lewis (Ludwig) II, a son of the preceding, was bom 
 in 1777, ami became grand duke in 1830. Died in 1S48. 
 
 Lewis, (Ludwig,) Prince of Prussia, often called 
 Ludwig Ferdinand, was a nephew of Frederick the 
 Great, and was born in 1772. He was a son of Prince 
 August Ferdinand. He served in the campaign against 
 the French in 1792. In 1806 he was the head of the 
 war-party which urged the king into a disastrous contest 
 with Bonaparte. Having obtained the rank of lieuten- 
 ant-general, he engaged a superior force under Lannes 
 at Saalfeld, October 10, 1806, when he was defeated and 
 killed, preferring to die rather than to surrender. 
 
 Lew'is, (Andrew,) born in Ireland about 1730, emi- 
 grated to Virginia, and served with distinction in the 
 war of the Revolution, being made brigadier-general 
 about 1775. His statue occupies a place near Washing- 
 ton's Monument at Richmond. Died in 1780. His three 
 brothers, Thomas, William, and Charles, were also 
 noted as patriots and soldiers. 
 
 Lewis, (Dixon Hall,) a Senator and lawyer, born 
 in Hancock county, Georgia, in 1802, removed to Ala- 
 bama. He was a Democratic member of the House of 
 Representatives from 1830 to 1844, and became a United 
 States Senator in the latter year. Died in 1848. 
 
 Lewis, (Ed.mo.ma,) an American sculptor, of negro 
 and Indian extraction, born near Albany, New York, 
 about 1845. Among her works are " The Freedwomau 
 on first hearing of her Liberty," and a bust of Colonel 
 Shaw. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Lewis, (Ellis,) LL.D., an able American jurist, bom 
 in York county, Pennsylvania, in 1798. He rose through 
 various oSces to be chief justice of the supreme court 
 of Pennsylvania in 1854. Died in 1S71. 
 
 Lewis, (Enoch,) a distinguished American mathema- 
 tician, born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, in 1776. 
 He became teacher of mathematics in the Friends' Acad- 
 emy, Philadelphia, in 1799, and subsequently at the West- 
 town Boarding- School, established by the Society of 
 Friends. He was the author of treatises on algebra, 
 trigonometry, etc., a " Life of William Penn," and other 
 valuable works. In 1847 he became editor of the 
 "Friends' Review," Philadelphia. Died in 1856. 
 
 Lewis, (Ksif.i.i.e Anna Kohinson,) an American 
 poetess, bom in Maryland about 1825, has published 
 "Records of the Heart," (1844,) and "Myths of the 
 Minstrel," etc., (1852,) and has been a contributor to 
 the " Democratic Review" and other periodicals. 
 
 See Griswoi.d, " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Lewis, (Francis,) one of the signers of the Declara- 
 tion of American Independence, born in Wales in 1713, 
 emigrated to New York in 1735. He was elected to the 
 Continental Congress in 1775. Died in 1803. 
 
 Lew'is, (Sir George Cornkwai.i.,) Hart., an eminent 
 English statesman and author, born in London in Octo- 
 ber, 1806, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Frankland 
 Lewis. He graduated with high honours in the classics 
 at Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1831, but never 
 practised law. In 1844 he married a sister of the Earl 
 of Clarendon. In 1847 he was elected by the Liberal 
 party member of Parliament for Herefordshire, and was 
 appointed secretary to the board of control. He became 
 undersecretary for the home department in 1848, and 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, h, k, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as *; th as in 'this. (2^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LEWIS 
 
 1420 
 
 LETDEN 
 
 secretary of the treasury in 1S50. He resigned this office 
 when Lord John Russell ceased to be premier, in March, 
 1852. In this year he published a "Treatise on the 
 Method of Observing and Reasoning in Politics." He 
 became editor of the "Edinburgh Review" in 1854, but 
 retired from that post in the early part of the next year. 
 From February, 1855, until February, 1858, he was 
 chancellor of the exchequer in Palmerston's cabinet. 
 On the formation of a new Liberal ministry under Pal- 
 merston, in June, 1859, Sir George was appointed home 
 secretary. He succeeded Lord Herbert as secretary of 
 war in July, 1861. He wrote several able political and 
 philosophical works, among which is an "Inquiry into 
 the Credibility of Early Roman History," and, with 
 the Right Hon. H. Tufnel, made a translation of K. O. 
 Miiller's "Die Dorier," ("The Dorians," 2 vols., 1830.) 
 Died in 1863. 
 
 See article entitled "Lewis on Early Roman History," in the 
 " Quarterly Review" for April, 1S56 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for Feb- 
 ruary, 1848. 
 
 Lewis, (John,) an English theologian and antiquary, 
 born at Bristol in 1675. He became curate of Margate 
 and rector of Saltwood and Eastbridge. Besides many 
 works on theology, he published a " History of John 
 Wickliff," (1720,) and a "Life of Caxton," (1737.) Died 
 in 1746. 
 
 Lewis, (John Frederick,) an excellent English 
 painter, born in London in 1805, received instruction 
 from his father, F. C. Lewis, a landscape-painter. After 
 a visit to Spain, he produced about 1835 several admired 
 pictures in water-colours of Spanish scenes, among which 
 was a " Bull-Fight in Seville." Between 1840 and 1850 
 he worked and travelled in Egypt, Asia Minor, and other 
 parts of the Levant. After his return he increased his 
 reputation by excellent and finely-finished pictures of 
 "The Harem," (1850,) "An Arab Scribe," and "Mount 
 Sinai." He was elected president of the Society of 
 Painters in Water-Colours in 1855, and became an asso- 
 ciate of the Royal Academy in 1859. 
 
 Lewia, (Lady Maria Theresa,) an English novelist, 
 born in 1803, was a sister of the Earl of Clarendon. She 
 was married to Thomas Henry Lister in 1830, and to 
 Sir George Cornewall Lewis in 1844. She wrote novels 
 entitled "The Semi-Detached House" and "The Semi- 
 Attached Couple." Died in 1865. 
 
 Lewis, (Matthew Gregory,) a successful English 
 novelist and dramatist, often called Monk Lewis, was 
 born in London in 1775. He inherited from his father 
 an ample fortune, which consisted partly in an estate 
 and slaves in Jamaica. About the age of twenty he 
 
 Eroduced " The Monk," a novel which, by an artful com- 
 ination of mysterious horrors and voluptuous images, 
 obtained a large circulation, but was stigmatized as per- 
 nicious by the stricter moralists. He composed several 
 successful dramas, among which were "The Castle 
 Spectre," "Adelgitha," a tragedy, .and "Timour the 
 Tartar," (1812.) He also wrote other romances and a 
 few poetical pieces. He died at sea, on a voyage from 
 Jamaica to England, in 1818. 
 
 See "Life and Correspondence of M. G. Lewis," London, 1839; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1803, (by Svdnev Smith.) 
 
 Lewis, (Meriwether,) an enterprising American 
 traveller, born in Virginia in 1774. He became private 
 secretary to President Jefferson about 1801, and was 
 soon after employed by the United States government, 
 conjointly with Captain Clarke, to explore the northwest 
 part of the American continent. They gave the names 
 of Jefferson, Gallatin, and Madison to the three streams 
 which form the Missouri. They also explored the Co- 
 lumbia River to its mouth. After his return, in 1806, 
 Captain Lewis was made Governor of Missouri Territory. 
 He committed suicide in 1809, in a fit of temporary in- 
 sanity. One of the principal affluents of the Columbia 
 River was named in his honour. A " Memoir" of Cap- 
 tain Lewis was written by Jefferson. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1815 ; " Edinburgh 
 Review" for February, 1815; "Monthly Review" for July, August, 
 and September, 1815. 
 
 Lewis, (Morgan,) an American general and Gov- 
 ernor, born in the city of New York in 1754, was a son 
 of Francis, noticed above. He served with distinction 
 
 in the Revolutionary war, at the end of which he had 
 the rank of colonel. In 1801 he became chief justice 
 of the supreme court of New York. He was Governor 
 of that State from 1805 to 1807, and commanded the 
 forces in New York in 1814, with the rank of major- 
 general. Died in 1844. 
 
 See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. 
 
 Lewis, (Samuel,) an American philanthropist, born 
 at Falmouth, Massachusetts, in 1799, settled in Ohio, 
 where he distinguished himself by his zeal in promoting 
 education and other reforms. Died in 1854. 
 
 Lewis, (Tayi.er.) LL.D., a distinguished American 
 scholar and author, born in Saratoga county, New York, 
 in 1802, became professor of Greek in Union College 
 in 1849. He has written several critical and theological 
 works, evincing much learning and ability. 
 
 See Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Lewis, (William,) an English chemist and physician, 
 who practised at Kingston, Surrey. He was a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society, and was employed to read lectures 
 on chemistry to the Prince of Wales at Kew. He pub- 
 lished" An Experimental History of the Materia Medica," 
 (1760,) and other works. Died in 1781. 
 
 Ley or Leigh, lee, (Sir James,) an English lawyer, 
 born in Wiltshire in 1552. He was appointed chief 
 justice of the court of king's bench in 1621, and lord 
 high treasurer in 1625. He was afterwards created Earl 
 of Marlborough. Died in 1628. His "Reports of 
 Cases in the Courts of Westminster" were published. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Ley, (John,) an English controversial writer, born at 
 Warwick in 1583. He was a partisan of the Parliament 
 in the civil war. Died in 1662. 
 
 Leyba, de, di la^e-na, ( Francisco, ) a Spanish 
 dramatic poet of the seventeenth century. His works 
 are highly commended. 
 
 Leybourn, la'burn, ? (William,) an English mathe- 
 matician, who was in his youth a printer in London. 
 He edited the works of Gunter, and published, besides 
 other works, "The Complete Surveyor," "Mathematical 
 Course," ("Cursus Mathematicus, 1690,) and "The 
 Trader's Guide," (1693.) He died about 1690. 
 
 Leydecker, ll'dek'er, (Mei.chior,) a learned Dutch 
 Calvinist theologian, born at Middelburg in 1642. He 
 became professor of theology at Utrecht in 1678, and 
 published (in Latin) several esteemed works, among 
 which are a "History of the African Church," (1690,) 
 "On the Hebrew Republic," (1704,) and a treatise 
 against the philosophy of Descartes, called "The Torch 
 of Truth," ("Fax Veritatis.") Died in 1721. 
 
 Leyden, li'den, (John,) M.D., a Scottish poet and 
 antiquary, eminent as an Oriental scholar, was born at 
 Denholm, on the Teviot, in 1775. At a college of Edin- 
 burgh he studied the principal ancient and modern 
 languages. He afterwards studied medicine, and in 
 1802 went to Madras as an assistant surgeon in the 
 service of the East India Company. There he learned 
 Sanscrit, Persian, Hindostanee, and other Asiatic lan- 
 guages. About 1806 he was appointed professor of 
 Hindostanee at Calcutta. He became assay-master of 
 the Calcutta Mint in 1810. He contributed to Scott's 
 " Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border," wrote other poetical 
 pieces, and published a treatise " On the Languages and 
 Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations." Died in Java 
 in 1S11. 
 
 See Sir Walter Scott, "Essay on the Life of Leyden," in 
 Scott's Miscellaneous Works; and a Memoir by Morton pre- 
 fixed to the " Poems of Leyden," 1819; Chambers, "Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Monthly Review" for July, 
 1822. 
 
 Leyden, (John of,) See John of Leyden. 
 
 Leyden, van, vSn li'den, (Lucas,) [Fr. Lucas de 
 Leyde, Iii'kas' deh lid,] or Lucas Dammesz, a cele- 
 brated Dutch painter and engraver, born at Leyden in 
 1494. He received his first lessons in design from his 
 father, Hugh Jacobs or Jacobze, and at the age of twelve 
 painted in distemper a picture of Saint Hubert, which 
 was greatly admired. He painted, with equal success, 
 landscapes and portraits. As an engraver he excelled 
 in aerial perspective and chiaroscuro, and, according to 
 
 i e, i, 6, 2, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, J?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon j 
 
LEYNEZ 
 
 1421 
 
 L'HOPITJL 
 
 Vasari, surpassed Albert Diirer in composition. "As a 
 painter," says the "Biographic Univeiselle," "he passes 
 for the preatest artist of the Flemish school in his time." 
 Among his master-pieces are a painting of the "Last 
 Judgment,'' an " Ecce Homo," dated 1510, an engraving 
 of "Mary Magdalene Dancing," and another called "Eu- 
 lenspiegel," of which, it is said, only five or six proofs 
 are extant. He was an intimate friend of Albert Diirer. 
 Died in 1533. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Descamps, " Vies des 
 Peintres Haniands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Leynez. See Lainez. 
 
 Leys, lis or 14, (Jean Auguste Henri,) an eminent 
 Belgian historical painter, born at Antwerp in 1815. He 
 obtained one of the grand medals at the Exposition of 
 Paris in 1855, when he exhibited "The New Year in 
 Flanders," and other pictures. 
 
 Leyser, von, ton li'zer, (Augustin,) an eminent 
 German jurist, born at Wittenberg in 1683. He pub- 
 lished many legal works, the most important of which 
 is "Thoughts on the Pandects," ("Meditationes ad Pan- 
 dectas," 11 vols., 1717-47.) Died in 1752. 
 
 Leyser, von, written also Lyser, |Lat. Lyse'rus,] 
 (Polycarp,) a German Lutheran divine, was born in 
 Wiirtemberg in 1552. He was appointed professor of 
 theology at Wittenberg in 1576. From 1594 until his 
 death lie was the first preacher at the court of Dresden. 
 He published, besides other works, a continuation of 
 Chemnitz's "Harmonia Evangelica." Died in 1610. 
 
 Leyssens, lls'sens, (Nicolaas,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Antwerp about 1660, worked with success in his 
 native city. Died in 1720. 
 
 Leyva, de, da laVva, or Leva, la'vi, (Antonio,) 
 one of the ablest generals of the emperor Charles V., 
 was born in Navarre about 1480. He fought at Ravenna 
 in 1512, and distinguished himself at Rebec in 1524. 
 He commanded in Pavia when it was besieged by Francis 
 I. His obstinate defence occasioned the battle of Pavia, 
 (1525,) during which he made a sortie, and, falling upon 
 the rear of the French, decided the fate of the day. In 
 1532 he was chosen generalissimo of the Italian league 
 against Francis I. He accompanied Charles V. in his 
 expedition against Tunis in 1535, and had the chief 
 direction of the army which invaded Provence in 1536. 
 He died of an epidemic in the same year. 
 
 See Robertson, " History of Charles V." 
 
 Leyva, de, (J ago,) a Spanish painter, born about 
 1580. He studied at Rome, and worked at Burgos. 
 Died in 1637. 
 
 Lezardiere, de, deh la'zttR'de-aiV, (Marie Char- 
 i"iiK Pauline Robert,) a French female publicist, 
 born in La Vendee in 1754. She produced in 1791 a 
 work of some merit, entitled "Theory of the Political 
 Laws of the French Monarchy," reprinted in 4 vols., 
 J044. Died in 1835. 
 
 Lezay-Marnesia, de, deh leh-zj' m3Rn'ze_-J', (Ad- 
 rien,) Count, a French publicist, born near Orgelet 
 in 1770. He published a tract against the Constitution 
 of 1795, a work "On the Causes of the Revolution," 
 (1797,) and other political treatises. He was prefect of 
 Strasbourg when he died, in 1814. 
 
 Lezay-Marnesia, de, (Claude Francois Adrien,) 
 Marquis, the father of the preceding, was born at 
 Metz in 1735. He was a liberal member of the States- 
 General in 1789. He published, besides several prose 
 works, a poem of some merit, called " Essays on Rural 
 Nature," ("Essais sur la Nature champetre," 1787.) 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 LHeritier de Brutelle, li're'te-i' deh bRii'tel', 
 (Charles LOUIS,) a French botanfet, WM born in Paris 
 in 1746. He was admitted into the court of aids in 1775. 
 After the Revolution he was twice appointed a judge 
 of the civil tribunal of Paris. His principal works are 
 " New or Rare Plants," (" Stirpes novae aut minus cog- 
 nitne," 1784,) and " Sertum Anglicum," (1788,) a descrip- 
 tion of plants in the royal' garden of Kew, in England. 
 "His works," says Cnvier, "are prized throughout 
 Europe for the exactitude of the descriptions and the 
 finish of the plates." He left in manuscript a "Flora of 
 Peru," which he compiled from the notes and herbal of 
 Dombey. He was assassinated near his house in 1800. 
 
 Neither the author nor the motive of this crime was ever 
 discovered. 
 
 See Cuvif.r, "FJoge de L'HeVitier," in the "Memoires de l'lm- 
 titut;" " Nouvelle Uiograpliie Generale." 
 
 LHeritier de Villandon, li're'te-a' deh ve'loN'- 
 dAN', (Marie Jeanne,) a French authoress, born in 
 Paris in 1664, wrote in prose and verse. Died in 1734. 
 
 L'Heritier de Villandon, (Nicolas,) a French 
 dramatic poet, father Of the preceding, was born in Paris 
 about 1613 ; died in 16S0. 
 
 LHermite, leVmet', (Francois,) a popular French 
 poet and dramatist, known under the name of Tristan, 
 was born in La Marche in 1601. He was admitted into 
 the French Academy in 1649. Died In 1655. 
 
 L'Homond or Lhomond, lo'in6.\', (Charles Fran- 
 cols,) a French teacher, born at Chaulnes in 1727, was 
 a professor in the University of Paris. He was a friend 
 of the eminent Hauy, whose first scientific efforts he 
 directed. He published two elementary works which 
 are used in many schools of F'rartce, England, and 
 America, viz., "Viri Romae," and "Epitome of Sacred 
 History," (" Epitome Historiae Sacra:.") Died in 1794. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 LHdpital, de, deh lo'pe'ttl', (Francois,) Comte de 
 Rosnay, a marshal of France, born in 1583, was a brother 
 of Marshal de Vitry. As lieutenant-general, he com- 
 manded in Lorraine, where he gained several victories 
 between 1638 and 1642. He received a marshal's baton 
 in 1643, and was selected to advise the young Prince of 
 Conde, who had just taken command of the army in 
 Flanders. Against the orders of the ministry and the 
 advice of L'Hopital, Conde risked a battle at Rocroy 
 in 1643, and gained a victory over the Spaniards. Died 
 lit 1660. 
 
 See De Courcelles, "Dictionnaire des Ge'ne'raiix Francais." 
 
 L'H6pital or L'Hospital, de, (GuillaumeFranqois 
 Antoine,) Marquis de Saint-Mesme and Count d'En- 
 tremont, a distinguished French geometer, was born in 
 Paris in 1661. At the age of fifteen he is said to have 
 been a profound mathematician. In early life he was 
 forced to renounce the military profession by the weak- 
 ness of his sight. In 1692 he learned from John Ber- 
 noulli the new geometry which Leibnitz had discovered. 
 He was admitted into the Academy of Sciences about 
 1694. In 1696 Bernoulli challenged the geometers of 
 Europe to a trial of skill in the problem of the brachys- 
 tochron, — i.e. line or curve of quickest descent. At the 
 expiration of the stated time (ten months) solutions were 
 furnished by only four persons, — Newton, Leibnitz, 
 L'Hopital, and James Bernoulli. The result was the 
 paradoxical cycloid. In 1696 he published "Analyse des 
 infiniment petits," ("Analysis of Infinitesimals,") which, 
 being the first work adapted to initiate students in the 
 mysteries of the infinitesimal calculus of Leibnitz, was 
 received with great eagerness and marked the epoch of 
 a revolution in the science. He died in 1704. His post- 
 humous work, "Analytic Treatise on Conic Sections," 
 (1707,) had a high reputation. 
 
 See Fontenei.i.e, " FJoge du Marquis de L'Hopital;" Mon- 
 tucla, " Histoire des Math^matiques ;' "Acta Eruditoiuni," 1721. 
 
 LHdpital or L'Hospital, de, (Michel,) Chancellor 
 of France, an illustrious legislator and statesman, was 
 born at Aigueperse, in Auvergne, in 1505. His father, 
 Jean, was physician to Constable Bourbon, to whom lie 
 adhered in his defection from the service of Francis I. 
 to that of Charles V. He studied law at Padua for six 
 vears, and about 1534 settled in Paris. Three years later, 
 Morin, lieutenant-criminel, gave him his daughter, and the 
 office of counsellor to the Parliament as her dowry. His 
 promotion was hindered by the connection of his father 
 with the defection of Bourbon, and by his own modesty ; 
 but he at last found a patron in Chancellor Olivier, and 
 was appointed ambassador to the Council of Trent in 
 1547. About 1554 he was chosen by Henry II. superin- 
 tendent of the finances, in the management of which he 
 made important reforms. In 1560 the regent Catherine 
 de Medicis appointed him chancellor of France. On his 
 arrival at court he found that the chiefs of the house of 
 Guise had resolved to establish the Inquisition and to 
 ruin the Protestants. He defeated the first project, and 
 opposed the other with partial success. He caused the 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, in, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as «;,th as in this. (B3P°See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
UHOPITAL 
 
 1422 
 
 LIBERIUS 
 
 States-General to be convoked at Orleans in December, 
 1560, and obtained edicts favourable to liberty or tolera- 
 tion. But, in spite of his mediatorial efforts, the war 
 between Catholics and Protestants began in 1562. His 
 advice was no longer listened to at court, and he was 
 removed from office in 1568. He was at his country- 
 seat at Vignay during the Massacre of Saint Bartholo- 
 mew, and his life was spared through the mediation of a 
 lady at court. He died in 1573, leaving a name greatly 
 venerated for wisdom and integrity. As a statesman 
 and legislator he holds a high rank. His political prin- 
 ciples are announced in a Latin poem, (composed on 
 occasion of the coronation of Francis II.,) which was 
 much admired. He wrote other elegant Latin poems 
 and discourses, which have been published. 
 
 See M. Vn.t.HMAlN, "Vie de L'Hopital," in his " Etudes d'His- 
 toire moderns :" Levf-sque de Pouilly, "Viede Michel de L' Hospi- 
 tal," 1764; Charles Ruti.er, "Essay on the Life of M. de L'Hopi- 
 tal," 1814; Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" De Thou, 
 "Historia sui Temporis;" M. Cresson, " £loge historique de M. 
 de L'Hopital," 1850; Taili.andier's article in the "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generate. " 
 
 L'Hdpital, de, (Michel Hurault,) Seigneur de 
 Belesbat, was a grandson of the preceding. He was 
 chancellor of Henry of Navarre before the latter became 
 King of France, (1589.) He was also employed by Henry 
 as ambassador to Holland and Germany, and wrote two 
 able political treatises "On the State of France," (1588- 
 93.) Died in 1592. 
 
 L'Hdte or Lhdte, lot, (Nestor,) an artist and anti- 
 quary, born of French parents at Cologne in 1804. He 
 was a member of the commission sent in 1S28 to ex- 
 plore Egypt under the direction of Champollion, who 
 employed him as draughtsman. In 1838 he made fur- 
 ther explorations and illustrations of Egypt, for the 
 purpose of rendering more complete Champollion's 
 posthumous work on the monuments of that country. 
 Died in Paris in 1842. 
 
 Lhoyd, loid, written also Lhuyd and Llwyd, 
 (Humphry,) a learned British antiquary, was born at 
 Denbigh, in Wales. He wrote a " History of Cambria 
 from Caradoc," "On Mona, the Island of the Druids," 
 (" De Mona Druidum Insula,") and other works. Died 
 about 1570. 
 
 See Wood. "Athena Oxonienses." 
 
 Lhuyd, commonly pronounced loid, (Edward,) an 
 eminent Welsh antiquary, born in Carmarthenshire 
 about 1665. He became keeper of the Ashmolean Mu- 
 seum in 1690. He published a catalogue of the figured 
 fossils of the Ashmolean Museum, called " Lythophylacii 
 Britannic! Iconographia," (1699,) and a treatise on 
 British antiquities, " Archasologia Britannica," (1707.) 
 Died in 1709. 
 
 Liadieres, le'S'de^iR', (Pierre Chari.es,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Pan in 1792. He composed several 
 dramas, and other mediocre works in prose and verse. 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 Liais, le'A', (Emmanuel,) a French astronomer, born 
 at Cherbourg in 1826. He was appointed an assistant 
 in the Observatory of Paris in 1852. 
 
 Liancourt, de, deh le'oN'kooR', (Jeanne de Schom- 
 berg,) Duchess, a French lady, distinguished for her 
 talents and piety, born in 1600, was the daughter of 
 Henri de Schomberg, marshal of France. She became 
 the wife of the Due de Liancourt. Her house was 
 frequented by Pascal, Arnauld, and other recluses of 
 Port-Royal. Died in 1674. 
 
 See J. J. Boileau, " Vie de Madame de Liancourt," 169S. 
 
 Liano, da, da le-a'no, (Teodoro Felipe,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Madrid in 1575, excelled in miniatures, 
 and was surnamed the LITTLE Titian. He was a 
 friend of Lope de Vega. Died in 1625. 
 
 Liard, le'iR', an eminent French engineer, born in 
 Lorraine in 1747. His principal work is the important 
 canal which connects the Rhine with the Rhone. It was 
 commenced about 1805 and completed in 1832. Died 
 in 1832. 
 
 Liban, lee'ban, [Lat. Liba'nius.1 (George,) a Polish 
 classical scholar, born at Liegnitz in 1490. He taught 
 Greek at Cracow. Died in 1550. 
 
 Xiibanius. See Liban. 
 
 Li-ba'nI-us, [ Gr. Aifiuiroc, ] a celebrated heathen 
 sophist and rhetorician, born at Antioch in 314 a.d. He 
 studied with Diophantes of Athens and others. After 
 he had taught rhetoric for several years at Constanti- 
 nople and Athens with success, he settled in 354 at An- 
 tioch, where he opened a school, which became very 
 celebrated. Among his pupils were Saint Basil and 
 Saint Chrysostom. He accepted the office of quaestor 
 from the emperor Julian, who was his friend and ad- 
 mirer. He died probably about 390 A.D., leaving many 
 works, which are still extant, and display a brilliant 
 imagination. They consist chiefly of declamations on 
 events of Greek history, and have been designated by 
 Gibbon as " the vain and idle compositions of an orator 
 who cultivated the science of words." But this is re- 
 garded by other eminent critics as too harsh a judgment. 
 
 See his Autobiography, entitled Bios r) Aoyos trcp't Trjs iavrov 
 rvxw, Eunapius, "Vita; Sophistarum ;" Kabricius, " Bibliotheca 
 Gra^ca;" J. G. Berger, "-De Libanio Disputationes sex," 1696: 
 C. Petersen, " Coinmentatio de Libanio Sophista," 1827; "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Libavius, le-ba've-us, (Andreas,) a German physi- 
 cian and chemist, born at Halle. He was chosen rector 
 of the gymnasium of Coburg in 1605. He gained repu- 
 tation by works on chemistry, in which he endeavoured 
 to refute the reveries of Paracelsus. His " Alchymia 
 recognita emendata et aucta" (1597) was the best manual 
 of chemistry which had appeared at that time. Died 
 in 1616. 
 
 See Frrher, "Theatrum Eruditorum ;" Linden, "De Scriptori- 
 bus Medicis." 
 
 Libelt, lee'belt, (Karol,) an able Polish writer on 
 philosophy and politics, was born at Posen in 1806. He 
 fought with distinction against the Russians in the Polish 
 insurrection which began in 1830. For his share in a 
 democratic conspiracy he was imprisoned at Berlin in 
 1846, but was released by the revolution of 1848. Soon 
 after his release he was chosen a member of the Slavonic 
 congress of Prague. While a prisoner in Berlin in 1S47 
 he wrote "The Maid of Orleans." Among his works 
 are excellent philosophical and critical essays, "Filo- 
 zofia i Krytyka," (1845-50.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Li'ber, a name applied by the Romans to the Bac- 
 chus or Dionysus of the Greek mythology. Liber was 
 an ancient Italian divinity. See Bacchus. 
 
 Lib'e-ra, in the Roman mythology, was the wife of 
 Liber, and' was supposed to preside over the culti- 
 vation of the vine. She was sometimes identified with 
 Proserpine. 
 
 Liberate da Verona, le-ba-ra'la da va-ro'na, a 
 painter of the Venetian school, born at Verona in 145 1. 
 He was one of the most excellent artists of his country 
 at that time. His painting of the "Epiphany" is said 
 to be still visible at Verona. Died in 1536. 
 
 Lib-er-a'tus, a deacon of the Church of Carthage. 
 He was sent to Rome about 535 by a council of African 
 bishops. 
 
 Libere. See Liberius. 
 
 Liberi, lee'ba-ree, (Piktro,) Cavaliere, an eminent 
 Italian painter, surnamed Libertino, (le-beR-tee'no,) 
 born at Padua in 1605, was a pupil of Padovanino. He 
 pursued his studies in Rome, Parma, Venice, etc., and 
 formed a style in which the characteristics of several 
 schools were united. " He was regarded," says the " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle," "as the most skilful draftsman of 
 the Venetian school." Among his master-pieces are 
 the " Massacre of the Innocents," at Venice, " The Gene- 
 ral Deluge," "Noah coming out of the Ark," "The Judg- 
 ment of Paris," and several pictures of Venus, nude. His 
 style was sometimes grand and sometimes graceful. It 
 is said that when he worked for connoisseurs his manner 
 was bold and free, but for other patrons he finished his 
 work with much care and precision. Died in 1687. 
 
 See Guai.do Priorato. "Vita del Cavaliere P. Liberi," 1S18 ; 
 Riuoi.fi. "Vite dei Pittori Veneti ;" Winckelmann, " Neues 
 Mahler-Lexikon." ■ 
 
 Li-be'rI-us, fFr. Libere, le'baiR' ; It. Libf.rio, Ie- 
 ba're-o,] a native of Rome, was elected pope in 352 
 or 353 A.D., and succeeded Julius I. He favoured the 
 orthodox in the controversy with the Arians ; and. the 
 Council of Milan having condemned Athanasius in 355, 
 
 I,e, T, o, u, ), long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
LIBERT AS 
 
 '4 2 3 
 
 L1CHTWER 
 
 he refused to sanction that act. For this cause he was 
 banished by the emperor Constantius to Beroea. After 
 an exile of two years, he recovered his see in 358, 
 by signing the formula of Sirmium, a modification of 
 Arianism. He refused to subscribe the confession of 
 the Council of Rimini, (359,) where the Arians again 
 prevailed. He died in 366 A.D., and was succeeded 
 by Uaniasus I. 
 
 See Baronius, "Annales;" Larroque, "Dissertatio de Liberio 
 Romano," 1670. 
 
 Lib'er-tas, [Fr. Liberty, le'beVta',] the goddess of 
 liberty worshipped by the ancient Romans. She was 
 represented as a matron, holding in one hand a broken 
 sceptre and in the other a pike surmounted by a cap, 
 (pileiis.) 
 
 Liberte. See Libertas. 
 
 Libertino. See LtBERr. 
 
 Libes, leb, (Antoine,) a French savant, born at 
 Beziers in 1752. For many years he taught the physi- 
 cal sciences in the College Charlemagne, Paris. He 
 discovered that pressure is one of the elements of the 
 intensity of electric tension developed by contact, and 
 published, besides other works, " The Physical and 
 the Moral World," (1815.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Li-beth'rI-des, [Gr. AciSifflfK'tfec,] a name of the Muses, 
 which they derived from Mount Libethrius, or from a 
 well callecl Libethra, in Thrace. (See MUS/E.) 
 
 Lib-I-ti'ua., [Fr. Libitine, le'be'ten',] a Roman god- 
 dess, supposed to preside over funerals. All things 
 needful for funerals were kept for sale in her temple. 
 The business of an undertaker was also called libitina. 
 
 Libitine. See Libitina. 
 
 Li'bon or Iii'bo, [Gr. AiSuv,] a Greek architect, a 
 native of Elis, flourished about 450 rf.c. He built near 
 Pisa or Olympia, in the Doric style, the magnificent 
 temple of Olympian Jove, 245 feet long by 100 wide. In 
 the vicinity of this the Olympic games were celebrated, 
 and the master-pieces of art were accumulated for many 
 ages. It contained a celebrated statue of Jupiter by 
 Phidias. 
 
 See Quatremsre de Quincy, "Jupiter Olympien." 
 
 Libri, dai, da-e lee'bRee, (Girolamo,) a Venetian 
 painter and illuminator, born at Verona in 1472, was one 
 of the most skilful artists of his time. Among his works 
 are a " Deposition from the Cross," and "The Expulsion 
 of Adam and Eve from Eden." He painted many books 
 for the Church, and excelled in miniature. Died in 1555. 
 
 His son Francesco was a promising painter, who 
 died young. 
 
 Libri-Carrucci, lee'bRee k&r-root'chee, (Guillaume 
 Brutus Icilius Timoleon,) Count, an Italian mathe- 
 matician, born at Florence in 1803. He became a pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Pisa in 1823, and emigrated to 
 France in 1830. Having been naturalized as a French 
 citizen, he was admitted into the Institute in 1833, and 
 was appointed inspector-general of the libraries of 
 France. On a false charge of purloining books of great 
 value from the public libraries, he was condemned in 
 1850 to imprisonment for ten years; but he had pre- 
 viously escaped to London. His principal work is a 
 " History of Mathematical Sciences in Italy," (4 vols., 
 1838-41,) which is highly commended. Died in 1869. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Liburnio, le-booR'ne-o, (NiccoiA) an Italian gram- 
 marian, born at Venice in 1474, became a canon of San 
 Marco, in that city. Died in 1557. 
 
 Liceti, le-cha'tee, or Liceto, le-cha'to, (Fortunio,) 
 an Italian physician and professor, famous in his time 
 as a Peripatetic philosopher, was born at Rapallo, near 
 Genoa, in 1577. He became professor of philosophy at 
 Padua in 1609, and professor of medicine in 1645. He 
 published a treatise on the nature of monsters, (1616,) 
 and other works, the majority of which are now justly 
 neglected. He had more erudition than judgment. 
 Died in 1657. 
 
 See I'.wi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, 
 "M^moires." 
 
 Lichnowsky, von, fon liK-nov'skee, (Eduard Ma- 
 ria,) PRINCX, a German historian, born in 1789. He 
 wrote a "History of the House of Hapsburg," (4 vols., 
 1836-44,) which is commended. Died in 1845. 
 
 Lichnowsky, von, (Fei.ix,) Prince, a Prussian 
 general, son of the preceding, was born in 1814. He 
 fought for Don Carlos in Spain about 1839. In German 
 politics he was a conservative or absolutist. He was 
 killed by a mob at Frankfort in 1848. 
 
 See KosTt.iN, "Atierswald und Lichnowsky," 1853. 
 
 Lichtenau, von, fon liK'teh-now', (Wilhf.lmine 
 Enke,) Countess, born at Potsdam in 1754, was the; 
 daughter of a poor musician. She became the mistress 
 of the crown -prince of Prussia, Frederick William. 
 After his accession to the throne, in 1786, she was a 
 powerful and influential person until the death of the 
 king. Died in 1820. 
 
 See her "Autobiographic Memoirs," 1808. 
 
 Lichtenberg, liK'ten-beRG', (Georg Christofii,) a 
 German savant and witty author, born near Darmstadt 
 in July, 1742. He studied at GSttingen, and made great 
 progress in nearly all departments of knowledge. In 
 1770 he was appointed professor of philosophy and exact 
 sciences at Gottingen. He visited England, where he 
 associated with the most eminent literati. He wrote 
 excellent scientific articles for two periodicals of Gottin- 
 gen, — " The Magazine of Science and Literature," ( 1 7S0- 
 85,) and "The Almanac," (1778-99,) which owed their 
 great success chiefly to him. The charms of his style 
 contributed greatly to the diffusion of a taste for the 
 sciences. He particularly excelled in what in English 
 is called "humour." Among his most popular works is 
 his "Ample Commentary on the Engravings of Hogarth," 
 which he began to publish in 1794, and left unfinished 
 at his death. It abounds in wit and satire, and displays 
 much insight into human nature. His autobiography is 
 said to be the most candid and piquant ever written. 
 Died at Gottingen in 1799. " He is," says Stapfer, "gay 
 without the least trace of levity, versatile and profound 
 without ceasing to be solid and clear." (" Biographie 
 Universelle.") 
 
 See his Autobiography, in an edition of his works, Gottingen, 9 
 vols., 1800-1806; '• Elogium J.ichtenbergii," by Kastnkr, 1799; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale ;" Heinrich Doring, " Lebens- 
 umrisse von Karl August von Sachsen- Weimar, J. D. Falk, Lich- 
 tenberg," etc., 1840: "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1804; 
 "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1836. 
 
 Lichteustein, liK'ten-stin', (Martin Heinrich 
 Kari.,) a German physician and naturalist, born at 
 Hamburg in 1780. About 1802 he became physician 
 to the Governor of Cape Colony, Africa, and in 1810 
 published "Travels in Southern Africa," (2 vols.,) a 
 valuable contribution to natural history. In 1813 he 
 was appointed director of the Zoological Museum of 
 Berlin, which, under his care, became one of the largest 
 in Europe. His favourite pursuit was ornithology. Died 
 in 1857. 
 
 See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon," (Supple- 
 ment.) 
 
 Lichtenstein, von, fon liK'ten-stin', (Johann Jo- 
 seph,) Prince, a general, the head of one of the most 
 noble families of Austria, was born in Vienna in 1760. 
 After serving in several campaigns against the French, 
 he negotiated the conditions of peace at Presburg in 
 1805. He distinguished himself at Essling and Wagram 
 in 1809. Died in 1836. 
 
 Lichtenstein, von, (Joseph Wenzel,) Prince, an 
 Austrian general, born in Vienna in 1696. His services 
 in the campaigns of 1733 and 1734 were rewarded with 
 the rank of lieutenant-general. Having been made field- 
 marshal, he commanded the army in Italy in 1746, and 
 gained a victory at Piacenza. He was afterwards em- 
 ployed with success in diplomatic affairs. Died in 1772. 
 
 Lichtenstein, von, (Ulric,) one of the early Ger- 
 man poets, was born about 1 199. His principal poem, 
 entitled " Frauendienst," though possessing no great 
 literary merit, is a valuable monument of the manners 
 of that time. Died about 1275. 
 
 Lichtwer, llKt'wer, (Magnus Gottfried,) one ot 
 the most popular German fabulists, was born at Wurzen 
 in 1719. He published the first edition of his " Fables" 
 in 1748, and in the next year removed from Wittenberg 
 to Halberstadt, where he obtained a canonicate. In 
 1758 he produced another edition of the " Fables." The 
 German critics rank him as a fabulist with Lessing and 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; f hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
LICINIA 
 
 1424 
 
 LIE BIG 
 
 Gellert, whom perhaps he surpasses in piquancy of 
 style and talent for narration. Died in 1 783. 
 
 See ElCHHorz, "Lichtwer*s Leben," 1784; Hirsching, "His- 
 torisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Li-cin'I-a, (or li-sin'e-a,) the name of the wife ut C. 
 Gracchus. Also the name of the wife of Maecenas, said 
 to have been distinguished for her conjugal tenderness. 
 
 Li-cin-I-a'nus Gra'ul-us, a Roman historian, who 
 lived probably in the first century B.C. In 1853 Mr. 
 Pertz, of Berlin, discovered a portion of his " Annals" 
 among some Syriac manuscripts brought from the desert 
 of Nitria in 1847. 
 
 Iiicinio, le-chee'ne-o, (Bernardino,) a painter of the 
 Venetian school, born at Pordenone, was one of the best 
 pupils of Pordenone, who was his relative. He painted 
 portraits and Madonnas. He was living in 1540. 
 
 Iiicinio, (Giovanni Antonio.) See Pordenone. 
 
 Licinio, (Giui.io,) called il Romano, (el ro-ma'no,) 
 an Italian painter, born about 1500, was a nephew of 
 Pordenone. Died at Augsburg in 1561. 
 
 Li-cin'I-us, (or le-sin'e-us,) (Flavius Valerius,) 
 (called by some writers Pub'lius Fla'vius Gale'rius 
 Valeria'nus Licinia'nus,) a Roman emperor, born in 
 Dacia about 263 A.D., was originally a peasant. He rose 
 to the rank of general in the army, and gained the favour 
 of Galerius, who in 307 made him a partner in the 
 empire, with the title of Augustus. In 313 he married 
 Constantia, sister of Constantine the Great, and, having 
 defeated Maximin, became master of all the Eastern 
 provinces. A war soon ensued between him and Con- 
 stantine, which ended in the complete defeat of Licinius 
 at Chalcedon, near Byzantium, in 323. He was put to 
 death by order of the victor in 324 a.d. He was noto- 
 rious for cruelty and other vices. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Li-cin'I-us Cal'vus, (Caius,) an eminent Roman 
 orator and poet, son of C. Licinius Macer, was born in 
 82 B.C. Cicero thought his style was too laboured, but 
 admitted that he had wit, judgment, and much learning. 
 His style was eulogized by Quintilian as grave, chaste, 
 and sometimes vehement. As a poet he was usually 
 ranked with Catullus, and was very popular. His works 
 are all lost except fragments of his poems, which con- 
 sisted of elegies and epigrams or lampoons. He died 
 about the age of thirty-five. 
 
 See Weichert, " De C. Licinio Calvo Oratore et Poeta," 1825 ; 
 Pliny, " Natural History," vii. and xxxiv. 
 
 Licinius Macer. See Macer. 
 
 Li-cin'I-us Sto'lo, or, more fully, Ca'ius Licin'ius 
 Cal'vus Sto'lo, a Roman legislator, of plebeian family, 
 who effected important changes in the constitution of 
 Rome. In 375 B.C., he and his friend L. Sextius La- 
 teranus were chosen tribunes of the people, and pro- 
 posed the enactment of these laws: 1st. That in future 
 one of the two consuls chosen annually should be a ple- 
 beian, and that no more military tribunes should be 
 appointed ; 2d. That no citizen should possess more 
 than five hundred acres (jugera) of public land. These 
 innovations were strenuously resisted by the patricians 
 for about ten years, a period of anarchy, dirring which 
 Camillas was chosen dictator. The land in question 
 had been acquired by conquest, and had been appro- 
 priated by the patricians. The laws above named were 
 passed in 366, and Licinius was elected consul in 364 
 B.C. He was re-elected in 360, and was fined ten thou- 
 sand asses in 356 for the violation of his own agrarian 
 law. 
 
 See Niebuhr, " History of Rome ;" Livv. "History of Rome," 
 books vi. and vii. ; "Nouvelle Biograpbie Generate. " 
 
 Li-ci'nus Por'cius, (por'she-us,) a Roman poet, men- 
 tioned by Aulus Gellius, lived about 120 B.C. 
 
 Licquet, le'k&', (Francois Isidore,) a French litte- 
 rateur, born at Caudebec, Normandy, in 1787. He wrote, 
 besides several dramas, a " History of Normandy," (2 
 vols., 1835,) a work of merit, which was completed by 
 Depping. Died in 1835. 
 
 Lid'del, (Duncan,) a Scottish physician and mathe- 
 matician, born at Aberdeen in 1561. He became pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Helmstedt in 1591, after which 
 he was first physician at the court of Brunswick. Having 
 returned to Scotland in 1607, he founded a professorship 
 
 at Aberdeen. He was author of several medical work*, 
 one of which is called " Ars Medica," (1607.) Died in 
 1613. 
 
 See Stuart, "Life of Duncan Liddel," 1700; Chambers, " Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Lid'dell, (Rev. Henry George,) an English scholar, 
 born in 1812. He became chaplain to the prince-consort 
 about 1845, and Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1S55. 
 He produced, in conjunction with Mr. Scott, an excel- 
 lent "Greek-English Lexicon," (1843,(011 the basis of 
 the Greek-German Lexicon of Passow, and wrote a 
 " History of Rome." 
 
 Liddell, (Sir John,) F.R.S., a British physician, born 
 at Dumblane in 1794. He served as surgeon in the royal 
 navy, was knighted in 1850, and was appointed director- 
 general of the medical department of the royal navy 
 about 1854. In 1859 he became honorary physician to 
 Queen Victoria. 
 
 Liden, le-dTTn', (Johan Henrik,) a Swedish writer, 
 born at Linkoping in 1741, was struck in the prime of 
 life with palsy, which deprived him of the use of his 
 limbs. He composed a " History of Swedish Poets," 
 and several literary memoirs. Died in 1793. 
 
 See Wai.lin, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver J. H. Liden," 1797. 
 
 Lidner, lid'ner, (Bengt,) a Swedish poet, born in 
 1759, resided sometime in Paris. His chief work, "The 
 Countess Spastara," is commended for eloquence and 
 pathos. Died in 1793. 
 
 Lidskialf, (Hlidskialf.) See Odin. 
 
 Liebault, le'a'bo', (Jean,) a French writer on medi- 
 cine and agriculture, born at Dijon about 1535; died in 
 1596. 
 
 Liebe, lee'beh, (Christian Sigismond,) a German 
 numismatist, born in Misnia in 1687. He was a large 
 contributor to the "Acta Eruditorum." Died in 1736. 
 
 Lieber, lee'ber, (Francis.) a German historical and 
 political writer of distinguished ability, born at Berlin, 
 March 18, 1800. He served against the French in 1815, 
 and was present at the battles of Ligny and Waterloo. 
 Being imprisoned some years after for his liberal opinions, 
 he was released through the influence of Niebuhr, and 
 sought refuge in 1827 in the United States. In 1829 he 
 edited the "Encyclopaedia Americana," (13 vols.,) taking 
 for its basis Brockhaus's " Conversations-Lexikon," (pub- 
 lished at Leipsic, in Germany.) He was appointed in 1835 
 professor of history in Columbia College, in South Caro- 
 lina, which position he held until 1856. He afterwards 
 became professor of the law of nations and constitutional 
 law in the same institution. Among his numerous and 
 popular works are a " Manual of Political Ethics," 
 (1838,) "Laws of Property: Essays on Property and 
 Labour," (1842,) "Civil Liberty and Self-Government," 
 (2 vols., 1853,) and "Reminiscences of Niebuhr the 
 Historian." 
 
 See Ai.i.ibone, " Dictionary of Authors ;" Di'YCKInck, " Cyclo- 
 paedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; " North American Review" 
 for January, 1832. 
 
 Lieber, (Thomas.) See Erastus. 
 
 Lieberkuhn, lee'ber-koon', (Johann Nathaniel,) a 
 German anatomist, born at Berlin in 1711, practised in 
 that city. He was very skilful in the art of injections. 
 He was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society of Lon- 
 don. Died in 1756. 
 
 Liebhard. See Camerarius, (Joachim.) 
 
 Liebig, von, fon lee'biG, (Justus,) Baron, one of the 
 greatest chemists of the present century, was born at 
 Darmstadt, in Germany, in May, 1803. He entered the 
 University of Bonn in 1819, and in 1822 went to Paris, 
 where he became acquainted with Humboldt and Gay- 
 Lussac. Favoured by the influence of Humboldt, Liebig 
 obtained in 1824 the appointment of professor of chem- 
 istry in the University of Giessen. He founded there 
 the first model laboratory of Germany, which became 
 very celebrated and made that university the central 
 point of attraction to the chemical students of Europe. 
 Although his services have been great in every depart- 
 ment of chemical science, he owes his celebrity chiefly 
 to his discoveries in organic chemistry. He produced 
 in 1840 an important work entitled "Organic Chem- 
 istry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology," 
 ("Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf 
 
 1 C, I, o, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; (ix, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
LIEBKNECHT 
 
 1425 
 
 LIGONIER 
 
 Agricultur und Physiologic") His principal works, 
 besides the above, are "Animal Chemistry, or Chemistry 
 in its Application to Physiology and Pathology," (1842,) 
 '•Researches on the Chemistry of Food," (1849,) and 
 a "Dictionary of Chemistry," (5 vols., 1837-51,) in 
 which he was assisted by Wobler. He received the title 
 of baron in 1845, and accepted the chair of chemistry 
 at Munich in 1852. In 1848 Liebig and Professor 
 Kopp began to issue an annual report on the progress 
 of chemistry. His "Familiar Letters on Chemistry" 
 (1S44) are much admired, and are well adapted to 
 render the science popular. His principal works above 
 named have been translated into English and French. 
 
 See Caixisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon :" " Nou- 
 velle Biographic Generale ;" "London Quarterly Review" for June, 
 1*4?; "North American Review" for July, 1841, April, 1842, and 
 October, 1842. 
 
 Liebknecht, leep'kneKt', (Johann Georg,) a Ger- 
 man antiquary, born at Wassungen about 1680, wrote, 
 besides other works, "Discourse on the Great Deluge," 
 (" Discursus de Diluvio Maximo," 1704.) Died in 1749. 
 
 Liemaecker or Liemaker, lee'ma'ker, (Nikoi.aas,) 
 a skilful Flemish painter, surnamed Roosk, was born at 
 Ghent in 1575, and was a friend of Rubens. Among his 
 works, which are mostly of large dimensions, are "The 
 Last Judgment," and "The Transfiguration." Died in 
 1646. 
 
 Lieoo- (or Lieou-) Pang, le-oo' pang, a Chinese 
 emperor, the founder of the dynasty of Han, was born 
 about 250 B.C. He was proclaimed emperor in 202. 
 One of his generals, named King-Poo, having revolted, 
 a battle was fought, in which Lieoo-Pang gained the vic- 
 tory, but received a wound of which he died in 195 H.c. 
 
 Lieutaud, le-yh'to', (Joskph,) a skilful French physi- 
 cian, born in 1703, at Aix, in Provence. He was elected 
 to the Academy of Sciences in 1752. In 1774 he was 
 appointed first physician to I. 'iis XVI. He publi 
 besides other professional works, " Synopsis of Univer- 
 sal Medical Practice," (" Synopsis Universal Praxeos 
 Medicae," 1765,) a work of much merit. Died in 1780. 
 
 See Condorcbt, "E*loge de Lieutaud," 1780; Lasservolle, 
 " Eloge historique de M. Lieutaud," 1781 ; "Nouvelle Biographic 
 GeWrale. " 
 
 Lieven, de, deh lee'ven, (Dorothea,) Princess, a 
 Russian lady, of German extraction, celebrated for her 
 diplomatic talents and political intrigues, was born in 
 1784. Her maiden name was Benkendorf. She went 
 to London about 1812 with her husband, who was 
 Russian ambassador at that court, and acquired much 
 influence by her conversational powers. After 1838 
 she resided in Paris, where her salon was frequented by 
 many diplomatists, statesmen, etc. She was often called 
 the " Egcria of Guizot." Died in 1857. 
 
 Lieven, von, Ion lee'ven, (Johan Henrik,) Count, 
 a Swedish general, born in Livonia in 1670. After the 
 defeat of Charles at Pultowa, in 1709, Lieven was sent 
 by the council of regency on a mission to that king, 
 then in Turkey. Died in 1733. 
 
 Lievens, lee'vens, (Jan,) |Lat. JoHan'nf.s Livine'- 
 IUS,] a Flemish Hellenist, born about 1546. He was 
 canon of Antwerp. I ie edited and translated some works 
 of Chrysostom and Gregory of Nyssa. Died in 1599. 
 
 See Paquot, "Memoires." 
 
 Lievens or Livens, (Jan,) an eminent Dutch painter 
 and engraver, born at Leyden in 1607. About 1630 he 
 went to England, and painted portraits of the royal 
 family. He afterwards worked at Antwerp, chiefly on 
 historical subjects, and acquired a high reputation. As an 
 engraver he is said to rival Rembrandt. Died in 1663. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintre's Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Ligario, le-ga're-o, (Pietro,) an Italian painter, born 
 in the Valtellina in 1686; died in 1752. 
 
 Ll-ga'rl-us, (Quintus,) a Roman officer, who fought 
 for Pompey in the civil war, and after the battle of Phar- 
 salia renewed the war against Caesar in Africa. He was 
 pardoned by the victor, but was forbidden to enter Italy. 
 When his friends made efforts to restore him to citizen- 
 ship, they were opposed by Tubero, who became his 
 public accuser in a trial before the dictator, in 45 or 46 
 B.C. On this occasion Cicero pronounced his admirable 
 oration "Pro Ligario." Plutarch informs us that Caesar 
 
 had resolved to condemn Ligarius, but that in the 
 course of the speech his colour often changed, his frame 
 trembled, and a verdict of acquittal was obtained from 
 him through the transcendent powers of the orator. 
 
 See Plutakch, "Life of Cicero." 
 
 Liger, le'zha', (Louis,) a French writer on agricul- 
 ture, born at Auxerre in 1658. He published several 
 mediocre but useful works. Died in 1717. 
 
 Light'foot, (John,) an English divine, eminent as a 
 biblical commentator, was born in Staffordshire in 1602. 
 He was an excellent Hebrew scholar. In 1630 he be- 
 came rector of Ashley, and in 1642 obtained the living of 
 Saint Bartholomew, in London. He was identified with 
 the Presbyterians during the civil war. About 1644 
 he was chosen master of Catherine Hall, Cambridge, 
 and was presented to the living of Great Munden. In 
 Rabbinical literature he had few, if any, superiors. He 
 published " Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae," (1658,) and 
 many Latin commentaries on the Scriptures, one of 
 which is called " Harmony of the Four Evangelists," 
 (1644-50.) Died in 1675. 
 
 See " Brevis Descriptio Vita J. Lightfooti," 1699 ; Niceron, 
 " Me'moires." 
 
 Lightfoot, (John,) F.R.S., an English botanist, born 
 in Gloucestershire in 1735. He was educated for the 
 church, becime chaplain to the Duchess of Portland, 
 and obtained the livings of Sheldon and Gotham. In 
 company with Pennant, he explored the Hebrides about 
 1772, and published in 1777 a valuable " Flora of Scot- 
 land," (" Flora Scotica," 2 vols.,) with excellent figures. 
 His herbal was purchased by the king, and was after- 
 wards consulted with profit by Sir J. E. Smith. Died 
 in 1788. 
 
 See Pennant, " Life of J. Lightfoot." 
 
 Lignac, de, deh len'ytk', (Joseph Adrien le Large,) 
 a French abbe and author, born of a noble family of 
 Poitiers. 1 Ie wrote " Letters to an American on Button's 
 Natural History," (1751-56, 4 vols.,) and a few other 
 works. Died in 1762. 
 
 Ligne, de, deh lefi, (Karl Joseph,* Prince, an able 
 Austrian general and witty author, born at Brussels, 
 May 12, 1735, was ,ne son °f a field-marshal in the Aus- 
 trian service. He served with distinction in the Seven 
 Years' war, (1755-62,) and was made a general -major in 
 1765. In 1782 he was ambassador to Russia, and was 
 highly favoured by Catherine II. He commanded a 
 corps at the capture of Belgrade in 1789. He obtained 
 the rank of field-marshal in 1808. His generous and 
 chivalrous character rendered him the idol of his army. 
 He died at Vienna in 1814, leaving interesting memoirs, 
 letters, and other works, (in French,) which contain 
 curious anecdotes and piquant passages. Madame de 
 Stael published in 1809 a volume of "Letters and 
 Thoughts of Prince de Ligne." He had published 
 "Military, Literary, and Sentimental Miscellanies," 
 ("Melanges militaircs, litteraires et sentimentaires." 
 34 vols., 1 795—181 1.) According to Madame de Stael, 
 " he was the only foreigner that became a model in the 
 French style, instead of an imitator." 
 
 See "Letters and Reflections of the Austrian Field-Marshal 
 Prince de Ligne :" Soubir \n, " Biographie du Prince C. de Ligne," 
 1807: Sainte Hkuvk, "Causeries du Lundi ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale. " 
 
 Ligniville, de, deh len've'vel', (Rene Chari.es Eli- 
 sabeth,) Comte, a French general, born in 1757; died 
 in 1813. 
 
 Lignon, Icii'von', (Etienne Frederic,) a French 
 engraver, born in Paris in 1779 ; died in 1833. 
 
 Lig'on, ? (Richarp,) an English traveller, who emi- 
 grated to Barbadoes in 1647 and returned to England 
 in 1650. He published "A True and Exact History 
 of Barbadoes," a work of some value. He was the 
 overseer of the female slave Yarico, whose story is 
 narrated in his book and furnished Steele a subject for 
 the eleventh number of the "Spectator." 
 
 Ligonier, lig'o-neer', (John,) Earl, an eminent gene- 
 ral of the British army, was born of Protestant parents in 
 Fiance in 1678, and emigrated to England in early youth. 
 He fought at Blenheim,(l704,) Ramillies, and Malplaquet. 
 (1709,) and commanded the infantry at Fontenoy, (1745.) 
 In 1746 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as ;; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jr^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 90 
 
L IGOR 10 
 
 1426 
 
 L1MATRAC 
 
 British forces in Flanders. He displayed great skill and 
 courage at Laffeklt in 1747, but was there made prisoner. 
 He became an English peer, with the title of Earl Ligo- 
 nier, in 1766, and was a field-marshal and privy coun- 
 cillor at his death, in 1770. 
 
 See MM. Haag, m La France protestante." 
 
 Iiigorio, le-go're-o, (Pirro,) an Italian architect, 
 painter, and antiquary, born in Naples about 1530, or, 
 as others say, 1498. He was appointed by Paul IV. 
 architect of the Vatican and of Saint Peter's Church, 
 which Michael Angelo had previously superintended. 
 The latter left Rome about that time. Ligorio, having 
 deviated from the plan of Michael Angelo, which he was 
 ordered to follow, was discharged in 1568. He then was 
 employed as architect by Alphonso, Duke of Ferrara. 
 He died about 1580, leaving in manuscript voluminous 
 writings on antiquities and architecture, which are 
 praised by Muratori. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy;" " Nouveile Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Ligozzi, le-got'see, (Jacoi'o,) an eminent Italian 
 painter of history, born at Verona in 1543, was a pupil 
 of Paul Veronese. He painted both in fresco and in oil. 
 Having acquired a high reputation at Verona, he re- 
 moved to Florence, where he received the title of painter 
 to the grand duke Ferdinand. Among his master-pieces 
 are " The Four Crowned Saints," at Imola, and the 
 " Martyrdom of Saint Dorothea," at Pescia. His smaller 
 pictures are highly finished. Died in 1627. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting, in Italy ;" Ticozzi, "Diziona- 
 rio:" Lomazzo, "Idea del Teinpio della Pittura." 
 
 Liguori, da, da le-goo-o'ree, (Alfonso Maria,) an 
 Italian priest and casuist, born at or near Naples in 
 1696. He founded in 1732 an order of missionaries to 
 convert or instruct the lower classes, and named it the 
 Order of the Most Holy Redeemer. In 1762 he was 
 appointed Bishop of Saint Agatha dei Goti. He wrote, 
 besides other approved works, a " Moral Theology," 
 (1755,) which was often reprinted. Died in 1787. 
 
 See Giattini. "Vita del beate A. M. Liguori," 1815; G. Kloth, 
 " Leben des heiligen A. M. Liguori," 1835 ; " Life of Saint A. M. de 
 Liguori," London, 2 vols., 184.8. 
 
 Lil'burne, (John,) an English Puritan enthusiast and 
 radical agitator, was born in Durham in 1618. He was 
 accused before the Star Chamber in 1637 of distributing 
 seditious pamphlets, and was condemned to be whipped 
 and imprisoned. He was released in 1640, and obtained 
 ^2000 damages. In 1644 he fought bravely against the 
 king at Marston Moor, where he led a regiment. He 
 afterwards attacked Prynne, Lenthal, and others in pam- 
 phlets, for which he was committed to Newgate. He 
 was one of the master-spirits of the "Levellers," and 
 a stubborn opponent of Cromwell's authority. In 165 1 
 he was tried for treason and acquitted by the jury. He 
 became a Quaker a few years before his death, which 
 occurred in 1657. Hume designates him as "the most 
 turbulent, but the most upright and courageous, of human 
 kind." (" History of England.") 
 
 See, also, Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion ;" " Monk's 
 Contemporaries," by GutzoT, London, 1865. 
 
 Lilieblad, lee'le-eh-blad', or Liljenblad, leel'yen- 
 blad', (Gustavus,) a Swedish scholar and linguist, born 
 at Strengnes in 165 1. He was for many years professor 
 of Oriental languages at Upsal, and wrote, in Latin, a 
 "History of Egypt," (1698.) Died in 1710. 
 
 See Gezelius, " Biographiskt- Lexicon." 
 
 Lilienberg or Liljenberg, lee'le-?n-b?Rg', (Erik 
 Gustaf,) Baron OF, a Swedish general, who served in 
 the French army at Laufeld and in other battles. Died 
 in 1770. 
 
 Iiilienkrantz or Liljenkrantz, lee'le-en-l<Rants', or 
 Liliecrantz, lee'le-eh-kkants', (Johann,) Count de, a 
 Swedish financier, born about 1730. On the accession 
 of Gustavus III. (1771) he was appointed minister of 
 finances, which he managed with success for many years. 
 Died in 1815. 
 
 See Gevf.r, " Histoire de la Suede." 
 
 Ziilienthal, lee'le-en-til', (Michael,) a learned Prus- 
 sian philologist, born at Liebstadt in 1686. He was 
 for many years professor of theology in the University 
 
 of Konigsberg. He was the principal editor of the 
 "Erlautettes Preussen," (1724-28,) a highly-esteemed 
 literary journal, and published, besides other works, 
 "Historical and Literary Selections," ("Selecta His- 
 torica et Literaria," 1711-19.) Died In 1750. 
 
 See Hirsching, "HistorLch-liteiarisches Hamlbuch ;" Meusel, 
 "Lcxikon." 
 
 Lilienthal, (Theodor Christian,) a German theo- 
 logian and writer, a son of the preceding, was born at 
 Konigsberg in 1 7 1 7 ; died in 1782. 
 
 Liiio, lee'le-o, or Lilli, lel'lee, (Andrea,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Ancona in 1555. He worked at Rome 
 for Sixtus V., and at Ancona. Died in 1610. 
 
 Lilio, (Luigi,) [Lat. Aloy'sius Lil'ius,] an Italian 
 physician and astronomer, born in Calabria. He is 
 remembered only for the part he had in the reform of 
 the calendar under the auspices of Gregory XIII. He 
 applied the epacts to the cycle of nineteen years, and, 
 by adding one day to the end of each cycle, he arrived 
 at an approximative equation of the solar and lunar 
 years. He died in 1576, just after he had finished the 
 work. His method was approved by the pope in 1582. 
 
 Lilio Giraldi. See GlKALDL 
 
 Lilius. See Lilio. 
 
 Liljenblad. See Lilieblad. 
 
 Liljenkrantz. See Lilienkrantz. 
 
 Iiil'lo, (George,) a successful English dramatist, born 
 in 1693, became a jeweller of London. He holds a high 
 rank among English dramatists of the second order. 
 "The Fatal Curiosity," a tragedy, (1737,) is called his 
 master-piece, and is constructed with remarkable skill. 
 His "George Barnwell" and "Arden of Feversham" 
 were also popular. Died in 1739. 
 
 See " Biographia Dramatica ;" Campbell, " Specimens of the 
 British Poets." 
 
 Lil'ly, written also Lily and Lyly, (John,) an English 
 dramatic writer, born in Kent about 1553. He wrote 
 several dramas, which were performed with success, and 
 flourished as a wit at the court of Elizabeth. About 1580 
 he published " Euphues : the Anatomy of Wit," which 
 became very popular with that pedantic generation for 
 fls affected and dainty style, called "Euphuism." "It 
 deserves notice," says Haliam, "on account of the influ- 
 ence it is recorded to have had upon the court of Eliza- 
 beth and over the public taste." He was the author of 
 a famous satirical pamphlet against Martin Mar-Prelate, 
 called " Pap with a Hatchet." Died about 1600. 
 
 See "The Dramatic Works of John Lyly, with some Account 
 of his Life," etc., by T. W. Fairholt, 1858; "London Quarterly 
 Review" for April, 1861. 
 
 Lilly, (William,) a famous English astrologer, born 
 in Leicestershire in 1602. In early life he was employed 
 as a servant in London. He began to study astrology 
 in 1632, and acquired fame as a fortune-teller. He pro- 
 fited by the credulity of Charles I., who consulted him 
 on political affairs in the civil war. Some agents of the 
 popular party also patronized him. He published an- 
 nually an almanac, called " Merlinus Anglicus Junior," 
 (1644-81.) His character is represented by Butler under 
 the name of " Sidrophel." Died in 1681. 
 
 See "Life and Times of W. Lilly," by himself, 1715; "Retro, 
 spective Review," vol. ii., 1820. 
 
 Lil'y or Lilly, (William,) a distinguished English 
 schoolmaster, born at Odiham, in Hampshire, about 
 1468. After studying languages in Greece and Rome, 
 he settled in London in 1509, and opened a grammar- 
 school. He. appears to have been the first who taught 
 Greek in London. In 1512 he became master of Saint 
 Paul's School, just founded by Coletr. He pub^jshed, 
 besides Latin poems, " Brevissima Institutio seu Ratio 
 Granimatices cognoscendae," (1513,) commonly called 
 "Lily's Grammar," which was for a long time more 
 used in English schools than any other Latin grammar. 
 He was intimate with Erasmus. Died in 1523. 
 
 See Warton, " History of Poetry." 
 
 Lima, de, da lee'ma, (Luiz Caetano,) a Portuguese 
 historian and grammarian, born in Lisbon in 1671 ; died 
 in 1757. 
 
 Limayrac, le'm&'rtk', (PAULtN,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Caussade in 1817. He became chief editor of 
 "La Patrie," a daily paper of Paris, in 1858. 
 
 4. e, T, o, ii, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; 3, e, I, o, ti, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
LIMBORCH 
 
 •4*7 
 
 LINCOLN 
 
 Limborch, van, vin lim'boRK', written also Lim- 
 borg, (IIf.ndkik,) a Dutch painter, born at the Hague 
 in 1680, was one of the best pupils of Adrian van der 
 Werf, of whose works he made fine copies. Died in 1758. 
 
 Limborch, van, ( Phi i.ippus,) a learned Dutch theolo- 
 gian, was born in Amsterdam the 19th of June, 1633. He 
 was one of the principal supporters of the Remonstrant 
 or Arminian doctrines, which were condemned by the 
 Synod of Dort in 1619. After preaching f.r ten years 
 at Gouda, he became in 1668 pastor and professor of 
 theology at Amsterdam. He corresponded for a long 
 time with John Locke. His most important work is 
 "Theologia Christiana," (1686,) "a system of divinity 
 and morals which," says Hallam, "is the fullest delinea- 
 tion of the Arminian scheme." He wrote a " History 
 of the Inquisition," ('692.) Died in 1712. 
 
 See Leci.erc, "Oratio funebris in Obitum P. Limborch," 1712; 
 Van der Hoevkn, " Pissertationes II. de J. Clerico et P. a Lim- 
 borch," etc., 1843; Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Limbourg, van, vin lim'boour/, (Jan Piiii.ippus,) 
 a Flemish medical writer, born near Spa in 1726. He 
 practised at Spa with great success. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Limburg-Brouwer, van, vin lim'buRH bRow'^r, 
 (Piktkr,) a Dutch poet, born in 1795 ; died in 1847. 
 
 Limnaeus or Limnaus, lim-na'us, (Johann,) a Ger- 
 man publicist, born at Jena in 1592. lie was preceptor 
 of the Margrave of Anspach and of Albert of Branden- 
 burg, who afterwards employed him as chancellor and 
 privy councillor. He wrote an esteemed work on "The 
 Public Law of the Romano-Germanic Empire," (3 vols., 
 1645-57,) and an "Account of the French Monarchy and 
 Constitution," (" Notitia Regni Galliae," 2 vols., 1655.) 
 Died in 1663. 
 
 See Strebel, "Leben und Schriften des Staatslebrers J. Lim- 
 n*eus," 1741. 
 
 Limousin or Limosin. See Leonard de Limousin. 
 
 Lin. See Linus. 
 
 Lin, van, vin lln, (Hans,) a Dutch painter of genre, 
 who flourished about 1650, was surnamed S tilhkid. He 
 excelled in battle-pieces, and painted horses better than 
 any other Dutch artist except Wouwerman. 
 
 Linacre, lir/a-ker, written also Linacer (or Lina- 
 ker) and Lynacer, (Thomas,) an eminent English 
 physician and scholar, born at Canterbury about 1460. 
 He learned Greek of Demetrius Chalcondylas at Flor- 
 ence, and studied medicine at Rome. After his return to 
 England he lectured on medicine, and taught Greek at 
 Oxford for several years, until Henry VIII. employed 
 him as physician and preceptor of Prince Arthur. He 
 was the principal founder and first president of the Col- 
 lege of Physicians, London. At an advanced age he took 
 orders, and obtained the rectory of Mersham, a prebend 
 in York Cathedral, and other benefices. He was an ex- 
 cellent classical scholar, and a correspondent of Erasmus. 
 He translated several of Galen's works into Latin, and 
 wrote "On the Correct Structure of Latin Prose," (" De 
 Emendata Structura Latini Sermonis,") which Hallam 
 calls "the first-fruits of English erudition," and which 
 mu.-t, he says, have been highly valuable. Died in 1524. 
 
 See " Lives of British Physicians," London, 1857 ; Bayle, " His- 
 torical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Liuant, le'n&N', (Michel,) a French littiratair, born 
 at Louviers in 1708. Voltaire, who was his friend, spoke 
 highly. of his taste and imagination. Linant lived in 
 Paris, and was employed as tutor to the sons of M. 
 Hebert. He wrote odes, epistles, and other short poems, 
 which gained several prizes of the French Academy. He 
 also published an edition of Voltaire's works, (1738.) 
 Died in 1749. 
 
 Linck, link, (Johann Heinrich,) a German natu- 
 ralist, born at I^ipsic in 1674; died in 1734. 
 
 Lincoln, link'on, (Abraham,) the sixteenth President 
 of the United States, was born in Hardin county, Ken- 
 tucky, (in a part now included in Larue county,) the 
 I2th of February, 1809. His ancestors were of English 
 descent ; they are supposed to have originally emigrated 
 to America with the followers of William Penn. A 
 little before the middle of last century they resided in 
 Berks a unty, Pennsylvania, whence a part of the family 
 removed in 1750 to Virginia. About the year 1780 
 Abraham Lincoln, the grandfather of the subject of this 
 
 notice, settled in Kentucky, where not long after he was 
 stealthily shot by an Indian. He left three sons, of whom 
 the eldest, Thomas Lincoln, married and settled in Har- 
 din county in 1806. Abraham Lincoln was his second 
 child and oldest son. His childhood was passed in the 
 midst of hardship and toil. When he was scarcely 
 eight years old, his parents removed to Spencer county, 
 Indiana. It was a difficult and wearisome journey, and 
 he ever afterwards retained a vivid recollection of the 
 trials and hardships which he passed through on that 
 occasion. Before he was eleven years of age, he ex- 
 perienced a bitter and irreparable loss in the death of 
 his mother. Under her guidance he had learned to 
 read and prize the Bible, and to her influence, there is 
 reason to believe, he was largely indebted for the develop- 
 ment of those rare and noble moral traits which have 
 conferred upon him, if not a brilliant, at least a spotless 
 and ever-enduring fame. Among the books which, as a 
 boy, he particularly valued, was a Life of Washington ; 
 and it is not improbable that the contemplation of such a 
 character, which united to plain and practical common 
 sense moral qualities of the highest order, may have 
 contributed not a little to that combination of straight- 
 forward simplicity and moral grandeur for which Lin- 
 coln was afterwards distinguished. The "Pilgrim's 
 Progress" was also one of his favourite books; and its 
 influence upon his style may perhaps be traced not 
 merely in his preference for forcible and racy Saxon 
 words, but also in that homely directness of expression 
 by which all his speeches and writings are characterized. 
 On the breaking out of the Black Hawk war,' in the 
 early part of 1832, Lincoln promptly volunteered for the 
 defence of the frontier settlements, and was chosen captain 
 of his company. The war, however, having been speedily 
 brought to a close before he had an opportunity of meet- 
 ing the enemy, he returned to the pursuits of peace. In 
 the political contest which took place between General 
 Jackson and Henry Clay in the autumn of 1832, he zeal- 
 ously espoused the cause of the latter, for whom he 
 had felt an enthusiastic admiration from his boyhood. 
 He himself was a candidate for the State legislature; 
 and, although unsuccessful, he received in his own pre- 
 cinct two hundred and seventy-seven votes out of the 
 two hundred and eighty-four which had been cast; that 
 is, thirty-nine fortieths of the whole number. In 1834 
 he was again a candidate for the legislature, and was 
 elected. He was re-elected in 1836. In March, 1837, 
 he gave proof of the uprightness as well as independ- 
 ence of his character by recording his protest on the 
 journal of the House against some extreme pro-slavery 
 resolutions which had been passed by the Democratic 
 majority in the legislature. At that time the expression 
 of any anti-slavery sentiments was extremely unpopular 
 in every part of the United States, but perhaps nowhere 
 north of Mason and Dixon's line was it more so than in 
 Illinois. Lincoln and another member who shared his 
 views declared in their protest that "they believe that 
 the. institution of slavery is founded in injustice and bad 
 policy." Having been again elected to the legislature 
 in 1838, he became the acknowledged leader of the 
 Whigs in the House, and received the entire vote of his 
 party for the speakership, which he lost by only one vote. 
 He had been admitted to the bar in 1836, and in April, 
 1837, he established himself permanently in Springfield 
 and commenced the practice of law in earnest, with John 
 T. Stuart as his partner. In November, 1S42, he mar- 
 ried Miss Mary Todd, daughter of Robert S. Todd, Esq., 
 of Lexington, Kentucky. Having accepted the nomi- 
 nation for Congress in 1846, he was triumphantly elected, 
 being the only Whig out of the seven representatives 
 sent by Illinois to the national legislature. During the 
 time that he was in Congress he uniformly gave his voice 
 in favour of freedom, voting against laying on the table 
 without consideration the petitions for the abolition of 
 slavery, and always supporting the doctrines of the 
 Wilmot Proviso whenever any measure of this kind 
 was before the House. The passage of the Nebraska 
 bill in May, 1854, involving the repeal of the Missouri 
 Compromise, gave everywhere fresh interest and ar- 
 dour to the contest between freedom and slavery. A 
 United States Senator was to be chosen by the Illinois 
 
 e as k; 9 as t; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LINCOLN 
 
 1428 
 
 LINCOLN 
 
 legislature. Lincoln had been nominated by the Repub- 
 lican party as their candidate for the Senate of the United 
 States. Judge Douglas, confessedly the ablest politician 
 and best debater among all the Democratic leaders of 
 the West, was the opposing candidate. Lincoln chal- 
 lenged his opponent to a series of public discussions 
 respecting the views and policy of the two contending 
 parties. That political contest first fully revealed the 
 versatility, depth, and comprehensiveness of Mr. Lin- 
 coln's mind. Even some of those belonging to the party 
 of Judge Douglas admitted that the latter was inferior 
 to his opponent both in learning and in argument, — in 
 short, in every essential qualification for the discussion 
 of those great principles which were then agitating the 
 country from one extremity to the other. As the elec- 
 tion of United States Senator depended on the legisla- 
 ture, and not on a direct vote by the people, Douglas 
 was the successful competitor ; but the extraordinary 
 ability displayed by Lincoln in the discussion above re- 
 ferred to, led to his nomination by the Republican party 
 in 1S60 as their candidate for the Presidency. No Presi- 
 dential contest involving issues so momentous had ever 
 before occurred. The general election then about to 
 take place was to decide the all-important question 
 whether the blighting influence of slavery should be 
 allowed to extend to every part of the republic, or should 
 thenceforward be restricted to the territory which it 
 already possessed. Never before had any Presidential 
 election so strongly excited all the hopes and fears of the 
 patriot, all the affections and passions of the people. 
 It took place on the 6th of November, i860. Lincoln 
 received the electoral votes of all the free States except 
 New Jersey, which was divided, giving him four votes 
 and Douglas three. Breckinridge received the votes 
 of all the slave States except Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- 
 nessee, and Missouri ; the three former voted for Bell, 
 the last for Douglas. Lincoln received in all one hun- 
 dred and eighty electoral votes, Breckinridge seventy-two, 
 Bell thirty-nine, and Douglas twelve. 
 
 No sooner was the result of the election known than 
 several of the Southern States made preparations for 
 formally separating themselves from the Federal Union. 
 South Carolina took the lead in the secession movement. 
 The legislature convened in November and passed an 
 act calling a State convention to meet on the 17th of 
 December. It met accordingly, and on the 20th an 
 ordinance was passed unanimously dissolving the union 
 till then "subsisting between South Carolina and other 
 States under the name of the United States of America." 
 It was evident, from the language of the leading men in 
 that convention, that the ordinance of secession was not 
 the result of any sudden excitement or hastily-adopted 
 resolution, but was the deliberate fulfilment of a settled 
 and -long-cherished purpose. "The secession of South 
 Carolina," said Mr. Rhett, "was not the event of a day." 
 It was "a matter which had been gathering head for 
 thirty years." Mr. Inglis said that most of them had 
 had it "under consideration for the last twenty years." 
 " So far," says Raymond, "as South Carolina was con- 
 cerned, there can be no doubt that her action was de- 
 cided by men who had been plotting disunion for thirty 
 years, not on account of any wrongs her people had sus- 
 tained at the hands of the Federal government, but from 
 motives of personal and sectional ambition, and for the 
 purpose of establishing a government which should be 
 permanently and completely in the interest of slavery." 
 (" Lincoln's Administration," chap, i.) Following the 
 example of South Carolina, Mississippi passed an ordi- 
 nance of secession on the 9th of January, 1861,* Florida 
 January 10, Alabama January II, Georgia January 18, 
 Louisiana January 26, Texas February I, Thus, more 
 than a month previous to the expiration of Mr. Buch- 
 anan's term of office, seven States had done all that 
 lay in their power to dissolve their connection with the 
 Union. Delegates appointed by the conventions of the 
 seceding States met at Montgomery early in February, 
 and formed a new Confederacy, of which Jefferson Davis, 
 of Mississippi, was elected President, and Alexander H. 
 
 * These dates, and most of the others in this article connected 
 with the events of the rebellion, are taken from Greeley's "American 
 Conflict." 
 
 Stephens, of Georgia, Vice-President. Not long after, 
 Mr. Stephens, in an elaborate speech addressed to the 
 people of Savannah, attempted to vindicate the course 
 of the seceders in setting up a new government in oppo- 
 sition to that of the United States. On that occasion he 
 said that the prevailing ideas of Jefferson and "most 
 of the leading statesmen at the time of the formation of 
 the old Constitution were that the enslavement of the 
 African was a violation of the laws of nature, that it was 
 wrong in principle, socially, morally, politically. . . . 
 These ideas, however, were fundamentally wrong. They 
 rested upon the assumption of the equality of races. 
 This was an error. . . . Our new government was 
 founded upon exactly the opposite ideas ; its foundations 
 are laid, its corner-stone rests, upon the great truth that 
 the negro is not equal to the white man ; tRat slavery, 
 subordination to the superior race, is his natural and 
 normal condition. This, our new government, is the 
 first in the history of the world based upon this great 
 physical, philosophical, and moral truth." 
 
 While President Buchanan took the ground that the 
 Federal government had no right to coerce the seceding 
 States, several members of the cabinet had not neglected 
 the opportunities which their official position afforded, of 
 promoting the interests of the Southern Confederacy. 
 The secretary of war, John B. Floyd, took care to make 
 such a disposition of the Federal arms and ammunition 
 that in case the new administration should be disposed 
 to adopt a more decisive policy it would find its energies 
 paralyzed by a total want of the material of war, while 
 the revolted States, in case of necessity, might readily 
 possess themselves of that very material which had been 
 thus adroitly placed beyond the reach of the Federal 
 government. An official report from the ordnance 
 department, dated January 16, 1861, shows that during 
 the ye' ;86o 115,000 muskets had been removed from 
 North. 1 armories and sent to Southern arsenals by a 
 single order of the secretary of war ; and it was claimed 
 for him, by one of his eulogists in Virginia, that, while 
 a member of President Buchanan's cabinet, Mr. Floyd 
 "thwarted, resisted, and forbade" certain measures 
 which, if carried into effect, would have rendered the 
 formation of the Southern Confederacy impossible. 
 
 It was under such circumstances as these — with seven 
 of the most influential of the United States in open re- 
 volt, and several others on the eve of secession, — with 
 timorous indecision at the head of the government, and 
 secret treason lurking not only among the members 
 of the cabinet, but also among the officers of the army 
 and navy — that Abraham Lincoln, on the nth of Feb- 
 ruary, 1 861, left his Western home and proceeded to 
 Washington to take into his hands the reins of govern- 
 ment. His brief parting words to his friends at Spring- 
 field reveal at one view the simple, manly earnestness 
 of his character, and that humble but unfaltering trust 
 in God by which he was sustained through all the perils 
 and darkness which surrounded his administration. " My 
 Friends : No one not in my position can appreciate the 
 sadness I feel at this parting. To this people I owe all 
 that I am. Here I have lived more than a quarter of a 
 century ; here my children were born, and here one of 
 them lies buried. I know not how soon I shall see you 
 again. A duty devolves upon me which is, perhaps, 
 greater than that which has devolved upon any other 
 man since the days of Washington. He never would 
 have succeeded except for the aid of divine Providence, 
 upon which he at all times relied. I feel that I cannot 
 succeed without the same divine aid which sustained 
 him; and on the same almighty Being I place my reli- 
 ance for support ; and I hope you, my friends, will all 
 pray that I may receive that divine assistance, without 
 which I cannot succeed, but with which success is 
 certain. Again I bid you all an affectionate farewell." 
 
 A rumour was current some time before the President- 
 elect left his home in Illinois, that he would never reach 
 the national capital alive. An attempt was made (Feb- 
 ruary n) on the Toledo and Western Railroad to throw 
 from the track the train on which he was ; and after- 
 wards, just as he was leaving Cincinnati, a hand-grenade 
 was found to have been secreted on the car. A plot had 
 likewise been formed to take his life during his passage 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; n3t; gd"6d; moon; 
 
LINCOLN 
 
 1429 
 
 LINCOLN 
 
 through Baltimore on his way to Washington. Mr. 
 Seward and General Scott, having been informed of 
 that fact, arranged it that Lincoln should pass through 
 Baltimore several hours earlier than had at first been 
 proposed. The plans of the conspirators were thus 
 frustrated, and the President-elect reached Washington 
 in safety on the morning of the 23d of February. 
 
 Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated as President of the 
 United States on the 4th of March, 186 1. In his ad- 
 dress on that occasion he mildly but distinctly and 
 firmly announced his purpose to "take care that the 
 laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all the States." 
 "I trust," he adds, "this will not be regarded as a 
 menace. . . . There need be no bloodshed or violence ; 
 and there shall be none, unless it be forced upon the 
 national authority. The power confided to me will be 
 used to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places 
 belonging to the government, and to collect the duties 
 and imposts ; but, beyond what may be necessary for 
 these objects, there will be no invasion, no using of force 
 against or among the people, anywhere. . . . The mails, 
 unless repelled, will continue to be furnished in all parts 
 of the Union. So far as possible, the people everywhere 
 shall have that sense of perfect security which is most 
 favourable to calm thought and reflection. . . . Physically 
 speaking, we cannot separate. We cannot remove our 
 respective sections from each other, nor build an impass- 
 able wall between them. A husband and wife may be 
 divorced and go out of the presence and beyond the 
 reach of each other ; but the different parts of our coun- 
 try cannot do this. They cannot but remain face to face ; 
 and intercourse, either amicable or hostile, must continue 
 between them. Is it possible, then, to make the inter- 
 course more advantageous or more satisfactory after 
 separation than before? . . . Thk Chief Magistrate 
 Derives all his authority from the people; and 
 they have conferred none upon him to fix terms 
 for the separation of the states. . . . hls duty is 
 to administer the present government as it came 
 in to his hands, and to transmit it unimpaired by 
 him to his successor. 
 
 "My countrymen, one and all, think calmly and well 
 upon this whole subject. Nothing valuable can be lost 
 by taking time. If there be an object to hurry any of 
 you in hot haste to a step which you would never take 
 delil>erately, that object will be frustrated by taking 
 time ; but no good object can be frustrated by it. . . . 
 
 " In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, 
 and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. 
 . . . You can have no conflict without being yourselves 
 the aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven 
 to destroy the government, while I shall have the most 
 solemn one to ' preserve, protect, and defend' it." Mr. 
 Lincoln did not deny that the laws of the Federal gov- 
 ernment, and even the Constitution itself, might perhaps 
 bear unequally and hardly upon some sections of the 
 country; but he thought that all grievances of this kind 
 would be far more likely to be properly redressed through 
 a calm and friendly appeal to the sense of justice in the 
 people than by violence or war. 
 
 It was enough, however, for the slave-holding party 
 that he denied not merely the expediency but the right 
 of any State or sectional combination of States to se- 
 cede. This was considered equivalent to a declaration 
 of war ; and active preparations for the coming struggle 
 were at once commenced throughout the seceded States. 
 The moderate, reasonable, and conciliatory tone of the 
 Inaugural had, it cannot be doubted, a most happy effect, 
 not only in uniting and consolidating, so to speak, the 
 public sentiment of the North, but also in encouraging 
 all those in the border States who, whatever may have 
 been their views in relation to slavery, had not vet cast 
 off all attachment to the national flag and the Federal 
 Union. Fort Sumter, in the harbour of Charleston, was 
 occupied by a United States garrison, under the com- 
 mand of Major Anderson. General Beauregard, on the 
 part of the Southern Confederacy, demanded its sur- 
 render. To this demand, which was made on the Ilth 
 of April, Major Anderson at once replied that his "sense 
 of honour and his obligations to his government prevented 
 his compliance." Early on the 12th an attack on the fort 
 
 was commenced, and kept up with the utmost fury with 
 shells and red-hot cannon-balls, in consequence of which 
 Major Anderson, after a gallant resistance of thirty-three 
 hours, was at length obliged to evacuate the place, which 
 he did on the morning of the 14th. The bombardment 
 of Fort Sumter was the first aggressive act committed 
 on either side. It produced a deep and intense excite- 
 ment throughout the Northern States, breaking down 
 for a time all party distinctions, and uniting the whole 
 people in an earnest, unfaltering purpose to support the 
 government.* The President, justly regarding this un- 
 provoked attack upon a United States fort as the com- 
 mencement of actual war, issued on the next day (April 
 15) a proclamation directing both Houses of Congress 
 to meet in extra session on the 4th of July following, 
 and calling out "the militia of the several States of the 
 Union, to the aggregate number of 75,000," for the pur- 
 pose of supporting the authority and enforcing the laws 
 of the Federal Union. It was not, however, merely for 
 maintaining the authority of the government that troops 
 were needed, but for the defence of the national capital 
 itself. The President of the Southern Confederacy had 
 declared, more than a month before, that whenever war 
 should commence the North and not the South should 
 be the battle-field ; and the recent attack on Fort Sumter 
 was a sufficient proof that no veneration for the national 
 flag nor any lurking scruples of any kind would be likely 
 to prevent the carrying out of that threat if it were pos- 
 sible to accomplish it. All the Northern States responded 
 to the demand of President Lincoln with the utmost 
 alacrity and zeal. Massachusetts — be it said to her 
 immortal honour — was the first in the field. The 
 next day after the issue of the proclamation, her Sixth 
 regiment left Boston for the national capital. Two 
 more regiments set out within forty-eight hours. The 
 Sixth regiment was attacked (April 19) in Baltimore 
 by a mob carrying a secession flag, and several of 
 the soldiers were killed or severely wounded. Gov- 
 ernor Hicks having united with Mayor Brown, of Balti- 
 more, in urging, for prudential reasons, that no more 
 troops should be brought through that city, it was ar- 
 ranged that those needed for the defence of Washington 
 should in future be sent thither by way of Annapolis. 
 On the 19th of April President Lincoln issued a procla- 
 mation blockading the ports of the seceded States. The 
 excitement caused by the bombardment of Fort Sumter, 
 which tended so powerfully to unite public sentiment at 
 the North, appeared to have produced a still greater 
 effect in the Southern States, where the enthusiasm 
 of the people was inflamed almost to frenzy by what 
 seemed the brilliant success of the Confederates, in re- 
 ducing so quickly a fortress which was regarded as one 
 of the strongest in the United States, though it was at 
 that time feebly garrisoned and supplied with provisions 
 for a few days only. Yielding to this whirlwind of ex- 
 citement, the legislature of Virginia, on the 17th of 
 April, (three days after the taking of Fort Sumter,) 
 passed an ordinance of secession by a vote of 88 to 55. 
 Not long after, the State Convention of North Carolina, 
 elected during the excitement which followed the cap- 
 ture of Sumter, passed unanimously an ordinance of 
 secession. 
 
 The most active preparations were made on both sides 
 for the contest which was now inevitable. In the seceding 
 States more than a hundred thousand troops had been 
 raised, of which the larger portion had been marched 
 towards the Northern border. The greatness of the force 
 arrayed against the government made an additional sup- 
 ply of troops necessary for the security of the national 
 capital. A second proclamation was issued on the 3d 
 of May, calling into the United States service a large 
 number of volunteers, and greatly increasing the force 
 both of the army and navy. The difficulties surrounding 
 the new administration were rendered still more for- 
 midable by the precipitate action of the French and 
 English governments, which, as soon as information was 
 
 • The very next day after Major Anderson had evacuated the mini 
 of Fort Sumter, a leading journal of New York (the " Tribune") aptly 
 and forcibly observed, " Port Sumter is lost, but freedom is savea. 
 . . . It is hard to lose Sumter: it is a consolation to know that in 
 losing it we have gained a united people." 
 
 i i; c as >; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. aj) 
 
LINCOLN 
 
 '43° 
 
 LINCOLN 
 
 received that hostilities had actually begun in America, 
 determined, in concert, to acknowledge the Southern 
 Confederacy as a belligerent power. 
 
 In accordance with the proclamation of the 15th of 
 April, Congress met in extra session, July 4, 1861. In 
 the message which on that occasion the President ad- 
 dressed to the Senators and representatives, after re- 
 viewing the condition of the country and explaining 
 the course of the government, he proceeds to say, — 
 
 " It is thus seen that the assault upon and reduction 
 of Fort Sumter was in no sense a matter of self-defence 
 upon the part of the assailants. They well knew that 
 the garrison in the fort could by no possibility commit 
 aggression upon them. They knew, they were expressly 
 notified, that the giving of bread to the few brave and 
 hungry men of the garrison was all which would on that 
 occasion be attempted, unless themselves, by resisting 
 so much, should provoke more. They knew that this 
 government desired to keep the garrison in the fort, not 
 to assail them, but to maintain visible possession, and 
 thus to preserve the Union from actual and immediate 
 dissolution, trusting, as before stated, to time, discussion, 
 and the ballot-box for final adjustment ; and they assailed 
 and reduced the fort for precisely the reverse object, to 
 drive out the visible authority of the Federal Union and 
 thus force it to immediate dissolution. ... In this act, 
 discarding all else, they have forced upon the country 
 the distinct issue, 'immediate dissolution or blood.' 
 
 "And this issue embraces more than the fate of 
 these United States. It presents to the whole family of 
 man the question whether a constitutional republic or 
 democracy — a government of the people by the same 
 people — can or cannot maintain its territorial integrity 
 against its own domestic foes. . . . 
 
 "It was with the deepest regret that the Executive 
 found the duty of employing the war-power in defence 
 of the government forced upon him. He could but per- 
 form this duty or surrender the existence of the govern- 
 ment. ... As a private citizen, the Executive could not 
 have consented that these institutions should perish ; 
 much less could he, in betrayal of so vast and so sacred 
 a trust as these free people have confided to him. He 
 felt that he had no right to shrink, or even to count the 
 chances of his own life, in what might follow." 
 
 There were a few members in both Houses who in- 
 sisted that any employment of the war-power against 
 the rebels was unconstitutional ; but the general senti- 
 ment of Congress fully sustained the President in the 
 course he had taken. On July 15, Mr. McClernand, a 
 Democratic member from Illinois, offered a resolution 
 pledging the House to vote any amount of money and 
 any number of men necessary to suppress the rebellion 
 and restore the authority of the government. This reso- 
 lution was adopted with but five dissenting votes. The 
 spirited action of Congress seemed to inspire the people 
 everywhere throughout the North with renewed hope 
 and confidence. Towards the latter part of June, a large 
 rebel force had occupied a strong position on Bull Run 
 Creek, near Manassas. It was resolved on the part of 
 the Federal government to attack and drive back this 
 force ; and the belief was generally entertained that a 
 single decided success on the part of the Union armies 
 would put an end to the war. The Federal forces, com- 
 manded by General McDowell, made an attack upon 
 the position of the rebels on the 21st of July ; but they 
 met with a disastrous defeat, and were driven back in 
 great disorder towards Washington. Then, for the first 
 time, the Northern States realized the greatness of the 
 conflict which was before them. They then understood 
 how great were the advantages possessed by the Con- 
 federates in consequence of their having been for years 
 preparing for war. No inconsiderable portion of their 
 troops had been thoroughly disciplined under excellent 
 officers, while many of the Northern troops had scarcely 
 any discipline at all. Add to this that a large proportion 
 of the best and most experienced officers in the regular 
 army of the United States had resigned their commis- 
 sions and joined the Confederate cause. All the prin- 
 cipal Confederate officers, with scarcely an exception, 
 had been educated at the national military academy at 
 West Point, and had afterwards held important positions 
 
 in the regular army. It may suffice to cite the names of 
 Generals Joseph E. and Albert Sydney Johnston, Jeffer- 
 son Davis, the President of the Southern Confederacy, 
 and General Robert E. Lee, regarded, at the time of the 
 breaking out of the rebellion, as by far the ablest officer 
 in the United States army, General Scott having become 
 through age and infirmities unequal to the duties of the 
 field. But the disaster of Bull Run damped the hopes 
 of the Unionists for a moment only. After the first 
 surprise was over, its effect was to rouse the courage and 
 determination of the people to the highest point. Vol- 
 unteers flocked by thousands to join the national army. 
 From the time of Lincoln's inauguration, through all the 
 anxious months of the spring and summer of 1861, Gene- 
 ral Scott had retained his position as commander of the 
 armies of the United States, and had given the govern- 
 ment the benefit of his wisdom and experience and the 
 support of his great influence and unwavering loyalty. 
 At length, on the 31st of October, in consequence of ill 
 health and advancing age, he applied to the secretary of 
 war to be released from active service. He was accord- 
 ingly placed upon the list of retired officers of the army 
 of the United States, but retaining his full pay, according 
 to a special provision passed by Congress in the summer 
 session. At the recommendation of General Scott, Gene- 
 ral McClellan, who had obtained marked distinction by 
 his success during the summer of 1861 in clearing 
 Western Virginia of rebel troops, was called to Wash- 
 ington and appointed to the command of the Federal 
 forces. He at once commenced a thorough reorganiza- 
 tion of the army, and before many months brought it 
 into a state of high and efficient discipline. Unfortunate! v, 
 his sympathies were rather with the moderate slave- 
 holders than with the staunch supporters of the govern- 
 ment, and, when it became necessary to sacrifice slaveiy 
 in order to save the republic, he could not nerve himself 
 to the task. In a war of a different kind, requiring simply 
 vigilance, skill, and the spirit of conciliation, he might 
 have earned enduring laurels. But the Confederates had 
 gone too far to be won back by conciliation. As nothing 
 could satisfy them short of breaking up the Union, so 
 nothing was left for the Federal government, if it would 
 escape general disruption and utter ruin, but to suppress 
 the rebellion by force of arms. 
 
 The forces under the immediate command of General 
 McClellan having remained inactive during most of the 
 winter of 1861-62, President Lincolft issued on the 27th 
 of January, 1862, an order that on the 22d of February a 
 general movement against the insurgents should be made 
 by the land and naval forces of the United States. Gene- 
 ral McClellan at first objected, in a letter to the secre- 
 tary of war, to the plan of operations which he had been 
 directed to pursue. At length, on the 13th of March, a 
 council of war was held, in which it was decided to ad- 
 vance against Richmond from Fortress Monroe. The 
 army was conveyed by water down the Potomac and 
 Chesapeake Bay to the mouth of James River. Soon 
 after the commencement of the campaign, General 
 McClellan began to complain that he was not properly 
 supported by the Executive at Washington. Advancing 
 into the heart of a hostile country, where his enemies, 
 by means of the railroads, which they could completely 
 control, might concentrate, at a very short notice, all their 
 available force at or near the point of threatened attack, 
 it behooved him, undoubtedly, to use great circumspec- 
 tion. Unhappily, the extreme precautions which he took 
 against a doubtlul or contingent peril had no other effect 
 than to surround him with real dangers of the most for- 
 midable character. His movements were so slow and 
 hesitating* that the Confederates not only had time to 
 assemble their forces from distant points and erect ex- 
 tensive fortifications, but even to raise and discipline 
 large reinforcements of fresh troops. Had he early in 
 April advanced with his army against Yorktown, he 
 would have met with a feeble resistance, and might, in 
 all probability, have pushed on at once to the conquest 
 of Richmond. But he decided to approach it by a regular 
 siege ; extensive earthworks were thrown up, and the 
 campaign was protracted into the hottest part of the 
 summer. His troops, compelled to encamp among the 
 swamps adjacent to theChickahominy, perished in great 
 
 i, e, I, 6, ti, y, long; a, e, d, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
LINCOLN 
 
 1431 
 
 LINCOLN 
 
 numbers from disease. At last, after a series of sangui- 
 nary but indecisive conflicts, the army was forced to 
 retreat. It was moved in August from James River by 
 water to Aqui'a Creek, on the Potomac, some forty miles 
 below Washington. About the same time the army of 
 General Pope, after several days of hard fighting near 
 Manassas and Centreville, was driven back with heavy 
 loss upon Washington. There was perhaps no darker 
 period during the whole war than that in which the 
 summer of 1862 came to a close ; and we may safely say 
 that no one throughout the land felt more deeply the 
 reverses and sufferings of his countrymen than President 
 Lincoln. 
 
 On the 2d of September, General McClellan took 
 command of all the available troops for the defence of 
 the capital. General Lee, having crossed the Potomac 
 (September 5) into Maryland, was attacked and de- 
 feated by McClellan at Antietam on the 16th and 17th 
 of September. He retreated into Virginia, and was not 
 pursued. Early in October McClellan was ordered to 
 cro^s the Potomac and give battle to the enemy or drive 
 him southward ; but, having delayed his advance for 
 about three weeks, he was removed from his command, 
 by an order dated Novemljer 5. General liurnside, who 
 succeeded McClellan as commander of the army of the 
 Potomac, attacked (December 13) General Lee, then 
 occupying a strongly-fortified position at Fredericks- 
 burg, and was repulsed with severe loss. Again, on the 
 2d and 3d of May, 1863, General Hooker was worsted 
 by General Lee in a very hard-fought battle at Chancel- 
 lorsville. The great and repeated disasters experienced 
 by the Union armies from the beginning of the war, but 
 more particularly those of the summer of 1862, appear 
 to have prepared the people of the Northern States for 
 the adoption of a more radical policy on the part of the 
 government. At first it had been the aim of the Execu- 
 tive to preserve the Union with all the provisions of the 
 Constitution as it was originally adopted. But, the slave- 
 holders having by their rebellion forfeited all claim to 
 the protection of that instrument, it might become ex- 
 pedient or necessary to assail them on the side where 
 they were confessedly weakest, — viz., through the institu- 
 tion of slavery. President Lincoln had been censured 
 by some for not taking a more decided position on the 
 subject of slavery at the commencement of the war ; but 
 he had very strong reasons for the line of policy which 
 he had hitherto thought proper to pursue. So powerful 
 was the influence, so plausible the arguments, brought 
 by the Confederates to bear upon the border States, that 
 it was only with the greatest difficulty that Maryland, 
 Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri could be prevented 
 from following Virginia and North Carolina and joining 
 the rebellion. If, then, the Federal government, with 
 those States standing neutral or divided, was able to re- 
 establish its authority only after years of conflict and the 
 loss of hundreds of thousands of lives, what might have 
 been the issue ^iad those four populous and warlike 
 States from the very commencement of the war been 
 closely and firmly united with the Confederacy? Had 
 President Lincoln at once, on the breaking out of the 
 rebellion, attempted the overthrow of slavery, there is 
 reason to believe that all the above-named States would 
 have arrayed themselves against the government, and 
 the theatre of war, instead of being almost exclusively 
 confined to the territory of the slave States, would, in all 
 probability, have been extended to the adjacent free 
 States, — to Pennsylvania and Ohio, if not still farther. 
 Nor would this have been the only misfortune ; such an 
 attempt would, it can scarcely be doubted, have divided 
 the people in many of the free States, and prevented 
 them from giving the government that cordial and united 
 support so indispensable to the Union cause in such a 
 crisis. 
 
 The conscientious and anxious desire evinced by the 
 President to respect the constitutional rights of every 
 section of the country, if it produced no favourable influ- 
 ence upon the minds of the Confederates, had at least 
 the effect of gaining over to his cause multitudes of his 
 political opponents in the Northern as well as in the bor- 
 der States ; so that tens of thousands who had opposed 
 his election in i860 became, before the close of his first 
 
 Presidential term, of the number of his most cordial 
 supporters. He considered it, indeed, to be not merely 
 expedient, but to be his imperative duty, to weigh care- 
 fully all the circumstances by which he was surrounded. 
 A religious or moral reformer may very properly content 
 himself with merely proclaiming and expounding great 
 truths, and then leave the minds of men to embrace 
 them, as they may be prepared to do so. Hut he who, 
 being placed at the head of a government, neglects to 
 consider the question whether his measures are prac- 
 ticable, or whether they are or are not adapted to the 
 actual condition and wants of the people, can have no 
 claim to the name of statesman, although he may pos- 
 sibly merit that of a far-seeing reformer or philanthropist. 
 
 '1 o some, who were urging him to issue at once a 
 proclamation of emancipation, intimating that they fel. 
 assured it was the will of God that he should do so, 
 Lincoln replied, " I hope it will not be irreverent for me 
 to say that, if it is probable that God would reveal his 
 will to others on a point so connected with my duty, it 
 might be supposed he would reveal it directly to me ; 
 for, unless I am more deceived in myself than I often 
 am, it is my earnest desire to know the will of Providence 
 in this matter ; and if I can learn what it is, I will do it." 
 At another time he said, "There are 50,000 bayonets in 
 the Union army from the border slave States. It would 
 be a serious matter if, in consequence of a proclamation 
 such as you desire, they should go over to the rebels. 
 . . . Every day increases their Union feeling." He dili- 
 gently sought every opportunity of informing himself re- 
 specting the condition of public sentiment, especially in 
 regard to the question of emancipation. A great change 
 in the minds of the people had undoubtedly taken place 
 in this respect, not only in the North, but also in several 
 of the slave States. Alter mature deliberation, being at 
 length satisfied that the welfare of the country would be 
 promoted by such a measure, and that public senti- 
 ment would sustain it, he issued (September 22, 1862) a 
 proclamation of emancipation, in which it was declared 
 that on the first day of January, 1863, "all persons held 
 as slaves within any State, or designated part of a State, 
 the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the 
 United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever 
 free ; and the executive government of the United States, 
 including the military and naval authority thereof, will 
 recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, 
 and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, ot 
 any of them, in any efforts they may make for their 
 actual freedom." 
 
 After the battle of Chancellorsville the tide of success 
 seemed to turn in favour of the Union cause. This is 
 not the place to go into any detailed account of the 
 movements of the different armies. It may suffice briefly 
 to notice a few of the principal battles which constituted, 
 so to speak, turning-points in the history of the war, and 
 which had an immediate and important influence in 
 bringing it to a close. 
 
 On the 3d of July, 1863, the army of the Potomac, 
 under General Meade, defeated the rebel forces, com- 
 manded by General Lee, in a great battle (which had 
 lasted three days) near Gettysburg, in Pennsylvania. 
 On the 4th of the same month, General Grant cap- 
 tured Vicksburg, after a long and most obstinate defence 
 on the part of the garrison, and in spite of the strenuous 
 efforts of the Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston to 
 raise the siege. The number of Confederate troops 
 paroled at Vicksburg was about 27,000, of whom only 
 15,000 were fit for duty. "This," says Mr. Greeley, 
 " was the heaviest single blow ever given to the muscu- 
 lar resources of the rebellion; and no other campaign 
 in the war equals in brilliancy of conception and general 
 success in execution that which resulted in the capitula- 
 tion of Vicksburg." As Commander Farragut, supported 
 by a land-army under General Butler, had already (April, 
 1862) taken possession of New Orleans, the conquest 
 of Vicksburg gave to the Unionists the command of the 
 Mississippi throughout its entire length. 
 
 The courage, skill, and, above all, the unconquerable 
 energy displayed by General Grant in the siege and 
 capture of Vicksburg, seemed to point him out to the 
 government as pre-eminently qualified to conduct a war 
 
 1 as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (J^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LINCOLN 
 
 "43* 
 
 LINCOLN 
 
 in which a wise foresight, an untiring vigilance, and an 
 indefatigable activity were equally necessary to success. 
 There was another point also wherein, to adopt the 
 language of Mr. Greeley, "his fitness for the chief 
 command was decided, if not pre-eminent ; and that 
 was an utter disbelief in the efficacy of any rose-water 
 treatment of the rebellion." On the 1st of March, 1864, 
 in compliance with a recommendation of Congress, the 
 President appointed General Grant lieutenant-general of 
 the armies of the United States. When he presented 
 General Grant with his commission, Mr. Lincoln ad- 
 dressed him with these words : " The nation's apprecia- 
 tion of what you have already done, and its reliance upon 
 you for what still remains to be done, in the existing 
 great struggle, are now presented with this commission, 
 constituting you lieutenant-general of the armies of the 
 United States. With this high honour devolves upon 
 you also a corresponding responsibility. As the country 
 herein trusts you, so, under God, it will sustain you. I 
 scarcely need to add that with what I here speak for 
 the nation, goes my own hearty personal concurrence." 
 
 In the autumn of 1864, Mr. Lincoln was a second time 
 elected President of the United States, General McClel- 
 lan being the opposing candidate. Lincoln received the 
 votes of all the Northern States except New Jersey and 
 Delaware. 
 
 General Grant, having taken immediate command of 
 the army of the Potomac, commenced early in May the 
 ever-memorable campaign of 1864 against Richmond. 
 After many severe and bloody conflicts, and the display 
 of consummate military skill on the part of the rival com- 
 manders, and an obstinate bravery on the part of their 
 troops, rarely paralleled in the history of warfare, Gen- 
 eral Lee was at length (April 2, 1865) forced to abandon 
 the defence of Richmond, which was evacuated the fol- 
 lowing night, and on the 9th of April he surrendered to 
 General Grant with all his army. On the 17th of the 
 same month, General J. E. Johnston, commander of the 
 southern division of the Confederate army, then in North 
 Carolina, entered into terms of capitulation with Gen- 
 eral Sherman, according to which all the Confederate 
 troops still remaining in the field were to lay down their 
 arms and return to their respective States. Thus the 
 war of the rebellion was brought to a close. Rut, before 
 the final arrangement between Sherman and Johnston 
 was completed, the universal joy of the Northern States 
 was changed into bitter mourning by the death of Presi- 
 dent Lincoln, who was cut off in the very hour of triumph 
 by the hand of an assassin. A desperate band of con- 
 spirators, of whom John Wilkes Rooth, a native of 
 Maryland, was the ringleader, had for some time enter- 
 tained the design of seizing the President and making 
 him a prisoner. Finding no opportunity to carry their 
 purpose into effect, they resolved at length to take his 
 life. The great object of Lincoln's administration — the 
 restoration of the authority of the government — having 
 been at last accomplished, on the evening of the 14th of 
 April he sought at Ford's Theatre a brief relaxation from 
 the duties and cares of his high office. Rooth, being an 
 actor by profession, had free admittance to the theatre. 
 While the President's attention was absorbed by the 
 scene before him, the assassin approached him from 
 behind, unperceived. To make sure of his victim, Booth 
 discharged his pistol when the muzzle was not more 
 than a few inches from the head of the President, who, 
 as the ball entered his brain, sank slightly forward with- 
 out uttering a sound ; and, although he continued to 
 breathe for several hours, he was evidently wholly un- 
 conscious from the time that he received the fatal wound 
 until his death, which occurred at half-past seven on the 
 morning of the 15th. Mr. Lincoln had often received 
 anonymous letters threatening him with death ; but his 
 thoughts were too much occupied with the affairs of 
 the nation to permit him to feel anxiety for his personal 
 safety; and, indeed, it was impossible for him, as he 
 intimated to some of his friends who urged him to be 
 more on his guard, to render his life secure without 
 adopting precautions alike repugnant to his own feel- 
 ings and to the universal usage of his country. We 
 believe it is no exaggeration to say that, since the dawn 
 of history, no more upright or conscientious ruler than 
 
 Abraham Lincoln ever presided over the destinies of a 
 great nation ; nor has there been any more free from 
 every taint of selfish ambition or personal resentment. 
 
 Among the many eminent men who, in their writings 
 or public speeches, have attempted to portray the char- 
 acter and commemorate the virtues of President Lincoln, 
 we know of none who has been more successful than 
 Mr. Emerson. The admirable fitness of his remarks 
 must be our apology, if any be needed, for giving the 
 following extracts from his discourse delivered at the 
 funeral services held in Concord, Massachusetts, April 
 19,1865: 
 
 "A plain man of the people, an extraordinary for- 
 tune attended him. Lord Bacon says, 'Manifest virtues 
 procure reputation ; occult ones, fortune.' He offered 
 no shining qualities at the first encounter; he did not 
 offend by superiority. He had a face and manner which 
 disarmed suspicion, which inspired confidence, which 
 confirmed good will. He was a man without vices. He 
 had a strong sense of duty, which it was very easy for 
 him to obey. Then he had what farmers call a 'long 
 head ;' was excellent in working out the sum for himself, — 
 in arguing his case and convincing you fairly and firmly. 
 . . . He had a vast good nature, which made him tolerant 
 and accessible to all. . . . Then his broad good humour, 
 running easily into jocular talk, in which he delighted 
 and in which he excelled, was a rich gift to this wise 
 man. It enabled him to keep his secret, to meet every 
 kind of man, and every rank in society, ... to mask 
 his own purpose and sound his companion, and to catch 
 with true instinct the temper of every company he ad- 
 dressed. His occupying the chair of stale was a triumph 
 of the good sense of mankind and of the public conscience. 
 This middle-class country had got a middle-class Presi- 
 dent at last. Yes, in maimers and sympathies, but not 
 in powers ; for his powers were superior. This man 
 grew according to the need ; his mind mastered the prob- 
 lem of the day; and as the problem grew, so did his 
 comprehension of it. Rarely was a man so fitted to the 
 event. ... It cannot be said that there is any exagger- 
 ation of his worth. If ever a man was fairly tested, he 
 was. There was no lack of resistance, nor of slander, 
 nor of ridicule. . . . Then what an occasion was the 
 whirlwind of the war ! Here was place for no holiday 
 magistrate, no fair-weather sailor : the new pilot was 
 hurried to the helm in a tornado. In four years — four 
 years of battle-days — his endurance, his fertility of re- 
 sources, his magnanimity, were sorely tried and never 
 found wanting. There, by his courage, his justice, his 
 even temper, his fertile counsel, his humanity, he stood 
 a heroic figure in the centre of a heroic epoch. He is 
 the true history of the American people in his time — the 
 true representative of this continent — father of his country, 
 the pulse of twenty millions throbbing in his heart, the 
 thought of their minds articulated by his tongue." 
 
 "The name of Lincoln," says the eminent historian 
 Merle d'Aubigne, "will remain one offche greatest that 
 history has to inscribe on its annals." "This man," 
 observes Henry Martin, " will stand out in the traditions 
 of his country and the world as an incarnation of the 
 people, and of modern democracy itself." 
 
 See Raymond, "Life and Administration of President Lincoln," 
 1864 ; Greeley, "American Conflict," 2 vols. 8vo, Hartford, 1864-66 ; 
 Dr. J. G. Holland, "Life of A, Lincoln," 1865; and the noble 
 and eloquent tribute to the memory of Lincoln in Mrs. Stowe's 
 "Men of our Time," Hartford, 1868. 
 
 Lincoln, (Benjamin,) an American general, born in 
 Hingham, Massachusetts, in January, 1733. He was 
 originally a farmer. In 1776 he was appointed a major- 
 general of militia, and joined the army of Washington 
 with reinforcements in February, 1777- In this year he 
 was appointed major-general by Congress, and was or- 
 dered to join the Northern army, commanded by General 
 Gates. In October, 1777, he received a wound which 
 disabled him for nearly a year. He was appointed to 
 the chief command of the Southern department about 
 September, 1778, and defended Charleston against Gen- 
 eral Prevost in the spring of 1779. In October of that 
 year General Lincoln and Count D'Estaing made an 
 unsuccessful assault on Savannah. He was besieged by 
 Sir. Henry Clinton in Charleston, which he was com- 
 pelled to surrender in May, 1780. He afterwards com- 
 
 , e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
LINCOLN 
 
 '433 
 
 LINDET 
 
 mantled a division at the siege of Yorktown, in October, 
 1781. He had the reputation of an able and prudent 
 
 feneral. In October, 1781, he became secretary of war. 
 Ie retired from this office about the end of 1784, and 
 was elected Lieutenant-Governor of Massachusetts in 
 17S7 by the Federalists. Died at Hingham in 1810. 
 
 See a "Life of Benjamin Lincoln," by Francis Bowen, in 
 Sparks's "American Biography," second series, vo!. xiii. ; "Na- 
 tional Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. 
 
 Lincoln, link'on, (Edward Clinton,) Earl of, an 
 English admiral, born in 1512, was the only son of 
 Thomas Lord Clinton. He was appointed lord admiral 
 for life in 1550. In 1557 he commanded a division of 
 the English army at Saint-Quentin. On the accession 
 of Elizabeth (1558) he was retained in the office of lord 
 admiral. In the peaceful reign that followed he had 
 little opportunity to acquire renown. He was created 
 Earl of Lincoln in 1572. Died in 1584, leaving the title 
 to his son Henry. A Henry Clinton, Earl of Lincoln, 
 married the daughter of Henry Pelham, who was prime 
 minister about 1750. In 1768 he inherited the title of 
 Duke of Newcastle. 
 
 Lincoln, (Enoch,) a lawyer, brother of Levi, noticed 
 below, (1782-1868,) was born at Worcester, Massachu- 
 setts, in 1788. He represented a district of Maine in 
 Congress from 1819 to 1826, and was Governor of that 
 State in 1827-29. Died in 1829. He wrote several 
 poems, including one entitled "The Village," (1816.) 
 
 Lincoln, (John Larkin,) LL.D., an American scholar 
 and critical writer, born at Boston in 1817. He was 
 appointed in 1844 professor of the Latin language and 
 literature in Brown University. He published an edition 
 of Horace for the use of schools. 
 
 Lincoln, (Levi,) an American jurist and statesman, 
 born in Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1 749, graduated at 
 Harvard College. He practised law at Worcester, and 
 became one of the most eminent lawyers in the State. 
 In 1799 he was elected a member of Congress. He was 
 a Democrat or Republican in party politics, and was 
 attorney-general under Jefferson from 1801 to December, 
 1805. In 1807-08 he was Lieutenant-Governor of Mas- 
 sachusetts. Died at Worcester in 1820. 
 
 Lincoln, (Levi,) a lawyer, a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1782. He 
 was chosen Governor of his native State in 1825, being 
 supported by both parties, and was a member of Con- 
 gress during three terms, (1835-41.) Died in 1868. 
 
 Llnd, (James,) an English physician, born about 1716, 
 published a valuable "Treatise on the Scurvy," (1753,) 
 and "Essay on the Diseases to which Europeans are 
 exposed in Hot Climates," (1768,) which were often 
 reprinted. Died at Gosport in 1794. 
 
 LInd, (Jenny,) a celebrated Swedish vocalist, born 
 at Stockholm in 1821, was the daughter of a teacher of 
 languages. She began to sing on the stage about the 
 age of ten years, and performed in vaudevilles with 
 success. At the age of sixteen she became the prime 
 favourite of the Stockholm Opera, where she made her 
 debut as Agatha in "Der Freischiitz." In 1841 she 
 became a pupil of Garcia, the celebrated singing-master 
 in Paris, where she met Meyerbeer, who engaged her 
 for the Opera of Berlin. She sang in Berlin in 1844 and 
 1845, exciting great and unabated enthusiasm. After 
 performing in several capitals of Germany, she visited 
 London, where she was greeted with the warmest ap- 
 plause, in 1847 and the two ensuing years. Having 
 made an engagement with P. T. Barnum to sing in the 
 United States, she arrived at New York in September, 
 1850. Her concerts in this country excited enthusi- 
 astic admiration, and were repeated in the chief cities of 
 the Union until 1852, when she returned to Europe with 
 Otto Goldschmidt, a skilful pianist, to whom she had 
 been married in 185 1. She gave many thousand dollars 
 for charitable purposes in the United States. Her 
 private character is excellent. Her voice is a soprano, 
 remarkable for sweetness. Since her marriage she has 
 ceased to perform on the stage. 
 
 Linda. See Lindanus. 
 
 Lindanus, lin-da'nus, or Linda, lin'da, (William 
 Damasus,) a Roman Catholic prelate, noted as a con- 
 troversialist, was born at Dort, Holland, in 1525. He 
 was remarkable for the severity with whith he per- 
 formed the office of Inquisitor of the faith. In 1562 
 he was appointed by Philip II. Bishop of Ruremond. 
 His most popular work was "Evangelical Panoply," 
 ("Panoplia Evangelica," 1563.) Died in 1568 or 1588. 
 
 See A. Havensius, "Vita G. Lindani," »6oo. 
 
 Lindberg, lind'beRG, (Jacob Christian,) a Danish 
 theologian and numismatist, born at Ripen, Jutland, in 
 1797. He published a "Treatise on Cufic Coins," 
 (1830,) a "Hebrew-Danish Hand-Lexicon," (1835,) and 
 able works on theology, etc. 
 
 Lindblom, llnd'blom, (Jacob Axel,) a Swedish prel- 
 ate, born in Ostrogothia in 1747. He was professor of 
 belles-lettres in the University of Upsal, and published 
 a " Latin-Swedish Dictionary" before he became Bishop 
 of Linkoping, (1789.) He was afterwards chosen Arch- 
 bishop of Upsal. Died in 1819. 
 
 See Hedborn, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver J. A. Lindblom," 1819. 
 
 Linde, von, fon lin'deh, (Justin Timotheus Bal- 
 thasar,) a German jurist, born in Westphalia in 1797, 
 published numerous legal treatises. 
 
 Linde, von, fon lin'deh, (Samuel Gottlob,) an emi- 
 nent Polish lexicographer, born at Thorn in 1771. About 
 1803 he became rector of the Lyceum and chief librarian 
 of the University in Warsaw. In 1807 he produced the 
 first volume of his great "Dictionary of the Polish Lan- 
 guage," (6 vols.,) regarded as the best work of the kind. 
 From 1833 to 1838 he was director of the gymnasium 
 of Warsaw. He wrote a " Historical Outline of the 
 Literature of the Slavonic Races," (1825.) Died at War- 
 saw in 1847. 
 
 See Saint-Maurice Cabany, "S. T. de Linde," etc., 1853. 
 
 Lindeblad, lin'deh-blad', (Assar,) a Swedish poet, 
 born near Lund in 1800. Among his best productions 
 is "The Missionary," (1839.) 
 
 Linden, van der, vfn der lin'den, (David,) a Flemish 
 poet and antiquary, born at Ghent about 1570; died 
 about 1635. 
 
 Linden, van der, vtn der lin'den, (Jan Antonides,) 
 a learned Dutch physician, born at Enkhuysen in 1609. 
 He became professor of medicine at Leyden about 1650. 
 He published a " Medical Bibliography," (" De Scriptis 
 Medicis," 1637,) " Physiological Medicine," (" Medicina 
 Physiologica,") and a good edition of Hippocrates, in 
 Greek. Died in 1664. 
 
 See Bavle, '.'Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 "M^moires." 
 
 Lindenau, von, fon lin'deh-now', (Bernhard Au- 
 gust,) a German astronomer, born at Altenburg in 1780. 
 Between 1826 and 1843 ne served the King of Saxony 
 as privy councillor, minister of the interior, etc. In 1843 
 he retired from political life to devote himself to as- 
 tronomy. Among his publications are "Tables of Venus," 
 (1810,) "Tables of Mars," (1811,) and a " History of 
 Astronomy during the First Decade of the Nineteenth 
 Century," (1811.) Died in 1854. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Lindenbrog, lin'den-bRoo', or Lindenbruch, lin'- 
 den-bRo"oK', [Lat. Tii.iobro'ga,] (Erpold,) a German 
 historical writer, born at Bremen in 1540. He wrote a 
 "History of the Kings of Denmark," and "Chronicle 
 of the Life and Actions of Charlemagne." He also 
 edited the " Historians of Northern Germany." Died 
 in 1616. 
 
 See Wilkens, " Leben der beriihmten Lindenbrogiorum," 1723. 
 
 Lindenbrog or Lindenbruch, (Friedrich,) a jurist 
 and classical scholar, a son of the preceding, was born 
 at Hamburg in 1573 ; died in 1648. 
 
 Lindenschmit, lin'den-shmit', (Wilhei.m,) a Ger- 
 man historical painter, born at Mentz in 1806. Among 
 his works are frescos painted for Prince Ludwig in 
 the Hofgarten, Munich, and in the Pinakothek. Died 
 in 1848. 
 
 Lindet, laN'dJ', (Jkan Baptiste Robert,) a French 
 Jacobin and financier, born at Bernay, Normandy, in 
 
 « as k; c as 1: g hard; gas>; G, H, K,guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; I as *; th as in this, (jjy- See Explanations, p. 2^.) 
 
 onr oi 
 mber, 
 
 ray 
 1850. 
 
 ring Age" 
 
 lemoir 
 True 
 No- 
 
LINDLET 
 
 '434 
 
 LINGELBACH 
 
 1743. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and 
 was a member of the committee of public safety after 
 its number was reduced and after it was invested with 
 supreme executive power, (1793.) He was reputed one 
 of the least violent but most subtle chiefs of the domi- 
 nant faction. He was minister of finances from June, 
 1799, until Bonaparte became First Consul, in November 
 of that year. Died in 1S25. 
 
 LlndTey, (John,) LL.D., F.R.S., one of the most 
 eminent botanists of the present century, was born at 
 Catton, near Norwich, England, in 1799. He was the 
 son of the proprietor of a nursery-garden. About 1821 
 he became a resident of London, and was employed to 
 write the descriptions of Loudon's " Encyclopaedia of 
 Plants," (1829.) In 1830 he published an " Introduction 
 to the Natural System of Botany." Of this system he 
 is a zealous advocate, and has contributed more than 
 any other English botanist to render it popular. His 
 "Introduction to Systematic and Physiological Botany" 
 (1832) is highly commended. In 1836 he produced " A 
 Natural System of Botany," which was expanded into 
 "The Vegetable Kingdom," (1846,) with engravings, — 
 probably the most excellent and comprehensive work 
 that has ever appeared on that subject. He adopted in 
 this work an improved, or at least new, system of classi- 
 fication, and explained the uses of plants. In 1829 Dr. 
 Lindley became professor of botany in the University 
 College, London, where he was very successful as a lec- 
 turer. His " Flora Medica" (1838) describes the plants 
 used in medical practice. He wrote many botanical 
 articles for the " Penny Cyclopaedia," and a good ele- 
 mentary work on Botany inserted in the " Library 
 of Useful Knowledge." In his excellent work entitled 
 "Theory of Horticulture," (1844,) he successfully ap- 
 plied science to practical utility. He was also the 
 author of popular treatises, entitled " Ladies' Botany," 
 " School Botany," " British Pomology," and " Orchard 
 and Kitchen Garden." About 1841 he became editor 
 of the "Gardener's Chronicle," a valuable periodical. 
 Died at Acton Green, November 1, 1865. 
 
 Lindner, llnt'ner, (Fkikurich Ludwig,) a German 
 political writer, bom at Mitau, Courland, in 1772. In 
 1824 he published "Secret Papers," and in 1825 became 
 editor of the " Political Annals," at Munich. He also 
 wrote " Europe and the Orient," (1839,) and other works. 
 Died in 1845. 
 
 Lindner, (Friedrich Wii.hklm,) a German teacher 
 and theologian, born at Weida in 1779. He became 
 professor of the science of teaching at Leipsic in 1825. 
 He published a Latin treatise on the art of teaching, 
 " De Finibus et Prxsidiis Artis paedagogicae," (1825,) 
 and a work on free-masonry. 
 
 Lindner, (Wilhklm Bruno,) a writer on theology, 
 a son of the preceding, was born at Leipsic in 1814. He 
 was appointed professor of theology at Leipsic in 1846. 
 His principal work is a " Manual of the History of the 
 Christian Church," (2 vols., 1848-54.) 
 
 Lindpaintner, lint'plnt'ner, (Peter Joseph,) a Ger- 
 man composer, born at Coblentz in 1791. He produced 
 symphonies, overtures, instrument pieces, and operas 
 entitled "The Sicilian Vespers" and "The Vampyre." 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 Lindsay, lin'ze, ( Alexander William Craw- 
 ford,) Lord, a British author, the son of the Earl of 
 Crawford, was born in Cumberland in 1812. After 
 making a tour in the East, he published in 1838 "Letters 
 on Egypt, Edom, and the Holy Land," which passed 
 through several editions. He increased his reputation 
 by an important and novel work, entitled " Sketches of 
 the History of Christian Art," (1847,) which displays 
 much research and contains eloquent passages. In 1849 
 he published the "Lives of the Lindsays," a family his- 
 tory of much merit. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1847. 
 
 Lindsay, (Sir David,) a Scottish poet, born about 
 1495. He became in 1512 a page or servitor to the 
 prince, (afterwards James V.,) and continued in his ser- 
 vice until 1524. Among his principal works are "The 
 Dream," "The Complaint of the King's Papingo," (a 
 satire on the clergy,) a " Satire on the Three Estates," 
 and "The Monarchic" He excelled in sarcasm, which 
 
 he directed with much effect against the Romish Church. 
 He is supposed to have died after 1567. 
 
 See Lord Lindsav, " Lives of the Lindsays," 1849 : Chalmers, 
 41 Life," prefixed to Lindsay's works, 1806 ; Chambers, " Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" "Monthly Review" for June, 
 1808. 
 
 Lindsay, lin'ze, (John,) an English nonjuring minis- 
 ter, born about 1686. He wrote a " History of the Regal 
 Succession," (1720.) Died in 1768. 
 
 Lindsay, (John,) Earl of Crawford, an able British 
 general, born in 1702. For his conduct at Fontenoy he 
 obtained the rank of major-general. He was renowned 
 for generosity, talents, and other popular qualities. Died 
 in 1749. 
 
 See Richard Roi.t, " Memoirs of the Life of J. Lindsay," etc., 
 1753; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Lindsay, (William Shaw,) a British merchant, born 
 in Ayrshire in 1816, is reputed one of the largest ship- 
 owners in the kingdom. He was once a cabin-boy, and 
 has raised himself to affluence by industry and prudence. 
 He was elected to Parliament for Tynemouth in 1854. 
 
 Lindsey, Earl ok. See Bertie, (Robert.) 
 
 Lindsey, lin'ze, (Montague Bertie,) Earl of, 
 born in 1608, was a son of Robert Bertie. (See Bertie.) 
 He fought for Charles I. at Edgehill and Naseby, and, 
 when the king was imprisoned in the Isle of Wight, 
 negotiated the treaty of Newport. Died in 1666. 
 
 Lindsey, (TheoPHIlus,) an English Unitarian min- 
 ister, born in Cheshire in 1723. Having taken orders 
 in the Anglican Church, he obtained in 1763 the living 
 of Catterick, Yorkshire. He became so dissatisfied with 
 the Trinitarian creed that in 1773 he resigned his living 
 and published an " Apology" for his course, which is a 
 work of much research. He then removed to London, 
 where he was successful in forming a Unitarian congre- 
 gation, and preached about twenty years. He published, 
 besides other works, a " Historical View of the State of 
 the Unitarian Doctrine and Worship," (1783.) Died in 
 1808. 
 
 See Thomas Belsham, "Memoirs of Theaohilus Lindsey," 1812. 
 
 Lindsley, llnz'le, (Philip,) D.D., an American di- 
 vine and scholar, born at Morristown, New Jersey, in 
 1786. He became in 1850 professor of ecclesiastical 
 archaeology in the New Albany Theological Seminary, 
 Indiana. Died in 1855. 
 
 Ling, (Pehr Henrik,) born in Smaland, in Sweden, 
 in 1776, is regarded as the founder of modern gym- 
 nastic institutions, the first of which he established at 
 Stockholm. They were subsequently adopted at Berlin, 
 Vienna, and other German cities. Died in 1839. 
 
 Linga, Hng'ga, or Lingam, Hng'gam, in the Hindoo 
 mythology, a phallic symbol, or type of the reproductive 
 power, which is regarded as the especial attribute of 
 Siva. (See Siva.) 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon;" Guigniaut, " Religions de 1' An- 
 tiquiley book i. chap. ii. 
 
 Lingard, ling'gard, (John,) an eminent English histo- 
 rian, born at Winchester in 1771. He became a Roman 
 Catholic priest, and settled at Hornby, Lancashire, about 
 181 1. He published in 1819 the first volume of his 
 " History of England from the First Invasion by the 
 Romans to the Accession of William and Mary ip 1688," 
 of which the sixth edition, in 10 vols., appeared in 
 1855. This work is highly esteemed for its style, accu- 
 racy, and other merits. He also wrote " The Antiquities 
 of the Anglo-Saxon Church," (1806,) and other works. 
 He visited Rome in 1825, and, it is said, refused the 
 offer of a cardinal's hat. Died in 1851. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for April. 1825, (vol. xlii.,) and March, 
 1831, (vol. liii. ;} " Monthly Review" for July and September, 1S10, 
 and September, 1825; "North British Review" for November, 1846. 
 
 L'Ingegno. See LuiGI, (Andrea di.) 
 
 Lingelbach, ling'el-baK', (Johann,) sometimes writ- 
 ten Linglebach, an eminent painter of genre and land- 
 scapes, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1625. He 
 studied in Rome, and settled in Holland about 1650. 
 He excelled in the treatment of markets, fairs, and sea- 
 ports. His colour is good', his touch free and spirited, 
 and his works remarkable for variety. His blue dis- 
 tances and lightly-clouded skies produce an exhilarating 
 effect Among his works are a " Sea- Port in the Levant, 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
LINGENDES 
 
 '435 
 
 LINNAEUS 
 
 and ' 
 1687. 
 
 The Vegetable Market." Died at Amsterdam in 
 
 See C. Blanc, " Les Pe'mires de toutes les Ijcoles;" Nacler, 
 " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Lingendes, de, deh 14N'zh&-Nd', (Claude,) a French 
 pulpit orator and Jesuit, born at Moulins in 1591 ; died 
 in 1660. 
 
 Lingendes, de, (Jean,) a French poet, born at Mou- 
 lins about 1 580, composed stanzas, odes, and other verses. 
 Died in 1616. 
 
 Lingendes. de, (Jean,) a relative of the preceding, 
 \v:is born at Moulins in 1595. He became an eminent 
 preacher, and chaplain to Louis XIII. He was made 
 Bishop of Macon in 1650. Died in 1665. 
 
 Linguet, laVgi', (Simon Nicolas Henri,) an elo- 
 quent French advocate and polemical writer, born at 
 Rheims in 1736. He pleaded with success at the bar of 
 Paris, but made many enemies by his sarcasms and his 
 impetuous temper. He was confined in the Bastille two 
 years, ending in 1782. He published numerous works, 
 which display learning and talent but are censured as 
 paradoxical. Among them are a " History of the Age of 
 Alexander the Great," (1762,) and "The Fanaticism of 
 Philosophers," (1764.) He fell a victim to the reign of 
 terror in 1794. 
 
 See Gardaz, " Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Linguet," 
 1808; Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Liniere, de, deh le'ne-aiR.', (Francois Payot,) a 
 French satiric poet, born in Paris in 1628, was a gay 
 votary of pleasure. He composed songs and epigrams 
 with facility. Boileau, in his ninth Satire, mentions 
 Liniere as a judicious critic. Died in 1704. 
 
 Link or Linck, link, (Heinrich Friedrich,) a 
 German naturalist and physician, born at Hildesheim 
 in 1767. He was appointed professor of botany and 
 chemistry at Breslau in 1811, and in 181 5 filled the 
 same chair at Berlin. He published numerous works 
 on botany, of which we may name " The Anatomy of 
 Plants," (1807,) and "Elements of Botanical Philos- 
 ophy," (1824.) Died in 1851. 
 
 See Von Martius, " Denkrede auf H. F. Linck," 1831 : " Bio- 
 graphie Medicale." 
 
 Lin'ley, (Thomas,) an excellent English musical 
 composer, born at Wells about 1725, was a pupil of Pa- 
 radies. In his early life he conducted the concerts and 
 oratorios at Bath. He composed the music for Sheri- 
 dan's " Duenna," which had great success, in 1775. In 
 1776 he removed to Ixmdon, and became one of the 
 proprietors of Drury Lane Theatre, in partnership with 
 his son-in-law, R B. Sheridan, the great orator. Mr. 
 Linley directed the musical department, and composed 
 for it the "Carnival of Venice," "The Camp," etc. 
 Among his admired productions are "Six Elegies," 
 "Twelve Ballads," and a madrigal to these verses of 
 Cowley, 
 
 "Let me, careless and unthoughtfu] lying, 
 Hear the soft winds above me flying." 
 Died in 1795. 
 
 See Burnev, " History of Music." 
 
 Linley, (Thomas,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 at Bath about 1756, and inherited his father's musical 
 talent. He studied under the best masters of Italy, and 
 became very intimate with Mozart. He composed seve- 
 ral admired airs for the theatre. He was drowned in 
 1778, while sailing in a pleasure-boat in Lincolnshire. 
 
 Linley, (William,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 born about 1766. In his youth he went to India as a 
 clerk, and rose to the office of sub-treasurer at Fort Saint 
 George. He returned to England in the prime of life, 
 and devoted himself to music and literature. lie com- 
 posed several glees, songs, and other verses, and pub- 
 lished the dramatic songs of Shakspeare. Died in 1835. 
 Linn, (John Blair,) D.D., an American poet and 
 divine, born at Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1777, 
 was brother-in-law of the celebrated novelist Charles 
 Brockden Brown, and son of William Linn, who was 
 also a divine. He became assistant pastor of the First 
 Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia in 1798. He 
 was the author of "The Powers of Genius," and other 
 poems, and a reply to Dr. Priestley's "Comparison 
 between Socrates and Christ." Died in 1804. 
 See Duvckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature." 
 
 Linn, (Lewis Fields,) M.D., a Senator of the United 
 States, was born near Louisville, Kentucky, in 1795. and 
 removed to Missouri about 1816. He was eleaed to the 
 Senate by the Democrats in 1833, and again about 1838. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 See "Life of L. F. Linn." by E. A. Linn and N. Sargent, 
 ■ 8S7. 
 
 Linnaeus, lin-nee'us, [Sw. Von Linn£, fon lin-nH',] 
 (Charles or Carl,) a celebrated Swedish botanist, 
 and the most influential naturalist of the eighteenth 
 century, was born at RSshult, in Snidland, on the 24th 
 of May, 1707. He was the son of Nicholas Linnaeus, a 
 village curate, who, it is said, so far underrated his son's 
 capacity that he made him an apprentice to a shoemaker 
 after he had reached the age of seventeen without mak- 
 ing much progress in his studies. In 1727, however, he 
 was sent to the University of Lund to study medicine, 
 and his inclination for natural history was favoured by 
 Professor Stobasus. Although nearly destitute of pecu- 
 niary resources, he pursued his studies at Upsal, (1728,) 
 where he was patronized by Olaus Celsius, who relieved 
 him from his extreme poverty. About 1730 he conceived 
 the idea of a reform in botanical method and nomencla- 
 ture, and began the composition of several great works, 
 noticed below. At the expense of the Royal Academy 
 of Upsal, he made a botanical excursion on foot through 
 Lapland in 1732, the results of which appeared in his 
 "Flora Lapponica," (1737.) 
 
 Between 1735 and 1738 he passed three years in the 
 house of George Cliffort, a rich Dutch gentleman living 
 between Leyden and Haarlem, who employed him to 
 arrange his fine garden and museum. Linnaeus has 
 expressed his gratitude to this benefactor for the facilities 
 he there enjoyed for his favourite pursuits, and has 
 honoured his memory by a work entitled "The Garden 
 of Cliffort," ("Hortus Cliffortianus.") He perceived 
 that it was necessary to invent methods of distribu- 
 tion capable of embracing all creatures, and founded on 
 characters well defined ; to invent terms sufficiently 
 numerous to designate the prodigious variety of their 
 conformation, and define these terms with precision ; 
 finally, to make a general review of all beings described 
 in former works, or to be found by the exploration of 
 nature. The first sketch of this great enterprise ap- 
 peared in two small volumes, entitled " System of Nature, 
 or the Three Kingdoms of Nature exhibited methodically 
 in Classes, Orders, Genera, and Species," (" Systema Na- 
 turae, seu Regna tria Naturae systematic^ proposita, per 
 Classes, Ordines, Genera et Species," 1 735,) and " Funda- 
 menta Botanica," (1736.) The characters of genera were 
 largely developed in his "Genera of Plants according to 
 the Number, Figure, Position, etc. of the Parts of Fruc- 
 tification," ("Genera Plantarum secundum Numerum, 
 Figuram, etc. omnium Fructificationis Partium," 1737.) 
 He removed in 1738 to Stockholm, where he practised 
 medicine, lectured on botany, and received the title of 
 physician to the king. He married a daughter of Dr. 
 More in 1739. In 1741 he obtained at Upsal the chair 
 of botany, which he occupied thirty-seven years, witness- 
 ing the continuous growth of his fame and influence, and 
 exerting his unabated activity to improve his scientific 
 productions. Thunberg, Kalm, Hasselqttist, Forskil, and 
 other eminent naturalists, who had been his pupils, visited 
 various foreign countries and brought back willing tribute 
 to enrich his collections and .publications. The botanical 
 philosophy of Linnaeus was reproduced in its ensemble, 
 arranged in its parts, and enforced by examples in his 
 " Philosophia Botanica," (1751.) "This work," says 
 Cuvier, " which exhibits on every page proofs of the 
 rarest ingenuity (finesse (Tesprit) and the most sur- 
 prising profoundness of observation, has enjoyed a suc- 
 cess which was previously unexampled. It has become 
 as it were a fundamental law, to which all botanists con- 
 form in their descriptions and in their use of terms." 
 His artificial sexual system was for a long time uni- 
 versally adopted, but has been superseded in a great 
 measure by the natural method of Jussieu. In 1753 he 
 produced his " Species Plantarum," an important work, 
 in which he adopted the happy idea of designating each 
 species by a single epithet added to the name of the 
 genus. He also applied his methods with success to the 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; %h as in this. ( Jl^-See Explanation s, p. aj.) 
 
LINNAEUS 
 
 1436 
 
 L1PPT 
 
 animal kingdom in several enlarged editions of his 
 " Systems Naturae," in his " Fauna Suecica," (" Swedish 
 Fauna," I744,) or history of Swedish animals, and va- 
 rious other works. Died in January, 1778. 
 
 See Pulteney, "Life of Linnauts," 17S1 ; Agarda, "Antiqui- 
 tates LinnseanaV' 1826; A. L. A. Fee. "Vie de Linne'," 1S32 ; 
 Miss Hrightwei.i., " Life of Linnaeus ;" Van Hall, " Epistolas Lin- 
 naji ;" J. Trapp, " Life of Linnaeus," 1704 ; Stoever, " Leben des 
 Ritters C. von LinneV' 2 vols., 1792: Adam Afzelius, " Egeuhan- 
 diga Anteckningar at C. Linuseus om sig sjelf," 1S23 ; Antonio 
 Cattanko, "Cenni sulla Vita di C. Linne," 1838; Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge^ieVale ;" " Monthly Review" for July, 1785. 
 
 Linnaeus, (Linne,) von, (Ciiari.es or Carl,) only 
 son of the preceding, was born at Fahiun in 1741. He 
 was chosen demonstrator of botany at the Royal Garden 
 of Upsal at the age of eighteen, and succeeded his father 
 as professor in the university of that place in 1778. He 
 published "Two Decades of Rare Plants of the Gar- 
 den of Upsal," "Methodus Muscorum," ("Method of 
 Mosses,") and a few other small works. His talents 
 were moderate. He died in 1783, and the family then 
 became extinct. 
 
 See Svrn Anders Hedin, "Minne af C. von Linne, Fader och 
 Son," 1S0S. 
 
 Linn6. See Linnaeus. 
 
 Lin'nell. (John,) a successful English portrait- and 
 landscape-painter, born in London in 1792. He has 
 represented English scenery with success in the " Heath 
 Scene," "The Windmill," (1847,) and "The Forest 
 Road," (1853.) Among his other great works are the 
 "Eve of the Deluge," (1848,) "The Return of Ulysses," 
 (1849,) and "Christ and the Woman of Samaria," (1850.) 
 His portraits of Thomas Carlyle (1844) and Sir Robert 
 Peel are admired. He is called an excellent colorist. 
 
 Linschooten, van, vSn lin'sKo'ten, (Adriaan,) a 
 skilful Dutch painter of history and genre, born at Delft 
 in 1590. Among his works is "The Repentance of Saint 
 Peter." Died about 1678. 
 
 Linschooten or Linschoten, van, (Jan Hugo,) a 
 Dutch voyager, born at Haarlem in 1563. He went to 
 Goa in 1 583, and remained there several years in the 
 service of Archbishop Fonseca. After his return, he 
 published in 1596 an "Account of his Voyage, with a 
 Description of the Portuguese East Indies," which is 
 said to be reliable, and has often been reprinted. Died 
 in 1633. 
 
 Linsenbahrt, lin'sen-baRt', [Eat. Rosi'nus Len- 
 TIl'ius,] a German medical writer, born at Waldenburg 
 in 1657; died at Stuttgart in 1733. 
 
 Lint, van, vin tint, (Hendrik,) a skilful Flemish 
 landscape-painter, lived probably about 1630-50. He 
 worked in Rome, where he obtained the surname of 
 Studio. Among his works ; s "Views near Rome." 
 
 Lint, van, (Pikteu,) a Flemish painter of history, 
 born at Antwerp in 1609. He worked in Rome, and 
 afterwards at Antwerp, to which he returned in 1639, 
 and was patronized by Christian IV. of Denmark. He 
 wis a good colorist, a correct designer, and painted 
 history with equal success in large or small pictures. 
 Died about 1668. 
 
 See Descamps, "' Vie des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Lln'ton, (William,) an eminent English landscape- 
 painter, born at Liverpool about 1790. He became a 
 resident of London in his youth, and afterwards travelled 
 extensively in the South of Europe. The subjects of his 
 best works are Italian and Grecian scenes, among which 
 are " The liay of Naples," " Lake Lugano," " Ruins 
 of Paestum," "Athens," and " An Arcadian Landscape." 
 His style is simple and rather austere. 
 
 Li'nus, [Gr. Aivof,] a fabulous personage, whom the 
 ancients regarded as a son of Apollo or Mercury, and as 
 one of the inventors of poetry. He is called by some 
 authors a personification of the dirge. Among the an- 
 cient Greeks circulated a plaintive song or dirge called 
 "linns," which is mentioned by Homer, ("Iliad," xviii. 
 569.) According to tradition, he was killed by Hercules, 
 who was his pupil. 
 
 Li'nus, [Fr. Lin, 1aN,] Bishop of Rome, was a native 
 of Volterra, in Tuscany. According to some accounts, 
 he became bishop in 66 A.D., and was the immediate 
 successor of Saint Peter. Little is known of his history ; 
 but it is supposed that he suffered martyrdom about 78 
 
 a.ix. He is mentioned in Saint Paul's second Epistle to 
 Timothy, chap. iv. 21. 
 
 Lin'wood, Miss, an English artist, born at Birming- 
 ham in 1755, made, in needle-work, copies of many pic- 
 tures of the old masters. She was offered, it is said, three 
 thousand guineas for one of her works. Died in 1845. 
 
 Lionardo da Vinci. See Vinci, da. 
 
 LI'o-nel, Duke of Clarence, the third son of Edward 
 III. of England, was born at Antwerp in 1338. He died 
 in 1368, leaving no issue except a daughter, Philippa, 
 who was married to Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March. 
 
 Lionne, de, deh le'on', (Hugues,) Marquis de Berny, 
 a French statesman and diplomatist, bom at Grenoble 
 in 161 1. He was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1655. 
 He succeeded Mazarin in 1661 as minister of foreign 
 affairs, which he directed with great ability for ten years. 
 Died in 1671 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Memoires;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran- 
 gais." 
 
 Lionnet. See Lyonnet. 
 
 Liotard, leVtaV, (Jean Etienne,) a Swiss portrait- 
 painter, surnamed the Turk, because he adopted the 
 Turkish costume, was born at Geneva in 1702. In 1725 
 he went to Paris, where he acquired reputation by his 
 skill in crayon and enamel miniatures. He worked four 
 years in Constantinople, (1738-42), painting Turkish cos- 
 tumes, etc. He afterwards painted portraits of the royal 
 families of Austria and France. Died in 1790. 
 
 See Naglek, "Allgemeines KUnstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Liotard, (Jean Michel,) a twin-brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Geneva in 1702, was an engraver, and 
 one of the best pupils of Benoit Audran. He engraved 
 the great cartoons of C. Cignani in Italy, and afterwards 
 worked in Paris. He returned to Geneva, where he 
 died about 1760. 
 
 Liotard, (Pierre,) a French botanist, born near 
 Grenoble in 1729, was originally a poor peasant. He 
 acquired a good knowledge of the plants of the Alps, 
 and was employed as guide by J. J. Rousseau and 
 Desfontaines. He corresponded for some years with 
 Rousseau. Died in 1 796. 
 
 Liouville, le'oo'vel', (Joseph,) an able French mathe- 
 matician, born at Saint-Oiner in 1809. He became in 
 1839 a member of the Institute. He wrote several im- 
 portant treatises, and edited for a long time a journal 
 of pure mathematics called by his name. 
 
 Lipano, de, da le-pa'no, Countess, was the title 
 assumed by Caroline, Queen of Naples, after the death 
 of Murat, her husband. See Bonaparte, (Caroline 
 Marie.) 
 
 Liparini, le-pa-ree'nee, (Ludovico,) an Italian painter 
 of history, born at Bologna in 1800 ; died in 1856. 
 
 Lipenius, le-pa'ne-us, (Martin,) a learned German 
 bibliographer, born in Brandenburg in 1630, was rector 
 of gymnasiums at Halle and Stettin. He compiled 
 "Bibliotheca Juridica," (1679,) "Bibliotheca Realis, etc. 
 Philosophica," (2 vols., 1682,) "Bibliotheca Realis The- 
 ologica," (2 vols., 1685,) and other works. Died at 
 Lubeck in 1692. 
 
 See J. H. von Sehlen, " Vita M. Lipenii," edited by Jenichen, 
 1737 : Niceron, " Me'moires." 
 
 Lipinski, le-pen'skee, (Charles,) a celebrated Polish 
 violinist, born at Radzin in 1790. He received the title 
 of first violinist to the Emperor of Russia. 
 
 Lippert, lip'peitt, (Philipp Daniel,) a German artist 
 and glyptographer, was born at Meissen in 1703. He 
 published " Dactyliotheca ; or, A Collection of Two 
 Thousand Prints of Antique Gems." Died in 17S5. 
 
 Lippe-Schaumburg, von, fon lip'peh showm'bdoRG, 
 (Friedrich Wii.helm,) Count, a German general, born 
 in London in 1724. He served several campaigns in the 
 Austrian army, and afterwards travelled in Italy. He 
 obtained the chief command of the British troops sent 
 in 1 76 1 to aid Portugal, which he defended with success 
 against the Spaniards. Died in 1777. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Lippi, lep'pee, (Annihale,) a Roman architect, who 
 lived in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Lippi, (FiLiPPO,)oneof the most celebrated of the old 
 Italian painters in oil and fresco, born at Florence in 1412, 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mJt; not; good; moon; 
 
LIPPI 
 
 1437 
 
 LISFRANC 
 
 was a pupil of Masaccio. Before he was of age he was 
 captured by pirates and enslaved in Africa. His master 
 was so pleased with a portrait of himself, drawn with a 
 coal 011 the wall, that he gave the artist his liberty. 
 Lippi then returned to Florence, and adorned the 
 churches and convents of that city, and of Spoleto, 
 Piato, etc Among his master-pieces are a Madonna, 
 in oil, "The Life of Saint Stephen," "The Death of San 
 Bernardo," in oil, at Prato, two "Annunciations," and 
 "The Coronation of the Virgin," in fresco. He excelled 
 in invention, design, and colouring, and is ranked among 
 the greatest painters before Raphael. Died in 1469. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy;" Baummucci, "Notizie;" Ticozzl, "Duionario;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Lippi, (Filippo or Filippino,) son of the preceding, 
 was bom at Florence in 1460, and became an excellent 
 painter. He studied with Sandro Botticelli, and worked 
 chiefly in Florence and Rome. He was distinguished 
 for his good taste and correctness of design, and was 
 perhaps the first painter among the moderns who treated 
 costumes and other accessories with propriety. Among 
 his master-pieces are "Saint Peter and Saint Paul before 
 the Proconsul," the " Death of Lucretia," at the Pitti 
 palace in Florence, several Madonnas, and frescos in 
 Santa Maria Novella, in the same city. Died in 1505. 
 
 See V asa hi, " Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Lippi, (Giacomo,) an Italian painter, born near Bo- 
 logna in the sixteenth century, was a pupil of L. Caracci. 
 
 Lippi, (LiPPo,) called Lippo of Florence, a Floren- 
 tine painter, bom in 1354, was the father of Filippo 
 Lippi, (1412-69.) His works, which are praised by 
 Vasari, are not now extant. Died in 1415. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Lippi, (LORENZO,) a successful Italian painter and 
 poet, born at Florence in 1606, received lessons in art 
 from Roselli. He worked in Florence, and was reputed 
 one of the best draughtsmen of his time. "The Martyr- 
 dom of Saint Sebastian" and "The Triumph of David" 
 are called his master-pieces. He wrote a facetious poem 
 called "II Malmantile racquistato," (1676,) which was 
 admired and recognized by the Academy della Crusca 
 among the testi di lingua. Died in 1664. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, " Memoirs of Early Italian Painters ;" Lanzi, 
 " History ot Painting in Italy ;" BaldinuCCI, " Notizie." 
 
 Lip'pin-cott, (Joshua B.,) an American publisher, 
 distinguished for his ability, energy, and enterprise, 
 was born in Burlington county, New Jersey. 
 About 1828 he came to Philadelphia and engaged him- 
 self in a small bookstore. At an early age he com- 
 menced the publishing and bookselling business, which 
 he conducted successfully. In 1850 he purchased the 
 business of .Messrs. Grigg & Flliot, and the firm of 
 which he became the head soon took its place among 
 the most distinguished publishing houses in the United 
 States. 
 
 Lippincott, (Sarah G.,) a popular American writer, 
 whose original name was Clarke, was born at Pompey, 
 in Onondaga county, New York, about 1825. Her first 
 productions appeared in the New York " Mirror," under 
 the pseudonym of Grace Greenwood. She also 
 contributed to the "National Era," Washington. Her 
 principal works are "Greenwood Leaves," (1850-52,) 
 " History of my Pets," (1850,) "Poems," (1851,) "Recol- 
 lections of my Childhood," (1851,) "Haps and Mishaps 
 of a Tour in Europe," (1852,) "Forest Tragedy, and 
 other Tales," (1856,) and "Stories and Legends of His- 
 tory and Travel," (1857.) She was married in 1853 to 
 Leander K. Lippincott, of Philadelphia, where she be- 
 came editor of a popular juvenile periodical called "The 
 Little Pilgrim." 
 
 See Cleveland, "Compendium of American Literature;" Alli- 
 bonk, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Lippo of Florence. See Lippi. 
 
 Lipporaani, lep-po-ma'nee, (Aloisio,) a learned Ital- 
 ian prelate, born at Venice about 1500. He obtained 
 successively the bishoprics of Modon, Verona, and Ber- 
 gamo, and was one of three prelates selected to preside 
 over the Council of Trent. In 1556 he became secretary 
 to Pope Julius III. He wrote, besides a few other works, 
 
 commentaries on Genesis, Exodus, and the Psalms. Died 
 in 1559. 
 
 Liprandi, le-pRan'dee, (Paul Petrovitch,) a Rus- 
 sian general, born in 1796, distinguished himself at the 
 taking of Warsaw, in 1831, and in the Crimean war took. 
 (October 25, 1854) the Turkish fortress at Kadikoi. 
 
 Lips, lips, (Johann Heinrich,) a Swiss painter, de- 
 signer, and engraver, born near Zurich in 1758. Among 
 his best works are the engravings for Lavater's "Phys- 
 iognomical Fragments," and a " Saint Sebastian," after 
 Van Dyck. Died in 1817. 
 
 Lipse, (Juste.) See Lipsius. 
 
 Lipsius, lip'se-fls, (Justus,) [Fr. Juste Lipse, zhiist 
 lips,) a Flemish scholar, critic, and philologist of high 
 reputation, was born at Isque, between Brussels and 
 Louvain, in 1547. He was educated at Brussels and 
 Louvain. At the age of nineteen he produced "Various 
 Readings," (" Varise Lectiones,") which were received 
 with favour. He was professor of history in Jena two 
 years, ending in 1574, and occupied the same chair at 
 Leyden from 1579 to 1592. About this time he became a 
 Roman Catholic, and was afterwards professor of history 
 at Louvain. He wrote many works on history, criticism, 
 antiquities, etc., which were very popular in his time. 
 His best work, according to Scaliger, is a commentary 
 on Tacitus, (1574,) whose history, it is said, he knew by 
 heart. His admiration of Tacitus and Seneca spoiled 
 his Latinity, which was affectedly concise. His moral 
 character is said to have been good. Died in 1606. 
 
 See MiR/EUs, "Vita Justi Lipsii," 1606; Scribani, "Justi Lipsii 
 Defenaio ;" Charles Nisard, " Le Triumvirat litteVaire an XVle 
 Steele, J. Lipse, Joseph Scaliger et I. Casaubon," 1852; Edward 
 van Even, "J. Lipsius alsVaderlander," 1S49: Bayle, "Historical 
 and Critical Dictionary ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GiSne'rale." 
 
 Liron, le'rAN', (Jean,) a learned French Benedictine 
 monk, born at Chartres in 1665, lived in Paris and at 
 Mans. Among his works are " The Amenities of Criti- 
 cism," (2 vols., 1717,) and a curious book called " His- 
 toric and Literary Oddities," (" Singularites historiques 
 et litteraires," 4 vols., 1734-40.) Died in 1749. 
 
 Liruti, le-roo'tee, (Giovanni Glu^F.rPE,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born in Friuli about 1 710; died in 1780. 
 
 Lis, lis or less, (Charles Augustf.,) a Belgian com- 
 poser, born at Antwerp in 1784; died in 1S45. 
 
 Lis or Lys, liss, or Van der Lys, vSn der liss, (Jan,) 
 a Dutch painter, born at Oldenburg in 1570. He wrrked 
 in Rome and Venice, taking for his models Titian and 
 Paul Veronese. Some critics find in his works the good 
 colouring of the former with the grace of the latter. 
 Among his productions are "Adam and Eve Mourning for 
 Abel," and "The Prodigal Son." Died at Venice in 1629. 
 
 Lis or Lys, van der, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born 
 at Breda about 1600. A picture of "Diana Bathing" is 
 called his best work. 
 
 Lisboa, de, da les-bo'S, (Marcos,) a Portuguese his- 
 torian and Franciscan friar, born at Lisbon in 15 11. 
 He wrote a "Chronicle of the Order of Friars of Saint 
 Francis," (3 vols., 1556, 1570, 1660,) and is ranked among 
 the classic authors of Portugal. Died in 1591. 
 
 Liscov, lis'kof, (Christian Ludwig,) the most ex- 
 cellent satirist and prose writer of Germany before I.es- 
 sing, was born at Wittenberg in 1701. He lived at 
 Lubeck, Dresden, etc., and about 1741 became secretary 
 to Bruhl, the Saxon minister. In 1745 he obtained the 
 title of Kriegsrathy (councillor of war,) but a few years 
 later he was removed from office. He published in 1739 
 a "Collection of Satirical and Serious Writings." His 
 style was remarkable for purity. His works are per- 
 vaded by a sound philosophical spirit, and have been 
 more highly appreciated since his death than before. 
 He was a complete master of the weapons of irony. 
 One of his treatises is entitled "The Excellence and 
 Utility of Bad Writers." Died in 1760. 
 
 See Liscti, "Liscovs Leben," 1845; Karl Gustav Hrlbig, 
 "C. L. Liscow: Beitrag 2ur Literatur- und Cultur-Geschichte," etc., 
 1844- 
 
 Lisfranc, le'fRSN', (Jacques,) a distinguished French 
 surgeon, born in the department of Loire in 1790. Among 
 his works is "Diseases of the Uterus," ("Maladies de 
 rUterus," 1836.) Died in 1847. 
 
 See L. A. Cdl'Touribr, " Biographie de J. Lisfranc," 1853; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gtfnlrale." 
 
 1 it; c as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this, (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LISLE 
 
 H38 
 
 L1TTA 
 
 Lisle, II. , (Lady Alice,) was the widow of an English 
 lawyer who took an active part against Charles I. She 
 was condemned to death by Judge Jeffreys, and executed 
 in 1685. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. i. chap. v. 
 
 Lisle, (Sir George,) an English royalist officer, dis- 
 tinguished himself at the battle of Newbury. Having 
 been taken prisoner at Colchester in 1648, he was shot. 
 
 L'Isle-Adam. See Villiers. 
 
 Lisle, de. See Delisle. 
 
 Lisle, de, deh lei, (Jean Baptiste Isoard,) a prolific 
 French writer, called also Delisle de Sales, was born 
 at Lyons in 1743. He was condemned to exile for the 
 alleged immorality of his " Philosophy of Nature," 
 which consequently attracted attention; but his sentence 
 was annulled or remitted. He wrote many other works. 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 Liismanin, lis-ma-neen', (Francis,) a Socinian theo- 
 logian, born at Corfu, became confessor to the Queen of 
 Poland about 1546. Died about 1563. 
 
 Lisola, de, deh le'zo'li', (Francois Paul,) Baron, 
 an able diplomatist, born at Salins, France, in 1613. He 
 was successively employed by the Emperor of Germany 
 as minister to England, (1743,) to Poland, and to Spain. 
 He wrote several successful political treatises, one of 
 which, called "Shield of the State and of Justice," 
 (1667,) was directed against the ambition of Louis XIV. 
 Died about 1675. 
 
 List, list, (Friedrich,) a German political economist, 
 was born at Reutlingen in 1789. In 1825 he emigrated 
 to Pennsylvania, where he was extensively engaged in 
 coal-mining, and published, in English, "Outlines of a 
 New System of Political Economy," (Philadelphia, 1827.) 
 Having been appointed United States consul at Leipsic, 
 he returned to Europe in 1832, and in several publica- 
 tions efficiently advocated the construction of railroads 
 in Germany. He published "A National System of Po- 
 litical Economy," (Stuttgart, 1841,) in which he favours 
 the protection of native industry. He committed suicide 
 in 1846. Since his death his merit has been more fully 
 recognized throughout Germany. 
 
 See " Life of List," prefixed to an edition of his works published 
 at Stuttgart, 1831. 
 
 Lista y Aragon, les'ta e a-rl-g6n', (Don Alberto,) 
 an eminent Spanish poet, critic, and mathematician, born 
 at Triana, a suburb of Seville, in 1775. At the age of 
 twenty he became professor of mathematics in the nau- 
 tical college, of Seville. He obtained the chair of rhetoric 
 and poetry in the university of that city in 1807, but lost 
 it in consequence of the French invasion of 1808. He 
 passed about four years as an exile in France, from 1813 
 to 1817. In 1820 he began to edit "The Censor," at 
 Madrid. After various removals and adverse fortunes, 
 he became about 1833 editor of the "Gaceta de Madrid," 
 which in his hands was an able and successful political 
 journal. In 1822 he published a volume of poems, which 
 are greatly admired. His superior critical ability is dis- 
 played in his "Lectures on the Dramatic Literature of 
 Spain," (1839.) He also published a "Treatise on Pure 
 and Mixed Mathematics," which is a standard work. 
 As a lyric poet he united the fervour and splendid colour 
 of the old Spanish school with the purer taste and depth 
 of reflection of the moderns. His imitations of Horace, 
 in his " Philosophic Poems," are admirable. Died in 1848. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lis'ter, (Joseph Jackson,) F.R.S., an English mer- 
 chant of London, who attained distinction by his know- 
 ledge of optics and by his improvement of the achromatic 
 microscope. He had been led to the use of that in- 
 strument by a love of natural history. About 1828 he 
 produced a combination of lenses which was perfectly 
 achromatic, with a large focal pencil, thus surmounting 
 what had before been the chief obstacle to the perfection 
 of the microscope. He sent to the Royal Society an 
 account of it, which was inserted in their "Philosophical 
 Transactions." 
 
 Lister, (Martin,) M.D., F.R.S., an English naturalist, 
 born at Radcliffe (Bucks) about 1638. In 1670 he settled 
 at York, where he practised medicine. He removed to 
 London in 1684, and published "Synopsis Conchylio- 
 
 rum," (1685-93,) a valuable work on conchology, which 
 was highly commended by Linnaeus. In 1709 he became 
 physician to Queen Anne. He wrote three excellent 
 treatises on English Spiders, Fluviatile Shells, and 
 Marine Shells, (1678,) and other works. "Lister may 
 be reckoned," says Hal lam, "one of those who have 
 done most to found the science of conchology." (" In- 
 troduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 171 1. 
 
 See Thompson, " History of the Royal Society." 
 
 Lister, (Sir Matthew,) an English physician, born 
 in Yorkshire about 1565. He became president of the 
 College of Physicians, London, and physician to Charles 
 I. Died in 1657. 
 
 Lister, (Thomas Henry,) an English author and 
 gentleman, born about 1800, was the son of Thomas 
 Lister, Esq., of Armitage Park. He obtained the office 
 of registrar-general of births. He published two novels, 
 entitled "Granby," (1826,) and " Herbert Lacy," and a 
 " Life of Lord Clarendon the Historian." He married 
 the sister of the Earl of Clarendon, known as the au- 
 thoress of " Sketches of the Contemporaries of Lord 
 Chancellor Clarendon." Died in 1842. In 1844 his 
 widow became the wife of Sir George Cornewall Lewis. 
 He was a brother-in-law of Lord John Russell. 
 
 Lis'ton, (John,) a popular English comedian, born 
 in London in 1776, appeared on the London stage about 
 1805. He excelled in low comedy, and acted many years 
 at the Haymarket, Covent Garden, and Drury Lane 
 Theatres. Died in 1846. 
 
 Lis'tpn, (Rohert,) F.R.S., an eminent Scottish phy- 
 sician, born in 1794. About 1817 he began to practise 
 in Edinburgh, where he attained great eminence as a 
 surgeon. In 1833 he published his " Principles of Sur- 
 gery." He removed to London in 1834, practised with 
 success, and became professor of clinical surgery in 
 University College. Died in 1848. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Liszinski, le-shen'skee, (Casimir,) a Polish philoso- 
 pher, who was beheaded in 1689 on a false charge of 
 heresy or atheism. 
 
 Liszt, list, (Franz,) a Hungarian musician, and the 
 most celebrated pianist of recent times, was born at Rai- 
 ding in 181 r. He was instructed by'Czerny and Salieri 
 at Vienna, and afterwards repaired to Pans, where his 
 performance made a great sensation. About 1823 he 
 visited England, and was received with equal enthusiasm. 
 Having, after his return to Paris, heard Paganini, he re- 
 solved to obtain the same mastery over the piano which 
 that great musician had gained over the violin ; and it is 
 generally allowed that he has succeeded. He visited 
 the principal cities of Europe, and everywhere excited 
 the warmest admiration. Though he has produced several 
 compositions, he chiefly excels as a performer. Liszt is 
 distinguished for generosity, and has given largely to 
 charitable and useful institutions. In 1848 he was ap- 
 pointed leader of the orchestra in the imperial chapel 
 at Weimar. He is the author of a "Life of Frederick 
 Chopin." 
 
 See L. Rellstab, " F. Liszt: Beurtheilunsen, Kerichte, Lebens- 
 skizze," 1842; Gustav Schilling, "F. Liszt: sein Leben und 
 Wirken,"iS44: F. Kkmpk, "F. Liszt;" Richard Wagner, "Apho- 
 ristische Memoiren," etc., 1852. 
 
 Lith'gow, (William,) a traveller, who traversed on 
 foot a large part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and pub- 
 lished in 1614 an entertaining narrative of his travels. 
 At Malaga he was arrested as a spy and heretic, and 
 tortured by the Inquisition. 
 
 See "Retrospective Review," vol. xi., 1825. 
 
 Lithov, lit'hov, ? (Gustavus,) a Latin poet, born in 
 Sweden in 1692. In 1734 he published "Heroic-Mis- 
 cellaneous Poems," ( Poemata heroVco-miscellanea.") 
 His "Panegyric on Charles XII." (1720) produced a 
 great sensation. Died in 1753. 
 
 Litta, let'ta, (Pompeo,) Count, an Italian historical 
 writer, born in Milan in 1781. He entered the French 
 army in 1804, fought at Austerlitz, (1805,) and, having 
 obtained the grade of chef-de-bataillon, left the service in 
 1814. In 1819 he began to publish at Milan his famous 
 and costly work, " Celebrated Italian Families," which 
 was continued until his death, and contains accounts of 
 
 i, 6, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
LITTLE 
 
 •439 
 
 LIVIA 
 
 seventy-five families. It is considered remarkable for 
 historical accuracy. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Bkockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Little. See Moore, (Thomas.) 
 
 Iiit'tle, (HENRY,) an American general, born at Bal- 
 timore, served in Mexico in 1846, and entered the Con- 
 federate army in 1S61. He was killed at the battle of 
 Iuka, in 1862. 
 
 Iat'tle, (WILLIAM,) an English historian, called Nau- 
 BRIGk.vsis, was born at Bridlington, Yorkshire, in 1 136. 
 He became a monk of Newborough Abbey, and wrote a 
 " History of England from the Conquest to 1 197," which 
 is a work of merit. 
 
 Lit'tle-ton, (Adam,) an English divine, eminent as 
 a philologist and Orientalist, was born in Shropshire in 
 1627. He became chaplain to Charles II., rector of 
 Chelsea, and prebendary of Westminster. His Latin 
 Dictionary (1679) was esteemed and often reprinted. He 
 published many sermons, and other works. Died in 1694. 
 
 Littleton, (Edward,) Lord, lord keeper of the great 
 seal of England, born at Munslow, Shropshire, in 1589, 
 was a lineal descendant of the jurist Thomas Littleton. 
 After finishing his studies in the Inner Temple, he soon 
 rose to the summit of his profession. In 1626 he entered 
 Parliament, where he was at first a zealous adherent of 
 the popular party, but afterwards went over to the court 
 with Wentworth and others. He was made chief justice 
 of the common pleas in 1640, and reluctantly accepted 
 the great seal in January, 1641. He was then raised to 
 the peerage, as Lord Littleton. The vacillation which 
 he displayed in the contest between Charles I. and the 
 Parliament is ascribed to lack of moral courage ; but he 
 was suspected of perfidy by the royalists and by the king. 
 In 1642 the king, then at York, ordered Falkland to de- 
 mand the great seal from the " traitor." Littleton soon 
 joined the court at York, and, through the intercession 
 of Lord Clarendon, was retained in office until his death, 
 in 1645. "He was," says Lord Campbell, "a man of 
 excellent private character." 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Eng- 
 land," 1846; Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Littleton, (Edward,) an English poet. He was 
 presented to the living of Maple Durham about 1727, 
 and was afterwards chaplain to the king. He was author 
 of Verses on a Spider, and other poems. Died in 1734. 
 
 Littleton, Lord. See Lyttlkton. 
 
 Littleton or Lyttleton, (Thomas,) a celebrated 
 English judge and jurist, born probably about 1420, was 
 the son of Thomas Westcote, of Devonshire, and Eliza- 
 beth Littleton. He studied in the Inner Temple. In 
 1455 he was appointed king's Serjeant, and rode the 
 northern circuit as judge of assize. After the triumph 
 of the house of York, he received a pardon from Edward 
 IV., about 1462, and was retained in the office of king's 
 sergeant. He was appointed a judge of the court of 
 common pleas in 1466, and created a knight of the Bath 
 in 1475. He died in 1481, leaving three sons, from whom 
 the lord keeper Lyttleton and other eminent men de- 
 scended. His treatise on " Tenures," written in Norman 
 French, is regarded as the principal basis of the laws 
 of property in Great Britain, and is indispensable to 
 students of English law. The style is remarkably clear 
 and pure. Sir Edward Coke wrote a celebrated com- 
 mentary on Littleton. 
 
 See Foss " The Judges of England." 
 
 Littre, letR, (Alexis,) a French physician, born at 
 Cordes in 1658, practised in Paris, and wrote many 
 memoirs on pathological anatomy. Died in 1725. 
 
 Littre, le'tRa', (Maximii.ii CM Pall Emii.k,) a French 
 philologist, born in Paris in 1801. He was one of the 
 editors of the " Nationel," a democratic journal, from 
 1831 to 1851. His most important work is an edition 
 of Hippocrates with a French version, (8 vols., 1839-52,) 
 which is, say the French critics, the best edition extant. 
 
 Littrow, lit'tRof or lit'tRo, (JOSEPH Johann,) an 
 eminent astronomer, born in Bohemia in 1781. He was 
 appointed professor of astronomy at Cracow in 1807, and 
 at Kazan in 1810. In 1819 he became director of the 
 Observatory of Vienna, which he greatly improved, and 
 lectured on astronomy with success in that city. He 
 published many valuable scientific works, among which 
 
 are "Theoretic and Practical Astronomy," (1822-26,) 
 " Dioptrics," (1830,) and "The Wondersofthe Heavens," 
 (1853.) The last is called one of the best popular books 
 on that subject. Died in 1840. 
 
 Littrow, (Karl Ludwig,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Kazan in 181 1. He succeeded his iathet 
 as director of the Observatory of Vienna in 1842. The 
 Annals of this observatory which have appeared since 
 his appointment are esteemed among the most valuable 
 astronomical registers. In 1847 Littrow and W. Struve 
 were employed to connect Austria and Russia by trian- 
 gulation. 
 
 Lit-jr-er'ses, (Gr. Airveporic,] a son of Midas, King 
 of Phrygia, was killed by Hercules. 
 
 Liutprand. See Luitprand. 
 
 Liutprandus. See Luitprandus. 
 
 Livens. See I.ikvens. 
 
 Liverani, le-vi-ra'nee, an Italian theologian, born at 
 Castel-Bolognese in 1823, published in 1861 a work 
 against the temporal power of the pope. 
 
 Liv'er-more, (Akikl Abbott,) an American Unita- 
 rian divine, born at Wilton, New Hampshire, in 1811, 
 became in 1850 pastor of a church at Cincinnati. He 
 has published a number of works in prose and verse. 
 
 Liv'er-pool, (Charles Jenkinson,) first Earl of, 
 a British statesman, born in Oxfordshire in 1727, was 
 the son of Charles Jenkinson. In 1761 he entered Par- 
 liament, and was appointed by Lord Bute under-secretary 
 of state. After the retirement of Lord Bute, in 1763, he 
 acquired the favour of the king, and incurred much 
 popular odium as the chief of the secret cabinet. He 
 became one of the lords of the treasury in 1767, was 
 secretary of war under Lord North from 1778 to 1782, 
 and was afterwards president of the board of trade in 
 the ministry of the younger Pitt. He was created Lord 
 Hawkesbury in 1786, and Earl of Liverpool in 1796. In 
 1758 he had published a "Discourse on the Conduct of 
 Great Britain with respect to Neutral Nations." He died 
 in 1808, leaving his title to his son, who became premier. 
 
 Liverpool, (Robert Banks Jenkinson,) Earl of, 
 a conservative British statesman, eminent for his pru- 
 dence and prosperity, born in 1770, was the son of the 
 preceding. He was educated at Oxford. In 1790 he 
 entered Parliament as a political friend of Pitt. He dis- 
 tinguished himself by his candour in debate, by abilities 
 more solid than brilliant, and by his persistent hostility 
 to innovation or reform. About 1796 he received the 
 title of Lord Hawkesbury, and married a daughter of 
 the Earl of Bristol. He became foreign secretary in the 
 ministry of Addington in March, 1801, and made peace 
 with Napoleon by the treaty of Amiens in 1802. In 
 1804 he accepted the office of home secretary under Pitt, 
 who had returned to power. The ministry having been 
 dissolved by the death of Pitt, in 1806, Lord Hawkesbury 
 was requested by the king to form a new ministry ; but 
 he declined the task. He took office as home secretary 
 in the cabinet of the Duke of Portland in 1807, and suc- 
 ceeded to his father's earldom in 1808. In June, 1812, 
 he obtained the place of first lord of the treasury, or 
 premier, vacated by the death of Percival, which he re- 
 tained until he was prostrated by a stroke of apoplexy 
 in February, 1827. "He presided over the councils of 
 England," says Brougham, " for a longer time than any 
 other, excepting Walpole and Pitt. It happened to him 
 that the years during which the helm of the state, as it 
 is called, were intrusted to his hands, were those of the 
 greatest events, alike in negotiation, in war, in commerce, 
 and in finance, which ever happened to illustrate or to 
 checker the annals of Europe. . . . So long and so little 
 interrupted a course of official prosperity was never, 
 perhaps, enjoyed by any other statesman. Brougham 
 also represents him as remarkable for discretion and 
 as a model of safe mediocrity. He is censured for op- 
 posing the abolition of the slave-trade, and for the part 
 he took in the persecution of Queen Caroline. Died 
 in December, 1828. 
 
 See Rrolt.ham. "Statesmen of the Time of George III.;" 
 " Memoirs of the Public Life of Lord Liverpool," London, 1S37. 
 
 LivTI-a, |Fr. Livie, le've',}- or, more fully, Livl-a 
 Dru-sil'la, a Roman empress, born in 58 B.C., was 
 first married to Tiberius Nero. After becoming the 
 
 « as i; 9 aa /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; % as *; th as in tkis. (fly See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LIVIA 
 
 1440 
 
 LIVINGSTONE 
 
 mother of Tiberius and Drusus Germanicus, she was 
 married in 38 B.C. to the emperor Augustus, over whom 
 she acquired an ascendency which she retained until his 
 death. She persuaded him to adopt her son Tiberius as 
 his successor. By his last will he appointed Livia and 
 Tiberius his heirs, and directed her to assume the name 
 of Julia Augusta. She was a woman of superior talents. 
 Died in 29 a.d. 
 
 See J. D. Koehler, "Dissertatio de Livia Augusta,*' 1715; 
 Tacitus, " Annales," i. and v. ; "Nouvelle Biographic Gene>ale." 
 
 Livl-a Liv-il'la, a granddaughter of the preceding, 
 was the sister of Germanicus. She became the wife of 
 her cousin Drusus, the son of Tiberius, and was sus- 
 pected of poisoning her husband in concert with Sejanus. 
 She was put to death for that crime, by order of Tiberius, 
 about 30 a.d. 
 Livie. See Livia. 
 Livineius. See Lievens, (John.) 
 Liv'ing-stpn, (Brockhoi.st,) an American jurist and 
 soldier, bom in New York in 1764, served with distinc- 
 tion in the Revolutionary war, and subsequently rose to 
 be a judge of the supreme court of the United States. 
 He was a son of William Livingston, Governor of New 
 Jersey. Died in 1823. 
 
 Livingston, (Edward,) an eminent American jurist 
 and statesman, born in Clermont, Columbia county, New 
 York, on the 26th of May, 1764, was a son of Robert 
 Livingston, a judge of the supreme court of New York. 
 His mother was Margaret Beekman. He graduated at 
 Princeton College, New Jersey, in 1781, studied law, 
 and began to practise in the city of New York about 
 1785. He married Mary McEvers, of New York. After 
 he had acquired great eminence as an advocate, he was 
 elected a member of Congress in 1794 by the Democrats. 
 He was re-elected in 1796 and in 1798. In 1801 he was 
 appointed district-attorney of the United States for the 
 State of New York, and elected mayor of the city of 
 New York for two years. In the autumn of 1803 he 
 became a public defaulter in consequence of the mis- 
 conduct of one of his clerks. He made an assignment 
 of his property, resigned his offices, and removed in 
 1804 to New Orleans. Having lost his first wife, he 
 married a Creole, named Louise Moreau de Lassv, in 
 1805. He enjoyed great professional success in New 
 Orleans, and paid in full the debt which he owed to 
 the government. He was involved in a long controversy 
 and litigation about the title to some land, called the 
 Batttire, which he purchased in New Orleans. President 
 efferson was one of his adversaries in this dispute ; 
 out Livingston gained his cause. At the battle of New 
 Orleans, January 8, 1815, he acted as aide-de-camp to 
 General Jackson, who was his intimate friend. In 1821 
 he was authorized by the legislature of Louisiana to 
 revise the system of criminal law. He acquired celebrity 
 by his " System of Penal Law or Criminal Codes," pub- 
 lished in l8j3, in which he opposed capital punishment. 
 " This volume," says the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 
 1864, "is a perfect treasure-house of juridical and legis- 
 lative schemes and suggestions, doctrines and contri- 
 vances ; and its indirect influence has been immense." 
 M. Villemain declared the "System" to be "a work 
 without example from the hand of any one man. . . . 
 The lapse of time has deepened and strengthened the 
 foundations of his fame." 
 
 He represented a district of Louisiana in Congress 
 from 1823 to 1829, and was elected a Senator of the 
 United States by the legislature of that State in the 
 latter year. In April or May, 1831, he was appointed 
 secretary of state by President Jackson. Having re- 
 signed this office in May, 1833, he was immediately 
 appointed minister-plenipotentiary to France, where he 
 is said to have " hit the happy medium between firm- 
 ness and conciliation in diplomacy." He returned home 
 about the end of 1835, and died at Rhinebeck, New 
 York, in May, 1836. He had several children. 
 
 _ See a " Life of Edward Livingston," bv Chari.es Havens Hunt, 
 with an Introduction by George Bancroft, 1S64 ; "National Por- 
 trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. ; " North American 
 Review" for October, 1836. 
 
 Liv'ing-stpn, (John,) a Scottish Presbyterian divine, 
 born in 1603. Having declined to take the oath of alle- 
 
 giance in 1663, he was banished, and retired to Rotter- 
 dam, where he died in 1672. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 A. Gunn, "Memoirs of J. Livingston," New York, 1829. 
 
 Livingston, (Rev. John H.,) an American divine 
 of the Dutch Reformed Church, born at Poughkeepsie, 
 New York, in 1746. Having studied at Yale College 
 and in Holland, where he received the degree of D.D., 
 he became, on his return, pastor of the Dutch Church 
 in New York. He was appointed professor of theology 
 at Queen's College, New Jersey, in 1807, and president 
 of that institution in 1810. Died in 1825. 
 
 Livingston, ( Philip,) an American revolutionist, and 
 signer of the Declaration of Independence, born at Al- 
 bany in 1716. He graduated at Yale College in 1737, 
 and in 1759 was elected a member of the General Assem- 
 bly of the colony from the city of New York. In 1770 
 he was one of the committee appointed to correspond 
 with the celebrated Edmund Burke, then agent for the 
 colony of New York. He was elected a member of the 
 Congress of 1774 and 1776. Died in 1778. 
 
 Livingston, (Robert,) the first possessor of the 
 Livingston Manor, New York, was born in Scotland in 
 1654. He emigrated to New York about 1672, and ob- 
 tained a grant of a large tract of land near the Hudson 
 River. He was the ancestor of several eminent men named 
 Livingston. He had three sons, Philip, Robert, and 
 Gilbert, from the second of whom the statesmen Robert 
 R. and Edward Livingston were descended. 
 
 Livingston, (Robert R.,) an American statesman, 
 born in New York in 1746, was a brother of Edward 
 Livingston, the great jurist. He graduated at King's 
 College, New York, in 1765. He was a descendant of 
 Robert, noticed above. As a member of the Congress 
 of 1776, he was appointed one of the committee to draw 
 up the Declaration of Independence. He became chan- 
 cellor of the State of New York in 1777, was secretary 
 for foreign affairs about two years, (1781-83,) and in 
 1801 was sent as minister to France, where he was very 
 favourably received by Napoleon and assisted in the 
 negotiation for the purchase of Louisiana. He returned 
 home in 1805, after which he aided Robert Fulton in 
 the introduction of steam-navigation, and promoted 
 improvements in agriculture. Died in February, 1813. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Livingston, (William,) an American jurist, brother 
 of Philip, noticed above, was born in New York in 1741. 
 Having removed to New Jersey, he was elected to the 
 first Congress from that State in 1774. He became 
 Governor of New Jersey in 1776, which office he filled 
 for fourteen years. He was a member of the Convention 
 which framed the Constitution, (1787.) He was the 
 author of a "Review of the Military Operations in North 
 America from 1753 to 1758;" also of several political 
 works, and of a poem entitled "Philosophical Solitude." 
 Died in 1790. 
 
 See " Memoir of William Livingston," by Theodore Sedg- 
 wick, Jr. 
 
 Liv'ing-stpne or Liv'ing-stpn, (David,) a Scottish 
 missionary, distinguished as an explorer of Africa, was 
 born at Blantyre, near Glasgow, about 1815. He worked 
 in a cotton -factory in his youth. Having studied medi- 
 cine and theology, with an intention to labour as a mis- 
 sionary, he was sent by the London Missionary Society 
 to South Africa in 1840. He laboured and travelled in 
 the interior of Africa for sixteen years, and made im- 
 portant discoveries, for which the Geographical Society 
 awarded him a gold medal. He returned to England in 
 1856, and published an interesting work entitled " Mis- 
 sionary Travels and Researches in South Africa," etc., 
 (1857.) In i8s,8 he again went to Africa, as consul at 
 Quilimane or Killimane, with a view to explore the river 
 Zambesi, to promote the production of cotton, and to 
 open commercial intercourse with the natives of that 
 region. He returned to England in 1864, and about the 
 end of 1865 published a "Narrative of an Expedition to 
 the Zambesi, 1858-64." He set out again for Africa in 
 1865. A report reached Europe in the spring of 1867 
 that Dr. Livingstone had been killed near Lake Nyassa; 
 and, although later information showed that rumour to 
 
 1, 8, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure, far, fill, fat; met; n6 ; good; moot 
 
LIV-1N 
 
 '44' 
 
 LLOYD 
 
 have been false, great uncertainty still prevails respecting 
 his fate. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for Jmuary, i»66: "West- 
 minster Review" for January, 1866; "Fraser's Magaaine" for 
 January 1858. 
 
 Livin Menus, lee'vin ma'nus, ? a skilful Dutch 
 painter, born at Amsterdam in 1630, worked for many 
 years at Florence, where he died in 1691. 
 
 Livius, (TiTUS.) See Livv. 
 
 Livl-us An-dro-ni'cus, a popular Roman dramatist 
 and actor, who began his career as an author about 240 
 B.C. The place of his birth is unknown. He is regarded 
 as the earliest dramatic writer of Rome. He composed 
 both tragedies and comedies, of which only small frag- 
 ments now remain, and was the sole performer of his 
 own plays, which were used. in schools in the time of 
 Horace. He was a writer of industry and learning 
 rather than original genius. 
 
 See Professor Sbllars, " Roman Poets of the Republic," 
 chap. iii. 
 
 Livonniere, de, deh le'vo'ne-aiR', (Claude Poc- 
 quet — pCkJ'J a French jurist, born at Angers in 1652 ; 
 died in Paris in 1726. 
 
 Livoy, de, deh le'vwi', (Pere TimothSe,) a French 
 friar and litterateur, born at Pithiviers in 1715. He pub- 
 lished, in 1767, a "Dictionary of French Synonyms." 
 Died in 1777. 
 
 Liv'y, [Lat. Liv'ius,] (Titus,) [It. Tito Livio, tee'to 
 lee've-o ; Fr. Tite Live, tit lev,] a celebrated Roman 
 historian, was born at Patavium (now Padua) in 59 B.C. 
 Ancient writers furnish us few particulars of his life, 
 except that he was patronized by Augustus and became 
 a person of consideration at court. He appears to have 
 passed the greater part of his time in Rome. Niebuhr 
 favours the opinion that he was in early life a teacher of 
 rhetoric. His great history of Rome, from the origin of 
 the city to the year 9 B.C., was' called by him " Annates," 
 and was comprised in one hundred and forty-two books, 
 of which thirty-five have come down to us entire, — viz., 
 the first, third, and fourth decades, and five books of the 
 fifth decade. We have also epitomes, by an unknown 
 hand, of one hundred and forty books. The first book 
 was probably published or written between 29 and 25 
 B.C. His dialogues on philosophy and politics, which, 
 according to some writers, procured him the favour of 
 Augustus, are not now extant. 
 
 The great popularity of his history must lie ascribed 
 to the excellence and beauty of his style and his wonder- 
 ful powers of description. The numerous orations by 
 which the history is diversified are models of eloquence. 
 "The painting of the narrative," says Macaulay, in his 
 essav entitled " History," in the "Edinburgh Review," 
 "is beyond description vivid and graceful. The abun- 
 dance of interesting sentiments and splendid imagery in 
 the speeches is almost miraculous." Hut he was desti- 
 tute of many qualifications essential to a historian of the 
 first order. Incapable of broad philosophic views, and 
 indisposed to profound research, he was more studious 
 to exalt the national glory and produce a picturesque 
 effect than to compose a true history. He made little 
 use of public documents, and was not familiar with the 
 antiquities of his country. His work is also deficient 
 in the explanation of the original constitution of the 
 state, the contests between the orders, the progress 
 of civilization, and other domestic affairs. Livy was 
 married, and had two or more children. Died at Padua 
 in 17 A.D. 
 
 See N. Machiavei.u. " Discorso sopra la prima Decada Hi Tito 
 Livio," 1512. (translated into English by K. Dacrks 1636;) D. W. 
 Mnu.Kk, •*' Dbpuiatio drciikuia de Tito Li.io." 1688; A. M Mbke- 
 GMeu.i, "Vila di Titn Livio," iRm 1 G K. Tommasini, " Vita Titi 
 Livii," 1630: J C. Hand, " De Tito Livio Oratore," 1773. 
 
 Llanos de Valdez, Ii'n6s di val'deth, (Don Sebas- 
 tian,) a Spanish painter, born at Granada about 1602 ; 
 died after 1670. 
 
 Llewellyn or Llywelyn, loo-Win, I., Trince of 
 Wales, bi'jan foreign about 1 190, and married a daughter 
 of John, King of England. The latter afterwards invaded 
 Wales and forced him to do homage. Llewellyn waged 
 war against Henry III. about 1228. Being harassed by 
 the rclR'llion of his youngest son Griffith, he made, in 
 1337, a treaty with Henry, and purchased peace by 
 
 acknowledging himself the vassal of that king. He died 
 in 1240, and was succeeded by his son David. 
 
 Llewellyn II. was the son of Griffith, and successor 
 of his uncle David. He renewed the homage to Henry 
 III., but conspired with the Earl of Leicester against 
 him in 1263. Llewellyn and his allies were defeated at 
 Evesham in 1265. In 1276 he was summoned by Edward 
 I. to come and do homage; but he declined. Wales 
 was then invaded and conquered by Edward in 1277. 
 Llewellyn, having again revolted, was killed in battle, 
 about 12S0. 
 
 Llorente, Io-ren'ti, (Bernardo Germano,) a Span- 
 ish painter, born at Seville in 1685 ; died in 1757. 
 
 Llorente, (Don Felix,) a Spanish painter, born at 
 Valencia in 1712, was successful in history, landscapes, 
 and portraits. Died in 1787. 
 
 Llorente, (Don Juan Antonio,) a learned Spanish 
 historian, born near Calahorra, in Aragon, in 1756. 
 Having been ordained as a priest, he was chosen vicar. 
 
 feneral of the see of Calahorra in 1782. Favoured by 
 : lorida-Blanca or the king, he was appointed in 1789 
 secretary-general of the Inquisition, of which he became 
 a determined adversary. In 1794 the Grand Inquisitor 
 directed Llorente, whose opinions were known to be 
 liberal, to write an exposition of the abuses of the In- 
 quisition. In 1808 he embraced the party of the French 
 invaders, was admitted into the council of state by King 
 Joseph, and promoted the suppression of the Inquisition 
 in 1809. On the expulsion of the French from Spain, in 
 1814, he went as an exile to Paris, where he published 
 in 1817 his "Critical History of the Spanish Inquisi- 
 tion," which was his great work. It is said by Prescott 
 to be the only authentic account of that institution. He 
 also wrote " Historical Notices of the Basque Provinces," 
 (1806-8.) Died in 1823. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. parti. : 
 his autobiographic Memoirs, " Noticia biogratica o Memorias para 
 la Historia de su Vida," 1818 ; J. A. Mahul, " Notice bingraphique 
 sur Don J. A. Llorente," 1823 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" 
 " Monthly Review," vol. xci., 1820, (Appendix.) 
 
 Lloyd, loid, (Chari.es,) an English banker, eminent 
 as a scholar and philanthropist, born in Birmingham 
 in September, 1748, was a member of the Society of 
 Friends. He was conspicuous as an advocate of the 
 abolition of the slave-trade, and was a man of great in- 
 fluence in the community. He was an uncle of Thomas 
 F. Buxton, and father of Anna Braithwaite. Died in 1828. 
 
 Lloyd, (Chari.es,) an English bishop, born in Buck- 
 inghamshire in 1784. He was appointed regius professor 
 of divinity ;r. Oxford in 1822, and Bishop of Oxford in 
 1827. Died in 1829. 
 
 Lloyd, (Chari.es,) an English poet, born in Hirming- 
 ham, was a son of Charles Lloyd, banker, noticed above, 
 and was a friend of Coleridge, Lamb, and Southey. In 
 1796 he went to Bristol, and lived in the same house 
 with Coleridge. Lloyd produced, besides other poems, 
 " Nugae Canorse," ("Sounding Trifles," 1819.) "Desul- 
 tory Thoughts in London," (1821,) and "The Duke 
 of Ormond," a tragedy, (1822.) He translated the 
 tragedies of Alfieri into English. Died in 1839. 
 
 See De Quincey, " Literary Reminiscences," vol. it. ; " Monthly 
 Review" for May, 1816, July, 1820, and July, 1833. 
 
 Lloyd (David,) a British biographer, born in Merio- 
 nethshire in 1625. He took orders, and successively 
 held several benefices. Among his principal works is 
 "The Statesmen and Favourites of England since the 
 Reformation," (1665.) Died in 1691. 
 
 Lloyd, (Henry,) a Hritish officer, distinguished as a 
 writer on tactics, was born in Wales about 1725. He 
 served in the Seven Years' war, first in the Austrian 
 army and afterwards in that of Prussia. About 1770 
 he obtaiped the rank of major-general in the Russian 
 army, and was employed in a war against the Turks, but 
 was suspected of being a secret agent of the English 
 government. Suddenly quitting the Russian service, he 
 went to Gibraltar, and gave valuable counsel to General 
 Elliott respecting the siege of that fortress. He died at 
 lluyin 1783, leaving an "Introduction to the History of 
 the War between the King of Prussia and the Empress 
 Maria Theresa," (1781,) a " Memoir on the Invasion and 
 Defence of England," (1798,) and other works. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale." 
 
 « as *; c as s; g Hard; % as>; O, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as z; th as in this. (jgfSee Explanations, p. *3.) 
 
 9' 
 
LLOYD 
 
 i 44 z 
 
 LOBSTEIN 
 
 Lloyd, (Nicholas,) a British writer, born in Flint- 
 shire in 1634. He obtained the living of Newington, 
 Surrey, in 1672. In 1670 he published a " Historical, 
 Geographical, and Poetical Dictionary," which was once 
 esteemed. Died in 1680. 
 
 Lloyd, (Robert,) an English poet, born at West- 
 minster in 1733. He became an usher in the^ West- 
 minster School, and a companion of Churchill, Colman, 
 etc. His health and fortune were injured by dissipated 
 habits. He composed an admired poem, "The Actor," 
 (1760,) "The Capricious Lovers," a comic opera, and 
 other works. Died in 1764. 
 
 See Newton, "Life of R. Lloyd;" Kenrick, "Life of Lloyd," 
 ■774- 
 
 Lloyd, (William,) a pious and learned English 
 bishop, born in Berkshire in 1627. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Saint Asaph in 1680, and was one of the 
 bishops imprisoned by James II. in 1688 for refusing to 
 publish in their churches the declaration of indulgence 
 to Catholics and dissenters. He became almoner to 
 William III., Bishop of Lich6eld in 1692, Bishop of 
 Worcester in 1699 or 1700, and almoner to Queen Anne 
 a few years later. He furnished Burnet valuable mate- 
 rials for his history, and wrote several religious treatises. 
 Died in 1717. 
 
 See Burnet, " History of his Own Times;" Macaulay, " His- 
 tory of England ;" Miss Strickland, " Lives of the Seven Bishops," 
 London, 1S66. 
 
 Llywelyn. See Llewellyn. 
 
 Loaysa, lo-i'sa, (Gakcias,) a Spanish cardinal and 
 eloquent preacher, born at Talavera a'xv't 1480. About 
 1524 he became confessor to Charles V. He was after- 
 wards Bishop of Seville, and president of the Royal 
 Council of the Indies. Died in 1546. 
 
 Lobau, de, deh lo'bo', (Georges Mouton — moo'- 
 $6n',) Count, a French general, born in Phalsbourg in 
 1770. He entered the army in 1792, became aide-de- 
 camp of Joubert in 1798, and aide-de-camp of Bonaparte 
 in 1805. His services were rewarded by the rank of 
 general of division in 1807. He displayed great courage 
 at Eckmuhl, Aspern, and Lobau in 1809, and received 
 the title of Count de Lobau. In the invasion of Russia 
 (1812) he was aide-major-general of the imperial guard. 
 He fought at Lutzen and Bautzen in 1813, and was taken 
 prisoner at Waterloo in 181 5, after which he passed many 
 years in. retirement. During the revolution of 1830 he 
 favoured the cause of Louis Philippe, who appointed him 
 commander of the national guard in December, 1830, and 
 gave him a marshal's baton in 1831. Died in 1838. 
 
 See J. Noi.i.et-Farert, " Le Mare'chal Monton," 1S52 ; Pierre 
 Philippe de Segur, "E*loge historiqne de M. le Comte de Lobau," 
 i«39- 
 
 Lobb, (Theophii.US,) a'n English physician, born in 
 London in 1678. He practised with success in that city, 
 and wrote medical works, among which are a "Treatise 
 on the Small-Pox," (1731,) and "Medical Practice in 
 Curing Fevers," (1735.) Died in 1763. 
 
 Lobe, lo'beh, (Johann Christian,) a German mu- 
 sical composer, born at Weimar in 1797. He produced 
 in 1833 "The Princess of Granada," an opera. His 
 theoretic works are highly esteemed. 
 
 Lobeck, lo'b£k, (Christian August,) one of the 
 most thorough and acute philologists and antiquaries of 
 recent times, was born at Naufnburg, in Prussia, in 178 1. 
 He became professor of ancient literature and eloquence 
 at Konigsberg in 1814. He published valuable editions 
 of the "Ajax" of Sophocles, (1810,) and of Phrynicus, 
 (1820.) Among his other most important works is "Pa- 
 thologic Linguae Grascse Elementa," (1853.) Died in 
 
 1859. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate." 
 
 Lobeira or Lobeyra, de, da lo-ba^e-ra, wrjtten also 
 Loveira. (Vasco,) a celebrated Portuguese author, was 
 bom at Oporto about 1360. He was knighted by King 
 John I. of Portugal on the battle-field of Aljubarrota in 
 1386, and died in 1403. He was the author of the famous 
 romance " Amadis de Gaul," which is now seldom read. 
 The earliest edition now known was printed in 15 19. It 
 passed for the best of the romances of chivalry until the 
 gatire of Cervantes rendered them all unpopular. 
 
 See Ticknor's "Spanish Literature," vol. i. chap. xi. p. 221 
 ft seq. 
 
 Lobel or L'Obel, lo'bSl', (Mathieu,) an eminent 
 botanist, born at Lille, France, in 1538. He practised 
 medicine at Antwerp, and became physician to the Prince 
 of Orange, after whose death he went to England, where 
 he passed the most of his life. In 1570 Lobel and Pena 
 published in London " Stirpium Adversaria," which pre- 
 sents the first sketch, though rude, of a natural method 
 of botany, with neat engravings of about two hundred 
 and seventy plants. He published in 1581 a valuable 
 work entitled " Icones Stirpium," which contains figures 
 of about two thousand plants, and is still, says Duvau, 
 often consulted. Lobel was also physician to James I. 
 Died near London in 1616. The genus Lobelia was 
 named in honour of him. 
 
 See C. F. A. Morren, " Notice biographique surM. de L'Obel," 
 1853 ; Eloy, " Dictionnaire de la Medecine." 
 
 Lobell or Loebell, lo'bel, (Johann Wilhelm,) a 
 German historian, born in Berlin in 1786. He became 
 professor of history at Bonn about 1830. 
 
 Loben or Loeben, lo'ben, (Otto Heinrich,) Count, 
 a German writer of the romantic school, born at Dresden 
 in 1786, is known by the name of Isidorus Orientalis. 
 He wrote, besides numerous tales and poems, romances 
 entitled " Guido" (1808) and "Arcadion," (1811.) Died 
 in 1825. 
 
 Lobera, lo-Ba'ra, (Luis,) a Spanish physician, born 
 at Avila, in Old Castile. He was physician to Charles 
 V., and published treatises on anatomy and medicine, 
 (1542-51.) 
 
 Lobineau, lo'be'no', (Gui Alexis,) a learned French 
 monk, born at Rennes in 1666. He wrote a continuation 
 of the " History of Bretagne" (1707) by Legallois, and 
 another of Felibien's " History of Paris," (5 vols., 1725.) 
 Died in 1727. 
 
 Lobkowitz. See Caramuel. 
 
 Lobkowitz. See Hassenstein. 
 
 Lobkowitz, von, fon lob'ko-wits', (Georg Chris- 
 tian,) Prince, an Austrian general, born in 1702. He 
 took command of the army of the empress Maria Theresa 
 in 1 741, and gained advantages over the French at Brau- 
 nau and Prague. Died in 1753. His son Joseph, born 
 in 1725, distinguished himself in the Seven Years' war as 
 major-general. In the reign of Joseph II. he was made 
 • a field-marshal. Died in 1802. 
 
 Lobo, lo'bo, (Francisco Rodriguez,) a celebrated 
 Portuguese poet, born at Leiria about 1550. He was the 
 author of songs, pastoral romances, sonnets, and of a 
 prose work entitled "Court in- the Country and Winter 
 Nights." He has been styled "the Portuguese Theocri- 
 tus." "He was," says Longfellow, "a scholar of great 
 erudition ; and the services he rendered to the Portu- 
 guese language and style make an era in that literature." 
 
 See Longfellow's " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Lobo, lo'no, (Gerardo,) a Spanish poet, born in Old 
 Castile. He became a favourite at the court of Philip 
 IV., who sometimes required his companions to talk 
 in verse to him. Lobo had a remarkable facility for 
 improvisation, and, it is said, could converse all day 
 without descending to prose. His productions consist 
 of odes, sonnets, etc. Died in 1668. 
 
 Lobo, (Jeronimo,) an enterprising Portuguese mis- 
 sionary and Jesuit, born at Lisbon in 1593. He was 
 sent to labour in the mission of Goa in 1622. In 1625, 
 with other missionaries, he undertook to evangelize 
 Abyssinia, whose sultan, Seged, (Segued,) had become a 
 Roman Catholic, or at least was friendly to that Church. 
 The sultan having died, the missionaries were expelled 
 by his successor in 1634. In 1640 he went again to Goa, 
 where he was chosen provincial of his order. He re- 
 turned to Lisbon in 1656, and published a valuable rela- 
 tion of his travels in Abyssinia, entitled a " History of 
 Ethiopia," (1659,) which was translated into English by 
 Dr. Johnson. Died in 1678. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Lobstein, lop'stin or lob'staN', (Jean Frederic,) a 
 French anatomist and surgeon, born near Strasburg in 
 1736; died in 1784. 
 
 Lobstein, (Jean Frederic,) an anatomist, a nephew 
 of the preceding, born at Giessen in 1777, lived at Stras- 
 burg. Died in 1835. 
 
 e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, fl, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; not; good; moon; 
 
LOCATELLI 
 
 «443 
 
 LOCKE 
 
 Locatelli, lo-ka-tel'lee, or Lucatelli, loo-kl-tel'lee, 
 (Andrea,) an Italian painter of landscapes and genre, 
 born at Rome, lie adorned his landscapes with figures 
 which are admired, and displayed good taste in familiar 
 scenes. His works are praised by l.anzi. Died 1111741. 
 
 Locatelli, (LuiGl,) an Italian physician, born at Ber- 
 gamo, invented the "balm of Lucatel." Died in 1637. 
 
 Locatelli or Lucatelli, (Pi etro,) a historical painter, 
 born in the Roman States. He was admitted into the 
 Academy of Saint Luke in 1690. 
 
 Locatelli, (Pietro,) an Italian violinist, born at Ber- 
 gamo in 1693 ; died in 1764. 
 
 Loccenius, lok-sa'ne-us, (JOHAN,) a Swedish histo- 
 rian, born in Holstein about 1598. Queen Christina gave 
 him the title of historiographer of Sweden. He wrote, 
 in Latin, " History of Sweden," (1654,) and several works 
 on law. Died in 1677. 
 
 • See M. Steuch, " Memoria J. Loccenii," 167S ; Olof A. Knoes, 
 " Let'vernes Ueskrit'ning otti J. Luccenius," 1S07. 
 
 Loch, lok or lOK, (James,) a Scottish lawyer, born in 
 1780. He was employed as auditor by the Earl of Elles- 
 mere and other noblemen, and was for many years a 
 Liberal member of Parliament. He published a " Sta- 
 tistical and Historical Account of the County of Suther- 
 land." Died in 1855. 
 
 Locher, loK'er, (Jakob,) a German poet, born in 
 Suabia in 1470, was surnamed Phii.omusus. He was 
 crowned poet-laureate by the Emperor of Germany. 
 Among his works (in Latin) are a poem on Lazarus 
 and Dives, and "The Judgment of Paris," (1501.) Died 
 in 1528. 
 
 Lochner, loK'ner, (Michael Friedrich,) a skilful 
 German physician and botanist, born near Nuremberg 
 in 1662 ; died in 1720. 
 
 Lock, (MATTHEW,) an excellent English composer, 
 born at Exeter about 1635. Soon after the restoration 
 (1660) he received the title of composer-in-ordinary to 
 Charles II. He is called the first English composer for 
 the stage. Some of his sacred compositions appeared in 
 the " Harmonia Sacra." His chief title to durable fame 
 is the admirable "Music in Macbeth." Died in 1677. 
 
 See flURSEV, " History of Music." 
 
 Lock'art, (Alexander,) a Scottish lawyer, born 
 near Edinburgh in 1675. He wrote "Memoirs of Scot- 
 land." Died in 1732. 
 
 Locke, lok, [I.at. Loc'kius,'] (John,) a celebrated 
 English philosopher and philanthropist, born at Wring- 
 ton, in Somersetshire, in 1632, was the son of Captain 
 Locke, who served in the parliamentary army during 
 the civil war. He studied at Westminster School, and in 
 1651 entered Christ Church, Oxford, where he soon dis- 
 tinguished himself by his talents and acquirements. He 
 left Oxford with no very favourable views of the system 
 of instruction there pursued. He had, indeed, been far 
 more indebted for his mental culture to his own efforts 
 than to the skill or labour of his tutors, and was himself 
 an example of that self-teaching which in his writings 
 he so strongly recommends. In 1665 Locke accom- 
 panied, as secretary, Sir Walter Vane, royal envoy to 
 the Elector of Brandenburg. He returned to England 
 in February, and soon after formed the acquaintance of 
 Lord Ashley, (afterwards Shaftesbury,) who received him 
 into the number of his most intimate and confidential 
 friends. In 1672, Shaftesbury being then lord chancellor, 
 Locke was appointed secretary for the presentation 
 of benefices, but quitted this office in 1673, when his 
 patron, having quarrelled with the court, resigned the 
 great sea). In 1675 I,ocke visited the south of France 
 on account of his health. He resided more than a year 
 at Montpenier, and afterwards spent much time in Paris. 
 He returned to his own country in 1679; but, Shaftes- 
 bury having been compelled, bv his enemies to leave 
 England towards the close of 16S2, Locke followed him 
 to the continent in 1683, and passed several years in 
 Holland. In 1688 he returned to his native land in 
 the same fleet that conveyed the Princess of Orange to 
 England. Soon after his arrival, he was offered by Lord 
 Mordaunt the position of envoy to one of the European 
 courts ; but he declined the office on account of his 
 feeble health : he accepted, however, the post of com- 
 missioner of appeals, which yielded him, it is said, 
 
 two hundred pounds a year, — no inconsiderable sum for 
 that period. The asthmatic affection under which he 
 had been suffering for many years having become more 
 aggravated, he resigned, in 1700, his position under the 
 government, and retired to Oates, in Essex. Here he 
 spent the remainder of his days at the house of Sir 
 Francis Masham, whose accomplished lady was the 
 daughter of the celebrated Dr. Cudworth. He died 
 October 28, 1 704. 
 
 Locke was no less distinguished for his virtues and 
 piety than for his extraordinary intellectual endowments. 
 All his writings may be said to have had for their object 
 the improvement of mankind in knowledge, liberty, and 
 virtue. Although he was in favour of the utmost free- 
 dom of investigation in regard to religious as well as 
 other truths, he entertained for the Holy Scriptures the 
 profoundest veneration. To a friend inquiring the best 
 way to attain a true knowledge of the Christian religion, 
 he answered, "Study the Holy Scriptures, especially 
 the New Testament : therein are contained the words 
 of eternal life. It has God for its author, salvation for 
 its end, and truth without any mixture of error for its 
 matter." A little before his death, while acknowledging 
 that his life, on the whole, had been a happy one, he 
 pronounced all sublunary enjoyments to be " vanity," 
 and earnestly exhorted his friends to prepare for the 
 endless life to come. He extolled the goodness of God 
 in providing for the salvation of mankind through faith 
 in Jesus Christ, and expressed particular gratitude that 
 he had been led through divine goodness to the know- 
 ledge of the Saviour. (See a letter by Coste, the French 
 translator of the " Essay on the Human Understanding," 
 published February, 1705.) As a controversialist, Locke 
 was remarkable not only for the clearness and cogency 
 of his arguments, but also for the perfect fairness and 
 respect with which he treated his opponents. His con- 
 versation, we are told, was a "happy union of wit and 
 good sense ;" so that his company was sought by many 
 of the most distinguished men of that period, — such as 
 Halifax, Buckingham, etc. As an evidence of the variety 
 and extent of his attainments, we may mention that the 
 great Sydenham, alluding to Locke's skill in medicine, 
 gave it as his opinion tHat "in genius, penetration, and 
 accurate judgment he had in that age few equals and 
 scarcely any superior." From the character of Locke 
 as given by Le Clerc, which he assures us " is an accu- 
 rate and by no means flattered description," we take the 
 following: "He was a profound philosopher, and a man 
 fit for the most important affairs. He had much know- 
 ledge of belles-lettres, and his manners were very polite 
 and particularly engaging. He knew something of almost 
 everything which can be useful to mankind, and was 
 thoroughly master of all that he had studied ; but he 
 showed his superiority by not appearing to value himself 
 in any way on account of his great attainments. . . . He 
 was very charitable to the poor, provided they were not 
 the idle nor the profligate. ... He was an exact ob- 
 server of his word, and what he promised was sacred. 
 He was scrupulous about recommending people whom 
 he did not know ; and he could not bring himself to 
 praise those whom he did not think worthy." (See "Life 
 of Locke," by Lord King, pp. 267-271.) 
 
 Locke's great work, entitled an " Essay on the Human 
 Understanding," was first published in 1690, (three years 
 after the appearance of Newton's " Principia,") although 
 the original copy, still preserved and in his own hand- 
 writing, is dated 1671, — an evidence of his great caution 
 (evinced also in his other works) with respect to offering 
 his views to the public. The leading position of his 
 essay is that the human mind has no innate ideas, and 
 i that all ideas, with their various combinations, are to be 
 referred to sensation and reflection. His other publica- 
 tions were, — three " Letters on Toleration," (1690-0.2,) 
 a "Treatise on Education," (1690,) one on the value of 
 money, (1691,) "The Reasonableness of Christianity," 
 (1695,) a first and second Vindication of the last-named 
 work, (1696,) and three elaborate letters in defence of 
 the "Essay on the Human Understanding" against 
 Stillingfleet, Bishop of Winchester, (1697-99.) Locke's 
 work on the "Conduct of the Human Understanding," 
 and his "Discourse on Miracles," and "Commentaries 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; n, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( $ff~ See Explanations, p. 83.) 
 
LOCKE 
 
 •444 
 
 LODUR 
 
 on the Epistles of Saint Paul," were published after his 
 death." 
 
 See "Life of Locke," by Lord King; "Nouvelle Bingraphie 
 GeneYale;" " Biographie Universelle ;" article "Locke" in the 
 "Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" Jean Leci.erc, "Eioge historique de 
 feu M. Locke," 1711 ; "Memoirs of the Life of J. Locke," 1742; 
 J. G. Mellring, "Merita J. Lockii in Philosophiam," 1792; Lil- 
 
 iBNROTH, " Dissertatio Vitam J. Lockii exponens," 1703; Eixiuard 
 .aboui.aye, " Locke Legislateur de la Caroline," 1850; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for April, 1854; British Quarterly Review" for May, 1847. 
 
 Locke, (John,) M.D., an American geologist, born 
 at Fryeburg, Maine, in 1792. He became professor 
 of chemislry at Cincinnati in 1836. He was well versed 
 in geology and natural history. Died in Cincinnati 
 in 1856. 
 
 Locke, (Joseph,) M.P., F.R.S., an eminent English 
 railway-engineer, born near Sheffield in 1805. He learned 
 the business of engineering with the celebrated George 
 Stephenson. He gained a high reputation as engineer 
 of the Grand Junction Railway, (of which Birmingham 
 is one of the termini,) completed in 1837. The London 
 and Southampton Railway, under his direction, was 
 opened in 1840. He was afterwards employed as en- 
 gineer of the railways connecting Paris and Rouen, and 
 Havre and Rouen, in France. For several years before 
 his death he was a member of Parliament, m which he 
 acted with the Liberal party. Died in i860. 
 
 See " Life of Joseph Locke," by J. Devey, 1862. 
 
 Lock'er, (Edward Hawke,) an English writer, born 
 in Kent in 1777. He was private secretary to Lord 
 Exmouth about fifteen years, commencing in 1800. He 
 was one of the projectors and editors of "The Plain 
 Englishman," a useful periodical adapted to the instruc- 
 tion of the people. He also published "Lectures on the 
 Bible and Liturgy." Died in 1849. 
 
 Lockhart, lok'art, (Sir George,) an eminent Scot- 
 tish lawyer, was a brother of Sir William, noticed be- 
 low. He was admitted to the bar about 1656, and was 
 appointed lord president of the court of sessions in 1685. 
 He was murdered in Edinburgh in 1689. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary ot Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Lockhart, (George,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born near Edinburgh in 1673. He was a zealous and 
 prominent partisan of the Pretender about the time of 
 the rebellion of 1715. He wrote "Memoirs concern- 
 ing the Affairs of Scotland," which are of some historical 
 value. Died in 1731. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Lockhart, (John Giisson,) a distinguished British 
 author, poet, and critic, was born at the manse of Cam- 
 busnethan, in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1794. He was the 
 son of a Presbyterian minister, who removed to Glasgow 
 while the subject of this article was in his infancy. As 
 a student in the Glasgow University he obtained a valua- 
 ble bursary, in virtue of which he entered Iialiol College, 
 Oxford. He studied law, and was called to the Scottish 
 bar in 1816, but preferred the profession of literature. 
 He was one of the chief contributors to " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for about seven years after it was first estab- 
 lished, in 1817. He advocated Tory principles in politi- 
 cal articles which displayed a great mastery of sarcasm 
 and invective. In 1820 he married Sophia, daughter of 
 Sir Walter Scott. He produced in 1821 "Valerius, a 
 Roman Story," which is much admired, and was fol- 
 lowed by "Reginald Dalton, a Story of English Univer- 
 sity Life," (1823.) About this time lie published elegant 
 translations of "Ancient Spanish Ballads." In 1825 or 
 1826 he removed to London, and became editor of the 
 "Quarterly Review," which he conducted with success 
 until 1853, and for which he wrote many excellent criti- 
 cal and biographical articles. In 1843 ' ie was appointed 
 to the lucrative office of auditor of the duchy of Corn- 
 wall. His most important work is his "Life of Sir 
 Walter Scott," (7 vols., 1838,) which ranks very high in 
 respect to literary merit, and is surpassed in interest 
 by few, if any, biographies in the English language. 
 He also published a "Life of Robert Burns," (1825,) 
 which was received with favour, and Lives of Theodore 
 Hook and Napoleon I. His manners were reserved 
 and even chilling. His last years were rendered un- 
 happy by the loss of his wife and two sons. He died in 
 1854, leaving a daughter, who was the only surviving 
 
 descendant of Sir Walter Scott when she was married 
 to Mr. Hope. 
 
 SeeCHAMBERS," Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement ;) " Biographical Sketches," by Hakrjbt Martineau, 
 London, iSoo ; "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1864; 
 " Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1830, (with a portrait.) 
 
 Lockhart, (Sir William,) of I.ee, an able British 
 statesman, born in 1621. He fought for Charles II., 
 and was made prisoner at Preston, (1650.) In 1652 he 
 entered the civil service of Cromwell, and in 1655 was 
 sent as ambassador to Louis XIV. of France. He com- 
 manded the British at the siege of Dunkirk in 1658, and 
 then became governor of that place. At the restoration 
 of 1660 he was recalled. Died in 1675. " He was," 
 says Clarendon, "a man of great address in treaty." 
 
 SeeCHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 " North British Review" for February, 1862. 
 
 Lockius. See Locke, (John.) 
 
 Lockman. See Lokman. 
 
 Lock'man, (John,) an English writer on various 
 subjects, born in 1698; died in 1771. 
 
 Lock'wood, (Henry H.,) an American general, born 
 in Kent county, Delaware, about 1814, graduated at 
 West PoinL He became a brigadier-general of United 
 States volunteers in August, 1861, and took part in the 
 battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. 
 
 Locman. See Lokman. 
 
 Locre de Roissy, lo'kita' deh Rwl'se', (Jean Guil- 
 i.aume,) a jurist, born of a French family at Leipsic in 
 1758, came to France in his youth. He published "The 
 Spirit of the Code Napoleon," (" Esprit du Code Napo- 
 leon," etc., (5 vols., 1806,) and "The Civil, Commercial, 
 and Criminal Legislation of France," (31 vols., 1826-32.) 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Loder, lo'd^r, (Justus Christian,) an anatomist, 
 born at Riga in 1753. In 1809 the Czar Alexander called 
 him to Moscow and chose him for his first physician. 
 He published "Anatomical Plates," ("Tabula; Ana- 
 tomical," 1794,) with explicative text, a work of great 
 merit. Died in Moscow in 1832. 
 
 See Meusei, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 
 Lodge, (Edmund,) an English herald and biographer, 
 born in London in 1756. He became Norroy king-at- 
 arms in 1822, and Clarenceux king-at-arms in 1838. He 
 published valuable "Illustrations of British History," 
 (3 vols., 1791,) and "Portraits of Illustrious Personages 
 of Great Britain," (4 vols., 1821-34,) which is his prin- 
 cipal work. It was republished in 8 vols., 1849. In 
 reference to it Sir Walter Scott remarked, " It is impos- 
 sible for me to conceive a work which ought to be more 
 interesting to the present age than that which exhibits 
 before our eyes our 'fathers as they lived,' accompanied 
 with such memorials of their lives and characters as 
 enable us to compare their persons with their sentiments 
 and actions." Died in 1839. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for May, 1792. 
 
 Lodge, (Thomas,) an English dramatist and versatile 
 writer, born probably about 1556. He is supposed to 
 have been in early life a soldier and play-actor. Ac- 
 cording to some authorities, he practised medicine with 
 success in London, and died of the plague in 1625. He 
 translated Josephus and Seneca into English, and wrote 
 successful dramas, novels, and other works. Among his 
 principal productions are "The Wounds of Civil War," 
 a tragedy, (1594,) a " Looking-Glass for London and 
 England," (a drama, of which R. Greene was joint author,) 
 and "Rosalynde: Euphues' Golden Legacie," (1590,) a 
 novel which furnished the incidents of Shakspeare's "As 
 You Like It." Hallam calls him one of the best poets 
 of the age. (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses ;" " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Lodge, (William,) an eminent English engraver, 
 born at Leeds in 1649. He travelled in Italy and in his 
 native country, and published engravings of places, etc 
 which he had designed. He translated into English 
 Barri's " Picturesque Journey in Italy," (1679,) and en- 
 graved with remarkable skill a series of portraits of 
 eminent -persons. Died in 1689. 
 Lodi, (Calisto da.) See Piazza, (Calisto.) 
 Lo'dttr, [related to the German lodern, to "blaze,"] 
 one of the gods of the Norse mythology, who assisted 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 5, j?, short; a, <;, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nflt; good; moon, 
 
LOEBELL 
 
 H45 
 
 LOHAIA 
 
 join in the creation of mankind. He is supposed to 
 ty pity vital warmth. As Loki is named from the perni- 
 ciotis qualities of fire, so Lodur would seem to represent 
 its beneficent properties. (See Loki, also Hoenir.) 
 
 Loebell. See Lobkli. 
 
 Loeben. See Loben. 
 
 Loeflmg. See Lofling. 
 
 Loehr. See Lour. 
 
 Loennrot See Lonnrot. 
 
 Loescher. See Losciiek. 
 
 Loesel. See LtttBL. 
 
 Loeve-Veiniars, krw vi'maV, (Francois Adol- 
 phk,) Karon, a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1801. 
 He published translations from the German, tales, cri- 
 tiques, a "History of Ancient Literature," (1825,) and 
 other works. Died in 1S54. 
 
 Loewen. See Lowkn. 
 
 Loewenklau. See Lklnclavius. 
 
 Lofft, (Capel,) an English writer on various subjects, 
 born in London in 1 75 1 , was a gentleman and lawyer. 
 He patronized the poet Hloomfield, advocated the abo- 
 lition of the slave-trade, and wrote political pamphlets, 
 dramas, verses, etc. He died in France in 1824. 
 
 Lofling or Loefling, lofling, (Peter,) a Swedish 
 botanist, born at Tolllorsbruch in 1729. He was a 
 favourite pupil of Linnaeus, by whose mediation he was 
 appointed botanist to the King of Spain in 1751. He 
 accompanied as naturalist an expedition sent by the 
 Spanish government to South America in 1754. After 
 brief explorations of the districts of Cumana and Guiana, 
 be died in 1756. His "Excursion in Spain" ("Iter His- 
 panicum") was published in 1758 by Linnaeus. 
 
 Lofn, lof'n, or Lov'ua, ftromAj/i "praise," also 
 " leave," " favour :" compare the German Lob and Per- 
 laud, ] in the Norse mythology, a goddess, who is espe- 
 cially favourable to lovers, by whom she is principally 
 worshipped. Power is given to her to unite those who 
 love each other, whatever obstacles may stand in the 
 way. From a root cognate with her name the Swedes 
 derive their f&rlofva and the Germans their verioben, 
 signifying to "betroth." 
 
 See Thurpk, " Xortlirrn Mythology ;" Mai.let, "Northern 
 Antiquities," vol. ii , Kabie XVU1. 
 
 Loftus, (DUDLEY,) an Irish lawyer, versed in Orien- 
 tal lore, was born near Dublin in 1618. He l>ecame a 
 master in chancery and a judge of the prerogative court. 
 He translated several works from the Syriac, and made 
 the Latin version of the ^Kthiopic New Testament which 
 was published in Walton's Polyglot. Died in 1695. 
 
 Loftus, (WILLIAM Kknnett,) an English archaeolo- 
 gist, born at Kye about 1820. He explored the sites of 
 ancient cities on the Euphrates and Tigris, and pub- 
 lished a valuable work entitled "Travels and Researches 
 in (haklaca and Susiana," etc., (1857.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Lo'gan, a celebrated Indian chief, of the tribe of the 
 Cayugas, whose original name was Tah-gah-jute, was 
 born about 1725. His family having ljeen murdered 
 by a party of white men, he avenged himself by waging 
 a destructive war on the Western settlers, in which the 
 Indians were at length defeated. He was killed in 1780 
 in a skirmish with a party of Indians. Logan's regard 
 for the whites caused him to l>e called by his country- 
 men "the Friend of the White Man." A granite monu- 
 ment was erected to his memory at Fair Hill Cemetery, 
 near Auburn, in Cayuga county, New York. 
 
 Logan. (George,) an American physician and philan- 
 thropist, born near Philadelphia in 1753, was a grandson 
 of James Logan, noticed Mow, lie was an earnest 
 advocate of peace, and went to France in 1798 in order 
 to prevent a war lwtween France and America. He 
 represented Pennsylvania in the Senate of the United 
 States from 1801 to 1807. He acted with the Repub- 
 licans, and was denounced by the Federalists for his 
 voluntary services in France. Died in 1821. 
 
 Lo'gan, (James,) a colonial statesman and author, 
 born at Lurgan, Ireland, in 1674, was a member of the 
 Society of Friends. He was master of the Greek, Latin, 
 French, and German languages. In 1699 he accompanied 
 William Penn to America as his secretary. Under the 
 patronage of William Penn he was much employed in 
 public affairs. He was appointed secretary of the pro- 
 
 vince in 1701, after which he became chief justice and 
 president of the council. He acted as Governor about 
 two years after the death of Governor Gordon, in 1736. 
 Among his works is a Latin treatise on the generation 
 of plants, " Experimenta et Meletemata de Plantarum 
 Generatione," (1739.) He produced a good version of 
 Cicero "De Senectute," (1744.) He collected a library 
 of about 3000 volumes, which is known under the name of 
 the Loganian Library and is included in the Philadelphia 
 Library. Died near Philadelphia in October, 1751. 
 
 See a "Memoir of James Logan," by W. Akmistead. 
 
 Lo'gan, (John,) a Scottish divine and poet, born at 
 Soutra in 1748. He was appointed minister of Leith in 
 1773, and became an eloquent and popular preacher. 
 He delivered in Edinburgh lectures "On the Philosophy 
 of History," which were published in 1781. In this year 
 he published a volume of admired poems, chiefly lyrical, 
 among which is an "Ode to the Cuckoo." Havinggiven 
 offence to his church by writing " Runnimede," a tragedy, 
 (1783,) he removed to London in 1785. There he wrote 
 a pamphlet entitled " Review of the Charges against 
 Warren Hastings," advocating the cause of Hastings. 
 It led to the celebrated trial of Stockdale, his publisher. 
 Died in 17S8. His sermons were published in 1790, and 
 are highly esteemed. 
 
 See " Lite of Logan," prefixed to an edition of his poems. 1805; 
 Chambers, " Itiographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Logan, (John A.,) an American general, born in 
 Jackson county, Illinois, in February, 1826. He studied 
 law, which he practised with success until he was elected 
 a member of Congress by the Democrats of the ninth 
 district of Illinois, in 1858. In i860 he was again elected 
 to Congress. Having raised a regiment of volunteers, 
 he was appointed colonel of the same in September, 
 
 1861, and was wounded at Fort Donelson, February, 
 
 1862. He became a brigadier-general in March, 1862, 
 and a major-general about the end of that year. He 
 served with distinction in the campaign against Vicks- 
 burg which ended July 4, 1863. In October, 1863, he 
 obtained command of the fifteenth army corps, with 
 which he contributed to the victories gained by Sherman 
 between Chattanooga and Atlanta, after McPberson was 
 killed. He commanded the army of the Tennessee in a 
 battle near Atlanta, July 22, 1864. He also led a corps 
 of Sherman's army in the march from Savannah through 
 South Carolina and North Carolina in February and 
 March, 1865. He was one of the most successful of the 
 civilian or political generals in the civil war. In 1866 
 he was elected to Congress as a Radical. He was one 
 of seven members elected March 2, 1868, as managers 
 to conduct the impeachment of President Johnson. He 
 was again elected to Congress in 1868. 
 
 Logan, (Sir WILLIAM Edmond,) a distinguished geol- 
 ogist, bom at Montreal, Canada, in 1798. About 1842 
 he was appointed to superintend a geological survey of 
 Canada. He received the gold medal of honour at the 
 Paris Industrial Exhibition of 1855, and in 1856 the 
 Wollaston palladium medal. 
 
 Logau, von, fori lo'gow, (Friedrich,) IIaron, a Ger- 
 man poet, born in Silesia in 1604. He passed the latter 
 part of his life in the service of the Duke of Liegnitz, 
 and died in 1655, leaving a great number of epigrams, 
 which were highly praised by Lessing and are remark- 
 able for irony and pathos. 
 
 Loges, des, A\ lozh, Madame, a Protestant French 
 lady, whose maiden name was Marie Pruneau, (bKti'- 
 116',) was born at Sedan about 1584. Her house in Paris 
 was frequented by Malherbe and other eminent wits, 
 attracted by the charm of her conversation. Died in 1641. 
 
 Log' gan, (David,) an eminent engraver and designer, 
 born at Dantzic about 1635. He became a resident of 
 London, where he published Engravings of the Colleges 
 of Oxford, ("Oxonia lllustrata,") and similar illustra- 
 tions of those of Cambridge. After the restoration of 
 1660, he engraved portraits of Charles II., and of many 
 dukes, earls, prelates, etc of his time. Died in 1693. 
 
 See Stnutt, " Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Lohaia, Ibn, Tb'n lo-hi'a, or Ibn-Lahia, ib'n la-hee'a, 
 a Moslem doctor, born about 710 a.d. He was appointed 
 Cadee of Egypt in 771, and died about 790. The tra- 
 ditions transmitted through him are of gteat authority 
 
 *a»i;<;ass;gAard; g as_/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; Sasz; thasin this. (jry~See Explanations, p. 83.) 
 
LOHENSTEIN 
 
 1446 
 
 LOKI 
 
 among Egyptians. Silvestre de Sacy attaches importance 
 to the historical traditions derived from him. 
 
 Lohensteiii. von, fon lo'en-stin', (Daniel Caspar,) 
 a German writer, born at Nimptsch, in Silesia, in 1635. 
 He founded a literary school which corrupted the na- 
 tional taste, and wrote tragedies and other poems. " He 
 was always tumid," says Hallam, "and striving at some- 
 thing elevated, so that the ' Lohensteiii swell' became a 
 byword with later critics." (" Introduction to the Litera- 
 ture of Europe.") Died in 1683. 
 
 See Passow, " D. C. von Lohensteiii, seine Trauerspiele," etc., 
 1852. 
 
 Lohr or Loehr, 16k, (Johann Andreas Christian,) 
 a German writer, born at Halberstadt in 1764, published 
 several popular works for children. Died in 1823. 
 
 Lohurasp, lo'hdo-rlsp', written also Lohrasp, a 
 Persian king, who was (according to the " Shah Nameh") 
 the father of Gushtasp. He is supposed to have reigned 
 about 550 is.c. According to the Arabian chronicles, 
 his army took Jerusalem. 
 
 See J. Atkinson's "Abridgment of the Shah NSmeh of Fir 
 dausi," London, 1832. 
 
 Loir, lwaR, (Nicolas Pierre,) a skilful French 
 painter, born in Paris in 1624. After a visit to Rome, 
 he returned in 1649, was received as Academician in 
 1663, and was patronized by Louis XIV., who gave him 
 a pension of four thousand francs. He worked with 
 facility, and was successful in history and landscapes. 
 The picture of "Cleobis and Biton drawing the Chariot 
 of their Mother" is called his master-piece. He etched 
 about one hundred and fifty pieces of his own and of 
 other artists. Died in 1679. 
 
 His brother Alexis, bom about 1640, had a high 
 reputation as an engraver. He engraved several works 
 of Poussin, Lebrun, etc. Died at Paris in 1713. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinsiler-Lexikon." 
 
 Iioiseau de Mauleon, lwa'zo' deh ni6'la'6N', (Alex- 
 andre Jerome,) an eloquent French advocate, born in 
 Paris in 1728. He was a friend of Rousseau, who ad- 
 vised him to defend good causes exclusively. "He fol- 
 lowed my counsel," says Rousseau, " and has found the 
 advantage of it. His defence of M. de Portes is worthy 
 of Demosthenes." Died in 1771. 
 
 See Rousseau, "Confessions." 
 
 Loisel, lwa'zSl', (Antoine,) a French jurist, born at 
 Beauvais in 1536. He wrote, besides other legal works, 
 "Institutes coutumieres," (1607,) a treatise on common 
 law. Died in 161 7. 
 
 Loiseleur-Deslongchampa, lwaz'lUR'da'16N'sh6N', 
 (Auguste Louis Armand,) a French Orientalist, born 
 in Paris in 1805, gave special attention to the Sanscrit. 
 His most important work is "The Book of the Laws of 
 Mann," (" Manava-Dharma-Sastra," 1832.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Loiseleur - Deslongchamps, (Jean Louis Au- 
 guste,) a French botanist, born at Dreux in 1775, was 
 the father of the preceding. He obtained a diploma as 
 physician in 1805. Among his works are a " Flora Gal- 
 lica," (2 vols., 1806-7,) and " Le Nouveau Duhamel," or 
 "Treatise on Trees and Shrubs cultivated in the Open 
 Air in France," (7 vols., 1812-19.) Died in 1849. 
 
 See Leclerc, " FJoge de M. Loiseleur-Deslongchamps," 1851. 
 
 Loison, lwa'sdw', (Louis Henri,) a French general 
 of division, born in Lorraine about 1770, received the 
 grand cross of honour for his conduct at Austerlitz, 
 (1805.) Died in 1816. 
 
 Lojsalfar. See Elves. 
 
 Lok or Loke. See Lokl 
 
 Loki, lo'ke, or Loke, lo'keh, written also Lok, [from 
 the old Norse logi, (Ger. Lo/ie,) "flame," allied to the 
 Latin luc-eo, to "shine," and to the Scottish lug, "fire;" 
 probably so named because he united the subtlety and 
 mitrustworthiness (or treachery) of fire with its destroy- 
 ing properties,] in the Norse mythology, the god of evil 
 and deceit, corresponding in the main with the Ahriman 
 of the Zoroastrians. He is of Jotun (giant) descent, but 
 was received among the gods, and in the beginning was 
 a foster-brother of Odin. From his association with the 
 ^Esir, he is often styled Asa-Loki or Asaloke. He is 
 called by various appellations ; among others, the Slan- 
 derer or Accuser, — epithets exactly corresponding to the 
 Greek owiSo/toc, (Latin Vial/olus.) He is the enemy and 
 
 mocker, as well as tempter, of gods and men. As proof 
 of his subtlety, he often changed his sex, assuming on 
 different occasions trie form of a mare, a cow, an old 
 woman, etc., as well as that of the gods. The TEsir often 
 made use of his cunning and strength ; but still more 
 frequently they had cause to rue those very powers em- 
 ployed against themselves. Professor Petersen furnishes 
 perhaps the most philosophical and most satisfactory 
 account of Loki and his various attributes that can any- 
 where be found. Among other things, he observes that 
 "Asaloke forms an antagonism (modsatning) to all the 
 other gods. He is the [principle of] evil exerting itself 
 in every direction. He runs in the veins of mankind as 
 sensuality. He is the destructive [power| of nature in 
 air, in fire, and in water. In the bosom of the earth [he 
 shows himself] as volcanic fire; in the sea as a devour- 
 ing serpent ; in the lower world ( underverden ) as pale 
 Death. He is not confined to any one part of nature, 
 but. like Odin, pervades it all. . . . And all that he is 
 in [external] nature, the same is he in the mind of man : 
 shrewdness, but also cunning and falsehood at the same 
 time ; spirit, but likewise craft, deceit, and malice. . . . 
 And in each of these forms he continually becomes worse 
 and worse; according to the old proverb, that 'every- 
 thing grows worse as it grows older.'" ("Nordisk My- 
 thologi," pp. 355-6.) 
 
 Through the deceitful malice of Loki, Balder, the 
 beautiful and good, was slain by the hand of his blind 
 brother Hoder. (See Balder.) By the female Jotun 
 Angurboda, Loki was the father of the wolf Fenrir, of 
 the World-Serpent, (or Midgard's Ormr,) and of Ilela, 
 the goddess of death. He is also fabled to have been (by 
 a change of sex) the dam of the horse Sleipnir. The 
 ^Esir, exasperated on account of the death of Balder, 
 determined at length to take vengeance on Loki. lie 
 had fled to the mountains, and there built himself a 
 house which was open on four sides, whence he could 
 see everything that happened throughout the world. By 
 day he often transformed himself into a salmon, and hid 
 himself in a waterfall. The gods, learning his hiding- 
 place, attempted to catch him with a net ; he sprang 
 over the net, but Thor caught him by the tail. This is 
 the reason, we are told, why the salmon has so thin and 
 pointed a tail. Having thus captured Loki, the gods 
 bound him with magic cords to three sharp stones. A 
 venomous snake was then hung above his head, so that 
 the poison might continually drip on his face. But his 
 faithful wife Sigyn (sig'in) stands by him and catches the 
 falling venom in a cup. When the cup is full, while she 
 is emptying it the poison falls upon his face, which makes 
 him howl with anguish and writhe his body so that the 
 whole earth trembles. Loki will break loose from his 
 bonds at Ragnarock* (the "twilight or evening of the 
 gods,") when he will become the leading spirit among 
 the enemies of the ^Esir. He is not only the leader of 
 Fenrir and the other progeny of evil, but he is said 
 to steer the fatal ship Naglfar which conveys the sons 
 of Muspel over the ocean. In the final conflict he will 
 encounter Heimdall, and they will slay each other. Frey 
 falls under the sword of Suit. Tyr slays and is slain by 
 the dog Garm. Odin is devoured by the wolf Fenrir, 
 which in turn is killed by Vidar. Thor slays the world- 
 serpent, but dies immediately afterwards from the effects 
 of its venom. Then Surt scatters fire over the earth, 
 and the whole world is consumed. (See Fenrir.) We 
 are told, however, that this destruction is not to last 
 forever. A new earth, forever green and beautiful, will 
 rise out of the sea. Vali and Vidar (the slayer of Fen- 
 rir) will survive the conflagration, and will be joined by 
 Modi and Magni, the sons of Thor and Balder, and 
 Hoder will return from the realms of Hela. The sun 
 before her destruction bore a daughter more beautiful 
 than herself. As successor to her mother, she will pursue 
 her appointed path through the renovated world. A new 
 race shall fill the earth, and all evil come to an end. 
 
 See Kkyser, "Religion of the Northmen," translated by Pen- 
 nock, pp. 101-104 : Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Mal- 
 let. " Northern Antiquities" vo1 - ''■• Fable XVI., also XXX. to 
 XXXIII. inclusive; Petersen, "Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 • Derived, according to Kevser, from Regin, the " ruling powers," 
 and hence "gods," and Rdkkr, "darkness," also "twilight." 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u,y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; f&r, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
LOKMAN 
 
 ■447 
 
 LOMBARD US 
 
 Lokman or Locman, lok'mln', written also Loq- 
 man, an ancient Arabian sage, celebrated for his wis- 
 dom, and supposed to be the author of a collection of 
 popular Oriental fables. He is mentioned in the Koran, 
 and is regarded as a contemporary of David and Solo- 
 mon. One Arabian writer tells us that Lokman (who is 
 called " the oldest sage") was an Abyssinian slave be- 
 longing to an Israelite in the time of King David, and 
 that he was a tailor by trade. Another writer says he 
 had read more than 10,000 wise sayings and maxims, but 
 none finer than those of Lokman. It is related that 
 Lokman, being asked whence he had learned his wisdom, 
 replied, " From the blind, who do not set down their 
 feet until they know the place ;" and when asked from 
 whom he had learned good manners, he said, " From 
 the ill-mannered, because I avoid everything offensive 
 in them." Coincident traditions suggest the possible, if 
 not probable, identity of Lokman and ./Esop. "Many 
 passages of his history," says Silvestre de Sacy, "seem 
 evidently borrowed from the life of ^Esop." " Nothing 
 in his fables is characteristic of Arabian genius; and 
 they have received the name of Lokman only because 
 he was renowned for wisdom." They were edited and 
 translated into Latin by Erpenius in 1615. 
 
 See Hammer-Purgstall, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber," 
 vol. i. p. 31 et ug. 
 
 Lola Montez, lo'la mon'tjz, (Maria Dolores Por- 
 ris GILBERT,) a famous female adventurer, was born 
 about 1820, at Limerick. At an early age she made her 
 diintt at Paris as a danseuse, and by her beauty and 
 genius attracted many admirers. About 1846 she went 
 to Munich, where she captivated the king, Louis, who 
 gave her the title of Countess of Lansfeld. After several 
 ministers had been discarded by her influence, her 
 enemies prevailed in 1848, and she retired from Bavaria. 
 She was afterwards married twice, and lived in England 
 and the United States, where she lectured with success 
 in various cities. She published a volume of lectures, 
 and was the reputed author of a work called "The Arts 
 of Beauty, or Secrets of a Lady's Toilet." She died in 
 New York in 1861. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1S48. 
 
 Loli, lo'lee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian painter and en- 
 graver, born at Bologna in 1612, was a pupil of Guido 
 Reni. His most admired works are etchings, after Guido, 
 Sirani, etc. Died in 1691. 
 
 Lol'lard or Lol'hard, (Walter,) a person of whom 
 we have' little information, except that he was burned 
 to death as a heretic at Cologne in 1322. His followers 
 or fellow-believers, called " Lollards," were a numerous 
 sect in England many years after his death. Their doc- 
 trines appear to have been similar to those of the Prot- 
 estants. The term Lollard was applied to the disciples 
 of Wickliffe by their opponents. In the reign of Henry 
 V. (1414) the Lollards were persecuted, and revolted 
 without success. (See Corham, Lord.) 
 
 Lolli, lol'lee, (Antonio,) an Italian violinist, born at 
 Bergamo in 1728; died in 1802. 
 
 Lol'li-a Pau-li'na, a Roman empress, whose beauty 
 captivated Caligula. She was married to him in 38 A.D., 
 but was soon discarded by the capricious emperor. She 
 was put to death in 49 A.D. by the order of Agrippina, 
 who was prompted to this act by jealousy. 
 
 Lol-U-a'nus, [AoA/.iavoc,] a Greek sophist and writer 
 on rhetoric, born at Ephesus, lectured at Athens in the 
 reign of Hadrian, (1 17-138 a.d.) 
 
 See Kavskr, " P. Hordeonius Loilianus Reschildert." etc., 1841. 
 
 Lollio, lol'le-o, (Alberto,) an Italian orator and 
 poet, bom at Florence in 1508. He published elegant 
 orations and letters, and several poems, among which is 
 " An -tlinsa," a pastoral drama, (1563.) Died in 1568. 
 
 Lol'li-us, (M.,) a Roman general in the service of 
 Augustus. He was defeated in Gaul by the Germans in 
 16 ii. i-. Died in 3 a.d. 
 
 Lolme. See 1)1 I-oi.mf. 
 
 Lom'ax, (John Taylor,) an American lawyer, born 
 in Caroline county, Virginia, in 1781, was appointed in 
 1826 professor of law in the University of Virginia. 
 
 Lomazzo, lo-mat'so, (GIOVANNI Paolo,) an Italian 
 painter and able writer on art, was born at Milan in 
 1538. He was appointed by Cosimo de' Medici keeper 
 
 of his vast gallery of pictures in Florence. He was 
 versed in belles-lettres and various sciences, and ac- 
 quired a profound theoretical and practical knowledge 
 of the fine arts. Having become blind in the prime of 
 life, he composed his "Trattato della Pittura," (1584,) 
 " the most complete treatise on painting," says the " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle," " that has hitherto appeared." His 
 praises were sung by the first Italian poets of his time. 
 He also published "Idea (or Image) of the Temple of 
 Painting," ("Idea del Tempio della Pittura," 1 591.) 
 Died about 1600. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Winckelmann, 
 " Neues Mahler- Lexikon ;" Ticozzi, "Dizionario." 
 
 Lombard, lAN'bfR', (Claude Antoine,) a French 
 sturgeon, born at Dole in 1741; died in 1811. 
 
 Lombard, (Jean Louis,) a French artillerist, born 
 at Strasburg in 1723, was learned in languages, etc. He 
 published a translation of Robins's " Principles of Ar- 
 tillery," (1783,) and other esteemed works on gunnery. 
 Died in 1 794. 
 
 Lombard, lom'baRt, (Johann Wii.helm,) a Prus- 
 sian politician, born at Berlin about 1767. He was ap- 
 pointed minister of foreign affairs about 1800. He 
 favoured the French interest by promoting the neutrality 
 in which Prussia persisted until 1806. Died in 1812. 
 
 Lombard. IAn%3r', jLat. Lombar'dus,] (Lambert,) 
 an excellent Flemish painter and architect, born at Liege 
 about 1500. He studied in Italy under Andrea del Sarto, 
 and returned to his native city. In his school of design 
 were formed several eminent artists, among whom was 
 Frans Floris. His style is Italian. Among his master- 
 pieces is an oil-painting of the " Last Supper." Died in 
 1565. 
 
 See Vasari. " Lives of the Painters :" Dominicus Lampsonius, 
 (or Lampson,) " Lamberti Lombard! apnd Eburones Pictoris celeber- 
 riini Vita," 1565. 
 
 Lombard, (Theodore,) a French poet, born at An- 
 nonay in 1699 ; died about 1770. 
 
 Lombard de Langres, lo.N'baV deh ISsgR, (Vin- 
 cent,) a French litterateur, born at Langres about 1765. 
 He wrote "Neslie," (1798,) and other poems, and "Me- 
 moirs of the French Revolution," (2 vols., 1823.) Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 Lombardi, Iom-baR'dee, (Alfonso,) an Italian sculp- 
 tor, was born at Ferrara in 1487. He had an excellent 
 talent for portraits. Among his works were portraits of 
 Bembo, Ariosto, and Charles V., and a group in terra 
 cotta representing the " Death of the Virgin." Died 
 in 1536. 
 
 See G. Haruffaldt, "Vita di A. Lombardi," 183Q: Vasari, 
 "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors ;" Cicognara, "Storia della 
 Scultura." 
 
 Lombardi, (Carlo,) an Italian litterateur, born at 
 Rimini, became a Protestant, and a professor of philoso- 
 phy and medicine at Marburg, where he died in 1669. 
 
 Lombardi, (Giovanni Domenico.) called L'Omino, 
 an Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1682 ; died in 1752. 
 
 Lombardi, (Girolamo,) an Italian sculptor, born at 
 Ferrara, lived about 1550. He was employed, under the 
 direction of Sansovino, on the church of San Marco, 
 Venice. 
 
 Lombardi, (Girolamo,) an Italian philologist, born 
 at Verona in 1707 ; died in 1792. 
 
 Lombardo, lom-baR'do, (Pietro,) a Venetian archi- 
 tect and sculptor. He made the monument raised to 
 Dante at Ravenna in 1482, and designed the church of 
 Santa Maria de' Miracoli at Venice. Among his works is 
 the tower for the clock on the Piazza San Marco. Died 
 about 1520. His sons ANTONIO and TulAtO were able 
 sculptors and architects. The latter designed the church 
 of San Salvator, Venice. His finest works as a sculptor 
 were two marble bas-reliefs in the Chapel del Santo at 
 Padua. Died in 1559. 
 
 See Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura." 
 
 Lombardo, (Santk,) an architect and sculptor, born 
 at Venice in 1504, was a nephew of Tullio. Among his 
 works was the Scuola di San Rocco at Venice. Died 
 in 1560. 
 
 Lombardo, (Tommaso,) an Italian sculptor, born at 
 Lugano, lived about 153°' 
 
 Lombardus. Scc'Lombard, (Lambert.) 
 
 j k; c as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; S as z; th as jn this. ( JT^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LOMBART 
 
 '448 
 
 LONDONDERRY 
 
 Lombart, liN'biR', (Pierre,) a French engraver, 
 born in Paris in 1612. Among his works are twelve 
 portraits, after Van Dyck, a " Nativity," after Poussin, 
 and a " Penitent Magdalene," after Titian. Died in 1682. 
 
 Lombert, lAN'baiR', (Pi-erre,) a French translator, 
 born in Paris, was an associate of the Port-Royalists. 
 He produced French versions of the works of Saint 
 Cyprian, (2 vols., 1672,) and of Saint Augustine's "City 
 of God," (2 vols., 1675.) Died in 1710. 
 
 Lomeier, lo'mi'er, written also Lomeir, (Jan,) a 
 learned Dutch philologist, born at Zutphen in 1636. He 
 became minister of the church in that town in 1674, and 
 professor of belles-lettres there in 1686. He published 
 a curious treatise " On Libraries," (" De Bibliothecis," 
 1669,) and a work on ancient history and philology, en- 
 titled " Dierum Genialium." Died in 1699. 
 
 See Sax. "Onomasticon." 
 
 Lomeni, lo-ma'nee, (Ignazio,) an Italian writer on 
 rural economy, born at Milan in 1779; died in 1838. 
 
 Lomenie, de, deh lo'mi'ne', (Henri Auguste,) 
 Count de Brienne., a French statesman, born in Paris in 
 1594. At the age of twenty he obtained the reversion 
 of the office of secretary of state, which his father had 
 held. In 1624 he was sent to England to draw up the 
 articles of the marriage between Henrietta of France 
 and the Prince of Wales. He retired from office in 1661, 
 and died in 166S. 
 
 Lomerrie, de, (Louis Henri.) Count de Brienne, the 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1635. About the age 
 of twenty-six he resigned the office of secretary of foreign 
 affairs, and became a priest of the Oratory. He wrote 
 poems, memoirs, and other works, which have some 
 literary merit. He was expelled from the order of the 
 Oratory for eccentric or improper conduct, and was 
 deranged many years. Died in 1698. 
 
 See " Memoires de L. H. de Lomenie," 2 vols.. 1720. 
 
 Lomerrie, de, (Louis Leonard.) a French author, 
 born in Haute-Vienne in 1818. He began his literary 
 career by a series of biographies, entitled "Gallery of 
 Illustrious Contemporaries, by a Man of no Account," 
 (" Galerie des Contemporains illustres, par un Homme 
 de Rien," 10 vols., 1840-47,) which procured for him an 
 honourable reputation for good taste, discretion, and 
 other merits. Many of these biographies have been 
 published separately. Among his works is " Beaumar- 
 chais and his Times : Studies on French Society," (2 
 vols., i8s;5.) 
 
 Lomenie de Brienne, de, deh lo'ma'ne' deh bRe'eV, 
 (Etienne Chari.es,) a French cardinal and minister of 
 state, born in Paris in 1727. He. was appointed Arch- 
 bishop of Toulouse in 1763. In 1770 he was elected to 
 the French Academy. In May, 1787, he succeeded 
 Calonne as contr6leur-geniral of finances, without abili- 
 ties adequate to the crisis. An exciting contest arose 
 between the court and the Parliament of Paris, which 
 was exiled from the capital and deprived of political 
 power. In 1788 he was invested with the title of prime 
 minister and made Archbishop of Sens. In this year, 
 yielding to the importunate appeals of the people, then 
 in a state of great excitement, he convoked the States- 
 General for May, 1789. Having been so unsuccessful as 
 a financier that he was compelled to suspend payments, 
 he was dismissed on the 24th of August, 1788. and Necker 
 became premier. He was one of those in the new regime 
 who took the oath as a constitutional bishop. Died in 
 •794- 
 
 See T)roz, " Histoire du Regne de Louis XVI ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GeneVale." 
 
 Lomi, lo'mee, (Artemisia,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Pisa in 1590, was a daughter of Orazio Lomi, and a 
 pupil of Guide She had a high reputation as a portrait- 
 painter, and painted some historical works, among which 
 is " Judith and Holofernes." She died in London or 
 Naples about 1644. 
 
 Lomi, (Aurelio,) an Italian painter, born at Pisa in 
 1556, is called one of the chiefs of the school of Pisa. 
 He painted frescos and oil-paintings in Rome, Genoa, 
 Florence, Pisa, etc. Among his admired works are a 
 Saint Jerome and "Adoration of the Magi." Died in 1622. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Baldi.nucci, "No- 
 tizie." 
 
 Lomi, (Baccio,) an Italian painter, an uncle of the 
 preceding, born at Pisa, lived about 1570-1600. He 
 worked at Pisa with success, and founded a school. 
 
 Lomi, (Orazio,) an Italian painter, called Genti- 
 leschi, a brother of Aurelio, noticed above, was born 
 at Pisa about 1563. He worked in Rome, where he was 
 employed by Agostino Tassi to paint figures. About 
 1623 he removed to London, where he was patronized 
 by Charles I. Among his works are a " Repose in 
 Egvpt," and an "Assumption." Died in London in 1646. 
 
 Lomm, lorn, [La*, Lom'mius,] (Fosse,) one of the 
 most skilful physicians of his rime, was born at Kuren, 
 in Holland, in 1500. Fie practised at Tournai and at 
 Brussels, whither he removed about 1557. In his " Medi- 
 cinal Observations" ("Observationes Medicinales," 1560) 
 many diseases are accurately described. FFe wrote other 
 works, in Latin of uncommon purity. Died after 1562. 
 
 See Paquot, " Memoires." 
 
 Lommius. See Lomm. 
 
 Lomonosof, Lomonossov, Lomonosov, or Lom- 
 onosow, lom-o-no'sof, (Michael Vasii.ievitch,) a cele- 
 brated Russian poet, born at or near Kolmogory, in the 
 government of Archangel, in 171 1, is called the father 
 of modern Russian literature. He was the son of a serf, 
 whom he assisted in the business of .a fisherman until 
 his thirst for knowledge led him to Moscow, and thence 
 to Saint Petersburg, in 1734. He became learned in an- 
 cient and modem languages and in abstract and natural 
 sciences. In 1746 he was appointed professor of chem- 
 istry, and in 1760 rector of the gymnasium and Uni- 
 versity of Saint Petersburg. He rendered the Russian 
 language more polished and more rich by his multifarious 
 productions, in prose and verse, on grammar, history, 
 chemistry, rhetoric, etc. His poem entitled " Petriade" 
 (an unfinished epic, of which Peter the Great is the 
 hero) is one of his most popular works. He also pro- 
 duced two volumes of odes, religious and secular, and 
 an abridged " History of Russia." He was made council- 
 lor of state in 1764. Died in 1765. Polevoi has published 
 a work entitled " M. V. Lomonossov," (1836,) which is 
 said to be a biography blended with fiction. 
 
 See.also, G. Ghitlin, " Dissertatio de Mentis literariis Lnmo- 
 nossovii," 1829; "Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" "Foreign Quar- 
 terly Review" for July, 1839. 
 
 Londe, lA.vd, (Charles,) a French medical writer, 
 born at Caen in 1798. His "Elements of Hygiene" 
 (1827) have been translated into many languages. 
 
 Londe, de la, deh IS IAncI, (Francois Richard,) a 
 French poet, born at Caen in 1685 ; died in 17(15. 
 
 Londerseel, lon'der-saT, (Assur,) a F)utch landscape- 
 painter and engraver, born at Amsterdam in 1550. 
 
 Londerseel, van, vin lon'der-sal', (Jan,) a Flemish 
 engraver, born at Bruges about 1580. 
 
 Lon'don-der'rJF, (Charles William Stewart,) 
 third Marquis of, born in Dublin in 1778, was a son 
 of Robert the first Marquis, and a half-brother of Lord 
 Castlereagh. His mother was a daughter of Lord Chan- 
 cellor Camden. He entered the army in 1793, became 
 colonel and aide-de-camp to the king in 1803, and dis- 
 tinguished himself in Portugal under Sir John Moore. 
 He served as adjutant-general under Sir Arthur Wel- 
 lesley for several years in the Peninsula. In 1813 Sir 
 Charles was envoy-extraordinary to the court of Berlin, 
 and was officially attached to the head-quarters of Ber- 
 nadotte. Much importance is ascribed to the efforts 
 and menaces by which he induced Bernadotte to co- 
 operate with the allies at Leipsic. He was raised to the 
 peerage, as Lord Stewart, in 1814. and was one of the 
 plenipotentiaries sent by England to the Congress of 
 Vienna in 1815. Having married a daughter and heiress 
 of Sir Harry Vane Tempest in 1819, he assumed the 
 name of Vane. He succeeded his half-brother as Mar- 
 quis of Londonderry in 1822, and obtained the rank of 
 general in 1837. In politics he was an ultra-conserva- 
 tive. He was author of a " History of the Peninsular 
 War," (1813.) He died in 1854, leaving two sons, Wil- 
 liam ROBERT, who inherits the title of marquis, and 
 George, who is Viscount Seaham. 
 
 See T. P. Fitzgerald, "Life of Lord Londonderry:" "Bio- 
 graphical Sketches," by Harriet Maktinkau. 
 
 Londonderry, Marquis of. See Castlereagh. 
 
 a, (, T, 6, S, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, fi, % short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, faJl, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
LONDONIO 
 
 1449 
 
 LONG HI 
 
 Londonio, lnn-do'ne-o, ( Francesco, ) an Italian 
 painter of animals, born at Milan in 1723 ; died in 1783. 
 
 Long, (Edward,) an English writer, born in Corn- 
 wall in 1734. He emigrated in 1757 to Jamaica, where 
 he was appointed a judge. Having returned to England 
 in 1769, lie published a "History of Jamaica," (1774,) 
 and several minor works. Died in 1813. 
 
 Long, (GEORGE,) an eminent English scholar and 
 editor, born at Poulton, Lancashire, in 1800. Having 
 been educated at Cambridge, he became professor of 
 ancient languages in the University of Virginia in 1824, 
 and professor of Greek in the I^ondon University in 
 1826. About this time he became a member of the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge." under 
 whose auspices he edited the " Penny Cyclopaedia," with 
 great ability, from 1832 to 1843. He afterwards edited 
 for the same society a " Biographical Dictionary," which 
 was discontinued at the end of the letter A. He has 
 contributed many articles to Smith's "Classical Diction- 
 ary," edited Cicero's Orations, and published, besides 
 other works, "France and its Revolutions," (1850,) and 
 "The Decline of the Roman Republic," (3 vols., 1864- 
 69 ; yet unfinished.) He has translated into English the 
 " Thoughts of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus." 
 In 1849 he was appointed one of the professors in the 
 college at Brighton. 
 
 Long, (Roger.) F.R.S., an English astronomer, born 
 in the county of Norfolk in 1680. He became Lowndes 
 professor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1749, and after- 
 -wards obtained the rectory of Bradwell. lie wrote a 
 "Treatise on Astronomy," of which the first volume was 
 published in 1742 and the second in 1764. Died in 1770. 
 
 Long, (STEPHEN H.,) an American engineer, born at 
 Hopkinton, New Hampshire, in 1784. About 1816 he 
 set out on a tour for exploring the western frontier from 
 Texas to the sources of the Mississippi, and published 
 in 1824 his " Ex|>edition to the Source of Saint Peter's 
 River, Lake of the Woods," etc. 
 
 Long, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born at Exe- 
 ter in 1621. About 1660 he obtained a prebend in Exeter 
 Cathedral, from which he was ejected as a nonjuror in 
 1688. He wrote a "Vindication of the Primitive Chris- 
 tians in Point of Obedience to their Prince," (1683,) and 
 other polemical works. Died in 1700. 
 
 Long. Le. See Leeong. 
 
 Longchamps, de, del) 16n's1i6n', (Pierre,) a French 
 writer, born probably at Rochelle. He translated the 
 Elegies of Propertius into French prose, and wrote 
 "Memoirs of a Nun," and other works. Died in 1812. 
 
 Longepierre, de, deh ld.vzh'pe-aiR', (Hii.aire Ber- 
 nard dk Rk^ijei.evne,) Baron, a French poet, born at 
 Dijon in 165S. He was an excellent Greek scholar, and 
 produced poetical versions of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion, 
 and Moschus. His tragedy of " Medea," says Voltaire, 
 although too full of declamation, is superior to Corneille's 
 "Mcrlea.'' Died in 1721. 
 
 Longet, lAw'zh,', (Francois Achiu.e,) a French 
 physician and physiologist, born at Saint-Germain-cn- 
 Laye in 181 1. He published. " Anatomy and Physiology 
 of the Nervous System," (2 vols., 1843-46,) and a "Com- 
 plete Treatise on Physiology," (1850-55.) He became 
 one of the consulting physicians of the emperor. 
 
 Long'fel-low, (Henry Wadswortii,) an eminent 
 American poet and scholar, born at Portland (Maine) 
 the 27th of February, 1807. He graduated at ISowdoin 
 College in 1825, soon after which he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of modern languages and literature in that institu- 
 tion, with the understanding that he should have the 
 privilege of spending some time in Europe in ordet more 
 fully to qualify himself for his new position. He left 
 home in 1826, and spent four years abroad, chiefly in 
 France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. In 1835 he suc- 
 ceeded Mr. George Ticknor in the chair of modern 
 languages and belles-lettres at Harvard. The same year 
 he visited Europe the second time ; and, after making 
 an extensive tour through Denmark, Sweden, Germany, 
 etc., he entered upon the duties of his professorship in 
 1838. In 1839 appeared his romance of "Hyperion," 
 and a collection of his poems, entitled "Voices of the 
 Night," which attracted great attention and raised him 
 at once to the first rank among American poets. In 
 
 1841 he published "Ballads, and other Poems:" his 
 charming drama of "The Spanish Student" appeared 
 in 1843. This was followed by his "Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe," (1845,) "The Belfry of Bruges, and other 
 Poems," (1846,) and "Evangeline," (1847,) one of the 
 most admired of all his productions. It has been pro- 
 nounced (and we think justly) "the most perfect speci- 
 men extant of the rhythm and melody of the English 
 hexameter." It was followed by "The Golden Legend," 
 (1851,) "The Song of Hiawatha," (1855,) perhaps the 
 most popular of all his works, "The Courtship of Miles 
 Standish," (1858,) and "Tragedies of New England," 
 (1S68.) Of his prose writings, besides "Hyperion," 
 already referred to, we may mention "Outre-Mer: a 
 Pilgrimage beyond the Sea," (1835,) "Kavanagh," a 
 novel, (1849,) and his contributions to the "North 
 American Review." His last important work is a trans- 
 lation of Dante's "Divina Commedia," (1867,) remark- 
 able for its literalness and fidelity to the original. Mr. 
 Longfellow resigned his chair at Harvard in 1854, and 
 was succeeded by Professor Lowell. 
 
 As a poet, Longfellow is characterized by tenderness 
 and depth of feeling, to the expression of which the pic- 
 turesque and graceful simplicity of his language often 
 imparts an indescribable charm. He seldom or never 
 attempts to excite admiration bv far-sought conceits, by 
 wild or lofty flights of imagination, or by the exhibition 
 of dark and terrible passions. He relies chiefly for his 
 success onasimple and direct appeal to those sentiments 
 which are common to all mankind, — to persons of every 
 rank and of every clime. 
 
 It is, in fact, to his command over those feelings which 
 are universal in the human heart, that we must ascribe 
 the extraordinary popularity of his Indian story of " Hia- 
 watha." It is, perhaps, not too much to say that he is 
 not merely the first but the only writer who has suc- 
 ceeded in giving a deep and living interest to a story of 
 Indian life. Restricted as he necessarily was by the 
 nature of the subject, — by the extreme simplicity, not to 
 say meagreness, of the character of our aborigines, — he 
 has yet produced a poem which not only comes home to 
 the hearts of the masses of the people, but which must ex- 
 cite the admiration of the cultivated reader who will take 
 into consideration the inherent difficulties of the task, 
 and the limits and restrictions which the poet, in selecting 
 such a subject, had necessarily to impose upon himself. 
 The form of the verse is in admirable keeping with the 
 simplicity of the story. But, "unhappily for the poet," as 
 "Blackwood" for February, 1856, justly observes, "this 
 is the very measure to attract the parodist. ' Punch' 
 has opened the assault ; and we will not venture to pre- 
 dict how many gleeful voices may echo his good-humoured 
 mockery before the year is out." We may, indeed, safely 
 assert that whatever declension there has been from the 
 first popularity of " Hiawatha" must in a great measure 
 be attributed to the "good-humoured mockery" of the 
 countless parodies that have been made upon it. Happily, 
 there are those (and we would fain hope their number 
 is not small) who can judge of a poem by its intrinsic 
 merits, and who will not permit a whole "college of wit- 
 crackers" to destroy their enjoyment of what is truly 
 beautiful or prevent their admiration of what is truly 
 excellent. A writer in the "London Examiner" thinks 
 " Hiawatha" "the most original of all his (Longfellow's] 
 productions." Several different translations of it have 
 been made, — one by the distinguished German poet Frei- 
 ligrath, — and it has been read and admired in every part 
 of Europe. 
 
 See Ai.r.iHONK, "Dictionary of Authors:" ORiswm.n, " Poets and 
 Poetry of America ;" Duvckinck, " Cyclopedia of American Litera- 
 ture,' vol. it. : "North American Review" for January. 1840, Jul v, 
 1S42, Julv, 1S4S, and January. 1S48 : " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 
 1848: "British Quarterly Review" for January and April, 1864. 
 
 Longhena, lon-gii'na, (Bai.dassare,) an Italian archi- 
 tect, worked at Venice about 1640. 
 
 Longhi. See Luni.ju. 
 
 Longhi, lon'gee, (Ai.essio or Ai.essandro,) a Vene- 
 tian painter and engraver, born In 1726 ; died about 1790. 
 
 Longhi, (Ghjski'I'e,) a celebrated Italian engraver, 
 bom at Monza, in Lombardy, in 1766. He was a pupil 
 of Vincenzo Vangelisti. He worked mostly at Milan, 
 where he became professor in the Academy of Fine Arts. 
 
 c aa i; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trtlltd; 3 as *; th as in this, (jy See Eaplanations, p. 33.) 
 
LONG HI 
 
 .450 
 
 LONGSTREET 
 
 His works are admired for the magical effect of the chiaro- 
 scuro. He was an excellent draftsman. Among his 
 master-pieces are "The Marriage of the Virgin," after 
 Raphael, "The Magdalene," after Correggio, a "Gala- 
 tea," after Albani, and "The Last Judgment," after Mi- 
 chael Angela He published " La Calcographia," (1830,) 
 an able treatise on engraving. Died in 1831. 
 
 See F. Longhkna, " Nolizie biografiche di G. Longhi," 1S31 ; 
 Sacchi, " Biografia di G. Longhi," 1831 ; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli 
 Italiani illustri ;" G. Bbretta, "Vita del Cavaliere G. Longhi," 
 1837. 
 
 Longhi, lon'gee, or Lvmghi, loon'gee, (Luca,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Ravenna in 1507, always resided 
 in that city. He excelled in portraits, and also painted 
 some subjects of sacred history with success. Died in 
 1580. " His conceptions," says Lanzi, " are sweet, varied, 
 and graceful, with a powerful union of colours." His 
 daughter Barbara was also a painter. 
 
 See Vasaki. " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Longhi, (Pietro,) an Italian painter of masquerades, 
 dances, and other gay or familiar scenes, born at Venice 
 in 1702 ; died in 1762. 
 
 Longhi. See LONGINUS. 
 
 Longino. See LongiNus. 
 
 Longinus. See Dlugosz. 
 
 Lon-gi'nus, [Gr. A.oyylvoc; Fr. Longin, 16N'zhaN'; It. 
 Longino, lon-jee'no,] a celebrated Greek philosopher 
 and critic, was born probably in Syria, and flourished 
 in the third century. Some ancient writers call him 
 Longinus Cassius, or Dionysius Cassius Longinus. 
 He was a pupil of his uncle Phronto of Emesa, and was 
 a Platonist in philosophy. He opened at Athens a 
 school of philosophy and rhetoric, which became very 
 celebrated. The famous Porphyry was one of his pupils. 
 After passing many years at Athens, he accepted the 
 invitation of Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, to reside at 
 her court. He taught her Greek, and served her as 
 councillor or prime minister during her war against Au- 
 relian, Emperor of Rome. The latter, having captured 
 Palmyra, put Longinus to death in 273 A.D. Longinus 
 was the first to whom was applied the phrase, often re- 
 peated since, "a living library," and is considered the 
 greatest philosopher of his age. He wrote many critical 
 and philosophical works, none of which have come down 
 to us except his admirable "Treatise on the Sublime," 
 (Uepl "Xipovt;,) which Boileau translated into French and 
 called a "master-piece of good sense, learning, and elo- 
 quence." Some writers, however, have doubted — but with 
 little reason, it would seem — whether Longinus was the 
 real author of this work. (See, on this subject, the arti- 
 cle " Longin" in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generate.") 
 
 It has been truly said that to be a good critic one must 
 be something of a poet. This qualification Longinus 
 possessed in a pre-eminent degree. Pope, addressing 
 him, says, 
 
 "Thee, bold Longinus! all the Nine inspire, 
 And bless their critic with a poet's fire ; 
 An ardent judge, who, zealous in his trust, 
 With warmth gives sentence, yet is always just : 
 Wlmse own example strengthens all his laws, 
 And is himself that great sublime he draws." 
 
 Essay on Criticism, part iii. 
 
 Of Longinus's "Treatise on the Sublime," several good 
 French translations have been made, — one by the cele- 
 brated critic and poet Boileau, (1674.) It has also been 
 translated into German by Schlosser, and into English 
 by W. Smith. 
 
 See D. Ruhnkrn, " Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptis Longini," 
 1776; P. Kkkrman, "Dissertatio de D. Longino Cassio," 1750: 
 L. Vaulhkk. " fitudes critiques stir la Traite du Sublime et Bur 
 les £ciits de Longin," 1854; "Nouvelle Biographie G6ieVale;" 
 " Month. y Review" for May, 1779; Smith, "Dictionary of Greek 
 and Roman Biography." 
 
 Long'land or Lang'land, (John,) an English bishop, 
 born at Henley in 1473. He became confessor to Henry 
 VIII., and Bishop of Lincoln, in 1520. On the question 
 of the divorce of Queen Catherine he gave the king 
 such counsels as were most agreeable to the latter. His 
 sermons were published. Died in 1547. 
 
 Longland, written also Langelande, (Robert,) an 
 early English poet, a native of Shropshire, was a con- 
 temporary of Chaucer, and a disciple of Wickliffe. He 
 was the reputed author of a celebrated poem called the 
 
 "Visions of Piers Plowman," (1369.) It is a satire 
 directed against the vices of the clergy and other pro- 
 fessions, and displays considerable fancy and originality. 
 
 Long'man, (Thomas Norton,) an English merchant 
 and publisher, born about 1770, was honourably and 
 widely known as the head of the great publishing-firm 
 of Longman & Company, Paternoster Row, London. 
 He published works for Scott, Wordsworth, and Thomas 
 Moore. Died in 1842. 
 
 Longobardi, lon-go-baR'dee, (Niccoi.6,) a Jesuit, 
 born in Sicily in 1565. He went to China as a mission- 
 ary in 1596, and wrote a "Treatise on Confucius and his 
 Doctrine," (" De Confucioejusque Doctrina Tractatus.") 
 Leibnitz published a new edition of this work, with notes. 
 Died at Pekin in 1655. 
 
 Longoliua. See Longueil. 
 
 Longolius, long-go'le-ils, (Johann Daniel,) a Ger- 
 man scientific writer, born at Meissen in 1677 ; died in 
 1740. 
 
 Longolius, (Paul Daniel,) a learned German writer, 
 born near Dresden in 1704. He was rector of the gym- 
 nasium of Hof for forty-four years, and was one ol the 
 editors of the "German Encyclopaedia, or Universal 
 Lexicon," of Zedler, (Leipsic, 1731-50.) He also pub- 
 lished editions of Pliny the Younger, and of Aulus 
 Gellius. Died in 1779. 
 
 SeeG. W. Kirsch, " Vier Programme von P. D. Longolii Leben," 
 1779-S1 ; "Life of Longolius," prefixed to his "Notiiia Hermun- 
 dorum maxiiuxque Partis Germanise," by Ernesti, 1793. 
 
 Longomontan. See Longomontanus. 
 
 Longomontanus, lon'go-mon-ta'nus, [Fr. Longo- 
 montan, 16N'go'm6N't&N', ] (Christian,) a Danish 
 astronomer, bom in 1562 at Langsberg, (Jutland,) of 
 which place he assumed the name, Latinizing it, accord- 
 ing to the custom of the time. He was the son of a 
 poor labourer, whose family name was Severin. He 
 obtained the favour of Tycho Brahe, whom he assisted 
 in calculations and observations at Huen, or Hoene, 
 from 1589 to 1597. From 1605 to 1645 he was professor 
 of mathematics in the Academy of Copenhagen. He 
 died in 1647. Among his principal works are " First 
 Part of a Mathematical System," ("Systematis Mathema- 
 tici Pars I.," 161 1,) " Danish Astronomy," (" Astronomia 
 Danica," 1622,) "Pentas Problematum Philosophise," 
 (1623,) and "Invention of the Quadrature of the Circle." 
 
 See Niceron, "Mjmoires;" L. Scavenius, " Programma Lon- 
 gomontani." 
 
 Longperier, de, deh 16N'pa're-A', (Henri Adrien 
 Prevost,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1816, 
 wrote treatises on numismatics, etc. 
 
 Long'street, (Augustus Baldwin,) son of WilTiam, 
 noticed below, was born in Augusta, Georgia, in 1790. 
 He became a minister of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, and was appointed president of the South Caro- 
 lina College in 18^7. 
 
 Longstreet, (James,) an able American general, born 
 in South Carolina in 1821, graduated at West Point in 
 1842. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and 
 was breveted major for his conduct at Molino del Rev. 
 In 1852 he obtained the rank of captain. He resigned 
 his commission about June, 1861, commanded a brigade 
 in the Confederate army at Bull Run, July 21, and be- 
 came a major-general soon after that date. He took 
 part in the battles near Richmond in May and June, 
 1862, and commanded the right wing of General Lee's 
 army at Antietam, September 17. Having been raised 
 to the rank of lieutenant-general, he commanded a corps 
 at the battle of Gettysburg, July 2-3, 1863. In the Sep- 
 tember ensuing he joined the army of General Bragg, 
 under whom'he served at Chickamauga, September 19- 
 20. He commanded a force which General Bragg sent 
 against Burnside in October, 1863 ; and he attempted to 
 take Knoxville in November, without success. In the 
 battle of the Wilderness, May 6, 1864, he was wounded 
 in the throat by a ball fired by a Confederate soldier in 
 mistake. He was disabled for five months by this 
 wound. 
 
 See a Memoir of General J. Longstreet in "Southern Generals," 
 (anonymous,) 1S65. 
 
 Longstreet, (William,) an American inventor, born 
 in New Jersey, removed to Georgia. He obtained a 
 
 a, e, T, 0, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
LONGUEIL 
 
 1451 
 
 LOON 
 
 Died in 
 
 patent for an improvement in the cotton-gin, 
 1814. 
 
 Longueil, de, deh 16N'guI' or lo.\'guh'ye, [Lat. Lon- 
 Go'lii'S,] (Christophe,) an eminent French scholar, 
 born at Malines in 1490. He practised law in Paris, 
 and was chosen conseiller au parlement. Afterwards he 
 removed to Padua, and devoted himself to literature. 
 He was one of the Latin scholars whose fastidious purity 
 Erasmus ridiculed in his "Ciceronianus," and who 
 affected to use no terms which were not found in Cicero's 
 woiks. lie was author of discourses against Luther, of 
 "Letters to liembo and Sadolet," etc. Died in 1522. 
 
 See Poi.us. "Vita Longolii ;" Paolo Giovio, " FJogia Virorum 
 illusirium ;" Nicbkon, "Memoires;" Foppens, "Bibliotheca Bel- 
 gica." 
 
 Longueil, de, deh 16-N'guI', [Lat. Longo'lius,] (Gil- 
 bert.) a Dutch philologist, born at Utrecht in 1507. He 
 taught school at Deventer and Cologne, and practised 
 medicine. He published a "Latin-Greek Lexicon," 
 (1533.) and notes on Ovid, Plautus, and Cicero. Died 
 at Cologne in 1543. 
 
 Longueil, de, (Joseph,) a French engraver, born at 
 Givet in 1736; died in 1792. 
 
 Longuemar, de, deh 16Ng'miR', ( Alphonse le 
 ToURE,) a French geologist and antiquary, born at 
 Saint- Dizier about 1800. 
 
 Longuerue, de, deh IdNgW, (Louis Dufour,) 
 Abde, a French ecclesiastic, eminent for learning, was 
 born at Charleville in 1652. He was deeply versed in 
 languages, history, philosophy, etc., and wrote many 
 works, but published none. His friends, however, pub- 
 lished for him an " Kssay on the Antiquities of Chaldea 
 and Egypt," "Description of France, Ancient and Mod- 
 ern," (1 719,) "Annals of the Arsacidae," (1732,) and 
 other works. Died in 1733. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique," edition of 1759; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Longueval, loNg'vtl', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit, 
 born near Peronne in 1680. He taught rhetoric and 
 theology in various colleges, and was author of the first 
 eight volumes of a " History of the Gallican Church," 
 (1730-49,) which was continued by Fontenay and others. 
 Died in 1735. 
 
 Longueville, lANg'vel', (Edme Paul Marcei.i.in,) a 
 French Hellenist, born in Paris in 1785 ; died in 1855. 
 
 Longueville, de, deh lo.Ng'vel', (Anne Genevieve 
 de Bourbon - Conde — deh booR'bdN' koN'di', ) 
 DUCHESS, a F'rench lady, distinguished for beauty, tact, 
 and talent, was born at Vincennes in 1619. She was a 
 sister of the great Conde, and was married to the Due 
 de Longueville, noticed below, in 1642. The enmity 
 between the parliaments and Mazarin gave rise to the 
 faction or conspiracy of the Fronde, of which she became 
 the heroine. Her nonchalance and languor were agree- 
 ably diversified by surprising and splendid awakenings 
 of genius. She exercised great influence over the chiefs 
 of the Fronde, and had a liaison with La Rochefou- 
 cauld, who was one of the leaders of that party. When 
 her husband and brothers were imprisoned by Mazarin 
 in 1650, she escaped to Stenay, the head-quarters of 
 Turenne, whom she induced to join the party of the 
 Fronde. With his aid she effected the release of her 
 three friends in 1651, and returned to Paris in triumph. 
 Peace was made between the Frondeurs and the court 
 in 1659, after which she ceased to meddle with politics. 
 She became devout, and spent much time in her latter 
 years at the cloister of Port-Royal. Cardinal Mazarin 
 once said, " We have three women in France who would 
 be competent to govern or overturn three great king- 
 doms, namely, the Duchess de Longueville, the Princess 
 Palatine, and the Duchess de Chcvrcuse." Died in 1679. 
 See RoGRGOWG DP. V11.1.HF0KK, "Vie de Madame de Lomrue- 
 vflle," 173S: V. COUSIN, " La Teun«flM de Mme. de Longueville," 
 1853: La Rochefoucauld, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Grfne'rale." 
 
 Longueville, de, (Chari es Paris d'Orleans,) 
 Due, a son of the preceding, born in Paris in 1640, 
 inherited the brilliant qualities of his mother. He served 
 in the army of his uncle the Prince of Conde, and was 
 killed at the passage of the Rhine in 1672, when the 
 Polish deputies were on their way to offer him the crown 
 of Poland. 
 
 Longueville, de, (Henri,) Due, a French general, 
 born in 1595, was the son of Henri d'Orleans, a prince 
 of the blood, and was a grand-nephew of Henrv IV. In 
 the reign of Louis XIII. he distinguished himself by 
 military exploits in Italy, etc. He married the sister of 
 the Prince of Conde in 1642, and supported the party of 
 the latter in the time of the Fronde. Died in 1663. 
 
 Lon'gus, [Aoyjoc,] a Greek sophist or author, of whom 
 little or nothing is known. He is supposed to have lived 
 in the fourth or fifth century of our era, and to have been 
 the author of an ingenious prose romance entitled 
 Uoifteiuiu to KO.TU Autyviv Kal XAor/v, ("Pastorals relating 
 to Daphnis and Chloe,") sometimes called "Loves of 
 Daphnis and Chloe." It is admired for a charming, 
 elegant style, and other literary merits. In 1 810 Paul 
 Louis Courier found at Florence a manuscript of Longus 
 which supplied a hiatus of all the other manuscripts. 
 He published a complete edition of the original and a 
 corrected edition of Amyot's French version. 
 
 See Fabkicius, "Bibliotheca C,ra?ca;" Dunlop, " History of 
 Fiction ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Long'worth, (Nicholas,) an American cultivator, 
 born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1782. Having removed 
 to Cincinnati, he devoted himself to the culture of native 
 grapes and the manufacture of wine, by which he acquired 
 an immense fortune. Died in 1863. 
 
 Loni, lo'nee, (Alessandro,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Florence in 1655, was a pupil of Carlo Dolce. Died 
 in 1702. 
 
 Lonicer, lo'nit-ser, [Lat. Lonice'rus,] (Adam,) a 
 German physician and naturalist, born at Marburg in 
 1528, was a son of Johann, noticed below. He obtained 
 in 1554 the place of pensioned physician of Frankfort, 
 which he occupied thirty-two years. He published 
 several treatises on medicine, and a Latin work on Plants, 
 Animals, and Minerals, called " Naturatis Historic Opus 
 Novum," (1551-55,) which was often reprinted. Died in 
 1586. 
 
 His son, Johann Adam, born in 1557, was a physician 
 of Frankfort. He published Latin poems, and a treatise 
 on the chase, called " Venatus et Aucupium." 
 
 Lonicer, [Lat. Lonice'rus,] (Johann,) a German 
 scholar, born in Mansfeld in 1499. From 1527 until his 
 death he was professor of Greek and Hebrew at Mar- 
 burg. He made good Latin translations of several Greek 
 authors, among whom were Pindar, Isocrates, and De- 
 mosthenes. He was a friend and correspondent of 
 Melanchthon. Died in 1569. 
 
 See M. Adam, "Vilse Philosophorum Germanorum." 
 Lonicerus. See Lonicer. 
 Lonjumeau. See Gaii.lard de Lonjumeau. 
 Lonnrot or Loennrot, lon'rot, (Elias,) a Finnish 
 philologist, born in the district of Helsingfors in 1802. 
 lie became a zealous student of the national literature 
 of Finland. About 1835 he discovered and published 
 the famous Finnish poem of "Kalevala," which is said 
 to resemble the "Hiawatha" of fxingfellow. He suc- 
 ceeded Castren as professor of Finnish at Helsingfors in 
 1852, and published several collections of old legends, 
 proverbs, etc., with a view to revive the use of the Finn- 
 ish language. 
 
 Lons'dale, (Henry,) an English physician and 
 writer, born at Carlisle in 1816. He gained distinction 
 by his researches in the toxicology of prussic acid and 
 other subjects. 
 
 Lonsdale, (William I.owther,) Earl of, an Eng- 
 lish peer.bom in 1787. He was postmaster-general from 
 1 841 to 1845, and was lord president of the council in 
 the cabinet of Lord Derby in 1852. 
 Loo. See Vanloo. 
 
 Loo'mis, (F.i.ias,) an American astronomer and phy- 
 sicist, bom in Tolland county, Connecticut, in 1811, 
 graduated at Yale College in 1830. He became pro- 
 fessor of natural philosophy at the Western Reserve 
 College, Ohio, in 1837, and obtained a similar chair in 
 the New York University in 1844. He made valuable 
 contributions to magnetism, astronomy, and meteor- 
 ology. Among his works are "Elements of Natural 
 Philosophy," and an "Introduction to Practical As- 
 tronomy." 
 Loon. See Van Loon. 
 
 «as 
 
 *; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( JQ»— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LOON 
 
 1452 
 
 L0RED4N0 
 
 Loon, van, vin Ion, (Theodore,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Brussels about 1630. His design was correct, 
 and his colouring excellent. After working with Carlo 
 Maratta at Rome, he returned to Brussels, where he con- 
 firmed his reputation by many historical paintings in the 
 manner of Maratta. Some of the churches of Rome and 
 Florence are adorned with his works. Died in 1678. 
 
 Loopolof, Loupolov, or Lupolow, loo'po-lof, 
 (PrascoVia,) a Russian heroine, born in 1784, was a 
 daughter of an officer exiled to Siberia. She performed 
 on foot the journey from Tobolsk to Saint Petersburg, 
 and obtained a pardon for her father. Her adventures 
 form the subject of Madame Cottin's " Elizabeth, or the 
 Exiles of Siberia." Died in 1809. 
 
 Loos, los, [Lat. Cali.ii/ius,] (Cornelis,) a Dutch 
 Catholic theologian, bom at Gouda about 1545. He 
 was persecuted for opposing the prevalent superstitions 
 notions respecting magic in his book " De vera et falsi 
 Magia," ("On True and False Magic,") and for con- 
 demning the practice of burning those called witches. 
 He wrote other works. Died in 1595. 
 
 See "Callidius," it Bavle's "Historical and Critical Diction- 
 ary;" Niceron, " Meiiioires." 
 
 Loosjes, los'yes, (Adriaan,) a Dutch poet and novel- 
 ist, born at Haarlem in 1761, was a dealer in books. 
 He passed his life in his native city. Among his works 
 are novels entitled "John De Witt" (1805) and "Susanna 
 Bronkhorst," (6 vols., 1806,) and a poem called "The 
 Last Campaign of De Ruyter." Died in 1818. 
 
 See " Hulde aan de Nagedachtenis van A. Loosjes," by P. H. 
 Pkeki.kamf, C. de Koning, A. van derWilligen, and H. Meijer, 
 1818. 
 
 Loots, lots, (Cornelis,) a Dutch poet, born at Am- 
 iterdam in 1774 ; died about 1850. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Lope de Rueda, lo'pa da roo-a'na, a Spanish actor 
 and dramatic author, born at Seville about 1500. He 
 was the leader of the first troupe of strolling players in 
 Spain, and was praised by Cervantes as an actor and 
 writer. His plays were dialogues between a few shep- 
 herds. Died in 1564. 
 
 Lope de Vega Carpio, lo'pa da va'ga kaR'pe-o, 
 (Felix,) a celebrated Spanish poet and dramatist, born 
 at Madrid on the 25th of November, 1562, was a con- 
 temporary of Cervantes and Shakspeare. His father 
 was a hidalgo, (gentleman,) but rather poor. Felix began 
 to write verses in early childhood, and composed dramas 
 about the age of twelve. While a student at the Uni- 
 versity of Alcala, he found a powerful patron in the 
 Duke of Alva, whose service he entered, and at whose 
 request he wrote his " Arcadia," a pastoral heroic poem, 
 which first revealed his superior genius. It was first 
 printed in 1598, though finished many years earlier. He 
 quitted the service of Alva, and married Dona Isabel 
 de Urbino. Having in a duel wounded his antagonist, 
 he fled from Madrid, and passed a few years in Valencia. 
 
 His grief for the death of his wife is assigned as his 
 motive for becoming a soldier. In 1588 he enlisted as 
 a private volunteer, and, with ardent zeal for what he 
 deemed a holy cause, took part in the expedition of the 
 Invincible Armada, during which he wrote his admired 
 poem the " Beauty of Angelica," (" Hermosura de An- 
 gelica,") a continuation of Ariosto's "Orlando." Re- 
 nouncing martial pursuits in 1590, he returned to Madrid, 
 where he began to write for the stage, and by his mar- 
 vellous fertility of invention rapidly acquired fame and 
 affluence. He required only a single day to compose a 
 versified drama. This astonishing facility enabled him 
 to produce two thousand original dramas, consisting of 
 spiritual plays, historical comedies, and dramas of in- 
 trigue, called De Capa y Espada, ("Of the Cloak and 
 Sword,") which were performed with immense applause. 
 There is scarcely an example on record of an equal 
 popularity. His name became a synonym for the super- 
 lative degree, and it was the fashion to say a Lope dia- 
 mond, a Lope dress, etc., to express the splendour or 
 perfection of those articles. He was styled the " Centre 
 of Fame," the " Darling of Fortune," the " Phoenix of 
 Ages," etc Among his dramas we may mention " The 
 Beautiful Deformed," ("La Hermosa fea,") "The 
 Prude," ("La Dama melindrosa,") "The Certain for 
 
 the Doubtful," (" Lo Cierto por lo Dudoso,") and "Es- 
 trella de Sevilla," or " Don Sancho Ortiz." In richness 
 of invention, vivacity of dialogue, and variety of ideas 
 he is perhaps unsurpassed by any dramatist. For the 
 sake of trying the public taste, he published, without 
 his name, a poem entitled " Soliloquies on God," which 
 was received with much favour. After the death of his 
 second wife he became a priest, (1609,) but continued to 
 write for the stage. He also wrote epic poems, entitled 
 "Circe," "Andromeda," and "Jerusalem Delivered," 
 which are considered much inferior to his dramas. Died 
 in 1635. (For some very interesting remarks on Lope de 
 Vega, particularly in reference to the marvellous fertility 
 of his genius, see Prescott's " Miscellanies," pp. 137-139.) 
 See Montalvan, " Fama posthuma a la Vida y Muerte del Lope 
 de Vega Carpio," Madrid, 1636; Lord Holland, "Some Account 
 of the Life of Lope de Vega Carpio," 1817 ; Larramendi, " Planto 
 funebre en la Muerie de L. F. de Vega Carpio," 1635; Ticknor, 
 " History of Spanish Literature ;" N. Antonio, " Bib.iotheca His- 
 pana Nova:" Sedano, " Pamaso Espanol ;" Faitriel, "Lope de 
 Vega." in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," September 1, 1830, and 
 September 15, 1843; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" 
 'Enk von der liuKG. " Studieu iiber Lope de Vega," Vienna, 1839 ; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Lopes, lo'p?s, (Fernando,) a Portuguese historian, 
 born about 1380; died in 1449. 
 
 Lopez. See Ayala, de, Gomara, and Castanheda. 
 
 Lopez, lo'peth, (Ai.onzo,) a Spanish critic, born at 
 Valladolid. He practised medicine with such success 
 that he received the title of physician to Maria of Castile, 
 daughter of Charles V. He published in 1596 "Ancient 
 Poetical Philosophy," (" Philosophia antiqua poetica.") 
 
 Lopez, (Francisco,) a Spanish artist, who became 
 painter to Philip III. about 1602, and adorned the Prado 
 with frescos. He was living in 1638. 
 
 Lopez, lo'pes or lo'pfth, (Don Francisco Solano,) 
 an able South American general and political leader, 
 born about 1826. He was elected in September, 1862, 
 President of Paraguay, as the successor of his father, 
 Don Carlos Lopez. He declared war against Brazil in 
 1865, and commanded his army in person with various 
 success. He was killed in battle or retreat in March, 1S70. 
 
 Lopez, (I ago or Diego,) a Spanish painter, born at 
 Toledo about 1465 ; died about 1530. 
 
 Lopez, (Don Joaquin Maria,) an able and eloquent 
 Spanish statesman, born at Villena in 1802, was a zeal- 
 ous adherent of the constitutional party. In 1836 he 
 became minister of the interior under Calatrava. He 
 resigned in March, 1837. He was prime minister for a 
 short time in 1843. 
 
 Lopez, (Jos£,) a Spanish painter, born at Seville 
 about 1650, was a pupil of Murillo. 
 
 Lopez, lo'pes or lo'peth, (Narcisso,) an American 
 revolutionist or filibuster, born in Venezuela in 1799. 
 He served some time as an officer in the Spanish army, 
 and in 1849 organized in the United States an expedition 
 for the conquest of Cuba, which failed. He renewed the 
 enterprise in August, 1851, was captured, and garroted 
 at Havana the same year. 
 
 Lopez, (Pedro,) a Spanish painter, was a pupil of 
 Greco. His chief work is the "Adoration of the Magi," 
 (dated 1608,) at Toledo, which is much admired. 
 
 Lopez de Lerena, lo'peth dala-ra'na, (Don Pedro,) 
 .1 Spanish financier, born at Val de Moro in 1734. He 
 was appointed in 1785 secretary of state for the finances, 
 which he managed with success until his death, in 1792. 
 
 Loqman. See LokmAn. 
 
 Lorch, Iork, written also Lorich, (Melchior,) a 
 Danish painter and eminent engraver, born in Sleswick 
 in 1527. He visited many foreign countries, and died in 
 Rome in 1586. Among his works are engravings of 
 Luther, of Albert Diirer, and of the Deluge. 
 
 Lord, (Nathan,) D.D., an American Congregational 
 divine, born at Berwick, Maine, in 1792. He graduated 
 at Bowdoin, and in 1828 became president of Dartmouth 
 College. Died in 1870. 
 
 Lordon. loR'd6N', (Pierre Jerome,) a French histori- 
 cal painter, born in 1780, worked in Paris. Died in 1838. 
 
 Loredano, lo-ra-dl'no, (Giovanni Francesco,) a 
 mediocre Italian poet and litterateur, born at Venice in 
 1606. He became senator, and obtained other high 
 offices. About 1630 he founded the academy of the In- 
 cogniti. He wrote numerous works in verse and prose, 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 1, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, ?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
LOREDANO 
 
 H53 
 
 LORRAINE 
 
 among which are "The Agreeable Jests," ("Gli Scherzi 
 geniaii," 1632,) " L'lliade giocosa," a burlesque of the 
 "Iliad," (1654,) and "Amorous Tales." Died in 1661. 
 
 See A. Luris, "Vila di O. F. Loredano," 1663; G. Brunacci, 
 "Vila di G. F. Loredano, Senatore Veneto," 1662. 
 
 Loredano, (Leonardo,) was Doge of Venice from 
 1501 until 1 521 , when he died, at the age of ninety. His 
 administration was disturbed by the wars which were 
 consequent on the League of Cambray, and was a period 
 of disaster to the republic. He waged war against a 
 powerful coalition consisting of France, Germany, and 
 the pope. He was one of the greatest doges of Venice. 
 
 Lorentz, lo'rents, (Johann Friedrich,) a German 
 mathematician, born at Halle in 1738; died in 1807. 
 
 Loientz or Lorenz, Io'i&n', (Joseph Adam,) a 
 French surgeon, born in Alsace in 1734; died in 1801. 
 
 Lorenz. See Lorenzo and Lawrence. 
 
 Lorenz, lo'rents or lo'r&N', (Jean Mtchri.,) a French 
 historical writer, born at Strasburg in 1723, became pro- 
 fessor of history in his native city, and of eloquence in 
 17S4. He published, (in Latin,) besides other works of 
 merit, a "Life of Saint Paul,")" Annales Paulini," 1769,) 
 a " History of Ancient Gaul," and " Rudiments of Ger- 
 man History," (1776.) Died in 1801. 
 
 See MM. Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Lorenzetti, lo-rSn-zet'tee, or Lorenzetto, lo-rin- 
 zet'to, (Ambrogio,) sometimes called Ambrogio di 
 Lorenzo, an old Italian painter, born at Sienna about 
 1260, was a pupil of his father Lorenzo, and was a 
 brother of Pietro. His birth is variously dated about 
 1257, 1277, and 1300. Ambrogio and Pietro worked 
 together in Sienna, and were among the greatest artists 
 of their time. The works of Ambrogio are nearly all 
 destroyed ; but some of his frescos are still visible in 
 Sienna. He was, says Vasari, universally admired. Died 
 in 1340, 1348, or 1360. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." etc. ; Lanzi, " History of 
 Mating in Italy ;" Bai.dinucci, " Notine." 
 
 Lorenzetti, (Pietro,) a brother of the preceding, 
 worked in Sienna, Florence, Rome, and Pisa, and, ac- 
 cording to Vasari, surpassed Cimabue and Giotto. In 
 the Campo Santo of Pisa is preserved his picture repre- 
 senting the " Life of the Fathers In the Desert," in fresco. 
 He painted several Madonnas, which have been de- 
 stroyed. He is sometimes called Lauratl His last 
 works are dated 1355. 
 
 See Vasari. " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, " History of 
 Pain liny in Italy." 
 
 Lorenzetto. See Campanaio. 
 
 Lorenzi, lo-ren'zee, (Hartolommeo,) an Italian poet 
 and fesuit, born near Verona in 1732, had an excellent 
 talent for improvisation. Died in 1822. 
 
 Lorenzi, (Kattista,) an Italian sculptor and engraver, 
 born in Tuscany in 1528; died in 1593. 
 
 Lorenzi, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Verona in 1719; died in 1783. 
 
 Lorenzi, IStoi.do DI Gino, stol'do de jee'no,) an 
 Italian sculptor, born at Settignano about 1540. 
 
 Lorenzini, lo-ren-zee'nee, (Francesco Mvria,) an 
 Italian poet, born in Rome in 1680. He acquired a 
 high reputation as a poet, and was remarkable for the 
 energy of his style. In 1728 he succeeded Crescimbeni 
 as president of the Academy of Arcades. He was the 
 author of satires, epigrams, dramas, and other poems in 
 Italian and Latin. Died in 1743. 
 
 See Farrow, "Vitae Italorum." 
 
 Lorenzini, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian engraver, 
 born at bologna in 1665. He engraved the works of 
 Andrea del Sarto and other Italian masters. Died in 1 740. 
 
 Lorenzini, (Lorenzo,) an Italian geometer, born at 
 Florence in 1652. For some political offence he was 
 imprisoned at Volterra twenty years, ending about 1 700, 
 and in this period wrote an able work on conic sections. 
 Died in 1721. 
 
 Lorenzo. See Lawrence, Smnt. 
 
 Lorenzo de' Medici. See Medici. 
 
 Lorenzo the Magnificent. See Medici, (Lo- 
 renzo de.'.) 
 
 Loret, lo'rj', (Jean,) a French r' 7 mer, born in Nor- 
 mandy. He began to issue in 1650 a weekly newspaper, 
 called "Gazette en Verses burlesques," which was very 
 
 successful. From 1656 to 1665 it was published under 
 the title of " Muse historique." Died about 1665. 
 
 Lorge, IorzIi, (Jean Thomas Guillaume,) a French 
 general, born at Caen in 1767 ; died in 1826. 
 
 Lorges. See Durfort, de, (Gin Ai.phonse.) 
 
 Lorgna, loRn'ya, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian mathe- 
 matician, born at Verona about 1734. After obtaining 
 the rank of colonel of engineers, he became professor 
 in the military school of Verona. He had the reputation 
 of being one of the best geometers of Italy. Died in 
 1796. Among his works are treatises on Statics and 
 Mechanics, and " Essays on Mathematics and Physics," 
 ("Opuscula Mathematica et Physica," 1770.) 
 
 See " Nonvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Loria, di, de lo're-a, or Lamia, low're-a, (Roger,) 
 an able Italian admiral, born at Loria, (or Lauria.) In 
 1282, as admiral of Peter II., King of Aragon and Sicily, 
 he defeated the fleet of Charles I. of Naples near Mes- 
 sina. He gained a naval victory over the French near 
 Barcelona in 1285, and another over the Neapolitans 
 before Castellamare in 1287. Having entered into the 
 service of Jayme of Aragon, he defeated the Sicilian 
 fleet at Cape Orlando in 1299, and again in 1300. Died 
 in 1305. Sismondi considers him the greatest admiral 
 that Italy has produced. 
 
 See Quintana, "Lives of Celebrated Spaniards;" Sismondi, 
 " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Giovanni Villani, " Isto- 
 rie Florentine." 
 
 Lorichon, lo're'shoN', (Antoine Constant Louis,) 
 a French engraver, born in Paris in 1800. 
 
 Lorievtx, lo're-uh', (Auguste Jui.ien Marie,) a 
 French writer and lawyer, born at Croisic in 1797. He 
 wrote a " History of the Reign of Charles X.," and a 
 " Treatise on the Royal Prerogative in France and Eng- 
 land," (1840.) Died in 1842. 
 
 Lorin, lo'raN', (Jean,) a French theologian, born at 
 Avignon in 1559; died in 1634. 
 
 Lo'ring, (William \V.,) an American major-general, 
 born in North Carolina about 181 5. He took arms 
 against the Union in 1861, and was employed in the 
 defence of Vicksburg in the spring of 1863. 
 
 Lorinser, lo'rin-ser, (Karl Ignaz,) a German medi- 
 cal writer, born at Nimes, in Bohemia, in 1796; died in 
 i8<!3. 
 
 Loriot, lo're'o', (Antoine Joseph,) a French me- 
 chanician, born near Pontarlier in 1716. He gained a 
 wide reputation by his ingenious and useful inven- 
 tions, among which were a loom for ribbons, machines 
 for working mines, and a new mortar or water-proof 
 cement which bears his name. Died in 1782. 
 
 Loriot, (Pierre,) a French jurist, born at Salins, be- 
 came professor of law at Leipsic in 1550; died about 
 1568. 
 
 Loriquet, lo're'kj', (Jean Nicolas,) a French Jesuit 
 and historical writer, born at fipernay in 1760. He 
 published many school-books in which history was ex- 
 purgated or falsified to promote sectarian and partisan 
 opinions. He stated in one of his works that " In 1809 
 the Marquis of Bonaparte, as lieutenant-general of the 
 King of France,- entered Vienna at the head of an army." 
 Died in 1845. 
 
 Loritz. See Glarf.anus. 
 
 Lorme, de. See Dei.orme. 
 
 Lorn, Lord. See Campbell, (Archibald,) Marquis 
 of Argyle. 
 
 Lorrain, (Claude.) See Claude Lorrain. 
 
 Lorrain, Le, (Robert.) See Lelorrain. 
 
 Lorraine. See Charles II., Charles HI., Fran- 
 cis I., Guise, Harcourt, (Henry,) and Mayenne. 
 
 Lorraine, lor-ran' or lo'r&n', (Antoine,) Duke of, 
 the son of Rene II., was born at liar-le-Duc in 1489. 
 He succeeded his father in 1508, and married Renee de 
 Bourbon, a French lady. He maintained a neutrality in 
 the war between Charles V. and Francis I., and reigned 
 mostly in peace, except some bloody contests with the 
 German Protestants. He died in 1544, leaving the duchy 
 to his son, Francis II. 
 
 Lorraine, Cardinal See Guise, (Charles de.) 
 
 Lorraine, lo'rin', (Charles IV.,) Duke of, the son 
 of Francois, Comte de Vaudemont, was bom in 1604, and 
 succeeded his uncle Henry (whose daughter he had mar- 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, h, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (JJ3f~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LORRAINE 
 
 1454 
 
 LOTARIO 
 
 ried) in 1624. Louis XIII. of France invaded Lorraine 
 in 1632, and took without much resistance Nancy (the 
 capital) and several fortresses. In the Thirty Years' 
 war, which began about 1620, Charles fought for the 
 German empire, contributed to the victory over the 
 Swedes at Nordlingen in 1634, and as an ally of Spain 
 fought against the French in several ensuing campaigns. 
 By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) Lorraine was re- 
 stored to him, but France retained the duchy of Bar. In 
 1662 he appointed Louis XIV. his heir, but soon took 
 arms against him, and became a general in the imperial 
 army. Died in 1675. 
 
 See Dom Calmkt, " Histoire de Lorraine ;" C. A. Begin, " His- 
 toire des Duches de Lorraine et Bar," 1834 ; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^neVale." 
 
 Lorraine, (Charles V.,) Duke of, an able general 
 and statesman, born at Vienna in 1643, was the nephew 
 of the preceding. He was the son of Francis, (a brother 
 of Charles IV.) At the death of Charles IV. the duke- 
 dom was claimed by the subject of this article, and by 
 the French king, who had possession ; but Charles was 
 recognized as duke by the other powers of Europe. 
 Having entered the Austrian service, he was made a 
 general in 1672, and distinguished himself at Senef in 
 1675. His reign over Lorraine was only nominal. He 
 was chosen generalissimo of the imperial army in 1676. 
 In 1678 he married a sister of the Austrian emperor, and 
 was restored by the treaty of Nymwegen to his duchy, 
 with the condition of ceding Nancy to France ; but he 
 refused to accept these terms. He rendered signal 
 services to Austria in the war against the Turks which 
 began in 1683, and commanded a corps against the 
 French in 1689. He died in 1690, leaving his title to his 
 Bon, Leopold I. 
 
 See Jean de la Brune, "Vie de Charles V," 1601 ; C. Fres- 
 chot, "Vita di Caroli V.," 1692; Dupont, "Abrege' historique de la 
 Vie de Charles V," 1701. 
 
 Lorraine, (Henri,) Duke of, sumamed the Good, 
 born at Nancy in 1563, was the son of Charles III. and 
 Claude, daughter of Flenry II. of France. He married 
 Catherine de Bourbon, a sister of King Henry IV., and 
 in 1608 succeeded his father. He died in 1624, leaving 
 the duchy to his nephew, Charles IV. 
 
 Lorraine, (Leopold I.,) Duke of, born at Innspruck 
 in 1679, was the son of Charles V. By the treaty of 
 Ryswick, in 1697, he recovered Lorraine, with the con- 
 dition that he should not repair the dismantled forts nor 
 keep an army. He married Elizabeth Charlotte, niece 
 of Louis XIV. He showed himself a wise ruler, and 
 improved the condition of his dominions, which had been 
 desolated by long wars. In reference to him, Voltaire 
 says, "One of the petty sovereigns of Europe has done 
 the most good to his people." He died in 1729, and 
 was succeeded by his son Francis, who married Maria 
 Theresa of Austria, and exchanged Lorraine for Tuscany. 
 He was the last Duke of Lorraine. 
 
 Lorraine, (Rene. II.,) Duke of, born in 1451, be- 
 came duke in 1473. His mother was a daughter of 
 Rene of Anjou, and heiress of the duchy of Lorraine. His 
 dominions having been invaded by Charles the Bold of 
 Burgundy, Rene, with his Swiss allies, defeated Charles 
 at Morat in 1476. The next year he gained another 
 famous victory near Nancy, where Charles was killed in 
 battle. He formed an alliance with Venice, and in 1480 
 was appointed captain-general of that republic; but on 
 the death of Louis XI. of France he left the service 
 of Venice to urge his claims to Anjou and Provence, 
 which he failed to obtain. He died in 1508, leaving two 
 sons, Antoine, who was his heir, and Claude, the first 
 Duke of Guise. 
 
 See Dom Cai.met, "Histoire de Lorraine." 
 
 Lorrain, de, (Charles I.) See Charles de France. 
 
 Lorraine, de, (Charles II.) See Charles II., Duke 
 of Lorraine. 
 
 Lorraine, de, (Charles III.) See Charles III., 
 called the Great. 
 
 Lorraine, de, deh lor-ran', (Chari.es,) an Austrian 
 general, called Prince Charles of Lorraine, born at 
 Luneville in 1712, was the second son of Duke Leopold 
 I., and a brother of Francis I. of Austria. He commanded 
 the Austrians in the war between Maria Theresa and 
 Frederick the Great, by whom he was defeated at Czas- 
 
 lau in 1742. In 1744 he forced Frederick to evacuate 
 Bohemia, married a sister of Maria Theresa, and was 
 appointed Governor of the Low Countries. At the be- 
 ginning of the Seven Years' war he was commander of 
 the Austrians, and gained a victory over the Prussians 
 at Breslau in 1757 ; but, having been completely defeated 
 in the great battle of Leuthen, in the same year, he re- 
 signed his command. Died in 1780. 
 
 Lorraine, de, (Francois,) grand-prieitr of France, 
 was born in 1534, and was a son of the Duke of Guise. 
 After serving with distinction in naval war against the 
 Turks, he was mado general of the galleys, and com- 
 manded several expeditions. Died in 1563. 
 
 Lorris, de, deh lo'ress', (Guillaume,) a mediaeval 
 French bard, born at Lorris, on the Loire. He was the 
 author of the "Romance of the Rose,". (" Roman de la 
 Rose,") a remarkable poem, which had a great influence 
 on French literature. The subject is the art of love, and 
 is treated in an agreeable style. He is supposed to have 
 died about 1240. 
 
 See " Nonvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Lorry, lo're', (Anne Charles,) a French physician, 
 born at Crosne in 1726. He practised in Paris, and 
 attained the highest rank in his profession. He became 
 dockur-regent of the faculty, and attended Louis XV. in his 
 last illness. He published a valuable treatise " On Cuta- 
 neous Diseases," (1777;) also an edition of the "Apho- 
 risms" of Hippocrates, and other wc:ks. Died in 1783. 
 
 See Vicq-d'Azyr, " Eloge de Lorry ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Lort, (Michael,) an English writer on theology, born 
 in 1725. He became professor of Greek at Cambridge 
 about 1759. Died in 1790. 
 
 Lortic, loK'tek', (Andr£,) a French Protestant min- 
 ister and writer, born at Saintonge, lived between 1650 
 and 1700. Died in London. 
 
 Lortzing, loRt'sing, (Albert August,) a German 
 composer, born in Berlin in 1803; died in 185 1. 
 
 Losada, lo-sa'ua, (Diego,) a Spanish officer, who 
 conquered the native tribes of Venezuela, and founded 
 Santiago de Leon. Died in 1569. 
 
 Losana, lo-sa'na, (Mattko,) an Italian priest, born 
 in Piedmont in 1738. He published useful treatises on 
 rural economy, insects, etc. Died in 1833. 
 
 Loscher or Loescher, 16'sher, (Valentin Ernst,) 
 a German theologian, born at Sondershausen in 1672. 
 He taught theology at Wittenberg for many years, and 
 published there a monthly journal of theology and lite- 
 rature, (1701-20,) which had great success. Died in 1749. 
 
 Loschge, losh'geh, (Fkiedrich Heinrich,) a Ger- 
 man physician and writer, born at Anspach in 1755; 
 died in 1840. 
 
 Losel or Loesel, 16'zel, (Johann,) a German bota- 
 nist, born at Brandenburg in 1607. He became pro- 
 fessor of anatomy and botany at Konigsberg, and died 
 in 1656, leaving in manuscript a "Flora Prussica," — a 
 mere catalogue of plants, — which Gottsched published 
 in 1703. 
 
 Losenko, lo-seVko, written also Lossenko, (Ivan,) 
 an eminent Russian painter, born about 1720. He was 
 director of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in Saint 
 Petersburg. Among his works is "The Parting of Hec- 
 tor and Andromache." Died in 1773. 
 
 Los'sing, (Benson John,) an American historian and 
 engraver, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1813. 
 He published numerous illustrated works, most of which 
 have enjoyed a great and deserved popularity. Among 
 the most important are "The Pictorial Field-Book of 
 the Revolution," (2 vols., 1850-52,) "The Life and Times 
 of Philip Schuyler," (2 vols., i860,) a " Life of Washing- 
 ton," (3 vols., i860,) and a "Pictorial History of the 
 Civil War in the United States," (3 vols., 1866-69.) 
 
 LossiuB, los'se-us, (Lucas,) a German musician and 
 writer, born at Vach in 1508; died in 1582. 
 
 Lot, [Heb. \yh; Fr. Loth, lot,] a Hebrew patriarch, 
 who lived about 1900 B.C., was the son of Haran, and 
 nephew of Abraham. He resided in Sodom until he 
 was warned by angels of its impending destruction. 
 
 See Genesis xi., xii., xiii., xix. ; II. Peter it. 7. 
 Lotario. See Lothaire I. 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fin, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
LOT EN 
 
 '455 
 
 LOUDON 
 
 Iioten, lo'ten, (John or Jacob,) a Hutch landscape- 
 painter, who excelled in wild, rocky scenery, and storms. 
 lie worked mostly in England, where he died in 1681. 
 
 Loth. See Lot. 
 
 Loth, lot, or Loti, lo'tee, [in Italian, Lotti,] (Johann 
 Kaki.,) a German painter, born at Munich in 1632. He 
 acquired a high rank among the realists, whom the Ital- 
 ians call "Naturalisti." Among his chief works are 
 "The Death of Abel," and a "Nativity." He received 
 the title of first painter to the emperor Leopold I. Died 
 at Venice in 1698. 
 
 Lothaire, lo-thair', [Fr. pron. lo'taR'; Lat. Lotha'- 
 Rius ; Ger. Lothar, lo-taR'; It. Lotario, lo-ta're-o,] I., 
 Emperor of the West or of Rome, born aboui 795 A.D., 
 was the eldest son of Louis le Debonnaire. His father as- 
 sociated him with himself in the empire in 817, and made 
 him King of Italy in 822. Pepin and Louis, brothers of 
 Lothaire, received respectively Aquitaine and Germany. 
 At the death of his father, in 840, he claimed supremacy 
 as emperor ; but his brothers, Louis the Germanic and 
 Charles the Bald, united to dispute his title, and defeated 
 him at the great battle of Fontanet, (now Fontenailles,) in 
 841. By the treaty of Verdun (843) Lothaire retained 
 Italy, with some provinces of France. His capital was 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. He died in 855 A.D., leaving three sons, 
 Louis, Charles, and Lothaire, among whom the empire 
 was divided. 
 
 See Astronomus, "Vita Ludovici Pii ;" Fauriel, " Histoire de 
 la Gaule meVidionale," tome,iv. ; "Nouvelle Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Lothaire [Lat. Lotha'rius; Ger. Lothar] XX or 
 XXI., Emperor of Germany, sometimes called Lothaire 
 of Saxony, was born in 1075. He was the son of Geb- 
 hard, Count of Amsberg. After the death of Henry 
 V. he was elected emperor, in 1125. Conrad, Duke 
 of Franconia, protested against the election, and was 
 crowned at Milan by his partisans. About 1 132 Lothaire 
 marched to Rome and restored Pope Innocent II., who 
 had been expelled by his rival Anaclete. He was 
 crowned at Rome by Innocent, and performed acts of 
 homage to the pope which were afterwards cited as an 
 evidence that the empire was a fief of the Roman See. 
 He died in 1 137, and Conrad III., above named, became 
 emperor. In the reign of Lothaire the Diet of the empire 
 asserted its exclusive right to impose taxes and make 
 war or peace. 
 
 See Gf.rvais, " Geschichte Deutschlands unter Kaiser Heinrich 
 V. und Lothar III.," 2 vols., 1842: Marcov, " Commentarii de 
 Rebus Imperii Romano-Germanici sub Lothario IL," 1753: Japfe, 
 "<jeschichte des Deutschen Reiches unter Lothar von Sachsen," 
 1841. 
 
 Lothaire, lo-thair' or lo'tiR', King of France, the son 
 of Louis d'Outremer, was born in 941 A.D., and suc- 
 ceeded his father in 954. His reign was disturbed by 
 contests with powerful vassals, among whom was Hugh 
 Capet, and he waged war with Otho II. of Germany. He 
 died in 986, and was succeeded by his son, Louis V. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Lothaire, King of Italy, was the son of Hugh of 
 Provence, who admitted him to a share of the royal 
 power in 931. He reigned alone a few years, and died 
 in 950, leaving an only child, Emma, who was married to 
 Lothaire of France. His successor was Berenger II. 
 
 Lothaire, King of Lorraine, was the second son of 
 the emperor Lothaire I. In 855 he inherited the country 
 situated between the Rhine and the Meuse, which was 
 called Lotharingia, — Gallici Lorraine. He weakened the 
 royal power by yielding to the encroachments of the 
 clergy, and by other impolitic measures. Died in 869 a.d. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 Lothar. See Lothaire. 
 
 Lotharius. See Lothaire. 
 
 Lothariug, Cardinal. See Innocent III. 
 
 Lotich, lo'tlK, (Johann Peter,) a German physician 
 and I,atin poet, born at Nauheim in 1598, was a nephew 
 of Peter, noticed below. He lived at Frankfort, where 
 he died in 1669. He was the author of Latin epigrams 
 and of several historical and medical works. 
 
 See NicAron, " Mimoires." 
 
 Lotich, [Lat. Lotich'ius,] (Peter,) a celebrated 
 German poet, born at Schluchtern, Hesse-Cassel, in 
 1528, was called Secundus, to distinguish him from his 
 
 uncle of the same name. He fought for the Protestant 
 League of Schmalkalden, and afterwards entered the 
 civil service of the Elector-Palatine. He became pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Heidelberg in 1557, and died in 
 1560. He owes his fame to Latin elegies and other 
 poems, (1551,) which were highly praised by eminent 
 critics. " Lotich," says Hallam, "is a very elegant and 
 classical versifier, and perhaps equal in elegy to any 
 Cisalpine writer of the sixteenth century." (" Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Tohann Hagen, "Vita Petri Lotichii Secundi," 1586; Nice- 
 Ron, " M^moires ;" M. Adam, "Vita Germanorum Philosophorum." 
 
 Lotichius. See Lotich, (Peter.) 
 
 Lotteri, lot-ta'ree, (Angelo Luigi,) an Italian mathe- 
 matician, born in the Milanese in 1760. Among his 
 works is "The Principles of the Differential alid Integral 
 Calculus," (1788.) Died at Milan in 1839. 
 
 Lotti. See Loth. 
 
 Lotti, lot'tee, (Antonio,) an Italian composer, born 
 at Venice about 1665 ; died in 1740. 
 
 Lotti, (Cosimo,) a Florentine painter and architect, 
 was noted for mechanical ingenuity, and made several 
 automata at Florence. About 1628 he was invited by 
 Philip IV. to Madrid, where he built the theatre Buen 
 Retiro. 
 
 Lottin, lo'taN', (Augustin Martin,) a French book- 
 seller, born in Paris in 1726. He published a "Return 
 from Saint-Cloud by Land and Sea," a facetious work. 
 Died in 1793. 
 
 Lotto, lot'to, (Lorenzo,) an excellent Italian painter, 
 was born at Venice about 1490. He worked chiefly at 
 Bergamo, and had the reputation of being one of the 
 best painters of the Venetian school. Among his master- 
 pieces are several Madonnas at Bergamo. His first 
 works are dated about 1515, and his last about 1 560. 
 " His master-pieces," says Lanzi, "place him almost on 
 a level with the first luminaries of the art." 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters:" Lanzi, " History of Painting 
 in Italy;" Ridolpi, " Vite degli illustri Pittori Veneti." 
 
 Louandre, loo'oNdR', (Charles Leopold,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Abbeville in 1813. 
 
 Loubere.de la, deh IS loo'baiit', ( Antoine,) a French 
 geometer, born in Languedoc in 1600. He taught va- 
 rious sciences in the colleges of the Jesuits, and pub- 
 lished several learned mathematical works. Died in 1664. 
 
 Loubere, de la, (Simon,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 was born at Toulouse in 1642. He was sent as envoy 
 to Siam in 1687. After his return he published a work 
 "On the Kingdom of Siam." (1691,) which is praised for 
 fidelity and judicious observations. Hennas elected to 
 the French Academy in 1693. Died in 1729. 
 
 Loubon, Ioo'IjAn', (Charles Joseph Emile, ) a 
 French painter of history and landscapes, born at Aix 
 in 1809. 
 
 Louchet, loo'shj', (Louis,) a French Jacobin, who 
 became a member of the Convention in 1702. He was 
 the first who ventured, on the 9th Therniidor, 1794, to 
 move the arrest or trial of Robespierre. Laniartine 
 calls him an obscure representative. Died in 1815. 
 
 Loudon, (Gideon Ernst.) See Laudon. 
 
 Loudon, low'don, (Jane,) the wife of J. C. Loudon, 
 noticed below, and daughter of Thomas Webb, was born 
 near Birmingham in 1808. She was married in 13S1, 
 before which she had published a novel called "The 
 Mummy." She gave efficient aid to her husband in his 
 literary enterprises, and after his death published new 
 editions of some of his works. She also wrote "The 
 Ladies' Flower-Garden," ( 1841,) "Botany for Ladies," 
 (1852,) "Gardening for Ladies," and other esteemed 
 works. Died in 1858. 
 
 See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap, xvii.; 
 " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1S42. 
 
 Loudon, (John Claudius,) an eminent Scottish 
 writer on horticulture and agriculture, was born at 
 Catnbuslang in 1783. Having learned the business of 
 a landscape-gardener, he removed to London in 1803. 
 A few years later he rented a farm, on which he tried 
 new modes of cultivation with success, and soon acquired 
 an easy fortune. After visiting various countries of 
 Europe, he returned to London, and published "The 
 Encyclopaedia of Gardening," (1822,) which had a very 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as// G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as »; th as in this. (fty*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LOUET 
 
 i 4 j6 
 
 LOUIS 
 
 large sale. He afterwards produced " Encyclopaedia of 
 Agriculture," (1825,) and " Encyclopaedia of Cottage, 
 Farm, and Villa Architecture," (1832.) The last was 
 especially popular. He was editor of the "Gardener's 
 Magazine," commenced in 1826, and of the "Magazine 
 of Natural History," (1828-36.) His industry and ex- 
 tensive learning were displayed in an expensive work on 
 the trees and shrubs of Britain, entitled " Arboretum et 
 Fruticetum Britannicum," (1838.) Died in 1843. 
 
 See " Memoir of J. C. Loudon," by his wife, 184J ; Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen | ' Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for July, 1 S39. 
 
 Louet, loo'i', (Georges,) a French jurist, born at 
 Angers about 1540 ; died in 160S. 
 
 Lough, liif, (John Graham,) an English sculptor, 
 born at Gr'eenhead, in Northumberland. He produced 
 about 1827 an admirable statue of Milo for the Duke of 
 Wellington, and went to Italy in 1834. After his return 
 home, i'n 1838, he exhibited " Ophelia," " Hebe banished," 
 "The Roman Fruit-Girl," a statue of Victoria, (1845,) 
 and a statue of Prince Albert, (1847.) Among his 
 greatest works is a colossal marble group of "Satan 
 subdued bv the Archangel Michael," (1851.) 
 Loughborough, Lord. See Wedderburn. 
 Louis, loo'iss, [It. Luigi, loo-ee'jee,] I., King of Etru- 
 ria, born at Parma in 1773, was the son of Ferdinand, 
 Duke of Parma. In 1795 he married Maria Louisa, a 
 daughter of Charles IV. of Spain. By a treaty between 
 the Spanish court and Napoleon in 1801, Louis acquired 
 Tuscany in exchange for Parma, and the name of the 
 former was changed to Etruria, He died in 1803, 
 leaving a son, Louis II. ■ '■ 
 
 Louis, loo'iss, [Fr. pron. loo'e' ; Ger. Ludwig, lood'- 
 *iG; Lat. Ludovi'cus,] the name of many kings of 
 France. Louis 1, surnamed le Dbbonnaire and the 
 Pious, [Lat. Ludovi'cus Pi'us; Ger. Ludwig der 
 From me,] Emperor of the West, and King of France, 
 the son and successor of Charlemagne, was born at 
 Casseneuil in 778 a.d. Two elder brothers having died 
 before their father, Louis became heir of all the vast 
 dominions of Charlemagne in 814 ; but his character 
 was too feeble to maintain the integrity of the empire. 
 He had three sons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis, whom 
 about 820 he made his colleagues in the government, 
 giving Italy to the first, Aquitaine to the second, and 
 Bavaria to the third. After this division another son, 
 Charles the Bald, was born to him. His sons Lothaire 
 and Pepin revolted in 830, and deposed him. He was 
 compelled to do public penance, and confined in a con- 
 vent. By the efforts of his sons Louis and Pepin, he was 
 restored to thu throne a short time before his death, 
 which occurred in 840. 
 
 See Frantin, "Louis le Pieux et son Siecle," 2 vols., 1840; 
 Franck, "Ludwig der Fromme," 1832; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ginerale." 
 
 Louis II., surnamed i.e Begue, leh big. {>'■'■ "the 
 Stammerer,") King of France, the son of Charles the 
 Bald, was born in 846 A.D. He succeeded his father in 
 877. He propitiated his turbulent nobles by granting to 
 them many duchies, earldoms, and seignories. He died 
 in 879, leaving three sons, Louis, Carloman, and Charles 
 the Simple. 
 
 See Michblet, " Histoire de France." 
 Louis m. King of France, born about 863, was the 
 eldest son of Louis II. In 879 the kingdom was divided 
 between Louis and Carloman, the former of whom re- 
 ceived for his share Neustria. He gained a victory over 
 the Normans who invaded France, when he died, with- 
 out issue, in 882 A.D., aged about twenty, and Carloman 
 became sole king of France. 
 
 See Michelrt, "Histoire de France." 
 Louis IV., surnamed d'Outremer (dootR'maiR') 
 because he had visited England in infancy, was the son 
 of Charles the Simple. He was born in 920 A.n., and 
 crowned king in 936. Among the events of his reign 
 was a war between him and Hugh, the father of Hugh 
 Capet. He died in 954, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Lothaire II. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 Louis V., King of France, surnamed LE Faineant, 
 (i.e. "the Idle" or "Do-Nothing,") the son of Lothaire 
 
 II., was born about 966. He inherited the title of king in 
 986, and died in 987, without issue, being the last king 
 of the Carlovingian dynasty. Hugh Capet was elected 
 as his successor. 
 
 See Michei.rt, "Histoire de France." 
 Louis VI. of France, surnamed t.E GroS, (leh gRo,) 
 was the son of Philip I. and of Bertha. He was born 
 in 1078, and became king in 1108. Before his accession 
 the royal power had been much reduced by the preva- 
 lence of the feudal system, and in his reign many sei- 
 gneurs asserted by arms the sovereign power over their 
 fiefs. He waged war against Henry I. of England for 
 the possession of Normandy, but was not successful. 
 He is represented as a brave and generous prince, and 
 is honoured for the establishment of communes and 
 municipal governments, by which he promoted the politi- 
 cal influence of the third estate. He died in 1137, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Louis VII. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais;" Michelet, "Histoire 
 de France." 
 
 Louis VTX, King of France, surnamed LE Jeune, 
 ("the Young,") born in 1 1 20, was the son of Louis VI., 
 whom he succeeded in 1137. He married Eleanor, 
 heiress of the Duke of Aquitaine. Having been anathe- 
 matized by the pope, he became penitent, and, in order 
 to expiate his sins, he joined the second crusade to Pal- 
 estine in II 47, and was followed by a large army of 
 Frenchmen and others. After many defeats and disas- 
 ters, by which he lost nearly all his men, he returned in 
 1 149. His wife Eleanor, having been divorced in 1152, 
 married Henry II. of England, who by this marriage 
 acquired Guienne and Poitou. War ensued between 
 Louis and Henry, but no decisive advantage was gained 
 by either. He died in 1180, and was succeeded by his 
 son, Philip Augustus. 
 
 See Michelet, "Histoire de France;" Michaud, " History of 
 the Crusades ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Louis VIII., surnamed Cceur-de-Lion, (kUR'deh- 
 le'6>i',) the son of Philip Augustus, was born in 1 187, 
 and ascended the throne in 1223. His wife was Blanche 
 of Castile. He recovered by arms Poitou and several 
 places which the English held in France. Instigated by 
 the pope, he led a crusade against the Albigenses, and 
 waged an unjust war against the Count of Toulouse, 
 who was denounced as a heretic. At the end of the first 
 campaign he died, in 1226, leaving the throne to his son, 
 Louis IX. 
 
 See Rvmer, " Feeders, " 1704: Vaissbtte, " Histoire generate 
 du Languedoc," 5 vols., 1730-45. 
 
 Louis IX, or Saint Louis, King of France, was born 
 in 1215, and succeeded his father, Louis VIII., in 1226. 
 His mother, Blanche of Castile, was regent during his 
 minority, and defended his throne with wisdom against 
 Thibaut de Champagne and other barons who were 
 leagued with him. Louis married Margaret of Pro- 
 vence in 1234. In 1244 he recovered from a dangerous 
 illness, and made a vow to conduct a crusade against 
 the infidels. Having raised a large army, he departed 
 in 1248, and in the next year entered Egypt. There his 
 army was ravaged by disease, and defeated at Mansourah 
 by the Saracens, who took Saint Louis prisoner. By 
 paying a ransom he obtained his liberty, and pursued 
 his course to Palestine, where he remained about three 
 years. He returned to France in 1254, and employed 
 himself in improving the condition of the people by wise 
 laws. His foreign policy was pacific towards European 
 nations, but his zeal against infidels urged him to another 
 crusade in 1270. He first directed his operations against 
 Tunis, but before he had reached thatplace he died, near 
 Carthage or Tunis, in August, 1270. He was canonized 
 in 1297. He was succeeded' by his son, Philippe le Hardi. 
 " Louis was," says Voltaire, "in all respects a model for 
 men. His piety, which was that of an anchorite, did not 
 deprive him of royal virtues. He made a profound policy 
 agree and concur with exact justice ; and perhaps he is 
 the only sovereign who merits this praise." 
 
 SeeG. he Nangis, "Vie de Saint-Louis;" Joinville, "Vie de 
 Saint-Louis;" Filleau he i.a Chaise. "Histoire de Saint-Louis," 
 
 J vols, 168S; BURY, "Histoire de Saint Louis," 1775; MlCHBLKT, 
 " Histoire de France ;" Michaud, " History of the Crusades ;" Vil- 
 leneuvb-Bargkmont, " Histoire de Saint-Louis, Roi de France,' 
 3 vols., 1836: "Nouvelle Biographie GineVale." 
 
 1, J, 1, 5, 5, J, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y\ short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; mr36n; 
 
LOUIS 
 
 H57 
 
 LOUIS 
 
 Louis X., surnamed LE Hutin, (leh hii'ta.N',) King of 
 France, the son of Philippe le Bel, was born in 1289, 
 and became king in P314. He married Clemence, a 
 daughter of the King of Hungary. Among the chief 
 events of his short reign was his unfortunate expedition 
 against Flanders. He died, without male issue, in 1316, 
 and his brother, Philippe le Long, was his successor. 
 
 See SisMoNm, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Louis XI., King of Fiance, born at Bourges in 1423, 
 was the son of Charles VII. He married Charlotte, a 
 daughter of the Duke of Savoy. His ambitious and un- 
 scrupulous character was early manifested by revolts 
 against his father. He became king in 1461, soon after 
 which the Duke of Burgundy and other nobles formed 
 against him the " League of the Public Good." Besieged 
 in his capital by the army of this league in 1465, he in- 
 duced them to retire and disband by the large conces- 
 sions of a treaty which he intended to violate at his own 
 convenience. By crafty policy, superior abilities, and 
 vigorous measures, he greatly increased the royal power 
 at the expense of the nobles, many of whom fell victims 
 to his cruelty. His inveterate enemy, Charles the Bold 
 of Burgundy, having been killed in battle at Nancy in 
 1477, Louis availed himself of the occasion to seize his 
 large domains, but was resisted with partial success by 
 Maximilian of Austria in a war of several years. Louis 
 had made peace with Edward IV. of England in 1475. 
 He died in 1483, leaving the throne to his son, Charles 
 VIII. The reign of Louis XI. is remarkable for the 
 multitude of important events, and for the complete 
 revolution which the monarchy then passed through. 
 Post-offices were first established by him in France. 
 
 See Comines, " Mt^inoires contenant les Choses advenues durar.t 
 le Re^ne de Louis XI," 1523 ; the same in English : Duci.os, " His- 
 toire de Louis XI," 1745; Jean de Tkoyes, " Chronique scanda- 
 leuse ;" Mathiku, "Histoire de Louis XI," 1610; Basin, " De 
 Rebus gestis Caroli VII. et Ludovici XI.;" MichkleT, "Histoire 
 de France;" "Nouvelle Biojsraphie Generale." 
 
 Louis XH. of France, born at Blois in 1462, was the 
 son of Charles, Duke of Orleans, and Marie of Cleves. 
 At the accession of Charles VIII. (1483) he was the 
 first prince of the blood. Before that date he had been 
 compelled to marry Jeanne, the daughter of Louis XI. 
 In 1495 he attended his cousin, Charles VIII., in his 
 expedition against Naples, and in 1498 l>ecame the suc- 
 cessor of that king, who left no issue. He married Anne 
 de Bretagne, the widow of the late king, thus securing 
 the province of Bretagne for the crown. His army con- 
 quered the duchy of Milan, and brought Duke Francis 
 Sforza a captive to France in 1500. He resolved, also, 
 to prosecute the claims of his family to Naples, then 
 ruled by Frederick of Aragon. In 1501 Louis and Fer- 
 dinand of Spain agreed to partition between themselves 
 the kingdom of Frederick, who, finding resistance im- 
 possible, retired to France and received a pension from 
 Louis. The quarrel that ensued lietween Louis and 
 Ferdinand ended in 1503 by the expulsion of the French 
 from Naples by Gonsalvo de C6rdova. The pope, Julius 
 II., having formed a league against Louis, the French 
 were defeated at Novara in 1513 and driven out of Italy. 
 At the age of fifty-three he married Mary, a sister of 
 Henry VIII. of England. He died on the 1st of Janu- 
 ary, 15 15, leaving two daughters, Claude and Renee. 
 He was succeeded by Francis I. Louis XII. gained the 
 affection of his subjects by reducing the taxes and pro- 
 moting justice, and received the surname of " Father of 
 the People." 
 
 See Jean d'Auton, "Histoire de Louis XII." T615; Claude 
 de Sevsskl, " L(s Louanges du Don Roi Louis XII," iso8; Jay, 
 " Histoire de Louis XII;" Brant6me, " CEuvres ;" A. Vakii.i.an, 
 "Histoire dc Louis XII," 168S} StsMoNtn. "Histoire des Fran- 
 cais;" P. L. GlMOttvmi, " E*ioge de Louis XII," 1788. 
 
 Louis XILT. of France, the son of Henry IV. and of 
 Marie de Medicis, was born at Fontainebleau on the 
 27th of September, 1601. He succeeded his father 
 May 14, 1610, under the regency of his mother, was de- 
 clared of age in 1614, and married Anne of Austria, a 
 daughter of Philip III. of Spain, in 1615. Soon after 
 that date Marie de Medicis was exiled from court, and 
 the Duke de Luynes became the royal favourite. In 
 t620 Louis marched against his Protestant subjects, who 
 had been provoked into a revolt. During the progress 
 
 of this war Richelieu obtained the favour and confi. 
 dence of the king, who made him prime minister in 
 1624. As Louis was very deficient in political ability, 
 Richelieu was the master-spirit of the government from 
 that time until his death. Among the memorable events 
 of this reign was the capture of Kochelle from the Prot- 
 estants, (1628,) after a siege of about a year. The great 
 talents and policy of Richelieu were directed with suc- 
 cess to the subjection of the Huguenots, the establish- 
 ment of absolutism in France, and the abatement of the 
 overgrown power of Austria. During the Thirty Years' 
 war the French armies obtained frequent successes 
 against the Spaniards and Imperialists, and extended 
 the boundaries of France by the conquest of Roussillon, 
 Alsace, and the duchy of Bar. Louis died in May, 1643, 
 leaving the crown to his son, Louis XIV. His character 
 was timid, and not adapted to win the favour or admira- 
 tion of the French. He is said, however, to have given 
 proof of personal courage in several battles. 
 
 See Malingre, " Histoire de Louis XI II," 1646; Ch. Bernard, 
 "Histoire de Louis XIII," 1646; J. Howell, "Life of Lewis 
 XIIL," 1646; Le Vassor, "Histoire du Regne de Louis XIII," 
 1 700-1 1 ; Bazin, "Histoire de France sous Louis XIII," 1837; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale," 
 
 Louis XrV.,surnamed le Grand, (leh gK.8N,) or " the 
 Great," often called even by English speakers Louis 
 Quatorze, (loo'e' kS'toRz',) the eldest son of Louis XIII. 
 and Anne of Austria, was born on the 16th of September, 
 1638. At the age of five he ascended the throne, in 1643, 
 under the regencv of his mother, who was a daughter of 
 Philip III. of Spain. During his minority the government 
 was directed by Cardinal Mazarin, (which see,) a for- 
 eigner, whose ministry was very unpopular, and who was 
 involved in a civil war, against a faction called La Fronde, 
 from 1648 until 1653. In 1649 Louis and his mother were 
 driven out of the capital by the Frondeurs, of whom 
 Conde was the chief. The Thirty Years' war was ended 
 in 1648 by the peace of Westphalia, on terms favourable 
 to France ; but Spain, refusing to unite in this treaty, con- 
 tinued the war against the French until the treaty of the 
 Pyrenees, (1659,) when Louis married Maria Theresa, 
 daughter of Philip IV. of Spain. 
 
 At the death of Mazarin, in l66t, Louis resolved to be 
 his own prime minister, and was fortunate in obtaining 
 the services of so able a financier as Colbert. Fiance 
 was then without doubt the greatest and most compact 
 power in Europe. To the arduous duties of his new 
 position the king brought imposing and popular personal 
 qualities, and political talents of a high order. His am- 
 bition was to make France prosperous and the monarchy 
 absolute. His policy was briefly summed up in his fa- 
 mous saying, "L'£tat, c'est moi .'" ("The State — that is 
 myself!") The death of Philip IV. of Spain, in 1665, 
 furnished him a pretext for the extension of his domin- 
 ions towards the Rhine. In exchange for the dowry 
 promised to his queen, which the Spanish court neglected 
 to pay, he claimed Flanders and Franche-Comte, which 
 he invaded with success in 1667. The emperor Leopold 
 and the Dutch aided the Spaniards against him until the 
 treaty of Nymwegen, (1678,) by which Louis retained 
 Franche-Comte and a large part of Flanders. In the 
 mean time the administration had been reformed and 
 centralized by Louis, and the taxes had been reduced 
 and the revenue increased by Colbert. In 1670 I.ouis 
 made a secret treaty with Charles II. of England, whose 
 alliance he purchased by a pension. Commerce, manu- 
 factures, arts, literature, etc. were liberally encouraged in 
 his reign ; but the intolerant zeal of the king betrayed 
 him into one very unjust and impolitic measure when, 
 in 1685, he revoked the edict of Nantes, which had se- 
 cured the religious liberty of Protestants. His Catholic 
 zeal, however, did not deter him from a serious quarrel 
 with the pope, on the question of franchises, in 1687. 
 About this time he secretly married Madame de Main- 
 tenon, a lady of obscure origin but eminent merit. (See 
 Maintknu.n.) 
 
 A second general war broke out in 1688, between Louis 
 on one side, and Spain, Austria, England, and the Prince 
 of Orange on the other. Louis failed in his attempt to 
 restore James II. of England, and found a formidable 
 adversary in James's successor, William III. After many 
 sieges and indecisive actions in Flanders, the war was 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gutlural; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as 2; th as in this. 
 
 92 
 
 (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LOUIS 
 
 1458 
 
 LOUIS 
 
 suspended by the treaty of Ryswick, (1697.) By the will 
 of Charles II. of Spain, (1700,) Philip, Duke of Anjou, 
 a grandson of Louis XIV., was appointed heir to the 
 Spanish throne. This occasioned a great European coali- 
 tion against the French king, and the long war of the 
 Spanish succession, in which he had to contend against 
 the English and Austrians, under Marlborough and Eu- 
 gene, who won great victories at Blenheim, Malplaquet, 
 etc. ; but the French prince Philip remained master of 
 Spain, and hostilities were ended by the treaty of Utrecht, 
 in April, 1713. After a reign of seventy-two years, he 
 died, on the 1st of September, 1 71 5, and was succeeded 
 by his great-grandson, Louis XV. The age of Louis 
 XIV. was the most brilliant In the literary history of 
 France, and he was a very judicious as well as a very 
 munificent patron of literary merit. He preserved his 
 equanimity in his successes and his reverses. 
 
 "No sovereign," says Macaulay, in his review of Du- 
 mont's "Recollections of Mirabeau," "has ever repre- 
 sented the majesty of a great state with more dignity 
 and grace. . . . He was not a great general ; he was not 
 a great statesman ; but he was, in one sense of the words, 
 a great king. Never was there so consummate a master 
 of what our James I. would have called king-craft. 
 Though his internal administration was bad, though the 
 military triumphs of his reign were not achieved by 
 himself, though his later years were crowded with de- 
 feats, ... he succeeded in passing himself off on his 
 people as a being above humanity." 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV," 1752 ; Peli.isson, " His- 
 toire de Louis XIV," 1749: Dangeau, "journal de la Cour de Louis 
 XIV;" " Letters of Madame de Maintenon ;" J. deLarrky, " His- 
 toirede Fiance sous le Regne de Louis XIV," 1718-22 ; Capefigue, 
 " Louis XIV, son Gouvernement," e c. 6 vols., 1837 : Saint-Simon, 
 " Memoires;" G. P. R. James, "The Life and Times of Louis 
 XIV.," 4 vols., 1838; Lord U01.INGBROKE. " Sl&cle politique de 
 Louis XIV," 2 vols., 1754; "Nonvelle Biographie Generale ;" 
 " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1818. 
 
 Louis XV. of France, the great-grandson of Louis 
 XIV., was born at Fontainebleau the 15th of February, 
 1710. His father was the virtuous Duke of Burgundy, 
 and his mother was Maria Adelaide of Savoy. Louis 
 became king on the 1st of September, 1715, the Duke of 
 Orleans, a nephew of Louis XIV., being then appointed 
 regent. The minority of Louis was a period of scan- 
 dalous corruption in morals and politics. Among the 
 ruinous errors of the regent's administration was his 
 adoption of the financial system of the famous projector 
 Law. (See Law, John.) In 1723 the king was declared 
 of age, the Duke of Orleans died, and the Duke of 
 Bourbon became prime minister. In 1725 Louis married 
 Marie Leczinska, daughter of Stanislas, the dethroned 
 king of Poland, and in the next year Bourbon was super- 
 seded by the eminent statesman Cardinal Fleury, who 
 had been preceptor of the young king and had merited 
 his confidence. By his prudent and pacific administra- 
 tion Fleury restored some degree of order and prosperity 
 in the state, and arrested the downward progress of the 
 monarchy. A war which began between the French and 
 Austrians in 1733 was waged on the Rhine and in Italy 
 until 1735, when Lorraine was ceded to France by the 
 treaty of Vienna. Against the advice of Fleury, Louis 
 joined in 1741 the iniquitous coalition against Maria 
 Theresa of Austria, and sent an army into Bohemia. 
 The English then declared war against France. In 1743 
 Cardinal Fleury died, and Louis resolved to dispense 
 with a prime minister. Among the principal events of 
 this war was the battle of Fontenoy, (1745,) where in 
 presence of Louis his army defeated the English under 
 the Duke of Cumberland. Hostilities were suspended 
 by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 174S. About this 
 period Louis ceased to take an active part in the govern- 
 ment, and abandoned himself to scandalous vices in the 
 harem called the " Pare aux Cerfs." 
 
 Rival claims of the French and. English in Canada 
 were the cause or pretext of a war which began in 1755, 
 and the French court was at the same time involved in 
 the Seven Years' war as the ally of Maria Theresa. The 
 disasters and disgraces of this war increased the un- 
 popularity of the king, who was stabl>ed by a fanatic 
 named Damiens in 1757, but only slightly hurt. The 
 French were defeated by Frederick the Great at Ross- 
 bach (1757) and at Minden, (1759,) and in various naval 
 
 battles by the English. After losing Canada and other 
 colonies, the French court signed the treaty of Paris in 
 1763, and ended a war the odium of which was thrown 
 on Madame de Pompadour. Under the auspices of the 
 Due de Choiseul, then chief minister, the order of the 
 Jesuits was suppressed about 1762. Louis died in May, 
 1774, leaving the kingdom impoverished, oppressed, and 
 demoralized. He was succeeded by his grandson, Louis 
 XVI., whose father, the dauphin, had died in 1765. 
 
 See Lacretei.i.e, " Histoire de France pendant le dix-huitieme 
 Siecle," 5 vols.. 1S09; Bauer, " Ludwig XV., KSnig von Frank- 
 reich," 1S04; Voltaire, "Histoire du Siecle de Louis XV;" De 
 Tocqubville, "Histoire philosophique du Regne de Louis XV," 
 1S47; Maurepas, " Memnires," 1791 ; M. Capefigue, " Louis XV 
 et la Society du XV I He Siecle;" Carlyle, " French Revolution." 
 
 Louis XVI., the grandson of Louis XV., was born 
 at Versailles, August 23, 1754. He was the second son 
 of Louis, Dauphin of France, and Marie Josephe of 
 Saxony, and received at his birth the title of Due de 
 Berry. In 1770 he married Marie Antoinette, a daughter 
 of Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria. He ascended 
 the throne in 1774, and appointed Turgot minister of the 
 finances, which were then in great disorder. Turgot, 
 a man of probity and ability, undertook wise and exten- 
 sive reforms ; but these were resisted by the nobility 
 and clergy, and he was dismissed from office in 1776. 
 Necker then became contr&leur-glnlral, or prime minister. 
 (See Neckkr, J.) In 1778 the French court recognized 
 the independence of the United States, declared war 
 against England, and sent a fleet and army to fight for 
 the new republic. Peace was restored between France 
 and England in 1783, and the French soldiers returned 
 home enthusiasts for liberty. 
 
 Necker having resigned in 1781, Calonne was ap- 
 pointed contrdleur-general. He not only failed to supply 
 the deficit in the revenue, but increased the public dis- 
 tress by his prodigality, and called an Assembly of Nota- 
 bles in 1787. In this year Calonne was superseded by 
 Lomenie de Brienne, who also was found incompetent 
 to guide the state through that great financial and politi- 
 cal crisis, and advised the king to convoke the States- 
 General, which had not been assembled since 1614. 
 Louis recalled Necker to the place of prime minister 
 about September I, 1788, and convoked the States-Gene- 
 ral at Versailles in May, 1789. This event was the signal 
 for the explosion of passions, ambitions, and resentments 
 which had accumulated and fermented during a long 
 period of misrule. The popular cause derived great 
 advantage from Necker's ordinance that the number of 
 the deputies of the Third Estate should be equal to the 
 sum of all the noblesse and clergy. After a contest 
 between the Third Estate and the other orders on the 
 question whether they should vote together or separately 
 by orders, the Third Estate prevailed, and took the name 
 of the Nation.il Constituent Assembly. Necker having 
 been dismissed in July, 1789, the populace of Paris de- 
 stroyed the Bastille a few days later. Thenceforth the 
 progress of revolution was rapid and irresistible. The 
 Assembly mads a great and sudden change in the po- 
 litical and social condition of France by the abolition of 
 tithes, titles of nobility, feudal privileges, and inveterate 
 abuses. The landed estates of the Church, comprising 
 nearly one-third of France, were confiscated. The king, 
 who was disposed to make large concessions and lacked 
 firmness' to resist popular aggressions, remained as a 
 hostage of the old regime in the hands of the nation. 
 The position of Louis became so irksome and perilous 
 that he attempted, in June, 1791, to escape with his 
 family from Paris, but was arrested at Varennes and 
 compelled to return. He then accepted the new consti- 
 tution, which proclaimed liberty, equality, and universal 
 suffrage. In March, 1792, a Girondist ministry was 
 formed, in which Dumouriez and Roland were the chief 
 ministers, and war was declared against Austria and 
 Prussia. By the insurrection of August 10, the Jacobins, 
 led by Danton and Robespierre, effected the total sub- 
 version of the monarchy and initiated the reign of terror. 
 Louis was confined in a prison called the Temple, after 
 being subjected to indignities and outrages from the mob. 
 He was tried for treason by the National Convention, 
 which met in September, 1792, defended by Deseze and 
 Tronchet, and condemned to death, the vote being 387 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, !, 6, u, J, short ; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
LOUIS 
 
 '459 
 
 LOUIS 
 
 for death and 334 for banishment or detention. He was 
 executed January 21, 1793, and died with tranquil forti- 
 tude. He left a son, Louis, styled the Seventeenth, and 
 a daughter, Elizabeth. His virtues were better adapted 
 to a private station than to a throne. 
 
 See Gassier, "Vie de Louis XVI," 1814; Durdent, " Histoire 
 de Louis XVI," 1817; J. Drdz, " Histnire du Reigie de Louis 
 XVI,"3vols.,i83()-+2: Fau.oix-, " Louis XVI," 1S40: CAFEFKJint, 
 a XVI, sou Administration," etc., 4 vols., 1844; SouLAVlB. 
 "Memoires du Regne de Louis XVI," 6 vols., iSot : Thiers, 
 "History of the French Revolution ;" Lamartine, "History of 
 the Girondists," 1847; Cari.vlk, " French Revolution;" "Last 
 Years of the Reign and Life of Louis XVI.," by. Francis Hue 
 
 Louis XVIL of Fiance, the second son of Louis 
 XVI.,. was born in 17S5. He became dauphin at the 
 death of an elder brother in 1789, and was recognized as 
 king in January, 1793, by the French royalists and several 
 foreign courts, but was closely confined by the Jacobins. 
 The cruel treatment which he received from his jailers 
 hastened his death, which occurred in prison in June, 
 «795- 
 
 See A. de Beauchesne, "Life, Sufferings, and Death of Louis 
 XVII ," translated by W. Hazlitt; " London Quarterly Review" 
 
 for October, 1X53. 
 
 Louis XVIH. of France, born at Versailles in No- 
 vember, 1755, was the third son of the dauphin, and 
 younger brother of Louis XVI. He received at his 
 birth the names of Louis Stanislas Xavier, and the title 
 of Count de Provence. He was also stvled Monsieur 
 during the reign of Louis XVI. In 1771 he married 
 Marie Josephine de Savoy. He favoured the Revolu- 
 tion in its first stages, and by his influence determined 
 that the Third Estate should send to the States-General 
 as many deputies as both of the other orders. He re- 
 mained in Paris until the flight of the king to Varennes, 
 in June, 1791, when he escaped by another route. During 
 the republic and empire he resided at Verona, Mitau, 
 Warsaw, and Hartwell, England. In April, 1814, he 
 returned to France and ascended the throne vacated 
 by Bonaparte. He hastened to accept a constitutional 
 charter which his ministers presented. By the escape 
 of Napoleon, his daring march to Paris, and the defec- 
 tion of the army, Louis was forced to fly on the 20th of 
 March, 181 5, and retired to Ghent. (See Bonaparte.) 
 He was again restored by the allied armies in July, 
 181 5, at one of the most disastrous epochs in French 
 history. "The king must have had," says Lamartine, 
 "great courage or a great thirst of power, to accept a 
 throne and a nation buried under so many ruins." Louis 
 dismissed Talleyrand, and selected for prime minister 
 the Due de Richelieu ; but M. Decazes, minister of 
 police, was his chief favourite. The majority of the 
 Chamber of Deputies were extreme royalists, and main- 
 tained an opposition to the ministry. Several Bona- 
 partists were executed, and others banished. On Sep- 
 tember 5, 1816, the king dissolved the Chamber, and by 
 this coup d' itat gained much popularity. The next elec- 
 tions resulted in favour of the moderate royalists. In 
 December, 1818, a new liberal ministry was formed, and 
 Decazes became prime minister. (See Decazes.) The 
 ultra-royalists, with Villele as premier, came into power 
 in February, 1830, and passed an electoral law less 
 favourable to the liberal party. In 1823 the French 
 court sent an army into Spain, and supported the cause 
 of absolutism, as an ally of Ferdinand VII. Louis died 
 in September, 1824, without issue, and was succeeded by 
 his brother, Charles X. " His qualities," says Michaucl, 
 •'were rather brilliant than solid." He had respectable 
 literary attainments and an easy elocution. He is re- 
 puted the author of the saying, " Punctuality (exactitude) 
 is the politeness of kings." 
 
 See At.r-HOMSS m I'ku-champ, "Vie de Louis XVIII," 1821; 
 L RETHLLH, "Histoire de France depuis la Restauration." 4 vols., 
 -.; Lamartine, " History of the Restoration ;" "Memoires 
 de Louis XVIII," (anonymous,) Paris, 1832; Chateaubriand, 
 -ires d'Ontre-Tombe ;" ''Nouvelle Itiographie Generale;" 
 Evre Evans Crowe, " History of Louis XVIII. and Charles X.," 
 2 vols., 1854; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1833. 
 
 Louis, (Kings or princes of Germany.) See Lewis. 
 
 Louis [It. LuiGl, loo-ee'jee]IL, King and Emperor of 
 Italy, the son of Lothaire I., was born about 822 A.D. 
 He became the colleague of his father in 850, and at the 
 death of the latter, in 855, inherited the throne of Italy. 
 Among the events of his reign were battles which he 
 
 fought with various success against the Saracens who 
 invaded Italy. He died in 875, leaving a daughter 
 Ermengarde, who was married to Boson, King of Aries. 
 They had a son, who was styled Louis III. 
 
 See Muratori, " Annali d'ltalia ;' 
 Generals.*! 1 
 
 ' Nouvelle Biographie 
 
 Louis (Luigi) III., King or Emperor of Italy, sur- 
 named the Blind, born about 879, was a grandson of 
 the preceding. He was a son of Boson, King of Aries, 
 and Ermengarde. In 900 he was invited to Italy by 
 several barons, and was crowned in place of Berenger, 
 who took Louis prisoner in 905 and put out his eyes. 
 Died in 929. 
 
 Louis (Luigi) of Tarentum, King of Naples, born 
 in 1320, was a grandson of Charles the Lame. He was 
 a cousin of Queen Joan of Naples, who married Louis 
 '" r 346, after she had strangled her husband Andrew. 
 Died in 1362. 
 
 Louis (Luigi) II., King of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusa- 
 lem, born in 1377, was a son of Louis I. He was crowned 
 by the pope in 1389, and obtained possession of Naples, 
 from which he was expelled by Ladislaus in 1399. Died 
 in 1417. 
 
 Louis (Luigi) III., of Naples, Duke of Anjou, born 
 in 1403, was a son of the preceding. He inherited his 
 father's title to the throne of Naples, which, however, 
 was occupied by Alfonso of Aragon. He invaded Italy, 
 and conquered a large part of the kingdom, but died in 
 1434, before his enterprise was finished. 
 
 Louis [Port. Luis, loo-ess'] I., King of Portugal, born 
 in 1838, began to reign at the death of his brother, 
 Pedro V., in November, 1861, before which he was the 
 Duke of Oporto. He. married Maria Pia, a daughter of 
 Victor Emmanuel of Italy, in 1862. 
 
 Louis (Luigi) L, King of Sicily or of Naples, Count 
 of Provence, Duke of Anjou, etc., born in 1339, was 
 a younger son of Jean II. of France. At the instigation 
 of Pope Clement VII., Queen Joan of Naples adopted 
 Louis as her successor in 1380, but his title was disputed 
 by Charles of Durazzo, who afterwards became King of 
 Naples. Died near Bari in 1384. 
 
 Louis [Sp. Luis, loo-ess'] of Aragon, King of Sicily, 
 born in 1338, was the eldest son of Peter II., whom he 
 succeeded in 1342. Died in 1355. 
 
 Louis, Dauphin of France, the son of Louis XIV. 
 and Maria Theresa, was born in 1661, and was called 
 Monseignf.ur. His education was directed by Bossuet, 
 who wrote for him his " Discourse on Universal His- 
 tory." The dauphin, however, had a great aversion to 
 study, and appears to have had only moderate abilities. 
 He married Marie Christine of Bavaria, and became 
 father of the Duke of Burgundy and of the Duke of 
 Anjou, who was afterwards Philip V. of Spain. In 1688 
 Louis XIV. placed him at the head of the army of the 
 Khine, under the direction of Vauban. As commander 
 of the army in Flanders in 1694, the dauphin renewed 
 credit for a march which protected Dunkirk. His last 
 years were passed in compulsory idleness. Died in 171 1. 
 Louis, Dauphin of France, the son- of Louis XV., 
 was born in 1729. His virtues, talents, and attainments 
 are highly commended by M. Michaud, Jr. In 1747 he 
 married Marie Josephe of Saxony, by "whom he had 
 three sons, who became kings, viz., Louis XVI., Louis 
 XVIII., and Charles X. He was excluded by his father 
 from all participation in the government. Died in 1765. 
 Louis, loo'e', (Antoine,) a celebrated French sur- 
 geon, born at Metz in 1723. He settled in Paris at an 
 early age, and acquired a high reputation by his writings 
 on surgery. He wrote many able surgical articles for 
 the " Encyclopedic" He was for many years the oracle* 
 and counsel of the tribunals in questions of medical 
 jurisprudence. Died in 1792. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. " 
 
 Louis, (Louis Dominique,) Baron, a successful 
 French financier, better known as Arhe Louis, was born 
 at Toul in 1755. He emigrated to England in 1792, and 
 returned about the end of 1799. During the empire he 
 became administrator of the treasury, councillor of state, 
 and a baron. From April, 1814, until August, 1815, he 
 served Louis XVIII. as minister of finance. He was re- 
 called to the same office in 1818 by Decazes, and resigned 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/,- g, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; I as t; th as in this. (By See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
LOUIS 
 
 1460 
 
 LOURDOUEIX 
 
 in November, 1819. He was also appointed minister of 
 finance by Louis Philippe in 1830. Died in 1837. 
 
 See " Souvenirs sur le Baron Louis," Paris, 1842 ; Comte DE 
 Saint-Cricq, " FJoge de Baron Louis," 1838; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Gen^rale." 
 
 Louis, (Pikrre Chari.es Alexandre,) a French 
 physician, born at Ai (Mame) in 1787. Among his 
 works is " Researches on Typhoid Fever," (2 vols., 
 1828.) 
 
 Louis Napoleon. See Napoleon III. 
 
 Louis Philippe, loo'e' fe'lep', Duke of Orleans, King 
 of the French, often called "the Citizen King," was 
 born in Paris on the 6th of October, 1773, and was the 
 eldest son of Louis Philippe Joseph, Duke of Orleans, 
 who was styled Philippe Egalite. His mother was Louise 
 Marie de Bourbon, a daughter of the Due de Pen- 
 thievre. His early education was directed by Madame 
 de Genlis, who taught him liberal principles and formed 
 him to habits of prudence and self-control. During the 
 life of his father, who was executed in 1793, he was styled 
 the Duke of Chartres. About 1790 he entered the army 
 as colonel, and merited two civic crowns by saving the 
 lives of two priests in an emeute. He favoured the 
 popular cause in the Revolution, and served in the first 
 campaign against the Austrians in 1792. In November 
 of that year he commanded the centre at Jemmapes, 
 and was, says Lamartine, the favourite lieutenant of 
 Dumouriez, the general-in-chief. Having been sum- 
 moned to appear at the tribunal of the committee of 
 public safety in April, 1793, he escaped across the Bel- 
 gian frontier with Dumouriez, in whose conspiracy with 
 the Austrians he was implicated. He afterwards wan- 
 dered as an exile and in disguise through various coun- 
 tries and strange vicissitudes, and was for some months 
 (1794) professor in the College of Reichenau, under the 
 name of M. Chambaud. In 1796 he came for greater 
 safety to the United States, where he travelled more than 
 a year. From ;8oo until 1808 the Duke of Orleans re- 
 sided in England. He married Maria Amelia, daughter 
 of Ferdinand, King of Naples, in 1809. At the restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons (1814) he returned to Fiance, and 
 was reinstated in his hereditary honours and possessions. 
 When the escape of Bonaparte from Elba became known 
 at Paris, Louis XVIII. appointed the Duke of Orleans 
 commander of the army of the North ; but he soon re- 
 signed this place, lie took little part in public affairs 
 until the revolution of July, 1830, had dethroned Charles 
 X., and a provisional government was formed, under the 
 direction of La Fayette, Lafitte, Guizot, Thiers, and others. 
 A powerful party then urged the claim of Louis Philippe 
 to the throne, while others wished a republic. The scale 
 appears to have been turned by La Fayette, (who did not 
 consider France yet prepared for a republic,) and the 
 crown was offered to the Duke of Orleans by the Deputies 
 and Peers, on the 9th of August, and accepted, with a 
 remodelled constitution. The king called into his cabi- 
 net the Due de Broglie, Count Mole, M. Guizot, and 
 Lafitte. He was soon after recognized by the great powers 
 of Europe. In October, 1830, M. Lafitte became premier, 
 and in March, 1831, was superseded by Casimir Perier. 
 The first part of this reign was disturbed by riots and 
 conspiracies of the Carlists and republicans, and several 
 attempts were made to assassinate the king. In Octol>er, 
 1832, a new ministry was formed, of which Marshal Soult 
 was premier and Guizot and Thiers were members, the 
 majority being Doctrinaires. Frequent changes of the 
 ministry afterwards occurred, by which Count Mole, the 
 Due de Broglie, Thiers, and Guizot were successively 
 raised to the office of prime minister. In October, 1836, 
 •Louis Napoleon made at Strasbourg an abortive attempt 
 to dethrone Louis Philippe, for which he was banished to 
 the United States. Louis Philippe followed apacific policy, 
 and waged no wars against the great European powers ; 
 but his army made important conquests in Algeria. His 
 reign, however, though successful, was not generally 
 popular. It was stigmatized as reactionary, temporizing, 
 "egotistical." The peace which had been the chief merit 
 of this reign was at last imperilled by the impolitic mar- 
 riage of the king's son, the Duke of Montpensier, to the 
 eventual heiress of the Spanish crown. Electoral reform 
 became the rallying-cry of a plan of agitation concerted 
 
 by a coalition of republicans, Bonapartists, and royalists 
 in 1847. The forcible opposition of the ministry to this 
 open agitation at reform banquets caused a collision be- 
 tween the troops and the Parisian populace on February 
 24, 1848. Unwilling to authorize a great slaughter of 
 the people, the king then abdicated in favour of his 
 grandson, Count of Paris ; but the republic proclaimed 
 by Lamartine, Arago, and others prevailed. Louis Phi- 
 lippe escaped in disguise to England, where he was kindly 
 received. He died at Claremont, England, in August, 
 1850, leaving four sons, styled the Due de Nemours, 
 the Due de Montpensier, the Prince de Joinville, and 
 the Due d'Aumale. 
 
 See Boudin, " Histoire de Louis Philippe," 1847 ; L. G. Michaud, 
 "The Public and Private Life of Louis Philippe," in French. 1849; 
 Nouvion, "Vie de Louis Philippe," 1849; G. N. Wright. "The 
 Life and Times of Louis Philippe," 1842; Louis Blanc, "Histoire 
 de dix Ans," (1830-40) Paris, 1842; Alfred E. Douglas, "Life 
 and Times of Louis Philippe, ex- King of the French," 1848 ; Guizot, 
 " Me^noires pour servir a l'Histoire de mon Temps:" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^nerale;" "London Quarterly Review" for April and 
 October, 1850. 
 
 Louis Quatorze. See Louis XIV. 
 
 Louisa (or Luise) Auguste Wilhelmine Amalie, 
 Queen of Prussia, the daughter of the Duke of Mecklen- 
 burg-Strelitz, was born at Hanover in 1776. She was 
 married in 1793 to the prince-royal, who in 1797 became 
 King Frederick William HI. After becoming the mother 
 of several children, she died in 1810. Her beauty and 
 accomplishments are highly praised. 
 
 See Charlotte Richardson, " Memoirs of the Private Life of 
 Louisa. Queen of Prussia," 1847 : J. F. Schink, " Louise Preus- 
 sens Schutzgeist," 1817; "Nouvelie Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Louise de Lorraine, loo'ez' deli lo'r&n', Queen of 
 France, born in 1554, was the daughter of Nicolas, 
 Count de Vaudemont. In 1575 she was married to 
 Henry III., who treated her with neglect. Died in 1601. 
 
 Louise de Savoie, loo'iz' deh sj'vwa', Regent of 
 France, born at Pont d'Ain in 1476, was the daughter 
 of Philip, Duke of Savoy. She married Charles of Or- 
 leans, and had a son who became king as Francis I. 
 On his departure to Italy, in 15 15, he appointed her 
 regent of the kingdom. She caused the loss of the 
 Milanese by appropriating to herself the money destined 
 to pay the troops, and by her ur.just treatment provoked 
 Constable Bourbon to join the enemy. She obtained 
 the regency again in 1524, and retained it during the 
 captivity of the king. In 1529 she negotiated with Mar- 
 garet of Austria the treaty of Cambray between Francis 
 I. and Charles V. Died in 1532. 
 
 See Marii.lac, "Vie du Conni5table de Bourbon ;"" Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Louise d'Orleans, loo'6z' doR'li'os', (Marie The- 
 rese Caroline Isabelle,) Queen of Belgium, born at 
 Palermo in 1 81 2, was a daughter of Louis Philippe of 
 France. She was married to Leopold, King of Belgium, 
 in 1832. Died in 1850. 
 
 SeeT. Schelunck, " Ken Engel in den Heme! of Leven van H. 
 M. Louise Marie," elc, 1S50: Morren, "Heliotrope; Immortality 
 de Louise Marie, Reine des Beiges," 1850. 
 
 Louise (or Luise) Ulrike, loo-ee'zeh oTJl're-keh, 
 Queen of Sweden, born at Berlin in 1720, was a sister 
 of Frederick the Great of Prussia. She became ac- 
 quainted with Voltaire, who wrote verses in praise of 
 her agreeable qualities. In 1744 she was married to 
 Prince Adolphus Frederick, who became king in 1 751. 
 She founded an Academy of Belles-Lettres at Stockholm 
 in 1753. Died in 1782. Gustavus III. was her son. 
 
 Loup, loo, [Lat. Serva'tus Lu'i'tis,] Abbe of Fer- 
 rieres, is regarded as the most polished writer that 
 Fiance produced in the ninth century. He was born in 
 the diocese of Sens in 805. lie was employed by Charles 
 the Bald in important missions, and corresponded with 
 the most eminent men of his tinle, including several 
 kings, liis letters are prized for the light they throw 
 on the events of that period. 
 
 See "Gallia Christiana ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Loupolof. See Loopolof. 
 
 Louptiere, de la, deh IS loo'te-aiR', (Jean Chari.es 
 re Relongue — reh-loNg',) a French poet, born in the 
 diocese of Sens in 1727 ; died in 1784. 
 
 Lourdoueix, looR'doo'4',(SoPHiE Tessier,) a French 
 writer of fiction, born in Paris in 1793. She married M. 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ft, J, short ; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
L0URE1R0 
 
 1461 
 
 LOVEJOr 
 
 Lourdoueix, an editor of the " Gazette de France." 
 Among her works is "The Son of his Works," (" Le 
 Fils de ses CEuvres," 2 vols., 1845.) 
 
 Loureiro, de, da lo-ra^e-ro, (J0X0,) a Portuguese bot- 
 anist, born about 1 7 15. He practised medicine many 
 years in Cochin China and China, and returned to Por- 
 tugal after an absence of thirty-six years. His "Flora 
 of Cochin China" (1 790) desciibed many new genera, 
 and was esteemed a valuable contribution to botanical 
 science. Died in 1796. 
 
 Loutherbourg, loo'teVbooR', or Lutherburg, loo'- 
 teR-booRo', (Philippe Jacques,) a skilful French land- 
 scape-painter, born at Strasburg about 1735, was a P U P'I 
 of Casanova. After working some years in Paris, he 
 removed in 1771 to London, where he painted decora- 
 tions for the Opera. He excelled in landscapes, battle- 
 pieces, and views on the sea-coast. His execution is 
 remarkable for facility and vigour. He etched some of 
 his own designs. He died in London about 1812. 
 
 See Naglkk, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Louvard, Ioo'vIk', (Francois,) a French Jansenist 
 and polemical writer, born in Maine in 1661 ; died in 1739. 
 
 Louvel, loo'vel', (Pierre Louis,) a French assassin, 
 born at Versailles in 1783, was a saddler by trade. 
 Prompted by party spirit and enmity to the Bourbons, 
 he assassinated the Due de Berry, February 13, 1820. 
 This act caused great political excitement, and led to the 
 resignation of the prime minister Decazes. Louvel was 
 executed in June, 1820. 
 
 Iiouverture. See Toussaint. 
 
 Louvet, loo'vj', (Pierre,) a mediocre French histo- 
 rian, born at Beauvais in 161 7. He wrote histories of 
 Langnedoc, Aquitaine, and Provence. Died about 1680. 
 
 Louvet, (Pierre,) a French antiquary, born near 
 Beauvais about 1570 ; died in 1646. 
 
 Louvet de Couvray, loo'vi' deh koo'vRi', (Jean 
 Baptiste,) a French Girondist orator, born in Paris in 
 1760. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and 
 became a prominent member of the Girondist party. In 
 October, 1792, he attacked Marat and Robespierre in a 
 bold and effective speech. He was proscribed with the 
 Girondist chiefs about June I, 1793, but escaped by flight 
 to Normandy. In April, 1794, he entered Paris, where 
 he concealed himself until the fall of Robespierre. In 
 1795 he resumed his seat in the Convention, from which 
 he passed into the Council of Five Hundred. He pro- 
 duced several successful romances, comedies, and polit- 
 ical tracts. Died in 1797. In reference to the above- 
 named speech, which is inserted in his " History of the 
 Girondists," Lamattine says, "louvet was one of those 
 men whose political destiny is composed of a single day ; 
 but this day conquers futurity for them, because it asso- 
 ciates with their name the memory of a sublime talent 
 and a sublime courage." 
 
 See Lamartivf, "Historyof the Girondists:" Thikks. " His- 
 tory of the French Revolution ;" '* Nouvelle Itiofcraphie Gene>ale." 
 
 Louviers, de, deh loo've-a', (Chari.es Jacques,) a 
 French writer, was appointed a member of the council 
 of state by Charles V. in 1376. He is supposed to be 
 the author of the famous "Dream of the Ordiardist," 
 (" Songe du Vergier,") the aim of which is to prove that 
 the pope has no temporal power over princes. The book 
 is in the form of a dialogue. 
 
 Louville, de, d?h loo'vel', (Ciiaki M Aucuste d'Al- 
 lonville — di'loN'vtl',) Marquis, a French diplomatist, 
 born in 1668. In 1701 he was chosen gentleman of the 
 chamber to Philip V. of Spain, who afterwards employed 
 him in missions to Paris and Rome. Died in 1731. 
 
 Louville, de, (JacQOM Kicene d'Allonville,) 
 Chevalier, a French astronomer, born in the Chartrain 
 in 1671, was a brother of the preceding. He devoted 
 himself to astronomy, and erected an observatory near 
 Orleans. Having been admitted into the Academy of 
 Sciences, he contributed to it "New Tables of the Sun," 
 "Observations on the Obliquity of the Ecliptic," etc. 
 Died in 1732. 
 
 See Fontenellk, M I?loge de M. Louvine." 
 
 Louvois, de, deh loo'vwi', (Camille Leteu.ier,) 
 Abr£, born in Paris in 1675, was a son of the celebrated 
 minister of war. He was included by Baillet among the 
 "enfants celebres," and was elected to the French 
 
 Academy in 1706. He added 30,000 books to the Roval 
 Library. Died in 1 718. 
 
 Louvois, de, Chevalier. See Estr£es, d', (Louis 
 Cesar Letei.lier.) 
 
 Louvois, de, (Francois Michel Letei.lier,) Mar- 
 quis, a powerful French minister of state, born in Paris 
 in 1641, was a son of. Michel Letellier, chancellor of 
 France. In 1654 his father, who was then secretary of 
 war, obtained the reversion of that office for Louvois, 
 who, having qualified himself by diligent studies and 
 gained the favour of the king, became sole minister of 
 war in 1666. While Colbert managed the finances and 
 increased the resources of France, Louvois contributed 
 greatly to the military successes of Louis XIV. He 
 supplanted Colbert in the favour of the king, and in- 
 stigated Louis to persecute the Protestants. By the 
 counsels of this unscrupulous and haughty minister, who 
 was then extremely powerful, the edict of Nantes was 
 revoked in 1685, and the Palatinate was wasted by fire 
 and sword in 1689. The atrocity of the latter measure 
 excited general horror. His insolence at last exhausted 
 the patience of the king. In 1691 Louvois excited the 
 anger of Louis by proposing to burn Treves, and would 
 have been dismissed if he had not died suddenly in the 
 same year. He is censured for having caused the 
 derangement of the finances, and for fomenting the ag- 
 gressive martial ambition of his master. "He was the 
 greatest adjutant-general, the greatest quartermaster- 
 general, the greatest commissary-general," says Macau- 
 lay, "that Europe had seen. He may, indeed, be said 
 to have made a revolution in the art of disciplining, dis- 
 tributing, equipping, and provisioning armies." His 
 son, the Marquis of Barbesieux, was his successor as 
 minister of war. 
 
 See Chamlay, "M^tnoires pour servir a l'Histoire du Marquis 
 de Louvois;" Saint-Simon, '* Me'moires ;" Danc;kau, "Journal;" 
 Voi.taikk. "Siecle de Louis XIV ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran- 
 cais;" "Nouvelle IJioj^raphie Ge^ie'rale." 
 
 Louvrex, de, deh Ioo'vr4', (Mathias Guii.laume,) 
 a Belgian jurist and historian, born at Liege in 1665 ; 
 died in 1734. 
 
 Lovat, lflv'at, (Simon Fraser,) Lord, a Scottish 
 Jacobite conspirator, born near Inverness about 1666. 
 At the death of Lord Lovat, who was chief of the Fraser 
 clan, Simon Fraser made unsuccessful attempts to obtain 
 the title and estates. To evade the penalty of some 
 crime, he passed over to Fiance about 1700, and turned 
 a Roman Catholic. Having entered the service of the 
 Pretender, he was sent to Scotland in 1702 to incite the 
 Highlanders to rclrellion ; but he betrayed his trust, and 
 acted the part of informer against the Jacobites. For 
 this offence he was confined in the Bastille several years. 
 In 1715 Fraser fought against the cause of the Stuarts at 
 Inverness, and was rewarded with the estates of the 
 Fraser* and the title of Lord Lovat. In the rebellion 
 of 1745 he was detecled in treasonable acts against King 
 George, for which he was executed in London in 1747. 
 
 See Ahhuthnot, "Life of Simon Fraser," 1746: FosTFR, "Me- 
 moirs of Lord Lovat," 1740; "Memoirs of Lord Lovat." l>y him- 
 self, 1797 ; John Hili. IU'kton, " Lives of Lord Lovat and Duncan 
 Forbes." 1846: "North lililish Kcvicv," lor M.iy, 1847. 
 
 Love, luv, (Christopher,) a Presbyterian theologian, 
 was Irorn at Cardiff, Wales, in 1618. He Ixgan to 
 preach in London in 1644, alter which he was a member 
 of the Assembly 'if Divines. After the death of Charles 
 I., he entered into a conspiracy called Love's Plot, the 
 design of which was to restore Charles II. Lor this 
 OsUMa he was executed in August, 1651. His Sermons, 
 and other works, were published in three volumes. 
 
 Love, (James,) the assumed name of a dramatist and 
 actor, who was a son of Mr. Dance, a London architect. 
 A satire against Walpole having appeared under the 
 title "Are these Things so?" he wrote an answer, en- 
 titled "Yes, they are: What then?" for which Walpole 
 gave him a present. He acted at Drury Lane front 1762 
 until his death, and wrote " Pamela," and other come- 
 dies. Died in 1774. 
 
 Loveira. See I.oheira. 
 
 Love'joy, (Kiv'joi,) (Elijah P.,) an American clergy- 
 man and opponent of slavery, born at Albion, in Maine, 
 in 1802, graduated at Wateiville in 1826. He began to 
 edit at Alton, Illinois, about 1836, an anti-slavery paper, 
 
 « as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as t; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LOVEJOY 
 
 1462 
 
 LOWELL 
 
 called " The Alton Observer." His press was twice de- 
 stroyed by a pro-slavery mob. While defending his 
 premises at Alton against a third attack, he was shot 
 and mortally wounded, in November, 1837. 
 
 See Greeley, "American Conflict," vol. i. pp. 130-142. 
 Lovejoy, (Owen,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 born at Albion, Kennebec county, Maine, in 181 1. He 
 was employed as minister of a Congregational church at 
 Princeton, Illinois, from 1838 to 1854, and was elected a 
 mcnilrer of Congress by the Republicans of the third 
 district of Illinois in 1856. He was re elected in 1858, 
 i860, and 1862. He was a radical opponent of slavery. 
 Died at Brooklyn, New York, in March, 1864. 
 
 LoveTace, (Aha Augusta Byron,) Countess of, 
 the only child of the poet Lord Byron, was born in 1815. 
 She was married to the Earl of Lovelace, who was a son 
 of Lord Peter King. Died in 1852. 
 
 Lovelace, (RICHARD,) an English poet, born in Kent 
 in 1618. He fought for the king in the civil war, and 
 rose to the rank of captain. Having spent his fortune 
 in the royal cause, he entered the French service in 
 1646. On his return to England in 1648, he was impris- 
 oned for political reasons. In 1649 he was released, 
 and published a volume of poems, consisting of odes, 
 sonnets, etc. addressed to "Lucasta." Some of these are 
 admired for grace and vigour. He died poor in 1658. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena: Oxonienses ;" Er.i.is, "Specimens of 
 Poetry;" "Retrospective Review," vol. iv., 1821. 
 
 Lovell, liiv'el, (Mansfield,) an American general, 
 born in the District of Columbia about 1822, graduated 
 at West Point in 1842. lie lived in New York City 
 when the civil war began. In October, 1861, he took 
 command of the disunion army at New Orleans. After 
 the Union fleet had passed the forts below the city, he 
 evacuated New Orleans, which he transferred to the cus- 
 tody of the mayor on the 25th or 26th of April, 1862. 
 
 Lover, luv'er, (Samuel,) an Irish novelist, poet, and 
 painter, born in' Dublin in 1797. He acquired in his youth 
 a good reputation as a portrait-painter, and afterwards 
 became a successful author. Besides numerous ballads 
 and dramas, he produced " Legends and Stories of Ire- 
 land," and a novel entitled " Handy Andy," (1842,) and 
 " Rory O'Moore," a song. Among his later publications 
 is " Metrical Tales, and other Poems," (1859.) Died in 
 July, 1868. 
 
 Lov'I-bond, (Edward,) an English poet, was born 
 in Middlesex, and inherited an easy fortune. He con- 
 tributed several essays to "The World," a popular pe- 
 riodical, and was the author of various poems, among 
 which "The Tears of Old May-Day" (1754) is highly 
 praised. Died in 1775. 
 Lo vini. See Luini. 
 
 Low, (George,) a Scottish naturalist, born in Forfar- 
 shire in 1746. He became a clergyman in Pomona, one 
 of the Orkney Isles, in 1774. He wrote "Fauna Or- 
 cadensis," (1813,) which treats of the animals of the 
 Orkney and Shetland Isles. Died in 1795. 
 
 Lowe or Loewe, lo'weh, the name of a German 
 family, distinguished in various departments of art. 
 August Leopold Lowe, born at Schwedt in 1767, was 
 the composer of a popular opera entitled "The Island 
 of Temptation." Died in 1816. His son Ferdinand, 
 born in 1787, acquired a h(gh reputation as a tragedian. 
 S3- 
 
 Died in 1832. His daughter Sophie, born in 1815, 
 became one of the most celebrated vocalists in Germany. 
 She was married about 1840 to Prince Frederick of 
 Liechtenstein. Her brother, Francis Louis Feodor, 
 born in 1816, distinguished himself as an actor and a 
 poet. Julia Lowe, aunt of the preceding, born in 1790, 
 was very successful as an actress at Vienna. Died about 
 1850. 
 
 Lowe, 15, (Sir Hudson,) a British general, born in 
 Ireland about 1770. He served many campaigns in 
 Egypt, Italy, Germany, etc., and obtained the rank of 
 major-general in 1814. In 1815 he was selected to be 
 the jailer of Bonaparte in Saint Helena. He was cen- 
 sured by many French and English writers for arbitrary, 
 rude, and illiberal treatment of the captive, who in 1816 
 refused to see him or have any further intercourse with 
 him. Died in 1844. 
 
 See a " History of the Captivity of Napoleon, from the Letters 
 of Sir Hudson Lowe," etc., by W. Forsyth, 4 vols., 1S53. 
 
 Lowe, (Johann Karl Gottfried,) a German com- 
 poser, born near Halle in 1796. His works include 
 operas, sonatas, ballads, and oratorios : of the last we 
 may name " The Seven Sleepers." 
 
 Lowe, (Peter,) a Scottish medical writer, practised 
 medicine in Paris. He wrote a "Discourse on Chi- 
 rutgery," and other works. Died in 1612. 
 
 Lowe, (Roisert,) an English financier and eminent 
 orator, born at Bingham in 181 1. He graduated at Ox- 
 ford in 1833, and practised as a barrister in Australia 
 from 1843 to 1850. In 1852 he was returned to Parlia- 
 ment for Kidderminster. He was appointed vice-presi- 
 dent of the education board in 1859, but was removed a 
 few years later. Mr. Lowe is an editor or contributor to 
 the London "Times." He was a leader of the Adullam- 
 ites, (nominal Liberals, who opposed the Reform bill 
 of Russell and Gladstone in 1866,) and is one of the 
 ablest and most brilliant debaters in Parliament. Having 
 supported Gladstone's motion for the disestablishment 
 of the Anglican Church in Ireland, he was appointed 
 chancellor of the exchequer when the Liberal party 
 came into power, in December, 1868. He was elected 
 a member of Parliament for the University of London 
 in November, 1868. 
 
 Low'ell, (Charles,) D.D., an American divine, a son 
 of Judge Lowell, noticed below, was born at Boston in 
 1782. He became minister of the West Congregational 
 Church in that city about 1806. He travelled exten- 
 sively in Europe and the East, returning home in 1840. 
 Among his publications are two volumes of sermons, 
 (1855.) Died January 20, 1861. 
 
 Lowell, (Colonel Charles Russell,) an American 
 officer, born in Boston in 1835, was a nephew of the 
 poet, J. R. Lowell. He graduated at Harvard in 1854 
 with the first honours. He served as captain of cavalry 
 in the peninsular campaign in 1S62, and commanded 
 a body of cavalry which protected Washington in the 
 summer of 1863, after which he served under General 
 Sheridan and commanded a brigade. He had thirteen 
 horses shot under him. He was killed at the battle of 
 Cedar Creek, Virginia, October 19, 1864. He was a 
 voting man of great promise. 
 
 Lowell, (Francis Cabot,) brother of John Lowell, 
 (the second of the name,) born at Newburyport in 1775, 
 was one of the principal founders of the city of Lowell, 
 to which he gave his name. He was. a merchant and 
 manufacturer of cotton. Died in 1817. 
 
 Lowell, (James Russell,) a distinguished American 
 poet, critic, and scholar, the son of the Rev. Charles 
 Lowell, noticed above, was born February 22, 1819. 
 Having graduated at Harvard in 1838, he entered the 
 law school of that institution, where he remained two 
 years, and was admitted to the bar in 1841 ; but he soon 
 abandoned the profession, that he might devote himself 
 wholly to literature. He published in 1844 a volume 
 of poems containing a "Legend of Brittany," "Pro- 
 metheus," and a number of smaller pieces. In 1848 
 appeared a second collection of poems, and in a small 
 volume (separately) "The Vision of Sir Launfal." In 
 the same year he also published the "Biglow Papers," 
 a witty and humorous satire, written in the "Yankee" 
 dialect, on the events of the Mexican war, and a "Fable 
 for Critics," a charming/w d'esprit, which, in the words 
 of Professor Bowen, is "a very witty review article done 
 into rhyme."* It is not too much to say that the best 
 parts of this poem (which, by the way, is very unequal) 
 are scarcely surpassed either in wit or in felicity of ex- 
 pression by anything of a similar kind in the English lan- 
 guage. In the summer of 1851 Mr. Lowell visited Europe, 
 and returned home after an absence of somewhat more 
 than a year. In the winter of 1854-55 he delivered in 
 Boston a very popular course of lectures on the British 
 poets. Professor Longfellow having, in 1854, resigned 
 the chair of the modern languages and belles-lettres at 
 Harvard, Mr. Lowell was appointed his successor in 
 January, 1855. On the establishment of the "Atlantic 
 Monthly" in 1857, Professor Lowell became the editor, — 
 a position which he held about five years,— and under 
 his auspices this magazine acquired a wide and deserved 
 
 • See " North American Review" for January, 1849- 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
LOWELL 
 
 1463 
 
 LOWNDES 
 
 popularity. Among his more recent poetical produc- 
 tions we may mention "Under the Willows, and other 
 Poems," (1869,) and "The Cathedral," (1870.) liesides 
 the various collections of his poems referred to above, 
 he has published a volume of his prose writings, entitled 
 " Among my Books," (1870,) consisting of literary essays, 
 contributions to Reviews, etc. 
 
 Among the poets of America, Lowell is distinguished 
 by the great range, (if we may use the expression,) as 
 well as by the versatility, of his powers. He seems 
 equally at home in the playful, the pathetic, or the medi- 
 tative realms of poetry. And we always rise from the 
 perusal of his productions with the impression that he 
 has not put forth all his strength, but that, had he as- 
 pired to something still higher, it would not have been 
 beyond the reach of his genius. 
 
 Several editions of his collected poems have been 
 published in England as well as in the United States. 
 
 See Alubonr, "Dictionary of Authors;" "North American Re- 
 view" for April, 1841, April, 1844, and January, 1849; and the article 
 on "American Humour," in the "North British Review" for No- 
 vember, i860. 
 
 Lowell, (John,) an American statesman, born at 
 Newburyport, Massachusetts, in I74> He began to 
 practise law in Boston about 1777. As a member of the 
 convention which formed the Constitution of Massachu- 
 setts in 17S0, he efficiently promoted the liberation of 
 slaves held in that State. He was elected a member 
 of Congress in 1781, and appointed a judge of the dis- 
 trict court of Massachusetts in 1789. He had three 
 sons, John, Francis C, and Charles. Died at Roxbury 
 in 1802. 
 
 Lowell, (John,) an able lawyer and political writer, 
 born at Newburyport in October, 1769, was a son of the 
 preceding. He graduated at Harvard College in 1786, 
 practised law at Boston, and acquired a high reputation. 
 About 1803 he visited Europe. He was a Federalist, 
 wrote much for the public journals, and exerted great 
 influence in New England, but declined to enter the 
 public service. He published twenty-five or more pam- 
 phlets, mostly political, and was one of the founders of 
 the Boston Athenseum and the Massachusetts General 
 Hospital. He was distinguished for his colloquial powers. 
 Lied at Boston in 1840. 
 
 Lowell, (John,) the founder of Lowell Institute, was 
 born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1799, and was a son 
 of Francis Cabot Lowell, noticed above. Having lost 
 his wile and children alx>ut 1831, he travelled extensively 
 in Europe, Syria, and Egypt. He died at Bombay in 
 March, 1836, leaving by his will about $250,000 to main- 
 tain in Boston annual courses of gratuitous lectures on 
 various subjects. 
 
 Lowell, (Maria White,) an American poetess, the 
 wife of James Russell Lowell, noticed above, was born 
 at Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1821. She was married 
 to Mr. Lowell in 1844. She died in 1853. She is 
 described as having been singularly beautiful both in 
 person and character. A volume of her poems appeared 
 in 1855. 
 
 See Griswold's " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Lowell, (Mary.) See Putnam, (Mrs. Mary.) 
 
 Lowell, (Robert Traill Spence,) son of the Rev. 
 
 Charles Lowell, noticed above, was born in Boston in 
 1816. He was ordained a clergyman of the Episcopal 
 Church in 1842, and subsequently became rector of 
 Christ Church, Duanesburg, New York. He has pub- 
 lished a novel entitled "The New Priest in Conception 
 Bay," and a collection of poems. 
 
 Lowen or Loewen, lo'wen, (Johann Frifdr'ich,) 
 a German poet and writer of fiction, born at Klausthal 
 in 1729 ; died in 1 77 1. 
 
 Lowendahl or Loewendahl, lo'wen-dSl', written 
 also Loevendahl, (Ui.kicil FRIEDRICH Wql'DEMAR.) 
 a celebrated general, born at Hamburg in 1 700, was 
 a great -grandson of Frederick III. of Denmark. He 
 entered the service of Russia in the reign of Anne, about 
 1736, and as general of artillery gained victories over the 
 Turks and Tartars. In 1743 lie passed into the French 
 service as lieutenant-general, and in 1745 commanded 
 the reserve corps at Fontenoy. As second in command 
 under Marshal Saxe, he took many towns in Flanders 
 
 in the same year. For the capture of Bergen-op-Zoom, 
 in 1747, he was rewarded with a marshal's baton. He 
 died in 1755. 
 
 See Carl C. Rothe, " Grev von Loevendals I.iv og Levnet," 
 1750; M. Ranft, " Leben und Thaten des Grafen von Lowenthal," 
 1754; " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Lowenhaupt or Loewenhaupt, 16'wen-howpt', 
 (Adam Louis,) Count, a skilful Swedish general, born 
 in 1659. He was appointed Governor of Riga in 1706. 
 On his march to join the army of Charles XII., who had 
 invaded Russia, he was attacked by the Czar Peter at 
 Liesna in 1708, and lost about 4000 men, but pursued 
 his course. He displayed great courage at Pultowa, 
 July, 1709, and when Charles fled to Turkey the command 
 of the Swedish army devolved on Lowenhaupt, who was 
 forced to capitulate in 1709. He was kept as a prisoner 
 in Russia until his death, in 1719. 
 
 Lbwenhaupt or Loewenhaupt, von, fon 16'wen- 
 howpt', (Cari, Emil,) Count, a Swedish general, born 
 in 1692. War having been declared against Russia, he 
 was chosen general-in-chief of an army sent to invade 
 Finland in 1742. His success was hindered by dissen- 
 sions among the Swedish officers, and he surrendered 
 at Helsingfors, in September, 1742. The anti-war party 
 having become dominant, he was tried for that reverse, 
 and executed in 1743. 
 
 Lowenhielm or Loewenhielm, 16'wen-he-elm', 
 (Carl Gustaf,) Count of, a Swedish statesman, was 
 the chief of the party of "Caps." His party having 
 gained the ascendency in 1765, he was then made min- 
 ister of foreign affairs. He wrote several memoirs for 
 the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1768. 
 
 Lowenhielm or Loewenhielm, (Gustaf Carl 
 Frederik,) Count of, a Swedish diplomatist, born at 
 Stockholm in 1 771. He served in the army, and obtained 
 the rank of general. He represented Sweden at the 
 Congress of Vienna, (1814,) and was Swedish minister 
 at the court of Paris from 1818 until 1856. He wrote 
 several military treatises, and a remarkable work on the 
 organization of government. Died in 1856. 
 
 Lowenklau. See Leunclavius. 
 
 L8w'er, (Richard,) F.R.S., an eminent English 
 anatomist, born in Cornwall about 1630. He became a 
 friend and coadjutor of Dr. Willis, whom he assisted in 
 his work on the "Anatomy of the Brain." In 1661 he 
 confirmed the Harveian theory by experiments on the 
 transfusion of blood. He practised medicine in London 
 many years, and wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise 
 on the Heart, on the Motion of the Blood," etc Died 
 in 1691. 
 
 See " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Lower, (Sir William,) an English dramatist, born 
 in Cornwall ; died in 1662. 
 
 Lowitz, lo'wits, (Georg Moritz,) a German astrono- 
 mer, born near Nuremberg in 1722. He became pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Gbttingen about 1755, and was 
 afterwards director of the observatory at that place. In 
 1766 he removed to Saint Petersburg, and was admitted 
 into the Academy of Sciences, by which he was employed 
 in astronomical observations. He was killed by some 
 rebels at Dmetriefsk in 1774. He had written several 
 memoirs on astronomy. 
 
 His son Tohias, born at Gbttingen in 1757, became 
 one of the most eminent members of the Imperial Acad- 
 emy of Saint Petersburg, and professor of chemistry. 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 Low'nian, (Moses,) a learned English divine, born 
 in London in 16S0. About 1710 he settled at Clapham, 
 where he preached many years to a congregation of Dis- 
 senters. He wrote a " Rationale of the Ritual of the 
 Hebrew Worship," and other works. Died in 1752. 
 
 Lowndes, lowndz, (Rawlins,) born in the British 
 West Indies in 1722, settled at Charleston, South Caro- 
 lina, where he rose to eminence as a statesman and law- 
 yer. He was elected president or Governor of South 
 Carolina in 1778. Died in 1800. 
 
 Lowndes, (William Jones,) an eminent American 
 statesman, a son of the preceding was born at Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, on the 7th of February, 1782. He 
 studied law, and married a daughter of General Thomas 
 Pinckney. In 1810 or 181 1 he was elected a member of 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, (rilled; s as s; th as in this. (jJ^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LOWNDES 
 
 1464 
 
 LUBBOCK 
 
 Congress for a district of South Carolina. He was an 
 eloquent debater, and was eminent for his wisdom and 
 logical acumen. He is said to have been modest and 
 unambitious. He continued to serve in Congress about 
 eleven years, and was chairman of the committee of 
 ways and means from 1818 to 1822. It appears that he 
 was a general favourite, and was reputed to stand in the 
 first rank of American statesmen. His health having 
 failed, he sailed for Europe, but died on the voyage in 
 October, 1822. 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.) 
 
 Lowndes, (William Thomas,) an English bibliog- 
 rapher, lived in London. He published, about 1834, 
 " The Bibliographer's Manual," which is highly esteemed. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 L5w'ry, (Wilson,) a skilful English engraver, born 
 at Whitehaven in 1762, became a resident of London. 
 He contributed to the perfection of his art by several 
 important inventions, and acquired a high reputation, 
 especially as an engraver of architecture and mechanism, 
 in which he was unsurpassed. He engraved many figures 
 Sar Rees's "Cyclopaedia." Died in 1824. 
 
 Lowth, lowth, (RuiiERT,) an English bishop and emi- 
 nent writer, born at Winchester in 1710, was the son of 
 William Lowth, noticed below. He was educated at Ox- 
 ford, and became eminent as a biblical scholar. Having 
 been chosen professor of poetry at Oxford, (1 741,) he 
 delivered " Lectures on the Poetry of the Hebrews," (in 
 Latin,) which were published in 1753, and often reprinted. 
 This work was highly esteemed by the most eminent 
 critics. He was appointed Bishop of Saint David's in 
 1766, translated to the see of Oxford in the same year, 
 and to that of London in 1777. Among his most impor- 
 tant works is an excellent " Translation of the Prophet 
 Isaiah," (1778.) Died in 1787. 
 
 See P. Hall, " Life of Bishop Lowth," 1834 ; " Memoirs of the 
 Life of Robert Lowth," London, 1797: "Monthly Review" for 
 February and March, 1779, and April, 1780. 
 
 Lowth, ( Simon,) an English theologian, born in 
 Northamptonshire about 1630. He was vicar of Saint 
 Cosmus and Damian-on-the-Blean. He published "Let- 
 ters between Dr. G. Burnet and Simon Lowth," (1684,) 
 and other writings. Died in 1720. 
 
 Lowth, (William,) a scholar and commentator, the 
 father of Robert, noticed above, was born in London in 
 1661. He was chaplain to the Bishop of Winchester, 
 and became rector of Buriton about 1700. He wrote 
 several highly esteemed works, among which are " Di- 
 rections for the Profitable Reading of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures," (1708,) and a "Commentary on the Four Greater 
 Prophets," (4 vols., 1714-26.) Died in 1732. 
 
 Lowther, (William.) See Lonsdale, Earl of. 
 
 Loyd, loid, (LKWis,)an English banker, born in 1768. 
 He was a partner of the banking-house of Jones, Loyd 
 & Co., London, and was distinguished as a financier. He 
 died in 1858. His son, Samuel J. Loyd, received the 
 title of Lord Overstone. 
 
 Loyer, Le, leh lwa'ya', (Pierre,) a French lawyer, 
 born in Anjou in 1550, was learned in antiquities and 
 Oriental languages. He wrote a curious work on de- 
 monology, entitled "On Spectres, Angels, and Demons 
 distinctly manifesting themselves to Men," ("Quatres 
 Livres des Spectres, Anges et Demons se montrant sen- 
 siblementaux Hommes,") and other works. Died in 1634. 
 
 Loyola, loi-o'la, [Sp. pron. lo-yo'II,] (Ignatius,) 
 originally Don Inigo Lopez de Recalde, (da ra-kal'di,) 
 often called Saint Ignatius, (ig-ua'she-us ;) [Fr. Saint- 
 Ignace, saN'ten'yis'; It. Sant' Ignazio, sant en-yat'- 
 se-o,] a celebrated Spanish reformer, and the founder 
 of the order of Jesuits, was born of a noble family at 
 Loyola Castle, in Biscay, in 1491. He received from 
 nature an ardent, imaginative temperament, and in youth 
 was the very prototype of the hero of Cervantes, an 
 enthusiastic votary of chivalrous romance. After signal- 
 izing his gallantry in several campaigns, he received 
 about 1520, at the siege of Pampeluna, a wound which 
 made him a cripple for life. During the tedious con- 
 finement which followed, his attention was directed to 
 the mysteries of religion. Ascribing his recovery to a 
 miracle of grace, he dedicated himself to arduous re- 
 ligious enterprises and to the service of the Blessed Vir- 
 
 gin. He became a popular preacher, and was renowned 
 for his penances and vigils. In 1 523 he performed a 
 pilgrimage to Jerusalem, from which he returned to 
 Spain in 1524. He passed several ensuing years at Al- 
 cala and Salamanca in the study of grammar, philosophy, 
 etc., which he had neglected to learn in his youth. In 
 1528 he became a student in the University of Paris, 
 where he found several congenial spirits, among whom 
 were Francis Xavier and James Lainez. With these he 
 formed in 1534 a religious society devoted to the educa- 
 tion of youth, the renovation of the Catholic Church, 
 and the conversion of the infidels. 
 
 After they had digested the polity and peculiar maxims 
 of the new order, Paul III. gave it his formal sanction 
 in 1540, and Loyola was chosen superior or general 
 (with absolute power) of the order, which was styled the 
 Society of Jesus. Loyola thenceforth remained in Rome, 
 and witnessed the extraordinary success of his efforts. 
 "Under his rule," says Macaulay, "the order grew 
 rapidly to the full measure of its gigantic powers. With 
 what vehemence, with what policy, with what exact 
 discipline, with what dauntless courage, with what self- 
 denial, with what unscrupulous laxity and versatility in 
 the choice of means, the Jesuits fought the battles of 
 their Church, is written in every page of the annals of 
 Europe during several generations. In the Order of 
 Jesus was concentrated the quintessence of the Catholic 
 spirit; and the history of the Order of Jesus is the 
 history of the great Catholic reaction. This order pos- 
 sessed itself at once of all the strongholds which com- 
 mand the public mind, — of the pulpit, of the press, of 
 the confessional, of the academies. . . . Nor was it less 
 their office to plot against the thrones and lives of apos- 
 tate kings, to spread evil rumours, to raise tumults, to 
 inflame civil wars, to arm the hand of the assassin." 
 (See Review of Ranke's "History of the Popes.") It 
 does not appear, however, that Loyola was responsible 
 for the corruptions referred to in the above quotation. 
 His chief work is "Spiritual Exercises," (" Exercicios 
 espirituales," 1548,) in which he gives rules and counsels 
 for the guidance of believers. He died in 1566, and was 
 canonized as a saint by the pope in 1622. 
 
 See Ribadrneira, "Vida de S. Ignazio," 1570; G. P. Mapfei, 
 "De Vita et Moribus Ignatii Loyolas," 1584; Stein, "Vita Ignatii 
 Loyolae," 159S; P. Bouhours, " Vie de Saint-Ignace," 1679; Bom- 
 bina, "Vita S. Ignaiii," 1615'; M. YValpole, " Life of Saint Igna- 
 tius," 1617; Isaac Taylor, " Life of Ignatius Loyola:" Baktoli, 
 " Histoire de la Societe de Jesus ;" Gretser, "Apologia pro Vita 
 S. Ignatii," 1599-1604; Genhi.i.i, " Lebtm des Ignatius von Loyola," 
 184S; "Retrospective Review," vol. ix., 1824. 
 
 Loyseau. See Loiseau. 
 
 Loyseau, Iwa'zo', (Charles,) a French jurist, born, 
 at Nogent-le-Roi in 1566; died in 1627. 
 
 LoyseL, See Loisel. 
 
 Loyson, (Ciiari.es.) See Hyacinthe. 
 
 Loysou, Iwa'zi.N', (Charles,) a French poet, born 
 in Mayenne in 1791, was maltre des conferences in the 
 Normal School. He published, in 1819, a volume of 
 elegies and epistles, which abound with beautiful verses.. 
 "He approaches Lamartine," says Sainte-Beuve, "in 
 elevation and spiritualism* of sentiments." Died in 1820. 
 
 Lu'a, [from /no, to "purge" or "purify,") a Roman 
 goddess, who presided over things purified by lustra- 
 tions. By some she is identified with Ops or Rhea. 
 
 Lubbert, lub'bert, or Luthbert, [fit'bCKt, (Sim; and,) 
 a learned Dutch Calvinist, born in Friesland about 1555. 
 He was for many years professor of divinity at Franeker, 
 and was deputed to the Synod of Dort about 1618. He. 
 wrote controversial works against Socinus, Armin. is, 
 and Grotius. Died in 1625. 
 
 Lub'bock, (Sir John,) an English banker and savant, 
 a son of Sir John William, noticed below, was born in 
 London in 1834. In 1870 he was elected to Parliament 
 as a Liberal from Maidstone. Besides several scientific 
 memoirs, he is the author of two important works, " Pre- 
 historic Times," (1865,) and "The Origin of Civilization ; 
 or, The Primitive Condition of Man," (1870.) 
 
 Lubbock, (Sir John William,) Bart., an English 
 mathematician and astronomer, born in London in 1803, 
 was educated at Cambridge. About 1830 he was elected 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society, which he served as treas- 
 urer for many years. He contributed to the " Philosophic 
 Transactions" treatises on the "Tides," "On Meteor- 
 
 a. e, 1, 6, u, y, long; it, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Q, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mit; n&t; gd"5d; moon; 
 
LVBERSAC 
 
 1465 
 
 LUCAS 
 
 ology," " Researches in Physical Astronomy," etc. In 
 18J3 he produced a work "On the Theory of the Moon 
 and on the Perturbations of the Planets." Died in 1865. 
 
 Lubersac, de, deh lu'beR'sik', (N.,) a French writer 
 and amateur of art, born in Limousin in 1730; died 
 in 1804. 
 
 Lubert, de, deh lu'baiit', Mademoiselle, a French 
 romance-writer, bom in Paris about 1710. She com- 
 posed successful romances and fairy-tales, one of which 
 is entitled " Princess Rose-Colour and Prince Celadon." 
 Voltaire complimented her with the title of "Muse et 
 Grace." Died about 1780. 
 
 Lubieuiecius. See Lubienif.cki. 
 
 Lubieniecki, loo-be-en-e-ets'kee, written also Lu- 
 bienetski or Lubienietski, (Christopher,) a painter, 
 of Polish extraction, born at Stettin in 1659. lie settled 
 in Amsterdam, where he painted portraits and history. 
 Died in 1729. 
 
 Lubieniecki or Lubienietski, [Lat. Lubienif'- 
 cit's,] (Stanislas,) a Polish Socinian and astronomer, 
 was born at Cracow in 1623. He became minister of a 
 church in Lublin, and wrote a " History of the Polish 
 Reformation," (1685.) He was exiled from Lublin for 
 his opinions in theology, and died at Hamburg in 1675. 
 His reputation rests chiefly on his "Theatrum Cometi- 
 cuni," (1667,) which gives an ample account of four 
 hundred and fifteen comets which appeared from the 
 Deluge to his own time. 
 
 See Bavlk, "Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Lubieniecki or Lubienetski,( Til kodore,) a painter 
 and engraver, born at Cracow in 1653, was a brother ot 
 Christopher, noticed above. He became a resident of 
 Berlin, where he painted landscapes and historical pic- 
 tures. A Socinian treatise which he wrote having been 
 burnt by the hangman, he resigned his place, and re- 
 turned to Poland, in 1706. Died in 1720. 
 
 Lubin, Hi'bJ.s', (AUGUSTIN,) a French monk, born in 
 Paris in 1624. He received the title of geographer to 
 the king, and published, besides other learned works 
 on ancient and sacred geography, " Plates of Sacred 
 Geography," ("Tabula; Sacrae Geographies," 1670.) 
 Died in 1695. 
 
 Lubin, loo'bin, (Eilhard,) a German philologist, 
 born in Oldenburg in 1565. He became in 1595 pro- 
 fessor of belles lettres at Rostock, where he died in 1621, 
 leaving, besides other works, a " Key to the Greek Lan- 
 guage," ("Clavis Lingnae Graecae," 1622,) and notes on 
 Horace, Persius, and Juvenal. 
 
 Lubin, (Jacques,) a French engraver, born in Paris 
 in 1637 ; died about 1695. 
 
 Lubis, lu'bess', (E. P.,) a French political writer, 
 born in 1806, published a " History of the Restoration," 
 (in French, 6 vols., 1836.) Died in Paris in 1859. 
 
 Lublink, lub'link, (Jan,) a Dutch writer, born at 
 Amsterdam in 1735. He translated into Dutch Thom- 
 son's " Seasons" and Young's " Night Thoughts," and 
 wrote other works. Died a'linut 1815. 
 
 Lubomirski, loo-bo-meR'skee, (Stanislas Hera- 
 CI.ius,) a noble Polish writer, born about 1640. He 
 became grand marshal of Poland, and defended the 
 national independence with his pen and sword. One 
 Of his works is a political treatise called " Consultations ; 
 or, On the Vanity of Counsels," ("Consultationes, sive 
 de Vanitate Consiliorum," 1700.) Died in 1702. 
 
 Luc, the French for Luke, which see. 
 
 Luc, SaINT. See Luke, Saint. 
 
 Luc, de. See Dei.uc. 
 
 Luc de Bruges. See Lucas Brugensis. 
 
 Luca. See Luke. 
 
 Luca, loo'ka, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian jurist 
 and prelate, burn at Venosa in 1614. He published 
 "Theatre of Truth and Justice," (" Theatrum Veritatis 
 et lustitiae," 7 vols., 1697,) which treats on canon and 
 civil law and was highly esteemed. Died in 1683. 
 
 Luca or Lucae," loo'tsa. (Samuel Christian,) a 
 German anatomist, born at Frankfort in 1787; died in 
 1821. 
 
 Luca, von, fon loo'ka 1 , (Ignaz,) a German historian 
 and political writer, born in Vienna in 1746; died in 1799. 
 
 Luca Santo, lor/Id sjn'to, or Saint Luke, a Flor- 
 entine painter of the eleventh or twelfth century. He it 
 
 supposed to have painted the Madonnas which were 
 ascribed to Saint Luke the Evangelist. 
 
 Lucaiu. See Lucan. 
 
 Lu'can, (George Charles Bingham,) Earl of, a 
 British general, a son of the Earl of Lucan, was born in 
 London in 1800. He succeeded to the earldom about 
 1840, and voted with the Conservative party in the House 
 of Lords. In 1854 he obtained command of the cavalry 
 in the Crimea, with the rank of lieutenant-general. He 
 was censured for the disastrous result of the cavalry 
 charge at Balaklava. 
 
 Lu'can, [Lat. Luca'nus; Fr. Lucain, lii'kaN' ; It. 
 Lucano, loo-ka'no,] (Marcus Ann^us,) a Roman epic 
 poet, born at Corduba, (Cordova,) Spain, in 38 A.D., was 
 a nephew of the philosopher Seneca. He was educated 
 at Rome. His early poems procured him the favour of 
 Nero, who appointed him quaestor and augur and con- 
 descended to appear as his rival in a literary contest, 
 l.ucan gained the prize, but at the same time lost the 
 favour of the tyrant, whom he had formerly addressed 
 with gross adulation. Nero forbade him to read any more 
 poems in public. Lucan, with Piso and others, conspired 
 against the life of Nero; the plot was detected, and the 
 poet was put to death in 65 a.d. His fame rests on a 
 poem entitled " Pharsalia," which treats of the civil war 
 between Caesar and Pompcy, and displays great beauties 
 with great defects. Among the latter is an inflated, 
 declamatory style. Corneille and Voltaire were warm 
 admirers ot Lucan. " His genius," says Villemain, re- 
 ferring to his early death, " had only time to produce 
 grandeur, without naturalness or truth." Among his 
 merits are exalted imagination, intense energy, and 
 impressive diction. 
 
 See Karl H. Whise, " Vita Lucani," 1835; Jacob Palmer, 
 "Apologia pro Lucano," 1704; Voltaire, "Essai stir la Po^sie 
 fotQUS, J. G. Meuskl, " Dissertationes II. de Lucano," 1767; 
 Smith, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Lucano. See Lucan. 
 
 Lucanus. See Lucan. 
 
 Lucar, (Cyril) See Cyril-Lucar. 
 
 Lu'cas, (Charles,) an Irish physician, patriot, and 
 politician, born in 1713. He was a popular member of 
 the Irish Parliament, and an opponent of the court 
 Died in 1771. 
 
 Lu'cas, (Frederick,) an English lawyer and editor, 
 was born in Westminster in 1812. About 1840 he was 
 converted to the Roman Catholic faith, and soon after 
 became editor of "The Tablet," a newspaper published 
 in Ixmdon. Having removed to Dublin, he was elected 
 to Parliament in 1852, and distinguished himself by his 
 zeal to promote the political power or privileges of the 
 Irish Catholics. Died in 1855. 
 
 Lucas, lu'ka', (Hippolyte Julien Joseph,) a French 
 poet and writer of fiction, born at Rennes in 1807. He 
 produced in 1834 two volumes of verse and prose, 
 entitled "The Heart and the World." Among his 
 numerous works is a " Philosophic and Literary His- 
 tory of the French Theatre," (1843.) 
 
 Lucas, (Jean,) a French poet and Jesuit, born in 
 Paris about 1650. He wrote a Latin poem entitled 
 "Actio Oratoris," (1675,) which treats on gesture and 
 elocution. 
 
 Lucas, (Jean Andr£ Henri,) a French mineralo- 
 gist, born in Paris in 1780; died in 1825. 
 
 Lucas, (Jean Jacques Etif.nne,) a French naval 
 officer, born at Marennes in 1764. In 1803 he obtained 
 command of the kedoutable. At the battle of Trafalgar 
 (1805) his ship grappled with Nelson's flag-ship, the Vic- 
 tory, and one of his crew gave Nelson a mortal wound. 
 Lucas was taken prisoner in this action. Died in 1819. 
 
 Lucaa, (Jean Marie Charles,) a French economist, 
 l>orn at Saint-Brieuc in 1803. He wrote "On the Re- 
 form of Prisons," (3 vols., 1836-38,) and other works. 
 He was admitted into the Institute in 1836. 
 
 Lucas, (Margaret.) See Cavendish, (Margaret.) 
 
 Lucas, (Paul,) a French traveller, born at Rouen in 
 1664, was in early life a dealer in jewels. He visited 
 Upper Egypt, Syria, Persia, etc., and published " Voyage 
 to the Levant," (1704.) Having received a commission 
 from Louis XIV. to collect medals and other monu- 
 ments of antiquity, he again explored the Levant, (1705- 
 
 « as*; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, Y.,guttural; H,nasal; R, trilled; Sas«; *h as in this. (Jty=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LUCAS 
 
 1466 
 
 LU CUIUS 
 
 08,) and published a narrative of his journey. In 1719 
 he produced his best work, entitled a "Journey in Turkey, 
 Syria, Palestine, and Egypt," (performed in 1715—16.) 
 Many of his stories are exaggerated and absurd. Died 
 in 1737. 
 
 See Morbri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate." 
 
 Lu'cas, (Richard,) a learned British divine, born 
 in Radnorshire in 1648. lie settled in London about 
 1684, and became prebendary of Westminster in 1696. 
 He published an " Enquiry after Happiness," and " Prac- 
 tical Christianity," which are highly commended, and 
 other works. Died in 1 7 1 5. 
 
 Lucas, Saint. See Luke, Saint. 
 
 Lucas, (Samuel,) an English journalist and miscel- 
 laneous writer, born at Bristol in 1818. He was editor 
 of the " Press" and of " Once a Week." He contributed 
 to the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews. Died in 1865. 
 
 Lu'cas Bru-gen'sis, [or Luc de Bruges, luk deh 
 briizh,] (Francois,) a Flemish theologian and excellent 
 linguist, born at Bruges in 1549. He published, besides 
 other works, " Concordances of the Vulgate Edition of 
 the Sacred Books," ("Sacrorum Bibliorum Vulgatse 
 Editioiiis Concordantise," 1617; and 5 vols., 1712.) Died 
 in 1619. 
 
 Lucas de Cranach. See Cranach. 
 
 Lucas van Ley den. See Ley den. 
 
 Lucatelli. See Locatelli. 
 
 Lucceius, luk-see'us, (Lucius,) a Roman orator and 
 friend of Cicero, flourished about 60 B.C. 
 
 Lucchesini, look-ka-see'nee, (Cesare,) an Italian 
 philologist, born at Lucca in 1756, was a brother of 
 the marquis, noticed below. He acquired a European 
 reputation by his numerous works on philology, among 
 which is "The Sources of Ancient and Modern Lan- 
 guages." Died in 1832. 
 
 See Tipaluo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Lucchesini, (Giovanni Lorenzo,) an Italian Jesuit, 
 born at Lucca in 1638. He wrote, besides other works, 
 a refutation of Machiavel'sworkon Politics, (1697.) Died 
 about 1 7 10. 
 
 Lucchesini,(GiovANNiViNCENZO,)an Italian scholar, 
 born at Lucca in 1660. He lived in Rome, and obtained 
 from Clement XII. the high office of secretary of briefs. 
 He published an edition of Demosthenes' Orations, with 
 notes and a good Latin translation, and a " History of 
 Europe from 1678 to about 1735." Died in 1744, 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita? Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Lucchesini, da, da look-ka-see'nee, (Girolamo, ) 
 Marquis, an able diplomatist, born at Lucca in 1752. 
 He removed to Berlin in the latter part of the reign of 
 Frederick the Great, who appointed him his librarian 
 and reader. He was sent as minister of Prussia to Vi- 
 enna in 1793, and to Paris m 1802. After the battle of 
 Jena (1806) he negotiated a truce with the victor ; but it 
 was not ratified by the Prussian court. Soon after this 
 event he returned to Lucca. He wrote a work called 
 " On the Causes and Effects of the Confederation of 
 the Rhine," (1819.) Died in 1825. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian) illustri." 
 
 Luce, the French of Lucius, (Pope,) which see. 
 
 Luce de Lancival, His deh 16.N'se'vSl', ( Jean 
 Chari.es Tulien,) a French litterateur, born in Picardy 
 in 1764. He was chosen professor of belles-lettres in 
 the Prytanee, a college of Paris, about 1797. Among 
 his best productions are a poem called "Achilles at 
 Scyros," (1805,) and " Hector," a tragedy, (1809,) which 
 Villemain pronounces "truly Homeric." Died in 1810. 
 
 See Vu-I-HMAIN, notice in the "Magasin Encyclop^diqne ;" H. 
 Gkki.i.kt, " Luce de Lancival: Notice biograpliique," 1857. 
 
 Lucena, de, da loo-sa'na, (J0S0,) a Portuguese writer, 
 born at Trancoso about 1548. He was professor of phi- 
 losophy at Ev'ora, and author of an excellent "Life of 
 Francis Xavier," (1600,) often reprinted. Died in 1600. 
 
 Lucena, de, (Vasco Fernandez,) Count, a Portu- 
 guese historian and statesman, born about 1410. He 
 translated Quintus Curtius into French for Charles the 
 Bold of Burgundy. He received the title of chancellor 
 of Portugal. Died about 1500. 
 
 Lu-ce'rI-us, [" light-bringing,"] a surname of Jupi- 
 ter, which see. 
 
 Luchet, lii'shV, (Auguste,) a French litterateur and 
 democrat, born in Paris in 1806. He was sentenced in 
 1842 to an imprisonment of two years for one of his 
 works. 
 
 Luchet, de, deh lu'shi', (Jean Pierre Louis,) Mar- 
 quis, a prolific French author, born at Saintes about 
 1740, was styled Marquis de la Roche du Maine. He 
 published many superficial works. His "Literary His- 
 tory of Voltaire" (1782) furnishes some curious details. 
 Died in 1792. 
 
 Luchetto da Genova. See Cambiaso, (Luca.) 
 
 Lucian, loo'shjMin, [Gr. Aoviaavoc ; Lat. Lucia'nus; 
 Fr. Lucien, lu'se-aN'; It. Luciano, loo-cha'no,] one 
 of the most witty and original Greek writers, was born 
 at Samosata, (Someisat,) on the Euphrates, about 120 
 A.D. He practised law a short time at Antioch, and 
 exchanged that profession for the more lucrative pursuit 
 of sophist and teacher of rhetoric, which he followed 
 with success in Gaul until he was about forty years old. 
 Again changing his profession, he returned to the East, 
 and lived many years at Athens, where he was intimate 
 with Demonax and employed his time in literary com- 
 position. His principal works are dialogues, written 
 in pure and elegant Greek, on history, mythology, phi- 
 losophy, and various other subjects. His object appears 
 to have been to cure men of their prejudices and super- 
 stitions and their foolish admiration of philosophic char- 
 latans. His genius is eminently satirical, and his works 
 are remarkably humorous ; but some of them are cen- 
 sured as offerjsive to morality and religion. Among the 
 titles of his dialogues are "Timon the Misanthrope," 
 "Charon," "Menippus," and "The Assembly of Gods." 
 English versions of his dialogues have been published by 
 T. Franklin (1780) and William Tooke, (1820.) Wieland 
 produced a good German translation. Good editions of 
 the Greek text have been published by Dindorf (Paris, 
 1840) and Bekker, (1S53.) 
 
 See Karl Georg Jacob, " Characteristik Lncian's von Samo- 
 sata," 1832; Tiemann, "Versuch u'ber Lucian's von Samosata Phi- 
 losophic," 1804; Eduard Emil Struve, "Specimina II. dentate 
 et Vita Luciani," 1829-30; Passuw, "Lucian und die Geschichte," 
 1854; "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale;" "Eraser's Magazine" for 
 January, February, April, May, and June, 1839; "London Quarterly 
 Review" for January, 1828. 
 
 Lucian, [Fr. Lucien, Ki'se'aN',] Saint, a Christian 
 martyr, born at Samosata in the third century, was emi- 
 nent for piety and learning. He was ordained a priest 
 or presbyter at Antioch. He prepared a revised edition 
 of the Scriptures, which, Jerome says, was more correct 
 than those of Hesychius and Pamphilus. Diocletian 
 having issued an edict against the Christians, Lucian 
 suffered martyrdom in 312 A.D. 
 
 See Saint Jerome, "De Viris illustribus;" Eusebius, " Historia 
 Ecclesiastica." 
 
 Luciano. See Piombo, (Sebastiano del.) 
 
 Lucianus. See Lucian. 
 
 Lucien, the French of Lucian, which see. 
 
 Lu'ci-fer, Bishop of Calaris, (now Cagliari,) in Sar- 
 dinia, was noted for his intolerance and zeal against 
 Arianism. About 355 A.D. he was banished by Constan- 
 tius, who favoured the Arians. He wrote a " Defence 
 of Athanasius," and other works. He refused to recog- 
 nize as orthodox those bishops who signed the formula 
 of Rimini, (359,) or to have fellowship with- any who 
 recognized them, and finally became the author of a 
 schism. He had many followers, who formed a distinct 
 sect, called Luciferians. Died about 370 A.D. 
 
 Lu-cil'i'-us, (Caius,) a Roman satiric poet, born at 
 Suessa Aurunca, (now Sessa,) in Italy, about 148 B.C., was 
 a great-uncle of Pompey the Great. In early youth he 
 served under Scipio Africanus at the siege of Nuinan- 
 tia, and became an intimate friend of that general. He 
 composed thirty satires and various other poems; but 
 only fragments of his works have come down to us. 
 Horace asserts that he was the first writer of satire 
 among the Romans, (Sat., lib. 2, i. 62.) His satires 
 were much admired by many ancient critics, including 
 Cicero, Quintilian, and Pliny. " He was," says Professor 
 Sellar, "vehement in invective, because he was thor- 
 oughly earnest in his purpose to expose vice and base- 
 ness among the high and low with impartial severity. 
 Although probably few writers of verse have had less 
 
 2, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; &, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
LU CUIUS 
 
 1467 
 
 LUCULLUS 
 
 poetical faculty, yet, by his originality and force of char- 
 acter, he became the favourite of his own time and coun- 
 try; and he alone among Roman writers has introduced 
 a new and permanent form of poetry into the world." 
 Died about 100 B.C. 
 
 See Shi.i.ar, " Roman Poets of the Republic," chap. vi. : Petrr- 
 mann, " I lissertatio da C Luciai Vita," 1842 ; Smith, "Dictionary 
 of Greek wd Roman Biography." 
 
 Lucil'ius Ju'nior, a Roman poet and naturalist, 
 Itoed in the first century, and was a friend of Seneca. 
 He is supposed to be the author of a poem of six hun- 
 dred and forty hexameter verses, entitled " ./Etna," which 
 presents some fine passages. 
 
 Luci/na, [Fr. LrciNF, Ki'scn',] the name of the god- 
 dess that brings to light and presides over the birth of 
 children, was used as a surname of Juno and of Diana, 
 both of whom were supposed to assist women in partu- 
 rition, and were sometimes called I.UCIN^E. The Greek 
 goddess Iuthyi'a or Eii.eithyia ['EAeidvia] appears to 
 lie essentially the same as Diana (Artemis) in her char- 
 acter of I.ucina. 
 
 See Kottigkr, " Ilithyia," Weimar, 1799. 
 
 Lucine. See Lucina. 
 
 Lucius. See l.vz. 
 
 Lucius, loo'she-us, [Fr. Lucf, Hiss,] I., Bishop of 
 Rome, succeeded Cornelius in October, 252 A.D., and 
 died in March, 253. Stephen I. was his successor. 
 
 Lucius II., .1 native of Bologna, was elected pope in 
 M an n, 1 144, as successor to Celestine II. He died in 
 1 145, after a pontificate of eleven months, and Eugenius 
 III. was chosen in his place. 
 
 Lucius III (Cardinal Ubaldoof Lucc\) was elected 
 pope in 1 181, after the death of Alexander III. His 
 election was the first that was decided by the cardinals, 
 the clergy and people being excluded from the right to 
 vote. A revolt of the people of Rome obliged him to 
 leave the city, and he retired to Verona. He died in 
 1 185, and was succeeded by Urban III. 
 
 Lucius, (C.isak,) a Roman prince, born 17 B.C., was 
 a son of M. Agiippa and Julia, who was a daughter of 
 the emperor Augustus. He and his brother Caius were 
 heirs-presumptive of the empire, but they died before 
 Augustus. Lucius died in 2 A.n. The Maison Carree 
 at Nimes was a temple dedicated to Caius and Lucius. 
 
 Lucius, ln'she-us, fit. Lucio, loo'cho,] (Giovanni,) 
 a historian, born at Trail, in Dalmatia. He published 
 in 1666 a "History of Dalmatia and Croatia." Died in 
 1684. 
 
 Lucius Verus. See Vf.rus. 
 
 Liicke or Luecke, Kik'keh, (Gottfried Christian 
 Friedrich,) an eminent German theologian, was born 
 at Egeln, near Magdeburg, in 1791. He studied at 
 Halle in 1810, and subsequently at Gottingen, where 
 he formed a friendship with Bunsen and I.achmann. 
 He became professor of theology at Bonn in 1818, and 
 soon after published, conjointly with Schleiermacher and 
 De Wette, the "Theological Journal." Hfs "Commen- 
 tary on the Writings of Saint John the Evangelist" (4 
 vols., 1820-32) is esteemed one of the best works of its 
 kind. In 1827 he succeeded Staudlin in the chair of 
 theology at Gottingen. Died at Gottingen in 1 85 5. 
 
 Luckner, look'ner, (NikoI.aus,) a marshal of France, 
 borit at Kampcn, in Bavaria, in 1722. At an early age 
 he entered the service of Prussia, for which he fought 
 with distinction in the Seven Years' war, (1756-63.) 
 About 1763 he accepted the rank of lieutenant-general 
 in the French army, which for many subsequent years 
 was not called into active service. Having submitted 
 to the new regime, he was promoted to the rank of mar- 
 shal in December, 1791. In the spring of 1792 he ob 
 tamed command of one of the armies which defended the 
 frontier against the Austrians, and a few weeks later 
 succeeded Rochambeau as general-in-chief. The domi- 
 nant party, distrusting both his fidelity and capacity, de- 
 prived him of the command in 1792. lie was guillotined 
 in January, 1794. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution. " 
 
 Lucotte, lu'kot', (Er>ME AlME,) Count, a French 
 general, born in Hurgundy in 1770. The Bourbons con- 
 fided to him the defence of Paris in March, 1815. Died 
 in 1815. 
 
 Lucrece. See Lucrf.tia and Lucretius. 
 
 Lucretia, loo-kree'she-a, (It. Lucrezia, loo-kReV- 
 se-a ; Fr. Lucrece, lu'ki<is',[ a Roman lady, distin- 
 guished for her beauty, virtue, and tragical destiny, was 
 the wife of Collatinus, who was related to Tarqutn the 
 Proud, King of Rome. The outrage offered to her honour 
 by Sextus Tarquin, and the voluntary sacrifice of her 
 life, (507 B.C.,) have furnished a favourite theme for poets 
 and painters, and, according to a doubtful legend, caused 
 the dethronement of Tarquin, and the conversion of the 
 Roman state into a republic, under the direction of 
 Junius Brutus. . 
 
 Lucretius, lu-kree'she^s, [Fr. Lucrece, Ki'kRjss'; 
 It. Lucrezio, loo-kReYse-o; Sp. Lucrf.chi, loo-kRa'- 
 theo,] or, to give his full name, Ti'tus Lucre'tius 
 Ca'rus, one of the greatest Latin poets, was born in 
 Italy in 95 B.C., and was contemporary with Cicero. 
 The records of antiquity throw scarcely any light on his 
 life, which was probably passed in studious retirement. 
 It is not known whether he ever visited Greece ; but 
 it is evident from his writings that he had profoundly 
 studied the language, philosophy, and manners of that 
 people. A doubtful tradition asserts that he was subject 
 to insanity caused by a love-potion ; and the statement 
 that he committed suicide in his forty-fourth year is gen- 
 erally credited. He left only one work, — a philosophic 
 and didactic poem, in six books, entitled "De Return 
 Natur3," (" On the Nature of Things,") in which lie ex- 
 pounds and illustrates the physical and ethical doctrines 
 of Epicurus, of whom he was a disciple. From such 
 abstruse speculations and intractable subjects he has 
 produced one of the most admirable poems in the lan- 
 guage. Although his system is erroneous and incoherent, 
 his reasoning is remarkably clear and close. Probably 
 no other work so amply demonstrates the power of the 
 Latin language to utter the sublimest conceptions with 
 a sustained majesty and harmony. "A great atheistic 
 poet," says Villemain, "is surely a surprising phenom- 
 enon. His genius finds sublime accents to attack all 
 the inspirations of genius. He renders even nothing- 
 ness poetic; he insults glory; he enjoys death. Out of 
 the abyss of skepticism he sometimes soars to a height 
 of enthusiasm which is rivalled only by the sublimity of 
 Homer." Referring to this work, Macaulay remarks, 
 "The finest poem in the Latin language — indeed, the 
 finest didactic poem in any language — was written in 
 defence of the silliest and meanest of all systems of 
 natural and moral philosophy." Ovid appears to be 
 the only contemporary writer who fully appreciated the 
 genius of Lucretius. 
 
 See the article on Lucretius, bv Vili.emain, in the " Paographia 
 Universelle ;" Sellar, " Roman Poets of the Republic ;" Carl F. 
 Sciimid, "Dissertatio de T. Lucretio Cam," 1768; J. Sieiikiis, 
 "QuaistionesLucrettanai," 1844 ; J. I.egris, Rome, ses Novateurs, 
 ■M Onst-rvateurs, etc. E"tudes hisforiques surl.ucrece, Catulle," etc., 
 1846: Farricics, "fiibliotheca Latina :" Smith, "Dictionary of 
 Greek and Roman Biography ;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807. 
 
 Lucrezia. See Lucrfvita. 
 
 Lucrezio. See Lucretius. 
 
 Lu-cul'lus, (Lucius Licinius,) a celebrated Roman 
 general, born of a patrician family about no B.C. In 
 the year 87 he went to Asia as quajstor under Sulla, 
 who gave him many proofs of his confidence. After an 
 absence of several years, during which the civil war be- 
 tween Marius and Sulla raged at Rome, he returned, and 
 was elected consul in 74 B.C. In this year he obtained 
 the chief command in the war against Mithridates, whom 
 he defeated at Cyzicus in 73, and, after other victories, 
 drove him out of the kingdom of Pontus. He afterwards 
 defeated Tigranes of Armenia, whose capital he took 
 about 68 11. C The mutiny of his troops prevented his 
 final triumph over Mithridates, and he was superseded 
 by Pompey in the year 66. Cicero expressed the opinion 
 that so great a war was never conducted with more 
 prudence and courage. (" Pro Murama.") Lucullus then 
 retired from public affairs, and expended part of the im- 
 mense fortune he had acquired in the East in building 
 magnificent villas, giving sumptuous entertainments, and 
 collecting expensive paintings and statues. He was a 
 liberal patron of learning and the arts. Sulla had dedi- 
 cated to him his Commentaries. Plutarch, after com- 
 paring him with Cimon, says it is hard to say to which 
 
 € as h; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (JTJT" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LUCUMO 
 
 1468 
 
 LUINI 
 
 side the balance inclines. He was living in 59, but was 
 not living in 56 B.C. 
 
 See " Lucullus," in Plutarch's " Lives ;" Cicero, " Pro Lege 
 Manilia;" Johan Upmahck, "Dissertatio historic* de Lucullo, 
 1701 ■ Dion Cassius, " History of Rome," books xxxv. and xxxvn, ; 
 Dkumann, "Geschiclue Roras," vol. iv. ; " Nouvelle Blugrauhie 
 GiSiKSrale." 
 
 Lucumo. See Tarquinius Priscus. 
 Ludeke, loo'deh-keh, or Ludecke, loo'dek-keh, 
 (Chkistofh Wilhelm, ) a German writer, born at 
 Schonberg in 1737, was minister of a German church 
 in Stockholm. He published a "Historical Account 
 of Turkey." Died in 1805. ' ' ' 
 
 Luden, loo'den, (Heinrich,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man historical and political writer, born in the duchy 
 of Bremen in 1780. He became in 1810 professor of 
 philosophy at Jena, where he also lectured on history. 
 His most important work is a " History of the German 
 Nation," ("Die Geschichte des Deutschen Volkes," 12 
 vols., 1825-37,) brought down to 1237. He also wrote 
 general histories of the nations of antiquity and of the 
 middle ages, a "Life of Hugo Grotius," (1806,) several 
 biographies, etc. Died at Jena in 1847. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Riickblicke in mein Leben," 1847. 
 Luden, (Heinrich,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 at Jena in 1810. He became a professor of law, and a 
 member of the court of cassation at Jena. He published 
 several legal works. 
 
 Ltiders, lii'ders, (Alexander Nikolaievitch,) a 
 Russian general, of German origin, born in 1790. He 
 defeated the Hungarians under Bern in July, 1849, and 
 succeeded Gortchakof in the command of the army of 
 the Danube in 1855. He was commander-in-chief in 
 the Crimea for a few weeks between the fall of Sebas- 
 topol and the end of the war. 
 Ludewig. See Ludovici, (Karl Gunthf.r.) 
 Ludewig, von, fon loo'deh-wic/, (Johann Peter,) 
 a learned German jurist and historian, born in Suabia 
 about 1670. He became professor of philosophy at 
 Halle in 1695, and of history in 1703. The King of 
 Prussia made him a privy councillor in 1709. Among 
 his works are "Germani'a Princeps," (1702,) treating 
 on the rights, privileges, etc. of the house of Austria 
 and of the Electors, "Writers of German History," 
 ("Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum," 1718,) and a "Life 
 of Justinian," (1730.) Died in 1743. 
 
 See Friedrich Wiedeburg, "De Vita et Scriptis J. P. de Lude- 
 wig." Halle, 1757; Hirsching, " Historischliterarisches Hand- 
 buch." 
 
 Lu'dl-us, a Roman painter, who lived in the reign 
 of Augustus, and of whom we know little. He gained 
 renown by decorating walls with landscapes of large 
 dimensions. 
 
 Lud'low, (EdAund, ) an able English republican 
 general, born in Wiltshire about 1620. He fought against 
 the king at Edgehill in 1642, and led a regiment at the 
 battle of Newbury. Elected to Parliament in 1645, he 
 voted for the conversion of the kingdom into a republic, 
 and was one of the judges who condemned Charles I. 
 in 1649. In this year he was chosen a member of the 
 council of state, in which he opposed the ambitious 
 designs of Cromwell. In 1650 he went to Ireland as 
 lieutenant-general. On the death of Ireton, November, 
 1651, the command of the army devolved on Ludlow. 
 As he refused to support the government of the Pro- 
 tector, (1653,) he was deprived of command. After the 
 death of Oliver (1658) he resumed his seat in Parliament, 
 and obtained command of the army in Ireland in 1659. 
 At the restoration (1660) he escaped through France to 
 Vevay, where he resided mostly until his death, in 1693. 
 He left Memoirs of his life, (2 vols., 1698.) Macaulay 
 refers to him as "almost the only survivor, [in 1689,! 
 certainly the most illustrious survivor, of a mighty race 
 of men, the judges of a king, the founders of a repub- 
 lic. . . . There was but a single blemish on his fame," — 
 i.e. the execution of Charles I. 
 
 See Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion :" Hume. " History 
 of England:" Guizot, " Hi-itoiie de la Revolution de 1'Angleterre: ' 
 Wm. Shwkl, " Memoirs of E. Ludlow," 3 vols,, 1698-09; " Monk's 
 Contemporaries," by Guizot, London, 1864. 
 
 Ludolf, loo'dolf, (Hieronymus,) a German medical 
 writer, born at Erfurt in 1679 ; died in 1728. 
 
 Ludolph, loo'dolf, (Heinrich Wii.iielm,) a nephew 
 of the following, was born at Erfurt in 1655. He became 
 secretary to Prince George of Denmark, who married 
 Queen Anne of England. He published a Russian 
 Grammar, (Oxford, 1696,) and several small religious 
 treatises. Died in 1711. 
 
 Ludolph ok Saxony, a monk, who died at Mentz 
 about 1370. He composed, in Latin, a " Life of Christ," 
 which was popular and often reprinted. 
 
 Ludolphus, loo-dol'fus, written also Ludolph and 
 Ludolf, originally Leutholf, loit'holf, (Job,) an emi- 
 nent German Orientalist, born at Erfurt in 1624. He 
 is said to have acquired twenty-five languages, among 
 which was the Abyssinian. The Duke of Saxe-Gotha 
 employed him to educate his sons, and appointed him 
 an antic councillor. Ludolf published, in Latin, an 
 esteemed " History of Abyssinia," (1681,) an Ethiopian 
 Grammar, and other works. Died in 1704. 
 
 See C. Juncker, "Commentarins de Vita J. Lttdolfi," 1710: 
 Vockerodt, " Memoria J. Ludolfi renovata," 17-23: Nicekon, 
 " Mtfmoirea :" " Nouvelle Biographie GthieVale." 
 
 Ludovici, loo-do-veet'see, or Ludwig, lood'wic-, 
 (GOTTFRIED,) a German philologist, born at Baruth, in 
 Prussia, in 1670. He published, besides other works, 
 a " Universal History," (2 vols., 1716.) Died in 1724. 
 
 Ludovici, (Kari.'Gunthek,) a learned German pro- 
 fessor, born at Leipsic in 1707. He wrote a " Dictionary 
 of Commerce," (5 voK, 1752-56,) and a "Plan of a 
 History of the Philosophy of Leibnitz," (1737.) Died in 
 1778. He spelled his name Ludewig in his latter years. 
 
 Ludovisio. See Gregory XV. 
 
 Ludwig. See Lewis, Louis, and Ludovici. 
 
 Ludwig, (Kings of Germany.) See Lewis. 
 
 Ludwig, lood'wic, (Christian Gottlieb,) a German 
 botanist, born at Brieg, Silesia, in 1709. About 1732 he 
 made a botanical excursion to Africa. He was chosen 
 professor of medicine at Leipsicin 1747- He contributed 
 to reform botanical science by his writings, among which 
 are works "On the Sexes of Plants," "Definitions of 
 Plants," (1737,) and " Botanical Aphorisms," (1738.) \> 
 J. Rousseau expressed the opinion that Ludwig was the 
 only botanist besides Linnaeus that viewed botany like a 
 philosopher. Died in 1773. 
 
 See Hihsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch;" " Nou 
 velle Biographie G£ne>ale." 
 
 Ludwig, (Daniel,) a German writer on materia 
 medica, born at Weimar in 1625 ; died in 1680. 
 
 Ludwig, (Johann,) a self-taught German peasant, 
 bom near Dresden in 171 5, became a proficient in as- 
 tronomy. 
 
 See C. L. Brightwell, "Annals of Industry and Genius." 
 
 Luecke. See Lucke. 
 
 Luetzelburger. See LOtzelburger. 
 
 Luetzow. See Lthzow. 
 
 Lufft, 166ft, (Hans,) a German printer and bookseller, 
 born in 1495, resided at Wittenberg, where he published 
 the first editions of Luther's translation of the Bible. 
 This work appeared complete in 1534. Within fifty 
 years one hundred thcusand copies were issued from 
 Lufft's office; and he has been sutnamed the Bible 
 Printer. Died in 1584. 
 
 Luganski. See Dahl, (Vladimir Ivanovitch.) 
 
 Lugo, de, da loo'go, (Juan,) a Spanish Jesuit, born 
 at Madrid in 1583. lie taught theology at Rome twenty 
 years, was made a cardinal in 1643, and wrote several 
 theological works, which were often reprinted. Died in 
 1660. His brother Francisco (1 580-1652) was also a 
 Jesuit, and author of several works on theology. 
 
 Luigi, di, de loo-ee'jee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, 
 surnamed l'Ingegno, (len-jeVyo,) and sometimes called 
 Andrea di Assisi, was born at Assisi about 1470. He 
 assisted Perugino in adorning the Cambio at Perugia, 
 and worked mostly at his native place. He painted a 
 coat of arms for the town-hall of Assisi. It appears 
 that nothing is known certainly of his other works. 
 
 See Vasart, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Luini, loo-ee'nee, (Aurelio,) an Italian painter, a 
 son of Bernardino, noticed below, was born about 1530. 
 He worked at Milan, and painted scriptural subjects^ 
 among which is "The Adoration of the Magi." He 
 
 ft, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, u, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; rait; not; good; moonj 
 
LUIN1 
 
 1469 
 
 LUMSDEN 
 
 died, according to Lanzi, in 1593; but some date his 
 death many years earlier. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Iiiiiiii, Luvini, loo-vee'nee, or Lovini, lo-vee'nee, 
 (Bernardino,) an eminent Italian painter, was born at 
 Luino, on Lake Maggiore. Me is called the most ex- 
 cellent imitator and pupil of Leonardo da Vinci. Lo- 
 mazzo says he was already a distinguished painter in 
 1500. Luini worked both in fresco and oil, and painted 
 at Milan several works which are still in good preserva- 
 tion. " Few painters," says Lanzi, " deserve to be com- 
 pared to him." Among his master-pieces in oil are a 
 " Magdalene," a " Madonna," and a " Saint John with a 
 Lamb," all at Milan. He excelled in colouring, chiaro- 
 scuro, and the expression of feminine grace. He died 
 after 1530. His sons, Aurelio and Evangelista, were 
 skilful painters. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Luini, (Evangelista,) a decorative painter of Milan, 
 was a son of the preceding. Died after 1584. 
 
 Luini, (Tommaso,) an Italian painter, born at Rome 
 about 1597. He was called Caravaggino, because he 
 imitated Caravaggio. Died about 1632. 
 
 Luino, loo-ee'no, or Lnini, loo-ee'nee, (Francesco,) 
 an Italian geometer, born at Milan in 1740. He was 
 professor of mathematics successively in a college of 
 Mil.m and in the University of Pavia. He published a 
 treatise on "Progressions and Series," ("Sulle Progres- 
 sioni e sulle Serie," 1767,) "Philosophic Meditation," 
 and a few other works. Died in 1792. 
 
 Luis, the Spanish for Louis, which see. 
 
 Luis de Granada. See Granada, (Luis de.) 
 
 Luisini, Luisino, or Luisinus. See Luvigini, 
 (Francesco.) 
 
 Luithold von Savene, loit'holt fon sa'veh-neh, or 
 Liitolt von Saven, lti'tolt fon si'ven, a German minne- 
 singer of the latter part of the twelfth century. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Luitprand, loo'it-prand or lut'prand, written also 
 Liutprand, King of the Lombards, the son of Ans- 
 prand, reigned from 712 a.d. until 744. His valour and 
 wisdom are praised by Sismondi. In 739 he marched 
 into France to aid Charles Martel against the Saracens. 
 He died in 744, and was succeeded by his nephew Hil- 
 debrand. 
 
 See Muratori, "Annali d' Italia." 
 
 Luitprand or Liutprand, [Lat. Luitpran'dus,] a 
 historical writer, was one of the most learned men of 
 the age. He was sent as ambassador to Constantinople 
 in 946 by Berenger, Marquis of Ivrea. Having been 
 chosen Bishop of Cremona, he attended in 963 a council 
 (at Rome) which deposed Pope John. In 968 the em- 
 peror Otho I. sent him on a mission to Constantinople, 
 where he was maltreated by the emperor. He was au- 
 thor of an esteemed " History of Europe from 862 to 964." 
 
 See Kokpke, " De Vita et Scriptis Luitprandi," 1S41 ; " Nouvelle 
 Biograpitie Generate." 
 
 Lukaszewitsch, loo-ka'sh 8-witch, (Joseph,) a Polish 
 writer, born near Poscn about 1800, published several 
 valuable works on the ecclesiastical history of Poland. 
 Among these we may name the" History of the Churches 
 of the Helvetic Confession of Faith in Lithuania," (1842.) 
 
 Luke, |Gr. Aoimuc; Lat. Lu'caS; Fr. Luc, liik ; It. 
 Luca, loo'ka,] Saint, one of the Four Evangelists, was a 
 companion of the Apostle Paul in his mission to the Gen- 
 tiles, between 50 and 66 A.D. The time and place of his 
 birth are unknown. That he was liberally educated is 
 made evident by the classical style of his writings and 
 by the learned details which he gives on historical and 
 geographical subjects. His Gospel contains valuable 
 accounts which are not found in the others. He also 
 wrote "The Acts of the Apostles," which, as well as his 
 Gospel, is in the Greek language. Tradition indicates 
 that Saint Luke is the same as the physician Luke 
 mentioned by Saint Paul in Colowiana iv. 14, and the 
 same as Lucas named in Philemon 24. (See II. Tim- 
 othy iv. 11.) 
 
 Lu'kin, (Lionel,) an English mechanic, noted as the 
 inventor of the life-boat, was born about 1742; died in 
 1834- 
 
 Lull. See Lui.i.i, (Raymond.) 
 
 Lulli or Lulle, lool'lee, [Fr. Lulle, Hit,] (Antonio,) 
 a grammarian, born in Majorca. He corresponded with 
 Krasimis, and wrote a treatise on rhetoric, called "De 
 Oratione." Died in 1582. 
 
 Lulli or Lully, lu'le', (Jean Baptiste,) a celebrated 
 Italian composer, called "the father of French dramatic 
 music," was born at Florence in 1633. About the age 
 of fourteen he went to Paris, where he became a skilful 
 performer on the violin, and was patronized by Louis 
 XIV. In the fetes which were often repeated at court, 
 he found occasion to try his talents for operatic music. 
 In 1672 the king gave him the privilege or direction of 
 the Royal Academy of Music, from which time dates 
 the foundation of the Grand Opera in France. Co-ope- 
 rating with Quinault the poet, Lulli composed in fifteen 
 years nineteen operas, which were very successful. He 
 finally became one of the secretaries of the king. Died 
 in 1687. 
 
 See Fetis,, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" De la 
 Borub, " Essai sur la Musique," 1780 : " Nouvelle Biographie Gen£- 
 rale:" Lh Pkevost o'Exmes, "Lulli Musicien." 
 
 Lulli or Lully, (Jean Baptiste,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1665. With his brother Louis he com- 
 posed an opera called "Orphee," (1690.) Died in 1701. 
 
 Lulli, (Jean Louis,) born in 1667, succeeded his 
 father, Jean Baptiste, as composer to the king. Died 
 in 1688. 
 
 Lulli, (Louis,) a musician, brother of the preceding, 
 was born in Paris in 1664. He became composer to the 
 king in 1688. Died about 1736. 
 
 Lulli, written also Lully, Lulle, and Lull, [Lat. 
 Lul'lus or Lui/lius,] (Raymond,) a philosopher, 
 surnamed the Enlightened Doctor, was born at 
 Palma, in Majorca, about 1235. He professed to believe 
 that he was called to convert the Moslems, and he pre- 
 pared himself for the task by learning Arabic. In order 
 to prove that the mysteries of faith were not opposed 
 to reason, he composed a treatise, or method, called 
 "Ars Lulli," or "Ars Magna Lulli," ("The Great Art 
 of Lulli,") designed also to systematize knowledge and 
 facilitate the process *of reasoning on all questions. 
 His method obtained great celebrity; but, according 
 to Hallam, it was an "idle and fraudulent attempt to 
 substitute trick for science." " He was one of those 
 innovators in philosophy who, by much boasting of their 
 original discoveries in the secrets of truth, gain credit 
 for systems of science which those who believe in them 
 seldom trouble themselves to examine." (" Introduction 
 to the Literature of Europe.") He made several attempts 
 to convert the Moors in Northern Africa, and was 
 violently persecuted. Died in 1315. 
 
 See Wadding, " Vie de R. Lulle ;" Segui, "Vie de R. Lulle," 
 1605: Cm.t.KTET," Vie de R. Lulle," 1646; Loev, " De Vila R. Lulli 
 Specimen," 1830; Pehroquet, " Vie et Manyre de R. Lulle," 1667; 
 Hki.ffkrkich, "Raymond Lull," Berlin, 1858; "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phic Generale. " 
 
 Lullin de Chateauvieux, Ki'laN' deh sh.Vto've-uh', 
 (Jacoii Frederic,) a Swiss agriculturist and writer, 
 born at Geneva in 1772; died in 1840. 
 
 Lullin de Chateauvieux, (Michel,) a Swiss writer 
 and experimenter on agriculture, born at Geneva in 
 1695 ; died in 1781. 
 
 Lully. See Lulli. 
 
 Lulof, lii'lof, (Jan,) a Dutch astronomer, born at 
 Zutphen in 171 1. He wrote several works on astronomy. 
 Died in 1768. 
 
 Lumene van Marok, Hi'meh-neh (?) vin maRk, [ Lat. 
 Lumin^e'us,| (Jacques Coknkii.lk,) a Flemish scholar 
 and Benedictine monk, born at Ghent about 1570. He 
 produced many Latin poems. Died in 1629. 
 
 Luminasus. See Lumene van Marck. 
 
 Lump'kin, (Joseph Henry,) brother of Governor 
 Lumpkin, noticed below, born in Oglethorpe county, 
 Georgia, in 1799, became professor in the Lumpkin Law 
 School at Athens, in his native State. 
 
 Lumpkin, (Wilson,) an American statesman, born 
 in Pittsylvania county, Virginia, in 1783. He was twice 
 elected Governor of Georgia, and became a United 
 Stales Senator in 1838. 
 
 LttmS'den, (Matthew,) a distinguished Scottish 
 Orientalist, born in Aberdeenshire in 1777. He was 
 
 « as k; fas s;%hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; las*; th as in t/iis. (JJ^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LUNA 
 
 1470 
 
 LUSSI 
 
 chosen professor of Persian and Arabic in the College 
 of Calcutta in 1805. In 1810 he published an excellent 
 "Grammar of the Persian Language," and in 1813 an 
 " Arabic Grammar." About 1820 he returned to Great 
 Britain. Died in London in 1835. 
 
 His brother Thomas, an officer, published a Journey 
 from Merut, India, to London, (1822.) 
 
 See Zenker. " Bibliotheca Orientalis." 
 
 Lu'na, [Fr. Lune, lun,| the Moon, a goddess wor- 
 shipped by the Greeks and Romans. « 
 
 Luna, loo'na, (Fabrizio,) an Italian lexicographer, 
 born at Naples, is said to have been the compiler of 
 the first Italian dictionary, called "Vocabulary of Five 
 Thousand Tuscan Words," (" Vocabulario di cinque mila 
 Vocabuli Toschi," 1536.) Died in 1559. 
 
 Luna, de, da loo'na, (Don Ai.varo,) a Spanish cour- 
 tier and poet, who became the chief favourite and min- 
 ister of John II. of Castile. In 1423 he was made Con- 
 stable of Castile. Through the enmity of the grandees, 
 he was exiled in 1427, and again in 1439. In 1445 he 
 was recalled, and obtained command of the army, with 
 which he defeated the malcontents. Having lost the 
 favour of the king, he was executed in 1453. 
 
 See a well-written biography, entitled "Cr6nica del Condestable 
 Don Alvaro de Luna," by an anonymous contemporary writer, pub- 
 lished in 1546, and *' Histoire de Alvaro de Luna," Paris, 1720. 
 
 Lund, loond, (Carl,) a Swedish writer on law, born 
 at Jonkoping in 1638, published, besides other works, 
 a " Hmtpry of the Law of Sweden." Died in 1 71 5. 
 
 Lund,' s (DANiEL,) a Swedish professor of Hebrew, 
 born in 1666";- died in 1747. 
 
 Lunden. See Lundin. 
 
 Lun'din or Lun'den, (Sir Alan,) an ambitious Scot- 
 tish politician, was born in Forfarshire. He married a 
 natural daughter of Alexander II., and in 1243 was 
 chosen lord justiciar of Scotland. Having opposed the 
 coronation of the minor son of the late king, he was 
 dismissed from office about 1250. He was afterwards 
 pardoned, and held the same office for several years. 
 Died in 1275. 
 
 Lundorp. See Londorp. , 
 
 Lfin'dy 1 , (Benjamin,) an American philanthropist, 
 born in Sussex county, New Jersey, in 1789. He founded 
 in 1 81 5 an anti-slavery association, called the "Union 
 Humane Society," and subsequently became editor of 
 the "Genius, of Universal Emancipation," originally 
 published at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, but removed to 
 Baltimore in 1824. He was also active in promoting 
 lectures on slavery and in advocating abstinence from 
 the products of slave-labour. Died in 1839. 
 
 See the " Life, Travels, etc. of Benjamin Lundy," by Thomas 
 Eari.e; Greeley, "American Conflict," vol. i. pp. 111-115. 
 
 Luneau de Boisjermaln, lii'no' deh bwa'zheV- 
 mas', (Pierre Joseph Francois,) a mediocre French 
 writer, born at Issoudun in 1732. He became a school- 
 teacher in Paris, and published several educational works 
 on history and languages. He also edited the works of 
 Racine, (1768.) Died in 1S01. 
 
 Lunghi, (Luca.) See Longhl 
 
 Lunghi, loon'gee, (Martino,) an Italian architect, 
 born in the Milanese. He was employed in Rome by 
 Pope Gregory XIII., erected the Campanile of the Capi- 
 tol, and built the elegant palace of Prince Borghese. 
 His last works were built about 1600. His grandson, 
 Martino, was an architect, and worked in Rome, 
 Naples, and Milan. Died in 1657. 
 
 See Quatremerb DE Quincy, " Dictionnaire d' Architecture," 
 and "Vies des Architectes c^lebres." 
 
 Lunghi, written also Longhi and Longo, (Silla 
 Giacomo,) an Italian sculptor, born at Vigiu, in the 
 Milanese ; died about 1625. 
 
 Lunig, loo'nio, (Johann Christian,) a German com- 
 piler and publicist, born in 1662. He published valua- 
 ble works entitled "Archives of the German Empire," 
 (24 vols., 1713-22,) " Diplomatic Code of Italy," ("Codex 
 Italiae Diplomaticus,"4 vols., 1725-35,) and "Diplomatic 
 Code of Germany," ("Codex Germaniae Diplomaticus," 
 2 vols., 1733.) Died in 1740. 
 
 Lunt, (George,) an American lawyer and miscella- 
 neous writer, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts. He 
 was appointed in 1849 district attorney for Massachu- 
 
 setts, and in 1857 became one of the editors of the 
 " Boston Courier." 
 
 See Grtswoi.d, " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Lupercalia. See Pan. 
 
 Luperoi. See Pan. 
 
 Lu-per'cus, an ancient deity, who was worshipped 
 by the Italian shepherds as the guardian of their flocks 
 against wolves, and sometimes identified with Pan. 
 
 Lupi, loo'pee, (Antonio Maria,) a learned Italian 
 Jesuit and antiquary, born at Florence in 1695 ; died in 
 1737- 
 
 Ltvpi, (Mario,) an Italian historian, born at Bergamo 
 in 1720 ; died in 1789. 
 
 Lupin, von, fon loo-peen', (Friedrich,) Baron, a 
 German writer and mineralogist, born at Memmingen in 
 1771 : died in 1844. 
 
 See his Autobiography, ("Selbstbiographie,") 2 vols., 1844-47. 
 
 Lupoli, loo'po-lee, (Vincenzio,) an Italian canonist 
 and jurist, born near Aversa in 1737, published several 
 works on law. Died in 1800. 
 
 Lup'set, (Thomas,) an English scholar, born in Lon- 
 don about 1496. He obtained the chair of rhetoric at 
 Oxford, and corresponded with Erasmus and Sir Thomas 
 More. He published a "Treatise on Charity," and other 
 religious works, and translated parts of the writings of 
 Cyprian and Chrysostom. Died in 1532. 
 
 Lup'ton, (Donald,) an English biographer, of whom 
 little is known. He published in 1637 a " History of the 
 Modern Protestant Divines." (translated from the Latin,) 
 and "The Glory of their Times; or, The Lives of the 
 Primitive Fathers," (1640.) 
 
 Lu'pus, or Wolf, w61f, (Christian,) a Catholic 
 theologian, born at Ypres in 1612. He became a pro- 
 fessor of theology at Louvain, and published several 
 works on dogmatic theology. Died in 1681. 
 
 Lupus Servatus. .See Loup. 
 
 Luque.de, da loo'ka. (Hernando,) a Spanish bishop 
 of Peru. He was a priest of Panama when, in 1525, he 
 associated himself with Pizarro and Almagro in an ex- 
 pedition for the conquest of Peru. De Luqtie furnished 
 the money for this enterprise. Died in 1532. 
 
 See Hrrrera, " Historia general de los Viajes en las Tndias Occi- 
 dentales :" Pkrscott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. ii. 
 
 Lurine, lii'ren', (Louis,) a French writer of fiction, 
 satire, etc., born in 1816. He contributed many articles 
 to the public journals. 
 
 Luscinius, 166s-see'ne-ns, (Othmar,) a litterateur, 
 whose proper name was Nacntigall, (naK'te-gll,) was 
 born at Strasburg about 1480. He removed from Augs- 
 burg to Hale in 1526, and afterwards lodged with Eras- 
 mus at Frevburg. He edited some works of Lucian and 
 Martial, and published various other works. Died about 
 I53S- 
 
 Lush'ing-tpn, (Right Hon. Stephen,) D.C.L, an 
 eminent English civilian and statesman, born in London 
 in 1782, was the son of »ir Stephen Lushington. He 
 was educated at Oxford, and called to the bar in 1806. 
 Between 1807 and 1841 he represented Yarmouth, I]- 
 chester, the Tower Hamlets, and other places, in Par- 
 liament, voting for the abolition of the slave-trade (1807) 
 and for other liberal measures. He also contributed 
 greatly to the abolition of slavery. He was one of the 
 counsel for the defence in the trial of Queen Caroline, 
 (1821.) In 1838 he was appointed a judge of the admi- 
 ralty, and privy councillor. 
 
 Lusignan, (Guy de.) See Guv de Lusignan. 
 
 Lusignan, de, deh lii'zen'yoN' or loo-sen-yan', (Ste- 
 FANO,) a descendant of the royal family of Cyprus, was 
 born in that island in 1537. He became a priest, and 
 emigrated to Italy in 157 1. He wrote a "History of 
 Cyprus from the Time of Noah until 1572," and other 
 works. Died about 1590. 
 
 Lussan, de, deh Iu'sSn', (Marguerite,) a French 
 novelist, born in Paris in 1682. In 1730 she published 
 the " Story of the Countess de Gondes," which was suc- 
 cessful. She also wrote " The Life of the Brave Crillon," 
 (1757,) and several historical romances. Died in 1758. 
 
 See QtTERARU, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Lussi, loos'see, (Mei.chior,) a Swiss general and 
 diplomatist, born at Stanz in 1529; died in 1606. 
 
 3, e, 1, 6, u, y long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; not; good; moon; 
 
LUTAT1US 
 
 1471 
 
 LUTHER 
 
 Lutatius Catulus. See Catui.us. 
 
 Luthbert. See Luhbkrt, (Sihkand.) 
 
 Lu'ther, (Martin,) |Ger. pron. maR'tin loo'ter; Lat. 
 Marti'nus Luthk'rus ; It. Martino Lutero, maR- 
 tee'no loo-ta'ro; Sp. Martin Lutero, maR-ten' loo- 
 ta'ro,] the great leader of the Reformation in Germany,, 
 was born at Eisleben, the 10th of November, 1483. He 
 was the son of Hans Luther, a miner. His mother's 
 maiden name was Margarethe Lindemann. At the age 
 of fifteen he was sent to the Latin school at Eisenach, 
 then under the direction of Trebonius. 'In 1501 he en- 
 tered the university at Erfurt. While here, he found 
 in the university library a rare and precious book, — a 
 Latin Bible, — which became an object of extraordinary 
 interest to him) About this time a severe attack of ill- 
 ness, and, soon after, the sudden death of one of his 
 intimate friends, (caused, as some historians state, by a 
 stroke of lightning,) produced such an impression on 
 the mind of young Luther, that he made a solemn vow 
 to become a monk, and in July, 1505, he entered the 
 Augustine convent at Erfurt. In 1507 he was ordained 
 a priest, and in the following year, through the influence 
 of Staupitz, (the provincial of his order, and subsequently 
 vicar-general,) he was appointed professor of philosophy 
 in the University of Wittenberg. Luther's visit to Rome, 
 made in 15 10, in fulfilment of a previous vow, opened to 
 him new views of the character and condition of the 
 Romish Church. In 1512 he was made licentiate and 
 doctor of divinity, and began about this tjme to declare 
 openly his views of scriptural theology, which he ex- 
 plained according to the system of Saint Augustine, 
 resting the doctrine of justification solely on faith in the 
 sacrifice of the Saviour. In 1517, Tetzel, a Dominican 
 monk, received from the pope, (Leo X.,) through the 
 Archbishop of Magdeburg, a commission for the sale of 
 indulgences. ^With a view to increase the demand for 
 his merchandise, Tetzel asserted, what few or none of 
 the other Catholics appear to have ever claimed, that 
 the indulgences not only released the purchasers from 
 the necessity of penance, but absolved them from all the 
 consequences of sin both here and hereafter. Indignant 
 at what he regarded as an insult to reason and religion, 
 Luther drew up his celebrated ninety-five propositions, 
 in which he set forth in the strongest language the theo- 
 logical unsoundness as well as the pernicious effects of 
 Tetzel's doctrine of indulgences. This publication in- 
 volved Luther in violent controversies. 'Among the 
 most conspicuous of his opponents was Dr. Eck, (in 
 Latin, Eckius or Eccius,) professor of divinity at Ingol- 
 stadt. But the cause of the Reformer steadily gained 
 ground, and among the number of his favourers was 
 Frederick the Wise, the Elector of Saxony, — one of the 
 must powerful princes of Germany. "' I^eo having sum- 
 moned Luther to plead his cause at Rome, the Elector 
 interposed, and it was arranged that the examination or 
 trial should take place at Augsburg, before Cardinal 
 Cajetan, (Caietano,) the legate of the pope. The car- 
 dinal having refused to enter into any discussion with 
 Luther, at the same time insisting that the latter should 
 submit himself unreservedly to the authority of the 
 papal see, Luther, fearing — perhaps with too much 
 reason — the fate of John Huss, secretly withdrew from 
 Augsburg, leaving an "appeal to the pope when he 
 should be better informed." Soon after Leo issued a 
 bull in support of the doctrine of indulgences; where- 
 upon Luther appealed from the pope to a general council 
 of the Church. 
 
 With a view to restore tranquillity to the Church, Leo 
 sent his chamberlain Miltitz — a Saxon by birth, and a 
 man of great tact and intelligence — as nuncio into Ger- 
 many. By kindness and flattery, Miltitz obtained from 
 Luther (March, 1519) a promise that he would submit 
 to the authority of the pope and discontinue the con- 
 troversy respecting indulgences, on condition that his 
 adversaries should also preserve silence on the subject] 
 Dr. Eck, however, woirld not permit the controversy to 
 slumljer. He soon after challenged Carlstadt, one of 
 Luther's disciples, to a public dispute at Leipsic ; so that 
 Luther himself was again almost unavoidably involved 
 in the contest. • The result was a confirmation of his 
 former views of the fallibility of the pope and the errors 
 
 of the Church, which found expression in several publi- 
 cations, and especially in a work entitled " De Captivi- 
 tate Babylonici Ecclesiae," (" On the Babylonian Cap- 
 tivity of the Church.") Leo had, a short time previously 
 to this publication, issued a bull condemning forty-one 
 propositions which had been selected from the works of 
 Luther, and directing the bishops to search diligently 
 for the writings in which those errors were container!, 
 and to have them publicly burned. Luther resolved to 
 anticipate the blow, and at the same time to render the 
 breach between himself and Rome forever impassable. 
 Attended by a crowd of doctors, professors, and students, 
 he proceeded to a spot fixed on for the purpose, without 
 the walls of Wittenberg, near the east gate, and there 
 burned before the assembled multitude the bull, with 
 the accompanying decretals and canons relating to the 
 pope's supreme authority. 
 
 Up to this period, it would appear that the reverence 
 for the Church in which Luther had been educated had 
 always exercised a controlling influence upon his mind; 
 for, although he denounced in the boldest manner the 
 abuses of the ecclesiastical power, he had ever mani- 
 fested a profound respect for the sovereign pontiff him- 
 self. But now he broke through all restraint, and not 
 only denied the authority of the pope, but he assailed 
 him with all the fierce invective and vituperation which 
 were so common in that age. 
 
 After this additional provocation, it was not to be ex- 
 
 f:cted that the thunders of the Church should slumber, 
 ot content with merely excommunicating Luther and 
 ying every place which should harbour him under an 
 interdict, Leo urged the newly-elected emperor, Charles 
 V., to come forward as the champion of Catholicism 
 and inflict upon the arch-heretic and his adherents the 
 punishment due to their apostasy. But the Elector of 
 Saxony, to whom Charles had been indebted for his new 
 dignity, interposed a second time, and so far prevailed 
 that it was determined the cause of Luther should be 
 tried before the Diet of the empire. The Diet assem- 
 bled at Worms early in the year 1521/) It was the wish 
 and intention of the legate Aleander and the other 
 advocates of the papal cause that Luther should not be 
 present at his own trial. But the majority of the Diet, 
 whether influenced by friendship for the Reformer or by 
 the desire to preserve the appearance of justice in their 
 proceedings, insisted that Luther should not be con- 
 demned unheard. The emperor was prevailed upon to 
 grant him a safe-conduct, (dated March 6, 1521.) The 
 greater number of Luther's friends earnestly dissuaded 
 him from going to Worms. Even Spalatin, the secretary 
 and confidential adviser of the Elector Frederick, sent 
 him a pressing message exhorting him on no account to 
 enter that city. Luther replied, "Were there as many 
 devils in Worms as tiles upon the roofs of the houses, 
 still would I enter," (" Wenn so viel Teufel zu Worms 
 waren als Ziegel auf den Dachern, doch wollt' ich 
 hinein.") He arrived in the city on the 16th of April, 
 and appeared before the Diet the following day. When 
 asked if he was the author of the works produced against 
 him, containing the passages which had been condemned, 
 he replied in the affirmative. On being again asked 
 whether he was prepared to retract the objectionable 
 doctrines contained in them, he answered that, as this 
 question concerned the word of God, the Christian faith, 
 and the salvation of souls, it was of great importance 
 that he should not speak rashly, lest he should offend 
 against the word of God : he therefore desired that time 
 might be allowed him for consideration. The next day 
 he was again brought before the Diet. While he ad- 
 mitted that in some instances he might have written 
 with less humility and more violence than became his 
 ecclesiastical character, (Jne refused to retract anything 
 that he had said, unless it could be shown to be con- 
 trary to the Scriptures; at the same time, he boldly 
 repeated and defended several of his positions which 
 had been objected to. Hereupon Charles and the other 
 favourers of the Catholic cause refused to hear him any 
 further. VHe was commanded to leave Worms!) He 
 accordingly returned to Saxony. As he was journeying 
 on the borders of the Thuringian Forest, he was sud- 
 denly seized by a num!>er of warriors in masks, and 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; 5 as z; th as in this. (2y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LUTHER 
 
 1472 
 
 LUTI 
 
 hurried off to the solitary castle of Wartburg, where 
 his ecclesiastical habit was exchanged for the dress 
 and sword of a knight. This whole proceeding was a 
 stratagem of Frederick to protect the Reformer against 
 the designs of his enemies. Luther had previously been 
 apprised of the contemplated scheme. He remarks, in 
 one of his letters, that he scarcely knew himself in his 
 strange disguise. 
 
 Immediately after the departure of Luther, Aleander, 
 the Papal legate, prevailed on Charles to give the edict 
 against him the sanction of the imperial signature and 
 seal. It was declared, in the name of the emperor, that, 
 as soon as the term of his safe-conduct had expired, 
 Luther should be seized and held in durance until they 
 should be informed how to deal with him. 
 
 Luther remained in the castle of Wartburg about ten 
 months. He left it in March, 1522, and returned to Wit- 
 tenberg in order to rebuke the excesses into which some 
 of his former disciples had fallen. In 1524 he laid aside 
 the monastic dress; and in 1525 he married Catharina 
 von Bora, who had once been a nun. Luther completed 
 his German version of the Old Testament in 1534; his 
 translation of the New Testament had appeared in 1522. 
 These translations, by their extensive circulation, as well 
 as by the force and beauty of the language, have exerted 
 a most important influence upon German literature, 
 which may almost be said to date its origin from their 
 composition. 
 
 Frederick the Wise, Luther's faithful friend and pro- 
 tector, died in 1525, and was succeeded by his nephew 
 John, who was an open, and devoted adherent of the 
 great Reformer. During the latter portion of his life, 
 Luther was held in the highest consideration by most 
 of the princes of Germany, where his doctrines continued 
 to spread, and finally, even during his lifetime, extended 
 to Moravia, Bohemia, Denmark, and Sweden. He died 
 at Eisleben, the 18th of February, 1546, in the sixty-third 
 year of his age. Among Luther's voluminous works, 
 his translation of the Bible, already mentioned, is the 
 most important. Besides his controversial writings, he 
 has left numerous letters, sermons, etc. His " Table- 
 Talk," ("Tischreden,") which is, says Carlyle, "the 
 most interesting now of all the books proceeding from 
 him," consists of sayings ^nd anecdotes collected by 
 Luther's friends after his death. 
 
 Although the character of Luther was especially dis- 
 tinguished by ardent zeal and unconquerable courage, 
 yet on important occasions he could exercise the greatest 
 moderation as well as discretion. The intrepidity with 
 which he faced the dangers that threatened him at Worms 
 is not more deserving of our praise than the admirable 
 prudence and tact which he displayed in his defence on 
 that memorable occasion. The fierce invective and coarse 
 vituperation for which his controversial writings have 
 been censured, are palliated by the consideration that 
 such was the almost universal custom of that age. If 
 his opposition was violent, it was not malignant or un- 
 forgiving. When his bitterest enemy, Tetzel, — the man 
 who had excited Luther's fiercest indignation, — was in 
 misfortune and disgrace, forsaken by all his friends, he 
 received from his generous adversary a letter of con- 
 dolence and consolation. As a reformer, Luther sought 
 to introduce such changes only as he deemed to be im- 
 peratively demanded ; and to the last he clung to some 
 of the doctrines of his early faith which were rejected 
 by all or nearly all the other Protestants. He was always 
 an advocate of peace where peace could be had without 
 the sacrifice of any great principle ; and, so long as he 
 lived, he steadfastly opposed, both by his counsels and 
 by his influence, those religious contests which after his 
 death desolated Germany. 
 
 "Justification by Faith" formed the great central doc- 
 trine in Luther's system of theology, as unconditional 
 election and reprobation was the central idea of that of 
 Calvin. The great aim of the latter would seem to have 
 been to prove the utter and absolute helplessness of 
 man ; and, in the march of his inexorable logic, he some- 
 times appears equally regardless of the hopes of man- 
 kind and of the justice of God. Luther, while ascribing 
 everything in the act of conversion to the grace of God, 
 seems not so completely to close the door to human 
 
 aspirations, — taking for his motto, " If thou canst believe 
 — all things are possible to him that believeth." 
 
 Luther is described as a man of low stature but hand- 
 some person, with a lively complexion and falcon eyes. 
 His voice was clear and of great power. On behold- 
 ing his picture, Melanchthon is said to have exclaimed, 
 " Each one of thy words was a thunderbolt !" (" Fulmina 
 erant singula verba tua.") Carlyle says of him, " No 
 more valiant man ever lived in that Teutonic kindred 
 whose character is valour : the thing he will quail before 
 exists not on this earth or under it." " He was," observes 
 Heine, "not only the greatest, but the most German, 
 man of our history. In his character all the faults and all 
 the virtues of the Germans are combined on the largest 
 scale, ile had qualities which are very seldom found 
 united, (which we are accustomed to regard as irrecon- 
 cilable antagonisms. . . . J/Ie was not only the tongue, 
 but the sword, of his time. Sometimes he was wild 
 as the storm that uproots the oak, and again he was 
 as gentle as the zephyr which dallies with the violet." 
 In a not dissimilar strain, Carlyle contrasts the wild, 
 unconquerable energy with the affectionate tenderness 
 of Luther's character: "A most gentle heart withal, 
 full of pity and love, as, indeed, the truly valiant heart 
 ever is." Alluding to Luther's fondness for music, he 
 adds, " Death-defiance on the one hand, and such love 
 of music on the other, — between these two, all great 
 things had room." 
 
 Those who may desire to see a less favourable view of 
 the great Reformer's character and influence, are referred 
 to the article " Luther" in the " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale," from the pen of the editor, Dr. Hoefer. 
 
 See D'Aubignp, "History of the Reformation ;" Michelet, 
 "MiSmoires de Luther," 2 vols., 1835: Mki.anchthon, "Life of 
 Luther," ("Vita Lutheri ;") Johann Mathesius, " Historia von 
 Dr M Luther's Anfang, Lehr, Leben," etc., ts f >5 : Immanuf.i. Vega, 
 "De M, Lutheri Vita et Miracu'is," 1586: M Dkesser, " Historia 
 M. Lutheri." 1598 ; T. Hayne, " Life and Death of Martin Luther," 
 1641 : C. Juncker, " Vita Lutheri," etc., 1690 ; C. M. Seidel, " Er- 
 bauKchaa Leben Dr. M. Luther's," 171S; J. Colerus, " Lutherus 
 Redivivus," 1718; J. Cnctll.AEUS, " Commentaria de Actiset Scriptis 
 M. Lutheri," 1549: N. TAll.t.KptED, " Histoire de la Vie de M. Lit- 
 
 .783: F. G. Zimmermann, " Memoria Dr. M. Lutheri." 1S08: A. 
 Bower, " Life of Dr. M. Luther." 1813; Ukert, "Dr. M. Luther's 
 Leben," 1817 : H. Mueller, "Dr. M. Luthers Leben und Wirken," 
 1817 : Stang, " M. Luther, sein Leben," etc., 1835; G. Pfizer, "M. 
 Luther's Leben," 1836; I. E Riddle, "Luther and his Times," 
 1837; John StoTT, " Luther and the Lutheran Reformation," 1838; 
 Audin, " Histoire de la Vie de M. Luther," 2 vols., 1830; Hannah 
 Lee, " Life and Times of M. Luther," Boston. 1839 ; M. Meuker, 
 " M. Luther's Leben," 3 vols., 1846 ; Carl Jurgens, " M. Luther's 
 Leben," 3 vols., 1847 ; R. Ferguson, " Luther: his Times, Charac- 
 ter, and Works," 184S: F. W. Genthb, "Leben und Wirken Dr. 
 M. Luther's," 1S42 : Ignaz Dollingrr, "Luther: eine Ski/.ze," 
 1^ = 1 ; E Haag, "Vie de M. Luther," 1S40: Janoer, " Luther's 
 Leben," etc., 1853; N. M. Petersen, "M. Luther's l.evnet," 1840; 
 J. A. Cramer. "Luther und Melanchthon," 1817: Paul Seidel, 
 " Historia und Geschichte des Vaters Dr. M. Lutheri," 1581 ; Carl 
 R. Ricuter, "Geschichte Dr. M. Luther's," 1817: K. F. A. 
 Kahnis, " Lvitherische Dngmatik," 2 vols., 1861-68; Dr. C P. 
 Krauth, "The Conservative Reformation and its Theoloq-y," etc., 
 1870: Carlvle, " On Heroes and Hero- Worship ;" Hedge, "Prose 
 Writers of Germany ;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1839. 
 
 Luther, (Paul,) a chemist, son of the preceding, was 
 born at Wittenberg in 1533. He became physician to 
 Augustus, Elector of Saxony, and to his successor, Chris- 
 tian. Died at Leipsic in 1593. 
 
 Luther, (Roiskrt,) a German astronomer, born about 
 1810, lived near Dusscldorf. He discovered eight small 
 planets or asteroids between 1852 and 1858. 
 
 Lutherburg. See Lihiiiikriiouro. 
 
 Lxtti, loo'tee, or Lutti, loot'tee, (Bf.nkpetto,) an 
 excellent Italian painter of history, born at Florence in 
 1666, was a pupil of Gabbiani. He worked chiefly in 
 Rome, and was patronized by Clement XI. According 
 to Lanzi, many connoisseurs designated him the last 
 master of the Florentine school. Among his merits are 
 forms delicate and graceful, and a skilful distribution of 
 colours and shadows. He painted in oil, in fresco, and 
 in pastel. Among his master-pieces are an "Annun- 
 ciation," "San Ranieri taking the Habit," and "The 
 Prophet Isaiah," in the Lateran. Died in 1724. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Pnintinjr in Italy:" Ticozzt, "Diziona 
 rio;" Winckelmann, " Neties Mahler- Lexikon." 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, 0, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
LUTON 
 
 '473 
 
 LUTNES 
 
 Luton, lii'toN - ', (Louis,) a French chemist and painter 
 on glass, born in I'aris in 1757; died in 1852. 
 
 Luttrell, Colonel See Wii.kks, (John.) 
 
 Lut'trell, (Narcissus,) an English political writer, 
 who kept a diary of public events during the Revolution 
 of 16S8 and sulwequent vears, which Macaulay often 
 quotes and calls a valuable manuscript. Died about 
 1732. His diary was published in 1857. 
 
 See " North British Review" for November, 1857. 
 
 Ltitzelburger or Luetzelburger, Itit'sel-booRn'er, 
 sometimes erroneously written Leutzelburger, (Hans,) 
 also called Hans Frank, a Swiss wood-engraver, of 
 whom very little is known, lived about 1520-40. Among 
 the most important works attributed to him is the 
 "Dance of Death," (usually ascribed to Holbein,) " Illus- 
 trations of the Old Testament," a portrait of Erasmus, 
 and "The Sale of Indulgences." 
 
 See Nagi.er, "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Lutzow or Luetzow, liit'so, (Lunwio Adolf Wil- 
 HKt.M.) a Prussian general, born ill 1782; died at Ber- 
 lin in 1834. 
 
 Lutzow, von, fon liit'so, (Thf.rf.sa von Struve,) 
 Madame, ■ German authoress, born at Stuttgart in 
 1804. She wrote several novels and books of travel. 
 Died in Java in 1852. 
 
 Luvigini, loo-ve-jee'nee, Luisini, loo-e-see'nee, or 
 Luisino, loo-e-see'no, [Lat. Luisi'nus,] (Francesco,) 
 an Italian scholar, born at Udine in 1523. He was pre- 
 ceptor of the son of Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma. 
 Among his works is a " Latin Commentary on Horace's 
 Art of Poetry," (1554.) His poetical talent is praised 
 by Mtiret and Giraldi. Died in 156S. 
 
 Luvigini or Luisino, (I.uir.i,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Udine, was a physician at Venice. Among 
 his works is a version of the "Aphorisms" of Hippocrates, 
 in Latin hexameters, (1552.) 
 
 Lux, looks, (Adam,) a German republican, born at 
 Mentz about 1770. He was sent to Paris in March, 1793, 
 to solicit the annexation of his country to France. He 
 witnessed with sympathy and admiration the conduct of 
 Charlotte Corday at her execution. A few days later he 
 published an apology for that heroine. For this and 
 other offences he was executed in November, 1793. 
 
 Luxdorf, Idoks'doRf, (K01.1.E Wn.i.UM,) a Danish 
 writer and lawyer, born in the island of Seeland in 1716. 
 He cultivated Latin poetry with success. Died in 1788. 
 
 Luxembourg, Ktk'afa'booV, (Christian Louis DE 
 Montmorenci,) Prince de Tingri, a French general, 
 born in Paris in 1675, was the fourth son of the great Mar- 
 shal Luxembourg. For his services at Oudenarde and 
 Lille (1708) he obtained the rank of lieutenant-general. 
 He commanded at Ettlingen in 1734, and was made a 
 marshal of France in the same year. From that time he 
 was called Marshal de Montmorenci. Died in 1746. 
 
 See Pinaki), "Chronologie militaire." 
 
 Luxembourg, de, deh IuVson'Ixior', (Charles 
 Francois Frederic de Montmorenci.) Marshal, 
 born in 1702. wis a grandson of the first Marshal Lux- 
 embourg. He was aide-de-camp of Louis XV. in the 
 war of 1741, and, having served with distinction in Ger- 
 many, became a marshal of France. He gave a home to 
 J. J. Rousseau at Montmorenci. (See the notice of his 
 wife, below.) Died in 1764. 
 
 See Rousseau, "Confessions." 
 
 Luxembourg, de, written also Luxemburg, (Fran- 
 cois Henri di M*>n tmori nci,) Dvc, a celebrated mar- 
 shal of France, bom in Paris in 1628, wa^ a son of the 
 Count de Montniorenci-lionteville, and a cousin-gcrman 
 of the great Prince de Conde. For his conduct at Lens 
 in 1648 he wns made mar^chal-dc-camp. From devotion 
 to the Prince of Conde, he served several campaigns 
 against France between 1653 and lf>>9. during which 
 period Conde commanded the Spanish army. Having 
 received a pardon from the king in 1660, he married the 
 heiress of the house of Luxembourg, and assumed tint 
 name. In 1672 he obtained command of an ai my which 
 invaded Holland and took several towns. His skilful 
 retreat from Utrecht to Chnrleroi in November, 1673, 
 raised him to the rank of the first captains of that age. 
 In 1674 he commanded the right wing of Conde's army 
 at Senef, and in 1675 received a marshal's baton. He 
 
 gained victories over the allies in Flanders in the cam- 
 paign of 1677, which was followed by a long peac«t. 
 Having incurred the enmity of Louvois, he. was confinao 
 in the Hastille fourteen months on a charge of sorcery. 
 In 1690, Louis XIV., against whom Austria, Spain, and 
 England had formed a coalition, gave the chief com- 
 mand of his army to Marshal Luxembourg, who, since 
 the death of Turenne and Conde, was the ablest of his 
 generals. He defeated the allies at Fleurus in 1690. 
 In the campaign of 1691 he defeated William III. of 
 England at the great battle of Steenket ke. He was victo- 
 rious over the same enemy and leader at Neerwinden, 
 or 1,-mden, in 1693. He died in January, 1695, after 
 which the army of Louis gained few victories. "Even 
 the admirers of William III.," says Macaulay, "were 
 forced to own that in the field he was not a match for 
 Luxembourg," whose "judgment was clearest and surest 
 when responsibility pressed heaviest on him and when 
 difficulties gathered thickest around him." " He gained 
 immense renown at William's expense; but he had not 
 the art of improving a victory, while William, of all gen- 
 erals, was best qualified to repair a defeat." (" History 
 of England," vol. iv. chap, xix.) 
 
 See Beaurai*. " Histoire militaire du Due de Luxembourg," 
 1756: "Memoirs of Marshal Luxemburg," written by himself, 175S; 
 Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis XIV;" S AlNT-SlMnN, •' M<5moires ;" 
 Desurmkai-x, " Histnirede !a MfltsoA de Montmorenci," vols. iv. and 
 v. : L. Ahtming. "LeMarechal de Luxembourg," 1S53; "Nouvelle 
 BiogmphM GeneVale." 
 
 Luxembourg or Luxemburg, de, (Louis,) Comte 
 de Saint-Pol, an ambitious French general, born in 141 8. 
 He fought against Louis XI. at Montlheri about 1464, 
 but was soon after won over by the high office of Con- 
 stable of France, and married the queen's sister, Marie 
 de Savoie. He was called the pivot of the principal 
 intrigues of that time. His perfidy provoked Louis XI. 
 and Charles the Hold to declare him their common 
 enemy. He was beheaded in 1475. 
 
 See Comines. " Memoires ;" Sismondi, " Histoire desFrancais;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographte Generale." 
 
 Luxembourg, de, (Madei.ene ANCEi.iQUEde Neuf- 
 ville-Villeroi— deh nuf'vel' vel'Rw.V.) Maeechale- 
 Duchf.sse, born in 1707, was a granddaughter of Marshal 
 Villeroi. She was married to Marshal C. F. de Luxem- 
 bourg in 1750. About 1758 this couple gave Rousseau 
 an asylum at Montmorenci. Rousseau has commemo- 
 rated in his "Confessions" her charming conversation 
 and liberality. Her rank and talents gave her great 
 social influence in Paris. Died in 1787. 
 
 Luxembourg-Ligni, de, deh 1u1<'s6n'1)oor' len'ye', 
 (Waleuan,) Comte de Saint-1'ol, was born in 1355, of 
 one of the most illustrious families of Europe. While 
 fighting for the French king, he was taken prisoner by 
 the English in 1374. He married Matilda, a sister of 
 Richard II. of England. Having been chosen Con- 
 stable of France in 1412, he defeated the Atmagnacs 
 in battle. Died in 141 7. 
 
 Luxemburg. See Luxembourg. 
 
 Luyken or Luycken, loi'ken, (Jan,) a Dutch en- 
 graver, born in 1649, lived in Amsterdam. He etched, 
 after his own designs, manv admired works, which dis- 
 play a fertile invention, "the "Death of Coligny" is 
 called his best production. Died in 1712. 
 I Luynes or Luines, de, deh lii-en', (Charles d'Al- 
 itkrt,) Due, the favourite of Louis XIII. of France, 
 was born in Languedoc in 1578. As the companion 
 of Louis in youth, he acquired an ascendency over him, 
 and about 1616 he became his most powerful minister. 
 I lis rapidity and ambition excited many enemies, among 
 whom was the king's mother ; but through his influence 
 she was sent into exile. In 1621 he was appointed Con- 
 stable of France, and declared war against the Hugue- 
 nots. It appears that Louis had resolved to discard him ; 
 but before that purpose was effected Luynes died, in 
 December, 1621. He was a brother of Marshal Chaulnes, 
 noticed in this work. 
 
 Sec Baiik, "Histoire de Louis XIII;" Bassomhrrrb, "Mi- 
 moires:" SlSMOIfbl, " Histoire des Francais;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phic GineVale." 
 
 LuyneB, de, (Honors Tiieodoric Paul Joseph 
 ft Albert,) Due, a French antiquary, born in Paris in 
 1802, was a liberal patron of arts and sciences. He was 
 
 e as *v c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. 
 
 93 
 
 (iJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LUTTS 
 
 = 474 
 
 LTCURGUS 
 
 admitted in 1830 into the Academy of Inscriptions, to 
 n.iich he contributed many valuable treatises on antiqui- 
 ties and medals. 
 
 Luyts, loits, (Jan,) a Dutch philosopher and astrono- 
 mer, born at Horn about 1660, became professor of 
 physics at Utrecht. Me was an opponent of the Cartesian 
 philosophy. Died in 1721. 
 
 Luz, liiz, ? [I, at. Lu'cius,] (Louis,) a Swiss Protest- 
 ant theologian, born at Bale in 1577. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of the Jesuits," (1626,) and other works. Died in 
 1642. ' 
 
 Luzac, lii'zak', (Euas,) a Dutch philosopher and 
 jurist, born near Leyden in 1723. He published in 1756 
 " Researches into the Principles of Human Knowledge." 
 His "Riches of Holland," (1778,) a history of Dutch 
 commerce, is highly esteemed. Died in 1796. 
 
 Luzac, (Jan,) a philologist and publicist of great 
 merit, born at Leyden in 1746. He practised law In his 
 native place. In 1775 he became chief editor of the 
 "Gazette de Leyrie." From 1785 until 1796 he was 
 professor of Greek in Leyden University. He corre- 
 sponded with Washington and Jefferson, the former of 
 whom wrote, "America is under great obligations to the 
 writings and actions of such men as you." Among his 
 works are " Socrates as a Citizen," (" De Socrate Cive,") 
 dedicated to John Adams, of Massachusetts, and "Attic 
 Readings," ("Lectiones Atticae," 1809.) He was killed 
 by an explosion of gunpowder at Leyden in 1807. 
 
 See SrEGENBEEK, Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de J. Luzac." 
 
 Luzac, (Steven,) the uncle of the preceding, was born 
 at Leyden in 1706. He became in 1738 proprietor and 
 editor of the "Gazette de Leyde," which is described 
 as a model of accuracy and wisdom, and possessed much 
 historical value. Died in 1787. 
 
 Luzan, loo-thin', (Don Ignacio,) a Spanish critic, 
 poet, and literary reformer, born at Saragossa in 1702. 
 About 1750 he was appointed director of the mint, a 
 councillor of state, and minister of commerce. To coun- 
 teract the vicious poetical style of Gongora, he wrote 
 his celebrated "Art of Poetry," ("La Poetica, o Reglas 
 de la Poesia en general," 1737,) which is said to have 
 been effectual in rectifying the national taste. He pro- 
 duced several admired poems, one of which is " The 
 Judgment of Paris." Died in 1754. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature:" Longfellow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Luzarches, de, deh Hi'zfRsh', (Robert,) a French 
 architect, designed the magnificent cathedral of Amiens, 
 which was commenced in 1220 and finished in 1269. 
 
 Luzerne, de la, deh It lii'ziRn', (Anne Cesar,) 
 Chevalier, a French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1741. 
 In 1779 he was sent as minister to the United States, 
 where he had much influence, and performed with credit 
 the duties of a position which the absence of instructions 
 made more responsible. He left the United States in 
 1783. He was ambassador from France to London from 
 1788 until his death, in September, 1 791. 
 
 Luzerne, de la, (C£sar Guii.i.aume,) a learned prel- 
 ate, born in Paris in 1738, was a brother of the pre- 
 ceding. He became Bishop of Langres in 1770, and was 
 elected to the States-General in 1789. He emigrated in 
 1791, returned in 1814, and was made a cardinal in 181 7. 
 Among his numerous works is " Considerations on 
 Divers Points of Christian Morality," (5 vols., 1795.) 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 See Querard "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Luzerne, de la, (Cesar Henri,) Count, a French 
 minister of state, born in Paris in 1737, was a brother of 
 the preceding, and a nephew of Malesherbes. He was 
 appointed minister of the marine in 1787. The hostility 
 of the dominant party caused him to resign in 1790. He 
 emigrated in 1791, and died in Austria in 1799. 
 
 Lyaeus, 11-ee'us, [Gr. Auaioc, from Avu, to " free" or 
 "loosen,"] a surname given to Bacchus, because he (wine) 
 frees the mind from care ; though some say it is because 
 he loosens the limbs of his votaries, rendering them un- 
 able to walk. (See Bacchus.) 
 
 Lycambes. See Archii.ochus. 
 
 Ly-ca'on, [Gr. Avkuuv,} a fabulous king of Arcadia, 
 and a son of Pelasgus. He and his numerous sons were 
 
 notorious for impiety and cruelty The poets feigner 
 that Jupiter in disguise once visited Lycaon, who offeree 
 him human flesh to eat, for which offence he was changec 
 into a wolf. 
 
 Lycius, lish'e-us, [At'xroc,] a Greek sculptor, born it 
 Bceotia, lived about 425 is.c According to Pliny, he was 
 a pupil of Myron. 
 
 Lycomede. See Lvcomedes. 
 
 Lycomede, le'ko'm&d', the assumed name of Giu 
 seppe Maria Arrighi, (ar-ree'gee,) a Corsican writer 
 born in 1768. He published, in Italian, a " Historica 
 Essay on the Civil and Political Revolutions of the 
 Kingdom of Naples," (3 vols., 1812.) Died in 1834. 
 
 Ljfc-o-me'des, [Gr. Ai«oy«?% ; Fr. Lycomede, le' 
 ko'mid',] a king of Scyros and of the Dolopians, was 
 the father of Deidamia, who became the mother of 
 Pyrrhus by Achilles. The poets relate that young 
 Achilles was committed to his care by Thetis to prevent 
 him from going to the Trojan war. Lycomedes is said 
 to have murdered Theseus, who sought refuge at his 
 court. 
 
 Lycomedes, [Gr. AvKo/jfyhic,] an Arcadian general, 
 was one of the founders of Megalopolis, (370 B.C.) He 
 defeated the Spartans in 369, and took Pellene. He was 
 murdered about 366 B.C. 
 
 Ly'con, [Ai'kwv,] an Athenian orator, who acquired 
 notoriety as one of the accusers of Socrates. He was 
 banished with Anytus for this offence. 
 
 Lycon, a Greek philosopher, born at Laodicea, lived 
 about 300 B.C. He was the successor of Strato, and for 
 about forty years was the head of the Peripatetic school 
 of Athens. He had a high reputation for eloquence. 
 
 See RtTTER. " History of Philosophy." 
 
 Ljfc'o-phron, \AvK06puv,] a Greek poet and gram- 
 marian, born at Chalcis, in Euboea. He lived at the 
 court of Ptolemy Philadelphus, in, Alexandria, from 280 
 to 250 B.C. He was one of the seven poets who were 
 styled the " Pleiades." The numerous tragedies which 
 he wrote have all been lost, but his lyric poem called 
 "Cassandra," or "Alexandra," has come down to us. It 
 is very obscure and enigmatical, but is admired as a 
 prodigy of learning and valued as a treasury of facts 
 and traditions. 
 
 SeeOstANDER, " Bemerkungen zu Lycophron," 1826: Fabricius, 
 "Bibliotheca Grasca;" Volkhr, "De Lycophronis Cassandra," 
 1820; "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Ly-cor'tas [AvKoprad of Megalopolis, an Achaean 
 general, was the father of Polybius the historian, and a 
 friend of Philopcemen. He was sent as ambassador to 
 Rome in 189 B.C. Died after 168 B.C. 
 
 Lycosthenes, le-kos'ti-nes, (Conrad,) the Greek 
 name of Conrad Wolfkhart, a scholar, born in Alsace 
 in 1518. He became minister of a church in Bale in 
 1545, and published a curious work on "Prodigies," 
 (" Prodigiorum Chronicon,") a new edition of Gesner's 
 "Bibliotheca," and other works. Died in 1561. 
 
 Ly-cur'gus, [Gr. AvKoiipyo;; Fr. Lycurgue, le'ku'Rg',] 
 in classic mythology, a king of Thrace, who is said to have 
 been a persecutor of Bacchus, and to have been punished 
 with madness. According to another tradition, Jupiter 
 deprived him of sight. 
 
 Lycurgus, [Gr. At , /.-ofp;or ; Fr. Lycurgue, le'kiing'; 
 Ger. Lykurgus, le-ktJoR'gdos,] a famous Spartan law- 
 giver, who belongs to the period anterior to authentic 
 history. Plutarch begins his biography with the remark 
 that nothing certain can be said concerning him. Accord- 
 ing to Aristotle, he lived more than 850 years B.C. He is 
 supposed to have been the son of King Eunomus, who was 
 succeeded by another son, Polydectes. At the death of 
 the latter, Lycurgus refused the crown, and defended the 
 right of Charilaus, a posthumous son of Polydectes. He 
 visited many foreign countries, whose institutions he 
 studied, andj after a long absence, returned to Sparta, 
 where he made social and political changes of the most 
 radical kind. His constitution was considered by the 
 Greeks as the model of a perfect aristocracy, but con- 
 tained a strong democratic element. The executive 
 power was divided between two persons called kings. A 
 remarkable feature in his system was the equal division 
 or community of property, which existed to an extent 
 unequalled in any other country in ancient or modern 
 
 a, e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, e* 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, ti, y, short; a, e, 1, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
LrCURGUS 
 
 1475 
 
 LTNAR 
 
 times. The interference of the state with domestic affairs 
 and relations was carried to a great excess. I lis laws were 
 based on the idea that men are made for the government, 
 rather than the government for men. He is said to have 
 prohibited the use of gold and silver money, and abol- 
 ished all professions among the Spartans except that of 
 arms, assigning all mechanical and menial employment 
 to the slaves, (Helots,) who appear to have been treated 
 with great severity. Having imposed on the people an 
 oath that they would not alter his laws during his ab- 
 sence, he went into voluntary exile, from which he never 
 returned. Tradition informs us that he vanished myste- 
 riously from the earth. The Spartans erected a temple 
 to him, and paid him divine honours. According to one 
 legend, he ordered his ashes to be cast into the sea after 
 his death, fearing that if his body were conveyed to 
 Sparta the Spartans might think themselves absolved 
 from their oath. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Lycurgus;" Grote, "History of 
 Greece," vol. ii. chap. vi. ; Plato, " De Legibus :" K. O. MOller, 
 ''I):e Dorier ;" Aristotle. " Politica :" Thiklwali., " History of 
 Greece;" Weichert, "Questionum Lycurgearum Specimen," 1844 ; 
 J. Wbgcum, " Politische und moraiische Betrachtungen iiber die 
 Spartanische Gesetzgebung des Lycurgus," 1763; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G^neVale." 
 
 Lycurgus, an eminent Athenian orator, born about 
 400 H.c, was the son of Lycophron. He is said to have 
 studied philosophy under Plato, and eloquence under 
 Isocrates. For about fifteen years he presided over the 
 public revenue with a high reputation for integrity and 
 financial ability. In the contest with Philip of Macedon 
 he supported the democratic party. He was one of the 
 orators whom Alexander required Athens to deliver up 
 to him in 335 B.C. This demand was firmly refused. 
 Fifteen of his orations were extant in the time of Plu- 
 tarch, and only one (that against Leocrates) has come 
 down to us. His style is noble rather than elegant. 
 Died in 323 B.C. 
 
 See NlMSN, " Ilissertatio de Lycurgi Oratoris Vita," 1813; G. A. 
 Blums, "Narratio de Lycurgo Oratore," 1834; Plutarch, "Vita; 
 Decern Oratorum." 
 
 Lyde. See Joyner, (Wii.i.iam.) 
 
 LJ^d'gate, (John,) an old English poet, born about 
 1375, became a monk of the abbey of Bury Saint Ed- 
 mund's. He was ordained a priest in 1397, after which 
 he travelled on the continent. On bis return, he opned 
 at the abbey above named a school, in which he taught 
 languages, rhetoric, and versification. He acquired a 
 high reputation as a poet. Among his numerous works 
 are "The Story of Thebes," "The Fall of Princes," and 
 the " History, Siege, and Destruction of Troy." Died 
 about 1460. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry." 
 
 LydT-at, (Thomas,) an English chronologer and 
 mathematician, was born at Okerton in 1 572. He be- 
 came rector of Okerton about 1612. During the civil 
 war he suffered persecution for his lovalty to Charles I., 
 and he died very poor in 1646. His adversities are 
 commemorated in these verses of Dr. Johnson : 
 "If dreams yet flatter, once again attend: 
 Hear Lydiat's life and Galileo's end." 
 
 Among his works (in Latin) are a Censure of Scaliger's 
 Chronology, ( " Kmendatio Temporum contra Scalige- 
 runi," 1609,) "The Period of the Sun and. Moon," and 
 "The Measurement of the Solar Year." 
 
 See Bavi.e, ** Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Wood, "Athe- 
 iwe Oxonienses ;" Nicbron, " Memoires." 
 
 Lydhis, lid'e-us, (Jakob,) a Dutch scholar of the 
 seventeenth century, was a minister of Dort He pub- 
 lished " Kelgium Gloriosum," and other works. 
 
 Ly'dus, a son of Atys and Callithea, was the sup- 
 poted ancestor "f the ancient I.ydians. 
 
 Lydus, iGr. At«5oc,] the surname of Joannes Lau- 
 rentius, ['luuifw AavpevTiof,] a Greek historical writer, 
 born at Philadelphia, in Lydia, about 490 A.D. He was 
 employed many years in various official functions in the 
 imperial palace at Constantinople. He resigned his 
 offices about 550, and afterwards wrote many works, 
 some of which are lost. An important treatise, " On the 
 Magistrates of the Roman Republic," is still extant 
 
 See Photius, " Ribliothrca ;" Fabbicius, " liibliotheca Grseca ;" 
 ' Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 tasi, 
 
 Lye, II, (Edward,) an English philologist and clergy, 
 man, born at Totness in 1704. Soon after he left college 
 he obtained the living of Houghton Parva, and in 1750 
 became vicar of Yardley Hastings. He acquired dis- 
 tinction by his researches into the Saxon language and 
 literature. In 1743 he published the " Etymologicon 
 Anglicanttm," which Francis Junius had left in manu- 
 script. His chief work is his "Anglo-Saxon and Gothic 
 Dictionary," (1772.) Died in 1767. 
 
 Ly'ell, (Chari.es,) a Scottish botanist, born about 
 1767, resided at Kinnordy, Forfarshire. He was the 
 father of the geologist of the same name. Died in 1S49. 
 
 Lyell, (Sir Chari.es,) an eminent British geologist, 
 a son of the preceding, was born at Kinnordy, in Forfar- 
 shire, in November, 1797. He graduated at Oxford in 
 1821, and studied law, but soon relinquished the prac- 
 tice of that profession in order to devote his time to 
 geology. About 1826 he began to contribute to the 
 " Transactions of the Geological Society" a series of 
 papers which display superior powers of observation 
 and comparison, and in 1830 published the first volume 
 of his important work, " Principles of Geology," (3 
 vols., 1830-33,) which was very favourably received. It 
 reached the fifth edition in 1837. He afterwards divided 
 the work into two parts, one of which was published 
 under the title of "Elements of Geology," (1838.) In a 
 subsequent edition the name was changed to "Manual 
 of Elementary Geology." It is generally admitted that 
 his work contributed much to place geology on a philo- 
 sophical basis as an inductive science. Having visited 
 the United States in 1841, he lectured on geology at Bos- 
 ton, and after his return published "Travels in North 
 America, with Geological Observations on the United 
 States, Canada, and Nova Scotia," (2 vols., 1845.) He 
 also wrote many treatises on the geology of America, 
 which were printed in the " Transactions" of the Geo- 
 logical Society, and in other journals. In 1845 he made 
 another excursion to the United States, the result of 
 which was a " Second Visit to the United States," (2 
 vols., 1849.) Both of these books of travel contain much 
 to interest the general reader. Mr. Lyell was knighted 
 in 1848. He was elected president of the Geological 
 Society in 1836, and again in 1850. He published in 
 1863 " The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of 
 Man, with Remarks on Theories of the Origin of Species 
 by Variation." He was formerly prominent among the 
 opponents of the "development" or Darwinian theory; 
 but within the last few years he has changed his views 
 in that respect. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale :" " Edinburgh Review" for 
 July, 1839, and July, 1863; "London Quarterly Review" for July, 
 1849, and October, 1851 ; "North British Review" for February, 
 1851 ; " North American Review" for October, 1S45. 
 
 Ly'ford, (Wii.i.iam,) an English clergyman, born in 
 Berkshire about 1598. He became a Calvinistic minister 
 at Sherborne, Dorsetshire, and wrote several works, one 
 of which is called " Principles of Faith and of a Good 
 Conscience." Died in 1653. 
 
 Lykurgos, le-koor'gos, (Logothetis,) a modern 
 Greek patriot, born in the island of Samos in 1772. 
 Soon after the breaking out of the war of independence 
 in Greece, (1821,) he was chosen commander-in-chief of 
 the army in Samos. He was also appointed civil and 
 military governor of the island, which office he held till 
 1826. He afterwards became a senator under the new 
 monarchy of Greece. Died in 1850. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Lykurgus or Lykurgos. See Lycurgus. 
 
 Lyly. (John.) See Lilly, (John.) 
 
 Ly'mah, (Piiinf.as,) an American officer, born at 
 Durham, in Connecticut, in 1716. He served with dis- 
 tinction against the French in Canada under General 
 Johnson, Abercrombie, and others, and attained the 
 rank of major-general. Died in 1775. 
 
 Lyna. See Hlina. 
 
 Lynacer. See Linacre, 
 
 Lynar, von, fon lee'naR, (Frif.drich,) Count, a 
 German statesman and scholar, born in Lower Lusatia 
 in 1708. He held several high offices in Denmark 
 between 1740 and 1749. He wrote political treatises, 
 "Travels in Germany," etc. Died in 1781. 
 
 c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K.gutturj/; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in (Ail. (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LTNCEE 
 
 1476 
 
 LYONS 
 
 Lyncee. See Lynceus. 
 
 Lyn'ceus, [ Or. Avyitcic ; Fr. Lync£e, Un'sI', ] a 
 king of Argos, was a son of jEgyptus, and married 
 Hypermnestra, one of the Danaides. She saved his life 
 when her forty-nine sisters killed their husbands. (See 
 Danaides.) 
 
 Lynceus, one of the Argonauts, was a son of Apha- 
 reus, and celebrated for his keenness of sight. He was 
 killed by Pollux. 
 
 Lynch, (John,) a learned Irish priest and writer, 
 born at Galway about 1600. He took refuge in France 
 in 1652, and returned to Ireland after the restoration, 
 (1660.) He wrote a historical work in Latin, entitled 
 "Cambrensis Eversus," (1662,) and other works. Died 
 in 1674. 
 
 Lynch, (Thomas,) one of the signers of the Declara- 
 tion of American Independence, was born in Prince 
 George's Parish, South Carolina, in 1749. He gradu- 
 ated at Cambridge, England, and soon after his return 
 was appointed to the command of a company in the first 
 South Carolina regiment of provincial regulars. He 
 was elected to the Congress of 1776. While on a voyage 
 for his health, he was lost at sea in 1779. 
 
 Lynch, (William F.,) an American naval officer, 
 born in Virginia about 1805. He set out in 1847 on 
 an expedition to explore the shores of the Dead Sea, 
 of which he published an interesting account, entitled 
 " Narrative of the United States Expedition to the River 
 Jordan and the Dead Sea," (1849.) Died in 1865. 
 
 Lyncker, von, fon llnk'er, (Nikolaus Chkistoph,) 
 a German jurist, born at Marburg in 1643. He was a 
 member of the aulic council at Vienna, and wrote many 
 legal works. Died in 1726. 
 
 Lynde, ltnd, (Sir Humphry,) an English author, born 
 in Dorsetshire in 1579. He was a member of Parliament 
 for several years. He published "Ancient Characters 
 of the Visible Church," and " Via Tuta, or the Safe 
 Way," which was often reprinted. Died in 1636. 
 
 Lynd'hurst, (John Singleton Copley,) Lord, an 
 eminent English statesman, born at lioston, Massachu- 
 setts, in 1772, was the son of the distinguished painter 
 John S. Copley, who took him to England about 1775. 
 He was educated at Cambridge, and chose the profes- 
 sion of law, Having gradually risen to be the leader 
 of the Midland circuit, he was elected to Parliament as 
 a Tory in 1S1S, and appointed solicitor-general in 1819, 
 when he was also knighted. Sir John became attorney- 
 general in 1824, and was returned to Parliament by the 
 University of Cambridge in 1826. After opposing the bill 
 for Catholic emancipation, he accepted the office of lord 
 chancellor in the Liberal ministry of Canning in April, 
 1827, and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Lyndhurst. 
 Having been retained in his office by the Duke of Wel- 
 lington, he voted in concurrence with his colleagues for 
 Catholic emancipation in 1829. In November, 1830, the 
 Liberal party, under Earl Grey, came into power, and 
 Lord Lyndhurst was deprived of the great seal ; but 
 in 1831 he was appointed chief baron of the exchequer. 
 He made an able speech against the Reform bill in 1832. 
 In the court of exchequer he displayed eminent judicial 
 qualifications. He was again lord chancellor during the 
 brief ministry of Sir Robert Peel in 1834. In August, 
 1841, Sir Robert became premier, and Lord Lyndhurst 
 lord chancellor, of a new Conservative ministry, which 
 was deprived of power by the triumph of the Whigs in 
 1846. After that date, until near his death, he was one 
 of the most prominent orators of his party in the House 
 of Lords. He advocated the prosecution of the Russian 
 war (1854-56) in several eloquent speeches. Died in 1863. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Life of Lord Lyndhurst," 1869; Fuss. 
 " The Judges of England." vol. ix. ; " Biographical Sketches from 
 tin- Note- Book of a Law Reporter," by W. H. Bennett, London, 
 1867. 
 
 Lyndsay. See Lindsay. 
 
 Lynedoch, lin'doK, (Thomas Graham,) Baron, a 
 British general, born in Perthshire in 1750. Having 
 obtained the rank of general, he served under Sir John 
 Moore in Portugal in 1808-9. He gained a victory at 
 Barossa in 181 1, and commanded the left wing at the 
 battle of Vitoria, in 1813. He was raised to the peerage 
 in 1814. Died in 1843. 
 
 Ljta'wood, L^nd'wood, or Lin'wood, (Wil- 
 liam,) an English canonist, and Bishop of Saint David's. 
 Died in 1446. 
 
 Ly'on, (George Francis,) an English navigator, 
 born iti Sussex in 1795, entered the navy in his youth. 
 In 1818-19 he was the companion of J. Ritchie in an 
 expedition into the interior of Africa, of which he pub- 
 lished an account in 1821. Captain Lyon commanded 
 one of the ships in Parry's voyage to the Northern 
 Ocean, (1821-23,) and kept a journal, which was pub- 
 lished. Both of the works above named are commended. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1S21. 
 
 Ly'on, (Mary,) a meritorious teacher, born at Buck- 
 land, Massachusetts, in 1797, was the founder of the 
 Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in that State. It was 
 opened in 1837, and soon acquired a very high reputa- 
 tion and extensive patronage. " She presided for years 
 over an admirable school," says Allen. Died at South 
 Hadley in 1849. 
 
 See Dr. Humphrey's " Lifeof Mary Lyon," and "Recollections 
 nf Mary Lyon," by Miss F. Fisk, Boston* 1866; Allen's "Amer- 
 ican Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 Lyon, (Matthew,) born in Wicklow county, Ireland, 
 in 1746, emigrated to America, where he served in the 
 Revolutionary war and distinguished himself as a poli- 
 tician of the Democratic party. Died in 1822. 
 
 Lyon, (Nathaniel,) an able American general, born 
 at Ashfoid. Windham county, Connecticut, in July, 1 819, 
 graduated at West Point in 1841. He served in the 
 Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a captain in 1851. 
 Early in 1861 he was placed in command of the United 
 States Arsenal at Saint Louis, where he rendered im- 
 portant services to the cause of the Union. He captured 
 a large band of secessionists at Camp Jackson, Missouri, 
 in May, and was appointed commander of the depart- 
 ment of Missouri in June, 1861. He defeated the insur- 
 gents at Booneville, June 17, after which he marched to 
 Springfield. He commanded an army of about 6000 
 men which engaged a superior force at Wilson's Creek, 
 where he was killed, August 10, 1861. His loss was 
 deeply lamented as a national disaster. He left by will 
 about thirty thousand dollars to the public treasury. 
 
 See Tennev, 'Miliary History of the Rebellion;" "Last Po- 
 litical Writings, etc. of Nathaniel Lyon," New York, 1861. 
 
 Lyonnet, le'o'nj', (Pierre,) a skilful anatomist, natu- 
 ralist, and engraver, of French origin, was born at Maes- 
 tricht in 1707. He studied law, and was employed at 
 the Hague as secretary and translator for Latin and 
 French by the government. About 1760 he published 
 an "Anatomical Treatise on the Caterpillar which eats 
 the Willow," which, says Cuvier, "is among the master- 
 pieces of human industry." The engravings are ex- 
 quisitely neat and delicate. Died in 1789. 
 
 See P. H. Marron, "Notice biographique sur P. Lyonnet," 
 1705; Touhdak, in the "Biographie Medicale," vol. vi. ; " Non- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Lyonnet, (Robert,) a French physician, born at 
 Puy-en-Velay. He became physician to Louis XIII., 
 and published a treatise on the Plague, (1639.) 
 
 Ly'ons, (Edmund,) Lord, a British admiral, born 
 near Christchurch, Hants, in 1790. He entered the 
 navy about -1801. In 181 1 he performed a daring exploit 
 when he captured by storm the Dutch fort Marrack in 
 the island of Java. He became a post-captain in 1814, 
 after which a long peace followed. In 1828 he com- 
 manded a vessel at the blockade of Navarino. He was 
 knighted in 1835, and appointed minister-plenipotentiary 
 to the court of Athens, where he remained until 1849. 
 At the beginning of the war against Russia, (1853,) Sir 
 Edmund was appointed second in command in the Black 
 Sea. His ship, the Agamemnon, was engaged with the 
 enemy on the shore at the battle of Alma, in September, 
 1854. He planned a successful expedition against the 
 forts on the Sea of Azov, and became commander-in- 
 chief of the fleet in June, 1855. He was raised to the 
 peerage, as Baron Lyons of Christchurch, in 1856. Died 
 in 1858. 
 
 Lyons, (Israel,) a Polish Jew, taught Hebrew in the 
 University of Cambridge, and published a Hebrew 
 Grammar. Died in 1770. 
 
 3, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; 3, e, I, o, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
LTONS 
 
 •477 
 
 LrSONS 
 
 Lyons, (Israel,) an English botanist and mathema- 
 tician, born at Cambridge in 1739, was the son of the 
 preceding. He published a "Treatise on Fluxions," 
 and a work on the plants growing near Cambridge. At 
 the invitation of Sir Joseph Hanks, he went to Oxford 
 about 1762, and lectured there on botany. The bureau 
 of longitude selected him to accompany Captain Phipps 
 in a voyage towards the North Pole in 1773. Died in 
 1775- 
 
 Lyons, (Richard Bickerton Pemkli,) Lord, a 
 son ot Edmund, noticed above, was born in 1817, and 
 inherited the title of baron in 1858. He was ambassador 
 to the United States from 1859 to 1865. About the end 
 of 1865 he was sent in the same capacity to Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 Lyra, de, deh le'ra", (Nicolas,) a French monk and 
 exegctical writer of high reputation, born at Lyre in 
 the thirteenth century. He was a good Hebrew and 
 Greek scholar. He wrote a commentary on the Bible, 
 " I'ostillae Perpetuae," which was esteemed and often 
 repi inted. The first edition appeared at Rome in 1472, 
 (5 vols.) Died in Paris in 1340. 
 Lys. See Lis. 
 
 Ly-san'der, [Gr. Aeowrfpor; Fr. Lysandre, le'- 
 zONdk' ; Ger. Lysandros, le-zan'dkos,] one of the ablest 
 generals and statesmen of ancient Sparta, makes his 
 first appearance in history near the close of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war. In 407 B.c'he was chosen commander of 
 the fleet, with which he gained a victory over the Athe- 
 nians at Notium in that year. He made himself very 
 popular with the Persian allies of Sparta, and he de- 
 feated the Athenian fleet in a decisive battle at /Egos- 
 potami in 405. In 404 he captured Athens, and changed 
 its democracy into an oligarchy ruled by thirty archons, 
 (usually called the Thirty Tyrants.) He was then the 
 most powerful man in Greece, but soon found an able 
 rival in Agesilaus, who became King of Sparta in 398 
 B.C. and thwarted his ambitions designs. Lysander 
 meditated a revolution in Sparta by the abolition of 
 hereditary royalty. Before his design was matured, he 
 was appointed commander of an army sent against the 
 Thebans, and was killed in battle at' Haliartus in 395 
 B.C. In Plutarch's " Lives" Lysander is brought into 
 comparison with the Roman Sufla. 
 
 'Hellenics;" Cornelius Nepos, "Vita Lysan- 
 4 A'cibiades and Ljrsandros." 1S45: Plutarch, 
 ' Thiklwall, " History of Greece." 
 
 Lysandre. See Lysander. 
 
 Lysandros, the German of Lysander, which see. 
 
 Lyschander or Lyscander, lis-kaVder, (Claudius 
 Chrlstophorskn,) a Danish chronicler, born in 1557. 
 He wrote a "Chronicle of Greenland," in Danish verse, 
 (1608,) and flattered the national vanity in a fabulous 
 work on the genealogy of the Danish kimjs, entitled 
 "Synopsis of Danish History," ("Synopsis Historic 
 Danicae," 1622.) Died in 1623. 
 
 Lyser, lee'zer, originally Leonhardt, la'on-haRt', 
 (CAROLINE,) a German authoress, born at Dresden in 
 1817. Among her works are fugitive poems, " Sketches 
 of Character for German Matrons and Maids," (1838,) 
 and " Albert Diner," a drama, (1840.) 
 
 Lyser, [MlCHAEL,) a German anatomist, born at 
 I-eip'sic about 1650. He published a good manual of 
 anatomy, entitled' "Culter Anatomicus," (1653.) He 
 ■bares with Bartholin the honour of the discovery of 
 the lymphatic vessel*. 
 
 Lyser or Lyserus, (Polycarp.) See Leyser. 
 
 Lysias, lish'e-as, |AiNn'«f,J one of the ten Athenian 
 orators, was born at Athens in 458 It.C, and was the son 
 of Cephalus, in whose house Plato placed the scene of 
 his famous dialogue "On the Republic." From 443 until 
 411 he lived at Thorium, in Italy, from which he was 
 expelled by the victorious Spartans at the latter date. 
 He then returned to Athens, where his property was 
 confiscated by the Thirty Tyrants, who would have put 
 him to death if he had not escaped, 404 n.c. Soon after 
 that date he united with Thrasybulus in the expulsion 
 of the Thirty, and opened a school of rhetoric in Athens. 
 His orations, amounting to more than two hundred, 
 were mostly composed after his return to Athens, (411.) 
 Thirty-five of these have come down to us. Lysias 
 
 See Xknophok, ' 
 dri:" W. Viscuhr, 
 " Life of Agesilaus ; 
 
 died at Athens about 378 B.C., leaving a high reputation 
 as a writer of orations, only one of which, it is said, was 
 spoken by him. His diction is eminently graceful, pure, 
 and perspicuous. " He resembles," says Quintilian, 
 " rather a pure fountain than a great river," (" puro fonti 
 quam magno flumini propior.") 
 
 See Plutarch, "Vitar Decern Oratorum ;" Franz, " Dissertatio 
 de Lysis Oratore Attico," (in Greek,) 1S3S; Suidas, "Lysias:" 
 L. Hoklscher, "Dissertatio de Lysias Vita et Dictione," 1837; 
 "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Ly-sic'ra-tes, [Araocparr/c,] an Athenian, who lived 
 about 335 B.C., and whose name has been preserved by 
 means of a beautiful choragic monument built for him at 
 Athens. It has been commonly called "the Lantern of 
 Deniosthenes," from a tradition that he used it as a 
 place of study. 
 
 Ly-sim'a-€hus, [Gr. Avai/iaxoc ; Fr. Lysimaque, 
 le'ze'mfk',] King of Thrace, was born in Macedonia 
 about 355 B.C. In his youth he was so distinguished 
 for courage and strength that Alexander the Great 
 chose him as one of his body-guards. In the division of 
 provinces at the death of Alexander, (323,) Lysimachus 
 obtained Thrace and some adjacent districts. In 315 
 he joined Seleucus, Cassander, and Ptolemy in a coali- 
 tion against Antigonus. Lysimachus marched into Asia 
 Minor, formed a junction with Seleucus, and fought a 
 battle at Ipsus in 301 n.c, where Antigonus was defeated 
 and killed. By this victory he acquired the northwest- 
 ern part of Asia Minor. Demetrius of Macedon having 
 been defeated and dethroned by the allied armies of 
 Lysimachus, Pyrrhus, and Seleucus, the first annexed 
 Macedon to his dominions in 286. He was soon after 
 involved in a war with Seleucus, and was killed in battle 
 at Corupedion in 281 B.C. 
 
 See Arrian, "Anabasis;" Justin, "History," books xiii., xv., 
 and xviii. : Diodokus Siculus, books xviii., xix.. and xx. 
 
 Lysimaque. See Lysimachus. 
 
 Lysippe. See Lysippus. 
 
 Ly-sip'pus, a Greek poet of the old comedy, born in 
 Arcadia, flourished about 434 B.C. 
 
 Lysippus, [Gr. Avoitztto^ ; Fr. Lysippe, le'zep',] a 
 Greek statuary of great celebrity, was born at Sicyon, 
 and flourished in the reign of Alexander the Great, about 
 330 B.C. He formed his style by the imitation of nature, 
 without much respect to the conventionalities of the 
 schools. His statues, according to Pliny, amounted to 
 six hundred and ten, all or nearly all of which were of 
 bronze. None of his works are now extant. Among 
 his master-pieces, described by Pliny, Pausanias, and 
 others, were colossal statues of Zeus and Hercules, a 
 statue of Time or Opportunity, (Kaipoc,) and several 
 images of Alexander the Great, who is said to have 
 issued an edict that no one should make his statue but 
 Lysippus. 
 
 See Pliny, "Natural History," book xxxiv. : Pausanias, i., ii , 
 vi., and ix.; Sii.i.ig, " Catalogus ;" Naolsr, " Allgemeines Kiinst- 
 ler-I.exikon;" "Nouvelle Bici K >apbie Generale." 
 
 Ly'sis, [AiTicI an eminent Greek philosopher, born 
 at Tarentum, lived about 400 B.C. He is said fo have 
 received lessons from Pythagoras. Having been driven 
 from Italy by persecution, he settled at Thebes, and be- 
 c?me the teacher of Epaminondas. 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Philosophy;" Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 Lysistrate. See Lysistratus. 
 
 Ly-sis'tra-tus,[Fr. Lys'is irate, le'ze'stRaV,] a Greek 
 statuary of Sicyon, was a brother of Lysippus, and flour- 
 ished about 425 B.C. He is said to have been the first 
 who used gypsum moulds in the formation of wax 
 figures. 
 
 Ly'sons, (Daniel,) an English physician, practised 
 at Bath, where he died in 1800. He had published several 
 medical treat ises, 
 
 Lysons, (Rev. Daniel,) an English topographical 
 writer, born at Rodmarton in 1760, was a nephew of the 
 preceding. 1 le published a valuable work entitled " The 
 Environs of London," (1792-96,) and became rector of 
 Rodmarton. In partnership with his brother Samuel, 
 he published another excellent topographical work, 
 "Great Britain," ("Magna Britannia," 1806-22.) Died 
 in 1834. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for Augiut, 1807. and January, 181a. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as »; th as in Ms. (2^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
LTSONS 
 
 1478 
 
 MACADAM 
 
 Lysons, (Samuel,) an English antiquary, brother 
 of the preceding, was born at Rodmarton in 1763. He 
 was one of the directors of the Society of Antiquaries. 
 About 1804 he was chosen keeper of the records of 
 the Tower of London. His principal work is "Great 
 Britain," ("Magna Britannia, 1806-22,) in which he 
 was aided by his brother Daniel. Died in 1819. 
 
 Lyte, (Henry,) an English botanist, born in Somer- 
 setshire in 1529. He published, in 1578, an English 
 version of Dodoen's " History of Plants," with many 
 engravings. Died in 1607. 
 
 Lytle, li'tel, (William Haines,) an American gene- 
 ral, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1826. He served as 
 colonel in Western Virginia in 1861, and was wounded 
 at Perry ville, Kentucky, in October, 1862. He was killed 
 at the battle of Chickamauga, September 20, 1863. 
 
 Lyt'tle-ton or LyVtel-ton, (Charles,) an English 
 antiquary, born at Hagley in 1714, was a brother of Lord 
 George, noticed below. He became Bishop of Carlisle 
 in 1762. Died in 1768. 
 
 Lyttleton or Lyttelton, (George,) Lord, an Eng- 
 lish author and statesman, born in 1709, was the eldest 
 son of Sir Thomas Lyttleton, of Hagley, in Worcester- 
 shire, and a descendant of the great jurist Littleton. 
 About 1730 he entered Parliament, where he became a 
 successful speaker and acted with the opponents of 
 Walpole. He was afterwards secretary to Frederick, 
 
 Prince of Wales, and in 1744 was appointed a lord of 
 the treasury. In 1747 he published "Observations on 
 the Conversion and Apostleship of Saint Paul," a work 
 of superior merit. He was chancellor of the exchequer 
 for several months in 1756, and resigned that office (for 
 which he was not well qualified) when Pitt became prime 
 minister. In 1759 he was created Baron Lyttleton. He 
 was author of a popular work entitled " Dialogues 
 of the Dead," (1760,) of a valuable "History of Henry 
 II.," and of several poems, "which," says Dr. Johnson, 
 " have nothing to be despised, and little to be admired." 
 Died in 1773. 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets;" Phillimorh, " Life of Lord 
 Lyttleton," 1845; "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1&46; 
 "Monthly Review" for April and May, 1772, and December, 1774. 
 
 Lyttleton, (Thomas.) See Littleton. 
 
 Lyttleton, (Thomas,) Lord, a son of Lord George, 
 noticed above, was born about 1744. The day of his 
 death is said to have been announced to him three days 
 before it occurred, by means of a dream or vision. Died 
 in 1779. 
 
 Lytton, Lord. See Bulwer, (Edward.) 
 
 Lyveden, llv'den, (Robert Vernon Smith,) Lord, 
 born in London in 1800, was a nephew of the famous 
 Rev. Sydney Smith. He represented Northampton as 
 a Liberal member of Parliament from 1831 to 1859, and 
 was secretary at war for a few months in 1852. 
 
 M. 
 
 Maan, mdN, (Jean,) a French historian and eccle- 
 siastic, born at Mans, became canon of Tours in 1648. 
 
 Maanen, van, vSn ma'nen, (Cornelis Felix,) a 
 Dutch statesman, born at the Hague in 1769. After the 
 accession of King William he was made president of 
 the Assembly of Notables, and minister of justice, (1815.) 
 His unpopular measures contributed to bring about the 
 Belgian revolution, and in 1830 he resigned his office. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Maas, mis, (Arnoultvan Aart,) a Dutch painter 
 and engraver, born at Gouda about 1620, was a pupil of 
 D. Teniers. Died after 1650. 
 
 See Pn.KiNGTON, "Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Maas or Maes, nils, (Dirk or Diedrik,) a Dutch 
 painter, born at Haarlem in 1656, was a pupil of Berg- 
 hem and Huchtenburgh. He excelled in battle-pieces 
 and hunting-scenes. Died in 1715. 
 
 See Pilkington, " Dictionary of Painters ;" Descamps, " Vies 
 des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Maas or Maes, mis, (GoDFRlED,) a skilful Flemish 
 painter of history, born at Antwerp in 1660, was a pupil 
 of his father. He was chosen a director of the Academy 
 in 1682, and acquired a fair reputation as an artist. He 
 died in 1722, or, according to some authorities, about 
 1 7 10. . 
 
 Maas or Maes,(NicoLAAS,) an eminent Dutch painter 
 of genre and portraits, born at Dort in 1632, was a pupil 
 of Rembrandt. In his youth he imitated the manner 
 of that master with success. He afterwards adopted a 
 different style. About 1678 he removed to Amsterdam, 
 where he applied himself chiefly to portraits and became 
 a fashionable artist. Died in 1693. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Maass, miss, (Johann Gebhard Ehrfnreich,) a 
 German philosopher and savant, born near Halberstadt 
 in 1766. He became professor of philosophy at Halle 
 in 179S, and published, besides other works, "Essays on 
 the Imagination," (1792,) the " Passions," (1805-07,) and 
 the "Sentiments," (181 1.) Died in 1823. 
 
 Mabellini, ma-bel-lee'nee, (Giovanni Battista 
 Carlo Maria,) an Italian Hellenist, known in France 
 by the name of Ahhe Mahi.in or Mabi.ini, was born 
 in Piedmont in 1774. He was professor of Greek in 
 Paris, where he died in 1834. 
 
 Mabil or Mabille, ma-beel' or mi'bel', (Pierre 
 Louis,) a learned writer, of Italian extraction, was born 
 in Paris in 1752. He made a good translation of Livy 
 into Italian, and published " Mabiliania,"'"The Influence 
 
 of Poetry on the Customs of Nations," (1804,) and other 
 works. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri;" Catullo, 
 "Cenni biografici del Cavaliere P. L. Mabil," 1836. 
 
 Mabillon, m&'be'yAN', (Jean,) a very learned French 
 author, born in the diocese of Rheims in 1632, became a 
 Benedictine monk. In 1685 he visited Italy, by order of 
 the king, to collect manuscripts and historical documents, 
 and on his return published his "Museum Italicum," 
 (1687-S9.) His "Treatise on Monastic Studies" (1691) 
 was received with favour. Among his most important 
 works is a treatise on Diplomatics, (1681.) Died in 1707. 
 
 See Chavin de Malan, " Histoire de Mabillon," 1S43; J. La- 
 bouderie, "Notice sur Dom Mabillon;" Thierry Ruinart, 
 "Abrege de la Vie de Doin J. Mabillon," 1709; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 grapllie Generale." 
 
 Mably, de, deh mt'ble', (Gabriel Bonnot,) Ai:i;e, 
 a French historical writer, born at Grenoble in 1709, 
 was a brother of Etienne Bonnot de Condillac. He 
 became a resident of Paris in his youth, and produced 
 in 1740 his "Parallel between the Romans and French 
 in Respect to Government," which was very successful. 
 In 1 743 he negotiated a secret treaty with Prussia against 
 Austria. Among his numerous works are "Observations 
 on the Romans," (1751,) and "Observations on the His- 
 tory of France," (1765.) Died in 1785. 
 
 See L. Barthri.emv, "Vie privee de Mably," 1791 : Brizard, 
 " Filoge de Mably," 1787; P. C. LeVhsque, " FJoge historique de 
 l'Abbe" de Mably," 1787 : Qu^rard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Maboul, mt'bool', (Jacques,) a French pulpit orator, 
 Bishop of Alet, born in Paris about 1650; died in 1723. 
 
 Mabuse, mi'btiz', or Maubeuge, mo'buzh', (Jan,) 
 a famous Flemish painter, whose family name was Ges- 
 sart or Gassaert, was born at Maubeuge in 1499. He 
 is said to have studied in Italy. He worked in Middel- 
 burg and in London, where he painted portraits of the 
 royal family in the reign of Henry VIII., and historical 
 pictures, which are still admired. Among his master- 
 pieces was a "Descent from the Cross," which was de- 
 stroyed by lightning at Middelburg, and "The Wise 
 Men's Offering," now owned by the Earl of Carlisle. 
 His habits were very intemperate and prodigal. Died 
 about 1562. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; Pierart, 
 "Recherches historiques sur Maubeuge," 1853. 
 
 Macaber, mS'ka-ber, a German poet, was the author 
 of a work called "The Dance of Death." 
 
 Mac-ad'am, (John Loudon,) a Scottish surveyor, 
 noted for his improvement in roads, was born in Ayr- 
 shire in 1756. He made the first macadamized toads, 
 
 i , e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, it, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MAC AIRE 
 
 '479 
 
 MACAULAY 
 
 near Bristol, about iSiq, and explained his system in his 
 " Essay on the Scientific Repair and Preservation of 
 Public Roads," (1819.) In 1827 he was made general 
 surveyor of the metropolitan roads, and afterwards re- 
 ceived a grant of ^10,000 for his services. Died in 1836. 
 See " Annual Register," 1S36 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale :" 
 Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Sup- 
 plement ) 
 
 Macaire. See Macarius. 
 
 Mac-a-nal'ly\ (David Rice,) an American Methodist 
 divine, born in Granger county, Tennessee, in 1810. He 
 ha: published "Sketches of the Life and Character of 
 Mi-. Ramsay," and other biographical works. 
 
 Mac-Ar'dell, (JAMES,) an excellent English engraver 
 in mezzotinto, born about 17 10. He engraved portraits 
 of many eminent contemporaries, and subjects after Rem- 
 brandt, Van Dyck, Murillo, and other masters. Among 
 his works are "Moses on the Nile," after Van Dyck, and 
 an "Assumption," after Murillo. Died in 1765. Of 
 MacArdell Basan observes that he "was one of the best 
 engravers in mezzotinto that England ever produced." 
 
 See Strutt, article " Ardell" in his "Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Macarel, mfkfrSI', (I.ouis Antoine,) a French 
 jurist, born at Orleans in 1790. He published, besides 
 other works, " Elements of Administrative Jurispru- 
 dence," (1818.) Died in 1851. 
 
 Ma-ca'rI-us, [Gr. Ma/tupwc; Fr. Macaire, mS'kAR',1 
 an eminent ascetic or hermit of Egypt, born about 300 
 A.D., has been canonized as a saint by the Catholic 
 Church. Fifty extant Greek homilies are ascribed to 
 him. Died about 390 A.D. 
 
 Another Saint Macarius, called Junior, lived at 
 Alexandria in the fourth century, and was noted for 
 his ascetic piety. He is supposed to Ire the author of a 
 work called the "Rule of Saint Macarius." 
 
 See Tii.lemont, " MtSmoires ;" Chillier, " Histoire des Auteurs 
 s.icre* ;" Sciiattem an, " Leven van den H. Macarius," 1623 ; Gkn- 
 NAlMfs, "De Viris illustribus." 
 
 Mac-ar'thur, (DrxcAN,) an American soldier and 
 statesman, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1772. 
 He served in the war of 1812, and rose to the rank of 
 brigadier-general. He was elected Governor of Ohio 
 in 1830. Died in 1S40. 
 
 Mac-Ar'thur, (John,) a general, born in Scotland 
 about 1826, emigrated to Illinois about i8;o. He com- 
 manded a brigade of the Union army at Shiloh, April, 
 1862, and at Corinth, in October of the same vear. 
 
 MacArthur, (John,) a distinguished architect, born 
 at Hladenoch, in Wigtonshire, Scotland, May 13, 1823, 
 came to Philadelphia when only ten years of age. He 
 learned the business of a carpenter, and studied drawing 
 and architecture in his evenings. In 1848 he was 
 awarded the first premium for his plan of a new House 
 1 f Refuge, and was given the entire charge of the erection 
 < f the building. Among the prominent buildings erected 
 by him in Philadelphia, we may name the Continental 
 Hotel and Jayne's splendid mansion at the corner of 
 Nineteenth and Chestnut streets. He was architect for 
 tl e war department during the war, and after its close 
 for the navy department, for which he built the Naval 
 Hospital at Philadelphia, and other similar works. 
 
 Mac-art'ney, (GeoROK.) Lord, a statesman, of Scot- 
 tish descent, born near Belfast) Ireland, in 1737. He 
 •ras elected to Parliament in 176S, and appointed chief 
 secretary for Ireland in 1760.. In 1775 he was chosen 
 nor of the island of Granada, which the French 
 captured from him in 1779. From December, 17S0, to 
 1786, he was Governor of Madras. He was appointed 
 Governor-General of India, as successor to Warren 
 Hastings, but declined on account of ill health. His 
 most remarkable public service was his embassy to 
 . where he arrived in August, 1793, being the first 
 English ambassador to that court. He refused to pros- 
 trate himself Ijefore the emperor, according to Chinese 
 eii(|tiette. Though he failed to obtain a commercial 
 treaty, he maintained his reputation as an able negotiator, 
 lie was raised to the peerage, as Karon Macartney, in 
 1700. He died in 1806, after which appeared a "Jour- 
 nal of the Embassy to China in 1792-94." 
 
 See an "Account of the Public Life, etc. of Lord Macartney." 
 •; Harrow. i?o?; "Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale ;" 
 •' Monthly Review" for August and September, 1808. 
 
 Macaulay, ma-kaw'le, (Catharinf,) an English 
 authoress, whose maiden name was Sawbridge, was 
 born in Kent in 1733. She was married to Dr. George 
 Macaulay, of London, about 1760, and published a 
 " History of England from the Accession of fames I. to 
 the Elevation of the House of Hanover," (1763,) which 
 is favourable to republicanism. In 1785 she visited 
 Washington at Mount Vernon. She wrote several po- 
 litical treatises. " Her history," says T. B. Macaulay, 
 "is more distinguished by zeal than either by candour 
 or skill." Died in 1791. 
 
 See Wilkes, "Life and Letters;" " Monthly Review" for March 
 1765, May, 1769, and August, 1771. 
 
 Macaulay, (Thomas Bapinoton,) Baron, an emi- 
 nent English scholar, critic, and historian, was born at 
 Rothley Temple, in Leicestershire, October 25, 1800. 
 His father, Zachary Macaulay, was a native of Scotland, 
 of Highland descent ; his mother, Selina Mills, the 
 daughter of a bookseller of Bristol, was of a Quaker 
 family. His home education was religious and somewhat 
 austere. Mrs. Hannah More, who was intimate with 
 his parents, has given in her letters many interesting 
 particulars of the future historian. From his earliest 
 childhood he was passionately fond of poetry, — so much 
 so that he could hardly be prevailed on to read prose. 
 Later, however, we find him deeply interested in history, 
 and warmly discussing with a friend of his own age the 
 respective merits of Marlborough and other eminent 
 commanders. (See " Letters of Hannah More to Zach- 
 ary Macaulav, containing Notices of Lord Macaulay's 
 Youth," i860.) 
 
 When about twelve years of age, he was placed under 
 
 ! the instruction of Mr. 'Preston, with whom he laid the 
 
 I foundations of his acquaintance with the classics. At 
 
 ! eighteen he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where 
 
 he greatly distinguished himself, having twice won the 
 
 j chancellor's medal for English verse,— the first time for 
 
 a poem on " Pompeii," in 1819, the second for one on 
 
 , "Evening," in 1820. He graduated as B.A. in 1822, and 
 
 soon after was chosen a Fellow of his college. He 
 
 studied law at Lincoln's Inn, and was admitted to the 
 
 J bar in 1826. "The Battle of Ivry," one of the most 
 
 universally admired of his shorter poems, was published 
 
 in "Knight's Quarterly Magazine" in 1824. In 1825 he 
 
 j contributed to the " Edinburgh Review" an article on 
 
 Milton, which at once placed him in the foremost rank 
 
 of the most distinguished essayists of the age. This 
 
 was the commencement of that splendid and fascinating 
 
 series of review-articles, the publication of which mavbe 
 
 said to form an era in the history of literature, when for 
 
 the first time the critical or historic essay threatened to 
 
 bear away the palm of popularity from the most brilliant 
 
 works of fiction. 
 
 Macaulay entered Parliament in 1830,3s a representa- 
 tive of the borough of Calne. While at Cambridge he 
 had distinguished himself as an orator, and he now more 
 than justified the high expectations which his friends 
 had formed of his parliamentary career. His speeches 
 on the Reform bill (in 1830-32) established his fame as 
 an able and eloquent speaker. It is said, however, that, 
 owing to his rapid and somewhat monotonous delivery, 
 his speeches were more effective and convincing when 
 they appeared in print than when spoken in the House 
 of Commons. One of his most remarkable efforts was 
 his great speech (1833) on tlle bill for 'he renewal of the 
 charter of the East India Company. He was soon after 
 made a member of the supreme council of India, and 
 placed at the head of the law commission to prepare a 
 new code for the government of that country. Although 
 it was found impossible to carry into immediate effect 
 many of the reforms which he sought to introduce, his 
 efforts in this cause have not been without important 
 results. Since the government of India was transferred 
 to the imperial crown, his code has been made the basis 
 of the legal system of the country. His sojourn in India 
 (from 1835 to 1838) had made him acquainted with its 
 history and with the character of its various peoples ; 
 and to the knowledge thus acquired in a field hitherto 
 untrodden by him, we are indebted for two of his most 
 effective and most brilliant essays, — those on Clive and 
 Warren Hastings. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, v., guttural; N. nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (£y=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MACAULAT 
 
 1480 
 
 MACAULAT 
 
 Having returned to England In 1838, he again entered 
 Parliament, as a representative of the city of Edinburgh, 
 and soon after received the appointment of secretary 
 at war in the Melbourne ministry. On the fall of the 
 Whigs in 1841, he went into the opposition. When they 
 returned to power in 1846, he was made paymaster-gene- 
 ral.. He had been regularly re-elected from Edinburgh 
 until 1847, when, owing to an unusual combination of 
 different party elements, he was defeated. The mor- 
 tification of this repulse stung him very deeply. He 
 resolved to devote the remainder of his life to studious 
 retirement. He seems to have felt, indeed, that his 
 proper vocation was the pursuit of literature, apart from 
 the excitements of the political arena. One of the im- 
 portant results of his withdrawal from public life was his 
 being able to apply himself without interruption to the 
 composition of his great work, the " History of Eng- 
 land," the first two volumes of which made their appear- 
 ance near the close of 1848. Never before in the annals 
 of literature was any work of history welcomed by the 
 public with such enthusiastic admiration. His work was 
 read by tens of thousands with as much eagerness and 
 delight as a fresh novel by Scott or lSulwer would have 
 been. In 1849 Macaulay was chosen lord rector of the 
 University of Glasgow. Not long after, in a speech which 
 he made in that city, he took a formal leave of political 
 life, explaining at the same time the principles by which 
 he had sought to guide his course while he was con- 
 nected with the government. Among other things, he 
 said on that occasion, " I cannot accuse myself of having 
 ever been untrue either to the cause of civil or religious 
 liberty, or to the cause of property and law. I reflect 
 with pleasure that I bore a part in some of those reforms 
 which corrected great abuses and removed just discon- 
 tents. I reflect with equal pleasure that I never stooped 
 to the part of a demagogue, and never feared to confront 
 what seemed to me to be an unreasonable clamour*." In 
 1852 the people of Edinburgh, as some atonement for 
 the injustice which they felt had been done him five years 
 before, again returned Macaulay to Parliament, without 
 his having so much as offered himself as a candidate or 
 having made the smallest effort to procure his re-elec- 
 tion. Although he took his seat in the House of Com- 
 mons, his declining health did not permit him to take 
 any active part in the debates. During the whole time 
 that he was in the House he spoke but twice : on both 
 occasions he was listened to with the most respectful 
 and eager attention. An imperfect and extremely in- 
 accurate collection of his speeches having been printed 
 without his sanction, a correct edition was by his au- 
 thority issued in 1854. In 1856, on account of ill health, 
 he resigned his seat in Parliament. In 1855 the third 
 and fourth volumes of his History made their appearance. 
 They were welcomed as warmly and read as eagerly as 
 the two former had been. It was his original purpose 
 to bring his History from the accession of James II. 
 down to a time within the memory of persons still living. 
 But in the last volume he had only reached the peace 
 of Kyswick, in 1697. After his decease another frag- 
 mentary volume was published, including an account 
 of the death of William HI. 
 
 In 1857 Macaulay was raised to the peerage, with the 
 title of Baron Macaulay of Rothley. Although his 
 health continued to decline, he still applied himself to 
 his literary labours until very near the time of his death. 
 His disease was an affection of the heart, of which he 
 died suddenly on the 2Sth of December, 1859. 
 
 Besides the various productions of his pen already 
 referred to, he contributed a series of valuable biogra- 
 phies to the " Encyclopaedia Hritannica." Not content 
 with his acknowledged mastery in the different depart- 
 ments of prose, he became again in 1842 a candidate for 
 poetic laurels, and gave to the world his " Lays of Ancient 
 Rome," of which it is scarcely too much to say that, 
 for a combination of picturesqueness, simplicity, and 
 power, there is nothing of the kind superior to them in 
 the English language. 
 
 It is, however, as a writer on history that the name 
 of Macaulay is destined to take its most distinguished 
 place and descend to the remotest posterity. Already, 
 In his essays, he had proved his mastery in this depart- 
 
 ment of composition. A perfect history, according to 
 his ideal,* would not be content with merely recording 
 wars and revolutions, the lives of kings and heroes, but 
 would include literature and the arts, manners and 
 usages, the progress of civilization, — in short, the whole 
 life of the nation ; not of the aristocracy only, but of the 
 people in every rank and condition. Referring to Mac- 
 aulay 's historic essays, Dean Milman well observes, " The 
 variety of topics is almost as nothing to the variety of 
 information on every topic." Of the style he remarks, 
 " It was eminently his own. ... Its characteristics were 
 vigour, animation, copiousness, clearness, — above all, 
 sound English, now a rare excellence. . . . His English 
 was pure both in idiom and in words ; pure to fastidious- 
 ness ; not that he discarded or did not make free use 
 of the plainest and most homely terms, . . . but every 
 word must be plain English, — nothing that approached 
 real vulgarity, nothing that had not the stamp of popu- 
 lar use or the authority of sound English writers." 
 
 That Macaulay possessed in a pre-eminent degree 
 many of the highest attributes of a great historian, none 
 will deny. In that power of imagination by which he 
 was enabled to clothe the dead past with all the activity 
 and fulness of life, he was scarcely, if at all, inferior to the 
 most gifted writers of fiction. In the extent and variety 
 of his knowledge, in the quickness and strength of his 
 intellect, by which he was able to grasp with facility the 
 most difficult political and moral problems, in his thor- 
 ough acquaintance with all the springs of human action, 
 in the vividness of his descriptions, in the animation 
 and sustained interest of his nairative, in the clearness, 
 force, and brilliancy of his style, in his command, in 
 short, over every species of eloquence, whether declama- 
 tory, argumentative, or poetical, he has, even among the 
 greatest masters of historical composition, few, if any, 
 superiors. He is, however, it must be confessed with 
 regret, deficient in one important or rather essential 
 qualification, — impartiality. His feelings were so intense, 
 his attachments and aversions so strong, that, where 
 these chanced to enter into the subject to be weighed, 
 the balance was too seldom held with an equal hand. 
 
 Macaulay's great work has been compared to a vast 
 painting, in which the different figures correspond to 
 prominent historic characters. It may be said that as 
 in his style he too often sacrifices simplicity to his love 
 of antithesis, so in his history he is too apt to exagger- 
 ate, for the sake of effect, the lights and shadows of his 
 portraits. 
 
 In relation to his conversational powers, Dean Milman 
 observes, "III, the quiet intercourse with the single 
 friend, no great talker was more free, easy, and genial 
 than Macaulay. There was the most equable interchange 
 of thought ; he listened with as much courtesy as he 
 spoke with gentle and pleasant persuasiveness. In a 
 larger circle, such as he delighted to meet and assemble 
 around him to the close of his life, a few chosen in- 
 timates, some accomplished ladies, foreigners of the 
 highest distinction who were eager to make his acquaint- 
 ance, his manners were frank and open. In conversation 
 in such a circle, a commanding voice, high animal spirits, 
 unrivalled quickness of apprehension, a flow of language 
 as rapid as inexhaustible, gave him, perhaps, a larger 
 share, but a share which few were not delighted to yield 
 up to him. His thoughts were like lightning, and clothed 
 themselves at once in words. . . . And the stores which 
 his memory had at instantaneous command ! . . . With 
 these came anecdotes, touches of character, drollery, fun, 
 excellent stories excellently told." 
 
 "Lord Macaulay," observes the same writer, "was 
 never married ; his strong domestic affections were 
 chiefly centred in his sister — happily married to his 
 friend Sir Charles Trevelyan — and her family. Her 
 children were to him as his own, and cherished with 
 almost parental tenderness. As a friend he was singu- 
 larly steadfast. He was impatient of anything dispar- 
 aging of one for whom he entertained a sincere esteem. 
 In the war of political life he made, we believe, no lasting 
 enemy ; he secured the unswerving attachment of his po- 
 litical friends, to whom he had been unswervingly true." 
 
 * See his essay on " History," in the " Edinburgh Review," 1828. 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; ntfit; n&t; good; moon; 
 
MACAU LAY 
 
 1481 
 
 MACCHIETTI 
 
 All Macaulav's works have been reprinted in Germany. 
 His " History ■ lias lieen translated into French, the first 
 two volumes by M. Jules de Peyronnet, the second and 
 third by M. Amedee Pichot. 
 
 See a " Memoir of Lord Macaulay," written for the Royal Society 
 by Dbah Mil man ; the excel'ent article in Allironk's "Dictionary 
 0? Authors;" " Nnuvelle Biographic Gt^ne'rale:" " Biographical 
 Sketches," by Harriet Mvrtineau, iS6q; Whipple's "Essays 
 and Reviews, 2 vols., 1852; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1849 
 October. 1S54, January, 1857, and October, 1861 ; " London Quarterly 
 Review" for March, 1X43, April, 1S49, and April. 1868 ; " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for April, 1S40, August and September, 1856, July and 
 August, 1850 ; "North British Review" for May, 1S56, and Novem- 
 ber^iSoo; " Fraser's Magazine" for February, 1S56; J. Paget, "New 
 Ex.mien ;" " Jahrbuch zum Conversations- Lexikon" for i860. 
 
 Macaulay, (Zachary,) F.R.S., an English philan- 
 thropist, of Scottish descent, born about 1768, was the 
 father of Lord Macaulav, the historian. He was a 
 zealous coadjutor of Wilberforce in the abolition of 
 the slave-trade, in which cause he laboured many years. 
 Died in 1838. His father, John Macaulay, minister at 
 Inverary, is mentioned in Dr. Johnson's "Tour to the 
 Hebrides." 
 
 Mac-Au'ley, (Catherine E.,) an Irish lady, eminent 
 for l>enevolence and piety, born in the county of Dublin 
 in 1787. She was educated a Catholic. Having lost 
 her parents in early life, she was adopted by Mr. Cal- 
 lahan, a wealthy gentleman, who at his death, in 1822, 
 left her his entire fortune. She founded in 1827, in 
 Baggot Street, Dublin, an institution designed as a 
 temporary home for poor women out of employment, 
 and a school for children. It was afterwards called the 
 Institute of Our Blessed Lady of Mercy, having for its 
 object the care of the sick. She became in 1831 superior 
 of the Order of the Sisters of Mercy. This order has 
 been introduced into Great Britain, the United States, 
 Australia, and South America. Died in 1841. 
 
 See " Life of Catherine MacAuley," by a member of the Order 
 of Mercy, New York, 1866. 
 
 Mac-b8th' or Macbeda, mak-ba'*ha, a king of 
 Scotland, who, according to the common tradition, was 
 a cousin of King Duncan, and originally Thane of Gla- 
 mis. About 1040 Macbeth assassinated Duncan and 
 usurped the throne. Malcolm, the lawful heir, fled to 
 England, and, having returned with an army, defeated 
 Macbeth, who was killed in 1056 or 1057. 
 
 The story of Macbeth's usurpation would seem to 
 possess scarcely any positive historic basis. " However 
 he may have gained his power," says Burton, "he exer- 
 cised it with good repute, according to the reports nearest 
 to his time. It is among the most curious of the an- 
 tagonisms that sometimes separate the popular opinion 
 of people of mark from anything positively known about 
 them, that this man, in a manner sacred to splendid in- 
 famy, is the first whose name appears in the ecclesiastical 
 records both as a king of Scotland and a benefactor of 
 the Church. . . . He had a wider dominion than any 
 previous ruler, having command over all the country 
 now known as Scotland, except the isles and a portion 
 of the western highlands." (" History of Scotland," vol. 
 i. chap, x.) The legend of Macbeth forms the subject 
 of one of Shakspeare's most celebrated tragedies. 
 
 See Hui.inshki). "Chronicles of Englande, Scotlande," etc; 
 nan, "Historia Scotica." 
 
 Mac-Bride', (David,) an eminent surgeon, born in 
 the county of Antrim, Ireland, in 1726, settled in Dublin 
 in 1749. Besides other winks, he published an "Intro- 
 duction to the Theory and Practice of Medicine," (1772,) 
 whii h is much esteemed. Died in 1778. 
 
 Maccabaeus, (Judas.) See Judas. 
 
 Mac'ca-beea, |Gr. MaKnadaioi; Fr. Maccah£es, mf - 
 kt'ba'.] a celebrated Jewish family, which attained the 
 royal dignity in Juries. The surname Maccah/eus, from 
 the Hebrew Muk-kvb, a "hammer," was first given to 
 Judas for his victories over the King of Syria, about 165 
 1 -..<■. His family and descendants were also called Mac- 
 cabees or Asmonaans. Jinlas, who was the son of 
 Mattatliias, had three brothers, John, Simon, and Jona- 
 than, noticed in this work. 
 
 See Apocryphal Book of Maccabees; Josephus, " Antiquitates 
 Judaic*." 
 
 Mac-Cftll', (Georcje A.,) an American general, born 
 in Philadelphia in 1 802, graduated at West Point in 1822. 
 
 He took command of a division or corps called the Penn- 
 sylvania Reserves, about May, 1861, and commanded the 
 same at Mechanicsville and Gaines's Mill, June 26-27, 
 1862. He was taken prisoner June 30 of that year. 
 Died in February, 1868. 
 
 Mac-Caul', (Rev. Alexander,) an English Hebraist 
 and writer on theology, was born about 1800. He be- 
 came prebendary of Saint Paul's, London, in 1845. Died 
 in 1863. 
 
 Macchi, maVkee, (Mauro,) an Italian political 
 writer, born at Milan in 1815. He was a moderate Lib- 
 eral in politics. . 
 
 Macchiavelli or Machiavelli, de, da ma-ke-3-vei'- 
 lee, often Anglicized as Machiavel, mak'e-a-veJ, [Lat. 
 Machiavel' 1.11s; Fr. Machiavel, mi'she'S'veJ',] (Nic- 
 coi.6 r>t Bernardo, ) a famous Italian statesman, 
 diplomatist, and writer, whose character abounds in 
 enigmas and paradoxes, and from whose name has been 
 derived a synonym of perfidious policy, ( Machiavellism.) 
 He was born at Florence on the 3d of May, 1469. In 
 1499 he was appointed secretary of the Ten who managed 
 the diplomatic affairs of the republic He retained this 
 office about fourteen years, during which he was em- 
 ployed in many foreign missions to France, etc., and 
 acquitted himself with great dexterity. In 15 10, for the 
 third time, he was sent to France, and negotiated an 
 alliance with Louis XII. He zealously exerted his talents 
 and influence to maintain the independence of Florence, 
 but without success. In 1512 the Medicis obtained sove- 
 reign power in Florence by the aid of the pope and the 
 emperor, and Macchiavelli was banished from the city, 
 but forbidden to leave the country. He passed several 
 ensuing years in retirement, and during this period com- 
 posed a treatise on the "Art of War," and his important 
 work entitled "The Prince," ("Del Principe," or"De 
 Principatibus,") which has entailed a large portion of 
 conventional infamy on his name. It was written for the 
 private use of Lorenzo de' Medici, and not designed for 
 publication. "Few books," says Hallam, "have been 
 more misrepresented. His crime, in the eyes of the 
 world, was to have cast away the veil of hypocrisy." 
 ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") About 
 1520 he was recalled into public service by Leo X., and 
 was employed on several missions, the last of which was 
 to the army of the league against Charles V., (1526.) He 
 died at Florence in June, 1527. His last work was an 
 excellent, luminous, and picturesque history of Florence, 
 ("Storie Florentine," 1525,) the style of which is greatly 
 admired. He was also author of several comedies of 
 some merit, and of valuable "Discourses on Livy." 
 "The character of Macchiavelli," says Macaulay, "was 
 hateful to the new masters of Italy. His works were 
 misrepresented by the learned, misconstrued by the 
 ignorant, censured by the Church, abused with alb the 
 rancour of simulated virtue by the minions of a base 
 despotism and the priests of a baser superstition. . , . 
 The name of a man whose genius had illuminated all 
 the dark places of policy, and to whose patriotic wisdom 
 an oppressed people had owed their last chance of 
 emancipation, passed into a proverb of infamy. . . . The 
 terms in which he is commonly described would seem 
 to import that he was the tempter, the evil principle, the 
 discoverer of ambition and revenge, the original inventor 
 of perjury," etc. " His History of Florence," says Hal- 
 lam, "is enough to immortalize the name of Machiavel. 
 Seldom has a more giant stride been made in any de- 
 partment of literature than by this judicious, clear, and 
 elegant history." ("Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe,") 
 
 See Gai.anti, " Elojr'o di Niccolo Machiavelli." 1770; Mal- 
 dei.i.i, " Elogio di Niccol6 Machiavelli," 1794; Pknies, "Histoire 
 de N. Machiavel," 1825: ArtaI'D de MoNTOR, " Machiavel, son 
 Genie et ses Erreurs," 1831 : Macaulav's " Essays." article " Ma- 
 chiavelli ;" T. MUMQT, "Macchiavelli und der Gang rler Euro 
 pais< Ih-ii Politik," 1S52; Gincukne, "Histoire de la Litterature 
 Italienue;" Gknvims, " Histori-che Schriften ;" F, W. EBRI.ING, 
 "N. di Bernardo de Macrhiavelii's rolitisches System." etc. 1S50; 
 " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" "Edinburgh Review" foi S.| tim- 
 ber. 1816, p. 200. (by Sir Jambs Mackintosh ;) " Edinburgh Re* 
 view" for Starch, 1827; " North American Review" for July. 1835, 
 
 Macchietti, mSk-ke-et'tee, (Girolamo,) an Italian 
 painter, surnamed del Cnocms.KAjo,(kRo-che-fes-s3'yo,) 
 (because, as we are told, his master painted crucifixes,) 
 
 « as k; ', as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as t; th as in this. (Jiy'See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
MJCCLELLJN 
 
 1482 
 
 MACCLINTOCK 
 
 was born at Florence about 1540. He worked at Florence 
 and Rome, and painted history and portraits with great 
 success. Among his master-pieces was a picture of the 
 " Adoration of the Magi." 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Mac-Clel'lan, (George,) M.D., an eminent American 
 surgeon, born at Woodstock, Windham county, Con- 
 necticut, in 1796. He graduated at Yale College in 
 1815, and studied medicine in the University of Penn- 
 sylvania, where he took the degree of M.D. in 1819. 
 He founded about 1826 the Jefferson Medical College 
 in Philadelphia, in which he became professor of surgery 
 and a very popular lecturer. He was one of the first in 
 the United States to introduce the system of clinical 
 instruction into the medical schools. He was particu- 
 larly distinguished as a bold and successful surgical 
 operator. Died in 1847. 
 
 See S. D. Gross, "American Medical Biography," t86i ; Samuel 
 G. Morton, " Biographical Noticeof Dr. George McClellan," 1849; 
 W. Darrach, " Memoir of Dr. George McClellan," 1847. 
 
 MacClellan, ( George Brinton, ) a distinguished 
 American general, the son of the preceding, was born in 
 Philadelphia, December 3, 1826. He entered the Military 
 Academy at West Point in 1842, and graduated there in 
 the summer of 1846, standing second in general rank in 
 a large class. He served in the Mexican war as lieutenant 
 of engineers in 1847, and was breveted captain for his 
 services at the capture of Mexico. In the spring of 1855 
 the government sent to the seat of war in the Crimea a 
 military commission to examine the military systems of 
 the European powers, etc. Captain McClellan was one 
 of the three officers selected for this mission. He re- 
 turned home in April, 1856, and gave th; results of his 
 observations in a valuable report to the war department. 
 He resigned his commission in the army in 1857, and 
 was appointed chief engineer of the Illinois Central 
 Railroad. 
 
 In May, 1861, he took command of the Union forces 
 in Western Virginia, which defeated the enemy at Rich 
 Mountain and Cheat River in July. A few days after 
 the battle of Bull Run (July 21, 1S61) he was, at the re- 
 commendation of General Scott, appointed commander 
 of the army at Washington. He reorganized that army 
 and brought it into a high state of discipline. When 
 General Scott retired from active service, November t, 
 
 1861, McClellan was appointed to the command of the 
 armies of the United States. About the end of January, 
 
 1862, the President ordered that a general movement 
 should be made by all the armies on the 22d of February. 
 Having been relieved from the command of all the de- 
 partments except that of the Potomac, McClellan began 
 to move towards Richmond about the loth of March. 
 He conveyed his army by water down the Potomac and 
 Chesapeake Bay to the mouth of James River. Soon 
 after the opening of this campaign he began to complain 
 that he was not properly supported by the President. 
 He commenced active operations about the 5th of April, 
 by the siege of Yorktown, which the insurgents evacuated 
 on the 3d or 4th of May. On the next day he fought an 
 indecisive battle at Williamsburg, from which he slowly 
 followed the retiring enemy to the Chickaliominy. 
 
 According to his biographer and admirer, Mr. Hillard, 
 "the mind of McClellan was constantly burdened with 
 a conviction that his troops were not numerous enough." 
 He had about 95,000 men at Yorktown. The Union 
 army was attacked at Fair Oaks on the 31st of May by 
 General J. E. Johnston, who was repulsed with heavy 
 loss. According to Hillard, McClellan was confined to 
 bed by illness during this battle. His army remained 
 nearly inactive in the swamps of the Chickahominy for 
 about three weeks, during which he lost great numbers 
 by sickness. Active hostilities were renewed by the 
 enemy on the 26th of June, and then began the Seven 
 Days' battles, at Mechanicsville, Savage's Station, 
 White Oak Swamp, Gaines's Mill, and Malvern Hill, 
 (July 1, 1862,) the result of which was that the Union 
 army was compelled to retreat and abandon the con- 
 quest of Richmond. He wrote to Secretary Stanton, 
 June 28, "If I save this army now, I tell you plainly 
 that I owe no thanks to you or to any other persons in 
 Washington. You have done your best to sacrifice this 
 army." In July, 1862, he wrote the President a letter 
 
 on the policy which ought, ii. his view, to be adopted 
 in the conduct of the war. " Military power," he 
 wrote, "should not be allowed to interfere with the rela- 
 tions of servitude. ... A declaration of radical views, 
 especially upon slavery, will rapidly disintegrate our 
 present armies." 
 
 In August his army left the peninsula, and was 
 moved by water from the James River to Aqui'a Creek 
 About the 2d of September he was appointed general-in- 
 chief of the army which had been commanded by Pope 
 and had been driven back to Washington. General 
 Lee, having crossed the Potomac into Maryland, was 
 pursued by McClellan, who gained a victory at Antietam 
 Creek on the 16th and 17th of September, 1862. The 
 Union army lost in this battle 11,426 in killed and 
 wounded, and was unprepared or unable to pursue Lee, 
 who retired to Virginia on the 18th of September. On 
 the 6th of October McClellan was ordered to cross the 
 Potomac and give battle to the enemy or drive him 
 south ; but he delayed his advance for about three weeks, 
 and was removed from command by an order dated the 
 5th of November and received on the 7th. In August, 
 1864, he was nominated as Democratic candidate for the 
 Presidency by the Convention at Chicago. He received 
 at the election only twenty-one electoral votes, cast by 
 the States of Kentucky, Delaware, and New Jersey. 
 He resigned his commission as major-general of the 
 regular army, November 8, 1864, and made a long visit 
 to Europe, from which he returned in 1868. (See the 
 article on Lincoln, (Abraham,) in this work.) 
 
 See Hillard, "Life of General McClellan," 1865 ; Rav.mond, 
 "Administration of President Lincoln," chap. vi. ; Grkei.kv, 
 "American Conflict." 
 
 Mac-Cler'nantt, (John A.,) an American general, 
 born in Breckinridge county, Kentucky, in 1812. He 
 removed to Illinois, and served as a member of Congress 
 from that State from 1843 to 1861. He commanded a 
 brigade at Fort Donelson, February, 1862, and a division 
 at Shiloh, April 6 and 7 of that year. He succeeded 
 General Sherman as commander of an army in Missis- 
 sippi in January, 1863, and directed a corps at the siege 
 of Vicksburg in May. He was removed from this com- 
 mand before the end of that siege. 
 
 Mac-Clint'pck, (Sir Francis Leopold,) a successful 
 Arctic explorer, born at Dundalk, Ireland, in 1819. He 
 entered the navy about 1831, and obtained the rank of 
 lieutenant in 1845. In 1848 and 1849 he served under 
 Sir James Ross in his expedition in search of Sir John 
 Franklin. He distinguished himself by his enterprise, 
 skill, and energy in several subsequent expeditions for 
 the same purpose, and performed remarkable feats in 
 sledge-travelling. In 1857 Captain McClintock received 
 command of the " Fox" screw-steamer, fitted out by Lady 
 Franklin for a final effort to obtain tidings of the lost 
 navigator. In the winter of 1858-59 he and his officers 
 performed extensive sledge-journeys, and in May found 
 at Point Victory, on King William's Island, the record 
 of Franklin's death and the remains of the last sur- 
 vivors of his party. (See Franklin, Sir John.) Soon 
 after his return, September, 1859, he was knighted, and 
 received various honours and rewards. He published a 
 " Narrative of the Discovery of the Fate of Sir John 
 Franklin," (i860.) 
 
 Mac-Clint'ock, (John,) D.D., an eminent American 
 scholar and Methodist divine, born in Philadelphia in 
 1814, graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 
 1835. He was professor of Greek and Latin in Dickinson 
 College at Carlisle, became editor of the "Methodist 
 Quarterly Review" in 1848, and conducted the same with 
 great ability for eight years. In 1857 he was appointed 
 pastor of Saint Paul's Church, in the city of New York, 
 where he acquired distinction as a pulpit orator. He 
 accepted in i860 the charge of the American Chapel 
 in Paris. During the civil war he rendered important 
 services to the cause of the Union by his pen and voice, 
 and his home in Paris became a rallying centre for pa- 
 triotic Americans. Having returned home about 1865, 
 he resumed his literary labours, and was selected in 1867 
 to organize the Drew Theological Seminary. His most 
 important work, in which he was assisted by Dr. W. 
 Strong, is a "Theological and Biblical Cyclopaedia," stil! 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 0, Q, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; ftr, All, St; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
MACCLURE 
 
 H83 
 
 MACD1ARMID 
 
 unfinished,) of which three volumes have been published, 
 (1867-69.) Died in March, 1870. 
 
 Mac-Clure' or Maclure, (Sir Rokert Le Mesu- 
 riek,) a navigator, was born at Wexford, Ireland, in 
 1807. After serving many years in the navy, he accom- 
 panied Sir James Ross in search of Sir John Franklin 
 in 1S48. On his return, in 1849, he was raised to the 
 rank of captain. In 1850, as captain of the Investigator, 
 he was directed to renew the enterprise by advancing 
 eastward from Behring's Strait. He entered a strait 
 which he named the Prince of Wales Strait, and, after 
 his ship was frozen fast, he pursued the exploration by 
 sledges until he reached Melville or Barrow's Strait, in 
 the winter of 1850-51. This is called the first discovery 
 of the Northwest Passage. In the next season he dis- 
 covered a second passage, on the north side of Baring 
 Island. In 1853 he was extricated from a perilous situ- 
 ation by Captain Kellet, who arrived at Melville Island 
 from the east ; but he was forced to abandon the Inves- 
 tigator. On his return home he received a reward of 
 ^5000 for his discoveries. 
 
 See Osborn, " Narration of the Discovery of the North-West 
 Passage," 1S56. 
 
 Mac-clurg', (James,) an American physician, born 
 at Hampton, Virginia, in 1747, was the author of a 
 treatise "On the Human Bile," which was translated 
 into several languages. Died in 1825. 
 
 Mac-con'nel, (John L.,) an American lawyer and 
 writer, born in Illinois in 1826. He has published "Tal- 
 bot and Vernon," and other sketches of Western life. 
 
 Mac-Cook', (Alexander McDowell,) an American 
 general, born in Columbiana county, Ohio, in 1831, grad- 
 uated at West Point in 1852. He served as colonel at 
 Bull Run, July 21, 1861, became a brigadier-general of 
 volunteers in September of that year, and fought at 
 Shiloh in April, 1862. Having obtained the rank of 
 major-general in the ensuing July, he commanded a 
 corps at the battle of Perryville, October 8, 1S62. He 
 led the right wing at the battle of Stone River, which 
 ended January 2, 1863, and commanded a corps at Chicka- 
 mauga, September 19 and 20 of that year. 
 
 MacCook, (ROBERT L.,) an American general, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born in Jefferson county, 
 Ohio, in 1837. He was a lawyer before the war. He 
 served as colonel at Mill Springs, Kentucky, January, 
 1862. He was murdered by guerillas near Salem, Ala- 
 bama, in August of the same year. 
 
 Mac-cord', (David J.,) an American jurist, born in 
 Saint Matthew's parish, South Carolina, in 1797, con- 
 tributed a number of essays to the " Southern Review" 
 and "De Bow's Review." Died in 1855. His wife, 
 Louisa S. (Cheves,) published "Caius Gracchus," a 
 tragedy, and several other works. 
 
 Mac-Cor'mic, (Chari.es,) a historical writer, born in 
 Ireland in 1744, wrote "The Reign of George III. to 
 1783," and other works. ' Died in 1807. 
 
 Mac-Cosh', (James,) D.D., an eminent Scottish writer 
 on theology and metaphysics, was born in Ayrshire about 
 1810. Me became a minister of the Free Church of 
 Scotland, and about 1852 professor of logic at Belfast, 
 Ireland. Among his works are "The Method of the 
 Divine Government, Physical and Moral," (1850,) "The 
 Intuitions of the Mind Inductively Investigated," (i860,) 
 and " Examination of Mr. J. S. Mill's Philosophy," (1866,) 
 and in conjunction with Dr. George Dickie, of Belfast, 
 "Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation," (1869.) 
 Dr. MacCosh is a very clear as well as a profound 
 thinker, and has thrown valuable light on some of the 
 abstrusest questions of the philosophy of the human 
 mind. At the earnest invitation of the trustees and 
 other friends of Princeton College, New Jersey, he came 
 to America in 1868 and assumed the office of president 
 in that institution, to the prosperity of which his name 
 and influence appear to have given a new impulse. 
 
 Maccovius. See Makowski. 
 
 Mac-C5wn', (John Porter,) an officer, born in Ten- 
 nessee, served in the Mexican war in 1847, and became 
 a brigadier-general in the Confederate army in 1861. 
 
 MacCrea, mak-kra', (Jane,) a daughter of a Scottish 
 clergyman in New Jersey, was murdered in 1777 by the In- 
 dian allies of Burgoyne, near Kort Kd ward, on the Hudson. 
 
 MacCrie, mak-kree', (Thomas,) an eloquent Scottish 
 Presbyterian writer, bom at Dunse, in Berwickshire, in 
 1772. He belonged to " the most straitest sect" of his 
 religion, styled " Anti-Burghers," a part of the Secession 
 Church. About 1795 he was ordained minister of a con- 
 gregation in Edinburgh. In 181 1 or 1812 he published 
 a "Life of John Knox," which obtained great popularity. 
 His " Life of Andrew Melville" ( 1 819) displays, with warm 
 sectarian partiality, much learning and ability. He after- 
 wards produced, besides other works, an interesting 
 " History of the Progress and Suppression of the Re- 
 formation in Italy," (1827.) Died in 1835. In reference 
 to his " Life of Knox," Lord Jeffrey says, " We do not 
 hesitate to pronounce it by far the best piece of history 
 which has appeared since the commencement of our 
 critical career. It is extremely accurate, learned, and 
 concise, and at the same time very full of spirit and 
 animation." 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812; Chambers, "Biogra- 
 phical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) 
 
 MacCullagh, mak-kul'laH, (James,) a distinguished 
 mathematician and natural philosopher, born in the 
 county of Tyrone, Ireland, in 1809, was educated in 
 Trinity College, Dublin. He was chosen a Fellow of 
 that college in 1832, and professor of natural philosophy 
 in 1843. He gained distinction by his researches in the 
 wave theory of light, and other subjects, on which he 
 wrote several treatises. In 1846 he received the Coplev 
 medal of the Royal Society for his contributions to the 
 science of light. He died, by suicide, in 1847. 
 
 MacCulloch, mak-kul'loh, (Benjamin,) an American 
 general, born in Rutherford county, Tennessee, in 1814, 
 He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and took arms 
 against the Union in 1861. He commanded at the battle 
 of Wilson's Creek, Missouri, August 10, 1861, and was 
 killed at the battle of Pea Ridge, March, 1862. 
 
 See Tenney, "Military History of the Rebellion," 1865. 
 
 MacCulloch, mak-kul'loh or mak-kul'loK, (Hora- 
 tio,) a skilful Scottish landscape-painter, born in Glas- 
 gow in 1806, worked in Edinburgh. Died in 1867. 
 
 MacCulloch, mak-kul'loh, (John,) F.R.S., a Brit- 
 ish geologist and naturalist, born in Guernsey in 1773. 
 He studied medicine, which he practised for a short 
 time. About 1812 he began to make a scientific survey 
 and exploration of Scotland in the service of the govern- 
 ment, and while thus employed he examined the geology 
 and mineralogy of that region. He became well versed 
 in many natural sciences and in several arts. In 1821 
 he published a "Geological Classification of Rocks," 
 etc., and in 1824 "The Highlands and Western Isles of 
 Scotland, in a Series of Letters to Sir W. Scott." For 
 many years, ending in 1832, he was employed in the 
 geological and mineralogical survey of Scotland. He 
 afterwards published the results of this survey in an 
 excellent mineralogical map. Died in 1835. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for May, 1820, and January, 1S31. 
 
 MacCulloch, (John Ramsay,) an eminent Scottish 
 writer on political economy and commerce, was born in 
 Wigtonshire about 1789. He edited the "Scotsman" 
 in Edinburgh for a few years, and contributed many 
 articles to the "Edinburgh Review." About 1828 he 
 removed to London and became professor of political 
 economy in the new university. He wrote many works, 
 which are highly esteemed. Among these are "The 
 Principles of Political Economy," (1825,) a valuable 
 "Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Naviga- 
 tion," (1832,) often reprinted, and a "Dictionary, Geo- 
 graphical, Statistical, and Historical," etc. About 1838 
 he became comptroller of the stationery office, London. 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Macdiarmid, mak-der'mid, ? (John,) a Scottish 
 author, born in Edinburgh about 1790. In 1817 he 
 became editor of the " Dumfries Courier," which, under 
 his direction, was an excellent and successful journal 
 for many years. He published a "Life of Cowpcr,'' 
 " Sketches from Nature," "The Scrap-Book," and a few 
 other works. Died in 1852. 
 
 Macdiarmid, (John,) a Scottish author, born in 
 Perthshire in 1779. He settled in London, where he 
 edited "The Saint James's Chronicle." He was author 
 
 « as *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MACDONALD 
 
 1484 
 
 MACE DO 
 
 of ai Inquiry into the System of Military Defence," 
 and "Lives of British Statesmen." Died in 1808. 
 
 See Disraeli, "Calamities of Authors;" Chambers, "Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Mac-don'ald, (Andrew,) a Scottish poet, born at 
 Leith about 1755. He was an Episcopal clergyman in 
 Glasgow for a few years. He wrote " Velina," a poem, 
 and a tragedy called "Vimonda," which was performed 
 with success in Edinburgh. Having retired from the 
 clerical profession, he removed about 1786 to London, 
 where he was reduced to extreme poverty. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Disraeli. " Calamities of Authors." 
 
 Macdonald, [Fr. pron. mik'do'nil',] (Etienne 
 Jacques Joseph,) Duke of Tarentum, an able French 
 marshal, was born of a Scottish family at Sancerre in 
 1765. For his conduct at Jemmapes (1792) he was made 
 a colonel. In 179,3, as general of brigade, he served under 
 Pichegru in Flanders. He was made a general of division 
 in 1795 or 1796, and joined the army of Italy in 1797. In 
 February, 1799, he succeeded Championnet in the chief 
 command at Rome, where his operations were success- 
 ful. He commanded at the great battle of Trebbia, (June, 
 1799,) where the superior numbers of the allied forces 
 under Suwarow were victorious. In November, 1800, he 
 led an army to Italy by the celebrated passage of the 
 Splugen, which, says Alison, "was perhaps the most 
 wonderful achievement of modern war." (" History of 
 Europe.") He was sent as ambassador to Denmark in 
 1802, and returned in 1804. After this he passed about 
 five years without employment, having, it is supposed, 
 offended Bonaparte by his public expressions in favour 
 of Moreau. Having received command of a division in 
 1809, he displayed great skill and courage at Wagram, 
 (July, 1809,) where Bonaparte gave him a marshal's 
 baton on the field of battle. Soon after this event he 
 was created Duke of Tarentum. In the Russian cam- 
 paign of 1812, Marshal Macdonald commanded the tenth 
 corps. He contributed to the victories of Lutzen and 
 Bautzen, (1813,) and served the emperor with fidelity to 
 the last in the campaign of 1S14. When Napoleon was 
 about to abdicate, he expressed his grateful sense of 
 Macdonald's services, and presented to him a Turkish 
 sabre. Having declared his adhesion to Louis XVIII., 
 he refused to serve his former master during the Hun- 
 dred Days, and in 1816 was appointed grand chancellor 
 of the legion of honour, and commander of a military 
 division. He died in 1840, leaving his title of duke to 
 an only son. 
 
 See, Thiers, "Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire;" Jomini, 
 "Precis des OpeVations militaires;" Thihaudeau, "Histoire de 
 Napoleon ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Macdonald, ( Flora, ) a Scottish heroine, born in 
 one of the Hebrides in 1720. After the battle of Cul- 
 loden, (1746,) the Pretender Charles Edward Stuart be- 
 came a fugitive, and was hunted from place to place by 
 the king's troops until he was rescued by the courageous 
 exertions of Flora, who conducted him (disguised as her 
 female servant) to the Isle of Skye. She was imprisoned 
 a few months for this offence. About 1750 she was mar- 
 ried to Macdonald of Kingsburgh. They emigrated to 
 the United States of North America about 1774, and 
 afterwards returned to Skye, where she died in 1790. 
 
 See the " Autobiography of Flora Macdonald," Edinburgh, 1869. 
 
 Macdonald, (James,) M.D., an American physician, 
 born at White Plains, New York, in 1803. He pub- 
 lished an " Essay on the Construction and Management of 
 Insane Hospitals, "and other similarworks. Died in 1849. 
 
 Macdonald, (John,) F.R.S., a Scottish officer and 
 writer, was the son of Flora, above noticed, and was born 
 at Kingsburgh in 1759. He passed many years in the 
 military service of the East India Company, and became 
 a captain in the corps of engineers. About 1800 he re- 
 turned to England. He published a valuable "Treatise 
 on Telegraphic Communications," (180S,) and wrote 
 many articles on magnetism and other sciences, some of 
 which were inserted in the "Gentleman's Magazine." 
 He translated from the French several works on military 
 tactics. Died in 1831. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1S31 ; Chambers, " Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement.) 
 
 Macdonald, (Laurence,) a Scottish sculptor, born 
 about 1815, passed the greater part of his mature life at 
 Rome. His subjects are mostly taken from the Greek 
 and Roman mythology, and are treated in the pure 
 classical style. 
 
 Macdonpugh, mak-don'oh, (Thomas,) an America!, 
 commodore, born in New Castle county, Delaware, in 
 1784. As commander of the American fleet on Lake 
 Champlain, he gained a splendid and decisive victory 
 over the British in September, 1814, in an action of little 
 more than two hours. For this service he was promoted ' 
 to the rank of captain. Died in 1825. 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.) 
 
 Macdougal, mak-doo'gal, (Alexandkr,) an Amer- 
 ican officer, born about 1750, distinguished himself in the 
 war of the Revolution, rose to be major-general, and 
 commanded at the battle of White Plains, (1776.) He 
 was elected to the Continental Congress in 1781. Died 
 in 17S6. 
 
 Mac-Dow'ell, (Irwin,) an American general, born in 
 Franklin county, Ohio, about 1818, graduated at West 
 Point in 1838. He served in the Mexican war, (1846- 
 47,) and became a captain in 1847. I" May, 1861, he 
 was appointed a brigadier-general of the regular army. 
 He commanded the Union forces at the battle of Bull 
 Run, July 21, 1861. In April, 1862, he took command of 
 the department of the Rappahannock. He commanded 
 a corps of the army of General Pope, and took part in 
 several battles near Manassas in August, 1862. He 
 was appointed commander of the department of the 
 Pacific in 1862 dr 1863, and commander of the fourth 
 military district (Mississippi and Arkansas) in Decem- 
 ber, 1867. He was removed by President Johnson in 
 June, 1868. 
 
 MacDowell, (James,) an American statesman, bom 
 in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 1796. He was Gov- 
 ernor of Virginia from 1842 to 1845, and a member of 
 Congress from 1845 to 1851. Died in 1851. 
 
 Mac-Dow'ell, (Patrick,) a skilful sculptor, born at 
 Belfast, in Ireland, in 1799. After he had served sev- 
 eral years as an apprentice to a coachmaker of London, 
 he became a self-taught sculptor. His marble statue 
 of a "Girl Reading" (1838) was greatly admired, and 
 procured for him liberal patronage. In 1844 he pro- 
 duced a marble group called " Love Triumphant." He 
 was elected a Royal Academician in 1846. Among his 
 master-pieces are "Psyche," "Eve," "Early Sorrow," 
 and "The Day-Dream." 
 
 Mac-Duffle, (George,) an American lawyer and 
 politician, born in Columbia county, Georgia, about 
 1788. He was a member of Congress from 1821 to 
 1835, supported Jackson for the Presidency in 1828, and 
 was elected Governor of South Carolina in 1834. He 
 gained distinction as a public speaker, and took an 
 active part in the debates of ( Congress, in which he 
 advocated State rights and the policy of J. C. Calhoun. 
 In 1843 ne was elected a Senator of the United States 
 by the legislature of South Carolina. He resigned his 
 seat in 1846, on account of ill health. Died in 1851. 
 
 Mace, mi'sa', (Francois,) a French ecclesiastic and 
 biblical writer, born in Paris about 1640. He wrote 
 "La Science de I'Ecriture sainte," (1708,) and othei 
 works. Died in 172 1. 
 
 Mace, mas, (Thomas,) an English musician, born in 
 1613, published a book called "Music's Monument," 
 (1676.) Died in 1709. 
 
 See Burney, " History of Music." 
 
 Macedo, de, da ma-sa'do, (Antonio,) a Portuguese 
 Jesuit, born at Coimbra in 1612. He wrote a " History 
 of the Portuguese Popes and Cardinals," (1663.) Died 
 in 1693. 
 
 Macedo, de, (Francisco,) a Portuguese monk and 
 prolific writer, born at Coimbra in 1596, was a brothel 
 of the preceding. Died at Padua in 1681. 
 
 See Baylk, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nicbron, 
 'Memoires:" N. Antonio, " liibliotheca Hispana Nova;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge^rale." 
 
 Macedo, de, (Joze Acostinho,) a distinguished 
 Portuguese poet and critic, born at Ev'ora about 1770. 
 He adopted the profession of a priest, and became a 
 popular preacher in Lisbon. He edited the official 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
MJCEDON 
 
 ! 4 8 S 
 
 MACILFAINE 
 
 GazetW of Lisbon, and wrote several political tracts. 
 About 1 8 1 1 he produced an epic poem called "Gama." 
 A revised edition appeared with the title "The Orient," 
 ("() Orient*. ") He was also author of poems entitled 
 "Meditation" (" MeditacSo") and "Newton." Died in 
 1831. 
 
 Mac'e-don, fll«uecV,l said to have l^een a son of 
 Jupiter and Thyia, and a brother of Magnes. From his 
 name that of Macedonia is supposed to be derived. 
 
 Macedoti'icus, a surname of Q. C/ecilius Metel- 
 Lt's. See Mki r.t.t.us. 
 
 Matj-edo'nl-us, [Gr. Ma/cecSonoc,] the founder of a 
 heretical sect called Macedonians. He was a leader of 
 the Semi-Arians, and was chosen Patriarch of Constan- 
 timi|)le l)y the Arians about 341 a.d. ; but the Catholics 
 refused to recognize him. In 360 he was deposed. He 
 afterwards denied the divinity or personality of the Holy 
 Spirit, and found followers, who composed a separate sect. 
 
 See Tii.i.kmont, " Me'moires;" Saint Augustine, "De Hasresi- 
 bus ;" Saint Athanasius, *' Historia Arianoruni." 
 
 Macer. See Cai.vus, (C. LrciNius Macer.) 
 
 Ma'c?r, (jEmii.ius,) a Roman poet of Verona, was 
 Contemporary with Virgil. He wrote a poem or poems 
 on Birds, Snakes, and Medicinal Plants. His works are 
 not extant. Died in 16 B.C. 
 
 Macer, (/Emii.ius,) a Roman jurist, who lived in the 
 time- of Alexander Severus. He wrote several legal 
 works, of which extracts are given in the " Digest." 
 Among the titles of these are " De Appellationibus" and 
 " De Re Militari." 
 
 Macer, (C. Licinius,) a Roman historian, born about 
 no n.c, was the father of C. Licinius Calvus, and a 
 leader of the democratic party. He became praetor 
 about the year 70. His history of Rome, entitled "An- 
 nales," or " Rerum Romanorum Libri," is referred to by 
 Livy with respect. Having been impeached by Cicero, 
 and convicted under the law "De Repetundis," in 66 
 B.C., he committed suicide. 
 
 See Liw, " History of Rome," books iv., vii., ix., and x. 
 
 Macfarlane, mak-far'len, (Chari.es,) a British au- 
 thor, who published, besides other works, "Our Indian 
 Empire," (2 vols., 1844.) "The French Revolution," (4 
 vols., 1845,) a,1c '' ' n conjunction with George L. Craik, 
 "The Pictorial History of England," (8 vols., 1849,) 
 which is highly esteemed. Died in 1858. 
 
 Macfarlane, (Robert,) a Scottish writer, born in 
 1734. He published a " History of the Reign of George 
 III.," edited the "Morning Chronicle," London, and is 
 said to have assisted Macpherson in the preparation of 
 Ossian. Died in 1804. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Mac-far'rtjn, (George Alexander,) an eminent 
 
 English musical composer, born in London in 1813. He 
 became a professor in the Royal Academy of Music, and 
 produced many successful operas, songs, duets, etc. 
 Among his principal works are "The Devil's Opera," 
 (1838,) "Don Quixote," (1846,) "King Charles II.," 
 (1849,) "Robin Hood," (i860,) and "Jessie Lea," (1863.) 
 
 Mac-feVrin, (John Berry,) an American Method- 
 ist divine, born in Rutherford county, Tennessee, in 
 1807, became editor of the "Southwestern Christian 
 Advocate," Nashville, in 1840. 
 
 Mac-gil'll-vray,( A i.exander,) born in Coosa county, 
 Alabama, about 1740, became chief of the Creek Indians 
 on the breaking out of the Revolutionary war, in which 
 he sulcrl with the Br.tish. Died in 1793. 
 
 Mac-gil'H-vray, CWii.liam,) a Scottish naturalist, 
 born in the Isle of Harris in 1796. He became con- 
 servator of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons 
 in Edinburgh, and subsequently professor of civil and 
 natural history in Marischab College, Aberdeen. He 
 was distinguished as a zoologist, and also cultivated 
 botany and geology. His principal work is a "History 
 of British Birds, (1 vols.,) two volumes of which were 
 published after his death. Among his other works is a 
 "History of British Quadrupeds." Died in 1852. 
 
 See "Brief Biographies," by Samuhi. Smii.ks; "North British 
 Review" for May, 1X53. 
 
 Mac-grSg'pr, (John,) a British statistician and 
 economist, born at Stomoway, county of Ross, in 1797. 
 He published a work entitled " British America," (1832,) 
 
 and became assistant secretary of the board of trade in 
 1840, and a member of Parliament about 1847. Among 
 his works is " The Progress of America from the Dis- 
 covery of Columbus to the Year 1846," (2 vols., 1847.) 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 Machado. See Barbosa-Machado. 
 
 Ma-ehanl-das, a tyrant of Sparta, was killed by 
 Philopcemen in 207 B.C. 
 
 Ma-eha'on, |Maruuv,] a celebrated Greek physician, 
 a son of /Esculapius. He is said to have served as 
 surgeon at the siege of Troy, and, according to some 
 authors, was one of the Greek heroes inclosed in the 
 wooden horse. 
 
 See Vihom.'s "jf.neid," book ii., I. 263. 
 
 Machault, de, deh mS'sho', (Jacques,) a French 
 Jesuit, born in Paris in 1600. He wrote "The History 
 of Japan," (" De Rebus Japonicis," 1646,) and a work 
 on the Indian and Persian Missions. Died in 1680. 
 
 Machault, de, (Jean,) a Jesuit and writer, born in 
 Paris in 1561, was an uncle of the preceding. Died in 
 1629. 
 
 Machault d'Arnouville, mt'sho' dtR'noo'vel', 
 (Jean Baptists,) an able French financier and statesman, 
 born in 1701. He was appointed contrHeiir-general of 
 the finances in 1745, and received in addition the office 
 of keeper of the seals in 1750. In order to divide the 
 imposts more equally, he encroached on the pecuniary 
 privileges of the clergy, and thus made powerful enemies. 
 In 1754 he was removed from the control of the finances, 
 but was placed at the head of the marine. He was dis- 
 missed finally from office in 1757. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Martin, " Histoire de France :" Brhsson, " Histoire finan- 
 ciere de la France ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"neVale." 
 
 Machet, mi'shj', (Gerard,) a French cardinal, born 
 at Blois about 1380. He was confessor to Charles VII., 
 and presided over the examination of Joan of Arc in 
 March, 1429, (while the king was yet doubtful whether 
 to trust her predictions,) when he declared that the 
 advent of a liberatress was announced by prophecy, and 
 that he had read it in books. Died in 1448. 
 
 See H. Gregoire, " Histoire des Confesseurs," 1824. 
 
 MacCheyne, mak-shan', (Robert Murray,) a Scot- 
 tish divine, born at Edinburgh in 1813. He studied 
 theology tinder Dr. Chalmers in the university of his 
 native city, and in 1836 was ordained minister of Saint 
 Peter's, Dundee. His earnest and faithful labours were 
 instrumental in converting great numbers during the 
 memorable revival of 1839. He died in 1843, leaving a 
 number of hymns of great beauty. 
 
 See " Memoir and Remains of Robert M. McCheyne," by Rev. 
 A. A. Bonar, 1844; Rev. Robert Steel, " Burning and Shining 
 Lights," 1864; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen," (Supplement.) 
 
 Machiavel. See MacCHTAVEI.i.I. 
 
 Machin, mak'in,?(JoHN,) F. R.S., a British mathema- 
 tician, was made professor of astronomy in Gresham Col- 
 lege in 1713. He wrote "On the Laws of the Moon's 
 Motions," a "Solution of Kepler's Problem," and a treat- 
 ise "On the Curve of Quickest Descent." Died in 175 1. 
 
 See Ward, "Lives of the Professors of Gresham College," 1740. 
 
 Ma'chon, [Murwj;,] a Greek comic poet, born at 
 Corinth or Sicyon, lived at Alexandria between 300 and 
 260 B.C. According to Athenasus, he was one of the 
 best poets of the "Pleiad." His works are lost, except 
 small fragments. 
 
 Machy, de, deh mS'she', (Pierre Antoink,) a French 
 painter and engraver, born in Paris in 1722 ; died in 1807. 
 
 Macias, maVAee'as, one of the most admired Span- 
 ish poets of his age, lived in the fifteenth century, and 
 was sumamed el Enamorado, ("the Enamored,") in 
 reference to an unhappy passion which inspired his best 
 poetical effusions. He had many imitators among 
 Spanish poets. He was assassinated by a man whose 
 motive was jealousy. 
 
 See TtcKNt.R, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Maciejowski, mat-se-ayov'skee, (Wkncksi.aus 
 ALEXANDER,) a Polish historian and jurist, bom in 1792. 
 He published an excellent work entitled " Historya I'ra- 
 wodawstw Slowianskich," (4 vols., 1835,) which treats of 
 the political and civil institutions of the Slavonic nation. 
 
 Macllvalne, mak-ibvan', (Charles I'iitit,) D. lb, 
 LL.D., an eminent American divine and writer, born at 
 
 e as k; c as 1; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; i as «; th as in this. (jg^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MACINTOSH 
 
 i486 
 
 MACKENZIE 
 
 Burlington, New Jersey, in 1798. He was appointed 
 professor of ethics and chaplain in the Military Academy 
 at West Point in 1825. In 1832 he was consecrated 
 Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Ohio. 
 1 lis lectures on "The Evidences of Christianity," deliv- 
 ered in New York in 1831, and published in 1832, have 
 had an extraordinary success, and have been republished 
 in London and Edinburgh. 
 
 Mac'In-tosh, (John,) an American soldier of the 
 Revolution, was a native of Georgia; died in 1826. His 
 sun, James S. Macintosh, served with distinction in 
 the war of 1812 and in the Mexican war, and was mor- 
 tally wounded at the battle of Molino del Key, in 1847. 
 
 Macintosh or Mackintosh, (Lachlan,) born near 
 Inverness, Scotland, in 1727, emigrated to Georgia, 
 where he rose to the rank of brigadier-general in the 
 American army. He was elected to Congress in 1784. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. 
 
 Macintosh, (Maria J.,) an American writer, bom 
 at Sunbury, Georgia. She has published "Jessie 
 Graham," "Praise and Principle," (1845,) "Charms 
 and Counter-Charms," (1848,) and several other tales. 
 
 See Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. 
 
 Mack von Leiberich, mak fon lI'beh-rlK', (Karl,) 
 Baron, an Austrian general, noted for his ill success, 
 was born at Neuslingen in 1752. He served as quarter- 
 master-general against the French in 1793. In 1794 he 
 was sent to London to concert with the English minis- 
 ters the operations of the war. The court of Naples 
 having in 1798 requested that of Austria to send a gene- 
 ral to command the army against the French, Mack was 
 pelected. He was quickly defeated by Championnet, 
 and sought refuge from the rage of the Neapolitans in 
 the French camp, (1799.) In 1805 he obtained com- 
 mand of the Austrian army, which was invested by Na- 
 poleon in person at Ulm. On the 20th of October he 
 ignominiously surrendered his army of 30,000 men as 
 prisoners. Mack was tried by court-martial, and pun- 
 ished by imprisonment for several years. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire du Consulat et de PEtnpire;" Alison, 
 "History of" Europe;" " Nouvelle Biographie G<£ne>ale." 
 
 Mac-kail', (William W.,) an American general, 
 born in the District of Columbia about 1818, served with 
 distinction in the Mexican war of 1846-47, and became 
 in 1861 a brigadier-general in the Confederate army. 
 
 Mackau, mi'ko'i (Ange Rene Armand,) a French 
 admiral, born in Paris in 1788. He was minister of the 
 marine from July, 1843, to May, 1847. Died in 1855. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Mac-kay', (Andrew,) an English mathematician, 
 author of a "Treatise on the Longitude." Died in 1809. 
 
 Mac-kay', (Charles,) a Scottish poet and writer of 
 songs, was born at Perth in 1814. Between 1835 and 
 1844 he published "The Salamandrine," a poem, and 
 several other works. His " Voices from the Crowd" 
 (1846) included a popular song called "The Good Time 
 Coming." He afterwards published several volumes of 
 verses, entitled "Voices from the Mountains," (1847,) 
 "Town Lyrics," (1848,) and "Egeria, or the Spirit of 
 Nature," (1850.) 
 
 Mac-Kean', (Thomas,) an American patriot and 
 signer of the Declaration of Independence, born in 
 Chester county, Pennsylvania, in 1734. In 1765 he rep- 
 resented the counties of Newcastle, Kent, and Sussex, 
 in Delaware, in the so-called Stamp-Act Congress. He 
 was elected to the Congress of 1774 from Delaware, in 
 which post he continued till 1783. He had been appointed 
 in 1777 president of the State of Delaware, and chief 
 justice of Pennsylvania. He was Governor of the latter 
 State from 1799 to 1808. Died in 1817. He was a 
 political friend of Jefferson. 
 
 See Goodrich. " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence ;" " National Portrait-Gallery ofDistinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 MacKean, (Thomas J.,) an American general, born 
 in Bradford county, Pennsylvania, about 1810, graduated 
 at West Point in 1831. He became a brigadier-general 
 about November, 1861, and commanded a division at 
 Corinth, October 4, 1862. 
 
 MacKean, (William W.,) an American commodore, 
 born in Pennsylvania in 1801, was a nephew of Governor 
 Thomas McKean, norced above. He was appointed 
 commander of the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in 
 1861. Died in 1865. 
 
 Mac-Kee'ver, (Isaac,) an American commodore, 
 born in Pennsylvania in 1793. He distinguished himself 
 in the war of 1812, and in 1851 commanded the squadron 
 on the coast of Brazil. Died in 1856. 
 
 Mackeldey, mak'kel-di', (Ferdinand,) a German 
 jurist, born at Brunswick in 1784. He became first pro- 
 fessor of law at Bonn in 1818, and published a "Manual 
 of the Institutes of Roman Law of the Present Time," 
 (1814.) Died in 1834. 
 
 Mac-Kel'lar, (Thomas,) an American poet, born in 
 the city of New York in 1812. He became a printer, 
 and removed to Philadelphia in 1833. On the death of 
 Mr. Johnson, in i860, Mr. Mackellar succeeded him as 
 the head of the type-foundry of L. Johnson & Co., (now 
 of MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan,) perhaps the most ex- 
 tensive establishment of the kind in the United States. 
 He has published several small volumes of poems, some 
 of which have been warmly commended by N. P. Willis, 
 W. C. Bryant, and other competent critics. 
 
 See Allibone's " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Mac-ken'diee, (William,) born in King William 
 county, Virginia, in 1757, entered the ministry about 1788. 
 He was chosen a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church in 1808. Died in 1835. 
 
 Mac-ken'zie, (Sir Alexander,) an enterprising 
 Scotchman, born at Inverness about 1755. I" n,s youth 
 he emigrated to Canada, and became a clerk in the 
 service of the Northwest Fur Company. From 1781 to 
 1789 he spent eight years in trading with the Indians at 
 Lake Athabasca, and in the latter year discovered the 
 river which bears his name, and traced it from its source 
 to its entrance into the Arctic Ocean, where he arrived 
 in July, 1789. In 1792 he led another exploring party 
 westward to the Pacific. On his return to England, in 
 1801, he published his "Voyages from Montreal to the 
 Frozen and Pacific Oceans," which, says Chateaubriand, 
 "is a work of great merit." Died in 1820. 
 
 See Chateaubriand. "Voyages en Atnerique ;" Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Monthly Review" 
 for July and August, 1802. 
 
 Mac-ken'zie, (Alexander Seidell,) an American 
 naval officer and miscellaneous writer, born in New York 
 in 1803. Having visited Europe in 1825, he published, 
 soon after his return, his "Year in Spain," which was 
 received with great favour. In 1835 he made another 
 voyage to Europe, the result of which was his two works 
 entitled "The American in England" and "Spain Re- 
 visited." While commander of the Somers, in 1842, he 
 ordered the mutineer Spencer and two of his associates 
 to be hanged from the yard-arm of the vessel, which act 
 was publicly approved by a high court of inquiry after 
 his return. He died in 1848. Besides the above-named 
 works, he wrote a " Life of Paul Jones," in Sparks's 
 "American Biography." 
 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. 
 
 Mackenzie, (Charles Frazer,) a Scottish mission- 
 ary, born in Peebleshire in 1825. He went to Southern 
 Africa in i860, and began to labour near the Zambesi 
 River. He died in Africa in January, 1862. 
 
 Mackenzie, (Donald,) a merchant, born in Scot- 
 land in 1783. He became in 1809 a partner of John 
 Jacob Astor in the fur-trade, and made an overland 
 journey to the Pacific. Died in 1851. 
 
 Mackenzie, (George,) Earl of Cromarty, a Scottish 
 politician and writer, born in 1630. He was appointed 
 justice-general in 1678, and a lord of session in 1681. 
 In 1685 he was created Viscount Tarbat, and in 1703 
 Earl of Cromarty. He was secretary of state for Scot- 
 land from 1701 to 1704. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "Synopsis Apocalyptica," (1708,) and an "Account of 
 the Conspiracy of the Earl of Gowrie against James 
 VI.," (1 713.) Died in 1714. 
 
 See Walpoi.h, "Royal and Noble Authors;" Chambers, "Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Mackenzie, (Sir George,) a Scottish lawyer and 
 writer, born at Dundee in 1636. He attained eminence 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9 , obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MACKENZIE 
 
 1487 
 
 MACKINTOSH 
 
 in his profession, and about 1661 was appointed justice- 
 depute, or judge. I le published " Religio Laid," a treat- 
 ise on religion' and morality, (1663,) "Moral Gallantry," 
 (1667,) •* Institutions of the Laws of Scotland," (1684,) 
 and other works. From 1674 to 1685 he was employed 
 as king's advocate, and in this period had some agency 
 in the persecution of the Covenanters, who designated 
 him " the bloodthirsty advocate." Died in 1691. 
 
 See " Life of Sir G. Mackenzie," prefixed to his works : Burnet, 
 " History of hs Own Times;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary 
 0f Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Mackenzie, ( Gkorge, ) a Scottish physician and 
 writer, who practised in Edinburgh with success, and 
 published "Lives and Characters of the Most Eminent 
 Writers of the Scottish Nation," (3 vols., 1708-22.) 
 Died in 1726. 
 
 Mackenzie, (Henry,) an eminent Scottish novelist 
 and essayist, born in Edinburgh in 1745. In his youth 
 he obtained the office of attorney in the Scottish court of 
 exchequer. In 1771 he published, anonymously, "The 
 Man of Feeling," a novel, which is his principal work, 
 and was generally admired. He edited "The Mirror," 
 a periodical resembling the " Spectator," which was first 
 issued in 1779, and was discontinued the next year. 
 More than one-third of the articles in this popular work 
 were written by him. He afterwards produced "The 
 Man of the World," a novel, several political treatises 
 favourable to the Tory party, "The Prince of Tunis," 
 and other dramas. He contributed many essays to " The 
 Lounger," a successful periodical, of which he was editor 
 in 1785-86. In 1804 he obtained the lucrative office of 
 comptroller of taxes for Scotland. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Sir Walter Scott's Miscellaneous Prose Works; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary 
 of Eminent Scotsmen ;" Ali.ibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Mackenzie, (Robert Shei.ton,) D.C.L., a writer 
 and journalist of much ability, born in Limerick county, 
 Ireland, in 1809. He was editor successively of the 
 " Liverpool Journal" and various other British periodi- 
 cals, and in 1852 settled in America, where he became 
 literary and foreign editor of the Philadelphia " Press." 
 He has published "Lays of Palestine," (1828,) "Life 
 of Curran," (1855,) "Tressilian, or the Story-Tellers," 
 (1857,) a valuable "Life of Charles Dickens," (1870,) 
 and many other works, 
 
 Mackenzie, (William Lyon,) a Canadian journalist 
 and politician, born at Dundee, Scotland, in 1794, He 
 emigrated to Canada in early life, and became the editor 
 of a paper. He was the leader of a party which took 
 arms against the government in December, 1837, and 
 was quickly dispersed. He took refuge in New York. 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 Mackey, mak'ee, (Albert Gallatin,) an American 
 physician and journalist, born at Charleston, South 
 Carolina, in 1807. He published a "Text-Book of 
 Masonic Jurisprudence," and other works of the kind. 
 
 Mackey, mak'ee, (John,) an Englishman, who, as 
 an agent of William II I., watched the movements of the 
 Jacobite exiles after the revolution of 1688. He wrote 
 a "Picture of the Court of Saint Germain," (1695.) 
 Died in 1726. 
 
 Sec " Memoirs of the Secret Services of John Mackey," London, 
 "833. 
 
 Mackie,mak-kee', (John,) a Scottish physician, born 
 in Fifeshire in 1748, published, besides medical treatises, 
 " A Sketch of a New Theory of Man." Died in 1831. 
 
 Mackie, (John Milton,) an American writer, born 
 at Wareham, Massachusetts, in 1813. He has written a 
 "Life of Godfrey William von Leibnitz," (1845,) "Life 
 of Schamyl, the Circassian Chief," (1856,) and contrib- 
 uted various articles to the "North American Review." 
 
 Mac-kin'npn, (Daniel,) Colonel, a British officer, 
 born in 1791. He commanded a regiment of Coldstream 
 Guards at Waterloo, and wrote a "History of the Cold- 
 stream Guards." Died in 1836. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Mackinuon, (Henry,) a British general, born near 
 Winchester in 1773. He served many campaigns against 
 the French. He distinguished himself in several actions 
 in Snain, obtained command of a brigade in 1809, and 
 was killed at Ciudad Rodrigo in 1812. 
 
 Mack'in-tosh, (Sir James,) an illustrious British 
 author, orator, and statesman, was born at Aldourie, 
 near Inverness, on the 24th of October, 1765. He was 
 the son of Captain John Mackintosh, of the army, and 
 Marjory Macgillivray. At King's College, Aberdeen, 
 which he entered in 1780, he profited by the congenial 
 society of Robert Hall, who was his fellow-student and 
 intimate friend. He studied medicine in Edinburgh, 
 and, having obtained his diploma, in 1788 removed to 
 London, where he married Catherine Stuart in 1789. His 
 fluent elocution, admirable temper, and refined manner3 
 procured his admission into the best society. He had a 
 "boundless literary ambition," and a most capacious and 
 accurate memory. In defence, or rather ardent eulogy, 
 of the first reforms of the French Revolution, he produced, 
 in answer to Burke's famous "Reflections," his " Vindi- 
 ciae Gallicae," ( 1791,) which raised him into sudden 
 celebrity and caused him to be warmly caressed by Fox, 
 Sheridan, and other chiefs of the Whig party. About 
 this time he renounced medicine and became a student 
 of law. He was called to the bar in 1795, gave special 
 attention to public law, and practised with success in the 
 home circuit. In 1799 he delivered a series of lectures 
 "On the Law of Nature and of Nations," which were 
 highly applauded by the most eminent judges of all 
 parties as a noble monument of intellectual power and 
 wisdom. He expressed in these lectures more conserva- 
 tive views than those of his "Vindiciae Gallicae." In 
 1803 he gained a high reputation for forensic eloquence 
 by his defence of M. Peltier, a French emigrant, who 
 was tried for a libel on Bonaparte, and was acquitted. 
 This speech was translated into French by Madame de 
 Stae'l. He accepted the office of recorder of Bombay, 
 where he arrived in 1804, and was appointed judge of 
 the admiralty court in 1806. Sir James returned to 
 England in 1812, and was elected to Parliament by the 
 Whigs in 1813. He won and maintained a high place 
 among parliamentary speakers. From 1818 to 1824 he 
 was professor of law and politics in the college at Hai- 
 leybury. He contributed to the " Edinburgh Review," 
 and wrote an important "Dissertation on the Progress 
 of Ethical Philosophy," which appeared among the pre- 
 liminary essays of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica." In 
 1830 he accepted office as commissioner for the affairs 
 of India under the ministry of Earl Gray. He made a 
 powerful and luminous speech in the House on the Re- 
 form bill in 183 1. He wrote a " History of England," a 
 work of great merit, which was published in " Lardner's 
 Cyclopaedia," (1831.) He died in May, 1832, leaving 
 unfinished a " History of the Revolution in England 
 in 1688," which was published in 1832. "We have no 
 hesitation," says Macaulay, "in pronouncing this frag- 
 ment decidedly the best history now extant of the reign 
 of James II. . . . The intellectual and moral qualities 
 which are most important in a historian, he possessed in 
 a very high degree. He was singularly mild, calm, and 
 impartial in his judgments of men and of parties." The 
 same critic adds, "He distinguished himself highly in 
 Parliament. But nevertheless Parliament was not ex- 
 actly the sphere for him. The effect of his most success- 
 ful speeches was small, when compared with the quantity 
 of ability and learning which was expended on them." 
 
 " It would be difficult," says Mr. Whipple, " to men- 
 tion any writer whose name has been connected with the 
 literary journals of the nineteenth century, who has 
 carried into the task of criticism so much fairness and 
 moderation as Mackintosh. His nature was singularly 
 free from asperity and dogmatism. To a large under- 
 standing and boundless stores of knowledge he united 
 candour and even humility in their employment. . . . 
 The beauty of his character will lone continue to exert an 
 influence In insensibly moulding the minds of scholars 
 and statesmen." (See article on " British Critics" in 
 the "North American Review" for October, 1845.) 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Life of Sir James Mackintosh." edited by 
 his son, Robert J. Mackintosh, 2 vols., 1835; "Historical Char- 
 acters," by Sir H. L. Htri.WKR, London, iSr,8; " Encyclopedia 
 Britannica ;" Chambers. "Biographical Dictionary ot Eminent 
 Scotsmen;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for October, 1835. (by Jkcfrky ;) " British Quarterly Review" 
 for November, 1846; North American Review" for October, 1832, 
 ;by A. H. Evrrktt;) and the very elaborate article on " Mackin- 
 I tosh" in Allidone's "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 c as i; 9 as j; g hard; g as/,- G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. ([jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MJCKLIN 
 
 1488 
 
 MACLVRE 
 
 Mac-klin', (Charles,) a popular Irish actor and 
 dramatist, (whose family name was McLaughlin,) was 
 born at Westmeath in 1690. He appeared on the Lon- 
 don stage in 1725, and did not retire until 1789. He 
 excelled in the rile of "Shylock," and wrote, besides 
 several other plays, a successful comedy called "The 
 Man of the World." Died in 1797, at the age of 107. 
 
 See J. T. Kirkman, " Memoirs of Charles iMacklin," 1799: Wil- 
 liam Cooke, " Memoirs of C. Macklin," 1804; " Monthly Review" 
 for November and December, 1799. 
 
 MacKnight, mak-nlt', (James,) an eminent Scottish 
 Presbyterian divine, born at Irvine in 1721. He became 
 minister at Maybole in 1753, and published his " Har- 
 mony of the Gospels," (1756,) which is esteemed an ex- 
 cellent standard work and has been often reprinted. In 
 1763 he produced "The Truth of the Gospel History," 
 which was received with favour. From 1772 until 1778 
 he preached in Lady Yester's parish in Edinburgh, and 
 during the remainder of his life he was minister of the 
 Old Church of that city. In 1795 he published a " Lite- 
 ral Translation of all the Apostolic Epistles," a work of 
 high reputation. Died in 1800. 
 
 See " Life of J. Macknight," by his son ; Chambers, " Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Maclane, mak-lan', (Archibald,) an Irish clergyman, 
 born at Monaghan about 1722. He preached for the 
 Anglican Church of the Hague about fifty years, ending 
 in 1796. He published a volume of sermons, and trans- 
 lated Mosheim's "History of the Church," (1765.) 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 MacLane, mak-lan', (Louis,) an American states- 
 man, born at Smyrna, Delaware, in May, 1786. He 
 gained distinction as a lawyer, and represented Delaware 
 m Congress from 1817 to 1827. In the latter year he 
 was elected a Senator of the United States by the legis- 
 lature of Delaware. He served as minister to England 
 about two years, (1829-31,) and was appointed secretary 
 of the trea'sury by President Jackson in April or May", 
 1831 ; but, not approving, it is said, of the removal of the 
 deposits from the United States Bank, he was in 1833 
 removed from the treasury and made secretary of state, 
 which position he resigned in June, 1834. In 1845 he 
 went to England as ambassador. After the question of 
 the boundary of Oregon was settled, he returned home. 
 Died in October, 1857. 
 
 See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. i. 
 
 Mac-lar'en, (Charles,) a Scottish journalist and 
 geologist, born about 1783. He was chief editor of the 
 " Scotsman" (a leading political journal of Edinburgh) 
 from 1820 to 1847. He published, besides other works, 
 "The Geology of Fife and the Lothians," (1839.) Died 
 in September, 1866. 
 
 Mac-lau'rin, (Colin,) an eminent Scottish mathe- 
 matician, born at Kilmodan in 1698. He obtained the 
 chair of mathematics in Marischal College, Aberdeen, 
 in 1717. In 1720 he published " GeometriaOrganica sive 
 Descriptio Linearum Curvarum universalis," a treatise 
 on curve lines, which is said to have excited the admira- 
 tion of Newton. In 1725 he was appointed assistant of 
 Professor Gregory in the University of Edinburgh, where 
 he remained about twenty years. While he was em- 
 ployed in fortifying Edinburgh against the Pretender's 
 army, in 1745, lie contracted a disease which hastened 
 his death. He shared with D. Bernoulli and Euler the 
 prize awarded in 1740 by the Academy of Paris for a 
 memoir on Tides. He was the author of several original 
 and profound works, among which are a "Treatise on 
 Fluxions," (1742,) and a "Treatise on Algebra," (1748.) 
 Died in 1746. 
 
 See Montuci.a, " Histoire des Mathe'matiques ;" Chambers, 
 "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Maolaurin, (John,) a Scottish lawyer, born in Edin- 
 burgh in 1734, was a son of the preceding. He became 
 a judge about 1787, when he received the title of Lord 
 Dreghorn. He wrote an " Essay on Literary Property," 
 a drama entitled " Hampden," and several other works 
 in prose and verse. Died in 1796. 
 
 See "Life of Lord Dreghorn," prefixed to his works. 
 
 Mac-Law§', (Lafayette,) an American general, born 
 in Georgia. He commanded a division of General Lee's 
 army at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. 
 
 Mac-lay', (Archibald,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born 
 in Scotland in 1778, emigrated to America in 1805, and 
 became pastor of a church in New York. He was 
 thirteen years general agent of the American and Foreign 
 Bible Society. Died in i860. 
 
 MacLean or Maclean, mak-lan', (John,) an Ameri- 
 can statesman and jurist, born in Morris county, New 
 Jersey, in March, 1785. He removed with his father to 
 Ohio about 1798, was admitted to the bar in 1807, and 
 began to practise at Lebanon. In 1812 he was elected 
 a member of Congress, in which he acted with the 
 Democrats, and supported the war against England. 
 He was again elected by a unanimous vote in 1814, 
 was a judge of the supreme court of Ohio from 1816 to 
 1822, and became postmaster-general in 1823. He filled 
 this office with great credit and ability until March, 1829, 
 during which period he introduced many improvements 
 and brought the department into a state of the highest 
 efficiency. He declined a place in the cabinet of Presi- 
 dent Jackson, and was appointed a judge of the supreme 
 court of the United States in 1829. He dissented from 
 the decision of the court in the Dred Scott case, as given 
 by Chief-Justice Taney in 1857, and opposed the exten- 
 sion of slavery. At the Republican National Convention 
 of 1856 he received one hundred and ninety-six votes as 
 a candidate for the Presidency of the United States. 
 Died in Cincinnati in April, 1861. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Maclean, (Mrs. L. E.) See Landon, (L. E.) 
 Mac-Lel'lan, (Isaac,) an American poet, born at Port- 
 land, Maine, about 1810. Among his works we may 
 mention "The Fall of the Indian, (1830,) and "The 
 Year, and other Poems," (1832.) 
 
 See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America ;" Cleveland, 
 "Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Macleod, mak-lowd', (Alexander,) D.D., born in 
 the island of Mull in 1774, emigrated to the United 
 States, and became in 1801 pastor of a Reformed Pres- 
 byterian church ill New York. He was the author of an 
 " Ecclesiastical Catechism," " Negro Slavery Unjustifi- 
 able," "The Life and Power of True Godliness," and 
 other religious works. Died in 1833. 
 
 MacLeod, (John,) a Scottish surgeon, born at Bun- 
 hill in 1782. He became in 181 7 surgeon of the Alceste, 
 which conveyed Lord Amherst to China, and in 1818 
 published " The Voyage of the Alceste along the Coast 
 of Corea," etc. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Walckenaer, " Collection des Relations des Voyages." 
 
 MacLeod or Macleod, (Rev. Norman,) a Scottish 
 divine, born at Campbelton in 1812. He became min- 
 ister of Loudon in 1838, of Dalkeith in 1843, and of the 
 Barony Parish, Glasgow, in 1851. He published, among 
 other works, "Home Education," and "The Earnest 
 Student," and is editor of a monthly periodical called 
 "Good Words." 
 
 Macleod, (Xavier Donald,) a son of Alexander, 
 noticed above, bom in New York in 1S21, published 
 numerous works in prose and verse, among which we 
 may name a " Life of Mary Queen of Scots," (1857,) and 
 a poem entitled "The Saga of Viking Torquil." Died 
 in 1865. 
 
 Macliae, mak-leess', (Daniel,) a popular historical 
 painter, born at Cork, Ireland, in 1811. He went to 
 London in 1828, and became a student in the Royal 
 Academy, where he quickly won several prize medals. 
 He gained a high reputation by his "Vow of the Ladies 
 and the Peacock," (1835,) and "Merry Christmas in the 
 Baron's Hall," (1838.) In 1840 he was elected an 
 Academician. Among his admired productions are 
 "The Sleeping Beauty," (1841,) "The Play Scene in 
 Hamlet," (1842,) "Noah's Sacrifice," (1847,) and " Shak- 
 speare's Seven Ages," (1848.) He is regarded as one 
 of the most original of English painters of the present 
 time. Died in April, 1870. 
 
 Maclure. See Macclure. 
 
 Mac-lure', (William,) an eminent naturalist, and 
 pioneer of American geology, born at Ayr, in Scotland, 
 in 1763. Having made an extensive scientific tour in 
 Europe, he removed to the United States, and about 
 1806 entered upon a geological survey of that Country. 
 
 i,e, f, 5,ii, y, long;\ e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a,;, 1,0, obscure; far, fall, at;m8t; not;g6tid; moon; 
 
MACMAHON 
 
 1489 
 
 MACPHERSON 
 
 In the accomplishment of this task, he visited nearly 
 every Slate and Territory in the Union, and crossed and 
 rectossed the Alleghanies fifty times. An account of his 
 tour was published in the "Transactions of the Ameri- 
 can Philosophical Society," (1809.) In 1812 Mr. Maclure 
 became one of the first members of the Academy of 
 Natural Sciences just founded at Philadelphia, and was 
 elected president of that institution in 1S17. lie con- 
 tinued to fill this post for twenty-two years, and the "Jour- 
 nal" of the Academy was begun under his auspices, His 
 donations of books to the Academy amounted to nearly 
 fifteen hundred volumes, comprising valuable works on 
 natural history, antiquities, etc., and he gave the sum of 
 $20,000 towards the erection of the building on Broad 
 Street, finished in 1840. Died in 1840, at San Angel, in 
 Mexico, whither he had gone on account of his health. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Wm. Maclure," by Samuri. G. Morton. 
 
 MacMahon, mSk'ma"6N', (Marie Kdmk Patrice 
 Maurice,) Due de Magenta, a French marshal, of Irish 
 extraction, born in 1808, was a son of a peer of France. 
 He served in Algeria from 1830 to 1850. In 1852 he 
 became a general of division. In the siege of Sebastopol 
 he commanded the division which took the Malakoff by 
 assault on the 8th of September, 1855. He commanded 
 the second corps-d'armee in the Italian campaign of 1859, 
 and took a prominent part in the battle of Magenta. 
 This service was rewarded (June 5, 1850) by the rank of 
 marshal of France and the title of Due de Magenta. He 
 also contributed to the victory of Solferino, June 24, 1859. 
 In the recent war with Prussia he was defeated at Worth 
 (August 6, 1870) and at the great battle of Sedan, (about 
 September I,) where he was severely wounded. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 MacMichael, mak-ml'kel, (Morion,) an able Ameri- 
 can editor and orator, born in Burlington county, New 
 Jersey, in 1807, was sheriff of the county of Philadelphia 
 from 1843 to 1846. In 1845 he became proprietor and 
 chief editor of the "North American and United States 
 Gazette," which position he still holds. He was mayor 
 of Philadelphia from 1865 to 1868. 
 
 MacMichael, mak-nu'kel, (William.) an English 
 physician, born in 1784. He published a "Journey from 
 Moscow to Constantinople," (1819.) Died in 1839. 
 
 Mac-Nab', (Sir Allan,) an officer in the British ser- 
 vice, born in Canada in 1798. He studied law, and was 
 elected to the legislature of Canada West. During the 
 insurrection of 1837 he commanded near Niagara, and 
 sent over the falls the steamboat Caroline, which had 
 been captured from the insurgents. He was the prin- 
 cipal minister during part of the period in which Lord 
 Elgin governed Canada, (1846-54.) He was knighted 
 for his services in the rebellion above mentioned. Died 
 in Canada in August, 1862. 
 
 MacNaghteii, mak-naw'ten, (Sir William,) a British 
 officer in the civil service of the East India Company, 
 was sent as envoy to Shah Soojah about 1840, and was 
 assassinated at Cabool by Akbar Khan in 1841. 4 
 
 Mac-Nal'ly. (Leonard,) an Irish barrister and dram- 
 atist, bom in Dublin in 1752. He wrote "Fashionable 
 Levities," a successful comedy, and several operas and 
 farces, also "The Rules of Evidence." Died in 1820. 
 
 Mac-neil', (Hector,) a Scottish poet, born near 
 
 it in 1746. lie passed many of his early years in 
 
 the West Indies, probably as overseer, and returned to 
 
 Scotland about 1788. He published "The Harp," (1789,) 
 
 itland's Skailh," (1795,) which was much admired, 
 
 and other poems. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Chambkrs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Mac-neil', (John,) an American general, born in 
 New 'Hampshire in 1784, served with distinction at the 
 battle of Chippewa in 1814. Died in 1850. 
 
 Macneile, mak-neel', (Rev. HUGH.) D.D., an Irish 
 Protestant clergyman, born in the county of Antrim about 
 1794. He preached several years in London, and lie- 
 came the incumbent of Saint Paul's, near Liverpool, in 
 1848. He published "The Church and the Churches 
 Oi Christ," (1847.) and other works. 
 
 MacNeill, mak-neel', (Sir John,) O.C.H., a British 
 and diplomatist, born at Colonsay in 1795. He 
 .1 several years in the army of the East India Com- 
 pany. From 1835 until 1844 he was British ambassador 
 
 to the court of Persia, where he gained important in 
 formation respecting the policy and resources of several 
 Asiatic nations. In the winter of 1854-55 he was one 
 of two commissioners sent to the Crimea to inspect the 
 commissariat department. He was chosen a member of 
 the privy council in 1857. 
 
 Mac-nev'in, (William James,) born in Galway 
 county, in Ireland, in 1763, joined the United Irishmen 
 in the rebellion of 1791, and subsequently entered the 
 French army. In 1805 he removed to America, and 
 was appointed professor of chemistry in the Medical 
 College, New York. He was the author of "Rambles 
 in Switzerland," and several scientific works. Died in 
 1841. 
 
 Mac-nish', (Robert,) M.D., a Scottish author, born 
 at Glasgow in 1802. He became one of the editors of 
 "Fraser's Magazine"in 1831. Among his works is "The 
 Philosophy of Sleep," (1830.) Died at Glasgow in 1837. 
 
 See D. MoiR. "Life of R. Macnisll," prefixed to a collection of 
 his "Tales, Essays, and Sketches," 1839 and 1S44; Chamukrs, 
 "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," (Supplement )) 
 " I* laser's Magazine" for December, 1835, (with a portrait.) 
 
 Macomb, ma-koom' or ma-kom', (Alexander,) a 
 distinguished American general, born at Detroit in 1782. 
 He served in the war of 1812, and, as brigadier-general, 
 in 1814, gained the victory of Plattsburg over the British 
 at the same time that Commodore Macdonough signally 
 defeated them on the lake. General Macomb was ap- 
 pointed in 1835 commander-in-chief of the United States 
 army. Died in 1841. 
 
 See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. i. 
 
 Ma'cpn, (Nathaniel,) an American statesman, born 
 in Warren county, North Carolina, in 1757. He served 
 as a private in the army from 1778 to 1782, and opposed 
 the adoption of the Constitution of the United States, 
 (1788.) In 1791 he was elected a member of Congress 
 for a district of North Carolina, which he represented 
 until 1815. He was always a Democrat, and a strict- 
 constructionist. He was Speaker of the National House 
 of Representatives for three terms, (1801-06,) and be- 
 came a Senator of the United States in 1816. His 
 speeches were short, but effective. He served in the 
 Senate until 1826, having then been a member of Con- 
 gress for thirty-seven consecutive years. He died in 
 Warren county, North Carolina, in June, 1837. John 
 Randolph called him "the best and wisest man that I 
 ever knew." 
 
 Mac-pher'son, (James,) a Scottish poet, celebrated 
 as the translator or author of " Ossian," was born in In- 
 verness-shire in 1738. After leaving college he became 
 a school-teacher at Ruthven, and in 1758 published "The 
 Highlander," a poem, which was not successful. In 1760 
 he surprised the literary world by the publication of 
 "Fragments of Ancient Poetry collected in the High- 
 lands of Scotland, and translated from the Gaelic or Erse 
 Language." These were admired by the poet Gray and 
 others, and a subscription was raised to aid Macpherson 
 in exploring the Highlands for other similar treasures. 
 The ostensible result of thissearch appeared in " Fingal, 
 an Epic Poem," (1762,) and "Temora, an Epic Poem," 
 (1763,) which purported to be the work of Ossian, a 
 poet of the third century. These poems found many 
 enthusiastic admirers throughout Europe. An animated 
 controversy ensued about their authenticity, which was 
 defended by Dr. Blair and other eminent critics. Dr. 
 Johnson, on the other hand, confidently maintained that 
 they weie forgeries. Many others adopt the theory that 
 he caught the spirit of the Ossianic poetry from the 
 tales of the old Celtic bards, but supplied from his own 
 invention much of the peculiar imagery and cloudy 
 verbiage which abound in his pretended translations. 
 About 1772 he settled in London, and produced a prose 
 version of the " Iliad," which was a failure, a " History 
 of Great Britain," and other works. He was a member 
 of Parliament from 1780 to 1790. Died in 1796. 
 
 See Bt.AlR, "Critical Dissertation on the Peems of Osian," 1763; 
 H. Mukknzir, " Report of the Committee of the Highland Society 
 of Scotland,*' tic. : J. Sinclair, "On the. Authenticity of Ossian's 
 Poems," 1S06: " Nouvelle Biographie G4ne>ale :" Cuamhkks, " Bio- 
 graphical Dictionaiyof Eminent Scotsmen;" Review of "Ossian," 
 in ine " Monthly Review" for January and February, 1762. 
 
 « ^ a ,■ 9 as s; % hard; g as,;'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as 1; th as in this. (2r3^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 94 
 
MACPHERSON 
 
 1490 
 
 MACRO BWS 
 
 Mac-Pher'son, (James Birdseye,) an eminent Amer- 
 ican general, born in Sandusky county, Ohio, in Novem- 
 ber, 1828. He entered the Military Academy of West 
 Point in 1849, and graduated at the head of his class in 
 1853. Having been assigned to the corps of engineers, 
 he was employed as engineer at New York, Fort Del- 
 aware, and Alcatraz Island, California. He obtained 
 the rank of first lieutenant in 1858, and that of captain 
 in August, 1 86 1. In November ensuing he became 
 aide-de-camp to General Halleck, with the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-colonel. He served as chief engineer on General 
 Grant's staff at the capture of Fort Donelson, and at the 
 battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7, 1862. In May of that 
 year he was appointed a colonel in the regular army, 
 and brigadier-general of volunteers. He commanded a 
 division which broke through the lines of General Price, 
 then investing Corinth, and marched in to the relief of 
 the garrison in October. For this service he was pro- 
 moted to the rank of major-general on the 8th of Octo- 
 ber, 1862. Having obtained command of the seventeenth 
 army corps in December, he served under General Grant 
 in the campaign against Vicksburg. His corps gained a 
 victory at Raymond on the 12th of May, 1863, and, with 
 the aid of General Sherman's corps, defeated General 
 Joseph E. Johnston at Jackson on the 14th. General 
 McPherson contributed to the victory of Champion's 
 Hills, and took part in two unsuccessful assaults on 
 the works of Vicksburg in May. For his services in this 
 campaign he was promoted to be a brigadier-general in 
 the regular army, to date from the capture of Vicksburg, 
 and was appointed commander of the district of Vicks- 
 burg, July, 1863. He served under Sherman in the 
 expedition to Meridian in February, 1864. In the next 
 month, General Grant, who had just been nominated 
 general-in-chief of all the Union armies, wrote a letter 
 to Sherman, in which he expressed his thanks to Sher- 
 man and McPherson as the men to whom he was most 
 indebted for his success. On the 12th of March, McPher- 
 son was appointed commander of the department and 
 army of the Tennessee. 
 
 As commander of the army of the Tennessee, he 
 maintained his high reputation in the campaign which 
 Sherman conducted in Georgia. His army fought with 
 success against the rebels at Dallas on the 28th of May. 
 On the 27th of June, Generals Thomas and McPherson 
 assaulted the fortified lines of Kenesaw Mountain, but 
 were repulsed with severe loss. By a flank movement 
 of the army of McPherson, General Johnston was induced 
 to abandon his strong position at Kenesaw about July 3, 
 and to retreat to Atlanta. After the Union armies had 
 advanced to the vicinity of Atlanta, the enemy adopted 
 a bolder policy, and made several attacks, in one of which 
 McPherson was killed, July 22, 1864. "About I P.M. 
 of this day," says General Grant, "the brave, accom- 
 plished, and noble-hearted McPherson was killed." (Re- 
 port, dated July 22, 1865.) 
 
 See Tennkv, " Military History of the Rebellion." 
 
 Macpherson, (Sir John,) born in Skye, Scotland, 
 about 1767, became a member of the supreme council 
 of Bengal in 1781. He acted as Governor-General of 
 India alter the retirement of Warren Hastings, (Feb- 
 ruary, 1785,) until July, 17S6. Died in 1821. 
 
 Macquarie, ina-kwor're, (Lachlan,) a British gene- 
 ral, born in the island of Mull in 1762. He served many 
 years in India, and fought against the French in Egypt in 
 1801. From 1809 to 1821 he was Governor of New South 
 Wales. About 1814 he obtained the rank of general. 
 Died in 1824. 
 
 Macquart, mS'kaV, (Louts Charles Henri,) a 
 Fiench mineralogist, born at Rheims in 1745. He pub- 
 lished a "Manual of the Properties of Water," (1783,) 
 and a " Dictionary of Health and Education," (2 vols., 
 1S00.) Died in 1808. 
 
 Macquer, mt'kaiit', (Philippe,) a French liitirateur 
 and advocate, born in Paris in 1720. He was author 
 of a " Chronological Abridgment of Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory," (2 vols., 1751,) "Roman Annals," (1756,) and an 
 "Abridged History of Spain and Portugal," (2 vols., 
 1759,) (all in French,) which were received with favour. 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 See Quekakd, 'La Fiance LitteYaire." 
 
 Macquer, (Pierre Joseph,) a meritorious French 
 chemist and physician, born in Paris in 1 718, was a 
 brother of the preceding. He discovered new properties 
 in many chemical substances, and is said to have been 
 the first who proved that the diamond is combustible, 
 (1771.) He published " Elements of Theoretical Chem- 
 istry," (1741,) and avaluable "Dictionary of Chemistry," 
 (1766.) In 1745 he was elected a member of the Academy 
 of Sciences. He succeeded Bourdelin as professor of 
 chemistry at the Jardin du Roi, and edited the scientific 
 department of the " lournal des Savants" from 1768 to 
 1776. Died in 1784. 
 
 See F. Hoefhr, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Macready, ma-kree'de, (William Charles,) a 
 popular English tragic actor, born in London in 1793. 
 He made a successful debut at Birmingham in 1810, and 
 appeared on the London stage in 1816, when he per- 
 formed " Orestes" at Covent Garden with great applause. 
 His reputation was increased by his performance of the 
 " Virginias" of Sheridan Knowles, and of" Richard III." 
 and other leading characters of Shakspeare. From 1837 
 to 1839 he was lessee and manager of Covent Garden 
 Theatre. About 1842 he assumed the management of 
 Drury Lane ; but, as he failed to make it profitable, he 
 kept it only two or three seasons. He performed with 
 great success in the principal cities of the United States 
 in 1848 and 1849. While he was in this country, a 
 quarrel between him and Edwin Forrest resulted in a 
 serious riot in New York. He retired from the stage 
 in 185 1. 
 
 See Littleton, " Biography of W. C. Macready," 1851 ; R- 
 H. Horne, " New Spirit of the Age," 1S44; "New American Cy- 
 clopaedia." 
 
 Macret, mS'kRi', (Charles Francois Adrien,) a 
 French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1750; died in 
 
 I783- 
 
 Mac-rl-a'nus, [Fr. Macrien, mi'kRe^N',] (Marcus 
 Fulvius,) a Roman emperor, born in Egypt. He rose 
 from the lowest to the highest rank in the army. The 
 emperor Valerian having been taken prisoner by the 
 Persians, a part of the army, in 261 A.D., chose for his 
 successor Macrianus, who was then an old man. In 
 262 he was defeated in Illyricum, and put to death, by 
 Domitian, a general of Gallienus. 
 
 See Tillemont, " Histoire des Empereurs." 
 
 Macrien. See Macrianus. 
 
 Macrin. See Macrinus, and Salmon, (Jean.) 
 
 Macrino d'Alba, ma-kRee'no dal'bi, an Italian 
 painter, born at Alba, near Turin, about 1460. He was 
 among the most skilful artists of his time, and one of the 
 first to adopt the modern style. Many of his works are 
 preserved at Turin and Alba. Died about 1520. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Macrinus, mi'kRe'nuss', (Charles Salmon,) a 
 French writer, was a brother of Jean the poet, and pre- 
 ceptor to Catherine of Navarre. He was a victim of the 
 Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, (1572.) 
 
 Ma-cri'nus, [Fr. Macrin, mfkitiN',] (M. Opelius 
 or Oi'iLius,). a Roman emperor, was born of obscure 
 parents in Mauritania in 164 A.n. He obtained the high 
 office of prefect of the praetorians under Caracalla. In 
 April, 217 A.D., he instigated the assassination of Cara- 
 calla, and was proclaimed emperor by the army, whose 
 choice was confirmed by the senate. In the same year 
 he was defeated by the Parthians at Nisibis. He was 
 defeated near Antioch in June, 218, by the partisans of 
 Elagabalus, and put to death. 
 
 See Tillemont, " Histoire des Empereurs;" " Nouvelle Bicgra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Ma'cro, [Fr. Macron, mi'kRdN',] (N^evius Serto- 
 rius,) a profligate Roman courtier, who enjoyed the 
 favour of the emperor Tiberius and was the principal 
 agent in the arrest of Sejanus. After the death of 
 Sejanus, he became prefect of the prxtorian guard. He 
 was put to death by Caligula in 38 A.D. 
 
 See Tacitus, " Annales." 
 
 Macrobe. See Macrobius. 
 
 Ma-cro'bi-us,[Fr. Macrobe, mS'kRob',](AMBROSius 
 Aurei.ius Theodosius,) a grammarian and writer, who 
 is supposed to have lived at Rome in the fifth century. 
 
 
 a, e,T, o, u, y,/cwj 7 a, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,1, 6, u, ]?,/•£-•%■ a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; m8t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MsiCTTEIRE 
 
 1491 
 
 MADISON 
 
 It is not known whether he was a Christian or a pagan, a 
 Greek or a Roman. He was the author of three Latin 
 works which have come down to us, a "Treatise on the 
 Latin and Greek Verb," a " Commentary on the Dream 
 of Scipio," and a series of curious and valuable essays 
 on history, mythology, criticism, etc., entitled "Saturna- 
 liorum Conviviorum Libri Septem." 
 
 See Fabricics, " Bibliotheca Latina;" Alphonre Maiiui., 
 ertttjpn sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Macrobe," 1817; " Nou 
 velle BioKniphie Gene"rale. " 
 
 Mactyeire, mak-te-air', ? (Holland Nimmons,) 
 D.D., a Methodist divine, born in South Carolina in 
 lS^4, became editor of the "Christian Advocate," at 
 Nashville. 
 
 Mac-vick'ar, (John,) D.D., an American Episcopal 
 divine, born in New York in 1787. He was appointed 
 in 1 Si 7 professor of moral philosophy and rhetoric in 
 Columbia College. He has published "Outlines of Po- 
 litical Economy," "The Professional Years of Bishop 
 Hobart," and other works. 
 
 Macwhorter, niak-hwiir'ter, ? (Alexander,) a Pres- 
 byterian minister, born in New Castle county, Delaware, 
 in 1734. He preached many years at Newark, New Jer- 
 sey. Died in 1807. 
 
 Madai, von, von mod'oy, (David Samuel,) a Hun- 
 garian numismatist, born at Schemnitz in 1 709. He pub- 
 lished a work entitled "A Complete Cabinet of Medals," 
 (1765-74.) Died in 1780. 
 
 Mad'an, (Martin,) an English clergyman, born near 
 Hertford in 1726. He became a popular preacher at the 
 Lock Hospital, and published, besides other works, 
 " Thelyphthora," in which he advocated polygamy. Died 
 in 1790. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for October and November, i7?o. 
 
 Mad.au, (Spencer,) a brother of the preceding, be- 
 came Bishop of Peterborough. Died in 1813. 
 
 Madan, (Rev. Spencer,) a son of Martin, noticed 
 above, was born in 1759. He was an eloquent preacher, 
 and obtained the living of Ibstock and the prebend of 
 Peterborough. For about thirty years he was chaplain 
 to the king. Died in 1836. 
 
 Mad'den, (Sir Frederick,) an eminent English 
 antiquary, born at Portsmouth in 1801, was appointed 
 keeper of the manuscripts in the British Museum in 
 1837. He was a valuable contributor to British history, 
 and edited many works, among which are " Havelock 
 the Dane," (1828,) and "Layamon's Brut, or Chronicle 
 of Britain," (1847.) 
 
 Mad'den, (Richard Robert,) an Irish physician 
 and writer on various subjects, was born in Dublin in 
 1798. Among his numerous works are "Travels in 
 Turkey, Egypt, and Palestine," (2 vols., 1829,) "The 
 Lives and Times of the United Irishmen," (7 vols.,) 
 and " Memoirs and Correspondence of the Countess of 
 Blcssington," (3 vols., 1855.) 
 
 Madden, (Samuel,) an Irish clergyman and writer, 
 whom Dr. Johnson said Ireland ought to honour, was 
 born in 1687. He was noted for public spirit, and founded 
 at Dublin a society for the promotion of the arts by pre- 
 miums. He wrote " Memoirs of the Twentieth Cen- 
 tury," (1732,) and the "Monument of Boulter," a poem. 
 Died in 1765. 
 
 See Nichols and Bowver, "Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Maddersteg, mad'der-steG', (Michael,) a Dutch 
 painter of marine views, etc., born at Amsterdam in 
 1659, worked in Berlin. Died in 1709. 
 
 Maddius. See Maggi, (Carlo.) 
 
 Mad'dox, (Isaac,) born in London in 1697, became 
 Bishop of Worcester in 1743. He wrote a " Review of 
 . History of the Puritans." Died in 1759. 
 
 Madeleine. See M acdm.kne. 
 
 Madelenet, mid'leh-ni', (Gai.riei.,) a French poet, 
 born in the Auxerrois about 1587, lived mostly in Paris. 
 inposcd elegant Latin odes. Died in 1661. 
 
 Mader, ma'der, (Joachim Joiiann,) a German philol- 
 ogist, born at Hanover in 1626. He published editions 
 ot -Hue Latin and Greek Fathers, and wrote " De Coro- 
 nis sacris et profanis," (1662.) Died in 1680. 
 
 Maderno, ma-dcVno, (Carlo,) an eminent Italian 
 architect, born in Lombardy in 1556. He studied or 
 worked with his uncle, Domenico Kontana, in Rome. 
 
 Having acquired a great reputation, he obtained about 
 1614 the title of architect of Saint Peter's Church, and 
 was charged by the pope to finish the anterior part. He 
 deviated from the original plan by adopting the form of 
 a Latin cross instead of a Greek cross. His additions 
 to this edifice are condemned by Milizia and others. 
 Among his best works is the Mattei palace. Died in 
 1629. 
 
 See Quatremere de Quincy, "Vies des plus ce"lebres Archi- 
 tectes;" Cicognara, "Stoiia della Scultura;" Ticozzi, "Dizio- 
 nario ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Maderno, (Stekano,) an Italian sculptor, born near 
 Como in 1576. He adorned some churches of Rome 
 with bas-reliefs and statues. Died in 1636. 
 
 Madeweis, nii'deh-wls', (Friedkich,) a learned Ger- 
 man writer, born at Sammentin in 1648 ; died in 1705. 
 
 Madier de Montjau, ma"de-a' deh m6N'zho', (I'ait- 
 lin,) a French advocate and judge, born at Bourg-Saint- 
 Andeol in 1785. He showed firmness and sagacity in the 
 repression of the excesses committed by the royalists 
 about 1816-20. 
 
 Mad'I-son, (James,) D.D., an American prelate, born 
 in Rockingham county, Virginia, in 1749, became Episco- 
 pal Bishop of Virginia in 1790. He had been previously 
 elected president of William and Mary College. Died 
 in 1812. 
 
 Madison, (James,) an eminent American statesman, 
 the fourth President of the United States, born in King 
 George county, Virginia, on the 16th of March, 1751, 
 was a son of Colonel James Madison and Eleanor or 
 Nelly Conway. He entered Princeton College, New 
 Jersey, in 1769, and graduated in 1771, after which he 
 studied law. In 1776 he was elected a member of the 
 Assembly or Convention of Virginia. He was defeated 
 in the election of 1777 because he refused to "treat" the 
 voters; but he was elected a member of the Geneial 
 Congress by the Assembly of Virginia in 1779. F>om 
 this period he was one of the most prominent men in 
 the political history of the republic. He was re-elected 
 in 1786, and was a member of the National Convention 
 which met at Philadelphia in 1787 to form the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States. He took a prominent part 
 in the debates on the Constitution, and advocated the 
 adoption of the same by a series of able essays, forming 
 part of "The Federalist," which is the joint production 
 of Hamilton, Madison, and Jay. Madison was a mem- 
 ber of the Virginia Convention which, after a spirited 
 contest, adopted the Federal Constitution by a small 
 majority in June, 1788. He became a member of Con- 
 gress in 1789, and united with the Republicans as a 
 moderate opponent of the administration of Washington 
 and the financial measures of Hamilton. He was dis- 
 posed to be a mediator rather than a partisan in the 
 dissensions which arose among the founders of the re- 
 public. In 1794 he married Dorothy Todd, originally 
 Dorothy Paine, a woman eminent for her virtues and 
 accomplishments. He daclined the office of secretary 
 of state vacated by Jefferson in December, 1793, an( ' 
 continued to serve in Congress until 1797. He opposed 
 the alien and sedition laws of 1798, and was the author 
 of a series of resolutions adopted by the Assembly of 
 Virginia and known as the Resolutions of 1798, which 
 protested against all attempts to increase the power of 
 the Federal government by forced constructions of gen- 
 eral clauses of the Constitution. He was appointed 
 secretary of state by President Jefferson in March, 1801, 
 and filled that office for eight years in such a manner as 
 to acquire the confidence and approbation of the people. 
 Having been nominated for the Presidency by a caucus 
 of Republican members of Congress, he was elected in 
 1808, receiving one hundred and twenty-two electoral 
 votes out of one hundred and seventy-five, which was 
 the whole number. Charles C. Pinckney, the F'ederal 
 candidate, received forty-seven votes. On entering upon 
 the office of President, March 4, 1809, he found the United 
 States involved in difficulties and disputes with the British 
 government, which had offended the Americans by im- 
 pressing seamen and by searching American vessels for 
 deserters, and had injured their commerce by orders 
 in council. His cabinet at first consisted of Robert 
 Smith, secretary of state, Albert Gallatin, secretary of 
 
 < as *; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; 5 as t; «h as in this. (J^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MJDLER 
 
 1492 
 
 M^ECEKAS 
 
 the treasury, William Eustis, secretary of war, and Paul 
 Hamilton, secretary of the navy. 
 
 In May, 1810, Congress passed a non-intercourse act. 
 The President sent to Congress a special message on 
 the subject of British aggressions about the 1st of June, 
 1812, and war was declared on the 18th of the same 
 month. A few days later the British ministry repealed 
 their orders in council in relation to the rights of neu- 
 trals, but they refused to satisfy the Americans in relation 
 to the impressment of seamen. In the autumn of 1812 
 Mr. Madison was re-elected to the Presidency by one 
 hundred and twenty eight electoral votes. His com- 
 petitor was De Witt Clinton, who received eighty-nine 
 votes. The slave States, with Pennsylvania, Ohio, and 
 Vermont, voted for Madison. A strong party in the 
 United States was opposed to the war of 1812, which 
 was waged with various success on land and sea. Com- 
 modore Perry gained a naval victory on Lake Erie in 
 September, 1813. About the 3d of July, 1814, a small 
 American army invaded Canada, gained a victory at 
 Chippewa, and fought a severe battle at Lundy's Lane, 
 or Niagara, (July 25,) in which the Americans lost 743 
 killed and wounded and the British lost 878. In August 
 of that year a small British force ascended the Chesa- 
 peake, took Washington by a sudden movement, and 
 burned the Capitol. A treaty of peace was signed at 
 Ghent, December 24, 1814; but, before the tidings of 
 this event had reached the United States, General Jack- 
 son gained a signal victory over the British at New 
 Orleans, January 8, 1815. In 1816 Madison approved a 
 bill which Congress had passed to charter the Bank of 
 the United States for twenty years. On the 4th of March, 
 1817, he retired from public life. He passed the re- 
 mainder of his days on his farm at Montpelier, Orange 
 county, Virginia. He was a member of the Virginia 
 Convention called in 1829 to revise the Constitution of 
 the State. Died at Montpelier, June 28, 1836. 
 
 "This great statesman and philosopher," says R. W. 
 Griswold, "was the confidential, personal, and political 
 friend of Jefferson ; but in almost every respect their 
 characters were essentially different. Mr. Madison's in- 
 tellect was of a far higher order, and its ascendency over 
 his passions was nearly perfect. His triumphs were 
 those of pure reason. His public and private life were 
 above reproach. . . . His writings on the Constitution 
 and other subjects were second only to those of Hamilton 
 in ability and influence; and his extensive information, 
 sound judgment, skill as a logician, and unvarying cour- 
 tesy, secured him the highest consideration in the Con- 
 gresses of which he was a member." (" Prose Writers 
 of America.") He left in manuscript " Reports of the 
 Debates in the National Convention of 1788," which 
 were purchased by Congress after his death, and pub- 
 lished in 3 vols., (1840.) This is a work of great value to 
 students of political philosophy. 
 
 See Wm. C. Rivks, " History of the Life and Times of James 
 Madison," 3 vols., 1S59-1S68, (injjnished. This work extends only 
 to 1797;) John Q. Adams. "LifeT>f James Madison," 1850; Ban- 
 croft. '' History of the United States;" " National Portrait-Gallery 
 of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. ; "New American Cyclopae- 
 dia;" "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1812. 
 
 Madler or Maedler, med'ler, (Johann Hefnrich,) 
 a German astronomer, born in Berlin in 1794. In con- 
 junction with Beer, he produced an excellent lunar chart, 
 — " Mappa Selenographica," (1834-36.) In 1840 he was 
 appointed professor of astronomy and director of the 
 Observatory of Dorpat. He has published, besides 
 other works, "The Existence of a Central Sun," (1846,) 
 and " Researches into the System of Fixed Stars," which 
 is highly commended. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Mad'oc or Madog, the second son of Owen Gwy- 
 nedd, Prince of Wales, lived in the twelfth century. 
 Some writers favour the hypothesis that he discovered 
 America about 1170, at which period he was compelled 
 to leave Wales by a successful rebellion against his 
 dynasty. Tradition informs us that he sailed from Wales 
 on a second expedition to the newly-discovered shores, 
 and was never heard from after. His history furnishes 
 the subject of Southey's poem entitled " Madoc." 
 
 See Owkn. " British Remains," 1777. 
 
 Madog. See Madoc. 
 
 Madox, (Isaac.) See Maddox. 
 
 Mad'ox, (Thomas,) an eminent English antiquary, 
 was an inmate of the Middle Temple, London, and 
 was called to the bar about 1704. He was a diligent 
 collector of old legal and historical records, and obtained 
 the title of royal historiographer. His principal work 
 is "The History and Antiquities of the Exchequer of 
 the Kings of England from the Norman Conquest to 
 the End of the Reign of Edward II.," (1711.) He also 
 published " Firma Burgi ; or, A Historical Essay con- 
 cerning the Cities, Towns, and Boroughs of England," 
 (1726.) 
 
 See Nichols and Bowver, " Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Madoz, ma-d6th', (Pascuai,,) a Spanish author and 
 liberal statesman, was born at Pampeluna in 1806. He 
 chose the profession of the law, and was appointed a 
 judge at Barcelona in 1835. He edited a "Universal 
 Geographical Dictionary," (1831-34,) — a work of de- 
 cided merit. Having been elected a deputy to the 
 Cortes, he removed to Madrid, where he devoted much 
 time to an arduous and successful enterprise, as editor 
 of a voluminous "Geographical -Historical Dictionary 
 of Spain," (1848,) which is, perhaps, the most com- 
 plete and excellent work of the kind ever published. 
 Madoz became a leader of the party called Progre- 
 sistas, and was minister of finance for about four months 
 in 1855. 
 
 See "Nonvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Madrazo, de, da ma-DRa'tho, (Don Federico,) a 
 Spanish painter, a son of the following, was born at 
 Rome in 1815. He painted portraits with success, and 
 became court painter at Madrid. He gained a medal of 
 the first class in 1855. 
 
 Madrazo y Agudo, de, da mJ-DRj'tho e S-goo'no, 
 ( Don Josfi, ) a Spanish painter of history and portraits, 
 born at Santander in 1781. He became court painter to 
 Ferdinand VII., and director of the Academy of Madrid. 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 Madrid, de, da maD-ren', ( Josfi Fernandez,) born 
 at Carthagena, South America, in 1789. He was chosen 
 president of the republic of New Granada in 1816, but 
 in the same year was made prisoner by the Spaniards. 
 After an imprisonment of nine years in Havana, he 
 escaped in 1825, after which he was employed by Bolivar 
 as secret agent in Paris. He wrote " Atala," a tragedy. 
 Died in 1 830. 
 
 Madrolle, mi'dRol', (Antoine,) a French writer on 
 religion and politics, born at Saint-Seine in 1792. He 
 published numerous works, in which he advocated ultra- 
 montane doctrines. Died in 1861. 
 
 Madvig, mJd'vig, (Johann or Jens Nikolai,) a 
 Danish philologist, born in the isle of Bornholm in 1S04. 
 1 It was appointed minister of public instruction in 1848. 
 Among his works is "Opuscula Academica," 2 vols., 
 (1834-42.) 
 
 Mcecenas, me-see'nas, [It. Mecknate, ma-cha-na'tl, 
 orMECENATO; Fr. Mecenk, ma'sjn',] (Caius Cii.nius,) 
 a celebrated patron of literature at Rome, was born prob- 
 ably about 70 li.c. He was descended from an ancient 
 and royal Etruscan family, and belonged to the eques- 
 trian order. (Horace, Carm. I. 1-20.) He was the friend 
 of Octavius before his accession as the emperor Augus- 
 tus. His fidelity and talents having been approved in 
 many important negotiations, Octavius intrusted to him 
 the administration of Rome during his absence in 36 B.C. 
 when he went to war against Sextus Pompeius. After 
 the battle of Actium (31 A.D.) had rendered Octavius 
 master of Rome, he is said to have followed the counsel 
 of Maecenas in founding an empire instead of restoring 
 the republic. Agrippa and Maecenas were the favourites 
 and chief ministers of Augustus for many years. The 
 political career of the latter ended about 16 B.C. Ma=- 
 cenas was versed in Greek and Roman literature, and 
 rendered his name memorable by his liberal patronage 
 of Horace, Virgil, and other poets, who were his intimate 
 friends. His name had become proverbial as a patron 
 of letters as early as the time of Martial. It is said that 
 Virgil's " Georgics" was written at the request of Mae- 
 cenas. In the councils of state he advocated mild and 
 liberal measures and the free expression of opinions. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, at; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MJECIANUS 
 
 H93 
 
 MAGAT1 
 
 He wrote several mediocre works, of which only small 
 fragments are extant. Died in 8 B.C. 
 
 See A. Rivisr*. " Ilisscnationes II. de Majcenate," t64g-e2; 
 Henri Richer. "Vie de MeCenas," 1746; R. Schomberg, "Life 
 of M-eceiias," London, i;ho; C. Capokai.1, "Vila di Mecenate," 
 1604; 8. Viola, "Storia di C. C. Mecenato," 18:6: Frandsen. "C, 
 cenas," etc, 1S43; MKtiiOMirs, " De C. C. Msecenatis Vita," 
 1653: Bellman, " MleceiUM Literatorum Patronus," Upsal, 1705; 
 Tacitus, "Annates," books i., iii., vi., and xiv. ; Dion Cassius, 
 " History of Rome." 
 
 Mascianus, me-se-5'nus, (Lucius Volusius,) a 
 Roman jurist of the second century. He was a legal 
 adviser of Antoninus Pius, and a preceptor of Marcus 
 Aurelius. He wrote " De Fideicommissis," and other 
 works, of which extracts are found in the " Digest." 
 
 Maedler. See Mauler. 
 
 Maelzel. See MXlZEL. 
 
 Maenades, mcn'a-dez, [from /iriivouat, to "rave,"] a 
 name of the priestesses of BACCHUS, (which see.) 
 
 Maeonides, me-on'I-deez, |Gr. Maidmh/c] or Majonian 
 bard, a name sometimes given to Homer, liecause he 
 was reported to have been born in Lydia, the ancient 
 name of which was Mseonia. (See Homkr.) 
 
 Maerlaud or Maerlant, van, villi mSr'lant, (Jacob,) 
 an early Flemish poet, born about 1235, is called "the 
 father of Flemish poetry." He was a person of uncom- 
 mon information and learning for that age. Among his 
 works are "Sentences from" Aristotle," "The War of 
 Troy," and " Wapen Martyn." Died in 1300. 
 
 See J. F. Wrtxmrs, "J. van Maerlant," 1838; Vissciier, "Jets 
 over J. de Coster van Maerlant," 1838. 
 
 Maes. See Maas. 
 
 Maes, mSs, (Andreas,) a Belgian Orientalist, born 
 in Brabant in 1515 or 1516; died in 1573. 
 
 Maestlin. See MXSTLTN. 
 
 Masvius, mee'iiMis, an obscure Roman poetaster of 
 the Augustan age, acquired notoriety by his envious 
 attacks on the best poets of his time. His name has 
 been saved from oblivion by the ridicule of Virgil, who 
 mentions him in his Third Eclogue. The name of 
 Gifford's satiric poem " The Masviad" is derived from 
 M.Tvius. 
 
 Maffei, niaf-fa'ee, (Bernardino,) an Italian cardinal, 
 bom in 15 13.U rote a "Commentary on Cicero's Epistles." 
 Diet! at Rome in 1553. 
 
 Maffei, (FRANCESCO.) an Italian painter, born at 
 
 /a. He imitated Paul Veronese in colouring. His 
 
 style is grand, but rather exaggerated. Died about 1660. 
 
 Maffei, (Francesco Scipjone,) Marquis, a cele- 
 brated Italian scholar and author, born at Verona in 
 June, 1675. He made a campaign in the service of 
 Bavaria, and distinguished himself at Donauwerth in 
 1704, but soon renounced the military profession and 
 devoted himself to literature. In 17 13 he produced 
 "Metope," a tragedy, which was highly applauded, and 
 ran through seventy editions in forty years. His prin- 
 cipal work, "Verona Illustrata," (2 vols, fob, 1731,) 
 treats of the origin, history, and literary history of 
 Verona. It is admirable lor profound research, sound 
 criticism, and elegant style. He also wrote "Introduc- 
 tion to the Science of Diplomatics," ("Istoria diplo- 
 matica che serve d"Introduzione all' Arte critica in tal 
 Materia,") and other works. He was a member of the 
 Royal Societies of London and of Berlin. Died in 1755. 
 I-abroni, "Vitas Italornm doctrina exceilentitim ;" Pindk- 
 montk. •• Elogio di-i Marcliese MaficV' 1784): TirAi.no, "isiografia 
 Wgti Italiani iilnstri;" " Nonveile Biographic Generate." 
 
 Maffei, [Lat. Maff.-e'ius or Maph/e'psJ (Giovanni 
 PlETRO,) an excellent Italian writer, born at Bergamo 
 in 1535. He went to Rome and entered the order of 
 Jesuits in 1565, after which he lectured on eloquence for 
 six years at the Roman College with great success. His 
 most celebrated work is " Historian Indicae," ('• History 
 of India," 1588,) of which the style is the chief merit. 
 " Maffei," says llallam, "threw all the graces of a pure 
 Latin style over his description of the East." He wrote 
 a " Life of Loyola,"(l585,) and other works. Died in 1603. 
 TtKAHOsCHl, "Storia della Letteratura Itajiana;" Nic^ron, 
 ires." 
 
 Maffei, ( Paolo Ai.essandro,) an Italian antiquary, 
 born at Volterra in 1653. He published a "Coll, 1 Hon 
 of Ancient and Modem Statues, with Critical Observa- 
 
 tions," and another esteemed work, illustrative of ancient 
 gems, (" Gemme antiche figurate," 1707.) Died in 1716. 
 
 Maffei, (Raffaello,) also called Raffaello Volter- 
 raiio, raf-fa-el'lo vol-ter-ra'no, an Italian scholar, born 
 at Volterra in 1451. His most important work is " Cora- 
 mentarii Urbani," which treats of geography, biography, 
 sciences, etc. It was reprinted at Paris in 1526. Died 
 at Rome in 1522. 
 
 See Fai.coniN!, "Vita di Raffaello Volterrano," 1722. 
 
 Maffeo (or Maffei) Vegio, maf-fa'o va'jo, [Lat. 
 Mai'H/e'us Ve'gius,] one of the most eminent Latin 
 poets of the fifteenth century, was born at Lodi in 1406. 
 He became a resident of Rome, and was appointed 
 secretary of briefs and datary by Eugene IV. Besides 
 several religious works in prose, he composed Latin 
 poems, entitled "The Golden Fleece," (" Astyanax Vel- 
 lus Aureum,") and "jEneidos Supplementum," (1471,) 
 a continuation of Virgil's great epic. The last was the 
 most admired of his works. He was highly praised by 
 Scaliger. Died in 1458. 
 
 See Tirarosciii, ".Storia della Lelteratnra Italiana;" Bavle, 
 "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic^kon, "Metnoires." 
 
 Maf'fitt, (John Newland, ) a noted Methodist 
 preacher, born at Dublin, Ireland, in 1794. Having 
 emigrated to the United States in 1819, he became 
 in 1833 associate editor of the "Western Methodist," 
 published at Nashville, Tennessee. He was elected 
 professor of elocution at La Grange College, Alabama, 
 in 1837. Died in 1850. 
 
 Mafoma. See Mohammed. 
 
 Magalhaens. See Magellan, 
 
 Magalhaens, ma-giil-ya'SNs, (Gabriel,) a Portu- 
 guese missionary, born near Coimbra in 1609, laboured 
 in the Jesuit missions in China from 1640 until his death, 
 in 1677, and wrote a "Description of China," (1688.) 
 
 Magalhaens de Gandavo, de, di ma-gal-ya'eNs 
 dagan-da'vo, (Pedro,) a Portuguese historian, born at 
 Braga about 1550. He passed some years in Brazil, and 
 published at Lisbon in 1576 a "History of Brazil," a 
 work of some merit. 
 
 Magalon, nia'gt 'I6n', (Jean Denis,) a French writer 
 and journalist, bomat Bagnoles in 1794; died about 1840. 
 
 Magalotti, ma-g.i-lot'tee, ( Lorenzo, ) Count, an 
 Italian philosopher, born at Rome in 1637, was versed 
 in ancient and modern languages. He became a resident 
 of Florence, the grand duke of which employed him on 
 diplomatic missions to Vienna and Mantua. Among his 
 works are a treatise against atheism, called " Familiar 
 Letters," (1719, ) "Scientific and Learned Letters," 
 (" Lettere scientifiche ed erudite," 1721,) and "Ana- 
 creontic Songs," (1723.) "The Letters of Magalotti 
 and of Redi," says Hallam, "seem to do more credit 
 than anything else to this period," (of Italian literature.) 
 Died in 1 712. 
 
 See Fauroni, "Vita; Italornm doctrina exceilentitim:" P. Poz- 
 zktti, " Elogio storico del Conte L. Magalotti," 1787 ; Tiraboschi, 
 "Storia della Letteratnra Italiana." 
 
 Maganza, ma-gan'za, (Alessandro,) an Italian his- 
 torical painter, born at Vicenza in 1556. He imitated 
 Paul Veronese with moderate success. Died in 1630. 
 Alessandro had three sons, who were promising artists ; 
 but they died prematurely before their father. 
 
 See A. M. Mknkgiiki.i.i, " Elogio diA. Maganza," 1845; Lanzi, 
 " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Maganza, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, 
 sumamed II. MAGAONo,.(el ma-gan'yo,) born at Vicenza 
 in 1509, was the father of the preceding. He was a 
 pupil of Titian, and was successful in portraits and his- 
 tory. He was author of a volume of poems, (" Rime,") 
 published in 1570. Died in 1589. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Baldinucci, "No- 
 tizie." 
 
 Maganza, (Giovanni Battista,) a painter of the 
 Venetian school, born at Vicenza in 1577, was a son and 
 pupil of Alessandro, noticed above. Died in 1617. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Ma'gas, [Gr. Muyac,] a king of Cyrene, and a step- 
 son of Ptokniv Sotcr. Died in 258 B.C. 
 
 Magati, ma-ga'tec, or Magatti, ma-gat'tee, [Lat 
 Maga'ius,] (Cesare,) an eminent Italian surgical writer, 
 
 c as i; c as s; g hard; g as/,- g, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this, (jrf- See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MJGATUS 
 
 1494 
 
 MAGLIABECCHI 
 
 born at Scandiano in 1579. He wrote " De rara Medi- 
 catione Vulnerum," (1616.) Died in 1647. 
 
 Magatus. See Mag ait. 
 
 Mag'da-lene or Mag'da-len, [Fr. Madeleine or 
 Madei.ene, mSd'lin',] (Mary,) an eminent Christian 
 saint, was probably born at Magdala, in Galilee. She 
 was one of the personal followers of Christ, by whom 
 she was "healed of evil spirits and infirmities. " (See 
 Luke viii. 2.) Nothing appears to be known of her his- 
 tory in addition to the facts narrated by the four Evan- 
 gelists. (See Matthew xxvii. and xxviii., Mark xvi., and 
 John xix. 25 and xx. 1-18.) The learned differ on the 
 question of her identity with Mary the sister of Lazarus 
 of Bethany. The prevalent notion that her morals were 
 very depraved before her conversion appears to have no 
 real foundation. 
 
 Ma-gee', (William,) Archbishop of Dublin, was 
 born in Ireland ill 1765. He opposed Unitarian ism in 
 " Discourses on the Scriptural Doctrines of the Atone- 
 ment," (2 vols., 1801,) which procured for him a wide 
 reputation. He became Bishop of Raphoe in 1819, and 
 Archbishop of Dublin in 1822. Died in 1831. 
 
 Magellan, ma-jel'lan, [Sp. pron. nia-hel-yan'; Port. 
 Magalhaens, nid-gal-ya'eNs,] (Fernando,) a Portu- 
 guese navigator, distinguished for his skill, enterprise, 
 and important discoveries, was born about 1470. He 
 served several years in the East Indies under Albu- 
 querque, and took part in the capture of Malacca in 
 1 5 1 1 . A few years later he offered his services to 
 Charles V., and received command of a fleet of five 
 vessels and 230 men. With these he sailed, September, 
 1519, with a view to find a western route to the East 
 Indies. He passed the winter of 1520 (from May to 
 September) in the Bay of Saint Julian, about 49 south 
 latitude, where a serious mutiny or conspiracy was sup- 
 pressed by the execution of two captains of vessels. In 
 October, 1520, he discovered and passed through the 
 strait which bears his name. Pursuing his course through 
 the great ocean of which he was the first navigator, 
 and which he named the Pacific, he discovered the La- 
 drones about the 6th of March, 1521. He proceeded 
 thence to the Philippine Isles, and was amicably received 
 by the Prince of Zebu or Cebu. Having become an ally 
 of this prince in a war against another small island of 
 the same group, Magellan was killed in battle in April, 
 1 52 1. One of his ships, the Vittoria, commanded by 
 Sebastian del Cano, returned to Spain, and was the first 
 that circumnavigated the globe. An Italian named Pi- 
 gafctta accompanied Magellan in this last voyage, and 
 kept a journal, which was published. (See Pigafetta.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gthidrale;" En. Charton, "Voya- 
 geurs anciens et modernes." 
 
 Magellan or Magalhaens, ( Joao Jacinto,) was 
 born at Lisbon in 1723. He emigrated to England 
 about 1764, cultivated natural philosophy with success, 
 and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, (1774.) 
 He wrote a "Description of English Octants and Sex- 
 tants," and other scientific treatises. Died near London 
 in 1790. 
 
 Magendie, mi'zhoN'de', (FRANgots,) an eminent 
 French physiologist and physician, was born at Bor- 
 deaux on the 15th of October, 1783, and was educated 
 in Paris. He became demonstrator of anatomy in the 
 Faculty of Medicine, Paris, about 180;. In 1816 he 
 produced a manual of physiology, " Precis elementaire 
 de Physiologie," which was translated into German and 
 English. He was admitted into the Academy of Sci- 
 ences about 1821, and became professor of anatomy or 
 medicine in the College of France in 1831. His experi- 
 ments contributed/greatly to the progress of physiology. 
 Among his important services was the discovery or 
 demonstration of the functions of the spinal nerves. The 
 honour of this discovery, however, is shared by Charles 
 Bell. Magendie discovered that in the circulation of 
 the blood, the arteries act not by irritability, but by elas- 
 ticity, and proved that the veins are organs of absorption. 
 He experimented on living animals more than any of his 
 predecessors. Among his principal works are " Lectures 
 on the Physical Phenomena of Life," (" Lecons sur les 
 Phenomenes physiques de la Vie," 4 vols., 1836-42,) 
 and " Lectures on the Functions and Diseases of the 
 
 Nervous System," (2 vols., 1839.) He founded in 1821 
 the "Journal of Experimental Physiology," which he 
 continued to edit until 1831. He was appointed presi- 
 dent of the board of public health (comite consultatif 
 iT hygiene publiqite ) in 1848. Died in October, 1855. 
 
 See Flourens, " Fjoge historique de F. Magendie," 1858 ; Du- 
 bois d' Amiens, " filoge de Magendie ;" " Nouveile Biographie 
 G^uerale." 
 
 Magenta, Due de. See MacMahon. 
 
 Mageoghegan, ma -ge-6tt'e-gan, (James,) an Irish 
 historian, born in 1702, became a resident of Paris, and 
 a priest. He wrote a "Histor.y of Ireland, Ancient and 
 Modern," (3 vols., 1758-63.) Died in 1764. 
 
 Maggi, mad'jee, [Lat. Mad'dius,] (Carlo Maria,) 
 an Italian poet, born at Milan in 1630. He became a 
 member of the Academy Delia Crusca, and professor 
 of Greek in Milan. His works consist of Greek, Latin, 
 and Italian poems, of Letters, etc. "Maggi bore an. 
 honourable part," says Hallam, "in the restoration of 
 poetry." Died in 1699. 
 
 See L. A. Mukatori, " Vita di C. M. Maggi, Milanese," 1700; 
 TlRABoacHl, " Storii della Letierauira ltaliana." 
 
 Maggi, (Giovannm,) an Italian painter and etcher, 
 born in Rome about 1566; died after 1618. 
 
 Maggi, (Giuoi.amo,) a lawyer and writer, born at 
 Anghiari, in Tuscany. About 1560 he settled in Venice, 
 where he published several works, among which were 
 "The War of Flanders," a poem, and "Variae Lec- 
 tiones." Having been made prisoner by the Turks in 
 Cyprus, he attempted to escape, was recaptured, and 
 strangled in Constantinople in 1572. 
 
 Maggi, (Lucilio Filalteo.) a learned Italian physi- 
 cian, was born at Brescia about 15 10. He obtained the 
 chair of medicine in the University of Pavia about 1553. 
 He wrote "Familiar Letters" (" Epistolae Familiares ) 
 on the literary history of Italy. Died about 1570. 
 
 Maggio, mad'jo, or Magio, ma'jo, (Francesco 
 Maria,) a monk, born at Palermo in 1612, became 
 skilled in Oriental languages. He was employed as a 
 missionary in .Syria, Georgia, etc., and wrote a "Gram- 
 mar of the Georgian Language." Died in 1686. 
 
 Ma'gi, a religious sect or priestly caste of ancient 
 Persia, which had exclusive possession of scientific 
 knowledge. They worshipped fire and the sun, and 
 were reformed by Zoroaster. In the Gospel certain 
 members of this caste are mentioned as " wise men of 
 the East." ( See Matthew ii. 1.) In process of time 
 the term Magi became synonymous with philosophers, 
 learned men, astronomers, and soothsayers, or dealers 
 in magic arts. 
 
 Magini, ma-jee'nee, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 astronomer, born at Padua in 1555. He was professor 
 of mathematics at Bologna from 15S8 to 1617, and wrote 
 many works, among which are " l ? .phen^;rides," and 
 " New Theories of the Celestial Orbs," (" Novae Cceles- 
 tium Orbium Theorise," 1589.) Died in 1617. 
 
 See Lalande, " Bibliotheque astrononiique." 
 
 Ma-ginn', (William,) a witty and versatile writer, 
 born at Cork, in Ireland, about 1793. He removed to 
 London about 1824, and adopted literature as a profes- 
 sion. About this time he was a frequent contributor to 
 " Blackwood's Magazine," in which he appears as the 
 " Morgan O'Doherty" of the " Noates Ambrosianse." 
 About 1828 he became sub-editor of "The Standard," a 
 Tory paper, and began to write able and caustic articles 
 for " Fraser's Magazine." He also wrote a novel called 
 "Whitehall." Died in 1842. 
 
 See "Autobiography of William Jerdan." vol. iii. chap. vit. ; 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1S31, (with a portrait,) and for 
 February, March, and April, 183S. 
 
 Magirus, ma-gee'rus,(ToiiiAS,)aGerman philosopher, 
 born at Angernninde in 1586, taught logic and physics 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. Died in 165 1. 
 
 Magistris, de, deh mS-jes'tRess, (Giacinto,) an Ital- 
 ian missionary, born in the diocese of Cremona in 1605 ; 
 died at Goa, India, in 1666. 
 
 Magistris, de, (Simone,) an Italian priest, noted for 
 his mastery of ancient languages, was born in Corsica in 
 1728; dieel at Rome in 1802. 
 
 Magliabecchi, mal-ya-bek'kee, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 bibliomaniac and librarian, noted for his prodigious 
 
 a, e, T, 6, 6, y, long; 4, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
MAGNAN 
 
 1495 
 
 MAGO 
 
 memory and learning, was born at Florence in 1633. He 
 devoured a great number of books with avidity, became 
 versed in languages and antiquities, and was regarded as 
 an oracle by the learned. His habits were very eccentric. 
 He was for many years librarian of Cosimo III., Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany, and of his successors. At his death, 
 In 1 7 14, he left his rich library to the city of Florence, 
 by which it is kept open to the public. 
 
 See T1RABO6CHI, "Storia della Letteratnra Italiana :" Fabroni, 
 lutlorum doctrina exceMentium ;" L. Brightwf.i.i., " By- 
 P.uhs 01" Biography :*' " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" A.M. 
 Salvins, " Orazione funerale in Lode di A. Magliabecchi," 1715. 
 
 Magnaii, mSn'yfl.S'', (Bernard Pierre,) a French 
 general, bom in Paris in 1791. He served as captain at 
 Waterloo, (1815,1 and obtained the rank of colonel about 
 1S27, after which he was employed in Algeria. He 
 became a lieutenant-general in 1845, and commanded 
 the army of the Alps in 1849. In July, 1851, he was 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the army of Paris, and 
 in December, 1852, he was raised to the rank of marshal 
 of Fiance. Died in 1865. 
 
 See J. Lassagne, "Notice sur le General Masjnan," 1852. 
 
 Magnan, (Dominique,) a French antiquary and monk, 
 born at Raillane in 1 73 1. He lived in Avignon and 
 Rome, and acquired a European reputation by his works, 
 among which are a "Description of the City of Rome," 
 (1763,) and several treatises on numismatics. Died in 
 
 1 7<)"- 
 
 Magnani, min-yS 'nee, (Cristoforo.) an able Italian 
 painter, born at Pizzighettone before 1550, was a pupil 
 of Bernardino Campi. 
 
 Magnasco, man-yls'ko, (Ai.essandro.) called Lts- 
 snndkino, an Italian painter, born at Genoa in 1681. 
 His favourite subjects were processions, etc. Died in 
 
 '747- 
 
 Magnasco, (Stefa.no,) a painter, born about 1030, 
 was the father of the preceding. Died in 1665. 
 
 Magne, mifi, (Pikrre,) a French advocate and min- 
 ister of state, born at Perigueux in 1806. He was ap- 
 pointed minister of public works in January, 1851, and 
 minister of finance in February, 1855. He retired from 
 this office about 1861. 
 
 Magnence. See MAGNKNTItJS. 
 
 Magnentius, mjg-nen'she-us, [Fr. Magnence, mtn'- 
 yONss'7] (Fi.avius,) a Roman general, born in Germany 
 about 300 A.D. While commanding an army in Gaul, 
 he revolted against the emperor Constans, and usurped 
 the empire of the West in 350. Constans was killed by 
 his orders. Magnentius made himself master of the city 
 of Koine. A war ensued between him and Constantius, 
 who defeated the usurper on the river Drave in 351. 
 He retreated to Gaul, was again defeated, and killed 
 himself in August, 353 A.D. 
 
 See Gikhon^" !><■< in ■ and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le 
 Beau, " Hiatnin tin Bas-Empin." 
 
 Mag'nes, [M«yv?7C.] an Athenian poet of the old 
 comedy, was born in Icaria, and lived about 450 B.C. 
 
 See Fabeicius. " Bibliotheca Gr;cca." 
 
 Magni, (JoHAN.) See Magnus. 
 
 Magni, mag'nee, written also Magne, [from Afagn, 
 " strength,"] a son ol Thor, who, with his brother Modi, 
 will survive the conflagration of the world at Ragnarock. 
 (Si • Morn.) 
 
 Magni, mag'nee, or Magnus, mag'nus, (Johan or 
 Jonas.) a Swedish bishop, born at Wexici in 15S3, wrote 
 "Synopsis 1 1 istoi iae universalis," (1622,) and other works. 
 I ) i f (1 in 1651. 
 
 Magni, man'yee, [I.at. Mag'nis,] (V.u.eriano,) an 
 Italian writer and Capuchin friar, born at Milan about 
 1586. He wrote against the Jesuits. " This fire" says 
 il, in a letter to the Jesuits, "has found the secret 
 of stopping your mouth." Among his works is " Or- 
 ganum theologicum," (1643 ) Died in 1661. 
 
 See Pascal, "Lettres Provinciales." 
 
 Magnien-Grandpre, min'ye-S.N' gRoVpRa', (N.,) a 
 French financier and writer, born at Challon in 1 745 ; 
 died in 181 1. 
 
 Magnier, mtn'ye-a',(LAURgNT,) called alsoMANltRK, 
 a French sculptor, bom in Paris in 1618; died in 1700. 
 
 Magnin, mSii'yaN', (Charles,) a French critic, bom 
 in Parii in 17'M. He acquired reputation as a critic of 
 
 dramatic literature. Among his works are a series of 
 "Lectures on the Drama," (1838,) and "Causeries et 
 Meditations historiques et litteraires," (2 vols., 1842.) 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, " Portraits contemporains." 
 
 Magnocavalli, man-yo-ka-val'lee, (Francesco Ot- 
 Tavio,) Count de Varengo, an Italian poet, born at 
 Casal in 1707, wrote "Corradin, Marquis de Mont- 
 ferrat," and other tragedies. Died in 1788. 
 
 Magnol, min'yol', (Pierre,) a French botanist and 
 physician, born at Montpellier in 1638. He became 
 professor of botany in his native city in 1694, before 
 which he had published "Introduction to the General 
 History of Plants," ("Prodromus Historia; generalis 
 Plantarum," 1689.) He had some sound ideas on 
 botanical philosophy, and shares with other botanists 
 of his time the merit of favouring the progress of the 
 natural method. He wrote several minor works on 
 botanv. The genus Magnolia was named in his honour. 
 Died in 1715. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Magnon, mSn'yoN', (Jean,) a mediocre French poet 
 and dramatist, born at Toumus. He left unfinished a* 
 poem entitled "La Science universelle," (1663.) He 
 was assassinated at Paris in 1662. 
 
 Mag'nus I., King of Norway, surnamed the Goon, 
 was the son of Saint Olaiis. He became king in 1034, 
 and at the death of Canute II., in 1042, obtained the 
 throne of Denmark. He died in 1047, leaving Norway 
 to Haiold, and Denmark to Sweyn, a nephew of Canute 
 the Great. 
 
 See Torf,eus, " Historia Rerum Norvejiicarum." 
 
 Magnus, surnamed Ladulos, King of Sweden, born 
 in 1240, was the second son of Birger. He deposed his 
 own brother, Waldemar, and reigned many years. He 
 died in 1 298, and was succeeded by his son, Birger. 
 
 Magnus, surnamed Smek, King of Sweden, born in 
 1316, was the son of Duke Eric, and succeeded Birger 
 in 1320. His actual reign began in 1337. He was placed 
 under interdict by the pope, and deposed by his nobles 
 about 1363, when Albert of Mecklenburg became king. 
 Magnus died in 1374. 
 
 See F. Ruhr, "Geschichte Schwedens." 
 
 Mag'nus, a Greek physician, lived about 100 a.d. 
 He was one of the Pneumatic sect. 
 
 Magnus, (Alhkrtus.) See Albf.rtus Magnus. 
 
 Magnus, niig'nus, (Eduard,) a G erman painter of 
 genre and portraits, born at Berlin in 1799. His works 
 are commended as excellent in colour and correct in 
 design. 
 
 Magnus, mag'nus, or Magni, mSg'nee, (Johan or 
 Jonas,) Archbishop of Upsal, was bom at Linkopirrg in 
 1488. He opposed the Reformation in Sweden without 
 success, and retired to Rome, where he died in 1544. 
 He was author of a " History of Sweden," in Latin, 
 (" Historia Gothorum Suevorumque," 1554.) 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Scheffer, " Suecia Literata." 
 
 Magnus, (Oi.aus or O1.0F,) a Swedish prelate, brother 
 of the preceding, was bom at Linkbping about 1490. He 
 was sent by Pope Paul III. to the Council of Trent in 
 1546. He wrote (in Latin) a "History of the Northern 
 Nations," (1555,) which was translated into English, 
 Dutch, German, and Italian. Died in Rome in 1568. 
 
 See Anders Noriif.ro, " Dissertationes II. de Mentis et Fatis J. 
 et O. Magnorum," 1741-43. 
 
 Mag'nus, (Thomas,) an English emissary, sent by 
 Cardinal Wolsey to Scotland in 1524, in the twofold 
 capacity of ambassador and spy. He sent to the Eng- 
 lish court some curious details (preserved in the state 
 papers of Henry VIII.) relating to the young King of 
 Scotland and the customs of those times. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," chaps, xxxii. and xxxvii. 
 
 Magnusen, niag'nns-en, or Magnusson, mag'nus- 
 son, (Finn,) an Icelandic historian and antiquary, born 
 at Skalholt in 1 781. He published, among other works, 
 a "Translation and Explanation of the Elder Edda," 
 (1821.) Died in 1847. 
 
 Sm Kksi.i w. " Korfatier Lexikon :" " Foreign Quarterly Review 
 for April. tSjS, and April, 1S29. 
 
 Ma'go, |Gr. Muyuv ; Fr. Magon, ma'gON',1 a Cartha- 
 ginian admiral, who gained a victory over the fleet o( 
 
 1; a* *; c. as 
 
 j; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ; s, natal; K, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (£^"* See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MAGO 
 
 1496 
 
 M AH MOOD 
 
 Syracuse about 396 B.C. A few years later he was de- 
 feated by Dionysius in Sicily. He returned to Carthage, 
 and was elected chief magistrate. Having led another 
 land-army into Sicily, he was killed, and his army was 
 defeated at Cabala by Dionysius, about 382 B.C. His 
 son, Mago, succeeded^ to the command of the army, and 
 prosecuted the war with success. 
 
 Another Mago commanded a fleet which the senate 
 of Carthage sent, in 280 B.C., to aid the Romans against 
 Pyrrhus. He was grandfather of Hannibal. 
 
 See Diodorus Siculus. 
 
 Mago, a Carthaginian writer of uncertain period, was 
 called "the father of agriculture" by Columella. He 
 wrote an extensive work on agriculture, which was trans- 
 lated into Latin by the order of the Roman senate after 
 the destruction of Carthage. 
 
 Mago, a brother of the famous Hannibal, followed 
 him in the invasion of Italy, and held a high command 
 at the battle of Cannae, 216 B.C. He carried the news 
 of this victory to Carthage, and solicited reinforcements, 
 but was ordered to Spain, where he and Hasdrubal com- 
 manded for several years against the Scipios with vari- 
 ous success. After gaining some advantages in Liguria, 
 where he was severely wounded, he was ordered to 
 hasten to the defence of Carthage, but he died during 
 the voyage, in 203 B.C. 
 
 See Livv, " History of Rome," books xxi.-xxx. ; Polybius, 
 " History," books ill., x., and xi. 
 
 Magon. See Mago. 
 
 Magon de Clos-Dore, m9'g6,N' deh klo'do'ri', 
 (CHARLES Rene,) a French rear-admiral, born in Paris 
 in 1 763. He was killed at the battle of Trafalgar, in 1805. 
 
 Ma-goon', (Ei.isha L.,) D.D., an American Baptist 
 divine, born at Lebanon, New Hampshire, in 1810, 
 published "Proverbs for the People," " Orators of the 
 American Revolution," and other works. 
 
 Magri, ina'gRee, (Domenico,) an Italian writer, born 
 in Malta in 1604. He published a "Lexicon of Ec- 
 clesiastic Terms and Rites," ("Notizia de' Vocaboli 
 ecclesiastici.") Died in 1672. 
 
 Magruder, ma-groo'der, (John B.,) an American 
 general, born in Virginia about 1810, graduated at West 
 Point in 1830. He served as captain in the Mexican 
 war, (1846-47.) With the rank of major-general, he 
 fought against the Union at White Oak Swamp and 
 Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862. He commanded the army 
 in Texas in 1863 and 1864. Died in 1871. 
 
 Maguire, ma-gwir', (John Francis,) M.P., an Irish 
 Catholic politician, born at Cork about 1815, wrote, be- 
 sides other works, "Rome and its Rulers," (1857.) 
 
 MAHA, ma-ha', [from the adjective mdhat, " great,"] a 
 Sanscrit prefix forming a portion of many Indian names, 
 as MahAdkva, "great god," Maha-Pralya, the "great 
 destruction," etc. See these names in their alphabetical 
 place. 
 
 Maha-Bali. See Bali. 
 
 Mahabharata, ma-ha'ba'ra-ta, or Mahabharat, 
 ma-ha'ba'rat, [from the Sanscrit ma/id, "great," and 
 Bhar&ta, a descendant of Bharata, a famous Hindoo 
 prince,] the name of the great epic poem of the Hindoos, 
 so called because it treats of the war waged among the 
 descendants of Bharata. It is said to contain 200,000 
 lines, or 100,000 double verses. Tradition ascribes it 
 to Viyasa, the arranger or editor of the Vedas. (See 
 ViyAsa.) But there is reason to believe that it is the 
 production or compilation of several — perhaps of many 
 — writers, living in different ages, both before and after 
 the Christian era. It was made a kind of cyclopaedia 
 of such knowledge as was deemed desirable for the 
 Kshatriyas, or warrior caste. 
 
 See the article on "Sanscrit Literature" in the " New American 
 Cyclopaedia," (by Professor Whitney,) xiv., p. 337. 
 
 Mahadeva, ma-ha'da'va, or Maha-Deo, ma-hi' da'o, 
 (i.e. the "great god,") the name by which Siva is com- 
 monly known in many parts of India. (See Siva.) 
 
 MahaKala, ma-ha' ki'la, a name of Siva, regarded 
 as Time, which is the great destroyer. (See Siva.) 
 
 Maha-Kaii. See Kali. 
 
 Maha-Maya, ma-ha' ma'ya, the name of the mother 
 of Booddha. See Gautama. 
 
 Ma-ha' Pral'ya, [ modern Hindoo pron. ma-ha' 
 prul'ya,] (i.e. the "great end" or "great destruction,") a 
 term applied to the final consummation of all things, 
 which, it is supposed, will take place after a hundred 
 years of Brahma have elapsed, in which each day (with 
 its night) is reckoned as 8640 millions of our years. At 
 the time referred to, all the gods, including Brahma, as 
 well as all creatures, will be annihilated ; Brahm, the 
 eternal, self-existent Spirit, will alone remain. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindoo Pantheon." 
 
 Maharbal. See Maherbal. 
 
 Maha-Rudra, a name of Siva. See Rubra. 
 
 Mahdee, Mahdy, or MahdJ, Al, tl mah'dee, (Mo- 
 hammed, mo-Ham'med,) the third Abbasside caliph of 
 Bagdad, succeeded his father, Al-Mansoor, in 775 a.d. 
 He waged war against the Greeks with such success that 
 the empress Irene sued for peace. He died in 785, and 
 was succeeded by his son Hadee, (or Hady.) 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. ii. chap. iii. 
 
 Mahe de la Bourdonnais, mi'a' deh It booR'do'- 
 nj', (Bernard Francois,) a distinguished French naval 
 officer, born at Saint-Malo in 1699. About 17 18 he 
 entered the service of the French East India Company. 
 He was appointed Governor-General of the Isles of 
 France and Bourbon in 1734, and received command of 
 a squadron in 1741. War having begun between France 
 and England, he repulsed an English fleet near Madras, 
 and captured that place, in 1746. He quarrelled with 
 Dupleix, governor of the French possessions in Hin- 
 dostan, who refused to give up Madras, which La Bour- 
 donnais by treaty had agreed to restore to the English. 
 Having been recalled to France, where he arrived in 
 1748, he was confined in the Bastille three years, and 
 then tried and acquitted. His talents and virtues are 
 praised by Saint- Pierre in the preface to "Paul and 
 Virginia." Died in 1754 or 1755. 
 
 See Gerard, "Vies des plus illustres Marins Francais," 1825; 
 Mill, " History of British India." 1826. 
 
 Ma-hen'dra, called also Mahin'do, a son of Asoka, 
 introduced Booddhism into Ceylon about 200 B.C. 
 
 Ma-her'bal or Ma-har'bal, [Gr. M/iapSac,] a Car- 
 thaginian general, who followed Hannibal into Italy, 
 fought at Thrasymene, and commanded the right wing at 
 the battle of Canna;, in 216 B.C. He urged Hannibal to 
 advance on the Roman capital, and, when the latter 
 rejected this counsel, said to him, "You know how to 
 gain victories, but not how to improve them." 
 
 See Livv, " History of Rome," books xxi.-xxiii. 
 
 Mahesa, ma-ha'sa, or Mahdsha, ma-ha'sha, and 
 Mahdswara, ma-has'wa-ra, names of Siva, which see. 
 
 Mahindo. See Mahendra. 
 
 Mahlmann, mil'man, (Siegfried August,) a Ger- 
 man poet, born at Leipsic in 1 771. Some bf his produc- 
 tions were very popular. Died in 1826. 
 
 Mahmed. See Mohammed. 
 
 Mahmood, Mahmoud, or Mahmud, man-mood', 
 I., Sultan of Turkey, born in 1696, was the son of 
 Mustafa H. He succeeded his uncle, Ahmed (Achmet) 
 HI., in 1730. In 1734 he began a war against the Rus- 
 sians, who were assisted by the Austrians. The latter 
 made peace and gave up Belgrade to Turkey in 1739. 
 Soon after that date he made a treaty of peace with 
 Russia. Mahmood left the direction of affairs to his 
 ministers. Died in December, 1754. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs ;" 
 Levesque, " Histoire de la Rnssie." 
 
 Mahmood, Mahmoud, or Mahmud II., Sultan 
 of Turkey, a younger son of Sultan Abdool Hamid, 
 was born July 20, 1785. His youth was passed in seclu- 
 sion or confinement and in literary pursuits. During 
 the reign of his brother, Mustafa IV., the deposed Sul- 
 tan, Selim III., was his fellow-captive, and initiated Win 
 in those projects of reform which he himself had failed 
 to' effect. In July, 1808, Mustafa was deposed by the 
 military, and Mahmood was proclaimed Sultan at one of 
 the most critical periods in the history of the Ottoman 
 empire. The pashas of Asia and Africa had rendered 
 themselves nearly independent of the Sultan, and the 
 disaffection of the Janissaries threatened a revolution in 
 the capital. He began the work of reform in the army, 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; n5t; good; moon; 
 
MAHMOOD 
 
 «497 
 
 MAHMOOD 
 
 which he ordered to be organized after the European 
 system. In November, 1S08, the Janissaries rebelled, 
 attacked the Sultan's palace, and proclaimed Mustafa. 
 Mahmood suppressed this dangerous revolt by the exe- 
 cution of Mustafa and his heirs, after which he remained 
 the only surviving prince of his race. 
 
 A war with Russia, in which the Turks had been de- 
 feated, was terminated by a treaty of peace in May, 1812. 
 He pursued his projects of reform with courage and 
 energy, amidst the violent opposition of his subjects. 
 About 1822 began a general insurrection of the Greeks, 
 who, after a war of several years, were liberated from 
 the Turkish yoke. During this war he continued his 
 bold innovations against the old customs and traditions ; 
 he dressed himself in the European fashion, and finally 
 accomplished his most important measure, — the destruc- 
 tion of the Janissaries, who had instigated a formidable 
 insurrection in the capital. The next day (June 15) the 
 standard of the prophet was unfurled, and all good 
 Mussulmans were summoned to arms. The Janissaries 
 were outnumbered and speedily overpowered, and many 
 thousands of them were killed. On the 16th an edict 
 was issued for the abolition of their organization. 
 
 On the 20th of October, 1827, Mahmood's fleet was 
 defeated and ail-but annihilated at Navarino by the allied 
 French, English, and Russians, who fought there for the 
 liberty of Greece. Mahmood is censured for rashness 
 in renewing the war with Russia in 1828. The Russian 
 general Diebitsch defeated the Turks at Shumla, crossed 
 the Balkan, and took Adrianople in 1829. The existence 
 of the Turkish empire was in peril ; but, through the 
 mediation of England and other powers, the Sultan ob- 
 tained peace (September, 1829) by paying a large sum 
 of money and resigning the sovereignty of Moldavia, 
 Wallachia, and Servia. In 1832 he was involved in war 
 with Mehemet Ali of Egypt, whose army, commanded 
 by his son Ibraheem, (Ibrahim,) gained a decisive vic- 
 tory at Konieh, (December, 1832.) Russia interposed 
 to protect Mahmood against his rebellious vassal. The 
 Ottoman empire was apparently on the verge of disso- 
 lution, when the Sultan died, in June, 1839, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Abdool-Mejeed. 
 
 See Von Munch, "Mahmud II.,sein Leben," etc., 1839 ; Pouque- 
 vii.i.k, " Histoire de la Regeneration de la Grece," and article 
 " Mahmoud" in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Mahmood, Mahmoud, or Mahmud, maH'mood', 
 (Abool-Kasim-Yemeen-ed-Dowlah, or Abul- 
 (Aboul-) Kasim-Yemin-ed-Daulah, a'liool ka'sim 
 ych-meen' ed-dow'lah,) one of the most celebrated of all 
 the Mohammedan conquerors, the founder of the Gazne- 
 vide dynasty, and the first who established a permanent 
 Moslem empire in India, was born at Gazna (or Ghiznee) 
 in 967 A.I). He was the son of Sabuktageen, whom he 
 succeeded as governor of the province of Candahar, (or 
 Gazna.) At an early age he distinguished himself while 
 fighting under his father against the enemies of Nooh, 
 (or Noah,) the Samanide sovereign of Persia, from whom 
 he received the title of Seif-ed-Dowlah, (" Sword of the 
 State.") Hut afterwards, having been ill treated by 
 Mansoor, a successor to Nooh, he overthrew the throne 
 of the Samanides, and established his empire over a 
 vast territory, including what is now called Affghanistan, 
 besides an extensive region in the northeastern part of 
 Persia. Hut, still unsatisfied, he resolved on the subju- 
 gation of the countries beyond the Indus. During a reign 
 of rather more than thirty years, he made no fewer than 
 twelve expeditions into India, besides carrying on several 
 important wars in Central Asia. He extended his con- 
 quests not only over the whole of the Punjab, but pene- 
 trated as far as Bundelcund on the east and Guzerat on 
 the south, Moore, in Ids beautiful poem of "Paradise 
 and the Peri," gives a striking picture of Mahmood's 
 sanguinary and desolating career through Hindostan. 
 Apostrophizing India, he says, 
 
 *' Land of tlie sun ! what foot invades 
 Thy jiagods and thy pillared shades? 
 'Tis lie of Gazna. — fierce in wrath 
 
 He conies, and India's diadems 
 Lie scattered in his ruinous palh. 
 His bloodhounds he adorns with gems 
 Torn from the violated necks 
 Of many a young and loved sultana ; 
 
 Maidens within their pure zenana, 
 Priests in the very fane he slaughters, 
 And chokes up with the glittering wrecks 
 Of golden shrines the sacred waters." 
 
 Lalla Rookh. 
 
 It is related by Ferishta, a celebrated Moslem* his- 
 torian, that, having heard of the immense riches de- 
 posited in the temple of Somnath, famous throughout 
 all India for its sanctity, Mahmood determined to take 
 possession of that place. The priests of Somnath had 
 boasted that, if he dared approach their holy shrine, he 
 would receive from the avenging gods the just reward 
 of his temerity. The temple stood on the extremity 
 of a point of laud in Guzerat, and was surrounded on 
 three sides by the sea. It was defended by the Hindoos 
 with all the courage of religious enthusiasm and all the 
 obstinacy of despair. But nothing could withstand the 
 valour of the fierce invaders. Mahmood, having entered 
 the temple, was about to demolish a gigantic image, the 
 object of the idolatrous worship of the Hindoos. The 
 Brahmans, in great trepidation, offered him an immense 
 sum of gold if he would spare their idol. Some of his 
 officers advised him to accept the ransom ; but his zeal 
 as a true Moslem forbade such a compromise. He 
 smote the image and broke it to pieces. It proved to 
 be hollow, and a countless treasure of diamonds, rubies, 
 and pearls was poured from its cavity upon the ground, 
 thus richly rewarding the incorruptible zeal of the con- 
 queror, and at the same time explaining the pious libe- 
 rality of the Brahmans. In the extensive wars which 
 Mahmood carried on in Central Asia, after his first ex- 
 pedition into India, he appears to have been mainly 
 indebted for his success to the elephants used in his 
 army. It is related that on one occasion II ij (or Elich) 
 Khan, a Turkish prince, invaded Khorassan with a large 
 army. Mahmood hastily assembled an inferior force, 
 which was accompanied, however, by five hundred ele- 
 phants. The hostile armies met near Bitlkh, (or Balkh,) 
 in the vicinity of the river Amoo, or Oxus. Mahmood 
 was mounted on a superb elephant, which, during the heat 
 of the battle, rushed forward, and, seizing with his trunk 
 the chief standard-bearer of the Turks, hurled him into 
 the air. The other elephants followed the example of 
 their great leader : with their trunks they lifted the horse- 
 men from their saddles and dashed them on the ground, 
 so that the Turkish army was soon broken and put to a 
 total rout. Later, the military establishment of Mah- 
 mood is said to have comprised no fewer than thirteen 
 hundred elephants and more than fifty thousand horse. 
 
 Along with great military talents and a fierce, uncon- 
 querable energy and courage, Mahmood possessed some 
 virtues of a more exalted kind. A woman from a dis- 
 tant province, it is said, complained one day to the Sultan 
 that her son had been killed and her property carried 
 off by robbers. He replied that it was impossible for 
 him to prevent all disorders in a region so remote. 
 "Why, then," said the woman, "do you conquer king- 
 doms which you cannot protect, and for which you will 
 have to answer at the day of judgment?" Far from 
 resenting the freedom of this rebuke, he immediately 
 took effective measures for establishing order in that dis- 
 tant part of his dominions. After his Indian conquests 
 he not only greatly embellished Gazna, which still con- 
 tinued to be the capital of his empire, so that it rivalled, 
 it is said, the most splendid cities of the East, but he 
 showed himself a patron of science and literature, espe- 
 cially of poetry. It was during his reign that Firdousee, 
 (or Firdausi,) the greatest of all the poets of Moham- 
 medanism, flourished. (See PlRDOUSEK.) Seven other 
 distinguished poets, according to Von Hammer, lived at 
 his court and chanted his praises. Mahmood was the 
 first, it is said, of the great Moslem rulers who employed 
 the Persian language in official documents. Died in 1030. 
 
 See Fkrishta, " History of the Rise of the Mahoniedan Power 
 in India, "(translated by Ghnkkai. BkiGGS ;) Irn Khaf.i.ikan, " Dic- 
 tionnaire Bioe.rapbic|ue ;" Wii.kp.n, "Hisloria Ghasnevidanim :" 
 Von Hammkk, "Geschichte der schonen Redekunste Pendens;" 
 Hamdali.ah Mksioi.ii. ■' Histoires choisies;" M History of British 
 India," in " Harper's Fanny Library," vol. i. ; Von Hammkk, 
 ' Gcr-MhjdOMal grower Moslemischer Herscher." 
 
 Mahmood (Mahmoud or Mahmud) II.. surnamed 
 NAsir-ood-Dekn, (Nasir-oud-Dix,) na'sir 6od-deen', 
 (i.e. "Defender of the Faith,") an eccentric though able 
 
 «asi; 9 as s;%hard; ga&j; G, K,K, guttural; a, nasal; R, trilled; sass; th as in this. (J3T~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MAHMOOD 
 
 1498 
 
 MAI 
 
 Sultan of Delhi, who ascended the throne in 1246. After 
 the death of his father, Altmish, (ilt'mish,) he was im- 
 prisoned by his step-mother, and remained in confine- 
 ment several years'. During this period he voluntarily 
 earned his bread by copying manuscripts. Even after 
 he was raised to the throne he continued, it is said, to 
 earn his subsistence by his pen. As a king he was dis- 
 tinguished for his ability, justice, and liberality ; he was 
 a patron of learning, the protector of his people, and a 
 friend of the poor. He was a successful general, and 
 speedily reduced several insurrections which broke out 
 during his reign. Contrary to the custom of Moslem 
 princes, Mahmood had but one wife, whom he required 
 to be as industrious as himself, and to perform all the 
 homely duties of housewifery like the meanest of her 
 subjects. Her majesty, having one day burned her 
 fingers while cooking, begged Mahmood to let her have 
 a maid to assist her ; but he refused, saying he was but a 
 trustee of the state and had no right to burden it with 
 needless expenses. He used to say, "Those who will 
 not work for their bread do not deserve it." Mahmood 
 Nasir-ood-Deen was a half-brother of the distinguished 
 Sultana Ruzeea Begum. (See Ruzeea Begum.) He 
 died after a reign of twenty years. 
 
 See Fkrishta. " Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India," 
 (Brkigs's translation.) vol. i. ; " History of British India," vol. i., in 
 "Harper's Family Library." 
 
 Mahmood (Mahmoud or Mahmud) Shah, (Na- 
 Bir-ed-Deen or -Eddyn, na'sir ed-deen',) Emperor of 
 Hindustani was the son of Mohammed HI. He ascended 
 the throne of Delhi in 1394, and was a feeble ruler. His 
 reign was a disastrous period of intestine wars and an- 
 archy. Timur (Tamerlane) invaded India, defeated the 
 army of Mahmood in 1399, and took Delhi. A few years 
 later, Mahmood returned to Delhi, but he obtained but 
 little power. He died in 1413, being the last of his 
 dynasty. 
 
 Mahmood, (Sultan of Syria and Egypt.) See Noor- 
 ed-Dken.) 
 
 Mahmoud. See Mahmood. 
 
 Mahmud. See Mahmood. 
 
 Mahomet, (the Prophet.) See Mohammed. 
 
 Ma-hom'et* [ Fr. pron. mf'o'mi'] or Mohammed 
 (mo-liain'med) I., Kmperor or Sultan of the Ottomans, 
 born in 1374, was a younger son of Bayazeed (Bajazet) I., 
 who was defeated by Tamerlane at Ancyra in 1401. At 
 this time he was governor of Amasia, of which the victor 
 left him in possession. Mahomet and his brother Moosa 
 (Mnusa) having appealed to arms for a decision of their 
 claims to the throne, the latter was killed in battle in 1413. 
 Mahomet restored the Ottoman empire to its former sta- 
 bility, subjected the Bosnians and Servians, and was the 
 first Sultan that disputed with the Venetians the empire 
 of the sea. He died in 142 1, and was succeeded by his 
 son, Amurath IF. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Mahomet or Mohammed II., styled the Great, the 
 son of Amurath II., was born in 1430, and succeeded his 
 father in 1451. Having raised an army of about -300,000 
 men, he attacked Constantinople, defended by the Greek 
 emperor Constantine Palaeologus. After a siege of fifty- 
 five days, the city was taken by storm on the 29th of May, 
 1453, and Constantine was killed fighting in the breach. 
 Great numbers of the Greek citizens were massacred by 
 the orders or permission of the victor, whoin 1456 returned 
 to Adrianople, his former capital. In that year he was 
 defeated at Belgrade by the Hungarian chief Huniades. 
 He conquered Trebizond from David Comnenus in 1461, 
 and afterwards acquired by his arms Bosnia, and seve- 
 ral islands in the Archipelago. In 1465 he was defeated 
 by Scanderbeg in Albania. He waged successful wars 
 against the Venetians and the Persians, (1470-78,) and 
 invaded Italy in 1480. Death arrested his progress to 
 further conquest in I48i,aml delivered Christian nations 
 from a formidable adversary. He left the throne to his 
 son, Bayazeed (Bajazet) II. 
 
 See Guii.i.kt t>K Saint Georges, "Histoire du Regne de Ma- 
 homet." 1M2; Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen 
 Reichs;" GlBBOH, "IK-cline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" 
 " Nottvelle Biographic Generate. " 
 
 * For some remarks on the pronunciation of this name, see Mo- 
 hammed, (the Prophet.) 
 
 Mahomet or Mohammed III., Sultan of Turke-, 
 was bom about 1568, and succeeded his father, Amurath 
 III., in 1595. He put his brothers to death in the first 
 days of his reign. He was a feeble ruler, and preferred the 
 pursuit of pleasure to his duties as a monarch. Among 
 the chief events of his reign was a war with the emperoi 
 Rudolph in Hungary, where the- Turks lost several 
 towns. He died in 1603, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Ahmed (Achmet) I. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Mahomet or Mohammed IV., the son and succes- 
 sor of Ibraheem I., was seven years old when his father 
 was killed by the Janissaries in 1649. Having a ruling 
 passion for the chase, he permitted the grand vizier, 
 Mahomet Koprili, to direct the affairs of the empire. 
 That able minister took Lemnos and Mitylene from the 
 Venetians in 1660, and about the same time waged war 
 against the Austrians in Hungary. After several victories, 
 the Turks were defeated at Saint Gothard on the Raab in 
 1663, and the war was suspended by a treaty. In that year 
 Koprili died, and his son Ahmed (Achmet) became grand 
 vizier. He took the capital of Candia in 1669, after a 
 long siege. In 1683 a Turkish army of about 200,000 
 men under Cara Mustafa invaded Austria and besieged 
 Vienna, from which the emperor Leopold fled without 
 offering battle. After a siege of nearly two months, John 
 Sobieski marched to the relief of the city, and put the 
 Turks to a total rout. In consequence of this and other 
 later reverses, Mahomet was deposed in 16S7, and was 
 succeeded by his brother, Solyman II. Mahomet was 
 imprisoned until his death, in 1691. 
 
 See Von Hammer. "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs;' 
 Devize, " Histoire de Mahomet IV depose en 1687," Amsterdam, 
 1688. 
 
 Mahon, Lord. See Stanhope, Earl of. 
 
 Mahon, ni!t'6N', (Paul Augustin Olivier,) a French 
 physician, born at Chartres in 1752. He wrote "Mcile- 
 cine legale," (3 vols., 1802.) Died in 1801. 
 
 Ma-ho'ny, (Francis,) an Irish writer and wit, born 
 about 1805, wrote under the assumed name of " Father 
 Promt" He contributed many able articles to " Fraser's 
 Magazine," which were published separately in i860. 
 He also wrote as correspondent for several daily jour- 
 nals of London. Died in 1866. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1836. 
 
 Mahudel, mi'u'del', (Nicolas,) a French antiquary, 
 born at Langres in 1673. He practised medicine in 
 Paris for many years. He wrote a "Treatise on the 
 Ancient Medals or Coins of Spain," (1725.) aiul several 
 antiquarian treatises inserted in the records of the Acad- 
 emy of Inscriptions. Died in 1747. 
 
 Mahul, mS'iil', (Alfhonse Jacques,) a French po- 
 litical writer, born at Carcassone in 1793. He published 
 a valuable work entitled "Annuaire necrologique, ou 
 Supplement annuel et Continuation de toutes les Bio- 
 graphies," (6 vols., 1821-26.) 
 
 Mai, ma'ee or ml, (Angelo,) Cardinal, a celebrated 
 Italian critic and philologist, born at Schilpario, in the 
 province of Bergamo, on the 7th of March, 1782. He 
 became an excellent classical scholar, and about 1808 
 was admitted as an associate in the Ambrosian Library 
 of Milan, which was rich in ancient manuscripts. He 
 applied himself to the task of deciphering palimpsests, 
 and discovered portions of Cicero's orations and other 
 classic works which had never been printed. In 1819 
 he was appointed chief librarian of the Vatican at Rome. 
 The discovery which made the greatest sensation was 
 that of six books of Cicero, " De Republica," which he 
 published, with able critical notes, in 1822. These 
 books, which had been lost since the twelfth century, 
 were found by him in the Vatican. Among the monu- 
 ments of his critical sagacity and patient research are 
 three collections, entitled " A New Collection of Ancient 
 Authors, produced from the Library of the Vatican," 
 (" Scriptorum Veterum nova Collectio e Vaticanis Codi- 
 cibus edita," 10 vols. 4to, 1825-38,) "Classic Writers 
 published from the Manuscripts of the Vatican," ("Clas- 
 sici Scriptores ex Codicibus Vaticanis editi," 10 vols., 
 1828-38,) and " New Library of the Fathers," ("Nova 
 Bibliothcca Patrum," 6 vols., 1845-53.) He was raised 
 to the dignity of cardinal in 1838, was chosen a foreign 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; not; good; moon; 
 
MAIA 
 
 '499 
 
 MAILLET-DUCLAIRON 
 
 associate of the French Institute in 1842, and librarian 
 of the Roman Church in 1853. Died in September, 1854. 
 See P. A Mutti, "Elogio di Angelo Mai," 1838; "Nouvelle 
 Bwgnphw r.enerale." 
 
 Ma'Ia, [Mala or Motof,] in Greek mythology, is repre- 
 sented as the daughter of Atlas and Pleione, (whence 
 she was called Atlantis and Pleias,) and the eldest of the 
 rieiades. She was the mother of Hermes, (Mercury.) 
 
 Another Maia, alias Majesta, was a goddess of the 
 Romans, who named one of the months in honour 
 of her. 
 
 Maiano or Majano, da, da ma-ya'no, (Benedetto,) 
 an eminent Italian sculptor and architect, was born in 
 Tuscany, perhaps in Florence, in 1424, or, according to 
 other authorities, in 1442. He acquired fame first by 
 his unrivalled skill in inlaid work, and afterwards de- 
 voted himself to sculpture in marble. He worked in 
 Florence and Naples. Among his best productions are 
 a bust of Giotto, and a marble pulpit of Santa Croce, 
 (in Florence,) in which he represented the life of Saint 
 Francis. Died in 1498. 
 
 See Vasarx, "Lives of the Painters," etc.; Quatremeke de 
 QtllMCY, " Vies des Architectes ceMebres." 
 
 Maiano or Majano, da, (Giuliano,) an excellent 
 Italian architect, born in Naples. His birth is variously 
 dated 1377, 1387, and 1432. He designed at Naples the 
 royal palace of Poggio Reale and the triumphal arch of 
 Castello Nuovo. Having been invited to Rome by Paul 
 II., he built between 1464 and 1471 one of the courts of 
 the Vatican and the palace and church of San Marco. 
 Died about 1490. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ;Tlcozzt, "Dizionario." 
 
 Maichel, ml'Kel, (Daniel,) a German philologist, 
 bom at Stuttgart in 1693, became professor of philoso- 
 phy at TUbingeil in 1724. He published an " Introduc- 
 tion to Literary History," in which he describes the 
 great libraries of Paris. Died in 1752. 
 
 Maidalchini-Pamfili. See Maldachini-Pamfill 
 
 Maienne. See Mavenne, 
 
 Maier. See Mayer. 
 
 Maier, ml'er, (Michael,) a famous German alchemist, 
 born in Holstein in 1568. He became physician to the 
 emperor Rudolph, but left his service, and wasted his 
 time and money in the researches of alchemy. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "Jocus Severus," "Atalanta fu- 
 giens," ( 1 61 8.) and " Tripus Aureus," (" Golden Tripod,") 
 which are prized by amateurs. Died in 1622. 
 
 See Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Maignan, min'yoN', [Lat Maigna'nus,](Emanuel,) 
 a French monk, eminent as a geometer and philosopher, 
 w;s born at Toulouse in 1601. He became professor 
 of mathematics in Rome in 1636. He wrote " Perspec- 
 tive I loraria," an able " Treatise on Catoptrics," (1648,) 
 and a few other works. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Sagubns, " De Vita, Moribus, etc. E. Maignani," 1697; 
 NtcHR'iN, " Miinioires." 
 
 Maignanus. See Maignan. 
 
 Maigrot, mJ'gRo', (Chaki.es,) a French missionary, 
 born in Paris in 1652. He laboured in China from 1683 
 to 1 706, and wrote " De Sinica Religione," (unpublished.) 
 Died at Rome in 1730. 
 
 See Mailla, " Histoire ge^ie'rale de la Chine." 
 
 Maikof, Maikov, Maikoff, or Maikow, mT-kof, 
 (Vasii. IvaNOVITCH,) a Russian soldier and poet, born 
 at Yaroslaf in 1725. He obtained some reputation for 
 humour and comic power by his " Yelisei, or Bacchus 
 Enraged," a burlesque poem. He also wrote several 
 dramas and fables. Died in 1778. 
 
 Mailath or Majlath, ml'lit, (JANOS NkpOMUX,) 
 COUNT, an eminent Hungarian poet and historian, was 
 born at Pesth in 1786. He was employed many years 
 in the civil service of Austria. In the affairs of Hun- 
 gary he was identified with the conservatives, or adver- 
 saries of Kossnth. He published, in German; two 
 important works, a " History of the Magyars," (1828- 
 31,) and a " History of the Austrian Empire," (1834-50.) 
 The revolution of 1848 deprived him of his official em- 
 ployment i> judex curia at Pesth, and reduced him to 
 extreme poverty. I le and bis daughter Henrietta drowned 
 themselves in Like Stamberg, in Bavaria, in 1855. lie 
 
 left several poems and translations. He was highly 
 respected as a man. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon ;" also an article 011 
 the " Language and Literature of the Magyars" in the " Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for September, 182S, and October, 1839. 
 
 Mailhe, mjl, (Jean Baptiste,) a French revolution- 
 ist, born in 1754, was elected to the Convention in 1792. 
 During the trial of the king, he voted for an appeal to 
 the people; but he was counted among those who voted 
 for death conditionally. Died in 1834. 
 
 Mailla, Maillat, m'i'yi', or Maillac, de, deh mi'yik', 
 (JOSEPH Anne Marie be Moyria,) a French Jesuit and 
 missionary, born near Nantua in 1679. He was sent to 
 China in 1702, resided at court, and received the title of 
 mandarin. He translated into French a "General His- 
 tory of China," (12 vols., 1777-83.) "This work," says 
 Weiss, "with the Memoirs published by Batteux, Bre- 
 quigny, etc., (1775-1S16,) forms the most extensive and 
 valuable collection that has yet appeared on China." He 
 died in Pekin in 1748. 
 
 Maillac. See Mailla. 
 
 Maillane. See Durand de Maillane. 
 
 Maillard, mi'yin', (Olivier,) a celebrated French 
 pulpit orator, born in Bretagne. He preached in Paris 
 in 1494, and gave much offence by his boldness. Louis 
 XL having threatened to throw him into the river, Mail- 
 lard said to the person who conveyed the menace, "Go, 
 tell the king that I shall arrive at heaven by water sooner 
 than he can by post-horses." Died about 1505. 
 
 See NlCERON, " Me'moires.;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ginerale."- 
 
 Maillard, (SEBASTIAN,) a scientific Austrian general, 
 born at Luneville in 1746. He wrote "The Mechanics 
 of Arches," and other works. Died in 1S22. 
 
 Maillard de Chambure, mft'yiR' deh shoN'biiR', 
 (Charles Hippolyte,) a French antiquary, born at 
 Semur in 1772 ; died in 1841. 
 
 Maillat. See Mailla. 
 
 Maillebois, de, deh maTbwa' or mi'ye-bwa', (Jean 
 Baptiste Francois Desmarets — d&-tni'r&',) Marquis, 
 a famous French general, bom in Paris in 16S2, was a son 
 of Nicolas Desmarets, contrSUiir-geniral, and a grandson 
 of the great Colbert. After many services, he was made 
 lieutenant-general in 1731, commanded a division in Italy 
 in 1733, and to °^ Corsica in 1739. He obtained the rank 
 of marshal in 1741, defeated the Austrian! on the Po in 
 September, 1745, and was forced to retreat at the battle 
 of Piacenza, in June, 1746. Died in 1762. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV ;" Sismondj, " Histoire des 
 Francais :" Masmjs ijk Pezay, " Histoire des Cajnpagnea du Mare- 
 dial de Maillebois en Italie," 3 vols., 1775. 
 
 Maille-Breze, de, deh mi'ya' bReh-za', (Urhain,) a 
 French general, who obtained command of the French 
 army in Germany in 1634, and defeated the Spaniards 
 at Avesnes in 1635. Having gained several advantages 
 in Flanders between 1642 and 1650, he was made a 
 marshal of France. His wife was Nicole, a sister of 
 Cardinal Richelieu. He died in 1650. 
 
 His son, ARM AND, born in 1619, became Due de 
 Fronsac and de Caumont. As admiral of France, he 
 defeated the Spaniards off Cadiz in 1640, and was killed 
 at Orbitello in 1646. 
 
 See Grikfet, " Histoire de Louis XIII." 
 
 Maille de Breze, de, deh mi'ya' deh bReh-z.V, 
 (Simon,) a French prelate, born in 1515. He became 
 Archbishop of Tours in 1554, and was a member of the 
 Council of Trent. Died in 1597. 
 
 Maillet, mi'yi', (Jacques Leonard,) a French 
 sculptor, born in Paris in 1823. He gained the first 
 prize in 1847. 
 
 Maillet, de, deh mi'yj', (Benoit,) a French writer, 
 born at Saint-Mihiel in 1656. He was consul-general of 
 France in Egypt about ten years, ending in 1702, and 
 published a "Description of Egypt," (1735,) which has 
 some merit. He also wrote a singular treatise on cos- 
 mology, entitled "Telliamed," (anagram of De Maillet.) 
 I (ied in 1738. 
 
 Maillet-Duclairon, mi'yi' dii'klJ'roN', (An toine,) 
 a French author, bom near Macon in 1721.' He cor- 
 ded with Voltaire and Turgot, and wrote several 
 works, among which is "Cromwell," a tragedy, (1764.) 
 Died in 1809. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gut'ural; it vasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2y™See Explanations, r. 23.) 
 
MA ILLY 
 
 1500 
 
 MA1NTEN0N 
 
 Mailly.mS'ye', (Jean Baptiste,) a respectable French 
 historian, born at Dijon in 1744. He lectured on his- 
 tory at Godran College in Dijon, and published " Spirit 
 of the Fronde," (" L'Esprit de la Fronde," 1772,) and 
 " Spirit of the Crusades," (" L'Esprit des Croisades," 4 
 vols., 1780.) Died in 1794. 
 
 Mailly d'Hautcourt, de, deh mS'ye' do'kooR', (Jo- 
 seph Augustin,) Count, a French general, bom in 
 1708. After the peace of 1763 he was commandant-in- 
 chief of Roussillon. He obtained the rank of marshal 
 in 1783. He was beheaded as a royalist in 1794. 
 
 Maimbourg, maN'booR', (Louis,) a French Jesuit 
 and historian, bom at Nancy in 1620. He acquired 
 reputation by his historical works, which, however, are 
 neither accurate nor impartial. Having written a treatise 
 in defence of the liberties of the Gallican Church, and 
 thus offended the pope, he was expelled from the order 
 of Jesuits. Among his works are (in French) a "His- 
 tory of the Iconoclasts," (1674,) a "History of the 
 Crusades," (1675,) a "History of Arianism," (1682,) a 
 " History of Calvinism," (1682,) and a " History of the 
 Pontificate of Saint Leo," (1687.) His style is agree- 
 able. Voltaire expressed the opinion that he was " over- 
 rated at first, and too much neglected afterwards." Died 
 in 1 686. 
 
 See Dupin, " Bibliotheque ecclesiastique ;" Bayle, "Historical 
 and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Maimon. See Maimonides. 
 
 Maimon, ml'mon, (Solomon,) a Jewish rabbi and 
 philosopher, born in Lithuania in 1753. He had a talent 
 'or metaphysical speculations, and a skeptical spirit. 
 Among his best works are " Critical Researches on the 
 Human Mind," (" Kritische Untersuchungen ul>er den 
 nienschlichen Geist," 1797,) and memoirs of his own life, 
 entitled " Lebensgeschichte," (2 vols., 1793.) Died in 
 1800. 
 
 See Wot.F, " Rhapsodien zux Characteristic S. Maimons," 1813. 
 
 Maimonide. See Maimonides. 
 
 Maimonides, mi-mon'e-des, |Fr. Maimonide, mt'e'- 
 mo'ned', ] or Mo'ses-Ben-Maimon, ( lien-iiil'inon, ) 
 called by the Arabs Moosa-Ibn-Maimoon, (Musa- 
 Ibn-Maimun or -Maimoun,) moo'sa Tb'n mf moon', a 
 Jewish rabbi and philosopher of great celebrity, was born 
 at Cordova, in Spain, about 1 135. He studied philosophy 
 and medicine under the famous A vermes, with whom he 
 formed a lasting friendship, and was also versed in mathe- 
 matics and several languages. Having removed to Egypt 
 about 1 165, he became chief physician to the Sultan 
 Saladin and his successor. He acquired a great repu- 
 tation for talents and learning. Among his numerous 
 works are " The Strong Hand," a digest of Hebrew 
 laws, and " More Nebokhim ; or, Teacher of the Per- 
 plexed," (in Arabic,) which explains difficult and obscure 
 portions of the Old Testament. Died in 1209. 
 
 See Abraham Geiger, " Mose Ren Maimon, seine Lebensge- 
 schichte." 1S50: Glaus Celsius. "De Maimonide," 1727; Peter 
 Beek, " Das Leben Moses ben Maimon." 1835 : Lemans, " Levens- 
 beschvijvine; van Maimonides," 1815 ; Stein. '* Moses Maimonides," 
 1846 : R. M. Maimonides, " Account of the I-ife, etc. of Maimoni- 
 des," London, 1837; " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Mainardi, nn-naR'dee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, 
 bum at Cremona about 1550. He was sometimes called 
 Chiaveghino, (ke-a-va-gee'no.) Died after 1613. 
 
 Mainardi, (Bastiano,) a painter of the Florentine 
 school, born in Tuscany, lived about 1500. 
 
 Mainardi, (Lattanzio,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Bologna, lived about 1590. He was employed by the 
 pope Sixtus V. to adorn with frescos the church of Santa 
 Maria Maggiore, and the Vatican. Died at the age of 
 twenty-seven. 
 
 Maindron, maN'dR6N', (Etienne Hippoi.yte,) a 
 French statuary, born in the department of Maine-et- 
 Loire in 1801. 
 
 Maine, (I.acroix du.) See Lacroix du Maine. 
 
 Maine de Biran, m&n deh be'rftN', (Marie Fran- 
 cois Pierre Gonthier,) an eminent French metaphy- 
 sician, born near Bergerac in 1766. After opposing the 
 excesses of the Revolution, he was deputed from Dor- 
 dogne to the Council of Five Hundred in 1797. From 
 1809 to 1814 he was a member of the legislative body. 
 After the restoration of 1816 he was a moderate royalist 
 member of the Chamber of Deputies. He gained in 
 
 1803 a prize of the Institute for his essay "On the Influ- 
 ence of Habit on the Faculty of Thought," (" De 1'Infiu- 
 ence de 1'Habitude stir la Facultede Penser.") He also 
 wrote the metaphysical part of the article "Leibnitz" in 
 the " Biographie Universelle," a " Memoir on the De- 
 composition of Thought," ("Sur la Decomposition de la 
 Pensee," 1805,) and several other works. M. V. Cousin 
 estimated him as the greatest metaphysician of France 
 since Malebranche. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Ernest Naville, "Maine de Biian, sa Vie et ses Pensees," 
 1S57; Damiron, " Essai sur l'Histoire de la Philosophic en Fiance 
 an dix-neuvieme Siecle;" Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi ;" 
 Cousin, Preface to the " CEuvres philosophiques de Maine de 
 Biron," 1S41 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" " British Quarterly 
 Review" tor October, 1866. 
 
 Maine, du, du m&n, (Louis Augusts de Boukhon,) 
 Duke, the son of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montes- 
 pan, was born in 1670, and legitimated in 1673. He was 
 appointed general of the galleys in 1688, and grand 
 master of the artillery in 1694. The king retognized 
 him as a prince of the blood and capable of succeeding 
 to the throne. The duke appears to have displayed a 
 gentle and liberal spirit, with moderate literary talents. 
 Died in 1736. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" Lrmontey, " Histoire de la 
 Regonce;" Madame de Sevigne, " Lettres." 
 
 Mainfroi See M ani-ked. 
 
 Maino, mi/no, (Giasone,) an Italian jurist, born at 
 Pesaro in 1435. He was professor of law at Pavia from 
 1467 to 14S6. After an absence he returned to Pavia in 
 1491, and lectured to large classes of Italian, French, 
 and German students. He published commentaries on 
 the Digest, three Latin orations, and " Consilia sive 
 Responsa." Died in 1519. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita? Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Maintenon, de, deh maNt'niN', (Franqois d'Au- 
 isigne,) Marquise, a French lady, whose life was 
 marked by romantic adventures and surprising vicissi- 
 tudes, was born in 1635, in the prison of Niort, (where 
 her father, Constant d' A ubigne, was detained.) She was 
 a granddaughter of the eminent author .T. A. d'Aubigne. 
 Having become a poor orphan, she was constrained 
 by her guardians to abjure Calvinism. To escape the 
 miseries of dependence on he"r unkind godmother, she 
 married in 1652 Scarron the burlesque poet and wit, who 
 was infirm and deformed in person. His house was a 
 fashionable resort of the most brilliant wits and noblesse 
 of Paris. He died in 1660, leaving her again destitute 
 of resources except her rare beauty and talents. Her 
 eyes are described as dark, intensely spiritual, and inex- 
 pressibly lustrous. She received a pension of 2000 livres 
 from the queen-mother for several years preceding the 
 death of the latter, in 1666. 
 
 About 1670 Madame Scarron was selected as govern- 
 ess of the Due du Maine, a son of Louis XIV. and 
 Madame de Montespan. The king presented to her the 
 estate of Maintenon in 1674, after which she was called 
 Madame de Maintenon. She gradually gained a com- 
 plete ascendant over Louis, and was secretly married to 
 him in 16S5. The marriage was never formally avowed 
 by him. " It would be hard to name any woman," says 
 Macaulay, "who, with so little romance in her temper, 
 has had so much in her life. ... A just understanding ; 
 an inexhaustible yet never redundant flow of rational, 
 sprightly conversation ; a temper of which the serenity 
 was never for a moment ruffled ; a tact which surpassed 
 the tact of her sex as much as the tact of her sex sur- 
 passes the tact of ours : such were the qualities which 
 made the widow of a buffoon first the confidential friend 
 and then the spouse of the proudest and most powerful 
 of European kings." Madame de Sevigne describes her 
 society as " truly delicious." 
 
 She laboured assiduously to convert the king to vital 
 religion. Louis transacted business with his ministers 
 in her apartment, discussed the most important ques- 
 tions in her presence, and often asked her advice in these 
 terms: " Qu'en pense votre Solidite?" ("What does 
 your Solidity think about it?") He was once dissuaded 
 by her from' the cruel purpose of burning the city of 
 Treves. As the king grew old and fretful, her task of 
 entertaining him became very arduous. "I have seen 
 her," says Mile. d'Aumale, " divert the king by a thou- 
 
 a,e l 
 
 , 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon: 
 
MA1KV1ELLE 
 
 1501 
 
 MA1TLAND 
 
 sand inventions for four hours together, without repeti- 
 tion, yawning, or slander." She founded a good school 
 for girls at Saint-Cyr. She died in 1 7 19. Her letters 
 and other works have been published by M. Eavallee, in 
 10 vols., ( 1 854 rf «?. ) This edition includes "Souvenirs 
 de Mine, de Caylus," and "Memoires de Mile. d'Au- 
 male." 
 
 See Caracciom, "Viede Madame de Maintenon," 17S6; Ma- 
 damk S0AKD, " Madame de Maintenon peinte par elle-meme," 1810 ; 
 MoKMBRQUR, "Notice sur Madame de Maintenon," 1S20; La 
 km k, " Memoires pour servir al'Histoire de Mme. de Main- 
 tenon." 1756; Lb DUC DR Noaili.ks, "Histoire de Madame de 
 Maintenon," 4 vols., 1N4S-59; Lafont d'Ausonnk, "Histoire de 
 Madame i!t- Maintenon," 1814; Voi.taire, "Si&cle de Louis XIV;" 
 Sainte-Beove, " Causeries du Lundi," tome iv. ; " Nouvelle Hio- 
 
 Sapliie Generate ;" W. H. 11. Adams, " Famous Beauties and 
 istoric Women." vol. i., London, 1865; " Biackwood's Magn- 
 iine" for February, 1 8<o; " Kraser's Magazine" for March, 1S40; 
 " Letters of Madame de Maintenon," in the " Monthly Review" for 
 January. 17 = 3. 
 
 Mainvielle, m&N've'eV, or Mainville, maVvel', 
 (Pierre,) a member of the French Convention of 1792, 
 was born at Avignon in 1765. He was executed with 
 the Girondists in October, 1793. 
 
 See Lamartine, " Histoire des Girondins." 
 
 Maiuzer, mlnt'ser, (Joseph,) a German musician and 
 writer on music, born at Treves in 1801 ; died in 1S51. 
 
 Maio or Majo, da, da ma'yo, (Francesco or Cic- 
 CIO,) an excellent Italian composer of operas and sacred 
 music, born at Naples in 1745, (some say about 1740.) 
 Among his operas are "Montezuma," (1765,) and 
 "Ipert'nnestra," (1770.) Died at Rome in 1774. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universale des Musiciens." 
 
 Maioli or Majoli, ma-yo'lee, (Cesare,) an Italian 
 naturalist, born at Fori) in 1746. He obtained a chair 
 of philosophy at Rome in 1.781. He wrote many works 
 on botany and zoology, the most of which remain in 
 manuscript. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Farini, "Memorie sopra la Vita del Majoli," 1824. 
 
 Maioli or Majoli, (Simone,) an Italian canonist, 
 born at Asti about 1 520. 
 
 Maioragio or Majoragio, ma-yo-ra'jo, [Rat. Ma- 
 Jora'gius,] (Marcantonio,) an eloquent and learned 
 Italian writer, whose proper name was Antonio Maria 
 Coxti, was born in the Milanese in 1514. At the age 
 of twenty-six he obtained the chair of eloquence at 
 Milan. He wrote a "Commentary on the Works of 
 Cicero," poems, harangues, and various other works. 
 Died in 1555. 
 
 Maiquez, mT-keth', (Isidoro,) a popular Spanish 
 comedian, born at Carthagena about 1766. He intro- 
 duced at Madrid a more simple and natural style of 
 action, and was reputed the most excellent comedian 
 that Spain had produced. Died in 1820. 
 
 Mair, (John.) See Major, (John.) 
 
 Mairari, de, deh mi'j-ON', (Jean Jacques Dortous,) 
 a distinguished French savant and litterateur, born at 
 Beziers in 1678. About 1718 he removed to Paris, and 
 was elected to the Academy of Sciences, for which he 
 wrote manv memoirs on geometry, physics, and other 
 sciences, lie published a " I )issertation on Ice," (" Dis- 
 sertation sur la Glace.") " Retters on China," and other 
 works. In t740 he succeeded Fontenelle as secretary 
 to the Academy of Sciences, and in 1743 was elected to 
 the French Academy. He was intimate with Voltaire. 
 Died in 1771. 
 
 Sec Vrt.iKMAtN. "Tableau de la I.itterature Franeaise au dix- 
 hullieme Siecle :" Voi.taike, " Correspondance GcneVale;" S*ba- 
 thipr. " Bloje de Maim)." 1842 ; Grandjean de Fouchy, " Eloge 
 de Miuran," 1771 : "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Mairatilt, de, deh mj'ro', (Adrien Maurice,) a 
 French critic, born in Paris in 1708. He aided Desfon- 
 taines in his critical works. Died in 1746. 
 
 Maire. lie. See Remaire. 
 
 Mairet, mS'rV, (Jean,) a French dramatic poet, born 
 at Resancnn in 1004. In 1629 he produced his principal 
 work. " Sophoni.sba," a tragedy, which was very suc- 
 cessful, and formed an epoch in the annals of the French 
 theatre, being the first in which the rule of unities was 
 observed. I (e wrote many other tragedies and come- 
 dies. Died in 1686. 
 
 See La Harpe, "Coirs de la LittOature :" Guizot, "Corneille 
 et son Temps ;" Fontenei.le, "Vie de Corneille." 
 
 Mairobert, de, deh mJ'ro'baiR', (Mathieu Fran- 
 cois Pidansat,) a French writer, born in Champagne in 
 1707. Among his works is the "Observateur Anglais," 
 (4 vols., 1778,) reprinted under the title of "Espior. 
 Anglais," ("English Spy.") Died in 1779. 
 
 Maironi da Polite, ml-ro'nee da pon'ta, (Gio- 
 vanni,) an Italian naturalist and writer, born at Ber- 
 gamo in 1748; died in 1833. 
 
 Maiseaux, Des. See Desmaiseaux. 
 
 Maisou, m&'z6N', (Nicolas Joseph,) Count, a mar- 
 shal of France, was born at Epinay, near Paris, in 1771. 
 He distinguished himself at Jemmapes in 1792. In 1799 
 he became adjutant-general or chief of the staff in the 
 army of Bemadotte. For his services at Austerlitz, in 
 1805, he was made a general of brigade. He took part 
 in the Russian campaign of 1812, during which he ob- 
 tained the rank of general of division. In 1814 he 
 received from Louis XVIII. the title of peer and the 
 command of the army of Palis. He refused to recog- 
 nize Bonaparte on his return from Elba. He commanded 
 the expedition against the Turks of the Morea in 1828, 
 and on his return received a marshal's baton. He was 
 sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1830, and became min- 
 ister of war in 1835. Died in 1840. 
 
 See Thiers, " Histoire de la Republique, du Consulat et de 
 FEmpire ;" Marmont, " Memoires ;" Victor de Brogue, " Eloge 
 historique du Marechal Maison, " 1842 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Maisonfort, de la, deh It m&'z6N'foR', (Rouis Du- 
 bois Descouks,) Marquis, a French biographer, born 
 in Perry in 1763, was a royalist. He published a bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of those who figured in the F'rench 
 Revolution, (3 vols., 1800.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Maisonneuve, de, deh mi'zo'nuv', (Rouis Jean 
 B\rnsTE,) a French dramatic poet, born at Saint-Cloud 
 about 1745. His tragedy of " Roxelane et Mnstapha" 
 (1785) had a prodigious success. He produced, also, 
 " Odmar and Zulma," (1788.) Died in 1819. 
 
 Maissiat, m&'se'i', (Michel,) a French topographical 
 engineer, born at Nantua in 1770. He published several 
 professional works. Died in 1822. 
 
 Maistral, mi'titil', (ESPRIT Tranquii.i.e,) a French 
 naval officer, born at Quitnper in 1763 ; died in 1805. 
 
 Maistre. See Sacv. 
 
 Maistre, (Isaac.) See Remaistre. 
 
 Maistre, de, deh niftR, (Joseph Marif.,) Count, an 
 eminent political writer and philosopher, was' born at 
 Chambery, in Savoy, in 1754. He was a warm oppo- 
 nent of the French Revolution, and attached to the 
 ultramontane school of theology. In 1796 he published 
 "Considerations on France," which obtained great suc- 
 cess. He was appointed by the King of Sardinia grand 
 chancellor in 1799. From 1802 to 1816 he was ambas- 
 sador to Saint Petersburg, and, on his return to Turin 
 in 181 7, became minister of state. His most important 
 work is entitled "On the Pope," (" Du Pape," 1819,) an 
 argument for the cause of popery and absolutism. Died 
 in 1821. He was distinguished as an original thinker. 
 
 See Raymond. "FJoge du Cotnte J. M. de Maistre." 1827; Vtt.- 
 i.emain, " Cours de Literature Franeaise au dix-lndlieme Siecle;" 
 Viu.enecve-Arifat, "Eloge du Conite J. de Maistre," 1853; 
 Saintb-Nkuve, "Causeries du Lundi," and " Portraits enntempo- 
 rains;" "Nouveile Biographie GeneYale:" "Edinburgh Review" 
 for October, 1852 : " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1849. 
 
 Maistre, de, (Xavier,) a popular and witty author, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born at Chambery 
 in 1764. He entered the Russian service about 1800, 
 fought against the Persians, and obtained the rank of 
 major-general. In 1794 he produced (in French) his in- 
 genious and humorous "Journey around my Chamber," 
 (" Voyage antour de ma Chambre.") He maintained 
 his reputation as an elegant writer by tales entitled 
 "Prisoners of the Caucasus," and "Prascovie, OU la 
 jeune Siberienne." After 181 7 he lived alternately in 
 France and Saint Petersburg. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Saintb-Bbuve, " Portraits contemporains;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Maitani, mi-ta'nee, (Rorenzo,) an Italian architect; 
 born at Sienna about 1240; died after 1310. 
 
 Mait'land, (Sir Frederick Lewis,) a British nava' 
 officer, born in Scotland in 1779. As captain, he served 
 with distinction against the French on the coast of Egypt 
 
 cask; casj, gAard; gas/; g,h,k, guttural; N, nasal; ^trilled; s as *; th as in this. (23f=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MA1TLAND 
 
 1 502 
 
 MAJORAGIO 
 
 in i8ot. In 1S15 he was ordered to keep watch on the 
 coast of France in order to prevent the escape of Na- 
 poleon, who surrendered himself to Captain Maitland in 
 July and was conveyed by him in the Bellerophon to 
 England. He obtained the rank of rear-admiral. Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 Maitland, (Tames.) See Lauderdale, Earl of. 
 
 Maitland, (John.) See Lauderdale, Duke of. 
 
 Maitland, (John,) of Thirlestane, first Lord Mait- 
 land, an eminent Scottish statesman, born about 1540, 
 was the second son of Sir Richard Maitland, noticed 
 below, and grandfather of the Duke of Lauderdale. He 
 was appointed keeper of the privy seal in 1567. For his 
 loyalty to Queen Mary he was proscribed by the domi- 
 nant party about 1570 and imprisoned several years. In 
 1584 he was made secretary of state, and became in fact 
 the chief minister of James VI. Hewas appointed chan- 
 cellor of Scotland in 1586 or 1587, and created Baron 
 Maitland in 1590. He is praised for his moderation and 
 integrity as well as for his talents. Several of his Latin 
 epigrams have been published. Died in 1595. 
 
 See Mackenzie, "Scotch Writers;" Lodge, "Lives of Eminent 
 Personages." 
 
 Maitland, (Sir Richard,) of Lethington, a Scottish 
 writer and judge, born in 1496, was the father of Sir Wil- 
 liam Maitland, noticed below, and of John, first Lord 
 Maitland. He studied law in France, and held several 
 high offices. About 1550 he was chosen a lord of session, 
 and in 1562 lord privy seal. He acquired distinction 
 as a poet and collector of Scottish poetry. One of his 
 poems is entitled "Creation and Paradise Lost." Died 
 in 1586. 
 
 See Irvine, " Lives of the Scottish Poets :" Mackenzie, "Scotch 
 Writers;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men." 
 
 Maitland, (Rev. Samuel Roffey,) D.D., F.R.S., an 
 able English essayist and writer on ecclesiastical history, 
 etc., was born in London in 1792. He was librarian to 
 the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1837 to 1848. He 
 was author of numerous essays on theology, morals, etc. 
 Among his principal and most popular works is "The 
 Dark Ages : being a Series of Essays intended to Illus- 
 trate the State of Religion and Literature in the Ninth, 
 Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Centuries," (1844.) He 
 aims to prove that those ages were not so dark as they 
 are commonly represented. Died in 1866. 
 
 Maitland, (Sir William,) of Lethington, Lithington, 
 or Lidington, an able Scottish minister of state, was 
 the eldest son of Sir Richard, noticed above. In 1558 
 he became principal secretary to Mary of Guise, queen- 
 regent ; but in 1559 he joined the Protestant chiefs who 
 had taken arms against her. He was restored to the 
 office of secretary of state by Mary Queen of Scots in 
 1561. Though not a Catholic, he enjoyed the favour and 
 confidence of the queen, who sent him on several em- 
 bassies to Queen Elizabeth. After Mary was imprisoned, 
 (1567,) he adhered to \\tr cause, and united with the 
 Duke of Norfolk in an effort to save her. Having failed 
 in an attempt to mediate between the two hostile parties, 
 in 1570 he declared openly for the queen. His enemy, 
 Regent Morton, took him prisoner, and would probably 
 have hung him if Maitland had not died soon after, as 
 some suppose, by his own hand, in 1573. "All the con- 
 temporary writers," says Robertson, "mention him with 
 an admiration which nothing could have excited but the 
 greatest superiority of penetration and abilities." " His 
 name," says Burton, "was a by-word for subtlety and 
 state-craft. Yet, ... if we look at his life and doings, 
 we do not find he was one of those who have left the 
 mark of their influence upon their age. . . . He had 
 great abilities, but they were rather those of the wit and 
 rhetorician than of the practical man." ("History of 
 Scotland," vol. iv. pp. 55—57.) Hume styles Maitland 
 "Secretary Lidington." Queen Elizabeth called him 
 "the flower of the wits of Scotland." 
 
 See Froude, "Reign of Elizabeth," passim, but particularly 
 chaps, xix. and xxiii. ; Hume, " History of England ;" Robertson, 
 " History of Scotland." 
 
 Maitland, (William,) a Scottish antiquary, born at 
 Brechin about 1693. He became a resident of London, 
 and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He 
 
 published a " History of London," (1739,) and a " His- 
 tory of Edinburgh." Died in 1757. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Maittaire, m.YtaV, (Michel,) an eminent scholar 
 and bibliographer, born in France in 1668, was the son 
 of Protestant parents, who emigrated to England when 
 the edict of Nantes was revoked, (1685.) He was a 
 good classical scholar, and edited many Greek and Latin 
 authors. He resided many years in London. Among 
 his most important productions are " Dialects of the 
 Greek Language," (1706,) and "Typographic Annals 
 from the Invention of Printing to 1557," ("Annates Ty- 
 pographic! ab Artis Inventae Origine ad Annum 1557," 
 9 vols., 1719—41,) a work of great research, and superior 
 to any that had appeared on that subject. Died in 1747. 
 See Dibdin, "Bibliomania;" P. Chasles, "Dissertation on the 
 Life and Works of M Maittaire," London, 1S19. 
 
 Maitz de Goimpy, du, dii m&ts deh gwaN'pe', (Fran- 
 cois Louis Edmf. Gabriel,) Count, a French astrono- 
 mer and naval officer, born in Beau;e in 1729 ; died after 
 1784. 
 
 Maius. See May. 
 
 Maizeroy, de, deh m&z'rwa', (Paul Gedeon Joly,) 
 a French officer and eminent tactician, was born at Metz 
 in 1719. He served several campaigns, ending at the 
 peace of 1763, and became lieutenant-colonel. He wrote 
 numerous works on tactics and military science, which 
 had a transient success, but are now obsolete. Died in 
 1780. 
 
 Maizieres, de, deh mYze-aiR', (Philippe,) a French 
 writer, born in the diocese of Amiens in 1312. He insti- 
 gated the Kings of France and of Cyprus to conduct a 
 crusade against the Saracens of Egypt in 1365. He 
 wrote an allegory, "Le Songe du vieil Pelerin," etc 
 Died in 1405. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Majano. See Maiano. 
 
 Majlath. See MailatH. 
 
 Majo. See Maio. 
 
 Majoli. See Maioli. 
 
 Major, ma'yoR, or Meier, mT'er, (Gf.org,) a German 
 Lutheran theologian, born at Nuremberg in 1502. He 
 studied under Luther and Melanchthon at Wittenberg, 
 where he was afterwards professor of theology for many 
 years. He published commentaries on the New Testa- 
 ment, and many theological works. Died in 1574. 
 
 See C. Ur.ENBHRG, "Vita et Res gestae M. Lutheri, P. Melanch- 
 thonis et G. Majoris," 1622. 
 
 Major, (Isaac,) a German painter and engraver, 
 born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1576. He engraved 
 a number of large landscapes representing scenes in 
 the mountains of Bohemia. Died in 1630. 
 
 Major, (Johann Daniel,) a German physician and 
 antiquary, lxim at Bresrau in 1634. He practised with 
 success at Hamburg. In 1665 he obtained the chair of 
 medicine at Kiel, where he planted a botanic garden. 
 He wrote, in Latin, many learned professional treatises. 
 Died in 1693. 
 
 Ma'jor, (John,) written also Mair, a Scottish his- 
 torian and theologian, born near. North Berwick about 
 1470. He passed a number of years in Paris as a stu- 
 dent and then as a professor of scholastic philosophy. 
 In 1 5 19 he returned to Scotland, and some years later 
 became professor of theology at Saint Andrew's, where 
 George Buchanan and John Knox were his pupils. He 
 wrote, (in Latin,) besides other works, " Commentaries 
 on the Four Books of Sentences," and a " History of 
 Scotland." Died about 1550. Robertson calls him a 
 " succinct and dry writer." 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Ma'jpr, (Richard Henry,) an English antiquary, 
 born in London in 1818. He edited several works, and 
 wrote a "Life of Prince Henry the Navigator," (1868.) 
 
 Major, (Thomas,) a skilful English engraver, born 
 about 17 1 5. He engraved landscapes after Berghem, 
 Teniers, Claude Lorrain, etc. Among his most ad- 
 mired works are twenty-four views of the Ruins of 
 Paestum, after J. B. Borra, published at London, (1768.) 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Majoragio. See Maioragio. 
 
 , e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; &, e, I, 0, ft, y, short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
MAJORAGIUS 
 
 »5°3 
 
 MALBONE 
 
 Majoragius. See Maioragio. 
 
 Majorano, (Gaetano.) See Gaffarelli. 
 
 Ma-jo'rI-an, [Lat. Majoria'nus; Fr. Majorien, 
 mi'zho'i j^An',] (Julius Valerius,) a Roman general, 
 who succeeded Avitus as Emperor of the West in 457 
 A.D. He defeated Theodoric the Visigoth in Gaul in 459, 
 and afterwards waged war against Genseric. He was 
 deposed and put to death by Kicimer in 461. 
 
 See Tillemont, " Histoire des Etupereurs ;" Smith, " Diction- 
 ary of Greek and Roman Biography." 
 
 Majorien. See Majorian. 
 
 Majus, ma'yus, (HEiNRicH,)aGerman natural philos- 
 opher, born at Cassel in 1632 ; died in 1696. 
 
 Majus, (Joha-'n BURKHARD,) a German historian, 
 born at Pfortzheim in 1652. He wrote " De Rebus 
 Badensibus," (1678,) and other works. Died in 1726. 
 
 Majus or Mains, (Joiiann Hkinrich,) an Oriental- 
 ist, brother of the preceding, was born in 1653. He wrote 
 on theology and Hebrew antiquities. Died in 1719. 
 
 Makeblyde, ma'keh-bli'deh, (Louis,) a Flemish 
 religious writer, born at Poperingue in 1564; died in 
 1630. 
 
 Makkaree, Makkari, or Makkary, Al, f 1 milk'- 
 kJ-ree, (AHMED-IitN-MoHAMMi D.all'med ib'11 mo-ham'- 
 med,) an Arabian historian, born at Tlemcen about 
 I585. He became a resident of Cairo about 1620, and 
 wrote numerous historical and theological works, the 
 most important of which is a valuable " History of Spain 
 during the Domination of the Moors," which was trans- 
 lated into English by Pascual de Gayangos, under the 
 title of a " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in 
 Spain," (2 vols., 1843.) Died in 1631. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Mako, mok'ko, (Paul,) a learned Hungarian Jesuit, 
 born in 1723. He wrote on geometry, physical science, 
 etc. Died in 1793. 
 
 Makouski. See Makowski. 
 
 Makowski, ma-kov'skee, written also Makouski, 
 
 tl.at. Macco'vius,] (John,) a Polish Protestant divine, 
 orn at Lobzenick in 1588. He was noted for disputa- 
 tiousness and fondness for scholastic subtleties. Died 
 in 1644. 
 
 See Johann Cocceji, "Oratio in Funere J. Maccovii," 1644. 
 
 Makreezee or Makrizi, Al, SI ma-kRee'zee, sur- 
 nanied Takyah-ed-Deen or Taky-ed-Deen, (or Taki- 
 eddin,) tak'yed-deen', (i.e. the " Support of Religion,") a 
 celebrated Arabic writer, born at Cairo about 1360. He 
 held several civil and religious offices in his native city. 
 He wrote many historical works, which attest the variety 
 and extent of his knowledge. His" Historical and Topo- 
 graphical Description of Egypt" gives an ample account 
 of the events which occurred after the conquest of the 
 Saracens, and of the customs and antiquities of that 
 country. He also wrote a "History of Saladin and 
 his Successors," and a treatise on Moslem Coins. The 
 above-named works have been translated into French 
 by Silvestre de Sacy. Al Makreezee has the reputa- 
 tion of being, on the whole, an impartial, trustworthy, 
 and eminently judicious writer. Died in 1442. 
 
 See Silvestre de Sacy, " Chrestomathie Arabe." 
 
 Makrfzl. See Makreezee. 
 
 Malabranca, ma-la-bRan'ka, (Latino,) an Italian 
 Dominican, called also Fraugipani, was a nephew of 
 Pope Nicholas HI. He was made Hishop of Ostia and 
 Velletri in 1278. His diplomatic talents were employed 
 and approved by several successive popes. Died about 
 1294. The celebrated hymn "Dies Ira:" is attributed 
 to him by many writers. 
 
 Malacarne, ma la-kaR 'na, (Michele Vincenzo,) an 
 Italian surgeon, born at Saluzzo in 1744. He contributed 
 by his works to the progress of science in Italy. lie was 
 professor of surgery at Padua from 1794 until his death, 
 in 1816. Among his works is a treatise on Encepha- 
 lotomv. . 
 
 Mal'a-ehi, [Heb. "OX <V3 ] the last of the minor He- 
 brew prophets, is supposed to have prophesied about 
 420 H.c. Nothing is positively known of his history. 
 The name signifies "angel," or " messenger of the Lord." 
 The book of Malachi is the last book of the Old Testa- 
 ment, in the order of time as well as of position. 
 
 Malachowski, na-la-Kov'skee, (Casimir,) a Polish 
 general, born in 1765. He had the chief Command at 
 Warsaw when that place was taken by the Russians in 
 183 1. Died in 1845. 
 
 Malagrida, ma-la-gRee'da, (Gauriele,) an Italian 
 Jesuit, born in the Milanese in 1689. He removed to 
 Portugal, became a popular preacher, and wrote several 
 works. He was suspected of complicity in the attempt 
 to assassinate the King of Portugal, (1758.) and was 
 convicted of heresy, for which he was burned in 1761. 
 
 See Smith, " Memoirs of the Marquis of Pombal ;" Voltaire, 
 " Precis du Siecle de Louis XV ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" 
 Pi.athi., " Kelazione della Condamna ed Esecuzione del Gesuita G. 
 Malagrida," 1761. 
 
 Malaguti, ma-la-goo'tee, (Francois,) a distinguished 
 chemist, born at Bologna in 1802. Having settled in 
 France, he studied in the laboratory of Gay-Lussac, and 
 became in 1850 professor of chemistry at Rennes. He 
 published several valuable works, among which is " Les- 
 sons of Agricultural Chemistry," (1848.) 
 
 Malaine, mS'lin', (Joseph Laurent,) a French 
 painter of flowers, born at Toumai in 1745; died in 
 Paris in 1 809. 
 
 Mal'a-la, Mal'e-la, or Mal'e-las, [Gr. TAaKtia or 
 MoA4Aa,J called also John of Antioch, was the author 
 of a Greek chronicle which extends from the creation 
 to the year 566 a.d. It was first printed by Chilmead, 
 at Oxford, in 1691. The time and place of his birth and 
 death are not known. He was, perhaps, the same as 
 John of Antioch the Scholastic 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 Malan, mS'lfiN', (Ahraham Henri Cesar,) a Swiss 
 theologian, born at Geneva in 1787, was the leader of a 
 sect sometimes called mdmiers. Died in 1864. 
 
 See the " Life, Labours, etc. of Cjesar Malan," by his son, Lon- 
 don, 1869. 
 
 Malapert, mS'lS'paiR', (Charles,) a Flemish poet 
 and geometer, born at Mons in 1581. He became a 
 Jesuit, and a professor of mathematics in various col- 
 leges. He published Latin poems, and several works 
 on geometry. Died in Spain about 1630. 
 
 Malarme, de, deh mi'liRm', (Charlotte,) Count- 
 ess, a novelist, born at Metz, France, in 1753, was a 
 sister of Count de Kournon, the mineralogist. She 
 wrote "Niralba," (1800,) and other novels. Died about 
 1830. 
 
 Malaspina, ma-la-spee'm\, (Ricordano,) the earliest 
 historian of Florence, was born in that city in the thir- 
 teenth century. He wrote a " History of Florence from 
 its Origin to the Year 1281." 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Malaspina di Samiazaro, ma-11-spee'na de san- 
 nad-za'ro, (Luigi,) Marquis, an Italian writer and politi- 
 cal economist, born at Pavia in 1754. He founded a 
 school of fine arts in his native city. Died in 1834. 
 
 Malatesta, ma-la-tes'ta, a noble Italian family, which 
 acquired the lordship of Rimini in the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, and furnished several leaders of the Guelph party. 
 Malatesta II. and Galeotto Malatesti, sons of 
 Pandolfe I., began to reign over Rimini in 1335. Thejr 
 had a great military reputation, and next to the Visconti 
 were perhaps the most powerful princes of Italy. The 
 former died in 1364, and Galeotto in 1385, leaving two 
 snns, Carlo and Pandolfo III. These two became 
 able generals, and commanded the army of Visconti, 
 Duke of Milan, from 1393 to 1408. Carlo, who was 
 Lord of Rimini, died without issue in 1429. The de- 
 scendants of Pandolfo III. possessed Rimini until 1 $28, 
 when it was added to the papal dominions. 
 
 Malatesta, (Hattista,) an Italian lady of emii.e it 
 talents, was married in 1405 to Galeotto Malatesta, 
 Seigneur of Pcsaro. She taught philosophy in public, 
 made Latin orations before the emperor and pope, and 
 wrote some admired verses. 
 
 Malaval, nii'li'vil', (Francois,) a French mystic, 
 born at Marseilles in 1627, became blind in infancy, 
 but studied Latin with success. He published, besides 
 several prose works of a mystical character, " Poesies 
 spirituelles," ("Spiritual Poems.") Died in 1719. 
 
 Mal-bone', (Edward G., ) an American portrait- 
 painter, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1777. He 
 
 e as «,- 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, VL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as z; th as in this. (J[y~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MALCHUS 
 
 1504 
 
 MALEBRANCHE 
 
 visited Europe in 1S01 in company with Washington 
 Allston, but returned the same year to America, where 
 he soon acquired a high reputation in his art. Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 See Duni.ai", "History of the Arts of Design in America," vol. 
 ii. chap. ii. ; Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Mal'ehus [Gr. MoA^-oc] of Philadelphia, called 
 the Sophist, a Byzantine historian, lived about 600 
 A.D. Fragments of his works are extant. 
 
 See Cavk, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 Malchus, von, fon mal'Kus, (Karl August,) Baron, 
 a German writer, born at Mannheim in 1770, was ap- 
 pointed minister of the interior in the kingdom of West- 
 phalia in 1813. He published several works on political 
 economy. Died in 1840. 
 
 Malcolm, (mal'kQm) I., King of Scots, the son of 
 Donald IV., succeeded his cousin, Constantine III., in 
 938 A.D. He was killed by some of his own subjects who 
 had revolted ; but the date of this event is not known. 
 
 Malcolm II., King of Scotland, was the son of Ken- 
 neth HI. He began to reign in 1003, and resisted seve- 
 ral hostile incursions of the Danes with success. He 
 died in 1033, leaving two daughters, one of whom was 
 the mother of Duncan I. 
 
 Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, (" Great Head,") 
 was the son of King Duncan, whose virtues and tragical 
 fate are commemorated in Shakspeare's "Macbeth." 
 When Duncan was killed, in 1040, Malcolm escaped to 
 England. (See Macheth.) He returned with an army, 
 defeated Macbeth, and ascended the throne in 1057. 
 About 1090 a war commenced between William II. of 
 England and Malcolm, who was killed in battle at Aln- 
 wick Castle in 1093. His sons Alexander and David 
 became kings. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. i. chap. xi. 
 
 Malcolm IV., King of Scotland, was born about 
 1 140, and succeeded his grandfather, David I., in 1 153. 
 He made peace with Henry II. of England by ceding 
 to him Northumberland. He died in 1 165, and was 
 succeeded by his brother William. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. ii. chaps, xiii., xiv. ; 
 Buchanan, " Rerum Scoticarnm Historia." 
 
 Malcolm, mal'kQm, (James Peller,) an engraver 
 and antiquary, born in Philadelphia about 1768. He 
 visited Europe in his youth, and became a student in 
 the Royal Academy of London. He published " Lon- 
 dinum Redivivum ; or, The Ancient History and Modern 
 Description of London," (1802-05,) "Seventy Views 
 taken within the Compass of Twelve Miles round Lon- 
 don," (181 1,) and other works. Died in 1815. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine," 1815. 
 
 Malcolm, mal'kQm, (Sir John,) G.C.B., a British 
 general and eminent historian, born in Dumfriesshire, 
 Scotland, in 1769. In his youth he went to India as a 
 cadet in the army of the Company. After performing 
 an important political mission to Persia, (1799,) he was 
 appointed to the presidency of Mysore in 1803. He 
 was minister-plenipotentiary to the court of Persia in 
 1809 and 1810. Having collected information respect- 
 ing Persia, he went to England in 1812, and published 
 a valuable "History of Persia" (1815) from the earliest 
 times to the date of publication. He returned to India 
 in 181 7, obtained the rank of brigadier-general, and, as 
 second in command, distinguished himself at the battle 
 of Mehidpoor, where Holkar was defeated. For several 
 ensuing years he governed Malwa and the adjacent 
 provinces in a manner which is highly commended. He 
 returned to England in 1821, with the rank of major- 
 general, was appointed Governor of Bombay in 1827, 
 and resigned that post about the end of 1830. Sir John 
 published, besides other works, a " Political History of 
 India," (from 1784 to 1823,) and left a "Life of Lord 
 Clive," which appeared in 1836. He was a brother of 
 Admiral Sir Pulteney Malcolm. Died in 1833. 
 
 See J. W. Kavh, "Life and Correspondence of Sir John Mal- 
 colm," 2 vols., 1856; "London Quarterlv Review" for April, 1816, 
 and July. 1823; "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1812, and April, 
 18^57 ; "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale ;" Chambers, " Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Maloolm,(Sir Pulteney,) G.C.B., a British admiral, 
 born near Langholm, Scotland, in 1768, was a brother of 
 
 the preceding. He entered the navy in 1778, fought 
 against the French in the West Indies, and was made 
 a post-captain in 1794. He escorted the army of Sir 
 Arthur Wellesley to Portugal in 1808, and obtained the 
 rank of rear-admiral in 1813. In 1816 and 1817 he was 
 commander-in-chief of the Saint Helena station, where 
 his duty called him into intercourse with Bonaparte, who 
 expressed himself much pleased with his manners and 
 conduct. He was promoted to the rank of full admiral 
 in 1837. Died in 1838. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Mal'com, (Howard,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born 
 in Philadelphia in 1799, was one of the founders of the 
 American Tract Society and of the American Sunday- 
 School Union. In 1835, as a missionary, he visited 
 India and China, and on his return published " Travels 
 in South-Eastern Africa," (1839.) He published a " Dic- 
 tionary of the Bible," which had an extensive circulation, 
 and other religious works. 
 
 Malczewski, mal-chev'skee, written also Mal- 
 czeski, (Antoni,) an excellent Polish poet, born in Vol- 
 hynia about 1792, was a son of a general in the Russian 
 service. He received a French education, and entered 
 the army in 1811. Having quitted the army in 1816, he 
 travelled for some years, and is said to have been the 
 first Pole that ascended Mont Blanc. His reputation is 
 founded on a single poem, entitled "Maria; a Tale of 
 the Ukraine," (Warsaw, 1826,) which is one of the most 
 popular poems in the Polish language. He died poor at 
 Warsaw in 1826. 
 
 See Bielowski, "A. Malczewski," etc., 1843. 
 
 Maldachini - Pamfili, mal-da-kee'nee pam-fee'lee, 
 (Donna Olimpia,) an Italian woman, noted for her am- 
 bition, vices, and political influence, was born at Viterbo 
 in 1594. She was married to a man whose brother, J. B. 
 Pamfili, was elected pope in 1644 and assumed the title 
 of Innocent X. Died in 1656. 
 
 Mal'd?n, (Henry,) an English writer, born about 
 1800, graduated at Cambridge in 1822. He became 
 professor of Greek in University College, London, about 
 1830. 
 
 Maldonado, mal-do-na'no, (Lopez,) a Spanish poet 
 of the sixteenth century, was contemporary with Cer- 
 vantes, who mentions him with eulogy. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Maldonado, (Lorenzo Ferrer,) a navigator, who 
 was born probably in Spain. He wrote a narrative of a 
 voyage which he made, or pretended to have made, from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific through Behring Strait in 1588. 
 The majority of geographers have discredited his story. 
 
 See F. ub Navarrf.te, "Historia de la Nautica." 
 
 Maldonat, mal-do-nat', [Lat. Mai.dona'tus,](Juan,) 
 a celebrated Spanish theologian, born in Estremadura 
 in 1534. Having entered the order of Jesuits, he went 
 to Paris about 1564, and and acquired a high reputation 
 as a professor of theology. He is said to have been a 
 person of great talents, learning, and piety, and to have 
 written Latin with much purity. He wrote, besides 
 other works, "Commentaries on the Four Evangelists," 
 (1596,) which, says Hallam, "have been highly praised 
 by theologians of the Protestant side.". Died in 1583. 
 
 See Prat, "Maldonat et I'Uiiiversite de Paris." 1857; Bavle, 
 " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nicekon, "Memoires." 
 
 Maldonatus. See Maldonat. 
 
 Malebranche,ni$l'bR6Nsh',[Lat. Malekran'chius,] 
 (Nicolas,) a French metaphysical philosopher of great 
 eminence, was born in Paris on the 6th of August, 1638. 
 His habits in youth were retired and studious. He became 
 a priest of the Oratory in 1660, and was a zealous Carte- 
 sian in philosophy, which was his favourite study. In 1674 
 he produced the first volume of his admirable and original 
 " Search for Truth," (" Recherche de la Verite,") which 
 was quickly and highly appreciated. New and enlarged 
 editions of it rapidly followed. The general design of 
 this work is to demonstrate the harmony of the Cartesian 
 philosophy with revealed religion. His style is eminently 
 pure, perspicuous, and elegant, having, says Fontenelle, 
 "all the dignity which the subject requires, and all the 
 grace or ornament which it could properly receive." 
 
 a, e, T, o, ii, y,long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MALEBRANCHIUS 
 
 1505 
 
 MALHERBE 
 
 "He was," says Hallam, "a warm and almost enthusi- 
 astic admirer of Descartes, but his mind was independent, 
 searching, and fond of its own inventions ; he acknow- 
 ledged no master, and in some points dissents from the 
 Cartesian school. . . . The fame of Malebranche, and, 
 still more, the popularity in modern times of his ' Search 
 for Truth,' have been affected by that peculiar hypothe- 
 sis, so mystically expressed, the seeing all things in God, 
 which has been more remembered than any other part 
 of that treatise." " He bears a striking resemblance," 
 adds the same critic, " to his great contemporary Pascal. 
 Both of ardent minds, endowed with strong imagination 
 and lively wit, sarcastic, severe, fearless, disdainful of 
 popular opinion and accredited reputations. . . . But 
 in Malebranche there is a less overpowering sense of 
 religion ; his eye roams unblenched in the light before 
 which that of Bascal had been veiled in awe. He has 
 less energy, but more copiousness and variety." (" Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe.") "This ingenious 
 philosopher and beautiful writer," says Mackintosh, "is 
 the only celebrated Cartesian who has professedly 
 handled the Theory of Morals. . . . The manner in 
 which he applied his principles to the particulars of 
 human duty is excellent. He is perhaps the first phi- 
 losopher who has precisely laid down, and rigidly ad- 
 hered to, the great principle that virtue consists in pure 
 intentions and dispositions of mind, without which actions, 
 however conformable to rules, are not truly moral." He 
 was involved in a long and intemperate controversy with 
 Arnauld on the theory of ideas and on the doctrine of 
 grace. 
 
 In 1687 he combined all the parts of his system, and 
 developed them more fully, in "Conversations on Meta- 
 physics and Religion," (" Entretiens sur la Metaphysique 
 et la Religion.") He was author of other religious and 
 mystical works, among which are "Christian and Meta- 
 physical Meditations," (1683,) and a "Treatise on Mo- 
 rality," ("Traite de Morale," 1684.) He gave proof of 
 his profound attainments as a geometer by a "Treatise 
 on the Communication of Motion." Died at Paris in 
 October, 1715. 
 
 See FoNTKNKu.E, "filnge de Malebranche;" Mackintosh, 
 "View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy;" J. E. Erdmann, 
 "Malebranche, Spmoza und die Sceptiker uitd Mystiker des sieb- 
 iehnten Jahrhunderts," 1836; Kari. Rei~stag, " Dissertatio de 
 Malebranchio Philosopho." 1846; Niceeon, "Me"nioires;" " Nou- 
 velie Biographic Ge'ne'raJe." 
 
 Malebranchius. See Malebranche. 
 
 Maleguzzi-Valeri, ma-la-goot'see va-la'ree, (Vero- 
 nica,) Countess, one of the most learned and gifted 
 women of Italy, was born at Reggio, Lombardy, in 1630. 
 She wrote a drama called "Innocence Recognized." 
 Died in 1690. 
 
 Malek-Ibn-Anas, ma'lek Ib'n an'as, the chief or 
 founder of one of the four Moslem sects which are ac- 
 counted orthodox, was born at Medina in 714 A.D. His 
 doctrines, of which he published an explanation, were 
 generally adopted by the Mussulmans of Spain, Egypt, 
 and liarbary. Died about 795. 
 
 See Ha.mmhr Pi'rgstall, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber;" 
 "Nouvelie Bingraphia GihieVale." 
 
 Malek-Shah. See Mauk-Shah. 
 
 Malela. See Mai.ai.a. 
 
 Malermi, ma-leVmee, or Malerbi, ma-12R'bee, (Nic- 
 ,) an Italian translator, born in Venice in 1422. He 
 produced (1471) the first Italian version of the Bible 
 .hat was ever printed. 
 
 Malesherbes, de, deli miTzjRb', (Chretien Guil- 
 i.aimi i>K Lamoignon — lt'mwin'y6.N',) a meritorious 
 French judge and philanthropist, born in Paris in 1721, 
 was a son of Chancellor de Lamoignon. At the age of 
 twenty four he was chosen a counsellor in the Parliament, 
 and in 1750 became president of the Cour des Aides. He 
 was dirtcteur de la lilirairie, or censor of books, from 
 1750 to 1768, and was praised for his liberality or indul- 
 
 fence by Rousseau, Voltaire, and the Encyclopaedists. 
 Ic acquired great popularity by his defence of the Parlia- 
 ment against the ministry about 1772. In 1775, having 
 been indicated by the public voice, he was appointed a 
 colleague of Turgot in the new ministry, as minister of 
 the king's household and of the police, but he resigned 
 in 1776, when Turgot was dismissed. He was elected 
 
 to the French Academy in 1775, though he had not pro 
 duced any purely literary work. He was author of 
 treatises on rural economy and finances, and of a " Me- 
 moir on the Liberty of the Press." When Louis XVI. 
 was arraigned by the Convention in 1792, Malesherbes 
 generously offered to him his services as counsel, which 
 were accepted. This act of fidelity having rendered him 
 suspected by the terrorists, he was executed in April, 
 1794. His virtues are warmly eulogized by both royal- 
 ists and republicans. 
 
 See Delisle de Sales, " M^moires sur la Vie publique et privde 
 de Malesherbes," 1803; Gaii.i.ard, "Vie ou filoge historique de 
 Malesherbes," iSos; J. B. Dubois, "Notice sur Lamoignnn-Males- 
 herbes," 1S06; Hoissv d'Anglas, " Essai sur la Vie, etc. de Males- 
 herbes," 2 vols.. 1818 ; C P. Duplessis, " filoge de Malesherbes," 
 1820: Dufin aTne, " E*loge de Lamoignon-Malesherbes," 1841; 
 Sainte Beuve, " Malesherbes," in "Causeries du Lundi," tome ii. 
 
 Malet, de, deh mi'lj', (Claude Francois,) a French 
 general and conspirator, born at Dole in 1754. About 
 1806 he was dismissed from the service, and went to 
 Paris, where he plotted against Bonaparte, and was im- 
 prisoned from 1808 to 1812. Having formed another 
 conspiracy, he announced at the barracks, in Paris, on 
 the 24th of October, 1812, that Bonaparte had died in 
 Russia, and that he (Malet) had been appointed gov- 
 ernor of Paris by the senate. By forged orders he im- 
 posed on the prefect of Paris, made Savary prisoner, and 
 shot General Hullin. At this crisis his audacity was 
 baffled by Laborde, who made him prisoner. Malet and 
 his accomplices were shot, after a summary process, in 
 October, 1812. 
 
 See Lafon, " Histoire de la Conspiration du G^ne>al Malet," 
 1814; Dourii.le, " Histoire de la Conspiration de Malet," 1840. 
 
 Mal'e-vill or Mel'vill, (Geoffrey,) a Scottish states- 
 man, became lord justiciary of Scotland in 1 171. He is 
 said to have been the first who held that office. 
 
 Maleville, de, deh mSl'vel', (Jacques,) Marquis, a 
 French jurist, born in Perigord in 1741. He aided Por- 
 talis and others in framing the Civil Code, about 1800, 
 and wrote an "Analysis of the Discussion of the Civil 
 Code," (4 vols., 1805.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Maleville, de, (Leon,) a French advocate and poli- 
 tician, born at Montauban in 1803. He was minister of 
 the interior for a short time in December, 1848. He 
 was a moderate royalist, and a devoted friend of Thiers. 
 
 Colonel de Maleville, a brother of the preceding, 
 born at Domme in 1813, was killed at Solferino in July, 
 
 1859. 
 
 Malezieu, de, deh mSl'ze-uh', (Nicolas,) a French 
 scholar, born in Paris in 1650. He was a friend of Fene- 
 lon and Bossuet, whose influence procured for him the 
 place of preceptor of the Due du Maine. He after- 
 wards taught mathematics to the Duke of Burgundy, 
 was elected to the French Academy in 1701, and pub- 
 lished "Elements of Geometry for the Duke of Bur- 
 gundy," (1715.) Died in 1729. 
 
 Malfilatre or Malfillatre, de, deh maTfe'latR', 
 (Jacques Charles Louis,) a French poet, born at 
 Caen in 1733. He composed a poem on the "Transla- 
 tion of Elijah to Heaven," and another called " Narcissus 
 in the Island of Venus," (1769,) which is said to possess 
 great beauties. Died in 1767. 
 
 See Dh Batore, "Discours sur la Vie, etc. de Malfilatre," 1825 ; 
 La Harpe, "Coursde Literature." 
 
 Malgaigne, mtl'gifl', (Joseph Francois,) a French 
 medical writer and surgeon, born in Paris about 1806. 
 He published, besides other works, a "Treatise on Sur- 
 gical Anatomv and Experimental Surgery," (2 vols., 
 1838.) Died in 1865. 
 
 Malherbe, de, deh mt'ljRb', (Francois,) a dis- 
 tinguished French lyric poet, born at Caen about 1555. 
 He served several campaigns in the civil wars of the 
 League, and married Madeleine de Carriolis in 1581. 
 In 1587 he composed his first work, "The Tears of Saint 
 Peter." An "Ode to the Queen Marie de Medicis" (1600) 
 was the foundation of his fame. He came to Paris a few 
 years later, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry IV. 
 during the life of that prince. Malherbe was called the 
 poet of princes and the prince of poets. He died in 1628. 
 " He was," says La Ilarpe, "the first [French] model of 
 the noble style, and the creator of lyric poetry. He has 
 its enthusiasm, its movements, and its tournures." " Mal- 
 
 «as£; cas s; gfiard; gasy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; t., trilled; 3 as*; th as in this. 
 
 95 
 
 (!3^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MALHOUET 
 
 1506 
 
 MALLET 
 
 herbe," says Hallam, " gave a polish and a grace to the 
 lyric poetry of France, which has rendered his name cele- 
 brated in her criticism. In general, we find in his poems 
 neither imagery nor sentiments that yield us delight." 
 Comparing him with Horace, the same critic remarks, 
 " He is far from deficient in that calm philosophy which 
 foniis the charm of the Roman poet." (" Introduction 
 to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See knux-Ai.PHBRAN, " Recherches svir Malherbe et sa Famille," 
 1S40; "Malherbe, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," by M. de Gournav, 
 1852; SAiNTK-liEUVK/'Causeriesdu Lundi," tomeviii. ; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Geuerale." 
 
 Malhouet. See Mai.oukt. 
 
 Malibran, mS'le'bRfiN', (Maria Felicita,) a cele- 
 brated singer and actress, born in Paris in 1808, was the 
 daughter of Manuel Garcia, a Spanish tenor singer. She 
 made her debut in London in 1825, and in 1826 visited 
 New York, where she married M. Malibran, a banker. 
 After he had become a bankrupt, she separated from him 
 and went to Paris, where she performed with complete 
 success in 1828. In Italy, England, and Germany she 
 also obtained triumphs almost unexampled in the his- 
 tory of artistes. Her voice was a mezzo-soprano of great 
 volume. She was very successful as an actress. She 
 died in England in 1836, soon after a second marriage 
 with M. de Beriot, a violinist. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Uuiverselle des Musiciens;" "Memoirs 
 of Madame Malibran," bv the Countess of Merlin. 
 
 Malik (mil'ik) or Melik, mel'ik, El Adel, el a'del, 
 I., (Seif-ed-Deen Aboobeker Mohammed, or Saif- 
 Eddyn Aboubekr Mohammed, sif ed-deen' a'boo- 
 bek'er mo-ham'med,) Sultan of Egypt and Damascus, 
 born at Baalbec in 1139, was a brother of the famous 
 Saladin. He gained victories over the crusaders in 1174 
 and 1 187. In 1201 he became Sultan of Egypt. He 
 extended his dominions by conquest in Syria. Died 
 in 121S. 
 
 See Weil, "Geschich'.e der Chalifen," vol. iii. 
 
 Malik-Shah, mal'ik shih, written also Malek- 
 (Malec- or Melek-) Shah, a famous Seljookide sove- 
 reign, the son of Alp-Arslan, whom he succeeded in 1072. 
 Under Malik-Shah the Seljookian empire reached its 
 highest point of power and glory. His character, like 
 that of his father, appears to have been singularly noble. 
 His succession to the throne had been disputed by his 
 brother Toortoosh, (Tourtousch.) Before giving battle 
 to his rival, he asked his minister, Nizam dol-M6olk, as 
 they came out of the mosque together, what he had 
 prayed for. " I have prayed," answered the minister, 
 " that God would give you the victory over your brother." 
 "And I," said Malik-Shah, "that God would take away 
 my life and crown, if my brother is worthier to reign than 
 I." Perhaps the only stain upon the character of this 
 great prince is his having, at the instigation of his Sul- 
 tana, the Khatoon Toorkan, removed from office his 
 minister, the illustrious Nizam-ool-Moolk,* to whose 
 wise administration the empire was chiefly indebted for 
 its long-continued prosperity. Nizamdol-Mdolk died 
 soon after by the dagger of an assassin. Malik-Shah 
 survived his minister only a few months. He died in 1092. 
 
 "There is no instance," says Sir John Malcolm, "in 
 Persian history, of so vast an empire enjoying so long a 
 period of tranquillity. The kingdom he inherited, which 
 extended from the plains of Tartary to those of Syria, 
 was, during the twenty years of his reign, only disturbed 
 bv a short contest with his uncle and brother. . . . Agri- 
 culture was promoted, learning was encouraged; an as- 
 sembly of astronomers from every part of Malik-Shah's 
 wide dominions were employed for several years in re- 
 forming the calendar." 
 
 See Malcolm, " History of Persia," vol. i. chap. viii. 
 
 Malinche or Malintzin. See Marina. 
 
 Malingre, mt'laNgR', (Claude,) a French histo- 
 rian of little merit, born at Sens about 1580. He wrote 
 several works on French history, which were not suc- 
 cessful. Died about : 653. 
 
 Mal'la-ry, (Chari.es,) a Baptist minister, born in 
 Pi.ultney, Vermont, in 1801, removed to Georgia. He 
 was one of the founders of Mercer Theological Seminary, 
 at Penfield, Georgia. 
 
 * This name, die only one by which he was known, signifies the 
 " regulator ot the state or kingdom." 
 
 Mallary, (Rollin Carlos,) a lawyer, a brother ot 
 the preceding, was born in Cheshire, Connecticut, in 
 1784. He was a member of Congress from 1819 until 
 his death, in 1831. 
 
 Mallemans, mtl'mftN', (Jean,) a French writer, noted 
 for singular and extravagant opinions, born at Beaune 
 in 1649, was a brother of Claude, noticed below. He 
 wrote a " History of the Church before the Reign of 
 Jovian," (1704,) and other works. Died in 1740. 
 
 Mallemans de Messanges, mtl'moN' deh m&'soNzh', 
 (Claude,) a French savant, born at Beaune in 1653. He 
 was professor of philosophy for thirty-four years at the 
 College du Plessis, Paris. He published "A Physical 
 Treatise on the World," and other works. Died in 1723. 
 Malleolus. See Hammerlein. 
 Mallery, de, deh mil're', (Charles,) a Flemish en- 
 graver, born at Antwerp in 1576. His son Philip, born 
 in i6oo, was a skilful engraver. 
 
 See F. Basan. " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 Mallet, m8'l&', (Charles Auguste,) a French phi- 
 losopher, born at Lille in 1807. He published, besides 
 other works, " Etudes philosophiques," (2 vols., 1837- 
 38,) which gained a prize of the French Academy. He 
 wrote numerous articles in the " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeneVale." 
 
 Mal'let or Malloch, mal'loK, (David,) a Scottish 
 poet and dramatist, born at Crieff, in Perthshire, about 
 1698, was the son of James Malloch. He removed to 
 London about 1724, and changed his name to Mallet. In 
 1728 he produced "The Excursion," a poem, and in 1731 
 " Eurydice," a tragedy. He became intimate with Pope, 
 who procured him a situation as travelling tutor. His 
 tragedy " Mustapha" (1739) was performed with ap- 
 plause. About 1740 he was appointed under-secretary 
 to Frederick, Prince of Wales. Among his other works 
 are " Amyntor and Theodora," and a "Life of Bacon." 
 He is censured for acting as the venal agent of Boling- 
 broke in an attempt to blast the memory of Pope, (1749.) 
 Died in 1765. "As a writer," says Dr. Johnson, "he 
 cannot be placed in any high class. His dramas had 
 their day, — a short day, — and are forgotten : his blank 
 verse seems to my ear the echo of Thomson." 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the Poeis ;" Ruffhead, " Life of Pope ;" 
 Boswell, " Life of Johnson ;" Disraeli, "Quarrels of Authors ;" 
 Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Mallet, (Edme,) a French litterateur, born at Melun 
 in 1713. He published an "Essay on the Study of 
 Belles-Lettres," and translated into French Davila's 
 "History." Died in 1755. 
 
 Mallet, mal'let, (Fredrick,) a Swedish writer on 
 science, born in 1728, was for many years professor of 
 mathematics at Upsal. He published many treatises 
 between 1752 and 1774, and co-operated with Bergman 
 in a general description of the earth. Of this work 
 Mallet wrote the astronomical part. Died in 1797. 
 
 Mallet, mi'14', (Jacques Andr£,) called Mallet- 
 Favre, a Swiss astronomer, born at Geneva in 1740, was 
 a favourite pupil of Daniel Bernoulli. He became pro- 
 fessor of astronomy at Geneva about 1770, and built an 
 observatory there. He wrote memoirs on astronomy, 
 mechanics, etc. for the Academy of Paris and the Royal 
 Society of London, of which he was a member. Died 
 in 1790. 
 
 See Picot, "E"logede J. A. Mallet," 1790. 
 
 Mallet, (Paul Henri,) a Swiss historian, born at 
 Geneva in 1730. He taught French to the Prince-Royal 
 of Denmark, (Christian VII.,) and returned to Geneva 
 in 1760. He was appointed professor of history in the 
 Academy of that city. Among his works (in French) 
 are "Monuments of the Mythology and Poetry of the 
 Celts," (1756,) "Memoirs on the Literature of the 
 North," (6 vols., 1760,) and a " History of Denmark," 
 (3 vols., 1777,) which is highly esteemed and has been 
 translated into English, German, etc. Died in 1807. 
 
 His "Introduction a l'Histoire de Danemark" was 
 translated into English, under the title of " Northern An- 
 tiquities," which is one of the most valuable works on 
 Northern mythology. 
 
 SeeSlswoNDi, " De la Vie et les ficrits de P. H. Mallet," 1807; 
 Haag, "La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nd- 
 rale ;" " Monthly Review" for March, 1771. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long ; it, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, Q, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nfit; good; moon; 
 
MALLET-DUPAN 
 
 1507 
 
 MALTE-BRUN 
 
 Mallet-Dupan, mf'lj' dii'poN', (Jacques,) a distin- 
 guished publicist and editor, born at Geneva in 1749. 
 Tie l>ecame a resident of Paris in 1782, and editor of a 
 journal called " Mercure historique et politique," which 
 was very successful. In the Revolution he defended the 
 royalist cause, and in 1792 was compelled to suspend 
 the publication of the "Mercure," of which he had 
 written the political editorials. He then became an 
 exile, and in 1799 began to issue, in London, the " Mer- 
 cure Kritannique," which was ranked among the ablest 
 political journals of that time. Died in England in 1800. 
 
 See " Memoires et Correspondance de Mallet-Dupan," Paris, 
 1851 ; Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries duLundi ;" •' Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate ;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 185a. 
 
 Mallet-Prevost, mi'li' pRi'vo', (Henri,) a scientific 
 Swiss writer, born at Geneva in 1727. He published a 
 valuable "Metrologic Manual, or Repertory of Weights, 
 Measures, and Coins of Various Nations," (1802,) and a 
 "Description of Geneva," (1807.) Died in 1811. He 
 was a brother of Paul Henri Mallet, noticed above. 
 
 Malleville, de, d?h mtl'vel', (Claude,) a French 
 minor poet, born in Paris in 1597, was one of the first 
 members of the Academie Franchise. " He seldom 
 produced a finished piece," says Hallam, " though not 
 deficient in spirit and delicacy." His poems are son- 
 nets, one of which is called "The Fair Early-Riser," 
 ("La belle Matineuse.") Died in 1647. 
 
 See "Histoire de l'Acad^mie Franchise." 
 
 Malliukrot, von, fon mal'lln-lcRot', (Bernard,) a 
 German philologist, was dean of the chapter of Munster. 
 He wrote, besides other works, a treatise " On the Rise 
 and Progress of the Art of Printing." Died in 1664. 
 
 Mallio, mal'le-o, (Michei.e,) an Italian writer of verse 
 and fiction, born at Sant' Elpidio in 1756; died in 1831. 
 
 Malloch. See Maixet, (David.) 
 
 Mal'lp-ry, (Stephen R.,) an American Democratic 
 politician, born about 1810. He was elected a Senator of 
 the United States by the legislature of Florida in 1850, 
 and re-elected in 1856. He served as secretary of the 
 navy of the Confederate States from March, 1861, to 
 1865. 
 
 Malmesbury, Earl of. See Harris, (James.) 
 
 Malmesbury, mams'lier-e, (James Howard Har- 
 ris,) third Earl of, a British Tory statesman, a grand- 
 son of the first Earl of Malmesbury, was born in 1807. 
 He succeeded to the earldom at the death of his father, 
 in 1841, before which he was styled Lord Fitzharris. 
 In February, 1852, he was appointed secretary of foreign 
 affairs in the Derby ministry, which was dissolved in 
 December of that year. He again became foreign secre- 
 tary under Lord Derby in 1858, and on the formation 
 of the Lil>eral ministry in June, 1859, was succeeded by 
 Lord John Russell. He edited the " Diaries and Official 
 Correspondence of the First Earl of Malmesbury," (1844.) 
 About July 1, 1866, he was appointed lord privy seal. 
 He retired from office in December, 1868. 
 
 Malmesbury, (William of,) an old English histo- 
 rian, who is supposed to have been born in Somerset- 
 shire about 1095. He became a monk in the monastery 
 of Malmesbury, where he held the office of librarian. 
 His principal works are a " History of England from 
 450 to U27."("l)e Gestis Repum Anglorum,") "Recent 
 History,*' <" Ilistoria Novella,") wherein he relates events 
 of which he was an eye-witness, and a "History of the 
 English Prelates," (" De Gestis Pontificum." ) These are 
 highly prized for accuracy, veracity, and critical judg- 
 ment. He died in or after 1 143. 
 
 Malmstrom or Malmstroem, malm'stRbm, (Elis,) 
 a Swedish neet, born in 1816. He published a collection 
 .lies entitled "Angelica," (1840,) and an epic poem 
 af " Ariadne." Died at Stockholm in June, 1865. 
 
 Malombra, ma-lom'bRS.I Pi ktro,) a Venetian painter, 
 born in 1556. He was successful in portraits and in 
 historical pictures. Died in 1618. 
 
 Malon, mi'liN', (Jri.M'S,) a Belgian statesman and 
 prominent leader of the Catholic party, born at Ypres 
 in 1810. He became minister of finance in 1845. 
 
 Ma-!6ne', (Edmund,) an Irish critic, chiefly distin- 
 guished as an editor and commentator of Shakspeare, 
 was lx>rn in Dublin in 1741. Having inherited an easy 
 fmtune, he removed to London and devoted himself to 
 
 literature. He associated with Dr. Johnson, Burke, and 
 other eminent authors. In 1790 he published his edition 
 of Shakspeare, with commentaries. He excelled Stee- 
 vens, a rival commentator, in candour and love of truth ; 
 but "neither seems," says Hallam, "to have had a full 
 discernment of Shakspeare's genius." Malone published 
 an edition of Sir Joshua Reynolds's works, with a Me- 
 moir of his Life, (1797,) and other works. He died in 
 1812, leaving unfinished an improved edition of Shak- 
 speare, since published, (1821.) 
 
 See James Bosweli., "Biographical Memoir of Edmund Ma- 
 lone;" Sir James Prior, "Life of Edmund Malone," i860; 
 "Monthly Review" for September, 1793. 
 
 Malouet orMalhouet, mfloo'J', (Pierre Victor,) 
 a French statesman, born at Riom in 1740. In 1789 he 
 was elected to the States-General, where he became 
 prominent as a liberal royalist and co-operated with 
 Clermont-Tonnerre. He took refuge in England in 
 1792, returned about 1802, and was chosen a councillor 
 of state in 1810. Died in 1814. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G&ieYale." 
 
 Malouin, mi'loo-iN', ( Paul Jacques, ) a French 
 chemist and physician, born at Caen in 1 701. He be- 
 came professor of chemistry in the Jardin du Roi, Paris, 
 in 1745, wrote many articles on that science for the 
 "Encyclopedic," and published an esteemed work on 
 "Medical Chemistry," (1750.) He was a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences. Died in 1778. 
 
 See Condorcet, " Eloge de P. J. Malouin ;" " Biographie M£di- 
 cale." 
 
 Malpighi, mal-pee'gee, (Marcello,) [Lat. Marcel' - 
 Lus Malpig'hius,] a celebrated Italian anatomist and 
 naturalist, bom near Bologna in 1628. Having gradu- 
 ated as a physician in 1653, he became professor at Pisa 
 in 1656, and at Messina about 1664. He published, be- 
 tween 1661 and 1665, treatises "On the Lungs," ("De 
 Pulmonibus,'') " On the Tongue," (" De Lingua,") anti 
 " On the Brain," (" De Cerebro.") Malpighi was the 
 first who used the microscope in the study of anatomy. 
 In 1670 he returned to Bologna, and wrote an important 
 work on the anatomy of plants, "Anatome Plantarum," 
 (1675,) a science which was first cultivated by Grew and 
 Malpighi. He made discoveries in the structure of the 
 skin and glands. In 1691 he was chosen chief physician 
 to Pope Innocent XII. He died in Rome in 1694. 
 
 See R^cls, "Vita Malpighti," prefixed to his "Opera posthuma," 
 1608; Fahroni, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentitim ;" G. Atti, 
 " Notizie biografiche di M. Malpighi," etc., 1847; Niceron, "Me- 
 moires;" Cuvikr, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge^iefale." 
 
 Malpighius. See Malpighi. 
 
 Malsburg, mals'bdtiRG, (Ernst Friedrich Georg 
 Otto,) Baron, a German littirateur, l>orn at Hanau in 
 1786, ttanslated Calderon's dramas into German, and 
 published a number of religious poems. Died in 1824. 
 
 Malt'bjr, (Edward,) an English theologian, born at 
 Norwich in 1770. He became Bishop of Durham in 
 1836, and published several volumes of sessions. Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for March, 1820. 
 
 Malte-Brun, maultT>riin' or maTteh-bruN',(CoNRAD,) 
 a Danish author and geographer of great merit and celeb- 
 rity, was born at Thister, Jutland, in 1775. His original 
 name, Mai.the Conrad Bruun, (bRoon,) was changed 
 by the French into Malte-Brun, by which he is now 
 universally known. He had a great facility for learning 
 languages, and wrote French with an ease and elegance 
 which perhaps no other foreigner ever acquired. In his 
 enthusiasm for liberty, he wrote some political articles, 
 for which he was banished in 1796. He composed several 
 admired odes ; that on the death of Count Bernstorf 
 is esteemed one of the finest in the Danish language. 
 Induced partly by admiration of Napoleon, he became 
 an adopted citizen of Fiance about 1800. In 1806 he 
 was engaged as one of the editors of the "Journal des 
 Debats" of Paris, for which he wrote, during many years, 
 able articles on foreign politics, history, languages, science, 
 etc. Malte-Brun and Eyries edited in 1808 the " An- 
 nals of Voyages of Geography and of History," ("Annates 
 it, s Vo«agM de la Geographie et de l'Histoire.") Be- 
 fore this period he had devoted his attention chiefly to 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g nard; g as/'; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as *; th as in this. (2Q*"" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MALTE-BRUN 
 
 1508 
 
 MAMM^EA 
 
 the science of geography, in which he surpassed all his 
 predecessors by his happy union of philosophy with a 
 highly poetic imagination. In 1810 he published the 
 first volume of his great work, " A System of Universal 
 Geography," (" Precis de la Geographie unwerselle,") 
 the plan of which was too vast for one man to execute. 
 The sixth volume was finished in 1825. Exhausted with 
 excessive labour and study, he died in December, 1826, 
 leaving his task unfinished. The language of this work 
 is graphic, picturesque, and at times highly poetical. In 
 order to complete the plan, two more volumes were sub- 
 sequently added by M. Huot. There is a good English 
 version of Malte-Brun's Geography, by J. G. Percival, the 
 American poet and savant. 
 
 See Bory de Saint-Vincent, " Notice biographique sur M. 
 Make- Brim," 1827 ; Quenard, "La France Litteraire;" Erslew, 
 " Forfatter-Lexicon ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Malts-Brun, (Victor Adolphe,) a geographer, a 
 son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1816. He 
 became professor of history at Pamiers in 1838. He 
 published a new edition of his father's Geography, (8 
 vols., 1S52-55.) 
 
 Mal'thus, (Thomas Robert,) an English political 
 economist, distiuguished as the author of the Malthusian 
 theory, was born near Dorking, Surrey, in 1766. He 
 graduated as M.A. at Cambridge in 1797, took orders, 
 and settled in a parish near his native place. In 1798 
 he controverted the theories of Godwin and others on 
 the progress and perfectibility of human nature, in his 
 " Essay on the Principle of Population as it affects the 
 Future Improvement of Society." Much attention was 
 excited by his fundamental principle, that population 
 tends to increase in geometrical progression, and that 
 the supply of food and other necessaries of life can only 
 be increased in an arithmetical progression. After ex- 
 ploring several countries of Europe in search of facts to 
 confirm his system, he published in 1803 an enlarged 
 edition of his essay. His principles were approved by 
 many statesmen and political economists. From 1805 
 until his death he was professor of modern history and 
 political economy in the college at Haileybury. He was 
 author of an " Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of 
 Rent," (181 5,) " Principles of Political Economy," (1820,) 
 and other works. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Otter, "Memoir of Malthas ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge'nerale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1S37; "Monthly 
 Review" for December, 1803. January, 1804, and May, 1821. 
 
 Maltitz, mal'tits, (Franz Friedrich,) Baron, a 
 Russian statesman, of German extraction, born in 1794, 
 was appointed minister-plenipotentiary of Russia at the 
 Hague. He was the author of poems and dramas, (in 
 German,) and wrote a continuation of Schiller's " Deme- 
 trius." 
 
 Maltiz, mal'tits, (Apot.lonius,) a litterateur and diplo- 
 matist, of German extraction, born in 1795, was ambas- 
 sador from the Russian court to Lisbon. He wrote 
 epigrams and other poems. 
 
 Maltiz, mal'tits, (Gotthilf August,) Baron, a 
 German writer, born at Konigsberg in 1794, published 
 several dramas, and a political satire entitled "Pepper- 
 Corns," (" Pfefferkorner.") Died in 1837. 
 
 Mal'ton, (THOMAS,) an English geometer and artist, 
 born between 1735 and 1750, lived in London. He 
 published about 1776 a "Complete Treatise on Per- 
 spective," which is highly commended. He also pub- 
 lished various engravings, designed by himself, among 
 which were " Views of London." Died about 1802. 
 
 Malus, mS'luV, (Etienne Louis,) an eminent French 
 optician and military engineer, was born in Paris in 1775. 
 He became a student of the Polytechnic School about 
 1794, and, aided by the tuition of Monge, made great 
 progress in mathematics. "Of all the pupils who then 
 attended that school," says Biot, "he showed himself 
 the first in application and talents." In 1798 lie accom- 
 panied as engineer the army to Egypt, and was employed 
 at the sieges of Jaffa, Cairo, etc. He returned to France 
 in 1 801, devoted his leisure to analytic optics, and pub- 
 lished an excellent "Traite d'Optique." In 1S08 the 
 Institute proposed a prize for a memoir on the double 
 refraction of crystals. Malus won this prize, after a mul- 
 titude of experiments, in which he happened to make 
 one of the most important discoveries of physical 
 
 science, — viz., the property or phenomenon which he 
 named the "polarization of light." He was elected to 
 the Institute, and in 181 1 received the Rumford medal 
 from the Royal Society of London for the discovery just 
 named. He was chosen examiner for physics and geome- 
 try at the Polytechnic School. " While thus surrounded," 
 as Biot observes, "with numerous friends who appre- 
 ciated his genius, honoured with eminent positions to 
 which his talents, services, and probity had raised him, 
 already celebrated for great discoveries," etc., he died 
 prematurely, in February, 1812. 
 
 See Arago, " Notices biographiques," vol. iii. ; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GeneVale." 
 
 Malvasia, mal-va-see'a, (Carlo Cesare,) a learned 
 Italian antiquary, born at Bologna in 1616, was versed 
 in law, medicine, and theology. He became professor 
 of law in the University of Bologna, and published, be- 
 sides numerous other works, one on the Bolognese 
 painters, " Felsina Pittrice, Vite e Ritratti de' Pittori 
 Bolognesi," (1678.) Died in 1693. 
 
 See Crespi, "Vita di C. C. Malvasia." 
 
 Malvenda, mal-ver/da, (Tomas,) a learned Spanish 
 Dominican, born at Xativa in 1566, was a good Hebrew 
 scholar. He lived at Rome and Valencia. He wrote a 
 "Commentary on the Old Testament," with a literal 
 Latin version, and a "Commentarius de Paradiso," 
 ("Account of Paradise.") Died in 1628. 
 
 Malvezzi, mal-vet'see, (Virgii.io,) Marquis, an 
 Italian author, born at Bologna in 1599. He served in 
 the Spanish army, and was jent as ambassador to Eng- 
 land by Philip IV. of Spain. He wrote, besides other 
 historical and political works, "A Life of Romulus," and 
 a "Life of Tarquin the Proud." Died in 1654. 
 
 Malvoisine. See Mawmoisine. 
 
 Malzel or Maelzel, melt'sel, (Leonhard,) a Ger- 
 man mechanician, noted for ingenuity, was born at Rat 
 isbon in 1776. He made an automaton chess-player 
 and invented the metronome, which is said to be usefu. 
 to musicians. Died at Vienna in 1855. 
 
 Mamachi, ma'ma-kee, (Tommaso Maria,) a monk, 
 born in the isle of Scio in 1713. He went to Rome in 
 1740, and became professor in the College of the Propa- 
 ganda. He wrote " On the Oracles of the Heathen," 
 (1738,) and "Christian Antiquities," ("Origines et Anti- 
 quitates Christiana;," 4 vols., 1749-55.) Died in 1792. 
 
 Mambelli, mam-bel'lee, (Marcantonio,) an Italian 
 grammarian, born at Forl'i in 1582 ; died in 1644. 
 
 Mambrun, m6N'bRiiN', (Pierre,) a French critic 
 and Latin poet, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1600. He 
 became a Jesuit, and taught philosophy at Caen and 
 theology at La Fleche with a high reputation. Taking 
 Virgil for his model, he composed Latin eclogues, an 
 epic poem called " Constantino*," (1658,) and an " Essay 
 on Epic Poetry." His epic obtained a transient favour 
 with the public. Died in 1661. 
 
 Ma-mer'cua [Gr. Mu/iepnoc] was tyrant of Catana 
 when Timoleon invaded Sicily in 344 B.C. He formed 
 an alliance with Hicetas and the Carthaginians against 
 Timoleon, by whom he was defeated and executed about 
 338 I!.C 
 
 Mamiani, ma-me-a'nee, (Terenzio della Rovere,) 
 Count, an Italian philosopher and poet, born at Pesaro 
 about 1802. He produced " Nuove Poesie," (1836,) and 
 " Dialoghi di Scienza prima," (1846.) He was minister 
 of the interior and president of the ministry at Rome 
 from May to July, 1848. In politics he was a moderate 
 Liberal, and opposed to the temporal power of the pope, 
 on which he published an able work, " Del Papato," 
 (1851.) He became minister of public instruction under 
 Victor Emmanuel in i860, and was sent as ambassadot 
 to Greece in 1861. 
 
 Mammsea, mam-mee'a, or Mamaea, ma-mee'a, (Ju- 
 lia,) a Roman lady or princess, born at Emesa, was the 
 daughter of Julia Msesa, and the aunt of Elagabalus. She 
 became the wife of Gessius Marcianus and the mothet 
 of Alexander Severus, whose moral education she guarded 
 with watchful diligence. Severus having been chosen 
 emperor in 222 A.D., she acted as regent during his 
 minority. She and her son were assassinated by the 
 partisans of Maximin in 235 A. I). 
 
 See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome." 
 
 a, e, I, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ft, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MAMOON 
 
 1509 
 
 MANCINI 
 
 Mamoon, Mamoun, or Mamun, Al, al-ma'moon', 
 (Abool- (or Abul-) Abbas- Abdallah, a'bool' ab'bis' 
 ib-dal'lah,) the seventh Abbasside caliph, was born at 
 Bagdad in 786 A.D., and was the son of Haroun-al- 
 Raschid. After defeating his brother Alameen in battle, 
 he ascended the throne in 813. His reign was disturbed 
 by rebellions excited by princes of the race of Alee and 
 others. He enforced by persecution the dogma that the 
 Koran was created and not eternal, which was considered 
 heretical by many of the Moslem doctors. While he 
 was prosecuting a war against the Greek emperor The- 
 ophilus in Cilicia, he died, in 833, leaving his extensive 
 empire to his brother Motassem. Mamoon was cele- 
 brated as a patron of science and literature, and was 
 praised by Eastern writers for his talents and liberalfty. 
 He founded colleges, collected Greek and Hindoo manu- 
 scripts, which were translated at his expense, and invited 
 the scholars and savants of all nations to his capital, 
 (Bagdad,) then the great centre of learning and science 
 in the world. 
 
 See Hammer Purgstai.l, " Literaturgescliichte der Amber;" 
 
 keda, "Annales Moslemici ;" Elmacin, "Historia Sara- 
 
 cenorum :" CoNDK, "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes;" 
 
 Wi 11 . "Geschichteder Chalifen," vol. ii. chap. vii. ; Casiki, " Biblio- 
 
 iheca Arabico-Hispana." 
 
 Mamoun. See Mamoon. 
 
 Maniuii. See Mamoon. 
 
 Ma-mu'rI-us Ve-tu'rI-us, a worker in brass at 
 Rome in the time of Numa, was employed to make 
 other shields exactly like the one which was said to 
 have fallen from heaven. He asked no other reward 
 but that his name migh't be sung at the feast of the An- 
 cilia, (shields.) 
 
 Ma-mur'ra, a Roman knight, was the commander 
 of the engineers in Julius Caesar's army in Gaul. He 
 amassed a large fortune. 
 
 Man or Maan, man, (Cornei.is,) a Dutch portrait- 
 painter, born at Delft in 1621. Having studied and 
 worked in Rome and Venice some years, he settled at 
 Delft. He was a good colorist, and his style is said to 
 have resembled that of Titian. His portraits of surgeons 
 and physicians in the Surgeons' Hall of Delft are highly 
 praised. Died in 1706. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc 
 
 Manaigo, ma-ni'go, (Silvestro,) a historical painter, 
 born in Venice about 1680. 
 
 Manara, ma-na'ra, (Prospkro,) Marquis, an Italian 
 writer, bum at Taro, near Parma, in 1714. He became 
 a councillor of state, and afterwards prime minister of 
 the Prince of Parma. He translated into Italian verse 
 Virgil's "Georgics" and " Eclogues," and wrote sonnets, 
 eclogues, and other short poems. Died in 1800. 
 
 See Antonio Cerati, " Elogio di P. Manara," 1801. 
 
 Manardi, ma-naR'dee, (Giovanni,) an Italian phy- 
 sician and writer, born at Ferrara in 1462 ; died in 
 
 Manasse. See Manassfh. 
 
 Ma-nas'seh or Ma-nas'seS, [Heb. TWyo ; Fr. Ma- 
 nasse, mt'nS'sa',] a Hebrew patriarch, born in Egypt 
 about 1712 B c, was the son of Joseph and Asenath. 
 (See Genesis xli. 51.) His descendants formed a half- 
 tribe among the tribes of Israel. 
 
 Manasseh, [Heb. n^J",] King of Judah, the son of 
 Hezekiah, was twelve years of age when he succeeded 
 his lather, in 697 H.c. Having forsaken the true worship 
 and become an open idolater, he was taken captive by 
 the King of Assyria, and detained at Babylon sonic 
 years. He repented, and was restored to his kingdom. 
 After a reign of fifty-five years, he died, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Anion. 
 
 See II. Kings xx'l. and II. Chronicles xxxiii. 
 
 Ma-nas'ses, (Constantine,) a Greek writer of the 
 twelfth century, wrote a general chronicle, inverse, from 
 tin- creation to the year 1081 a.d. It is of some value 
 for the historv of the Byzantine empire. 
 
 Ma-nas'seS Ben-Jo'aeph-Ben-Is'rael, a learned 
 fewisli rabbi, bom in Spain about 1604. He resided 
 tin >— 1 1 y at Amsterdam. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "On the Harmony of the Scriptures," ("De Convenien- 
 tia I Moium Sanctae Scriptura;," etc.,) and "The Hope 
 of Israel," ("Spes Israelis.") Died in 1659. 
 
 Man'by, (Captain George William,) a British 
 officer, born in Norfolk in 1765. Having entered the 
 army, he obtained the rank of captain. About 1808 
 he invented a mode of saving life by shooting from a 
 mortar a rope to mariners shipwrecked near the coast. 
 Several crews having been rescued by this means, the 
 government provided mortars and other apparatus at 
 numerous stations, and presented to Captain Manby 
 several sums, amounting to ^7000. Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for May, 1823. 
 
 Man'ches-ter, (Sir Edward Montagu,) Earl of, 
 an English general, born in 1602, was the son of Henry, 
 first Earl of Manchester. He was styled Lord Kimbolton 
 before his father's death, (1642.) Having joined the 
 opposition to the court about 1640, he acquired great 
 popularity. In 1642 he was impeached for treason, with 
 Hampden and four other members of Parliament, whom 
 the king attempted to seize in the House. He was 
 appointed a general of the army of Parliament in 1643, 
 and co-operated with Fairfax at the victory of Marston 
 Moor, (1644.) Manchester and Essex were charged by 
 Cromwell with temporizing and with being averse to a 
 decisive victory of the popular party, and the command 
 was taken from them by the "Self-denying Ordinance," 
 (1644.) At the restoration (1660) he was appointed lord 
 chamberlain by Charles II. Died in 1671. "He was 
 distinguished," says Hume, "by humanity, generosity, 
 and every amiable virtue." 
 
 See Clarendon, "History of the Rebellion;" Lodge, " Por- 
 traits of Illustrious Personages." 
 
 Manchester, (Henry Montagu,) first Earl of, an 
 English statesman, father of the preceding, was born in 
 Northamptonshire about 1562. He became lord chief 
 justice about 161 7, and lord treasurer of England in 
 1620. He was created Earl of Manchester in 1626. 
 Died in 1642. 
 
 Manchoo or Manchu Khan. See Mangoo. 
 
 Mancinelli, man-che-nel'lee, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Velletri in 1452. He taught grammar at 
 Rome, Venice, etc., and wrote several works on gram- 
 mar. He was author of "The Mirror of Morality," 
 ("Speculum de Moribus,") "Carmen de Vita sua," (a 
 poem on his own life,) and other poems. Died about 
 1506. 
 
 See Bayi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Nice'ron, 
 " M^moires." 
 
 Maucini, man-chee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 painter, born in the Romagna in 1725. He worked in 
 Rome, and was reputed one of the best painters of his 
 time. Died in 1758. 
 
 Mancini, (Hortensia,) Duchess of Mazarin, an 
 Italian lady of remarkable beauty, born at Rome in 
 1646, was a niece of Cardinal Mazarin, who refused to 
 give her in marriage to Charles II. of England, then an 
 exile. She made in 1661 an ill-assorted marriage with 
 the French Due de la Meilleraie, who then received the 
 title of the Due de Mazarin. She soon separated from 
 him, and lived many years in London, where her house 
 was the resort of men of wit and pleasure. Died in 
 1699. According to Macaulay, she was one of the sul- 
 tanas of Charles II. in the last years of his reign. 
 
 See A. Rener, "Les Nieces de Mazarin." 
 
 Mancini, (Louis Jules ) See Nivernois. 
 
 Mancini, (Maria,) Princess of Colonna, a sister of 
 Hortensia, noticed above, was born in Rome in 1640, 
 ami was a daughter of Cardinal Mazarin's sister. Louis 
 XIV. was so well pleased with her in his early youth 
 that he was inclined to marry her; but Mazarin sent 
 her to a convent. In 1661 she was married to Prince 
 Colonna. She ran away from him in 1672, obtained a 
 divorce, and became a nun. Died about 1715. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Meanoires ;" A. Reni£e, "Les Nieces de 
 Maurfn.' 1 
 
 Mancini, (Maria Anna,) Duchess of Bouillon, a niece 
 of Mazarin, was bom in Rome in 1649. She was mar- 
 ried in 1662 to the Duke of Bouillon, and became the 
 mother of the Prince de Turenne. She was the fii«sl 
 who patronized La Fontaine the fabulist, who has 
 praised her in his letters. She died in 1714. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Sieclede Louis XIV;" A. Rknkk, "LesNiecei 
 de Mazarin." 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MANCINI 
 
 i<;io 
 
 MANET HO 
 
 Mancini, (Olvmpia,) Countess de Soissons, another 
 sister of the preceding, born about 1642, was married to 
 Eugene Maurice of Savoy, Count de Soissons. She was 
 the mother of the celebrated Prince Eugene, commander- 
 in-chief of the Austrian armies. 
 
 Mancini, (Paolo,) the founder of the Academy of 
 Umoristi, was born at Rome. He was the grandfather 
 of Hortensia and Maria Mancini, noticed above. Died 
 in 1635. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Man'co Ca-pac'(ormang'ko ka-pak') was, according 
 to tradition, the first Inca of Peru. He instituted the 
 worship of the sun, of which he pretended to be the 
 offspring, founded the city of Cuzco, and gave laws to 
 the natives of that region, whom he found in a savage 
 state. He is supposed to have flourished about 1000 
 a.d. (See Inca.) 
 
 Manoo Capac, Inca of Peru, was the son of Huayna 
 Capac. He became heir to the throne after Atahualpa 
 was killed by Pizarro, in 1533. He made a treaty with 
 Pizairo, but, finding himself treated as a captive, he 
 escaped in 1 535, raised a native army, and besieged 
 Cuzco. The approach of Almagro forced him to retire. 
 He was assassinated by a Spaniard about 1544. 
 
 See Pkhscott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. ii. chap. 
 iii. ; G. dk Vega, " Historia general del Peru." 
 
 Mandators, de, deh moN'dt'zhoR', (Jean Pierre 
 DES Ours,) a French historical writer, born at Alais in 
 1679. He published a "Critical History of Gallia Nar- 
 bonensis," (1733.) Died in 1747. 
 
 Man'da-ne, [Gr. Maviuvr/, \ a daughter of Astyages, 
 King of Media, and mother of Cyrus the Great. 
 
 Mandar, mun'dur, the same as Mandara, which see. 
 
 Mandar, m&N'daV, (Michel Philippe,) better known 
 as Theophile Mandar, a French political writer and 
 revolutionist, born at Marines in 1759. He took an active 
 part in several insurrections in Paris from 1789 to 1793. 
 It is said that in the councils of his party he attempted 
 to arrest the massacre of September, 1792, and proposed 
 a dictatorship for that purpose. He wrote "The Genius 
 of Ages," and other poems, and several political works. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 See Louis Bi.anc, "Histoire de la Revolution Francaise." 
 
 Man'da-ra, [modern Hindoo pron. mun'da-ra,] in the 
 Hindoo mythology, a famous mountain used by the gods 
 in churning the ocean. (See KOrma.) 
 
 Mandel, man'del, (Eduard,) a German engraver, 
 born at Berlin in 1810. His portrait of Charles I., after 
 Van Dyck, is esteemed a masterpiece. He obtained a 
 medal of the first class at the Exposition of Paris in 1855. 
 
 Mandelot, de, deh mB.Nd'lo', (Francois,) a French 
 fanatic and general, born in Paris in 1529. He was 
 commandant at Lyons, and co-operated with the king in 
 the massacre of the Protestants in 1572. Died in 1588. 
 
 Mander, van, vSn man'der, (Carel,) an eminent 
 Flemish painter, poet, and biographer, born at Meule- 
 beke, near Courtrai, in 1548. He received lessons in art 
 from Lucas de Heere of Ghent, and about 1574 went to 
 Rome, where he worked three years and gained a high 
 reputation as a painter of landscapes and of frescos. 
 In 1583 he settled at Haarlem, where he remained 
 twenty years and founded an academy of painting. 
 Among his master-pieces are " Adam and Eve in Eden," 
 and "The Adoration of the Magi." He translated the 
 " Iliad," and Virgil's " Bucolics" and " Georgics." He 
 was author of " Dina," a drama, and of other poems. 
 His best literary work is " Lives of Flemish and Italian 
 Painters," (1604,) which is highly esteemed. Died in 
 1606. 
 
 Hee Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ; 
 Gesi.acht, "Vie de Carel van Mander," prefixed to his works; 
 Naglkr, " AUgemeines Kiinsller-Lexikon ;' " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge^ierale." 
 
 Mander, van, (Carel,) a painter, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Delft in 1580. He worked at the 
 court of Denmark. Died about 1665. 
 t Man'de-vIUe, de, (or deh moNd'vel',) (Bernard,) an 
 ingenious author, born at Dort, in Holland, about 1670. 
 He became a resident of London, where he practised 
 medicine before he appeared as an author. In I7l4he pub- 
 lished a poetical satire called "The Grumbling Hive, or 
 
 Knaves Turned Honest." This having been censured as 
 immoral by William Law and other writers, he published, 
 with notes, a new edition, with the title of "The Fable 
 of the Bees, or Private Vices Public Benefits," (1723.) 
 It was denounced by the grand jury of Middlesex as a 
 pernicious book. (For an analysis of this remarkable 
 work, see the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," article 
 "Mandeville, B. de.") He also wrote "Free Thoughts 
 on Religion, the Church, and National Happiness." 
 Died in 1733. 
 
 See Birth, "Life of Bernard de Mandeville;" "Biographia 
 Britannica." 
 
 Mandeville, de, deh man'deh-vil', (Sir John,) a fa- 
 mous English traveller, born at Saint Alban's about 1300. 
 In early life he practised medicine. In 1327 he went 
 to Palestine, enlisted in the army of the Sultan of 
 Egypt, and afterwards travelled in various countries of 
 Asia. He spent about three years in Cambalu, (Peking,) 
 and returned home in 1360. He wrote an account of 
 his travels, which obtained a wide reputation. His book 
 abounds in marvellous and extravagant stories, partly 
 borrowed from Pliny and from mediaeval romances. Died 
 in 1372. He is called the first English prose writer. 
 
 See Disraeli, "Amenities of Literature;" Sprengei., "Ge- 
 schichte der geographischen Entdeckungen ;" "Retrospective Re- 
 view," vol. iii., (1821.) 
 
 Mandosio, man-do'se-o, ( Prospero,) a mediocre 
 Italian writer, born at Rome. He compiled a work 
 called " Bibliotheca Romana," consisting of biographies 
 of about five hundred Roman writers, ancient and 
 modern, (2 vols., 1682-92.) Died about 1700. 
 
 Manes. See Lares. 
 
 Ma'nes, Ma'ni, or Manichaeus, mane-kee'us, the 
 founder of the heretical sect of Manichaeans, was prob- 
 ably born in Persia in the early part of the third cen- 
 tury. He corrupted the Christian religion by mixing 
 with it some doctrines of the Magi, teaching that the 
 world is made or ruled by two eternal and opposing 
 principles of light and darkness. He rejected the Old 
 Testament, professed that he was the Comforter promised 
 in John xvi., held the doctrine of metempsychosis, and 
 published a book which he pretended contained a revela- 
 tion from heaven. Manes obtained proselytes in Persia, 
 Egypt, and other countries. Saint Augustine was a zealot 
 of this sect hi his youth. The Oriental accounts of Manes, 
 differing widely from those of the Greek or Catholic 
 writers, state that he was born of the race of Magi, lived 
 in Susiana, was an adept in painting and other arts, 
 produced a "gorgeous picture-book," which was re- 
 ceived as sacred by his disciples, and was put to death 
 by Varanes, King of Persia, about 272 A.D. The Latin 
 and Greek writers say that his original name was Cuhri- 
 cus, that he derived his doctrines from an impostor 
 named Terebinthus, and was punished with death for 
 his heresy, in 277 A.D. 
 
 See Bbausobre, " Histoire du Manich^isnie ;" Basnage, " His- 
 toire des Eplises reTorin^es ;" Saint Augustine, " De Moribus 
 Manichaeon.m;" Walch, " Geschichte der Ketzereien ;" Plucquet, 
 " Dictionnaire des Heresies:" RlTTEtt, " History of Philosophy;" 
 Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary," article " Manicheisin." 
 
 Manesse, mi'ness', (Denis Joseph,) a French natu- 
 ralist, born at Landrecies in 1743 ; died in 1820. 
 
 Manesson-Mallet, niS'nI'siN' mifli', (Alain,) a 
 French geometer and military engineer, born in Paris in 
 1630. He published a " Description of the World," 
 ("Description de I'Univers," 5 vols., 1683.) Died in 1706. 
 
 Man'e-tho, [Gr. Mariduv and Maveduc ; Fr. Mane- 
 thon, mS'na't6N',] a celebrated Egyptian writer and 
 priest, was a native of Sebennytus, or, according to some 
 accounts, of Diospolis, and flourished in the reigns of 
 Ptolemy Soter and Ptolemy Philadelphia, between 300 
 and 250 B.C. He was reputed to have attained the highest 
 possible degree of wisdom. He was keeper of the sacred 
 archives at Heliopolis, and author of several important 
 works, among which was a " General History of Egypt," 
 in Greek. This is lost, except fragments preserved by 
 Josephus in his "Reply to Apion," and by George Syn- 
 cellus. He was the first Egyptian who wrote in Greek 
 an account of the religion, history, and ch'onology of 
 Egypt. A poem, in Greek, on the influence of the stars, 
 entitled "Apotelesmatica," (which has come down to ut> 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
MANETHON 
 
 i S u 
 
 MANGUM 
 
 entire,) is sometimes ascribed to Manetho, but was proba- 
 bly written by a later author. 
 
 See IIuvsen, " Eiiyptens Stelle in der Wehgeschichte:" Bokck, 
 "Manetho unci die Himdsslernneriode," ^45; Fahricius, " Biblio- 
 theca Gra-ca ;" Fruin, "Dissertatio historica de Manethone," 1847; 
 "Nouvelta Biographic Generate ;" Smith, "Dictionary of Greek 
 and Roman Biography," etc 
 
 Manethon. See Mankthu. 
 
 Manetti, ma-net'tee, [Lat. Manet'tus,] (Gian- 
 Nozzo,) an Italian statesman and author, born at Flor- 
 ence in 1396, was one of those who contributed to the 
 revival of learning in Italy. He was versed in Latin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew, and was reputed one of the most 
 learned men of his time. After holding other high offices 
 in Florence, he was elected to the Council of Ten, and 
 was secretary to Pope Nicholas V. Among his works 
 are a " Life of Petrarch," and a " Specimen of the Lite- 
 rary History of Florence during the Thirteenth and 
 Fourteenth Centuries," in Latin, (1747.) Died in 1459. 
 
 See Tikaboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana:" J. B. 
 Reqi-ier, " Vie de G. Manetti, Senatenr de Florence," 1761; Naldo 
 Naldi, "Vita Manetti," in Muratoki's " Scriptores Reruin llali- 
 carinn." 
 
 Manetti, (Rutilio,) an Italian painter, born at Sienna 
 in 1571, was a pupil of Francesco Vanni. His design 
 and style are commended as correct and noble. He 
 painted both in oil and fresco with equal success. Died 
 in 1639. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Baldinucci, "No- 
 tizie." 
 
 Manetti, (Saverio,) an Italian physician and natu- 
 ralist, born at Florence in 1723. He became keeper of 
 the botanic garden of that city, and corresponded with 
 the most eminent savants of Europe. He published, 
 among other works, a "Treatise on Different Species of 
 Grain and Bread," (1765,) and a splendid work on the 
 " Natural History of Birds," with coloured plates, (1767.) 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 Manettua. See Manetti, (Giannozzo.) 
 
 Man'fre-d, [It. Manfredi, man-fra'dee; Lat Man- 
 fkk'dis; Fr. Mainfroi, maN'fRwil',1 King of Naples, 
 born about 1234, was a natural son of the emperor Frede- 
 rick II., from whom he seems to have inherited noble or 
 at least popular qualities. By the will of Frederick, who 
 died in 1250, Manfred became Regent of the Two Sicilies 
 until the arrival of Conrad, the lawful heir, who was 
 in Germany. Conrad died in 1254, leaving an infant 
 son, Conradin or Corradino, and Manfred again became 
 regent. A rumour of Conradin's death having obtained 
 credence, Manfred was proclaimed king in 1258, and he 
 refused to relinquish the royal power when that report 
 was proved to be false.. He became an ally of the Ghil>e- 
 lines of Northern Italy against the Guelphs. Urban IV., 
 who became pope in 1261, and who had long been an 
 enemy to the house of Suabia, excommunicated Manfred, 
 and offered the kingdom of the Two Sicilies to Charles 
 of Anjou, a brother of Louis IX. of France. Charles 
 accepted it as a fief of the see of Rome, marched an 
 army into Naples, and gained a victory, in which Man- 
 fred was killed, in 1266. 
 
 See Kuricni, "Histoire de Sidle;" Sismondi, "Histoire des 
 Repnbliqiies Italiennes ;" Giusefi-r dr Cesare, "Storia di Man- 
 6-cdi Re di Sicilia," 2 vols.. 1837 : Von Munch, "Konig Manfred," 
 1840; C. M. Riccro, "Alcuni Stndii storici wtnrno a Manfredi," 
 etc., 1S50; F. \. Skmrr, " Fhnde historique : Les Partis au Moyen- 
 Age," etc., 1853. 
 
 Manfredi. See Manf-red. 
 
 Manfredi, man-fRa'dee, (Bartoixjmmeo,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Mantua about 1580. He was a pupil of 
 Caravaggio, whom he imitated so well that good judges 
 mistook his winks for those of his master. Among his 
 productions is "A Party of Men drinking." Died in 
 Rome in 161 7. 
 
 See Lanzi. " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Manfredi, (Eustachio.) an eminent Italian geometer 
 and astronomer, born at Bologna in 1674. He was ap- 
 pointed professor of mathematics in the University of 
 Bologna in 1698, and astronomer to the Institute of that 
 city in 1711. He published Ephemerides from 171510 
 1750, " Elements of Chronology," (1744,) " Institutes of 
 Astronomy," (" Instituzioni astronomiche,") and other 
 works. Manfredi also wrote admired sonnets and can- 
 zoni. He was a foreign associate of the Academy of 
 
 Sciences of Paris, and a Fellow of the Royal Society of 
 London. Died in 1739. 
 
 See F'ontbnei.lb, " Eioge de Manfredi;" G. P. Zanotti, "Vita 
 di K. Manlredi," 1745; Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum docnina excel- 
 lentium;" Fantuzzi, "Scdttori Boiognesi." 
 
 Manfredi, (Gabriele,) born at Bologna in 1681, be- 
 came professor of mathematics in Bologna in 1720. He 
 succeeded his brother Eustachio in 1739 as superin- 
 tendent of the waters. He wrote an able treatise "On 
 Equations of the First Degree," and several Memoirs 
 for the Institute of Bologna. Died in 1761. 
 
 See Montucla, " Histoire des Mathemaliques." 
 
 Manfredini, man-fR&dee'nee, ( Federigo, ) Mar- 
 quis, an Italian minister of state, born at Rovigo in 
 1743. He became prime minister of the archduke Fer- 
 dinand of Tuscany in 1790. His prudent measures pre- 
 served Tuscany from invasion by the French until 1799, 
 when Ferdinand and his minister were forced to retire 
 into exile. Died in 1829. 
 
 Manfredus. See Manfred. 
 
 Maugeart, mft.N'zhaR', (Thomas,) a French nu- 
 mismatist and monk, born at Metz in 1695, wrote an 
 " Introduction to the Knowledge of Medals," (1763.) 
 Died in 1762. 
 
 Mangenot, mfiNzh'no', (Louis,) Abb i, a French poet 
 and priest, born in Paris in 1694. He wrote an admired 
 eclogue called "The Rendezvous." Died in 1768. 
 
 Manget, mdN'zh^', (Jean Jacob,) a Swiss physician 
 and writer, born at Geneva in 1652. He practised in 
 that city, and published many scientific works, among 
 which are "Anatomical Library," (" Bibliotheca Ana- 
 tomica," 1685,) and "Curious Chemical Library," .(" Bi- 
 bliotheca chemica curiosa," 1702.) In 1699 he received 
 the title of first physician to the Elector of Brandenburg. 
 Died at Geneva in 1742. 
 
 See Sknrbirr, " Histoire litteVaire de Geneve." 
 
 Man'gey, (Thomas,) an English theological writer, 
 born at Leeds in 1684. He obtained the first stall of 
 Durham in 1722. Died in 1755. 
 
 See Hutchinson, "History of Durham." 
 
 Mangili, man-jee'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian natu- 
 ralist and physician, born at Caprino in 1767; died in 
 1829. He wrote several scientific treatises. 
 
 Mangin. mo.N'zhaN', (Charles,) a French architect, 
 born near Meaux in 1721, designed several important 
 edifices in Paris, among which were the Halle au Ble 
 (Grain-Market) and the Church du Gros-Caillou. Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 Mangin, (Jean Henri Claude,) a French advocate, 
 born at Metz in 1786. He wrote several legal works. 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 Manglard, moN'glfR', (Adrif,n,) a French painter 
 of landscapes and marine views, was born at Lyons in 
 1695 ; died at Rome in 1760. 
 
 Mangles, mang'g'lz, (Captain James,) a British trav- 
 eller, who obtained the rank of commander in the navy 
 in 1815. In 1816, accompanied by Captain Irby, he be- 
 gan an extensive journey, in which they explored the 
 Upper Nile, the ruined city of Petra, and the Dead 
 Sea. They returned to England in 1820. See Irby, 
 (Charlf:s L.) 
 
 Man'goo' (or Mangou) Khan, written also Meng- 
 ko and Moengke, Emperor or Grand Khan of the 
 Mongols, was the son of Toolee, (Touli,)and grandson of 
 Jengis Khan. He ascended the throne about 1250. His 
 empire included Tartary, India, a part of China, and 
 Persia. One of his armies, under his brother Kooblai 
 Khan, subdued Thibet ; and another army at the same 
 time (1256) conquered in Persia the Ismaeelian dynasty. 
 Two years later he took Bagdad and made himself mas- 
 ter of the caliph's dominions. While pursuing his con- 
 quests in China, he was killed in battle, in 1259. He was 
 succeeded by his brother, Kooblai Khan. 
 
 See Von Hammrr, "Histoire des Ilkans;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic GeneVale." 
 
 Mangum,mang'gum,( Willie Person,) an American 
 statesman, born in Orange county, North Carolina, in 
 1792. He was elected a Senator of the United States 
 by the legislature of North Carolina in 1831, and acted 
 with the Whigs until that party was dissolved. He 
 also represented North Carolina in the Senate for two 
 
 « as k; c as s; % hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; H, natal; R, trilled; i as z; th as in (hit. (jjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MANHES 
 
 1 512 
 
 MANN 
 
 terms, (1841-53,) and was president of that body during 
 the administration of Tyler. Died in 1861. 
 
 Mauhes, mi'nes', (Charles Antoine,) a French 
 general, born at Aurillac in 1777. He entered the service 
 of Muratin 1809, and suppressed brigandage in Calabria 
 with extreme severity. Died in 1854. 
 
 Mani. See Manes. 
 
 Manichceus. See Manes. 
 
 Manigault, man'e-go', ? (Gabriel,) a wealthy Amer- 
 ican merchant and patriot of the Revolution, born at 
 Charleston, South Carolina, in 1704; died in 1781. 
 
 Ma-nil'I-a Gens, the name of a plebeian Roman 
 gens, 'which was not numerous and consequently was 
 not divided into families. Marcus Manilius, who be- 
 came consul in 149 B.C., was the first member of this 
 gins that figures in history. 
 
 Ma-nil 'I-us, (Caius,) a Roman tribune, and partisan 
 of Piimpey. He was tribune of the people in 66 B.C. 
 He proposed a bill called " Lex Manilia," granting to 
 Ponipey the command of the war against Mithridates in 
 place of Lucullus. On this occasion Cicero uttered his 
 celebrated oration " Pro Lege Manilia." 
 
 Manilius, (Marcus or Caius,) a Latin poet, known 
 as the author of an astrological poem called " Astro- 
 nomica." His name is sometimes written Mallius or 
 Mani.ius. Nothing is certainly known of his nativity 
 or history; but he is supposed to have lived in Rome 
 in the reign of Augustus or of Tiberius. His poem, 
 first discovered by Poggio about 1410, is a work of 
 much learning, and contains some fine passages, but is 
 faulty in style. 
 
 See Scaugrk, " Prolegomena in Manilium," 1600 ; F. Jacob, 
 "De M. Manilia Poeta," etc., 1832; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 ral*:. " 
 
 Manin, ma-neen', (Daniei.e,) an eminent Italian 
 patriot and statesman, born in Venice in May, 1804, was 
 educated for the profession of advocate. He was a re- 
 publican, and promoted the liberation of Venetia by legal 
 means rather than by arms. In March, 1848, he pro- 
 claimed a republic at Venice, and became president of 
 the provisional government. Having vainly opposed 
 the annexation of Venetia to Piedmont, he resigned in 
 July, 1848. He was soon recalled, and governed Venice 
 as dictator during the siege, which lasted a year, and 
 ended, after a heroic struggle, in August, 1849. He 
 went into exile, and died in Paris in 1857. His remains 
 were honoured with a magnificent public funeral, by 
 order of the Italian Parliament, in the metropolitan 
 church of Venice, in March, 1868. 
 
 See Henri Martin, "Life of Daniel Manin,'* 1859: G. V. 
 Rovani, " Meinoria storica di D. Manin," Turin, 1850; H. Cas- 
 TIU.E, "Manin:" Chassin, "Manin et 1'ItaHe," 1859: Edmond 
 Flagg, "Venice, the City of the Sea." New York. 1853: " Eraser's 
 Magazine" for November, 1857; "Westminster Review" for April, 
 i860. 
 
 Manin or Manini, ma-nee'nee, (Lonovico,) the last 
 Doge of Venice, was born about 1727. He was elected in 
 1788, a period when the republic manifested evident signs 
 of approaching ruin. He refused to join Austria in a 
 coalition against the French in 1792, and remained neutral 
 In the war that ensued. Venice was invaded by the 
 French in 1797, the form of the government was changed, 
 and Manini retired to private life. 
 
 See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Manini, ma-nee'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian writer on 
 theology and history, was born at Ferrara in 1750; died 
 in 1834. 
 
 Manini, (Lodovico.) See Manin. 
 
 Mau'ley, (James R.,) an American physician, born 
 in the latter part of the eighteenth century, became 
 professor in the Medical College of New York. Died 
 in 1851. 
 
 Manley, (John,) Captain, an American naval officer 
 of the Revolution, born in 1734. He performed several 
 important services. Died in Boston in 1793. 
 
 Man'ley, (De LA Riviere,) Mrs., a popular English 
 authoress, born in Guernsey about 1672, was the daughter 
 of Sir Roger Manley. To procure a subsistence, she 
 wrote "The Royal Mischief," (1696,) a tragedy, which 
 was successful. Her next work was a romance called 
 
 Memoirs of the New Atalantis," containing severe 
 strictures on some of the persons in power, which caused 
 
 her to be prosecuted and imprisoned for libel. She 
 wrote political articles for the Tory ministry between 
 17'oand 1714, and edited the " Examiner" with ability 
 after Dean Swift had retired from the direction of that 
 paper. Died in 1724. 
 
 See Cibbhr, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Mau'li-a Gens, one of the most ancient and cele- 
 brated of the patrician gentes or tribes of Rome. The 
 family names of the Manlii were Cincinnatus, Acidinus, 
 Capitolinus, Torquatus, and Vulso. Among the emi- 
 nent persons of this gens was 
 
 Man'11-us Cap-it-o-li'nus, (Marcus,) who was 
 elected consul in 392 B.C. In 399 the Gauls under Bren- 
 nus captured Rome and besieged the Capitol, which 
 Manlius and others defended. According to tradition, an 
 attempt of the Gauls to surprise this fortress by night was 
 defeated by Manlius, who was awakened by the clamour 
 of a flock of geese. For this service he received the 
 surname of Capitolinus. He became a champion of 
 the popular party, or plebeians, in 385, spent his for- 
 tune freely for the relief of those who were oppressed 
 by debt, and was accused of aspiring to royalty. His 
 enerny Camillus was appointed dictator, and Manlius, 
 having been tried for treason and condemned to death 
 by the patricians, was thrown from the Tarpeian rock in 
 381 B.C. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome ;" Cicero, "DeRepublica ;" Aure- 
 lius Victor, " De Viris illustrious." 
 
 ManTI-us Tor-qua'tus, or, more fully, Ti'tus Man'- 
 lius Capitoli'nus Torqua'tus, a popular Roman hero, 
 was the son of L. Manlius Imperiosus, who was dictator 
 in 362 or 363 B.C. He signalized his filial affection by 
 extorting from Pomponius an oath that he would desist 
 from the prosecution of his father. In 359 he was elected 
 a military tribune. He killed in battle a Gaul of gigantic 
 stature and despoiled him of a chain, (torques,) from 
 which he derived the surname Torquatus. He was ap- 
 pointed dictator in 353, and again in 349 B.C. Having 
 been elected consul for the third time in 340, he defeated 
 the Latins, and punished with death his own son, who 
 had violated orders by fighting a single combat with 
 one of the enemy. 
 
 See Livy. " History of Rome," books vii., viii. ; Aureuus Vic- 
 tor, " De Viris illustrious ;" P. Ekerman, " Dissertatio de T. Man- 
 lio Torquato," 1767, 
 
 Manlius Torquatus, (Thus,) a Roman general, of 
 the same family as the preceding, was consul in 235 B.C. 
 Sardinia having been subjected by him in that year, the 
 temple of Janus was shut, for the second time in the his- 
 tory of Rome, because the Romans enjoyed a universal 
 peace. He was re-elected consul in 224, and made a 
 speech against the motion to ransom the prisoners taken 
 by Hannibal at Cannae, (216.) In 215 B.C. he gained a 
 decisive victory over the Carthaginians in Sardinia. He 
 was appointed dictator in 208, and died in 202 B.C. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome," books xxii., xxiii., xxv., etc. 
 
 Man'lius Vul'so, (Cneius,) a Roman general, elected 
 consul about 190 B.C. He conquered the Gauls of Ga- 
 latia, and received the honour of a triumph in 186 B.C. 
 
 Man'ljf, (Basil,) a Baptist minister, born in Chatham 
 county, North Carolina, in 1798. He became president 
 of the University of Alabama in 1837. Died in 1868. 
 
 Mann, (Horace,) I.L.D., an eminent American edu- 
 cationist, bom in Franklin, Norfolk county, Massachu- 
 setts, May 4, 1796. His father was a farmer in limited 
 circumstances, so that Horace was obliged to procure by 
 his own exertions the means of obtaining an education. 
 The books to which he had access in early life, as he 
 informs us, "were few, and their contents meagre and 
 miserable." "My teachers," he adds, "were very good 
 people, but they were very poor teachers." There was, 
 however, no lack of hard work, and in summer his 
 labours often encroached upon the hours which should 
 have been devoted to sleep ; yet, with all these disad- 
 vantages, his mind gave early proof of uncommon power 
 and intense activity. He had earned his school-books, 
 when a child, bv braiding straw; and his severe and 
 frugal life gave him the habit of depending solely upon 
 himself for the gratification of all his wants. When 
 about the age of twenty, he commenced the study of 
 Latin, and in six months prepared himself to enter the 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less p olonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscun; far, fall, fit; m ft; nfit; good; moon, 
 
MANN 
 
 1513 
 
 MANNING 
 
 sophomore class in Brown University, at Providence, 
 Rhode Island, wrier* he graduated with the highest 
 honours in 1819. The subject of his discourse on that 
 occasion was " The Progressive Character of the Human 
 Race." This was always a favourite theme with him, 
 and his first oration may be said to have foreshadowed 
 his sub-sequent career as philanthropist and statesman. 
 While at Providence he became acquainted with the 
 young lady whom he afterwards married. She was the 
 daughter of Dr. Messer, president of the university. In 
 1821 he entered the law school at Litchfield, and in 1823 
 was admitted to the bar. He commenced the practice 
 of law at Uedham. He was elected in 1827 to the State 
 legislature, and during his connection with that body was 
 distinguished for the zeal with which he devoted himself 
 to the interests of education and temperance. In the 
 practice of his profession he had adopted the principle 
 never to take the unjust side of any cause : it is said that 
 Jned four out of five of all the contested cases in 
 which he was engaged. The extraordinary influence 
 which he exerted over the minds of the juries was owing 
 in a great measure to the confidence which all felt in 
 his honesty of purpose. In 1833 he removed from 
 Dedham to Boston, and soon after was elected to the 
 State Senate. In 1S36, and again in 1837, he was chosen 
 president of the Senate. About this time he became 
 acquainted with Dr. \V. E. Charming and Dr. S. G. Howe, 
 for whom he ever afterwards cherished the sincerest 
 respect and affection. 
 
 To his enlightened philanthropy and untiring efforts 
 was due the establishment of the State Lunatic Hospital 
 at Worcester. In 1837 he was elected secretary of the 
 Massachusetts Board of Education, (then recently organ- 
 ized,) and was unanimously re-elected to the same posi- 
 tion for eleven successive years. From the moment that 
 he entered upon his new duties, he devoted himself to 
 them with undivided attention and unremitting real. By 
 his lectures and writings he awakened an interest in the 
 cause of education that had never been felt before. 
 Through his influence, important changes were made in 
 the school laws of Massachusetts, and a thorough reform 
 was effected in the educational system of the State. 
 
 In May, 1S43, Mr. Mann married as his second wife 
 Miss Mary Peabody, daughter of Dr. Nathaniel Peabody 
 and sister-in-law of Mr. Hawthorne; and immediately 
 afterwards he sailed for Europe, chiefly for the purpose 
 of visiting European schools, particularly those of Ger- 
 many. He returned to his native country in the autumn 
 of the same year. 
 
 In the spring of 1848, Mr. Minn was elected to Con- 
 gress, as successor to J. Quincy Adams, who had died 
 in February of that year. I lis first speech in the House 
 of Representatives was in advocacy of the right and duty 
 of Congress to exclude slavery from the territories. He 
 says, in a letter dated December, 1848, " I think the 
 country is to experience serious times. Interference 
 with slavery will excite civil commotion at the South. 
 Still, it is liest to interfere. Now is the time to see 
 whether the Union is a rope of sand or a band of steel." 
 Tn another letter, dated January, 1850, he says, "Dark 
 clouds overhang the future ; and that is not all : they are 
 full of lightning." Again, " I really think if we insist 
 upon passing the Wilmot Proviso for the territories that 
 the S..uth — a part of them — will rebel. But / would 
 pass it, rebellion or not. I consider no evil so great as that 
 ■if the extension of slavery" On the 7th of March, 1850, 
 Webster delivered his great speech against the Wilmot 
 This led to an open rupture between him and 
 Mann. Through the influence of Webster's friends, in 
 the following November Mann failed by a single vote to 
 obtain a re-nomination in the Whig convention. He, 
 however, appealed to the people as an independent can- 
 didate, and was triumphantly re-elected. 
 
 In September, 1852, Mr. Mann was chosen president of 
 Antiorh College, at Yellow Springs, Ohio. On the same 
 day he was nominated for Governor of Massachusetts by 
 a convention of the Free Democracy (otherwise called 
 the Free-Soil party) assembled at Lowell. Although not 
 elected Governor, his popularity was shown by his vote 
 running far ahead of that of the other Free-Soil candi- 
 dates. He accepted the presidency of Antioch College, 
 
 which under his able management attained a large 
 measure of success. But the labours and anxieties of 
 that responsible position proved at length too much for 
 his health, never strong, and now T undermined by a life 
 of the most intense and unremitting activity. He died 
 August 2, 1859. The immediate cause of his death was 
 doubtless the extraordinary and unceasing mental effort 
 called forth at the college commencement in July, 1859. 
 His address to the graduating class on that occasion* 
 is an eloquent resume of the great principles by which 
 his life was governed, and forms an appropriate close to 
 the labours of this heroic and gifted philanthropist. 
 
 See " Life of Horace Mann," by his wife, Iioston, 1865 ; " New 
 American Cyclopaedia." 
 
 Mann, man, (Theodore Augustin.) Abbe, a Flem- 
 ish writer and antiquary, born about 1740, resided at 
 Brussels. He published a "Tableau of the Coins, 
 Weights, and Measures of Different Nations," (1779,) a 
 "Description of Brussels," (1785,) and other works. 
 Died at Prague in 1809. 
 
 Mamie, de, deh min, (Louis Charles Joseph,) a 
 French librarian, born in Paris in 1773. He became in 
 1820 keeper of the Bibliotheque Nationale, in which he 
 classified 300,000 volumes. Died in 1832. His son 
 Edmund succeeded him as librarian. 
 
 Manners. See Rutland, Duke of. 
 
 Manners, (John.) See Granby, Marquis of. 
 
 Mau'ners, (John James Robert,) Lord, a second 
 son of the Duke of Rutland, was born in 1818. He 
 entered the House of Commons in 1841, and identified 
 himself with the Tory party. He was first commissioner 
 of the board of works for a short time in 1858-59, and 
 obtained the same position in the Derby cabinet in July, 
 1866. He resigned in December, 1868. 
 
 Manners, (Robert,) Lord, a younger son of John, 
 Marquis of Granby, was a brother of the fourth Duke 
 of Rutland. He died of wounds received at a battle in 
 the West Indies in August, 1782, where he commanded 
 the ship Resolution. 
 
 Manners, (Robert William,) Lord, an English 
 general, born in 1781. He entered the army in 1798, 
 served Wellington as aide-de-camp in the Peninsular 
 war from 1808 to 1813, and was wounded at Waterloo, 
 (1815.) In 1830 he obtained the rank of major-general. 
 He was frequently elected to Parliament. Died in 1835. 
 
 Mannert, man'neRt', (Konrad,) a German writer, 
 born at Altdorf in 1756, was the author of a "History 
 of the Vandals," (1785,) " History of Bavaria," (1826,) 
 ai.d other works. Died in 1834. 
 
 Manni, man'nee, (Domenico Maria,) a distinguished 
 Italian antiquary and printer, born at Florence in 1690. 
 He published new editions of early Italian works, which 
 he enriched with prefaces, notes, etc., and wrote valuable 
 dissertations on the history of Florence. His " Historic 
 Observations on the Seals of the Middle Ages" (30 vols., 
 1739-86) is a work of merit. Died in 1788. 
 
 See ToMITANO, " Elogio di D. M. Manni," 1789. 
 
 Manni, (Giannicola,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Perugia about 1478, was a pupil of Perugino. Died in ■ 
 
 1544- 
 
 Man'ning, (Henry Edward,) a Roman Catholic 
 prelate, born in London in 1809, graduated at Oxford. 
 He took orders in the Anglican Church, and became 
 Archdeacon of Chichester in 1840. In 1851 he entered 
 the priesthood of the Catholic Church. He was ap- 
 pointed Archbishop of Westminster in 1865. Among 
 his works are "The Unity of the Church," (1843,) and 
 "The Temporal Sovereignty of the Popes," (i860.) He 
 took a prominent part in the CEcumenical Council which 
 held its sessions in Rome from December, 1869, to May, 
 1870, and he maintained the dogma of papal infalli- 
 bilitv. 
 
 Man'ning, (James,) D.D., an American Baptist di- 
 vine, born at FJizabethtown, New Jersey, in 1738, was 
 the first president of Brown University, Rhode Island. 
 Died in 1 791. 
 
 Manning, (Owen,) an English antiquary, born in 
 Northamptonshire in 1721. He became Vicar of Godal- 
 ming and rector of Pepperharrow, (1769.) He wrote the 
 
 • Printed in his " Life," pp. 554-575. 
 
 € as «; c as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (1$&~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MANNING 
 
 1514 
 
 MANSO 
 
 " History and Antiquities of Surrey," and completed 
 Lye's " Saxon Dictionary." Died in 1801. 
 
 SeeW. Bray, "Life of O. Manning," prefixed to the first volume 
 of his " Antiquities of Surrey." 
 
 Manning, (Thomas,) an English linguist, born in 
 Norfolk in 1774. He resided for a long time in Thibet, 
 and accompanied Lord Amherst to China in 1816. Died 
 in 1840. 
 
 Mannini, man-nee'nee, (Jacopo Antonio,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Bologna in 1646 ; died in 1732. 
 
 Manno, man'no, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Palermo in 1754 ; died in 1831. 
 
 Mannory, inf'no're', (Louis,) a French advocate, 
 born in Paris in 1696. He published " Voltairiana," 
 (1748,) and " Plaidoyers et Memoires," (18 vols., 1759.) 
 Died in 1777. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Correspondance." 
 
 Mannozzi, man-not'see, (Giovanni,) an excellent 
 Italian fresco-painter, born at San Giovanni, near Flor- 
 ence, in 1590, was sometimes called Giovanni da San 
 Giovanni. He was a pupil of Rosselli. In 1621 he 
 went to Rome, where he painted, in rivalry with Guido's 
 "Aurora," a picture of "Night in a Chariot." Having 
 returned to Florence, he painted "The Judgment of 
 Paris," "Aurora and Tithonus," etc. The picture of 
 " The Patronage of the Arts and Sciences by Lorenzo 
 de' Medici" is called his master-piece. Died in 1636. 
 
 See Baldinucci, " Nodzie ;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic G^nerale." 
 
 Man'u^ng or Man'ning, (Robert,) an English 
 monk, was also called Robert de Brunne. He lived 
 in the reign of Edward I. and Edward II., and was a 
 canon in the monastery of Brunne or Bourne. He trans- 
 lated into English rhyming chronicles from the "Brut 
 d'Angleterre" and " Roman Ie Rou." 
 
 Manoel. See Manuel. 
 
 Manoel of Portugal. See Emmanuel. 
 
 Manoncourt. See Sonnini. 
 
 Mamique, man-ree'ka, (Jorge,) a Spanish poet, 
 born about 1420. His reputation is founded on his 
 moral poems, which are highly commended. Died 
 about 1485. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Mansard or Mansart, mSN'saV, (Francois,) an 
 excellent French architect, born in Paris in 1598. He 
 restored the Hotel Toulouse, and erected the chiteaus 
 of Berny and of Choisy-sur-Seine, and several churches 
 in Paris. The Chateau de Maisons, a few miles from 
 Paris, is one of his most admired works. His designs 
 are remarkable for nobleness and majesty. He invented 
 the curb-roof called "Mansard." Died in 1666. 
 
 See Fontenay, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Mansard or Mansart, (Jules Hardouin,) a cele- 
 brated architect, born in Paris in 1645, was a son of 
 Jnles Hardouin, a painter. His mother was a sister of 
 F. Mansard, noticed above. He studied the art with 
 this uncle, and assumed his name. Having obtained 
 the favour of Louis XIV., he designed the most im- 
 portant architectural works of his reign. He had a rare 
 opportunity to display his genius in the chateau or royal 
 palace of Versailles, which, though imposing in dimen- 
 sions and rich in ornaments, faiis to satisfy the require- 
 ments of good taste. He built the H6tel des Invalides, 
 — in the grand dome of which he attempted to rival Sir 
 Christopher Wren, — the Chateau de Marly, the Place 
 Vendome, and other public works. In 1699 he was 
 chosen superintendent of buildings, arts, and manufac- 
 tures. Died in 1708. 
 
 See Quatremere de Quincy, "Vies des plus celebres Archi- 
 tectes:" Fontenay, "Dictionnaire des Artistes;" Jean Duchesne, 
 " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. H. Mansart," 1805. 
 
 Mansart. See Mansard. 
 
 Man'sel, (Rev. Henry Longueville,) a prominent 
 English writer on metaphysics and theology, logic, etc., 
 was born at Cosgrove, in Northamptonshire, in 1820. 
 He became professor of moral and metaphysical philos- 
 ophy at Oxford about 1859, and regius professor of 
 ecclesiastical history in 1867. Among his works is 
 "The Limits of Religious Thought Examined," (1858,) 
 which has attracted much attention and no little criti- 
 
 cism and has passed through a number of editions. In 
 this treatise he takes as the basis of his argument Sir 
 William Hamilton's position that "the unconditioned is 
 incognizable and inconceivable ;" and the work is justly 
 regarded as one of the most important applications of 
 the Hamiltonian philosophy to questions of religion. 
 He edited Sir W. Hamilton's works on logic and meta- 
 physics. He also contributed to the "Encyclopaedia 
 Bntannica" a valuable treatise on metaphysics, which 
 has since been published in a separate form. He was ap- 
 pointed Dean of Saint Paul's, London, in October, 1868. 
 
 Mansfeld, von, fon mans'fSIt, (Ernst,) Count, one 
 of the greatest generals of his time, born in 1585, was 
 the natural son of Peter Ernst, noticed below. After 
 fighting for the King of Spain and the Emperor of Ger- 
 many, he left their service about 1610, and became an 
 enemy of the house of Austria. He avowed himself a 
 convert- to the Reformed faith, and in 1618 was chosen 
 general-in-chief of the Bohemian insurgents. In the 
 service of Frederick, whom those insurgents had elected 
 king, he fought many battles, and defeated the Bavarians 
 in 1622. He afterwards marched into Flanders and re- 
 pulsed the Spaniards at Fleurus. Having raised another 
 army to attack Austria, he was defeated by Wallenstein 
 in 1626, and died near Zara in the same year. He was 
 one of those generals who are as formidable after defeat 
 as before. 
 
 See "Acta Mansfeldica," 1624; Niemann, " Geschichte der Gra- 
 fen von Mansfeld," 1834; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Mansfeld, von, (Peter Ernst,) Count, an able 
 German general, born in 1517. In his youth he entered 
 the army of the emperor Charles V. After serving in 
 several campaigns, he commanded an army against the 
 French in 1552, and in 1569 led another army to aid 
 Charles IX. against the Huguenots. He distinguished 
 himself at the battle of Moncontour. He succeeded the 
 Duke of Parma as Governor-General of the Low Coun- 
 tries in 1592. Died in 1604. 
 
 See Schannat, " Histoire du Comte de Mansfeld." 1707 : Mo- 
 reri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Motley, " United Netherlands," 
 vol. i. 
 
 Mans'field, (Jared,) an American mathematician, 
 born at New Haven, Connecticut. He became pro- 
 fessor of natural philosophy in the Military Academy at 
 West Point. He published several scientific works. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 Mansfield, (Joseph King Fenno,) an American 
 general, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1803, 
 graduated at West Point in 1822. He served as captain 
 in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a colonel in 
 1853. He commanded the department of Washington 
 in June and July, 1861, and directed a corps at the 
 battle of Antietam, where he was killed, September 17, 
 1862. He was a brigadier-general in the regular army. 
 
 See Tenney, "Military History of the Rebellion." 
 
 Mansfield, Lord. See Murray, (William.) 
 
 Mansi, man'see, (Giovanni Domenico,) a learned 
 Italian prelate, bom at Lucca in 1692. He translated 
 into Latin Calmet's " Dictionary of the Bible" and the 
 " Continental y" of the same author, and edited several 
 works of theology. One of the most important of his 
 works was an edition of the " Collection of Councils," 
 (" Sacroruni Conciliorum nova et amplissima Collectio," 
 1757 et sea.,) in which he was aided by N. Coleti. He 
 was appointed Archbishop of Lucca in 1765. Died in 
 1769. 
 
 See Zatti, "Vita di D. Mansi," 177a. 
 
 Manso, man'so, orManzo, man'zo, (Giovanni Bat- 
 TISTA,) Marquis de Villa, an Italian author, eminent as 
 a patron of literature, was born in Naples about 1560. 
 He expended part of his fortune in founding in Naples 
 the Academy degli Oziosi. He was intimate with the 
 poet Tasso, who commemorated their friendship in his 
 dialogue entitled " II Manso." Milton, who had been 
 his guest in Naples, addressed to him in complimentary 
 terms a beautiful Latin poem orcclogue entitled " Man- 
 sus." Manso wrote the " Life of Torquato Tasso," (1619,) 
 and several poems. Died in 1645. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Manso, man'so, (Johann Kaspar Friedrich,) a 
 German scholar and historian, born in the duchy of 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MANSOOR 
 
 »5i5 
 
 MANTUANO 
 
 Gotha in 1759. He published a "Life of Constantine 
 the Great," (1817,) and a number of poems and an- 
 tiquarian treatises. Died in 1826. 
 
 See Klug, " Manso als Schulmann und Gelehrter," 1826. 
 
 Mansoor, (Aboo-Amir-Mohammed.) See Ai.- 
 M \nsoor. 
 
 Mansoor, Mansour, Mancour, or ManeOr, Al,* 
 al mansooR', 1 Aboc-Jaafar- (or Djafar-) Abdallah, 
 a'buo ja'far ab-dil'lah, the second Abbasside caliph of 
 the Arabian empire, succeeded his brother As-Seffah (or 
 AlSaffah) in 754 a.d. About 765 he founded Bagdad, 
 which thenceforth was the capital of the empire for five 
 centuries. He waged war with success against the 
 Turcomans and the Greeks of Asia Minor, but lost 
 Spain, which was taken possession of by the Omeyyads. 
 lie is said to have united superior talents with great 
 cruelty and other vices. He died in 775 A.D., leaving 
 tl : throne to his son Mahdee, (or Mahdi.) 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. ii. chap. ii. 
 
 Manstein, von, fon man'stin, (Christoph Her- 
 mann,) an able general and historical writer, born in 
 Saint Petersburg in 171 1. In 1745 he entered the ser- 
 vice of Prussia, and a few years later became a major- 
 general. He was employed by Frederick the Great in 
 important political affairs, and took part in the battle of 
 Prague, (1757.) He was killed in a skirmish the same 
 year. He left "Historical, Political, and Military Me- 
 moirs of Russia," (in French, 2 vols., 1772.) This work 
 has lieen translated into English. 
 
 See Hubkk, "Vie de Manstein," prefixed to his "Memoires." 
 
 Mansueti, nian-soo-a'tee, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 painter, born in Venice about 1450 ; died after 1500. 
 
 Mant, (Richard.) an English bishop and commen- 
 tator, born at Southampton in 1776. In conjunction 
 with D'Oyly, he prepared an edition of the Bible, with 
 notes, (1817.) He became Bishop of Down and Connor 
 about 1823. He wrote, besides other works, a " History 
 of the Church in Ireland." Died in 1848. 
 
 See Kkrens " Memoir of the Life of Bishop Mant," 1849 ; " Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for December, 1812. 
 
 Mantegna, man-ten'ya, (Andrka,) an eminent Italian 
 historical painter and engraver, born at Padua about 
 1430, was a pupil of F. Squarcione, who adopted him 
 as a son. After he had worked at Padua and Verona, 
 lie went to Milan, where he painted the "Triumph of 
 Julius Caesar," which Vasari esteemed his master-piece, 
 and which was purchased by Charles I. of England. It 
 is now at Hampton Court. He painted several frescos 
 in the Vatican at Home, and worked some years in Man- 
 tua, where he was patronized by the Marquis de Gon- 
 raga. Among his most admired oil-paintings is the 
 "Delia Vittoria," (1495,) (a picture of the Marquis of 
 Mantua«rendering thanks to the Virgin for his victory 
 at Fornovo,) which still retains its beauty. He was 
 probably the first engraver of his time. Died in 1506. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy." RiD01.pl, "Vite degli illustri Pittori Veneti ;" 
 L0.MAZ20, " Idea del Tempio della Pittura ;" Mrs. Jameson, "Me- 
 moirs of Eariy Italian Painters;" Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Mantegna, (Bernardino,) a painter of the-Mantuan 
 school, born in 1490. was a son and pupil of the pre- 
 ceding. Died in 1528. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Mantegna, (Francesco,) an able Italian painter, son 
 sf Andrea, noticed above. He was a pupil of his father, 
 and completed several works which the latter left un- 
 finished at Mantua. It is stated that he was the first 
 master of Correggio. Died after 1514. 
 
 Mantegna, del, del man-teVya, (Carlo,) an Italian 
 painter, was a relative and pupil of Andrea Mantegna, 
 noticed above. In 1514 he was master of a school of 
 artists in Genoa. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Man'tell, (QiDEON Algernon,) an eminent English 
 geologist and palaeontologist, born at I,ewes, in Sussex, 
 in 1790. He adopted^the medical profession, which he 
 practised many years at Lewes. A mine near that place 
 offered him a rich field for observations in geology, to 
 which his attention was early directed. He collected 
 
 * Al Mansoor signifies " the Victorious.' 
 
 from the Wealden formation and the chalk a museum of 
 specimens of extinct reptiles, fishes, and plants, which was 
 afterwards bought by the trustees of the British Museum 
 for ,£5000. About 1825 he discovered the Iguanodon, 
 an extinct reptile about sixty feet long, and in that year 
 was elected to the Royal Society. He also discovered 
 three other genera of the colossal Dinosaurian reptiles. 
 In 1822 he published "The Fossils of the South Downs." 
 He removed to Clapham in 1839, and a few years later 
 to London. He not only enriched the science by his 
 discoveries, but was unsurpassed by any English geolo- 
 gist of his time as a lecturer and a popular expounder 
 of geological facts. His most important works are "On 
 the Iguanodon," "The Geology of the Southeast of 
 England," (1838,) "The Wonders of Geology," (1838,) 
 and "The Medals of Creation," (1844.) Died in 1852. 
 
 See Agassiz and Strickland, " Bibliographia Zoologise et 
 Geologise." 
 
 Manteuffel, man'toiffel, (Otto Theodor,) Baron, 
 a Prussian statesman, born at Liibben in 1805. He was 
 appointed director in the ministry of the interior in 1846, 
 and minister of the interior about November, 1848. 
 Many of the notes and diplomatic circulars of 1848 and 
 1849 were written by him. He was president of the 
 council of ministers from December, 1850, to December, 
 1858. 
 
 See G. Heskkiel, "O. T. Manteuffel: ein Preussisches Lebens- 
 bild," 1851. 
 
 Mantica, man-tee'ka, (Francesco,) an Italian prel- 
 ate and jurist, born at Pordenone in 1534, published 
 "Decisiones Romanse," (1618.) Died in 1614. 
 
 Man'to, [Or. Mavrii,] a prophetess, daughter of Tire- 
 sias, was taken prisoner by the Argives at Thebes, and 
 was dedicated to Apollo, under whose auspices she is 
 said to have uttered oracles at Delphi. She was some- 
 times called Daphne. She became the wife of Rhakius 
 or Rhacius, and the mother of Mopsus. 
 
 Man'ton, (Thomas,) an English divine, born in 
 Somersetshire in 1620. He obtained the living of Stcke 
 Newington in 1643, and afterwards preached at Covent 
 Garden in London. He was eminent for eloquence and 
 learning, and was appointed chaplain to Cromwell in 
 1653. In 1660 he became a chaplain to Charles II., 
 but was ejected from his church in London for non- 
 conformity in 1662. Several volumes of his sermons, 
 lectures, etc. were published. Died in 1677. 
 
 Mantouaii, Le. See Mantuano. 
 
 Mantovano. See Mantuano. 
 
 Mantuan, man-too-an',or Mantuano, man-too-a'no, 
 ( B.vi tista, ) or Battista Spagnuoli, (span-yoo-o'lee,) 
 a Latin poet, once of great celebrity, was born at Mantua 
 in 1448. He had great facility as a versifier, but was de- 
 ficient in taste, and his works, consisting of eclogues, 
 silva, etc., are now entirely neglected. " He was, and 
 long continued to be," says Hallam, "the poet of 
 school-rooms. Erasmus says that he would be placed 
 by posterity not much below Virgil." He was a Car- 
 melite friar. Died in 1516. 
 
 Mantuano, man-too-a'no, (Adamo Ghisi,) an able 
 engraver, born at Mantua about 1530, was a son of 
 Giovanni Battista, noticed below. He engraved after 
 Michael Angelo, Giulio Romano, and other masters. 
 
 Mantuano, (Giorgio Ghisi,) born at Mantua about 
 1522, was a skilful engraver and painter. He worked 
 many years in Rome, and engraved the finest works of 
 Michael Angelo, Raphael, and other masters. Among 
 them are "The Last Judgment," after Angelo, and the 
 "Holy Family" and "School of Athens," after Raphael. 
 He was living in 1578. 
 
 His sister, Diana Mantuana, a skilful artist, en- 
 graved several works of Raphael about 1570-80. 
 
 Mantuano, [Fr. Le Mantouan, leh mfiN'too'oN',] 
 (Giovanni Battista Bertano,) an Italian painter, 
 sculptor, engraver, and architect, the father of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Mantua about 1500. He was the 
 head of a family which produced several artists, and 
 whose proper name was Ghisi. He was the pupil of 
 Giulio Romano. His engraving of the "Burning of 
 Troy" is highly praised. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Mantuano, (Teodoro.) See Ghisi. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; O, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. ( J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MJNU 
 
 1516 
 
 MAN WOOD 
 
 Manu, [modem Hindoo pron. mun'06,] written also 
 Meuu, [from the Sanscrit mdn, to "know,"] a celebrated 
 Hindoo sage, the son of Brahma, and the revealer of the 
 code of laws known as the "Institutes of Manu." 
 
 See Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary:" Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Manuce, (Alde.) See Manutius, (Aldus.) 
 Man'u-el I. Com-ne'nus, [Gr. Mavovf/2. fi Kojivrivoc ; 
 Fr. Manuel Comnene, mt'nu'81' kom'n&n',] a Greek 
 emperor, born about 1120, was a younger son of John 
 Comnenus, who designated him for his successor. Manuel 
 began to reign at Constantinople in 1 143. He was am- 
 bitious, brave, and licentious. He is accused of perfidy 
 towards the crusaders Conrad of Germany and Louis 
 VII., King of France, who passed, with their armies, 
 through his dominions in 1147, and with whom he had 
 made a treaty of alliance. He afterwards waged war 
 against Roger, King of Sicily, the Hungarians, and the 
 Turks, over whom he gained several victories. Peace 
 was made between him and Roger in 1155. In 1 1 76 he 
 was defeated disastrously by Az-ed-Deen, the Turkish 
 Sultan, near Myriocephalus, where Manuel fought in 
 person. The Turks were defeated in turn by his army 
 in Lydia, in 1 177, when the war was ended by treaty. 
 He died in 1180, and was succeeded by his only son, 
 Alexis II. 
 
 SeeGiBBON, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Le Beau, 
 "Histoire du Bas-Empire;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Manuel II. Palaeologus, (pal-e-ol'o-gus,) [Gr. Ma- 
 vow/?L & IlnAaioAoj'oc ; Fr. M anuki. Pai.eologue, mf nti'81' 
 pt'la'o'log',] Emperor of Constantinople, was the second 
 son of John VI., who admitted him as his associate in 
 the empire about 1372. At the death of his father, in 
 139 1, Manuel was held as a hostage by Sultan Bayazeed 
 I. He escaped from Nicaea, and fled to his own capital, 
 in the same year. The enraged Sultan marched against 
 him, and besieged Constantinople. The French and 
 German chivalry came to his assistance with a large 
 army, and forced Bayazeed to raise the siege ; but he de- 
 feated those allies at Nicopolis (Nicopol) in 1396. The 
 Sultan prosecuted the siege for several years, until the 
 alarming progress of Tamerlane called him away for the 
 defence of his own kingdom. After the defeat and death 
 of Bayazeed, in 1403, Manuel reigned in peace. He died 
 in 1425, aged seventy-seven, and was succeeded by his 
 son, John Vll. Palaeologus. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire:" Von Hammer, " Geschiclue des Osmanisclien Reichs;" 
 Beeger de Xivrey, " Memoire sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Ma- 
 nuel Paleologue," 1853. 
 
 Manuel, nia-noo-81', or Manoel, ma-no-81', (Fran- 
 cisco,) an eminent Portuguese poet, born at Lisbon in 
 1734. He wrote admired odes, sonnets, and epistles, 
 and attained the reputation of the most excellent modern 
 lyric poet of Portugal. Among his poems is an ode to 
 Washington. The liberality of his principles subjected 
 him to a charge of heresy, for which he was summoned 
 before the Inquisition. He escaped, and retired to Paris 
 in 17S8. He made admirable Portuguese versions of La 
 Fontaine's "Fables," Chateaubriand's "Martyrs," and 
 Wieland's "Oberon." His poems were published, under 
 the name of" Filinto Elysio." Died in Paris in 1819. 
 
 Manuel, niS'iiii'SI', (Jacques Antoine,) a French 
 orator and republican, born at Barcelonnette (Low Alps) 
 in 1775. In the profession of advocate he attained 
 eminence at Aix. He was a member of the Chamber of 
 Deputies during the Hundred Days, (1815,) when he 
 spoke against the pretensions of Bonaparte and of the 
 Bourbons. In 1818 he was elected to the Chamber of 
 Deputies by the liberals, and was ranked among the 
 ablest debaters of that assembly. "Of all the revolu- 
 tionary orators," says Lamartine, "he was the most 
 feared and hated by the majority." After a speech in 
 reply to Chateaubriand, he was expelled from the Cham- 
 ber in 1823. Died in 1827. "He had no one to con- 
 sole him," says Lamartine, "but Beranger, whose heart 
 loved in Manuel the antique stamp of the premature 
 but intrepid, moderate, and upright republican. . . . He 
 was more remarkable for character than eloquence; he 
 preferred action to speech," etc. 
 
 See Fadeville, " Manuel juge parses Actions," 1824 : Ramond 
 DE LA CrOISBTTE, " M. Manuel," 1824: FoURrANIEE, " Eloge de 
 Manuel," 1849; "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Manuel, ma-noo-81', (Don Juan,) a Spanish prince 
 and author, was a nephew of Alfonso X. of Castile. He 
 was Regent of Castile during part of the minority of 
 Alfonso XI., and distinguished himself in battle against 
 the Moors. He wrote many works, in prose and verse. 
 His political and moral treatise called "The Count of 
 Lucanor" (" El Conde de Lucanor") was esteemed by 
 Bouterwek as the finest monument of Spanish literature 
 in the fourteenth century. Died about 1350. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Tickncr, 
 " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Manuel, (Louis Pierre,) a French revolutionist, 
 born at Montargis in 1751. According to Beaulieu, he 
 took a prominent part in the riot of the 10th of August, 
 1792, and was a partisan of Danton. Soon after this 
 date he conducted the royal captives to the prison of the 
 Temple. He rescued Madame de Stael and Beanmar- 
 chais from the massacre of September. As a member 
 of the Convention, he voted against the death of Louis 
 XVI. For this he was proscribed and executed in 1793. 
 
 See Prudhomme, "Les Revolutions de Paris ;" Louis Blanc, 
 " Histoire de la Revolution ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Manuel, mi'nu'el', (Nicolas,) a Swiss artist, author, 
 and Reformer, born at Berne in 1484, was sometimes 
 called Deutsch, in Italian Tedesco, {.i.e. the "German.") 
 About 1510 he went to Venice and became a pupil of 
 Titian. He returned to Berne, and painted " The Dance 
 of Death," in fresco. He wrote satirical poems and 
 songs, and " Dramatic Moralities and Mysteries," a hu- 
 morous composition. In his latter years lie held several 
 public offices, and was an active promoter of the Swiss 
 Reformation. Died in 1530. 
 
 Manutius, ma-nu'she-us, (Ai/nus,) [It. Aldo Ma- 
 nuzio, Sl'do mi-noot'se^o ; Fr. Ai.de Manuce, Sid 
 mS'niiss',] a celebrated Italian printer and scho'ar, born 
 at Bassiano, in the Papal States, in 1447. With the 
 patronage of Pico de Mirandola and Alberto Pio, he 
 established a printing-press at Venice about 1490. He 
 invented the form of type called Italic; procured manu- 
 scripts from various countries, and published editions of 
 classics which surpassed all others in correctness. About 
 1500 he formed at Venice a literary association called the 
 Aldine Academy, the design of which was to promote 
 literature by perfecting the copies of the models of an- 
 tiquity. He compiled a Greek-and-Latin Lexicon, (1497.) 
 Died in 1515. 
 
 See Unger, " De Aldi Pii Manutii Vita Meritisque," 1752: D. 
 M. Manni, "Vita di Aldo Pio Manuzio," 1749; A. Renouard, 
 "Annales de l'lmprimerie des Aide;" Ambrolse Firmin Didot, 
 article in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Manutius, (Aldus,) or Manuzio, (Aldo,) the 
 Younger, born at Venice in 1547, was a son of Paolo, 
 noticed below. At the age of fourteen he published a 
 " System of Orthography," (" Orthographiae Ratio.") He 
 was professor of eloquence at Bologna, Pisa, and Rome. 
 He wrote, besides antiquarian treatises, " The Life of 
 Cosimo I. de' Medici," and "The Accomplished Gentle- 
 man," (" II perfetto Gentil'uomo.") Died in 1597. 
 
 See A. Renouard, "Annales des Aide." 
 
 Manutius, (Paulus,) or Manuzio, (Paolo,) an 
 Italian printer, author, and critic, born at Venice in 1512, 
 was a son of Aldus Senior. As the successor of his 
 father in the printing-establishment, he published excel- 
 lent editions of Latin classics in Venice. About 1562 
 he removed his press to Rome, whence he returned to 
 Venice in 1570. He acquired a high reputation as a 
 critic and as a writer of elegant Latin. Among his prin- 
 cipal works are "On the Roman Senate," ("De SenatO 
 Romano,") "On the Roman State," (" De Civitate Re- 
 mana,") " Roman Antiquities," and a volume of Latin 
 Epistles. " The letters of Manutius," says Hallain, " pall 
 on the reader by their monotonous elegance. . . . Sciop- 
 pius thinks him consummate in delicacy and grace." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 
 
 1574- 
 
 See A. Renouard, "Annales de l'lmprimerie des Aide," 1834: 
 J. G. Krausb, "Apparatus ad P. Manut#Vitam," i66q ; Amkroise 
 Firmin Didot, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 t Manuzio. See Manutius. 
 
 Man'wood, (John,) an English jurist, flourished 
 about 1600, and wrote a " Treatise on the Laws of the 
 Forest." 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, 8, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; ftr, fall, fit; m8t; not; good; moon: 
 
MAN WOOD 
 
 1517 
 
 MARANS1N 
 
 Manwood, (Sir Roger,) probably the father of the 
 preceding, was chief baron of the court of exchequer. 
 Died in 1593. 
 
 Manzi, man'zee, (Gui.if.i.mo,) an Italian litterateur, 
 born at Civita Vecchia in 1784. He made a good Italian 
 version of Lucian, (1819,) and wrote a "Discourse on 
 the Spectacles, Festivals, and Luxury of the Italians of 
 the Sixteenth Century," ( 1 8 1 8. ) Died in 1821. 
 
 See Tipaldo. " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" Rossi, " Elogio 
 storico di G. Manzi," 1822. 
 
 Manzi, (Pikiro,) an Italian writer, born at Civita 
 Vecchia in 1785, was a brother of the preceding. He 
 published " The Conquest of Mexico," (1817,) and other 
 works. Died in 1839. 
 
 Manzo. See Manso. 
 
 Manzolli, man-zol'lee, or Manzoli, man-zo'lee, (PlE- 
 Tkii or Pikr Angelo,) a Latin poet, born at Stellata, on 
 the Po, in Italy, flourished about 1510-40. He was bet- 
 ter known by his assumed name, Palingenio or Palin- 
 r.F.'xms Stella'tus. The events and circumstances 
 of his life are unknown. He wrote a long moral poem, 
 entitled " Zodiac of Life," (" Zodiacus Vitae," Bale, 1537,) 
 the books of which are named from the signs of the 
 zodiac. "It is not very poetical," says Hallam, "but 
 by no means without strong passages of sense and 
 spirit, in a lax Horatian metre. The author has said 
 more than enough to incur the suspicion of Lutheran- 
 ism." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Gerdes, *' Historia Reformations ;" "Palingene," in 
 Bavi.e's " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Manzoni, man-zo'nee, (Alessandro,) a celebrated 
 Italian novelist and poet, was born at Milan, March 8, 
 1784. His father bore the title of count, and his mother 
 was a daughter of the Marquis Beccaria, the eminent 
 jurist and writer. About 1805 he made a long visit 
 to Paris, where he formed an intimate friendship with 
 Fauriel and produced a poem on the death of Carlo 
 Imbonati, (1806.) He married Henriette Louise Blondel, 
 of Geneva, in 1808, and became a zealous member of 
 the Roman Catholic Church. Soon after this event he 
 produced several hymns on the Nativity, the Passion, 
 the Resurrection, etc., which have much literary merit. 
 His next work was a tragedv, called " II Conte di Car- 
 magnola," (1820,) in which the three unities are not ob- 
 served. This drama was warmly applauded by Goethe. 
 He published another tragedy, entitled " Adelchi," and 
 an admirable ode on the death of Napoleon, " II cinque 
 Maggio." His capital work is the historical novel of 
 " I pioniessi Sposi," (3 vols., 1827,) an English version 
 of which has appeared under the title of " The Betrothed 
 Lovers." It presents a vivid picture of Italian society 
 of the seventeenth century. The style is natural, elo- 
 quent, and beautiful. Manzoni became a senator of the 
 kingdom of Sardinia in i860. 
 
 See LnPJBDS I.'.menie, " M. Manzoni, par tin Homme deRien," 
 
 1842: Sain'TB-Bf.uve, "A. Manzoni; Fragment biographique," 
 
 ■ ki.i.ow. "Poets and Poetry of Europe:" "Nomelle 
 
 'lie GeneVale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July and 
 
 iier, 1S27; "Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1826; 
 
 "North American Review" ft r October, 1840. 
 
 Manzoni, (Fkancesca,) an Italian poetess, born in 
 the Milanese in 1710, was versed in the Greek and Latin 
 languages. Died in 1743. 
 
 Manzuoli, man-zoo-o'lee, (Tommaso,) an able Italian 
 painter, born near Florence in 1536, was also called 
 Maso da San Friano. He adorned several churches 
 of Florence. His master-piece is the " Visitation," which 
 is preserve.l in the gallery of the Vatican. Died in 1575. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc 
 
 Mapes, map,? or Map, (Walter,) an old English 
 author, born in the Welsh marches about 1 150. He 
 became a favourite of Henry II., who sent him on a mis- 
 sion to the King of France and gave him several bene- 
 fices. In 1 196 he was appointed Archdeacon of Oxford. 
 He wrote satirical Leonine Latin poems, among which 
 is an ode wjhieh begins " Meum est propositum in taberna 
 mori." In Latin prose he wrote a curious and interesting 
 work called " I)e Nttgis Curialiuni." He was the re- 
 puted author of several romances in French or Anglo- 
 Norman. 
 
 See G. Phillips, " \V*. Map, ein Beitrag zur Geschichle Konig 
 Heinriclts 1 1. von EDgland," 1833. • 
 
 Maphseus. See Maffei and Maffeo. 
 
 Mapletoft, ma'pel-toft, (John,) an English physician, 
 born in Huntingdonshire in 1631. He was appointed 
 professor of medicine in Gresham College, London, in 
 1675. About 1680 he took holy orders. He translated 
 into Latin Sydenham's "Observations," at the request 
 of the author, and wrote "The Principles and Duties 
 of the Christian Religion." Died in 1721. 
 
 Mapp, mjp, [Lat. Map'pus,] (Marc,) a French bot- 
 anist and physician, born at Strasburg in 1632. He wrote 
 a mediocre " Description of the Plants of Alsace." Died 
 in 1701. 
 
 Mappus. See Mapp. 
 
 Maquet, m£'k£', (Auguste,) a French novelist, born 
 in Paris in 1813. He was author (in part) of a number 
 of works which were published under the name of Alex- 
 andre Dumas. Among these is "Monte-Cristo." 
 
 Mar, Earl of. See Erskine, (John.) 
 
 Mara, ma'ra, a famous deva of the Hindoo mythology, 
 mentioned in the history of Gautama, (which see.) 
 
 Mara, ma'ra, originally named Schmelling, (Eliza- 
 beth,) a celebrated German singer, was born at Cas'sel 
 in 1749. She was a pupil of Paradisi, and became the 
 wife of J. Mara, a violoncellist of Berlin. Between 1784 
 and 1787 she appeared four times as first vocalist at the 
 Handel Commemoration, and was greatly admired. She 
 afterwards performed with applause in Paris and Berlin. 
 She sang in four languages. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Grosheim, "Das Leben der KUnstlerin Mara," 1823. 
 
 Mara, de, deh mi'ri", (Gutllaume,) a priest and 
 Latin poet, born in the diocese of Coutances, Fiance 
 about 1470; died about 1530. 
 
 Maraoci. See Marraccl 
 
 Maracci, ma-rat'chee, or Marracci, mar-rat'chee, 
 (Giovanni,) an Italian historical painter, born at Lucca 
 in 1637, was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. Died in 1704. 
 
 Marais, mt'rj', (Marin,) a French musical composer, 
 was born in Paris in 1656. Among his works is an opera 
 entitled "Alcyone," (1706.) Died in 1728. 
 
 Marais, (Mathif.u,) a French jurist and writer, born 
 in Paris in 1664. He wrote some articles for Bayle's 
 " Historical and Critical Dictionary," and a " Life of 
 La Fontaine," (1811.) Died in 1737. 
 
 Marais, des. See Regnier-Desmarais. 
 
 Maraldi, ma-ral'dee, (Jacques Philippe,) an as- 
 tronomer, born at Perinaldo, in the county of Nice, in 
 1665, was a nephew of Giovanni Domenico Cassini, 
 under whom he studied astronomy in Paris. About 
 1700 he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences. 
 He spent many years in astronomical observations, and 
 in forming a Catalogue of the fixed stars, which he left 
 in manuscript when he died, in 1729. 
 
 See Faproni, "Vita: Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Fonte- 
 nelle, " E"loge de Maraldi." 
 
 Maraldi, (Jean Dominique,) a nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Perinaldo in 1709. He became 
 assistant astronomer at the Paris Observatory, and made 
 many observations, which were inserted in the collection 
 of the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1788. 
 
 Maran, mS'roN', [Lat Mara'nus,] (Dom Prudent,) 
 a learned French Benedictine monk, born at Sezanne in 
 1683. He wrote a " Dissertation on the Semi-Arians," 
 and edited the works of Saint Cyprian. Died in 1762. 
 
 Marana, ma-ra'na,(Gi0VANNI Paolo or Giampaolo,) 
 ■an Italian writer, born at Genoa about 1642. He was 
 imprisoned four years (1670-74) for a political reason. 
 About 1682 he removed to Paris, and obtained a pen- 
 sion from the king. In 1684 he published, in French, the 
 first volume of " The Turkish Spy," (" L'Espion Turc,") 
 which was very successful. "The Turkish Spy," says 
 Hallam, "is no ordinary production, but contains as 
 many proofs of a thoughtful, if not very profound, mind, 
 as any we can find. It suggested the Persian Letters 
 to Montesquieu." He published a second volume in 
 1686. Died in 1693. 
 
 Marangoni, tna-rjn-go'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Vicenza in 1673. He wrote a learned 
 treatise on the Flavian Amphitheatre, and "Thesaurus 
 Parochorum." Died in 1753. 
 
 Maransin, mit'roN'saN', (Jean Pierrf,) Baron, a 
 French general, born at Lourdes in 1770; died in 1828. 
 
 e as k, 9 as s; g hard; g tmjf G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; It, trilled; 5 as x; th as in this, (jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MAR ANT A 
 
 1518 
 
 MARCEL 
 
 Maranta, ma-ran'ta, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian bot- 
 anist and physician, lived at Venosa, in the kingdom of 
 Naples. He assisted Ferrante Imperato in writing his 
 " Natural History," and wrote an esteemed elementary 
 work on botany, entitled " Methodus Cognoscendorum 
 Medicamentorum simplicium," (1559.) "The author," 
 says Hallam, " is independent, though learned, extremely 
 acute in discriminating plants known to the ancients, and 
 has discovered many himself." (" Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe.") Died about 1554. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italians." 
 
 Maranus. See Maran. 
 
 Marat, mi'rf, (Jean Paul,) a notorious Jacobin 
 demagogue, born near Neufchitel, in Switzerland, in 
 1744. He practised medicine in Paris before the Revo- 
 lution, and published many treatises on electricity, 
 optics, etc. In 1789 he incited the populace to anarchy 
 and bloodshed by his journal "The Friend of the Peo- 
 ple," (" L'Ami du Peuple.") Among the Jacobin leaders 
 he was probably the most rancorous enemy of the royal- 
 ists and the Girondists. In 1792 he was elected to the 
 Convention, and, uniting with Danton and Robespierre, 
 formed the bloody triumvirate of the reign of terror. 
 He became a self-constituted public accuser before the 
 commune and the Convention. In May, 1793, the ma- 
 jority of the Convention ordered his arrest for outrages 
 committed against that assembly. He was tried, but 
 was acquitted by the tribunal and brought back to the 
 Convention in triumph by the mob. "The hesitation 
 of Danton," says Lamartme, "and the temporizing of 
 Rnbespierre, raised Marat at this moment to the apogee 
 of his popularity and power. He shrugged his shoulders 
 at the names of Danton and Robespierre, expressing his 
 doubts of their capacity to guide the Revolution." He 
 Wis assassinated by Charlotte Corday in his own house 
 in July, 1793. (See Corday, Charlotte.) 
 
 See, also, Desmarest, "Vie de Marat depuis 1789;" Val- 
 tomsit, "Marat," 1840; "Skizzen aus Marats Leben," Hamburg, 
 1846; Paul Lacroix, "Marat Philosophe, Naturaliste," etc., 1854; 
 Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Maratta, ma-rat'ta, or Maratti, ma-rat'tee, (Carlo,) 
 an Italian painter, born at Camurano, in the March of 
 Ancona, in May, 1625, enjoyed in his time the reputation 
 of being one of the best painters in Europe. He became 
 a pupil of Andrea Sacchi and a devout student of Ra 
 phael's works, and chose Rome as his permanent resi 
 dence. He was employed by Clement IX. and by four 
 other successive popes, and received the title of painter- 
 ordinary to Louis XIV., for whom he painted a picture 
 of Daphne. His Madonnas are admired for modest 
 dignity and amiable expression. He preferred to paint 
 pictures for galleries and altars, rather than large works. 
 Maratta also excelled in the art of etching. He was the 
 last great painter of the Roman school. Died in 1713. 
 
 See Bm.l.ORt, "Vita del Cavalier Maratti," 1732: Lanzi, "His- 
 tory of Painting in Italy;" Pascoi.i, "Vite de' Pittori moderni ;" 
 Ticozzi, " Dizionario ;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Maratta or Maratti, (Maria,) a daughter of the 
 preceding, was a painter and a poetess. She was mar- 
 ried to G". Zappe, the poet. 
 
 Maratti. See Maratta. 
 
 Maravigiia, ma-ra-vel'yi, (Giuseppe Maria,) an 
 Italian philosopher and moralist, born at Mjlan. His 
 Latin name was Mirabilia. Died in 1684. 
 
 Marazzoli, ma-rit-so'lee, (Marco,) an Italian com- 
 poser of operas and oratorios, born at Parma ; died in 
 1662. 
 
 Marbach, maR'baK, (Johann,) a German Protestant 
 theologian, born at Lindau in 1521. Among his works 
 is " The Faith of Jesus and of the Jesuits," (" Fides Jesus 
 et Testiitarum.") Died in 1581. 
 
 Marbeau, maVbo', (Jean Baptists Francois,) a 
 French writer on social economy, born at Brives in 1798. 
 He founded in 1844 charitable institutions called Crhkes, 
 for infants whose mothers serve as labourers out of their 
 own houses. 
 
 Mar'beck, (John,) an English composer of cathedral 
 music, was organist of Windsor in the reign of Henry 
 VIII He composed the notes to the Preces and Re- 
 sponses used in the English cathedrals. Having iden- 
 tified himself with the Protestant cause, he was con- 
 
 demned to be burned for heresy about 1545, but was 
 pardoned, — perhaps on account of his musical skill. He 
 published a "Book of Common Prayer Noted," (1550,) 
 and a "Concordance." Died in 1585. 
 
 See Hawkins, " History of Music." 
 
 Marbeuf or Marboeuf, maVbuF, (Louis Charles 
 Rene,) Marquis, a French general, born near Rennes 
 in 1712. He commanded in Corsica against Paoli, by 
 whom he was defeated in 1768. Died in 1786. 
 
 Marbois, mti<'bwa', ( Franqois de Barbe— deh 
 biR'ba',) Marquis, called also Marquis de Maruois, 
 a French statesman and writer, born at Metz in 1745. 
 About 1780 he was charg^-d'affaires and consul-general 
 to the United States. In 1792 Louis XVI., who esteemed 
 him for his probity, sent him on an embassy to Vienna. 
 He was elected in 1795 to the Council of Elders, in which 
 he spoke often and with ability. In September, 1797, he 
 was, with others, deported to' Guiana by the Directory. 
 Bonaparte appointed him director of the treasury, or min- 
 ister of finance, in 1801. Marbois was dismissed in 1805, 
 but in 1808 became first president of the Cour des 
 Comptes, (Chamber of Accounts, or exchequer.) He held 
 this office about thirty years. He was keeper of the seals 
 and minister of justice in 1815 and 1816, and received 
 the title of marquis iq 1817. He wrote numerous moral, 
 political, and historical works, among which are " The 
 Conspiracy' of Arnold against the United States," 
 (1816,) and a " History of Louisiana," (1828.) Died in 
 
 1837. 
 
 See Antoine Passy, " Notice sur le Marquis de Barbe"-Marbois," 
 1838: " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Marbot, mfR'bo', (Antoine Adolphe Marcellin,) 
 a French general, born at Altillac in 1781 ; died in 1844. 
 
 Marbot, (Jean Baptiste Antoine,) a general, born 
 at Altillac in 1782, was a brother of the preceding. Na- 
 poleon left him a legacy of one hundred thousand francs. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Marc, the French for Mark, which see. 
 
 Marc, mf Rk, (Charles Chretien Henri,) a physi- 
 cian, born at Amsterdam in 1771, settled in Paris in 1798. 
 About 1818 he became physician to the Duke of Orleans, 
 who, on his accession as Louis Philippe, in 1830, gave 
 him the title of first physician to the king. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a "'Treatise on Insanity," ("De la 
 Folie," etc., 2 vols., 1840,) and published several able 
 medical treatises. Died in 1841. 
 
 See Parirf.t, " FJoge de Cb. Ch. H. Marc," 1842; Reveille- 
 Parisse, " Notice sur C. C. H. Marc," 1842. 
 
 Marc, Saint. See Mark, Saint, and Marcus. 
 
 Marc Antoine, the French for Mark Antony. See 
 Antonius, (Marcus.) 
 
 Marc Antonio. See Raimondi. 
 
 Marc Aurel, the German for Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 Marc Aureie. See Aurelius, (Marcus.) 
 
 Marca, de, deh miVkt', (Pierre,) an ambitious and 
 learned French prelate, born in Beam in 1594. At the 
 request of Cardinal Richelieu, he wrote his famous 
 treatise on the liberty of the Gallican Church, entitled 
 "De Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii," (1641,) which 
 offended the court of Rome. He was made Bishop of 
 Toulouse in 1652, minister of state about 1658, and 
 Archbishop of Paris in 1661. Among his works is a 
 " History of Beam." Died in 1662. 
 
 See De Facet, "Vie de Pierre de Marca;" Bompart, " FJoge 
 de Marca," 1672. 
 
 Marceau, mfR'so', (Franqois Severin Desgra- 
 viers,) a French general, born at Chartres in 1769. He 
 entered the army in 1786, and became a general of 
 brigade at the age of twenty-two. In 1793 he obtained 
 the chief command of the army sent against the Ven- 
 deans, whom he defeated at Mans. In 1795 and 1796 he 
 commanded a division on the Rhine and in the Palati- 
 nate, where he gained advantages over the Austrian* 
 He was killed in battle near Altenkirchen in 1796. 
 Kleber, who was his friend, said, "I have nejer known 
 any general so capable as Marceau to change the plan 
 of battle on the spot with sang-froid and judgment." 
 
 See Claude Dbsprez. "Kleber et Marceau," 1857; Lavall*, 
 "FJoge bislorique du General Mavceau," 1797; Sbrgent-Mar- 
 ceau, "Notice sur le General Marceau," 1820. 
 • Marcel. See Marcellus I., Bishop of Rome. 
 
 1, e, T, o, it, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, ooscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon, 
 
MARCEL 
 
 '5*9 
 
 MARCELLUS 
 
 Marcel, mik'sel', (Etienne,) a French partisan chief 
 and agitator of reform, was provost of the merchants of 
 Paris when King John was defeated and made prisoner 
 at Poitiers, in 1356. He became the leader of the popular 
 party in its contest with the dauphin Charles, who acted 
 as regent. Marcel was predominant in Paris, and con- 
 trolled a majority in the States-General, which refused 
 to vote supplies for the war unless their grievances 
 should be redressed. A revolution was effected which 
 rendered the government almost republican. Having 
 given the command of Paris to Charles the Bad, of 
 Navarre, he was betrayed by him, and was assassinated 
 
 in t358- 
 
 See Naudet, "Conjuration d'Etienne Marcel," etc ; FroIssart, 
 "Chronique;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Marcel, (Guillaume,) a French chronologist, born 
 at Toulouse in 1647. He negotiated a treaty with the 
 Dey of Algiers in 1677. He published valuable "Chro- 
 nological Tablets," and a " History cf the Origin and 
 Progress of the French Monarchy," (1686,) which is 
 commended for accuracy in dates. Died in 1708. 
 
 Marcel, (Guillaumk,) a French writer and priest, 
 born about 1612. He wrote Latin and French verse, 
 etc. Died in 1702. 
 
 Marcel, (Jean Joseph,) an eminent French Orien- 
 talist and historian, born in Paris in November, 1776. 
 He went to Egypt in 1798 as a member of the scientific 
 commission, and, having returned to France in 1801, 
 was selected as one of the rtdactrurs of the " Descrip- 
 tion of Egypt." He was director of the national printing 
 department (imprimeric) from 1802 to 1814. Among 
 his numerous works are "Melanges Orientaux," (1833,) 
 a " History of Egypt from the Arabian Conquest to the 
 French Expedition," (2d edition, 1844,) and a "Scien- 
 tific and Military History of the French Expedition 
 ■n Egypt," (with Louis Reybaud,) (10 vols., 1830-36.) 
 uied in 1854. 
 
 See Beun, "Notice stir J. J. Marcel." in the "Journal Asi- 
 atique." 1854 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Marcel, maRt'sel, (N.,) a German painter of flowers, 
 fruits, etc., born at Frankfort in 1628 ; died in 1683. 
 
 Mar-cella, a Roman lac'.y, was a daughter of C. 
 Marcellus and Octavia, who was a sister of the emperor 
 Augustus. She was married first to M. V. Agrippa, 
 divorced in 21 B.C., and married again to a son of Mark 
 Antony the triumvir. 
 
 Marcellln. See Marcellinus. 
 
 Mar-cel-li'nus, [ Fr. Marcellin, miR's&'laN', 1 
 S mm', a native of Rome, succeeded Caius as Bishop of 
 Rome, or pope, in 295 a.d. During his tenure of that 
 office the Church was persecuted by Diocletian. He 
 died in 304 or 305, and was succeeded by Marcellus I. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des sotiverains Pontifes 
 Romains." 
 
 Marcellinus Ammianus. See Ammianus. 
 
 Marcellis, niar-sel'lis, (Otho,) a Dutch painter of 
 flowers and animals, was born in 1613. He worked 
 with success in Paris, Rome, and Amsterdam. Died 
 in 1673. 
 
 Marcello, maR-chel'lo, (Benedetto,) a celebrated 
 Italian composer and poet, born of a patrician family at 
 Venice in 1686, was a pupil of Gasparini. He studied 
 law, and was for fourteen years a member of the Council 
 of Forty. He gained distinction as a poet by a number 
 nf sonnets and canzoni. His capital work is a collection 
 of psalms, entitled " Estro poetico-armonico Parafrasi 
 sopra i 50 primi Salmi," (1724.) These were received 
 with universal enthusiasm throughout Europe, and mer- 
 ited for the author the appellation of the Pindar and 
 Michael Angelo of musicians. Died in 1739. 
 
 See Hurncv, "General History of Music;" Fetis, "Biographie 
 des MttMCierts;" F. Fontana, "Vita di B. Marcello," 
 F. Cafpi, "Delia Vita e del Comporre di B. Marcello," 1830: 
 - lie Biographie Generale." 
 
 Marcello, (Pietro,) an Italian biographer, lived at 
 Venire about 1500, and wrote "De Vita Principum et 
 Vcnetontm," (te.54.) 
 
 Mar-cel'lus j Fr. Marcei, mtR'sel'; It. Marcello, 
 maR-chel'lo] I, Bishop of Rome, was a Roman by birth, 
 and MM elected in 308 A.n. His efforts to maintain 
 strict discipline are said to have caused a schism and 
 
 sedition among the believers. He died in 309 or 310, 
 and was succeeded by Eusebius, 
 
 Marcellus IX, Pope, born at Fano in 1501, was 
 named Marcellus Cervius. He was elected pope in 
 April, 1553, after the death of Julius III. About three 
 weeks after his election he died, and was succeeded by 
 Paul IV. 
 
 See A. Bower, " History of the Popes :" Artaud de Montor, 
 " Histoire des souverains Pontifes Romains." 
 
 Mar-cel'lus, (Caius Claudius,) a Roman consul, 
 who married Octavia, the sister of Octavius Caesar. 
 He became consul in 50 B.C., before which he had at- 
 tached himself to the party of Pompey. While in this 
 office he made a motion in the senate to deprive Caesar 
 of his command, but did not succeed. He remained in 
 Italy during the civil war, and shared the clemency of 
 Caesar after the victory of the latter. Died about 40 B.C. 
 
 Mar-cel'lus, [It. Marcello, maR-chel'lo,] (Don ato,) 
 an Italian physician, born at Mantua. He wrote " De 
 Historia Medica mirabili," (15S6.) 
 
 Marcellus, (Marcus Claudius,) a Roman general, 
 celebrated as the conqueror of Syracuse, born about 266 
 B.C., was the greatest member of a consular plebeian 
 family which produced several eminent men. In 222 
 he became consul, (with Cn. Cornelius Scipio,) defeated 
 the Insubrians on the Po, and obtained the honour of a 
 triumph. After Hannibal had invaded Italy in the second 
 Punic war, Marcellus was chosen praetor for the year 216 
 B.C., in which the battle of Cannae was fought. He was 
 not present at this battle. The command of the forces 
 which escaped from that defeat having devolved on him, 
 he repulsed the attack of Hannibal on Nola, and was the 
 first that checked his victorious progress. He was elected 
 for the third time consul for the year 214, with the great 
 Fabius Maximus r.s his colleague. His most famous 
 exploit was the conquest of Syracuse, which, though 
 defended by the genius of Archimedes, he took, after a 
 siege of two years and some months, in 212 B.C. He 
 again obtained the consulship in 210 B\c., with the com- 
 mand of the army in Italy, and fought an indecisive bat- 
 tle with Hannibal at Numistro. Marcellus and Hannibal 
 commanded the respective armies at Canusium, (209,) 
 where the Romans claimed the victory. Marcellus was 
 elected consul for the fifth time in 208 B.C. Having 
 advanced to reconnoitre near Venusia, he fell into 
 an ambuscade, and was killed in the skirmish with the 
 advanced posts of Hannibal, in that year. Plutarch 
 has drawn a parallel between Marcellus and Pelopidas, 
 " who," he says, " were both men of heroic strength, and 
 were equal in courage and magnanimity." Polybius 
 denies that Marcellus ever defeated Hannibal. 
 
 See Plutarch's " Lives;" Aurei.ius Victor, "De Viris illus- 
 trious;" Livv. " History of Rome," books xxii.-xxvii. ; Poi.ybius, 
 "History;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Marcellus, (Marcus Claudius,) a Roman general, 
 was a son of the preceding. He was wounded in the 
 skirmish in which his father was killed. He was elected 
 praetor in 198 B.C., and consul in 196, when he com- 
 manded in Cisalpine Gaul and defeated the Insubrians. 
 In 189 he was censor. Died in 177 B.C. 
 
 Marcellus, (Marcus Claudius,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, obtained the consulship in 166 B.C. He was 
 chosen consul again in 155, and gained a victory over 
 the Ligurians. In 152 he obtained a third consulship, 
 with command of the army in Spain, where he subdued 
 the Celtiberians and founded Corduba, (Cordova.) He 
 perished by shipwreck in 148 B.C. 
 
 Marcellus, (Marcus Claudius,) the friend of Cicero, 
 and the subject of the admirable oration " Pro M. Mar- 
 cello," was a descendant of the great Marcellus. He 
 had a high reputation as an orator. Elected consul in 
 52 B.C., he urged the senate to extreme measures against 
 Caesar. In the civil war he was an adherent of Pompe} 
 and the senate. He fled from Rome in 49, and joined 
 the army in Epirtts. After the ruin of his cause at Phat- 
 salia, he exiled himself to Mitylene. Overcome by the 
 warm Intercession of the senators, Caesar granted him a 
 pardon in 47 B.C. On this occasion Cicero expressed his 
 thanks to the dictator, and his high estimate of the merit 
 of Marcellus, in the oration which bears his name. 
 Marcellus was on his homeward journey when he was 
 
 e as k, 9 as /; g hard; g as ;'; G, H, K, ifuttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (2fJ»""See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MARCELLUS 
 
 1520 
 
 MARCHETTI 
 
 assassinated, near Athens, by P. Magius, one of his at- 
 tendants, about 46 B.C. 
 
 See Cicero, " Pro M.. Marcello ;" Drumann, * Geschichte 
 Roms;" Orki.m, " Onoinasticon Tullianum." 
 
 Marcellus, (Marcus Claudius,) was the son of C. 
 Claudius Marcellus, noticed above, and Octavia. About 
 the year 25 B.C. he was adopted by his uncle, the empe- 
 ror Augustus, who gave him his daughter Julia in mar- 
 riage. He was a youth of promising talents, and was a 
 general favourite. He died in his twentieth year, in the 
 autumn of 23 B.C. His memory was embalmed by Vir- 
 
 fil in a beautiful passage of his epic poem, (book vi., v. 
 72, etc.,) which was recited by the poet in the presence 
 of Octavia and Augustus. (See OCTAVIA.) 
 
 See Plutarch, "Marcellus;" Tacitus, " Annales." 
 
 Mar-cel'lua Em-pirl-cus, a Latin writer, born at 
 Buidigala, (Bordeaux.) He was magister officiorum in 
 the reign of Theodosius the Great, (379-395 a.d.) He 
 was author of a pharmaceutical work, " De Medica- 
 mentis Empiricis, Phvsicis," etc. 
 
 Mar-cel'lus Si-de'te3, a native of Side, in Pam- 
 pliylia, lived about 140 A.D. He wrote a long Greek 
 medical poem, of which fragments are extant. 
 
 Mar-cel'lua Ul'pl-us, a Roman jurist, who flourished 
 about 150 A.D., and was a legal adviser of the emperor 
 Antoninus Pius. He was author of thirty-one books of 
 " Digesta," six books on the " Leges Julia et Papia," 
 and one book of " Responsa." About one hundred and 
 fifty excerpts from his works are found in the " Digest." 
 He is often quoted as high authority by Ulpian, Paulus, 
 and other jurists. 
 
 See M. Tydeman, "DeMarcelli Vita," 1762; J. T. Seger, "Ul- 
 pitis Marcellus," 1768. 
 
 Marcellus, de, deh mSR'sa'luss', (Marie Louis 
 Jean Andke Charles Demartin du Tirac — deh- 
 mSR'taN' dii te'rfk',) Com te, a French writer, critic, 
 and diplomatist, born in Guienne in 1795. During a mis- 
 sion to the Levant, in 1820, he brought away the statue 
 of Venus of Milo. He published " Souvenirs of the 
 Levant," (2 vols., 1839,) " Popular Songs of Greece," 
 (1851,) and "Chateaubriand and his Times," (1859.) 
 
 Marcet, mar'set' or iniR'si', (Alexandre,) F.R.S., 
 a skilful Swiss physician and chemist, born at Geneva in 
 1770. Having been exiled for political reasons, he settled 
 in London about 1797, and acqiuk^l a high reputation as 
 a practitioner and a lecturer on^Tleniistry. In 1815 he 
 returned to Geneva, where he was elected to the supreme 
 council. His principal work is an " Essay on the Chem- 
 ical History and Treatment of Calculous Disorders," 
 (1817, in English.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Marcet, (Jane Haldimand,) a popular writer on 
 science, wife of the preceding, was born at Geneva in 
 17S5. She published "Conversations on Chemistry," 
 (in English,) which passed through many editions, and 
 "Conversations on Political Economy," (1816.) "Every 
 girl," says Macaulay, "who has read Mrs. Marcet's dia- 
 logues on political economy could teach Montague or 
 Walpole many lessons on finance." Died in 1858. 
 
 See a notice of Mrs. Marcet, by Professor De la Rive, in the 
 " Bibliotheque Universelle," new series, 1858, vol. iii. ; Harriet 
 Martineau, "Biographical Sketches," London, 1S60, 
 
 Marcgraf, maRk'gRaf, or Marggraf, maRo'gRaf, 
 (Georg,) a German naturalist, born at Liebstadt in 1610, 
 was author of a "Natural History of Brazil," (in Latin,) 
 pub shed at Leyden in 1648. "The descriptions of 
 Mai cgraf," says Hallam, "are good, and enable us to 
 identify the animals. They correct the imperfect notions 
 of Gesner, and add several species which do not appear 
 in his work." Died in Guinea in 1644. 
 
 March, maRch, (Ausias or Osias,) a Spanish poet, 
 born at Valencia. He imitated Petrarch with success, 
 and wrote many short poems on love, morals, etc., which 
 were printed in 1543. Died in 1460. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 March, (Miguel,) a Spanish painter of religious 
 subjects, born at Valencia in 1633 ; died in 1670. 
 
 March de les Batallas, maRch da las ba-tal'vas, 
 (Esteban,) a Spanish painter, father of the preceding, 
 was born at Valencia. He acquired a great reputation 
 as a painter of battles. He died at Valencia in 1660. 
 
 See Cean-Bermudez, "Diccionario Historico," etc. 
 
 Marchais, des, dj miR'shl', (Renaud,) a French 
 traveller, wrote a description of Western Africa, which 
 was published by Labat, in 4 vols., (1731.) Died about 
 1728. 
 
 Marchal, miR'shil', (Francois Joseph Ferdinand,) 
 a Belgian writer, born at Brussels in 1780. His chief 
 work is a " History of the Reign of Charles V.," (1857.) 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 Marchand, mtR'shoN', (Etienne,) a French navi- 
 gator, born in the island of Grenada in 1755. He made 
 a voyage round the world in 1790-92, and discovered 
 several small islands in the Northern Pacific Ocean. A 
 narrative of the voyage was published. Died in 1793. 
 
 Marchand, (Jean Gabriel,) Comte, a French 
 general, born near Saint-Marcellin in 1765. He served 
 as general of division at the battles of Jena (1806) and 
 Friedland, (1807.) When Napoleon returned from Elba, 
 (1815,) Marchand adhered to Louis XVIII. Died in 
 1851. 
 
 Marchand, (Jean Henri,) a witty French writer in 
 prose and verse. Among his works are "Memoirs of 
 an Elephant," (1771,) and "Political Testament of M. 
 de V.," (Voltaire.) Died about 1785. 
 
 See Barbier, "Dictionnaire des Anonymes." 
 
 Marchand, (Louis,) a French organist, born at 
 Lyons in 1669. He became organist of the royal chapel 
 at Versailles. Died in 1732. 
 
 Marchand, (Prosper,) a learned French bibliogra- 
 pher, born in Picartly about 1675. Having become a 
 Protestant, he removed to Amsterdam in 171 1. He 
 published editions of rare books, collected literary anec- 
 dotes, and wrote a " Historical Dictionary, or Critical 
 and Literary Memoirs," (1758,) a work of considerable 
 interest. (See Ai.lamand.) He was one of the editors 
 of the "Journal Litteraire," an able periodical published 
 at the Hague, (1713-37,) and author of a "History of 
 the Art of Printing." Died in 1756. 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographio 
 Ge"neVale." 
 
 Marchangy, de, deh mtR'shftN'zhe', (Louis An- 
 toine Franqois,) a French author and advocate, born 
 at Clamecy in 1782. He published, besides other works, 
 " The History of France, considered in its Relations with 
 Poetry, Eloquence, and the Fine Arts," (" La Gaule 
 poitique," etc., 1813.) Died in 1826. 
 
 Marchant, maVshoN', (Nicolas,) a Frerrch botanist, 
 was one of the founders of the Academy of Sciences, 
 (1666.) Died at Paris in 1678. 
 
 Marchant, (Nicolas Damas,) Baron, a French 
 antiquary and physician, born in 1767; died in 1833. 
 
 Marche, de la, deh It mtRsh, (Olivier,) a poet and 
 chronicler, born in Burgundy in 1426. He served Charles 
 the Bold as captain of his guards, and was made prisoner 
 at the battle of Nancy, (1477.) He was afterwards 
 maitre-d' 'hStel (steward) of Mary of Burgundy and her 
 son Philip. He wrote, in French, " Historical Memoirs," 
 (of events which occurred from 1435 to 1492,) which are 
 considered valuable and candid. He also wrote several 
 poems, one of which is called " Le Chevalier delibeVe', 
 ou la Vie de Charles le T^meraire." Died in 1501. 
 
 See Comines, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Marchena, maR-cha'na, (Jose,) a Spanish littjrateur. 
 born in Andalusia in 1768, went to France about 1 790. 
 Being an expert linguist, he was employed as secretary 
 by General Moreau, (1798-1804.) He translated into 
 Spanish Moliere's " Tartuffe," Rousseau's "Smile," and 
 other works. Died in 1821. 
 
 Marchesi, maR-ka'see, or Zaganelli, (Francesco,) 
 an Italian painter, born at Cotignola. He lived about 
 1520, and worked at Ravenna. 
 
 Marchesi, (Girolamo,) a painter, was born about 
 1480. He painted portraits and history at Rome and 
 Naples. Vasari dates his death about 1550. 
 
 Marchesi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Bologna in 1699; died in 1 771. 
 
 Marchesi, (Pompeo,) an able Italian sculptor, born 
 in 1790, was a pupil of Canova. Among his works are 
 a marble statue of Goethe at Frankfort, and a Saint Am- 
 brose at Milan. Died at Milan in 1858. 
 
 Marchetti, maR-ket'tee, (Ai.essandro,) an eminent 
 Italian poet and professor, was born at Pontormo, in 
 
 », e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, ?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nit; good; moon; 
 
 
MARCHETTI 
 
 1521 
 
 MARCUS 
 
 Tuscany, in 1635. He was professor of philosophy at 
 Pisa from 1659 to 1679. In the latter year he obtained 
 the chair of mathematics at Pisa. He published an able 
 treatise " On the Resistance of Solids," and other works 
 on physics and mathematics. His reputation rests chiefly 
 on his Italian versions of Anacreon and Lucretius. The 
 version of Lucretius, in sciolti, or blank verse, is generally 
 admired for fidelity and elegance. He wrote, also, short 
 original poems. Died in 1714. 
 
 S« Francesco Marchetti. "Vita di A. Marchetti," 1755: Fa- 
 broni, M VHa Italnrimi doctrina excellentium:" Nicbron, "M<£- 
 moires;" Tikaboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Iuliana." 
 
 Marchetti, (Giovanni,) an Italian ecclesiastical 
 writer, born at Empoli in 1753. He defended the cause 
 of the pope in some of his numerous works. Among 
 these is a "Critique on Fleury's History of the Church," 
 (2 vols., 1782.) Died in 1829. 
 
 Marchetti, (Giuseppe Salvagnoli — sal-van-yo'lee,) 
 an Italian poet, l>orn near Empoli in 1799. He com- 
 posed several small poems, and translated Virgil's 
 Eclogues into Italian verse. Died in 1829. 
 
 Marchetti, (Marco,) called Marco da Faenza, a 
 skilful Italian painter, born at Faenza ; died in 1588. 
 
 Marchettia, di.dee maR-ket'tess, (Pietro,) an Italian 
 writer on surgery, born at Padua in 1593. He published 
 " Sylloge Obscrvationum Medico-Chirurgicarum," (1664, 
 often reprinted.) Died in 1673. 
 
 Marchi, da, di man'kee, (Francesco,) a distinguished 
 Italian engineer, born at Bologna about 1506. He served 
 the King of Spain as military engineer in Flanders for 
 thirty years, and made inventions in fortification. His 
 reputation was founded on a work entitled "On Forti- 
 fication," (Delia Architettura militare," 1599.) Died 
 about 1599. 
 
 See M arint, "Vila di F. Marchi," 1810; Ginguenk, " Histoire 
 de la Litte'rature Italienne." 
 
 Marchin, de, deh mfR'shaN', (Ferdinand,) Count, 
 sometimes written Marsin, a French general, born in 
 1656. He was sent on an embassy to the King of Spain 
 in 1701. He returned to France in 1703, and was raised 
 to the rank of marshal. At the battle of Blenheim (1704) 
 he was second in command, and, after Tallart was made 
 prisoner, conducted the retreat in good order. He com- 
 manded under the Duke of Orleans at the great battle 
 of Turin, (1706,) where the French were defeated by 
 Prince Eugene and Marchin was killed. 
 
 See SaintSimov, " Memoires ;" Du Coufceli.es, "Diction- 
 naire des Generaux Francais." 
 
 Marchini, maR-kee'nee, (Giovanni Francesco,) an 
 Italian ecclesiastic, born at Vercelli in 1713. He pub- 
 lished a "Treatise on the Divinity of the Sacred Books," 
 and other works. Died in 1774. 
 
 Marchione (maR-ke-o'na) of Arezzo, a mediaeval 
 Italian sculptor and architect, flourished about 1200. 
 One of his works, the church of Santa Maria della Pieve, 
 is extant at Arezzo. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Marchmont, Earl, of. See Hume, (Sir Patrick,) 
 and Hume, (Hugh Campbell) 
 
 Marcia or Martia (mar'she-a) Gens, a Roman 
 gens, originally patrician, claimed to be descended from 
 Ancus Marcius. The family of Coriolanus belonged to 
 this gens. 
 
 Marcian, mar'she-an, [Lat Marcia'nus ; Gr. Map«- 
 a><K; Fr. Marcien, mSR'se-aN',] Emperor of the East, 
 vas born of obscure parents in Thrace about 390 a.d. 
 He had risen by his merit to a high rank in the army 
 when Theodosius the Younger died, in 450. He then 
 accepted from Pulcheria. a sister of Theodosius, the 
 offer of her hand, and became emperor. His reign 
 was wise and peaceful. He refused to pay the tribute 
 demanded by Attila, King of the Huns, saying, "I 
 have gold for my friends, and iron for my enemies." 
 He died, without issue, in 457 a.d., and was succeeded 
 by Leo I. 
 
 See Ginnov, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Lf. 
 Bbau, " Histoire du Has- Empire." 
 
 Marcianus. See Marcian. 
 
 Marcianus, mar-she-a'nns, (/Ei.iits,) a Roman jurist, \ 
 who wrote in the reigns of Septimius Severus and Cara- 
 calla. He survived the latter, who died in 217 a.d. The 
 
 Digest contains many excerpts from his " Institutiones," 
 his " Publica Judicia," and other works. 
 See Oelrichs, " De Vita jElii Marciani," 1754. 
 
 Marcianus of Heracleia, (in Pontus,) [Fr. Mar 
 CIEN d'Heraclee, miR'se-aN' da'ri'kli',] a Greek 
 geographer, who is supposed to have lived in the fourth 
 century. He wrote a " Periplus of the External Sea, 
 both Eastern and Western," of which fragments have 
 come down to us and are esteemed valuable. 
 
 See Ukert, "Geographie der Griechen und Rbmer." 
 
 Marcien. See Marcian. 
 
 Marcile. See Marcilius. 
 
 Marcilius, mar-see'le-us, [Fr. Marcile, mtR'sel',] 
 (Theodorus,) a Dutch philologist, born at Arnhem in 
 1548. He was professor of rhetoric in several colleges 
 of Paris from 1578 to 1617. He published notes on 
 Persius, Horace, Lucian, and other classics, and wroie 
 " Lusus de Nemine," (1586,) a poem, and a "History 
 of New-Year's Gifts," (" Historia Strenarum," 1599.) 
 Died in 161 7. 
 
 See P. Valens, " Marcilii Elogium," 1630. 
 
 Marcion, mar'she-on, [Gr. Map/ckiv,] a celebrated 
 heresiarch of the second century, was born at Sinope, in 
 Pontus. Having been excommunicated for some youthful 
 fault, he went to Rome about 140 a.d. He devised 3 
 new creed or system, which was accepted by numerous 
 disciples (Marcionites) and was opposed by Tertullian, 
 Origen, and other Fathers. He taught the existence of 
 two original principles, — the authors of godd and evil,— . 
 and ascril>ed the Mosaic law to the evil principle. He 
 also rejected a large part of the New Testament. 
 
 See Tim.hmont, " Memoires ecclesiastiqnes ;" Lardner, " His- 
 tory of Heretics;" Schei.ling, " Dissertatio de Marcione," 1795; 
 Neander, "History of the Christian Church:" Cave, "Historia 
 Literaria;" Trrtullian, "Contra Marcionem." 
 
 Marck, de la, deh If rnaRk, (Guillaume,) a Flemish 
 chief, born in 1446, was noted for his ferocity, and was 
 surnamed the Wild Boar of Ardennes. 'lie assas- 
 sinated the Bishop of Liege, and ravaged Brabant, but 
 was defeated by the archduke Maximilian. He then 
 made an alliance with Rene of Lorraine in order to re- 
 new the war. Maximilian captured him, and put him to 
 death in 1485. William de la Marck is a conspicuous 
 character in Scott's romance of "Quentin Durward." 
 
 Marck, de la, (Robert,) Count, was master of the 
 duchy of Bouillon and of Sedan. He was an ally of 
 France in the war against the Austrians. He was driven 
 out of his dominions by the armies of Charles V., but 
 was restored by the treaty of Madrid, (1526.) Died in 
 1535. His son Robert became marshal of France. (See 
 
 Fl.EURANGES.) 
 
 Marco Calabrese, maR'ko ka-la-bRa'£a, an Italian 
 painter of the Neapolitan school, flourished from 1508 
 to 1541. His proper name was Cardisco. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Marco da Faenza. See Marchetti, (Marco.) 
 
 Marco da Forli See Palmegiani. 
 
 Marco Polo. See Polo. 
 
 Marconville, de, deh maVkAN'vel', or Marcou- 
 ville, maVkoo'vil', (Jean,) a French writer, born in Le 
 Perche about 1540. Among his works are a "Treatise 
 on the Origin of the Diversity in the Opinions of Men," 
 and one " On the Goodness and Depravity of Women," 
 (" La Bonte et Mauvaistie des Femmes.") 
 
 Marcot, mf R'ko', (Eustache,) a French physician, 
 born at Montpellier in 1686. He became first physician- 
 in-ordinary to the king. Died in 1755. 
 
 Marcuife, mar'kulf, a French monk, who is supposed 
 to have lived about 650 a.d. He formed a collection of 
 formulas of contracts, deeds, and public acts which were 
 used and approved in his time. This collection is valued 
 as a monument of French history and jurisprudence. 
 
 Mar'cus, [Fr. Marc, mjRk,] a native of Rome, was 
 elected Pope or Bishop of Rome, in place of Sylvester, 
 in 336 A.D. He died about nine months after his elec- 
 tion, and was succeeded by Julius I. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius. See Aurelius Antoninus. 
 
 Mar'cus Grse'cus (gree'kus) passes for the author 
 ot a Latin work on the art of destroying enemies by fire, 
 (" Liber Ignium ad Comburendos Hostes,") a manuscript 
 of which is said to be found in the Royal Library of 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; n, natal; R, trilltd; s as 1; th as in this. 
 
 96 
 
 (By See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MARCT 
 
 1522 
 
 MARGARET 
 
 Paris. No ancient writer mentions him, and nothing is 
 known of his history. G. Fournier (of the " Biographie 
 Universelle") conjectures that he wrote near the close 
 of the thirteenth century, and thinks the " Liber Ignium" 
 is a rather bad version of a Greek original. " It is a 
 tissue of errors," he adds, "and a collection of recipes, 
 one or two of which give almost exactly the composition 
 of gunpowder." 
 
 See F. Hoefek, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Mar'cy, (Randolph B.,) an American general, born 
 in Massachusetts about 1812, graduated at West Point 
 in 1832. He became a captain in 1846, and colonel in 
 1861. He served as chief of the staff of the army of the 
 Potomac in 1862, under General McClellan, his son-in- 
 law. 
 
 Marcy, (William L.,) a distinguished American 
 statesman of the Democratic party, bom at Southbridge, 
 Massachusetts, in 1786. Having graduated at Brown 
 University in 1808, he studied law at Troy, New York. 
 He entered the army as lieutenant on the breaking out 
 of the war of 1812, and distinguished himself in several 
 engagements in Canada. About 1820 he became editor 
 of the "Troy Budget," a Democratic journal, and in 1823 
 was elected comptroller of the State. He became a 
 United States Senator in 183 1, and was chosen Governor 
 of New York in 1832, 1834, and 1836. He was a candi- 
 date in 1838, but was defeated by Mr. Seward. He was 
 appointed by President Polk secretary of war in March, 
 1845, and displayed much ability in this position, which 
 was rendered more arduous by the occurrence of the 
 Mexican war. He retired from office in March, 1849, 
 after which he passed four years in private life. He 
 supported General Cass in the Presidential election of 
 1848, and was secretary of state in the cabinet of Presi- 
 dent Pierce from March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857. 
 During this period he gained a high reputation as a 
 diplomatist. He died at Ballston Spa on the 4th of 
 July, 1857. 
 
 Mar-do'nI-us, [Gr. Mapoovjor,] an able Persian gen- 
 eral, was a son-in-law of Darius Hystaspes. In 492 B.C. 
 he commanded a large armament sent by Darius against 
 the Grecian states. Having lost a great part of his fleet 
 in a storm, he returned without success. In 481 he 
 held a high command in the expedition which Xerxes 
 led against the Greeks. After the Persians had been 
 defeated at Salami's, (480 B.C.,) Xerxes returned home, 
 leaving 300,000 men under Mardonius, who captured 
 Athens without much resistance. He was defeated and 
 killed at Plataea in 479 B.C. by the army of Pausanias. 
 
 See Grote, " History of Greece ;" Herodotus, " History," 
 books vi.-ix. 
 
 Mare, de la, deh If miR, (Nicolas,) a French magis- 
 trate, born near Paris in 1639. He wrote a "Treatise 
 on the Police," ("Traite de la Police," 4 vols., 1707-38.) 
 Died in 1723. 
 
 Mare, de la, (Philibert,) a French historical writer, 
 born at Dijon in 1615. He wrote "De Bello Burgundico," 
 (1641,) and other works. Died in 1687. 
 
 Marec, mt'reV, (Pierre,) a French legislator, born 
 at Brest in 1759, was a moderate member of the Conven- 
 tion, (1792-95.) He rendered valuable services in the 
 committees of finance and marine. Died in 1828. 
 
 Marechal, mi'ri'shil', (Georges,) a French surgeon, 
 born at Calais in 1658. He was appointed in 1703 first 
 surgeon to Louis XIV. He wrote several valuable treat- 
 ises on surgery. Died in 1736. 
 
 Marechal, (Laurent Charles,) a French painter 
 on glass, born at Metz about 1800, adorned many of the 
 grand churches of France with windows of painted glass. 
 
 Marechal, (Pierre Sylvain,) a French littlrateur, 
 born in Paris in 1750, is said to have been an atheist. 
 He published a " Dictionary of Atheists," (1800,) and 
 many other works. His chief production is " Travels of 
 Pythagoras in Egypt, Chaldea, India," etc., ("Voyages 
 de Pythagore en Egypte," etc., 6 vols., 1799,) whicfi dis- 
 plays much learning and research. Died in 1803. 
 
 ^ See Lai.ande. "Notice sur S. Marechal," 1803; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ginerale." 
 
 Marenco, ma-ren'ko, (Vincenzo,) an Italian poet, 
 born near Mondori in 1752. He wrote "Osiris, sive De 
 Legum Origine," (1797,) and other poems. Died in 1813. 
 
 Marenzeo, ma-rin'ze-o, (Luca,) an eminent Italian 
 composer, born at Brescia about 1550. His works are 
 principally madrigals, which are esteemed models of ten- 
 derness and harmony. Died in 1599. 
 
 Marescalchi, ma-res-kal'kee, (Ferdinando,) an 
 Italian diplomatist, born at Bologna in 1764. He was 
 employed in 1803 to negotiate a treaty between the 
 Italian republic and the court of Rome. Died in 1816. 
 
 Marescalco, ma-res-kal'ko, (Pietro,) sometimes 
 called La Spada, a painter of the Venetian school, born 
 at Feltre, lived about 1500. 
 
 Marescot, de, deh mt'res'ko', (Armand Samuel,) 
 Count, a skilful French military engineer, born at 
 Tours in 1758. He was appointed nrst inspector-general 
 by Bonaparte in 1800, and was made a count in 1804. 
 Died in 1831. 
 
 Maresius. See Desmarets, (Samuel.) 
 
 Marestier, mi'res'te-4', (Jean Baptiste,) an able 
 French engineer and naval architect, born at Saint-Ser- 
 van about 1780. He constructed the first steamboat 
 used by the military marine for the service of seaports. 
 He published a "Treatise on the Steamboats of the 
 United States," etc., (1824.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Maret, mf r&', (Hugues,) a learned French physician 
 and writer, born at Dijon in 1726. He was a corre- 
 sponding member of the Academy of Sciences, Paris, 
 and a friend of the celebrated chemist Guyton de Mor- 
 veau. One of his sons was the Duke of Bassano, 
 noticed below. Died in 1786. 
 
 Maret, (Hugues Bernard,) Duke of Bassano, an 
 able French statesman and diplomatist, born at Dijon in 
 1763. He studied law in Paris, and in 1789 reported 
 the debates of the National Assembly in a daily "Bul- 
 letin." This was soon united with the " Moniteur," 
 which owed its success to the reports of Maret. Under 
 the new regime he was rapidly advanced in the depart- 
 ment of foreign affairs, and was sent on missions to 
 England and Naples in 1793. On his way to Naples he 
 was arrested by the Austrians, and confined in a dun- 
 geon about two years. From 1800 to 181 1, as secretary- 
 general, or secretary of state, he directed the home 
 department with great credit, had a large share of Bona- 
 parte's confidence, and accompanied him in his cam- 
 paigns. In 181 1 he was appointed minister of foreign 
 affairs, and received the title of Duke of Bassano. On the 
 return of Bonaparte from Elba, Maret became again his 
 secretary. He was restored to the rank of a peer of 
 France m 1831, and in 1834 was minister of the interior 
 for a short time. He had been admitted into the Institute 
 (Academie Francaise) in 1803. Died in 1839. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Hiograpliie Generale ;" Las Cases, " Memorial 
 de Sainte-He'lene." 
 
 Maret, (Jean Philibert,) a French surgeon, born 
 at Dijon in 1705; died in 1780. 
 
 Marets, des. See Desmarets. 
 
 Marezoll, ma'rSt-soK, (Gustav Ludwig Theodor,) 
 a German jurist, born at Gottingen in 1794. He was 
 the author of several legal works. 
 
 Mar'ga-ret of Anjou, [Fr. Marguerite d'Anjou, 
 min'gRet' doN'zhoo',] a daughter of Rene of Anjou, 
 Duke of Lorraine, was born in Lorraine in 1429. She 
 was married in 1445 to Henry VI., King of England, 
 and, in consequence of his imbecility, had the principal 
 share in the government. In the ensuing contest be- 
 tween the houses of York and Lancaster, her troops 
 were several times victorious over the former ; but they 
 suffered a fatal defeat at Towton in 1461. After several 
 unsuccessful efforts to repair her fortunes, Margaret was 
 again defeated and made a prisoner at Tewksbury by 
 Edward IV. in 1471. She was ransomed by the French 
 king, Louis XI., and passed the remainder of her life in 
 France, where she died in 1481. 
 
 See Agnes Strickland, "Lives of the Queens of England ;' 
 Abbe Prevost, "Histoire de Marguerite d'Anjou," 2 vols., 1750: 
 Lours Lai.lemand, " Marguerite d'Anjou-Lorraine," 1855 ; J. J. 
 Roy, " Histoire de Marguerite d'Anjou, 1857. 
 
 Margaret of Austria, [Ger. Margarethe von 
 Oestrkich, maR-ga-ra'teh fon ost'rlK,! daughter of Max- 
 imilian, Emperor of Germany, and Mary of Burgundy, 
 was born at Ghent in 1480. She was betrothed when a 
 child to Charles VIII. of France. But he refused to 
 keep the engagement, and married in 1491 Anne, the 
 
 i, e T. o, B, y, low;: a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
MARGARET 
 
 1523 
 
 MARGON 
 
 heiress of Hrittany. Margaret was married in 1497 to 
 Don Juan, Infant of Spain, son of Ferdinand and Isa- 
 bella, who survived but a few months. She was again 
 married in 1501 to Philibert the Handsome, Duke of 
 Savoy, who died in 1505. In 1517 Margaret was ap- 
 pointed by her father ruler of the Netherlands, in which 
 post she displayed signal ability. She had a part in the 
 League of Cambray, formed in 1508 by the principal 
 European powers against Venice. She died in 1530, 
 leaving a number of works in prose and verse, including 
 her "Correspondence," which was published in 1839, 
 (2 vols.) 
 
 See MOnch, " Leben Margarethes," 1833: Altmeyer, "Vie 
 tie Marguerite d'Autriche," in the "Revue Beige," 1839; P. J. 
 d'Avoine, " Kssai historique sur Marguerite d'Autriche," 1849. 
 
 Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Parma, born at 
 Brussels in 1522, was a naturaL daughter of Charles 
 V., Emperor of Germany. She was married in 1533 to 
 Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence, and after his 
 death to Ottavio Famese, Duke of Parma. In 1599 she 
 was appointed Governor of the Netherlands by Philip 
 II. of Spain. This difficult post she occupied till 1567, 
 when she resigned it to the Duke of Alva. The. cele- 
 brated Alexander Farnese, afterwards Duke of Parma, 
 was her son and only child. 
 
 See Motley. "History of the Dutch Republic;" Prescott, 
 "History of Philip II.;" Schiller, "Geschichte des Abfalls der 
 Niederlande." 
 
 Margaret, [Danish, Margarethe, maR-ga-ra'teh,] 
 daughter of Waldemar III., King of Denmark, born at 
 Copenhagen in 1353, was married in 1363 to Haquin, 
 King of Norway. In 1376 she was appointed Regent of 
 Denmark during the minority of her son Olaus, then but 
 five years old. On the death'of Haquin, in 1380, she be- 
 came Queen of Norway, and, her son dying in 1387, the 
 Danes also acknowledged her as their sovereign. Soon 
 after this, Margaret engaged in a war with Albert, King 
 of Sweden, against whom his subjects had rebelled. Her 
 army defeated the Swedes and captured Albert, (1388,) 
 who obtained his liberty only by renouncing the crown 
 of Sweden. At an assembly of the estates of the three 
 kingdoms, held at Calmar in 1397, the famous treaty 
 called "the Calmar Union" was formed. By this it was 
 agreed that Sweden, Denmark, and Norway should in 
 future be united under one sovereign, and Eric VII., 
 nephew of Margaret, was appointed her successor. Died 
 in 1411. 
 
 See Suhm, "Historie af Danmarfc:" Magnus, "Gothorum His- 
 tnria :" Wichmann, " Margarethe Dronningtil Danmark Norge og 
 Sverrig," 1824. 
 
 MargaretJFr. Marguerite, miR'gRet'] of France, 
 daughter of Francis I., born in 1523, was distinguished 
 for her learning and accomplishments and her patron- 
 age of literature. She was married in 1559 to Emmanuel 
 Philibert, Duke of Savoy. Died in 1574. 
 
 ^See Brantomr, "Vies des Dames illustres;" Mezeray, " His- 
 toire de France." 
 
 Margaret of Fr\nce, or of Valois, [Fr. Margue- 
 ritk de Valois, miR'gRet' deh vil'wa',] a daughter 
 of Henry II. and Catherine de Medicis, was born in 
 15SJ. She had respectable talents, but little virtue. In 
 1572 she was married to Henry of Navarre; but love 
 apparently had no part in this fatal alliance. During 
 the festivities that followed the marriage, the perfidious 
 emirt of Charles IX. ordered the Massacre of Saint 
 Bartholomew. She had lived separately from her hus- 
 band some years ljefore he became Henry IV. of France, 
 and their union was formally dissolved about the year 
 1600. Died in 1615. 
 
 See Monoes, " Histoire de la Reine Marguerite de Valois," etc., 
 1777 : Bran-tome, "Vies des Dames illustres." 
 
 Margaret, Queen of Navarre, originally Margaret 
 of Angouleme, [Fr. Marguerite d'Angouleme, 
 miR'gRet' doN'goo'lfm',1 daughter of Charles, Count of 
 Angouleme, and Louise of Savoy, and sister of Francis 
 I., was born in 1492. She was married in 1509 to 
 Charles, Duke of Alencon, who died in 1525, and in 1527 
 she liecame the wife of Henry d'Albret, King of Navarre. 
 She was distinguished for her beauty, talents, and supe- 
 rior culture, and exercised great influence in the govern- 
 ment of her brother, Francis I., to whom she was warmly 
 attached. The mildness and toleration she displayed 
 
 towards the Protestants, and particularly her protection 
 of Calvin, brought upon her the imputation of heresy 
 from the Catholic party. She was the author of nume- 
 rous works in prose and verse, among which may be 
 named the " Heptameron," a collection of tales in the 
 style of Boccaccio's " Decamerone," and a devotional 
 treatise entitled " Mirror of the Sinful Soul." She died 
 in 1549, leaving a daughter, Jeanne d'Albret, afterwards 
 the mother of Henry IV. of France. 
 
 See Brant6me, "Vies des Dames illustres;" Sismondi, "His- 
 toire des Francais;" Miss Freeh, "Life of Marguerite, Queen of 
 Navarre," 185s ; Victor Duhand, " Marguerite de Valois et la Cotir 
 tie Francois I," 2 vols., 1848; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 October, 1842. 
 
 Margaret of Provence. See Marguerite. 
 
 Margaret, Saint, [Lat. Sanc'ta Margari'ta ; Fr. 
 Sainte-Marguerite, saNt miR'gRet',] a virgin of An- 
 tioch, supposed to have suffered martyrdom in 275 A.I). 
 According to tradition, she was solicited in marriage by 
 Olibrius, governor of Antioth, and on her refusal was 
 tortured and put to death by his order. This legend has 
 formed the subject of Milman's " Martyr of Antioch," 
 and of numerous works of art. 
 
 See Baillet, "Vies des Saints;" Mrs. Jameson, "Sacred and 
 Legendary Art." 
 
 Margaret, Saint, daughter of Edward, a Saxon 
 prince, and sister of Edgar Atheling, was born in 1046. 
 She was married about 1070 to Malcolm III., King of 
 Scotland, and died a few days after the death of her 
 husband and son, who fell in battle in 1093. 
 
 See Saint jElred, "Vita Sanctte Margarita; ;" Baillet, " Vies 
 des Saints." 
 
 Margaret of Scotland, daughter of James I., was 
 
 married in 1436 to the Dauphin of France, afterwards 
 
 Louis XI. Died in 1445. 
 
 Sea Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais;" Duclos, " Histoire de 
 Louis XI." 
 
 Margarit, maR-gi-ret', or Marguerit, de, da maR- 
 gi-ret', (Jos£,) Marquis d'Aguilar, a Spanish soldier, 
 born in Catalonia in 1602, was a prominent leader in 
 the insurrection of that province against the Spanish 
 government in 1640. He was afterwards appointed 
 Governor of Catalonia by Louis XIII. Died in 1685. 
 
 Margarit or Marguerit, de, (Juan,) a Spanish car- 
 dinal, born at Girona about 1415, rose to be chancellor 
 of Aragon. He wrote a history of Spain, entitled " Para- 
 lipomenon Hispaniae." Died in 1484. " 
 
 Margarit, (Pedro,) was educated at the court of 
 Ferdinand V. He sailed with Christopher Columbus in 
 1492, and discovered the archipelago to which he gave 
 the name of Marguerite Isles. 
 
 Margaritone, maR-gi-re-to'na, an Italian painter, 
 sculptor, and architect, born at Arezzo about 1236. His 
 pictures were executed in fresco on wood and on copper, 
 and he sculptured in wood as well as marble. His 
 monument to Pope Gregory X., in the cathedral of 
 Arezzo, is ranked among his best works. Died about 
 I3I3- 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters, Sculptors," etc. ; Lanzi, 
 M History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Margeret, miRzh'r^', (Jacques,) a French officer, 
 born in Burgundy. He entered the Russian service, 
 which he exchanged about 16 10 for that of Poland. He 
 wrote an "Account of the Russian Empire, etc. from 
 1590-1606," (in French, 1607,) which was translated into 
 Russian. 
 
 Marggrat maRg'gRaf, (Andreas Sigismund,) an 
 eminent German chemist,' born in Berlin in 1709. He 
 was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences in 
 1738, and director of the class of physics about 1762. He 
 was an ingenious and sagacious experimenter, and wrote 
 many able treatises or memoirs, which were inserted in 
 the records of the Academy of Berlin. He made the 
 important discovery that sugar can be procured from 
 the beet. Died in 1780. 
 
 See F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Chimie ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Marggraf, (Georg.) See Marcgraf. 
 
 Margon, de, deh miR'gdN', (Guillaume Plant avit 
 de la Pause,) Abbe, a French satirist, born near Beziers 
 about 1685. He wrote several controversial works, dis- 
 tinguished for their virulence and bitter personalities, 
 
 t as k: 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (J^-See Explanati9ns, p. 23.) 
 
MARGUERIE 
 
 1524 
 
 MAR I ALVA 
 
 and directed alternately against the Jesuits and the Jan- 
 senists. Died in 1760. 
 
 Marguerie, miRg're', (Jean Jacques,) a French 
 mathematician and writer, born near Caen in 1742. He 
 served as lieutenant in the navy against the British 
 in 1778-79, and was killed near Grenada in 1779. 
 
 Marguerit. See Makgarit. 
 
 Marguerite. See Margaret. 
 
 Marguerite de Provence, miR'gRet' deh pRo'- 
 v&nss', daughter of Raymond Berenger, Comte de Pro- 
 vence, born in 1221, was married in 1234 to Louis IX., 
 King of France, commonly called Saint Louis. She 
 accompanied him in his expedition to Egypt, and while 
 in Damietta gave birth to a son. She died in a convent 
 in 1295. 
 
 See Joinviu.e, "M^moires;" Guillaume de Nangis, "Vie de 
 Saint-Louis." 
 
 Marguerittes, mf R'gRet', (Jean Antoine Teissier,) 
 a French dramatist and royalist, born at Nimes in 1744, 
 was a deputy to the Constituent Assembly. He was 
 executed by the terrorists in 1 794. 
 
 Marguriius, maR-goo'ne-tis, or Margunio, maR- 
 goo'ne-o, (Maximus,) a modern Greek prelate and 
 scholar, born in the island of Candia about 1525. He 
 founded a printing-office at Venice, where he published 
 numerous editions of the Greek classics, remarkable for 
 their accuracy. In 1585 he was appointed Bishop of 
 Cerigo. He wrote " Anacreontic Hymns," and several 
 ecclesiastical works. Died in 1602. 
 
 Marheineke, maR-hT'neh-keh, (Phii.ipp Konrad,) 
 a German Protestant theologian pf high reputation, born 
 at Hildesheim in 1780, became successively professor of 
 theology at Erlangen, Heidelberg, and Berlin. He pub- 
 lished a "History of the Reformation in Germany," (4 
 vols., 1816,) "Christian Symbolics," and several philo- 
 sophical works, in which he favours the system of Hegel. 
 Died in 1846. 
 Maria, the Latin of Mary and Marie, which see. 
 Ma-ri'a of Austria, a daughter of the archduke 
 Philip the' Handsome and Joanna of Aragon, was born 
 at Brussels in 1503. She was married in 1521 to Louis 
 II., King of Hungary and Bohemia, and after his death 
 was appointed by her brother, Charles V., ruler over the 
 Netherlands. Soon after the abdication of the emperor 
 she resigned her office and retired to Spain, where she 
 died in 1558. . 
 
 See Lanz, " Corresponded Karls V. ;" Brantome, "Vies des 
 Dames illustres " 
 
 Maria, mi-ree'i, II., (da Gloria, di glo're-i,) daugh- 
 ter of Don Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, and Leopoldine, 
 Archduchess of Austria, was born at Rio Janeiro in 1819. 
 Her father succeeded to the throne of Portugal in March, 
 1826, but renounced his right in favQur of Dona Maria. 
 Her uncle Don Miguel usurped the throne about May, 
 1828, and was supported by the absolutist party. A civil 
 war ensued, Don Miguel was defeated, and Dona Maria 
 became queen about September, 1833. She married 
 Duke Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Kohary in April, 1836. 
 Her reign was disturbed by emeutes and insurrections. 
 She died in November, 1853, and was succeeded by her 
 son, Pedro V. 
 
 Maria, ma-ree'i, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter and 
 architect, surnamed Falconetti, born at Veronain 1458. 
 He formed a lasting friendship with the celebrated Louis 
 Cornaro, in whose household he lived for twenty-two 
 years. Died in 1534. 
 
 Maria, di, de mi-ree'i, (Francesco,) a Neapolitan 
 painter, born in 1623, was a pupil of Domenichino. Died 
 in 1690. 
 
 Ma-ri'a El-e-o-no'ra of Brandenburg, daughter 
 of John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg. She was 
 married in 1620 to Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, 
 whom she accompanied in his campaigns in Germany. 
 Died in 1655. 
 
 See Geijer, " History of Sweden," (translated by Turner.) 
 Maria Leszczynska, mi-ree'i )2sh-chens'ski, 
 daughter of Stanislas Leszczynski, King of Poland, was 
 born in 1703, and was married in 1725 to Louis XV. 
 of France. Died in 1768. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV;" Proyart, "Vie de 
 Marie Leszcinska." 
 
 Maria Louisa, ma-ri'a loo-ee'za, [Fr. Marie Louise, 
 mi're' loo'ez',] daughter of the emperor Francis I. 
 of Austria and Maria Theresa of Naples, was born at 
 Vienna in 1791. She was married in 1810 to Napo- 
 leon I., Emperor of France, to whom she bore a son 
 in March, 181 1. On the abdication of Napoleon, in 
 1814, she retired to Vienna, and in 1816 the allied 
 powers gave her the duchy of Parma. She was pri- 
 vately married to Count Neipperg, her chamberlain. 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Maria Theresa, mi-ree'a ti-ra'si, [Fr. Marie The- 
 rese, mt're' ti'rjz',] daughter of Philip IV. of Spain, 
 was married in 1660 to Louis XIV. of France. (See 
 Louis XIV.) 
 
 Maria Theresa, ma-ri'a te-ree'si, [Fr. Marie Th£- 
 rese, mi're' ti'rlz' ; It. Maria Teresia, mi-ree'i ti- 
 ra'se-i,] daughter of Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, 
 and Elizabeth Christina of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel, was 
 born in May, 1717. She was married in 1736 to Francis, 
 Duke of Lorraine. Charles VI. having died in 1740, 
 his daughter succeeded him on the throne of Germany, 
 in accordance with the act called the Pragmatic Sanction. 
 Her title was soon disputed by the Electors of Saxony 
 and Bavaria and the Kings of Prussia, Spain, and Sar- 
 dinia, each claiming some portion of Germany in the 
 name of the Austrian princesses with whom they were 
 connected. Maria Theresa immediately repaired to Vi- 
 enna, where she received the homage of her Austrian 
 states, and thence proceeding to Presburg was crowned 
 Queen of Hungary in 1741. She received offers of as- 
 sistance from Frederick II. of Prussia on condition of 
 her ceding to him Lower Silesia, but she firmly refused. 
 Her capital being soon after threatened with a siege by 
 the Elector of Bavaria and his French allies, the empress 
 convoked the Hungarian Diet at Presburg, where, with 
 her infant children, she said to the deputies that, "being 
 assailed by enemies on every side, she had no hopes ex- 
 cept in their loyalty, and she had come to place under 
 their protection the daughter and son of their kings." 
 The Hungarian nobles responded with enthusiasm to 
 this appeal, and drew their swords, exclaiming, " We 
 will die for our king, Maria Theresa !" (" Moriamur 
 pro rege nostra, Maria Theresia !") The French and 
 Bavarians were soon driven out of her hereditary states 
 by the Imperial forces under General Kevenhuller and 
 Prince Charles of Lorraine. In 1742 a treaty of peace 
 was concluded between Maria Theresa and the King of 
 Prussia, by which the latter obtained Silesia. The Elec- 
 tor of Bavaria, who had been previously chosen Emperor 
 of Germany under the name of Charles VII., having died 
 in 1745, Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, was 
 elected to that dignity. In 1746 the Imperialists gained 
 important victories in Italy, and defeated the French and 
 Spaniards at Piacenza. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 in 1748, put an end to the war of the Austrian succession, 
 leaving the empress in possession of all her hereditary 
 estates except Silesia. The Seven Years' war, carried 
 on by Prussia against France, Russia, and Austria, ter- 
 minated in 1763, leaving the boundaries of Austria and 
 Prussia the same as before. The emperor Francis 
 having died in 1765, his son Joseph was elected to the 
 imperial dignity; but Maria Theresa still retained the 
 administration of the government. She is said to have 
 refused to take any part in the partition of Poland (1772) 
 until prevailed upon by the representations of Joseph II. 
 and Prince Kaunitz. Among the important reforms of 
 her reign was the abolition of the torture (1776) and 
 of feudal service. She also abolished the Inquisition 
 at Milan, and suppressed the order of Jesuits. She 
 died in November, 1780, and was succeeded by her son, 
 Joseph II. 
 
 See Paolo Frisi, " Elogio di Maria Teresia," 1783 ; Sabatier 
 de Castres, "Abregc* de la Vie de Marie Therese," 1773; Rich- 
 TER, "Lebens- und Staatsgeschicbte Maris Theresia;, " 3 vols., 
 1745; Duller, "Maria Theresia und ihre Zeit," 1844; Rauten- 
 strauch, " Biographie der Kaiserin Maria Theresia," 1780; Rkn- 
 ner, " Maria Theresia und Friedrich der Grosse," 1831 ; W01.F, 
 "Oestreich unter Maria Theresia," 1855; "Nouvelle Biography 
 G&ie'rale." 
 
 Marialva, mi-re-il'vi, (Dom JoXo Coutinho — 
 ko-ten'yo,) Count, a Portuguese officer, fought under 
 
 a , e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MAR I ALVA 
 
 1515 
 
 MARIE 
 
 Alphonso V. against the Moors in Africa, and was killed 
 while assisting in the capture of Arzilla, in 1471. 
 
 Marialva y Menezes, mi-re-al'va e ma-na'zes, 
 (Antonio Luiz,) Count de Castanhede, an able Portu- 
 guese general and statesman, born about 1627. In 1659 
 he gained a signal victory over the Castilians at Elvas, 
 and soon after became principal minister of state, Marquis 
 of Marialva, and lieutenant-general of the armies of the 
 kingdom. Died about 1668. 
 
 See Laclede, " Histoire de Portugal." 
 
 Ma-rl-am'ne, [Gr. Maputfivti,] a beautiful Jewess, a 
 granddaughter of the high-priest Hyrcanus II., became 
 in 38 B.C. the wife of Herod the Great, who, when he 
 departed from his capital to meet Octavian, gave secret 
 orders that she should be put to death in case he did 
 not return in safety. This secret having been revealed 
 to her, she received him coldly on his return, and excited 
 his jealousy, which was increased by the intrigues of 
 Herod's sister Salome, who suborned the royal cup- 
 bearer to testify that Mariamne designed to poison the 
 king. She was' put to death in 29 B.C. This story is the 
 subject of one of Voltaire's tragedies. 
 
 See Joshphvs, " History of the Jews;" Smith, " Dictionary of 
 Greek and Roman Biography." 
 
 Mariana, de, da ma-re-a'na, (Juan,) an eminent 
 Spanish historian, born atTalavera in 1536. He studied 
 at Alcala, and, having entered the order of Jesuits, was 
 appointed professor of theology in their college at Rome, 
 (1560.) He returned to Spain in 1574, where he passed 
 the remainder of his life in retirement, devoted to literary 
 pursuits. He published in 1599 his "Treatise on Roy- 
 alty," ("De Rege et Regis lnstitutione,") in which he 
 maintains that it is lawful in certain cases to put a king 
 to death. This work caused a great sensation, particu- 
 larly in France, where it was denounced by the Sorbonne, 
 and soon after the assassination of Henry IV. it was 
 
 Eublidy burned by order of the Parliamet.*. In 1592 he 
 rough t out his great work entitled " Historia de Rebus 
 Ilispanite," (* History of Spain,") which was received 
 with great favour and was soon after translated by him 
 into Spanish. His Latin style is characterized by great 
 elegance and animation, and has been compared to that 
 of Livy ; while his Spanish history is generally esteemed 
 the most admirable work of the kind in the language. 
 "Noble, pure, and rich without diffuseness, it unites 
 with rare felicity," savs a French critic, "the picturesque 
 vivacity of the chroniclers with the dignity of history ;" 
 and Ticknor, in his " History of Spanish Literature," 
 observes, "Its admirably idiomatic style, so full yet so 
 unencumbered, so pure and yet so rich, renders it, if 
 not the most trustworthy of annals, at least the most 
 remarkable union of picturesque chronicling with sober 
 history that the world has ever seen." Mariana also 
 published a treatise "On Weights and Measures," "On 
 Death and Immortality," and other learned works, in 
 Latin, and an essay entitled "De las Enfermedades de 
 la Compania y de sits Remedios," ("On the Disorders 
 of the Society [of Jesuits] and their Remedies," 1625,) 
 in which he boldly exposes and condemns the errors of 
 the Jesuits. Died in 1623. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature :" Tamajo (or 
 Tamayo) dk Varoas. "Vida del P. Juau Mariana:" N. A-. 
 "Bibliotheca Httpana Nova;" Acosta, "Vida de Mnriana;"_ F. 
 Buchmoi.z, "J. de Mariana, oder Entwickelungs^escliichte eines 
 n," iSo4: BoUTEKWRK, "Histoire de la Literature K-i>.l 
 gnole;" and I.. Ji-ubkkt's excellent article in the "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generate. " 
 
 Mariani, ma-re-a'nee, (Camiu.o,) an Italian sculptor 
 and painter, born at Vicenza in 1565 ; died in 161 1. 
 
 Mariani. (GIOVANNI Maria,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Ascoli about 1650. Among his master-pieces is a 
 "Baptism of Saint James," at Rome. 
 
 Ma-rl-a'nus Sco'tus, a Scottish chronicler, born in 
 1028, is said by Matthew of Westminster to have been 
 a relative of the Venerable liede. His principal work is 
 a " Universal Chronicle from the Creation to the Year 
 1083," (in Latin.) Died in 1086. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis I.alinis." 
 
 Marichl ma-ree'chl, a celebrated Hindoo sage or 
 demi-god, was, according to one account, the son of 
 Brahma, — according to another, the son of IShrigu. He 
 was the father of Kasyapa. Ilysome he is considered 
 
 as the god of "light," which appears to be the etymo« 
 logical signification of his name. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon;" " Institutes of Manu," chap. i. 
 
 Marie, the French for Mary, which see. 
 
 Marie, mire', (Alexandre Thomas,) a French ad- 
 vocate and republican, born at Auxerre in 1795. He 
 was minister of public works from February to June, 
 1848, and minister of justice from July to December ■■>( 
 that year. He was elected to the Corps Legislatif in 
 1S63. Died in 1870. 
 
 Marie Adelaide de Savoie, mif re' S'di'li'ed' deh 
 si'vwa', daughter of Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, 
 born at Turin in 1685, was married in 1697 to the Duke 
 of Burgundy, grandson of Louis XIV. of France. She 
 died in 1712, leaving one son, afterwards Louis XV. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "Me'moires de Louis XIV," etc; Madams 
 de Maintenon, " Lettres." 
 
 Marie Amelie de Bourbon, mf're' S'ma'le' deh 
 booR'bdN', Queen of France, born near Naples in 1782, 
 was a daughter of Ferdinand I., King of the Two Sici- 
 lies. She was married in 1S09 to the Duke of Orleans, 
 afterwards King Louis Philippe. After his death she 
 retired to England, where she resided at Claremont, 
 near London. Died in 1866. 
 
 Marie Anne Christine Victoire de Baviere, 
 mi're' in kRes'ten'vek'twiu'deh bi've^aiR', daughter of 
 Ferdinand, Elector of Bavaria, was born at Munich in 
 1660. In 1680 she was married to Louis, the Dauphin 
 of France, son of Louis XIV. She died in 1690, leaving 
 three sons. 
 
 Marie Antoinette Josephe Jeanne d'Autriche, 
 mS're' ft.N'twi'net' zho'zaf zliSn do'tResli', (commonly 
 called simply Marie Antoinette,) born at Vienna in 
 1755, was the daughter of Maria Theresa and the em- 
 peror Francis I. of Germany. She was married in 
 1770 to the Dauphin of France, afterwards Louis XVI. 
 High-spirited and energetic, she strove during the 
 revolutionary troubles to inspire the king with her own 
 courage ; but her counsels often led him into greater 
 difficulties. It was her misfortune and the misfortune of 
 France that she resisted all those reforms which might 
 have prevented or moderated the violence of the Revo- 
 lution. Possessing extraordinary personal charms and 
 great vivacity of disposition, the freedom of her manners 
 was often misconstrued by her enemies ; but their accu- 
 sations are generally believed to have been groundless. 
 During the terrible scenes which followed the captivity 
 of the royal family, she displayed the greatest firmness 
 and dignity, showing on all occasions more concern for 
 her husband and children than for herself. After the 
 fall of the Girondists, Marie Antoinette was condemned 
 to death by the Jacobins, and executed in October, 1793. 
 (See Louis XVI.) 
 
 See Madame Campan, " Memoirs of the Court of Marie Antoi- 
 nette ;" " Memoires de Mademoiselle Berlin sur la Reine Marie 
 Antoinette : M M adamh Vk.ek-Lkbrun, "Souvenirs," 1835 ; THIERS, 
 " Histoire de la Revolution Francaise :" Lamartine, " History of 
 the Girondists ;" Weber, " Me'moires concernant Marie Antoinette," 
 182a. 
 
 Marie Clotilde Adelaide Xavieie de France, 
 mt're' klo'teld' i'da'IS'ed' za've-aiR' deh Ir&nss, sister 
 of Louis XVI., born at Versailles in 1759, was married 
 in 1775 to the Prince of Piedmont, afterwards Charles 
 Emmanuel, King of Sardinia. Died in 1802. 
 
 Marie de Bourgogne. See Mary of Burgundy. 
 
 Marie de Guise. See MART OP Omsk. 
 
 Marie de 1'Incai nation, mS'te' deh liN'kaVna'- 
 scon', a French missionary, whose original name was 
 Guyard, born at Tours in 1 599, visited Canada in 1639, 
 where she made many converts among the Indians, and 
 founded a convent of her order. Died in 1672. 
 
 See " Vie de la Mere Marie de 1'Incarnation," by P. Cn/.htE- 
 voix. 
 
 Marie de Lorraine. See Mary of Guise. 
 
 Marie Madeleine. See Magdalene. 
 
 Marie de Medicia, ma"re' deh ma'de'sess', or Maria 
 de' Medici, ma-ree'a da med'e-chee, the daughter of 
 Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and the archduchess 
 Joan of Austria, was born at Florence in 1573. She was 
 married in 1600 to Henry IV. of France. She had 
 moderate abilities, but exorbitant ambition; and her ob- 
 stinacy and violent temper were the source of constant 
 
 « as k ; c as s; g hard; g zsj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (5ry~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MARIE 
 
 i 526 
 
 MARIN EO 
 
 dissension between her and her husband. On the deaih 
 of Henry she became regent, for which office she proved 
 herself utterly incompetent. Having given offence to her 
 subjects by her partiality for unworthy favourites, she 
 was deposed and imprisoned, but, effecting her escape, 
 again took part in the government. She introduced 
 Richelieu into the administration, who soon possessed 
 himself of the highest power, and induced her son, 
 Louis XIII., to imprison her (1630) at Compiegne. After 
 a second escape, she died at Cologne in 1642. 
 
 See Miss Pardoe, "Life of Marie de' Medici;" Richelieu, 
 " Memohes :" Sismondi, " Histoiredes Francais ;" Ruau, " Tableau 
 de la Ke^ence de Marie de MeMicis," 1615. 
 
 Marie d'Orleans, mt're' doR'la'5N', (Marie Chris- 
 tine Caroline Adelaide FranCOISE I.eofoi.dine de 
 Valois, mi're' kRes'ten' kfro'len' t'da'lf'ed' fRds-'swaz' 
 la'o'pol'den' deh vtl'wa',) Duchess of • Wiirtemberg, 
 born at Palermo in 1813, vvas the youngest daughter of 
 Louis Philippe, King of France. Having early mani- 
 fested a love for the arts, she studied sculpture and de- 
 sign under Ary Scheffer. Among her works the statue 
 of Joan of Arc is the most generally admired. She was 
 married in 1837 to Duke Alexander of Wiirtemberg. 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 Marie Therese. See Maria Theresa. 
 
 Mariette, mi're'Jt', (Auguste Edouard,) a cele- 
 brated French archaeologist, born at Boulogne in 1821. 
 Having acquired a knowledge of Egyptian hieroglyphics, 
 he was charged in 1850 with a scientific mission to 
 Egypt, where he discovered the site of the city of Mem- 
 phis and disinterred the temple of Serapis and a ne- 
 cropolis of vast extent. In this were found the granite 
 sarcophagi of the bulls of Apis, hewn out of a single 
 stone, fifteen feet long, nine in width, and the same in 
 height. He also removed the sand from the colossal 
 Sphinx, which vvas cut entire from a rock. He published, 
 about 1856, a work on the monuments discovered during 
 the disinterring of the Serapeum at Memphis, a specimen 
 of a larger work which he has in preparation. 
 
 Mariette, (Jean,) a French engraver, born in Paris 
 in 1660, executed a number of prints after Poussin and 
 Le Brum Died in 1742. 
 
 Mariette, (Pierre Jean,) son of the preceding, born 
 in Paris in 1694, was one of the most distinguished ama- 
 teurs of his time, and became director of the Imperial 
 Gallery at Vienna. He was a member of the Academy 
 of Painting in Paris, and of the Academy of Design at 
 Florence. He published, among other works, a " Treat- 
 ise on the Engraved Gems of the Royal Cabinet." Died 
 -n 1774. 
 
 See Dumesnil, " Histoire des plus cdlebres Amateurs Francais," 
 1856 ; " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Marignano, ma-ren-ya'no, written also Melegnano, 
 [Fr. Marignan, mt'ren'ydN',] (Gian Giacomo,) Mar- 
 quis de Medichino, a celebrated Italian soldier, born at 
 Milan in 1497. He entered the service of the emperor 
 Charles V., who sent him in 1540 to reduce the city of 
 Ghent, of which he was afterwards appointed governor. 
 He took an active part in the siege of Metz, in 1552, and 
 was subsequently employed by the grand duke Cosimo 
 de' Medici to suppress the revolt in the republic of 
 Sienna, where he ravaged the country and was guilty of 
 great barbarity towards the inhabitants. Died in 1555. 
 
 See De Thou, "HiMoria sui Temporis;" Brant&me, "Vies 
 des grands Capitaines ;" SlSMOHDI, "Histoire des R^publiques 
 ltaliennes :" Misagi.ia, "Vila del Marchese di Marignano," 1605; 
 Robertson, " History of Charles V.," book xi. 
 
 Mariguie, de, deh mt'ren'ye-i', (Jean Etienne 
 Francois,) a French litterateur, born in Languedoc about 
 1735, was one of the most zealous defenders of Louis 
 XVI. in the National Convention. He published a num- 
 ber of dramas and political treatises. Died about 1830. 
 
 Marigny, de, deh ml'ren'ye', (Abel Francois Pois- 
 son — pwa'soN',) Marquis, a French architect, born in 
 Paris in 1 727, was a brother of Madame de Pompadour, 
 through whose influence he was appointed in 1751 di- 
 rector-general of the royal buildings. Died in 1781. 
 
 Marigny, de, (Enguerkand,) a French statesman, 
 filled several high offices under Philippe le Bel, and 
 attained the rank of prime minister. Soon after the ac- 
 cession of Louis X., he was condemned to death on the 
 false accusations of his enemies, and executed about 1315. 
 
 Marigny, de, (Francois Augier,) a French Orien- 
 talist and historian, bom about 1690. He produced a 
 " History of the Twelfth Century," (5 vols., 1750,) and a 
 " History of the Arabs under the Government of the 
 Caliphs," (4 vols., 1750.) Died in Paris in 1762. 
 
 Marigny.de, (Gaspard Augustin Rene Bernard,) 
 a French officer, born at Lucon in 1754, was one of the 
 royalist chiefs in the Vendean war. He was condemned 
 to death by his own party for alleged neglect of duty, 
 and executed in 1794. 
 
 Marigny, de, (Jacques Carpentier, ) a French 
 priest, noted for his wit, born near Nevers. He wrote 
 several poems, and Letters, (1678.) Died in 1670. 
 
 Marillac, de, deh mfre'ytk', (Charles,) an able 
 French negotiator, born in Auvergne about 1510. He 
 was chosen Archbishop of Vienne, and conducted suc- 
 cessfully some important negotiations in Germany and 
 Rome. He was at the head of a small number of French 
 bishops known by their tendency to a philosophic spirit. 
 Died in 1560. 
 
 Marillac, de, (Louis,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 was born in Auvergne in 1572. He served with distinc- 
 tion in the armies of Henry IV., and was made a mar- 
 shal of France in 1629. Being afterwards suspected of 
 conspiring against Cardinal Richelieu, he was executed, 
 on a charge of peculation, in 1632. 
 
 See "Proces du MartSchal de Marillac," etc., 1633; Richelieu, 
 "Journal." 
 
 Marillac, de, (Michel,) a French statesman, brother 
 of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1563. He was 
 appointed by Cardinal Richelieu keeper of the seals, 
 (1626.) Having subsequently incurred the enmity of 
 the cardinal, he was imprisoned at Chateaudun in 1630, 
 where he died in 1632. 
 
 Marin. See Marinus of Tyre. 
 
 Marin, mS'raN', a French mechanician, and a native 
 of Lisieux, invented the air-gun, which he exhibited in 
 the presence of Henry of Navarre. 
 
 Marin, (FRANgois Louis Claude,) a French littera- 
 teur, born in Provence in 1721. Among his principal 
 works is a " History of Saladin, Sultan of Egypt," etc. 
 Died in 1809. 
 
 Marin, (Michel Ange,) a French ecclesiastic and 
 devotional writer, born at Marseilles in 1697. He pub- 
 lished " Lives of the Hermits of the East," (3 vols. 4to, 
 1 761,) and numerous other works. Died in 1767. 
 
 See Chaudon, " Eloge historiquedu Pere M. A. Marin," 1769. 
 
 Marina, ma-ree'na, Malinche, ma-len'cha, written 
 also Malintzin, the daughter of a Mexican chief, born 
 about 1505, was sold as a slave, and subsequently fell 
 into the hands of Cortez, whom she accompanied in all 
 his expeditions. She possessed rare beauty and talents, 
 and, from her knowledge of the Spanish as well as 
 Mexican languages, was of great service as an inter- 
 preter. After the death of Cortez, she was married to 
 Don Juan de Xamarillo, a Spanish officer. Marina has 
 been celebrated by the Spanish poet Moratin in his 
 " Noves de Cortes." 
 
 See Bernai. Diaz, " Historia de la Conquista del Mexico;" 
 Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," book ii. 
 
 Marina, ma-ree'na, (Don Francisco Martinez,) a 
 Spanish political writer of the liberal party, born about 
 1757. He published the " Theory of the Cortes," (1821,) 
 " Discourse on the Origin of the Spanish Monarchy," 
 etc., and other works. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella." 
 
 Marinali, ma-re-na'lee, (Orazio,) an Italian sculptor, 
 born at Bassano in 1643 ; died in 1720. 
 
 Marinari, ma-re-na'ree, (Onorio,) a Florentine 
 painter, born about 1660, was a pupil and imitator of 
 Carlo Dolce. Died in 1715. 
 
 Marinas, de las, da las ma-ree'nas, (Enriquez,) a 
 Spanish painter, born at Cadiz in 1620, was celebrated 
 for the excellence of his marine views, from which he 
 derived his surname. Died in 1680. 
 
 Marinella, ma-re-nel'la, or Marinelli, ma-re-nei'lee, 
 (Lucrezia,) an Italian poetess, born at Venice in 1571. 
 She wrote, besides bther works, " Life of the Virgin 
 Marv," (" Vita di Maria Vergine," 1617.) Died in 1653. 
 
 Marineo, ma-re-na'o, (Lucio,) a Sicilian scholar and 
 historian, born at Bidino about 1460. He became chap- 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
MARIN I 
 
 1527 
 
 MARIUS 
 
 lain and historiographer to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and 
 wis also distinguished by the favour of the emperor 
 Charles V. lie wrote several works on Spanish history, 
 (in Latin.) Died about 1535. 
 
 Marini, ma-ree'nee, (Benedetto,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Urbino, lived about 1625. 
 
 Marini, (Gaetano Luu;i,) an Italian antiquary, born 
 at San Arcangelo in 1740. He wrote several valuable 
 works, one of which is entitled "Acts and Monu- 
 ments of the Rural Brothers," etc., (2 vols., 1795.) Died 
 in 1815. 
 
 Marini or Marino, ma-ree'no, (Giambattista,) an 
 Italian poet, bom at Naples in 1569, was a friend of 
 Tasso. He produced "Adonis," and many other poems, 
 which were greatly admired by his contemporaries, but 
 are marred by affected conceits and extravagant meta- 
 phors. He passed several years in Paris, and received 
 a pension from Queen Marie de Medicis. Died in 1625. 
 
 See Baiacca, "Vila del Cavalier Marino," 1625; F. ClffABO, 
 "Vita del Cavalier Marino," 1626: Loredano, "Vita del Cavalier 
 Marino," 163.1; Camola, "Vita di G. B. Marini," 1633; Popi'e. 
 "Vila J. B. Marini," 1771: Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of 
 Europe ;" " Lives of the Italian Poets," by the Rev. Henkv Steb- 
 bino. London, 1831. 
 
 Marini, (Giovanni Amiirogio,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Genoa about 1594. He wrote two popular 
 romances, entitled " II Caloandro fedele" and " Quarrels 
 of the Desperadoes," (" Le Gare de' Desperati.") Died 
 about 1650. 
 
 Marini, (Giovanni Antonio,) a Piedmontese phy- 
 sician and writer, born in 1726; died in 1806. 
 
 Marini, (Giovanni Fii.iito,) an Italian Jesuit and 
 missionary, born near Genoa in 1608. He resided four- 
 teen years at Tonquin, and published a valuable work 
 entitled " A New and Curious Account of the Kingdoms 
 of Tonquin and Laos," (1666.) Died in 1677. 
 
 Marino. See Marini, (Giambattista.) 
 
 Marinom, ma-re-no'nee, (Giovanni Giacomo,) an 
 Italian mathematician, born at Udine in 1676. He was 
 appointed court mathematician by the emperor Leopold 
 I., and drew a plan of Vienna and its environs. He was 
 one of the founders of the Academy of Military Science 
 at Vienna in 1 71 7, and subsequently built at his own 
 expense an observatory, which is esteemed one of the 
 best in Europe. He published several scientific works. 
 Died in 1755. 
 
 Ma-ri'nus, [Gr. Mapivof,] a native of Samaria, studied 
 philosophy at Athens under Proclus, whom he succeeded 
 M 1 teacher in 485 A.D. His only work extant is a " Life 
 of l'roclus." 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Graicis." 
 
 Ma-ri'nus, Saint, [It. San Marino, san ma-ree'no; 
 Fr. Saint-Marin, sa.N mS'raN',] an ecclesiastic of the 
 fourth century, was a native of Dalmatia, and lived as a 
 hermit near Rimini, in Italy. The miracles said to have 
 been wrought at his tomb drew thither many pilgrims, 
 who in time built a town called San Marino, which for 
 ten centuries has formed the centre of a little republic. 
 
 See Baii.let, "Vies des Saints." 
 
 Marinus of Tyrk, [Fr. Marin de Tyre, mt'raN' 
 deh teR,] a Greek geographer, who lived about 150 A.D. 
 His works were highly esteemed by his contemporaries, 
 but none of them are extant. 
 
 See Ukert, "Geographie der Griechen und RSmer." 
 
 Mario Nuzzi. See Fiori, de', (Mario.) 
 
 Marion, mS're'c.N', (Ei.ie,) a leader of the Camisards 
 in Fiance, born in 1678, was the author of several re- 
 ]igi"tis works and so-called prophecies. 
 
 Mar'I-on, (Francis,) a celebrated American general 
 of the Revolution, was born in South Carolina in 1732. 
 Soon after the breaking out of the war he entered the 
 army, and assisted in the defence of Sullivan's Island 
 against the British fh 1776. The enemy having taken 
 ^sion of Georgia and besieged Charleston, Marion 
 raised a brigade of soldiers, at the head of whom he 
 carried on for more than three years a guerilla warfare, 
 often attended with brilliant successes, and baflling all 
 the attempts of the British generals to effect his capture. 
 Died in 1795. 
 
 See the " Life of General Marion." by P. Horry and M. L. 
 1 \ and the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ameri- 
 cans," vol. iii. 
 
 Marion Delorme. See Dei.orme. 
 
 Marion -Dufresne, mS're'dN' du'frin', (Nicolas 
 Thomas,) a French navigator, born at Saint-Malo in 
 1729, sailed on a voyage of discovery to the South Sea 
 in 1 771. Soon after landing at New Zealand, Marion 
 was treacherously rnurdered by the natives, together 
 with the greater part of his men, (1772.) 
 
 Marion du Mersan, mi'reMN' dii itiSr'son', (Tiieo- 
 PHILE,) a French antiquary and dramatist, born in 1780, 
 published a great number of popular comedies and prose 
 essays on various subjects. Died in 1849. 
 
 Mariotte, mS're'ot', (Edme, )~an eminent French 
 mathematician and physicist, was a resident of Dijon. 
 He was one of the earliest experimental philosophers in 
 France, and discovered the law of elastic fluids called 
 by his name. Among his principal works are his " Dis- 
 course on the Nature of Air," (1676,) "Treatise on the 
 Movement of Waters," (1690,) "Experiments on the 
 Colours and Congelation of Water," and an " Essay on 
 Logic," which is highly commended by Condorcet. Died 
 in 1684. 
 
 See Condorcet, " E"loges des Acad^miciens," etc. ; " Nouvelle 
 Biouraphie GeneVale." 
 
 Mariti, ma-ree'tee, (Giovanni,) an Italian traveller 
 and writer, born at Florence in 1736, visited the isle of 
 Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine, and published in 1769 an 
 account of his journey, which was translated into French, 
 German, and Swedish. Died in 1806. 
 
 Maritz, ma'rits or mS'rets', (Jean,) a Swiss mecha- 
 nician, bom at Berne in 1711, invented a machine for 
 boring and turning cannon. For this service he was 
 ennobled by the French government. Died in 1790. 
 
 Mariuccia. See Marozia. 
 
 Ma'ri-us, (Caius,) a Roman general, distinguished 
 for his splendid talents, indomitable energy, and unprin- 
 cipled ambition, was born near Arpinum (now Arpino) 
 in 157 B.C. His parents were poor and plebeian. He 
 served under Scipio Africanus at the siege of Numantia, 
 and was chosen tribune of the people in 119. He ob- 
 tained the praetorship in 115, though strongly opposed 
 by the patrician party, and about the same time married 
 Julia, an aunt of Julius Caesar. Having accompanied 
 Metellus as legate and second in command into Africa, 
 (109 B.C.,) he won such popularity by his skill and bravery 
 that he was elected consul for 107 B.C. and intrusted , 
 with the command of the Jugurthine war. He defeated 
 J«gurtha, who was made prisoner in 106. In 104 B.C. 
 Marius was again chosen consul, as being the only one 
 capable of defending the state from the threatened in- 
 vasion of the Teutones and Cimbri. He defeated the 
 barbarians at Aix, (Aquae Sextiae,) in Gaul, in 102 B.C. 
 Having been elected consul the next year, for the fifth 
 time, Marius, in conjunction with Catulus, gained a sig- 
 nal and overwhelming victory over the Cimbri in the 
 plain of Vercellae, (Vercelli.) By the aid of the tribune 
 Saturninus, Marius became consul for 100 B.C., in spite 
 of the determined hostility of the patricians. Durirg 
 this consulate an agrarian law was passed, and Metellus 
 Nuniidicus was exiled for refusing to conform to it. On 
 the expiration of his term of office, Marius went to Asia, 
 under the pretext of sacrificing to Cybele, but really in 
 order to excite Mithridates to a war with Rome, that he 
 might again distinguish himself in his congenial element. 
 In 90 B.C. both Marius and Sulla entered the service 
 of the consuls Octavius and China in the Marsian or 
 Social war ; but, jealous of the reputation of his rival, 
 the former soon resigned. Sulla, having become consul 
 in 88 B.C., obtained the command in the Mithridatic 
 war, upon which Marius, assisted by his friends, caused 
 a law to be passed transferring it to him. He was soon 
 driven from the city by Sulla and his adherents, and 
 forced to take refuge in Africa. When Sextilius, Gov- 
 ernor of Libya, sent him orders to leave the country, on 
 pain of being treated as an enemy, Marius replied to the 
 messenger, "Go tell him that you have seen the exile 
 Marius sitting on the ruins of Carthage." The next 
 year, while Sulla was absent in Greece, Marius, joined 
 by the consul Cinna, entered Rome and ordered a 
 general massacre of the opposite party. Among the 
 patricians who perished was M. Antonius, the orator so 
 highly praised by Cicero. Marius and Cinna became 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ($&~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MARIUS 
 
 1528 
 
 MARLBOROUGH 
 
 consuls, (86 B.C.,) but the former was attacked by a fever, 
 of which he died the same year. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Marius:" George Long, "Life of 
 Marius," London, 1844; Merimbe, "Etudes sur l'Histoire Ro- 
 maine," etc. : Sallust, " Jugurtha;" F. Weiland, "C. Maiii sep- 
 ties Consulis Vita," Berlin, 1845: P. Ekerman, " Dissertatio de C. 
 Mario seplies Consule," 1742; Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and 
 Roman Urography;." " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Marius, (Caius,) nephew and adopted son of the pre- 
 ceding, took refuge, after the proscription of his uncle, 
 with Hiempsal, King of Numidia. He was made consul 
 in 82 B.C., and signalized himself by many acts of in- 
 justice and cruelty. Having been defeated by Sulla, he 
 caused himself to be killed by one of his officers. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Marius." 
 
 Marius, ( Marcus Aurelius, ) one of the Thirty 
 Tyrants of Gaul, was, on the death of Victorinus the 
 Younger, chosen emperor by the army. He was assas- 
 sinated about 268 a.d., after a reign of a few months. 
 
 Maiivaux, de, deh mS're'vo', (Pierre Carlet de 
 CHAMBLAIN,) a French novelist and dramatic writer, 
 born in Paris in 1688. His principal works are his ro- 
 mances entitled "Marianne" and "Le Paysan parvenu," 
 which enjoyed great popularity at the time, and were 
 among the first novels which delineated real life and 
 manners. He also wrote a number of comedies. The 
 affected style and false sentiment of these productions 
 have given rise to the term marivaudage. "Never," 
 says La Harpe, " did any one turn common thoughts in 
 so many ways, each more affected than the last ;" and 
 Voltaire, admitting that Marivaux knew "the paths to 
 the heart," maintains that "he was ignorant of the high- 
 road." He was elected to the French Academy in 1743, 
 having Voltaire for a competitor. Died in 1763. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Correspondance avec D'Alembert ;" Grimm, 
 " Conespondance litteVaire;" La Harpe, " I.ycee:" Vili.f.main, 
 11 Histoire de la Literature Francaise au dix-huilieine Siecle ;" 
 Sainte-Bkuve, "Causeries du Lundi ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Marivetz, de, deh mt're'vi', (Etienne Clement,) 
 Baron, a French savant, born at Langres in 1728, pub- 
 lished several treatises on physics, etc. He was executed, 
 by order of the Revolutionary Tribunal, in 1793. 
 
 Marjolin, mSR'zho'laN', (Jean Nicolas,) a French 
 writer and surgeon, born in 1780; died in 1850. 
 
 Mark, |Gr. tiiipKoc ; Lat. Mar'cus; It. Mar'co; Fr. 
 Marc, miRk,] Saint, the Evangelist. He was a 
 companion of Saint Peter in his travels, (see I. Peter»v. 
 13,) and is supposed to have planted the Church at Alex- 
 andria. The early Christian writers believed that he was 
 the interpreter of Saint Peter, and that he wrote his 
 Gospel in Greek, under the direction and with the appro- 
 bation of that apostle. Saint Augustine thought it was 
 an abridgment of the Gospel of Matthew. According to 
 tradition, he suffered martyrdom in Egypt in 68 a.d. 
 By many critics he is identified with John surnamed 
 Mark, who was a companion of Paul and Barnabas in 
 their mission to the Gentiles about 45 A.D., (Acts xii. 
 12, 25, xiii. 13, xv. 37,) and who was in Rome with 
 Paul in 63 A.D. 
 
 See Colossians iv. 10: II. Timothy iv. it. 
 
 Markham, mark'am, (Gervase,) an English soldier 
 and miscellaneous writer, born in Nottinghamshire 
 about 1570, served in the royalist army in the civil war. 
 He was the author of a tragedy entitled "Herod and 
 Antipater," " The Poem of Poems, or Sion's Muse," etc., 
 and other works. Died about 1655. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry;" Langbaine, "Dra- 
 matic Poets;" Drake, " Shakespeare and his Times." 
 
 Mark'land, (Jeremiah,) an eminent English scholar 
 and critic, born in Lancashire in 1693. He published 
 editions of the "Sylvae" of Statius (1728) and the 
 "Supplices" of Euripides, which are esteemed master- 
 m'eces of acute criticism. He also assisted Dr. Taylor 
 in preparing his editions of Demosthenes and Lysias, 
 and published " Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to 
 Brutus," etc., in which he attempts to prove them spu- 
 rious. Died in 1776. 
 
 See Nichols and Bowver, "Literary Anecdotes." 
 Markof, maR'kof, Markov, or Markow, (Arcadi 
 Ivanovitch,) Count, a Russian diplomatist. On the 
 
 accession of Alexander I. he was appointed minister- 
 plenipotentiary to France, (1800.) 
 
 Marlborough, mal'buruh, (popularly called in 
 French Malbrouk, mil'brook'; Sp. Mambku, mam- 
 broo',) Duke of, originally John Churchill, an English 
 general, whose military genius and triumphs have been 
 equalled by those of few men of modern times, was born 
 at Ashe, in Devonshire, June 24, 1650. He was the son 
 ot Sir Winston Churchill and of Elizabeth Drake. His 
 education was rather defective. He received from nature 
 an eminently handsome person, a bland temper, and all 
 the qualities essential to a successful general and cour- 
 tier. In 1672, with the rank of captain, he setved in the 
 army which fought in alliance with France against the 
 Dutch. His bravery in this and the ensuing campaigns 
 attracted the favourable notice of Turenne and Louis 
 XIV. At the peace of 1678 he returned to England, 
 and married Sarah Jennings, whose talents and impe- 
 rious temper enabled her to exert an important influence 
 over his political conduct. 
 
 He was the favourite attendant and confidential agent 
 of the Duke of York before his accession as James 
 II., in 1685 ; and soon after that event he was raised to 
 the peerage, as Baron Churchill of Sandridge. Having 
 contributed to the defeat of Monmouth at Sedge- 
 moor, he was made a major-general. His wife was the 
 favourite of the king's daughter, Princess Anne, over 
 whom she had a complete ascendency. In the combi- 
 nations and intrigues which preceded the revolution of 
 1688, Lord Churchill acted with deep duplicity. After 
 secretly committing himself to the cause of William 
 of Orange, he professed his devotion to James in Novem- 
 ber, 1688, and, a few days later, deserted to the stronger 
 party. He was created Earl of Marlborough on the 
 accession of William HI., (1689,) and made a lord of 
 the bedchamber. 
 
 He commanded the English forces employed against 
 the French in the Low Countries in 1689, and led a suc- 
 cessful expedition against Cork and Kinsale in Septem- 
 ber, 1690. While he was thus trusted by William and 
 hated as an arch-traitor by the Jacobites, he opened a 
 treasonable correspondence with the dethroned king, 
 who was at Saint Germain's. According to Macaulay, 
 he undertook to corrupt the army, with which his bril- 
 liant successes and winning manners rendered him a 
 favourite in spite of his sordid avarice. The country 
 !>eing apprised of this plot, he was deprived of his offices 
 in January, 1692, and committed to the Tower a few 
 months later. Though he was quickly admitted to bail, 
 he passed the next four years in disgrace. About the 
 end of 1696 he was restored to his military rank and 
 command, and admitted to the privy council. (Respecting 
 Macaulay's charges against Marlborough, see J. Paget's 
 "New Examen," 1S61, and the "Quarterly Review" for 
 April, 1868.) 
 
 In 1701, William took Marlborough to Holland, gave 
 him command of his army, and invested him with ample 
 powers to negotiate with the allies in relation to the im- 
 pending war of the Spanish succession. He displayed 
 here the sagacity and address of a consummate diplo- 
 matist. The accession of Queen Anne, in March, 1702, 
 opened to him a brilliant career of glory abroad and 
 power at home. He became commander-in-chief of the 
 allied army, and at the end of the campaign in Flanders, 
 December, 1702, was created Duke of Marlborough. 
 About this time he and Prince Eugene began to ac t in 
 concert, and formed a cordial friendship, which greatly 
 promoted the success of the allies. Among their most 
 celebrated achievements was the decisive victory at Blen- 
 heim over the French marshal Tallard, August 13, 1704. 
 Marlborough gained a great victory at Ramillies in 1706, 
 and shared with Eugene the triumph at Oudenarde in 
 1708. The allies also claimed the victory over Mar- 
 shal Villars at Malplaquet, (1709,) although their loss 
 amounted, it is said, to 25,000 men. 
 
 During these foreign transactions, Godolphin, the 
 duke's personal and political friend, had been the head 
 of the English Tory ministry. The Tories, who had the 
 warm sympathy of the queen, wished to discontinue the 
 war, and fomented intrigues against Marlborough. His 
 duchess, a zealous Whig, with much importunity pre- 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MARLBOROUGH 
 
 1529 
 
 MARMONTEL 
 
 vailed on him to coalesce with the Whigs, who insisted 
 on prolonging the war. The fondness of the queen for 
 the Duchess of Marlborough was at length turned into 
 violent aversion. The Tories obtained a complete as- 
 cendency in 1710, and Marlborough was dismissed with 
 disgrace from all his employments at the end of 1711. 
 On the accession of George I. (1714) he was restored to 
 favour, and again became captain-general and master of 
 the ordnance. He died in 1722, leaving his titles and 
 estate to the male heirs of his daughter, who was mar- 
 ried to Charles Spencer, Earl of Sunderland. 
 
 See Coxr, "Memoirs of John, Dvike of Marlborough," 3 vols., 
 1S1S; Sir A. Alison, "Life of Marlborough," 1S47; Macaulav, 
 "Hi-lory of England;" Thomas Ledyard, "History of John, 
 Duke of Marlborough," 3 vols., 1730; John Campbell, "Military 
 History of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough," 2 vols., 
 1736; Charles Bucke, "Life of John, Duke of Marlborough," 
 1S39: J. F. Hugues Dutems, "Histoire de J. Churchill," etc., 
 3 vols., 1806-08, written by the order of Napoleon I.; George 
 Murray, "History of the Duke of Marlborough;" Abraham de 
 Vrykr, " Historie van J. Churchill," etc., 4 vols., 1738-40; " History 
 of Prince Eugene and Marlborough," by Dumont and Ruisskt, 
 translated from the French, 1736; Y ' London Quarterly Review" for 
 May. 1S20; " Blackwood's Magazine" for July and November, 1846, 
 and June, 1859. 
 
 Marlborough, (Sarah Jennings,) Duchess of, the 
 wife of the preceding, born In 1660, was celebrated for 
 her beauty, ambition, and political influence. She was 
 brought up from childhood with the princess Anne, who 
 regarded her with romantic fondness, combined with the 
 deference which the weak feel for superior minds. Im- 
 patient of the restraints of etiquette, Anne, in conversa- 
 tion and correspondence with her favourite, assumed the 
 name of Mrs. Morley, and addressed her friend as Mrs. 
 Freeman. In 1678 Miss Jennings was married to Colo- 
 nel Churchill, in whom she found an uxorious husband. 
 "History," says Macaulay, "exhibits to us few specta- 
 cles more remarkable than that of a great and wise man 
 who could carry into effect vast and profound schemes 
 of policy only by inducing one foolish woman, who was 
 often unmanageable, to manage another woman who was 
 more foolish still. . . . To the last hour of her hus- 
 band's life, she enjoyed the pleasure and distinction of 
 being the one human being who was able to mislead 
 that far-sighted and sure-footed judgment, who was fer- 
 vently loved by that cold heart and servilely feared 
 by that intrepid spirit." Having been supplanted in 
 the royal favour by Mrs. Masham, she was dismissed from 
 court in 1710, and became an inveterate misanthrope. 
 Died in 1744. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by Louisa S. Cos- 
 Tbllo, London, 1844. 
 
 Marliani, maR-le-a'nee, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Milan. He wrote "Topography of 
 Koine," (" Urbis Romas Topographia,") and other works. 
 Died about 1560. 
 
 Marlorat, maVlo'ri', (Augustin,) a French Prot- 
 estant theologian, lxirn at Bai -le-Duc in 1506. He be- 
 came minister of the Reformed Church at Rouen in 1560, 
 
 and acquired a great influence by his talents. He wrote 
 commentaries on Scripture, and other works. He was 
 put to death at Rouen in 1563. 
 
 Haag, "La France protestanle." 
 Marlowe, inar'lo, (Christopher,) an English drama- 
 tist, born at Canterbury in 1564. He studied at Corpus 
 Christi College, Cambridge, where he took his degree 
 in 1587. He afterwards devoted himself to dramatic 
 writing, and, according to some authorities, became an 
 actor, lie was addicted to low vii.es, and was killed in a 
 quarrel with a footman in 1593. The principal dramas 
 known 1. 1 he his are "The Jew of Malta," "Edward 
 tin- Second," and "The Tragical History, etc. of Dr. 
 Faustus:" the last-named was the original of Goethe's 
 celebrated " Faust." Marlowe is characterized by the 
 French critic Villemain as a genius, whose rude dramas, 
 disorderly as his life, contain splendid beauties and a 
 gloomy audacity, the influence of which has not been 
 lost upon Sbakapaai*. Hi.-" Iviust" is less elegant and 
 il than that of Goethe, but every thing that 
 the pathos ol stub a subject can effect — the fever of 
 doubt in a superstitious imagination, the boldness of 
 Impiety in a despairing heart — stamps this work with 
 the impress of extraordinary power. His "Edward 11." 
 was greatly admired by Charles Lamb, who says that 
 
 one of its scenes moves pity and terror beyond any 
 scene, ancient or modern. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry ;" Campbell, " Speci- 
 mens of the British Poets;" Villemain, "Melanges litte>aires ;" 
 Drake, " Shakspeare and his Times;" "Retrospective Review," 
 vol. iv., (1.821.) 
 
 Marmier, maVme-A', (Xavier,) a French litterateur 
 and traveller, was born at Pontarlier in 1809. He pub- 
 lished, among other works, " Studies on Goethe," " Poetic 
 Sketches," and " History of Literature in Denmark and 
 Sweden," (1839,) and made numerous translations from 
 the English and German. 
 
 Mar'ml-on, (Shakf.rly,) an English dramatist, born 
 in Northamptonshire in 1602. His principal works are 
 the comedies of " Holland's Leaguer," " A Fine Com- 
 panion," and "The Antiquary." Died in 1639. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatics ;" Wood, "Athens Oxo- 
 nienses." 
 
 Marmitta, maR-met'ta, (Ludovico,) an Italian gem- 
 engraver, born at Parma. Among his master-pieces is 
 a cameo representing a head of Socrates. He lived 
 about 1500. 
 
 Marmol, de, da maR-mol', (Luis Caravajal,) a 
 Spanish writer, born at Granada about 1520, accom- 
 panied the emperor Charles V. in his African campaigns. 
 He wrote a "General Description of Africa," (1599,) 
 and a " History of the Rebellion, etc. of the Moors of 
 Granada," (1600.) 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Prbscott, 
 "History of Philip II.," vol. iii. took v. 
 
 Marmont, de, deh miR'm6N', (Auguste Frederic 
 Louis Viessf.,) Duke of Ragusa, a celebrated French 
 marshal, born at Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1774, received 
 his military education at the artillery school of Chalons. 
 He accompanied Bonaparte as aide-de-camp in the Ital- 
 ian campaign of 1794, and, as general of brigade, took 
 part in the invasion of Egypt in 1798. He fought with 
 distinguished bravery at the battle of Marengo, (1800,) 
 obtained command of a division, and was appointed 
 inspector-general of artillery about 1802. Having as- 
 sisted at the capture of Ulm, in 1805, Marmont became 
 in 1806 general-in-chief of the army in Dalmatia, and 
 gained a signal victory over a superior force of Russians 
 and Montenegrins at Castelnuovo. In 1807 he carried 
 out a system of public works, the most important of 
 which was a line of road-way two hundred and ten miles 
 in length ; and for this service he was created 1 Hike of 
 Ragusa. Soon after the battle of Wagram (1809) he 
 was made a marshal of France, and appointed Governor- 
 General of the Illyrian provinces. As commander of 
 the second corps, in 1813 he took part in the battles 
 of Bautzen, Dresden, and Leipsic, and closed the cam- 
 paign of 1814 by his engagement near Paris with the 
 allied army of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, (March 30.) 
 Though contending against a greatly superior force, 
 Marmont and Mortier refused to capitulate until au- 
 thorized to do so by Joseph Bonaparte. In April, 1814, 
 Marshal Marmont, after stipulating with Prince Schwar- 
 zenberg for the withdrawal of the French troops into 
 Normandy, entered the service of the allies. He subse- 
 quently filled several high offices under the Bourbons. 
 Being called upon to suppress the revolt of July, 1830, 
 he brought great opprobrium upon himself by his failure 
 in this difficult task ; his name was struck off the army 
 list, and he was exiled. He died at Venice in 1852, 
 leaving " Memoircs du Due de Ragusc," (8 vols., 1856.) 
 See TiiiiRs, "History of the Consulate and of the Empire;" 
 Vaoi.aiiki.i.h. "Histoire des deux Restaurations;" BouRRIumt, 
 "Msmoirn;" Lamartink, " History of the Restoration ;" Mau- 
 Dl'lT, "IH-niiers Jours de la grande Arnute;" L. DB I.omRNIB, 
 " M. le MarichaT Marmont par im Homme de Rien," 1H44: 
 Saintk. I'.i < vh, "("miseries du I.undi," tome vi. ; "Nouvclle Bio- 
 (i. ■n.-i.tl,-;" "LotldoS Quantify Review" for June, 1845; 
 '• Edinburgh Rsviaw" for July, 1857. 
 
 Marmontel, maVntoN'tcl', (Jean Francois,) a cele- 
 brated French critic and miscellaneous writer, born in 
 Limousin in 1723. His family was poor, and he was 
 edui atcd in the Jesuits' College at Mauriac, but he did 
 not enter their order. At an early age he acquired the 
 friendship and patronage of Voltaire, on whose recom- 
 incml.itioti he visited Paris in 1746, and published the 
 same year a translation of Pope's " Rape of the Lock." 
 He brought out in 1748 his "Dionysius the Tyrant," 
 
 « M «,- 9 as j; g hard; g as;; u, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilltd; s as t; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MARMORA 
 
 1530 
 
 MAR.ONI 
 
 ("Denys le Tyran,") which was soon followed by"Aris- 
 coniene" and " Cleopatre," three tragedies, which had 
 considerable success at the time. His "Moral Tales" 
 ("Contes moraux," 1761) were received with extraor- 
 dinary favour, and were translated into the principal 
 languages of Europe, including Danish and Hungarian. 
 They are written with great elegance and animation ; 
 though their morality is often questionable. About this 
 time Marmontel was imprisoned for a short time in 
 the Bastille, on a false accusation of having satirized a 
 person of rank. He published in 1763 his "Poetique 
 Fiancaise," and in 1767 his political romance of " Beli- 
 saire," which obtained great popularity and has taken 
 its place among the classics of the language. The 
 empress Catherine II. ordered a translation of it into 
 Russian, and versions of it appeared in nearly all the 
 European languages. Some passages in the book, how- 
 ever, which favoured toleration, were denounced by the 
 Sorbonne, and the work was condemned by the Arch- 
 bishop of Paris, as containing impious and heretical 
 propositions. In the exciting controversy which followed, 
 Voltaire took an active part, and published several witty 
 and caustic pamphlets in defence of his protege. Mar- 
 montel was soon after appointed historiographer of 
 France. Among the most important of his other works 
 we may name " Les Incas," a romance, dedicated to 
 Gustavus III. of Sweden, the comic operas of "Le Hu- 
 ron," " Sylvain," and "Zemire et Azor," and the tragedy 
 of "Les lleraclides," which is highly commended by La 
 Harpe. His "Elements de Litterature" (6 vols., 1787) 
 is also ranked among his best productions. In 1783 
 Marmontel succeeded D'Alembert as perpetual secretary 
 of the French Academy. He lived in retirement in the 
 country during the greater part of the Revolution, and 
 died in 1799, leaving "Memoires" of his life. He had 
 married about 1778 the niece of Abbe Morellet. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Corraspondance ;" Saint-Surin, "Notice sur 
 Marmontel," 1824: La Hakpe, "Lycee:" Grimm, "Correspon- 
 dance litteVaire ;" Villenave, " Notice sur les Ouvrages de Mar- 
 montel," 1820; Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi," tome iv. ; 
 Mukkllet, " Eloce de Marmontel," 1805; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1806; "Monthly 
 Review" for November and December, 1805. 
 
 Marmora, della, del'la maR'mo-ra, (Alberto Fer- 
 rero — fer-rS'ro,) Count, a Sardinian general and savant, 
 born in 1789. He entered the French army, and rose 
 to be military commander in the island of Sardinia in 
 1849. He published "Travels in Sardinia; or, Statis- 
 tical. Physical, and Political Description of that Island." 
 
 Marmora, della, (Alessandro Ferrero,) brother 
 of the preceding, born in 1799, fought in the war for 
 Italian independence in 1848, and became a major-gene- 
 ral. He died in the Crimea in 1855. 
 
 Marmora, della, (Alfonso Ferrf.ro,) an Italian 
 general and statesman, brother of the preceding, was 
 born in Turin in 1804. He was appointed minister of 
 war by the King of Sardinia in November, 1849, resigned 
 in February, 1855, and the same year took command of 
 the Sardinian forces in the Crimean war, after which he 
 again served as minister of war. He was president of 
 the Council of Ministers from July, 1859, to July, i860. 
 In September, 1864, he became minister of foreign affairs 
 and president of the Council of Ministers in the kingdom 
 of Italy. He was succeeded by Ricasoli in June, 1866, 
 took command of the army, and was defeated by the 
 archduke Albert of Austria, at Custozza, in July of the 
 same year. 
 
 Marmora, della, (Carlo Ferrero,) Marquis, Prince 
 of Masserano, eldest brother of the preceding, was born 
 in 1788. Having been made lieutenant-general and sen- 
 ator of the kingdom of Sardinia, he accompanied Charles 
 Albert as first aide-de-camp in the campaigns of 1848 
 and 1849. Died in 1854. 
 
 Maine, de, deh maRn, (Jean Baptists,) a Flemish 
 Jesuit and historian, born at Douai in 1699, wrote a 
 " History of the County of Naraur," which has a high 
 reputation. Died in 1756. 
 
 Marne, de, or Demarne, (Jean Louis,) a painter, 
 born at Brussels in 1744. He was reduced to the neces- 
 sity of working at the porcelain-manufactory of Sevres, 
 and fell into a mannerism called the maniire porcelaine. 
 His early style was much more graceful. Died in 1829. 
 
 Marner, maR'ner, (Konrad,) a German minnesinger, 
 flourished about 1250-70. 
 
 Marnesia or Marnezia. See Lezay-Marnesia. 
 
 Mainix de Saint- Aldegonde, van, vSn mSr'neks' 
 deh saN't41'deh-g6Nd', (Philippe,) an eminent Flemish 
 writer and Protestant Reformer, was born at Brussels in 
 1538. He studied at Geneva, where he acquired the 
 friendship of Calvin and adopted his faith. In 1566 
 he drew up the celebrated formulary of the Flemish 
 nobles against the Inquisition. As burgomaster of Ant- 
 werp, he defended that city in 1584 against Alexander, 
 Duke of Parma ; but he was forced to capitulate in 1585. 
 He was the author of a " Picture of the Difference be- 
 tween the Christian Religion and Popery," and "The 
 Romish Bee-Hive." He also translated the Psalms into 
 Dutch verse, and was engaged on a Flemish version of 
 the Scriptures when he died, in 1598. "He was," says 
 Motley, "a man of most rare and versatile genius. 
 Scholar, theologian, diplomatist, swordsman, orator, 
 poet, pamphleteer, he had genius for all things, and was 
 eminent in all." 
 
 See Motley, " History of the United Netherlands," vol. i. chap, 
 iii. ; Strada, " De Bello Belgico;" Johannes Prins, " Leven van 
 P. van Marnix," 1782 : Dressei.huis, " F. van Marnix, Heer van 
 Mont Saint-Aldegonde," 1832; Willem Broes, " F. van Marnix, 
 Heer van Saint-Aldegonde," etc., 2 vols., 1838-40. 
 
 Maro, the cognomen of Publius Virgilius Maro. 
 (See Virgil) 
 
 Marochetti, ml-ro-ket'tee, (Charles,) Baron, a 
 celebrated Sardinian sculptor, born at Turin about 1805. 
 After executing several works in Paris, among which 
 was an equestrian statue of Emmanuel Philibert, Duke 
 of Savoy, he went to London in 1848. Under the patron- 
 age of the court and the nobility, he produced a colossal 
 equestrian statue of Richard Cceur-de-Lion, (1851,) a 
 bust of Prince Albert, an equestrian statue of Queen 
 Victoria at Glasgow, (1854,) a statue of Lord Clyde, 
 (1867,) and several groups of statuary. He was elected a 
 Royal Academician in 1866. Died in December, 1867. 
 
 Marochetti, (Vincenzio,) an Italian scholar, father 
 of the preceding, was born in Piedmont about 1768. 
 He was appointed advocate to the court of cassation in 
 Paris. Died in 1820. 
 
 Maroli, nia'ro-lee, (Domenico,) a Sicilian painter, 
 born at Messina in 1612. He was killed in the revolu- 
 tion of Naples, (1676.) 
 
 Marolles, de, deh mi'rol', (Michel,) a French litti- 
 raieur, born in Touraine in 1600, was Abbe de Villeloin. 
 He made translations from Juvenal, Statius, and other 
 classics, which were much esteemed at the time. He 
 made a valuable collection of prints, which were added 
 to the royal cabinet. Died in 1681. 
 
 See NicAron, " Me"moires ;" M. de Marolles, "Memoires," 
 1656. (and in 3 vols., 1755.) 
 
 Ma'ron, Saint, written also Maroun, an anchorite 
 of the fourth century, resided in Asia Minor. He is 
 supposed by some writers to have been the founder of 
 the Maronites, while others ascribe the origin of that 
 sect to another of the same name, living in the seventh 
 century. 
 
 Maroncelli, ma-ron-chel'lee, (Piero,) an Italian pa- 
 triot, musician, and poet, born at Fori! in 1795. He 
 published in 1819 a hymn, for which he was imprisoned 
 a short time. He was again arrested in 1820, and con- 
 demned to twenty years' imprisonment in the fortress 
 of Spielberg, where his intimate friend Silvio Pellico 
 was confined at the same time. They were at first sepa- 
 rated, but at the end of three years were permitted to 
 enjoy each other's society. They were released in 1830, 
 Maroncelli having previously suffered the amputation of 
 one of his legs, in consequence of a disease contracted 
 in the prison. Died in New York in 1846. 
 
 See Silvio Pellico, "My Prisons;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale." 
 
 Marone, ma-ro'nk, (Andrea,) an Italian improvisa- 
 tore, born in the Friuli in 1474, was celebrated for his 
 skill in improvising Latin verse on any given subject. 
 Died in 1527. 
 
 Maroni, da, da ma-ro'nee, or Maron, ma-ron', 
 (Theresa,) a sister of the celebrated Raphael Mengs, 
 was distinguished as a painter of miniatures. Having 
 accompanied her brother to Rome, she was there mar- 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
MAROOF 
 
 '531 
 
 MARRTAT 
 
 . ried to the Chevalier da Maroni, an artist. Died 
 in 1806. 
 
 Mai oof- (or Marouf-) el-Karkhi, ma-roof el kaR'- 
 Kee, one of the founders of the Soofees, (Soufis,) or 
 Mussulman mystics, born near Bagdad about 750; 
 died about 815. 
 
 See Hammer-Purgsta-ll, " Literaturgeschichte der Araber." 
 
 Maroof- (or Marouf-) Mohammed-ben- Abdel- 
 Khalik, ma-roof mo-hlm'med ben ab'del Ka'lik, an 
 Arab lexicographer of the ninth century. His principal 
 work is an Arabic Lexicon, in which words are explained 
 in Persian. 
 
 Marot, mjfro', (Clement,) a French poet, born at 
 Cahors in 1495, was a son of Jean, noticed below. He 
 was patronized at the court of Francis I., and became a 
 page to his sister, Margaret of Valois. He was impris- 
 oned in 1526 on a charge of heresy, and during his con- 
 finement composed his " Enfer," (" Hell,") an allegorical 
 satire, and prepared a new edition of the "Roman du 
 Rust." After his release he visited Geneva, where he 
 professed Calvinism ; but he was subsequently obliged 
 to leave the place, on account of some misdemea- 
 nour, and, having renounced his new faith, accompanied 
 Francis I. in his Italian campaign of 1535. He was the 
 author of numerous lyric poems, epigrams, etc., which 
 were greatly admired for their grace and vivacity; and 
 the style Marotique has been imitated by La Fontaine 
 and other French writers. His version of the Psalms 
 was very popular at the time. Died in 1544. 
 
 See Aucuis. " Vie de Afarot," prefixed to an edition ofliis works, 
 5 vols., 1823: Bavlh, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Jan 
 Suet, "Leven en Bedrijf van C. Marot," 1655: Saintk-Beuvh, 
 "Tableau de la Poe'sie Francaise au sei/.ieme Siecle:" "Nouvelle 
 Bioernphie Generale :" NlCERON, "Memoires;" Longfku.uw, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Marot, (Daniel,) son of the architect Jean Marot 
 noticed below, was born in Paris about 1660. lie be- 
 came architect to William, Prince of Orange, whom he 
 accompanied to England in 1688. 
 
 Marot, (Francois,) a French painter, born in Paris 
 in 1667 ; died in 1719. 
 
 Marot, (JEAN,) a French poet, born near Caen in 
 1463, was patronized by Anne of Brittany, queen of 
 Charles VIII. He subsequently accompanied Louis 
 XI I. in his expedition to Venice and Genoa, of which he 
 wrote an account Died in 1523. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "La Poe'sie Francaise au seizieme Siecle." 
 
 Marot, (JEAN,) a French architect and engraver, born 
 in Paris about 1630. He furnished the design for the 
 principal facade of the Louvre. Although a Protestant, 
 he was appointed royal architect. Died in 1679. 
 
 Maroto, ma-m'to, (Don Rafael,) a Spanish Carlist 
 general, born at Conca in 1785. On the death of Zu- 
 mala-Carreguy, he was appointed to the chief command 
 in Biscay, and boob after defeated Kspartem at Arrigoria. 
 In 1839 be concluded with the queen's party the treaty 
 of Bergara. Died in 1847. 
 
 Maroun. See Ma ron. 
 
 Maroutha. See Marutha. 
 
 Marozia, m.Vrot'sc-il, or Mariuccia, mS-re-oot'chS, 
 a K< inan lady, celebrated for her beauty and profligacy, 
 was the daughter of the famous Theodora. She was 
 ..sively married to Duke Albcric of Tuscany, Guido, 
 Marquis of Tuscany, and !lug<>, King of Italy and Aries. 
 In 928 she caused Pope John X. to be murdered, and 
 afterwards raised three others to the tiara, among whom 
 was her son by Pope Sergitts III. Her son Alberic hav- 
 ing revolted against her, she was imprisoned for the 
 ider of her life. 
 
 Mar-pes'sa, [Gr. NupKrjtjoa : Fr. Marpesse, maV- 
 pess',| a daughter of Kvenus, beloved by Apollo. 
 ri'-MKk's "Iliad," book ix. 
 
 Marpurg, maR'pooRG, (Friedrich Wilhf.lm,) an 
 eminent writer on music, born at Seehausen, in Prussian 
 Sax my, in 1718. Among his principal works are "Treat- 
 ises on Fugue," "Critical Introduction to the History 
 of Music," (I7s4,) and " Rudiments of Theoretic Music, 
 (1760.) Died in 1795. 
 
 I ktis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 Marquard. See Frkiier, (Marquard.) 
 Marquet, maVk^', (Francois Nicolas,) a French 
 botanist, and physician to Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, 
 
 was born at Nancy in 1687. He wrote several medicai 
 and botanical works. Died in 1759. 
 
 Marquette, maVkeV, (Jacques,) a celebrated French 
 missionary and discoverer, was born in Picardy. He 
 travelled and laboured several years in Canada and other 
 regions. The first Europeans who are certainly known 
 to have discovered and explored the Mississippi River 
 were Father Marquette and M. Joliet, who in 1673 con- 
 ducted a small exploring party from Quebec. Entering 
 the great river at the mouth of the Wisconsin, they de- 
 scended in canoes nearly to the mouth of the Arkansas, 
 or to latitude 34 , which they reached in July, 1673. They 
 were deterred from pursuing the voyage by reports that 
 the river below was infested by armed savages, and they 
 returned in canoes to the mouth of the Illinois, which 
 they ascended. Marquette wrote a narrative of this 
 expedition, which was published in Paris in 1681. " He 
 writes," says Professor Sparks, " as a scholar and as a 
 man of careful observation and practical sense. In every 
 point of view, this tract is one of the most interesting 
 among those that illustrate the early history of America." 
 Having resumed his missionary labours among the 
 Miamis on Lake Michigan, he died there in 1675. 
 
 See Charlevoix, " Histoire de la Nouvelle France:" Moreri, 
 " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Sparks, "American Biography," vol. 
 x., 1st series. 
 
 Marquis, mSn'ke', (Alexandre Louis,) a French 
 botanist, born at Dreux in 1777. He published " Frag- 
 ments of Botanic Philosophy," and other works. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Marracci, mar-rat'ehee, (Luigi,) an Italian priest, 
 eminent as an Oriental scholar, was born at Lucca in 
 1612. He became professor of Arabic in the College della 
 Sapienza, Rome. His principal work is an excellent 
 edition of the Koran in Arabic, with a Latin version, 
 (1698.) "This," says Hallam, "is still esteemed the 
 best." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 Died in 1700. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Marrast, mi'ras', (Armand,) a French republican 
 journalist and political writer, born in Haute-Garonne 
 in 1801. Soon after the revolution of 1830 he became 
 associate editor of the " Tribune," the organ of the ultra- 
 Liberal party. He was imprisoned in 1834 on a charge 
 of being implicated in the "Conspiracy of April," but 
 he soon effected his escape, and repaired to England, 
 where he married Lady Fitz-Clarence. On his return 
 to France he succeedecf Armand Carrel (1836) as prin- 
 cipal editor of " Le National," a p.opular daily journal, 
 winch he conducted with great ability for nearly twelve 
 years. After the abdication of Louis Philippe, (1848,) 
 Marrast became successively secretary of the provisional 
 government, mayor of Paris, and president of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly. He made valuable contributions to 
 the " Paris Revolutionnaire" and other works. Died in 
 1852. 
 
 See Regnavi.t, "Armand Marrast," in " Le Siecle," 1859: 
 "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Marre, van, vtn maR, (Jan,) a Dutch poet, born at 
 Amsterdam in 1696. His principal works are tragedies 
 entitled "Jacqueline of Bavaria" and " Marcus Curtius." 
 Died in 1763. 
 
 Marrier, mS're-i', (Martin,) a learned French Bene- 
 dictine monk, born in Paris in 1572. He published 
 " Bibliotheca Cluniacensis," ( 1 6 1 4. ) Died in 1644. 
 
 Marron, m$'r6N', (Marie Anne Carrei.et,) Ba- 
 ronne de Meillonaz, a French artist and dramatic writer, 
 born at Dijon in 1725. She was a friend and corre- 
 spondent of Voltaire. Died in 1778. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Correspondance." 
 
 Marron, mS'rAN', (Paul Henri,) a Protestant divine, 
 of French extraction, born at Leyden in 1754. He be- 
 came pastor of a church in Paris in 1788, and favoured 
 the Revolution. He contributed numerous valuable 
 articles to the " Biographie Universelle," and published 
 other works, on various subjects. He died in 1832, 
 leaving a large collection of engraved portraits, which 
 were purhased by Louis Philippe. 
 
 See Haag, 'La France protestante." 
 
 Mar'r^-at, (Frederick,) a popular English novelist 
 and naval officer, born in London in 1792. He entered 
 
 e as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J[y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MARS 
 
 1532 
 
 MARSHALL 
 
 ihe service as midshipman under Lord Cochrane in 
 1806, and distinguished himself during the three follow- 
 ing years in numerous engagements in the Mediterra- 
 nean and off the French coasts. He was made a captain 
 In 1815, and in 1821 commanded the Rosario, which 
 brought to the English government the news of the 
 death of Napoleon. He assisted in the attack on Kan- 
 goon in 1823, and in the expedition against the Malays 
 in 1824. He published, besides other novels, "Peter 
 Simple," (1834,) "Jacob Faithful," (1834,) "Japhet in 
 Search of his Father," (1836,) " Mr. Midshipman Easy," 
 (1836,) and " Masterman Ready," (1841.) Among his 
 works is "Valerie," an Autobiography, and a "Diary 
 in America," (6 vols., 1839.) Died in 1848. 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1839. 
 
 Mars, [Gr. 'Xpm, (Ares;) It. Marte, maR'ta,] the 
 name of the Roman god of war, was a contraction of 
 M.vvors. He was supposed to be a son of Jupiter and 
 Juno, and was identified with the Ares of Greek my- 
 thology. According to Ovid, he was a son of Juno, but 
 had no father. He was worshipped with extraordinary 
 honours by the Romans, of whom he was one of the 
 tutelary deities. Homer and other poets relate that 
 Mars fought for the Trojans at the siege of Troy and 
 was wounded by Diomede. He was called Gradivus, 
 Quirinus, Mavors, Salisubulus, Mamers, Enyalus, and 
 Camulus. The amours of Mars and Venus are very 
 celebrated. He was said to be the father of Romulus, 
 Remus, Cupid, Harmonia, and Meleager. Ares was one 
 of the twelve great Olympian gods of the Greeks, and 
 was especially worshipped in Thrace. According to 
 tradition, he fled to Egypt during the contest between 
 Typhon and the gods, and changed himself into a fish. 
 Having killed a son of Neptune, he was prosecuted 
 before the Areopagus (Mars Hill) at Athens, and was 
 acquitted. Mars was believed to love war for its own 
 sake, and to delight in carnage. He is usually repre- 
 sented as a grim soldier in full armour, — sometimes as 
 driving furiously in a war-chariot. 
 
 Mars, mar/, or ma"Rs, (Anne Francoise Hippolyte 
 Boutet Monvel — boo't&' iii6n'vJ1',) Mademoiselle, 
 a celebrated French actress, born in Paris in 1779. She 
 •was the daughter of Monvel, a popular actor at the 
 Theatre Francais, and an actress named Mars, and 
 was early trained for the stage. She excelled in genteel 
 comedy, in which she was considered unrivalled among 
 the actors of her time. She retired from the stage in 
 1841. Died in 1847. 
 
 See A. Lireux, " Mademoiselle Mars ; Notice biographique," 
 1847; L. Fusil, "Notice sur Mademoiselle Mars," 1847; R. de 
 Beauvoir, " M^mnires de Mademoiselle Mars," 2 vols., 1849; 
 " Nouvelle liiographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Marsais, du. See Dumarsais. 
 
 Marsand, maR-sand', (Antonio,) an Italian littera- 
 teur, born at Venice in 1765. He published an excellent 
 edition of Petrarch's poems, with a memoir, and several 
 original works on various subjects. Died in 1842. 
 
 Marscball von Bieberstein, maR'shal fon bee'ber- 
 stin', (Friedrich,) Freiherr, a German botanist, born 
 in 1766, removed to Russia, where he became a council- 
 lor of state. He published " Flora Taurico-Caucasica," 
 (1808-19.) Died in 1826. 
 
 Maischner, maRsh'ner, (Heinrich,) a German com- 
 poser and musician, born at Zittau in 1795, was appointed 
 chapel-master at Hanover. Among his most popular 
 works are the operas of "The Vampyre," "The Templar 
 and the Jewess," and "Hans Heiling." Died in 1861. 
 
 See Fetis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Mars'den, (William,) an eminent Orientalist, of 
 English extraction, born at Dublin in 1754. Having en- 
 tered the service of the East India Company, he sailed 
 in 1 771 to Iiencoolen, Sumatra, where he was appointed 
 principal secretary to the government and devoted him- 
 self to the study of the Malay language. He returned 
 in 1779 to England, and was soon after elected a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society. He published in 1782 his "His- 
 tory of Sumatra," which was very favourably received 
 and was translated into French and German. He was 
 subsequently appointed chief secretary to the board of 
 admiralty, with the war salary of ^4000 per annum. 
 Having resigned this post in 1807, he brought out in 
 
 iSia his "Grammar" and "Dictionary" of the Malay 
 language, which are esteemed standard works. He also 
 made an excellent translation of the "Travels of Marco 
 Polo," with a commentary, and wrote a description of 
 Eastern coins, entitled "Numismata Orientalia Illus- 
 trata," (1823.) He gave up his pension to the gov- 
 ernment in 1831, and soon after presented his valuable 
 collection of coins and medals to the British Museum, 
 and his library to King's College. Died in 1836. 
 
 See "Memoir of the Life, etc. of William Marsden," by himself, 
 ■ 838. 
 
 Marsh, (Anna Caldwell,) Mrs., an English au- 
 thoress, born in Staffordshire about 1798. Among her 
 most popular works we may name "Tales of the 
 Woods and Fields," (1836,) " Ravenscliffe," "Mount 
 Sorel," (1843.) allc > "Emilia Wyndham," (1846.) 
 
 Marsh, (Catherine,) an English writer, born at 
 Colchester about 1815. Among her works are "Me- 
 morials of Captain Hedley Vicars," " English Hearts 
 and English Hands," and "Light for the Line, 01 the 
 Story of Thomas Ward," which have gained extensive 
 popularity. 
 
 Marsh, (Dexter,) an American geologist, bom in 
 1806, made a large and choice collection of specimens 
 of fossil footprints, obtained chiefly in the Connecticut 
 valley. Died in 1853. 
 
 Marsh, ( George Perkins, ) LLD., an American 
 philologist and diplomatist, born in Windsor county, 
 Vermont, in 1801. He was appointed minister resi- 
 dent at Constantinople in 1849, ami in 1852 was sent on 
 an embassy to Greece. He has published, among other 
 works, a "Compendious Grammar of the Old Northern 
 or Icelandic Language, compiled and translated from 
 the Grammar of Rask," (1838,) and " Man and Nature," 
 (1864.) His wife, Caroline C. Marsh, has published a 
 number of poems and made translations from the Ger- 
 man. In 1861 he was appointed minister to Italy. 
 
 See Gkiswoi.d, "Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Marsh, (Herbert,) a learned English theologian, 
 born in London in 1757. He became professor of di- 
 vinity at Cambridge in 1807, and rose to be Bishop of 
 Peterborough in 1819. He published several religious 
 and controversial treatises, and translated Michaelis's 
 " Introduction to the New Testament" into English. 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 Marsh, (James,) an English chemist, born in 1789, 
 was the inventor of an apparatus, called by his name, 
 which detects the presence of arsenic in liquids, how- 
 ever minute the quantity. Its utility and certainty were 
 verified byOrfila and other toxicologists. Died in 1846. 
 
 Marsh, (James,) D.D., a distinguished American 
 scholar and divine, born at Hartford, Vermont, in 1794. 
 He was appointed professor of classics at Hampden- 
 Sidney College, Virginia, and in 1826 president of the 
 University of Vermont. He translated from the German 
 Herder's "Spirit of Hebrew Poetry," and contributed 
 religious and philosophical essays to the "Christian 
 Spectator" and other journals. Died about 1842. 
 
 Marsh, (Narcissus,) a learned prelate, born in Wilt- 
 shire in 1638, became successively Archbishop of Dublin 
 and of Armagh. He wrote an " Essay on an Introduc- 
 tion to the Theory of Sounds," which was inserted in 
 the "Philosophical Transactions" of the Royal Society. 
 Died in 1713. 
 
 Mar'shail, (Charles Kimisall,) an American Meth- 
 odist divine, born at Durham, Maine, in 1812, became 
 pastor of a church at Natchez, Mississippi. 
 
 Marshall, (Humphry,) an American botanist, was 
 a resident of Pennsylvania. He published in 1785 his 
 " Arbustum Americanum,"or catalogue of the trees and 
 shrubs of America, which was translated into French. 
 Died about 1805. 
 
 See W. Darlington, " Memorials of John Bartram and H. 
 Marshall," 1849. 
 
 Marshall, (John,) an eminent American jurist and 
 statesman, born at Germantown, Fauquier county, Vir- 
 ginia, on the 24th of September, 1755. He was the 
 eldest son of Colonel Thomas Marshall and Mary Keith, 
 who had fifteen children. He never attended a college, 
 but he was well educated under the care of his father. 
 He enlisted in the army in 1776, became a captain in 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, 6, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, £, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
MARSHALL 
 
 'J33 
 
 MARSTON 
 
 May, 1777, and served at the battles of Brandywine, 
 September, 1777, Gcimantown, and Monmouth, June, 
 1778. Having resigned his commission in 1781, he be- 
 gan to practise law, and was chosen a member of the 
 House of Delegates in 1782. In 1783 he married Mary 
 Willis Ambler, of York, Virginia, and became a resi- 
 dent of Richmond. As a member of the Convention 
 of Virginia, in 1788, he advocated the adoption of the 
 Federal Constitution by several powerful speeches. He 
 contributed more to the adoption of this Constitution 
 by Virginia than any man except James Madison. Ik- 
 became identified with the Federal party, and cordially 
 supported the administration of Washington. His 
 reputation was widely extended by a speech in the 
 Assembly of Virginia in favour of the treaty negotiated 
 by John Jay with Great Britain in 1794. In 1797 he 
 was associated with General I'inckney and Mr. Gerry in 
 a special mission to the French Directory. His incli- 
 nation or interest induced him to decline several high 
 offices, but, at the special request of General Washing- 
 ton, he became a candidate for Congress, and was elected, 
 in 1799. He made a great speech in Congress, defend- 
 ing President Adams for his surrender of Thomas Nash, 
 alias Robbins, who was claimed by the British govern- 
 ment as a fugitive from justice. This speech settled 
 forever the question whether such cases should be 
 decided by the executive or the judiciary. "That argu- 
 ment," says R. W. Grisvvokl, "deserves to be ranked 
 among the most dignified displays of human intellect." 
 He was appointed secretary of state by President Adams 
 in May, 1800, and displayed great diplomatic ability in 
 • his correspondence with Rufus King, minister to Eng- 
 land. On the 31st of January, 1801, he was appointed 
 chief justice of the supreme court of the United States. 
 He performed the functions of this high office for thirty- 
 four years, and rendered important services by the just 
 and liberal principles according to which he construed 
 the Constitution.' His profound learning and wisdom, 
 his moral courage, and his high-toned virtue secured for 
 him universal respect and confidence. His services as 
 an expounder of constitutional law are commended by 
 Judge Story in the following terms: "If all others of 
 the chief justice's judicial arguments had perished, his 
 luminous judgments on these occasions would have 
 given an enviable immortality to his name." In 1804 
 he published a "Life of George Washington," (5 vols.,) 
 which is highly esteemed. Judge Marshall was distin- 
 guished for his benevolence, modesty, urbanity, and 
 simplicity. He was a devout believer in Christianity, 
 and was happy in his domestic relations. He died in 
 Philadelphia (whither he had gone for medical advice) 
 in July, 1835. "To one who cannot follow his great 
 Judgments,'' says R. W. Griswold, " in which at the same 
 time the depths of legal wisdom are disclosed and the 
 limits of human reason measured, the language of just 
 eulogy must wear an appearance of extravagance. In 
 his own profession he stands for the reverence of the 
 wise rather than for the enthusiasm of the many." 
 
 See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America :" Judge Joseph 
 Story, notice of John Marshall, in the "National Portrait-Gallery 
 of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. ; Horace ISinnev, " Kulogy 
 on the Life and Character of John Marshall ;" " North American 
 Review*' for January, 1828, ana January, 1836. 
 
 Mar'shall or Mareschal, (Thomas,) an English 
 scholar, born in Leicestershire about 1621. He became 
 successively rector of Lincoln College, Oxford, chaplain- 
 in ordinary to the king, and Dean of Gloucester, (1681.) 
 He was distinguished for his knowledge of the Oriental 
 tongues and of the Anglo-Saxon, and published "Ob- 
 servations on Two Ancient Versions of the Gospels, — 
 the Gothic and the Anglo-Saxon," (in Latin, 1665,) also 
 a "Life of Archbishop Usher." Died in 1685. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena? Oxonieuses." 
 
 Marshall, (William Calder,) a Scottish sculptor, 
 born in Edinburgh in 1813, was a pupil of Chantrey. 
 He visited Rome about 1836, and settled in London in 
 1839. Among his chief works are " Sabrina," " Una 
 and the Lion," the "Dancing-Girl Reposing," (1846,) 
 which gained a prize of five hundred pounds, and a 
 statue of Sir Robert Peel. 
 
 Marshall, (William Humphrf.y,) an English bota- 
 nist and agricultural writer, born in 1 745. He published 
 
 a number of works which contributed greatly to the im- 
 provement of agriculture in England. He also wrote 
 " The American Grove ; or, Catalogue of the Trees, etc. 
 of the United States." Died in 1S18. 
 
 Marsh/am, (Sir John,) an English chronologist, born 
 In London in 1602. He embraced the cause of the 
 royalists in the civil war. He was the author of a work 
 entitled "Chronologicus Canon jEgyptiacus, Ebraicus," 
 etc., (1672,) in which he attempts to reconcile Egyptian 
 chronology with the Hebrew Scriptures, by supposing 
 four collateral dynasties of Egyptian kings reigning at 
 the same time. This theory has been adopted by several 
 eminent scholars. Died in 1685. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena: Oxonienses ;" Shuckford, " Sacred ar A 
 Profane History." 
 
 Marsh/man, (Joshua,) an eminent English divine 
 and Orientalist, born in Wiltshire in 1767. Being sent 
 by the Baptist Missionary Society to India in 1799, 
 he became a proficient in the Chinese, Sanscrit, and 
 Bengalee languages. He translated the four Gospels 
 into Chinese, and assisted Dr. Carey in preparing a 
 Sanscrit Grammar and a Bengalee-and-English Diction- 
 ary. He also translated the works of Confucius, and 
 wrote a " Defence of the Deity and Atonement of Jesus 
 Christ, in Reply to Rammohun Roy," (1822.) Died in 
 1837- 
 
 See Cox, " History of the Baptist Missionary Society." 
 
 Marsigli, maR-sel'yee, (Luigi Ferdinando,) a dis- 
 tinguished Italian naturalist and mathematician, born 
 at Bologna in 1658. He served in the Austrian army 
 against the Turks in 1683 and in several succeeding 
 campaigns, and was made a colonel in 1689. He was 
 one of the founders of the Society of Sciences and Arts 
 at Bologna, (1712,) to which he gave a very valuable 
 scientific collection. He afterwards visited England, 
 where he acquired the friendship of Newton and Halley 
 and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was 
 the author of "Physical History of the Sea," (1725,) a 
 description of the shores of the Danube, entitled " Danu- 
 bius Pannonico-Mysicus," etc., (1726, 7 vols, fob, finely 
 illustrated,) "The Military State of the Ottoman Em- 
 pire," (1732,) and other works. He had been elected 
 in 1725 a member of the Academy of Sciences, Paris. 
 Died in 1730. * 
 
 See Quincv, " Me'moires sur la Vie du Comte de Marsigli." 1741 : 
 Fontenkli.e, " Eloges des Acad^miciens ;" Fabroni, "Vita? Ita- 
 lorttm doctriua excelfentiuni ;" G. Fantuzzi, " Meinoria della Vita 
 del Conte Marsigli," 1770 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Marsilio (maR-see'le-o) [Lat. Marsil'ius] of Padua, 
 an Italian jurist, sometimes called Menandrino, born 
 at Padua. He was patronized by the emperor Louis of 
 Bavaria, in whose favour he wrote his " Defensor Pads," 
 an attack on the papacy, for which he was excommuni- 
 cated in 1327. Died in 1328. 
 
 Marsilius. See Marsilio. 
 
 Marsilius Ficinus. See Ficinus. 
 
 Marsin. See Marchin. 
 
 Marso, maR'so, [Lat. Pisci'nus,] (Paolo,) an Italian 
 savant, said to have been born at Piscina. He wrote a 
 commentary on the " Fasti" of Ovid, published in 1485, 
 and several Latin poems. 
 
 Marsollier, mftR'so'le-J', (Jacques,) a French writer, 
 born in Paris in 1647, was author of a "History of the 
 Inquisition and its Origin," (1693,) and several other 
 works. Died in 1724. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires." 
 
 Marsollier des Vivetieres, mfR'so'le-a' di vev'- 
 te-aiR', (BenoIT Joseph,) a French dramatist, born in 
 Paris in 1750, produced numerous comic operas, which 
 had great popularity. Died in 1817. 
 
 Mais'ton, (John,) an English dramatist, was the 
 author of tragedies entitled "Antonio and Mellida," 
 " Sophonisba, and "Antonio's Revenge," and several 
 comedies ; he was also associated with Ben Jonson and 
 Chapman in writing "Eastward, Ho!" His comedy of 
 " The Malecontent is esteemed his best work ; but he 
 is said to have borrowed a great part of it from Webster. 
 Died in 1634. 
 
 See Campbeu„ "Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Marston, (Westland,) an English poet and drama- 
 tist, born in Lincolnshire in 1819. He wrote "The 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (23r"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MARSUPIUS 
 
 1534 
 
 MARTIAL 
 
 Patrician's Daughter," "The Heart and the World," 
 and several other popular dramas. 
 
 Marsupius. See Marsuppinl 
 
 Marsuppini, maR-soop-pee'nee, [Lat. Marsu'pius,] 
 (Carlo,) an Italian scholar, sometimes called Are- 
 tino, born at Arezzo about 1399. He was appointed 
 professor of rhetoric at Florence in 1434, and secretary 
 of the Florentine republic in 1444. He translated into 
 Latin hexameter verse Homer's " Batrachomyomachia," 
 and wrote a number of Latin poems. Died in 1453. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italians. " 
 
 Mar'sus, (Domitius.) a Roman poet under the reign 
 of Augustus, was a friend of Virgil and Tibullus. Among 
 his extant works is a poem entitled " Cicuta," and a 
 number of fragments have been collected by Broek- 
 huisen in his edition of Tibullus. 
 
 See Weichert, " De Domitio Marso, Poeta." 
 
 Marsy, m*R'se', (Gaspard and Balthasar,) brothers 
 and distinguished French sculptors, born at Cambray, 
 the former in 1625 and the latter in 1628. Among their 
 master-pieces are the figures of the Baths of Apollo, 
 representing the "Tritons showering the Horses of 
 the Sun," and the group of " Latona and her Children." 
 Both brothers were members of the Academy of Painting 
 and Sculpture. Balthasar died in 1674, and Gaspard 
 in 1681. . 
 
 See Lenoir, "Muse> des Monuments Francais." 
 
 Marsy, de, deh mSR'se', (Francois Marie,) a French 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1714. He published, among 
 other works, a " History of Mary Stuart," and a Latin 
 poem entitled " Painting," (" Pictura,") which was much 
 admired. Died in 1763. 
 
 See La Harpe, "Cours de Literature." 
 
 Mar'sjf-as, [Gr. Mapava^,] a personage of the Greek 
 mythology, was called by some authors a Satyr, and a 
 son of Olympus. According to tradition, he found a 
 flute which Minerva had thrown away, (because her 
 face was distorted by playing on it,) and challenged 
 Apollo to a trial of skill in music, on the condition 
 that the victor might do what he pleased with the van- 
 quished. Apollo gained the victory, and flayed Marsyas 
 alive. This story was a favourite subject of ancient 
 poets and artists. 
 
 Martainville, maR'taN'veV, (Alphonse Louis Dieu- 
 t>onn£,) a litterateur and journalist, of French extraction, 
 born at Cadiz in 1776. He became associate editor of 
 several political journals of Paris. He wrote a number 
 of bold and witty satires on the Jacobins, and several 
 popular comedies. Died in 1830. 
 
 Martange, de, deh mSii't6Nzh', (N. Bonnet,) a 
 French general and writer, born at Beauce in 1722, 
 served in the Austrian army in the Seven Years' war. 
 He wrote several poems and tales. Died in 1806. 
 
 Marteilhe, mSR'tJI' or mSR't^'ye, (Jean,) a French 
 Protestant, born at Bergerac in 1684, was condemned in 
 1702 to the galleys at Dunkirk, where he spent seven 
 years. Died in 1777. 
 
 See "The Huguenot Galley-Slave, " New York, 1867; "Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1866. 
 
 Mattel, (Chari.es.) See Chari.es Martel. 
 
 Martel, mi R'tel', (Francois,) a French surgeon, born 
 at Perigueux in 1549. He became first surgeon to Henry 
 IV. Died about 1610. 
 
 Martel, maR-tlV, (Geronimo,) a Spanish historian, 
 wrote a valuable work entitled " Forma de celebrar 
 Cortes." He became royal historiographer in 1597. 
 
 See Prescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. 
 ptri i. 
 
 Marteliere, de la, deh li mtRt'le-aiR', (Pierre,) a 
 celebrated French lawyer, was born at Bellesme in 
 the sixteenth century. He published a number of 
 pleas, one of which, in favour of the University of Paris 
 against the Jesuits, was very much admired. Died 
 in 1631. 
 
 Martelli, maR-tel'lee, (Ludovico,) an Italian poet, 
 Bom at Florence in 1499. He wrote lyric poems, and 
 "Tullia," a tragedy. Died in 1527. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire litteVaire d' Italic" 
 
 Martelli orMartello, maR-tel'lo, (Pietro Giacomo,) 
 an Italian littlrateur, born at Bologna in 1665. He wrote 
 
 poems and dramas, which were popular at the time. 
 Died in 1727. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vit.-e Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" "Vita di 
 Martelli," (written by himself,) in Cai.ogera's " Raccolta," vol. ii. 
 
 Martelly, de, deh m$R't&'le', (Honors Francois 
 Richard,) a French actor and dramatist, born at Aix in 
 1751, published a comedy entitled "The Two Figaros," 
 and other works. Died in 181 7. 
 
 Martene, miR't&N', (Dom Edmond,) a learned French 
 ecclesiastic, of the order of Benedictines, born in the 
 diocese of Dijon in 1654. In 1708 he visited the abbeys 
 and cathedrals of France, in order to procure materials 
 for a new edition of the " Gallia Christiana." He also 
 published a "Collection of Old Authors and Historical 
 Monuments," (1700,) in Latin, and, conjointly with his 
 friend Durand, "Literary Travels of Two Benedictines 
 of Saint-Maur," (1717.) Died in 1739. 
 
 See Tassin, "Histoire litteraire de la Congregation de Saint 
 Maur." 
 
 Martens, maR'tens, written also Mertens, [Lat. 
 Marti'nus,] (Thierry,) a Flemish printer, born at Alost 
 about 1450,' is said to have introduced the art of printing 
 into the Netherlands. He exercised his profession at 
 his native town, and subsequently at Louvain and Ant- 
 werp. He printed in Roman characters, hitherto un- 
 known, and his editions of the classics were highly prized. 
 Martens was an intimate friend of Erasmus, who com- 
 posed a Latin epitaph upon him. Died in 1534. 
 
 See Maittaire, "Annales Typographies;" Marchand, "His- 
 toire de l'Imprimerie ;" F. A. van IsbGHBM, " Biographie de Thierry 
 Martens," 1S52: Theodore Juste, "Notice biographique sur T. 
 Martens," 1849. 
 
 Martens, von, fon maR'tens, .(Georg Friedrich,) - 
 a German jurist, born in Hamburg in 1756. Among his 
 works, which are chiefly written in French, we may name 
 his "Collection of Treaties," (1791,) and "Summary of 
 Modern European Law," (1821.) Died in 1821. 
 
 Martens, von, (Karl,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 was born about 1790. He was employed as a diplomatist 
 by the King of Prussia. He published, besides other 
 works in French, "Causes celebres du Droit de Gens," 
 (3 vols., 1827,) and "Guide diplomatique," (2 vols., 1832.) 
 
 Martensen, maR'ten-sen, (Hans Lassen,) a Danish 
 theologian, born at Flensborg in 1808. He became 
 Bishop of Seeland in 1843, and court preacher at Copen- 
 hagen in 1845. His principal work is a treatise on 
 Christian Doctrine, " Den Christelige Dogmatik," (1849.) 
 
 Mar'tha, [Gr. MltpSa; Fr. Marthe, m$Rt,] a sister of 
 Mary and Lazarus of Bethany. 
 
 See John xi. ; Luke x. 
 
 Marthe. See Martha. 
 
 Marthe, mtm, (Anne Biget— be'zhj',) a French 
 nun, called Sister Martha, bom at Besancon in 1749, 
 devoted herself during the Revolution to the relief of the 
 sick and wounded, and of prisoners of all nations. Died 
 in 1824. 
 
 Marti, maR'tee, [Lat. Marti'nus,] (Manuel,) a 
 Spanish scholar and poet, born near Valencia in 1663. 
 He published a collection of poems, entitled " Amalthea 
 Geographica," and made several translations from the 
 Latin. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Mayan, "Vita Emanuelis Martini," 1735. 
 
 Martial, mar'she^l, [Fr. Martial, mtR'se'tl' ; Lat. 
 Martia'lis ; It. Marziale, maRt-se-a'la,] or, more fully, 
 Mar'cus Vale'rius Martia'lis, a famous Latin epi- 
 grammatic poet, born at Bilbilis, in Spain, about 40 a.d., 
 went to Rome at the age of twenty-two, and resided there 
 thirty-five years. The events of his life are very imper- 
 fectly known ; but it appears that he devoted his atten 
 tion chiefly to poetry. Some epigrams which he wrote 
 on the occasion of the public spectacles given by Titus 
 about the year 80, procured him the favour of that prince. 
 He was also patronized by Domitian, who made him a 
 tribune and a Roman knight. He was intimate with 
 Juvenal, Quintilian, and Plniy the Younger. About 98 
 a.d. he returned to his native place, where he died a few 
 years later. Fourteen books of his " Epigrams" are still 
 extant, and are much admired by some eminent critics, 
 such as Scaliger, Lipsius, and Malte-Brun. The latter 
 thinks his writings are among the most interesting monu- 
 ments of Roman literature, though many of them offend 
 against good taste and pure morality. Probably no poel 
 
 i, e, I, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MARTIAL 
 
 •535 
 
 MARTIN 
 
 ever estimated his works more justly than he did in the 
 following line : 
 
 "Sunt bona, sunt quxdam mediocria, sunt plura mala." 
 (" Some are good, some indifferent, and more are bad.") 
 See Crush's, " Life of Martial," in " Lives of the Roman Poets," 
 J726: Lrssing, "Vermischte Schriften;" A. Pbricaud. " Essai sur 
 Mutial," 1^16; Fabricics, " Uibliotheca Latina:" " M. V. Mar- 
 ! ; s Men-ch und Dichter," Berlin, 1S43: "Martial and his 
 Times," in the "Westminster Review" for April, 1853. 
 
 Martial d'Auvergne. See Auvergne, d', (Mar- 
 tial.). 
 
 Martialis. See Martial 
 
 Martianay, maVse'S'iiJ', (Dom Jean,) a French 
 Benedictine monk and theological writer, born in 1647 ; 
 died in 1717. 
 
 Martignac, de, deh mf R'ten'ytk', (Etienne Algay,) 
 a French litterateur, born at Brives-la-Gaillarde about 
 1620. He published " Memoirs of Gaston, Duke of 
 Orleans," and made translations from Horace, Juvenal, 
 and other classics. Died in 1698. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV." 
 
 Martignac, de, (Jean Baptists Svlvere Gave,) 
 VlCOMTE, an able and eloquent French statesman under 
 Charles X., was born at Bordeaux in 1776. He was 
 elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1821. As the 
 head of the ministry that came into power in January, 
 182S, he held the office of minister of the interior, and 
 (ought to unite conflicting parties for the support of the 
 throne ; but, unable to effect this object, and forsaken by 
 the king and the court, he resigned his place in August, 
 1829, and was succeeded by Polignac. On the trial of 
 the latter, Martignac became his eloquent defender 
 in the Chamber of Peers. He died in 1832, leaving a 
 "Historical Essay on the Spanish Revolution," and 
 other works. 
 
 See Capefigue, " Histoire de la Restauration ;" ChAteaubriand, 
 " Memoires d'Outre-Tombe ;" L. de Lomenie, " M. de Martignac 
 par un Homme de Rien," 1842: " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Martigues, miR'teg', (Sbbastif.n de Luxembourg,) 
 VlSCOTJNT, a brave French officer, who assisted at the 
 siege of Metz, (1552,) and in the capture of Calais by 
 the Duke of Guise, (1558.) He was killed in 1569. 
 
 Mar'tin [Lat. Marti'nus] I. succeeded Theodore as 
 pope in 649 a.d. Having condemned the Monothelites, 
 he was banished by the emperor Constans II., who 
 favoured that sect, to the Thracian Chersonesus, where 
 he died in 655 a.d. 
 
 Martin n., or Marinus I., succeeded John VIII. as 
 pope in 882 A.D. Died in 884, and was succeeded by 
 Adrian III. 
 
 Martin LTI., or Marinus U., born at Rome, suc- 
 ceeded Stephen VIII. in 942, and died in 946. His 
 successor was Agapetus II. 
 
 Martin IV., (Cardinal Simon de Brion — deh 
 bKe'o.s', (or Brie — bRe,)) a native of Touraine, in France, 
 succeeded Nicholas III. in 1281. He adhered to the 
 cause of Charles of Anjou, and when, after the Sicilian 
 Vespers, that sovereign lost his power in Sicily, Martin 
 excommunicated Peter of Aragon, who had been chosen 
 king of that country. He died in 1285, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Honorius IV. 
 
 Martin V. (Cardinal Otho Colonna— ko-lon'na) 
 was elected pope in 1417, in the place of John XXIII., 
 deposed by the Council of Constance. In 1431 he 
 called a council at B&le, in Switzerland, for the purpose 
 of effecting a reform in the Church, and sent Cardinal 
 Julian Cesarini as his legate. He died soon after, and 
 was succeeded by Eugene IV. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontifes 
 Romains." 
 
 Martin, son of Martin, King of Aragon, ascended 
 the throne of Sicily in 1399. He married in 1401, as his 
 second wife, Blanche, daughter of the King of Navarre. 
 He died in 1409, and the kingdom of Sicily was united 
 to that of Aragon by his father, who survived him. 
 
 Martin, surnamed Gallus, a French ecclesiastic of 
 the thirteenth century, was a missionary to Poland, and 
 wrote a history of that country, (" Chronica Polonorum,") 
 a valuable work, and the earliest one written on that 
 subject. 
 
 Mar'tin, (Alexander,) born in New Jersey about 
 1740, served as a colonel in the war of the Revolution, 
 
 and was chosen Governor of North Carolina in 1782. 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Martin, mjR'taN', (Andre,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 born in Poitou in 1621. He was one of the earliest 
 advocates of the Cartesian philosophy, and wrote 
 "Christian Moral Philosophy," (" Philosophia Moralis 
 Christiana.") Died in 1695. 
 
 Mar'tin, (Benjamin,) an English mathematician, born 
 in Surrey in 1704. He was the author of "The Philo- 
 sophical Grammar," (1735,) "New System of Optics," 
 (1740,) and other scientific works. Died in 1782. 
 
 Martin, (Bon Louis Henri,) an eminent French 
 historian, born at Saint-Quentin in 1810. He has pub- 
 lished a " History of France from the Earliest Times to 
 1789," (18 vols., 1838-53,) " Monarchy in the Seventeenth 
 Century," (1848,) a "Life of Daniel Manin," (1S59,) and 
 other similar works. The first enjoys a high reputation, 
 and has gained a prize of the Academie Francaise. He 
 published a revised edition of his " History of Fran ;e," 
 (1855-00.) 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1857. 
 
 Martin, (Christian Reinhold Dietrich,) a Ger- 
 man jurist, born near Gbttingen in 1772, was the author 
 of several legal works. Died in 1857. 
 
 Martin, (Claude,) a French soldier, born at Lyons in 
 1732. He accompanied General Lally to India, and sub- 
 sequently entered the English service. Having amassed 
 a large fortune, he built a magnificent palace near Luck- 
 now. He died in 1800, leaving numerous bequests for 
 charitable purposes. 
 
 See G. Martin, " filoge historique de C. Martin," 1830. 
 
 Martin, (Claude,) a learned French Benedictine 
 monk, born at Tours in 1619, published several devo- 
 tional works. Died in 1696. 
 
 Martin, (David,) a French Protestant theologian, 
 born at Revel in 1639. He published a "History of 
 the Old and New Testament," " Treatise on Natural 
 Religion," and other works, which enjoy a high reputa- 
 tion. Died in 172 1. 
 
 See Nice'ron, " Memoires." 
 
 Martin, (Francois,) an agent of the East India Com- 
 pany, born in France. In 1674 he formed a colony at 
 Pondicherry, of which city he afterwards became gov- 
 ernor. Died about 1725. 
 
 Martin, (EDME,) a French jurist, born near Sens 
 about 1714, became professor of canon law in Paris. 
 Died in 1793. 
 
 Martin, (Francois Xavier,) LL.D., born at Mar- 
 seilles, France, in 1764, emigrated about 1785 to North 
 Carolina, and subsequently settled in Louisiana. He 
 attained a high reputation as a jurist, and published His- 
 tories of Louisiana and North Carolina. Died in 1846. 
 
 Martin, (Gregory,) an English Catholic theologian, 
 was a native of Sussex. He became professor of Hebrew 
 at Douai, and subsequently at Rheims. His principal 
 work is an English translation of the Bible, which 
 appeared in 1610. Died in 1582. 
 
 Martin, (Jean BAPTISTS,) a French painter, surnamed 
 des Batailles, ("of battles,") born in Paris in 1659. 
 On the death of Van der Meulen, in 1690, he was ap- 
 pointed by Louis XIV. to paint hjs battles. Died in 1735. 
 
 Martin, (Jean Blaise,) a celebrated French vocalist, 
 born in Paris in 1767. He held the place of tenor solo 
 in the imperial chapel under Napoleon and his succes- 
 sors. Louis XVIII. and Charles X. Died in 1837. 
 
 Martin, (John,) an English painter, born in North- 
 umberland in 1789. He studied under Bonifacio Musso, 
 and in 1815 obtained the prize at the British Institution 
 for his picture of " Joshua commanding the Sun to stand 
 still." This was followed by "The Fall of Babylon," 
 (1818,) "Belshazzar's Feast," ( 1821,) "The Deluge," 
 (1826,) "The Fall of Nineveh," (1828,) and other 
 works on similar subjects, which enjoyed great tem- 
 porary popularity. He published in 1828 "A Plan for 
 supplying with Pure Water the Cities of London and 
 Westminster." Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Autobiography of John Martin," in the "Athenaeum," 
 1854; "Nouvelle Biographie G&ie'rale." 
 
 Martin, (Louis Aime,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Lyons in 1 781, became professor of rhetoric, history, 
 
 « as k; 9 as 1; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, natal; R, trilled: 3 as «; th as in thit. (Jjy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MARTIN 
 
 '536 
 
 MARTINET 
 
 etc in the Polytechnic School, Paris, about 1815. He was 
 an intimate friend of Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, whose 
 widow he married. Among his principal works are his 
 "Letters to Sophia on Physics, Chemistry," etc., (1810,) 
 "Collection of Tales, etc. in Verse and Prose," (1813,) 
 and an " Essay on the Life and Works of Bernardin de 
 Saint-Pierre," (1820.) Died in 1847. 
 
 See Lamartink, " Discours prononce sur la Tombe de M. Aime 
 Martin ;" Quhrard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Martin, (Luther,) an American lawyer, born about 
 1745. He was a delegate from Maryland to the conven- 
 tion which in 1787 formed the Constitution of the United 
 States. In this body he advocated the sovereignty and 
 equality of the States, contending that a small State 
 should send as many members to Congress as a large 
 State. Died in 1826. 
 
 Martin, (Margaret Maxwell,) born at Dumfries, 
 Scotland, in 1807, emigrated to America, and was mar- 
 ried in 1836 to the Rev. William Martin, a Methodist 
 divine. She has published " Methodism, or Christianity 
 in Earnest," and other religious works. 
 
 Martin, (Nicolas,) a French poet, born at Bonn, in 
 Prussia, in 1814. His mother was a sister of Karl Sim- 
 rock the poet. Among his works is " Le Presbytire, 
 Epopee domestique," (1856.) 
 
 Martin, (Pierre,) an admiral, of French extraction, 
 born in Canada in 1752. In 1795 he maintained a 
 prolonged fight with a superior English fleet under 
 Hotham, and was soon after made vice-admiral. Died 
 in 1820. 
 
 Martin, (Roiif.rt Montgomery,) an English writer, 
 born in Tyrone county, Ireland, about 1803. He published, 
 besides other works, "The Colonies of the British Em- 
 pire," (1834-38,) and "The Indian Empire : its History, 
 Topography/' etc., (1858-61.) Died in 1870. 
 
 Martin, I Lat. Marti'nus,] Saint, an eminent eccle- 
 siastic of the fourth century, was a native of Pannonia. 
 He was converted to Christianity at an early age, and 
 was made Bishop of Tours about 360 A.D. He founded 
 the abbey of Marmoutier, near the river Loire, and he 
 also established a monastery at Liguge, near Poitiers, 
 said to be the oldest institution of the kind in France. 
 Died about 396. 
 
 See Gekvaise, "Vie de Saint-Martin," 1699: Mrs. Jameson, 
 "Sacred and Legendary Art;" A. Dupuy, " Histoire de Saint- 
 Martin," 1852. 
 
 Martin, Saint, born in Hungary, became Archbishop 
 of Braga, in Portugal, and founded a number of monas- 
 teries in Galicia. He was the author of several theo- 
 logical works, in Latin. Died in 580 a.d. 
 
 Martin, (Sarah,) an English philanthropist, born near 
 Yarmouth in 1791, was distinguished for her labours in 
 the cause of prison-reform. Died in 1843. 
 
 See " Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles; Rev. Erskine 
 Neale, " Christianity and Infidelity Contrasted ;" " Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for April, 1847. 
 
 Martin, (Theodore,) a British writer, born in Edin- 
 burgh in 1816. He became a resident of London about 
 1846. In conjunction with Professor Aytoun, he pro- 
 duced a version of Goethe's poems and ballads, (1858.) 
 He also- translated the Odes of Horace, (i860.) 
 
 See the "North British Review" for February, 1862, and March, 
 1866. 
 
 Martin, (Thomas,) an English antiquary, born in 
 Suffolk in 1697. He was the author of a " History of 
 Thetford," published after his death by Gough, (1779,) 
 and was a contributor to Le Neve's "Monumenta Angli- 
 cana." Died in 1771. 
 
 Martin, (Thomas Henri,) a French philosopher, 
 born at Bellesme, in Orne, in 1813. His "Studies on 
 the Timaeus of Plato" (2 vols., 1841) obtained a prize of 
 the French Academy. He also published a "History 
 of the Physical Sciences in Antiquity," (2 vols., 1849.) 
 
 Martin, (William,) an English naturalist, born in 
 Nottinghamshire in 1769. He published "Figures and 
 Descriptions of Petrifactions in Derbyshire," and other 
 scientific works. Died in 1810. 
 
 Martin, (William D.,) an American jurist and poli- 
 tician, born in South Carolina in 1789; died in 1833. 
 
 Martin, de, deh mi R'taN', (Jacques,) a French writer, 
 born in the diocese of Mirepoix in 1684. He published, 
 among other works, a " History of the Gauls and of 
 
 ■■heir Conquests," etc., and " The Religion of the Gauls." 
 Died in 1751. 
 
 Mar'tin-dale, (John Henry,) an American general, 
 born at Sandy Hill, New York, about 1815, graduated 
 at West Point in 1835. He was a lawyer before the 
 civil war. He commanded a brigade at the battles of 
 Gaines's Mill, June 27, and Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862. 
 He commander! a division of General Grant's army in 
 the summer of 1864. In November, 1866, he was elected 
 attorney-general of New York. 
 
 Mar'tlne, (George,) a Scottish physician, born in 
 1702, accompanied Lord Catincart to America, where 
 he died in 1743. He published "Commentaries on the 
 Anatomical Tables of Eustachius," (in Latin,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Martineau, mar'te-no, (Harriet,) an English mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born at Norwich in 1802, was de- 
 scended from a French Huguenot family. Being left in 
 limited circumstances on the death of her father, she 
 devoted herself to literature as a means of support, and 
 published, in 1823, "Devotional Exercises for the Use 
 of Young People," which was succeeded by a number 
 of popular tales, among which we may name "Christmas 
 Day/ "The Rioters," (1826,) "Mary Campbell," (1827,) 
 "The Turn-Out," and "My Servant Rachel," (1828.) 
 Her "Traditions of Palestine" came out in 1831, and 
 were soon followed by a series of tales illustrating po- 
 litical economy, which were received with great favour 
 and were translated into French and German. In 1835 
 she visited the United States, where she spent about 
 two years, and published, after her return, " Society in 
 America," (1837,) and " Retrospect of Western Travel," 
 (1838.) Her novel of " Deerbrook" appeared in 1839, 
 and in 1840 the romance of "The Hour and the Man." 
 Her health becoming impaired about this time, she was 
 obliged to suspend her literary labours. After her re- 
 covery she published, besides other works, "Life in a 
 Sick-Room," (1845,) and " Forest and Game Law Tales," 
 (1845.) Among her later publications are a " History 
 of England during the Thirty Years' Peace," (2 vols., 
 1850,) " Letters between Miss Martineau and Mr. H. G. 
 Atkinson," etc., (1857,) and "Biographical Sketches," 
 (London, 1869.) She has also been a contributor to the 
 " Westminster Review" and other literary journals. 
 
 See " Men and Women of the Time ;" " Brief Biographies," by 
 Samuel Smiles; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1833, April, 1S38, 
 and April, 1847 : " London Quarterly" for January, 1839 : " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for April, r8st. 
 
 Martineau, (James,) a Unitarian divine, brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Norwich, in England, about 
 1805. He became professor of moral and metaphysical 
 philosophy in Manchester New College, London, in 1853, 
 and in 1858 associate pastor of the Unitarian Chapel in 
 Little Portland Street. Among his principal works are 
 "Rationale of Religious Inquiry," (1839,) "Endeavours 
 after the Christian Life," (1843,) and "Studies of Chris- 
 tianity," (1858.) Mr. Martineau occupies a prominent 
 position both as theologian and philosopher, being the 
 representative on the one hand of Unitarianism as op- 
 posed to Trinitarian orthodoxy, and on the other of 
 Theism and Spiritualism as opposed to the materialistic 
 tendencies of the age. 
 
 See the " British Quarterly Review" for October, 1859. 
 
 Martinelli, maR-te-nel'lee, (Domenico,) an Italian 
 architect and painter, born at Lucca in 1O50. Among 
 his best works is the palace of Prince Lichtenstein at 
 Vienna. Died in 1718. 
 
 Martinengo, maR-te-ii?n'go, (Girolamo Silvio,) 
 Count, an Italian poet, born at Venice in 1753, pub- 
 lished a translation of Milton's " Paradise Lost" (" II 
 Paradiso Perduto") into Italian verse. Died in 1834. 
 
 Martinengo, (Tito Prospero,) a learned Italian 
 ecclesiastic, born at Brescia, published a nun ber of 
 devotional poems, in Latin and Greek. Died in 1595. 
 
 Martinengo-Coleoni, maR-te-nen'go ko-la-o'nee, 
 (Giovanni Ettore,) an Italian officer and diplomatist, 
 born at Brescia in 1 754, entered the French service. 
 Died about 1830. 
 
 Martinet, maVte'ni', a French officer, who lived 
 about 1660-80 and introduced great improvements into 
 military tactics and the organization of the army. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV." 
 
 i, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, vi, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
 i,e 
 
MARTINET 
 
 '537 
 
 MARTINIERE 
 
 Martinet, nitR'te'nJ', (Jan Florf.ns,) a Dutch divine 
 and writer, born about 1735, was pastor of the Men- 
 nonite church at Zutphen. Died in 1796. 
 
 Martinet, (Louis Achili.e,) a French engraver, born 
 in Paris in 1806, gained the grand prize in 1830. He 
 engraved several works of Raphael and other old 
 masters. 
 
 Martinetti, maR-te-net'tee, (Giambattista,) an Ital- 
 ian architect, born at Hironico in 1764 ; died in 1829. 
 
 Martinez, mar-tee'neth, (Domingo,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Seville in 1690 ; died in 1750. 
 
 Martinez, (Gregorio,) a Spanish landscape-painter, 
 born at Valladolid, worked at Madrid. Among his best 
 works is a " Holy Family with Saint Francis d'Assisi." 
 Died about 1610. 
 
 Martinez, (Josf;,) a Spanish painter, born at Sara- 
 gossa in 1612, became painter to King Philip IV. Died 
 m 1682. 
 
 Martinez, (Sebastian,) a Spanish painter, born at 
 Taen in 1602. On the death of Velasquez he became 
 first painter to King Philip IV. Among his master- 
 pieces are a " Nativity" and a "Saint Jerome." Died 
 in 1667. 
 
 Martinez, (Tomas,) a Spanish painter, was a native 
 of Seville. He imitated successfully the style of Mu- 
 rillo. His "Mater Dolorosa" is esteemed a master- 
 piece. Died in 1734. 
 
 Martinez del Barranco, maR-tee'neth del bar-rin'- 
 ko, (Kernardo,) a Spanish painter, born at Cuesta in 
 1738 ; died in 1791. 
 
 Martinez de la Plaza, maR-tee'n8th da la pla'tha, 
 (Luis,) a Spanish poet, born at Antequera in 1585 ; died 
 in 1635. 
 
 Martinez de la Rosa, maR-tee'ngth da la ro'sa, 
 (Francisco,) a celebrated Spanish poet, orator, and 
 statesman, born at Granada in 1789. On the breaking 
 out of the war of 1808, he ably defended the cause of 
 the patriots both by his tongue and pen. About 181 1 
 he was sent on a mission to London, where he published 
 his first poem, entitled "Zaragoza." After his return to 
 Spain he wrote his tragedy "The Widow of Padilla," 
 (" La Viuda de Padilla,") and the comedy of " The 
 Consequences of Holding Office," ("Lo que pnede un 
 Empleo,") which were brought out on the stage at Cadiz 
 while that city was besieged by the French, and were 
 received with enthusiasm. In 1812 he was chosen a 
 deputy to the Cortes. On the restoration of Ferdinand, 
 in 1 814, he was imprisoned six years in the fortress of 
 Gomera, on the African coast. In 1821 he obtained an 
 office in the ministry; but, being accused of want of zeal 
 by the Liberal party, he retired to Paris. Having re- 
 turned to Spain, he became prime minister in 1834, and 
 drew up the "Estatuto Real," granting a new constitu- 
 tion. He was obliged to resign his post in 1836, and 
 resided for a time in Paris and London. In 1851 he 
 was chosen president of the Chamber of Peers. Among 
 his most popular productions are the dramas entitled 
 "The Conspiracy of Venice" and " OEdipus," "The 
 Girl at Home and the Mother at the Masquerade," a 
 comedy, and "El Arte poetica," a didactic poem. He 
 also published a historical work, called "El Espiritu del 
 Siglo," ("The Spirit of the Age,") in to vols., and the 
 romance of " Isabel de Solis." Martinez held the post 
 of perpetual secretary at the Spanish Academy. Died 
 in February, 1862. 
 
 Ste James Kennedy, "Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain :" 
 
 r [.low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Lomenie, "Galerie 
 
 des C01. temporalis ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" tor April, 1838. 
 
 Martini, maR-tee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian preiate, 
 born at Prato in 1720, was created Archbishop of Flor- 
 ence in 1781. He published an Italian translation of the 
 Old and New Testaments, and several original works. 
 Died in 1809. 
 
 Martini. maR-tee'nee, (Corneus,) a Belgian writer 
 on logic and metaphysics, born at Antwerp about 1567; 
 died in 162I. 
 
 Martini, maR-tee'nee. (Ferdinand Heinricii Wii.- 
 hkim,) a German naturalist, born in the duchy of Gotha 
 in 1729. Among his works are the first three volumes 
 of a "Systematic Cabinet of Shells," ("Conchylien- 
 Cabinet," 10 vols., 1768-88.) Died in 1778. 
 
 Martini, (Georc. Heinrich,) a German arclweologist, 
 born in Misnia in 1722. He wrote on Greek and Roman 
 antiquities. Died in 1794. 
 
 Martini, (Giamhattista,) an eminent Italian musi- 
 cian and composer, sometimes called Padre Martini, 
 born at Bologna in 1706. His compositions are chiefly 
 of a religious character, and possess great merit ; but his 
 reputation rests principally on his " History of Music" 
 (3 vols., 1757-81) and "Essay on Counterpoint," (1775.) 
 He has been styled "the most profound harmonist, and 
 the best acquainted with the art and science of music, in 
 Italy." Died in 1784. 
 
 SeepEi.t.A Vai.i.e, "Memorie storiche intomo alia Vita di G. B. 
 Martini," 1785; Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographic Generale. 
 
 Martini, (Giuseppe,) an Italian musician, a native 
 of Milan, visited England, where he was patronized by 
 Frederick, Prince of Wales. He was an excellent per- 
 former on the hautboy, and composed a number of con- 
 certos and sonatas, which are greatly admired. Died 
 in 1750. 
 
 Martini, (Jean Paul Egidius,) often called Martini 
 il Tedksco, ("the German,") a German musician and 
 composer, whose original name was Schwartzendorf, 
 born at Freistadt in 1741. In 1767 he went to Paris, 
 where he was patronized by the Duke of Choiseul and 
 the Prince of Conde. He brought out in 1771 his opera 
 of "The Lover of Fifteen," (" L'Amoureux de quinze 
 Ans,") which had a brilliant success; it was followed 
 by " Henri IV," " Sapho," " Annette et Lubin," and 
 other works of the kind, which had great popularity. 
 Martini was also distinguished for his improvements m 
 military music. Died in Paris in 1816. 
 
 See Fins, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Martini, (Martino,) a Jesuit missionary, born at 
 Trent in 1614, visited China, and published after his 
 return a " History of the Tartar War in China," (" De 
 Bello Tartarico in Sinis,") which was translated into 
 the principal European languages ; also an excellent 
 map of China, ("Atlas Sinensis,") and a "History of 
 China previous to the Christian Era," (in Latin.) Died 
 in 1661. 
 
 Martini, (Matthias,) a German philologist, born 
 in Waldeck in 1572, published a good "Lexicon Philo- 
 logicum" (1623) of the Latin language. Died in 1630. 
 
 Martini, (Vincenzo,) a celebrated Spanish composer, 
 born at Valencia in 1754. He visited Italy and Germany, 
 where his operas were received with great favour, and in 
 1788 took up his residence at Saint Petersburg. He was 
 appointed director of the Italian Opera in that city by the 
 emperor Paul I. Among his best works we may name 
 " Ipermnestra," " L'accorta Cameriera," ("The Prudent 
 Chambermaid,") and "La Cosa rara," from which Mo- 
 zart borrowed a portion of his "Don Giovanni." Died 
 in 1810. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Martini, di, de mar-tee'nee, or Martino, mar-tee'no, 
 an Italian painter, sometimes called SlMONE DI Mem- 
 mi, and Simon of Sienna, was born in Sienna about 
 1280. He was a pupil of Giotto, and a friend of Petrarch, 
 for whom he painted a portrait of Laura. Among his 
 master-pieces are the frescos in the church of Santa 
 Maria Novella at Florence. Petrarch dedicated two 
 sonnets to Martini, who was esteemed one of the greatest 
 painters of his time. Died in 1344. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Martiniere, de la, deh IS maVte'ne-aiR', (Antoine 
 Aiostin Bruzen — oru'zon',) a French writer, bom 
 at Dieppe about 16S0, was appointed first geographer 
 to Philip V., King of Spain. His works are numerous 
 and valuable. Among the most important we may name 
 "The Historical, Geographical, and Critical Dictionary," 
 do vols., 1726,) and a "Life of Moliere." Died at the 
 Hague about 1748. 
 
 See " Biogranhje Universelle." 
 
 Martiniere, de la, (Pierre Martin,) a French phy- 
 sician and traveller, born at Rouen, accompanied the 
 expedition sent by the King of Denmark to the Arctic 
 regions in 1653, and published, after his return, his "New 
 Voyage to the North," etc., (1671.) 
 
 « as k; c as s; g Hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as z; th as in this. (jgf-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 97 
 
MARTIN O 
 
 1538 
 
 MARWAN 
 
 Martino. See Martini, (Simone.) 
 
 Martinot, maVte'no', (Henri,) a French mecha- 
 nician, born in Paris in 1646, was patronized by Louis 
 XIV., who employed him to make the clocks for Ver- 
 sailles and the Trianon. Died in 1725. 
 
 Martins, maVtaN', (Chari.es Frederic,) a French 
 botanist, born in Paris in 1806, became professor of 
 botany at Montpellier in 1847. He published several 
 scientific works, among which we may name his treatise 
 "On Vegetable Teratology," and "Botanical Journey in 
 Norway," (1841.) 
 
 Mar'tinus. See Martens and Marti. 
 
 Mar-ti'uus Po-lo'nus or Bo-he'mus, a Polish 
 chronicler and ecclesiastic, born at Troppau, in Silesia. 
 He became chaplain and confessor to Pope Clement IV. 
 and several of his successors, and was appointed in 1278 
 Archbishop of Gnesen. He wrote a valuable work, 
 entitled "Chronicon de Summis Pontificibus," ("Chron- 
 icle of the Popes.") Died in 1278. 
 
 See NicAron, "Memoires." 
 
 Martirauo, maR-te-ra'no, (Coriolano,) an Italian 
 litterateur, born at Cosenza, was Bishop of San Marco, 
 in Calabria. He wrote a number of dramas. Died in 
 
 i.SS.7- 
 
 Martire, (Pif.tro.) See Peter Martyr. 
 
 Martius, von, fon maRt'se-us, (Karl Friedrich 
 Philipp,) an eminent German botanist, born at Erlangen 
 in 1794. He studied medicine in his native city, and in 
 1817 joined the scientific expedition sent by the Austrian 
 and Bavarian governments to Brazil. After his return 
 he published, in 1824, his " Brazilian Travels," a work 
 very attractive in its style, and full of valuable infor- 
 mation concerning the natural history of that country. 
 In 1832 he brought out his "Nova Genera et Species 
 Plantarum," (3 vols., with coloured plates,) and in 1845 
 his superb "Genera et Species Palmarum," being a 
 complete description of the palms, (3 vols., with 219 
 coloured plates.) Besides the above, we may name the 
 "Flora Brasiliensis," and "The Plants and Animals of 
 Tropical America," (1831.) Von Martius was appointed 
 director of the botanic garden at Munich, and chosen 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and other 
 institutions of the kind. Died in December, 1868. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for February, 1830. 
 
 Martorelli, maR-to-rel'lee, (Giacomo,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Naples in 1699. He published a treat- 
 ise "On the Ancient Colonies of Naples," and other 
 works. Died in 1777. 
 
 Martos, mar'tos, (Ivan Petrovitch,) a Russian 
 sculptor, born in Little Russia about 1760. Among his 
 best works are the mausoleum of the emperor Alexander 
 at Taganrog, the colossal group in bronze of the patriots 
 Minin and Pozharsky at Moscow, and the monument of 
 Potemkin at Cherson, also the bas-relief on the monu- 
 ment of the grand duchess Helena Paulovna. Martos 
 was director of the Academy of Fine Arts at Saint Peters- 
 burg. Died in 1835. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Mar'tjrn, (Henry,) an able English lawyer and ex- 
 cellent scholar, known as a contributor to the "Specta- 
 tor." His name appears in No. 555 of the "Spectator" 
 at the head of a list of contributors given by Steele, who 
 says, " He can hardly be mentioned in a list wherein he 
 would not deserve the precedence." He was appointed 
 inspector-general of imports and exports, to reward him 
 for the service he rendered the government by the 
 publication of "The British Merchant, or Commerce 
 Preserved," (about 1713.) Died in 1721. 
 
 Martyn, (Henry,) an eminent English missionary 
 and Orientalist, born at Truro, in Cornwall, in 1781. He 
 studied at Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he 
 distinguished himself by his attainments in the classics, 
 and was chosen a Fellow of the college in 1802. Having 
 become acquainted with the Rev. Charles Simeon about 
 this time, and experienced deep religious convictions, he 
 embarked in 1805 as a missionary for India. He made 
 rapid progress in acquiring the langnage of the country, 
 and was soon able to translate the New Testament into 
 Hindostanee, and subsequently into Persian. He also 
 made a Persian translation of the Psalms. His health 
 at length gave way under his devoted labours, and he 
 
 died at Tokat, in Asia Minor, while on his way to Eng- 
 land, in 1812. 
 
 See Rev. J. Sargent, " Memoir of the Rev. Henry Martyn," 
 1821 ; J. W. Kave, "Lives of Indian Officers," 1867; "London 
 Quarterly Review" for July, 1821. 
 
 Martyn, (John,) an English physician and botanist, 
 born in London in 1699. He was elected to the Royal 
 Society in 1727, and in 1733 became professor of botany 
 at Cambridge. His " History of Rare Plants," (in Latin, 
 1728,) illustrated by Van Huysum, was the best work 
 of the kind then published, and was translated into 
 German. Martyn also made an excellent translation 
 of Virgil's "Bucolics" and "Georgics," and was a con- 
 tributor to the "Grub Street Journal." The genus 
 Martynia was named in his honour. Died in 1768. 
 
 See Gorham, "Memoirs of John and Thomas Martyn," 1830; 
 Cuvier, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles " 
 
 Martyn, (Thomas,) son of the preceding, was born at 
 Chelsea in 1735. He succeeded his father as professor 
 of botany at Cambridge in 1 761. He wrote several bo- 
 tanical works and miscellaneous treatises. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Gorham, " Memoirs of John and Thomas Martyn," 183a 
 
 Martyn, (William,) an English writer, born at 
 Exeter in 1562, was the author of the " History and Lives 
 of the Kings of England from William the Conqueror 
 to the End of the Reign of Henry VIII." Died in 1617. 
 
 Martyr. See Justin Martyr. 
 
 Martyr, (Peter.) See Peter Martyr. 
 
 Martyr, (Peter.) See Anghiera. 
 
 Marucelli, ma-roo-chel'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 scholar and philanthropist, born at Florence in 1625, 
 was a liberal patron of learned men. Died in 1713. 
 
 Marucelli, (Giovanni Stekano,) an Italian painter 
 and architect, born at Umbria in 1586 ; died in 1646. 
 
 Marullo, ma-rool'lo, (Michele Tarcagnota — tan- 
 kan-yo'ta,) [Lat. Marul'lusTarchanio'tes,] a modern 
 Greek scholar and poet, born at Constantinople. He 
 was the author of numerous Latin hymns and epigrams 
 of great elegance. Died in 1500. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire de la Litterature Italienne." 
 
 Marullua. See Marullo. 
 
 Ma-rul'lus, (Marcus,) a Latin satiric poet in the time 
 of Marcus Aurelius. His style is commended by Saint 
 Jerome. There is only a fragment of his works extant. 
 
 Marut [Hindoo pron. miir'dotl or Marut, ma'root, 
 a Sanscrit word, signifying " wind," and applied in the 
 Hindoo mythology to the genii (or gods) presiding over 
 the winds. In the Vedas the Maruts are often ad- 
 dressed as the attendants and allies of Indra, and are 
 called the sons of Prisni, (or Pricni,) or the Earth ; they 
 are also called Rudras, or the sons of Rudra, (rood'ra.) 
 
 See the Introductions to the several volumes of Propessor Wil- 
 son's translation of the " Rig- Veda ;" Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Ma-ru'tha orMaroutha, ma-roo'tha, Saint, a Syrian 
 prelate, became Bishop of Martyropolis. He was a 
 friend of Saint Chrysostom, and wrote a " History of 
 the Council of Nice," and other works. Died about 420. 
 
 Mar'vell, (Andrew,) an eminent English patriot and 
 satirical writer, born at Kingston-upon-Hull in 1620. 
 Having travelled through France, Spain, Italy, and Hol- 
 land, where he acquired the languages of those countries, 
 he was, after his return to England, appointed assistant 
 to Milton, then Latin secretary to Cromwell, (1657.) He 
 was first elected to Parliament in 1660, and in this office 
 gave such entire satisfaction to his constituents that he 
 continued to represent them till his death. Marvell's 
 wit and distinguished abilities rendered him formidable 
 to the corrupt administration of Charles II., and attempts 
 were made to win him over by the offer of a large sum 
 of money, which he promptly refused, thus proving his 
 integrity to be equal to his talents. As a writer he is 
 chiefly known by his "Rehearsal Transposed," written 
 in answer to Dr. Parker, afterwards P!shop of Oxford, a 
 fanatical defender of absolute power. Died in 1678. 
 
 See the "Life of Andrew Marvell," by John Dove ; Hartlfa 
 Coleridge, " Lives of Distinguished Northerns ;" Campbell, 
 " Specimens of the British Poets ;" Disraeli, " Qnarrels of Au- 
 thors;" "Retrospective Review," vols. x. and xi., (1824. 1825 :) 
 "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1844; "Westminster Review' 
 for January, 1833. 
 
 Marville, de, (Vioneul.) See Argonne, d'. 
 Marwan. See MerwAn. 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 5, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
MARX 
 
 '539 
 
 MART 
 
 Marx, mania, (Aooi.ru Burn-hard,) a German com- 
 poser and writer on music, born at Halle in 1799, became 
 professor of music in the University of Berlin in 1830. 
 Among his works are "The Theory of Musical Compo- 
 sition," (1837,) and " General Theory of Music," (" Allge- 
 meiue Musiklehre," 1839.) 
 
 Ma'rjf, daughter of Henry VII. of England, was born 
 in 1497. She became in 15 14 the third wife of Louis 
 XII. of France, who died in the following year. A few 
 months after she was married to Charles Brandon, Duke 
 of Suffolk. She left one daughter, named Frances, who 
 was the mother of Lady Jane Grey. Died in 1534. 
 
 Mary, commonly called Bloody Queen Mary, on 
 account of her cruel persecution of the Protestants, 
 daughter of Henry VIII. by his first wife, Catherine 
 of Aragon, was born at Greenwich in 1516. During her 
 childhood several negotiations were entered into for her 
 marriage, none of which, however, were carried into 
 effect. After the divorce of Catherine, the title of 
 Princess of Wales was transferred from Mary to the 
 princess Elizabeth. In 1536, on the execution of Queen 
 Anne, Mary was induced to acknowledge Henry's eccle- 
 siastical supremacy and the nullity of his marriage with 
 her mother. Having, by her outward compliance with 
 her father's whims, in some degree gained his favour, 
 the inheritance was secured to her, after her brother 
 Edward and his heirs, in the act of succession of 1544. 
 When Edward succeeded to the throne, Mary resisted all 
 his entreaties, and those of his ministers, to change her 
 religious views, upon which, by the advice of Northum- 
 berland, he made over the crown to Lady Jane Grey. 
 (See Grky, Lady Jane.) Mary's first act when estab- 
 lished on the throne was to restore to their sees Bonner, 
 Gardiner.and other bishops who had been deposed during 
 the late reign ; and shortly afterwards Cranmer and Lati- 
 mer were committed to the Tower. These measures gave 
 rise to an insurrection of the Protestants, headed by Sir 
 Thomas Wyatt, in 1554, which, being soon quelled, was 
 followed by the execution of Lady Jane Grey, her hus- 
 band and father, and of Wyatt himself. In July, 1554, 
 Mary was married to the son of Charles V., afterwards 
 Philip II. of Spain. In the November following. Par- 
 liament passed acts restoring the authority of the pope 
 and reviving the former statutes against heresy. From 
 this time began a fierce persecution of the Protestants, 
 and it is estimated that two hundred and eighty victims 
 died at the stake between the years 1555 and 1558. 
 Among the most eminent of these martyrs were Bishops 
 Latimer of Worcester and Ridley of London, and Cran- 
 mer, Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1557 Mary was 
 induced to assist Philip in his war against France, and 
 the united forces of England and Spain obtained a victory 
 over the French at Saint-Quentin. But the following 
 year Calais was taken by the Duke of Guise. This 
 was a severe blow to Mary, and probably hastened her 
 death, which took place in November, 1558. She was 
 succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth. 
 
 Without defending the cruelties with which Mary's 
 reign has been reproached, the candid historian will find 
 many palliations for her conduct in the spirit of that age, 
 which favoured persecution, in the injustice with which 
 she had been treated by her father, and in the state of 
 her health during that part of her reign when the per- 
 secutions were at their height, which made it impossible 
 for her to know the true state of affairs. Froude, who 
 will hardly be suspected of any bias in her favour, says, 
 "To the time of her accession she had lived a blameless 
 and, in many respects, a noble life ; and few men or 
 women have lived less capable of doing knowingly a 
 wrong thing." He adds that her trials and disappoint- 
 ments, "it can hardly be doubted, affected her sanity." 
 And he ends with laying the chief blame of the persecu- 
 tions of her reigkuficst on Gardiner, and secondly, and 
 more especially, on Cardinal Pole. 
 
 See Froude, "History of England," vol. v. chap, xxviii., and 
 the whole of vol. vi. : Strickland. "Queens of England;" also, 
 Hi'mk's and Lincard's " History of England." 
 
 Mary, [Gr. Mafiia ,• Lat. Mari'a ; Fr. Marie, nvfre'; 
 It. Maria, ma-ree'l,] Saint, a Hebrew woman, cele.- 
 brated as the mother of the Lord Jesus Christ, and styled 
 by the Roman Catholics the Blessed Virgin Mary, 
 
 (Beata Virgo Maria,) also the Mother of God and Queen 
 of Heaven. 
 
 See Matthew i. ; Luke i. ; John i. and xix. 25; Duvergier ra 
 Hauranne, "Vie de la sainte Vierge," 1664; F. W. Genthe, "Die 
 jfungfrau Maria," etc., 1852: Carlo Massini, "Vita della santissima 
 Verjiine Maria," 1S30; Orsini, "La Vierge: Histoire de la Mere 
 de Dieu," etc., 1837, 
 
 Mary of Burgundy, [ Fr. Marie de Bourgogne, 
 mi' re' deh booR'gofi', | daughter of Charles the Bold 
 and Isabella de Bourbon, was born at Brussels in 1457. 
 On the death of her father, in 1477, she became heiress 
 of Burgundy, and was married the same year to the 
 archduke Maximilian, son of the Emperor of Germany. 
 She died in 1482, in consequence of a fall from her horse. 
 She left two children, Philip, the father of Chatles V., 
 and Margaret, Duchess of Savoy. 
 
 See Barante, " Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne ;" Gaillard, 
 "Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne;" Munch, "Marie von Bur- 
 gund," 1832. 
 
 Mary of Guise, (gweez,) [Fr. Marie de Guise, 
 mi're' deh gii-ez',1 or Mary of Lorraine, [Fr. Marie 
 de Lorraine, mi re' deh lo'r&n',] a daughter of Claude, 
 Duke of Guise, born in 151 5, was married in 1534 to 
 Louis d'Orleans, Duke of Longueville, who died the 
 following year. In 1538 she was married to James V. 
 of Scotland, and after his death became, for a short time, 
 regent of the kingdom. She is described by the histo- 
 rian De Thou as naturally inclined to justice and tolera- 
 tion, but she was influenced by the court of France and 
 her brothers, the Duke and Cardinal of Guise. She 
 died in 1560, leaving a daughter Mary, afterwards the 
 celebrated Queen of Scots. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. iv. chaps, xxxvii. and 
 xxxviii. : De Thou, " Historia sni Temporis ;" Robertson, " His- 
 tory of Scotland ;" Froude, " History of England." 
 
 Mary Magdalene. See Magdalene. 
 
 Mary de' Medici. See Marie de Medicis. 
 
 Mary Stu'art, Queen of Scots, born at Linlithgow 
 about the 7th of December, 1542, was the only surviving 
 child of James V. and Mary of Guise, (or Lorraine,) who 
 was a daughter of the French Duke of Guise. James 
 V. died a few days after the birth of Mary, who was 
 crowned in September, 1543, by Cardinal Beatoun. This 
 ambitious and unscrupulous prelate, who was the head 
 of the Roman Catholic party, usurped the office of re- 
 gent. A treaty having been negotiated for the marriage 
 of Mary with the Dauphin of France, she was sent to 
 France in the summer of 1548 to complete her education. 
 Before the year just mentioned, Scotland had been in- 
 volved in a war against Henry VIII. of England, who 
 wished to obtain the hand of Mary for his son and thus 
 unite the two countries under one crown. 
 
 Educated at the polite and voluptuous court of Paris, 
 Mary excelled in various accomplishments, and at an 
 early age became mistress of the Latin, French, and Ital- 
 ian languages. About the age of fourteen she composed 
 and pronounced before Henry II. a Latin oration, in 
 which she maintained that it is becoming for women to 
 learn literature and liberal arts. Her rare and radiant 
 personal beauty, her intellectual graces, and her fasci- 
 nating manners rendered her a general favourite and the 
 chief ornament of the French court. "Graceful alike in 
 person and intellect," says Froude, "she possessed that 
 peculiar beauty in which the form is lost in the expres- 
 sion, and which every painter, therefore, has represented 
 differently. Rarely, perhaps, has any woman combined 
 so many noticeable qualities as Mary Stuart : with a 
 feminine insight into men and things and human life, 
 she had cultivated herself to that high perfection in 
 which accomplishments were no longer adventitious 
 ornaments, but were wrought into her organic constitu- 
 tion. . . . She had vigour, energy, tenacity of purpose, 
 with perfect and never-failing self-possession, and, as the 
 one indispensable foundation for the effective use of all 
 other qualities, she had indomitable courage." (" History 
 of England," vol. vii. chap, iv.) 
 
 In April, 1558, she was married to the dauphin, who 
 on the death of his father, Henry II., ascended the 
 throne of France,, as Francis II., in 1559. On the death 
 of the English queen Mary, Francis and Mary assumed 
 the titles of King and Queen of England, refusing to 
 recognize the right of Elizabeth to the throne. The 
 brilliant prospects of Mary were suddenly clouded by 
 
 \k; cas/.- %hard;% as>; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; K,trilled; sas*y th as in Mir. (jrySee Explanations, p. 23.' 
 
MARY 
 
 1540 
 
 MART 
 
 the death of Francis, who died, without issue, in De- 
 cember, 1560. One great obstacle to her prosperity 
 was her zealous attachment to the Roman Catholic re- 
 ligion, which was rejected or abhorred by a majority of 
 her subjects. The Scottish Estates sent Lord James 
 Stuart, Mary's half-brother, to invite her to Scotland 
 and to offer her the free exercise of her religion. Having 
 resolved to return to her native land, she requested 
 permission to pass through England on her way thither ; 
 but Elizabeth would not grant this favour to a rival 
 claimant of her crown. Mary was thus reduced to the 
 alternative of a voyage by sea, with the risk of being 
 captured by the English fleet. She embarked in August, 
 1561, and parted with regret from la belle France, at 
 which, with eyes bathed in tears, she continued to gaze 
 until it was hidden by the darkness. After a passage of 
 four days, she arrived safely at Leith, and chose for her 
 chief advisers Lord James Stuart and William Maitland, 
 of Lethington, both Protestants. She made friends even 
 among the Protestants, but failed to propitiate John 
 Knox, with whom she had an interview. According to 
 Randolph, he made her weep on this occasion. 
 
 Soon after her arrival in Scotland, Mary sent Secretary 
 Maitland to London as ambassador. He made overtures 
 of peace and friendship, requiring, however, as an indis- 
 pensable condition, that Elizabeth and the English Par- 
 liament should recognize Mary as her successor in case 
 the former should die without issue. On this condition 
 Mary promised she would not claim the English crown 
 during the life of Elizabeth. " Elizabeth," says Froude, 
 "refused positively to name Mary Stuart her successor, 
 knowing that she would be signing her own death- 
 warrant." These words suggest the probable assassina- 
 tion of Elizabeth by the partisans of her rival. Mary 
 attempted to open the chapel royal for public Catholic 
 service, but the Protestant mob drove away the priest 
 with a broken head, and the queen made concession to 
 the popular will by ordering that the service should be 
 performed privately. In 1562 Mary wrote a letter to 
 Elizabeth, and expressed a great desire to have an inter- 
 view with her. Several courteously-worded letters were 
 exchanged by them, and their correspondence grew more 
 and more cordial ; but a serious difference arose on the 
 choice of a husband for Mary. Elizabeth objected to 
 her proposed marriage with Don Carlos of Spain, and 
 suggested Lord Robert Dudley, her own favourite ; but 
 Mary preferred her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, 
 (a son of the Earl of Lennox,) whom she married on 
 the 29th of July, 1565. By this act she provoked the 
 violent hostility of the English queen, and estranged 
 from her support her half-brother, James Stuart, Earl 
 of Murray, the ablest Scottish statesman of his time. 
 " Her gentle administration," says Robertson, " had 
 secured the hearts of her subjects, who were impatient 
 for her marriage and wished the crown to descend 
 in a right line from their ancient monarchs. She 
 herself was the most amiable woman of her age. . . . 
 No event in that age excited stronger political fears and 
 jealousies, none interested more deeply the passions 
 of several princes, than the marriage of the Scottish 
 queen." (" History of Scotland.") Mary made an un- 
 wise choice at last ; for the character of Darnley was at 
 once weak, capricious, and obstinate. She gave him 
 the title of king, by a stretch of her prerogative which, 
 according to Robertson, was a strong proof of the vio- 
 lence of her love or the weakness of her counsels. In- 
 stigated by Queen Elizabeth, the Scottish malcontents, 
 including the Earl of Murray, took arms against Mary 
 in August, 1565 ; but this revolt was quickly suppressed 
 by the queen, who rode on horseback at the head of her 
 army, and the leaders of the insurgents took refuge in 
 England. Elizabeth disclaimed all responsibility for their 
 conduct, and expressed her abhorrence of their treason. 
 
 In 1566 Mary Stuart joined the King of France, the 
 pope, and others, in a Catholic league for the extirpation 
 of heresy, and began to attempt the restoration of popery 
 in Scotland. "To this fatal resolution," says Robertson, 
 " may be imputed all the subsequent calamities of Mary's 
 life." She took into her confidence and favour David 
 Rizzio, (or Ritzio,) an Italian musician, who became her 
 French secretary and inseparable companion, even in 
 
 the council-room. " He had the control," says Froude, 
 "of all the business of the state." Mary soon repented 
 of her union with the insolent and dissolute Lord Darn- 
 ley, who treated her with rudeness and neglect and 
 became jealous of Rizzio, whom he resolved to remove 
 by violence. Rizzio was dragged from the queen's pres- 
 ence by the accomplices of Darnley, and killed, in March, 
 1566. This act was the result of a plot in which the 
 Earl of Morton, Ruthven, Maitland, and other Protestants 
 united for political reasons. Deserted and betrayed by 
 Darnley, they failed to recover power, and fled to Eng- 
 land. Although Mary deeply resented the conduct of her 
 husband, she plied him with caresses and gained him over 
 to her interest. About this time a new favourite acquired 
 an ascendant over her heart and began to influence her 
 counsels. This was James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, 
 a man of some ability, but unscrupulous and reckless to 
 the last degree. In June, 1566, occurred an event which 
 apparently tended to confirm the power and promote 
 the interest of Queen Mary, — the birth of her son James. 
 In January, 1567, Darnley was attacked with a severe 
 illness at Glasgow, where Mary visited him, and, having 
 employed her artifices to gain his confidence, persuaded 
 him to be removed to the vicinity of Edinburgh. He 
 was lodged in a detached house at Kirk-a-Field, very 
 near the capital. Mary attended her husband assidu- 
 ously, and slept two nights in the house at Kirk-a-Field, 
 which she left on the 9th of February at 11 P.M. About 
 three hours later the house was blown up by gunpowder, 
 and Darnley was found dead in the garden. Suspicion 
 fell on Bothwell as the chief perpetrator of this crime, 
 and on Mary as an accessary. She outraged public sen- 
 timent so far that she not only screened Bothwell from a 
 fair trial, but married him in May, 1567. Robertson and 
 Froude agree in the opinion that Mary was responsible 
 for the death of Darnley. 
 
 Impelled by a just and burning indignation, the Scottish 
 lords and people, both Protestant and Catholic, rose in 
 arms against Mary and Bothwell, who, in June, 1567, 
 met them at Carberry Hill with a small army. The 
 troops of the queen, however, refused to fight, and she 
 was compelled to surrender herself to her adversaries, 
 who confined her on a little island in Loch Leven. Queen 
 Elizabeth now interposed in favour of Mary, thinking 
 the treatment she received a dangerous example, and de- 
 manded her release, — without effect. The captive queen 
 abdicated in favour of her son, and the Earl of Murray 
 became regent, (July, 1567.) Letters which Mary had 
 written to Bothwell were produced in the Scottish Par- 
 liament, by which she was declared to be accessory to 
 the murder of the king. By the aid of George Douglas, 
 a youth of eighteen, she escaped from prison in May, 
 1568, and was quickly joined by an army of six thousand 
 men, which Regent Murray routed at Langside on the 
 13th of May. Mary fled to England, and rashly threw 
 herself on the generosity of her rival, who refused to 
 admit her into her presence because she was not yet 
 cleared from the charge of murder. Treated as a pris- 
 oner, Mary was confined at Bolton Castle, Coventry, and 
 Fotheringay. She had many adherents in England, who 
 made several attempts against the power and life of 
 Elizabeth. In 1586 she was accused of complicity in 
 Babington's conspiracy, for which she was tried by a 
 commission, and condemned without proof. She was be- 
 headed at Fotheringay Castle on the 8th of February, 1587. 
 
 " All contemporary authors," says Robertson, " agree 
 in ascribing to Mary the utmost beauty of countenance 
 and elegance of shape of which the human form is ca- 
 pable. Her hair was black, her eyes were a dark gray, 
 her complexion was exquisitely fine, and her hands and 
 arms remarkably delicate both as to shape and colour. 
 Her stature was of a height that rose to the majestic." 
 
 See Burton, "History of Scotland;" Froude, " History of 
 England;" Robertson, "History of Scotland;" Tvtler, " His 
 tory of Scotland :" Hume, '* History of England ;" Samuel Tkhb 
 "Life of Mary Stuart," 1725; Chalmers, "Life of Mary, Queen 
 of Scots," 1818; Mfss Bengkr, "Lite of Mary, Queen of Sens,' 
 1823; Bell, " Life of Mary Stuart," 1831; Buckingham, " Lite o: 
 Mary, Queen of Scots," 1S44; De Maksv, " Vie de Marie Stuart,' 
 3 vols., 1743: Gentz, "Marie Stuart's Leben." 1709; ScHUHTZ 
 '' Leben Marie Stuart's," 1839: MlGNET. " Kistoirede Marie Sti 
 2 vols., 1854; Dargaud. " Histoire de Marie Stuart," 2 vols., 185m 
 Strickland, "Lives of the Queens of Scotland," 8 vols., 1S54 
 Labanoff, "RecueildesLettres de Marie Stuart," 7 vols., 1844. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; not; good; moon 
 
MARZARI 
 
 1541 
 
 MASERS 
 
 Marzari-Pencati, maRd-za'ree pSn-ki'tee, (Giu- 
 seppe,) Count, an Italian mineralogist, born at Vicenza 
 in 1777, discovered in 1810 the mine of fossil coal at 
 Borgo di Valsugna. He invented an instrument for 
 measuring angles, called " Tachigonimetro." Died in 
 1836. 
 
 Masaccio Guidi da San Giovanni, masit'cho 
 goo-ee'dee da san jo-van'nee, (Tommaso,) an eminent 
 Italian painter of the Florentine school, born near 
 Florence in 1401, ranks first among the artists of the 
 second or middle age of modern painting. His works 
 were studied by Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Leonardo 
 da Vinci. His figures are characterized by great anima- 
 tion and fidelity to nature and graceful arrangement of 
 the draperies. He also excelled in perspective, which 
 he learned under Brunelleschi. " Masaccio," says Fuseli, 
 " was a genius, and the head of an epoch in the art He 
 may be considered as the precursor of Raphael, who 
 imitated his principles and sometimes transcribed his 
 figures." Among his most admired works are the frescos 
 ol San Pietro del Carmine at Florence, and the picture 
 of "Christ Curing the Demoniacs." Masaccio died in 
 1443, and is generally supposed to have been poisoned. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Mrs. Jameson, "Me- 
 moirs of Early Italiao Painters." 
 
 Masaniello, masa-ne-el'lo, or Tommaso Aniello, 
 born at Amain, in Italy, in 1622, was the son of a fisher- 
 man, and in 1647 became leader of a revolt against the 
 Duke of Arcos, Spanish Viceroy of Naples. At the head 
 of 50,000 insurgents, he compelled the duke to abolish 
 a tax which he had imposed, and also to give up the 
 charter of exemption granted to Naples by Charles V. 
 The intoxication produced by this sudden change of 
 fortune seems to have affected the reason of Masaniello, 
 and, having by his conduct alienated his friends, he 
 was soon after assassinated by the adherents of the 
 viceroy. 
 
 See " History of the Rise and Fall of Masaniello," by Francis 
 
 . London, 1729: A. Giraffo. " Rivoluzionidi Napoli." 1647 ; 
 
 kr, "Masaniello; htstorisches BruchstUck," 1785; " Nou- 
 
 velle Biographie Ge'nerale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for Au- 
 
 8 29. 
 
 Mascagni, mas-kan'yee, (Donato,) an Italian monk 
 and painter, called Fra Arsenio, born at Florence in 
 1570. ; died in 1636. 
 
 Mascagni, (Paolo,) an Italian anatomist, born near 
 Sienna in 1752. He became professor of anatomy in 
 the University of Sienna in 1774. He wrote an admi- 
 rable work entitled " History and Iconography of the 
 Lymphatic Vessels of the Human Body," an outline 
 of which had previously obtained the prize offered 
 by the Academy of Sciences in Paris. In 1801 he was. 
 appointed professor of anatomy, chemistry, and physi- 
 at the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence. 
 Among his works is "Anatomia universa." Died in 
 1815. 
 
 G. Sarchiani, "Elogio del P. Mascagni," 1816; TlPAi.no, 
 rafia Hegli I taliani illustri ;" Drsgenettes, article in the " Bio- 
 Rrapliie Medicale." 
 
 Mascardi, mas-kaR'dee,(Ac.oSTiNO,)an Italian writer, 
 nt Sarzana in 1591. He was appointed by Pope 
 Urban VIII. professor of rhetoric in the College della 
 Sapienza at Rome, (1628.) He published, among other 
 works, " Five Treatises on the Art of Writing History." 
 Died in 1640. 
 
 [RABOfiCHl, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 Mascardi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian ecclesiastic and 
 writer on jurisprudence, born at Sarzana, near Genoa, 
 was an uncle of the preceding. Died in 1588. 
 
 Mascaron, mSs'ki'roN', (Jules,) an eminent French 
 prelate and pulpit orator, born at Aix in 1634. He 
 acquired a high reputation by his funeral oration on 
 Anne of Austria, (1666,) and was soon after appointed 
 ;er-in ordinary to Louis XIV. He was created 
 Bishop of Tnl'e in 1671, and of Agen in 1679. He is 
 said to have converted many Calvinists in the latter dio- 
 cese to Catholicism. He died in 1703, leaving all his 
 tty to the poor, to whom his virtues had greatly 
 red him. A volume of his "Funeral Orations" 
 was published in 1704. That on Marshal Turenne is 
 eulogizi d by La Harpe as a master-piece. 
 See " Notivelle Biographic Geiie'rale." 
 
 Masch, mash, (Andreas Gottlieb,) a German 
 writer and theologian, born in Mecklenburg in 1724. 
 He published, besides other works, "Contributions 
 towards the History of Remarkable Books," (1769,) and 
 an excellent edition of Lelong's " Bibliotheca Sacra." 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Mascheroni, mas-ka-ro'nee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian 
 mathematician, born near Bergamo in 1750. He became 
 professor of Greek at Pavia, and subsequently of geom- 
 etry at Bergamo. On the invasion of Italy by the French, 
 he was elected a member of the legislative body in the 
 Cisalpine Republic. He published "Researches on the 
 Kquilibrium of Vaults," (1785,) and other mathematical 
 treatises of a high character, also a curious work called 
 "The Geometry of the Compass," (1797,) and a number 
 of poems. Died in Paris in 1800. 
 
 See Savioli, " Memorie alia Vita dell*Abate L. Mascheroni," 
 1801 ; G. Mangili, " Elogio storicodi L, Mascheroni," 1809; Mon- 
 tucla, "Histoire des Mathematiques;" " Nouvelle Biographia 
 Generale." 
 
 Masclef, mts'klSf, (Francois,) a French Orientalist, 
 born at Amiens in 1662. He published a "Hebrew 
 Grammar," ("Grammatica Hebraica,") in which he op- 
 poses the use of vowel-points. It is regarded as one of 
 the best works of the kind. Died in 1728. 
 
 See Querard, " I.a France Litte>aire." 
 
 Mascov, mis'kof, (Gottfried,) a German jurist, 
 born at Dantzic in 1698. He lectured at Gottingen, and 
 published several works. Died in 1760. 
 
 Mascov, [Lat. Masco'vius,] (Johann Jacob,) a 
 German jurist and historian, born at Dantzic in 1689, 
 was a brother of the preceding. He became professor 
 of law at Leipsic in 1719, and was the author of a 
 treatise "On the Origin and Progress of Public Law," 
 and other legal works, in Latin. He also wrote a 
 "History of Germany to the Commencement of the 
 Franconian Monarchy," (unfinished.) Died in 1761. 
 
 See "Memoria J. J. Mascovii," Leipsic, 1761. 
 
 Mascovius. See Mascov. 
 
 Mascrier, Le, leh mSs'kne-i', (Jean Bapttste,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Caen in 1697. He assisted 
 in the translation of De Thou's "Universal History," 
 and published several original works. Died in 1760. 
 
 Masdeu, mas'de-oo, (Juan Francisco,) a Spanish 
 Jesuit and historian, was born at Barcelona in 1740. He 
 wrote a "Critical History of Spain and of Spanish Cul- 
 ture in every Department," (20 vols., 1783-1800,) which 
 has a high reputation for learning and accuracy. Died 
 in 1817. 
 
 Masen. See Masenius. 
 
 Masenius, mj-sa'neus, or Masen, ma'sen, (James,) 
 a Flemish writer, born in the duchy of Juliers in 1606. 
 He became professor of eloquence in the college of 
 Cologne, and was the author of a Latin poem entitled 
 "Sarcotis," or " Sarcothea," which.it is pretended by 
 Lauder, suggested to Milton the idea of " Paradise 
 Lost." Died in 1681. 
 
 Maseres or Mazeres, mS'zaii<', (Francis,) Baron, 
 a distinguished mathematician, of French extraction, 
 born in London in 1 73 1. He was for a time attorney- 
 general for Canada, and in 1773 was appointed cursitor- 
 baron of the exchequer. He was the author of a "Dis- 
 sertation on the Use of the Negative Sign in Algebra," 
 and other similar works, and reprinted at his own ex- 
 pense a collection of the writings of Kepler and. other 
 mathematicians, also one containing the optical works 
 of Descartes, Huygheus, Gregory, and Halley. The 
 latter was completed by Mr. Babbage. He was recorder 
 of the city of London for about forty years. Died in 
 1824. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1824. 
 
 Masers de Latude, mS'zaiR' deh If Hid', (Henri,) 
 was born in Languedoc in 1725. Having given offence 
 to Madame de Pompadour, he was by her orders im- 
 prisoned in the Bastille. After remaining captive nearly 
 three years, he effected his escape, (1756,) with the assist- 
 ance of a fellow-prisoner and by means of the most 
 persevering toil. He was soon arrested, with his com- 
 panion, D'Alegre, and, after suffering an imprisonment 
 of thirty years, was at length released, by the efforts 
 of Madame Ixgros, who interested Cardinal Rohan, 
 
 « as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as// G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (JiySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MASHAM 
 
 1542 
 
 MASON 
 
 Madame Necker, and others, in his behalf. His "Me- 
 moirs" were published by M. Thierry. Died in 1805. 
 
 See Thierry, " Le Despotisme devoid, ou M^moires de La- 
 tude," 3 vols., 1792. 
 
 Mash/am, (Abigail Hill,) born in London about 
 1670, was a cousin of the celebrated Duchess of Marlbo- 
 rough, upon whose recommendation she became waiting- 
 maid to the princess, afterwards Queen Anne. She 
 continued in this post after Anne ascended the throne, 
 and by her arts supplanted the Duchess of Marlborough 
 in the royal favour. She was married in 1707 to Mr. 
 Masham, who was made a peer in 1711. It appears 
 that her influence raised Harley and the Tories to power 
 in 1 7 10, deprived the Duke of Marlborough of the com- 
 mand of the army, (1712,) and made important changes 
 in the politics of Europe. In allusion to her intrigues, 
 Macaulay says, "The great party which had long swayed 
 the destinies of Europe was undermined by bedchamber- 
 women." Died in 1734. 
 
 See Macaui.ay's Review of Lord Mahon's "History of the 
 War of the Succession." 
 
 Masham, (Lady Damaris,) the daughter of Dr. 
 Ralph Cudworth, born at Cambridge, England, in 1658, 
 was married to Sir Francis Masham, of Esse*. She was 
 distinguished for her piety and for her attainments in 
 history, philosophy, and divinity. She was a friend and 
 pupil of the celebrated Locke, who died at her house, 
 having resided there for some time. Lady Masham 
 wrote several religious treatises. Died in 1708. 
 
 See Lord King, "Life of Locke." 
 
 Mas -I-nis'sa, [Gr. Mao-aavaaoTyc,] King of Numidia, 
 the son of Gula, who reigned in Massylia, was born about 
 250 li.c. In the second Punic war he fought at first for 
 the Carthaginians in Spain, but, having been generously 
 treated by Scipio Africanus, he became a zealous and 
 faithful ally of the Romans. He waged war with Syphax, 
 a Numidian prince, and was defeated by him twice. The 
 Romans under Scipio came to his assistance, and in 203 
 the allies gained a decisive victory. Among the captives 
 was the charming Sophonisba, a Carthaginian lady, 
 whom Masinissa married. Being sternly reproved by 
 Scipio for this impolitic act, he sent her a cup of poison, 
 which she drank, it is said, with heroic spirit. He con- 
 tributed to the victory of the Romans at the battle of 
 Zama, and was rewarded with the kingdom of Numidia. 
 He is said to have been a wise ruler and to have done 
 much to civilize his subjects. He died about the age of 
 ninety-seven, leaving the kingdom, under the guardian- 
 ship of Scipio /Emilianus, to his three sons, Micipsa, 
 Gulussa, and Mastanabal. 
 
 See Nikruhr, "Lectures on Roman History," vol, i. : Livv, 
 "History of Rome," books xxiv.-xxx. ; Sallust, "Jugurtha;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Masius. See Maes, (Andreas.) 
 
 Mas'ke-lyue, (Nevil,) an English astronomer of 
 great merit, born in London in 1732. He was sent to 
 Saint Helena in 1761 to observe the transit of Venus, 
 in which enterprise he failed because the sun was ob- 
 scured by clouds. In 1765 he succeeded Mr. Bliss as 
 astronomer royal. He originated the " Nautical Alma- 
 nack," (1767,) and superintended its publication till his 
 death. It acquired a high reputation in Europe, and was 
 styled by Lalande "the most perfect Ephemeris that 
 had ever been made." For forty-seven years Maskelyne 
 made exact observations of the sky at Greenwich, and 
 was the first to give a standard catalogue of stars, (1790.) 
 In 1772 he visited Scotland, in order to ascertain the 
 density of the earth by observing the effect of the moun- 
 tain Schehallien upon the plumb-line. He was the author 
 of several astronomical treatises in the " Philosophical 
 Transactions," and was a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 He was also a foreign associate of the Academy of Sci- 
 ences in Paris. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Dki.ambrk, "Notice sur la Vie de N. Maskelyne," 1813; 
 Reks, "Cyclopaedia:" Dei.ambrk, " Histoire de 1'Astronomie au 
 dix-lutitieme Siecle ;" "Monthly Review" for March, 1786. 
 
 Mas-Latrie, de, deh ma'lt'tRe', (Jacques Marie 
 Joseph Louis,) a French archaeologist and historical 
 writer, born at Castelnaudary in 1815. He published a 
 " Historic Chronology of the Popes, General Councils," 
 etc., (1837,) "History of the Isle of Cyprus under the 
 
 Rule of the Princes of the House of Lusignan," (1852,) 
 and other works. 
 
 Maso. See Finiguerra. 
 
 Maso da San Friano. See Manzuoli. 
 
 Ma'son, (Armistead Thomson,) a son of Stevens 
 T. Mason, (1760-1803,) was born in Loudon county, 
 Virginia, in 1787. He was chosen a Senator of the 
 United States by the Democrats in 1815, and was killed 
 in a duel by J. M. McCarty in 1819. 
 
 Ma'son, (Charles,) an English astronomer, who 
 assisted Dr. Bradley in the Royal Observatory at Green- 
 wich. He published an improved edition of Mayer's 
 " Lunar Tables," and, in company with Mr. Dixon, was 
 sent to America to determine the limits of Maryland and 
 Pennsylvania. They measured a degree of the meridian, 
 and in 1768 Dr. Maskelyne published an account of their 
 operations in the " Philosophical Transactions" for that 
 year. Died in 1787. 
 
 Mason, (Francis,) an English clergyman, born at 
 Durham in 1566, became Archdeacon of Norwich. He 
 published a "Defence of the Anglican Church," ("Vin- 
 diciaa Ecclesiae Anglicanaa.") Died in 1621. 
 
 Mason, (Francis,) D.D., a learned Baptist divine and 
 missionary, born at York, England, in 1799. Having 
 emigrated to America, he studied theology at Newton, 
 Massachusetts, and sailed for India in 1830. He pub- 
 lished a "Memoir of Mrs. Helen M. Mason," (1847,) 
 " Burmah, its People and Natural Productions," (1852,) 
 "Life of Kotha-byn, the Karen Apostle," a translation 
 of the Bible into the Karen language, (1853,) and other 
 works. He was also editor of a Karen journal, entitled 
 "The Morning Star." 
 
 Mason, (George,) Colonel, an English statesman 
 and soldier under the reigns of Charles I. and Charles 
 II., emigrated to America about 1654, and settled in 
 Virginia. 
 
 Mason, (George,) an American statesman, a de- 
 scendant of the preceding, was born in Stafford county, 
 now Fairfax county, Virginia, in 1726. He wrote the 
 Declaration of Rights and the Constitution of Virginia, 
 (1776,) after which he served in the legislature. In 1777 
 he was elected to the Continental Congress. He was 
 reputed one of the ablest debaters that Virginia ever 
 produced. He was a member of the national convention 
 which framed the Constitution of the United States, but 
 he refused to sign that Constitution, and vehemently 
 opposed its adoption in the Virginia Assembly, for the 
 alleged reason that it tended to monarchy. He was 
 highly eulogized by Jefferson. Died in 1792. 
 
 Mason, (George,) an English litterateur, who wrote 
 a " Life of Lord Howe," an "Answer to Thomas Paine," 
 and an " Essay on Designs in Gardening." Died in 1806. 
 
 Mason, (James,) a distinguished English engraver, 
 born about 1710, executed a number of landscapes after 
 Claude Lorrain, G. Poussin, Hobbema, and other artists. 
 Died about 1780. 
 
 Mason, (James Murray,) an American Democratic 
 politician, born in Fairfax county, Virginia, about 1798. 
 He became a member of Congress in 1837, and was 
 elected a Senator of the United States by the legisla- 
 ture of Virginia in 1847. He continued to be a member 
 of the Senate for fourteen years, and was the author of 
 the fugitive-slave law of 1850. He was sent with 
 Slidell on a mission to England by Jefferson Davis 
 1861. During the passage in the steamer Trent th 
 were seized by Captain Wilkes, of the F'ederal navy, 
 November, 1861. They were claimed by the Briti: 
 government, and were liberated in January, 1862, afti 
 which Mr. Mason passed several years in England 
 remaining abroad during the civil war. Died in 1871. I 
 
 Mason, (Jeremiah,) an American statesman and 
 lawyer of high reputation, born at Lebanon, Connecticut, 
 in April, 1768, graduated at Yale College. He practised 
 law many years at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, tc 
 which he removed in 1797. He was a Federalist, anc 
 a friend of Daniel Webster, who expressed a very hi:" 
 opinion of him. He represented New Hampshire in th« 
 Senate of the United States from 1813 to 1817. In 183: 
 he removed to Boston, where he died in October, 1848. 
 He was considered in the early part of the present ce«* 
 tury to be the foremost lawyer in New England. 
 
 of 
 
 I 
 
 ft, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon 
 
 1 
 
MASON 
 
 '543 
 
 MASSASS01T 
 
 Mason, (Sir John,) an English statesman, born at 
 Abingdon in 1500. He was privy councillor in the reigns 
 of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Died 
 in 1566. 
 
 Mason, (John,) a native of England, born in 1600, 
 emigrated to America, where he became Deputy Gov- 
 ernor of Connecticut. He was the author of a " History 
 of the l'equot War." Died in 1672. 
 
 See G. E. Eli.ir, " Life of John Mason," in Sparks's "Amer- 
 ican Biography," vol. iii., 2d series. 
 
 Mason, (John,) an English divine and religious writer, 
 born in Essex in 1706, was the author of a popular work, 
 entitled "Self-Knowledge," (1745,) which was translated 
 into several languages. Died in 1763. 
 
 Mason, (John Mitchell,) a celebrated American 
 theologian and pulpit orator, bom in New York in 1770. 
 He graduated at Columbia College in 1789, and subse- 
 quently finished his theological studies in Edinburgh. 
 In 1793 he succeeded his father as pastor of the Reformed 
 Presbyterian Church in Cedar Street, New York, where 
 he attracted great numbers by his eloquence. He was 
 the founder of the first theological seminary in the United 
 States, of which he was appointed professor. He be- 
 came editor of the " Christian's Magazine" in 1807, and 
 was elected in 181 1 provost of Columbia College, and 
 in 1821 president of Dickinson College, Pennsylvania. 
 Among his most admired writings is his " Oration on 
 the Death of Alexander Hamilton," who was his intimate 
 friend. Dr. Mason died in 1829. His works (in 4 vols.) 
 were edited by his son, the Rev. Ebenezer Mason. 
 
 See "Memoirs of J. M. Mason," by J. Van Vechtrn, 1856; 
 Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i : Cleve- 
 land, '* Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Mason, (John Thomson,) an American lawyer and 
 statesman, son of Thomson Mason, noticed below, was 
 born in Stafford county, Virginia, in 1764. lie was a 
 personal friend of Jefferson, who appointed him to seve- 
 ral high offices. Died in 1824. 
 
 Mason, (John Thomson,) son of the preceding, 
 born in Washington county, Maryland, in 181 5, became 
 collector of the port of Baltimore under President 
 Buchanan. 
 
 Mason, (John Y.,) born in Sussex county, Virginia, 
 about 1795, was secretary of the navy under President 
 Tyler, and attorney-general and secretary of the navy 
 (1846-49) under President Polk. He was afterwards 
 appointed minister to France by President Pierce. Died 
 in Paris in 1859. 
 
 Mason, (Lowell,) an American composer and teacher 
 of music, born at Medfield, Massachusetts, in 1792. He 
 received the degree of doctor in music from the New 
 York University in 1855. He has been a contributor to 
 the "Musical Review," and has published numerous 
 works on music, both original and compiled. 
 
 Mason, (Richard B.,) grandson of George Mason, 
 noticed above, served with distinction in the Mexican 
 war of 1848, and became civil and military Governor of 
 California. Died in 1850. 
 
 Mason, (Stevens Thomson,) a nephew of George 
 Mason, was born in Virginia in 1760. He served in the 
 war of the Revolution, and was elected to the United 
 States Senate in 1 794. Died in 1803. 
 
 Mason, (Stevens Thomson,) grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in Loudon county, Virginia, in 181 1. 
 He was elected in 1835 first Governor of Michigan. 
 
 Mason, (Thomson,) younger brother of George Ma- 
 son, noticed above, was born in 1730. He distinguished 
 himself as a jurist and a patriot, and was the author of 
 several able political essays. Died in 1785. 
 
 Mason, (William,) an English poet, born at Hull in 
 1725. He was chosen a Fellow of Pembroke College in 
 1747, and, after taking orders, became chaplain to the 
 king. Mason is chiefly remembered as the friend and 
 biographer of the poet Gray. His principal works are 
 two tragedies, entitled " Elfrida" and "Caractacus," 
 several odes, and "The English Garden," a descriptive 
 
 f>oem. He was also distinguished for his skill in paint- 
 ng and music Died in 1797. 
 
 See Hartley Colkrtdgs, " Lives of Distincnished Northerns;" 
 Campbell, "Siwcimens of the British Poets;" Warton, " History 
 of English Poetry :" "London Quarterly Review" for July, i8r6; 
 " Monthly Review" for March. 1772, June, 1783, and August, 1796. 
 
 Masoodee Alee-Abool-Hassan, Mas'udi Ali- 
 Abul-Hassan, or Masoudy Ali-Aboul-Hassan, 
 ma-soo'dee a'lee' a'bdol' has'san, often called Al-Ma- 
 soodee, (or Al-Mas'udi,) an eminent Arabian historian, 
 born at Bagdad in the ninth century. His profound and 
 various attainments in almost every department of know- 
 ledge have obtained for him the admiration of Europeans 
 as well as of his own countrymen. He travelled over a 
 great part of Asia, and as far west as Morocco and Spain. 
 Among his most important works are his " History of 
 the Times," and his " Meadows of Gold and Mines of 
 Gems," the latter of which comprises the history, poli- 
 tics, religion, and geogfaphy of Eastern and European 
 nations. Masoodee is supposed to have died at Cairo, 
 in 956 A.D. 
 
 See E*tienne Quatremere, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages 
 de Mas'oudy," 1839 ; Reinaud, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeneYale." 
 
 Masotti, ma-sot'tee, (DoMENICO,) a distinguished 
 Italian surgeon, born at Faenza in 1698, was appointed 
 professor of physiology and surgery at Florence, and 
 afterwards of lithotomy. In 1763 he published his prin- 
 cipal work, entitled " Lithotomy for Women Perfected." 
 Died in 1779. 
 
 Masoudi. See Masoodee. 
 
 Masque de Fer, misk deh f?R, (L'Homme an, 
 lorn 6,) (the "Man with the Iron Mask,") an unknown 
 person, who in 1662 was imprisoned in the chateau of 
 Pignerol, afterwards conveyed to the isle of Sainte-Mar- 
 guerite, and in 1698 to the Bastille, where he died in 1703. 
 Various conjectures have been formed concerning this 
 mysterious prisoner, who was evidently a person of high 
 rank and refined tastes. Some writers have supposed 
 him to have been a twin brother of Louis XIV. ; others, 
 that he was the Count of Vermandois, the Duke of 
 Beaufort, or Count Mattioli. 
 
 See G. J. W. A. Ellis, (Lord Dover.) " History of the State 
 Prisoner called The Iron Mask," 1826 ; Paul Lackuix, " L'Homme 
 au Masque de Fer," 1837 ; L. I.etournkuk, " Histoire de THornine 
 au Masque de Fer," 1849; Voltaire, " Si&cle de Louis XIV;" 
 " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1826. 
 
 Masquelier, mtsk'le-i', (Louis Joseph,) a French 
 engraver, born near Lille in 1741. In 1802 he obtained 
 from the gallery of Florence a gold medal for his en- 
 gravings. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Massa, mas'sa, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian physician and 
 medical writer, born at Venice ; died about 1563. 
 
 Massard, m$'sti<', (Jean,) a French engraver, born 
 at Belleme in 1740. He became a member of the Acad- 
 emy of Painting in the reign of Louis XVI., and, on the 
 restoration of the Bourbons, was made, in 1814, engraver 
 to the king. His most admired works are "The Family 
 of Charles I.," after Van Dyck, and " The Death of 
 Socrates," after David. Died in 1822. 
 
 Massard, (Jean Baptiste Raphael Urhain,) a skil- 
 ful French engraver, son of the preceding, was born in 
 Paris in 1775. He engraved some works of Raphael, 
 Giulio Romano, and David. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kiinst'er-Lexikon." 
 
 Massaredo. See Mazarredo y Salazar. 
 
 Massari, massa'ree, (Lucio,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Bologna in 1569, was a pupil of Ludovico Caracci. 
 He was intimate with Albano, and took part in some of 
 his labours. Among his master-pieces are the "Mar- 
 riage of Saint Catherine," and a " Noli me Tangere." 
 "Some of his works," says.E. Breton, "are so graceful 
 that they defy the severest criticism." Died in 1633. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Baldinucci, " No- 
 tizie;" Malvasia, " Felsina pittrice." 
 
 Massaria, mas-sa-ree'a, (Alessandro,) a learned 
 Italian physician, born at Vicenza about 1510. He 
 studied under Fracantianus and Fallopius, and in 1587 
 succeeded Mercuriale as professor of medicine in the 
 University of Padua. He was the author of a "Treatise 
 on the Plague" and a "Treatise on Bleeding," which are 
 highly esteemed. Died in 1598. 
 
 See Portal. " Histoire de l'Anatomie." 
 
 Mas'sas-soit, an Indian chief of the Womponoags, 
 born in Massachusetts. In 1621 he formed a league with 
 the colonists at Plymouth, which was never violated. He 
 was the father of the celebrated warrior King Philip. 
 Died in 1661. 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jrySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MASSE 
 
 '544 
 
 MASSINGER 
 
 Massed mt'sa', (Jean Baptiste,) a French artist, 
 born in Paris in 1687, engraved the pictures which Le- 
 brun had executed for the gallery of Versailles. Masse 
 became painter to Louis XV. Died in 1767. 
 
 Masse, (Victor,) a French composer, born at Lorient 
 in 1822. He produced, besides other works, a comic 
 opera entitled "Galathee." 
 
 Massena, mS'si'nS', [It. Massena, mas-sa'na,] (An- 
 dre,) Prince of Essling, Duke of Rivoli, and one of 
 the most distinguished marshals of Napoleon I., was 
 born of Jewish parentage at Nice in 1758. He enlisted 
 in 1775 as a private of the royal Italian regiment, from 
 which he retired at the expiration of fourteen, years, 
 having attained no higher rank than that of a sergeant. 
 At the beginning of the French Revolution he again en- 
 tered the army, and in a short time was successively pro- 
 moted to the rank of colonel, general of brigade, and 
 general of division. In 1794 he gained a victory over the 
 Austrians near Tanaro, took Ormea, and rendered effi- 
 cient service at the battle of Saorgio. The following year, 
 while serving under General Scherer, he drove the Aus- 
 trians from their position at Vado and gained over them 
 the decisive victory of Loano. In 1796 he acquired 
 great distinction at the engagements of Montenotte, Mil- 
 lesimo, Castiglione, and Areola. His gallant conduct at 
 the battle of Rivoli, in 1797, subsequently procured for 
 him the title of Duke of Rivoli. The next year he was 
 appointed to the command of the army in the Papal 
 States ; but his rapacity and avarice excited so great 
 hostility both in his soldiers and in the inhabitants that 
 he was soon after compelled to resign. In 1799, as com- 
 mander-in-chief of the armies of Switzerland and the 
 Danube, he exhibited the highest order of military talent, 
 especially at Zurich, where he gained an important and 
 brilliant victory over the Russians. In 1804 he was 
 created a marshal of France. The next year he was sent 
 to Italy, to command against the Archduke Charles, 
 whom he finally succeeded in driving back into Germany. 
 In 1806 he reduced the insurgent Calabrians to subjec- 
 tion, took the fortress of Gaeta, and enabled Joseph 
 Bonaparte to seat himself firmly upon the Neapolitan 
 throne. He reaped further laurels in 1809, at the battles 
 of Landshut and Eckmuhl and by the capture of the 
 fortress of Ebersdorf. The same year he was created 
 Prince of Essling, for his distinguished services at the 
 battle of that place. Massena was appointed in 1810 
 general-in-chief of the army in Portugal, where, although 
 he exhibited his usual courage and military skill, he was 
 Ultimately obliged to yield to the superior genius of Sir 
 Arthur Wellesley. He has, however, received the highest 
 commendation from English as well as French historians 
 for the strategic skill with which he conducted his re- 
 treat into Spain. In 1812 Marmont was appointed to 
 succeed him. The year following, Massena joined the 
 Bourbons. He acknowledged the authority of Napoleon 
 when he returned from Elba, but took no part in the 
 affairs of government during the Hundred Days. He 
 was subsequently appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 National Guard in Paris, and also received several marks 
 of distinction from Louis XVIII. He died in Paris, 
 April 4, 1817. 
 
 See General Koch, " M^moires de Masse'na," 1849; Napier, 
 " History of the Peninsular War ;" Major-General J. Mitchell, 
 " Biographies of Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries," 
 1S65 ; Pons, " Notice historiqne sur le Marechal Masse'na." 1837 ; 
 Thiers, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Massenbach, von, fon mas'sen-Mic', (Christian,) 
 a Prussian officer, born at Schmalkalden in 1768. He 
 published several historical works. Died in 1827. 
 
 Mas'sey, (Gerald,) an English poet, born in Hert- 
 fordshire in 1828, The child of indigent parents, he 
 was obliged at an early age to work in a factory, and re- 
 ceived no other instruction than that of a penny school. 
 He published in 1847 " Poems and Chansons," which 
 were followed in 1853 by "The Ballad of Babe Chris- 
 tabel, with other Lyrical Poems." 
 
 See " Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smiles. 
 
 Massiac, de, deh mf'se'Sk', (Garriel,) a French 
 officer and historical writer, born at Narbonne in 1657. 
 He wrote " Memoirs of the Most Important Events of 
 the War from 1688 to 1698." Died in 1727. 
 
 Massias, mi'se'aV, (Nicolas,) Baron, a French littt- 
 ratiur, born at Villeneuve d'Agen in 1764. Among his 
 philosophical works is an " Essay on Instinct, Intelli- 
 gence, and Life," (4 vols., 1822.) Died in 1848. 
 
 Massie, mas'se, (Nathaniel,) an American soldier 
 and pioneer, born in Goochland county, Virginia, in 1763, 
 settled in Ohio, where he became one of the largest land- 
 owners in the State. He founded in 1796 the town of 
 Chilicothe. Died in 1813. 
 
 Massieu, mS'se-yh', (Guili.aume,) a French lit- 
 terateur, born at Caen in 1665. He was appointed in 
 1710 professor of Greek in the College of France. He 
 translated the Odes of Pindar, and wrote a " His- 
 tory of French Poetry," brought down to the reign of 
 Francis I. Died in 1722. 
 
 See Gros de Boze, "fiioge de Massieu;" Thery, " Notice sur 
 l'Abbe Massieu." 
 
 Massieu, (Jean Baptiste,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 born in Picardy, became constitutional Bishop of L'Oise 
 in 1791. He voted for the death of Louis XVI. in the 
 National Convention. Died in 1818. 
 
 Massillon, mS'sel'y6N' or mi'se'y6N', (Jean Bap- 
 tiste,) a French pulpit orator of great celebrity, born 
 at Hieres, in Provence, in 1663. He was educated in 
 the college of that town, and became a priest of the 
 Oratory. After professing belles-lettres and theology at 
 Montbrison and Vienne, and pronouncing some funeral 
 orations, he was called to Paris in 1696 to direct the 
 Seminary of Saint-Magloire. His talent was gradually 
 developed by the ecclesiastic conferences which he com- 
 posed at this period. He admired the austere eloquence 
 of Hourdaloue, but chose for himself a different style, 
 characterized by profound pathos and an insight into 
 the most secret motives of the human heart. In 1699 
 he preached at Paris the Lent sermon, which was warmly 
 applauded. The same year he was chosen to preach the 
 Advent at court, on which occasion Louis XIV. said to 
 him, " I have heard many great orators and been pleased 
 with them : but after hearing you I am displeased with 
 myself." The death of Bossuet and Bourdaloue, in 
 1704, left him at the head of French pulpit orators. In 
 this year he again preached before Louis XIV., whose 
 funeral oration he pronounced in 1 71 5. He was ap- 
 pointed Bishop of Clermont in 1 71 7, and preached before 
 the young king the Lent sermon called " Petit-Careme," 
 which is esteemed his master-piece. His diction is noble, 
 simple, and unaffected. Voltaire kept a volume of his 
 sermons constantly on his desk, as a model of eloquence. 
 Massillon was admitted into the French Academy in 
 1719. In the government of his diocese he was moderate, 
 charitable, and conciliatory. He died in 1742. His pub- 
 lished works consist of Sermons, Ecclesiastical Con- 
 ferences, Paraphrases of certain Psalms, Letters, etc. 
 Voltaire thought him " the preacher who best understood 
 the world, — whose eloquence savoured of the courtier, 
 the academician, the wit, and the philosopher." 
 
 See La Harpe. "Cours de LitteYature ;" Maury, "Eloquence 
 de la Chaire ;" E. Theremin, " Demosthenes und Massillon," 1845; 
 D'Ai.embeht. " Eloge de Massillon;" Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries 
 du Lundi ;" Talrert, " E*loge de Massillon," 1773; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge'neYale. " . 
 
 Massimiliano. See Maximilian. 
 
 Massimo. See Maximus. 
 
 Mas'sin-ger, (Philip,) an eminent English dramatic 
 poet, was born at Salisbury in 1584. In his eighteenth 
 vear he entered Saint Alban's Hall, Oxford, supported 
 by the Earl of Pembroke. Here, according to Anthony 
 Wood, " he spent his time in reading poetry and ro- 
 mances instead of logic and philosophy, which he ought 
 to have done, as he was patronized to that end." He 
 became a resident of London about 1606, and assisted 
 Fletcher in the composition of several dramas. The 
 first production of Massinger was the " Virgin Martyr," 
 (1622.) Eighteen of his dramas are extant, mostlj 
 tragedies and tragi-comedies. Among the most admired 
 are "The City Madam," "The Maid of Honour," 
 "A New Way to Pay Old Debts," and "The Fatal 
 Dowry." The latter has given to Rowe the outline of 
 the " Fair Penitent." Massinger's dramas are remark 
 ably free from profanity ; and the coarseness which dis- 
 figures some of them is probably to be attributed to his 
 coadjutors. He is said to have been the only dramatist 
 
 i, e, I, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, it, j?, short; a, e, j, <?, obscure; fir, fall, fit; m8t; not; good; moon; 
 
MASS MANN 
 
 1545 
 
 MATH AM 
 
 o£ that time who rejected the doctrine of the divine right 
 of kings. Died in 1640. 
 
 See Uaviks, " Some Account of the Life and Writings of P. 
 lias ;v4>-r," i7Sq: "Lives of the British Dramatists," by Camp- 
 bell, Leigh Hunt, etc. 
 
 Massmann, mas'man, (Hans Ferdinand,) a Ger- 
 man scholar, born at Berlin in 1797. He published an 
 edition of the "Explanation of the Gospel of Saint 
 John" in Gothic. 
 
 Massolino, da, da mas-so-lee'no, (Panicai.e, pa-ne- 
 ka'li,) an Italian painter, born near Florence in 1378. 
 His master-pieces are the pictures in the chapel of San 
 Pietro al Carmine, representing leading incidents in the 
 life of Saint Peter. He numbered among his pupils the 
 celebrated Masaccio. Died in 1415. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Masson. See Latomus. 
 
 Masson, mi'sdN', (Antoine,) a French engraver, 
 born near Orleans in 1636. He excelled particularly in 
 representing colour and the different textures of objects. 
 His print of the " Disciples at Emmaus," after Titian, is 
 esteemed one of his master-pieces, though not free from 
 a fantastic style of executing the hair, peculiar to himself. 
 Masson was also a painter, and his engravings from his 
 own portraits, as well as from those of other artists, 
 are greatly admired, many of them representing the 
 most distinguished men of that time. He was engraver- 
 in-ordinary to the king. Died in 1702. 
 
 His daughter, Madei.ene Masson, born in 1666, was 
 a skilful imitator of her father's style, and executed the 
 portraits of Maria Theresa, the Duchess d'Alencon, and 
 several others. 
 
 See DuMHSNIL, " Le Peintre-Graveur Francais." 
 
 Masson, (Augusts Michel Beno? t Gaudichot,) a 
 French novelist and dramatist, born in Paris in 1800. 
 
 Masson, (Bartholomew.) See Latomus. 
 
 Masson, (Chari.es Franqois Phii.ibert,) a French 
 litterateur, born in Franche-Comte in 1762. He was a 
 member of the Institute of France. He wrote "Me- 
 moirs of Russia," (3 vols., 1800-02,) and a poem entitled 
 "The Helvetians." Died in 1807. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Mas'son, (David,) a Scottish critic and litterateur, 
 born at Aberdeen in 1823, became a contributor to " Fra- 
 ser's Magazine" and the " North British" and " Quarterly 
 Reviews," and other publications. In 1859 he became 
 editor of " Macmillan's Magazine," and in 1865 was 
 appointed professor of rhetoric and English literature 
 in the University of Edinburgh. His principal works 
 are 'The Life and Times of Milton," (1859,) "British 
 Novelists and their Styles," (1859,) and "Critical and 
 Biographical Essays." 
 
 Masson, (Francis,) a distinguished Scottish botanist, 
 born at Aberdeen in 1741. About 1771 he visited the 
 Cape of Good Hope, where he made a valuable collec- 
 tion of plants for the Kew Gardens. After having spent 
 some time in Portugal and the West Indies, he was sent 
 to Canada, where he died in 1805. He left an admirable 
 work entitled " Stapeliae novae," in folio, with 41 coloured 
 plaies. 
 
 ks, " Cyclopaedia." 
 
 Masson, (Franco's,) a French sculptor, born in Nor- 
 mandy in 1745. Among his master-pieces are several 
 i in the garden of the Tuileries, the bas-reliefs of 
 the Pantheon, the sculptures on the tomb of Vauban, 
 and an exquisite ligure of Flora, Died in 1807. 
 
 Srr Regnault, " Nolice historique sur Francois Masson." 
 
 Masson, (Jean,) a French litterateur and Protestant 
 divine, bom about 1680, wrote the Lives of Horace and 
 Ovid, ami several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1750. 
 
 Masson, (Jean Papire— pi'peV,) [Lat. Papir'ius 
 i'nus,| a French writer, born at Saint-Germain- 
 Laval in 1544. He became an advocate of Parliament in 
 1571"' He was the author of " Annals of France," (1577.) 
 a " Desi ription of the Rivers of France," (1618,) and a 
 lion of biographies of eminent persons, entitled 
 ia." Masson was a friend of the historian De 
 Thou, who has written his Life. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Dh Thou, "Vita P. Massoni;" Nic£ron, "Memoires." 
 
 Masson de Pezay. See Pezay. 
 
 Massooa or Massoua, mSs'soo'a, written also Ma- 
 sua and Mesne, a celebrated Arabian savant, who was 
 physician to the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid. 
 
 Massuet, mi'sii-i', (Pierre,) a learned French phy- 
 sician, born near Sedan in 1698, studied under the 
 celebrated Boerhaave. He wrote several historical 
 treatises. Died in 1776. 
 
 Massuet, (Rene,) a learned French ecclesiastic, born 
 in Normandy in 1666. On the death of Mabillon and 
 Kuinart, he wrote a continuation of the "Annals of the 
 Benedictine Order." He also published an excellent 
 edition of the works of Saint Irenaeus. Died in 1716. 
 
 Mastelletta. See Donducci. 
 
 Mas'ters, (Rohert,) an English divine and antiquary, 
 born in 1713, published a "History of the College of 
 Corpus Christi," (1753,) and other works. He was a 
 Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1798. 
 
 Masters, (Thomas,) an English poet, born in Glou- 
 cestershire about 1600. He was a friend of Lord Her- 
 bert of Cherbury, whom he is said to have assisted in 
 some of his writings. He wrote a Greek poem on the 
 " Passion of Christ," and other works. Died in 1643. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Mastlin or Maestlin, mgst-leen', (Michael,) a Ger- 
 man astronomer, born in Wiirtemberg about 1550. He 
 passed a portion of his early life in Italy, where he asso- 
 ciated with Galileo. Having returned home, he was 
 appointed professor of mathematics at Tubingen, where 
 he was the tutor and generous friend of Kepler. He 
 accepted the Copernican theory. He was author of 
 "Thesis de Eclipsibus," " Epitome Astronomiae," (1597,) 
 and other works. Hallam designates him as "the illus- 
 trious master of Kepler." Died in 1590 or 1631. 
 
 See KXstner, " Geschichte der Mathematik ;" Vossius, "De 
 Scientiis Malhematicis." 
 
 Mastropetro, mas-tRo-pa'tRO, (Orio,) was elected 
 Doge of Venice in 1179. He abdicated in 1191, and 
 retired to a monastery, and was succeeded by the cele- 
 brated Dandolo. 
 
 Masucci, ma-soot'ehee, (Agostino,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Rome in 1691, was a pupil of Carlo 
 Maratta. Among his master-pieces is a " Holy Family." 
 Died in 1758. 
 
 Masuccio, ma-soot'cho, I., an Italian architect and 
 sculptor, born at Naples in 1230. He built the church 
 of San Domenico Maggiore, and completed that of Santa 
 Mariadel Nuova, begun by Giovanni Pisano. Died in 1305. 
 
 Masuccio II., (Tommaso de' Stekani,) a pupil of the 
 preceding, was born in 1291. Among his works are the 
 castle of Saint Ermo, and the church of San Lorenzo 
 at Naples. He also executed sculptured monuments of 
 great merit. Died in 1338. 
 
 See Cicognara, "Storia della Sculutra." 
 
 Masudi or Al-Masudi. See Masoodee. 
 
 Matall, ma'ta-li, in the Hindoo mythology, the chariot- 
 eer of India. 
 
 See Williams's translation of " Sakoontala," Act vi. 
 
 Matani, ma-ta'nee, (Antonio,) a learned Italian phy- 
 sician, born at Pistoia in 1730. He was a corresponding 
 member of the Royal Society of London. He published 
 a treatise "On the Figure of the Earth," and several 
 medical works. Died in 1779. 
 
 See TrPALoo, "Biografia degH Italian! illustri." 
 
 Match'am, (George,) an English traveller, born in 
 1755, published a " Journey from Aleppo to Bagdad 
 across the Arabian Desert." Died in 1833. 
 
 Matelief, ma'teh-leef',(CoRNELis,) a Dutch navigator, 
 born about 1570, was sent in 1605 as commander of a 
 squadron to the East Indies, for the purpose of opposing 
 the Portuguese and of opening relations with China and 
 Japan. He died about 1628, and an account of his voy- 
 age was published at Amsterdam, (1705.) 
 
 See Motley, " United Netherlands," vol. iv. chap. xlix. 
 
 Maternus. See Firmicus. 
 
 Matham, ma'tam, (Jacob,) a Dutch engraver, born 
 at Haarlem in 1571, was a pupil of Henry Goltzius. 
 Died in 163 1. 
 
 Matham, (Tiieodorus,) son of the preceding, born 
 at Haarlem in 1589, engraved a number of portraits, and 
 several historical pieces of great merit. Died in 1677. 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, h, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (H^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MATHER 
 
 1546 
 
 MATILDA 
 
 Math'er, (Cotton,) D.D., a celebrated American 
 theologian and writer, born at Boston in 1663, was a son 
 of Increase Mather, noticed below. He was ordained 
 as a minister in 1684, and preached in Boston. Among 
 his principal works are "The Wonders of the Invisible 
 World," (1693,) "Magnalia Christi Americana, or 
 The Ecclesiastical History of New England," (1702,) 
 "Essays to do Good," (1710,) "Psalterium America- 
 num," (1718,) "The Christian Philosopher," (1721,) and 
 " Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures," (in manuscript.) 
 His character exhibits a remarkable compound of ardent 
 piety, (which, however, was not without a tincture of 
 self-conceit,) uncommon activity, and force of intellect 
 joined to a credulity which, even in that age, had 
 scarcely any parallel among educated men. From the 
 first he was eager to bring to trial and punishment those 
 supposed to be guilty of witchcraft, and, when others 
 began clearly to see the folly and injustice of these cruel 
 persecutions, he earnestly, though vainly, strove to stem 
 the reaction in the popular mind. Died in 1728. 
 
 See Dl'YCKiNCK, " Cyclopedia of American Literature," vol. i. ; 
 "North American Review" for July, 1840; Hildketh, "History of 
 the United States," vol. ii. chap. XX. 
 
 Mather, (Increase,) son of Richard Mather, a non- 
 conformist divine who removed from Lancashire to New 
 England, was born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1635. 
 He was sent about 1685 to England as agent of the 
 province for the redress of grievances. He published, 
 among other works, an " Essay on Remarkable Provi- 
 dences." Died in 1723. 
 
 Mather, (Moses,) D.D., a relative of the preceding, 
 born at Lyme, Connecticut, in 1719. He was the author 
 of a " Systematic View of Divinity," and other works. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Mather, (Richard,) an English Puritan, b6rn in Lan- 
 cashire in 1596, emigrated to New England in 1635. 
 He preached at Dorchester, Massachusetts, for many 
 years. Died in 1669. 
 
 See a "Life of R. Mather," by his son Increase. 
 
 Matheson. See Maitheson. 
 
 Math'ew, (Rev. Theobald,) the celebrated Apostle 
 of Temperance, a Catholic priest, born in the county 
 of Tipperary, Ireland, in 1790. He was appointed after 
 his ordination to a missionary charge at Cork, where he 
 established a charitable association on the model of that 
 of Saint Vincent de Paul. About 1838 he became presi- 
 dent of a temperance society, and in a few months admin- 
 istered the pledge to 150,000 persons in Cork alone. 
 He afterwards visited different parts of Ireland, the cities 
 of London, Manchester, and Liverpool, and the United 
 States of America, being everywhere received with en- 
 thusiasm. For these eminent services in the cause of 
 religion and morality, Queen Victoria bestowed upon 
 Father Mathew an annuity of ^500. Died in 1856. 
 
 See "Father Mathew, a Biography," by J. F. Magimre; P. M. 
 Morris, " Memoirs of the Life of Theobald Mathew," New York, 
 1841 ; I. S. Henshaw, " Life of Father Mathew," New York, 1849 ; 
 "Biographical Sketches," by Harriet Martineau. 1869; " ¥ la- 
 ser's Magazine" for January, 1841. 
 
 Math'ews, (Charles,) a celebrated English come- 
 dian, born in London in 1776. Having visited the United 
 States in 1822, he brought out on his return his enter- 
 tainment entitled "A Trip to America," which obtained 
 great popularity. He was distinguished for his extraor- 
 dinary talent for imitation, in the exercise of which he 
 was seldom if ever ill-natured or offensive. He died in 
 1836, leaving "Memoirs" of his life, which were finished 
 by his widow, (4 vols., 1839.) 
 
 See " F laser's Magazine" for March, 1836; " Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for December, 1839; "London Quarterly Review" for Janu- 
 ary, 1839. 
 
 Mathews, (Charles James,) an English comedian, 
 a son of the preceding, was born in 1803. He mar- 
 ried Madame Vestris in 1838, and, after her death, in 
 1857, another actress, Mrs. Davenport. He produced 
 several dramas, among which is "My Wife's Mother," 
 
 ("833.) 
 
 Math'ews, (Cornelius,) a distinguished American 
 litterateur and journalist, born at Port Chester, New 
 York, in 1817. Having previously contributed numerous 
 articles in prose and verse to the "American Monthly 
 Magazine," "New York Review," and "Knickerbocker 
 
 Magazine," he published, in 1839, " Benemoth, a Legend 
 of the Mound-Builders." Among his other works may 
 be named "The Politicians," a comedy, (1840,) "Poems 
 on Man in the Republic," (1843,) " Witchcraft," a tragedy, 
 (1846,) "Money-penny, or the Heart of the World," 
 (1850,) and a comedy entitled " False Pretences," (1856.) 
 Mr. Mathews has been a zealous advocate of inter- 
 national copyright. 
 
 See Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii.; 
 Griswoi.d, "Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Mathews, (George,) an American jurist, born near 
 Staunton, Virginia, in 1774, removed to Louisiana, where 
 he was appointed presiding justice of the supreme court. 
 Died in 1836. 
 
 Mathias, ma-thl'as, (Thomas James,) an.English lit- 
 terateur, born about i757,wrote a poem entitled " Pursuits 
 of Literature," (1794,) " Runic Odes," and other English 
 works ; also a number of poems in Italian. He died at 
 Naples in 1835. He translated Milton's "Lycidas" into 
 Italian. 
 
 Mathieu, mt'te-uh', (Adolphe Charles Ghislain,) 
 a Belgian poet and journalist, born at Mons in 1804, pub- 
 lished numerous works. 
 
 Mathieu, mi'te-yh', (Claude Louis,) a French 
 mathematician and astronomer, born at Macon in 1784. 
 He was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1817. 
 He was a brother-in-law of Francis Arago. 
 
 Mathieu de la Redorte, mjt'te-yh' deh IS reh-doRt', 
 (David Maurice Joseph,) CoMTfCa French general, 
 born at Saint- Affrique in 1768. He became general 
 of division in 1799, and peer of France in 1819. He 
 married Mademoiselle Clery, a sister of Joseph Bona- 
 parte's wife. Died in 1833. 
 
 Mathieu de Dombasle, mi'te-uh' deh doN'bal', 
 (Christophe Joseph Alexandre,) a French agricul- 
 tural writer, born at Nancy in 1777 ; died in 1843. 
 
 Mathieu-Mirampal, mi'te-uh' me'r&N'pil', (Jean 
 BAPTIST* Charles,) born at Compiegne, in France, 
 in 1764, was a deputy to the National Convention in 
 1792, and voted for the death of the king. Died in 1833. 
 
 Mathilde. See Matilda. 
 
 Mathon de la Cour, mi't6N' deh li kooR, (Charles 
 Joseph,) a French litt&rateur, son of Jacques, noticed 
 below, born at Lyons in 1738. He wrote a treatise 
 " On the Danger of reading Books hostile to Religion," 
 (1770,) which was crowned by the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions, and other works. He was guillotined at Lyons 
 in 1793. 
 
 Mathon de la Cour, (Jacques,) a French mathe- 
 matician, born at Lyons in 1712. He published several 
 scientific treatises. Died about 1770. 
 
 Mathusalem. See Methuselah. 
 
 Matignon, mi'ten'ydN', (Charles Auguste de 
 Goyon — deh gwa'yiN',) Comte de Gace, a French 
 marshal, born in 1647, accompanied James II. of Eng- 
 land in his Irish campaign. He afterwards distinguished 
 himself at Fleurus, Mons, and Namur, and was created 
 a marshal in 1708. Died in 1729. 
 
 Matignon, de, deh mi'ten'ydN', (Jacques de Goyon,) 
 Comte, a French marshal, born in Normandy in 1525. 
 He served in the wars of Henry II. and Henry III. 
 against the Protestants. He was made a marshal in 
 1579. Died in 1597. 
 
 See Brant6me, " Vies des grands Capitaines Francais;" Cal- 
 ueres, " Histoire du Mare'schal de Matignon," 1661. 
 
 Ma-til'da, Maud, or Maude, [Fr. Mathilde, tof- 
 teld',] Empress of Germany and Queen of England, born 
 about 1 102, was a daughter of Henry I. of England. She 
 was married in 1 1 10 to Henry V. of Germany, who died 
 in 1125. About 1127 she became the wife of Geoffrey 
 Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and was recognized by 
 her father as his successor. On the death of Henry 
 (1 135) her title was disputed by Stephen of Blois, and a 
 long civil war ensued between them. Matilda prevailed 
 in 1 141, and was crowned in London. She was the 
 mother of Henry II. Died in 1167. 
 
 See Matthew Paris, " Historia major." 
 
 Matilda, daughter of Boniface III., Marquis of Tus- 
 cany, was born about 1046. She was first married to God- 
 frey le Bossu, son of the Duke of Lorraine. He died in 
 1076, and, her mother having died the same year, Matilda 
 
 a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MATILDA 
 
 '547 
 
 MATTHESON 
 
 came into possession of her vast estates, including the 
 greater part of Northern Italy. In the contest for su- 
 premacy between Pope Gregory VII. and the Emperor 
 of Germany, she espoused with great zeal the cause of 
 the former ; and it was at her castle of Canossa that 
 Henry IV. underwent the humiliating penance imposed 
 by the pope. In 1077 she made a reversionary grant 
 of all her dominions to the Church of Rome. She was 
 married in 1089 to Guelph, Duke of Bavaria, from whom 
 she was divorced in 1095. Died in 1 1 15. 
 
 See Fiorentini, " Memorie di Matilda laContessa di Toscana," 
 1642; Ameuf.f. Kenee, "La Grande Itatienne," 1859 ; Mozzt de' 
 Capitani, "Sulla Contessa Matilda," etc., 1&45 ; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Gene>ale." 
 
 Matilda, (Caroline.) See Caroline Matilda. 
 
 Matius. See CaLVENA. 
 
 Matius, ma'she-us, written also Mattius, (Cneius,) 
 a Roman poet in the time of Julius Caesar, whose friend- 
 ship and patronage he enjoyed. He was the author of 
 epic and dramatic poems, and mimiambi. Of the last- 
 named there are fragments extant, which are greatly 
 admired. He also translated the " Iliad" into Latin 
 verse. He is supposed by some to be the same as Cal- 
 ven a, (which see.) 
 
 Maton de la Varenne, mi't6N' deh It vi'ren', (P. 
 A. L.,) a French litterateur, born in Paris about 1760; 
 died in 1813. 
 
 Matooan- (or Matouan-) lira, ma-too-an' lin, a very 
 learned Chinese writer, born in the province of Kiang-si 
 about 1250. He was the author of a historical work, 
 entitled " Wen-hian-thoon-khao," which displays im- 
 mense erudition and embraces a great variety of sub- 
 jects. Abel Remusat says of this production, " It is in 
 itself worth a library, and, if Chinese literature contained 
 no other, it would be worth while to learn Chinese in 
 order to read it." 
 
 Matos, de, da ma'tos, (Joao Xavier,) a Portuguese 
 poet of the latter part of the eighteenth century, was the 
 author of sonnets, odes, etc., and of a tragedy entitled 
 " Viriacia." 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Matos Fragoso, ma't6s fna-go'so, (Juan,) a dramatic 
 writer, born at Elvas, in Portugal, about 1630, was the 
 author of numerous popular comedies, (in Spanish.) 
 Died in 1692. 
 
 Matsko, motsh'ko, (John Matthias,) a Hungarian 
 astronomer, born at Presburg in 1721 ; died in 1796. 
 
 Mats'ya, [modern Hindoo pron. mtits'ya,] a Sanscrit 
 word signifying a "fish," and forming the name, in the 
 Hindoo mythology, of the first avatar of Vishnu. On 
 that occasion the preserving deity is said to have as- 
 sumed the form of a great fish shining like gold, and, 
 according to one account, " extending a million leagues," 
 that he might protect the ark which contained Satyavrata 
 and the seven Rishis with their wives, all the rest of the 
 human race having been destroyed by the deluge. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Matsys, mat-sis', (Cornelis,) a Dutch or Flemish 
 engraver, born about 1500; died in 1560. 
 
 Matsys, (Jan,) a relative of Quentin, noticed below. 
 His pictures are few in number, but of great merit, and 
 painted in the style of Quentin Matsys. Died about 
 1560. 
 
 Matsys, mjt-sis', or Metays, met-sTs', written also 
 Messis, (Quentin,) a celebrated Flemish painter, born 
 at Antwerp about 1450. He was originally a blacksmith, 
 and is said to have changed his vocation in order to 
 obtain the hand of a lady he loved, who was the daughter 
 of an artist. Among his master-pieces are " The Descent 
 from the Cross," in the Museum at Antwerp, "The 
 Misers," in the Gallery at Windsor, and the " Portrait 
 of a Jeweller," in the imperial collection of Vienna. Died 
 in 1529. 
 
 See Dfscamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.; E. van 
 Ewen, " Notice biographique sur Q. Metsys," 1846. 
 
 Mat-ta-thi'as, a Jewish priest, appointed to officiate 
 in the Temple, was the founder of the family of the 
 Maccabees, and the father of the celebrated warrior 
 Judas Maccaboeus. During the persecution of the Jews 
 by Antiochus Epiphanes, he was conspicuous for his 
 zeal in the defence of his religion, and, with a band of 
 
 his followers, marched against the idolaters and over- 
 threw their altars.' Died in 166 B.C. 
 
 Matte, mit, (Nicolas Augustin,) a French sculptor, 
 born in Paris in 1781. Among his works we may name 
 busts of Racine and Comeille. Died about 1840. 
 
 Matteani, mat-ta-a'nee, (Angelo,) an Italian jurist 
 and mathematician, born at Marostica in 1535. He be- 
 came professor of law at Padua in 1589. Died in 1600. 
 
 Mattei, mat-ta'ee, (Alessandro,) an Italian cardinal, 
 born at Rome in 1744. In 1777 he became Archbishop 
 of Ferrara, and in 1797 he was sent to negotiate with 
 Bonaparte, then marching towards Rome. Died in 1820. 
 
 Mattei, (Loretto,) an Italian poet, born at Rieti in 
 1622. He was the author of " II Salnn'sta Toscano," a 
 paraphrase, in verse, of the Psalms. Died in 1705. 
 
 Mattei, (Saverio,) an Italian litterateur, born in Cala- 
 bria in 1742. He became in 1767 professor of Oriental 
 languages at Naples. His translation of the Book of 
 Psalms was very popular. Died in 1 795. 
 
 Mattei, (Stanislao,) an Italian composer, born at 
 Bologna in 1 750; died in 1825. 
 
 Matteis, mat-ta'ess, or Mattei, mat-ta'ee, (Paolo,) 
 an Italian painter and engraver, born near Naples in 1662. 
 Among his master-pieces are the pictures of the "Sa- 
 viour and Saint Gaetano," in the church of Saint Paul 
 at Pistoia, and the "Meeting of Erminia and the Shep- 
 herds," in the Museum of Vienna. Died in 1728. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Matte-Lafaveur, mit li'fi'vuR', (Sebastien,) a 
 French chemist, wrote a work entitled " Practice of 
 Chemistry." Died about 1684. 
 
 Matteo da Siena, inat-ta'o di se-a'nl, or Matteo 
 di Giovanni, mat-ta'o de jo-van'nee, an Italian painter, 
 born at Sienna in 1420. He adorned the cathedral of 
 that city with his works. Died in 1495. 
 
 Matter, mi'taiR', (Jacques,) a French historian and 
 philosopher, born near Saverne in 1 791. He published, 
 besides other works, a "Critical History of Gnosticism," 
 etc., (2 vols., 1828,) a " General History of the Christian 
 Church," (4 vols., 1828-35,) a,K ' "The Philosophy of 
 Religion," (1857,) all in French. He became in 1845 
 inspector-general of the libraries of France. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Matteucci, mat-too'chee, [It. pron. mit-tS'oot-chee,] 
 (Carlo,) an Italian writer, distinguished for his researches 
 in electro-physiology, was born in 1811. He published, 
 besides other valuable works, " Lectures on the Physico- 
 Chemical Phenomena of Living Bodies," (1844,) for which 
 he received the prize of the French Academy of Sciences 
 and the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London. 
 He became minister of public instruction. Died at Flor- 
 ence in 1868. (For two of his works, see " Smithsonian 
 Reports" for 1865 and 1867.) 
 
 Matteucci, (Petronio,) an Italian astronomer. In 
 1786 he gave an account of the transit of Mercury. Died 
 in 1810. 
 
 Matthaeus, mat-ta'us, (Antoon,) a Dutch jurist and 
 antiquary, born at Utrecht in 1635 ; died in 1710. 
 
 Matthai or Matthaei, mat-ta'ee, (Christian Fried- 
 rich,) a German scholar, born in Thuringia in 1744, was 
 appointed professor of Greek at Wittenberg, and subse- 
 quently of classic literature at Moscow. He published 
 a number of critical treatises and editions of various 
 Greek classics. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Matthai or Matthaei,(P"R 1 ei >rich,) a German painter 
 of history and portraits, born at Meissen in 1777. He 
 was a pupil of Casanova, and subsequently of Fuger, 
 at Vienna, and was appointed in 1809 professor in the 
 Academy of Painting at Dresden. Died in 1832. His 
 brother, Ernst Gottlieb, born in 1779, was a sculptor 
 of great merit, and was appointed honorary professor in 
 the university at Rome. Died in 1842. 
 
 Matthesius, mat-ta'ze-us, (Johann,) a German Prot- 
 estant minister, born at Rochlitz in 1504. He became 
 first preacher at Joachimsthal about 1543. He wrote a 
 " History of Luther's Doctrine, Life, and Death," (in 
 German, 1565.) Died in 1568. 
 
 Mattheson, mat'teh-son, (Johann,) a German mu- 
 sician and composer, born at Hamburg in 1681. His 
 works are very numerous, comprising operas, church 
 music, sonatas, etc. He also published several treat- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (J^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MATT HE IV 
 
 1548 
 
 MATTIOLl 
 
 ises on music, which are highly esteemed. He was an 
 Intimate friend of Handel. Died in 1764. 
 
 See Burney, " History of Music;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'- 
 rale." 
 
 Matthew, math'u, [Gr. Marflaioc; Fr. Matthieu, 
 mt'te-uh' ; It. MATTED, mat-ta'o,] Saint, the Evan- 
 gelist, a native of Galilee, is generally believed to have 
 been the same person as Levi, the son of Alpheus, men- 
 tioned in Mark (ii. 14) and Luke, (v. 27.) His employ- 
 ment was that of a publican, or collector of customs, 
 under the Romans, and while engaged in this function 
 he was called by Christ to be one of the apostles. The 
 history of Matthew after the ascension of Christ is not 
 known, some writers asserting that he suffered death 
 at Naddabar, in Ethiopia, and others that he was one 
 of the apostles who escaped martyrdom. 
 
 Matthew of Cracow, [Lat. Matthi'as Cracovi- 
 en'sis,] a German bishop and Reformer, born in Pome- 
 rania. He became Bishop of Worms in 1405, and wrote 
 against the corrupt practices of the Church. Among his 
 works is a treatise "On the Pollutions of the Romish 
 Court." Died in 1410. 
 
 See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. 
 
 Matthew of Westminster, an English monk and 
 historical writer of the fourteenth century, was the author 
 of "Flowers of History," ("Flores Historiarum,") ex- 
 tending from the creation to the death of Edward I. It 
 is highly valued for its accuracy. 
 
 Matthew, math'u, (Tobias,) an English prelate, born 
 in Bristol in 1546. In 1572 he was chosen president of 
 Saint John's College, Oxford, and one of the queen's 
 chaplains-in-ordinary. In 1595 he was created Bishop 
 of Durham, and in 1606 Archbishop of York. The 
 learning and piety of Archbishop Matthew have been 
 warmly eulogized by Camden. Died in 1628. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Matthew, (Tobias,) son of the preceding, born at 
 Oxford in 1578, became a Roman Catholic. He was 
 employed by James I. in 1621 to negotiate the marriage 
 of the Prince of Wales with the Infanta of Spain. He 
 vas knighted in 1623. Among his works are a "Life 
 of Saint Theresa," and a "Collection of Letters includ- 
 ing a Character of Lucy, Countess of Carlisle." Died in 
 
 See Wood, " Atbenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Matthew Paris, math'u par'iss, a celebrated English 
 chronicler, enjoyed the patronage of Henry III., from 
 whom he obtained important privileges for the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford. He was the author of" Historia Major 
 Angliae," and " Historia Minor Anglije." The former 
 extends from the time of William the Conqueror to the 
 reign of Henry III. Died in 1259. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Matthews, rhath'uz, (George,) an American officer 
 of the Revolution, born in Augusta county, Virginia, in 
 1739. He was elected Governor of Georgia in 1780, and 
 again in 1794. Died in 1812. 
 
 Matthews, (Thomas,) a British naval officer, born 
 in Wales in 1681, distinguished himself in the engage- 
 ment at Cape Passaro under Admiral, Byng, (1718,) and 
 in other campaigns of the war of the Spanish succession. 
 He obtained the rank of admiral of the blue. Died in 
 
 '75'- 
 
 See Van Tenac, " Histoire g£ne"rale de la Marine." 
 
 Matthia or Matthiae, mat-tee'a', (August Hein- 
 RICH,) a German philologist, born at Gottingen in 1769. 
 He published " Elements of Greek and Roman Litera- 
 ture," a " Complete Greek Grammar," which was trans- 
 lated into French, an excellent edition of the Tragedies 
 of Euripides, and other works. Died in 1835. 
 
 Matthia, (Johan,) a Swedish prelate, born in Ostro- 
 gothia in 1592, became court preacher and almoner to 
 Gustavus Adolphus. He was afterwards appointed pre- 
 ceptor to Christina, the daughter of that monarch, and 
 was created Bishop of Strengnas in 1643. He wrote 
 several moral and theological works. Died in 1670. 
 
 Matthiae. See Matthia. 
 
 Matthias, ma-thi'ass, [Ger. pron. mat-tee'ass; It. 
 Mattia, mat-tee'a,] Emperor of Germany, born in 1557, 
 was the son of Maximilian II. and Mary, daughter of 
 
 Charles V. He was invited in 1578, by the Catholio 
 of the Netherlands, to assume the government of that 
 country, which office he soon resigned. He was ap- 
 pointed Stadtholder of Austria in 1595, and in 161 1 was 
 invited by the Bohemians to become their ruler. On 
 the death of his brother Rudolf, Emperor of Germany, 
 in 1612, Matthias succeeded to the throne. In the en- 
 suing contest between the Protestant and Catholic fac 
 tions he pursued a vacillating policy, and while striving 
 to direct made himself distrusted by both. He con- 
 cluded a disadvantageous treaty with the Turks, then in 
 possession of Hungary, (1615,) and soon after caused 
 his cousin Ferdinand to be proclaimed King of Bohemia 
 and Hungary. (See Ferdinand II.) Matthias died in 
 1619, in the midst of the dissensions which preceded the 
 Thirty Years' war. 
 
 See Khevenhuller, " Annales Ferdinandei ; w P. Santoric, 
 "Vite di Ridolfo e Mattia Imperatori," 1664; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge^ie'rale." 
 
 Matthias, ma-thi'ass, an American fanatic and impos- 
 tor, originally named Matthews, born in Washington 
 county, New York, about 1790, became a street-preacher 
 in Albany, and prophesied the destruction of that city. 
 
 See "Matthias and his Impostures," by Wm. L. Stone, New 
 York. 1835 ; " North American Review" for October, 1835. 
 
 Matthias of Janow, (ya'nov,) a German priest and 
 Reformer, preached in Prague. He wrote against popery, 
 and published "The Abomination of Carnal Priests and 
 Monks." Died in 1394. 
 
 See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. 
 
 Matthias Corvinus. See Corvinus. 
 
 Matthieu, the French for Matthew, which see. 
 
 Matthieu, mt'te-uh', (Pierre,) a French poet and 
 historical writer, born in Franche-Comte in 1563. He 
 became historiographer of France under Henry IV., 
 wrote a tragedy entitled "La Guisiade," of which the 
 Duke of Guise is the hero ; also a " History of Henry 
 HI. and Henry IV." Died in 1621. 
 
 See Poirson, "Histoire du Regne de Henri IV;" Niceron, 
 " M^moires." 
 
 Matthieu de Venddme, mt'te-uh' deh vfiN'dom', a 
 French statesman and ecclesiastic, horn about 1220, was 
 appointed regent of the kingdom by Louis IX. on his 
 departure for Palestine. After the accession of Philip 
 he was made prime minister in 1270. Died in 1286. 
 
 Matthieu de Vendome, a French scholar and Latin 
 poet, lived about 1 180— 1200. 
 
 Matthiolus. See Matitoi.i. 
 
 Matthisson, von, von mat'te-son', (Friedrich,) an 
 eminent German lyric poet, born near Magdeburg in 
 1761. He studied at Halle, and in 1794 accompanied 
 the Princess of Anhalt-Dessau on her tour through 
 Switzerland, Italy, and the Tyrol. In 1812 the King 
 of WUrtemberg appointed him his chief librarian and 
 conferred upon him a title of nobility. His poems are 
 characterized by great tenderness of feeling, graceful 
 versification, and faithful delineations of nature. He 
 also published an interesting work entitled " Remi- 
 niscences," (" Erinnerungen," 5 vols., 1810-16,) being an 
 account of persons and places he had visited. Died in 
 1831. 
 
 See Doring, " Matthisson's Leben," 1833 : Longfellow, " Poets 
 and Poetry of Europe;" F. von Matthisson, " Selbstbiographie," 
 1818. 
 
 Matthys, mat-tls', (Gerard,) a Flemish philoscphei 
 and Greek scholar, borri in Gelderland in 1523. He 
 published a number of commentaries on Aristotle, and 
 other critical works. Died in 1574. 
 
 Matti, mat'tee, (Emanuel,) a Spanish ecclesiastic 
 and Latin poet, born at Oropesa in 1663, was appointed 
 Dean of Alicante. Died in 1737. 
 
 Mattioll, mat-te-o'lee, (Luigi,) an Italian engraver, 
 born at Crevalcore in 1662, executed a number of prints 
 after the Caracci. He was also distinguished as a 
 painter. Died about 1745. 
 
 See G. Atti, " Vita di L. Mattioli," 1836. 
 
 Mattioli, [Lat. Matthi'oi.us,] (Pif.tro Andrea,) 
 an eminent Italian physician and botanist, born at Sienna 
 in 1500. Being invited to Prague by the emperor Fer- 
 dinand, he was made aulic councillor, and subsequently 
 appointed first physician to Maximilian II. He published 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fax, fall, fat; m?t; not; good; moon; 
 
MATTWS 
 
 1549 
 
 MAUPEOU 
 
 "Commentaries on the Materia Medicaof Dioscorides," 
 (in Latin, 1554,) which are highly esteemed and have 
 been translated into several languages; also a number 
 of medical and botanical treatises. The well-known 
 genus Matthiola(Stock-gillifiower) was named in honour 
 of this botanist. Died in 1577. 
 
 See Cuvibr, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" Hali.hr, 
 "Ribliotheca Botanica ;" Van dkr Linden, "De Scriptoribus Me- 
 dicis." 
 
 Mattius. See Matius. 
 
 Mat'u-rin, (Charles Robert,) a distinguished poet, 
 novelist, and pulpit orator, born at Dublin in 1782, was 
 descended from a French Protestant family. He studied 
 at Trinity College, and was subsequently appointed 
 curate of Saint Peter's, Dublin. .He published in 1807 
 "The Fatal Revenge, or the Family of Montorio," which 
 was followed by "The Milesian Chief," "Women, or 
 Pour et Contre," " Melmoth the Wanderer," and other 
 romances of the Radcliffe school. His tragedy of "Ber- 
 tram," brought out at the Drury-Lane Theatre in 1816, 
 met with brilliant success. It has been translated into 
 French, as well as several of his romances. In 1824 he 
 published " Controversial Sermons," directed against the 
 corruptions of the Roman Church, which obtained great 
 popularity. Died in 1824. 
 
 See the "Edinburgh Review" for June, 1818; "London Quar- 
 terly Review" for December, 1818, and January, 1831; "Monthly 
 Review" for August, 1818, et seq. 
 
 Maturino di Firenze, ma-too-ree'no de fe-reVza, 
 an Italian painter, born at Florence about 1490, was a 
 pupil of Raphael, and a friend of Polidoro Caravaggio, 
 in conjunction with whom he executed a number of 
 frescos at Rome. These works are preserved in the 
 engravings of Cherubino, Alberti, Goltzius, and other 
 artists. Died about 1528. 
 
 Matuazewic, ma-too'sha-vits, (ThaDdeus,) a Polish 
 statesman, was appointed minister of finance in 1815. 
 Died in 1818. 
 
 Maty, ma'tee, (Matthew,) an eminent physician and 
 writer, born near Utrecht in 17 18, studied at Leyden, 
 and subsequently settled in England, (1740.) He founded 
 in 1750 the "Journal Britannique," a literary periodical 
 of great merit, which was highly commended by Gibbon. 
 He was elected in 1758 a Fellow of the Royal Society, 
 of which he became perpetual secretary in 1765. In 
 1772 he succeeded Dr. Knight as chief librarian of the 
 British Museum. He published an " Essay on the 
 Character of the Great Physician, or a Critical Eulogy 
 on Boerhaave," (in French, 1747,) "Authentic Memoirs 
 of Richard Mead," (1755,) and " Memoirs of Lord Ches- 
 terfield." Died in 1776. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes ;" Gibbon, " Memoirs." 
 
 Maty, (Paul Henry,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in London in 1745. He became one of the secre- 
 taries of the Royal Society in 1778. He published a 
 translation, from the German, of Riesbeck's "Travels," 
 (1787.) Died in 1787. 
 
 Maubert de Gouveat, mo'baiR' deh goo'vj', (Jean 
 Henri,) a French litterateur, born at Rouen in 1721, 
 wrote a work entitled " Political History of the Age," 
 which was commended by Lord Bolingbroke. Died in 
 1767. 
 
 Maubeuge. See Mabuse. 
 
 Maubreuil, de, deh mo'bRuI' or mo'bRUh'ye, (Ma- 
 rie Armand Guerri,) Marquis, a French political 
 adventurer, born in Bretagne in 1782. He served in the 
 army as captain. According to his own statement, he 
 was authorized and bribed by certain members of the 
 provisional government in 1814 to assassinate Napoleon 
 and to rob the Queen of Westphalia of her diamonds. 
 He performed the latter part of his mission, and was 
 cast into prison for that offence. Died in 1855. 
 
 Mauburne, mo'buRn', or Momboir, m6N'bwaR', 
 (Jean,) a Flemish ecclesiastic and devotional writer, 
 born at Brussels about 1460, was a friend and corre- 
 spondent of Erasmus. Died in 1502. 
 
 Maucomble, mo'kdMbl', (Jean Francois Dieu- 
 donne,) a French writer, born at Metz in 1735, P u ''" 
 Wished a "History of the Antiquities of the City of 
 Nimes," (1767.) Died in 1768. 
 
 MaucroLx, de, deh mo'kRwa', (Francois,) a French 
 scholar, born at Noyon in 1619. He made translations 
 
 from the " Philippics" of Demosthenes, the " Homilies" 
 of Saint Chrysostom, and other Greek classics. He was 
 an intimate friend of Boileau, Racine, and La Fontaine, 
 and published conjointly with the last-named a collection 
 of works in prose and verse. Died in 1708. 
 
 Maud or Maude. See Matilda. 
 
 Maudsley or Maudslay, mawdz'le, (Henry,) an 
 English artisan, born at Woolwich in 1771, was an em- 
 ploye of Joseph Bramah. He made several valuable 
 mechanical inventions. Died in 1831, 
 
 See Smiles, " Industrial Biography." 
 
 Mauduit, mo dii-e', (AntoinE Ren£, ) a French 
 mathematician, born in Paris in 173 1. He published, 
 among other works, " Elements of Conic Sections De- 
 monstrated," which is highly commended by Lalande. 
 Died in 181 5. 
 
 Mauduit, mo'dwe', (Israel,) an English writer, of 
 French extraction, born at Bermondsey in 1 708, was 
 appointed agent for the province of Massachusetts, lie 
 published a "Short View of the History of the New 
 England Colonies," (1769,) and several other works. 
 Died in 1787. 
 
 Mauduit, (Michel,) a French theologian, born at 
 Vire, in Normandy, in 1644. He was the author of an 
 "Analysis of the Gospel, according to the Historic 
 Order," etc., a " Treatise on Religion," and other works. 
 Died in 1709. 
 
 Mauduit du Plessia, mo'dii-e' du pli'se', (Thomas 
 Antoine,) a French officer, born at Hennebon in 1753, 
 served in the American war, where his courage and 
 abilities won for him the particular regard of Washington. 
 Having joined the royalists soon after the breaking out 
 of the French Revolution, he was killed in attempting 
 to suppress a mutiny among his soldiers in Hayti, in 
 1791. 
 
 Maugras, mo'gRa', (Jean Baptists,) a French phi- 
 losopher and writer, born near Bourbonne-les-Bains in 
 1762 ; died in 1830. 
 
 Mauguin, mo'gaN 7 , (Franqois,) an eloquent French 
 advocate, born at Dijon in 1785. He took a prominent 
 part in the revolution of 1830, and sat in the Chamber 
 of Deputies until 1848. Died in 1854. 
 
 See M. de Cormenin, " Le Livre des Orateurs ;" L. de Lomenib, 
 " M. Mauguin, par un Homme de Rien," 1840. 
 
 Maule, (Fox.) See Panmure, Lord. 
 
 Maultnont, m51'm6.N', or Malmont, de, deh maT- 
 mdN', (Jean,) a French scholar and theologian, was an 
 intimate friend of J. C. Scaliger. 
 
 Maultrot, mo'tito', (Gaisriel Nicolas,) a French 
 jurist, born in Paris in 1714, published numerous treat- 
 ises on canon law. Died in 1803. 
 
 Maun'der, (Samuel,) an English compiler, born 
 about 1790. He published, besides other works, a 
 "Treasury of Useful Knowledge," and a " Biographical 
 Treasury," (6th edition, 1847.) Died in 1849. 
 
 See Wm. Jerdan, " Men I have known." 
 
 Maundeville. See Mandevili.e, (Sir John.) 
 
 Maun'drell, (Henry,) an English traveller, born 
 about 1650, visited Palestine in 1697, and published in 
 1698 his " Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem," etc., which 
 was translated into French. Died about 1710. 
 
 Maunoir, mo'nwaR', (Julien,) a learned French ec- 
 clesiastic, born in 1606, wrote several theological treat- 
 ises in Latin, and a number of works in the dialect of 
 Brittany, including a grammar and dictionary. Died in 
 1683. 
 
 Maupaa, de, deh mo'pa', (Charles Cauchon,) a 
 French soldier, born at Rheims in 1566, was appointed 
 councillor of state by Henry IV., and was subsequently 
 ambassador to the court of England. Died in 1629. 
 
 Maupaa du Tour, de, deh mo'pa' du tooR, (Henri 
 Cauchon,) a French writer, born near Rheims in 1600, 
 rose to be Bishop of Evreux in 1661. He wrote a " Life of 
 Saint Francis de Sales," and other works. Died in 1680. 
 
 Maupeou, de, deh mo'poo', ( Rene Charles,) a 
 French statesman, born in Paris in 1688. He was suc- 
 cessively appointed first president of the Parliament of 
 Paris, keeper of the seals, and vice-chancellor, (1763.) 
 Died in 1775. 
 
 See De Tocquevillk, " Histoire de Louis XV ;" " Nouvella 
 Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 € as *; c as s; g hard; g as/,- G, h, k, guttural; N, naj il ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Uy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MAUPEOU 
 
 1550 
 
 MAURICE AU 
 
 Maupeou, de, (Rene Nicolas Charles Augus- 
 TIN,) a son of the preceding, born in 1714, rose through 
 various high offices to be chancellor of France in 1768. 
 In this post he directed all his efforts towards the over- 
 throw of the parliament, which, by his intrigues, was 
 accomplished in 1771. The president Lamoignon and 
 several distinguished members were exiled ; but on the 
 accession of Louis XVI. (1774) they were recalled, and 
 the former system was re-established. Maupeou was ban- 
 ished to his estate, near Les Andelys, where he died 
 in 1792, having bequeathed to the nation the sum of 
 800,000 livres. He was the last chancellor of the 
 ancient monarchy. 
 
 See "Lettres de Madame du Deffand ;" De Tocqueville, " His- 
 toire de Louis XV;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Fraucais." 
 
 Maupertuis, de, deh mo'peR'tii-e', (Pierre Louis 
 MoreaU,) an eminent French mathematician, born at 
 Saint-Malo in 1698. He finished his studies in Paris, 
 was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1723, and in 
 1727 became a Fellow of the Royal Society, London. 
 In 1736 he was the chief of a party of savants, in- 
 cluding Clairaut and Lemonnier, who were sent to 
 Lapland by the Academy in order to measure a degree 
 of the meridian. The result of this experiment, which 
 is his chief title to celebrity, exposed the error which 
 had been made by Dominic and Cassini in their measure- 
 ment in France, and tended to confirm Newton's theory 
 of the oblate form of the earth. On the invitation of 
 Frederick II. of Prussia, Maupertuis repaired in 1740 to 
 Berlin, where he was appointed president of the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences. He was the author of an " Essay on 
 Moral Philosophy," "The Balistic Arithmetic," "The 
 Measure of the Northern Degree," " Discourse on the 
 Figure of the Stars," and several able treatises on geom- 
 etry. Died in 1759. 
 
 SeeL. A. dela Bsaumelle, "Vie de Maupertuis," 1856; Dame- 
 ron, "Memoire sur Maupertuis;" Voltaire, " Correspondance 
 Generate ;" J. H. Formey, " Eloge de Maupertuis," 1761 ; " Nou- 
 velle Hiographie Generale." 
 
 Mauquest de la Motte, mo'ki' deh It mot, (Guil- 
 LAUMF.,) a French surgeon, born at Valognes in 1655, 
 wrote a "Treatise on Surgery," (3 vols., 1722.) Died 
 in 1737. 
 
 Maur. See Raran-Maur. 
 
 Maurand or Mauran, mo'rSN', (Pierre,) the first 
 leader of the Albigenses, was born at Toulouse. It is 
 said that, under the pressure of severe persecution, he 
 abjured his doctrines. Died in 1 199. 
 
 Maureillan, mo'ii'y8N', (Casimir Poitevin,) Vi- 
 COMTE, a French general, born at Montpellier in 1772, 
 succeeded the Duke of Ragusa as Governor of Dalmatia 
 in 1806. Died in 1829. 
 
 Maurepas, de, deh moVpa', (Jean Frederic Ph.6- 
 lypeaux— fa'le'po',) Comte, a French statesman, born 
 at Versailles in 1701, was a grandson of Chancellor Pont- 
 chartrain. He succeeded his father, Jer6me de Pontchar- 
 train, as secretary of state in 1715, and in 1725 became 
 minister of marine. Though frivolous in his character 
 and superficial in his attainments, he was a liberal patron 
 of learned men, and promoted the scientific expeditions 
 of Maupertuis and his companions to Lapland and of 
 Jussieu to South America. Having offended Madame 
 de Pompadour by an epigram, he was banished from 
 court ; but after twenty-five years he was recalled. The 
 principal measure of his subsequent administration was 
 the restoration of the parliaments. Died in 1781. 
 
 See Condorcet. "filoge de M. de Maurepas," 1782; Voltaire, 
 " Siecle de Louis XV ;" Droz, " Histoire de Louis XVI ;" Mar- 
 montel, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Maurer, mow'rer, (Christoph,) a Swiss painter and 
 engraver, son of Josias, noticed below, was born at Zurich 
 in 1558. He was a pupil of Tobias Stimmer. Died in 
 1614. 
 
 Maurer, mow'rer, (Gf.org Ludwig,) a German jurist, 
 Dorn near Durkhe'im, in Bavaria, in 1790, became min- 
 ister of foreign affairs and of justice in 1847. He pub- 
 lished a number of treatises on German law. 
 
 Maurer or Murer, moo'rer, (Josias,) a Swiss artist 
 and litterateur, bom at Zurich in 1530, excelled as an 
 engraver and painter on glass. Died in 1580. 
 
 Maurice, Emperor of the East. See Mauricius. 
 
 Maurice, the French for Mauricius, which see. 
 
 Maurice, m5'ress', (Antoine,) a French Protestant 
 theologian and Orientalist, born in Provence in 1677. 
 He became professor of history, Oriental languages, and 
 theology at Geneva. Died in 1756. 
 
 Maurice, (Antoine,.) a theological writer, a son of 
 the preceding, born at Geneva in 1716, succeeded his 
 father in the chair of theology in that city, (1756.) Died 
 in 1795. 
 
 Maurice, (Frederic Guillaume,) Baron, a Swiss 
 writer, son of Antoine, (the second of the name,) born 
 at Geneva in 1750, was one of the founders of the " Bi- 
 bliotheque Britannique," (1796,) and published several 
 agricultural works. Died in 1826. 
 
 Maurice, mau'riss, (John Frederick Dennison,) 
 an English divine and prominent leader of the "Broad 
 Church" party, born in 1805. He studied at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, and subsequently became editor of the 
 London "Athenaeum." Among his principal works are 
 his "Theological Essays," "Prophets and Kings of the 
 Old Testament," "Unity of the New Testament," "The 
 Kingdom of Christ," (1841,) "Religions of the World," 
 "Philosophy of the First Six Centuries," "Doctrine of 
 Sacrifice deduced from the Scriptures," "Lectures on 
 National Education," " Philosophy of the Middle Ages," 
 "Claims of the Bible and of Science," (1862,) and "The 
 Conflict of Good and Evil in our Day," (1865.) He was 
 appointed professor of moral philosophy at Cambridge 
 in 1866. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1854 ; " New American Cy- 
 clopaedia." 
 
 Maurice, (Rev. Thomas,) an English divine and 
 scholar, born in Hertford in 1755, became vicar of Cud- 
 ham, in Kent. He was the author of "Indian Antiqui- 
 ties," (7 vols., 1797,) "History of Hindostan," (3 vols., 
 1799,) and "Modern History of Hindostan," (2 vols., 
 1804.) He also translated into verse the "QLdipus 
 Tyrannus" of Sophocles, and published several poems 
 and dramas. Died in 1824. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Rev. Thomas Maurice," 1819, by himself; 
 "Gentleman's Magazine," 1824. 
 
 Maurice of Nassau. See Nassau. 
 
 Maurice, mau'riss, |Ger. Mo'ritz ; Lat. Mauri' n us,] 
 Elector of Saxony, a celebrated general and champion 
 of the Protestant cause, was born at Freiberg, March 
 
 21, 1521. He succeeded his father, Henry, Duke of 
 Saxony, in 1541, and married Agnes, a daughter of Philip, 
 Landgrave of Hesse. In 1546 he formed a secret alliance 
 with the emperor Charles V. against the Protestant 
 League of Schmalkalden, with a design to supplant John 
 Frederick as Elector of Saxony, whose dominions he 
 invaded with success. The title of elector was trans- 
 ferred to him by Charles V. In consequence of his un- 
 expected hostility to the Protestants, the Imperial army 
 gained a decisive victory at Muhlbergin April, 1547, and 
 the Protestant cause was apparently ruined. Having 
 changed his policy, and formed, in 1551, a secret treaty 
 with Henry II. of France, Maurice, aided by several Ger- 
 man princes, in the spring of 1552 took arms for the 
 assertion of religious liberty, and marched against Charles 
 V., who was at Innspruck. Surprised by this sudden 
 movement, Charles was compelled to retreat, the Council 
 of Trent was dispersed in confusion, and hostilities were 
 terminated by the memorable treaty of Passau, August 
 
 22, 1552, which secured religious liberty to the Protest- 
 ants of Germany. Maurice was killed in a battle against 
 Albert of Brandenburg, at Sievershausen, in July, 1553. 
 
 See J. Camerarius, "Vita Mauritii Electoris Saxoniae," 1569; 
 Georg Arnold, "Vita Mauritii," 1719; F. A. von Langenn, 
 "Moritz Herzogund Churfurst von Saciisen," 2 vols., 1841 ; Schi.en- 
 kert, " Moritz Churffirst von Sachsen," 4vols., 179S-1800; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Maurice, mau'riss, [Fr. pron. mo'ress',] Saint, a 
 Christian martyr, was commander of the Theban Legion, 
 which was composed entirely of Christians. Being or- 
 dered by the emperor Maximian to make a sacrifice to 
 the gods for the success of the Roman arms, he refused 
 to comply, and was put to death, together with the greater 
 part of the legion he commanded, (286 a.d.) 
 
 See J. de Lisle, " DeTense de la Verite du Martyre de la Legion 
 Thebeenne," 1737. 
 
 Mauriceau, m5're'so', (Francois,) a French phy- 
 sician, born in Paris, published a "Treatise on the Dis- 
 
 B, e, T, 5 u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, !, Q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
MAURICIANUS 
 
 '55' 
 
 MAVOR 
 
 eases of Pregnancy," which was translated into several 
 languages. Died in 1709. 
 
 Mauricianus, mau-rish-I-a'nus, (Junius,) a Roman 
 jurist under the reign of Antoninus Pius. 
 
 Mauricius or Mauritius, mau-rishl-us, [Gr. Mav- 
 (mkotc; Fr. Maurice, mo'ress' ; It. Maurisio, m5w- 
 ree'se-o,l (Flavius Tiberius,) Emperor of the East, 
 born in Cappadocia in 539 a.d. Having been appointed 
 by the emperor Tiberius commander of his armies 
 against the Persians, he gained several important victo- 
 ries, and was, on his return, rewarded by Tiberius with 
 .lis daughter's hand. After carrying on war for some 
 :ime with the Abares, a barbarous tribe on the Danube, 
 a mutiny broke out among his soldiers, who chose for 
 their leader a centurion named Phocas. Mauritius was 
 put to death, having previously witnessed the execution 
 of five of his sons, (602.) 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:" Le 
 Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" " Nouvelle Biographie G4n£- 
 rale." 
 
 Maurisio, mow-ree'se-o, (Gerardo,) an Italian jurist 
 and historian, born at Vicenza, lived about 1200-1240. 
 He served under the Ghibeline commander Ezzelino 
 da Romano, and subsequently wrote a history of his 
 achievements, which enjoys a high reputation. 
 
 Mauritius. See Maurice of Saxony, and Mauri- 
 cius. 
 
 Mauro, Fra, fRa mow'ro, an eminent Italian geog- 
 rapher, was a monk of the order of the Camaldules, 
 near Venice. His principal work is an excellent map 
 of the world, executed about 1458. Several copies of 
 it have been made ; one of the best of these is in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 See Placido Zurla, " II Mappamundo di Fra Mauro," 1806. 
 
 Maurooenus. See Morosini. 
 
 Maurocordato. See Mavrocordatos. 
 
 Maurolico, mow-ro'le-ko, (Francesco,) a celebrated 
 Sicilian geometer, born at Messina in 1494, was formally 
 years professor of mathematics in his native city. He 
 was the author of a " Treatise on Conic Sections," " Op- 
 tical Theorem," and other valuable works in Latin, and 
 made translations from Euclid, Apollonius, and Auto- 
 lycus. Died in 1575. 
 
 See F. Maurolico, " Vita del Abbate Francesco Maurolico," 
 1613 ; D. Scina, " Elogio di F. Maurolico," 1808. 
 
 Mau'rus Terentia'nus, (te-rSn-she-a'nus,) a Latin 
 writer, supposed to have been a native of Carthage, was 
 the author of a poem on the rules of Latin versification, 
 entitled " De Uteris, Syllabis, Pedibus," etc. 
 
 Maury, mo're', (Jean Siffrein,) acelebrated French 
 prelate and pulpit orator, born in the Venaissin in 1746. 
 He repaired to Paris about 1766, and soon acquired a 
 high reputation by his " Funeral Oration on the Dauphin," 
 and his " Eulogy of Fenelon." He published in 1777 
 his "Treatise on Pulpit Eloquence," and in 1778 was ap- 
 pointed to preach the Careme (Lent) sermon before the 
 king. His " Panegyric on Saint Vincent de Paul," which 
 is esteemed his master-piece, appeared in 1785, and he 
 was soon after chosen a member of the French Academy. 
 In 1789 he was a deputy of the clergy of Peronne to the 
 States-General, where he was conspicuous as the elo- 
 quent advocate of the Church and of the royalist party 
 and the most powerful opponent of Mirabeau. On the 
 dissolution of the Constituent Assembly he was obliged 
 to leave the country, and at the invitation of Pius VI. 
 he took up his residence at Rome, where he was made 
 a cardinal in 1794. In 1804 he wrote a letter of con- 
 gratulation to the emperor Napoleon, and henceforth 
 attached himself to the interests of the new sovereign. 
 He was successively created by him a member of the 
 Institute, first almoner of Jerome Bonaparte, and Arch- 
 bishop of Paris, (1810.) After the restoration of the 
 Bourbons, Cardinal Maury was deprived of his place, 
 and retired to Rome, where he died in 1817. Maury was 
 noted for his brilliant repartee, of which the following 
 instances may be given. Being asked by Napoleon how 
 he stood with regard to the Bourbons, he replied, " Sire, 
 my respect for them is unalterable ; but I have lost faith 
 anil hope, and there remains to me only charity." Once, 
 in the Assembly, some ladies of rank, known for their 
 republican opinions, attempted by their loud conversa- 
 
 tion to drown his voice, when, turning to the president, 
 he said, " I pray you silence those Sansculottes." 
 
 See " Viedu Cardinal Maury," i827,by his nephew; Poujoulat, 
 " Le Cardinal Maury, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1855 ; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generate ;" "Monthly Review," vol. lxix., 1812, (Appen- 
 dix) 
 
 Maury, mow-ree', (Juan Maria,) a Spanish poet 
 and critic, born at Malaga, published in 1826 a collection 
 of Spanish lyrics, entitled "Poetical Spain," (" Espagne 
 poetique,") which were translated into elegant French 
 verse and accompanied with critical and biographical 
 notices. Died in 1845. 
 
 Maury, (Louis Ferdinand Alfred,) a French anti- 
 quarian writer, born at Meaux in 1817. He became a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences in 1857. He pub- 
 lished a number of works, the most valuable of which 
 is his " History of the Religions of Ancient Greece," 
 (3 vols., 1857.) 
 
 Mau'ry\ (Matthew Fontaine,) LLD., an American 
 hydrographer and naval officer, born in Spottsylvania 
 county, Virginia, in 1806. About 1826 he sailed in the 
 Vincennes on a voyage around the world, and after his 
 return was made a lieutenant in 1836. He has published 
 a "Treatise on Navigation," (about 1835,) "Letters on 
 the Amazon and the Atlantic Slopes of South America," 
 "Relation between Magnetism and the Circulation of 
 the Atmosphere," "Astronomical Observations," (1853,) 
 and " Physical Geography of the Sea," (1855, sixth edi- 
 tion, 1856,) a work which has been highly praised by 
 competent judges. 
 
 See the " North British Review" for May, 1858. 
 
 Mausole. See Mausolus. 
 
 Mau-so'lus, [Gr. TAavauXog ; Fr. Mausole, mo'zol',] 
 son of Hecatomnus, became King of Caria, in Greece, 
 about 377 B.C. He made considerable conquests in 
 Persia and in different parts of Greece, and was, accord- 
 ing to Demosthenes, one of the instigators of the Social 
 war. From his name is derived the word " Mausoleum." 
 (See Artemisia.) 
 
 See Clinton, " Fasti Hellenici." 
 
 Maussac, de, d?h mo'sik', [Lat. Maussa'cus,] 
 (Philip Jacques,) an eminent French critic and scholar, 
 born near Beziers about 1590. He became first president 
 of the Chambre des Comptes at Montpellier in 1647. 
 He published the "Greek Lexicon" of Harpocration, 
 with notes, (1614,) an edition of Aristotle's "History of 
 Animals," and of Psellus"On the Virtues of Minerals." 
 Maussac was one of the first Greek scholars of his time, 
 and was an intimate friend of Salmasius. Died in 1650. 
 
 See Baillet, " Jugements des Savants." 
 
 Maussacus. See Maussac 
 
 Mautour, de, deh mo'tooR', (Philibert Bernard 
 Moreau,) a French antiquary, born at Beaune in 1654. 
 Among his works is a " Dissertation on the History of 
 the Amazons." Died in 1737. 
 
 Mauvais, m5'v&', (Felix Victor,) a French astron- 
 omer, born at Maiche, in Doubs, in 1809; died in 1854. 
 
 Mauvilion, mo've'y6N', (Eleazar,) a French litte- 
 rateur, born in Provence in 1712, became secretary to 
 Frederick Augustus, King of Poland. He published a 
 "History of Prince Eugene of Savoy," (5 vols., 1740,) 
 a "History of Peter the Great," (1742,) "History of 
 Gustavus Adolphus," (1764,) and other works, (in 
 French.) Died at Brunswick in 1779. 
 
 Mauvilion, (Jacob,) son of the preceding, born at 
 Leipsic in 1743, became professor of military science at 
 Cassel in 1771. He wrote a " Historical Essay on the 
 Art of War," etc., (in French, 1784,) and other works 
 in French and German, also "The Prussian Monarchy," 
 ("La Monarchie Prussienne,") in conjunction with 
 Mirabeau, who was his intimate friend. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeWrale." 
 
 Mauzinho Quevedo de Castello Branco, mow- 
 zen'yo ka-va'do da kas-tel'lo bRan'ko, a Portuguese 
 poet, wrote a poem entitled "Alphonso the African," 
 commemorating the achievements of King Alphonso V. 
 
 Ma'vor, (William Fordyce,) a Scottish writer, born 
 near Aberdeen in 1758, became tutor to the children 
 of the Duke of Marlborough. He published a number 
 of useful compilations, among which we may name a 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard '; gas j; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled ; § as z; th as in this. (Jl^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MAFORS 
 
 1552 
 
 MAXIMILIAN 
 
 " Historical Account of the Most Celebrated Voyages," 
 " Elements of Natural History," and " The British Cor- 
 nelius Nepos." Died in 1837. 
 
 Mavors. See Mars. 
 
 Mavrocordatos, mav-ro-kor-di'tos, or Mavrocor- 
 dato, mav-ro-kor-dd'to, (Alexander,) a modern Greek 
 physician, statesman, and scholar, born about 1636. He 
 studied at Rome and Padua, and took his medical degree 
 at Bologna. Having settled at Constantinople, his pro- 
 found knowledge of both Oriental and European lan- 
 guages procured for him the post of grand dragoman to 
 the Ottoman Porte, (1673.) ^ e was afterwards employed 
 in important embassies to Vienna, and negotiated the 
 treaty of Carlowitz, (1698.) His services to Austria on 
 this occasion were rewarded by the emperor Leopold 
 with the title of count of the empire, while he was ap- 
 pointed secretary of state by the Sultan, and obtained 
 other distinctions. He was the author of a medical 
 work entitled " Pneumaticum Instrumentum,"etc, which 
 was translated into French, German, and Spanish, a 
 "Modern Greek Grammar," and a collection of letters. 
 Died in 1709. 
 
 See Von Hammer, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs;" 
 11 Nouvelle Hiographie G^ne"rale." 
 
 Mavrocordatos, (Alexander,) a Greek statesman, 
 born at Constantinople in 1791. He took arms against 
 the Turks in 1S21, and was appointed president of the 
 executive committee in January, 1822, soon after which 
 he took command of the army. Having been rendered 
 almost powerless by the dissensions among the Greeks 
 and by the enmity of Colocotronis and Ypsilanti, he re- 
 signed or refused the office of president in 1823. In 1832 
 he was appointed a member of the cabinet by King Otho, 
 whom he served as ambassador to Munich, Berlin, and 
 London between 1834 and 1840. He was prime minis- 
 ter for a short time in 1841, and president of the council 
 in 1844. About May, 1854, he was restored to power, 
 which he resigned a few months later. Died in 1865. 
 
 See Tricoupis, " History of the Greek Revolution," (in modern 
 Greek,) 4 vols., 1S53-56; "Nouvelle Biographie G^ne>ale;" L. ue 
 Lomenih, " Galerie des Contemporains. " 
 
 Mavrocordatos, (Constantine, ) was appointed 
 Hospodar of Wallachia in 1735. He abolished serfdom, 
 and introduced great improvements in the agriculture 
 of the country. Died in 1765. 
 
 Mavrocordatos, (NICHOLAS,) son of Alexander, 
 (the first of the name,) was appointed successively 
 dragoman to the Sultan, Hospodar of Moldavia (1709) 
 and of Wallachia, (171 1.) Died in 1730. 
 
 Ma vi omichalis, mav-ro-me-Ka'lis, known also as 
 Pietro Bey, a modern Greek patriot, born in the Morea 
 about 1775. He fought against the Turks in the revo- 
 lution which began in 1821, and became a member of 
 the provisional government. Died in 1848. 
 
 Mawe, maw, (Joseph,) an English naturalist, born in 
 Derbyshire in 1764, published "Travels in the Interior of 
 Brazil," etc., (1812,) "Treatise on Diamonds and Precious 
 Stones," (1813,) "Mineralogy of Derbyshire," and other 
 scientific treatises. Died in 1829. 
 
 Mawmoisine, maw'moi-zin, or Malvoisine, de, 
 deh mdl'vo-zin, (William,) a prelate, supposed to have 
 been a native of France. Having visited Scotland, he 
 was made Bishop of Saint Andrew's in 1202. He estab- 
 lished many monasteries in that country, and was active 
 in promoting a crusade to the Holy Land. 
 
 Maxcy, mak'see, (Jonathan,) D.D., an American 
 Baptist divine, born at Attleborough, Massachusetts, in 
 1768. He became successively professor of divinity at 
 Brown University, Rhode Island, (1791,) president of 
 Union College, New York, (1802,) and president of 
 South Carolina College, (1804.) Died in 1820. 
 
 See the " Literary Remains of Rev. Jonathan Maxcy," with a 
 Memoir by R. Elton, D.D., 1844. 
 
 Maxence. See Maxentius. 
 
 Maxentius, maks-en'sheMis, [Fr. Maxence, mik'- 
 s6nss',] (Marcus AureliuSTValerius,) a Roman em- 
 peror, was the son of Maximian, who abdicated in 305 
 A.D. He married the daughter of the emperor Galerius. 
 He thought himself slighted by the promotion of Con- 
 stantine to the rank of Caesar in 306, and excited a 
 revolt among the Praetorian guards, who proclaimed him 
 
 emperor at Rome in the same year. Galerius, who was 
 then in a distant province, sent against him an army 
 under Severus, who was defeated and killed by the aid 
 of Maximian. Maxentius and his father reigned together 
 for a short time, and made an alliance with Constantine, 
 who married Fausta, a sister of Maxentius. Maximian 
 was expelled from Rome in 308, in consequence of a 
 quarrel with his son. In 312 the army of Constantine 
 defeated that of Maxentius, who, in the retreat, was 
 drowned in the Tiber. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tille- 
 MONT, " Histmre des Empereurs." 
 
 Maxime. See Maximus. 
 
 Maxime de Tyr. See Maximus Tyrius. 
 
 Max-im'I-an, [Fr. Maximien, maVse'me-i.N' ; Lat. 
 Maximia'nus,] or, more fully, Mar'cus Vale'rius 
 Maximia'nus, a Roman emperor, born in Pannonia, 
 was the son of a peasant. He had obtained high rank in 
 the army when Diocletian, in 286 A.D., adopted him as 
 his colleague in the empire. In the division of the em- 
 pire, Italy and Africa were assigned to Maximian. In 
 305 Diocletian and Maximian formally abdicated in 
 favour of Galerius and Constantius Chlorns. The next 
 year he joined his son Maxentius in an effort to recover 
 power, and was proclaimed emperor. In the war that 
 ensued between hiin and Constantine he was taken 
 prisoner, and executed in 310. (See Maxentius.) 
 
 See Gibbon, "Dec'ine and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tille- 
 MONT, " Histoire des Empereurs." 
 
 Maximianus. See Maximian. 
 
 Maximien. See Maximian. 
 
 Max-I-mil'I-au [Ger. pron. mak-se-meele-in ; Fr. 
 Maximilien, mik'se'me'le'aN'; Lat. Maximilia'nus ; 
 It. Massimiliano, mas-se-me-le-a'no] I., Emperor of 
 Germany, born at Neustadt in 1459, was the son of 
 Frederick III. and Leonora of Portugal. He married, 
 in 1477, Mary of Burgundy, daughter and heiress of 
 Charles the Bold, who died in 1482, leaving two children, 
 Philip and Margaret. In accordance with the stipulations 
 of the peace of Arras, (1482,) he betrothed his daughter 
 Margaret to the Dauphin, (afterwards Charles VIII. of 
 France,) with Burgundy, Artois, and Flanders for her 
 portion. For several years following he was involved in 
 a contest with France, and with his subjects in the Neth- 
 erlands, incited to revolt by Louis XI. About 1492 he 
 prepared to make war on Charles VIII., who not only 
 refused to keep his engagement with Maximilian's daugh- 
 ter, but had deprived him of his intended bride, Anne, 
 the wealthy heiress of Brittany. By the mediation of 
 Philip, Elector of the Palatinate, a treaty of peace was 
 concluded between the two sovereigns at Senlis, (1493,) 
 by which Charles was compelled to give up the dowry 
 of the princess. Maximilian was crowned Emperor of 
 Germany, and in 1494 married Bianca Sforza, daugh- 
 ter of the Duke of Milan, which alliance gave rise to a 
 succession of wars in Italy. He soon after joined the 
 League of Cambray, formed between Pope Julius II., 
 Ferdinand of Spain, and Louis XII. of France, against 
 the Venetians ; but, that republic having soon after 
 become reconciled to the pope, Maximilian joined the 
 so-called Holy League between England, Spain, Venice, 
 and the pope, in opposition to the French, who were 
 signally defeated by the forces of Henry VIII. and the 
 emperor, in the "battle of the spurs," near Guinegate, 
 (1513.) Francis I., having succeeded to the throne of 
 France, captured Milan, and compelled Maximilian to 
 give up Verona to the Venetians for 200,000 ducats. By 
 the treaty of Bale (1499) he had been obliged to acknow- 
 ledge the independence of Switzerland. Though often 
 unsuccessful in his wars, he had the fortune to acquire 
 extensive territories by the marriage of his son Philip 
 with the Infanta of Spain, and of his grandchildren Fer- 
 dinand and Maria with the son and daughter of Ladislaus, 
 King of Hungary and Bohemia. His daughter Mar- 
 garet was married to the Spanish prince Don Juan, a 
 son of Ferdinand and Isabella. Among the important 
 acts of his reign were.the establishment of the Imperial 
 Chamber and Aulic Council, and the abolition of the 
 Secret Tribunal of Westphalia; he also created a stand- 
 ing army and introduced military discipline. He was a 
 liberal patron of learned men, and was the author of 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,1, 6, u, J*, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
MAXIMILIAN 
 
 •553 
 
 MAXIM US 
 
 several works in prose and verse. Me died in January, 
 1510, and was succeeded by his grandson, Charles V. 
 
 See Cnxe, "History of the House of Austria;" Hegewisch, 
 " Geschichte der Regier'ung Maximilians I.." 17S2: Karl Haltaus, 
 "Geschichte des KTaisers Maximilian," 1S50; Van dkr Voort, 
 "Maximilian van Oostenrijk," 1844; LlCHNowsKY, "Geschichte 
 des Hauses Habsburg." 
 
 Maximilian II., born in 1527, was the son of Fer- 
 dinand [., whom he succeeded in 1564 as Emperor of 
 Germany. He was soon after engaged in a war with the 
 Turks, who had established themselves in Hungary. 
 After the death of Solyman II. a truce of eight years 
 was concluded between his successor and the emperor. 
 Maximilian was favourably inclined towards the Protest- 
 ants, whom he allowed to fill important offices ; but the 
 influence of the pope, the King of Spain, and the Catho- 
 lic princes of Germany prevented him from formally 
 embracing their doctrines. He died in 1576, and was 
 succeeded by his eldest son, Rudolph. 
 
 See Coxe, " History of the House of Austria;" DeThou, " His- 
 toria sui Temporis;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Maximilian I., Elector of Bavaria, born in 1573. 
 On the formation by the Protestants of the confederacy 
 called the Union, (1608,) Maximilian put himself at the 
 head of the opposing Catholic faction of the League. 
 In conjunction with the emperor Ferdinand II., he fought 
 in the Thirty Years' war against the Palatine Frederick V., 
 and conquered the Upper and Lower Palatinate. In 1623 
 he obtained the electoral dignity of the Palatinate and 
 the hereditary domains of Frederick V. Maximilian was 
 an able ruler, and founded a number of colleges and other 
 useful institutions. Died in 1 651. 
 
 See Karl Maria von Aretin, "Geschichte des Herzogs und 
 Kurfursten Maximilian I.," 184a. 
 
 Maximilian II., (Joseph,) King of Bavaria, the 
 eldest son of King Lewis, was born in 181 1. He mar- 
 ried in 1842 a daughter of Prince Frederick William of 
 Prussia. In March, 1848, he succeeded his father, who 
 abdicated the throne. He opposed the project to unite 
 the German peoples into one nation or confederacy of 
 which the King of Prussia should be the head. He died 
 in March, 1864, and was succeeded by his son Lewis. 
 
 Maximilian, (Ferdinand Joseph,) Emperor of 
 Mexico and Archduke of Austria, born in July, 1832, 
 was a brother of the emperor Francis Joseph. He 
 married Carlotta, or Charlotte, a daughter of Leopold, 
 King of Belgium, about 1858. In 1859 he was appointed 
 an admiral and commander-in-chief of the Austrian navy. 
 In 1863 he was tempted by Napoleon III. to act the part 
 of emperor in Mexico, then partly conquered by the 
 French and partly governed by the republican President 
 Juarez. He arrived at the Mexican capital in June, 1864. 
 He issued a decree that all who adhered to the republic 
 or resisted his authority should be shot. Many prisoners, 
 including General Orteaga, accordingly suffered death by 
 his order. According to the New York "Evening Post, 
 July I, 1867, he ordered the enslavement of the whole 
 labouring population of Mexico. The United States 
 refused to recognize him as emperor, and required Na- 
 poleon to withdraw his army. Maximilian was much 
 embarrassed by the want of money, and offended the 
 clerical party (which had favoured him) by refusing to 
 restore the property of the Church, which had been 
 confiscated by the Liberals. The French troops de- 
 parted about the end of 1866, after which the republicans 
 sained several victories and the empire quickly collapsed. 
 Maximilian was captured at Queretaro in May, and shot 
 on the 19th of June, 1867. 
 
 See his "Recollections of my Life," 3 vols., 1868; F. Hall, 
 "Life of Maximilian," 1S68. 
 
 Maximilian, (Alexander Pihlipp,) Prince of Neu- 
 wied, a German naturalist and traveller, born at Neu- 
 wied in 1782. In 1815 he set out on a journey through 
 Brazil, where he spent two years and made a rich col- 
 lection of specimens. On his return he published his 
 "Travels in Brazil" and a "Description of the Natural 
 History of Brazil." In 1833 he visited the western part 
 of the United States. His "Journey through North 
 America," a magnificent work, illustrated with eighty- 
 one engravings, came out in 1843, and is said to be 
 superior to anything of the kind that had hitherto 
 appeared in Germany. 
 
 Maximil'ian Ms»ri'a Eraan'uel, Elector of Bavaria, 
 born in 1662, was a grandson of Maximilian I. In 1685 
 he married Maria Antonia, daughter of the emperor 
 Leopold I., and was appointed in 1692 Governor of the 
 Netherlands. Having taken part with the French in 
 the war of the Spanish succession, he delivered up to 
 them the Spanish Netherlands. After his defeat at the 
 battle of Schellenberg, he was obliged by the emperor 
 to give up his possessions, which, however, were restored 
 at the peace of Baden in 1714. Died in 1726. 
 
 Max'I-min, [Lat. Maximi'nus; Fr. Maximin, mtk'- 
 se'mi.N',] or, more fully, Cai'us Ju'lius Ve'rus Max- 
 imi'nus, a native of Thrace, born in 173 A.D., served 
 in the Roman army under Septimius Severus. Having 
 followed Alexander Severus in his German campaign, 
 he caused him to be assassinated, A.D. 235, and was 
 proclaimed emperor in his stead. In consequence of his 
 cruelties, the province of Africa soon after revolted, and 
 Gordianus was made emperor by the senate of Rome, 
 A.D. 237. Maximinus, having defeated and slain Gor- 
 dianus, laid siege to Aquileia, during which he was killed 
 in a mutiny of his soldiers, together with his son, in 238 
 A.D. If we may trust the concurrent testimony of ancient 
 writers, Maximin was above eight feet high, well propor- 
 tioned, and of such strength that he could easily draw a 
 loaded wagon, and with a kick break the leg of a horse. 
 He is said to have used his wife's bracelet for a finger- 
 ring. 
 
 See Tillemont, " Histoire des Empereurs." 
 
 Max-I-mi'nus Da'za, an Illyrian peasant, a relative 
 of Galerius, was raised by him to the dignity of Caesar, 
 A.D. 305. He ruled over Syria and Egypt, and perse- 
 cuted the Christians. On the death of Galerius, in 311, 
 Maximinus took possession of all the Asiatic provinces. 
 He afterwards made war on Licinius, but was defeated, 
 and died by poison at Tarsus in 313 A.D. 
 
 Maxl-mus, [Fr. Maxime, mik'sem'; It. Massimo, 
 mas'se-mo, ] (Magnus Clemens,) a usurper of the 
 Roman empire, was a native of Spaiti. Having for sev- 
 eral years commanded the Roman army in Britain with 
 success, he revolted against Gratian about 381 A.D., 
 and was proclaimed emperor by his soldiers. He then 
 invaded Gaul to offer battle to Gratian, who was defeated, 
 or fled without fighting, and was killed in 383. Theo- 
 dosius and Valentinian recognized him as Emperor of 
 Gaul, Spain, and Britain. Attempting to obtain Italy 
 also by conquest, he was defeated by Theodosius, taken 
 prisoner, and executed in 388 A.D. 
 
 See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" Tillemont, " His- 
 toire des Empereurs." 
 
 Maximus, [Fr. Maxime, mtk'sem',] Saint, sur- 
 named the Confessor and the Monk, an eminent 
 Greek theologian, born at Constantinople about 580 
 A.D. He zealously opposed the heresy of the Monothe- 
 lites, and wrote many works on theology, which were 
 highly esteemed in the middle ages. Died in 662 a.d. 
 
 Max'I-mus the Greek, a native of Albania, was 
 invited to Russia by the grand duke Vassili Ivanovitch, 
 in order to examine numerous Greek manuscripts re- 
 cently discovered. He made translations of the princi- 
 pal ones into Latin, which were rendered by others into 
 Slavonian. At the request of the Czar, he undertook 
 to revise the early translations of the books of the 
 Greek Church ; but the numerous corrections which he 
 made gave great offence, and he was excommunicated 
 as a heretic in 1525. Died in 1556. 
 
 Maximus Fabius. See Fabius. 
 
 Max'I-mus Pe-tro'nI-us, an ambitious Roman cour- 
 tier, born in 395 A.D. He was twice chosen consul. 
 In 455 he procured the assassination of Valentinian 
 III., was proclaimed emperor, and married Eudoxia, the 
 widow of Valentinian. Genseric the Vandal, invited by 
 Eudoxia, marched an army towards Rome, when Maxi- 
 mus attempted to escape by flight, but was killed by his 
 soldiers, or by the officers of Eudoxia, in 455 A.D. 
 
 See Tili.kmont, " Histoire des Empereurs." 
 
 Max'I-mus Ru-til'I-us, a Roman jurist, supposed to 
 have lived under Severus and Caracalla. He was the 
 author of " Ad Legem Falcidiam," or Commentary on 
 the Lex Falcidia. 
 
 Max'I-mus Tj?r'I-us, [Fr. Maxime de Tyr, mtk'- 
 sem' deh teR,] an eminent Platonic philosopher, born at 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 98 
 
MAXWELL 
 
 '554 
 
 MATER US 
 
 Tyre in the second century, lived at Athens and Rome 
 in the reigns of the Antonines and of Commodus. He 
 wrote, in Greek, numerous philosophical dissertations, 
 the style and sentiments of which are commended. Two 
 of these are entitled " On the Daemonium of Socrates," 
 and " On Plato's Opinion respecting the Deity." 
 
 See Ritter, " History of Philosophy ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca 
 Gneca." • 
 
 Max'well, (Sir Murray,) a Scottish naval officer, 
 born near Perth in 1766, served with distinction in sev- 
 eral campaigns against the French and Spaniards, and 
 in 1815 accompanied Lord Amherst on his embassv to 
 China. He was made a knight In 1818. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Bash. Ham., " Voyaee of Discoverv to the Western Coast 
 of Corea," etc. ; " Fruser's Magazine" for October and November, 
 1S42. 
 
 Maxwell, (Rohf.rt,) one of the Scottish lords of the 
 regency during the absence of James V. in France, had 
 a share in the mutiny at Solway Moss. In the first 
 Parliament of Mary Queen of Scots, (1543,) he intro- 
 duced a bill to allow the reading of the Scriptures in the 
 vulgar tongue, which was passed in spite of the oppo- 
 sition of the lord chancellor, the bishops and priests. 
 Died in 1546. 
 
 Maxwell, (William Hamilton,) a writer, born in 
 Ireland in 1795. He published, besides several novels, 
 a " Life of Wellington," and contributed to " Bentley's 
 Miscellany." Died in 1850. 
 
 Maxwell, (William Stirling.) See Stirling. 
 
 May, (Caroline,) an American writer, and resident 
 of New York, has published several poems and prose 
 works, and prepared an edition of the "American Female 
 Poets," with notes. 
 
 May, (Edith.) See Drinker. 
 
 May, (Edward H.,) an American painter, of English 
 extraction, resided in New York City. He studied under 
 Couture, in Paris, and produced a number of pictures 
 which were highly commended by French critics. Among 
 his master-pieces "are " Jewish Captives at Babylon," 
 " Francis I. at Prayer after hearing of the Death of his 
 Son," and a " Scene from Waverley." 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 May, (Thomas,) an English writer, born in Sussex 
 about 1595, was appointed by Cromwell secretary and 
 historiographer to the Parliament. He was the author 
 of a " History of the English Parliament which began 
 November, 1640," which is commended by Warburton ; 
 also the tragedies of "Antigone" and "Agrippina," a 
 Comedy entitled "The Heir," and other works. He 
 likewise translated Lucan's " Pharsalia," and wrote a 
 continuation of it, in Latin and English. It is eulogized 
 by Dr. Johnson and other critics. Died in 1650. 
 
 See Cibber, "Lives of the Poets;" Warburtok, "Letters to 
 Hard ;" " Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot, London, 1864. 
 
 May, (Thomas Erskine,) an English historian and 
 writer on law, born about 1815. He published, besides 
 other works, a " Constitutional History of England from 
 1760 to i860," (1861-63.) 
 
 May de Romain-Motier, mi deh ro'miN' mo'te-i', 
 (Emmanuel,) a Swiss writer, born at Berne in 1734, 
 published a " Military History of the Swiss," etc., (1772.) 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 Maya, ma'yi, a Sanscrit word, signifying " Illusion," 
 and applied by the Hindoos in a philosophical or mys- 
 tical sense to that Power which caused or created the 
 visible phenomena of the universe, it being assumed that 
 external objects have no absolute existence, but that 
 they are mere impressions on the mind, according to 
 the theory held by Berkeley and some other European 
 philosophers. The MayS of the Hindoo mythology is, 
 according to some, a mighty goddess, regarded as the 
 wife or consort of Brahmi. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindoo Mythology;" Wilson, "Sanscrit Dic- 
 tionary." 
 
 Mayans y Siscar, mT-ans' e ses-kaR', [Lat. Maian'- 
 Sius,] (Gregorio,) a Spanish jurist and scholar, born 
 at Oliva in 1699. He published a " Life of Miguel Cer- 
 vantes," (1738,) and a number of legal and critical works 
 of a high character. Died in 1781. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" Strodtmann, 
 " G. Maiansii Vita," 1756. 
 
 Maydieu, mi'de-yh', (Jean,) a French litthateur, 
 who was born at Truyes, and lived about 1760-1800. He 
 wrote several works of fiction. 
 
 Mayenne or Maienne, de, deh mt'yen', (Charles 
 de Lorraine,) Due, an able French general, born in 
 1554, was the second son of Francis, Duke of Guise. 
 He fought against the Huguenots in the civil wars 
 under Charles IX. and Henry HI. His brother Henry 
 and he organized the Catholic League in 1577. (See 
 Guise, de, Henry, Duke.) On the death of his brother 
 Henry, in 1588, the Duke of Mayenne became com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army of the League. He occupied 
 Paris in February, 1589, and opposed the succession of 
 Henry IV., who defeated Mayenne at Ivry in March, 
 159a The duke retained possession of Paris until 1593, 
 and concluded a treaty of peace with Henry IV. in 1596. 
 Died in 161 1. 
 
 See Nerveze, " Histoire de la Vie du Due de Mavenne," 1618 ; 
 Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais ;" Davila, " History of the 
 Civil Wars of France;" H. Martin, " Hisloire de Fiance." 
 
 Mayenne, de, (Henri de Lorraine,) Due, a son 
 of the preceding, bom in 1578. He acted a prominent 
 part in the tumults and violent feuds which prevailed 
 during the minority of Louis XIII. In 1621 he was 
 killed at Montauban, where he fought against the Prot- 
 estants. 
 
 Mayer, mi'er, (Andreas,) a German astronomer, 
 born at Augsburg in 1716 ; died in 1782. 
 
 May'er, (Branz,) an American lawyer and writer, 
 born at Baltimore in 1809. He published " Mexico 
 — Aztec, Spanish, and Republican," (185*1,) "Observa- 
 tions on Mexican History and Archaeology," etc., and 
 "Mexican Antiquities," (1858.) 
 
 Mayer, mi'ya', (Charles Joseph,) a French novel- 
 ist and historical writer, born at Toulon in 1 751 ; died 
 about 1825. 
 
 Mayer, (Johann Christoph Andreas,) a German 
 anatomist, bom at Greifswalde in 1747, became physician 
 to the King of Prussia in 1789. Died in 1801. 
 
 Mayer, mi'er, (Lat. Maye'rus,] (Johann Tobias,) 
 an eminent German mathematician and astronomer, born 
 at Marbach in 1723. At an early age he devoted him- 
 self to the study of the exact sciences, and in 1750 
 became professor of mathematics in the University of 
 Gottingen, and the next year director of the observatory 
 in that place. In 1755 he published his " Lunar Tables," 
 a work of the greatest accuracy and which at once 
 gained him a high reputation. Among his many able 
 productions we may name the " Zodiacal Catalogue," a 
 treatise" On theLibrationof the Moon," " Solar Tables," 
 and "Terrestrial Refractions." Mayer also discovered 
 the principle of the repeating circle, since developed by 
 Borda and employed by him to measure the arc of the 
 meridian. After Mayer's death, which took place in 
 1762, the British Parliament, at the suggestion of the 
 board of longitude, paid to his widow the sum of £yxo, 
 being the prize offered for the "Lunar Tables." 
 
 See A. G. Kastner, " Elogiutn T. Mayeri," 1762; Nopitsch, 
 " Lebensbeachreibung Tobias Mayers," 1805; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generaie." 
 
 Mayer or Mayr, mlR, (Simon,) a celebrated German 
 composer, born at Mendorf, in Bavaria, in 1763. He 
 studied under Lenzi and Bertoni in Italy, and in 1802 
 became chapel-master at Bergamo. He composed a 
 great number of operas, among the most popular of 
 which are his " Medea," " Lodoiska," and " Music-Mad," 
 ("II Fanatico per la Musica.") Died in 1845. 
 
 See Fktis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Mayerue - Turquet, de, deh mi'yeRn' tuVkA', 
 (Louis,) a French writer, born at Lyons about 1550, was 
 the author of a "General History of Spain," and other 
 werks. Died in 1618. 
 
 Mayerne-Turquet, de, (Theodore,) son of the 
 preceding, born at Geneva in 1573, became physician- 
 in-ordinary to Henry IV. of France. In 161 1 he was 
 appointed first physician to James I. of England, and 
 held the same office under Charles I. He was the 
 author of several valuable medical works in Latin. Died 
 in 1655. ' 
 
 See Senrbier, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve." 
 
 Mayerus. Se» Mayer, (Johann Tobias.) 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far. fall, fat; met; nit; good; moon; 
 
MAY EUR 
 
 '555 
 
 MAZARIN 
 
 Mayeur de Saint-Paul, mi'yUR' d?h saN'p5I', 
 (Francois Marie,) a French actor and dramatist, born 
 in Paris in 1758, published a number of comedies, 
 Romances, and poems. Died in 1S18. 
 
 Maygrier, ni.YgRe'A', (Jacques Pierre,) a French 
 surgeon, born at Angouleme in 1771, wrote on anatomy 
 and medicine. Died in 1835. 
 
 May'hew, (HENRY,) an English litterateur and jour- 
 nalist, born in London in 1812. I le was one of the found- 
 ers of the periodical entitled " Figaro in London," and 
 in 1841 became the first editor of " Punch." He sub- 
 sequently edited the "Comic Almanac." Among his 
 works may be named "What to Teach, and How to 
 Teach it," (1842,) "London Labour and the London 
 Poor," (1851,) and "The Wonders of Science." In 
 conjunction with his brothers Augustus and Horace, 
 he published a series of comic sketches. 
 
 May'hew, (Jonathan,) D.D., an American divine, 
 born in Martha's Vineyard in 1720, was distinguished as 
 a preacher and controversialist, and published a number 
 of theological works. Among these we may name 
 " Observations on the Charter and Conduct of the So- 
 ciety for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts," and 
 "Christian Sobriety." Died in 1766. 
 
 Maynard, m&'naV, (Francois,) a French poet, born 
 at Toulouse in 1582, was an intimate friend of Malherbe. 
 He was the author of odes, epigrams, and other poems, 
 which are characterized by La Harpeas possessing great 
 eloquence of diction, but are deficient in warmth. Died 
 in 1646. 
 
 May'nard, (Sir John,) an English lawyer, born in 
 Devonshire in 1602. He became Cromwell's sergeant 
 in 1653, and, after the restoration, filled the same office 
 under Charles II. He was active in promoting the Revo- 
 lution of 1688, and was appointed in 1689 one of the 
 lords commissioners of the great seal of England. Died 
 in 1690. 
 
 Mayne, man, (Jasper,) an English divine and poet, 
 born in Devonshire in 1604. He obtained several offices 
 under Charles I., of which he was deprived after Crom- 
 well's usurpation. On the restoration he was appointed 
 chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles II., and Archdeacon of 
 Chichester. He was the author of a comedy entitled 
 "The City Match," and a tragi-comedy called "The 
 Amorous Warre." Died in 1672. 
 
 See Wood, "Athens Qxonienses ;" Prince, "Worthies of 
 Devon;" Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Mayno, mi'no, (Juan Bautista,) a Spanish painter, 
 born at Toledo about 1590, was drawing-master to Philip 
 IV. Among his best productions are "The Nativity" 
 and "The Resurrection." Died in 1654. 
 
 See Quilliet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Maynwaring, man'a-ring, (Arthur,) an English 
 satirist and political writer, bom in Shropshire in 1668. 
 He was for a time attached to the cause of James II., 
 and satirized the government of William III., to which, 
 however, he was afterwards reconciled. After the peace 
 of Ryswick he visited Paris, where he made the ac- 
 quaintance of Boileau. He was a member of Parliament 
 for Preston in 1705. Maynwaring's productions, both in 
 prose and verse, were much esteemed, and Sir Richard 
 Steele dedicated to him the first volume of the "Taller." 
 Died in 1712. 
 
 See Oldmixon, "Life and Posthumous Works of A. Mayn- 
 waring." 
 
 Mayo, ma'o, (Amory Dwight,) an American divine, 
 born at Warwick, Massachusetts, in 1823, became pastor 
 of the First Congregational Unitarian Church in Albany. 
 He published "Graces and Powers of the Christian 
 Life," (1852,) "Symbols of the Capital," and other works. 
 His wife, S. C. Edgarton Mayo, was the author of. a 
 number of poems of great beauty, chiefly on religious 
 subjects. She died about 1850. 
 
 Ma'yo, (Herbert,) an English physician, became 
 professor of anatomy and physiology at King's College, 
 London, and acquired distinction as a lecturer. He was 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Geological 
 Society. Among his principal works are "Outlines of 
 Human Physiology," (1827,) "Outlines of Human Pa- 
 thology," (1836,) (translated into German,) "Philosophy 
 of Living," (1837,) "The Nervous System and its Func- 
 
 tions." (1842,) and "Letters on the Truths contained in 
 Popular Superstitions," (1849.) Died near Mentzin 1852. 
 
 Ma'yo, (Richard Southwell Bourke,) Earl of, 
 and Lord Naas, a Conservative statesman, was born in 
 Dublin in 1822. He was appointed chief secretary for 
 Ireland in 1852, in 1858, and again in 1866. In 1868 
 he became Governor-General of India. Died in 1870. 
 
 Mayo, (William Starhuck,) an American physician 
 and writer, born at Ogdensburg, New York, in 1812. He 
 published, in 1849, " Kaloolah," a fictitious tale of African 
 adventure, which was followed by "The Berber, or the 
 Mountaineer of the Atlas," (1850,) and " Romance-Dust 
 from the Historic Placer." 
 
 Mayow, ma'o, ? (John,) an English physician, born 
 in Cornwall in 1645, was the author of a valuable work 
 "On Nitre and Nitro- Aerial Spirit," in which he origi- 
 nated some of the most important modern discoveries 
 in pneumatic chemistry. Died in 1679. 
 
 Mayr, von, fon mlR, (Johann Marie Eck,) a Ger- 
 man general, born in Vienna in 1716, fought for Frede- 
 rick the Great in the Seven Years' war. Died in 1759. 
 
 Mayseder, mi'zeh-der, (Joseph,) a German violinist 
 and compear, born at Vienna in 1789. 
 
 Mazarin; maz'a-reen', [Fr. pron. mS'zS'raN' ; It. Ma- 
 zarini, mad-za-ree'nee ; Lat. Mazari'nus,] (Giulio or 
 Jules,) Cardinal, a celebrated courtier and prime min- 
 ister of France, was born in Italy in 1602. He was edu- 
 cated in a college of Jesuits at Rome, (where his father, 
 Pietro Mazarini, resided,) and adopted the profession of 
 law. He had acquired the reputation of an adroit nego- 
 tiator in the service of the pope, when, in 1630, he met 
 Cardinal Richelieu, who secured his attachment to the 
 interest of France. When the French and Spanish were 
 about to engage at Casal, he prevented a battle, and ne- 
 gotiated the treaty of Cherasco in 1631. He was nuncio 
 extraordinary to France in 1634, and gained the favour 
 of the French king, who sent him as ambassador to 
 Savoy in 1640. Through the influence of the French 
 court, Mazarin was made a cardinal in 1641. The next 
 year he was admitted into the supreme council. The 
 death of Richelieu (in 1642) and of Louis XIII. (in 1643) 
 opened a wider sphere to the ambition of Mazarin, whom 
 Richelieu recommended as his successor. By the will 
 of the late king he was declared sole adviser of the 
 queen-regent, Anne of Austria, in respect to ecclesiastic 
 affairs, and he soon acquired the principal power in the 
 government, as well as the confidence of that queen. He 
 used his power at first with moderation, and courted 
 popularity by gracious and affable manners. He prose- 
 cuted the war against Spain which began under his pre- 
 decessor, and in which Conde and Tureiine maintained 
 the honour of the French arms. A dispute which arose 
 between the court and the Parliament of Paris was fo 
 mented by Cardinal de Retz into the revolt of the Paris- 
 ians called "the Day of the Barricades," (August 27, 
 1648,) and was followed by the civil war of the Fronde. 
 The queen, with her son, Louis XIV., and Mazarin, were 
 driven out of Paris in 1649 by the Frondeurs. This civil 
 war was more remarkable for the levity of the people than 
 for their military exploits. Ladies directed the several 
 factions, and cabals were made or broken by amorous 
 intrigues. In the midst of these domestic broils, Maza- 
 rin had been so fortunate or politic as to conclude with 
 the German emperor the famous treaty of Westphalia, 
 (1648,) by which the latter ceded to France the province 
 of Alsace. In 1651 the cardinal was exiled to Cologne; 
 but about two years later he returned to the capital in 
 triumph, and the end of the rebellion, in 1654, restored 
 him to his former power. He made in 1655 a treaty of 
 alliance with Cromwell, who, being solicited as an ally 
 by the French and the Spanish courts, preferred the 
 former. He acquired the same influence over the king, 
 who had attained his majority, as he had exerted over 
 the queen. It is said that Louis XIV. wished to marry 
 Marie Mancini, a niece of his minister, but the latter 
 discouraged the match, and in 1659 negotiated a marriage 
 with a Spanish princess. Mazarin once said " Louis con- 
 tained the material for four kings and one honest man." 
 He died at Vincennes in March, 1661. His person was 
 remarkably handsome, and his manners fascinating. 
 "Mazarin, says Mignet, "had a far-seeing and invent- 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (JS^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MAZARIN1 
 
 1556 
 
 MAZZINI 
 
 ive mind, a character rather supple than feeble. His 
 device was 'Le Temps et moi.'" Much diversity of 
 opinion exists respecting his merit as a statesman ; but 
 it may safely be affirmed that he was able and skilful, 
 and, though avaricious, he was not a cruel or revengeful 
 minister. 
 
 See Aubery, " Histoire du Cardinal Mazarin," 1751^ Mignet, 
 "Memoires relatifs a la Succession d'Espagne;" Saint- Aulaire, 
 " Histoire de la Fronde ;" Bazin, " Histoire de France sous le Mi- 
 nistere du Cardinal Mazarin ;" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XI V ;" 
 Gualdo-Priorato, "Vita del Cardinal Mazarini," 1662; John 
 Calvert, " Life of Cardinal Mazarin," 1670; Retz, "Memoires:" 
 Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais ;" Gramont, "Memoires;" V. 
 Cousin. " La Jeunesse de Mazarin ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1831, and February, 1832. 
 
 Mazarini. See Mazarin. 
 
 Mazarinus. See Mazarin. 
 
 Mazarredo y Salazar, mS-thar-ra'Do e sa-la- 
 thaR', (Jose Maria,) a Spanish admiral, born at Bilbao 
 in 1 7 14, distinguished himself by his defence of Cadiz 
 against the English in 1797. He was appointed by Joseph 
 Bonaparte minister of the marine in 1808. Died in 1812. 
 
 Mazdak, maz'dak, or Maz'dek, a Persian impostor, 
 who was born about 470 A.D., professed to be a prophet, 
 and advocated a community of property. He induced 
 King Kobad to adopt his system, and effected great 
 changes in the social order. 
 
 Mazdek. See Mazdak. 
 
 Mazdas, mi'za'a', (Guillaume,) a French writer, 
 born at Landernau in 1 712, was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society of London. Died in 1776. 
 
 Mazel, mi'zel', (Abraham,) one of the leaders of 
 the Camisards in France, born at Saint-Jean-du-Gard. 
 After the insurrection of the Cevennes, in 1702, he was 
 imprisoned, but, having escaped, he again attempted to 
 rouse the people to revolt, and was killed in a skirmish 
 near Uzes in 1710. 
 
 See Court, " Histoire des Camisards." 
 
 Mazeline, miz'len', (Pierre,) a French sculptor, 
 born at Rouen in 1633. The palace of Versailles is 
 adorned with several of his works. Died in 1708. 
 
 Ma-zep'pa, (Ivan Stepanovitch,) a celebrated Po- 
 lish adventurer, born in the government of Kief in 1644, 
 was educated at the court of John Casimir, King of 
 Poland. Having been detected in an intrigue with the wife 
 of a nobleman, he was bound by his orders to one of the 
 wild horses of the Ukraine and carried to the country 
 of the Cossacks. He was kindly received by them, 
 and rose to be hetman, or commander-in-chief of their 
 armies, about 1687. When Peter the Great attempted 
 to take possession of the Ukraine, Mazeppa strongly 
 opposed the measure, but, finding resistance vain, en- 
 tered into a negotiation with Charles XII. of Sweden 
 for the independence of his country. The plan being 
 discovered, and Mazeppa deserted by his troops, he 
 joined the Swedish army, and after the battle of Pultava 
 tooK refuge in Turkey, where he died in 1709. The ad- 
 ventures of Mazeppa have formed the subject of one of 
 Byron's poems. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Histoire de Charles XII;;' Lesur, "Histoire 
 des Cosaques ;" f ADLKRFEi.D, "Histoire militaire de Charles XII ;" 
 Kamenski, "Life of Mazeppa," (in Russian,) 1834. 
 
 Mazois, mi'zwa', (Charles Francois,) a French 
 architect and antiquary, born at Lorient in 1783, was 
 employed by Murat, King of Naples, to restore the 
 Portici palace, and other edifices. He afterwards in- 
 vestigated the antiquities of Pompeii. He published in 
 1811 his principal work, "The Ruins of Pompeii," the 
 last two volumes of which appeared after his death. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Mazolini, mJd-zo-lee'nee, [Lat. Prie'rias, derived 
 from the name of his birthplace,] (Sii.vestro,) an Italian 
 theologian, born at Prierio about 1460; died in 1523. 
 
 Mazo-Martinez, del, del ma'tho maR-tee'neth, 
 (Juan Bautista,) a Spanish painter, born at Madrid 
 about 1620, was a pupil and son-in-law of Velasquez, 
 whom he succeeded in 1661 as painter to Philip IV. His 
 portraits and landscapes are highly esteemed. Died in 
 1687. 
 
 Mazure, mfziiR', (F. A. J.,) a French journalist and 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1776, wrote a " History of 
 the English Revolution of 1688," and a " Life of Vol- 
 taire." Died in 1828. 
 
 Mazza, mat'sa, (Andrea,) an Italian philologist, 
 born at Parma in 1724. He published "Select Chap- 
 ters of Church History," (in Latin, 1757.) Died in 1797. 
 Mazza, (Angei.o,) an Italian poet, born at Parma in 
 1741, became professor of Greek in his native city, (1768.) 
 He was the author of an ode entitled "Aura Armonica," 
 and a number of lyrics, which obtained for him a high 
 reputation. Died in 1817. 
 
 SeeTipAi.DO, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 Mazza, (Giuseppe,) an Italian sculptor, born at Bo- 
 logna in 1652 ; died in 1741. 
 
 Mazzinghi, mat-sen'gee ? (Joseph,) an English mu- 
 sician and composer, born in London in 1768, was 
 patronized by George III. and George IV. Among his 
 most popular operas we may name "The Blind Girl," 
 "The Exile," and " Paul and Virginia." Died at Bath 
 in 1S44. 
 
 Mazzini, mat-see'nee, (Giuseppe,) a distinguished 
 Italian patriot and writer, born at Genoa about 1807, was 
 educated for the profession of law. In his youth he 
 wrote a number of literary articles for the " Indicatore 
 Genovese" and other journals, and was an adherent of 
 the romantic school. He devoted himself at an early 
 age to the liberation and unity of Italy, which was then 
 degraded and oppressed by Austria and by various petty 
 despots. In 1830 he joined the Society of Carbonari, 
 which he proposed to reform. Having been banished 
 or proscribed, he retired in 1831 to Marseilles, where he 
 organized a political association called " Young Italy," 
 (La Giovint Italia,) whose watchword was " God and 
 the People," and whose fundamental idea was that the 
 liberty of the Italians can only be secured by the union 
 of the several states or kingdoms into one nation. He 
 propagated his principles by writings, and, during a 
 long period of exile and adversity, pursued his purpose 
 with invincible constancy. 
 
 About 1842 he became a resident of London, and 
 began to contribute political and scientific articles to 
 various journals, among which was the " Westminster 
 Review." His letters were opened in the post-office in 
 1844 by the British secretary for the home department, 
 Sir James Graham. The revolutionary movements of 
 1848 restored him to his native country. He issued a 
 journal called "Italia del Popolo," and, although he 
 preferred a republic, was disposed to co-operate with 
 King Charles Albert in resistance to Austrian domina- 
 tion, and he enlisted under the standard of Garibaldi. 
 In February, 1849, he went to Rome, in which a republic 
 had recently been organized after the flight of the pope. 
 He nits quickly recognized as the leader and master- 
 spirit of the republicans, and in March of that year 
 Mazzini, Saffi, and Armellini were appointed triumvirs. 
 They defended Rome resolutely against the French 
 army, by which that city was at length captured in July, 
 1849. Mazzini then went into exile, and chose London 
 as the base of his operations. He associated himself 
 with Kossuth and Ledru-Rollin to form an international 
 revolutionary committee about 1851. 
 
 In 1857 he incited an insurrection in Northern Italy, 
 and went to Genoa to direct it ; but the movement failed. 
 He co-operated with Garibaldi in his victorious expedi- 
 tion to Sicily in i860, and opposed the project which 
 Napoleon III. formed for a confederation of Italian 
 states. In 1861 he republished, with additions, an es- 
 say " On the Unity of Italy," in which he says, " I know 
 that the idea of a confederation is both the counsel and 
 design of one whom many Italians still regard as the 
 friend and protector of Italy ; but I know, too, that he is 
 treacherous, a foreigner, and a despot. That he should 
 seek to weaken in order to dominate us is easily under- 
 stood ; but the mere fact that the suggestion springs 
 from such a source ought to be one of the most powerful 
 warnings against it." 
 
 Some of his predictions have been verified by recent 
 events in Italy, which have tended to raise his reputation 
 for sagacity and practical wisdom. He is the author of 
 a work entitled "The Duties of Man," (1858; English 
 version, 1862,) which enjoys great popularity in Italy, 
 and of many other works. In 1864 appeared the first 
 volume of the "Life and Writings of Joseph Mazzini," 
 in English, (6 vols.) 
 
 i, e, T, o, 5, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; mdon» 
 
MAZZOCCHI 
 
 •557 
 
 MEADE 
 
 The character of Mazzini is well described by Thomas 
 Carlvle in a letter to the London "Times," June, 1844, 
 reprinted in the "Westminster Review" for September 
 of that year. He says, " I have had the honour to know 
 M. Mazzini for a series of years ; and I can, with great 
 freedom, testify to all men that he, if I have ever seen 
 one such, is a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling 
 veracity, humanity, and nobleness of mind, — one of those 
 rare men, numerable, unfortunately, but as units in this 
 world, who are worthy to be called martyr-souls ; who 
 in silence piously in their daily life understand and 
 practise what is meant by that." 
 
 See his "Autobiography," 6 vols., 1S64 ; Jules de Breval, 
 " Ma/./ini juge parlui-meme," 1853 ; *' Jahrbuch zmii Conversations- 
 Lexikon" for 1859. 
 
 Mazzocchi, mit-sok'kee, or Mazzoccolo, matsok'- 
 ko-lo, (Alessio Simmacho,) an Italian antiquary, born 
 at Santa Maria di Capua in 16S4. He became professor 
 of Greek and Hebrew at Naples, and was a member of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions of Paris. He wrote many 
 valuable treatises in Latin and Italian. Died in 1771. 
 
 Mazzoccolo. See Mazzocchi. 
 
 Mazzola, mat-so'la, (Gikoi.amo Bedolo,) an Italian 
 painter, sometimes called Mazzolino, born near Parma 
 in 1503, was the most distinguished pupil of Parmigiano. 
 He excelled as a colorist and in perspective. Among 
 his best productions are a " Madonna with Saint Cathe- 
 rine," and "Miracle of the Multiplication of Loaves." 
 Died about 1590. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Mazzola, Mazzuola, mat-soo-o'la, or Mazzuoli, 
 mat-soo-o'lee, (Girolamo Francesco Maria,) an emi- 
 nent Italian painter, surnamed il Parmigiano, ("the 
 Parmesan,") born at Parma in 1503. He visited Rome 
 in 1523, and was employed by Clement VII. to execute 
 a number of works in that city. His style, formed 
 on that of Correggio and Raphael, is characterized by 
 exceeding grace and delicacy of form and softness of 
 Colouring, and it was said by his admirers that "the 
 spirit of Raphael had passed into him." Among his 
 master-pieces are the " Madonna della Rosa," in the 
 gallery of Dresden, an " Annunciation," in the principal 
 church of Viadana, the "Madonna with Saint Margaret, 
 Saint Jerome," etc., in the Museum at Bologna, the 
 "Madonna dello Lungo Collo," at Florence, and the 
 " Vision of Saint Jerome," in the National Gallery, Lon- 
 don. Mazzola was the first Italian artist who engraved 
 with aquafortis. Died in 1540. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Affo, "Vita di F. 
 Mazzola," 1784; Mrs. Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian 
 Painters;" F. Bellini, " Cenni intorno alia Vita ed alle Opere di 
 F. Mazzola," 1844; Mortara, " Memoria della Vita di F. Maz- 
 zuola," 1846. 
 
 Mazzolari, mat-so-la'ree, (Giuseppe Maria,) called 
 also Mariano Partenio, an Italian writer and excellent 
 Latin scholar, born at Pesaro in 1712. He published 
 poems, orations, critical essays, commentaries, etc. Died 
 in 1786. 
 
 See Montenari, "Biografia di G. M. Mazzolari," 1837. 
 
 Mazzoli. See Mazzola. 
 
 Mazzolino, mat-so-lee'no, (Lunovico,) a celebrated 
 Italian painter, surnamed IL Ferrarese, was born at 
 Ferrara in 1481. His "Adoration of the Magi," and 
 "Christ in the Midst of the Scribes," are ranked among 
 his master-pieces. Died about 1530. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Mazzoni, mat-so'nee, (Giacomo,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Cesena in 1548. He produced several critical 
 and philosophical works, the most important of which 
 is his "Defence of Dante," (" Defesa di Dante," 1573.) 
 He was an intimate friend of Tasso. Died in 1598. 
 
 See Serassi, "Vita di G. Mazzoni," 1790; Ginguen^, " Histoire 
 de la Litterature Italienne." 
 
 Mazzuchelli, mat-soo-kel'lee, (Giovanni Maria,) 
 COUNT, an Italian biographer, born at Brescia in 1707. 
 He was the author of " Historical and Critical Notices 
 of the Lives and Writings of learned Italians," ("Scrit- 
 tori d'ltalia, cioe Notizie storiche e critiche intorno alle 
 Vite ed agli Scritti de letterati Italiani,") a work of great 
 merit, which he did not live to complete. He published 
 two volumes of this work, (1753-63.) Among his other 
 
 works are a "Life of Archimedes," (1737,) and a "Life 
 of Pietro Aretino," (1741.) Died in 1765. 
 
 See Rodella, "Vita del Conte G. Mazzuchelli," 1766; Fabroni, 
 "Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium;" Tipaloo, " Biografia degli 
 Italiani illustri;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Mazzuchelli, (Piero Francesco,) an Italian painter, 
 surnamed IL Morazzone, was born at the village of that 
 name in 1571. He studied at Milan, where he after- 
 wards established a school. Among his principal works 
 are a " Flagellation," and " Saint Michael Triumphant." 
 Died in 1626. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Mazzuola. See Mazzola. 
 
 Mazzuoli. See Mazzola. 
 
 Mazzuoli, mat-soo-o'lee, or Mazzola, mat'so-li, 
 (Filippo or Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, surnamed il 
 Bastaruolo, born at Ferrara about 1530; died in 1589. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Mead, (MATTHEW,) an English nonconformist divine, 
 born in Buckinghamshire in 1629. He was the author 
 of "The Young Man's Remembrancer," and "Sermons 
 on Ezekiel's Wheels." Died in 1699. 
 
 Mead, (Richard,) a celebrated English physician, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Stepney in 1673. He 
 studied at Leyden, and subsequently visited Italy, where 
 he took his medical degree at Padua. He was after- 
 wards elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the 
 College of Physicians, and on the accession of George 
 II. (1727) became his physician-in-ordinary. He was 
 the author of a "Mechanical Account of Poisons," 
 (1702,) "A Short Discourse concerning Pestilential Con- 
 tagion," (1720,) which was translated into French and 
 Latin, "Medicina Sacra," (1749,) or an account of dis- 
 eases mentioned in the Bible, and other medical works 
 of a high character. Dr. Mead numbered among his 
 friends Pope, Newton, and Boerhaave. Died in 1754. 
 
 See Maty, "Authentic Memoirs of Richard Mead," 1755; Le- 
 man, " Memoirs of the Life. etc. of Dr. Richard Mead." 
 
 Meade, meed, (George G.,) a distinguished American 
 general, was born in 1816, at Cadiz, in Spain, where 
 his father, R. W. Meade, was United States consul. 
 He graduated at West Point in 1835, served in the 
 Mexican war, (1846-47,) and became a captain in 1856. 
 He was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in 
 August, 1861, and served in the battle of Gaines's Mill, 
 June 27, 1862. At Malvern Hill he received two wounds, 
 July I. He commanded a division at Anfietam, Sep- 
 tember 17, 1862. Having been raised to the rank of 
 major-general, he directed a corps at the battle of Fred- 
 ericksburg, December 13, 1862, and at that of Chancel- 
 lorsville, May 2-3, 1863. On the 28th of June ensuing, 
 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army of 
 the Potomac. Just before the date last named, Gen- 
 eral Lee had invaded Pennsylvania with a large army, 
 which the Union army encountered at Gettysburg on 
 the 1st of July. General Meade, whose forces occu- 
 pied a good position on a range of hills, acted mostly on 
 the defensive at this battle, which lasted three days and 
 contributed largely to the triumph of the Union cause. 
 (See Lee, R. E.) General Meade reported that he took 
 at Gettysburg 13,621 prisoners, some of whom were 
 probably wounded, andhelost 16,643 killed andwounded. 
 He was promoted to be a brigadier-general of the regu- 
 lar army by a commission dated July 3, 1863. About 
 the 18th of July he moved his army across the Potomac 
 into Virginia, where he had several skirmishes with the 
 enemy in October and November, 1863. He was second 
 in command of the army of the Potomac in its operations 
 against Richmond in 1864. " I tried as far as possible," 
 says General Grant, "to leave General Meade in inde- 
 pendent command of the army of the Potomac. My 
 instructions for that army were all through him, ana 
 were general in their nature, leaving all the details and the 
 execution to him. The campaigns that followed proved 
 him to be the right man in the right place." In August, 
 1864, he was appointed a major-general of the regular 
 army. The army of which he had the immediate com- 
 mand fought great battles at the Wilderness, Spottsyl- 
 vania Court- 1 louse, and Cold Harbour, and was em- 
 ployed many months in the siege of Petersburg. (See 
 Grant, U. S.) General Meade was appointed corn- 
 
 eas.*; <;as,s;ghard; gas/; G, H, Yi, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas«; ih as in ///«. (Jr^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MEADE 
 
 ,558 
 
 MEDICI 
 
 dander of the third military district, comprising Georgia, 
 Florida, and Alabama, in December, 1867. 
 
 Meade, (Richard Kiduer,) an American soldier of 
 the Revolution, born in Nansemond county, Virginia, 
 about 1 750, was one of General Washington's aides. Died 
 about 1810. 
 
 Meade, (William,) D.D., son of the preceding, was 
 born in Clarke county, Virginia, in 1789. He graduated 
 at Princeton College in 1808, and in 1841 succeeded 
 Bishop Moore as Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church in Virginia. He published several theological 
 works. Died in 1862. 
 
 Meadow-court, mWo-kort, (Richard,) an English 
 critic, born in Staffordshire in 1697, published Notes on 
 Milton's " Paradise Regained." Died in 1769. 
 
 Meagher, ma'ner 01 ma'er. (Thomas Francis,) a 
 general, born at Waterford, Ireland, in 1823. He joined 
 the movement for the independence of Ireland, and was 
 condemned in 1848 to banishment or penal servitude 
 for life. He escaped from Tasmania in 1852, and took 
 refuge in the United States. He raised in 1861 an Irish 
 brigade, which he commanded at Gaines's Mill, June 
 • 27, at Antietam, Septeml>er.i7, and at Fredericksburg, 
 Deceml>er 13, 1862. Died in 1867. 
 
 Mean, de, deh mi'dN', (Charlks,) Baron, a Belgian 
 jurist, born at Liege in 1604; died in 1674. 
 
 Means, (Alexander,) a Methodist minister, bom 
 in North Carolina in 1S01. He became professor of 
 natural science in Emory College in 1838, and professor 
 of chemistry in a medical college at Atlanta, Georgia, 
 in 1855. 
 
 Meaume, mom, (Edouard,) a French jurist and 
 archaeologist, born at Rouen in 1812. Among his works 
 is a "Life of Jacques Callot," (2 vols., i860.) 
 Mecenate. See Maecenas. 
 Meceiie, the French of M/ECEN.as, (which see.) 
 Mechain, mi'shaN', (Pierre Francois Andre,) an 
 eminent French astronomer, born at Laon in 1744. 
 Having visited Paris, he acquired the friendship and 
 patronage of Lalande. He was elected a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences about 1782, and in 1785 succeeded 
 Jeaurat as editor of the " Connaissances des Temps." In 
 1791 he was appointed, conjointly with Delambre, to 
 measure the arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and 
 Barcelona. Dissatisfied with the result of his calcula- 
 tions, he was preparing to prolong the measurement to 
 the Balearic Isles, when he was attacked with fever, and 
 died on the journey, (1805.) 
 
 See Delambkk, " Histoire de l'Astronomie »o dix huitieme 
 Siecle. " 
 
 Mechel, mek'el, (Christian,) a Swiss engraver, born 
 at liale in 1737 ; died in 1817. 
 
 Mecheln, niex'eln, or Meckenen, van, vin mek'- 
 keh-nen', (Israei,) a celebrated German painter and 
 engraver, said to have been born near Bocholt, in the 
 bishopric of Minister. It is, however, supposed by many 
 that there were two artists of the name. The principal 
 works attributed to Meister Israel, as he was called, are 
 in the Pinakothek at Munich. They possess great excel- 
 lence, and entitle him to rank with Van Eyck, Memling, 
 and other eminent painters of the Flemish school. Died 
 in 1503. 
 
 Mechel ino. See Beccafumi. 
 Mechi, mek'e, ? (John Joseph,) a distinguished cul- 
 tivator and agricultural writer, of Italian extraction, born 
 in England about 1800. Having made a fortune by trade 
 in London, he purchased in Essex a farm, which is es- 
 teemed one of the finest in England. He also published 
 " Letters on Agricultural Improvement," " Experience 
 in Drainage," and "How to Farm Profitably," (1859.) 
 Mechitar. See Mkkhitar. 
 
 Meckel, mek'kel, (Johann Friedrich,) an eminent 
 German anatomist, born at Wetzlar in 1714. He became 
 surgeon to the King of Prussia. He made discoveries 
 in anatomy, and wrote numerous medical and anatomical 
 works. Died in 1774. 
 
 See J. H. S. Fokmey, " FJoge de M. Meckel," 1774. 
 
 Meckel, (Johann Friedrich,) a German anatomist, 
 
 born at Halle in 1781, was a grandson of the preceding. 
 
 He became professor of surgery and anatomy at Halle 
 
 in 1806. He published " Contributions to Comparative 
 
 Anatomy," and translated Cuvier's " Comparative Anat- 
 omy,'' to which he added valuable notes. Died in 1833. 
 
 Meckenen. See Mf.ckeln. 
 
 Meda, mi'dt', or Merda, meVdi', (Charles An- 
 dre,) a French general, born in 1775, served in the prin- 
 cipal wars of the Revolution, and attained the rank of 
 general of brigade, (1S08.) He was mortally wounded at 
 the battle of Moskwa, (1812.) 
 
 Mede, meed, (Joseph,) an eminent English scholar 
 and divine, born in Essex in 1586. He studied at Christ 
 College, Cambridge, where he afterwards became pro- 
 fessor of Greek. His "Clavis Apocaiyptica," published 
 in 1627, is esteemed a standard work. Died in 163S. 
 
 See " Life of Joseph Mede," prefixed to his works, 1672. 
 
 Me-de'a, [Gr. Mjjiaa; Fr. Medee, ma'di',] a famous 
 sorceress, daughter of /Eetes, King of Colchis. Having 
 assisted Jason to obtain the golden fleece, she became 
 his wife and accompanied him to Greece. Being after- 
 wards deserted by him, she destroyed their two sons. 
 The story of Medea has formed the subject of tragedies 
 by Euripides and Sophocles among the ancients, and 
 Corneille among the moderns. Those written by Soph- 
 ocles, ,-Eschvlus, and Ovid are lost 
 
 Medee. See Mkdea. 
 
 Mederer, ma'deh-rer, (Johann Xepoml-k,) a Ger- 
 man litterateur, born in 1734, published several works on 
 German history. Died in 1808. 
 
 MSd'hurst, (WALTER Henry,) an English mission- 
 ary and Chinese scholar, born in London in 1796. Hav- 
 ing spent many years in China, Java, and Malacca, and 
 become thoroughly versed in the languages of those 
 countries, he published a "Chineseand-English Dic- 
 tionary," (1842,) "Chinese Dialogues," (1844,) "English- 
 and-Japanese Vocabulary," and other works. Died in 
 1857. 
 
 Medici, (Alessandro de'.) See Leo XI. 
 
 Medici, de', da med'e-chee or ma'de-chee, ( Aless \n- 
 DRO,) the subverter of the liberties of Florence, born in 
 1 5 10, is supposed by some to have been a natural son of 
 Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, and by others, of the cardi- 
 nal Giulio de' Medici, afterwards Clement VII. Alter 
 the sacking of Rome, in 1527, the latter made a treaty 
 with the emperor Charles V. in 1529, by which it was 
 agreed that the Medici should be restored to their 
 former rank at Florence, with Alexander as chief of the 
 republic. A marriage was also arranged between him 
 and Margaret of Austria, a natural daughter of the em- 
 peror. In 1530 Florence was taken by the Imperial 
 troops under Ferdinand de Gonzaga, ana soon after the 
 pope obtained from the emperor a diploma which was 
 to decide the constitution of Florence. By this article 
 Alexander was declared head of the republic, but the 
 Florentines were left in possession of the same privileges 
 they had enjoyed under the former Medici. At length, by 
 the united intrigues of Clement VII. and Alexander, the 
 latter was declared duke of the republic in 1532, and the 
 old form of government was abolished. He now sig- 
 nalized himself by every species of cruelty and oppres- 
 sion. In 1535, Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici, whom he 
 had long feared as a rival, was poisoned by his orders ; 
 and he is believed to have caused the death of his own 
 mother in the same manner. In 1537, Lorenzino de' 
 Medici, a distant relative of the duke, desiring to rid 
 his country of such a tyrant, procured his assassination. 
 Alexander left a son, named Giuliano. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Madame 
 Allart, " Histoire de ia Repubiique de Florence." 
 
 Medici, de', (Cosimo or Cosmo,) surnamed the 
 Elder, a celebrated statesman of the Florentine repub- 
 lic, was born in 1389. He was a liberal patron of learning 
 and the arts, and made a munificent use of the immense 
 fortune he had accumulated by commerce, in adorning 
 his native city with public edifices and founding institu- 
 tions for educational and charitable pur|x>ses. Among the 
 most important of these was an academy at Florence for 
 teaching the Platonic philosophy, at the head of which 
 he placed Marsilio Ficino. He also made a large col- 
 lection of Latin, Greek, and Oriental manuscripts, which 
 he bestowed on the Laurentian Library. These benefits, 
 and the urbanity and moderation of his character, won 
 for him great personal popularity and the title of" Father 
 
 «, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, \, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MEDICI 
 
 '559 
 
 MEDINA 
 
 of his Country." To give I detailed account of his ser- 
 vices to literature and art would he to write the history 
 ■I the Renaissance in the first half of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. In the words of (Immune, "One saw at Florence 
 Masaccio and l.ippi adorn churches and palaces with 
 the productions of their pencil, Donatelli give life and 
 expression to marble, and lirunclleschi, architect, sculp- 
 tor, and poet, raise the magnificent cupola of Santa 
 Maria del Fiore ; while the Greek refugees, in return 
 for the noble asylum he had given them, spread abroad 
 the treasures of ibeit beautiful language and the master- 
 pieces ol their orators, philosophers, and poets." Cosiino 
 died in 1404, leaving a son, named Piero. 
 
 Medici, de', (Cosimo,) called the Great, [Lat. 
 Cos'miis Mkuk'k'is Mac.'nus,] son of the general 
 Giovanni de' Medici, was born in 1519. On the death of 
 Alexander he was declared his successor in 1537, through 
 the influence of Cardinal Cibo, which choice was con- 
 firmed by Charles V. In 1537 he obtained a victory at 
 Montcmerlo over the hostile Florentines. Cruel and 
 suspicious in his disposition, he caused upwards of four 
 hundred Florentine emigrants to be put to death in the 
 early part of his reign, and, having deprived the magis- 
 trates of all authority, was invested with absolute power. 
 In 1554 the Marquis de Marignano, one of his generals. 
 defeated the French army under Marshal Strozzi, at 
 Siannagallo, and soon after Philip II-, having succeeded 
 the emperor, conferred upon the Duke of Florence the 
 state ol Sienna, with the exception ol the ports. In 1562 
 Giovanni de' Medici, a son of Cosimo, died suddenly, 
 as is supposed, by the hand of his brother Don Garcia*, 
 A short time after, the latter also died, and his father 
 was charged with his death. Fleonora of Toledo, wife 
 of the grand duke, soon followed her sons, and her death 
 was likewise attributed to Cosimo. These fatal events 
 form the subject of Alfieri's tragedy of " Don Garcias." 
 In 1564 Cosiino made his son Francesco his associate in 
 the government, and in 1569 he was declared Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany by a bull of Pius V. He died in 1574, 
 leaving three legitimate sons, Francesco, Ferdinand, and 
 Piero. 
 
 See Baumni, "Vita di Cosmo de' Medici I.," 157S; Faiironi, 
 " Magni L'osmi Meilkei Vila ;'' Al.uo Manccci, " Vita di Coalmo 
 de* Medici," 15S6; Sismonui, "Histoire des Republiques Itali- 
 ennes." 
 
 Medici, de', (Cosimo II.,) Grand Duke of Tuscany, 
 born in 1590, was a son of Ferdinand I. lie began to 
 reign in 1609, and ruled with moderation and clemency. 
 Died in 1621. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Rdpubliques Italiennes." 
 
 Medici, de', (Cosimo III.,) a son of Ferdinand II., 
 was born in 1642, and became grand duke in 1670. He 
 married Marguerite d'Orleans, (a daughter of Gaston de 
 France,) who regarded Cosimo with extreme dislike and 
 caused him much trouble. He died in 1723, and his 
 family then became extinct. 
 
 See Botta, "Storia d'llalia." • 
 
 Medici, de', (Giovanni.) See Leo X. 
 
 Medici, de', (Giovanni,) an Italian statesman, born 
 in 1360, was the father of Cosimo the Elder, noticed 
 above. He amassed a large fortune by commerce, and 
 rose through various offices to be gonfaloniere of justice 
 in 1421. Died in 142S. 
 
 See M m hi \\ to., " Slorie Florentine." 
 
 Medici, de', (Giovanni,) an Italian general, of the 
 same family as the preceding, was born in 1498. He 
 distinguished himself both by his courage and his 
 ferocity in the civil wars of his country, and afterwards 
 entered the French service. He was mortally wounded 
 in battle in 1526. 
 
 Medici, de', (Giuuano.) youngest son of Lorenzo 
 the Magnificent, was born in 1478. He married in 1 5 1 5 
 I'hihbeita of Savoy, aunt of Francis I., by whom he 
 was created Duke of Nemours. Hied in 1516. 
 
 See SlSMoNOl, " Histoire des Republiques Italiennes.** 
 
 Medici, de', (Giui.10.) Sic i'iimknt VII. 
 
 Medici, de', (Irroi.i to,) an Italian cardinal, born at 
 I'rbino in 1511, was a natural son ol Giuliano, noticed 
 above. He possessed immense wealth, and was noted 
 for his accomplishments anil his profligacy. He died 
 in 1535, from the effects of poison administered, it is 
 
 supposed, by order of Alessandro de' Medici, Duke 
 of Florence. 
 
 See VAweui, " [storia Fiorenlina." 
 
 Medici, de', (LORENZO I.,) surnamed THB Macniii- 
 C1 N 1. [Fr. LAUREN r LB Mac.nifique, lo'r6.N' le-h mtn'- 
 ye'fek' ; Lat. Lai'kkn'tiis M i h'icks or Mkiiice'cs ; 
 It. Lorenzo ii. MagnIFICO, lo-ren'zo 41 man-vcl'c-ko,] 
 Prince of Florence, was born in 144S. lie was the son 
 of Piero I., and grandson of Cosimo the Elder, and, 
 having early entered public life, succeeded to the influ- 
 ence and popularity of his predecessors. He was care- 
 fully educated by the liost masters of the time, being 
 instructed in the Platonic philosophy by the celebrated 
 Marsilio Ficino. In 1478 he narrowly escaped falling 
 a victim to a conspiracy formed by the Pazzi familv of 
 Florence in conjunction with the Archbishop of Pisa 
 and Pope Sixtus IV. His brother Giuliano was assas- 
 sinated, and he received a slight wound. The Arch- 
 bishop of Pisa was hanged for this offence, and Lorenzo 
 was excommunicated by Pope Sixtus IV. In 14S4 the 
 latter died, and was succeeded by Innocent VIII., who 
 became a friend and ally of Lorenzo. Florence enjoyed 
 great prosperity under the government of Lorenzo, who 
 acquired the favour of the people by his muni licence, 
 prudence, and clemency. He was highly distinguished 
 as a patron of literature and art, founded at Florence an 
 academy for the study of the antique, and expended large 
 sums in the erection of public edifices and in the collec- 
 tion of libraries. I le also attained considerable eminence 
 as a poet. Died in April, 1492. 
 
 See Roscok, " Life of Lorenzo de' Medici," a vols ato, 1795; 
 \-.i,io> Kahkoni, " Laurentii Medicis Mayninci Vita," 2 vols,, 
 17S4; Pahikk-Masson, " Vita Lanrentii Medicis," 15S7; Macchia- 
 VKia.i, " Istorie Florentine ;" N. Vai-ori, " Laurentii Mcdicei Vii.i," 
 1749; Scipionk Ammihato, " Istorie Florentine ;" StSMONSI, " KlB- 
 toire des Repnbliqnes Italiennes;" " Ntmvelle Biographic Gene- 
 rate ;" L0N0KKI.1.0W, " Poets and Poetry of Kurope ;" " Lives of the 
 ll.1li.1n Poets," by the Rev. Hknry Stkkbing, London, 1831. 
 
 Medici, de', (Lorenzo II.,) eldest son of Piero II., 
 born at Florence in 1492, was placed, through the in- 
 fluence of his uncle, Leo X., at the head of the republic. 
 He married in 1518 Madeleine de La Tour, daughter of 
 Jean, Count d'Auvergne, and died in 1 5 19, leaving an 
 infant daughter, Catherine de Medicis, afterwards Queen 
 of France. 
 
 Medici, de', (Lunovtco,) Duke of Sarto, called also 
 the Chevalier DI Medici, a Neapolitan statesman, bom 
 in 1760. He was appointed minister of finance in 1810, 
 and in 1815 was sent as ambassador to Vienna. Died 
 in 1S30. 
 
 Medici, de', (Pikro I.,) eldest son of Cosimo the 
 Elder, born in 1414, succeeded his father as chief of the 
 Florentine republic. He had powerful rivals in the 
 I'itti family and other nobles of Florence, whose attempt 
 to assassinate him was defeated by the prudence of his 
 son Lorenzo. Died in 1469. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes." 
 
 Medici, de', (Piero II.,) eldest son of Lorenzo the 
 Magnificent, was bom at Florence in 1471. He succeeded 
 to the rank and influence of his father in the republic ; 
 but his arrogance and rashness soon deprived him of the 
 popularity hitherto enjoyed by his family. On the in- 
 vasion of Italy by Charles VIII., in 1494, Piero made 
 overtures to the French king, into whose bands he sur- 
 rendered several Important places. I laving subsequently 
 entered the French army, he shared in its defeat at the 
 (latigliano by Gonsalvo de Cordova in 1503, and was 
 drowned in attempting to cross the river. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Repnbliqnes Italiennes." 
 
 Medici, de', (Sai.vestro,) a Florentine statesman, 
 belonged to the Ghibeline faction, and was one of the 
 principal rivals of the Albizzi family. He was made 
 gonfaloniere of justice in 1378; but, the Guelph party 
 having again come into power, he was banished in 1381. 
 
 See Nom.H, " Memoirs of the House of Medici." 
 
 Medicis. See Catherine he Medicis. 
 
 Medicus, ma'de-kOs, (Friedkich Casimir,) a Ger- 
 man botanist, born at Grumbach in 1736. He published 
 several able botanical and medical works. Died in 1808. 
 
 Medina, ma-dce'na, (Sir John Baptist,) .1 Flemish 
 painter, of Spanish extraction, bom at Brussels in 1630, 
 resided the greater part of his life in Great Britain. lie 
 
 * as k; c as s; g hard; g isj; g, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as «; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MEDINA 
 
 1560 
 
 MEHEMET-ALEE 
 
 •vas a pupil of Rubens, and enjoyed a high reputation. 
 Died in 171 1. 
 
 Medina, ma-Dee'na, (Pedro,) a Spanish writer, born 
 at Seville about i5io,was the author of several historical 
 and mathematical works, and a treatise on navigation, 
 entitled "Arte de Navegar," (1545,) which was trans- 
 lated into several languages. 
 
 Medina, de, da ma-Dee'na, (Salvador Jacinto 
 Polo,) a Spanish poet, born at Murcia, wrote the " Fable 
 of Apollo and Daphne," and a number of epigrams, 
 lyrics, etc. Died about 1660. 
 
 Medina de Medinilla, de, da ma-Dee'na da ma-De- 
 nel'ya, (Pedro,) a Spanish poet, supposed to have been 
 a native of Seville. He wrote an eclogue on the death 
 of Isabella, wife of Lope de Vega, his intimate friend. 
 
 Medina - Sidonia, de, da ma-Dee'na se-do'ne-a, 
 (Gaspar Alonzo Perez de Guzman — pa'rSth da 
 gooth-man',) Duke, a Spanish grandee, who lived about 
 1640, was a nephew of the prime minister Olivarez. He 
 formed a project to make himself King of Andalusia; 
 but his design was discovered before he began to exe- 
 cute it. 
 
 Medinilla, ma-De-nel'ya, ( Balthasar Ei.isio,) a 
 Spanish poet, born at Toledo in 1585, was a friend and 
 disciple of Lope de Vega, who wrote an elegy on his 
 early death. 
 
 Med-I-tri'na, a Roman goddess of medicine, in whose 
 honour the festival of Meditrinalia was celebrated in the 
 month of October. 
 
 Med'ows, (Sir William,) an English general, born 
 in 1738. He served in America, and was wounded in 
 the battle of Ikandywine, (1777.) He was made lieu- 
 tenant-general in 1792, and in 1801 succeeded Lord 
 Cornwallis as Viceroy of Ireland. Died in 1813. 
 
 Medrano, de, da lna-DRa'no, (Francisco,) a Spanish 
 lyric poet of the seventeenth century, whose works are 
 highly praised. Little is known of his life. 
 
 Me-du'sa, [Gr. Mhfovoa ; Fr. Meduse, ma'duz',] one 
 of the Gorgons, was represented as a beautiful woman 
 who captivated Neptune and offended Minerva by re- 
 ceiving his embraces in her temple. The goddess changed 
 her hairs into serpents, after which Perseus cut off her 
 head and gave it to Minerva, who placed it in the centre 
 of her aegis. (See Gorgon.) 
 
 Meduse. See Medusa. 
 
 Meek, (Alexander Beaufort,) an American lawyer 
 and writer, born at Columbia, South Carolina, in 1814. 
 As a member of the legislature of Alabama, he procured 
 the adoption of a system of free schools about 1853. 
 Among his works is a volume of " Songs and Poems of 
 the South," (1857.) 
 
 Meel. See Mi el. 
 
 Meer, van der, vtn der maR, (Jan,) an eminent 
 Dutch painter, born at Schoenhoven in 1627. His fa- 
 vourite subjects were sea-views, landscapes, and animals, 
 in which he attained great excellence. Died about 1690. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies desPeintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Meer, van der, (Jan,) a Dutch landscape-painter, 
 born at Haarlem about 1665, was a pupil of Nicholas 
 Berghem. Died in 1704. 
 
 Meerbeeck, van, vSn maR'bak, (Adrian,) a Flemish 
 writer, born at Antwerp in 1563, was the author of several 
 historical works in Latin and Flemish. Died about 1630. 
 
 Meerman, maR'man, (Geraart,) a learned Dutch 
 jurist, born at Leyden in 1722, was appointed pensionary 
 of Rotterdam. He published a valuable work on civil 
 law, entitled " Novus Thesaurus Juris Civilis," etc., (7 
 vols., 1751,) and "Origines Typographies," (1765,) a 
 treatise on the origin of printing. Died in 1771. 
 
 Meerman, (Jan,) son of the preceding, was born at 
 the Hague in 1753. He studied at Gottingen, and took 
 his degree of doctor of law at Leyden. He was made a 
 senator and count of the empire by Napoleon, (181 1,) 
 and became minister of public instruction under Louis 
 Bonaparte. He wrote a supplement to his father's 
 "Thesaurus," and published several works in French. 
 He died in 1815. 
 
 See Cras, " Elogium Johannis Meerman," 1817. 
 
 Meerveldt, von, fon maR'fSlt', ( Maximilian, ) 
 Count, a German general, born in Westphalia in 1766, 
 
 commanded a corps of Austrians at Leipsic in 1813. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 Meerza or Mirza, meeu'zS, (Samuel,) a Persian his- 
 torian, born near Ispahan about 1490, was a son of Shah 
 Ismail, founder of the dynasty of Sofis. He wrote a 
 " History of Poets." Died after 1550. 
 
 Meerza- (or Mirza-) Iskander-Kazem-Beg, meeR'- 
 zi is-kan'der ka'zem-bSg, (Moham'med Al'ee,) a 
 Persian philologist, born in the province of Ghilan in 
 1803. Having settled in Russia, he was converted to 
 Christianity in 1822, and subsequently became professor 
 of the Persian language and literature at the University 
 of Saint Petersburg. He published an " Essay on Arabic 
 Literature," (in Persian,) and other works in Russian and 
 Persian, and has written a " Concordance of the Koran," 
 (in Arabic,) and a "General History of the Turks," (in 
 Russian.) 
 
 Meetkercke. See Metkerke, (Adolphus ) 
 
 Megabyze. See Megabyzus. 
 
 Meg-a-by'zus or Meg-a-ba'zus, [Gr. TAb/aSvCpg or 
 Mej/ufafof ; Fr. Megabyze, ma'gi'bez', or Megabaze, 
 ma'gi'ba'z',] a Persian nobleman, and one of the seven 
 who conspired against Smerdis the Magian in 521 B.C. 
 He afterwards commanded an army of Darius I. in 
 Europe. 
 
 See Herodotus, books iii. and vii. 
 
 Megaera. See FuRi/E. 
 
 Meg'a-ra, [Gr. TAeyupa ; Fr. Megare, ma'gaV,] a 
 daughter of Creon, King of Thebes, was a wife of Her- 
 cules, who, after he had in a paroxysm of insanity killed 
 her children, gave her to Iolas. 
 
 Megare. See Megara. 
 
 Megasthene. See Megasthenes. 
 
 Me-gas'the-nes, [Gr. MeyaodeviK ; Fr. Megasthene, 
 ma'gis'tan',] a Greek geographer under the reign of 
 Seleucus Nicator, King of Syria, whom he served as 
 secretary about 300 B.C. He w»s the author of a work 
 entitled " Indica," extracts from which are contained in 
 the writings of Strabo, yElian, and Arrian. 
 
 Megerie. See Abram a.Sancta Clara. 
 
 Meggot. See Elwes. 
 
 Megingjord or Megingjardar. See Thor. 
 
 Me-gis'ti-as, [Mtyiorajc,] a celebrated soothsayer, a 
 native of Acarnania, fell with Leonidas at Thermopylae. 
 
 Meglio, del, del mgl'yo, (Jacopo Coppi,) an Italian 
 painter of the Florentine school, born in 1523, assisted 
 Vasari in painting the pictures in the Palazzo Vecchio. 
 Died in 1 591. 
 
 Mehegan, mi'a'g&N', (Guillaume Alexandre,) a 
 French litterateur, born at La Salle in 1721. He became 
 professor of French literature at Copenhagen in 175 1. 
 His most important work is entitled " Picture of Modern 
 History from the Fall of the Western Empire to the 
 Peace of Westphalia," (1766.) Died in 1766. 
 
 Mehemet-Alee, (or -Ali,) mSh'heh-mSt a'lee, or 
 Mo-ham'med-Al'ee, Viceroy of Egypt, was born at 
 Kavala in 1769. Having lost his parents at an early age, 
 he was protected by the Turkish governor of the town. 
 His distinguished abilities and energy soon won for him 
 a high reputation, and he was sent in 1799 to assist the 
 British in expelling the French from Egypt. He was 
 appointed in 1804 Pasha of Cairo, for his services in 
 defending that city from the oppression of the Mame- 
 lukes, and in 1806 was made Governor of Upper Egypt 
 by the Sultan. After a protracted contest with the Mame- 
 lukes, who had for centuries been the scourge of the 
 country, Mehemet Alee invited them to a festival at 
 Cairo, and, having anclosed them in the citadel, ordered 
 a general massacre, in which four hundred and seventy 
 perished, (181 1.) This sanguinary act was followed by 
 the destruction of the Mamelukes in other parts of Egypt. 
 In 1830 he invaded Syria, which he soon subdued, and 
 which, after the interference of the sovereigns of Europe, 
 was ceded to him by the Sultan, on condition of his being 
 a vassal of the Porte, (1833.) The Sultan, becoming 
 jealous of his powerful rival, made a treaty, in conjunc- 
 tion with several European powers, in 1841, by which Me- 
 hemet was obliged to relinquish Syria, but his family was 
 permitted to retain the pashalic of Egypt. He died in 
 1849, having the previous year resigned the government 
 to his son, Ibraheem Pasha. As a ruler, Mehemet Alee 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; nflt; good; moon; 
 
MEHEMET-ALEE 
 
 1 561 
 
 ME1NICKE 
 
 displayed talents of a very high order, and few princes 
 have founded more beneficent institutions or shown a 
 more just and liberal spirit. He established schools and 
 colleges, created an army and navy, and introduced the 
 manufactures of Europe. He protected his Christian 
 subjects, and aided by his liberality the researches of 
 Champollion, Lepsius, and other eminent savants. 
 
 See F. Mencin, "Hisloire de l'£gypte sous le Gouvernenient de 
 Mohammed Ali," 1839; A. DE VaULAMW I H, " Hisloire del'Egypte." 
 
 Mehemet-Alee, (Pasha,) meVheh-mSt a'lee pa'sha', 
 an Ottoman minister of state, born at Trebizond about 
 1807. He became a general of division in 1840, and mar- 
 ried a daughter of Sultan Mahmood in 1844. He was 
 grand vizier of Turkey from October, 1852, to May, 1853. 
 Died in 1865. 
 
 Mehul, ma'ul', (Etienne Henri,) a celebrated French 
 composer, born in the department of Ardennes in 1763. 
 Having previously received some instruction from Hau- 
 ser, a German organist, he repaired in 1778 to Paris, 
 where he became a pupil of Gluck. In 1790 he brought 
 out his opera of " Euphrosyne and Coradin," which met 
 with brilliant success and was pronounced by Gretry equal 
 to the finest productions of Gluck. Among his operas, 
 which are more than forty in number, we may name 
 "Stratonice," "Joseph in Egypt," and "The Blind Man 
 of Toledo." His "Song of Victory" and other popular 
 melodies of the kind are also greatly admired. Mehul 
 was one of the inspectors of the Conservatory of Music, 
 and a member of the French Institute. Died in 1817. 
 
 See Quatremere de Quincy, " Notice sur Mehul;" Fktis, 
 " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" Vieillard, "Notice sur 
 Mehul, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1859; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^- 
 rale." 
 
 Mehus, m.Yiis', (Livio,) a Flemish painter, born at 
 Oudenarde in 1630, studied in Italy under Pietro da 
 Cortona, and died at Florence in 1691. 
 
 Mehus, ma'oos, (Lorenzo,) an Italian scholar, a 
 native of Florence, lived about 1730-50. 
 
 Meibom, ml'bom, [Lat. Meibo'mius,] (Heinrich,) 
 a German historian and philologist, born at Lemgo 
 in 1555. He devoted himself chiefly to the history of 
 Germany in the middle ages. Died in 1625. 
 
 Meibom, (Johann Heinrich,) a German physician 
 and litterateur, born at Helmstedt in 1590, was a son of 
 the preceding. He wrote a number of medical treatises, 
 and also a " Fife of Maecenas." Died in 1655. His son, 
 Heinrich Meibo.m, born at Lubeck in 1638, became 
 professor of medicine at Helmstedt in 1661, and of his- 
 tory and poetry in 1678. He was the author of several 
 able medical works and a " History of Germany," (in 
 Latin.) Died in 1700. 
 
 Meibom, (Markus,) a German philologist, born at 
 Tonningen in 1630. He was a profound classical scholar, 
 and published a work entitled " Seven Greek Writers 
 on Music," (2 vols., 1652,) which he dedicated to Chris- 
 tina of Sweden, at whose court he resided for a time. 
 He afterwards became professor of history at Amsterdam, 
 where he died in 171 1. 
 
 Meibomius. See Meibom. 
 
 Meier. See Major, (George.) 
 
 Meier, mi'er, (Georg Friedrich,) a German critic 
 and philosopher, born near Halle in 1718, was appointed 
 professor of philosophy at Berlin in 1746. He was the 
 author of a "Critique on the Poetry of Gottsched," 
 "Thoughts on Spectres," (1748,) and other works. Died 
 in 1777. 
 
 See S. G. Lance, "Leben G. F. Meier's," 1778. 
 
 Meier, (Moritz Hermann Eduard,) a German an- 
 tiquary and philologist, born at Glogau in 1796, was 
 appointed in 1848 to the chair of eloquence at Halle. 
 Among his works is a treatise "On the Life and Orations 
 of I.ycurgus." Died in 1855. 
 
 Meierotto, mi'eh-rot'to, (Johann Heinrich Lud- 
 WIG,) a German scholar and popular teacher, born at 
 Stargard in 1742, became in 1772 professor of eloquence 
 in Joachim College, Berlin. He wrote a treatise "On 
 the Manners and Customs of the Romans," etc., and 
 other works, in Latin and German. Died in 1800. 
 
 See Bkunner, " Lebensbeschreibung Meierottos," 1803. 
 
 Meigs, megz, (James Atkins,) M.D., a distinguished 
 American physician and naturalist, born at Philadelphia 
 
 in 1829. He became in 1856 librarian of the Academy 
 of Natural Sciences, and in 1859 professor of the insti- 
 tutes of medicine in Pennsylvania College. In 1868 he 
 was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine in 
 Jefferson Medical College as successor to Dr. Dunglison. 
 He has published several ethnological treatises, among 
 which we may name " The Cranial Characteristics of the 
 Races of Men." 
 
 Meigs, (Montgomery C.,) an American general, born 
 in Georgia about 1816. ' He graduated at West Point 
 in 1836, served several years as an engineer, and was 
 appointed about 1852 to superintend the extension of 
 the Capitol at Washington. In May, 1861, he became 
 quartermaster-general of the Union army, the duties ol 
 which office he continued to perform with distinguished 
 zeal and ability till the end of the civil war. 
 
 Meigs, (Return Jonathan,) an American officer, 
 born at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1740, served with 
 distinction in the Revolutionary war. Died in 1823. 
 
 His son, of the same name, became Governor of Ohio 
 in 1810, and in 1814 was appointed postmaster-general. 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 Meikle, mik'el, ? (James,) a Scottish surgeon and 
 writer, born at Carnwath in 1730. He wrote, besides 
 other works, "Metaphysical Maxims, " (1797,) and "Soli- 
 tude Sweetened," (1S03.) Died in 1799. 
 
 Meikle, (William J.) See Micki.e. 
 
 Meil, mil, (Johann Heinrich,) a skilful German 
 designer and engraver, born at Gotha in 1729, furnished 
 illustrations for Gellert's and La Fontaine's Fables and 
 BiirgeVs poems. Died in 1803. 
 
 Meil, (Johann Wilhei.m,) brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Altenburg in 1732. He became director of 
 the Academy of Fine Arts at Berlin. His prints and 
 vignettes are highly esteemed. Died in 1805. 
 
 Meilleraie, de la, deh If mM'r.V or mi've-rS', 
 (Charles de la Porte — deh M poRt,) Due, a French 
 general, was cousin-german to Cardinal Richelieu. He 
 served in several campaigns, and in 1639 was created 
 marshal of France. He was regarded as the most skil- 
 ful general of his time in conducting sieges. He died 
 in "1664, leaving an only son, who married Hortense 
 Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin. 
 
 Meineke, mi'neh-keh, (Johann Ai.brf.cht Fried- 
 rich August,) a German scholar, born at Soest in 1791. 
 He published excellent editions of Menanfler and Phi- 
 lemon, and wrote a number of critical treatises on the 
 classics, among which are "Comtnentationes Miscel- 
 lanea;," (1822.) His " Fragments of the Greek Comic 
 Poets," (" Fragmenta Comicorum Grsecorum," 5 vols., 
 1839-43,) preceded by biographical notices of the same, 
 is highly esteemed. 
 
 Meiner, mi'ner, (Johann Werner,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born in Francouia in 1723 ; died in 1789. 
 
 Meiners, ml'ners, (Christoph,) a learned German 
 writer and antiquary, born near Otterndorf, in Hanover, 
 in 1747. He obtained a chair of philosophy at Gottingen 
 about 1774, and published numerous and various works, 
 among which are a " History of the Origin, Progress, 
 and Decline of the Sciences in Greece and Rome," (2 
 vols., 1782,) and "Biographies of the Eminent Men of 
 the Time of the Renaissance," (" Lebensbeschreibung 
 beruhmter Manner aus den Zeiten der Wiederherstell," 
 etc., 3 vols., 1796-99.) Died in 1810. 
 
 See C. G. Hrvne, "Memoria C. Meiners," 1810; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Meinhold, min'holt, (Johann Wilhelm,) a German 
 writer and divine, born in the island of Usedorn- He was 
 the author of various poems, and a novel entitled "The 
 Amber Witch," ("Die Bernstein Hexe," 1843,) which 
 made a great sensation and was for some time regarded 
 as a true narrative. It was translated into English, and 
 is characterized by a writer in the " London Quarterly 
 Review" as a tale worthy of De Foe. He also published 
 " Sidonia the Sorceress," etc., (" Sidonia von Borck die 
 Kloster-Hexe," New York, 1850.) Died in 1851. 
 
 See the "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1844; "British 
 
 8uarterly Review" for February, 1846; " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 ctober, 1848. 
 
 Meinicke, ml'nlk-keh, (Karl Eduard,) a German 
 geographer, born in Brandenburg in 1803. Among his 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y^guttural N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MEIR 
 
 1562 
 
 MELANCHTHON 
 
 works we may name a " History of the European Colo- 
 nies in the West Indies," (1831,) and "The Continent 
 of Australia," (1837.) 
 
 Meir ben Todros, mSr bSn to'dRos, a learned 
 Spanish rabbi, wrote several able treatises on the Tal- 
 mud and the Mosaic rites. Died in 1244. 
 
 Meisner, mis'ner, (Balthasar,) a German Lutheran 
 theologian, born in 1587 ; died in 1626. 
 
 Meissel, (Conrad.) See Celtes. 
 
 Meissner, mis'ner, (Alfred,) a German poet, born 
 at Ttiplitz in 1822, has published, among other works, 
 " Ziska," an epic poem, " The Son of Atta Troll," and 
 "Recollections of Heinrich Heine." 
 
 Meissner, (August Gottlieb,) a celebrated German 
 litterateur and dramatist, born in Upper Silesia in 1753. 
 He wrote several dramas, of which his "John of Suabia" 
 is esteemed the best. He owes his reputation princi- 
 pally to his " Sketches," (" Skizzen,") consisting of nar- 
 ratives, anecdotes, fables, etc., which obtained extensive 
 popularity and have had many imitators. Died in 1807. 
 
 See Mhusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 
 Meissonier, m&'so'ne^', (Jean Louis Ernest,) a 
 celebrated French painter, born at Lyons about 181 1. 
 Among his most admired works are " The Little Mes- 
 senger," "The Painter in his Studio," and "The Chess- 
 players." His pictures are of Small size but of exquisite 
 finish, and command high prices. He was made officer 
 of the legion of honour in 1856, and has received a 
 number of medals. 
 
 Meissonier, (Juste Aurei.e,) a French artist, born 
 at Turin in 1675, was skilled in painting, sculpture, and 
 architecture. He excelled particularly in ornamental 
 gold-work, and became goldsmith to the king, Louis 
 XV. Died in 1750. • 
 
 Meister, mis'ter, (Jacques Henri,) a Swiss writer, 
 born at Zurich in 1744, was an intimate friend of Necker, 
 Diderot, and Grimm. He wrote " Letters on Imagina- 
 tion," (1794,) "Studies on Man," (1805,) and other 
 works. Died in 1826. 
 
 Meister, (Leonhard,) a Swiss litterateur, born near 
 Zurich in 1741, wrote several historical works. Died 
 in 181 1. 
 
 Meister, mis'ter,. (Simon,) a German painter, born 
 at Coblentz in 1803, studied under Horace Vernet, and 
 acquired graat skill in painting battles and horses. Died 
 in 1844. 
 
 Mejanes, de, deh ma'zhin', (Jean Baptiste Marie 
 de Piquet — deh pe'k£',) Marquis, a French nobleman, 
 born at Aries in 1729, was the owner of a library of more 
 than seventy-five thousand volumes, which at his death, 
 in 1786, he bequeathed to the city of Aix. 
 Mejia. See Mkxia. 
 
 Mekhitar or Mechitar, meK'e-tar', (Peter,) an 
 Armenian priest and reformer, born at Sebaste in 1676. 
 Having embraced Catholicism, he became a distinguished 
 and popular preacher, and founded, in 1740, an Armenian 
 monastery at Venice. He also established there a print- 
 ing-house for the Armenian language. Among the works 
 issued from this press were an Armenian Grammar and 
 Lexicon. 
 
 Mekhitar Kosh, the Beardless, a learned Arme- 
 nian ecclesiastic, born about 1140, founded a monastery 
 in the valley of Dandsoud, in Eastern Armenia, of which 
 he became the first abbot. Died in 1213. 
 
 Me'la, (Pomponius,) an eminent Roman geographer, 
 born in Spain, flourished probably about 50 A.D. He 
 wrote a valuable work entitled "On the Situation of the 
 Earth," (" De Situ Orbis.") A good edition of it was 
 published by Tzschucke, Leipsic, (7 vols., 1807 et seq.) 
 See Malte-Brun, article on " Mela" in the " Biographie Univer- 
 
 MBi 
 
 Meiampe. See Mfxampus. 
 
 Me-lam'pus, [Gr. Ue?Jtti7Tovc ; Fr. Melampe, mi'- 
 loNp',] a mythical personage of Argos, famous as a 
 soothsayer, was a son of Amythaon. He was considered 
 as the first mortal that possessed prophetic power, and 
 the first that practised medicine. 
 
 Me-lan€h'thpn [Ger. pron. ma-UnK'ton] or Me- 
 lan'thon, (Philip,) an eminent German Reformer and 
 scholar, whose original name was Schwarzerd or 
 Schwarzerdt, (shwaRts'eRt : i.e. " Black Earth,") which, 
 
 according to the usage of the time, he changed into Greek, 
 was born at Bretten, in the Palatinate, February 16, 1497 
 His father was a skilful and prosperous armourer. He 
 entered in 1507 the Academy of Pforzheim, where he en- 
 joyed the patronage of Reuchlin, who was his great-uncle. 
 About the age of twelve he passed to the University of 
 Heidelberg, where he took the degree of bachelor of 
 arts, and went in 1512 to finish his studies in the Uni- 
 versity of Tubingen. He learned the Greek language, 
 mathematics, jurisprudence, etc., and remained in this 
 university a number of years, during which he gave 
 public lectures on the classics and other subjects. In 
 1518 he was appointed professor of Greek in the Uni- 
 versity of Wittenberg, then recently founded, and there 
 became the colleague and friend of Luther, whose doc- 
 trines he adopted. The renown of his learning and 
 eloquence soon attracted multitudes of students from 
 all parts of Germany. In 1519 Luther and Melanchthon 
 held a public disputation at Leipsic with Eckius, one 
 of the ablest champions of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 Melanchthon married in 1520 Katharina Krapp, daugh- 
 ter of a burgomaster of Wittenberg. It appears that 
 he was never ordained as a minister of the gospel. He 
 gave much attention to biblical exegesis, and became a 
 prominent advocate of the Reformed religion by his 
 writings. Compared with the other Reformer*, he was 
 distinguished for moderation and gentleness, which 
 tended to restrain the impetuosity of Luther. In 1521 
 he published an able defence of the Reformed doctrines, 
 in a systematic treatise on theology, entitled "Loci com- 
 munes Rerun) theologicarum," which enjoyed great popu- 
 larity. It was commended by Luther as being "next to 
 the Holy Scriptures the most excellent work on theol- 
 ogy." He aided Luther in his German translation of 
 the Bible, on which he expended much time, (1522-34.) 
 In 1529 he attended the Diet of Spire. Having been 
 appointed by the leading Reformers to compose a formal 
 exposition of the Lutheran faith, he wrote the celebrated 
 "Augsburg Confession," which was presented to the 
 emperor Charles V. at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, 
 and is perhaps the most important symbolical book of 
 the Lutheran Church. A Latin version of this Con- 
 fession was published under the title of "Confessio Fidei 
 exhibita invictissimo Imperatori Carolo V.," etc., (1531.) 
 He also wrote, in reply to certain Catholic theologians, 
 an "Apology of the Confession," (" Apologie der Augs- 
 burgischen Confession.") He was invited by Henry VIII. 
 of England and Francis I. of France to visit their courts ; 
 but he declined both invitations, and remained at Wit- 
 tenberg. He was one of the theologians that disputed 
 with the Roman Catholics at the Conference of Worms 
 (1540) and the Conference of Ratisbon, (1541,) where he 
 proposed concessions and compromises which the other 
 Reformers rejected. After the death of Luther, in 1546, 
 Melanchthon was recognized as the leader of the Refor- 
 mation in Germany. His conduct was conformed to the 
 maxim "In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in om- 
 nibus caritas," (" In essentials unity, in doubtful points 
 liberty, in all things charity,") which subjected him to 
 violent denunciations from some Protestant zealots. In 
 155 1 he was sent as a delegate to the Council of Trent, 
 which, however, was dispersed by the hostile movements 
 of Maurice of Saxony before Melanchthon arrived at 
 Trent. The latter years of his life were greatly troubled 
 by the acrimonious dissensions among the Protestant 
 theologians. He died at Wittenberg on the 19th of April, 
 1560, leaving three surviving children. He was a man 
 of small stature. Among his numerous works were 
 " Elements of Logic and Ethics," a Greek Grammar, 
 Commentaries on the Scriptures, editions of several 
 classic authors, with notes, and an extensive corre- 
 spondence with his eminent contemporaries. An edi- 
 tion of his works was published at Wittenberg by his 
 son-in-law, Peucer, in 1562-64. 
 
 See Camerariuk, "Vita P. Melanchthonis," 1566: F. A. Cox, 
 "Life of P. Melanchthon," 1815; A. H. Niemeyeh, "P. Melanch- 
 thon als Preceptor Germanise," 1817 ; C. Matthrs, " P. Melanch- 
 thon, sein Leben und Wirken," 184T ; M. Facius, " P. Melanclilhon's 
 Leben," 1832; F. Galle, "Versuch einer Characteristik Melanch- 
 thon's," etc v 1840; Ledderhosk. "P. Melanchthon nach sernem 
 ziussern und innern Leben dargestellt," 1847; D. Nisard, " Etudes 
 sur la Renaissance;" D'Aunic.NR, " History of the Reformation;" 
 Dr. F. Hoekek's article in the " Nonvelle Biographie G<me>a]e." 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mi t; nflt; good; moon; 
 
MELANDER 
 
 1563 
 
 MELETIUS 
 
 Melander, ma-Ian'der, or Melanderhjelm, mi-lan'- 
 der-he-dlm', (Daniel,) an eminent Swedish astronomer, 
 born at Stockholm in 1726. He succeeded Stronger 
 as professor of astronomy at Upsal in 1 761, and sub- 
 sequently became perpetual secretary to the Academy 
 of Sciences. He was also ennobled by Gustavus III., 
 (1801.) He wrote a " Synopsis of Astronomical Lessons," 
 and other treatises, (in Latin.) Melander was a corre- 
 sponding member of the Academy of Sciences in Paris. 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 See Lalandh, " Bibliographic astronomique;" Kjellin, " Are- 
 miniK- utver L>. Melanderhjelm, " 1811. 
 
 Me-la'nI-a, |Fr. Melanie, ma'li'ne',] Saint, called 
 the Younger, a Roman lady of a noble family, born 
 about 38S A.D. Having been converted to Christianity, 
 she founded a convent in Palestine, and subsequently a 
 monastery near Mount Calvary. 
 
 See Mace, " Histoire de Sainte-Melanie." 
 
 Melanie. See Melania. 
 
 Melanippide. See Melanipimdes. 
 
 Mel-au-Ip'pi-des, [Gr. M atowji i iulm ,- Fr. Mela- 
 NIHI'IDK, nia'l4'ne'ped',l a Greek poet, born in the 
 island of Mclos, lived in the time of Perdiccas, King of 
 Macedonia, (about 450 B.C.,) at whose court he died. He 
 is styled by Xenophon one of the greatest dithyramhic 
 poets of Greece; and he also excelled in music. His 
 only writings extant are to be found in Bergk's " Poetse 
 Lyrici Graeci." 
 
 See Plutarch, "De Musica;" Xenophon. "Memorabilia:" 
 Fabricius, " tiib.iotheca Grxca ;" Scheibel, *' Dissertalio de Me- 
 Ianippide," 1848. 
 
 Melanthe. See Mklanthius. 
 
 Me-lan'thl-us or Me-laii'thus, [Gr. Me/utvdtoc or 
 MfXai'ffof ; Fr. Melanthe, nii'loNt',] an eminent Greek 
 painter, was contemporary with Apelles, with whom he 
 studied under Pamphilus. He ranked among the first 
 artists of the time, and his pictures commanded very 
 high prices. 
 
 Melanthius, [MtJiurftoc,] a Greek tragic poet of 
 Athens, flourished about 400 B.C., and was noted for his 
 wit. lie was satirized by Aristophanes and other comic 
 poets. His works are lost. 
 
 Melanthus. See Melanthius. 
 
 Melas, ma'las, (MICHAEL,) Baron, an Austrian gen- 
 eral, born in Moravia in 1730. He served under Mar- 
 shal Daun in the Seven Years' war and in several subse- 
 quent campaigns against the French, and in 1796 became 
 commander-in-chief of the Austrian forces in Italy. He 
 was signally defeated by the French army at Marengo, 
 (1800,) and was obliged to sign a capitulation. Died in 
 1806. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire." 
 
 Melbourne, meTbum, (William Lamb,) Viscount, 
 a popular Fnglish statesman, son of Sir Peniston Lamb, 
 afterwards Lord Melbourne, was born in 1779. He 
 entered the House of Commons in 1805, and advocated 
 a moderate Whig policy. His father dying in 1828, he 
 inherited his title, entered the House of Lords, and, on 
 the formation of Karl Grey's ministry, in 1830, became 
 secretary of state. He was appointed first lord of the 
 treasury in 1834; but the Tories, under Peel and Wel- 
 lington, soon gaining the ascendant, he was compelled 
 to resign. In 1835 he succeeded in forming a Whig 
 ministry, which lasted six years. He was distinguished 
 for his tact and popular qualities and accomplishments. 
 Died in 1848. Lord Melbourne was the author of a 
 comedy entitled "The Fashionable Friends." His wife 
 was known as an authoress. (See Lamb, Caroline.) 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1849. 
 
 Melchtbal, von, fon melK'til, (Arnold,) a Swiss 
 patriot, became, in concert with his friends Furst and 
 Stauffacher, one of the founders of Swiss liberty. In 
 1307, in conjunction with thirty of their countrymen, 
 they formed a confederacy for the defence of Switzer- 
 land against Austrian oppression. In the course of the 
 following year the adventure of William Tell with Gess- 
 ler brought affairs to a crisis. (See Tell.) These 
 incidents form the subject of " WUhelm Tell," one of 
 Schiller's most popular dramas. 
 
 SeeTsCHARNER, " Histoire des Conficde'res :" MOller, " Histoire 
 de la Confederation Suisse." 
 
 Melcombe, Lord. See Dodington. 
 
 Melder, mel'der, ( Gerard, ) a Dutch miniature 
 painter, born at Amsterdam in 1693 ; died in 1740. 
 
 Meldolla, mel-dol'li, (Andrea,) an Italian painter 
 and engraver, born in Dalmatia about 1520, was a pupil 
 of Mazzuoli, (Parmigiano.) He is supposed by some 
 writers to have been the same as Andrea Schiavone. 
 Died in 1582. 
 
 See Le Blanc, "Manuel de I'Amateur d'Estampes." 
 
 Me-le-a'ger, [Gr. Meteuypoc; Fr. MelEagre, mi'li'- 
 SgR',] a famous hero of classic mythology, was a son of 
 CEneus and Althaea, or, as others say, a son of Mars. 
 According to tradition, when he was seven days old the 
 Moirae (or Fates) warned his mother that he would 
 die as soon as the billet which was burning on her 
 hearth should be consumed. Althaea then extinguished 
 the fatal brand and hid it in a chest. He signalized his 
 valour in the Argonautic expedition and the Calydonian 
 hunt. He fought with the Calydonians against the 
 Curetes, and offended his mother by killing her brothers. 
 She therefore cast the above-mentioned brand into the 
 fire, and Meleager speedily died. 
 
 Meleager, [Gr. Mefcuypoc,] a Macedonian general, 
 who served under Alexander the Great, and, after the 
 death of that monarch, attempted to raise Arrhidaeus to 
 the throne in opposition to Perdiccas. His partisans 
 were defeated, and he was put to death, 323 B.C. 
 
 See Droyskn, "Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen." 
 
 Meleager, a Greek poet, supposed to have lived in 
 the first century before the Christian era, is said to have 
 been the first who made a collection of fugitive poems 
 and epigrams called an " Anthology," ("Anthologia.") 
 
 See Brunck, " Analecta," vol. i. 
 
 Meleagre. See Meleager. 
 
 Melece. See Meletius. 
 
 Melek Shah, (a Seljookide Sultan.) See Malik 
 Shah. 
 
 Meleudez-Valdez, mk-len'djth val'dSth, or Valdes, 
 val'dSs, (Juan Antonio,) an eminent Spanish poet, born 
 in Estremadura in 1754. He studied law at Salamanca, 
 where he became intimate with the poet Cadalso, and 
 distinguished himself by his attainments in English 
 literature, of which he was a warm admirer. His 
 idyl "Batilo" (1780) won the prize at the Spanish 
 Academy, and another was given to his " Pindaric Ode 
 on the Fine Arts" by the Academy of San Fernando. 
 He published in 1785 a collection of lyric and pastoral 
 poems, which established his reputation as the first Span- 
 ish poet of his time. He had been appointed in 1781, 
 through the influence of his friend Jovellanos, professor 
 of humanities at Salamanca. In 1791 he obtained an 
 important office in the chancery of Valladolid, and in 
 1798 became fiscal of the supreme court of Madrid. He 
 published in 1797 another collection of poems, dedicated 
 to Godoy, who soon after appointed him to a high office 
 at court. On the fall of the minister Jovellanos, Melen- 
 dez was exiled from Madrid, to which he was not per- 
 mitted to return until the fall of Godoy, (1808.) Having 
 subsequently joined the French party in Spain, he was 
 created councillor of state and minister of public in- 
 struction by Joseph Bonaparte. He died in France in 
 1817. Of Melendez, Ticknor observes, "There can be 
 no doubt that he was better fitted to form a new school, 
 and give a guiding impulse to the national poetry, than 
 any writer that had appeared in Spain for above a 
 century." 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Kennedy, 
 " Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain ;" Longfellow, " Poets and 
 Poetry of Europe;" Ouintana, "Life of Melendez- Valdez," pre- 
 fixed to an edition of his works, Madrid, 4 vols., 1820; "Nouvelle 
 Biographic Ge'neVale." 
 
 Meletius, me-lee'she-us, [Gr. MeAt'noo,] Bishop of 
 Lycopolis, was founder of a sect called by his name. 
 Having been deposed by the Bishop of Alexandria, 
 about 301 A.D., he formed a schism, and united with the 
 Arians. 
 
 Meletius, [Fr. Melece, mi'lis',] Saint, called the 
 Great, born in Little Armenia, was appointed Bishop 
 of Sebaste in 357 A.D., and in 360 Patriarch of Antioch. 
 Through the influence of the Arians, he was thrice de- 
 posed from his office and exiled, being finally restored 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gi4ttural; ft, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MELETIUS 
 
 1564 
 
 MELO 
 
 in 378. He presided over the first -General Council at 
 Constantinople. (381,) and died the same year, having 
 previously confirmed the nomination of Saint Gregory 
 Nazianzen as Patriarch of Antioch. His funeral oration 
 was delivered by Saint Gregory of Nyssa. 
 
 See Tn.i.EMONT, " Memoires," etc. ; Baillet, " Viesdes Saints;" 
 Maimbourg, " Histoire de I'Arianisme." 
 
 Meletius, a Greek prelate and geographer, born at 
 Janinain 1661. He wrote an "Ecclesiastical History," 
 (3 vols., 1798.) Died in 1714. 
 
 Me-le'tus, [Me/tojroc,! written less correctly Me-li'tus, 
 a Greek tragic poet, is chiefly known as one of the three 
 principal accusers of Socrates. He was a licentious 
 writer, and a man of profligate habits. He was put to 
 death by the Athenians when they repented of their 
 treatment of Socrates. 
 
 Mel'fort, (John Drummond,) Duke of, was prime 
 minister to King James II. of England, whom he ac- 
 companied in his exile to France. Being accused of 
 planning a second invasion of England, he was banished 
 by Louis XIV. to Angers, where he died in 1716. 
 
 Meli, ma'lee, (Giovanni,) an eminent Sicilian poet, 
 born at Palermo about 1740. His works, consisting 
 chiefly of eclogues, odes, and sonnets, are written in the 
 Sicilian dialect, to which he gave a grace and refinement 
 hitherto unknown. His pastoral poems are exquisite 
 specimens of their kind, especially the "Ecloghe Pesca- 
 torie," or fishermen's dialogues, distinguished for their 
 humour and the graceful simplicity of their language. 
 Meli also wrote satires and fables, and a mock-heroic 
 poem entitled "Don Quixote." Died in 1815. 
 
 See Lombardo, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" " Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for November, 1829 : A. Gallo, " Cenni biogra- 
 fici di G. Meli," 1836. 
 
 Mel-I-cer'ta or Mel-I-cer'tes, [Gr. MehxepTw; Fr. 
 Meuckrte, mi'le'sSRt',] a son of Athamas and Ino. 
 The poets feigned that Ino threw herself and her son 
 into the sea, and Neptune changed them into sea-deities. 
 Melicerta then received the name of Palaemon. 
 
 Melicerte. See Mei.icerta. 
 
 Melingue, ma'laNg', (Etienne Martin,) a French 
 actor and sculptor, born at Caen in 1808. 
 
 Meliorati. See Innocent VII. 
 
 Me-lis'sa, [Gr. Mefaaoa; Fr. Melisse, ma'less',] a 
 daughter of Melissus, King of Crete, was said to have 
 fed the infant Jupiter with the milk of goats. 
 
 Melissa, in classic mythology, a nymph who first dis- 
 covered the use of honey, or the method of procuring it; 
 whence bees (in Greek MeAiaoai) are said to have derived 
 their name. 
 
 Melisse. See Melissa. 
 
 Me-lis'sus, [Me/Uoooc,] a Greek philosopher, born at 
 Samos, flourished about 440 B.C. He was also distin- 
 guished as a naval commander, and gained an important 
 victory over the Athenians. He was a disciple of Par- 
 inenides, and was the author of philosophical works of 
 which only fragments are extant. 
 
 Melissus, ma-lis'sus, (Paul,) a German, distinguished 
 as a Latin poet, born in Franconia in 1539 ; died in 1602. 
 
 Mel'I-ton or Mel'I-to, [Gr. MefoVwp,] an ecclesias- 
 tical writer of the second century A.D., became Bishop 
 of Sardis in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. His works 
 were highly esteemed by his contemporaries, but they 
 have been lost, with the exception of a few fragments. 
 
 See Tillemont, "Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire ecclesias- 
 tique." 
 
 Melitus or Melitos. See Meletus. 
 
 Me'll-us or Maelius, mee'le-us, (Spurius,) a Roman 
 knight, who gained the favour of the people by the 
 liberal or profuse use of his large fortune. He was ac- 
 cused by L. Minucius Augurinus of a design to make 
 himself king, and was summoned before Cincinnatus, 
 who was appointed dictator for this occasion. Refusing 
 to submit, he was killed by Servilius Ahala in 439 B.C. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome;" Niebuhr, " History of Rome." 
 
 Mellan, mi'loN', (Claude,) an eminent French en- 
 graver and painter, born at Abbeville in 1598, studied 
 under Villamena and Vouet at Rome. He originated a 
 new method of engraving, which consisted in producing 
 light and shade by varying the thickness of the single- 
 lines instead of crossing one set by another. Among 
 
 his master-pieces are " Saint Peter Nolascus borne by 
 Two Angels," the " Face of Christ," " Rebecca at the 
 Well," and a portrait of Pope Urban VIII. Died in 
 1688. 
 
 See Renouvier," Des Types et Manieres des Maitres-Graveurs ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Melle, mel'leh, (Jacob,) a German numismatist, born 
 at Lubeck in 1659. He published several works on 
 numismatics, etc. Died in 1743. 
 
 Mel'len, (Grenville,) an American poet, born at 
 Biddeford, in Maine, in 1799, was a son of Chief-Justice 
 Mellen, LL.D., of that State. Among his principal works 
 we may name "Our Chronicle of Twenty-Six," (1827,) 
 "Glad Tales and Sad Tales," (in prose, 1829,) "The 
 Martyr's Triumph," and "Buried Valley, and other 
 Poems," (1834.) Died in 1841. 
 
 See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America ;" Cleveland, 
 " Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Melliii, mJl-leen', (Gustaf Henrik,) one of the most 
 popular Swedish novelists and historians, born in Fin- 
 land in 1813. Among his romances, which are generally 
 founded on Swedish history, we may name " Flickorna 
 i Askersund," (1832,) "Helena Wrede," (1834,) and 
 " Johannes Fj'allman." His " Den Skandinaviska Nor- 
 dens Historia" (1850) and " Faderlandets Historia" 
 (1852) are highly esteemed by his countrymen. The 
 greater part of his romances have been translated into 
 German. 
 
 Melliii de Saint-Gelais, mi'laN' deh saN zheh-li', a 
 French poet, born in 1491, was the author of ballads, 
 sonnets, elegies, etc. Died in 1558. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Melling, mel'ling, (Anton Ignaz,) a German painter, 
 bom at Carlsruhe in 1763 ; died in Paris in 1831. 
 
 Mellini, mgl-lee'nee, (Giuseppe Zama,) an Italian 
 writer on religion, born at Bologna in 1788; died in 
 1838. 
 
 Mello, de, da mel'lo, or Melo, ma'lo, (Francisco 
 Manoei.,) a Portuguese writer, born at Lisbon in 161 1, 
 wrote (in Spanish) a valuable history of the Catalo- 
 nian revolution, entitled " Historia de los Movimientos y 
 Separacion, etc. de Cataluna," (1645.) He also wrote 
 a number of dramas and poems, among which we may 
 name "The Three Muses of Melodino," ("Las tres 
 Musas de Melodino.") Died in 1665. 
 
 See Barbosa-Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Mello, de, (P. Joze,) an eminent Portuguese jurist, 
 wrote a " History of Portuguese Civil Law," (3d edition, 
 1800.) Died in 1798. 
 
 Melloni, mel-lo'nee, (Macedonio,) an Italian savant, 
 born at Parma in 1801. He was appointed in 1839 di- 
 rector of the Conservatory of Arts and Trades at Naples. 
 He wrote several scientific works, one of which was 
 entitled " La Termocrasi," etc., explaining his theory 
 concerning the radiation of heat and the coloration of 
 light. He originated valuable discoveries on these sub- 
 jects, for which the Royal Society of London bestowed 
 upon him the Rumford medal. Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale. " 
 
 MSl'moth, (William,) an English lawyer, born in 
 1666, was the author of a work entitled "Great Impor- 
 tance of a Religious Life," which was ascribed by Walpole 
 to the first Earl of Egmont. One hundred thousand 
 copies of this work were printed after the author's death. 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes ;" " Memoirs of a Late Emi- 
 nent Advocate." 
 
 Melmoth, (William,) an English litterateur, a son 
 of the preceding, was born in 1 7 10. He published in 
 1747 a translation of the "Letters of Pliny," which is 
 esteemed one of the best versions of a Latin author in 
 the English language, and is mentioned by Warton as 
 "one of the few that are better than the original." He 
 also translated the " Letters of Cicero to Several of his 
 Friends," and the treatises " On Friendship" (' De 
 Amicitia") and "On Old Age"("De Senectute") of the 
 same author. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Melo. See Mello. 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mt?t; not; good; moon; 
 
MELON 
 
 1565 
 
 MEMNON 
 
 Melon, meh-loN', (Jean Francois,) a French lit- 
 tfnuotr, resided at Bordeaux, and, in conjunction with 
 the Duke de la Force, founded the Academy of that city 
 in 1712. He afterwards became secretary to the regent 
 Orleans. He wrote " Mahmoud the Gaznevide," an alle- 
 gorical history of the regency, and a " Political Essay on 
 Commerce." The latter work was highly commended 
 by Voltaire. Died in 1738. 
 
 See Voltaire, "Steele de Louis XV," chap. iii. 
 
 Melot, meh-lo', (Anicet,) a French savant, born at 
 Dijon in 1697, became in 1738 a member of the Acad- 
 emy of Inscriptions, to which he contributed several 
 able treatises. In 1741 he was appointed royal librarian. 
 He wrote a " Dissertation on the Capture of Rome 
 bv the Gauls," and other antiquarian works. Died in 
 
 1759- 
 
 Melozzo da Forli, mi-lot'so da foR-lee', (Fran- 
 cesco,) an Italian painter, born at Forll in 1438, invented 
 the sot/o in su, and discovered the rules of vertical per- 
 spective. Among his finest extant frescos is " Sixtns IV. 
 giving to Platina charge of the Vatican Library," now in 
 the Vatican. His works are highly commended by Vasari. 
 He excelled in foreshortening. Died in 1492. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Mel-pom'e-ne, [Gr. MeXno/iivij ; Fr. Melpomene, 
 mel'po'min',] one of the nine Muses, presided over 
 tragedy, and was represented as holding in her hand a 
 tragic mask. She was said to be the mother of the 
 Sirens. (See Mus^B.) 
 
 Mehm.de, deh meh-luN', (Charles,) a French states- 
 nun under Louis XI., was appointed in 1465 grand 
 master of France. Having subsequently incurred the 
 displeasure of the king, he was condemned to death and 
 executed, (1468.) 
 
 Melvil. See Melville, (Sir James.) 
 
 Mel'vill, (Rev. Henry,) an eloquent English divine, 
 and chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Victoria, was born in 
 Cornwall about 1800. Having graduated at Cambridge, 
 he was appointed principal of the East India College, 
 Haileybury, about 1840. He published several volumes 
 of sermons. 
 
 Melvill van Cainbee, mel'vil vfn karn'ba, ( Pie- 
 Ter,) Baron, a geographer and naval officer, born at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle in 1816. He produced the "Mariner's 
 Guide," ("Zeeman's Gid," 1842.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Melville, mel'vil, (Andrew,) an eminent Scottish 
 Reformer and scholar, born in Forfarshire in 1545. He 
 studied in Paris, and subsequently became professor of 
 humanities at Geneva. After his return to Scotland he 
 was appointed principal of Glasgow College, where he 
 introduced great improvements in the discipline and 
 was eminently successful as a teacher. He was actively 
 engaged in the religious controversies of the time, and 
 was chiefly instrumental in the abolition of episcopacy 
 in .Scotland. He became in 1580 principal of Saint 
 Mary's College, Saint Andrew's, where he also filled the 
 chair of theology and the Oriental tongues. Having 
 given offence to King James by his bold opposition to 
 the measures of the court, he was imprisoned five years, 
 and subsequently retired to France, and was appointed 
 professor of theology at Sedan. Died in 1622. 
 
 See T. McCrie, " Life of Andrew Melville," 1819; Gardiner, 
 "History of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. i. chap. ix. ; Cham- 
 bers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Black- 
 Hood's Magazine" for September, 1824. 
 
 Melville, (George Whyte,) an English novelist, 
 born about 1820. He was a captain in the Coldstream 
 Guards. He produced popular novels, entitled "Digby 
 Grand," (1853,) "General Bounce," "Kate Coventry, 
 and " Holmby House," (i860.) 
 
 Melville, (Henry Dundas,) Viscount, a British 
 general, born in Edinburgh in 1801. He served in India 
 against the Sikhs in 1849, and inherited the peerage at 
 the death of his father, in 185 1. 
 
 Melville, (Herman,) an American novelist and trav- 
 eller, born in New York in 1819. Having made a voy- 
 age to the Pacific in 1841, he spent several months on 
 one of the Marquesas Islands, and subsequently visited 
 the Sandwich and Society Islands. He published, after 
 his return, a narrative of his adventures, entitled 
 
 "Typee," (1846,) which was received with great favour, 
 both in the United States and England. Among his 
 other principal works are " Omoo, a Narrative of Ad- 
 ventures in the South Seas," "White Jacket, or the 
 World in a Man-of-War," (1850,) and "The Piazza 
 Tales." 
 
 See Duvckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. 
 
 Melville or Melvil, (Sir James,) a Scottish states- 
 man and historian, borfi In Fifeshire in 1530. Having 
 been appointed page to Mary Queen of Scots during 
 her residence in France, he accompanied her on her 
 return to Scotland, and was made her privy councillor 
 and employed in several important negotiations. He 
 died in 1606, leaving in manuscript a work published in 
 1683, under the title of "Memoirs of Sir James Melvil 
 of Halhill," etc., which are highly valuable as records 
 of his time. Froude speaks of Melville as " a man who, 
 without the faintest pretensions to statesmanship, was 
 as skilled an intriguer as Europe could boast." (" His- 
 tory of England," vol. viii. chap, viii.) 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Melville, Lord. See Dundas, (Henry.) 
 
 Melville, (ROBERT.) a Scottish officer, born in Fife- 
 shire in 1723, served against the French in the West 
 Indies in 1702, and was appointed governor of the pos- 
 sessions conquered from France. He was a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society and of the Society of Antiquaries. 
 Died in 1809. 
 
 Melzi, mel'zee, (Gaetano,) Count, an Italian littera- 
 teur, born at Milan in 1783, published a "Biography of 
 Italian Romances and Poems of Chivalry," (1838,) and 
 " Dictionary of Pseudonyms and Anonymous Works of 
 Italian Writers," etc., (1848,) both of which enjoy a 
 high reputation. He was the owner of a library of 
 more than thirty thousand volumes, consisting chiefly 
 of rare and valuable works. Died in 1852. 
 
 Melzi d'Eril, mel'zee da-rel', (Francesco,) an Ital- 
 ian statesman, born at Milan in 1753. On the invasion 
 of Italy by the French he had a prominent part in the 
 establishment of the Cisalpine republic, of which he 
 was made vice-president in 1802. He was afterwards 
 created by Napoleon high-chancellor of Italy, and Duke 
 of I,odi, (1809.) He was a grandee of Spain. Died 
 in 1816. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Memling, mem'ling, Hemling, hem'ling, or Mem 
 melinck, mem'meh-link', an eminent Flemish painter, 
 the date and place of whose birth are unknown. He 
 flourished about 1450-85. Among his master-pieces are 
 the " Marriage of Saint Catherine," and a " Baptism of 
 Christ." 
 
 See P. Hedouin, "Memling. E"tude stir sa Vie et ses Ouvrages,' 
 1847 ; " Lives of the Early Flemish Painters." 
 
 Memmi. See Martini, (Simone da.) 
 
 Memminger, mem'min-jer, ? (Charles Gustavus,) 
 a native of Wurtemberg, Germany, born in 1803, settled 
 at Charleston, South Carolina, where he became distin- 
 guished as a lawyer and politician. He zealously opposed 
 the State Rights'party, which he satirized in his "Book 
 of Nullification," (1832.) He was appointed secretary of 
 the treasury in the cabinet of Jefferson Davis in February, 
 1861, and resigned in June, 1864. 
 
 Mem'ml-us, (Caius,) a Roman tribune, was a strenu- 
 ous opponent of the aristocrats. He became tribune 
 of the people in m B.C., and exposed the venality and 
 corruption of the aristocratic leaders in their manage- 
 ment of the Jugurthine war. While a candidate for the 
 consulship, he was killed by the mob led by Saturninus 
 in 100 B.C. 
 
 Memmius, (Caius Gemellus,) a Roman orator, 
 poet, and politician, was a tribune of the people in 66 
 B.C., and praetor in 58. He was a son-in-law of Sulla, 
 and friend of Lucretius, who dedicated to him his poem 
 "De Rerum Natura." He is also frequently mentioned 
 by Cicero. Having been accused of bribery, (ambitus,) 
 he went into exile about 54 B.C. 
 
 Mem'non, [Gr. Mi/ivuv,] a mythical personage, sup- 
 posed to have been a son of Tithonus and Eos, (Aurora,) 
 and a king of Ethiopia or Egypt. According to tradition, 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this. (%&~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MEMNON 
 
 1566 
 
 MENCIUS 
 
 he fought for the Trojans at the siege of Troy, slew An- 
 tilochus, and was killed by Achilles. The poets feigned 
 that the dew-drops which appear in the morning are the 
 tears which Aurora shed for the death of Memnon. Many 
 writers identify Menmon with Amenophis II. of Egypt, 
 in whose honour Was erected the celebrated colossal 
 statue near Thebes. This statue, which is still extant 
 and is about fifty feet high, was commonly believed by 
 the ancients to emit a sound when it was first touched 
 by the beams of the morning sun. Some writers, in- 
 cluding Sir Gardner Wilkinson, believe that the phe- 
 nomenon was the result of imposture. 
 
 See Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, "Topography of Thebes," 
 PP- 33-37- 
 
 Mem'non, a Greek general in the service of Da- 
 rius, King of Persia, attained the rank of high admiral, 
 and Governor of Western Asia. He had great military 
 talents. Died in 333 B.C. 
 
 See Clinton, " Fasti Hellenici." 
 
 Memnon, a Greek historian, supposed to have lived 
 under the reign of Augustus or the Antonines. He 
 wrote a history of Heraclea, of which only fragments 
 ire extant. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Grsecis." 
 
 Mena, de, da ma'na, (Felipe Gil,) a Spanish por- 
 trait-painter of great merit, born at Valladolid in 1600; 
 died in 1674. 
 
 Mena, de, (Juan,) a Spanish poet, born at Cordova 
 about 1410. He was patronized by John II., King of Castile, 
 who made him his Latin secretary and historiographer. 
 His principal work is an allegorical poem, entitled "The 
 Labyrinth," (" LI Labirinto,") which enjoyed a high repu- 
 tation in his time. He was an intimate friend of Henry 
 de Villena, the Marquis de Santillana, and other eminent 
 writers of that age. Died in 1456. 
 
 See. Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Prescott, 
 " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. pp. 18, 19, 20; Lonc- 
 j-'Hi.low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Menabrea, ma-na-bRa'a, (Leon Camili.e,) a littera- 
 teur, born near Chambery in 1804. He wrote several 
 works on mediaeval antiquities, and left unfinished an 
 important work entitled "Les Alpes historiques." Died 
 in 1857. 
 
 Menabrea, ma-na-bRa'a, (Luigi F.,) Count, an Ital- 
 ian general and statesman, born about 1809. He was 
 appointed minister of foreign affairs and president of 
 the council of ministers of the kingdom of Italy in 
 October, 1867. 
 
 Menaechmus, mg-nek'mus, [ MivaixfK, ] a Greek 
 sculptor, born at Naupactus, lived about 480 B.C. His 
 principal work was a statue, in gold and silver, of 
 Diana Laphyra at Calydon, in which he was assisted 
 by Soidas. 
 
 Menage, ma'ntzh', (Gillf.s,) a celebrated French 
 critic and scholar, born at Angers in 1613. He studied 
 law, and practised for a time in Paris, where he became 
 an advocate to the Parliament. He subsequently de- 
 voted himself entirely to literary pursuits, and his house 
 became the resort of the distinguished wits and writers 
 of the time, including Balzac, Sarrazin, and Madame 
 Rambouillet. He was patronized by Paul de Gondi, 
 afterwards Cardinal de Retz, whose favour he subse- 
 quently lost, owing to his arrogance and strong propen- 
 sity for satire. He was also involved in a literary feud 
 with Boileau, who has severely satirized him in one of 
 his poems, and with Moliere, who introduced him into 
 his " Fentmes savantes," in the character of Vadius. 
 His reputation rests principally on his "Etymological 
 Dictionary of the French Language," (1650,) which is 
 still esteemed a standard work. He also published a 
 number of poems in Latin, French, and Italian, and 
 a collection of witticisms, etc., entitled "Menagiana," 
 (1693,) which ranks among the best productions of the 
 kind. His " Request of the Dictionaries," a satire on 
 the Dictionary of the French Academy, is believed to 
 have been the cause of his exclusion from that institu- 
 tion. Died in 1692. 
 
 See Antoins Galland, "Menagiana," 1603; Bayle, "His- 
 torical and Critical Dictionary ;" " Memoires pour servir a la Vie de 
 Menage," prefixed to the " Menagiana," 1715 ; Morbri, " Diction- 
 naire Historique;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Menageot, ma'nS'zho', (Francois Guili.aume,) a 
 painter, of French extraction, born in London in 1744. 
 He studied in Paris under Vien and Boucher, and was 
 appointed director of the F"rench Academy at Rome in 
 1787. Among his works may l)e named "Time arrested 
 by Study," and "Diana seeking Adonis." Died in 1816. 
 
 Men'a-hem, [Heb. DrUO,] the son of Gadi, having 
 slain Shallum, King of Samaria, usurped his throne 
 and reigned ten years over that country. 
 
 See II. Kings xv. 14. 
 
 Me-nan'der, [Gr. Mevavipoc ; Fr. Menandre, ma'- 
 noNdR'; Ger. Menandros, ma-nan'di<os, ] a Greek 
 dramatic poet, born at Athens in 341 B.C., is called the 
 originator of the new comedy, giving representations of 
 actual life and manners. He enjoyed the highest repu 
 tation among his contemporaries, and is eulogized by 
 Julius Caesar, Plutarch, and other eminent men of anti- 
 quity. His dramas were very numerous, but they have 
 been lost, with the exception of the fragments preserved 
 in the works of several Greek writers. 
 
 See Clinton, "Fasti Hellenici r" K. O. MUli.er, "History 
 of Greek Literature;" Hauptmann, " De Menandro atque illius 
 Comcediis," 1743; G. Guizot, "Menandre; E*tude historique," 
 etc.. 1S55; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "London Quarterly 
 Review" for January, 1856. 
 
 Menander, a Macedonian general, was appointed 
 Governor of Lydia by Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. 
 He became a partisan of Antigonus, for whom he fought 
 against Eumenes in 320 B.C. 
 
 Menander, a Roman jurist under the reigns of 
 Severus and Caracalla. 
 
 Me-nan'der Pro-tec'tor, a Greek historian of the 
 sixth century, was one of the body-guard of the emperor 
 at Constantinople. He was the author of a " History 
 of the Eastern Empire from 559 to 582 a.d.," of which 
 only fragments are extant. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Grascis." 
 
 Menandre. See Menander. 
 
 Menandrino,-ma-nan-dRee'no, (MARSiLio,)an Italian 
 jurist, sometimes called Marsilius of Padua. He was 
 counsellor to Louis of Bavaria, for whom he wrote a 
 treatise entitled " Defender of the Peace," in support of 
 the authority of the emperor over the pope. For this 
 he was excommunicated by John XXII. Died in 1328. 
 
 Menandros. See Menander. 
 
 Menard, rna'ntu', (Claude,) a French writer, born 
 at Saumur about 1574, was the author of a "History of 
 Anjott," which is commended by Menage. He also edited 
 Joinville's " History of Saint Louis," and other works. 
 Died in 1652. 
 
 Menard, (J ean,) a French ecclesiastic and writer, born 
 at Nimes in 1637, was an intimate friend of Flechier. 
 Died in 1710. 
 
 Menard, (Leon,) a.French jurist and antiquary, born 
 at Tarascon in 1706. He wrote a "History of the City 
 of Nimes," a treatise "On the Manners and Customs of 
 the Greeks," and other works. He was a member of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1767. 
 
 See Le Beau, " Eloge de Menard," in the "Me'moires" of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions. 
 
 Menard, (Nicolas Hugues,) a French theologian 
 and pulpit orator, born in Paris in 1585, wrote several 
 religious and ecclesiastical works. Died in 1644. 
 
 Me'nas, [Gr. M)jvuc,] a freedman of Pompey the 
 Great and of his son, Sextus Pompey. He commanded 
 a fleet sent against Octavius, afterwards deserted Pom- 
 pey for the service of Octavius, and was slain (B.C. 35) 
 at the siege of Siscia. 
 
 Men-as'seh Ben Is'ra-el, an eminent Jewish 
 rabbi, born in Spain about 1604, studied in Holland, 
 and was appointed to explain the Talmud in the syn- 
 agogue at Amsterdam. He published a treatise " On 
 the Resurrection of the Dead," and a work on the Pen- 
 tateuch, entitled "Conciliador nel Pentateucho," which 
 was recommended by Grotius to students of theology. 
 Died in 1659. 
 
 Mencius, men'she-us, the Latinized form of Meng- 
 Tse, meng'tseh', or ~Meng-Tseu, meng'tsuh', (named 
 also Meng-Kho, in his youth,) was, after Confucius, the 
 most celebrated of all the Chinese philosophers. He 
 was born in the little state of Tsow, (or Tsou,) which 
 
 a, 6, i, 0, 0, y, long; 4, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 8, Q, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ME NCI US 
 
 1567 
 
 MENCIUS 
 
 was subsequently included in the kingdom of Loo, and 
 in the modern province of Shan-Toong, (or Shan-Tung,) 
 about 370 years before Christ : he was, therefore, a con- 
 temporary of Plato and Aristotle. He lost his father in 
 his early childhood. To his mother, who appears to have 
 been a woman of rare intelligence and worth, he was 
 indebted, in a great measure, not merely for his inclina- 
 tion towards learning and philosophy, but also for that 
 fure and lofty virtue for which he was so distinguished, 
 t is related that after the death of her husband she re- 
 sided for a short time near a butcher's shop, but, fearing 
 that the frequent sight of scenes of blood might harden 
 and deprave the heart of her son, she removed to another 
 abode. This happened to be near a cemetery, and young 
 Mencius amused himself with acting the various scenes 
 which he witnessed at the tombs. "This," said his 
 mother to herself, "is no place for my son." She again 
 changed her dwelling, and took a house in the market- 
 place. But here he soon began to play the part of a 
 salesman, vaunting his wares and chaffering with cus- 
 tomers. The watchful and anxious mother was not yet 
 satisfied. At last she found a house close by a school. 
 Her son's attention was attracted by the various studies 
 and exercises which he saw pursued in the school, and a 
 desire for learning was awakened in his mind. Soon 
 after she sent him to the school ; and he is said to have 
 distinguished himself by the quickness of his intellect, 
 and subsequently by his earnest application to study. 
 The following story may serve to show his mother's con- 
 scientious watchfulness in regard to the moral education 
 of her son. Seeing a butcher killing pigs, he asked her 
 what that was done for. She replied rather thoughtlessly, 
 (as it appears,) "It is to furnish you with food." Her 
 conscience at once reproved her for saying what was not 
 strictly true, and, anxious not to set him an example of 
 untruthfulness, she went and bought some pork in order 
 to make good her words. One day when he returned 
 home from school, she looked up from the web which 
 she happened to be weaving, and asked him how he was 
 getting on. He answered, carelessly, that he was doing 
 well enough, whereupon she took a knife and cut through 
 her web. Alarmed, he inquired what she meant. She 
 then showed him that she had only done what he was 
 doing : she had lost her labour and thrown away the time 
 she had spent in weaving the web, he also was throwing 
 away his precious time through neglect of his studies. 
 The lesson was not lost upon him, and did not need to 
 be repeated. 
 
 Some writers represent Mencius as having studied 
 under Tseu-sse, (or Tsze-sze,) the grandson of Confucius. 
 But this is scarcely possible, since Tseu-sse, had he been 
 living, would have been more than a hundred years old 
 when Mencius was born. It is, however, certain that he 
 diligently studied the writings of Confucius, to the neglect 
 of whose precepts he attributed the miserable state of 
 things which he saw everywhere around him, faith and 
 justice being disregarded, the bonds of society breaking 
 asunder, and the whole empire hastening to decay. He 
 resolved to devote his life to correcting these evils and 
 restoring, so far as it lay in his power, the virtues of the 
 primitive ages. 
 
 Although Mencius considered himself a follower of 
 Confucius, yet in his mode of instruction, and especially 
 in his behaviour towards those rulers who sought his 
 counsel, he differed materially from his master. In his 
 reasoning, if less grave than Confucius, he displayed 
 more art and more acuteness. His method, indeed, was 
 not unlike the dialectic of Socrates ; he pushed his ad- 
 versary from one admission to another, until he obliged 
 him either to confess his defeat or else to maintain the 
 most obvious and palpable absurdities. In his inter- 
 course with kings he was more bold and severe than 
 Confucius, both in exposing folly and denouncing injus- 
 tice and oppression. Mencius appears to have been 
 held in great respect by most of the Chinese princes to 
 whom his fame had penetrated. It is not known at what 
 time in his life he first began to teach publicly ; but we are 
 told that when he felt that he was sufficiently conversant 
 with the doctrines and precepts of the great teachers 
 of Chinese philosophy, he commenced his travels for the 
 purpose of offering his counsels to the different petty 
 
 sovereigns who ruled in the states adjacent or neighbour- 
 ing to Loo. But, although he seems to have enjoyed 
 more consideration than Confucius had done, he was 
 scarcely more successful in carrying into practice his 
 ideal plans of government. His theory of morals was 
 too high and difficult for human nature in its ordinary 
 condition. He appears not to have succeeded in a single 
 instance in prevailing on any of the princes to embrace 
 and consistently carry out his principles ; and accordingly 
 he had little inducement to continue at any of the courts 
 longer than was necessary in order to make a fair trial 
 of what his influence could effect. He is said to have 
 passed the last twenty years of his life in the more con- 
 genial society of his disciples, and in writing those works 
 by which he has perhaps exerted a greater influence on 
 after-ages than he did upon that in which he lived. He 
 is supposed to have died at an advanced age about 290 
 B.C. According to Dr. Legge, he died 288 u.c. ; some 
 other authorities, however, piace the date of his death 
 many years earlier. The descendants of Mencius, like 
 those of Confucius, constitute at the present day a class 
 of what may be termed hereditary nobles, — the only 
 hereditary nobility in China. 
 
 One of the chief doctrines of Mencius was that man is 
 naturally good, although he admitted that by far the 
 greater part of mankind had, through unfavourable cir- 
 cumstances or influences, become perverted. He says 
 the way in which a man loses his natural goodness is 
 like the way in which trees are deprived by the wood- 
 man of their branches and foliage. And if they still 
 send forth some buds and sprouts, then come the cattle 
 and goats and browse upon them. As in the tree all 
 appearance of life and beauty is destroyed, so in man, 
 after a long exposure to evil influences, all traces of 
 native goodness seem to be obliterated. But he main- 
 tains that there is an original power of goodness in the 
 race, and that all men may, if they will, become like 
 Yao and Shun, two of the early sages and kings, who 
 were pre-eminent for their virtue. -A distinguished 
 Chinese scholar says the great object of Mencius, in his 
 writings, is to rectify men's hearts. "If a man once 
 rectify his heart," says Mencius, "little else will remain 
 for him to do." In another place he says, " The great or 
 superior man is he who does not lose his child's heart," 
 an expression which vividly recalls those beautiful lines 
 of the great German poet, — 
 
 " W0I1I dem der frei von Schuld und Fehle 
 Bewahrt die kindlich reine Seele."* 
 
 It is evident, however, that, owing to his sanguine and 
 ardent nature, or to some other cause, Mencius did not 
 very fully realize the exceeding difficulty of "rectifying 
 one's heart." Yet Confucius, who was regardeel by 
 Mencius as the most perfect of human beings, recognized 
 this great but melancholy truth, when he said it was 
 only at the age of seventy that " he could follow what 
 his heart desired without transgressing what was right." 
 ("Analects," book ii.) 
 
 Confucius had always inculcated the reciprocal obli- 
 gation between kings and subjects. Mencius, without 
 denying the general obligation of obedience on the part 
 of subjects, taught nevertheless that among the various 
 elements in a state "the people are the most important 
 element, and the sovereign the least important ;" and 
 he did not hesitate to draw the legitimate inference from 
 such a position that a bad sovereign ought to be de- 
 throned, and even slain, if his life should endanger or in 
 any way interfere with the public good. 
 
 The distinguished Orientalist Remusat, in drawing a 
 comparison between Confucius and Mencius, says the 
 former "is always grave, and even austere; he exalts 
 men of virtue of whom he presents an ideal portrait; 
 he speaks of bad men only with a cool indignation. 
 Mencius, with the same love of virtue, seems to feel 
 for vice rather contempt than abhorrence. He assails 
 it with the force of argument ; he does not disdain to 
 even employ against it the weapons of ridicule." Men- 
 cius combined a certain modesty with a just and manly 
 appreciation of himself. He seemed greatly surprised 
 
 ' Happy he who, free from sin and fault, 
 Preserves the pure childlike soul." 
 
 Schiller's Kranickt dtt Ibic-us. 
 
 e as k, c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; y, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; %h as in this. (£^=*See Explanations, p. 23.J 
 
MENCKE 
 
 1568 
 
 MENDOZA 
 
 when one of his disciples was disposed to rank him as a 
 sage; yet he said on another occasion, "When sages 
 shall rise up again, they will not change my words." He 
 believed that he was appointed by Heaven to uphold or 
 restore the doctrines of the ancient sages, such as Yao, 
 Shun, and Confucius. Han-Yu, a celebrated Chinese 
 critic, says, " If we wish to study the doctrines of the 
 sages, we must begin with Mencius. ... It is owing to 
 his words that learners nowadays still know to revere 
 Confucius, to honour benevolence and righteousness, to 
 esteem the true sovereign, and to despise the mere 
 pretender." We have already noticed some of the lead- 
 ing opinions of Mencius. The following are a few of his 
 most characteristic sayings : " I love life ; I also love 
 righteousness. If I cannot keep both, I will let life go, 
 and choose righteousness." (The Works of Mencius, 
 book vi. chap, x.) "There is a nobility of Heaven, and 
 there is a nobility of man. Benevolence, righteousness, 
 self-consecration, and fidelity, with unwearied joy in these 
 virtues, —these constitute the nobility of Heaven." (Book 
 vi. chap, xvi.) " Benevolence subdues its opposite, just 
 as water subdues fire. Those, however, who practise 
 Denevolence nowadays do it as if with one cup of water 
 tney could save a whole wagon-load of fuel on fire, and, 
 when the flames are not extinguished, should say that 
 water cannot subdue fire. This conduct, moreover, greatly 
 encourages those who are not benevolent." (Book vi. 
 chap, xviii.) " There is no greater delight than to be 
 conscious of sincerity on self-examination." (Book vii. 
 chap, iv.) Kung-Sun-Chow said to Mencius that his 
 principles were admirable, but they were too difficult 
 and lofty for ordinary minds, and asked him why he did 
 not adapt his teachings to the capacity of the learners. 
 He replied, "A great artificer does not, for the sake of a 
 stupid workman, alter or do away with the marking-line." 
 (Book vii. chap, xli.) 
 
 See the excellent notice of Mencius prefixed to the works of that 
 philosopher, in the second volume of Dr. Legge's "Chinese Clas- 
 sics," Hong-Kong, 1861; also Pauthier's "Chine," pp. 187-193; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." article "Mencius," by Leon 
 Rosnv ; " Les quatre Livres de Philosophic, Morale et Politique de 
 la Chins," translated by G. Pauthier, Paris, 1851 ; the Chinese 
 Classical Works, translated by the late Rev, David C01.UE, Malacca 
 Mission Press, 1828 ; Stanislaus Jui.ihn's translation (into Latin) 
 of the Works of Mencius, Paris, 1824 ; " Confucius and the Chinese 
 Classics," (book iv.,) by Rev. A. W. Loomis, San Francisco, 1867. 
 
 Mencke, mSnk'keh, (Friedrich Otto,) a German 
 scholar and writer, son of Johann Burkhard, noticed 
 below, was born at Leipsic in 1708. He became pro- 
 fessor of history at Leipsic in 1732. Among his works 
 is a "Life of Angelo Poliziano," (in Latin, 1736.) Died 
 in 1754. 
 
 Mencke, (Johann Burkhard,) born at Leipsic in 
 1675, became in 1708 historiographer to Frederick 
 Augustus, King of Poland. He published, in Latin, 
 "Two Orations on the Charlatanry of the Learned," 
 (1715,) and a work entitled " Writers of German His- 
 tory," (3 vols., 1728-30.) The former caused a great 
 sensation, and was translated into several foreign lan- 
 guages. Mencke also wrote a number of poems, and, 
 after the death of his father, conducted the "Acta Eru- 
 ditorum." Died in 1732. 
 
 See R. Treitschke, " B. Mencke, Professor der Geschichte zu 
 Leipzig," 1842; JGcher, " Gelehrten-Lexikon." 
 
 Mencke, (Otto,) a learned German, the father of 
 the preceding, born at Oldenburg in 1644. He became 
 professor of moral philosophy at Leipsic. In 1682 he 
 founded the first literary ahd scientific journal published 
 in Germany. It was entitled "Acta Eruditorum," and 
 numbered among its contributors Leibnitz and other 
 eminent savants. Died in 1707. 
 
 See Seligmann. " Leichenpredigt auf O. Mencken," 1707 ; NlCB- 
 RON, " Memoires." 
 
 Mendafia de Neyra, men-daVyi da na'e-ra 1 , (Al- 
 varo,) a Spanish navigator, born in 1541, sailed on a 
 voyage to the Pacific 1111567, and discovered between 
 7° and 12 south latitude the islands of Saint Chris- 
 topher, Isabella, and Guadalcanal He discovered in 
 1595 the isles since called by Admiral Byron the Dan- 
 gerous Islands, and the large island of Santa Cruz, to 
 which Carteret gave the name of Egmont in 1767. He 
 also established a colony at Bahia Graciosa. The part 
 
 of Australasia which includes the Marquesas has been 
 named the MendaSa Archipelago. Died in 1595. 
 
 See De Brosses, " Histoire des Navigations aux Terres australes," 
 1756- 
 
 Mendelssohn, men'dels-son', (Moses,) an eminent 
 philosopher, born at Dessau, in Germany, in 1729, was 
 the son of a Jewish schoolmaster. In consequence of 
 the limited means of his family, he owed his early educa- 
 tion chiefly to his own exertions. In 1745 he repaired 
 to Berlin, where he applied himself to the study of 
 mathematics and the philosophy of Wolf and Leibnitz. 
 In 1754 he formed an intimate friendship with Lessing, 
 in conjunction with whom he afterwards wrote the treat- 
 ise entitled " Pope a Metaphysician." He next pub- 
 lished his "Letters on the Sensations," and in 1767 his 
 " Phasdo, a Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul." 
 The latter work was received with great favour, and was 
 translated into the principal languages of Europe. Men- 
 delssohn was one of the most profound thinkers of his 
 time, and was highly esteemed by his contemporaries for 
 the excellence of his character, as well as his intellectual 
 endowments. Died in 1786. 
 
 See Mirabeau, " Sur M. Mendelssohn," etc., 1787; "Memoirl 
 
 of Moses Mendelssohn," by M. Samuels: Winckler, " Notice sur 
 
 M. Mendelssohn," 1708 ; Heinemann, " M. Mendelssohn," 1819 ; 
 
 J. A. L. Richter, "M. Mendelssohn als Mensch," etc., 1829; 
 
 Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Meudelssohn-Bartholdy, men'dels-son' baR-tol'- 
 dee, (Felix,) an eminent German composer, born at 
 Hamburg in 1809, was a grandson of the preceding. At 
 an early age he manifested extraordinary musical talent, 
 which received the most elaborate culture under Zelter 
 and Ludwig Berger. He performed with brilliant suc- 
 cess in Berlin and Paris before he had completed his 
 tenth year, and in 1827 he brought out at Berlin his 
 "Overture to the Midsummer Night's Dream" and his 
 opera of " The Wedding of Camacho." He subsequently 
 visited London and Paris, where the "Overture" above 
 named was received with enthusiasm. After his leturn 
 to Germany, he was appointed, in 1835, director of the 
 Gewandhaus concerts at Leipsic. In 1836 he brought 
 out his oratorio of " Saint Paul," at Dusseldorf and 
 Leipsic, and the following year at Birmingham, Eng- 
 land. His " Elijah," an oratorio, performed at the Bir- 
 mingham Festival in 1846, caused a greater sensation 
 in the musical world than had been known in England 
 since the days of Handel. Subsequently, Mendelssohn's 
 health, which had been some time declining, failed 
 rapidly, and he died soon after his return to Germany, 
 in November, 1847. Among the more important of his 
 other compositions, we may name the overtures of 
 "Fingal's Cave," "A Calm Sea and Happy Voyage," 
 (" Meeresstille und gliickliche Fahrt,") and "The Beau- 
 tiful Melusina," (" Die schone Melusine,") besides a 
 great number of cantatas and instrumental pieces. His 
 " Songs without Words" are particularly admired. As a 
 musician and composer, he is esteemed second only to 
 Handel and Mozart. 
 
 See Julius Benedict. "Life and Works of F. Meudelssohn- 
 Bartholdy," 1850; W. A. Lampaimus, " Life of Felix Meudelssohn- 
 Bartholdy," 1865 ; F^tis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" 
 V. Magnibn, "HJtude biographique sur Mendelssohn- Barlholdy," 
 1850; " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1848, by Mrs. Austin; 
 " British Quarterly Review" for October, 1862. 
 
 Mendez Pinto. See Pinto. 
 
 Mendizabal, y, e men-de-thl-bal', (Don Juan Al- 
 varez,) a Spanish statesman, of Jewish extraction, born 
 at Cadiz about 1790. Having amassed a large fortune 
 by trade, he rose to be minister of finance in 1835. Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 Mendoca or Mendoza, de, di men-do'si, (Andrea 
 Hurtado,) a Portuguese naval commander, who ren- 
 dered great services to his country by clearing the South 
 Seas of pirates and thus protecting the Portuguese es- 
 tablishments in the East Indies. Died about 1606. 
 
 Mendoza, de, da men-do'thj, (Antonio Hurtado,) 
 a Spanish writer, born about 1590, was appointed private 
 secretary to Philip IV. He wrote a number of popular 
 dramas, also lyric poems and prose works. Died in 1644. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Mendoza, de, (Antonio Sarmiento,) a Spanish 
 writer, a native of Burgos, lived about 1630. He trans- 
 lated Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered" into Spanish. 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fJt; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MENDOZJ 
 
 1569 
 
 MENESTHEUS 
 
 Mendoza, de, (Don Bernardino,) a Spanish his- 
 torian and diplomatist, was employed by Philip II. in 
 several missions to France and England. He had a 
 prominent share, while in Krance, in the formation of the 
 Catholic League. He was the author of a "History of 
 the Netherlands from 1567 to 1577," and a treatise " On 
 the Theory and Practice of War." 
 
 See Motley, " History of the United Netherlands." vol. i. chap, 
 iii. ; C.M-KKKiL'E, " Histoire de la ReYorme et la Ligue." 
 
 Mendoza, de, (Diego Hurtado,) a celebrated Span- 
 ish writer, soldier, and diplomatist, born at Granada in 
 1503, was a grandson of the Marquis de Santillana, 
 noticed below. He studied at Salamanca, and distin- 
 guished himself by his attainments in the classics, 
 theology, and civil and canon law. He was afterwards 
 patronized by Charles V., who sent him in 1538 on an 
 embassy to Venice. While in this post, he devoted him- 
 self to the collection of Greek and Latin manuscripts, of 
 which he acquired a great number, comprising works of 
 Saint Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Archimedes. They 
 were subsequently ceded to the Library of the Escurial. 
 He was soon after appointed by the emperor ambassador 
 at Rome and governor of Sienna. Having returned to 
 Spain in 1554, he incurred the displeasure of Philip II., 
 who banished him from court. He devoted himself 
 thenceforth to literary pursuits, and published in 1610 
 his " History of the Wars against the Moors," ("Guerra 
 de Granada contra los Moriscos.") This work, which 
 has taken its place among Spanish classics, is charac- 
 terized by great accuracy and impartiality, and is esteemed 
 the best imitation of the Latin historians in modern lite- 
 rature. He was also the author of a number of poems, 
 and the celebrated comic romance of " Lazarillo de 
 Tonnes," (1554,) in which he originated the so-called 
 Picaresque school of fiction, afterwards followed by Le 
 Sage in his "Gil Bias." "Mendoza," says Prcscott, "by 
 the brilliant success which he achieved as a statesman, 
 a diplomatist, a novelist, a poet, and a historian, has 
 established a reputation for versatility of genius second 
 to none in the literature of Spain." Died in 1575. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" Sismondi, 
 "Histoire des Republiques Italiennes;" Prescott, " History of 
 Philip II.;" Longfellow. "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" N. 
 Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova;" Bouterwek, "Histoire 
 de la Literature Espagnole;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale:" 
 Notice of "Lazarillo de Tormes" in the "Retrospective Review," 
 vol. ii., 1820. 
 
 Mendoza, de, (Inigo Lopez.) See Mondejar, Mar- 
 quis de. 
 
 Mendoza, de, (Inigo Lopez,) Marquis de Santillana, 
 (da san-tel-ya'na,) a Spanish poet, born in 1398, was a 
 friend of Juan de Mena and the Marquis de Villena, and 
 one of the most brilliant writers of the court of John II. 
 He is said to have introduced the sonnet into Spanish 
 poetry. Among his best works is an "Elegy on the 
 Marquis de Villena." Mendoza was also a distinguished 
 soldier, and was created a marquis as a reward for his 
 services at the battle of Olmedo, (1445.) Died in 1458. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature :" Bouterwek, 
 " Geschichte der Spanische Poesie und Beredtsamkeit ;" Longfel- 
 low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Mendoza, de, (Juan Gonzalez,) a Spanish mission- 
 ary, born at Toledo about 1540. He visited China in 
 1580, and subsequently South America and Mexico. 
 He died as Bishop of popayan in New Granada, (1617.) 
 He was the author of a " History of the Great Kingdom 
 of China," (1586,) which enjoys a high reputation and 
 has been translated into French. 
 
 Mendoza, de, (Don Pedro,) a wealthy Spaniard, 
 born at Cadiz about 1487. He offered his services, in 
 1529, to the emperor Charles V., to complete, at his own 
 expense, the exploration of the rivers La Plata and Para- 
 guay. Having been created by the emperor military 
 chief of the country adjacent to those rivers, he set sail 
 in 1534, and founded the city of Buenos Ayres in 1535. 
 He died soon after, while at sea on his return to Spain. 
 
 Mendoza, de, (Pedro Gonzalez,) a Spanish prelate 
 and statesman, called the Grand Cardinal, born in 
 1428. He enjoyed the favour of John II. and Henry 
 IV., and was created successively Bishop of Siguenza, 
 Chancellor of Castile and Leon, and cardinal, (1473.) 
 Under Ferdinand and Isabella he became Archbishop 
 
 of Toledo. He also distinguished himself in the Moorish 
 war, in which he held a command. He founded the 
 magnificent College of Santa Cruz at Valladolid, and a 
 hospital at Toledo. Died in 1495. 
 
 See Mariana, "Historia Hispanias ;" Salazar de Mendoza, 
 "Coronica del gran Cardinal de Espana," 1625. 
 
 Mendoza, de, (Pedro de Salazar,) a Spanish his- 
 torical writer, born at Toledo about 1550, published a 
 "Chronicle of the House of Ponce de Leon," (1620,) and 
 a "Chronicle of the Grand Cardinal of Spain, Pedro 
 Gonzalez de Mendoza," (1625.) Died in 1629. 
 
 Me-nec'ra-tes, [Gr. HcvsKpurr/c,] a physician who 
 made himself ridiculous by calling himself Jupiter. His 
 vanity was rebuked by Philip of Macedon, who in- 
 vited him to a banquet and offered him only incense 
 and libations. 
 
 Menedeme. See Menedemus. 
 
 Men-e-de'mus, [Gr. Mfrafy^oc ; Fr. Menedeme, 
 ma'na'd&m',] a Greek philosopher, born at Eretria in the 
 fourth century B.C. He was the founder of the school of 
 Eretria, and was a disciple of Plato and Stilpo. Died 
 about 277 B.C. 
 
 See C. Mallet, " Histoire de l'E*cole de Megare et d'firitrie ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Meneghelli, ma-na-gel'Iee, (Antonio Maria,) an 
 Italian litterateur, born in 1765, was professor of law at 
 Padua. Among his works is a "Life of Livy," (" Vita 
 di Tito Livid," 1835.) Died in 1844. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " La mia Vita," 1845. 
 
 Menelas. See Menei.aus. 
 
 Men-e-la'ns, [Gr. MtrtXaoc, Mevea«jc, or MeftAof ; Fr. 
 Menelas, m J'ni las', | a Grecian hero and king of Sparta, 
 was a son of Atreus. He and his brother Agamemnon 
 were called Atridae. He mairied the beautiful Helen, 
 who preferred him to all of her numerous suitors, but 
 afterwards eloped with Paris. At the siege of Troy, 
 which was the consequence of the abduction of Helen, 
 Menelaus behaved with great spirit and courage, and 
 fought a single combat with Paris, whom he was about 
 to vanquish, when Venus interposed and rescued him. 
 He was one of the daring band that entered Troy in 
 the wooden horse. On the capture of Troy he recov- 
 ered Helen, was reconciled to her, and, after a devious 
 voyage of several years, returned to Sparta. A temple 
 was erected in his honour at Therapne. 
 
 Menelaus, a celebrated mathematician and astrono- 
 mer of Alexandria, resided in Rome under the reign of 
 Trajan. His only extant work is a treatise on spherical 
 geometry, which was translated into Latin. 
 
 Me-ne'nI-us A-grip'pa, surnamed Lana'tus, a 
 Roman patrician and senator, was chosen consul in 
 503 B.C. He obtained a signal victory over the Sa- 
 bines, for which a triumph was decreed him. Through 
 his mediation the contest between the patricians and 
 the plebeians was appeased in 493. On this occasion 
 he related the fable of the belly and the members to 
 the plebeians. 
 
 Me'nei [Gr. Mf/v^f, or M^wc] was the first king of 
 Egypt, according to the traditions of that country. He 
 is said to have founded Memphis, and to have introduced 
 the worship of the gods. He lived probably 2000 B.C., 
 or earlier. 
 
 Meneses or Menezes, ma-na'sSs, (Aleixo,) a Por- 
 tuguese prelate, born at Lisbon in 1559, became Arch- 
 bishop of Goa, and in 1607 succeeded Alphonso de 
 Castro as Viceroy of the Indies. He was appointed 
 by Philip III. of Spain Viceroy of Portugal in 1614. 
 Died in 161 7. 
 
 See Veyssiere La Croze, " Histoire du Christianisme des 
 Indes. " 
 
 Meneses Osorio, ma-na'sSs o-so're-o, (Francisco,) 
 a Spanish painter, born at Seville in 1630, was one of 
 the most distinguished pupils of Murillo. Among his 
 master-pieces are "Saint Philip de Neri adoring the 
 Virgin," and " Saint Catherine." Died in 1 705. 
 
 Menesthee. See Menestheus. 
 
 Me-neVtheus, [Gr. Mweadevc ; Fr. Menesthee, mi', 
 nes'ti',] a semi-fabulous king of Athens, obtained the 
 throne in the absence of Theseus, who was the lawful 
 monarch. He commanded the Athenians in the Trojan 
 war. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MENESTHEUS 
 
 1570 
 
 MENTCHIKOF 
 
 Menestheus, [Meveofcvc,] an able Athenian general, 
 was a son of Iphicrates. lie was appointed commander 
 in the Social war, 356 B.C. He also commanded a naval 
 expedition against the Macedonians in 335 B.C. 
 
 Menestrier, nieh-nes'tue-a', (Claude Francois,) a 
 learned French ecclesiastic and antiquary, born at Lyons 
 in 1631. He was the author of numerous treatises on 
 heraldry, antiquities, and history, among which we may 
 name "On Ancient and Modern Chivalry," (1673,) "The 
 Origin of Armorial Bearings," (1679,) and "The Philos- 
 ophy of Images," (2 vols., 1682-83.) Died in 1705. 
 
 Meneatrier, Le, leh meh-nes'tRe-i', (Claude,) a 
 French antiquary, whose principal work is entitled 
 " Statue of the Symbolical Ephesian Diana Explained." 
 Died in 1639. 
 
 Menestrier, Le, (Jean Baptiste,) a French anti- 
 quary, born at Dijon in 1564, was the author of a work 
 entitled " Medals, Coins, and Antique Monuments of the 
 Roman Empresses," (1625.) Died in 1634. 
 
 Medieval, de, deh man'vSl', (Claude Francois,) 
 Baron, a French historian, born in Paris in 1778. During 
 the empire he served Napoleon as secretary, (secretaire 
 du portefeuille.) He wrote "Napoleon et Marie Louise, 
 Souvenirs historiques," (3 vols., 1843-45.) Died in 1850. 
 
 Menezes. See Meneses. 
 
 Menezes. See Ericeira. 
 
 Mengoli, raen'go-lee, (Pietro,) an Italian geometer, 
 born at Bologna in 1625 ; died in 1686. 
 
 Mengs, mengs, (Anton Rafael,) a celebrated Ger- 
 man painter, born at Aussig, in Bohemia, in 1728. He 
 was instructed by his father, with whom he resided several 
 years at Rome. On his return to Germany he was ap- 
 pointed court painter at Dresden, in 1744. While on a 
 second visit to Rome, he painted a " Holy Family," which 
 won for him a high reputation. The Madonna in this 
 picture was the portrait of a beautiful peasant-girl, whom 
 Mengs afterwards married, having become a Catholic 
 for her sake. He became in 1754 director of the Acad- 
 emy of Painting at Rome, and in 1757 he executed his 
 celebrated fresco of "Apollo and the Muses" in the villa 
 of Cardinal Albani On the invitation of Charles III. 
 of Spain, he repaired to Madrid, where he was appointed 
 first painter to the king, with a large salary. Here he 
 produced several of his master-pieces, among which we 
 may name his "Temple of Glory" and "Triumph of 
 Trajan" in the royal palace. He died at Rome in 1779. 
 Mengs is ranked among the best painters of his time, 
 his works being distinguished by great accuracy of de- 
 sign and neatness of execution, but they are censured 
 by critics as deficient in warmth and animation. 
 
 See Guiral, " FJoge historique de Mengs," 17S1; J. J. Ma- 
 rihtte. "Abecedario ;" Bianconi, " Elngio storico di R. Mengs," 
 17S0; Nagler, "AUgemeines Kunstler-Lexikou." 
 
 Meng-Tae or Meng-Tseu. See Mencius. 
 
 Meail-Durand, de, deh ma'nel' dii'r&N', (FranQOIS 
 Jean de Graindorge d'Orgeville — gRaN'doRzh' 
 doRzh'vel',) Baron, a French officer, born at Lisieux 
 in 1729, published a number of works on military tactics. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 Meninaki, meh-naN'ske', (Franqois de Mescnien,) 
 a French Orientalist, whose original name was Menin, 
 born in Lorraine in 1623. Having accompanied the 
 Polish ambassador to Constantinople, he became inter- 
 preter to the embassy, and subsequently ambassador. 
 He was appointed in 1671 first interpreter of Oriental 
 languages at the court of Vienna. His principal work 
 is a " Dictionary of Oriental Languages," ("Thesaurus 
 Linguarum Orientalium," 3 vols., 1680,) which is highly 
 esteemed. Died in 1698. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Menippe. See Menippus. 
 
 Me-ni'p'pua, [Gr. Msvikkoc ; Fr. Menippe, ma'nep',] 
 a Cynic philosopher and poet, was a native of Phoenicia, 
 and lived probably about 60 B.C. Having amassed a 
 large fortune by usury, he destroyed himself in con- 
 sequence of having been robbed of his treasures. He 
 was the author of numerous satires, none of which are 
 extant. Varro is said to have imitated the style of Menip- 
 pus. He is also mentioned by Lucian in his " Dialogues." 
 
 See Varro, " Salirse Menippeae;" J. F. Ley, "Dissertatio de 
 Vita Scriptisque Menippi Cynici," 1843. 
 
 Menippus, a Greek geographer under the reign of 
 Augustus, was a native' of Pergamus, in Asia Minor. 
 
 See " Menippos der Geograph aus Pergamon," etc., 1841, by 
 Grotbfenu and Ulriciis. 
 
 Menippus of Stratonice, an eminent Greek rheto- 
 rician, renowned throughout Asia for his eloquence. He 
 is highly commended by Cicero in his " Brutus." 
 
 Mennander, men iian'der, (Carl Fredrik, ) a 
 learned Swedish prelate, born at Stockholm in 1712. 
 lie became Bishop of Abo, in Finland, and subsequently 
 Archbishop of Upsal, (1775.) Died in 1786. 
 
 Menuechet, men'shl', (Edouard,) a French litti- 
 rateur, born at Nantes in 1794. He produced odes, 
 dramas, and " Le Plutarque Francais," a collection of 
 lives of eminent Frenchmen, (8 vols.) Died in 1845. 
 
 Mennes, nienz, (Sir John,) an English poet and 
 royalist, born in Kent in 1591 ; died in 1671. 
 
 Menno, men'no, [Fr. Mennon, ma'nd.N',] (Simonis,) 
 the founder of the sect of Mennonites, was born in Fries- 
 land in 1496. His doctrines resembled in some points 
 those of the Anabaptists, but were free from the absurd- 
 ities and excesses of the latter. The Mennonites were 
 included in the prescriptive edicts of the emperor Charles 
 V. in 1540, and a price was set on the head ot their 
 founder. Menno died in 1561. His followers settled in 
 England, Holland, and North America, and are every- 
 where favourably known for their virtues and industry. 
 
 See Muli.ek, "Cimbria Literata." 
 
 Mennon. See Menno. 
 
 Menochio, ma-no'ke-o, [Lat. Meno'chius,] (Gio- 
 vanni Stefano,) a learned Italian Jesuit and theologian, 
 born at Pavia in 1576. He became rector of the colleges 
 of his order at Rome and M6dena. His principal work 
 is a commentary on the Scriptures, entitled " Brevis Ex- 
 positio Sensus literalis totius Scriptural," (2 vols., 1630.) 
 Died in 1655. 
 
 Menochio, (Jacopo,) an Italian jurist, father of the 
 preceding, was born at Pavia in 1532. He was appointed 
 a president of the Council of Milan by Philip II. of 
 Spain. He wrote several valuable legal treatises, in 
 Latin. Died in 1607. 
 
 Menochius. See Menochio. 
 
 Me-nod'o-tua, [Gr. Mrivodoroc,] a Greek physician of 
 Nicomedia, lived probably about 100 a.d. He belonged 
 to the sect of Empirici. He wrote a medical work, 
 which Erasmus translated into Latin. 
 
 Mencetiua, me-nee'shejis, [Gr. Meromoc,] a son of 
 Actor, and father of Patroclus, took part in the Argo- 
 nautic expedition. 
 
 Me'non, [Gr. Mevuv,] a Thessalian general, who 
 served in the Lamian war against the Macedonians. He 
 and Antiphilus were defeated by Antipater at Cranon in 
 322 B.C. He was killed in battle in 321 B.C. 
 
 Meuon de Turbilly, de, deh meh-nAN' deh tuV- 
 be'ye', (Louis Franqois Henri,) Marquis, a French 
 agricultural writer, born near La Fleche in 1712, wrote a 
 "Treatise on Clearing Land." Died in 1776. 
 
 Menou, de, deh meh-noo', (Jacques Francois,) 
 Baron, a French general, born in Touraine in 1750. 
 He served in the republican army in the Vendean cam- 
 paign of 1793, and in 1795 commanded the National 
 Guard which suppressed the insurrection in the Fau- 
 bourg Saint-Antoine. As general of division, he accom- 
 panied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798, and on the death of 
 Kleber was invested with the chief command. In 1801 
 he was besieged in Alexandria by Sir Ralph Abercrom- 
 bie, to whom he was obliged to capitulate. After his 
 return to France, in 1802, he was appointed by Napo- 
 leon Governor of Piedmont, and subsequently of Venice. 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 See Thiers. " History of the Consulate and of the Empire ;" De 
 Courceu.es, " Dictionuaire des GeneVaux Francais;" "Nouvelle 
 Hio^raphie GineVale." 
 
 Ment'chl-kof, written also Mentschikow, Ment- 
 schikof, and Meiichikof, (Alexander Danielo- 
 VITCH,) Prince, a celebrated Russian statesman and 
 general, born at Moscow about 1670, was the son of a 
 pastry-cook. His talents procured for him at an early 
 age the notice and favour of Peter the Great, and, having 
 served with great distinction in several campaigns against 
 the Swedes, he was created a field-marshal after the battle 
 
 a, e, t, o, u, y, long; 4, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m5t; nflt; good; moon; 
 
MENTCHIKOF 
 
 '571 
 
 MER CER 
 
 of Pultava, (1709.) He was also made a prince of the 
 empire, and governor-general of Saint Petersburg, and 
 obtained from the King of Prussia the decoration of the 
 Black Eagle. On the death of Peter (1725) Mentchikof 
 caused the empress-dowager to be proclaimed empress, 
 under the title of Catherine I., and appointed a council 
 of regency for the son of Alexis, afterwards Peter II. 
 The latter, becoming weary of the insolence of Mentchi- 
 kof, caused him to be arrested for his abuse of power, 
 and exiled to Siberia, where he uied in two years, (1729.) 
 
 See M. Ranft, " Leben cles beriilimten Fiirsten Mentschikow," 
 1774; " Leben trad Toctl des Fiirsten Menzikoff," 1730; Voltairk, 
 "llistnire de Russie sous Pierre le Grand;" "Anecdotes secretes 
 de la Cotir du Czar," 17S0. 
 
 Mentchikof, (Alexander Sergeivitch,) a Russian 
 admiral, great-grandson of the preceding, born in 1789. 
 Soon after the accession of the emperor Nicholas, he 
 was sent as ambassador-extraordinary to Persia. He 
 was appointed Governor-General of Finland in 1831, 
 and was subsequently created an admiral and minister 
 of the marine. In the Crimean war he was charged with 
 the defence of Sevastopol, and was defeated at the Alma 
 by the allies in September, 1854. Hied in May, 1869. 
 
 See Deskssarts, *' Portraits des Homines de la Guerre de 
 |H)rient;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Mentel, m&x'teY, (Jacques,) a French physician, 
 born at Chateau-Thierri in 1597, wrote a Latin work in 
 which he claims the invention of printing for John Men- 
 tel of Strasburg. Died in 1671. 
 
 Mentel, men'tel, or Mentelin, men'teh-leen', (Jo- 
 hann,) the first printer of Strasburg, born at Schelestadt 
 about 1410, is said to have been instructed in his art by 
 Gutenberg. He printed in 1473 the " Specula" of Vin- 
 cent de lieauvais, (10 vols, fol.) Mentel was ennobled 
 by the emperor Frederick III. Died in 147S. 
 
 See Laboroe, "Debuts de l'lmprimerie a Strasbourg," 1840; 
 Jacques Mentel, "De vera Typographic Origine," 1650. 
 
 Mentelle, ni6s't81', (Edmk.,) born in Paris in 1730, 
 was the author of a "Selection of Geographical and 
 Historical Lectures," (6 vols., 1783,) and other similar 
 works. He was a member of the French Institute. 
 Died in 181 5. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire ;" Salm-Dyck, "Notice 
 sur la Vie de Mentelle," 1839. 
 
 Men'tor, [Gr. Mevrup,] a wise and faithful friend of 
 Ulysses, King of Ithaca, who, on his departure to the 
 siege of Troy, intrusted to him the care of his house. 
 Minerva is said to have assumed the form of Mentor, 
 and to have accompanied Telemachus in his travels. 
 (See "Odyssey," books ii., Hi., and iv.) Minerva, as 
 Mentor, performs a conspicuous part in Fenelon's cele- 
 brated romance of " Telemaque." 
 
 Mentor, a Greek artist of the time of Pericles, was 
 celebrated for his exquisite chased work in gold and 
 silver. His productions are eulogized in the highest 
 terms by Pliny, Cicero, and Martial, and Crassus is said 
 to have paid 100,000 sesterces for one of his goblets. 
 
 Mentor, a Greek general, and a brother of Memnon. 
 He entered the service of the Persian king Artaxerxes 
 Ochus about 350 B.C., and led a successful expedition 
 against the Egyptians. By treachery he obtained pos- 
 session of Hermias, (a friend of Aristotle,) whom he 
 delivered to King Artaxerxes. 
 
 Mentzel, 111811 t'sel, (Christian,) a German naturalist 
 and philologist, born at Fiiistenwald in 1622. He pub- 
 lished " Kurze Chinesischen Chronologic" ("Chinese 
 Chronology Abridged," 1696,) and several botanical 
 works. Died in 1701. 
 
 Menu. See Manu. 
 
 Menu de Chomorceau, meh-nu' deb sho'moR'so', 
 [JEAN Eiiennk,) a French litterateur, born in 1724, 
 wtote a heroic poem entitled " Renaud," in imitation of 
 Tasso. Died in 1S02. 
 
 Menuret de Chambaud, meh-nu'rS' deh shoN'bo', 
 (Jean Jacques,) a French physician, born at Monteli- 
 mart in 1733. He contributed several valuable articles 
 to the " Encyclopedic" of Diderot. Died in 1815. 
 
 Menzel, ment'sel, (Adoi.imi,) a German painter, born 
 at Breslau in 181 5. Among his principal works may be 
 named " Frederick the Great at Sans-Souci," (in oil.) 
 
 Menzel, (Fkiedrich Wii.iii ELM,) a German, born 
 about 1 726, was private secretary at the court of Saxony. 
 
 1 Taving revealed to the Russian ambassador the secret 
 correspondence between Russia, Saxony, and Austria, 
 he was imprisoned at Konigstein, where he died, after a 
 captivity of thirty-three years, in 1796. 
 
 Menzel, (Karl Adolpii,) a German historian, born 
 at Griinberg in 1784, was the author of a " History of 
 Germany till the Reformation," (1815,) and a "Modern 
 History of Germany from the Reformation to the Act 
 of Confederation," (14 vols., 1848,) both of which are 
 highly esteemed. Died in 1855. 
 
 Menzel, (Wolfgang,) a German critic and litterateur, 
 born at Waldenburg, in Silesia, in 1798. He became a 
 resident of Stuttgart about 1825, and edited the " Litera- 
 turblatt" for many years. He attacked the old German 
 school and the disciples of Goethe. Among his nume- 
 rous works are a "History of Germany," (1824--25,) 
 " German Literature," (" Die Deutsche Literatur," 2 
 vols., 1828,) and a historical romance called " Furore," 
 (3 vols., 1851.) 
 
 See L. Wienbarg, "Menzel und die Junge Literatur,' 1S35; L. 
 Borne, " Menzel der Franzosenfresser," 1S44 ; " Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" for October, 1835; " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 
 1840. 
 
 Menzies, m8n'z4z, (Archibald,) a Scottish bota- 
 nist, born in Perthshire about 1754. He served as as- 
 sistant surgeon in the navy. Died in 1842. 
 
 Menzini, men-zee'nee, (Benedetto,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Florence in 1646. He visited Rome in 1685, 
 and obtained the patronage of Christina of Sweden, then 
 residing in that city. . His poems are chiefly sonnets, 
 hymns, and satires, which have a high reputation. His 
 " Arte Poetica" especially ranks among the classics of 
 the language. Died in 1704. 
 
 See Paolucci, "Vita di B. Menzini," 1732; Fabroni, "Vitas 
 Italorum doclrina excellentium ;" TtRABOSCHt, " Storia della Let- 
 teratura Italiana;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." - 
 
 Menzocchi. See MinzoCchi. 
 
 Merat, ma'rS', (Francois Victor,) a French medical 
 writer and botanist, born in Paris in 1780; died in 1851. 
 
 Mercadante, meR-ka-dan'ta, (Saverio,) an Italian 
 composer, born at Altamura in 1798, produced a num- 
 ber of popular operas, among which we may name 
 " Elisae Claudio," " Didone," and "The Two Illustrious 
 Rivals." He was appointed in 1839 director of the Con- 
 servatory of Music at Naples. Died in 1870. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universale des Musicieus." 
 
 Mercati, mJR-k.Vtee, or Mercado, m8it-ka'do, (Mi- 
 CHELE,),an Italian naturalist, born in Tuscany in 1541, 
 became physician to Pope Clement VIII. He formed a 
 valuable collection of minerals, which was placed in the 
 Museum of the Vatican, and of which he wrote a de- 
 scription entitled " Metallothcca," etc., (1717.) Died in 
 
 1593- 
 
 See NtcERov, " Me"moires ;" Magelli, "Vita di Mercati," pre- 
 fixed to his " Melallotheca." 
 
 Mercator. See Isidore Mercator. 
 
 Mer-ca'tor, [Dutch pron. meR-ka'tor,] (Gerard,) a 
 celebrated geographer and mathematician, born at Rupel- 
 monde, in East Flanders, in 15 1 2, was originally named 
 Kauffmann, ("Merchant," Lat. Mercator.) Through 
 the influence of Cardinal Granvelle, he was introduced 
 to the notice of the emperor Charles V., to whom he pre- 
 sented two globes, superior to anything of the kind that 
 had then appeared. lie is chiefly known from the method 
 of geographical projection called by his name. He pub- 
 lished in 1569 the first hydrographic map of that kind. 
 He was the author of a Latin treatise "On the Use of 
 the Astronomical Ring," and other works. He also 
 executed numerous maps and charts. Died in 1594. 
 
 See Adam, "Vita; Philosophorum ;" T. van Raemdonck, 
 " Gerard Mercator, sa Vie et ses CEuvres." 
 
 Mercator, mfu-ka'tor, (Nicholas,) a Danish mathe- 
 matician, whose original name was Kauffmann, born in 
 llolstein about 1630. He was the inventor of a new 
 method of constructing logarithms, which he described 
 in a work entitled " Logarithmotechnia," (1668.) Having 
 visited England about 1660, he was elected a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society. Died in 1687. 
 
 Mer'cer, (Hugh,) a distinguished general in the 
 American Revolutionary war, was a native of Scotland. 
 He fought against the French and Indians, and served 
 under liraddock in the campaign of 1755. He was 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g isj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jf^f™ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MERCER 
 
 1572 
 
 MERE 
 
 severely wounded at Fort Du Qnesne, after which he 
 travelled on foot to Fort Cumberland, a distance of 
 more than one hundred miles. He afterwards took part 
 in the engagements of Trenton and Princeton, and was 
 mortally wounded at the latter place, January, 1777. A 
 monument has been erected to his memory at Laurel 
 Hill, near Philadelphia. 
 
 Mercer, ([esse,) an American Baptist divine, born in 
 Halifax county, North Carolina, in 1769. He published 
 a collection of hymns entitled "Mercer's Cluster." He 
 died in 1841, leaving the principal part of his estate to 
 the university in Georgia called by his name. 
 
 Mercer, (John,) an American officer and statesman, 
 served in the war of the Revolution, and was a member 
 of the convention which framed the United States Con- 
 stitution. He was elected Governor of Maryland in 
 1801. Died in 1821. 
 Mercerus. See Mercif.r, (Jean.) 
 Mercey, de, deh men'si' or meii'si', (Frederic 
 Bourgeois,) a French litterateur and landscape-painter, 
 born in Paris in 1808. He wrote works on art, and was 
 placed at the head of the Direction des Beaux-Arts in 
 1853. 
 
 Mercier, meR'se^i', (Barthelemi,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and writer, born at Lyons in 1734. He published a 
 Supplement to Prosper Marchand's " History of Print- 
 ing,'' and several bibliographical works. Died in 1799. 
 Mercier or Le Mercier, leh meR'se-a', [Lat. Mer- 
 ce'rus,] (Jean,) a French Orientalist, born at Uzes, 
 succeeded Vatable as professor of Hebrew in the Royal 
 College in 1546. He made a number of translations 
 from the Chaldee and Syriac, and published commenta- 
 ries on various books of the Scriptures. Died in 1570. 
 Mercier, (Josias,) Sieur des Bordes et de Grigny, 
 a French scholar, born at Uzes, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. He was made a councillor of state by Henry 
 IV. He published "Annotations" on Tacitus and other 
 classics. Mercier was father-in-law of the celebrated 
 Salniasius. Died in 1626. 
 
 Mercier, (Louis Sebastien,) an eccentric French 
 writer, born in Paris in 1740, became professor of rhet- 
 oric in the College of Bordeaux. He was the author 
 of "The Year 2440," etc., (1770,) a caustic satire on 
 Parisian society, entitled "Picture of Paris," ("Tableau 
 de Paris," 1781,) and a number of dramas, romances, 
 and miscellaneous treatises. In his "Essay on the Dra- 
 matic Art" he denounces the dramas of Racine and 
 Corneille and proposes that his own should take their 
 place on the French stage. Among the most successful 
 of his plays were "The Deserter," and "The Wheel- 
 barrow of the Vinegar-Dealer," (" La Brouette du 
 Vinaigrier.") Mercier was chosen in 1792 a deputy to 
 the National Convention, where he acted with the 
 Girondists, voted for the imprisonment of the king, and 
 was proscribed by the Jacobins. He was afterwards a 
 member of the Council of Five Hundred, and of the 
 Institute of France. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Delisle de Sales, "Notice des Ouvrages de Mercier;" 
 Nodier, "Souvenirs de l'Kmpire :" Querard, " La France Liue 1 - 
 raire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Mercier, (Philip,) a painter, of French extraction, 
 born at Berlin in 1689, resided principally in England, 
 where he was patronized by Frederick, Prince of Wales. 
 His works are commended by Walpole. Died in 1760. 
 See Walpole, " Anecdotes of Painting." 
 Mercier de la Riviere, meVse-i' deh It re've^iV, 
 a French writer on political economy, born about 1720. 
 His principal work is "The Natural and Essential 
 Order of Political Societies," (1767.) Died about 1794. 
 Merck, meRk, (Johann Heinrich,) a German lit- 
 terateur, born at Darmstadt in 1 741, was an intimate 
 friend of Goethe. He translated Addison's " Cato," and 
 other English works, and contributed to Lavater's 
 " Physiognomy." He also wrote for the " Deutschen 
 Mercur," and other literary journals. He died, by sui- 
 cide, in 1 79 1. 
 
 See Aiotlph Stahr, "I. H. Merck: ein Denkmal," 1840; 
 * Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1836. 
 
 Mercklin, mSRk-leen', (Georg Abraham,) a German 
 physician and writer, born at Weissemburg in 1644 ; 
 died in 1702. 
 
 Mercosur, meR'kuR', (Elisa,) a French poetess, born 
 at Nantes in 1809, was patronized by Chateaubriand, 
 Lamartine, and other celebrated writers of the time. 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 Mercosur, de, deh meR'kuR', (Philippe Emmanuel 
 de Lorraine — deh lo'r&n',) Due, a French Catholic 
 leader, born in 1558, was appointed Governor of Bre- 
 tagne in 1582. He revolted against Henry III. in 1589, 
 and afterwards defied the authority of Henry IV. until 
 1598, when he submitted, and received a large sum of 
 money from the king. Died in 1602. 
 
 See Brusle de Montplainchamp, "Vie de P. E. de Lorraine," 
 16S9 : " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Mercure or Mercur. See Mercury. 
 
 Mercuri, meR-koo'ree, (Paolo,) an Italian engraver, 
 born at Rome about 1808. He worked with success in 
 Paris from 1832 to 1847. 
 
 Mercuriale, meR-koo-re-a'la, or Mercuriali, meR- 
 koo-re-a'lee, [Latin, Mercuria'i.is,] (Girolamo,) an 
 Italian physician, born at Fori) in 1530, succeeded Fra- 
 cantiani as professor of medicine at Padua, (1569.) On 
 the invitation of Maximilian II., he visited Vienna, and 
 was made a chevalier and count palatine by the emperor. 
 He edited the works of Hippocrates, and published, 
 among other works, a treatise "On the Gymnastic Art," 
 (in Latin.) Died in 1606. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italian*;" F. Boer- 
 ner, " Dissertatio de Vita H. Mercurialis," 1751. 
 
 Mercurialis. See Mercuriale. 
 Mercuric See Mercury. 
 Mercurius. See Mercury. 
 
 Mer'cu-ry, [Lat. Mercu'rius ; Fr. Mercure, meR'- 
 kuR'; It. Mercurio, meR-koo're-o ; Ger. Mercur, 
 meR-kooR',] in the Roman mythology, a god of com- 
 merce and gain, (from the Latin merx, plural merces, 
 "merchandise,") was regarded as the messenger of 
 the gods, the patron of orators, merchants, travellers, 
 and thieves. He was identified by the Romans of the 
 later ages with the Greek Hermes, and was said to be 
 a son of Jupiter and Maia. The poets feigned that it 
 was his office to conduct the souls of the dead to the 
 infernal regions, — that he stole from Neptune his trident, 
 from Venus her girdle, from Mars his sword, and from 
 Jupiter his sceptre, — that he could assume whatever 
 shape he pleased, and render himself invisible. Haying 
 invented the lvre and given it to Apollo, he received 
 from that god a golden wand, called caduceus. The 
 invention of the alphabet, of numbers, of astronomy, of 
 music, and other things, was ascribed to Mercury, who 
 was also interested in alliances and treaties. He was 
 represented with a winged cap (petasus) and winged 
 sandals, (talaria.) He received numerous surnames, 
 among which are Cyllenius, (from Mount Cyllene, where 
 he was bom,) Caduceator, (i.e. the "herald" or "wand- 
 bearer,") Argeiphontes, (the "slayer of Argus,") and 
 many other names. 
 
 See J. D. Guigniaut, " Commentatio de 'Epnop seu Mercuri' 
 Mythologia," 1835. 
 
 Mercy, meit'se', (Claude Florimond,) a distin- 
 guished military commander, born in Lorraine in 1666, 
 was a grandson of Francois, noticed below. _ Having 
 entered the Austrian service, he fought against the 
 French in the principal campaigns from 1702 to 1734, 
 and attained the rank of field-marshal and general-in- 
 chief of the Imperial forces in Italy. He was killed at 
 the battle of Parma, (1734-) 
 
 Mercy, (Franqois,) a celebrated general, born in 
 Lorraine about 1595. He served with distinction in the 
 Austrian army during the Thirty Years' war, and gained 
 a decided advantage over Turenne at Marienthal, in 
 1645. He was mortally wounded in an action with the 
 Duke of Enghien, near Nordlingen, the same year. 
 
 See Kraft, " Histoire de la Maison d'Autriche." 
 
 Mercy d'Argenteau, de, deh meR'se' daVzhSN'to', 
 (Francois,) Comte, was Austrian ambassador from 
 the court of Vienna to Paris in 1 791. He advised the 
 flight of the royal family. Died in 1794. 
 
 Mere, de, deh ma'ra', (Georges Brossin— bRo'saN',) 
 Chevalier, a French litterateur, born in Poitou about 
 1610. His principal work is entitled " Conversations of 
 
 a, €, i, 0, u, y, Ion?; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, it, y\ short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
MEREDITH 
 
 '573 
 
 MERLEY 
 
 Marshal Clerambault and Chevalier de Mere." He was 
 intimate with Pascal and Balzac. Died in 1685. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, " Derniers Portraits litte>aires." 
 
 Mer'e-dith, (George,) an English novelist, born in 
 Hampshire about 1828. Among his works are " Farina, 
 a Legend of Cologne," (1858,) and " Vittoria," (1866.) 
 
 Meredith, (Henry,) an English navigator, born in 
 1782, visited the northern part of Guinea, and wrote 
 an " Account of the Gold Coast, with a Brief History of 
 the African Company." He died in Guinea of injuries 
 received from the natives, (1812.) 
 
 See W. Hutton, "Voyage to Guinea," i82i. 
 
 Meredith, (Owen.) See Bulwer. 
 
 Mgr'e-dith, (William Morris,) an eminent Amer- 
 ican lawyer, born in Philadelphia, June 8, 1 799, graduated 
 with distinction at the University of Pennsylvania in 
 181 2. He commenced the practice of law about 1820. 
 From 1824 to 1828 he represented his native city in the 
 Pennsylvania house of representatives, and from 1834 
 to 1849 was president of the select council of Phila- 
 delphia. In 1837 he was chosen a member of the Con- 
 vention for amending the Constitution of the State. On 
 the inauguration of President Taylor, in March, 1849, 
 Mr. Meredith was appointed secretary of the treasury, 
 which position he held till the death of the President, in 
 July, 1850. In 1861 he became attorney-general of the 
 State of Pennsylvania, and filled this office until 1867. 
 
 As a 'lawyer, Mr. Meredith has for many years stood 
 in the foremost rank in his native State, and has been 
 constantly engaged in important cases both in the su- 
 preme court of Pennsylvania and that of the United 
 States. As an able and ready legal debater, he has few 
 equals and scarcely any superior in our country. 
 
 Mer'I-am, (Eben,) an American meteorologist, born 
 at Concord, Massachusetts, in 1794. He was a diligent 
 collector of statistics, and originated a theory of cycles 
 of atmospherical phenomena. Died at Brooklyn, New 
 York, in 1864. 
 
 Merian, ma're'oN', (Jean Bernard,) a Swiss littera- 
 teur, born near Bale in 1723. He was the author of a 
 number of philosophical essays of great merit, and trans- 
 lated into French some of the "Essays" of Hume. 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 See Ancillon, " Eloge de MeVtan," 1810. 
 
 Merian, ma're-an, (Maria Sibylla,) a celebrated 
 Bower-painter and naturalist, born at Frankfort-on-the 
 Main in 1647, was a pupil of Mignon. She was married 
 in 1665 to John Andrew Graff, an artist, whose name, 
 however, she did not assume. Having made a scientific 
 tour in South America in 1698, she published, after her 
 return, a magnificent work " On the Metamorphoses of 
 Surinam Insects," (1705, in Dutch and Latin;) also a 
 treatise " On the Origin of Caterpillars, their Nourish- 
 ment and Changes." These works are illustrated by 
 designs from nature and painted with exquisite skill and 
 accuracy. She died in 1 71 7, leaving two daughters, 
 Jane Maria Helena and Dorothea Maria Henrietta, 
 who were distinguished in the same department of art. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Merian, (Mattiiik.it,) an eminent Swiss engraver, 
 the father of the preceding, was born at Bale in 1593, 
 and resided at Frankfort-on-the Main. His prints are 
 very numerous, and are highly esteemed. Died in 1 651. 
 
 Merian, (Matthiku,) born at Bale in 1621, was a son 
 of the preceding. He studied under Sandrart and Carlo 
 Maratta, and painted portraits of great excellence in the 
 style of Van Dyck. Among his master-pieces is an eques- 
 trian portrait of Count Soderini. Died in 1687. 
 
 Meric, de, deh ma'rek', (Jean,) a French general, 
 born at Metz in 171 7, served under Marshal Saxe, and 
 was killed in an engagement near Malines in 1747. 
 
 Merilhou, mi'ie'loo', (Joseph,) a French lawyer, 
 born at Montignac in 1788. He gained distinction as an 
 advocate in political trials. In 1830 he became minister 
 of public instruction in Lafitte's cabinet. He was elected 
 to the Chamber of Deputies in 1831, and in 1837 was 
 made a peer. He published a " Historical Essay on the 
 Life and Works of Mirabeau," (1827.) Died in 1856. 
 
 See P. S. PirpiN, "Notice sur J. Merilhou," 1826; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Merille, ma'rel' or mi-re'ye, (Edmond,) a French 
 jurist and legal writer, born at Troves in 1579; died in 
 1647. 
 
 Merimee, ma're'ma', (Jean Francois Lenore,) a 
 French painter, born in 1765; died in Paris in 1836. 
 
 Merimee, (Prosper,) a distinguished novelist and 
 historian, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 
 1803. lie produced in 1825, as translations from the 
 Spanish, several dramas, under the title of "Theatre de 
 Clara Gazul." In 1834 he was appointed inspector- 
 general of historical monuments. His novel of "Co- 
 lomba" ( 1 84 1 ) was very successful. He was elected a 
 member of the French Academy in 1844, and became a 
 senator in 1853. Among his numerous works are "The 
 Double Mistake," (" La double Meprise,") a moral tale, 
 (1833,) "Notes of a Journey in the South of France," 
 (1835,) "Notes of a Journey in the West of France," 
 (1836,) "Studies in Roman History," "The Conspiracj 
 of Catiline," etc., (2 vols., 1844,) a " History of Don 
 Pedro I., King of Castile," (1848,) "Les faux Deme- 
 trius; Episode de l'Histoire de Russie," (1853,) and 
 "Melanges historiques et litteraires," (1855.) He had 
 an excellent talent for narration. Died in 1870. 
 
 See Sainte-Bhuve, "Portraits contemporains," and " Cause- 
 ries du Lundi ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale ;" " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for March, 184Q; " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1850. 
 
 Merino, ma-ree'no, (Don Geronimo,) a Spanish 
 guerilla chieftain, born at Villasbiado, in Old Castile, 
 about 1770, distinguished himself in the principal cam- 
 paigns against the French from 180S to 181 1. Having 
 afterwards embraced the cause of Don Carlos, he suffered 
 a total defeat in 1838, and fled to France, where he died 
 in 1847. 
 
 Me-ri'o-nes, [Gr. Mqptoprir; Fr. Merione, ma're'on',1 
 a Cretan hero, was one of the suitors of the celebrated 
 Helen. He was a friend of Idomeneus, whom he served 
 as charioteer in the Trojan war, in which he acted a 
 prominent part. 
 
 MSr'I-vale, (Chari.es,) an English historian, a son 
 of John Herman Merivale, noticed below, was born 
 about 1808. He graduated at Cambridge in 1830, and 
 became rector of Lawford, Essex. He wrote a " History 
 of the Romans under the Empire," (7 vols., 1850-62.) 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1850, and July, 1857. 
 
 Merivale, (Herman,) an English writer, a brother 
 of the preceding, was born about 1805. He became 
 professor of political economy at Oxford about 1837. 
 Among his works are "Lectures on Colonization and 
 the Colonies," (2 vols., 1841.) He completed the " Me- 
 moirs of the Life of Sir Philip Francis," which had been 
 commenced by Joseph Parkes, (2 vols., 1867.) 
 
 Merivale, (John Herman,) an English lawyer and 
 writer, the father of the preceding, was born at Exeter 
 in 1779. He practised in the court of chancery, and 
 published in 1827 a "Letter on the Chancery Com- 
 mission." In 1831 he was made a commissioner of 
 bankruptcy. He translated the minor poems of Schiller, 
 and various other works from the German, Greek, and 
 Italian. Died in 1844. 
 
 MSr'I-w8th-er, (David,) an American soldier, born 
 in Virginia in 1755, served in the war of the Revolution. 
 He was chosen to represent a district of Georgia in 
 Congress in 1800. 
 
 Merkel, mf R'kel, (GARi.iEB,)born in Livonia in 1776, 
 was an intimate friend of Kotzebue, with whom he was 
 associated as editor of the " Freimuthigen" in Berlin. 
 Died in 1 850. 
 
 Merle, mcul, (Jean Toussaint,) a French dramatist, 
 born at Montpellier in 1785. Among his most popular 
 works are "The Youth of Henry IV." and "The New- 
 Market Races." Died in 1852. 
 
 Merle, (Matthieii,) a French officer, born at Uzes, 
 in Languedoc, in 1548. He fought on the side of the 
 Protestants in the civil wars of the time, and was dis- 
 tinguished by the favour of Henry IV. Died about 
 1590. 
 
 Merle, van. See Merula, (Paul.) 
 
 Merle-d'Aubipne. See D'Aubigne. 
 
 Merler. See Horstius, (Jacobus.) 
 
 Merley, meVl&', (Louis,) a French engraver of 
 medals, born at Saint-Etienne in 1815. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MERLIEUX 
 
 '574 
 
 MERU 
 
 Merlieux, meR'le-uh ', ( Louis Parfait,) a French 
 sculptor, born in Paris in 1796. He was employed by 
 Cuvier in 1822 to reproduce the forms of extinct animals. 
 His master-piece is a statue of "Capaneus struck with 
 Thunder," (1837.) 
 
 Mer'lin or Merdhin, mer'din, [Lat. Merli'nus 
 Amuro'sius,] a celebrated prophet and magician, is 
 supposed to have lived in Britain about 450 A.D. He 
 is alluded to by Spenser in his " Faerie Queene," and 
 forms the subject ol" the metrical romance of "Merlin." 
 
 Another Merlin, called "the Caledonian," is said to 
 have lived in the latter part of the sixth century. He is 
 frequently mentioned in the works of Sir Walter Scott, 
 and his grave, near the Tweed, is still pointed out. The 
 " Prophecies" of Merlin have been attributed to both 
 writers of the name. 
 
 See T. Heywooo, "Life of Merlin Ambrosius," etc 
 
 Merlin, meVla.N*', (Antoine Francois Eugene,) 
 Count, a French general, son of Merlin de Douai, was 
 born at Douai in 1778. Having accompanied Bonaparte 
 to Egypt as his aide-de-camp in 1798, he was present at 
 the battle of Aboukir. He afterwards served with dis- 
 tinction in Austria, Prussia, and Spain. Died in 1854. 
 
 Merlin, (Christophe Antoine,) Count, a French 
 general, born at Thionville in 1771. He served under 
 Joseph Bonaparte in Spain. Died in 1839. 
 
 Merlin, (Pierre,) a French Protestant minister, born 
 about 1535, had much influence in the Church. He pub- 
 lished several religious works. Died in 1603. 
 
 Merlin de Douai, men'laN' deh doo'i', (Philippe 
 Antoine,) Count, a French statesman and jurist, born 
 at Arleux in 1754. Elected to the Constituent Assembly 
 in 1789, he at first favoured moderate measures, but sub- 
 sequently identified himself with the republican party, 
 and, as a member of the National. Convention in 1792, 
 voted for the death of the king. In 1793 he presented 
 to the Convention the infamous decree called the law 
 of the suspected, (loi des suspects.) He was appointed 
 minister of justice in 1795, and was subsequently created 
 by Napoleon a councillor of state, count of the empire, 
 and grand officer of the legion of honour. He was chosen 
 a member of the French Institute soon after its founda- 
 tion. He died in 1838, leaving several legal treatises. 
 
 See Mathieu, " filoge histoiique du Comte Merlin," 1839; 
 C. Paulmier, "Merlin," 1839; " Nouvelle Biograplue Generate." 
 
 Merlin de Thionville, meR'laN' deh te'oN'vel', 
 (Antoine Ciiristophe,) born at Thionville in 1762, was 
 a brother of Christophe Antoine, noticed above. He 
 was elected in 1792 to the National Convention, where 
 he supported for a time the measures of the Jacobins, 
 whom he afterwards opposed. He was a member of the 
 Council of Five Hundred. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Reynaud, "Vie et Correspondance de Merlin de Thionville," 
 1S60. 
 
 Merlinus. See Merlin. 
 
 Mermet, meR'mi', (Julien Augustine Joseph,) a 
 French general, born at Quesnoi in 1772. He served in 
 several campaigns in Italy and Spain. Died in 1837. 
 
 Merode, ma'ro-deh or ma'rod', (Charles Ghislain,) 
 a Belgian diplomatist, born at Brussels in 1763. Having 
 been made a senator by Napoleon in 1809, he defended 
 the cause of Pope Pius' VII. Died in 1830. 
 
 Merode, (Jean Philippe Eugene,) Marquis of Wes- 
 terloo, born at Brussels in 1674, entered the Austrian 
 service, and was created a field-marshal and count of 
 the empire. He died in 1732, leaving a volume of "Me- 
 moirs," reprinted at Mons in 1840. 
 
 Merode, (Ludwig Friedrich Ghislain,) a Belgian 
 count, born in 1792, was killed near Antwerp in 1830, 
 while fighting against the Dutch. 
 
 Merode, de, deh ma'ro-deh or ma'rod', (Philippe 
 Felix Bai.thasar Othon Ghislain,) Count, a Bel- 
 gian minister of state, born in 1791, was a brother of 
 the preceding. He was the most eloquent chief of the 
 Catholic party. He became minister of state under 
 Leopold I. Died in 1857. 
 
 Mgr'o-pe, [Gr. Mrpo-ny : Fr. Merope, ma'rop',] in 
 classic mythology, was a daughter of Atlas, and one of the 
 Pleiades. She was married to Sisyphus. It was fabled 
 that she appears less luminous than the other Pleiads, 
 because she was ashamed of her marriage with a mortal. 
 
 Merouan. See Merwan. 
 
 Merovaeus. See Merov^e. 
 
 Merovee, ma'ro'va', [Cat. Merowe'us; Ger. Mero- 
 vig, ma'ro-vic;,] the son of Clodion, born about 411, is 
 supposed to have been the third king of France, and was 
 the founder of the Merovingian dynasty. In conjunc- 
 tion with the Roman general Aetius, he defeated Attila, 
 King of the Huns, in 451 A.D. Died in 457 or 458. 
 
 See A. Thiekry, " Attiia el 1'Empire des Huns;" Gibbon, "De- 
 cline and Kali of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Merovee or Mer'o-vig, a son of Chilperic I., King 
 of Neustria. He married in 576 A.D. Brunehaut, Queen 
 of Austrasia, who was his aunt. By this act he lost the 
 favour of his father. He was persecuted by Queen 
 Fredegunda, his step-mother, who employed assassins 
 to kill him. After he had fled for refuge to various 
 cities, he was killed in 577 A.D. 
 
 Merovig. See Merovee. 
 
 Mer'ret, (Christopher,) an English physician and 
 naturalist, born in Gloucestershire in 1614, was a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society and of the College of Physicians. 
 He published an "Account of the Animal, Vegetable, 
 and Mineral Productions of Great Britain," and several 
 medical treatises. Died in 1695. 
 
 See Wood, " Athenas Oxonienses." 
 
 Mer'rick, (James,) an excellent English divine and 
 poet, born in 1720, published, at the age of fourteen, 
 "The Messiah, a Divine Essay." In 1739 he translated 
 the poem of Tryphiodorus on the " Capture of Troy." 
 He became a Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1744. 
 He also wrote a " Dissertation on Proverbs," and a 
 translation of the Psalms into English verse, regarded as 
 one of the best in the language. Died in 1769. 
 
 See Dodukioge, " Letters," p. 339 ; Coatks, " History of Read- 
 ing" 
 
 Merritt, (Timothy,) an American Methodist divine, 
 born at Barkhamstead, Connecticut, in 1775, was editor 
 of "Zion's Herald," Boston, and published several re- 
 ligious works. Died in 1845. 
 
 Mer'r^, (Robert,) an English poet and dramatist, 
 born in London in 1755, was the author of "Lorenzo," 
 a tragedy, and a drama entitled " Ambitious Vengeance." 
 He died at Baltimore, in the United States, in 1798. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine,"- vol. lxix. 
 
 Mersch, van der, vin der meRsh, (Jean Andre,) 
 a Belgian general, born at Menin in 1734, headed the 
 revolt of his countrymen against the Austrian emperor 
 Joseph II. in 1789. Having been deprived of his com- 
 mand and imprisoned through the intrigues of his rivals, 
 he was released when the Austrians regained their power 
 in Belgium. Died in 1792. 
 
 Mersenne, meR'sen', [Lat. Mf.rsen'nus,] (Marin,) 
 a learned French philosopher, mathematician, and theo- 
 logian, born in Maine in 1588. He studied at the Col- 
 lege de la Fleche, where he formed an intimate 'and 
 lasting tiiendship with Descartes. He subsequently 
 entered the religious order of Minims. Among his most 
 important works are a commentary on Genesis, entitled 
 "Quasstiones celeberrimae in Genesim," (1623,) and a 
 "Treatise on Universal Harmony," (1627.) Died in 1648. 
 
 See Hii.arion UK Coste, "Viedu Pere Mersenne;" Baillet, 
 "Vie de Descartes;" "Nouvelle Biograplue Generate. " 
 
 Merteus, meR'tens, (Charles,) a Flemish physician, 
 born at Brussels in 1737 ; died in 1788. 
 
 Mer'ton, de, (Walter,) an English prelate and 
 statesman, was created chancellor of the kingdom in 
 1258, and Bishop of Rochester in 1274. He was the 
 founder of Merton College, Oxford. Died in 1277. 
 
 Meru, ma'roo, or Merus, ma'rdos, [Gr. Mz/poc,] a 
 word of doubtful etymology, forming, in the Hindoo 
 mythology, the name of a celebrated mountain, said to 
 be situated in the centre of the seven continents. Its 
 height is supposed to be 84,000 yojanas,* of which 16,00c 
 are below the surface of the earth. The sacred river 
 Ganges (Ganga) falls from heaven on its summit, and 
 flows to the surrounding worlds in four streams, of 
 which the southernmost is the Ganges of India. Brahma, 
 
 * A yo'jXna (called yo'jiin in the common dialect of India) is usu- 
 ally reckoned at 16,000 yards, or about nine of our miles ; but, ac- 
 cording to some authorities, it is only five miles. 
 
 i, e, I, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
MER VIA 
 
 '575 
 
 MESSALA 
 
 attended by Rishis (sages) and celestial minstrels, is 
 •opposed to reside on Mount Mem, on one of the highest 
 suniiniis of which, Kailasa, dwells also Siva, with his 
 consort, Parvati. 
 
 See Wilson, "Sanscrit Dictionary ;" Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 Merula, nia'roo-la or meit'oo-la, (Giorgio,) an Italian 
 scholar, horn at Alessandria della Paglia in 1424. Me 
 brought out in 1470 an edition of Martial's Epigrams, 
 said to be the first ever published, and wrote comment- 
 aries on Cicero, Pliny, and other classics. He was the 
 author ot a " History of the Visconti, Princes of Milan," 
 (in Latin.) Died in 1494. 
 
 See Gtnguenr, " Hisinire Litternire d'ltalie;" NlCRRON, " M^- 
 mohes;" Vussius, " De Historicis Latinis." 
 
 Merula, mer'oo-li, (Paul,) a Dutch jurist and writer, 
 born at Dort in 1558, was originally named Van Merle. 
 In 1593 he succeeded Justus Lipsius as professor of his- 
 tory at l.eyden. He wrote a "Life of Erasmus," and a 
 number of legal and historical works, (in Latin.) Died 
 in 1607. 
 
 Merville, meVvel', the assumed name of Pierre 
 Fi; antiiis Camus, a French dramatist, born at Pontoise 
 in 1783 ; died in 1853. 
 
 Merwan or Merouan (mer'win') I., surnamed Iiw- 
 Tarid, caliph of the dynasty of the Omeyyads, born 
 at Mecca about 623. Having gained a victory over his 
 rival, Abdallah ben Zobeir, Merwan was proclaimed 
 caliph in 684. He was assassinated by one of his wives 
 in 685 a.d. 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol, i. chap. viii. 
 
 Merwan or Merouan IX,(Aboo- (Abu- or Abou-) 
 Abdelmelek, a'boo abd-el-mel'ek,) one of the Omey- 
 vad caliphs, grandson of the preceding, was born at 
 Damascus in 688 a.d. He was victorious over several 
 rivals, but was at last defeated by Abool-AbbSs, son 
 of Ibrahim, in 749 a.d. He was subsequently killed by 
 the Christians, whom he had cruelly persecuted. 
 
 See Wkil, "Geschichte der 'Chalifen," vol. i. chap. xvii. 
 
 Mery, ml're', (JEAN,) a French surgeon and anato- 
 mist, born at Vatan in 1645, published a work entitled 
 " New System of the Circulation of the Blood," (1700,) 
 and other medical treatises. He was first surgeon of 
 the HOtcl-Dieu, in Paris, and a member of the Academy 
 of Sciences. Died in 1722. 
 
 See Fontenelle, " £loges des Acad^miciens," etc. 
 
 Mery, (Joseph,) a French litterateur, born near Mar- 
 seilles in 1798, wrote numerous poems, romances, and 
 dramas. 
 
 Merz, meRts, (Jacob,) a Swiss painter and engraver, 
 born in the canton of Zurich in 1783; died in 1807. 
 
 Merzliakof 01 Merzliakov, merz-le-a'koP, (Alexis 
 FeodoRovitch,) a Russian critic and poet, born in 
 1778, became professor of eloquence and poetry at 
 Moscow. Among his principal works is a "Discourse 
 on the Poetry of the Ancients," etc. His lyric poems 
 are highly esteemed by his countrymen. He also trans- 
 lated into Russian Tasso's "Gerusalemme Liberata," 
 and various works in Latin, Greek, and French. Died 
 in 1827. 
 
 Mesa, ma'sa, (Cristobal.) a Spanish poet, born in 
 Estremadura alwut 1540. During a residence of five 
 years at Rome, he became an intimate friend of Tasso. 
 He was the author of several heroic poems, which, how- 
 ever, are much less esteemed than his translations of 
 Virgil'* " /Eneid," " Georgics," and " Bucolics." Died 
 about 1620. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Mesenguy or Mesengui, mi-zoN'ge', ( Franqois 
 PHILIPPE,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Beauvais in 
 1677, was an adherent of Jansenism, and published sev- 
 eral treatises against the constitution Unigenitus. He 
 also wrote an "Abridgment of the History of the Old 
 and New Testament," (1737,) which is commended by 
 Rollin. Died in 1793. 
 
 See Lequeux, " Menioire sur la Vie, etc. de 1'AbW Mesengui,'' 
 1763. 
 
 Mesihi, mes'e-hee, a celebrated Turkish poet, flour- 
 ished in the reign of Solyman I. He is one of the seven 
 whose names, written in golden letters, are suspended 
 in the temple of Mecca, and who have been styled by 
 
 their countrymen "the Pleiades." One of his idyls has 
 been translated by Sir William Jones, in his "Commen- 
 taries on Asiatic Poetry." 
 
 See Von Hammer, " Geschichte der Osmanischen Dichtung." 
 
 Mesle, m&'la', (Jean,) a French advocate in the Par- 
 liament of Paris, wrote a valuable "Treatise on Minori- 
 ties," (1714.) Died in 1756. 
 
 Mesmer, mes'mer, (Fkiedrich Anton,) founder of 
 the doctrine of Mesmerism, or animal magnetism, was , 
 born at Meersburg, in Suabia, in 1733. Having made 
 various experiments with the mineral magnet, he was 
 led to the discovery of the power since called Mesmer- 
 ism. This he made public in 1775, in his "Letter to 
 a Foreign Physician on Magnetism." He soon after 
 established a hospital at Vienna for the perfection and 
 promulgation of his discovery, and repaired in 1778 to 
 Paris, where he devoted himself to the cure of diseases 
 and made many proselytes. He subsequently refused a 
 large sum of money offered him by the French govern- 
 ment for his secret. A number of his adherents having 
 presented him with 340,000 livres, on condition of being 
 instructed in his doctrine, he received the money, but 
 did not perform his promise. He died in Germany in 
 1815, leaving several treatises, one of which was entitled 
 "Memoire de Mesmer sur ses Decouvertes," (1799.) 
 
 See Thou ret, " Recherches et Doutes sur le Magnetisme ani- 
 mal," 1784; Jozwik, "Sur le MagntStisme animal," 1832; Dr. 
 Hoeker, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Mesmes, de. See Avaux. 
 
 Mesmes, de, deh mini, (Henri,) a French states- 
 man, born in Paris in 1531, was a son of Jean Jacques, 
 noticed below. He became chancellor of the kingdom 
 of Navarre. Died in 1596. 
 
 Mesmes, de, (Jean Jacques,) a French diplomatist, 
 born in 1490, was patronized by Catherine of Navarre 
 and Francis I., and was appointed master of requests 
 in 1544. Died in 1569. 
 
 Mesmon, de, deh mes'm6N', (Germain Hyacinths 
 de Romance— deh ro'mdNss',) Marquis, a French 
 journalist, born in Paris in 1745. He edited succes- 
 sively, at Hamburg, the " Spectateur du Nord," the 
 "Reveil,"and the "Censeur," and afterwards repaired 
 to Saint Petersburg, where he became editor of the 
 " Journal du Nord." Died in 1831. 
 
 Mesnager, Le, leh mi'nS'zha', (Nicolas le Baillif,) 
 a French diplomatist, born at Rouen in 1658. He was 
 sent as a secret agent to London in 171 1, to negotiate 
 the preliminaries of peace, and he was one of the French 
 diplomatists that signed the treaty of Utrecht, (1713.) 
 Died in 1714. 
 
 Mesnard, mi'ntR', (Jacques Andr£,) a French 
 lawyer and senator, born at Rochefort in 1792. He 
 became a counsellor in the court of cassation in 1841, 
 and a senator in 1852. He translated into French the 
 "Divina Cominedia" of Dante, (3 vols., 1858.) Died in 
 1858. 
 
 Mesnardiere or Menardiere, de la, deh It ma'- 
 ntR'de-aiR', (Hippolyte Jules Pilf.t,) a French poet, 
 born at Loudun about 1610, was patronized by Cardinal 
 Richelieu. In 1655 he was elected a member of the 
 French Academy, a distinction which he owed chiefly 
 to his brilliant conversational powers. Died in 1663. 
 
 Mesnil, Du. See Dumesnil. 
 
 Mesnil, du, dii m&'nel', (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 lawyer, born in Paris in 1517, was appointed in 1556 
 royal advocate. Died in 1 569. 
 
 Mes-o-me'deS, [Gr. Mfrm/^tir/c,! a lyric poet, who 
 flourished under the emperor Hadrian. Three of his 
 poems are preserved in the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Mesonero y Romanos, de, da ma-so-na'ro e ro- 
 ma'nds, (Ramon,) a popular Spanish writer, born at 
 Madrid in 1803. His principal works are a "Manual 
 of Madrid, Description of the Court and the City," and 
 " Panorama of Madrid," (" Panorama Matritense," 1835,) 
 which are admired for their faithful delineations of life 
 and manners and the elegance of their style. 
 
 Mes-sa'la (or Mes-sal'la) Cor-vi'nus, (Marcus Va- 
 lerius,) a celebrated Roman orator and general, born 59 
 B.C., at first opposed the party of Antony, and commanded 
 a division of the army of Brutus at the battle of Philippi, 
 After the death of Brutus he became general-in-chief. 
 
 e as A; 9 as 3; g hard; g as/; G, H, v^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as z; th as in this, (jjy See Explanations, p. 21J 
 
MESSALINA 
 
 1576 
 
 METCALFE 
 
 He was subsequently reconciled to Augustus, who made 
 him consul, 31 B.C., and, five years after, prefect of Rome. 
 Among his other important military services, he reduced 
 Aquitania to subjection, for which he obtained a triumph, 
 (27 li.c.) Died about 11 a.d. Of the writings of Messala 
 only fragments remain ; but his eloquence is spoken of 
 in the highest terms by Quintilian, Seneca, and the two 
 Plinys. He was intimate with Horace, Ovid, and Pollio, 
 c and was a liberal patron of learning. 
 
 See M. C. van Hau.. " M. V. Messala Corvinus," etc., 2 vols., 
 1S21 ; L. Wiese, " Dissertatio de Messala? Corviul Vita et Studiis," 
 1820; Tacitus, "Anuales," books iv. and vi. ; Appian, " Bellum 
 Civile." 
 
 Mes-sa-li'na, [Fr. Messaune, nfi'si'len',] a Roman 
 empress, notorious for her crimes, was a daughter of M. 
 Valerius Messala Barbatus. She was married to Clau- 
 dius, who afterwards became emperor. She caused a 
 number of eminent Romans to be put to death. She 
 was executed, by order of Claudius, in 48 a.d. 
 
 Mes-sa-li'na Sta-til'I-a, granddaughter of Statilius 
 Taurus, became' the third wife of the emperor Nero, in 
 66 A.D. 
 
 Messalla. See Messala. 
 
 Messape. See Mkssapus. 
 
 Messapus, [Gr. Mccttotoc; Fr. Messape, mi'sip',] 
 in classic mythology, a son of Neptune, and a king of 
 Etruria. He fought for Turnus against ^Eneas, and was 
 supposed to be invulnerable. 
 
 Mes-se'ne, [Gr. tieaaiivr},] the wife of Polycaon, w : hom 
 she induced to take possession of the country which was 
 afterwards called, from her, Messenia. A temple was 
 erected to her honour. 
 
 Mes-se'nI-us, [Sw. pron. mSs-sii'neds,] (Arnold,) 
 son of Johan Messenius, noticed below, was made his- 
 toriographer to Christina of Sweden, and obtained a 
 title of nobility. Having been concerned with his son 
 in writing a libel on the royal family, they were both 
 condemned to death and executed, (1648.) 
 
 See "Anecdotes de Suede," The Hague, 1716. 
 
 Messenius, (Johan,) a Swedish historian, born in 
 Ostrogothia in 1584, was professor of law in the Uni- 
 versity of Upsal. Being accused of a treasonable cor- 
 respondence with the King of Poland and the Jesuits, he 
 was imprisoned in 1616. During his confinement of 
 nearly twenty years he wrote several historical works, 
 of which the most important is entitled " Scandia Illus- 
 trated," (in Latin.) Died in 1637. 
 
 See "Biograpbiskt- Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man;" 
 P. Stenbeck, " De Vita et Meritis Messeniorum," 1741. 
 
 Mes'ser, (Asa,) D.D., LL.D., an American divine and 
 scholar, born at Methuen, Massachusetts, in 1769. He 
 graduated at Brown University, where he became suc- 
 cessively professor of the learned languages, (1796,) of 
 mathematics and natural philosophy, (1799,) and presi- 
 dent of the institution, (1802.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Messier, mi'se-a', (Charles,) a French astronomer, 
 born at Baddnviller, in Lorraine, in 1730. Having visited 
 Paris in 1751, he was employed by De Lisle in his ob- 
 servatory, and distinguished himself by the accuracy of his 
 astronomical observations. He is said to have observed 
 forty-six comets, of which he discovered twenty-one. 
 He was a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, 
 and of similar institutions at St. Petersburg, Berlin, and 
 other cities. He died in 1817, leaving " Memoires" con- 
 taining his observations. Lalande named in honour 
 of this astronomer a constellation situated between Ce- 
 pheus, Cassiopeia, and the Camelopard. 
 
 See Delambre, " Notice sur la Vie, etc. de Messier," in the 
 " Memoires" of the Academy of Sciences, vol. ii. ; La Harpe, " Cor- 
 respondance litte'raire." 
 
 Messina, da. See Antonello da Messina. 
 
 Messis. See Matsys, (Quentin.) 
 
 Mes'ton, (William,) a Scottish poet, born in Aber- 
 deenshire about 1688, was the author of " Mother Grim's 
 Tales," in verse, and a poem entitled "The Knight." 
 Died in 1745. 
 
 See " Life of William Meston," prefixed to his works ; Chambers, 
 * Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Mestrezat, meVtKeh-zt', (Jean,) a Protestant theolo- 
 gian and pulpit orator, born at Geneva in 1592, became 
 pastor of the church at Charenton, and distinguished 
 
 himself by his bold and eloquent defence of the Protest- 
 ants against the Roman clergy. He was the author 
 of theological treatises and sermons, which are nighly 
 esteemed. Died in 1657. 
 
 See Senebier, " Histoire litte'raire de Geneve." 
 
 Mesue or Messua. See Massooa. 
 
 Meszaros, ma'sS-rosh, (Lazar,) a Hungarian general 
 and statesman, born in the county of Bacs in 1796. In 
 1848 he was appointed minister of war in the Hungarian 
 cabinet of Batthyanyi, but on the breaking out of the 
 war joined the revolutionary party. After sharing with 
 Dembinski the defeat of Temesvar, he took refuge in 
 Turkey, and afterwards visited England and America, 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 Metastase. See Metastasio. 
 
 Metastasio, mi-tas-ta'se-o, [Fr. Metastase, ma'tts'- 
 tfz',] (Pietro Bonaventura,) an eminent Italian poet, 
 born at Rome in 1698, was originally named Trapassi. 
 He manifested at an early age extraordinary talents 
 for improvisation on any subject. Having attracted the 
 notice of the celebrated jurist Gravina, he was adopted 
 by him, and his name was changed to Metastasio, (a 
 "changing,") in allusion to his adoption. His benefactor 
 died in 1718, leaving his property to Metastasio, who 
 now devoted himself principally to literary pursuits, 
 and brought out in 1721 his lyric drama entitled "The 
 Gardens of the Hesperides," ("Gli Orti Esperidi.") 
 This piece was received with great favour, one of the 
 principal parts in it being performed by Signora Bulga- 
 rini, (La Romanina,) esteemed the first vocalist of her 
 time. At the request of this lady, he relinquished the 
 legal profession, which he had practised for a time, and 
 gave his attention exclusively to poetry. His opera of 
 " Didone Abbandonata" was performed with great ap- 
 plause at Naples in 1724, and was followed by his " Ca- 
 tone," " Semiramide," "Artaserse," and other operas, 
 which established his reputation. On the invitation of 
 the emperor Charles VI., he repaired to Vienna, and 
 succeeded Apostolo Zeno as imperial laureate. In 1734 
 he lost his "inestimable counsellor and friend," Signora 
 Bulgarini, who bequeathed to him, after the death of 
 her husband, her property, amounting to twenty-five 
 thousand crowns. This, with characteristic delicacy, he 
 refused to accept. He brought out during his residence 
 at Vienna two of his most admired operas, the " Olim- 
 piade" and " La Clemenza di Tito," which the music 
 of Mozart has contributed to render immortal. Besides 
 the works above named, he composed a number of ora- 
 torios, cantatas, sonnets, etc. He died at Vienna in 
 1782. The genius of Metastasio is eulogized by Vol- 
 taire and La Harpe, the former of whom compares some 
 of his scenes to the most sublime of the Greek poets. 
 Rousseau, in his " Nouvelle Heloise," pronounces him 
 "the only poet of the heart, the only genius who can 
 move by the charm of poetic and musical harmony;" 
 and Schlegel observes that his purity of diction, grace, 
 and delicacy have rendered him in the eyes of his coun- 
 trymen a classic author, — the Ratine of Italy. 
 
 See Burnev, " Memoirs of Metastasio," 3 vols., 1796; Torcia, 
 " Elogio del Abbate P. Metastasio," 1782 ; Hiller, " Ueber P. Me- 
 tastasio und seine Werke," 1786: Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe ;" Altanesi, "Vita di P. Metastasio," 1787 ; "Nouvelle 
 Biograpbie Generate ;" " Lives of the Italian Poets," by the Rev. 
 Henry Stebbing, London, 1831. 
 
 Metcalfe, meVkaf, (Charles Theophilus,) Baron, 
 an able English statesman, born in Calcutta in 1785, was 
 educated at Eton. He entered the service of the East 
 India Company as a writer, and became a member of the 
 Supreme Council of India in 1827. He resigned his 
 office, returned to England in 1837, and was appointed 
 Governor of Jamaica in 1839. For three years he per- 
 formed the duties of this difficult position with sur cess. 
 He was appointed Governor-General of Canada about 
 February, 1843. In politics he was a Liberal. He re- 
 signed on account of ill health in the autumn of 1845, 
 and died at Basingstoke in September, 1846. 
 
 See John William Kaye, " Life and Correspondence of Charles, 
 Lord Metcalfe," 1854; "Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 
 1846, and February, 1855. 
 
 Met'calfe, (Thomas,) an American Whig statesman, 
 born in Fauquier county, Virginia, in 1780, removed at 
 an early age to Kentucky. He worked at the trade of 
 
 , e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, J, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m§t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
METELLI 
 
 "577 
 
 METRODORUS 
 
 stone-mason in his youth. He became Governor of 
 Kentucky in 1828, and filled that office four years. In 
 1818 he succeeded Mr. Crittenden in the United States 
 Senate. His term expired in March, 1849. Died in 1855. 
 
 Metelli. See Mitelli. 
 
 Me-tel'lus, (Quintus C«cilius,) called Macedo'ni- 
 CUS, an eminent Roman general, of a noble family, was 
 chosen praetor in 14S B.C. He gained a victory over the 
 Macedonians in that year, and took their leader, An- 
 driscus, prisoner, for which a triumph was decreed him. 
 In 146 he defeated the Achaeans near Thermopylae. He 
 was made consul in 143, and was sent to Spain to op- 
 pose Viriathus. It was during the censorship of Metellus 
 and Pompeius (131 B.C.) that the decree was passed 
 obliging all Roman citizens to marry. He opposed the 
 Gracchi. Died in 115 B.C. 
 
 See Tacitus, "Annales;" Livy, " Epitome." 
 
 Metellus, (Quintus C^cilius Numidicus,) an able 
 Roman general, a nephew of the preceding, was a leader 
 of the aristocratic party. Having been chosen consul 
 for 109 B.C., he obtained as his province Numidia, then 
 the seat of war with Jugurtha, who had hitherto suc- 
 ceeded in outgeneralling or outwitting all the Roman 
 commanders sent against him. Metellus was more suc- 
 cessful, and finally gained a great victory over the African 
 prince at the river Muthul, towards the close of that 
 year. Before the end of this war the command was 
 transferred to MariuS ; but Metellus was honoured with 
 a triumph on his return to Rome in 107, and received the 
 surname of Xumid'icus. He became censor in 102, and 
 was banished about 100 B.C., through the influence of 
 Matins and Satin ninus, but he was recalled the next year. 
 He was distinguished as an orator, and was reputed one 
 of the most virtuous men of his time. 
 
 See SallusTj " Bellum Jugurthinum ;" Plutarch, " Marius." 
 
 Metellus, (Quintus C/Ecilius Pius,) a Roman 
 general, a son of the preceding, became praetor in 89 
 B.C. In the civil war between Marius and Sulla he 
 fought for the latter, and gained a decisive victory over 
 Carbo and Norbanus, near Faventia, in 82 B.C. lie was 
 chosen consul with Sulla in the year 80, after which he 
 commanded in Spain and spent several years in un- 
 successful efforts to conquer Sertorius. He became 
 pontifex maximus. Died about 63 B.C. 
 
 Me-tel'lus Ce'ler, (Q. C/BCiLius,) a Roman states- 
 man, and leader of the aristocratic party. He became 
 praetor in 63 B.C., acted with Cicero against Catiline, 
 and was chosen consul for the year 60. During his 
 consulship he resolutely opposed the laws which his 
 colleague Afranius desired to enact for the benefit of 
 Pompey. Died in 59 B.C. 
 
 Me-tel'lus Ne'pos, (Quintus,) a brother of the 
 preceding, became tribune of the people in 63 B.C., and 
 was a partisan of Pompey. As tribune, he opposed 
 Cicero with some violence. He became praetor in 60, 
 and consul in 57 B.C. Died about 55 B.C. 
 
 Meteren, van, vin ma'teh-ren, (Emanuel,) a Flem- 
 ish Protestant historian, born at Antwerp in 1535, was 
 the author of a " History of the Netherlands from the 
 Early Part of the Sixteenth Century to his Own Time," 
 (in Latin and Flemish.) It is valued for its accuracy; 
 but the historian is accused by some writers of injustice 
 towards the Catholics. Died in 161 2. 
 
 See S. KtYTiNCK, " Biographie de Van Meteren," prefixed to his 
 " Histnire," (French translation.) 
 
 Metezeau, meh'teh'zo', (Clement,) a French archi- 
 tect, born at Dreux, constructed the great dyke of La 
 Rochelle, which, suggested by Cardinal Richelieu, was 
 the principal means of reducing that city in 1628. Died 
 about 1650. 
 
 Method or Methode. See Methodius. 
 
 Me-tho'dl-us, [Fr. Methode, ma' tod', | Saint, one 
 of the early Christian martyrs, surnamed Patarknsis 
 on account of his having been Bishop of Patara. He 
 MM also Bishop of Olympus, in Lycia, and afterwards 
 of Tyre. His piety and learning are highly commended 
 by Epiphanius and Jerome. He wrote a work entitled 
 " The Banquet of Ten Virgins," of which a great part 
 is extant. He suffered martyrdom under Diocletian 
 about 312. 
 
 See Lardner, " Credibility of the Gospel History." 
 
 Methodius [Gr. MfSocSioc] the Confessor, born at 
 Syracuse, was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople in 
 842 A.D. He was a zealous advocate of the worship 
 of images, and was the author of several learned works. 
 Died in 846. 
 
 See Baronius, "Annales." 
 
 Methodius, [Fr. Methode, ma'tod'; Ger. Method, 
 ma'tod,] a native of Thessalonica, was sent, with his 
 brother Cyrillus, by the Greek emperor Michael III., to 
 convert the Saracens on the Euphrates, and about 863 
 went on a mission to the Slavonians. They invented 
 the Slavonian alphabet, and translated the Psalter and 
 Gospels into Slavonic. Methodius resided in the country 
 nearly thirty years, and, it is said, translated all the 
 Scriptures into Slavonic. 
 
 See F. X. Richter, " Cyrill und Method der Slaven Apostel," 
 
 Me-thu'se-lah, [Heb.nWlTO ; Fr. Mathusalem* 
 mi'tu'zi'l&N', or Mathusala, mf'tii'zt'lS',] a Hebrew 
 patriarch, noted for his longevity, was a son of Enoch. 
 He is supposed to have died about six years before the 
 deluge, aged nine hundred and sixty-nine years. 
 
 See Genesis v. 
 
 Me'tis, [Gr. M^nc ; Fr. Metis, ma'tess',] in classic 
 mythology, the personification of prudence, was the 
 daughter of Oceanus, and the first wife of Zeus or Jupiter. 
 
 Metius, ma'te-us, (Adriaan,) a Dutch mathematician, 
 born at Alkmaar in 1 57 1. He studied under Tycho 
 Brahe in Denmark, and after his return to Holland was 
 appointed, in 1598, professor of mathematics in the Uni- 
 versity of Franeker. Among his works is a Latin essay 
 "On the Institutes of Astronomy." Died in 1635. 
 
 See Montucla, "Histoiredes Mathematiques." 
 
 Metius, (Jakob,) brother of the preceding, ts regarded 
 by Descartes and some other savants as the inventor of 
 the refracting telescope. 
 
 See Barlow, "History of Optics ;" Borel, " De vero Tele- 
 scopii Inventore." 
 
 Metkerke, van, vtn mSt'keR'keh, or Meetkercke, 
 mat'keVkeh, (Adolphus,) a distinguished Flemish phi- 
 lologist, born at Bruges in 1528. He was a Protestant, 
 and was sent by the United Provinces on an embassy to 
 Queen Elizabeth of England. He translated Theocritus 
 into Latin verse, and published an edition of Dion and 
 Moschus. Metkerke was president of the Council of 
 Flanders. Died in 1591. 
 
 See Motley, " United Netherlands," vol. i. chap. iii. 
 
 Metochita, met-o-Kee'ta, ? (Theodore,) a modern 
 Greek historian, was the author of a "Compendium of 
 Roman History from Julius Caesar to Constantine the 
 Great," and a " Paraphrase of the Physics of Aristotle." 
 Died in 1332. 
 
 Me'ton, [Mfruv,] a Greek astronomer, flourished in 
 432 B.C. He observed the solstice at Athens, and dis- 
 covered the lunar cycle of nineteen years, designed to 
 make the solar and lunar years begin at the same time. 
 This invention is called the Metonic cycle, and is still 
 employed by the Western Churches in their computation 
 of Easter. 
 
 See Suidas, " Meton ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Metrodore. See Metrodokus. 
 
 Met-ro-do'rus [Gr. MijTjidowpoc ; Fr. Metrodore, 
 ma'tRo'doR'] of Chios, a Greek philosopher, who lived 
 about 400 B.C., and wrote a "Treatise on Nature," which 
 was very celebrated, lie is said to have been the mas- 
 ter of Anaxarchus. 
 
 See Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Fabricius 
 "Bibliotheca Grseca." 
 
 Metrodorus of Lampsacus, a Greek philosopher, 
 born in 230 B.C., was a disciple and intimate friend of 
 Epicurus. He sensualized and debased the doctrines 
 which he had received from his master, and contributed 
 not a little to bring the Epicurean philosophy into con- 
 tempt with the wise and virtuous. He wrote numerous 
 works, the titles of which have been preserved by Dio- 
 genes Laertius. 
 
 See Ritter, " History of Philosophy ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca 
 Grseca." 
 
 * The name was sometimes so written by the old English ]>oets. 
 Cowley, in his "Fragments," says, "Seven royal years to a public 
 spirit will seem more than the private life of a Mathusalem." 
 
 e as k; c as s; g Hard; g as/; G, H, ¥L,guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
METRODORUS 
 
 1578 
 
 MEXIA 
 
 Metrodorus, [Gr. Mj/rcxxkipof,] a celebrated Athenian, 
 born al>out 200 B.C. After the defeat of Perseus by 
 Paulus Emilius, in 168 K.c, the latter commanded the 
 Athenians to send their best artist to paint his triumph 
 and their greatest philosopher to educate his sons. Me- 
 trodorus, being esteemed by his countrymen as first in 
 both departments, was sent accordingly, and gave entire 
 satisfaction to the Roman general. 
 
 Mettenleiter, niet'ten-li'ter, (Johann Michael,) a 
 German engraver, born in 1765, executed a number of 
 mezzotints and lithographs of great merit. Died in 1845. 
 
 Metternich, von, fon met'ter-nlK', (Clemens Wen- 
 ZEL,) Pkinck, an eminent Austrian statesman and diplo- 
 matist, born at Coblentz in 1773, was a son of Count 
 Metternich, who was a minister of state at Vienna and 
 died in 1818. He was sent as minister to Dresden in 
 1801, and to Berlin in 1803. In 1806 he became ambas- 
 sador to Paris, where he remained until the renewal of 
 the war in 1809. After the capture of Vienna and the 
 restoration of peace, he was appointed chancellor and 
 minister of foreign affairs, October, 1809. For more 
 than thirty years from that date he had the chief direc- 
 tion of affairs in Austria. He represented his govern- 
 ment at the Congress of Vienna, (1814,) after which he 
 had great influence in European politics. "No diploma- 
 tist," says Alison, " even in that age of intellectual giants, 
 excelled, perhaps hardly any equalled, Metternich in the 
 sagacious survey which he took of existing events, and 
 the admirable tact with 'which he contrived to render 
 them conducive to the interests of his country." (" His- 
 tory of Europe.") In politics he was extremely conser- 
 vative. He was driven from power and into exile by 
 the revolution of March, 1848. He returned to Vienna 
 1111851. tDied in 1859. " He always comprehended his 
 position," says the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1858, 
 " and never lost an opportunity. He acted with equal jus- 
 tice and calculation, and never made a retrograde step. 
 His conduct was always politic, and never precipitate." 
 
 See Binder, " Clement von Metternich unci sein Zeitalter," 1836 ; 
 J. VON Hormavr, " Kaiser Franz unci Metternich. " 1S4S; Cape- 
 figue, "Diploinates contemporains :" L. OK L >me\'Ik. ■' M. de 
 Metternich, par tin Honnne de Rien," 1840: Thiers, " History of 
 the Consulate and of the Empire:" "Hiographic.il Sketches,' by 
 Harriet Martineau, 1869: " Nouvelle Biouraphie (Jener.ile ;" 
 " British Quarterly Review" for October. 1S59 ; " Fraser's Magazine" 
 /or February and March, 1844; " Jahrbucli zum Conversations- Lexi- 
 kon" for 1861. 
 
 Metternich, von, (Richard,) Prince, a diplomatist, 
 a son of the preceding, was born about 1828. He was 
 sent by the Austrian government as ambassador to Paris 
 in 1859. 
 
 Mettrie, de la, deh \i mi'tRe', (Julien Offray,) a 
 French physician and atheistic writer, born at Saint- 
 Malo in 1705, published an infamous work entitled " The 
 Man Machine," which he had the impertinence to dedi- 
 cate to Haller. Died in 175 1. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Correspondance G^neVale." 
 
 Metsys. See Matsys. 
 
 Metz, m8ts, (Konrad Martin,) a German'engraver, 
 born at Bonn in 1755, executed a number of prints after 
 Michael Angelo and Caravaggio. Died in 1827. 
 
 Metzger, mSts'ger, (Eduard,) a German architect, 
 born at Pappenheim in 1807, visited Greece in 1831. 
 He wrote several works on architecture. 
 
 Metzu, mSt'zu, (Gabriel,) an eminent Dutch painter, 
 born at Leyden in 161 5. Among his master-pieces we 
 may name the " Vegetable-Market at Amsterdam," 
 " Interior of a Kitchen," "Chemist Reading near a Win- 
 dow," and a " Young Girl Looking at a Butterfly." 
 Metzu is styled by Descamps one of the greatest artists 
 of his nation. Died in 1658. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc.; Charles 
 Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Meulan, de, (Pauline.) See Guizot, (Elisabeth 
 Charloite.) 
 
 Meulemeester, de. See Demeulemeester. 
 
 Meulen, van der, vtn der muh'len or mo'len, (An- 
 toon Frans,) a celebrated Flemish battle-painter, born 
 at Brussels in 1634, was a pupil of Snayers. Having 
 visited Paris about 1666, he was patronized by Colbert, 
 and employed by Louis XIV. to represent his principal 
 engagements. He married the niece of Le Brun, and 
 
 assisted that artist in his works at the castle of Ver- 
 sailles. In 1673 he was chosen a member of the Academy 
 of Painting. As a painter of battles, Van der Meuler. 
 had perhaps no superior, and his landscapes also possess 
 great merit. Died in 1690. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc.; Charles 
 Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Meulen, van der, (Peter,) a Flemish painter of 
 battles, was a brother of the preceding. He went to 
 England in 1670, and was patronized by King Wil- 
 liam III. 
 
 Meulen, Ver. See Vermeulf.n. 
 
 Meun, Meung, muN, or Mehun, ma-uN', (Jean,) 
 a French poet, surnamed Clopinel, from his lameness, 
 born about 12S0. He was the author of the principal 
 part of the " Romance of the Rose," one of the earliest 
 poems in the language, which was begun by Guillaume 
 de Lorris. The best edition was published in Paris in 
 1814, (4 vols. 8vo.) 
 
 See Fauchet, "Originede la Potisie;" Massieu, "Histoire de 
 la Poesie Franchise." 
 
 Meurics, muh'ress', (Francois Paul,) a French 
 dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1820, became a brother- 
 in-law of Victor Hugo. He produced successful dramas 
 called " Hamlet, Prince of Denmark," and "Benvenuto 
 Cellini." 
 
 Meurs, de, deh mURs, [Lat. Meur'sius,] (Jan,) a 
 Dutch scholar and historian, born near the Hague in 
 1579. He was appointed professor of Greek at I.eyden 
 in 161 1, and soon after historiographer to the States of 
 Holland. He subsequently became royal historiographer 
 to the King of Denmark. He published a number of 
 treatises on Greek and Roman antiquities, and a " His- 
 tory of Denmark," (in Latin.) Died in 1639. 
 
 See Sweekt. " Athens Belgicae ;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" 
 Mokeri, " Dictionnaire Historique;" Schramm, " Dissertatio de 
 Vita et Scriptis J. Meursii," 1715. 
 
 Meursius. See Meurs, de. 
 
 Meusebach, moi'zeh-baK't (Karl Hartwig Gre- 
 gor,) a German litterateur, born near Artern in 1781, 
 published a number of critical essays. He numbered 
 among his friends Tieck and Goethe. Die'd in 1847. 
 
 Meusel, moi'zel, (Johann Georg,) a German his- 
 torian and bibliographer, born riear Bamberg in 1743. 
 He became professor of history at Erfurt in 1 769, and 
 at Erlangen in 1779. He published, besides other works, 
 " Bibliotheca Historica," (22 vols., 17S2-84,) which con- 
 tains notices of ancient and modern historians, a valuable 
 collection of biographies of German scholars, entitled 
 " Gelehrtes Deutschland," (15 vols., 1796-18 12,) to which 
 Ersch and Lindner added seven volumes, and a " Dic- 
 tionary of German Authors who died between 1750 
 and 1800," (15 vols., 1802-16.) All of these are highly 
 esteemed. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Karl Heinrich Rah, "Dem Andenken J. G. Mensels," 
 etc., 1820; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate;" " Monthly Review," 
 1800 et seq. t (Appendix.) 
 
 Meusel, written also Moezel, [Lat. Mus'cui.us,] 
 (Wolfgang,) a German Protestant theologian and He- 
 braist, born in Lorraine in 1497. He became minister 
 of a church at Augsburg in 1 53 1, and professor of the- 
 ology at Berne in 1549. His reputation is founded chiefly 
 on his commentaries on Genesis, Isaiah, and the Psalms. 
 Died fn 1563. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" M. Adam, 
 "Vitas Theologorum." 
 
 Meusnier, muh'ne-A', (Jean Baptiste Marie,) a 
 French general and savant, born in Paris in 1754, in- 
 vented several machines and apparatus. He was killed 
 in battle, near Mentz, in June, 1793. 
 
 Meusnier, (Philippe,) a French painter, born in 
 Paris in 1656, was a favourite at the court of Louis XIV., 
 and became treasurer of the Academy of Painting. He 
 excelled in architectural views and perspective. Died 
 in 1734. 
 
 Meusnier de Querlon, muh'ne-A' deh keVlAN', 
 (Anne Gabriel,) a French litterateur, born at Nantes 
 in 1702. He wrote critiques, works of fiction, etc., and 
 translated Pliny's " Natural History" into French. Died 
 in 1780. 
 
 Mexia or Mejia, mi-nee'a, (Pedro,) a Spanish his- 
 torian, born at Seville about 1496, published a compila- 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
METEKDORFF 
 
 »579 
 
 MEZZOFANTI 
 
 tion entitled " Silva de varia Leccion," and a " History 
 of the Roman Emperors from Julius Caesar to Maximilian 
 of Austria." He was patronized by Charles V., who 
 appointed him historiographer. Died in 1552. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 MeyendorfF, voii, fon iru'en-doitf, (Peter,) a Rus- 
 sian diplomatist, born about 1790. He was sent as 
 ambassador to Berlin in 1839, and represented Russia 
 at Vienna from 1850 to 1854. 
 
 Meyer, ml'er, (Conrad,) a Swiss painter and en- 
 graver, born at Zurich in 1618. He is said to have been 
 the first engraver who used soft instead of hard varnish. 
 Died in 1689. 
 
 Meyer, (F'ei.ix.) an eminent Swiss landscape-painter, 
 born at Winterthur in 1653. His delineations of the 
 mountain-scenery of Switzerland are esteemed master- 
 pieces of the kind. Died in 1713. 
 
 See Pii.kington, "Dictionary ot' Painters;" Descamps, "Vies 
 des Peimres Fianiands, Allemands," etc. 
 
 Meyer, ml'er, (Frikdricii Johann Lorknz,) a Ger- 
 man lillera/eiir, born at Hamburg in 1760 ; died in 1844. 
 
 Meyer, mi'er, [Lat. Meye'rus,] (Jacoh,) a Flemish 
 historian, sometimes called Baliola'nus, born near Bail- 
 leul in 1491, was the author of a " History of Flanders," 
 and other works, (in Latin.) He was an intimate friend 
 of Erasmus. Hied in 1552. 
 
 See Sweert, "Athena: Belgicae." 
 
 Meyer, (Jan Lodewyck,) a Dutch painter of marine 
 views, born in Amsterdam about 1809. He painted 
 landscapes in his youth, and afterwards distinguished 
 himself as a marine painter at the Hague, 
 
 Meyer, (Johann Georg,) a distinguished German 
 painter, called Meyer von Bremen, born in 1813. His 
 best works are delineations of domestic life, particularly 
 those representing the actions and sports of children. 
 Among these may be named " The Game of Blind-Man's 
 Buff," and '.' The Youngest Brother." 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Meyer, (Johann Heinrich,) a Swiss artist and 
 amateur, born at Stafa, on Lake Zurich, in 1759. While 
 on a visit to Italy, in 1784, he formed an intimate friend- 
 ship with Goethe and Herder. In 1807 he became 
 director ot the Academy of Design at Weimar. He was 
 the author of a "History of the Plastic Arts among the 
 Greeks," (1824,) and was a contributor to the " Pro- 
 pylaen" and other works of Goethe. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Goethe, " Briefwechseln." 
 
 Meyer, (Jonas Danif.i,) a Dutch jurist, born at Arn- 
 tiem in 1780. He published, in F'rench, "The Spirit, 
 Origin, and Progress of the Judicial Institutions of the 
 Principal Nations of Europe," (5 vols., 1818-23.) Died 
 in 1S34. 
 
 Meyer, von, fon ml'er, (Hermann,) a German geol- 
 ogist and naturalist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 
 1801, published several works. 
 
 Meyerbeer, mi'er-baR', (Giacomo,) an eminent Ger- 
 man composer, of Jewish extraction, born at Berlin in 
 1794, was originally named Jacob Meyer Beer, He 
 studied under Clementi and Vogler, and at the age of 
 nine years was regarded as one of the best pianists in 
 Berlin. His first operas, entitled "Jephthah's Daughter" 
 and "Abimelech, or the Two Caliphs," were coldly re- 
 ceived, but, having visited Italy in 1815, he there pro- 
 duced his "Romilda e Costanza," (1818,) " Semiraniide 
 Riconosciuta,"(l8l9,) and "Emma di Kesburgo," (1820,) 
 which met with enthusiastic applause. To these suc- 
 ceeded, in 1824, his " Crociato in Kgitto," which was 
 performed with brilliant success in all the principal 
 cities of Europe. His " Robert le Diable," brought out 
 in Paris in 1831, raised his reputation to the highest 
 point, and is ranked among the master-pieces of musical 
 art. lie afterwards produced operas entitled "The 
 Huguenots," (1836,) and " Le Prophete," (1849,) both 
 of which were greatly admired. About 1842 he was ap- 
 pointed director-general of music by the King of Prussia. 
 Among his later works are " L'Etoile du Nord," (1S54,) 
 and "Lfi Pardon de Ploermel," (1859.) Died in 1863. 
 
 See I., dk I.oMENiK. " M. Meyerbeer, par un Homme de Rien," 
 1811; Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon ;" " Noiivelie Biogra- 
 phic Generate." 
 
 Meyerheim, ml'er-hlm', (Friedrich Eduard,) a 
 German painter of great merit, born at Dantzic about 
 1810. He studied at Berlin, and in 1838 became a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Arts in that city. His favourite 
 subjects are rural and domestic scenes, which he repre- 
 sents with exquisite skill and fidelity. Among his master- 
 pieces are "The Blind Beggar,"." The Village School," 
 and an "Old Woman Teaching her Granddaughter to 
 Knit." His brother Wilhelm has distinguished him- 
 self as a painter of animals, battles, and camp-life. 
 
 Meyering, nu'er-ing, (Albert,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at Amsterdam in 1645 ; died in 1714. 
 
 Meyern, nn'eKii, (Wii.hei.m Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man novelist, born near Anspach in 1762. He wrote 
 a political romance, entitled " Dya-na-Sore, or the 
 Wanderers," (17S7.) Died in 1829. 
 
 Meyerus. See Meyer, (Jacob.)- 
 
 Meygret or Meigret, m&'gR&', (Louis,) a French 
 grammarian, born at Lyons about 1 5 10, produced in 1550 
 a " Treatise on French Grammar," said to be the first 
 which ever appeared. He attempted to introduce a new 
 orthography conformed to the sound. Died after 1560. 
 
 Meyrick, mer'ik, written alsoMyrick, (Sir Samuel 
 Rush,) an English antiquary, born in 1783. His prin- 
 cipal work is a "Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour, 
 with Special Reference to England from the Norman 
 Conquest to the Time of Charles II.," (1824,) which is 
 highly esteemed. He was knighted in 1832. Died in 
 1848. 
 
 Mezence. See Mezentius. 
 
 Mezentius, me-zen'she-us, [Gr. Motevtmjc ,• Fr. M4- 
 Zence, nia'z&Nss',] a fabulous king of the Etruscans, ' 
 notorious for his cruelty and impiety. According to 
 Virgil, he was an ally of Turnus, and was killed in battle 
 by /Eneas. He was the father of Lausus. 
 
 See Virgil's "iEneid," book vii. 648, book viii. 482, and book x. 
 689-90S. 
 
 Mezeray, de, deh maz'R&', (Francois Eudes,) a 
 French historian, born in Lower Normandy in 1610, was 
 patronized by Cardinal Richelieu. His principal work 
 is a " History of France, " (3 vols., 1651,) which enjoyed 
 extraordinary popularity at the time, owing in great 
 part to the engraved portraits it contained. He suc- 
 ceeded Voiture as a member of the French Academy in 
 1649, and became perpetual secretary of that institution 
 in 1675. He was also historiographer of France. Died 
 in 1683. 
 
 See Larroque, "Vie de Francois M.e'zeray," 1720; Sainte- 
 Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Meziriac, de, deh meh-ze're'a'k', (Claude Gaspar 
 Bachet,) a French scholar and mathematician, born at 
 Bourg-en-Bresse in 1581. He published an edition of 
 the "Arithmetic" of Diophantus, (with notes,) and trans- 
 lated a number of Ovid's " Epistles" into F'rench verse. 
 Died in 1638. 
 
 Mezzofanti, mjt-so-fan'tee, (Giuseppe Gasparo,) a 
 celebrated Italian linguist, born at Bologna in 1774. He 
 studied at the episcopal seminary of his native city, and 
 was ordained a priest in 1797. In 1804 he became pro- 
 fessor of Greek and the Oriental languages at Bologna, 
 and in 1815 was appointed chief librarian of the uni- 
 versity. Distinguished foreigners who visited Bologna 
 at this time praised his extraordinary attainments and 
 bore witness to the accuracy with which he spoke their 
 respective languages. On the invitation of Pope Gregory 
 XVI., he repaired in 1831 to Rome, where he succeeded 
 Angclo Mai as keeper of the Vatican Library, and in 
 1838 was made a cardinal. A German scholar says of 
 him at this period, " He is familiar not only with the 
 principal European languages, but with the Irish, Welsh, 
 and even Lappish." He is said to have spoken upwards 
 of fifty languages, and was thoroughly versed in the 
 idioms and provincialisms peculiar to each : he could 
 entertain his English friends with specimens of York- 
 shire dialect, and his F'rench or German visitors with the 
 patois of their respective countries. Lord Byron styles 
 Mezzofanti a prodigy of languages, who should have lived 
 in the times of the tower of Babel, to serve as a universal 
 interpreter. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Wii mam Ki-ssm.i., " Life of Cardinal Mezzofanti," etc., 
 1857: Manavit, " F.snuisse historique sur le Cardinal Mezzofanti, 1 ' 
 1854; " Edinburgh Review" for 1855. 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as 2; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MULL 
 
 1580 
 
 MICHAEL JNGELO 
 
 Mi'all, (Edward,) an English dissenter, born at 
 Portsmouth in 1809. He founded " The Nonconformist," 
 in London, and wrote several works against the union of 
 Church and State. In 1852 he was elected a Liberal 
 member of Parliament for Rochdale. He was returned 
 to Parliament for Bradford in 1869. 
 
 Miaulis or Miaoulis, me-ow'lis, (Andreas Vokos,) 
 a distinguished patriot and admiral of modern Greece, 
 born at Negropont about 1768. In 1821 he was ap- 
 pointed to the chief command of the fleet of the Greeks, 
 and gained a signal victory over the Turks at Patras. 
 In 1825 he burnt the Turkish fleet in the harbour of 
 Modon. He was created high admiral in 1832. On 
 the accession of King Otho to the throne of Greece, 
 Miaulis became one of his most zealous adherents. He 
 died in 1835, and was buried near the monument of 
 Themistocles. 
 
 See " Revue des Deux Mondes," 1859; "Nouvelle Eiographie 
 Generate. " 
 
 Miazzi, me-at'see, (Giovanni,) an Italian architect, 
 born at Bergamo in 1699. Among his most admired 
 works are the theatre at Treviso and the Spineda 
 palace at Venegazza. Died about 1780. 
 
 Ml'cah, [Heb. PD'O ; Er. Michee, me'shk',] one of 
 the minor Hebrew prophets, was contemporary with 
 Isaiah and Hosea, and flourished under the reigns of 
 Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, from 759 to 699 B.C. " His 
 style," says Bishop Lowth, "is in many parts animated 
 and sublime, and in general truly poetical." 
 
 Mical, me'kSl', (N.,) an ingenious French mecha- 
 nician, born about 1730, constructed several admirable 
 automatons, among which were two speaking heads, 
 presented by him to the Academy of Sciences in 1783. 
 Died about 1790. 
 
 See "Meinoires secrets." 
 
 Micali, me-ka'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian historian 
 and antiquary, born at Leghorn about 1780. His prin- 
 cipal work is entitled " Italy before the Dominion of the 
 Romans," (4 vols., 1810.) Died in 1844. 
 
 Mi'-eha-el, [Heb. 'ftO'O.S Gr. Mtxai/Ti ; Fr. Michel, 
 me'shel'; It. Michele, me-ka'la,] one of the archangels 
 mentioned in the Old Testament, was regarded as the 
 especial protector of the Jewish nation. A festival was 
 instituted in his honour, as a defender of the Church, 
 by the Christians of the ninth century, which is still 
 celebrated on the 29th of September, (Michaelmas Day.) 
 
 See Daniel x. 13-21 ; Revelation xii. 7-9. 
 
 Mi'-eha-el [Gr. Mt^A,- Fr. Michel, me'shel' ; It. 
 Michele, me-ka'la] I., Emperor of the East, sumamed 
 Rhangabe, (6 TavyuflTi,) succeeded, in 811 A.D., Stau- 
 racius, whose sister Procopia he had married. Being 
 unsuccessful in his war against the Bulgarians, he abdi- 
 cated his crown in 813 and retired to a convent. Died 
 about 845. 
 
 See Lh Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire." 
 
 Michael II., the Stammerer, also called Michael 
 the Phrygian, succeeded Leo the Armenian, whom he 
 had caused to be assassinated, as Emperor of Constanti- 
 nople, in 820 a.d. He died after a reign of nine years, 
 leaving the empire to his son Theophilus. 
 
 Michael III., Emperor of the East, a son of The- 
 ophilus, ascended the thrtfne in 842 A.D., when he was 
 about three years old. He was assassinated by Basil 
 the Macedonian in 867. His character was very de- 
 praved. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Michael IV., sumamed the Paphi.agonian, [Gr. 
 Mqw/A 6 H.a<ftiayuv,\ became emperor in 1034, having 
 previously married Zoe, widow of Romanus III., whom 
 she had put to death. He «lied in 1041, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his nephew, Michael Calaphates. 
 
 Michael V., sumamed Calaphates, [Gr. 6 KaAa- 
 fuTrft,\ was made Emperor of the East in 1041, but he 
 was deposed by his subjects in 1042. 
 
 Michael VI, Emperor of the East, sumamed Stra- 
 TIOt'icus, began to reign in 1056. He was deposed in 
 1057, and was succeeded by Isaac Comnenus. 
 
 Michael VII, sumamed Parapina'ces, a son of 
 Constantine XI., succeeded Romanus III. in 1071. He 
 was feeble and incompetent to reign, and he abdicated 
 in 1078. 
 
 Michael VIII. Palasol'ogus, [Gr. Mi^a 6 Xla?ju- 
 o\6yo<: ; Fr. Michel Paleologue, me'shel' pi' la'o'log',] 
 Emperor of the East, and a son of Androni'cus Pala;ol- 
 ogus, was born in 1224. He usurped in 1260 the throne 
 of John Lascaris, the infant heir of the late Emperor 
 of Nicsea. In 1261 his army took Constantinople from 
 the Latin ruler, Baldwin II. He was excommunicated 
 by the Patriarch Arsenius for his cruel treatment of John 
 Lascaris, whom he deprived of sight. Under his auspices 
 the Eastern and Western Churches made a treaty of 
 union in 1274; but this attempt to restore the union 
 proved abortive. In 1281 he defeated the army which 
 Charles of Anjou and the pope sent to invade the Eastern 
 empire. He died in 1282, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Androni'cus II. 
 
 See GiBrioN, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Georgk 
 Pachvmerhs, " Historia Rerum a Michaele Palxologo gestarum," 
 1666 : Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biograpliie 
 Generale." 
 
 Mi'-eha-el An'ge-lo [Fr. Michel- Ange, me'shel' 
 6nz1i ; It. Michelangelo, me-kel-an'ja-lo ; Lat. Mi- 
 chael An'gelus] Buonarotti (boo-o-na-rot'tee) or 
 Buonarroti, a celebrated Italian painter, sculptor, 
 and architect, was born in the castle of Caprese, in Tus- 
 cany, on the 6th of March, 1474. He was descended 
 from the noble family of Canossa. At the time of his 
 birth, his father, Lodovico Buonarotti Simone, was 
 podesta or governor of Chiusi and Caprese. His 
 mother's name was Francesca del Sera. He attended a 
 grammar-school in Florence, and became in 1488 a pupil 
 of Domenico Ghirlandaio. Soon after that date he 
 began to study sculpture in an academy, or garden, which 
 Lorenzo the Magnificent had furnished with antique 
 statues and bas-reliefs, in Florence. He gained the 
 favour of Lorenzo, who about 1490 invited him to be- 
 come an inmate of his palace and treated him with much 
 respect and kindness. Here he enjoyed the society of 
 eminent literary men, one of whom, Angelo Poliziano, 
 (Politian,) became his intimate friend. Among his ear- 
 liest works was a marble bas-relief, the subject of 
 which was "The Battle of Hercules with the Centaurs." 
 This work, which was approved by his own mature judg- 
 ment, is preserved in Florence. His patron, Lorenzo 
 de' Medici, died in 1492, and was succeeded by his de- 
 generate son Piero, by whose order Michael Angelo 
 made a colossal statue of snow. In 1494 he went to 
 Bologna, where he worked about a year. Having re- 
 turned to Florence, he executed a statue of a " Sleeping 
 Cupid," which some person passed off as an antique 
 and sold for a high price to Cardinal San Giorgio. About 
 1497 he produced an admirable marble group, called a 
 " Pieta," representing "The Virgin weeping over the 
 Dead Body of her Son." " In none of his works," says 
 Ernest Breton, "has he displayed more perfect know- 
 ledge of design and anatomy, or more profound truth of 
 expression." (" Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale.") This 
 group now adorns a chapel in the church of Saint Peter 
 at Rome. He found another patron in Pietro Soderini, 
 the gonfaloniere (chief ruler) of Florence, who employed 
 him in sculpture and painting. He executed a gigantic 
 marble statue of the psalmist David, which stands in 
 front of the Palazzo Vecchio, in Florence. He received 
 four hundred ducats for this work, on which he spent 
 about eighteen months and which he finished in 1504. 
 Having been commissioned by Soderini to paint in 
 fresco a historical picture in the hall of the ducal palace, 
 he chose for his subject an event in the war between the 
 Florentines and the people of Pisa. He displayed in the 
 cartoon of this composition a grandeur of style and a 
 knowledge of anatomy which had not been equalled by 
 any modern painter. " Such was the excellence of this 
 work," says Vasari, " that some thought it absolute per- 
 fection." This cartoon has perished, and the painting 
 itself was never begun. Among his early paintings is 
 an oil-picture of the " Holy Family," (about 1504.) He 
 was invited to Rome by Julius II. soon after the acces- 
 sion of that pontiff, who employed him to build his 
 monument or mausoleum. He formed a magnificent 
 design for this work, which design was approved by 
 the pope and has been described by Vasari, but was 
 never completely executed. While they were consulting 
 about a suitable place for the monument, the architect, 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m2t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MICHAEL ANGELO 
 
 ic8i 
 
 MICHALLON 
 
 San Gallo, suggested that a new chapel ought to be 
 built expressly for so superb a mausoleum. The pope 
 concurred in his opinion, and determined to rebuild tlie 
 church of Saint Peter. Thus Michael Angclo's design 
 is said to have been the cause of the erection of the 
 most magnificent church in the world. In 1506 he was 
 offended at the pope because he was not admitted to 
 his presence when he went to the palace on business. 
 He therefore abruptly quitted his service, and retired to 
 Florence. Julius II. sent messengers to bring him back, 
 but he refused to return, until the pope had urged him 
 by several letters and mandates. Michael Angelo wished 
 to finish the monument which he had begun, but Julius 
 had changed his mind, and ordered the great artist to 
 decorate with frescos the ceiling and walls of the Sistine 
 Chapel in the Vatican. He painted in the Sistine Chapel 
 numerous scenes from the book of Genesis, and colossal 
 figures of prophets and sibyls. " From the commence- 
 ment," says Duppa, " to the conclusion of this stupen- 
 dous monument of human genius, twenty months only 
 were employed. So short a time for the completion of 
 so vast a work could hardly be credited, if it were not 
 more difficult to refuse the testimony on which it is 
 supported." It was finished in 15 12. Michael Angelo 
 and Raphael worked in the Vatican at the same time. 
 
 Julius II. died in 1513, and was succeeded by Leo X., 
 who is censured for his illiberal conduct towards Michael 
 Angelo. Leo ordered him to build the facade of the 
 church of San Lorenzo at Florence, and compelled him 
 against his will to spend several years in procuring 
 marble for that purpose. " It is a mortifying reflection." 
 says Duppa, "that the talents of this great man should 
 have been buried and his time consumed, during the 
 whole reign of Leo X., in little else than in raising stone 
 out of a quarry and making a road to convey it to the 
 sea." ("Life of M. Angelo.") Under the patronage 
 of Clement VII., who was elected pope in 1523, he 
 began to build the library and chapel of San Lorenzo, at 
 Florence. He erected fortifications at Florence in 1528 
 or 1529, and aided in the defence of that city against the 
 papal troops. After the accession of Pope Paul III., in 
 1534, Michael Angelo was permitted to resume the 
 monument of Julius II., which he completed on a smaller 
 scale than that which he first designed. It consists of 
 seven statues, one of which represents Moses, and was 
 placed in the church of San Pietro in Vinculo. This 
 statue of Moses is called one of his master-pieces. 
 
 Among his greatest productions is a picture, in fresco, 
 of "The Last Judgment," in the Sistine Chapel, Rome. 
 This work, which occupied him about eight years and 
 comprises nearly three hundred figures, was finished in 
 1541. It presents a confused mass of naked bodies in 
 the most violent attitudes and most admired disorder, 
 and excels chiefly in energy of expression. " In the 
 ' Last Judgment,' " says E. Breton, "one will seek in vain 
 for that celestial light and divine inspiration which ap- 
 pear in the 'Transfiguration, 1 '" (of Raphael.) 
 
 In 1546 he was appointed architect of Saint Peter's 
 Church, which Julius II. began to build about 1506. 
 Michael Angelo accepted this appointment on the con- 
 ditions that he should receive no salary, and that he 
 should deviate from the design of San Gallo, the former 
 architect of the church. He adopted a more simple 
 design, formed a model for the dome, and devoted the 
 remainder of his life chiefly to that grand fabric, but did 
 not live to see it completed. He finished the Farnese 
 palace, which is greatly admired, and is one of the most 
 imposing edifices of modern Rome. In his latter years 
 he adorned the Capitolinc Hill with several fine buildings, 
 among which is the senatorial palace. He was the au- 
 thor of numerous sonnets and other poems, which are 
 distinguished for elegance and purity of style. These 
 were published in 1538, and often reprinted. He never 
 married. He died in Rome in February, 1563, or, ac- 
 cording to some authorities, in 1564. His moral character 
 is represented as good. 
 
 " He was the bright luminary," says Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds, " from whom painting has borrowed a new lustre, 
 under whose hands it assumed a new appearance and 
 became another and superior art, and from whom all 
 his contemporaries and successors have derived what- 
 
 ever they have possessed of the dignified and majestic.'* 
 (" Discourses on Painting," vol. ii.) Comparing him 
 with Raphael, Quatremere de Quincy remarks, " If 
 Michael Angelo is the greatest of draughtsmen, Ratfaello 
 is the first of painters." (" Life of Raffaello.") " In 
 painting," says Duppa, " the great work on which Michael 
 Angelo's fame depends, and, taking it for all in all, the 
 greatest work of his whole life, is the ceiling of the Sis- 
 tine Chapel. . . . His Sibyls and prophets exhibit with 
 variety and energy the colossal powers of his mind. . . . 
 In his great works, his superior abilities are shown in 
 the sublimity of his conceptions and the power and 
 facility with which they are executed." It is doubtful 
 whether any oil-painting by this artist is' now extant. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of Painters and Sculptors ;" Condivi, " Vita 
 di Michelangelo Buonarroti." 1553; Lanzi, " Storia della Fittura ;" 
 Richard Dupca, " Life of Michael Angelo," London, 1S06 ; Vignali, 
 "Vila di Michelangelo," 1753; Hauchecorne, "Vie de Michel- 
 Ange;" Quatremerk DS Quincy, "Vie de Michel-Ange," 1835; 
 Winckelmann, "Neues Mahler- Lexikon ;" Nagler, " Kiinstler- 
 Lexikon ;" Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura ;" H. Cellini, "Me- 
 morie ;" Lannau R01. land, " Michel-Ange Poete ;" J. S. Har- 
 ford, " Life of Michael Angelo," 1856; Marie Henri Beyle, 
 " Histoire de la Peinture en Italie," 2 vols., 1S17, (said to contain 
 an ample and weli-wriuen account of Michael Angelo;) Hermann 
 Grimm, " Michael Angelo's Leben," and English version of the 
 same, London, 2 vols., 1865. 
 
 Michael Angelo delle Battaglie. See Cerquozzi. 
 
 Mi'cbael Feodo'rovitch, (fi-o-do'ro-vitch,) Czar 
 of Russia, born in 1596, was a son of Feodor Romanof. 
 He began to reign in 1613. His rule is said to have 
 been beneficial to Russia. He had two sons and three 
 daughters. Died in 1645. 
 
 See Berch, "Reign of Michael Feodorovitch," (in Russian,) 
 1832; Levesque, " Histoire de Russie." 
 
 Michaeler, me-Ka'eh-ler, (Karl Joseph,) a German 
 historian and scholar, born at Innspruck in 1735; died 
 in 1804. 
 
 Michaelis, me-Ka-a'lis, (Johann Benjamin,) a Ger- 
 man poet, born at Zittau in 1746. He was the author 
 of lyric poems, fables, and satires : the last-named are 
 particularly esteemed. He was intimate with Jacobi and 
 Gleim, and resided with the latter at the .time of his 
 death, (1772.) 
 
 See Schmid, " Leben J. B. Michaelis," 1775. 
 
 Michaelis, (Johann David,) an eminent German 
 theologian and Orientalist, born at Halle in 1 71 7. He 
 studied in the university of his native city, and acquired 
 a profound knowledge of the Hebrew, Syriac, and Chal- 
 dee languages and biblical exegesis. He subsequently 
 visited Holland and England, and was appointed after 
 his return professor of philosophy at Gbttingen, (1745.) 
 In conjunction with Haller, he founded the Society of 
 Sciences in that city, of which he afterwards became 
 director. He was editor of the " Gelehrte Anzeigen," 
 at Gottingen, from 1753 to 1770, and about the same time 
 held the office of librarian at the university. He was the 
 author of " Introduction to the New Testament," ("Ein- 
 leitung in die Gottlichen Schriften des Neuen Bundes," 
 2 vols., 1750,) "Commentaries on the Laws of Moses," 
 (" Das Mosaische Recht," 6 vols., 1770,) and other works, 
 which entitle him to rank among the most learned men 
 of his time. He also published grammars of ttie Hebrew, 
 Syriac, and Chaldee languages, and several valuable 
 treatises on chronology and geography. Michaelis was 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, member of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions, Paris, and privy councillor 
 of Hanover. Died in 1791. 
 
 See J. D. Michaelis, " Lebensbeschreibung von ihm selbst abge- 
 fasst," 1793; C. G.Heyne, " Elogium J. D. Michaelis," 1791I 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Michaelis, (Johann Heinrich,) a German Oriental- 
 ist and theologian, born at Klettenberg, Saxony, in 1668. 
 He taught Hebrew, Greek, and Chaldee at Halle, and 
 became professor of theology at that place about 1709. 
 He wrote works on philology, etc. Died in 1738. 
 
 Michailowski. See Mikhailofski. 
 
 Michallon, me'shj'loN', (Achille Etna,) a French 
 painter, born in Paris in 1796. He gained the first prize 
 in 1817, and went to Rome with a pension. Died in 1822. 
 
 Michallon, (Claude,) a French sculptor, the fathe, 
 of the preceding, was born at Lyons about 1751 He 
 studied at Rome. Died in 1799. 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as *; th as in this. (*J^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MICHJUD 
 
 1582 
 
 MI CHE LI US 
 
 Midland, me'sho', (Claude Ignace Francois,) an 
 able French general, born near the Jura Mountains in 
 1 753. He became general of division in 1793, and in 
 1794 succeeded Pichegru as commander-in-chief of the 
 arm) of the Rhine. In the same year he gained victories 
 at Kaiserslautem, Mannheim, and other places. From 
 1806 to 1813 he was Governor of the Hanse towns. 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 Michaud, (Joseph Francois,) a distinguished French 
 writer and journalist, born in Savoy in 1767. Soon after 
 the breaking out of the French Revolution he repaired 
 to Paris, where he was associate editor for many years 
 of the royalist journals the "Gazette Franchise" and 
 "La Quotidienne." In 1811 he began, in conjunction 
 with his brother, the publication of the celebrated "Bio- 
 graphie Universelle," (completed in 1840, 85 vols. 8vo,) 
 which numbered among its contributors the most emi- 
 nent literary and scientific men of France. Michaud 
 was the author of an excellent " History of the Crusades," 
 (6 vols., 1841,) a poem entitled "The Spring-Time of an 
 Exile," which had great popularity, and other works in 
 prose and verse, besides a number of contributions to 
 the " Biographie Universelle." He was for many years 
 a prominent bookseller and publisher in Paris. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 See Vn.i.KNEUVK, "Notice historioue sur ^ Michaud," 1839; 
 Saints Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ; "Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 view ' for February, 1830. 
 
 Michaud, (Louis Gabriel,) a French littlratenr, born 
 at Boiirg-en-Bresse in 1772. He was a brother of the 
 preceding, in conjunction with whom he established a 
 printing-house in Paris, from which issued the principal 
 royalist publications of the time. He was the author 
 of'a "Historical Picture of the First Wars of Napoleon 
 Bonaparte," " History of Saint-Simonism," etc., and 
 made numerous contributions to the " Biographie Uni- 
 verselle." Died in 1858. 
 
 Michault, me'sho', (Jean Bernard,) a French phi- 
 lologist and bibliographer, born at Dijon in 1707; died 
 in 1770. 
 
 Michaux, me'sho', (Andr6,) a distinguished French 
 botanist and traveller, born at Versailles in 1746. After 
 having traversed Persia and other countries, he was sent 
 by the government to North America in 1785 for the 
 purpose of collecting trees and plants. For about eleven 
 years he thoroughly explored the botanical productions 
 of the United States, Canada, etc., with a courage and 
 energy which no danger or difficulty could overcome. 
 In 1796 he returned to France with his collections, and 
 prepared his " Description of the Oaks of North Amer- 
 ica," (1801.) He accompanied Baudin's scientific ex- 
 pedition to Australia in 180c, and, while pursuing his 
 researches in Madagascar, he died of fever in 1802. 
 He left a " Flora of North America," (" Flora Boreali- 
 Americana," 2 vols., 1803,) which for many years was 
 the most complete that had appeared. Both of his works 
 are adorned with excellent engravings by Redoute. 
 
 See Cubieres, " Notice sur F. A. Michaux," 1807 : " Edinburgh 
 Review" for October, 1805 ; " Monthly Review" for November, 1806; 
 "North American Review" for April, 1858. 
 
 Michee,*the French for Micah, which see. 
 
 Michel, the French for Michael, which see. 
 
 Michel, me'shil', (Claude Ettenne, ) a French 
 general of division, born at Pointre in 1772. He was 
 killed at Waterloo, June, 1815. 
 
 Michel, (Francisque XaviEr,) a French archaeolo- 
 gist, born at Lyons in 1809. He published editions of 
 the " Romance of the Violet," (1834,) " Song of Roland," 
 (1837,) "Anglo-Norman Chronicle," and other works 
 of the middle ages. 
 
 Michel, (Jean,) a French physician and dramatic 
 poet. He enjoyed a high reputation in his time, and 
 was appointed first physician to the king, Charles VIII. 
 Died about 1493. 
 
 Michel, (Jean Baptists,) a French engraver, born 
 in Paris in 1748, resided many years in London, where 
 he enjoyed a high reputation. Died in 1804. 
 
 See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Michel, (Robert,) a French sculptor, born at Puy 
 in 1720, worked mostly in Spain. Died at Madrid in 
 1785. 
 
 Michel-Ange. See Michael Angei.o. 
 
 Michelangelo or Michelagnolo. See Michael 
 Angelo. 
 
 Michel de Bourges, me'shSK deh booRzh, an elo- 
 quent French advocate, born at Aix in 1798 ; died in 1853. 
 
 Miohel de Tours, me'shJi' deh toon, (Guillaumk,) 
 a French poet, who lived about 1500, was the author of 
 a work entitled "The Forest of Conscience," (1516.) 
 
 Michelburne, mlk'el-burn,? (Sir Edward,) an Kng- 
 lish navigator, born about 1574. He sailed in 1604, with 
 John Davis, on a vovage to the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Michelet, mesh'kV, (Jules,) an eminent French his- 
 torian, born in Paris in 1798. He was chosen chief of 
 the historical department of the archives of France in 
 1830, before which he had published several historical 
 works for schools. About 1832 he was appointed the 
 substitute or successor of Guizot as professor of history 
 at the Sorbonne. He published in 1831 a "Roman 
 History: the Republic," and in 1833 trie mst volume 
 of his " History of France." In 1838 he obtained the 
 chair of history and moral science in the College of 
 France, and was elected a member of the Academy of 
 Moral and Political Sciences. He distinguished himself 
 as an adversary of the Jesuits and of Romanism. After the 
 coup-d^itat of December, 1851, refusing to take the oath, 
 he lost his place in the archives, and his chair in the 
 College of France. His principal works are a " His- 
 tory of the French Revolution," (7 vols., 1847-53,) a 
 "History of France," (14 vols., 1833-62,) "Love," 
 (" L'Amour," 1858,) and " Woman," (" La Femme," 
 1S59.) These have been translated into English and 
 often reprinted. His histories present a profusion of 
 poetical images, with a brilliant style and ingenious 
 generalizations. He also published "The Sea," ("La 
 Mer," 1861,) and "The Bible of Humanity," ("La Bible 
 de 1'Humanite," 1864.) 
 
 See L. Louvet, "Eludes biograpliiques : M. Michelet;" "For- 
 eign Quarterly Review" for July, 1840; "Edinburgh Review" for 
 January, 1844. 
 
 Michelet, mesh'eh-li', (Karl Ludyvig,) a distin- 
 guished German philosopher of the school of Hegel, was 
 born at Berlin in 1801. He was appointed in 1825 pro- 
 fessor of philosophy and philology in the French gym- 
 nasium at Berlin, and in 1829 obtained the chair of 
 philosophy in the university. He published " The Ethics 
 of Aristotle in their Relation to the System of Morality," 
 (1827,) "Critical Examination of Aristotle's Metaphys- 
 ics," (in French, 1836,) which was crowned by the Acad- 
 emy of Moral Sciences of Paris, " History of the Last 
 Systems of Philosophy in Germany, from Kant to Hegel," 
 ( 18 3 7, ) and other works of a high reputation. 
 
 Micheli, me-ka'lee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, 
 called Andrea Viceniino, born atVicenzain 1539. He 
 was a good colorist, but lacked invention. Died in 1614. 
 
 Micheli, (Domenico,) a Venetian statesman, became 
 Doge of Venice in 1 1 17. He conducted a fleet in a cru- 
 sade to Palestine in 1 123, atid took Tyre in 1124. Died 
 in 1 130. 
 
 Micheli, me-ka'lee, or Michieli, me-ke-a'lee, [Lat. 
 Miche'i.ius,] (Pikro Antonio,) an eminent Italian 
 botanist, born at Florence in 1S79, was appointed by 
 Cosimo de' Medici superintendent of his botanical garden. 
 He gave particular attention to the classification of the 
 mosses, fungi, and lichens. His principal work, pub- 
 lished in 1729, is entitled "Nova Plantarum Genera," in 
 folio, with plates, and is praised in high terms by Haller. 
 Linnaeus has named the genus Michelia in honour of 
 this botanist. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Cocchi. " Elogio di P. A. Micheli," 1737: Cuvier, " His- 
 toire des Sciences naturelles;" G. Maksim, " Di P. A. Micheli 
 botanico insigne," 1845 ; Fabroni, " Vitse Italorum," etc. 
 
 Micheli, (Vitai.e,) a Venetian commander, elected 
 Doge of Venice in 1096, sent a large fleet to co-operate 
 with the leaders of the first crusade. Died in 1102. 
 
 See Daru, " Hisroire de Venise." 
 
 Micheli du Crest, mesh'le'du kRi, (Jacques Bar- 
 Tllfil.EMY,) a Swiss mathematician and astronomer, born 
 at Geneva in 1690, published, among other works, a 
 "Description of a Universal Thermometer," of which 
 he was the inventor. Died in 1766. 
 
 Michelius. See Micheli. 
 
 a, e, 1, 5 y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
MICHELOT 
 
 1,-83 
 
 M1DDLET0N 
 
 Michelot, mishit/, (Piekrk Marie Joseph,) a 
 French actor, bom in Paris in 1785 ; died in 1856. 
 
 Miclielozzi, mc-ka-lot'see, or Michelozzo, me-ka- 
 lot'so, a Florentine sculptor and architect, was a pupil 
 of Brunelleschi. Me furnished the design for the Ric- 
 cardi palace and for the chapel of the Annunciation at 
 Florence. Died in 1470. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters, Architects," etc, ; Quatre- 
 merk UK Quincy, "Vies des Architectes illustres." 
 
 Michelsen, me'Kel-sen, (Andreas Ludwig Jakob,) 
 a German jurist and historian, born in Sleswick in 1801, 
 became professor of law at Jena in 1842. 
 
 Michelson, mee'Kel-son, (Ivan,) a famous Russian 
 general, born in Livonia in 1735 ; died in 1807. 
 
 Michiel, me-ke-eV, (Gh'siina Keniek,) a learned 
 Italian lady, born at Venice in 1755. She translated 
 "Macbeth and "Othello" into Italian, and published 
 " Feste Veneziane," (5 vols., 1817-27.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Michieli. .See Michkli. 
 
 Michiels, me'she-SI', (JosErH Alfred Xavier,) a 
 French litterateur, bom at Rome in 1813. He published, 
 besides various other works, a " History of Flemish and 
 Dutch Painting," (4 vols., 1S45.) 
 
 Ml-gip'sa, [Or. Mactyafej King of Numidia, was a 
 son of Masinissa, at whose death, in 148 B.C., the king- 
 dom was divided between Micipsa and his brothers, 
 Gulussa and Mastanabal. After the death of these two, 
 who survived their father but a short time, he was king 
 of all Numidia. He was an ally of the Romans. Died 
 in 11S B.C. 
 
 Mickiewicz, mlts-ke-5'vitch, (Adam,) a celebrated 
 Polish poet, born in Lithuania in 1798. He studied at 
 the University of Wilna, where he became intimate with 
 several distinguished patriots and joined the secret 
 societies opposed to the Russian government. He pub- 
 lished in 1822 a collection of poems, which at once es- 
 tablished his reputation as the greatest poet his country 
 had produced. He was banished in 1824 to the interior 
 of Russia, on a charge of conspiring against the govern- 
 ment, and while residing at Odessa wrote his "Crimean 
 Sonnets." Having been permitted to leave Russia, in 
 1828 he visited Germany and Rome, and in 1834 took 
 up his residence in Paris. He was appointed in 1840 
 professor of the Slavonic language and literature in 
 the College of France, where he lectured for a time 
 with great success. His subsequent connection with the 
 Polish fanatic Towianski, who inculcated the worship of 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, deprived him of his popularity, 
 and he was ordered to quit Paris by the government. 
 He was sent by Louis Napoleon on a mission to 
 Constantinople in 1855, and died soon after his arrival. 
 His principal works are his " Grajina," a historic pic- 
 ture of Lithuania in early times, " Konrad Wallenrod," 
 (1830,) the "Ancestors," (" Dziady," 1832,) — in the first 
 part of which he gives the story of his unfortunate at- 
 tachment to the sister of a fellow-student, and in the 
 latter describes his imprisonment at Wilna, — and " Pan 
 Tadeusz," (1S33.) 
 
 See L. de Lomeme, " Galerie des Contemporains;"_ George 
 Sand, " Es*ai snr ie Drame fantastique ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate ;" "A. Mickiewicz; eine biographische Skizze," 1857; 
 " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1838. 
 
 Mickle or Meikle, mlk'el, (William Julius,) a 
 Scottish poet and translator, born in Dumfriess-shire in 
 1734. Having visited London in 1763, he published 
 several poems, which obtained for him the patronage of 
 Lord I.vttleton, and in 1775 brought out his translation 
 of the " Lusiad" of Camoens. It had great popularity 
 in England, and procured for him the honour of ad- 
 mission to the Royal Academy of Lisbon. This work, 
 however, is far from being a faithful version of the origi- 
 nal ; and Hallam observes that Mickle's " Infidelities in 
 translation exceed all liberties ever taken in this way." 
 He also published several popular ballads, one of which*, 
 entitled "Cumnor Hall," suggested to Sir Walter Scott 
 his romance of " Kenilworth." Died in 1788. 
 
 See Gary, " Lives of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke 
 White ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men ;" "Monthly Review" for September, 1771, and April, May, 
 and Ju:y, 1776. 
 
 Mi'con, [Gr. Wkuv,] an eminent Athenian painter 
 and sculptor, flourished about the middle of the fifth 
 
 century B.C. He was chosen by his countrymen to paint 
 the walls of the temple of Theseus at Athens. His 
 pictures representing the battles of the Amazons and 
 Centaurs were especially admired for the skill displayed 
 in the delineation of the horses. There were several 
 other Greek artists named Micon. 
 
 Micielius or Micraelius, me-kRa'le-us, (Johann,) 
 a German historical writer, born at Coslin in 1597. He 
 taught philosophy at Stettin, and published, besides 
 other works, "Lexicon Philosophicnm," (1653,) and 
 "Royal Political Science," (" Regia Politica Scientia," 
 i6s4) Died in 1658. 
 
 Mi'das, [Gr. Miliar,] a Phrygian king, who, according 
 to tradition, requested of Bacchus that all he touched 
 might turn to gold, and was gratified by the grant of that 
 wish. Being thus in danger of starvation, he could 
 only escape the curse he had brought upon himself by 
 bathing in the Pactolus, which ever after flowed with 
 sands of gold. It is also related of him that, having 
 decided in favour of Pan in his musical contest with 
 Apollo, Midas's ears were changed to those of an ass, 
 which he endeavoured to conceal. They were at length 
 discovered by a servant, who, unable to retain the secret, 
 whispered it in a pit in the ground, and the reeds which 
 grew around the spot revealed his disgrace, murmuring 
 in the winds the words, " King Midas has asses' ears." 
 This fable was a favourite theme with the Athenian 
 dramatists. 
 
 Middelburg, de, deh mid'del-buRH', (Paul,) a 
 Dutch mathematician and writer, born at Middelburg in 
 1445, became professor of mathematics at Padua. He 
 was made Bishop of Fossombrone in 1494. Died in 
 
 '534- 
 
 Middendorp, van, vfn mid'den-doRp', (Jakob,) a 
 Dutch historian, born in Overyssel in 1537. His his- 
 tories are not reliable. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Mid'dl-man, (Samuel,) an English engraver, born 
 in 1746. He engraved landscapes with success. Died 
 in 1818. 
 
 Mid'dle-tpn, (Arthur,) an American statesman, 
 born in South Carolina, succeeded Nicholson as governc 
 of that colony in 1 725. 
 
 Middleton, (Arthur,) an American patriot of the 
 Revolution, born in South Carolina in 1743, was one 
 of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He 
 took the degree of A.B. at Cambridge, England, and 
 after his return was a delegate from his native State to 
 the United States Congress in 1776. He was subse- 
 quently re-elected in 1782. Died in 1787. 
 
 See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence." • 
 
 Mid'dle-ton,(CoNVERS,)a celebrated English scholar, 
 divine, and controversialist, born in Yorkshire in 1683. 
 He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he 
 became a Fellow in 1706. He was created D.D. in 171 7, 
 on which occasion he opposed the claims of Bentley (then 
 regius professor of divinity) to an exorbitant fee. A law- 
 suit followed, in which Bentley was defeated. Middleton 
 published, soon after, "A Full and Impartial Account 
 of the Proceedings in the University of Cambridge against 
 Dr. Bentley," which, though highly vindictive in its 
 tone, is esteemed a master-piece of English style. He 
 was appointed chief librarian of the university about 
 1720. Having visited Italy in 1724, he published, after 
 his return, his "Letter from Rome," (1729,) in which he 
 maintains that "the religion of the present Romans is 
 derived from their heathen ancestors." Having brought 
 upon himself the charge of infidelity by this work and 
 succeeding publications, he wrote a pamphlet in defence 
 of his orthodoxy, which, however, failed to remove the 
 unfavourable impression he had made. He brought 
 out in 1 741 his " History of the Life of M. T. Cicero," 
 which, though marred with some grave defects, was 
 received with extraordinary favour. "Never," says 
 Macaulay, " was there a character which it was easier to 
 read than that of Cicero. Never was there a mind 
 keener or more critical than that of Middleton. But the 
 great Iconoclast was himself an idolater, and, while he 
 disputed with no small ability the claims of Cyprian and 
 Athanasius to a place in the calendar, was himself com- 
 posing a lying legend in honour of Saint Tully." In 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MIDDLETON 
 
 1584 
 
 M1ERIS 
 
 1749 lie published " A Free Inquiry into the Miraculous 
 Powers of the Christian Church," in which he insists 
 that the Protestant clergy should deny the authority of 
 the Fathers entirely, or admit the truth of the leading 
 Catholic doctrines. Died in 1750. 
 
 See " Encyclopedia Britannica :" E. Middle-ton, "Evangelical 
 Biography;" Chalmers, "Biographical Dictionary;" " Biographia 
 Britannica." 
 
 Middleton, (Edward,) an English gentleman, born 
 at Twickenham, settled in South Carolina, and was the 
 founder of a family which produced several distinguished 
 statesmen. 
 
 Middleton, (Erasmus,) an English writer, published 
 a " Dictionary of Arts and Sciences," and a collection 
 of lives of eminent Protestant theologians, entitled 
 " Biographia Evangelica." Died in 1805. 
 
 Middleton, (Henry,) son of Arthur Middleton, 
 Governor of South Carolina, was president of Congress 
 
 in 1775- 
 
 Middleton, (Sir Henry,) an English navigator, born 
 about 1570, entered the service of the East India Com- 
 pany. In 1610 he conducted an expedition to Mocha, 
 Surat, and Bantam. Died in 161 5. 
 
 Middleton. (Henry,) an American statesman under 
 the administration of President Monroe, was elected 
 Governor of South Carolina, and in 1820 was minister 
 to Russia. Died in 1846. His son Henry, bom in Paris 
 in 1797, has published several political treatises. 
 
 Middleton, (Sir Hugh,) a wealthy citizen of London, 
 born about 1565, is chiefly known from the important 
 service he rendered to London by uniting two streams in 
 Hertfordshire and Middlesex, for supplying the city with 
 water. The stream formed by this junction, called the 
 New River, was conveyed a distance of about thirty-eight 
 miles. He was made a baronet in 1622. Died in 1631. 
 
 See Lysons, " Environs of London." 
 
 Middleton, (John Izard,) son of Arthur, noticed 
 above, (1743-87,) was born in 1785. He wrote a work 
 entitled "The Cyclopean Walls." Died in 1849. 
 
 Middleton, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, flou- 
 rished during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., and 
 Charles I. Nothing is known of his life, except that he 
 was chronologer to the city of London in 1620. Two 
 of his principal plays are entitled " A Mad World, my 
 Masters," and "The Roaring Girl." The latter is said 
 to be a true picture of London life at that time. Mid- 
 dleton also assisted Rowley, Fletcher, and Jonson in 
 the composition of several of their plays. One of his 
 dramas, entitled " The Witch," is supposed to have fur- 
 nished Shakspeare with the witch-scenes in "Macbeth." 
 Died about 1626. 
 
 See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" Baker, 
 " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Middleton, (Thomas Fanshawe,) D.D.,an English 
 prelate, born in Derbyshire in 1769. He took his degree 
 in 1808, and was appointed Archdeacon of Huntingdon 
 in 1812. Soon after this the government having decided 
 to constitute a bishopric in India, Dr. Middleton was 
 consecrated first Bishop of Calcutta, in 1814. Having 
 previously been made a Fellow of the Royal Society, he 
 set sail for India. He laid the foundation of the Bishops' 
 College at Calcutta, in 1820, and established a consistory 
 courHn that city. While zealously engaged in his duties, 
 he was attacked! with a fever, of which he died in 1822. 
 His principal work is entitled "The Doctrine of- the 
 Greek Article applied to the Criticism and Illustration 
 of the New Testament." 
 
 See the " Life of Thomas Fanshawe Middleton," by C. W. Le 
 Bas ; " Monthly Review" for May, 1810 et seq. 
 
 Mid'gard's* Serpent, (or MiSgartSsormr, mith'- 
 garthz-oRmr',) called also the World-Serpent, and 
 Jormungand, in the Norse mythology, the great serpent 
 which surrounds the world, the offspring of Loki and 
 the female Jotun Angurboda, (AngrboBa.) The gods, 
 having learned that the children of Loki and An- 
 gurboda were destined at some future day to be fatal to 
 them, determined to get possession of those children 
 while they were still young. They were accordingly 
 
 * Midgard (" middle-ward") was originally applied _ to_ man's 
 dwelling-place in the middle of the universe, and hence signifies the 
 "world." 
 
 brought, and Midgard's Serpent was cast into the 
 ocean, where it grew till it encircled the world, biting 
 its own tail. At the end of the world (Ragnarock) the 
 world-serpent will fight among the enemies of the gods 
 and be slain by Thor, who, however, will die immediately 
 afterwards from the effect of its venom. The myth of 
 the world-serpent is supposed to signify the deep or main 
 ocean, which, excited by Loki, (subterranean fire or earth- 
 quake,) is thrown upon the land, thus proving scarcely 
 less fatal to the works of man than the direct action of 
 volcanic fire, represented under the form of Fenrir, 
 (which see.) 
 
 For further particulars, the reader mav consult Thorpe's" North- 
 ern Mythologv," vol. i. ; Mallet's "Northern Antiquities," vol. 
 ii., Fables XVI., XXV.. XXVI., XXVII.; Keyser's " Religion 
 of the Northmen ;" and Petersen's " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Mieczyslaw, me-Stch'is-lav, |Lat. Miccisla'us or 
 Micisi.a'us,] I., surnamed the Glorious, called also 
 Miesko, (me-eVI<Oj) Duke of Poland, was born at Posen 
 in 931. Having become converted to Christianity, he 
 showed great zeal in its promulgation and the extirpa- 
 tion of paganism. He died in 992. A monument, by 
 Rauch, was erected to his memory at Posen. 
 
 See Kadi.ubeck, "Annales;" Seidel, " Von dem ersten christ- 
 lichen Polnischen FUrsten Miecislas," 1752. 
 
 Mieczyslaw or Miesko II., King of Poland, born 
 in 990, succeeded to the throne in 1025. He was de- 
 ficient in talent and energy, and lost a considerable por- 
 tion of his territory to the Germans and Hungarians. 
 He died in 1034, and was succeeded by his son, Casimir I. 
 
 Miel, meel, or Meel, mi), (Jan,) or Giovanni deli.o 
 Vite, (jo-van'nee del'lo vee'ta,) a celebrated Flemish 
 painter, born near Antwerp in 1599. He was a pupil 
 of Andrea Sacchi, but he afterwards adopted the style 
 of Bamboccio. His favourite subjects were pastoral and 
 hunting scenes, gypsies, beggars, and carnivals, in which 
 he has never been surpassed. He was patronized by 
 Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, who made him his 
 painter and presented him with a diamond cross of 
 great value. Many of the best works of this artist are 
 in the Imperial Gallery at Vienna. Died in 1664. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; C. Blanc, 
 " Histoire des Peintres ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Mielle, me'41', (Jean FRANgois,) a French litterateur, 
 bom at Dole in 1757. Among his works is a " History 
 of Portugal," (10 vols., 1828,) in which he was associated 
 with Fortia d'Urban. Died in 1839. 
 
 Mierevelt or Miereveld, mee'reh-v51t', (Michiel 
 Jansen,) a Dutch portrait-painter, born at Delft in 1567, 
 was a pupil of Blocklandt. His works are esteemed 
 master-pieces of the kind, and, though very numerous, 
 are finished with exceeding delicacy and precision. His 
 portraits are stated by Sandrart to have amounted to 
 more than ten thousand. Mierevelt belonged to the 
 sect of Mennonites, but, in consideration of his genius, 
 was allowed the free exercise of his religion. Among 
 his best portraits we may name those of Grotius, Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus, William the Silent, Prince of Orange, 
 Ambrose Spinola, Constantine Huyghens, the grand 
 pensionary Barneveldt, Admiral de Coligny, Maurice of 
 Nassau, the Dutch poet Jacob Cats, and the Duke of 
 Buckingham. Died in 1641. 
 
 See Pilkington. " Dictionary of Painters;" Descamps, "Vies 
 des Peintres Hollandais;" Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Mieris, mee'ris, (Frans,) called the Elder, a cele- 
 brated Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1635, was a 
 pupil of Gerard Douw, who called him the prince of his 
 disciples. His works are principally domestic scenes, 
 conversation-pieces, and interiors of palaces, and are 
 distinguished by great brilliancy of colouring and skilful 
 imitation of velvet, satin, and other rich materials. 
 Among his master-pieces we may name "The Silk-Mer- 
 chant," which was purchased by the archduke Leopold 
 William of Austria for one thousand florins, a " Young 
 Girl Painting," an " Assembly of Ladies," bought by the 
 Grand Duke of Tuscanv for one thousand dollars, a 
 " Lady at her Toilet," " The Pearl-Stringer," " The Silk- 
 Store," "Lady playing with a Parrot," and "The Sick 
 Woman." Died in 1681. 
 
 See Smith, "Catalogue of the Most Eminent Dutch, Flemish, 
 and French Painters ;" Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres ;" 
 Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate." 
 
 5, e, 1, 5, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
MIER1S 
 
 IS85 
 
 M1KHAIL0FSK1 
 
 Miens, (Frans,) the Younger, son of Willem, 
 noticed below, was born at Leyden in 1689. He was a 
 skilful artist, but is better known as a scholar and writer. 
 Among his works is his " History and Ecclesiastical 
 Antiquities of the Seven United Provinces," (1726.) 
 Died in 1763. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Mieris, (Jan,) son of Frans the Elder, was born at 
 Leyden in 1660. He painted portraits and historical 
 pieces of great merit. Died in 1690. 
 
 Mieris, van, vSn mee'ris, (Willem,) son of Frans 
 the Elder, was born at Leyden in 1662. He studied 
 under his father, whose style he adopted. Among his 
 best pictures are a " Dutch Kitchen," a " Game-Mer- 
 chant," and " Armida and Kinaldo." Died in 1747. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Mieroslawski, me-a-ro-slav'skee, (Louis,) the son 
 of a Polish officer and a French lady, was born in France 
 in 1813. He wrote, in French, a " History of the Polish 
 Revolution," (1837,) and a number of historical and 
 political works in Polish. 
 
 Mierre, Le. See Lemierre. 
 
 Mifflin, (Thomas,) an American patriot and officer 
 of the Revolution, was born at Philadelphia in 1744. 
 He was a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1774, 
 became first aide-de-camp to Washington in 1775, served 
 with distinction at Long Island and Trenton, and rose 
 to the rank of major-general in 1777. He succeeded 
 Franklin in 1788 as president of the supreme executive 
 council of Pennsylvania. He was a member of the 
 Convention which framed the Constitution of the United 
 States in 1787. He was Governor of Pennsylvania from 
 1790 to 1799. Died at Lancaster in 1800. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Miger, me'zha', (Pierre Auguste Marie,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Lyons in 1771 ; died in 1837. 
 
 Migliara, mel-va'ra, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, 
 born in Piedmont'in 1785. He excelled in landscapes, 
 perspective, and architectural views. Among his best 
 works are the "Cathedral of Milan," "Charles V. in a 
 Convent," and " Interior of the Church of Saint Am- 
 brose." Died in 1837. 
 
 SeeTiPALDO, "Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" "Westminster 
 Review" for April, 1841. 
 
 Migliorati. See Innocent VII. 
 
 Mignard, men'yaV, (Nicolas,) a French painter, 
 engraver, and architect, born at Troyes in 1608. He was 
 patronized by the Cardinal Archbishop of Lyons, brother 
 of Richelieu, whom he accompanied to Rome in 1644. 
 He painted portraits of Louis XIV. and his queen, and 
 adorned the Tuileries with several historical pictures of 
 
 freat merit. His engravings are also highly esteemed, 
 n 1663 he was appointed professor in the Academy of 
 Painting. He died in 1668, leaving two sons, Pierre 
 and Paul, who were artists of considerable merit. 
 
 See R. Dumesnil. " I.e Peintre Graveur Francais ;" Renouvier, 
 "Des Types et Manieres des Maitres-Graveurs." 
 
 Mignard, (Pierre,) sumamed the Roman, one of 
 the most eminent painters of the French school, was 
 a brother of the preceding, and was born at Troyes in 
 1610. He studied in Paris under Simon Vouet, and in 
 1635 visited Rome, where he met with Poussin, Claude 
 Lorrain, Dufresnoy, arid other celebrated artists residing 
 in that citv. On his return to Paris, in 1658, he was pa- 
 tronized by Louis XIV., whose portrait he painted many 
 times. He was also employed to decorate the palaces 
 of Versailles and Saint-Cloud. On the death of Le Brnn 
 lie was appointed painter to the king, and director of the 
 Gobelin Manufactory. Mignard was ennobled by Louis 
 XIV., and became successively rector, chancellor, and 
 director of the Academy of Painting. Died in 1695. 
 
 See De Mohvill*, "Vie de Misnard ;" Robert DuMIWKIL, 
 "Le Peintre-Graveur Francais:" CitAltt.BS Blanc, " His'oire des 
 Peintres ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Mignault, men'yo', (Claude,) better known by the 
 name of Minos,» a learned French writer, born near 
 
 • It may be proper to remind the reader that the final s in Latin 
 mnd Greek names is sounded in French, contrary to the general rule 
 of French pronunciation. 
 
 e 03 k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 IOO 
 
 Dijon about 1536. He edited several Latin classic 
 authors, and published "Alciati Emblemata cum Notis 
 Minois," (1574,) often reprinted. Died in 1606. 
 
 Mignet, mtn'yi', (Francois Auguste Marie,) a dis- 
 tinguished French historian, born at Aix, May 8, 1796. 
 He was educated at the College of Avignon, and studied 
 law in his. native city, where M. Thiers was his fellow- 
 student. Having removed to Paris in 1821, he became 
 editor of the " Courrier Francais." He brought out in 
 1824 his " History of the French Revolution from 1789 
 to 1814," (2 vols. 8vo,) which had extraordinary success 
 and was translated into the principal European lan- 
 guages. In 1830 he was associated with Thiers and 
 Armand Carrel as editor of the " National," and was 
 one of the journalists who protested against the sub- 
 version of the freedom of the press by the edict of July, 
 1830. He was soon after appointed archivist in the 
 ministry of foreign affairs, and councillor of state. He 
 was elected a member of the Academy of Moral and 
 Political Sciences in 1832, and in 1837 became perpetual 
 secretary of that institution, and succeeded Raynouard 
 in the French Academy. Mignet published, besides the 
 history above named, "Introduction to the Negotiations, 
 relative to the Spanish Succession under Louis XIV.," 
 (1842,) "Antonio Perez and Philip II.," (1845,) "His 
 tory of Mary Stuart," (1851,) " Charles Quint, son Abdi- 
 cation, son Sejour et sa Mort au Monastere de Yuste," 
 (1854,) which has been highly commended, and "Eloges 
 historiques," (1864.) 
 
 See Sainte-Bkuve, " Revue des Deux Mondes" for March, 1845 : 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" " Edinburgh Review" for Janu- 
 ary, 1849; " Fraser's Magazine" for October, :S66. 
 
 Mignon, m&n'y6N', written also Minjon or Minion, 
 (Abraham,) a German painter, born at Frankfort in 1639, 
 was celebrated for his exquisite representations of flowers, 
 fruit, insects, birds, etc. His works are esteemed second 
 only to those of Van Huysum. Among his master- 
 pieces is a " Cat overturning a Vase of Flowers on a 
 Marble Table." Died in 1679. 
 
 See Descamps. "Vies des Peintres Allemands," etc. 
 
 Mignot, men'yo', (Etiennf.,) a learned French ec- 
 clesiastic, bom in Paris in 1698, published a number of 
 works on theology and church government. He was 
 chosen a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 
 1761. Died in 1771. 
 
 Mignot, (Vincent,) a French writer, born in Pans 
 about 1725, was a nephew of Voltaire. He published a 
 "History of the Ottoman Empire from its Origin to the 
 Peace of Belgrade in 1740," (1771,) and other historical 
 works. Died in 1740. 
 
 See Grimm, " Correspondence." 
 
 Miguel, me-gel', (Dom or Don Maria Evaristo,) 
 a Portuguese prince, born in Lisbon in 1802. was a 
 younger son of John VI. He became the head of the 
 absolutist party, and in 1828 usurped the throne, the 
 lawful heir of which was his niece, Dona Maria. The 
 partisans of this queen maintained her title by arms, 
 and were aided by her father, Don Pedro, and Admiral 
 Napier. Miguel was defeated in several actions, and 
 was expelled from Spain in Mav, 1834. 
 
 Mih-Teih, mih.ta', or Me-T?eih, an eminent Chinese 
 philosopher, who lived about 400 B.C. Dr. Legge says 
 of him that he was an original thinker, and exercised a 
 bolder judgment on things than Confucius or any of his 
 followers. He taught that all the evils in society arise 
 from the want of mutual universal love. For example, 
 a prince loves only his own state, and does not love the 
 neighbouring state. Therefore he makes war against it. 
 "If princes," he asked, "regarded other states as their 
 own, who would begin a war ? If every one regarded 
 his neighbour's person as his own, who would be found 
 to rob? If universal love prevailed, all enmities, usur- 
 pations, and miseries would disappear. Princes, loving 
 one another, would have no battle-fields ; the chiefs 
 of families, loving one another, would attempt no usur- 
 pations ; men, loving one another, would commit no 
 robberies." 
 
 See Dr. Legge, " Chinese Classics," vol. ii. chap. iii. 
 
 Mikhailofski Danilefski or Michailowski Dani- 
 lewski, me-Ka'e-loPskee da-ne-lef'skee, (Alexander 
 
 (3y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MIKLOSICH 
 
 1586 
 
 MILL 
 
 Ivanovitch,) a Russian general and historical writer, 
 born in 1790, served with distinction in the principal 
 campaigns against the French from 1812 to 1815, and in 
 the Turkish war of 1829. He published, among other 
 works, an " Account of the Campaign in France in 1814." 
 Died in 1848. 
 
 Mlklosich, mik'lo-ziK', (Franz,) a German linguist, 
 profoundly versed in the Slavonian language, born at 
 Luttenberg, in Styria, in 1813. Among his principal 
 works are a "Lexicon of the Old Slavonian Language," 
 (in Latin, 1850,) and a "Comparative Grammar of the 
 Slavonian Language," (unfinished,) which "promises to 
 be for the Slavonian what the great work of Grimm is 
 for the German dialects." (Brockhaus.) 
 
 Milani, me-la'nee, (Aurelio or Aureliano,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1675, was a success- 
 ful imitator of the style of the Caracci. Died in 1749. 
 
 Milano, da, da nte-la'no, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 painter, was a native of Milan. He was a favourite pupil 
 of Taddeo Gaddi, whom he assisted in several important 
 works. He lived about 1370-90. 
 
 Milbourne, mil'biirn, (Luke,) an English writer and 
 divine, born in 1667, published a " Poetical Translation 
 of the Psalms," (1698,) " Notes on Dryden's Virgil," and 
 other works. He is one of the authors satirized in 
 Pope's "Dunciad." Died in 1720. 
 
 See Johnson, "Life of Dryden ;" Malone's edition of the 
 Works of Dryden. 
 
 Mil'burn, (William Henry,) a Methodist divine, 
 known as "the Blind Preacher," born at Philadelphia in 
 1823. Having visited England in 1859, he gave lectures 
 in the principal cities, and attracted large audiences by 
 his eloquence. He published "Ten Years of Preacher 
 Life," (1859,) and "The Pioneers and People of the 
 Mississippi Valley," (i860.) 
 
 Mild'may, (Sir Walter,) an eminent English states- 
 man and scholar, born in 1522, was distinguished by the 
 favour of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and held the 
 office of chancellor of the exchequer under Elizabeth 
 for more than twenty years. He was a liberal patron 
 of learning, and founded Emanuel College, Cambridge. 
 Died in 1589. 
 
 Miles, milz, (Dixon H.,) an American officer, born in 
 Maryland about 1803, graduated at West Point in 1824. 
 He became a colonel in 1859, and served at Bull Run, 
 July 21, 1861. He commanded at Harper's Ferry, and 
 there surrendered about 11,50x3 men, September 16, 
 1862. He was killed by a shell thrown after the sur- 
 render. " It is impossible," says Greeley, " to resist the 
 conclusion that Miles, in this affair, acted the part of a 
 traitor." ("American Conflict," vol. ii. p. 202. j 
 
 Miles, (James Wari.ey,) an American scholar and 
 missionary, born at Charleston, South Carolina, about 
 1819. He became professor of Greek and history at 
 Charleston College. He has been a contributor to the 
 •J Southern Review," and published various works in 
 prose and verse. 
 
 Mil'fort, (Le Clerc.) a native of France, who settled 
 about 1776 among the Creek Indians of Georgia and 
 fought as their ally in the war of the Revolution. He 
 returned to France in 1796, and was created by Bona- 
 parte a general of brigade. He published a narrative 
 of his residence among the Creeks, entitled "Sejour 
 dans la Nation Creek." Died about 1814. 
 
 Milicz, mee'litch, (Johann,) a priest and reformer, 
 born in Moravia. He preached at Prague, and wrote a 
 work "On Antichrist." Died soon after 1374. 
 
 See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. 
 
 Milius, me'le'tis', (Pierre Bernard,) Baron, a 
 French admiral, bom at Bordeaux in 1773; died in 1829. 
 
 Milizia, me-let'se-a, (Francesco,) an Italian archi- 
 tect and writer, bom in Otranto in 1725, was an intimate 
 friend of Raphael Mengs. He was the author of " Lives 
 of the Most Celebrated Architects of all Nations," (1768,) 
 a revised edition of which was entitled " Memorie degli 
 Architetti antichi e modemi," ("Memoirs of Ancient 
 and Modern Architects," 2 vols., 1781,) which were trans- 
 lated into French and English, a treatise "On the 
 Theatre," (1772,) "Principles of Civil Architecture," 
 ("Elementi di Architettura civile," 3 vols., 1 781,) which 
 was highly esteemed and was translated into various lan- 
 
 guages, a "Dictionary of Fine Arts," (1797,) and other 
 works. He lived many years in Rome, where he died 
 in 1798. 
 
 See F. Milizia, " Notizie intorno alia sua Vita," 1804: L. Cico- 
 gnara, " Memoiia intorno all' Indole di F. Milizia," 1808; TiPALixy 
 " Bingrafia degli Italian) illustri." 
 
 Mill, (Henry,) an English engineer, born in London 
 about 1680. He supplied the town of Northampton with 
 water, and was appointed principal engineer to the New. 
 River Company. 
 
 Mill, (James,) a British historian and writer on po- 
 litical economy, born at Montrose, in Scotland, in 1773. 
 He studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by 
 his attainments in th'e Greek language, metaphysics, and 
 moral philosophy. Having removed to London in 1800, 
 he became a contributor to the " Edinburgh Review" 
 and other periodicals. He published (181 7-19) his 
 "History of British India," (in 5 vols. 8vo,) a work of 
 great merit, which procured for him the office of head 
 of the department of Indian correspondence in the India 
 House. " We know of no work," says Mr. Grote, " which 
 surpasses his ' History of British India' in the main 
 excellences attainable by historical writers, — industrious 
 accumulation, continued for many years, of original au- 
 thorities, careful and conscientious criticism of their 
 statements, and a large command of psychological ana- 
 lysis, enabling the author to interpret phenomena of 
 society both extremely complicated and far removed 
 from, his own personal experience." (See " Review of 
 J. S. Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's 
 Philosophy," London, 1868.) Among his other pro- 
 ductions are a series of essays on "Jurisprudence,"' 
 " Liberty of the Press," " Law of Nations," etc. These, 
 first published in the "Supplement to the Encyclo- 
 paedia Britannica," were very favourably received, and 
 were followed by his " Elements of Political Econ- 
 omy," which appeared in 1821, and his "Analysis of the 
 Phenomena of the Human Mind," in 1829. Mill was an 
 intimate friend of Jeremy Bentham, and one of the ablest 
 expounders of his system. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement:) "Edinburgh Review" for March, 1829 ; "Monthly 
 Review" for August and October, 1821. 
 
 Mill, [Lat. Mil'lius,] (John!) an English theologian 
 and pulpit orator, born in Westmoreland about 1645. 
 He became chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles II. in 1681, 
 and in 1704 was made a canon of Canterbury. He pub- 
 lished a critical edition of the New Testament in Greek, 
 (1707,) which is highly esteemed. Died in 1707. 
 See Chalmers, "General Biographical Dictionary." 
 Mill, (John Stuart,) an eminent English philosopher 
 and economist, son of James Mill, author of the " His-, 
 toryof British India," was born in London in May, 1806. 
 He was educated at home by his father, and entered in 
 1823 the service of the East India Company as a clerk 
 in the India House. In his early life he contributed to 
 the "Edinburgh Review" and the "Westminster Re- 
 view." He published in 1843 a "System of Logic, 
 Rationative and Inductive," (2 vols.,) ar.J, in 1844, 
 " Essays on some Unsettled Questions in Political Econ- 
 omy." He acquired a high reputation by a popular work 
 entitled "The Principles of Political Economy, with 
 some of their Applications to Social Philosophy," (1818.) 
 As a writer he is distinguished by originality of thought 
 and acuteness in reasoning. In political principles he 
 is an advanced Liberal, and all his sympathies are in. 
 favour of liberty and progress. About 1850 he married 
 Harriet Taylor, a lady of rare intellectual powers. He 
 became examiner of Indian correspondence in 1856.. 
 During the late rebellion in the United States, Mr. Mill 
 was among the few prominent English writers who de-, 
 fended the cause of the North and of the Federal Union. 
 Among his more recent works are an " Essay on Liberty," 
 and " An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Phi- 
 losophy," (1865,) of which a highly favourable review 
 from trie pen of Mr. Grote, the historian, has been pub-, 
 lished, (London, 1868.) He was for some time editor of 
 the "Westminster Review." In 1865 he was elected a. 
 member of Parliament for Westminster. He became an 
 able debater, and made several speeches in favour of 
 reform and extension of the elective franchise in 1866. 
 and 1867. His career as a legislator has been very suc- 
 
 i, e . i, 6, u, fi long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 8, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MILLJIS 
 
 1587 
 
 MILLER 
 
 cessful. "Mr. Mill's success," says the "New York 
 Commercial Advertiser," August 29, 1867, "has been 
 the most marked and decided in the annals of Parlia- 
 ment. No man has ever before acquired so high a con- 
 sideration in so short a time." He was, however, 
 defeated in the general election of 1868. Mr. Mill has 
 distinguished himself as an earnest and able advocate of 
 the rights of women. In a recent work, entitled " The 
 Subjection of Women," (1869,) he takes the ground 
 " thai the principle which regulates the existing social 
 relations between the two sexes — the legal subordina- 
 tion of one sex to the other — is wrong in itself, and now 
 one of the chief hindrances to human improvement, and 
 that it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect 
 equality." 
 
 See the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1848, and October, 
 1869 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1848, and January, 1866.; 
 *' Eraser's Magazine" for September, 1S48, and May, 1859 ; '* British 
 Quarterly Review" for August, 1846, January, i860, and July, 1868 ; 
 " Westminster Review" for May, 1843. 
 
 Millaia, mil'la', (John- Everett,) an English painter, 
 of French extraction, born at Southampton in 1829, was 
 one of the founders of what is called the " Pre-Raphaelite 
 School." He studied at the Royal Academy, and at 
 an early age produced several works of superior merit, 
 among which was "The Benjamites seizing the Daugh- 
 ters of Shiloh." His " Return of the Dove to the Ark," 
 "Child of the Regiment," "Ophelia," "The Order of 
 Release," and "Joan of Arc" are among his most ad- 
 mired productions. He was elected a Royal Acade- 
 mician in 1863. 
 
 Mil'lar, (John,) an eminent Scottish jurist, born in 
 Lanarkshire in 1735. He studied at Glasgow, where 
 he became in 1761 professor of civil law. The spirited 
 and attractive style of his lectures, which, says a critic 
 in the "Edinburgh Review," "gave to a learned discus- 
 sion the charms of an animated and interesting conversa- 
 tion," drew great numbers to the university, and made 
 it for the time one of the most flourishing and popular 
 in the kingdom. He was the author of " Origin of the 
 Distinction of Ranks," (1771,) and a "Historical View 
 of the English Government from the Settlement of the 
 Saxons to the Accession of the House of Stuart," (1787.) 
 The former was translated into French, German, and 
 Italian. Died in 1801. 
 
 SeeCHAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen :" 
 "Lite of Millar," by Craig, prefixed to his "Origin of the Dis- 
 tinction of Ranks;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1806. 
 
 Mil'lard, (David,) an American divine, born at Ball- 
 ston, New York, in 1794, published several theological 
 works, also "Travels in Egypt, Arabia, and the Holy 
 Land," (1843.) 
 
 Mil'ledge, (John,) an American patriot and states- 
 man, born at Savannah, Georgia, in 1 757, distinguished 
 himself in the war of the Revolution, and in 1802 was 
 elected Governor of Georgia. He was one of the founders 
 of the University of Georgia, and the former capital of 
 the State was named in his honour. Died in 1818. 
 
 Milledoler, mil'dol'ar, (Philip,) D.D., an American 
 divine, of the Dutch Reformed Church, born at Far- 
 mington, Connecticut, in 1775. He became president 
 of Rutgers College, New Brunswick, in 1825. Died in 
 1852. 
 
 Mil'ler, (Edward,) an American physician, born in 
 Delaware in 1760, was a brother of the Rev. Samuel 
 Miller, noticed below. He became professor of the 
 theory and practice of medicine in the College of Phy- 
 sicians and Surgeons, New York, and wrote, among 
 other works, a "Treatise on Yellow Fever," which is 
 highly esteemed. He was one of the founders of the 
 •' Medical Repository," the first medical journal of 
 America. Died in 1812. 
 
 Mil'lar, (Edward,) an English musician and writer, 
 born at Norwich, was a pupil of Dr. Burney. He was 
 the author of " Institutes of Music" and " Elements of 
 Thorough Bass and Composition." Died in 1807. 
 
 Miller, me'yi', (Emanuel,) a French scholar, born in 
 Paris in 1812, has published a "Catalogue of the Greek 
 Manuscripts in the Escurial," (1840,) and edited several 
 classical works. 
 
 Mil'ler, (Hugh,) an eminent Scottish geologist and 
 writer, born at Cromarty on the 10th of October, 
 
 1802, was a son of a mariner and shipmaster, who per- 
 ished in a storm in 1807. He attended the grammar- 
 school of the parish, and received instruction from two 
 maternal uncles, James and Alexander Wright, one of 
 whom encouraged his taste for natural history. At an 
 early age he began to write verses. He learned the 
 trade of a stone-mason, aw] commenced in 1819 his life 
 of labour in a quarry of old red sandstone at Cromarty. 
 " It was the necessity which made me a quarrier," he 
 writes, "that taught me to be a geologist" He worked 
 as a mason in various parts of Scotland, and diligently 
 improved the intervals of labour by the cultivation of 
 his mind. In 1825 and 1826 he was employed at Edin- 
 burgh as a stone-cutter. He afterwards published a vol- 
 ume of poems, and in 1834 relinquished his trade to 
 become an accountant in a bank at Cromarty. In 1835 
 he produced " Scenes and Legends of the North of Scot- 
 land," which was received with favour. He married 
 about 1836. 
 
 In 1839 he defended with much ability the cause of 
 the Free Church, in a " Letter from One of the Scotch 
 People to Lord Brougham," which was praised by Mr. 
 Gladstone. He became in 1840 editor of the " Witness," 
 an organ of the Free Church or Non-Intrusionists, pub- 
 lished in Edinburgh twice a week. He continued to 
 edit this paper until his death, and rendered it very 
 popular and influential. His reputation as a geologist 
 was increased by his work entitled "The Old Red 
 Sandstone, or New Walks in an Old Field," (1841,) 
 which is written in an attractive style. He afterwards 
 published "Footprints of the Creator," (1849,) "First 
 Impressions of England and its People," (1851,) an inter- 
 esting autobiography entitled " My Schools and School- 
 masters, or the Story of my Education," (1854,) and 
 "The Cruise of the Betsey." These works mark an 
 important epoch in the progress of geology. "There 
 was nothing in Miller's works," says the " Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1858, "which so much surprised the 
 public as their mere literary merit. Where could this 
 Cromarty mason have acquired his style?" 
 
 In consequence of excessive mental exertion, his brain 
 became diseased. During a paroxysm of insanity, he 
 killed himself with a pistol in December, 1856. He had 
 just finished a work entitled "The Testimony of the 
 Rocks, or Geology in its Bearings on the Two Theologies, 
 Natural and Revealed," (1857.) In this work he rejects 
 the theory that the Mosaic account of the creation is 
 purely parable, while he censures those who refuse to 
 accept the evidences of scientific truths when they seem 
 to clash with traditionary interpretations of Scripture. 
 His " Footprints of the Creator" was written to refute 
 the theory of development advocated by the author of 
 "The Vestiges of Creation." "Hugh Miller," says the 
 "Edinburgh Review," "must undoubtedly be regarded 
 as one of the most remarkable men whom Scotland has 
 produced. . . . The interest of his narrative, the purity 
 of his style, his inexhaustible faculty of happy and inge- 
 nious illustration, his high imaginative power, and that 
 light of genius which it is so difficult to define yet so- 
 impossible to mistake, all promise to secure for the 
 author of the ' Old Red Sandstone' the lasting admira- 
 tion of his countrymen." 
 
 See \ke " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1858, article " Hugh Mil- 
 ler," (r^rinted In the "Living Age." August 21, 1858:) "North 
 British Review" for August. 1854: "North American Review" for 
 October, 1S51 : Au.ibonr, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Miller, (James,) an English dramatist and satirical 
 writer, born in Dorsetshire in 1703. He published sev- 
 eral political pamphlets, a satire entitled "The Humours 
 of Oxford," and a number of comedies. Died in 1744. 
 
 Miller, (James,) an American officer, born at Peter- 
 borough, New Hampshire, about 1776. He served as 
 colonel with distinction at the battles of Chippewa and 
 Lundy's Lane, July 25, 1814. His commander asked 
 him if he could take a certain battery at Lundv's Lane. 
 He answered, " I'll try, sir," and captured the battery. 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 Miller, mil'ler, (Johann Martin,) a German poet 
 and fictitious writer, born at Ulm in 1750. He was the 
 author of" Correspondence of Three Academic Friends," 
 "Siegwart, a Convent History," (1776,) which was trans 
 lated into French, Dutch, and Polish, and several othet 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^=See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
MILLER 
 
 1588 
 
 MILMAN 
 
 popular works. His lyric poems are highly esteemed. 
 He was an intimate friend of Klopstock and Voss. Died 
 in 1814. 
 
 Miller, ( Joskph, ) a celebrated English comedian, 
 whose appreciation as an actor of the wit of Congreve's 
 plays contributed in a great measure to their success, 
 was born in 1684. The jests ascribed to him were in 
 reality compiled by John Motley, author of a "Life of 
 Peter the Great." Died in 1738. 
 
 Miller, (Philip,) an English botanist and florist, born 
 in 1691. He published a "Catalogue of Hardy Trees, 
 Shrubs, etc. cultivated near London," (with coloured 
 plates, 1730,) "Gardener's Dictionary," (1731,) which 
 was translated into several languages, and "Figures of 
 Plants," (2 vols., 1755,) adapted to the Dictionary. The 
 genus Milleria was named by Dr. Martyn in honour of 
 this botanist. Died in 1771. 
 
 Miller, (Samuel,) D.D., an American Presbyterian 
 divine, born in Delaware in 1769. He became pastor 
 of the First Presbyterian Church in New York in 1793. 
 In 1813 he was appointed professor of ecclesiastical 
 history in the Theological Seminary of Princeton. He 
 was the author of numerous theological and controversial 
 works, and wrote the " Life of Jonathan Edwards," in 
 Sparks's " American Biography." Died in 1850. 
 " See Samuel Miller, "Life of Samuel Miller," 2 vols., 1869. 
 
 Miller, (Stephen Franks,) an American lawyer and 
 journalist, born in North Carolina, became associate 
 editor of " De Bow's Review" about 1848. He published 
 the "Bench and Bar of Georgia," and other works. 
 
 Miller, (Sir Thomas,) a Scottish lawyer, born in 1718, 
 was appointed lord advocate of Scotland in 1760. On 
 the death of Dundas he became president of the court 
 of sessions, (1788.) Died in 1789. 
 
 Miller, (Thomas,) an English poet and basket-maker, 
 born at Gainsborough about 1808. He was patronized 
 by the poet Rogers, by whose aid he began business as a 
 bookseller. He wrote, besides numerous poems, novels 
 entitled " Royston Gower" and " Fair Rosamond." 
 
 Miller, (William,) founder of the sect of the Miller- 
 ites, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, in 1 781. 
 About 1833 he began to prophesy the end of the world, 
 which he affirmed would be destroyed in 1843. He died 
 in 1849; and his followers, who are said to have num- 
 bered nearly fifty thousand, have since greatly decreased. 
 
 Miller, (William Allen,) an English chemist and 
 physician, bom at Ipswich in 1817. He took his medical 
 degree in London, and subsequently studied in the labo- 
 ratory of Liebig at Giessen. He was appointed pro- 
 fessor of chemistry in the Royal College in 1845, anc ' 
 assayer at the Mint and Bank of England in 1851. He 
 was vice-president of the Royal Society and president of 
 the Chemical Society, and wrote "Elements of Chemistry, 
 Theoretical and Practical," (3 vols., 1850; 3d ed., 1866.) 
 
 Miller, (William Hallows,) F.R.S., an eminent 
 English mineralogist and physicist, was educated at 
 Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he took the 
 degree of B.A. about 1826. He became professor of 
 mineralogy at Cambridge in 1832, and wrote several 
 treatises on crystallography. His most important work 
 is a new and greatly-improved edition of Phillips's 
 " Elementary Introduction to Mineralogy," (1852.) He 
 was a member of a commission appointed by (EJvern- 
 ment in 1843 for the restoration of the standards of 
 weight and measure, and he constructed and verified 
 the new national standard of weight. 
 
 Milles, milz, (Jeremiah,) an English divine and an- 
 tiquary, born in 1714, became Dean of Exeter in 1762. 
 He was a contributor to the " Archaeologia," and made 
 an unsuccessful attempt to vindicate the authenticity 
 of Rowley's poems. He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society, and president of the Society of Antiquaries. 
 Died in 1784. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Millet, me'yi', (Aime,) a French painter and sculptor, 
 a son of Frederic Millet, noticed below, was born in 
 Paris about 1818. 
 
 Millet, (Frederic,) a French portrait-painter, born 
 at Charlieu in 1786, was a pupil of Isabey. He executed 
 a number of portraits of great merit, among which we 
 may name that of the empress Josephine. Died in 1859. 
 
 Millevoye, mel'vwa', (Charles Hubert,) a French 
 poet and litterateur, born at Abbeville in 1782. He was 
 the author of elegiac poems of great beauty, and ob- 
 tained several prizes from the French Academy. Died 
 in 1816. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits Litteiaires :" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Millin, me'yaN',* (Aubin Louis,) a French antiquary 
 and naturalist, born in Paris in 1759. He published 
 "Elements of Natural History," (1794,) " Dictionary of 
 the Fine Arts," (3 vols., 1806,) " Mythological Gallery," 
 (1811,) and other works. In 1795 he became editor of 
 the " Magasin Encyclopedique," a journal of high char- 
 acter, which he conducted lor twenty years. He was a 
 member of the French Institute and of several foreign 
 Academies, and a chevalier of the legion of honour. 
 In 1794 he had been appointed keeper of the medals 
 and antiquities in the Royal Library. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Krafft, "Notice sur A. L. Millin," 1818; Bon Joseph 
 Dacier, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Millin," 1821 ; 
 Qukkakd, '" La France LitteVaire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gixii- 
 rale." 
 
 Millingen, mil'ling-gen, ? (James,) an eminent anti- 
 quary, of Dutch extraction, born in London in 1774. He 
 published "Remarks on the State of Learning and the 
 Fine Arts in Great Britain," " Ancient Coins of Greek 
 Cities and Kings," (1821,) and other similar works, which 
 have a very high reputation. Died in 1845. 
 
 Millon, me'yd.N',* (Charles,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Liege in 1754, wrote poems, histories, etc. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Millon, (Eugene,) a French chemist, born at Chalons- 
 sur-Marne in 1812. He published, besides other chemical 
 treatises, " Elements of Organic Chemistry, comprising 
 the Applications of this Science to Vegetable Physi- 
 ology," (2 vols., 1845-48.) 
 
 Millot, mi'yo',* (Claude Francois Xavier,) a 
 French historian, born in Franche-Comte in 1726. He 
 was the author of "Elements of Universal History," 
 " Political and Military Memoirs towards the History of 
 Louis XIV.," etc., (6 vols., 1777,) and other works of 
 the kind. He was elected to the French Academy in 
 1777, and in 1778 was appointed preceptor to the Due 
 d'Enghien. Died in 1785. 
 
 See Grimm, "Correspondance;" Lingay, " E*loge de l'Abbe* 
 Millot," 1814; QuArard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Mills, (Charles,) an English writer, born at Green- 
 wich in 1788, was the author of a " History of Moham- 
 medanism," (1812,) " History of the Crusades," (1820,) 
 "Travels of Theodore Ducas," etc., (1822,) and other 
 works. Died in 1825. 
 
 Mills, (Clark,) a distinguished American sculptor, 
 born in Onondaga county, New York, in 1815. Having 
 removed to Charleston, South Carolina, he executed 
 several busts in marble, which won for him a high repu- 
 tation. In 1848 he began his bronze equestrian statue of 
 Jackson, for which, owing to its size, he was obliged to 
 construct a foundry. It was completed in 1853, and 
 placed in Lafayette Square at Washington. His next 
 work was the colossal equestrian statue of Washington, 
 finished in i860. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Mills, (Samuel John,) an American Congregational 
 divine, born at Torringford, Connecticut, in 1783, was 
 one of the founders of the American Missionary Society. 
 He also took a prominent part in the organization of 
 the American Colonization Society, and in 1817 visited 
 Africa, in company with the Rev. E. Burgess, for the 
 purpose of choosing a site for the colony. He died in 
 1818, while on his voyage home. 
 
 Mil'man, (Sir Francis,) an eminent English phy- 
 sician, born in Devonshire in 1746. He published 
 "Animadversions on the Nature and Cure of Dropsy," 
 (1776,) "Treatise on the Source of the Scurvy," and other 
 works. He was appointed physician to George HI., 
 and was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Col- 
 lege of Physicians. Died in 1821. 
 
 Milman, (Rev. Henry Hart,) an English poet, 
 historian, and divine, son of the preceding, was born in 
 
 * There seems to be some diversity respecting the pronunciation 
 of these names: some speakers say me'lar/, roe'loN', etc., omitting 
 all sound of the liquid /. 
 
 I, e, T, 0, u, y, long; i, 4, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MILNE 
 
 1589 
 
 MILTUDES 
 
 London in 1791. He graduated at Brazenose College, 
 Oxford, where in 1821 he became professor of poetry. 
 Having filled several inferior offices in the Church, he 
 was appointed Dean of Saint Paul's in 1849. His tragedy 
 of "Fazio," published in 1815, was well received, and 
 was followed by the poems of " Samor, Lord of the 
 Bright City," (1818,) "The Fall of Jerusalem," (1820,) 
 "Tlie Martyr of Antioch," and others. In 1840 he 
 brought out his " History of Christianity from the Birth 
 of Christ to the Extinction of Paganism in the Roman 
 Empire," (3 vols. 8vo,) and in 1854 his "History of 
 Latin Christianity, including that of the Popes to the 
 Pontificate of Nicholas V." He published excellent 
 editions of the works of Horace, with a well-written life 
 of the poet, and of Gibbon's " Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire." Died in September, 1868. 
 
 Safl W. E. H. Lecky, "History of European Morals from Au- 
 gustus ;o Charlemagne," (Preface,) 1S69 ; " Edinburgh Review" for 
 January, 1858, January, 1864. and January, 1869; " London Quarterly 
 Review" for April, 1816, July, 181S, May, 1820, and April, 1S69; 
 " Blackwood's Magazine" for March and July, 1822 ; " North British 
 Review" for November, 1854, and March, 1869 ; " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" tor October, 1854. 
 
 Millie, miln, (Colin,) a Scottish divine and naturalist, 
 born at Aberdeen. He was the author of a "Botanical 
 Dictionary," "Indigenous Botany," etc. Died in 1815. 
 
 Milne, miln, (Joshua,) an English writer, born in 
 1776, was appointed actuary of the Sun Life Assurance 
 Office. He published a valuable "Treatise on Annui- 
 ties," in which he describes a new system of notation for 
 the calculation of life-insurance. 
 
 Milne-Edwards, miln ed'wardz, [Fr. pron. meln 
 a'doo-$Ks',] (Henri,) an eminent French naturalist, of 
 English descent, born at Bruges in 1800. After he had 
 taught natural history for some years in the College 
 Henri IV. in Paris, he was elected to the Academy 
 of Sciences in 1838. He published "The Natural His- 
 tory of the Crustacea," (3 vols., 1834-41,) which is 
 highly esteemed. In 1841 he obtained the chair of 
 entomology in the Jardin des Plantes, and in 1844 was 
 chosen adjunct professor of zoology and comparative 
 physiology at the Faculty of Sciences. He succeeded I. 
 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire as professor of zoology in 1862. 
 Among his works are "Elements of Zoology," (4 vols., 
 1834-37,) which obtained considerable popularity, and 
 " Researches into the Anatomy and Physiology of 
 Polypi," (1842.) 
 
 See article " Milne," in the " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Mil'ner, (Isaac,) an eminent English divine and 
 mathematician, born near Leeds in 1751. He studied 
 at Queen's College, Cambridge, where he became in 
 1783 Jacksonian professor of experimental philosophy. 
 He was subsequently appointed master of his college, 
 (1788,) Dean of Carlisle, (1791,) and Lucasian professor 
 of mathematics, (1798.) He was also twice elected vice- 
 chancellor of his college. He was the author of a num- 
 ber of sermons and miscellaneous essays, and wrote a 
 continuation of his brother Joseph's "Church History." 
 lie numbered among his friends Pitt and Wilberforce. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See Mary Milner, " Life of Isaac Milner," 1842. 
 
 Milner, (John,) a learned Roman Catholic divine, 
 born in Loudon in 1752. He was the author of a "His- 
 tory, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Anti- 
 quities, of Winchester," and was a contributor to the 
 " Archseologia." He was a member of the Society of 
 Antiquaries. Died in 1826. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for May, 1810, and October, 
 ■fit. 
 
 Milner, (John,) an English theologian, born near 
 Halifax in 1628, became canon of Ripon. Died in 1702. 
 
 Milner, (Joseph,) an English divine, born near Leeds 
 in 1744, was a brother of Isaac, noticed above. He 
 became vicar of the Church of the Holv Trinity at Hull 
 in 1797. He wrote a " History of the Church of Christ," 
 (5 \n]s., 1794-1812,) which is esteemed a standard work. 
 It was completed by his brother, the Dean of Carlisle. 
 Milner also published an "Answer to Gibbon's Attack 
 on Christianity," and other works. Died in 1797. 
 
 See Isaac Mii.ner, "Life of J. Milner," prefixed to his Sermons. 
 
 Millies, mllnz, (Richard Monckton,) Baron Hough- 
 ton, an English statesman and miscellaneous writer, 
 
 born in Yorkshire in 1809. He graduated at Cambridge 
 in 1831, and in 1837 was first elected a member of Par- 
 liament for Pontefract, which he continued to represent 
 until 1863, wher. he was raised to the peerage, as Baron 
 Houghton. As a member of the liberal conservative 
 party, he has been a prominent advocate of reform. 
 Among his principal publications are " Poems, Legendary 
 and Historical," " Palm-Leaves," (1844,) "Memorials of 
 Many Scenes," and the " Life, Letters, and Literary Re- 
 mains of John Keats," (1848.) He contributed to the 
 "Edinburgh Review." 
 
 See "Fraser's Magazine" for June, 1847, article "Literary Legis- 
 lators;" "North American Review" for October, 1839, and July, 
 1842. 
 
 Mil'nor, (James,) D.D., an American Episcopal 
 clergyman, born in Philadelphia in 1773, became rector 
 of Saint George's Church, New York, in 1816. Died in • 
 1845. 
 
 See " Memoir of James Milnor, D.D.," by Rev. J. S. Stone. 
 
 Mi'lo, [Gr. l&ikuv ; Fr. Milon, me'16N',] an athlete, 
 celebrated for his prodigious strength, born at Crotona, 
 in Italy, was a pupil of Pythagoras. He is said to have 
 once carried a bull on his shoulders to the sacrifice, and 
 killed it with a blow of his fist. In 509 B.C. he gained 
 a signal victory over the Sybarites. When advanced in 
 years, he found one day, in passing through a forest, 
 a tree partly cleft by wedges. Having introduced his 
 hands for the purpose of severing it entirely, the wedges 
 fell out, but, his strength failing him, the parts closed 
 again, retaining him a prisoner, and in this helpless con- 
 dition he was devoured by wild beasts. 
 
 Mi'lo, (Titus Annius,) a famous Roman tribune, was 
 a plebeian, and a man of unscrupulous character. He 
 became tribune of the people in 57 B.C, and was a par- 
 tisan of Pompey. By his efforts to restore Cicero from 
 exile he incurred the hostility of Clodius. with whom he 
 fought in several bloody affrays. In the year 53 Milo 
 was a candidate for the consulship. Before the electoral 
 contest was decided, Milo and Clodius met, each with 
 a band .of armed slaves, and a fight ensued, in which 
 Clodius was killed. Milo was tried for homicide, and, 
 though defended by Cicero, was condemned, and exiled 
 himself to Marseilles. Having taken arms against 
 Caesar in the civil war, he was killed in Lucania, 48 B.C. 
 
 See Ciceko, " Oratio pro Milone:" Drumann. "Geschichte 
 Roms;" Dion Cassius. "History of Rome;" Ei.beri.ing, " Nar- 
 ratio de T. A. Milone," 1840; Smith, "Dictionary of Greek aud 
 Roman Biography." 
 
 Milon. See Milo. 
 
 Milonof, Milonov, or Milonow, mee'lo-nof, (Mi- 
 chael VassilievitcH,) a Russian poet, born in 1792, 
 was the author of satires, epistles, and lyric poems, which 
 enjoy great popularity. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Gretch, " Essai sur l'Histoire de la LitteVature Russe." 
 
 Miloradovitch, me-lo-ra'do-vitch, (Michael An- 
 drievitch,) Count, a Russian general, born at Saint 
 Petersburg in 1770. He fought with distinction against 
 the Turks and Poles and in the campaigns against the 
 French from 1.799 to 1814, and attained the rank of 
 general of infantry. He was appointed military gov- 
 ernor of Saint Petersburg in 1819. He was killed in 
 attempting to suppress the insurrection in that city, De- 
 cember 25, 1825. 
 
 MHbsh. See OlIRENOVITCH. 
 
 Mil'roy, (Robert H.,) an American general, born 
 in Indiana about 1814. He was appointed a brigadier- 
 general of Union volunteers about September, 1861, and 
 served at Cross Keys, June 8, 1862. He commanded 
 about 8000 men at Winchester, was attacked June 15, 
 1863, and retreated, but lost nearly half of his force. 
 
 Miltiade. See Mh.tiades. 
 
 Mil-ti'a-des, [Gr. MMTtuAjc; Fr. Mii.tiade, mel'- 
 te'Sd',] a celebrated Athenian general, who flourished 
 about 500 B.C., was the son of Citnon. He became suc- 
 cessor to his uncle Miltiades, who had made himself a 
 despot or mas'.er of the Chersonese in Thrace, and he 
 appears first in history as an arbitrary ruler. Darius of 
 Persia having sent a great armament, under Datis and 
 Artaphemes, to conquer Greece, Miltiades was chosen 
 one of the ten generals of the Athenian army, which 
 awaited the enemy at Marathon in 490 B.C. The Grecian 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,guttuml; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this (2l^r=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MILTITZ 
 
 1590 
 
 MILTON 
 
 army numbered about 10,000 men, and the Persian prob- 
 ably over 100,000. A regulation then prevailed that each 
 of the ten generals should command by turns for one day. 
 Some of them were averse to risking a battle. When 
 the command devolved on Miltiades, he gained one of 
 the most memorable and important victories recorded 
 in history. To reward his patriotism and eminent ser- 
 vices to national liberty, the Athenians decreed that he 
 should have the foremost place in a painting which illus- 
 trated the .battle. Having failed in an attack on Paros, 
 he was fined fifty talents, which he could not pay, and 
 about the year 489 died in prison of a wound received 
 in the action just named. The famous general Cimon 
 was his son. 
 
 See Cornelius Nepos, "Miltiades;" Herodotus, books iv. and 
 vi. ; Grote. '* History of Greece," vol. iv. : Tmiklwall, " History 
 ci Greece;" Kirchmaier, " Dissertalio de Miltiade." 1662. 
 
 Miltitz, von, fon mil'tits, (Karl,) a German prelate, 
 born about 1490, became chamberlain to Leo X., who 
 sent him in 15 18 as nuncio to Germany, in order to 
 conciliate Luther or counteract his influence. On this 
 occasion he displayed much tact, and used flattery or 
 persuasive means with some success. (See Luther.) 
 Died in 1529. 
 
 Miltitz, von, (Karl Borromaus Alexander Ste- 
 PHAN,) a German poet and musical composer, born at 
 Dresden in 1781. Among his best compositions are 
 the operas of "Saul" and "Georg Czerny." Died in 
 1845. His brother Alexander was ambassador to 
 Constantinople, and wrote a valuable work entitled 
 "The Manual of Consuls." Died in 1843. 
 
 Mil'ton, [Lat. Milto'nus; It. Mil'ton or Miltono, 
 mel-to'no,] (John,) an immortal poet, and, if we except 
 Shakspeare, the most illustrious name in English litera- 
 ture, was born in Bread Street, London, on the 9th of 
 December, 1608. He was the eldest son of John Milton, 
 a scrivener, and Sarah Bradshaw, (or Caston, according 
 to some authorities.) His early education was directed 
 by a private tutor, — Thomas Young, a zealous Puritan. 
 A portrait of his beautiful features, taken by C. Jansen, 
 at the age often, has been preserved. Before he entered 
 college he was an excellent Latin scholar. In severe and 
 systematic study he laid the foundations of his fame. 
 In a letter to a friend, written some years later, he says, 
 " It is my way to suffer no impediment, no love of ease, 
 no avocation whatever, to chill the ardour, to break the 
 continuity, or to divert the completion of my literary 
 pursuits." His first English poems were versions of the 
 114th and 136th Psalms, (1623.) 
 
 In February, 1624, he was admitted as pensioner into 
 Christ's College, Cambridge, where he acquired distinc- 
 tion as a Latin poet. Dr. Johnson expresses the opinion 
 that Milton "was the first Englishman who, after the 
 revival of letters, wrote Latin verses with classic ele- 
 gance." He took the degree of Bachelor in 1628, and 
 that of Master of Arts in 1632, — before which he had 
 been subjected to a temporary rustication (and, some say, 
 to corporal chastisement) for an unknown offence. "By 
 the intention of my parents," says Milton himself, " I 
 was destined of a child to the service of the Church, and 
 in my own resolutions. Till coming to some maturity 
 of years, and perceiving what tyranny had invaded the 
 Chinch, that he who would take orders must subscribe 
 Si AVE, and take an oath withal, ... I thoughttJ>etter 
 to prefer a blameless silence, before the sacred office of 
 speaking, bought and begun with servitude and for- 
 swearing." 
 
 In 1632 he left the university, and retired to his 
 father's house at Horton, Buckinghamshire, where he 
 remained five years, during which he is said to have 
 read all the Greek and Latin writers. He also took 
 lessons in music, which he loved, and in which he was 
 very skilful. In this studious retirement, it appears, he 
 wrote his beautiful poems " Comus," " L'Allegro," " II 
 Penseroso," and " Lycitlas," (1637.) "Comus" — adrama 
 in form, but essentially lyrical — was written and per- 
 formed at Ludlow Castle in 1634, but not printed until 
 1637. "It is certainly," says Macaulay, "the noblest 
 
 But Hallam approves the judgment of a certain critic 
 (whom he does not name) that " Lycidas" is " a good 
 test of a real feeling for what is peculiarly called poetry." 
 Milton's "Allegro" and "Penseroso" are universally 
 admired. " It is impossible to conceive," says Macaulay, 
 " that the mechanism of language can be brought to a 
 more exquisite degree of perfection. These poems differ 
 from others as ottar of roses differs from ordinary rose- 
 water." 
 
 In 1638, attended by a servant, he visited Florence, 
 Rome, and Naples, conversed with Galileo, then a " pris- 
 oner to the Inquisition," and received testimonials of 
 honour and friendship from Carlo Dati, Francini, and 
 Manso. He was admired as a great prodigy by these 
 Italian celebrities. He returned in 1639, and opened in 
 London a small boarding-school, in which he adopted a 
 new system of education. His nephews, Edward and 
 John Philips, were among his pupils. In 1641 he pro- 
 duced his first prose work, — a " Treatise of Reforma- 
 tion," — which was followed by other arguments against 
 the Established Church and Prelacy. He sympathized 
 with the popular party in the great crisis of English 
 liberty, but took no active part in the civil war which 
 began in 1642. 
 
 At Whitsuntide, 1643, he married Mary Powell, whose 
 father was a justice of the peace and a royalist of Ox- 
 fordshire. "The lady," says Dr. Johnson, "seems not 
 much to have delighted in the pleasures of spare diet 
 and hard study." A month after the marriage, she made 
 a visit to her father's house, from which she refused to 
 return. Having resolved to repudiate her, Milton pub- 
 lished "The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce," (1644,) 
 and other treatises on that topic, in his awn justification. 
 He also paid his addresses to a Miss Davis, until his 
 wife implored forgiveness and was restored to favour. 
 She became the mother of three daughters, who were all 
 the children that Milton had. 
 
 He published in 1644 his " Areopagitica," or " Plea 
 for Unlicensed Printing," — probably his greatest prose 
 work. " Many passages in this famous tract," says Hal- 
 lam, "are admirably eloquent 1 an intense love of liberty 
 and truth glows through it." He had taken a larger 
 house in Barbican (about 1645) for the reception of 
 scholars; but his wife's relations, to whom, when ruined 
 by the civil war, he generously gave refuge, occupied his 
 rooms. In March, 1648-49, he was appointed Latin 
 secretary to the council of state, which was the highest 
 executive power in the new republic. As an antidote to 
 the " Eikon Basilike," i.e. the " Image (or Portrait) of the 
 King," — a work designed to excite commiseration for the 
 sufferings of Charles I., (see Gauden,) — Milton pro- 
 duced his " Iconoclastes," (Eikonoklastes,) or "Image- 
 breaker," and, by order of the council, appeared as the 
 antagonist of the learned Salmasius, in reply to whom 
 he wrote, in Latin, his celebrated work entitled " Defence 
 of the English People," ("Defensio Populi Anglicani," 
 1650.) (See Salmasius.) 
 
 About 1654 he became totally blind. His " Defensio, 
 Secunda" (1654) contains an eloquent allusion to this 
 privation. His wife died about 1653, and in 1656 he mar- 
 ried Catherine Woodcock, who died in the following year. 
 After serving the Protector Oliver as Latin secretary 
 for four or five years, he retired about 1657 from public 
 life, with a pension of ^150. Before that date he had 
 meditated the plan of a great epic poem. One of the 
 subjects that presented was the exploits of King Arthur. 
 After much deliberation, "long choosing and beginning 
 late," he preferred the subject of " Paradise Lost," which 
 at first he proposed to dramatize. At the restoration, 
 (1660,) his prosecution was ordered, and he concealed 
 himself in the house of a friend until the Act of Oblivion 
 released him from danger. He married his third wife, 
 Elizabeth Minshul, in 1664; and when the great plague 
 raged in London, (1665,) lie retired to Chalfont, Bucks, 
 where his, friend Ellwood had engaged a cottage for him. 
 (See Ellwood, Thomas.) In the course of the same 
 year Milton showed to Ellwood the finished manuscript 
 of " Paradise Lost," which the latter took home and 
 perused. On returning it to the author, he remarked, 
 "Thou hast said much here of Paradise Lost; but what 
 hast thou to say of Paradise found?" Milton sold his 
 
 a, «, I, 6, ft, y, long; 4, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a,, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fail, fat; met; ndt; good; mooni 
 
MILTON 
 
 1591 
 
 MIND 
 
 copy in April, 1667, to Samuel Simmons, for an imme- 
 diate payment of five pounds and the promise of an 
 equal sum after the sale of thirteen hundred copies. It 
 was rather coldly received, only three thousand having 
 l>een sold in the first eleven years. " Its admirers," says 
 Johnson, "did not dure to publish their opinion." 
 
 He published in 167 1 " Samson Agonistes," a tra- 
 gedy, and " Paradise Regained," which he is said to 
 have esteemed his most perfect production ; but the 
 public and the critics have not sanctioned this preference. 
 Milton died in London, by "a silent expiration," on the 
 8th of November, 1674. 
 
 A manuscript of Milton's "On Christian Doctrine," 
 ("I)e Doctrina Christiana,") found in the State-Paper 
 Office, London, in 1823, was translated and published 
 in 1825. The genuineness of this work, though some- 
 times called in question, is considered by the great 
 majority of critics to be established beyond reasonable 
 doubt. 
 
 Milton was not connected with any church, but ap- 
 pears to have favoured the Independents, — a politico- 
 religious party. " He grew old without any visible 
 worship," says Johnson; who adds, " His studies and 
 meditations were an habitual prayer." His favourite 
 authors among the Greeks were Homer and Euripides, 
 and Shakspeare and Spenser among the English. His 
 stature was rather below the middle height. In his youth 
 he was so eminently and delicately beautiful as to be 
 called "the Lady" of his college, though his habits were 
 far from effeminate. He had a fair complexion and 
 auburn hair. Portraits of him were taken at the ages 
 of ten, twenty-one, and about sixty. 
 
 "Considered with respect to design," says Johnson, 
 "'Paradise Lost' may claim the first place, and, with 
 respect to performance, the second, among the produc- 
 tions of the human mind. . . . His [Milton's] great works 
 were performed under discountenance and in blindness ; 
 but difficulties vanished at his touch : he was born for 
 whatever is arduous ; and his work is not the greatest 
 of heroic poems, only because it is not the first." " Was 
 there ever anything so delightful," says Cowper, "as 
 the music of ' Paradise Lost'? It is like that of a fine 
 organ, — has the fullest and the deepest tones of majesty, 
 with all the softness and elegance of the Dorian flute ; 
 variety without end, and never equalled, unless, perhaps, 
 by Virgil." Of Milton's prose writings, Macaulay ob- 
 serves, "They are a perfect field of cloth of gold. The 
 style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery." 
 
 " It is certain," says Hume, " that this author, when 
 in a happy mood and employed on a noble subject, is 
 the most wonderfully sublime of any poet in any lan- 
 guage, Homer and Lucretius and Tasso not excepted. 
 More concise than Homer, more simple than Tasso, 
 more nervous than Lucretius, had he lived in a later 
 age and learned to polish some rudeness in his verses, 
 had he enjoyed better fortune and possessed leisure to 
 watch the returns of genius in himself, he had attained 
 the pinnacle of perfection and borne away the palm of 
 epic poetry." 
 
 " It may be doubted," says Walter S. Landor, 
 "whether the Creator ever created one altogether so 
 great as Milton, — taking into one view at once his manly 
 virtues, his superhuman genius, bis zeal for truth, for 
 true pietv, true freedom, his eloquence in displaying it, 
 his contempt of personal power, his glory and exultation 
 in his country's." 
 
 "Milton," says Macaulay, "did not strictly belong 
 to anv of the classes which we have described. He 
 was not a Puritan. He was not a Freethinker. He 
 was not a Cavalier. In his character the noblest quali- 
 ties of every party were combined in harmonious union. 
 ... . We are not much in the habit of idolizing either 
 the living or the dead. But there are a few characters 
 which have stood the closest scrutiny and the severest 
 tests, which have been tried in the furnace and have 
 proved pure, which have l>een declared sterling by the 
 general consent of mankind, and which are visibly 
 stamped with the image and superscription of the Most 
 High. These great men we trust we know how to prize ; 
 and of these was Milton. . . . His thoughts are power- 
 fill not only to delight, but to elevate and purify. Nor 
 
 do we envy the man who can study either the life or thi 
 writings of the great poet and patriot without aspiring to 
 emulate, not indeed the sublime works with which his 
 genius has enriched our literature, but the zeal with 
 which he laboured for the public good, the fortitude with 
 which he endured every private calamity, the lofty dis- 
 dain with which he looked down on temptation and dan- 
 gers, the deadly hatred which he bore to bigots and 
 tyrants, and the faith which he so sternly kept with his 
 country and with his fame." ("Essay on Milton.") 
 
 Those who desire to know how this great poet is 
 regarded by a nation whose taste and habits of thought 
 differ most widely from those of the English, may con- 
 sult the article "Milton" in the " Biographie Univer- 
 selle," from the pen of the justly-celebrated French 
 critic Villemain. He admits that Milton's picture of 
 our first parents in Eden surpasses, in graceful and 
 touching simplicity, anything to be found in the creations 
 of any other poet, ancient or modern, and that the 
 human imagination has produced nothing more grand 
 or more sublime than some portions of " Paradise Lost." 
 
 See the article '' Milton," in Johnson's "Lives of the Poets;" 
 Todd, " Life of Milton," 1801 ; Kkightlhy, " Life, Opinions, and 
 Writings of John Milton," 1855: Masson, "Life and Times of 
 Milton," vol. i., 1859; Toi.and, " Life of Milton," 169S; Svmmons, 
 " Life of Milton ;" Hayley, " Life of Milton," 1794; Dk. Channing, 
 " Remarks on the Character and Writings of Milton," 1828: Mac- 
 aulay, "Essays;" Hums, "History of England," chap. lxii. ; J. 
 Mosnkkon, "Vie de Milton," 1804; Edwin P. Hood, "J. Milton, 
 the Patriot and Poet," 1851 : Joseph Ivimev, "J. Milton, his Life 
 and Times," 1832; C. R. Edmonds, "J. Milton: a Biography," 
 1S51 ; Edward Philips, "Life of J. Milton," 1694; notice in the 
 " North American Review" for July, 1838, by R. W. Emerson ; and 
 the excellent article in Allibonk's " Dictionai-y of Authors." 
 
 Milton, Lord. See Fletcher, (Andrew.) 
 
 Milutiiiovios or Milutinowitsch, pronounced 
 alike me-loo-tee'no-vitch, (Simon,) a Servian poet, born 
 in 1791. He was the author of "Popular Songs of the 
 Montenegrins," etc., " History of Servia from 1813 to 
 1815," and other works. 
 
 Mi'nias, |Gr. M«/i(ic,] a giant said to have been de- 
 stroyed by Jupiter. The island of Prochyte, near Sicily, 
 was believed to rest upon hfs body. 
 
 Mim-ner'mus, |Gr. Mi/afpuoc; Fr. Mimnerme, mem'- 
 n&Km',] a Greek elegiac and lyric poet, born at Colo- 
 phon about 630 B.C., was contemporary with Solon. 
 The fragments of his poems have been published in the 
 collections of Estienne, Brunck, and Boissonade ; and, in 
 a separate edition by Bach, Mininermus is said to have 
 invented the pentameter verse. 
 
 See K. O. MOi.ler, " Geschichte der Griechen Literatur," etc.; 
 Christian Makx, "Dissertatio de Mimnermo," 1831. 
 
 Mina, mee'na, (Don Francisco Espozy — Ss-p6th'e,) 
 a celebrated Spanish general, sometimes called El, Key 
 de Navarra, ("the King of Navarre,") born near Pam- 
 peluna in 1782. As a guerilla chieftain, he successfully 
 defended Navarre against the French in 1808 and the 
 succeeding campaigns. Having been created marechal 
 del campo in 1813, he endeavoured to excite an insur- 
 rection against the government of Ferdinand VII., but, 
 failing in the attempt, took refuge in France. After his 
 return to Spain, in 1820, he became captain-general of 
 the armies of Navarre, Galicia, and Catalonia. He held 
 several high offices under Queen Christina, for whom 
 he fought against Don Carlos. Died in 1836. 
 
 See MinaSo, " Exanien critico de las Revoluciones de Erra~a," 
 1837; Molinb bfi Saint- Yon, "Les deux Mina: Chronica Es- 
 pagnole du XIXe Siecle," 3 vols., 1840; Burckhardt, " Riego und 
 Mina," etc., 1835. 
 
 Mina, (Xavier,) a Spanish officer, born in Navarre 
 in 1789, was a nephew of the preceding. He undertook 
 to liberate Mexico, which he entered in April, 181 7, with 
 a few hundred men. He gained several victories, but 
 was captured and shot at Mexico in November, 1817. 
 
 Mifiano y Bedoya, de, da men-ya'no e bi-Do'e-a, 
 (SEBASTIAN,) a Spanish writer, born in the province of 
 Palencia in 1779. He wrote " Letters from a Resident 
 of Madrid," and a " History of the Spanish Revolution 
 from 1820 to 1823," (in French.) 
 
 Mind, mint, (Gottfried,) a celebrated Swiss painter, 
 born at Berne in 1768, was,surnamed the Raphael 
 of Cats. He was the child of indigent parents, and 
 a cretin, and was educated at Pestalozzi's institution -for 
 poor boys. His favourite subjects were cats and bears, 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. ( JQf"" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MINDER ER 
 
 159* 
 
 MINUTUNUS 
 
 which he delineated with unequalled skill and fidelity. 
 He died in 1814, leaving numerous designs, which were 
 sold at a high price. 
 
 See Nagler, " Neues Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon ;" L. 
 Brichtweu., " By- Paths of Biography." 
 
 Minderer, min'deh-rer, (Raimond,) a German phy- 
 sician, born at Augsburg about 1570, was the discoverer 
 of a new chemical compound, (acetate of ammonia,) 
 since called Spiritus Mindeieri. He published several 
 medical works in Latin, and became physician to the 
 emperor Matthias. Died in 1621. 
 
 Minderhout, min'der-howt', a Flemish painter, born 
 at Antwerp in 1577, excelled in marine views, seaports, 
 etc. Died in 1663. 
 
 Minelli, me-nel'lee, [Lat. Minei/lius,] (Jan,) aDutch 
 scholar, born at Rotterdam about 1625. He translated 
 Terence into Dutch, and published numerous editions 
 of the Latin classics, with notes, which had a high repu- 
 tation at the time. Died in 1683. 
 
 Minellius. See Minelli. 
 
 Mi'ner, (Thomas,) an American physician, born at 
 Middletown, Connecticut, in 1777. He wrote, conjointly 
 with Dr. Tully, "Essays on Fevers and other Subjects, ' 
 (1823.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Ml-ner'va or A-the'na, [ Fr. Mi nerve, me'njRv',] 
 one of the greater divinities of the Roman mythology, 
 corresponding nearly to the Greek Athena or Athene, 
 [Gr. 'Adr/vij or 'Xdtjva.] She was regarded as the goddess 
 of wisdom, arts, and sciences, or a personification of the 
 thinking, inventive faculty. According to a popular tra- 
 dition, she was the offspring of the brain of Jupiter, from 
 which she issued in full armour. She was always repre- 
 sented as a virgin. In war she was contradistinguished 
 from Mars (the god of brute force) as the patroness of 
 scientific warfare, and hence, according to the ancient 
 poets, was always superior to him. The favourite plant 
 of Minerva was the olive, and the animals consecrated 
 to her were the owl and the serpent. Athena was the 
 great national divinity of Attica and Athens, to which 
 she is said to have given her name. Pope, in his 
 "Temple of Fame," alludes to her twofold character as 
 the patroness of arts and arms, where he says, 
 
 "There Ca;sar, graced with both Minervas, shone." 
 In the Trojan war she fought for the Greeks. She 
 was sometimes called Pallas, Parthenos, {i.e. "virgin,") 
 Tritonia or Tritogeneia, and other names. The poets 
 feigned that Neptune and Minerva disputed for the pos- 
 session of Attica, which the gods promised to him or 
 her who should produce the most useful gift to mankind. 
 Neptune, striking the earth with his trident, produced a 
 war-horse, and Minerva produced the olive, (the symbol 
 of peace,) by which she gained the victory. She was 
 usually represented with a helmet on her head, holding 
 in one hand a spear and in the other an aegis, or shield, 
 in the centre of which was the head of Medusa. There 
 was a celebrated statue of Minerva, called Palladium, 
 which was said to have fallen from the sky, and on 
 which the safety of Troy depended. 
 
 See G. Hermann, " Dissertatin de Grseca Minerva," 1837; 
 GuiCNlAtiT. ' Religions de l'Antiquite ;" Smith, " Dictionary of 
 Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology ;" " Biographie Uni- 
 verselle," (Partie mythologiqne.) 
 
 Minga, del, del men'ga, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, 
 of the Florentine school, lived about 1550-70. 
 
 Mingarelli, men-ga-rel'lee, ( Giovanni Luigi,) an 
 Italian ecclesiastic and writer, born near Bologna in 
 1722, was a friend of Tiraboschi. Died in 1793. 
 
 See Cavalieri, "Vita di Mingarelli," 1817. 
 
 Mingotti, men-got'tee, (Caterina,) an Italian vocal- 
 ist, of German extraction, born at Naples in 1728. She 
 studied under Porpora, and performed with brilliant suc- 
 cess in the principal cities of Europe. Died in 1807. 
 
 Miuiana, me-ne-a'na, (Jose Manuel,) a Spanish 
 histo-ian, born at Valencia in 1671. He wrote a continua- 
 tion of Mariana's " History of Spain," (1733.) Died in 
 
 I73°- 
 
 Millie, me'ne-i', (Claude Etienne,) a French of- 
 ficer, born in Paris in 1810, was the inventor of the rifle 
 called by his name. He was appointed by Napoleon 
 III superintendent of the school of ordnance at Vin- 
 cennes, and received from him the sum of 20,000 francs. 
 
 The Minie rifle was an immense improvement on any- 
 thing of the kind that had previously been invented, both 
 as regards precision and the extent of its range. 
 
 Million. See Mignon. 
 
 Minjon. See Mignon. 
 
 Mino da Fiesole, mee'no di fe-es'o-la, an eminent 
 Italian sculptor, born at Fiesole about 1430. Among his 
 works is a tomb of Paul II. at Rome. Died in i486. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." 
 
 Minoochihr, Minoutchihr, or Minuchihr, min- 
 oo'chlh'r, written also Manucheher, an ancient Persian 
 king, the grandson (or, according to some authorities, 
 the great-grandson) of Fereedoon, (Feridun,) is said to 
 have been the first of his nation who fortified cities with 
 ramparts and ditches. With Minoochihr ended the glory 
 and power of the Peshdadian dynasty. 
 
 See "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of Sir William 
 Jones's Works; Atkinson, "Abridgment of the Shdh Nameh of 
 Firdansi," 1832. 
 
 Mi'nos, [Gr. M/Vuf,] a celebrated king and lawgiver 
 of Crete, whose history is much obscured or embellished 
 with fable. According to Homer, he was a son of Jupiter 
 and Europa, a brother of Rhadamanthus, and the father 
 of Ariadne and Deucalion. He was renowned for his 
 justice and moderation, and it was fabled that after his 
 death he became a judge of the souls which entered the 
 infernal regions. He has by some writers been identified 
 with Manu, (or Menu,) the great Hindoo lawgiver. 
 
 Minos, a king and lawgiver of Crete, supposed to 
 have been a grandson of the preceding, with whom, how- 
 ever, he has been confounded by some writers. He was 
 the husband of Pasiphae, and had many children. He 
 is said to have been the first Greek prince that had an 
 important naval power. The Cretans ascribed to Minos 
 their laws and political institutions, which served as a 
 model for the legislation of Lycurgus. According to one 
 tradition, he was cruel and tyrannical, and compelled the 
 Athenians, whom he vanquished, to pay him an annual 
 tributein the form of boys and virgins, who were devoured 
 by the Minotaur. 
 
 Min'ot, ? (George Richards,) an American jurist 
 and historian, born at ISoston in 1758. His principal 
 works are a " Eulogy 011 Washington," " History of 
 Shays's Rebellion," and " History of Massachusetts Bay." 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 Min'ot, ? (Lawrence,) an English poet, whose works 
 were discovered by Tyrwhitt while he was preparing an 
 edition of Chaucer. He lived about 1330-50. 
 
 Min'o-taur, [Gr. Mu'wraupoc; Lat. Minotau'rus; 
 Fr. Minotaure, me'no'toR',] a monster of classic my- 
 thology, represented as half man and half bull. Accord- 
 ing to the legend, he was the offspring of Pasiphae and a 
 bull which was sent to Minos by Neptune; he was kept 
 in the great labyrinth of Crete, was fed with youths and 
 maidens whom the Athenians sent to Minos as tribute, 
 and was finally killed by Theseus. 
 
 Min'tha or Men'tha, [Gr. MivOti,] a nymph, fabled 
 to have been beloved by Pluto and changed by Ceres 
 into the plant known as mint. 
 
 Minto, Lord. See Elliot. 
 
 Miu'to, (Walter,) a Scottish mathematician, born 
 in Edinburgh, emigrated to America in 1786. He was 
 the author of several scientific works, and became pro- 
 fessor of mathematics at Princeton College, New Jersey. 
 Died in 1796. 
 
 Mintrop, mln'trop, (Theodor,) a distinguished 
 German painter and designer, born at Heithausen, in 
 Bavaria, in 1814. He produced designs in crayon, and 
 several oil-paintings of religious subjects. Among his 
 works are " The Riches of the Year," and " The Apo- 
 theosis of Bacchus." 
 
 Minturni, men-tooR'nee, (Antonio Sebastiano,) an 
 Italian poet and canonist, born in Terra di Lavoro, was 
 noted for his learning. Died in 1574. 
 
 Miimt, de, deh me'nii', (Gabriel,) a French littS- 
 rateur, born at Toulouse about 1520. He was patronized 
 by Catherine de Medicis, and was a friend of J. C. 
 Scaliger. He published treatises on medicine, theology, 
 and other subjects. Died in 1587. 
 
 Minutianus, me-nu-she-a'nus, [ It. Minuziano, me 
 noot-se-5'no,] (Alessandro,) a learned Italian printer, 
 
 a, e, J, 0, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon. 
 
MINUTIUS 
 
 1593 
 
 MIRABEAU 
 
 born at San Severo about 1450. He published the first 
 complete edition of Cicero, and issued from his press 
 numerous classics of great beauty and accuracy. Died 
 about 1525. 
 
 Minutius or Minucius (nii-nu'she-us) Fe'lix, an 
 early Christian writer, supposed to have been a native 
 of Africa, lived in the third century. He was the author 
 of a work entitled " Octavius," written in defence of 
 Christianity. A good edition of it was published by 
 Gronovius in 1707. 
 
 See Bouchard, " Dissertatio de Minutio Felice," 1685 ; Hein- 
 rich Mkikr, " Commentano de Minucio Felice," 1S25. 
 
 Minutoli, me-noo'to-lee, (Hkinrich Menu,) Baron, 
 a distinguished writer, of Italian extraction, born at 
 Geneva in 1772. He served in the Prussian army, and 
 attained the rank of lieutenant-general. In 1820 he 
 accompanied the scientific expedition sent by the Prus- 
 sian government to Egypt, and published, (in German,) 
 after his return, a "Journey to the Temple of Jupiter 
 Amnion and Upper Egypt," (2 vols., 1824.) Among his 
 other works is " Recollections of a Soldier." He was 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and 
 was appointed by the king, Frederick William, tutor to 
 Prince Charles. Died in 1846. 
 
 Minutoli, (Julius,) a lawyer, son of the preceding, 
 was born at Berlin in 1805. He was appointed in 1851 
 consul-general for Spain and Portugal. He published 
 a work entitled "Spain and its Progressive Develop- 
 ment." 
 
 Min'jf-as, [Gr. M.tvvac,] a fabulous personage, said 
 to be a son of Neptune, a king of Boeotia, and the an- 
 cestor of the MlN\VE, (yiivvai,) a race of heroes cele- 
 brated in the most ancient epic poetry of Greece. The 
 Argonauts were mostjy descendants of Minyas, and were 
 called Minyx. 
 
 Miuzocchi, men-zok'kee, or Menzocchi, men-zok'- 
 kee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, born at Forli about 
 1500, was a pupil of Genga. Among his master-pieces 
 we may name "The Sacrifice of Melchisedec," "The 
 Fall of Manna," and a " Holy Family." Died in 1574. 
 
 Minzoni, men-zo'nee, (Onofrio,) an Italian poet and 
 Jesuit, born at Ferrara in 1734, became professor of phi- 
 losophy at Venice. He was the author of a collection 
 of sonnets of great beauty. Died in 1817. 
 
 See TlPAt.un, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Miolan-Carvalho, me'o'ldN' kaR'vi'lo', (Caroline 
 Felix,) a French vocalist, born at Ch&teau-Rouxin 1829. 
 She performed with success in Paris and London as an 
 operatic singer. 
 
 Miollis, me'o'less', ( Sextius Alexandre Fran- 
 cois,) Count, a French general, born at Aix in 1759. He 
 was wounded at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. He became 
 a general of division in 1799, and obtained command of 
 all the French forces in Northern Italy in 1805. In 1S09 
 he entered Rome, where, having expelled the pope, he 
 remained, with the title of governor, until 1814. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Mionuet, me'o'ni', (Theodore Edmf.,) a French 
 antiquary, born in Paris in 1770. He wrote a " Descrip- 
 tive Catalogue of Greek and Roman Medals," (7 vols., 
 1806-35,) a standard work, which still ranks among 
 the best of its kind, a treatise "On the Rarity and 
 Value of Roman Medals," etc., (2 vols., 1847,) an( I other 
 similar works. Died in 1842. 
 
 Miot, me'o', (Aniire Francois,) Comte de Melito, a 
 French statesman, born at Versailles in 1762. He was 
 minister of the interior at Naples under Joseph Bona- 
 parte. He died in 1841. leaving "Memoirs of the Con- 
 sulate, the Empire, and King Joseph," (3 vols., 1858.) 
 
 Mirabaud, nie'rit'bo', (Jean Baptists,) a French 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1675. He made a transla- 
 tion oi Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered," which had great 
 popularity at the time. He also translated the "Orlando 
 Finioso," and published several treatises on various 
 subjects. The atheistical work entitled "Systeme de 
 la Nature" was for a time attributed to Mirabaud, but is 
 now known to have been written by Baron d'Holbach. 
 Mirabaud was elected to the French Academy in 1726. 
 Died in 1760. 
 
 See D'Alkmbkrt, " Histoire des Membres de !' Academic Fran- 
 Caise." 
 
 Mirabeau.de, deh me'rS'bo', (Boniface Riquetti,) 
 Vicomte, a brother of Gabriel, noticed below, was born 
 at Bignon in 1754. He served in the army of the United 
 States about 1780. In 1789 he became a royalist mem- 
 ber of the States-General, and was opposed to his brother 
 in politics. He was so bloated by drinking that he was 
 nicknamed "Barrel Mirabeau," ("Mirabeau Tonneau.") 
 He was noted for his sarcastic wit. " In any other 
 family,", said he, " I should pass for a reprobate (manvais 
 stijet) and wit; but in mine I am regarded as a fool, 
 but a sedate man." When his famous brother reproved 
 him for his intemperance, he wittily replied, "Of all 
 the vices of our family, that is the only one which you 
 have left for me." He emigrated in 1790, and joined the 
 royalist army on the Rhine. Died in 1792. 
 
 Mirabeau, de, deh me'rit'bo' or mlr'a-bo', (HonorS 
 Gabriel de Riquetti, (deh re'ki'te',) originally Arri- 
 ghetti,) Comte, a famous French orator and states- 
 man, was born at Bignon, near Nemours, March 9, 1749. 
 His family was of Italian extraction. He was the oldest 
 surviving son of the Marquis de Mirabeau and Marie 
 Genevieve de Vassan. The last representative of that 
 stormy and highly-gifted race, he inherited a passionate 
 nature, a frank and open temper, and a mind of great 
 amplitude of grasp and prodigious activity. The edu- 
 cation which he received under the strict discipline of 
 his father was far from judicious. In his fifteenth year 
 he was sent to a boarding-school in Paris, where he 
 made rapid progress in ancient and modern languages 
 and mathematics, also in music and the fine arts. In 
 compliance with his father's will, he entered the army 
 in 1767. The next year, by an amorous intrigue, he pro- 
 voked the ire of the marquis, who caused him to be 
 imprisoned in the Isle of Rhe. In 1769 he obtained 
 liberty to serve in Corsica against Paoli, where he won 
 golden opinions, and returned in 1770 with the brevet 
 of captain. It puzzled his father to find a proper sphere 
 for one whom he called a windmill, a whirlwind, one 
 who " had swallowed all formulas." On one occasion 
 he writes, " I pass my life in cramming him with prin- 
 ciples." 
 
 In 1772 young Mirabeau married Marie fimilie de 
 Covet, a daughter of the Marquis de Marignan, and 
 became a resident of Aix. For running into debt, he was 
 banished to Manosque, near the Alps, where he wrote 
 an " Essay on Despotism." Having again displeased 
 the grim marquis by some venial error, he was confined, 
 by a lettre de cachet, in the castle of If, in 1774, and was 
 finally separated from his wife, who was not inconsolable 
 on that account. He was removed in 1775 to the castle 
 of Joux ; and, having liberty to walk out on parole, he 
 formed an ardent attachment for Sophie Monnier, un- 
 happily married to a man four times older than herself. 
 With her he eloped in 1776, and went to Amsterdam, 
 where he earned fair wages by translating Watson's 
 " Philip II." and doing other literary jobs. The parlia- 
 ment of Besancon indicted him for abduction, and sen- 
 tenced him to death. In May, 1777, the police-officers 
 arrested him in Holland and consigned him to the prison 
 of Vincennes, where he was kept forty-two months, ap- 
 parently ruined, but still indomitable in spirit. Presenting 
 himself before the court which had condemned him as 
 contumacious, he pleaded his cause with such power 
 that the sentence was annulled. He again met his father 
 on amicable terms ; for it is recorded among his few 
 conventional virtues that he loved his father to the end. 
 The marquis, however, left him to his own resources 
 for a supply of money. 
 
 From about 1783 to 1788 he led a wandering life 
 in F^ngland, France, and Germany, supporting himself 
 by his wits, teeming with grand projects, and often en- 
 gaging in questionable intrigues. Under the auspices 
 of Franklin, he published an eloquent essay "On the 
 Order of Cincinnatus," (1784,) which was followed by a 
 tract "On the Opening of the Scheldt." A polemical 
 tract on the water-company of Paris, in reply to Beau- 
 marchais, produced a prodigious effect. In 1786 Calonne 
 (partly from a desire to remove him out of the way) sent 
 him on a secret mission to Berlin, where he met the 
 Great Frederick, and collected materials for an important 
 work, — " The Prussian Monarchy," — which appeared in 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (^""See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MIR ABE 'AU 
 
 '594 
 
 MIRANDA 
 
 17S8. The States-General, which were convoked for 
 May, 1789, offered to him a congenial arena for the 
 exertion of his gigantic energies against the system of 
 organized injustice and oppression which for ages had 
 afflicted France. After he had been rejected with con- 
 tempt by the noblesse of Provence, he was chosen tri- 
 umphantly by the TiersStat of Aix and Marseilles. Ik- 
 preferred to represent Aix. Aiming at reform by mod- 
 erate means, he made overtures for co-operation with the 
 ministry, but was coldly received by Necker, and went 
 away in ill humour. On the 23d of June, 1789, he gave 
 a decisive direction to the Revolution by his famous 
 speech in reply to the king's usher, De Breze, who re- 
 minded the Assembly that the king had ordered them 
 to disperse : — "The Commons of France have resolved 
 to deliberate. We have heard what the king has been 
 advised to say ; and you, who cannot act as his organ in 
 the States-General, — -you, who have here neither seat 
 nor vote nor right of speech, — you are not the person 
 to remind us of it. Go and tell your master that we 
 are here by the will of the nation, and that nothing but 
 the power of bayonets can drive us hence !" The usher 
 quickly vanished, and Mirabeau became the master-spirit 
 of the National Assembly. " Mirabeau's spiritual gift," 
 says Carlyle, "will be found to be verily an honest and 
 great one ; far the strongest, best practical intellect of 
 that time." His brief and pithy sentences became the 
 Watchwords of the Revolution ; "his gestures were com- 
 mands, his motions were coups d'itat." Exchanging the 
 role of tribune for that of a statesman, he soared above 
 the intrigues of party and the ideal abstractions that 
 were in vogue. "Where others grope darkly," says 
 Lamartine, "he aims surely, he advances directly. . . . 
 The philosophy of the eighteenth century, modified by 
 prudence and policy, flows out all formulized from his 
 lips. His eloquence, imperative as law, is only the gift 
 of impassioned reasoning." 
 
 He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy 
 of lords and bishops, the spoliation of the Church, and 
 the formation of the national guard, but he demanded for 
 the king an absolute veto and the initiative in making 
 war and peace. One of his greatest triumphs as an orator 
 was won over Barnave, on the latter question, in 1790. 
 Loud explosions of popular fury greeted him when it 
 was known that he favoured the royal veto. As he en- 
 tered the Assembly to speak on the question, he said to 
 a friend, " I will either leave the House in triumph, or 
 be torn to fragments." He gained his point, and re- 
 stored his popularity. In the last part of his career he 
 became move conservative, and formed a secret alliance 
 with the court, from which he received large sums of 
 money. He doubtless cherished an ambition to be prime 
 minister of France. 
 
 In January, 1 791, he was chosen president of the Na- 
 tional Assembly. " Never had this office been so well 
 filled," says Dumont. On parting with Uumont, who 
 left Paris at the date just named, Mirabeau said, "I shall 
 die at the stake, and we shall never, perhaps, meet again. 
 That base faction whom I now overawe [the Jacobins] 
 will again be let loose upon the country. I have none 
 but direful anticipations." He died April 2, 1791. 
 Among his last words were, " Envelop me with perfumes 
 and crown me with flowers, that I may pass away into 
 everlasting sleep." His strong constitution had been 
 ruined by inordinate passions and immoral pleasures 
 carried to the greatest excess, but veiled under a decorous 
 exterior after he had attained eminence as a legislator. 
 He had the art of enlisting men of talents in his service 
 and appropriating their productions, on which he im- 
 pressed the seal of his originality. Dumont, Claviere, 
 and Duroverai were, perhaps, the chief persons who thus 
 assisted him. Mirabeau had given development and 
 outward form to the French Revolution; but to control 
 it was beyond his power. His indomitable will might 
 for a time direct or overawe the fury of the populace; 
 but he possessed no virtues which could inspire the 
 better portion of the people with that trust and confi- 
 dence without which there can be no stability for any 
 government. 
 
 Alluding to the resemblance between Mirabeau and 
 Chatham, Macaulay observes, "Sudden bursts which 
 
 seemed to be the effect of inspiration, short sentences 
 which came like lightning, dazzling, burning, striking 
 down everything before them, ... in these chiefly lay 
 the oratorical power both of Chatham and Mirabeau. . . . 
 In true dignity of character, in private and public virtue, 
 it may seem absurd to institute any comparison between 
 them ; but they had the same haughtiness and vehemence 
 of temper. In their language and manner there was a 
 disdainful self-confidence, an imperiousness before which 
 all common minds quailed. . . . There have been far 
 greater speakers and far greater statesmen than either 
 of them ; but we doubt whether any men have, in modern 
 times, exercised such vast personal influence over stormy 
 and divided assemblies." (Article on " Dumont's Recol- 
 lections of Mirabeau," in Macaulay's " Essays.") 
 
 See Mirabeau, "A Life-History," London, 2 vols., 1848 ; Lamar- 
 tine, " History of the Girondists," book i. ; Carlyle, "Essays," 
 vol. i. ; Hrougham, " Statesmen of the Time of George III., 2d 
 series; Chaussard, "Esprit de Mirabeau," 2 vols., 1797: Victor 
 Hugo, " Etude sur Mirabeau," 1834 : F. Lewitz, " Mirabeau, Uild 
 seines Lebens," etc., 2 vols., 1852-53; Cadet de Gassicourt, 
 " Essai sur la Vie privee de Mirabeau," 1800; J. Merilhou, " Essai 
 historique sur la Vie de Mirabeau," 1825; Louis de Montigny, 
 " Memoires btographiques, litteVaires et politiques de Mirabeau," 8 
 vols., 1S33-41 ; Dumont, "Souvenirs sur Mirabeau," 1832; Pithou, 
 " Abridge" dela Viede Mirabeau," 1791 ; " Memoires sur Mirabeau et 
 son fipoque," (anonymous.) Paris, 4 vols., 1824 ; Schneidewind, 
 " Mirabeau uud seine Zeit," 1831. 
 
 Mirabeau, de, (Jean Antoine Riquetti,) Mar- 
 quis, surnamed Silverstock, a brave French officer, 
 born in Provence in 1666, was the grandfather of the 
 great orator Mirabeau. His ancestors, the Arrighettis, 
 were exiled from Florence in 1267. He was called " Ven- 
 doine's right arm." At the battle of Cassano, in 1706, 
 where he commanded a regiment, he received twenty- 
 seven wounds, one of which was in the neck. In conse- 
 quence of this, he wore a silver stork to support his head. 
 He married, and lived many years after that action. 
 
 See " Me'tnoires de Mirabeau;" Carlyle, "Essays," vol. i. 
 
 Mirabeau, de, (Victor Riquetti,) Marquis, the 
 self-styled "Friend of Men." born at Perthuis in 1715, 
 was the son of the preceding, and father of the great 
 orator. A proud, eccentric person, of violent passions 
 and powerful intellect, he was regarded as the reverse of 
 a "friend" by most men who had intercourse with him. 
 His hobby was Political Economy, in which jie was a 
 disciple of Du Quesnay. He published on that science 
 able and voluminous works, some of which were re- 
 ceived with favour. His "Friend of Men," ("Ami des 
 Homines,") which appeared about 1755, made a great 
 sensation, though its style was extremely rugged, quaint, 
 and tortuous. He lived mostly in Paris, and was am- 
 bitious to dnect affairs of state. It is reported that he 
 obtained from the ministry no less than fifty-four lettres 
 de cachet, arbitrary warrants to imprison his children and 
 others. Die in 1789. "Out of all which circumstances," 
 says Carlyle. " there has come forth this Marquis de 
 Mirabeau, si aped into one of the most singular, sublime 
 pedants that ever stepped the soil of France. There 
 never enten d the brain of Hogarth or of rare old Ben 
 such a piece of humour as in this brave old Riquetti 
 nature has presented us ready-made. For withal there 
 is such genius in him, rich depth of character, inde- 
 structible cheerfulness and health breaking out in spite 
 of these divorce-papers, like strong sunlight in thundery 
 weather." 
 
 Mirabella, me-ra-bel'la, (Vincenzo,) an Italian anti- 
 quary, born at Syracuse in 1570. He wrote a "History 
 of Syracuse," and other works. Died in 1624. 
 
 Mirseus. See Lemire. 
 
 Mil anion, me-ra-mAn', (Miguel,) a Mexican general, 
 born about 1832. He became the leader of the clerical 
 party which began to wage war against Juarez in 1858. 
 He was defeated in a decisive battle in December, i860, 
 and went into exile. He afterwards returned, and 
 fought for Maximilian, and was executed with him in 
 June, 1867. 
 
 Miranda, me-ran'dl, (Francisco,) a South American 
 patriot, born at Caraccas about 1750. Having entered 
 the French army, he served in the American campaigns 
 of 1779 and 1 781, and in 1792 became general of division 
 under Dumouriez. In the campaign of 1793 he was 
 defeated by the allies at Neerwinden, and was brought to 
 
 a. e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, <S, 1, 6, S, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MIRANDA 
 
 '595 
 
 MITCHELL 
 
 trial for mismanagement on this occasion, but he was 
 acquitted. Being condemned by the Directory in 1797, 
 he took refuge in England, and on his return to Paris, 
 in 1803, was a second time banished. He sailed in 1806 
 to Venezuela, where he made an unsuccessful attempt 
 to found a republic. He was arrested in 1812 by the 
 Spanish government, and imprisoned at Cadiz, where 
 he died in 1816. 
 
 See J Biggs. "History of Miranda's Attempt to effect a Revo- 
 lution in South America: Dumouribz, " Memoires." 
 
 Miranda, de, da mc-ran'da, (Don Juan Garcia,) a 
 Spanish artist, born at Madrid in 1677, became painter 
 to the king, Philip V. Died in 1749. There were 
 several other painters of the same family. 
 
 See Cean-Bermltjkz, " Diccionario Historico," etc. 
 
 Miranda, de, eta me-ran'da, (Sa,) one of the earliest 
 Portuguese poets, bom at Coimbra about 1495. He was 
 one oi" the founders of Portuguese literature, and is said 
 to have been the hist to employ the metres of Dante and 
 Petrarch. He was the author of sonnets and dramas, 
 but his reputation rests chiefly on his poetical epistles 
 and eclogues. Died in 1 558. 
 
 See Barhosa Machmhx " Bibliolheca Lusitana:" Bouterwek, 
 " Mi-tiiire liueraire;" A. he Vaknhagen, "O Panorama." 
 
 Mirandola. See Pico df.i.i.a Mirandoi.a. 
 
 Mirbel, de, deh meK'bel', (Chari.ks Francois Bris- 
 skat,) an eminent French botanist, born in Paris in 
 1776. He was appointed by the empress Josephine 
 superintendent of the gardens of Malmaison in 1803, and 
 in 1808 became a member of the Academy of Sciences, 
 and adjunct professor of botany and vegetable physiology 
 to the Faculty of Sciences. He afterwards held several 
 public offices', and in 1828 was appointed professor of 
 culture in the Tardin des Plantes. Among lis principal 
 works are "Elements of Botany and Vegetable Physi- 
 ology," (3 vols., 1815,) and "Natural History of Vege- 
 tables," etc., (15 vols., 1826,) written in conjunction with 
 Lamarck, also "Researches on the Marchantia Poly- 
 morpha," and other treatises of great value, contributed 
 to the " fournal de Physique" and various other scien- 
 tific periodicals. He likewise assisted Sonnini in his 
 "Natural History of Plants." Died in 1854. 
 
 See Pavrn, "filoce historique de M. de Mirbel," 1858; " Nou- 
 velle Biograpliie Ge^i^rale." 
 
 Mirbel, de, (Lizinska Aimee Zoe Rue,) the wife of 
 the preceding, was born at Cherbourg in 1796. She ac- 
 quired a high reputation as a miniature-painter. Among 
 her best works may be named the portraits of Louis 
 Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, the Count of Paris, 
 Madame Guizot, and fimile de Girardin. She obtained 
 several medals, and was appointed after the restoration 
 miniature-painter to the king. Died in 1849. 
 
 See "Journal des Beaux- Arts" 1849. 
 
 Mirecourt, meR'kooR', (Charles Jean Baptiste 
 Jacquot,) called Eugene de Mirecourt, a French lit- 
 Hraieur, born at Mirecourt, in Vostres, in 181 2. He pro- 
 duced a work called " Portrait-Gallery of Contempo- 
 raries," ("Ga'erie des Contemporains," 60 vols., 1854- 
 57.) in which he indulged in offensive personalities. He 
 was prosecuted bv Lamennais, George Sand, and others. 
 
 Mirepoix, de, deh men'pwa', (Chari.es Pierre 
 Gaston Francois de Levia — deh li've',) Due, a 
 French general, bom in 1699. He became a marshal of 
 France in 1757. Died in 1758. 
 
 Mirevelt See Mierf.vf.lt. 
 
 MirTt-am, [Heb. O"^.] a prophetess, a sister of 
 Moses, the Hebrew lawgiver. She sang a song of tri- 
 umph after the children of Israel had passed through 
 the Red Sea. 
 
 See Exodus xv. 20; Numbers xii. 
 
 Mirkhond, mir'Kond', a celebrated Persian histo- 
 rian, born in 1433, was the author of a work entitled 
 "Garden of Purity, or History of Prophets, Kings, and 
 Caliphs." There are manuscripts of this history in the 
 libraries of Paris, London, Berlin, and Vienna, and por- 
 tions of it have been translated into French and several 
 other languages. Died in 1498. 
 
 Miromesnil, de, deh me'ro'mi'nel', (Armand Tho- 
 mas Hue,) a French minister of state, bom in the Or- 
 leannais in 1723. He was keeper of the seals from 1774 
 to 1787. Died in 1796. 
 
 Mirza. See MeerzX. 
 
 Mi-se'nus, [Gr. M«n?voc; Fr. Misene, me'zjn',] a 
 Trojan warrior, distinguished for his valour and his skill 
 as a trumpeter, was called jEoi.'ides by Virgil. After 
 the capture of Troy, he went to Italy with /Eneas, whom 
 he served as a trumpeter. He is said to have been 
 drowned by a Triton who was envious of his musical skill. 
 See Virgil's "^Eneid," book vi. 162-174. 
 Miari-Effendi, mis'ree ef-fen'dee, a Turkish poet 
 and enthusiast, bom in Egypt about 1660. He cele- 
 brated in verse the incarnation of Jesus Christ. Died 
 in 1710. 
 
 Missiessy, me'se'i'se', (Edouard Thomas Bur- 
 GUES,) a French admiral, born in Provence in 1754. He 
 commanded a squadron which, in May, 1805, was sent 
 to the Antilles, and in 1809 commanded the naval forces 
 at Antwerp. Died in 1832. 
 
 Misson, me'sdN'', (Francois Maximii.ien,) a French 
 writer, born at Lyons, was of a Protestant family, and 
 settled in England after the revocation of the edict 
 of Nantes. Having visited Italy in 1687, he published, 
 after his return, an account of his travels, which was 
 commended bv Addison for its lively and faithful de- 
 scriptions. Died in 1721. 
 
 Mitch'el, (John,) an Irish adventurer, born in the 
 county of berry in 1815. He was for a time associate 
 editor of the Dublin "Nation," and subsequently of 
 " The United Irishman," which, however, was soon sup- 
 pressed by the British government, and Mitchel was sen- 
 tenced to fourteen years' banishment to Australia in 1848. 
 Having effected his escape in 1 854, he came to New 
 York, and subsequently settled in Tennessee, where he 
 edited " The Southern Citizen." Soon after the breaking 
 out of the war of 1861, he became editor of the Richmond 
 "Examiner," one of the most violent and scurrilous 
 of the secession journals. 
 
 Mitchel, (Ormsby Macknight,) an eminent Ameri- 
 can astronomer, bom in Union county, Kentucky, in 
 1810. Having graduated at West Point in 1829, he 
 became in 1834 professor of mathematics, philosophy, 
 and astronomy at Cincinnati College, Ohio. He first 
 suggested the erection of an observatory at Cincinnati, 
 and the successful accomplishment of the enterprise was 
 chiefly due to his efforts ; and the institution, of which he 
 became director, was provided through his exertions with 
 one of the finest telescopes to be found in the United 
 States. He delivered popular lectures on astronomy 
 at various places, and published, besides other works, 
 " Planetary and Stellar Worlds," which was very favour- 
 ably received. In 1859 he became director of the Dud- 
 ley Observatory at Albany. He was appointed a briga- 
 dier-general in the Union army in August, 1861. He 
 moved with a small army from Tennessee to Alabama 
 in April, 1862, surprised Huntsville, and distinguished 
 himself by his energy. Having been promoted to the 
 rank of major-general, he was appointed commander of 
 the department of the South, about August, 1862. He 
 died of yellow fever at Beaufort, South Carolina, in 
 October of that year. 
 
 Mitch'ell, (Sir Andrew,) a distinguished diplomatist, 
 born in Edinburgh about 1695, was elected to Parlia- 
 ment in 1747, and in 1751 was appointed resident min- 
 ister at Brussels. He was ambassador-extraordinary to 
 Berlin in 1753, and acquired considerable influence oyer 
 Frederick the Great, whom he succeeded in detaching 
 from the interests of France. Died in 1771. 
 
 See " Memoirs and Papers of Sir Andrew Mitchell," by A. Bis- 
 srtt, 1850; Thibbault, "Souvenirs de vingt Ans de Sejour a 
 Berlin." 
 
 Mitchell, (Andrew,) a Scottish naval officer, bom 
 about 1757, attained the rank of vice-admiral of the 
 white in 1799, and in 1802 was appointed commander- 
 in-chief on the coast of America. Died in 1806. 
 
 Mitchell, (Sir David,) a naval commander under the 
 reign of William III., rose to be rear-admiral of the 
 blue in 1693. He was afterwards employed in important 
 missions to Russia and Holland. Died in 1710. 
 
 Mitch'ell, (Donald Grant,) a distinguished Ameri- 
 can writer, born it Norwich, Connecticut, in 1822. 
 Having graduated at Yale College in 1841, he made the 
 tour of Europe, and published after his return, under 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in this. (JQf^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MITCHELL 
 
 1596 
 
 MIT FORD 
 
 the pseudonym of Ik Marvel, " Fresh Gleanings ; or, A 
 New Sheaf from the Old Fields of Continental Europe," 
 (1847.) His " Reveries of a Bachelor" came out in 1850, 
 and "Dream Life" in 1851 : the former was received 
 with great favour. He has also been a contributor to 
 the " Knickerbocker Magazine" and the " Atlantic 
 Monthly." He was appointed in 1853 United States 
 consul at Venice. His agricultural writings have been 
 received with much favour. One of his latest works is 
 entitled "My Farm of Edgewood," (1863.) 
 
 Mitchell, (Elisha,) D.D., an American chemist and 
 divine, born in Litchfield county, Connecticut, in 1793, 
 became professor of mathematics in the University of 
 North Carolina in 1817, and subsequently of chemistry 
 in the same institution, Being appointed State surveyor, 
 he first discovered the fact that the mountains of North 
 Carolina are the highest in the United States east of 
 the Rocky Mountains. While exploring one of these 
 heights, in 1857, he was killed by a fall from a precipice. 
 His name has been given to one of the highest summits. 
 
 Mitchell, (John Kearsley,) M.D., an American 
 physician, born in Jefferson county, Virginia, in 1796. 
 He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, and 
 in 1841 became professor of the theory and practice of 
 medicine in Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. He 
 published a treatise " On the Cryptogamous Origin of 
 Malarious and Epidemic Fevers," (1849,) and lectures on 
 scientific subjects, which are highly esteemed and have 
 been translated into foreign languages. Died in 1858. 
 
 Mitchell, (Joseph,) a Scottish poet and dramatist, 
 born about 1685, was the author of a tragedy entitled 
 "The Fatal Extravagance," "The Highland Fair," a 
 ballad opera, and a number of poems. Died in 1738. 
 
 See Cibber. "Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Mitchell, (Maria,) a distinguished American astron- 
 omer, born in the island of Nantucket in 1818. She has 
 published, besides other astronomical treatises, a me- 
 moir on a telescopic comet discovered by her in 1847. 
 A gold medal was conferred upon her by the King of 
 Denmark for this discovery. Miss Mitchell was ap- 
 pointed professor of astronomy at Vassar College soon 
 after the opening of that institution in 1865. 
 
 See Woman's Record of Distinguished Women," by Mrs. S. J. 
 Hale. 
 
 Mitchell, (Robert I?.,) an American general, born 
 in Ohio about 1825. He became a brigadier-general of 
 the Union army about April, 1862, and commanded a 
 division at Perryville, October 8 of that year. 
 
 Mitchell, (S. Weir,) M.D., an American physician 
 and physiologist, a son of Dr. J. K. Mitchell, noticed 
 above, was born in Philadelphia, February 15, 1829. He 
 graduated at the Jefferson Medical College in 1850. He 
 has particularly distinguished himself by his researches 
 on the chemical nature and physiological action of the 
 venom of serpents. Among his numerous contributions 
 to medical science we may name " Researches upon the 
 Venom of the Rattlesnake," etc., published among the 
 Smithsonian Contributions, (i860,) "Experiments and 
 Observations upon the Circulation in the Chelonura 
 Serpentina," (Snapping-Turtle,) etc., published among 
 the Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, 
 1862, and " Researches on the Physiology of the Cerebel- 
 lum," (see the "American Journal of Medical Sciences" 
 for April, 1869.) He has also published (with Drs. Keen 
 and Morehouse) an excellent work on the " Effects of 
 Gunshot Wounds and other Injuries of the Nerves," 
 (1864.) Dr. Mitchell is a member of the National 
 Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 
 and of numerous other scientific institutions. 
 
 Mitchell, (Thomas,) an eminent English scholar, 
 born in London in 1783. He studied at Pembroke Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, and in 1813 began the publication of a 
 series of essays on Aristophanes and Athenian manners, 
 in the "Quarterly Review," which won for him a high 
 reputation. He afterwards published an excellent trans- 
 lation of several comedies of Aristophanes into English 
 verse ; also an edition of Sophocles, and five dramas of 
 Aristophanes, (with English notes.} He died in 1845, 
 leaving unfinished an edition of his " Pentalogia Aris- 
 tophanica." 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for November, 1820. 
 
 Mitchell, (Sir Thomas Livingstone,) a Scottish 
 traveller, born in Stirlingshire in 1792. He served in 
 the Spanish campaigns from 1808 to 1814, and in 1827 
 sailed to Australia, where he was soon after appointed 
 surveyor-general. He gave the name of Australia Felix 
 to a region hitherto unexplored, and ascertained the 
 courses of the Glenelg, the Darling, and other rivers. 
 He published, among other works, " Outlines of a Sys- 
 tem of Surveying for Geographical and Military Pur- 
 poses," (1827,) "Three Expeditions into the Interior of 
 Eastern Australia," etc., (2 vols., 1838,) and " Australian 
 Geography," etc., (1850.) He was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society and of the Geographical Society. Died 
 in 1855. 
 
 Mitch'ill, (Samuel Latham,) M.D., LL.D., an Ameri- 
 can physician and naturalist, born on Long Island in 1764. 
 In 1786 he graduated as doctor of medicine at the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh. He became in 1792 professor of 
 chemistry, natural history, and philosophy in Columbia 
 College, New York. He was for many years associate 
 editor of the " Medical Repository." He was elected 
 to the United States Senate in 1804, and in 1820 was 
 appointed professor of botany and materia medica in 
 the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. 
 He published "Observations on the Absorbent Tubes 
 of Animal Bodies," and other scientific works. Died in 
 1831. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. i. ; Dl'YCKlNCK, " Cyclopaedia ot American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Mitelli, me-tel'lee, or Metelli, ma-tel'lee, (Aoos- 
 TINO,) an Italian painter and engraver of great merit, 
 born near Bologna in 1609, was a pupil of Dentone and 
 Falcetta. His principal works are perspective and ar- 
 chitectural pieces, in which his friend Michael Angelo 
 Colonna painted the figures. Among their master- 
 pieces are the frescos in -the palace of Cardinal Spada 
 at Rome. Mitelli died in 1660, at Madrid, whither he 
 had been invited by Philip IV. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Mitelli, (GIUSEPPE Maria,) an Italian painter and 
 engraver, born in 1634, was a son of the preceding. His 
 prints after Correggio and the Caracci are ranked among 
 his best works. Died in 1718. 
 
 Mit'ford, (John,) an English writer and journalist, 
 was editor of the " Bon-Ton Magazine," " Quizzical 
 Gazette," and other periodicals of the kind. He was 
 the author of a naval romance entitled "Johnny New- 
 come in the Navy," and several popular ballads. Died 
 in 1831. 
 
 See Timperley, " Encyclopaedia of Literary Anecdote." 
 
 Mitford, (John Freeman,) an English statesman 
 and jurist, born in 1748, was a brother of the historian, 
 noticed below. He studied at New College, Oxford, 
 and, having been admitted to the bar, was elected to 
 Parliament for Beer-Alston in 1789. He became attorney- 
 general in 1799, Speaker of the House of Commons 
 in 1801, and in 1802 lord chancellor of Ireland, being 
 created at the same time a peer, with the title of Baron 
 Redesdale. On the death of Mr. Pitt he resigned his 
 office of chancellor. Died in 1830. 
 
 Mitford, (Mary Russell,) a charming English writer, 
 born in Hampshire in 17S6. Her father was a physician 
 of more than ordinary talent and culture, whose improvi- 
 dence, however, and luxurious tastes had involved him 
 in pecuniary embarrassment. In order to relieve his 
 necessities, Miss Mitford devoted herself to authorship 
 at an early age, an'' published in 1806 three volumes of 
 poems, which met with severe criticism from some of 
 the leading journals. Her next publications were the 
 tragedies of "Julian," (1823,) "The Foscari," (1826,) 
 " Rienzi," (1828,) and "Charles I.," several of which 
 were favourably received. She had previously contrib- 
 uted to the " Ladies' Magazine" a series of sketches 
 of English life, which appeared in 1832 under the title 
 of "Our Village," etc., (5 vols.) The genial spirit, 
 graceful simplicity, and freshness of feeling displayed in 
 these tales won for them the favour of all classes, and 
 they passed rapidly through many editions. Among 
 Miss Mitford's other works we may name "Belford 
 Regis; or, Sketches of a Country Town," "Stories of 
 American Life by American Writers," " Recollections 
 
 i, e, T, 6, Q, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 0, Q, y, short; a, e, j, q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MITFORD 
 
 '597 
 
 MITSCHERLICH 
 
 of a Literary Life," (3 vols., 1852,) and "Atherton, and 
 other Tales,'" (1854.) Died in 1855. 
 
 See the " Life of Mary Russell Mitford, told bv herself in Letters 
 to her Friends." edited hy the Rev. A. G. K. L'Estranck, Lon- 
 don, 1870; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1824; 
 " Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1854. 
 
 Mitford, (William,) an English historian, born in 
 London in 1744. He entered Queen's College, Oxford, 
 and subsequently studied law at the Middle Temple. 
 He was appointed in 1769 a captain in the South Hamp- 
 shire Militia, where he acquired the friendship of Gib- 
 bon, the future historian, at that time an officer in the 
 same regiment Mitford published in 1774 his "Inquiry 
 into the Principles of Harmony in Languages," which 
 was followed by a "Treatise on the Military Force,'' 
 etc. Having visited France and Italy, he was appointed, 
 after his return, lieutenant-colonel of the Hampshire 
 Militia, (1779,) and was subsequently returned to Parlia- 
 ment, as a Tory, for Newport, Beer-Alston, and New 
 Romney. He brought out in 1784 the first volume of 
 his " History of Greece," completed in five volumes in 
 1818. Its style is characterized by great spirit and 
 warmth of colouring, and displays uncommon learning 
 and research, but it is strongly tinctured with the anti- 
 democratic prejudices of the author. Died in 1827. 
 
 "The Athenian democracy," says an able critic in the 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," "is treated by him 
 with extreme injustice. Scarcely anything can be ima- 
 gined more partial or more false than his picture of the 
 great conflict between Athens and Philip of Macedon. 
 Philip, as he represents him, unites the perfections of a 
 king, a hero, and an accomplished statesman ; Demos- 
 thenes, on the contrary, is a demagogue, violent, venal, 
 and dishonest." " Mitford's History of Greece is," says 
 De Quincey, "as nearly perfect in its injustice as human 
 infirmity will allow." 
 
 See Macaulay, Review of "Mitford's History of Greece;" 
 ". Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S0S: " London Quarterly Review" 
 for April, 1821 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 MIth'ra or Mlth'ras, [Gr. Mi0pac; Lat. Mith'ras ; 
 Sanscrit, Mit'ra or Mitras,] a deity of the ancient 
 Persians, usually regarded as the god of the sun ; but 
 he is more properly the god of day, and, in a higher and 
 more extended sense, the god of light, presiding over 
 the movements and influence of the principal heavenly 
 bodies, including the five planets and the sun and moon. 
 By the followers of Zoroaster he was regarded as the 
 chief of the Izeds, (a class of angelic beings,) and in a 
 particular manner as presiding over the light which 
 mortals enjoy on earth, (but as distinct from the sun,) 
 and as a mediator between men and Ormuzd. The 
 primary signification of the Sanscrit Mitra is a " friend ;" 
 and Mithra would seem to be the representative of 
 light as the friend of mankind and as the mediator 
 between earth and heaven. In this character of medi- 
 ator, as well as in some other respects, he would seem 
 to approach the character of AGNl, (which see.) In 
 the time of the emperors the worship of Mithra was 
 introduced extensively into Italy and other parts of the 
 Roman empire. He is usually represented as a hand- 
 some young man, seated or kneeling on a bull, into which 
 he is thrusting the sacrificial knife ; at his side are the 
 evening and morning star, and near at hand a dog, a 
 lion, and other animals, the signification of which is at 
 present very imperfectly understood. 
 
 See GuiGNIAUT, " Religions de I'AntiquiteV' vol. i. book ii. ; 
 "Biographie Universale," (Partie mytholoeique.) 
 
 Mithridate. See Mithriiiat 
 
 Mith-rl-da'tes, [Gr. Mi9p«5uT7/c or Mu9paoarr/r; Fr. 
 MlTHRIDATE, me'tRe'dSt',] a Persian name, borne by 
 several kings of Pontus, who were descended from 
 Artabazes, a Persian noble. It is supposed to be de- 
 rived from Mithra, (the sun,) and signifies "given by 
 the sun." Little is known of Mithridates I., who was 
 the son of Ariobarzanes. 
 
 Mithridates II., the son of Ariobarzanes II., began 
 to reign about 337 h.c. He extended his dominions bv 
 conquest, and was called the founder of the kingdom of 
 Pontus. In a war with Antigonus he was defeated, made 
 prisoner, and put to death, about 303 B.C. 
 
 Mithridates III., a son of the preceding, succeeded 
 his father, and made conquests in Paphlagonia. He 
 
 died after a reign of thirty-six years, and was succeeded 
 by his son, Ariobarzanes HI. 
 
 See Clinton, "Fasti Hellcnici.' 
 
 Mithridates IV., of Pontus, the son of Ariobarzanes 
 III., began to reign probably about 245 B.C., when he 
 was a minor. He waged a successful war against 
 Seleucus Callinicus, who, to obtain peace, gave him his 
 own sister in marriage, with one or two provinces as a 
 dowry. He is supposed to have died in 190 H.c. His 
 successor was Pharnaces I. 
 
 Mithridates V., surnamed Evf.rgetes, was a grand- 
 son of the preceding, and a son of Pharnaces I., whom 
 he succeeded in 156 B.C. He was a steadfast ally of 
 the Romans, who ceded to him the province of Phrygia. 
 After a peaceful reign, he died about 122 B.C. 
 
 Mithridates Vt, King of Pontus, surnamed Eu'pa- 
 Tor, and more commonly called the Great, born about 
 135 B.C., was the son of Mithridates V., whom he suc- 
 ceeded about the age of fifteen. He had great political 
 and military talents, and is said to have been master of 
 twenty-five languages. In the early part of his reign he 
 found scope for his ambition in the conquest of Colchis 
 and of the Scythian tribes which roamed on the north 
 of the Euxine. His attempt to acquire Cappadocia by 
 fraud and force was resisted by the Roman senate about 
 93 B.C. After forming an alliance with Tigranes, King 
 of Armenia, — then the most powerful monarch of Asia, 
 — he took the field in the year 88 with about 250,000 
 men, and defeated the Romans in several actions. In 
 the same year he instigated a general massacre of the 
 Romans resident in Asia Minor, of whom it was com- 
 puted that 80,000 fell in one day. 
 
 In the year 87 he sent a large army into Greece, where 
 he was opposed by Sulla and defeated at Chasronea, 86 
 B.C. Timbria, with another Roman army, invaded Bi- 
 thynia and gained a decisive victory in the year 85. The 
 next year Sulla and Mithridates made a treaty of peace, 
 by which the latter abandoned his recent conquests. 
 Mursena, who had obtained command of the Roman 
 army, with some flimsy pretext renewed hostilities, and 
 was completely defeated on the river Halys in 82 B.C. 
 As the Roman senate had not ratified the treaty which 
 he signed with Sulla, Mithridates made great preparations 
 for war, which was renewed in 74, when two Roman 
 armies, under Lucullus and Cotta, entered Bithynia. De- 
 feated with great loss by Lucullus at Cyzicus and Cabin, 
 Mithridates, retarding the pursuit of the Romans by the 
 riches he threw in their way, took refuge in the kingdom 
 of Tigranes (who was his son-in-law) about 72 B.C., and 
 gave orders that his wives Monima, Berenice, etc. should 
 be put to death. 
 
 Tigranes, having espoused his cause, was defeated at 
 Tigranocerta by Lucullus in 69, and at Artaxata in 68 B.C. 
 Mithridates then entered Pontus, and in 67 B.C. gained 
 a great victory over the Romans under Triarius, and re- 
 covered his kingdom. Lucullus, whose victorious career 
 had been interrupted by a mutiny of his troops, was 
 superseded in 66 by Pompey the Great, who soon ter- 
 minated the war. After losing a battle, the King of 
 Pontus fled to Lake Maeotis, (now the Sea of Azov,) and 
 offered terms of peace, to which Pompey did not accede. 
 While he was busy in raising a new army among the 
 Scythians and other barbarous tribes, his son Pharnaces 
 conspired against him, so that, to avoid the fate of a 
 captive, he took poison, in the year 63 B.C. After Han- 
 nibal, Mithridates was the most formidable enemy Rome 
 ever encountered. Cicero considered him superior in 
 power and character to any other king against whom 
 the Romans ever waged war. 
 
 See Appian, " Mithridatica ;" LlVY, " History of Rome ;" Jus- 
 tin, "History;" Woltersoorp, "Commertatio Vitam Mithridatis 
 Magni per annos digestam sisters," 1813; Dion Cassius, " Frag- 
 menta:' 1 Plutarch, "Life of Lucullus;" 'Nouvelle Biographic 
 Gene'rale;" Clinton, "Fasti Hellenici;" Nujsuhr, "Kleine 
 Schriften." 
 
 Mith-rl-da'tis, [Gr. M(0p«5anc,] a daughter of the 
 preceding, died with her father by taking poison, B.C. 63. 
 
 Mitscherlich, mltsh'er-liK.', (Christoph Wilhelm,) 
 a distinguished German scholar, born in Thuringia in 
 1760, was professor of philosophy and rhetoric at Got- 
 tingen. He published in 1800 an excrllent edition of 
 the Odes and Epodes of Horace. Died in 1854. 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; I as z; th as in this. ( Jl^-See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
MITSCHERtlCH 
 
 » 59 8 
 
 MODENA 
 
 Mitscherlich, (Eilard,) an eminent German chem- 
 ist, born near Tever in 1794. He studied at Heidelberg 
 and Gottmgen, and in 1819 was invited to Stockholm by 
 Berzelius, whose notice he had attracted by his valuable 
 discoveries in isomorphism. After his return to Ger- 
 many (1821) he became professor of chemistry at the 
 University of Berlin, and a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences in that city. He was chosen a member of the 
 French Institute in 1853. He published a "Treatise on 
 Chemistry," (" Lehrbuch der Chimie," 2 vols.,. 1829-40,) 
 which has a very high reputation, and wrote contribu- 
 tions to Poggendorfs " Annalen" and to other journals. 
 Died in 1863. 
 
 Mittarelli, met-ta-rel'lee, (Niccoi.6 Jacopo, after- 
 wards Giovanni Benedetto,) an Italian theologian, 
 born in Venice in 1707. He wrpte a "History of the 
 Camaldules," (" Annales Camaldulenses," 9 vols., 1 755— 
 73,) a work of some merit. Died in 1777. 
 
 Mitteimaier, mit'ter-nu'er, (Karl Joseph Anton,) 
 a celebrated German statesman and jurist, bom in 
 Munich in 1787. He was successively professor of law 
 at Bonn and Heidelberg, president of the preparatory 
 parliament at Frankfort in 1848, and soon after member 
 of the National Assembly. He published a number of 
 valuable legal treatises, among which we may name "The 
 Common Civil Process of Germany compared with that 
 of Prussia and France," (1826.) 
 
 Mitzler (or Mizler) von Kolof, mits'ler fon ko'lof, 
 (Lorenz Christoph,) a German writer on music, born 
 in Anspach in 1711. He published a "Musical Library," 
 ("Musikalische Bibliothek,"4 vols., 1736-54,) and other 
 works. Died at Warsaw in 1778. 
 
 Mjtilnir. See Thor. 
 
 Mnasalcas, na-sal'kas, [Gr. livaouhiac.,] an epigram- 
 matic poet, a native of Sicyon, supposed by some to 
 have lived in the time of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Muemon, nee'mon, a surname given to Artaxerxes 
 on account of his retentive memory. 
 
 Mnemosyne, ne-mosl-ne, [Gr. U.vjjiu>airvri ; Fr. Mne- 
 mosyne, na'mo'zen',] in the Grecian mythology, the 
 goddess of memory, was the daughter of Uranus, and 
 the mother of the nine Muses. 
 
 Mnesicles, nes'e-klez, [Gr. Mt^o-ucAfo] an able Greek 
 artist, of the age of Pericles, flourished about 433 B.C. 
 He was the architect of the Propylaea of the Athenian 
 Acropolis. 
 
 Mneslmachus, ne-sim'?-kus, [Gr. livriaifiaxos ; Fr. 
 Mnesimaque, na'ze'maV,] an Athenian comic poet of 
 the fourth century before the Christian era, was esteemed 
 one of the finest writers of the so-called middle comedy. 
 There are a few fragments of his plays extant. 
 
 M11 est he us. See Mknestheus. 
 
 Mnioch, mnee'oK, (Johann Jakob,) a Prussian poet, 
 born at Elbing in 1765, wrote a number of popular lyrics, 
 among which we may name "The Song of the Grave," 
 and " Song of the Masons at Saint John's Festival." 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 Mo'ab, [Heb. 3X10,] the son of Lot, was the father 
 of the Moabites, who inhabited the country east of the 
 Dead Sea and the Jordan. (See Genesis xix.) 
 
 Moaweeyah, Moawiyah, or Moawyah, mo-i'- 
 wee'yah,* written also Muawia, Mauweian, and Moa- 
 veah, [in German, Moawijah, Muawijjah, or Moa- 
 wijk,| a celebrated caliph, born at Mecca in 610 A.D., 
 was the founder of the Omeyyad dynasty. He was 
 the great-grandson of Omeyyah, who was the head of a 
 powerful family of the Koreish, and cousin-german to 
 Abd-el-Mdottalib, the grandfather of Mohammed. He 
 subjected Arabia to his power about 660, and deposed 
 Hassan, the son of Alee, (All.) He was an able and 
 successful but unscrupulous ruler. He died in 680, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Yezeed, (Yezid.) His grand- 
 son, MoAweeyah II., born in 660, became caliph in 683. 
 He abdicated in 683 or 684 A.D. 
 
 See Weil, "Gescliichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. v. 
 
 Mobiua or Moebius, mb'be-iis, (August Ferdi- 
 nand,) a German astronomer and mathematician, born 
 
 • There is a great diversity in the accentuation as well as in the 
 spelling of this name. Hammer-Pnrgstall, than whom there is no 
 higher authority, places the full accent on the penultima ; and we 
 have thought- it safe to follow his example. 
 
 at Schulpforte in 1790. In 1844 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of astronomy at Leipsic. He published, among 
 other scientific treatises, "The Barycentric Calculus, a 
 New Expedient for the Analytic Treatment of Geome- 
 try," (1827,) and "Manual of Statics," (1837.) 
 
 Mocchetti, m.ok-ket'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 poet and physician, born at Como in 1766, published. 
 " Philosophical Odes." He became in 1815 physician to 
 Caroline, Princess of Wales. Died in 1839. 
 
 Mocchi, mok'kee, (Francesco,) an Italian sculptor, 
 born near Florence in 1580 ; died in 1646. 
 
 Mocenigo, mo-cha-nee'go, (Ai.visio,) born in 1701, 
 was elected Doge of Venice in 1763. He pursued a 
 pacific policy. Died in 1778. 
 
 Mocenigo, (Giovanni,) brother of Pietro, noticed 
 below, was born in 1408. He was elected Doge of Venice 
 in 1478. The country being devastated by famine and the 
 plague, and at the same time invaded by the Turks, 
 he made peace in 1479 with the Sultan, Mahomet II. 
 Died in 1485. 
 
 See Marino Sanuto, " Vite de' Duchi dl Venezia." 
 
 Mocenigo, (Luigi I.,) succeeded Pietro Loredano 
 as Doge of Venice in 1570. The most important events 
 of his rule were the capture of the isle of Cyprus by the 
 Turks, and the victory of Lepanto, gained by the Vene- 
 tians and their allies under Don John of Austria, ( 1571.) 
 Died in 1577. 
 
 See Paru, " Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Mocenigo, (Luigi II.,) succeeded Valieri as doge in 
 1700. He governed with great wisdom and ability, and 
 prevailed on the Venetians to keep a strict neutrality 
 during the war of the Spanish succession. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Muratori, "Annales d'ltalia." 
 
 Mocenigo, (Pietro,) became Doge of Venice in 1474, 
 having previously greatly distinguished himself in the 
 wars against the Turks. Died in 1476. 
 
 Mocenigo, (Sehastiaxo.) brother of Luigi II., suc- 
 ceeded Comaro as Doge of Venice in 1722. Died in 1732. 
 
 See Daru, "Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Mocenigo, (Tommaso,) an able Venetian statesman, 
 born in 1343. He was elected doge in 1414. The Vene- 
 tian fleet defeated that of the Sultan in 1416. During his 
 administration the republic was prosperous and power- 
 ful. Died in 1423. 
 
 See Marino Sanuto, "Vite de' Duchi di Venezia;" Antonio 
 Quadri, "Sertode' Dogi Mocenigo," 1840. 
 
 Mocetto, mo-chet'to, (Girolamo,) an Italian artist, 
 had a high reputation as an engraver. He lived about 
 1 470- 1 500. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc 
 
 Mochnacki, moK-nat'skee, (Maurice,) a Polish 
 patriot and historian, born in Galicia in 1804. He 
 became in 1825 associate editor of the " Warsaw Jour- 
 nal," and in 1830 published an excellent treatise "On 
 the Polish Literature of the Nineteenth Century," which 
 was instrumental in founding a new school of poetry in 
 Poland. He was a prominent leader in the insurrection 
 of 1830 against the Russian government. On the fall 
 of Warsaw he took refuge in France, and began a 
 " History of the Polish Revolution," which he did not 
 live to complete. Died in 1834. 
 
 Mocquard, mo'kaV, (Constant,) a French poli- 
 tician and litterateur, born at Bordeaux in 1791. He 
 practised law in his early life. During the reign of 
 Louis Philippe he became a friend and adherent of 
 Louis Napoleon, who in 1848 appointed him his private 
 secretary. He performed an important part in the coup 
 d'Hat of December, 1851, after which he was chef du- 
 cabinct of the emperor for many years. He published a 
 collection of criminal trials, "Nouvelles Causes cele- 
 bres," (6 vols., 1847.) Died in 1864. 
 
 Mo-deer', [Sw. pron. mo-dflr',] (Adolf,) a Swedish 
 naturalist and economist, born in 1738, published several 
 works. Died in 1799. 
 
 Modena, mod'a-na, (Gustavo,) a popular [talian 
 writer and tragic actor, born at Venice in 1803. He 
 made his dJbut in 1826 at Rome. He became an orator 
 of the radical party during the revolutionary movement 
 of 1847, and published "Popular Dialogues," '(" Dialo- 
 ghetti popolari.") 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, 4, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; mft; not; good; moon; 
 
MODENA 
 
 1599 
 
 MOHAMMED 
 
 Modena, da, di mod'anS, or Mutina, moo'te-ni, 
 (Tommaso Bakisini,) an eminent Italian painter, sup- 
 posed to have been born at Modena in the early part of 
 the fourteenth century. Among his master-pieces we 
 may name an altar-piece of the Virgin and Child. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Notizie degli Arliftct Modenesi." 
 
 Mo-des-ti'nus He-ren'nI-us, a Roman jurist of the 
 third century, was one of the counsellors of the emperor 
 Alexander Severus, and was appointed preceptor to 
 Maximums the Younger. He wrote a number of legal 
 works, of which only fragments are extant. 
 
 Modi, mo'de, or Mo'Si, written also Mode, [that is, 
 "the Courageous," from a root cognate with the Danish 
 mod and German muth, " courage,"] a son of Thor, des- 
 tined to survive the destruction of the world at Ragna- 
 rock. In the renovated world he will share with Magni 
 the possession of their father's hammer, (mjblnir,) and 
 direct their efforts towards putting an end to all strife. 
 
 See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Kevser, " Religion 
 of the Northmen." 
 
 Modigliano, mo-del-yi'no, (Gian Francesco,) art 
 Italian painter, sometimes called Francesco da Form, 
 born at Forll about 1550. His works are principally 
 historical pieces of a. religious character, some of which 
 have great merit. 
 
 Mo'dl-us, (Francois,) a Flemish philologist and 
 jurist, born near Bruges in 1536; died in 1597. 
 
 Moebius. See Moiuus. 
 
 Moehler. See Mohi.er. 
 
 Moehsen. See Mohsf.n. 
 
 Moellendorf. See Mollendorf. 
 
 Moeller. See M5i.ler. 
 
 Moerike. See MCrike. 
 
 Mceris, mee'ris, or Myris, mi'ris, [Gr. Mo?p;c or 
 Mipif,] a king of Egypt, who, according to Herodotus, 
 reigned about 1400 K.c. He is said to have been a pa- 
 cific monarch, and to have adorned the kingdom with 
 many monuments and temples, at Thebes, Edfou, etc. 
 
 Mceris .""Elms, mee'ris ee'll-us, a Greek lexicog- 
 rapher, surnamed Atticista, is supposed to have lived 
 in the time of Adrian. His only work extant is a " Lexi- 
 con Atticum," or vocabulary of Attic and Hellenic 
 words. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graca." 
 
 Moeser. See M5ser. 
 
 Moffat, (Roiiert,) a Scottish missionary, born near 
 Edinburgh in 1795, set out for Africa about 1816. He 
 spent more than twenty years in the southern part of 
 that country, and about 1840 published "Missionary 
 Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa." He also 
 translated the New Testament and Psalms into the 
 Bechuana tongue. Mr. Moffat is father-in-law of the 
 African explorer, Dr. Livingstone. 
 
 Mohallal, mo-hal'lal, (Ada-Ben-Rebiah,) an Ara- 
 bian poet, born at Diarbekir, lived about 600 A.D. He 
 first fixed the rules and metre of Arabian poetry. He 
 was an uncle of the poet Amrool-Kais. 
 
 Mo-ham'med or Ma-hom'et,* written also Mo- 
 hamad and Muhammed, [Arabic pron. mo-ham'- 
 med; Fr. Mahomet, ini'o'ma'; Ger. MoHAMMF.D, mo- 
 ham'mir, or Muhammed, mdo-ham'mSt : It. Maometto, 
 ma-o-met'to, or Macometto, ma-ko-met'to ; Lat. Mo- 
 ham'med or (rarely) Moham'medes, (gen. of both, Mo- 
 hammedis,) or Muhammed ; Port. Mafoma, ma-fo'ma ; 
 Sp. M ahomkt, ma-o-met',] a celebrated religious teacher 
 and pretended prophet, the founder of one of the most 
 widely diffused religions of the globe, was born at Mecca 
 about 570 A.D. The year of his birth is not positively 
 ascertained ; the authorities are divided between 571 and 
 569, but the former date appears to be generally regarded 
 as the more probable one. Both his parents belonged 
 to the Koreish, at that time the most influential of all 
 the Arabian tribes. His father, Abdallah, who was of 
 the family of Hashem, was regarded as the handsomest 
 youth of his time. He married A'mlnah, of the noble 
 family Zohrah. Their only child was Mohammed, the 
 
 * This name is often pronounced, especially by the poets, mah'- 
 ho-mel'orma'ho-met, an accentuation derived, m all probability, from 
 the French. (See Introduction, pa,;e 13.) Mahomet (with the* accent 
 on the jienuHima) is not only the prevailing English pronunciation, 
 but it corresponds more nearly with the Arabic. 
 
 future prophet. Amlnah possessed, it is said, a pecu- 
 liarly nervous temperament, and used to fancy, while 
 between sleeping and waking, that 6he was visited by 
 spirits. It is probable that Mohammed inherited from 
 his mother his constitutional tendency to epilepsy, as well 
 as his most remarkable mental peculiarities. Many mar- 
 vellous stories are told of the circumstances attending 
 his birth. It is related, among other things, that his 
 mother experienced none of the pangs of travail. As 
 soon as her child was born, he raised his eyes to heaven, 
 exclaiming, " There is no God but God, and I am his 
 prophet !" That same night the fire of Zoroaster, which, 
 guarded by the Magi, had burned uninterruptedly for 
 more than a thousand years, was suddenly extinguished, 
 and all the idols in the world fell down.t 
 
 When his son was only two months old, Abdallah 
 died ; (according to some accounts, he died two months 
 before the birth of Mohammed.) Amlnah for a short 
 time nursed her infant herself, but sorrow soon dried 
 the fountains of her breast, and the young child was 
 committed to the care of Haleemah, (Halimah,) a shep- 
 herd's wife, with whom he remained about five years. It 
 is related that when Haleemah showed the child to a 
 celebrated soothsayer, (Kahin,) who was an idolater, the 
 latter exclaimed, "Kill this child !" Haleemah snatched 
 away, her precious charge and fled. Afterwards the 
 Kahin explained to the excited multitude : " I swear by. 
 all the gods," said he, "that this child will kill those 
 who belong to your faith; he will destroy your gods, 
 and he will be victorious over you." When Mohammed 
 was four years old, he was seized, while at play, with a 
 nervous fit, which was supposed to be epilepsy. As this 
 disease was ascribed to supernatural influence, his nurse 
 was alarmed, and was anxious to return him to his 
 mother ; but she was at last prevailed on to keep him 
 somewhat longer. ' When he had completed his sixth 
 year, his mother died. For the next two years he lived 
 with his grandfather, Abd-el-Moottalib, who appears to- 
 have regarded him with great fondness. At his death,, 
 Abd-el-M56ttairb recommended the orphan to the care 
 of his son, the noble-minded Aboo-Talib. 
 
 When only twelve years old, Mohammed accompanied 
 his uncle on a trading expedition to- Syria. Near Bostra 
 they met with an Arabian monk named Baheera or Ser- 
 gius. It is said that Aboo-Talib, for some reason not 
 explained, found it necessary to send the young Mo- 
 hammed home again, and that Sergius took charge of 
 him and accompanied him to Mecca. Early Christian 
 biographers assert that Mohammed received his revela- 
 tions from this monk ; and he himself tells us in the 
 Koran that he was accused of having been taught by a 
 foreigner. It is not improbable that on his different; 
 journeys to Syria he learned many facts respecting the 
 religions of Western Asia ; but how far the knowledge 
 of such facts influenced his future career must ever 
 remain a subject of conjecture. 
 
 When Mohammed was twenty-five years of age, his 
 uncle, Aboo-Talib, proposed to him that he should take 
 charge of the merchandise which Khadijah, (orKhadee'- 
 jah,) a rich widow of Mecca, was about to send to the 
 markets of Syria. He accepted the proposal, and appears 
 to have fulfilled his charge with judgment and with entire 
 fidelity. Khadijah was so well pleased with him on his 
 return that she offered him her hand. Although she 
 was forty (lunar) years of age, and he but twenty-five, it 
 was considered by the family of Mohammed as a very 
 desirable connection. Their nuptials were celebrated 
 with a magnificent feast and great rejoicings. This mar- 
 riage raised Mohammed to an equal position with the 
 wealthiest inhabitants of Mecca. His moral character, 
 moreover, appears to have inspired universal esteem 
 and confidence, and he was generally known by the sur« 
 name of El-Ameen, (El-Amin,) or "the Faithful." For 
 several vears after his marriage he continued his com- 
 mercial journeys, visiting, with the caravans, the Arabian 
 fairs and markets of Syria. But, being now above the 
 necessity of anxiously toiling for a subsistence, he had 
 leisure to give free scope to the natural tendency of his 
 
 t It- may be proper to observe that some of the most wonderful- 
 of these stones are not found in the earlier accounts of Mohammed's 
 life, and are clearly the inventions of a later age. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; c, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in this. ("fry-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MOHAMMED 
 
 1600 
 
 MOHAMMED 
 
 mind, which inclined him to religious meditation and 
 speculation. " He had," says Carlyle, " no school learn- 
 ing ; of the thing we call school learning, none at all. 
 The art of writing was but just introduced into Arabia ; 
 ^t seems to be the true opinion that Mahomet never 
 could write. Life in the desert, with its experiences, 
 was all his education." 
 
 Until his fortieth year Mohammed appears to have 
 been a devout worshipper of the gods of his fathers. 
 About this time he began to entertain serious scruples 
 respecting the worship of idols. His followers ascribe 
 the change to a divine revelation ; but others have sug- 
 gested that his scruples were probably excited by a more 
 extensive acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian 
 Scriptures, which he may have acquired from his wife's 
 cousin, War'Ska, who had, it is said, once been a lew 
 and afterwards became a Christian, and who made withal 
 some pretensions to astrology. Supposing these con- 
 jectures to have a basis of truth, it was perhaps fortunate 
 for the new prophet's claims to an original revelation 
 that Waiaka died a short time before Mohammed pub- 
 licly proclaimed his divine mission. But, however his 
 thoughts may have been first directed to the subject of 
 religion, there is every reason to believe that he was, at 
 least in the early part of his career, sincere and unselfish 
 in his desire to convert his countrymen to a better faith. 
 He appears to have thought long and deeply, and to 
 have had many mental struggles, before he resolved to 
 announce himself as a divine teacher. He was of a 
 nervous and melancholic temperament, and there were 
 times, during the period of doubt and conflict which 
 preceded the annunciation of his great mission, when 
 he was strongly tempted to commit suicide by throwing 
 himself down from a precipice. (See Sprenger's "Life," 
 p. 105.) In all his trials he found a great support in his 
 faithful wife Khadijah, who was the first, as he himself 
 declared, among all his nation that believed in him. 
 " God thus ordained it," says Ibn Ishlk, " that his duties 
 might be made easy to him ; for, as often as he had to 
 hear reproachful language, or was accused of falsehood, 
 or was cast down, she cheered him up and inspired him 
 with courage, saying, 'Thou speakest the truth.'" We 
 may well suppose, with Carlyle, that "of all the kind- 
 nesses she had done him, this of believing the earnest, 
 struggling word which he now spoke was the greatest." 
 For a considerable time Mohammed preached his new 
 doctrines respecting the unity and glorious attributes of 
 God to his household and intimate friends only. In three 
 years he had made, we are told, only fourteen converts ; 
 but among these were the high-spirited, devoted, and 
 indomitable Alee, (Ali,) who was afterwards surnamed 
 the "ever-victorious Lion of God," (see Aler,) and 
 Aboo-Bekr, whose character for good sense, benevolence, 
 and straightforward integrity contributed not a little to the 
 respectability and ultimate success of the new religion. 
 
 In the fourth year of his mission, in obedience, as he 
 alleges, to an express command from heaven, Mohammed 
 resolved to make a public declaration of his faith. He 
 addressed himself to the Koreish and others, asking 
 them, " If I were to tell you that there is an army on the 
 other side of that mountain, would you believe me ?" 
 " Yes," they answered, " for we do not consider thee to 
 be a liar." He then said, " I come to warn you ; and if 
 you do not believe me, a great punishment will befall 
 you ;" he told them they must renounce idolatry, and 
 make a profession of the one true God ; that unless they 
 did so they could have no true happiness in this life nor 
 salvation in the life to come. He formally separated him- 
 self from the polytheists, and publicly condemned their 
 religion. A powerful opposition was in consequence 
 organized against him, — hisuncle, Aboo-Lahab, (lah'hab,) 
 and Aboo-Sofian, (of the family of Omeyyah,) the prin- 
 cipal leader of the Koreishites, being among the number 
 of his bitterest enemies. Not only the prophet himself, 
 but his disciples were for a time in extreme danger ; he 
 owed his life to the influence of the powerful family of 
 HSshem, and especially to the magnanimity, courage, 
 and indomitable firmness of his uncle, Aboo-TSlib, who, 
 although he refused to accept the new faith, resolved, at 
 whatever cost, to protect his kinsman. Every form of 
 persuasion and menace was tried upon him in vain. To 
 
 the hostile Koreishites, who urged him to give up to 
 their vengeance the blasphemer of his country's gods, 
 he answered with indignant scorn, and declared that if 
 they should slay his nephew the lives of the chiefs of 
 their tribe should pay for the life of Mohammed. They 
 were thunder-struck at his boldness and awed by his 
 invincible determination. But, while they hesitated to 
 provoke the vengeance of the Hashemites by laying 
 violent hands upon Mohammed, they persecuted his 
 disciples in a hundred ways, insulting and imprisoning 
 those of the better class, and starving and torturing such 
 as had no wealth, position, or family connections to pro- 
 tect them. Under the pressure of this persecution many 
 converts to the new faith apostatized ; and Mohammed, 
 fearing that others might desert him, advised some of his 
 followers to leave Mecca and seek refuge in Abyssinia, 
 which was ruled, he said, by a just and pious king. The 
 subsequent conduct of the Abyssinian monarch proved 
 that the confidence of the prophet was not misplaced. 
 
 In spite of all opposition, the new doctrines continued 
 to spread. In the sixth year of Mohammed's mission 
 two important conversions took place, — the prophet's 
 kinsman Hamzah, surnamed, on account of his bravery, 
 the " Lion of God," and Omar, who had at first been a 
 bitter opponent of the Islam, but afterwards became one 
 of its most zealous and powerful defenders. (See Omar.) 
 
 Ten years after the commencement of his mission, 
 (that is, about 619 A.D.,) Mohammed lost by death his 
 generous and faithful wife, Khadijah, and his noble- 
 minded uncle and protector, Aboo-Talib. He appears 
 to have been greatly cast down by these severe afflictions, 
 and seldom went out of his house. Meanwhile, his 
 enemies seemed to have become more exasperated than 
 ever, by the failure of all their efforts to prevent the 
 spread of the new religion. In this extremity, his uncle, 
 Aboo-Lahab, who had hitherto been one of his most 
 determined and bitter opponents, but upon whom now 
 devolved the duty of protecting his kinsman, came for- 
 ward with singular magnanimity and said to Mohammed, 
 "Go wheresoever thou wilt, and do what thou wast ac- 
 customed to do when Aboo-Talib was alive : I swear by 
 the gods of my country that no harm shall befall thee 
 while I live." But a few days afterwards some one said 
 to Aboo-Lahab, " Do you know what your nephew says 
 of your father? he says he is in hell." Aboo-Lahab 
 asked Mohammed if the charge was true. The prophet 
 had the hardihood to answer, "Your father died an 
 idolater ; and every idolater goes to hell." Upon this, 
 Aboo-Lahab withdrew his protection. 
 
 So long as Khadijah lived, Mohammed maybe said to 
 have been a strict monogamist. Shortly after her death 
 the daughter of Hakeem and wife of OthmSn asked the 
 prophet why he did not marry. "Whom shall I marry?" 
 said he. She replied, " If thou wishest a virgin, take 
 Ayeshah, the daughter of Aboo-Bekr ; if a widow, take 
 Sawdah, the daughter of Zamah, — she believes in thee." 
 He instantly replied, " I will marry them both." 
 
 After Mohammed was abandoned by Aboo-Lahab, 
 another uncle, El-Abbas, (the brother of Aboo-Talib, 
 and ancestor of the Abbasside caliphs,) became his pro- 
 tector. Meanwhile the faith which had been rejected at 
 Mecca was eagerly embraced in the neighbouring city 
 of Medina, k numerous and powerful deputation from 
 the most influential families of the latter city waited on 
 the prophet, and in a solemn covenant promised, with 
 an oath, that if he would come and live with them ihey 
 would protect him as they would protect their own wives 
 and children. The offer of this powerful aid did not 
 come a moment too soon. His enemies, headed by 
 Aboo-Sofiin, had been unremitting in their efforts to 
 procure his destruction. At length it was formally and 
 publicly resolved that he should be slain. In order to 
 baffle the vengeance of the Hashemites, and to divide 
 the guilt of his death, it was agreed that one man from 
 every family should at the same moment plunge his 
 sword into the heart of their victim. Nothing now re- 
 mained for him but death or instant flight. At the dead 
 of night, accompanied by his faithful friend Aboo-Bekr, 
 he silently escaped from his house. The generous and de- 
 voted Alee, covered with the shawl of the prophet, laid 
 himself down on the bed of his master. Meanwhile 
 
 I, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ft, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
MOHAMMED 
 
 1 60 1 
 
 MOHAMMED 
 
 Moli.immed aiul Aboo-Bekr had fled to the cave of Thor, 
 about a league from Mecca: there they remained three 
 days. According to one account, their enemies, after 
 exploring every hiding-place in the vicinity, came to the 
 mouth of the cave. But, a spider having providentially 
 spread her web over the entrance, the Koreishites, deem- 
 ing it impossible that Mohammed could have entered 
 there, turned back from their pursuit. Perhaps a more 
 probable explanation is that as the Koreishites knew 
 Medina to be the destination of the fugitives, they never 
 suspected that they could be concealed in the cave ol 
 Thor, which lay in an opposite direction. While they 
 were in the cave, Aboo-Bekr, contrasting their weakness 
 with the strength of their enemies, said, trembling, " We 
 are but two." "No," replied Mohammed, "there is a 
 third : it is God himself." On the fourth night the 
 prophet and his companion left their hiding-place, and, 
 riding on camels which the servant of Aboo-Bekr had 
 brought, arrived safely at Medina sixteen days after his 
 Bight from Mecca. His approach having been made 
 known, several hundred of the citizens went out to meet 
 him. He was welcomed with loud acclamations; and 
 ho who a few days before had left his native city as a 
 fugitive, with a price upon his head, now entered Medina 
 more like a king returning victorious from battle than 
 an exile seeking a place of refuge. This separation or 
 flight of Mohammed from the city of his nativity (called 
 in Arabic Hej'rah or Hi/rah*) marks the commence- 
 ment of the Mohammedan era.t 
 
 After Mohammed's arrival at Medina, a marked change 
 took place in his policy. He had hitherto asserted liberty 
 of conscience and opposed religious violence. He now 
 maintained that the Islam should, if necessary, be de- 
 fended and propagated by the sword. "The sword," 
 said he, "is the key of heaven and of hell : a drop of 
 blood shed in the cause of God, or a night spent in arms, 
 is of more avail than two months of fasting and prayer; 
 whoever falls in battle, his sins are forgiven him, and at 
 the day of judgment the loss of his limbs shall be sup- 
 plied by the wings of cherubim." He was not long in 
 carrying his new principles into practice. His arch- 
 enemy, Aboo-Sofian, had, with only thirty or forty fol- 
 lowers, conducted a rich caravan of a thousand camels 
 to the marts of Syria. The prophet resolved to inter- 
 cept it on its return. Aboo-Sofian, having been informed 
 of his design, dispatched a messenger to Mecca and 
 obtained a reinforcement of nearly a thousand men. Mo- 
 hammed's troops amounted to considerably less than 
 half that number. The hostile forces met in the vale 
 of Bedr, (or Bedder,) about twenty miles from Medina. 
 Mohammed was placed on a throne or pulpit whence 
 his eye could command the field of battle. His followers, 
 being outnumbered, were sorely pressed. At that critical 
 moment the prophet started from his throne, mounted 
 his horse, and threw a handful of dust into the air towards 
 the Koreishites, crying, " Let their faces be covered with 
 confusion !" Both armies heard his voice ; the Koreish- 
 ites were stricken with terror, while the Mussulmans, 
 assured of victory, rushed forward with an enthusiasm 
 that was irresistible. Some of the Moslem writers state 
 that when the prophet cast dust into the air three thou- 
 sand angelic warriors on white and black steeds made 
 their appearance and swept his foes before them like a 
 whirlwind. Seventy of the Koreishites were killed, and 
 about the same number taken prisoners. Among the 
 slain was Aboo-Jahl, perhaps the most bitter and fero- 
 cious of all the enemies of Islam. His head was brought 
 to Mohammed, who exclaimed with exultation, "This man 
 was the Pharaoh of our people." So great was the terror 
 and hatred he had inspired that even after his death his 
 name was never mentioned, it is said, by true believers 
 without the addition, " May he be accursed of God !" 
 
 * This word is often, but less correctly, written Hegira: it lias, 
 properly st>eakin£, but two syllables. The vowel i has doubtless 
 been added by the Italians or Germans to ind cate the sound of/, (or 
 g soft.) Rhiskk, in his Latin version of Aboolfeda's (Abulfeda's) 
 Moslem Annals," ("Annalcs Moslemici,") invariably employs i/or 
 gi to represent tile sound of our/: thus, he writes for Khadijah 
 Chad'igja, for Aboo-Jaltl A hi GJahl, etc. 
 
 t The era of the Hejrah is not calculated from the very day of 
 Mohammed's night, but from the beginning of the lunar year in 
 which it occurred, namely, July 16, 622 a.d. 
 
 The prophet's success at Bedr was the first of that 
 wonderful series of victories which, by spreading the 
 new faith to the borders of China on the east and to the 
 Atlantic Ocean on the west, were destined to change the 
 face of the world. The Islamites were less successful 
 in a second encounter with their foes, near Mount Ohod, 
 six miles north of Medina. Mohammed himself was 
 wounded in the face with a javelin, two of his teeth were 
 shattered with a stone, and seventy of the faithful, in- 
 cluding Hamzah, the prophet's uncle, were left dead on 
 the field of battle. But his enemies gained no perma- 
 nent advantage. The Koreishites signally failed in an 
 attempt to take Medina by siege. The Islam constantly 
 gained new adherents. "Caled [Khaled] and Amrou," 
 says Gibbon, " the future conquerors of Syria and Egypt, 
 most seasonably deserted the sinking cause of idolatry." 
 Soon after, Mecca itself was taken by the followers of 
 the prophet, who, led by Khaled, (surnamed afterwards, 
 on account of his valour, the "Sword of God,") entered 
 the city in three divisions. The chiefs of the Koreish 
 were prostrate at the feet of the prophet. " What mercy," 
 asked he, " can you expect from the man whom you have 
 so deeply wronged ?" " We trust to the generosity of 
 our kinsman." "And you shall not trust in vain: go; 
 you are safe, you are free." He who seven years before 
 had left his native city as a hunted fugitive was now 
 received and honoured as prophet and king. But in an 
 attempt made soon after to reduce the Arabian tribes 
 who still adhered to idolatry, the army of Mohammed 
 was surprised in a mountain-pass, and for a time his 
 own life was in imminent peril. Several of his devoted 
 followers who endeavoured to shield him with their 
 bodies fell dead at his feet. In his distress he cried, 
 "O my brethren, I am the apostle of truth ! O man, 
 stand fast in the faith ! O God, send down thine aid !" 
 His uncle Abbas, who was distinguished for the strength 
 of his voice, called on the flying Moslems, repeating the 
 promises of God to the faithful. The battle was soon 
 restored, and what threatened to be a disastrous defeat 
 was changed into a complete victory. About the year 
 630 Mohammed sent an army, under the command of 
 Zeid, who had formerly been his slave, to invade Pales- 
 tine, then belonging to the Greek empire. At the battle 
 of Muta, where for the first time the Moslems encoun- 
 tered a foreign foe, Zeid and two other of the leaders 
 were slain. It is related of Jaafar, who succeeded Zeid 
 in the command of the army, that when his right hand 
 was struck off he seized the banner with his left ; this 
 also being severed from his body, he embraced the stan- 
 dard with his bleeding stumps, until at length he fell, 
 pierced with no fewer than fifty wounds. The day was 
 saved by the valour of Khaled, in whose hand it is said 
 that nine swords were broken before the hosts of the 
 enemy were turned backward. Mohammed had to be- 
 wail, on this occasion, not only the death of his faithful 
 servant Zeid, but also that of many of his bravest fol- 
 lowers. We are told that when, after the battle, he first 
 saw the young orphaned daughter of Zeid, he wept over 
 her in speechless sorrow. " What do I see ?" said one 
 of his astonished followers. "You see," said he, "a friend 
 weeping the loss of his most faithful friend." 
 
 The recent successes of the prophet, by inflaming the 
 zeal of the faithful, confirming the wavering, and con- 
 vincing the doubtful, — for, as it has been well observed, 
 there is no argument like success, — contributed greatly 
 to the rapid diffusion and final triumph of the new faith. 
 But in the early part of 632, while he was engaged in 
 organizing a formidable expedition against Syria, he was 
 seized with a violent malady, (supposed by some writers 
 to have been a fever,) which, before many days, terminated 
 fatally. It is related that near the beginning of this ill- 
 ness Mohammed said to one of his attendants, "The 
 choice is given me either to remain on earth until the 
 end of time, or soon to depart to the presence of God : 
 I have chosen the latter." When he perceived that his 
 end was near, supported by the arms of Alee and another 
 relative, he went into the mosque and asked publicly if 
 he had injured any one, — if so, he was ready to make 
 full amends, or to suffer himself what he had inflicted on 
 others. As no one answered, he asked again if he owed 
 any man anything. A voice replied, "Yes, — to me, three 
 
 t as/fc; 9 as s; gAard; gasy; g,h,k., guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sass; th as in this. (jjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 IOI 
 
MOHAMMED 
 
 1602 
 
 MOHAMMED 
 
 drachms of silver." The prophet ordered the money to 
 be paid, and thanked his creditor that he made his com- 
 plaint now instead of deferring it till the day of judgment. 
 His last weirds were the utterance of a broken prayer, — 
 "O God, pardon my sins — yes — I come!" He died, 
 according to the Arabian historians, on his birthday, the 
 eleventh year of the Hejrah, (632 a.d.,) aged 63, or, ac- 
 cording to some authorities, 65 years. He had ceased 
 to breathe, but his followers refused to believe that he 
 was dead. Omar, in his fierce zeal, threatened to strike 
 off the heads of the infidels who should dare to assert 
 that the great prophet and intercessor with God was no 
 more. The authority of Aboo-Bekr was required to 
 appease the tumult. " Is it Mohammed, or the God of 
 Mohammed, whom you worship ? God liveth for ever 
 and ever ; but Mohammed, though his prophet and 
 apostle, was mortal like ourselves, and, in dying, has 
 but fulfilled his own prediction." 
 
 In person Mohammed was of middle stature, with 
 broad shoulders and chest, square-built and strong, with 
 large hands and feet. The unusual size of his head was 
 partly concealed by long and slightly-curling locks of 
 hair. His forehead was broad and fair for an Arab, and 
 his fine eyebrows were separated by a vein which swelled 
 up and became very conspicuous when he was angry. 
 His eyelashes were long, and his eyes dark and glowing. 
 His nose was large, prominent, and slightly hooked ; 
 his mouth was wide, but adorned with a fine set of 
 teeth. According to some accounts, he stooped, and was 
 slightly round-shouldered. His natural disposition ap- 
 pears to have been in a high degree kindly and humane. 
 "He was naturally irritable," says Irving, "but had 
 brought his temper under great control." One of his 
 servants said, " I served him from the time I was eight 
 years old, and he never scolded me, though things were 
 sometimes spoiled by rfte." " He was," says a writer* 
 who will scarcely be accused of exaggerating his virtues, 
 " kind to women, — never beat one, and entertained more 
 respect'for them than is usual with nations addicted to 
 polygamy. He frequently protected women who came 
 to him for refuge. . . . He forbade the believers to beat 
 their wives ; but on the remonstrance of Omar, who said 
 that the wives would have the upper hand over their 
 husbands, he allowed it." Nevertheless, he insisted that 
 women should be fairly and justly treated, and not beaten 
 unless the occasion absolutely demanded it. His own 
 wives, having once become rebellious, were brought to 
 submission by a revelation from Heaven and the blows 
 of their relatives, \ the prophet himself being disinclined 
 to such severity, either from kindness of heart or from 
 a regard to his apostolic dignity. 
 
 "He was," says Sprenger, "affectionate towards his 
 relations ; and, notwithstanding the gravity of his office, 
 he was playful with his wives. Ayeshah, being only nine 
 years of age when she married him, brought her toys 
 into his house, and he occasionally played with her. She 
 also used to race with him. . . . He would sometimes 
 tell stories to his wives, such as the adventures of the 
 man who had been carried away by the jinn (genii) and, 
 after a long stay with them, returned to his family." 
 
 The intellectual powers of Mohammed were of a very 
 high order, and as a poet he ranks far above all others 
 who have ever written in the Arabic tongue. It was 
 usual for his followers to point to the beauty and sub- 
 limity of the Koran as an irrefutable proof of his divine 
 inspiration ; and he himself, in one of the chapters of 
 that sacred poem, boldly challenges men and angels to 
 produce anything to equal it, and confidently affirms 
 that God alone could have dictated so incomparable a 
 work. Probably no poet that ever lived more fully 
 realized the state of mind known as poetic furor than 
 Mohammed. It is said that while he was composing 
 certain portions of the Koran he was in a state of such 
 intense excitement as amounted almost to frenzy ; and, 
 if we may believe those accounts of his life which seem 
 best authenticated, some at least of the revelations of 
 the Koran were actually communicated (or were believed 
 by him to have been communicated) during his epileptic 
 paroxysms, while wholly unconscious of things around 
 
 • See Sprenger, " Life of Mohammad," p. 93. t Idem., loc. cit. 
 
 him. With this view, there may have been no arrogance 
 or vanity in his claiming that to rival the Koran was 
 beyond the power of men or angels. Referring to the 
 prophet's tendency to poetic and elevated thought, 
 Sprenger says, " His mind dwelt constantly on the con- 
 templation of God : he saw his finger in the rising sun, 
 in the falling rain, in the growing crop ; he heard his 
 voice in the thunder, in the murmuring of the waters, 
 and in the hymns which the birds sing to his praise ; 
 and in the lonely desetts and ruins of ancient cities he 
 saw the traces of his anger." But combined with all his 
 poetic and religious enthusiasm was a vein of strong 
 common sense. He was free from all ostentation and 
 parade : that he pretended to work miracles, is a cal- 
 umny of his enemies. He considered it miracle enough 
 that he was inspired with the Spirit of God: this he 
 doubtless believed in all sincerity. One whom Heaven 
 had so highly honoured had no need of earthly dignity 
 or worldly splendour. He set a praiseworthy example 
 of indifference to earthly riches, of patriarchal simplicity 
 of manners, and of frugality in his diet and drsss. With 
 his own hands he milked his goats, and afterwards at- 
 tended to his person. The costly presents which he 
 received he gave to his friends. Tne riches which he 
 obtained from the spoils of war and from tribute were 
 spent in promoting the interests of religion and in re- 
 lieving the wants of the poor. " His military triumphs," 
 says Irving, "awakened no pride nor vain-glory. . . . 
 In the time of his greatest power he maintained the 
 same simplicity of manners and appearance as in the 
 days of his adversity. So far from affecting regal state, 
 he was displeased if on entering a room any unusual 
 testimonial of respect were shown him." 
 
 The most glaring moral defect of Mohammed's char- 
 acter was his passion for women, to justify which he pre- 
 tended that he had received a special revelation from 
 heaven ;J and, while only four lawful wives were allowed 
 to his followers, he himself had eleven wives, besides 
 several concubines. Mohammed's conduct in this re- 
 spect, viewed in connection with his pretended revela- 
 tions, would seem to go very far towards justifying those 
 who consider him to have been simply an artful and self- 
 ish impostor. " But, however he betrayed the alloy of 
 earth," observes Irving, "after he had worldly power at 
 his command, the early aspirations of his spirit con- 
 tinually returned and bore him above all earthly things. 
 . . . On the mercy of God he reposed all his hopes of 
 heaven." His wife Ayeshah once asked him if it were 
 indeed true that none could enter paradise except 
 through God's mercy. "None — none!" he replied, with 
 emphatic earnestness. And when she again asked if an 
 exception would not be made in his case, he answered, 
 with great solemnity, "Neither can I enter paradise 
 unless God clothe me with his mercy." 
 
 Until recently, the belief has universally prevailed in 
 Christendom that Mohammed was not merely the teacher 
 of a false religion, but a conscious impostor, an artful, 
 self-seeking charlatan. But such a theory of his life and 
 character will not bear examination. Not to mention 
 the thousand incidental proofs of his sincerity which are 
 scattered through the history of his early life, it is wholly 
 incredible that a mere self-seeking charlatan would have 
 exposed himself to universal obloquy and certain per- 
 secution, in the wild hope that he might at last triumph 
 over those religious prejudices which had been for so 
 many ages gaining strength among his countrymen. 
 When Aboo-Talib, weary of defending his nephew 
 against the implacable hostility of the Koreishites, be- 
 sought him to abandon a course attended with so much 
 peril to himself and his kinsmen, he replied, "O uncle, 
 I swear by God that if they put the sun on my right 
 hand and the moon on my left, I will not renounce the 
 career I have entered upon until God gives me success, 
 or until I perish." Aboo-Talib, touched with his heroic 
 spirit, solemnly promised that he would not give him up, 
 whatever he might preach. 
 
 In considering the question of Mohammed's sincerity, 
 it must not be forgotten that he possessed not only a 
 
 X "This is a peculiar privilege granted unto thee above the rest cf 
 the true believers." (See Sale's " Koran," chap, xxxiii.) 
 
 k, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, j?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MOHAMMED 
 
 1603 
 
 MOHSIN-FANEE 
 
 vivid and powerful imagination, but a very peculiar phys- 
 ical and mental constitution. It seems not unreasonable 
 to believe, as traditions relate, that in those nervous 
 paroxysms to which he was subject he had visions not 
 unlike those which his mother saw between sleeping and 
 waking. Such visions would be almost certain to par- 
 take of the character of those earnest thoughts and 
 convictions with which his waking soul was filled; and 
 nothing could be more natural than for such a mind not 
 merely to regard those visions as a divine confirmation 
 of his peculiar views, but to employ them, modified as 
 they would necessarily be by his powerful imagination, 
 tn nive force and authority to his public teachings. Nor 
 will it appear at all unreasonable to those conversant 
 with human nature that one who was perfectly sincere 
 at the beginning of his career should afterwards — under 
 the stimulus of fear, lust, hatred, or ambition — pretend 
 to visions which he never had, for the purpose of giving 
 a divine sanction to his cherished opinions, or, it may be, 
 to his arbitrary caprices or selfish desires. How often, 
 indeed, have the professors of a far purer and higher 
 faith resorted to stratagem and deceit to promote what 
 they sincerely believed to be a good cause, which they 
 had not faith enough to trust to the care of Heaven or 
 to the legitimate operation of purely moral influences ! 
 While we must admit, with one of the prophet's ablest 
 ' and most successful defenders, (Carlyle,) that in the 
 Moslem heaven and hell " there is enough that shocks all 
 spiritual feeling in us," we must also admit, on a candid 
 examination, that his religion, on the whole, made him 
 and his followers better, and not worse. In estimating 
 the influence of the Isl&m upon the nations which em- 
 braced it, it would be obviously unjust to take as a 
 standard of comparison the highest forms of Christian 
 civilization. We should rather compare the condition of 
 those nations under the sway of Mohammedanism with 
 their condition as it was before the advent of the prophet. 
 If the religion of Mohammed was immeasurably inferior 
 to the religion of Christ, it was in most respects greatly 
 superior to every form of paganism of which we have 
 any knowledge, and probably also to much of that 
 spurious or half-spurious Christianity which it displaced 
 in Western Asia and Northern Africa. 
 
 "The general tenor of Mahomet's conduct," says 
 Irving, " up to the time of his flight from Mecca, is that 
 of an enthusiast acting under a species of mental de- 
 lusion, — deeply imbued with a conviction of his being a 
 divine agent for religious reform ; and there is something 
 striking and sublime in the luminous path which his 
 enthusiastic spirit struck out for itself through the be- 
 wildering maze of adverse faiths and wild traditions, — 
 the pure and spiritual worship of the one true God, 
 which he sought to substitute for the blind idolatry of 
 his childhood. . . . All the parts of the Koran supposed 
 to have been promulgated by him at this time — inco- 
 herently as they have come down to us, and marred as 
 their pristine beauty must be in passing through various 
 hands — are of a pure and elevated character, and breathe 
 poetical, if not religious, inspiration. They show that 
 he had drunk deep of the living waters of Christianity ; 
 and if he had failed to imbibe them in their crystal 
 purity, it might be because he had to drink from broken 
 cisterns and streams troubled and perverted by those 
 who should have been their guardians." 
 
 See S?ren,ger, "Life of Mohammad, from Original Sources," 
 Allahabad, 1851, London, 1852, (a work of decided merit ;) Wkii., 
 " Mohammed der Prophet, sein Leben und sein Lehre," Stuttgart, 
 1843; Ikving, "Mahomet and his Successors," New York, 2 vols.. 
 1850; Gagnier, "Vie de Mahomet;" Bout.AlNVll.l.lERS, "Vie de 
 Mahomet ;" " Preliminary Discourse" prefixed to Sale's translation 
 of the Koran: Priokaux," Life of Mahomet ;" Maracci's trans- 
 lation of the Koran, (in Latin,) with notes; Reland, " De Relijrione 
 Moli.unmedica ;" Aitui.r-Ei>A, "Moslem Annals." (" Annates Mos- 
 lemici,") and translated into Latin by Reiske; Abulkeija, " Lire of 
 Mohammed," rendered inln Latin by Gagnier, with the title "De 
 Vita et Reims' testis Mohamedis," Oxford, 1732: Gibbon, "Decline 
 and Kail ol the Roman Empire," chap. 1. ; Carlvi.r, " Hero and 
 Hero- Worship," etc., article " Mahomet," (one of the best productions 
 of its author:) Rampoi.di, " Vita di Maometto," 1822: Noel DBS 
 Vergers, " Vie de Mahomet." 1833 ; George Bush, " Life of Mo- 
 hammed," New York, 1830: Samukj. Grken, "Life of Mahomet," 
 1840: ChaBLKS Mm. is " History of Mohammedanism," etc., Lon- 
 don, 1812; K.R.Tijrpin, " Histoirede la Vie de Mahomet," 2Vols., 
 1773: Ds BftriQutGNV, " Vie de Mahomet," 1754; L. Addison, " Life 
 of Mahomet," 1678. 
 
 Mo-ham'med IX, (commonly pronounced in India 
 mo-lium'med,) Emperor of India, born about 1150, was 
 one of the founders of the Gaurian dynasty. He became 
 master of part of Hindostan in 1 171, after which he ex- 
 tended his dominions by conquest. He took Lahore 
 and Delhi between 1184 and 1 192, and Benares in 1 193. 
 He was assassinated in 1206. 
 
 Mohammed IV., Emperor of India, born at Delhi 
 in 1360, succeeded his lather, Fyroz (or Feroze) III., in 
 1386. Died in 1394. 
 
 Mohammed V., born at Delhi in 1406, succeeded 
 Moobarek II. as Emperor of India in 1434. Died in 
 
 1443* 
 
 Mohammed VI. of India. See Baber. 
 
 Mohammed VII. of India. See Hoomayoon. 
 
 Mohammed IX. of India. See Akbar. 
 
 Mohammed XI. See Shah Jehan. 
 
 Mohammed XIII., Emperor of India, of the dynasty 
 of Grand Moguls, was born at Agra about 1685. He 
 began to reign at Delhi in 17 13. He granted the East 
 India Company the privilege of exemption from the pay- 
 ment of duties. He was deposed in 1718, and died the 
 same year. 
 
 Mohammed XIV., often called Mohammed Shah, 
 Emperor of India, born at Delhi about 1700, was a cousin 
 of the preceding. He began to reign in 1720. In 1739 
 Nadir Shah invaded India, captured Delhi, massacred 
 an immense number of the people, and robbed Moham- 
 med of the celebrated diamond Kohinoor. Died in 1748. 
 
 Mohammed, (Sultans of Turkey.) See Mahomet. 
 
 Mohammed of Gazna. See Mahmood. 
 
 Mohedaiio, mo-a-da'no, (Antonio,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Antequera in 1561, excelled in fresco- 
 painting. Died in 1625. 
 
 Mohl, von, fon mol, (Hugo,) a German botanist, bro- 
 ther of Julius, noticed below, was a native of Stuttgart. 
 He published "Contributions to the Anatomy and 
 Physiology of Plants," (1834,) and other similar works. 
 
 Mohl, von, (Julius,) a German Orientalist, born at 
 Stuttgart in 1800. He studied in Paris under Remusat 
 and Silvestre de Sacy, and in 1845 became professor of 
 the Persian language in the College of France. In 1852 
 he was appointed secretary of the Asiatic Society, having 
 previously been chosen a member of the Academy of 
 Inscriptions. He made a number of valuable contribu- 
 tions to the "Journal Asiatique," and published editions 
 of several Oriental works. 
 
 Mohl, von, (Moritz,) brother of the preceding, was 
 born at Stuttgart in 1802. He published "Results of 
 a Journey in France for the Purpose of studying Arts 
 and Trades," (1845.) 
 
 Mohl, von, (Robert,) a German jurist, brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Stuttgart in 1799. He be- 
 came professor of law at Heidelberg in 1847, and after- 
 wards filled several important civil offices. He published 
 a number of legal works. 
 
 Mohler or Moehler, mo'ler, (Johann Adam,) a 
 German Catholic theologian, born at Igersheim in 1796, 
 published in 1825 a work entitled "Unity in the Church ; 
 or, The Principle of Catholicism." Died in 1838. 
 
 Mohn, mon, (Gottlob Samuel,) a German glass- 
 painter, born at Weissenfels in 1789. His most admired 
 productions are the painted windows of the Imperial 
 Chapel at Laxenburg, near Vienna. Died in 1825. 
 
 Mohnike, mo'ne-keh, (Gottlieb Christian Fried- 
 rich,) a German writer and theologian, born_,in Pome- 
 rania in 1781, published a "History of the Literature of 
 the Greeks and Romans," (1813.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Mohs, mos, (Friedrich,) a German mineralogist, 
 born at Gernrode in 1774. , He succeeded Werner as 
 professor of mineralogy at Freiberg in 1817, and after- 
 wards filled the same chair at Vienna. He became 
 counsellor of mines in 1838. He published, among 
 other works, "Elements of the Natural History of the 
 Mineral Kingdom," (1832.) Died in 1839. 
 
 Mohsen or Moehsen, (Johann Karl Wilhelm,) 
 a German medical writer and numismatist, born in Ber- 
 lin in 1722. He was physician to the King of Prussia. 
 Died in 1795. 
 
 Mohsin-Fanee or Mohsin-Fani, moH'sin fa'nee, 
 or Muhsin-Fani, mo6n'sin fa'nee, (Mohammed,) a 
 
 v as i; 9 as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, Tf.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MOIGNO 
 
 1604 
 
 MOLESCHOTT 
 
 Persian poet, born on the coast of the Persian Gulf in 
 1615. His principal work is the "Dabistan," which gives 
 an account of ancient religious sects. Died in 1670. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ndrale ;" Sir John Malcolm, 
 "History of Persia," vol. i. chap. vii. 
 
 Moigno, mwan'yo', (Francois Napoleon Marie,) 
 a French mathematician, born at Guemene in 1804, pub- 
 lished " Lessons in Differential and Integral Calculus," 
 (1840,) a " Treatise on the Electric Telegraph," (1849,) 
 and other works. 
 
 Moine, Le. See Lemoine. 
 
 Moine, lie, leh mwiln, (Abraham,) a French Protest- 
 ant divine, born in the seventeenth century, became 
 pastor of a French church in London. He translated 
 Bishop Gibson's " Pastoral Letters" into French, and 
 published a "Sermon in Defence of the Sacred History, 
 in Answer to Lord Bolingbroke." Died in 1760. 
 
 Moir, (David Macbeth,) a distinguished Scottish 
 writer and physician, born near Edinburgh in 1798. He 
 became at an early age a contributor to Constable's 
 and Blackwood's Magazines, and published a number 
 of poems in the latter, under the signature of the Greek 
 Delta, (A.) Among his other works may be named his 
 " Autobiography of Mansie Wauch," a novel, which had 
 great popularity, "The Bombardment of Algiers, and 
 other Poems," (1816,) " Outlines of the Ancient History 
 of Medicine," etc., (1831,) " Practical Observations on 
 Malignant Cholera," (1832,) and "Domestic Verses," 
 (1843.) Died in 1851. 
 
 See Dr. T. Aird, " Notice of Moir," prefixed to his Poetical 
 Works: Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men," (Supplement ;) "Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1851. 
 
 Moira, Earl of. See Hastings, Marquis of. 
 
 Moirae, moi're, [Gr. Molpai,] a name applied to the 
 Fates. See Parcve. 
 
 Mo'ise. See Moses. 
 
 Moitte, mwat, (Jean Guili.aume,) a French sculp- 
 tor, born in Paris in 1747. He executed the large 
 bas-relief of the front of the Pantheon, and statues of 
 Cassini and General Custine. He was a member of 
 the Academy of Fine Arts, and a chevalier of the legion 
 of honour. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Quatremere de Quincy, " E*loge de Moitte," in the " Mo- 
 niteur," 1810. 
 
 Moivre, de. See Demoivre. 
 
 Mojon, mo'zh6N', (Bianca Milesi — me-la'see,) an 
 Italian lady, distinguished for her talents, accomplish- 
 ments, and elevated character, was born at Milan in 
 1790. She was married in 1825 to Dr. Mojon, physician 
 to the court in Paris. An interesting account of her was 
 written by her friend Entile de Souvestre. Died in 1849. 
 
 See, also, Bessie R. Parke, "Twelve Biographical Sketches," 
 London, 1866. 
 
 Moke, mo'keh, ( Henri Guili.aume, ) a Belgian 
 writer, born at Havre in 1803. He produced, besides 
 other works, a " History of Belgium," (2 vols., 1839-40.) 
 
 Moktader-Billah, mok'ta-d'erbil'Iah.orMuk'tader- 
 (mook'ta-der) Billah, (Abool-Fadhl-Jaafar, a'bool 
 fad'l ja'far,) an Abbasside caliph of Bagdad, was born in 
 894 A.D., and began to reign in 909. He was defeated 
 and killed in 932 by Monnes or Monties. 
 
 Mola, mo'la, (Giamhattista,) a painter, of Italian 
 extraction, called Mola ni Francia, born at Besancon 
 in 1614. He was a pupil of Vouet, and excelled as a 
 landscape-painter. Died in 1661. 
 
 See Lauzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Mola, (Pietro Francesco,) sometimes called Mola 
 DI Roma, an eminent Italian painter, born about 1620, 
 was a pupil of Albano. He painted a number of his- 
 torical works of great merit, but he excelled particularly 
 in landscapes. Among his master-pieces are his " Saint 
 John in the Desert," " History of Joseph," and " Saint 
 Bruno." Died in 1666. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Viardot, " Musees 
 de 1' Europe. " 
 
 Molai or Molay, de, deh mo'iy* (Jacques,) last 
 grand master of the order of the Templars, was born in 
 Burgundy. The wealth and power to which this order 
 had arisen having excited the jealousy of Philippe le Bel, 
 
 * See Introduction, V., 7 and 9. 
 
 King of France, and Pope Clement IV., a plan was laid 
 by the two sovereigns for their destruction. Molai, being 
 invited to France in 1306, was arrested on his arrival, 
 together with all the Templars in that country, and, on 
 various criminal charges, condemned to death. Nearly 
 sixty of the knights perished at the stake ; and the grand 
 master, after seven years' imprisonment, shared their 
 fate, in 1314. 
 
 See Pierre Dupuy, " Histoire de la Condatnnation des Tera- 
 pliers," 1751 ; G. G. Ardison, "The Knights Templars," 1852. 
 
 Molanus. • See Vermf.ui.en, (Jan.) 
 
 Molard, mo'laV, (Francois Emmanuel,) a French 
 inventor of machinery, born in 1774; died in 1829. 
 
 His brother Claude Pierre (175S-1837) also in- 
 vented several useful machines. 
 
 Molbech, mol'beK, (Christian,) an eminent Danish 
 historian, philologist, and bibliographer, born at Soroe 
 in 1783. After travelling in England and other countries 
 of Europe, he became in 1823 professor of the history 
 of literature, and first secretary of the Royal Library, 
 at Copenhagen. Among his principal works are a 
 " History of the Wars of Ditmarschen," (1813,) " Danish 
 Dialect-Lexicon," (1837,) and " History of Erik Plogpcn- 
 ning," (1846.) He published between i8i4and 1817 a 
 literary journal of great merit, entitled the "Athene," 
 and subsequently became editor of the "Nordisk Tid- 
 skrift" and " Historisk Tidskrift," (1840.) Molbech also- 
 had a share in the great "Dictionary of the Danish Lan- 
 guage," (unfinished.) Died at Copenhagen in 1857. 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." 
 
 Molbech, (Christian Knud Frederik,) a Danish 
 poet, a son of the preceding, was born at Copenhagen 
 in 1821. He produced "Dante," a drama, and lyric 
 poems, (1846,) which are highly commended. 
 
 Mole, mo'la', (Francois Rene,) a celebrated French 
 comedian, born in Paris in 1734. He was a member of 
 the Institute, and director of the Academy at the Theatre 
 Francais. Died in 1802. 
 
 Mole, (Louis Mathieu,) Count, an eminent French 
 statesman, born in Paris in 1 781, was descended from 
 Mathieu Mole, noticed below. He published in 1805 
 "Moral and Political Essays," which procured for him 
 the favour of Napoleon, by whom he was soon afler ap- 
 pointed master of requests, and prefect of the C6te-d'Or. 
 In 1813 he succeeded the Duke of Massa as minister of 
 justice. He was created a peer by Louis XVIII., and 
 in 1817 became minister of the marine. Under Louis 
 Philippe he was minister of foreign affairs from August 
 to November, 1830, and became in April, 1837, prime 
 minister ; but, overcome by the opposition of Gttizot, 
 Thiers, and Berryer, he resigned his post, March 31, 
 1839. In 1840 he succeeded De Quelen in ttie French 
 Academy. Died in 1855. 
 
 See Louis de Lomenie, " M. le Comte Mole 1 , par tm Homme de 
 Rien," 1S40: A. DE Chsena, " Le Comte Mote," 1842; "Nouvelle 
 Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Mole, (Mathieu,) an eminent French magistrate, 
 born in 1584. He was attorney-general in 1614, and in 
 1641 was appointed by Richelieu first president of the 
 Parliament of Paris. During the civil war of the Fronde 
 he was conspicuous for his intrepidity and his energetic 
 measures in quelling the insurrections of Paris. In 1651 
 he became keeper of the seals. He left interesting " Me- 
 moires," (published in 4 vols., 1S55.) Died in 1656. 
 
 See Barante, '■' Vie de Mote ;" Hknrion dr Pansey, " E"!oge 
 de M. Mote," 1775: "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Moleschott, mo'les-sKot', (Jacor,) a Dutch natural- 
 ist and physiologist, born at Bois-le-Duc in 1822, studied 
 medicine and natural science at Heidelberg, and settled 
 as a physician at Utrecht. He was the author of a 
 "Critical Examination of Liebig's Theory of the Alimen- 
 tation of Plants," (1845,) "Doctrine of Aliments," (1S50,) 
 "Circular Motion of Life," (1852,) and other similar 
 works. He became professor of physiology and an- 
 thropology at Heidelberg in 1847, and of physiology at 
 Zurich in 1855. Among his works are " Light and Life," 
 ("Licht und Leben," 1856,) and one on George Forster, 
 entitled "Georg Forster der Naturforscher des Volks," 
 (1854.) He is ranked among the most prominent ad- 
 vocates of the materialistic philosophy, (although he 
 recognizes a mixture of spiritual life with the material 
 
 3, e, T, o, \i, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n3t; good; moon; 
 
MOLESWORTH 
 
 i6c$ 
 
 MOLINET 
 
 life of the universe.) He totally rejects the idea of crea- 
 tion in the ordinary signification of the term, referring 
 the origin of all the species of animals to the operation 
 of universal and unchangeable physical laws. 
 
 Molesworth, mdlz/worth, (Robert.) Viscount, a 
 statesman and diplomatist, born at Dublin in 1656. He 
 was appointed by William III. a meml>er of his privy 
 council, and in 1692 was envoy-extraordinary to Den- 
 mark. He published, after his return, an "Account 
 of Denmark," a severe criticism on the government and 
 customs of the Danes, which gave great offence to that 
 people but was very popular in England. He was a 
 Fellow of the Rovaf Society, and numbered among his 
 friends Locke and Lord Shaftesbury. Died in 1725. 
 See Wai.pole, " Royal and Noble Authors;" Lodge, " Peerage. " 
 Molesworth, (Sir Willi \m.) an eminent English 
 statesman, born in Surrey in 1-810. Having completed 
 his studies at a German university, he was elected to 
 Parliament for East Cornwall in 1832. He was for many 
 years associated with John Stuart Mill as editor of the 
 " Westminster Review." He represented Southwark in 
 Parliament in 1850, and was appointed first commissioner 
 of public works in 1853, and secretary of the colonies 
 in July, 1855. He died in October of the same year. 
 Besides his" articles in the " Westminster Review," Sir 
 William published a complete edition of the works of 
 Holmes. 
 
 Moleville, (Antoine Francois Bertrand.) See 
 Bertram) he Mou.kvii.i.k. 
 
 Moliere, mo'le-aiR', a celebrated French comic au- 
 thor and actor, whose original name was Jean Baptiste 
 Poquelin, (pok'las',) was born in Paris on the 15th of 
 January, 1622. He received instruction in private from 
 ■ rhe philosopher Gassendi, and in his youth assisted his 
 father, who was a dealer in tapestry, ( marchand tapissier. ) 
 
 He became valet dechambre to the king, Louis XIII.J 
 about 1640. Having assumed the name of Moliere, he 
 adopted the profession of comic actor about 1644, and 
 a few vears later appeared in the provinces at the head 
 of a small troupe which he had formed. His first regular 
 
 drama was "The Giddy-Head," (" L'Etourdi,") which 
 
 was performed with success by his troupe at Lyons in 
 
 1653. Attracted to the capital by a growing ambition, 
 
 and favoured with royal patronage, he opened there a 
 
 theatre in 1658. His " Affected "Ladies," (" Precieuses 
 
 ridicules,'') a satire on the affected style and euphuism 
 
 which were then in fashion, was performed with great 
 
 applause in 1659. "Sganarelle" came out in 1660. 
 
 His fame was increased by his "School for Husbands," 
 
 ("Ecole ties Maris," 1661,') a comedy of manners, char- 
 acter, and intrigue. He produced in 1666 "The Mis- 
 anthrope," esteemed one of his master-pieces. "The 
 
 dialogue of this," says Hallam, "is uniformly of the 
 
 highest style ; the female and indeed all the characters 
 
 are excellently conceived and sustained." Still more 
 
 popular was the "Hypocrite," ("Tartuffe," 1667,) an 
 
 original creation in dramatic poetry, and generally con- 
 sidered the greatest effort of his genius. He was the 
 
 author of about thirtv other comedies, in verse or prose, 
 
 among which "The Bores," ("Les Facheux," 1661,) 
 
 the " Scl ool for Wives," ("Ecole des Fetnnies," 1662,) 
 
 " Love (or Cupid) as Physician," (" L'Amour Medecin," 
 
 1665,) "Ie Medecin malgre lui," (1666,) "The Miser," 
 
 ('• L'Avare," 1667,) " Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme," 
 
 (1670,) "(.earned (or Pedantic) Ladies," (" Femmes sa- 
 
 vantes," 1672,) and "The Imaginary Invalid, (or Hypo- 
 chondriac,") (" Le Malade imaginaife," 1673,) are greatly 
 
 admired. Died in 1673. 
 
 There is perhaps in the whole history of literature no 
 
 more remarkable instance of the triumph of genius than 
 
 is presented to us in the career of Moliere. Seldom, if 
 
 ever, were the pride and tyranny of rank more predomi- 
 nant than in France in the latter half of the seventeenth 
 
 century. Yet many of the French nobility treated Mo- 
 liere as a companion and equal. "Come to me at any 
 
 hour you please," said the great Prince de Conde to our 
 
 author: "you have but to announce, your name: your 
 
 visit can never be ill-timed." (See Scott's " Miscellanies.") 
 
 The success of "Tartuffe" was a signal victory achieved in 
 
 the face of an all-prevailing bigotry, which was strongly 
 
 entwined in the very spirit of the age and had struck 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jf" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 deep root into the heart of the king himself. But the 
 castle of prejudice, invincible to every other assault, was 
 fain to open its reluctant gales to the transcendent ge- 
 nius of Moliere. He was remarkable not merely for his 
 wonderful comic talent, but for his admirable delineation 
 of human nature as it appears in all countries and all ages. 
 " In the more appropriate merits of comedy," says Hal- 
 lam, " in just and forcible delineation of character, skilful 
 contrivance of circumstances, and humorous dialogue, 
 we must award him the prize." The same eminent critic 
 thinks "that Shakspeare had the greater genius, but 
 perhaps Moliere has written the best comedies." He was 
 not a member of the French Academy. After Moliere's 
 death, that learned body placed his bust in their hall, 
 with this beautiful and appropriate inscription : 
 
 " Rien ne manque a sa gloire ; il mauquait a la notre."* 
 
 See Grimarrst, "Vie de j. B. Poquelin de Moliere," 1705; 
 Voltaire, "Vie de Moliere," etc.. 1739: La Harpk. " Idees sur 
 Moliere ;"Caii.hava, " Etudes sin Moliere," 1802; J. Taschereau, 
 " Histoire de la Vie etdesOuvragesde Mo lire," 1825: Jean Sylvain 
 Baili.y, "Eloge de Moliere," 1770: Saintb-Beuvk, " Portrait! 
 lilte>aires :" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale :" " Lives of the Most 
 Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley;" Essay on Moliere, 
 in Scott's " Miscellanies," vol. i., and the same article in the " Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for April, 1S2S; Prescott, "Miscellanies;' 
 Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for July, 1845. 
 
 Molieres, de, deh mo 'le-aiR', (Joseph Privat,) a 
 French philosopher and mathematician, born at Taras- 
 con in 1677, was a friend and disciple of Malebranche. 
 He succeeded Varignon as professor of philosophy in 
 the College of France in 1723, and was elected an 
 associate of the Academy of Sciences in 1729. He was 
 the author of several scientific works. Tt is related, as 
 an instance of his abstraction of mind, that when a 
 robber one dav entered his apartment, Molieres showed 
 him where his' money was kept, but begged him not to 
 disturb his papers. 'Died in 1742. 
 
 Molin, mo'liN', or Dumoulin, dii'moo'laN', IjAC- 
 ques,) a celebrated French physician, born near Mcnde 
 in 1666, was patronized by Louis XIV. and Louis Xy. 
 He made free use of the lancet in his practice, and is 
 supposed by some to have been the original of " Dr. San- 
 grado" in Le Sage's "Gil Bias." On his deathbed he 
 said to his attendants, "I leave behind me three great 
 physicians,— Diet, Water, and Exercise." Died in 1755. 
 
 See "Eloge de M. Molin," 1761. 
 
 Molina, mo-lee'na, (Giovanni Ignazio,) a naturalist, 
 born in Chili in 1740, lived many years at Bologna. He 
 wrote an "Essay on the Natural History of Chili," (1782,) 
 and a "Civil History of Chili," (1787.) uotn '» Italian. 
 Died in 1829. 
 
 Molina, mo-lee'na, (Luis,) a celebrated Spanish 
 Jesuit, born in New Castile about 1535, was professor 
 of theology at Ev'ora, in Portugal, for twenty years. His 
 principal work is entitled " De Concordia Gratia: et 
 Liberi Arbitrii," (1588,) in which he attempts to reconcile 
 the free will of man with predestination. This treatise 
 was severely assailed Iry the Calvinists, Dominicans, and 
 Jansenists, and a bitter controversy ensued, which was 
 partially suppressed by Pope Paul V. Died about 1600. 
 
 See Bossuet, " Avertissement aux Protestants;" N. Antonio, 
 " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Molina, de. See Argote de Molina. 
 
 Molina, de, Count. See Carlos of Bourbon. 
 
 Molinaeus, the Latin of Dumoulin, which see. 
 
 Molinari. See Mulinari, (Stkfano.) 
 
 Molinari, mo-le-na'ree, or Mulinari, moo-le-na'ree, 
 (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian painter, called also 
 Caraccino, born at Savigliano in 1577; died in 1640. 
 
 Moline de Saint-Yon, mo'len' deh slNfyoN', 
 (Alexandre. Pierre,) a French general and writer, 
 born in Lyons in 1786. He was minister of war from 
 November, 1845, until May, 1847. Among his works 
 is a" History of the Counts of Toulouse," (4 vols., 1859.) 
 
 Molinet, mo'le '11J', (Jkan,) a French poet and histo- 
 rian of the fifteenth century. He was appointed librarian 
 to Margaret of Austria, and historiographer to the house 
 of Burgundy, and wrote numerous works in prose and 
 verse. Died in 1507. 
 
 See Reiffenberg, " Memoire sur J. Molinet," 1835. 
 
 * " Nothing is wanting to his glory; but he was wanting to ours. 
 
MOLINET 
 
 1606 
 
 MO MB R IS 10 
 
 Molinet, du, dii mo'le'ni/, (Claude,) a French an- 
 tiquary, born at Chalons in 1620, was the author of a 
 " History of the Principal Popes, taken from Medals." 
 Died in 16S7. 
 
 Molinetti, mo-le-net'tee, (Antonio,) an eminent 
 Italian anatomist and physiologist, born at Venice. He 
 obtained the chair of anatomy at Padua in 1649. He 
 wrote " On the Senses and their Organs," (" De Sensibus 
 et eorum Organis," 1669.) Died in 1675. 
 
 Molinier, mo'le'ne-A', (Jean Baptists,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, celebrated as a pulpit orator, was born at 
 Aries in 1675. He published a translation of the Psalms 
 into French verse, and "Select Sermons." Died in 
 
 1745- 
 
 Molinos,mo-lee'n6s, (Miguel,) a Spanish theologian, 
 founder of the sect of Quietists, was born at Saragossa 
 about 1630. His principal work is entitled " Spiritual 
 Guide," (1675,) and inculcates, as its leading doctrines, 
 the abstraction of the mind from external objects, and 
 the contemplation of the Deity. The book was con- 
 demned by the Inquisition, and Molinos sentenced to 
 perpetual imprisonment, from which he was released by 
 death in 1696. 
 
 See Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867; 
 Plin.hiet, " JJictionnaire des HeV^sies ;" Scharling, " Mystikeren 
 M. Moiino's Laere og Skjaebne," 1852. 
 
 Molitor, mo'le'toR', (Gabriel Jean Joseph,) a 
 French marshal, born in Lorraine in 1770. He was 
 appointed Governor-General of Swedish PomeVania in 
 1807, and took an active part in the subsequent cam- 
 paigns from 1808 to 1814. He gave in his adhesion to 
 the Hourbons after the restoration, and was made cheva- 
 lier of Saint Louis. He commanded the second corps 
 of the army in the Spanish campaign of 1S23, and by 
 his skill and decision soon put an end to the war. He 
 was created a marshal by Louis XVIII. Died in 1849. 
 
 Sr L ' Iik Courcelles, " Dictionnaire des G^neVaux Francais." 
 
 Mbllendorf or Moellendorf, von, fon mol'len- 
 doul', (Richard Joachim Heinrich,) a Prussian com- 
 mander, born in 1725, served under Frederick the Great 
 in the principal campaigns of the Seven Years' war. 
 In 1794 he succeeded the Duke of Brunswick as com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Prussian army. Died in 1816. 
 
 Moller, mol'ler, [Lat. Molle'rus,] (Daniel Wil- 
 helm,) a German scholar, born at Presburg in 1642. 
 He became professor of history and metaphysics at 
 Altorf in 1674, and was made a count palatine by the 
 emperor Leopold. He wrote numerous Latin works, 
 in prose and verse. Among them are dissertations on 
 many Latin classic authors. Died in 1712. 
 
 See " Memoria Molleri," 1713. 
 
 Moller, (Georg,) a German architect, born in Hano- 
 ver in 1784. Among his best works are the opera-house 
 at Darmstadt and the theatre at Mentz. He published 
 "Monuments of German Architecture," (3 vols., 1815- 
 45,) and other architectural treatises. Died in 1852. 
 
 Moller or Moeller, mol'ler, (John,) a Danish biog- 
 rapher, born at Flensborg in 1661. He publishes "Cim- 
 bria I.iterata," containing biographies of authors born 
 in Sleswick-Holstein, (3 vols., 1744.) Died in 1725. 
 
 Moller or Moeller, (Peter Ludwig,) a Danish poet 
 and critic, born at Aalborg in 1814. He became a resi- 
 dent of Paris in 1851. Among his works are "Lyric 
 Poems," (1840,) and "The Fall of the Leaves," (1855.) 
 
 Mollerus. See Moller. 
 
 Mollet, mo'li', (Claude,) a French horticulturist, 
 was first gardener to Henry IV. and Louis XIII., and 
 gave the designs for the gardens of the Tuileries, Fon- 
 tainebleau, and Saint-Germain. Died about 1613. 
 
 Mollevaut, mol'vo'. (Charles Louis,) a French lit- 
 terateur, born at Nancy in 1776. He wrote elegies, 
 fables, and other original poems, and made successful 
 translations from the Latin of Virgil's " .rEneid" and 
 "Georgics," Horace's "Art of Poetry," and the "Ele- 
 gies" of Tibullus and of Catullus, (all in verse.) Died 
 in 1844. 
 
 Molleville, de. See Bertrand de Mollf.ville. 
 
 Mollien, de, deh mo'leJ.N', (Nicolas Francois,) 
 Comte, a French statesman, born at Rouen in 1758. 
 He was created minister of the treasury by Napoleon 
 in 1806. He published an account of his life, entitled 
 
 " Memoires d'un Ministre du Tresor public," (1780- 
 1845.) Died in 1850. 
 
 See Prosper de Barante, " Notice sur M. le Comte Mollien,' 
 1850; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate;" "London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for July, 1852. 
 
 Mol-loy', (Charles,) an Irish dramatist and political 
 writer, born in Dublin, became editor of the London 
 journal called "Common Sense." He wrote comedies 
 entitled "The Coquette," " Half- Pay Officers," and 
 " The Perplexed Couple." Died in 1767. 
 
 Mo'lo-eh or Mo'leeh, [Heb. "p3,] a heathen deity 
 worshipped by the Ammonites and other Oriental tribes, 
 who offered to him human sacrifices. 
 
 Molosse. See Molossus. 
 
 Mo-los'sus, [Gr. Moaooooc ; Fr. Molosse, mo'loss',] 
 a son of Pyrrhus and Andromache, is said to have 
 reigned in Epirus. Molossia is supposed to have de- 
 rived its name from him. 
 
 Moltke, molt'keh, (Adam Wilhelm,) Count, a 
 Danish statesman, son of Joachim Godske, noticed 
 below, was born in 1785. He was minister of finance 
 under Christian VIII. for many years. He resigned 
 in 1848, and was president of the ministry from 1848 
 to 1852. 
 
 Moltke, (Joachim Godske,) Count, a Danish states- 
 man, and a liberal patron of learning, born at Nyegaard 
 in 1746, became minister of state in 1781. Died in 1818. 
 
 Moltke, (Magnus,) Count, a Danish jurist and 
 writer, born in 1783. lie published a "Journey in Upper 
 and Middle Italy," (1833,) and several political treatises. 
 
 Moltke, von, fon molt'keh, (Helmuth Karl Ber- 
 nard,) Baron, a Prussian general, eminent as a strate- 
 gist, was born in Mecklenburg in 1800. He became 
 major-general in 1856, and lieutenant-general in 1859. 
 He was chief of the royal staff, and planned the campaign 
 which resulted in the great and decisive victory of Sa- 
 dowa, July 3, 1866. He directed in person the operations 
 of the armies which, under the nominal command of the 
 king, gained in France, *in 1870, a series of great and 
 memorable victories, for a notice of which see William I. 
 
 Moltke, von, fon molt'keh, (Karl,) Count, a Danish 
 absolutist politician, born in 1800; died in 1858. 
 
 Moltzer, molt'ser, (Jakob,) a learned German writer, 
 bom at Strasburg in 1503. He translated Tacitus into 
 German, and edited Homer. Died in 1558. 
 
 Molyn, (Peter.) See Tempest a. 
 
 Molyneux, mol'e-nooks', (William,) an eminent 
 mathematician, born in Dublin in 1656. After studying 
 law in the Middle Temple, London, for three years, he 
 returned to Ireland in 1678. In 1683 he aided in organ- 
 izing the Dublin Philosophical Society, of which he 
 afterwards became president. For his attainments in 
 the exact sciences he was elected in 1685 a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society, whose "Transactions" contain many 
 treatises composed by him on various subjects. In 1692 
 he produced his principal work, " Dioptrics Nova," a 
 treatise on optics, which was revised by Halley. It was 
 the first English work on optics that had appeared, and 
 was for a long time the principal manual of opticians. 
 He represented the University of Dublin in the Irish 
 Parliament a few years before his death. Died in 1698. 
 
 Molza, mol'za, or Molsa, (Francesco Maria,) an 
 Italian poet, born at Modena in 1489. He wrote Latin 
 elegies of great elegance, and a number of poems in 
 Italian, chiefly of a licentious character. Died in 1544. 
 
 Molza, (Tarquinia,) an Italian lady, distinguished 
 for her knowledge of mathematics, philosophy, and 
 languages, was a granddaughter of the preceding. She 
 made translations from Plato, and wrote poems in Latin 
 and Italian. The Roman senate conferred upon her the 
 right of citizenship, and Tasso gave the name of Molza 
 to his "Dialogue on Love." Died in 1617. 
 
 See Hilarion de Coste, " FJoges des Dames 'illustres;" GlN- 
 guene, "Hisioire litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Mombelli, mom-bel'lee, (Domenico,) an Italian 
 musician and composer, born near Vercelli in 175 1. He 
 was noted as a tenpr singer. Died in 1835. 
 
 Momboir. See Mauburne. 
 
 Mombrisio, mom-bi<ee'se-o, [Lat. Mombri'tius,] 
 (Bonino,) an Italian scholar and writer, born at Milan 
 in 1424. He published several editions of the classics, 
 
 a, e. i, 6, 11, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; nfit; good; moon; 
 
MOMBRITIUS 
 
 1607 
 
 MONCRIEFF 
 
 which are highly esteemed, and " Lives of the Saints," 
 (" Sanctuarium. ) Died about 1482. 
 
 Mombritius. See Mombrisio. 
 
 Momigny. de, deli nio'men'ye', (Jer6me Joseph,) a 
 French composer and musician, bom at Philippeville in 
 1766. He published several works on the theory of 
 music. Died in 1S38. 
 
 Monimsen, mom'sen, (Johannes Tycho,) a German 
 scholar, brother of the following, was born in 1819. He 
 produced a good translation of Pindar into German 
 verse, (1846,) and "Essays on Shakspeare," (1855.) 
 
 Mommsen, (Theodok,) a German jurist, historian, 
 and antiquary, born in Sleswick-Holstein in 1817. He 
 became professor of Roman law at Breslau in 1854. 
 Among his principal works may be named "The Mone- 
 tary System of the Romans," " Collection of Neapolitan 
 Inscriptions," (1852,) and "Roman History," (" R6- 
 tniscbe Geschidite," 3 vols., 1857.) He is an associate 
 of the French Institute, and a member of other foreign 
 Academics. 
 
 Momoio, mo'mo'ro', ( Antoine FRANgois,) a French 
 Jacobin, born at Besancon in 1756. He was guillotined 
 as .1 llebertist in 1794. 
 
 Mo'mus, [Gr. Mu,uof,] in classic mythology, was the 
 god of mockery, ridicule, and irony, and was called the 
 son of Night, (Nox.) He is said to have criticised the 
 gods with great audacity, and to have censured Vulcan 
 because, when he (according to one of the ancient myths) 
 formed a man, he did not place a window or door in his 
 breast, so that his secret thoughts might be perceived. 
 
 Mona, mo'na, Moiii, mo'nee, or Monio, mo'ne-o, 
 (Uomenh <>,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara in 1550; 
 died in 1602. 
 
 Monagas, mo-na'gls, (Don Jacinto,) a South Amer- 
 ican commander, born in Venezuela in 1785, was one 
 of the principal liberators of Colombia. He was killed 
 in battle in 1819. 
 
 Monantheuil, de, deh mo'nflN'tuI' or mo'n&N'tuh'- 
 ye, [Lat. Monan tiiu'i.ius,] (Henri,) a French mathe- 
 matician, born at Rheims about 1536. He became 
 professor of mathematics in the Royal College, Paris, 
 where he numbered among his pupils Lamoignon and 
 De Thou. He was the author of several scientific treat- 
 ises in Latin. Died in 1606. 
 
 See Nicrkon, "Memoires." 
 
 Monanthclius. See MONANTHEUIL. 
 
 Monardes, mo-nak'des, (Nicolas,) a Spanish phy- 
 sician and botanist, was a native of Seville. His prin- 
 cipal work is a "Treatise on the Medicines of the 
 New World." Linnaeus named in his honour the genus 
 Monarda. Died in 1578. 
 
 Mon-bod'do, (James Hornet,) Lord, a learned 
 Scottish jurist and eccentric writer, born in Kincardine- 
 shire in 1 7 14. He studied at Aberdeen, and subsequently 
 at the University of Groningen, and was appointed, after 
 his return to Scotland, one of the judges of the court of 
 session, (1767.) He published (1774) his "Dissertation 
 on the Origin and Progress of Language," in which he 
 manifests an enthusiastic admiration for the literature 
 and philosophy of the ancient Greeks, and advances the 
 theory that the human race was originally a species of 
 monkey. In his "Ancient Metaphysics, or the Science 
 of Universal)!," (1779,) Lord Monboddo has still further 
 developed the same ideas. He was intimate with Dr. 
 Johnson and other eminent men of the time, by whom 
 he was highly esteemed for the excellence of his charac- 
 ter. Died in 1799. 
 
 See tlie "Monthly Review" for April, 1791, March, 1706, and 
 January, 179S; "Gentleman's Magazine," 1799; Tytler, " Life of 
 Lord Kaines." 
 
 Monbron, de, deh m6N'l>R6N', (N. Fougeret — 
 foo/h'ra',) a French litterateur, born at Peronne, wrote 
 "La Henriade travestie," (1745,) and " Le Cosmopol," 
 (1750.) He was extremely censorious and misanthrop- 
 ical. Died in 1761. 
 
 Mcncada, de, da mon-ka'ua, (Don Francisco,) 
 Count of Osuna, a celebrated Spanish general and his- 
 torian, born at Valencia in 1586, was appointed general- 
 issimo of the Spanish forces in the Netherlands. He 
 was killed at the siege of Goch, in 1635. He was the 
 author of a valuable " History of the Expedition of the 
 
 Catalans against the Greeks and Turks," (1623,) and othei 
 works. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 Moncada, de, written also Moncade, (Hugo,) a 
 Spanish commander, born about 1466. He served with 
 distinction against the Moors and Turks, was appointed 
 Viceroy of Sicily by Charles V. about 1522, and was 
 defeated in July, 1524, in a naval battle, by Andrew 
 Doria, who commanded the French fleet. In 1526 he 
 marched to Rome and liberated the imprisoned pope, 
 Clement VII., on condition that he should abandon the 
 French party. He was killed in a sea-fight near Naples 
 in 1528. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais ;" Robertson, " History 
 of Charles V.," vol. ii. books iv. and v. 
 
 Moncalvo, II. See Caccia. 
 
 Monceaux, de, deh mo.N'so', (Francois,) a French 
 writer, born at Arras, flourished about 1570-90. He 
 wrote " Bucolica Sacra," (1587,) and other works in 
 verse. 
 
 Moncel, du, du malt'jSl', ( ThEodose Achille 
 Louis,) Vicomte, a French savant, born in Paris in 
 1821. He published, besides other works, "Expose des 
 Applications de l'Electricite," (3 vols., 1857.) He has 
 given special attention to electro-magnetism, and has 
 invented several sorts of electrical apparatus. 
 
 Moncey, de, deh moN's^', (Bon Adrien Jeannot,) 
 Due de Conegliano, a French marshal, born at Besan- 
 9011 in 1754. He served in the campaigns of 1793 and 
 1794, and attained the rank of general of division. He 
 took an active part in the subsequent campaigns in 
 Spain, Austria, and Italy, and was made a marshal in 
 1804. He soon after obtained the title of Duke of Cone- 
 gliano, and the grand cordon of the legion of honour. 
 He was elected to the Chamber of Peers under Louis 
 XVIII., and was appointed gouverneur des Juvalides in 
 1834. Died in 1842. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Bingraphie Ge'nerale :" De Courcei.lrs, " Die- 
 tionnaire des Generaux Francais;" " Eloge du Mareclial Moncey," 
 by Baron C. Dupin. 
 
 Monchy. See Hocquincourt. 
 
 Monck, miink, (Chari.es Stanley,) Viscount, an 
 English peer, born in Ireland in 1819. He entered the 
 House of Commons as a Liberal in 1852, became a lord 
 of the treasury in 1855, and was appointed Governor- 
 General of Canada and British America in 1861. He 
 was made a peer of the United Kingdom in 1866. 
 
 Monclar, de, deh moN'kltR', (Jean Pierre Fran, 
 qois de Ripert — deh re'paik',) Marquis, an eminent 
 French magistrate and writer, was born at Apt, in Pro- 
 vence, in 171 1. He became procureur-general in 1732. 
 From about 1749 he distinguished himself by his zealous 
 assertion of the liberty of the Protestants, and in 1762 
 he exposed the tendencies of the Jesuits, in a work 
 which Villemain pronounces a master-piece. Died in 
 
 1773- 
 
 Monconys, mdN'ko'ne', (Bai.thasar,) a French 
 traveller, born at Lyons in 161 1, visited Palestine, 
 Egypt, and other parts of the East, and published, after 
 his return, an account of those countries. Died in 1665. 
 
 Moncornet, in6N'koR'nV, (BALTHASAR,) a French 
 engraver, born at Rouen about 1615 ; died after 1670. 
 
 Moncreiff or Moncrieff, mon-kreef, (Sir Henry 
 Wellwooii,) a distinguished Scottish divine, born in 
 Perthshire in 1750, became minister of Saint Cuthbert's, 
 Edinburgh, in 1775. He was a zealous Whig, and took 
 an active part in the ecclesiastical controversies of the 
 time, in relation to which he published several treatises. 
 He also wrote " Discourses on the Evidence of the 
 Jewish and Christian Revelations," (1815,) and an "Ac- 
 count of the Life anfl Writings of John Erskine," ( 1 S 1 8. ) 
 Died in 1827. 
 
 See the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1828; Chambers, 
 "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Moncrieff, (James,) a Scottish lawyer, son of the 
 following, was born about 1812. He was lord advocate 
 for Scotland from 1851 to 1858, and was re-appointed in 
 1859. In the latter year he was elected to Parliament, 
 as a Liberal, by the voters of Edinburgh. 
 
 Moncrieff, (Sir James Wei.i.wood,) an eminent 
 Scottish lawyer and judge, born about 1776, was a son 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/,- G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( Jfy"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MO NCR IF 
 
 1608 
 
 MONK 
 
 of the preceding. He became a judge of session, and 
 lord justiciary. Died in 185 1. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) • 
 
 Moncrif, de, deh miN'kRef, (Francois Al'gustin 
 Pauadis,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1687, 
 was a favourite at the court of Louis XV., and became 
 secretary to Count d'Argenson. He was elected to the 
 French Academy in 1733, and was intimate with Vol- 
 taire, Mannontel, and other celebrated writers of the 
 time. He was the author of a humorous worU entitled a 
 "History of Cats," etc., "The Rival Souls," a romance, 
 "Essay on the Necessity and Means of Pleasing," and a 
 number of operas, songs, and ballads. Died in 1770. 
 
 See Grimm, " Correspondance Lilteraire;" D'Alembekt, " His- 
 toire de l'Acadt?mie Francaise." 
 
 Mondejar, de, da mnn-da-HaR', (Gaspar Ibanez de 
 Skgovia, Pkusai.ta y Mendoza,) Marquis, a Spanish 
 historian, who wrote, besides other works, "Cronica del 
 Key Don Alonzo el Sabio," (1783.) Died after 1775. 
 
 Mondejar, de, (ISigo Lopez de Mendoza — lo'- 
 peth da mcn-do'tha,) Marquis, a distinguished Spanish 
 Commander under the reign of Philip II., was appointed 
 Captain-General of Granada, and took an active part in 
 the war against the Moors. 
 
 See Pkescott, " History of Philip II.." vol. iii. book v. 
 
 Moiidino de Luzzi. See Mu.ndinus. 
 
 Mondonville. See Cassanea. 
 
 Mondory or Mondori, moN'do're', a French actor, 
 born at Orleans about 15S0, is called one of the founders 
 of the French theatre. Died in 1651. 
 
 Mondragon, mon-dRa-gon', (Cristobal,) a brave 
 Spanish general, surnanied THE GOOD MoNDRAGON, 
 fought with distinction against the Netherlanders, and 
 rose to be governor of Antwerp. Died in 1596. 
 
 See Motley, "United Netherlands," chap. xxxi. 
 
 Mone, mo'neh, (Franz Joseph,) a German writer, 
 born near Heidelberg in 1792, became professor of his- 
 tory in that city in 1819. He published a "History 
 of Paganism in Northern Europe," (1822,) and other his- 
 orical works. 
 
 Monet, nio'ni', (Phimkkrt,) a French scholar and 
 philologist, born at Bonneville, in Savoy, in 1566. He 
 wrote " Ligatures des Langues Francoise et Latine," 
 (1629,) and other works. Died in 1643. 
 
 Mo-ne'ta, a surname given by the Romans to Juno. 
 The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was used as a 
 mint, which in Latin is called mom/a. 
 
 See Smith, "Greek and Rinnan Biogiaphy and Mythology." 
 
 Moneti, mo-na'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Cortona about 1635 ; died in 1 712. 
 
 Monfalcon, moN'iaTkoN', (J fan H artiste,) a French 
 physician and historian, born in Lyons in 1792. He 
 practised in his native city, and wrote, besides other 
 works, a "Code moral des Ouvriers," (1835,) and a 
 "History of Lyons," (2 vols., 1846-47.) 
 
 Mongault/moN'go', (Nicolas Hubert,) a French 
 littemteiir, born in Paris in 1674. He made translations 
 of the " History" of Herodianand the "Letters of Cicero 
 to Atticus." The latter is particularly esteemed, and the 
 notes accompanying it are said to have furnished Mid- 
 dleton with important matter for his " Life of Cicero." 
 Mongault was a member of the French Academy and 
 of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1746. 
 
 Monge, moNzh, (Gaspard,) Conite de Peluse, a cele- 
 brated French savant, and the creator of descriptive 
 geometry, was born at Beaune in 1746. Soon after he 
 left the College of Lyons he obtained a place in the col- 
 lege of military engineers at Mezieres. Having by his 
 skill in geometry made an important improvement in 
 the process used in the art of fortification, he became, 
 about the age of twenty, professor of mathematics and 
 of natural philosophy at Mezieres. While he filled 
 these chairs with great credit, he gradually perfected 
 the application of geometry to the arts of construc- 
 tion, which is now called descriptive geometry. In 
 1780 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sci- 
 ences, and in 1783 removed to Paris, where he was 
 employed as examiner of candidates for the marine, for 
 whose use he wrote an able "Treatise on Statics." His 
 political affinities in the Revolution were with the re- 
 
 publicans, who appointed him minister of the marine in 
 1792. He resigned in April, 1793, and distinguished 
 himself by his zealous services in the fabrication of arms, 
 gunpowder, and other materials, which were urgently re- 
 quired for the national defence. In 1795 he published 
 the first edition of his excellent " Descriptive Geometry," 
 and assisted in organizing the Polytechnic School, in 
 which he taught geometry and analysis. Monge, Fou- 
 rier, and Bcrthollet were the directors of the scientific 
 commission which accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt in 
 1798. Aided by pupils of the Polytechnic School, they 
 executed the geodesic and monumental description of 
 that country. Having returned home with Bonaparte, 
 he presided over the arrangement and publication of the 
 great work by which French science and art illustrated 
 Egypt. During the Napoleonic regime he became a 
 senator, Count of Peluse, and grand officer of the legion 
 of honour. In 1816 he was expelled from the Institute 
 on account of his political antecedents. He died in 1818. 
 He left an important work called " Application of Analy- 
 sis to Geometry." His discoveries in geometry form an 
 epoch in that science, for which he is said to have done 
 more than any one since the time of Archimedes. 
 
 See D. F. Arago, " liiograpnie de G. Monge," 1S53; Charles 
 Dupin, " Close de Monge," 1849: Dupin a5n£, " Essai historique 
 snr les Services de Monge," 1819; Walckenaer," Notice historique 
 stir la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Monge," 1849 ; " Nouvelle Hiogra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Mongez, mdx'zha', (Antoine,) a French archaeolo- 
 gist, born at Lyons in 1747. He published a treatise 
 "On the Names and Attributes of the Infernal Deities," 
 and other works. He was a member of the Academy 
 of Inscriptions. Died in 1835. 
 
 Mongez, (Maiuk Josephine Angelique Levoi,) a 
 French artist of great merit, born near Paris in 1775, 
 was the wife of the preceding. She studied painting 
 under Regnault and David. Among her best works are 
 "The Death of Astyanax," "Orpheus in Hades," and 
 "Perseus and Andromeda." Died in 1855. 
 
 Mongitore, mon-je-to'ra, (Antonio,) an Italian biog- 
 rapher and priest, born at Palermo in 1663. He pub- 
 lished "Bibliotheca Sicula," (2 vols., 1708-14,) which 
 contains notices of Sicilian authors, ancient and modern. 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 Monglave, de, deh mos'glfv', (Francois Eugene 
 Gara y,) a French novelist and historian, born at Bayonne 
 in 1796. 
 
 Moni. See Mona. 
 
 Mon'I-ca, [ Fr. Monique, mo'nek',] Saint, the mother 
 of Saint Augustine, was born in 332 a.d. She was edu- 
 cated in the Christian faith, and became eminent for her 
 virtue and piety. She lived at Tagaste, in Numidia, and 
 had several children. Died at Ostia in 387 A.D. 
 
 See Saint Augustine, " Confessions ;" Kakl Braunh, " Monica 
 und Augustinus," 1846; Petit, " Histoire de Sainte-Monique," 
 1848. 
 
 Monier, mo'ne-a', (Pierre,) a French painter, born 
 at Dim's in 1639 ; died in 1703. 
 
 Moniglia, mo-nel'ya, (Giovanni Andrea,) an Ital- 
 ian dramatic poet and physician, born at Florence about 
 1640; died in 1700. 
 
 Mont-ma, [Or. MovifiT],] a beautiful Greek woman, 
 who became a wife of Mithridates the Great. She was 
 put to death by order of that king in 72 B.C., to prevent 
 her from being captured by the victorious Romans. 
 
 Monino. See Florida Blanca. 
 
 Monio. See Mona. 
 
 Monique. See Monica. 
 
 Monk, miink, (George,) Duke of Albemarle, a suc- 
 cessful English general, born in 1608, was the son of 
 Sir Thomas Monk, of Merton, Devonshire. After fight- 
 ing in the service of Holland, he returned to England 
 about the age of thirty. In the civil war he bore arms 
 for Charles I., and had acquired some reputation as an 
 able officer when he was made prisoner at Nantwich in 
 1644 by the Roundheads, who confined him in the Tower 
 of London more than a year. Having accepted a com- 
 mission from the Parliament, he commanded a repub- 
 lican army in the north of Ireland between 1646 and 
 1650. He contributed to the victory of Cromwell at 
 Dunbar, in 1650, and the next year was left in Scotland 
 as commander of an army, with which he speedily com- 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, fi, y, long;; a. e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, q, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MONK 
 
 v5oo 
 
 MONOD 
 
 pleted tne reduction of that country. Hume states that 
 he put to the sword all the inhabitants of Dundee, which 
 he had taken by assault ; though he elsewhere says his 
 temper was humane and his moderation remarkable. 
 In 1653 the government showed their confidence in his 
 skill by selecting him to cooperate with Admiral Blake 
 in a naval war against the Dutch. He commanded in 
 the sea-fight where Van Tramp was defeated and killed. 
 In 1654 he was successful in his efforts to enforce the 
 will and authority of the Protector in Scotland. At the 
 death of Oliver, in 1658, Monk proclaimed Richard 
 Cromwell as his successor. When the officers of the 
 army deposed Richard and restored the Long Par- 
 liament, he acquiesced, and retained command of the 
 army in Scotland. The loyalists and republicans so- 
 licited his aid in the impending crisis ; but he kept all 
 parties in suspense by his dissimulation or irresolu- 
 tion. About the beginning of 1660 he marched towards 
 London, ostensibly to support the civil power against 
 Lambert's army. "Cold-blooded and taciturn," says 
 Macaulay, "zealous for no polity and for no religion, he 
 maintained an impenetrable reserve" when he was im- 
 plored to restore peace to the nation. Having cautiously 
 removed from command those whom he distrusted, and 
 prepared the way for the restoration, he declared for a 
 free Parliament, which soon assembled, amidst general 
 joy and exultation. Charles II. was proclaimed king 
 in May, 1660, and rewarded the services of Monk by 
 creating him Duke of Albemarle. In 1666 Monk main- 
 tained his reputation in a great naval battle against the 
 Dutch. He died in 1670, leaving a son, at whose death 
 the family became extinct. Hume, after a eulogy of his 
 character, says, "I confess, however, that Dr. Douglas 
 has shown me an original letter of his, containing very 
 earnest and certainly false protestations of his zeal for 
 a commonwealth." 
 
 See "State Papers of Charles II.," edited by Mrs. Green, Lon- 
 don, 1S66: Gcizot, "Memoirs of Monk:" "The J.ife of General 
 Monk," by Thomas Skelton; T. Skinnkr, "Life of General 
 Monk;" Gumui.e, "Life of General Monk," 1671 ; ClAKr'ndon, 
 " History of the Rebellion;" Hali.am. " Constitutional History:" 
 M \c u*i-\v. " History of England ;" " Retrospective Review," vol. 
 xiii., (1826;) Campbell, "Lives of the British Admirals." 
 
 Monk, (James Henry,) an English clergyman and 
 author, born at Huntingford in 1784. He became Bishop 
 of Gloucester about 1830. He wrote a " Life of Uentley," 
 (1831.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Monk, (Mary Moi.eswokth,) a distinguished writer, 
 was a daughter of Robert, Lord Molesworth, and was 
 married to George Monk, an Irish gentleman. She died 
 in 1715, leaving a collection entitled " Marinda : Poems 
 and Translations on Several Occasions," ( 1 7 1 6. ) 
 
 See Cibber, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Monmerque, mos'meVka', (Louts Jean Nicolas,) 
 a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1780. He wrote 
 many articles for the "Biographie Universelle" of Mi- 
 dland, edited the " Letters of Madame de Sevigne," 
 (10 vols., 1819,) and published other works. He became 
 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1833. Died 
 in 1S60. 
 
 Monmorel, de, deh m6N'mo'r?l', (Chari.es le 
 Bourg — leh DOOR,) a popular French preacher, born in 
 Normandy; died in 1719. 
 
 Monmouth. See Geoeerey oe Monmouth. 
 
 Monmouth, Eakloe. See Mordaunt, and Carey, 
 (Henry.) 
 
 Monmouth, mon'mfith, (James Scott,) Duke ok, 
 bom in 1649, was a natural son of Charles II. of Eng- 
 land. His mother's name was Lucy Walters. He married 
 about 1665 Anne Scott, Duchess of Huccleuch, said to 
 have been the richest heiress in the kingdom, and as- 
 sumed her name. He received the title of Duke of Huc- 
 cleuch, and was loaded with royal favours. His personal 
 advantages and agreeabie manners rendered him very 
 popular. "Though a libertine," says Macaulay, " he won 
 the hearts of the Puritans." A rivalry or jealousy arose 
 between him and the Duke of York, afterwards James 
 II., through whose influence Monmouth was discarded 
 from court He was in Holland when Charles II. died, 
 (1684.) A report that Charles 1 1, had married 1 .my Wal- 
 ters privately was credulously received by the populace, 
 who regarded Monmouth as the rightful heir to the 
 
 throne and the champion of the Protestant cause. With 
 a party of armed exiles he invaded England in June, 1685, 
 and raised the standard of rebellion. He was received 
 with enthusiasm by the people, and gained a victory over 
 the royal troops at Axminster; but he was completely 
 defeated at Sctlgemoor, July 6, and captured a few days 
 later. Having been taken into the presence of King 
 James, he threw himself at his feet, and, with abject 
 spirit, begged for life at any price, but in vain. He was 
 executed in July, 1685. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. i. : George Roberts, 
 " Life of the L>uke of Moninonth," 1S44. 
 
 Monnet, mo'nj', (Antoi.ne Grimoai.d,) a French 
 chemist, born in Auvergne in 1734, was appointed in- 
 spector-general of mines. He opposed and undervalued 
 the discoveries of Lavoisier, Berthollet, and others, and 
 thus injured his own reputation. He published a " Treat- 
 ise on the Solution of Metals," (1775,) "Historical and 
 Political Memoir on tne Mines of France," (1791,) and 
 numerous other scientific works. Died in 1817. 
 
 Monnet, (Louis Claude,) Baron, a French general, 
 born in 1766. He commanded at Flushing when it was 
 taken by the English in 1809. For this ill success he 
 was condemned to death ; but he was then a prisoner in 
 England. Died in 1819. 
 
 Monnier, ino'ne-i', (Henri Bonaventure, ) a 
 French litterateur, comedian, and caricaturist, born in 
 Paris in 1S05. He represented and caricatured the life 
 and manners of the common people with the pen, and 
 published several volumes of "Scenes populaires des- 
 sinees a la Plume," (1830-46.) Among his works is 
 " Memoires de M. Prudhonime," (2 vols., 1854.) 
 
 Mourner, (Jean Charles,) Comtk, a French gen- 
 eral, born at Cavaillon in 1758. lie led a division at 
 Marengo in June, 1800. Died in 1816. 
 
 Monnier, (Louis Gabriel,) a French engraver, born 
 at Besancon in 1733 ; died at Dijon in 1804. 
 
 Monnier, de, deh nio'ne-J,', (Marie There>,e Ri- 
 chard de Ruffey — re'shii? deh ru'ti',) Marquise, a 
 French lady, known under the name of Sophie:, and 
 celebrated in consequence of her connection with Mira- 
 beau, was born at Pontarlier in 1754- Died in 1789. 
 (See Miraheau.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Monnier, Le. See Lkmonnif.r. 
 
 Monnier, Le, leh mo'ne-i', (Pier re,) a French savant, 
 born in Normandy about 1673, published a work en- 
 titled "Course of Philosophy." He was a member of 
 the Academy of Sciences. Died in 1757. 
 
 Monnoie or Monnoye, de la, deh 13 mo'nwa', 
 (Bernard,) a Fiench poet and critic, born at Dijon in 
 1641. He was the author of a poem entitled "The Duel 
 Abolished," which obtained the first prize ever awarded 
 by the Fiench Academy. He was elected a member of 
 that institution in 1 7 1 3. He also published poems in 
 Latin and French, and several critical treatises. Died 
 in 1728. 
 
 See R. dk Juvigny, "Menioire historiqtie stir la Vie, etc. de La 
 Monnoye," 
 
 Monnoyer, mo'nwa'ya', (Jean Baptiste,) a cele- 
 brated painter of flowers and fruit, born at Lille, in 
 Flanders, in 1635. Having visited Paris, he was em- 
 ployed in the decoration of Versailles and the Trianon. 
 He afterwards repaired to England, where he executed 
 some of his best works. Among his master-pieces are 
 the flower-border of a mirror at Kensington, and the 
 decorations of Montagu House. His flower-pieces have 
 never been surpassed lor brilliancy of colouring and free 
 and graceful grouping. He died in 1699, leaving a son, 
 AntoINE, who was also a flower-painter. 
 
 See R. DfMEsM!., " Le Peintre-Graveur Erancais." 
 
 Monod, nio'nod', ( Adoi.phe, ) an eminent Swiss 
 Protestant minister, born about 1800. He lectured on 
 theology and Hebrew at the College of Montauban from 
 1836 to 1852, and became minister of the Reformed 
 Church of Paris in 1853. He acquired a wide reputation 
 a« a preacher and moralist, and wrote numerous religious 
 treatises. He belonged to the most orthodox school of 
 I'M 111 h Protestants. Died in 1.S50. 
 
 Monod, (Frederic,) a Swiss Protestant minister, 
 born at Monnaz, in the Canton de Valid, in 1794, was a 
 
 * as k; 9 as s; f hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MONOD 
 
 1610 
 
 MONROSE 
 
 brother of the preceding. He became in 1832 pastor 
 of the Protestant sect called "Evangelistes libres," in 
 Paris. He edited for many years "The Archives of 
 Christianity," and published a number of sermons. 
 Died in 1863. 
 
 Monod, (Jkan,) a Swiss Protestant divine, born at 
 Geneva ill 1765, was the father of the preceding. He was 
 pastor of a church in Paris, and in 1830 became presi- 
 dent of the Consistory of the Reformed Church. He 
 contributed to the " Biographic Universale" many 
 notices of eminent Swiss writers, etc. Died in 1836. 
 
 Monpou, mdN'poo', (Hippolyte,) a French com- 
 poser and singer, born in Paris in 1804. He composed 
 popular ballads and operas, among which is " Les deux 
 Keines," (1835.) Died in 1841. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Mon-ro', (Alexander, distinguished as Primus, i.e. 
 the " first,") an eminent physician and anatomist, born 
 in London in 1697. He studied successively in London, 
 Paris, and at Leyden under Boerhaave, and was ap- 
 pointed, after his return, demonstrator of anatomy to 
 the Surgeons' Company at Edinburgh. The lectures he 
 deliveied at this time won for him a high reputation, 
 and were chiefly instrumental in founding the Medical 
 School of Edinburgh. Under his direction also was 
 established the Royal Infirmary of that city, in which 
 he gave clinical lectures on surgery. He published in 
 1726 his " Osteology, or Treatise on the Anatomy of the 
 Bones," which passed through numerous editions and 
 was translated into French and German. Among his 
 other works are an " Essay on Comparative Anatomy," 
 (1744,) and "Account of the Inoculation of Small-Pox 
 in Scotland," (1765.) Dr. Monro was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society of London, and a member of the Academy 
 of Surgery in Paris. Died in 1767. 
 
 See A. Duncan, " Account of the Life. etc. of Alexander Monro," 
 1780; "Life of Alexander Monro,'* prefixed to his works ; Cham- 
 bers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Monro, (Alexander Secundus, or the "second,") 
 son of the preceding, was born at Edinburgh in 1732. 
 He succeeded his father in the chair of anatomy and 
 surgery in the University of Edinburgh in 1759. He 
 died in 181 7, leaving a number of medical treatises of 
 great merit. Among these we may name "Observations 
 on the Structure, etc. of the Nervous System," (1783,) 
 and " Structure and Physiology of Fishes," (1785.) 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Monro, (Alexander Tertius, or the "third,") a 
 physician, a son of the preceding, was born in Edin- 
 burgh about 1774. He was professor of anatomy at 
 Edinburgh, and published several works on anatomy 
 and medicine. Died in 1859. 
 
 Monro, (Donald,) brother of Alexander. (1732-1817,) 
 was born at Edinburgh in 1729. He was appointed chief 
 physician to the army, which he accompanied to Ger- 
 many in 1761. He published, among other works, a 
 treatise "On the Means of Preserving the Health of 
 Soldiers." Died in 1802. 
 
 Monro, (John,) an English physician, born at Green- 
 wich in 1715, was the author of "Remarks on Battie's 
 Treatise on Madness." Died in 1791. 
 
 Monroe, miin-ro', (James,) an American statesman, 
 and the fifth President of the United States, was born 
 in Westmoreland county, Virginia, April 28, 1758. He 
 was a son of Spence Monroe, a planter, was educated at 
 William and Mary College, and entered the army as a 
 cadet in 1776. He soon became a lieutenant in the army 
 of Washington, and served at the battles of Harlem 
 Heights and White Plains. He was wounded in the 
 battle of Trenton, December, 1776, and for his conduct 
 there was promoted to the rank of captain. As aide- 
 de-camp to Lord Stirling, he served with distinction at 
 the battle of Brandywine, September, 1777, and at that 
 of Monmouth, June, 1778. Having lost his rank in the 
 regular army by becoming an aide to Lord Stirling, he 
 retired from the service in 1778, and studied law under 
 Thomas Jefferson. He was elected a member of the 
 Assembly of Virginia in 1782, and a delegate to the 
 General Congress in 1783 for three years. He married, 
 about 1785, a Miss Kortright, of New York. 
 
 As a member of the Convention of Virginia, in 1788, 
 he opposed the adoption of the Constitution of the 
 United States, which, in his opinion, gave too much 
 power to the Federal government. He accordingly 
 united himself with the Anti-Federalists, or Republican 
 party, and was elected a Senator of the United States 
 for four years by the legislature of Virginia in 1790. In 
 1794 he was sent to France as minister-plenipotentiary. 
 He offended the heads of the home government by the 
 open expression of sympathy with the French repub- 
 licans, or by a departure from a neutral policy, and 
 was recalled about the end of 1796. He was Governor 
 of Virginia three years, (1799-1802.) In 1802 he was 
 sent to France as envoy-extraordinary, to unite with 
 Edward Livingston, then the resident minister at Paris, 
 in a negotiation for the purchase of Louisiana, — i.e. the 
 whole valley of the Mississippi. They purchased that 
 vast territory from Bonaparte for $15,000,000. In 1S03 
 Mr. Monroe was sent as minister-plenipotentiary to 
 England, and in 1805 performed a diplomatic mission to 
 Spain in relation to the boundary of Louisiana. He 
 returned to London in 1806, and, aided by Mr. Pinck- 
 ney, negotiated a treaty for the protection of maritime 
 interests and neutral rights ; but the government of 
 the United States refused to ratify this treaty, because 
 it did not provide against the impressment of seamen. 
 He returned home in 1808, and passed about two years 
 in a private station. 
 
 In 181 1 he was elected Governor of Virginia. He 
 was appointed secretary of state by President Madison 
 in November, 181 1. He acted as secretary of war during 
 the disastrous and gloomy period that followed the cap- 
 ture of Washington, September, 1814-March, 1815, and 
 rendered important services by his energetic measures 
 to restore the public credit and reinforce the army. He 
 did not cease to be secretary of state until March, 181 7. 
 He was the Democratic candidate for the Presidency in 
 1 8 1 6, and was elected by a large majority, receiving one 
 hundred and eighty-three electoral votes. His competi- 
 tor was Rufus King, who received thirty-four votes. He 
 appointed John Q. Adams secretary of state, William 
 H. Crawford secretary of the treasury, 'John C. Calhoun 
 secretary of war, and Smith Thompson secretary of the 
 navy. The violence of party spirit abated during his 
 administration, which encountered no strong opposition. 
 In 1819 Spain ceded Florida to the United States. He 
 was re-elected President in 1820 without opposition, 
 receiving every electoral vote except one. During his 
 second term the independence of the South American 
 colonies of Spain was recognized by the United States. 
 In his message of December, 1823, he asserted the im- 
 portant principle of foreign policy which forms the cele- 
 brated "Monroe Doctrine," in these terms : " We owe 
 it, therefore, to candour and to the amicable relations 
 existing between the United States and those powers, 
 \i.e. the European powers,] to declare that we should 
 consider any attempt on their part to extend their sys- 
 tem to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to 
 our peace and safety." He retired from office in March, 
 1825, after which he resided at Oak Hill, Loudon county, 
 Virginia. He was elected president of the convention 
 which met in 1829 to revise the Constitution of Virginia. 
 A speech which he made in that Convention contains 
 this incidental remark on slavery : — " No imputation can 
 be cast on Virginia in this matter. She did all that was 
 in her power to do, to prevent the extension of slavery 
 and to mitigate its evils so far as she could."* He died 
 in the city of New York, at the residence of his son-in- 
 law, Samuel L. Gouverneur, on the 4th of July, 1831, 
 leaving the reputation of a discreet and successful states- 
 man, more distinguished for administrative talents than 
 for oratorical powers. 
 
 See J. Q. Adams, "Eulogy on James Monroe:" Hildreth, 
 " History of the United States," vols. v. and vi ; "National Por- 
 trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. 
 
 Monrose, miN'roz', the assumed name of Claude 
 Louis Barrizain, (bi're'zaN',) a French comic actor, 
 born at Besancon in 1783 ; died in 1843. 
 
 * This remark, doubtless, has reference to the efforts of the English 
 government to introduce slaves into V rginia against the wishes of 
 many of the colonists. 
 
 a, e;T, 6, u, y, long; 1, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, ?, |, q, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
MONS 
 
 1611 
 
 MONTAGU 
 
 Mons, van, viii 111611s or niiNss, (Jean Baptiste,) an 
 eminent Belgian chemist and pomologist, was born at 
 Brussels in 1765. Having learned the art of pharmacy, 
 he was chosen in 1797 professor of chemistry, etc. in 
 Brussels. He founded the "Journal de Chimie et Phy- 
 sique," which for many years was a central depot of the 
 progress of science in Europe. Having a ruling passion 
 for the culture of fruit, he began at an early" age to theo- 
 rize and experiment on the production of new varieties. 
 About the age of twenty he adopted the theory that 
 seedlings of new varieties have more tendency to im- 
 prove than those of old varieties, or, in other words, 
 while good old varieties mostly produce inferior sorts, 
 those which are recent and bad tend to change for the 
 better. Having planted a large nursery and devoted 
 his life chiefly to experiments on the pear, he was suc- 
 cessful in producing many fine varieties, among which 
 was the Beurre Diel. Soon after 1815 he was appointed 
 professor of chemistry at Louvain. He published " Prin- 
 ciples of Electricity," (1802,) "Principles of Philosophic 
 Chemistry," (1818,) ''Fruit-Trees and their Culture," 
 (1835,) and other works. He was an associate of the 
 Institute of France. Died in 1842. "The constant 
 springing up of fine new sorts of fruit in the United 
 States," says Downing,'" is given with much apparent 
 force as a proof of the accuracy of the Van Mons 
 theory." 
 
 See Quetelet, " Notice historique sur J. B. van Mons," 1843; 
 J. S. Stas, "Notice sur J. B. van Mons," 1843. 
 
 Mons, van, (Theodore,) a jurist, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Brussels in 1801. He published 
 several legal works. 
 
 Monselet, m6.N'seh-14', (Charles,) a French littera- 
 teur, born at Nantes in 1825. He wrote, besides various 
 other works, " Statues et Statuettes," (1851,) and " Figu- 
 rines Parisiennes," (1854.) 
 
 Mon'seU, (William,) M.P., was born in Limerick 
 county, Ireland, in 1812. He was appointed a privy 
 councillor in 1855, president of the board of health in 
 1857, was vice-president of the board of trade a few 
 months in 1866, and became under-secretary for the 
 colonies in December, 1868. 
 
 Monsiau, nids'se-o', (Nicolas Andre,) a French 
 historical painter, bom in Paris in 1754, worked with 
 remarkable facility. Died in 1837. 
 
 Monsignori, mon-sen-yo'ree, (Francesco,) some- 
 times called Bonsignori, a skilful Italian painter, born 
 at Verona in 1455. He was a pupil of Andrea Man- 
 tegna, and worked mostly at Mantua. Died in 1519. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Monsigny, moN'sen'ye', (Pierre Alexandre,) a 
 French composer, born at Artois in 1729. He produced, 
 besides other operas, " Le Maitre en Droit," and " Le 
 Cadi dupe," (1760,) the comic operas of "The King and 
 the Farmer" and " Rose and Colas," and was elected a 
 member of the Institute, (1813.) Died in 1817. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musicians ;" Quatrb- 
 mere deQuincy, "Elogede Monsigny," 1818; Pierre Heuouin, 
 "Notice historique sur P. A. Monsigny," 1821. 
 
 Mon'son, (Sir William,) an English naval com- 
 mander, born in Lincolnshire about 1569, served with 
 distinction against the Spaniards, Dutch, and French, 
 and attained the rank of vice-admiral. He was the 
 author of " Naval Tracts," which were published in 
 Churchill's "Collection of Voyages." Died in 1643. 
 
 See Campbell. " Lives of British Admirals;" J. Barrow, "Me- 
 moirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen Elizabeth s Reign," 1845. 
 
 Monson, (William John,) Lord, an English peer 
 and antiquary, bom in 1796. He entered the House of 
 Lords in 1841. Died in 1862. 
 
 Monstrelet, de, deh mAN'streh-li', (Enguerrand,) 
 a French chronicler, born about [390, wrote an account 
 of the wars of his time between the factions of Armagnac 
 and Burgundy. His "Chronicles," beginning in 1400 
 and brought down to 1444, fill the space between the 
 histories of Froissart and Comines, and are highly 
 esteemed for their accuracy and the perspicuity and 
 simplicity of their style. Died in 1453. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Montagna, mon-tan'ya, (Bartoi.ommeo,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Vicenza, lived about 1460-1500, and 
 
 studied under Andrea Mantegna. Among his master- 
 pieces we may name the " Madonna on a Throne with 
 Saint Andrew and other Saints," at the Museum of 
 Milan. 
 
 Montagna, (Benedetto,) an Italian engraver, a 
 relative of the preceding, was born at Vicenza about 1458 ; 
 died in 1530- 
 
 See Bartsch, "Le Peintre-Graveur." 
 
 Montagne, mdN'ttn', (Jean Francois Camii.le,) a 
 French botanist, born at Vaudoy in 1784. Having 
 studied medicine, he was appointed in 1815 surgeon-in- 
 chief of the army of Murat. He was chosen a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences in 1852, and in 1858 was 
 made an officer of the legion of honour. He con- 
 tributed to the "Archives de Botanique" and to other 
 scientific journals a number of valuable treatises on 
 the Cryptogamia, among which we may name " Notice 
 of the Cryptogamous Plants recently discovered in 
 France." Died in 1866. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic. G<SneVale." 
 
 Montagny, mdVtan'ye', (Etienne,) a French sculp- 
 tor, born at Saint-Etienne in 1816. He obtained a medal 
 of the first class for a statue of Saint Louis, in 1859. 
 
 MSn'ta-gu, (Basil,) an eminent English lawyer and 
 writer, born in London in 1770, was a natural son of 
 John Montagu, Earl of Sandwich. Having graduated 
 at Cambridge, he was called to the bar in 1798. He 
 practised with ability and success, and extended his 
 reputation by numerous legal publications, the most im- 
 portant of which is a " Digest of the Bankrupt Laws, 
 with a Collection of the Statutes and of the Cases de- 
 termined upon that Subject," (1805.) He was associated 
 with Romilly and Wilberforce in successful effort to 
 abolish hanging for forgery and for certain other crimes. 
 In 1825 he produced a valuable edition of Lord Bacon's 
 works, on which he expended the labour of many years ; 
 also a " Life of Bacon," in reference to which Macaulay 
 says, "About his merit as a collector of materials there 
 can be no dispute; and we are indebted to his minute 
 and accurate researches for the means of refuting what 
 we cannot but consider his errors." He published 
 "Essays and Selections," and various other works. 
 Died in 1 85 1. 
 
 Montagu, (Charles.) See Halifax, Earl of. 
 
 Montagu, (Edward.) See Manchester, Earl of. 
 
 Montagu, (Edward Wortley,) son of Lady Mary 
 Montagu, noticed below, was born in Yorkshire in 1713. 
 At an early age he manifested a propensity to low vices, 
 and great eccentricity of character. When placed at 
 school he repeatedly ran away, and at length hired him- 
 self as a cabin-bov in ;} ship bound for Spain. Being 
 discovered and sent back to his family, he travelled soon 
 after on the continent. After his return he was member 
 of two successive* Parliaments. He next went to Italy, 
 where he was converted to Catholicism, and not long 
 after visited Egypt, and there professed Mohammedanism. 
 He was the author of " Reflections on the Rise and Fall 
 of Ancient Republics." Died in 1776. 
 
 See " Memoirs of E. Wortlev Montagu," 2 vols., 177S : " Auto, 
 biography of Edward Wortley Montagu," London, 1869 ; Nichols, 
 " Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Montagu, (Henry.) See Manchester, Earl of. 
 
 Montagu, (Lady Mary Wortley,) a celebrated 
 English writer, born in Nottinghamshire about 1690. 
 She was the daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, Duke of 
 Kingston, and Lady Mary Fielding, and cousin to the 
 novelist Henry Fielding. She was early distinguished 
 for the brilliancy of her intellect and her rapid acquisition 
 of knowledge. In 1712 she was married to Edward 
 Wortley Montagu, Esq., and a few years after, on his 
 appointment to a place in the treasury, accompanied 
 him to London. Here she attracted general admiration 
 by her wit and remarkable beauty, and became intimate 
 with Addison, Pope, and other celebrated writers of 
 the time. In 17 16 she accompanied her husband, on his 
 being appointed ambassador, to Constantinople. During 
 her residence of two years at the Porte, she wrote to 
 her friends in England a series of Letters containing 
 shrewd and lively descriptions of Oriental life and man- 
 ners. On her return to England she became the means 
 of introducing the Turkish practice of inoculation, having 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MONTAGUE 
 
 1612 
 
 MONTALEMBERT 
 
 had the courage to have the experiment first tried on 
 her own son. The next remarkable event in Lady Mary's 
 life is her quarrel with Pope, the cause of which is not 
 with certainty known. In 1739 she left England for 
 Italy, where she resided upwards of twenty years. She 
 returned in 1761, and died the following year. Besides 
 the son mentioned above, she left a daughter Mary, who 
 was married to the Earl of Bute, minister of George III. 
 Lady Mary wrote a number of poems, of which the 
 "Town Eclogues" only are entitled to much notice. 
 Her literary reputation is owing chiefly to her " Let- 
 ters," which are ranked among the finest specimens of 
 epistolary composition. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," bv L. S. Costri.i.o; 
 Mrs. Et.woon. " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England;" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S03, and April, 1S04, (bv Jeffrev :) 
 •' London Quarterly Review" for February, 1837 ; " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for July, 1R68. ('• Historical Sketches of the Reign of 
 George II ;") 'Westminster Review" for April, 1S37; "Monthly 
 Review" for May and June, 1763 et see. 
 
 Montague, mOn'ta-gu, (Sir Edward,) an English 
 statesman, born in Northamptonshire. He was ap- 
 pointed chief justice of the court of king's bench in 
 1539, and chief justice of the common pleas in 1546. 
 He was one of the counsellors designated in the will of 
 Henry VIII. to administer the government during the 
 minority of Edward VI. Died in 1556. 
 
 See F111.LF.R, "Worthies of England;" Collins, "Peerage of 
 England." 
 
 Montague, (Edward,) Earl of Sandwich, an English 
 naval commander, born in 1625. He served for a time 
 on the side of the Parliament, but subsequently went 
 over to the royalists, and assisted General Monk in the 
 restoration of Charles II. For this service he was suc- 
 cessively created an earl, a knight of the Garter, mem- 
 ber of the privy council, and admiral of the Narrow 
 Seas. On the renewal of the war with Holland, in 1672, 
 Lord Sandwich commanded the squadron under the 
 Duke of Vork against De Ruyter, and perished in the 
 burning of the Royal James. 
 
 See Campbell, "Lives of the Admirals;" Clarendon, "Me- 
 moirs." 
 
 Montague, (ELIZABETH,) a celebrated English lady, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1720. Her early studies were 
 directed by Dr. Conyers Middleton, who was connected 
 with her family. In* 1742 she was married to Edward 
 Montague. Esq. After the death of her husband, in 
 1775, she resided in Portman Square, London, where 
 she numbered among her visitors the most eminent men 
 of the day, including Burke, Johnson, Goldsmith, and 
 Reynolds. She was also intimate with Mrs. Elizabeth 
 Carter and Hannah More. Mrs. Montague contributed 
 several " Dialogues of the Dead" to those published by 
 Lord Lyttelton ; but her principal work is an "Essay on 
 the Genius and Writings of Shakes|)eare," which ob- 
 tained for her a high reputation. In this production 
 she has ably refuted the false charges of Voltaire against 
 the great English poet. She is said to have been the 
 founder of the literary society called the "Blue-Stocking 
 Club." Her correspondence was published after her 
 death. Died in 1800. 
 
 See Mrs. Ei.wood, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England." 
 etc ; "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1809; "London Quarterly 
 Review" for October. 1S13: "Mrs. Montague and her Friends," in 
 " F'raser's Magazine" for January, 1S48 ; " Monthly Review" for 
 October, 1S14. 
 
 Montague, (George,) an English naturalist, born in 
 Wiltshire. In 1802 he published an "Ornithological 
 Dictionary, or Synopsis of British Birds," and soon after 
 his "Testacea Britannica," or "Natural History of 
 British Shells," illustrated. Both of these works are 
 highlv esteemed. Montague was a member of the Lin- 
 nicnn Society of London. Died in 1815. 
 
 Montague, (Tohn,) Earl of Sandwich, an English 
 Statesman, born in London in 1718. He was first lord 
 of the admiralty in 1749 and 1750, and obtained the 
 same office in 1763. He supported the administration 
 of Lord North, under whom he served as first lord of 
 the admiralty from 1771 to 1782. He was more deficient 
 In principle than in capacity. Died in 1792. 
 
 See J. Cooke, " Memoir of the Earl of Sandwich." 
 
 Montague, (Richard,) an English scholar and theo- 
 logian. See Mountaou. 
 
 Montaigne, mon-tan', de, [Fr. pron. deh moN'tir)',] 
 (Michel Eyquem — a'kft.s',) a celebrated French phi- 
 losopher and essayist, born at the chateau de Mon- 
 taigne, in Perigord, on the 28th of February, 1533. I lis 
 father, who was one of the noblesse, placed him, while 
 very young, under the tuition of masters who were 
 ignorant of French, and who conversed with him only in 
 Latin, Which thus became his natural language. At the 
 age of thirteen he had finished his studies at a college 
 of Bordeaux. Having studied law, he became a judge 
 at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1565 or 1566 he Married, 
 par convenance, Francoise de la Chassaigne. In 1.580 he 
 produced his celebrated "Essays," which have enjoyed 
 an almost unparalleled popularity. Soon after that date 
 he made a tour in Germany, Italv, etc., of which he 
 wrote a Journal. He often visited Paris, in order to 
 perform his duties as gentleman of the. king's chamber. 
 From 1581 to 1585 he was mayor of Bordeaux. During 
 the civil war of the League his impartial moderation did 
 not exempt him from danger and nersecntion. He died 
 in September, 1592. "The Essays of Montaigne," says 
 Hallam, "make in several respects an epoch in litera- 
 ture, less on account of their real importance than of 
 their influence on the taste and opinions of Europe. . . . 
 No prose writer of the sixteenth century has been so 
 generally read, nor, probablv, given so much delight. 
 Whatever may be our estimate of Montaigne as a phi- 
 losopher, — a name which he was far from arrogating, — 
 there will be but one opinion of the felicity and bright- 
 ness of his genius." ("Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe.") "The author of these 'Essais,'" says Leo 
 Joubert, "is certainly the most independent spirit that 
 ever existed, — independent without revolt, and detached 
 from the systems of others without having any system 
 of his own. . . . We recognize in his ' Kssays' a nature 
 well endowed, not heroic, perhaps, but cenerous, exqui- 
 sitely sensible, not aspiring to the sublime, capable of 
 devotion, and incapable of a base act, — in fine, a model 
 of what we may call average virtue," (la rertu mflyenne.) 
 (" Nouvelle Biographie Generale.") Sprightly humour, 
 independence, naivete 1 , and originality are the character- 
 istics of his mind ; and his style is admired for its graceful 
 simplicity. His works are highly seasoned with his own 
 individuality, and afford much insight into his character. 
 
 "The Essays," says Emerson, "are an entertaining 
 soliloquy on every random topic that comes into his 
 head, — treating everything without ceremonv, yet with 
 masculine sense. There have been men .with deeper 
 insight, but, one would say, never a man with such 
 abundance of thoughts : he is never dull, never insin- 
 cere, and has the genius to make the reader care for all 
 that he cares for. . . . This bpok of Montaigne the 
 world has endorsed by translating it into all tongues 
 and printing seventy-five editions of it in Europe, — and 
 that, too, a circulation somewhat chosen, namely, among 
 courtiers, soldiers, princes, men of the world, and men 
 of wit and generosity." (See article " Montaigne," in 
 " Representative Men.") 
 
 See J. ItouutHR. " M^moires sur la Vie de Montaigne ;" Vit.t.E- 
 main, " E*!oge de Montaigne." 1813; Payrn. "Notice sur Mon- 
 taigne." 1837; OrOn, "La Vie publique de M. Montaigne," 1855; 
 Ravi.e Saint John, " Montaigne the Essayist." i*=;s : I)k Thou, 
 "Historiastti Temporis;" Sainte-Heuvr. "Causeries du Lundi ;" 
 Victorin Fabre, " Fjoge de Montaigne." 1.813: "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale >" Mrs. Shei.i.pv, "Lives of the Most Eminent 
 French Writers ;" "Retrospective Review." vol. ii.,(t8so;) " London 
 Quarterly Review" for October, 1856; "Westminster Review" for 
 July, 1838. 
 
 Montalbani, mon-tal-ba'nee, (Ovidio,) an Italian 
 naturalist, born at Bologna about 1602, became succes- 
 sively professor of physical science, mathematics, and 
 medicine in the university of his native city. He pub- 
 lished a number of scientific works under the pseudonym 
 of Bumai.di. Thunberg gave the name of Bumaldia to 
 a genus of Japanese plants. Died in 1671. 
 
 See Ghk.ini, "Teatro d'Uomini letterati;" Nic^ron, " M^- 
 moires." 
 
 Montalembert, (Andre.) See Essfi. 
 
 Montalembert, de, deh moN'tS'lfiN'baiR', (Chari.es 
 Forhes,) Comte, a distinguished statesman, orator, and 
 political writer, of French extraction, born in London 
 in 1810, was a son of Marc Rene Anne Marie, noticed 
 below. His mother was Miss Forbes, a Scottish lady. 
 
 i, e, I, 0, ti, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, 6, 1, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MONTALEMBERT 
 
 1613 
 
 MONTAUSIER 
 
 He studied in Pan's, and in 1830 became associated with 
 Lainennais and Lacordaire as editor of " L'Avenir," in 
 which post he was conspicuous as an eloquent champion 
 of democracy and the Catholic Church. He entered the 
 Chandler of Peers in 1831, and married, in 1843, Made- 
 moiselle de Merode, a Belgian lady. Devoted to the 
 Liberal Catholic party, of which he was regarded as the 
 most eminent leader, he was an earnest advocate of re- 
 ligious toleration, popular rights, and general education. 
 Ho wis a meml.fr of the Constituent Assembly in 1S48, 
 and in 1840 was elected to the Legislative Assembly, in 
 which he opposed Victor Hugo in several brilliant efforts 
 of oratory, especially during the debate on the revision 
 of the constitution, in June, 1851. He was elected to 
 the French Academy in 1852, and was a member of the 
 legislative body from 1852 to 1857, during which period 
 he represented the opposition almost alone. In 1858 he 
 was condemned to a fine, and imprisonment for six 
 months, for a political essay entitled "A Debate on India 
 in the English Parliament;" but the penalties were not 
 actually inflicted. He published, among other works, a 
 "History of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary," (1836,) "On 
 Vandalism and Catholicism in Art," (1839,) "The Po- 
 litical Future of England," (1855,) "The Monks of the 
 West, from Saint Benedict to Saint Bernard," (i860,) and 
 "The Free Church in the Free State," ("L'Eglise libre 
 dans l'Etat libre," 1863.) He sympathized with the 
 Unionists in the American civil war. In a letter to an 
 English friend, dated December, 1869, he wrote, "Tem- 
 poral despotism has faded away in a most unexpected 
 manner ; and I sincerely hope spiritual despotism will 
 follow, sooner or later. ... I am more convinced than 
 ever that freedom in the sphere of religion, still more 
 than in that of politics, is the vital condition of truth." 
 A great sensation was produced by his letter dated Feb- 
 ruary 28, 1870, in which he protested — almost with his 
 latest breath — against the dogma of papal infallibility, 
 and those ultramontanes " who have immolated justice 
 and truth, reason and history, in one great holocaust 
 to the idol they have raised up for themselves at the 
 Vatican." Died in March, 1870. 
 
 See I. DK Lomrnir. "M. rle Montalembert. par itn Homme de 
 Rien," 1S41 ; Sainte-Bruvb, " Causeries du Litncti :" Nkttrment, 
 " Hi-it- lire 'tela Litterature Francaise ;" " Nou'vel'e Biosraphie G^n£- 
 rale;" "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1R56, and July, 1861 ; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1861 ; " British Quarterly Re- 
 view" for JulYj ts6S; "North British Review" for August, 186:: 
 and an interesting article on Montalembert in " Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for April, 1870. 
 
 Montalembert, de, (Marc Ren4.) Marquis, a 
 French general and distinguished military engineer, 
 born at Angouleme in 1714. Mis family was noble, and 
 had produced several distinguished captains. He entered 
 the army in 1732, and was admitted into the Academy 
 of Sciences in 1747. In the Seven Years' war (1756-63) 
 he was attached to the staff of the Russian and Swedish 
 armies, of whose operations he rendered an official ac- 
 count to the French ministry. He published in 1776 an 
 extensive and important work, named " Perpendicular 
 Fortification, or the Defensive Art superior to the Offen- 
 sive," (II vols.) He wrote several memoirs inserted in 
 the "Collection" of the Academy, and other works, in 
 prose and verse. Died in 1800. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Rio^raphie Generate ;" " filoge bistorique du 
 General Montalembert," 1801. 
 
 Montalembert, de, (Marc Ren£ Annf. Marif.,) 
 CoMTK, a French nobleman, born in Paris in 1777, emi- 
 grated in 1792. From 1800 to 1814 he served in the Eng- 
 lish army, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. 
 He returned to Fiance in 1814, and in 1819 was created 
 a peer of France. Soon after that date he was appointed 
 minister to Denmark, but, having offended the ministers 
 by a li!>eral speech in the Chamber, he was deprived of 
 that post. From 1826 to the revolution of 1830 he was 
 minister from France to the court of Sweden. Died in 
 1831. His eldest son, Charles Forbes, noticed above, 
 was an eminent orator. 
 
 See De Cocrcellrs, " GeWalogie de la Maison de Montalem- 
 bert." 
 
 Montalivet, de, deh m6N'ti'Ie'v&', (Jean Pierre 
 Bachasson — bi'shi'soN',) Comte, a French states- 
 man, born near Sarreguemines in 1766. He was made 
 
 councillor of state in 1805, and minister of the interior in 
 1809. He entered the Chamber of Peers under the 
 ministry of Decazes, in 1819. Died in 1823. 
 
 Montalivet, de, (Marthe Camille Bachasson,) 
 Comte, a Fiench minister of state, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Valence in 1801. He became min- 
 ister of the interior in November, 1830, and minister of 
 public instruction in March, 1831. He served as minister 
 of the interior from April, 1837, to March, 1839. 
 
 Montalto. See Danedi, (Giovanni Stefano.) 
 
 Montalvan, de, da mon-tal-van', (Juan Perk/.,) an 
 eminent Spanish dramatist, born at Madrid in 1602, was 
 a friend and disciple of Lope de Vega. Among his best 
 works are the comedies entitled " There is no Life like 
 Honour," ("No hay Vida como la Honra,") "The 
 Lovers of Teruel," ("Los Amantes de Teruel,") and 
 " La Lindona de Galicia." Died in 1638. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" A. F. von 
 Sciiack, " Geschichte der dramatischen Literatur in Spanien." 
 
 Montalvo. See Galvez, (Luis de.) 
 
 Montan. See Montanus. 
 
 Montanari, mon-ta-na'ree, (Geminiano,) an Italian 
 astronomer, born at Modena in 1632, was professor of 
 mathematics at Bologna, and in 1674 filled the chair ot 
 astronomy at Padua. He wrote a number of scientific 
 treatises, and is said to have discovered the method of 
 determining the height of mountains by the barometer. 
 He was a friend of the celebrated Cassini. Died in 1687. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vitas Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Montanelli, mon-tS nel'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 jurist and litterateur, born in Tuscany in 1813, became 
 professor of commercial law at Pisa in 1839. He pub. 
 lished a number of lyric poems and dramatic works. 
 Died in 1862. 
 
 Montano, mon-tS'no, [Lat. Monta'nus,] (Giam- 
 battista,) an Italian physician, of high reputation in his 
 time, born at Verona in 1488. He was for many years 
 professor of medicine at Padua, and published a number 
 of medical works in Latin. Died in 1551. 
 
 See TiRAnoscm, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Montano, mon-ta'no, (Reginald Gonsalvo,) a 
 Spanish Protestant of the sixteenth century, was an 
 intimate friend of the Protestant martyr Juan Ponce 
 de Leon. He published an account of the Inquisition, 
 said to be the earliest on record. 
 
 Montanus. See Arias Montanus. 
 
 Montanus. See Montano, (Giamhattista.) 
 
 Mon-ta'nus, [Fr. Montan, m6.N't0N',| the founder 
 of the sect of Montanists, was a native of Phrygia, and 
 flourished in the second century. He pretended to be 
 divinely inspired, and that he was commissioned to com- 
 plete the reformation which the Saviour had begun on 
 earth. Among those who embraced this delusion were 
 Tertullian and Theodotus. 
 
 See Euserius, " Ecclesiastical History ;" Pluquet, " Diction- 
 naire des He're'sies." 
 
 Montarroyo, de, da mon-t.lr-ro'yo, (Joz£ Freire,) 
 a Portuguese writer, born in Lisbon in 1670. He pub- 
 lished several historical works, and commenced an annual 
 compilation, entitled " Historia annual do Mundo das 
 Gazetas de Lisboa," (1714-58.) Died in 1730. 
 
 Montauban, m6N'to'bftN', a famous French captain 
 of buccaneers, was born about 1650. He inflicted great 
 damage on the Spaniards on the coasts of America, 
 Died in 1700. 
 
 Montausier, de, deh mAN'to'ze-i', (Chari.es de 
 Sainte-Maure — deh saNt tnoR,) Due, a French noble- 
 man and general, born in Paris in 1610. He was loyal 
 to the king during the civil war of the Fronde. He was 
 appointed by Louis XIV. governor to the dauphin, in 
 1688. In conjunction with Huet, he superintended the 
 editions of the classics called "ad nsnm Delphini," ("for 
 the use of the dauphin.") He was distinguished for the 
 integrity of his character, and is supposed to have been 
 the original of Moliere's "Alceste" in " Le Misanthrope." 
 He died in 1690, and his funeral sermon was preached 
 by Flechier. 
 
 See Petit. " Vie du Due de Montausier," 1720 ; Pugrt nR Saint- 
 Pirrrk, "Hifttoire du Due de Montausier," 1784; Amehi^e Roux, 
 " Montausier, sa Vie et son Temps," i860; " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale." 
 
 €as/6; <;3ss;gliard; gas/; G,H,K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; sass; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 2j.J 
 
MONTAUSIER 
 
 1614 
 
 MONTEMAYOR 
 
 Montausier, de, (Julie Lucine d'Angennes — 
 
 ddN'zhen',) Duchesse, the beautiful and accomplished 
 wife of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1607. She was 
 a daughter of the celebrated Marquise de Rambouillet, 
 (see Rambouillk.t,) and was an ornament of the bril- 
 liant society of authors and wits who met in the H6tel 
 Rambouillet. She was married in 1645 to the Duke 
 of Montausier, who, aided by several poets and artists, 
 had composed the famous "Garland for Julie," ("Guir- 
 lande de Julie.") Died in 1671. 
 
 See A. Roux, "Montausier, sa Vie et son Temps," i860; '* Nou- 
 velle Biographie G^n^rale." 
 
 Montbarey.de, dehm6N'bS'ii', (Alexandre Marie 
 Leonor de Saint-Mauris,) Prince, a French officer, 
 born at Besancon in 1732. He became marechal-de- 
 camp in 1761, and was minister of war from September, 
 1777, till December, 1780. Died in 1796. 
 
 Montbel, de, deli mdN'bel', (Guillaume Isidore 
 Baron,) Comte, a French politician and royalist, born 
 at Toulouse in 1787. He became minister of public 
 instruction under Polignac in August, 1829, minister of 
 the interior in November of that year, and minister of 
 finance in May, 1830. Died in 1861. 
 
 Montbeliard or Montbeillard. See Guenf.au. 
 
 Montboissier, de, deh m6N'bwJ'se-A', (Pierre,) 
 called Pierre le Venerable, a French ecclesiastic and 
 writer, born in Auvergne about 1092. He was chosen 
 abW of Cluny in 1122. A translation of the Koran was 
 made under his auspices. Died in n 56. 
 
 See " Gallia Christiana ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Montbret, de. See Coquebert. 
 
 Montbrun, mds'bRuN', (Alexandre du Puy,) Mar- 
 quis de Saint-Andre, a French general, born in 1600. 
 He entered the French army as colonel in 1638. He 
 declined the baton of marshal, which was offered to him 
 if lie would abjure Protestantism. Died in 1673. 
 
 Montbrun, (Charles du Puy,) a French captain 
 and zealous Protestant, born in the diocese of Gap about 
 1530. He performed several daring exploits in the civil 
 wars. He was captured and executed in 1575. 
 
 See Gttr Allard, "Vie du brave Montbrun," 1675 ; J. C. Mar- 
 tin, " Histoire de Charles Dupuy," 1816. 
 
 Montbrun, (Louis Pierre,) Comte, a French gen- 
 eral, born at Florensac in 1770, served with distinction 
 at Eckmiihl, April, 1809. and at Raab, June, 1809. He 
 was killed at the battle of the Moskwa, September, 1812. 
 
 Montcalm (m6nt-l<am') de Saint-Veraii, de, [Fr. 
 pron. m6.N'ktlm' deh siN vi'roN',] (Louis Joseph,) 
 Marquis, a French general, born near Nimes in 1712. 
 Having previously served in several campaigns in France 
 and the Netherlands, he was sent in 1756 to defend the 
 French colonies in North America. He gained a victory 
 over the English forces commanded by Lord Aber- 
 crombie in 1758, but was defeated by General Wolfe 
 at Quebec, and mortally wounded in the engagement, 
 (I759-) (See Wolfe.) 
 
 See Montgomery Martin, " History of the British Colonies;" 
 Garnhau, " Histoire du Canada." 
 
 Montchal. See Barentin-Montchal. 
 
 Montchal, de, deh moN'shS!', (Charles,) a French 
 prelate, born at Annonay in 1589, was made Archbishop 
 of Toulouse in 1627. He was an accomplished scholar, 
 and a generous patron of literary men, and was the 
 author of "Memoires," (2 vols., 1718.) Died in 1651. 
 
 Montchrestien, de, deh mAN'kRi'te^N', ( Antoine,) 
 a French poet and economist, born at Falaise about 1570. 
 He wrote several dramas, etc. He joined the Protestants 
 in revolt against the king, and was killed in 1621. 
 
 Monteagle, mfint-ee'gel, of Brandon, (Thomas 
 Spuing Rice,) Lord, a distinguished statesman of the 
 Whig party, born at Limerick, Ireland, in 1790. He 
 represented Limerick in Parliament from 1820 to 1832, 
 having been appointed secretary of the treasury in 1830. 
 He was a prominent advocate of the Reform and Test 
 Acts, and other liberal measures. He became chancel- 
 lor of the exchequer in 1835, retired from that office in 
 1839, and was raised to the peerage in the same year. 
 Died in 1866. 
 
 Montebello. See Lannes. 
 
 Montecatino, mon-ti-ka-tee'no, (Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian philosopher, born at Ferrara in 1536, published 
 
 commentaries on the " Politics" and " Physics" of Aris- 
 totle. Died in 1599. *•* 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 Montecuccoli, mon-t&-kook'ko-lee, written also 
 Montecucculi, (Raimondo,) Count, one of the great- 
 est military commanders of his time, was born at Modena, 
 in Italy, in 1608. Having entered the Austrian service, 
 he distinguished himself in the campaign of 1637 against 
 the Swedes ; but he was subsequently defeated by the 
 Swedish general Banner, (1639,) and made prisoner. 
 He was released after two years' captivity, and in 1664 
 gained a signal victory over the Turks at Saint Gothard, 
 for which he was made lieutenant-general. He was sent 
 in 1673 to oppose the celebrated Turenne ; but, although 
 consummate skill was displayed by both generals in 
 their manoeuvres, no decisive battle was fought. Mon- 
 tecucculi regarded this his last campaign as the most 
 glorious of all, since he had encountered Turenne and 
 Conde without being defeated. He died in 1681, leaving 
 a "Treatise on the Art of War," which is highly es- 
 teemed. He was a liberal patron of learning, and was 
 one of the founders of the Academy of Naturalists at 
 Vienna. He had been created by the King of Spain a 
 knight of the golden fleece, and obtained from him the 
 principality of Amalfi. 
 
 See Paradisi, " Elogio del Conte Montecucculi," 1776; Pkzzl, 
 "Lebensbeschreibung Montecucculi's," 1792; "R. Montecucculi's 
 Leben," Leipsic, 1792. 
 
 Montecucculi. See Montecuccoli. 
 
 Montefalconius. See Montfaucon. 
 
 Montefeltro, di, de mon-ta-fSl'tro, (Federigo,) 
 Count, and first Duke of Urbino, was born about 1410. 
 He was distinguished as a patron of learning, and was 
 one of the most learned and eloquent princes of his 
 time. As an ally of Alfonso, King of Naples, he waged 
 war against Sigismund Malatesta about 1456—60. In 
 1467 he was chosen to command the army of Florence, 
 and fought an indecisive battle with the Venetian general 
 Coleoni. Died in 1482. 
 
 See Zuccardi, " Vita di Federigo Ducad'Urbino," 3 vols., 1824; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G&ieVale." 
 
 Montefiore, mon-ti-fe-o'ra, (Sir Moses,) an English 
 Jew, distinguished for his philanthropy, was born about 
 1786. He became sheriff of London about 1837. He 
 performed missions to several foreign countries for the 
 relief of people who were oppressed on account of 
 religion. 
 
 Monteggia, mon-tSd'jS, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian surgeon, born at Laveno in 1762, wrote several 
 treatises, one of which, entitled " Institutes of Surgery," 
 is highly commended by Scarpa. Died in 181 5. 
 
 Montegut, niAN'ta'gu', (Emile,) a French critic and 
 journalist of high reputation, born at Limoges in 1826. 
 He became in 1857 associate editor of the " Revue des 
 Deux Mondes." 
 
 Monteil, mdN'tSI' or moN'tA'ye, (Amans Alexis,) a 
 French historian, born at Rodez in 1769. His princi- 
 pal work is a "History of the French," etc., ("His- 
 toire des Francais des divers Etats," 3d edition, 5 vols., 
 1848,) which the French Academy judged worthy to 
 share the Gobert prize with Augustin Thierry. Died 
 in 1850. 
 
 See " Biographie Universelle," (new edition.) 
 
 Monteith, mon-teeth', or Monteth, (Robert,) a 
 Scottish historian, resided in Paris, and was patronized 
 by Cardinal de Retz. He published, in French, a " His- 
 tory of the Troubles of Great Britain," which was trans- 
 lated into English. Died about 1660. 
 
 Montelupo. See Baccio da Monte-Lupo. 
 
 Montemagno, da, da mon-ta-man'yo, (Buonac- 
 corso,) an Italian poet of the fourteenth century, wrote 
 sonnets which are greatly admired for the elegance and 
 purity of their style. 
 
 Montemayor, de, da mon-ta -mJ-y6R', (Jorge,) a 
 Portuguese poet and novelist, born near Coimbra about 
 1520, was patronized at the court of Philip II. of Spain. 
 His principal work is a pastoral romance entitled " Diana 
 in Love," (" Diana enamorada,") which is written in 
 Spanish. It is praised by Cervantes in his " Don 
 Quixote," and has been many times translated. Mon- 
 temayor is regarded as the founder of the Spanish pas- 
 
 Si e. ', o, li, y, long; k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m Jt; n&t; good; moon ; 
 
MONTEMOLIN 
 
 1615 
 
 MONTEZUMJ 
 
 toral ; and " his prose," says Bouterwek, " has served as 
 a model to all romance-writers of that kind." 
 
 See Bouterwek. " Histoire de la Litterature Espagnole ;" 
 Longfellow, " Ptwts and Poetry of Europe ;" Ticknor, " History 
 of Spanish I.ilerjture ;" "Edinburgh Keview" for July, 1824. 
 
 Montemoliu. See Carlos, or, more fully, Carlos 
 Lwis Maria Fkrnando. 
 
 Montemont, mAN'ti'mAN', (Albert,) a French poet 
 ami writer of books of travel, born at Remiremont in 
 1788. Among his works is '"Letters on Astronomy," in 
 verse and prose, (4 vols., 1823.) Died about 1862. 
 
 Monten, mon'ten, (Dietrich,) a German battle- 
 painter, born at Dusseldorf in 1799. Among his prin- 
 cipal works we may name "The Death of Gustavus 
 Adolphus." Died in 1843. 
 
 Montenanlt. See Monthenaui.t. 
 
 Montepin, de, deh moN ti pit*', (Xavier Aymon,) 
 a French novelist, born in Haute-Saone about 1820. 
 He produced several successful novels, one of which 
 was condemned in a court of law as subversive of good 
 morals. 
 
 Montereau, (Pierre.) See Pierre de Montereau. 
 
 Montesinos, mon-ti-see'n6s, (Fxrnando,) a Spanish 
 histurian, bom at Osuna, wrote a " History of Ancient 
 Peru," which has been translated by Ternaux-Compans 
 into French, under the title of " Memoires historiques 
 de l'ancien Perou," (1849.) Died abotit 1660. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vols. i. and ii. 
 
 Montespan, mon'tes-pan', de, |Fr. pron. deh m6N- 
 tes'p&N', (Francois Athenais de Rochechouart — 
 deh rosh'shoo-aV,) Marquise, a French lady, of extra- 
 ordinary personal beauty, born in 1641, was a daughter 
 of the Due de Mortemart. She was married in 1663 to 
 the Marquis de Montespan. She afterwards succeeded 
 Mademoiselle de la Valliere as mistress of Louis XIV. 
 She bore the king eight children, among whom were the 
 Due de Maine, Louis Cesar, the Comte de Vexin, and 
 the Comte de Toulouse, besides two sons who died 
 young. Died in 1707. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Memoires ;" Madame de SBViGNtt', " Let- 
 ters ;" Voltaire, "Steele de Louis XIV;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^neVale." 
 
 Montesquieu, moN'teVke^h', Baron, a grandson 
 of the following, was born in - 1755. He served as an 
 officer, with distinction, in the United States, (1779-81.) 
 In 1792 he became a royalist emigri. He passed many 
 years in England, where he died about 1824. 
 
 Montesquieu, mfln'tes-ku', de, [ Fr. pron. deh iti6n'- 
 tes'ke-uh',] or, more fully, De la Brede et (deh It bRid 
 i) de Montesquieu, (Charles de Secondat — deh 
 seh-k6.\'di',) Baron, a brilliant, original, and popular 
 French author, was born of a noble family near Bor- 
 deaux on the 18th of January, 1689. In his childhood 
 he formed habits of intense application to study, and 
 became an insatiable reader. He has declared that he 
 never felt a sorrow which an hour's reading would not 
 dissipate or relieve. Having been educated for the law, 
 he became a conseiller, or judge, in the parliament of 
 Bordeaux in 1714, and president A mortier of the same in 
 1716. The favourite studies of his mature powers were 
 historical and mora! sciences. 
 
 In 1721 he acquired a rather sudden celebrity by his 
 " Persian Letters," a work which combines the attractions 
 of romance with the resources of rational philosophy, 
 and presents profound and luminous views of commerce, 
 law, and social phenomena. Its prodigious success was 
 due partly to its spirited, keen, and witty satire on French 
 manners, and its brilliant, piquant style, full of happy 
 reticences and unexpected contrasts. In 1726 he sold 
 his office of president, and in 1728 was admitted into 
 the French Academy. He then began a journey, in 
 which he visited nearly all the countries of Europe. He 
 passed two years in England, and was chosen a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society. In 1734 he produced an admired 
 work, "Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur 
 and Decadence of the Romans," the most complete 
 essay that had appeared on that subject. He afterwards 
 devoted fourteen years to the composition of his greatest 
 work, "The Spirit of Laws," ("L'Esprit des Lois, 1748,) 
 which excited almost universal admiration. In eighteen 
 months it ran through twenty-two editions. In this 
 arduous enterprise of exploring the labyrinths of history 
 
 and political science he was in advance of his age as an 
 advocate of liberty and humanity. In reference to this 
 work, Voltaire said, " The human race had lost its titles; 
 Montesquieu found and restored them." He died in 
 Paris in February, 1755. He had married Mademoiselle 
 de Lartigues in 1715. His personal character was in a 
 high degree amiable and estimable. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV et Louis XV;" D'Alem- 
 BERT, "Eloge de Montesquieu ;" Villhmain, " Eloge de Montes- 
 quieu," 1826; Francois Riaux, "Notice sur Montesquieu," 1849; 
 Maupertuis, " Eluge de Montesquieu," 1755; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GeneVale." 
 
 Montesquiou, de, deh m6N'teVke-oo', (Pierre,) 
 Comte d'Artagnan, a French general, born at the chateau 
 of Armagnac in 1645. He commanded the right wing 
 at the battle of Malplaquet, (1709,) soon after which lie 
 became a marshal of France. Died in 1 7 2 S- 
 
 Montesquiou-Fezensac, de, deh moN'tes'ke-oo' 
 feh'zflN'zik', (Ambroise Anatole Augustin,) Count, 
 a French general and poet, born in Paris in 1788, was a 
 grandson of Anne Pierre, noticed below. 
 
 Montesquiou-Fezensac, de, (Anne Pierre,) 
 Marquis, a French general and writer, born in Paris in 
 1739. He was admitted to the French Academy in 1784, 
 and supported the popular cause in the Revolution. He 
 commanded the army which conquered Savoy in 1792. 
 Died in 1798. 
 
 See " Histoire de la Maison Montesquiou," Paris, 1847. 
 
 Montesquiou-Fezensac, de, (Francois Xavier 
 Marc Antoine,) Abbe, a French ecclesiastic, born near 
 Audi in 1757. He was a deputy from the clergy of Paris 
 to the States-General in 1789, and was twice elected 
 president of the National Assembly. During the reign 
 of terror he took refuge in England, and, after the second 
 restoration, was made a duke, and received the title of 
 minister of state. Died in 1832. 
 
 See GutzoT, "Memoires." 
 
 Montesson, de, deh moN'ti'soN', (Charlotte 
 Jeanne Beraud — ba'ro',) Marquise, born in Paris in 
 1737, was married in 1773 to Louis Philippe, Duke of 
 Orleans. She was the author of numerous poems and 
 dramas. Died in 1806. 
 
 Monteth. See Monteith, (Robert.) 
 
 Monteverde, mon-ta-veVda, (Claudio,) a celebrated 
 Italian composer, born at Cremona about 1565. He 
 introduced several great improvements into the science 
 of music, one of which was the employment of double 
 discords. His works include sacred music, operas, and 
 madrigals. The last-named are especially admired. In 
 1613 he was appointed chapel-master of Saint Mark, at 
 Venice. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universale des Musiciens." 
 
 Montez. See Lola Montez. 
 
 Mon-te-zu'ma I., called also Moctheuzoma, Aztec 
 emperor of Mexico, ascended the throne about 1437. 
 Before this event he had been an eminent general. He 
 extended the boundaries of his dominions by the con- 
 quest of several adjacent nations. He was a powerful 
 and despotic monarch, and multiplied human sacrifices. 
 Died about 1470. 
 
 Montezuma II, the last Aztec emperor of Mexico, 
 was born about 1470. He was elected sovereign in 1502 
 for his superior merit as a warrior and a priest. When 
 his election was announced to him, he was in the act of 
 sweeping the stairs of the great temple Teocalli. In the 
 former part of his reign he waged war with success 
 against several peoples, and extended the limits of the 
 empire. He offended his subjects by his haughty deport- 
 ment, and oppressed them by the imposition of grievous 
 taxes which were required to support his sumptuous style 
 of living. In 1519 his empire was invaded by Cortez, 
 against whom he employed a temporizing policy. He 
 sent him a magnificent present, but forbade him to ap- 
 proach the capital. "This was to reveal," says Prescott, 
 "both his wealth and his weakness." Cortez entered the 
 city of Mexico, without resistance, in November, 1 5 19, 
 and found a hospitable reception. To secure himself 
 against contingencies, the audacious Spaniard next seized 
 Montezuma and held him as a hostage. His captors 
 tried to convert him to the Roman Catholic religion, 
 but without success. In compliance with the demand 
 
 k. as k : c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (J^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MONTFAUCON 
 
 1616 
 
 MONTGOMERT 
 
 of Cctez, he formally recognized the supremacy of the 
 emperor Charles V., to whom he sent an immense quan- 
 tity of gold as tribute. In May, 1520, Cortez absented 
 himself from the capital to fight his rival Narvaez, and 
 during his absence the Mexicans revolted against the 
 Spaniards. Montezuma was persuaded or compelled by 
 Cortez to address his subjects and try to appease the 
 tumult. He was assailed with missiles by the insur- 
 gents, was wounded, and died in June, 1520. "Stately 
 and decorous," says Prescott, "he was careful of his 
 own dignity, and might be said to be as great an 'actor 
 of majesty among the barbarian potentates of the New 
 World as Louis XIV. was among the polished princes 
 of Europe. . . . Montezuma's amiable and inoffensive 
 manners, together with his liberality, — the most popular 
 of virtues with the vulgar, — made him generally beloved 
 by the Spaniards." 
 
 See \V. H. Prrscott, "History of the Conquest of Mexico;" 
 Bernai. Diaz, " Historic de la Conquista de la Nueva Espafia :" 
 Ovieuo, " Historia de las Indias;" Clavigero, "Storia antico del 
 Messico, " 1780. 
 
 Montfaucon, de, deh m6N'fo'koN', [Lat. Montefal- 
 Co'nius,] (Hkrnakd,) an eminent French antiquary and 
 philologist, born in Languedoc in 1655, was a member 
 of the congregation of Benedictines of Saint- Maur. 
 Having visited Italy in 1698, he published, after his re- 
 turn, his " Diarium Italicum," an account of the libra- 
 ries of Italy, "Palaeographia Grseca," a treatise on the 
 origin and progress of Greek letters, " Antiquity Ex- 
 plained and Represented in Figures," (10 vols, fob, 1 7 19, 
 in French and Latin,) and "The Monuments of the 
 French Monarchy," (5 vols., 1 729.) He also published 
 excellent editions of Saint Chrysostom and other Greek 
 writers. He was a member of the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions. Died in 1 741. 
 
 See D. Tassin, "Histoire litteVaire de la Congregation de Saint- 
 Maur." 
 
 Montferrat, de, (Conrad.) See Conrad, Marquis 
 of Tyre. 
 
 Montferrat, de, deh mdN'fis'rt', (Boniface,) Mar- 
 quis, was a brother of Conrad, King of Jerusalem. He 
 became King of Thessalonica in 1183, and was chosen 
 the chief of the fifth or fourth crusade in 1202. He 
 was an able commander, and contributed greatly to the 
 conquest of Constantinople in 1204. Died in 1207. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Montferrat, de, (Guillaume,) Marquis, called 
 the Great, was born in 1243, and began to reign in 
 1254. He was a turbulent prince and continually en- 
 gaged in war with the neighbouring states. He married 
 Beatrix, a daughter of Alfonso X. of Castile, in 127 1. 
 Having been taken prisoner in 1290, he was confined in 
 an iron cage, and died in 1292. 
 
 Montferrier, de, deh mdN'fi're-a/, (Alexandre 
 Andre Victor Sarrazin,) a French mathematician, 
 born in Paris in 1 792. He published, besides other 
 works, a " Dictionary of Mathematical Sciences, Pure 
 and Applied," (3 vols., 1834-40.) 
 
 Montfleury, de, deh miN'fluh're', (Jean Le Petit,) 
 a French poet, born at Caen in 1698 ; died in 1777. 
 
 Montfort, Count de. See John, Duke of Brittany. 
 
 Montfort, m&nt'fort, de, [Fr. pron. d?h m6N'foR',] 
 (Simon,) Count, a French nobleman and military com- 
 mander, born about 1 150, was conspicuous for his courage 
 and for his cruelty in the wars against the Albigenses, 
 (1208.) He was killed while besieging Toulouse, in 1218. 
 
 Montfort, de, (Simon,) a son of the preceding, ob- 
 tained at an early age the patronage of Henry HI. of 
 England, who made him Earl of Leicester arid gave to 
 him in marriage his sister, the Countess of Pembroke. 
 He was afterwards- appointed lieutenant-general in 
 Gascony. In 1258, a rupture having occurred between 
 Henry and his barons, the latter, headed by Montfort, 
 compelled the king to consent to the regulations called 
 the Provisions of Oxford, which threw the legislative and 
 executive power into the hands of twenty-four barons. 
 In 1264 a battle took place at Lewes, in Sussex, in which 
 the royalists were defeated and the king taken prisoner. 
 Montfort summoned a Parliament in 1265, in which, in 
 addition to the two knights returned from every shire, 
 representatives were sent from the boroughs ; and in this 
 
 way was founded the English House of Commons. In 
 the battle of Evesham, the same year, Montfort was de- 
 feated and slain by the royal troops under Prince Edward. 
 See R. Paui.li, "Life of Simon de Montfort;" Hume, "His- 
 tory of England ;" " London Quarterly Review" for Januaiy. 1S66. 
 
 Montgaillard, m6N'gS'yfK', (Guillaume Honore 
 Roquks,) a historian, born near Toulouse in 1772. He 
 wrote a "Chronological Review of the History of France, 
 etc., 1 787—1818," (1820,) which was once popular. Died 
 in 1825. 
 
 Montgaillard, (Jean Gauriel Maurice Roques,) 
 a French adventurer and political writer, a brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Toulouse in 1761. He was 
 employed as a secret agent by the Bourbons and by 
 their enemies. He published a "Memoir concerning 
 the Treason of Pichegru," etc., and several other works. 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 Montgelas, m6N-'zheh-la', (Maximilian Joseph.) 
 Count, a German statesman, of Savoyard extraction, 
 born at Munich in 1759, was appointed minister of 
 foreign affairs in 1799, minister of the interior in 1806, 
 and minister of finance in 1809. Died in 1838. 
 
 Moutgolfier, mont-g6l'fe-er, [Fr. pron. m^N'gol'- 
 fe-a',] (Jacques Etienne,) an ingenious Frenchman, who 
 invented the air-balloon, was born at or near Annonay 
 (Ardeche) in 1745. After studying mathematics with 
 success at Paris, he became an architect. At the request 
 of his father, he quitted that profession in order to take 
 charge of the paper-manufactory at Annonay. He in- 
 vented new machines and more simple. processes in this 
 art. On reading Priestley's treatise " On Different Kinds 
 of Air," he conceived the possibility of aerial navigation, 
 and imparted the idea to his brother Joseph, who was as 
 another self. Acting in concert and community, they 
 contrived the means of realizing this project. After 
 trying hydrogen gas and other fluids, they made the first 
 public experiment at Annonay in June, 1783, and sent 
 up a balloon about thirty-seven French feet in diameter, 
 inflated with air rarefied by heat. This successful ex- 
 periment made a great sensation, and was soon repeated 
 at Paris. The brothers were admitted into the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences. Their balloons were called Montgol- 
 fiires. The first who successfully used hydrogen gas in 
 balloons was M. Charles. Moutgolfier died in 1799. (See 
 Charles, Jacques Alexandre.) 
 
 See C. L. Brightwell, " Annals of Industry and Genius," 
 London, 1863. 
 
 Montgolfier, (Joseph Michel,) an ingenious French 
 mechanician, born at Annonay in 1740, was one of the 
 inventors of the air-balloon. In his youth he assisted 
 his father, who was a successful manufacturer of paper. 
 In partnership with a brother, he carried on the same 
 business at Voiron and Beaujeu. He had made several 
 improvements in the fabrication of paper before his 
 aerostatic experiments blazoned his name throughout 
 Europe. (See the preceding article.) About 1792 he 
 made a valuable improvement in the hydraulic ram. 
 He also invented a hydraulic press and other mechanical 
 instruments. He was a member of the Institute of 
 France. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Dei.ambre, " £lose de Joseph Montgolfier." 
 
 Moutgoraerie, (Archihai.d William.) See Eglin- 
 
 TON. 
 
 Montgomery, mont-gum'e-re, (Alexander,) a Scot- 
 tish poet under the reign of James VI., was the author 
 of an allegorical piece entitled "The Cherry and the 
 Slae." Died about 1610. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionaryof Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Montgomery, niQnt-gtim'e-re, (George Washing- 
 ton,) a native of Spain, settled in America, where he 
 published "Bernardo del Carpio," a historical romance, 
 and translated into Spanish Irving's "Conquest of 
 Granada." Died in 1841. 
 
 Montgomery, (Sir James,) a Scottish politician, and 
 a chief of the Covenanters. He was appointed lord 
 justice clerk in 1689. "In parliamentary ability and 
 eloquence," says Macaulay, "he had no superior among 
 his countrymen except Sir John Dalrymple." He was 
 turbulent and perfidious. In 1690 he joined the Jacob- 
 ites in plotting against William III. 
 
 See Macaui.ay, " History of England," vol. Hi. 
 
 i, e, T, 5, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ft, Jf, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
MONTGOMER Y 
 
 1617 
 
 MONTIGNY 
 
 Montgomery, (James,) a distinguished poet, born in 
 Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1771, was the son of a Moravian 
 preacher. He was sent at an early age to the Moravian 
 school at Fulneck, in Yorkshire, where his progress was 
 not very satisfactory to his teachers, as he spent the 
 greater part of his time in reading and writing poetry, 
 which was prohibited by the rules of the school. After 
 leaving Fulneck, he resided for a time, as shopman in a 
 book -store, in London, and in 1792 began to contribute 
 political articles to the "Sheffield Register," edited by 
 Mr. Joseph Gales. He founded in 1794 a reform jour- 
 nal, called the "Sheffield Iris," of which he was editor 
 about thirty years. Several of his articles having been 
 denounced as revolutionary, he was twice fined and 
 imprisoned. He published in 1806 his "Wanderer of 
 Switzerland," which was followed by "The West Indies," 
 (1809,) "The World before the Flood," (1812,) and "The 
 Pelican Island," (1S27.) These poems are distinguished 
 for depth and tenderness of feeling, elevated moral 
 sentiment, and graceful description. He also wrote a 
 number of hymns of great beauty, which enjoy exten- 
 sive popularity. One of Mr. Montgomery's last works 
 was a " History of Missionary Enterprise in the South 
 Seas," (1830.) Died in 1854. 
 
 See "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of James Montgomery," by J. 
 Holland and James Everett: "Lite of Montgomery," by Mrs. 
 H. C Knight: Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen," (Supplement :) " London Quarterly Review" for Decem- 
 ber, 1S11 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" tor October, 1827; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for July, tt*33, and October, 1856. 
 
 Montgomery, (Richard,) a distinguished general, 
 born in Ireland in 1737, served in Canada under Wolfe, 
 and subsequently entered the American army. Being 
 appointed commander of the forces in the Northern 
 department, he took Fort Chambly and Montreal. He 
 was killed in December, 1775, in an assault upon Quebec. 
 
 See " Life of Richard Montgomery," by John Armstrong, in 
 Sparks's "American Biography." vol. i., first series; "National 
 Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. 
 
 Montgomery, mont-gum'e-re, (Robert,) an English 
 divine and poet, born at Bath in 1807. He was the 
 author of a poem entitled "The Omnipresence of the 
 Deity," (1828,) which had great temporary success, eight 
 editions being sold in as many months. He became in 
 1843 pastor of Percy Street Chapel, London. The extra- 
 ordinary success of his poetry was chiefly to be ascribed 
 to the nature of his subject and the favour of a large 
 portion of the religious community. Died in 1855. 
 
 See Macaulay, in the "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1830; 
 "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. xvii. ; "New 
 Spirit of the Age," by R. H. Hornr. 
 
 Montgomery, (William R.,) an American officer, 
 born in New Jersey, served in the Mexican war, became 
 brigadier-general of volunteers in the Union army in 
 1861, and military commandant of Philadelphia in 1862. 
 
 Montgomery, mont-gum'e-re, de, | Fr. pron. deh 
 mfiN'gom're',] (Gabriel,) a French nobleman, of Scot- 
 tish extraction, born about 1530. Being present at a 
 tournament given by Henry II. on the occasion of his 
 daughter's marriage with the King of Spain, Montgomery 
 was summoned by the French king to break a lance with 
 him. He complied reluctantly, and had the misfortune 
 to inflict a mortal wound on his antagonist. He subse- 
 quently went to ringland, where he became a Protestant, 
 and, after his return to France in 1562, distinguished 
 himself as a leader of the Huguenots in the civil war of 
 the time. Being made prisoner by Marshal Matignon 
 at the siege of Saint-Lo, in 1574, he was condemned to 
 death and executed, by order of Catherine de Medicis. 
 "The queen," says Sismondi, "had no great affection 
 for Henry II., or cause to regret him ; but she wished 
 that a man should not be considered innocent after 
 having, even by accident, caused the death of a king." 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais;" Brantome, "Capi- 
 taines i] lustres." 
 
 Montgon, de, deh m6N'gA.N', (Charles Alexandre,) 
 a French priest, born at Versailles in 1690. He entered 
 the service of Philip V. of Spain, who sent him on a 
 secret mission to the court of Paris. He published 
 "Diplomatic Memoirs," (5 vols., 1742.I Died in 1770. 
 
 Monthenault or Montenault d'figly, m6N'teh'r.6' 
 di'gle', (Charles Philippe,) a French writer, born in 
 
 Paris in 1696. His chief work is a "History of the 
 French Kings of the Two Sicilies," (4 vols., 1741.) Died 
 in 1749. 
 
 Monthion, de, deh miN'te'AN', (Francois Gedeon 
 Baili.y,) Comte, a French general, born in the Isle of 
 Bourbon in 1 776 ; died in 1850. 
 
 Montholon, de, deh moN'to'16N', (Charles Tris- 
 tan,) Marquis, a French general, born in Paris in 1782. 
 He entered the army in 1798, and accompanied Napo- 
 leon in the subsequent campaigns in Italy, Austria, and 
 Prussia. He was sent in 181 1 on an important embassy 
 to the archduke Ferdinand at Wurzburg, and in 1814 
 was made general of brigade. He shared the emperor's 
 exile at Saint Helena, and served him with unwearied 
 fidelity till his death, being appointed by him executor 
 of his will and keeper of part of his manuscripts. After 
 his return to France, Montholon published, in conjunc- 
 tion with General Gourgaud, "Memoirs towards the 
 History of France under Napoleon, dictated by Himself 
 at Saint Helena," (1823.) He also wrote an "Account 
 of the Captivity of Napoleon at Saint Helena," (1847.) 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 See " Biographie du GeWral Montholon," 1849 : " London Quar 
 terly Review" for March, 1S48. 
 
 Monthyon. See Montvon. 
 
 Monti, mon'tee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Bologna in 16S8; died in 1766. 
 
 Monti, (Giuseppe,) an Italian botanist, born at Bo- 
 logna in 1682. He published several botanical works. 
 Died at Bologna in 1760. 
 
 Monti, (Rafaei.le,) an "Italian sculptor, born at 
 Milan in 1818. Among his master-pieces may be named 
 the " Veiled Vestal," the " Boy catching a Grasshopper," 
 and the " Circassian Slave." He was an active sup- 
 porter of the popular cause in 1847-48, since which he 
 has lived as an exile in London. 
 
 Monti, (Vincenzo,) a celebrated Italian poet, born 
 near Ferrara in 1753. He studied in the university of 
 that city, and began at an early age to write Latin and 
 Italian poems. These compositions obtained for him 
 the notice and patronage of Cardinal Borghese, who took 
 Monti with him to Rome in 1778. He published in 1785 
 his tragedy of " Aristodemo," which was received with 
 great favour. His poem entitled " Bassvilliana," (1793,) 
 suggested by the murder of Hugo de Bassville, envoy of 
 the French republic at Rome, had also great popularity, 
 and passed through eighteen editions in six months. 
 Upon the French invasion in 1796, Monti repaired to 
 Milan, where, accommodating himself to the new order 
 of things, he wrote in favour of the Revolution. Some 
 of his writings, which originally contained bitter in- 
 vectives against Napoleon, were now altered so as 
 to transfer the abuse to the allied sovereigns. On the 
 Russian invasion in 1799 he took refuge for a time in 
 France, and, soon after his return, published his tragedy 
 of "Caio Gracco," "La Mascheroniana," a poem on 
 the death of his friend Mascheroni, and his beautiful 
 and popular hymn beginning " Bell' Italia," etc. Monti 
 became in 1803 professor of eloquence at Pavia, and on 
 the coronation of Napoleon, in 1805, was appointed his 
 historiographer. He filled this office rather as court 
 poet than historian, and lavished a profusion of eulogistic 
 verses on the emperor and his family. He was created 
 by him a chevalier of the legion of honour and of the 
 iron crown, and was chosen a member of the Institute 
 of the kingdom of Italy. Died in 1828. 
 
 See " Notizie sulla Vita e snll'lngegno di Vincenzo Monti," 1828 : 
 Zuccala, " EJogio storico di V. Monti," 182S; Bozoli, " Ragiona- 
 mento deila Vita e delle Opere di V. Monti," 1837 '< " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G^neVale :" Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri;" 
 Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for February, 1826 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 183?. 
 
 Montiano y Luyando, de, da mon-te-a'no e loo 
 yln'do, (Augustin,) a Spanish dramatist, born in 1697"; 
 died in 1759. 
 
 Monticelli, mon-te-chel'lee, (Andrea,) a skilful 
 Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1640, painted land- 
 scapes, flowers, fruits, etc. Died in 1716. 
 
 Montigny, m6N'ten've', (Florence de Montmo- 
 rency — deh m6N'mo'r5N'se',) Lord of, a Flemish 
 nobleman, was ambassador to Spain in 1562. Being 
 sent on a second mission in 1566, he was arrested by 
 
 « as i; c as x; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled; s as t: th as in this. 
 
 IC2 
 
 (Jg^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
M0NTIGN1 
 
 1618 
 
 MONTMORENCY 
 
 order of Philip II., accused of high treason, and exe- 
 cuted in 1570. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Philip II.,'* vol. i. book ii. and vol. 
 ii. book iii. 
 
 Montigny, m6N'ten'ye', (Rose Marie Cizos,) a 
 popular French actress of comedy, known as Rose 
 Ciiekie, was born at F-tampes in 1824. 
 
 Montigny, de, deli mON'ten'ye', (Jean,) a French 
 poet, born in Bretagne in 1637, was a member of the 
 French Academy, and Bishop of Leon. Died in 1671. 
 
 Montjoie, iruWzhwa', (Christoi'He Felix Louis 
 Ventre de la Touloubre,) a French political writer, 
 born at Aix in 1746. He was a royalist in the Revo- 
 lution of 1789-95. He wrote, besides other works, a 
 "History of the Conspiracy of Robespierre," (1796.) 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 Montjosieu, de, deh m6N'zho'ze-uh', (Louis,) a 
 French scholar and writer, born in Rouergue. He visited 
 Rome in 1583. Among his works is "The Frenchman 
 a Guest at Rome," ("Gallus Romse Hospes," 1585.) 
 
 Montlosier, de, deh mdN'lo'ze^A', (Francois DO- 
 MINIQUE Reynaud — ri'no',) Comte, a French journal- 
 ist, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1755. He was a deputy 
 to the States-General in 1789, and was a prominent ad- 
 vocate of the aristocratic party. He repaired to London, 
 where he edited an anti-revolutionary journal called the 
 " Courrier de Londres." On his return to France, 
 during the consulate, he modified or abandoned his roy- 
 alist views. He was also for a time one of the editors 
 of the " Constitutionnel." Having attached himself to 
 the new dynasty on the revolution of July, he was 
 made a peer in 1832. He wrote a work " On the French 
 Monarchy from its Establishment to the Present Time." 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 See Barante, "Notice sur la Vie de M. !e Comte de Montlo- 
 sier," 1842; " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1823. 
 
 Montluc, de, deh mAr/luk', (Blaise de Lasseran- 
 Massencome — deh las'rSN' niS's&N'kom',) Seigneur, 
 a French marshal, born in Gascony in 1501. He fought 
 against the Imperialists commanded by the emperor 
 Charles V., and assisted at the sieges of La Rochelle 
 and Calais. In 1573 he was made a marshal by Henry 
 III. He died in 1577, leaving "Memoirs of his Military 
 Life," (1592,) which were praised by Henry IV. and 
 often reprinted. 
 
 Montluc, de, (Jean,) a bishop, the brother of the 
 preceding, was born about 1508, and was distinguished 
 by the favour of Francis I. and Henry II., who employed 
 him in various embassies. He became Bishop of Valence 
 in 1553. He is said to have been secretly attached to 
 the Reformed religion ; but he retained the favour of 
 Catherine de Medicis. Died in 1579. 
 
 See Brantome, " Capitaines illustres." 
 
 Montluc, de, (Jean,) Seigneur de Balagni, and mar- 
 shal of France, a natural son of the preceding, was 
 born about 1545. After he had fought for the League 
 against Henry IV., he entered the service of the latter, 
 who made him a marshal of France in 1594. Died 
 in 1603. 
 
 Montmaur, de, deh mdN'moR', (Pierre,) a pedantic 
 and witty Frenchman, born in Limousin or Le Quercy 
 about 1564. He was professor of Greek in the College 
 de France, and was notorious as a parasite. Died in 1648. 
 
 See Sai.lengre, " Histoire de P. de Montmaur," 2 vols., 1715. 
 
 Montmorency. See Luxembourg. 
 
 Montmorency or Montmorenci, m5nt-mo-rgn'se, 
 [I'i. pron. moN'nio'r&N'se',] the name of a noble French 
 family, whose celebrity dates as far back as the eleventh 
 century, and which has produced many famous princes, 
 peers, and generals. Among them were six constables 
 and eleven marshals of France. 
 
 Montmorency, de, deh m6N'mo'r6N'se', (Anne,) 
 Due, Constable of France, born at Chantilly in 1493, 
 was the first of his family that received the title of duke. 
 He was made a marshal in 1522, and was taken prisoner 
 at Pavia in 1525. In 1536, by skilful manoeuvres, he 
 defended Provence, which was invaded by Charles V. in 
 person. He was appointed constable in 1538, and was 
 chief minister of Francis I. from that date until 1541, 
 when he fell into disgrace. Henry II. restored him to 
 
 favour and power in 1547. Montmorency was defeated 
 and made prisoner at the battle of Saint-Quentin, in 1557. 
 The death of Henry II., in 1559, was fatal to his am- 
 bitious prospects, and opened the way for the accession 
 to power of his rival the Due de Guise. He fought for 
 the Catholic party in the civil war, and in 1562 com- 
 manded at Dreux, where he gained the victory, but 
 was made prisoner. He was mortally wounded at the 
 battle of Saint-Denis, in 1567. He has been censured 
 for austerity and excessive rigour, but had several great 
 qualities. 
 
 See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" Brant6me, " Vies des 
 Homines illustres ;" Lesconvei., "Anne de Montmorency," 1606; 
 Davm.a, " History of the Civil Wars of France ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge"ne>ale ;" Tavannes, " M^moires ;" Robertson, " His- 
 tory of Charles V.," vols. ii. and iii. 
 
 Montmorency, de, (Charles,) a French general, 
 who became a marshal of France in 1343. He fought 
 against the English at Crecy in 1346. Died in 1381. 
 
 Montmorency, de, (Charlotte Marguerite,) a 
 French lady, born in 1594, was the sister of Duke Henri 
 II. de Montmorency. She was married to Henri, Prince 
 de Conde\ about 1609. Her beauty made such an im- 
 pression on the king, Henry IV., that her husband was 
 alarmed, and conducted her to a foreign country. She 
 was the mother of the great Conde, of the Prince of 
 Conti, and of the Duchess of Longueville. Died in 1650. 
 
 See Bazin, "Histoirede Louis XIII ;" L'Estoile, "Memoires," 
 etc. 
 
 Montmorency, de, (Henry I.,) Due, the second 
 son of Anne, noticed above, was styled Comte de 
 Damvii.i.e in his youth. He was a cousin of Admiral 
 Coligni. At the battle of Dreux, in 1562, he took the 
 Prince of Conde prisoner, and in 1566 obtained a mar- 
 shal's baton* He rendered important services to Henry 
 IV., who appointed him Constable of France in 1593. 
 Died in 1614. It is stated that a mutual passion was 
 felt by him and Mary Queen of Scots, whom he fol- 
 lowed to Scotland in 1561. 
 
 Montmorency, de, (Henri II.,) Due, a son of the 
 preceding, was born at Chantilly in 1595. His valour, 
 generosity, and name rendered him a great favourite with 
 the court, the army, and the people. He commanded 
 for Louis XIII. in the civil war against the Huguenots 
 which began about 1620, and defeated the Due de 
 Rohan in 1628. For his victory over the Imperialists at 
 Veillane, in 1629, he was made a marshal. Seduced by 
 Gaston, a brother of Louis XIII. and heir-presumptive 
 to the throne, and incited by enmity to Richelieu, he took 
 arms against the government, and encountered the royal 
 army at Castelnaudary in 1632. With too impetuous 
 valour, he exposed himself at the head of his army, was 
 wounded, and made prisoner. He was tried for treason, 
 and beheaded in October, 1632. He left no issue, and 
 the first ducal branch of the Montmorencies then became 
 extinct. His sister was the mother of the great Prince 
 de Conde and of the Duchesse de Longueville. 
 
 See Desormeaux, " Histoire de la Maison de Montmorency." 
 
 Montmorency, de, (Mathieu I.,) was appointed 
 Constable of France about 1 130, and was the most pow- 
 erful French seigneur of his time. He married first 
 Aline, daughter of Henry I. of England, and secondly 
 Alix or Adelaide, the widow of Louis le Gros and 
 mother of Louis VII. of France. He died in 1160, 
 leaving several children by his first wife. 
 
 See Desormeaux, " Histoire de la Maison de Montmorency." 
 
 Montmorency, de, (Mathieu II.,) surnamed le 
 Grand, a grandson of the preceding, was born about 
 1 1 74. He contributed greatly to the victory of the 
 French at Bouvines, in 1214. In 1218 he obtained the 
 office of constable, which his talents and merits raised 
 to be the highest office of the kingdom. The Constable 
 of France was thenceforth ex officio commander-in-chief 
 of the army. He had great influence in the reign of 
 Louis VIII. and in that of his successor. He was nearly 
 related to two emperors and six kings. His grand- 
 daughter married Louis de Bourbon, a great-great- 
 grandfather of Henry IV. Died in 1230. 
 
 See Desormeaux, " Histoire de la Maison de Montmorency." 
 
 Montmorency, de, ( Mathieu Jean Fei.icitb 
 de Montmorency-Laval — deh mdN'mo'rdN'se' 1S'- 
 
 , 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
MONTMORIN 
 
 1 6 1 9 
 
 MONTTON 
 
 vtl',) Die, a French statesman, born in Paris ill 1 766, 
 was a friend of La Fayette, in company with whom he 
 served in the war of American Independence. He was 
 a deputy to the States-General in 1789, and was 'an ad- 
 vocate of liberal reform. On the restoration he became 
 a zealous royalist, and was made a peer by Louis XVIII. 
 He was appointed minister of foreign affairs in 1821, 
 president of the cabinet, and governor to the Duke of 
 Bordeaux in 1823. He was also a member of the French 
 Academy. Died in 1826. 
 
 See De Gerando, " Eloge de M. de Montmorency," 1826; Cha- 
 teaubriand, "Memotres d Outre- Tombe;" Vbtillard, "Notice 
 sur la Vie de M. le Due de Montmorency," 1826. 
 
 Montmorin Saint-Herem, de, deh mdN'mo'raN'' 
 sa.N-//a'ioN', (ARMAND Marc,) Comte, a French states- 
 man, bom about 1745. He succeeded Count Vergennes 
 as minister of foreign affairs in 1787, and became min- 
 ister of the interior in 1791. He was condemned to 
 death by the Revolutionary Tribunal, and executed in 
 September, 1792. 
 
 See Dkoz. "Histoire de Louis XVI;" Lamartine, "History 
 of the Girondists." 
 
 Moutmort, de, deh moN'moR', (Pierre Remond,) 
 a French mathematician, born in Paris in 1678, was a 
 pupil of Malebranche. He was the author of a popular 
 work entitled "Analytical Essay on Games of Chance." 
 He was a member of the French Academy of Sciences, 
 and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. He con- 
 tributed to the " Philosophical Transactions" of that 
 institution a valuable essay "On Infinite Series." Died 
 in 1719. 
 
 See Fontenei.le, " E"loges des Acade*miciens." 
 
 Montolieu, de, deh m6N'to'le-uh', (Jeanne Isahei.i.e 
 Pauline Polier de Bottens — po'le-A' deh bo'tftN',) 
 Dame de Crousaz and Baronne, a Swiss novelist, born 
 at Lausanne in 1751 ; died in 1832. 
 
 Montorfano, mon-toR'fa-no, (Giovanni Donato,) 
 an Italian painter of the latter part of the fifteenth 
 century. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Montorsoli, mon-toR'so-lee, (Fra Giovanni An- 
 GELO,) a celebrated Italian sculptor and architect, born 
 at Montorsoli, near Florence, about 1500. He was 
 employed in several works by Michael Angelo, whose 
 lasting friendship he acquired. He was selected by 
 Pope Clement VII. to restore the famous group of 
 Laocoonand the Apollo Belvedere. Among his master- 
 pieces we may name the fountain in front of the cathe- 
 dral at Messina, and the grand altar of the Church dei 
 Servi della Nuiuiata at Bologna. Died in 1563. 
 
 See Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura;" Vasar!, " Lives of the 
 Painters, Sculptors," etc. ; "Nouvelle Biographic G^n^rale." 
 
 Montpensier, de, deh m6N'poN''se-i', (Anne Ma- 
 rie Louise d'Orleans,) Duchesse, commonly called 
 MADEMOISELLE, was born in Paris in 1627. She was 
 the daughter of Gaston, Duke of Orleans, and cousin of 
 Louis XIV. Of a bold and energetic character, she 
 became a zealous adherent of the party of Conde in the 
 wars of the Fronde. She rendered several important 
 services to that faction, among which was the capture 
 of the town of Oilcans. About 1670 she was married 
 to Count Lauztin. She died in 1693, leaving Memoirs 
 which possess much interest. 
 
 See Vor.TAiRE, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, "Mi- 
 n. sires :" " Mademoiselle's Campaigns," in the " Atlantic Monthly" 
 for July, 1858. 
 
 Montpensier, de, (Antoine Marie Philippe Ixjuis 
 D'Orleans,) I )i;c, a younger son of King Louis Philippe 
 of France, was born at Neuilly in 1824. He served with 
 distinction in Algeria in 1844 and 1845, obtained the 
 rank of marechal de camp in 1846, and married in that 
 year Maria I.uisa Fernanda de Bourbon, a sister of Isa- 
 bella, Queen of Spain. In 1858 Queen Isabella gave 
 him the rank of captain general. He was a candidate for 
 the vacant throne of Spain in 1869. In March, 1870, he 
 killed Prince Henry of Bourbon in a duel near Madrid. 
 
 Montpensier, de. (Antoine Philippe d'Orleans,) 
 Due, a younger brother of King Louis Philippe of 
 France, was born in 1775. He was arrested in April, 
 1793, and imprisoned until 1796. Died near London 
 in 1807. 
 
 Montpensier, de, (Catherine Marie de Lorraine 
 — deh lo'rjUi',) Duchesse, a French lady, born in 1552, 
 was a sister of Henri, Due de Guise. She acted with 
 the League, and fomented rebellion against Henry HI. 
 of France. Died in 1596. 
 
 Montpetit, de, deh m6N'peh-te', (Armand Vin- 
 cent,) a French painter, born at Macon in 17 13. He 
 was the inventor of a method of painting which he called 
 eludorigue, (elydoric.) He published an account of his 
 invention in a work entitled "Note interessante sur les 
 Moyens de conserver les Portraits peints a l'Huile," 
 etc., (1776.) Died in 1800. 
 
 Montreuil, de, deh m6N'tRul' or m6N'tRuh'ye, 
 (Bernardin,) a French Jesuit and theologian, born 
 in Paris in 1596, wrote a "Life of Christ taken from 
 the Four Gospels," (1637,) and other religious works. 
 Died in 1646. 
 
 Montreuil, de, sometimes written Montereul, (Ma- 
 THIEU,) a French poet, born in Paris in 161 1 ; died in 
 1691. 
 
 Montrichard, moN're'shfR', (Joseph Ei.ie Desire 
 Perruquet,) a French general, born in 1760. He com- 
 manded the right wing at the battle of Trebbia, June, 
 1799. Died in 1828. 
 
 Montrond, de, deh m6N'tr6N', (Clement Mei.chior 
 Jus tin Maxime Fourcheux,) a French writer, born in 
 Gard in 1805. He wrote, besides other works, a " His- 
 tory of the Crusades," (2 vols., 1841.) 
 
 Montrose, mont-roz', (James Grahame,) Marquis 
 OF, a celebrated Scottish general, born at Edinburgh in 
 1612. Having finished his studies in France, after his 
 return to Scotland he served for a time in the Pres- 
 byterian army ; but he subsequently went over to the 
 royalists. He was appointed by Charles I., in 1644, 
 Marquis of Montrose, and commander-in-chief of the 
 Scottish forces. He signally defeated the Covenanters at 
 Tippermuir in 1644, also at Inverlochy and at Kilsyth 
 in 1645 ; but his army was surprised and totally defeated 
 by General Leslie at Philiphaugh in September, 1645. 
 Montrose soon after went to Germany, where he was 
 received with great distinction by the Austrian emperor 
 and made a marshal of the empire. Having collected 
 a small but ill-organized force, he returned to Scotland 
 in 1650, but was soon after defeated and taken pris- 
 oner. He was executed, without a trial, at Edinburgh, 
 in May, 1650. 
 
 See Clarendon, " History of the Rebellion;" Mark Napier, 
 " Montrose and the Covenanters," 1838 ; Grant, " Life of Grahame, 
 Marquis of Montrose," 1859; George Wishart, "Memoirs of 
 Grahame, Marquis of Montrose;" Sir Edward Cust, "Lives of 
 the Warriors of the Civil Wars," 1867 ; " London Quarterly Review" 
 for December, 1846 : " Fraser's Magazine" for June, 1841. 
 
 Montucci, mon-toot'ehee, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 philologist, born at Sienna in 1762, became in 1785 
 professor of the English language in the Tolomei Col- 
 lege, and subsequently of Italian at Berlin and Dresden. 
 He died in 1829, leaving unfinished a Chinese Dictionary. 
 
 Montucla, m6N'tii'kIS', (Jean Ettenne,) a French 
 mathematician, born at Lyons in 1725. Having studied 
 philology and natural science at the Jesuits' College at 
 Lyons, he visited Paris, where he became associate editor 
 of the " Gazette de France" and formed an intimacy with 
 Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savants of the time. In 
 1764 he accompanied Turgot to Cayenne, as first secre- 
 tary and astronomer to the expedition. After his return 
 he was appointed royal censor of mathematical books 
 and commissioner of the royal buildings. He was a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and of 
 the Institute of Fiance. His most important work is 
 his "History of Mathematics," (1758,) which was com- 
 pleted by Lalande. He also wrote a " History of the 
 Researches for Determining the Quadrature of the 
 Circle," and several other treatises. Died in 1799. 
 
 See A. Savinien-Leblond, " Notice historique sur la Vie de J. 
 E. Montucla," 1800. 
 
 Montureux. See Bourcier. 
 
 Montyon orMonthyon, de, deh m6N'te-6N', (Jean 
 Baptiste Robert Auget — o'zhi',) Baron, a wealthy 
 and philanthropic French nobleman, born in Paris in 
 1733. He bequeathed the greater part of his large 
 fortune to benevolent and learned institutions, and was 
 the founder of the " Montyon Prize of Virtue" given 
 
 eas k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas»; ill as in this. (Jjy=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MONVEL 
 
 i6zo 
 
 MOORb 
 
 by the French Academy. He published "Researches 
 and Considerations on the Population of France," and 
 other works. "His name," says Lamartine, "was the 
 foremost on the roll of the national nobility." Died 
 in 1820. 
 
 See B. V. Franklin, "Eloge historique de Montyon," Paris, 
 1834; Chazet. "Vie de M. de Montvon," 1829; Andrieux. " Eloee 
 de A. J. B. R. Auget," etc., 1834; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Monvel, mAN'veF, (Jacques Marie Boutet,) a 
 French actor and dramatist, bom at Luneville in 1745, 
 was the author of numerous comedies and comic operas. 
 Died in 1812. 
 
 Monville, de. See Boissel. 
 
 Monvoisin, m6N'vwa/zaN', (Raymond Auguste 
 Quinsac,) a French historical painter, born at Bordeaux 
 in 1795, studied in Paris under P. Guerin. Died in 1870. 
 
 Moojaert, mo'ylRt, written also Mooyaert, (Clas,) 
 a Dutch landscape-painter and engraver, born at Am- 
 sterdam about 1590. He was the master of Berghem 
 and Jan Weeninx. 
 
 Moollah-Firooz (or Moullah-Firouz) Ben-Ka- 
 woos, a Persian poet, born at Bombay in 1759. He 
 wrote an epic poem, entitled " George-Nameh," on the 
 conquest of India by the British. Died in 1831. 
 
 Moonen, mo'nen, (Arnold,) a Dutch theologian, 
 distinguished as a poet and grammarian, was born at 
 Zwolle in 1644. He became minister of a Protestant 
 church at Deventer. His poems were published in 2 
 vols., 1720. Died in 1711. 
 
 Moor, moor, ? (Edward,) F.R.S., an English writer, 
 born about 1770. He served several campaigns in India, 
 and obtained the rank of major. He published, besides 
 other works, "The Hindu Pantheon," (4to, 1810.) Died 
 in 1848. 
 
 Moor, van, vin moR, Moro, or More, (Antonis or 
 Antonio,) a celebrated Dutch portrait-painter, born at 
 Utrecht in 1519, was a pupil of Jan Schooreel. He was 
 patronized by Cardinal Granvelle, the emperor Charles 
 V., and Philip II., and painted the portraits of the prin- 
 cipal sovereigns of Europe. His works in this depart- 
 ment are of the highest order. He also executed several 
 historical pictures of great merit. Died in 1568. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Moor, van, (K arf.i,) a Dutch portrait-painter, of high 
 reputation, born at I.eyden in 1656, studied under Ge- 
 rard Douw and Mieris. Among his best works are por- 
 traits of Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough 
 on horseback. He was created a knight of the empire 
 by the Austrian emperor Joseph I. His "Assembly 
 of Notables," in the Hotel d'e Ville at the Hague, is also 
 esteemed a master-piece. Died about 1738. 
 
 See Prt.KiNGTON, " Dictionary of Painters ;" Descamps, "Vies 
 des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ; Charles Blanc, " His- 
 toire des Peintres." 
 
 Moorad-Alee or Mourad-Ali, moo-rid a'lee, called 
 also Moorad Khan, (Kin,) King of Persia, of the Zend 
 dynasty, was born at Ispahan about 1746. He defended 
 himself for a time successfully against several rivals ; but 
 he was at length defeated by Jaafar Khan in 1784. Died 
 in 1785. 
 
 Sec Malcolm, " History of Persia." 
 
 Moorad (Mourad or Murad) Bey, moo-rld ba, a 
 celebrated Mameluke chief, born in Circassia in 1750. 
 On the invasion of Egypt by the French, in 1798, he 
 opposed them with great bravery, but was at length 
 compelled to retreat. He subsequently made a treaty 
 with General Kleber, by which he became Prince of 
 Assouan and Djirdjeh, under the protection of France. 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 See General Bertrand, "Campacnes d'Ecypte et de Syrie," 
 1847; Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Mooravief or Mooraviev, moo-ra-ve-?f, written 
 in German Murawiew or Murawjew, but pro- 
 nounced exactly like the preceding spellings, (Andrew,) 
 a Russian writer and traveller, was a younger brother 
 of General Nicholas Mooravief. He published, in Ger- 
 man, a " Hintory of the Russian Church," (1845,) a 
 "Description of Armenia," (3 vols., 1848,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Mooravief or Murawiew, (Michael,) a Russian 
 engineer and general, born about 1795, was a brother 
 of the preceding. He became a member of the imperial 
 council about 1850. Died in 1866. 
 
 Mooravief or Murawiew, (Michael Nikitich,) a 
 Russian litterateur, born at Smolensk in 1757, was ap- . 
 pointed preceptor to the grand dukes Alexander and 
 Constantine. He was the author of " Historical Pieces," 
 "Letters of Emilius," and several moral and literary 
 essays, which are ranked among Russian classics. Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 See Gretch, " Essai sur 1'Histoire de la Litterature Russe." 
 
 Mooravief, Mouraviev, Muraview, or Mura- 
 vieff, (Nicholas,) an able Russian general, born at 
 Moscow in 1793. He served as general in the war 
 against the Poles, (1830.) In 1854 he obtained com- 
 mand of an army in Asia. He took Kars from the 
 British, after a long siege, in November, 1855. He 
 afterwards commanded with success against Schamylj 
 the Circassian chief. Died in 1866. 
 
 Moorcroft, moor'kroft, ? (William,) an English trav- 
 eller, born in Lancaster about 1780, spent several years 
 in Hindostan, and explored parts of the country hitherto 
 unknown to Europeans. He was the author of " Travels 
 in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindostan," etc., (1841,) 
 " On the Purik Sheep of Ladakh," and other works. 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 Moore, mor, (Alfred,) an American jurist, son of 
 Maurice, noticed below, was born in Brunswick county, 
 North Carolina, in 1755. He was appointed associate 
 justice of the supreme court of the United States in 1799. 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 Moore, (Benjamin,) an American clergyman, born 
 on Long Island in 1748, became Bishop of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church of the diocese of New York. Died 
 in 1816. 
 
 Moore, (Clement C.,) LL.D., son of the preceding, 
 was born in New York in 1779. He was appointed 
 in 1821 professor of Hebrew and Greek literature in 
 the Protestant Episcopal Seminary in New York. He 
 published a "Hebrew-and-English Lexicons" and other 
 works. 
 
 Moore, mor, (Edward,) an English litterateur, born in 
 Berkshire in 1712. He was the author of "Fables foi 
 the Female Sex," which had great popularity, and "The 
 Gamester," a tragedy, which was also very successful. 
 He was one of the editors of "The World," a literary 
 journal having among its contributors Horace Walpole, 
 Soame Jenyns, and Lord Chesterfield. Died in 1757. 
 
 See Walpole, "Letters ;" Johnson and Chalmers, "English 
 Poets." 
 
 Moore, (Edward M.,) M.D., an American surgeon, 
 born at Rahway, New Jersey, July 15, 1814, graduated 
 at the University of Pennsylvania in 1838. In 1838, in 
 conjunction with Dr. C. L. Pennock, of Philadelphia, 
 he performed a series of original experiments on the 
 physiological action of the heart, which excited much 
 attention among physiologists. About 1840 he removed 
 to Rochester, New York, where he soon acquired a high 
 reputation jn his profession. For many years he has 
 filled the chair of surgery in the medical college at 
 Buffalo. 
 
 Moore, (Frank,) son of Jacob Bailey, noiiccd 
 below, has published "Songs and Ballads of the Amer- 
 ican Revolution," the " Rebellion Record, a Diary 
 of American Events," (II vols., 1861-68,) and several 
 other works. 
 
 Moore, (Jacob Bailey,) an American political writer 
 and editor, born at Andover, New Hampshire, in 1797. 
 He edited the "New Hampshire Statesman," a Whig 
 paper, and became librarian to the New York Historical 
 Society. Among his works is "The Laws of Trade in 
 the United States." Died in 1853. 
 
 Moore or More, (James,) an English writer, was the 
 author of a comedy entitled "The Rival Modes," and 
 was associated with the Duke of Wharton as editor of 
 "The Inquisitor." Moore is satirized by Pope in his 
 "Dunciad." Died in 1734. 
 
 Moore, (John,) an English prelate, born in 1644, be- 
 came successively Bishop of Norwich and of Ely. He 
 died in 1 714, leaving a library of thirty thousand volumes, 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mlt; n8t; good; moon; 
 
MOORE 
 
 1621 
 
 MOOSA 
 
 which was purchased by George II. and presented to 
 the University of Cambridge. 
 
 Moore, mor, (John,) a Scottish physician and distin- 
 guished writer, born at Stirling about 1730. He studied 
 under Hamilton and Cullen at Glasgow, and afterwards 
 spent several years on the continent. He published, 
 after his return, "A View of Society and Manners in 
 France, Switzerland, and Germany," (1778,) which was 
 followed in 1781 by a similar work on Italy. They are 
 written in a lively and attractive style, and had great 
 popularity at the time. His principal work is his novel 
 of "Zeluco," (4 vols., 1789,) which was received with 
 great favour and still enjoys a high reputation. Died 
 in 1802. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Moore, (John,) an English prelate, born at Gloucester 
 in 1733. He became Bishop of Bangor in 1776, and 
 Archbishop of Canterbury in 1783. Died in 1805. 
 
 Moore, (Sir John,) a celebrated British general, born 
 at Glasgow in 1761, was the eldest son of Dr. John 
 Moore, noticed above. He entered the army at the age 
 of fifteen, and was sent in 1794 to Corsica, where he 
 acted in conjunction with Paoli, and was conspicuous 
 for his courage in the attack on Fort Morello and at the 
 siege of Calvi. As general of brigade, he served under 
 Sir Ralph Abercrombie in the West Indies in 1796, and 
 in 1798 assisted in quelling the Irish rebellion. He 
 accompanied General Abercrombie to Egvpt in 1801, 
 and was severely wounded at the battle of Alexandria. 
 He was made a knight of the Bath on his return to 
 England, and, after various services in Sicily and Sweden, 
 was created lieutenant-general, and sent in 1808 to Spain 
 to unite with the forces in the north against the French. 
 On the news of the defeat of the Spanish troops along 
 the northern frontier, and of the numerous French armies 
 approaching, he made a rapid retreat to Coruna, which, 
 being performed in the depth of winter, was attended 
 with great suffering. On the 16th of January, 1809, an 
 engagement took place at Corunna, in which the English 
 claimed the victory but lost their brave commander. 
 His death has been commemorated by the poet Wolfe 
 in a beautiful and popular ode, which Byron pronounced 
 the most perfect in the English language. 
 
 See JaMBS C. MOORS, " Life of Sir John Moore," 2 vols., 1814 ; 
 R. Southev. " History of the Peninsular War;" Napier, " His- 
 tory of the War in the Peninsula ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- 
 tionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Moore, (Sir Jonas,) an English mathematician, born 
 in Lancashire in 1617, was appointed Jutor to Prince 
 James, son of Charles I., and subsequently liecame in- 
 spector-general of artillery. He was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and the author of several scientific works. 
 He was instrumental in founding a mathematical school 
 for sailors at Christ's Hospital, and in the construction 
 of an observatory at Flainstead House. Died in 1679. 
 
 See Birch, " History of the Royal Society." 
 
 Moore, (Maurick,) an American jurist and patriot 
 of the Revolution, born in Brunswick county, North 
 Carolina; died in 1777. His son A i.fued served with 
 distinction in the Revolutionary war, and became asso- 
 ciate justice of the United States supreme court in 1799. 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 Moore, (Nathaniel F.,) I.L.D., a nephew of Bishop 
 Benjamin Moore, noticed above, was born at Newtown, 
 Long Island, in 1782. He became professor of the 
 Latin and Greek languages in Columbia College in 
 1820, and in 1842 president of that institution. He has 
 published "Ancient Mineralogy," and other works. 
 
 Moore, (Richard Channinc,,) D. I)., an American 
 prelate, born in New York in 1762. He became rector 
 of Saint Stephen's Church, in that city, in 1809, and in 
 1S14 succeeded Bishop Madison as Bishop of Virginia. 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 See a " Memoir of the Rev. Richard Channing Moore," by J. P. 
 K. Hhn'shaw. 
 
 Moore, mor, (Thomas,) a celebrated Irish poet, bom 
 in Dublin in 1779. He entered Trinity College at an 
 early age, but, being a Catholic, he was unable to obtain 
 any of the university honours or offices; He afterwards 
 studied law at the Middle Temple, London. He pub- 
 lished in 1801 his translation of the " Odes of Anacreon," 
 
 which was very successful, and was followed by " The 
 Poetical Works of the Late Thomas Little," (1802.) In 
 1804 he visited the United States of America, on the 
 society and institutions of which he made many satirical 
 comments in his "Odes and Epistles," (1S06.) His 
 other principal works are " Lalla Rookh," (1812,) an 
 Oriental poem, "The Twopenny Post- Bag, by Thomas 
 Brown, Jun.," ( 1813,) a witty satire directed against the 
 Tories, which had great popularity, "The Fudge Family 
 in Paris," (1818,) "Loves of the Angels," (1823,) and 
 " Irish Melodies," (1834.) In 1830 he published a " Life 
 of Lord Byron," his most important prose work, which, 
 although written entirely from the stand-point of friend- 
 ship, has been highly commended by the critics. He 
 also wrote a "Life of Sheridan," (1825,) "The Epicu- 
 rean," (1827,) a prose romance, and a " History of Ire- 
 land," (1835.) Of his poems, his "Lalla Rookh" and 
 " Irish Melodies" enjoy the highest reputation. The 
 former, though deficient in the higher qualities of 
 poetry, is characterized by exquisite melody of versifica- 
 tion and splendid imagery, and in its moral tone affords 
 a striking contrast to the frivolity and licentiousness 
 of his earlier productions. It obtained extraordinary 
 popularity, and was translated into many languages, 
 including Persian. Hazlitt, in his critique on Moore, 
 says that "his is the poetry of the toilette, of the saloon, 
 of the fashionable world, — not the poetry of nature, 
 of the heart, or of human life. His imagination may 
 dally with insect beauties, but it should not attempt to 
 span the great outlines of nature, or keep pace with 
 the sounding march of events, or grapple with the strong 
 fibres of the human heart." 
 
 See "Memoirs, etc. of Thomas Moore," bv Lop.n Russell: 
 " Edinburgh Review" for November, 1817, and April, 1S54 ■ " Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for July. 185.1: "Blackwood's Mag.tzine'* 
 for September, 1S27, and January, 1853: " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 October, 1830; "Monthly Review" for September, 1S06. 
 
 Moore, (Zf.phaniah Swift,) D.D., an American 
 divine and scholar, born at Palmer, Massachusetts, in 
 1770, became president of Williams College in 1815, 
 and in 1821 of Amherst College. Died in 1823. 
 
 Moor'som, (Sir Robert,) a brave English admiral, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1760. Being appointed in 1805 
 commander of the Revenge, he had a prominent part 
 in the battle of Trafalgar. He afterwards represented 
 Queensborough in Parliament, and was made an admiral 
 in 1S30. Died in 1835. 
 
 Moosa. See Mosks. 
 
 Moosa, Mousa, or Musa, moo'sa, third son of 
 Bayazeed I., was born at Brusa about 1376. He was 
 made prisoner with his father by Tamerlane after the 
 battle of Angora. Being afterwards appointed by the 
 latter governor of the Ottoman provinces of Asia Minor, 
 he carried on a war against his elder brother Soiyman, 
 whose capital Adrianople he took in 1404, thus becoming 
 master of the European part of the Ottoman empire. In 
 141 2 he besieged Constantinople, but, having been forced 
 to retire, he was taken prisoner, and strangled by order 
 of Mahomet I. 
 
 See Von Hammer, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Moosa, Mousa, or Musa, Ibn, fbn moo'sa, ( Aboo- 
 Abdallah-Mohammed, a'boo Sb-dal'lah mo-ham'- 
 nied,) an Arabian mathematician, was the author of a 
 treatise on algebra entitled "Al Jebr e al Mokabalah." 
 He is said to have been the first of his countrymen who 
 wrote on that science ; and Europe is indebted to him 
 for its introduction and its name. 
 
 Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr, moo'sa Ib'n no-sar', (or no- 
 slr',) (Aboo-Abd-er-Rahman, a'boo dl/der rah'man,) 
 a celebrated Arab conqueror, was born at Mecca about 
 660 a.d. He was appointed in 703 Viceroy of Africa, 
 and, having subjected the northern part of that country, 
 from Tripoli to Morocco, he turned his arms against 
 Spain. In conjunction with his lieutenant Tarik, he took 
 Seville, Merida, Saragossa, and other cities of Southern 
 and Central Spain, to which he subsequently added the 
 most important towns of Catalonia. Among other ar- 
 ticles of great value of which he had possessed himself 
 was the emerald table called the table of Solomon, taken 
 at Medina-Celi. Moosa, having been summoned to Da- 
 mascus by the caliph, presented to him this table, and, 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y*,gutlural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jr^T*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MOOSA 
 
 1622 
 
 M OR ANT 
 
 on his expressing his surprise that it should have three 
 legs of emerald and one of gold, Moosa replied that he 
 had found it in this condition. Tarik, however, imme- 
 diately exposed the falsehood of his rival by producing 
 the fourth leg of the table. For this offence he was 
 condemned to a heavy fine by Solyman, who afterwards 
 caused his son Abd-el-azeez to be assassinated. Moosa 
 died in obscurity in 718. 
 
 See Aboolfeda, " Annates Moslemici ;" Makkari, " History of 
 the Mohammedan Empire in Spain." 
 
 Moosa- (Mousa- or Musa-) Ibn-Shakir, moo'sa 
 Ib'n sha'kir, an Arab writer of the early part of the ninth 
 century, wrote a work entitled "Sources of History." 
 He left three sons, the eldest of whom was eminent as 
 an astronomer and was the author of several valuable 
 works. 
 
 Mooyaert. See Moojaert. 
 
 Mop'sus, [Gr. HoTpor,] a famous soothsayer of classic 
 mythology, was called a son of Apollo and Manto. 
 According to tradition, he gained celebrity by the truth 
 of his prophecies at the siege of Thebes and at the 
 temple of Claros, and he triumphed over Calchas in a 
 trial of skill in divination. 
 
 Moquin-Tandon, mo'kaN' tSN'diN', (Horace Bene- 
 dict Alfred,) a French physician and botanist, born at 
 Montpellier in 1804. He was appointed in 1853 pro- 
 fessor of natural history in the Medical Faculty of Paris, 
 and in 1854 became a member of the Academy of Sci- 
 ences. He published a " History of the Anomalies of 
 Vegetable Organization," (1841,) and "Essay on the 
 Multiplication of Organs in Vegetables." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Mora, de, da tno'rS, (Jos6 Joaquin,) a Spanish lit- 
 tlratetir, born at Cadiz in 1784. Having previously edited 
 a literary journal at Madrid, he repaired to South Amer- 
 ica, and became editor of the "Cronica Politica" at 
 Buenos Ayres. He was appointed in 1838 consul-general 
 of Bolivia to London. He published a "History of 
 the Arabs," (1826,) "Spanish Legends," (1840,) and a 
 number of lyric poems and satires. He also trans- 
 lated into Spanish Sir Walter Scott's romances of 
 " Ivanhoe" and "The Talisman." 
 
 See F. Wolf. " Floresta de Rimas modernas Castellanas." 
 
 Morabin, mo'ri'baN', (Jacques,) a French scholar, 
 born at La Fleche in 1687. He was the author of a 
 " History of Cicero," and translated into French Cicero's 
 "Treatise on Laws" and "Treatise on Consolation." 
 Died in 1762. 
 
 Moraes, de, da mo-ri'Ss, (Cristovam Alao — 
 a-low.v',) a Portuguese writer, born in 1632, was the 
 author of a "Genealogy of the Families of Portugal," 
 and a number of sonnets and other poems. Died in 1693. 
 
 Moraes, de, (Francisco,) a Portuguese writer, born 
 at Braganza. lie went to Paris as secretary of legation 
 in the reign of Francis I. His chief work is "Libro 
 del muy esforcado Cauallero Palmerin de Inglaterra," 
 which was translated into English by Southey. Moraes 
 was assassinated at Evora in 1572. 
 
 Moraes Sarmento, mo-ra'es saR-men'to, (J0X0 
 Evangki.ista,) a Portuguese poet of the present time. 
 Among his works is an " Ode on War." 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Morales, mo-i a'ISs, (Cristoval,) a Spanish musician, 
 and one of the greatest composers of his time, was a 
 native of Seville. He was appointed by Pope Paul HI. 
 composer in the pontifical chapel. He lived about 1550. 
 
 Morales, (Juan Bautista,) a Spanish missionary, 
 born in Andalusia about 1598. He went to China in 
 1633, but was compelled to quit that country in 1638 
 through the influence of the Jesuits, whom he censured 
 for permitting their converts to sacrifice to idols. He 
 returned to China, where he died in 1664. 
 
 Morales, de, da mo-ra'lfs, (Amurosio,) an eminent 
 Spanish historian, born at Cordova in 15 13. He studied 
 at Alcala, where he subsequently became professor, and 
 numbered among his pupils Don John of Austria. In 
 1570 he succeeded Ocampo as historiographer to Philip 
 II. His principal work is a continuation of Ocampo's 
 "Cronica general de Espafia," (3 vols., 1577,) bringing 
 the history of Spain down to 1037. Morales also pub- 
 
 lished a valuable treatise "On the Antiquities of the 
 Spanish Cities." Died in 1591. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" Bouterwek, 
 " Histoire de la Litterature Espagnole." 
 
 Morales, de, (Juan,) a Spanish poet, born in Anda- 
 lusia, lived in the sixteenth century. He made admirable 
 translations of some odes of Horace, and wrote original 
 poems of much merit. 
 
 Morales, de, (Lu's.) an eminent Spanish painter, 
 surnamed EL Divino, ("the Divine,") born at Badajoz 
 in 1509. He was employed by Philip II. to decorate 
 the Escurial ; v ut he subsequently lost the king's patron- 
 age and was reduced to great poverty. He was relieved 
 a few years before his death by a pension bestowed upon 
 him by Philip. His "Via Dolorosa," in the church of the 
 Hieronymites, at Madrid, is esteemed one of his master- 
 pieces. Died in 1586. 
 
 See Quili.iet, "DictionnairedesPeintres Espagnols ;" Viardot, 
 " Etudes sur 1' Histoire des Beaux- Arts en Espggne," 1835. 
 
 Morali, mo-ra'lee, (Ottavio,) Adhe, an Italian phi- 
 lologist, born near Bergamo in 1763, became professor 
 of Greek at the College of Brera, in Milan. He pub- 
 lished a good edition of Ariosto, (1818.) Died in 1826. 
 
 Mo-ran', (Edward,) an American painter of marine 
 views and landscapes, born about 1845. Among his best 
 works are "The Swallows' Cave, Nahant," and "Pulpit 
 Rock." His brother Thomas is also distinguished as a 
 landscape-painter. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Morand, mo'ruN', (Charles Antoine Louis Ale- 
 xis,) Com IE, a French general, born at Pontarlier in 1 77 1. 
 He served as general at Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, Essling, 
 and Wagram, (1805-09.) Died in 1835. 
 
 Morand, (Jean Antoine,) a French architect, born 
 at Briancon about 1727. He executed several important 
 works at Lyons, one of which is a wooden bridge over 
 the Rhone, which bears his name. He was condemned 
 by the Revolutionary Tribunal and put to death in 1794. 
 
 Morand, (Jean Francois Clement,) a French phy- 
 sician, son of Sauveur Francois, noticed below, was born 
 in Paris in 1726. He became librarian to the Academy 
 of Sciences, and was a member of several other learned 
 societies in Europe. Died in 1784. 
 
 Morand,(SAUVEUR FRANgois,)a distinguished French 
 surgeon, born in Paris in 1697, was the first who intro- 
 duced into France Cheselden's method of lithotomy, 
 having previously learned it in London. He was a Fel- 
 low of the Royal Society of London, and a member of 
 the French Aoademy of Sciences, and was appointed in 
 1730 royal censor and surgeon-in-chief of the hospital 
 of La Charite. He published a number of surgical 
 treatises. Died in 1773. 
 
 See Im.ov, " Dictionnaire historique de la M^dectne." 
 
 Morand, de, deh mo'roN 7 , (Pierre,) a French drama- 
 tist, born at Aries in 1 701, was the author of a comedy 
 entitled "The Spirit of Divorce," and several tragedies. 
 Died in 1757. 
 
 Moraude, de, deh mo'rONd', (Charles Thevenot 
 or Theveneau — tav'no',) a French adventurer and 
 political writer, born at Arnay-le-Duc in 1748, was the 
 author of "The Cynic Philosopher," and other works 
 of a libellous character. Died about 1803. 
 
 Morandi-Manzolini, mo-ran'dee man-zo-lee'nee, 
 (Anna,) a celebrated Italian anatomist, born at Bologna 
 in 1716, was the wife of G. Manzolini, a physician, from 
 whom she learned anatomy and the art of modelling in 
 wax. Her works in this department were regarded as 
 the most perfect of the kind, and obtained for her a 
 European reputation. She was a member of the Insti- 
 tute of Bologna, and in 1758 became professor of anatomy 
 in that city. Died in 1774. 
 
 Morandini, mo-ran-dee'nee, (Francesco,) called II 
 Poppi, an able Italian painter, born at Poppi in 1544, 
 was a pupil of Vasari. He worked with great facility. 
 Died about 1584. 
 
 Morando, mo-ran'do, (Filippo Rosa,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Verona in 1732; died in 1757. 
 
 Mo-rant', ? (Philip,) an English antiauary, born in the 
 isle of Jersey in 1700, published, among other works, 
 " History and Antiquities of Colchester," and " History 
 of Essex." Died in 1770. 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
MORARD 
 
 1623 
 
 MORE 
 
 Morard de Galle. iiio'iSr' deli gSI, (Justin Bona- 
 vi IN n'KK.) a French admiral, born in Dauphine in 1741 ; 
 died in 1809. 
 
 Morata, mo-ra'ta, (Olympia Fui.via,) an Italian lady, 
 esteemed one of the most learned women of her time, 
 wis bom at Kerrara in 1526. She was married about 
 1550 to Andrew Gundler, a German physician, whom 
 she accompanied to Germany. She died at Heidelberg 
 in 1555, leaving a number of works, including Latin 
 orations and Greek poems. 
 
 See I'l'KNBiTi-i., "olympia Morata, her Life and Times," 1,846; 
 Kolten, "Vita Olympic Moral*," '775: J' Bonnet, " Vied'Olym- 
 pi.i Morata," i s 50; WildermUTU, "O. Morata; ein christliches 
 Lebensbild," 1854; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Moratin.de, dl mo-ra-teen', (Leandro Fernandez,) 
 an eminent dramatist, sometimes called "the Spanish 
 Mojiere," was born at Madrid in 1760. He was ap- 
 pointed in 1787, through the influence of Jovellanos, 
 secretary to the Spanish embassy in Paris, and published, 
 soon after his return, his comedy of "The Old Man 
 and the Young Girl," ("El Viejo y la Nina,") which 
 was very successful. Among the most popular of his 
 other works are "The Impostor," ("El Baron,") "Yes 
 of the Maidens," ("Si de las Ninas,") "The Young 
 Hypocrite," (" La Mogigata,") and "The New Comedy," 
 ("La Comedia nueva.") His "Origines del Teatro 
 Espanol," (1838,) a critical treatise, is also highly es- 
 teemed. Moratin became first librarian to Joseph Bona- 
 parte in 181 1, and during the subsequent troubles in 
 Spain took refuge in France, where he died in 1828. 
 
 See Kxnkrdy, " Modern Poets and Poetry of Spain ;" Prkscott, 
 "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. part i. : Ochoa, No- 
 tice of Moratin, prefixed 10 his "Origines del Teatro Espanol," 
 1838; "Nouvelle Biographie Gerierale ;" "Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 view" for }uw, 1828, 
 
 Moratin, de, (Nicolas Fernandez.) a Spanish poet 
 and dramatist, the father of the preceding, was born at 
 Madrid in 1737. He was the author of " Hormesinda," 
 and several other dramas in the French style, also of an 
 epic poem entitled "The Ships of Cortez Destroyed," 
 ("Las Naves de Cortes destruidas,") which has a high 
 reputation. Died in 1780. 
 
 See TlCKNOR, "History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 July, 1837. 
 
 Moray, Eari. of. See Murray, (James Stuart.) 
 Moray or Murray, mur're, (Sir Robert,) one of 
 the founders of the Royal Society of London, was a 
 native of Scotland. Having resided for a time in France, 
 where he was patronized by Louis XIII. and Cardinal 
 Richelieu, he was appointed, after the restoration, to 
 several important offices. He was the first president of 
 the Royal Society, which he assisted to found in 1661. 
 Died in 1673. 
 
 See Birch, " History of the Royal Society;" Chambers, " Bio- 
 graphical Dictionaiy of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Morazan, mo-ra-sln', (Francisco,) a Central Amer- 
 ican general, born in Honduras in 1799. He became 
 president or general-in-chief of the republic of Central 
 America about 1830, was driven into exile in 1840, and 
 put to death in 1842. 
 
 Morazzone. See Mazzuchei.li. 
 
 Morcelli, moR-chel'lee, ( Stefano Antonio,) a 
 learned Italian antiquary and Jesuit, born near Brescia 
 in 1737. Among his principal works (which are mostly 
 written in Latin) we may name "Africa Christiana." 
 (3 vols., 1816—17,) illustrating the history of the Church 
 in Africa, "Opera Epigraphica," (5 vols., 1818,) "Opus- 
 coli ascetici," (3 vols., 1820,) and a treatise "On the 
 Style of Latin Inscriptions," (3 vols., 1819-22.) He 
 founded an academy of archaeology at Rome, where he 
 passed many years. Died in 1821. 
 
 See P. Lottifri. "Efotffo storico di S. A. Morcelli," 1821 ; 
 Baraldi, " Notizia di Morcelli," 1825. 
 
 Mordaunt, mor'dant, (Charles,) Earl of Peter- 
 borough, a^famous English general, of chivalrous and 
 eccentric character, born in 1658, was the son and heir 
 
 of John, Lord Mordaunt. He first appears prominently 
 in history as a staunch Whig and opponent of James II. 
 In 1689 he was created Earl of Monmouth and placed 
 
 at the head of the treasury, but the next year he retired 
 from that office, which was ill suited to his volatile and 
 
 generous character. He afterwards inherited the title 
 of his uncle, the Earl of Peterborough. During the 
 war of the Spanish succession he commanded an Eng- 
 lish army of 5000 men which arrived in Spain in 1705 
 and performed a series of brilliant exploits, among which 
 was the capture of Barcelona and Valencia, (1706.) 
 Thwarted in his plans by the archduke Charles of 
 Austria, he obtained leave to retire from the army, and 
 was recalled to England in 1707. Through hostility to 
 Marlborough, he supported the Tories in the political 
 contests which ensued, and after the accession of George 
 1. was consequently excluded from office. He died in 
 1735. His second wife was Anastasia Robinson, a cele- 
 brated singer and actress. In the opinion of Macaulay, 
 he was "the most extraordinary character of that age, 
 the King of Sweden not excepted. His fertility and 
 activity of mind were almost beyond belief. He loved 
 to dictate six or seven letters at once. He was a kind 
 friend, a generous enemy, and a thorough gentleman. 
 Hut his splendid talents and virtues were rendered 
 almost useless to his country by his levity, his restless- 
 ness, his irritability, his morbid craving for novelty and 
 excitement." ("Essays.") 
 
 See Macaulay, "History of England," vol. iii. chap, xi., and 
 his Review of Lord Mahon 9 " History of the War of the Succes- 
 sion in Spain;" Friend, "Account of the Earl of Peterborough, 
 etc. in Spain;" Burnet, "History of his Own Times;" Lord 
 Maiion, "War of the Succession in Spain;" Wai.pole, "Royal 
 and Noble Authors;" "Eccentric Personages," by William Rus- 
 sell, 1866. 
 
 More, iiior, [Lat. Mo'rus,] (Alexander,) a French 
 Protestant divine, of Scottish extraction, born at Castres 
 in 1616. He became professor of Greek at Geneva in 
 1639, and of history at Amsterdam in 1651. He was the 
 author of Latin poems and other works. Died in 1670. 
 
 See Svmmons, "Life of Milton;" Senebier, " Histoire littd- 
 raire de Geneve." 
 
 More, (Antonio.) See Moor. 
 
 More, (Hannah,) an English writer, whose moral 
 and religious works enjoyed great popularity in her time, 
 was bom at Stapleton, near Bristol, in 1 745. She pub- 
 lished in 1773 a pastoral drama, entitled "The Search 
 after Happiness," and in 1774 "The Inflexible Cap- 
 tive," a tragedy, which introduced her to the notice of 
 Garrick, Dr. Johnson, and other eminent men of that 
 period, by whom she was greatly esteemed for the excel- 
 lence of her character. She was the author of several 
 other dramas, which were very favourably received ; but, 
 owing to her convictions of the immoral tendency of 
 the stage, she abandoned dramatic writing, and, while 
 her popularity was still at its height, devoted herself to 
 compositions of a moral and religious character. Among 
 the principal of these we may name "Thoughts on 
 the Manners of the Great," (1788,) "Strictures on the 
 Modern System of Female Education," (1799,) "Hints 
 towards Forming the Character of a Young Princess," 
 (1805,) written for Charlotte, Princess of Wales, " Ccelebs 
 in Search of a Wife," (1809,) and several contributions 
 to the "Cheap Repository Tracts," one of which is 
 entitled "The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain." Died 
 in 1833. 
 
 See William Roberts, "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Hannah 
 More ;" Mrs. H. C. Knight, " A New Memoir of Hannah More ;" 
 H. Thompson, "Life of Hannah More," etc., 1838: Mrs. Firwoon, 
 "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," etc.; "Monthly 
 Review" for February, 1809, April, 1813, and February, 1820. 
 
 More, [Lat. Mo'rus,] (Henry,) an English divine 
 and philosophical writer, born in Lincolnshire in 1614. 
 He studied at Christ's College, Cambridge, of which he 
 was chosen a Fellow. He refused several high prefer- 
 ments in the church, and passed his life in retirement, 
 devoted chiefly to the study of philosophy. He was the 
 author of " Psychozoia, or the Life of the Soul," (1640,) 
 " Enchiridium Metaphysicum," "Conjectura Cabalis- 
 tica," "The Mystery of Godliness," "Discourse on the 
 Immortality of the Soul," and other works, in which he 
 favours the Platonic system. He was a man of fine 
 genius, profound learning, and rare excellence of char- 
 acter. He was one of the first Fellows of the Royal 
 Society, and was a friend and correspondent of Des- 
 cartes. Died in 1687. 
 
 See R. Warp. "Life of Henry More." r7io; Burnet, "His- 
 tory of his Own Times ;" "Retrospective Review," vol. v., (1S22.) 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. ( jy=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MORE 
 
 1624 
 
 MOREAU 
 
 More, (James.) See Moore. 
 
 More, [Lat. Mo'rus; It. and Sp. Mo'ro,] (Sir 
 Thom"as,) an eminent English wit, philosopher, and 
 statesman, born in London in 1480, was a son of Sir 
 John More, a judge of the court of king's bench. He 
 received the first rudiments of his education at Saint 
 Anthony's School, London, where he learned Latin. 
 At the age of fifteen he became a page in the house of 
 Cardinal Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury and prime 
 minister, who was much pleased with the wit of young 
 M.ore and predicted that he would prove "a marvellous 
 
 ■ man.'!. In 1497 he entered the University of Oxford, 
 wher?he studied Greek as a pupil of Grocyn and formed 
 an intimate and lasting friendship with Erasmus. He 
 gained distinction at Oxford as a writer of English and 
 
 ~of Latin verses. Having left college, he studied law at 
 Lincoln's Inn. "He manifested," says Mackintosh, "a 
 predilection for monastic life, and is said to have prac- 
 tised some of those austerities and self-inflictions which 
 prevail among the gloomier and more stern orders." 
 He resolved, indeed, at one time to turn monk, and act- 
 ually became a lay brother of the Carthusian convent 
 (the Charter-House) in London, where he is said to have 
 passed several years, devoting himself at the same time 
 to the study of the classics, the French language, and 
 music. He afterwards entertained thoughts of becoming 
 a priest ; but on further reflection, and influenced per- 
 haps by the general corruption of the priestly orders, he 
 abandoned his design. In the words of Erasmus, " Ma- 
 luit maritus esse castus quam sacerdos impurus," ("he 
 preferred to be a chaste husband rather than an impure 
 priest.") About 1502 he married Jane Colt, the eldest 
 daughter of a gentleman of Essex. He had a slight 
 preference for her younger sister, but was so good- 
 natured that he sacrificed his inclination, that he might 
 not wound the feelings of the eldest. This union proved 
 very happy, but his wife died a few years after her mar- 
 riage, leaving him a son and three daughters, of whom 
 Margaret, the eldest, inherited the features, goodness, 
 and genius of her father. His graceful and varied learn- 
 ing was only surpassed by his sprightly, inexhaustible 
 wit. " With him," says Erasmus, "you might imagine 
 yourself in the Academy of Plato." He attained great 
 eminence at the bar, and about 1502 became an under- 
 sheriff of London, — i.e. a judge 0/ the sheriff's court. He 
 appears to have been the first Englishman that cultivated 
 oratory with any great success. " He is," says Mackin- 
 tosh, "the first person in our history distinguished by 
 the faculty of public speaking, and remarkable for the 
 successful employment of it in Parliament against a 
 lavish grant of money to the crown." He was elected 
 to Parliament about 1504, and, by persuading the Com- 
 mons not to grant a supply to Henry VII. on the occa- 
 sion of the marriage of his daughter, deeply offended 
 that king. More had in consequence resolved to leave 
 the country ; but the death of Henry relieved him from 
 all apprehensions. 
 
 Having lost his first wife, he married a widow named 
 Alice Middleton. In 1513 he wrote a "History of 
 Richard III.," which, says Hallam, "appears to me the 
 first example of good English language, pure and per- 
 spicuous, well chosen, without vulgarisms or pedantry." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") He was 
 sent on a mission to Flanders in 1^14. and about that 
 date became a favourite of Henry VIII., who not only 
 consulted him in affairs of state, but preferred him as 
 the companion of his amusements and convivial hours. 
 In 1516 he produced his famous Platonic fiction of 
 "Utopia," (in Latin,) describing an imaginary common- 
 wealth in the island of Utopia, the citizens of which 
 had all things in common. He resigned the office of 
 under-sheriff in 1 5 19, was appointed treasurer of the 
 exchequer in 1521, and chosen Speaker of the House 
 of Commons in 1523. He gave proof of his firmness 
 and independence by his answer to Cardinal Wolsey. 
 who demanded a very great subsidy for the king. About 
 1523 More began to write tracts against Luther. 
 
 In October, 1529, he was appointed lord chancellor 
 in place of Cardinal Wolsey. Although the Protestants 
 were persecuted while he held that office, it would appear 
 that he was not responsible for the persecution. " It is 
 
 a sufficient proof of his clemency," says Erasmus, " that 
 while he was chancellor no man was put to death for 
 these pestilent dogmas."* 
 
 Suitors were astonished at the contrast between the 
 affable More and the haughty Cardinal Wolsey. Sir 
 Thomas resigned the great seal in May, 1532, because 
 his conscience refused to sanction the divorce of Queen 
 Catherine and the second marriage of the king. " Henry 
 had tried every possible means to obtain at least the 
 appearance of his spontaneous approbation." (Mackin- 
 tosh.) In 1533 he wrote a work called "The Apology 
 of Sir Thomas More." 
 
 Having declined to take the oath by which he was re- 
 quired to acknowledge the validity of the king's marriage 
 with Anne Boleyn, he was committed to the Tower in 
 April, 1534. After he had been in prison more than a 
 year, he was charged with denying the king's supremacy 
 as the head of the Church ; and, his answers not having 
 been found satisfactory, he was pronounced guilty of 
 treason, and was beheaded on the 6th of July, 1535. 
 "The scaffold had been awkwardly erected, and shook 
 as he placed his foot upon the ladder. ' See me safe up,' 
 he said to Kingston ; ' for my coming down I can shift 
 for myself.' . ... The executioner offered to tie his eyes. 
 ' I will cover them myself,' he said ; and, binding them in 
 a cloth which he had brought with him, he knelt, and 
 laid his head upon the block. The fatal stroke was 
 about to fall, when he signed for a moment's delay, while 
 he moved aside his beard. ' Pity that should be cut,' 
 he murmured : 'that has not committed treason.' With 
 which strange words, — the strangest, perhaps, ever ut- 
 tered at such a time, — the lips most famous through 
 Europe for eloquence and wisdom closed forever." 
 (Froude's " History of England," chap, ix.) Alluding 
 to his behaviour on the scaffold, Addison remarks, 
 " The innocent mirth which had been so conspicuous in 
 his life did not forsake him at the last. His death was 
 of a piece with his life ; there was nothing in it new, 
 forced, or affected. He did not look upon the severing 
 his head from his body as a circumstance which ought 
 to produce any change in the disposition of his mind; 
 and, as he died in a fixed and settled hope of immor- 
 tality, he thought anv unusual degree of sorrow and 
 concern improper." (" Spectator," No. 349.) According 
 to the account of his great-grandson, More " was of a 
 middle stature, well proportioned, of a pale complexion, 
 his hair of chestnut colour, his eyes gray, his counte- 
 nance mild and cheerful." 
 
 See "The Life and Death of Sir Thomas More." bv his great- 
 grandson, C. Mohh, 1626 ; William Roper, "Vita T. Mori," 1626; 
 Sir James Mackintosh, " Life of Sir Thomas More." 1830 ; Fer- 
 nando DH Hkrrkra, "T. Moro," 1512; F. Warner. "Memoirs 
 of the Life of Sir T More," 175S : C. More, " Life of Sir T. More," 
 1S2S; Domrnico Rbggi, "VitadiT. More." 1675: Arthur Cay- 
 i.hv. " Memoirs of Sir T. More," 2 vols., 180S; C. Dareste, "T. 
 Moms et T. Campanello," 1S43 ; Audin, " Histoire de T. Morns," 
 iKfja : LORD Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors :" W. J. 
 Walter. " Life and Times of Sir T. More," 1847 : J. HonnRsnoN, 
 "T. Mori Vita," etc., 1652; Froude, " History of England ;" Rud- 
 hart, '* T. Mortis," 1820. 
 
 Moreau, mo'ro', (Cesar,) a French economist and 
 writer on statistics, was born at Marseilles in 1 791. He 
 has published several works on commerce, etc. 
 
 Moreau, (Francois Joseph,) a French physician, 
 born at Auxonne in 1789, practised in Paris. He pub- 
 lished a "Traite des Accouchements," (2 vols., 183S-41.) 
 Died in 1862. 
 
 Moreau, (Hegesippe,) a French poet, born in Pans 
 in 1 8 10, was the author of songs, elegies, and satires, of 
 
 * This statement is contradicted by Fronde, who says, " Soon after 
 the seals changed hands, the Smithfield fires recommenced : and, the 
 chancellor acting in concert with them, the bishops resolved to ob- 
 literate, in these edifying spectacles, the recollection of their general 
 infirmities." He afterwards cites the case of Bainham, who was 
 burned in April, 1532, a short time before More resigned the office 
 of chancellor. The account of Bainham's execution appears to rest 
 noon the single testimony of Foxe, who, though generally trust- 
 worthy, might possibly be mistaken, especially when fee was obliged 
 to depend wholly on the statements of others. He was but a boy 
 when Bainham's death took place. More, whose word is not to be 
 lightly set aside, expressly denies in his " Apology" (published the 
 next year) that he was guilty of any cruel treatment of the heretics. 
 If the denial was false, there were doubtless many then living who 
 could prove it to be so. It appears, however, never to have been 
 contradicted. How far he was responsible for the acts of the bishops 
 it is difficult to say. 
 
 i, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 3, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; not; good; moon ; 
 
MOREAU 
 
 1625 
 
 MORELIUS 
 
 considerable merit, anil a prose work, entitled "The 
 Mistletoe of the Oak," (" Le Gui de Chene.") He died, 
 in great poverty, in 1838. 
 
 Moreau, (Jacob Nicolas,) a French writer, born at 
 Saint-Florentin in 1717, was appointed historiographer 
 of France under Louis XVI. He wrote a " Discourse 
 on the History of Fiance," " Duties of a Prince," and 
 other works. Died in 1803. 
 
 Moreau, (Jean Baptiste,) a French musician and 
 composer, born at Angers in 1656, was patronized at the 
 court of Louis XIV., and was employed by Racine to 
 compose the choruses for his "Athalie" and "Esther." 
 Died in 1733. 
 
 Moreau, (Jean Michel.) a French engraver and 
 designer, born in Paris in 1741, became draughtsman of 
 the royal cabinet, and a member of the Academy of 
 Painting. He executed one hundred and sixty plates 
 for the " History of France," and upwards of one hun- 
 dred for editions of Voltaire and Moliere. Died in 1814. 
 
 See "Nonvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Moreau, (Iean Victor,) one of the most eminent 
 generals of France, was born at Morlaix, in Brittany, 
 August 11, 1763. He studied law, and was provost of 
 law at Rennes just before the Revolution. In 1792 he 
 enlisted in the republican army, and, as chef de batiillon, 
 served under Dumouriez. He became a general of 
 brigade in 1793, and a general of division in 1794. In 
 the latter year he commanded with Mat the right wing 
 of Pichegru's army, which conquered Holland. In the 
 spring of 1796 he succeeded Pichegru as commander-in- 
 chief of the army of the Rhine and Moselle, and opened 
 the campaign which was the foundation of his military 
 fame. His passage of the Rhine at Strasbourg was greatly 
 applauded. He drove the Austrians back to the Danube, 
 and then, finding his army outnumbered, after several 
 indecisive actions he performed the famous and masterly 
 retreat through the Black Forest, which was one of his 
 chief exploits. He was suspended from the command 
 in 1707 by the Directory, who probably suspected him 
 of complicity in the defection of his friend Pichegru. 
 
 The reverses of the French having rendered his ser- 
 vices necessary, he was appointed general-in-chief of the 
 army of Italy in the spring of 1799. At the battle of 
 Novi lie had three horses killed under him, and marie a 
 skilful retreat, soon after which he was transferred to 
 the command of the army of the Rhine. In the political 
 crisis of 18th Brumaire, (November 9, 1799,) Moreau 
 was in Paris, and consented to support Bonaparte in 
 Subverting the power of the Directory. Some suppose 
 that if he had been less modest, or more ambitious, he 
 might have acted the principal role in that great drama. 
 The First Consul intrusted to Moreau the command of 
 the army of Germany, and dictated to him a plan of the 
 campaign, which the latter refused to adopt. "Moreau 
 would not submit," says Alison, "to the indignity of 
 acting as second in command to his former rival, and 
 said, * I have no notion of seeing a little Louis XIV. at 
 the head of my army.'" ("History of Europe.") 
 
 After an angry discussion, he persisted in his own plan, 
 and, while Bonaparte marched to the conquest of Italy, 
 he invaded the valley of the Danube in May, 1800, with 
 about 100,000 men. Between the 1st and 10th of May 
 he defeated the Austrians under Kray at Engen and 
 Biberach. In the next month he gained a decisive vic- 
 tory at Hochstadt, near Blenheim. After an armistice 
 of a few months, the two armies met on December 3, 
 1800, at Hohenlinden, where Moreau won a very im- 
 portant victory, which induced the Austrians to sue for 
 peace. The war being thus ended, he went to Paris, 
 and became the chief of a party composed of royalists 
 and republicans united bv their enmity to Napoleon. 
 
 In 1804 he was arrested as an accomplice in Pichegru's 
 conspiracy, and, although they failed to prove that he 
 had any active part in it, he was sentenced to two years' 
 imprisonment, which was commuted to exile in the 
 United States. He resided with his wife at Morrisville, 
 Pennsylvania, and in the city of New York, until over- 
 tures from the Czar of Russia induced him to return to 
 Europe in July, 1813. He was caressed by the allied 
 sovereigns and received with triumphal demonstrations 
 by the people of Germany. The Czar said to Moreau, 
 
 (who, it appears, was still a republican,) "I know your 
 opinions; I will do nothing which can thwart them, and 
 will leave France perfectly free." With these vietvs, he 
 co-operated with the allies against the French, and was 
 mortally wounded at Dresden, August 27, 1813. He 
 announced the fact by letter to his wife in these terms : 
 "At the battle of Dresden, three days ago, I had both 
 legs carried off by a cannon-ball. That rascal Bonaparte 
 is always fortunate. Excuse my scrawl," etc. 
 
 See Lhmairh, " Vie iinpartiale du General Moreau," 1814 ; " Me- 
 moirs of General Moreau." by J. Phiuppart ; Garat, " FJoge de 
 Moreau," 1814 I " Life and Campaigns of Victor Moreau," (translated 
 from the French:) A- dk Bkauchamp, "Vie politique, miliiaire et 
 privet du G^ne>al Moreau," 1814: ChAteauneuf, " Histoire du 
 General Moreau," etc., 1814; Fauche-Bokkl, "Notices sur les 
 Generaux Pichegru et Moreau," 1807; Hassr, "Moreau, sein 
 I.eben," etc., 1814 ; Cousin d'Avai.lon, "Histoire du General 
 Moreau," 1814: " Nouvelle Biographie Gt5ne>ale:" Thikrs, "His- 
 tory of the French Revolution ;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 
 1814. 
 
 Moreau-Christophe, mo'ro' kRes'tof, (Louis Ma- 
 thurin,) a French economist, born near Tours in 1799. 
 He was sent to foreign countries to examine prisons, 
 and wrote several works on the discipline and reform 
 of prisons. 
 
 Moreau de la Rochette, mo'ro' deh If ro'sheV, 
 (Francois Thomas,) a French horticulturist, born in 
 Champagne in 1720, founded near La Rochette an agri- 
 cultural school. Died in 1791. 
 
 Moreau de Jonnes, mo'16' deh zho'nes', (Alexan- 
 dre,) a French writer, born near Rennes in 1778, was 
 the author of a number of treatises on mineralogy, 
 statistics, and other scientific subjects. 
 
 Moreau de la Sarthe, mo'ro' deh If sf in, (Jacques 
 Louis,) a French physician and able writer, born near 
 Le Mans in 1771. He published several professional 
 works. Died in Paris in 1826. 
 
 Moreau de l'Youne, mo'ro' deh le<m', a French 
 politician, born near Tonnerre in 1750, was elected in 
 1798 to the Council of Ancients. Died in 1806. 
 
 Moreau de Saint-M6ry, mo'ro' deh sa.N ma're', 
 (MedEric Louis Elie,) born, of French parentage, in 
 the isle of Martinique in 1750, was administrator-general 
 of the duchies of Parma and Piacenza from 1802 to 1806. 
 He wrote several descriptive and scientific works. Died 
 in 1819. 
 
 Moreaux, mo'ro', (Jean Rene,) a French general, 
 born at Rocroi in 1758. He commanded the army of 
 the Moselle in 1794, and took Treves and Coblentz. 
 Died in February, 1795. 
 
 Moreelze, mo-ral'zeh, (Paul,) a Dutch painter, born 
 at Utrecht in 1571, was a pupil of M. Mirevelt. He 
 enjoyed a high reputation as a portrait-painter, and was 
 extensively patronized by the nobility. Died in 1638. 
 
 Morel, mo'rel', (Claude,) a French printer, born in 
 1574, was a son of Federic the Elder, noticed below. 
 Died in 1626. 
 
 Morel, (Federic,) called the Elder, a celebrated 
 French printer, born in Champagne in 1523, was ap- 
 pointed printer to the king in 1571. Died in 1583. 
 
 Morel, (Federic,) the Younger, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in Paris in 1558. He was distinguished 
 as a Greek scholar, and the editions of the classics 
 issued from his press were conspicuous for their accu- 
 racy and the beauty of the typography. He succeeded 
 his father as royal printer in 1583. Died in 1630. 
 
 Morel, (Guillaume,) a French printer, born at Til- 
 leul in 1 505, was noted for the beauty and accuracy of 
 his editions of the classics. He became printer to the 
 king in 1555. Died in 1564. 
 
 Morel, (Jean,) a French poet, born in Champagne in 
 1539; died in 1633. 
 
 Morel. (Jean Marie,) a French architect and gar- 
 dener, born in Lyons in 1728. He had a high reputation 
 as a designer of gardens. Died in 1810. 
 
 See J. B. Dumas, "Notice sur J. M. Morel," 1825. 
 
 Morel de Vind6, mo'rel' deh vaN'da', (Charles 
 GILBERT,) Vjcomte, a French writer and agriculturist, 
 born in Paris in 1759; died in 1842. 
 
 Morel-Fatio, mo'rel' ff'te'o', (Antoine Leon,) a 
 French landscape and marine painter, burn at Rouen 
 in 1810. 
 
 Morelius. See Morely. 
 
 e as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; *h as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MORELL 
 
 1626 
 
 MORGAGNI 
 
 Morell, mo'rel', (Andre,) a Swiss antiquary, distin- 
 guished for his profound knowledge of numismatics, 
 born at Berne in 1646. His principal work is entitled 
 "Thesaurus Morellianus," being a description of the 
 coins of the Roman families. It was left unfinished. 
 Died in 1703. 
 
 Mo-rell', (GEORGE W.,) an American general, born 
 at Cooperstown, New York, graduated at West Point in 
 1835. He was appointed a brigadier-general of Union 
 volunteers in 1861. He commanded a division at the 
 battles of Gaines's Mill and Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862. 
 
 Mo-rell', (J. D.,) an English contemporary writer, 
 has published "An Historical and Critical View of the 
 Speculative Philosophy of Europe in the Nineteenth 
 Century," (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1846,) "The Philosophy 
 of Religion," (1849,) and other works. He contributed to 
 the " Encyclopaedia Britannica" the article on " National 
 Education." 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for October, 1846; "British Quarterly 
 Review" for August, 1849 ; " North British Review," vol. XI. 
 
 Morell, (Thomas,) an English scholar and critic, 
 born at Eton in 1703. He published an edition of Hede- 
 rich's "Greek Lexicon," (1762,) and was a contributor 
 to Hogarth's "Analysis of Beauty." He also edited 
 Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," and several Greek and 
 Latin classics. Died in 1784. 
 
 See Harwood, "Alumni Etonenses." 
 
 Morellet, mo'ri'li', (Andre,) Abb£, an eminent 
 French litterateur, born in Lyons in 1727, was educated in 
 the Sorbonne, at Paris. He became a friend of Voltaire, 
 Rousseau, Diderot, and D'Alembert, to whose " Ency- 
 clopedic" he contributed. He translated into French 
 Beccaria's treatise "On Crimes and Penalties," (1766,) 
 and wrote several treatises on political economy, and 
 many other works, among which is " Melanges of Lite- 
 rature and Philosophy of the Eighteenth Century," (4 
 vols., 1818.) In 1785 he was admitted into the French 
 Academy, the archives of which he concealed at the risk 
 of his life in the reign of terror. Died in 1819. 
 
 See Lemontey, " filoge de Morellet," prefixed to Morellet's 
 "Memoires," 2 vols., 1821 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Gerierale;" 
 " Morellet and his Contemporaries," in the " North American Re- 
 view" for October, 1822, (by A. H. Everett.) 
 
 Morelli, mo-rel'lee, (Cosimo,) a distinguished Italian 
 architect, born at Imola in 1732. He was employed by 
 Pope Pius VI. to construct the cathedrals of Macerata 
 and Imola, and other edifices in the Pontifical States. 
 Died in 18 12. 
 
 See Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Morelli, (Giacomo,) an eminent Italian critic and 
 bibliographer, born at Venice in 1745, became a priest, 
 and was appointed librarian at Saint Mark's, Venice, in 
 1778. He published, among other valuable works, a 
 * Historical Dissertation on the Library of Saint Mark," 
 (1774,) and "Library of Greek and Latin Manuscripts," 
 (1802.) Many of his minor works were published in 
 1820, under the title of "Operette," (3 vols. 8vo.) Died 
 in 1819. 
 
 See Moschini, " Narrazione della Vita di G. Morelli," 1819 : 
 Zendkini, " Elogio di Morelli," 1S21 : Tipai.do, "Biografia degli 
 Italiani illustri;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Morelli, (Maria Maddai.kna,) an Italian poetess 
 and intprovisatrice, born at Pistoiain 1740 ; died in 1S00. 
 
 Morelly, mo'i&'le', a French writer on socialism, 
 born about 1750. He published an able work entitled 
 "The Code of Nature," which was attributed to Diderot, 
 "The Basiliade," a political romance, and a number of 
 treatises on various subjects. 
 
 Morelos, mo-ia'lds, (Don JosE Maria,) a Mexican 
 patriot and general, born in New Mexico in 1780. He 
 joined the insurgent army under Hidalgo in 1810, and 
 subsequently became leader of a band composed chiefly 
 of negro slaves, with whom he carried on a successful 
 guerilla warfare for a time against the Spaniards. He 
 was made prisoner in 1815, and soon after executed at 
 Mexico. 
 
 See Don Jose Guerra, " Historia de la Revolucion de Nueva 
 Espaua," 1813. 
 
 Morely or Morelly, mo'ri'le', [Lat. More'lius,] 
 (Jean Baptistk,) a French Protestant, noted for his 
 efforts to organize the Church on democratic principles, 
 
 tian Discipline" (1561) was condemned by several Prot- 
 estant synods. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 " Me'moires." 
 
 Morenas, mo'reh-nis', (Joseph ElzEar,) a French 
 Orientalist, ljorn near Carpentras in 1778. He wrote 
 "On the Castes of India," (1822,) and other works. 
 Died in Mingrelia in 1830. 
 
 Moreno, mo-ra'no, (JosB,) a Spanish painter, born at 
 Burgos in 1642; died in 1674. 
 
 See Cean-Bermudez, " Diccionario Historico," etc. 
 
 Moreno, (Juan,) a Spanish admiral, born at Cadiz 
 in 1743 ; died in 1817. 
 
 Moreri, mo'ra're', (Louis,) a learned French eccle- 
 siastic, born in Provence in 1643. He published in 1674 
 his " Historical Dictionary," (" Grand Dictionnaire His- 
 torique," 1 vol. fol.,) a work of rare merit. He died in 
 1680, leaving unfinished his great work, which has been 
 extended by subsequent writers to ten volumes, (Paris, 
 
 I759-) 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Mores, morz, (Edward Rowe,) an English antiquary, 
 born in 1730. He published several works on English 
 antiquities. Died in 1778. 
 
 Moret, mo-ret', (JosE,) a Spanish historian, born at 
 Pampeluna in 1615. Among his works is a History of 
 Navarre, ("Annates del Regno de Navarra," 5 vols., 
 1715.) Died in 1705. 
 
 Moret, de, deh mo'rk', (Antoine de Bourbon — 
 deh booR'biN',) Count, a natural son of Henry IV. of 
 France, was born in 1607, and legitimated in 1608. He 
 joined Gaston, Duke of Orleans, in his revolt against 
 Louis XIII. in 1631, and was killed or wounded at the 
 battle of Castelnaudary, in September, 1632. According 
 to some accounts, he survived till 1691. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Moreto y Cabana, mo-ra'to e ka-Ban'ya, (Don Au- 
 gustin,) a celebrated Spanish dramatist, born about 
 1600. Among his best works we may name " The Brave 
 Justiciary," ("El valiente Justiciero,") " El Lindo Don 
 Diego," and "Disdain for Disdain," ("Desden con el 
 Desden." The last is said to have been the original 
 of Moliere's "Princesse d'filide." Died in 1669. 
 
 See Ticknor, "Historyof Spanish Literature;" Ochoa, " Tea- 
 tro Espaiiol ;" A. F. von ScHACK, "Geschichte der dramatischen 
 Literatur in Spanien." 
 
 Moretti, mo-ret'tee, (Gaetano,) an Italian astrono- 
 mer, born at Bologna, was author of several scientific 
 treatises. Died in 1697. 
 
 Moretti, (Giuseppe,) an Italian savant, born at Pavfa 
 in 1783, became professor of botany at that city in 1832. 
 Among his works is "Biblioteca Agraria." Died in 1S53. 
 
 Moretto da Brescia. See Bonvicino. 
 
 Mor'fit, (Campbell,) an American chemist, born at 
 Herculaneum, Missouri, in 1820. He was associated 
 with Professor Booth in 1848 as editor of the "Ency- 
 clopaedia of Chemistry." He has published, among 
 other works, "Applied Chemistry in the Manufacture 
 of Soap and Candles," (1847,) "Chemical and Phar- 
 maceutic. Manipulations," (1848,) and "Perfumery, its 
 Manufacture and Use." 
 
 Morgagni, moR-gan'yee, (Giambattista,) an eminent 
 Italian physician and anatomist, born at Forll in 1682. 
 He studied at Bologna, where he became the favourite 
 pupil of Valsalva, and in 1715 he was appointed pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Padua. His principal work is 
 entitled " On the Seat and Causes of Diseases discovered 
 by Anatomy," (" De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per 
 Anatomen indagatis," 2 vols., 1762.) It was translated 
 into French, Italian, English, and German, and still en- 
 joys a very high reputation. His " Adversaria Anato- 
 mica" is also highly esteemed. Morgagni made several 
 valuable discoveries, and he has been called the founder 
 of pathological anatomy. He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society of London, and a member of the principal 
 Academies of Europe. Died in 1771. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium :" Fon- 
 tenei.le, " Eloge de Morgagni ;" Mosca, "Vita di G. B. Mor- 
 gagni," 1768: Torrksini, "Elogio storico di G. B. Morgagni," 
 1844; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 «, e, I, o, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MORGAN 
 
 1627 
 
 MORILLO 
 
 Mor'gan, (Charles \V.,) an American commodore, 
 born in Virginia in 1790; died in 1853. 
 
 Morgan, (DANIEL,) an American officer, born in 
 New Jersey in 1736, served with distinction in the war 
 of the Revolution. He was present at the capture of 
 Burgoyne, and commanded a brigade at the battle of 
 Cowpens, (1781,) where he gained a signal victory, for 
 which a gold medal was awarded him by Congress. 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 See the "Life of Daniel Morgan," by James Graham, 1S56, and 
 the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. 
 
 Morgan, (EDWIN I).,) an American Senator, born in 
 Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1811. He became 
 at an tally age a merchant in the city of New York. 
 He w.is elected Governor of New York by the Repub- 
 licans in i8vS, and again in i860. He was elected to 
 the United States Senate from New York ill 1863 for 
 six years. 
 
 Mor'gan, (George Cadogan,) born in Wales in 
 1754, became pastor of a dissenting church at Norwich, 
 England, in 1776, and subsequently professor of physics 
 at Hackney. He published "Lectures on Electricity," 
 and other scientific works. Died in 1798. 
 
 Morgan, (George W.,) an American general, born 
 in Western Pennsylvania about 1820, practised law in 
 Ohio before the civil war. He became a brigadier-gen- 
 eral of Union volunteers about November, 1861. He 
 took Cumberland Gap in June, 1862, and evacuated the 
 same in September of that year. 
 
 Morgan, (Sir 1 1 en ry,) a Welsh buccaneer, born about 
 1637, commanded several expeditions against the Span- 
 iards, and captured Porto Hello and Panama. He was 
 afterwards made a knight, and appointed Governor of 
 Jamaica by Charles II. Died in 1690. 
 
 See Van Tenac, " Histoire generale de la Marine." 
 
 Morgan, (James D.,) an American officer, born in 
 Boston in 1810, removed in 1834 to Illinois, and in 1862 
 became brigadier-general of volunteers. 
 
 Morgan, (JoHN II.,) all American guerilla chief, 
 born near Lexington, Kentucky, or, according to sonic- 
 authorities, at Huntsville, Alabama, in 1826. He took 
 command of a troop of cavalry in 1861, and distinguished 
 himself by his audacity in several raids against the rail- 
 roads and other public works in Kentucky and Ten- 
 nessee. He was appointed a major-general in 1862. In 
 July, 1863, he crossed the Ohio River with about 4000 
 men, and made a raid into Indiana and Ohio, where he 
 destroyed railroads, bridges, etc. He was captured in 
 Ohio and confined in the penitentiary, from which he 
 escaped, by digging, about the end of November, 1863. 
 In September, 1864, he was surprised in the night at 
 Greenville, Tennessee, by the troops of General Gillem, 
 and was killed. 
 
 See a Sketch of his Life in " Southern Generals," 1865. 
 
 Morgan, (Lady Sydney,) a distinguished authoress, 
 born at Dublin in 1789, was the daughter of an actor 
 named Owenson. At an early age she published several 
 romances, one of which, "The Wild Irish Girl," (1S06,) 
 was very popular. In 1812 she was married to Sir Charles 
 Morgan, whom in 1816 she accompanied to France and 
 Italy, and the result of her travels appeared soon after, 
 in her two works entitled " Fiance," (1817,) and " Italy," 
 (1821.) Among her other productions we may name 
 "Florence Macarthy," (1816,) "Absenteeism," (1825,) 
 "The O'Briens and O'Flahertys," (1827,) "The Book 
 of the Houdoir," (1829,) and "Woman and her Master," 
 (1855.) In 1851 she published a "Letter to Cardinal 
 Wiseman." Died in 1859. 
 
 See "Lady Morgan, her Career, Literary and Personal," by W. 
 J. FlTZPATMCJt ; " Autobioerap'ly of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap, 
 v. : " Edinburgh Review'' Tor July. 1S33 ; " Llackwnod's Magazine" 
 for February, 1863 : " Westntinsler Review*' for April, 1863 : " Fra 
 <:" for February, 1831, and November, 1833: "Monthly 
 Review" tor December, 180S, and October and November, 1817. 
 
 Mor'gan, (Sir Thomas Chari.es,) M.D., an English 
 physician, born in London about 1783. In 1811 he was 
 made a baronet, and the next year married Miss Owen- 
 son, who was already known as an authoress. He soon 
 after settled in Ireland, where he advocated Catholic 
 emancipation. He wrote " Sketches of the Philosophy 
 of Life," and "Sketches of the Philosophy of Morals." 
 
 He also contributed to Lady Morgan's "France" and 
 "The Book without a Name." Died in 1843. 
 
 Morgan, (Wii.i.i am,) a learned divine, born in Wales, 
 was appointed in 1601 Bishop of Saint Asaph. He 
 assisted in translating into Welsh the Bible published 
 in 1588. Died in 1604. 
 
 Morgan, (William,) a Welsh mathematician, born 
 in Glamorganshire, held the office of actuary to the 
 Ecpiitable Assurance Company, London. He published 
 a "Review of Dr. Crawford's Theory of Heat," and 
 other works. Died in 1833. 
 
 Morgan, (William,) an American mechanic, born 
 in Virginia about 1775, removed subsequently to Batavia, 
 New York. In 1826 he was abducted from his home and 
 murdered by a band of Freemasons for having written a 
 work professing to disclose the secrets of their society. 
 
 See Allen. "American Biographical Dictionary;" " New Amer- 
 ican Cyclopaedia; "Gazetteer of the State of New York," by J. 
 H. Fkench, p. 323. 
 
 Morgan, De. See De Morgan. 
 
 Morghen, moR'gen, (Raeaelle Sanzio,) an eminent 
 Italian engraver, of Dutch extraction, born at Florence 
 in 1758, became professor of engraving in the Academy 
 of Arts in his native city. His prints are numerous and 
 of great excellence. Among his master-pieces are his 
 "Transfiguration," after Raphael, "The Last Supper," 
 after Leonardo da Vinci, and Guido's "Aurora." He 
 was a member of the French Institute. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgemeines KUnstler-Lexikon ;" Palmerini, 
 " Notice of R. Morghen," (in Italian,) 1824. 
 
 Morgues, de. See Mourgues, ,de. 
 
 Morhof, moR'hof, [Lat. Morho'fius, | (Danie& 
 Geokg,) a German scholar, born at Wismar in 1639, 
 became professor of poetry and eloquence at Kiel in 
 1665, and obtained the chair of history at that place in 
 1673. He published, besides many other works in prose 
 and verse, a valuable contribution to literary history, 
 entitled "Polyhistor, sive de Notitia Auctorum et Rerum 
 Commentarii," (3 vols., 1688-92.) Died in 1691. 
 
 See his Autobiography, "Vita propria ab Anno 1639 ad 1671," 
 1699; J. M011.EK. " De Vila. Merilis Scriptisque D. G. Morhofii," 
 1710: Nic^ron, "M&noires." 
 
 Morhofius. See Morhof. 
 
 Morice de Beaubois, mo'ress'deh bo'bwS', (Pierre 
 IIyacinthe,) a French Benedictine monk and writer, 
 born at Quimperle in 1693. He wrote a " History of 
 Bretagne," (2 vols., 1750-56.) Died in 1750. 
 
 Morier, mo'n-er, (James,) a popular English novelist, 
 born about 1780. Having been appointed secretary to 
 the English embassy in Persia, he became versed in 
 the Oriental tongues. He published, after his return, a 
 "Journey through Persia, Armenia," etc., (1812,) "Ad- 
 ventures of Haji Baba of Ispahan," (5 vols., 1824,) a 
 brilliant and entertaining romance, giving the experi- 
 ences of a Persian in England, which had a wide popu- 
 larity, "Zohrab the Hostage," (1832,) and "Ayesha, the 
 Maid of Kars," (1834.) Died in 1849. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Revieyv" for December, 1832, and 
 June, 1834; "Eraser's Magazine" for November, 1832; "Monthly 
 Review" for April, 1824. 
 
 Morigia, mo-ree'ji, (Giacomo Antonio,) an Italian 
 cardinal, born at Milan in 1632. He became Archbishop 
 of Florence about 1683. Died in 1708. 
 
 Morigia, (Paolo,) an Italian historian, born at Milan 
 in 1525, wrote on the antiquities of Milan, etc. Died 
 in 1604. 
 
 Morike or Moerike, mo're-keh, (Eduard,) a Ger- 
 man poet, born at Ludwigsburg in 1804. Me was the 
 author of the "Idyl of Lake Constance," (1846,) and 
 several novels and dramatic tales. 
 
 Morillo, 1110 re.l'yo, (Don Paulo,) a Spanish general, 
 born in the province of Toro in 1777. Having carried 
 on a guerilla warfare against the French for several 
 years, he was sent in 1815 to subdue the revolted prov- 
 inces of South America. He fought with varying suc- 
 cess against Bolivar, with whom he concluded a truce in 
 1820. After Morillo's return to Spain he served for a 
 time in the royalist army. He died in 1S38, leaving 
 Memoirs of his campaigns in America, which were 
 translated into French. 
 
 See M'Rll.Lo's "Memoirs, relating the Principal Events of his 
 Campaigns," translated into French by E. D. K'losskvii.le. 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MORIN 
 
 1628 
 
 MORLIERE 
 
 Morin, mo'raN', (Arthur Julks,) a French mathe- 
 matician and general, born in Paris in 1795, was ap- 
 pointed in 1852 director of the Conservatory of Arts and 
 Trades. He published numerous important treatises on 
 mechanics, hydraulics, mathematics, etc. He became a 
 member of the Institute. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G<*neVale." 
 
 Morin, (Etienne,) a French Protestant divine, born 
 at Caen in 1625. He studied at Leyden, and became in 
 1686 professor of Oriental languages at Amsterdam. 
 He published, among other works, "Exercises on the 
 Primitive Language," (in Latin, 1694,) in which he at- 
 tempts to prove that the Hebrew was the language of 
 Paradise. Died in 1700. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Morin, (Frederic,) a French writer, born at Lyons 
 in 1823, published a "Dictionary of Philosophy and 
 Scholastic Theology," (2 vols., 1857,) and other works. 
 He also contributed to the "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Morin, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Blois 
 in 1591. He was distinguished for his knowledge of the 
 Oriental tongues and biblical literature. Among his 
 principal works we may name " Biblical Exercises," 
 (" Exercitationes Biblicae,") and an edition of the " Sa- 
 maritan Pentateuch," with a Latin version. Died in 1659. 
 
 See Perrault, " Homines illustres;" Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Morin, (Jean,) a French natural philosopher, born 
 at Meung-sur-Loire in 1705. He published, besides 
 other works, "Le Mecanisnie universel," (1735.) Died 
 in 1764. 
 
 Morin, (Jean.) a French painter and engraver, born 
 in Paris about 1609. Among his best works are prints 
 of the "Madonna," after Raphael, and portraits of De 
 Thou and Marie de Medicis. Died about 1666. 
 
 Morin, (Jean Baptists,) a French savant, born at 
 Villefranche in 1583, was appointed in 1630 professor of 
 mathematics in the Roval College. He was devoted to 
 astrology, and he is said to have been consulted by Car- 
 dinal Richelieu and other distinguished men. He wrote 
 " Astrologia Gallica," and a number of treatises on 
 mathematics and astronomy. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Delamrrr, " Histoire de l'Astronomie modeme ;" Nice- 
 Ron. "Memoires." 
 
 Morin, (Louis,) a French physician and botanist of 
 high reputation, born at Mans in 1636. Tie was the 
 author of several medical and scientific treatises. In 
 1707 he succeeded Dodart as botanist to the French 
 Academy of Sciences. Died in 1715. 
 
 Morin, (Pierre,) a French philologist, born in Paris 
 in 1531, was employed by Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V. 
 on editions of the Bible called Septuagint and Vulgate, 
 (1590.) Died at Rome in ifioS. 
 
 Morin, (Simon,) a French fanatic, born near Aumale, 
 in Normandy, published works of a visionary and pro- 
 fane nature. He was condemned in 1663 to be burned 
 alive for having prophesied the death of the king. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Mor'I-son, (John,) D.D., a Scottish Presbyterian 
 divine, born in Aberdeenshire in 1791. He became in 
 1816 minister of Trevor Chapel, London, and in 1824 
 was appointed editor of the " Evangelical Magazine," 
 which post he occupied for thirty-two years. He was 
 the author of several popular works, among which we 
 may name " Lectures on the Reciprocal Obligations of 
 Life," etc., (1822,) " Book of Family Worship," (1836,) 
 and "Counsels to a Newly- Wedded Pair." Died in 1859. 
 
 See Rev. Robert Steel, "Burning and Shining Lights," 1864. 
 
 Morison, (Robert,) a Scottish physician and emi- 
 nent botanist, bom at Aberdeen in 1620, was patronized 
 by Charles II., who made him his physician and be- 
 stowed on him a pension. He became professor of 
 botany at Oxford in 1669. He was the author of a 
 "Universal History of Plants," "New Distribution of 
 Umbelliferous Plants," (1672,) and other works, (in 
 Latin.) Plumier named in his honour the genus Mori- 
 sonia. Died in 1683. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena? Oxonienses:" Covier, " Histoire des Sci- 
 ences naturelles ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen." 
 
 Morisot, mo're'zo', (Claude Barthelemi,) a French 
 writer, born at Dijon in 1592, wrote a historical romance 
 entitled " Peruviana," or the secret history of Cardinal 
 Richelieu, Marie de Medicis, and Gaston, Duke of Or- 
 leans. Died in 1661. 
 
 Moritz, mo'rlts, (Karl Philipp,) known also by his 
 pseudonym of Anton Reiser, a German writer of 
 considerable genius but eccentric and unsteady char- 
 acter, was born at Hameln in 1757. Having visited 
 England and Italy, he was appointed, after his return, 
 professor of archaeology and aesthetics at the Academy 
 of Fine Arts, Berlin, (1789.) Among his principal works 
 we may name " Anton Reiser," a psychological romance, 
 (1785,) said to be an autobiography somewhat idealized, 
 " Essay on German Prosody," (1786,) and "Fragments 
 from the Journal of a Visionary," (1787.) Moritz was a 
 friend of Goethe, and was the first, it is said, to recognize 
 and encourage the genius of Jean Paul Richter. Died 
 in 1793. 
 
 See Ki.ischnig, " Erinnerungen aus den zehn letzen Lebensjah 
 ren nieines Freundes A. Reiser," 1794. 
 
 Mork, Moerk, moRk, or Moerks, moRks, (Jacob 
 Henrik,) a Swedish author and minister, born at Stock- 
 holm in 1714; died in 1763. 
 
 Morla, moR'la, (Don Tomas,) a Spanish general, 
 born in 1752. He surrendered Madrid to Napoleon in 
 1808, and entered the service of King Joseph. Died 
 in 1820. 
 
 Morlacchi, mor-lak'kee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 composer of sacred music and operas, born at Perugia 
 in 1784. He lived many years at Dresden. Died 1111841. 
 
 Mor'land, (GEORGE,) an English painter, born in 
 London in 1764, excelled in delineations of rural land- 
 scapes, scenes in low life, and domestic animals, par- 
 ticularly pigs. He spent his leisure time chiefly in 
 ale-houses, and died in 1804, a victim of intemperance. 
 His works are numerous, and command high prices. 
 
 See Cunningham, "Lives of Painters and Sculptors;" G. Dawe, 
 " Life of Morland ;" J. Hassei., »" Memoirs of George Morland :" 
 W. Collins. "Memoirs of the Life of George Morlaud," 1806; 
 "Monthly Review" for August, 1K0S. 
 
 Morland, (Sir Samuel,) an English mechanician and 
 inventor, born in Berkshire about 1625. He was sent in 
 1653 on an embassy to Sweden, and was subsequently 
 employed by Cromwell to intercede with the Duke of 
 Savoy on behalf of the persecuted Vaudois. After the 
 restoration he was made a baronet by Charles II., and 
 obtained other distinctions. He was the inventor of 
 the Tuba Stentorphonica, or speaking-trumpet, and an 
 arithmetical machine, and effected great improvements 
 in the fire-engine, steam-engine, efc. He published a 
 "Description of the Tuba Stentorphonica," (1671,) and 
 other scientific works ; also a " History of the Evan- 
 gelical Churches of Piedmont," (1658.) Died in 1695. 
 
 See Rees, "Cyclopaedia;" Clarendon, "History of the Re- 
 bellion." 
 
 Mor'ley, (George,) born in London in 1597, became 
 chaplain to Charles I. After the restoration he was 
 created Bishop of Worcester by Charles II. in 1660, 
 and of Winchester in 1662. He was a liberal patron 
 of learning, and bequeathed large sums for charitable 
 purposes. Died in 1684. 
 
 See Mii.ner, "History of Winchester ;" Wood, " Athenae Ox- 
 
 onienses. 
 
 Moiley, (Henry,) an English author and journalist, 
 born in London in 1822. He published a "Life of 
 Palissy the Potter," (1852,) a " Life of Jerome Cardan," 
 (1854,) "Memoirs of Bartholomew Fair," (1857,) and 
 other works. He became the editor of the " Examiner," 
 a weekly paper. 
 
 Morley, (Thomas,) an English musician and com- 
 poser. His compositions include anthems, madrigals, 
 and canzonets. He was the author of a valuable work 
 entitled " A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical 
 Musicke," (1597.) Died about 1604. 
 
 See Burney, " History of Music," etc. ; " Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Morliere, de la, deh It moit'le-aiR', (Charles Jac- 
 oues Louis Auguste de la Rochette,) Chevalier, 
 a French writer of romances, was born at Grenoble in 
 1 701. Among his works is "Angola," (1746.) Died 
 in 1785. 
 
 1, e, f, 0, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m4t; not; good; moon; 
 
MORLOT 
 
 1629 
 
 MORREN 
 
 Morlot, moR'lo', (Francois Nicolas Madeleine,) 
 a French prelate and writer, born at Langres in 1 795. 
 He became Archbishop of Tours in 1842, a cardinal in 
 l8<!3, and Archbishop of Paris in 1857. Died in 1862. 
 
 Mormando, moR-man'do, (GIOVANNI Francksco,) 
 an Italian architect, born at Florence about 1455, wa * 
 patronized by Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. He 
 designed the beautiful church of San Severino, and other 
 buildings, in Naples, Died in 1522. 
 
 Mornac, moR'ntk', (Antdink,) a French jurist, born 
 in 1554, enjoyed a high reputation in his time, and pub- 
 lished several legal works. Died in 1619. 
 
 Mornand, moR'nos', (Fei.ix,) a French writer and 
 journalist, born at Macon in 1815. He became chief 
 editor of the " Courrier de Paris" in 1857. 
 
 Mornay, de, deh moR'ni', (Philippe,) Seigneur du 
 Plessis-Marly, often called Du Plessis Mornay, a noble 
 French Protestant, eminent for virtue and talents, was 
 born at Buhy, in Vexin, in 1549. He studied law, the- 
 ology, and other sciences in Paris, Germany, and Italy. 
 In 1572 he narrowly escaped from the Massacre of Saint 
 Bartholomew, and in 1575 took arms for the Huguenots, 
 of whom he became one of the chiefs. He married in 
 1576. About this time he entered the service of Henry 
 of Navarre, who employed him in important negotiations 
 and reposed in him entire confidence. He took part in 
 the battle of Ivry in 1590, and then became a member 
 of Henry IV.'s council. Mornay retained the favour of 
 Henry after the latter had abjured his religion. In 1598 
 he published a "Treatise on the Institution of the Eu- 
 charist," which provoked the Catholics to challenge him 
 to a dispute. At a public conference before the king, in 
 1600, he was foiled by Duperron. It appears that one of 
 his own party had as unwisely as dishonourably furnished 
 him with forged quotations from the Fathers, which his 
 antagonist easily exposed. He was for many years the 
 virtual chief or oracle of the French Reformed Church, 
 and was styled "the Pope of the Huguenots." He left 
 many able religious works. Died in 1623. 
 
 See " Memoires He Plessis-Mornay," 4 vols., 1624-52; M. Cru- 
 shes, "Singulars Plessica." 1724; Dp. Thou, "Historia sui Tem- 
 poris;" J. Imhekt, " DuplesaU-Mornay," 1847: Sismondi, " His- 
 toire des Fraitcais;" L'Estdii.k. "Journal;" " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Gene'rale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1S34. 
 
 Mor'ning-ton, (Garret.) Farl of Wellesley, an Irish 
 nobleman, distinguished for his musical talent, born 
 about 1720, was father of the Duke of Wellington. He 
 became professor of music in the University of Dublin, 
 and composed a number of glees which are greatly ad- 
 mired. Died in 1781. 
 
 Morny, de, deh moR'ne', (Charles Auguste Louis 
 Joseph,) Comte, a French statesman, born in Paris in 
 181 1, was the reputed son of Hortense de Beauharnois 
 and Count Flahaut. He served for a time in Algeria, 
 and subsequently devoted himself to industrial and 
 financial speculations. He took an active part in the 
 coup d'etat of December, 1851, by which his half-brother, 
 Louis Napoleon, was made president, and was soon after 
 appointed minister of the interior. He resigned in 1852, 
 and became president of the legislative body in 1854. 
 Died in 1865. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale." 
 
 Moro, (Antonio.) See Moor. 
 
 Mo'ro, (Ckistokoro,) was an old man when he was 
 elected Doge of Venice, in 1462. He waged war against 
 the Sultan Mahomet II., who conquered Negropont 
 from the Venetians in 1470. Died in 1471. 
 
 Morogues, de, deh mo'rog', (Sehastien Francois 
 Bigot — be'go',) Vicomte, a French naval officer, born 
 at Brest in 1705. He wrote a good work on naval tac- 
 tics, "Tactique navale, ou Traite des Evolutions," etc., 
 (1763.) Died in 1781. 
 
 His grandson, Pierre Marie S£p.astien, Baron de 
 Morogues, (1776-1840,) wrote numerous works on rural 
 and political economy. 
 
 Morone, mo-ro'na, (Giovanni,) an Italian cardinal, 
 born at Milan in 1509, was patronized by the popes 
 Clement VII., Paul III., and Julius III., who employed 
 him in several important missions. Suspected of favour- 
 ing the Reformation, he was imprisoned by Paul IV. in 
 1557. Pius IV. sent him as his legate to the Council of 
 
 Trent, over which Morone presided when it closed, in 
 1563. He had been appointed Bishop of Novara about 
 1554. Died in 1580. 
 
 See Jacobei.u, " Vitadi Cardinale Morone;" Frederic Sclopis, 
 " Le Cardinal Jean Morone," 1868. 
 
 Morone or Moroni, mo-ro'nee, (Giovanni Bat- 
 tista,) an Italian painter, born at Albino in 1510, was a 
 pupil of Buonvicino. He excelled in portraits, of which 
 he executed a great number. Died in 1578. 
 
 Morone, (Giroi.amo,) a celebrated and adroit Italian 
 diplomatist, born in the Milanese about 1450, was the 
 father of Giovanni, noticed above. He was employed 
 by the Dukes of Milan. In 1526 he became secretary 
 and chief counsellor of Constable Bourbon. He was one 
 of the negotiators of the treaty between Charles V. and 
 Pope Clement VII. in 1527. Died in 1529. 
 
 See Robertson, " History of Charles V.," vol. ii. books ii. and iv. 
 
 Morosi, mo-ro'see, (Giuseppe,) a skilful Italian me- 
 chanician, was born in Tuscany in 1772. He invented 
 an automaton chess-player, and constructed, at Milan, 
 hydraulic machines for spinning cotton. Died in 1840. 
 
 Morosini, mo-ro-see'nee, [Lat. Mauroce'nus,] (An- 
 drea,) a Venetian senator, born in 1558, became a mem- 
 ber of the Council of Ten, and was appointed in 1598 
 historiographer of the republic. His principal work is 
 entitled " Historia Veneta," being a history of Venice 
 from 1521 to 1615. It is distinguished for its accuracy 
 and the elegance of its style. Died in 1618. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Morosini, (Domenico,) a Venetian admiral, born in 
 1080. He took part in the crusade in 1 122, and captured 
 Tyre. He was elected doge in 1 148. Died in 1156. 
 
 Morosini, (Francesco,) Doge of Venice, born in 1618, 
 was one of the first military commanders of his time. 
 Having defeated the Turks in several actions, he was 
 appointed in 1656 Governor of Candia. He afterwards 
 defended that island for nearly two years against the 
 grand vizier Mehemet Koprili, to whom he made an 
 honourable capitulation in 1669. For his subsequent 
 victories in the Morea he obtained the title of the Pelo- 
 ponnesiac. He was elected Doge of Venice in 1688, 
 having been previously appointed procurator of Saint 
 Mark. Died in 1694. 
 
 See Daru, " Histoire de Venise ;" Marino Sanuto. "Vite de* 
 Duchi di Venezia ;" Navagtero, " Storia Veneziana ;" A. Arkigio, 
 "Vita di F. Morosini," 1749; G. Graziani, " F. Mauroceni Gesta," 
 etc.. 1698. 
 
 Morosini, f'PAOi.o,) a Venetian linguist and able 
 diplomatist, born in 1406; died in 1483. 
 
 Morozzo, mo-rot'so, (Carlo Luigi,) Count, an 
 Italian savant and writer on physical science, was born 
 at Turin in 1744; died in 1804. 
 
 Morpeth, Lord. See Howard, (George William 
 Frederick.) 
 
 Morphee^ See Morpheus. 
 
 Mor'pheus, [Gr. Mo/>tj>eic ; Fr. Morphee, moR'fa',] 
 an inferior deity of the Greek and Roman mythology, 
 regarded as the son of Sleep and the god of dreams 
 and also of sleep. The name is derived from /mpQq, 
 (" form,") because he was supposed to give form to 
 the visions of the sleeper. 
 
 Mor'phy, (Paul Charles,) a celebrated American 
 chess-player, born at New Orleans in 1837. At the 
 Chess Congress in New York in 1857 he defeated many 
 of the best American players, and in 1858 visited Lon- 
 don and Paris, where the same success attended him 
 in his contests with the most distinguished players of 
 Europe. 
 
 Morrealese, H. See Novelli, (Pietro.) 
 
 Mor'rell, (Benjamin,) an American navigator, born 
 in Worcester county, Massachusetts, in 1795. He be- 
 came captain of a whaling-ship, and published " Narra- 
 tives of Four Voyages round the World," (1832.) Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Morren, mor'ren or mo'rON', (Charles Francois 
 Antoine,) a Belgian naturalist, born at Ghent in 1807. 
 He became professor of physics in that city in 1833, and 
 obtained the chair of botany at Liege in 1837. Among 
 his principal works we may name " Studies on Anatomy 
 aid Vegetable Physiology," (1841,) and "Researches on 
 the Rubefaction of Waters and their Oxygenation by 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (jgp*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MORRES 
 
 1650 
 
 MORRIS 
 
 Animalcules and Algae." He also published valuable 
 treatises on palaeontology and zoology, and was a liberal 
 contributor to the scientific journals of his own and other 
 countries. Died in December, 1858. 
 
 See Ed. Morren. " Notice sur C. Morren," i860. 
 
 Morres, mor'riss? (Harvey Redmond,) Viscount 
 Motintmorres, an English publicist. He was the author 
 of several political and historical works, among which we 
 may name " History of the Principal Acts of the Irish 
 Parliament from 1634 to 1666," etc., (1792,) and "The 
 Crisis : a Collection of Essays on Toleration, Public 
 Credit," etc., (1795.) He diecl by suicide in 1797. 
 
 See Collins, " Peerage of Ireland." 
 
 Mor'rill, (Justin S.,) an American legislator, born 
 in Strafford, Vermont, in 1810. He represented the 
 second district of Vermont, from 1855 t0 '865, in the 
 National House of Representatives, in which he served 
 (1864-65) as chairman of the committee of ways and 
 means. He was elected a Senator of the United States 
 for Vermont in October, 1866. He acts with the Re- 
 publican party. 
 
 Morrill, (Lor M.,) an American Senator, born in 
 Kennebec county, Maine, in 1815, became a lawyer. 
 He was Republican Governor of Maine three years, 
 (1858-60,) and was chosen Senator of the United States 
 in 1861. He was reelected Senator in 1863 for six 
 years, and again in 1869. 
 
 Mor'ris, (Charles,) an American commodore, born 
 in Connecticut in 1784. He was first lieutenant of the 
 Constitution when that ship captured the British frigate 
 Guerriere, in August, 1812. He had a high reputation 
 as a naval commander, commanded squadrons at several 
 foreign stations, and became chief of the ordnance 
 bureau. Died in 1856. 
 
 Morris, (Edward Joy,) an American writer, born in 
 Philadelphia in 1817. He represented the second dis- 
 trict of Pennsylvania in Congress from 1857 to 1861, 
 and acted with the People's party, which was afterwards 
 merged in the Republican party. About the end of 
 1861 he was appointed minister to Turkey. Among his 
 works is a "Tour through Turkey, Greece, and Egypt." 
 
 Morris, (Francis Orpen,) an English naturalist and 
 clergyman, born about 1810. He published a " History 
 of British Birds," (6 vols.,) " Anecdotes of Natural His- 
 tory," and other works. 
 
 Morris, (George P.,) an American lyric poet and 
 journalist, born at Philadelphia in 1802. He became 
 associate editor of the "New York Mirr«r" in 1823, and 
 in 1844 one of the editors of the "Evening Mirror," a 
 literary journal. He founded, conjointly with N. P. 
 Willis, the "Home Journal," (1846.) He published 
 a number of beautiful and popular songs, among which 
 we may name "My Mother's Bible," " Woodman, Spare 
 that Tree," and "Long Time Ago." He also wrote 
 "The Deserted Bride," and other poems, and a drama 
 entitled " Briercliff," and edited, conjointly with Mr. 
 Willis, "The Prose and Poetry of Europe and America." 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 See R. W. Griswold. "Poets and Poetry of America," p. 281: 
 DuvcKtNCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Cleve- 
 land, "Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Morris, (Gouverneur,) an able American statesman, 
 born at Morrisiana, in Westchester county, New York, 
 in January, 1752, was a half-brother of Ijewis Morris, 
 noticed below. He studied law, and was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the Provincial Congress of New York in 1775. 
 He became a delegate to the Continental Congress in 
 1777, and acquired'distinction as an eloquent public 
 speaker. About 1780 he removed to Philadelphia. He 
 was appointed assistant superintendent of finance by 
 Robert Morris in 1781, and served in that capacity for 
 three years or more. He was one of the Pennsylvania 
 delegates to the National Convention which framed the 
 Constitution of the United States in 1787. His services 
 in that convention were highly estimated by James 
 Madison. In December, 1788, he went on private busi- 
 ness to Paris, where he passed several years and kept a 
 diary which possesses much historical interest. He was 
 appointed minister from the United States to France early 
 in 1792, and was recalled in October, 1794. He acted 
 with the Federalist party, and was a friend of General 
 
 Washington, whom he is said to have resembled in per- 
 sonal appearance. In 1800 he was elected a Senator ot 
 the United States by the legislature of New York. His 
 term in the Senate expired in March, 1803, after which 
 he returned to private life. He married Anne C, Ran- 
 dolph, of Virginia, in 1809. He was one of the origin- 
 ators or promoters of the Erie Canal. Among his 
 writings are a "Eulogy on General Hamilton," and a 
 " Discourse on the Liberation of Europe from Military 
 Despotism," (1814.) Died at Morrisiana in November, 
 1816. "Morris was endued by nature," Bays James 
 Renwick, "with all the attributes necessary to the ac- 
 complished orator, — a fine and commanding person, a 
 most graceful demeanour, which was rather heightened 
 than impaired by the loss of one of his legs, and a voice 
 of much compass, strength, and richness." ("Life of 
 Clinton.") 
 
 See Tared Sparks, " Life of Gouverneur Morris, with Selections 
 from Ins Correspondence," 3 vols., 1832 ; " Encyclopaedia Ameri- 
 cana ;"" Nouvelle Biographie Generate :" Duyckinck, " Cyclopae- 
 dia of American Literature," vol. i. ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" 
 for October, 1832, and " North American Review" for April, 1832. 
 
 Morris, (Henry W.,) Commodore, an American 
 naval officer, born in 1805, was a son of Thomas Morris, 
 a member of the New York bar. He is said to have been 
 a grandson of Gouverneur Morris. He obtained the rank 
 of captain in 1856, and took command in January, 1862, 
 of the new steamer Pensacola, with which he contributed 
 to the victory gained by Captain Farragut below New 
 Orleans in April of that year. Died in New York in 
 August, 1863. 
 
 Morris, (Jacor,) an American officer, born in West- 
 chester county, New York, in 1755, was a son of Lewis 
 Morris, (1726-98.) He was aide-de-camp to General 
 Charles Lee, and distinguished himself at 'the defence 
 of Fort Moultrie. Died in 1844. 
 
 Morris, (Lewis,) an American jurist, born in West- 
 chester county, New Tork, became chief justice of that 
 State, and was elected in 1738 first Governor of New 
 Jersey. Died in 1746. 
 
 Morris, (Lewis,) a Welsh poet and antiquary, born 
 in 1702, made a valuable collection of ancient manu- 
 scripts, and published a number of poems in the Welsh 
 language. Died in 1765. 
 
 Morris, (Lewis,) an American patriot and signer of 
 the Declaration of Independence, born in Westchester 
 county, New York, in 1726, was a grandson of Lewis 
 Morris, (the first of the name,) and half-brother of Gou- 
 verneur Morris, noticed above. He was elected to the 
 Congress of 1775, and resumed his seat the following 
 year. Died in 1798. 
 
 Morris, (Robert,) a distinguished statesman and 
 financier, born in Lancashire, England, in 1734. At an 
 early age he removed to America and entered into 
 mercantile business in Philadelphia. He was a delegate 
 to Congress in 1775, and the following year signed 
 the Declaration of Independence. He was appointed 
 superintendent of finance in 1 781, being the first who 
 had filled that office in the United States, and by his 
 judicious and energetic measures rendered the most 
 important services to the cause of the patriots. " The 
 Americans," says a distinguished histor-an, "owe as 
 much acknowledgment to the financial operations of 
 Robert Morris as to the- negotiations of Denjamin 
 Franklin, or even the arms of George Washington." 
 He pledged his private fortune to obtain supplies for 
 the armv, and originated the Bank of North America in 
 1781. He resigned his office in 1784, was a member of 
 the Convention which framed the Constitution of the 
 United States in 1787, and was elected a Senator of the 
 United States in 1788. He was imprisoned for debt in 
 his old age. Died in Philadelphia in 1806. 
 
 See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Morris, (Thomas,) an American lawyer and states- 
 man, born in Virginia in 1776. Having removed to 
 Ohio, he was elected in 1830 a judge of the supreme 
 court, and in 1832 a United States Senator. In this 
 post he'distinguished himself by his opposition to slavery, 
 and in 1843 he was nominated for Vice-President by the 
 Liberty party. Died in December, 1844. 
 
 See "Life of Thomas Morris," by his son, B. F. Morris. 
 
 a, e, i, o. u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
MORRIS 
 
 .631 
 
 MORTIMER 
 
 Morris, (Thomas A.,) D.D., an American Methodist 
 divine, born in Kanawha county, Virginia, in 1794, was 
 for a time editor of the " Western Christian Advocate," 
 -«nd in 1836 became Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church. 
 
 Morris, (Thomas A.,) an American general, born in 
 Kentucky about 1812, graduated at West Point in 1834. 
 He became a citizen of Indiana. He served as brigadier- 
 general of the Union army in Western Virginia in June 
 and July, 1861. 
 
 Morris, (William,) an English contemporary poet, 
 who has published, among other works, "The Defence 
 of Guenevere," (London, 1858,) "Life and Death of 
 Jason," " Cupid and Psyche," and " Earthly Paradise," 
 (1870.) 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1S70. 
 
 Mor'rI-son, (John ROBERT,) son of Rev. Robert 
 Morrison, noticed below, born at Macao in 1814. He 
 succeeded his father as secretary and interpreter to the 
 British Factory at Canton, and was the author of a valu- 
 able work entitled " The Chinese Commercial Guide," 
 
 (I834-) 
 
 Morrison, (Sir Richard,) president of the Trish In- 
 stitute of Architects, born at Cork about 1767; died 
 in 1849. 
 
 Morrison, (Rev. Robert,) D.D., an eminent English 
 Orientalist and missionary, born in Northumberland in 
 1782. Having previously studied the Chinese language, 
 he was sent by the London Missionary Society in 1807 
 to China, where he becamt translator to the East India 
 Company's Factory at Canton. His translation of the 
 New Testament came out in 1814, and was followed in 
 1815 by his "Chinese Grammar." In conjunction with 
 Rev. Mr. Milne, he next translated the Old Testament 
 into Chinese. It was completed in 1818, (in 2t vols. 
 l2mo.) His great "Chinese Dictionary," printed at the 
 expense of the East India Company, appeared in. 1821. 
 He visited England in 1824, and, having remained there 
 two years, returned to his missionary labours in China, 
 where he had founded in 1818 an Anglo-Chinese Col- 
 lege. Among Dr. Morrison's other works we may name 
 " Horae Sinicae," (1812,) a "View of China for Philo- 
 logical Purposes," etc., (1817,) and "Chinese Miscel- 
 lany," (1825.) He was the first Protestant missionary 
 to China, and as a Chinese scholar he occupies the 
 highest rank. Died in 1834. 
 
 See "Memoirs of Robert Morrison," by his widow, 1839; A. 
 Remi'sat, in the "Journal des Savants," 1824. 
 
 Mor'row, (Jeremiah,) born in Pennsylvania in 
 1770, became United States Senator from Ohio in 1813, 
 and was elected Governor of that State in 1822. Died 
 in 1852. 
 
 Mors, [Fr. La Mort, 11 moR,] the Latin name of the 
 personification of Death, [Gr. Quvaroc,] said to be the 
 offspring of Night. According to Homer, Death was 
 the brother of Sleep. 
 
 Morse, (Jedediah,) D.D., an American geographer 
 and divine, born at Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1761. 
 He graduated at Yale College, and in 1789 became pas- 
 tor of the First Congregational Church at Charlestown, 
 Massachusetts, He is principally known by his geo- 
 graphical works, which were the first of the kind pub- 
 lished in America, and which also obtained a European 
 reputation. He likewise published several historical 
 works, and a number of sermons. Died in 1826. 
 
 Morse, (Samuel FlNLBY Breese,) an American in- 
 ventor and artist, born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, 
 in April, 1791, was a son of the preceding. He gradu- 
 ated at Yale College in 1S10, and went to England, 
 where he studied painting under Benjamin West. He 
 returned home in 1815, and painted portraits at various 
 places. He visited Europe in, 1829, and returned in 
 1832. During the passage homeward he suggested the 
 idea of an electric telegraph; in conversation with his 
 fellow-passengers. He constructed the apparatus of a 
 recording electric telegraph, by which he conveyed de- 
 spatches through a small distance, in 1S35. About'the end 
 of 1837 he applied to Congress for aid, without success. 
 He went to England in 1838 to obtain a patent, which 
 was refused. Wheatstone, an Englishman, had invented 
 a different apparatus, for the, same purpose, about 1837. 
 
 In the spring of 1843, Congress voted thirty thousand 
 dollars to enable him to construct a line between Wash- 
 ington and Baltimore. His invention was brought into 
 successful operation on that route in 1844, since which 
 it has been rapidly introduced into nearly all countries 
 of the civilized world. This result has been called the 
 greatest triumph which human genius has obtained over 
 space and time. Mr. Morse received gold medals and 
 insignia of honour from several European sovereigns. 
 The representatives of the principal European powers, 
 assembled in Paris about 1857, presented to him the 
 sum of 400,000 francs as a recompense for his invention, 
 Morse's system is generally preferred to that invented 
 in England, on account of its greater simplicity. 
 
 See Dunlap, " History of the Arts of Design in America," vol. 
 ii. chap, xxiii. ; Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists;" " North Amer- 
 ican Review" for January, 1828. 
 
 Morse, (Sidney Edwards,) brother of the preced- 
 ing, was born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1794. 
 He graduated at Yale College in, 1811, and about 1815 
 became editor of the "Boston Recorder," a religious 
 journal. In 1823 he founded, conjointly with his 
 brother, R C. Morse, the " New York Observer." He 
 was the author of several popular school geographies, 
 and invented a new method of engraving maps, called 
 cerography. Died in 1871. 
 
 Mortemart, de, de> moRt'miR.', (Casimir Louis 
 Victurnien de Rochechouart— deh rosh'shoo-aV,) 
 Due, a French general and diplomatist, born in Paris 
 in 1787. During the revolution of July, 1830, Charles 
 X. requested him to form a new cabinet, of which he 
 was nominated president; but it was too late. He was 
 afterwards, in 1831, ambassador to St. Petersburg, and 
 was made a senator in 1852. 
 
 Mortier, moR'tea', (Edouard Adolphe Casimir 
 Joseph,) afterwards Duke of Treviso, a celebrated marshal 
 of France, born at Cateau-Cambresis in 1768. He served 
 with great distinction in the principal campaigns from 
 1792 to 1799, when he was made general of division. 
 In 1803 he was sent by Napoleon to Hanover, of which 
 he soon took possession. He was created a marshal in 
 1804, and the year following received the grand cordon 
 of the legion of honour. Being appointed in 1805 to 
 command a corps of the grand army in Germany, he 
 was attacked in November by the Russian general Koo- 
 toosof with 30,000 men, against whom he made a most 
 gallant defence with greatly inferior numbers until rein- 
 forcements came up. For the signal bravery he displayed 
 at the battle of Friedland, June, 1807, he was made 
 Duke of Treviso. In the Spanish campaign of 1808 he 
 assisted at the siege of Saragossa, and defeated the 
 Spaniards at Ocafia and Gebora. He accompanied 
 Bonaparte to Russia in 1812, and was commissioned by 
 him to blow up the Kremlin. In 1814, in conjunction 
 with Marshal Marmont, he exerted himself to the utmost 
 to defend Paris from the allies, but, not succeeding in 
 this, gave in his adhesion to Louis XVIII. After the 
 revolution of 1830 he entered the service of Louis 
 Philippe, and in 1835, while accompanying that mon- 
 arch to a review, was one of the victims of Ficschi's 
 "infernal machine." 
 
 See H. Bis, "Notice sur !e Mankhal Mortier;" "Nouvelle 
 Biorjraphie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Mor'tl-mer, (Edmund,) Earl of March, an English 
 nobleman, who married Philippa, only child of Lionel, 
 Duke of Clarence. They had a son Roger, and were 
 ancestors of Edward IV. Died in 1381. 
 
 Mortimer, (Edmund,) fifth Earl of March, born about 
 1390, was the son of Roger, and grandson of the pre- 
 ceding. He was the lawful heir to the crown after the 
 death of Richard II. Died in 1424. 
 
 Mortimer, (John Hamilton,) an English painter of 
 history, born at Eastbourne, Sussex, in 1739. Among 
 his works are "Saint Paul preaching to the Britons," 
 and "King John signing Magna Charta." He was an 
 inferior colorist, but his design was admired by his 
 contemporaries. Died in 1779. 
 
 Mortimer, (Roger.) Earl of March, the paramour 
 of Isabella, Queen of England, born about 1287. Having 
 been twice convicted of treason and pardoned by Ed- 
 ward II., he conspired with the queen against the life of 
 
 « as *; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (25fSee Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
MORTIMER 
 
 1632 
 
 MORTON 
 
 the king, who was barbarously murdered. The guilty 
 pair reigned for several years in the name of the young 
 prince Edward III. ; but Mortimer was at length made 
 prisoner by order of the prince, and executed in 1330. 
 See Hume, "History of England;" Froissart, "Chronicles." 
 
 Mortimer, (Roger,) fourth Earl of March, was a 
 son of the third earl. He died in 1398, leaving a son 
 Edmund and a daughter Anne, who was married to 
 Richard, Earl of Cambridge, and was a grandmother of 
 Edward IV. 
 
 Mortimer, (Thomas,) an English littlrateur, born in 
 London in 1730. He published "The British Plutarch," 
 (6 vols., 1762,) "Elements of Commerce," etc., (1772,) 
 "Compendium of History, Chronology, and Biography," 
 (1777,) and other valuable works. 
 
 Morto da Feltro. See Feltro, da. 
 
 Mor'ton, (Chari.es,) a learned English Puritan min- 
 ister, born about 1626. He was ejected for noncon- 
 formity in 1662, after which he taught school in London 
 about twenty years. He emigrated to New England in 
 1686, and became minister at Charlestown, Massachu- 
 setts. He wrote several religious works. Died in 1698. 
 
 Morton, (Charles,) an English physician and anti- 
 quary, born in Westmoreland in 1716. Elected a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society in 1752, he became one of its secre- 
 taries'in 1760, and in 1776 succeeded Dr. Maty as libra- 
 rian of the British Museum. He was also a member of 
 the Imperial Academy of Saint Petersburg. He made 
 several valuable contributions to the "Transactions" of 
 the Royal Society. Died in 1799. 
 
 Mor'ton, (James Douglas,) Earl of, Regent of 
 Scotland, born in 1530, was a nephew of the Earl of 
 Angus. He married Elizabeth, a daughter of James 
 Douglas, third Earl of Morton, and inherited the earl- 
 dom in 1553, at the death of the third earl, who left no 
 male issue. He joined the Protestant party, and became 
 one of the lords of the congregation about 1558. In 
 1563 he was appointed lord high chancellor of Scotland. 
 He lost that office by his complicity in the assassination 
 of Rizzio. He was invited by Bothwell to join him in 
 the plot for the murder of Damley. He declined to act 
 in that affair, but failed to inform against Bothwell. For 
 this course he afterwards offered the excuse that the 
 queen was already aware of the plot, so that it would be 
 useless to reveal the secret to her. He fought against 
 Bothwell and the queen at Carbery Hill. In 1567 he 
 was restored to the office of lord chancellor by Regent 
 Murray. He was appointed regent of the kingdom in 
 1572, and rendered himself odious by his rapacity and 
 oppressive acts, but was supported by Queen Elizabeth. 
 Having been accused as an accessory to the murder of 
 Darnley, he was convicted and beheaded in June, 1581. 
 
 See Robertson, " History of Scotland ;" Burton, " History of 
 Scotland." 
 
 Morton, (James Douglas,) Earl of, a Scottish 
 astronomer, born in Edinburgh in 1707, was a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society of London, and an associate of the 
 Academy of Sciences, Paris. Died in 1768. 
 
 Mor'ton, (James Saint Clair,) an American general, 
 born in Philadelphia in 1829, was a son of Dr. Samuel 
 George Morton, noticed below. He was educated at 
 West Point, where he graduated as second of his class in 
 1851, after which he was employed as engineer at various 
 places. He was appointed chief engineer of the army 
 of the Ohio in May, 1862, and commanded the Pioneer 
 Brigade at the battle of Stone River, January 1-2, 1863. 
 For his services in this action he obtained the rank of 
 brigadier-general. He was killed in an assault on 
 Petersburg in June, 1864. 
 
 Morton, (John,) an English prelate and statesman, 
 born in Dorsetshire in 1410. He held several high 
 offices under Henry VI., and, soon after the accession 
 of Edwaid IV., was appointed Bishop of Ely, and lord 
 chancellor of England. He was imprisoned by Richard 
 III., but, having effected his escape, repaired to the con- 
 tinent, where he is said to have formed the plan, in con- 
 junction with Henry, Earl of Richmond, of uniting the 
 parties of York and Lancaster by the marriage of Henry 
 to the daughter of Edward IV. Under Henry VII., 
 Morton was created Archbishop of Canterbury, (i486,) 
 and a cardinal, (1493.) He was distinguished for his 
 
 learning and munificent spirit, and promoted several 
 public works of great utility. He was the patron of Sir 
 Thomas More, who has eulogized him in his "Utopia." 
 Died in 1500. 
 
 See J. Bupden, " Life of John Morton," 1607; Com.ier, "Ec- 
 clesiastical History;" W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of 
 Canterbury," vol. v. 
 
 Morton, (John,) one of the signers of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was born in Delaware county, Penn- 
 sylvania, in 1724. He was for many years a member 
 of the Geheral Assembly of his native State, and was 
 elected to the Congress of 1774. Died in 1777. 
 
 Morton, (Marcus,) an American jurist and Governor, 
 born at Freetown, Massachusetts, in 1784. He was a 
 judge of the supreme court of Massachusetts from 1825 
 to 1840, and was elected Governor of that State by the 
 Democrats in 1840 and 1843. Died in 1864. 
 
 Morton, (Nathaniel,) one of the early settlers of 
 Plymouth, born in England in 1612, was the author 
 of "New England's Memorial," and a "History of the 
 Church at Plymouth." Died in 1685. 
 
 Morton, (Oliver P.,) an American Senator, born in 
 Wayne county, Indiana, in 1823. He studied law, and 
 was admitted to the bar in 1847. He was Governor of 
 Indiana from 1861 to 1S65, and was elected a Senator 
 of the United States by the legislature of that State in 
 January, 1867, for a term ending in March, 1873. During 
 the civil war he was conspicuous for his zeal in the cause 
 of his country. He is a Republican, and an able speaker 
 
 Morton, (Richard,) an English physician, bom in 
 Suffolk about 1635, had a high reputation for skill and 
 learning, and became in 1670 physician to the Prince of 
 Orange. He was the author of " Exercises on Phthisis," 
 and other medical works, in Latin. 
 
 See Rees, "Cyclopaedia of Medicine." 
 
 Morton, (Samuel George,) an eminent American 
 naturalist, ethnologist, and physician, was born in Phila- 
 delphia, January 26, 1799. His father, George Morton, 
 who was descended from a large and highly respectable 
 family in Clonmel, Ireland, emigrated to America and 
 engaged in mercantile pursuits. The subject of our 
 sketch early evinced a passionate fondness for books and 
 thirst for knowledge, and combined with these a habit 
 of persevering and methodical industry. He graduated 
 at the University of Pennsylvania in March, 1820, and 
 in October of the same year entered as a matriculate the 
 University of Edinburgh, the diploma of which insti- 
 tution was conferred upon him in August, 1823. He 
 returned to America in 1824, commenced the practice 
 of medicine in 1826, and in 1827 married Rebecca G., 
 daughter of Robert and Elizabeth Pearsall, highly re- 
 spected members of the Society of Friends. His first 
 scientific essay, entitled "Observations on Cornine, a 
 New Alkaloid," was published in the "Medical and 
 Physical Journal" for 1825-26. In 1827 he communi- 
 cated to the Academy of Natural Sciences an "Analysis 
 of Tabular Spar from Bucks County, Pennsylvania, with 
 a Notice of Various Minerals found in the same Locality." 
 During the same year he contributed to the "Journal 
 of the Academy of Natural Sciences," Philadelphia, a 
 " Description of a New Species of Ostrea Convexa of 
 Say." These papers were followed in rapid succession 
 by many other scientific communications, and the Jour- 
 nal of the Academy continued to be enriched by his 
 labours until within a short period of his death. There 
 were not less than forty of these contributions, besides 
 others published in the "Transactions of the American 
 Philosophical Society," and the " American Journal of 
 Science and Arts," edited by Professor Silliman. These 
 articles, by their varied range, exhibited great versatility 
 of talent, treating as they did upon subjects connected 
 with anatomy, ethnology, archaeology, geology, palaeon- 
 tology, zoology, and mineralogy. His celebrated mono- 
 graph on the "Cretaceous Group of the United States" 
 was received, at the time of its publication, with great 
 favour by the most eminent geologists of Europe. In 
 1834 he contributed to medical literature an important 
 work on the " Anatomical Character, Causes, Symptoms, 
 and Treatment of Pulmonary Consumption." He early 
 began to make his now celebrated collection of crania, 
 and up to 1840 had, with great labour and cost, succeeded 
 
 i e, T,6, ft, y, /<!»,?•,• a, 4,6, same, less prolonged: a, e, 1, 6, ft, ?. short: a, e, i, 9, obscure: far, fill, fit: m£t:n6t: good: mooi:; 
 
MORTON 
 
 '633 
 
 MOSELET 
 
 in collecting no less than 1468 crania. In 1839 he gave 
 to the world his "Crania Americana," and in 1844 his 
 "Crania Egyptiaca," both of which were very favourably 
 received. lie was for some years president of the Phila- 
 delphia Academy of Natural Sciences. He died in May, 
 1851. His name is often associated with Nott and Glid- 
 don's "Types of Mankind," (1854,) based to some extent 
 on Dr. Morton's researches ; but that work, published 
 after his death, and edited by those who very imperfectly 
 understood his views, gives no just idea of the modest, 
 impartial, and thoroughly scientific spirit with which he 
 conducted all his inquiries. In the annals of science his 
 name will always lie associated with that of Blumenbach, 
 the founder of human craniography. To this study he 
 gave a powerful impetus, by demonstrating the precise 
 method in accordance with which it should be pursued, 
 and by indicating its capability of throwing light upon 
 the origin and affiliations of the various races of men. 
 Dr. Morton left several sons, of whom the eldest, an 
 officer of great merit, died fighting bravely for his country, 
 (see Morton, James Saint Ci.air ;) another son, 
 Thomas George, has become justly distinguished as 
 one of the most skilful surgeons in the United States. 
 
 See Gross's "American Medical Biography." 
 
 Morton, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, born in 
 Durham in 1764, was the author of numerous comedies 
 and farces, which had great popularity in his time. His 
 dramas entitled "Town and Country" and "A Roland 
 for an Oliver" still retain their place on the stage. 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Morton, (Thomas,) an English prelate, bom at York 
 in 1564, became successively Bishop of Chester, of Lich- 
 field, and of Durham. He published several controver- 
 sial treatises against papists and nonconformists. He 
 was an intimate friend of Casaubon, to whose memory 
 he erected a monument in Westminster Abbey. Died 
 in 1.659. 
 
 See Barwick, "Life of Thomas, Bishop of Durham," 1660; 
 Baddily and Nayi.or, " Life of Thomas Morton," i66g. 
 
 Morton, (William Thomas Green,) M.D., an 
 Ameiican dentist and physician, born at Charlton, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1819. He settled in Boston, as a dentist, 
 about 1842, and made some improvements in the fabrica- 
 tion of artificial teeth. He afterwards studied medicine 
 and chemistry, to which he was attracted by a desire to 
 discover a substance that would render his patients in- 
 sensible to painful operations on their teeth. He began 
 to use sulphuric ether as an anesthetic in 1846. His 
 claim to this invention was disputed by Dr. Jackson. 
 Died in July, 1868. (See WELLS. Horace.) 
 
 Mortonval, moR'toN'vSK, the assumed name of 
 Furcy G-uesdon, (ftiR'se' g&'d6N'',) a French novelist, 
 born in Paris about 1780. He wrote, besides other 
 novels, "The Count of Villamayor," (5 vols., 1825.) 
 
 Moms. See More, (Alexander, Henry, and Sir 
 Thomas.) 
 
 Morus, mo'rus, (Samuel Friedrich Nathanaf.l,) 
 a German scholar and theologian, born in Upper Lusa- 
 tia in 1736. He published editions of Longinus, Plu- 
 tarch, Isocrates, and other classics, and wrote several 
 original works, among which are " Theological and Philo- 
 logical Dissertations," (1787,) and an "Epitome of 
 Christian Theology," (1789.) Died in 1792. 
 
 Morveau. See Guyton de Morvf.au. 
 
 Morville, de, deh moR'vel', (Charles Jean Bap- 
 tists Fleuriau — flu're'o',) Comte, a French diploma- 
 tist, born in Paris in 1686, was ambassador to Holland 
 in 1718, and induced the States-General to sign the 
 Quadruple Alliance. He became minister of foreign 
 affairs in 1723, and was elected to the French Academy 
 the same year. Died in 1732. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "M^moires." 
 
 Morvillier, de, deh mor've'yi', (Jean,) a French ne- 
 gotiator, born at Blois in 1506. He became Bishop of 
 Orleans in 1552, and was keeper of the seals about two 
 years, (1 568-70.) Died in 1577. 
 
 Mor'y-son or Mor'I-son, (Fynes,) an English travel- 
 ler, born in 1566. He visited the greater part of Europe, 
 and wrote an account of his travels, which was pub- 
 lished after his death, under the title of " Itinerary, 
 
 containing his Ten Years' Travel," (1617.) Died about 
 1614. 
 
 See Harris, " Ireland :" "Retrospective Review," vol. xi.,(i8a5.) 
 
 Morzillo. See Fox, (Sebastian.) 
 
 Mosbourg or Mosburg. See Agar, (Jean Antoine 
 Michel.) 
 
 Mosca, mos'kl, (Francesco,) called Moschino, 
 (mos-kee'no,) an Italian sculptor and architect, born near 
 Florence about 1520 ; died after 1572. 
 
 Moscati, mos-ka'tee, (Pietro,) Count, an Italian 
 physician and writer, born at Milan about 1740, was 
 made president of the Cisalpine republic in 1798. He 
 was afterwards created by Napoleon a count, and sena- 
 tor of Italy. Died in 1824. 
 
 Moacheles, mosh'eh-ljs', (Ignaz,) a celebrated Ger- 
 man pianist and composer for the piano, born at Prague 
 in 1704, was the son of a Jewish merchant. After visit- 
 ing Holland, France, and England, he became in 1825 
 professor of music at the Academy in London. In 1846 
 he was associated with his pupil, Felix Mendelssohn, as 
 director of the Conservatory at Leipsic. His principal 
 works are sonatas, songs, and instrument-pieces of 
 various kinds. Died in 1870. 
 
 See Fins, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Moscheni, mos-ka'nee, (Costanza,) an Italian poet- 
 ess, born at Lucca in 1786; died in 1831. 
 
 Moscherosch, mosh'eh-rosh', (Johann Michael,) 
 a German writer, born at Wilstadt in 1600. He was 
 the author rjf " Wonderful and True Visions of Phi- 
 lander von Sittewald," (1644,) a collection of allegorical 
 satires in the style of Quevedo, which are characterized 
 bv great acuteness, originality, and powers of humour. 
 Died in 1669. 
 
 See Gervinus. " Geschichte der Deutschen Nationalliteratur." 
 
 Moschini, mos-kee'nee, (Giannantonio,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Venice in 1773. He wrote a " History 
 of Venetian Literature in the Eighteenth Century," (4 
 vols., 1807-09,) and other works. Died in 1840. 
 
 Mos'-ehl-on, [Moo-^'wv,] a Greek medical writer, 
 supposed to have lived in the second century of the 
 Christian era, was the author of a treatise "On the 
 Diseases of Women," which was first published in Wolfs 
 "Gynaeciorum Commentarii," (1566.) 
 
 See Fabhichts, " Bibliotheca Graeca." 
 
 Moschopule. See Moschopulus. 
 
 Mos-eho-pu'lus, [Gr. Moc;|wovaoc ; Fr. Moscho- 
 pule, mo'sho'pul',1 (Manuel,) a Byzantine grammarian, 
 supposed to have lived in the thirteenth century, and to 
 have been a native of Crete. There was another writer 
 of the same name, said to have been a nephew of the 
 preceding, and born at Constantinople. Among the works 
 attributed to them, which are chiefly grammatical, we 
 may mention "Scholia on the Tragedies of Euripides," 
 " Erotemata, or Grammatical Questions," and " Scholia 
 on Hesiod and Pindar." 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Gr;eca;" Montucla, "Histoire 
 des Mathe'matiques." 
 
 Mos'-ehua, [Monroe,] a Greek pastoral poet, born in 
 Syracuse, flourished about 200 n.C. He was contempo- 
 rary with Bion, to whose memory he wrote a beautiful 
 elegy. A few idyls are the only extant works of 
 Moschus. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1836. 
 
 Moscoso de Alvarado, de, da mos-ko'so da Jl-va- 
 iS'do, (Don Luis,) a Spanish soldier, born at Badajoz 
 in 1505. He served under Hernando de Soto in the 
 conquest of Florida in 1539 and 1540. On the death of 
 De Soto, Moscoso was chosen general in his stead. He 
 died in Peru about 1560. 
 
 Moseley, moz'le, (Benjamin,) born in Essex, Eng- 
 land, became physician to Chelsea Hospital. He pub- 
 lished a " Treatise on the Diseases of the Tropics," and 
 other works ; but he is' chiefly known from his violent 
 opposition to vaccination. Died in 1819. 
 
 Moseley, (Henry,) F.R.S., an English clergyman 
 and scientific writer, born about 1800. He became pro- 
 fessor of natural philosophy in King's College, London, 
 and chaplain to Queen Victoria in 1855. Among his 
 works is " Mechanical Principles of Engineering and 
 Architecture," (1855.) 
 
 « as i: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal: R. trilled: 5 as z: th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 2 - ) 
 
 hi 
 
MOSELLJNUS 
 
 •634 
 
 MOSSOP 
 
 Mosellanus, mo-zeM-la'nus, (Petrus Schade — 
 sha'deh,) a German scholar and promoter of classical 
 learning, born in the diocese of Treves in 1493. In 
 1514 he was appointed professor of Latin and Greek 
 in the University of Leipsic. He was intimate with 
 Melanchthon and Erasmus. Died in 1524. 
 
 Mosen, mo'zen, (Julius,) a German litterateur, born 
 in Saxony in 1803. He wrote "Andreas Hofer," and 
 other poems, also several novels and dramas. 
 
 See Longfellow, V Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Moseiigeil, mo'zen-gll', (Friedrich,) a popular Ger- 
 man writer, born near Eisenach in 1773. He published 
 " Summer Evening Hours," " Liebenstein and the New 
 Arcadians," and other fictitious works, which have a 
 high reputation. Died in 1839. 
 
 Mo'ser, (George Michael,) a Swiss artist, born at 
 Schaffhausen about 1705. In 1726 he settled in London, 
 where he soon acquired a high reputation for his orna- 
 mental gold-work and enamelling. In 1768 he was ap- 
 pointed keeper of the Royal Academy of Arts. "Moser," 
 says Sir Joshua Reynolds, "had a universal knowledge 
 in all branches of painting and sculpture, and may truly 
 be said in every sense to have been the father of the 
 present race of artists." 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgenieines Kiinstler-Lextkon." 
 
 Moser, mo'zer, (Johann Jakok,) a German publicist, 
 born at Stuttgart in 1701, became in 1727 professor of 
 law in the Imperial College at Tubingen. In 1736 he 
 was appointed director of the University at Frankfort- 
 on-the-Oder. As a writer he was remarkable for his 
 indefatigable industry, the whole number of his works 
 amounting to upwards of four hundred. Died in 1785. 
 
 See J. J. Moser's Autobiography, (" Lebensgeschichte J. J. Mo- 
 ser's,") 1783 : Leddekhose, "Ztige aus dem Leben J. J. Moser's," 
 1843; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Moser or Moeser, mo'zer, (Justus,) an eminent 
 German writer and jurist, born at Osnabriick in 1720, 
 was chief director of the government of Osnabriick for 
 about twenty years, ( 1 761—81,) and rendered important 
 services to the state. He wrote, besides other works, a 
 good "History of Osnabriick," (1768,) and "Patriotic 
 Fancies," (3 vols., 1775,) which was very popular. His 
 complete "works were published in 10 vols., 1843. Died 
 in 1794. 
 
 See F. Nicolai, "Leben J. Moesers," 1797: Abeken, " Re- 
 liquien von J. Moeser," 1837; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 April, 1843. 
 
 Moser, (Mary,) daughter of George Michael Moser, 
 noticed above, acquired great celebrity as a flower- 
 painter. A room at Frogmore, which she adorned with 
 flowers, is called "Miss Moser's room." She was 
 chosen an Academician of the Royal Academy of Lon- 
 don, and was the only lady besides Angelica Kauffman 
 who ever received that honour. She became Mrs. Lloyd 
 by marriage. Died in 1819. 
 
 Moser, von, fon mo'zer, (Friedrich Karl,) a Ger- 
 man jurist, born at Stuttgart in 1723, was a son of Johann 
 Jakob Moser, noticed above. He was successively aulic 
 councillor at Vienna, and member of the administration 
 of Hesse-Darmstadt, (1770.) He published several legal 
 works, a " History of the Waldenses," and " The Mas- 
 ter and Servant," (" Der Herr und der Diener," 1759.) 
 The last-named production, illustrating the duties of a 
 sovereign and his minister, had great popularity. He 
 was for some years editor of the " Patriotisches Archiv." 
 Died in 1798. 
 
 See H. vok Busche, " F. C. von Moser ausseinen Schrifien sein 
 Geist," etc., 1S46. 
 
 Mo'ses, [Heb. nan ; Gr. MwotJc ; Lat. Mo'ses; Fr. 
 Moyse or Moi'SE, mo'ez' ; It. Mojse, mo-e-sa' ; Arabic, 
 Moosa, moo'sa,] an eminent Hebrew legislator and 
 prophet, born in Egypt about 1570 H.C., was a son of 
 Amram, of the tribe of Levi. In consequence of a royal 
 edict that all male infants of the Hebrews should be 
 killed, he was deposited by his mother in an ark or 
 basket on the border of the Nile, and found by Pharaoh's 
 daughter, who adopted him as her son. He became 
 "learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and mighty 
 in words and deeds," and about the age of forty began 
 to meditate the liberation of the oppressed Hebrews. 
 Having incurred the anger of the king by his active 
 sympathy with his own race, he fled to Midian, where 
 
 he served as a shepherd about forty years. He received 
 a divine mission to bring the children of Israel out of 
 Egypt to the land. of Canaan. Under his guidance the 
 chosen people "passed through the Red Sea into the 
 Wilderness. lie was instrumental in composing for 
 them a code of laws called by his name, and is the re- 
 puted author of the book of Genesis and other books 
 of the Pentateuch. The form of government which he 
 prescribed to the Hebrews was a theocracy. The funda- 
 mental principles of the Mosaic law were that man must 
 worship the only true God exclusively, and love his 
 neighbour as himself. Having appointed Joshua as his 
 successor, and obtained a distant view of the promised 
 land, Moses died on Mount Pisgah, aged about one 
 hundred and twenty years. He was pre-eminent for 
 meekness. 
 
 See Exodus ii.-xl. ; Leviticus i.-xxvii. ; Numbers i.-xxxvi. ; 
 Deuteronomy i.-xxxiv. : Matthew xvii. 3; Luke xxiv. 27; John iii. 
 14, v. 4.5, vii. 19 ; Acts vii. 20-44; Hebrews iii. 2, 3, 5, xi. 23-29; 
 Revelation xv. 3; Warburton, "Divine Legation ol Moses De- 
 monstrated," 1788; J. J. Hess, "Geschichte Mosis," 1777 ; E. Kuus- 
 quet, " Histoire de sept Reformateurs," 1853; D. W. Mui.i.kr, 
 " Dissertatio de Mose Philosopho," 1707; John Campbell, "Life 
 of Moses," 1738. 
 
 Mo'ses -eho-re-nen'sis, (i.e. "of Chorene,") an Ar- 
 menian writer and bishop, flourished about 460 a.d. 
 He wrote, besides other works, a " History of Armenia." 
 
 Mosheim, von, fon mos'him, [Lat. Moshe'mius or 
 Moshei'mius,] (Johann Lorenz,) an eminent Ger- 
 man theologian, pulpit orator, and historian, born at 
 Lubeck in 1694. He studied at Kiel, and became pro- 
 fessor of theology at Helmstedt in 1725. In 1747 he 
 obtained the chair of theology at Gottingen, with the 
 title of chancellor of the university. He was eminently 
 successful as a teacher, and acquired a wide celebrity for 
 his eloquence. His great work entitled " Institutes of 
 Ecclesiastical History," (2 vols. 12111a, 1726,) originally 
 written in Latin, has been translated into French, Ger- 
 man, and English. Among his other writings we may 
 name " Commentaries on Christianity before the Time 
 of Constantine the Great," (1753,) and "Morality of 
 the Holy Scriptures," (9 vols.) He also translated into 
 Latin Cudworth's "Intellectual System." Died in 1755. 
 
 See F. Lucke, " Narratio de J. L. Moshemio." 1837; J. ,\[. 
 Gess.vkr, " Memoria J. L. Mosheimii," 1755; "Nouvelle LJiogra- 
 phie Gendrale." 
 
 Moshemins or Mosheimius. See Mosheim. 
 
 Moslemah, mos'l?-mah, a famous Arabian captain, 
 a son of the caliph Abd-el-Malek. He commanded the 
 armies of his brothers, Waleed I., Soliman, Yezeed II., 
 and Hesham. He defeated the army of the Greek em- 
 peror in 716 A.D. Died about 740 a.d. 
 
 Mosneron-Delaunay, mos'neh-r6N' deh-lo'ni', 
 (Jean Baptiste,) Baron, a French litterateur, born at 
 Nantes in 1 738, translated Milton's "Paradise Lost" 
 into French. Died in 1830. 
 
 Mosquera, mos-ka'ra, (Don Ruy Garcia,) a Spanish 
 navigator, born in 1 501, sailed with Sebastian Cabot on 
 his voyage to South America in 1526, and subsequently 
 became one of the founders of the city of Buenos Ayres. 
 
 See Charlevoix, " Histoire du Paraguay ;" Southev, "History 
 of Brazil." 
 
 Moss, (Charles,) an English theologian, a nephew 
 of Robert, noticed below, rose to be Bishop of Saint 
 David's in 1766. He wrote several theological treatises. 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 Moss, (Rohf.rt,) an English divine, born in Norfolk 
 in 1666. He obtained great popularity as a preacher, 
 and was successively chaplain-in-ordinary to William III. 
 and Queen Anne. He died in 1729, leaving a number 
 of sermons, and some Latin and English poems. 
 
 Mossen Jordi de San Jordi, mos-sen' hoR-dee' di 
 san hoR-dee', a Spanish poet, who wrote in the Catalonian 
 dialect, lived about 1230. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Mos'som, (Robert,) an Irish prelate, was created 
 Bishop of Londonderry after the restoration. He wrote, 
 among other works, " The Preacher's Tripartite," and 
 " Zion's Prospect in its First View." Died in 1679. 
 
 Mos'sop, (Henry,) an Irish tragedian, born in 1729. 
 He obtained a high reputation as an actor, both on the 
 Dublin stage and in London, where he was regarded as 
 nearly equal to Garrick. Died in 1773. 
 
 ', o. u, y, long; i, e, i, same, less prolonged; a. e, 1, 6,u,y, sAort; a, ?, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; n5t;good; mooaj 
 
MOSTAERT 
 
 ' 6 35 
 
 MOTT 
 
 Mostaert, mos'tlst, (Francis and Giles,) Flemish 
 painters, horn at Hulst in 1525, were twins, and suns of 
 Jan, noticed below. Francis painted landscapes with 
 success, and died in 1556. Giles, who was a historical 
 painter, died in 1601. 
 
 Mostaert, mos'tirt, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 Haarlem in 1499, was a pupil of James of Haarlem. He 
 enjoyed a high reputation, and was patronized by the 
 archduchess Margaret of Austria. Among his master- 
 pieces are a " Nativity," " Ecce Homo," and " Discord 
 throwing the Apple." Died in 1555. 
 
 See Pilkington, " Dictionary of Painters;" Descamps, "Vies 
 des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Mostanser-Billah, mos'tin'ser bil'lah, sometimes 
 written Montaser-Billah, a caliph and patron of learn- 
 ing, born at Cdrdova, Spain, in 910 A.D. He began to 
 feign in 961. He founded several colleges, and a library 
 of 600,000 volumes. Died in 976. 
 
 See Romev, " Histoire d'Espagne." 
 
 Mostasem-Billah, Al, il mos'ti'sem bil'lah, ( Aboo- 
 Ahmed-Abdallah, a'boo ah'med ab-daTlah,) the last 
 Abbasside caliph of Bagdad, was bom in 1221, and suc- 
 ceeded his father Mostanser in 1242. He was conquered 
 and put to death in 1258 by Hoolagoo. 
 
 See Wkil, "Geschichte der Chalifen." 
 
 Mostowsky, mos-tov'skee, (Thaddeus,) Count, a 
 distinguished Polish patriot and diplomatist, born at 
 Warsaw in 1766. He published a good edition of the 
 Polish classics, (25 vols., Warsaw, 1803-05.) He lived 
 many years in Paris, where he died in 1842. 
 
 Motanebby. See Al-Mootenabbee. 
 
 Motasem- ( or Motassem- ) Billah, mo'taVsem 
 bil'lah, Caliph of Bagdad, born near Samosata in 794 
 A.D., was a son of Haroun-al-Raschid. He succeeded his 
 brother Mamoon in 833. He is said to have been a cruel 
 tyrant. Died in 842. 
 
 See Abooi.peda, " Annales Moslemici ;" Weil, "Geschichte 
 der Chalifen ;" Sandenburg Matthiessen, " Historia Chalifatus 
 Al-Motacimi," 1849. 
 
 Motenabbi. See Al-Mootenabbee. 
 
 Motenebbi. See Al-Mootenabbee. 
 
 Mothe, La. See La Mothe. 
 
 Mothe le Vayer, de la, deh li mot leh vt'ya', 
 (Francois,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1588, was 
 appointed preceptor to the Duke of Orleans, (1649,) and 
 to the dauphin, afterwards Louis XIV., (1652.) He 
 published a treatise " On the Virtue of the Pagans," 
 (1642,) in answer to which Arnauld wrote his tract "On 
 the Necessity of Faith in Jesus Christ." He was the 
 author of other works on various subjects, which had 
 great popularity at the time. He had been elected in 
 1639 a member of the French Academy. Died in 1672. 
 
 See L. Etienne, " Essai sur La Mothe le Vayer," 1849 ; Bayi.e, 
 "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire His- 
 torique ;" " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." 
 
 Motherwell, mtith'er-wel, (William,) a Scottish 
 poet, born at Glasgow in 1798. He published in 1827 
 an interesting collection of ballads, entitled " Minstrelsy, 
 Ancient and Modern." He afterwards edited succes- 
 sively the "Paisley Magazine," "Paisley Advertiser," 
 and "Glasgow Courier." His "Poems, Narrative and 
 Lyrical," published in 1833, are remarkable for pathos 
 and ei r nestness of feeling. Died in 1835. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement;) " Retrospective Review," vol. ii., second series, 1828; 
 *' Democratic Review" for January, 1842. 
 
 Motin, mo'ta.N', (Pierre,) a French poet, born at 
 Bourges, lived about 1 570-1600. He wrote a number 
 of short poems, which are commended for grace and 
 delicacy of sentiment. 
 
 Mot'ley, (John Lothrop,) an eminent American 
 historian, born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the 
 15th of April, 1814. He graduated at Harvard in 1831, 
 studied about a year in the University of Gottingen, and 
 passed several years in visits to various countries of 
 Europe. Having returned home, he studied law, which, 
 however, he never practised to much extent. He pub- 
 lished in 1839 a novel entitled "Morton's Hope, or the 
 Memoirs of a Young Provincial." In 1840 he was ap- 
 pointed secretary of legation at Saint Petersburg, where 
 he remained but a short time. He contributed articles 
 to the " North American Review" and other^periodicals, 
 
 and produced in 1849 "Merry Mount, a Romance," 
 which had little success. Having resolved to write a 
 work on the history of Holland, he went to Europe in 
 1851 to collect materials and to make researches on 
 that subject. He passed several years at Dresden, Ber- 
 lin, and the Hague, and published "The Rise of the 
 Dutch Republic : a History," (London, 3 vols. 8vo, 1856,) 
 a work of great merit and profound research, which ran 
 through several editions and was translated into French, 
 Dutch, and German. Commenting on Prescott's "Philip 
 II." and Motley's " Rise of the Dutch Republic," the 
 " Edinburgh Review" of January, 1857, says, " They do 
 honour to American literature, and they would do honour 
 to any literature in the world." His next work — a 
 continuation of the first — is entitled "The History of 
 the United Netherlands from the Death of William 
 the Silent to the Synod of Dort," (4 vols., 1860-67.) 
 
 " Mr. Motley's History of the Rise of the Dutch Re- 
 public," says the "London Quarterly Review" for Janu- 
 ary, 1861, "is already known and valued for the grasp 
 of mind which it displays, for the earnest and manly 
 spirit in which he has communicated the results of deep 
 research and careful reflection. Again he appears before 
 us, rich with the spoils of time, to tell the story of the 
 United Netherlands from the death of William the 
 Silent to the end of the eventful year of the Spanish 
 Armada; and we still find him in every way worthy of 
 this 'great argument.' . . . Many of Mr. Motley's char- 
 acteristics as a historian will appear from the extracts 
 which we have made. It will be seen how vividly he 
 can depict the places, the men, the deeds, of other days. 
 But the work itself must be read to appreciate the vast 
 and conscientious industry which he has so lavishly 
 bestowed upon it. . . . Diligent and painstaking as the 
 humblest chronicler, he has availed himself of many 
 sources of information which have not been made use 
 of by any previous historical writer. At the same time, 
 he is not oppressed by his materials, but has sagacity to 
 estimate their real value ; and he has combined and ar- 
 ranged with scholarly power the facts which they contain." 
 
 In 1861 he was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to 
 Austria. He resigned this position early in 1867, in 
 consequence of an offensive letter which Mr. Seward, 
 secretary of state, addressed to him. In the spring of 
 1869 he was sent as ambassador to England by President 
 Grant. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1861 ; " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for December, 1859, and May, 1S61 : " London Quarterly 
 Review" for October, 1869; "British Quarterly Review" for April, 
 1861 : " North British Review" for May, 1861. 
 
 Mott, originally Coffin, (Lucretia,) an American 
 reformer and philanthropist, born on the island of 
 Nantucket in 1793. About 1808 her parents, who were 
 members of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, removed 
 to Philadelphia. In 1S1 1 she was married to James 
 Mott, of New York, who soon afterwards came to Phila- 
 delphia and entered into mercantile business with her 
 father. While still very young, her attention had been 
 called to .the iniquity of slavery, and she felt it her duty 
 to abstain from the products of slave labour. She trav- 
 elled extensively as a minister, preaching the peculiar 
 doctrines of the society in which she had been educated, 
 inculcating obedience to the Divine light within the 
 heart, and exposing the sinfulness of slavery and war. 
 At the time of the separation in the Society of Friends, 
 in 1827, she joined those popularly known as " Hicks- 
 ites," (see Hicks, Elias,) and distinguished herself by 
 the advocacy of Unitarian views of the most radical 
 kind. She took an active part (1833) in the organization 
 of the Anti-Slavery Society in Philadelphia, and in 1840 
 went as a delegate to the World's Anti-Slavery Conven- 
 tion, held in London ; but, though otherwise treated with 
 the greatest respect and courtesy, she was not admitted 
 as a delegate, a majority of the convention having de- 
 cided that women should be excluded from any active 
 participation in the business of the assembly. 
 
 Mrs. Mott has long been known as an earnest and 
 eloquent advocate of anti-slavery principles, of the rights 
 of women, and of other reformatory movements. As a 
 speaker she is characterized by an unaffected simplicity 
 and earnestness of manner, as well as by clearness and 
 propriety of expression. Her high moral qualities, her 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^ = See Explanations, p. 23 
 
MOTT 
 
 1636 
 
 MOULIN 
 
 uncommon intelligence, the beauty and consistency of 
 her general character, — illustrated in her domestic as 
 well as in her public life, — are such as to command the 
 respect even of those who in opinion differ most widely 
 from her in regard to religious and social questions. 
 
 See " Eminent Women of the Age," 1868. 
 
 Mott, (Valentine,) a famous American surgeon, 
 born at Glen Cove, Long Island, New York, in August, 
 1785, was a son of Dr. Mott, of New York City. He 
 graduated as M.D. at Columbia College In 1806, and 
 afterwards pursued his studies in London and Edinburgh. 
 He became professor of surgery in Columbia College, 
 New York, about 1809. In 1826 he united with Dr. 
 Hosack and others in founding Rutgers Medical Col- 
 lege. He acquired a wide celebrity by his skill as an 
 operator and by the original operations which he per- 
 formed. It is said that he was the first that exsected 
 the entire right clavicle, and that he tied the common 
 carotid artery forty-six times. Sir Astley Cooper ex- 
 pressed the opinion that Dr. Mott "had performed 
 more of the great operations than any man living." He 
 was for many years professor of surgery and relative 
 anatomy in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New 
 York. Among his writings are "Travels in Europe 
 and the East," (1842,) and "Mott's Cliniques," (i860.) 
 Died in 1865. 
 
 Motte, de la, deh It mot, (Antoine Houdart — 
 /Soo'dlR',) a French critic and dramatist, born in Paris in 
 1672. He was the author of the dramas of " Semele," 
 "The Triumph of the Arts," and "Inez de Castro," 
 (1723.) The last-named was very successful. He trans- 
 lated Homer's "Iliad," which he abridged for the sake 
 of improving it, and thus, in the words of Voltaire, 
 "changed a form glowing with youth and health into a 
 fleshless skeleton." Among his other works we may 
 name his "Reflections on Criticism," (1715,) in which 
 he maintains the superiority of the moderns over the 
 ancients. It caused a great sensation, and excited 
 against him no little hostility among the literati. .His 
 prose writings are esteemed models of elegant compo- 
 sition. La Motte had been chosen in 1710 a member 
 of the French Academy, having Rousseau as his com- 
 petitor. Died in 173 1. 
 
 See Herissant, "Vie de Houdart de la Motte;" Vii.lemain, 
 "Cours de Literature Francaise ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rate. " 
 
 Motte, du Bois de la, dii bwj deh IS mot, (Em- 
 manuel Auguste de Cahideuc — deh kt7/e'duk',) 
 Comte, a French admiral, born at Rennes in 1683 ; died 
 in 1764. 
 
 Motte-Cadillac, de la, deh It mot kt'de'ytk', (An- 
 toine,) a French officer, noted as the founder of Detroit, 
 was born in Gascony about 1660. He formed a settle- 
 ment at Detroit in 1 701, and was appointed Governor 
 of Louisiana about 1711. Died after 1717. 
 
 Motte-Guyon. See Guyon, (Jeanne Bouvier de 
 la Motte.) 
 
 Motte, La. See Lamotte. 
 
 Motteux, mo'tuh', (Pierre Antoine,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Rouen in 1660. On the revocation 
 of the edict of Nantes he settled in London, where he 
 acquired a thorough knowledge of English and pub- 
 lished a number of dramas. Among the principal of 
 these we may name " The Amorous Miser," and " Beauty 
 in Distress." He also made an English translation of 
 "Don Quixote," which is pronounced by Lord Wood- 
 houselee "by far the best version we have yet had of 
 the romance of Cervantes." Died in 1718. 
 
 See Cibber, "Lives of the Poets;" Baker, " Biographia Dra- 
 ma lica." 
 
 Motteville, de, deh mot'vel', (Francoise Bertaut 
 — b?R'to',) a French lady, born in Normandy about 
 1621, was a favourite and companion of Anne of Austria, 
 queen of Louis XIII. She was the author of " Memoirs 
 towards the History of Anne of Austria." Died in 1689. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du Lundi." 
 
 Mottez, mo'tk', (Louis Victor,) a French painter of 
 history and portraits, born at Lille in 1809. 
 
 Mott'ley, (Iohn,) an English dramatic and his- 
 torical writer, born in 1692. Among his works is a 
 drama entitled " The Imperial Captives," a " Life of the 
 
 Czar Peter the Great," " History of Catherine of Russia,* 
 and the collection of witticisms called "Joe Miller's 
 Jests." Died in 1750. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Moucheron, moosh'rfiN', (Freoekik,) an eminent 
 Dutch landscape-painter, born at Emden in 1633. His 
 pictures are remarkable for the graceful form and group- 
 ing of the trees and the transparency of the water. The 
 figures and animals in his landscapes were painted by 
 Helmbreeker and Adrian van der Velde. Among his 
 master-pieces are "The Setting Sun," and "Morning." 
 Died in 1686. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Moucheron, (Izaak,) a painter and engraver, a son 
 of the preceding, was born at Amsterdam in 1670. He 
 painted in the same style as his father, and was regarded 
 as his equal. Died about 174°. 
 
 Mouchet, moo'shi', (Francois Nicolas,) a skilful 
 French painter of history and portraits, was born in 
 Franche-Comte in 1750; died in 1814. 
 
 Mouchon, moo'sh6N', (Pierre,) a Swiss litterateur, 
 born at Geneva in 1733, was a friend of J. J. Rousseau. 
 He published "Table analytique et raisonnee des Ma- 
 tures contenues dans l'Encyclopedie," (2 vols., 1780.) 
 Died in 1797. 
 
 Mouchy, de, deh moo'she', (Pmi.irPE de Noailles 
 — deh no'tl' or no't'ye,) Due, a French marshal, born 
 in Paris in 1715, was a son of the Due de Noailles. He 
 served in all the wars that the French waged between 
 1733 and 1759. He defended the king when the palace 
 was attacked by a mob, in 1792, and was executed as a 
 rovalist in 1794. 
 
 Mouette, rnoo'St', (Germain,) a French traveller, 
 born near Dourdan in 1652, was taken by the Algerines, 
 and was kept in captivity for eleven years. He pub- 
 lished a " History of the Conquests of Mouley Archy, 
 and his brother Mouley Ismael, Kings of Morocco," 
 etc., (1683.) Died about 1690. 
 
 Moufet, pronounced, and sometimes written, MuP- 
 fett, (Thomas,) an English physician and naturalist, 
 born in London about 1550. He was the principal 
 author of the work entitled "Theatre of Insects," ("In- 
 sectorumsive Minimorum Animalium Theatrum," 1634,) 
 which is highly commended by Cuvier and Mailer. He 
 also published several medical treatises, among which 
 are " Health's Improvement," etc., and " De Jure et 
 Prsestantia Chymicorum Medicamentorum." Died in 
 1600. 
 
 See Wood, "Athene Oxonienses;" Cuvier, "Histoire des 
 Sciences naturelles." 
 
 Mougin, moo'zhaN', (Pierre Antoine,) a French 
 astronomer, born near Baume-les-Dames in 1735 ; died 
 in 1816. 
 
 Mouhy, de, deh moo'e', (Charles de Fieux— deh 
 fe-uh',) Chevalier, a French novelist, born at Metz in 
 1701. He wrote many works of inferior quality. Died 
 in 1784. 
 
 Moulac, moo'ltk', (Vincent Marie,) an able French 
 naval officer, born at Lorient in 1780; died in 1S36. 
 
 Moulin, (Jean Francois Augusts.) See Moulins. 
 
 Moulin, du, (Charles.) See Dumoui.in. 
 
 Moulin, du, dii moo'laN', (Louis,) a son of the fol- 
 lowing, was born in 1606. He studied at Leyden, and 
 afterwards became a zealous partisan of Cromwell and 
 the Independents, through whose influence he was made 
 Camden professor of history at Oxford. Died in 1683. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Moulin, du, [Lat. Moi.in^/us,] (Pierre,) an eminent 
 French Protestant theologian, born in 108, was ap- 
 pointed professor of philosophy in the University of 
 Leyden. He afterwards filled the chair of theology 
 at 'Sedan. He was the author of a treatise "On the 
 Recent Origin of Popery," and of other works. Died 
 about 1658. 
 
 See Mkursius, "Athena; Batavse." 
 
 Moulin, du, (Pierre,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in Paris about 1600. Having graduated at Leyden, 
 he repaired to England, where he subsequently became 
 chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles II. He is chiefly known 
 as the author of a work entitled " The Cry of Royal 
 
 i, 8, 1, 0, 0, y, long; a, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat ; met ; not ; good; moor. ; 
 
MOVLINS 
 
 1637 
 
 MOXON 
 
 Blnod to Heaven," written in reference to the execution 
 of Charles I. He died in 1680, leaving a number of 
 controversial treatises. 
 
 See MM Haac;, "La France protestante." 
 
 Moulins. See Dfsmoulins. 
 
 Moulins or Moulin, moo'laN', (Jean Francois 
 Auguste,) a French general, born at Caen in 1752. He 
 was appointed general-in-chief of the army of England 
 in October, 1798. In June, 1799, he was elected one of 
 the Directors of the republic. He united with Oohier 
 to oppose Bonaparte in the coup d'e'tat of the 18th Bru- 
 maire, (November, 1799.) Died in 1810. 
 
 See De Barantk, "Histoire du Directoirr." 
 
 Moullah. See Mooi.i.ah. 
 
 Moulton, mol'ttjn, (Joseph White,) an American 
 antiquary and historical writer, born at Stratford, Con- 
 necticut, in 1789, published a "History of Early New 
 Yoik," (1826,) and "New York One Hundred and 
 Seventy Years Ago," (1849.) 
 
 Moultrie, moo'tre, ? (John,) an English poet, born 
 about 1804. He became rector of Rugby, in Warwick- 
 shire, and published a volume of poems in 1837, and 
 other works, among which is "The Dream of Life." 
 
 Moultrie, moo'tre, (William, ) a distinguished 
 general of the American Revolution, born in South 
 Carolina in 1731. In 1776 he received the thanks of 
 Congress for his gallant defence of the fort on Sullivan's 
 Inland, which was named Fort Moultrie in his honour. 
 He assisted General Lincoln in the defence of Charles- 
 ton in 1780, after which he was appointed major-general. 
 He was elected Governor of South Carolina in 1785. 
 He wrote "Memoirs of the Revolution in the Carolinas 
 and Georgia." Died in 1805. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. i. 
 
 Mounier, moo'ne-S', (Claude Edouard Philippe,) 
 1! IRON, a son of Jean Joseph, noticed below, was born 
 at Grenoble in 1784. In 1809 he was appointed by 
 Napoleon secretary of his cabinet, and in this capacity 
 accompanied him in his campaigns. He was also 
 created a baron, and in 1812 master of requests. Died 
 in 1843. 
 
 See Portalis. " FJoge de M. le Baron Mounier," 1844 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Mounier, (Jean Joseph,) a French legislator, eminent 
 for his talents and virtues, was born at Grenoble in 1758. 
 He studied law, and, after he had served as judge for 
 several years, was elected in 1789 to the States-Gene- 
 ral, where he distinguished himself by the moderation 
 of his liberal opinions. He was chairman of the com- 
 mittee appointed to form a new constitution, but his 
 plan was rejected. He wished a legislature divided 
 into two chambers. He presided with credit over the 
 National Assembly from September 28 to October 8, 
 1789, during which time the sessions of that body 
 were disturbed by a mob, and then hastily retired 
 from the capital. Being denounced as a royalist, he 
 emigrated in 1790, and lived in Switzerland, England, 
 and other countries, until 1801. Having returned to 
 France, he was appointed in 1802 prefect of Ille-et- 
 Vilaine, and about 1804 councillor of state. He died 
 in 1806, leaving several able political works, one of 
 which is "The Influence ascribed to the Philosophers 
 and Free-Masons on the French Revolution." 
 
 See Berriat Saint-Prix, " Fjrtge historique de Mounier," 1S06; 
 Thiers, " History of the French Revolution;" Mic.net. " History 
 of the French Revolution:" " Nouvelle Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Mount, (WILLIAM Sidney,) an American painter, 
 born in Long Island about 1808. His favourite subjects 
 were rural and domestic scenes, and he excelled in 
 humorous and comic delineations. His " Farmers Noon- 
 ing," "Husking Corn," "Raffling for a Goose," and 
 "Dance of the Haymakers," enjoy a wide popularity. 
 Died in 1868. 
 
 See Duni.ap, "Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in 
 America ;" Tuckerman, " Book o( the Artists." 
 
 Mount'a-gii or Mont'a-gue, (Richard,) a learned 
 English prelate, born in Buckinghamshire in 1578. He 
 was created Bishop of Norwich in 1638. He wrote 
 several treatises on church antiquities, and was also 
 engaged in many controversies with the Papists and the 
 Calvinists. Died in 1641. 
 
 Mount'ain, (George Jehoshaphat,) a Protestant 
 prelate, born at Quebec, Canada, about 1789. He be. 
 came Bishop of Quebec about 1837. Died in 1863. 
 
 Mount'fort, (William,) a distinguished English 
 actor and dramatic writer, born in Staffordshire in 1659. 
 Among his principal plays are the tragedy of " Edward 
 III.," and a farce entitled "The Life and Death of Dr. 
 Faust." Died in 1692. 
 
 See Baker, "Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Moura, mo'ra, (Jozli de Santo Antonio,) a Portu- 
 guese Orientalist, born at Almod6var ; died about 1845. 
 
 Mcurad. See Moorad. 
 
 Mouradja d'Ohsson, moo-rJ'ji do'son, (Ignatius,) 
 born at Constantinople in 1740, was descended from an 
 Armenian family. In 1782 he was appointed ambas- 
 sador-extraordinary from Sweden to the Porte. He 
 published "A General View of the Ottoman Empire," (in 
 7 vols,) a work which is highly esteemed. Died in 1807. 
 
 Mouravief. See Mooravief. 
 
 Mouret, moo'rj', (Jean Joseph,) a French composer, 
 born at Avignon in 1682, produced a number of popular 
 operas and songs. Died in 1738. 
 
 Mourgues, mooRg, (Michel,) a learned French 
 Jesuit, born in Auvergne about 1642, became professor 
 of mathematics at Toulouse. Among his writings are 
 " New Elements of Geometry," and a " Parallel between 
 Christian Morality and that of the Ancient Philoso- 
 phers." Died in 1 7 13. 
 
 Mourgues, de, deh mooRg, or Morgues, moRg, 
 (Mathieu,) Sieur de Saint-Germain, a French writer 
 and theologian, born in 1582. He became in 1620 
 almoner to Marie de Medicis, whom he accompanied 
 in her exile to Brussels, England, and Cologne. He 
 published, among other works, a " Defence of the 
 Queen-Mother and of Louis XIII.," (Antwerp, 1637.) 
 Died in 1670. 
 
 Mourlon, mooR'I6N', (Frederic,) a French jurist, 
 born at Chambon about 1814. He published several 
 legal works. 
 
 Mousa. See Moosa. 
 
 Mouskes, moosk, or Mus, (Philippe,) a Flemish 
 historian, born at Ghent about 121 5, became Bishop 
 of Tournay in 1274. He wrote, in verse, a History of 
 France, which was commended by Du Cange. It was 
 published at Brussels in 1836-38. Died in 1283. 
 
 Moustier.de, (Charles Albert.) See Demoustier. 
 
 Moustier, de, deh moo'te-i', (Clement Edou- 
 ard,) Marquis, a French diplomatist, born at Coblentz 
 in 1779; died in Paris in 1830. 
 
 Moustier, de, (Eleonore Francois Elie,) Mar- 
 quis, a diplomatist, born in Paris in 175 1, was the father 
 of the preceding. He was an adherent of the Bourbons. 
 Died in 181 7. 
 
 Mouton. See Lobau. 
 
 Mouton, moo't6N', (Jean,) a French composer of the 
 sixteenth century, was a pupil of Josquin Desprez, and 
 was patronized by Louis XII. and Francis I. 
 
 Mouton-Fontenille de la Clotte, moo't6N' f6Nt'- 
 nel' deh 13 klot, (Marie Jacques Philippe,) a French 
 naturalist, born at Montpellier in 1769. He wrote on 
 botany and ornithology. Died in 1837. 
 
 Movers, mo'vers, (Franz Karl,) a learned German 
 Catholic theologian, born at Kosfeld, in Westphalia, in 
 1806. He became in 1839 professor of the theology of 
 the Old Testament in the Catholic faculty at Breslau. 
 His greatest work, entitled "The Phoenicians," (1850,) 
 illustrates the religion, history, and antiquities of that 
 nation. He also published several treatises on Biblical 
 antiquities, and wrote the article " Phoenicia" in Ersch 
 and Gruber's " Encyclopaedia." 
 
 Mowatt. See Ritchie, (Anna Cora.) 
 
 Mow'er, ? (Joseph A.,) an able American general in 
 the service of the Union. He commanded a brigade in 
 an attack on Vicksburg, May, 1863, and served under 
 General Banks in Louisiana in April, 1864. He com- 
 manded a division of the army of General Sherman in 
 its march through the Carolinas, 1865. Died in Janu- 
 ary, 1870. 
 
 Mox'pn, (JoSF.ru,) born in Yorkshire in 1627, was 
 hydrographer to Charles II. He published several 
 treatises on mathematics, navigation, etc., and carried 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, h, Mi, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as %; th as in this. (J^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MOT A 
 
 1638 
 
 MUCIANUS 
 
 on the manufacture of globes and maps. Died about 
 1700. 
 
 Moya, de, da mo'ya, (Don Pedro,) a skilful Spanish 
 painter, born at Granada in 1610, was a pupil of Juan 
 del Castillo. He excelled as a colorist. Died in 1666. 
 
 See Quilliet, "Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Moyle, moil, (Walter,) an English jurist and writer, 
 born in Cornwall in 1672, was a friend of Congreve and 
 Wycherly. He was the author of an " Essay on the 
 Roman Constitution," and other works, and translated 
 Xenophon's treatise "On the Revenues of Athens." 
 Died in 1721. 
 
 See "Life of W. Moyle," prefixed to his works. 
 
 Moyreau, mwa'ro', (Jean,) a French engraver, born 
 at Orleans in 1690. Among his best prints are "The 
 Lion- Hunt," after Rubens, and " Bacchus and Ariadne," 
 after Boullongne. Died in 1763. 
 
 See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Moyse, the French for Moses, which see. 
 
 Moy'ses, (David,) a Scottish historical writer, born 
 at Lanark in 1573. He wrote "Memoirs of the Affairs 
 of Scotland." Died in 1630. 
 
 Mozart, mo'zart', |Ger. pron. mot'saRt,] (Johann 
 Chrysostom Wolfgang Amadeus,) a celebrated Ger- 
 man composer, born at Saltzburg on the 27th of January, 
 1756. Both his parents were distinguished for personal 
 beauty. He began to perform on the harpsichord when 
 he was about four years old, and manifested an exquisite 
 musical organization. His first teacher was his father, 
 who devoted much time to his education. At the age 
 of six years he composed short pieces of music, and 
 was regarded as a prodigy of musical genius. He had 
 « a sister four years his senior, who in early childhood 
 was an excellent musician. In 1762 Leopold Mozart 
 took Wolfgang and his sister to Munich, where they 
 performed before the court and excited great admira- 
 tion. They also visited Vienna, and exhibited their 
 skill before the emperor and his family, by whom they 
 were encouraged and caressed. In 1763 young Mozart 
 excited the astonishment of the Parisians by his per- 
 formance on the organ and by his talent for improvisa- 
 tion. He visited with his parents the principal cities of 
 Germany, and published two of his compositions in 1763. 
 The Mozart family passed the year 1764 in London, 
 where they gave public conceits. About 1766 they 
 returned to Saltzburg, where Wolfgang continued his 
 studies, taking for models the productions of Handel 
 and Emanuel Bach. He composed in 1768 an opera 
 called " La Finta semplice," which was not represented. 
 Accompanied by his father, he made the tour of Italy in 
 1769 and 1770, and was received with enthusiasm. He 
 produced at Milan the opera of "Mitridate," which was 
 performed with success in 1770. During his visit to 
 Rome the pope created him a knight (cavaliere) of the 
 Golden Spur. His next works were two serenatas, called 
 "Ascanio in Alba," and "The Dream of Scipio," ("II 
 Sogno di Scipione," 1772.) He composed in 1773 an 
 opera entitled "Lucio Silla," which was very successful. 
 He passed several years in travel, and solicited employ- 
 ment in various foreign countries without success. 
 
 In 1779 he obtained the places of organist and chapel- 
 master to the Archbishop of Saltzburg. At the request 
 of the Elector of Bavaria, he composed " Idomeneo," an 
 opera, (1781,) which was superior to his former works 
 and obtained immense applause. "This work," says 
 Denne-Baron, "was nothing less than a complete trans- 
 formation of the art." He quitted the service of the 
 archbishop, — a coarse and sordid person, who required 
 him to eat with his menial servants, — and in 1781 settled 
 in Vienna. In 1782 he composed a German opera, 
 "The Abduction from the Seraglio," ("Die Entfiihrung 
 aus dem Serail,") and married Constance Weber. He 
 became a friend of Haydn, the great composer. 
 
 Mozart composed, with unremitting activity and in 
 rapid succession, symphonies, sonatas, quartets, motets, 
 waltzes, etc. About 1785 he produced "Davidde peni- 
 tente," an oratorio, which abounds in beauties of the 
 first order. His comic opera " The Marriage of Figaro" 
 (" Le Nozze di Figaro," 1786) was performed with 
 unbounded applause, and, in the opinion of some critics, 
 
 formed an epoch in dramatic music. His master-piece 
 is the opera " Don Giovanni," or " Don Juan," which 
 was first performed at Prague in 1787. The King of 
 Prussia offered him 3000 crowns a year to attract him 
 to Berlin ; but he declined to quit the service of the em- 
 peror Joseph, who paid him only 800 florins. He was 
 often reduced to painful distress for want of money while 
 he lived in Vienna. Among his later works is "The 
 Magic Flute," an opera, (1791.) Mozart, as a performer 
 on the piano, surpassed all the German musicians of his 
 time. His constitution was naturally delicate, and his 
 health rapidly declined in 1791, during which he was 
 employed to compose a requiem by a mysterious stranger, 
 or a person who wished his name to be a secret. This 
 person was an agent of Count Walsegg. To his morbid 
 and depressed imagination this seemed as a warning of 
 his own impending death. With this presentiment, he 
 composed his "Requiem," which is considered his most 
 sublime work. He died in Vienna in December, 1791 
 or 1792, leaving several children. 
 
 "Mozart occupies," says Denne-Baron, "a unique 
 place in the history of music, by the universality of his 
 genius. . . . He excelled in all departments, and the 
 products of his radiant imagination improved the art 
 in all its parts. ... In dramatic music he was un- 
 rivalled. His enlightened mind and his exquisite sen- 
 sibility enabled him to seize with equal tact and sagacity 
 the nuances and the true conditions of the lyrical drama." 
 ("Nouvelle Biographic Generale.") 
 
 See E. Holmes, "Life of Mozart," 2 vols.. 1845; Niemetschek, 
 " Mozart's Leben," 179S; Roechlitz, "Anecdotes of Mozart, 1 ' (in 
 German.) 1S01 ; Arnold, "Mozart's Geist," Erfurt, 1803: G. N. 
 von Nissen, "Biographie W. A. Mozarts," 1828: Fetis, " Biogra- 
 phie Universelle des Mnsiciens;" H. Dorino, "W. A. Mozart," 
 and a French version of the same, Paris. 1S60; Hekk Otto Jaiin, 
 "Mozart's Leben," 1856: Daines Bakrington, " Notice of Mo- 
 zart," in the "Philosophical Transactions," 1770; " Letters of 
 Mozart," translated by Ladv Wallace, 2 vols., 1865; "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for January, 1846. 
 
 Mozart, (Leopold,) a German musician, born at 
 Augsburg in 1719, was the father of the famous com- 
 poser. He performed on the violin, and became about 
 1762 vice-chapel-master of the Prince-Archbishop of 
 Saltzburg. He gave diligent attention to the education 
 and training of his son. He composed several oratorios, 
 etc. Died in 1787. 
 
 Mozier, mo'/her, (Joseph,) an American sculptor, 
 born at Burlington, Vermont, in 1812. He passed many 
 years in mercantile business in the city of New York, 
 and afterwards studied sculpture in Italy. Among his 
 works are "Esther," " Pocahontas," and "Silence." 
 
 Mozin, mo'ziN , ( . . . ,) a French grammarian, born 
 in 1771, taught in Germany many years. He published 
 several works on grammar, and a good French-German 
 Dictionary, (1812.1 Died in 1840. 
 
 Mozin, (Charles Louis,) a French painter, born in 
 Paris in 1806, studied under Leprince. His works are 
 chiefly marine views, which have great merit. Among 
 the best we may name "The Capture of the Isle of 
 Bommel by the French Army in 1794," and "The Poll 
 of Honfleur." 
 
 Mozzi, mot'see, (Marcan toNIo,) an Italian littera- 
 teur and priest, born at Florence in 1678; died in 1736. 
 
 Muawia or Muawias. See Moawekyah. 
 
 Mucianus, mu-she-a'nus, IFr. Mucikn, moo'se-a.N'; 
 It. Muziano, moot-se-a'no,] (Licinils,) an able Roman 
 general and orator, whose character was compounded 
 of good and evil qualities. He was chosen consul in 52 
 A.D., and at the death of Nero, in 68, commanded four 
 legions in Syria. To promote the interest of his friend 
 Vespasian in his contest against Vitellius, he made a 
 rapid march to Rome in 69 A.D., and acted the part of a 
 sovereign until the arrival of Vespasian. Mucianus was 
 consul in 70 and in 75 A.D. 
 
 See Tacitus, " History of Rome." 
 
 Mucianus, (P. LiciniusCrassus Dives,) an eminent 
 Roman jurist and orator, was a son of P. Mucins Scre- 
 vola. He was adopted by P. Licinius Crassus, suc- 
 ceeded Scipio Nasica as pontifex maximus, and became 
 consul in 131 B.C. Having led an army into Asia to 
 oppose Aristonicus, who attempted to obtain Pergatnus, 
 he was defeated and killed, in 130 B.C. 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n&t ; good; moon; 
 
MUCIEN 
 
 '639 
 
 MUIRHEAD 
 
 Mucien. See Mucianus, (Licinius.) 
 
 Mucius Scaevola. See Scevoi.a. 
 
 Miicke- or Muecke, muk'eh, (Heinrich Karl An- 
 ion,) a German historical painter, born at Hreslau in 
 1806, was a pupil of Schadow. Among his master- 
 pieces maybe named "Saint Ambrose and the Emperor 
 Theodosius," •' Ulysses and Leucothea in the Tempest," 
 and a " Saint Catherine." 
 
 See Naglbr, " Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Mudee, mii'di', (Gabriel van der Muyden — vin 
 der mi'den,) an eminent Flemish* jurist, born near Ant- 
 wer|) in 1500. He wrote " De Restitutionibus in Inte- 
 grum," (15S6,) and other works. Died at Louvain in 
 1560. 
 
 See Spinnael, " Gabriel Mudee et son Ecole," 1844. 
 
 Mud'ford, (William,) an English editor and writer, 
 born in London in 1782. He published, besides other 
 works, a "Life of Oliver Goldsmith," (1804,) and a 
 " Life of Richard Cumberland," (2 vols., 1814.) Died 
 in 1848. 
 
 Mudge, muj, (John,) F.R.S., an eminent optician 
 and surgeon, was a younger son of Zachary, noticed 
 below. lie practised many years at Plymouth, and 
 wrote medical essays, some ot which were inserted in 
 the " Philosophical Transactions." He was distinguished 
 as the improver of the reflecting telescope, and as author 
 of" Directions for Making the Best Composition for the 
 Mirrors of Reflecting Telecopes, with a Description of 
 the Process forgiving the Great Speculum the True Para- 
 bolic Curve." For this he received the Copley medal 
 from the Royal Society. Died in 1793. 
 
 Mudge, (Thomas,) an excellent English mechanist, 
 born at Exeter in 1 716, was a son of Zachary Mudge, 
 noticed below. He served an apprenticeship to Graham, 
 the famous watchmaker, and acquired great eminence 
 in that art. About 1771 he retired to Plymouth, where 
 he employed several years in perfecting chronometers. 
 In 1793 he received from Parliament a recompense of 
 three thousand pounds for his improvements in these 
 instruments. Died in 1794. His son Thomas wrote a 
 " Description of the Time-Keeper invented by Thomas 
 Mudge," (Senior.) 
 
 Mudge, (William,) F.R.S., a scientific English gen- 
 eral, born at Plymouth in 1762, was a son of Dr. John 
 Mudge, noticed above. He served in the royal artil- 
 lery, and obtained the rank of lieutenant. About 1798 
 he was appointed superintendent of the grand trigono- 
 metrical survey of England and Wales, after he had 
 been employed for several years as assistant in that work. 
 During the progress of the survey he was raised to 
 the rank of major-general. The results of his survey 
 were published in the " Philosophical Transactions," 
 and procured him much distinction. In the latter part 
 of his life he was lieutenant-governor of the Royal 
 Military Academy at Woolwich. Died in 1821. 
 
 Mudge, (Zachary,) an eminent clergyman of the 
 Anglican Church, was the father of John and Thomas 
 Mudge, above noticed, and an intimate friend of Dr. 
 Johnson. He became master of a free school at Hide- 
 ford about 1716, and rector of a church in Plymouth in 
 1736. He was also prebendary of Exeter. His ser- 
 mons, of which a volume was published in 1727, were 
 highly esteemed. Died in 1769. 
 
 Mu'die, (Robert.) a Scottish naturalist and popular 
 litterateur, born in Forfarshire in 1777, became a resi- 
 dent of London. He published " Conversations in Moral 
 Philosophy," "The Feathered Tribes of the British 
 Islands," " Popular Mathematics," "The British Natu- 
 ralist," "The Elements: The Heavens, the Earth, the 
 Air, and the Sea," and numerous other works. Died 
 in 1842. 
 
 Mudo, El, 21 moo'no, (Juan Fernandez Ximenes 
 de Navarete— da ni-va-ra'ta,) a celebrated Spanish 
 painter, born at I.ogrofio in 1526, received the surname 
 of EL MUDO ("the Mute") because he was deaf and 
 dumb. He was patronized by Philip II., and painted for 
 the Escurial a "Nativity," a " Holy Family," and other 
 works of great merit. He has been called "the Spanish 
 Titian." Died about 1575. 
 
 Muecke. See MOckk. 
 
 Mueffling. See Muffling. 
 
 Muegge. See Mugge. 
 
 Muehlenbruch. See Muhlenbruch. 
 
 Muelenaere, de, deh mii'el-na'r^h, ? (Felix Amand,) 
 Comi'E, a Belgian statesman, born in 1793. He was 
 appointed in 1830 Governor of West Flanders, and 
 minister of foreign affairs in 1834. 
 
 Mueller. See Muller. 
 
 Muellner. See Mullner. 
 
 Muench. See Munch. 
 
 Muench-Bellinghausen. See Munch-Bellino- 
 HAUSEN. 
 
 Muenchausen. See Munchausen. 
 
 Muennich. See Munnich. 
 
 Muenster. See Munstf.r. 
 
 Muenster-Ladenburg. See Munster-Ladenburg. 
 
 Muenter. See Munter. 
 
 Muenzer. Sec Munzer. 
 
 Muffling or Mueffling, muT'fling, (Friedrich Fer- 
 dinand Karl,) Baron, a Prussian field-marshal, born 
 at Halle in 1775. He was appointed in 181 5 governor 
 of Paris. In 1829 he negotiated a treaty of peace be- 
 tween Russia and Turkey. He became governor of 
 Berlin in 1837, and president of the state council in 1841. 
 He died in 1851. 
 
 See " Passages from my Life," etc., by Baron Muffling. 
 
 Mugge or Muegge, mug'geh, almost muVkeh, 
 (Theodor,) a German litterateur, born at Berlin in 1806, 
 wrote several romances, also political works entitled 
 "France and the Last of the Bourbons" and "Eng- 
 land and Reform." He became in 1850 one of the 
 founders of the Berlin "National Zeitung," of which he 
 was afterwards editor. Died in 1861. 
 
 Muggleton, miig'g'l-ton, (Ludowick,) an English 
 fanatic, born in London in 1609, was the principal 
 founder of the sect called by his name. Muggleton and 
 his coadjutor, John Reeve, professed to be the last and 
 greatest prophets of Jesus Christ. Died in 1697. 
 
 Mugnoz. See MuSoz. 
 
 Muguet de Nanthou, mii'g£' deh noN'too', (Fran- 
 cois Felix HYACINTHS,) a French lawyer and repub- 
 lican, born at Besancon in 1760. He was an active and 
 influential member of the National Assembly in 1790-91. 
 lie was one of the commissaries appointed to maintain 
 order in Paris on the flight of Louis XVI. to Varennes 
 in 1791. He died in 1808, leaving the reputation of a 
 worthy and honourable man. 
 
 Muhammed or Muhammad. See Mohammed. 
 
 Muhaut, mii'o', (Etienne,) a French naturalist, 
 born at Thizy (Khone) in 1797. He published a "Natu- 
 ral History of the Coleoptera of France," (1839 et sea.) 
 
 Muhlbach, Miss. See Mundt. 
 
 Muhlenberg, mu'len-berg, (Gotthilf Henry 
 Ernst,) D.D., an American divine and botanist, son 
 of the following, was born in Montgomery county, 
 Pennsylvania, in 1753. He published, among other 
 works, a " Catalogue of the Plants of North America." 
 Died in 181 5. 
 
 Muhlenberg, (Henry Mei.chior,) D.D., born in 
 Hanover, Germany, in 1711, emigrated to America, 
 where he founded the German Lutheran Church, and 
 settled as pastor at Philadelphia. Died in 1787. 
 
 See the " Life and Times of Henry M. Muhlenberg," by M. L. 
 Stoever, 1856. 
 
 Muhlenberg, (Peter,) a general, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in Montgomery country, Pennsylvania, 
 in 1746. He served with distinction in the Revolutionary 
 war, and was elected to the Senate of the United States 
 in 1801. Died in 1807. 
 
 See the "Life of General Peter Muhlenberg," by Henry A. 
 Muhlenberg, 1840. 
 
 Muhlenbruch or Muehlenbruch, mii'len-bRdoK', 
 (Christian Friedrich,) an eminent German jurist, 
 born at Rostock in 1785. He filled the chair of law 
 successively at Konigsberg and Halle, and in 1833 be- 
 came professor atGottingen. Among his most important 
 works are a "Compendium of the Institutes of Roman 
 Law," and "Doctrine of the Pandects, for the Use of 
 Schools." Died in 1843. 
 
 Muirhead, mur'hed, (James P..) a British writer of 
 the present age, was a relative of James Watt, the great 
 inventor. He published "The Origin and Progress of 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( jaf=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MUIS 
 
 1640 
 
 MULLER 
 
 the Mechanical Inventions of James Watt, illustrated 
 by his Correspondence," etc., (3 vols., 1854,) and a " Life 
 of James Watt." 
 
 Muis, de, deh mii-e', (Simeon Marotte— mf'rot',) 
 a French ecclesiastic and Orientalist, born at Orleans in 
 1587, became professor of Hebrew in the Royal College. 
 He published a number of valuable works, including a 
 "Commentary on the Psalms," (1630,) which is esteemed 
 one of the best that has appeared. Muis enjoyed the 
 reputation of one of the most learned H e braists and 
 Biblical critics of his time. Died in 1644. 
 
 See Dupm, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs ecclesiastiques." 
 
 Mul'cas-ter, (Richard,) an English scholar, born at 
 Carlisle about 1535, became in 1561 master of Merchant 
 Taylors' School, then recently founded in London. He 
 wrote Latin verses, some of which were spoken before 
 Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth, also several educational 
 works. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Mul'ci-ber, [supposed to be derived from mulceo, to 
 "tame," to "soften," because he softens iron and makes 
 it tractable,] asurname given by the Romans to Vulcan, 
 which see. 
 
 Mulder, miil'der, (Gerard Jan,) a Dutch physician 
 and chemist, born at Utrecht in 1802, became pro- 
 fessor of chemistry in his native city. He published, 
 among other works, an " Essay on General Physiological 
 Chemistry," (1844,) and "Chemical Researches," (1847.) 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 Muley (or Mouley) Hassan, mu'lee has'san or 
 moo'la' hSs'san, King of Tunis, began to reign in 1533. 
 He was driven from the throne by Barbarossa, but was 
 restored by the emperor Charles V. in 1535. Died in 
 '545- 
 
 Muley Ismail, moo'la' is-ml'eel', Emperor of Mo- 
 rocco, born in 1646, began to reign in 1672. He took 
 Tangier from the English about 1680. In 1697 he 
 attacked the Algerines, by whom he was defeated. He 
 was extremely cruel. Died in 1727. 
 
 Muley Sbliman, moo'la' so-li-min', Emperor of 
 Morocco, began to reign in 1792. He abolished slavery, 
 and is said to have been a prudent and able ruler. 
 Under his reign Morocco enjoyed unusual tranquillity. 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 Mulgrave, Earl of. See Sheffield. 
 
 Mul'grave, (Constantine John Phipps,) Lord, a 
 distinguished navigator, born about 1740, was the 
 son of an Irish peer. In 1773 he made a voyage to 
 the Arctic regions in order to discover the Northwest 
 Passage, in which he was not successful. After his 
 return he was made a privy councillor, and raised to 
 the peerage in 1784. He published, in 1774, "Jour- 
 nal of a Voyage towards the North Pole." Died in 
 1792. 
 
 Mulgrave, (Henry Philip Phipps,) Lord, a brother 
 of the preceding, was born in 1755. He filled several 
 important offices, and became in 1806 first lord of the 
 admiralty. He exchanged this place in 1812 for that of 
 grand master of artillery, and received the title of Earl 
 of Normanby and Viscount Mulgrave. He died in 1831, 
 and left a son, who became Marquis of Normanby, 
 (which see.) 
 
 Muliuari, moo-le-na'ree, or Molinari, mo-le-na'ree, 
 (Stefano,) a Florentine engraver, executed a great 
 number of prints after Michael Angelo, Raphael, and 
 other eminent Italian masters. He published in 1780 
 a work entitled "Essay on the Five Italian Schools of 
 Painting." 
 
 Miiller or Mueller, miil'ler, (Adam Heinrich,) a 
 German jurist and writer, born at Berlin in 1779, became 
 aulic councillor at Vienna. Died in 1829. 
 
 Mul'ler, (Albert A.,) an American divine, born at 
 Charleston, South Carolina, about 1800, published a 
 number of lyrics and sacred poems. 
 
 Miiller, (Alexander,) a German writer, born in the 
 bishopric of Fulda in 1780, was the author of "Archives 
 for the most Modern Legislation of all the German 
 States." Died in 1844. 
 
 Miiller, (Andreas,) a German divine and Orientalist, 
 born in Pomerania in 1630. He assisted Walton in his 
 Polyglot Bible, and contributed to Castell's "Lexicon." 
 He also published a " Treatise on Cathay," " Japanese 
 
 Alphabet," "Chinese Basilicon," and other works. Died 
 in 1694. * 
 
 Miiller or Mueller, (August Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man philosopher, born in 1684; died in 1761. 
 See J. A. Eknesti, " Memoria A. F. Muelleri," 1761. 
 Miiller, mii'laiR', (Charles Louis,) a celebrated 
 French painter, born in Paris in 1 8 1 5. Among his prin- 
 cipal works maybe named "Christ's Entry into [eru- 
 salem," "Martyrdom of Saint Bartholomew," "Lady 
 Macbeth," " Marie Aptoinette at the Conciergerie," and 
 "The Sleeping Sylph." He obtained medals of the 
 first class in 1848 and 1855. 
 
 Miiller, (Frikdrich,) a German poet, born at Kreuz- 
 nach in 1750, was the author.of "Ulrich von Kossheim," 
 "Faust," and a drama entitled "Niobe." He was also 
 a painter and engraver. Died in 1825. 
 
 Miiller, (Friedrich August,) a German epic poet, 
 born in Vienna in 1767, wrote poems entitled " Alfonso," 
 (1790,) and " Richaml Lbwenherz," ("Richard Coeur-de- 
 Lion," 1790.) Died in 1807. 
 
 Miiller, (Friedrich Max,) an eminent German 
 Orientalist, a son of the poet Wilhelm, noticed below, 
 was born at Dessau in 1823. He studied the Sanscrit 
 language at Leipsic, Berlin, and Paris, and subsequently 
 visited England. In 1847 he was charged by the East 
 India Company to publish an edition of the " Rigveda." 
 He became Taylorian professor of modern languages at 
 Oxford in 1854. He published, besides other works, 
 " Buddhism and Buddhist Pilgrims," a " History of An- 
 cient Sanscrit Literature," (1859,) and " Lectures on the 
 Science of Language," which were very popular. These 
 were first delivered at the Royal Institution in London 
 in 1861. He was chosen a Fellow of All Souls' College, 
 Oxford, in 1858. 
 
 Miiller, (Gerhard Friedrich,) a German traveller 
 and historian, born in Westphalia about 1705. Having 
 visited Saint Petersburg, he accompanied Gmelin and 
 De l'lsle, as secretary, on their expedition to Siberia in 
 1733. He was subsequently appointed historiographer 
 of Russia, (1747,) and keeper of the archives, (1766.) 
 He published a " History of Siberia," "Collection of 
 Russian Histories," and other works. He was a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1783. 
 See Gretch, " Essai sur PHistoire de la Literature Russe." 
 Miiller, ( Heinrich,) a German Lutheran divine, 
 born at Lubeck in 1631, wrote numerous theological 
 treatises in Latin. Died in 1675. 
 
 Miiller, (Jakob and Georg,) brothers, and Swiss 
 artists, born in Grindelwald, lived about 1800, and were 
 celebrated for their skill in painting on glass. 
 Miiller, (Jan.) See Cadovius. 
 Miiller, (Jan,) a Dutch engraver, born at Amsterdam 
 about 1570, imitated the style of Goltzius. His prints 
 are numerous and distinguished for great boldness and 
 facility of execution. 
 Miiller, (Johann.) See Regiomontanus. 
 Miiller, (Johann,) a celebrated German physiologist 
 and zoologist, born at Coblentz on the 14th of July, 1801. 
 He entered the University of Bonn about 1819, studied 
 medicine and other sciences, and graduated as M.D. in 
 1822. In 1826 he published a remarkable treatise "On 
 the Comparative Physiology of the Sense of Sight." 
 He became professor of physiology, etc. at the Univer- 
 sity of Bonn in 1830. His work on the secreting glands, 
 "De Glandularum secernentium Structura penitiori," 
 etc., (1830,) is a valuable contribution to comparative 
 anatomy. He succeeded Rudolph! as professor of 
 anatomy in Berlin in 1833, a "d acquired a wide repu- 
 tation as a lecturer. He made several anatomical dis- 
 coveries. His principal work is a " Manual of Human 
 Physiology," (" Handbuch (or Lehrbuch) der Physiologie 
 des Menschen," 2 vols., 1841-44,) which is considered 
 one of the best works ever written on that subject. 
 There are few points of physiology on which he has not 
 thrown light by numerous observations or new ideas. 
 Among his numerous works are a Latin treatise "On 
 the Respiration of the Fcetus," (1823,) and "Grundriss 
 der Vorlesungen iiber allgemeine Pathologie," (1829.) 
 Many of his works are illustrated by figures designed 
 by himself. He edited a journal called " Archives of 
 Anatomy and Physiology," (1834-40.) In the opinion of 
 
 J, e, 1, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m it; not; good; moon; 
 
MULLER 
 
 1641 
 
 MULLER 
 
 some critics, Miiller was the first physiologist of Europe. 
 He died in Berlin in April, 1858. 
 
 See Rodolph Vikchow, "Joannes Miiller." 1S58; " Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale;" C. Darestk, "Jean Miiller, ses Travaux," 
 etc. in the "Revue Germaniqtie" for February, April, and June, 
 1850: " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Miiller, (Johann,) a German natural philosopher of 
 the nineteenth century. He was professor of physics 
 at Friburg, in Brisgau. He published " Elements of 
 Experirnental Physics," (3d edition, 1852.) 
 
 Miiller, (Johann Frieprich Wilhki.m,) a German 
 engraver, son of Johann Gotthard von Miiller, noticed 
 below, was born at Stuttgart in 1782. Having completed 
 his studies in Paris, he was appointed in 1814 professor 
 of engraving in the Academy of Arts at Dresden, 
 where he was charged with the execution of a plate 
 after Raphael's "Madonna di San Sisto." His severe 
 application to this work caused his death soon after the 
 completion of the print, (1816.) Besides the above- 
 named, which is esteemed his master-piece, Miiller 
 engraved "The Four Seasons," after Jordaens, "Saint 
 John," after Domenichino, and portraits of Schiller 
 and Hufeland. 
 
 Miiller, (Johann Gottwerth,) a German littera- 
 teur, born at Hamburg in 1744, was the author of " Comic 
 Tales from the Papers of the Brown Man." Died in 1828. 
 
 Miiller, (Johann Heinrich,) a German astronomer 
 and natural philosopher, born at Nuremberg in 1671, 
 published many works on astronomy, etc. Died in 1731. 
 
 Miiller, (Johann Jakob,) an excellent landscape- 
 painter, born at Riga in 1765. He worked at Stuttgart 
 and in Italy. Died in 1832. 
 
 Miiller, (Johann Sebastian.) a German engraver, 
 born at Nuremberg in 1 7 15. His plates for the"Sexual 
 System of Linnaeus Illustrated" are among his best 
 works. Died in 1783. 
 
 Miiller, (Karl Otfried — ot'fReet,) a distinguished 
 German scholar, historian, and antiquary, was born at 
 Brieg, in Silesia, in 1797. He studied at Breslau, and 
 subsequently devoted himself to philology at Berlin 
 the celebrated Bockh. He became in 1817 pro- 
 
 under 
 
 fessor of ancient languages in the Magdalenum at Bres 
 lau, and in 1819 obtained the chair of archaeology and 
 Grecian art at Gottingen. In this post his able and 
 eloquent lectures, and the numerous admirable works 
 he published during the fifteen years following, gave a 
 new impulse to the study of philology and antiquities 
 in Germany. In 1839 Miiller visited Italy, and the next 
 year arrived at Athens. Having greatly fatigued himself 
 while making excavations at Delphi, he was soon after 
 attacked by a fever, of which he died in 1840. He was 
 buried near the ruins of the Academy, and the Univer- 
 sity of Athens erected a monument over his grave. 
 Among his principal works are his " History of the 
 Hellenic Races and Cities," (1820,) "The Dorians," 
 ("Die Dorier," 2 vols., 1824-30,) "Introduction to a 
 Scientific System of Mythology," (1825,) "On the Origin 
 and Ancient History of the Macedonians," (1825,) 
 "The Etruscans," (2 vols., 1828,) "Manual of the Archae- 
 ology of Art," (1830,) and "History of the Literature 
 of Ancient Greece," (1840.) 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexiknn ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Ge'ne'rale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1839. 
 
 Miiller, (Ludvvig Christian,) a German engineer 
 and mathematician, born in the march of Pregnitz in 
 1744. He served for a time in the Seven Years' war, 
 and became in 17S6 professor of mathematics in the 
 Academy of Engineers at Potsdam. He wrote several 
 valuable treatises on military tactics. Died in 1804. 
 
 Miiller.mttl'Ier, (OthoFrederik,) an eminent Danish 
 naturalist, born at Copenhagen in 1730. Being appointed 
 m '753 tutor to a young nobleman, he availed himself, 
 while travelling with him, of the facilities for increasing 
 his knowledge of botany and zoology. In 1764 he pub- 
 lished bis* Fauna Insectorum Friedrichsdaliana,"andin 
 1767 his "Flora Friedrichsdaliana," giving an account 
 of the insects and plants of Friedrichsdal. The great 
 merit of these productions caused him to be appointed 
 by King Frederick V. to continue the publication of the 
 "Flora Danica," a magnificent work, surpassing anything 
 o' the kind that had hitherto appeared. Miiller added 
 two volumes to the three already published by Oeder. 
 
 In '773-74 he brought out a treatise (in Latin) "On 
 Earth Worms and Fresh-Water Worms." In the first 
 part of this work he describes the infusoria, of which he 
 discovered many new species ; and he was the first 
 naturalist who distributed animalcules into genera and 
 species. In 1781 his treatise "On the Hvdrachnae" 
 appeared, and in 1785 one "On the Monoculi," both 
 written in Latin and illustrated with many plates. These 
 two works, together with a treatise on the Infusoria, (in 
 4to, with fifty plates,) published in 1786, are esteemed 
 his greatest productions. Miiller had begun in 1779 a 
 "Zoologia Danica," a superb work, of which he pub- 
 lished two parts, each with forty coloured plates. Several 
 additions were made to it after his death, which took 
 place in 1784. Miiller is characterized by Cuvier as one 
 of the most laborious and accurate observers of the 
 eighteenth century; and the same writer adds, "The In- 
 fusoria form, as it were, a new animal kingdom, which 
 he revealed to the world." 
 
 See Hanssen, "Tal til Erindring af O. F. Miiller," 1787; 
 Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Miiller, (Peter Erasmus,) a learned Danish theolo- 
 gian and antiquary, born at Copenhagen in 1776. Having 
 completed his studies in Germany, he was appointed in 
 1801 professor of theology in the University of Copen- 
 hagen. In 1830 he succeeded Miinter as Bishop of 
 Seeland. Among his works are "Christian Moral 
 System," "Sagabibliothek," or "Library of the Sagas," 
 and " Critical Examination of the Traditional History 
 of Denmark and Norway from 1805 to 1830." Died 
 in 1834. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyerup, " Almindeligt Litteraturlexicon," etc. 
 Miiller, (Sophie,) one of the most celebrated tragic 
 actresses of the German stage, born at Manheim in 1803. 
 She visited successively Vienna, Dresden, and Berlin, 
 where her performances elicited the warmest applause. 
 In private life she was highly esteemed. Died in 1830. 
 Miiller, (Wenzel,) a popular German opera-com- 
 poser, born in Moravia in 1767. He was appointed in 
 1786 chapel-master at Vienna. Among his numerous 
 works is " The Magic Guitar." Died in 1835. 
 
 Miiller, (Wii.hei.m,) one of the most distinguished 
 lyric poets of Germany, born at Dessau in 1794. Having 
 visited Italy in 181 7, he published, after his return, 
 " Poems from the Papers left by a Travelling Bugle- 
 Player," ("Gedichten aus den hinterlassenen Papieretv 
 eines reisenden Waldhornisten," 2 vols., 1821,) "Songs 
 of the Greeks," ("Liedem der Griechen," 1821,) and 
 " Lyrical Promenades," (" Lyrischen Spaziergangen.") 
 He also published the " Library of the German Poets of 
 the Seventeenth Century," (1822,) and was a contributor 
 to Ersch and Gruber's "Encyclopaedia." Died in 1827. 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 Miiller, (William John,) an eminent landscape- 
 painter, of German extraction, born at Bristol, in Eng- 
 land, in 1812. He studied under J. B. Pyne, and subse- 
 quently visited Egypt and Greece, where he executed a 
 number of admirable pictures. Among these we may 
 name his "Memnon at Sunset," "Turkish Merchants," 
 etc., " View of Athens," and " Prayer in the Desert." 
 Died in 1845. 
 
 Miiller, von, fon nvRller, (Johann Gotthard,) a 
 celebrated German engraver, born near Stuttgart in 1747. 
 He was patronized at an early age by Duke Charles 
 of Wiirtemberg, by whose assistance he was enabled 
 to study in Paris under Wille. He was chosen a 
 member of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1776, and sub- 
 sequently became professor of engraving in the Academy 
 of Stuttgart, and obtained the order of the Wiirtemberg 
 Crown. Among his master-pieces we may name the 
 "Madonna delta Seggiola," after Raphael, "Saint Ce- 
 cilia," after Domenichino, and "The Battle of Bunker's 
 Hill," after Trumbull, also a number of excellent 
 portraits, including those of Moses Mendelssohn and 
 Schiller. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Nagler, " Allgememes Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 Miiller, von, fon mWler, (Tohannf.s,) an eminent 
 Swiss historian, born at Schaff hausen, January 3, 1752. 
 He studied history at Gottingen under Schlozer, and 
 in 1772 published 'his "Cimbric War," ("Bellum Cim- 
 bricum.") He became, soon after, professor of Greek 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (fcySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MVLLER 
 
 1642 
 
 MUNCHAUSEN 
 
 in the College of Schaffhausen, from which he removed 
 to Geneva in 1774. About this date he formed a friend- 
 ship with Victor de Bonstetten. He published in 1780 
 the first volume of his " History of the Swiss," which 
 raised him to the first rank of historians. The second 
 edition of it was entitled "The History of the Swiss 
 Confederation," ("Die Geschichte der Schweizerischen 
 Eidgenossen," 1786,) He was appointed in 1786 aulic 
 councillor to the Elector of Mentz and librarian of the 
 University of Mentz. About 1790 he accepted from 
 Leopold II. of Austria the position of aulic councillor; 
 but, the publication of his Swiss history having been 
 prohibited by the Austrian court, he entered the service 
 of the King of Prussia, as privy councillor, in 1795. The 
 fourth volume of his great work appeared in 1805. In 
 November, 1806, he had a private interview with Napo- 
 leon, who had invited him for that purpose, and who, 
 according to some authorities, effected some change in 
 Mullet's political convictions. Through the influence 
 of Napoleon he was appointed a councillor of state and 
 director of public instruction by the King of Westphalia 
 in January, 1808. He died at Cassel in May, 1809. 
 Among his works are his correspondence with Bonstet- 
 ten, entitled " Letters of a Young Savant to his Friend," 
 (i8oi,)and "Twenty-Four Books of Universal History," 
 (3 vols., 181 1.) 
 
 See his Autobiography, (" Selbstbiographie,") 1806; A. H. L. 
 Heerrn, "J. von Miiller der Historiker," 1809; C. G. Heyne, 
 "Memorla J. de Mueller," 1810; Heinkich D6ring, " Leben J. 
 von Miiller's," 1835; Charles Monard, " Biographie de J. de 
 Mueller," 1839; " Nouvelle Biographie GtSne"rale." 
 
 Miiller von Konigswinter, nvHl'ier fon ko'nics- 
 win'ter, (Wolfgang,) a German litterateur, born at 
 Konigswinter in 1816. He published "Ballads and 
 Romances," "Voyage on the Rhine," "Lorelei," a 
 charming collection of legendary ballads, and "The 
 May Queen," an interesting village story. 
 
 Mul'li-gan, (James A.,) an officer, born at Utica, 
 New York, in 1830. He removed in 1836 to Chicago, 
 where he became editor of the "Western Tablet," a 
 Catholic journal. He distinguished himself by his brave 
 defence of Lexington, Missouri, in 1861, and was made 
 a brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 1862. 
 
 Milliner" or Muellner, muVner, (Amadeus Gott- 
 fried Adoi.f,) a German critic and dramatic writer, 
 born near Weissenfels in 1774, was a nephew of the 
 poet Biirger. He became in 1820 associate editor of 
 the " Morgenblatt." Among his most popular dramas 
 are "The Confidants," "The Twenty-Ninth of Febru- 
 ary," and " Die Schuld," (1816.) Died in 1829. 
 
 See F. K. J. Schutz, "Miillner's Leben und Geist," 1830; F. 
 Wagener, "Miillner in poetischer, kritischer und religibser Be- 
 liehung," 1831. 
 
 Mullot or Mulot, mii'lo', (Francois Valentin,) a 
 French litterateur, born in Paris in 1 749. He was a 
 member of the Legislative Assembly in 1791. Among 
 his works is " Le Museum de Florence, grave par David," 
 (6 vols., 1788-95.) Died in 1804. 
 
 Mu'loch, (Dinah Maria,) an excellent and popular 
 English author, born in Staffordshire in 1826. Her 
 principal works are entitled "The Ogilvies," (1849,) 
 "Olive," "The Head of the Family," "Agatha's Hus- 
 band," (1852,) "John Halifax, Gentleman,* (1857,) "A 
 Life for a Life," " A Woman's Thoughts about Woman," 
 "Studies from Life," "A Noble Life," (1866,) and' "A 
 Brave Lady," (1870.) MissMuloch has written admirably 
 upon a variety of subjects. In 1865 she was married to 
 George Lillie Craik, (noticed in this work,) who died in 
 June, 1 866. 
 
 See the "British Quarterly Review" for July, 1866; "North 
 British Review" for November, 1858. 
 
 Mulot. See Mullot. 
 
 Mulready, mul'red-e, ( William, ) a celebrated 
 painter, born at Ennis, in Ireland, in 1786. He entered 
 the Royal Academy at an early age, and subsequently 
 formed his style on the model of the Dutch and Flemish 
 masters. His "Idle Boys," exhibited in 1815, caused 
 his election as associate of the Academy, and a few 
 months later he was made a Royal Academician. Among 
 his other works are "The Fight Interrupted," "The 
 Roadside Inn," "Lending a Bite," "The Wolf and the 
 Lamb," "Crossing the Ford," and "First Love." His 
 
 "Choosing the Wedding-Gown," and other illustrations 
 of the "Vicar of Wakefield," are also master-pieces of 
 the kind, and have placed him in the first rank of modern 
 British artists. Died in 1863. 
 
 Mulsant, miil'soN', (Martial Etif.nne,) a French 
 naturalist, born at Marnard (Rh6ne) in 1797. He pub- 
 lished several works on entomology. 
 
 Mum'mi-us, (Lucius,) an able Roman general, sur- 
 named Acha'icus, was noted for his integrity. He 
 became praetor in 154 B.C., and consul in 146. ' In the 
 same year he defeated the Achaean League, destroyed 
 Corinth, and reduced Greece to a Roman province. 
 Many works of art found at Corinth were carried to 
 Rome to adorn the triumphal procession of Mummius, 
 which occurred in 145 H.C. and formed an epoch in the 
 history of Roman art. He was censor in 142 B.C., when 
 Scipio Africanus the Younger was his colleague. 
 
 See Polvbius, " History ;" Livv, " Epitome." 
 
 Mumraol. See MuMMOLUS. 
 
 Mum'mo-lus, [Fr. Mummol, mii'mol',] (Ennius,) 
 an able Gallic general, became Count of Auxerre about 
 560 A.D., and commander of the army of Gontran of 
 Burgundy. He defeated the Lombards near Embrun 
 in 572, and Didier, Count of Toulouse, in 576. Having 
 revolted against Gontran, he was killed, by order of that 
 king, in 585 a.d. 
 
 Mun, (Thomas,) an English writer on commerce, 
 lived about 1620-40. He was a merchant of London, 
 and wrote "England's Treasure by Foreign Trade ; or, 
 The Balance of our Foreign Trade is the Rule of our 
 Treasure." 
 
 Munari degli Aretusi, moo-na'ree dal'yee a-ra-too'- 
 see, (Pei.legrino,) an Italian painter of Modena, was a 
 pupil of Raphael. Died in 1523. 
 
 Munatius Plancus. See Plancus. 
 
 Muncer. See Munzer. 
 
 Munch, moonk, (Andreas,) a Norwegian poet, cousin 
 of Peter Andreas, noticed below, was born in 181 1. He 
 was author of " Poems, Old and New," and other works. 
 
 Munch or Muench, nvBnK, (ERNST Hermann Jo- 
 seph,) a Swiss historian and voluminous writer, born at 
 Rheinfelden in 1798. He became professor of ecclesias- 
 tical history and canon law at Liege, (1828.) He wrote 
 (in German) a " History of the House of Orange-Nassau," 
 (1831-33,) " Universal History of Modern Times," (1833 
 -35,) and other works. Died in 1841. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1838. 
 
 Munch, (Peter Andreas,) an eminent Norwegian 
 antiquary and philologist, born at Christiania in 1810, 
 became professor of history in the university of his 
 native city, (1841.) He published Grammars of the 
 Runic, the Gothic, and the so-called Old Norwegian 
 languages, " Historical and Geographical Description 
 of Norway in the Middle Ages," (1849,) " History of 
 the Norse Nations," (" Det Norske Folks Historic," % 
 vols., 1853-59.) He also edited the "Ancient Laws of 
 Norway," and the ancient " Edda." Died in 1863. 
 
 Munch-Beli'rghausen or Muench-Bellinghau- 
 seu, munK bel'ling-how'zen, (Eligius Franz Joseph,) 
 Baron, a German poet and dramatist, born in Mecklen- 
 burg-Schwerin in 1806, was known by the pseudonym 
 of Friedrich Halm. He was the author of tragedies 
 entitled "Griseldis," (1835,) " The King and the Peas- 
 ant," (1841,) "The Son of the Wilderness," (1842,) and 
 "The Gladiator of Ravenna," (1857.) The two last- 
 named were received with great favour. In 1845 ' le was 
 appointed keeper of the Imperial Library of Vienna. 
 
 Munchausen or Muenchausen, mHnK'how'zen, 
 (Gerlach Adolf,) Baron, a German statesman, born 
 at Hanover in 1688, was for many years curator of the 
 University of Gottingen. He made valuable contribu- 
 tions to the library of that institution, and founded the 
 Society of Sciences at Gottingen. He was appointed 
 first minister of Hanover in 1765. Died in 1770. 
 
 Munchausen, commonly pronounced in English 
 mfm-chaw'sen, (Hieronymus Karl Friedrich,) Ba- 
 ron, a famous German officer, whose name has become 
 proverbial as a synonym of extravagant boasting, was 
 born in Hanover in 1720. Having entered the Russian 
 service, he fought against the Turks in 1737. After his 
 return, he acquired great notoriety by his exaggerated 
 
 I, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J>, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
MUKCK 
 
 1643 
 
 MUNTER 
 
 stories of adventure, a collection of which appeared 
 in England under the title of " Baron Munchausen's 
 Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in 
 Russia." It obtained great popularity, and was trans- 
 lated into German by Burger. Died in 1797. 
 
 See El-LISEN, "Nachricht tiber den Freiherrn von Munchausen," 
 prefixed to his " Adventures," Berlin, 1849; Allibone, "Diction- 
 ary of Authors," article " Raspe." 
 
 Munck. See Munk. 
 
 Mundanella, moon-da-nel'15, (Luigi,) an Italian phy- 
 sician, born at Brescia, published "Theatrum Galeni," 
 (1551.) Died about 1570. 
 
 Mun'day, (Anthony,) an English dramatist, born 
 in 1^54, wrote "The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Hun- 
 tingdon," and "The Widow's Charm," and published 
 an enlarged edition of Stowe's " Survey of London." 
 Died in 1633. 
 
 See Collier, " History of English Dramatic Poetry." 
 
 Mun'den, (Joseph S.,) an English comedian, born in 
 London in 1758; died in 1832. 
 
 Mun-di'nus or Mondino da Luzzi, mon-dee'no 
 da loot'sec, an Italian physician and anatomist, born in 
 the latter part of the thirteenth century, became pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Bologna. He is said to have 
 been the first among the moderns who dissected human 
 bodies. Died in 1326. 
 
 See Portal, " Histoire de l'Anatomie." 
 
 Mundt, mdont, (Theodor,) a German litterateur, 
 born at Potsdam in 1808. He was appointed professor 
 of general literature and history at Breslau in 1848, and 
 in 1850 librarian of the University of Berlin. He has 
 published numerous tales, romances, political essays, 
 and sketches of travel. His wife — originally Luise 
 Muhi.iiach, (nvttl'baK,) — has also written a number of 
 historical romances of a somewTiat extravagant character. 
 Several of them have been translated into English and 
 have enjoyed great popularity. 
 
 See *' Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Mun'd$f, (George Rodney,) an English naval officer, 
 a grandson of Admiral Rodney, was born in 1805. He 
 served as captain against the pirates of Borneo in 1846, 
 and published a "Narrative of Events in Borneo," (2 
 vols., 1848.) 
 
 Munk or Munck, mrJonk, (Han or Johann,) a 
 Danish navigator, born about 1589. He was sent about 
 1620 to search for a Northwest Passage. Died in 1628. 
 
 Munk, mdonk, (Salomon,) a German Orientalist, 
 born at Glogau in 1802. He studied in Paris under Sil- 
 vestre de Sacy, and was appointed in 1840 one of the 
 keepers of the Oriental manuscripts in the Imperial 
 Library. He was elected a member of the Academy 
 of Inscriptions in i860. Among his works is a "Geo- 
 graphical, Historical, and Archaeological Description 
 of Palestine," (in French, 1845.) 
 
 Miinnich or Muennich, nvuVniK, (Burkhard 
 Christoph,) Count, a Russian general and statesman, 
 of German extraction, born in 1683. Having served 
 against the French in 1712, he was afterwards patron- 
 ized by Peter the Great, and rose to be field-marshal 
 under the empress Anna. He subsequently gained a 
 series of victories over the Turks. He caused himself 
 to be made prime minister during the minority of Prince 
 Ivan ; but on the accession of Elizabeth he was exiled 
 to Siberia, in 1741. He was recalled by Peter III. in 
 1762. Died in 1767. 
 
 Sen Hemphl, "Leben Miinnichs," 1742: Von Hammer, "Ge- 
 scliichte des Osmanisclien Reichs :" G. A. von Hai.em, " Lebensbe- 
 schreibung des Grafen von Miinnich," 1803; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^ne'rale." 
 
 Mvni'niks, (Jan,) a Dutch anatomist, born at Utrecht 
 in 1652 ; died in 171 1. 
 
 Muuniks, (Winoi.d,) a Dutch physician, born in 
 Friesland in 1744; died in 1806. 
 
 Munoz, moon-ydth', (Evarista,) a Spanish painter, 
 of high reputation, born at Valencia in 16/1, was noted 
 for his gallantry and adventures. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Quilliet, "Diclionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Munoz, (Fernando,) Duke of Rianzares, a Spanish 
 officer, born at Tarancon about 1808. He was secretly 
 married to the queen-regent Maria Christina in 1833. 
 They were married publicly in 1844. 
 
 Munoz, (Juan Bautista,) a Spanish historian, born 
 near Valencia in 1745, was appointed cosmographer 
 to the Indies. He published a " History of the New 
 World," (1793,) which is highly eulogized by Humboldt. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" Prescott, 
 "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. ii. part a. 
 
 Munoz, sometimes improperly written Mugnoz, (Se- 
 bastian,) a Spanish artist, born at Naval Camero in 
 1654, was one of the best Spanish fresco-painters of his 
 time. He was a pupil of Coello, and was appointed 
 painter to the king, Charles II., in 1688. Died in 1690. 
 
 See Quilliet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols," etc. 
 
 Munoz, ( Tomas,) a Spanish naval officer and en- 
 gineer, born about 1745. He defended the foundations 
 of Cadiz against the encroachments of the sea. Died 
 in 1823. 
 
 Mun-ro', (Sir Thomas,) an able English general and 
 governor, born at Glasgow in 1760 or 1761. He went 
 to India about 1780, and entered the army of the East 
 India Company. Having served with distinction in 
 several campaigns, he was also employed in important 
 civil offices. In 1819 he was appointed Governor of 
 Madras, and raised to the rank of major-general. He 
 died in India in 1826 or 1827. , 
 
 See G. R. Gleig. " Life of Sir Thomas Munro," 3 or 3 vols., 
 1830 ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1830. 
 
 Mun'sell, (Joel,) an American printer and journalist, 
 born at Northfield, Massachusetts, in 1808, published 
 the " Every-Day Book of History and Chronology," 
 "Annals of Albany," and other works. 
 
 Minister, von, fon moon'ster, (Ernst Frif.drich 
 Herbert,) Count, a Hanoverian politician, born in 
 1766. He was a member of the Congress of Vienna 
 in 1814. Died in 1839. 
 
 Mun'ster, (George Fitzclarence,) Earl of, an 
 English general, born in 1794, was a natural son of King 
 William IV. He served with distinction in the Penin- 
 sular war, and afterwards in India. He wrote a "Journal 
 of Travels in India," (1819.) Died in 1842. 
 
 Minister or Muenster, mun'ster, (Sebastian,) a 
 German theologian and Orientalist, born at Ingelsheim 
 in 1489, became professor of Hebrew and Biblical litera- 
 ture at Heidelberg. He published a Latin translation 
 of the Hebrew Bible, (with notes,) and a " Universal Cos- 
 mography." " Minister," says De Thou, " was so learned 
 in theology and geography that he was styled the Esdras 
 and Strabo of Germany." Died in 1552. 
 
 Minister - Ledenburg, mtTn ' ster la ' den - booRG', 
 (Ernst Frif.drich Herbert,) a German statesman, 
 born at Osnabriick in 1766. He became minister of 
 finance in 1798, and was afterwards sent on missions to 
 England and Russia. Died in 1839. 
 
 Muntaner En Ramon, nioon-ta-naiR' 811 ra-mon', 
 a Spanish chronicler, born in Catalonia in 1265. His 
 principal work is a' "History of the Achievements of 
 the Princes of Aragon, from James the Conqueror to 
 Alfonso IV." The writer narrates, in a pleasing, un- 
 affected style, events of which he was a witness, and his 
 chronicle is esteemed one of the best of the middle ages. 
 
 Miinter or Muenter, mun'ter, (Balthasar,) a Ger- 
 man pulpit orator and writer of sacred poetry, born at 
 Lubeck in 1735. His "Collections of Spiritual Songs" 
 are greatly esteemed by his countrymen. In 1772 he 
 attended the unfortunate Count Struensee a short time 
 before his execution, and afterwards wrote an account 
 of his conversion. This work became widely celebrated, 
 and was translated into the principal European lan- 
 guage's. Died in 1793. 
 
 See Friedrich Munter, " Leben und Character B. Miinters," 
 ■ 794- 
 
 Miinter, (Friedrich,) son of the preceding, born in 
 1761, became successively professor of theology at Co- 
 penhagen (1790) and Bishop of Seeland, (1808.) He 
 also attained great distinction as an antiquary and 
 Oriental scholar. Among his most important works is 
 a treatise "On the Symbols and Art-Representations 
 of the Early Christians." Died in 1830. Fredkrika 
 Sophia Christiana Brun, sister of the preceding, 
 was likewise celebrated as an author. 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2, th as in this. (JJ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MUNTING 
 
 1644 
 
 MURCHISON 
 
 Munting, mun'ting, (Abraham,) a Dutch physician 
 and botanist, born at Groningen in 1626, was professor 
 of botany and chemistry in the university of that place. 
 He wrote, among other treatises, a " Curious Descrip- 
 tion of Plants." Died in 1683. 
 
 Munzer, Muenzer, or Miincei , munt'ser, (Thomas,) 
 a German fanatic, who held principles similar to the 
 Anabaptists. Having collected forty thousand followers, 
 they committed many outrages ; but they were at length 
 defeated by the Landgrave of Hesse and his allies, and 
 Munzer was executed, (1526.) 
 
 See Strobel, " Leben. Schriften, etc. Thomas Munzers," 1785; 
 Seidemann, "Thomas Munzer," 1842. • 
 
 Mura, da, da moo'ra, (Francesco,) sometimes called 
 Franceschetto, (fran-ches-keVto,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Naples. He painted several works in the palace 
 of the King of Sardinia. Died about 1745. 
 
 Murad. See Moorad. 
 
 Murad, (Sultans of Turkey.) See Amurath. 
 
 Murad Bey. See Moorad Bev. 
 
 Muraire, mu'r5R', (HonorE,) Count, a French judge 
 and politician, born at Draguignan in 1750. He was 
 elected to the Council of Elders in 1795, was banished 
 in 1797, and was appointed first president of the court 
 of cassation in Paris in 1804. Died in 1837. 
 
 Muralt, de, deh moo'ralt, (Beat Louis,) a Swiss 
 litterateur, born at Berne. He wrote a " History of Fred- 
 erick the Great of Prussia," and various other works. 
 Died in 1760. 
 
 Muralt, de, (Jean,) a Swiss physician and naturalist, 
 born at Zurich in 1645. He became professor of physics 
 and mathematics at Zurich in 1645, and published several 
 scientific works. Died in 1733. 
 
 Murant, mii-rant', ? (Emmanuel,) a Dutch landscape- 
 painter, born at Amsterdam in 1622. His works are 
 finelv finished. Died at Leeuwarden in 1700. 
 
 Murat, niii'rS', (Jean,) a French painter, bom at 
 Felletin in 1807. He gained the grand prize in 1837 
 for a picture of "Noah Offering Sacrifice." 
 
 Murat, [sometimes Anglicized in pronunciation as 
 mu-rat',] (Joachim,) a celebrated marshal of the French 
 empire, and King of Naples, was born near Cahors, in 
 the south of Fiance, in 1771. His father was an inn- 
 keeper. Soon after the Revolution began, young Murat 
 entered the guard of Louis XVI., from which he passed 
 into a regiment of chasseurs. As he was a warm parti- 
 san of the popular cause, he was rapidly promoted, and 
 in the campaign of 1796 was a favourite aide-de-camp 
 of Bonaparte, whose fortunes he thenceforth followed 
 and shared. Having signalized his impetuous bravery 
 in the campaigns of Italy and Egypt, he was made a 
 general of division in 1799. Soon after Bonaparte ob- 
 tained the chief power, he gave to Murat his sister 
 Caroline in marriage. Murat commanded the cavalry at 
 Marengo in 1800, and was appointed governor of Paris 
 in 1804, with the rank of general-in-chief. He received 
 a marshal's baton in 1804, and in 1866 was created Grand 
 Duke of Berg and Cleves. At Austerlitz, Jena, and 
 Eylau he directed the cavalry with brilliant effect. He 
 was pronounced by Napoleon "the best cavalry officer 
 in Europe," and was admired for his handsome figure, 
 gorgeous costume, and chivalrous demeanour. 
 
 Murat commanded the army which invaded Spain in 
 1808, and in the same year was placed on the throne 
 of Naples, where he was received with general joy, and 
 reigned liberally and peacefully until 1812. He shared 
 the reverses of the Russian campaign, (1812,) and in 
 1813 again fought for Napoleon, whose cause he deserted 
 after the battle of Leipsic. He made a treaty with the 
 court of Vienna in January, 1814, and engaged t6 sup- 
 port the allies with his army; but he failed to aid them 
 efficiently, and was accused of duplicity. As the Con- 
 gress of Vienna appeared indisposed to recognize his 
 claim, he secretly renewed his relations with the exiled 
 emperor, whose cause he openly espoused in March, 
 1815. Calling the Italians to rise for liberty, he com- 
 menced hostilities against the Austrians in Northern 
 Italy, but was repulsed and finally defeated at Macerata 
 in May, and then fled to France. In October, 1815, he 
 landed with about thirty men in his former kingdom, and 
 made a desperate attempt to recover it, but was soon 
 
 captured and shot. As a ruler, he appears to have been 
 mild and humane, but he was deficient in political ability 
 as well as moral courage. His wife survived him many 
 years, and took the title of Countess of Lipano. (See 
 Bonaparte, Caroline.) Murat left two sons, Napoleon 
 Achille and Lucien Charles Joseph. 
 
 See V. Macirone, "Interesting Facts relating to the Fall, etc. 
 of J. Murat;" A. de Beauchamp. " Catastrophe de Murat :" Leon 
 Gai.i.ois, " Histoire de Joachim Murat," 1828; A. Sekikys, "Vic 
 Dubuque et priv^e de Joachim Murat." 1S16; A. Bkuggkmans, 
 " Leven en I.otgevallen van Joachim Murat." 1S16 ; C. Mikamont, 
 "Vie de J. Murat, Roide Naples," 1836 : Thiers, " History of the 
 French Revolution ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1826. 
 
 Murat, (Napoleon Achillk,) a son of the preceding, 
 was bom in Paris in 1801. He emigrated to Florida 
 about 1822. He wrote a " Moral and Political View of 
 the United States," (1832,) and several other short 
 works. Died in Jefferson county, Florida, in 1847. 
 
 Murat, (Napoleon Lucien Charles,) Prince, a 
 French senator, born at Milan in 1803, was a son of 
 Joachim Murat. He married Miss Fraser, an American, 
 about 1827. After a long exile, he was permitted to enter 
 France in 1848. He supported the policy of Napoleon 
 III., who appointed him a senator in 1852. 
 
 Muratori, moo-ra-to'ree, (Ludovico Antonio,) an 
 eminent Italian scholar, historian, and antiquary, born 
 near Modena in 1672. He became librarian and ar- 
 chivist to the Duke of Modena in 1700, and continued in 
 this office till his death. He published in 1751 his great 
 work entitled " Writers of Italian History," (" Rerum 
 Italicorum Scriptores," 27 vols, fob, 1723-38,) which was 
 followed by his " Italian Antiquities of the Middle Ages," 
 (6 vols., 1738,) "New Treasury of Ancient Inscriptions," 
 (6 vols., 1739,) and "Annals of Italy," (in Italian, 12 vols., 
 1744.) He died in 1750, with the reputation of one of 
 the most learned men of his time. 
 
 See G. F. Muratori, "Vita del celebre L. A. Muratori," 1756; 
 Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri ;" Fabroni, "Vitas Italo- 
 rum doctrina excellentiutu ;*' Schedoni, " Eiogiodi L. A. Muratori," 
 1818: "Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Muravief. See Mooravief. 
 
 Murawiew or Murawjew. See Mooravief. 
 
 Murazan, moo-ra-sin', (Juan,) a South American 
 patriot, born at San Salvador in 1796, was president 
 of the republic of Guatemala from 1831 to 1838. Died 
 in 1852. 
 
 Mur'€hl-scm, (Sir Roderick Impey,) an eminent 
 British geologist, born at Taradale, Ross-shire, Scotland, 
 on the 19th of February, 1792, was a son of Kenneth 
 Murchison. He was educated at the Military College 
 of Marlow, entered the army in 1807, and served in seve- 
 ral battles in the Peninsula. He was also on the staff of 
 his uncle, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, in Sicily. He mar- 
 ried a daughter of General Hugonin in 1815, and quitted 
 the army about 1816. By the advice of Sir Humphry 
 Davy, he applied himself to the study of natural science, 
 and attended lectures at the Royal Institution. Abouti825 
 he produced a "Geological Sketch of the Northwestern 
 Extremity of Sussex." He became a member of the 
 Geological Society in 1825, and of the Royal Society in 
 1826. In company with Sir Charles Lyell, he explored 
 in 1828 the geology of Auvergne, Provence, and Pied- 
 mont, on which they wrote jointly three memoirs. In 
 1830 he began to examine the older sedimentary strata 
 of England and Wales, to which he gave the name of 
 Silurian system. He published the results of these 
 researches in an important work entitled "The Silurian 
 System." He was the first who discovered the relations 
 of these palaeozoic strata and classified them according 
 to the succession of organic remains. In 1845 Mr. 
 Murchison and M. de Verneuil published " The Geology 
 of Russia and the Ural Mountains," (2 vols. 4(0.) The 
 former received the honour of knighthood in 1846. He 
 was elected president of the Royal Geographical So- 
 ciety in 1844 and 1852, and received the Copley medal 
 in 1849, for the establishment of the Silurian system. 
 Among his numerous works is " Siluria : the History 
 of the oldest known Rocks containing Organic Remains, 
 with a Brief Sketch of the Distribution of Gold over the 
 Earth," (1854.) He had been chosen president of the 
 Geological Society several times between 1830 and 1842. 
 In 1855 he was appointed Director-General of the Geo- 
 logical Survey of the United Kingdom. He was elected 
 
 a, e, I, o, 5, y, long; \ e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fi, y\ short; a, ?, j, q, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
MURDOCH 
 
 1645 
 
 MURPHr 
 
 president of the Royal Geographical Society in 1864, 
 and received the Copley medal in 1866. Died in 1871. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'neVale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for 
 July, i860; " London Quarterly Review" for July, iSftS; "Eclectic 
 Magazine" for December, 1864, (with a portrait :) ** North British 
 Review" for August, 1854; "Men of the Time" for 1868. 
 
 Murdoch, imtr'dok, (James Edward,) an American 
 actor and elocutionist, born in Philadelphia, January 25, 
 181 1. His first public performance was in Philadelphia 
 in 1829. In 1833 he appeared successfully in the charac- 
 ter of "Romeo," with Miss Fanny Kemble as "Juliet," 
 and from that time became a leading actor in tragedy 
 and comedy. About five years later he retired from the 
 stage, and opened a school in Boston for mental and 
 physical training. He afterwards returned to the stage, 
 and in 1853 he visited California. In 1855 he went to 
 Europe, and while in London performed at the Hay- 
 market Theatre with great applause. He returned to the 
 United States in 1857. Mr. Murdoch's style is strictly 
 original, his articulation distinct, and his versatility and 
 range of character remarkable. At the commencement 
 of the war of the rebellion he devoted his time and atten- 
 tion to his country, giving readings and recitations in 
 the camps, caring for the sick and wounded, and rousing 
 the people to the aid of the suffering. He served for 
 some time on the staff of General Rousseau. Since the 
 close of the war he has devoted himself to his profession. 
 
 Mur'dock, (James,) D.D., a learned American Con- 
 gregational divine, born at Westbrook, Connecticut, in 
 1776. He graduated at Yale College, and was appointed 
 professor of ancient languages at the University of Ver- 
 mont in 1815, and in 1819 of sacred rhetoric and eccle- 
 siastical history in the theological seminary of Andover. 
 He translated from the German Mosheim's "Institutes 
 of Ecclesiastical History," and Miinscher's "Elements 
 of Dogmatic History," (1830,) and published several 
 original works. Died in 1856. 
 
 Mure, miir, (William,) a Scottish critic and scholar 
 of great eminence, born at Caldwell in 1799. He studied 
 at Edinburgh, and subsequently at Bonn, in Germany, 
 and after his return was elected to Parliament for Ren J 
 frew, in 1846. He published in 1850 his "Critical Ac- 
 count of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece," 
 (5 vols. 8vo,) which is esteemed a standard work. He 
 was also the author of a "Calendar of the Zodiac of 
 Ancient Egypt," (1832,) and "Journal of a Tour in 
 Greece," (1838.) He was elected in 1855 lord rector 
 of the University of Glasgow. Died in i860. 
 
 Mure, (Sir William,) a Scottish poet, born in Ayr- 
 shire about 1594, was the author of traditional " Ballads 
 and Songs." Died in 1657. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1850. 
 
 Mu-re'na, (A.Terentius Varro,) vias consul suffectus 
 in 23 n.c., and was put to death in 22 for complicity in 
 the conspiracy of Fannius Caepio. 
 
 Murena, moo-ra'na, (Carlo,) an Italian architect, 
 born in 1713, was a pupil of Vanvitelli. He worked in 
 Rome. Died in 1764. 
 
 Murena, (Lucius Licinius,) a Roman soldier and 
 consul, was one of the lieutenants of Sulla, whom he 
 accompanied in his campaign against Mithridates. After 
 Sulla made peace with Mithridates, in 84 H.c, Murena 
 remained in Asia and renewed hostilities. Died about 
 80 B.C. 
 
 Murena, (Lucius Licinius,) a Roman general, who 
 served under Lucullus in Asia. He was elected praetor 
 about 65, and consul in 63 B.C. Having been accused 
 of bribery in the year last named, he was defended by 
 Cicero and acquitted. 
 
 See Cickro, "Oratio pro Mursena." 
 
 Mures, moo'rSs, (Alonzo,) a Spanish painter, born 
 in 1695. He worked at Badajoz, where he died in 1761. 
 
 Muret, mii'rj', [Lat. Mure'tus,1 (Marc Antoine,) 
 a French classical scholar, born at Muret, in Limousin, 
 in 1526. He lectured on philosophy and law at Paris, 
 which he quitted about 1552. He afterwards lived in 
 Venice and Rome, and was patronized by Ippolito 
 d'Este. In 1563 he opened a course of philosophy at 
 Rome, where he became professor of civil law about 
 1566. He was styled the "luminary and pillar of the 
 
 Roman school" by Pope Gregory XIII. He composed 
 commentaries on Aristotle, Cicero, Horace, Tacitus, and 
 other classic authors. Among his various works are 
 Latin poems and "Variae Lectiones." Died in Rome 
 in 1585. 
 
 See F. Benci, " Oratio funebris Mureti," (585 ; Vogt, " Apologia 
 pro Mureto ;" Vitrac, " E*loge de Muret," 1775: " Menrtgiana ;" 
 Ll'NDBt-AD, "Dissertatio de M. A. Mureto," 1819 ; Niceron, " M^- 
 moires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Muret, (Theodore C£sar,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Rouen in 1808. He wrote a number of dramas and 
 histories, among which is a " History of the Wars of 
 the West," (5 vols., 1848.) 
 
 Muretus. See Muret. 
 
 Murger, muVzha', (Henri,) a French littlrateur, 
 born in Paris in 1822, contributed to the " Revue des 
 Deux Mondes" a number of tales and dramas. His 
 most popular work is entitled "Scenes in Bohemian 
 Life." Died in 1861. 
 
 See G. Planche, in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," 1853. 
 
 Muriel, moo-re-SK, (Andres,) a Spanish littirateur, 
 born in Old Castile in 1776, settled in Paris about 1812. 
 He wrote on Spanish history, and translated into French 
 Coxe's "Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House 
 of Bourbon," (Paris, 6 vols., 1827.) 
 
 Murillo, mu-ril'lo, [Sp. pron. moo-rel'yo,] (Bar- 
 TOLOmA Esteban,) the most celebrated painter of the 
 Spanish school, was born at Seville in 1618, and was a 
 pupil of his uncle, Juan del Castillo. About the age of 
 twenty-four he went to Madrid, where he derived ad- 
 vantage from the friendly counsels of Velasquez and 
 perfected himself in his art. Having returned to Seville 
 in 1645, he soon acquired a high reputation in history, 
 portraits, and other branches of painting. He was pa- 
 tronized by the King of Spain, and adorned the churches 
 of Madrid, Seville, and Cadiz with his works. As a 
 colorist he surpassed all other Spanish artists. His 
 productions are remarkable for originality, fidelity to 
 nature, freedom of touch, and softness, splendour, and 
 harmony of colour. He delighted and excelled in the 
 representation of virgin saints and of beggar-boys at 
 play. Among his master-pieces are "Moses Striking 
 the Rock," "The Marriage of Saint Catherine," " Saint 
 Elizabeth of Hungary," "Christ Feeding the Five 
 Thousand," a "Young Beggar," "The Prodigal Son," a 
 "Holy Family," and "Saint Anthony of Padua." He 
 died, in consequence of a fall from a scaffold, in 1682. 
 
 SeeCEAN-BERMUDEZ, "Diccionario Historico," etc. ; J. F. Bour- 
 going, " Tableau de l'Espagne moderne ;" Quilliet, " Dictionnnire 
 des Peintres Espagnols ;" C. Bi.anc, "Hisioiredes Peintres;" E. 
 Davies, "LifeofB. E. Murillo," 1819; " Encyclopaedia liiitannica ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" " Eraser's Magazine" for April, 
 1846. 
 
 Muris, de, deh mu'ress', (Jean,) a learned French 
 ecclesiastic, sometimes called Meurs or Murs, lived 
 about 1310-40. He was the author of a valuable treat- 
 ise on music, entitled "Speculum Musicae," an abridg- 
 ment of which has been published. Died after 1345. 
 
 Murner, mooR'ner, (Thomas,) a famous German 
 satirist and controversialist, born at Strasburg in 1475. 
 He possessed uncommon abilities and caustic wit, and 
 the offensive personalities in which he indulged kept 
 him in constant warfare with his contemporaries. His 
 satires are chiefly directed against Luther and his asso- 
 ciate Reformers ; and some of them are regarded as the 
 ablest which have been levelled at the Reformation. 
 He also wrote " The World of Fools," and " The Mill 
 of Schwindelsheim," in which he keenly satirized the 
 follies of the time. Died about 1536. 
 
 See Wai.dau, " Nachrichten von Murners Leben," 1775; Flo- 
 gel, " Geschichte der komischen Literatur." 
 
 Mur'phy, (Arthur,) a dramatic and miscellaneous 
 writer, born in the county of Roscommon, in Ireland, 
 about 1728. He edited for a time "The Gray's-Inn 
 Journal," and wrote, among other plays, a tragedy 
 entitled "The Grecian Daughter," and "The Way to 
 Keep Him," a comedy. He also made a translation of 
 Tacitus, and wrote the Lives of Johnson and Garrick. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 See J. Foot, "Life of Arthur Murphy." 
 
 Murphy, (James Cavanagh,) a distinguished archi' 
 tect and writer, born in Ireland about 1760. In 1788 he 
 
 € as*; 9 as/; %hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; t., trilled; sas«; th as in this. (jy See Explanations, p. 234 
 
MURPHY 
 
 1646 
 
 MVRRAT 
 
 visited Portugal, and after his return published an ac- 
 count of that country. Among his principal works we 
 may name "The Arabian Antiquities of Spain," with 97 
 plates, (1813-16.) Died in 1816. 
 
 Murphy, (Rohekt,) an excellent self-taught Irish 
 mathematician, born at Mallow in 1806. In 1825 he 
 entered Caius College, Cambridge, of which he was 
 chosen a Fellow in 1829. He became a resident of 
 London in 1836. Among his works are " Analysis of 
 the Roots of Equations," and "The Theory of Algebraic 
 Equations," published by the Useful Knowledge Society. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Murr, von, fon mrjoR, (Christoph Gottlieb,) a 
 German scholar and antiquary, born at Nuremberg about 
 1734, published an "Essay on the History of the Greek 
 Tragic Poets," (1760,) "Antiquities of Hercttlaneum," 
 (6 vols., 1777-82,) and a number of historical works, 
 among which is "Commentatio de Re diplomatica Fre- 
 derici II.," (1756.) He was noted for his various and 
 extensive learning. Died in 1S1 1. 
 
 See Meuskl, "Gelehrtes Deutschland;" "Biographie Univer- 
 sale." 
 
 Murray, mur're ? (Adolphus,) a Swedish physician, 
 born at Stockholm in 1 750. He was professor of anatomy 
 at Upsal. Died in 1803. 
 
 Murray, mur're, (Alexander,) an eminent Scottish 
 linguist, born at Dunkitterick in 1775. The son of a 
 shepherd, his early instruction was very limited ; but, 
 with the aid of a powerful memory and his persevering 
 exertions, he acquired, before the age of twenty, the 
 French, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages. He 
 entered the University of Edinburgh in 1794, where he 
 studied theology and became versed in the Oriental 
 tongues. He was appointed professor of those languages 
 at Edinburgh in 1812, and soon after was created D.D. 
 He died in 1813, of consumption. His principal work 
 is a " History of the European Languages," etc., (1813.) 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men ;" "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i. 
 
 Murray, mur're, (Alexander,) an American com- 
 modore, born at Chestertown, Maryland, in 1755. In 
 1802 he was commander of the Constellation, in the 
 Mediterranean, for the protection of American trade. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 Murray, mur're, (Charles,) an English actor and 
 dramatist, born in Hertfordshire in 1754. His principal 
 plays are entitled "The Experiment," and "The New 
 Maid of the Oaks." Died in 1821. 
 
 Murray, (Charles Augustus,) an English diplo- 
 matist, a son of the Earl of Dunmore, was born about 
 1806. He was sent as envoy to Persia in 1854, and as 
 minister to Saxony in 1859. He wrote "Travels among 
 the Indians of North America," (1839.) His Indian 
 tale or novel entitled "The Prairie Bird" (1844) has 
 been warmly praised. 
 
 Murray, (Sir George,) a British general, born in 
 Perthshire in 1772. He served in Flanders and Egypt 
 with distinction, and rendered important services as 
 quartermaster-general in the Peninsular war, (1808-14,) 
 after which he was employed in France as lieutenant- 
 general of the army of occupation. He was appointed 
 governor of the Royal Military College at Woolwich 
 about 1819, and secretary of state for the colonies in 
 1828. In 1841 he became master-general of the ord- 
 nance. Died in 1846. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen.'' 
 
 Murray, (Hugh,) a Scottish geographer and miscel- 
 laneous writer, born in East Lothian in 1779. Among 
 his principal works are "Discoveries and Travels in 
 America," (1829,) " Encyclopaedia of Geography," (1834,) 
 and " History of British India." Died in 1846. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1821. 
 
 Murray, (James,) a Scottish writer, born at Dunkeld 
 in 1702, was the author of a work entitled "Aletheia; 
 or, A System of Moral Truths." Died in 1758. 
 
 Murray or Moray, (James Stuart,) Earl of, often 
 called Regent Murray, born about 1533, was a natural 
 son of James V. of Scotland and Margaret Erskine. In 
 1558 he joined the " Lords of the Congregation," as the 
 Protestant chiefs styled themselves, and in 1560 was sent 
 to France to invite Queen Mary (his half-sister) to return 
 
 to her kingdom. She returned in 1561, and he became 
 her most favoured and powerful minister, and was made 
 Earl of Murray. His talents, firmness, and courage had 
 already caused the Reformers to regard him as the head 
 of their party. The marriage of Mary with Darnley, 
 (1565,) against the advice of Murray, caused a breach 
 between him and the queen, which was afterwards greatly 
 widened by the countenance she showed to Darnley's 
 murderers. Mary having been deposed, he was ap- 
 pointed regent of the kingdom in August, 1567. In 
 1568 she escaped from Lochleven Castle, and raised an 
 army, which was quickly routed by the regent at Lang- 
 side. At the trial of Mary, which Queen Elizabeth in- 
 stituted, the regent appeared as evidence against the 
 captive queen. By this and other acts he had incurred 
 the bitter hatred of the queen's party, and they resolved 
 upon his destruction. In January, 1570, he was waylaid, 
 shot, and mortally wounded by James Hamilton of 
 Bothwellhaugh, a notorious desperado, who was after- 
 wards selected by the agents of Philip II. to assassinate 
 the Prince of Orange. 
 
 The character of the regent Murray has been estimated 
 very differently, according to the temper or prejudice of 
 those who have judged him. By his firmness, modera- 
 tion, humanity, and impartial justice, he appears to have 
 well deserved the title of "the Good Regent," by which 
 he was known among the people of Scotland. "Those," 
 observes Froude, "who can see only in the Protestant 
 religion an uprising of Antichrist, and in the Queen 
 of Scots the beautiful victim of sectarian iniquity, have 
 exhausted upon Murray the resources of eloquent vitu- 
 peration, and have described him as a perfidious brother, 
 building up his own fortunes on the wrongs of his in- 
 jured sovereign. . . . But facts prevail at last, however 
 passionate the predilection ; and, when the verdict of 
 plain human sense can get itself pronounced, the 'good 
 regent' will take his place among the best and greatest 
 men who have ever lived." 
 
 See Froude, " History of England," vote, viii. andix., but more 
 particularly cliaps. viii., ix., xiii., xiv., xv., xvi., and xviii. ; Robert- 
 son, " History of Scotland ;" Knox, " History of the Reformation ;" 
 Mignet, " Histoire de Marie Stuart." 
 
 Murray, (Johan Anders,) a Swedish physician and 
 botanist, bom at Stockholm in 1740, was a pupil of Lin- 
 naeus. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences 
 of Stockholm, and of the Royal Society of Gottingen, 
 and was created a privy councillor by the King of Eng- 
 land. Linnaeus gave the name of Murraya exotica to 
 an East Indian tree. He was a brother of Adolphus, 
 noticed above. Died in 1791. 
 
 See C. G. Heyne, " Elogium J. A. Murray," 1791. 
 
 Murray, (John,) a Scottish physician, published a 
 " System of Materia Medica and Pharmacy," and " Ele- 
 ments of Chemistry." Died in 1820. 
 
 Murray, (John,) a celebrated divine and preacher, 
 born in Hampshire, England, in 1741, is regarded as the 
 founder of Universalism in America. Having emigrated 
 to the United States in 1 770, he was appointed in 1775 
 a chaplain in the army. He took part in the proceedings 
 of the Universalis! Convention in 1785, and subsequently 
 became pastor of a church in Boston. Died in 1815. 
 
 See "Records of the Life of John Murray," written by himself. 
 
 Murray, (John,) an eminent English publisher, born 
 in London in 1 778. He commenced in 1803 a career 
 of publication which is perhaps unrivalled in the annals 
 of literature. About 1807 he projected the "Quarterly 
 Review," in which he obtained the co-operation of Can- 
 ning and Scott, and published the first number in 1809. 
 His sagacity in discerning the merits or talents of 
 authors, ana his tact in anticipating the wants of the 
 public, rendered him very successful. He was a liberal 
 patron of literature, and a generous friend to Byron 
 and other eminent authors. Died in 1843. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine" for August, 1843 ; "Autobiography 
 of William Jerdan," vol. iii. chap. ii. 
 
 Murray, (Lindley,) a distinguished American gram- 
 marian and educational writer, born near Lancaster, 
 Pennsylvania, in 1745, was a member of the Society of 
 Friends. Having removed at an early age to New York, 
 he studied law, but he subsequently engaged in mercan- 
 tile pursuits. The latter part of his life was spent iri 
 
 i, e, T, ci, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 8, it, 5?, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
MVRRAY 
 
 1647 
 
 MUSCULUS 
 
 England, to which he removed about 1784. Among his 
 works, which obtained great popularity both in England 
 and America, we may name his " Power of Religion on 
 the Mind," etc., (1787,) " Grammar of the English Lan- 
 guage," (1795,) "English Reader," "Introduction to the 
 English Reader," and " Duty and Benefit of a Daily 
 Perusal of the Holy Scriptures," (1817.) He also com- 
 piled several French readers. He died near York, 
 England, in 1826. 
 
 See the "Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Lindley Murray," written 
 by himself; E. Frank, " Memoirs of the Life of L. Murray." 1826; 
 "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. ; 
 Ci.kvkI-AND, "Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Murray, (Nicholas,) D.D., a Presbyterian divine, 
 born in Ireland in 1803, studied theology at Princeton, 
 New Jersey, and in 1834 became pastor at Elizabethtown, 
 in that State. He published several theological works. 
 His "Letters to Bishop Hughes," (1847-48,) under the 
 signature of Kirwan, have enjoyed a great popularity, 
 and have been translated into several foreign languages. 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 Murray, (Patrick,) a Scottish writer, born in 1703, 
 was the fifth Lord Elibank. He published an " Inquiry 
 into the Origin and Consequence of the Public Debts," 
 " Thoughts on Money, Circulation," etc., and a " Let- 
 ter to Lord Hailes on his Remarks on the History of 
 Scotland." His writings were highly esteemed. Died 
 in 1778. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Murray, (Sir Rokkrt.) See Moray. 
 
 Murray, (William,) Earl of Mansfield, lord chief 
 justice,' a British lawyer and orator of great merit and 
 celebrity, was born at Perth, Scotland, in 1704. He was 
 a younger son of Andrew, Viscount Stormont. Having 
 gained distinction as a classical scholar at Oxford, and 
 enlarged his mind by foreign travel, he was called to the 
 bar in 1731. He speedily rose into extensive practice, 
 and in 1743 was appointed solicitor-general. About this 
 time he entered the House of Commons, where he was 
 successful as an elegant and persuasive speaker, and 
 defended the government when Mr. Pitt (Lord Chatham) 
 was the leader of the opposition. " He surpassed Pitt," 
 says Macaulay, " in correctness of taste, in power of 
 reasoning, in depth and variety of knowledge ; but he 
 wanted the energy, the courage, the all-grasping and all- 
 risking ambition which make men great in stirring times." 
 ("Review of the Life of the Earl of Chatham.") He was 
 appointed attorney-general in 1754, and chief justice of 
 the king's bench in 1756. Over that great court he pre- 
 sided with honour above thirty years. In 1756 he was 
 raised to the peerage, as Baron Mansfield. On more 
 than one occasion he refused high political, positions, 
 among which was that of lord chancellor. He had, 
 however, a seat in the cabinet for more than a year. In 
 the trial of Wood fall for publishing !' Junius'* Letters," 
 Lord Mansfield gave offence to the popular party, and 
 was censured for leaning against the freedom of discus- 
 sion in cases of libel. During the riots of 1780, his house 
 in London was burned down by a mob. He died, with- 
 out issue, in 1793. "His mind and his habits," says 
 Lord Brougham, " were eminently judicial ; and it may 
 be doubted if, taking both the externals and the more 
 essential qualities into the account, that go to form a 
 great judge, any one has ever administered the laws in 
 this country whom we can fairly name as his equal." 
 
 See the " Life of William, Earl of Mansfield," by John Holli- 
 dav; Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George III. :" Fo^s L 
 "The Judges of England;" Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Chief 
 Justices ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men." 
 
 Murray, (William,) a Scottish actor, born in 1791, 
 performed in Edinburgh for many years. Died in 1852. 
 
 Murray, (Rev. William H. H.,) a popular and 
 eloquent Congregationalist minister, born at Guilford, 
 Connecticut, April 26, 1840, graduated at Yale in 1862. 
 Having been licensed to preach in 1863, he officiated 
 during several years as minister at Greenwich and other 
 places in Connecticut. In 1868 he accepted an invita- 
 tion from Park Street Church, Boston, where he was 
 installed as pastor in November of that year. He pub- 
 lished a work on the Adirondack Mountains, which has 
 attracted a good deal of attention. 
 
 Murray, (William Vans,) an American diplomatist, 
 born in Maryland about 1762. Having studied law in 
 England, he was elected to Congress in 1791. H? 
 was afterwards appointed by Washington United States 
 minister at the Hague. Died in 1803. 
 
 Mursinna, mooR-sin'na, (Christian Ludwig,) an 
 eminent German surgeon, born at Stolpe in 1744. He 
 became chief surgeon in the army in 1787, and published 
 several surgical works. Died in 1823. 
 
 Murtola, mooR'to-13, (Gasparo,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Genoa. He wounded, with a pistol, Marini the 
 poet, who had criticised one of his poems. Died in 1624. 
 
 Mus. See Decius Mus. 
 
 Musa. See Moosa. 
 
 Mu'sa, (Antonius,) a celebrated Roman physician, 
 originally a slave of the emperor Augustus, and a brother 
 of Euphorbus, is said to have been the first who pre- 
 scribed the use of the cold bath. Having cured the 
 emperor by this remedy, he received his freedom, and 
 was created a knight. Musa was also distinguished for 
 his literary tastes, and enjoyed the friendship of Virgil 
 and Horace. . 
 
 See Ackermann, "De Antonio Musa." 17S6; Atterbury, 
 "Reflections on the Character of lapis, in Virgil, or the Character 
 of A. Musa," etc., 1740; Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 Musae, mu'ze, [Gr. Movoat,] the Muses, sometimes 
 called Pif.r'ides, in the Greek mythology, the daughters 
 of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, (Memory,) were supposed to 
 preside over poetry, the liberal arts, and the sciences. 
 According to the generally received opinion, there were 
 nine Muses, namely, Calliope, Clio, Euterpe, Erato, Mel- 
 pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, and Urania. 
 (See these names under their separate heads.) The 
 places especially consecrated to the Muses were Mount 
 Parnassus, Mount Helicon, and the fountains of Castalia 
 and Aganippe. 
 
 Musaeus. See Musaus. 
 
 Musaeus, mu-zee'us, [ Gr. Motxratoc; Fr. Mus£e, 
 mu'za',1 a celebrated and ancient Greek bard, commonly 
 regarded as a semi-fabulous personage. He was said to be 
 the son of Eumolpus and Selene, or, according to others, 
 of Orpheus, of whom he was a disciple. Tradition in- 
 forms us that he presided over the Eleusinian mysteries 
 in the time of Hercules. He was the reputed author 
 of several poetical works, among which were "Oracles," 
 and a hymn to Ceres. Pausanias regarded this hymn as 
 the only genuine poem of Musasus that was extant in 
 his time. Onomacritus collected the Oracles of Musaeus 
 and mixed with them some of his own productions, 
 which he wished to pass for the work of Musaeus. For 
 this imposture he was banished by Hipparchus, the son 
 of Pisistratus. 
 
 See Virgil. " MneiA," book vi. 666; Ulrici, "Geschichte der 
 Hellenischen Dichtkunst." 
 
 Musaeus, surnamed Grammat'icus, or "the Gram- 
 marian," is supposed to have lived in the fifth century. 
 He is celebrated for his poem of " Hero and Leander," 
 a production of rare merit, of which several good editions 
 have been published. 
 
 See Kromayer, "De Musseo Grammatico." 
 
 Musaus or Musaeus, moo-sa'fis, (JoHANN Karl 
 August,) a celebrated German writer, born at Jena in 
 1735. His principal works are a novel entitled "The 
 German Grandison," (" Der Deutsche Grandison," 1760,) 
 " Physiognomic Travels," (1778,) a satire on the theories 
 of Lavater, "Popular Legends of Germany," (1782) 
 which enjoy great popularity, and "Friend Hein's Ap- 
 paritions, In Holbein's Manner," (1785.) His writings 
 are characterized by delightful humour, simplicity, and 
 genial satire. Musaus was a relative of Kotzebue, who 
 published in 1791 his posthumous works, with an inter- 
 esting notice of the author prefixed. Died in 1787. 
 
 Muschenbroek. See Musschenhroek. 
 
 Muscher. See Musscher. 
 
 Mus'ou-lus [Ger. pron. mdos'koo-lds] or Merisel, 
 moi'zel, (Andreas,) a German 'Lutheran theologian, born 
 at Schneeberg in 1540. He preached at Frankfort- 
 on-the-Oder, and wrote "Compendium Theologicum." 
 Died in 1581. 
 
 Musculus, Musslin, miis-leen', orMeusslln, moiss- 
 leen', (Wolfgang,) a German Reformer and scholar, born 
 
 c as<e; casj; g hard;'% as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; Sas«; th as in Mm. (Jjy~"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
MUSEE 
 
 1648 
 
 MUSSO 
 
 in Lorraine in 1497, wa9 a monk in his youth. He 
 was converted by Luther about 1520, became minister 
 of a church at Augsburg in 1531, and acquired a high 
 reputation as a preacher. Having been banished from 
 Augsburg in 1548, he settled at Berne. He published 
 commentaries and other works. Died in 1563. 
 
 See Craik, "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties." 
 
 Mnsee. See Mus^eus. 
 
 Muselli, moo-sel'lee, (Giovanni Giacomo,) Mar- 
 quis, an Italian antiquary and writer, born at Verona in 
 1697 ; died in 1768. 
 
 Musemeci, moo-sa-ma'chee, (Mario,) an Italian 
 architect and antiquary, born at Catanea in 1778. He 
 wrote several works on antiquities and art, among which 
 is " Opere archeologiche ed artistiche," (2 vols., 1851.) 
 Died in 1852. 
 
 Mus'grave, (Rev. George,) an English writer, born 
 about 1798. He' published "Rambles in Normandy," 
 and other books of travel. 
 
 Mus'grave, (Sir Richard,) an Irish historian, born 
 about 1758, published in 1801 a "History of the Irish 
 Rebellions." Died in 1818. 
 
 Musgrave, (Samuel,) a grandson of the following, 
 was a distinguished classical scholar. He published, 
 among other works, an edition of Euripides, and a treat- 
 ise on Grecian Mythology. Died in 1782. 
 
 Musgrave, (William,) an English physician and 
 antiquary, born in Somersetshire in 1657. He was a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1684 became its 
 secretary. He wrote several treatises on the gout, and 
 a number of dissertations on British and Roman An- 
 tiquities. Died in 1721. 
 
 Mush'et, (David,) a Scottish metallurgist and in- 
 ventor, born at Dalkeith in 1772. He acquired distinc- 
 tion by his improvements in the fabrication of iron and 
 steel, on which subject he wrote several treatises. He 
 originated the method of assaying iron ores which is 
 now generally used. Died in 1847. 
 
 Mush'et, (Robert,) an officer of the royal mint in 
 England, wrote able treatises on the currency and mint 
 regulations and the state of finances. Died in 1828. 
 
 Musis or Musi, de, (Agostino.) See Agostino 
 Veneziano. 
 
 Musitano, moo-se-ta'no, (Carlo,) a learned Italian 
 medical writer, born in Calabria in 1635; died in 1714. 
 
 Musius. See Muvs, (Cornelius.) 
 
 Mu-so'nI-us Ru'fus, (Caius,) a Stoic philosopher, 
 born .in Etruria, flourished about 70 A.D. He was 
 banished from Rome by Nero, but he returned under 
 Vespasian, and was excepted by him from the sentence 
 of exile pronounced against the Stoics. He was highly 
 esteemed by Pliny, Tacitus, and other eminent writers. 
 Fragments of his works are to be found in Stobaeus. 
 
 See Nikuwland, " Dissertatio de C. Musonio Rufo," 1783 ; 
 Tacitus, " Annales," books xiv. and xv. 
 
 Muspell, mus'pSl or m6os'p?l, written also Mus- 
 pel, Muspellheim, and Muspelheim, [etymology 
 unknown,] in the Norse mythology, the world of light 
 and heat, situated in the south part of the universe, — 
 Niflheim, the habitation of mist and cold, being situated 
 in the north. (See Hela.) The inhabitants of this 
 world are called "the sons of Muspell," among whom 
 Surt, or Surtur, is chief, and the ruler of Muspellheim. 
 (See Surt.) 
 
 Mus'pratt, (James Sheridan,) a distinguished 
 chemist, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1821. He was a 
 pupil of Professor Graham at Glasgow and at London. 
 About 1843 he went to Giessen to pursue his studies 
 under Liebig. He produced at Giessen a remarkabl e 
 treatise on Sulphites. He founded a College of Chem- 
 istry in Liverpool, and married Miss Susan Cushman, the 
 actress, in 1848. Among his works is a " Dictionary 
 of Chemistry ; or, Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and 
 Analytical," (2 vols., i860.) 
 
 Muss, (Charles,) a painter in enamel. Among his 
 works is a picture of the " Holy Family." Died in 1824. 
 
 Mussato, moos-sl'to, (Albertino,) an Italian his- 
 torian and poet, born at Padua in 1261. He wrote a 
 " History of the Life and Actions of Henry VII.," and a 
 number of eclogues, hymns, and tragedies. Died in 1330. 
 
 See Ginguen£, " Histoire Liite'raire d'ltalie." 
 
 Musschenbroek, van, vSn mus'Ken-bRdok', (P«- 
 tkr,) a celebrated Dutch savant, born at Leyden in 1692. 
 He studied'medicine in the university of his native city, 
 but he subsequently devoted himself chiefly to experi- 
 mental physics, in which he was eminently successful 
 and made important discoveries, especially in magnetism 
 and the cohesion of bodies. Having visited England in 
 1717, he made the acquaintance of Newton, whose sys- 
 tem he was one of the first to introduce into Holland. 
 He beeame professor of physics and mathematics at 
 Duisburg in 1719, and afterwards filled the same chair 
 at Utrecht. In 1740 he obtained the professorship of 
 philosophy at Leyden, where he resided till his death, 
 in 1761. Among his principal works are his " Physical 
 Experimentales et Geometrical Dissertationes," (1729.) 
 and " Elementa Physicae," or " Introduction to Natural 
 Philosophy," (1734.) He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society of London, and a member of the principal 
 learned institutions of Europe. 
 
 SeeSAVERtHN, " Vies des Philosophes ;" Condorcet, "Eloges;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Musscher or Muscher, van, vSn mus'Ker, (Mi- 
 chael,) an eminent Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam 
 in 1645. He studied successively under Van Tempel, 
 Metzu, and Jan Steen, and painted landscapes, historical 
 subjects, and portraits. The last-named are most highly 
 esteemed. Died in 1705. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc 
 
 Musset, de, deh mii'si', (Louis Charles Alfred,) 
 a celebrated French poet, born in Paris on the nth of 
 November, 1810, was a son of Musset-Pathay, noticed 
 below. He was educated at the College Henri IV. In 
 1830 he produced a volume entitled " Tales of Spain 
 and Italy," (" Contes d'Espagne et d'ltalie,") which at- 
 tracted much attention. His reputation was increased 
 in 1833 by "The Cup and the Lips," (" La Coupe et les 
 Levres,") a drama, "A quoi reVent les jeunes Filles?" 
 and " Namouna." He fell into a morbid state of mind, 
 and expressed misanthropic sentiments in several of his 
 works, which are censured for an immoral tendency. He 
 published "Rolla," a poem, in 1835, and "Confessions 
 of a Child of the Age," (Enfant du Steele,) in 1836. 
 He contributed to the " Revue des Deux Mondes" a 
 number of prose tales, which were admired. Under the 
 reign of Louis Philippe he was librarian to the ministry 
 of the interior. He was admitted into the French 
 Academy in 1852. Among his finest works are four 
 poems entitled the " Nights," etc., (" Nuits : La Nuit de 
 Mai, La Nuit d'Aout, La Nuit d Octobre, et La Nuit 
 de Decembre," 1835-37.) Died in Paris in May, 1857. 
 
 "None of his illustrious contemporaries," says Leo 
 Joubert, "tias surpassed him in spontaneity of poetical 
 genius, in the ardent and sincere expression of passion, 
 in vivacity, grace, and Iclat of soul, (esprit ;) no one 
 has represented with more fidelity the spiritual unrest, 
 the mllange of skepticism and religious aspirations, 
 which characterize our epoch." (" Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits contempnrains," and "Cause- 
 rtes du I.undi;" Clement de Ris, "Portraits a la Plume: A. de 
 Musset," etc., 1853: " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1857; "West- 
 minster Review" for April, 1869. 
 
 Musset, de, (Paul Edme,) a novelist, a brother of 
 the preceding, born in Paris in 1804. He published 
 numerous novels, which are said to be well written, and 
 among which we notice " Lauzun," (1831;,) " The Brace- 
 let," (1839,) "Mignard et Rigaud," (1839,) and "Les 
 Femmes de la Regence," (2 vols., 1841.) 
 
 Musset, de, (Victor Donatien,) called Musset- 
 Pathay, a French littlratetir, born in the Vendomois 
 in 176S, was the father of the preceding. He wrote, 
 besides other biographies, histories, and tales, a " Life 
 of Tean Jacques Rousseau," (2 vols., 1821.) Died in 
 1832. 
 
 See "Souvenirs historiquesde Musset-Pathay," 1810; Querard, 
 " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Miisslin. See Mu.scui.us, (Wolfgang.) 
 Musso, moos'so, (Coknelio,) an Italian bishop, dis- 
 tinguished as a preacher, born at Piacenza in 151 1. He 
 became Bishop of Bitonto. Died at Rome in 1574. 
 See G. Musso, " Vita di Cornelio Musso," 1586. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, 11, 5?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat: met: not: good ; moon: 
 
MUSTAFA 
 
 1649 
 
 MYLNE 
 
 Mustafa, Mustapha, Moustapha, or Moustafa, 
 mdos'ti-fa, I., succeeded his brother, Ahmed I., as Sul- 
 tan of Turkey, in 161 7. He was soon after deposed, 
 and his nephew, Osman, raised to the throne. Though 
 re-established as Sultan in 1622, Mustafa was again 
 deposed in 1623, and strangled, in 1639, by order of 
 Amurath IV. 
 
 See Von Hammfr, " Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha II., son of 
 Mahomet IV., was born in 1664, and succeeded Ahmed 
 II. as Sultan in 1695. He fought against the Austrians 
 and Venetians with varying success, and in 1699 con- 
 cluded with those powers the peace of Carlowitz. Being 
 deposed in 1703, he died in a few months, and his 
 brother, Ahmed III., became Sultan. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biograpliie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha III., son of 
 Ahmed III., born in 1717, succeeded Osman HI. in 
 1757. He began in 1769 to wage war with the Russians, 
 who took possession of the Crimea and Bessarabia. He 
 died in 1774, and his brother, Abdool Harm'd, succeeded 
 to the throne. 
 
 See Von Hammeu, "Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha IV., son of 
 Abdool Hamid, became Sultan on the deposition of Se- 
 lim III., in 1807. Having caused Selim to be strangled, 
 Mustafa was deposed by Bairaktar, Pasha of Rudshuk, 
 and his brother, Mahmood, was raised to the throne. 
 During the revolt of the Janissaries, in 1808, Mustafa 
 was executed by the orders of Mahmood. 
 
 See F. Mengin, "Histoire de l'figypte sous Mehemet AH." 
 
 Mustafa, Mustapha, or Moustapha Ben-Ismail, 
 mdos't&fi ben is-mi-eel', an Arabian chief, born in 
 Algeria about 1770. He became an able adversary of 
 Abd-el-KSder, against whom he fought in co-operation 
 with the French, who gave him the rank of general. He 
 was killed in battle in May, 1843. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Mustapha. See Mustafa. 
 
 Mus-tox'jf-dis or Mustoxidis, (Andreas,) a dis- 
 tinguished modern Greek scholar, born at Corfu in 1785. 
 He studied at Pavia, and in 1804 was appointed histori- 
 ographer for the republic of the Seven Islands. Among 
 his works, which are chiefly written in Italian, we may 
 name "Considerations on the Present Language of 
 Greece." 
 
 Mu-su'rus, (Constantine.) a Turkish diplomatist, 
 born in 1807. He became Turkish ambassador at Lon- 
 don about 1856. 
 
 Mu-su'rus, (Marcus,) a learned modern Greek, born 
 in Candia about 1470, was professor of the Greek lan- 
 
 fuage in the University of Padua. He assisted Aldus 
 fanutius in the revision of Greek manuscripts, and 
 published, among other works, the " Etymologicum 
 Magnum Grascum." In 1516 he was appointed by Leo 
 X. Archbishop of Malvasia. Died in 1517. 
 
 Mu'ta, (from mutus, "silent,") the name of the god- 
 dess of silence among the Romans. 
 
 Mutiano. See Muziano. 
 
 Mutina. See Modena. 
 
 Mutio. See Muzto. 
 
 Mutis, moo'tess, ? (Don Jos£ Cei.estino,) a cele- 
 brated Spanish botanist and physician, born at Cadiz 
 in 1732. He became professor of anatomy at Madrid 
 in 1757, and in 1760 accompanied the Spanish viceroy 
 to South America as his physician. He subsequently 
 devoted himself to scientific explorations, and was ap- 
 pointed in 1 790 director of the Royal Academv of Natural 
 History at Santa Fe. He died in 1808, leaving un- 
 finished his " Flora of New Granada," one of the most 
 valuable works of the kind that had then appeared. He 
 was the first who distinguished the various species of 
 Cinchona, (Peruvian bark,) the different properties of 
 which he has described in his "Historia de los Arboles 
 del Quina." 
 
 See Humboldt, "Voyage dans les Regions equinoxiales :" 
 Weddrll, "Monographic du Quinquina." 
 
 Muy, du, du mii-e', (Loots Nicolas Victor de Ft- 
 Lix,) Comte, a French military commander, born at 
 Marseilles in 171 1. He served in Germany in the prin- 
 
 cipal campaigns from 1741 to 1760. He enjoyed the 
 favour of Louis XV. and Louis XVI., and was appointed 
 by the latter minister of war, (1774,) and marshal of 
 France, (1775.) Died in 1775. 
 
 See Beauvais, " Oraison funebre du Comte du Muy;" Tressan, 
 " Eloge du Mare'chal du Muy." 
 
 Muys, mois, [Lat. Mu'sius,] (Cornei.is,) a Dutch 
 priest and Latin poet, born at Delft in 1503. He was 
 hung by some soldiers at Leyden in 1572. 
 
 Muys, (Wyer Wii.lem,) a Dutch savant and writer, 
 born at Steenwyk in 1682. He was professor of medi- 
 cine and chemistry at Franeker. He wrote, besides 
 other works, one " On the Matter of Light," (" De 
 Materia Luminis," 1722.) Died in 1744. 
 
 Muziano, moot-se-5'no, or Mutiano, moo-te-a'no, 
 (Girolamo,) one of the first Italian painters of his time, 
 born near Brescia in 1528, was the pupil of Romanino. 
 At an early age he visited Rome, where his admirable 
 landscapes obtained for him the name of "the landscape 
 youth." He also attained great excellence in historical 
 pictures, and his mosaics in the Gregorian Chapel are 
 esteemed the finest of modern times. Among his best 
 productions are " The Resurrection of Lazarus," in the 
 Quirinal palace, and " A Company of Anchorites listen- 
 ing to a Preacher in the Desert," in the Church of the 
 Carthusians. Muziano completed the drawings from 
 the Trajan column begun by Giulio Romano. He was 
 the founder of the Academy of Saint Luke. Died in 
 Rome in 1592. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Ori.off, " Histoire de la 
 Peinture en Italic" 
 
 Muzio, moot'se-o, or Mutio, moo'te-o, (Girolamo 
 Nuzio,) an Italian littirateur, born at Padua "in 1496. 
 He wrote polemical treatises against the doctrines of 
 Luther, which procured him the surname of the " Ham- 
 mer of Heretics," ("Malleus Hereticorum,") also vari- 
 ous other works, in prose and verse. Died in 1576. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Muz'zey, (Artemas Bowers,) an American Unita- 
 rian divine and miscellaneous writer, born at Lexington, 
 Massachusetts, in 1802. He published "The Young 
 Man's Friend," (1836,) "Moral Teacher," (1839,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Myconius, me-ko'ne-os, (Friedrich,) a German Re- 
 former, born in Franconia in 1491, was a monk in his 
 youth. He became a friend of Luther, whose doctrines 
 he propagated with zeal and success. He preached many 
 years atGotha, and wrote several religious works. Died 
 1111546. 
 
 See Anton Probus, "Vita F. Myconii," 1547 ; Lommatzsch, 
 " Narratio de F. Myconio," 1825. 
 
 Myconius, me-ko'ne -as, (Oswald,) or Geisshau- 
 ser, (gis'h8w'zer,) a Swiss Protestant divine, born at 
 Lucerne in 1488, was a pupil of Erasmus. He became 
 pastor of a church and professor of divinity at Bale. 
 He wrote a " Narrative of the Life and Death of Zuin- 
 glius." Died in 1552. 
 
 See Kirchhofek, "Leben 0. Myconius Reformators," 18:4. 
 
 Mydorge, me'doRzh', (Claude,) a French geometer, 
 born in Paris in 1585, was an intimate friend of Des- 
 cartes, and furnished the glasses used by that philosopher 
 in his optical experiments. He wrote several treatises 
 on optics and mathematics, and a defence of the works 
 of Descartes against the Jesuits. Died in 1647. 
 
 See Baillet, "Viede Descartes." 
 
 My'erS, (Abraham C.,) an American officer, born in 
 South Carolina about 1814, served in the Mexican war, 
 and became in 1862 brigadier-general in the Confederate 
 army. 
 
 Myers, (Peter Hamilton,) an American novelist, 
 bom in Herkimer county, New York, in 1812, has pub- 
 lished "The First of the Knickerbockers," (1848,) "The 
 King of the Hurons," (1850,) "The Van Veldens," and 
 several other historical romances. 
 
 Mylius, mee'le-us, (Johann Christoph,) a German 
 bibliographer, born in Weimar in 1710. He published 
 " Bibliotheca Anonymorum et Pseudonynioium," (1740,) 
 and "Historia Myliana," (1752,) which contains biog- 
 raphies of many men named Mylius. Died in 1757. 
 
 Mylne, miln, (Robert,) a Scottish architect, bom at 
 Edinburgh in 1734. He was appointed engineer to the 
 
 e as k; c as s: g hard; g as/.- G, H, K, guttural: N. natal: R. trillrd: s as z: th as in this. ( Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.' 
 
 1 *» . 
 
MTN 
 
 1650 
 
 NJDJUD 
 
 Nt.w River Company, London, and surveyor of Saint 
 Pail's Cathedral. His principal work is Blackfriars' 
 Bridge, completed in 1769. Mylne was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and a member of the Academy of Saint 
 Luke at Rome. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Myn, van der, vin der mln, (Herman,) a Dutch 
 artist, bom at Amsterdam in 1684, visited London, where 
 he gained a high reputation by his portraits. His fruit- 
 and flower-pieces were also admired. Died in 1741. 
 
 Myiisicht, von, fon min'siKt, (Adrian,) a German 
 chemist and physician, flourished between 1610 and 1650. 
 
 Mynster, nvttn'ster or min'ster, (Jakob Peter,) a 
 Danish theologian and pulpit orator, born at Copenhagen 
 in 1775, became in 1828 court chaplain. He was created 
 Bishop of Seeland in 1834. He published "Reflections 
 on Christian Doctrine," and other theological works. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 My-rep'sus, (Nicholas,) [N</c6Aaoc 6 Mvpei/roc,] a 
 Greek physician of the thirteenth century, practised in 
 Rome or Constantinople. He wrote a treatise " On the 
 Composition of Medicines," (" De Compositione Medi- 
 camentorum," etc.) 
 
 Myrick, (Sir Samuel Rush.) See Meyrick. 
 
 Myrmidon, mir'me-don, [Gr. Mvp/uiuiv,] in classic 
 mythology, was supposed to be a son of Jupiter and 
 Eurymedusa. According to one tradition, he was the 
 ancestor of the Myrmidons, a people of Thessaly, some 
 of whom Achilles led to the siege of Troy. 
 
 My'ron, [Mipuv,] an eminent Greek sculptor, born in 
 Bceotia about 480 B.C., was celebrated for his skill in 
 representing the varied forms of animal life. He wdrked 
 with equal success in marble, brass, and wood. Among 
 his best productions are a " Cow lowing for its Calf," in 
 bronze, which has been celebrated by the Latin and 
 Greek poets in numerous epigrams, a colossal group of 
 
 Jupiter, Athene, and Hercules, the "Discobolus, or 
 Quoit-Thrower," and " Perseus killing Medusa." His 
 athletes, dogs, and sea-monsters were also greatly ad- 
 mired. 
 
 See K. O. Muller, " Handbuch der Archaologie der Kunst ;" 
 Goethe, " Propylaen ;" Winckelmann, " Werke," vol. vi. 
 
 Myronide. See Myronides. 
 
 My-ron'i-dea, [Gr. MvpavitiiK; Fr. Myronide, me'- 
 ro'ned',1 an Athenian general, who gained a victory over 
 the Corinthians in 457, and another over the Boeotians 
 in 456 B.C. 
 
 Myrtis, mir'tis, [Mi'pnf,] a Greek lyric poetess of high 
 reputation, was born at Anthedon, and flourished about 
 500 B.C. Pindar is said to have received instruction 
 from her. 
 
 Mytens, ml'tJns, (Arnold,) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Brussels in 1541. Among his best works is an altar- 
 piece representing the "Assumption of the Virgin, with 
 the Apostles," at Naples. Died in 1602. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Mytens, (Daniel,) the Elder, a Dutch artist, born 
 at the Hague about 1590. He was patronized by James 
 I. and Charles I. of England, and painted the portraits 
 of a number of the royal family and of the nobility. He 
 was regarded as second only to Van Dyck in portrait- 
 painting. Died after 1656. 
 
 Mytens, (Daniel,) the Younger, born at the Hague 
 in 1636, was a son of the preceding. He became director 
 of the Academy at the Hague. His principal work is 
 the ceiling of the Painters' Hall. Died in 1688. 
 
 Mytens, mii'tens, (Martin,) a Swedish painter, born 
 at Stockholm in 1695. After visiting Rome, he settled in 
 Vienna, where he became painter to the court. Among 
 his best pieces is the " History of Esther and Ahasuerus." 
 Died in 1755. 
 
 N. 
 
 Na'a-man, [Heb. pi'J.] a Syrian general, commander 
 of the army of Benhadad, King of Damascus, lived 
 about 890 B.C. He was cured of leprosy by the prophet 
 Elisha. 
 
 See II. Kings v. 
 
 Nabaj or Nabadj, na-bij', a Hindoo poet, flourished 
 about 1 580-1600. He wrote a poem entitled "Bhakta- 
 mala," which treats of the adventures and miracles of 
 Jayadeva and other ascetics. 
 
 Nabega - Ziad - Ibn - Moaweeah- Aldobiani, n i'- 
 be-gl ze-ad' ib'n mo-i-wee'ah al-do-be-a'nee, an Arabian 
 poet, flourished in the latter part of the sixth century. 
 One of his poems, and several fragments, are given in 
 the "Chrestomathie" of Silvestre de Sacy. 
 
 Na'bis, [Gr. NuSic,] tyrant of Sparta, succeeded Ma- 
 chanidas about 206 B.C., and signalized himself by his 
 cruelty and avarice. In conjunction with Philip II. of 
 Macedon, he subjected different parts of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, but he was afterwards defeated by the Roman 
 consul Flamininus. He was assassinated by his own 
 allies, (192 B.C.) 
 
 Nab-o-nas'sar, [Gr. NaSoviioapoc,] King of Babylon, 
 lived in the eighth century B.C. He is celebrated for the 
 chronological era which bears his name, and which was 
 employed as a point of departure in ancient astronomical 
 tables. This era began in 747 B.C. 
 
 Nab-o-po-las'sar, King of Babylon, was originally 
 a satrap of Sardanapalus, King of Assyria. He re- 
 volted against that king, and, aided by Cyaxares, King 
 of the Medes, took Nineveh, the capital of Assyria. 
 He died in 605 B.C., and was succeeded by his son, 
 Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 See Eusebius, "Chronicles;" Hoefer, "La Phenicie, la Baby- 
 lonie," etc. 
 
 Nacchianti, nak-ke-an'tee, [ Lat. Naclan'tus, ] 
 (Giacomo,) an Italian theologian, born at Florence. 
 He was a member of the Council of Trent, and wrote 
 several works. Died in 1569. 
 
 Nachman, Ben, b?n naK'man, ? (Moses,) a Spanish 
 rabbi, born at Girone in 1194, was versed in the science 
 
 of the Cabala. He wrote, besides other works, " Lex 
 Hominis," (1519,) and " Fons Jacobi," (1547.) 
 
 NachtigalL See Luscinius. 
 
 Nachtigall, naK'te-gal', [Lat. Luscin'ius,] (Otmar,) 
 a German scholar and writer, born at Strasburg about 
 1487. He preached against the doctrines of Luther at 
 Augsburg, and taught Greek at Strasburg. Among his 
 works is " Evangelica Historia e Graeco versa," (1523,) 
 Died about 1535. 
 
 See Niceron, " Mimoires." 
 
 Nacke or Naecke, nek'keh, (Gustav Heinrich,) a 
 German historical painter, born at Frauenstein in 1785. 
 He became professor of painting in the Academy of 
 Dresden in 1824. His works are highly commended. 
 Died at Dresden in 1835. 
 
 Naclantus. See Nacchianti. 
 
 Na'dab, [Heb. 313,] son of Jeroboam, King of Israel, 
 succeeded him in 968 B.C. While engaged soon after in 
 fighting against the Philistines, he was slain by Baasha, 
 the son of Ahijah, who ruled in his stead. 
 
 Nadal, nS'dal', (Augustin, ) Abbk\ a mediocre 
 French author, born at Poitiers in 1664, wrote tragedies 
 in verse, criticisms, and moral essays. Died in 1740. 
 
 Nadasti, na-das'tee, ? written also De Nadzad, 
 (Thomas,) a Hungarian general, was an ancestor of the 
 following. He distinguished himself by the defence of 
 Buda against the Sultan Solyman in 1529, and afterwards 
 rendered important military services to Charles V. 
 
 See Isthvanfi, " Historia Hungarorum." 
 
 Nadasti, de, deh na-das'tee, ? (Francis,) Count, a 
 patriotic Hungarian statesman, who opposed the des- 
 potic policy of the emperor Leopold. He was accused 
 of a conspiracy against the life of Leopold, unjustly 
 condemned, and beheaded in 1671. He was author 
 of a " History of Hungary," (1664.) 
 
 See MailXth, " Geschichte der Magyaren." 
 
 Nadaud, nf do', (Gustave,) a French musician and 
 writer of songs, born at Roubaix in 1820. He produced 
 both the words and the music of many popular songs. 
 
 , e, T, o, ii, f , lor%; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; m>on; 
 
NADAULT 
 
 165 1 
 
 NAKHIMOF 
 
 Nadatilt de Buffon, njt'do' deli bii'fdN', (Benjamin 
 Henri,) 1 French engineer and writer, born at Mont- 
 bard in 1804. He published, besides other works, a 
 "Course of Agriculture," (4 vols., 1853-56,) and "The 
 Correspondence of Buffon," (2 vols., i860.) 
 
 Nadezhdin, na'dezh-din, written also Nadeshdin, 
 (Nicholas Ivanovitch,) a Russian litterateur, born in 
 Riazan in 1804. He became a councillor of state at 
 Saint Petersburg, where he died in 1856. 
 
 Nadir ShatCna'dir shSh, written also Nader Chah. 
 Nadir Schah, and Nauder Shah, also called Koolee 
 (or Kouli) Khan, koo'lee KJin, a celebrated Persian 
 conqueror, of Turkish extraction, bom in Khorassan in 
 1688. His courage and abilities early gained him dis- 
 tinction in the service of the governor of that province ; 
 but, in consequence of ill treatment, he left Khorassan 
 and became the head of a band of robbers. Being soon 
 after called upon by Tahmasp, Shah of Persia, to oppose 
 the Afghans, he succeeded, within two years, in expelling 
 them from the country, upon which he was made com- 
 mander-in-chief, (1729.) Tahmasp having in 1732 made 
 a disadvantageous treaty with Turkey, Nidir resolved 
 to prosecute the war, and gained such popularity by 
 the success of his arms that on his return he dethroned 
 the Shah and assumed the supreme power. In 1738 
 he conquered Candahar and Afghanistan. Having soon 
 after invaded India, he entered Delhi in 1739, and took 
 possession of the imperial treasures. The inhabitants, 
 on a false report of Nadir's death, attacked his soldiers. 
 After an ineffectual attempt to restrain them, he ordered 
 a wholesale rnassacre, in which, it is stated by p'raser, 
 120,000 perished. His many acts of tyranny and cruelty 
 at length caused him to be assassinated, (1747.) In the 
 early part of his career NSdir Shah appears to have been 
 not only an able, but, on the whole, a just and humane, 
 prince ; but later in life, having become a prey to avarice 
 and suspicion, his acts, it is said, "exceeded in barbarity 
 all that has been recorded of the most bloody tyrants." 
 
 See Fraser, " History of NSdir Shah," 1742: "Life of Nadir 
 Shalt," by his secretary, Madhy Khan, translated into French by 
 Sir William Jones ; Malcolm, " Histoiy of Persia," vol. ii. 
 
 Naecke. See Nacke. 
 
 Naenia, nee'ne-a, [Fr. N£nie, ni'ne',] a Roman god- 
 dess that presided over funerals. This word signifies a 
 " dirge" or " funeral song." 
 
 Naerssen, van, vin niRs'sen, [Lat. Nars'sius,] 
 (Jan,) a Dutch writer of Latin poetry, born at Dort in 
 1580. He became physician to Gustavus Adolphus at 
 Stockholm, and wrote "Gustavidos Libri III.," (1632.) 
 Died in 1637. 
 
 Naevius, nee've-us, (Cneius,) a Roman poet, born in 
 Campania about 272 B.C., was the author of an epic poem 
 on the Punic War, and of several dramas. A few frag- 
 ments only of his writings are extant. He is praised 
 by Cicero as being in some respects superior to Ennuis. 
 He died about 204 B.C. "Cneius Naevius," says Pro- 
 fessor Sellar, "is the first in the line of Roman poets 
 and the first writer in the Latin language whose frag- 
 ments give indication of original power." 
 
 See Cicero, " De Oratore ;" Sellar, "Roman Poets of the 
 Republic," chap. iii. : Klussmann, " C. Naivii Poetaj Vita," 1843. 
 
 Naga, na'na, a Sanscrit word, signifying "snake," and 
 forming, in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a mon- 
 ster regarded as a demi-god, having a human face, with 
 the tail of a serpent and the expanded neck of a cobra 
 de capello. The race of these beings is said to have 
 sprung from Kasyapa, in order to people Patala, or the 
 regions below the earth. (See PAtAla.) 
 
 See Wilson, "Sanscrit Dictionary." 
 
 Nagele, na'geh-leh, (Franz Kari,) a German medi- 
 cal writer, born at Dusseldorf in 1778; died in 1851. 
 
 Nag'lee, (Henry M.,) an American general, born in 
 Philadelphia about 1815, graduated at West Point in 
 1835. He became a brigadier-general early in 1862, and 
 commanded a brigade at the battle of Fair Oaks, May 
 31 of that year. 
 
 Nagler.'na'gler, (Kari. Ferdinand Friedrich,) a 
 Prussian statesman, born at Anspach in 1770. Being 
 appointed in 1823 postmaster-general, he effected a great 
 reform in the postal system. He was made minister of 
 State in 1836. He made a very valuable collection of 
 
 works of art, which, with the exception of the pictures, 
 was purchased for the Museum at Berlin. Died in 1846. 
 Nagy Sandor, nody (almost noj) sSn'dor, (Joseph,) 
 a Hungarian general, born at Grosswardein in 1804. He 
 fought for the national cause in 1848, became a general 
 about April, 1849, and served with distinction in several 
 battles. Having been taken prisoner at Vilagos, he was 
 executed in October, 1849. 
 
 ^ Naharro, na-ar'ro, (BartolomE de Torres — da toR r - 
 res,) a Spanish dramatic poet, born at Torres, flourished 
 about 1500-20. He wrote comedies, satires, epistles, etc. 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Nahl, nil, (Johann August,) a German sculptor, 
 born in Berlin in 1710. He adorned the public buildings 
 of that city with his works. Died in 1781. 
 
 Nahl, (Johann August,) a German painter, born 
 near Berne in 1752, was a son of the preceding. He 
 worked at Rome and Cassel. He painted subjects of 
 Greek mythology, and landscapes. Died in 1825. 
 
 Nahl, (Johann Samuel,) a German sculptor, born 
 at Anspach in 1664. He settled at Berlin, where he was 
 appointed court sculptor, and rector of the Academy of 
 Fine Arts. Died in 1728. 
 
 Nahl, (Samuel,) a sculptor, brother of Johann August, 
 (1752-1825,) was born at Berne in 1748; died in 1813. 
 
 Na'hum, [ Heb. Dinj,] one of the twelve minor 
 prophets of the Hebrews, flourished under the reign of 
 Hezekiah, about 720 B.C. He is supposed to have been 
 born at Elkosh, in Galilee, from which he was surnamed 
 the Elkoshite. He foretells the destruction of the 
 Assyrian empire and the city of Nineveh in the most 
 glowing and forcible language, and in sublimity is equal 
 if not superior to any other of the minor prophets. 
 
 Nahuys, na'hois, (Hubert Gerard,) Baron, a 
 Dutch writer and military officer, born at Amsterdam 
 in 1782. He rendered important services in Java, 
 where he passed many years, and wrote, besides other 
 works, "Considerations on Dutch India," (1847.) Died 
 in 1858. 
 
 Naiades. See Naiads. 
 
 Naiads, na'yads, [Gr. NaiMcc or Ni?<(5ec ; Lat. Nai'a- 
 des,] in classic mythology, were fresh-water Nymphs, or 
 inferior female divinities, supposed to preside over rivers, 
 lakes, brooks, and fountains, and to be daughters of 
 Jupiter. They were represented as young and beautiful 
 virgins leaning upon an urn from which flows a stream 
 of water. 
 
 Naigeon, nJ'zhdN', (Jacques Andre,) a mediocre 
 French litterateur, born in Paris in 1738. He was a 
 friend of Diderot, whose skeptical opinions he shared, 
 and was one of the redacteurs of the "Encyclopedic." 
 He edited the works of Diderof and of other French 
 authors. Diedini8io. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge*ne*rale ;" " Dictionnaire des Sci- 
 ences philosophiques." 
 
 Naigeon, (Jean,) a French painter, born at Beatine 
 in 1757, was a pupil of David. Died in Paris in 1832. 
 
 Naigeon, (Jean Guillaume Elzidor,) a French 
 painter, born in Paris in 1797, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. He became conservator of the Musee Egyptien 
 in 1861. 
 
 Naillac, de, deh nf'yik', (Philibert,) a French 
 chevalier, born about 1340, became grand master of the 
 order of Saint John of Jerusalem in 1396. He fought 
 against Bayazeed (Bajazet) at the siege of Nicopolis, 
 (1396,) and took a prominent part in the Council of 
 Pisa. Died in 142 1. 
 
 Naima, ni'ma, a Turkish historian, flourished about 
 1700. He wrote an "Ottoman History from 1591 to 
 1659," which was published in 2 vols., (1734.) 
 
 Nain, Le. See Tillemont. 
 
 Naironi, nl-ro'nee, (Antonius Faustus,) a learned 
 Maronite, born near Mount Libanus in 1631, was pro- 
 fessor of the Chaldee and Syriac languages in the 
 College della Sapienza at Rome. Died in 171 1. 
 
 See Dupin, " Auteurs ecclesiastiques," etc. 
 
 Naiven, ni'ven, (M.,) a Dutch painter, born in 1570 ; 
 died in 1651. 
 
 Nakhimof, na'Ke-mof , written alsoNakhimow and 
 Nakhimov, (Akim Nikolaevitch,) a Russian poet, 
 
 * as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. z\) 
 
N4KE 
 
 1652 
 
 NANTEUIL 
 
 born at Kharkof in 1782. His principal works are 
 satires in verse, fables, and a witty piece in prose entitled 
 " The Speaking Monkeys," on the subject of Napoleon's 
 attempted conquest of Russia. He died in 1814, at the 
 early age of thirty-one. 
 
 Nake or Naeke, na'keh, (August Friedrich,) a 
 German philologist, born at Frauenstein in 1788. He 
 produced "Opuscula Philologica," (2 vols., 1842-44.) 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 Nakoola or Nakoula, na-koo'U, (Mooal'lem,) sur- 
 named EL Turk, an Arabian historian, born in Syria in 
 1763 ; died in 1828. 
 
 Nakwaska, nak-vas'ka, (Anne,) a Polish novelist, 
 born in 1779, was the wife of senator Nakwaska. Died 
 at Warsaw in 1851. 
 
 Nal'a, [Hindoo pron. nul'a,] in the Hindoo mythology, 
 the name of a monkey chief, who, according to some 
 authorities, built for Rama the bridge from continental 
 India to the island of Ceylon. (See Rama.) 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Naldi, nal'dee, [Lat. Nai/dius,] (Matteo,) a learned 
 Italian medical writer and linguist, bom at Sienna. He 
 became chief physician to Pope Alexander VII. Died 
 at Rome in 1682. 
 
 Naldi, (Nai.do,) an Italian poet, born at Florence 
 about 1420, -was a friend of Politian. He wrote the 
 "Life of GOManetti," and several admired poems. 
 Died about 1470. 
 
 Naldi, (Skhastiano,) an Italian singer, performed in 
 London. Died in Paris in 1819. 
 
 Naldini, nal-dee'nee, (Battista,) a skilful Italian 
 painter, born at Florence in 1537. He painted in oil 
 and fresco at Rome and Florence. Died after 1590. 
 
 Naldini, (Paolo,) an Italian sculptor, born at Rome, 
 flourished about 1650. He was admitted into the 
 Academy of Saint Luke in 1654. 
 
 Naldius. See Naldi. 
 
 Nalian, na'le-an, (James,) an Armenian religious 
 writer, born at Zimara about 1695. He became Arme- 
 nian Patriarch of Constantinople in 1741, and acquired 
 a high reputation by his writings. Died in 1764. 
 
 Nal'son, (John,) an English clergyman, bom about 
 1638. He became rector of Doddington and prebendary 
 of Ely. His chief work is " An Impartial Collection of 
 the Affairs of State from 1639 to the Murder of Charles 
 I.," (1683.) Died in 1686. 
 
 Namur, ni'muV, (Jean Pie,) a Belgian bibliographer, 
 born at Luxemburg in 1804, published several works. 
 
 Nana-Sahib, na'na sa'Hib, a Hindoo chief of mu- 
 tineers, born in Poonah about 1820. He committed 
 atrocious cruelties on English women and children at 
 Cawnpore in 1857. 
 
 See McLeod Innhs. " Rough Narrative of the Siege of Lucknow," 
 Calcutta, 1857 ; E. D. Forgues, " La Revolte des Cipayes;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Nancel, de, deh noN'sSl', [Lat. Nance'lius,] (Nico- 
 las,) a French physician and writer, born in 1539. He 
 wrote, besides other works, a " Life of Peter Ramus," 
 (1600.) Died in 1610. 
 
 Naneelius: See Nancel. 
 
 Nan'dl, [modem Hindoo pron. niin'di,] in the Hindoo 
 mythology, the name of a white bull, regarded as the 
 vahan or vehicle of Siva, which see. 
 
 Nanek, na'nek, or Nanak, sometimes written Na- 
 nuk, called also Yanaka, (ya'na-ka,) and Nirankar, 
 the founder of the sect of Sikhs, was born in Lahore 
 about 1468. He wrote a book called " Adi-Granth," 
 and taught a species of monotheism. Died in 1539. 
 
 Nangis, de, deh nfiN'zhe', (Guili.aume,) a French 
 historian and Benedictine monk. He wrote a "Life of 
 Saint Louis," a general chronicle, and a "Chronicle of 
 the Kings of France." Died about 1302. 
 
 Nangis, de, (Louis Armand de Brichanteau— deh 
 bRe'slios'to',) Marquis, a French general, was born in 
 1682. He served in several campaigns in Flanders, and 
 obtained the rank of marshal of France in 1741. Died 
 in 1742. 
 
 Nani, na'nee, (Giambattista Felice Gasparo,) a 
 Venetian historian, born in 1616. He was for twenty- 
 five years ambassador at the court of France, where he 
 enjoyed the confidence of Cardinal Mazarin. He was 
 
 successively appointed historiographer and archivist of 
 the republic, and procurator of Saint Mark, (1661.) His 
 principal work is a "History of the Venetian Republic 
 from 1613 to 167 1," (2 vols., 1662-79.) Died in 1678. 
 
 See NrCRRON, "Me'moires." 
 
 Nani, (Tommaso,) an Italian jurist, born at Morbegno 
 in 1757; died in 1813. 
 
 Nanini, na-nee'nee, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian 
 composer, born at Vallerano about 1540, served as a 
 chanter in the pontifical chapel in Rome. He composed 
 motets, madrigals, and canzonettas. Died in 1607. 
 
 Nan'na, or nan'na, [etymology uncertain ; according 
 to Keyser, it is derived from noma, to "be inclined to," 
 to "like,"] in the Norse mythology, the wife of Balder 
 " the Good." When her husband was slain, she grieved 
 so intensely that her heart burst, her spirit followed his 
 to Hela's realm, and her body was laid on the same 
 funeral pile with that of her beloved Balder. 
 
 See Kevser, " Religion of the Northmen ;" Thorpe, " North- 
 ern Mythology," vol. i. 
 
 Nanni, (Giovanni.) See Annius ofViterbo. 
 
 Nanni, nan'nee, (Giovanni,) called also Giovanni 
 da Udine, an Italian painter, born at Udine about 1490. 
 He was celebrated for the excellence of his stuccos and 
 grotesque ornaments. Many of his best works are at 
 Rome and Florence. Died in 1564. 
 
 Nanni, (Peter.) See Nanning. 
 
 Nanni, (Remigio,) [sometimes called, in French, 
 Rf.mi de Florence, ra'me' deh flo'rS.Nss',] an Italian 
 Dominican monk and writer in verse and prose, was 
 born at Florence about 1521. He edited Villani's " His- 
 toric universal!," and Guicciardini's " Istoria d'ltalia." 
 Died in 1581. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires." 
 
 Nanni di Baccio Bigio, nan'nee dee bit'cho bee'jo, 
 a Florentine sculptor and architect, worked at Rome 
 about 1530-50. He is chiefly remembered for his enmity 
 to Michael Angelo. 
 
 Nanni di Banco, nan'nee dee bSn'ko, an Italian 
 sculptor, born at Florence in 1383 ; died after 1421. 
 
 Nanning, nan'ning, or Nanni, nan'nee, [Lat. Nan'- 
 Nius,] (Peter,) a Dutch philologist and critical writer, 
 born at Alkmaar in 1500. He was the author of " Ob- 
 servations on the Institutes of Civil Law," and a trans- 
 lation of the Psalms into Latin verse. Died in 1557. 
 
 Nannini, njn-nee'nee, (Agnolo or Giovannini,) 
 surnamed Firenzuola, an Italian litterateur, born at 
 Florence in 1493, was the author of satirical and bur- 
 lesque poems, dramas, and a number of novels in the 
 style of Boccaccio's " Decamerone." 
 
 Nannius. See Nanning. 
 
 Nannoni, nan-no'nee, (Angelo,) an eminent Italian 
 surgeon, born at Florence in 1 71 5. He became pro- 
 fessor and chief surgeon in the Hospital of Florence. 
 His success as an operator and as a lecturer attracted 
 patients and pupils from the most distant parts of 
 Europe. He wrote several esteemed works, among 
 which is "Delia Semplicita del Medicare," (1761-67.) 
 Died in 1790. 
 
 See Aoostino Nannoni, " Elogio del Professore A. Nannoni," 
 1790. 
 
 Nannoni, (Lorenzo,) a surgeon, born at Florence in 
 1749, was a son of the preceding. He wrote on anatomy 
 and surgery. Died in 1812. 
 
 Nansoiity, de, deh noN'soo'te', (Etienne Antoine 
 Marie Champion — shoN'pe-6N',) Count, a French 
 general, bom at Bordeaux in 1768. He was made a 
 general of brigade about 1798, and a general of division 
 in 1803. According to Chateaubriand, he was one of 
 the best cavalry officers that the war of the Revolution 
 produced. The same writer states that he completed 
 the victory at Austerlitz, (1805,) and commenced that of 
 Wagram, (1809.) He was wounded at Borodino, (1812,) 
 and commanded the cavalry at Leipsic. In 1814 he 
 entered the service of the restored Bourbons. Died in 
 February, 1815. 
 
 See Dk Courcei.les, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais." 
 
 Nanteuil, nfiN'tuI' or n&N'tuh'ye, (C^lestin,) a 
 French painter and lithographer, born in Rome in 1813. 
 He became a resident of Paris. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; 1, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
NANTUEIL 
 
 1653 
 
 NAPIER 
 
 Nanteuil, (Chart. ks Francois Leboeuf— leh'buf',) 
 a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1792. He gained 
 the grand prize in 1817. Among his works is "Eurydice 
 Dying." 
 
 Nanteuil, (Robert.) a French artist, born at Rheinis 
 in 1650, painted excellent portraits in pastel, but was 
 chiefly distinguished as an engraver. Among his mas- 
 ter-pieces are the portraits of the secretary of state, 
 Simon Arnaud de Pomponne, and Van Steenbergen. 
 the Dutch advocate. In the department of portrait- 
 engraving Nanteuil has never been surpassed. He was 
 designer and cabinet engraver to Louis XIV. Died 
 in 1678. 
 
 See R. Di'mesnil, " Le Peintre-Graveur Francais ;" Basan, 
 "D'ctionnaire des Graveurs ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate." 
 
 Nanteuil, de, deh noN'tuI', (Gaugiran,) a French 
 dramatist, born at Toulouse in 1778 ; died after 1830. 
 
 Nantier-Didtee, n&N'te-4' de'de-a', Madame, a. 
 French operatic singer, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 
 1832. She performed with success in Paris and London. 
 
 Nantigny or Nantigni, de, deh n&N'tin'ye', (Louis 
 CHASOT,) a French writer on genealogy, was born in 
 Burgundy in 1692. He published " Historical Genealo- 
 gies of Kings, Emperors, and Sovereign Houses," and 
 other works of the kind. Died in 1755. 
 
 Napaeae, na-pee'e, [Gr. Nan-tutu; Fr. Naples, nS'pl',] 
 in tl\e classic mythology, were nymphs of forests, groves, 
 and glens. (See NympH/E.) 
 
 Naples. See Nap.'e.'e. 
 
 Naper. See Napier, (John.) 
 
 Na'pi-er, (Sir Chari.es James,) a British general, 
 born at Whitehall in 1782, was the son of the Hon. 
 George Napier and Lady Sarah Lennox, a daughter of 
 the Duke of Richmond. He was a cousin of Admiral 
 Charles John Napier, and a brother of Sir William, 
 the historian. He gained the rank of major in 1806, 
 was wounded in several actions in Spain between 1808 
 and 1812, became lieutenant-colonel in 181 1, and was 
 employed in ravaging the coasts of the United States 
 in 1813—14. He acted with credit for several years as 
 Governor of Cephalonia, from which he was recalled in 
 1830. Having risen to the rank of major-general, he 
 was appointed commander of the army in Rengal in 
 1841. He increased his reputation by the conquest of 
 Sinde, (1843.) in which he performed several exploits 
 that were highlv extolled. His efforts to reform the 
 civil administration of Sinde are also commended. He 
 returned to England in 1847, and was again sent to 
 India in 1849, to oppose the Sikhs, but on his arrival 
 found that the war was ended. In 1850 he returned 
 home. He was the author of " Lights and Shadows 
 of Military Life," and other works. Died in 1853. 
 
 See Sir W. F. P. Napier, "Life and Opinions of Sir Charles 
 J. Napier:" "Blackwood's Magazine" for July and August, 1857. 
 
 Na'pl-er, (Sir Chari.es John,) K.C.B., an eminent 
 British admiral, born in Stirling county, Scotland, in 
 1786, was the son of the Hon. C. Napier, of Merchiston 
 Hall, Scotland, and a descendant of the inventor of 
 logarithms. He entered the navy in 1799, and, after 
 fighting in several actions with the French, distinguished 
 himself at Baltimore and other places in the United 
 States in 1813 and 1814. After 1814 he passed about 
 fifteen years in inaction, on half-pay. ' He commanded 
 the Portuguese fleet which in 1833 gained a decisive 
 victory over the fleet of Don Miguel, for which he was 
 made a Portuguese grandee of the first class. As second 
 in command, Captain Napier served with distinction at 
 the reduction of Acre, in 1840, and was rewarded with 
 the title of knight commander of the Bath. In 1841 he 
 became rear-admiral, and commanded the Channel fleet 
 for several years. He advocated naval reform in letters 
 which were printed, and as a member of Parliament 
 supported liberal, or rather radical, measures. After the 
 commencement of the Russian war, he was appointed 
 commander of the Baltic fleet, (1854,) and proposed to 
 take Cronstadt, but found it too well fortified, and re- 
 turned without any remarkable achievement. After his 
 return to Parliament, in 1855, he imputed his failure to 
 the fault of the ministers. He attained the rank of 
 admiral in 1858. Died in November, i860. "In his 
 name is summed up all that he was. A Napier is a man 
 
 possessed of high spirits, immense courage, great in- 
 genuity, and prodigious egotism." (" London Times," 
 November, i860.) 
 
 See General E Napier, " Life and Correspondence of Admiral 
 Sir Charles J. Napier," 1861. 
 
 Napier, (Francis,) Lord, a British diplomatist, a 
 son of the eighth Baron Napier, was born in 1819. He 
 became minister-plenipotentiary to the United States 
 about 1856. In December, i860, he was appointed am- 
 bassador-extraordinary to the court of Russia, and in 
 1864 was transferred to Berlin. In 1S66 he became 
 Governor of Madras. 
 
 Napier, (Henry Edward,) an English naval officer 
 and writer, born in 1789, was a brother of Sir Charles 
 James Napier. He published " Florentine History from 
 the Earliest Authentic Records," (6 vols., 1847.) Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 Napier, written also Naper, Neper, or Nepair, [Lat. 
 Napie'rus,] (John,) Baron of Merchiston, a Scottish 
 mathematician, celebrated as the inventor of logarithms, 
 was born at Merchiston Castle, near Edinburgh, in 1550. 
 He was the son of Sir Archibald Napier, master of the 
 mint. He entered the University of Saint Andrew's 
 about 1563, and a few years later travelled in France, 
 Germany, and Italy. He appears to have returned 
 about 1571, after wliich he devoted himself to mathe- 
 matics, theology, and literature. In 1593 he published 
 an ingenious work called " A Plain Discovery of the 
 Revelation of Saint John," in which he labours to prove 
 that popery is antichristian. It is probable that prior to 
 1594 he began the train of inquiry which resulted in the 
 discovery of logarithms. His tables were first published 
 in 1614, with the title of "The Description of the Won- 
 derful Law of Logarithms," ("Mirifici Logarithmorum 
 Canonis Descriptio.") " The invention of logarithms," 
 says Hallam, "is one of the rarest instances of sagacity 
 in the history of mankind ; and it has been justly noticed 
 as remarkable that it issued complete from the mind of 
 its author, and has not received any improvement since 
 his time." In solving the problems of trigonometry, 
 this invention is of immense utility, as it reduces the 
 labour of months to a few days, and liberates the ope- 
 rator from the errors which are almost inevitable in long 
 calculations. He died in 161 7, leaving several sons, the 
 eldest of whom, named Archibald, was raised to the 
 peerage in 1627, with the title of Lord Napier. 
 
 See "Life, Writings, and Inventions of John Napier," hy Earl 
 of Buchan and Walter Minto, 1787 : Mark Napier, " Memoirs 
 of John Napier." 1834: Hutton, "Mathematical Dictionary;" 
 Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 "Westminster Review" for July, 1835. 
 
 Na'pl-er, (Joseph,) an Irish lawyer and politician, born 
 at Belfast in 1804. He was called to the bar in 1831, 
 and elected to Parliament for the University of Dublin 
 in 1848. He became attorney-general for Ireland in 
 1852, and was lord chancellor of Ireland from March, 
 i8=;8, to June, 1859. 
 
 Napier, (Macvey,) a Scottish editor, born in the 
 county of Stirling in 1776. He became professor of 
 conveyancing in the University of Edinburgh. He edited 
 the seventh edition of the " Encyclopedia Britannica," 
 and succeeded Lord Teffrey as editor of the " Edinburgh 
 Review" in 1829. He performed the duties of this po- 
 sition with ability for about eighteen years. Among his 
 contributions to the " Edinburgh Review" is an article 
 on " Raleigh," (April, 1840.) Died in 1847. 
 
 See "Notice of Macvey Napier," London, 1847; Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." (Supplement.) 
 
 Napier, (Robert,) a Scottish mechanical engineer, 
 distinguished for the construction of steamships, was born 
 at Dumbarton in 1791. He served an apprenticeship to 
 a blacksmith, and in 1815 became master of a smithcry 
 in Glasgow. A few years later he began to make engines 
 for steamboats ; and he has since become the head of the 
 large establishment of Robert Napier & Sons, of Glas- 
 gow, He constructed the machinery of the British 
 Queen, and about 1840 furnished Mr. Cunard with four 
 steamships which plied between England and the United 
 States. In 1856 he built the Persia, which was perhaps 
 unrivalled in strength and speed. Since 1859 he has 
 built several iron-clad ships for the royal navy. 
 
 « as k; c; as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (Jr^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NAPIER 
 
 1654 
 
 NAPOLEON 
 
 Napier, (Sir Robert,) a British general, born in Cey- 
 lon about 1810. He served as an officer of the army 
 in India, and became chief engineer of Bengal. During 
 the Sepoy mutiny of 1857-58 he rendered important 
 services as military engineer. He commanded an expe- 
 dition sent against Abyssinia about the close of 1867. He 
 gained a decisive victory at Magdala in April, 1868, over 
 King Theodore, (who was killed in that action,) and 
 was rewarded with the title of Lord Napier. 
 
 Napier, (Sir William Francis,) a British general, 
 famous as the historian of the Peninsular war, was born 
 at Castletown, Kildare county, Ireland, in 1785. He 
 was a brother of General Charles James Napier, and 
 cousin of Admiral Charles J. Napier. He entered the 
 army in 1800, and obtained the rank of captain in 1804. 
 From 1808 to 1814 he served in the Peninsular war, 
 during which he was frequently wounded. He received 
 medals for his conduct at Salamanca, (1812,) and at the 
 battles of the Nivelle and Orthes, etc., and became 
 lieutenant-colonel in 1813. In 1828 he produced the 
 first volume of his " History of the War in the Penin- 
 sula from 1807 to 1814," (6 vols.,) which was finished 
 in 1840, and found its way to the summit of public 
 favour, although its tenor was not in accordance with 
 the popular and political prejudices of the times. He 
 disapproved the policy of the English government, and 
 estimated with candour the acts of Napoleon and his 
 army. The work is admired for dignity of tone, fidelity 
 to truth, and beauty of style. He was made major- 
 general in 1841, and lieutenant-general in 1851. His 
 wife was a daughter of General H. E. Fox, a relative of 
 Lord Holland. Sir William published a " History of 
 the Conquest of Scinde," and a few other works. Died 
 in February, i860. 
 
 See Harriet Martineau, "Biographical Sketches," London, 
 1869; " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1857; " London Quarterly 
 Review" for December, 1836, and April, 1864. 
 
 Napierus. See Napier, (John.) 
 
 Napione, na-pe-o'na, (C. Antonio Galkani,) an 
 Italian mineralogist, born at Turin ; died at Rio Janeiro 
 in 1814. His brother, J. Galeani, Count de Napione, 
 was a dramatist and litterateur. 
 
 Napione da Cocconato, na-pe-o'na da kok-ko-na'to, 
 (Gian Francesco Galeani — ga-la-a'nee,) Count, a 
 learned Italian writer on various subjects, was born at 
 Turin in 1748. He was a cousin-german of the eminent 
 author Joseph de Maistre. He held several high civil 
 offices. Among his numerous works are an essay on 
 the Italian language, ("Dell'Uso e dei Pregi della Lin- 
 gua Italiana," 2 vols., 1791,) and "Lives of Illustrious 
 Italians," (3 vols., 1818.) Died in 1830. 
 
 See L. Martini, " Vita delConteG. F. Napione," 1836 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gene>a!e." 
 
 Napoleon I. See Bonaparte. 
 
 Napoleon II. See Reichstadt, Duke of. 
 
 Na-po'le-on [Fr. Napoleon, nt'po'la'oN'] HZ, 
 (Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte,) Emperor of 
 France, a son of Louis Bonaparte and Hoi tense de Beau- 
 harnais, was born at Paris, in theTuileries, April 20, 1808. 
 He was inscribed at the head of the register of the family 
 of the Napoleonic dynasty, the emperor having recog- 
 nized Louis and his heirs as successors to the crown 
 in preference to his elder brothers. His mother, being 
 compelled to quit France in 181 5, took this son with her 
 in her exile, and gave him for preceptors P. Lebas 
 and Colonel Armandi. He passed several years of his 
 youth at Arenenberg, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau. 
 On the accession of Louis Philippe, in 1830, Louis Napo- 
 leon requested permission to return to France, which 
 was not granted. He and his brother then went to 
 Italy and enlisted in the army of insurgents, who at 
 first gained some advantages over the papal troops, but 
 were defeated and dispersed by the Austrians in 1831. 
 On the death of the Due de Reichstadt, in 1832, Louis 
 Napoleon became a pretender to the throne of France. 
 He published a work entitled " Political Reveries," and 
 a "Manual of Artillery," (1836.) His ambition, his 
 name, and his unscrupulous audacity urged him to enter 
 a career which presents the most wonderful vicissitudes 
 of fortune. Having secured the aid of Colonel Vaudrey 
 and other officers stationed at Strasbourg, he made an 
 
 attempt on that place, with a few adherents, in October, 
 1836. He failed, was arrested, and was banished or trans- 
 ported to the United States in November of that year. 
 
 In 1837 he returned to Europe, attended Queen Hor- 
 tense in her last illness at Arenenberg, and took refuge 
 in England, where he passed about two years. In 1S39 
 he published his "Napoleonic Ideas," ("Idees Napo- 
 leoniennes,") which has been described as a "melange 
 of liberal principles and praetorian domination." It is 
 an apology for the regime of Napoleon I. The unpopu- 
 lar measures of Louis Philippe encouraged Louis Napo- 
 leon to engage in another rash and desperate enterprise. 
 Attended by about fifty partisans and a tame eagle, 
 which was expected to perch upon his banner as the 
 harbinger of victory, he sailed from England in August, 
 1840, and entered Boulogne, where he obtained but little 
 support, and was speedily arrested by the soldiers who 
 he had hoped would be induced to join his standard. 
 He was tried on a charge of treason by the House of 
 Peers, and, after he had made a speech in his own de- 
 fence and -professed his devotion to the principle of 
 popular sovereignty, was sentenced to perpetual impris- 
 onment. He was confined in the Castle of Ham, where 
 he pursued his political studies and wrote several political 
 and historical treatises. Aided by his physician, Dr. 
 Conneau, and disguised as a labourer, he escaped from 
 Ham in May, 1846, and retired to England. 
 
 The revolution of 1848 afforded him an opportunity 
 to return to France, and thus opened a new field to his 
 irrepressible ambition. In June, 1848, he was elected 
 to the National Assembly for the department of the 
 Seine. He was excluded from that body by Lamartine 
 and his colleagues for a time, but he took his seat in 
 September, 1848, and became a candidate for the office 
 of president of France. On the 10th of December, 1S4S. 
 he was elected president for four years, having received 
 5,562,834 votes. His chief competitor was General Ca- 
 vaignac, who obtained 1,469,166 votes. He soon became 
 involved in a contest with the Constituent Assembly, the 
 republican majority of which regarded him with hostility 
 or suspicion. In April, 1849, he sent an army to Rome 
 to intervene in favour of the pope, who had been ex- 
 pelled by the republicans. The French army took Rome, 
 and continued to occupy that city until 1866. 
 
 The Constituent Assembly dissolved itself, and was 
 succeeded by the Legislative Assembly in May, 1849. 
 The president appointed the celebrated De Tocqueville 
 minister of foreign affairs in June, 1849. This minister, 
 perceiving that the president expected him and his col- 
 leagues to be the pliant instruments of his will, resigned 
 in October of that year. De Tocqueville afterwards 
 remarked, " We were not the men to serve him on 
 those terms." Louis Napoleon encountered a strong 
 opposition in the Legislative Assembly, which in May, 
 1850, restricted universal suffrage and ordered that a 
 residence of three years in a commune must be a qualifi- 
 cation of voters. A long and violent struggle between 
 the president and the representatives of the people 
 was terminated by the coup d'etat of December 2, 1851. 
 Having secured the support of the army, by a reckless 
 violation of his plighted faith he raised himself to 
 the supreme power. The Assembly was forcibly dis- 
 solved, and the leading statesmen were arrested. Legis- 
 lators and felons, statesmen and vulgar culprits, were 
 huddled together in the same vehicle and conveyed to 
 prison. Before the end of the year his acts were ratified 
 by the form of a popular election, and he was chosen 
 president for a term of ten years. A new constitution 
 was adopted in January, 1852, and the legislative func- 
 tions were divided between two houses, the Senate and 
 the Corps Legislatif, which, however, were so organized 
 that they offered little or no check to his absolute power. 
 The question whether he should take the title of em- 
 peror was submitted to the vote of the people in No- 
 vember, 1852, when, according to the official report, 
 7,824,189 voted in the affirmative. He assumed the 
 title of Napoleon III., and married a Spanish lady of 
 great personal attractions, Eugenie Marie de Guzman, 
 Countess de Teba, in January, 1853. Having formed 
 an alliance with England and publicly announced thnt 
 his policy was peace, he, in conjunction with his new ally. 
 
 e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
NAPOLEON 
 
 1655 
 
 NARASINGHA 
 
 declared war against Russia in March, 1854, and sent an 
 army to the Crimea. After a long siege, the allies took 
 Sevastopol in September, 1855, and the war was ended 
 by the treaty of Paris in March, 1856. Among the events 
 of this year was the birth of the prince imperial, Napo- 
 leon Eugene Louis, etc. 
 
 One great aim of Napoleon III. appears to have been 
 to reconcile the French people to the loss of liberty by 
 promoting their material prosperity, by splendid public 
 improvements, and by gratifying their passion for mili- 
 tary glory. Accordingly, as an ally of the King of 
 Sardinia in the war caused by the aggressions of Aus- 
 tria, he led a lafge army into Italy in May, 1859. He 
 commanded in person at the battle of Solferino, where 
 the Austrians were defeated, June 24, 1859, and in the 
 next month concluded the peace of Villafranca. (See 
 Francis Joseph.) Among the results of this war was 
 the cession of Nice and Savoy to France by the King 
 of Sardinia, who had extended his own dominions by 
 the conquest of Lombardy. In 1861 he availed himself 
 of the opportunity presented by the breaking out of the 
 civil war in America, to intervene in Mexico, and fitted 
 out against that republic an expedition which landed a 
 well-appointed army under General Forey early in 1862. 
 After several victories over the Mexican Liberals, the 
 French forces entered the city of Mexico in June, 1863. 
 Napoleon offered the imperial crown of Mexico to 
 Maximilian of Austria, who accepted the fatal gift and 
 was supported by a part of the native population. The 
 United States refused to acknowledge the .Mexican em- 
 peror, and intimated to Napoleon that European powers 
 would not be permitted to establish monarchies by arms 
 in North America. He accordingly withdrew his army 
 from Mexico about the end of 1866, so that the result of 
 the Mexican enterprise was the reverse of glorious for 
 France. It is well understood that he sympathized with 
 the slaveholders in their war against the Union, at least 
 so far as they sought the disruption of the confederation. 
 
 Before the commencement of the American war, Napo- 
 leon was justly regarded as the most adroit and most suc- 
 cessful sovereign in Europe. Hut his prestige was greatly 
 impaired by the events of 1866. He remained neutral 
 in the war between Austria and Prussia, which war he 
 probably might have prevented ; but in the diplomatic 
 contest which ensued between France and Prussia 
 he appears to have found more than a match in the 
 genius of Count Bismarck, who suddenly raised Prussia 
 to the rank of a first-rate power and united the Germans 
 in a determined attitude against the aggressiveness of 
 France. The French felt themselves humiliated by the 
 fact that so great changes in the map of Europe should 
 have been effected without their agency or concurrence, 
 and condemned the policy by which France was isolated 
 and excluded from the hope of extension towards the 
 Rhine. After the battle of Sadowa, July 3, 1866, Napo- 
 leon offered himself as a mediator between the belligerent 
 powers. The Emperor of Austria ceded to him Venetia, 
 instead of surrendering it to the King of Italy, to whom 
 it seemed naturally to belong. About the loth of De- 
 cember, 1866, the French army was withdrawn finally 
 from Rome, and the pope, finding himself in a critical 
 position, addressed to Napoleon language which was far 
 from complimentary. Napoleon and Bismarck were in- 
 volved in a dispute about Luxemburg, which the former 
 purchased of the King of Holland ; but the Prussians 
 occupied a strong fortress in that province, which they 
 refused to relinquish. It was generally believed that 
 war was imminent; but the difficulty was settled by a 
 European Convention which met in London in May, 
 1867, and decided that neither France nor Prussia should 
 retain possession of Luxemburg. 
 
 The exciting and warmly-contested elections of May 
 and June, 1869, showed so great an increase of votes 
 against imperial despotism, that Napoleon thought it 
 expedient to make large concessions to the people and 
 the legislative body. He gave the latter the right to 
 elect its own officers, to have partial control over the 
 expenditure of the public money, the right of interpel- 
 lation, and the privilege to share with himself the power 
 of initiating laws. He proclaimed a general amnesty 
 for political offences in August, 1869. In December of 
 
 that year he appointed jGmile Ollivier prime minister, 
 and requested him to form a cabinet. " Designate per- 
 sons," he said, " who will, associated with yourself, form 
 a homogeneous cabinet faithfully representing the legis- 
 lative majority." This was regarded as the end of per- 
 sonal government in France, and the beginning or resto- 
 ration of a constitutional regime. He addressed to prime 
 minister Ollivier, March 22, 1870, an important letter, in 
 which he says, " I think it opportune, under present cir- 
 cumstances, to adopt all the reforms required by the 
 constitutional government of the Empire, in order to put 
 an end to the immoderate desire for change which pre- 
 vails in certain minds." lie afterwards issued an address 
 and appeal to the people, asking their votes, in these 
 terms : " Do the people approve 'the liberal reforms 
 which have been effected in the Constitution since 1S60 
 by the Emperor, with the concurrence of the great legis- 
 lative bodies of the state, and ratify the senatus-consultum 
 of April 20, 1870?" On the eve of the election the 
 government detected or concocted an extensive plot to 
 assassinate Napoleon, and arrested many suspected per- 
 sons. The result of the plebiscite of the 8th of May 
 was that about 7,000,000 voted yes, and 1,500,000 voted 
 no. Louis Napoleon has written a " History of Julius 
 Caesar," (1867,) in which he carries out the "Idees Na- 
 poleoniennes," inculcating the doctrine that certain gifted 
 men are appointed by Providence or destiny to rule, and 
 that it is as necessary for the people as for themselves 
 that this destiny should be fulfilled. 
 
 Without a reasonable pretext or tangible cause, he 
 declared war against Prussia about Julv 15, 1S70, and, 
 having appointed the Empress regent, took the com- 
 mand of his army in person. The Germans crossed the 
 frontier early in August, and assumed the offensive. The 
 French were outnumbered and outgeneralled in a series 
 of great battles at Worth, Metz, and near Sedan. On 
 the 2d of September, Napoleon, who had displayed great 
 incapacity as a general, surrendered himself, with about 
 100,000 men as prisoners of war, at Sedan. The dkhe- 
 ance of Napoleon was passed in the corps legislatif, and 
 a republic was formed, without violence, by the citizens 
 of Paris, September 4, 1870. 
 
 ' See Amedee Hennequin, " Histoire de I.ouis Napoleon Bona- 
 parte." 1848 ; A. Boudin, " Histoire politique du Prince Louis Napo- 
 leon," elc, 1852; Adrien Pascai., "Histoire de Napoleon III," 
 1853; Victor Hugo, "Napoleon le Pelit," 1852; Paul 1,acroix, 
 "Histoire de Napoleon III," 1853; J. B. FeLLBNS, " Louis Napo- 
 leon, sa Vie," etc., 1853; W. L. Wkscue, "Napoleon III. Kniser 
 der Franzosen," 1853: Schoenhuth, "Napoleon III. Kaiser," etc., 
 1S53; Abbott, "The History of Napoleon III.," 1S69 ; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Nap'p?r-Taii'dy, (Jamks,) an Irish insurgent, born 
 near Dublin in 1747. He invaded Ireland wilh a body 
 of French troops in 1798, was taken prisoner and con- 
 demned to death, but was released after an imprisonment 
 of two years. Died in 1803. 
 
 Narada, na'ra-da, written also Nareda, the name of 
 a celebrated Hindoo sage and lawgiver, supposed to have 
 been the son of Brahma and Saras wati. He was the 
 inventor of the Vina, a sort of lute, and is said to have 
 been an intimate friend of Krishna. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Nar'a-slng'ha, [modern Hindoo pron. nfir'a-sing'ha 
 or ntir'a-sing', from the Sanscrit n&ril, a " man," and 
 singhil, a "lion,"] (the "Man-Lion,") the name, in the 
 Hindoo mythology, of the fourth Avatar of Vishnu. It is 
 related that Hiranyakasipu,* by his penances and sacri- 
 fices in honour of Brahma, had obtained as a boon from 
 that deity that he should possess universal monarchy 
 and be wholly exempt from death or injury from every 
 god, man, or creature in existence. Having now nothing 
 
 * Pronounced by the modern Hindoos hY-run'ya-kus'a-poo. By 
 some blunder, as it would seem, on the part of the writers from whom 
 be has copied, Southey gives this name in a strangely corrupted 
 form, — Errenen : 
 
 " For often would F.reenia tell 
 Of what in elder days befell, 
 When other Krauts in their mieht 
 Usurped dominion o'er the earth. 
 And Veeshnoo took a human birth, 
 Deliverer of the sons of men, 
 And slew the huge Krmaccasen, 
 And piecemeal rent with lion force 
 Er'khnen's accursed corse." 
 
 Curse of Kehama, vol. i.. x. 
 
 ti&k; 5 as s; %hard; gasj; G,H,K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sass; in as in this. [ftg^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NARATANA 
 
 1656 
 
 NARUSZEIVICZ 
 
 to fear, his arrogance and impiety became insufferable. 
 He had, however, a son of a wholly different character, 
 and remarkable for his piety and virtue. The son, re- 
 proving his father's wickedness, once said to him that the 
 Deity was present everywhere. "Is he in that pillar?" 
 said the angry tyrant. " Yes," replied his son. There- 
 upon Hiranyakasipu, in contempt, struck the pillar with 
 his sword, when the stony mass fell asunder, and a being, 
 half man and half lion, issuing from its centre, tore to 
 pieces the impious wretch who had thus insulted and 
 defied the Divine Power. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Narayana, ni-ra'ya-na, a Sanscrit word of somewhat 
 uncertain etymology, commonly supposed to signify 
 " moving upon the waters," and applied, in the Hindoo 
 mythology, to the universal Divine Spirit, which existed 
 before all worlds. (Compare Genesis i. 2.) In this sense, 
 Narayana may be regarded as another name for BraHM, 
 (which see ;) but it is also frequently used as one of the 
 many appellations of Vishnu. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Narayani, n5-ra'ya-nee',-the consort (or sakti) of Na- 
 rayana, considered as Vishnu, and hence a name of 
 Laksiim!, (which see.) 
 
 Narbonne, de, deh niR'bon', (Louis,) Count, a 
 French courtier and minister of state, was born of the 
 noble family of Narbonne-Lara at Colorno, in Parma, 
 in 1755. He was taken to Paris in 1760, and educated 
 at court, where his mother was a lady of honour. He 
 was handsome, accomplished, and witty, and a favourite 
 of the royal family. In the Revolution he acted with 
 the constitutional party, and became a confidential friend 
 of Madame de Stael, who regarded him with admiration. 
 "She exalted him in her imagination," says Lamartine, 
 " until she raised him to the height of her ideal." By 
 her influence, partly, he became minister of war in De- 
 cember, 1791. He tried with success the policy of frank- 
 ness and confidence towards the Assembly, and extorted 
 applause even from the stern and suspicious radicals. 
 He performed prodigies of activity in raising armies and 
 preparing for war. Inspired by his fervent, rapid, and 
 martial eloquence, a glow of patriotism pervaded France. 
 He was suddenly dismissed from office in March, 1792, 
 in consequence of a difference with his colleague and 
 rival De Lessart. About the 10th of August he was 
 proscribed by the Assembly, but, by the efforts of Ma- 
 dame de Stael, escaped to England. He returned to 
 France in 1800, and was restored to his rank as lieu- 
 tenant-general in 1809. Soon after that he was made 
 ambassador to Bavaria. He attended Bonaparte as aide- 
 de-camp in the Russian campaign, (1812.) Died in 1813. 
 
 See Vili.emain, "Souvenirs contemporains :" Bignon, "His- 
 toire de France sous Napoleon ;" Marmont, " Memoires ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Narborough, nar'bur'eh, ( Sir John, ) an English 
 naval officer, distinguished himself in the war with the 
 Dutch in 1666. In 1672 he served as second captain 
 under the Duke of York against De Ruyter in the en- 
 gagement of Solebay, where his bravery and skill were 
 conspicuous. He was created rear-admiral and made a 
 knight in 1673. In 1674 he was sent against the pirates 
 of the Mediterranean, and forced the Bey of Tripoli to 
 give up his British captives and pay a large sum of money 
 for previous injuries to British trade. Died in 1688. 
 
 See Charnock, " Biographia Navalis." 
 
 Nar-cis'sus, [Gr. Nupmaoo; ; Fr. Narcisse, nf R'sess'.T 
 a beautiful youth, in the Greek mythology. He is said 
 to have been insensible of amorous passion until he saw 
 his own image in the water, with which he fell in love. 
 Having died of disappointed love, he was changed into 
 the flower of the same name. 
 
 Narcissus, a profligate Roman courtier and favourite 
 of the emperor Claudius, was a slave in his youth. He 
 acquired unlimited influence over Claudius, and pro- 
 cured the death of several innocent persons. He also 
 caused Messalina to be assassinated. He was put to 
 death, by order of Agrippina, in 54 a.d. 
 
 Nardi, naR'dee, (Jacopo,) a distinguished historian, 
 born at Florence in 1476. His principal work is a " His- 
 tory of Florence from 1494 to 1531," (1582.) He also 
 wrote a comedy entitled " L'Amicizia," and made a 
 
 translation of Livy, (1540,) esteemed one of the best in 
 the Italian language. Died about 1555. 
 
 See C. Nardi, "Vita di Jacopo Nardi." 
 
 Nardin, niR'di.N', (Jean Frederic,) a French Prot 
 estant minister, born at Montbeliard in 1687. He 
 preached at Blamont. Died in 728. 
 
 See Duveknoy, "Vie de J. F. Nardin," prefixed to his Sermons 
 1754. 
 
 Nardin, (T.,) a French negotiator and litterateur, 
 born at Besancon in 1540; died in 1616. 
 
 Nardini, nan-dee'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian musician, 
 born at Leghorn in 1725, was esteemed one of the best 
 violinists of his time. He composed a'number of pieces 
 for the violin and flute. Died in 1796. 
 
 Nareda. See Narada. 
 
 Nares, narz, (Rev. Edward,) nephew of James Nares, 
 noticed below, was born in London in 1762. He became 
 professor of modern history at Oxford in 1814. He was 
 the author of a novel entitled " Thinks 'I to Myself," and 
 of the "Life and Administration of Lord Burghley," 
 which is severely criticised by Macaulay in the " Edin- 
 burgh Review," (1832.) Died in 1841. 
 
 Nares, (James,) an English composer, born in Mid- 
 dlesex in 1715. His principal compositions are anthems 
 and other church music; he also published "Lessons 
 for the Harpsichord," and various treatises on music. 
 In 1756 he succeeded Green as organist and composer 
 to the king. He was the preceptor of the composer 
 Arnold. Died in 1783. 
 
 Nares, (Rohert,) a distinguished critic and theolo- 
 gian, a son of the preceding, was born in 1753. He be- 
 came Archdeacon of Stafford, and pastor of Allhallows 
 Church, London ; he also held the office of assistant 
 librarian of the British Museum. He published, among 
 other works, "Elements of Orthoepy," (1784,) and a 
 "Chronological View of the Prophecies relating to the 
 Christian Church," (1805.) He was one of the founders 
 of the " British Critic." Died in 1829. 
 
 Narfi. See Norvi. 
 
 Narino, na-ren'yo, (Antonio,) a South American 
 general, born at Santa Fe de Bogota in 1769. He fought 
 against the Spaniards in 1812-13, was made prisoner, 
 and was confined at Cadiz, where he died about 1822. 
 
 SeeCAPTAiN Bonnycasti.e, " Spanish America," 1818; Lalle- 
 mant, " Histoire de la Colombie," 1826. 
 
 Narui, di, de naR'nee, (Girolamo Mautin — mow- 
 teen',) an Italian monk and eloquent preacher, lived in 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
 Nar'rI-eu, (John,) F.R.S., an English geometer, born 
 at Chertsey in 1782, was a maker of mathematical and 
 philosophical instruments in his youth. He contributed 
 to the " Penny Cyclopaedia," and published, besides 
 several works on geometry, a " History of the Origin 
 and Progress of Astronomy," (1838.) 
 
 Nar'ses, [Gr. Napo%,] a celebrated general under the 
 emperor Justinian I., was a eunuch, and is supposed to 
 have been a native of Asia. He was early distinguished 
 by the favour of the emperor, and in 538 A.D. was ap- 
 pointed to a command under Belisarius in Italy. Owing 
 to dissensions arising between them, Narses was recalled 
 in 539, but he was sent again in 552 as commander-in- 
 chief of the Italian army. He obtained a signal victory 
 over the Goths, led by Totila, and recovered Rome. 
 Having driven the barbarians from the country, he was 
 appointed in 553 Exarch of Italy. On the accession of 
 Justinus II., Narses was superseded in his command by 
 Longinus. Died in 558. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Le 
 Beau, "Histoire du Bas- Empire;" Procopius, " Bellum Gothi- 
 cum." 
 
 Nar'ses or Narsi, nar'see, [Gr. Nupo>?c,] a Sassanide 
 king of Persia, a son of Varanes II., began to reign in 
 294 A.D. He waged war against the emperor Diocletian, 
 whose army he defeated in Mesopotamia in 296. Having 
 been defeated in the second campaign, Narses sued for 
 peace, and in 297 made a treaty by which he ceded 
 Mesopotamia and Armenia to Diocletian. Narses abdi- 
 cated in favour of his son, Hormisdas II., in 303 A.D. 
 
 Narssius. See Naerssen. 
 
 Naruszewicz, n3.-roo-sha'vitch, (Adam Stanislas,) 
 a Polish historian and poet, born in 1 733. He was ap- 
 
 I, e, 1, 6, fl, y, long; a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, |, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
NARVAEZ 
 
 1657 
 
 N AS MYTH 
 
 pointed successively professor of poetry in the Jesuits' 
 College of Nobles at Warsaw, and Bishop of Smolensk. 
 His principal works are a " History of Poland," an ex- 
 cellent translation of Tacitus into Polish, and a number 
 of lyrics, fables, and satires. Died in 1796. 
 
 See Bentkowski, " Histoire de la Litterature Polonaise." 
 
 Narvaez, de, da naR-va-eLh', (Panfilo,) a Spanish 
 commander, born at Valladolid. He went to America 
 in or before 1510, and served in the army. When Ve- 
 lasquez, Governor of Cuba, learned that Cortez disowned 
 his authority in Mexico, he sent an army against him, 
 and gave the command to Narvaez, in 1520. The latter 
 was defeated and made prisoner by Cortez at Zampoala. 
 He was killed by the Indians in Florida about 1527. 
 
 See Prescott, "Conquest of Mexico." 
 
 Narvaez, de, (Ramon Maria,) Duke of Valencia, a 
 Spanish general and minister of state, born in Andalusia 
 about 1798. He fought against the Carlists in 1836-38, 
 and was the leader of the insurrection which drove Es- 
 partero from power in 1843. He was prime minister 
 from May, 1844, to February, 1846, and was restored to 
 power in 1849. He resigned in January, 1851, was again 
 appointed president of the council in October, 1856, and 
 retired from office in November, 1857. About Septem- 
 ber, 1864, he again became prime minister. Died in 
 April, 1868. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Nascimento, do, do nas-se-meVto, (Manoel,) an 
 eminent Portuguese poet, born in Lisbon in 1734. He 
 was driven into exile by the persecution of the Inquisi- 
 tion in 1778, after which he lived in Paris until his death. 
 Among his works, which he published under the assumed 
 name of " Filinto Elysio," are a number of odes and a 
 translation of La Fontaine's Fables. Died in 1819. 
 
 See A. M. Sane, " Poe'sie lyrique Portugaise," etc., 1S08; L. 
 DE Mendoca, " Meniorias de Litteratura contemporanea." 
 
 Naseef-al-Yazajee or Nasif-al-Yazaji, na-seeP al 
 ya'za-jee, a distinguished Arabic scholar and writer, 
 born in " the Lebanon," probably near the commence- 
 ment of the present century. Although a Christian, he 
 is said to have devoted his life solely to the study of the 
 language, history, literature, and grammar of the Arabs. 
 In his treatise on grammar he has condensed, with rare 
 ability and skill, the whole system of the Arab gram- 
 marians. " No more complete exposition of the subject," 
 says Mr. Chenery, "has ever been brought into a vol- 
 ume of the same size." He has also written " Makamat," 
 ("Assemblies,") in imitation of Hareeree, (Hariri.) 
 "Xasif," says the same critic, "has little of the poetical 
 power of his great original, but in curious learning he 
 almost equals him." 
 
 See " Assemblies of Hariri," Introduction, pp. 98-101. 
 
 Naselli, na-sel'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Ferrara. The churches of Ferrara contain many 
 of his works. Died about 1630. 
 
 Nash, (Ahner,) an American statesman and lawyer, 
 born in Prince Edward county, Virginia. Having set- 
 tled in North Carolina, he was elected in 1779 Governor 
 of that State. Died in 1786. 
 
 Nash, (Francis,) an American brigadier-general, 
 brother of Abner Nash, noticed above, was mortally 
 wounded at the battle of Germantown, (1777.) 
 
 Nash, (FREDERICK,) an American jurist, born at 
 Newbern, North Carolina, in 1781, was a son of Abner 
 Nash. He resided mostly at Hillsborough. He became 
 a judge of the supreme court of North Carolina in 1844. 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 Nash, (John,) an English architect, born in London 
 in 1752. He was appointee' in 1815 inspector of the 
 royal buildings. He furnished the designs for the Hay- 
 Market Theatre, Buckingham Palace, and the Pavilion 
 of Brighton, also the plans of Regent Street and Re- 
 gent's Park. Died in 1835. 
 
 Nash, (Joseph,) an English painter and designer, 
 born about 1812. He designed illustrations for "The 
 Architecture of the Middle Ages," (1838.) He is dis- 
 tinguished as a painter of architecture. 
 
 Nash, (Richard,) usually called Beau Nash, was 
 bom at Swansea, Wales, in 1674. He entered the Mid- 
 dle Temple as a student of law, but had an invincible 
 aversion to study and business. He distinguished him- 
 
 self as a man of fashion, a master of the science of 
 gentility, and a paragon of effrontery. His skill as a 
 gambler yielded him an ample revenue. In 1704 he 
 found Bath a vulgar and mismanaged watering-place, 
 infested with ill-bred people. He got himself appointed 
 master of ceremonies, and, by enforcing the rules of good 
 bleeding at balls, public assemblies, etc., converted Bath 
 into a fashionable and elegant place of resort. His 
 person was coarse and ungainly, but his vivacity and 
 benevolent or prodigal habits rendered him popular. 
 He is said to have taken measures to guard the unwary 
 youth from falling victims to the designs of villains. 
 During a part of his long period of prosperity and 
 supremacy at Bath, he rode in a six-horse coach with a 
 retinue of servants. In his old age he was impoverished 
 by the act of Parliament which suppressed gaming. 
 Died in 1761. 
 
 See Oliver Goldsmith, "Life of Richard Nash," 1763; "Ec- 
 centric Personages," by Wm. Russell, 1866. 
 
 Nash, (Thomas,) an English wit and dramatist, born 
 in Suffolk about 1564. He was the author of "The 
 Supplication of Pierce Penniless to the Devil," (1592,) 
 "Dido," a tragedy, (1594,) a comedy entitled "Sum- 
 mer's Last Will and Testament," (1600,) and several 
 other works, which had great popularity in that age. 
 Died in 1601. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry ;" Disraeli, " Ca- 
 lamities of Authors." 
 
 Nash, (Treadway Russel,) an English divine and 
 antiquary, born in 1725 or 1726. He published "Col- 
 lections for a History of Worcestershire," and a fine 
 edition of Hudibras, and contributed several papers to 
 the " Archaeologia." Died in 1811. 
 
 Nasif-al-Yazaji. See Naseef-al-Yazajee. 
 
 Nasiiii, na-see'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter of 
 history and portraits, born at Sienna in 1641 ; died in 
 1716. 
 
 Nasini, (Giuseppe Niccol6,) a skilful painter, born 
 near Sienna about 1655, was a brother of the preceding. 
 He painted in oil and fresco many works, the subjects 
 of which are mostly religious. Died in 1736. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Nasir - ed - Deen - Mohammed - Ibn - Hassan, or 
 Nassir-eddyn-Mohammed-Ibn-Hacan, na'sir ed- 
 deen' mo-hSm'med Ib'n ha'san, surnamed Ai.-Too'see, 
 (or Al-Thousi,) from the place of his birth, a celebrated 
 Persian astronomer, born at Toos, (Tus or Thous,) in 
 Khorass&n, about 1200 A.D., became superintendent of 
 an observatory in Azerbaijan. He was the author of 
 "Ilchanic Tables," which are said by Dfelambre not to 
 differ essentially from those of Ptolemv. Died in 1274. 
 
 Nasir- (or Nasser-) Ledeen- (Ledin-) Illah, na'sir 
 le-deen' il'lah, (Abool-Abbas- Ahmed, a'bool ab-bJs' 
 an'nted,) an Abbasside caliph, began to reign at Bagdad 
 in 1 180, as successor of his father Mostadee. He founded 
 many colleges, hospitals, and mosques. Died in 1225. 
 
 Na'smith, (David,) a Scottish philanthropist, born 
 in Glasgow in 1799, was distinguished for his zeal in 
 promoting religious and benevolent associations. He 
 founded in 1826 the Glasgow City Mission, and, having 
 subsequently visited England, Ireland, France, and the 
 United States of America, he established missions in 
 their principal cities. The London City Mission, which 
 began its operations in 1835 with four missionaries, 
 numbered in 1856 upwards of three hundred. Nasmith 
 also founded the London Female Mission, the Adult 
 School Society, and other similar institutions. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 See Dr. John Campbell, "Memoirs of David Nasmith," 1844. 
 
 Na'smith, (James,) an English divine and antiquary, 
 born at Norwich in 1740, published editions of the 
 "Itineraries" of Simon and William of Worcester, and 
 Tanner's "Notitia Monastica." Died in 1808. 
 
 Na'smyth, (Alexander,) a celebrated Scottish 
 painter, founder of the so-called Nasniyth school, was 
 l>orn at Edinburgh in 1758. He painted landscapes and 
 portraits of great merit. Among the latter, that of Burns 
 is highly esteemed, and is said to be the only authentic 
 likeness of the poet. Died in 1840. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen. 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. {J^~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NASMYTH 
 
 1658 
 
 NAUBERT 
 
 Nasmyth, (James,) a Scottish engineer and inventor, 
 son of the preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1808. 
 He commenced business for himself as a mechanical 
 engineer, at Manchester, in 1834. He invented a steam 
 hammer, a steam pile-driver, and other machines. 
 
 See Samuel Smiles, *' Industrial Biography," etc., 1864. 
 
 Nasmyth, (Patrick,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Edinburgh in 1786. He enjoyed a high 
 reputation as a landscape-painter, and had five sisters 
 who were distinguished in the same department of the 
 art. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Cham hers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Nassare, nas-sa'ri, (Blas Antonio,) a Spanish writer 
 on various subjects, born at Alguezar in 16S9 ; died in 
 1751. 
 
 Nassau, nas'saw, [Ger. pron. nas'sow,] House of, 
 a noble family, of German origin, which produced many 
 great men, and derived its title from Nassau, on the 
 Rhine. In the sixteenth century the family acquired 
 the principality of Orange, in the southeast of France, 
 after which the Counts of Nassau took the title of Prince 
 of Orange. (See Orange, and William III. of Eng- 
 land.) 
 
 See Kremer, " Geschichte des Nassauischen Hauses." 
 
 Nassau, (Henry,) Count of, a Flemish nobleman, 
 inherited from his father large estates in Brabant, Flan- 
 ders, and Holland. In 15 1 5 he married the sister of 
 Philibert, Prince of Orange, by whom he had a son Rene. 
 Henry was a confidential friend of Charles V., whose 
 governor he had been in that emperor's boyhood. " It 
 was he," says Motley, " whose influence placed the im- 
 perial crown upon the head of Charles." He was the 
 uncle of William of Orange, the founder of the Dutch 
 republic. 
 
 Nassau, (Maurice of,) [Dutch, Maurits van Nas- 
 sau, mow'rits vtn nas'sow ; Ger. Moritz von Nassau, 
 mo'rits fon nas'sow,] one of the greatest captains of 
 modern times, was born at the castle of Dillenburg in 
 November, 1567, and was the second son of William the 
 Silent, Prince of Orange, who founded the Dutch repub- 
 lic. About the age of twenty he was elected Governorand 
 Captain-General of the Seven United Provinces, which 
 were then at war with Spain. In 1591 he took Deventer, 
 Zutphen, and other fortified towns. He defeated the 
 Spaniards in a great pitched battle at Tumhout in 1597, 
 and gained a decisive victory over the Archduke Albert 
 of Austria at Nieuwport in 1600. In the ensuing cam- 
 paigns his skill as a tactician was exerted with uninter- 
 rupted success until 1609, when Spain recognized the 
 independence of the Dutch, and a truce of twelve years 
 was signed by the two powers. The patriot Barneveldt, 
 by promoting this peace and opposing the ambitious pro- 
 jects of Maurice, incurred his enmity, and finally became 
 a victim of his cruelty. (See Barneveldt.) Maurice 
 received the title of Prince of Orange at the death of his 
 elder brother, about 1618. In 1621 he renewed the war 
 against the Spaniards, who opposed to him the celebrated 
 general Spinola. "His great capacity in the military 
 art," says Hume, " would have compensated the inferior- 
 ity of his forces, had not the Spanish armies been com- 
 manded by Spinola." Maurice compelled his rival to 
 raise the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom in 1622, but Spinola 
 took Breda in 1625. He died in 1625, and was succeeded 
 in the office of Stadtholder by his brother, Frederick 
 Henry, who was the grandfather of William III. of Eng- 
 land. Maurice made important improvements in the 
 military art, and excelled especially in the reduction and 
 defence of fortified places. 
 
 See Siolker, " Prins Maurits," 1827; Oudemans, " Het Leven 
 en de Daden van Maurits Prins van Oranje-Nassau," 1832 : C. M. 
 van dhk Kkmp, " Maurits van Nassau Prins van Oranje," etc., 
 1844; Motley, " History of the United Netherlands." 
 
 Nassau-Siegen, de, deh nas'sow see'gen, (Charles 
 Henri Nicolas Othon,) Prince, born in Nassau in 
 1745, gained distinction by his adventures. He served 
 in the French army, and afterwards entered the service 
 of Russia. He gained a naval victory over the Turks 
 in 1788. Died about 1809. 
 
 Nassau-Siegen, de, (Jan Maurits,) Prince, 
 called the American, a Dutch commander, born in 
 1604, was a grandson of John, Count of Nassau. He 
 
 was appointed captain-general of the Dutch possessions 
 in Brazil in 1636, and gained several successes over the 
 Portuguese. He returned to Holland in 1644, and was 
 made general-in-chief of the cavalry. He left in manu- 
 script a work on the Animals of South America. Died 
 in 1679. 
 
 See Van Kampen, '*Johann Moritz von Nassau: eine Bio- 
 graphie," 1842; L. Drieskn, " Leben des Fiirsten Moritz von 
 Nassau-Siegen," 1849. 
 
 Nast, (William,) D.D., a native of Germany, emi- 
 grated in 1828 to America, where he became a preacher 
 of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He has translated 
 numerous Methodist works into German, and published 
 several books in that language. 
 
 Natal, Bishop of. See Colenso. 
 
 Natale, ni-ta'la, [Lat. Nata'lis,! (Geronimo,) a 
 Spanish Jesuit, born in Majorca in 1507. He declined 
 the office of general of the order of Jesuits in 1558. He 
 wrote "Commentaries and Meditations on the Gospels," 
 (" Adnotationes et Meditationes in Evangelia," 1594) 
 Died at Rome in 1580. 
 
 See H. Fisquet, "Notice sur Je*r6me Natalis," 1856. 
 
 Natali, na-ta'lee, (Giovanni,) an Italian poet and 
 physician, born at Messina in 1642 ; died about 1730. 
 
 Natali, (GIUSEPPE,) an Italian painter, of the school 
 of Cremona, born in 1652 ; died in 1722. 
 
 Natalis. See Natale. 
 
 Natalis, na-ta'lis, (Michael,) a Flemish engraver, 
 born at Liege about 1609, wopked at Rome and Paris. 
 He engraved some works of Titian, Rubens, and Poussin. 
 Died in 1670. 
 
 Na'than, [Heb. jHJ ; Gr. Nuflav,] a Hebrew prophet, 
 who lived in the reigns of Kings David and Solomon. 
 He wrote a Life of David, which is not extant. 
 
 See II. Samuel xii. ; I. Chronicles xxix. 29 ; I. Kings i. 
 
 Nathan, (Isaac,) called also Mordecai, a Jewish 
 rabbi of the fifteenth century, published the first Hebrew 
 Concordance to the Bible. It is entitled " Mair Netib," 
 or " Light to the Path." 
 
 Na'than Ben Jechiel, (bSn v?k'e-eY,) a Jewish rabbi, 
 president' of the synagogue at Rome. He wrote a Tal- 
 mudical Lexicon, which was printed about 1480. Died 
 in 1 106. 
 
 Nathanael, (of Scripture.) See Bartholomew. 
 
 Natoire, nt'twan', (Charles,) a French painter, born 
 at Nimes in 1700, studied under Lemoine, whose un- 
 finished works he completed. Some of his best pictures 
 are at Versailles and the Hotel de Soubise. Died near 
 Rome in 1777. 
 
 See Dumksnil, " Le Peintre-Graveur Francais." 
 
 Natter, nat'ter, (Johann Lorenz,) a celebrated Ger- 
 man gem-engraver, born in Suabia in 1705. After re- 
 siding for a time at Rome, he visited the principal courts 
 of Europe, where his works were in great demand. His 
 imitations of the antique' are so perfect as scarcely to be 
 distinguished from the original. Among his best pro- 
 ductions are a medal in honour of Sir Robert Walpole, 
 and a victorious Britannia, on a gem. Natter published 
 a "Treatise on the Antique Method of engraving Gems, 
 compared with the Modern." Died at Saint Petersburg 
 in 1763. 
 
 See Nagi.er, " Allgeiiieines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Natterer, ndt'ter-er, (Johann,) a German naturalist, 
 born at Laxenburg, near Vienna, in 1787. He travelled 
 in Brazil, and wrote several works on reptiles and mam- 
 mifera. Died in 1843. 
 
 Nattier, nS'te-a', (Jean Marc,) a French portrait- 
 painter, born inT'aris m 1685. Among his master-pieces 
 are the portraits of Marshal Saxe and the Duke of 
 Richelieu. He was professor in the Academy of Arts. 
 Died in 1766. 
 
 Natzmer, von, fon nats'mer, (Dubislaw Gneom ar.) 
 a Prussian general, born in Pomerania in 1654. He 
 distinguished himself at Blenheim, (1704,) and com- 
 manded the Prussian corpsat Malplaquet, (1709.) Died 
 in 1739. 
 
 Naubert, nSw'beRt, (Christians Benedicts Eu- 
 cenie,) a celebrated romance-writer of Germany, born 
 at Leipsic in 1756. Among her most admired works 
 are "Conradin of Suabia," " Walter of Montbarry," and 
 " Thekla of Thurn." The latter, it is said, suggested to 
 
 S, e, i, 0, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
NAUBRIGENSIS 
 
 1659 
 
 NAFEZ 
 
 Schiller many fine passages in " Wallenstein." Her 
 " Popular Legends of Germany" are also greatly esteemed. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Naubrigensis. See Little, (William.) 
 
 Naucleius, now-kla'rus, (Johann Vkrgen,) a chron- 
 icler, born in Suabia about 1430. He wrote, in Latin, 
 a chronicle, which was printed in 1516. Died abouti5io. 
 
 Nau'cra-tes, [Nawcpur^cja Greek orator, was a pupil 
 of Isocrates, and flourished about 350 B.C. He wrote on 
 rhetoric. 
 
 Nau-cy'des, [Nav/cwfyc,] a celebrated Greek sculptor, 
 born at Argos about the 95th Olympiad. Among his 
 best productions were two statues of Chimon, a Mer- 
 cury, and a bronze statue of Erinna. 
 
 Naudaeus. See Naud£, (Gabriel.) 
 
 Naude, no'di', [Lat. Naumj'us,] (Gabriel,) a dis- 
 tinguished French bibliographer and savant, was born 
 in Paris in 1600. He was chosen physician-ordinary to 
 Louis XIII. in 1633, and librarian to Cardinal Richelieu 
 in 1642. Soon after the death of Richelieu (1642) he 
 became librarian to Mazarin. He had extensive learning 
 and an acute understanding, and was an intimate friend 
 of Gassendi. His principal works are an "Apology for 
 Great Men falsely accused of Magic," (1625,) "Biblio- 
 graphia Politica," (1633,) and "Considerations on Coups 
 d'Etat." A collection of anecdotes entitled " Naudaeana" 
 was published in 1701. Died in 1653. 
 
 See Louis Jacob, "Gabrielis Naud;ei Tumulus," 1659 ; Nicbron, 
 " Memoires ;" Sainte-Bhuve, " Portraits litteraires," 1855 ; " Nou- 
 velle Hiographie Ge'n^rale." 
 
 Naude, (Philippe,) a French mathematician and 
 Protestant theologian, born at Metz in 1654. Having 
 removed to Berlin, he was appointed, in 1696, professor 
 of mathematics in the Academy of Arts, and subsequently 
 in the Academy of Sciences, soon after its foundation. 
 He was the author of a number of moral and theological 
 works, and of "Elements of Geometry," (1706.) Died 
 in 1729. 
 
 Naudet, no'dA', (Joseph,) a French scholar and his- 
 torian, born in Paris in 1786. He became a member of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions in 1817, and professor of 
 Latin poetry in the College de France about 1821. 
 Among his works is a " History of the Monarchy of the 
 Goths in Italy," (181 1.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Naudet, (Thomas Charles,) a French landscape- 
 painter, born in Paris in 1774. He travelled over a 
 considerable part of Europe, and made a collection of 
 three thousand designs. Died in 1810. 
 
 Naugerius. See Navagf.ro. 
 
 Kaumann, now'mSn, (Johann Andreas,) a German 
 naturalist, born near Kothen in 1744. He published a 
 " History of the Birds of North Germany," (I795*-i8o4.) 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Naumann, (Johann Friedrich,) an ornithologist, 
 born near Kothen in 1780, was a son of the preceding. 
 His chief work is a " Natural History of German Birds," 
 (1822-44.) Died in 1857. 
 
 Naumann, ([oiiann ( lorn. 1 eh or Amadeus,) a Ger- 
 man composer, born near Dresden in 1741. He pro- 
 duced several popular operas; but his reputation rests 
 chiefly on his church music. Died in 1801. 
 
 See Meissner, " Bnichstiicke avis J. A. Naumanns Lebensge- 
 schichte," 2 vols., 1304; Fbtis, "Biographie Universelle des Mu- 
 siciens." 
 
 Naumann, (Karl Friedrich,) a German mineral- 
 ogist, born at Dresden in 1797, was a son of Johann 
 Gottlieb, noticed above. He published several suc- 
 cessful works on mineralogy. 
 
 Naumann, (Moritz Ernst Adoi.ph,) a brother of 
 the preceding, and a medical writer, was born at Dresden 
 in 1798. He wrote an important work on clinic medi- 
 cine, " Handbuch der medicinischen Klinik," (8 vols., 
 1829—39,) and other works. 
 
 Naun'ton, (Sir Robert,) an English statesman, rose 
 to be secretary of state and master of requests under 
 James I. He was the author of "Fragmenta Regalia," 
 or an account of the court of Queen Elizabeth. Died 
 in 1635. 
 
 Nausea, nSw'za-$, otherwise called TJnrath, oon'rat, 
 and Eckel, dk'k^l, (Friedrich,) a German theologian, 
 
 bom near Wiirtzburg about 1480. He became preacher 
 to the court at Vienna in 1534, and Bishop of Vienna in 
 1 541. He published several works on theology. Lied 
 about 1550. 
 
 See Dupin, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs eccle'siastiques." 
 
 Nau-sio'a-a, [Gr. Nauooiua,] a daughter of Alcinous, 
 King of the Phasacians, showed kindness to Ulysses 
 when he was wrecked on the island of Phaeacia, (Corfu.) 
 Tradition adds that she became the wife of Telemachus. 
 
 Nau-sic'ra-tes, [Niroo-iApurr/c,] a Greek comic poet, 
 whose works are not extant. He is classed by some 
 critics among the writers of the middle comedy. 
 
 Nauze, La. See La Nauze. 
 
 Navagero, na-va-ja'ro,[Lat. Nauge'rius,](Andrea,) 
 an Italian scholar and eminent Latin poet, born in Venice 
 in 1483. He passed about four years (1525-28) at Madrid 
 as Venetian ambassador to Charles V., and exercised an 
 important influence on Spanish literature. Having been 
 sent on a mission to France, he died at Blois in 1529. 
 His Latin and Italian poems are admired for their ele- 
 gance and purity of style. 
 
 See Ginguene, " Histoire Litte'raire d'ltalie;" Meneghelli, 
 " Elogio di A. Navagero," 1813. 
 
 Navagero, (Bernardo,) a Venetian statesman and 
 cardinal, born at Venice in 1507. He was sent as am- 
 bassador to Fiance and Germany, and attended the 
 Council of Trent. He wrote a " Life of Pope Paul IV." 
 Died in 1565. 
 
 See L. Manin, "Elogio del Cardinale Navagero," 1814; Au- 
 behv, " Histoire des Cardinaux." 
 
 Navailles, de, deh na"vaT or ni'vjt'ye, (Philippe de 
 Montault de Benac — deh m6N'to' deli ba'nik',) Due, 
 a French general, born in 1619. He obtained the rank 
 of marshal of France in 1675. Died in 1684. 
 
 See "Mdmoires de sa Vie," etc., written by himself, 1691. 
 
 Navarre or Navarrese, Doctor. See Azpilcueta. 
 
 Navarre, na-vir'ia, (Pedro,) a Spanish captain, born 
 in Biscay, was a skilful engineer. He invented or im- 
 proved the art of undermining, and took the Castello 
 del Ovo at Naples in 1503. In 1514 he entered the 
 service of Francis I. of France. Died in 1528. 
 
 See Bkantome, "Vies des grands Capitaines." 
 
 Navarrete or Navarete. See Mudo, El. 
 
 Navarrete, na-var-ra'ti, (Domingo Fernandez,) a 
 Spanish Dominican, born in Old Castile, was a mission- 
 ary to China in 1646. After his return he was created 
 Archbishop of Saint Domingo in the West Indies. He 
 was the author of a valuable work on the moral, political, 
 and religious condition of the Chinese, entitled "Tra- 
 tados historicos, etc. de la Monarchia de China," (1676.) 
 Died in 1689. 
 
 See Churchill, "Collection of Voyages and Travels." 
 
 Navarrete, (Don Martin Fernandez,) an eminent 
 Spanish historian and geographer, born at Abalos in 
 1765. He was appointed in 1823 director of the Hydro- 
 graphic Institute at Madrid, and in 1837 was made a 
 senator and director of the Academv of History. His 
 principal work is entitled a "Collection of the Voyages 
 and Discoveries made by the Spaniards since the Close 
 of the Fifteenth Century." It is eulogized by Humboldt, 
 and has furnished Irving with material for his " Life of 
 Columbus." He also wrote a " Biography of Cervantes," 
 and assisted in preparing a valuable "Collection of Un- 
 published Documents for the History of Spain," (un- 
 finished.) He was a member of the Spanish Academy, 
 and proposed a new system of orthography, which was 
 adopted by that institution. Died in 1844. 
 
 See D. de Mofras, "Mendoza et Navarrete," 1845. 
 
 Navarro, navaR'ro, (Augustin,) a Spanish painter, 
 bom at Murcia in 1754; died in 1787. 
 
 Navarro, (Felipe,) a Spanish painter, born at Va- 
 lencia about 1680. 
 
 See Quiixiet, " Dictiounaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Nave or Naeve, na'feh, written also Nefe, (Kaspar,) 
 a German medical writer, born at Chemnitz in 15 14; 
 died about 15S0. 
 
 Navez, nit'va*, (Francois Joseph,) an eminent Bel- 
 gian historical painter, born at Charleroi in 1787, was 
 a pupil of David. He worked mostly at Brussels, and 
 
 «as/-; 9 as s; g hard; gas/,- g, h.k, guttural '; N, nasal; v., trilled; sass; th as in //;;>. (JJ^="See Explanations, p. a>) 
 
NAV1ER 
 
 1660 
 
 NEBEN1US 
 
 painted many scriptural subjects. He was regarded as 
 the chief of the Academic school of Belgian artists. 
 
 Navier, nt've-i', (Pierre Toussaint,) a French 
 physician and chemist, born at Saint-Dizier in 1712, was 
 the discoverer of nitrous ether. He was a corresponding 
 member of the Academy of Sciences, and published 
 several scientific works. Died in 1 779. 
 
 Navieres, de, deh nt'vfxiiR', (Charles,) a French 
 poet, bdm at Sedan in 1544; died in Paris in 1616. 
 
 Naville, nS'vel', (Francois Marc Louis,) a Swiss 
 writer on education and moral philosophy, born at 
 Geneva in 1784. Among his works is a "Treatise on 
 Legal Charity," (2 vols., 1836.) Died in 1846. 
 
 Nay'lpr, (James,) an English enthusiast, born in 
 Yorkshire in 1616. He became an eloquent preacher 
 of the Society of Friends, after he had served in the 
 army of the Parliament, which he left in 1649. Having 
 fallen into delusions and received acts of worship from 
 some fanatical persons, he was convicted of blasphemy 
 by the Parliament in 1656. He was branded, pilloried, 
 and imprisoned several years. Died in 1660. 
 
 See Sewel, "History of the Quakers:" and article in the 
 " Democratic Review" for March, 1846, (by Whittier.) 
 
 Nazianzen. See Gregory Nazianzen. 
 
 Ne or Ni, a name sometimes given to Confucius, 
 which see. 
 
 Neagle, na'gel, (John,) an American artist, chiefly 
 known as a portrait-painter, was born in Boston in 1799. 
 He practised his art in Philadelphia, where he married 
 a daughter of Sully. Among his works are portraits of 
 Washington and Henry Clay. Died in 1865. 
 
 See Dunlap, " History of the Arts of Design in America;*' 
 Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Neal, (Alice B.) See Haven, (Alice.) 
 
 Neal, nee!, (Daniel,) a celebrated English dissenter, 
 born in London in 1678. After completing his studies 
 at Utrecht, he became minister of a congregation in 
 Aldersgate Street, London. His principal works are a 
 " History of the Puritans," (in 4 vols.,) and a " History 
 of New England." Died in 1743. 
 
 See Wn.soN, " History of Dissenting Churches." 
 
 Neal, (John,) an American poet and littlrateur, born 
 at Portland, Maine, in 1793. His first publications were 
 a series of essays on the works of Byron, which ap- 
 peared in " The Portico," a monthly magazine. These 
 were soon followed by his novel entitled " Keep Cool," 
 (181 7,) "The Battle of Niagara," (1818,) "Goldau, the 
 Maniac Harper," and other poems ; also " Logan," 
 (1822,) "Seventy-Six," (1823,) and other novels. In 
 1824 he visited England, where he contributed a num- 
 ber of able and interesting articles on American litera- 
 ture to "Blackwood's Magazine." After his return, he 
 published the novels of " Rachel Dyer," (1828,) "The 
 Down-Easters," (1833,) "True Womanhood," (1859,) 
 and several other works. In 1870 appeared his "Wan- 
 dering Recollections of a Somewhat Busy Life." "The 
 elements of poetry," says R. W. Griswold, " are poured 
 forth in his verses with a prodigality and power alto- 
 gether astonishing ; but he is deficient in the constructive 
 faculty." 
 
 See Grtswold, " Prose Writers of America :" Duyckinck, " Cy- 
 clopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Allibone, "Dictionary 
 of Authors." 
 
 Neal, (Joseph C.,) an American journalist and hu- 
 morous writer, born at Greenland, New Hampshire, in 
 1807. Having settled in Philadelphia, he became in 1831 
 editor of "The Pennsylvania!!," and in 1844 of a literary 
 journal entitled " Neal's Saturday Gazette," which soon 
 acquired extensive popularity. He published in 1837 
 "Charcoal Sketches, or Scenes in a Metropolis," which 
 were received with great favour, and were republished 
 in London. They were followed by "Peter Ploddy, and 
 other Oddities," (1844,) and another series of "Char- 
 coal Sketches." Died in 1848. 
 
 See Griswold. " Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Ne-al'9§s, [NEo?JCJ7f,] a Greek painter, born about 
 213 B.C., is supposed to have been a native of Sicyon. 
 His works were highly esteemed by his contemporaries, 
 and are eulogized by Plutarch and Pliny. One of his 
 principal pieces represents a battle between the Egyp- 
 tians and the Persians on the Nile. 
 
 Neale, neel, (John Mason,) an English theologian 
 and historical writer, born about 1818. He published, 
 besides several books for children, a " History of the 
 Holy Eastern Church," and other works. 
 
 Neander, na-an'der, (Christoph Friedrich. ) 
 (changed from Neumann,) a German divine and poet, 
 born in Courland in 1724. He was the author of 
 "Spiritual Songs," ("Geistliche Lieder,") which are 
 ranked among the best compositions of that kind in the 
 language. Died in 1802. 
 
 See " Bruchstucke von Neanders Leben," Berlin, 1804. 
 
 Ne-an'der, [Ger. pron. na-in'der,] (Johann August 
 Wilhelm,) an eminent German theologian and ecclesi- 
 astical historian, of Jewish extraction, was born at Got- 
 tingen in 1789. He became in 181 2 professor of theology 
 at Berlin, where he devoted himself zealously to the 
 duties of his office and the advancement of Christianity 
 by his numerous writings. Of these the most important 
 is his "Universal History of the Christian Religion and 
 Church," (in 5 vols., 1843.) Among his other produc- 
 tions we may name "The Emperor Julian and his Times," 
 (1812,) "Memorable Occurrences from the History of 
 Christianity and Christian Life," (3 vols., 1822,) " His- 
 tory of the' Planting of the Apostolic Church," (1832,) 
 and "The Life of Jesus Christ in its Historical Rela- 
 tions," (1837,) an able refutation of the well-known work 
 of Strauss. Neander was a member of the Consistory 
 of the province of Brandenburg. His writings have 
 obtained great reputation and influence in foreign coun- 
 tries, as well as in Germany. Died in Berlin in July, 1850. 
 
 " Neander still remains beyond doubt the greatest 
 church historian, thus far, of the nineteenth century. 
 Great, too, especially in this, that he never suffered his 
 renown to obscure at all his sense of the sinfulness and 
 weakness of every human work in this world. With all 
 his comprehensive knowledge, he justly regarded him- 
 self as, among many others, merely a forerunner of a 
 new, creative epoch of ever-young Christianity. . . . 
 'We stand,' he said, 'on the line between the old 
 world and a new, about to be called into being by the 
 ever-fresh energy of the gospel. For a fourth time 
 an epoch in the life of our race is in preparation by 
 means of Christianity.' " (Dr. Schaff's " History of 
 the Apostolic Church.") 
 
 See Krahre, "A. Neander," 1852; "Zum Gedachtniss A. Nean- 
 der's," Berlin, 1S50; Herzog, " Real-Encvklopadie :" W. Farrell, 
 " Memorial of A. Neander," 1851 ; " North British Review" for 
 February, 1S51 ; "British Quarterly Review" for October, 1868. 
 
 Neander, (Michael,) a German Protestant divine 
 and classical scholar, born in Lower Silesia in 1525, was 
 a pupil of Melanchthon. He wrote a number of Greek 
 and Latin treatises. Died in 1595. 
 
 See Reinhard, " De Vita M. Neander," 1756: Niceron, "JM- 
 moires;" Havemann, "Mittheilungen aus dem Leben M. Nean- 
 der's," 1841. 
 
 Neander, (Michael,) a learned German physician, 
 born in Misniain 1529. Among his works we may name 
 a "Synopsis of Weights and Measures according to the 
 Romans, Athenians," etc. Died in 1581. 
 
 Ne-ar'ehus, [Gr. Neafivoc; Fr. Nearque, na'Skk',] a 
 celebrated admiral of Alexander the Great, was a native 
 of Crete, or, as some assert, of Amphipolis. About 327 
 B.C. he set sail from the Indus for the Persian Gulf, and 
 discovered on his passage the mouths of the Euphrates 
 and the Tigris. A detailed account of this voyage is 
 given by.Arrian, the accuracy of which has been 
 confirmed by Vincent and other modern geographers. 
 Nearchus, on his return, was received with distinguished 
 favour by Alexander, who assured him that he rejoiced 
 more in the success of the expedition than in having 
 conquered Asia. He also received from his sovereign 
 a golden crown. After the death of Alexander, Nearchus 
 was made governor of Pamphylia and Lycia. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Vita Alexandri ;" Vincent, "Voyage of Near- 
 chus to the Euphrates," etc., 1797; Gosselin, " Geographie des 
 Grecs." 
 
 Nearque. See Nearchus. 
 
 Nebel, na'bel, (Daniel,) a German botanist, born at 
 Heidelberg in 1664. He published several works on 
 botany. Died in 1733. 
 
 Nebeuius, na-ba'ne-iis, (Karl Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man statesman and able writer on political economy, 
 
 S, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mjt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
NEBI 
 
 1661 
 
 NECKHAM 
 
 bom near Landau in 1784. He was president of the 
 Council of Baden from 1846 to 1848. Among his works 
 is a "Treatise on Public Credit," (1820.) Died in 1857. 
 See Brockhaus, " Convcrsations-Lexikon." 
 Nebi, neb'ee, an admired Turkish poet of the seven- 
 teenth century, flourished under the reign of Mahomet 
 IV. 
 
 Neb-ria-sen'sis, (Antonius,) an eminent Spanish 
 scholar, whose proper name was Antonio dk Lebrixa, 
 (di Ia-bRee'Hi,) was born at Lebrixa in 1444. He studied 
 the classics in Italy, and, returning to Spain in 1473, ' ,e " 
 came to that country what Erasmus was to Germany or 
 Bud<£ (Hudaens) to France. As professor in the Univer- 
 sity of Salamanca, he initiated a reform in the method of 
 teaching Latin and Greek. He published a Latin Lexi- 
 con, (1492,) a "Lexicon of Civil Law," (1506,) which is 
 highly commended, and grammars of the Latin, Greek, 
 and Hebrew languages. About I5l4he became professor 
 of ihetoric at Alcala. "The men to whom Spain chiefly 
 owes the advancement of useful learning," says Hallam, 
 "were Arias Barbosa and the more renowned Antonio 
 de Lebrixa." ("Introduction to the Literature of Eu- 
 rope.") Died in 1522. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i. 
 
 Ne'brus, [Gr. NeSpoc,] an eminent Greek physician, 
 flourished about 580 H.c. He is supposed to have been 
 a native of Cos. When the Amphictyons besieged the 
 town of Crissa, in Phocis, Neb/us assisted in reducing 
 the town by poisoning the water. 
 
 Neb'u-ehad-nez'zar, [Heb. *tt»UT313J; Fr. Na- 
 buchodonosor, nS'boo'ko'do'no'zoR', or Naboko- 
 drossor, nt'bo'ko'dRo'soR',] King of Babylon, succeeded 
 his father Nabopolassar. He took Jerusalem in 606 
 B.C., and carried to Babylon many captives, among whom 
 was the prophet Daniel. King Zedekiah having revolted, 
 Nebuchadnezzar took his capital in 588, destroyed the 
 great temple by fire, threw down the walls of the city, 
 and transported the Jewish people to Babylon. He 
 afterwards captured Tyre, conquered Egypt, and became 
 probably the most powerful monarch of that age in the 
 world. Having become too much elated by pride and 
 prosperity, he was, by divine visitation, deprived of his 
 reason and deposed from his throne. Restored to reason 
 and power a short time before his death, he published 
 a pious proclamation of his experience and of his recog- 
 nition of the King of heaven. 
 
 See II. Kings xxv. i ; Daniel i., ii., iii., and iv. ; also, Samuel 
 Clarke, " Life and Death of Nebuchadnezzar," 1664. 
 
 Necham. See Nkckham. 
 
 Ne'-eho [Gr. Ntxuc, Ncxau, or Nc;t;uc] or Pha'ra-6h 
 Ne'cho, King of Egypt, a son of Psammeticus, reigned 
 from 617 to 601 B.C. He was a warlike prince, and 
 defeated Josiah, King of Judah, in battle at Megiddo, 
 but was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar in 606 B.C. at 
 Carchemish. 
 
 See Bunsen, "Egyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte." 
 Neck, van, vtn nek, (Jan,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 Naarden in 1635. His master-piece is "Simeon in the 
 Temple holding the Infant Jesus in his Arms." Died at 
 Amsterdam in 1 7 14. 
 
 See Dkscamps, " Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc 
 Necker, nek'ker or nJ'kaiR', (Albertine Adrienne 
 de Saussure — deli so'sur',) a Swiss authoress, bom at 
 Geneva in 1766, was a daughter of the naturalist, H. B. 
 de Saussure. She was married to J. Necker, a nephew 
 of the great financier, and a cousin of Madame de 
 Stael, of whom she was an intimate friend. She wrote a 
 "Notice of the Character of Madame de Stael," (1820,) 
 and " Progressive Education," (2 vols., 1828-32.) Died 
 in 1841. 
 
 See Senebier, " Histoire litteraire de Geneve." 
 Necker, nek'ker, [Fr. pron. n£'kaiR',J (Jacques,) an 
 eminent Swiss financier, and prime minister of France, 
 born at Geneva in September, 1732. On leaving col- 
 lege he became a clerk in a banking-house in Paris, and, 
 having acquired a large fortune as partner of the great 
 banker Thelusson, he retired from business in the prime 
 of life, and aspired to public honours and more brilliant 
 financial achievements. In 1773 he gained the prize 
 offered by the French Academy for a eulogy on Col- 
 
 bert, and published a treatise on the corn-laws, "Sur la 
 Legislation des Grains." The disorder of the finances was 
 so alarming that, without regard to official routine, he 
 was appointed director of the treasury in 1776, and 
 director-general of the finances in 1777. By publicity, 
 order, and economy, he restored the public credit and 
 lightened the burdens of the people. His famous 
 compte rendu of 1781 (which was the first public exposi- 
 tion of the revenue and expenses of the State) was re- 
 ceived with great favour ; but his reforms made for him 
 many enemies at court and elsewhere. To defend him- 
 self against their intrigues, he asked for a seat in the 
 council, which was refused because he was a Protestant. 
 He immediately resigned, (1781,) and retired to Coppet, 
 on Lake Leman. 
 
 In 1784 he published his excellent work "On the Ad- 
 ministration of the Finances," of which eighty thousand 
 copies were sold in a few days. The convocation of 
 the States-General was decreed by the royal council in 
 August, 1788. The court was convinced that the skill 
 of Necker was indispensable in the political and financial 
 crisis that followed. He succeeded Brienne as prime 
 minister, or controleur-general of finances, about Sep- 
 tember I, 1788, and the next day the funds rose 30 per 
 cent. He favoured the Revolution by granting to the 
 Tiers-£tat a double number of deputies. He is censured 
 for this concession, and for temporizing in the contest 
 between the Tiers-Etat and the other orders after the 
 meeting of the States-General in 1789. The court having 
 adopted more violent measures than he approved, he 
 tendered his resignation, (June 23,) which was not ac- 
 cepted. On the nth of July he was suddenly dismissed 
 by a note from the king, who ordered him to leave the 
 kingdom privately ; and the same night he departed for 
 Brussels. Indignant at his dismissal, the populace of 
 Paris rose in arms, stormed the Bastille, and obtained a 
 bloody triumph over the court. Necker was recalled on 
 the 21st of July, and, when he entered Paris, was received 
 with enthusiastic demonstrations by the people. His 
 first act was an amnesty for political offences. But he 
 was too conservative to satisfy the popular party, and 
 resigned his office in September, 1790. He passed the 
 rest of his life at Coppet, where he wrote several political 
 and religious treatises. Died in 1804. The highly-gifted 
 Madame de Stael was his daughter. 
 
 See Madame dk StaKl, " Vie prive> de M. Jacques Necker,* 
 1804; Droz, " Histoire du Regne de Louis XVI ;" Thiers, " His- 
 tory of tile French Revolution : Lan iuinais, " Eludes biographiques 
 sur Antoine Arnauld, P. Nicole et J. Necker," 1S23; Sainte-Beuvb, 
 "Causeries du Lundi :" A. L. dk Sta£i.-Hoi.stein, "Notice sur 
 Necker," 1821 ; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale ;" " Edinburgh 
 Review" for January, 1803, (by Sydney Smith.) 
 
 Necker, (Louis Albert,) a Swiss naturalist, born at 
 Geneva in 1786, was a son of Albertine A. de Saussure- 
 Necker. He published " Le Regne mineral ramene aux 
 Methodes de 1'Histoire naturelle," (2 vols., 1835.) 
 
 Nec'ker, (Noel Joseph,) a botanist, born in Flanders 
 in 1729, gave special attention to mosses. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a Description of the Wild Plants 
 of France and Belgium, (" Delicise Gallo-Belgicas Syl- 
 vestres," 2 vols., 1768,) and " Methodus Muscorum," 
 (1 77 1.) Died in 1793. 
 
 See P. R. Willemet, " Notice sur la Vie de N.J. Necker," 1794. 
 
 Necker, (Susanne Curchod — kiiii'sho',) an accom- 
 plished and literary Swiss lady, bom at Crassier in 1739. 
 She was intimate in her youth with Gibbon the historian, 
 who wished to marry her ; but his father opposed the 
 match. She was married to M. Necker in 1764. Her 
 salon in Paris was the resort of the most eminent authors, 
 including Buffon, Diderot, and D'Alembert. She founded 
 a hospital in Paris which bears her name. She died in 
 1794, leaving manuscripts which her husband published 
 under the title of " Melanges," (5 vols., 1798-1802.) 
 
 See Gibbon, " Memoirs ;" Grimm, "Correspondance;" Marmon- 
 tkl, " Me'moires." 
 
 Neck'ham or Nec'kam, written also Necham, 
 (Alexander,) an English monk and Latin poet, born 
 at Saint Alban's or Hartford about 1150. He wrote, in 
 elegant Latin, several works, among which is a long 
 scientific and descriptive poem, " De Naturis Rerum." 
 Died in 1227. 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria," etc. 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,giMural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. {%&~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NECTANABIS 
 
 1662 
 
 NEHER 
 
 Nec-tan'a-bis or Nec-tan'e-bes, [Gr. NeKrava/ftc or 
 NennaveftTft,] King of Egypt, began to reign about 360 
 B.C. He waged war against Artaxerxes III. of Persia, 
 who invaded' and conquered Egypt about 350 B.C. Nec- 
 tanabis was the last king of the Sebennite dynasty. 
 
 Nec-ta'ri-us, [Nexrapwf,] a Greek prelate, became 
 Patriarch of Constantinople in 381 A.I). His moderation 
 is said to have been exemplary. He died in 397, and 
 was succeeded by Chrysostom. 
 
 Nee, na, (Francois Denis,) a French engraver, born 
 in Paris about 1732. He engraved many landscapes and 
 plates for illustrated works, among which is "Tableaux 
 pittoresques de la Suisse." Died in 1818. 
 
 See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Neeb, nap, (Johann,) a German philosopher, born 
 near Hanau in 1767. He published several works on 
 philosophy. Died in 1843. 
 
 Needham, need'am, (John Turberville,) F.R.S., 
 an English naturalist, born in London in 1 713, was a 
 Roman Catholic priest. He published "New Micro- 
 scopical Discoveries," (1745,) and a treatise on genera- 
 tion, in French, " Idee sommaire, ou Vue gene'rale du 
 Systeme physique et metaphysique sur la Generation," 
 (1780.) He became director of the Academy of Sciences 
 at Brussels, where he died in 1781. 
 
 See Hutton, "Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary." 
 
 Needham, (Marchmont,) an English political writer, 
 born at Burford in 1620. He supported the cause of the 
 Parliament in his " Mercurius Britannicus," a weekly 
 journal, (1643-47,) and that of the king in his "Mercu- 
 rius Pragmaticus." In 1649 he again changed sides, 
 and became editor of the " Mercurius Politicus," an 
 organ of the Independents. His most remarkable work 
 was a " Discourse on the Excellency of a Free State 
 over a Kingly Government." Died in 1678. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena? Oxonienses." 
 
 Needham, (Walter,) an English anatomist, studied 
 *t Oxford, and practised medicine in London. He be- 
 came a Fellow of the Royal Society about 1667. He 
 wrote an able treatise " De Formato Fcetu." Died in 
 1691. 
 
 Neefs, nafs, or Neef, naf, (Peter,) the Elder, a 
 Dutch painter, born at Antwerp about 1565. He excelled 
 in perspective, and in representing the interiors of Gothic 
 churches and convents, illuminated. The figures in his 
 pictures are generally painted by Breughel, Teniers, and 
 others. His " Cathedral of Antwerp" is esteemed a 
 master-piece. Died in 1651. His son, Peter Martin, 
 the Younger, imitated his father's style, but did not 
 equal him. 
 
 See Pilkington, " Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Neele, neel, (Henry,) an English poet, born in Lon- 
 don in 1798, was an attorney. He wrote "Dramatic 
 Scenes," " The Romance of History," and other works. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 Neer, van der, vfn der nair, (Aart or Arnold,) a 
 Dutch landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam about 
 1619. His moonlight scenes, winter landscapes, and 
 pictures into which water is introduced, are ranked 
 among the finest productions of the kind. Died in 
 1683. 
 
 Neer, van der, (Eglon Hendrik,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Amsterdam in 1643. He studied 
 under Vanloo, and attained eminence as a painter of 
 landscapes, portraits, and historical pieces. Died in 1703. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Neercassel, van, vfn naiR'kas'sel, (Jan,) a Dutch 
 bishop and writer, born at Gorcum in 1623. He was the 
 only Roman Catholic bishop in Holland. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "Amor Pcenitens, seu de recto Usu 
 Clavium," (1683.) Died in 1686. 
 
 Nees von Esenbeck, nas fon a'zen-beV, (Chris- 
 tian Gottfried,) a German botanist, born in 1776. 
 He became professor of natural history at Bonn about 
 1819, and afterwards lectured at Breslau. Among his 
 numerous works are a " Manual of Botany," (2 vols., 
 1821,) and "Bryologia Germanica," (2 vols., 1823-51.) 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 See F. L. Blky, " Leben und Wirken der GebrUder Nees von 
 Esenbeck," 1844. 
 
 M 
 
 Nees von Esenbeck, (Theodor Friedrich Lud- 
 wig,) a botanist, a brother of the preceding, was born 
 near Erbach in 1787. He wrote several botanical works. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Neff, neT, (Felix,) a meritorious Swiss missionary, 
 called "the Apostle of the Alps," was born at Geneva 
 in 1798. He laboured as missionary among the Swiss 
 mountaineers. Died in 1829. 
 
 See a "Memoir of Felix Neff, Pastor of the High Alps," etc., 
 by William S. Gilly, London, 1832 ; " London Quarterly Review" 
 for April, 1833, (by Southey.) 
 
 Nefftzer, neft'ser, (Auguste,) a French journalist, 
 born at Colmar in 1820. He was an assistant editor of 
 the "Presse," a daily paper of Paris, from 1844 to 1S57. 
 
 Nefi, nef'ee, a distinguished Turkish satirist, win 
 flourished in the seventeenth century. 
 
 Negelein, na'geh-lin', (Joachim,) a German theolo- 
 gian and numismatist, born at Nuremberg in 1675 ; died 
 in 1749. 
 
 Neg'ley, (James S.,) an American general, born in 
 Alleghany county, Pennsylvania, in 1826. In 1861 he 
 raised a brigade, which he commanded in Tennessee in 
 1862. He took command of the post of Nashville in 
 September of that year, ai»d led a division at Stone 
 River, December 31, 1862-January 2, 1863. For his 
 conduct in this battle he was raised to the rank of major- 
 general, in which capacity he served at the battle of 
 Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 1863. 
 
 Negrelli-Moldelbe, von, fon ni-gRel'lee mol-d§l'- 
 beh, (Alois,) an engineer, born in the Tyrol in 1799. 
 He constructed the first railroad in Austria, (finished in 
 1841,) and other railroads. Died in 1858. 
 
 Negri. See Negro. 
 
 Negri, na'gRee, (Francesco,) a learned Italian eccle- 
 siastic of Ravenna. He travelled in Denmark, Sweden, 
 and Norway, and returned home in 1666. The results 
 of his observations appeared in a work entitled "Travels 
 in the North." Died in 1698. 
 
 Negri, (Francesco Vincenzo,) an Italian scholar 
 and writer, born at Venice in 1769. He wrote a " Life 
 of Apostolo Zeno," (1816,) and other works. Died in 
 1827. 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Notizie della Vita di F. Negri," 1835; G. J. 
 Fontana, "Elogio di F. Negri," 1829. 
 
 Negri, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian antiquary 
 and artist, born at Bologna in 1 593. He founded two 
 Academies, — namely, the Indistinti, devoted to the arts 
 of design, and the Indomiti, (1640.) Died in 1659. 
 
 Negri, (Girolamo,) an Italian classical scholar, born 
 at Venice in 1494. He died in 1577, leaving "Orationes 
 et Epistolae," (1579.) 
 
 Negri, (Giulio,) an Italian Jesuit and biographer, 
 born at Ferrara in 1648. He rendered an important 
 service to literary history by his "Stovia degli Scrittori 
 Fiorentini," (" History of the Florentine Authors," 1 722.) 
 Died in 1720. 
 
 Negri or Neri, na'ree, (Pietro Martine,) a skilful 
 Italian painter of history and portraits, born at Cremona, 
 flourished in 1600. 
 
 N^grier, na'gRe-4', (Francois Marie Casimir,) a 
 French general, born at Mans in 1788. He served in 
 Algeria, and was killed in Paris by the insurgents in 
 June, 1848. 
 
 Negro, na'gRo, or Negri, na'gRee, (Francesco,) an 
 Italian philologist and Reformer, born at Bassano in 
 1500, embraced Protestantism, and removed to Ger- 
 many. He published several works. Died about 156c. 
 
 See G. B. Roberti, " Notizie della Vita e delle Opere di F. 
 Negri." 1839. 
 
 Negruzzi, na-gRoot'see, (Constantine,) a Moldavian 
 poet, born in 1809. He wrote, besides other works, a 
 historical poem. 
 
 Ne-he-mi'ah, [Heb. iTnn: ; Fr. NEHEmtk, ni'- 
 i'me',1 a Hebrew governor and writer, was cup-bearer 
 to Artaxerxes, King of Persia, who appointed him 
 Governor of Judea about 445 B.C. He probably wrote 
 the book of the Old Testament which bears his name. 
 
 Ndh6mie. See NehemiaH. 
 
 Neher, na'er, (Bernard,) a German historical painter, 
 born at Biberach in 1806. He painted frescos at Munich 
 and in the palace of the grand duke at Weimar. These 
 
 e, I, o, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a., $,i,<), obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
NEIDHARDT 
 
 1663 
 
 NELSON 
 
 represent scenes from the dramas of Schiller and the 
 works of Goethe. 
 
 Neidhardt. See Gneisenau. 
 
 Neidliart von Neueuthal, nlt'haRt fon noi'en-tal', 
 one of the principal German lyric poets of the thirteenth 
 century, was a native of Bavaria. The best collection 
 of his songs is that published by Beneke in his "Contri- 
 butions to the Knowledge of the Old German Language 
 ami Literature." 
 
 Neigebaur, ni'geh-bowR', (Johann Daniel Ferdi- 
 nand,) a German traveller and writer, born in Silesia 
 in 17S3. He published books of travel and descriptions 
 of Italy, France, and other countries of Europe, which 
 are said to be well written. 
 
 Neikter, nik'ter, (Joseph Frf.derik,) a Swedish 
 archaeologist and writer, obtained the chair of eloquence 
 at Upsal in 1787. Died in 1803. 
 
 Neill, neel, (James George Smith,) a British general, 
 born about 1 8 to. He rendered important services in 
 India during the mutiny of the Sepoys, and was killed 
 at the siege of Lucknow, in September, 1857. 
 
 Neill, neel, (Patrick,) a Scottish naturalist and hor- 
 ticulturist, born in 1776. He followed the trade of a 
 printer in Edinburgh, and published a " Tour through 
 some of the Islands of Orkney and Shetland," (1806,) 
 and "The Fruit, Flower, and Kitchen Garden," (1839.) 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 Neipperg, von, fon nlp'pjRo, (Ai.iirecht Adam,) 
 Count, an Austrian general, born about 1774. He dis- 
 tinguished himself in several campaigns, and rose to a 
 high rank in the army. He was appointed cavalier 
 i'lionueur to the empress Maria Louisa about 1815. 
 He is said to have married her secretly. Died in 1829. 
 
 Neipperg, von, (Wilhelm,) an Austrian field-mar- 
 shal in the service of Francis I. and Maria Theresa, was 
 born in 1684, and was the grandfather of the preceding. 
 In 1739 he concluded the disadvantageous peace of Bel- 
 grade, and in 1 741 was defeated by Frederick the Great 
 at Mollwitz. He retained the favour of his sovereigns, 
 however, and was made imperial counsellor of war, and 
 commander of Vienna. Died in 1774. 
 
 Nelaton, ni'la'tfiN', (Auguste,) an eminent French 
 surgeon, born in Paris in 1807, graduated in 1836, and 
 became professor of surgery to the Faculty of Medicine, 
 Paris, in 185 1. He published, besides other treatises, 
 "Elements of Pathological Surgery," (5 vols., 1844-61,) 
 which is called a capital work. He was admitted into 
 the Academy of Sciences in 1867. He was employed 
 professionally by Napoleon III. about 1869. 
 
 Neledinaky Meletzky, na-la-den'ske ma-leVskee, 
 (Yoorii,) an eminent Russian lyric poet, born in Mos- 
 cow in 1751. He was patronized by the emperor Paul, 
 who conferred upon him a valuable estate and several 
 honorary distinctions. His songs are among the most 
 admired productions of the kind in the language. Died 
 in 1829. 
 
 See Grktch, " Essai historique sur la Litterature Russe." 
 
 Nelee. See Neleos. 
 
 Ne'leus, [Gr. Nr/levc; Fr. Nelee, na'la',] a mythical 
 personage, said to be a son of Neptune (or, according to 
 some authorities, of Cretheus) and Tyro. Nelens and 
 his brother Pelias disputed for the throne of Iolchos, 
 which the latter obtained. Neleus afterwards became 
 King of Pylos and the father of Nestor and other sons. 
 According to some writers, he was killed by Hercules. 
 
 Neller, nel'ler, (GeorgChristoph,) a German canon- 
 ist and antiquary, born in 1710; died in 1783. 
 
 Nelli, nel'lee, (PlETRO,) an Italian satirical poet of 
 the sixteenth century, was a native of Sienna. His satires 
 were published in 1546. 
 
 Nelli, de', da nel'lee, (Giamhattista,) an Italian 
 architect, born at Florence in 1661. He wrote a "Treat- 
 ise on Architecture," (1753.) Died in 1725. 
 
 Nelli, de', (Giamhattista Clemente,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Florence in 1725, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. Among his works is a " Life of Galileo," (1 793.) 
 Died in 1 793. 
 
 Nel'eon, (David,) an American Presbyterian divine 
 and eloquent preacher, born near Jonesborough, Ten- 
 nessee, in 1793. He became pastor of a church at Dan- 
 ville, Kentucky, in 1828, and subsequently assisted in 
 
 founding a college in Marion county, Missouri, of which 
 he was appointed president. His work entitled " The 
 Cause and Cure of Infidelity" enjoys a high reputation, 
 and has passed through numerous editions. Dr. Nelson 
 was an earnest advocate for the abolition of slavery. 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 Nel'son, (Horatio,) Lord, a British naval hero and 
 admiral of the first order, born at Burnham Thorpe, in 
 Norfolk, on the 29th of September, 1758, was the son 
 of Rev. Edmund Nelson and Catherine Suckling. He 
 was endowed with great intrepidity and energy, and pos- 
 sessed a generous, impetuous temper. He went to sea 
 about the age of thirteen, served a number of years in 
 the East Indies, and took part in several actions of the 
 American war. In 1779 he became a post-captain, and 
 in 1787 married the widow of Dr. Nisbet, of the island 
 of Nevis. He obtained command of a ship in the Medi- 
 terranean fleet in 1793, contributed to the victory ovot 
 the Spaniards at Saint Vincent in 1797, and was raised 
 to the rank of rear-admiral in the same year. His next 
 enterprise was an attack on Teneriffe, where he was 
 repulsed, with the loss of his right arm. 
 
 In 1798 he attempted to intercept the passage of the 
 French armament to Egypt, but missed it, until he over- 
 took it in Aboukir Bay, where in August he gained the 
 decisive battle of the Nile. For this service he was re- 
 warded with the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile, and 
 a pension of ^3000. While he was employed on the 
 coast of Naples, (1799,) he became fascinated by the 
 pernicious influence of Lady Hamilton, and tarnished 
 his fame by executing Prince Carraccioli and other re- 
 publicans, who were sacrificed to the vengeance of the 
 court of Naples. Soon after these events he separated 
 from his wife, who was supplanted in his affections by 
 Lady Hamilton. He was second in command under Sir 
 Hyde Parker of the armament sent against Copenhagen 
 in 1801 ; but the honour of the victory at the battle of 
 the Baltic is ascribed to Nelson. In the midst of the 
 battle, Parker having made a signal to retreat, Nelson 
 put a spy-glass to his blind eye and exclaimed, " I really 
 don't see the signal." " He had won the day," says 
 Southey, " by disobeying orders." For this success he 
 was raised to the rank of viscount. 
 
 War against France having been renewed in 1803, he 
 took the command of the Mediterranean fleet, hoisted 
 his flag on the Victory, and watched the French fleet off 
 Toulon for more than a year. In May, 1805, he sailed 
 for the West Indies in pursuit of Admiral Villeneuve, 
 but was disappointed, and the hostile fleet returned safely 
 to Europe, followed by the English admiral. He then 
 went home and proposed to suspend his active service, 
 but was re-appointed in September, 1805, in accordance 
 with the general wishes of the nation, by whom he was 
 more idolized than almost any other man had been. 
 On the 2 1st of October, (1805,) with twenty-seven sail 
 of the line and four frigates, he attacked the combined 
 French and Spanish fleets, of forty ships, under Ville- 
 neuve, near Cape Trafalgar. Before the fight began, he 
 gave the famous signal, " England expects every man to 
 do his duty." The English gained a complete victory, 
 but Nelson was mortally wounded by a musket-ball fired 
 from the Redoutable, which was in close proximity to 
 the flag-ship, the Victory. He is eulogized by Southey 
 as " the greatest naval hero of our own and of all former 
 times." 
 
 See R. Sohthev, "Life of Nelson," 1813: J. S. Clarke, "Life 
 of Admiral Lord Nelson, ".1809: Thomas Petticrkw, "Memoirj 
 of Lord Nelson," 1849; J. M. Tucker, "Memoirs of the Life of 
 Lord Nelson," 1S47; Joseph Allen, " Life of Viscount Nelson," 
 1853 ; John Charnock, "Memoirs of Lord Nelson," »8o6 ; Al- 
 phonsh DE Lamartine, "Nelson," 1853: E. Forhuks, " Histoire 
 de Nelson," i860 : Alison-, " History of Europe ;" " London Quar- 
 terly Review" for February, 1810, (by Southev;) " Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for September, 1*14 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 
 1844: "Westminster Review" for January, 184S. 
 
 Nelson, (Rohert,) an English devotional writer, born 
 in London in 1656. Among his works we may name 
 "The Whole Duty of a Christian," and "Practice of 
 True Devotion." In 1680 he was chosen a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society. He was an intimate friend of Arch- 
 bishop Tillotson and of Dr. Halley. Died in 1715. 
 
 Nelson, (ROGER,) an American general, who served 
 in the Revolutionary war. He represented a district of 
 
 as «,- c as s; f hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (fty See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NELSON 
 
 1664 
 
 NEPOS 
 
 Maryland in Congress for several terms, (1804-10.) Died 
 in 181 5. 
 
 Nel'son, (Samuel,) an Irish patriot, born in 1759, was 
 editor of a political journal called the " Northern Star." 
 He was imprisoned six •years, and released after the 
 treaty of Amiens, in 1802. 
 
 Nelson, (Samuel,) an American judge, born in the 
 State of New York. He became an associate justice of 
 the supreme court of the United States in 1845. He 
 concurred in the decision of the court in the Dred Scott 
 case, (1857.) 
 
 Nelson, (Thomas,) an American patriot, and signer 
 of the Declaration of Independence, born at York, in 
 Virginia, in 1738. He was educated at Cambridge, Eng- 
 land, and after his return was elected to the Congress 
 of 1775. He was subsequently appointed brigadier- 
 general and commander-in-chief of the forces of the 
 commonwealth. In 1 781 he succeeded Jefferson as 
 Governor of Virginia. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of In- 
 dependence." 
 
 Nelson, (William,) an American general, born at 
 Maysville, Kentucky, in 1825. He served in the navy, 
 and obtained the rank of master in 1854. In September, 
 1861, he was appointed a brigadier-general of the Union 
 army. He commanded a division at the battle of Shiloh, 
 April, 1862. He was killed in a private quarrel at Louis- 
 ville in September, 1862, by Jefferson C. Davis. 
 
 Ne-me-sl-a'nus, [Fr. Nemesien, na'ma'zej^.N',] 
 (Marcus Aurelius Olympius,) a Latin poet, born at 
 Carthage. He lived at the court of the emperor Carus 
 in 283 a.d. His works are lost, except fragments of a 
 poem on hunting, entitled "Cynegetica," the style of 
 which is commended for purity. 
 
 Nemesien. See Nemesianus. 
 
 Nem'e-sis, [Gr. Nifieaic, from vcfiu, to "deal out," 
 to "distribute ;" Fr. Nemesis, na'ma'sess',] a personage 
 of Greek mythology, represented as a daughter of Night 
 or Erebus. She was the goddess of retribution, and the 
 divinity who rectified the errors of partial and capricious 
 Fortune. At Rhammus, in Attica, there was a celebrated 
 temple dedicated to Nemesis. 
 
 Ne-me'sl-us, {'Se/jiaimc,] a Greek philosopher, who 
 lived probably between 350 and 450 A.D. He is styled 
 Bishop of Emesa. He wrote an ingenious treatise on 
 physiology and psychology, entitled "On the Nature of 
 Man," ( Tlepl <pioeuc uvOpCmov.) It contains a passage 
 which suggests an idea of the circulation of the blood. 
 
 See Haller, " Bibliotheca Anatomica." 
 
 Nemours, de, (Gaston de Foix,) Due. See Foix. 
 
 Nemours, de, deh neh-mooR', (Henri de Savoie — 
 deh sS'vwi',) Due, a French general, a son of Jacques, 
 noticed below, (1531-85,) was born in Paris in 1572. 
 He joined the League about 1588, but entered the ser- 
 vice of Henry IV. a few years later. Died in 1632. 
 
 Nemours, de, (Jacques d'Armagnac — dtR'min'- 
 ytk',) Due, born about 1437, was a son of Bernard 
 d'Armagnac. In 1465 he joined the league of the Bien 
 public against Louis XI. He was executed, on a charge 
 of treason, in 1477. 
 
 See Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais;" Barante, "Histoire 
 des Dues de Rourgogne." 
 
 Nemours, de, (Jacques de Savoy,) Due, a distin- 
 guished French general, born in Champagne in 1531, 
 was the son of Philip, Due de Genevois and de Ne- 
 mours, whose sister Louise was the mother of King 
 Francis I. He fought against the Protestants in the 
 civil war, and distinguished himself at the battle of 
 Saint-Denis, in 1567. He opposed the ambitious designs 
 of the Guise family, and took no part in the civil war be- 
 tween the League and the king. Died in 1585. 
 
 See Brant6mb, " Vies des grands Capitaines." 
 
 Nemours, de, (Louis d'Armagnac,) Due, a French 
 military commander, born about 1472, was a son of 
 Jacques, noticed above. He served in Italy against the 
 Spaniards, and was made Viceroy of Naples by Louis 
 XII. He was killed in the battle of Cerignola, while 
 opposing Gonsalvo de Cordova, (1503.) He was the last 
 of the family of Armagnac, and the duchy of Nemours 
 was given to Gaston de Foix in 1505. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire diis Francais;" Saint-Gelais, " His- 
 toire de Louis XII." 
 
 Nemours, de, (Louis Chari.ks Philippe Raphael 
 d'Orleans — doR'la'oN',) Due, a French prince, a son 
 of King Louis Philippe, was born in 1814. He was 
 chosen King of Belgium by a congress of that nation in 
 1831, but was compelled by his father to decline the 
 offer. He served in the army in Algeria, and obtained 
 the rank of lieutenant-general in 1837. After the death 
 of his elder brother (1842) he was recognized as future 
 regent in case the king should die during the minority 
 of his heir, the Count of Paris. On the abdication of 
 Louis Philippe (184S) he waived his claim to the re- 
 gency in favour of the Duchess of Orleans, whom he 
 attended when she presented herself, with her son, before 
 the Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 See A. Pascal, " Le Due de Nemours, son Passe 1 et son Avenir 
 politique," 1842. 
 
 Nemours, de, (Marie d'Orleans,) Duchesse, 
 daughter of the Duke of Longueville, was born in 1625, 
 and married in 1657 to Henry of Savoy, Duke of Ne- 
 mours. She died in 1707, leaving interesting " Memoirs" 
 of her life and times, which were published in 1709. 
 
 See Villrforb, "Vie de Madame de Longueville;" Saint- 
 Simon, "Memoires." 
 
 Nen'ni-us, one of the early British chroniclers, is 
 stated by some writers to have lived in the seventh, and 
 by others in the ninth, century. He was the author of 
 a " History of the Britons,". (" Historia Britonum," or 
 "Elogium Britannia;,") first published in Gale's "Col- 
 lection of English Historians," (1691.) 
 
 See Wright, " Biographia Britannica Literaria." 
 
 Neobar, na'o'btR', (Conrad,) a learned printer, of 
 German extraction, was patronized by Francis I. in 
 Paris. Died in 1540. 
 
 Ne'o-phron, [NeoQpuv,] an Athenian tragic poet, 
 flourished in the fifth century B.C. Only small frag- 
 ments of his works are extant. 
 
 See Clinton, " Fasti Hellenici." 
 
 Neoptoleme. See Neoptolemus. 
 
 Ne-op-tol'e-mus, [Gr. aeoirroAe/ioc ; Fr. Neopto- 
 leme, na'op'to'lam',] also called Pyrrhus, a fabulous 
 Greek warrior, was a son of Achilles. He was one of 
 the heroes concealed in the wooden horse at the siege 
 of Troy. According to Virgil, he killed Priam at the 
 capture of Troy, ("/Eneid," book ii. 546.) In the dis- 
 tribution of captives, he obtained Andromache, widow 
 of Hector. 
 
 Neoptolemus, a Macedonian general in the service 
 of Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander 
 he became governor of Armenia, and united with An- 
 tipater in a hostile movement against Perdiccas and 
 Eumenes. He was killed in battle by Eumenes, whom 
 he encountered in single combat, about 320 B.C. 
 
 Neoptolemus, King of Epirus, was a cousin-german 
 of Alexander the Great. He began to reign in 302 B.C. 
 He was assassinated by order of the celebrated Pyrrhus, 
 who became king. 
 
 Nepair or Neper. See Napier, (John.) 
 
 Nepomucene. See Nepomuk. 
 
 Nepomucenus. See Nkpomuk. 
 
 Nepomuk, na'po-mook', or Nepomucky, na-po- 
 moots'kee, [Lat. Nepomuce'nus ; Fr. Nepomucene, 
 na'po'mu'san',] (John,) the patron saint of Bohemia, 
 born at Nepomuk about 1330. Having given offence to 
 King Wenzel, he was drowned, by his orders, in the 
 Moldau, (1383.) He was canonized by Pope Innocent 
 XIII. in 1721. 
 
 See Balbinus, "Vita Nepomuceni." 16S0: Johanneaud, "Jean 
 Nepomucene," 1831; Pass!, "Vita di S. Giovanni Nepomuceno," 
 1729. 
 
 Ne'pos, (Cornelius,) a celebrated Roman historian 
 of the time of Julius Cassar. He was an intimate friend 
 of Cicero and Atticus, and dedicated to the latter his 
 " Vitas Excellentium Imperatorum," (" Lives of the Illus- 
 trious Generals.") This work, which is his only one 
 extant, is distinguished for the purity and graceful sim- 
 plicity of its style, and has been generally adopted as a 
 class-book in schools and colleges. 
 
 See J. C. F. Baehr, "Geschichte der RBmischen Literatur;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Nepos, (Fl.wius Julius,) was created Emperor of the 
 West, a.d. 473, by Leo X., the Emperor of the East. He 
 
 S, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, V, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat: m5t; not; good: moon : 
 
NEPTUNE 
 
 1665 
 
 NERONI 
 
 concluded a peace with Euric, King of the Visigoths, to 
 whom he ceded a portion of Gaul. In 475 Orestes, a 
 native of Pannonia, marched against Nepos, defeated 
 him, and proclaimed his own son Romulus Emperor of 
 the West. In 480 Nepos was assassinated at Salona. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Nep'tune, [Lat. Neptu'nus,] the god of the sea, a 
 Roman divinity, identified with the Posei'don of the 
 Greek mythology. He was said to be a son of Saturn 
 and Rhea, the brother of Jupiter, and the father of Triton. 
 His wife was Amphitrite. He was regarded as equal in 
 dignity to Jupiter, but inferior in power. The poets 
 feigned that he once conspired with Apollo and Juno 
 against Jupiter, that he built the walls of Troy for Lao- 
 medon, and that he resented the perfidy of that king by 
 fighting against the Trojans at the siege of Troy. Nep- 
 tune and Minerva disputed for the possession of Attica, 
 or for the honour of naming its capital, and the gods 
 decided that the preference should be given to the one 
 who should bestow on man the most valuable gift. 
 Neptune, with a stroke of his trident, produced the war- 
 horse, and Minerva created the olive, which was judged 
 to be the more useful of the two. He is also fabled to 
 have disputed with Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva for the 
 sovereignty of several other countries. The symbol of 
 his power was the trident, with which he shook the solid 
 land and controlled the stormy sea. The poets describe 
 him as riding in a chariot drawn by horses on the surface 
 of the sea, the waves of which subside at his approach, 
 and attended by a retinue of marine monsters which 
 play around him. Besides his residence on Olympus, 
 he had a fine palace in the depth of the sea near jEgae. 
 
 Neptunus. See Neptune. 
 
 Nera'tius (ne-ra's'ne-ns) Pris'cus, a Roman jurist 
 under the reigns of Trajan and Adrian, whose favour 
 and patronage he enjoyed. He was the author of nume- 
 rous books on the Roman law, which have been often 
 quoted by later jurists. 
 
 See Sickel, "De Neratio Prisco," 1788. 
 
 Nerciat, de, deh neR'se'a',( Andre Robert Andrea,) 
 a French litterateur, born at Dijon in 1739. He wrote 
 several licentious novels. About 1790 he emigrated to 
 Naples, and gained the favour of Queen Caroline. Died 
 in 1 800. 
 
 Neree. See Nereus. 
 
 Neree, na'ra', (R. J.,) a French poet, lived in the 
 time of Henry IV., and wrote a drama entitled "The 
 Triumph of the League," (1607.) 
 
 Ne're-ids, |Gr. Nnpriifoc, sing. N??p«c ,• Lat. Nere'- 
 ides ; Fr. Nereides, na'ra'ed',] the daughters of Nereus, 
 were sea-nymphs or mermaids of Greek mythology. The 
 number of the Nereids was fifty. Among them were 
 Amphitrite and Thetis, the mother of Achilles. The Ne- 
 reids were represented originally as beautiful maidens, 
 and sometimes as half woman and half fish. 
 
 Ne're-is or Ne-rel-ne, a name given to each of the 
 Nereids, which see. 
 
 Ne'reus, [Gr. Ni/prff ; Fr. Ner£e, na'ra', [ a marine 
 divinity of classic mythology, called a son of Pontus and 
 the Earth, and the father of the Nereids. He was repre- 
 sented as a wise and prophetic old man of the sea, at the 
 bottom of which he lived. The poets feigned that he 
 could assume various forms, like Proteus, and would only 
 reveal the future when, having exhausted his powers of 
 transformation, he was reduced to his original shape. 
 Hercules is said to have seized him and extorted from 
 him some secret respecting the golden apples of the 
 Hesperides. 
 
 Neri. See Negri, (Pietro Martine.) 
 
 Nerl, na'tee, (Antonio,) an Italian chemist, born at 
 Florence, lived about 1570-90. He wrote a work "On 
 the Art of making Glass," (1592,) often reprinted. 
 
 Neri, [Lat. Nk'rius.j (Fiuppo,) called Saint Philip 
 Neri, an Italian ecclesiastic, born at Florence in 1515. 
 He founded about 1548 the Congregation of the Priests 
 of the Oratory, the members of which, without taking 
 a monastic vow, were required to live in the exer 
 cise of devotion and charity and apply themselves to 
 theological studies. He was the first to introduce the 
 musical entertainments called oratorios, from their being 
 performed in a chapel or oratorio. He died in 1595, 
 
 and Baronius, afterwards cardinal, succeeded him as 
 general of the order. Neri was canonized by Gregory 
 XV. in 1622. 
 
 See F. W. Faber, "Spirit and Genius of Saint Philip Neri," 
 1850; A. Gallonio, "Vita beati Philippi Nerii," Rome, 1600; 
 "Vita Ph. Nerii," Munich, 161 1 ; L. Bertrand, "Vida y Hechos 
 de S. Felipe Neri," 1613: P. G. Bacci, "Vita di S. Filippo Neri," 
 1622; A. Vasquez, "S. Felipe Neri Epitome de sua Vida,"i65i; 
 D. M. Manni, " Rajjgionamenti sulla Vita di F. Neri," 1786; "Vie 
 de Saint- Philippe de Neri," (anonymous,) 1847. 
 
 Neri, (Giamhattista,) an Italian dramatic poet, born 
 at Bologna about 1660; died in 1726. 
 
 Neri, (Pompeo,) an Italian jurist and political econo- 
 mist, of high reputation, was born at Florence in 1707. 
 He was professor of public law at Pisa, from which he 
 removed to Florence in 1758. He founded the Tuscan 
 Academy of Botany, and wrote on currency, etc. Died 
 in 1776. 
 
 See A. Ridoi.fi, " Elogio di P. Neri," 1817. 
 
 Nericault-Destouches. See Destouches. 
 
 Nerius. See Neri, (Filippo.) 
 
 Nerii, neVlee, (Filippo,) an Italian historian, born 
 at Florence in 1485, was a senator and an adherent of 
 the Medici. He wrote a " History of Florence from 
 1215 to 1537," which was first published in 1728. Died 
 in 1556. 
 
 See a "Life of Nerii" prefixed to his History. 
 
 Ne'ro, [Fr. Neron, na'r6N'; It. Nerone, nl-ro'na,] 
 (Lucius Domitius,) the sixth of the Roman emperors, 
 born in 37 A.D., was the son of Domitius Ahenobarbus 
 and Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus. His mother, 
 after becoming a widow, having married her uncle the 
 emperor Claudius, the latter adopted Nero and gave to 
 him his daughter Octavia in marriage, adding to his 
 name that of Claudius Drusus. On the death of Clau- 
 dius, who was poisoned by Agrippina, A.D. 54, Nero was 
 proclaimed emperor, to the exclusion of Britannicus, the 
 son of Claudius. The counsels of Seneca and Burrus, 
 who were placed at the head of government, had for a 
 time a salutary effect upon Nero, and the first years of 
 his rule were marked by kindness and justice ; but his 
 evil passions eventually prevailed, and the remainder of 
 his reign was signalized by a series of atrocities. Be- 
 coming jealous of Britannicus, he caused him to be 
 poisoned, and, having soon after formed an attachment 
 to Poppaea, murdered his mother at her instigation and 
 made her his wife. He next caused Octavia, whom he 
 had divorced, to be put to death. In A.D. 64 Rome was 
 nearly destroyed by a fire which Nero was accused of 
 having kindled. It was said that he amused himself, 
 while viewing the conflagration, with reciting verses 
 descriptive of the fall of Troy. In order to remove sus- 
 picion from himself, he charged the crime upon the 
 Christians, many of whom were in consequence subjected 
 to the most cruel tortures. A conspiracy formed against 
 the tyrant, A.D. 65, was discovered, and many distin- 
 guished citizens were executed, among whom were 
 Lucan and Seneca. Soon after this, Vindex and Galba 
 revolted against the emperor, who, on hearing of their 
 defection and that of the praetorian guards, destroyed 
 himself, with the assistance of a servant, A.D. 68. 
 
 See Tacitus, "Annales;" Suetonius, "Vita Neronis ;" Tii.le- 
 mont, " Histoire des Empereurs :" Mf.rivai.e, "History of the 
 Romans under the Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" 
 Denis Diderot, " Essai sur les Regnes de Claude et de Ne>on,' 
 2 vols., 1782. 
 
 Nero, a Roman prince, born about 7 A.D., was the 
 eldest son of Germanicus and Agrippina. After the 
 death of Drusus, the son of Tiberius, Nero was the next 
 heir to the throne. He was put to death in 29 A.D., at 
 the instigation of Sejanus, who contrived to excite the 
 suspicion of Tiberius against Nero. 
 
 Nero, del, dSI na'ro, or Negro, na'gRo, (Andalone,) 
 an Italian astronomer, born at Genoa about 1270. He 
 taught astronomy at Rome and Naples. He is highly 
 praised by Boccaccio, who was his pupil. Died after 
 1342. 
 
 See Ginguenr, " Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie." 
 
 Neron. See Nero. 
 
 Neroni, na-ro'nee, or Negroni, nl-gRo'nee, (Barto- 
 lommeo,) called Riccio, an Italian painter, born at 
 Sienna ; died in 1573. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. (Uy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NEROULOS 
 
 1666 
 
 NETTELBLADT 
 
 Neroulos, ne-roo'los, (Yakovakis Rizos,) a modem 
 Greek poet and minister of state, was born in Constan- 
 tinople in 1778. He wrote several tragedies, and a 
 "Modern History of Greece," (1828.) About 1834 he 
 became minister of public instruction in Greece, and in 
 1841 minister of foreign affairs. Died in 1850. 
 
 Nerva, (Cocceius.) See Cocceius. 
 
 Ner'va, (Marcus Cocceius,) a Roman emperor, born 
 in Umbria in 32 A.D. He was consul with Vespasian 
 in 71, and with Domitian in 90 A.D. On the death of 
 Domitian, in the year 96, he was proclaimed emperor by 
 the army and the people. His administration was mild 
 and liberal. He recalled exiles who had been banished 
 by former emperors, and enforced penalties against in- 
 formers. He made and performed a vow that he would 
 not put any senator to death. His mutinous praetorian 
 soldiers compelled him to permit the execution of the 
 assassins of Domitian. He adopted Trajan as his son 
 and successor, and died in 98 A.D. 
 
 See Xillsmont, " Histoire des Empereurs;" Aurelius Victor, 
 " De Viribus illustribus ;" F. J. de Barrett, " Histoire des deux 
 Regnes de Nerva et de Trajan," 1790. 
 
 Nerval, de, deh neVvtl', (Gerard,) or Gerard 
 Labrunie, (lS'bRu'ne',) a French littlrateur, born in 
 Paris in 1808. He made a good translation of Goethe's 
 "Faust," (182S,) wrote verses, comedies, etc., aided 
 Alexander Dumas in several works, and contributed to 
 the " Revue des Deux Mondes." He fell in love with 
 Jenny Colon, an actress, and became subject to a modi- 
 fied form of insanity, which did not much impair his 
 genius. Among his works is " Les Illumines, ou les 
 Precurseurs du Socialisme," (1852.) He died by sui- 
 cide in 1855. "That which he wrote," says fidouard 
 Thierry, " was simple and excellent, ingenious and 
 perfectly natural." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Nervesa, neR-va'si, (Gasparo,) an Italian painter of 
 the Venetian school, born in Friuli, was a pupil of Titian. 
 He lived about 1540. 
 
 Nes, van, vin nes, (Jan,) a skilful Dutch painter, 
 born at Delft in 1588; died in 1650. 
 
 Nes'bit or Nis'bet, (Alexander,) a Scottish anti- 
 quary, born in Edinburgh in 1672. He wrote a work 
 "On Heraldry," (2 vols., 1722-42.) Died in 1725. 
 
 Nesimee or Nesimi, nes'e-mee, a celebrated Turk- 
 ish philosopher and free-thinker, flourished in the fif- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Nesle, de. See Denesle. 
 
 Nesmond, de, deh nes'miN', (Henri,) a French 
 prelate and eloquent preacher, born at Bordeaux about 
 1645. He became Bishop of Montauban in 1687, and 
 Archbishop of Toulouse in 1719. In 1710 he succeeded 
 Flechier in the French Academy. He wrote agreeable 
 verses. Died in 1727. 
 
 See D'Alembbrt, "Histoire des Membres de PAcademie Fran- 
 chise." 
 
 Nesse, ness, (Christopher,) an English noncon- 
 formist minister, born in Yorkshire in 1621. Having 
 been ejected in 1662, he removed to London in 1675, 
 and preached in that city about thirty years. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "The History and Mystery of 
 the Old and New Testament," (4 vols., 1690.) Died 
 in 1705. 
 
 See Wilson, "History of Dissenting Churches." 
 
 Nessel, nes'sel, (Edmond,) a distinguished Flemish 
 physician, born at Liege in 1658; died in 1731. 
 
 Nessel, nes'sel, |I.at. Nesse'lius,] (Martin,) a Ger- 
 man teacher and Latin poet, born in Moravia in 1607 ; 
 died about 1680. 
 
 Nesselius. See Nessel. 
 
 Nesselrode, von, fon nes'sel-ro'deh, (Charles 
 Roiiert,) Count, a Russian diplomatist, of German 
 extraction, was born in December, 1780, at Lisbon, where 
 his father was Russian minister. He acquired in the 
 early part of his life the confidence of Alexander I., and 
 was sent to Paris as councillor of the embassy in 1807. 
 Soon after this date he obtained a high office in the de- 
 partment of foreign affairs. He took an important part 
 in the negotiations which united Russia and other powers 
 in a coalition against Napoleon. In 1816 he became 
 minister of foreign affairs. Having held that post forty 
 
 years, under three successive emperors, he resigned in 
 1856. Died in March, 1862. 
 
 See Capefigue, " Diplomates Europeans :" Thiers, " History 
 of the Consulate and the Empire ;" Bai.leydier, " Histoire de 
 1'Empereur Nicolas:" L. de Lomsnie, " M. de Nesselrode, par un 
 Homme de Rien," 1S44. 
 
 Nessi, nes'see, (GiusEprE,) an Italian physician, born 
 at Como in 1741. He wrote, besides other works, a 
 treatise on Obstetrics, which was translated into several 
 languages. Died in 1821. 
 
 Nes'sus, [Gr. Neo-ooc,] a Centaur, who, according to 
 the fable, attempted to ravish Dejanira, the wife of Her- 
 cules, by whom he was killed with a poisoned arrow. 
 The tunic of Nessus was said to have caused the death 
 of Hercules. 
 
 Nes'tor, [Gr. Neorwp; It. Nestorb, nes-to'ra,] a 
 celebrated Grecian hero, said to have been a son of 
 Neleus, a grandson of Neptune, and a king of Pylos, 
 was sometimes called " the Pylian Sage." According 
 to tradition, he was an intimate friend of Hercules, took 
 part in the battle of the Lapithse against the Centaurs, 
 in the Calydonian hunt, and in the Argonautic expe- 
 dition. He was a prominent leader in the Trojan war, 
 although he was then past his prime ; and he was highly 
 esteemed as a counsellor by Agamemnon and the other 
 chiefs. He is described by Homer as excelling alike in 
 courage, wisdom, and eloquence, and is said to have 
 ruled over three generations of men. He had several 
 sons, among whom was Antilochus. 
 
 Nestor, neVtor, a Russian chronicler, called " the 
 father of Russian history," was born at Kief about 1056. 
 Several editions of his " Chronicle" have been pub- 
 lished, the best of which is that of Schlozer, entitled 
 " Russian Annals," (" Russischer Annalen," 1802.) Died 
 about 1 1 16. 
 
 See Pogodine, " Recherches historiques sur Nestor," 1839; 
 Gretch. " Essai sur 1'Histoire de la Litterature Russe." 
 
 Nestore, nes-to'ra, (Dionisio,) an Italian scholar 
 of the fifteenth century, a native of Novara, was the 
 author of a vocabulary of the Latin tongue, entitled 
 " Onomasticon." 
 
 Nes-to'rI-us, the founder of the sect of Nestorians, 
 was born at Germanicia, in Syria, near the end of the 
 fourth century. Having become a popular preacher, he 
 was elected Patriarch of Constantinople in 428 a.d. He 
 occasioned a schism by objecting to call the Virgin 
 Mary the mother A/" God. The dispute was fomented by 
 C\/ril of Alexandria, who became a violent adversary 
 ot Nestorius. A council was called at Ephesus by the 
 emperor Theodosius in 431 ; and, before the arrival of 
 John of Antioch and several other bishops, Nestorius 
 was deposed, on a charge of blasphemy. He was after- 
 wards banished to an oasis in Egypt. The Nestorians 
 became numerous in the East, and still exist as a dis- 
 tinct sect in Koordistan and Mesopotamia. 
 
 See Pluquet, " Dictionnaire des Heresies ;" Sartorius, "De 
 Nestorio Ha?resiarcha ;" L. Doucin, " Histoire du Nestorianisme," 
 1697. 
 
 Netscher, net'sher, (Constantin,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at the Hague in 1670, was a son of the following. 
 He painted portraits with success. Died in 1722. 
 
 Netscher, net'sher, (Kaspar,) an eminent German 
 painter, born at Heidelberg in 1639. He excelled in 
 portraits and conversation-pieces, and imitated to per- 
 fection the lustre of velvet and satin. He is regarded 
 as equal in most points to Terburg and Douw. Died 
 in 1684. His sons, Constantin and Theodore, were 
 likewise good portrait-painters. 
 
 SeeDESCAMPS, "Vies des Peintres Allemands, Hollandais,"etc. ; 
 Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres ;" J. C. Weyerman, " De 
 Schilderkonst der Nederlanders." 
 
 Netscher, [Fr. pron. neVshaiV,] (Theodore,) a por- 
 trait-painter, son of the preceding, was born at Bor- 
 deaux about 1664. He worked in Paris and London. 
 Died in 1732. 
 
 See Descamps, II Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Nettelbladt, net'tel-blat', (Daniel,) a German jurist, 
 born at Rostock in 1719, became director of the Uni- 
 versity of Halle. He wrote, among other works, a " Sys- 
 tem of Universal Natural Jurisprudence." Died in 1791. 
 
 See " Biographie des Raths Nettelbladt," Halle, 1791. 
 
 2. e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
NETTELBLJDT 
 
 1667 
 
 NEV1L 
 
 Nettelbladt, von, fon net'tel-blat', sometimes writ- 
 •en Nettlebladt, (Christian,) Baron, a Swedish jurist, 
 Dorn at Stockholm in 1696; died in 1775. 
 
 Nettement, ncYinftN ', (Ai.frkd Francois,) a French 
 journalist, born in Paris in 1805. He published, besides 
 other works, a "History of the Revolution of July, 1830," 
 (2 vols., 1833,) and a "History of French Literature 
 under the Reign of Louis Philippe," (2 vols., 1854.) 
 
 Net'ter, (Thomas,) surnamed Wai.densis, an Eng- 
 lish monk, noted as an opponent of Wickliff. He was 
 privy councillor and confessor to Henry V. He wrote 
 several theological works. Died in 1430. 
 
 Nettleton, net'tel-ton, (Asahel,) D.D., an American 
 divine, born at Killingworth, Connecticut, in 1783, was 
 distinguished as a preacher and revivalist. Died in 1844. 
 
 See Rev. Robert Steel, " Burning and Shining Lights," Lon- 
 don, 1S64. 
 
 Neubauer, noi'lx>w'er> (Ernst Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man Protestant minister and writer, born at Magdeburg 
 in 1705 ; died about 1748. 
 
 Neubauer, (Franz Christian,) a German musician 
 and composer, born in Bohemia in 1760; died in 1795. 
 
 Neubeck, noi'bek, (Valerius Wii.helm,) a German 
 poet and physician, born at Arnstadt in 1765, was the 
 author of a poem entitled " The Fountains of Health, 
 or Mineral Springs," ("Die Gesundbrunnen," 1794,) 
 esteemed one of the best didactic poems in the German 
 language. He practised for many years at Steinau. Died 
 in 1850. 
 
 See Schlf.gel, " Charaktere und Kritiken ;" Longfellow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Neuenar, von, fon noi'en-aR', [Lat. Nuena'rius or 
 Nkvkna'kius,] (Hermann,) Count, a learned German 
 prelate, born in the duchy of Juliers in 1491. He was 
 a patron of literature, and wrote various works. Died 
 in 1530. 
 
 Neufchateau. See Francois df. NeufchXtf.au. 
 
 Neuhauss, van, vSn noi'howss, [Lat. Neuhu'sius,] 
 (Edon,) a German scholar and writer, born at Steinfurt, 
 in Westphalia, in 1581. Among his works are "Manes 
 Nassovii,"a poem, (1620,) and "Fatidica Sacra," (1635- 
 48.) Died in 1638. 
 
 See Reiner Neuhusius, "Vita E. Neuhusii," 1677. 
 
 Neuhauss, van, (Rf.gnier,) a poet and philologist, 
 born at Leeuwarden in 1618, was a son of the preceding. 
 Died about 1 680. 
 
 Netihof, noi'hof, (Theodor,) Baron of, a German 
 adventurer, born in Westphalia. In 1735 he was in- 
 vited by the Corsicans, at that time oppressed by the 
 Genoese, to assume the chief power in their country, 
 and the following year was crowned king. Being un- 
 able, however, to maintain himself against the Genoese 
 and French, he took refuge in England, where he died 
 in 1756. 
 
 Neuhusius. See Neuhauss. 
 
 Neukirch, noi'ke"SRK, (Benjamin,) a German poet, 
 born in Silesia in 1665. He published "Select Poems," 
 satires, and a poetical translation of Fenelon's "Tele- 
 maque." Died in 1729. 
 
 Neukomm, von, fon noi'kom, (Sigismund,) a Ger- 
 man musician and composer, born at Saltzburg in 1778, 
 was a pupil of the celebrated Haydn. He passed several 
 years in Paris in the service of Talleyrand. He was an 
 excellent organist. He composed a number of oratorios, 
 operas, and other works. Among his master-pieces are 
 the oratorios of "David" and "Mount Sinai." Died 
 in 1858. 
 
 _ See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge'nc'rale." 
 
 Neumann, noi'man, (Balthasar,) a German archi- 
 tect, born at Eger in 1687. He designed many churches 
 and palaces. Died in 1753. 
 
 Neumann, (Caspar,) a German theologian and He- 
 brew scholar, born at Breslau in 1648. He wrote " Gene- 
 sis Lingua; Sancta: Veteris Testamenti," (1696,) "Pith 
 or Marrow of all Prayers," ("Kern aller Gebete,") and 
 Mher works. Died in 1 715. 
 
 See Tacken, " Leben Neumanns," 1741. 
 
 Neumann, (Franz Ernst,) a German natural philos- 
 opher, born in Ukermark in 1798. He became professor 
 
 of physics at Konigsberg in 1826, and gained distinction 
 by his researches in crystallography, the theory of light, 
 etc. 
 
 Neumann, (Friedrich Wii.helm,) a German poet 
 and litterateur, born in Berlin in 1787. He was asso- 
 ciated with his friend Varnhagen von Ense in the com- 
 position of the "Almanac of the Muses," and other 
 works. He translated Macchiavelli's " History of Flor- 
 ence." Died in 1834, 
 
 Neumann, (Johann Georg,) a German Lutheran 
 theologian, born at Hertz, near Merseburg, in 1661. He 
 was professor of theology at Wittenberg. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Schonhach, "Vita Neumanni," 1716. 
 
 Neumann, (Karl Friedrich,) a German Orientalist 
 and historian, born near Bamberg in 1798. He published 
 numerous works, among which are " Asiatic Studies," 
 (1837,) a "History of the British Empire in India," 
 (2 vols., 1857,) and a " History of the United States," 
 (Berlin, 3 vols., 1865.) Died in March, 1870. 
 
 Neumann, (Karl Georg,) a German medical writer 
 and poet, born at Gera in 1774. He became professor 
 of medicine in Berlin in 1818. Among his works is 
 "Specielle Pathologie uid Therapie," (4 vols., 1837.) 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Neumann, (Kaspar, 1 a German chemist, born in 
 1682 or 1683, became prolessor of chemistry in the Royal 
 College of Berlin. He w>ote a number of scientific treat- 
 ises, which were translated into English. He was a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1737. 
 
 See F. Hokfer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Neumark, noi'maRk (Georg,) a German poet and 
 musician, born at Muhlhausen (Thuringia) in 1621. He 
 was living in great deslitution at Hamburg, when his 
 talents attracted the notii e of Rosenkrantz, the Swedish 
 ambassador, who made him his secretary. He after- 
 wards became librarian and secretary of the archives at 
 Weimar, where he died in 1681. He is chiefly celebrated 
 for the beautiful hymn " Wer nur den lieben Gott lasst 
 walten," a translation of which is to be found in the 
 " Lvra Germanica." 
 
 Neumayr von Flessen-Seilbitz, noi'mtn fon flSs'- 
 sen sil'blts, (Anton,) a German critic and able writer on 
 art, was born in Vienna in 1772. He passed many years 
 in Italy, and wrote, in Italian, besides other works, a 
 "Historical and Critical Memoir on Painting," (1811,) 
 "The German Artists," (6 vols., 1819-23,) and a "Life 
 of Albert Diirer," (1823.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Neureuther, noi'roi'ter, (Eugf.n,) an eminent Ger- 
 man designer, born at Munich in 1806. Among his works 
 are illustrations of the poems of Goethe, Wieland, and 
 other German authors. 
 
 Neuville. See Hyde df. Neuville. 
 
 Neuville.de, deh nuh'vel',(CHARi.F.s FREY,)a French 
 Jesuit, eminent as a pulpit orator, born in the diocese of 
 Coutances in 1693 ; died in 1774. 
 
 Neuvill6, de, deh nuh've'ya', (Didier Pierre Chi- 
 canau,) a French writer, born at Nancy in 1720. He 
 published "The Philosophic Dictionary," (1 75 1,) and 
 other works. Died in 1 781. 
 
 Nevenarius. See Neuenar. 
 
 Nevers, de, deh neh-vaiR', (Louis de Gonzague — 
 deh g6N'zig',) Due, a French commander, born in 
 1539. He fought against the Huguenots in the civil 
 war, and in the reign of Henry III. was one of the 
 chiefs of the League. In 1590 he entered the service of 
 Henry IV., who gave him command of an army. Died 
 
 in 1595- 
 
 See Turpin, " Histoire de Louis de Gonzague," 1789: Bran- 
 t6mr, " Vies des grands Capitaines." 
 
 Nevers, de, (Philippe Jui.if.n Mancini Mazarini,) 
 Due, born in Rome in 1641, was a nephew of Cardinal 
 Mazarin, and a brother of Hortense Mancini. He en- 
 joyed the favour of I/uiis XIV., who appointed him 
 lieutenant-general of Nivernais. He wrote agreeable 
 verses, and was noticed by Voltaire in his Catalogue 
 of the writers of the age of Louis XIV. Died in 1707. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Me'moires." 
 
 Neveu, neh-vi!h',(MATTHiAS,) a skilful Dutch painter, 
 born at I,eyden in 1647, was a pupil of Gerard Douw 
 Died after 17 18. 
 
 NeviL See Neville. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NEF1LE 
 
 i668 
 
 NEWMAN 
 
 Nevile or Nevyle, nSv'il, (Alexander,) an English 
 classical scholar, born in Kent in 1544, was secretary to 
 Archbishop Parker. His paraphrase of the "CEdipus" 
 of Seneca is highly eulogized by Warton, Died in 1614. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry.'* 
 
 Nevile or Neville, (Henry,) an English writer, born 
 in 1620, embraced the republican cause, and became a 
 member of the council of state, but resigned on the 
 usurpation of Cromwell. He was the author of " Plato 
 Redivivus, or a Dialogue concerning Government." 
 Died in 1694. 
 
 See Wood. "Athena; Oxonienses.** 
 
 Neville, (Richard Cornwallis.) See Braybrooke, 
 Lord. 
 
 Neville, neVil, (Richard Griffin,) Baron Bray- 
 brooke, an English antiquary, born in Berkshire in 1783. 
 He edited the "Diary of Samuel Pepys," (1825.) This 
 was the first edition of that work ever printed. Died 
 in 1S58. 
 
 Neville or Nevil, (Thomas,) an English theologian, 
 born at Canterbury. He became a Fellow of Pembroke 
 Hall, Cambridge, in 1570, master of Trinity College in 
 1 593, anc ' D ean °' Canterbury in 1597. He expended 
 ^3000 or more on a building for Trinity College, called 
 Nevil's Court. Died in 1615. 
 
 Nev'in, (John Williamson,) D.D., an American 
 Presbyterian divine and theological writer, born in 
 Franklin county, Pennsylvania, in 1803. He became 
 president of the theological seminary at Mercersburg in 
 1841. He has published "The Anxious Bench," (1843,) 
 "The Mystical Presence," (1846,) and "Anti-Christ, or 
 the Spirit of Sect and Schism," (1848,) and translated 
 several theological works from the German. He was 
 editor for a time of the "Mercersburg Review." 
 
 Nevizan, na-ved-zan' or nev-e-zan', (Giovanni,) an 
 Italian jurist, born at Asti. He published " Sylvae Nup- 
 tialis Libri sex," (1521,) a curious work, often reprinted. 
 Died in 1540. 
 
 Newborough or Newburgh, nu'bur-eh, [Lat. Neu- 
 brigensis,] (William of,) an English chronicler, born 
 in Yorkshire in 1136, wrote a "History of England," 
 (in Latin,) beginning with the Norman conquest and 
 brought down to 1 197. 
 
 Newcastle. See Cavendish, (William.) 
 
 Newcastle, nii-kas'el, (Henry Pelham Clinton,) 
 Duke of, born in London in 1811, was the eldest son 
 of Henry, Duke of Newcastle. He was styled Earl of 
 Lincoln until the death of his father, (1851,) and entered 
 Parliament in 1832. For a short time in 1846 he was 
 chief secretary for Ireland. In 1852 he became secretary 
 for the colonies in Lord Aberdeen's coalition ministry. 
 He was appointed secretary of war in 1854. As war 
 minister he was so much censured for the discomforts 
 and disasters of the army in the Crimea in 1854 that he 
 resigned, or was removed, in 1855. In June, 1859, he 
 accepted office as colonial secretary in the Liberal min- 
 istry of Palmerston. He was the attendant and chief 
 counsellor of the Prince of Wales in his visit to Canada 
 and the United States in i860. Died in 1864. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for December, 1864. 
 
 Newcastle, (Henry Pelham Fiennes Pelham 
 Clinton,) fourth Duke of, an English peer, born in 
 1785. He inherited the title of duke at the death of his 
 father. He was a Tory, and an opponent of the Reform 
 bill of 1832. He died in 1851, leaving a son, Henry, 
 fifth Duke of Newcastle. 
 
 Newcastle, (Thomas Pelham,) Duke of, an Eng- 
 lish Whig minister of state, born in 1693, was the eldest 
 son of Sir Thomas Pelham, of Sussex. His mother was 
 a sister of John Hollis, Duke of Newcastle, who, dying 
 in 171 1, left a princely fortune to the subject of this article. 
 In 1715 he was created Duke of Newcastle, and in 1724 
 appointed secretary of state. In 1754 he was promoted 
 to the office of first lord of the treasury, (or premier,) 
 which was then vacated by the death of his brother, 
 Henry Pelham. He resigned reluctantly in November, 
 17-56, and, after a ministerial crisis, formed a coalition 
 with Pitt, and was again prime minister, or co-ordinate 
 chief minister, from 1757 until May, 1762, wh .11 Lord 
 Bute became premier. " His love of influence," says 
 
 Macaulay, (in his Review of Walpole's "Letters to 
 Horace Mann,") "was so intense a passion that it sup- 
 plied the place of talents, that it inspired even fatuity 
 with cunning. .". . All the able men of his time ridiculed 
 him as a dunce, a driveller, a child who never knehv his 
 own mind for an hour together ; and he overreached them 
 all round." He died, without issue, in 1768, when the 
 title passed to Henry Clinton, Earl of Lincoln, who had 
 married a daughter and heiress of Henry Pelham. 
 
 See Macaulay, Review of Thackeray's " History of Lord Chat- 
 ham," 1834. 
 
 Newcomb, nu'kum, (Thomas,) an English poet, 
 born in 1675, became rector of Stopham, in Sussex, 
 about 1734. He wrote, besides other poems, "The 
 Library," (1718,) and "The Last Judgment," (1723.) 
 Died about 1766. 
 
 New'cpme, (Peter,) an English clergyman, born in 
 1656, was vicar of Aldenham, in Hertfordshire. He pub- 
 lished several volumes of sermons, etc. Died in 1738. 
 
 Newcome, (William,) a learned prelate and eminent 
 biblical scholar, born in Bedfordshire in 1729. He be- 
 came successively Bishop of Ossory and of Waterford, 
 in Ireland, and in 1795 Archbishop of Armagh. He 
 was the author of a " Historical View of the English 
 Biblical Translations," and " Harmony of the Gospels," 
 (1778.) Died in 1800. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for October, 1779. 
 
 New-com'en, (Matthew,) an English nonconform- 
 ist, was a member of the Westminster Assembly of 
 divines. He was one of the five persons who wrote 
 " Smectymnus," a controversial work against Bishop 
 Hall. Died at Leyden in 1666. 
 
 Newcommen or Newcomen, nu-kom'en, (Thom- 
 as,) an English locksmith, born in Devonshire, was one 
 of the inventors of the steam-engine. In 1705 New- 
 commen and Cawley (a glazier of that place) obtained 
 a patent for an engine combining for the first time the 
 cylinder and piston, with a separate boiler. The steam 
 admitted below the piston was condensed by the applica- 
 tion of cold water, and the pressure of the atmosphere, 
 forcing down the piston, moved a working-beam, to one 
 end of which a pump-rod was attached. This engine was 
 much used in mines. 
 
 See. J. Robison, "System of Mechanical Philosophy." 
 
 New'dl-gate, (Sir Roger,) an English gentleman of 
 fine taste and classical attainments, born in Warwick- 
 shire in 1719. He was for many years representative 
 in Parliament for the University of Oxford. He was a 
 generous patron of that institution, to which he gave the 
 Florentine Museum, Piranesi's works, and the cande- 
 labra in the Radcliffe Library. Died in 1780. 
 
 New'ell, (Harriet,) wife of Samuel Newell, noticed 
 below, was born at Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1793. 
 She accompanied her husband to India in 1812, and died 
 soon after their arrival. Her "Memoirs" were written 
 by Dr. Woods, of Andover. 
 
 New'ell, (Robert Hassell,) an English clergyman, 
 born in 1780. He edited the works of Oliver Gold- 
 smith, (1811,) and wrote "The Zoology of the British 
 Poets corrected," etc., (1845.) Died in 1852. 
 
 Newell, (Samuel,) an American missionary, born 
 at Durham, Maine, in 1784. Having graduated at Har- 
 vard College, he was ordained in 1812, and soon alter 
 set sail for Calcutta, accompanied by the Rev. Adoniram 
 Judson. He published, conjointly with Mr. Hall, " The 
 Conversion of the World, or the Claims of Six Hun- 
 dred Millions," (1818.) Died in 1821. 
 
 New'land, (John,) an English monk and diplomatist, 
 was abbot' of a monastery at Bristol. He was employed 
 by Henry VIII. in diplomatic missions. Died in 1515. 
 
 New'land, [Dutch, Nieuwland, nyo'lant,] (Peter,) 
 a Dutch mathematician and poet, born near Amsterdam 
 in 1764. He wrote, besides other works, a " Treatise on 
 Navigation." Died in 1794. 
 
 New'man, (Francis W.,) an English author, brother 
 of John Henry, noticed below, was born in London in 
 1805. He was educated at Oxford, and, after he left col- 
 lege, passed three years in the Turkish empire, (1830- 
 33.) In 1840 he became professor of languages at Man- 
 chester New College. He was appointed professor of 
 Latin in University College, London, in 1846. Among 
 
 i, e, T, o, it, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mjt; n6t; good; moon: 
 
NEWMAN 
 
 1669 
 
 NEWTON 
 
 his principal works are a " History of the Hebrew Mon- 
 archy," (1847,) "The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspira- 
 tions," (1849,) and " Phases of Faith, or Passages from 
 the History of myCreed," (1850.) His religious opinions 
 differ widely from those of his brother and from those 
 of the orthodox churches. In 1856 he produced a 
 metrical translation of Homer's " Iliad." 
 
 See " Westminster Review" for October, 1858. 
 
 Newman, (John Henry,) an eminent English theo- 
 logian, born in London in 1801. He entered Trinity 
 College, Oxford, in 1816, and was elected a Fellow of 
 Oriel College in 1822. At Oriel College he formed a 
 friendship with John Keble the poet, and with Dr. 
 Whately. He was ordained a priest in 1824, and became 
 vice-principal of Alban Hall in 1825, and a tutor of 
 Oriel College in 1826. In 1S28 he was appointed vicar 
 of Saint Mary's, Oxford, and of Littlemore. In 1833 
 Newman, Keble, and Pusey initiated the "Oxford move- 
 ment" in favour of High-Church doctrines, which they 
 advocated in a series of "Tracts for the Times." He 
 manifested a growing tendency to Roman Catholicism 
 in his " Arians of the Fourth Century : their Doctrines, 
 Temper, and Conduct," (1833,) his "Tract No. 90," 
 (1841,) and his "Essay on the Development of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine." He became a member of the Roman 
 Catholic Church in 1845, and was the principal of the 
 Oratory of Saint Philip Neri at Birmingham from 1848 
 to 1852. In the latter year he was fined one hundred 
 pounds for a libel on Dr. Achilli. He defended or ex- 
 plained his religious course in a work entitled "Apology 
 for his Life," ("Apologia pro Vita sua," 1864.) 
 
 See, also, Jules Gondon, "Notice biographique sur le P. New- 
 man." 1K53; "London Quarterly Review" for March, 1S46. and 
 
 * 1 ^iA j ■ ** l*Vic»r'c \T nmfim*' * ft\r Q* 
 
 October. 1864: 
 British Review' 
 
 Fraser's Magazine' 
 for August, 1864. 
 
 for 
 
 for September, 1864 ; 
 
 ' Nortll 
 
 New'port, (Christopher,) an Englishman, com- 
 manded the vessels which in 1606 conveyed the party 
 of emigrants that first settled at Jamestown, Virginia. 
 
 Newport, (GEORGE,) F.R.S., an English comparative 
 anatomist and entomologist, born at Canterbury in 1803. 
 He practised medicine, and devoted much time to the 
 stuclv of the anatomy and physiology of insects, on which 
 subjects he contributed to the " Philosophical Trans- 
 actions" a number of memoirs. One of these was " On 
 the Nervous System of the Sphinx." He was elected 
 president of the Entomological Society in 1844. Died 
 in 1S54. 
 
 Newport, (Sir John,) an Irish Whig politician, bom 
 at Waterford about 1760. He became a member of 
 Parliament in 1803, and controller of the exchequer. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 New'ton, (Gilbert STUART,)a distinguished painter, 
 of English extraction, born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 
 1794. He painted numerous small pictures of great 
 merit, among which we may name "Shylock and Jes- 
 sica" and " Portia and Bassanio." Died in 1835. 
 
 Newton, (Sir Isaac,) an illustrious English philoso- 
 pher and mathematician, born at Woolsthorpe, in Lin- 
 colnshire, on the 25th of December, 1642, (Old Style.) 
 He was the posthumous and only child of Isaac Newton, 
 a fanner, who died in 1642. His mother, whose original 
 name was Hannah Ayscough, was married again to the 
 Rev. Barnabas Smith in 1645. He attended the schools 
 of Skillington and Stoke for several years, and about 
 the age of twelve entered the grammar-school of Grant- 
 ham. There he manifested much mechanical ingenuity 
 by the construction of a windmill, a water-clock, a sun- 
 dial, and other pieces of mechanism. He also wrote 
 verses in his boyhood. He entered Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, as a sub-sizar, in June, 1661, before which 
 date it does not appear that he had been a profound 
 student of mathematics. It has been stated that he 
 commenced the study of Euclid's " Elements," but he 
 found the first propositions so self-evident that he threw 
 the book aside as too trifling. "When Newton entered 
 Trinity College," says Brewster, "he brought with him 
 a more slender portion of science than at his age falls 
 to the lot of ordinary scholars." Among the works 
 which he first studied at Cambridge were the "Optics" 
 of Kepler and the "Geometry" of Descartes. In 1664 he 
 read Wallis's " Arithmetics Infinitorum," and discovered 
 
 the method of infinite series, or the binomial theorem, 
 which enabled him to compute the area of curves and 
 to solve with ease problems which before were insoluble 
 or very difficult. He took the degree of B.A. in 1665, 
 and discovered the differential calculus, or method of 
 fluxions, probably in the same year. This important 
 method of mathematical investigation was discovered 
 by Leibnitz about the same time, and before Newton 
 had published anything on the subject. A controversy 
 arose between the English and foreign mathematicians 
 about the priority of the discovery. Sir David Brewster 
 gives this decision of the question : 1. That Newton 
 was the first inventor of the method of 'fluxions ; that 
 the method was incomplete in its notation, and "that the 
 fundamental principle of it was not published to the 
 world till 1687. 2. That Leibnitz communicated his 
 differential calculus to Newton in 1677, with a complete 
 system of notation, and that he published it in 1684. 
 
 As a precaution against the plague, he retired from 
 Cambridge to his native place in the summer of 1665. 
 He then and there began to speculate on the subject of 
 gravity. It was in the autumn of 1665 that the apple 
 which suggested to him the idea of gravitation is said to 
 have fallen from the tree at Woolsthorpe. " When sitting 
 alone in the garden," says Brewster, "and speculating 
 on the power of gravity, it occurred to him that as the 
 same power by which the apple fell to the ground was 
 not sensibly diminished at the greatest distance from the 
 centre of the earth to which we can reach, ... it might 
 extend to the moon and retain her in her orbit in the 
 same manner as it bends into a curve a stone or cannon- 
 ball when projected in a straight line from the surface 
 of the earth." He arrived at the conclusion that the 
 force of gravity by which the planets were retained in 
 their orbits varied as the squares of their distances from 
 the sun ; but, not being prepared to verify this hypothe- 
 sis, he abandoned or deferred the subject for many years. 
 
 He returned to Cambridge in 1666, and applied him- 
 self to the grinding of optic glasses, and began to study 
 the subject of colours in connection with the prismatic 
 spectrum. He was elected a Minor Fellow in October, 
 1667, and took his degree of M. A. in March, 1668, as 
 twenty-third on the list of one hundred and forty-eight 
 graduates. He made a small reflecting telescope in 166S, 
 and succeeded Dr. Barrow, as Lucasian professor of 
 mathematics, in 1669. About this date he made the grand 
 discovery that light is not homogeneous, but consists of rays 
 of different refrangibility. He also perceived that this 
 different refrangibility was the real cause of the imper- 
 fection of refracting telescopes. In 1671 he constructed 
 with his own hands a second reflecting telescope, which 
 is preserved in the library of the Royal Society. New- 
 ton read a course of lectures on optics, at Cambridge, in 
 1669, 1670, and 1671. He was the author of the theory 
 of light called the Emission theory, according to which 
 light is composed of, or produced by, material particles 
 of inconceivable minuteness, emitted by luminous bodies 
 in all directions. On this subject he was involved in a 
 controversy with Hooke and Huygens, who maintained 
 the undulatory theory. In a letter to Leibnitz, dated 
 December 9, 1675, he writes, " I was so persecuted with 
 discussions arising out of my theory of light, that I 
 blamed my own imprudence for parting with so sub- 
 stantial a blessing as my quiet to run after a shadow." 
 He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in Januaiy, 
 1672. In December, 1675, he communicated to that 
 body a discourse entitled a "Theory of Light and Col- 
 ours." "The theory of Newton," says Sir John Herschel, 
 "gives a complete and elegant explanation of what may 
 be considered the chief of all optical facts, — the produc- 
 tion of colours in the ordinary refraction of light by a 
 prism, the discovery of which by him marks one of the 
 greatest epochs in the annals of experimental science." 
 (" Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Phi- 
 losophy.") His optical discoveries are described in a 
 work entitled " Opticks, or a Treatise on the Reflexions, 
 Refractions, Inflexions, and Colours of Light," which 
 w;is published in 1704, but written many years earlier. 
 "To avoid being engaged in disputes about these mat- 
 ters," <gm% the author, " I have hitherto delayed the 
 printing." The only other optical work by Newton was 
 
 e as *; c as s, g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (E^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NEWTON 
 
 1670 
 
 NEWTON 
 
 his "Lectiones Opticae," (1728,) which contains the lec- 
 tures he read at Cambridge in 1669-7 1. . 
 
 Newton had abandoned the subject of gravity in 1665, 
 after an attempt to verify his theory by a calculation 
 which failed because he had employed an erroneous 
 measure of the earth's radius. About 1684 he resumed 
 his inquiries and calculations in relation to the moon, 
 and employed Picard's more accurate measure of the 
 earth's diameter. He thus demonstrated the great truth 
 that the orbit of the moon is curved by\the same force 
 which causes bodies to fall on the surface of the earth. 
 According to a doubtful tradition, he became so much 
 agitated as his calculations drew to a close, that he was 
 obliged to ask a friend to finish them. "This anec- 
 dote is not supported by what is known of Newton's 
 character." (Brewster's "Life of Newton.") He an- 
 nounced this discovery to the Royal Society in 1685 by 
 his treatise " De Motu." This was the germ ot his 
 greatest work, the "Principia," (composed in 1685-86,) 
 which Laplace regarded as "pre-eminent above all 
 other productions of the human intellect." The full 
 title of this work, which was published by the Royal 
 Society or by Halley in 1687, is "The Mathematical 
 Principles of Natural Philosophy," (" Philosophise Na- 
 turalis Principia Mathematical') It consists of three 
 Books, of which the first and second are entitled "On 
 the Motion of Bodies," and the third " On the System 
 of the World." " The great discovery," says Brewster, 
 "which characterizes the ' Principia' is that of the prin- 
 ciple of universal gravitation, thai every particle of matter 
 in the universe is attracted by, or gravitates to, every other 
 particle 0/ matter, with a force inversely proportional to the 
 squares of their distances." 
 
 " The glory of these men," says Macaulay, referring to 
 Wallis and Halley, " is cast into the shade by the tran- 
 scendent lustre of one immortal name. In Isaac New- 
 ton two kinds of intellectual power, which have little in 
 common, and which are not often found together in a 
 very high degree of vigour, but which nevertheless are 
 equally necessary in the most sublime departments of 
 natural philosophy, were united as they have never been 
 united before or since. ... In no other mind have 
 the demonstrative faculty and the inductive faculty coex- 
 isted in such supreme excellence and perfect harmony." 
 ("History of England," vol. i. chap, iii.) 
 
 In 1687 James II. sent an illegal mandamus to the 
 University of Cambridge, directing that a certain monk 
 should be admitted a master of arts without taking the 
 oath of allegiance. Newton took an active and influen- 
 tial part in defending the privileges of the university on 
 this occasion. He represented Cambridge in the Con- 
 vention Parliament, January, i6So-February, 1690, and 
 maintained the principles of civil and religious liberty 
 in that critical period of revolution. In 1689 he became 
 acquainted with John Locke, with whom he associated 
 on friendly terms and corresponded until his, death. 
 Newton, though satiated with fame, had gained no pecu- 
 niary benefit by his writings, and had received no mark 
 of national gratitude for his discoveries. Locke and 
 Charles Montague endeavoured to procure for him some 
 y permanent appointment, but without success. 
 
 In 1692 and 1693 he wrote to Bentley four celebrated 
 letters on the formation of the sun and the planets, etc., 
 in which he affirms that the motions of the planets 
 could not be produced by any natural cause alone, 
 but were impressed by an intelligent agent and Divine 
 power. A report was circulated, chiefly on the conti- 
 nent, that Newton was insane, about 1692. The story 
 that his precious manuscripts were burned through the 
 agency of his little dog Diamond, seems to be equally 
 unfounded. "He never had any communion with dogs 
 or cats." (Brewster.) 
 
 In 1694 Newton was occupied by researches on the 
 lunar theory, and obtained from Flamsteed his observa- 
 tions on the moon. Letters were exchanged between 
 them in relation to these observations, which became the 
 occasion of an intemperate and discreditable controversy. 
 Newton was appointed warden of the mint in 1695 or 
 1696 by his friend Montague, Earl of Halifax, who had 
 resolved on an important scheme of re-coinage of clipped 
 and debased coin. The salary of this office was about | 
 
 j£6oo. In 1699 he was promoted to be master of the 
 mint, with a salary of from j£i2O0 to ^1500. In 1703 he 
 was returned to Parliament by the University of Cam- 
 bridge, and was elected President of the Royal Society. 
 He continued until his death to occupy the latter po- 
 sition, to which he was annually re-elected. He was 
 knighted by Queen Anne in 1705. Among his important 
 works are "The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms 
 Amended," (1728,) and "Observations upon the Pro- 
 phecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of Saint John," 
 (first published in 1733.) "That the greatest philoso- 
 pher of which any age can boast," says Brewster, " was 
 a sincere and humble believer in the leading doctrines 
 of our religion and lived conformably to its precepts, 
 has been justly regarded as a proud triumph of the 
 Christian faith." Newton's religious opinions, however, 
 were not strictly orthodox : like Milton, he appears to 
 have had a decided leaning towards Arianism. 
 
 Newton was never married. His latter years were 
 passed in London, where he lived in a handsome style 
 and kept six servants. He was extremely generous and 
 liberal in the use of money, for which he is said to have 
 had a great contempt. On one occasion he offered Dr. 
 Cheselden, as a fee, a handful of guineas out of his coat- 
 pocket. He was often so absorbed in meditation that 
 he forgot to eat, and it was necessary, for his servants 
 to remind him of his meals. He died at Kensington on 
 the 20th of March, 1727, and was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey. His collected works were published by Bishop 
 Horsley in 5 vols. 4to, (1779-85.) 
 
 Near the end of his life he said, " I know not what £ 
 may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have 
 been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore and 
 diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother 
 pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great 
 ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me." 
 
 "Though there be few," says Dr. Chalmers, "who 
 comprehend or follow Newton in his gigantic walk, yet 
 all may participate in his triumphant feeling when he 
 reached that lofty summit where the whole mystery and 
 magnificence of nature stood submitted to his gaze, — an 
 eminence won by him through the power and patience 
 of intellect alone, but from which he descried a scene 
 more glorious far than imagination could have formed, 
 or than ever had been pictured and set forth in the 
 sublimest visions of poetry." ("Treatise on the Adap- 
 tation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual 
 Constitution of Man.") 
 
 "Whichever way we turn our view," says Sir John 
 F. W. Herschel, "we find ourselves compelled to bow 
 before his genius, and to assign to the name of Newton 
 a place in our veneration which belongs to no other in 
 the annals of science. His era marks the accomplished 
 maturity of the human reason as applied to such objects. 
 . . . His wonderful combination of mathematical skill 
 with physical research enabled him to invent at pleasure 
 new and unheard-of methods of investigating the effects 
 of those causes which his clear and penetrating mind 
 detected in operation. Ascending by a series of close- 
 compacted inductive arguments to the highest axioms of 
 dynamical science, he succeeded in applying them to the 
 complete explanation of all the great astronomical phe- 
 nomena." (" Preliminary Discourse on the Study of 
 Natural Philosophy.") 
 
 See Sir David Bkkwster, "Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton," 2 
 vols., 1S55: F0NTRNEI.1.E, " Eloge de Newton," 1 728 ; PEMnERTON, 
 "Account of Newton's Philosophy;" Biot, article "Newton" in 
 the " Biographie Universelle ;" Arago, "Notices biographiques," 
 tome iii. ; Birch, " History of the Royal Society," vols. iii. and iv. ; 
 Maclaurin, "Exposition of the Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newtor," 
 1748: Rigaud, "Historical Essay on the Principia of Newton ." 
 "Life of Newton" in the " Bioxraphia Britannica :" Paolo Frisi, 
 " Elogio storico del Cavaliere I. Newton," 1778; Wm. Wiihwf.il, 
 "Newton and Flamsteed," 1836: Carl Smell, "Newton tn^l die 
 niechanische Naturwissenschaft," 1843: Voltaire, " Elements de la 
 Philosophic de Newton:" " Encyclopaedia Britannica:" " Edinburgh 
 Review" for October. i8u; " London Quarterly Review" for Octo- 
 ber, 1861: "North British Review" for August, 1855; "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for July, 1833. 
 
 Newton, (John,) an English mathematician, born in 
 Northamptonshire in 1622, was the author of "Geo- 
 metrical Trigonometry," " Astronomia Britannica," and 
 other works. Died in 1678. 
 
 See Wood, " Atbenas Oxonienses." 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fl, % short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; net; good; m<56n; 
 
NEWTON 
 
 1671 
 
 NIC&NETUS 
 
 I 
 
 Newton, (John,) an English divine, born in London 
 in 1725. Having for many years led a profligate life 
 as a sailor, and engaging in the African slave-trade, he 
 was converted, and distinguished himself thenceforth 
 by his zeal in the cause of religion. In 1764 he became 
 curate of Olney, where he acquired the friendship of 
 Cowper, and wrote, in conjunction with him, the "Olney 
 Hymns." He also published a " Review of Ecclesiastical 
 History," (1770,) "Cardiphonia," etc., and other works. 
 Died in 1S07. 
 
 See a "Narrative of his Life." by himself, 176^1: R. Cecil, 
 " Life of John Newton ;" " Autobiography and Narrative of John 
 Newton, London; 1869; "London Quarterly Review" for Decem- 
 ber, 1824. 
 
 New'ton, (John,) an American general, born in Vir- 
 inia, graduated at West Point in 1S42. He became a 
 brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 1861, and com- 
 manded a brigade in the battles before Richmond, June, 
 1862, and a division at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. He 
 served under General Sherman in Georgia in 1864, with 
 the rank of major-general. 
 
 Newton, (Richard,) an English divine, born about 
 1675, became canon of Christ Church, Oxford. He 
 published a work entitled " Pluralities Indefensible," 
 (1744.) He was the founder of Hertford College, Ox- 
 ford. Died in 1753. 
 
 See Chalmers, " History of Oxford." 
 
 New'ton, (Robert,) a Scottish Methodist clergyman,, 
 born in 1780. He preached in London and Liverpool, 
 and was appointed in 1839 a delegate to the General 
 Conference of the United States. He was a popular 
 preacher. Died in 1854. 
 
 Newton, (Thomas,) an English divine, born at Lich- 
 field in 1704, rose through various preferments "to be 
 Bishop of Bristol, (1761.) He published an excellent 
 edition of Milton's "Paradise Lost," with notes, (1749,) 
 and "Dissertations on the Prophecies," etc., (3 vols., 
 1754-5S,) which were translated into German and Danish. 
 Died in 1782. 
 
 See " Life of Thomas Newton," prefixed to the second edition 
 of his Works; " Monthly Review" for February and March, 1783. 
 
 Newton, (Thomas,) an English litterateur, born in 
 Essex, became master of Macclesfield School. He was 
 the author of a "History of the Saracens," (1575,) of a 
 number of Latin poems, and other works. Died in 1607. 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry." 
 
 Newton, (William,) an English architect and writer, 
 published an English translation of Vitruvius, (2 vols., 
 
 I77I-) 
 
 Ney, ni, (Francois,) a Flemish diplomatist, born at 
 Antwerp, became general of the order of Saint Francis, 
 in Spain, in 1 607. He was the principal agent of the 
 Spanish king in the negotiation of the treaty of peace 
 which recognized the independence of the revolted Dutch 
 provinces in 1609. Watson the historian speaks highly 
 of his talents and address. 
 
 See Grotius, "Histoire des Troubles des Pays-Has." 
 
 Ney, nA, (Joseph Napoleon.) Prince of the Moskwa, 
 (in French, "de la Moskowa,") a French general, born 
 in Paris in 1803, was the eldest son of Marshal Ney. He 
 nerved in Algeria in 1837-38, and entered the Chamber 
 of Peers in 1841. After the revolution of 1848 he was 
 elected a member of the Legislative Assembly, in which 
 he was a partisan of Louis Napoleon. Died in 1857. 
 
 Ney, (Michel,) Duke of F.lchingen, Prince of the 
 Moskwa, a famous French marshal, born at Sarre-Louis 
 in January, 1709, was the son of a cooper. He entered 
 the army as a private in 1787, became adjutant-general 
 in 1704, and a general of brigade in 1796. As general 
 of division, he accpiired a high reputation under Massena, 
 in Switzerland and Germany, in 1799. In 1800 he passed 
 into the armv of Moreau, and contributed to the victory 
 of Hohenlinden. He obtained a marshal's baton in 1804. 
 For an important victory over the Austrians at Elchingen, 
 in October, 1805, he received the title of Duke of El- 
 chingen. His impetuous courage rendered essential ser- 
 vices at the battle of Jena, in 1806. In this year he took 
 Magdeburg, the garrison of which amounted to about 
 20,000 men. He commanded an army in Spain ill 1809, 
 and obtained advantages at Ciudad Rodrigoand Almeida 
 in 1810. In the Russian campaign of 1812 he received 
 
 from Bonaparte the appellation of the " Bravest of the 
 Brave." He commanded the centre at the great battle 
 of Borodino, or the Moskwa, from which he derived 
 his title of Prince. In the retreat from Moscow, Mar- 
 shal Ney commanded the rear -guard, and maintained his 
 reputation by heroic conduct amidst the greatest dis- 
 asters. " It was when danger was greatest and success 
 most doubtful," says Alison, " that his courage was most 
 conspicuous and his coolness most valuable." When 
 Summoned to capitulate, in November, 1812, he replied, 
 " A marshal of Fiance never surrenders !" 
 
 He took a prominent part in the battles of Lutzen, 
 Bautzen, and Dresden, in 1813, and was defeated at Den- 
 newitz by Bernadotte in September of that year. On the 
 abdication of Napoleon, in 1814, Ney submitted to Louis 
 XVIII., who permitted him to retain his titles and mili- 
 tary rank. In March, 1815, he received orders to lead 
 an arfny against Napoleon, whom he promised to bring 
 back in an iron cage. His moral courage, however, was 
 not proof against the seductive offers of his former chief, 
 to whom he transferred the army, as well as his own 
 services. He fought with his usual resolution at Water- 
 loo, where he led several charges of the Old Guard and 
 had five horses shot under him. He was tried for treason 
 by the court of the peers, and shot on the 7th of De- 
 cember, 1815. 
 
 " When the Parisians awoke," says Lamartine, "and 
 found that Ney had been executed, bitter shame seized 
 on every soul. . . . We must say, however, in the de- 
 fence of the king and the ministers, that they were re- 
 pugnant, from moderation, horour, and sensibility, to 
 this useless, cruel, and shameful sacrifice. In their eyes, 
 and in those of the impartial portion of the world, Ney 
 was a great culprit, but his was a glorious life. His 
 fault was among those which are condemned but par- 
 doned. He had redeemed it beforehand by exploits 
 which will be an eternal theme in the camps of France." 
 (" History of the Restoration.") 
 
 See " Me'moires du Marshal Ney," published by his family, 1833; 
 Rouvai., "Vie du Marechal Ney," 1833: Dumouijn, "Histoire 
 du Proces du Marshal Nev," 2 vols., 1815; J. Nollet-Fabert, 
 "filoffe hislorique du Marechal Ney," 1852: Chari.emont, "Vie 
 du Marechal Ney," 1814; Vergara, "Vida del Mariscal Ney," 
 1810; Thiers, "History of the Consulate and the Empire;" 
 **-Nouvelle liiographie Ge^ieVale " 
 
 Ney, (Michel Louis Felix,) Due d'Elchingen, a son 
 of the preceding, was born in 1804. He served several 
 campaigns in Algeria, and became a general of brigade 
 in 1851. Died in 1854. 
 
 Ney, (Napoleon Henri Edgar,) Prince of the 
 Moskwa, a son of Marshal Ney, was born in Paris in 
 1812. He entered the army about 1830, was elected to 
 the Legislative Assembly in 1850, became aide-decamp 
 to the emperor in 1852, and general of brigade in 1856. 
 
 Neyen, ni'en or nJ'&N', (Auguste,) a Belgian his- 
 torian, born at Luxemburg in 1809. Among his works 
 is " Biographie Luxembourgeoise," (2 vols., 1861.) 
 
 Neyn, nln, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter and architect, 
 born at Leyden in 1597 ; died in 1639. 
 
 Neyra. See Men dan a. 
 
 Nezahualcoyotl, na,-zi-what-ko-yotl', surnamed the 
 Great, King of Tezcuco, born in 1403. He was dis- 
 tinguished as a legislator and a patron of the sciences. 
 Died in 1470. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico." 
 
 Ni or Ne. See Confucius. 
 
 Nibby, neb'bee, (Antonio,) an antiquary, born at 
 Rome in 1792. He became professor of archaeology in 
 the College of Rome in 1820. He was a corresponding 
 member of the French Institute, and the author of several 
 antiquarian works. He also published a translation of 
 Pausanias, with notes. Died in 1839. 
 
 Nibelungen-Lied. See Siegfried. 
 
 Niboyet, ne'bwi'y.i', (Eugenie,) a French authoress, 
 born about 1804. She wrote several educational works 
 and novels, and founded in 1844 a socialist journal. 
 
 Nicaenetus, nl-sen'c-tus, [Gr. NoraWoc; Fr. Nice- 
 NETK, ne'sj'njt',) a Greek epigrammatic poet, born at 
 Abdera or Samos, probably lived in the third century 
 B.C. Several of his epigrams are inserted in Jacobs's 
 "Anthology." 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (J[y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NICAISE 
 
 1672 
 
 NICE RON 
 
 Nicaise, ne'k&z', (Claude,) a French antiquary, bom 
 at Dijon in 1623. He published a treatise " On the Music 
 of the Ancients," " On the Sirens," etc., and other works. 
 He was a member of the principal Academies of Europe. 
 Died in 1701. 
 
 See " Menagiana." 
 
 Nicaise, ne'kaz', [Lat. Nica'sius,] Saint, a Christian 
 prelate and martyr, became Bishop of Rheims. He was 
 put to death by the Vandals when they sacked that city, 
 in 407 a.d. 
 
 See Fisquht, " France pontificate. " 
 
 Nl-can'der, [Gr. Nkawipoc ; Fr. Nicandre, ne'- 
 k&NdR',] a celebrated Greek physician and poet, born 
 near Colophon, is supposed to have flourished about 175— 
 135 B.C. Of his numerous works only two have come 
 down to us entire. These are two poems, entitled 
 " Theriaca" and " Alexipharmaca." The latter treats of 
 venomous animals and the remedies for their wounds. 
 As a poet, he is eulogized by Cicero, but severely criti- 
 cised by other writers. His works are said to be obscure 
 and pedantic. Among his lost works was a poem of 
 Georgics, which Virgil is said to have imitated. 
 
 See Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica ;" Clinton, "Fasti Hel- 
 lenici." 
 
 Nicander, a king of Sparta, of the family of Pro- 
 clidse, was a son of Charilaus. He reigned about 780 B.C. 
 
 Nicander, ne-kan'der, ( Karl August, ) a distin- 
 guished Swedish poet, born at Strengnas in 1799. In 
 1826 he obtained the first prize from the Swedish Acad- 
 emy for his " Death of Tasso." He visited Italy in 
 1827, and published on his return " Recollections of the 
 South." Among his other works we may name "The 
 Runic Sword, or the First Knight," a tragedy, in verse, 
 (1821,) "King Enzio," (1825,) and " Runor."' These are 
 said to be excellent models, both in style and other 
 respects. Died in 1839. 
 
 See Crusenstolpe, "C. A. Nicander," 1840; G. H. Mellin, 
 " K. A. Nicander," 1839. 
 
 Nicandre. See Nicander. 
 
 Ni-ca'nor, [Gr. Nocuvup,] a Macedonian officer, com- 
 manded the foot-guards of Alexander the Great at the 
 battles of the Grani'cus, Issus, and Arbela. He died 
 about 330. He was a son of the famous Parmenio. 
 
 Nicanor, a Macedonian general, who became gov- 
 ernor of Cappadocia in 321 B.C. As a partisan or ally 
 of Antigonus, he fought against Eumenes. He was ap- 
 pointed governor of Media about 316, and was defeated 
 in battle by Seleucus near the Tigris in 312 B.C. 
 
 Nicanor, a Greek general, commanded an army which 
 Demetrius I., King of Syria, sent to subjugate Judea. 
 He was defeated and killed by Judas Maccalxeus. 
 
 Nicanor, called 2>iy^ar('ac, an eminent Greek gram- 
 marian of Alexandria or Hierapolis, lived in the reign 
 of Hadrian, ( 1 17—138 A.D.) He wrote a treatise on Punc- 
 tuation, and annotations on Homer. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotlieca Graeca." 
 
 Nicasius. See Nicaise. 
 
 Niccoli, nek'ko-lee, or Nicoli, ne'ko-le, [Lat. Nico'- 
 LUS,] (Niccoi.6,) a learned Florentine, born in 1364, 
 who rendered important services to literature by the 
 discovery of ancient authors and by transcribing manu- 
 scripts. At his death, in 1437, he bequeathed his valuable 
 library to the public. He is said to have been the first 
 man in modern times who founded a public library. 
 
 See Vespasiano, " Vita Nicoli ;" Tiradoschi, " Storia della Let- 
 teratura Italiana." 
 
 Niccolini, nek-ko-lee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian poet and dramatist, born near Pisa in 1785. He 
 was appointed in 1807 professor of history and mythol- 
 ogy in the Academy of. Fine Arts at Florence. He was 
 the author of tragedies entitled "Antonio Foscarini," 
 (1827,) "Polissena," "Giovanni da Procida," (1830,) and 
 "Filippo Strozzi," (1847.) Died in 1861. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poels and Poetry of Europe :" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale :" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1836. 
 
 Niccolo, the Italian for Nicholas, which see. 
 
 Niccolo, ne'ko'lo', or Nicolas, ne'ko'la', (Isouard,) 
 a French dramatic composer, born at Malta in 1775. He 
 produced numerous operas, among which are " Joconde" 
 and "Jeannot et Colin." He died in Paris in 1818. 
 
 See Fins. " Biographie Universale des Musiciens." 
 
 Niccolo d'Arezzo, nek-ko-lo' da-reVso, an Italian 
 sculptor, born at Arezzo about 1350. He worked at 
 Florence and Rome. Died in 1417. 
 
 Niccolo da Pisa, nek-ko-lo' da pee'sa, or Niccolo 
 Pisano, nek-ko-lo' pe-sa'no, an eminent Italian archi- 
 tect and sculptor, lived in the latter part of the thirteenth 
 century. Among his best works are the church and 
 monastery of the Holy Trinity at Florence, and the 
 church of San Antonio at Padua. His bas-reliefs in the 
 cathedral of Sienna were esteemed superior to any sculp- 
 tures of the kind since the antique. Died about 1278. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc.; Quatremere de 
 Quincy, "Vies des plus illustres Architectes." 
 
 Niccolo del Abate. See Abbate. 
 
 Niccols. See Nichols, (Richard.) 
 
 Ni'ce or Ni'ke, [Gr. N007,] the goddess of victory 
 in the Greek mythology, was, according to Hesiod, the 
 daughter of Pallas and Styx, and corresponded to the 
 Victoria of the Romans. 
 
 Nicenete. See Nic-enetus. 
 
 Nicephore. See Nicephorus. 
 
 Ni-ceph'o-rus [Gr. N«»/0opoc; Fr. Nicephore, ne'- 
 sa'foR'] I., Emperor of Constantinople, became leader 
 in 802 of a conspiracy against the empress Irene, who 
 had usurped the throne, and, having banished her, was 
 made emperor. In 811 he was slain, while fighting the 
 Bulgarians. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Nicephorus II., surnamed Phocas, a distinguished 
 Byzantine commander, married about 963 the widow of 
 Romanus II., and assumed the title of emperor. He 
 gained several victories over the Saracens in Syria and 
 Cilicia, but was assassinated by John Zimisces in 969. 
 
 Nicephorus III., surnamed BotaNi'aTES, a Byzantine 
 officer, having in 1078 revolted against Michael Ducas, 
 caused himself to be proclaimed emperor in his stead. 
 He was, however, soon compelled to give up the throne 
 to Alexis Comnenus, who banished him. Died in 1081. 
 
 See Le Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire." 
 
 Nicephorus, [Fr. Nicephore, ne'sa'foR',] Patriarch 
 of Constantinople, and a Byzantine historian, born about 
 758 a.d., was a zealous opponent of the iconoclasts. 
 He obtained the office of patriarch in 806, and was de- 
 posed in 815 by Leo V. He wrote, in Greek, besides 
 other works, a " History of the Eastern Empire from 
 602 to 770 A.D.," the Latin title of which is " Breviarium 
 Historicum." He was one of the best writers of his 
 time. Died in 828 A.D. 
 
 See Cave, "Historia Literaria." 
 
 Ni-ceph'o-rus Blem'mi-das, a Greek ecclesiastic 
 of the thirteenth century, lived at Nicaa. He wrote 
 several works "On the Procession of the Holy Spirit." 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 Ni-ceph'o-rus Cal-lis'tus, a learned Byzantine 
 monk of the fourteenth century, was the author of an 
 "Ecclesiastical History from the Birth of Christ to 911." 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 Ni-ceph'o-rus Greg'o-ras, Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople, flourished in the fourteenth century. He was 
 the author of a " Byzantine History," in twenty-eight 
 books, twenty-four of which are extant. 
 
 Ni-cSr'a-tus, [N</c^par«c,] a Greek physician who 
 flourished about 40 B.C. None of his writings are extant ; 
 but he is mentioned by Pliny, Dioscorides, and others. 
 
 Niceron, nes'r6N', r* (Jean Francois,) a French 
 mathematician and optician, born in Paris in 1613. 
 He was a friend of Descartes. He published "Thau- 
 maturgus Opticus : de iis quas spectant ad Visionem 
 directam," (1646.) Died at Aix in 1646. 
 Nic6ron, ne'sa'riN' ?* (Jean Pierre.) a noted French 
 
 * Some of tile best French authorities are not consistent with 
 themselves in regard to the spelling of this name. In the early part 
 of the " Nouvelle Biographie Gdnerale" the name, whenever re- 
 ferred to, appears to be invariably written with the accent on the second 
 syllable,— Niceron,— but under the biographical notice it is spelled 
 Niceron, which is also the spelling of the " Biographie Universelle." 
 But this fact will not by any means be deemed decisive by those who 
 are aware of the exceeding negligence of most French writers in re- 
 gard to marking the accent. It has become very common in France 
 to omit the accent in certain names {e.g. Petion) in writing, but to 
 pronounce the name as if spelled with an accent. (See note under 
 " Petion" in the " Nouvelle Biographie GintnU.") 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, hng; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 0, ii, y, snort; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
NICETAS 
 
 1673 
 
 NICHOLLS 
 
 litterateur, was born in Paris In 1685. His principal 
 work is entitled " Memoirs towards the History of 
 Illustrious Writers," (43 vols., 1727-45,) a production 
 of great value, partly original and partly compiled. He 
 died in 1738, having published thirty-nine volumes, to 
 which four were afterwards added. He was professor 
 of rhetoric and philosophy in several colleges. 
 
 See G-oujet, " Eloge de J. P. Niceron," in vol. xl. of his " M6- 
 moires." 
 
 Ni-9e'tas, [Gr. Nou/toc,] a Byzantine physician, sup- 
 posed to have flourished in the eleventh century. He 
 left a collection of surgical works in manuscript, copies 
 of which are preserved in Paris and Florence. 
 
 Ni-ce'tas A-com-I-na'tus, ['AKuyuvcroc,] surnamed 
 Choni'atks, a Byzantine historian of the twelfth century, 
 wrote a "History of the Greek Emperors from 1 1 17 
 to 1203," in twenty-one books ; also a " Description of 
 the Monuments destroyed by the Franks at the Taking 
 of Constantinople." Died about 1 216. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grseca." 
 
 Nieh'ol, (John Pringle,) a British astronomer and 
 philosopher, born at Brechin, in Scotland, in 1804, was 
 educated for the ministry. He gained distinction as a 
 lecturer on science, and as a writer. About 1836 he was 
 appointed professor of astronomy in the University of 
 Glasgow. He published popular works entitled "The 
 Architecture of the Heavens," (1836,) "The Stellar 
 Heavens," "The Solar System," and a "Dictionary 
 of the Physical Sciences." His style is vigorous and 
 attractive. He wrote numerous articles for the "Im- 
 perial Dictionary of Biography." Died in 1859. 
 
 Ni-eh'o-las jl.at. Nicui.a'us ; Fr. Nicolas, ne'ko'la'; 
 It Niccui.6," nek-ko-lo'; Ger. Nikolaus, nik'o-lowss'j 
 I., Popk, succeeded Benedict III. in 858 a.d. Not long 
 #fter, he was engaged in a broil with Pliotius, who had 
 intruded himself into the patriarchal see of Constanti- 
 nople, and the result was a schism between the Greek 
 and Latin Churches. He died in 867, and was succeeded 
 by Adrian II. 
 
 Nicholas II., Popk, (called Gerard of Burgundy,) 
 succeeded Stephen IX. in 1059. Under his rule a 
 decree was passed concerning the method of electing 
 popes. Nicholas bestowed upon Robert Guiscard the 
 duchy of Apulia and Calabria as a fief of the Roman see. 
 He died in 1061, and was succeeded by Alexander I [. 
 
 Nicholas III. (Giovanni Gaetani — ga-a-ta'nee) 
 succeeded John XXI. as pope in 1277. He obtained 
 frpm the emperor Rudolph of Germany the confirma- 
 tion of the Exarchate of Ravenna, and other grants of 
 territory, said to have been made by former emperors. 
 He died in 1280, and was succeeded by Martin IV. 
 
 Nicholas IV., Popk, (called Jkromk of Ascoi.i,) 
 succeeded Honorius IV. in 1288. He wrote a number 
 of commentaries on the Scriptures. He died in 1292, 
 and was succeeded by Celestine V. 
 
 See J. Rossi, (Rurel-s,) " Vita Nicolai Papa? IV.," 1761. 
 
 Nicholas V. (called Thomas of Sarzana) succeeded 
 Eugenius IV. in 1447. Having persuaded Felix V., who 
 had been made pope by the Council of Bale in 1439, to 
 resign in his favour, he thus restored peace to the West- 
 ern Church. He was a munificent patron of learning, 
 and the founder of the Vatican Library. Died in 1455, 
 aged about fifty-seven. 
 
 See Manettj, " Vita Nicolai V. ;" Giorgi, " Vita Nicolai V.," 
 1742. 
 
 Nicholas [in Russian, Nikolai Pavlovitch, ne-ko- 
 li'e (or ne-ko-II') pav'lo-vitch) I., Emperor of Russia, 
 born at or near Saint Petersburg in July, 1796, was the 
 third son of Paul I. His mother was Mary of Wurtem- 
 berg. He was instructed in the languages, sciences, etc. 
 bv the philologist Adelung and the counsellor Storcll. 
 lie learned to speak French and German fluently. In 
 1 81 7 he married a daughter of Frederick William, King 
 of Prussia, who, on joining the Greek Church, changed 
 her name to Alexandra. On the death of Alexander I., 
 in Deceml>er, 1825, Nicholas succeeded him without op- 
 position from his elder brother, Constantine, who was 
 notoriously unfit to reign, and who had been induced by 
 Alexander to renounce his claim to the throne. His 
 accession, however, was the occasion of a dangerous 
 
 revolt among the troops of the capital, instigated by an 
 extensive conspiracy, or secret society, the design of 
 which was to make a radical change in the government 
 This revolt was not suppressed without much blood- 
 shed, and many nobles implicated in the conspiracy 
 were exiled to Siberia. This affair tended to confirm 
 his despotic propensities. 
 
 Among the first events of his reign was a war against 
 Persia, from which he conquered the province of Erivan 
 in 1827. In 1828 war broke out between Russia and 
 Turkey. The Russian army, after several successes, 
 crossed the Balkan and took Adrianople. Peace was 
 restored in September, 1829, by the treaty of Adrianople, 
 in accordance with which a large territory on the eastern 
 coast of the Black Sea was added to the Russian empire. 
 In November, 1830, commenced a great insurrecti ft r A 
 the Poles, who were subjugated by the Russian aim es 
 under Diebitsch and Paskevitch and were punished w.lh 
 great severity. In 1832 order again reigned in Warsaw. 
 The ambition of Nicholas also involved him in a long 
 war for the conquest of Circassia, which he did not live 
 to complete. His disregard of the claims of liberty and 
 justice was palpably exhibited in his armed intervention 
 against the Hungarians, who were subjugated by the 
 Russian and Austrian armies in 1849. 
 
 Nicholas had long entertained ambitious designs 
 respecting Turkey, which at length involved him in a 
 disastrous war. In the spring of 1853 he demanded of 
 the Sultan the protectorate of all the Turkish subjects 
 who professed the Greek religion. The Sultan refused 
 to submit to this demand, and France and England 
 united to defend him against the aggressions of Russia. 
 Hostilities commenced in October, 1853. Nicholas, who 
 probably did not expect that France and England would 
 fight, was ill prepared for a war of such magnitude. 
 The Russian army crossed the Danube in the spring of 
 
 1854, and besieged Silistria without success. The Eng- 
 lish and French fleets entered the Black Sea, and landed 
 the allied armies in the Crimea, in September, 1854. 
 The allies gained decisive victories at Alma and Inker- 
 man, and commenced the long and famous siege of 
 Sebastopol. In the mean time another English fleet ' 
 gained victories in the Baltic, and threatened the capital 
 of Russia. Nicholas was overtasked by the labours 
 which his imperious will and despotic policy imposed on 
 him as sole director and dictator of so vast an empire. 
 Before the end of the war he died, on the 2d of March, 
 
 1855, and was succeeded by his son, Alexander II. He 
 left four sons, Alexander, Constantine, Nicholas, and 
 Michael. Nicholas I. was a man of tall stature and 
 imposing presence, with great capacity of endurance. 
 
 See F. Nork, (anagram of Korn.) " Kaiser Nicolans I.," etc., 
 184S; Aurien Gii.son, Nicolas 1 et Abdul- Medjid," 1853 ; " Nou- 
 veUe Biographic GeneVale ;" E. AIichelsen, "Life of Nicholas, 
 Emperor of all the Russias," 1854 : Henry Christmas, " Nicholas 
 I., emperor, etc., 1S54; " Biographical Sketches," by Harriet 
 Maktineau.; " Blackwood's Maga*ine"for April, 1855; " Jahrbuch 
 zuni Conversations- Lexikon" for 1858. 
 
 Nich'p-las, (Henry,) a fanatic, born at Minister or 
 I.eyden, founded about 1540 a sect called "The Family 
 of Love." He pretended that he was superior to Christ. 
 
 Ni-eh'o-las, (Wilson Caky,) an American officer and 
 statesman, served in the Revolutionary war, and was 
 elected a Senator from Virginia in 1799. He became 
 Governor of that State in 1814. Died in 1820. 
 
 Nicholas Damascenus. See Damascenus. 
 
 Nicholas de Cusa. See Cusa. 
 
 Nicholas de Lyra. See Lyra. 
 
 Nicholas Paulovitch, (or Pavlovitch.) See 
 Nicholas I. of Russia. 
 
 Nicholle de la Croix, ne'shol' deh IS kRwi, (Louis 
 Antoink,) a French geographical writer, born in Paris 
 in 1704; died in 1760. 
 
 Ni-eh'olls, (Frank,) a distinguished anatomist and 
 physician, born in London in 1699. He married in 
 1743 a daughter of the celebrated Dr. Mead, and on the 
 death of Sir Hans Sloane became physician to George 
 II. He wrote several able scientific treatises, and was 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 1779. 
 
 Nicholls, (Sir George,) an English economist and 
 writer on poor-laws, was born in Cornwall in 1781. He 
 became secretary of the poor-law commission about 1S47. 
 
 « aa t; 9 as s; g hard; g as/, G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (flgy^See Explanations, p. 23, ) 
 
NICHOLLS 
 
 1674 
 
 N1C0LAI 
 
 He wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Eng- 
 lish Poor-Law," (1854.) Died in 1865. 
 
 Nicholls, (William,; a learned English divine, born 
 in Buckinghamshire in 1664. Among his writings we 
 may mention " A Defence of the Church of England," 
 and " The Religion of a Prince." Died in 1712. 
 
 See Wood, "Athens Oxouienses." 
 
 Ni-eh'ols, (Ichaiiod,) D.D., an American Unitarian 
 divine, born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1784. 
 He was the author of a treatise " On Natural Theology," 
 and " Hours with the Evangelists," the latter published 
 after his death. He was distinguished for his mathe- 
 matical attainments, and was for a time vice-president 
 of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 Nieh'olS, (John,) an English litterateur, born at 
 Islington in 1744, was a partner of William Bowyer, 
 the eminent printer. He became in 1778 one of the 
 publishers of the "Gentleman's Magazine," and was 
 subsequently editor of that journal for many years. He 
 published, besides other works, the "History and An- 
 tiquities of Leicestershire," (6 vols., 1 795—181 1,) and 
 "Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century," (8 
 vols., 1812—15.) I J ' C< 1 '" '^26. 
 
 See A. Chai.meks, "Memoir of J. Nichols," 1826; "Monthly 
 Review" for October and November, 1782, and November, 1813. 
 
 Nichols, (John Bowykr,) an archaeologist, a son 
 of the preceding, was born about 1780. He succeeded 
 his father in business, and edited several volumes of the 
 "Illustrations of the Literary History of the Eighteenth 
 Century," which his father commenced. Died in 1863. 
 
 Nichols, (John Gouc.ii,) an English antiquary, son 
 of the preceding, was born in London about 1807. He 
 was editor of the "Gentleman's Magazine" for many 
 years, ending In 1856. He published, besides other 
 works, " The Herald and Genealogist." 
 
 Nichols or Niccols, (Richard,) an English poet, 
 born in London in 1584. He wrote "The Cuckow," 
 a poem, (1607,) and published a new edition of "The 
 Mirror for Magistrates," (1610,) to which he added a 
 " Winter Night's Vision," and a piece on the Life of 
 'Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Ni€h'ol-son, (Alfred Osborn Popk,) an American 
 statesman and journalist, born in Williamson county, 
 Tennessee, in 1808. He has been successively editor of 
 the "Western Mercury," the "Nashville Union," and 
 the " Washington Union," an organ of President Pierce. 
 In 1857 he was elected to the United States Senate. 
 
 Nicholson, (James,) an American naval officer, born 
 at Chestertown, Maryland, in 1737; died about 1804. 
 His brother Samuel attained the rank of commodore, 
 and became commander of the frigate Constitution. 
 Died in 181 1. 
 
 Nich'ol-son, (John,) a British general, born in Ire- 
 land in 1821 or 1822. He served with distinction in the 
 war against the Afghans and in the campaign against 
 the Sikhs. In the Sepoy mutiny he commanded a 
 column or division, and performed an important part in 
 the capture of Delhi. He died of wounds received at 
 Delhi in September, 1857. 
 
 See J. W. Kave, " Lives of Indian Officers," vol. ii., Londdn, 1867. 
 
 Nicholson, (William.) See Nicoi.son. 
 
 Nicholson, (William,) an English chemist and sci- 
 entific writer, born in London about 1755. He published, 
 among other works, a " Dictionary of Chemistry," (2 vols., 
 1795,) and a "Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, 
 and the Arts, (5 vols., 1797-1800.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Nicias, nish'e-as, or Nik'I-as, [Nuciac,] a celebrated 
 Athenian general, was the son of Niceratus, who left 
 him a large fortune. His moderate and cautious char- 
 acter and conservative principles identified him with the 
 aristocratic party. On the death of Pericles he became 
 a prominent opponent of Cleon, the democratic leader. 
 By prudence rather than by skill, he generally obtained 
 success in his earlier military operations against the 
 Spartans. In 426 B.C. he commanded a successful ex- 
 pedition against Melos, and in 425 invaded Corinth, 
 the army of which he defeated. Cleon, his principal 
 rival, having died, Nicias exerted his influence in favour 
 of peace, and a treaty was made between Athens and 
 Sparta in 421 B.C. This was called the peace of Nicias. 
 
 A long contest ensued between him and Alcibiades, the 
 leader of the democracy, who wished to renew the war, 
 and who prevailed in 415, when an expedition was sent 
 against Syracuse, the ally of Sparta. Nicias, Alcibiades, 
 and Lamachus were chosen joint commanders ; but the 
 second was recalled before the fleet arrived at Syracuse. 
 In the spring of 414 Nicias blockaded the port of Syra- 
 cuse, seized the heights of Epipolse, and had nearly en- 
 closed the city on the land side by a wall, when Gylippus, 
 the Spartan general, arrived. Nicias was disabled by ill 
 health and wished to resign, but was compelled to retain 
 the command. The Athenians were defeated in several 
 actions on land and water, and the timidity or incapacity 
 of Nicias caused the total loss of his large army. He 
 was made prisoner, and put to death in 414 or 413 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Life of Nicias ;" Groth, " History of Greece," 
 vol. vii. chaps. Ivii., Iviii., lix.,lx. ; Thucvdides, " History;" TiURL- 
 wall, " History of Greece." 
 
 Nicias, a celebrated Greek painter, born at Athens, 
 flourished probably between 350 and 300 B.C. He was 
 a pupil of Antidotus, and is also called the most eminent 
 disciple of Euphranor. According to Pliny, he was em- 
 ployed by Praxiteles to colour or varnish marble statues, 
 (in stutuis ciraanlinendis.) This was probably in his 
 youth, before he had attained celebrity. He painted chiefly 
 in encaustic, and was very skilful in representing female 
 figures. He excelled in design and chiaroscuro. His 
 master-piece was a picture of the infernal regions as 
 described by Homer, "Necromantia Homeri," which, 
 says Plutarch, he refused to sell to Ptolemy of Egypt, 
 although he was offered the enormous price of sixty 
 talents. Among his other works were a "Calypso," a 
 " Diana," and a " Hyacinthus." 
 
 See Sillig, " Catalogus Artificum ;" " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale." 
 
 Nicias, physician to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, pro- 
 posed to Fabricius, the Roman general, to poison his 
 master for a sum of money. His treachery being dis- 
 closed by Fabricius, he was put to death. 
 
 Ni-co€h'a-reB, [Noco^upr/c,] an Athenian comic poet, 
 was a son of the poet Philonides, and a contemporary 
 of Aristophanes. He flourished about 375 B.C. His 
 works are lost. 
 
 Nic'o-cles, [ Gr. Nonw^c, ] King of Salamis, in 
 Cyprus, was a son of Evagoras I. He began to reign 
 about 375 B.C. Isocrates wrote a panegyric on him. 
 
 Nicodeme. See Nicodemus. 
 
 Nicodemo. See Nicodemus. 
 
 Nic-o-de'mus, [Gr. Nucotij^oc ; Fr. Nicodeme, ne'- 
 ko'd&m' ; It. NicoDKMO, ne-ko-da'mo,] a Pharisee and - 
 ruler of the Jews. 
 
 See John iii. and xix. 39. 
 
 Nic-o-de'mus, (Fr. Nicodeme, ne'ko'dim',1 (Adam 
 Burchard Selly,) a Russian monk and historian, 
 of Danish origin. His chief work is " De Rossorum 
 Hierarchia," (5 vols.) Died in 1746. 
 
 Nicolai, nee'ko-li', (Christoph Friedrich,) a cele- 
 brated German litterateur, born at Berlin in 1 733. Having 
 at an early age acquired the friendship of Lessing and 
 Moses Mendelssohn, he published, conjointly with the 
 latter, the first four volumes of the " Library of Belles- 
 Lettres," (1758.) "The Universal German Library," 
 (" Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek,") in which he was 
 assisted by several eminent writers, came out in 1792, 
 in 106 vols. A continuation of this standard work was 
 published in 1805, making in all 162 vols. Among his 
 other writings may be named a " Description of Berlin 
 and Potsdam," " Life and Opinions of Sebaldus No- 
 thanker," (3 vols., 1773,) a "Tour through Germany and 
 Switzerland," (12 vols., 1783,) and " Anecdotes of Fred- 
 erick II.," (1788.) The conservative spirit of Nicolai's 
 criticisms, and his hostility to all innovations in German 
 literature, exposed him to the severe strictures of Goethe, 
 Schiller, and other writers of the time. Died in 1811. 
 
 See Gocking, "Nicolai's Leben mid literarischen Nachlass;" 
 J. G. Fichte, " F. Nicolai's Leben und sonderbare Mtimmgen," 
 181 1 ; Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland ;" "Nouvelle liiographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Nicolai, (Ernst Anton,) a German medical writer, 
 born at Sondershausen in 1722. He became professor 
 at Jena in 1758, and wrote numerous works. Died 
 in 1802. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 4, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, &t; met; n6t; good; mfionj 
 
NICOLAI 
 
 1675 
 
 N1C0MACHUS 
 
 Nicolai, ne'ko'li'e', (Jkan,) a French theologian, burn 
 at Monza in 1594. He wrote several polemical works 
 against the Jatlsenists, and edited Thomas Aquinas, 
 (1663.) Died in 1673. 
 
 Nicolai, (Joiiann,) a German antiquary, born at Ilm 
 in 1665. He wrote numerous works on Jewish, Greek, 
 and Roman antiquities. Died in 1708. 
 
 Nicolai, (l'liii.li'P,) a German Lutheran theologian, 
 born at Mengeringhausen in 1556. He preached at 
 Hamburg, and published several works on theology. 
 Died in 1608. 
 
 Nicolai, de, deh ne'ko'li'e', (Antoine Chretien,) 
 Comte, a French general, born in 1712, commanded a 
 corps at Rossbach, Crefeld, and Minden, (1758.) He 
 became a marshal of France in 1775. Died in 1777. 
 
 Nicolas, the French for Nicholas, which see. 
 
 Nicolas, ne'ko'la', (Auguste,) a French writer and 
 jidge, born at Bordeaux in 1807. His chief work is 
 ' Philosophical Studies on Christianity," (4 vols., 1842- 
 45.) which obtained great success. 
 
 Nicolas, (AUGUSTIN,) a French poet and litterateur, 
 born at Besancon in 1622 ; died in 1695. 
 
 Nicolas, (Michel,) a learned French writer and 
 philosopher, born at Nimes in 1810, is a Protestant 
 minister. He became professor of philosophy at Mon- 
 tauban about 1838. Among his numerous works are 
 a "Treatise on Eclecticism," (1840,) and a "Literary 
 History of Nimes," (3 vols., 1854.) He wrote many 
 articles for the " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Nic'o-las, (Sir Nicholas Harris,) a distinguished 
 English antiquary and biographical writer, born in Corn- 
 wall in 1799. Among his most important works are 
 "Notitia Historica," or "The Chronology of History," 
 (1824,) a "Life of Chaucer," and the "History of the 
 Battle of Agincourt." He was a Fellow of the Society 
 of Antiquaries. He left unfinished a " History of the 
 British Navy," (2 vols.) Died in 1848. 
 
 Nicolas, (Pierre,) a French mathematician and Jes- 
 uit, born at Toulouse in 1663. He wrote able works 
 on geometry. Died in 1708. 
 
 Nicolas, (Pierre Francois,) a French chemist and 
 medical writer, born at Saint-Mihiel in 1743; died in 
 1816. 
 
 Nicolas of Amiens, a French scholastic philosopher 
 and writer, lived about 1 180-1200. 
 
 Nicolas of BAle, a Swiss reformer, born at Bale. 
 He joined a society called " Friends of God," and was 
 an eminent witness to the spirituality of true religion. 
 About 1340 he was instrumental in the conversion of 
 John Tauler. He went to Rome in 1377, and openly re- 
 buked the pope. He was burned at the stake about 1395. 
 
 See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. 
 
 Nicolaus. See Nicholas I., Pope. 
 
 Nicolaus Damascenus. See Damascenes. 
 
 Nicolaus Myrepsus. See Myrepsus. 
 
 Nic-o-la'us Propositus, (pre-pos'etus,) surnamed 
 Salernita'nus, a physician of the twelfth century, was 
 the founder of a celebrated medical school at Salerno. 
 His " Antidotarium" has often been confounded with 
 the work of Nicolaus Myrepsus on the same subject. 
 
 Nicolay, nee'ko-li', (Ludwig Heinrich,) Baron, a 
 German poet, bonv at Strasburg in 1737. He was ap- 
 pointed, in 1769, preceptor to the grand duke Paul, after- 
 wards Emperor of Russia, and subsequently became 
 director of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Petersburg. 
 He was made a privy councillor in 1801. His works 
 consist of elegies, epistles, narrative poems, and fables. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See P. von Gerschad, "Aus dem Leben des H. L. Nicolay," 
 1834. 
 
 Nicole, ne'kol', (Claude,) a French poet, born at 
 Chartres in 161 1, was a cousin-german of Pierre Nicole, 
 noticed below. He produced versions of the Odes of 
 I Iorace, the Elegies of Ovid, and of other classic poems. 
 Died in 1685. 
 
 Nicole, (Francois,) a French mathematician, born 
 in Paris in 1683. He wrote, besides other works, a 
 "Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences," (1727.) 
 Died in 1758. 
 
 Nicole, (Pierre,) an eminent French theologian and 
 philosopher, born at Chartres in 1625. He was a promi- 
 
 nent member of the institution of Port-Royal, and an 
 intimate friend of Arnauld, in conjunction with whom he 
 wrote the treatise entitled "Perpetuity of the Faith of 
 the Catholic Church concerning the Eucharist," (1664.) 
 His most important work is a collection of treatises called 
 "Moral Essays and Theological Instructions," (25 vols., 
 1671 et seq.) One of these, entitled "On the Means 
 of Preserving Peace," is styled by Voltaire " a master- 
 piece of its kind, to which we can find nothing equal in 
 antiquity." Among his other productions we may name 
 his "Treatise on Human Faith," (1664,) and " Les 
 Imaginaires et les Visionnaires," (2 vols., 1667.) Died 
 in 1695. 
 
 See Abbe GoujHT, "Vie de Nicole;" Saintb-BeVve, "Port- 
 Royal," vol. iv. : Bayi.e, "Historica] and Critical Dictionary;' 
 Nkrkon, "Me'moires ;" Besoigne, "Vie de Nicole," in his " His- 
 toire de Port-Royal," vol. iv. ; "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Nicolini, ne-ko-lee'nee, (GiusErPE,) an Italian lit- 
 terateur, born at Brescia in 1788. He wrote a didactic 
 poem " On the Culture of Cedars," and translated the 
 tragedv of "Macbeth" into Italian. Died in 1855. 
 
 Nic'oll, (Robert,) a Scottish poet, born in Perthshire 
 in 1814. He published in 1835 a collection of poems, 
 which were very well received. In 1836 he became 
 editor of the " Leeds Times," which, however, he did 
 not long have charge of, as he died the following year, 
 at the age of twenty-two. 
 
 See "Brief Biographies," by Samuel Smii.es; Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Kminent Scotsmen," (Supplement ;) 
 " Westminster Review" for October, 1842. 
 
 Nicolle, ne'kol', (Charles Dominique,) a French 
 teacher and educational writer, born in the department 
 of Seine-Inferieure in 1758. He was appointed in 1821 
 rector of the Academy of Paris. Died in 1835. 
 
 Nicolle, (GABRIEL Henri,) brother of the preceding, 
 was born in 1767, and became successively associate 
 editor of the "Journal Francais," " Courrier Universe]," 
 and " L'Eclair." Died in 1829. 
 
 Nicollet, ne'ko'l^', (Joseph Nicolas,) a French as- 
 tronomer and explorer, born in Savoy in 1786, or, as some 
 say, about 1795. He obtained the place of secretary and 
 librarian of the Observatory of Paris in 181 7. About 
 1832 he emigrated to the United States. He made a 
 scientific exploration of the region drained by the Mis- 
 souri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers. He was afterwards 
 employed by the government of the United States to 
 explore the country west of the Mississippi, of which he 
 produced a good map. He wrote, besides other works, 
 a treatise on the geology of the valley of the Upper Mis- 
 sissippi. Died at Washington in 1843. 
 
 See Qperard, " I.a France Litte'raire ;" Quetelet, "Notice 
 sur J. N. Nicollet," 1844. 
 
 Nic'ollS, (Jasper,) an English officer, born about 
 1780, served with distinction in India in the campaigns 
 of 1817 and 1825, and was made lieutenant-general in 
 1841. Died in 1849. 
 
 Nicolls, (Richard,) Colonel, an English offirer, 
 who in 1664 compelled the Dutch Governor Stuyvesant 
 to surrender New Amsterdam, to which he gave the 
 name of New York. He was appointed first English 
 governor of that city. In the same year he took Fort 
 Orange, (or Williamstadt,) which was afterwards called 
 Albany, in honour of the Duke of York and Albany. 
 
 Nicolopoulo, ne'ko-lo-poo'lo, (Constantink,) a 
 philologist, of Greek extraction, born at Smyrna in 1786. 
 He became professor of Greek literature at the Athe- 
 naeum in Paris, and was a contributor to the " Revue 
 encvclopedique." Died in 1841. 
 
 Nicolosi, ne-ko-lo'see, (Giamhattista,) a Sicilian 
 geographer, born at Paterno in 1610; died in 1670. 
 
 Nic'ol-son, (William,) an English prelate, born in 
 Cumberland in 1655, rose through various preferments 
 to be Archbishop of Cashel, in Ireland. He was the 
 author of three works, entitled "The English Historical 
 Library," (1606,) "The Scottish Historical Library," 
 (1702,) and "The Irish Historical Library," (1724.) 
 Died in 1727. 
 
 Nl-com'a-chus, [Gr. Noco/m^of ; Fr. Nicomaque, 
 ne'ko'mik'.j a Greek tragic poet, born in the Troade, 
 wrote about 450-420 n.C, and was contemporary with 
 Euripides. His works are lost, except small fragments. 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NICOMACHUS 
 
 1676 
 
 NIEBUHR 
 
 Nicomachus, a Greek physician of Macedonia, who 
 flourished about 400 B.C., was the father of Aristotle, 
 and was patronized by Amyntas II., King of Macedonia. 
 
 Nicomachus, a son of Aristotle, lived about 320 
 B.C. Little is known of his life. His mother was a 
 slave, named Herpyliis. Some critics have ascribed to 
 him certain ethical treatises which are generally included 
 among the works of Aristotle. 
 
 Nicomachus, a Greek mathematician, born at Gerasa, 
 in Arabia, lived probably between 50 and 150 A.D. He 
 was a. Pythagorean. He wrote several works on arith- 
 metic, one of which is extant, and a Life of Pythagoras, 
 which is lost. 
 
 Nicomachus [NiKo/xaxor] of Thebes, an excellent 
 Greek painter, was a son and pupil of the painter Aris- 
 todemus. He flourished about 350-300 B.C. His skill 
 is praised by Cicero, who classes him with Apelles. 
 Among his works noticed by Pliny were "Apollo and 
 Diana," the "Tyndaridae," and the "Rape of Proser- 
 pine." He was renowned for rapidity of execution. His 
 brother Aristides was also an eminent painter. 
 
 See Cicero, " Brutus." 
 
 Nicomaque. See Nicomachus. 
 
 Nicomede. See Nicomedes. 
 
 Nic-o-nie'des [Gr. Nixo/tr/drx ; Fr. Nicomede, ne'- 
 ko'mid'] I., King of Bithynia, began to reign at the 
 death of his father, 278 B.C. He was opposed by his 
 brother Zipcetes, and took into his service an army of 
 Gauls, by whose aid he gained the victory. He founded 
 the great city of Nicomedia. Died about 250 B.C. 
 
 See Droysen, " Hellenismus." 
 
 Nic-o-me'des II. E-piph'a-ne§ [Fr. Nicomede 
 Epiphane, ne'ko'm&d' a'pe'l'Sn'] was a son of Prusias 
 II., who sent him to Rome as a hostage. He gained 
 the favour of the Roman senate, and excited the jealousy 
 of his father, who sent an agent to assassinate him. In- 
 formed of this design, Nicomedes dethroned and killed 
 Prusias in 149 B.C. He was afterwards an ally of the 
 Romans. Died about 90 B.C. 
 
 See Justin, books xxxiv., xxxvii., etc. 
 
 Nicomedes III., sumamed Philop'ator, was a son 
 of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 91 B.C. In the 
 Mithridatic war, which ensued soon after, he was an ally 
 of Rome, but, having been defeated, he was driven from 
 his kingdom. Bithynia was subsequently restored to 
 Nicomedes, who, dying without children, (74 B.C.,) left it 
 to the Romans. 
 
 Nicomedes, a Greek geometer, the inventor of the 
 curve called the "conchoid," flourished about 100 B.C. 
 
 Ni'con [SUuv] of Pergamus, a Greek architect and 
 geometer, was the father of the celebrated Galen. Died 
 about 150 A.D. 
 
 Ni'con, Saint, a monk, who preached in Armenia 
 about 960 A.D., and wrote a work "On the Impious Re- 
 ligion of the Armenians." Died about 998. 
 
 Ni-coph'a-nes, [Noco0at<i?c,] a Greek painter, who 
 is supposed to have lived about 300 B.C. His works are 
 praised by Pliny in high terms. 
 
 Nic'o-phon or Nic'o-phron, ['SikoQuv or Nuco^pwv,] 
 an Athenian comic poet, lived about 400 B.C. Only 
 small fragments of his plays are extant. 
 
 Nicostrate. See Nicostratus. 
 
 Ni-cos'tra-tus, [Gr. NocoorpaToc ; Fr. Nicostrate, 
 ne'ko'gtrlt',] an Athenian comic poet, was a son of 
 Aristophanes, and lived in the latter part of the fourth 
 century B.C. His works are lost. 
 
 Nicostratus, an Athenian general, commanded in 
 the war against the Spartans about 425 B.C. He was a 
 colleague of Nicias in the expedition to Chalcidice. 
 
 Nicot, ne'ko', (Jean,) a French scholar, born at 
 Nimes in 1530. By his merit and talents he acquired 
 the confidence of Henry II. and his successor, and was 
 employed as secretary of the king. On his return from 
 an embassy to Lisbon, about 1 560, he brought the tobacco- 
 plant, which was then unknown in France, and which 
 was named in his honour Nicotiana by the botanists. 
 The honour of producing the first model of a French 
 dictionary is ascribed to him. It was entitled " Treasure 
 of the French Language," (1606.) Died in 1600. 
 
 See F. Hoefek, " Dictionnaire dc Botanique pratique." 
 
 Nicou-Choron, ne'koo'sho'rdN', (Stephano Louis,) 
 a French composer, born in Paris in 1809. His works 
 are chiefly masses, oratorios, and other kinds of sacred 
 music. 
 
 Nicquet, ne'kj', (Honorat,) a French Jesuit and 
 religious writer, born at Avignon in 1585; died in 1667. 
 
 Nicuesa, de, da ne-kwa'sa, (Diego,) a Spanish ad- 
 venturer, born in 1464, accompanied the expedition of 
 Amerigo Vespucci to the Gulf of Urata in 1501. 
 
 See Irving, "History of Christopher Columbus;" Gomera, 
 " Historia general de las Indias." 
 
 Nidda, von, fori nid'da, ( Friedrich Alureuit 
 Franz Krug,) a German poet, born near Querfurt in 
 1776. He wrote tales, ballads, etc. Died in 1841. 
 
 Nider, Nieder, or Nyder, nee'der, (Johannes,) a 
 German theologian, was appointed by the Council of 
 Bale (1531) to labour for the conversion of the Hussites 
 Having tried argument without success, he resorted to 
 violent persecution, and was responsible for the death 
 of thousands. Died about 1440. 
 
 Nid'bogg (NiShoggr) or Nidhoger, [from nid, 
 "malignity," and /ib'ggva, to "hew" or "cut,"] in the 
 Norse mythology, the name of a dragon or serpent which 
 dwells in the fountain of Hvergelmir,* (or Vergelmir,) 
 in Niflheim, and continually gnaws at the root of the 
 life-tree Yggdrasil. From Hvergelmir flow the rivers 
 of Hell. (See Hela.) According to some writers, Nid- 
 hogg typifies the original evil principle which forms an 
 element in the creed of so many of the Indo-Germanic 
 nations. 
 
 See Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Kevser's "Re- 
 ligion of tbe Northmen." 
 
 Niebelungen-Lied. See Siegfried. 
 
 Niebuhr, nee'booR, (Barthold Georg,) a cele- 
 brated German historian and critic, born at Copenhagen 
 on the 27th of August, 1776, was the son of Carstens Nie- 
 buhr, noticed below. He had a great facility for learning 
 languages, and he read the works of Shakspeare in the 
 original about the age of seven. In 1794 he entered 
 the University of Kiel, where he profoundly studied 
 Roman law, history, philosophy, and ancient languages. 
 He was appointed secretary to Count Schimmelmann, 
 minister of finance at Copenhagen, in 1796, made a tour 
 in Great Britain in 1798, and became an assessor in the 
 council of commerce at Copenhagen in 1800. In the 
 last-named year he married Amalie Behrens. In 1S06 
 he passed into the service of Prussia, as joint director of 
 commerce, and in 1809 he became privy councillor and 
 member of the commission of finances at Berlin. Al- 
 though he performed these various functions with much 
 ability and success, he soon retired from political life, 
 and in 1810 was chosen professor of history in the Uni- 
 versity of Berlin. His lectures on Roman history, pub- 
 lished in 1811-12, announced the important discoveries 
 and original ideas which have effected a great revolution 
 in the principles of Roman history, and constitute his 
 chief title to durable celebrity. 
 
 During the war of liberation (1813) he attended the 
 head-quarters of the allies, and was employed in nego- 
 tiating loans. In 1816 he went as Prussian ambassador 
 to Rome, where he remained until 1822 and pursued 
 with ardour his researches in the history of ancient 
 Rome and the study of philology. He became a resident 
 of Bonn in 1823, and in 1825 opened there a course of 
 lectures on history and Roman antiquities. In 1827 he 
 published the first volume of a revised edition of his. 
 "History of Rome," (" Romische Geschichte,") which 
 is considered the most original and profound work on 
 ancient history that any modern has produced. The third 
 and last volume appeared in 1832. The author died at 
 Bonn in January, 1831, leaving a son, Marcus, who held 
 a high position in the Prussian civil service. Niebuhr 
 had refused several titles of nobility. His character was 
 eminently truthful, upright, and generous. He had 
 
 * The etymology of this name is uncertain. It is probably derived 
 from a root cognate with the Anglo-Saxon hiverfan or InueorfatL, 
 to "turn," to " whirl," and gelm, (nrg-e/mr.)* "bunch" or " mass," 
 thus signifying the "whirling mass," fof waters, t According to Key- 
 ser, hver means a "hot spring" or "cauldron ;" but the etymology 
 is not improbably the same, the term having been applied to a boiling 
 spring on account of the constant turning or whirling of its waters. 
 
 :, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6 same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, f , short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
 M 
 
NIEBUHR 
 
 1677 
 
 NIEMEYER 
 
 noble features, and a graceful facility of elocution. His 
 attainments as a critic and philologist were of the highest 
 order.* He spoke all the languages of Europe, and was 
 master of the Hebrew, Greek, Arabic, and Persian. 
 Among his principal works are an edition of the 
 Byzantine Historians, (1S28,) "Short Historical and 
 Philological Treatises," (1828,) "Lectures on Ancient 
 Ethnography and Geography,'' and " Lectures on An- 
 cient History." In 1838 appeared an interesting col- 
 lection of his Letters, with memoirs of his life, edited 
 by Madame Hensler, (" Lebensnachrichten iiber ft. G. 
 Niebuhr," etc., 3 vols.) His reputation as a historian 
 continued to increase after his death, though several of 
 his positions are controverted by eminent critics. He 
 rejected as fabulous many stories which other historians 
 had credited, and aimed to construct a fabric of rational 
 probability out of the confused mass of traditions, con- 
 jectures, and mythical legends. " He would have been 
 the first writer of his time," says Macaulay, "if his talent 
 for communicating truths had borne any proportion to 
 his talent for investigating them." (Preface to "Lays 
 of Ancient Rome.") 
 
 See "The Life and Letters of B. G. Niebuhr, with Essays on his 
 Character and Influence, "*by Chevalier Bunsen, London, 2 vols., 
 1852: Francis Lieber, "Reminiscences of B. G. Niebuhr," 1835; 
 "Edinburgh Review" for January, iS33,_and July, 1S52: "Quar- 
 terly Review," article on " Early Roman History," vol. xxvii. and vol. 
 xxx ii., (by Arnold :) "Westminster Review" for May, 1843 ; " Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for September, 1840; "Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" for June, 1828, and July. 1S31 ; Kraser's Magazine" for 
 Ju.yand December, 1852 : " North American Review" for April, 1823, 
 (by Edward Everett;) "North British Review" for August, 1852; 
 "Westminster Review" for December, 1843, (by G. H. Lewes.) 
 
 Niebuhr, (Carstens or Karstens,) a German trav- 
 eller of distinguished talent and energy, was born at 
 Ludingworth, in Hanover, in 1733. He entered the 
 Danish service as lieutenant-engineer in 1760, and was 
 appointed by Frederick V. in 1761 to accompany a sci- 
 entific expedition to Arabia. Soon after their arrival at 
 Mocha, Von Haven, one of the company, died, and within 
 a year Niebuhr had the misfortune to lose his three re- 
 maining companions. He now adopted the diet of the 
 Arabians, and his health, which had previously suffered, 
 continued good during the rest of his journey. He spent 
 six years in the country, taking upon himself all the 
 labours of the mission, and in 1767 returned to Den- 
 mark. His "Description of Arabia" came out in 1772. 
 The accuracy, research, and freedom from exaggeration 
 which characterize this production have caused it to be 
 regarded as a standard work. In 1778 he brought out 
 " Travels in Arabia and the Surrounding Countries." 
 In addition to the above, he edited and published 
 the " Flora Egyptiaco-Arabica," and " Descriptions of 
 Animals" by Forskll, the naturalist of the expedition. 
 Niebuhr was a councillor of state, and a member of 
 the Academy of Sciences at Paris. Died in 1815. 
 
 See B. G. Niebuhr, " Leben Carstens Niebuhr's," 1817; 
 "Monthly Review," vol. liii., 1776, (Appendix.) 
 
 Niebuhr, von, fon nee'booR, (Marcus,) a son of 
 Barthold G. Niebuhr, was bom at Rome about 181 7. 
 He was carefully educated by his father, who declared 
 his determination that he should believe in the letter of 
 the Old and New Testament, and said, " I shall nurture 
 in him from his infancy a firm faith in all I have lost or 
 feel uncertain about." He obtained several high offices 
 in the Prussian government. He was opposed to the 
 Liberal party in politics. Died in 1S60. 
 
 * It is interesting to know that he who was perhaps the most 
 thorough and searching of all historical critics, and whnsaiuilellect, 
 as he tells us himself, "early took a skeptical direction," felt himself 
 nevertheless obliged to accept the Gospel narratives as true history 
 in all essential |w>iuts. He says, " He whose earthly life and sorrows 
 were depicted had for me a perfectly real existence, and His whole 
 history bad the same reality even if it were not related with literal 
 exactness in any single point. Hence, also, the fundamental fact of 
 miracles, which, according to my conviction, must be conceded, un- 
 less we adopt the not merely incomprehensible, but absurd, hypothesis 
 that the Honest was a deceiver and His disciples either dupes or liars, 
 and that deceivers had preached a holy religion, in which self-renun- 
 ciation is everything, and in which there is nothing tending towards 
 the erection of a priestly rule, — nothing that can be acceptable to 
 vicious inclinations. As regards a miracle in the strictest sense, it 
 really only requires an unprejudiced and penetrating study of nature 
 to see that those related are as far as possible from absurdity, and a 
 comparison with legends, or the pretended miracles of other religions, 
 to perceive by what a different spirit they are animated." (Niebuhr's 
 " Letters," vol. i. p. 340, Letter 148.) 
 
 Niederer, nee'deh-rer, (Jean,) a Swiss teacher, borp 
 at Appenzell in 1778, published a treatise on the system 
 of Pestalozzi. Died in 1843. 
 
 Niedermeyer, nee'der-mi'er, (Louis,) a Swiss com- 
 poser and musician, born in the canton de Vaud in 1802. 
 Among his works are the opera of " La Fronde," and a 
 number of songs and religious pieces. Died in 1861. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographic Gene>ale." 
 
 Niel, ne-el', (Adolphe,) a French marshal, born at 
 Muret (Haute-Garonne) in 1802. He served in the 
 expedition to Rome in 1848, and became a general of 
 brigade in 1849, and general of division in 1853. As 
 general of engineers, he directed with success the opera- 
 tions at the siege of Bomarsund, in 1854. In May, 1855, 
 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the engineers 
 and artillery at Sebastopol. He commanded a corps at 
 the battles of Magenta and Solferino, June, 1859. For 
 his services at Solferino he was raised to the rank of 
 marshal of France. He became minister of war in Feb- 
 ruary, 1867, and showed himself an able administrator. 
 Died in August, 1869. 
 
 See Baron de Bazancourt, "Campagnesde Crime> etd'Italie ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Nield, neeld, (James,) an English philanthropist, born 
 in Cheshire in 1744. He devoted much time to the cause 
 of prison-reform. Died in 1814. 
 
 Nielly, ne'l'le', (Joseph Marie,) Baron, a French 
 naval officer, born at Brest in 1751, served against the 
 English in several campaigns, and became vice-admiral 
 in 1815. Died in 1833. 
 
 Nielsen, heel'sen, (Johan Moses Georg,) a Danish 
 poet and lawyer, born near Nyborg in 1804; died in 1855 
 
 Nielsen, (Nikoi.aus Peter,) a popular Danish actor, 
 born in Seeland in 1795. 
 
 Niem, neem, (Thierry,) a German historian, borr. 
 near Paderborn, became Bishop of Cambray in 1396. 
 He wrote the " Lives of the Roman Pontiffs," and other 
 historical works, in Latin. Died about 1417. 
 
 Niemann, nee'man, (August Christian Heinrich,) 
 a Danish publicist and writer on political economy, born 
 at Altona in 1761 ; died in 1832. 
 
 Niemann, nee'min, (Johann Friedrich,) a German 
 physician, born in Anhalt-Dessau in 1764, was the author 
 of several medical works. Died in 1846. 
 
 Niemcewicz, ne-Sm-tsa'vitch, (Julian Ursin,) a 
 celebrated Polish statesman, historian, and poet, born 
 in Lithuania in 1 757. Being appointed a deputy to the 
 Constitutional Diet, he had the principal share in drawing 
 up the "Constitution of the 3d of May," 1 791, and about 
 the same time became one of the editors of a popular 
 journal called " Gazeta Narodowa." After the battle of 
 Maciejowice, he was made prisoner with Kosciusko and 
 confined in the fortress of Saint Petersburg, from which 
 they were released on the accession of Paul, in 1796. 
 He accompanied Kosciusko to America in 1797, and in 
 1 800 married Mrs. Livingston Kean, a lady of New York. 
 He returned to Europe on the entrance of Napoleon 
 into Poland, and when that country was united with 
 Russia he was appointed by the emperor Alexander 
 president of the committee of the constitution, and per- 
 petual secretary of the senate. A short time previous 
 to the fall of Warsaw he visited England, and then went 
 to Paris, where he died in 1841. His principal works 
 are " Historical Songs of Poland," " History of the Reign 
 of Sigismund III.," "Memoirs towards the Ancient His- 
 tory of Poland," and "John of Tenczyn," a romance. 
 He also wrote several dramas, which were successful, 
 and made some translations from the English poets. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Niemeyer, nee'mi'er, (August Hbrmann,) a Ger- 
 man theologian, born at Halle in 1754. He was ap- 
 pointed in 1799 director of the charitable institutions 
 founded by A. H. Francke, and became in 1808 chan- 
 cellor and perpetual rector of the University of Halle. 
 He wrote educational and religious works in prose and 
 verse, and was highly esteemed for his virtue and learn- 
 ing. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Fritsch, " Ueber des verewigten A. H. Niemeyer's Leben," 
 1828 ; Jacobs und Gruber, "A. H. Niemeyer: zur Erinnerung an 
 dessen Leben," 1831 ; A. H. Rein, " Erinnerungen an A. H. Nie- 
 meyer," 1841. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; g, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. (Jl^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NIEMOJOWSKI 
 
 1678 
 
 NIGHTINGALE 
 
 Niemojowski, ne-Sm-o-yov'skee, (Joseph,) a Polish 
 patriot, born about 1760, was appointed general of the 
 palatinate of Posnania. He was killed at the battle of 
 Polotzk, in 1813. 
 
 Niemojowski, (Vincent,) born near Kalisch in 
 1784, distinguished himself by his zeal in the cause of 
 Poland, and held for a time the post of minister of the 
 interior at Warsaw. Died in 1834. 
 
 Niepce, ne-Sps', (Joseph Nicephore,) a French 
 chemist and inventor of photography, born at Chalons- 
 sur-Saone in 1765. He served in the army in 1792- 
 95. About 1814 he began his researches on the action 
 of light on prepared surfaces. In 1822 he obtained 
 copies of engravings from polished metallic plates cov- 
 ered with a bituminous varnish. He gave the name of 
 HUiographie to this art. He formed a partnership with 
 Daguerre in 1829. It is stated that Niepce ^was the 
 first to fix permanently images formed by the'camera. 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Niepce de Saint- Victor, ne-Jps' deh saN' vek'toR', 
 (Claude Felix Abel,) a French chemist and pho- 
 tographer, a nephew of the preceding, was born near 
 Chalons-sur-Saone in 1805. He entered the army, in 
 which he gained the rank of captain. Having applied 
 himself to the task of perfecting the invention of his 
 uncle, he announced in 1847 to the Academy of Sci- 
 ences an important discovery of a method of obtaining 
 images on glass prepared with starch or albumen. He 
 also invented a process of heliographic engraving on 
 metal covered with a varnish which consists chiefly of 
 benzit.e. In 1854 he was appointed commandant of the 
 Louvre. He explained his discoveries in numerous 
 memoirs, which he published collectively under the 
 title of " Photographic Researches," (1855.) Died in 
 April, 1870. 
 
 See a " Memoir of Niepce de Saint-Victor." prefixed to the work 
 lust named, by M. E. Lacan; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" 
 " British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 1866. 
 
 Nieremberg.nee'rem-bJRg', [Lat. Nierember'gius,] 
 (Johann Eusebius,) a learned Spanish Jesuit, of Ger- 
 man extraction, born at Madrid about 1590. He was 
 the author of numerous theological and miscellaneous 
 works, in Latin and Spanish ; among the principal of 
 these is his " Historia Naturse maxime peregrinae," 
 (1635,) being an account of the natural history of the 
 Indies. Died in 1658. 
 
 See "Vie du P. de Nieremberg," prefixed to his "Opera Par- 
 tbenica;" A. de Andrada, "Vida del P. J. E. Nieremberg," 1658; 
 Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Nierembergius. See Nieremberg. 
 
 Nieritz, nee'rits, (Karl Gustav,) a German littlra- 
 tenr, born at Dresden in 1 795, has published several 
 works for children and youth. 
 
 Niethammer, neet'ham'mer, (Friedrich Imma- 
 NUEL,) a German philosopher, born at Beilstein, in 
 Wiirtemberg, in 1766. He was associated with Fichte 
 as editor of the " Philosophisches Journal" at Jena. 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 Nieto, ne-a'to, (David,) a learned Jewish rabbi, born 
 at Venice in 1654; died in 1728. 
 
 Nieto, ne-a'to. (Don Vincente,) a Spanish general, 
 born in 1769, fought on the side of the royalists in the 
 civil war of 1810 in South America. Having been made 
 prisoner by the patriot General Balcarca in Upper Peru, 
 he was shot by his order in 1810. 
 
 Nieuhoff, noi'hof, (Johann,) a German traveller, born 
 in Westphalia in 1630, visited China and Batavia, and 
 published in 1666 an account of his journey, (in Dutch,) 
 which was very popular at the time and was translated 
 into Latin and several other languages. Having gone 
 ashore at Madagascar in 1672, he was lost, killed, or 
 disappeared mysteriously. 
 
 See Macartney, "Travels in India, China," etc. 
 
 Nieulant, ne-uh'lant, (Willem,) a skilful Flemish 
 painter and engraver, born in 1584, studied at Rome. 
 Among his works are engravings of Italian landscapes. 
 Died in 1635. 
 
 Nieupoort,ne-uh'poRt,(WiLLEM Hendrik,) a Dutch 
 historian and jurist, born about 1670, became professor 
 of Taw at Utrecht. Died about 1730. 
 
 Nieuport, de, deh ne-uh'poR', (Charles Francois 
 Ferdinand Florent Antoine,) Vicomte, a distin- 
 guished mathematician, born in Paris in 1746, was ap- 
 pointed in 1816 director of the Academy of Brussels. 
 He died in 1827, leaving numerous mathematical works. 
 
 Nieuwelandt, ne-uw'eh-lant', or Nieulandt, ne- 
 uh'lant, (Adrian,) a Flemish painter, was a native of 
 Antwerp. His worfcs are chiefly landscapes and sea- 
 views. Died in 1601. 
 
 Nieuwelandt, (Jan,) son of the preceding, was born 
 at Antwerp in 1579. He studied painting under his 
 father, and produced a number of landscapes of superior 
 merit. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Nieuwelandt, van den, vin den ne-uw'eh-lant, 
 (Willem,) a Flemish artist and dramatic writer, born at 
 Antwerp in 1584, was a son of Adrian, noticed above. 
 He painted architectural pieces of great merit, and 
 was also a skilful engraver. He was the author of a 
 popular tragedy, entitled " Nero," and of other works. 
 Died in 1635. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Nieuwentyt, ne-uh'wen-tit', (Bernard,) a Dutch 
 writer and mathematician, bonr in North Holland in 
 1654, became burgomaster of Purmerend. He wrote 
 treatises against the differential calculus, and a popular 
 work entitled "The Right Use of the Contemplation of 
 the World," (" Het regt Gebruik der Wereltbeschou- 
 ingen," 1715,) which was translated into several lan- 
 guages. Died in 1718. 
 
 See Niceron, "Mdmoires." 
 
 Nieuwerkerke, de, deh ne-uh'wSr-keVkeh, (Al- 
 fred Emii.ien,) Comte, a French sculptor, of Dutch 
 extraction, born in Paris in 181 1. He has executed 
 numerous busts and statues, among which we may name 
 those of Descartes and Isabella the Catholic. 
 
 Nieuwland, ne-uh'lant, (Pieter,) a Dutch poet and 
 savant, born near Amsterdam in 1764. He displayed in 
 youth great precocity and aptitude for learning languages 
 and sciences. He wrote several able scientific treatises, 
 and poems of great beauty, one of which is entitled 
 "Orion." In 1793 he became professor of natural phi- 
 losophy, astronomy, and mathematics at Leyden. Died 
 in November, 1794. 
 
 See P. Michell, "Jets ter Nagedacbtenis van P. Nieuwland," 
 1794 ; J. H. van Swinden, " Lykrede op P. Nieuwland," 1795 ; C. 
 L. Brightwell, "Annals of Industry and Genius," London, 1863. 
 
 Nifanius, ne-fa'ne-us, (CHRISTIAN,) a German theo- 
 logian and scholar, born at Lelingen in 1629; died in 
 1689. 
 
 Niflheim. See Hela. 
 
 Nifo, nee'fo, [Lat. Ni'phus,] (Agostino,) an Italian 
 scholar and philosopher, born in Calabria about 1473, 
 published several Latin treatises and commentaries on 
 Aristotle. He was patronized by Leo X., and was a 
 professor at Rome and Naples. Died about 1538. 
 
 See Ginguene, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie." 
 
 Nigel, m'jel, ? an ecclesiastic, born in Normandy, be- 
 came treasurer to Henry I. of England, who subsequently 
 created him Bishop of Ely. Died in 1 169. 
 
 Ni'ger, (Caius Pescennius.) a Roman commander, 
 and governor of Syria. On the death of Pertinax, 193 
 a.d., he became a competitor for the empire, with Sep- 
 timius Severus and Clodius Albinus for his rivals. Aftei 
 his army had been several times defeated by the former 
 in Asia Minor, he was made prisoner and put to death 
 in 194 A.D. 
 
 See Tu.lemont, " Histoire des Empereurs." 
 
 Nigetti, ne-jet'tee, (Matteo,) an Italian architei t and 
 sculptor, born at Florence about 1560; died in 1646. 
 
 Night'in-gale, (Miss Florence,) a lady celebrated 
 for her philanthropy, the daughter of William E. Night- 
 ingale, of Derbyshire, England, was born at Florence 
 in 1820. From her childhood she took a deep interest 
 in schemes of benevolence, and, after having visited the 
 hospitals and other similar establishments of England, 
 she went to Germany, with the view of inspecting the 
 institution at Kaiserswerth, founded in 1833 by Fliedner. 
 In 1849 she entered Kaiserswerth, in order to qualify 
 herself as a hospital nurse in the training-school which 
 forms a part of that establishment. The Crimean war 
 
 3, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, G, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
NIGHTINGALE 
 
 1679 
 
 NISJRD 
 
 having broken out soon after her return to England, 
 Miss Nightingale, accompanied by a number of volun- 
 tary nurses, set out in 1854 for the East, where, in the 
 military hospitals at Scutari, they devoted themselves to 
 the care of the sick and wounded soldiers. In 1856 she 
 returned to England, where the queen conferred upon her 
 various distinctions in acknowledgment of her eminent 
 services. Miss Nightingale has published a pamphlet 
 entitled "The Institutional Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, 
 for the Practical Training of Deaconesses, under the 
 Direction of the Rev. Pastor Fliedner," (1850,) and 
 " Notes on Nursing," one of the best works that has 
 appeared on the subject. 
 
 See Mks. Jameson, " Sisters of Charity;" "London Quarterly 
 Review" tor April, i860. 
 
 Nightingale, (Joseph,) an English dissenting divine, 
 born in Lancashire in 1775. He wrote, among other 
 works, "A Portraiture of Catholicism," and "English 
 Topography." Died in 1824. 
 
 Night'in-gall, (Sir Milks,) K.C.B., an English officer, 
 served under Sir William Meadows in India in 1791-92, 
 and was subsequently engaged in the continental war. 
 About 1820 he became a member of Parliament for Suf- 
 folk. Died in 1829. 
 
 Nigidius. See Figulus. 
 
 Nigrisoli, ne-gRe-so'lee, (Giovanni Maria,) an Ital- 
 ian physician, born at Ferrara in 1648, became professor 
 of medicine in his native city. Died in 1727. 
 
 Nigroni, ne-gRo'nee, (Giuliq,) a learned Jesuit, born 
 at Genoa in 1553 ; died in 1625. 
 
 Nihus, nce'us, (H arthold,) a German Catholic theo- 
 logian, born in the duchy of Brunswick in 1589, wrote a 
 number of controversial treatises. Died in 1657. 
 
 Nikitin, ne-ke-tin' or ne-ke-teen', (Athanasius,) a 
 Russian traveller, who visited Persia and Hindostan, 
 and wrote an account of those countries, which was dis- 
 covered and published by Karamzin. Died in 1472. 
 
 See Grktch, " Essai historique sur la Litterature Russe." 
 
 Nike. See Nice. 
 
 Nikolai, nee'ko-li, (Izaak,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 Leyden in 1536. He died in 1619, leaving three sons, 
 all of whom were artists. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Nikolaus, the German for Nicholas, which see. 
 
 Nikon or Nicon, nee'kon, a Russian scholar and 
 theologian, born near Novogorod in 1605. He was ap- 
 jninted Patriarch of Russia in 1652 ; but he afterwards 
 ost favour at court, and was deposed. He rendered 
 great services to Russian literature by correcting the 
 Slavonian ecclesiastical works from the Greek originals ; 
 and he is believed to have compiled the " Russian 
 Chronicles," published by the Academy of Sciences at 
 Saint Petersburg, (1792.) Died in 1681. 
 
 See Ivan Cmoucherin, "Vie d" Patriarche Nikon," 1817; 
 AtOtLOS, " Vie du Patriarche Nikon," 1839. 
 
 Nil, Saint, an ecclesiastic of the fifth century, be- 
 longed to a noble family of Constantinople. He was 
 author of numerous theological works, only a part of 
 which are extant. 
 
 Nilakantha, a surname of Siva, (which see.) 
 
 Niles, nilz, (HkzkkiaII.) an American journalist, and 
 founder of the " Register" called by his name, which 
 he edited for twenty-five years at Baltimore, was born 
 about 1777 ; died in 1839. 
 
 Niles, (John Milton,) an American journalist and 
 statesman, born at Windsor, Connecticut, in 1787. He 
 became editor in 1817 of the " Hartford Times," a 
 Democratic journal, and in 1840 was appointed post- 
 master-general bv President Van Buren. He was elected 
 to the United States Senate in 1842. He wrote the 
 "Lives of Perry, Lawrence, Pike, and Harrison," "His- 
 tory of South America and Mexico," etc., and other 
 works. Died in 1856. 
 
 Niles, (Nathaniel,) an American divine and inventor, 
 born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, in 1741, was a 
 member of Congress from Vermont in 1791. He was 
 the author of religious and miscellaneous works, and 
 wrote a popular war-song, called "The American Hero." 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 Niles, (Samuel,) an American divine, born at Brain- 
 tree, Massachusetts, in 1744. He graduated at Prince- 
 
 i: 
 
 ton College, and subsequently became minister of Abing- 
 ton, Massachusetts. Died in 1814. 
 
 Ni'leus or Neleus, [NciArof,] a Greek physician of 
 uncertain epoch, probably lived before 200 H.c. He 
 invented a machine for the reduction of dislocations. 
 
 Nilson, nll'son, (Johann Esaias,) a German painter 
 and engraver, born at Augsburg in 1721 ; died m 1788. 
 
 Nilson, nll'son, or Nilsson, (Sven,) an eminent 
 Swedish naturalist and physician, born near Landskrona 
 in 1787. Among his principal works are his "Swedish 
 Ornithology," (" Ornithologia Suecica,") "Scandinavian 
 Fauna," ("Skandinavisk Fauna," 1820,) and an antiqua- 
 rian treatise "On the Primitive Inhabitants of Northern 
 Scandinavia," (1838.) 
 
 Nilsson, nfl'son, (Christine,) a celebrated singer, 
 born in Smaland, Sweden, in 1843. She made her del;ut 
 in Paris in October, 1864, appeared in London in 1867, 
 visited the United States in 1870, and was everywhere 
 received with unbounded applause. 
 
 Nimeegen, van, vtn ne-ma'nen, (Ei.ias,) a Dutch 
 painter of landscapes, history, and still life, born at 
 Nymwegen in 1667; died about 1737. 
 
 Nina, nee'na, a Sicilian poetess of the latter part of 
 the thirteenth century. 
 
 Ninnin, ne'naN', (Henri,) born at Poix, in Cham- 
 pagne, in 1722, was one of the physicians of Louis XV. 
 He published a translation of the medical works of 
 Celsus, (2 vols., 1753.) Died in 1800. 
 
 Nino, nen'yo, (Andres,) a Spanish navigator, bom 
 about 1475, made a voyage to the Moluccas in 1522. 
 
 Nino, (Pedro Ai.onzo,) a Spanish navigator, sur- 
 named el Negro, ("the Black,") born in Andalusia in 
 1468, was one of the companions of Columbus in his 
 third voyage. He afterwards sailed as commander of a 
 caravel, and made several discoveries on and near the 
 South American coast. Died about 1505. 
 
 See Irving, " Life of Columbus." 
 
 Nino de Guevara. See Guevara, de. 
 
 Ninon. See L'Enclos, de. 
 
 Ni'nus, [Gr. Nii'oc,] a celebrated ruler of antiquity, 
 said to have been the founder of the Assyrian monarchy, 
 flourished about 2048 B.C. After having conquered the 
 greater part of Asia, he built the city of Nineveh, and at 
 his death left his kingdom to his warlike queen Semi- 
 ramis, (which see.) 
 
 Ni'p-be, [Gr. Nw/Ji?; Fr. Niobe, ne'o'ba',] a person- 
 age of classic mythology, said to have been a daughter 
 of Tantalus, (or, according to some authorities, of Pe- 
 lops,) and the wife of Amphi'on. She was celebrated 
 for her numerous and beautiful offspring, and had seven 
 sons and seven daughters, or, according to some ac- 
 counts, six of each. The poets relate that she was so 
 proud of her children that she claimed superiority over 
 Latona, (Leto,) who had borne only two. Apollo and 
 Diana, (Artemis,) exasperated by her arrogance, slew 
 all her children. The sons are said to have fallen by 
 the arrows of Apollo, the daughters by those of Diana. 
 Niobe was changed into a stone by her excessive grief. 
 Her story was a favourite subject of the ancient poets, 
 and has been commemorated by an admirable group 
 of statuary, which is now at Florence, and which is 
 variously ascribed to Praxiteles and Scopas. (See the 
 " Iliad," book xxiv.) 
 
 Niou, ne'oo', (Joseph,) a French revolutionist, born 
 at Rochefort in 1 75 1, was elected to the National Con- 
 vention in 1792, and voted for the death of the king 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 Niphus. See Nifo. 
 
 Nisami. See NizXmf.e. 
 
 Nisard, ne'zf r', (Jean Marie Napoleon Desire,) 
 a French critic and litterateur, born at Chatillon-sur- 
 Seine in 1806. He became associate editor of the 
 "Journal des Debats" and of "Le National," (1831,) 
 and was subsequently appointed master of requests in 
 the council of state, and professor of Latin eloquence in 
 the College of France, (1844.) He was elected in 1850 
 to the French Academy, and in 1852 succeeded M. Vil- 
 lemain in the chair of French eloquence in the Faculty 
 of Letters. Among his works we may name his " Studies 
 of Morals and Criticism on the Latin Poets during the 
 Decline of Learning," (2 vols., 1834,) which is highly 
 
 « as i; 5 as s; g hard; g as,/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JiySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NISARD 
 
 1680 
 
 NOAH 
 
 commended by Villemain and other critics, "History 
 of French Literature," (4 vols., 1844-61,) esteemed his 
 best production, and "Studies on the Revival of Let- 
 ters," (1855.) 
 
 See Saintk-Beuve, "Portraits contemporains ;" Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Nisard, (Jean Marie Nicolas Augusts,) a French 
 scholar, brother of the preceding, was born at Cliatillon- 
 sur-Seine in 1805. He published a translation of Horace's 
 " Art of Poetry" and of Virgil's works. 
 
 Nisard, (Marie Leonard Charles,) brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Chatillon-snr-Seine in 1808. He 
 published several original works, and made translations 
 from Ovid, Martial, and other Latin classics. Among 
 his works are " Les Ennemis de Voltaire," (1853,) a 
 " History of Popular Books since the Fifteenth Century," 
 (2 vols., 1854,) and "Les Gladiateurs de la Republique 
 das Lettres au quinzieme, seizieme et dix-septieme Sie- 
 cles," (i860.) 
 
 Nisbet See Nf.sbit, (Alexander.) 
 
 Nissel, nis'sel, [Lat. Nisse'i.ius,] (Johann Georo,) 
 a German editor, born in the Palatinate, lived mostly at 
 Leyden. He published, at his own expense, a Hebrew 
 Bible, (about 1659,) which is said to be accurate. Died 
 in 1662. 
 
 Nisselius. See Nissel. 
 
 Nissole, ne'sol', (Guillaume,) a French botanist, 
 born at Montpellier in 1647. The genus Nissolia was 
 named in his honour by Tournefort. Died in 1734. 
 
 Ni'sus, [Gr. Niooc,] in classic mythology, a son of 
 Pandi'on, and a king of Megara. The poets relate that 
 Megara was taken by Minos through the treachery 
 of Scylla, a daughter of Nisus, who died because she 
 cut off the purple or golden hair on which his life de- 
 pended. 
 
 Nisus, a Trojan warrior and friend of Euryalus, came 
 to Italy with jEneas, and was killed in the war against 
 Turnus. The story of Nisus and Euryalus forms the 
 subject of a beautiful episode of Virgil's " /Eneid,"book 
 ix., 175-448. 
 
 Nithard, ne'tiR', a French historian, born in 790 A.D., 
 was the son of Angilbert and Bertha, daughter of Charle- 
 magne. His principal work is a " History of the Dis- 
 sensions between the Sons of Louis le Debonnaire," (in 
 Latin.) Died in 853. 
 
 See " Histoire litteVaire de la France," vol. v. 
 
 Ni-to'cris, [Gr. NtraKpic,] a queen of ancient Egypt, 
 lived before the time of Herodotus, who says she was 
 the only female in a list of three hundred and thirty mon- 
 archs which the Egyptian priests showed to him. She 
 was celebrated as a heroine in the legends of ancient 
 Egypt. 
 
 See Bunsen, "JEgyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte." 
 
 Nitsch, nhsh, (Paul FriedriCH,) a German archae- 
 ologist, born at Glauchau in 1754, published a "New 
 Mythological Dictionary," (1793,) and other learned 
 works. Died in 1794. 
 
 Nitzsch or Nitzch, nitsh, (Gregor Wilhf.lm,) a 
 German philologist and antiquary, born at Wittenberg 
 in 1790, was a son of Karl Ludwig, noticed below. He 
 became professor of ancient literature at Kiel in 1827, 
 and professor of archaeology at Leipsic in 1852. He 
 gained distinction by his speculations on the Homeric 
 poems. Among his works is "The Epic Poetry of the 
 Greeks," (2 vols., 1852.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Nitzsch, (Karl Immanuel,) a German theologian, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Borna, in Saxony, 
 in 1787. He became professor of theology at Bonn in 
 1822, and obtained the high office of Oherconsistorial- 
 rath in 1843. In 1847 he was appointed preacher to 
 the University of Berlin. His opinions are said to be 
 liberal. 
 
 Nitzsch, (Karl Ludwig,) a German theologian, born 
 at Wittenberg in 1751, was the father of the preceding. 
 He was appointed professor of theology at the Univer- 
 sity of Wittenberg about 1790. He wrote, besides other 
 works, " On the Salvation of the World," (" Ueber das 
 Heil der Welt," 181 7.) He favoured a compromise or 
 reconcilement between orthodoxy and rationalism. Died 
 in 1831. 
 
 See Hoppe, " Denkmal des verewigten K. L. Nitzsch," 1837. 
 
 Nivelle, ne'veV, (Gabriel Nicolas,) a -French Jan- 
 senist, born in 1687, was the author of " The Cry of the 
 Faith," and "The Constitution Unigenitus submitted to 
 the Universal Church." Died in 1761. 
 
 Nivelle de la Chaussee. See Chaussee, de la. 
 
 Nivernais, de, deh ne'veVni', (Louis Jules Bar- 
 bon Mancini Mazarini — btn'b6N' mSN'se'ne' mS'- 
 zS're'ne',) Due, a distinguished French littcrarcur and 
 diplomatist, born in Paris in 1716. He was employed 
 in several important missions, and in 1763 negotiated 
 the treaty between England and France. He made 
 translations from the Latin, English, and Italian, and 
 wrote a number of fables, which are highly esteemed. 
 He was a member of the French Academy. Died in 
 1798. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve," Causeries du Lundi ;" F. de Neufchateau, 
 "Fjogedu Dticde Nivemnis," prefixed to his "CEuvres posthumes, ' 
 1807 : Andre Dvpin, " Fjoge du Due de Nivernois," 1840. 
 
 Nivers, ne'vaiR', (Guillaume Gabriel,) a French 
 musician and writer on music, born near Melun in 1617. 
 
 Nix'pn, (John,) an American general of the Revo- 
 lution, bom at Framingham, Massachusetts, in 1725. 
 He distinguished himself at the battles of Ticonderoga, 
 Lexington, and Bunker Hill, and rose to be brigadier- 
 general in 1776. Died in 1815. 
 
 Niza, di, de ned'zl, (Marco,) an Italian missionary, 
 is said to have first discovered the province of Sonora, 
 in New Mexico, (1540.) 
 
 Nizam-el-Molouk. See NizAm-el-Moolk. 
 
 Nizam-el-Moolk, ne-zim' el moolk, written also 
 Nizam-el-Mulk and Nizam-al-Moulk or -Molook, 
 a Persian statesman, was grand vizier to the Sultan Alp- 
 Arsldn. He was a distinguished patron of learning, and 
 founded the College of Bagdad. He wrote a valuable 
 work containing precepts for government. Died about 
 1092. 
 
 Nizam -ool -Moolk or Nizam -ul-Mulk, (or 
 -Moulk,) ne-zSm' d"61 mSolk, a general and politician, 
 born at Delhi, in Hindostan, about 1650. He is said 
 to have been daring, successful, and treacherous. He 
 made himself master of the Deccan. Died in 1748. 
 
 Nizam-ul-Mulk. See Nizam-el-Moolk and Ni- 
 zAm-ool-Mooi.k. 
 
 Nizamee, Nizami, or Nisami, ne-za'mee, written 
 also Nidhami, (Aboo- Mohammed -Ibn-Yoosuf, 
 a'boo mo-ham'med Ib'n yoo'sdof or yoo'sfif,) a cele- 
 brated Persian poet of the twelfth century. One of his 
 principal poems furnished the subject of Gozzi's drama 
 of " Turandot," which was subsequently imitated by 
 Schiller. Died in 1 180. 
 
 Nizami. See NizAmf.e. 
 
 Nizolius. See Nizzoli. 
 
 Nizzoli, net'so-lee, [Lat. Nizo'lius,] (Mario,) an 
 Italian scholar, and one of the best Latin writers of his 
 time, was born near Modena in 1498. His principal 
 works are "The Ciceronian Treasure," ("Thesaurus 
 Ciceronianus,") and an essay " On the True Principles 
 of Philosophising." 
 
 Njord or Niord, nyord, (NjorSr,) [etymology very 
 uncertain ; some derive it from ttordr, " north,"] the god 
 of winds, and the third in order (after Odin) among 
 the gods of the Norse mythology. He appears to be a 
 personification of trade or commerce, and dwells in 
 Noatun, (no'a-toon',) or " Ship-town." His wife is named 
 Skadi, (which see.) He is particularly worshipped by 
 sailors and fishermen. He is very rich, and can give 
 wealth in abundance to those who invoke him. He 
 ru'.es the course of the wind, stills the ocean, and 
 quenches fire. He was originally an inhabitant of Vana- 
 heim, but was sent by the Vanir as a hostage to the 
 jEsir, among whom he is now numbered. 
 
 See Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol.i.; Keyser's "Re- 
 ligion of the Northmen ;" Petersen's " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 N5'ah, [Heb. HO; Gr. Nue; Fr. Noe, no'a',] the son 
 of Lam'ech, a patriarch of the tenth generation from 
 Adam, is supposed to have been born about 2950 B.C. 
 He was distinguished for his integrity and piety in an 
 age of almost universal corruption. (Genesis vi. 9 ; II. 
 Peter ii. 5.) He was six hundred years old when the 
 great Deluge destroyed all the human race except Noah 
 and his family, who were saved in the Ark (Genesis vii., 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, 6, 1, 6, u, J>, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mit; n&t; good; mocn; 
 
NOAH 
 
 1681 
 
 NODAL 
 
 yiii., and ix.) and entered into a new and everlasting 
 covenant. He died at the age of nine hundred and fifty. 
 
 No'ah, (Mukdkcai Manuel,) an American journalist 
 and politician, of Jewish extraction, born in Philadelphia 
 in 1785. He removed to New York, where he was 
 successively editor of "The National Advocate," "The 
 Enquirer," "Evening Star," and " Sunday Times." He 
 was appointed consul to Morocco in- 1813. He pub- 
 lished "Travels in England, France, Spain, and the 
 Barbarv States." Died in 1851. 
 
 Noaille, no'il' or no't'ye, (Jacques Barthei.emy,) 
 a French magistrate and revolutionist, of the royalist 
 party, born at Beaucaire in April, 1758 ; died in 1828. 
 
 Noailles, de, deh no'il' or no'i'ye, ( Adrien 
 Maurice,) Due, an eminent French general and states- 
 man, born in Paris in 1678, was the eldest son of Anne 
 Jules, noticed below. He married Francoise d'Aubigne, 
 a niece of Madame de Maintenon. During the war of 
 the Spanish succession he served with distinction as 
 general and diplomatist in Spain from 1705 to 1712. 
 He was minister of finance from 1715 to 1718. In 1734 
 he became a marshal of France and commander-in-chief 
 in a war against the Emperor of Germany. He wrote 
 "Political and Military Memoirs," (6 vols., 1777.) He 
 is represented as a man of great talents and many virtues. 
 Died in 1766. 
 
 See Mili.ot, "Me'moires du Due de Noailles," 1777: Saint- 
 Simon, "Memoires;" Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis _XIV;" Mo- 
 rrri, " Dictionnaire Historique :" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" 
 Cesena, " La Maison de Noailles," 1842. 
 
 Noailles, de, (Anne Jui.es,) Due, an able French 
 general, born in 1650, was the eldest son of the first 
 Duke of Noailles, and father of the preceding. He 
 commanded in Catalonia between 1689 and 1695, and 
 gained several advantages over the Spaniards. He ob. 
 tained the rank of marshal of France in 1693, and became 
 Viceroy of Catalonia. Died in 1708. 
 
 See Saint-Si.mon, " Memoires ;" Dr Courceixrs, " Dictionnaire 
 des GeneVaux Francais ;" Cessna, " La Maison de Noailles," 1842. 
 
 Noailles, de, (Antoine,) a French admiral, born in 
 1504 ; died in 1562. 
 
 Noailles, de, (Francois,) a French diplomatist, 
 brother of the preceding, was born in the department of 
 Limousin in 1519. He was employed by Henry II. in 
 missions to London, Venice, and Constantinople. Died 
 in 1585. 
 
 Noailles, de, (Jean Paul Francois,) Due, son of 
 Louis, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1739. He 
 served in the last campaigns of the Seven Years' war, 
 was made a knight of the golden fleece, and obtained the 
 rank of lieutenant-general. He wrote several scientific 
 treatises, and became a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences, (1777.) He was the father-in-law of General 
 La Fayette. Died in 1824. 
 
 See De Coiirceu.es, " Histoire des Pairs de France ;" A. de 
 Cesena, "La Maison de Noailles," 1842. 
 
 Noailles, de, (Louis,) Due, born in 1713, was a son 
 of Adrien Maurice. He was styled Due d'Ayen before 
 his father's death. He distinguished himself in the 
 campaigns of Flanders and Germany, and obtained the 
 rank of marshal in 1775. Died in 1793. When Louis 
 XV. said that the fermiers-ghiirattx support the state, 
 the Due de Noailles replied, " Yes, as the rope supports 
 a man who is hung." 
 
 See Voltaire, " Precis du Regne de Louis XV," chap. Ixvii. 
 
 Noailles, de, (Louis Antoine,) a French cardinal, 
 born in 1651, was a son of the first Duke of Noailles, 
 and a brother of Anne Jules, noticed above. He suc- 
 ceeded Harlay as Archbishop of Paris in 1695. In the 
 controversy which broke out soon after between the 
 Jesuits and the Jansenists, he endeavoured to act as 
 mediator ; but he lost the confidence and incurred the 
 displeasure of both parties. Having refused for a long 
 time to accept the papal bull Unigenitus, he gave in his 
 submission to the pope in 1728. Died in 1729. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" "Histoire de Port-Royal:" 
 " Gallia Christiana," tomes i., viii., and ix. ; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GtatnUt." 
 
 Noailles, de, (Louis Joseph Alexis,) son of Louis 
 Marie, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1783. He 
 was a zealous adherent of the Bourbons, and fought 
 against Napoleon in the army of the allies in 1813. At 
 
 the Congress of Vienna he was one of the ministers- 
 plenipotentiary of France, and in 1815 was appointed 
 minister of state and a member of the privy council. 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 See De Courcrli.es, " Histoire des Pairs de France ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographic Generate. " 
 
 Noailles, de, (Louis Marie,) Vicomte, a French 
 statesman, born in 1756, was a son of Marshal de Mou- 
 chy. As a deputy to the States-General in 1789, he pro- 
 posed, on the 4th of August, the suppression of feudal 
 rights and other privileges of the aristocracy. He mar- 
 ried the sister of Madame La Fayette. Soon after the 
 commencement of the reign of terror he emigrated to 
 the United States. Having been sent by Napoleon to 
 Saint Domingo as general of brigade in 1803, he was 
 killed in a naval engagement with the English, in 1804. 
 
 See Baillv, " Memoires ;" Thiers, " History of the French 
 Revolution;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Noailles, de, (Paul,) Due, a French litterateur, born 
 in Paris in 1802. He has published a "History of 
 Madame de Maintenon and the Principal Events of the 
 Reign of Louis XIV.," (1848,) and several other works. 
 In 1849 ne succeeded Chateaubriand as a member of the 
 French Academy. 
 
 See A. de Cesena, " Le Due de Noailles," 1842. 
 
 Noailles, de, (Philippe.) See Mouchv. 
 
 Noback, no'bak, (Friedrich Eduard,) born at 
 Crefeld, in Germany, in 1815, published a "Systematic 
 Manual of the Science of Commerce," (1848.) 
 
 Noback, (Karl August,) a German writer on com- 
 merce, brother of the preceding, was born at Kolleda in 
 1810. He published a treatise "On Commercial Asso- 
 ciations," (1842,) and other works of the kind. 
 
 Nobel, no'bel, written also Noble, (Constantin,) 
 a Dutch navigator, born about 1616, obtained a high 
 rank in the service of the Dutch East India Company. 
 Died after 1674. Van Hoom and Nobel went on a mis- 
 sion to Peking in 1665. *> 
 
 Nobili, no'be-lee, (Leopoldo,) an Italian botanist, 
 born in 1784; died in 1834. 
 
 See V. Antinori, " Elogio storico del Professore L. Nobili," 
 ■ 836. 
 
 Nobili, de', da no'be-lee, [Lat. de Nobil'ibus,] 
 (Roberto,) a celebrated Italian Jesuit and missionary, 
 born at Monte-Pulciano in 1577, was a nephew of Car- 
 dinal Bellarmino. He resided many years in Southern 
 India, where he converted great numbers to Christianity. 
 He wrote several religious treatises in different Indian 
 dialects. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Jouvency, " Histoire des Jesuites;" Parigi, " Notizie de 
 Cardinale R. de' Nobili," etc., 1836. 
 
 Nobilibus, de. See Nobili, de'. 
 
 Noble, no'b'l, (Mark,) an English divine and writer, 
 became rector of Barming, in Kent. He published 
 "Memoirs of the House of Medici," (1797,) " Dives of 
 the English Regicides," (1798,) and other works. He 
 was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and a con- 
 tributor to the " Archseologia." Died in 1827. 
 
 Noble, (Matthew,) an English sculptor, born about 
 1820. Among his works are a colossal statue of the 
 Duke of Wellington at Manchester, and a statue of 
 Lord Canning. 
 
 Noble, (Samuel,) an English theologian and engraver, 
 born in London in 1779. He practised engraving in his 
 early life, and became a Swedenborgian minister about 
 1826. He published, besides other works, " Plenary 
 Inspiration of the Scriptures," and a volume of Ser-. 
 mons, (1848.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Noble, Le. See Le Noble. 
 
 Nobleville. See Arnault de Nobi.eville. 
 
 Noblot, no'blo', (Charles,) a French geographer,, 
 born in Burgundy in 1668 ; died in 1742. 
 
 Nobrega, da, da no-l)Ra'ga, (Manoei.,) a Portuguese 
 Jesuit, was one of the first band of missionaries, that: 
 laboured in Brazil, where they arrived about 1550^ Died! 
 in 1570. 
 
 Nocret, no'kRj', (Jean,) a French painter and en-- 
 graver, born at Nancy in 1612; died in 1672. 
 
 See Dumesnil, " Le Peintre-Graveur Francais." 
 
 Nodal, de, da no-dal', (Gonzalo and BartolomA 
 Garcia,) Spanish navigators, born in Galicia, were 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 106 
 
NODIER 
 
 1682 
 
 NOINTEL 
 
 brothers. They commanded two ships sent by the King 
 of Spain in 1618 to explore and fortify Le Maire Strait, 
 near Cape Horn. They discovered a group of small 
 islands in latitude 56° 40', which they called "Diego 
 Ramirez," and which was the most southern land marked 
 on maps for a century or more. 
 
 See De Brosses, " Histoire des Navigations aux Terres aus- 
 trales." 
 
 Nodier, no'de-i', (Charles,) a celebrated French 
 litterateur, was born at Besancon in 1783. He studied in 
 the Central School of his native city, and soon after 
 repaired to Paris, where he published his " Painter of 
 Saltzburg," (1803,) and "The Exiles," romances in the 
 style of Werther. About this time he also wrote a 
 satirical poem entitled " La Napoleone," for which he 
 was subjected to a short banishment. Having spent 
 several years in Switzerland and Illyria, he returned to 
 Paris, where he became associate editor of the "Journal 
 des Debats," and subsequently took charge of" La Quo- 
 tidienne." On the accession of Louis XVIII. Nodier 
 obtained a title of nobility and the cross of the legion 
 of honour. He was appointed in 1824 librarian of 
 the Arsenal, in Paris. His works are numerous and 
 on various subjects, including many compositions of a 
 brilliant and original character. Among these may be 
 named his "Entomological Bibliography," (1801,) " Dic- 
 tionary of French Onomatopoeia," etc., ("Dictionnaire 
 raisonne des Onomatopees Francaises," 1808,) an etymo- 
 logical treatise of great merit, and the romances of 
 "Jean Sbogar," (1818,) "Therese Aubert," (1819,) and 
 " Picturesque and Romantic Travels in Ancient France," 
 (1820.) He was also a contributor to the "Biographie 
 Universelle." Nodier had been elected to the French 
 Academy about 1833. He died in 1844, leaving a volume 
 of " Souvenirs," in which he professes to narrate the 
 events of his early life ; but they are said to be mixed 
 with fiction. 
 
 See Mekimbe, " filoge de Nodier;" Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits 
 Litterahes ;" L.DE Lomenie, " M. Nodier, parun Homme de Rien," 
 1842; Querard, "La France Litt^raire;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generaie;" Nodier, " Souvenirs," etc., 1832. 
 
 Nodot, no'do', (Francois,) a French littirateur, who 
 lived about 1680-1700. 
 
 N06, the French for Noah, which see. 
 
 Noe, de, deh no'a', (Marc Antoine,) a French prel- 
 ate, born in 1724, was appointed in 1802 Bishop of 
 Troyes. He died the same year. 
 
 Noel, no'el', (Alexis Nicolas,) a French landscape- 
 painter and designer, born near Paris in 1792, was a 
 pupil of David. He published in 1818 a "Picturesque 
 Tour in France and Germany." 
 
 No'el, (Rev. Baptist Wriothesley,) an eminent 
 English dissenting minister, a brother of the Earl of 
 Gainsborough, was born in 1799. He was in his youth 
 a minister of the Anglican Church, which he left and 
 joined the Baptists about 1849. He became popular as 
 a preacher and as a writer and a prominent promoter of 
 benevolent enterprises and liberal movements. Among 
 his works are "Christian Missions to Heathen Nations," 
 an " Essay on Christian Baptism," (1849,) and " Letters 
 on the Church of Rome." 
 
 See the V British Quarterly Review" for February, 1840. 
 
 Noel, no'el', (Francois,) a Flemish Jesuit, born in 
 Hainault in 1651, spent many years as a missionary in 
 China. 1 le wrote several theological and scientific 
 works, in Latin. Died in 1729. 
 
 Noel, (Francois Jean Bap tiste,) a French antiquary, 
 born at Nancy in 1783 ; died in 1856. 
 
 Noel, (Francois Joseph Michel,) a French littj- 
 rateitr and diplomatist, born at Saint-Germain-en-Laye 
 about 1755. He published a " Mythological Dictionary," 
 42 vols., 1801-23,) "Lessons in Literature and Morals," 
 (2 vols., 1804,) several valuable dictionaries, and nume- 
 rous other compilations. His " French Grammar" (1823) 
 passed through forty-six editions. He became minister- 
 plenipotentiary to Venice in 1793, minister to the Hague 
 in 1795, inspector-general of public instruction in 1802, 
 and inspector-general of the University in 1808. He 
 retained the last office under several reigns. Died in 1841. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteVaire ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generaie." 
 
 Noel, (Jean Baphste,) a member of the French 
 National Convention, was born at Remiremont in 1727. 
 He voted against the death of the king, was condemned 
 to death by the Jacobins, and executed in 1793. 
 
 Noel, (Jules,) a French painter, born at Quimper 
 about 1818. 
 
 Noel de la Moriniere, no'el' deh If mo're'ne-aiR', 
 (Simon Barthelemy Joseph,) a French naturalist, born 
 at Dieppe in 1765, published, among other works, a 
 " General History of Ancient and Modern Fisheries," 
 (1815,) which was translated into Russian and German. 
 He was a member of the Imperial Academy of Saint 
 Petersburg. Died at Drontheim, Norway, in 1822. 
 
 Noel des Vergers, no'el' d& veVzha', (Joseph 
 Marin Adolphe,) a French Orientalist and antiquary, 
 born in Paris in 1805. He made a translation of Abool- 
 feda's "Life of Mohammed," (1837,) and contributed 
 numerous articles to the "Nouvelle Revue Encyclope- 
 dique," "Athenaeum Francais," and "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generaie." 
 
 Noelting. See Nolting. 
 
 Noet. See Noetus. 
 
 No-e'tus, [Fr. Noet, no'i',] a schismatic among the 
 early Christians, flourished about 240 A.D., and is sup- 
 posed to have been a native of Ephesus. He opposed 
 the doctrine of the Trinity, and his views were afterwards 
 promulgated by Sabellius, one of his disciples. 
 
 See Fleurv, " Histoire ecclesiastique." 
 
 Nogaret, no'gS'ri', (Francois Felix,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Versailles in 1740. He was the 
 author of poems, tales, dramas, and prose essays. Among 
 his works are an essay on natural history, entitled 
 " L'ApoIogie de mon Gout," (1771,) which was com- 
 mended by Voltaire, a translation or imitation of Aris- 
 tsenetus, ("L'Aristenete Francais," 1780,) and "Tales 
 in Verse," (5th edition, 1810.) Died in 1831. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generaie." 
 
 Nogaret, (Henri.) See Candale, (Henri.) 
 
 Nogaret, de, deh no'gS'ri', (Guillaume,) a French 
 statesman, born about 1260, became chancellor under 
 Philippe le Bel. Died in 13 13. 
 
 Nogaret, de, (Jacques Ramel,) a French statesman, 
 born at Carcassonne in 1760. As a member of the Na- 
 tional Convention, he voted for the death of the king. 
 He afterwards entered the Council of Five Hundred, 
 and was minister of finance under the Directory from 
 February, 1796, to July, 1799. Died in 1819. 
 
 Nogaret, de, (Jean Louis.) See Epernon, de. 
 
 Nogari, no-gj'ree, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Venice in 1699 ; died in 1763. 
 
 Nogari, (Paride,) an Italian fresco-painter, born at 
 Rome about 1535 ; died about 1600. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Nogarola, no-ga-ro'li, (Isotta,) an Italian lady, cele- 
 brated for her talents and learning, born at Verona about 
 1420 ; died in 1466. 
 
 See Ginguene, "Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie." 
 
 Nogarola, (Luigi,) an Italian scholar and theologian, 
 born at Verona about 1509. He translated several 
 Greek works into Latin, He took a prominent part at 
 the Council of Trent. i)ied in 1559. 
 
 Noghera, no-ga'ra, (Giambattista,) an Italian lit'i- 
 rateur and Jesuit, born in the Valtellina in 1719. He 
 published, besides other works, translations of the ora- 
 tions of Demosthenes, (1753.) Died in 1784. 
 
 Noguez, no'gi', (Pierre,) a French physician and 
 medical writer, born at Sauveterre about 1685. 
 
 Nohdea or Noehden, no'den, (Georg Heinrich,) 
 a German scholar and writer, born at Gottingen in 1770, 
 published a "German-and-English-Grammar," (1800,) 
 and a "German-and-English-Dictionary," (1814,) also 
 several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1826. 
 
 Nointel, de, deh nwaN'tel', (Charles Francois 
 Olier — o'le-i',) Marquis, a French diplomatist in the 
 reign of Louis XIV., was sent as ambassador to Turkey 
 in 1670. He negotiated a treaty favourable to French 
 commerce in 1673. He owes his celebrity chiefly to the 
 medals, inscriptions, and specimens of ancient art which 
 he collected in the Levant. Died in 1685. 
 
 See D'Arvieux, " Memoires." 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mit; n6t; good; moon; 
 
NOINVILLE 
 
 1683 
 
 NONNUS 
 
 Noinville, de, deh nwlN'vel', (Jacques Bernard 
 Durev,) a Krench historian, born at Dijon in 1682. He 
 wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Opera in 
 France,'' (1753.) Died in 1768. 
 
 Noir, le, leh nwaR, (Jean,) a French Jansenist priest 
 and writer, born at Alencon in 1622 ; died in 1692. 
 
 Noirlieu, de, deh nwaR'le-yh', (Louis Franqois 
 Martin,) a French theologian and religious writer, born 
 at Sainte-Menehould in 1792. He published, among 
 other works, a " Philosophic Catechism for the Use of 
 Men of the World," (1860.) 
 
 Noiiot, nwi'ro', (Joseph Mathias,) Abr£, a French 
 philosopher, born at Latrecey (Haute-Mame) in 1793. 
 He was professor of philosophy at Lyons about twenty- 
 five years. His " Lectures" were published in 1852. 
 
 Noisette, nwi'zeV, (Louis Claude,) a French horti- 
 culturist, born near Paris in 1772, published several 
 valuable works on pomology, floriculture, and similar 
 subjects. Died in 1849. 
 
 Nola, da, da no'la, (Giovanni Marliano,) an Italian 
 sculptor and architect, born near Naples, lived about 
 1500-50. 
 
 See Cicognara, "Storia della Scultura." 
 
 No'lan, (Captain Lewis Edward,) a brave English 
 officer, served under Sir Henry Pottinger in India in 
 1839. He afterwards had a part in the Russian cam- 
 paign of 1854, and was killed in the battle of Balaklava. 
 
 No'lan, (Michael,) an Irish lawyer, was the author 
 of "Reports of Cases relating to the Duty and Office 
 of a Justice of the Peace," and other practical law 
 treatises. Died in 1827. 
 
 Nolasque. See Peter Nolasque. 
 
 Nolde, nol'deh, (Adolph Friedrich,) a German 
 physician, born at Neustrelitz in 1764, became professor 
 of medicine at Halle in 1810. He published several 
 medical works. Died in 1813. 
 
 Noldius, nol'de-us, (Christian,) a Danish divine 
 and biblical writer, born in Scania in 1626 ; died in 1683. 
 
 Noli, da, da no'lee, (Antonio,) sometimes called 
 Uso di Mare, (oo'so de ma'ra,) a Genoese navigator in 
 the service of Prince Henry of Portugal, made a voyage 
 to the western coast of Africa, where he discovered the 
 Cape Verd Islands. Having joined the fleet of Cada- 
 mosto, they pursued their discoveries together. Noli 
 also accompanied Cadamosto in his second voyage, in 
 1456. 
 
 bee Baron Humboldt, " Histoire de la Ge'ographie du nouveau 
 Continent ;" Walckksaer, " Histoire ge'ne'rale des Voyages." 
 
 Nolin, no'laN', (Denis,) a French biblical critic, born 
 in Paris in 1648 ; died in 1710. 
 
 Nolin, (Jean Baptiste,) a French engraver, born in 
 Paris in 1657 ; died in 1725. 
 
 Nol'le-k?ns, (Joseph,) a celebrated English sculptor, 
 born in London in 1737, was a son of Joseph Francis, 
 noticed below. In 1760 he visited Rome, where he re- 
 sided many years and executed several works of great 
 merit. Among these were busts of Garrick and Sterne, 
 and a group representing "Timocleus and Alexander." 
 After his return he was chosen a Royal Academician, in 
 1772. He devoted himself chiefly to making portrait- 
 busts, and was extensively patronized by the nobility and 
 the fashionable world. His monument to Mrs. Howard, 
 at Corby Castle, and his statue of Venus, are ranked 
 among his master-pieces. Nollekens was noted for his 
 parsimony, and amassed a large fortune. Died in 1823. 
 
 See J. T. Smith, " Nollekens and his Times," 1S20 ; Cunning- 
 ham, " Lives of Painters, Sculptors," etc. 
 
 Nollekens, nol'leh-kens, (Josep.h Francis,) a Flem- 
 ish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp about 1690, set- 
 tled in London, where he died in 1748. 
 
 Nollet, no'lj', (Dominick,) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Bruges in 1640 ; died in 1736. 
 
 See Dkscamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands." 
 
 Nollet, no'l|', (Jean Antoine,) Abbe, an eminent 
 French philosopher, born at Pimpre, in the diocese of 
 Noyon, in 1700. On leaving college he went to Paris, 
 where he studied natural philosophy and co-operated 
 with M. Dufay in electrical experiments. In 1739 he 
 was elected to the Academy of Sciences, and repeated 
 his experiments before the Duke of Savoy in Turin. 
 He published in 1743 the first part of his " Lectures on 
 
 Experimental Physics," (" Lecons de Physique experi- 
 mentale,") the clearest and most methodical work that 
 had appeared on that subject. In this he gave the first 
 popular explanation of Newton's discoveries in light. 
 He obtained by the favour of the king the chair of ex- 
 perimental philosophy in the College of Navarre in 1756, 
 and a brevet of master of philosophy and natural history 
 to the princes-royal. He published " Researches on the 
 Causes of Electric Phenomena," (1749,) and an "Essay 
 on the Electricity of Bodies," (1750.) Died in 1770. 
 
 _ See " NeVrologe des Homines celebres de France;" *• Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Nolpe, nol'peh, (Pietf.r,) a Dutch engraver, born at 
 the Hague in 1601. Among his master-pieces is the 
 " Adoration of the Magi," after Rubens. 
 
 See Basan, " Dictionnaire des Graveurs." 
 
 Nolten, nol'ten, [Lat. Nolte'nius,] (Johann Ar- 
 nold,) a German theologian, born in Westphalia in 1683 ; 
 died in 1740. 
 
 Nolten or Nolte, nol'teh, (Johann Frielrich ) a 
 German philologist, born at Eimbeck in 1694. He pub- 
 lished "Lexicon Latinae Lingua; Antibarbarum," (1740.) 
 Died in 1754. 
 
 Nolten, (Rudolph August,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, born in 1703, published "On the Genuine Sources 
 of Russian History," (" De genuinis Historia; Russicae 
 Fontibus," 1739,) and other works. Died in 1752. 
 
 See Ballenstadt, "Vita Noltenii," 1755. 
 
 Noltenius. See Nolten. 
 
 Nolting or Noelting, nol'ting, (Johann Heinrich 
 Vincenz,) a distinguished scholar and philosopher, born 
 at Schwarzenbek, in Denmark, in 1735. He became 
 professor of philosophy and eloquence at Hamburg. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Nominoe, no-min'o-a', written also Nomenoi, an 
 Armorican chief, who became King of Bretagne, was 
 born about 790 or 800 a.d. He was created Duke of 
 the Bretons by the emperor Louis le Debonnaire in 826 
 A.D. After the death of Louis, (840,) he raised the 
 standard of independence, and defeated Charles the 
 Bald, who led an army to reduce him to subjection. 
 Died in 851. 
 
 See A. de Courson, "Histoire des Peuples Bretons," 1846; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Nomsz, nomz, (Jan,) a Dutch poet and dramatist, 
 born at Amsterdam in 1738. He was the author of an 
 epic poem on William I., Prince of Orange, (1779,) and 
 tragedies entitled "Maria van Lalain," "Zoroaster," and 
 "Duchess de Coralli." The first of these dramas was 
 very popular. Died in 1803. 
 
 See De Vries, " Histoire de la Po^sie Hollandaise." 
 
 Nonius, (Louis.) See Nunez. 
 
 No'nI-us, (Marcellus,) a Roman grammarian of the 
 fourth century, wrote a work entitled " De Proprietate 
 Sermonis," which is valued for the passages it contains 
 from Latin writers not extant. 
 
 Nonnos. See Nonnus. 
 
 Nonnotte, no'not', (Claude Francois,) a French 
 Jesuit, born at Besancon in 171 1, published, besides 
 other books of little merit, a work entitled " Errors of 
 Voltaire," (2 vols., 1762,) which elicited several bitter 
 rejoinders from that writer. Died in 1793. 
 
 Nonnotte, (Donat,) a French painter, brother of 
 the preceding, born at Besancon in 1707 ; died in 1 785. 
 
 Non'nus or Nonnos, [Nurooc,] a Greek poet, who 
 lived about 410 A.D., was a native of Panopolis, in Egypt, 
 and probably a Christian. His only extant works are 
 a " Paraphrase of Saint John," and a long poem en- 
 titled " Dionysiaca," or the History of Bacchus. It is 
 bombastic in style, and is chiefly valued for the infor- 
 mation it contains on mythological subjects not to be 
 found elsewhere. 
 
 See Wkichbkt, " Dissertatio de Nonno," tSio; S. Uwarrow, 
 " Nonnos von Panopolis," 1817; A. F. Naeke, "De Nonno Inii- 
 tatore Homeri," 1835. 
 
 Nonnus or No'nus, (Theophanes,) a Greek phy- 
 sician of the tenth century, was the author of a com- 
 pendium of Medicine, ("Compendium totius Artis 
 Medicae,") which he dedicated to the emperor Con- 
 stantine Porphyrogenitus. 
 
 See Freind, " History of Physic ;" Haller, " Bibliotheca 
 Medica," etc 
 
 eas/t; 9 as jy g hard; gas_/; G, H, YL, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; sass; th as in this. (J[y=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NOODT 
 
 1684 
 
 A ORG ATE 
 
 Noodt, not, (Geraert,) one of the most eminent 
 jurists of his time, was bom at Nymwegen in 1647. He 
 became successively professor of law at Franeker, (1679,) 
 Utrecht, (1684,) and Leyden, (1686.) He was also rector 
 of the University of Leyden. Among his principal 
 works, which are written in elegant Latin, we may name 
 his "Probabilia Juris Civilis," (1674-79,) and "On the 
 Rights of Sovereign Power," ("De Jure Summi Im- 
 perii," etc., 1707.) Died in 1725. 
 
 See Barbeyrac, " Historica Vita Auctoris Narratio," prefixed to 
 the collected works of Noodt, 1735. 
 
 Nooms, 116ms, (Rbmi,) a Dutch marine painter and 
 engraver, surnamed Zeeman, (" Seaman,") born at Am- 
 sterdam in 1612; died about 1672. 
 
 Noor-ed-D.een, Nour-Eddyn, Noureddin, or 
 Nureddin, noor-eM-deen', (" Light of the Faith,") 
 (Mahmood- (Mahmoud- or Mahmud-) Malek-al- 
 Adel, maii'modd' nial'ek-ai-a'del,*) a celebrated Sultan 
 ol Syria and Egypt, was born at Damascus in 1 1 16. In 
 1 146 he successfully opposed the attempts of Louis VII. 
 of France and other crusading princes to recapture 
 Edessa and possess themselves of Damascus, which, 
 after he had conquered the greater part of Syria, he 
 made the capital of his dominions. He took advantage 
 of the dissensions which agitated Egypt in 1163 to es- 
 tablish his power in that country, where he appointed 
 his general Shirakoh governor in 1 168. The most im- 
 portant event in the subsequent part of Noor-ed-Deen's 
 reign was the extirpation of the Sheeah heresy in Egypt. 
 Noor-ed-I)een'was one of the most able and virtuous 
 of Oriental rulers, and his piety and integrity made him 
 the idol of his subjects, who gave him the surname of 
 " Light of the Faith." Died in 1173. 
 
 See Michaud, "Histoire des Croisades;" Guillaume de Tyr, 
 " Histoire des Croisades." 
 
 Noor-ed-Deen, Noureddin, or Nureddin, (Ma- 
 lek-al-Mansoor, nidl'ek-al-nian'sooR',) second Sultan 
 of the dynasty of Tartar Mamelukes in Egypt, succeeded 
 his father Ibek in 1257. He was deposed at the end of 
 two years, on account of his youth and inexperience, and 
 the Emir Kotuz ruled in his stead. 
 
 Noor-eddin, Nour-eddin, or Nureddin, (Arslan 
 Shah, ars-lSn' shah,) Prince of Mesopotamia, was grand- 
 nephew of the celebrated Noor-ed-Deen, and ascended 
 the throne in 1 193. He governed with wisdom and 
 ability, and recovered much of the power of which his 
 family had been deprived. Died in 1210. 
 
 Noort, van, vtn noRt, sometimes written Oort, 
 (Adam,) a skilful Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 
 1 557, was a son of Lambert, noticed below. He was a 
 good colorist. His habits were intemperate. He was 
 the master of Rubens, who expressed a high opinion of 
 his talents. Died in 1641. 
 
 See Weverman, " De Schilderkonst der Nederlanders." 
 
 Noort, van, (Lambert,) a Flemish painter and 
 architect, born at Amersfoort in 1520. He settled at 
 Antwerp, and was admitted into the Academy of Ant- 
 werp in 1547. 
 
 Noort, van, (Oliver,) the first Dutch navigator who 
 sailed around the world, was born at Utrecht in 1568. 
 An account of his voyage, published in 1602, was trans- 
 lated into several languages. Died after 161 1. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Noot, van, vSn not, (Hendrik Nikolaas,) leader 
 of the Belgian revolution of 1788, was born at Brussels 
 in 1750. The revolt against the Emperor of Austria 
 being suppressed in 1790, he was compelled to leave 
 the country. Died in 1827. 
 
 See Drwez, *' Histoire de la Belgique." 
 
 Noowairee or Nouwairi, nd"6-wi'ree, written also 
 Nowairi and Nuwayri, an eminent Arabian historian 
 and scholar, born in Egypt about 1283. He was the 
 author of a valuable work on history, chronology, moral 
 philosophy, and natural science. 
 
 See Haji-Khai.fa, "Bibliographic Lexicon." 
 
 Nop, nop, (Gerrit,) a Dutch painter, born at Haarlem 
 in 1570. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Nor. See Norvi. 
 
 * Malek-el-Adel signifies "the Noble King.' 
 
 Nor-ba'nus, (Caius,) a Roman general, was tribune 
 of the people in 95 B.C., and prastor in Sicily about 
 the year 90. In the civil war between Sulla and Marus 
 he was a partisan of the latter. He became consul in 
 83 B.C., and commanded an army which was defeated 
 by Sulla in Campania. He killed himself about 81 B.C. 
 
 See Cicero, "De Oratore." 
 
 Norberg. See Nordberg. 
 
 Norberg, noR'b^RG, (Matthias,) a Swedish Orien- 
 talist, born in 1747, became professor of the Oriental 
 languages at Lund. He wrote a treatise "On the Re- 
 ligion and Language of the Sabaeans," (1780,) in Latin, 
 and other learned works. D' e d in 1826. 
 
 See LiKdfors, "Memoria M. Norberg," 1832 ; Lindgren, "Me« 
 moria M. Norberg," 1832. 
 
 Norbert, Pere. See Parisot, (Pierre.) 
 Nor'bert, [Fr. pron. noR'baiK',] Saint, a French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Santen, was created Archbishop of 
 Magdeburg in 1 126. He had founded in 1 120 a religious 
 association at Premontre, in the diocese of Laon, since 
 celebrated as the order of the Premonstrants. He died 
 in 1 134, and was canonized by Gregory XIII. in 1582. 
 See Hugo. "Vie de Saint-Norbert," 1704: "Gallia Christiana." 
 
 Norblin, noR'blaN', (Sebastian Louis William,) 
 son of the following, was born at Warsaw in 1796, and 
 studied painting under Regnault. He produced a num- 
 ber of historical pictures. He gained the first prize in 
 Paris in 1825. 
 
 Norblin de la Gourdaine, noR'blaN' deh It gooR'- 
 djn', (Jean Pierre,) a skilful French painter and en- 
 graver, born near Montereau in 1 745, worked in Warsaw 
 from 1774 to 1804. Died in 1830. 
 
 Nordberg, noRcl'WRg, or Norberg, noR'WRg, 
 (Georg,) a Swedish historian, and chaplain to Charles 
 XII. of Sweden, was born at Stockholm in 1677. He 
 was the author of a "History of Charles XII.," (2 vols., 
 1740,) which, though unattractive in style, is valued for 
 its accuracy. Died in 1744. 
 
 Norden, noR'den, (Frederick Louis,) a Danish artist 
 and writer, born at Gliickstadt in 1708. Having studied 
 in Italy, he was sent by the government in 1737 to de- 
 scribe and copy the monuments of Egypt. After his 
 return he entered the English service, and fought against 
 Spain in the campaign of 1740. He died in 1742, leav- 
 ing " Travels in Egypt and Nubia," which were published 
 in French, (2 vols., 1755.) This work, containing one 
 hundred and fifty-nine plates, was translated into Eng- 
 lish and German. 
 
 See Mrusel, "Bibliotheca Historica :" Kraft og Nyerup, 
 " Litteraturlexicon ;" " Monthly Review" for September, 1756. 
 
 Nor'den, (John,) an English engraver and writer, 
 born in Wiltshire about 1548. He published the "Spe- 
 culum Britannia?," etc., and " The Surveyor's Dialogue," 
 (1607.) Died about 1626. 
 
 See Gough, " Anecdotes of British Topography." 
 
 Nordenflycht, noR ' den - fltikt', (Hedwige Char- 
 lotte,) a Swedish authoress, born in 1 7 18, published 
 poems entitled "The Passage of the Belts," "Victory 
 of the Duna," " Sweden Emancipated," (" Den fralsa 
 Swea,") and "An Apology for Women, against J. J. 
 Rousseau." Died in 1763. 
 
 See Howitt, " Literature and Romance of Northern Europe ;" 
 Ruhs, " Schicksale der schonen Redektinste in Schweden." 
 
 Nordin, non-deen', (Karl Gustaf,) a Swedish prel- 
 ate, born at Stockholm in 1749, became Bishop of Her- 
 nosand. Died in 1812. 
 
 Nores, di, de no<r?s, (Giasone,) born at Nicosia, in 
 the island of Cyprus, became professor of moral phi- 
 losophy at Padua. He was the author of several critical 
 and philosophical works. Died in 1590. 
 
 Norfolk, Duke of. See Howard, (Thomas,) and 
 Howard, (Charles.) 
 
 Norfolk, nor'fok, (Henry Granville Frrz Alan 
 Howard,) Duke of, was born in London in 1815. lie 
 was a member of the House of Commons before the 
 death of his father, (1856.) He was a Roman Catholic, 
 and advocated the cause of his fellow-believers in Parlia- 
 ment. Died in i860. 
 
 Nor'gate, (Edward,) an English artist, celebrated 
 for his skill in illuminating or colouring engravings. His 
 
 i, e, T, o, B, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, li, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n5t; good; moon; 
 
NOR IS 
 
 1685 
 
 NORTH 
 
 performances are highly commended by Fuller. Died 
 in 1650. 
 
 See Fuller, "Worthies;" Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." 
 Noris, no'r6ss, (Henry,) a learned Italian theologian, 
 of English extraction, was born at Verona in 1631. He 
 was appointed by Pope Innocent XII. chief librarian 
 of the Vatican, and was made a cardinal in 1695. He 
 wrote a " History of Pelagianism," and several valuable 
 antiquarian treatises. Died in 1704. 
 
 See Fabroni, " ViUe Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 Noris, (Mattko,) a prolific Italian dramatic poet, 
 born in Venice alx>ut 1640; died about 1 7 10. 
 
 Nor'man-by\ (Constantinf. Hknrv Phipps,) Mar- 
 quis of, an English statesman, son of Henry, first Earl 
 of Mulgrave, was born in 1797. He studied at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, and in 1818 became a member of 
 Parliament for Scarborough. He there distinguished 
 himself as the advocate of Catholic emancipation and 
 parliamentary reform. In 1831 he succeeded to the title 
 of Earl Mulgrave, and in 1832 was appointed Governor 
 of Jamaica. He became lord privy seal in 1834, lord 
 lieutenant of Ireland in 1835, and was secretary of 
 state for the home department from 1839 to 1841. He 
 received the title of Marquis of Normanby in 1838. 
 He was subsequently employed on embassies to France 
 and Italy. He published in 1857 "A Year of Revolu- 
 tion, from a Journal kept in Paris in 1848." Lord Nor- 
 manby was also the author of novels entitled " Matilda," 
 (1825,) and "The Contrast." Died in 1863. 
 See Capefigue, " Diplomates Europeans." 
 
 Normanby, Earl of. See Mulgrave, (Henry 
 Philip Phipps.) " 
 
 Normand. See Le Normand. 
 
 Normand, iior'uion', (Alfred Nicolas,) a French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1822. He obtained a medal 
 of the first class in 1855. 
 
 Normand, (Charles Pierre Joseph,) a French 
 architect and engraver, born in the department of 
 Somme in 1765. He published several professional 
 works. Died in 1840. 
 
 Normand, (Claude Joseph,} a French physician, 
 born in Franche-Comte in 1704; died in 1761. 
 
 Normand, (Louis Marie,) a French engraver, a son 
 of Charles Pierre Joseph, noticed above, was born in 
 Paris in 1789. He engraved the "Marriage at Cana," 
 after Paul Veronese, and published several illustrated 
 works, among which is " Monuments Francais," etc., (2 
 parts, 1830-47.) 
 
 Nor'man-dy\ (Alphonse,) an English chemist and 
 writer, born about 1810, was a coadjutor of Dr. lire. 
 He published a " Hand-Book of Chemistry," and "The 
 Chemical Atlas," and invented a valuable apparatus for 
 the distillation of aerated fresh water from sea-water. 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Normann, noR'min, (Lars,) a Swedish prelate, born 
 at Strengnas in 1651. He became professor of Oriental 
 languages at Upsal in 1681, and in 1703 Bishop of 
 Gothenburg. He died the same year. 
 
 See A. Norreljus, "Vita L. Normanni," 1738. 
 
 Normann-Ehrenfels, noR'man a'ren-fSls', (Karl 
 Friedkich Leiirecht,) son of the following, was born 
 in 1784. He entered the French service, and held a 
 command in the Russian campaign of 1812. He after- 
 wards fought for the Greeks in 1822, and had a share 
 in the victory of Kombotti. Died in November, 1822. 
 
 Normann-Ehrenfels, (PhilippChristian,) Count, 
 a distinguished statesman, born in Swedish Pomerania 
 in 1756, entered the service of Duke Charles of Wiirtem- 
 berg. He rose to be minister of state in 1802, and was 
 created a count in 1806. Died in 1807. 
 
 Normant, noR'mftN', (Alexis,) an eloquent French 
 advocate, born in Paris in 1697 ; died in 1745. 
 
 Normant, (Antoine,) a benevolent French manu- 
 facturer, born at Romorantin in 1783. He was propri- 
 etor of a large manufactory of cloth at Romorantin. 
 
 Norn or Noma. See Nornas. 
 
 Nor'nas or Noma, sometimes called in the English 
 plural Nor'nies, [Norse plural, Nornir,*] three virgins, 
 
 • The etymology is unknown. " The word Norn," says Thorpe, 
 "does not occur in any kindred dialect." 
 
 called Urd, (Urdr, or Urda,) Verdandi, and Skuld, (or 
 Skulk!,) — the Past, the Present, and the Future, — whc 
 preside over the destiny of men and gods. They corre- 
 spond to the Parcae (Molpat) of classic mythology. 
 
 See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Keyser, " Religion 
 of the Northmen." 
 
 Nornies, an English plural form of Norna or Norn. 
 See Nornas. 
 
 Norns. See Nornas. 
 
 Norona, no-r6n'ya, (Caspar Maria de Nava Al- 
 varez,) a Spanish soldier and poet, born at Castcllon 
 de la Plana in 1 760, served against the French republic, 
 and attained the rank of lieutenant-general. He pub- 
 lished an epic poem entitled "La Omtniada," an ode on 
 the death of the poet Cadalso, who fell, while fighting 
 by his side, at Gibraltar, and a number of lyrics. Died 
 in 1816. 
 
 Noronha, no-R6n'yi, (Affonso,) a Portuguese cap- 
 tain, born in the fifteenth century, was a nephew of 
 Albuquerque. He captured Socotora in 1508. Died in 
 India in 1540. 
 
 See Faria v Souza, " Asia Portugueza." 
 
 Nor'ris, (Edwin,) an English ethnologist and linguist, 
 bom at Taunton in 1795. He was appointed in 1S47 
 translator to the foreign office, and in 1856 principal sec- 
 retary to the Royal Asiatic Society. He has contributed 
 a number of valuable treatises to the "Transactions" of 
 that society and to the "Penny Cyclopaedia." He is 
 also editor of the "Ethnographical Library." 
 
 Norris, (Sir John,) an English general, was a son of 
 Lord Norris of Rycot. He was distinguished by the 
 favour of Queen Elizabeth, who sent him in 1585 to 
 assist the Dutch in their war against the Spaniards. 
 His skill and bravery were conspicuous in the principal 
 campaigns, and he won the reputation of one of the 
 best English soldiers of the time. 
 
 See Motley, " United Netherlands," vol. i. chap, vi., and vol. ii. 
 chap. xiii. 
 
 Norris, (John,) an English philosopher and mystical 
 divine, born in Wiltshire in 1657. He was educated at 
 Exeter College, Oxford, and became an admirer of Plato, 
 who was his favourite author. About 1690 he was ap- 
 pointed rector of Bemerton, near Salisbury. He was a 
 disciple of Malebranche. He published "An Idea of 
 Happiness," (1683,) "The Theory and Regulation of 
 Love," (1688,) and other works on religion and philoso- 
 phy. His principal philosophical work is "An Essay 
 towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World," 
 (2 vols., 1701-04,) in which he develops the system of 
 Malebranche and controverts the opinions of Locke. 
 Died in 171 1. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Norris, (Sir John,) an English naval officer of high 
 rank, entered the navy in 1689. He was called Foul- 
 Weather Jack. Died in 1749. 
 
 Norris, (John,) born in Norfolk in 1734, bequeathed 
 to the University of Cambridge one hundred and ninety 
 pounds per annum for the endowment of. a divinity 
 professorship and prize essay which bear his name. 
 Died in 1777. 
 
 Norris, (Robert,) an English traveller, visited Daho- 
 mey, and other parts of Western Africa, of which he 
 published an account in 1789. Died in 1792. 
 
 See Walckenaer, " Histoire ge'ne'rale des Voyages." 
 
 Norry, no're', (Charles,) a French architect, born 
 near Paris in 1756, accompanied the scientific expedition 
 to Egypt, and published in 1799 a description of some 
 of the monuments of that country. Died in 1832. 
 
 North, (Christopher.) See Wilson, (John.) 
 
 North, (Dudley,) Lord, an English writer and poli- 
 tician, born in 1 581, was an adherent of the Parliament 
 during the civil war. He died in 1666, leaving a collec- 
 tion of poems and prose works. 
 
 North, (Dudley,) Lord, son of the preceding, born 
 in 1604, wrote the "Life of Edward, Lord North," and 
 several other works. Died in 1677. 
 
 See R. North, " Lives of the Norths." 
 
 North, (Sir Dudley,) an English merchant and able 
 financier, born in 1641, was a brother of Lord-Keeper 
 Guildford. In his youth he passed many years in mer- 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this, (fty See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NORTH 
 
 1686 
 
 NORTHUMBERLAND 
 
 candle pursuits at Smyrna and Constantinople. Having 
 acquired wealth, he returned home, (1680,) and became 
 a London merchant. "He had meditated deeply on the 
 philosophy of trade," says Macaulay, "and thought out, 
 by degrees, a complete and admirable theory," substan- 
 tially the same as that of Adam Smith. He was chosen 
 a commissioner of customs and of the treasury, and 
 elected to Parliament. About 1685 he was the person 
 on whom the lord treasurer chiefly relied for the conduct 
 of financial business in the lower House. He wrote a 
 "Voyage from Smyrna, with an Account of Turkey." 
 Died in 1691. 
 
 See Roger North, "Life of Sir Dudley North," 1740-42. 
 
 North, (Sir Edward,) a distinguished English lawyer 
 under the reigns of Henry VIII. and Queen Mary. Died 
 in 1564. 
 
 North, (Francis,) Baron Guildford or Guilford, com- 
 monly styled Lord-Keeper Guilford, was the son of 
 Lord Dudley North, and was born in 1637. About 1655 
 he entered as a student the Middle Temple. Soon after 
 he was called to the bar he went on the Norfolk circuit, 
 where his family interest lay, and relied for success on 
 sycophantic arts. He was appointed solicitor-general 
 in 1671, attorney-general in 1673, and chief justice of the 
 common pleas in 1675. He was the obsequious servant 
 of the court, and an ultra-royalist, or Tory, in politics. 
 "He was a party," says Macaulay, "to some of the 
 foulest judicial murders recorded in our history." In 
 1682 he obtained the great seal, with the title of lord 
 keeper. On the accession of James II. (February, 1685) 
 the great seal was left in his custody, but he was super- 
 sided in his political functions by his rival, Lord Jeffreys. 
 Lord Guilford died in September, 1685, leaving his title 
 to his son Francis. 
 
 See Roger North, " Life of Francis North :" Lord Campbell, 
 "Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 
 (1820 ;) Macaulav, " History of England," vol. i. chap. ii. 
 
 North, (Frederick,) second Earl of Guildford, an 
 English Tory statesman, better known as Lord North, 
 was born in 1733. He was a son of Francis, Earl of 
 Guildford, who died in 1790, and was a great-grandson 
 of the lord keeper of that name. In 1763 he was chosen 
 one of the lords of the treasury. He became chancellor 
 of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons 
 in 1769. He was a successful debater, and, on account 
 of his wit and suavity of temper, a great favourite with 
 the House. He also gained the extraordinary favour of 
 the king by his readiness to accept the responsibility 
 of prime minister in the emergency which arose on the 
 resignation of the Duke of Grafton in 1770. The prin- 
 cipal event of his administration was the American war, 
 which he prosecuted with great pertinacity. Though 
 fiercely assailed by Burke, Fox, and Lord Chatham, he 
 maintained his power with eminent tact and ability, and 
 was supported by large majorities in the House, until 
 March, 1782, when he resigned, after the surrender of 
 CornwalHs had terminated the American war. He re- 
 tained, however, the royal favour until he entered into 
 the ill-omened coalition with Fox against the Shelbume 
 ministry. In March, 1783, Lord North became secretary 
 of state in the coalition ministry of which the Duke of 
 Portland was the nominal head. He was dismissed in 
 December, 1783, when Pitt became premier. In 1790 
 he succeeded to the earldom of Guildford. Died in 1792. 
 "As a statesman," says Lord Brougham, "his merits 
 are confessedly far inferior to those which clothed him 
 as a debater and a man. The American war is the great 
 blot on his fame." 
 
 See Lord Brougham, "Statesmen of theTime of George III. ;" 
 Macaulav, "Essays," article "Chatham:" Lodge, " Portraits of 
 Illustrious Personages." 
 
 North, (George,) an English antiquary, born in 
 London in 1710, published several treatises on numis- 
 matics. Died in 1772. 
 
 North, (John,) D.D., a son of Lord Dudley North, 
 was born in 1645. He became professor of Greek at 
 Cambridge, and published editions of several works of 
 Plato. Died in 1683. 
 
 See Roger North, " Life of John North." 
 
 North, (Roger,) a younger son of Lord Dudley 
 North, and a brother of Sir Dudley North, was born 
 
 about 1650. He studied law, and became steward of the 
 courts to Archbishop Sheldon. He was author of several 
 works, the most important of which is " The Lives of 
 Francis North, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, Sir 
 Dudley North, and Kev. John North," (1740-42.) This 
 is written in an affected, pedantic style, but contains 
 valuable matter. Died in 1733. 
 
 See Roger North, "Lives of the Norths." 
 
 North, (Sir Thomas,) an English writer, translated 
 " The Dial of Princes" from the French, and the " Moral 
 Philosophy" of Doni from the Italian. He also made 
 the first translation of Plutarch's " Lives" into English, 
 (1579.) He died after 1579. 
 
 Northampton, Earl of. See Howard, (Henry.) 
 
 Nor-thamp'ton, (Spencer Joshua Alwyne CoMf- 
 ton,) Marquis of, an English patron of science and 
 literature, was born in 1790. He became president of 
 the Royal Society. Died in 185 1. 
 
 North'cote, (James,) an English artist, celebrated as 
 a portrait and historical painter, born at Plymouth in 
 1746. Having studied under Sir Joshua Reynolds, he 
 visited Italy in 1777, and, after his return, was made a 
 Royal Academician. Among his best productions are 
 "Hubert and Arthur" and "The Murder of the Princes 
 in the Tower." He also published "The Life of Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds," (1813,) and several able treatises on 
 Art. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Cunningham, " Lives of British Painters," etc. 
 
 Northcote, (Sir Stafford,) an English conservative 
 politician, born in London about 1818. He became 
 president of the board of trade in June, 1866, and sec- 
 retary Tor India in March, 1867. He resigned with his 
 colleagues in December, 1868. 
 
 Northington, Lord. See Henley, (Robert.) 
 
 Nor-thum'ber-land, ( Algernon Percy, ) tenth 
 Earl of, born in 1602, was a son of Henry, ninth earl. 
 He was lord high admiral under Charles I. Died in 1668. 
 
 Northumberland, (Algernon Percy,) Duke of, 
 a British peer, born in 1792. He entered the navy in 
 his youth, and served against the French. In 1847 he 
 inherited the dukedom at the death of his brother Henry. 
 He obtained the rank of rear-admiral about 1850. Died 
 in 1865. 
 
 Northumberland, Duke of. See Dudley, (John.) 
 
 Northumberland, (Henry Percy,) first Earl of, 
 an English commander, was a son of Henry Percy. His 
 mother was Mary, a daughter of the Earl of Lancaster, 
 and a great-granddaughter of King Henry III. He was 
 a friend of WyclifTe, the Reformer. In 1377 he was 
 created Earl of Northumberland by Richard II. He 
 was one of the chief agents of the revolution which 
 raised Henry IV. to the throne in 1399. In 1402 Percy 
 defeated the Scotch under Douglas at Homildon Hill. 
 He united with his son Hotspur in rebellion against the 
 king in 1403, and was killed in battle in 1408. 
 
 Northumberland, (Henry Percy,) second Earl 
 of, was a son of Hotspur. He succeeded his grand- 
 father, the first earl, in 1408, and was restored to the 
 earldom by Henry V. In the civil war of the Roses he 
 fought for the house of Lancaster, and was killed at the 
 battle of Saint Alban's, in 1455. His son, the third earl, 
 fell at the battle of Towton, in 1460. 
 
 Northumberland, (Henry Percy,) ninth Earl of, 
 surnamed the Wizard, born in 1563, was a son of 
 Henry, the eighth earl, who died in the Tower in 1585. 
 He commanded a ship in the battle against the Invin- 
 cible Armada in 1588. He was a cousin of Thomas 
 Percy, an accomplice in the Gunpowder Plot, (1605,) 
 and, although the earl himself was a Protestant, he was 
 confined many years in the Tower on suspicion. He 
 acquired the appellation of " Wizard" by his study of 
 occult sciences in prison. Died in 1632. 
 
 See Lodge, " Portraits of Illustrious Personages ;" Clarendon, 
 "History of the Rebellion." ' 
 
 Northumberland, (Hugh Percy,) Duke of, born 
 in 1742, was a son of Sir Hugh Smithson, who was au- 
 thorized to take the name of Percy. He entered the 
 army, served at Bunker Hill, (1775,) and gained the rank 
 of general. In 1 786 he inherited the title of duke. Died 
 in 181 7. 
 
 See Burke, " Peerage;" "Gentleman's Magazine," 1817. 
 
 S, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; flr, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
NORTHUMBERLAND 
 
 1687 
 
 NOT A 
 
 Northumberland, (Hugh Percy,) Duke of, son 
 of the preceding, was born in 1785, and inherited his 
 father's title in 1817. He favoured the Tory party. He 
 was a liberal patron of science, and was much interested 
 in botany and horticulture. Died in 1847. 
 
 Noi'tpn, (Andrews,) D.D., an eminent American 
 theologian and scholar, born at Hingham, Massachusetts, 
 in 1786. He graduated in 1804 at Harvard College, and 
 in 1813 succeeded Dr. Channing as biblical lecturer in 
 that institution. He filled the chair of Dexter professor 
 of sacred literature at Harvard from 1819 till 1830. His 
 most important work is entitled "Evidences of the Gen- 
 uineness of the Gospels," (3 vols., 1837-44.) He was 
 for a time editor of the "General Repository and Re- 
 view," published at Cambridge, and contributed many 
 able articles to the religious and literary periodicals of 
 the time. Among these may be named articles on 
 " Franklin" and " Byron," in the "North American Re- 
 view." In his theological views Dr. Norton was a 
 Unitarian of the conservative school. He married a 
 daughtei of Samuel Eliot, of Boston. Died at Newport 
 la 1853. He left a "Translation of the Gospels," pub- 
 lished in 1856. " He displayed," says R. W. Griswold, 
 "exact and comprehensive learning and a style singu- 
 larly clear, compact, and beautiful." (" Prose Writers 
 of America.") He also wrote poems which were much 
 admired. 
 
 Norton, (Asahel Strong,) an American minister, 
 born at Farmington, Connecticut, in 1766. He preached 
 at Clinton, New York, for many years. Died in 1853. 
 
 Nor'ton, (Caroline Elizabeth Sarah,) an emi- 
 nent English writer, born in 1808, is a granddaughter 
 of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. She received a superior 
 education, and in her seventeenth year wrote a volume 
 of poetry entitled "The Sorrows of Rosalie," which was 
 published anonymously, (1829.) In 1827 she was mar- 
 ried to the Hon. George Chappie Norton ; but this 
 union proved most unfortunate, and a divorce took 
 place between the parties in 1836. She had published 
 in 1830 her poem of "The Undying One," which was 
 received with great favour. It was succeeded by "A 
 Voice from the Factories," (1836,) "The Dream, and 
 other Poems," ( 1 840,) " The Child of the Islands," (1845,) 
 and "Aunt Carry's Ballads," (1847.) She has also written 
 a romance, entitled "Stuart of Dunleith," (1847,) and 
 "Tales and Sketches in Prose and Verse," (1850,) many 
 of which are remarkable for their fidelity to nature, 
 pathos, and intensity of feeling. Among her more recent 
 works are a " Letter to the Queen on Lord Cranworth's 
 Marriage and Divorce Bill," (1855,) " Lives of the Sheri- 
 dans," "1-ady of La Garaye," (1861,) and "Lost and 
 Saved," (1863.) Mrs. Norton is described by Mrs. Sedg- 
 wick, in her "Letters from Abroad," as the perfection 
 of intellectual and physical beauty, uniting masculine 
 force with feminine delicacy. 
 
 See Moir, " Sketches of the Poetical Literature of the Past Half- 
 Century," 1851 ; Rowton, " Female Poets of Great Britain," (with 
 a portrait :) " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1831 ; " London Quar- 
 terly Review" for September, 1S40. and June. 1845 ; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for September, 1830, (with a portrait;) "Westminster 
 Review" for June, 1845. 
 
 Norton, (Lady Frances,) an English moralist and 
 writer, born about 1650, was the wife of Sir George 
 Norton. She wrote " Memento Mori," and "The Ap- 
 plause of Virtue," (1705.) Died in 1720. 
 
 See Pbudhommr, ** Biographie des Femmes celebres." 
 
 Norton, (John,) an English writer of the seventeenth 
 century, published a work entitled " The Scholar's Vade- 
 Mecum." 
 
 Norton, (John,) a learned Puritan divine and theo- 
 logical wiiter, born in Hertfordshire. England, in 1606, 
 emigrated in 1635 to America, and became a minister at 
 Boston. Died in 1663. 
 
 Norton, (John P.,) an American chemist, was pro- 
 fessor of agricultural chemistry at Yale College. Died 
 in 1851. 
 
 Norton, (Thomas,) an English Calvim'stic writer, 
 born in Bedfordshire in the sixteenth century, published 
 some tracts against popery. He is also said to have 
 assisted Sackville in his tragedy of " Ferrex and Porrex." 
 
 See Warton, " History of English Poetry;" Ellis, "Specimens 
 of the Early English Poets." 
 
 Norvi (nor've) or Nor, written also Narfi, [etymology 
 doubtful,] a giant mentioned in the "Edda" as the first 
 of all the inhabitants of Jotunheim. He had a daughter 
 named Night, who was married to Anar or Onar.* The 
 offspring of this union was the Earth. She afterwards 
 became the wife of Delling or Dellinger, (i.e. the " Dawn,") 
 and bore to him a bright and beautiful son called Day. 
 Then Odin took Night and Day and placed them in 
 heaven, and gave them two horses and two cars, that 
 they might journey in succession round the world. Night 
 rides first with her horse, called Rimfaxi or Hrimfaxi, 
 (brim- (or hreem-) fik'se, — that is, " Frosty-mane,") who 
 every morning bedews the earth with foam from his 
 bit. ■ The horse of Day is named Skinfaxi, (or " Shining- 
 mane,") because his radiant mane sends forth the light 
 which illuminates heaven and earth. 
 
 See Mallet, " Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. fable vi. ; Tuokpe, 
 "Northern Mythology," vol. i. 
 
 Norvins, de, deh noR'viN', (Jacques Marquet— 
 maVk&',) Baron de Montbreton, (mON'bKeli-tON',) a 
 French litterateur and politician, born in Paris in 1769. 
 He wrote a "Picture of the French Revolution," (1819,) 
 a " History of Napoleon," (9th edition, 4 vols., 1839,) and 
 other works. Died in 1854. 
 
 Nor'wood, (Richard,) an English geometer, who 
 lived about 1630-50, was the author of several treatises 
 on trigonometry, navigation, etc. He is chiefly celebrated 
 for having been one of the first who measured a degree 
 of the meridian. 
 
 See Hutton, "Mathematical Dictionary." 
 
 Nosselt or Noesselt, nos'selt, (Johann August,) a 
 German theologian, born at Halle in 1734 ; died in 1807. 
 
 Nos'sis, a Greek poetess, born at Locris or Locri, 
 in Southern Italy, flourished about 310 B.C. She wrote 
 graceful epigrams, twelve of which are in the Greek 
 Anthology. 
 
 See Benti.kv, "Dissertation upon the Epistles of Phalaris." 
 
 Nostitz und Janckendorf, von, fort nos'tits oont 
 y?n'ken-doRf, (Gorri.oB Adolf Ernst,) a German 
 poet, known under the pseudonym of Arthur von 
 Nordstern, was born in Upper Lusatia in 1765. He 
 was the author of " Songs for Free-Masons," " Christian 
 Emblems," and other poems. Died in 1836. 
 
 His son, Eduard Gotti.or, rose through various 
 offices to be minister of the interior for the kingdom of 
 Saxony. 
 
 Nos-tra-da'mus or Notre-Dame, not'R-d3m', (Mi- 
 chel,) a famous F'rench astrologer and physician, of Jew- 
 ish extraction, born at Saint-Remi, in Provence, in 1503. 
 During the prevalence of the plague at Aix and Lyons 
 (1546-47) he acquired a high reputation from the cures 
 he effected with a medicine of his own invention. In 
 1555 he published a collection of prophecies, (in verse,) 
 entitled " Centuries," which caused a great sensation 
 and obtained for him the favour and patronage of Cathe- 
 rine de Medicis. He was invited by her to Paris, loaded 
 with favours, and charged to draw the horoscope of the 
 princes, her sons. He afterwards became physician-in- 
 ordinary to Charles IX. He died in 1556. Several of 
 his predictions are said to have been fulfilled. Owing to 
 his having foretold the downfall of Romanism, his works 
 were interdicted by the pope, (1781.) 
 
 See E. Jaurert, "Vie de M. Nostradamus," 1656; P.J. Da 
 HaitZE. "Vie de M. Nostradamus," 1712; "La Vie de Nostra- 
 d.timis," (anonymous,) Paris. 1789: E. Bareste. "Nostradamus," 
 Paris, 1842 ; Th. Bouys, " Considerations stir Ies Sibyles et sur 
 Nostradamus," 1806. 
 
 Nota, no'ta, (Alberto,) an Italian dramatist, born at 
 Turin in 1775, was the author of several popular plays 
 of the class called sentimental comedy. Among these 
 may be named "The Duchess of La Valliere," "The 
 Widow in Solitude," and " Domestic Peace." They 
 have passed through numerous editions, and have been 
 translated into F'rench, German, Spanish, Swedish, and 
 Russian. Died in 1847. 
 
 See "Vie d' Alberto Nota," prefixed to the tenth edition of his 
 works ; Schedonj, "Trattenimento snpra le Commedie di A. Nota," 
 1826: " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1828. 
 
 • Probably allied to the Anglo-Saxon an and the N /se eirtr, signi- 
 fying "origin." and hence, as an adjective, "original," "primeval." 
 See Boswortli's "Anglo-Saxon Dictionary." 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; g, h, K, guttural; N, nasal; *., trilled; I as 1; th as in this. (jjy"See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
XOTHNAGEL 
 
 1688 
 
 NOVA 
 
 Nothuagel, not'na-gel, (Johann Andreas Benja- 
 MIN,) a German painter and engraver, born in Saxe- 
 Coburg in 1729; died about 1800. 
 
 Nothomb, no't6N', (Jean Baptiste,) a Belgian states- 
 man, born at Messancy in 1805. He was appointed min- 
 ister of public works in 1837, and in 1841 minister of the 
 interior. His ," Historical and Political Essay on the 
 Belgian Revolution" (1833) was translated into German 
 and Italian. He was president of the Council from 1843 
 to June, 1845. 
 
 See L. de Lomenie, "Galerie des Contemporains ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge^ierale." 
 
 Notker, not'ker, surnamed Phys'icus, a learned Ger- 
 man monk and physician of the tenth century, was like- 
 wise celebrated as an artist and poet. Died in 975. 
 
 Notker, a German ecclesiastic, was a nephew of the 
 emperor Otho I. He became dean of the convent of 
 Saint Gall, and Bishop of Liege, (972.) Died in 1007. 
 
 Notker, surnamed La'deo, and called also Teu- 
 TO.n'icus, born about the middle of the tenth century, 
 entered the monastery of Saint Gall, where he was 
 appointed principal teacher. He had a high reputation 
 for learning, and made numerous translations from 
 the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. His version of the 
 Psalms is esteemed one of the most important monu- 
 ments of early German literature. Died in 1022. 
 
 Not'man, (John,) a distinguished architect, born in 
 Edinburgh, Scotland, July 22, 1810. In 1831 he emi- 
 grated to the United States, and settled in Philadel- 
 phia, where he continued to reside for the rest of his 
 life. He laid ou.t the grounds of Laurel Hill Cemetery, 
 designed all the architectural embellishments, and su- 
 perintended their execution. He devoted himself par- 
 ticularly to church architecture, in which department he 
 had few if any superiors in the United States. He was 
 distinguished for his thorough acquaintance with me- 
 diaeval architecture. He possessed great enthusiasm for 
 his art, as well as poetic sensibility, and in his works he 
 seemed to address himself not so much to the senses as 
 to the soul. He died March 3, 1865. Among his chief 
 works may be mentioned .Saint Mark's Church, in Lo- 
 cust Street, regarded as among the very best specimens 
 of the Gothic style in America, the facade of the Roman 
 Catholic cathedral on Logan Square, and the Church of 
 the Holy Trinity, near Walnut and Nineteenth Streets, 
 of which the noble doorway is especially admired. 
 
 Notre, lie. See Lenotre. 
 
 Notre-Dame, (Michel.) See Nostradamus. 
 
 Notre-Dame, de, deh notVdSm', (Cesar,) a French 
 writer, born at Salon in 1555, was a son of Michel Nos- 
 tradamus. He obtained the title of gentleman of the 
 chamber to Louis XIII. He wrote several poems, and 
 a " History of Provence," (1614.) Died in 1629. 
 
 Nott, (Abraham,) an American jurist and politician, 
 born at Saybrook, Connecticut, in 1767, settled in South 
 Carolina, and was elected to Congress in 1800. Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 Nott, (Eliphalet,) D.D., LL.D., an American divine, 
 born in Windham county, Connecticut, in 1773. He 
 was for many years pastor of the Presbyterian church 
 at Albany, and in 1804 became president of Union 
 College, Schenectady, New York. He filled this post 
 for nearly sixty years, and was greatly instrumental in 
 promoting the prosperity and reputation of the college. 
 He published "Counsels to Young Men," "Lectures 
 on Temperance," etc. Died in 1866. 
 
 Nott, (Henry Junius,) son of Abraham Nott, noticed 
 above, was born in 1797. He graduated at South Caro- 
 lina College, and was afterwards professor of logic 
 and the philosophy of language in that institution. He 
 published " Novelettes of a Traveller," etc., and was 
 a contributor to the "Southern Review." He was 
 wrecked in the steamer Home in 1837. 
 
 Nott, (John,) an English poet, scholar, and physi- 
 cian, born at Worcester in 1751. He made translations 
 from the Latin and Italian, and from the Persian of 
 Hafiz ; he also published an original poeirl, entitled 
 " Alonzo." Died in 1826. 
 
 Nott, (Josiah Clark,) brother of Henry Junius, 
 noticed above, was born at Columbia, South Carolina, 
 in 1804, and graduated as a physician in Philadelphia. 
 
 He has published "The Physical History of the Jewish 
 Race," "Types of Mankind," (1854,) and "Indigenous 
 Races of the Earth," (1857,) the last two conjointly with 
 G. R. Gliddon. 
 
 Nott, (Sir William,) a distinguished officer, born in 
 Carmarthen, in Wales, in 17S2, served in the Afghan 
 war, and attained the rank of major-general. Died in 
 184=;. 
 
 Nottingham, Earl of. See Finch, (Daniel.) 
 
 Nottingham, not'ting-am, (Heneaoe Finch,) first 
 Earl OF, an English lawyer and statesman, born in 
 Kent in 1621. He entered Christ Church, Oxford, about 
 1635, studied law in the Inner Temple, and became an 
 eloquent lawyer. On the restoration of Charles II. 
 (1660) he was appointed solicitor-general, and took part 
 in the prosecution of the regicides. He was chosen in 
 1661 to represent the University of Oxford in Parlia- 
 ment, became attorney-general in 1670, and lord chan- 
 cellor of England in December, 1675. In 1681 he was 
 created Earl of Nottingham. Died in 1682. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors ;" Foss, 
 "The Judges of England:" " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Nouailher, noo'^'la', (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 painter and enameller, born in 1742 ; died in 1S04. 
 
 Noue, dela, deh \i noo, (Francois,) called Bras de 
 Fer, (l)Ra deh f?R,) i.e. " Iron-arm," a celebrated French 
 commander and Huguenot, was born near Nantes in 1531. 
 He commanded the rear-guard at the battle of Jarnac, 
 in 1569, and was taken prisoner at Moncontour. Having 
 lost his left arm at the siege of Fontenay, he supplied its 
 place by an iron arm. In 1573 he took command of the 
 insurgents at La Rochelle, which he defended for four 
 years. After peace had been concluded between Henry 
 of Navarre and the Catholics, La Noue went in 1578 to 
 Flanders, where he fought against the Spaniards and 
 soon became general -in-chief. He was taken prisoner 
 in 1580, and detained as such for five years. Having 
 joined the army of Henry IV., he fought at the battle 
 of Ivry, (1590,) and was killed at Lamballe in 1591. He 
 had a high reputation for virtue and talents. His " Po- 
 litical and Military Discourses" (1587) entitle him to a 
 place among the best prose writers of his time. 
 
 See Brant6mk. " Vies des grands Capitaines;" Davila, " His- 
 tory of the Civil Wars of France;*' Sismondi, " Histoire des Fran- 
 cais;" De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate;" Haag, "La France protestante ;" Motley, "United 
 Netherlands," vols. ii. and iii. 
 
 Noue, de la, (Octet,) Seigneur de Teligny, a French 
 officer and poet, was a son of the preceding. He fought 
 for Henry IV., and obtained the rank of marechal-de- 
 camp, with the title of counsellor to the king. He wrote 
 an essay called a " Paradox that Adversity is more 
 necessary than Prosperity," (1588,) and "Christian 
 Poems," (" Poesies chretiennes," 1594.) Died in 1618. 
 
 Noue, La. See Lanoue. 
 
 Nouet, noo'i', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit, born at 
 Mans in 1605, wrote a number of moral and religious 
 works. Died in 1680. 
 
 Nouet, (Nicolas Antoinf.,) a French astronomer, 
 born in Lorraine in 1740; died in 181 1. 
 
 Nougarede de Fayet, noo'gi'rid' deh ft'yi', (An- 
 dre Jean Simon,) Baron, a French jurist and magis- 
 trate, born at Montpellier in 1765, published several 
 legal and historical works. Died in 1845. 
 
 Nougarede de Fayet, (Auguste,) a French jurist, 
 son of the preceding, was born in Paris in i8fl. He 
 wrote a number of legal and miscellaneous treatises. 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 Nougaret, noo'gf'rj', (Pierre Jean Baptiste,) a 
 voluminous and mediocre French writer, born at La 
 Rochelle in 1742, was the author of poems, tales, dramas, 
 and historical works. Died in 1823. 
 
 See h Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Noulleau, noo'lo', (Jean Baptiste,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and theological writer, born at Saint-Brieuc in 
 1604; died in 1672. 
 
 Noureddin or Nour-Bddyn. See Noor-ed-Df.en. 
 
 Nourrit, noor'e', (Adolphe,) a popular French singer 
 and actor, born at Montpellier in 1802; died in 1839. 
 
 Nova, de, da no'vl, (Juan,) a Spanish navigator, 
 born in Galicia: entered the service of Emanuel, King 
 of Portugal. He sailed for the Indies in 1501, and disi 
 
 S, e, I, 0, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mJt; not; good; moon; 
 
N0VAL1S 
 
 1689 
 
 NOT 
 
 Covered on his route the Isle of Conception, and another 
 at no great distance, to which he gave his name. On his 
 return, in 1502, he discovered Saint Helena. 
 
 Novalis, no-vi'lis, the assumed name of (Friedrich) 
 Von Hardeiiberg, (fon haR'den-b£Ro',) a celebrated 
 German philosopher and mystical writer, bom at Wider- 
 stadt, Saxony, May 2, 1772. He was a son of Baron 
 von llardenberg, amember of the Society of Herrnhuters 
 or Moravians. He studied successively at the Univer- 
 sities of Jena, Leipsic, and Wittenberg. Among the 
 intimate friends of his early youth were Frederick Schle- 
 gel, Fichte, and Schelling. About 1797 he produced his 
 " Hymns to the Night." He was affianced to Julia von 
 Charpentier in 1798, but their marriage was prevented 
 by his death. About this date he wrote the " Disciples 
 at Sais." His constitution had always been delicate. He 
 died of consumption, at Weissenfels, in March, 1801. 
 His most extensive work is a mystical romance entitled 
 " Heinrich von Ofterdingen," which, however, he left 
 unfinished. It is enveloped in a rather obscure sym- 
 bolism, and displays a wild and eccentric imagination. 
 He also wrote a remarkable work called "Christianity 
 in Europe." 
 
 See a '* Biography of Novalis," by Tjeck, prefixed to his collected 
 works, ("Novalis Schriften,") a vols., 1802; Carlyle, "Miscel- 
 lanies," article " Novalis ;" Madame dk Staei., " De I'AUemagne ;" 
 Gbrvinus, " Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 Novara, no-vi'ra, (Domenico Maria,) an Italian 
 astronomer, born at Ferrara in 1464, taught astronomy 
 at Bologna, and numbered among his pupils the cele- 
 brated Copernicus. Died in 1514. 
 
 Novarini, no-va-ree'nee, (Luigi.) an Italian theo- 
 logian, born at Verona in 1594, wrote "Commentaries 
 on the Gospels," and other works. Died in 1650. 
 
 Novat. See Novatus. 
 
 Novatian, no-va'she-an, [Lat. Novatia'nus ; Fr. 
 Novatien, no'vS'se^N',) the founder of a sect called 
 Novatians. He betame a presbyter of the Church at 
 Rome, and insisted on a rigorous enforcement of the 
 discipline against the Lapsi, — i.e. those members of 
 the Church who under the pressure of persecution had 
 relapsed into idolatry or had been guilty of apostasy. 
 On this question the Church was divided into two par- 
 ties, which in 251 A.D. elected two rival bishops of Rome, 
 Novatian and Cornelius, the latter of whom advocated 
 greater laxity or charity in the treatment of the weak 
 brethren. Novatian was condemned by a general 
 Council held at Rome, and his rival obtained the office. 
 The Novatians became numerous, and existed for more 
 than a century as a separate sect. Some writers con- 
 found him with Novatus, mentioned below. 
 
 See Ft.EuRY, "Histoire ecclesiastique ;" Pluquet, "Diction- 
 naire des Heresies." 
 
 Novatianus. See Novatian. 
 
 Novatien. See Novatian. 
 
 No-va'tus, [Fr. Novat, no'vi',] a presbyter of Car- 
 thage, called a heresiarch by Catholic writers, was an 
 adversary of Cyprian. He was excommunicated in 251 
 A.D., — probably because he resisted the assumption of 
 the bishops who wished to domineer over the Church ; 
 for he is not charged with dogmatical heresy. 
 
 See Fr.KUKY, " Histoire ecclesiastique." 
 
 Novella, njvel'la, a learned and beautiful Italian lady, 
 born at Padua in 1312, was a daughter of the celebrated 
 jurist Giovanni d'Andrea. She was profoundly versed 
 in philosophy and jurisprudence, and was accustomed, 
 in her father's absence, to lecture in his place. She is 
 said to have lectured with a curtain drawn before her, 
 
 " I.est the students 
 Should let their young eyes wander o'er her, 
 And quite forget their jurisprudence." 
 Died in 1366. 
 
 See GwcjimNE, " Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 grapliie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Novelli, no-vel'lee, (Antonio,) an Italian sculptor, 
 born at Castel-Franco in 1600, worked at Florence. A 
 statue of Mary.'Magdalene is called his masterpiece. 
 He also made telescopes so superior that Torricelli said 
 of him, " Behold, another Galileo flourishes !" (" Ell 
 virescit Galilaeus alter !") Died in 1662. 
 
 See Baldinucci, "Notizie." 
 
 Novelli, (Piktro,) called II Morrealf.se, (el mor- 
 ri-a-la'sa,) an Italian painter and architect, born at Mor- 
 reale in 1608. He adorned the churches of Palermo 
 with many oil-paintings. He also painted some frescos. 
 According to E. Breton, in the " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale," he was the greatest painter that Sicily ever 
 produced. Died in 1647. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzt, "Dizio- 
 nario." 
 
 Novelli, (Pietro Antonio,) an Italian painter and 
 poet, born at Venice in 1729; died in 1804. His son 
 Francesco, born in 1764, was an engraver. 
 
 Novello, no-vel'lo, (Clara,) Countess Gigliucci, (jel- 
 yoot'chee, ) a famous singer, a daughter of Vincent 
 Novello, was born in London in 1818. She performed 
 in Paris and London. She was married to Count Gi- 
 gliucci about 1845. 
 
 Novello, (Vincent,) an eminent musician, born in 
 London in 1781, was the son of an Italian. He com- 
 posed music for the Church, and published several col- 
 lections of the works of other composers. He was the 
 father of Mary Cowden Clarke, and Clara, Countess 
 Gigliucci. Died in 1861. 
 
 See " Life of V. Novello," by his daughter, Mrs. Clarke. 
 
 Noverre, no'vaiR', (Jean Georges,) born in Paris in 
 1727, is celebrated for the improvements he introduced 
 into the ballet and the art of dancing. He was the 
 author of "Letters on the Imitative Arts," etc., (1807,) 
 and several dramatic works, and was appointed chief 
 ballet-master of the Royal Academy of Music, Paris. 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 See the "Monthly Review" for April, 1786. 
 
 Novea, de, deh nov, (or no'ves,) (Laura,) a French 
 lady, celebrated as the subject of Petrarch's sonnets, 
 was born near Avignon in 1307 ; died in 1348. 
 
 See De Sade, "Memoires sur Petrarque," 1744. 
 
 Novikof, Novikov, or Novikow, nov'e-kof, (Ni- 
 kolai Ivanovitch,) a Russian litterateur, born near 
 Moscow in 1744. He published a " Lexicon of Russian 
 Authors," and a work entitled "The Painter," which 
 was very successful. He established in Moscow a Ty- 
 pographical Society for the cheap printing of valuable 
 books, and contributed in many ways to promote the 
 cause of education. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Gretch, " Essai sur I' Histoire de la Literature Russe." 
 
 No'vl-us, (Q.,) a Latin comic poet, lived about 80 
 B.C., and was contemporary with Sulla the dictator. He 
 wrote plays called Atellane. 
 
 Noweil, no'el, (Alexander,) an English theologian, 
 born in Lancashire about 1508, was a zealous pro- 
 moter of the Reformation. On the accession of Queen 
 Mary he went into exile. He became Dean of Saint 
 Paul's, London, in 1560, and took a prominent part in 
 the Convocation of 1563, at which the articles of re- 
 ligion were revised. His most important work is his 
 "Catechism," which was published in Latin in 1570 
 and in English about 1 57 1. This is the "Larger Cate- 
 chism" adopted by the Anglican Church. He had a 
 high reputation for learning and candour. Died in 1602. 
 
 See Churton, " Life of Alexander Noweil," 1809. 
 
 Nowell, (Lawrence,) a younger brother of the pre- 
 ceding, graduated at Oxford in 1544. He became Dean 
 of Lichfield in 1559. He compiled a Saxon Vocabulary, 
 which he gave to William Lambarde in manuscript. Died 
 in 1576. 
 
 Nox or Nyx, [Gr. Ntif ; Fr. Nurr, nii'e' ; It. Noite, 
 not'ta,] one of the most ancient deities in classic my- 
 thology, is a personification of Night. She was supposed 
 to be the daughter of Chaos, the brother of Erebus, and 
 the mother of Day, (Hemera.) Among her offspring 
 were Death, Sleep, Momus, Nemesis, and the Parcae. 
 
 Noy, (William,) a celebrated English lawyer, born 
 about 1577. He was appointed attorney-general in 1631, 
 and thenceforth became the advocate of the royal pre- 
 rogative, though he had previously been one of its 
 strongest opponents. It was at his suggestion that King 
 Charles I. levied the tax of ship-money, which was 
 one of the exciting causes of the civil war. He wrote, 
 among other legal works, "The Complete Lawyer," and 
 a "Treatise on the Rights of the Crown." Died in 1634. 
 
 See Clarendon, "Memoirs;" Fulleh, "Worthies." 
 
 4 as k; 5 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
NO r DENS 
 
 1690 
 
 NUNEZ 
 
 Noydens, no-e-d§ns', ? (Benito Remigio,) a Spanish 
 philologist, born in Aragon about 1630, published a 
 Spanish Dictionary, (1674.) Died in 1685. 
 
 Noyer, du. See Du noyer. 
 
 Noyes, noiz, (George Rapall,) D.D., an American 
 scholar and divine, born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, 
 in 1798. He was elected in 1840 Hancock professor of 
 Hebrew and Oriental languages, and Dexter lecturer on 
 Biblical literature, at Harvard College. He published 
 translations of the Psalms, the book of Job, and other 
 parts of the Bible, and contributed to the "Christian 
 Examiner." Died in r868. 
 
 See the " North American Review" for October, 1832. 
 
 Noyes, (William Curtis,) an American jurist, born 
 in Rensselaer county, New York, in 1805. He practised 
 law in the city of New York, where he died in December, 
 1864. 
 
 Nucci, noot'chee, (Benedetto,) an Italian painter, 
 of the Roman school, was born at Gubbio about 1520; 
 died in 1587. 
 
 Nuck, nook, (Anton,) a skilful German anatomist 
 and physician, born about 1660. He was professor of 
 surgery and anatomy at Leyden, and subsequently presi- 
 dent of the College of Surgeons. He made several valu- 
 able discoveries relative to the lymphatic vessels and 
 glands, and published a treatise "On the New Saliva! 
 Duct," and one " On the Motion of the Circular Bile." 
 Died in 1692. 
 
 Nuenarius. See Neuenar. 
 
 Nu'gent, the name of a noble family, originally from 
 Normandy, who settled in Ireland in the twelfth century. 
 Richard Nugent was created by King James I. Earl of 
 Westmeath in 1621. George Thomas John Nugent, 
 born in 1785, became Marquis of Westmeath in 1822. 
 He was a prominent leader of the Orange party. Sir 
 George Nugent, grandson of Viscount Clare, born in 
 1757, served in America and the Netherlands. He was 
 successively appointed Governor of Jamaica and com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army in the West Indies, and in 
 1846 field-marshal. Died in 1849. His brother, Sir 
 Charles Edmund Nugent, served with distinction 
 under Rodney, and was created admiral of the blue in 
 1808. In 1833 he received the title of admiral of the 
 fleet. Died in 1844. 
 
 Nugent, (Christopher,) an Irish physician of con- 
 siderable reputation, was father-in-law of the celebrated 
 Edmund Burke. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 His principal work is an " Essay on Hydrophobia," 
 (17S3.) Died in 1775. 
 
 Nugent, (George Nugent Grenville,) Lord, an 
 English writer and liberal statesman, a son of the Mar- 
 quis of Buckingham, was born in 1788. On entering 
 Parliament, in 1812, he became a prominent advocate of 
 the cause of the Greeks, and was also conspicuous in 
 the defence of Queen Caroline. In 1830 he was made 
 lord of the treasury, and soon after lord high commissary 
 of the Ionian Islands. He returned to England in 1835, 
 and died in 1850 or 185 1. He published very interesting 
 " Memorials of John Hampden," and wrote, in conjunction 
 with his wife, " Legends of Lilies, by the Lord and Lady 
 thereof." 
 
 See the "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1846. 
 
 Nugent, (Comte Laval de Westmeath,) a general, 
 born in Ireland in 1777. He entered the Austrian army 
 at an early age. He gained some advantages over the 
 troops of Murat in 1815. About 1849 he was raised to 
 the rank of feld-marechal. 
 
 Nugent, (Robert Craggs,) Earl, a poet and poli- 
 tician, born in Ireland. He married in 1736 Anne 
 Craggs, a daughter of Secretary Craggs, who was a 
 friend of Addison. He entered the House of Commons 
 in 1741, and became a lord of the treasury. About 1776 
 he obtained the title of P^arl Nugent. Died in 1788. 
 He published a volume of poems in 1739. 
 
 Nugent, (Thomas,) LL.D., a learned writer and com- 
 piler, was a native of Ireland. He published, among 
 other works, "Travels through Germany," (1768,) and 
 a " French-and-English Dictionary," (1774,) often re- 
 printed. Died in 1772. 
 
 Nu'ma Pom-pil'I-us, the second king of Rome, 
 celebrated in Roman legends or fables as the author of 
 
 the religious ceremonies of the Romans. According to 
 these legends, Numa was a Sabine, and was elected 
 king as successor to Romulus. Instructed by the Ca- 
 mena Egeria, he prescribed the rites of public worship, 
 and appointed pontiffs, augurs, flainens, and vestals. 
 His reign was pacific and prosperous. There was a 
 prevalent tradition among the ancients that Numa de- 
 rived his wisdom from Pythagoras. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Lives;" Nihbuhr, " Romische Geschichte ," 
 J. Meyer, " Delineatio Vita? Numse Pompilii," 1765. 
 
 Nu-me'nI-us, [Nov/ii/vioc,] a Greek philosopher, born 
 at Apamea, in Syria, is called a Pythagorean, or rather a 
 professor of a Platonico-Pythagorean philosophy. He 
 lived in the second century of our era, and was favour- 
 ably mentioned by Origen. He attempted to reconcile 
 the great Greek schools with the doctrines of the Brah- 
 mans, Magi, and Jews, and to restore the philosophy of 
 Plato to its original purity. His works are not extant. 
 
 See J. Simon, " Histoire de 1'lScole d'Alexandrie;" Ritter, 
 " History of Philosophy." 
 
 Nu-me'rI-an, [Lat. Numeria'nus; Fr. Numeriex, 
 nu'mS're4,N',| (Marcus Aurelius,) son of Cams, suc- 
 ceeded him as Emperor of Rome in 284 A.D., in conjunc- 
 tion with his brother Carinus. He was afterwards put 
 to death in the same year, as is supposed, by his father- 
 in-law, Arrius, and Diocletian was chosen emperor. 
 Numerianus was famed as an orator and a poet. His 
 character is said to have been excellent. 
 
 See Vopiscus, " Numerianus." 
 
 Numerien. See Numerian. 
 
 Nu-me-sl-a'nus or No-mis-x-a'nus, a physician of 
 Corinth, flourished in the second century of the Chris- 
 tian era. He numbered the celebrated Galen among 
 his pupils. 
 
 Numitor. See Romulus. 
 
 Nunes-Barreto, noo'nSs bar-ra'to, (Belchiou,) a 
 Portuguese missionary, born at Oporto in 1520. He was 
 employed many years in India, anel wrote interesting 
 letters on Oriental affairs. Died in 1 571. 
 
 Nunez, noon'yJth, (Alvarez,) surnamed Caheca de 
 Vaca, (ka-ba'tha da va'ka,) a Spanish explorer, was the 
 second in command of a party which discovered or ex- 
 plored Florida in 1528. He was appointed adelantado 
 of Rio de la Plata about 1540. Died in 1564. 
 
 See Oomara, " Historia general de las Indias ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Nunez, [Lat. No'nius,] (Fernando de Guzman,) a 
 distinguished Spanish scholar and promoter of classical 
 learning, was born at Valladolid about 1470. He was 
 descended from the noble family of Guzman, and was 
 surnamed Pincianus, from Pincium, the Latin name of 
 Valladolid. After having studied Greek in Italy, he was 
 appointed one of the professors of that language in the 
 University of Alcala. He afterwards filled the chair of 
 ancient languages and rhetoric at Salamanca. Nunez 
 had a share in the celebrated " Complutensian Poly- 
 glot" of Cardinal Ximenes, and in the Latin version of 
 the Septuagint. He also published, among other works, 
 an excellent edition of Seneca. Died in 1553. 
 
 Nunez, [Lat. No'nius or Non'nius,] (Luis,) a Flem- 
 ish or Spanish medical writer, born about 1555, lived 
 at Antwerp. He was eminent for learning, and wrote 
 several works, among which is a treatise on diet, " Diae- 
 teticon, sive de Re Cibaria," (1627.) Died after 1645. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana." 
 
 Nunez, noo'nSz, or No'nI-ua, (Pedro,) an eminent 
 Portuguese mathematician, born in 1492. He wrote a 
 number of very able treatises on navigation, geometry, 
 and the projection of maps ; and the improved scale 
 which he invented for reading an observed angle is 
 still called by his name. He is also said to be the in- 
 ventor of the loxodromic curve. Nunez was professor 
 of mathematics at Coimbra, and royal cosmographer. 
 Died in 1577. 
 
 See Montucla, " Histoire des MathtSmatiques ;" Barrosa Ma- 
 chado, "Bibliotheca Lusitana." 
 
 Nunez de Balboa. See Balboa, de. 
 
 Nunez de Villavicencio, noon'y<5th da v&l'ya-ve- 
 theVthe-o, written also Nunnez de Villavicencio, a 
 Spanish painter, born at Seville about 1635, was a pupil 
 of Murillo. Died in 1700. 
 
 i, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, %, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
NUNNING 
 
 1691 
 
 O'BEIRNE 
 
 Nunning, ndtm'ning, (Jodocus Hermann,) a German 
 antiquary, born at Schuttorp in 1675 ; died in 1753. 
 
 Nunziante, noon-ze-an'ta, (Viro,) Marquis, an Ital- 
 ian general, born at Campagna in 1775. He commanded 
 the army which the King of Naples sent in 1820 against 
 his insurgent subjects, but was abandoned by that army. 
 He became commander-in-chief of all the Neapolitan 
 armies in 1831. Died in 1836. 
 
 See F. Palermo, " Vita e Falti di V. Nunziante," 1839. 
 
 Nureddin. See Noor-ed-Df.f.n. 
 
 Nus, niis, (Eugene,) a French dramatist, born at 
 ChaIoiis-sur-Sa6ne in 1816. 
 
 Nushirwan or NiiBchirwan. See Khosroo. 
 
 Nut'tall, (Thomas,) an English botanist of high repu- 
 tation, born in Yorkshire in 1786. He emigrated to the 
 United States about 1808, after which he explored the 
 country bordering on the Missouri River, and published 
 his valuable "Genera of North American Plants," (181 8.) 
 He was professor of natural history at Harvard from 
 1822 to 1834. He performed an excursion to the Rocky 
 Mountains and Columbia River about 1834. Among his 
 works is a " Manual of the Ornithology of the United 
 States and Canada," (2 vols., 1834.) Died in 1859. 
 
 Nuvolone, noo-vo-lo'ni, (Carlo Francesco,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Milan in 1608. He imitated the 
 style of Guido so successfully that he was surnamed the 
 Guido of Lombardy. Among his master-pieces is 
 "The Miracle of Saint Peter at the Beautiful Gate." 
 Died in 1661. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Nuvolone, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Milan in 1619, was a brother of the preceding. He was 
 sometimes called Panfilo. Died in 1703. 
 
 Nuvolone, (Panfilo,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Cremona, was the father of the preceding.;. He worked 
 at Milan. Died, at an advanced age, in 1651. 
 
 Nuwayri. See Noowairee. 
 
 Nuzzi, noot'see, (Mario,) called Mario dp.' Fiori, 
 (mS're-o da fe-o'ree,) a celebrated Italian flower-painter, 
 born near Naples in 1603. His pictures enjoyed a great 
 reputation in his time, and commanded high prices. 
 Died in 1673. 
 
 Nyberg, liii'beRg, (Julia Christina,) a Swedish 
 poetess, whose assumed name is Euphrosvne, was 
 born in 1 785. 
 
 Nyctee. See Nycteus. 
 
 Nyc'teus, [Gr. Nvktctj- ; Fr. Nyctee, nek'ta',] a 
 fabulous king of Thebes, said to have been a son of 
 Neptune and the father of Antiope. 
 
 Nyder. See Nider. 
 
 Nye, nl, (Philip,) an English nonconformist divine, 
 born about 1596, was distinguished for his hostility to 
 the cause of Charles I. In 1647 he attended as chap- 
 lain the commissioners sent to treat with that monarch 
 in the Isle of Wight. He died in 1672, leaving numerous 
 controversial treatises. 
 
 Nyerup, nii'er-up, (Rasmus,) an eminent Dani.sk 
 scholar and antiquary, born at Fiinen in 1759. He was 
 appointed in 1796 professor of the history of literature 
 and librarian of the University of Copenhagen. Among 
 his numerous and valuable works we may name his 
 "Symbols to Illustrate Teutonic Literature," (1787,) and 
 "Historical and Statistical Account of the Condition of 
 Denmark and Norway in Ancient and Modern Times," 
 (4 vols., 1802—06.) In conjunction with Rahbek and 
 Ahrahamson, he published in 1812 an edition of old 
 Danish heroic songs, with historical explanations. He 
 published, conjointly with Kraft, a work on Danish, Nor- 
 wegian, and Icelandic biography, entitled " Almindeligt 
 l.itteraturlexicon for Danmark, Norge og Island," (2 
 vols., 1819.) Died in 1829. 
 
 See C. Mor.BKCH, "Mindeord over R. Nyerup," 1830: "R. Ny- 
 erup's Levnetslbb beskreveiat'liam selv," 1820: Kraft og Nyerup, 
 " Litteraturlexicon ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale. " 
 
 Nymann, nee'man, (Gregor,) a German physiologist, 
 born at Wittenberg in 1594. He published " De Vita 
 Foetus in Utero," (1628,) which is commended. Died 
 in 1638. 
 
 Nymphse, nim'fe, [Gr. Nifupai; Fr. Nymphes, o3hf,j 
 the name of a numerous class of female divinities with 
 which the imagination of the ancient Greeks peopled 
 the groves, the mountains, the lakes, the rivers, the 
 fountains, and the valleys. They may be described as 
 personifications of the genial and beneficent powers of 
 nature. Among their common attributes were youth 
 and beauty. They were divided into several classes or 
 species, namely, Oceanides and Nereides, sea-nymphs ; 
 Oreades, mountain-nymphs; Naiades, fresh-water 
 nymphs ; Dryades, wood-nymphs, or nymphs of trees ; 
 Limniades, nymphs of lakes ; and Napxae, nymphs 
 of forests and groves. The poets feigned that the 
 Nymphs were the nurses of Bacchus, Jupiter, and Pan. 
 (See Oceanides, Nereides, Oreades, etc.) 
 
 Nymphes. See NympH/B. 
 
 Nym'phis, [.Niyj^tf,] a Greek historian, a native of 
 the Pontic Heraclea, lived about 250 H.c. He wrote a 
 " History of Alexander the Great and his Successors," 
 and two other works. None of these are extant. 
 
 Nymphodore. See Nymphodorus. 
 
 Nym-pho-do'rus, [Gr. Nv/x<jio6upo( ; Fr. Nympho- 
 dore, naM'fo'doR',] a Greek surgeon, mentioned by 
 Celsus and Galen, lived probably in the third century 
 H.c. He invented a machine for the reduction of dislo- 
 cations. 
 
 Nymphodorus, a Greek historian of Amphipolis, 
 whose epoch is unknown. He wrote a work on the laws 
 and customs of Asia, called No/u/ja 'Aov'ac. 
 
 Nysten, nls'ten, (Peter Hubert,) a Dutch physician, 
 born at Liege in 1771. He was the author of a "Dic- 
 tionary of Medicine and its Accessory Sciences," (1810,) 
 and " Researches in Physiology and Pathological Chem- 
 istry," (181 1.) Diedini8i8. 
 
 o. 
 
 O, d', do, (Francois,) Marquis, a French financier, 
 bom in Paris in 1535. He became superintendent of 
 the finances in 1578. Died in 1594. 
 
 Oakes, oks, (Urian,) a learned nonconformist divine, 
 born in England in 1631, emigrated to America, and 
 settled as minister at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 167 1. 
 He became president of Harvard College in 1680. Died 
 in 1681. 
 
 Oates, Sts, (Titus,) a notorious impostor, the in- 
 ventor of the famous Popish Plot, was born in or near 
 London about 1620. He became a clergyman of the 
 Anglican Church, was deprived of his living for vicious 
 conduct, and turned a Roman Catholic. He passed 
 gome time in a Jesuit college at Saint-Omer, from which 
 he was expelled in 1677. In 1678 he appeared as an 
 informer, and swore that the pope and Jesuits had con- 
 spired to massacre the prominent Protestants, make 
 themselves masters of the kingdom, and establish popery. 
 His story was generally credited, and produced a furious ; 
 
 excitement. Many Catholics were put to death for 
 alleged complicity in the plot. Oates received a pension 
 of £ 1200. After the accession of James II. he was 
 convicted of perjury, Severely whipped, and imprisoned 
 from 16S5 to 1689. He died in 1705. 
 
 See Macaulav, " History of England ;" Buk nkt, " History of h« 
 Own Times;" Hume, " History of England;" Evelyn. " Diary." 
 
 Ob-a-di'ah, [ Heb. rV13>>,] one of the minor Hebrew 
 prophets, lived probably about 590 B.C. Nothing is 
 known respecting the events of his life. His prophecy 
 is comprised in a single chapter. 
 
 Obeidah. See Aboo-Obeidah. 
 
 O'Beirne, o-beern', ? (Thomas Lewis,) an Irish prel- 
 ate and writer, born in the county of Longford in 1748. 
 He accompanied Lord Howe to America, as his chaplain, 
 in 1775, and was created, after his return, Bishop of 
 Meath. He was the author of a poem entitled "The 
 Crucifixion," (1776,) and of several prose works. Died 
 in 1823. 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJ^*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 r V OF TiU r ^> 
 
OBELERIO 
 
 1692 
 
 0CAR1TZ 
 
 Obelerio, o-bi-la're-o, a Venetian doge, born about 
 760, began to rule in 804 A.D., soon after which Venice 
 was invaded by Pepin, King of the Lombards. He was 
 exiled in 809, and died in 831 A.D. 
 
 Obentraut, von, ton o'ben-tRowt', (Johann Mi- 
 chael,) a German genera], born in the Palatinate in 
 1574. He fought for Frederick, Elector Palatine, and 
 was second in command of the army which, under Ernst 
 of Mansfeld, gained advantages over Spinola and Tilly 
 in Flanders. He was killed in battle at Kalemberg in 
 1625. 
 
 See Schiller, " History of the Thirty Years' War;" C. G. DE 
 Koch, "Tableau des Revolutions de I'Europe." 
 
 Obereit, o'beh-rit', (Jakob Hermann,) a German 
 or Swiss alchemist and mystic, born in Aargau in 1725, 
 practised medicine in his early life. He wrote, besides 
 other works, a "Defence of Mysticism," (1775,) and 
 "Promenades de Gamaliel, Juif Philosophe," (1780.) 
 Died at Jena in 1798. 
 
 Oberhauser, o'ber-hoi'zer, (Benedict,) a German 
 canonist, born in Upper Austria in 1719 ; died in 1786. 
 
 See " Memoria B. Oberhauseri," Saltzburg, 1786. 
 
 Oberhauser, (Georg,) a manufacturer of micro- 
 scopes, was born at Anspach, in Bavaria, in 1798. He 
 became a resident of Paris about 1815, and made some 
 improvement in the form of microscopes. Between 183 1 
 and 1856 he constructed a great number of these instru- 
 ments, which were exported to all civilized nations. 
 
 Oberkampf, o'ber-kampf', (Christoph Philipp,) a 
 distinguished German artisan, born at Weissenbach in 
 1738. Having removed to France, he established at 
 Jouy the first manufactory of printed cottons, (1759.) 
 He brought this art to a degree of excellence hitherto 
 unknown, and conferred an immense benefit upon his 
 adopted country. He received from Napoleon the cross 
 of the legion of honour. Died in 181 5. 
 
 Oberlin, o'ber-lin, [Ger. pron. o'beR-leen' ; Fr. pron. 
 o'beVlaN',] (Jean Frederic,) an eminent philanthropist 
 and reformer, born at Strasburg in 1740. In compliance 
 with his father's wishes, he studied theology, instead of 
 embracing the military profession, for which he had a 
 strong inclination. He became in 1766 Protestant pastor 
 of the Steinthal, or Ban de la Roche, a barren and rocky 
 valley in Alsace, the inhabitants of which, owing to their 
 country having been repeatedly laid waste during the 
 French and German wars, were in a state of wretched 
 poverty and ignorance. Oberlin now devoted himself 
 to the reform which had been begun by his predecessor, 
 Stouber, and, by his energy and mildness, succeeded in 
 overcoming the prejudices of the people, who at first 
 opposed all innovations. Besides great improvements 
 in agriculture and the mechanical arts, he introduced 
 many new employments, such as cotton-spinning, weav- 
 ing, and straw-plaiting. He founded schools, to which 
 he gave competent teachers, originated infant-schools, 
 and took upon himself the principal religious instruction 
 of his parishioners. .So highly was Oberlin esteemed 
 for the excellence of his character, and so deep was the 
 sense of the benefits he had conferred, that during the 
 troubles of the French Revolution the Ban de la Roche 
 remained undisturbed ; and he received from Louis 
 XVIII. the cross of the legion of honour, (1819.) After 
 the death of his wife, (1784,) Oberlin was assisted in his 
 benevolent labours by his housekeeper, Louisa Schepler, 
 formerly a servant in his family. She obtained from the 
 French Academy, in 1829, one of the Montyon Prizes 
 of Virtue, (five thousand francs.) Oberlin died in 1826, 
 after a short illness, at the age of eighty -six. 
 
 See August Neander, " Ziiste aus dem Leben und Wirken des 
 Pastors Oberlin," 1835 ; Paul Merlin, " Le Pasteur Oberlin," 1833 ; 
 RoTHERT, " Leben j. F. Oberlins," .1847 : "The Han de la Roche 
 and its Benefactor." London, 1820: " Le Pasteur Oberlin, Souvenir 
 d' Alsace," 1824 ; H. Lutteroth. " Notice sur J. F. Oberlin," 1826 ; 
 D. E. Stoeber, "Vie de J. F. Oberlin." 1834: G. H. von Schu- 
 bert. " Ziige aus dem Leben Oberlins," 1834 ; " Memoirs of J. F. 
 Oberlin," London, 8th edition, 183S. 
 
 Oberlin, (Jeremie Jacques,) a. scholar and antiquary 
 of high reputation, born at Strasburg in 1735, was a 
 brother of Jean Frederic, noticed above. He became 
 professor of logic and metaphysics in the university of 
 his native city, (1782.) Among his principal works are 
 his " Tables of Roman Rites," (" Rituum Romanorum 
 
 Tabulae," etc., 1774,) and "On the Amatory Poets of 
 Alsatia in the Middle Ages," (" De Poetis Alsatix Ero- 
 ticis Medii ;£vi," 1786.) He also published excellent 
 editions of Horace, Tacitus, and other Latin classics. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 See Wintkler, " Notice sur la Vie de J. J. Oberlin," 1807; D. E. 
 Stoeber, " Biographische Notiz iiber J. J. Oberlin," 1807 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Oberweg. See Ovf.rweg. 
 
 Obrecht, o'bReKt, (Elias,) an antiquary, brother of 
 Ulrich, noticed below, was born at Strasburg in 1654. 
 He wrote several treatises on Roman antiquities. Died 
 in 1698. 
 
 Obrecht, (Georg,) a German jurist, born at Stras- 
 burg in 1547 ; died fn 1612. 
 
 Obrecht, (Ui.rich,) a learned jurist, grandson of the 
 preceding, was born at Strasburg in 1646. He published 
 a number of legal works, and editions of Latin classics. 
 Died in 1701. 
 
 Obregon, o-bRa-g6n', (Bernardino,) a Spaniard, 
 born near Burgos in 1540, founded an order of monks 
 devoted to the service of the sick in hospitals. Died 
 in 1599. 
 
 See H. Maldonado, " Vida de Bernardino de Obregon." 
 
 Obrenovitch or Obrenowitsch, o-bra-no'vitch, 
 (M11.0SCH,) styled Prince of Servia, born in 1780, was 
 originally a Servian peasant. He became about 1815 a 
 leader of the Servian insurgents, and gained several vic- 
 tories over the Turks. In i8l6or 181 7 he was elected 
 prince. He afterwards made a compromise with the 
 Sultan, who permitted him to govern Servia as tributary 
 to the Turkish empire. His tyranny having provoked 
 his subjects to revolt, he abdicated in 1839. He was 
 restored in January, 1859, and died in i860. 
 
 See Fossart, " Das Leben des Fiirsten Milosch und seine 
 Kriege," 1836. 
 
 O'Bii'en, an Irish family of rank, descended from the 
 famous chieftain Brian Boroimhe, who was slain at the 
 battle of Clontarf, in 1014. Murrough O'Brien was 
 created in 1800 Marquis of Thomond. Died in 1808. His 
 nephew, James O'Brien, Marquis of Thomond, served as 
 a naval officer against the French, and in 1847 was made 
 an admiral. Sir Lucius O'Brien, born in 1800, became 
 lord lieutenant of Clare in 1843. He was twice chosen a 
 member of Parliament for Clare, and was a zealous ad- 
 vocate of conservative principles. His brother, William 
 Smith O'Brien, born in 1803, was elected to Parliament 
 for the county of Limerick in 1832. Here he became 
 an earnest coadjutor of O'Connell in the Repeal move- 
 ment. He was afterwards the leader of a party called 
 " Young Ireland," which, not satisfied with the legal 
 agitation of O'Connell, advocated a forcible separation 
 from England. Soon after the French revolution of 
 1848 he visited Paris, but, disappointed in his hopes of 
 assistance from France, he returned to Dublin, where he 
 summoned a national convention of three hundred mem- 
 bers. This assembly was prohibited by the government, 
 and O'Brien, with other leaders, was arrested. He was 
 condemned to death ; but this sentence was afterwards 
 commuted to banishment, and in 1849 he was sent to 
 Australia. He was subsequently pardoned. Died in 1864. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1861. 
 
 Obry, o'bRe', (Jean Baptiste,) a French Orientalist, 
 born at Albert (Somme) in 1793. He resided for many 
 years at Amiens. 
 
 Ob'se-quens, (Julius,) a Roman writei, of whose 
 personal history nothing is known. He was the author 
 of a work entitled " De Prodigiis," in which he records 
 the wonderful occurrences from the foundation of Rome 
 to the time of Augustus. Some parts of it which were 
 lost have been supplied by Lycosthenes, (Woolfhart.) 
 
 Obsopoeus. See OpsoprEus. 
 
 Ocana, de, da o-kan'ya, (Francisco,) a Spanish poet, 
 born in the latter part of the sixteenth century, was the 
 author of religious poems. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Ocaritz, d', do-ka-rets', ? (Jose,) Chevalier, a 
 Spanish diplomatist, born in the province of Rioxa in 
 1750. He was charge-d'affaires at Paris in 1792, and 
 made great efforts to save the life of Louis XVI. In 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon* 
 
V CAROL AN 
 
 •693 
 
 O'CONNOR 
 
 1805 he was sent as ambassador to Turkey. Died at 
 Varna in 1805. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution." 
 
 O'Car'o-lan, (Turlough,) a famous Irish bard and 
 musical composer, born in 1670, was a skilful performer 
 on the harp. Died in 1738. 
 
 Oc'cam or Ockham, ok'kam, (William,) an Eng- 
 lish philosopher and eminent logician, surnamed THE 
 INVINCIBLE Doctor, born in Surrey in the thirteenth 
 century, was the founder of a sect called by his name. 
 He studied theology under Duns Scotus, whose tenets 
 of Realism he opposed, and aimed to restore those of 
 Nominalism. He was excommunicated by Pope John 
 XXII. for his bold defence of the emperor Louis of 
 Bavaria against the encroachments of the papal power. 
 Among his principal works is a treatise " On the Power 
 of the Sovereign Pontiff." Died at Munich in 1347. 
 
 See B. Haukeau, "De la Philosophic scolastique." 
 
 Occleve. See Hocclf.ve. 
 
 Occo, ok'ko, (Adolf,) a German physician and nu- 
 mismatist, born at Augsburg in 1524. He published 
 "The Coins of the Roman Emperors," ("Imperatorum 
 Romanorum Numismata," 1579,) and other works. Died 
 in 1604. 
 
 See Bruckbr, "Vita A. Occoni." 
 
 Oc'cpm, (Samson,) a converted Indian, born in New 
 London county, Connecticut, about 1723, became cele- 
 brated as a preacher among his people, and in 1766 
 visited England. Died in 1792. 
 
 Ocean. See Oceanus. 
 
 O-ce-an'I-deg, [Gr. 'Qiceavidec ; Fr. Oceanides, o'sa'- 
 S'ned',] sea-nymphs or ocean-nymphs, daughters of 
 Oceanus and Tethys. They were supposed to have 
 been several thousand in number. (See Nymph*.) 
 
 O-ce'a-nus, [Gr. 'Q/cnrroc ; Fr. Ocean, o'sa'6N',] in 
 classic mythology, was the god of the river Oceanus, by 
 which the ancient Greeks supposed the earth to be sur- 
 rounded. According to Hesiod, he was the first-born 
 of the Titans, the son of Uranus and Ge, (or Ccelus and 
 Terra,) the husband of Tethys, and a parent of the 
 Oceanides and of several thousand rivers. 
 
 O-cel'lus Lu-ca'nus, so named from his birthplace, 
 Lucania, in Italy, is supposed to have been a disciple of 
 Pythagoras, and to have flourished about 500 B.C. His 
 treatise "On the Nature of the Universe" is the only 
 one of his works extant. It maintains the doctrine of 
 the eternity of the world. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Oceola. See Osceola. 
 
 Ocheda, o-ka'da, (Tommaso,) an Italian litterateur, 
 born at Tortona in 1757, became librarian to Lord Spen- 
 cer in 1790. He wrote essays on philosophy. Died in 1831. 
 
 Ochin. See Ochino. 
 
 Ochino, o-kee'no, [Lat. Ochi'nus; Fr. Ochin, 
 o'shaN',] (Bernardino,) one of the most celebrated 
 Italian Protestants, was born at Sienna in 1487. He 
 became a popular preacher, and was chosen general of 
 the order of Capuchins in 1538. It is also stated that 
 he was confessor to Pope Paul III., and was venerated 
 as a saint. Having formed an acquaintance with Juan 
 Valdez, a Reformer, he avowed his conversion to the 
 Protestant faith, and escaped to Geneva in 1542. In- 
 vited by Cranmer, he went to England in 1547, and 
 preached in London until the accession of Queen Mary, 
 in 1553, after which he lived at Zurich. He became a 
 Unitarian, and was banished from Zurich about 1562. 
 Died in Moravia in 1564. He had published several 
 volumes of sermons, and other works on theology. 
 
 See Marchand, " Dictionnaire Historique :" Bayle, " Historical 
 and Critical Dictionary ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Daniel 
 Mever. " Essai sur la Vie, etc. de B. Ochin," 1851. 
 
 Ochinus. See Ochino. 
 
 Ochoa, de, da o-cho'a, (Don Eugf.nio,) a Spanish 
 writer and translator, born in Madrid about 1812. "He 
 wrote various works in prose and verse, and translated 
 many from the French and English. 
 
 Ochosias or Ochoziaa* the French form of the 
 name Ahaziah, which see. 
 
 Ochoziah or Ochozias. See Ochosias. 
 
 • Cowley — following, it would seem, the French spelling — writes 
 the name, in English, Ochoziah. (See " Davideis," book ii., line 595.) 
 
 Ochs, oks, (PETER,) a Swiss statesman and jurist, 
 born at Bale in 1749, was chancellor and grand tribune 
 of Bile. He was created by Napoleon a councillor of 
 state, and director of the Helvetic republic. He wrote 
 a " History of BSIe," ("Geschichte von Basel," 6 vols., 
 1785-1822,) and also published several dramas. Died 
 in 1821. 
 
 Ochsenbein, ok'sen-bin', (Ulrich,) a Swiss poli- 
 tician and general, born in the canton of Berne in 181 1. 
 He was a leader of the radical party, and became presi- 
 dent of the Federal Diet in 1847. He took a prominent 
 part in the war against the seven Catholic cantons, 
 which formed a separate confederacy, called the " Sun- 
 derbund," in 1847. 
 
 Ochterlony, oK'ter-lo'ne, (Sir David,) a British gene- 
 ral, born in 1758. He served in India, and distinguished 
 himself in the campaign of Nepaul in 1815-16. Died 
 in 1825. 
 
 Ockenfuss. See Oken. 
 
 Ockenheim. See Okfghem. 
 
 Ock'ley, (Simon,) an English divine and Oriental 
 scholar, born at Exeter in 1678, became professor of 
 Arabic in the University of Cambridge in 171 1. He 
 published in 1718 his " History of the Saracens," a valu- 
 able work, which is commended by Gibbon. He also 
 translated the second Apocryphal Book of Esdras from 
 the Arabic version, and wrote an "Introduction to the 
 Oriental Tongues," (1706.) Died in 1720. 
 
 See Chalmers, " Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 O'Con'nell, (Daniel,) a famous Irish orator and 
 political agitator, born near Cahirciveen, Kerry, in Au- 
 gust, 1775, was educated as a Roman Catholic at Saint- 
 Omer, in France. He entered Lincoln's Inn as a student 
 of law in 1794, and was admitted to the bar in 1798. He 
 quickly attained the foremost rank in his profession, and 
 became pre-eminent as the advocate of Catholic eman- 
 cipation, — i.e. the relief of Catholics from political dis- 
 abilities. In the promotion of this cause he entirely 
 discouraged a resort to physical force. He married his 
 cousin, Mary O'Connell, about 1802. In 1823 he founded 
 the Catholic Association. He was elected a member 
 of Parliament for Clare in 1828, and refused to take' the 
 oath which was designed expressly to exclude Roman 
 Catholics from the House. This affair caused a violent 
 excitement and agitation, which resulted in the passage 
 of the bill for Catholic emancipation in 1829, and O'Con- 
 nell then took his seat in the House of Commons. He 
 represented Dublin in Parliament from 1832 to 1835, 
 and from 1837 to 1841. Having given up his lucrative 
 practice to devote himself to legislative duties, he was 
 indemnified by an annual subscription raised by his polit- 
 ical friends under the name of "rent." About 1840 he 
 commenced an agitation for the repeal of the union, on 
 which subject he made speeches at monster meetings in 
 Ireland in 1842 and 1843. He was arrested, tried, and 
 found guiltv of sedition or conspiracy, for which he was 
 sentenced in 1844 to imprisonment for one year, and 
 fined two thousand pounds. This judgment was reversed 
 by the House of Lords. He supported the Whig min- 
 istry which came into power in 1846, after which he 
 witnessed a decline of his influence in Ireland and the 
 rise of dissensions among his followers. He died at 
 Genoa in May, 1847, in the course of a journey to Rome. 
 
 See " Life and Times of Daniel O'Connell," by his son John, 2 
 vols., 1846 ; Fagan, " Life and Times of Daniel O'Connell," 2 vols., 
 1848; Schipper. "O'Connell's Lebcn," 1844; Condon, " Biographie 
 de D. O'Connell," 1847 ; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale :" L. ns 
 I.OMENIE, " M. O'Connell, par un Homme de Rien," 1842 ; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for May, 1841. 
 
 O'Con'npr, (Arthur,) an Irish general, born at Ban- 
 don, near Cork, in 1767, was a Protestant. He joined 
 the society of United Irishmen, who sent him on a secret 
 mission to France, where he negotiated with General 
 Hoche about the liberation of Ireland. In 1797 or 1798 
 he was tried on a charge of treason, and acquitted. He 
 entered the French service, and became a general of 
 division in 1804. About 1807 he married Elisa, a 
 daughter of the famous Condorcet. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Thomas Moore, " Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitz- 
 gerald," 1831 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 O'Connor, (Feargus,) the celebrated leader of the 
 English Chartists, was born near Cork, in Ireland, in 
 
 « as k; ? as s; g hard; g as/'; g, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
OCT AVI A 
 
 1694 
 
 ODIER 
 
 1796. In 1832 he became a member of Parliament for 
 the county of Cork, and acquired great popularity with 
 the radicals. Dissatisfied with the moderate policy of 
 O'Connell, he advocated the rights of the working-class, 
 whom he succeeded in uniting into a numerous party 
 called Chartists. In 1838 they summoned a national 
 convention in London, in order to prepare for a general 
 insurrection. In November, 1839, after a sanguinary 
 conflict at Newport, the Chartists were dispersed by the 
 government troops, and many of their leaders taken 
 and transported. O'Connor, however, who had carefully 
 avoided any infringement of the law, escaped, and soon 
 after founded a journal called "The Northern Star," 
 which obtained an immense circulation. In 1843 he 
 returned to Ireland, where he engaged with ardour in the 
 repeal agitation, and in 1847 was elected to Parliament 
 for Nottingham. After the French revolution of 1848 
 he called another convention, and presented to the 
 House of Commons a monster petition for the introduc- 
 tion of the national charter, which produced no effect. 
 Disappointed in his hopes of reform both in England 
 and Ireland, O'Connor fell into a state of hopeless 
 lunacy, and in 1852 he was taken to an insane-asylum. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for February, 1848. 
 
 Oc-ta'vl-a, [Fr. OctaVie, ok'tt've',1 a Roman lady, 
 born about 70 B.C., was a daughter of C. Octavius, and 
 a sister of the emperor Augustus. She was married 
 first to Marcellus, who died in 41. Soon after his death 
 she became the wife of Mark Antony. This marriage 
 was intended to confirm amicable relations between 
 Antony and Augustus. By her beauty and virtue she 
 obtained a favourable influence over Antony for a short 
 time. She accompanied him in his expedition against 
 the Parthians as far as Corcyra; but, supplanted in the 
 affections of Antony by Cleopatra, she was sent back to 
 Italy. In 32 B.C. he sent her a bill of divorce. She 
 died in 11 B.C., leaving several daughters. Her son, M. 
 Marcellus, died before her. (See Marcellus.) 
 
 See Plutarch, "Lives," article "Antony:" Dion Cassius, 
 " History of Rome," books xlvii.-H. ; Saint-Real, "Vie d'Octavie, 
 Sceur d'Auguste," 1761. 
 
 Octavia, a Roman empress, born in 42 a.d., was a 
 daughter of the emperor Claudius and Messalina. She 
 was married in 53 to Nero, who became emperor. He 
 divorced her in 62 A.D., and a few months later put her 
 to death. 
 
 Octavian or Octavianua. See Augustus, (Em- 
 peror of Rome.) 
 
 Octavie. See Octavia. 
 
 Octavius. See Augustus. 
 
 Oc-ta'vl-us, (Caius,) the father of the emperor Au- 
 gustus. He married Atia, a daughter of Julia, who was 
 a sister of Julius Caesar. He became praetor in 61 B.C., 
 and was proconsul in Macedonia in 60. Died in 58 B.C. 
 His official conduct was highly commended by Cicero. 
 Velleius Paterculus characterizes him as "gravis, sanc- 
 tus, innocens, dives." He had a daughter, Octavia, 
 noticed above. 
 
 See Suetonius, "Augustus." 
 
 Octavius, (Cneius,) a Roman officer, was elected 
 praetor in 168 B.C., and commanded a fleet sent against 
 Perseus, King of Macedon, whom he took prisoner. He 
 was consul in 165 with Manlius Torquatus, and was 
 assassinated at Laodicea in 162 B.C. 
 
 Octavius, (Cneius,) a grandson of the preceding, 
 was a partisan of Sulla. He became consul in 87 B.C. 
 as the colleague of L, Cornelius China, who was a 
 partisan of Marius. The soldiers of Cinna entered 
 Rome and killed Octavius in 87 B.C. 
 
 See Appian, " Bellum Civile." 
 
 Octavius, (Marcus,) a Roman officer, was a partisan 
 of the senate in the civil war against Caesar. At the 
 battle of Actium (31 B.C.) he commanded a division of 
 the fleet of Antony. 
 
 Odazzi, o-dat'see, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Rome about 1663, was a pupil of Ciro Ferri. 
 Died in 1731. 
 
 Oddi, od'dee, (Muzio,) an Italian geometer, born at 
 Urbino in 1569. He wrote "On Sun-Dials or Clocks," 
 
 (" Degli Orologi solari nelle Superficie piane," 1614.) 
 Died in 1639. 
 
 Oddi, degli, dil'yee od'dee, (Marco,) an Italian 
 medical writer, born at Padua in 1526; died in 1591. 
 
 Oddi, degli, (Odo,) an Italian physician, born at 
 Padua, was the father of the preceding. He was pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Padua, and wrote several medical 
 works. Died in 1559. 
 
 Oddi, degli, (Sforza,) an Italian poet and jurist, 
 born at Perugia in 1540; died in 161 1. 
 
 O-dell', (Thomas,) an English dramatist, born in 
 Buckinghamshire, was the author of comedies entitled 
 "The Chimera" and "The Prodigal." Died in 1749. 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica." 
 
 Odenath. See Odenatus. 
 
 Odenathus. See Odenatus. 
 
 Od-e-na'tus or Od-e-na'thus, [ Fr. Odenath, 
 o'deh-ntt',] Prince of Palmyra, the husband of Zenobia, 
 was an able general. After the emperor Valerian had 
 been defeated and captured by the Persians, (260 A.D.,) 
 Odenatus raised an army, drove Sapor, the Persian king, 
 from Syria, and assumed the title of King of Palmyra. 
 He also invaded Persia, and pursued the King of Persia 
 to Ctesiphon. For these services he received the title 
 of Augustus from Gallienus, who recognized him as his 
 colleague in 264. He was assassinated in 266 or 267 A.D. 
 (See Zenobia.) 
 
 See Trehei.i.ius Poi.i.io, " Triginta Tyranni :" G- Hoyns, " Dis- 
 sertatio de Zenobije atque Odenath) Rebus," 1847. 
 
 Oderborn, o'der-boRn', (Paul,) a Lutheran minister, 
 born in Pomerania, lived about 1585. He wrote a work 
 on the Russian religion and customs, "De Russorum 
 Religione, Ritibus," etc., (1581.) 
 
 Oderic. See Oderico. 
 
 Oderico (o-di-ree'ko) [Fr. Oderic, o'deh-rek'] of 
 Pordenone or Portenau, an Italian monk, born at 
 Pordenone, in the Friuli, in 1286, travelled over a con- 
 siderable part of Asia as a missionary. His " Life and 
 Travels" were published after his death, which took 
 place in 1331. 
 ^ See Venni, " FJogio storico del B. Oderico," Venice. 1761. 
 
 Oderico, (Gasbaro Luoovico,)an Italian antiquary, 
 and librarian of the University of Genoa, born in 1725. 
 He was the author of several learned treatises on nu- 
 mismatics and inscriptions, and was a member of the 
 French Institute. Died in 1803. 
 
 See Carrega, " Elogio storico di G. L. Oderico," Genoa, 1S04. 
 
 Oderigo da Gubbio. See Gubbio. 
 
 Odescalchi, (Benedetto.) See Innocent XI. 
 
 Odescalchi, o-d&kill'kee, (Marcantonio,) an Ital- 
 ian nobleman, eminent for his philanthropy, was a cousin 
 of Pope Innocent XI. He founded several institutions 
 for the sick and the friendless, and at his death, in 1670, 
 left all his property for their benefit. 
 
 Odescalchi, (Tommaso,) a relative of the preceding, 
 was almoner to Pope Innocent XI. In 1686 he founded 
 an asylum for the education and employment of poor 
 children. Died in 1692. 
 
 Odevaere, o-deh-vj'reh, (Josephus Dionysius,) a 
 celebrated Belgian painter, born at Bruges in 1778. Hav- 
 ing studied under David in Paris, he visited Rome, where 
 he executed two large frescos in the Quirinal palace, 
 and the " Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence," now in a 
 church of Bruges. He was appointed court painter to 
 William I., King of the Netherlands, in 1815. Among 
 his best works may be named the " Peace of Utrecht" 
 and the " Battle of Nieuport." Died in 1830. 
 
 Odier, o'de-i', (Louis,) a distinguished physician, 
 born at Geneva in 1748. He finished his studies at 
 Edinburgh under Dr. Cullen, and, on his return, intro- 
 duced vaccination into France and Switzerland. He 
 was a corresponding member of the Institute of France, 
 and filled several important offices in his native city. 
 He was the author of a " Manual of Practical Medicine," 
 and published, about 1798, in the " Bibliotheque Bri- 
 tannique," a translation of one of Jenner's treatises 
 on vaccination. Died in 1817. 
 
 See Maunoir, "Notice de la Vie et des ficrits de L. Odier," 
 1818: Pierre Prevost, "Notice de la Vie de L. Odier," 1818. 
 
 Odier, (Pierre,) a Swiss jurist, born at Geneva in 
 1803 ; died in 1859. 
 
 £,*, i, 6, u, y, long; i, e, A, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, at; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
0D1LL0N 
 
 1695 
 
 ODOACER 
 
 Odillon Barrot See Barrot. 
 
 Odilo (o'dc'h/) or Odilon de Mercoeur, o'de'loN' 
 deh mcR'kUR', Saint, a French monk, born in 962, was 
 eminent for learning. He was elected Abbot of Cluny, 
 which, under his direction, became one of the most 
 celebrated monasteries of Europe. Died in 1048 or 
 1049. 
 
 See " Histoire HtteVaire de la France ;*' n Gallia Christiana." 
 
 Odilon. See Odilo. 
 
 O'din or OJSinn, (6'thin,) written also Othin, [called 
 by the Germans Wi/dan or Wo'den ; Old German, 
 WuoTAN, derived from va%a, to " wade," to "go," to 
 "pervade,"] in the Norse mythology, the greatest of all 
 the gods, corresponding in the main to the Zeus or 
 Jupiter of the Greeks and Romans. His name is sup- 
 posed to signify "mind" or "spirit." As the father of 
 the /Esir, (the ruling gods of heaven and earth,) he is 
 styled All-father, (Al-f6Sr or Al fatSir,) although he him- 
 self was the son of Bor,* and the grandson of Buri.t 
 He is also called Val-father, (Val-foor, i.e. "father of the 
 fallen,") because all who fell in buttle were supposed to 
 belong in an especial manner to him. Hence his hall is 
 called Valhalla, (or Valholl,) the "hall of the fallen" or 
 "slain." Valhalla is situated in Odin's mansion, called 
 Gladheim or Gladsheim, (the "home or habitation of 
 gladness.") The roof of the hall is formed of spears and 
 shields. The hall itself is surrounded by a roaring river 
 called Thund, and has five hundred and forty gates, 
 through each of which eight hundred men can go abreast. 
 Here are assembled all the chosen warriors ( Einheriat ) 
 who have fallen in battle ; it is their pastime to fight and 
 slay each other every day, but the wounded are quickly 
 healed, and the dead are restored to life. They then 
 ride back to Valhalla, where they refresh themselves by 
 drinking mead (or beer) with the gods and feasting on 
 the flesh of the boar Saehrimnir. The Valkyries (Val- 
 kvrjur or Valkyriur) wait upon the warriors, furnish- 
 ing them with drink and food, (see Valkyria ;) but 
 Odin himself lives on wine alone. Near Valhalla is 
 Vingolf, the hall where the goddesses assemble. Odin's 
 throne was called Hlidskjalf (hlid'ske-alf) or Lidskialf, 
 whence his eye is said to survey the whole world. 
 
 Regarding Odin as the living spirit which pervades 
 the universe, the Norse poets have represented living 
 nature under the symbol of the ash-tree, (Ygg'drasil or 
 Ig'drasil,) that is, the seat or abode of Odin.J "All 
 life," says Carlyle, "is figured by them [the Northmen] 
 as a tree. Igdrasil, the Ash-tree of Existence, has its 
 roots deep down in the kingdom of Hela, (or Death,) its 
 trunk reaches up heaven-high, spreads its boughs over 
 the whole universe. ... At the foot of it, in the Death- 
 kingdom, sit Three Nomas, Fates, — the Past, Present, 
 Future, — watering its roots from the sacred Well. . . . 
 Its boughs are histories of nations. The rustle of it is 
 the noise of human existence. ... I find no similitude 
 so true as this of a tree. Beautiful ; altogether beautiful 
 and great. The 'machine of the universe,' — alas, do 
 but think of that in contrast !" 
 
 Although Odin (Spirit or Thought) was the principal 
 creator of the heavens and the earth, he was assisted by 
 his brothers Vili (Will) and Ve, (Holiness.) "The gods, 
 having got the giant Ymir slain," says Carlyle, "deter- 
 mined on constructing a world with him. His blood 
 made the sea, his flesh was the land, and the rocks his 
 bones ; of his eyebrows they formed Asgard, ... his 
 skull was the great blue vault of immensity, and the 
 brains of it became the clouds. What a Hyper-Brob- 
 dignagian business !" It is, however, only in the creation 
 of the world that Vili and Ve are mentioned ; they ap- 
 
 • In like manner J titter was called " Father of the gods and king 
 of men," (" Divum pater atque hominum rex,") although the sot) Pi 
 Saturn, (or Cronos,) who again was the son of Ccelus (Uranus) and 
 Terra, fGe.) 
 
 t Bum, (boo're.) written also Burs, [i.e. " producing," because, be- 
 ing the first of the gods, he was the progenitor of all the others,) is 
 described as a mighty and beautiful being in human form, who c;tme 
 into existence soon after the mythic cow Audhumla began to lick the 
 frost-covered rocks of the primeval chaos. He had a son named Bor 
 (bbK) or Bore, [i.e. "born" or "produced," and hence " son,"] who 
 is said to have married the daughter of the giant Bolthorn, and to 
 have had by her three sons, — Odin, Vili, and Ve, 
 
 t Ycr, or Yr,CR (i.e. the " terrible") is one of the many names of. 
 Odin. Drasill or d~'dsull is said to signify " chariot" or "seat." 
 
 pear afterwards to have become blended or absorbed 
 in Odin, the all-embracing World-Spirit. Among Odin's 
 possessions may be mentioned a horse of wondrous 
 powers, with eight legs, called Sleipnir, on which he 
 rides over land and sea; and Gungnir, (gung'nir,) a 
 spear, which never failed to strike whatever it was aimed 
 at. He has also two ravens, named Hugin and Munin, 
 which he sends forth over the whole world to get intel- 
 ligence. In addition to his other attributes, Odin was 
 supposed to possess marvellous powers as a magician. 
 
 Odin is to be considered to represent energy and 
 courage rather than knowledge. Hence it is said that 
 he once went to Mimir's§ well, at the root of Yggdrasil, 
 for a drink from the fountain of knowledge, but, in order 
 to obtain it, it was necessary for him to deposit one of 
 his eyes as a pledge, whence he is usually represented 
 as one-eyed. 
 
 War being almost the sole occupation of the ancient 
 Northmen, Odin, their principal deity, became of neces- 
 sity the god of war, his character in this respect nearly 
 corresponding to that of the Mars (Ares) of classic my- 
 tjiology.ll He is represented as having first introduced 
 war and slaughter among mankind. Again, he differed 
 from Jupiter in not wielding the thunderbolt, this weapon 
 belonging to Thor ; but, in a region where thunder- 
 storms are comparatively unfrequent, the possession of 
 the thunderbolt was less essential to the dignity of the 
 chief of the gods than in the countries where Olympian 
 Zeus was worshipped. (See Thor.) 
 
 Odin is not immortal in the fullest sense ; at Ragna- 
 rock (the final destruction of the ^tsir and the world) 
 he is fated to be destroyed by the wolf Fenrir, the off- 
 spring of Loki. (See Loki.) 
 
 See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. : " Religion of the 
 Northmen." by Ruooi.pm Kevser, translated by Bahclav Pen- 
 nock, New York, 1854: Mau.et, "Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. ; 
 Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe," section " Icelandic 
 Language and Poetry ;" Petersen, " Nordisk Mythologi," p. 30 
 et seq. 
 
 O'ding-ton, (Walter,) a learned English monk under 
 the reign of Henry VIII., was called Walter of Eves- 
 ham, from the monastery of that name in Worcester- 
 shire. He was the author of valuable works on music, 
 astronomy, and mathematics. 
 
 Odiot, o'deV, (Jean Baptiste Claude,) a French 
 goldsmith, born in Paris in 1763. His works had a 
 European reputation. Died in 1850. 
 
 Odo, o'do', or Odon, o'd6N', [Lat. Odoar'dus,] a 
 French prelate of great learning and influence, was born 
 at Orleans. He was elected Bishop of Cambray in 1 105. 
 He wrote several works on theology, which have been 
 printed. Died in 1 1 13. 
 
 See "Gallia Christiana;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 O'do, [Fr. Odon, o'doN',] Saint, an English ecclesi- 
 astic, was patronized by King Alfred and his immediate 
 successors, and was made Archbishop of Canterbury by 
 King Edmund in 944. Died in 958. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. i. ch. vii. 
 
 Odo or Odon, Saint, Abbot of Cluny or Clugny, 
 was born in France about 879 A.D. He was distinguished 
 as a reformer of monastic discipline. Died in 943. 
 
 See B. Haureau, " Histoire litteraire du Maine." 
 
 Odo or Odon de Conteville, o'd6N' deh kost' 
 vel', born in Normandy in 1032, was a half-brother of 
 William the Conqueror. He became Bishop of Bayeux 
 in 1049. After the conquest of England he obtained 
 the title of Earl of Kent and Hereford, and was grand 
 justiciary. He is said to have been cruel and arrogant. 
 Died in 1097. 
 
 See Prevost, " Histoire de Gtiillaume le Conquerant ;" " Gallia 
 Christiana;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Odo of Kent, Abbot of Battle, an English theolo- 
 gian, born in Kent, was a friend of Thomas a Becket. 
 He wrote several works. Died in 1200. 
 
 Od-o-3'cer, [Gr. 'Oooaxpoc; Fr. Odoacre, o'do'SkR',] 
 a Gothic military commander in the service of the West- 
 ern Roman empire. Soon after the deposition of the 
 
 § Mimir signifies the " knowing one." 
 
 H Saxo Gramtnaticus, writing in Latin, calls Odin Mars. 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jy~See Explanations, p. aj.) 
 
0D04CRE 
 
 1696 
 
 (EGIR 
 
 emperor Julius Nepos by Orestes, who had usurped the 
 throne in the name of his son Romulus, Odoacer ad- 
 vanced to Pavia, took Orestes prisoner, and caused him 
 to be executed, in 475 a.d. Having banished Romulus, 
 he was proclaimed King of Italy by his army; but he 
 refused the imperial titles, and the Western Empire was 
 thenceforth considered at an end. In 488, Theodoric, 
 King of the Ostrogoths, invaded Italy, and besieged 
 Odoacer in Ravenna. After a brave and protracted re- 
 sistance, he was compelled to surrender, and was exe- 
 cuted in 493, by order of Theodoric, who proclaimed 
 himself king. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:" Le 
 Beau, " Histoire du Bas- Empire;" Jornandes, "De Rebus Goth- 
 icis;" Procopius, " Bellum Gothicum;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeneVale." 
 
 Odoacre. See Odoacer. 
 
 Odoardus. See Odo. 
 
 O-do-fre'dus, an Italian jurist of high reputation, 
 born at Bologna; died in 1265. 
 
 Odolant-Desnos, oMo'ISn' di'no', (Joseph,) a 
 French savant, born at Alencon in 1797, wrote several 
 scientific and descriptive works. 
 
 Odolant-Desnos, (Pierre Joseph,) a French writer 
 on various subjects, born at Alencon in 1722, was grand- 
 father of the preceding. Died in 1801. 
 
 Odon. See Odo. 
 
 O'Don'nell, (Leopold,) Count of Lucena and Duke 
 of Tetuan, a Spanish general, of Irish extraction, was 
 born in 1808 or 1809. He fought for the queen against 
 the Carlists in the civil war which began about 1833, and 
 defeated Cabrera at Lucena in 1839. He became the 
 enemy of Espartero, whom he drove from power in 1843. 
 In 1854 he instigated a revolt which resulted in a change 
 of the ministry, and he was appointed minister of war. 
 He was prime minister from July to October, 1856, and 
 was restored to the same office in June, 1858. He com- 
 manded with success in a war against Morocco in 1859— 
 60. He died in exile at Biarritz in 1867. 
 
 O'Don'nell or O'Don'el, (Roderick,) was created 
 Earl of Tyrconnel by James I. in 1603. Several of his 
 descendants espoused the cause of James II., and, after 
 his defeat at the battle of the Boyne, settled in Austria, 
 where they rose to distinction in the State and the army. 
 Charles O'Donnell served in the Seven Years' war, 
 and became field-marshal lieutenant, and in 1768 was 
 made Governor-General of Transylvania. Died in 1770. 
 Maurice O'Donnell married Christine, daughter of 
 the Prince of Ligne, and rose to be chamberlain and 
 field-marshal lieutenant. Died in 1843. Joseph Henry 
 O'Donnell entered the Spanish service about 1795, 
 and gained several advantages over the French. For 
 his victory at L'Abispal he received the title of Count 
 of Abispal. Having subsequently incurred the sus- 
 picions of the constitutional party, he was deprived of 
 his command, and took refuge in France, where he 
 died in 1834. 
 
 O'Don'o-van, (John,) an Irish archaeologist and 
 eminent Celtic scholar, born in Kilkenny county about 
 1808. He produced, besides other works, "The Annals 
 of Ireland, by the Four Masters, from the Earliest His- 
 toric Period to a.d. 1616," etc., (3 vols. 4to, 1848-51.) 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 See Aixibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Odoran, o'do'rdN', or Odoranne, o'do'rf n', a French 
 monk of Sens, born in 985. He wrote a general chron- 
 icle from 675 to 1032. Died after 1045. 
 
 Oddrico da Pordenone. See Oderico. 
 
 O-dys'seus, [Gr. 'Odvooeic; Fr. Odyss£e, o'de'si',] 
 the Greek name of the hero of Homer's "Odyssey." 
 (See Ulysses.) 
 
 CEagre. See OSagrus. 
 
 CEagrus, ee'a-g ru s, [Gr. Olaypoc; Fr. GSagre, 
 4'fgR',| a semi-fabulous king of Thrace, was the father 
 of Orpheus and Linus. 
 
 CEcolampade. See GEcolampadius. 
 
 CEcolampadius, ek-o-lam-pa'de-us, [Ger. pron. 
 a-ko-lim-pi'de-us ; Fr. GScolampade, a ko'loN'pid'; 
 Ger. Oekolampad, 6-ko-lim-pit',] an eminent German 
 Reformer, whose original name was Hausschein or 
 Husgen, was born in Franconia in 1482. He studied, 
 theology at Heidelberg, and became in 1515 pastor of 
 
 a church at Bale, in Switzerland, where he strongly de- 
 nounced the abuses of the Roman Church. About 1522 
 he openly declared in favour of the Reformed faith, and 
 in 1524 was appointed professor of divinity at Bale. In 
 the controversy between Luther and Zuinglius concern- 
 ing the real presence, he adopted the views of the latter. 
 He was the author of numerous theological works, among 
 which may be named his Commentaries on Isaiah, Job, 
 Daniel, and Jeremiah, a treatise "On the Passover," 
 (" De Ritu Paschali,") and "Annotations on Genesis." 
 He was one of the most profound scholars of his time, 
 and was remarkable for the moderation and general 
 excellence of his character. Died in 153 1. 
 
 See W. Capito, "Vita J. Oecolampadii," 1793 ; Grvn^gus, "Vita 
 J. Oecolampadii," 1536; S. Hess, " Lebensbescbreibung des Dr. J. 
 Oecolampadius," 1793; Wagner, " Lebensbeschreibung des Oeco- 
 lanipadius," 1804; J. J. Herzog, "Das Leben J. Oekolampads," a 
 vols., 1843; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ierale." 
 
 CEcumenius, ek-u-mee'ne-us, Bishop of Tricca, in 
 Thessaly, is supposed to have flourished in the ninth or 
 tenth century. He wrote Commentaries on the Acts, 
 on Saint Paul's Epistres, and on the Apocalypse. 
 
 See Cave, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 Oeder, o'der, (Georg Ludwig,) a German exegetical 
 writer, the father of the following, was born near Anspach 
 in 1694. He published several commentaries on the 
 Scriptures. Died in 1760. 
 
 Oeder, (Georg Ludwig,) a distinguished German 
 botanist, born at Anspach in 1728. He studied at Got- 
 tingen under Haller, through whose influence he was 
 appointed professor of botany at Copenhagen in 1752. 
 1 1 is most important work is his splendid " Flora Danica," 
 (3 vols., 1762-72,) illustrated with upwards of sixteen 
 hundred figures of plants. It was afterwards continued 
 by Muller. The gth and last volume was issued in 1814. 
 Oeder also wrote several able treatises on political econ< 
 omy and finance. Died in 1791. 
 
 See Halem, " Andenken an Oeder," 1793 ; Kraft og Nyerup, 
 " Litteraturlexicon ;" Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Hand- 
 buch." 
 
 CEdipe. See CEdipus. 
 
 CEdipus, Sd'e-pus, [Gr. OMotouc; Fr. GSdipe, i'dep',] 
 a son of Laius, King of Thebes, and Jocasta, was cele- 
 brated in Greek mythology and tragic poetry as a type 
 or instance of the fatality which man cannot escape. 
 According to the legend, an oracle warned Laius that if 
 he ever had a son, that son should kill his father and 
 marry his mother. Laius therefore exposed his first- 
 born son soon after his birth, in order that he might 
 perish ; but he was found by a shepherd of Polybus, King 
 of Corinth, was named CEdipus, and brought up as the 
 son of Polybus. Having consulted the oracle of Delphi, 
 he was informed that he should commit parricide. In 
 the course of a journey he met Laius in the road, with 
 attendants, who provoked a quarrel, in which CEdipus 
 killed the King of Thebes. Soon after this event the 
 throne of Thebes and the hand of Jocasta, the queen, 
 were offered to him who should solve the riddle of the 
 Sphinx. (See Sphinx.) CEdipus solved the riddle, ob- 
 tained the throne, and became father of several children 
 by Jocasta. He afterwards discovered his guilt, and 
 suffered penalties and misfortunes of which contradictory 
 accounts are given by different writers. 
 
 See Sophoci.es, "CEdipus Tyrannus ;" "The Odyssey," book 
 xi. : Euripides, " Pboenissa; ;" Smith, " Dictionary of Greek and 
 Roman Biography and Mythology." 
 
 CEdman, od'min, (Samuel,) a Swedish savant and 
 theologian, born in Smiland in 1750. He became pro- 
 fessor of theology at Upsal in 1806, and wrote com- 
 mentaries on the Scriptures. Died in 1829. 
 
 Oedumla. See Audhumla. 
 
 Oefele, b'feh-leh, (Franz Ignaz,) a skilful German 
 painter, born at Posen in 172 1 ; died in 1797. 
 
 CTJgir. See /Ec.ir. 
 
 CEgir, [from oga, to "shudder at," to "dread,"] or 
 Hler, hlair, i.e. the "Shelterer," [from hit, "lee,"] the 
 god of the sea or ocean. His wife Ran has a net, with 
 which, it is said, she catches seafarers. Their nu- 
 merous daughters are the waves of the ocean. CEgir 
 and Hler appear to have been originally regarded as 
 two distinct personages, — the former ruling over the 
 stormy, the latter over the tranquil, sea. Ran (signifying 
 
 i, e, 1, 8, 0, y, long; 1, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 0, u, J, short; a, $, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n5t; good; m<5&n; 
 
0EHLENSCHL4EGER 
 
 1 697 
 
 OERSTED 
 
 "jobbery," or " one who robs or bereaves") represents 
 the tendency of the sea to rob men of life and of their 
 most precious treasures. It is related in one of the Norse 
 legends that, the ^Esir having once paid a visit to CEgir, 
 he was in want of a kettle large enough to brew beer 
 for them. Thereupon Thor and Tyr went to the dwell- 
 ing of the giant Hymir, who had a very spacious kettle, 
 a mile deep. Thor grasped the kettle by the rim and 
 threw it over his head, so that the rings came down to his 
 feet, almost hiding him from view. After that, CEgir and 
 the /Esir had an ample supply of beer for their banquets. 
 See Thorpe. "Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 67-6*): KjtYABR, 
 " Religion of the Northmen ;" Petersen, " Nordisk Mythologi. " 
 
 Oehlenschlager or Ohlenschlager, 6'len-shla'ger, 
 (Adam Gottloh,) an eminent Danish poet, born in a 
 suburb of Copenhagen on the 14th of November, 1779, 
 was the son of a German who had settled in Denmark. 
 He began at an early age to write plays, which he would 
 art in company with his sister and young associates. His 
 enthusiasm for the drama introduced him to the notice 
 and friendship of Rahbek and Rosing. He was after- 
 wards attracted to the studv of Scandinavian antiquities 
 and historical legends, which furnished material for 
 some of his most popular dramas. He published in 
 1805 a collection of poems, including the dramatic tale 
 of "Aladdin," which displays the splendid colouring of 
 Oriental fiction. The same year he visited Germany, 
 where he acquired the friendship of Goethe, Tieck, and 
 other celebrated writers of the time. While there he 
 composed several dramas in Danish, which he translated 
 into German and submitted to the criticism of his 
 friends. From Germany he proceeded to Paris, and 
 thence to Rome, returning to Copenhagen in 1810. He 
 had written during his absence his tragedies of " Pal- 
 natoke," (1809,) "Axel and Valborg," (iSio,) and "Cor- 
 reggio," which are ranked among his best productions. 
 He was appointed soon after his return professor of 
 aesthetics in the University of Copenhagen, and the same 
 year married Christiana Heger, a sister of Rahbek's 
 wife. Among the most important of his other works are 
 the dramas of " Hakon Tarl," " Staerkodder," " Hagbarth 
 and Signa," (1814,) "The Normans at Byzantium," 
 "Charlemagne," "Tordenskiold," and " Amleth," also 
 the poems entitled "Helge," (1814,) " Hroar's Saga," 
 (1817,) and his splendid epic, "The Gods of the North," 
 ("Nordens Guder," 1819.) He died in January, 1850, and 
 his funeral was solemnized with great fnagnificence by 
 his countrymen, by whom he is generally regarded as 
 the great national poet of Denmark. " Few men," says 
 M. Marmier, " have been endowed with a genius as fer- 
 tile and as facile as that of Oehlenschlager. The verses 
 fall from his pen like water from a fountain. Hence 
 his style is charming in its grace, flexibility, and abandon, 
 but it is frequently very negligent." 
 
 • See his Autobiography, " A. Ohlenschla\ger's Levnet," 2 vols., 
 1831 ; Marmier." Histoire de la LitteValure Danoise;" Lf. Fevre- 
 Deumier, " Oehlenschlaeger le Poe'te national du Danemarck," 1S54 ; 
 C. Molbrch, " Studierover Ohlenschlagers Poesie," 1S50; Ersi.kw, 
 " Forfatter- lexicon ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeWraie ;" Long- 
 fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe:" Howitt, "Literature 
 and Romance of Northern Europe;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 December and April, 1S20, and March. 1821; "Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" for June, 1830. article " Danish and Norwegian Literature;" 
 also the " Foreign Quarterly" for July, 1831. 
 
 Oekolampad. See OJcoi.ampadius. 
 
 Oelrichs, blMks, (Johann,) a German writer and 
 cleigyman, born at Bremen in 1724. Among his works 
 are contributions to the literary history of Germany, 
 Belgium, etc. Died in 1801. 
 
 Oelrichs, [Lat. Om.kich'sids,] (Johann Kari. Con- 
 rad,) a German scholar, born at Berlin in 1722, was 
 appointed in 1784 counsellor of legation at the court of 
 Prussia. He was the author of " Historical and Literary 
 Miscellanies," (1760,) and gther works on history and 
 bibliography. Died in 1798. 
 
 See Meierotto, "Vita CEIrichsii," 1799. 
 
 CElrichsius. See Oelrichs. 
 
 CEnee. See CEneus. 
 
 CEneus, ee'nus, |Gr. Oiveiic ; Fr. OZn£e, a'na',] a 
 king of Calydon, married Althaea, and was the father 
 of Meleager, Tydeus, and other children. According to 
 the fable, he offended Diana, who sent a wild boar to 
 ravage his dominions. This boar was the object of the 
 
 famous Calydonian hunt. OZneus is said to have been 
 the first whom Bacchus taught to cultivate the vine. 
 
 CEnomas. See CEnomaus. 
 
 CEnomaus, e-no'ma-us, [Gr. Olvo/iaoc; Fr. Ginomas, 
 A'no'mas',] a king of Pisa, in Elis, was called a son 
 of Mars. The poets feigned that he promised to give 
 his daughter Hippodaini a to the man who should con- 
 quer him in a chariot-race, with the annexed condition 
 that every one who tried and failed must suffer death. 
 After many suitors had failed and perished, Pelops 
 gained the victory, and CEnomaus killed himself. 
 
 CEiiomans, |Oiv6,uaoc,] a Greek philosopher of the 
 Cynic school, born at Gadara, lived about 120-40 a.d. 
 He wrote, besides other works, a treatise in which he 
 exposed the impostures of Oracles. His works are not 
 extant. 
 
 CEnone, e-no'ne, [Gr. Oivuvri ; Fr. Oenone, a'non',1 
 a nymph of Mount Ida, who was said to have received 
 from Apollo the gift of prophecy, and to have been 
 married to Paris before he was known to be a son of 
 Priam. 
 
 CEnopides, e-nop'e-dez, [0Wn'6Vf,] a Greek astrono- 
 mer, born at Chios, lived in the fifth century B.C. He is 
 said to have derived his knowledge from the Egyptian 
 priests. ./Elian attributes to him the invention of the 
 cycle of fifty-nine years to make the lunar year coincide 
 or accord with the solar year. He was acquainted with 
 the obliquity of the ecliptic. 
 
 CEnopioii, e-no'pe-on, [Gr. Olvnmav ; Fr. Oenope, 
 a'nop', or Oenopion, a'no'pe'6N',] in classic mythology, 
 a son of Bacchus, and King of Chios, (Scio.) 1 lis daugh- 
 ter Merope, it is said, was ravished by Orion. (See 
 Orion.) 
 
 Oernhielm or Ornhielm, oRn'he-21m', (Claudius 
 Arrhenius,) a Swedish historian, born at Linkoping in 
 1627. He wrote, besides other works, "On the Mon- 
 archies of the World," ("De Monarches Orbis," 1683.) 
 Died in 1695. 
 
 Oersted or Cirsted, bR'stfd, (Anders Sandoe,) an 
 eminent Danish jurist and statesman, born at Rudkjo- 
 bing in 1778. He married Sophia, a sister of the famous 
 poet Oehlenschlager, in 1802. He published numerous 
 legal works, one of which is entitled " Eunomia," (4 vols., 
 1815-22.) In 1841 or 1842 he became a minister of 
 state, and opposed the liberal or popular measures. He 
 resigned in 1848, and was appointed prime minister in 
 1853. His policy having been condemned by the Diet, 
 he was removed about the end of 1854. He published 
 a " History of my Life and Times," (4 vols., 1851-56.) 
 Died in i860. 
 
 See Erslew, "Forfatter- Lexicon." 
 
 Oersted, (Anders Sandoe,) a naturalist, a nephew 
 of the preceding, was born at Rudkjobing in 1816. He 
 travelled in the West Indies, and published several 
 works on natural history. 
 
 Oersted, (Hans Christian,) a celebrated Danish 
 natural philosopher, the founder of the scjs«£e of electro 
 magnetism, was born at Rudkjobing, -in the island of 
 Langeland, on the 14th of August, 1777. He was edu- 
 cated with his brother, Anders Sandoe, the jurist, at the 
 University of Copenhagen. In 1806 he obtained the 
 chair of physics in that institution. He produced in 
 1812 an "Essay on the Identity of Chemical and Elec- 
 trical Forces." In 1820 he announced his great dis- 
 covery of the relation between magnetism and electricity, 
 in a short work entitled "Experimenta circum Effectum 
 Conflictus electrici in Acum magneticum." The electric 
 telegraph is one of the most direct practical results of 
 this discovery. He demonstrated that the electric cur- 
 rent, according to a uniform law, " exercises determined 
 and similar impressions on the direction of a magnetic 
 needle" near which it passes. This discovery was re- 
 ceived with great enthusiasm, as the revelation of an 
 important fact which had long escaped the researches 
 of so many sagacious minds. " Of all the philosophers 
 who had speculated on this subject," says Sir John Her- 
 schel, "none had so pertinaciously adher*ed to the idea 
 of a necessary connection between the phenomena as 
 Oersted. Baffled often, he returned to the attack, and 
 his perseverance was at length rewarded by the complete 
 disclosure of the wonderful phenomena of electro-mag- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as t; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 I07 
 
OERTEL 
 
 1698 
 
 OGGIONE 
 
 netism." (" Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natu- 
 ral Philosophy.") 
 
 "The desideratum of a clear expression of the manifest 
 alliance between electricity and magnetism," says James 
 David Forbes, " had been so long and so universally 
 felt that the discovery placed its author in the first rank 
 of scientific men. There was not even, so far as I am 
 aware, a suspicion that lie had been, however remotely 
 or dimly, anticipated. The prize of the French Institute, 
 which had been awarded to Davy for his galvanic dis- 
 coveries, was bestowed upon Oersted." (Sixth Disser- 
 tation of the " Encyclopaedia Britanniaa," vol. i.) " I 
 scarcely know," says Niebuhr, "another natural philoso- 
 pher with so much intellect and freedom from prejudice 
 and esprit de corps." Oersted received for this discovery 
 the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London, and 
 was created a knight of the order of Danebrog. He 
 also made discoveries in chemistry, and wrote a number 
 of works on that science. Among these are " Materialien 
 zu einer Chemie des igten Jahrhunderts," (1803,) and 
 "Tentamen Nomenclaturas chemicae," (1814.) He wrote 
 a poem called "The Balloon," (" Lufskibet," 1836.) 
 His writings have contributed greatly to popularize 
 science. A selection of his works was published in 1850, 
 under the title of "The Spirit in Nature," (" Her Geist 
 in der Natur,") preceded by a biographical notice of 
 Oersted by P. L. Moller. Died in March, 1851. 
 
 See " H. C.Oersteds Leben," by Hauch and Forchhammer, 
 (from the Danish,) 1853; Becquerrl. "Resume de PHistoire 
 d'Electricite," etc., 185S; Cali.iskn. " Medicinisches Schriftsteller- 
 Lexikon ;" *' Nouvelle Biographie GdneVale :" " Menioirof Oersted," 
 by Elie DE Beaumont, in the w Smithsonian Report" for 1S68. 
 
 Oertel, van. See Ortf.lius. 
 
 Oeser or Oser, 6'zer, (Adam Friedrich,) a distin- 
 guished painter and sculptor, of German extraction, 
 born at Presburg, in Hungary, in 1717. He studied in 
 1739 at Dresden, where he formed an intimacy with 
 Winckelmann. He was subsequently director of the 
 Academy of Architecture, Painting, and Design at Leip- 
 sic. Among his pupils here was the celebrated Goethe, 
 who entertained a great regard for him. His best paint- 
 ings are in fresco ; and a number of them adorn the 
 church of Saint Nicholas at Leipsic. His monument 
 to Queen Matilda of Denmark is one of his most ad- 
 mired pieces of sculpture. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Ersch und Gkuber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Nagler, 
 "Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Oeser or Oser, (Johann Ludwig,) a landscape- 
 painter and engraver, born at Dresden in 1751, was a 
 son of the preceding. Died in 1792. 
 
 Oesterley or Osterley, os'ter-H', (Karl,) a German 
 painter of history and portraits, born at Gottingen in 
 1805. He became court painter at Hanover. 
 
 Oetinger, 6'ting'er, sometimes written Ottinger, 
 (Friedrich Christoph,) a learned German theologian, 
 and prominent leader, of the Pietists, was born in Wur- 
 temberg in 1702. He wrote a number of commentaries 
 on the Scriptures, a treatise entitled "The Age of 
 Gold," and " Ancient Philosophy." He also translated 
 several of the works of Swedenborg, of whom he was 
 a warm admirer, and whom he much resembled in purity 
 of character and religious fervour. He was a friend of 
 Count Zinzendorf, whom he assisted in a new translation 
 of the Scriptures. Died in 1782. 
 
 See " Neues Gelehrtes-Europa ;" Auberi.en, "Die Tbeosophle 
 F. C. Oetinger's nach ihren Grundziigen," 1847 ; Hirsching, " His- 
 torisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Oetter or Otter, ot'ter, (Samuel Wilhelm,) a Ger- 
 man antiquary, born at Goldcronach in 1720. He wrote 
 on history and antiquities. Died in t792. 
 
 See F. G. Oetter, "Leben Oetters," 1792. 
 
 Oettinger or Ottinger, ot'ting'er, (Eduard Marik,) 
 a German journalist and novelist, bprn at Breslau in 
 1808. He edited several satirical journals, and published 
 a number of novels, among which is"Onkel Zebra," (7 
 vols., 1843.) H e a ' so wrote a work entitled " Rossini," 
 (1847,) which is said to be a romance rather than a 
 biography, and " Bibliographie biographique univer- 
 selle," (2 vols., 1850-54,) the most complete work on 
 that subject. 
 
 See A. de Reume, " Notice bio-bibliographiqtie sur M. E. M. 
 Oettinger," 1854; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge"ne>ale." 
 
 Ofalia, o-fi'le-a, (Don Narciso de Heredla,) 
 Count, a Spanish statesman, born in 1771, became min- 
 ister of the interior under Zea Bermudez in 1832. He 
 was appointed by Ferdinand VII. executor of his will 
 and a member of the council of regency. He was presi- 
 dent of the council of ministers in 1837. Died in 1843. 
 
 O'Far'rill, (Don Gonzai.o,) a Spanish general, bom 
 at Havana in 1754, became minister of war under Joseph 
 Bonaparte. Died in Paris in 1831. 
 
 Of fa, a Saxon, who succeeded Ethelbald as King of 
 Mercia in 755 a.d. Having murdered Ethelbert, King 
 of East Anglia, he took possession of his kingdom. 
 
 See Turner, "History of the Anglo Saxons :" Henry Mac- 
 kenzie, "Essay on the Life and Institutions of Offa," 1S40. 
 
 Offenbach, of'fen-baK', (Isaac,) a popular composer 
 of comic operas, born at Cologne in 1822, studied in Paris. 
 Among his works are the " Grand Duchess of Gerolstein," 
 " Orpheus in the Lower Regions,"(" Orphee aux Enfers,") 
 " La Belle Helene," " Blue-Beard," (" Barbe Bleue,") " La 
 Vie Parisienne," and "La Bavarde de Saragosse." 
 
 Of'for, (Georc.e,) an English writer, and a bookseller 
 in London, was born about 1786. He published a "Life 
 of John Bunyan," (1853.) Died in 1864. 
 
 O'Fihely, o-fee'le, ? (Maurice,) an Irish prelate and 
 scholar, who was made Archbishop of Tuam by Pope 
 Julius II. in 1506. He was eminent for his learning, and 
 was surnamed Flos Mundi, (" Flower of the World.") 
 Died in 15 13. 
 
 O-fil'I-us, (Aulus,) a Roman jurist of high reputa- 
 tion, was a friend of Cicero, and a pupil of Sulpicius. 
 His writings are cited in the Digest. Among his 
 pupils were Capito and Labeo. 
 
 O'Flaherty, o-fla'her-te, (Roderic,) born at Moycul- 
 lin, Ireland, in 1630, published in 1685 a Latin " History 
 of Ireland from the Deluge to the Year 1684." Died 
 in 1718. • 
 
 Ofterdingen, von, fon of'ter-ding'en, (Heinrich,) a 
 famous German minstrel or minnesinger of the thirteenth 
 century, was a favourite of Leopold, Duke of Austria. 
 He is supposed by some writers to have been the author 
 of the " Nibelungenlied ;" but of this there appears to 
 be little evidence. 
 
 See Hagen, "Museum fiir A!t-Deutsche Literatur und Kunst," 
 18 10. 
 
 Og'den, (Aaron,) born at Elizabethtown, New Jer- 
 sey, in 1756, served in the war of the Revolution, and 
 was elected Governor of New Jersey in 18 12. Died in 
 1839. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. i. 
 
 Ogden, (David B.,) a distinguished American lawyer 
 and resident of New York City, was born in 1769. He 
 removed from New Jersey to New York in 1802. Died 
 in 1849. 
 
 Ogden, (Jacob,) an American physician and medical 
 writer, born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1721 ; died in 
 1779. 
 
 Ogden, (Matthias,) an American brigadier-general 
 in the Revolutionary war. He died at Elizabethtown, 
 New Jersey, in 1 791. 
 
 Og'den, (Samuel,) an English clergyman, born -at 
 Manchester in 1716. He became Woodwardian pro- 
 fessor at Cambridge in 1764, and published several 
 volumes of sermons. Died in 1778. 
 
 Oge, o'zha', (Vincent,) a Creole of Saint Domingo, 
 who, having in vain solicited the French National As- 
 sembly to grant equal rights to the coloured people, 
 became in 1790 the leader of an insurrection, with a 
 view of gaining his object by force of arms. His party 
 were soon overpowered by the French troops, and 
 Oge, together with his lieutenant, Chavannes, who had 
 been guilty of the principal outrages, was executed in 
 
 1791. 
 
 See Dai.mas, "Revolution de Saint-Domingue ;" Mai.enfant, 
 " Histoire des Colonies." 
 
 Oggione, d', d6d-jo'na, (Marco,) written also TJg- 
 gione, an eminent Italian painter, born in the Milanese 
 about 1470, was a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, whose 
 style he imitated successfully. Among his master-pieces 
 are his "Three Archangels," and an altar-piece at Milan. 
 His most important works are two copies of "The Last 
 
 a, 6, T, o, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, G, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; gfiod; moon; 
 
0G1ER 
 
 1699 
 
 OJEDA 
 
 Supper" of Pa Vinci, one of which is in the Academy 
 of Arts in London. The excellence of these pictures, 
 and the destruction by time of the original, have caused 
 them to be greatly prized. Died in 1530. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Ogier, o'zhe-i', (Charles,) a French scholar, born 
 in Paris in 1595. He published notes of his travels in 
 Denmark, Sweden, etc., " Ephemerides, sive Iter Dani- 
 cum, Suecicum et Polonicum," (1656.) Died in 1654. 
 
 Ogier, (FRANCOIS,) a French writer and ecclesiastic, 
 was a brother of the preceding. He published an 
 "Apology for M. de Balzac," (1627,) and other works. 
 Died in 1670. 
 
 O'gil-by or Ogleby, o'gel-be, (John,) a Scottish lit- 
 tfraleur and printer, born at Edinburgh in 1600, was 
 noted for the variety and versatility of his talents. In 
 1633 he accompanied Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, to 
 Ireland, in the capacity of dancing-master and copyist. 
 After his return to England he published, in 1650, a 
 poetical translation of Virgil, and, in conjunction with 
 James Shirley, afterwards translated the "Iliad" and 
 "Odyssey" into English verse, having learned Greek for 
 that purpose when upwards of fifty years of age. These 
 versions were very popular at that time, and possessed 
 great typographical beauty. Ogilby was also appointed 
 royal cosmographer, and published a number of geo- 
 graphical works. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Cibber, " Lives of the Poets ;" " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Ogilvie, o'gil-ve, (James,) a Scottish orator and 
 teacher of elocution, born about 1760, or, as others say, 
 1775. He delivered lectures as models of oratory m 
 the chief cities of the United States, and received much 
 applause. He died at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1820. 
 
 Ogilvie, (John,) a Scottish divine and writer, born 
 in 1733. Among his works are " Britannia," an epic 
 poem, (1801,) and an "Examination of the Evidence 
 of Prophecy in Favour of Christianity," (1803.) Died 
 in 1S14. 
 
 Ogiuski, o-gen'skee, (Michael Casimir,) a Polish 
 nobleman, bom at Warsaw in 1731. He constructed a 
 canal in Poland. Died in 1803. 
 
 Oginski, (Michael Clkoi'Has,) a Polish composer, 
 born at Warsaw in 1765, was a nephew of the preceding. 
 He settled in Italy about 1815, and gained distinction 
 as a musical composer. He wrote "Memoirs of Poland 
 from 1788 to 1815," (2 vols., 1826.) Died in 1831. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1829. 
 
 Ogive. See Edgiva. 
 
 Ogleby. See Ogilby. 
 
 Oglesby, o'gels-be, (Richard J.,) an American gene- 
 ral, born in Kentucky in 1824. He removed to Illinois, 
 and practised law in that State. He commanded a 
 brigade at Fort Donelson, February, 1861, and was 
 severely wounded at the battle of Corinth, October 4, 
 1862. He was elected Governor of Illinois for four 
 years, (1865-68.) 
 
 Oglethorpe, o'gel-thorp, (James Edward,) an Eng- 
 lish general, born in London in 1698. Having served 
 for a time under Marlborough and Prince Eugene in 
 Germany, he obtained in 1733 the royal charter for 
 founding a colony in North America, which he called 
 Georgia in honour of the reigning king. Having passed 
 several years in Georgia, he returned to England in 
 1743, and commanded an army against the Pretender in 
 1745. He was a member of Parliament for many years. 
 Died in 1785. The virtues and talents of General Ogle- 
 thorpe have been celebrated by Pope, Thomson, and 
 Dr. Johnson 
 
 See 
 Loni 
 chap. 
 
 Ognibuono di Lonigo. See Lonicenus, (Omni- 
 bonus.) 
 
 Og'jf-ges or Og'jf-gus [Gr. 'Qvt'yw, 'Qyuyoc, or 
 (lyiryi/<; ; Fr. Ogyges, o'zhe'zhes'] is said to have been 
 the first king or ruler of Thebes, which was sometimes 
 called Ogygia. According to some writers, he was also 
 King of Attica, and the father of Eleusis. In his reign 
 occurred a great inundation of Greece or Bceotia, which 
 is called the Ogygian deluge and is supposed to have 
 been anterior to that of Deucalion. 
 
 See "Memoirs of James Oglethorpe," by Robert Wright. 
 ndon, 1S67; Hii.drhth, " History of the United States," vol. ji. 
 ip. xxiv. : Bancroft, " History of the United States," chap. xxiv. 
 
 Ogygus. See Ogyges. 
 
 O'Hal'lo-ran, (Sylvester,) an Irish antiquary acd 
 surgeon, born in 1728. He became surgeon of the Lim- 
 erick Hospital. He published an "Introduction to the 
 Study of the History and Antiquities of Ireland," (1772,) 
 and a "General History of Ireland," (2 vols., 1772.) 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for January and February, 1779. 
 
 O'Hara, o-ha'ra, (James,) a native of Ireland, emi- 
 grated in 1772 to America, where he became quarter- 
 master-general under General Wayne. He was one of 
 the founders of Pittsburg. Died in 1819. 
 
 O'Hara, (Kane,) a popular Irish dramatist, wrote, 
 among other plays, " The Golden Pippin," " The Two 
 Misers," and "Midas." Died in 1782. 
 
 Ohlenschlager. See Oehi.enschi.ager. 
 
 Ohlmuller, 61'muTler, (Joseph Daniel,) an eminent 
 German architect, born at Bamberg in 1791. Among Ins 
 best works are the national monument at Upper Wittels- 
 bach, the chapel at Kiefersfelden, and the Gothic church 
 near Munich. The last-named structure is esteemed 
 one of the most magnificent specimens of its style erected 
 in modern times. Died in 1839. 
 
 Ohm, 6m, (Georg Simon,) a German natural phi- 
 losopher, born at Erlangen in 1787. He became professor 
 of mathematics in the Jesuits' College of Cologne in 
 1817. He gained distinction by the discovery of the 
 laws of electric currents, on which he published in 1827 
 a work called " Die galvanische Kette mathematische 
 bearbeitet." He received the Copley medal of the 
 Royal Society of London in 1841. Died at Munich 
 in 1854. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Ohm, (Martin,) a German mathematician, brother 
 of the preceding, was born at Erlangen in 1792, and 
 became professor of physics and mathematics at Berlin 
 in 1839. He was the author of an " Essay on a Perfect 
 System of Mathematics," and other works. 
 
 Ohmacht, o'maKt, (Landolin,) a German sculptor, 
 born near Rotweil in 1760, was a friend of the poet Klop- 
 stock, and of Lavater. Among his best works are the 
 "Judgment of Paris," a "Neptune," a "Flora," a 
 monument to General Kleber, and a bust of Klopstock. 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 See "Journal des Beaux- Arts," 1831. 
 
 Ohsson, 6'son, (Constanttne,) Baron of, born at 
 Constantinople about 1780, was the son of Mouradja 
 d'Ohsson, an Armenian, (see Mouradja d'Ohsson.) 
 He wrote a " History of the Mongols," (1835,) and a 
 " History of the Caucasians in the Tenth Century." 
 He also finished his father's " Picture of the Ottoman 
 Empire." 
 
 Oiconomos or CEconomos, e-kon'o-mos, (Con- 
 stanttn,) a learned Greek priest and writer, born in 
 Thessaly in 1780. He taught Greek at Smyrna for ten 
 years, and afterwards preached at Saint Petersburg and 
 at Athens. He wrote several works on language, and 
 "De la Version des Septante," (4 vols., 1843-50.) Died 
 in 1857. 
 
 See Sivini, "Memoire compose a la HaTe sur Oiconomos," 1857. 
 
 Oilee. See Oileus. 
 
 Oileus, o-i'lus, [Gr. 'Oarfc; Fr. Oilee, wa'la',1 a 
 king of the Locrians, and the father of Ajax the Less. 
 He is said to have been one of the Argonautae. 
 
 Oisel, oi'zel, [Lat. Oise'lius,] (Jakob,) written also 
 Ouzel, ow'zel, a Dutch critic and jurist, born at Dant- 
 zic in 1631. He became professor of public law at 
 Groningen in 1667. He edited Aulus Gellius, and 
 published a work on numismatics, called "Thesaurus 
 selectorum Numismatum antiquorum," (2 vols., 1677.) 
 Died in 1686. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Morhof, " Polyhistor. " 
 
 Oisel, (Philip,) a nephew of the preceding, was 
 born at Dantzic in 1671. He was an excellent Hebrew 
 scholar, and a Protestant minister. He published sev- 
 eral theological works. Died at Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
 in 1724. 
 
 Oiselius. See Oisel. 
 
 Ojeda, de, da o-na'Da, (Alonzo,) a Spanish explorer 
 and lieutenant of Columbus, was born at Cuenca about 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
O'KEEFE 
 
 1700 
 
 OLDENBURG 
 
 1465 or 1470. He accompanied Columbus in his second 
 voyage to America in 1493, a "d commanded an ex- 
 pedition which Columbus sent to explore the interior 
 of Hispaniola, where he captured the chief Caonabo. 
 Having returned to Spain, he obtained command of an ex- 
 ploring expedition sent out in 1499. Among his officers 
 or passengers was Amerigo Vespucci. He discovered a 
 part of the new continent, which he named Venezuela, 
 and returned to Spain in 1500. In 1508 he attempted 
 to colonize New Andalusia, and to conquer the natives, 
 but was not successful. 
 
 See Oviedo, " Cronica de las Indias;" Irving, "History of 
 Columbus;" Charlevoix, " Histoire de Saiut-Domingue ;" Her- 
 RBRA, " Historia general :" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 O'Keefe, o-keef. (John.) an Irish dramatist, born at 
 Dublin in 1747. The number of his plays amounted to 
 upwards of sixty, and, though their merits are not of a 
 high order, they enjoyed great popularity. Among the 
 most admired we may name "The Agreeable Surprise" 
 and "Wild Oats." Died in 1833. 
 
 See " Recollections of the Life of John O'Keefe," by himself, 
 1826. 
 
 Okeghem, o'Keh-h?m, written also Ockenhein, 
 (Jan,) an eminent Flemish musician and composer, born 
 in Hainault about 1430; died after 1500. 
 
 Oken, o'ken, or Ockenfuss, ok'ken-fooss',(LoRENZ,) 
 an eminent German naturalist of the transcendental 
 school, was born at Bohlsbach, in Wurtemberg, in Au- 
 gust, 1779. He abridged the original name of his family. 
 Ockenfuss, into Oken. He studied at Gottingen, and 
 became a privat-docent in that university. In a remark- 
 able work, entitled " Elements of Natural Philosophy, 
 the Theory of the Senses, and the Classification of Ani- 
 mals," (" Grundriss der Naturphilosophie," etc., 1802,) 
 he gave the outlines of a scheme that he afterwards de- 
 voted himself to perfect, and advanced the idea that " the 
 animal classes are virtually nothing else than a represen- 
 tation of the organs of sense." He accordingly divided 
 the animal kingdom into five classes. He was an ad- 
 vocate of the theory of development in its largest sense. 
 Among his doctrines, as quoted by Professor Hitchcock, 
 are the following : " Plants and animals can only be 
 metamorphoses of infusoria. No organism has been 
 created of larger size than an infusorial point ; whatever 
 is larger has not been created, but developed. . . . The 
 mind, just as the body, must be developed out of these 
 animals, [infusoria.] . . . Everything that is, is material." 
 (" The Religion of Geology," p. 299.) He produced in 
 1805 a treatise on Generation, in which he maintained 
 that "all organic beings originate from and consist of 
 cells or vesicles." In 1807 he was appointed extraor- 
 dinary professor of medical sciences in the University 
 of Jena, where he gained a high reputation by his lec- 
 tures on zoology, physiology, etc. He developed his 
 peculiar system of natural science in his "Manual of 
 Natural Philosophy," (1809.) From i8i6to 1848 he was 
 editor of the " Isis," a journal of natural history. In 1832 
 he obtained a professorship at Zurich, where he died in 
 1851. Among his works is a "General Natural History," 
 (13 vols., 1833-41.) 
 
 See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;" " Ency- 
 clopaedia Britannica ;" Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Okolampadius. See OLcolampadius. 
 
 Okolski, o-kol'skee, (Simon,) a Polish historian and 
 ecclesiastic of the seventeenth century. His principal 
 work is entitled " Orbis Polonus," (3 vols., 1641-45,) 
 which treats of the origin of the Sarmatians, etc. 
 
 Okoonef, Okounev, Okounef, Okunev, Okou- 
 new, or Okunew, o-koo-neT', (Nikolai Alexandro- 
 vitch,) a Russian general and writer on military science, 
 born at Saint Petersburg in 1792, served in the campaign 
 of 1829 against the Turks. He became in 1840 lieu- 
 tenant-general. He published, besides other works, 
 "Reflections on the System of Modern War," (1823,) 
 and a " History of the Second Epoch of the Polish 
 Campaign of 1831." Died in 1851. 
 
 Okounev. See Okoonef. 
 
 Okunew. See Okoonef. 
 
 Olaf, o'laf, or O-la'us, I, or Olof, o'lof, King of 
 Norway, born in 956, was surnamed Trygvason. He 
 was a corsair or sea-rover in his youth, and became king 
 
 about 996. He is said to have established Christianity 
 in his kingdom. Died in 1000. 
 
 See Tollstorp, " Norske Konungen Olof," etc., 1847. 
 
 Olaf or OlauB II., called the Saint, obtained the 
 throne of Norway about 1018. He waged war against 
 Canute, King of Denmark. Died in 1030. 
 
 See Hagerup, "Om Oluf den Hellige," 1805. 
 
 Olaf or Olaus III. became King of Norway about 
 1068. He ordered that one slave should be liberated in 
 each district every year, and made other reforms. Died 
 in 1093. 
 
 Olaf IV., born in 1098, was a son of Magnus III. 
 of Norway. Died in 1 1 16. 
 
 Olaf V., a son of Haquin VII., King of Norway, was 
 born in 1371, and succeeded his father in 1380. Died 
 in 1387. 
 
 Olafsen, o'laf-sen, (Eggf.rt,) a naturalist of Iceland, 
 born in 1721. He published, among other treatises, 
 " A Historical Account of the Nature and Constitution 
 of Iceland," and poems in Latin and Danish. Died 
 about 1770. 
 
 Olahus or Olaus, o-la'us, (Nicolas,) a learned Hun- 
 garian prelate, born at Hermannstadt in 1493, rose to 
 be chancellor, and Archbishop of Strigonia, (1552.) He 
 wrote a treatise " On the Origin of the Hungarians," 
 and a "History of Attila." Died in 1568. 
 
 Olaus. See Olaf. 
 
 Olaus Magnus. See Magnus, (Olaus.) 
 
 Olavides, ola-vee'D?s, or Olavide, o-la-vee'Da, [Fr. 
 Oi.avide, o'lt've'da',] (Pablo Antonio Jose,) Count 
 of Pilos, was born at Lima, in South America, about 1725. 
 He was appointed intendant-general of Andalusia, and 
 colonized a part of the Sierra Morena, by introducing into 
 it an agricultural and manufacturing population. He was 
 subsequently imprisoned for a time in the Inquisition on 
 a charge of heresy, but, having made his escape, he took 
 refuge in France. He died in Spain in 1803, leaving a 
 religious work, entitled "Triumph of the Gospel," (" El 
 Evangelio en Trjunfo.") 
 
 See L. Brightweli.. "By-Paths of Biography ;" J. F. Bour- 
 going. "Tableau de l'Espagne moderne," 1807; A. Hennings, 
 "Olavides," 1779; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Olbers, ol'bers, (Heinrich Wilhelm Mathias,) an 
 eminent German astronomer and physician, born at 
 Arbergen, near Bremen, in October, 1758. He studied 
 medicine at Gottingen, and practised at Bremen, where 
 he constructed a private observatory. He gained dis- 
 tinction by his observations on the comet of 1779, and 
 discoverer! an improved method of calculating the orbits 
 of comets. He published about 1797 a treatise on this 
 method, which is considered a very important contribu- 
 tion to astronomy. In March, 1802, Olbers discovered 
 a new asteroid, which he named Pallas, the orbit of which 
 is nearly as distant from the sun as that of Ceres. He 
 adopted the hypothesis that Ceres and Pallas were frag- 
 ments of a large planet which had been broken by an 
 internal convulsion, and predicted that other asteroids 
 would be found. In 1804 Harding discovered Juno, and 
 in March, 1807, Olbers discovered the fourth asteroid, 
 which he named Vesta. The mean distance of their 
 orbits from the sun is nearly the same as that of the 
 orbits of Ceres and Pallas. He was elected a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society of London in 1804. In 1815 he 
 discovered a comet which is called by his name, and 
 which performs a revolution in about seventy-four years. 
 Among the pupils of Olbers are Bessel and Gauss. He 
 died at Bremen in 1840. 
 
 See De Zach, "Allgetneine geographischen Ephemeriden ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"n^rale." 
 
 Oldcastle. See Corham, Lord. 
 
 Oldenburg, ol'den-booRG', House of, an ancient 
 and noble family, from which the Emperors of Russia, 
 the Kings of Denmark, and one of the dynasties of 
 Sweden are descended. Thf.odoric (Dietrich) of 
 Oldenburg obtained by marriage Sleswick and Holstein. 
 Died about 1440. His son Christian became King of 
 Denmark in 1448, and King of Sweden in 1458. Adolf. 
 a grandson of Christian, was the founder of the house 
 of Holstein-Gottorp, and an ancestor of the present 
 imperial family of Russia. 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long ; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; not; good; moon: 
 
OLDENBURG 
 
 1 70 1 
 
 OLIER 
 
 Old' en-burg, (Hknry,) a learned German writer, 
 born at Bremen about 1626. Having settled in England, 
 he acquired the friendship of Milton and Robert Boyle, 
 with whom he afterwards corresponded. On the forma- 
 tion of the Royal Society, in 1662, he was appointed one 
 of its secretaries. He published the "Transactions" of 
 the Society from 1664 to 1677, and was the author of 
 several political and theological works. He sometimes 
 signed his name Grubendol. Died about 1678. 
 
 See Martin, " Biographia Philosophica." 
 
 Oldenburger, ol'den-bdoR'ger, (Phii.ipp Andreas,) 
 a German jurist and publicist, born in Brunswick or in 
 the duchy of Celle. He was professor of public law 
 at Geneva, and published several works, among which 
 is " Pandectae Juris publici Germanic!," (1670.) Died 
 in 1678. 
 
 Oldendorp, ol'den-doRp', (Johann,) a German jurist, 
 born at Hamburg about 1480. He published, besides 
 other works, " An Introduction to the Law of Nature 
 and of Nations," (" Isagoge seu Introductio Juris Natural 
 Gentium et Civilis," 1549.) Died in 1567. 
 
 Oldermann, ol'derman, (Johann,) a German scholar 
 and writer, born in Saxony about 1686. He was pro- 
 fessor of Greek at Helmstedt. Died in 1723. 
 
 Old'field, (Anne,) a celebrated English actress, born 
 in London in 1683. She excelled both in tragedy and 
 comedy, and her talents are eulogized in the " Tatler." 
 Died in 1730. 
 
 See " Life of Anne Oldfield," London, 1731 ; Baker, " Biographia 
 Dramatica." 
 
 Oldham, old'am, (Hugh,) an English bishop, born 
 probably near Manchester, was a patron of learning. 
 He became Bishop of Exeter in 1504. He founded a 
 free school at Manchester, and added to the endowment 
 of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Died in 15 19. 
 
 Oldham, (John,) an English satirical poet, born in 
 Gloucestershire in 1653. He was a friend of Drvden, 
 who has eulogized him in some of his verses. He wrote 
 " Pindaric Odes," and " Four Satires against the Jesuits," 
 and made translations from Juvenal. " His poems," says 
 Hallam, "are spirited and pointed, and he ranks perhaps 
 next to Dryden." Died in 1683. 
 
 See E. Thompson, " Life of John Oldham," and a Memoir, by 
 Robert Bell, prefixed to Oldham's Poems, 1854. 
 
 Old'is-worth, (William,) an English poet and trans- 
 lator, born in the seventeenth centurv, was one of the 
 first writers for the " Examiner." He translated the 
 Odes of Horace into verse, and wrote a few poems, and 
 other works, among which is "Timothy and Philotheus," 
 (3 vols., 1709-10.) Died in 1734. 
 
 Old-mix'on, (John,) an English historical and po- 
 litical writer, born in Somersetshire in 1673. He wrote 
 a "Critical History of England," (3 vols., 1730-39,) a 
 " History of the Stuarts," and other works of little merit, 
 in which he manifests a decided partiality to the Whigs. 
 In his "Prose Essay on Criticism" he attacked Pope, 
 who took revenge in the " Dunciad." Died in 1742. 
 
 See Cibber, "Lives of the Poets:" Baker, "Biographia Dra- 
 matica." 
 
 Oldoini, ol-do-ee'nee, (Agostino,) an Italian biogra- 
 pher, born at La Spezia in 1612. He wrote memoirs 
 of several popes, cardinals, etc. Died after 1680. 
 
 Oldys, ol'dis or oldz, (William,) an English biogra- 
 pher and bibliographer, born about 1690. He wrote a 
 "Life of Sir Walter Raleigh," prefixed to Raleigh's " I lis- 
 tory of the World," (1738,) and a number of biographies 
 in the " Biographia Britannica," under the signature ','G." 
 He also published " The British Librarian, exhibiting 
 a Compendious View ftf all Unpublished and Valuable 
 Books," (1737,) which is esteemed for its accuracy. Died 
 in 1761. 
 
 See Chalmers, "Biographical Dictionary." 
 
 Olearius, o-la-a're-us, or Olschlager, ol'shla'ger, 
 (Adam,) a distinguished German writer and traveller, 
 born at Aschersltben about 1600, was court mathema- 
 tician and librarian to the Duke of Holstein. In 1633 
 he accompanied an embassy sent by the Duke of Hol- 
 stein to Russia, and some years after visited Persia in 
 the same capacity. After his return he published, in 
 1639, a very interesting account of his travels in the East. 
 
 He also translated from the Persian the " Rose-Garden" 
 of Saadee, (Sadi.) Died in 1671. 
 
 See Nicekon, " Me'moires ;" Moller, "Cimbria Literata;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Olearius, (Gottfried,) a German Lutheran divine, 
 born at Halle in 1604. He preached in his native city, 
 and published several works on theology. Died in 1685. 
 
 Olearius, (Gottfried,) a theologian and philosopher, 
 born at Leipsic in 1672, was a grandson of the preceding. 
 He was professor of theology at Leipsic. Among his 
 works is a " Logical Analysis of the Epistle to the He- 
 brews," (1706.) Died in 1715. 
 
 Olearius, (Johann,) a German divine, born in 1639, 
 was professor of theology at Leipsic. He wrote a num- 
 ber of theological treatises, and was for a time editor of 
 the "Acta Eruditorum." Died in 1713. He was a son 
 of Gottfried, noticed above, (1604-85.) 
 
 Olearius, (Johann Christoph,) a German historian 
 and numismatist, born at Halle in 1668, was a son of 
 Johann Gottfried. He became Protestant Bishop at Arm- 
 stadt in 1736. He wrote numerous works. Died in 1747. 
 
 See J. C. Otto, " In Exsequias Olearii," 1747 ; Ersch und Gku- 
 ber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Olearius, (Johann Gottfried,) born at Halle in 
 1635, was a brother of Johann, noticed above. He was 
 pastor at Halle, and author of a work entitled "Abacus 
 Patrologicus," (1673.) Died in 171 1. 
 
 O'Leary, o-lee're, (Arthur,) an Irish Catholic clergy- 
 man, born at Cork in 1729, was the author of several 
 controversial works. Died in 1802. 
 
 Oleaster, o-la-as'ter, (Jerome,) a Portuguese monk 
 and linguist, born at Lisbon. He was versed in Hebrew, 
 Greek, and Latin, and wrote a " Commentary on Isaiah," 
 (1623.) Died in 1563. 
 
 O'leg, I Russ. pron. o-leg' or o-1?k',1 Prince of Russia, 
 was a native of Scandinavia, from which he emigrated 
 about 862 a.d. He was a relative of Rurik, who, dying 
 in 879, appointed Oleg guardian of his minor son, Igor. 
 Oleg usurped the sovereignty, and extended his do- 
 minions by conquest. Died in 912. 
 
 See KaRaMZIN, " Hi*ory of the Russian Empire." 
 
 O'len, [Gr. 'V-li/v,] a mythical Grecian bard, who is 
 said to have been the most ancient lyric poet of that 
 nation, and was called a prophet of Apollo, whose wor- 
 ship he introduced into Delos. He was supposed to 
 have been born in Lycia, and to have lived before the 
 time of Orpheus. 
 
 Olenschlager, von, fon o'len-shla'ger, (Johann 
 Daniel,) a German publicist, born at Frankfort in 171 1. 
 He wrote on the public law of the German empire. Died 
 in 1778. 
 
 Oleszczynski, o-lesh-chins'kee, (Antony,) a Polish 
 engraver, born in Lublin in 1796. He studied and worked 
 in Paris. Among his subjects are portraits of eminent 
 Poles. 
 
 Olevianus, ola-ve-a'nus, (Kaspar,) one of the early 
 Reformers, was born in Treves, August 10, 1536. He 
 studied law at Paris and theology at Geneva, and adopted 
 the views of Calvin. He afterwards resided successively 
 at Treves, Heidelberg, and Herborn. He published sev- 
 eral theological works, including sermons explanatory of 
 Paul's Epistles. Died in March, 1587. 
 
 See Pierer, "Universal-Lexikon." 
 
 Ol'ga, Saint, a Russian lady, was married about 903 
 a.d. to Igor, a son of Rurik, Prince of Russia. On the 
 death of Igor (945) she became regent. She afterwards 
 adopted the Christian religion. Died in 969. 
 
 Oli. See Olid. 
 
 Olid, de, da o-leD', or Oli, o-lee', (Cristovai.,) a 
 Spanish officer, born about 1492. He served under 
 Cortez in the conquest of Mexico, (15 19—21,) and after- 
 wards attempted to make himself independent. He was 
 taken prisoner by the soldiers of Cortez, and executed 
 in Honduras in 1524. 
 
 See Prhscott, "Conquest of Mexico;" Ovikdo, " Historia dfl 
 las Indias. " 
 
 Olier, o'le-4', (Jean Jacques,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and reformer, born in Paris in 1608. He founded the 
 congregation of Saint-Sulpice, and several charitable 
 institutions. He also formed a society for the preven- 
 
 c as i; c as /,• g hard; g as/'; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
OLIN 
 
 1702 
 
 OLIVIER 
 
 tion of duels, and wrote a number of devotional works. 
 Died in 1657. 
 
 See Giry, "Vie de M. Olier," 1687; Nagot, "Vie de M. Olier," 
 1818; De Bretonvilliers, " Memoires sur M. Olier," 2 vols., 
 1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 O'liii, (Stephen,) D.D., LL.D.,an American Method- 
 ist divine and pulpit orator, born at Leicester, Vermont, 
 m '797. became president of the Wesleyan University, 
 Middletown, Connecticut. He died in 1851, leaving a 
 collection of sermons, "Travels in the East," "Greece 
 and the Golden Horn," etc. His "Life and Letters" 
 were published in 1853. 
 
 See the " North American Review" for October, 1843, (by Edward 
 Robinson.) 
 
 Ol'1-phant, (Lawrence,) an English traveller and 
 writer of books of travel, was born in 1832. He pub- 
 lished in 1853 "The Russian Shores of the Black Sea," 
 which was received with favour. He afterwards travelled 
 in North America and the Caucasus, and published 
 several books, one of which is called " Minnesota." 
 About 1857 he went to China as secretary of Lord Elgin. 
 He wrote a "Narrative of the Earl of Elgin's Mission 
 to China and Japan," (1859.) 
 
 Ol'I-phant, (Margaret,) a Scottish authoress, born 
 about 1820. She published several popular novels, 
 among which are " Harry Muir" and "Zaidee," also a 
 "Life of Edward Irving." 
 
 See the " British Quarterly Review" for April, i860,. 
 
 Oliva, o-lee'va, (Alessandro,) an Italian cardinal and 
 pulpit orator, born in 1408, preached at Rome, Naples, 
 and Venice. Died in 1463. 
 
 Oliva. (Giovanni,) an Italian antiquary, born at 
 Rovigo in 1689, was librarian to Cardinal de Rohan. 
 He wrote several treatises on medals and on Roman 
 antiquities. Died in 1757. 
 
 Oliva, de, da o-lee'va, (Fernan Perez,) a Spanish 
 scholar and writer, bom at Cordova in 1497, was one of 
 the founders of the University of Salamanca, (1528,) of 
 which he subsequently became rector. He died about 
 1530, having previously been appointed by Charles V. 
 preceptor to his son Philip. He was the author of a 
 " Dialogue on the Dignity of Man," and other prose 
 essays, which are esteemed the first models of a pure 
 and classical style in the Spanish language. lie was 
 not, however, according to Ticknor, a man of genius in 
 the true sense of this word. His works, including a 
 number of poems and dramas, were published by his 
 nephew, Ambrosio de Morales, (1586.) 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova ;" Ticknor, " His- 
 tory of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Olivares, de, da o-Ie-va'r5s, (Enrique de Guzman 
 —da gooth-man',) second Count, a Spanish general, born 
 in 1530. He took part in the battle of Saint-Quentin, 
 in 1558, and became major-domo of Philip II. in 1562. 
 He was afterwards Viceroy of Naples. Died in 1599. 
 
 See Herrera, "Historia general." 
 
 Olivares, de, or Olivarez, o-le-va'reth, (Caspar de 
 Guzman,) Duke of San Lucar de Barrameda, a cele- 
 brated Spanish statesman, was born at Rome in 1587. 
 The heir of a wealthy family, he early obtained distinc- 
 tion at the court of Philip III., and so thoroughly in- 
 sinuated himself into the favour of his son that, on the 
 accession of the latter as Philip IV., in 1621, Olivares 
 soon found himself in possession of the most important 
 offices of the kingdom. He was appointed successively 
 first minister of state, grand chancellor of the Indies, 
 treasurer-general of Aragon, captain-general of the 
 cavalry, and Governor of Guipiiscoa. During his ad- 
 ministration Spain carried on war against France and 
 the Netherlands, and Olivares found in Richelieu an 
 adversary who was more than his equal. The Spanish 
 armies suffered reverses, and the prosperity of the king- 
 dom declined. He was dismissed from power in 1643, 
 and died in 1645. 
 
 SeeCoMTE DE la Rocca, " Histoire du Ministeredu Cnmte-Diic 
 d'Olivares," 1673; Mai.vezzi, " Rilratto de' Conte-Duca di San 
 Lucar," 1636; "Caduta del Conte d'Olivares," Lyons, 1644; " Life 
 of Count Olivares," London, 1836. 
 
 Olivarez. See Olivares. 
 
 Olive, o'lev', (Jean Pierre,) a French monk and 
 writer, born at Serignan in 1247. He was zealous for 
 
 the enforcement of strict monastic discipline. After his 
 death he was condemned as a heretic by a council held 
 in 1312, and by Pope John XXII. Died in 1298. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biograpliie G^neYale." 
 
 Olivecrantz, o-lee'veh-knants', ? (Johan Paulin,) a 
 Swedish statesman and Latin poet, born at Strengnas in 
 1633. He was appointed Governor of Revel in 1680, 
 and supreme judge of Gothland. He gained the favour 
 of Queen Christina, who corresponded with him after 
 her abdication. Died in 1707. 
 
 Ol'I-ver, (Andrew,) an American magistrate, born 
 in 1707, was appointed in 1770 lieutenant-governor of 
 Massachusetts. Having become obnoxious to the colo- 
 nists by favouring the designs of the British government, 
 they petitioned for his removal, as well as for that of his 
 brother-in-law, Governor Hutchinson. Died in 1774. 
 
 Oliver, (Daniel,) M.D., LL.D., an American phy- 
 sician and scholar, born in Massachusetts in 1787, 
 published " First Lines of Physiology." Died in 1842. 
 
 Ol'l-ver, (George,) D.D., an English antiquary and 
 writer, born about 1782. He published several works 
 on Freemasonry. Died in 1867. 
 
 Oliver, (Isaac,) an eminent English artist, born in 
 1556, excelled in miniature-painting. Among his mas- 
 ter-pieces are portraits of Mary Queen of Scots, Queen 
 Elizabetli, and Sir Philip Sidney. Died in 161 7. His 
 son Peter; born about 1600, became equally celebrated 
 for his portraits, and also produced a number of historical 
 pictures. Died about 1654 or 1664. 
 
 See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Oliver, (Peter,) LL.D., an American jurist, brother 
 of Andrew, noticed above, was born in 1713, and gradu- 
 ated at Harvard College. He was appointed chief 
 justice of Massachusetts. Died in 1791. 
 
 Oliver, (William,) of Bath, an English physician, 
 wrote on the Bath mineral waters. Died in 1764. 
 
 Oliver OF Malmeshury, an English monk and able 
 mathematician of the eleventh century. His works, if 
 he wrote any, are lost. 
 
 Olivet, d', do'le'vi', (Joseph Thoulier,) Ahhe, a 
 celebrated French critic and scholar, born at Salins in 
 April, 1682. He entered the order of Jesuits at an early 
 age, but he renounced it about 1714. He was elected to 
 the French Academy in 1723, and subsequently visited 
 England, where he made the acquaintance of Pope. He 
 was the author of a "Treatise, on French Prosody," 
 " which," says Voltaire, " will subsist as long as the lan- 
 guage," and "Essays on Grammar," (1732.) He also wrote 
 a continuation of the " History of the French Academv," 
 begun by Pellisson, and made excellent translations of 
 Cicero's " De NaturaDeorum"and his "Orations against 
 Catiline," and of the " Philippics" of Demosthenes. His 
 edition of Ciceio's works (9 vols. 4to, 1742) is esteemed 
 one of the best that has appeared. The Abbe d'Olivet 
 was an intimate friend of Boileau and Voltaire, the latter 
 of whom he assisted and directed in his studies. Died 
 in 1768. 
 
 See Mairet, " T^Iotre historiqne de TAbbe 1 d'Olivet," 1839; 
 D'Alembekt, " Histoire des Membres de l'Acadeniie Francaise ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Olivetan, o'lev'toN', (Pierre Robert.) a French 
 Protestant, born at Noyon in the fifteenth century, is 
 supposed to have been the first of his countrymen who 
 translated the Bible from the original Greek and Hebrew. 
 It is asserted, however, by some writers that he only 
 retouched the version of Lefevre d'Etaples. This work 
 was first published in 1535, and is said to have been 
 revised by Calvin, who was a rejative of Olivetan. Died 
 in 1538. 
 
 See Senebier, " Histoire litteYaire de Geneve." 
 
 Oliveyra, o-Ie-va^e-ra, (Francisco Xavikr,) a Por- 
 tuguese gentleman, was born at Lisbon in 1702. Being 
 sent as secretary of the embassy to Vienna in 1732, he 
 was converted to Protestantism. He published a " Dis- 
 course to his Countrymen on the Earthquake at Lisbon," 
 (1756,) and "Familiar Letters." Died in 1783. 
 
 Olivier, o'\e've-k', (Claude Mathieu,) a French 
 litterateur, was born at Marseilles in 1701. He was one 
 of the founders of the University of Marseilles. As 
 counsellor to the Parliament of Paris, he gained a great 
 
 a. e, i, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, ?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; n&t; good; melon; 
 
OLIVIER 
 
 ■7°3 
 
 OLYMPUS 
 
 reputation as a pleader. He published a " Dissertation 
 on the Critias of Plato," and a " History of l'liilip, King 
 of Macedon," (2 vols., 1740.) Died in 1736. 
 
 Olivier, (Francois,) a French judge and statesman, 
 born in Paris in 1497. He became chancellor of France 
 in 1545. Died in 1560. 
 
 Olivier, (Guillaume Antoine,) an eminent French 
 naturalist, born near Toulon in 1756. In 1792 he accom- 
 panied Bruguiere on a scientific expedition to Persia and 
 Turkey, where they made a valuable collection of objects 
 in natural history. He was chosen a member of the 
 Institute in 1800. He published a " Dictionary of the 
 Natural History of Insects, Butterflies, Crustaceans," 
 etc., (7 vols., 1789-1825,) "Travels in the Ottoman 
 Empire, Egypt," etc., (6 vols., 1801,) and several other 
 works. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Cuviek, "iSloges historiques ;" Silvestre, "Notice sur G. 
 A. Olivier," 1815. 
 
 Olivier, o'le've-V, (Juste Daniel,) a Swiss poet, 
 born in the cantou^of Vaud in 1S07. He became a 
 resident of Paris in 1842, and wrote, besides other 
 poems, "Chansons lointaines," (1847.) 
 
 Olivier, (Nicolas Theodore,) a French prelate, 
 born in Paris in 1798. He was appointed Bishop of 
 Evreux in 1S41. Died in 1854. 
 
 See A. de Bouclon, " Histoire de Monseigneur Olivier," 1855. 
 
 Olivier, (Seraphin,) a French cardinal, born at 
 Lyons in 1538, was auditor de rota at Rome for many 
 years. Died in 1609. 
 
 Olivier, d', do'le've-&', (Gadrikl Raimond Jean de 
 Dieu Francois,) a French jurist, born at Carpentras in 
 1753. He published many legal works. Died in 1823. 
 
 Olivieri, o-le-ve-a'ree, (Pietro Paulo,) an Italian 
 architect and sculptor, born at Rome in 1551 ; died in 
 
 1599- 
 
 Olivieri degli Abbati, o-le-ve-a'ree dal'yee ab-bi - 
 tee, (Annikai.e,) an Italian antiquary, born at Pesaro 
 in 1708. He published, besides other works, " Marmora 
 Pisaurensia Notis illustrata," (1737.) Died in 1789. 
 
 See Marignoni, " Elogio di A. Olivieri." 1789. 
 
 Ollivier, o'le've-i', (Charles Prosper,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Angers in 1796; died in Paris 
 in 1845. 
 
 Ollivier, (Demostiiene,) a French democrat, born 
 at Toulon in 1799, was the father of fimile, noticed be- 
 low. He founded at Marseilles in 1831 a journal called 
 " Le Peuple Souverain," and was elected to the Con- 
 stituent Assembly in 1848. He was banished about De- 
 cember, 1851. Died in 1869. 
 
 Ollivier, (Emile,) a French advocate and orator, born 
 at Marseilles in 1825. He practised law with success in 
 Paris, and was elected to the legislative body by the 
 voters of that city in 1857. He was re-elected in 1863. 
 He acted with the Liberal party for many years, but 
 became in 1869 an adherent of Napoleon, who in De- 
 cember of that year appointed him prime minister, and 
 requested him "to name persons who will, associated 
 with yourself, form a homogeneous cabinet, faithfully 
 representing the legislative majority." He took the 
 position of minister of justice in the new cabinet formed 
 (January 2, 1870) partly of the leaders of the Left Centre 
 and partly of those of the Right Centre. The formation 
 of this coalition ministry was regarded as an important 
 event, and as the beginning of a constitutional regime. 
 The Corps Legislatif, after an excited debate, adopted a 
 resolution of confidence iit the minister, April 5, 1870, 
 by a vote of 227 to 43. The most liberal members of 
 the cabinet resigned about the 1st of May, 1870; but 
 the policy of Napoleon and Ollivier was approved by 
 a majority of the popular votes, May 8. Ollivier was 
 elected to the French Academy in April, 1870. He 
 resigned the office of prime minister, August 9, 1870. 
 
 Ollivier, (Francois Antoine Joseph,) a French 
 judge, born at Loriol in 1762 ; died in 1 839. 
 
 Ollivier, (Jules,) an antiquary, bom at Valence in 
 1804, was a son of the preceding. He wrote on the 
 antiquities of Dauphine. Died in 1841. 
 
 Olmo, del, del ol'mo, (Jose Vincent,) a Spanish 
 antiquary, born at Valencia in 161 1. He wrote, besides 
 other works, a curious account of a grand auto de fe of 
 1680. Died in 1696. 
 
 Olmutz, von, fon ol'moots, (Wenzel,) a German 
 engraver and designer, flourished about 1500. 
 
 Olmsted, din'sted or um'sted, (Denison,) I.L.D., an 
 American chemist and geologist, born at East Hartford, 
 Connecticut, in 1791. He graduated at Yale College, 
 and became in 1817 professor of chemistry, mineralogy, 
 and geology in the University of North Carolina. He 
 made the first geological survey of that State. In 1825 
 he obtained the chair of mathematics and natural phi- 
 losophy at Yale College. He was the author of a 
 "School Philosophy," "Rudiments of Natural Philoso- 
 phy and Astronomy," (1842,) "Letters on Astronomy," 
 and other valuable text-books. Died in 1859. 
 
 Olmsted, (Frederick Law,) an American agricul- 
 tural writer and architect, born at Hartford, Connecticut, 
 in 1822. He visited England in 1850, and published, 
 after his return, " Walks and Talks of an American 
 Farmer in England," (1852.) He has also written " A 
 Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, with Remarks 
 on their Economy," (1856,) and "A Journey through 
 Texas," etc., (1857.) In 1857 Mr. Olmsted was ap- 
 pointed chief engineer and architect of the New York 
 Central Park. 
 
 Olof. See Olaf. 
 
 Olozaga, ol-o-tha'g5, (Don Salustiano,) a Spanish 
 statesman, born at Logrofio about 1803. He was the 
 chief of the monarchical opposition after the fall of 
 Mendizabal in 1836, and chairman or reporter of the 
 committee on the constitution in 1837. After the re- 
 moval of Lopez, in 1843, he was commissioned to form 
 a new cabinet ; but he was soon driven from power by 
 Narvaez. He was elected in 1855 a deputy to the 
 Cortes, in which he voted with the Progresistas. He 
 was appointed president of the council of state in 
 April, 1870. 
 
 Olschlager. See Olearius. 
 
 Olshausen, ols'how'zen, ( Hermann,) a German Prot. 
 estant theologian, born at Oldeslohe in 1796. In 1827 
 he was appointed professor of theology at Konigsberg, 
 He published a "Biblical Commentary on all the New 
 Testament," (4 vols.„ 1830-40,) which has been highly 
 commended, and other religious treatises. Died at 
 Erlangen in 1839. 
 
 Olshausen, (Justus,) a German Orientalist, bom at 
 Holstein in 1800. He was chosen a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen in 1845, and be- 
 came professor of Oriental languages at Konigsberg 
 in 1853. He published a work entitled "The Pehlevi 
 Legends on the Coins of the Last Sassanides," (1843.) 
 
 Olshausen, (Theodor,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Gliickstadt in 1802. In 1830 he founded at 
 Kiel a patriotic journal, entitled the " Correspondenz- 
 blatt," in which he advocated the independence of Hol- 
 stein. In 1848 he was a deputy to the Assembly, and 
 in 1849 established the " North German Free Pfess" at 
 Hamburg. He was exiled in 1851 by the Danish gov- 
 ernment to America. 
 
 Oltmanns, olt'niaris, (Jakbo,) a German geometer, 
 born at Wittnuind in 1783. He wrote the astronomical 
 part of Humboldt's "Travels in America," (1808-10.) 
 Died in Berlin in 1833. 
 
 Olug- (or Oloog-) Beg, o'ldog beg, written also 
 Ooloogh-, Oulough-, and TJlugh-Beg, (Meer'za Mo- 
 ham'med,) an eminent Mongol astronomer, a grandson 
 of Tamerlane, and King of Transoxana, was born in 
 1394. He began to reign in 1446, and was killed by his 
 son in 1459. 
 
 O-l^b'rl-us, (A nici us,) a Roman emperor. He be- 
 came consul in 464 a.d., and married Placidia, the widow 
 of Valentinian HI. Through the influence of Genseric 
 or Ricimer, he succeeded Anthemius, who was killed in 
 472. He died in the same year. 
 
 See Gijuion, " Decline and Kail of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Olympe. See Olympus. 
 
 O-ijrm'pI-as, [Gr. 'Oav/jjtjuc,] Queen of Macedon, 
 was a daughter of Neoptolemus, King of Epirus. She 
 was married about 357 11. C to Philip II. of Macedon, 
 and became the mother of Alexander the Great. She 
 is said to have been a woman of violent temper. Philip 
 soon became alienated from her, and divorced her. After 
 the accession of her son Alexander, she put to death 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( $g~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
OLTMPIODORE 
 
 1704 
 
 OMETTADES 
 
 Cleopatra, the second wife of Philip. She was put to 
 death by Cassander in 316 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Vita Alexandri." 
 
 Olympiodore. See Olympiodorus. 
 
 O-lyin-pI-o-do'rus, [Gr. 'OXvfnrtb&upos ; Fr. Oi.ym- 
 piodure, o'laN'pe'o'doR',] a Greek historian, born at 
 Thebes, in Egypt, wrote a " Chronicle" of his time, from 
 407 to 425 a.d., being a continuation of that of Eunapius. 
 There are fragments of this work extant in the " Myrio- 
 bibkm" of Photius. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Gra;ca." 
 
 Olympiodorus II., called the Younger, a Peripa- 
 tetic philosopher, supposed to have flourished in the 
 sixth century, was a native of Alexandria. His chief work 
 is a Commentary on the " Meteorologica" of Aristotle. 
 
 Olympiodorus III., a Platonic philosopher, born in 
 Alexandria, is said to have lived in the sixth century. 
 He wrote commentaries on the " Phaedon," the " Phile- 
 bus," the "Gorgias," and the "First Alcibiades" of 
 Plato; also a "Life of Plato." As an interpreter of 
 Plato he is much esteemed. 
 
 Olympiodorus, a Greek commentator on the Scrip- 
 tures, was a deacon of Alexandria, and lived probably in 
 the first half of the sixth century. 
 
 Olympus, (the habitation of the Grecian gods.) See 
 Zeus. 
 
 O-lym'pus, [Gr. 'OXvfiiroc ; Fr. Oi.ympe, o'laMP',] a 
 celebrated Greek or Phrygian musician, supposed to 
 have lived about 650 B.C. He naturalized in Greece the 
 music of the flute, and invented the system or genus of 
 music called enharmonic. 
 
 See Mui.i.kr, " History of Greek Literature ;" Plutarch, " De 
 Musica." 
 
 Olzofski or Olzowski, ol-zof'skee, (Andrew,) a 
 Polish prelate, born about 1618. He wrote several 
 political treatises. After the election of Sobieski (1674) 
 he was appointed Archbishop of Gnesen and Primate 
 of Poland. Died in 1678. 
 
 Omaiadse. See Omeyyades. 
 
 Omaides. See Omeyyades. 
 
 Omajjaden. See Omeyyades. 
 
 Omajjah or Omajja. See Omeyyah. 
 
 Omalius d'Halloy, d\ do'mS'le'lis' dU'lwa', (Jean 
 Baptiste Jui.ten,) a Belgian geologist, born at Liege in 
 1783. He published several works on geology. 
 
 O'mar (or O'mer) I., written also Oomur orTJmar, 
 ofi'mar, I Aboo-Hafsah-Ibn-ool-Khatab or Abu- 
 Hafs'ah-Ibnul-Khattab, a'boo hafsah Ib'nool Kat- 
 tib',) the second caliph or successor of Mohammed the 
 Prophet, was a cousin in the third degree to Abdallah, 
 the father of that legislator. After he had attempted to 
 kill Mohammed, Omar was converted to Islamism, about 
 615 a.d. He succeeded Aboo-Bekr in the vear 634. His 
 army took Damascus in 63 5, defeated the Greeks at Yar- 
 mook or Yertuuk, and besieged Jerusalem. This city in 
 637 or 638 was surrendered to Omar, who treated the 
 Christians with great lenity. On the site of Solomon's 
 temple he built the magnificent mosque which bears his 
 name. About 638 he completed the conquest of Syria 
 and of Persia, (see Yezdejerd,) and founded the city of 
 Koofah. Amroo, one of Omar's generals, subdued Egypt 
 in 640 or 641, and consumed bv fire the great library at 
 Alexandria, after the caliph had decided, as we are told, 
 that "if the books accord with the Koran, they are un- 
 necessary; and if they are contrary to the Koran, they 
 are pernicious, and should be destroyed." He was assas- 
 sinated by a Persian slave, Firooz, in his capital, Medina, 
 in 644 a.d., at the age of sixty-three, and was succeeeded 
 by Othman. Omar is praised for wisdom, justice, and 
 moderation, and is said to have contributed more to the 
 progress of his religion than Mohammed himself. His 
 name is greatly venerated by the orthodox sect of Mos- 
 lems, called Sunnites. 
 
 See Simon Ocki.ky, " Hislbry of the Saracens." 170S-TS: Gir- 
 BON, " Historv of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," 
 vol. ix. ; Irving, "Mahomet and his Successors:" Wkiu. " Ge- 
 schichte der Khalifen." vol. i. chap. ii. : Abooi.fkda, " Annates 
 Moslemici :" O von Platrn. " Geschichte der Todtung des Cha- 
 lifenOmar;" " Nouvelle liio^raphie GeneVale." 
 
 Omar (or Omer) II., the eighth caliph of the Omeyyade 
 dynasty, was the son of Abd-el-Azeez, (Abdelaziz,) and 
 
 the nephew of Abd-el-Malek. He was also a great-grand- 
 son of Omar I., whom he resembled in his virtues. He 
 succeeded his cousin Solyman in 717 a.d. He suppressed 
 the maledictions which in former reigns were pronounced 
 in the mosques against the descendants of Alee. The 
 princes of his own race, fearing that he should bequeath 
 the empire to one of the race of Alee, poisoned him in 
 720 A.D. 
 
 Omar, a Moorish physician, born at C6rdova in 990 
 A.D., was celebrated for his skill in surgery, and was also 
 a profound mathematician. Died in 1080. 
 
 Omar, an eminent physician, astronomer, and mathe- 
 matician, supposed to have been a native of Hadramaut, 
 in Arabia. He settled in Spain, where he died in 1071. 
 
 Omar, ( Al-Mutawakkel-Billah, al moo-ta-wak'kel 
 bll'lah,) the last king of Badajoz of the Benial-Aftas, 
 began his reign in 1082 A.D. In conjunction with his 
 ally, Yoosuf, King of Morocco, he gained a signal victory 
 over the Christian army at Zalaca in 1086 a.d. Yoosuf 
 soon after made war upon Omar, took him prisoner, and 
 had him put to death about 1090, after having promised 
 to spare his life. 
 
 Omar-Ibn-Hafsoon, (or -Hafasun,) o'mar Ib'n haf- 
 so5n', a famous Moorish chieftain, was a native of Ronda, 
 in Spain. In 859 A.D. he headed a rebel army, with 
 which he laid waste the kingdom of Cordova and other 
 parts of the empire. After having for a long time main- 
 tained himself against Mohammed, King of Cordova, he 
 was totally defeated by him at Aybar in 882, and died 
 in 883 a.d. 
 
 O'mar (or O'mer) Pasha, (pa'sha',) Dey of Algiers, 
 began to reign in April, 181 5, after a revolution in which 
 his predecessor had been killed. In 1816 the English 
 admiral Exmouth, after failing in his efforts to procure the 
 abolition of slavery in Algiers by negotiation, bombarded 
 that city with success. Omar was forced to submit to 
 the treaty dictated by the victor. In September, 1817, 
 he was killed by his own mutinous troops. 
 
 Omar (or Omer) Pasha, o'mer pa'sha', (Michael 
 Lat'tas,) a Turkish commander, born in Croatia about 
 1805. About 1828 he removed to Turkey, changed his 
 name to Omer, and adopted the Moslem religion. He 
 became a colonel in the army in 1839, and a pasha about 
 1845. He suppressed a revolt in Bosnia in 1850-51. 
 When the Crimean war broke out, he was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the Turkish army. He defeated 
 the Russians at Oltenitza, November, 1853, and at Kalafat 
 in 1854. In the early part of 1855 he led an army to the 
 Crimea and formed a junction with the Anglo-French 
 army at Sebastopol. In 1868 he suppressed a formidable 
 insurrection in Crete. Died in 1871. 
 
 O'Meara, o-ma'ra, (Barry Edward,) the favourite 
 physician of Napoleon at Saint Helena, was born in Ire- 
 land about 1780. Being on board the Bellerophon when 
 the emperor was made prisoner, tjie latter requested that 
 O'Meara might accompany him as his surgeon. He re- 
 mained in Saint Helena till 1818, when he was recalled. 
 In 1822 he published his "Napoleon in Exile; or, A 
 Voice from Saint Helena," which had great popularity, 
 and, though not entirely impartial, it is esteemed a valu- 
 able contribution to Napoleon's history. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Las Casas. "Memorial de Sainte-Ht£lene;" "Monthly Re- 
 view" for July, 1822. 
 
 Omeiadse. See Omeyyades. 
 
 Omer. See Omar. 
 
 Omero, the Italian for Homer, which see. 
 
 Omeyyades or Omeyyads, o-ma'yadz, [Fr. pron. 
 o'mi'yin",] sing. Omeyyade or Ome'iade, o-ma'yad ; 
 written less correctly Ommaiades and Ommyiades, 
 [Ger. Omejjaden, o-mi-ya'den, or Omajjaden, o-ml- 
 yi'den ; Lat. Omei'ad/E or Omai'iad.*,] the name 
 of a famous dynasty of caliphs, founded (660 a.d.) by 
 Moaweeyeh, the great-grandson of Oineyyah. (or Umey- 
 yah,) who was cousin-german to Abd-el-Moot'alib, the 
 grandfather of Mohammed ; whence the Omeyyade 
 princes are commonly styled " Benee- (Bent-) Omeyyah," 
 (i.e. "Sons, or descendants, of Omeyyah.") The imme- 
 diate successors of Moaweeyeh continued to reign at 
 Damascus until 749 a.d., when their power was over- 
 thrown, and all the princes of the house of Omeyyah, (it 
 is said,) except two, were put to death by order of 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; n6t; good; moon: 
 
OMEYTAH 
 
 170; 
 
 OORT 
 
 Abool-Abbis-Abdatlah, (surnamed As-Seffah, or "the 
 shedder of blood,") the founder of the new dynasty of 
 Abbassides. Of the two Oineyyade princes who escaped 
 the vengeance of As-Seffah, one fled to a remote part 
 of Arabia; the other, named Abd-er-Rahman-Ibn-Moa- 
 weeyeh, went first to Egypt, thence to Spain, and estab- 
 lished at Cordova (756 a.d.) a dynasty which was destined 
 to rival in splendour and magnificence that of the Ab- 
 basside caliphs in the East. The power and glory of 
 the Henee-Omeyyah in Spain culminated in the reign of 
 Abd-er-Rahman I., who was the first of his line who 
 assumed the title of caliph ; but they began soon after to 
 decline, and they may be said to have terminated with 
 the reign of Hisham II., in 1013. 
 
 See Al-Makkari, *' History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in 
 Spain,*' translated by Gavangos, 2 vols. 4 to. London, 1840-43; 
 Hammer-Purgstall, " Literaturgeschiclite der Araber," 
 
 Omeyyah, o-ma'yah, written also Omeyyeh, Om- 
 maya, TJmeyyah, and in various other modes, was a 
 cousin of Mohammed's grandfather, Abd-el-Mo6t'alib. 
 His great-grandson, Moaweeyeh, was the first caliph of 
 the illustrious dynasty of the Benee-Omeyyah. (See 
 Omeyyades.) 
 
 Omma'ides. See Omeyyades. 
 
 Ommajjaden, (more correctly, Omajjaden.) See 
 Omeyyades. 
 
 Ommaya. See Omkyyah. 
 
 Ommeganck, om'meh-gank', (Balthasar Paul,) a 
 distinguished landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in 
 1755. He also excelled in painting animals, particularly 
 sheep. He was a corresponding member of the Academy 
 of Fine Arts in Paris, and chevalier of the order of the 
 Belgic Lion. Died in 1826. 
 
 See A. Voisin, " E*loge du Peintre B. P. Ommeganck," 1826. 
 
 Ommiades or Ommiadae. See Omeyyades. 
 
 Ornmiyades or Ommy'iades. See Omeyyades. 
 
 Ommiyah. See Omkyyah. 
 
 Om'pha-le, [(Jr. '0/j<j>u2.7i,] a queen of Lydia, cele- 
 brated for' her connection with the story of Hercules. 
 She is said to have been mistress of the kingdom after 
 the death of Tmolus, her husband. According to the 
 fable, Hercules sold himself as a slave to Omphale, 
 assumed the female attire, and assisted her servants in 
 spinning. 
 
 Om'ri, [Heb. "13>\] King of Israel, began to reign 
 about 930 11.C. He reigned eleven years, and founded 
 the capital city of Samaria. He was succeeded by his 
 son Ahab. 
 
 See I. Kings xvi. 
 
 Onar. See Norvi. 
 
 O-na'tas, |Gr. 'Or«Tor,] an eminent Greek sculptor 
 and painter, born at /Egina, was the son of Micon, and 
 flourished about 460 B.C. Among his best works were 
 statues of Apollo, Hercules, and Mercury, and a picture 
 of the expedition of the Argives against Thebes. His 
 skill as a sculptor is highly extolled by Pausanias. 
 
 See K. O. MOli.er, " Handbuch der Archaeologie der Kimst." 
 
 Ondegardo, de, da on-da gait'do, (Poi.o,) a Spanish 
 Jesuit and historian of the sixteenth century, was the 
 author of historical memoirs of Peru, entitled " Rela- 
 ciones," which are still in manuscript. 
 
 See Prkscott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. i. book i. 
 
 On'der-donk, (Benjamin T.,) bom in the city of New 
 York in 1791, became Episcopal Bishop of Eastern New 
 York about 1830, and was suspended for disgraceful 
 conduct in 1845. Died in 1861. 
 
 O'Neall, o-neel', (John Bei.ton,) LL.D., an Ameri- 
 can jurist, born near Bush River, South Carolina, in 
 1793. rose through various offices to be chief justice of 
 his native State. He became in 1841 president of the 
 State Temperance Society. He has written " Biographi- 
 cal Sketches of the Bench and Bar of South Carolina," 
 and other works. 
 
 O'Neil, o-neel', (Henry,) an English historical and 
 genre painter, born about 1818. Among his works are 
 " By the Rivers of Babylon," " A Scene from Hamlet," 
 " Eastward Ho ! August, 1857," " Home Again ! 1858," 
 and " Mary Stuart's Farewell to France." 
 
 Onesiciite. See Onesicritus. 
 
 On-e-sic'rl-tus, |Or. 'OvrjniKpiTOC ; Fr. On£sicrite, 
 o'na'ze'kRet',] a Greek historian, lived about 350-330 
 
 B.C., and was a disciple of Diogenes the Cynic. He fol- 
 lowed Alexander the Great in his expedition to Asia, 
 and was chief pilot of the fleet which descended the 
 Indus. He wrote a " History of Alexander," which is 
 lost. He was censured by Aulus Gellius and other 
 ancient critics for mixing fables with his narrative. 
 
 See Vosstus, "De Historicis Grsecis ;" Ersch und Gkubek, 
 " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Suidas, " Onesicritus." 
 
 Ongaro, on-ga'ro, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Padua or Adria about 1569. He wrote "Alceo," a 
 pastoral or piscatorial poem, in which he substituted 
 fishermen for shepherds. Died in 1599. 
 
 Onk'e-los, a learned Chaldee writer, of uncertain 
 era, supposed to have been a native of Babylon and 
 contemporary with Gamaliel. He was the author of a 
 Targum, or Chaldee paraphrase of the Pentateuch, 
 which is highly esteemed for its accuracy. 
 
 Onomacrite. See Onomacritos. 
 
 On-o-mac'rl-tos, [Gr. 'Ovofu'uiiiiToc; Fr. Onoma- 
 crite, o'no'mi'knet',] a celebrated Greek poet and sooth- 
 sayer, lived in the sixth century B.C. He was banished 
 by Hipparchus from Athens for having falsified or inter- 
 polated the oracles of Musasus for political purposes. 
 He is supposed by some writers to have been the author 
 of much that is attributed to Orpheus. 
 
 See ElCKHOFP, "Commentatio de Onoinacrito," 1840; K. 0. 
 Muli.er, " History of Greek Literature." 
 
 On-o-mar'-ehus, [Gr. 'Ovojiapx'K : Fr. Onomarque, 
 o'no'mitRk',1 a general of the Phocians in the Sacred 
 war. He obtained the chief command in 353 B.C., and 
 seized the sacred treasures of Delphi. He defeated 
 Philip of Macedon in two battles, but was defeated and 
 killed by that king in 352 B.C. 
 
 Onomarque. See Onomarchus. 
 
 On-o-san'der, [Gr. 'Oooawlpoc; Fr. Onosandre, 
 o'no'zoNdR',] one of the principal military writers of 
 antiquity, lived at Rome under the reigns of Claudius 
 and Nero. He was the author of a treatise on tactics, 
 entitled "Strategeticos," (written in Greek,) which has 
 been translated into Latin, French, and Italian. He 
 was a Platonic philosopher, and wrote a commentary on 
 the "Republic" of Plato, which is not extant. 
 
 See ScHOELt., " Histoire de la LitteYature Grecque." 
 
 Onosandre. See Onosander. 
 
 Ons-en-Bray, (Louis Leon Pajot.) See Pajot. 
 
 Onsenoort, van, vSn on'seh-noRt', (Antoon Ge- 
 raard,) a Dutch surgeon and oculist, born at Utrecht 
 in 1782. He wrote several professional works. Died 
 in 1841. 
 
 See F. Cunier, " Notice sur A. G. van Onsenoort," 1842. 
 
 Ons'low, (Arthur,) an English statesman, born 
 about 1690. He was chosen Speaker of the House of 
 Commons in 1727. "During thirty-three years," says 
 Lord Mahon, "he filled that chair with higher merit, 
 probably, than any one either before or after him, — with 
 unequalled impartiality, dignity, and courtesy." He re- 
 tired from the chair and from public life in 1761. Died 
 in 1768. His son was created Earl Onslow about 1800. 
 
 Onslow, (George,) an eminent musician and com- 
 poser, born at Clermont, in France, in 1784, was de- 
 scended from an English family of rank. His works 
 include symphonies, duets, quintets, sonatas, and operas. 
 His opera " Le Colporteur" was performed with great 
 success. Died in 1853. 
 
 See Fetis, " Riographie Universelle des Musiciens;" " Nouvclle 
 Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Onslow, (Sir Richard,) an English admiral, born in 
 1741. He served with distinction against the Dutch, as 
 vice-admiral, in 1797. Died in 1817. 
 
 Onuphrius. See Panvinius. 
 
 Ooloogh-Beg. See Olug-Beg. 
 
 Oonmr. See Omar. 
 
 Oorkhan or Urkhan, oor'kln', written also Orkhan, 
 (sometimes surnamed GliAZKK or Ghaz.y, ga'zee,) a 
 Turkish Sultan, was the son of Osman (Othman) I., the 
 founder of the present Turkish dynasty. He began to 
 reign at Prusa in 1326, and made extensive conquests 
 from the Greeks in Asia Minor. He is said to have had 
 superior military and political talents. He died in 1360, 
 leaving the throne to his son Amurath (or Moorad,) I. 
 
 Oort, van, (Adam.) See Noort, van. 
 
 € as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (jfl^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
0057' 
 
 1706 
 
 OPPIAN 
 
 Oost, van, vin ost, (Jacob,) the Elder, one of the 
 most admired painters of the Flemish school, was born 
 at Bruges in 1600. lie studied at Rome, and formed 
 his style on the model of Annibal Caracci. His works 
 are numerous, and are principally on sacred subjects. 
 Among his master-pieces are a " Descent from the 
 Cross," a "Nativity," "Virgin and Child, with Saints," 
 and "The Descent of the Holy Ghost on the Virgin 
 and Apostles." His copies of Rubens and Van Dyck 
 are so perfect as to deceive the most skilful connoisseurs. 
 Died in 167 1. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Oost, van, (Jacob,) the Younger, son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born about 1637. He studied under his 
 father, and afterwards visited Italy and France, where 
 be resided many years. I le was esteemed one of the 
 best portrait-painters of his time, and also executed his- 
 torical works of great merit, one of which, the "Martyr- 
 dom of Saint Barbara," is regarded as his master-piece. 
 Died in 17 13. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Oosterwyck, van, vin os'ter-wlk', (Maria,) a 
 Dutch painter of flowers and fruit, bom near Delft in 
 1630. She is placed in the first rank of painters of the 
 subjects above named. Died in 1693. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Oovarof, Ouvarof, or TJwarow, oo-va'rof, written 
 also Ouvarov, (Theodore,) a Russian general, born 
 about 1770. He distinguished himself at the battle of 
 Borodino. Died in 1824. 
 
 Operman, o'per-man', Count, a German general and 
 engineer, entered the Russian service about 1783. Died 
 in 1832. 
 
 O-phe'11-on, ['Q<j>cX'tuv,] an Athenian comic poet, sup- 
 posed to have flourished in the fourth century B.C. His 
 works are not extant. 
 
 Ophelte. See Ophei.tes. 
 
 O-phel'tes, [Gr. 'OijicIttk ; Fr. Ophei.te, o'felt',] a 
 son of Lycurgus, King of Nemea, was killed in infancy 
 by a serpent, having been left alone on the grass by 
 his nurse, Hypsipyle, while she went to guide Adrastus 
 to a spring. 
 
 Opie, o'pe, (Amelia,) a popular English writer, wife 
 of John Opie, noticed below, and daughter of Dr. James 
 Alderson, was born at Norwich in 1769. Her first pub- 
 lications were a volume of poems, and a tale entitled 
 " Father and Daughter," which were very well received, 
 and were succeeded by the novel of "Adeline Mow- 
 bray," (1804,) "Simple Tales," (1805,) "The Orphan," 
 "Valentine's Eve," "Madeline," and other works of 
 fiction, distinguished for their pathos and for their ele- 
 vated moral and religious tone. In 1825 Mrs. Opie 
 became a member of the Society of Friends, and pub- 
 lished the same year her "Illustrations of Lying." 
 Having visited Paris in 1830, she wrote an interesting 
 account of the revolution of July. Among the most 
 important of her other works may be named " Detrac- 
 tion Displayed," (1828,) and "Lays for the Dead," (1833.) 
 She had also published her husband's " Lectures on 
 Painting," with a memoir, (1809.) Died in 1853. 
 
 See Miss C. Brightwei.i., "Memorials of the Life of Amelia 
 Opie," 1854; "Edinburgh Review" for July. 1S06 ; "Monthly Re- 
 view" for August, 1820; H. Maktineau, " Biographical Sketches," 
 i860. 
 
 Opie, (John,) a distinguished English painter, born 
 near Truro, in Cornwall, in 1761. Some of his portraits 
 and sketches attracted the notice of Dr. Wolcott, the 
 satirist, who took the young artist under his protection 
 and introduced him into Loudon society, where he en- 
 joyed for a time the patronage of the fashionable world. 
 He married as his second wife, in 1798, Miss Amelia 
 Alderson, who afterwards obtained great popularity as 
 a writer. Opie gave particular attention to historical 
 subjects, and painted "The Death of Rizzio," "Jeph- 
 thah's Vow," and " Belisarius." He succeeded Fuseli 
 as professor of painting in the Royal Academy in 1806. 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for February, 1810. 
 
 O-pil'I-UB, (Aukelius,) a Latin grammarian, who 
 taught philosophy and rhetoric at Rome. He went into 
 
 voluntary exile in 92 B.C. as a companion of his intimate 
 friend Rutilius Rufus, who had been banished. 
 
 Opilius Macrinus. See Macrinus. 
 
 O-pim'I-us, (Lucius,) a Roman politician, was a 
 leader of the aristocratic party, and adversary of Caius 
 Gracchus. He became consul in 121 B.C., and a violent 
 contest then ensued between the senate and the party 
 of Gracchus. ' Having been authorized by the senate 
 to decide the question by force, Opimius killed Grac- 
 chus and about three thousand of his partisans. Ac- 
 cording to Cicero, (" In Catilinam, Oratio I.,") Gracchus 
 was killed on suspicion of sedition. Opimius was cor- 
 rupted by Jugurtha in 112, fell into disgrace, and passed 
 his latter years in exile. Died about 100 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, " C. Gracchus;" Sallust, "Jugurtha." 
 
 Opia. See Ops. 
 
 Opitius. See Opitz. 
 
 Opitz, o'pits, [Lat. OpI'tius,] (Heinrich,) a German 
 Orientalist, born at Altenburg in 1642, was professor of 
 Greek and of divinity at Kiel. He published, besides 
 other works, " Bible in Hebrew," (" Biblia Hebraica," 
 1709.) Died in 171 2. 
 
 See Hetzel, "Geschichte der Hebraischen Sprache." 
 
 Opitz, [Lat. Opi'tius,] (Martin,) a celebrated Ger- 
 man critic and writer, born at Bunzlau, in Silesia, in 
 1597, is called the founder of the modern school of Ger- 
 man poetry. He was crowned as poet-laureate by the 
 emperor in 1628, and was appointed in 1638 historiogra- 
 pher to Ladislaus IV., King of Poland. His principal 
 work is entitled a " Poem of Consolation amid the Dis- 
 asters of War," (1621.) He also translated the Psalms, 
 the " Antigone" of Sophocles, and other classics. Died 
 in 1639. His essay on German versification (" Buchlein 
 von der Deutschen Poeterei," 10th edition, 1668) was 
 highly esteemed. He contributed greatly to the purity 
 of the German language, into which he introduced a 
 new prosody. " He is reckoned," says Hallam, " the 
 inventor of a rich and harmonious rhythm. . . . No 
 great elevation, no energy of genius, will be found in 
 this German Heinsius and Malherbe. Opitz displayed, 
 however, another kind of excellence. He wrote the 
 language with a purity of idiom in which Luther alone, 
 whom he chose as his model, was superior." (" Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Gottsched, " Lob- und Gedachtnissrede auf M. Opitz," 
 1739: Lindner, " Nachricht von des weltberuhinten Schlesicra M. 
 Opitzen," etc., 2 vols., 1740; Krsch und Gkubek, "Allgemeine 
 Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Opoix, o'pwa', (Christophe,) a French savant, born 
 at Provins in 1745, was a member of the Convention 
 of 1792-95. He wrote several scientific works. Died 
 in 1840. 
 
 See Ramon, "Notice sur C. Opoix," 1841. 
 
 Oporin, o-po-reen' or o'po'raN', [Lat. Opori'nus,] 
 (Johann,) a learned Swiss printer, whose original name 
 was Herbst, born at Bale in 1507. He became professor 
 of Greek in his native city, where he afterwards estab- 
 lished a printing-house. He published many excellent 
 editions of the classics, corrected by himself, and wrote 
 annotations on Cicero and Demosthenes. Died in 1568. 
 
 See Heinzel, "De Ortu, Vita et Obitu Oporini." 
 
 Oporinua. See Oporin. 
 
 Oppede, d', do'p&d', (Jean de Maynier — deh mi'- 
 ne-4',) Baron, a French judge, born at Aix in 1495, 
 was notorious for his cruel persecution of the Vaudois, 
 who were massacred, without distinction of age or sex, 
 about 1546. Died in 1558. 
 
 See Gauffridi, " Histoire de la Provence." 
 
 Oppenord, op'noR', (Gili.es Marie,) a French archi- 
 tect, born in Paris in 1672; died in 1742. 
 
 Oppert, op'peRt, (Julius,) a German Orientalist, of 
 Jewish parentage, was born at Hamburg in 1825. He 
 studied Arabic, Sanscrit, etc., and was naturalized as a 
 citizen of France. He was sent by the French govern- 
 ment, with F. Fresnel and F, Thomas, on a scientific 
 mission to Mesopotamia in 1851, and began in 1857 to 
 publish an account of the same, entitled "Expedition 
 scientifique en Mesopotamia" He is distinguished as a 
 decipherer of cuneiform inscriptions. 
 ' Op'pl-an or Op-pl-a'nua, [Gr. 'Onrrsavoc ; Fr. Op- 
 pien, o'pg^N',] a celebrated Greek poet, born at Ana- 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon: 
 
OPPIAN US 
 
 1707 
 
 ORANGE 
 
 zarba, in Cilicia, is supposed to have lived in the second 
 century of the Christian era. Two poems, entitled "On 
 the Chase," (" Cynegetica,") and " On Fishing," (" Ha- 
 lieutica,") are ascribed to him. The great superiority 
 of the latter production to the former has led to the 
 supposition that they were written by different persons. 
 The author of the " Halieutica" is compared by Scaliger 
 to Virgil for the harmony and graces of his style. It is 
 said that Oppian was presented by the emperor Caracalla 
 with a gold piece for every verse in his " Halieutica." 
 Both poems display considerable knowledge of natural 
 history, mingled with many errors and absurdities. 
 
 See the article "Oppianus" in Ersch and Grubkr's " En- 
 cyklopaedie," by F. Kittkk ; Fahkk:iun, " Bibliotheca Gra?ca ;*' 
 1-okrtsch. "De Oppiano Poeta Cilice," 1749; "Nouveile Bio- 
 graplne Ge^ierale." 
 
 Oppianus. See Oppian. 
 
 Oppien. See Oppian. 
 
 Op'pl-us, (CaH's,) a Roman writer, who was an inti- 
 mate friend of Julius Caesar. It is stated that he was 
 tognizant of all the projects and plans of that dictator, 
 whose private affairs he managed. He wrote biographies 
 (which are not extant) of several eminent Romans. The 
 book of Caesar's "Commentaries" which treats on the 
 war in Africa is attributed to Oppius by some critics. 
 
 See Drumann, " Geschichte Roms;" Vossius, "De Historicis 
 Latinis;" " Nouvelle Hiographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Ops or O'pis, a Roman goddess of plenty and fertility, 
 was identified with the Rhea of the Greek mythology, 
 and was also called Tellus. She was supposed to be 
 the wife of Saturn, and was worshipped as the protec- 
 tress of agriculture. Opes, the plural of Ops, signifies 
 "riches, power, help." 
 
 Opsopoeus or Obsopous, op-so-po'vts, (Jon ann,) a 
 German physician and scholar, born at Bretten in 1556, 
 became professor of physiology and botany at Heidel- 
 berg. He published an edition of the "Sibylline Ora- 
 cles," and of several works of Hippocrates. Died in 
 1596. 
 
 Opsopoeus or Obsopous, (Vincenz,) a German 
 philologist, born in Franconia in the fifteenth century. 
 He was the author of a Latin poem "On the Art of 
 Drinking," (" De Arte Bibendi,") and made translations 
 from Diodorus and other Greek writers. Died in 1539. 
 
 Opstal, van, vin op'stal, ( Gaspakd Jacques, ) a 
 Flemish painter, born at Antwerp in 1660. He painted 
 religious and mythological subjects. Died about 1724. 
 
 Opstraet, op'stitit, (Jan,) a Flemish ecclesiastic, 
 born at Beringhen in 165 1, was the author of several 
 religious works, one of which was entitled "The Chris- 
 tian Theologian." Died in 1720. 
 
 Optat. See Optatus. 
 
 Optatianus, op-ta-she-a'nus, [Fr. Optatien, op'ti'- 
 se;l.N',] (PUB I.I US Porphyrius,) a degenerate Latin 
 poet, flourished about 325 A.D. He wrote a Panegyric 
 on Constantine the Great, the style of which is very bad. 
 
 See Tillemont, " Histoire des Empereurs." 
 
 Optatien. See Optatianus. 
 
 Op-ta'tus, [Fr. Optat, op'ii',] a saint of the Romish 
 calendar, bom in Africa about 315. He was Bishop 
 of Milevia or Melevia, and is favourably mentioned by 
 Saint Augustine. He wrote a treatise against the Dona- 
 tists, which is extant. Died after 386 A.D. 
 
 See E. Dupin, "Vie de Saint-Optat," prefixed to his works, 
 Paris, 1700. 
 
 Opzoomer, op'zo'mer, (Carl Wii.lem,) a distin- 
 guished Dutch jurist and philosopher, born at Rotter- 
 dam in 1821, was the author of a "Commentary on the 
 Books of Civil Law in Holland," and a treatise "On 
 Conservatism and Reform," (1852.) He became pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Utrecht in 1846. 
 
 Or'ange, (Fredkrik Hendrik van Nassau — vin 
 nas'sow,) Prince ok, born at Delft in 1584, was the 
 youngest son of William I. of Orange, surnamed "the 
 Silent." His mother was a daughter of Admiral Co- 
 ligni. He served in the army under his half-brother, 
 Maurice of Nassau, and succeeded him as Stadtholder 
 of the United Provinces in 1625. He prosecuted with 
 ability the war against the Spaniards, from whom he 
 took Maestricht in 1632 and Breda in 1637. As a gen- 
 eral, he was prudent and mostly successful. He died in 
 
 1647, and was succeeded by his son, William II., who 
 died in 1650, aged twenty-four. The latter had married 
 Mary, a daughter of Charles I. of England, and left a 
 son, who became William III. of England. 
 
 See Arnold Montanus, " Leven en liedrijf van Frederik Hen- 
 drik,' ; 1652 : Commki.in, " Leven van Fred. Hendrik van Nassauw," 
 1651-50: Zebman, "Leven van Fr. Hendrik Prins van Oranje," 
 1S32 ; D'Auberv, "Meinoires." 
 
 Orange, (Maurice,) Prince of. See Nassau. 
 
 Or'ange, [Fr. pron. o'rd.Nzh',] (Philikekt de Cha- 
 lons — sIiA'Ion',) Prince ok, a distinguished commander, 
 born in Burgundy in 1502, was the son of the Baron of 
 Arlay. He entered the service of Charles V. about 1521, 
 and fought against the French. When Constable Bourbon 
 was killed in the assault on Rome, in 1527, he succeeded 
 to the command of the army, and compelled the pope to 
 subscribe the conditions which he dictated. He became 
 Viceroy of Naples in 1528, and was killed at the siege 
 of Florence, in 1530. His nephew, Rene of Nassau, be- 
 came his heir. 
 
 See La Pise, " Histoire de la Maison d'Orange." 
 
 Orange, (William [Prince] of,) [Lat. Guii.hei/- . 
 
 Mils (or Guii.iei/mus) Auri'acus; Fr. Guillaume 
 d'Orange, ge'yom' do'rdNzh'; Ger. Wilhki.m von 
 Okanien, wil'nelm fon o-ra'ne-en ; Dutch, Wii.lem 
 van Oranje, wil'lem vin o-rin'yeh,] called also Wil- 
 liam the Silent, [ Fr. Guillaume i.e Taciturne, 
 ge'yom' leh ti'se'tiirn',] the illustrious founder of the 
 Dutch republic, was born at Dillenburg, in Nassau, in 
 April, 1533. He was the eldest son of William, Count 
 of Nassau, and was descended from an ancient sovereign 
 family, one of whose members, Adolph of Nassau, had 
 occupied the imperial throne. From his cousin-german 
 Rene, who died in 1544, he inherited princely estates in 
 Brabant, Flanders, and Holland, besides the small prin- 
 cipality of Orange, in the southeast of France. He was 
 educated as a Protestant by his parents; but about the 
 age of fifteen he became a page of the emperor Charles 
 V., who cpiickly discerned his excellent qualities and 
 admitted him into his secret councils. Charles testified 
 his confidence in the young prince by appointing him 
 general-in-chief of the army in 1554, in the absence of 
 the Duke of Savoy, and leaned on his shoulder at the 
 ceremony of his own abdication, in 1555. William, who 
 was regarded as the greatest Flemish subject of Spain, 
 was one of the hostages given by Philip II. of Spain to 
 Henry II. of France in 1559 for the execution of the 
 treaty of Cateau Cambresis. Henry II., in conversation 
 with his hostage, (whom he supposed to be a Catholic 
 and to be privy to the secrets of the Spanish court,) im- 
 prudently revealed to him a plot which those two kings 
 had formed to massacre all their Protestant subjects. 
 "William earned," says Motley, "the surname of 'The 
 Silent,' from the manner in which he received these 
 communications from Henry without revealing to the 
 monarch, by word or look, the enormous blunder which 
 he had committed. His purpose was fixed from that 
 hour." He was a Catholic nominally and in outward 
 observance, but had then no dogmatic zeal, — perhaps 
 no interest in questions of theology. Humanity and 
 patriotism, however, determined him to counteract the 
 cruel and tyrannical designs of the court. He acted with 
 characteristic caution and secrecy in his opposition for 
 several years, and continued to serve as Stadtholder 
 of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, and councillor of 
 state. A mutual but dissembled enmity existed between 
 him and Philip II. In 1566 a great insurrection was 
 provoked by the attempt of Philip to establish the In- 
 quisition in all its rigour in the Netherlands. William 
 refused to take a newoath of unlimited obedience, and 
 offered to resign all his offices, in 1567. In the same 
 year the famous Duke of Alva was sent with an army, 
 and with supreme civil power as governor, to complete 
 the subjection of the revolted provinces. In this crisis, 
 Egmont, who had been the friend of the Prince of Orange, 
 refused to co-operate with him in resistance to the im- 
 pending invasion. By hastily retiring to Nassau, Orange 
 escaped the doom which had been pronounced on him 
 at Madrid. In February, 1568, a sentence of the Inqui- 
 sition condemned to death as heretics all the inhabitants 
 of the Netherlands, with a few exceptions. (Motley.) 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (jJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ORBIGNT 
 
 1708 
 
 ORELLANA 
 
 Having raised a large army, William entered Brabant in 
 1568, and offered battle to Alva, who declined to fight. 
 At the end of the campaign, Orange was forced to dis- 
 band his army for want of money to pay them. In 1572 
 many cities of Holland raised the standard of Orange, 
 and the contest was maintained with desperate resolution 
 through long years of adversity. He founded a famous 
 republic by the union of the seven Protestant provinces 
 of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, 
 Overyssel, and Guelderland, in 1579, and was chosen 
 Stadtholder. In 1584 he was assassinated by Balthazar 
 Gerard, a fanatical Catholic. He left three sons, Philip, 
 Maurice, (see Nassau,) and Frederick Henry, the first 
 of whom was seized by Alva in 1568, sent to Spain as a 
 hostage, and detained many years in captivity. 
 
 "His enemies," says Motley, "never contested the 
 subtlety and breadth of his intellect, his adroitness and 
 capacity in conducting state affairs, and the profoundness 
 of his views. In many respects his surname of 'the 
 Silent' was a misnomer. William of Orange was neither 
 ' silent' nor ' taciturn ;' — yet these are the epithets which 
 will be forever associated with the name of a man who 
 in private was the most affable, cheerful, and delightful 
 of companions, and who 01: a thousand public occasions 
 was to prove himself, both by pen and speech, the most 
 eloquent man of his age." To William the Silent is 
 due the honour of being the first among European states- 
 men to make a practical application in government of 
 the principle of religious toleration. 
 
 See Motley, "Rise of the Dutch Republic," passim, (especially 
 the remarks at the close of the third volume :) Grotius, " Annales ;" 
 Strada, "De Bello Belgico ;" Hoopt, " Nederlandsche Historie;" 
 De Thou, *' Historia sui Temporis;" Beaufort, " Leven van Wil- 
 lem I., Plins van Oranje," 3 vols., 1732; Eugene Mahon, "Guil- 
 laume le Taciturne," 1852; J. B. Champagnac, "Guillaume le 
 Taciturne et sa Dynastie," 1851 ; Spandaw, " Lofrede op Willeni 
 den Ersten," etc., 1821 ; Amelot de la Houssave, " Histoire de 
 Philippe Guillaume de Nassau," etc., 2 vols., 1754: Meursius, 
 "Guillelmus Auiiacus," 1621: "Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" 
 R. Burton, " History of the House of Orange," 1693. 
 
 Orbigny, d', doR'ben'ye', (Alcidk Dkssai.ines,) an 
 eminent French naturalist, born at Coueron (Loire-In- 
 ferieure) in 1802. He was sent on a scientific mission 
 to South America in 1826 by the managers of the Mu- 
 seum of Natural History, lie spent eight years in the 
 exploration of Brazil, Chili, Peru, Bolivia, etc., and pub- 
 lished the results in an important work entitled " Travels 
 in South America," (9 vols. 4to, 1834-47.) In 1853 he 
 obtained a new chair founded in the Jardin des Plantes 
 for the study of organic remains. Among his chief 
 works is " The Palaeontology of France," (" Paleonto- 
 logie Francaise," 14 vols., 1840-54, with 1430 plates,) 
 and " Cours elementaire de Paleontologie et de Geologie 
 stratigraphiques," (3 vols., 1849-52.) Died in 1857. 
 
 See Damour, " Discours aux FuneYailles d'A. d'Orbigny :" 
 "Notice analytique stir les Travaux d'Alcide d'Orbigny," 1856; 
 " Nouvelle- Riographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Orbigny, d', (Chari.es Dkssalinf.s,) a French geolo- 
 gist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Coueron in 
 1806. He published a "Universal Dictionary of Natu- 
 ral History," (24 vols., 1839-49.) in which he was aided 
 by Arago, Jussieu, and other savants ; also, several works 
 on geology. 
 
 Or-bil'I-us Pu-pil'lus, a Roman grammarian and 
 teacher, famed for his severe discipline. He taught 
 languages at Rome, and numbered among his pupils 
 the poet Horace, who has immortalized him under the 
 name of " the flogging ( plagosum ) Orbilius." 
 
 See Horace, "Epistolse:" Suetonius, "De illustribus Gram- 
 maticis." 
 
 Orcagna, oR-kan'ya, (Andrea di Cione,) an emi- 
 nent Florentine architect, painter, and sculptor, some- 
 times called Orgagna, born about 1325. He built the 
 Loggia di Lanzi at Florence, which was commended by 
 Michael Angelo as a model of elegance. Among his 
 master-pieces in painting are the frescos of the " Last 
 Judgment," and the " Triumph of Death," in the Campo 
 Santo at Pisa. Died about 1385. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters, Architects," etc. ; Quatre- 
 MBkK okQuincy, "Vies des plus illustres Architectes;" Baluinucci, 
 " Notizie ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Or'cus, the Roman god of the lower regions, identi- 
 fied with the Pluto or Hades of the Greek mythology. 
 (See Pluto.) 
 
 Ord, (Craven,) an English antiquary, born in 1756. 
 He furnished materials to Gough and John Nichols rar 
 their works. Died in 1832. 
 
 Ord, (Edward O. C.,) an American general, born 
 in Maryland in 1818, graduated at West Point in 1839. 
 He became a captain in 1851, and served several years 
 in California and Oregon. He was appointed a briga- 
 dier-general of volunteers about September, 1861, and 
 gained a victory at Dranesville, Virginia, December 20 
 of that year. In May, 1862, he was raised to the rank 
 of major-general. He served under General Grant at 
 the siege and capture of Vicksburg, July, 1863, soon 
 after which he was sent to Louisiana. He obtained 
 command of the eighteenth corps in July, 1864, and led 
 the same in a successful operation against Fort Harrison, 
 near Richmond, in September of that year. He suc- 
 ceeded General Butler as commander of the department 
 of Virginia and North Carolina in January, 1865. He 
 commanded a corps in the final assault on Petersburg, 
 April 2, 1865, and his command contributed greatly to 
 the success gained on the 6th of that month near the 
 Appomattox. He was commander of the fourth military 
 district, comprising Mississippi and Arkansas, from April 
 1867, to December of that year. 
 
 Ord, (John W.,) an English poet and medical writer 
 born in 181 1. He produced, besides other works, 
 " England : an Historical Poem." Died in 1853. 
 
 Ordaz, oR-dath', (Don Diego,) a Spanish captain 
 and explorer, served under Cortez in the conquest of 
 Mexico. He was the first white man that ascended 
 Popocatepetl. Having been authorized by Charles V. 
 to conquer the country between Cape Vela and the Hay 
 of Venezuela, he ascended the river Orinoco one hun- 
 dred and sixty leagues about 1531. Died in 1533. 
 
 See Prescott, " Conquest of Mexico ;" Las Casas, " Historia 
 de las Indias." 
 
 Ordener, oRd'na', (Michel,) a French general, born 
 at Saint- A void (Moselle) in 1755. He obtained the rank 
 of general of division for his services at Austerlitz, (1805.) 
 Died in 181 1. 
 
 Orderic Vital. See Ordericus Vitalis. 
 
 Or-de-ri'cus Vi-ta'lis, [Fr. Orderic Vital, or'deh- 
 rek' ve'tSl',] one of the most distinguished early English 
 historians, born near Shrewsbury in 1075, was descended 
 from a French family. In 1107 he was ordained a priest. 
 He was the author of "The Ecclesiastical History of 
 England and Normandy" from the birth of Christ to 
 1 141, which, according to Guizot, contains more valuable 
 information on the history of the eleventh and twelfth 
 centuries than any other single work. Died about 1141. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Ordinaire, or'de'n&R', (Claude Nicolas,) a French 
 naturalist, born at Salins in 1736, published a "Natural 
 History of Volcanoes," (1802,) which is commended. 
 Died in 1808. 
 
 Oreades. See Oreads. 
 
 O're-ads, [Gr. 'Opwu&c; Lat. Ore'ades ; Fr. Ore- 
 ades, o'ri'Sd',] mountain-nymphs of classic mythology, 
 derived their name from the Greek fyx>f, a "mountain." 
 They attended Diana in hunting-excursions. 
 
 Oregio, o-ra'jo, [Lat. Ork'gius,] (Agostino,) a 
 learned Italian cardinal and theologian, born at Santa 
 Sofia, in Tuscany, in 1577. He was the author of 
 treatises "On the Trinity" and "On the Work of Six 
 Days." Died in 1635. 
 
 See Oldoini, " Vitx Pontincum et Cardinalium." 
 
 Oregius. See Oregio. 
 
 O'Reilly, o-ri'le, (Alexander,) a Spanish general, of 
 Irish descent, born near Chinchilla in 1725. He fought 
 for the French at Minden (1759) and Corbach, (1760,) 
 soon after which he returned to the Spanish service. He 
 took possession of Louisiana in 1768, and afterwards 
 commanded an expedition against Algiers. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Bourgoing, "Tableau de l'Espagne moderne." 
 
 O'Reilly, o-rl'le, (Andrew,) a general, born in Ire- 
 land in 1740. He entered the Austrian service, and 
 fought against the FYench in manv campaigns. lie 
 commanded a corps at Austerlitz, (1805.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Orellana, o-r?l-ya'na, (Francisco,) a celebrated navi- 
 gator, born at Truxillo, in Spain, in the sixteenth century. 
 
 8,6, 1,5, \i,y,/onjr;k,b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
ORELLI 
 
 1709 
 
 ORIENTIUS 
 
 In 1 53 1 he set sail with the brothers Pizarro for Peru. 
 Having heard from the natives of a country in the east 
 producing gold, silver, and spices, he set out in 1540, in 
 company with Gonsalez Pizarro, on an exploring expe- 
 dition. After following the course of the Napo, a branch 
 of the Marafion, for about two hundred leagues, their 
 provisions failed, and Orellana was directed to proceed 
 down the river, obtain supplies, and return immediately. 
 Instead of this, he continued his course along the main 
 stream, thoggh suffering severely from famine and from 
 the attacks of the Indians. In August, 1541, he reached 
 the mouth of the Marafion, to which he gave the name 
 of Amazon, from the warlike women whom he states he 
 encountered on its shores. On his return to Spain he 
 obtained from Charles V. letters patent for colonizing 
 the country he had discovered ; but soon after reaching 
 the Amazon, in 1549, he was attacked with fever, and 
 died in 1550. 
 
 See A. von Humboldt, " Voyages aux Regions equinoxiales du 
 nouveau Continent." 
 
 Orelli, o-iel'lee, (Johann Caspar,) a distinguished 
 Swiss critic and scholar, born at Zurich in 1787. In 
 1819 he became professor of eloquence and hermeneutics 
 in his native city. He published excellent editions of 
 Cicero, (8 vols., 1826-37,) Horace, (2 vols., 1844,) 
 Tacitus, (2 vols., 1846-48,) and other Roman classics. 
 In conjunction with Baiter, he published an edition of 
 Plate, (4 vols., 1839-41.) His "Onomasticon Tulli- 
 anum," (3 vols., 1837,) containing a life of Cicero, a 
 lexicon of proper names, several indexes, etc., is a work 
 of great value for the history of the period in which 
 Cicero lived. Died in 1849. 
 
 See " Lebensabriss von J. C. von Orelli," Zurich, 1851; "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Oresme, o'rfm', (Nicolas,) a learned French prelate, 
 was a native of Normandy. He was appointed suc- 
 cessively grand master of the College of Navarre, and 
 Bishop of Lisieux, (1377.) He translated the "Ethics" 
 and " Politics" of Aristotle into French, and published 
 several scientific treatises. Died in 1382. 
 
 Oreste. See Orestes. 
 
 O-res'tes, [Gr. 'Opeor^c; Fr. Oreste, o'rest',] a son 
 of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, was an intimate friend 
 of Pylades. The poets relate that he avenged the death 
 of his father by killing his own mother and iEgisthus ; 
 that after this act he became insane, and was tormented 
 by the Furies ; that he consulted the oracle of Delphi, 
 and was told that he might be relieved if he would 
 go to Tauris and bring away the image of Diana ; that 
 he and Pylades went to Tauris, where they were taken 
 captives, and would have been sacrificed, but they were 
 saved by Iphigenia, who was a sister of Orestes and 
 was the priestess of Diana at Tauris. With her aid, 
 he succeeded in his enterprise, and afterwards became 
 King of Mycenae. 
 
 See Euripides, "Orestes;" Sophocles, "Electra;" ^schylus, 
 " Eumenides." 
 
 Orestes, [Fr. Oreste, o'rest',1 a Roman commander, 
 who became secretary to Attila, King of the Huns, about 
 446. Having deposed the emperor Julius Nepos, (475 
 a.d.,) he assumed the chief power, as Regent of, Italy, in 
 the name of his infant son, Romulus Augustulus. Being 
 besieged soon after in Pavfa by Odoacer, he was made 
 prisoner and put to death in August, 476 a.t>. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Orfanel, oR-fa-nel', (Jacinto,) a Spanish missionary, 
 born at Jana in 1578. He laboured in Japan about 
 fifteen years, and wrote an account of the progress of 
 Christianity in that country, (1633.) He was put to 
 death by the Japanese in 1622. 
 
 Orfeo. See Ortheus. 
 
 Orffyre, oR'fe'ra', or Orffyreus, oRf-fe-ra'us, (Jo- 
 hann Ernst Elias,) a German mechanician, born at 
 Zittau in 1680. His proper name was Bessler. Died 
 in 174 s. 
 
 Orfila, or'fe-la, [Fr. pron. oR'fe'la',] (Mathieu Jo- 
 seph Bonaventure,) an eminent physician and chem- 
 ist, bom at Mahon, in the island of Minorca, in 1787. 
 Having been made a French citizen in 1818, he was ap- 
 pointed professor of medical jurisprudence and toxicology 
 in the Faculty of Medicine in Paris in 1819. In 1823 he 
 
 obtained the chair of chemistry in the same institution, 
 which he continued to occupy for thirty years. He was 
 created successively by Louis Philippe grand officer of 
 the legion of honour, dean of the Medical Faculty, and 
 member of the Council of Hospitals. Among his most 
 important works are his " Treatise on Poisons, or 
 General Toxicology," (1813 ; 4th edition, 2 vols., 1843,) 
 " Elements of Chemistry applied to Medicine and the 
 Arts," (2 vols., 1817-43,) "Treatise on Juridical Exhu- 
 mations," (2 vols., 1830,) and "Treatise on Medical 
 Jurisprudence," (4 vols., 1847.) Orfila was an accom- 
 plished and popular lecturer, and enjoyed the highest 
 reputation as a writer on toxicology and legal medicine. 
 He died in 1853, leaving large sums to the Academy of 
 Medicine and the School of Pharmacy, for the promo- 
 tion of science. He was the principal founder of the 
 anatomical museum in Paris called the Musee Orfila. 
 
 SeeMKNiERE, "N^crologie: M. Orfila," 1853; Sacham.e, " Les 
 Me"decins de Paris ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GiSneYale ;" "Monthly 
 Review," vol. Jxxxv., 1818, (Appendix.) 
 
 Orford, Earl of. See Russell, (Edward. 
 
 Orford, Earl of. See Walpole, (Robert,) and 
 Walpoi.e, (Horace.) 
 
 Or-get'o-rix, a rich and powerful chief of the Helvetii, 
 whose intrigues are recorded in Caesar's " Commenta- 
 ries," book i. He aspired to the sovereign power, and 
 persuaded the Helvetii to emigrate to Gaul. A judicial 
 process was instituted against him for his ambitious 
 projects ; but before the decision he died, — as was sup- 
 posed, by his own hand, — about 62 B.C. 
 
 Oriani, o-re-a'nee, (Barnaba,) an eminent Italian 
 astronomer, born near Milan in 1752. Having visited 
 London in 1786, he made the acquaintance of Herschel, 
 with whom he afterwards maintained a regular corre- 
 spondence. On his return, he assisted Reggio and De 
 Cesaris in measuring an arc of the meridian and exe- 
 cuting the triangulation for a new map of Italy. When 
 the astronomer Piazzi, in 1801, discovered Ceres, which 
 he mistook for a comet, Oriani, by calculating its orbit, 
 recognized it as a planet ; and he was the first to deter- 
 mine the orbit of Uranus. After Napoleon was crowned 
 at Milan, he created Oriani a count, and senator of the 
 kingdom of Italy, and one of the first members of the 
 Italian Institute. Among his principal works are "Tables 
 of Uranus," (1785,) "Theory of the Planet Mercury," 
 (1798,) and " Spherical Trigonometry," (1806.) The last- 
 named is esteemed one of the most admirable treatises 
 of the kind. Oriani was a member of the Institute of 
 France and the Royal Society of London. Died in 1832. 
 
 See A. Gabba, " Elogio di Oriani," 1834; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate." 
 
 Oribase. See Oribasius. 
 
 Oribasius, or-e-ba'shtMjs, [Fr. Oribase, o're'biz',] a 
 celebrated physician, was a native of Sardis, in Lydia, 
 or of Pergamus. He enjoyed the friendship of the em- 
 peror Julian, who made him his physician and in 361 
 A.D. appointed him quaestor of Constantinople. On the 
 death of Julian, (363,) Oribasius was banished by Valen- 
 tinian and Valens, but was recalled about 370 on account 
 of his medical skill. Of his principal work, entitled 
 " Medicinalia Collecta," (in seventy books,) less than half 
 is extant. It was written at the request of the emperor, 
 and, though principally a compilation from Galen and 
 other physicians, contains some important original mat- 
 ter. It is also highly valued for its explanations of many 
 passages in Galen's writings, and for the extracts it con- 
 tains from works not extant. Oribasius was the first who 
 described the salivary glands ; he also advanced new ideas 
 on dietetics and gymnastics. Died about 400 A.D. 
 
 See Freind, "History of Physics;" Haller, " Bibliolheca 
 Medica;" Fabkicius, " Biuliutheca Graeca ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GineYale." 
 
 Oricellarius. See Rucellai. 
 
 Orichovius. See Okzeciiowskl 
 
 O'rI-ent, [Lab Orien'tius,] Saint, a Latin poet, who 
 became Bishop of Auch (Augusta) about 410 a.d. He 
 wrote a Latin poem, entitled " Commonitorium," which 
 has been printed. Died in 439 a.d. 
 
 Oriente, do, do o-reen'ta, (FernXo Alvarez,) a 
 Portuguese poet, born in Goa about 1550. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Orientlus. See Orient. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; c, H, K,guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; I as 2; th as in this. (Jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ORIGEN 
 
 1710 
 
 ORLEANS 
 
 Orl-gen, [Or. Q.piyivi% ; Lat. Orig'enes; Fr. Ori- 
 gene, o're'zhjn'i] one of the most remarkable, eloquent, 
 and influential of the early Christian writers styled the 
 Fathers, was born in Egypt about 186 A.D. He was the 
 son of Leonides, a Christian martyr of Alexandria, and 
 bore the additional name of Adamantius. He was a 
 pupil of Clement of Alexandria, and became versed in 
 grammar, rhetoric, logic, geometry, music, and philoso- 
 phy. At the age of eighteen he was appointed by Bishop 
 Demetrius to the office of catechist, the duties of which 
 he performed with zeal and self-denial. He became 
 very ascetic in his course of life, and mortified himself 
 by a form of self-mutilation which he supposed to be 
 recommended in Matthew xix. 12. Having learned the 
 Hebrew language, he devoted himself to biblical studies. 
 While passing through Palestine on a journey, about 
 228 or 230, he was ordained a presbyter at Caesarea. 
 This is said to have aroused the jealousy of Deme- 
 trius, Bishop of Alexandria, who excommunicated him 
 and induced the Bishop of Rome and of other churches 
 to concur in this sentence. In 231 Origen removed to 
 Caesarea, where he acquired a high reputation as a 
 preacher and commentator on Scripture. 
 
 That he might be better qualified to make proselytes, 
 he studied the Greek philosophy, of which he adopted 
 the more noble and beautiful dogmas, and attempted to 
 harmonize Platonism with Christianity. He made an 
 innovation (which many think dangerous) in the mode 
 of interpreting Scripture. His desire to find a mystical 
 sense led him frequently into a neglect of the historical 
 sense. In 235 he sought refuge from persecution in 
 Cappadocia. He compiled about this time a valuable 
 edition of the Old Testament, entitled " Hexapla," which 
 exhibits in six columns the Hebrew text and various 
 Greek versions. Fragments of the " Hexapla" have been 
 preserved in the writings of the Fathers. He afterwards 
 wrote an able defence of Christianity against Celsus, 
 an Epicurean philosopher, which is still extant. Decius 
 having renewed the persecution of the Christians in 250 
 A.D., Origen was imprisoned and subjected to torture, 
 but survived, and was released a short time before his 
 death, which occurred at Tyre in 253. The greater part 
 of his numerous works are lost. His opinions gave 
 rise to a great controversy long after his death. He held 
 the doctrine of the universal restoration of sinners, and 
 was charged with teaching the heretical notions which, 
 after his time, prevailed under the name of Arianism. 
 His defenders affirmed that the passages on which this 
 charge was founded had been interpolated in his works. 
 About the end of the fifth century, Origenism prevailed 
 in Egypt and Syria ; but it was condemned by the Council 
 of Constantinople, in 553 A.D. 
 
 See Eusebius, "Ecclesiastical History;" Neandrr, "History 
 of the Church;" Huet, "Origeniana ;" E. R. Redepenning, 
 "Origenes,, Darstellung seines Lebens und seiner Lehre," 2 vols., 
 1841-46; Ringberg, " Vita Origenis Adamantii," 1792; Karstrn, 
 "Disseitatio de Origene," 1824; G. Thomasius, "Origenes Beitrag 
 zur Dogmengeschichte," etc., 1837 : Farricius, " Bibliotneca Graca ;" 
 Dr. Hoefer, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale;" "Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for July, 1851. 
 
 Origen, a Platonic philosopher, was a disciple and 
 friend of Porphyry, and predecessor of Plotinus in the 
 chair of philosophy. He lived in the first half of the 
 third century. 
 
 Origene. See Origen. 
 
 Origanes. See Origen. 
 
 Origny, d', do'ren'ye', (Abraham Jean Baptists 
 Antoink,) a French writer, born at Rheims in 1734. 
 He published " Dictionnaire des Origines," (6 vols., 
 1776—78.) Died in 1798. 
 
 Origny, d', (Pierre Adam,) a French historian and 
 antiquary, born at Rheims in 1697. His principal works 
 are entitled "Ancient Egypt" and "Chronology of the 
 Kings of the Egyptian Empire." Died in 1774. 
 
 O-rS'on, [Gr. 'Opiav ; It. Okione, o-re-o'na,] a cele- 
 brated giant and hunter of classic mythology, was a son 
 of Hyrieus. He loved Merope, a daughter of CEnopion, 
 and once, when intoxicated, offered violence to her. Her 
 father resented this act by depriving him of his eyes. 
 He was befriended by Vulcan, was guided by Cedalion 
 to the Sun-God, and recovered his sight. He was killed 
 by Diana, whose motive is variously represented, and 
 
 was placed among the stars. According to one legend, 
 Diana loved him, and wished to marry him, against the 
 will of Apollo, who one day questioned her ability to 
 hit a distant object on the sea. She discharged a shaft 
 and pierced the mark, which proved to be the head of 
 Orion, who was swimming or wading in the sea. 
 
 Orion, a Greek grammarian of Thebes, in Egypt, 
 lived about 450 A.D. He composed a " Lexicon Etymo- 
 logicum," which was published by Sturz in 1820. 
 
 Orlandi, or-lan'dee, (Pellegiuno Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian litterateur, bom at Bologna in 1660. He published 
 a "Dictionary of Artists," (1704,) and a "History of 
 Bolognese Writers," (1714.) Died in 1727. 
 
 Orlandin. See Ori.andini. 
 
 Orlandini, on-lan-dee'nee, or Orlandin, oR-lan- 
 deen', (Nieeoi.6,) an Italian Jesuit and writer, born at 
 Florence in 1554. He wrote a Life of Loyola, entitled 
 " Historia Societatis Jesu Pars I., sive Ignatius," (16 1 5.) 
 Died at Rome in 1606. 
 
 Orlando di Lasso. See Lasso, di. 
 
 Orlandus Lassus. See Lasso, di. 
 
 Orlay, van, (Bernard.) See Ori.ey. 
 
 Orleans, (Charles,) Duke of. See Charles d'Or- 
 leans. 
 
 Or'le-ans, Duke of, [Fr. Due d'Orleans, diik 
 doR'la'oN*',] (Ferdinand Philippe Louis Charles 
 Henri,) a French prince-royal, born at Palermo in 
 1810, was the eldest son of King Louis Philippe. He 
 was educated at the College Henri IV., and in 1832 
 received a medal for his services to patients who had 
 the cholera in the hospital. In 1837 he married Helena 
 of Mecklenburg. He served with the rank of general in 
 Algeria in several campaigns between 1835 and 1840. He 
 was thrown from his carriage and killed, near Neuilly, in 
 July, 1S42. He left two sons, the Count of Paris and the 
 Due de Chartres. 
 
 See Adrien Pascal, "Vie militaire, politique et prive'e du Due 
 d'Orteans," 1842 ; Jui.es Janin, " Le Prince royal." 1842 ; Ljndall, 
 "Biographie du Due d'Orleans," 1842; J. Mendelssohn, "Ferdi- 
 nand Philipp Herzog von Orleans," 1842 ; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeneVale.' » 
 
 Orleans, Maid of. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 Orleans, d', (Gaston Jean Baptists de France,) 
 Due, a younger son of Henry IV. and Marie de Medicis, 
 was born at Fontainebleau in 1608. He was created 
 Due d'Orldans in 1626, and married Mademoiselle de 
 Montpensier. In 1630 he was appointed lieutenant- 
 general of the kingdom. He quarrelled with Richelieu, 
 by whom, according to Voltaire, he was persecuted. In 
 1632 he raised an army against the king, Louis XIII., 
 and was supported by the Duke of Montmorency. The 
 latter having been defeated in battle, Gaston made peace 
 with the court, and was pardoned ; but, when he learned 
 that Montmorency was punished with death, he left 
 France in anger. In 1642 he engaged in a conspiracy 
 with Cinq-Mars and others against Richelieu, who 
 detected the plot and induced Gaston to betray his 
 accomplices or give evidence against them. At the 
 death of Louis XIII., (1643,) Gaston was appointed 
 lieutenant-general, and he commanded in several cam- 
 paigns against the Spaniards. He took Gravelines in 
 1644, and Courtrai in 1646. In the civil war of the 
 Fronde (1648-52) he displayed his usual inconstancy, 
 and supported both sides by turns. He died, without 
 male issue, in 1660. 
 
 See Retz, " Me*n»oires;" Richelieu, " Me'moires." 
 
 Orleans, d',(HEi.ENE Louise Elisabeth,) Duchessf. 
 born at Ludwigslust in 1814, was a daughter of Frederick 
 Lewis, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. She 
 married the prince-royal of France in 1837. After the 
 abdication of Louis Philippe, February, 1848, she pre- 
 sented harseff, with her minor son, the Count of Paris, 
 before the Chamber of Deputies, and made an unsuccess- 
 ful effort to obtain the regency. She died at Richmond, 
 in England, in 1858. 
 
 See "La Vie de la Duchesse d'Orle'ans," (anonymous,) Paris 
 ■ 858. 
 
 Orleans, d', (Louis.) See D'Orleans. 
 
 Orleans, d', (Louis,) Due, the second son of Charles 
 V. of France, and the head of the first house of Orleans, 
 was born in 1371. He married Valentina Visconti, a 
 daughter of the Duke of Milan. After his brother, 
 
 S e. I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6» u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ORLEANS 
 
 17" 
 
 ORLOF 
 
 Charles VI., was rendered by insanity incapable of reign- 
 ing, the kingdom was divided into two factions, of which 
 the Duke of Orleans and the Duke of Burgundy were 
 the rival chiefs. In 1407 the former was assassinated in 
 Paris by Jean Sans Peur, Duke of Burgundy. A civil 
 war followed between the Burgundians and Armagnacs, 
 the latter of whom were partisans of the house of Orleans. 
 Louis of Orleans left two sons, Charles and Jean. (See 
 Chari.es d'Orleans, and Dunois.) Louis, third Duke 
 of Orleans, the son of Charles just named, became king, 
 as Louis XII. 
 
 See Anselmk, "Histoire ge'nialogique de la Maison de France 
 aux Dues d'Orleans.*' 
 
 Orleans, d', (Louis,) Due, a son of Philippe, (1674- 
 1725,) noticed below, was born in 1703, and was noted 
 for his Christian virtues. He retired to a monastery in 
 1742, devoted much time to literature, and died in 1752, 
 leaving his title to his son, noticed in the next article. 
 
 Orleans, d', (Louis Philippe,) Due, a grandson of 
 the regent d'Orleans, and son of the preceding, was 
 born in Paris in 1725. He was the grandfather of Louis 
 Philippe, King of the French. He served with distinc- 
 
 Ile was endowed with superior talents, and made much 
 progress in learning; but his heart was corrupted by his 
 tutor, the Abbe Dubois. He entered the army at the 
 age of seventeen, and displayed courage and skill at 
 Steenkerke and Neerwinrfen. In 1706 he was appointed 
 commander of the army of Italy, and was defeated at 
 Turin by Prince Eugene. He had better success in 
 Spain in 1707 and 1708. At the death of Louis XIV., 
 in 1715, the Duke of Orleans became regent, with nearly 
 absolute power, and in many respects reversed the policy 
 of the government. His regency, though less despotic 
 than the reign of Louis XIV., was a period of great 
 profligacy in politics and morals. (See Louis XV.) 
 The regent himself set the example of irreligion and 
 licentiousness. He died in December 1723. 
 
 See L. B. Neei., "Histoire de Louis, Due d'Orleans," 1753; 
 Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" La Motte, "Vie du Due d'Orleans," 
 1737: Marmontel, " Histoire de la Regence," 1805; CaPEFIGU*, 
 "Histoire de Philippe d'Orleans, Recent de France," 2 vols.. 1838 ; 
 Lemontev, "Histoire de la Regence," 2 vols., 1832; " Nouvelk 
 Biographie G&i^rale." 
 
 Orleans, d\ (Pierre Joseph.) See Dorleans. 
 Or/ley or Orlay, van, vfn or'II, (Bernard,) also 
 
 tion atDettingen m 1743. was made lieutenant-general called Ba rent of Brus.ski .s, an eminent Flemish painter, 
 
 in 1744, and fought at' Fontenoy and at Hastenbeck in 
 1757. He died in 1785, leaving a son, Louis Philippe 
 Joseph, surnamed Egalite. 
 
 Orleans, d\ (Louis Philippe Joseph,) Due, sur- 
 named Egalite, born at Saint-Cloud in 1747, was the 
 son of the preceding, and was the first prince of the 
 blood. He was styled the Due de Chartres during the 
 life of his father, and married the daughter of the Due 
 de Penthievre. His fortune was immense. He courted 
 popularity with success, and became alienated from the 
 royal family, who appear to have treated him ill. He 
 signalized his courage in a sea-fight against the English 
 near Ushant in 1778. His Palais Royal in Paris became 
 the focus of the ideas which caused the Revolution, and 
 he came to be regarded as the chief of the popular party. 
 In 1789 he was elected to the States-General, and, with 
 the minority of the noblesse, joined the Tiers-Etat. The 
 insurgents of July assumed the colours of his livery, — 
 red, white, and blue. Some historians affirm that he 
 instigated the attacks on the royal palace, and aspired 
 to the throne. Lamartine defends him from this charge, 
 but admits that he remains an enigma to posterity. 
 "Through lack of audacity or of ambition," says he, 
 " the Duke of Orleans never took the attitude of the r61e 
 that opinion assigned to him. He respected or he de- 
 spised the throne. Either of these sentiments exalts him 
 in the eyes of history." His popularity declined. Wish- 
 ing to be reconciled to the king, he went to court in 1791, 
 but was insulted by the courtiers. He then allied him- 
 self with Danton for the subversion of the monarchy, 
 renounced his title, assumed the name of Egalite, and 
 voted for the death of the king. By order of the Con- 
 vention, he was imprisoned at Marseilles in April, 1793, 
 and in November of that year he was executed at Pans 
 by the Jacobins, apparently without any lost grounds. 
 His son, Louis Philippe, became King of the French. 
 
 See A. DncolN, " Etudes rdvolutionnaires : Philippe d'Orleans 
 Egalite'," i<45: F. Backhaus, " Ludwig Philipp Joseph Orleans," 
 etc., I&43I \V. Cooke Taylor, " Memoirs of the House of Orleans," 
 1849; Thiers, "History of the French Revolution." 
 
 Orleans, d', (Marie.) See Marie d'Orleans. 
 
 Orleans, d', ( Philippe,) Due, the founder of the 
 present house of Orleans, was born in 1640. He was 
 the only brother of Louis XIV., and a nephew of Gas- 
 ton, Duke of Orleans, whose title he received in 1660. 
 He married Henrietta, daughter of Charles I. of Eng- 
 land, in 1661. In 1672 he joined the army, and distin- 
 guished himself in several campaigns against the Dutch. 
 He defeated the Prince of Orange (afterwards William 
 III.) at the battle of Cassel, in 1677. His daughter 
 Marie Louise became the queen of Charles II. of Spain. 
 He died in 1701, leaving his title to his son, Philippe, 
 Regent of France. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Me"moires ;" Voltaire. " Siecle de Louis 
 XIV ;" W. Cooke Taylor, " Memoirs of the House of Orleans," 
 3 vols., 1849. 
 
 Orleans, d\ (Philippe,) Due, Regent of France, a 
 son of. the preceding, was born at Saint-Cloud in 1674. 
 He received at his birth the title of Due de Chartres. 
 
 born in 1490. He studied at Rome under Raphael, in 
 several of whose works he had a part. On his return to 
 Brussels he was employed by Charles V. to execute a 
 number of models for tapestry, which were chiefly 
 hunting-scenes and landscapes of remarkable beauty. 
 Among his l>est historical pieces are a " Holy Family," 
 a "Last Judgment," and "The Saviour Lamented by 
 his Friends." Died about 1560. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; Michiei.s, 
 "Histoire de la Peinture Flamande," 1845; Weyerman, "De 
 Schilderkonst der Nederlanders." 
 
 Orley or Orlay, van, (Richard,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Brussels in 1652, was also an engraver. His 
 design is said to be correct. Died at Brussels in 1732. 
 His brother Jan, born about 1656, was a historical 
 painter and engraver. 
 
 Orlof, Orlov, or •rlow, oR-lof, (Alexis,) Count, a 
 Russian admiral, born about 1736. He was remarkable 
 for his large stature, personal strength, and audacity. 
 In 1762 he was an accomplice in the conspiracy which 
 made Catherine autocrat of Russia in place of her hus- 
 band, Peter III., whom he strangled with his own hands. 
 He became an admiral, though he had not served in the 
 marine, and commanded a naval expedition sent against 
 the Turks, who were defeated by the Russians at Chesme 
 in 1770. It is said that he ordered a Russian frigate to 
 be blown up in 1772, merely to furnish a model to the 
 painter, Hackert, whom he employed to paint the battle 
 of Chesme. He died in 1808. 
 
 Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (Alexis,) Count, a famous 
 Russian diplomatist and general, born in 1787, was a 
 son of Feodor, noticed below. He entered the army 
 in his youth, and served as adjutant to the grand duke 
 Constantine in the war against Bonaparte. In 1825 he 
 commanded a regiment of guards in the capital, and 
 gained the favour of the Czar Nicholas by his zeal and 
 efficiency in suppressing a great revolt of the troops. 
 He was created a count, and received a high command 
 in the army. In 1829 he negotiated the treaty of Adri- 
 anople, and was sent as ambassador to the Ottoman 
 Porte. He was appointed commander of the army sent 
 in 1833 to aid the Sultan against the Viceroy of Egypt, 
 and negotiated the treaty of Unkiar-Skelesi. He was 
 the intimate companion of Nicholas in his journey to 
 England, Italy, and other countries. In 1856 he was 
 the representative of Russia at the Congress of Paris, 
 and signed a treatv of peace with France and England. 
 He became in 1856 president of the Grand Council of 
 the empire and ministry, — the highest functionary of 
 Russia. Died in Mav, 1861. He left one son. 
 
 Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (Feodor,) a Russian officer, 
 bom in 1741, was a brother of Alexis first above no- 
 ticed, and father of the preceding. He distinguished 
 himself in the war against the Turks, from whom he 
 took Navarino in 1770, and afterwards rose to the rank 
 of general -in -chief. Died in 1796. 
 
 Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (Gregory,) a Russian cour- 
 tier and general, born about 1734, was a brother of 
 
 C as k; cas s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (B3p~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ORLOF 
 
 1712 
 
 ORMUZD 
 
 Alexis first above noticed. He served in the Seven 
 Years' war, (1755-62,) and was one of the principal 
 actors in the revolution which raised Catherine II. to 
 the throne in July, 1762. About that time he became 
 the favourite paramour of Catherine, and was appointed 
 grand master of the artillery. It is stated that she pro- 
 posed a secret marriage with him, but his ambition to 
 reign with her as her acknowledged consort induced him 
 to decline the offer. She was offended by this refusal, 
 and supplied his place by a new favourite about 1772. 
 Died in 1783. 
 
 See Freudenreich, "Die Familie Orloff als Morder der Rus- 
 lischen Kaiser," i8.12. 
 
 Orlof, Orlov, or Orlow, (Gregory,) Count, born 
 in 1777, was a nephew of Alexis first above noticed. He 
 lived many years in Paris and Italy. He published, in 
 French, "Travels in Part of France," (1824,) and "Me- 
 moirs, Historical, Political, and Literary, of the Kingdom 
 of Naples." Died in 1826. 
 
 Orlof, (Michael,) born in 1785, was a son of Feodor, 
 noticed above. He served in several campaigns against 
 Bonaparte, and in 1814 was one of the allied generals 
 who received the capitulation of Paris. Having taken 
 part in the secret associations formed in the Russian 
 army in the latter part of Alexander's reign, he was dis- 
 graced in 1825, and passed the rest of his life in a private 
 station. Died in 184.I. 
 
 Orlofski, Orlovaki, or Orlowski, oR-lof'skee, 
 (Boris Ivanovi tch,) a Russian sculptor, born in 1793, 
 was sent by the government in 1822 to Italy, where he 
 studied under Thorwaldsen. Among his master-pieces 
 are a statue of " Paris with the Apple," (of Discord,) 
 and a colossal bust of the emperor Alexander I. Died 
 in 1837. 
 
 Orlov. See Ori.of. 
 
 Orlow. See Ori.of. 
 
 Orme, orm, (Rohert,) a distinguished historian, of 
 English extraction, born in 1728 at Anjengo, in Hin- 
 dostan. He was appointed in 1754 a member of the 
 Council at Fort Saint George, antfcwas afterwards made 
 a commissary and accountant-general. In this capacity 
 he contributed greatly to establish British power in 
 India, and on his recommendation the celebrated Clive 
 obtained the military command in that country. He 
 became historiographer to the East India Company, and 
 in 1778 published his "History of the Military Trans- 
 actions of the British in Hindostan." He also wrote 
 " Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire of the 
 Mahrattas," (1782.) Died in 1801. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1807. • 
 
 Orme, orm, (William,) a Scottish minister and biog- 
 rapher, born at Falkirk about 1787. He published a 
 "Life of John Owen, D.D.," (1820,) "Bibliotheca Bib- 
 lica," a select list of books on sacred literature, etc., 
 (1824,) which is highly esteemed, and a "Life of Richard 
 Baxter," (1 830.) Died in 1830. 
 
 Ormea, cV, doR-ma'a, (Carlo Francesco Vincenzo 
 Ferrero — fer-ra'ro,) Marquis, an Italian statesman, 
 born at Mondovi. He was the chief minister of Charles 
 Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, from 1730 until his death. 
 Died in 1745. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XV." 
 
 Ormesson. d', doR'm&'s6N', (Henri Francois de 
 Paule le Fevre,) a French financier, born in 1751. 
 He was appointed controller-general of the finances in 
 1783, and removed a few months later. He was very 
 incompetent for that office. Died in 1807. 
 
 Ormesson, d\ (Louis Francois de Paule i.e 
 Fevre,) a French judge, born in 1718, was a son of the 
 preceding, and a nephew of Chancellor d'Aguesseau. 
 He became first president of the Parliament of Paris 
 in 1788. Died in 1789. 
 
 Or'mond, (James Butler,) first Duke of, an 
 eminent statesman, born of an ancient Irish family in 
 London in 1610, was the eldest son of Thomas Butler, 
 Viscount Thurles. On the death of his grandfather, 
 in 1632, he succeeded him as Earl of Ormond. The 
 next year he went to Ireland, and became the friend and 
 confidential adviser of the Earl of Strafford. In 1641 he 
 was appointed commander-in-chief of the army designed 
 to suppress the Irish rebellion. He showed himself an I 
 
 able general, and defeated the rebels at Kilrush and 
 Ross. He adhered constantly to the king during the 
 civil war, and in 1644 was appointed lord lieutenant of 
 Ireland, then a prey to fierce factions. He was com- 
 pelled to surrender Dublin to the English Parliament in 
 1647, and retired to France. 
 
 Ormond was a favoured companion and adviser of 
 Charles II. in his exile, and soon after his restoration 
 he was created Duke of Ormond. In 1662 he was again 
 chosen lord lieutenant of Ireland, which he governed 
 with wisdom until 1668. In 1670 he was seized in Lon- 
 don by a ruffian named Blood, who bound him and 
 designed to hang him at Tyburn ; but the duke was 
 rescued by his servants. He died in 1688. He had a 
 sou who was Earl of Ossory, and a daughter who was 
 married to the Earl of Chesterfield. " His claims on 
 the royal gratitude," says Macaulay, " were superior 
 to those of any other subject." 
 
 See Thomas Carte, " History of the Life of James, Duke of 
 Ormond," 3 vols., 1736; Hume, " History of England ;" Claren- 
 don, " History of the Rebellion." 
 
 Ormond, (James Butler,) second Duke of, born 
 in Dublin in 1665, was a grandson of the preceding, and 
 a son of the Earl of Ossory. He succeeded to the duke- 
 dom in 1688, and in the same year joined the standard 
 of the Prince of Orange, who afterwards treated him 
 with favour and confidence. He commanded the Life 
 Guards at the battle of the Boyne, (1690,) and fought 
 several ensuing campaigns in Flanders. From 1703 
 to 1706 he was Viceroy of Ireland, and in 1712 was 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the British army in 
 place of Marlborough. In compliance with secret orders 
 from the ministry, he declined to co-operate with the 
 allies against the French in Flanders. For this offence 
 he was impeached by the Whigs in 1 71 5, and, having 
 escaped to France, was attainted. He then became a 
 partisan of the Pretender, and obtained command of an 
 armament which Spain sent against England, and which 
 was dispersed by a storm. He died in exile in 1745. 
 
 Ormuzd, or'muzdor or'moozd, [Gr. 'ilpo/iuodi/c ; Lat. 
 Oromas'des, the Ahura-Mazda of the Zend-Avesta,] 
 written also Ormusd and Hormuzd, in the religion 
 of the ancient Persians, the principle of light, purity, 
 truth, and goodness, as opposed to Ahriman, (ah're- 
 man',) [in Latin, Arima'nes or Arima'nius,] the prin- 
 ciple of evil and darkness. Ormuzd was considered to 
 be the creator of whatever was good or beautiful in 
 the universe. He not only created the world of light, 
 including the firmament and all the heavenly luminaries, 
 but also various orders of celestial or angelic beings, 
 among which were the Amshaspands, presiding over 
 the various kingdoms of the universe : one, for ex- 
 ample, is the king of light, another the spirit of fire and 
 of life ; after these are the king of metals, the king of 
 the seasons, and, lastly, the creator and protector of 
 trees, flocks, and herds. Among the Amshaspands is 
 reckoned also Sapandomad, the daughter of Ormuzd, 
 and the mother of the human race. The next order 
 of beings are the Izeds, who have charge of particular 
 portions of nature. Some of these are male and some 
 female. Of the Izeds, the most worthy of mention is 
 Mithra or Mithras, the god of day, who presides over 
 the light which mortals enjoy on earth. He is often 
 identified with the sun ; but he is more properly regarded 
 as a being distinct and separate from the latter. Below 
 the Izeds are the Fervers, who may be regarded as the 
 original patterns or prototypes of all inferior beings. 
 They are emanations from the essence of Ormuzd. Ac- 
 cording to Zoroaster, an incomprehensible being named 
 Zeruane- (or Zervane-) Akerene (or "time without 
 bounds") created both Ormuzd and Ahriman. The latter 
 was originally pure, but, becoming envious of Ormuzd, 
 he created orders of evil beings (Oevs, or demons) cor- 
 responding to the celestial orders of Ormuzd. And in 
 every part of the universe, even to the minutest particle 
 of matter, the principle of Evil opposes the principle of 
 Good. But after a certain period the power of Ahriman 
 will be utterly overthrown, and all evil will come to an 
 end. Some say Ahriman will be destroyed; others, that 
 he will continue to exist, without the power to do evil. 
 
 See Guigniaut, " Religions de l'Antiquitey vol. i. book ii. 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; m Jt; ndt; gdod; moor ; 
 
ORNANO 
 
 «7'3 
 
 ORSINI 
 
 Ornano, d', don-ni'no, called Sampierro, (sim-pe- 
 ir'ro,) a general, born in Italy in 1497, entered the 
 French army in 1533. In 1553 he defeated the Genoese 
 in Corsica, which was annexed to France in 1557. Henry 
 II. bwrittg restored it to the Genoese about 1560, D'Or- 
 nano invaded that island in 1564 and conquered part of 
 it. He was assassinated in 1567. 
 
 See '* Notivelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Ornano, d', (Ai.phonse,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in 1548. He fought against the Huguenots in the 
 civil wars of France, and afterwards rendered military 
 services to Henry IV., who raised him to the rank of 
 marshal of Fiance. Died in 1610. His son, Jean Bap- 
 tim k, bom in 1583, became a marshal of France. He 
 was imprisoned by Richelieu, and died in prison in 1626. 
 
 See Db Thou, "Memoires." 
 
 Ornano, d', (Philippe Antoine,) Count, a French 
 genera!, born at Ajaccio in 1784. His mother was Isa- 
 belle Bonaparte. He obtained the rank of colonel for 
 his conduct at Jena, (1806,) and became a general of 
 brigade in 181 1. As a general of division, he distin- 
 guished himself at the battle of Borodino, (1812,) and 
 commanded the cavalry of the guard at Dresden, Baut- 
 zen, and Leipsic, in 1813. He obtained the dignity of 
 senator in 1852, and became a marshal of France in 1861. 
 Died in 1863. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale. ' 
 
 Orobio, o-ro'be-o, (Baltasar,) a learned Spanish 
 few, was professor of philosophy at Salamanca. He 
 was the author of a work entitled "Certamen Philo- 
 sophicum," being a refutation of the doctrines of Spi- 
 noza. Died in 1687. 
 
 O-ro'des I., King of Parthia, a son of Phraates III., 
 began to reign about 56 Ii.C. He is also styled Arsaces 
 XIV. His dominions were invaded by the Roman gen- 
 eral Crassus, who was defeated with great loss by the 
 Parthians, near Carrhae, in 53 n.C. About 40 B.C. he sent 
 an army under his son Pacorus to fight against Mark 
 Antony. (See Pacorus.) 
 
 See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome ;" Plutarch, " Antony ;" 
 Saint-Martin, " Memoires historiques, etc. sur l'Annenie." 
 
 Oromasdes. See Ormuzd. 
 
 Oronce. See Fine. 
 
 Orontius. See Fine. 
 
 Orose, (Paul.) See Orosius Pauuis. 
 
 O-ro'sI-us Pau'lus, [Fr. Paul Orose, pol o'roz',] a 
 Latin historian and Christian presbyter, who lived about 
 410-30 a.d., was a native of Tarragona, in Spain. He 
 was a friend of Saint Augustine and Saint Jerome, and 
 in several theological treatises opposed the doctrines 
 of Origen and Pelagius. His principal work is entitled 
 " Historiarum Libri VII. adversos Paganos," being a 
 defence of Christianity against pagan writers, who as- 
 serted that since the overthrow of the old religion the 
 world had suffered greater calamities. This history, 
 though deficient in accuracy, contains much important 
 information, and quotes from various authors whose 
 writings are not extant. Among the translations of this 
 work is one made by Alfred, King of England. 
 
 See Cem.i.ikr, "Histrire des Auteurs ecclesiastiques ;" Rahr, 
 "Geschichte der Romif=chen Literatur ;" VossiL's, " De Historicis 
 Latinis ;" Mornp.r, " De Orosii Vita," 1844. 
 
 Orphee. See Orpheus. 
 
 Orpheus, or'fus or or'fe-us, [Gr. 'Opicvc ; Fr. Orphee, 
 OR'fa'; It. Orfeo, oR-fa'o,] a mythical or semi-fabulous 
 personage, who was celebrated in the legends of the 
 ancient Greeks as a poet, musician, and inventor. His 
 name does not occur in the poems of Homer or Hesiod, 
 but is mentioned by Ibycus, Euripides, and Aristophanes. 
 Plato refers to Orpheus and his works, calls him the son 
 of CEagrus, and ascribes to him the origin of religious 
 mysteries. He is supposed to have lived in Thrace not 
 long before the Trojan war, or about 1200 B.C. Ac- 
 cording to tradition, Apollo presented him with a lyre, 
 with which he enchanted wild beasts, trees, etc., lulled 
 asleep the dragon that guarded the golden fleece, and 
 rendered other important services in the Argonautic 
 expedition. Virgil has commemorated in an admirable 
 episode of his "Georgics" (book iv.) the descent of Or- 
 pheus to the infernal regions after his lost F.urydice. 
 (See Eurydice.) The poets relate that he was torn in 
 pieces by Thracian women in their Bacchanalian orgies, 
 
 because he neglected their sex or treated their charm.* 
 with contempt. 
 
 See Tiedemann, " Griechenlands erste Pbilosophen : oder Le* 
 ben und Systeme des Orpheus," etc., 17H0; Grote, "History of 
 Greece;" Ulrici, " Geschichte der Hellenischen Dichtkunst." 
 
 Orr, (James L.,) an American lawyer and politician, 
 born at Craytonville, South Carolina, in 1822. He 
 represented a district of that State in Congress from 
 1848 to i860. He was elected Speaker of the House of 
 Representatives by the Democrats in December, 1857. 
 In the Convention of South Carolina held December, 
 i860, he voted for secession. He was one of three com- 
 missioners sent by South Carolina to Washington to 
 negotiate in the winter of 1860-61. In February, 1862, he 
 was elected a Senator of the Confederate States. He was 
 elected Governor of South Carolina in October, 1865. 
 
 Orrente, or-ren'ti, (Pedro,) a Spanish painter, born 
 in Murcia about 1550, Among his finest productions 
 are a "Saint Sebastian" and a "Nativity." Died in 1644. 
 
 See Quilliet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols." 
 
 Orrery, Earl of. See Boyle, (Robert,) and Boyle, 
 (Charles.) 
 
 Orrizonte. See Bloemen, (John Francis.) 
 
 Orry, o're', (Phii.ibert,) Count de Vignori, a French 
 financier, born at Troyes in 1689. He was controller- 
 general of the finances from i730to 1745. Died in 1747. 
 
 Orsato, oR-sa'to, (Giambattista,) an Italian anti- 
 quary and physician, born at Padua in 1673 ; died in 1720. 
 
 Orsato, [Lat. Ursa'tus.] (Sertorio.) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Padua in 161 7. He published, among 
 other treatises, " De Notis Romanorum Commenta- 
 rius,"(i672,) or an explanation of the abbreviations used 
 by the Romans, and a "History of Padua," (1678.) 
 The former work is highly esteemed by antiquaries. 
 Died in 1678. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita; Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Orsay, d\ dor'sa', [Fr. pron. doit's^',] (Alfred Guil- 
 laume Gabriel,) Count, an artist and leader of fashion, 
 distinguished for his rare accomplishments and his fasci- 
 nating manners, was born in France in 1801. He married 
 in 1827 Lord Blessington's daughter, from whom he 
 separated a few years later. He became an intimate 
 friend of Lady Blessington, in whose house he lived 
 many years, (in London.) His wit, his amiable temper, 
 and his brilliant personal qualities rendered him a general 
 favourite. Among his friends were Lord Byron, (of 
 whom he produced a good portrait,) Sir Edward Bulwer, 
 and Napoleon III. Died in 1852. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazirte" for September, 1852; Dr. R. R. 
 Madden, "Literary Life and Correspondence of the Countess of 
 Blessington," 3 vols., London, 1855. 
 
 Orseolo, oR-sa-o'lo, orTJrseolo, ooR-sa-o'lo, (Otto,) 
 Doge of Venice, was a son of Piero II., noticed below. 
 He was elected doge in 1009, and was banished in 1026. 
 Died in 1032. 
 
 Orseolo or TTrseolo, (Piero I.,) was elected Doge 
 of Venice in 976. He gained a victory over the Sara- 
 cens in Apulia, and established a regular financial sys- 
 tem. Died in 987. 
 
 Orseolo or Urseolo, (Piero II.,) an able Venetian 
 commander, a son of the preceding, became Doge of 
 Venice in 991. He conquered Dalmatia, and annexed 
 it to the republic. Died in 1009. 
 
 See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Orsi, oR'see, (Giovanni Giuseppe,) Marquis, an 
 Italian author, born at Bologna in 1652, wrote verses 
 and several prose works, among which is "De Moralibus 
 Criticae Regulis Monita," (1706.) Died in 1733. 
 
 Orsi, (Giuseppe Agostino,) an Italian cardinal, born 
 at Florence in 1692. His principal work is an "Eccle- 
 siastical History of the First Six Centuries of the Church," 
 (20 vols., 1746 it sea.) Died in 1761. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita: Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Orsi, (Lelio, or Lelio da Novellara — dS no-vel- 
 la'ri,) an Italian painter, born in Lombardy in 1511. 
 His copy of Correggio's "Night" is greatly admired. 
 Died in 1587. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Orsini, oR-see'nee, the name of an illustrious and 
 powerful Italian family, which for many years was hos- 
 tile to the house of Colonna. Giovanni Gaetani Or- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. ( J5f*"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 108 
 
ORSINI 
 
 1714 
 
 OSCEOLA 
 
 SIN I was made pope in 1277, under the name of Nicholas 
 III. In 1503 Francesco and Paolo Orsini were assas- 
 sinated by order of Caesar Borgia, and about the same 
 time Cardinal Orsini was poisoned at Rome by Pope 
 Alexander VI. 
 
 Orsini, (Felice,) an Italian revolutionist, born at 
 Meldola in 1819. He took an active part in the revolu- 
 tionary movements of 1848, after which he continued to 
 conspire against the government. He was confined in 
 prison at Mantua about 1854, but escaped in 1856 and 
 went to England. He was the chief of a band of con- 
 spirators who attempted to assassinate Napoleon III. in 
 January, 1858, bv bombs or explosive apparatus. He 
 was executed in March, 1858. 
 
 Orsini, (Fulvio.) See Ursinus Fulvius. 
 
 Orsini, Pope. See Benedict XIII. 
 
 Orsted. See Oersted. 
 
 Orta, (Garcia da.) See Horto. 
 
 Ortega, oR-ta'gil, (Casimir Gomez,) a Spanish bot- 
 anist, born at Madrid in 1730. He published an "Ele- 
 mental Course of Botany," and other treatises of the 
 kind. The name of Ortegia has been given to a genus 
 of plants. Died in 1810. 
 
 Ortelius, van, vtn or-ta'le-us, Ortel, or Oertel, 
 OR'tel, (Aiiraham,) an eminent geographer and mathe- 
 matician, apparently of German extraction, was born at 
 Antwerp in 1527. After travelling in England and on 
 the continent, he published in 1570 his "Universal 
 Geography," ("Theatrum Orbis Terrarum,") and in 
 1575 was appointed geographer to Philip II. He was 
 an intimate friend of Mercator, Justus Lipsius, and other 
 eminent men of the time. Besides the above-mentioned 
 work, which is still highly valued, and which obtained 
 for its author the name of the " Ptolemy of his age," 
 Oertel wrote several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1598. 
 
 See F. Svvrert, " Insignium ejus jEvi Poetarum LacryniEe in 
 Obitum A. Ortelii," 1601. 
 
 Ortigue, d', doR'teg', (Joseph Louis,) a French jour- 
 nalist and writer on music, born at Cavaillon in 1802. 
 He became professor de chant at the College Henri IV., 
 Paris, in 1839. 
 
 Ortigue, d', (Pierre,) a French novelist, born at Apt 
 in 1610. He wrote several novels, and "The Art of 
 Pleasing in Conversation," (1688.) Died in 1693. 
 
 Ortiz, oR-teth', (Alonzo,) a Spanish historian and 
 theologian, born at Toledo, lived in the early part of the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Ortolan, oR'to'loN', ( Joseph Louis Elze\\r, ) a 
 French jurist, born at Toulon (Var) in 1802. He pub- 
 lished in 1827 his principal work, a "Historical Expli- 
 cation of the Institutes of Justinian," (3 vols.,) which is 
 considered classic in several universities of Europe. 
 
 Or'ton, (Jon,) an English nonconformist minister, 
 born at Shrewsbury in 1 71 7. He preached at Shrews- 
 bury about twenty-four years, and removed to Kid- 
 derminster about 1766. He wrote "Memoirs of Dr. 
 Doddridge," " Sacramental Meditations," and other re- 
 ligious works. Died in 1783. 
 
 Orton, (Reginald,) an English surgeon and medical 
 writer, born in 1810. He practised at Sunderland, 
 where he died in September, 1862. 
 
 Orts, oris, (Charles,) a Belgian politician, born at 
 Brussels about 1815. He is an orator of the Liberal party. 
 
 Orus. See Horus. 
 
 Orville, d', doR'vel', (Jacques Philippe,) a distin- 
 guished critic and scholar, born at Amsterdam in 1696, 
 was descended from a French family. After having 
 visited England, Italy, and Paris, where he acquired the 
 friendship of Bentley, Muratori, Montfaucon, and other 
 eminent men, he became professor of humanities at 
 Amsterdam about 1730. He published a number of 
 valuable criticisms on the classics, and a " Dissertation 
 on the Inscriptions of Delos," which is particularly 
 esteemed. Died in IKI, 
 
 Orvilliers, d', doR've'ye-i'> (Louis Guillouet, ) 
 Count, a French admiral, was born at Motilins in 1708. 
 He commanded a large fleet which fought an indecisive 
 battle against the English under Keppel, near Ushant, 
 in 1778. Died after 1791. 
 
 See Sismonm, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Orzechowski, oR-zl-Kov'skee, [Lat. Oricho'vius,] 
 (Stanislaus,) a Polish orator and historian, born in 
 1513, studied theology under Luther at Wittenberg. 
 He wrote, besides other works, " Annals of Poland 
 from the Death of Sigismund," ("Annales Polonis," 
 etc., 161 1.) Died in 1567. 
 
 Os, van, vtn oss, (Jan,) a Dutch artist, born at Mid- 
 delharnis in 1744, excelled as a fruit- and flower-painter. 
 He was regarded as the most successful imitator of Van 
 Huysum. Died in 1808. His son PlBTBR Gerardus, 
 born at the Hague in 1776, painted landscapes with 
 animals of various kinds, which are esteemed master- 
 pieces. Died in 1839. Gf.org Jacob Jan, younger 
 brother of Pieter, was born in 1782, and gained a high 
 reputation as a flower-painter. He visited France in 
 181 2, where he painted for the porcelain-manufactory at 
 Sevres. In 1850 one of his flower-pieces sold at Am- 
 sterdam for four thousand five hundred florins. 
 
 Osaibia, o-si'be-a, or, more fully, Ibn-Abi-Osaibia, 
 Ib'n a'bee o-si'be-5, written also Osaiba, an Arabian 
 physician, born in 1203. He practised at Sarchad, in 
 Syria, and wrote " Fontes Relationum de Classibus 
 Medicorum," which contains biographical notices of 
 many ancient physicians, and is highly commended. 
 Died in 1269. 
 
 Osann, o-zin', (Emil,) a German physician, born at 
 Weimar in 1787, was a relative of the celebrated Hufe- 
 land. After filling various professorships, he became in 
 1838 privy councillor of medicine at Berlin. He wrote 
 several treatises on mineral waters. Died in 1842. 
 
 Osann, (Friedrich Gotthilf,) a German antiquary 
 and philologist, born at Weimar in 1794. In 1825 he 
 became professor of ancient literature at Giessen. 
 Among his most important works we may name his 
 "Contributions to the History of Greek and Roman 
 Literature," (2 vols., 1835-39.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Osbeck, os'b2k, (Peter,) a Swedish naturalist and 
 traveller, born near Gottemburg in 1723. He published 
 a "Journal of a Voyage to the East Indies," (1757,) 
 which is a work of merit. Died in 1805. 
 
 Os'bprn, (John,) an American physician, born in 
 1766. He was professor of medicine in the city of New 
 York. Died in 1819. 
 
 Osborn, (Seli.eck,) an American poet and journalist, 
 born in Connecticut in 1783 ; died in 1826. 
 
 Os'born, (Sherard,) Captain, a British naval officer 
 and writer, born about 1820. He wrote, besides other 
 works, "The Career, Last Voyage, and Fate of Sir John 
 Franklin." 
 
 Osborne, oz'burn, (Francis,) an English writer, born 
 in Bedfordshire about 1589, was an adherent of Crom- 
 well in the civil war. His " Advice to a Son," published 
 in 1659, was very popular at the time. He also wrote 
 several historical and biographical works. Died in 1659. 
 
 See Wood, "Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Osborne, oz'burn, (George,) a composer and pianist, 
 born at Limerick, Ireland, in 1806. 
 
 Osborne, (Ralph Bernal,) an English Liberal mem- 
 ber of Parliament, noted for his wit and facetious 
 speeches. He entered the House of Commons in 1841, 
 was returned for Middlesex in 1847, for Dover in 1857. 
 for Liskeard in 1859, and for Waterford in 1870. 
 
 Osborne, (Sir Thomas.) See Danby, Earl of. 
 
 Os'car or Os'kar I., King of Sweden, born in Paris in 
 1799, was the son of General Bernadotte, (Carl XIV. of 
 Sweden.) He married Josephine, a daughter of Eugene 
 de Beauharnais, in 1823, and acted as regent during 
 the illness of his father in 1828. He succeeded his father 
 in March, 1844., His reign was pacific. Died in 1859. 
 
 See G. H. Mbllin, "Oscar I. Historia," 1844: " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for February, 1848. * 
 
 Os-ge-o'la or As-se-ho'Iar Nik-kan-o'chee, some- 
 times written Oceola, an Indian chief of the Semi- 
 noles, born in Florida in 1803. His wife having been 
 claimed as a slave, and carried off by order of a slave- 
 holder, in 1835, Osceola declared war against the whites, 
 and, after fighting two years with varying success, was 
 taken prisoner and confined in Fort Moultrie, where 
 he died in 1837. 
 
 See a" Narrative of the Early Days, etc. of Osceola Nikkanochee," 
 by his guardian. 
 
 t-e, I. o, n,y,long;\,h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, q,obscurt: far, fall, fit; m4t; not; good; moon 
 
OSCULJTI 
 
 171 ij 
 
 OSSAT 
 
 Oscxilati, os-koo-la'tee, (Gaetano,) an Italian natu- 
 ralist and traveller, born at Vedano, in Lombardy, in 
 1808. He visited many countries of Asia, Africa, and 
 South America, between 1830 and 1848 He published 
 a work called " Exploration of the Equatorial Region 
 near the Napo," (1854.) 
 
 Osee, the French for Hosea, which see. 
 
 Oserof, Oserov, or Oserow, o'se>-of, (Vladisi.af 
 Ai kxandrovmch,) a Russian dramatist, born in 1770. 
 Among his best works are the tragedies of " Polixena," 
 " Fingal," and "The Death of Olga." He also pub- 
 lished a collection of lyric poems. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Grbtch, " Essai sur PHistoire de la Litterature Russe." 
 
 Os'good, (David,) D.D., an American Congrega- 
 tional divine, born at Andover, Massachusetts, in 1747, 
 settled as pastor at Medford, where he preached many 
 years. Died in 1822. 
 
 Osgood, (Frances Sargent,) an American poetess, 
 born at Boston about 1812. At an early age she con- 
 tributed a number of poems to the "Juvenile Miscellany," 
 edited by Mrs. L. M. Child, and subsequently wrote for 
 the " Ladies' Magazine." She was married in 1835 to 
 Mr. S. S. Osgood, a distinguished artist. While re- 
 siding with her husband in London, she published a col- 
 lection of poems entitled " A Wreath of Wild Flowers 
 from New England," which were favourably received. 
 After her return she edited the souvenirs entitled " The 
 Floral Offering" and " The Poetry of Flowers." Died 
 in 1850. 
 
 See Grjswold, " Female Poets of America ;" Cleveland, 
 "Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Osgood, (Samuel,) born at Andover, Massachusetts, 
 in 1748, was elected to Congress in 1781. He was ap- 
 pointed first commissioner of the treasury, (1785,) post- 
 master-general, (1789,) and naval officer for the port of 
 New York, (1803.) Died in 1813. 
 
 Osgood, (Samuel,) D.D., an American Unitarian 
 divine, born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1812, 
 became pastor of the Church of the Messiah, New 
 York, in 1849. He has published "Studies in Chris- 
 tian Biography," (1851.) "God with Men," (1854,) and 
 " Milestones in our Life-Journey," (1S55.) He has also 
 made translations from the German, and contributed to 
 the " North American Review," "Christian Examiner," 
 and "Bibliotheca Sacra." 
 
 Osiander, o-ze-an'der, (Andreas,) originally Hose- 
 mann, a German theologian, and one of the first schol- 
 ars of his time, was born near Nuremberg in 1498. He 
 was a devoted adherent of Luther, and was present at the 
 Conference of Marburg in 1529, and at the Diet of Augs- 
 burg in 153°- He became subsequently professor of 
 theology in the University of Konigsberg. About 1549 
 he engaged in a controversy on the nature of repentance 
 and other points of doctrine with Martin Chemnitz and 
 Melanchthon. He died in 1552, leaving a number of 
 theological and controversial treatises. 
 
 See Wilken, "Andreas Osianders Leben," 1844: M. Adam, 
 "Vita; Theologorum Germanorum." 
 
 Osiander, (Andreas,) a son of Lucas, noticed below, 
 was born in 1562. He was chancellor of the University 
 of Tubingen, and wrote several works on theology. Died 
 in 161 7. 
 
 Osiander, (Johann Adam,) born at Tubingen in 
 1626, was professor of theology in that city. He wrote 
 a Commentary on the Pentateuch, (1676-78,) and on 
 other books of Scripture. Died in 1697. 
 
 Osiander, (Johann Adam,) a philologist, born at 
 Tiibingen in 1701, was a grandson of the preceding. 
 Died in 1756. 
 
 Osiander, (Lucas,) the Elder, a son of Andreas, 
 (1498-1552,) was born at Nuremberg in 1534. He was 
 appointed in 1567 court preacher to Duke Frederick of 
 Wurtemberg, and published several polemical treatises. 
 Died in 1604. 
 
 Osiander, (Lucas,) the Younger, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Stuttgart about 1570. He became 
 chancellor of the University of Tiibingen. His writings 
 are chiefly controversial. Died in 1638. 
 
 Osinski, o-sens'kee, (Lewis,) a distinguished Polish 
 poet and litterateur, born in 1775. He published in 1804 
 an excellent translation of Corneille's tragedies into 
 
 Polish. Among his poems, which are highly esteemed, 
 we may name the "Ode to Copernicus." Died in 1838. 
 
 Osio, o'se-o, [Lat. O'sius,] (Felice,) an Italian littl- 
 rateur, born at Milan in 1587, was professor of rhetoric 
 in the University of Padua in 1621. He published, 
 among other works, a "Eulogy of Illustrious Writers," 
 and a number of "Orations." Died in 1631. 
 
 O-si'ris, j Or. 'Oaifu^j the god of the Nile, and one 
 of the principal divinities of Egypt, was said to be the 
 husband of Isis and father of Horus. He was regarded 
 as the author of Egyptian civilization, and the first who 
 taught the arts and sciences to that nation. Tradition 
 adds that he visited and civilized India, Arabia, and 
 other countries, and after his return was murdered f?y 
 Typhon. He was worshipped under the form of the 
 bull Apis, into which it was supposed his soul migrated 
 when he was slain by Typhon. Osiris and Isis are to 
 be regarded as different manifestations of one divine 
 principle, the former representing the beneficent power 
 of nature in activity, the latter in passivity, so that 
 neither is complete without the other ; and hence Osiris, 
 according to some, represented the life-giving power of 
 the sun, and Isis the fertility of the earth. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Treatise on Isis and Osiris:" Guigniaut, 
 " Religions de 1' AntiquiteV' Paris. 1825, book iii. chap. ii. : " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle," (Partie mythologique.) 
 
 Osius. See Osio. 
 
 O'si-us, Bishop of Cordova, born in Spain in 256 
 A.D., enjoyed the favour and confidence of Constantine 
 the Great, who, on his recommendation, convoked the 
 Council of Nice. He was afterwards induced by the 
 threats of the emperor Constantius to subscribe to the 
 Arian confession of faith, for which he subsequently 
 testified sincere repentance. Died about 358 A.D. 
 
 Oskar. See Oscar. 
 
 Osman. See Othman. 
 
 Osman, os-mSn', I., written also Othman, Otman, 
 and Ottoman, the founder of the Ottoman empire, was 
 the son of Ortogrul or Ertogrul, a Toorkoman chief, who 
 founded a colony near the river Sangar, in Asia Minor. 
 Having, on the death of his father, (1280,) become chief 
 of the tribe, he first invaded Greece in 1299, and within 
 a few years possessed himself of a large portion of that 
 country and the whole of the province of Bithynia. 
 Osman never assumed the title of Sultan, though he had 
 money coined and public prayers given in his name. 
 As a ruler, he was distinguished for his wisdom, hu- 
 manity, and military talents. He died in 1326, leaving a 
 valuable work containing maxims for government. He 
 was succeeded by his son, Oorkhan, (Orkhan.) 
 
 See Von Hammhr, "Gescbichte des Osmanischen Reichs." 
 
 Osman or Othman II., Sultan of Turkey, born in 
 1604, was the eldest son of Ahmed I. He began to 
 reisrn in 1618, and was assassinated in 1622. 
 
 Osman or Othman III., Sultan of Turkey, born in 
 1696, was a younger son of Mustafa IT. He succeeded 
 his brother, Mahmood I., in 1754. Died in 17^7. 
 
 Osmond, d', dos'moN ', (Rene Eustache,) Marquis, 
 a French diplomatist, born in Hayti in 1751. He was 
 sent by Louis XVIII. as ambassador to England in 
 1815. Died in 1838. 
 
 Os'mund or Os'mond, Saint, a celebrated ecclesi- 
 astic, born in Normandy, accompanied William the Con- 
 queror to England in 1066, and was created successively 
 chancellor, and Bishop of Salisbury. In 1099 he rebuilt 
 the cathedral of Salisbury, which had been destroyed 
 by fire. He was the compiler of the liturgy called the 
 " Usages of Sarum." Died in 1099. 
 
 See Butler, "Lives of the Saints." 
 
 Osorio, o-so're-o, [Lat. Oso'rius,] (Jeronymo,) a 
 learned Portuguese ecclesiastic, born at Lisbon in 1506, 
 was Bishop of Silves. Among his works (written in 
 Latin) are a " History of the Achievements of King 
 Emanuel," and a " Letter to Elizabeth, Queen of Eng- 
 land," (1555.) on the Catholic religion. Died in 1580. 
 
 See the " Retrospective Review," vol. i., (1820.) 
 
 Osorius. See Osorio. 
 
 Ossa, de, (Jacques.) See John XXII. 
 
 Ossat, d', do'sf, [Lat. Ossa'tus,] (AitNAUD,)an able 
 French diplomatist and cardinal, born near Auch in 
 1536. Having accompanied the ambassador Paul de 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (Jl^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
OSSATUS 
 
 ij\6 
 
 OSTEN-SACKEN 
 
 Foix to Rome as his secretary, (1574,) he assisted in 
 promoting a reconciliation between Henry IV. and the 
 pope. He published a collection of "Letters," which 
 are esteemed models of diplomatic sagacity, and are 
 highly commended by Lord Chesterfield. De Thou 
 dedicated to Cardinal d'Ossat his poem on the death 
 of Henry III. Died in 1604. 
 
 Sec D'Arconville, "Vie du Cardinal d'Ossat," 1771 ; "Gallia 
 Christiana;" Niceron, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Ossatus. See Ossat, d\ 
 
 Osselin, os'laV, (Charles Nicolas,) a French Ja- 
 cobin and lawyer, born in Paris in 1754. He became in 
 •792 a member of the Convention, in which he took a 
 prominent part in enacting laws against the emigrants. 
 lie was guillotined in June, 1794. 
 
 Ossenbeeck, os'sen-bak', a skilful Dutch landscape- 
 • painter and engraver, born at Rotterdam in 1627. He 
 worked many years in Italy, and adopted the Italian 
 style. Died in 1678. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais." etc. 
 
 Ossian, osh'e-an, a semi-fabulous Scottish bard and 
 hero of the third century, was said to be the son of Fin- 
 gal, King of Morven. A pretended translation of his 
 poems, which was published by James Macpherson in 
 1765. gwe rise to a spirited controversy among the 
 English literati concerning the genuineness of these 
 productions. (See Macpherson.) 
 
 Ossoli, os'so-lee, (originally Sarah Margaret Ful- 
 ler,) Marchioness, an American lady, whose talents, 
 rare individuality of character, and untimely death have 
 given to her history a peculiar and tragic interest, was 
 bom at Cambridgeport, in Massachusetts, May 23, 1 810. 
 Under the care of her father, a lawyer and member of 
 Congress, she was early and thoroughly instructed in 
 the classics. It is related that he used to say of her, 
 while still a child, that she " knew more Latin and Greek 
 than half the professors." At a very early age she 
 had also made great proficiency in French and Italian. 
 After the death of her father, in 1835, she became teacher 
 of languages in Boston, and subsequently principal of 
 a school at Providence, Rhode Island. In 1839 she 
 published a translation of Eckermann's "Conversations 
 with Goethe." She became in 1840 editor of "The 
 Dial," a periodical instituted for the advocacy and dif- 
 fusion of Transcendentalism in America, and for which 
 she wrote a number of admirable articles on literature 
 and art. Her critique on Goethe especially, in the 
 second volume of the "Dial," has been greatly and 
 deservedly praised. "Nowhere," says Mr. Emerson, 
 "did Goethe find a braver, more intelligent, or more 
 sympathetic reader." Her " Summer on the Lakes," a 
 vivid and truthful picture of prairie-life, was published 
 in 1843. Soon a ^ ter > s,ie took cnar g e OI tne H'erary 
 department of the New York "Tribune." In 1846 she 
 visited England, where she made the acquaintance of 
 Carlyle and other eminent men. From London she 
 journeyed through France to Italy. At Rome she acci- 
 dentally became acquainted with the Marquis Ossoli, to 
 whom, though many years younger than herself, she 
 was married in December, 1847. She took the deepest 
 interest in the cause of Italian liberty, and during the 
 siege of Rome, in 1849, devoted herself with untiring 
 assiduity to the care of the sick and wounded. In May, 
 1850, she and her husband set sail for America; but, a 
 violent storm having arisen when they were near the 
 coast of the United States, the vessel struck on Fire 
 Island beach. Long Island, in the morning of the 16th 
 of July, and a few hours after went to pieces. Among 
 those who perished were the Marquis and Marchioness 
 Ossoli and their child. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli," by R. W. Emerson, 
 William H. Channing, and James F. Clarke, Boston. 1851 ; Al- 
 LlliiiNE, " Dictionary of Authors ;" Griswoi.d, " Prose Writers of 
 America;" Duvckinck, "Cyclopedia of American Literature." 
 
 Ossolinski, os-so-len'skee, (George,) a Polish states- 
 man, born in 1595. He rose to be grand chancellor of 
 the kingdom of Poland, in which capacity he presided 
 over the religious conference at Thorn, where Vladislaus 
 IV. sought to unite the Catholics and Protestants. He 
 was also created by Ferdinand II. a prince of the Aus- 
 trian empire. Died in 1650. 
 
 Ossolinski, (Jozef Maximilian,) Count of Ten- 
 czyn, a Polish litterateur, born in 1748. He removed to 
 Vienna in 1789, and was appointed by Francis I. super- 
 intendent of the Royal Library. He was the author of 
 historical and critical treatises, and of a number of tales, 
 and founded at Lemberg the Institute called by his 
 name. Died in 1826. 
 
 Ossonne. See Ossuna. 
 
 Os'so-rjf, (Thomas Butler,) Earl of, a gallant 
 commander, born probably in Ireland in 1634, was a son 
 of the first Duke of Ormond. His biographer Lodge 
 calls him a "model of almost universal perfection." 
 Soon after the restoration of 1660 he obtained the rank 
 of lieutenant-general, and in 1666 he was created an 
 English peer, as Lord Butler. Having served with 
 distinction in several sea-fights against the Dutch, he 
 was raised to the rank of admiral about 1674. In 
 1677 he commanded the English troops that fought for 
 the Prince of Orange at the battle of Mons. Died in 
 1680. His son became Duke of Ormond. 
 
 See Lodge, "Portraits of Illustrious Personages." 
 
 Ossuna or Osuna, os-soon'ya, [Fr. Ossonne or 
 Ossone, o'son',] (Don Pedro Tellez y Giron — t£l- 
 vSth' e He-r6n',) Duke of, a celebrated Spanish states- 
 man, born at Valladolid in 1579. After completing his 
 studies at Salamanca, he repaired to the court of Philip 
 II., from which, in consequence of indulging his caustic 
 wit, he was banished. Having spent some time in France 
 and Portugal, he returned to Spain on the death of Philip 
 II., but he again had the misfortune to be exiled from 
 the court. He was recalled to Spain in 1607, and was 
 created a member of the council and knight of the 
 golden fleece. Through his influence the independence 
 of Holland was acknowledged in the treaty of 1609, and 
 he opposed warmly, though unsuccessfully, the expulsion 
 of the Moors, which took place about this time. In 
 l6n he was sent as viceroy to Sicily, and in 1616 filled 
 the same office at Naples, where he defended the people 
 against the oppressions of the nobles and the clergy. 
 He gained a signal victory in 161 7 over the Venetians, 
 who had claimed exclusive rule over the Adriatic Sea. 
 Having refused to introduce the Inquisition into Naples 
 when required to do so by Philip III., and being sus- 
 pected of aspiring to supreme power, Ossuna was super- 
 seded by Cardinal Borgia in 1620. He died in prison 
 in 1624, after three years' imprisonment in Spain. 
 
 See Gregorio Leti, "Vita di P. Giron, Ducad'Ossunna," 3 vols., 
 169S ; " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Ostade, van, vSn os'ta'deh, (Adrian,) a celebrated 
 painter and engraver, born at Lubeck in 1610, was a 
 pupil of Rembrandt and of Francis Hals. His subjects 
 were generally taken from low life, such as tavern scenes, 
 peasants drinking and smoking, and the interiors of cot- 
 tages. His pictures are exceedingly spirited and true to 
 nature, and are distinguished for splendour and trans- 
 parency of colouring. Among his best pieces are "The 
 Fish-Market," "A Smoker Lighting his Pipe," and 
 "The Family of Adrian van Ostade." He worked many 
 years at Amsterdam, where he died in 1 685. 
 
 S ee Weverman," De Schilderkonstder Nederlanders :" Charles 
 Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres;" Descamps, "Vies des Peintres 
 Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Ostade, van, (Isaac,) a painter, a younger brother 
 of the preceding, was born at Lubeck about 1615. His 
 style resembled that of Adrian. He worked at Amster- 
 dam, and painted landscapes which are greatly admired. 
 He excelled in representing animals and in village 
 scenes. His death is variously dated from about 1654 
 to 1671. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Osten-Sacken, os'ten-sak'ken, (Dmitri,) a Russian 
 general, born in 1790, served under Paskievitch in the 
 war against the Persians, (1826-29,) and afterwards fought 
 with distinction against the Poles in 1831. He defended 
 Odessa with success against the allies in May, 18,4. 
 
 Osten-Sacken, von der, fon der os'ten-sak'ken, 
 (Fabian Wii.hei.m,) Prince, a Russian field-marshal, 
 born in Livonia in 1752. He served under Suwarow 
 against the Turks and Poles, and took an active part in 
 the campaigns of 1812-15. In 1818 he succeeded Bar- 
 
 S, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, ohscure; fir, fill, fit; mJt; nfit; good; moon; 
 
OSTERHJUS 
 
 1717 
 
 OTHO 
 
 clay tie Tolly as commander-in-chief of the first army, 
 and in 1826 was made a field-marshal. Died in 1837. 
 See Rrockhai's, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Osterhaus, os'ter-h5wss', (Peter J.,) a general, born 
 in Prussia, entered the service of the United States in 
 1861, commanded a division or brigade at the battle 
 of Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and became a brigadier- 
 general in June of that year. He took part in the assault 
 on Vicksburg, May 22, 1863, and commanded a corps of 
 Sherman's army in the march from Atlanta to Savannah, 
 November-December, 1864. 
 
 Osterley. See Oksi eri.f.y. 
 
 Ostermann, os'ter-man', (Ukinrich Johann Frif.d- 
 Rich,) a celebrated diplomatist, born in Westphalia in 
 16S6, assumed the name of Andrei Ivanovitch. In 
 1704 he entered the service of Peter the Great of Russia, 
 for whom he negotiated the peace of Nystadt in 1721. 
 After filling various high offices under Peter, he was, on 
 the death of that monarch, patronized by the empress 
 Catherine I., who made him vice-chancellor, and by her 
 will appointed him governor to her son Peter II. and a 
 member of the council of regency. In 1730 he was 
 created a count by Peter II. After the accession of 
 Elizabeth (1741) he was exiled to Siberia, where he died 
 in 1747. 
 
 See Hempel, "Leben und Fall des Grafen von Ostermann," 1742. 
 
 Ostermann-Tolstoi, os'ter-man' tol'stoi, (Alex- 
 ander IVANOVITCH,) Count, a Russian general, born 
 at Saint Petersburg about 1770. He served in the cam- 
 paigns of 1806 and 1812, and distinguished himself 
 particularly at the battle of Kulm, (1813.) He was 
 afterwards made general-in-chief of engineers by the 
 emperor Alexander. Died in 1837. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the Consulate and the Empire." 
 
 Ostervald, os'ter-valt'. (Jean FrAd^ric,) a Swiss 
 Protestant divine, eminent for learning and piety, born 
 at Nettfchatel in 1663. He published an "Abridgment 
 of the History of the Bible," an edition of the Bible in 
 French, which is called by his name, "Christian Ethics," 
 and a "Catechism." He preached many years at Neuf- 
 chatel. Died in 1747. 
 
 Ostrog, os'tRog, (Constanttnf.,) Duke of, a Polish 
 nobleman, distinguished himself by his hostility to .the 
 Jesuits and to the union of the Greek and Roman 
 Churches. He endeavoured at the Synod of Thorn to 
 effect a union with the Protestants of Poland. He pub- 
 lished in 1 58 1 the old Slavonian translation of the Bible 
 called by his name. Died in 1608. 
 
 Ostrog, (Ccinstantink Vasii.ii, ) was created by 
 Sigismund, King of Poland, grand commander of Lithu- 
 ania, and in 1514 obtained a brilliant victory over the 
 Russians at Orsza. 
 
 Ostrovsky or Ostrowski, os-trof'skee, (A. N.,) a 
 popular Russian dramatist of the present age. He 
 began his literary career about 1850. His works were 
 published in 4 vols., 1859-67. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for July, 186S. 
 
 Osuna. See OssuSa. 
 
 Oswald, os'walt, (Erasmus,) a German mathema- 
 tician and biblical writer, born in Austria in 1511. He 
 was professor of Hebrew at Tubingen and at Freiburg. 
 He translated the New Testament into Hebrew. Died 
 in 1579. 
 
 Os'wald, Saint, King of Northumbria, born in 604 
 or 605 A.n. He defeated Cadwalla, King of Wales, and 
 was killed in a battle against Penda, King of Mercia, in 
 642 A.n. 
 
 Os-jr-man'djr-as, an ancient Egyptian king, to whom 
 the Memnonium and other magnificent structures of 
 Thebes are attributed, is supposed to have flourished 
 about 2000 B.C. His name, according to Strabo, is only 
 a variation of Ismandes. He is also famed for his con- 
 quests over the Bactrians, and his exploits were repre- 
 sented on the walls of an immense temple which he built 
 at Thebes. This edifice, which was esteemed one of the 
 most beautiful of antiquity, contained the first library of 
 which we have any account. 
 
 Ot-a-cill-a Se-ve'ra, (Mahcia,) wife of the Roman 
 emperor M. Julius Philippus, lived about 250 A.n. 
 
 Otfried, ot'fRet, [Lat. Otkri'dus,] a learned German 
 monk of the ninth century, supposed to have been a 
 
 native of Franconia. His poetical version of the Gospels, 
 published about 868, is regarded as one of the most 
 valuable monuments of the old German language. 
 
 Otfridus. See Otfried. 
 
 Other. See Ottar. 
 
 Othman, (Sultans of Turkey.) See Osman. 
 
 Othman-Ibn-Affan, oth'mln' Ib'n if'fin', the third 
 of the caliphs who succeeded Mohammed, was a distant 
 relative and a devoted follower of the prophet. He 
 was invested with the caliphate in 644 A.D. He made 
 extensive conquests in Persia, Africa, and the island of 
 Cyprus, but he rendered himself unpopular by the favours 
 he lavished upon his relatives and friends. Through 
 the intrigues of Ayeshah, widow of the prophet, and a 
 number of disaffected nobles, a conspiracy was formed 
 against his life, and he perished by the hand of Mo- 
 hammed, son of the caliph Aboo-Bekr, in 656 a.d. Oth- 
 man was married successively to two daughters of the 
 prophet Mohammed. 
 
 SeeOcKLEV, " Historyof the Saracens:" Irving, " Mahomet and 
 his Successors;" Wkil. " Geschichte der Chaliten," vol. i. chap. iii. 
 
 Othman-Ibn-Yahya-Alkaisee, (-Alcaisi,) oth'- 
 mSn' ib'n ya'he-a al-ki'see, a Spanish Arab of distin- 
 guished talents and learning, was born at Malaga in the 
 thirteenth century, and rose to be governor of that city. 
 He wrote treatises " De Haereditate" and "DeMensuris 
 Hispanis," and a work entitled " Grammatical Ques- 
 tions," ("Quaesita Grammatica.") Died in 1334. 
 
 O'tho, [Fr. Othon, o't6.N',] (Marcus Salvius,) Em- 
 peror of Rome, born about 32 a.d., was descended from 
 a patrician family. He was for a time an intimate asso- 
 ciate of Nero, until the attachment of the latter for Pop- 
 paea, Otho's wife, caused a rupture between them. He 
 supported Galba in his revolt against Nero, in 68 A.D., 
 but, disappointed that the former did not appoint him 
 his successor, he conspired with the guards, took the 
 life of Galba, and assumed the supreme power. He soon 
 after marched against Caecina, a general of Vitellius, 
 who had been proclaimed emperor by the legions in 
 Germany. His army having been totally defeated near 
 Bebriacum, Otho destroyed himself in April, 69 A.D., 
 and was succeeded by Vitellius. Otho was a man of 
 profligate character. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Otho;" Mrrivai.e, "The Romans 
 under the Empire :" Suetonius, "Otho;" W. E. Weber, "Kaiser 
 M. Salvius Otho," 1815 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 O'tho [Fr. Othon, o't6.N'; Ger. Ot'to] I, the 
 Great, son of Henry I., was born in 912 A.D., and suc- 
 ceeded his father as Emperor of Germany in 936. Soon 
 after his accession he was involved in a protracted war 
 with Boleslaw, Duke of Bohemia, whom he compelled to 
 acknowledge his supremacy, (950.) He repressed the 
 arrogance of the feudal barons, founded numerous bish- 
 oprics, and was zealous in his efforts to propagate Chris- 
 tianity. He defeated Harold, King of the Daji&s, whom 
 he obliged to be baptized and to become tributary to 
 Germany. In 951 he went to the assistance of the Ital- 
 ians against the usurper Berengarius, who had murdered 
 King I.otharius and imprisoned Adelaide, his queen, 
 whom Otho married the same year. He was crowned 
 emperor at Rome by Pope John XII. in 962, and as- 
 sumed the title of Caesar. The pope, having soon after 
 conspired with the enemies of Otho, was deposed by him, 
 and Leo VIII. elected in his place. In 972 his son, 
 Otho II., whom he had previously caused to be crowned 
 at Rome, married the princess Theophania, daughter of 
 Nicephorus Phocas, Emperor of the Fast. Otho died 
 in 973. " He deserves," says Sismondi, " more than 
 Charlemagne the name of Great, because his reign had 
 a much more salutary influence on the nations whom he 
 subjected." Other historians, however, have expressed 
 a different opinion. 
 
 See Vrhse, "Leben Otto des Grossen," 1829; Boehmer, "Re 
 gesta Ottonum :" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Otho (Otto) II., Emperor of Germany, born in 955, 
 succeeded his father, Otho I., in 973. King Loth aire 
 of France, having renewed his pretensions to Lorraine, 
 was opposed and signally defeated by Otho. In 980 he 
 concluded a treaty by which the investiture of Lower 
 Lorraine was given to Charles, the brother of Lothaire, 
 on condition of his doing homage to the German em- 
 
 e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
OTHO 
 
 1718 
 
 OTTERBEIN 
 
 peror. He afterwards attempted the conquest of Cala- 
 bria and Apulia, but was defeated in 982 by the combined 
 forces of the Greeks and Saracens. He died in 983, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Otho III. 
 
 See Dietmar, "Chronicon;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 Otho (Otto) III., Emperor of Germany, son of the 
 preceding, was three years of age at his father's death. 
 He was crowned at Rome by Pope Gregory V. in 996. 
 While he was engaged in a war with the Slavi, Crescen- 
 tius, a Roman patrician, deposed Gregory V. and elected 
 in his stead a Greek under the name of John XVI. Otho 
 advanced into Italy, (998,) defeated Crescentius and put 
 him to death, and restored the former pope. He died, 
 without issue,, in 1002, and was succeeded by Henry II. 
 of Bavaria. 
 
 See Richer, "Chronicon;" F. D. Ring, " Kaiser Otto III.;" 
 Boehmer, " Re gesta Ottonum ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Otho (Otto) IV., Emperor of Germany, born about 
 1 1 74, was the son of Henry the Lion, Duke of Bavaria, 
 and Matilda, daughter of Henry II. of England. He was 
 educated at the court of his uncle, Richard Coeur-de- 
 Lion, whom he assisted in his wars against Philip 
 Augustus of France. In 1197 he was chosen emperor 
 by a portion of the electors, while others declared for 
 Philip, Duke of Suabia, which gave rise to a ten years' 
 war. Pope Innocent III. having favoured the preten- 
 sions of Otho, he was crowned at Rome in 1209, and in 
 return for this favour conceded to the papal see the right 
 of investiture. Otho soon quarrelled with the pope, at 
 whose instigation many German princes and prelates 
 revolted in 1212 and elected Frederick of Hohenstaufen 
 as emperor. Otho was defeated at the great battle of 
 Bouvines, in 1214, by Philip Augustus of France. He 
 died in 1218. 
 
 See Abel, " Konig Philipp," 18=12, and " Kaiser Otto," 1856; Wi- 
 chert, " De Ononis IV. et Philippi Suevi Certaminibus," etc., 1834; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 O'tho or Ot'to, King of Greece, born in 181 5, was 
 a son of Lewis I., King of Bavaria. He was elected 
 king by the Greeks in 1832, and their choice was con- 
 firmed by a treatv between France, England, and Russia. 
 He married Amalia, a daughter of the Grand Duke of 
 Oldenburg, in 1836. His reign was unpopular, and was 
 disturbed by insurrections. He abdicated in October, 
 1862. Died in 1867. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1854, and November, 
 1863. 
 
 O'tho, (Lucius Salvtus,) a Roman commander, the 
 father of the emperor Otho, was a favourite of Tiberius. 
 He was consul in 33 A.D., and afterwards proconsul in 
 Africa. He detected a conspiracy against the life of 
 Claudius. 
 
 Otho, o'to, (Venius,) a Dutch painter, born at Ley- 
 den in 1556, was one of the instructors of Rubens. He 
 worked some years at Rome. Died in 1634. 
 
 Otho of Brandenburg, a German poet, and Mar- 
 grave of Brandenburg, was called Otho with the 
 Arrow. Died in 1304. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Otho (or Otto) von Freisingen, o'to fon fRi'zing'en, 
 one of the early German chroniclers, was the son of 
 Leopold IV., Margrave of Austria, and Agnes, daughter 
 of the emperor Henry IV. In 1137 he was appointed 
 Bishop of Freisingen by his half-brother, the emperor 
 Conrad III. He was the author of a "Chronicle of the 
 World from the Creation to his Own Time," in seven 
 books. The first part is chiefly a compilation from other 
 historians, but the last contains information of great 
 value relative to German history, being drawn from the 
 most authentic sources. He also wrote a " History of 
 the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa." Died in 1 1 58. 
 
 Othon. See Otho. 
 
 O'tis, (Harrison Oray,) an American statesman and 
 orator, born in Boston in October, 1765, was a nephew 
 of James, noticed below, and a son of Samuel Allyne 
 Otis. He graduated at Harvard College in 1783, prac- 
 tised law in Boston, and was elected a member of Con- 
 gress in 1796. He became a leader of the Federal party, 
 and was highly distinguished for his graceful eloquence. 
 He was president of the senate of Massachusetts for 
 
 several years between 1805 and 1812, was a member ol 
 the Hartford Convention in 1814, and was a Senator of 
 the United States from 181 7 to 1822. In 1820 he made 
 a speech in the Senate against the extension of slavery. 
 He retired from public life in 1832. Died in Boston in 
 October, 1848. 
 
 Otis, (James,) a celebrated American orator and 
 patriot, born at West Barnstable, in Massachusetts, 
 on the 5th of February, 1725, was a son of James Otis, 
 a judge and lawyer. He graduated at Harvard College 
 in 1743, studied law, and became a resident of Boston 
 about 1750. He was profoundly versed in classical litera- 
 ture, and in 1760 published an able work entitled " Rudi- 
 ments of Latin Prosody, with a Dissertation on Letters," 
 etc. He acquired distinction in 1761 by an argument 
 against the writs of assistance for which the officers of 
 the customs had applied. Referring to this speech, John 
 Adams said, "Otis was a flame of fire: with a prompti- 
 tude of classical allusions, a depth of research, a rapid 
 summary of historical events and dates, a profusion of 
 legal authorities, a prophetic glance of his eyes into 
 futurity, and a rapid torrent of impetuous eloquence, 
 he hurried away all before him. American independence 
 was then and there bom. Every man of an immense, 
 crowded audience appeared to me to go away, as I did, 
 ready to take up arms against writs of assistance." The 
 judges suspended or evaded the decision of the question. 
 He was elected a member of the legislature in 1762, and 
 became the leader of the popular party. He was a dele- 
 gate to the Congress which met at New York in 1765, 
 and which was called " the Stamp-Act Congress." He 
 wrote several pamphlets in defence of the colonies against 
 the arbitrary measures of the British ministry. In Sep- 
 tember, 1769, he was assaulted by several ruffians of the 
 opposite party, and received a severe wound in the head, 
 in consequence of which he became partially deranged, 
 or permanently disqualified for usefulness. A man named 
 Robinson was sentenced to pay ^2000 for this assault, 
 but the fine was remitted by Otis. He had married Ruth 
 Cunningham, of Boston. He was killed by lightning at 
 Andover in May, 1783. 
 
 See William Tudor. "Life of James Otis," 1823; Francis 
 Bowen, " Lite of James Otis," in Sparks's "American Biography," 
 vol. ii., 2d series; " North American Review" for April, 1823. 
 
 Otis, (Joseph,) an American general of the Revolu- 
 tion, born in 1728, was a brother of the preceding. Died 
 in 1810. 
 
 Otis, (Samuel Allyne,) a younger brother of James 
 Otis, and father of Harrison Gray Otis, noticed above, 
 became a member of Congress in 1788, and was secre- 
 tary of the Senate of the United States for twenty-five 
 years, from 1789 to 1814. Died at Washington in 1S14, 
 aged seventy-three. 
 
 Otranto,DuKE of. See Fouche. 
 
 Ott, ot, (Johann Baptist,) a Swiss Orientalist and 
 antiquary, born in 1661. He became professor of He- 
 brew at Zurich about 1702, and wrote several antiquarian 
 treatises. 
 
 Ott, (Johann Heinrich,) a Swiss divine and Orien- 
 talist, the father of the preceding, was born in the canton 
 of Zurich in 1617. He became professor of eloquence 
 and Hebrew at Zurich about 1654. He wrote a number 
 of works on theology, etc. Died in 1682. 
 
 Ottar, ot'tar, written also Other and Ohther, a Nor- 
 wegian traveller, who flourished in the ninth century, 
 visited the court of Alfred, King of England. Having 
 given to that monarch an account of his voyages to the 
 Arctic regions, it was inserted by him in his Anglo- 
 Saxon version of Orosius. This narrative possesses 
 great interest, as giving the earliest information respect- 
 ing those countries. 
 
 Otter, ot'ter, (Johan,) a Swedish philologist, born at 
 Christianstadt in 1707. After a residence of ten years 
 in Asia and Turkey, he was appointed interpreter for the 
 Oriental tongues at the Royal Library in Paris, and in 
 1746 was made professor of Arabic. He published 
 " Travels in Turkey and Persia." Died in 1748. 
 
 Otterbein, ot'ter-bln', (Philip William,) born at 
 Dillenburg, Germany, in 1726, emigrated in 1752 to 
 Pennsylvania, where he founded the Church of the 
 United Brethren in Christ. Died in 1813. 
 
 a. e, I, 0, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
0TT1N 
 
 1719 
 
 OUDINOT 
 
 Ottin, o'taN', (Auguste Louis Marie,) a French 
 sculptor, born in Paris in 181 1. He gained the grand 
 prize in 1836, and a medal of the first class in 1846. 
 
 Ottinger. See Okttinger. 
 
 Ott'ley, (William Young,) an English artist, con- 
 notesear, and able writer on art, born in 1771. He re- 
 sided for many years in Italy, where he made a large and 
 choice collection of paintings and engravings. After his 
 return he published a superb work entitled "The Italian 
 School of Design ; being Fac-Similes of Original Draw- 
 ings by Eminent Italian Painters and Sculptors," (3 vols., 
 180S-23.) In 1833 ne became keeper of the prints in 
 the British Museum. He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society and of the Society of Antiquaries. Among his 
 chief works is " An Inquiry into the Origin and Early 
 History of Engraving on Copper and on Wood," (2 
 vols., 1816.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Ottmer, ot'mer, (Karl Thkodok,) an eminent Ger- 
 man architect, born at Brunswick in 1S00. In 1824 he 
 completed the new theatre at Berlin, and a few years 
 later the Academy of Singing in the same place. His 
 greatest work is the palace of William, Duke of Bruns- 
 wick, finished in 1837, an edifice of great size and re- 
 markable elegance, at Brunswick. Died in 1843. 
 
 Otto, the German for Otho, which see. 
 
 Ot'to, (Carl,) a Danish medical writer, born in Saint 
 Thomas, West Indies, in 1795. He became professor 
 of pharmacy at Copenhagen in 1840. 
 
 Ot'to, (Everard.) a German jurist, born at Hamm 
 in 1685. He published "Treasury of Roman Law," 
 ("Thesaurus Juris Romani," 4 vols., 1725-29.) Died 
 at Bremen in 1756. 
 
 Otto, (Friedrich Julian,) a German savant, born in 
 Saxony in 1809. He was appointed successively pro- 
 fessor of chetuistry (1835) and member of the College 
 of Health at Brunswick, (1836.) He published a "Manual 
 for the Rational Practice of Agriculture," (1849-50,) and 
 several chemical works. 
 
 Otto, o'to', (Louis Guillaume,) Comte de Mosloy, 
 (mo'lwa',) a distinguished diplomatist, born in the 
 duchy of Baden in 1754. Having studied at Strasburg, 
 he accompanied the French minister Luzerne to the 
 United States in 1779. After his return he was sent, in 
 1800, as minister-plenipotentiary to London, and in 1809 
 was appointed by Napoleon to negotiate his marriage 
 with the archduchess Maria Louisa, having previously 
 been made Count of Mosloy and grand officer of the 
 legion of honour. In 1813 he became minister of state. 
 Died in 1817. 
 
 See Thikks, "History of the Consulate and the Empire;" 
 Bir.NnN, " Histoire de France sous Napoleon." 
 
 Ottocar, ot'to-kaR', (Ottokar,) II, King of Bohemia, 
 was a son of Wenceslas I., and began to reign in 1253. 
 He obtained Austria and Styria by marriage, and extended 
 his dominions from the Baltic to the Adriatic. His 
 ambition to be emperor involved him in a war with 
 Rudolph of Hapsburg. He was killed in battle in 1278. 
 
 Ottokar or Ottocar, ot'to-kaR', [Lat. Oitoca'rus,] 
 a German poet and chronicler, born in Styria about 
 1250. He wrote, between 1300 and 1316, a rhymed 
 chronicle of Austria and Styria. 
 
 See T. Jacobi, " De Ottocaro Chronico Austriaco." 
 
 Ottokar, (Amadeus,) the assumed name of Georg 
 Friedrich Daumek. See Daumer. 
 
 Ottokar von Horneck. See Horneck, von. 
 
 Ot'way, (Sir ROBERT,) an English admiral, born in 
 1772 ; died in 1846. 
 
 Otway, (Thomas,) a celebrated English dramatist, 
 born in Sussex in 1651.' Having been unsuccessful as 
 an actor, he applied himself to dramatic writing, and in 
 1675 published his tragedy of "Alcibiades." This was 
 soon followed by " Don Carlos," which was received 
 with great favour. In 1677 he obtained from the Earl 
 of Plymouth a situation as cornet of dragoons in the 
 army of Flanders ; but, soon becoming dissatisfied with 
 military life, he again gave his attention to the drama. 
 In 1680 the tragedy of " The Orphan" appeared, and in 
 1682 his " Venice Preserved." These two are charac- 
 terized by Hallam as " having a deep pathos, a dramatic 
 eloquence rapid and flowing, and sometimes very grace- 
 ful poetry ;" and he adds, " The ' Venice Preserved' is 
 
 more frequently represented than any tragedy after those 
 of Shakspeare." Among Otway's other plays we may 
 cite " Cains Marius," and a comedy called " The Soldier's 
 Fortune." He also translated and remodelled the " Titus 
 and Berenice" of Racine, and Moliere's " Fourberies de 
 Scapin." He died in 1685, in a state of extreme desti- 
 tution ; and some accounts state that his death was 
 caused by hunger. 
 
 See Johnson. " Lives of the Poets," and " Life of Otway," pre- 
 fixed to the edition of his works, 1813; Campbell, "Specimens of 
 the British Poets." 
 
 Oudenaerde. See Audenaerde. 
 
 Oudendorp, van, vin ow'den-doRp', (Frans,) an 
 eminent Dutch philologist, born at Leyden in 1696, was 
 for many years professor of history and rhetoric in his 
 native city. He published excellent editions of Julius 
 Obsequens, Lucan, Suetonius, and other classics, and 
 was the author of a treatise " On the Use of Ancient 
 Inscriptions." Died in 1761. 
 
 Oudet, oo'di', (Jacques Josf.™,) a French officer, 
 born at Meynal in 1773, was a zealous republican. He 
 was an active member of the secret society called PUihi- 
 delphes. He was killed at Wagram in 1809. 
 
 See Nodier, " Histoire des Soci^tes secretes," 1814. 
 
 Oudin, 00'daN', (Casimir,) a French bibliographer, 
 born at Mezieres in 1638. He published a "Commen- 
 tary on Ancient Ecclesiastical Writers," and several 
 other works. Died in 1717. 
 
 Oudin, (Francois,) a learned French Jesuit, born in 
 Champagne in 1673. He wrote a number of elegant 
 Latin poems, and theological and biographical treatises. 
 Died in 1752. 
 
 Oudine, oo'de'na', (Eugene Andre,) an eminent 
 French sculptor and engraver of medals, born in Paris 
 in 1810. He gained the grand prize of Rome in 1831, a 
 medal of the first class in 1839 for engraving, and a 
 medal of the first class for sculpture in 1843. Among 
 his engraved works is a medal entitled the "Apotheosis 
 of Napoleon I." 
 
 Oudinet, oo'de'nl', (Marc Antoine,) a French an- 
 tiquary, born at Rheims in 1643, was appointed keeper 
 of the medals in the Royal Cabinet in Paris. In 1 701 
 he became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. 
 He published several valuable treatises on medals. Died 
 in 1712. 
 
 Oudinot, oo'de'no', (Charles Nicolas Victor,) 
 Due de Reggio, a general, a son of the following, was 
 born at Bar-le-Duc in 1791. He served as captain in 
 the Russian campaign, (1812,) and became a marechal- 
 de-camp in 1822. He commanded the French army sent 
 in 1849 to Rome to protect the pope against his subjects. 
 Having occupied the city after a short siege, July, 1849, 
 he returned to France. He opDosed Louis Napoleon in 
 the coup d'itat of December 2, 1851, after which he was 
 not employed in public service. Died in 1863. 
 
 Oudinot, (Nicolas Charles,) Due de Reggio, (rl'- 
 zho',) a distinguished French general, was born at Bar- 
 sur-Ornain in 1767. He obtained the rank of colonel 
 in 1793, and resisted about 10,000 Austrians with one 
 regiment for eight hours in 1794. For this service he 
 was raised to the rank of a general of brigade. He 
 took Treves in 1794, and received five wounds in an 
 action near Mannheim .in October, 1795. In 1799 he 
 became a general of division, and chief of the staff in 
 the army of Massena, under whom he nerved at the 
 siege of Genoa, in 1800. Having received command of 
 ten battalions of grenadiers in 1805. he performed a 
 prominent part in the capture of Vienna, and took a 
 bridge over the Danube which was defended by about 
 one hundred and eighty pieces of cannon. He rendered 
 important services at Austerlitz in 1805, and gained a 
 victory at Ostrolenka in 1807. At the battle of Fried- 
 land, June, 1807, he resisted for a number of hours an 
 army of about 75,000 Russians, and gave time to the 
 rest of the French army to gaiirthe victory. He main- 
 tained his reputation in 1809 at Landshut, Lobau, Vienna, 
 and Wagram. He was raised to the rank of marshal 
 of France in July, 1809, and received the title of Due 
 de Reggio in the same year. In 1813 he served at Lut- 
 ten and Bautzen, and was defeated by Bernadotte at 
 Gross- Beeren. During the Hundred Days he adhered 
 
 ■ HI j'"4, I I y , (l I HI III, IHHI.', 1 Ilk I V.IIIV.L 11 V.,11. I >tVi 19 \ ' I W.T.1 " 1 ' I V 1 V- I 1 . I^UIIUC 111V, I HIIHIIHI 1. S il > .1 IIL 1UIIILI V. U 
 
 task; casj; %hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; ^trilled; sass; th as in this. (J^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
OUDOT 
 
 1720 
 
 OVERBECK 
 
 to Louis XVIII., who gave him a high command in 
 1815. He commanded a corps of the army which in- 
 vaded Spain and took Madrid in 1823. Died in 1847. 
 
 See " Victoires et ConqnStes des Francais;" L. DH LomiInie, 
 " M. le Marechal Oudinot, par un Homme de Rien," 1844 ; J. NoL- 
 let-Fabbrt, " Histoire de N. C Oudinot," 1S50; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GeneVale." 
 
 Oudot, oo'do', (Francois Julif.n,) a French jurist, 
 born at Ornans (Doubs) in 1804. He obtained a chair 
 of civil law in Paris about 1837. 
 
 Oudry, oo'dne', (Jean Baptiste,) a French artist, 
 particularly distinguished as a painter of animals, was 
 born in Paris in 1686. He studied under Largilliere, 
 and attained considerable skill in portrait and historical 
 painting, but he subsequently devoted himself exclu- 
 sively to hunting-scenes and animal pieces. He was 
 patronized by the King of Denmark and Louis XV. of 
 France ; and one of his best pictures represents the latter 
 on horseback with a dozen nobles of his court. Oudry 
 was also a skilful engraver, and furnished one hundred 
 and fifty designs for the splendid edition of La Fontaine's 
 Fables published in 1755. Died in 1755. 
 
 See Dumesnil, "Le Peintre-Graveur Francais." 
 
 Ouel le Bon, the French for Howel the Good, 
 which see. 
 
 Oughtred, ot'red, (Wiu.iam,) an English divine and 
 eminent mathematician, born in Buckinghamshire in 
 1573. He wrote "The Description and Use of the 
 Double Horizontal Dyall," " Clavis Mathematical' and 
 a "Treatise on Trigonometry." He is styled by Fuller 
 " the prince of mathematicians." Died in 1660. 
 
 Oultreman, d', dootR'mdN', [Lat. Oultreman'nus,] 
 (Henri,) a Flemish writer, born at Valenciennes in 1546, 
 was the author of a " History of the Town and County 
 of Valenciennes from its Origin to the End of the Six- 
 teenth Century." Died in 1605. 
 
 Oultreman, d', (Pierre,) a historian, a son of the 
 preceding, was born at Valenciennes in 1591. He wrote 
 a "Life of Peter the Hermit," (1632,) and a History 
 of Baldwin and Henry, Emperors of Constantinople, 
 ("Constantinopolis Belgica," etc., 1643.) Died in 1656. 
 
 Oultremannus. See Oultreman. 
 
 Ousel, (Philipp.) See Oisel. 
 
 Ouseley, ooz'lee, (Sir Frederick Arthur Gore,) 
 an English musician, a son of Sir Gore Ouseley, noticed 
 below, was born in London about 1825. He was noted 
 for the precocity of his musical genius, and composed 
 several anthems. In 1855 he was appointed professor 
 of music at Oxford. 
 
 Ouseley, ooz'lee, (Gideon,) an Irish Methodist min- 
 ister, born at Dunmore in 1762. He laboured as a mis- 
 sionary among the Irish, and wrote against popery. 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 Ouseley or Ousely, (Sir Gore,) a diplomatist, born 
 in Ireland in 1769. He was sent as ambassador to 
 Persia about 1810, and published " Biographical Notices 
 of Persian Poets," (1846.) Died in 1844. 
 
 Ouseley or Ousely, (Sir William,) Viscount Clara- 
 mont, an Orientalist, brother of the preceding, was born 
 in 1771. He published "Travels in Various Coun- 
 tries of the East, more particularly Persia," (1831.) 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Outhier, oo'te-4', (Reginald or Renauld,) a French 
 astronomer, borrTTn Poligni in 1694. In 1736 he accom- 
 panied MaufJertuis and other savants on a scientific 
 expedition to Lapland, of which he afterwards published 
 an interesting account. He was a corresponding mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Sciences, and member of the 
 Royal Society of Berlin. Died in 1774. 
 
 Outram, oo'tram, (Sir James,) an English general, 
 born in Derbyshire in 1803, was a son of Benjamin 
 Outram, an eminent civil engineer, who died in 1805. 
 He went to India about 1820, served in the war against 
 Dost Mohammed, and .became British resident at Hy- 
 derabad and Lucknow. In 1856 he was appointed 
 commander of a successful expedition against Persia. 
 During the Sepoy mutiny of 1857 he returned to India, 
 and superseded Havelock as commander of the army 
 at Lucknow. (See Havelock.) Died in 1863. 
 
 Outram, written also Owtram, (William,) a learned 
 English theologian, born in Derbyshire in 1625. He 
 
 became prebendary of Westminster in 1670. He was 
 versed in rabbinical learning and in the writings of the 
 Fathers. His chief work is a treatise on sacrifices, "De 
 Sacrificiis Libri duo," (1677.) Died in 1679. 
 
 Ouvarof. See Oovarof. 
 
 Ouvrard, oo'vroV, (Gabriel Julien,) a French 
 financier, born near Clisson in 1770. He was a bold 
 and successful speculator, and enriched himself by his 
 operations as contractor during the war of the Revo- 
 lution. He was prosecuted by Napoleon I., and im- 
 prisoned some years. Died in 1846. 
 
 See his autobiographic " Menioires sur ma Vie," 3 vols., 1826; 
 " Biographie Universeile." 
 
 Ouvrard, (Rene.) a French ecclesiastic, born at 
 Chinon about 1620, published treatises on music, the- 
 ology, and mathematics. He was intimate with Amauld 
 and other writers of Port-Royal. Died in 1694. 
 
 Ouvrie, oo'vRe-4', (Pierre Justin,) a French land- 
 scape-painter, born in Paris in 1806. 
 
 Ouwater, van, vSn ow'wa'ter, (Albert,) a Dutch 
 painter, born at Haarlem in 1444, was one of the first 
 artists in Holland who painted in oil. Among his mas- 
 ter-pieces are "The Resurrection of Lazarus" and "The 
 Descent from the Cross." The latter was warmly 
 eulogized by Albert Diirer. Died in 1515. 
 
 See Pn. Kington, "Dictionary of Painters;" Descamps, "Vies 
 des Peiutres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Ovalle, de, da o-val'yi, (Alfonso,) sometimes writ- 
 ten Ovaglie, a Jesuit, of Spanish extraction, born in 
 Chili in 1601. He published in 1646 a "Historical Ac- 
 count of the Kingdom of Chili and the Jesuit Missions 
 in that Country." Died in 1651. 
 
 Ovando, o-van'do, (Nicolas,) a Spanish officer, and 
 commander of the order of Alcantara, succeeded Boba- 
 dilla as governor of Hispaniola in 1 501. While his rule 
 over the Spanish colonists was marked by justice and 
 kindness, he has incurred lasting reproach by the cruel- 
 ties he perpetrated on the Indians, a great number of 
 whom were massacred at Xaragua by his orders. He 
 also treated Columbus with great injustice, and availed 
 himself of every opportunity of thwarting his designs. 
 He was recalled to Spain in 1508, and succeeded by 
 Diego Columbus, son of the celebrated admiral. Died 
 in 15 18, aged about fifty-eight. 
 
 See Charlevoix, "Histoire de Saint- Domingue ;" Oviedo, 
 " Cronica de las Indias." 
 
 O'ver-all, (John,) a learned English prelate, born in 
 1559. He rose through several preferments to be Bishop 
 of Norwich in 1619. His principal work is entitled 
 "The Convocation-Book," in which he maintains the 
 divine origin of government. Bishop Overall was es- 
 teemed the best scholastic divine of his time in England. 
 He was the friend and correspondent of Grotius and 
 Gerard Vossius. Died in 1619. 
 
 Overbeck, o'ver-beV, (Frikdrich,) one of the most 
 illustrious German painters of the nineteenth century, 
 was born at Lubeck in 1789. After having studied for 
 a time at Vienna, in 1810 he visited Rome, where, with 
 Cornelius, Schnorr, and other German artists, he became 
 one of the founders of what has been styled the roman- 
 tic or symbolic school of painting in Germany. Among 
 his earliest productions were the frescos at the villa of 
 the consul-general Bartholdy, representing "Joseph sold 
 into Captivity," and "The Seven Years of Famine." In 
 1817 he adorned the villa of Marquis Massimi with five 
 large frescos taken from Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered." 
 His magnificent fresco at Assisi, representing "The 
 Miracle of Roses of Saint Francis," is esteemed his 
 master-piece in that department. Among his best oil- 
 paintings are "The Entrance of Christ into Jerusalem," 
 in the Marienkirche at Lubeck, "Christ on the Mount 
 of Olives," "The Death of Saint Joseph," and the large 
 picture in the Stadelschen Institut at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Main, entitled "The Influence of Christianity in the 
 Arts." He has also produced a number of elegant de- 
 signs, among which are "Forty Illustrations from the 
 Gospels," since engraved by Keller, Bartoccini, and 
 others. Regarding art as the handmaid of religion, 
 Overbeck has almost exclusively chosen scriptural sub- 
 jects, and his works are characterized by deep devotional 
 feeling, simplicity, and touching sweetness of expression. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, 5, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
OFERBEEK 
 
 1721 
 
 OWEN 
 
 According to some writers, Overbeek's influence and 
 reputation in Germany have considerably declined of 
 latter time. Died in 1869. 
 
 SeeRACZYNStci, " Histoire del' Art Allemandmoderne :" Nagi.er, 
 ineines Kunstler-Lexikon ;" ISrockhaus, " ConversaUons- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Overbeek, van, vin o'ver-bak', (Bonaventure,) a 
 Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam in 1660. He went 
 to Rome, and made numerous designs of the antiquities 
 of that city. Having returned to Holland, he died in 
 1706, leaving a work entitled " Reliquiae antiquae Urbis 
 Roma;," (1707-09.) 
 
 See Dkscamps, *' Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc 
 
 Overbury, o'ver-ber-e, (Sir Tho.mas,) an English 
 author and courtier, born at Compton-Scprfen, Warwick- 
 shire, in 1581. By his talents and learning he acquired 
 influence with Carr, who became the favourite of James 
 I. and was created Earl of Somerset. For advising 
 against the marriage of Carr with the infamous Countess 
 of* Essex, Overbury was committed to the Tower, (1613.) 
 After a confinement of several months, he was poisoned 
 by order of Somerset and his wife, who were convicted 
 of the crime but pardoned. He left a popular poem 
 called "The Wile," (1614,) and a prose work entitled 
 "Characters," which is praised for wit and ingenuity. 
 "'The Fair and Happy Milkmaid,' often quoted," says 
 Hallam, "is the best of his characters." 
 
 See K. Y. Rimbaui.t, "Life of Sir Thomas Overbury," 1856; 
 Gardiner. "History of England from 1603 to 1616," ch. xi. ; "Re- 
 trospective Review, vol. ii., (1820.) 
 
 Overskov, o'verskov', (Thomas,) a Danish drama- 
 tist, born at Copenhagen in 1798. He produced nume- 
 rous comedies and operas ; also a " History of the Danish 
 Theatre," (1854-56.) 
 
 O'ver-stone, (Samuel Jones Loyd,) first Baron, an 
 English banker, born in London in 1796. He was raised 
 to the peerage in 1S50. He had previously gained some 
 distinction as a financier. 
 
 Overweg, o'ver-weo', (Adolf,) a German traveller, 
 born at Hamburg in 1822. He was associated with Mr. 
 Richardson and Dr. Barth in a journey of exploration 
 to Lake Tchad, in Africa. They left Tripoli in March, 
 1850, and Overweg, with Dr. Barth, reached Lake Tchad 
 in 1S51. He launched a boat on the lake and visited 
 the islands in it. He died of fever at Kuka, in Central 
 Africa, in September, 1852. 
 
 Ov'id, [Lat. Ovid'iiis; It. Ovidio, o-vee'de-o ; Fr. 
 Ovidk, o'ved',] or, more fully, Pub'lius Ovid'ius 
 Na'so, a popular Roman poet, was born at Sulmo, 
 (Sulmona,) about ninety miles east of Rome, in 43 B.C. 
 He studied rhetoric in Rome under Arellius Fuscus and 
 l'orcius Latro, and made himself master of Greek at 
 Athens. His poetical genius was manifested in early 
 youth, and afterwards diverted him from the practice of 
 law, which, in compliance with his father's will, he began 
 to study. He held, however, several civil or judicial 
 offices at Rome, and became one of the Decemviri. He 
 sought and obtained the acquaintance of Propertius, 
 Horace, Macer, and other poets. He also enjoyed for a 
 time the favour of the emperor Augustus. Among his 
 earliest productions were three books of "Amores." 
 Before the age of fifty he had published "The Art of 
 Love," (" Ars Amatoria,") " Medea," a tragedy, and 
 " Heroic Epistles," (" Ileroides.") He had also nearly 
 finished his celebrated "Metamorphoses," ("Metamor- 
 phoseon Libri XV.,") wiiich display great poetical 
 genius. In the year 8 A.D. he was suddenly banished 
 by Augustus to Tomi, on the Euxine, near the mouth 
 of the Danube. The reason assigned for this penal 
 measure was the publication of his immodest poem 
 "The Art of Love ;" but this is believed to have lieen 
 a mere pretext, as that poem was published about ten 
 years earlier. Ovid in his later writings alludes to some 
 offence which he mysteriously conceals, and for which 
 he admitted that he deserved to suffer. This question 
 appears to have baffled the ingenuity and curiosity of 
 scholars. He has been censured for the abject terms 
 in which he petitioned Augustus for a pardon, which 
 was inexorably refused. He died at Tomi in 18 A.D., 
 which was also the year of Livy's death. His " Me- 
 dea," which some ancient critics esteemed his most 
 perfect work, is lost. During his exile lie wrote, besides 
 
 other minor poems, "Twelve Books of Fasti," ("Fasto- 
 rum Libri XII.,") six of which have come down to us. 
 This is a poetical Roman calendar, and has historical 
 value as well as literary merit. Ovid was thrice married, 
 and divorced his first wife and his second. He also loved 
 and courted a woman of high rank, whom he celebrated 
 under the fictitious name of Corinna. Some writers 
 suppose she was Julia the daughter, or Julia the grand- 
 daughter, of the emperor Augustus. The best English 
 translation of Ovid is " Ovid's Metamorphoses, in Fifteen 
 Books, translated by the Most Kminent Hands," London, 
 1717. Among these translators were Dryden, Addison, 
 Congreve, and Garth. 
 
 See Masson, "Vita P. Ovidii Nasonis," 1708; C. Rosmini, 
 "Vitadi Publio Ovidio Naso," 1789; Vk.lknavk, "Vie d'Ovide," 
 Paris, 1809; Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary.** 
 
 Ovide. See Ovid. 
 
 Ovidio. See Ovid. 
 
 Ovidius. See Ovid. 
 
 Oviedo, de, da, o-ve-a'DO, (Andres,) a Spanish 
 Jesuit and missionary, born at Ilhescas. He was sent 
 to Abyssinia about 1556. Died in 1577. 
 
 Oviedo y Valdes, de, da o-vea'DO e val-d? s', (Gon- 
 SAi.o Fernandez,) a celebrated Spanish historian, born 
 at Madrid in 1478, became at an early age one of the 
 pages at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1513 
 he visited the West Indies, where he resided many 
 years, and obtained, among other important offices, that 
 of historiographer of the Indies. His principal work is 
 entitled "General History of the West Indies," (tst vol., 
 1535,) which, though containing many errors, displays 
 extensive learning and has been of great value to sub- 
 sequent historians. The last volume of it remains in 
 manuscript He also published a " Treatise on the 
 Natural History of the Indies," and wrote a valuable 
 work, which is still in manuscript, entitled " Quinqua- 
 genas," or Fifty Dialogues. Died in 1557. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature," vol. i. : Pres- 
 cott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico,"vol. ii._ book iv., and 
 his " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. part i. 
 
 Ovington, uv'ing-ton, ? (John,) an English ecclesi- 
 astic and traveller, was chaplain to King James II. In 
 1689 he sailed to the East Indies, and spent several years 
 in Surat. He published in 1698 his " Voyage to Surat 
 in the Years 1689-93," etc., which was translated into 
 Fiench. 
 
 Owen. See Goronwy-Owen. 
 
 O'wen, (David Dale,) brother of Robert Dale, no- 
 ticed below, was born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1807. 
 In 1848 he was appointed to conduct the geological 
 survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota. The result 
 of his observations was published in a quarto volume, 
 with maps and illustrations, (1852.) He was appointed 
 in 1857 State geologist of Arkansas. Died in i860. 
 
 O'wen, (Gf.oroe,) an English physician, born in Wor- 
 cestershire, took his degree in 1527. He became phy- 
 sician to Henry VIII. Died in 1558. 
 
 O'wen, (Henry,) a learned Welsh divine and theo- 
 logical writer, bom in Merionethshire about 1716. He 
 published, among other works, " Remarks on the Four 
 Gospels," and "An Introduction to Hebrew Criticism." 
 Died in 1795. 
 
 Owen, J Lat. Audoe'nus,! (John,) one of the best 
 Latin poets of modern times, was born in Caernar- 
 vonshire, in Wales, about 1560. His " Epigrammata," 
 published in 1612, are remarkable for elegance and 
 correctness of language and caustic wit. They have 
 been translated into several languages. Died in 1622. 
 
 See Wood, " Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Owen, (John,) an excellent English nonconformist 
 divine and Puritan, born at Stadham, in Oxfordshire, in 
 1616, was a son of Henry Owen, a minister. He was 
 educated at Queen's College, Oxford, which he quitted 
 about 1637. After that date he was chaplain to Sir 
 Philip Dormer and to Lord Lovelace. He became a 
 resident of London in 1641 or 1642, and published his 
 "Display of Arminianism," (1642.) In the civil war he 
 was a constant adherent of the popular cause. He mar- 
 ried early, was presented to the living of Coggeshall 
 about 1644, and united himself in fellowship with the 
 Independents. He published " Salus Electorum, San- 
 guis Jesu ; or the Death of Death in the Death of Christ." 
 
 € as A: c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as »; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
OWEN 
 
 1722 
 
 OXENSTIERN 
 
 In January, 1649, he preached a sermon before the House 
 of Commons on the day after the execution of Charles I. 
 This sermon was characterized by a more liberal and 
 tolerant spirit than that which prevailed in his time. He 
 was appointed chaplain to Cromwell in 1649, and Dean 
 of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1651. He was vice-chan- 
 cellor of the University of Oxford about five years, 1652- 
 56. In 1655 he wrote a work against Socinianism, called 
 "Vindicise Evangelicae." After the restoration of 1660, 
 Owen preached in London for a number of years, and 
 wrote many works, among which are an " Exposition of 
 the Epistle to the Hebrews," (1668,) a "Discourse on 
 the Holy Spirit," (1674,) and "The Doctrine of Justifi- 
 cation," (1677.) Died in 1683. 
 
 " As a theological thinker and writer," says the Rev. 
 Andrew Thomson, "he holds his own distinctly-defined 
 place among those Titanic intellects with which his age 
 abounded. Surpassed by Baxter in point and pathos, 
 by Howe in imagination and in the higher philosophy, 
 ... he is unrivalled in his power of unfolding the rich 
 meanings of Scripture. In his writings he was pre- 
 eminently the great theologian, and in his practical 
 counsels the Nestor, of the Puritans." (" Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica.") 
 
 See W. Ormk, " Life of John Owen," 1S20 ; Rev. A. Thomson, 
 "Life of John Owen," new edition, 1856; " Biographia Britannica , 
 Wood, "Athena? Oxonienses;" Wilson, "Dissenting Churches;" 
 Birnkt, " H story of his Own Times ;" Ai.libonh, Dictionary of 
 Authors:" "North British Review" for November, 1851. 
 
 Owen, (John,) an English divine, born in London 
 about 1765. He was one of the earliest members, and 
 the principal secretary during his lifetime, of the Bible 
 Society. He wrote, among other treatises, " The Chris- 
 tian Monitor for the Last Days," and a " Vindication 
 of the Bible Society." Died in 1822. 
 
 Owen, (Lkwis,) a Welsh theologian, born in Merion- 
 ethshire in 1572. He wrote a book against the Jesuits, 
 "Speculum Jesuiticum," (1629.) 
 
 Owen, (Richard,) an English zoologist, anatomist, 
 and palaeontologist of great eminence, was born at Lan- 
 caster in 1804. He studied medicine, and entered the 
 University of Edinburgh in 1824. In 1825 he became 
 a pupil of John Abernethy, at Saint Bartholomew's 
 Hospital, London. Through the influence of Abernethy 
 he was appointed assistant curator of the Hunterian 
 Museum of the College of Surgeons. He expended 
 immense labour in the production of a catalogue of this 
 collection, and succeeded Clift as curator of the museum. 
 He published an excellent "Memoir on the Pearly Nau- 
 tilus, (Nautilus Pompilius,") (1832,) and a "Descriptive 
 and Illustrated Catalogue of the Physiological Series 
 of Comparative Anatomy in the Hunterian Museum," (5 
 vols., 1833-40.) He married in 1835 a daughter of Mr. 
 Clift, above mentioned. About 1836 he succeeded Sir 
 Charles Bell as Hunterian professor at the Royal Col- 
 lege of Surgeons, and gave a series of lectures on com- 
 parative anatomy, which were published in 1843. He 
 contributed numerous treatises or monographs on phys- 
 iology and anatomy to the "Transactions of the Zoo- 
 logical Society" and the "Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and 
 Physiology." Professor Owen has rendered important 
 services to palaeontology, and has exhibited remarkable 
 skill in the anatomy and reconstruction of extinct ani- 
 mals, such as the Cheirotherium, the Glyptodon, Mylo- 
 don, and Plesiosaurus. He discovered a gigantic fossil 
 bird, the Dinornis. Among his chief works are " Odon- 
 tography," (2 vols., 1840,) a " History of British Fossil 
 Mammals and Birds," (1846,) and "On the Archetype 
 and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton," (1848.) 
 He received the royal medal in 1848, and the Copley 
 medal of the Royal Society in 1851. In 1856 he ceased 
 to be Hunterian professor, and became director of the 
 natural history departments of the British Museum. 
 He is one of the eight foreign associates of the French 
 Institute. In addition to the works above named, he 
 has published a treatise " On the Nature of Limbs," 
 (1849,) "On Parthenogenesis," (1849,) and "On the 
 Anatomy of Vertebrates," (3 vols., 1866-68.) He was 
 one of the first who used the microscope in the investi- 
 gation of the structure of animals, and was the first who 
 employed the word "homology" or"homologue" in com- 
 parative anatomy. He admits the mutability of species, 
 
 but opposes the Darwinian theory of Natural Selection, 
 for which he substitutes his " hypothesis of Derivation." 
 He says, " Every species changes, in time, by virtue of 
 inherent tendencies thereto. ' Natural Selection' holds 
 that no such change can take place without the influence 
 of altered external circumstances educing or selecting 
 such change." ("On the Anatomy of Vertebrates," 3d 
 vol. chap, xl.) Humboldt is said to have expressed the 
 opinion that Owen was the greatest anatomist of his 
 age. He has been styled "the Cuvier of England" and 
 "the Newton of natural history." 
 
 See a review of his writings in the " London Quarterly Review" 
 for April, 1S52, and Ju'y. 1853: "British Quarterly Review" for 
 July, i860 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for January, 1856; " North British 
 Review" for May, 1S58. 
 
 Owen, (ROBERT,) a socialist and philanthropist, born 
 at Newton, in Wales, in 1771, was a son of poor parents. 
 He married about 1800 a daughter of David Dale, who 
 owned cotton-mills at New Lanark, on the Clyde. Owen 
 managed these mills for a time with success, and gave 
 much attention to the comfort of the operatives and the 
 education of their children. He published in 1812 a 
 " New View of Society," and afterwards " The Book of 
 the New Moral World," in which he advocated a modi- 
 fied system of community of property. About 1824 he 
 purchased a large tract at New Harmony, Indiana, and 
 there tested by experiment his socialist theory, which 
 was entirely unsuccessful. He returned to England in 
 1827, and continued to propagate his projects of reform 
 by lectures and writings. His doctrines were adopted 
 bv a large number of people, who were called Owenites. 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 See "Robert Owen and his Social Philosophy," by W. L. Sar- 
 gant, London, i860; "Life of Robert Owen," (by F. A. Packard.) 
 Philadelphia. 1866; "Biographical Sketches," by H. Martinkai 1 ; 
 Rrybauo. " Etudes sur lea Refnrmateurscontemporains:" " Robert 
 Owen the Founder of Socialism in England," i860, by Arthur Tohn 
 Booth ; " Edinburgh Review" for October, i8ig : " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for December, 1830 ; " Westminster Review" for October, i860; 
 
 Owen, (Rohkrt Dai.f.,) a distinguished political and 
 miscellaneous writer, son of the preceding, was born at 
 New Lanark, Scotland, in 1804. He came at an early 
 age to America, settled in Indiana, and was elected to 
 Congress by the Democratic party in 1843. He was 
 charge-d'affaires to Naples in 1853. He has published 
 "New Views of Society," (1825,) "Hints on Public 
 Architecture," (1849,) " Footfalls on the Boundaries of 
 another World," (1859,) "The Wrong of Slavery, the 
 Right of Emancipation," etc., (1864,) and "Beyond the 
 Breakers," a novel, (1870.) 
 
 See the " North British Review" for February, 1861. 
 
 Owen, (Thomas,) an English judge, born in Shrop- 
 shire, gained a high reputation as judge of the common 
 pleas. Died in 1598. His Reports were published in 
 1656. 
 
 Owen, (William.) an able English painter of por- 
 traits and history, born in Shropshire in 1769. He was 
 patronized by the prince-regent, afterwards George IV. 
 Died in 1824. 
 
 Owen Glendower. See Glendower. 
 
 Owen Meredith. See Bui.wer. 
 
 Owenson. See Morgan, Lady. 
 
 Owtram, (William.) See Outram. 
 
 Ox'en-ford, (John,) an English dramatist and trans- 
 lator, born near London in 1812. Among his original 
 dramas are "My Fellow-Clerk," (1835,) and "A Day 
 Well Spent," (1836.) Hetranslated MoliereV'Tartuffe," 
 and the " Conversations of Goethe," by Eckermann, and 
 other works, from the German. 
 
 Oxenham, ox'en-ain, (John,) an English seaman, 
 served under Sir Francis Drake in 1572. He soon after 
 sailed with one ship for the eastern shore of Darien, 
 and crossed over to Panama and the Pearl Islands, where 
 he was taken and put to death by the Spaniards. 
 
 See J. Barrow, " Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen 
 Elizabeth's Reign," 1845. 
 
 Oxenstiern, oks'en-stern', or Oxenstierna, oks'en- 
 shek'na, (Axel,) Count, chancellor of Sweden, and one 
 of the greatest statesmen of the seventeenth century or 
 of modern times, was born at Fano, in Upland, June 
 16, 1583. He was educated at Jena and Wittenberg. 
 At the age of twenty-six he was chosen a senator, after 
 
 a, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
OXENSTIERN 
 
 1723 
 
 PACCA 
 
 having been employed in important negotiations. In 
 161 1 Gustavus Adolphus appointed him chancellor of 
 Sweden, or prime minister. The prudence, zeal, and 
 profound combinations of Oxenstiern contributed greatly 
 to the success of the Swedish hero. After Gustavus 
 was killed, in 1632, the chancellor was invested with full 
 power by the senate, and prosecuted the war against 
 the Emperor of Germany. He was recognized as the 
 head of the Protestant league, which gained several vic- 
 tories under his direction. During the minority of Queen 
 Christina he governed Sweden with ability, restored the 
 finances to good order, and patronized learning. He 
 wa> prime minister after Christina began to reign, (1645,) 
 and strenuously opposed her abdication. He died in 
 August, 1654. Oxenstiern was the author of the often - 
 quoted observation, addressed to his son, " You do not 
 know, my son, with how little wisdom the world is 
 governed," (" Nescis, mi fili, quantilla prudentia homi- 
 nes regantur.") He was the reputed author of the 
 second volume of " Historia Belli Sueco-Germanici," 
 (" History of the Swedish-German War,") of which 
 Chemnitz wrote the first volume. He was considered 
 an equal match for Richelieu in diplomacy. He had 
 two sons, John and Erik, who obtained high offices in 
 the public service. 
 
 See J. F. I.undbi.ad, " Svensk Plutarch," 2d vol., 1826-31; 
 Johan Gezeuus, " Aminnelse-Tal ofver A. Oxenstierna," 1774; 
 C. P. Hagbkrg, " Areminne ofver A. Oxenstierna," 180S ; Puffen- 
 dorf, '" De Rebus Suecicis :" Geijkr, "Histoire de la Suede:" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale ;" Richeuf.u, "Metnoires;" E. 
 Gvli.enstolpe, " Areminne bfver A. Oxenstierna," 1777. 
 
 Oxenstiern, (Benedict,) an able Swedish statesman, 
 of the same family as the preceding, was born in 1623. 
 He was appointed governor of Warsaw by Charles X., 
 after whose death (1660) he returned to Sweden and 
 had great influence in the government. About 1672 he 
 obtained the confidence of Charles XI., who appointed 
 him chancellor and chief minister. The pacific system 
 of Oxenstiern was disturbed by the death of Charles XI., 
 in 1697. After Charles XII. had defeated the Danes 
 and conquered Poland, Oxenstiern advised him to make 
 peace, in a memoir which is called a master-piece of 
 wisdom. Died in 1702. 
 
 See Schi.ozer, " Schwedische Biographic" 
 
 Oxenstiern, (Erik,) a son of the celebrated states- 
 man, was born in 1624. He became a senator in 1652, 
 and vice-chancellor in 1654, soon after which he con- 
 ducted negotiations with the Elector of Brandenburg. 
 Died in 1656. 
 
 Oxenstiern, (Johan,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Stockholm in 161 1. He entered the army, 
 and obtained the rank of colonel. About 1639 he was 
 raised to the dignity of senator. He was employed for 
 several years as minister-plenipotentiary in Germany, 
 and represented Sweden in the negotiations which re- 
 sulted in the peace of Westphalia, (1648.) Died at 
 Weimar in 1657. 
 
 Oxenstierna. See Oxenstiern. 
 
 Oxenstierna, oks'en-sheVna, (GaurielThureson,) 
 a Swedish diplomatist, born at Stockholm in 1641. He 
 wrote, in French, a "Collection of Thoughts," ("Recueil 
 de Pensees," 1725.) Died in 1707. 
 
 Oxford, Eari. of. See De Vere, (Edward,) and 
 Hari.ey, (Robert.) 
 
 Ox-y-ar'tes or Ox-ar'tes, [Gr. 'OSjvuprri;,] a Bactrian 
 chief, whose daughter Roxana was married to Alexander 
 the Great. This king appointed him satrap of Paropa- 
 misus. Died after 316 li.C. 
 
 Ozanam, o'zi'n6,\', (Antoine Frederic,) a French 
 scholar and elegant writer, born at Milan in 1813. He 
 became a good classical scholar, and studied law. In 
 1844 he succeeded Fauriel as professor of foreign litera- 
 ture at the Sorbonne, Paris. He attained eminence as 
 a lecturer, and published, besides other works, " Dante 
 and the Catholic Philosophy in the Thirteenth Centurv," 
 (1839,) and "Etudes Germaniques pour servir a 1'His- 
 toire des Francs," (2 vols., 1847-49.) Died in Septem- 
 ber, 1853. 
 
 See Lacordaire, " Notice sur A. F. Ozanam," prefixed to his 
 collected works, 8 vols.. 1855; Legeay, " £tude biographique sur 
 Ozanam," 1S54; J. J. Ampere, " Notice biographique sur A. F. 
 Ozanam," 1853; Collombet, " Biographie de F. Ozanam," 1853. 
 
 Ozanam, (J. A. F.,) a French physician, born in 
 Bresse in 1772, was the father of the preceding. He 
 published a " History of Epidemic Diseases," (5 vols., 
 1817-23.) Died at Lyons in 1836. 
 
 Ozanam, (Jacques,) a distinguished French mathe- 
 matician, born at Bouligneux in 1640. Among his nu- 
 merous and useful treatises are " Mathematical Diction- 
 ary," (1691,) "Mathematical and Physical Recreations," 
 (1694,) and "Theoretical and Practical Perspective," 
 (171 1.) He taught mathematics in Paris, where he died 
 in 1717. 
 
 See Fonteneli-e, " filoge d'Ozanam." 
 
 Ozaneaux, o'zS'no', (Jean George,) a French writer 
 of prose and verse, was born in Paris in 1795. He wrote 
 a " History of France," (2 vols., 1846,) which gained a 
 prize of the French Academy, and "Erreurs poetiques," 
 (3 vols., 1849.) Died in 1852. 
 
 Ozanne, o'zin', (Nicolas Marie,) a French designer 
 and engraver, born at Brest in 1728 ; died in Paris in 
 1811. 
 
 O-zell', (John,) an English litterateur, of French ex- 
 traction, was contemporary with Pope, who has given 
 him a place in the " Dunciad." He made translations 
 from Racine, Moliere, and Boileau, and from several 
 Italian and Spanish writers. Died in 1743. 
 
 See Cibber, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Ozeretskofsko or Ozeretzkovsko,o-zeh-ret-skoP- 
 sko, sometimes written Ozeretzkoffsky, (Nicholas,) 
 a Russian scientific writer, born about 1750. He wrote 
 several treatises on zoology, botany, mineralogy, etc. 
 Died about 1827. 
 
 P. 
 
 Paalzow, von, fon pilt'so, (Auouste,) a German 
 lady, born at Berlin in 1788, was a sister of the painter 
 Wach. She was the author of a popular romance, 
 entitled "Godwie Castle," (1836,) and other fictitious 
 works. Died in 1847. 
 
 Faas. See Pass. 
 
 Paaw, (Cornki.is.) See Pauw. 
 
 Paaw, pa'oo or p5w, (Pieter,) a Dutch physician and 
 naturalist, born at Amsterdam in 1564, was professor of 
 medicine at Leyden, where he also founded the botanic 
 garden. He published several valuable treatises on 
 botany and anatomy. Died in 161 7. 
 
 Pabodie, pab'o-de, (William Jevvett,) an American 
 poet, born at Providence, Rhode Island, about 1812. 
 He has published "Calidore, a Legendary Poem," and 
 a number of smaller pieces. 
 
 Pabst, plpst, (Heinrich Wilhelm,) a German 
 agriculturist, born near Lauterbach, in Hesse, in 1798. 
 He published, besides other works, a " Treatise on Rural 
 Economy," (5th edition, i860.) 
 
 Pabst, (Johann Heinrich,) a German philosopher, 
 bom at Lindau, in Thuringia, in 1785. Among his 
 works is "Man and his History," (1830.) Died in 1837. 
 
 Pa'ca, (William,) one of the signers of the Ameri- 
 can Declaration of Independence, was bom in Harford 
 county, Maryland, In 1740. He was elected to the Con- 
 gress of 1774, and continued in this office till 1778. He 
 became Governor of Maryland in 1782, and in 1789 was 
 appointed judge of the district court of the United States 
 for Maryland. Died in 1799. 
 
 See Goodrich, " Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence." 
 
 Pacatianus, pa-ka-she-a'nus, [Fr. Pacatien, pf- 
 kS'sg-^N',] (Titus Claudius Marcellus,) a Roman 
 emperor, whose existence is indicated only by medals. 
 It is supposed that he assumed the title in 249 A.D. 
 
 Pacatien. See Pacatianus. 
 
 Pacatus. See Drepanius. 
 
 Pacca, pak'ka, (Bartoi.ommeo,) an Italian cardinal, 
 born at Benevento in 1756. He became papal secretary 
 
 « as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J[y=-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PACCARD 
 
 1724 
 
 PACTHOD 
 
 of state (i.e. prime minister) in 1808, and was imprisoned 
 about three years by Napoleon, (1809-12.) Died in 1844. 
 He wrote " Historical Memoirs," which have been pub- 
 lished, (London, 1850.) 
 
 See Artaud dh Montor, " Notice sur le Cardinal B. Pacca," 
 1846. 
 
 Paccard, pfkaV, (Alexis,) a French architect, born 
 in Paris in 1813. He gained the grand prize in 1841. 
 
 Pacchiarotto, pak-ke-a-rot'to, (Jacopo,) an eminent 
 Italian painter, born at Sienna in the fifteenth century. 
 He painted in oil and fresco with equal success. His 
 style resembles that of Perugino. Among his best works 
 in oil are an "Ascension," a "Nativity of the Virgin," 
 and a Madonna, (at Munich.) His frescos may be seen 
 at Sienna. His heads are greatly admired. To escape 
 the penalty of a political conspiracy, he left Sienna in 
 1535, and fled to France. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy." 
 
 Facchioni, pak-ke-o'nee, (Antonio,) an able Italian 
 anatomist, born at Reggio in 1665. He removed to 
 Rome about 1700, and was associated in the scientific 
 labours of Lancisi. Died at Rome in 1726. His writings 
 were published under the title of " Opera Omnia," (1741.) 
 
 Paccioli, pat-cho'lee, or Pacioli, pa-cho'lee, (Luca,) 
 an Italian mathematician and monk, born at Borgo San 
 Sepolcro about 1450, was often called Luca DI Borgo 
 or de Burgo. He taught at Perugia, Rome, Naples, 
 Pisa, and Venice. His chief work is "Summade Arith- 
 metica, Geometria, Proportioni," etc., (1494,) — the first 
 printed book in which the method of keeping accounts 
 by double entry was explained. He also wrote a work 
 " On Divine Proportion," (" De Divina Proportione," 
 1509,) the plates of which were engraved by his friend 
 Leonardo da Vinci. He was living in 1509. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia delta Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Pace, [Lat. Pa'ceus,] (Richard,) an English nego- 
 tiator and priest, born in or near Winchester about 1482. 
 He was employed in important missions by Henry VIII., 
 and sent to Rome about 1 521 by Wolsey to urge his 
 claims to the papacy. He was a friend of Erasmus, who 
 addressed several letters to him. Pace obtained the 
 deanery of Saint Paul's, London, about 1520, and other 
 benefices. He incurred the ill will of Wolsey, by whom 
 he was confined in the Tower for two years, and became 
 insane. Died in 1532. 
 
 Pacetti, pa-chet'tee, (Camii.lo,) an Italian sculptor, 
 born in Rome about 1760, became professor of sculpture 
 in Milan. Died in 1827. 
 
 Faceus. See Pace, (Richard.) 
 
 Pache, pish, (Jean Nicolas,) a French revolutionist, 
 born in Paris in 1746. He was controller of the king's 
 household under the ministry of Necker. In October, 
 1792, he was appointed minister of war by the influence 
 of the Girondists, who removed him in February, 1793, 
 because he had joined the Jacobin party. He was 
 elected mayor of Paris in the spring of 1793, and took 
 a prominent part in the ruin of the Girondists. Died 
 in 1823. 
 
 Pacheco, pa-cha'ko, (Francisco,) an eminent Span- 
 ish painter and writer, bom at Seville in 1571, was a 
 pupil of Luis Fernandez. He opened an academy in 
 Seville in 161 1, and was appointed painter to King 
 Philip IV. after 1625. He designed well, and is com- 
 mended for simplicity, but he was not a good colorist. 
 Among his chief works are "The Last Judgment," 
 "Daedalus and Icarus," and "The Archangel Michael 
 expelling Satan from Paradise." He wrote a treatise on 
 the art of painting, entitled "Arte de la Pintura," (1649,) 
 which is highly esteemed. Among his pupils were 
 Alonzo Cano and Velasquez. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" Chan-Ber- 
 mudez, " Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Pacheco, (Maria ) See Padilla. 
 
 Pa'-ehes, [Gr. Iluxvc] an Athenian general, com- 
 manded the army which took Mitylene in 427 H.c. 
 
 Fa-eho'mi-us, [Gr. ilaxa/iwc; Fr. Pacome, pt'kom',] 
 an Egyptian ascetic of the fourth century, was born in 
 the Thebaid. He is reputed the founder of regular 
 monastic communities, or the first who prescribed fixed 
 rules of life to the monks and nuns. He founded a 
 
 monastery at Tabenna, on the'Nile, and became so noted 
 for his piety that many others were built in the vicinity 
 by his disciples. Died about 348 A.D. 
 
 Pachymere. See Pachymeres. 
 
 Pa-ehym'e-res, [Gr. rewpyioc i Tlaxv/jemic ; Fr. 
 Pachymere, pi'she'maiR',] one of the most eminent 
 of the later Byzantine historians, was born at Nicaea 
 about 1242. He lived in Constantinople, and was chief 
 justice of the imperial court. He wrote, besides other 
 important works, a " Historia Byzantina," which com- 
 prises the reigns of Michael Palaeologus and his son 
 Andronicus. It is written with dignity, and is highly 
 prized for its fidelity. He died probably after 13 10. 
 
 See Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Grseca." 
 
 Pacian, pa'she-an, [Sp. pron. pa-z'/ie-Sn'; Lat. Pa- 
 CIANUS, pa-she-a'nus ; Fr, Pacien, pi'se^N',] a Spanish 
 saint and writer, who flourished about 375 A.D., and was 
 Bishop of Barcelona. 
 
 Pacianus. See Pacian. 
 
 Paciaudi, pa-chow'dee, (Paolo Maria,) a learned 
 Italian antiquary, born at Turin in 1710, entered the 
 order of Theatines. He published, besides other works, 
 a " History of the Grand Masters of the Order of Malta," 
 (3 vols., 1760, unfinished,) and " Peloponnesian Monu- 
 ments," (" Monumenta Peloponnesiaca," 1761.) He 
 became librarian to the Duke of Parma about 1762. 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 See Fabkoni, "Vila? Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate ;" Dacier, "Fjoge de Paciaudi." 
 
 Pacichelli, pa-che-kel'lee, (Giamhattista,) an Ital- 
 ian writer, born at Pistoia about 1640. He wrote "The 
 Kingdom of Naples," (" II Regno di Napoli," 3 vols., 
 1703.) Died in 1702. 
 
 Pacien. See Pacian. 
 
 Pacifico. See Pacificus. 
 
 Pa-cif'i-cus Max'I-mus, [ It. Pacifico Massimo, 
 pa-chee'fe-ko mas'se-mo,] a Latin poet, born at Ascoli 
 in 1400. He wrote many poems, which were published 
 in 1489, under the title of "Jocose and Festive Elegies," 
 ("Elegiae Jocosae et Festivoe.") Died about 1500. 
 
 Pacini, pa-chee'nee, (Giovanni,) a popular com- 
 poser, born at Syracuse, Sicily, in 1796 or 1790. He 
 composed with a marvellous facility many operas, among 
 which is "Adelaide e Comingio," (1818,) and "Niobe," 
 (1826.) 
 
 Pacio, pa'cho, sometimes written Pace, [Lat. Pa'- 
 cius a Ber'iga,] (Giulio,) an eminent Italian jurist 
 and classical scholar, born at Vicenza in 1550. Having 
 been converted to the Protestant religion, he went into 
 exile, and was professor of philosophy at Heidelberg 
 and Sedan. About 1616 he obtained a chair of law 
 at Valence, in France. He wrote "On the Method of 
 Law," (" De Juris Methodo," 1597,) "On Contracts," 
 (" De Contractibus,") and other works. Died at Va- 
 lence in 1635. 
 
 See Bhrkiat Saint-Prix, "Notice sur la Vie de J. Pacius," 
 1840; Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Nici- 
 ron, "Memoires." 
 
 Pacioli See Paccioli. 
 
 Pacius a Beriga. See Pacio. 
 
 Pack, (Richardson,) an English writer, born in Suf- 
 folk about 1680. He rose to the rank of major in the 
 army. He published a volume of poems, (1718,) a " Life 
 of Pomponius Atticus," and other works. Died in 1728. 
 
 Pacdme. See Pachomius. 
 
 Pac'o-rus, [Gr. LTa/copoc,] the eldest son of Orodes, 
 King of Parthia, was born about 66 B.C. At an early 
 age he was associated with his father on the throne. In 
 51 B.C. he led an army into Syria, where he was defeated 
 by Caius Cassius. After the battle of Philippi, the Par- 
 thian king sent to Syria another expedition, commanded 
 by Pacorus and Titus Labienus, a Roman, who gained a 
 victory over an officer of Antony. After Pacorus had 
 subjected Syria, he was defeated and killed by the army 
 of Ventidius, in 38 B.C. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome." 
 
 Pacorus, a king of Parthia, who reigned in the time 
 of Domitian and Trajan. Little is known respecting 
 
 him. 
 
 Pacthod, pf k'to', (Michel Marie,) Count, a French 
 general, born in Savoy in 1764. He gained the rank of 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; J, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mJt; not; good; moorv 
 
pjcufio 
 
 1725 
 
 PAGANI 
 
 general of division on the field of Espinosa, (1808,) and 
 commanded in Naples and Illyria from 1S10 to 1812. 
 Died in 183a 
 
 Pacuvio. See Pacuvius. 
 
 Pa-cu'vI-uB, I It. Pacuvio, pi-koo've-o,] (Marcus,) 
 an eminent Roman tragic poet and painter, born ac 
 Brundnsium about 220 B.C., was a nephew of the poet 
 Ennius. According to the judgment of Qnintilian and 
 other ancient critics, his dramas had some merit. His 
 works are lost, except small fragments. He died at the 
 age of ninety. His epitaph, composed by himself, has 
 been preserved by Aulus Gellius. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Poetis Latinis;" Annibale de Leo, " Dis- 
 sertazione inlorno la Vita di M. Pacuvio," 1763 ; " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Paderna, pa-deR'na, (Paolo Antonio,) an Italian 
 painter of history and landscapes, was born in 1649. 
 His landscapes are highly praised. Died in 1708. 
 
 Padilla, de, da pa-Del'ya, (Francesco,) a Spanish 
 historian, born at Antequera in 1527, was a nephew of 
 the following. He wrote an "Ecclesiastical History of 
 Spain." Died in 1607. 
 
 Padilla, de, (Don' Juan Lopez,) a Spanish patriot 
 and general, born in Castile, was a son of a nobleman. 
 He became in 1520 the leader of the malcontents whom 
 the extortions and misrule of the Flemish ministers of 
 Charles V. provoked to revolt. The insurgents elected 
 a council called Junta de las Comunidades. Padilla de- 
 feated the royal troops at Segovia, took Valladolid, the 
 capital of Spain, and deposed the regent, Adrian of 
 Utrecht. Dissensions arose among the popular party, 
 Padilla was deprived of the command, and his successor 
 was defeated. About the end of 1520 he was restored 
 to the command. He was defeated and taken prisoner 
 at Villalar in April, 1521, and executed the next day. 
 
 See Robertson, "Charles V.," vol. ii. book iii, 
 
 Padilla, de, (Lorenzo,) a Spanish historian, born at 
 Antequera about 1485. He was eminent for learning, 
 and ieceived the title of historiographer to Charles V. 
 He left in manuscript a "General History of Spain," 
 and a work on the antiquities of Spain, which was pub- 
 lished in 1669. Died in 1540. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Padilla, de, (Dona Maria Pacheco,) the wife of 
 Juan Lopez, noticed above, was a woman of great energy 
 and talents, and devoted herself to the popular cause. 
 After her husband's death she took his place as leader, 
 and made heroic but unsuccessful efforts to defend 
 Toledo against the royalists. She escaped to Portugal, 
 where she remained until her death. 
 
 See Mariana, "Historia de Espana." 
 
 Padilla, de, (Pedro,) a Spanish poet, born at Linares, 
 was a friend of Cervantes. He published "Pastoral 
 Eclogues," (1582,) and other poems. He was one of 
 the best pastoral poets of his time. Died about 1600. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Pad'ma', [modern Hindoo pron. piid'ma',] written 
 also Pedma, [from pidma, a " lotus,"] one of the names 
 of LakshmI, (which see.) 
 
 Padouan or Padovano. See Cavino. 
 
 Padouanino. See Leoni, (Ottavio.) 
 
 Padouaniiio, pa-doo-a-nee'no, (Francesco,) an ex- 
 cellent Italian painter of history and portraits, was born 
 at Padua in 1552. He was correct in design and fertile 
 in invention. Among his works is a picture of the de- 
 liverance of two persons who were condemned to death. 
 Died in 1617. 
 
 His son Ottavio was a skilful portrait-painter. He 
 died about 1634, at the age of fifty-two. 
 
 Padovano. See Leoni, (Luigi and Ottavio.) 
 
 Pasan, pee'an, [Gr. n<uai>, Ilaa/uv, or THaiuv ; Fr. 
 PEa.n, pa'fts',] a name applied to Apollo, and also a 
 surname of /Esculapius, the god who had the power of 
 healing. It was afterwards applied to hymns sung in 
 honour of Apollo, and to martial songs by which a 
 victory was celebrated. 
 
 Paelinck, pa'link, (Joseph,) a Belgian painter, born 
 near Ghent in 1781. He worked at Rome five years. 
 Among his works is "The Discovery of the Cross." 
 Died at Brussels in 1839. 
 
 Paeonius, pe-o'ne-us, [Ilaiurtoc,] ofEphesus, a Greek 
 architect, probably lived about 400 B.C. He completed 
 (with Demetrius) the great temple of Diana at Ephesus. 
 
 Paeonius of Menue, an eminent Greek sculptor, of 
 whom little is known, is supposed to have lived about 
 430 n.C. He adorned with statues the temple of Jupiter 
 at Olympia. 
 
 Paer, pa-aiR', (Ferdinando,) an eminent Italian 
 composer, born at Parma in 1771. Having produced 
 some successful operas, he was appointed chapel-master 
 at Dresden in 1801. He entered the service of Napoleon 
 in 1807 as imperial composer, and was employed to direct 
 the music of the court theatre. He was elected to the 
 Institute in 1831. Among his most admired operas are 
 "Griselda," (1796,) "Achille," (1806,) and "Agnese," 
 (181 1.) Died at Paris in 1839. 
 
 _ See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" " Nouve"t 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Paesiello. See Paisiello. 
 
 Paez, pa-es', (Francesco Alvarez,) a Portuguese 
 monk, asserted the temporal power of the pope in a 
 treatise " De Planctu Ecclesiae." Died in 1532. 
 
 Paez, pa-etl/, (Francisco,) a Jesuit missionary, born 
 at Olmedo, in Spain, in 1564. He entered Abyssinia in 
 1603, learned a native dialect, and converted the king, 
 Za-Denghel. He is said to have visited one of the 
 sources of the Nile in 1618. He died in Abyssinia in 
 1622, (as is supposed,) leaving a History of Abyssinia 
 in manuscript, and some letters. 
 
 Paez, pl-Sth', (Jose Antonio,) a South American 
 general, born at Varinas about 1785. He served with 
 distinction in the army of Bolivar against the Spaniards. 
 The victory at the great battle of Carabobo, or Carabolo, 
 in 1821, is ascribed to him. In 1830 he was elected 
 President of Venezuela for four years. He was re-elected 
 in 1838 or 1839, and was appointed dictator in 1846. 
 Having failed in an armed contest with Monagas in 
 1848, he was taken prisoner and exiled in 1850. He is 
 represented as an able and respectable statesman. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Autobiografia del Jose Antonio Paez,' 
 1S67; "North American Review" for July, 1827. 
 
 Pagan, de, deh pi'goN', (Blaise Francois,) Count, 
 an eminent French engineer and geometer, was born at 
 Avignon in 1604. He distinguished himself by skill and 
 courage in the war against the French Protestants, and 
 directed the siege of Nancy, in 1633. He had just been 
 made a marechal-de-camp, in 1642, when he was deprived 
 of sight by disease. Continuing to apply himself with 
 success to mathematics, he gained a high reputation by 
 his writings. In 1645 he published in his "Treatise on 
 Fortifications" ("Traite des Fortifications") a new sys- 
 tem of fortification, which quickly superseded all others. 
 He is reputed one of the greatest masters and improvers 
 of the art on which that work treats. Died in 1665. 
 
 See Perrault, " Hommes illustres." 
 
 Paganel, pi'gi'neT, (Camii.le Pierre Alexis,) a 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1797. He was elected to the 
 Chamber of Deputies six times between 1834 and 1846, 
 and voted with the Centre. Among his works is a " His- 
 tory of Frederick the Great," (1830.) Died in 1859. 
 
 Paganel, (Pierre,) a French politician, the father of 
 the preceding, was born at Villeneuve d'Agen in 1745. 
 He was a moderate member of the Convention in 1792- 
 95. He voted, however, for the death and reprieve of 
 the king. He wrote an " Essay on the French Revolu- 
 tion," (3 vols., 1810.) Died in 1826. 
 
 Pagani, pa-ga'nee, (Fr ancesco,) a Florentine painter, 
 born in 1531. ,He painted frescos in his native city, 
 Died in 1561. 
 
 Pagani, (Gregorio,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Florence in 1558. He was a pupil of Cigoli, 
 whose style he imitated, was an excellent colorist, and 
 was one of the best masters that Florence possessed 
 at the end of the sixteenth century. His master-piece, 
 " The Discovery of the Cross," was destroyed by fire. 
 His extant works are not numerous. Died in 1605. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Pagani, (Paolo,) a painter, born in the duchy of 
 Milan in 1661. He worked in Venice with success. 
 The gallery of Dresden contains his picture of a Mag- 
 dalene in meditation. Died in 1716. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PAGANI-CESA 
 
 1726 
 
 PAGNERRE 
 
 Fagani-Cesa.pa-ga'nee cha'sa, (Giuseppe Urbano,) 
 an Italian poet, born at Belluno in 1757. He wrote " La 
 Villegiatura di Clizia," (1802,) and other poems of some 
 merit. He also produced a mediocre version of Virgil's 
 ",Eneid," (1822.) Died in 1835. 
 
 Paganini, pa-ga-nee'nee, (Niccol6,) a celebrated Ital- 
 ian performer on the violin, was born at Genoa in 1784. 
 He received lessons from Rolla, Ghiretti, and Paer, 
 and is said to have composed a sonata of merit at the 
 age of nine, about which time he began to perform in 
 public concerts, and by his wonderful powers produced 
 the most extraordinary excitement among the audience. 
 When not yet fifteen, he escaped from the control of his 
 father, and commenced business on his own account. 
 But, unhappily, the admiration and flatteries which he 
 received, and the control of large sums of money, which 
 he procured almost without effort, exerted a most in- 
 jurious effect on his moral character, and he fell into 
 habits of gambling and into .the practice of other vices. 
 About 1802 he retired for a time from public view ; but 
 his former habits of life, and the necessity of excitement, 
 soon induced or compelled him to return. After he had 
 given concerts in the great cities of Italy, he visited Vienna 
 in 1828, and was received with the wildest enthusiasm. 
 His performances created a furor wholly unparalleled 
 in the history of music. He gained enormous sums of 
 money in Paris and London. His marvellous perform- 
 ance on a single string excited especial astonishment. 
 He composed sonatas, etc. for the violin, which display 
 an inventive genius. Died at Nice in 1840. With all 
 his rare gifts, he is said to have been sensual, extremely 
 avaricious, and excessively vain. 
 
 See Schottky. " Paganini's Leben und Treiben," Prague, 1830; 
 Conestahii.e, "Vita del celebre N. Paganini;" J. Imbekt de la 
 Phm.BQUK, " Notice snr N. Paganini," Paris, 1830; G. E. Aniiers, 
 " Paganini. sa Vie, sa Personne," etc., 1831 ; Fr. Favollk, "Paga- 
 nini et Benet," 1831 : Fbtis, " Bingrapbie Universale des Musi- 
 ciens ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1831. 
 
 Pagano, pa-ga'no, (Francesco Maria,) a political 
 writer, born at Brienza, in the kingdom of Naples, in 
 1748. He obtained the chair of law at Naples in 1787. 
 His principal work is "Political Essays," (" Saggi po- 
 litici," 1792.) He was a partisan of the Neapolitan re- 
 public formed in 1798. Having been taken prisoner by 
 the royalists, he was executed in 1800. 
 
 Paganucci, pa-ga-noot'chee, (Jean,) a French mer- 
 chant, born at Lyons in 1729, wrote an excellent "Mer- 
 chants' Manual," (" Manuel des Negotiants," 3 vols., 
 1762.) Died in 1797. 
 
 Page, (John,) an American patriot and Governor, 
 born in Gloucester county, Virginia, in 1743. He ren- 
 dered important services during the Revolution, was 
 a member of Congress from Virginia for eight years, 
 (1789-97.) and was elected Governor of Virginia in 
 1802. lie was a personal friend of Thomas Jefferson. 
 Died at Richmond in 1808. 
 
 Page, (Thomas Jefferson,) an American naval 
 officer, born in Virginia about 1815. He was appointed 
 a commander in the United States navy in 1855. 
 
 Page, (WlUJAM,) an English divine, born at Harrow 
 in 1590, was master of a free school at Reading. He 
 wrote "The Peace-Maker, or a Brief Motive to Unity." 
 Died in 1663. 
 
 Page, (William,) an American painter, born at Al- 
 bany in 181 1. He studied for a time under S. F. B. 
 Morse, in New York, and subsequently produced several 
 portraits and historical pieces which established his 
 reputation. He visited Rome about 1850, and returned 
 in i860 to New York. Among his principal works are 
 the " Flight into Egypt," " Moses and Aaron on Mount 
 Horeb," and "The Infant Bacchus." 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Pagenstecher, pa'gen-stSK'er, (Alexander Ar- 
 nold,) a German jurisconsult, born at Bentheim in 
 1659. He became professor of law at Groningen, and 
 wrote many works. Died in 1716. 
 
 Pages. See Garnif.r-Pages. 
 
 Pages, pi'zheV, (Francois Xavier,) a French littl- 
 rateur, born at Aurillac in 1745. He published, besides 
 many novels, " Historical Tableaux of the French Revo- 
 lution," (3 vols., 1791-1804.) Died in 1802. 
 
 Pages, (Pierre Marie Francois,) a French voyager, 
 born at Toulouse in 1748, was a captain in the navy. 
 He published in 1782 " Voyages around the Wirld and 
 towards the Poles in 1767-1776." He was massacred 
 be the negroes in Saint Domingo in 1793. 
 
 Pages de l'Ariege, pt'zheV cleh li're'izh', (Jean 
 Pierre,) a French political writer, born in Ariege in 
 1784. He was an editor of several Liberal journals of 
 Paris after the restoration. In 1848 he was elected to 
 the Constituent Assembly. He published several works. 
 
 Pag'et, (Lord Clarence Edward,) a British ad- 
 miral, a brother of the Marquis of Anglesey, was born 
 in 181 1. He served as captain in the navy, and com- 
 manded the Princess Royal in the Baltic in 1854. He 
 was elected to Parliament by the Liberals in 1847, and 
 again in 1857. In 1859 he was appointed secretary to 
 the Admiralty. He became a vice-admiral in 1865. 
 
 Paget or Pag'it, (Eusebius,) an English Puritan 
 minister and writer, born in Northamptonshire about 
 1542. He became rector of Saint Anne and Saint 
 Agnes, London, in 1604. His chief work is a "History 
 of the Bible." Died in 161 7. 
 
 His son Ephraim (1575— 164.7) was noted as a linguist. 
 He wrote a "Christianographia," (1635.) 
 
 Paget, (George Frederick Augustus,) Lord, a 
 brother of Clarence Edward, noticed above, was born in 
 1818. He became lieutenant-colonel of dragoons about 
 1846, and distinguished himself at Balaklava, (1854.) 
 
 Paget, (Henry William,) Lord. See Anglesey. 
 
 Paget, (James,) F.R.S., an English physiologist and 
 surgeon of high reputation, was born in Great Yarmouth 
 in 1814. He was admitted into the College of Surgeons 
 in 1836, and afterwards became Hunterian professor of 
 surgery. He wrote articles for several medical journals. 
 Among his works are " Lectures on Surgical Pathology," 
 
 C853.) 
 
 Paget, (William,) Baron, an English statesman, 
 born in London in 1506. He became one of the secre- 
 taries of state in 1543. Designated by Henry VIII as 
 one of the executors of his will, Paget took a prominent 
 part in the events of the reign of Edward VI., and was 
 keeper of the seals in the following reign. In 1561 he 
 advised Elizabeth to make an alliance with the King of 
 Navarre and the Huguenots rather than the King of 
 Spain. Died in 1563. 
 
 Paggi, pad'jee, or Pagi, pa'jee, (Giovanni Battista,) 
 an eminent Italian painter, born at Genoa in 1554, was 
 a pupil of Luca Cambiaso. He worked about twenty 
 years at Florence, and returned to Genoa in 1600, after 
 which he adorned the churches of that city with many 
 paintings. He was the master of a school in which sev- 
 eral able artists were formed, and excelled as a colorist. 
 Among his master-pieces are "The Transfiguration" and 
 " The Massacre of the Innocents." Died in 1627. 
 
 See Lanzi. " History of Painting in Italy ;" Soprani, " Vite de' 
 Pittori Genovesi." 
 
 Pagi, pt'zhe', (Antoine,) a French chronologist, born 
 in Provence in 1624. His reputation is founded on his 
 " Historical and Chronological Criticism on the Ec- 
 clesiastical Annals of Baronius," ("Critica historico- 
 chronologica in Annales Ecclesiasticos Baronii," 4 vols., 
 1705.) Died in 1699. 
 
 Pagi, (Francois,) a French historian, born at Lam- 
 besc in 1654, was a nephew of the preceding. Died 
 in 1 72 1. 
 
 Pagi, L'Abb£, a French historian, born at Martigue 
 about 1690. He published a " History of the Revolu- 
 tions of the Low Countries," (1727.) 
 
 Pagit. See Paget, (Eusebius.) 
 
 Paglia, pal'ya, ( Antonio, ) a distinguished Italian 
 painter, born in 1680. He was a skilful imitator of the 
 old masters. He worked in Brescia, the churches of 
 which contain many of his pictures. Died in 1747. 
 
 Paglia, (Francesco,) the father of the preceding, 
 born at Brescia in 1636, was a pupil of Guercino. He 
 excelled in portraits and in the science of clair-obscur. 
 He died soon after 1700. 
 
 Pagnerre, pfn'yaiR', (Laurent Antoine,) a French 
 republican, born in Seine-et-Oise in 1805. He was ap- 
 pointed assistant to the mayor of Paris, Gamier-Pages, 
 in February, 1848, secretary-general of the provisional 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, J, short; a, $, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon ; 
 
PJGNEST 
 
 1727 
 
 PAINE 
 
 government on the 1st of March, and director of the 
 Comptoir national d'Escompte on the 9th of March. lie 
 was the first proposer of this institution, which rendered 
 great services to the public in that crisis. Died in 1854. 
 
 Pagnest, pig'n.V, ( Amam.e Louis Claude,) a French 
 portrait-painter, born in Paris in 1790; died in 1819. 
 
 Pagnini, pan-yee'nee, [Lat. Pagni'nus,] (Luca An- 
 tonio,) an Italian classical scholar and monk, born at 
 Pistoia in 1737. He wrote Greek and Latin epigrams, 
 " Epigramnii morali cento," (1799,) which were admired, 
 and produced good translations of Anacreon, (1766,) 
 Theocritus, (1780,) Hesiod, (1797,) and Horace's " Sa- 
 tires and Epistles," (1814.) He corresponded with Alfieri, 
 Frugoni, and Cesarotti. In 1806 he became professor of 
 Latin at Pisa. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Ciampi, "Elogium L. A. Pagnini," 1814; Tipaldo, " Bio- 
 grana degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Pagnino, pan-yee'no, [Lat. Pagni'nus,] (Sante,) an 
 Italian Orientalist, was born at Lucca about 1470. He 
 entered the order of Dominicans, and became a resident 
 of Lyons in 1525. He produced a Latin version of the 
 Bible from the original Hebrew and Greek, (1528,) which 
 was highly commended by Buxtorf, Huet, and other 
 critics. Among his works is a " Hebrew-Latin Dic- 
 tionary," (1529.) Died about 1538. 
 
 See A. PiSricaud, " Notice sur S. Pagnino," 1850; Tiraboschi, 
 "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Pagninus. See Pagnino. 
 
 Pahlen, von der, fon dSr pa'len, (Peter,) Baron or 
 Count, a Russian general, born about 1744. He gained 
 the favour of the Czar Paul, who appointed him Gov- 
 ernor-General of Saint Petersburg. He took an active 
 part in the assassination of Paul, in 1801, and is said to 
 have been the chief of that conspiracy. He retired to 
 his estate in Livonia, where he died in 1826. 
 
 Pahlen, von der, (Peter,) Count, a Russian gen- 
 eral, and son of the preceding, distinguished himself in 
 the campaigns of 1812 and 1813. He was ambassador 
 to Paris from 1835 to 1842. 
 
 Paice. See Pace, (Richard.) 
 
 Paillet, pi'yj', (Ai.phonse Gabriel Victor,) an 
 eminent French advocate, born at Soissons in 1795, 
 settled in Paris about 1826, and acquired a very high 
 reputation for eloquence and probity. He displayed 
 consummate art in the statement and exposition of facts. 
 In 1849 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly. 
 Died in 1855. " Nature had given him," says the " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle," "in a just measure and in perfect 
 equilibrium, all the qualities which are requisite to form 
 a great advocate." 
 
 See, also, J. Larnac, " FJoge de M. Paillet," 1857. 
 
 Pailliet, pt'ye-a', or Paillet, pt'y&', (Jean Bap- 
 tists Joseph,) a^French jurist, born at Orleans in 1789. 
 He published a "Manual of French Law," (9th edition, 
 1836,) which was perhaps more popular than any other 
 similar book. He also wrote other works. Died about 
 i860. 
 
 Paillot de Montabert, pS'yo' deh mdN'tt'baiR', 
 (Jean Nicolas,) a French painter, born at Troves in 
 1771. He wrote a "Complete Treatise on Painting," 
 (9 vols., 1829.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Paine, pan, (Ei.eazar A.,) an American general, born 
 in Ohio about 1815, graduated at West Point in 1S39. 
 He became a brigadier-general about September, 1861, 
 and served in Tennessee and Mississippi in 1862-63. 
 
 Paine, (Elijah,) LL.D., an American jurist, born at 
 Brooklyn, Connecticut, in 1757. He was elected to the 
 United States Senate in 1794, and in 1801 became judge 
 of the United States court for Vermont. He was a 
 member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
 and of other learned institutions. Died in 1842. 
 
 Paine, (Elijah,) son of the preceding, was born at 
 Williamstown, Vermont, in 1796, and rose to eminence as 
 a jurist. He published, in conjunction with John Duer, 
 * Practice in Civil Actions and Proceedings in the State 
 of New York," (1830.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Paine, (Martyn,) M.D., LL.D., brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Williamstown, Vermont, in 1794, and 
 graduated at Harvard College in 1813. He afterwards 
 settled in New York, where he gained a high reputation 
 and extensive practice. In 1841 he was one of the founders 
 
 of the Ui iversity Medical College, in which lie filled the 
 chair of therapeutics and materia medica. He has pub- 
 lished, among other works, "The Cholera Asphyxia of 
 New York,"" Medical and Physiological Commentaries," 
 (1840,) and "Institutes of Medicine," (1847.) The two 
 last-named have a very high reputation. He has also 
 written a treatise on " Theoretical Geology." 
 
 Paine, (ROBERT Treat,) an American jurist and a 
 signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born at 
 Boston in 1 73 1. He was a member of Congress for about 
 four years, (1774-78.) In 1780 he was one of the com- 
 mittee which formed the State Constitution of Massa- 
 chusetts, and in 1790 became judge of the supreme 
 court of that State. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Goodrich, "Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence." • 
 
 Paine, (Robert Treat,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Taunton, Massachusetts, in 1773. He graduated 
 at Harvard College in 1792, and, having subsequently 
 studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1802. He was 
 the author of a very popular political song, entitled 
 "Adams and Liberty," and of other works, in prose and 
 verse. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See R. W. Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America," p. 75 
 
 Paine, (Thomas,) a political and deistical writer, 
 born at Thetford, in Norfolk, England, in January, 1737. 
 His father was a Quaker, and brought up his son to his 
 own trade, that of stay-maker. Paine married young, 
 and settled in 1759 at Sandwich. Having lost his wife 
 about 1761, he removed to London, where for a short 
 time he was employed as a school-teacher. After seve- 
 ral changes of business and residence, he emigrated to 
 America in 1774, with a letter of recommendation from 
 Dr. Franklin, whom he met in London. He became 
 editor of the " Pennsylvania Magazine," and gave an 
 impulse to the Revolution by his famous pamphlet called 
 "Common Sense,". in which he advocated the policy of 
 separation and independence. It was issued in January, 
 
 1776, and appears to have contributed in an extraordi- 
 nary degree to the advancement of republican ideas. 
 He enlisted as a volunteer in the army in the autumn 
 of 1776. To counteract the depression of spirits which 
 prevailed in the winter of 1776-77, he published "The 
 Crisis," a periodical, which appeared at irregular in- 
 tervals for some years and was very successful. The 
 phrase "These are the times that try men's souls" was 
 first used in the "Crisis." He was secretary to the 
 committee on foreign affairs in Congress from April, 
 
 1777, to January, 1779, and went to France in 17S1, with 
 Colonel Laurens, to negotiate a loan for the United 
 States. His services in the Revolution were rewarded 
 by Congress in 1785 with a present of three thousand 
 dollars, and the State of New York gave him three 
 hundred acres of land. 
 
 In 1787 he visited France, from which he passed to 
 England. He invented an iron bridge, and procured the 
 construction of such a bridge at Rotherham, in York- 
 shire. He returned to Paris in 1789, and, in answer to 
 Burke's "Reflections on the French Revolution," wrote 
 his " Rights of Man," ( 1 79 1 , ) which obtained great popu- 
 larity. In September, 1792, he was elected a member 
 of the French National Convention by the citizens of 
 the Pas-de-Calais. He acted with the Girondists, and, 
 in the trial of the king, voted for his banishment. About 
 the end of 1793 he was expelled from the Convention, as 
 a foreigner, by the Jacobins, who also issaed a decree 
 that all natives of England found in France should be 
 imprisoned. He was accordingly cast into prison, and 
 narrowly escaped death in the reign of terror. In 
 November, 1794, he was released, through the influence 
 of James Monroe, (afterwards President of the United 
 States,) and resumed his seat in the Convention. He 
 produced in 1795 a deistical work entitled "The Age of 
 Reason," which gave great offence to many of his polit- 
 ical friends.* This work, although characterized by a 
 certain vigour as well as flippancy of style, and though 
 from its very indecency calculated to obtain currency 
 among the less refined portion of society, yet, being 
 
 * See an interesting letter from Franklin to Paine on this subject, 
 in Sparks's edition of Franklin's works, vol. x. p. 281. 
 
 » as i; 5 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. ([jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PAINTER 
 
 1728 
 
 PALAFOX 
 
 conspicuously wanting in a spirit of candour, and betray 
 ingan utter deficiency in true scholarship, is likely to exert 
 but little .influence upon intelligent and reflecting minds, 
 and least of all on those whose learning qualifies them 
 to judge of the ignorance of the writer and the essential 
 shallowness of most of his arguments. He returned to 
 the United States in 1802, and passed his latter years 
 in private life and comparative obscurity. He became 
 intemperate in the latter part of his life. Died in New 
 York in June, 1809. 
 
 See Chkktham, " Memoirs of Thomas Paine," 1809 ; Cari.ii.h, 
 "Life of Thomas Paine," 1814; G. Chalmers, "Life of Thomas 
 Paine," 1791; G. Valb, "Life of Thomas Paine," 1841; W. T. 
 Shkkwin, "Life of Thomas Paine," 1819; William Cobbett, 
 "Life of Thomas Paine;" Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American 
 Literature," vol. i. ; Ai.libone, " Dictionary of Authors ;" " North 
 American Review" for July, 1843 ; " Atlantic Monthly" for July and 
 December, 1859: "Monthly Review" for May, 1791, and March, 
 1792; " New American Cyclopaedia." 
 
 Paint'er, (William,) an English writer or translator, 
 lived in the reign of Elizabeth. He published "The 
 Palace of Pleasure, beautified, adorned, and well fur- 
 nished with Pleasant Histories and Excellent Novels," 
 etc., (2 vols., 1566-69.) Died after 1590. 
 
 Paisiello, pl-se-el'lo, or Paesiello, pa-i-se-el'Io, 
 (Giovanni,) a celebra'ed Italian composer, born at 
 Tarento in 1741, studied five years under Durante at 
 Naples. About 1764 he produced operas entitled "La 
 Pupilla" and " II Mondo alia Rovescio," which extended 
 his reputation throughout Italy. He was chapel-master 
 to the King of Naples from 1786 to 1798. Having been 
 invited by Bonaparte, he went to Paris in 1802, and 
 officiated as chapel-master for two years. He returned 
 to Naples in 1804. Among his popular operas are " King 
 Theodore," (" II Re Teodoro,") " The Barber of Seville," 
 " Frascatina," "La Locanda," "Pirro," and " Io son 
 Lindoro," (or " Hope told a Flattering Tale.") " He is 
 superior to his rivals," says Denne-Baron, "in the 
 suavity of his melody and the charm, of his expression." 
 His works display verve, originality, an extreme fertility 
 of invention, and a grace and elegance which are almost 
 unequalled. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Quatremerr de Quincy, " Notice sur Paisiello:" Fetis, 
 "BioRraphie Universelle des Musiciens;" Lesueur. "Notice sur 
 G. Paisiello," 1816; Schizzi, " Raggionamento della Vita di G. Pai- 
 siello," 1837; " Nouvelle Uiographie Ge"neVale." 
 
 Paitoni, pi-to'nee, (Giacomo Maria,) an Italian 
 monk and bibliographer, born at Venice about 1710. 
 His reputation is founded on an accurate work entitled 
 "Library of Ancient Latin and Greek Authors," etc., 
 ("Biblioteca degli Autori antichi Greci e Latini vol- 
 garizzali," 5 vols., 1767.) Died in 1774. 
 
 Paixhans, paks'anz or p&k'soN', (Henri Joseph,) a 
 French general, born at Metz in 1783. He served in the 
 campaigns of Austria and Prussia, and at the battle of 
 Moskwa, (1812.) He represented Metz in the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies many years, ending in 1848, and rose to 
 the rank of general of division. He made improvements 
 in artillery and projectiles, which bear his name, and 
 published several works on artillery and the art of war. 
 The Paixhan guns were first used in France about 1824. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 view" for June, 1828. 
 
 Pajol, pi'zhol', (Claude Pierre,) Comte, a French 
 general, born at Besancon in 1772. He signalized him- 
 self at Ulm and Austerlitz, (1805,) was made a general 
 of brigade in 1807, and became a general of division 
 in 1812. His defence of Montereau was praised by Na- 
 poleon, who appointed him grand officer of the legion of 
 honour in 1814. He fought against Charles X., and was 
 second in command of the Parisian troops in July, 1830. 
 Died in 1S44. 
 
 Pajou, pi'zh6N', (Claude,) a French Protestant 
 minister, born at Romorantin in 1626. He preached at 
 Orleans, and gained a high reputation by his writings, 
 among which is a defence of the Protestant faith against 
 Nicole, entitled "Examen des Prejuges legitimes," (de 
 Nicole,) (1675.) Wed in 1685. 
 
 Fajot, pi zho', (Louis LltoN,) Comte d'Ons-en-Bray, 
 (d6N s6n bR&,) a French mechanician and collector, born 
 in Paris in 1678. He collected a rich cabinet of machines 
 and rare works of art, etc. He invented an anemometer, 
 
 and wrote several scientific treatises. In 1708 he became 
 director-general of the post-office. Died in 1754. 
 
 Pajou.pi'zhoo', (Augustin,) a French sculptor, born 
 in Paris in 1730, was a pupil of Lemoyne. He gained 
 the grand prize in 1748, and went as royal pensioner to 
 Rome, where he remained twelve years. He enjoyed 
 great celebrity in France in his time. Among his works 
 are statues of Pascal, Descartes, Fenelon, Turenne, and 
 Bossuet. Died at Paris in 1809. 
 
 See Lebreton, " Notice historique sur la Vie de M. Pajou," 1810; 
 "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Pajou, (Jacques Augustin,) a historical painter, a son 
 of the preceding, was bomin Parisin 1766; died in 1828. 
 
 Pakenham, pa'ken-am, (Sir Edward,) a British 
 general, who commanded the army which attacked New 
 Orleans and was defeated by General Jackson, January 
 8, 1815. He was killed in this action. He was a brother- 
 in-law of the Duke of Wellington. 
 
 Pakenham, (Sir Thomas,) a British admiral, born in 
 1758. As captain of a ship of seventy-four guns, he took 
 part in Lord Howe's victory over the French in June, 
 1794. He became admiral about 1810. Died in 1836. 
 
 Pa'king-ton, (Dorothy,) a learned English lady, 
 was a daughter of Lord Coventry, and wife of Sir John 
 Pakington. Died in 1679. She was supposed to be the 
 author of "The Whole Duty of Man." 
 
 Pakington, (Sir John Somerset,) an English con- 
 servative politician, a son of William Russell, of Powick 
 Court, Worcestershire, was born in 1799. He assumed 
 the name of his uncle about 1830. He entered Parlia- 
 ment in 1837, and was colonial secretary for a short time 
 in 1852. From February, 1858, to July, 1859, he was 
 first lord of the admiralty. He became secretary of 
 war in March, 1867, and resigned in December, 1868. 
 
 Palacky, pa-lats'kee, sometimes Anglicized in pro* 
 nunciation as pa-lak'kee, (Francis,) an eminent Bohe- 
 mian historian and critic, born at Hodslawitz in June, 
 1798, is a Protestant. He was appointed historiographer 
 of Bohemia about 1830, and edited the "Journal of the 
 Bohemian Museum" from 1827 to 1837. He was an 
 active supporter of liberal principles in 1848, and pre- 
 sided over a Congress of Slavonians at Prague in that 
 year. His principal work is an excellent " History of 
 Bohemia," in German, (8 vols., 1836-60.) 
 
 Paladines. See Pali.adines. 
 
 Paladini, pa-la-dee'nee, (Arcangei.a,) a painter and 
 poetess, born at Pisa in 1599 ; died in 1622. 
 
 Paladini, (Filippo,) an able Florentine painter, born 
 about 1544, was the father of the preceding. His picture 
 of the "Death of John the Baptist" is admired. Died 
 in 1614. 
 
 Palaemon, pa-lee'mon, [Gr. liakaiiiuv ; Fr. PalISmon, 
 pt'la'nidN',] in the Greek mythology, the son of Athamas 
 and Ino, was first called Melickrta. He was regarded 
 as a marine divinity, and the Isthmian games were insti* 
 tuted in his honour. He was identified with the Roman 
 Portumnus. (See Mki.icerta.) 
 
 Palaemon, pa-lee'mon, (Quintus Remmius,) a Ro- 
 man grammarian, who lived in the time of Tiberius, 
 about 45 A. D. 
 
 Palasologus, pa-le-ol'o-gus, [Gr. VlalmxiXoyos ; Fr. 
 Pal£oi.ogue, pi'li'o'log',] the name of an illustrious 
 Byzantine family which acquired distinction in the elev- 
 enth century. They reigned in Constantinople from 
 1260 until 1453, when that capital was taken by the 
 Turks. (See Andronicus II., Constantinus XHI., 
 Manuel II., John VI., and John VII.) 
 
 Palaephatus, pa-le7'a -tus, a Greek historian of Aby- 
 dos, was a friend of Aristotle, and lived about 350 11. C 
 According to Suidas, he wrote on Attica, Arabia, and 
 Cyprus. 
 
 Palaephatus, a Greek writer of an uncertain period, 
 to whom Suidas attributes an "Explanation of Things 
 related in Mythology." By some critics this is identified 
 with an extant work "On Things Incredible," (neftl tuv 
 uTiiaruv.) Suidas also mentions an Athenian epic poet 
 of this name, who lived before Homer. 
 
 Palafox, de, di pa-lafdn', (Juan,) a Spanish bishop 
 and writer, born in Aragon in 1600. He became Bishop 
 of Osma in 1653. He wrote, besides works of devotion, 
 " The Shepherd of Christmas Eve," (" Pastor de Noche 
 
 5,e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m4t; not; good; moon; 
 
PALAFOX 
 
 1729 
 
 PALET 
 
 Euena." 1655,) and " The Conquest of China by the Tar- 
 tars," (1678.) Died in 1659. 
 
 See Dinouart, "Vie de J. de Palafox," 1767; Champion, 
 "Histcire de J. de Palafox," i6S3. 
 
 Palafox y Melzi, pa-la-fdH' e mel'Mee, (Jose,) com- 
 monly called simply Palafox, (which in pronunciation 
 U usually Anglicized as pAI'a-fuks',) a Spanish general, 
 born in Aragon in 17S0. He became in his youth a 
 member of the military household of the king. When 
 in attack on Saragossa by the French was expected, in 
 180S, he was nominated captain-general by popular ac- 
 clamation. He defended that city obstinately for sixty 
 days, at theend of which term the French retired, August, 
 iScS. Another force, under Lannes, renewed the siege 
 in November, and Palafox was forced to capitulate in 
 February, 1809. He supported the popular cause against 
 Ferdinand VII. in 1820. About 1836 he was made Duke 
 of Saragossa. Died in 1847. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Pal'a-mas, [naXapuf,] (Grecorius,) a Greek monk 
 and mystical writer, lived about 1350. He was the 
 leader of a sect or party called Palamites, whose claims 
 to mystical light caused a great controversy. 
 Palarnede. See Pai.amedks. 
 
 Pal-a-me'des, [Gr. IZaAa/iiyoV ; Fr. Palamede, pi'- 
 It'mjd', ] a personage of classic mythology, supposed to 
 have been the inventor of scales, measures, chess, dice, 
 and several letters of the Greek alphabet. Having joined 
 the expedition against Troy, he exposed by an ingenious 
 stratagem the feigned insanity of Ulysses, and thereby 
 incurred his enmity. The poets relate that Ulysses 
 concealed in the tent of Palamedes a sum of money 
 and a forged letter from Priam, on the evidence of which 
 Palamedes was convicted of treason and put to death. 
 See Virgil, ".AEiieid," book ii. 82. 
 
 Paiaprat, pS'li'pKJt', (Jean de Bigot,) a French 
 dramatic poet, born at Toulouse in 1650. He was sec- 
 retary to the grand prior of Vendome, and was noted 
 for wit. He wrote dramas entitled "The Secret Re- 
 vealed" and "The Prude of the Time," ("La Prude du 
 Temps,") and assisted Brueys in the composition of 
 several plays. Died in 1721. 
 
 Pal-a-ti'nus, a surname given by the Romans to 
 Apollo, to whom a temple was erected on Mount Pala- 
 tine. 
 
 Palazzi, pi-Iat'see, (Giovanni,) an Italian historian, 
 born at Venice about 1640. He wrote many mediocre 
 works, among which is a " History of the German Em- 
 pire," (9 vols., 1671-79.) Died about 1702. 
 Paleario. See Pai.karius. 
 
 Pal-e-a'rI-us or Paleario, pi-lk-1're-o, (Aonius or 
 A'jmo,) a good Italian writer and scholar, was born in 
 the Cnmpagna of Rome about 1500. His proper name 
 was Dei.i.a Pagi.ia, (pal'ya.) He acquired distinction 
 as a Latin poet, and became professor of eloquence at 
 Milan in 1555. His Latin poem on the immortality of 
 the soul (1536) was commended by Sadolet. Having 
 been converted to the doctrines of the Reformers, or 
 advocated religious liberty, he was tried for heresy and 
 hung at Rome in 1570. 
 
 See " Life and Times of Aonio Paleario," by M. Yot'NG, 3 vols., 
 i860; GtVLlTT, " Li.-U-n ties A. Paleaiius," 1S05; Bavle, " His- 
 torical and Critical Dictionary;" Nic£ron, "Me'moires." 
 Palemon. See Pal/emon. 
 Palenoia, de, (Alfonso.) See Alfonso de Pa- 
 
 I.KNCIA. 
 
 Palencia, de, da pa-len'the-1, (Fernando,) a Spanish 
 soldier and writer, lived in the sixteenth century. He 
 served in the army in Peru, and published in 1571 a 
 " History of Peru." 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. ii. 
 b )ok v. 
 
 Paleologue. See PaL/Eologus. 
 
 Paleotti, pa 14-ot'tee, (Gahriel,) an Italian cardinal, 
 born at Bologna in 1524. He was sent to the Council 
 of Trent by Pius IV., and became a cardinal in 1565. 
 Among his works is "De Bono Senectutis," (1598.) 
 Died in 1597. 
 
 Pa'lea, [ Y\ : Pai.es, piles',] a divinity who presided 
 over cattle, shepherds, and pastures among the ancient 
 Roman*. Pales was represented by some as a male and 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as §; th as in this. 
 
 lot) 
 
 by others as a female deity, and was the personification 
 of the same idea as Pan among the Greeks. 
 
 Palestrina, da, dJ pi-les-tRee'na, (Giovanni Pier- 
 luigi,) an Italian composer of great celebrity, was born 
 at Palestrina, (the ancient Praeneste,) near Rome, about 
 1524. He studied at Rome under Claude Goudimel, a 
 Frenchman. In 1551 he was appointed chapel-master 
 to Pope Julius III. He produced in 1554 his first work, 
 four masses for four voices, and obtained a place among 
 the singers of the pontifical chapel, from which Paul 
 IV. removed him because he was married. From 1561 
 to 1571 he was chapel-master of Santa Maria Mag- 
 giore. During this period the pope resolved to reform 
 the music of the Church or to banish it. Palestrina 
 was directed to compose a mass which should be con- 
 formed to a pure orthodox standard. The result was 
 the famous mass for six voices, called the "Mass of 
 Pope Marcellus," (1565,) which was received with great 
 admiration and determined his superiors to retain music 
 in the Roman Church. "The unrivalled genius of Pa- 
 lestrina," says Denne-Baron, referring to this mass, 
 " created the only kind of music which comports with 
 the majesty of the Church ; and among the productions 
 of succeeding composers nothing has equalled the power, 
 the profound and simple accent, the mystic tenderness, 
 the ravishing sweetness, of his chants." '(" Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale.") In 1571 he was appointed chapel- 
 master in Saint Peter's. Died in 1504. 
 
 See Wintkkfki.d, "J. Pierluigi von Palestrina," etc., 1832; 
 Baini, "Memorie storico criticlie della Vita e delle Opere di Palt-s- 
 trina." 1828; Fills, " Biographie Universale des Musiciens." 
 
 Paletta, pi-let'ta, or Falletta, pSl-let'tS, (Giovanni 
 Battista,) an Italian anatomist and writer, born in the 
 valley of Ossola, in Piedmont, in 1747. He became 
 surgeon-in-chief of the grand hospital of Milan in 1787. 
 Among his works is " Pathological Exercises," ("Exer- 
 citationes Pathological," 2 vols., 1820.) Died in 1832. 
 
 See G. Frrrario. "Vita del Professore G. B. Paletta." 1S33. 
 
 PaTey, (Frederick Apthorp,) an English scholar, 
 a grandson of the famous author, William Paley, was 
 born near York in 1816. He edited the works of JSLs- 
 chylus and Euripides, and was the author of several 
 works on church architecture. 
 
 Paley, (William,) an eminent English writer, born 
 at Peterborough in 1743. He graduated in 1763 at 
 Christ's College, Cambridge, — where he does not appear 
 to have been distinguished for his application,* — took 
 holy orders, and was chosen a Fellow of his college in 
 1766. He was subsequently employed as a tutor at 
 Cambridge, and became rector of Musgrove, in West- 
 moreland, in 1775, soon after which date he married. 
 In 1782 he was appointed Archdeacon of Carlisle. He 
 published in 1785 "The Principles of Moral and Political 
 Philosophy," regarded by some as the most important 
 of all his works. As a writer he excels in logical power 
 and in clearness of style. He denies the existence of a 
 moral sense, and adopts the maxim that " whatever is 
 expedient is right." He was liberal in theology, was 
 a friend of civil and religious liberty, and earnestly 
 advocated the abolition of the slave-trade. In 1790 he 
 produced an admirable work entitled " Horce Paulinae, 
 or the Truth of the Scripture History 04 Saint Paul 
 evinced." He was appointed a prebendary of Saint 
 Paul's in 1794, and was presented to ;tie sub-deanery of 
 Lincoln Cathedral. About 1795 iie obtained the rec- 
 tory of Bishop-Wearmotith. His other principal works 
 are "A View of the Evidences of Christianity," (3 vols., 
 •794.) one of the best works ever written on the subject 
 of which it treats, and " Natural Theology, or Evidences 
 of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity," (1802,) 
 which has a very high reputation and has often been 
 reprinted. Died in 1805. 
 
 "This excellent writer," says Mackintosh, "who, after 
 Clarke and Butler, ought to be ranked among the 
 
 It is said that Airing the early part of his term at Cambridge 
 he spent bit time in agreeable idleness. One of his companions 
 called on him early one morning, and told him he had been unable to 
 sleep, from the Conviction that he (Paley) was squandering talents 
 which, if properly directed, might be most useful to himself and to 
 the world, concluding with these words: "If you persist in your 
 indolence, I must renounce your society." The result was that Palev 
 entirely changed his course of life. 
 
 (Ey~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PALFT 
 
 1730 
 
 PALISOT 
 
 brightest ornaments of the English Church in the eigh- 
 teenth century, is in the history of philosophy naturally 
 placed after Tucker, to whom, with praiseworthy libe- 
 rality, he owns his extensive obligations. . . . His style 
 is as near perfection in its kind as any in our language. 
 . . . The most original and ingenious of his writings is 
 the 'Horaa Paulinas.' 'The Evidences of Christianity' 
 are formed out of an admirable translation of Butler's 
 ' Analogy' and a most skilful abridgment of Lardner's 
 'Credibility of the Gospel History.' . . . His 'Natural 
 Theology' is the wonderful work of a man who after 
 sixty had studied anatomy in order to write it ;* and it 
 could only have been surpassed by a man who to great 
 originality of conception and clearness of exposition 
 added the advantage of a high place in the first class 
 of physiologists. ... It cannot be denied that Paley 
 was sometimes rather a lax moralist, — especially on 
 public duties." (See Mackintosh's " Progress of Ethical 
 Philosophy.") 
 
 "On one great topic — that of Christian evidence — 
 he has shed new light. By felicity of arrangement and 
 illustration, he has given an air of novelty to old argu- 
 ments, whilst he has strengthened his cause by important 
 original proofs. His ' Horse Paulinse' is one of the 
 few books destined to live. Paley saw what he did 
 see through an atmosphere of light. He seized on the 
 strong points of his subject with an intuitive sagacity, 
 and has given his clear bright thoughts in a style which 
 has made them the property of his readers almost as 
 perfectly as they were his own. ... He was character- 
 ized by the distinctness of his vision. He was not, we 
 think, equally remarkable for its extent. He was popular 
 rather than philosophical. He was deficient in that 
 intellectual thirst which is a chief element of the philo- 
 sophical spirit. He had no irrepressible desire to sound 
 the depths of his own nature, or to ascend to wide and 
 all-reconciling views of the works and ways of God. 
 Moral philosophy he carried backward ; nor had he 
 higher claims in religious than in ethical science. His 
 sermons are worthy of all praise, not, indeed, for their 
 power over the heart, but for their plain and strong 
 expositions of duty and their awakening appeals to the 
 conscience." (See " Remarks on the Character and 
 Writings of Fenelon," in Channing's "Discourses.") 
 
 See G. W. Meadley, "Memoirs of the Life of W. Paley," 1809: 
 Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors :" " London Quarterly Review" 
 for July, 1813 ; "Monthly Review" for August and December, 1785. 
 
 Palfy, pSl'fe, (Albert,) a Hungarian litterateur and 
 publicist, born at Grosswardein in 1813. Soon after the 
 commencement of the republican movement in 1848, he 
 founded a daily paper called "The 15th of March," 
 which obtained great popularity and had a marked in- 
 fluence on the Hungarian revolution. In 1849 the journal 
 was confiscated, and its editor for a time imprisoned. 
 Palfv is the author of several novels, which rank among 
 the best in Hungarian literature. 
 
 Palfy, ( JAnos,) Count of, a Hungarian field-marshal, 
 born in 1659, served under Prince Eugene in the Italian 
 campaigns of 1 701-2, and subsequently against the Turks. 
 He was appointed in 1741 commander-general in Hun- 
 gary, where he was a zealous adherent of Maria Theresa. 
 Died in 1751. 
 
 * We do not attach any very great importance to the charge of 
 'stupendous plagiarism" brought against Paley for what he has 
 borrowed from Dr. Nieuwentyt. (See the article on this subject in 
 the "London Athenaeum," published in August, 1848.) Macaulay 
 well remarks that "the reasoning by which Socrates, in Xeuophon's 
 hearing, confuted the little atheist Aristodemus is exactly the reason- 
 ing of Paley's ' Natural Theology.' " (See article on " Ranke's His- 
 tory of the Popes," in Macaulay's " Essays.") If, then, Paley's line 
 of argument is exactlv like that of Socrates, and also the same as 
 that employed by Dr. Nieuwentyt, it is at least possible that Dr. Nieu- 
 wentyt may have derived some of his ideas and arguments — if not his 
 particular illustrations — from Socrates. We should be very sorry to 
 say anything to encourage plagiarism ; but those who are best ac- 
 quainted with what has been done in this department of philosophy 
 will probably be most ready to admit the impossibility of any one 
 claiming justly absolute originality, or anything near it, in this great 
 field of thought. The chief merit of Paley, who does not appearto 
 have made any especial pretension to originality as respects the in- 
 dividual ideas or illustrations of his subject, consists in the admirable 
 skill and ability with which he combines and presents the whole 
 argument. Without being the creator, or even the first discoverer, 
 of many of the different points of evidence adduced by him ; he may 
 be said to marshal them as a consummate general marshals his forces, 
 to as to render them in combination irresistible. 
 
 Palfyn, pal-fin', sometimes written Palfin, (Jean,) a 
 skilful Flemish anatomist, born at Ghent in 1650. He 
 lectured on surgery at Ghent, made some improvements 
 in that art, and published a valuable work on " Surgical 
 Anatomy," (1710.) Died in 1730. 
 
 See De Mersseman, " Notice sur J. Palfyn," 1844. 
 
 Pal'frey, (John Gorham,) LL.D., an American divine 
 and historian, born at Boston in 1796. Having gradu- 
 ated in 1 81 5 at Harvard College, he studied theology, 
 and was appointed in 1831 Dexter professor of sacied 
 literature at Harvard. He became in 1836 editor of the 
 " North American Review." He published " Lectures 
 on the Jewish Scriptures and Antiquities," (4 vols., 
 1838-52,) "Evidences of Christianity," (1843,) "Review 
 of Lord Mahon's History of England," (1852,) and "The 
 Relation between Judaism and Christianity," (1854.) He 
 was elected in 1847 to Congress, where he distinguished 
 himself as an advocate of emancipation, having pre- 
 viously liberated a number of slaves bequeathed to him 
 by a relative in New Orleans. In 1851 he became asso- 
 ciate editor of "The Commonwealth," a leading journal 
 of the Free-Soil party. The second volume of his " His- 
 tory of New England" came out in i860. 
 
 See the " North American Review" for April, 1859, and October, 
 1S60 ; Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Palfrey, (William,) an American patriot, born at 
 Boston in 1741. He took an active part in the move- 
 ments which preceded the Revolution, and visited Eng- 
 land in 1771. In March, 1776, he became an aide-de-camp 
 to General Washington. He was appointed paymaster- 
 general, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, in April, 
 1776. Having been appointed consul-general in France 
 by a unanimous vote of Congress in November, 1780, 
 he embarked in a ship which was never heard of after 
 she left the Capes. 
 
 See " Life of William Palfrey," by his grandson, John G. Pal- 
 frey, in Sparks's " American Biography," vol. vii., 2d series. 
 
 Pal'grave, (Sir Francis,) F.R.S., an English historian, 
 born in London in 1788. His family name was Cohen, 
 which he exchanged for that of Palgrave. In 1827 he 
 was admitted to the bar. He published in the " Family 
 Library," in 1831, "The History of England: Anglo- 
 Saxon Period," and in 1832 " The Rise and Progress of 
 the English Commonwealth : Anglo-Saxon Period," (2 
 vols.,) which were received with favour. A few years 
 later he was appointed deputy keeper of her Majesty's 
 public records. Among his principal works is a " His- 
 tory of Normandy and England," (1st vol., 1851 ; 2d vol., 
 1857.) Died in July, 1861. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1832, and October, 1837; 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1851, and July, 1857. 
 
 Palice. See Chabannes, de, (Jacques.) 
 
 Palice, de la, deh IS pS'less', (Jacques de Cha- 
 bannes — deh shfbtn',) Seigneur, an able French 
 general, whom Charles VIII. appointed lieutenant of 
 the kingdom of Naples about 1498. He was wounded 
 at Agnadel in 1509. When Nemours fell at Ravenna, in 
 1512, the army demanded La Palice for their general. 
 He was defeated at Guinegate in 15 13, obtained a mar- 
 shal's baton in 1515, and served under Lautrec in the 
 Milanese in 1521. In 1523 he opposed Constable Bour- 
 bon with success in Provence. He was killed at Pavia 
 in 1525. 
 
 Palingenio. See Manzolli. 
 
 Palingenius Stellatus. See Manzolli. 
 
 Palinure. See Palinurus. 
 
 Pal-I-nu'rus, [Gr. Xlalivovpog ; Fr. Palinure, pS'le'- 
 ntiR',] the pilot or helmsman of the ship which carried 
 iEneas in his sea-voyage. 
 
 Palisot de Beauvois, pi'le'zo' deh bo'vwa', (Am- 
 broise Marie Francois Joseph,) a French botanist 
 and zoologist, born at Arras in 1752. He explored Benin 
 and a part of Guinea in 1786-87, after which he visited 
 Saint Domingo. Escapingfrom the revolted slaves, who 
 were about to kill him, he took refuge in Philadelphia in 
 1793, after which he made a scientific excursion in the 
 interior. He returned to France in 1798, and succeeded 
 Adanson in the Institute in 1806. He published a " Flora 
 of Owara and Benin," (2 vols., 1804-21,) "Insects col- 
 lected in Africa and America," (1805-21,) and other 
 works. His "Flora of Owara," etc. is described by 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
PAL1SS0T 
 
 1731 
 
 PALLAS 
 
 Depping as " a beautiful work, rich in discoveries." 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See Cuvikr, " tfloge de Palisot de Beauvois," 1820: Thiebaut 
 de Berkbaud, " FJoge historique de Palisot de Beauvois," 1821. 
 
 Palissot, pi'le'so', (Charles de Montenoy — moN'- 
 t$h-nwa',) a French poet and prose writer, born at Nancy 
 in 1730. A caustic and satirical temper involved him 
 deeply in literary quarrels, especially against the En- 
 cyclopedists. He ridiculed Rousseau in his comedy 
 entitled "The Circle," ("Le Cercle," 1755,) and Uiderot 
 in " Little Letters on Great Philosophers," (" Petites 
 I.ettres sur de grands Philosophes," 1757.) His comedy 
 of "The Philosophers" (" Les Philosophes," 1760) was 
 very successful ; but his satirical poem the "Dunciade" 
 (1764) was a failure. Died in 1814. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Pal'is-sy, [Fr. pron. pt'le'se',] (Bernard,) a cele- 
 brated French potter and enameller, born near Agen 
 (Lot-et-Garonne) about 1506. He studied natural his- 
 tory, chemistry, and other sciences. He expended many 
 years in experiments on the art of enamelling stone- 
 ware or pottery, and, after great trials and sufferings, at 
 last succeeded, in 1555. During this period he was 
 converted to the Reformed religion, for which he was 
 arrested and imprisoned. About 1565 he was invited to 
 Paris, employed by the king, and lodged at the Tuileries. 
 By the favour of his noble or royal patrons, he escaped 
 the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, in 1572. In 1575 he 
 opened a course of lectures on physics and natural his- 
 tory at Paris. He was the first in France who applied 
 sound methods and demonstrations in explaining the 
 phenomena of nature. He ornamented his ware, called 
 rustiques figulines, with accurate coloured figures of ani- 
 mals. Among his works is a "Treatise on the Origin 
 of Fountains, and on the Nature of Metals, Salts, Stones," 
 etc., (1580.) He died in 1589, in the Bastille, where he 
 was confined for his religious principles. He was dis- 
 tinguished no less for his virtue than for his talents. 
 
 See Alfred Dumrsnil, " Bernard Palissy," Paris, 1851 ; Henry 
 Mori.ev, " The Life of B. Palissy, his Labours and Discoverfes," 
 London, 2 vols., 1852; Camille Duplessis, " fitude sur Palissy," 
 1855 ; " Biographie Universelle ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Palitzach, pa'litsh, (Johann Georg,) a German 
 astronomer, born near Dresden in 1723, was a cultivator 
 of the soil. He discovered with the naked eye Halley's 
 comet in December, 1758, before it had been seen by 
 any telescopic observer. Died in 1788. 
 
 Pal'la-das, [IIa>U<i<Jac,] a Greek poet, lived about 400 
 A. D. He wrote many epigrams, preserved in the Greek 
 Anthology. He ridicules some Christians who con- 
 verted statues of the gods into images of the saints. 
 
 Pallade. See Palladius. 
 
 Palladines or Paladines, de, deli pt'lf'den', (D'Au- 
 relles,) a French general, born about 1820. He served 
 in the Crimean war, and became a general of division in 
 1867. He commanded the army of the Loire, which de- 
 feated the Germans near Orleans, November 10, 1870. 
 
 Palladino da Teramo. See Teramo; da. 
 
 Palladio, pal-la'de-o, [Lat. Palla'dius,] (Andrea,) 
 an illustrious architect, bom at Vicenza, in Italy, in 1518. 
 It is not known who was his master; but he states in 
 one of his works that he chose Vitruvius as his guide in 
 architecture. He found a liberal patron in Trissino the 
 poet, and visited Rome several times to study the monu- 
 ments of antiquity. Having settled in Vicenza, he ex- 
 hibited his superior talents in the design of the Palazzo 
 della Ragione. He adorned his native city with many 
 private residences or villas, and built on the Brenta 
 the Foscari palace, which was much admired. The 
 Villa Capra, or Rotonda, near Vicenza, and the Teatro 
 Olimpico, in that city, are considered among his master- 
 pieces. He built several fine edifices in Venice, among 
 which is the church of II Redentore, begun about 1577. 
 In 1570 he published a "Treatise on Architecture," 
 which was often reprinted. He died in 1580. "He 
 combines," says Castellan, " in the style of his edifices, 
 simplicity and grandeur. ... He seems to have derived 
 from the ancients the quintessence of their taste." 
 ( " Biographie Universelle." ) It is, however, proper 
 to oljserve that while perhaps no other architect has 
 enjoyed a higher or more universal reputation for genius 
 
 and taste, so that the term " Palladian" has been exten- 
 sively used throughout Europe as equivalent to beautiful 
 and excellent in architecture, his designs, in the opinion 
 of many critics, are very far from being faultless. For 
 some severe strictures on the style of Palladio, the 
 reader is referred to the article on " Architecture," by 
 Professor Hosking, in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 
 See P. Gualdo, "Vita di A. Palladio," 1749; T. Temanza, 
 "Vita di A. Palladio," 1763; A. Rigato, " Osservazioni sopra A. 
 Palladio," 1811 ; A. Magkini, "Memorie intorno la Vita e le Opere 
 di A. Palladio," 1S45 : Mm.izia, " Memorie degli Architetti antichi e 
 nioderni;" Tjcozzi, " Dizionario." 
 
 Palladio, (Biagio Paixai.) called Blosio, (blo'se-o,) 
 a Latin poet, born at Castelvetro, in Italy. He became 
 Bishop of Foligno in 1540. Died in 1550. 
 
 Palladium. See Minerva. 
 
 Palladius. See Palladio. 
 
 Pal-la'dl-us, [na/ttuAoc,] surnamed Iatrosophis'ta, 
 a Greek medical writer of an uncertain epoch. As he 
 quotes Galen, he must have lived after 200 a.d. He left 
 a short treatise on Fevers, (nepl ■jwpeTuv avvTOfio; ovvoipit,,) 
 and scholia on Hippocrates' book on Fractures. Both 
 of these are extant. 
 
 Palladius, Bishop of Helenopolis, in Bithynia, is 
 supposed to have flourished about 400 A.D. He wrote 
 a work, in Greek, called the " Lausiac History," which 
 contains biographies of some ascetics or saints of Pales- 
 tine and Egypt. 
 
 Palladius, [Fr. Pallade, pt'lld',] a bishop, who 
 was sent by Pope Celestine to convert the Irish or 
 Scotch (Scotos) about 431 a.d. He is honoured as a 
 saint both by the Irish and the Scottish Romanists. 
 
 Palladius of Methone, a Greek Sophist, lived about 
 325 a.d. He wrote on the Festivals of the Romans. 
 
 Palladius,(RuTiLius Taurus ^Emilianus,) a Roman 
 writer on agriculture, lived probably between 300 and 
 400 a.d. His work "On Agriculture" ("De Re Rustica") 
 was popular in the middle ages, and is still extant. 
 
 Pallajuolo. See Pollajuolo. 
 
 Pal'las, [Gr. Ha?Auc,] an appellation of the goddess 
 Minerva or Athena. (See Minerva.) In Homer this 
 name always appears united with Athena, as Pallas 
 Athena. 
 
 Pal'las, a favourite of the Roman emperor Claudius, 
 was a slave in his youth. He was an accomplice of 
 Agrippina in the crime of poisoning Claudius. Died 
 in 63 A.D. 
 
 Pallas, a son of Evander, King of Arcadia, was an 
 ally of jEneas in the war against Turnus. He was re- 
 nowned for his courage, and was an intimate friend of 
 jEneas. He was killed by Turnus. 
 
 See Virgil's ">£neid," book viii. 104, x. 365-489. 
 
 Pallas, a son of Pandi'on, King of Athens, and a 
 brother of /Egeus. He was said to have been killed by 
 Theseus. 
 
 Pallas, pal'las, (Peter Simon,) a distinguished Prus- 
 sian naturalist and traveller, born in Berlin in 1 741. He 
 was educated for the medical profession at Gbttingen 
 and Leyden, and made himself master of Latin, French, 
 and English. He acquired reputation by his " Miscel- 
 lanea Zoologica," (1766,) and at the invitation of Cathe- 
 rine II. he became professor oT natural history in the 
 Academy of Saint Petersburg in 1767. He wrote for 
 the Academy a "Memoir on the Fossil Bones of the 
 Huge Quadrupeds found in Siberia." Pallas was one of 
 the many scientific men whom the empress sent in 1768 
 to explore Siberia. He devoted his attention in this 
 great enterprise to zoology, botany, and geology, and, 
 after extending his researches to the frontier of China, 
 returned to Saint Petersburg in 1774. His "Travels 
 through Different Provinces of the Russian Empire" 
 (in German, 1771-76) is highly esteemed for its exact 
 descriptions and just observations. He discovered in 
 the mountain-ranges of Siberia the general law of the 
 succession of the three primitive orders of rocks, — the 
 granitic, the schistose, and the calcareous. "This great 
 fact," says Cuvier, "expressed in his Memoir read to 
 the Academy in 1777, has given birth to all modern 
 geology." He displayed his superior genius in many 
 other works, among which are a " History of the Mon- 
 golian Nations," " Essays on the North in Relation to 
 
 « as *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *y th as in this, ( Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PALLAVICINI 
 
 '732 
 
 PALMER 
 
 Physical Geography, Ethnography," etc., (1781-96,) and 
 " Flora Rossica," (a " Flora of Russia," 1785.) In 1795 
 he removed for his health to the Crimea, the climate of 
 vvhich had appeared pleasant to him as he formerly 
 passed through it. Although he was disappointed by 
 fending the climate extremely variable, he remained there 
 about fifteen years, after which he removed to Berlin, 
 where he died in i8ti. He left unfinished a great work 
 on the Zoology of the Russian Empire, of which 3 vols, 
 were published, entitled " Fauna Asiatico-Rossica." He 
 was a foreign associate of the French Institute. 
 
 See Run* .phi, " Essai Mstorique sur Pallas," 1812; Cuvier, 
 " Eloges his: jriques;" Mkuski., "Gelehrtes Deutschland ;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate :" *" Monthly Review" for January, 1S05. 
 
 Pallavicini, pal-Ia-ve-chee'nee, or Pelavicino, pi- 
 
 la-ve-chee'no, (Oberto,) Marquis, an able general, born 
 at Piacenza. lie became the ally of the emperor Fred- 
 erick against Gregory IX. in 1234, after which he gained 
 victories over the Guelphs and made himself master of 
 a large part of Northern Italy. His power was subverted 
 by Charles of Anjou in 1266. Died in 1269. 
 
 Pallavicini or Pallavicino, pal-la-ve-chee'no, (Pie- 
 TRo Skorza,) an Italian historian and cardinal, was born 
 at Rome in 1607. He wrote a treatise on style, "Dello 
 Stilo," (1662,) and other works, the best-known of which 
 is a " History of the Council of Trent," (2 vols., 1656, 
 arnd 3 vols., 1664.) It is said to be well written. Died 
 in 1667. 
 
 See Ireneo Affo, " Memorie della Vita del Cardinale S. Palla- 
 vicino," 1794; Tiraboschi, '* Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Pallavicini, (Stefano Benedetto,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Padua in 1672. He became a resident of Dres- 
 den in his youth. He produced several original poems, 
 and a version of the Odes of Horace, (1736,) which is 
 elegant, but rather free. Died at Dresden in 1742. 
 
 F.Ulavicini della Priola, pal-la-ve-chee'nee del'la 
 pRee'o-la, (Emii.io,) Marquis, an Italian general, born 
 at Ceva in 1823. He distinguished himself in the war 
 against Austria in 1859. He commanded the force which 
 captured Garibaldi at Aspromonte in August, 1862. 
 
 Pallavicino. See Pallavicini. 
 
 Pallavicino, pal-la-ve-chee'no, (Ferrante,) an Ital- 
 ian monk and satirical writer, born at Piacenza about 
 1618. He wrote licentious works, and satires against 
 Pope Urban VIII. and the Barberini. Having impru- 
 dently entered the papal territory, he was seized and 
 beheaded at Avignon in 1644. 
 
 Palliere, pt'l.ejiJR', (Vincent L£on,) a French his- 
 torical painter, born at Bordeaux in 1787. He gained 
 the first prize at Paris in 181 2, and went to Rome, with a 
 pension. Among his works is "Homer dictating his 
 Poems." He died prematurely in 1820. 
 
 Palliot, pi'le'o', (Pierre,) a French genealogist, born 
 in Paris in 1608 ; died at Dijon in 1698. 
 
 Pal'lls-er, (Sir Hugh,) a British admiral, born about 
 1720. He was second in command under Keppel at 
 the battle off Ushant, in 1778, and was then involved 
 in a dispute with Keppel, which was referred to a court 
 of inquiry. Palliser was censured by this court. Died 
 in 1796. 
 
 See " Life of Sir Hugh Palliser," by R. M. Hunt, London, 1844. 
 
 Palloni, pal-lo'nee, (Gaetano,) an Italian medical 
 writer, born in 1770, was professor of medicine at Flor- 
 ence. He was ennobled by the Grand Duke of Tuscany. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 Palluel. See Crette de Palluel. 
 
 Palm, palm, (Johann Georg,) a German Lutheran 
 divine, born at Hanover in 1697, published several works. 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 Palm, (Johann Philipp,) a German publisher, born at 
 Schorndorf in 1766, lived in Nuremberg. For the publi- 
 cation of a pamphlet against Bonaparte, he was tried by 
 a French military commission, and shot, in August, 1806. 
 
 Palma, pal'm'a, (Jacopo,) styled Ii. Vecchio, (el vek'- 
 ke-o,) or the Elder, an eminent painter of the Venetian 
 school, born near Bergamo. His birth is variously dated 
 from about 1480 to 1520. He is said to have been a 
 pupil of Titian. He excelled in vivacity and softness of 
 colouring. The galleries of Europe contain a great many 
 works attributed to him. Among his master-pieces are 
 a "Last Supper" and a Madonna at Vicenza. His works 
 
 exhibit good taste in composition, and such a union of 
 tints that no trace of the brush is perceptible. Died at 
 the age of forty-eight. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Rodoi.fi, " Vite degli 11- 
 lustri Pittori Veneti ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Palma, (Jacopo,) the younger, a nephew of the 
 preceding, was born at Venice in 1544. He imitated 
 Titian and Tintoretto, and acquired a high reputation. 
 In the opinion of some writers, he combined the best 
 principles of the Roman and Venetian schools. "The 
 distinctive mark of his talent," says the " Hiographie 
 Universelle," "is facility. His tints are fresh and trans- 
 parent, and more agreeable than those of Tintoretto." 
 He is charged, however, with depraving the style of the 
 Venetian school. Among his works are an "Annuncia- 
 tion" and "The Plague of the Serpents." Died in 1628. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Palmaroli, pal-ma-ro'lee,(PlETRO,) an Italian painter, 
 distinguished for his skill in transferring frescos to can- 
 vas. He practised this art first with success in 181 1. 
 He transferred and restored many pictures of the old 
 masters in Rome. Died in 1828. 
 
 Palmblad, palm'blad, ( Wilhei.m Fredrik,) a Swe- 
 dish editor and writer, born near Soderkoping in 1788. 
 He edited several literary periodicals, one of which was 
 the " Phosphorus," and became a member of a new 
 school, called Phosphorists, who preferred German lit- 
 erature and influence to the French. He was professor 
 of history and of the Greek language at Upsal. His 
 chief production is a "Biographical Dictionary of Emi- 
 nent Swedes," (23 vols.,) a work of much merit, com- 
 menced about 1835 and finished in 1857. He wrote a 
 successful novel, called "Aurora Konigsmark," (6 vols., 
 1846-51.) Died in 1852. 
 
 See " Biographiskt-Lexicon bfver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Palmegiani, pal-ma-ja'nee, or Palmezzano, pal- 
 met-sa'iio, (Marco,) an able Italian painter, born at 
 FoiTt in the fifteenth century. His works are dated 
 front 1 5 13 to 1537. 
 
 Palmella, pjl-mel'la, (Pedro he Souza-Holstein 
 — so'za ol-stan', ?) Duke: of, a liberal Portuguese states- 
 man, born at Turin in 1786. He was appointed min- 
 ister of foreign affairs and president of the council by 
 John VI. of Portugal in 1823. He was an adherent of 
 Don Pedro in his contest against Don Miguel, (1830-33.) 
 After the accession of Queen Maria (1834) he became 
 prime minister. Died in 1850. 
 
 See " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Palmer, pa'mer, ( Erastus Dow,) a distinguished 
 American sculptor, born in Onondaga county, New 
 York, in 1817. Among his principal works are an 
 "Indian Girl Contemplating a Crucifix," "The White 
 Captive," the "Sleeping Peri," and the "Landing of 
 the Pilgrims." He has also executed a number of por- 
 traits, busts, and bas-reliefs. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Palmer, pa'mer, (Herbert,) an English Puritan min- 
 ister, born in Kent in 1601. He preached at Canter- 
 bury, Cambridge, and London, and published a popular 
 work entitled "Memorials of Godliness," (1644.) Died 
 in 1647. 
 
 Palmer, (Innis N.,) an American general, born in 
 New York, graduated at West Point in 1846. He fought 
 as brigadier-general in the Union army at Fair Oaks, 
 and at Malvern Hill, July I, 1862. He commanded in 
 the district of North Carolina from April, 1864, to 
 March, 1S65. 
 
 Palmer, (James S.,) an American rear-admiral, born 
 in New Jersey, entered the navy in 1825. He com- 
 manded the Iroquois in the passage of the batteries of 
 Vicksburg, June, 1862, and was captain of Farragut's flag- 
 ship when she ran past the batteries of Port Hudson, in 
 March, 1863. Having gained the rank of commodore, 
 he was appointed commander of the Western Gulf 
 Blockading Squadron about the end of 1864. Died in 
 December, 1867. 
 
 See J. T. Hbadi.ey, "Farragnt and our Naval Commanders." 
 
 Palmer, (John,) an English Unitarian minister, born 
 in 1729, preached in London many years. Died in 1790. 
 
 i, e, T, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
PALMER 
 
 >733 
 
 PALSGRAVE 
 
 Palmer, (John,) the projector of mail-coaches in Eng- 
 land, was born at Bath in 1742. He obtained the office 
 of controller-general of the post-office, but was removed 
 in 1792. Died iit 1818. 
 
 Palmer, (John,) an English actor, born in London 
 about 1740 ; died in 1798. 
 
 Palmer, (John McAui.ey,) an American general, 
 born in Scott county, Kentucky, in 1817, was a lawyer 
 before the civil war, and practised in Illinois. He was 
 appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers in December, 
 1S61, and commanded a division at the battle of Stone 
 River, December 31, l862-January 2, 1863. For his 
 services in this action he was promoted to the rank of 
 major-general. He took part in the battle of Chicka- 
 mauga, September 19 and 20, 1863, and commanded a 
 corps under Sherman in the campaign against Atlanta, 
 May-September, 1864. He was elected Governor of 
 Illinois by the Republicans in November, 1868. 
 
 Palmer, (Sir Roundei.L,) an eminent English lawyer 
 and legislator, born at Mixbury, Oxfordshire, in 1812. 
 He was called to the bar in 1837, elected to Parliament 
 in 1847, and appointed solicitor-general in 1861. He 
 was attorney-general from 1863 to June, 1866. He is 
 one of the ablest debaters of the Liberal party in Par- 
 liament. He was returned to Parliament for Richmond 
 in 1861, in 1S65, and in 1868. In 1869 he voted against 
 the disestablishment of the Irish Church. 
 
 Palmer, (Samuel,) an English printer, published a 
 "General History of Printing," (1733.) Died in 1732. 
 
 Palmer, (William PlTT,) an American poet, born at 
 Stockbridge, Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 1805. 
 He passed a large part of his mature life in the city of 
 New York, and was successively a medical student, a 
 teacher, a writer for public journals, and a clerk in a 
 public office. He wrote a hymn or ode entitled " Light," 
 and other short poems. 
 
 Palmerston, pi'mer-ston, (Henry John Temple,) 
 Viscount, an eminent English prime minister, born 
 at I!i oadlands, near Romsey, in Hampshire, on the 20th 
 6f October, 1784. He was the eldest son of Henry Tem- 
 ple, second Viscount Palmerston, and was descended 
 from an ancient family, of which the famous Sir William 
 Temple was a member. He was educated at Harrqw, 
 Edinburgh, and Saint John's College, Cambridge. At 
 the death of his father, in 1802, he succeeded to the 
 estate and title of viscount, (in the Irish peerage.) He 
 was elected a member of Parliament by the Tories in 
 1807, and was appointed a lord of the admiralty in the 
 same year. He soon distinguished himself by his talents 
 for business and his political tact. In 1809 he became 
 secretary at war in the ministry of Percival, and in 181 1 
 he was returned to Parliament for the University of 
 Cambridge, which he continued to represent for about 
 twenty years. 
 
 He retained the office of secretary at war during the 
 long administration of Liverpool (1812-27) anc ' under 
 the ministries of Canning and Goderich. As an advocate 
 of Catholic emancipation, he declined to serve under the 
 Duke of Wellington, and resigned office in 1828. Before 
 this date he had become an eminent debater, especially 
 on foreign affairs, in respect to which he favoured the 
 policy of Canning. Although he had hitherto been a 
 Tory, he accepted office as secretary of foreign affairs in 
 the Whig ministry formed in November, 1830. Having 
 resigned with his colleagues in November, 1834, he was 
 appointed to the same office in the Melbourne ministry 
 in April, 1835, and held it until the accession of Sir 
 P.obert Peel, in September, 1841. During this term of 
 official service he had a prominent part in the settlement 
 of the Eastern question. He induced Russia, Austria, 
 and Prussia to unite with England in a treaty signed in 
 London in July, 1840, and to resist the progress of Me- 
 hemet Ali in Syria. France, which favoured Mehemet 
 Ali, was thus ignored in the settlement of the question. 
 He married about 1839 the first Lord Melbourne's 
 daughter, who was the widow of Earl Cowper. On 
 the formation of a new ministry by Lord John Russell, 
 in 1846, Palmerston again became minister of foreign 
 affairs. He pursued the policy of neutrality towards the 
 revolutionary movements by which Europe was con- 
 vulsed in 1848 and 1849, but he promptly recognized the 
 
 French republic, and favoured Napoleon's coup d'itat 
 in 185 1. In consequence of a disagreement with Lord 
 John Russell, he was removed in December of that year. 
 In Deceml>er, 1852, Lord Aberdeen formed a coalition 
 ministry, in which Palmerston was secretary for the home 
 department, while the ministry "drifted" into war against 
 Russia. He succeeded Lord Aberdeen as prime min- 
 ister in February, 1855, and formed a cabinet chiefly 
 of Whigs or Liberals. Peace was restored with Russia 
 in March, 1856. Having been defeated in Parliament 
 on the subject of the Chinese war in March, 1857, he 
 appealed to the country, which sustained his policy by 
 a large majority. He failed in his effort to pass the 
 Conspiracy bill occasioned by Orsini's conspiracy against 
 Napoleon III., and was compelled to resign in February, 
 1858. In June, 1859, he succeeded Lord Derby as the 
 head of a ministry in which Russell was foreign secretary 
 and Gladstone chancellor of the exchequer. He con- 
 tinued to be prime minister until his death, Octol)er 18, 
 1865. He had no children. Palmerston retained in 
 his old age much of the vigour and vivacity of youth. 
 He was an excellent master of parliamentary science 
 and political tactics, and enjoyed a high degree of 
 popularity. He represented Tiverton in the House 
 of Commons from 1835 to his death. 
 
 See G. H. Francis, " Opinions and Policy of Viscount Palmer- 
 ston as Minister, Diplomatist, and Statesman," 1852 ; " Thirty Years 
 of Foreign Policy: a History of the Secretaryships of Earl Aberdeen 
 and Lord Palmerston," 1855; Comte de Ficqoelmont, "Lord 
 Palmerston, I'Angleterre et le Continent," 1852; L. de Lomrnie, 
 " Lord Palmerston, par un Homme de Rien," 1S42 ; Harriet Mar- 
 tineau, " Miographical Sketches," 1S70; " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 November, 1X65; " Westminster Review" for January, 1866. 
 
 Palmezzano. See Palmegiani. 
 
 Palmieri, pal-me-ii'ree, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter 
 of history and animals, born at Genoa in 1674; died 
 in 1740. 
 
 Palmieri, (Giuseppe,) an Italian economist, bom in 
 the province of Ottanto in 1721. He was director- 
 general of the finances at Naples. He wrote a " Treatise 
 on the Art of War," (1 761,) and "Thoughts on Economy," 
 (" Pensieri economici," 1789.) Died in 1793. 
 
 Palmieri, (Matteo,) an Italian historian, born at 
 Florence in 1405. His chief work is a "General Chroni- 
 cle from the Creation to his Own Time." Died in 1475. 
 
 Palmieri, (Matteo,) an Italian philologist, born at 
 Pisa in 1423. He wrote a continuation of the chronicle 
 of Matteo Palmieri from 1449 to 1481, (1483.) Died in 
 1483. 
 
 Palmquist, palm'kwist, (Frederik,) a Swedish ma- 
 thematician, born in 1720, died in 1 77 1. 
 
 Palmquist, (Magnus,) Baron, a Swedish military 
 officer, born in 1660. He was very skilful in fortifica- 
 tions, and was president of the Council of Mines. Died 
 in 1729. 
 
 Palombi, pS-lom'bee, (Gaetano,) an Italian poet, 
 born near Spoleto in 1 753, wrote "II Medoro coronato," 
 (1828.) Died in 1826. 
 
 See Montana, " Elogio di G. Palombi," 1837. 
 
 Palomino de Castro y Velasco, pl-lo-mee'no da 
 kaVtro e vilis'ko, (Don Acisi.o Antonio,) a celebrated 
 Spanish painter, born near Cordova in 1653. His name 
 is sometimes written Palomino de Velasco. He was 
 a pupil of Juan de Valdes Leal. Having painted the 
 story of Psyche for Charles II., he obtained, at an early 
 age, the title of painter to the king. His chief merits 
 are correct design, beautiful colour, and excellence in 
 perspective. "The Confession of Saint Peter" is called 
 one of his best works. His reputation is chiefly founded 
 on his treatise on painting, entitled "El Museo pictorico 
 y Escala optica," (2 vols., 1715,) and his "Lives of 
 Spanish Painters" contained in his " Parnaso Espanol 
 pictorico," (1 vol., 1724.) Died at Madrid in 1726. 
 
 See Qi*ii.!.iet, " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnols;" Cean- 
 Bkrmudez, "Diccionario. " 
 
 Pals'grave, (John,) an English grammarian, born in 
 London. He gave lessons in French to Mary, a sister 
 of Henry VIII., in 1 514, and published a French gram- 
 mar, (1530.) This is the most ancient printed work on 
 that subject of which we have any knowledge, according 
 to Barbier, who praises his sagacity and taste. Died 
 in 1554. 
 
 easi; $asjjgAard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; a, nasal; v., trilled; §ass; th as in //$». (J55p=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PALU 
 
 1734 
 
 PANCKOUCKE 
 
 Palu, de la, deh It pS'lii', [ Lat. Paluda'nus, ] 
 (PiKRRE,) a Fiench Dominican monk, born at Varam- 
 bon about 1280. He was appointed Patriarch of Jeru- 
 salem about 1330, and wrote several works on theology. 
 Died in 1342. 
 
 Paludan - Miiller, pal'do-dfn' mul'ler, (Caraps 
 PETER,) a Danish historian, a brother of Frederic, was 
 born in 1805. He published several works on Danish 
 history, and "Researches on Machiavel," (1839.) 
 
 Paludan-Miiller, ( Frederic, ) a popular Danish 
 poet, born in Fiinen in 1809. He produced in 1832 
 "Cupid at Court," a comedy, and in 1833 a poem called 
 "The Danseuse," (•" Dandserinden," ) which is much ad- 
 mired. His most remarkable work, perhaps, is "Adam 
 Homo," (1841-49,) a humorous poem. He is commended 
 for happy images, noble ideas, and force of sentiment, 
 but is deficient in invention as a dramatist. 
 
 Paludanus. See Palu. 
 
 Paludanus, pa-lii-da'nus, (Bernard Ten Broek — 
 rgn bRook,) a Dutch philosopher and traveller, born at 
 Steenwvk in 1550; died in 1633. 
 
 Paludanus, ( Jean van den Broek, ) a Flemish 
 theologian, born at Malines in 1565. He was professor 
 at Louvain, and author of several works. Died in 1630. 
 
 Pamard, pS'inaV, (Jean Baptiste Antoine,) a 
 French surgeon, born at Avignon in 1763; died in 1827. 
 
 Pamele, de, deh pi'mil', [Lat. Pame'li us,] (Jacques,) 
 a Flemish priest, born at Bruges in 1536. He edited 
 the works of Cyprian (1568) and Tertullian, (1579,) and 
 wrote " Liturgica Latinorum," (1571.) Died in 1587. 
 
 Pamelius. See Pamele. 
 
 Pam'me-nes, [Ylafiusvift,] a Theban general, was a 
 friend of F.Daminondas. Philip of Macedon was in the 
 custody of Pammenes while he was a hostage at Thebes. 
 Pammenes commanded an army sent to Megalopolis 
 in 352 B.C. 
 
 Pammenes, an Athenian orator and teacher of 
 rhetoric, lived in the time of Cicero, who extols his 
 eloquence in high terms. 
 
 Fam'pM-la, [Gr. H.n/xj>i?.?i,] a Roman or Greek histo- 
 rian, lived in the reign of Nero. She wrote a historical 
 work entitled viro/ivi//ia.Ta laTopmu, which was highly es- 
 teemed by some ancient critics. It is not extant. 
 
 Pamphile. See Pamphilus. 
 
 Pam'phl-lus, \T[u/i<pito(;,] one of" the most eminent 
 Greek painters, was a native of Amphipolis, and flour- 
 ished between 390 and 350 B.C. He was the pupil of 
 Eupompus, whom Ire succeeded as the master of the 
 Sicyonian school of painting. As a teacher of art, he was 
 probably surpassed by none of the ancients. His school 
 was remarkable for the importance which the master 
 attached to general learning and the great attention he 
 paid to accuracy in drawing. Pliny says that he was 
 the first artist who was well versed in all sciences, and 
 that he thought geometry necessary to the perfection of 
 his art. He excelled in composition, and in what Quin- 
 tilian calls ratio, or proportion. Pliny mentions four of 
 his works, among which was " Ulysses on his Raft." 
 Apelles and Melanthius were his pupils. 
 
 Pamphilus, a grammarian of Alexandria, is supposed 
 to have lived in the first century of our era. He was 
 the author of a " Greek Lexicon." 
 
 Pamphilus, [Fr. Pamphile, poN'fel',] Saint, an emi- 
 nent martyr, born at Berytus, (Beyroot,) in Syria, about 
 245 A.D. He became presbyter of Csesarea, in Pales- 
 tine, where he founded a large and renowned public 
 library. He was eminent for learning and piety. Hav- 
 ing a high esteem for the works of Origen, he tran- 
 scribed nearly all of them with his own hand. Pamphilus 
 and Eusebius composed jointly an " Apology for Origen." 
 He suffered martyrdom in the reign of Maximin, at 
 Caesarea, in 309 a.d. Eusebius testified his friendship 
 and honour for him by adopting the name of Pamphili. 
 
 See Saint Jerome, " De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis ;" Baronius, 
 " Annales." 
 
 Pan, [Gr. ITar,] the god of flocks, shepherds, and 
 pastures, in classic mythology, was said to be a son of 
 Mercury, and was sometimes identified with the Roman 
 Lupercus. He combined the form of a man with that of 
 a goat, having horns and feet like the latter animal. He 
 was fond of music and riotous noise, and was the inventor 
 
 of the syrinx, the pastoral pipe or flute. The principal 
 seat of his worship was Arcadia. He was regarded by 
 some philosophers as the symbol of the universe ; for 
 Pan signifies "all." Panic terrors were ascribed to 
 Pan, who sometimes appeared to travellers and sur- 
 prised them with a sudden alarm. The Romans ob- 
 served an annual festival, called Lupercalia, in honour 
 of Pan, whose priests were styled Luperci. 
 
 See Smith, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and 
 Mythology ;" " Biographie Universelle," (Partie mythologique.) 
 
 Pan-a-ce'a, [Gr. ilavunaa; Fr. Panacee, pt'ni'sa',] 
 (i.e. the "all-healing,") a daughter of yEsculapius, is 
 simply a personification of the healing power. 
 
 Panacee. See Panacea. 
 
 Pansenus, pa-nee'nus, [Iluvaivoc,] an eminent Athe- 
 nian painter, who lived about 450 B.C., was a brother of 
 Phidias, according to Pausanias, or his nephew, accord- 
 ing to Strabo. He aided Phidias in the decoration of 
 the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, in which he painted, 
 among other subjects, "Atlas Upholding Heaven," and 
 the "Combat of Hercules with the Nemean Lion." His 
 master-piece was a- series of pictures of the battle of 
 Marathon in the Poecile at Athens. 
 
 Panaetius, pa-nee'she-us, [IIar<amoc,] a Greek Stoic 
 or Eclectic philosopher, was born at Rhodes, and was a 
 pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and perhaps of Carneades. 
 About 140 or 150 B.C. he visited Rome, taught philos- 
 ophy to Scipio Africanus and Laelius, and enjoyed the 
 intimate friendship of the former. He was afterwards 
 the head of the Stoic school at Athens, and died, at an 
 advanced age, before III B.C. He is the representative 
 of a moderate stoicism, and appears to have rejected 
 the principle of apathy. None of his works are extant. 
 Among them was a treatise "On Duties," to which 
 Cicero was indebted for many principles of his book 
 " De Officiis." Cicero avowed this fact, and expressed 
 a very high esteem for Panaetius. 
 
 See Suidas, "Panotitis;" Van Lijnden, " Disputatio historico- 
 critica de Pansetio," 1S02; Rittkk, " History of Philosophy." 
 
 Panard, pi'niR', (Charles Francois,) a French 
 chansonnier and dramatist, born near Chartres about 
 1694. He wrote successful songs, vaudevilles, comedies, 
 and pleasant satires. Died in 1765 or 1769. 
 
 Panartz. See Pannartz. 
 
 Panchamuki, one of the names of Siva, which see. 
 
 Panciroli, pin-che-ro'lee, (Guido,) an Italian jurist 
 and antiquary, born at Reggio in 1523. He was pro- 
 fessor of Roman law at Turin (1571-82) and at Padua. 
 Among his important works is one on illustrious jurists, 
 " De Claris Legtim Interpretibus," (1637 ;) also one en- 
 titled " Rerum Memorabilium Libri duo," (1599,) which 
 treats of ancient arts and inventions of which the secret 
 is lost. Died in 1599. 
 
 See Ersch nnd Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Nice- 
 ron, "Me'moires." 
 
 Panckoucke, poN'kook', (Andre Joseph,) a French 
 bookseller and compiler, born at Lille in 1700. He pub- 
 lished a "Philosophic Manual," (2 vols., 1748,) a "Dic- 
 tionary of French Proverbs," (1749,) and other works. 
 He also wrote "The Battle of Fontenoy," in burlesque 
 verse, a parody on Voltaire's poem on that subject. 
 Died in 1753. 
 
 Panckoucke, (Charles Joseph,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, born at Lille in 1736, was an eminent publisher 
 in Paris, and a writer of some merit. He was the pro- 
 prietor or editor of the "Mercure de France," for which 
 he procured 15,000 subscribers. About 17S1 he formed 
 the plan of the " Encyclopedie Methodique," a very large 
 and important work. He founded the " Moniteur," a 
 daily journal, in 1789. He translated Lucretius, (1768,) 
 and "Orlando Furioso," (1798.) He corresponded with 
 Buflbn, Voltaire, and Rousseau. Died in 1798. 
 
 See Quhrard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Panckoucke, (Charles Louis Pleury — fluh're',) 
 a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1780. He 
 was distinguished as a publisher and translator. He 
 was the publisher of a " Dictionary of Medical Sciences," 
 (60 vols.,) and of a collection of Latin classics, with 
 translations, entitled "Latin-French Library," ("Biblio- 
 theque Latine-Francaise," 174 vols., 1828 et sea.) He 
 translated Tacitus, (7 vols., 1830-38.) Died in 1844. 
 
 S e, i, 6, u. y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 0, obscure; far, fill, fat; m4t; nflt; good; moon; 
 
P4NCRATIUS 
 
 '735 
 
 PANSERON 
 
 Paacratius, pan-kra'she-us, one of the early Chris- 
 tians, suffered martyrdom under Diocletian. 
 Pandare. See Pandarus. 
 
 Fan'da-rus, [dr. UuwSapoc; Fr. Pandare, pSx'diR',] 
 a semi-fabulous warrior, who fought against the Greeks 
 in the Trojan war, and was an excellent archer. He was 
 killed bv Diomede. 
 
 Pan-di'ou, [Gr. Uaviion;] a son of Cecrops, became 
 King of Alliens, but was expelled from that country and 
 afterwards ruled over Megara. He was the father of 
 /Egcus, Pallas, and other sons. 
 
 Pandion, a mythical king of Athens, was a son of 
 Erichthonius, and the father of Erechtheus, Philomela, 
 and Procne. It was fabled that Ceres and Bacchus came 
 to Attica in the reign of Pandion. 
 Pandolfe. See Pandolfo. 
 
 Fandolfi, pan-dol'fee, (Gianoiacomo,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Pesaro, was a pupil of F. Zuccaro. He 
 flourished about 1630. 
 
 Pandolfini, pan-dol-fee'nee, (Angf.LO,) an Italian 
 statesman, economist, and writer, born at Florence in 
 1360 ; died in 1446. 
 
 Pandolfo, pan-dol'fo, [Fr. Pandolfe, pSu'dolf ; 
 Lat. Panih l.'l'HUS,] Prince of Benevento and Capua, 
 bes;an to reign in 961. He was one of the most power- 
 ful princes of Italy. Died in 981 A.D. 
 
 Pan-do'ra, |Gr. Ilaixiupa, from rav, "every," and 
 6<j{xn\ "gift ;'"' Fr. Pandore, pSN'doR',] the name given 
 in the Greek mythology to the first woman, who was 
 endowed by Minerva and Venus with every attractive 
 quality, — whence her name, which signifies possessing 
 "every gift." Jupiter gave her a beautiful box, which 
 she was to present to the man who should marry her. 
 She became the wife of Epimetheus, who opened the 
 box, whereupon there issued from it the numerous evils 
 that have since infested human life. Pandora closed the 
 box in time to prevent the escape of Hope. According 
 to one account, Pandora herself, prompted by curiosity, 
 opened the box, though she had been forbidden to do 
 so. Another legend tells us that Pandora's box con- 
 tained variqus blessings, which escaped when she opened 
 it, and could never be recovered. 
 
 See Schokmann, "De Pandora Commentatio," 1853; "Biogra- 
 phie Universale," (Partie mythologique.) 
 Pandore. See Pandora. 
 Pandulphus. See Pandolfo. 
 Panel, pf nil', (Alexandre Xavier,) a French nu- 
 mismatist, born at Nozeroy in 1699. He became a pro- 
 fessor in the Royal College at Madrid, and wrote many 
 works on ancient coins and other antiquities. Died 
 in 1777. 
 
 Panetti, pa-net'tee, (Domenico,) a skilful Italian 
 painter, born at Ferrara in 1460; died in 1530. 
 Panfili. See INNOCENT X. 
 
 Pan-hel-le'nI-us, [Gr. IlavcAAJfvtoc,! {i.e. "the god 
 worshipped by all the Hellenes or Greeks,") a surname 
 of Zeus or Jupiter. 
 
 Panicale, da, da pa-ne-ka'la, (Masolino,) a painter 
 of the Florentine school, born in 1378. Some of his 
 frescos still exist at Florence. He was one of the first 
 artists that attained skill in chiaroscuro. According to 
 Vasari, he died in 1440. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Panigarola, pa-ne-ga-ro'll, (Francesco,) the most 
 eloquent Italian pulpit orator of his time, was born at 
 Milan in 1548. He entered the order of Cordeliers, and 
 became Bishop of Asti in 1587. In 1589 he perverted 
 his talents by advocating in Paris the cause of the League 
 against Henry IV. He left many volumes of Italian and 
 Latin sermons, which have nearly passed into oblivion, 
 and other works. Died in 1594. 
 
 See Bongratia de Varenna, "Vita di Panigarola," 1617; 
 Ughki.i.i, " Italia sacra." 
 
 Panin or Panine, pa-neen', ? (Nikita Ivanovitch,) 
 a Russian statesman, born in 1718. He became governor 
 of the grand duke Paul in 1760, and was appointed min- 
 ister of foreign affairs by Catherine on the abdication of 
 Peter III., (1762.) Died in 1783. 
 
 See "Vie du Comte de Panine," London, 1784. 
 
 Panini, pa'nl-nt, the most celebrated of Sanscrit 
 philologists, lived at a very remote and uncertain period. 
 
 He is said to have been a grandson of the legislator 
 Devala. He is considered by some as the creator of 
 grammatical science and the inventor of the analytic 
 processes to which linguistics owes its discoveries. The 
 rules of his grammar amount to three thousand nine 
 hundred and ninety-six. 
 
 Panini, pl-nee'hee, or Pannini, pan-nee'nee, (Gio- 
 vanni Paolo,) an able painter of the Roman school, 
 born at Piacenza about 1694. He was very skilful in 
 perspective, and was an excellent painter of architecture 
 and landscapes, which he adorned with graceful figures. 
 Among his works are " Ruins of the Temple of Vesta 
 at Tivoli," " The Traders driven from the Temple," and 
 views of ruins at Rome. Died at Rome in 1764. 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 Panis, pS'ness', (Etienne Jean,) a French Jacobin, 
 born in Perigord in 1757. He was accessory to the 
 outrages of his party in Paris, and was elected to the 
 Convention in 1792. He joined the enemies of Robes- 
 pierre on the 9th Thermidor. Died in 1833. 
 
 Panizzi, pa-nlt'see or pa-net'see, (Sir Antonio,) an 
 Italian bibliographer and titte'rateur, born in the duchy 
 of Modena in 1797. He became assistant librarian of 
 the British Museum in 1831, and principal librarian of 
 that institution in 1856. He resigned this position in 
 July, 1865. He has published editions of "Orlando 
 Furioso," (1830-34,) and other poems. 
 
 Paumure, pan'mur or pan-mur',(Fox Maui.e,) Lord, 
 and Earl Dalhousie, a British politician, a son of the 
 first Baron Panmure, was born in Forfarshire in 1801. 
 He was elected to Parliament by the Whigs about 1835, 
 and was secretary of war from July, 1846, to February, 
 1852. He held the same office under Palnierston from 
 1855 to February, 1858. He is a cousin of the late Earl 
 of Dalhousie, whose title he inherited in December, i860. 
 Pannard. See Panard. 
 
 Pannartz, pan'naiUs, (Arnold,) a German printer, 
 who was employed at Mentz by Gutenberg. He re- 
 moved to Italy in 1462, and established a press at Su- 
 biaco. Died in 1476. 
 Pannini. See Panini. 
 Pannonius. See Cisinge, de. 
 Pan-no'nI-us, (Janus,) a Hungarian bishop and 
 Latin poet, born in 1434 ; died in 1472. 
 
 Panofka, pa-nof'ka, (Heinrich,) a German composer 
 and violinist, born at Breslau in 1808, has performed in 
 Paris with success. 
 
 Panofka, (Thkodor,) a German archaeologist, born 
 at Breslau in 1801. He published numerous works, 
 among which are " De Rebus Samiorum," (1822,) and 
 " Pictures of the Life of the Ancients," (" Bilder Antiken 
 Lebens," 1843.) He became professor in the University 
 of Berlin in 1844. Died in 1858. 
 
 Pan'o-pe, [Gr. llavom?,] in classic mythology, was 
 one of the IJereids, and was invoked by mariners. 
 
 Panormita, pa-noR-mee'ta, (Antonio Beccadelli 
 — bek-ka-del'lee,) a distinguished Italian writer, born 
 at Palermo (the Panormus of the ancients) in 1394. He 
 was patronized by the Duke of Milan, and by Alphonso, 
 King of Naples, whom he served as an ambassador. He 
 wrote obscene epigrams, which were admired for wit 
 and elegance of style, and other works, among which 
 is "Familiar Letters," etc., ("Epistolx familiares ac 
 Campanae," 1553.) Died in 1471. 
 
 See F. Coi.angelo, "Vita di A. Beccadelli," 1821; Nicbron, 
 " Me'inoires." 
 
 Pan'sa, (C. Vimus,) a Roman general, who was a 
 partisan of Caesar in the war against Pompey. As a 
 colleague of Hirtius, he obtained the consulship in 43 
 B.C. Hirtius and Pansa joined the party of the senate 
 and marched against Antony, and were both killed in 
 battle near Modena in 43 B.C. 
 
 Pansa, pan'sa, (Muzio,) an Italian philosopher and 
 writer, born in the Abruzzi about 1560. He wrote a 
 work on "The Library of the Vatican," ("Delia Libre- 
 ria Vaticana," 1590) 
 
 Panseron, pftNss'rfiN', (Auguste,) a French musician 
 and composer, born in Paris in 1795. He gained the 
 grand prize in 1813, and became professor de chant 
 at the Conservatory of Paris in 1824. He composed 
 operas, masses, and requiems. His reputation is founded 
 
 eas/fr; 9 as s; ghard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K,tritled; sas«; th asin/4«. (JiySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PJNSERON 
 
 1736 
 
 PAPETY 
 
 chiefly on a great number of popular ballads, (romances,) 
 among which are " Au Revoir," " Vogue ma Nacelle," 
 and " The Dream of Tartini." 
 
 See F^Tls, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Panseron, (Pierre,) a French architect, born near 
 Provins about 1730. He published several good works, 
 one of which is entitled "New Elements of Architec- 
 ture," (3 vols., 1775-80.) 
 
 Pantaenus, pan-tee'nus, [Gr. Xluvratvoc ; Fr. Pan- 
 TtNE, p&N't&n',] a Christian philosopher, born about 
 155 A.D., was a Stoic before his conversion. He became, 
 about 180, the head of the celebrated school at Alexan- 
 dria, where Saint Clement was one of his pupils. Ac- 
 cording to an ancient tradition, he preached in India. 
 His works, if he wrote any, are not extant. Died about 
 216 A.D. 
 
 Pan-tag'a-thus, (Octavius,) [It. Pantagato, (Ot- 
 tavio,)] an Italian monk of great erudition, born at 
 Brescia in 1494. He left some works in manuscript. 
 Died in 1567. 
 
 Pantaloon, poN'tt'la^N', written also Pantaleo, 
 (Henri,) a Swiss historian, born at Bale in 1522, became 
 professor of dialectics and physics in his native city. He 
 obtained a wide reputation by his writings, among which 
 is a work on the illustrious men of Germany, ("Proso- 
 pographia Virorum illustrium Germanise," 3 vols., 1566.) 
 Died in 1595. 
 
 Pantene. See Pantvenus. 
 
 Pantin, poN'taN', (Peter,) a Flemish classical scholar, 
 born at Thiel about 1555 ; died in 161 1. 
 
 Pantoja, pan-to'na, (Juan de Lacruz,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Valencia about 1550, was a pupil of 
 Coello. He worked at the Escurial for Philip II. He 
 excelled in design and in the expression of his figures. 
 Among his works is "The Adoration of the Shepherds." 
 Died in 1610. 
 
 Panvinio, pin-vee'ne-o, (Oniifrio,) [Lat Panvin'- 
 IUS Onu'phrius,] an eminent Italian antiquary, born 
 at Verona in 1529. He collected many inscriptions and 
 medals, and was patronized by Cardinal Farnese. Among 
 his numerous treatises are " Festivals and Triumphs of 
 the Romans," (" Fasti et Triumphi Romanorum," 1557,) 
 "On the Roman Republic," (" De Republica Romana," 
 1581 ,) and "On the Circus Games," (" De Ludis Cir- 
 Censibus," 1600.) He was one of the first who applied 
 criticism to history, and confirmed his statements by 
 medals, inscriptions, etc. Died at Palermo in 1568. 
 
 See D. W. Mou.kr, " Disputatio circularis de Onuphrio Pan- 
 vinio," 1697 ; Maffei, " Verona illustra ;" Nic^ron, "Memoires." 
 
 Panvinius. See Panvinio. 
 
 Pa-ny'a-sis, [Gr. Uaviaatt,] a Greek poet of the fifth 
 century B.C., was, according to Suidas, an uncle of He- 
 rodotus. He wrote an epic poem entitled " Heraclea," 
 which is not extant. In the Alexandrian canon he was 
 ranked among the great epic poets. Died about 460 B.C. 
 
 See Eksch und Gruses, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie ;" Muu.er. 
 "Histoire de la Literature Grecque ;" Funcke, " Disserlatio de 
 Panyasidis Vita ac Poesi," 1S37. 
 
 Panzacchia, pan-zak'ke-a, (Maria Elena,) an Ital- 
 ian painter, born at Bologna in 1668; died in 1709. 
 
 Panzer, pant'ser, (Friedrich,) a German antiquary, 
 born in Bavaria in 1794. He wrote "The Traditions 
 and Customs of Bavaria," (2 vols., 1848-55.) Died in 
 1854. 
 
 Panzer, (Georg Wolfgang,) an eminent German 
 bibliographer, born at Sulzbach in 1729. He preached 
 at Nuremberg, to which he removed in 1760. His most 
 important work is one in Latin, entitled "Annals of 
 Typography from the Origin of Printing to 1536," (n 
 vols., 1793-1803,) which is said to be the most complete 
 treatise on that subject. Died in 1804. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" Meusel, 
 "Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 
 Paoli, pa'o-lee, almost pow'lee, (Giacinto,) a Cor- 
 sican general, bom at Bastia in 1702. He commanded 
 with success against the Genoese about 1734, and after- 
 wards opposed the French until 1739, when he was com- 
 pelled to submit. He retired to Naples, where he died 
 in 1768. 
 
 Paoli, (Paolo Antonio,) an Italian antiquary, born 
 at Lucca about 1720, was a nephew of Sebastiano. 
 
 Among his works is an account of the ruins of Paastum, 
 (1784.) Died about 1790. 
 
 Paoli, (Sebastiano,) a learned Italian antiquary and 
 monk, born near Lucca in 1684. He wrote, besides- 
 many other treatises, "On the Poetry of the Greek and 
 Latin Fathers in the First Century," ( 1 714,) and "On 
 the Diplomatic Code of the Order of Malta," (" Codice 
 diplomatico dell'Ordine di Malta," 2 vols., 1733-37.) 
 Died in 1751. 
 
 Paoli, di, de pa'o-lee, (Pasquale,) a celebrated Cor- 
 sican general, born at Rostino in 1726, was a son of 
 Giacinto, (noticed above,) who took him to Naples in 
 1740. In 1755 he was chosen general-in chief of the Cor- 
 sicans, who had revolted against the Genoese. He gained 
 many victories, rendered himself master of nearly all the 
 island, and organized a government with a representative 
 system. In 1768 the Genoese, baffled in their efforts to 
 reduce Corsica, ceded it to the French, whose army 
 Paoli defeated twice in that year. He was defeated in 
 a decisive battle at Ponte Nuovo in 1769, and retired to 
 England. In 1789 he was recalled from exile by the 
 National Assembly, and received from Louis XVI. the 
 title of lieutenant-general, with the command of Corsica. 
 He assumed an attitude of hostility to the dominant 
 party in France in 1793, ant ' became an ally or partisan 
 of the English, to whom he transferred the sovereignty 
 of the island in 1794. Having been deprived of his 
 command by the British, he left Corsica in 1795 or 1796. 
 He died near London in 1807. 
 
 See Botta, " Storia d'ltalia :" Bosweij., " Journal of a Tour to 
 Corsica:" Arriohi, "Vie de Pascal Paoli:" Pompei, " fitat de la 
 Corse," iSai : Karl L. Klosb, " Leben P. Paoli's," 1853 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Paolini, pow-lee'nee, (Pietro or Luca Pietro,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Lucca in 1603. He painted 
 religious subjects. Died in 1681. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting," etc. 
 
 Paolo, the Italian for Paul, which see. 
 
 Paolo Sarpi. See Sarpi. 
 
 Paolo Veronese. See Cagliari. 
 
 Paolucci, pow-loot'chee, (SlGlSMONlX>,J an Italian 
 poet, born in Umbria about 1510. He wrote canzoni, 
 which were admired, and celebrated the African expe- 
 dition of Charles V. in " The African Nights," (" Le Notti 
 d' Africa," 1535.) Died in 1590. 
 
 Paou, du, clii pi'dN', sometimes called Le Paon, a 
 French painter of battles, bom near Paris about 1740. 
 He was a pupil and rival of Casanova, whom he ex- 
 celled in design and in fidelity as an imitator of nature. 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 Papa, del, del pa'pi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian medical 
 writer, born at Empoli in 1649. He was physician to 
 the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Died in 1735. 
 
 Papacino. See Antoni, d\ 
 
 Papadopoli, pa-pl dop'o-lee, (Niccoi.6 Comneno,) 
 a learned priest, born in Candia in 1655. He became 
 in 1688 professor of canon law at Padua, and wrote a 
 "History of the University of Padua," (2 vols., 1726.) 
 Died in 1740. 
 
 Pape, de la, deh 13 pip, (Gui,) a French jurist, born 
 at Lyons about 1400; died about 1475. 
 
 Papebroch, pa'peb-bRoK', or Papebroeck, pa'peh- 
 bRook', (Daniel,) a learned Flemish Jesuit, born at 
 Antwerp in 1628. He compiled a number of volumes 
 of the " Acta Sanctorum" commenced by Bollandis. 
 Died in 17 14. 
 
 Papebroeck. See Papebroch. 
 
 Papencordt, pa'peii-koRt', (Felix,) a German his- 
 torian, born at Paderbom in 181 1. Among his works 
 are a " History of the Domination of the Vandals in 
 Africa," (1837,) and a " Life of Cola di Rienzo," (1S41.) 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 Papendrecht, van, vin pa'pen-dReKt', (Cornelis 
 Paul Hoynck,) a Dutch historian and priest, born at 
 Dort in 1686. He wrote a " History of the Church of 
 Utrecht," (1725,) and "Analecta Belgica," (3 vols., 1743.) 
 Died in 1753. * 
 
 Papety, pip'te', (Dominique Louis Fer6oi.,) a 
 French painter, born at Marseilles in 1815. He gained 
 the grand prize in 1836. Among his works is " Dream 
 of Happiness," (" R6ve de Bonheur.") Died in 1849. 
 
 B, e, T, 6, Q, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; nd.; good; mo"on; 
 
PAPI 
 
 '737 
 
 PARACELSUS 
 
 Papi, pi'pee, (Lazzaro,) an Italian historian and 
 translator, born near Lucca in 1763. He translated 
 "Paradise Lost" into Italian. Died in 1834. 
 
 Fa'pl-as, [Gr. Ilajriac,] Saint, was Bishop of Hie- 
 rapolis, in Phrygia, in the second centurv. He wrote an 
 "Exposition of the Words of the Lord," which is not 
 extant. According to Irenseus, he had seen and heard 
 the apostle John. Several writers state that he suffered 
 martyrdom In 163 A.D. 
 
 See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. 
 
 Papillon, pfpe'yW, (Jean,) a French engraver, 
 born at Rouen in 1639; died in 1710. His sou Jean, 
 bom at Saint-Quentin in 1661, was a skilful engraver 
 and designer. He especially excelled in designing horses. 
 Died in 1723. 
 
 Papillon, (JfEAN Michel,) an eminent engraver on 
 wood, born in Paris in 1698, was a nephew of the pre- 
 ceding. 1 le published a " Treatise on Wood-Engraving," 
 (1766.) Died in 1776. 
 
 Papillon, (Philihert,) a French biographer and 
 priest, born at Dijon in 1666. He wrote a good work 
 on Burgundian authors, " Bibliotheque des Auteurs de 
 Bourgogne," (2 vols., 1742.) Died in 1738. 
 
 Papillon, (Thomas,) a French jurist, born in 1514, 
 gained distinction as a writer on law. Died in 1596. 
 
 Papin, par/in, [Fr. pron. pi'p&V,] (Denis,) a French 
 natural philosopher, born at Blois in 1647. He was the 
 associate of Robert Boyle in scientific experiments in 
 England, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society 
 in 16S1. He invented an apparatus for softening bones, 
 called " Papin's Digester," and is ranked among the 
 inventors of the steam-engine. "Papin," says F. Arago, 
 " first conceived the idea of a steam-engine with a piston." 
 To escape persecution as a Protestant, he went into exile 
 in :6Sg, and obtained a chair of mathematics at Marburg. 
 Died about 1712. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." , 
 
 Papin, (Isaac,) a French theologian, born at Blois in 
 1657, was a nephew of Claude Pajon, and was educated 
 as a Protestant. He wrote " Essays on Theology," 
 (1687,) which subjected him to the enmity of Juricu. 
 In 1690 he joined the Roman Catholic Church. Died 
 in 1709. 
 
 Papineau, pt'peno', (Louis Joseph,) a Canadian 
 revolutionist, born near Montreal in 1787. In 1814 he 
 represented Montreal in the Canadian Parliament, and 
 in 1815 became Speaker of the House. He was a leader 
 of the liberal or radical party, which revolted in 1837. 
 After the defeat and dispersion of the insurgents, he 
 took refuge in the United States. 
 
 Pa-pin'I-an, [Lat. /Kmii.'ius Papinia'nus; Fr. Pa- 
 pinien, pi'pe'ne-aN',1 a celebrated Roman jurist, born 
 about the middle of the second century. He was advo- 
 catus fisci in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, and after the 
 * accession of Severus was Hbellorum magister and preto- 
 rian prefect, (203 A.D.) He was put to death, by order 
 of Caracalla, in 212, probably because he had condemned 
 the execution of Geta. The Digest contains extracts 
 from his " Quaestiones," " Responsa," and " Defini- 
 tiones." He was considered by some persons as the 
 greatest jurist of anticpiity. He had a high reputation 
 for integrity. 
 
 See Evkrhard Otto, "Papinianus, 
 Gbubkr. " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie;" 
 anus," 1715. 
 
 Papinianus. See Papinian. 
 
 Papinien. See Papi.man. 
 
 Papire-Masson. See Masson, (Jean Papire.) 
 
 Pa-pIr'I-ua, (Justus,) a Roman jurist, lived in the 
 reigii of Marcus Aurelius. The Digest contains extracts 
 from his " Constitutions." 
 
 Papirius, (Sextus,) the author of a supposed collec- 
 tion of the " Leges Regise," (laws enacted during the 
 reigns of the Roman kings,) which was called "Jus Pa- 
 pirianum." He is said to have lived in the time of 
 Tarquinius Superbus. Nothing certain is known about 
 his compilation. 
 
 See Pvpkrs, " Dissertatio de Papirio," 1835. 
 
 Pa-pIr'I-us Cras'sus, (Lucius,) a Roman commander, 
 was 'appointed dictator in 339 B.C., to conduct the war 
 
 ' etc., 171S ; Erscu mid 
 G. L. Menxkk, " Papini- 
 
 against the Latins, and was twice elected consul, 336 
 and 330 B.C. 
 
 Pa-pIr'I-us Cur'sor, (Lucius,) a famous Roman 
 general, whom Livy represents as one of the ablest men 
 of his time. He was appointed dictator to conduct the 
 war against the Samnites, in 332 B.C. Fabius Maximus, 
 who was master of the horse, in the absence of his chief 
 and in disobedience to his orders, attacked and defeated 
 the enemy. For this offence Papirius ordered him to be 
 punished with death ; but Fabius appealed to the people, 
 and was pardoned or acquitted. Papirius prosecuted 
 the war with success until the Samnites sued for peace. 
 He was elected consul about 320, and soon after defeated 
 the Samnites at Luceria. In 313 he was chosen consul 
 for the fifth time, and in 308 B.C. was made dictator for 
 another war against the Samnites, over whom he gained 
 a signal victory. History is silent respecting the sub- 
 sequent events of his life. His son, of the same name, 
 was elected consul in 293, and again in 272 B.C. He 
 defeated the Samnites. 
 
 Papirius Massonus. See Masson, (Papire.) 
 
 Papon, pS'po.N', (Jean Pierre,) a French historian 
 and priest, born near Nice in 1734. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of Provence," (4 vols., 1777-86,) which is com- 
 mended, and a "History of the French Revolution from 
 1789 to the 18th Brumaire, 1799," (6 vols., 1815.) Died 
 in 1803. 
 
 Pappenheim, von, fon pap'pen-him', (Gottfried 
 Heinrich,) Count, a celebrated German general, born 
 at Pappenheim in 1594, was a zealous Roman Catholic. 
 After he had served with distinction in the army of 
 Bavaria, and received several wounds at Prague, (1620,) 
 he entered the service of the emperor, about 1630, as 
 field-marshal. The victory of the Imperialists at Magde- 
 burg (1631) is ascribed to him. He commanded a corps 
 under Wallenstein in 1632, and was killed at the battle 
 of Lutzen, in November of that year. 
 
 See KOkster, " Wallensteins Briefe;" Schili.es, "History of 
 the Thirty Years' War." 
 
 Pap'pus, [Gr. IIuTrrraf,] an eminent Greek geometer 
 of Alexandria, flourished about 380 or 400 A.D. He left 
 a work entitled " Mathematical Collections," (Ma»w/«- 
 Tmal TLXxvayuyai,) which is extant, and of which Com- 
 mandino published a Latin version in 1588. Pappus 
 first gave the example of the quadrature of a curved 
 surface, He also furnishes important information of 
 the analytic methods of the ancients. He wrote other 
 works, which are lost. 
 
 See Montuci.a, " Histoire des Mathematiques ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Pappus, pap'pus, (Johann,) a Lutheran minister and 
 writer, born at Lindau, on Lake Constance, in 1549. He 
 preached at Strasburg. Died in 1610. 
 
 Paquot, pS'ko', (Jean Noel,) a Flemish biographer, 
 born at Florennes in 1722, was a priest apd a professor 
 of Hebrew. His chief work is "Memoirs towards the 
 Literary History of the Low Countries," ("Memoires 
 pour servir a l'Histoire litteraire des Pays-lias," 18 
 vols., 1763-70,) which contains biographies of Dutch and 
 Flemish authors. Died in 1803. 
 
 Pa'ra, called also Bab, King of Armenia, was the son 
 and heir of Arsaces IIL, who was deposed by Sapor, 
 King of Persia. By the aid of the Romans, Para ob- 
 tained the throne about 365 A.D. He was killed by the 
 order of the Roman emperor Valens about 375 A.D. 
 
 Para du Phaujas, pi'it' dii foN'zhas', (Francois,) a 
 French Jesuit and philosopher, born in Dauphine in 
 1724. He published "Elements of Metaphysics, Sacred 
 and Profane," (1767,) and " Principes du Calcul et de la 
 Geometrie," (1773.) Died in 1797. 
 
 Farabosco, pa-Ra-bos'ko, (Girolamo,) an Italian 
 poet and musician, born at Piacenza. He was author of 
 " Progne," a tragedy, (1548,) several comedies, and tales 
 entitled " Diversions," (" I Diporti," 1552.) His works 
 were received with favour. Died at Venice in 1557. 
 
 Paracelse. See Paracelsus. 
 
 Par-a-cel'sus, [Fr. Pakacei.se, pi'ia'sglss',] (Pm- 
 
 I.IPPUS AURKOI.US TlIEOPHKASlUS BuMHASTUS VOU 
 
 Hohenheim — fon ho'en-him',) a famous alchemist and 
 charlatan, supposed to have been born at Einsiedeln, in 
 Switzerland, in 1493. In his youth he acquired a pro- 
 
 e as x; 9 as /; g hard; g as/,- G, H, K,gutturat; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jgp" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PAR AD IN 
 
 '738 
 
 PARENT 
 
 ficiency in the jargon of alchemists, magicians, and 
 quacks, whom he consulted in nearly every part of 
 Europe. Having performed some famous cures, he was 
 appointed professor of medicine at Bale in 1526. He 
 there burned the works of Galen, styled himself the mon- 
 arch of medicine, and pretended to have discovered a 
 medicine capable of prolonging life indefinitely, (called 
 the Elixir of Life.) He became intemperate, and in 1527 
 or 1528 resumed a vagabond life. In his medical prac- 
 tice he introduced mercury and opium into general use. 
 He died poor, at Saltzburg, in 1541. He had published 
 but little in his lifetime. After his death many volumes 
 ascribed to him appeared at various times between 1575 
 and 1658. His medical reputation is founded on the 
 importance which he gave to pharmaceutical chemistry. 
 His dogmatic and fantastic pseudo-philosophy found 
 many admirers, especially in Germany. 
 
 See M B. Lkssing, "Paracelsus; sein Leben und Denken," Ber- 
 lin. 1S30: Fkanck, "Sur la Vie et les £crit.s de Paracelse;" Marx, 
 "Zur WUrdigiiilg des Theo. von Hohenheiin," 1H42; Hoefer, 
 " Histoire de'la Chiraie;" Brkmkr, " Dissertatio de Vita Paracelsi," 
 1836; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Paradin, pi'ri'daN', (Guillaume,) a French priest 
 and historian, born near Chalons about 1510. Among 
 his works are a" History of his own Time," (1550,) and 
 "Annals of Burgundy," (1566.) Died in 1590. 
 
 Paradis de Moncrif. See Moncrif. 
 
 Paradia de Raymondis, pt'ri'de' deh r^'mdN'dess', 
 (Jean Zaciiakie,) a French moralist, born at Bourg-en- 
 Bresse in 1746. He wrote a "Treatise on Morality and 
 Happiness," (2 vols., 1784.) Died in 1800. 
 
 Paradisi, pa-ri-dee'see, (Agostino,) Count, an Ital- 
 ian poet and prose writer, born at Vignola in 1736. 
 He was professor of civil economy and of history at 
 Modena. He wrote versi scioltt, ("blank verse,") which 
 were received with favour, and an excellent "Eulogy on 
 Montecuccoli," (1776,) in prose. He translated some 
 tragedies of Voltaire into Italian. Died in 1783. 
 
 See Scheuoni, " Elogio del Conte A. Paradisi," 1789. 
 
 Paradisi, (Giovanni,) Count, ason of the preceding, 
 was born at Reggio in 1760. Bonaparte appointed him 
 a director of the Cisalpine republic in 1797, and council- 
 lor of state in 1804. He presided over the Italian senate 
 from 1809 to 1814. Died in 1826. 
 
 Paradol. See Prevost-Paradol. 
 
 Paraeus. See Pare. 
 
 Paramo, de, da pa'ri-mo, (Luis,) a Spanish theo- 
 logian, born near Toledo about 1545. He wrote "On 
 the Origin and Progress of the Inquisition," (1598,) said 
 to be one of the most curious works on that subject. 
 
 Parana.de, da pa-ra-na', (Honorio Hermeto Car- 
 neiro Lkao,) Marquis, a Brazilian minister of state, 
 bom in Minas-Geraes about 1802. He was a leader of 
 the conservative party, and became president of the 
 council in 1853. Died in 1856. 
 
 Par-a-su-ra'ma, [Hindoo pron. pur'a-so6-r5'ma and 
 pur'a-soo-rim', from the Sanscrit pirasu or parashu, an 
 "axe," and r&md, one "who delights in,"] in the Hindoo 
 mythology, the name of the sixth avatar of Vishnu. He 
 was born as the son of Jamadagni. His mission appears 
 to have been to subdue or destroy the Kshatriya (or 
 warrior) race, who had become arrogant through their 
 unlimited power. He seems to have used his terrible 
 battle-axe with considerable effect, as some of the ac- 
 counts represent the whole earth as filled with the blood 
 of his enemies. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon;" Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary." 
 
 Paravey, de, deh pi'ri'vi', (Charles Hippolyte,) 
 a French Orientalist, born in Ardennes in 1787. He 
 wrote several works on Oriental antiquities. 
 
 Paravia, pi-ra-vee'J, (Pietro Alessandro,) an Ital- 
 ian litterateur, born in Dalmatia in 1797. He became 
 professor of eloquence at Turin in 1832. He gained 
 distinction by articles on national literature in the jour- 
 nals, by a version of the "Letters of Pliny the Younger," 
 (1830,) and other works. Died in 1857. 
 
 Parcae, par'se, or Moirae, moi're, [Fr. Les Parques, 
 1^ pSuk,] the Fates of classic mythology, were said to 
 be daughters of Night, (Nox.) According to Hesiod, 
 they were daughters of Jupiter and Themis, and were 
 named Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos. Homer rec- 
 
 ognizes one Fate, (Afoira,) who spins out the thread of 
 human life and destiny. Other mylhographers feigned 
 that Clotho held the distaff, Lachesis spun the thread 
 of each person's life, and Atropos cut it off, as expressed 
 in the following hexameter line : 
 
 " Clotho colum retinet, Lachesis net et Atropos occat." 
 
 Parcelles, piVsel', (Jan,) an able Dutch painter of 
 marine views, was born at Leyden in 1597. He painted 
 storms at sea and shipwrecks with great success and 
 rapidity. He died at Leyerdorp in 1641. His son 
 Julius, born about 1628, was a skilful marine painter, 
 and nearly equalled his father. 
 
 Farcieux, de. See Deparcieux. 
 
 Pardessus, paVdi'sii', (Jean Marie,) a French 
 jurist, born at Blois in 1772. He sat in the Corps 
 Legislatif from 1807 to 181 1. He published a " Treatise 
 on Servitudes," (1806,) which has passed through eight 
 or more editions, a capital work entitled " Lectures on 
 Commercial Law," (4 vols., 1813-37,) and an important 
 "Collection of Maritime Laws anterior to the Eighteenth 
 Century," (6 vols., 1828-45.) Diecl in l8 53- 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Pardies, piu'de', (Ignace Gaston,) an able French 
 geometer, born at Pau in 1636. He lectured at the 
 College of Louis le Grand, in Paris, and corresponded 
 with Sir Isaac Newton. Among his works are " Elements 
 of Geometry," ( 1671,) and "Statics, or the Science of 
 Moving Forces," (1673.) Died in 1673. 
 
 See BaVLB, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Par'doe, (Julia,) an English authoress, born at 
 Beverley, Yorkshire, about 1808. After a visit to Por- 
 tugal, she produced a successful work entitled "Traits 
 and Traditions of Portugal." Among her other popular 
 works are "The City of the Sultan," (1836,) "The Ro- 
 mance of the Harem," (1839,) "The City of the Maygar," 
 (1840,) and novels, entitled "Reginald Lyle," and "The 
 Jealous Wife," (1855.) Died in 1862. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1852. 
 
 Pare, par're, [Fr. pron. pt'ta'; Lat. Parous,] (Am- 
 bruise,) an excellent French surgeon, born at Laval 
 (Mayenne) in 1509, (or in 1517, according to some 
 authorities,) is styled "the Father of French surgery." 
 His parents were poor, and his education was defective. 
 Having studied in Paris, he became a surgeon in the 
 army in 1536, and surgeon-in-ordinary to Henry II. in 
 1552. He reformed the treatment of gun-shot wounds, 
 which previously were cauterized with boiling oil, and 
 substituted the ligature of arteries for cauterization. 
 He served Francis II.', Charles IX., and Henry HI., as 
 chief surgeon. Brantome says that during the Massacre 
 of Saint Bartholomew the king sent for Pare (who was 
 a Protestant) and kept him in his own room for safety. 
 He wrote many professional works, which are highly 
 esteemed. The best edition is that of Malgaigne, (3 
 vols., 1840.) Died in 1590. 
 
 See Vimont, " Eloge de Pare 1 ," 1814 : Wm.laume, " Recherches 
 biographiques sur A. Pare\" 1S3S; "Retrospective Review," 1827; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Paredes. See Garcia de Paredf.s. 
 
 Paredes, pa-ra'des, (Mariano,) a Mexican general, 
 born about 1790. He fought against Santa Anna in 1844, 
 and was elected President of Mexico in June, 1845. In 
 August, 1846, he was driven from power by Santa Anna 
 and Bravo. Died in 1849. 
 
 Pareja, de, da pa-ra'ni, (Juan,) an eminent Spanish 
 painter, born at Seville about 1608, was a pupil of Velas- 
 quez, whom he served as a slave in his youth. According 
 tosome writers, he was born in the West Indies. Having 
 acquired skill by secret study and practice, he was libe- 
 rated by Velasquez. He painted portraits with success. 
 His master-piece is "The Calling of Saint Matthew." 
 Died in 1670. 
 
 See Cean-Bermudez, " Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Parent, p$'i6n', (Ani'OINE,) a French mathematician, 
 born in Paris in 1666. He wrote " Researches into Phys- 
 ics and Mathematics," (2 vols., 1705,) and other works. 
 Died in 17 16. 
 
 Parent du Chatelet, pifrSN' dii shaYli', (Alexan- 
 dre Jean Baptiste,) a French physician and writer on 
 hygiene, was born in Paris in 1790. He wrote valuable 
 works entitled " Essay on the Common Sewers of Paris," 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; m5t; not; good; moon; 
 
PAREPA-ROSA 
 
 '739 
 
 PARISET 
 
 ("Essai sur les Cloaques ou Egouts de Paris," 1824,) 
 "Hygiene publiqtte," (2 vols., 1836,) and "On Prostitu- 
 tion in the City of Paris," (2 vols., 1836.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Parepa-Rosa, pa-ra'pa ro'sa, Madame, a distin- 
 guished vocalist and actress, born in Edinburgh about 
 iSjo, has performed with brilliant success in Boston, 
 New York, and Philadelphia. Her voice has extraor- 
 dinary compass and power. 
 
 Pa'ret de Alcazar, pa-reV di al-ka'thaR, (Luis,) a 
 Spanish painter, born at Madrid in 1747. He was com- 
 missioned by the king to paint the sea-ports of Spain 
 in 1780. Died in 1799. 
 
 Pareus, pa-ia'us, (Daniel,) a philologist, born at 
 Neuhausen in 1605, was a son of Philipp, noticed below. 
 He published" MistoriaPalatina," (1633,) andeditionsof 
 Lucretius, Quintilian, and other classics. Died in 1635. 
 
 Pareus, (David,) an eminent German divine of the 
 Reformed Church, born in Silesia in 1548. Hi', German 
 name was Wangi.kk. He became professor of theology 
 at Heidelberg in 15S4. His principles were Calvinistic. 
 He published the "Neustadt Bible," (1587,) Commen- 
 taries on Scripture, and other works. Died at Heidelberg 
 in 1622. 
 
 See J. P. Pareus, " Narratio de Vit» D. Parei," 1633; Eksch 
 und Gkuber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Pareus, (Philips or Johann Philipp,) a philologist, 
 a son of the preceding, was born near Worms in 1576. 
 He was rector of the colleges of Neustadt and Hanau. 
 He published " Selections from Plautus," (" Electa Plau- 
 tina," 1597,) an edition of the comedies of Plautus, with 
 notes, (1610,) and other works. Died in 1648. 
 
 Parfaict, paVfJ', (Francois,) a French writer, bom 
 in Paris in 1698. He was author of a " History of the 
 French Theatre," (15 vols., 1734-49,) and other works. 
 Died in 1753. 
 
 Paride. See Paris. 
 
 Farieu, de, deh pi're-uh', (Marie Louis Pierre 
 Fei ix EsQUIROU,) a French lawyer, born at Auriilac 
 in 1815. He was minister of public instruction from 
 October, 1849, to February, 1851. In 1851 he became 
 president of the section of finances an eonseil d'etat. 
 
 Parigi, pa-ree'jee, (Giui.io,) a Florentine architect 
 and etcher, born in the sixteenth century. He designed 
 some public edifices of Florence, and opened an academy 
 of art in that city. Among his pupils was Callot, the 
 engraver. Died in 1635. His son Alfonso was an 
 architect. He built the Scarlati palace in Florence. 
 Died in 1656. 
 
 Parfjata, pa'rT-ji'ta, [from the Sanscrit part, " above," 
 and jdtd, "produced, "J in the Hindoo mythology, one 
 of the trees of the paradise of India, said to produce as 
 fruit whatever was desired. (See KOrma.) 
 
 Parini, pa-ree'nee, (Giuseppe,) a popular Italian 
 poet, born in the Milanese in 1729. He became a good 
 Greek scholar, and distinguished himself as a critic by 
 his Examination of Bandiera's work, " Pregiudizi delle 
 umane Lettere," (1756.) His principal work is "The 
 Day," (" II Giorno,") an ironical didactic poem, of which 
 the first part, "The Morning," ("U Mattino,") was pub- 
 lished in 1763. It is a satire on the manners and morals 
 of the Italian nobility. He also wrote lyrical poems, 
 which are much admired. He became professor of elo- 
 quence at the College of Brera, Milan, in 1769. Parini 
 is reputed one of the most eminent Italian poets of his 
 time. Died at Milan in 1799. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Lives of the 
 Italian Poets," by the Rev. Henry Steering; Reina, "Vie de 
 Parini," 1S01 : Cesark Cantu, "Parini et la Socie'te' Lombarde ;" 
 P.zzHrrt, "Vita di G. Parini," 1801 ; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli 
 Italian! illustri." 
 
 Par'is, [Gr. Xlapu; ; It. Paride, pa're-di,] a son of 
 Priam, a Trojan prince, was celebrated for his beauty, 
 gallantry, accomplishments, and adventures. He was 
 sometimes called Alexander. According to poetical 
 tradition, he seduced Helen, the wife of Menelaus, and 
 thus provoked the Greeks to wage the war which ended 
 in the destruction of Troy. The death of Achilles is 
 ascribed by some poets to a shaft from the bow of Paris. 
 The decision by which he awarded the prize of l>eauty 
 to Venus, when Juno and Minerva were competitors, 
 was a favourite theme of ancient writers, who relate the 
 following story : All the gods and goddesses were in- 
 
 vited to the nuptials of Peleus and Thetis, except Dis- 
 cord, who threw among the guests a golden apple, on 
 which was inscribed " For the most beautiful." Juno, 
 Minerva, and Venus disputed for this apple, and referred 
 the decision of their claims to Paris, who was then a 
 shepherd on Mount Ida. To influence his judgment, 
 Juno promised to give him power, Minerva martial 
 glory, and Venus the most beautiful of women. He 
 decided in favour of Venus, and received from her 
 Helen as his reward. 
 
 See Homer's "Iliad ;" Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Biography and Mythology;" "Biographie Universelle," (Parti* 
 myihologique.) 
 
 Paris, pi're', (Alexis Paulin,) a French antiquary 
 and translator, born at Avenay (Marne) in 1800. He 
 wrote an "Apology for the Romantic School," (1824,) and 
 several essays on mediaeval literature. He produced a 
 version of Byron's Complete Works, (1830-32.) In 1S37 
 he was elected to the Institute. 
 
 Paris, Brothers, French financiers, born in Dau- 
 phine : they were named Antoine, Claude, Jean, 
 and Joseph, who was called Duverney. Joseph was 
 born in 1684. On the collapse of Law's system they 
 were employed to restore order in the public finances. 
 Voltaire extols the admirable talent which they exhibited 
 in this operation. Duverney died in 1770. 
 
 See Marquis de Luchet, " Histoire de MM. Paris," 1776. 
 
 Paris, (Claude Joseph,) a French composer, born 
 at Lyons in 1804. He gained the first prize at Paris 
 in 1826. He has composed operas and sacred music. 
 
 Paris, (Franqois,) a French priest and devotional 
 writer, born at Chatillon, near Paris. He wrote edify- 
 ing works, among which are a " Martyrology," (1694,) 
 and " The Gospel Explained," (4 vols., 1693-98.) Died 
 in 1718. 
 
 Paris, (Francois,) a French ascetic priest, boin in 
 Paris in 1690; died in 1727. Crowds resorted to his 
 tomb, attracted by a report that miracles were per- 
 formed there. 
 
 Paris, (Francois Edmond,) a French naval officer, 
 born at Brest in 1806. He wrote several works on navi- 
 gation, and a " Dictionary of the Steam Navy," (" Dio 
 tionnaire de Marine a Vapeur," 1848.) He became a 
 rear-admiral in 1858. 
 
 Par'is, (John Ayr ion,) F.R.S., an English physician 
 and chemist, born at Cambridge in 1 785. He practised 
 some years at Penzance, from which he removed to 
 London about 1817. In 1819 he published a good 
 "Pharmacologia," (8th edition, 1833.) He was elected 
 president of the College of Physicians in 1844. Among 
 his works are a well-written "Memoir of Sir Humphry 
 Davy," (1810,) a "Treatise on Diet," (1821,) and "Med- 
 ical Chemistry," (1824.) Died in December, 1856. 
 
 Pari* (Matthew.) See Matthew Paris. 
 
 Paris, (Philippe Nicolas Marie,) one of the guards 
 of Louis XVI., born in Paris in 1763. He killed Lepel- 
 letierde Saint-Fargeau in 1793, because he had voted for 
 the death of the king. When the officers of justice were 
 about to arrest him, he shot himself, (January, 1793.) 
 
 Paris, (Pierre Adrien,) a French architect, born at 
 Besancon in 1747. He was appointed designer to the 
 cabinet of the king in 1778. Among his works is the 
 portal of the cathedral of Orleans. He left in manu- 
 script a valuable " Collection of Designs," and other 
 works. Died in 1819. 
 
 Paris, de, deh pS're', (Louis Philippe,) Comte, a 
 French prince, bom in 1838. His father, the Duke of 
 Orleans, was the eldest son of King Louis Philippe, who 
 abdicated in favour of the Count of Paris in February, 
 1848. His title, however, was not recognized by the 
 revolutionists who dethroned Louis Philippe. Since 
 that event he has lived in exile. He served a campaign 
 in Virginia as an officer of the Federal army of the Po- 
 tomac in the spring of 1862, and returned to Europe 
 about July 1 of that year. He is recogr.ved as the head 
 of the Orleans familv. 
 
 Pariseau, pi're'z'o', (Pierre Germain,) a French 
 dramatic author, born in Paris in 1753. He wrote 
 comedies which were received with favour. He was 
 guillotined in 1794. 
 
 Pariset, pi're'zi', (Etienne, ) a French medical 
 writer, born at Grand, a village among the Vosges, in 
 
 c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^~See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
PJRISETTI 
 
 1740 
 
 PARKER 
 
 1770. lie was chosen physician of the Hopital de 
 Bicetre in 1814. In 1842 he became perpetual secretary 
 of the Academy of Medicine. He wrote eloquent eulo- 
 gies on members of this academy, (printed in 2 vols., 
 1S45,) treatises on contagious diseases, and other works. 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 See Sachaile, " Les Midecins de Paris;" Sainte-Beuvb, 
 "Causeries du Lundi." 
 
 Parisetti, pa-re-set'tee, (Luigi,) an Italian writer of 
 Latin poetry, was born at Reggio in 1503. He wrote 
 " Theopeia," (1550,) and other poems, which were praised 
 by Sadolet and Bembo. Died in 1570. 
 
 Par'isk, (Elijah,) an American Congregational di- 
 vine, was born at Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1762. He 
 published a "History of New England," "System of 
 Modern Geography," and other works. Died in 1825. 
 
 Parisio. See Parrhasius, (Aulus Janus.) 
 
 Parisis, pi're'zess', (Pierre Louis,) a French prelate, 
 born at Orleans in 1795. He became Bishop of Arras 
 in 1851. He has published numerous theological works. 
 
 Parisot, pS're'zo', (Pierre,) a French monk, born at 
 Bar-le-Duc in 1697, took the name of Pere Norbert. 
 He opposed the Jesuits, and wrote against them " Me- 
 moirs of the East Indian Missions," (1744.) Died in 1769. 
 
 Parisot, (Valentin,) a French writer, born at Ven- 
 dome in 1800. He became professor of foreign litera- 
 ture at Grenoble and at Douai, (1854.) He wrote many 
 articles for the "Biographie Universelle," a " Life of 
 Fourier," (1857,) and other works. Died in 1861. 
 
 Parisot-Valette. See V ALETTE. 
 
 Park, (Edwards A.,) D.D., an American Congre- 
 gational divine, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 
 180S, was appointed in 1836 Bartlett professor of sacred 
 rhetoric at Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1847 
 Abbott professor of Christian theology in that institution. 
 He has made several translations from the German, and 
 published a number of sermons and theological works. 
 
 Park, (Sir James Allan,) an English lawyer and 
 writer on marine insurance, was born in Surrey ; died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Park, (Mungo,) an eminent and enterprising explorer 
 of Africa, was born near Selkirk, Scotland, in September, 
 
 1771. He chose the profession of surgeon, and studied 
 botany in his youth. As agent of the African Associa- 
 tion, he undertook in May, 1795, to explore the course 
 of the Niger. Departing from a point on the Gambia, 
 he reached the Niger at Sego in July, 1796, and ascended 
 the river to Bammakoo. He returned to England in the 
 autumn of 1797, and published, in 1799, "Travels in the 
 Interior of Africa," which excited great interest. Park 
 was chosen to command an expedition sent to renew the 
 enterprise, and left Pisania, on the Gambia, about the 4th 
 of May, 1805, with forty-five men, intending to^iescend 
 the Niger in boats to its mouth. He perished (probably 
 by drowning) a short distance below Yaouri, near the 
 end of 1805. The journal of his last expedition was 
 published in 181 5. 
 
 See Khnnell, " Life of Mungo Park," 1815: Chambers. " Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" "Edinburgh Review" 
 for February, 1815: "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1815; 
 " Monthly Review" for July, 1790. 
 
 Park, (Thomas,) an English antiquary and poet, born 
 about 1760; died in 1834. 
 
 Parke, park, (John,) an eminent English musician, 
 born in 1745, performed on the hautboy ; died in 1829. 
 
 Parke, park, (John G.,) an American general, born 
 in Pennsylvania about 1828, graduated at West Point in 
 1849. He commanded a brigade at Roanoke Island and 
 Newbern in February-March, 1862, and served as major- 
 general at the siege of Vicksburg, May-July, 1863. He 
 commanded a corps which assaulted the defences of 
 Petersburg on the 2d of April, 1865, and carried the 
 main line of the enemy. 
 
 Par'ker, (Henry,) Lord Morley, was born in North- 
 amptonshire in 1476. He wrote verses and dramas in 
 his youth. He was one of the barons who by letter 
 warned Pope Clement that he would lose his supremacy 
 in England if he opposed the divorce of Henry VIII. 
 Died in 1556. 
 
 Par'k?r, (Henry W.,) an American poet, born at 
 Danby, Tompkins county, New York, in 1825. He pub- 
 lished a volume of " Poems," Auburn, 1850, and con- 
 
 tributed frequently to the " North American Review." 
 He is, or was, pastor of a Presbyterian church in Brook- 
 lyn, New York. 
 
 Parker, (Sir Hyde,) an English vice-admiral, served 
 with distinction against the French and Spaniards, and 
 in 1781 defeated the Dutch admiral Zoutman at Dog- 
 gerbank. Being appointed in 1783 commander of the 
 British fleet in the East Indies, he perished by ship- 
 wreck on the passage. 
 
 Parker, (Isaac,) an American jurist, born at Boston 
 in 1768, became chief justice of the supreme court ol 
 Massachusetts in 1814. He was distinguished as a 
 scholar. Died in 1830. 
 
 Parker, (Matthew,) a learned and meritorious Eng 
 lish prelate, born at Norwich in 1504, was educated at 
 Cambridge. He became dean of the College of Stoke 
 Clare in 1535, chaplain to Henry VIII. in 1537, master 
 of Bene't College in 1544, and Dean of Lincoln in 1552. 
 On the accession of Queen Mary (1553) he was deprived 
 of his benefices, because he was a Protestant, or because 
 he was married. He was appointed Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury by Elizabeth in f 559. A revised version of the 
 Bible (called the Bishops' Bible) was published under 
 his direction in 1568. He presented many valuable 
 manuscripts to his college at Cambridge. Died in 1575. 
 
 See J. Strvi'E, "Life of Archbishop Parker," 1711 ; Burnrt, 
 " History of the Reformation ;" W. ¥, Hook, " Lives of the Arch- 
 bishops of Canterbury." 
 
 Parker, (Nathan,) a Unitarian minister, born in 
 Reading, Massachusetts, in 1782. He became pastor 
 of a church at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1898. 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 Parker, (Sir Peter,) an English admiral, born in 
 1716, served in the American war, and in 1782 took 
 prisoner the French admiral De Grasse. He was created 
 admiral of the fleet. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Parker, (Richard,) an English sailor, born at Exeter, 
 was the ringleader of a mutiny at the Nore in May, 
 1797. He blockaded the port of London, and received 
 the title of admiral from the mutineers. He was hung 
 in June, 1797. 
 
 Parker, (Robert,) an English Puritan minister, 
 became Fellow of a college at Cambridge in 1584. He 
 preached at Amsterdam in the reign of James I., and 
 wrote several works. 
 
 Parker, (Samuel,) an English bishop, born at North- 
 ampton in 1640. He was appointed prebendary of 
 Canterbury in 1672, and Bishop of Oxford in 1686. It 
 appears that he received this preferment from James II. 
 because he favoured the cause of popery and absolutism. 
 He died in 1687, leaving several theological works, and 
 memoirs of his own times, entitled " De Rebus sui Tem- 
 poris Commentaritts," (1726.) 
 
 See Wool), " Athenae Oxonienses." 
 
 Parker, (Theodore,) a distinguished American 
 scholar and rationalistic theologian, was born at Lex- 
 ington, Massachusetts, on the 24th. of August, 1810. 
 His education was begun on his father's farm, and there 
 he continued to carry on his studies even after he had 
 entered his name at Harvard in 1830. He appears to 
 have visited Cambridge only for the purpose of partici- 
 pating in the examinations. Being a non-resident, he 
 was not entitled to a degree ; but subsequently (in 1840) 
 the honorary title of A.M. was conferred upon him by 
 the university. In 1834 he entered the theological 
 school, in which he remained about two years. He fiist 
 began to preach at Barnstable in 1836. In April of the 
 following year he married Miss Lydia D. Cabot, and 
 soon after was settled as Unitarian minister at West 
 Roxbury. His views had previously been but little in 
 advance of the average Unitarianism'of the time; but 
 his growing acquaintance with the German rationalists 
 De Wette, Eichhorn, Paulas, Bauer, and others was not 
 long in producing an important change in his theological 
 opinions, — a change, we need scarcely say, which he was 
 at no pains to conceal. His new doctrines gave great 
 offence to some of the more conservative of the New 
 England Unitarians ; and after his discourse (preached 
 at South Boston in 1841) on the "Transient and Perma- 
 nent in Christianity," in which he assumed the absolute 
 humanity of Christ, His inspiration differing in no essen- 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 0, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m£t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
PARKER 
 
 174' 
 
 PARMENTIER 
 
 tial respect from that of other men, the opposition to 
 him became much more decided. This opposition was 
 conspicuously manifested on the occasion of his ex- 
 changing pulpits with other Unitarian ministers, some 
 of whom were severely censured by many of their breth- 
 ren, who held that by such an interchange of courtesies 
 they gave a direct sanction to the new heresies. Parker's 
 translation of De Wette's "Introduction to the Old 
 Testament" appeared in the early part of 1843 ; later 
 in the same vear he visited Europe, returning in the 
 summer of 1844. Soon after his return he began to 
 preacli in Boston, at the Melodeon, where he was regu- 
 larly installed in 1846. He was the principal editor of 
 the " Massachusetts Quarterly," which was commenced 
 in 1847 and continued three years. In addition to his 
 duties as minister, and his laborious intellectual pursuits, 
 which extended to almost every department of human 
 knowledge, he gave numerous lectures on various sub- 
 jects. But the question which seems to have enlisted 
 most fully all the faculties of his ardent and powerful 
 mind was Southern slavery, with its attendant iniquities 
 and abominations. His health having become greatly 
 impaired by his unceasing and intense activity, in Feb- 
 ruary, 1859, he visited the island of Santa Cruz, in the 
 West Indies, and in the following summer went to 
 Europe, spending the winter of 1859-60 at Rome. He 
 left Rome in April, i860, and with difficulty reached 
 Florence, where he died on the 10th of May. Of his 
 extensive collection of books, he left the principal part, 
 amounting to 11,190 volumes and 2500 pamphlets, to 
 the Boston Public Library. A complete edition of his 
 works, edited by Frances Power Cobbe, was published 
 in London in 1863-65, in 12 vols. 
 
 See " Life of Theodore Parker," by John Weiss, 2 vols., 1864: 
 " Life of Theodore Parker," by Auiert Revii.i.e, 1865; Au.ibonb, 
 " Dictionary of Authors:" "New American Cyclopaedia;" "West- 
 minster Review" for April, 1847, article "Dr. Strauss and Theodore 
 Parker." (bv the Rev. James Martineau ;) "North American 
 Review" for April, 1864 ; " Fraser's Magazine" fol February, 1864. 
 
 Parker, (Thomas,) Earl of Macclesfield, an English 
 judge, born at Leek in 1666. He became lord chancellor 
 in 1718. He was accused of selling some offices in 
 the court of chancery, and of other corrupt practices, of 
 which he was convicted in 1725, and was fined heavily. 
 Died in 1732. 
 
 Parker, (Sir William,) an English admiral, born in 
 Staffordshire in 1 781, was a relative of Lord Macclesfield. 
 He became a rear-admiral in 1830, and a lord of the 
 admiralty in 1834. In 1841 he was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the operations against China. He 
 took Chusan and Ning-po, entered the Yellow River or 
 Blue River, and compelled the Chinese to sign the treaty 
 of Nanking. He obtained the rank of admiral of the 
 blue in 1S51. Died in 1866. 
 
 Parkea, parks, (Joseph,) an English lawyer, born at 
 Warwick in 1796. He published, besides other works, 
 a " History of the Court of Chancery," (1828,) and "The 
 Equity and Real Property Laws of the United States 
 of North America," (1830.) He distinguished himself 
 as an advocate of parliamentary reform previous to 1832. 
 Died in 1865. 
 
 Parkes, (Josiah,) a civil engineer, a brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Warwick in 1793. He became 
 drainingengineer under the board of works, in which 
 capacity he rendered important service to the public. 
 He published "Essays on the Philosophy and Art of 
 Land Drainage," (1848,) a "Treatise on Climate, Soils," 
 etc.. and other works. 
 
 Parkes, (Samukl.) an English chemist, born in Wor- 
 cestershire in 1759. He manufactured chemical products 
 in London. He published a "Chemical Catechism," 
 (1806,) and "Chemical Essays, principally relating to 
 the Arts and Manufactures," etc., (8 vols., 1815.) Died 
 in 1825. 
 
 Park'hurat, (John,) an English bishop, born in 
 Surrey in 151 1. He adhered to the Reformed religion, 
 and went into exile in the reign of Mary. In 1560 he 
 became Bishop of Norwich. He wrote some Latin epi- 
 grams, (1560 and 1573.) Died in 1574. 
 
 Parkhurst, (John,) an English linguist, born in 
 Northamptonshire in 1728. He officiated without salary 
 as curate at Catesby for many years. In 1762 he pub- 
 
 lished a " Hebrew-and-English Lexicon without Points," 
 which was highly esteemed. His "Greek-and-English 
 Lexicon" (1769) was reprinted and extensively used. 
 He also wrote "The Divinity and Pre-Existence of Jesus 
 Christ demonstrated from Scripture," (1787.) Died in 
 
 1797- 
 
 Park'in-sou, (John.) a botanist and apothecary, born 
 in London in 1567. He received from Charles I. the 
 title of " Botanicus Regius Primarius." He published 
 " Paradisus Terrestris, or a Garden of all Sorts of Pleas- 
 ant Flowers," (1629,) with 109 figures, and "Theatrum 
 Botanicum," (1640.) Died about 1650. 
 
 Parkinson, (Thomas,) an English mathematician 
 and parson, born in Lancashire in 1745. He published 
 a "System of Mechanics." Died in 1830. 
 
 Park'man, (Francis,) an American writer, born at 
 Boston in 1823, published "The California and Oregon 
 Trail," (1849,) " History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac," 
 etc., (1851,) "The Pioneers of France in the New World," 
 (1865,) "The Jesuits in North America," (1866,) and 
 " The Discovery of the Great West," (1869,) which have 
 enjoyed a great and deserved popularity. 
 
 Par'kjf-ns, (Sir Thomas,) an English writer, born in 
 1636,. was the author of " Progymnasmata, or a Treatise 
 on Wrestling," (1714.) 
 
 See " Retrosi>ect!ve Review," vol. xi., (1825.) 
 
 Parlatore, paR-la-to'ra, (Fii.ippo,) an Italian botanist, 
 born at Palermo in 1816. He obtained a chair of botany 
 at Florence in 1842. Among his works are a " Me- 
 moir on Organography, Vegetable Morphology," etc., 
 (1841,) "Comparative Botany," (1843,) and "Travels in 
 Northern Europe," (1854.) It is stated that he is en- 
 gaged on a large work on botanical geography. 
 
 Parma, Duke of. See Farnf.sk. 
 
 Parma, Duke ok. See Cambaceres, (Jean Jacques 
 Regis.) 
 
 Parmeuiide. See Parmenides. 
 
 Par-menl-des, [Gr. UapfwiAw; Fr. Parmenide, 
 piR'ma'ned',] a distinguished Greek philosopher of the 
 Eleatic school, was born at Elea, in Italy. He is said 
 to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. Plato informs 
 us that Parmenides, at the age of sixty-five, visited 
 Athens in company with Zeno, who was twenty-five 
 years younger, and became acquainted with Socrates. 
 The date of this event is supposed to have been about 
 450 n.C. He developed his philosophy in a didactic 
 poem " On Nature," of which some fragments have 
 come down to us. Plato speaks of him with veneration, 
 and Aristotle preferred him to the other masters of the 
 Eleatic school. Zeno of Elea was one of his disciples, 
 among whom some writers also reckon Empedocles. 
 
 See F. Riaux. " F.ssai sur Parmenide d'filee," 1840; Ritteh, 
 "History of Philosophy :" G. H. Lewes. " liio^raphical History of 
 Philosophy ;" Plato. "Parmenides;" C. A. ttsANpIS, "Commen- 
 tattonum Eleaticarum Xenophanis, Parmenidis, Pars I.," 1815; 
 Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." 
 
 Par-me'nl-o, [Gr. TJap/ieviav: Fr. Parmenion, pSr'- 
 m&'ne'dN',] an eminent Macedonian general, the son 
 of Philotas, was born about 400 B.C. He enjoyed the 
 highest place in the confidence of Philip as a councillor 
 and general. Parmenio and Attalus commanded an army 
 which Philip sent to invade Persia in 336. He rendered, 
 important services in Alexander's expedition against 
 Persia, and appears to have been regarded as second 
 in command to the king. He commanded the left wing 
 at the battles of the Grani'cus and Issus, (333,) and of 
 Arbela, (331.) His son, Philotas, was accused of com- 
 plicity in a plot against the life of Alexander, and, though 
 he was probably innocent, he was induced by torture to 
 make a confession of guilt which implicated Parmenio, 
 who was put to death in 330 B.C. His death is considered 
 to have left one of the darkest stains on the character 
 of Alexander. 
 
 See Arrian, " Anabasis;" Grote, " History of Greece ;" Thirl- 
 -waix, " History of Greece." 
 
 Parmenio or Parmenion, a Greek architect, em- 
 ployed by Alexander the Great at Alexandria. 
 
 Parmenion. See Parmenio. 
 
 Parmentier, piR'moN'te-i', (Antoine Augustin,) 
 an eminent French philanthropist and writer on rural 
 economy, born at Montdidier in 1737. He became an 
 
 « t&t; c, as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PARMENTIER 
 
 1742 
 
 PARRHASIUS 
 
 apothecary of Paris, and distinguished himself by his 
 tfforts to promote the cultivation and use of the potato, 
 against which the people were prejudiced. He wrote 
 treatises on the potato, chestnut, and maize. In 1790 
 he published " Rural and Domestic Economy," (8 vols.) 
 Tie was a member of the Institute. About 1803 he 
 became inspector-general of health, ( inspecteur-gMral du 
 service de santl.) He rendered many important services 
 to the public. Died in 1813. 
 
 See Cuvier, " filojje de Parmentier," 1815 ; A. F. de Silvestre, 
 "Notice sur Parmentier," 1815; Mutbl, "Vie de Parmentier," 
 1819; Vikky, "De la Vie et des Ouvragesde Parmentier," 1814 ; L. 
 Bkightwkll, " By-Paths of Biography." 
 
 Parmentier, (Jacques,) a French painter, born in 
 Paris in 1658. He resided mostly in England, and was 
 employed by William III. to adorn his palace at Loo. 
 Among his works is " Diana and Endymion." Died 
 in London in 1730. 
 
 Parmentier, (Jehan,) a French navigator, born at 
 Dieppe in 1494. He is reputed the first European who 
 navigated to Brazil, and the first who explored the In- 
 dian Sea as far as Sumatra. He died at Sumatra in 1530. 
 
 Parmesan, Le. See Mazzola. 
 
 Parmigiano, II. See Mazzola. 
 
 Parnell, (Hknry Brooke.) See Congleton, Lord. 
 
 Par'nell, (Thomas,) a British poet, born in Dublin 
 in 1679. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, 
 and was ordained a deacon in 1700. In 1705 he became 
 Archdeacon of Clogher. He was intimate with Addison, 
 Congreve, Swift, and Pope. About 1 712 he transferred 
 his support from the Whig to the Tory party. He ob- 
 tained the living of Finglass, near Dublin, in 1716, and 
 died in July, 1717. It appears that after the loss of his 
 wife, in 1712, he became intemperate. Among his best 
 poems are a " Hymn to Contentment," "The Hermit," 
 a night-piece on "Death," and an " Allegory on Man." 
 He wrote several essays in the " Spectator," and other 
 works in prose. 
 
 See Goldsmith, " Life of Parnell," prefixed to Parnell's Poems ; 
 Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" R. Bell, "Lives 
 of the British Poets." 
 
 Parny, de, deh ptR'ne', (Evariste DAsir£ Des- 
 forges — di'foRzh',) Chevalier and Vicomte, a popular 
 French poet, born in the Isle of Bourbon in 1753, was 
 styled " the French Tibullus." He was educated in 
 France, chose the military profession, and returned to 
 his native island in 1 773. A disappointed passion for a 
 Creole named fileonore inspired his first and most grace- 
 ful and natural poetical compositions, " Amatory Poems," 
 ("Poesies ^rotiques," 1775,) which were received with 
 great favour. He went to India as aide-de-camp to the 
 governor-general in 1785, but returned to France in 1786 
 and resigned his commission. After the Revolution he 
 served the public as clerk in one of the bureaux of 
 the government. His later poems, "The War of the 
 Gods," (" La Guerre des Dieux," 1799,) " Paradise Lost," 
 and " Les Galanteries de la Bible," were generally cen- 
 sured for their impiety, and have little literary merit. 
 He was admitted into the French Academy in 1803. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 See P. F. Tissot, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. de 
 Parny," 1826; Sainte-Bkuve, " Portraits litteraires ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Parodi, pa-ro'dee, (Domenico,) an eminent painter 
 of history, bom at Genoa in 1668, was also a sculptor. 
 He imitated the styles of Tintoretto and Paul Veronese. 
 His chief work is in the Negroni palace, Genoa. It 
 represents " Hercules killing the Nemean Lion," and 
 other fabulous subjects. A statue of Adonis, which he 
 made for Prince Eugene, is admired. Died in 1740. 
 
 Parodi, (Filippo,) an able sculptor, born at Genoa 
 about 1640, was the father of the preceding. His works 
 may be seen at Genoa, Venice, and Lisbon. Died about 
 1708. His son Battista, born in 1674, was a distin- 
 guished painter and a brilliant colorist. Died in 1730. 
 
 Parodi, Madame, a celebrated Italian singer, bom 
 about 1830. She has performed with great applause in 
 the principal cities of Europe and the United States. 
 
 Paroletti, de, di pl-ro-let'tee, (Victor Modkste,) 
 Chevalier, an Italian antiquary, born at Turin in 1765. 
 He sat in the French legislative body from 1807 to 1811. 
 Among his works is "Turin and its Curiosities," (1819,) 
 
 and "Lives of Sixty Illustrious Piedmontese," (1826.) 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 Parolini, pa-ro-lee'nee, (Giacomo,) an Italian painter 
 of history, born at Ferrara in 1663, was a pupil of Caiio 
 Cignani. Died about 1735. 
 
 Paroy, de, deh pi'nwa', (Jean Philippe Guy le 
 Gentil — leh zho.s'tel',) Marquis, a French painter and 
 engraver, born in Bretagne in 1750. His engraving of 
 "La moderne Antigone" (1800) was very successful. 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 Parque-Castrillo, del, c\i\ paR'ka kas-trel'yo, Duke, 
 a Spanish general, born at Valladolid in 1755. He com- 
 manded an army which opposed the French invaders 
 in 1809-13. Died in 1832. 
 
 Parques, Les. See Parce. 
 
 Parr, (Catherine.) See Catherine Parr. 
 
 Parr, (Richard,) a minister of the Anglican Church, 
 born in the county of Cork, Ireland, in 161 7, was chap- 
 lain to Archbishop Usher, of whom he wrote a Life, 
 (1686.) Died in 1691. 
 
 Parr, (Samuel,) an English scholar and critic, re- 
 nowned for his learning and colloquial powers, was born 
 at Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex, in 1747. He entered 
 Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1765, but left it with- 
 out a degree, and was an usher in Harrow School from 
 1767 to 1772. He was afterwards master of schools at 
 Colchester and Norwich, and obtained about 1785 the 
 living of Hatton, in Warwickshire. His promotion was 
 hindered by his rather violent partiality to the Whig 
 principles, and the richest benefice he enjoyed was a 
 prebend in Saint Paul's, London. He published several 
 sermons, "Characters of the Late Charles J. Fox, se- 
 lected and in part written by Philopatris Varvicensis," 
 (2 vols., 1825,) and other works, none of which is of 
 great extent or importance. Died in 1825. Macaulay 
 calls Parr the greatest scholar of that age, and speaks 
 of "his labours in that dark and profound mine from 
 which he had extracted a vast treasure of erudition, — a 
 treasure too often buried in the earth, too often paraded 
 with injudicious and inelegant ostentation, but still 
 precious, massive, and splendid." (" Essay on Warren 
 Hastings.") 
 
 See " Life of S. Parr," by John Johnstone: William Field, 
 " Memoir of the Life of Dr. Parr," 2 vols., 1828 ; " Dr. Parr and his 
 Contemporaries," in " Blackwood's Magazine" for January, May, 
 and June, 1831 ; " Parriana, or Notices of the Rev. Samuel Parr," 
 London, 1828. 
 
 Parr, (Thomas,) an Englishman of great longevity, 
 was born in Shropshire in 1483. He was a cultivator of 
 the soil, and was married about the age of one hundred 
 and twenty. It is said that he was able to work after 
 he was one hundred and thirty years old. Died in 1635. 
 
 Parradin. See Paradin. 
 
 Parrenin, piR'naN', or Parennin, pl'ri'naN', (Domi- 
 nique,) a French missionary, born near Pontarlier in 
 1665. In 1698 he went to China, where he obtained 
 the favour of the emperor. He translated some French 
 works into Chinese. His letters to Fontenelle and 
 others were published. Died at Peking in 1741. 
 
 Farrhasius, par-ra'shejjs, [ Tlaf>f>u<noc, ] one of the 
 most celebrated Greek painters, was born at Ephesus, 
 and was the pupil of his father, Evenor. Though he 
 belonged to the Ionic school, he practised his art chiefly 
 at Athens. He flourished about 400 B.C. His peculiar 
 merits consisted in accuracy of design, truth of propor- 
 tion, and power of expression. In pictures of gods and 
 heroes he established a canon of proportion which was 
 recognized by succeeding artists. Quintilian styled him 
 the legislator of his art. In a trial of skill between him 
 and his rival Zeuxis, the latter painted a bunch of grapes, 
 which the birds took for reality. Flushed with this evi- 
 dence of his success, Zeuxis called on his rival to draw 
 aside the curtain and show his picture. The picture of 
 Parrhasius was the curtain itself, which Zeuxis had mis- 
 taken for real drapery. Among his master-pieces were 
 " Ulysses Feigning Insanity," and an allegorical picture 
 of the Athenian people, or the Demos personified. 
 
 See Caki.o Dati, "Vite de' Pittori antichi," 1667; K. O. MOl- 
 ler, " Handbuch der Arcliaeologie der Kunst ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie G&ie>ale." 
 
 Parrhasius or Parisio, pi-ree'se-o, (Aulus Janus,) 
 an Italian grammarian, born at Cosenza in 1470. He 
 
 i, 5, 1, o, ii, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e,, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m4t; nflt; good; moon; 
 
PARR IS 
 
 >743 
 
 PARSONS 
 
 taught eloquence at Milan and Rome, and wrote notes 
 on Horace, Cicero, and Ovid. His chief work is named 
 "De Rebus per Epistoiam quaesitis," (Paris, 1567,) in 
 which he explains passages of ancient authors. Died 
 
 •n >534- 
 
 PSr'ris, (Albion K.,) an American Governor and 
 judge, born in Oxford county, Maine, in 1788. He was 
 elected Governor of Maine five times, (1822-27,) became 
 United States Senator in 1827, and was a judge of the 
 supreme court of Maine from 1828 to 1836. Died in 1857. 
 
 Far'rish, (Joseph,) M.D., a distinguished physician 
 of Philadelphia, was born in that city, September 2, 1779. 
 His parents were members of the Society of Friends, 
 and he was educated in strict conformity with the princi- 
 ples and habits of that sect. In early life he received 
 strong religious impressions, by which he was preserved 
 from the temptations incident to a lively and ardent 
 temperament. He had a good English education, and 
 acquired some knowledge of Latin and French. Later 
 in life, like George Fox, he commenced the study of 
 Hebrew, that he might the better understand the Scrip- 
 tures. Hut his tastes were rather scientific than literary, 
 and inclined him to the medical profession, the study of 
 which he commenced, after he had completed his twenty- 
 first year, in the office of Dr. Caspar Wistar, of the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania. He took his degree of Doctor 
 of Medicine in 1805, and soon after entered with zeal 
 upon the duties of his profession. In the winter of 
 1807-8 he became favourably known to the public by a 
 popular course of lectures on chemistry, then a novelty 
 in Philadelphia. In 1808 he married Susanna Cox, 
 whose father, John Cox, of Burlington, was a well-known 
 and estimable minister of the Society of Friends. There 
 has, perhaps, been no example in Philadelphia of a more 
 rapid professional success than that which fell to the lot 
 of Dr. Parrish. To this result his devotion to his medical 
 duties, and the remarkable kindliness of his disposition, 
 which showed itself not merely in his manners but in in- 
 numerable acts of benevolence, powerfully contributed. 
 Later in life he greatly distinguished himself as a surgeon, 
 and was deemed worthy to succeed Dr. Physick as sur- 
 geon to the Pennsylvania Hospital, to which position he 
 was elected in 1816, and which he continued to hold, with 
 the highest credit to himself, for thirteen years. Apart 
 from his profession, Dr. Parrish took a deep interest in 
 all benevolent enterprises, and in every movement cal- 
 culated to relieve the distresses or promote the happiness 
 of mankind. He was long a member, and ultimately 
 president, of the old Pennsylvania Abolition Society, in 
 which office he had been preceded by Drs. Wistar, Rush, 
 and Franklin. He died March 18, 1840. Among Dr. 
 Parrish's numerous pupils not a few have become distin- 
 guished in medicine or surgery, or in general science. It 
 may suffice to cite the names of Dr. S. G. Morton, Dr. 
 G. B. Wood, Dr. Carson, and Dr. G. W. Norris. 
 
 Of Dr. Parrish's sons, the second, Isaac, attained a 
 high reputation as a physician, and especially as a surgeon. 
 He died in 1852. 
 
 See "Memoir of Dr. Joseph Parrish," read before the Medical 
 Society of Philadelphia, by George B. Wood, M.D., October, 1840; 
 Jannev, " History of Friends," vol. iv. pp. 126-129: and "Memoir 
 of Dr. Isaac Parrish." read before the College of Physicians of Phila- 
 delphia, February, 1853, by Samuel Jackson, M.D. 
 
 Parrocel, pf ro'seV, (Barthelemi,) a French painter, 
 born at Montbrison. He worked in Spain and Rome 
 with success. Died in Fiance in 1660. 
 
 Parrocel, (Charles,) a skilful painter of battles, born 
 in Paris in 1688, was a grandson of the preceding. He 
 was patronized by Louis XV., whom he attended in the 
 campaigns of 1744 and 1745. Died in 1752. 
 
 Parrocel, (Joseph,) a distinguished painter of battles, 
 father of the preceding, was born in Provence in 1648. 
 He worked at Paris, where he settled in 1675, and was 
 employed by Louvois and Louis XIV. to adorn the royal 
 palaces. He also left many etchings. Died in 1704. 
 
 Parrocel, (Pierre,) a nephew of the preceding, was 
 born at Avignon in 1664. He was an able painter of 
 history, and worked in Paris. His chief work is " The 
 Coronation of the Virgin." Died in 1739. His son, 
 Joseph Ignace, born in 1705, painted religious and 
 pastoral subjects, and received the title of painter to the 
 king. Died in 1781. 
 
 Parrot, pt'ro', (Christophe Frederic,) a writer on 
 physical science, born at Montbeliard, in France, in 1751 ; 
 died about 1810. 
 
 Parrot, (George Frederic,) a distinguished writer, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Montbeliard in 
 1767. He became professor of physics at Dorpat in 
 1800, and a member of the Academy of Sciences of Saint 
 Petersburg in 1826. Among his works is " Outlines 
 (Grundriss) of Theoretical Physics," (2 vols., 1809-11.) 
 Died at Saint Petersburg in 1852. 
 
 Parrot, (Johann Jakob Friedrich Wii.helm,) a 
 traveller, son of the preceding, was born at Carlsruhe 
 in 1792. He published "Travels in the Crimea and 
 Caucasus," (2 vols., 1815-18,) a "Journey to Ararat," 
 (1834,) and other works. He ascended Mount Ararat 
 about 1830. He was professor of medicine at Dorpat. 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 Par'ry , (Caleb Hillier,) an English physician, born 
 at Bath. in 1756. He practised many years at Bath, and 
 published several works, among which is " Elements of 
 Pathology," (1816.) Sir William Edward Parry was his 
 son. Died in 1822. 
 
 Parry, (Richard,) an English divine, born in London 
 in 1722, was rector of Wichampton. He published, be- 
 sides other works, a " Harmony of the Four Gospels." 
 Died in 1780. 
 
 Parry, (Sir William Edward,) an English navigator, 
 (usually called Sir Edward Parry,) born at Bath in 
 1790, was a son of Caleb H. Parry, noticed above. 
 He served as lieutenant in the war against the United 
 States in 1814, and accompanied Captain Ross in an 
 exploring voyage in 1818. He obtained command of an 
 expedition for the discovery of a Northwest Passage, and 
 sailed with the Hecla and Griper in May, 1819. Having 
 passed through Lancaster Sound, he explored a con- 
 tiguous strait, which he named Barrow's Strait, and 
 gained a reward of ^5000 offered to the navigator who 
 should penetrate beyond the meridian of 110° W., 
 (within the Arctic circle.) He passed the winter at 
 Melville Island, returned home in November, 1820, and 
 wrote a journal of his voyage, published in 1821. 
 
 Captain Parry renewed the enterprise in 1821, without 
 success. He performed a third voyage to the Arctic 
 Ocean in 1824, with the Hecla and Fury, the latter of 
 which was wrecked, but failed to find the Northwest Pas- 
 sage. In 1827 he attempted to reach the North pole 
 from Spitsbergen by boats and sledges drawn over the 
 ice. Having advanced to a point 82 45' N., he was 
 forced by an adverse current to return. A journal of his 
 second voyage was published in 1824, a journal of the 
 third voyage in 1826, and a "Narrative of an Attempt 
 to reach the North Pole" in 1828. He was raised to 
 the rank of rear-admiral in 1852. Died at Ems, in Ger- 
 many, in 1855. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Sir W. E. Parry," by bis son, Edward Parrv 
 1857 : " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1821, and October 
 1823; "Monthly Review" for October, 1821. 
 
 Parseval-Deschdnes, ptus'vil' d&'shSn', (Alex- 
 andre Ferdinand,) a French admiral, born in Paris 
 in 1790. He became a rear-admiral in 1840, and vice- 
 admiral in 1846. In 1854 he commanded the fleet 
 which co-operated with the British against the Russians 
 in the Baltic. He was made an admiral in 1854. Died 
 in 1806. 
 
 Parse val-Grandmaison, piits'val' gR0N'm&'z6N', 
 (Francois Augusts,) a French poet, born in Paris in 
 1759. He went to Egypt with the army in 1798 as poet 
 of the expedition, and was one of the friends whom 
 Bonaparte received on board of the ship which conveyed 
 him to France. He wrote a " Dithyramb on the Mar- 
 riage of Napoleon," (1810,) " Philippe Auguste," a heroic 
 poem, (1825,) and other works. Died in 1834. 
 
 Par'sons, (James,) F.R.S., an English physician anil 
 antiquary, born at Barnstaple in 1 705. He practised in 
 London, contributed several treatises on physiology, etc. 
 to the " Philosophical Transactions," and wrote an anti- 
 quarian work called "The Remains of Japhet," (1767.) 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 Parsons, (John,) an English physician, born in 
 Yorkshire in 1742. He became professor of medicine 
 or anatomy at Oxford about 1780. Died in 1785. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; s, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. ( jy~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PERSONS 
 
 J 744 
 
 PARVATI 
 
 Par'sona, (Jonathan,) an American Presbyterian 
 clergyman and scholar, born at West Springfield, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1705. He preached for many years at New- 
 buryport, and published several volumes of sermons. 
 Died in 1776. 
 
 Paraons, (Moses,) an eminent American preacher, 
 born in Massachusetts in 1716, graduated at Harvard. 
 He was minister at Byfield, Massachusetts. Died in 
 
 1783. 
 
 Paraons, (Philip,) an English clergyman, born at 
 Dedham in 1729, was vicar of Wye. He wrote "New- 
 market, an Essay on the Turf," (1774,) "Simplicity," a 
 poem, (1784,) and other works. Died in 1812. 
 
 Parsons, [Lat. Perso'nius,] (Robert,) an English 
 Jesuit, born in Somersetshire in 1546, was remarkable 
 for his subtlety as a disputant and his talent for intrigue. 
 As an emissary of the court of Rome, he went to Eng- 
 land with Campian about 1580, and attempted to foment 
 a rebellion. He published several seditious writings. 
 He was turbulent, audacious, and unscrupulous. Died 
 at Rome in 1610. 
 
 Parsons, (Samuel Holden,) an American general 
 and lawyer, born at Lyme, Connecticut, in 1737, was a 
 son of Jonathan, noticed above. He is said to have first 
 suggested a general Congress. Died in Ohio in 1789. 
 
 Parsons, (Theophilus,) an eminent American jurist, 
 born in Essex county, Massachusetts, the 24th of Feb- 
 ruary, 1750. He graduated at Harvard College in 1769, 
 and studied law at Falmouth, (now Portland,) in Maine, 
 where he was admitted to the bar in 1774 ; but he after- 
 wards removed to Newburyport. He was a member of 
 the convention which, in 1779, framed the State Consti- 
 tution of Massachusetts, and was also a member of the 
 convention called to ratify the Constitution of the United 
 States in 1789. In 1800 he removed to Boston. He was 
 appointed in 1806 chief justice of Massachusetts, in 
 which office he displayed signal ability. As a lawyer, 
 " he had," according to Justice Story, " no equal in 
 Massachusetts;" and he probably had few, if any, supe- 
 riors in the United States. A collection of his judicial 
 opinions was published, under the title of "Commen- 
 taries on the Law of the United States." Died in 1813. 
 
 See " Memoir of Chief Justice Parsons," by his son, Theophilus 
 Pardons, 1859. 
 
 Paraons, (Theophilus,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Boston in 1797, and rose to distinction as a 
 lawyer and writer. He graduated in 1815 at Harvard 
 College, where he became in 1847 Dane professor of 
 law. He has been a contributor to the "North American 
 Review," and other periodicals, and published a number 
 of essays in favour of the doctrines of Swedenborg. He 
 has also written several legal works. 
 
 See Allibonk, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Paraons, (Thomas William,) an American poet, 
 born in Boston in 1819. He produced in 1843 a version 
 of "The First Ten Cantos of Dante's Inferno," which, 
 according to R. W. Griswold, "is executed in a very 
 masterly manner. The best critics have pronounced it 
 the most successful reproduction of the spirit and power 
 of the Divina Commedia in the English language. His 
 original poems are variously admirable. . . . His 'Hud- 
 son River' is the noblest tribute any stream on this 
 continent has received from a poet, and his lines 'On 
 the Death of Daniel Webster' are far better than any- 
 thing else ever written in verse on the death of an 
 American statesman." ("Poets and Poetry of America," 
 p. 559.) He published a volume of poems in 1854. 
 
 See Alubone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Parsons, (William,) an English comic actor, born 
 in 1736, was also a painter. Died in 1795. 
 
 Parthenay, de. See Df.sroches de Parthenay. 
 
 Parthenay, de, deh ptRt'nJ', (Catherine,) Vi- 
 comtesse de Rohan, a spirited and gifted French lady, 
 born in Bas-Poitou in 1554, was a Huguenot. She dis- 
 tinguished herself at the siege of La Rochelle, in 1627. 
 She published some poems. The famous Duke of 
 Rohan was her son. Died in 1631. 
 
 See Morbri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" De Thou, " Historia 
 sui Temporis." 
 
 Par-the'nl-us [YlapBevios] of Nicaea, a Greek poet, 
 who lived at Rome in the first century B.C. Suidas states 
 
 that he was taken prisoner by the Romans in the war 
 against Mithridates. He was a friend of Cornelius 
 Callus, and a preceptor of Virgil. He wrote "Meta- 
 morphoses," elegies, and other poems, which are all lost 
 except one named nepl kpuriKuv nadji/iaruv, ("On Ama- 
 tory Affections.") 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca;" Ersch und Gruber, 
 "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Parthenopaeus, par-then-o-pee'us, [ Gr. TlapBevo- 
 zaZoc ; Fr. Parthenopee, paVta'no'pa ,] a mythical 
 personage, called a son of Milanion and Atalanta. He 
 was one of the seven heroes under the command of 
 Adrastus engaged in the expedition against Thebes, 
 where he was killed. 
 
 Par-then'o-pe, [Gr. TlapdevoKjj ; Fr. Parthenope, 
 piK'ta'n'op',] a famous Siren, from whom the city of 
 Naples derived its ancient name. 
 
 Parthenopee. See Pakthenop.eus. 
 
 Par'the-nos, [Gr. Ylapdivos; Fr. Parthenos, piR'- 
 ta'nos',] (i.e. " the Virgin,") a surname given by the 
 Athenians to Minerva, in whose honour they built the 
 Parthenon. (See Minerva.) 
 
 Particelli. See Emery. 
 
 Pai'ton, (James,) an able and popular writer and 
 journalist, born at Canterbury, England, in 1822, became 
 a resident of New York, where he was for a time asso- 
 ciate editor of the " Home Journal." He published 
 a " Life of Horace Greeley," (1855,) "Life of Aaron 
 Burr," (1857,) "Life of Andrew Jackson," (i860,) and 
 a "Life of General Butler," (1863,) all of which have 
 been eminently successful ; also, " Famous Americans 
 of Recent Times," (1867.) He has contributed to the 
 "Atlantic Monthly" and the "North American Review." 
 
 See the " North American Review" for April, 1867. 
 
 Parton, (Sarah Payson Willis,) the wife of the 
 preceding, and sister of the poet N. P. Willis, was 
 born at Portland, Maine, in 1811. She has published, 
 under the pseudonym of Fanny Fern, " Fern Leaves," 
 (1853,) "Little Ferns," (18S3,) " Kuth Hall," (1854,) 
 "The Play-Day Book," (1856,) "Fresh Leaves," (1857,) 
 and "Rose Clark," (1857,) which obtained great popu- 
 larity in the United States, and were republished in 
 England. 
 
 Partouneaux, piR'too'no', (Louis,) Count, a French 
 general, born at Romilly, on the Seine, in 1770; died 
 in 1835. 
 
 Part'rldge, (Alden,) an American teacher of mili- 
 tary schools, born at Norwich, Vermont, about 17S5. 
 He graduated at West Point in 1806. He was the 
 leader of a party which surveyed and determined the 
 northwest boundary of the United States, in 1819. He 
 opened a military academy at Norwich, Connecticut, and 
 afterwards established one at Portsmouth, in Virginia. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Paruta, pa-roo'ta, (Fll.lPPO,) an antiquary, born at 
 Palermo. He wrote " Sicily Described by Medals," 
 ("La Sicilia descritta con Medaglie," 1612,) reprinted 
 in 1649 and 1697. Died in 1629. 
 
 Paruta, (Paolo,) an eminent Italian historian and 
 diplomatist, born at Venice in 1540. He was sent as 
 ambassador to the pope in 1592, before which he had 
 held several high offices. In 1596 he became procurator 
 of Saint Mark, the highest functionary in the state ex- 
 cept one. He wrote " On the Perfection of Political 
 Life," ("Delia Perfezione clella Vita politica," 1579,) 
 which was translated into English and French, and a 
 " History of Venice from 1513 to 1551," ("Storia Vene- 
 ziana," 1605,) which is highly commended. " He was 
 the first," says Daru, "who introduced the details of 
 civil history into his narrative." His " Political Dis- 
 courses" (" Discorsi politici," 1599) are judicious, and 
 sometimes profound. Died in 1598. 
 
 See A. Zeno, "Vita di P. Paruta," 1718: A. M. Meneghelli, 
 " FJogiodiP. Paruta," 1S12 ; Nicekon, "Menioires ;" A. Mezieres, 
 " E"tudes sur les CEuvres politiques de Paruta," 1853. 
 
 Parvati, paK'va-tee', (i.e. the "mountain [goddess,"]) 
 [from the Sanscrit pamStd, a "mountain,"! in the Hin- 
 doo mythology, the name of the consort or Sakti of Siva, 
 was supposed to be the daughter of Himala, the sove- 
 reign of the snowy mountains in the north of India. 
 She is known by a multitude of names, according to her 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged;^, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m?t; not; good; moon; 
 
PAR 7'SATIS 
 
 '745 
 
 PASCAL 
 
 various characters, such as BHAVANf, corresponding to 
 the " Venus genetrix" of the Romans ; Durga, so called 
 in hei character of active or militant virtue ; KALt, (i.e. 
 " black" or " terrible,") applied to her in her most terrible 
 form, when she appears as the destroyer of the enemies 
 of the gods ; and PArvat?, as the devoted wife and 
 inseparable companion of Siva. She (like Juno) may be 
 regarded as a personification of femineity. (See Siva.) 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon ;" Wilson, "Sanscrit Dictionary." 
 
 Pa-rjfs'a-tis, [Gr. nnptwmf,] a Persian queen, was a 
 daughter of Artaxerxes I., and the wife of her brother, 
 Darius Ochus, over whom she had great influence. She 
 abused her power by the execution of a number of per- 
 sons, among whom were two brothers of Darius. She 
 was the mother of Artaxerxes Mnemon and of Cyrus 
 the younger. 
 
 Pas. See Pass. 
 
 Pas, de, (A.ntoine.) See FEUQUifeRES, de. 
 
 Pascal. See Paschal I. 
 
 Pascal, pis'kil', (Adrien,) a French military writer, 
 born about 1815. He published, besides other works, 
 "The Military Life of Louis Philippe," (1841,) a " His- 
 tory of the Army, and of all the Regiments, from the 
 Thirteenth Century to our Times," (4 vols., 1845-49,) 
 and a " History of Napoleon III.," (1853.) 
 
 Pascal, pas'kal, [Fr. pron. pSs'kSl' ; Lat. Pascha'lis,] 
 (Blaise,) a celebrated French philosopher and mathe- 
 matician, was born at Clermont-Ferrand, in Auvergne, 
 on the 19th of June, 1623. He was the only son of 
 Etienne Pascal, president of the court of aids, and An- 
 toinette Kegon. He was very inquisitive in his early 
 childhood, and showed an extraordinary aptitude for 
 geometry ; but his father, who directed his education, 
 wished him to study the ancient languages, to the ex- 
 clusion of geometry, and carefully concealed from him 
 all works on that science. In his twelfth year, however, 
 he was surprised in the act of demonstrating proposi- 
 tions, having privately discovered or learned the elements 
 of geometry without the aid of books. His father then 
 ceased to restrain him from the study of the science to 
 which he was so powerfully attracted. It is stated that 
 at the age of sixteen he wrote a treatise on Conic Sec- 
 tions which astonished Descartes. He made rapid pro- 
 gress in mathematics, and soon began to associate with 
 Mersenne and Roberval. About the age of eighteen he 
 invented an ingenious calculating-machine. His consti- 
 tution was always delicate, and his health was probably 
 impaired by excessive application to study. After the 
 age of eighteen he was a continual sufTerer. In 1648 he 
 made with the barometer, on the mountain called Puy de 
 D6me, a celebrated experiment, which established the 
 theory of atmospheric pressure and exploded the ancient 
 error that nature abhors a vacuum. He wrote two treat- 
 ises entitled "On the Equilibrium of Fluids," and " On 
 the Weight of the Atmosphere." In the experiment 
 just mentioned he was assisted by M. Perier, his brother- 
 in-law. Impressed by powerful religious convictions, he 
 renounqed in 1649 the brilliant prospect of temporal re- 
 nown towards which his genius was conducting him, and 
 turned his attention from scientific pursuits. In 1654 he 
 narrowly escaped from a dangerous accident to which he 
 was exposed by his unruly horses as he was riding in a 
 carriage on the Pont de Neuilly. This event confirmed 
 his resolution to devote himself to religious duties and 
 a life of retirement. He became very abstemious in his 
 diet, denied himself many innocent enjoyments, and 
 subjected himself to a severely ascetic discipline. It is 
 utated that he beggared himself by his prodigal bene- 
 factions to the poor, and that he wore beneath his clothes 
 a girdle of iron armed with sharp points as an instru- 
 ment of self-imposed penance. He entered the cloister 
 of Port-Royal, to which his sister Jacqueline had retired 
 several years before, and there enjoyed the society of 
 Arnauld, Le Saci, Nicole, Saint-Cyran, (Duvergier,) and 
 Other Jansenist writers. 
 
 In 1656 he produced his celebrated " Provincial Let- 
 ters," the full title of which is " Lettres Writes par Louis 
 de Montalte a un Provincial de ses Amis et aux Jesuites 
 Bur la Morale et la Politique de ces Peres," (" Letters 
 written by Louis de Montalte to the Jesuits," etc.) 
 "Pascal," says Hallam, "by his 'Provincial Letters," 
 
 did more to ruin the name of Jesuit than all the con- 
 troversies of Protestantism or all the fulminations of 
 the Parliament of Paris. . . . He has accumulated so 
 long a list of scandalous decisions, and dwelt upon 
 them with so much wit and spirit, and yet with so 
 serious a severity, that the order of Loyola became a 
 byword with mankind." (" Inttoduction to the Litera- 
 ture of Europe.") Voltaire expressed the opinion that 
 "Moliere's best comedies do not excel these Letters in 
 wit, nor the compositions of Iiossuet excel them in sub- 
 limity." The most competent French critics, including 
 Voltaire and D'Alembert, concur in the judgment 
 that the " Provincial Letters" contributed more than 
 any other composition to form and polish the French 
 language. There is not a single word in these Letters 
 that has become obsolete. "The severely pure and 
 simple taste," says Henry Rogers, "which reigns in 
 Pascal's style seems, when we reflect on those vices 
 which more or less infected universal letters, little less 
 than a miraculous felicity. . . . Upon all the great fea- 
 tures of his moral character one dwells with the serenest 
 delight. Greatly as he is to be admired, he is yet more 
 to be loved. His humility and simplicity, conspicuous 
 as his genius and acquisitions, were those of a very 
 child." (" Edinburgh Review" for January, 1847.) In 
 one instance he relapsed into the study of the abstract 
 sciences which he had renounced. About 1658 he di- 
 verted his attention from the pain which deprived him 
 of sleep by entertaining a luminous idea which presented 
 itself to him and led him to some important discoveries 
 in relation to the problem of the cycloid. Before he 
 made these public, he challenged the mathematicians of 
 Europe to solve the problem, and offered a prize to him 
 who should succeed. Several persons competed for the 
 prize, but the judges decided that none of their solutions 
 fulfilled the conditions of the challenge. He published 
 in 1659 a Treatise on the Cycloid, ("Traite general *e 
 la Roulette.") He meditated and began to compose an 
 extensive and systematic work on the fundamental truths 
 of religion and the evidences of Christianity, which he 
 did not live to finish ; but he left in manuscript nume- 
 rous detached sentences which are supposed to be frag- 
 ments of that work. They were published in 1670, under 
 the title of "Thoughts of Pascal," (" Penscesde Pascal,") 
 not without suppressions and alterations. A more cor- 
 rect edition was published by M. Prosper Faugere in 
 1844. "The Thoughts of Pascal," says Hallam, "are 
 to be ranked, as a monument of his genius, above the 
 ' Provincial Letters, though some have asserted the 
 contrary. They burn with an intense light ; condensed 
 in expression, sublime, energetic, rapid, they hurry away 
 the reader, till he is scarcely able or willing to distin- 
 guish the sophisms from the truth they contain. For 
 that many of them are incapable of bearing a calm 
 scrutiny is very manifest to those who apply such a 
 test. The notes of Voltaire, though always intended to 
 detract, are sometimes unanswerable ; but the splendour 
 of Pascal's eloquence absolutely annihilates, in effect 
 on the general reader, even this antagonist." (" Intro- 
 duction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 Among his works are " New Experiments on the Va- 
 cuum," ("Nouvelles Experiences touchant le Vide,") 
 "History of the Cycloid," (" Histoire de la Roulette,") 
 and "De l'Esprit geometrique." He endured with for- 
 titude the maladies which in his latter years were 
 aggravated by his ascetic habits, and died in Paris on 
 the 19th of August, 1662. His complete works were 
 published by Bossut, (in 5 vols. Svo, 1779.) Prosper 
 Faugere published in 1844 two volumes of "Thoughts, 
 Fragments, and Letters of Blaise Pascal," many of 
 which had never before been printed. " His intellectual 
 powers," says Macaulay, " were such as have rarely been 
 bestowed on any of the children of men ; and the vehe- 
 mence of the zeal which animated him was but too well 
 proved by the cruel penances and vigils under which 
 his macerated frame sank into an early grave. His 
 spirit was the spirit of Saint Bernard ; but the delicacy 
 of his wit, the purity, the energy, the simplicity of his 
 rhetoric, had never been equalled, except by the great 
 masters of Attic eloquence. All Europe read and 
 admired, laughed and wept. The Jesuits attempted to 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; i as *; th as in this. (Jjy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 lib 
 
PASCAL 
 
 1746 
 
 PAS OR 
 
 reply, but their feeble answers were received with shouts 
 of mockery." ("History of England," vol. ii. p. 18.) 
 
 See Bossut, " Discours sur la Vie de Pascal," 17S: ; Andrikux, 
 " E"loge de Pascal," 1813: Raymond, " E*loge de Pascal," 1816: 
 Faugbre, " Fjoge de Pascal;" Sainte-Beuve, "Port-Royal;" 
 Bor*>as-I)emoui.in, "Genie et Merits de Pascal," 1847; Cousin, 
 Des Pensees de Pascal," 1844 : Vinet, " Etudes sur Pascal," 1848 ; 
 Abbe Mavnard, " Pascal, sa Vie et son Caractere," syols., 1850; 
 "Vie de Pascal," by Madamr Pkriek, his sister; "Lives of the 
 Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley; "Eraser's 
 Magazine" for December, 1840; "North British Review" for 
 November, 1861. 
 
 Pascal, (Francois Michel,) a French sculptor, born 
 in Paris about 1815. He gained a medal of the second 
 class in 1848. 
 
 Pascal, (Jacqueline,) a sister of Blaise Pascal, was 
 born at Clermont in 1625. She was beautiful and highly 
 gifted. About the age of ten she began to write verses, 
 some of which were printed in 1638. The poet Corneille, 
 who often visited the family of Pascal, aided in the de- 
 velopment of her poetic talent. She became religious in 
 1646, and entered the convent of Port-Royal in 1652. 
 She wrote a powerful letter on the formulary which the 
 nuns were required to sign, and which condemned Jan- 
 senism. She died in 1661. "To annihilate self," says 
 M. Vinet, "and then to efface the most minute traces of 
 that very annihilation, had been the task of this heroic 
 girl for years. She had deemed it her especial duty to 
 mortify her noble intellect ; but she was unable to destroy 
 it: it still clung to her. And, though every thing which 
 she achieved or wrote bears the stamp of mental supe- 
 riority, there is nothing comparable in this respect to 
 the 'Letter on the Formulary.'" 
 
 See "Jacqueline Pascal, or a Glimpse of Convent-Life at Port- 
 Royal," from the French of Victor Cousin, M. P. Faugbre, and 
 M. Vinet. 
 
 Pascal, (Jean Baptists Etienne,) a French anti- 
 quary and priest, born at Marvejols in 1789. He wrote 
 " Gabalum Christianum," (1853,) and other works. Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 Pascal- Vallongue, pis'kfl' vS'loNg', (Joseph Se- 
 cret,) a French general, born at Sauve (Gard) in 1763. 
 He served with distinction in Germany and Italy during 
 the empire, and was killed at Gaeta in 1806. 
 
 Pasch, pash, [Lat. Pas'chius,] (Georg,) a German 
 philosopher, born at Dantzic in 1661. He became pro- 
 fessor of theology at Kiel about 1702. Among his works 
 is "Tractatus de novis Inventis quorum cultui facem 
 protulit antiquitas," (1695.) Died in 1707. 
 
 Pasch, pash, (Johan,) a Swedish landscape and ma- 
 rine painter, born at Stockholm in 1706 ; died in 1769. 
 
 Paschal. See Pasquai.i. 
 
 Pas'-ehal [ It. Pasquai.e, pas-kwa'la ; Fr. Pascal, 
 pfs'kfl' ; Lat. Pascha'lis] I., Pope, a native of Rome, 
 was elected as successor to Stephen V. in 817 a.d. He 
 crowned the emperor Lothaire in 823. Died in 824. 
 
 Paschal II., Pope, (Rainteri,) born near Viterbo, 
 succeeded Urban II. in 1099. He maintained a contest 
 on the subject of investitures with the emperor Henry 
 V., who marched with an army to Rome in mo, arrested 
 the pope after a violent resistence, and extorted from 
 him a concession of the right of investiture. This con- 
 cession of Paschal was condemned by a council which 
 he convoked. He was too feeble and irresolute to main- 
 tain the supremacy of the papal power. He died in 1118, 
 and was succeeded by Gelasius II. 
 
 Paschal III., Anti-Pope, (Guido di Crema, gwee'- 
 do de kRa'ma,) was elected in 1 164 or 1165 in opposition 
 to Alexander III., and was recognized by the emperor 
 Frederick I. He died at Rome in 1168. 
 
 Paschalis. See Pascal, (Blaise.) 
 
 Paschalis, (Popes.) See Paschal. 
 
 Paschius. See Pasch. 
 
 Pascoli, pas'ko-lee, (Alessandro,) an Italian phy- 
 sician, born at Perugia in 1669. He became professor 
 of anatomy in Rome, and published several works. Died 
 in 1757. 
 
 Pascoli, (Leone,) an Italian biographer, brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Perugia in 1674. He wrote 
 " Lives of Perugian Painters, Sculptors, and Architects," 
 (1732,) and "The Lives of Modern Painters, Sculptors, 
 and Architects," (2 vols., 1736,) both in Italian. Died 
 in 1744. 
 
 Pas'I-cles, a Greek philosopher, lived probably be- 
 tween 400 and 350 B.C. He was at one time the head 
 of the school of Megara. 
 
 Pasinelli, pa-se-nel'lee, or Passiiielli, pas-se-nel'lee, 
 (Lorenzo,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1629, 
 was a pupil of Cantarini. He imitated the noble man- 
 ner of Paul Veronese, whom, it is said, he equalled in 
 design. " His colour is so fresh and brilliant," says the 
 "Biographie Universelle," "that one might take his 
 works for the productions of the best time of the Venetian 
 school." Among his master-pieces are "The Entrance 
 of Christ into Jerusalem," and a " Holy Family." Died 
 in 1700. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Pasini, pS-see'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian linguist, 
 born about 1690. He published a Hebrew Grammar, 
 (1721,) and a "Latin-Italian Dictionary," (" Vocabolario 
 Italiano e Latino," 1731,) often reprinted. Died about 
 1770. 
 
 Pa-siph'a-e, [Gr. Jlampar;; Fr. Pasiphae, pi'ze'ff a',] 
 a fabulous personage, said to be a daughter of Helios, 
 a sister of Circe, and the wife of Minos. Among her 
 children were Androgeos, Ariadne, Phaedra, and the 
 Minotaur, the last of whom was fabled to be the offspring 
 of a bull. 
 
 Pa-sit'?-les, |namreAijc,] an excellent statuary and 
 silver-chaser, of Greek origin, who lived at Rome. He 
 was a minor when he obtained the right of Roman citi- 
 zenship, about 90 B.C. He improved the art of modelling. 
 Pliny represents him as a great artist, and mentions one 
 of his works, — an ivory statue of Jupiter. He was also 
 an eminent writer on art. He appears to have been 
 living in 30 B.C. 
 
 Paskevitch or Paskewitsch, pas-ka'vitch, written 
 also Faskievitch, (Ivan Feodorovitch,) Prince of 
 Warsaw, (in French, " Prince de Varsovie,") a cele- 
 brated Russian general, born at Poltava in 1782. He 
 served at Austerlitz, (1805,) received several wounds 
 at Brailof, (1809,) and obtained command of a brigade 
 in 181 1. In 1812 he distinguished himself at Borodino, 
 and gained advantages over the French in several actions. 
 Having been selected to conduct an army against the 
 Persians in 1825, he gained a victory at Elizabethpol, 
 and took Erivan in 1827. For his successes in a war 
 against the Turks (1828-29) be obtained the rank of 
 field-marshal. In 1831 he took the command against 
 the revolted Poles, and ended the war by the capture 
 of Warsaw. For these services he was created Prince 
 of Warsaw and made Governor-General of Poland. He 
 was successful in his operations against the Hungarians 
 in 1849, but failed at the siege of Silistria, in 1854. Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 See Tolstoi, "Essai biographique sur le Prince de Varsovie," 
 1835 : " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Pas'ley, (Sir Charles William,) an English en- 
 gineer, general, and writer, born about 1780. He served 
 at the battles of Corunna and Flushing, (1809,) and be- 
 came a lieutenant-colonel about 1814. He published, 
 among other works, " A Course of Military Instruction 
 for the Royal Engineer Department," (1817,) "Obser- 
 vations on Limes, Calcareous Cements, Mortars," etc., 
 (1838,) and "Rules for conducting the Practical Opera- 
 tions of a Siege," (1843.) He obtained the rank of 
 lieutenant-general in 185 1. Died in 1861. 
 
 Pasolini, pa-so-lee'nee, Count, a liberal Italian 
 statesman of high reputation. He was minister of for- 
 eign affairs of the kingdom of Italy in the cabinet of 
 Farini from December I, 1862, until March 24, 1863. 
 
 Pasolini, (Serafino,) an Italian friar, born at Ra- 
 venna in 1649. He wrote on the history of Ravenna, 
 "Lustri Ravennati," (7 parts, 1678-1713.) Died in 1715. 
 
 Pasor, p.Vzor, (Georg,) a German philologist, born at 
 Herborn in 1570. He became professor of Greek at 
 Franeker in 1616, and published a good "Greek-Latin 
 Lexicon," (1622, often reprinted.) He wrote other works 
 for students. Died in 1637. 
 
 Pasor, (Matthaus,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 at Herborn in 1599. He was professor of Oriental lan- 
 guages at Oxford, England, from which he removed to 
 Groningen in 1629. He left a Journal, which was pub- 
 lished in 1658. Died in 1658. 
 
 >, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; I, e, 1, 5, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
PJSQUJLI 
 
 '747 
 
 PASSIONEI 
 
 Paaquali, pSs-kwa'lee, written alsoPaschal,(CARLO,) 
 a negotiator and antiquary, born at Coni, Piedmont, in 
 1547. He served Henry IV. of France as ambassador 
 to England in 15S9. He wrote many works, among 
 which are "The Ambassador," (" Legatus," 1598,) and 
 "Corona;," a treatise on crowns, (1610.) Died in 1625. 
 
 See Mansukti, " C. Paschal, illustre Piemontese," 1844; Nici- 
 ron, " M^moirc-." 
 
 Pasqualini, pSs-kwa-lee'nee, or Pascalini, pas-ka- 
 lee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter and 
 engraver, born near Bologna about 1600. 
 
 Pasqualino, pas-kwa-lee'no, or Pasquelino, p3s- 
 kwa-lee'no, (Pasquale Kossi,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Vicenza in 1641. His design is correct and his colour- 
 ing true. Died in 1 700. 
 
 Pasquier, pts'ke^A', (Etienne,) a French historian 
 and lawyer, born in 1529, in Paris. He gained distinction 
 by a great speech for the University of Paris in a suit or 
 contest against the Jesuits in 1564. He opposed the fac- 
 tion of the League, and served Henry III. and Henry IV. 
 with honour as advocate-general. His chief works are 
 " Researches on France," (" Recherches de la France,") 
 — in which the origin and history of civil and religious in- 
 stitutions, customs, etc. are traced with ability, — and his 
 interesting letters. The first part of his " Recherches" 
 appeared in 1560. Died in 1615. 
 
 See Dupin, " E*loge de Pasquier." 1843 : L. Fkugkrk, " Essai 
 sur la Vie et les Ouvragcs d'E*tienne Pasquier," prefixed to an edition 
 ol" Pasquier's select works, 3 vols., 1849; C. GlRAUD, "Notice sur 
 E*. Pasquier," 1848. 
 
 Pasquier, de, deh pSs'ke^', (Etienne Denis,) Due, 
 a French statesman, born in 1767, in Paris. He became 
 master of requests in 1806, and prefect of police in 1810. 
 At the restoration of 1815 he was appointed minister of 
 state and privy councillor, and united with the moderate 
 royalists. He was keeper of the seals under Richelieu 
 from January, 1817, to December, 1818, and minister of 
 foreign affairs from November, 1819, to December, 1821. 
 During this period he made many eloquent speeches in 
 the Chamber, and defended his policy with admirable 
 adroitness and sang-froid. He was the virtual chief of 
 the cabinet after the retirement of Decazes, in February, 
 1820. Pasquier was president of the Chamber of Peers 
 from 1830 to 1848. In 1837 he obtained the title of 
 Chancellor of France. He *as admitted into the Aca- 
 demie Francaise in 1842, and received the title of duke 
 in 1844. Died, without issue, in 1862. 
 
 See I.OMRNIR, " Galerie des Contemporains," tome vi. ; " Nou- 
 velle Kiographie Ge'nera'e." 
 
 Pass, van, vin pass, or Paas, van, vln piss, written 
 also Passe, (Crispin.) an eminent Dutch designer and 
 engraver, born in Zealand about 1 536, or, as some say, 
 1560. He worked at Paris and other foreign cities. His 
 works are highly finished. Among them are numerous 
 portraits, and the plates of the "Manege royal," ( 1 6 1 8. ) 
 He was alive in 1628. 
 
 Pass, van, (Crispin,) the Younger, born at Utrecht 
 about 1570, was an able engraver, and a son of the 
 preceding. Died after 1655. 
 
 Pass, van, (Madeleine,) a skilful engraver, daughter 
 of Crispin the Elder, was born in 1576. "Her land- 
 scapes," says the " Biographie Universelle,"" entitle her 
 to a rank among the ablest engravers." A print of the 
 r Wise and Foolish Virgins" is called her master-piece. 
 
 Pass, van, (Simon,) an engraver, a brother of the 
 preceding, was born about 1580. He worked in London 
 with a high reputation. "The Pilgrims of Emmaus" is 
 called one of his best works. 
 
 Pass, van, (Wii.i.km,) born at Utrecht about 1585, 
 was a son of Crispin the Elder, whom he imitated. He 
 removed to England, and engraved portraits after Van 
 Dyck with great suo ess. 
 
 Passaglia, pas-sal'ya, (Carlo,) Abpe, an Italian 
 theological writer of the present age. He wrote about 
 1861 a pamphlet in which he advised the pope to resign 
 his temporal power. In 1863 he was elected a member 
 of the Italian Parliament. 
 
 Passarotti, pis-sa-rot'tee, written also Passerotti, 
 (BartoLommeo,) an eminent Italian painter and en- 
 graver, born at Bologna about 1535, was a pupil of 
 Vignola. He was master of a »chool in Bologna, which 
 produced somf able artists. He excelled in portraits. 
 
 Among his works is "The Martyrdom of Saint Paul." 
 Died about 1594. 
 
 His sons, Tiburzio, Ventura, and Aurelio, were 
 also painters. Tiburzio was born in 1575, and died in 
 1612. . 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lomazzo, "Idea del Tem- 
 pio della Pittura." 
 
 Passavant, pi'sa" vftn', ? (Johann David,) a German 
 painter and writer upon art, born at Frankfort-onthe- 
 Main in 1787. He wrote, besides other works, a valua- 
 ble memoir entitled "On Raphael of Urbino and his 
 Father," (1839,) "On Christian Art in Spain," (1853,) 
 and a good history of engraving, entitled " Le Peintre- 
 Graveur," (2 vols., i860.) A French version of his 
 " Life of Raphael" was published in i860. Died in 1861. 
 
 See Naglkr, " Kiinsller-Lexikon." 
 
 Passavanti, pas-sa-van'tee, (Jacopo,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Florence, gained celebrity by his " Mirror 
 of True Penitence," (" Specchio della vera Penitenza.") 
 Died in 1357. 
 
 Passe. See Pass. 
 
 Passemant, p$s'm&N', (Claude Simeon,) a skilful 
 optician and mechanician, born in Paris in 1702. He 
 made telescopes, time-pieces, and other astronomical 
 instruments, and wrote a treatise on the fabrication of 
 telescopes, (1738.) Died in 1769. 
 
 Passerat, pfs'rf ', (Jean,) a French poet and excellent 
 Latinist, born at Troyes in 1534. He succeded Ramus 
 as professor of Latin at Paris, (1572.) He co-operated 
 with Rapin, Leroy, Durant, and other friends in the 
 " Satyre Menippee," a famous satire against the League. 
 He composed graceful verses in French and Latin. 
 Died in 1602. 
 
 See Nic^ron, "Me"moires." 
 
 Passeri, pas-sa'ree, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 painter and biographer, born at Rome about 1610, was 
 a friend of Domenichino. He became president of the 
 Academy of Saint Luke, but was an aitist of only 
 moderate ability. His reputation is founded on his 
 " Lives of Painters, Sculptors, and Architects who died 
 at Rome from 1641 to 1673," (1772,) which is highly 
 esteemed for accuracy. Died in 1679. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Passeri, (Giovanni Battista,) a learned Italian 
 antiquary, born near Rome in 1694, chose the profes- 
 sion of law. In 1 741 he exchanged that for the church. 
 Among his numerous works are " Earthen Lamps," 
 ("Lncernae Fictiles," 3 vols., 1739-51,) and "Pictures 
 on the Vases of the Etruscans," (" Picturas Etruscorum 
 in Vasculis," 3 vols., 1767-75.) Died in 1780. 
 
 See A. Ouvieri, " Memorie di G. B. Passeri," 1780. 
 
 Passeri, (Giusefpe,) an able painter, born in Rome 
 in 1654, was a nephew of Giovanni Battista, (1610-79,) 
 and a pupil of Carlo Maratta. He adorned many 
 churches of Rome with his works. "The Last Judg- 
 ment" is called one of his master-pieces. Died in 1715. 
 
 Passeroni, pas-sa-ro'nee, (Gian Carlo,) a popular 
 Italian poet, born at Condamine, near Nice, in 1713. 
 He was ordained a priest in 1738, and lived mostly at 
 Milan. Having learned to be content with little, he 
 declined the bounty of the rich. He wrote burlesque 
 satirical and humorous poems, which are admired for 
 their graceful simplicity and originality. They are en- 
 titled "II Cicerone," (1750,) and " ^Esopian Fables," 
 (" Favole Esopiane," 6 vols., 1786.) Died at Milan in 
 1803. 
 
 See C. G. Scotti, " Elogio di Passeroni." 1814 : Ugoni, " Lette- 
 ratura Italiana;" Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italian! illuslri." 
 
 Passerotti. See Passarotti. 
 
 Passignano, da, da pas-sen-ya'no, (Domenico,) or 
 Domknico Cresti, (kRes'tee,) Cavaliere, a painter of 
 high reputation, was born in Tuscany about 1555. He 
 worked at Venice, Rome, and Florence. At Rome he 
 painted "The Crucifixion of Saint Peter," and other 
 works for several popes. He contributed to reform the 
 Florentine school in respect to colouring. It is said that 
 Luigi Caracci was one of his pupils. Died in 1638. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 PasBionei, pas-se-o-na'ee, (Domenico,) a learned 
 Italian cardinal and patron of learning, born at Fossom- 
 
 c as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (jgp~See Explanations, p. a^.) 
 
PJSSOS 
 
 17*8 
 
 PATERSON 
 
 brone in 1682. He was versed in classical literature 
 and in the study of antiquities, and corresponded with 
 many foreign scholars, among whom were Montfaucon 
 and Gronovius. lie was appointed nuncio to Vienna in 
 1730, secretary for briefs in 1738, and librarian of the 
 Vatican in 1755. His hostility to the Jesuits was well 
 known. He wrote a funeral oration on Prince Eugene, 
 (1737.) Died in 1761. 
 
 See Goujet, " filoge dti Cardinal Passionei," 1763 ; L. Galetti, 
 Memorie per la Vita del Cardinale Passionei," Rome, 1762. 
 
 Fassos, pas's6s, (Manoel da Silva,) a Portuguese 
 politician, born near Oporto in 1802. He was the leader 
 of the radical or liberal party, which made a successful 
 insurrection in September, 1836, and then became min- 
 ister of the interior. 
 
 Fassot, pSs'so', (Gabriel Aristide,) a French min- 
 iature-painter, born at Nevers about 1798. He gained 
 a first medal in 1841, and the second medals in 1837 
 and 1S48. 
 
 Passovius. See Passow. 
 
 Passow, pas'so, [Lat. Passo'vius,] (Franz Ludvvig 
 Kari. Friedrich,) a distinguished German scholar, 
 born at Ludwigslust, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in 1786. 
 He studied at Leipsic under Hermann, and in 1815 
 became professor, of ancient literature at Breslau. He 
 published " Elements of Greek and Roman Literature 
 and Art- History," an excellent "Lexicon of the Greek 
 Language," (1819-24,) and editions of Persius, Musaeus, 
 and other classics. Died in 1833. 
 
 SeeWACHLER, "Passows Leben und Briefe," 1839; Lingr, " De 
 Passovii Vita et Scriptis," 1839; Eksch und GrUber, "Allgemeine 
 Encyclopaedic " 
 
 Passy, pi'se', (Hippolyte Phii.ip.ert,) a French 
 minister of state, born in Seine-et-Oise in 1793. He 
 entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1830, and became 
 a leader of the Left Centre. Commissioned by the 
 king to form a new cabinet, May, 1839, he reserved for 
 himself the portfolio of finance under the presidency 
 of Soult. He retired from office in March, 1840, and 
 was again minister of finance from December, 1848, to 
 October, 1849. He is a member of the Institute. 
 
 Pasta, pas'ta, (Andrea,) an Italian physician, born 
 at Bergamo in 1706. He published several professional 
 works, and "The Celebrated Pictures of Bergamo," 
 (" Le Pitture notabili di Bergamo.") Died in 1782. 
 
 See A. Venanzio, " Elogio di A. Pasta," 1843. 
 
 Pasta, (Giudf/ita,) a popular Italian vocalist, of Jew- 
 ish extraction, born near Milan in 1798. She performed 
 operas at Paris, London, Vienna, etc. with great success 
 between 1824 and 1832, and displayed a superior dramatic 
 talent. Died in 1865. 
 
 Pasta, (Giuseppe,) a medical writer, born at Bergamo 
 in 1742, was a cousin of Andrea, noticed above. His 
 "Galateo dei Medici" (1 791) was often reprinted. Died 
 in 1823. 
 
 Pasteur, pfs'tUR', (Jan David,) a Dutch naturalist, 
 born at Leyden in 1753. He wrote a "Natural History 
 of Mammifera." Died in 1804. 
 
 Pasteur, pfs'tUR', (Louis,) a French chemist, born 
 at Dole (Jura) in 1822. He received the Rumford medal 
 of the Royal Society of London in 1856 for his dis- 
 coveries in rotary polarization and molecular chemistry. 
 He became director of the ficole Normale of Paris in 
 1857. He is a prominent opponent of the doctrine of 
 spontaneous generation. The arguments and experi- 
 ments of Pasteur and his opponent Pouchet on this 
 subject attracted much attention about 1862-65. M. 
 Pasteur was chosen a member of the Institute, and pro- 
 fessor of geology, physics, and chemistry at the Ecole 
 des Beaux-Arts, in 1863. 
 
 Pastoret, pSs'to'ri', (Amede>. David,) a French 
 legitimist politician, poet, and historian, born in Paris 
 in 1 791. He became a councillor of state in 1824, and 
 senator in 1852. Among his works is a " History of the 
 Fall ot the Greek Empire," (1829.) Died in 1857. 
 
 Pastoret, de, deli pfs'to'rS', (Claude Emmanuel 
 Joseph Pierre,) Marquis, the father of the preceding, 
 ■was born at Marseilles in 1756. He was a royalist 
 member of the Assembly in 1791, emigrated in 1792, 
 and was created a peer of France in 1814. In 1820 he 
 succeeded Volney as member of the French Academy. 
 
 He wrote a " History of Legislation," (11 vols., 1817-37,) 
 and other works. His treatise "On Penal Laws" (1790) 
 gained the Montyon prize of the French Academy. Died 
 in 1840. 
 
 See Michel Berr, " Notice biogiaphique sur le Comte Pastoret." 
 1841; Qu£rard, "La France Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^neYale." * 
 
 Pastorius von Hirtemberg, pas-to're-us fon he"eV- 
 tem-bei«;', (Joachim,) a historian, born in Silesia in 
 1610. He received from Casimir V. the title of histo- 
 riographer of Poland. Among his numerous works are 
 an "Epitome of Polish History," in Latin, (1641,) and 
 " Scythian and Cossack War," (" Bellum Scythieo-Cosac- 
 cicum," 1652.) Died in 1681. 
 
 Pastrengo, da, da pas-tRen'go, (Guglielmo,) a 
 learned Italian writer and jurist, born near Verona, was 
 a friend of Petrarch. He wrote a biographical dictionary 
 called " De Viris illustribus," which was printed in 1547. 
 Died about 1365. 
 
 Pasumot, pS'zu'mo', (Francois,) a French geogra- 
 pher and antiquary, born at Beaune in 1733. He wrote 
 " Geographical Memoirs on some Antiquities of Gaul," 
 (1765,) and " Scientific Travels among the Pyrenees," 
 (1797,) which are works of much merit. Died in 1804. 
 
 Patala, pl-ta'la, [etymology obscure,] in the Hindoo 
 mythology, the name of the lower regions, or Hell, re 
 garcled as the abode of the dead and the habitation of 
 the nagas, or serpents. (See Yama.) 
 
 Patarolo, pa-ta-ro'lo, ? (Lorenzo,) an Italian littera- 
 teur, born at Verona in 1674. He founded the first 
 botanic garden of Venice. Died in 1757. 
 
 Pataud, pi'to', (Jean Jacques Francois,) a French 
 writer of history and biography, was born at Orleans in 
 1752 ; died in 1817. 
 
 Patel, pt'teY, (Pierre,) an excellent French land- 
 scape-painter, born about 1650. He imitated Claude 
 Lorrain with some success. The forms of his trees are 
 elegant, the buildings are designed with taste, and the 
 distances are admirably rendered. His touch is firm 
 and light, his colour generally clear and true. Accord 
 ing to some writers, he was killed in a duel in 1703. 
 Others date his death about 1676. His son Pierre was 
 a landscape-painter of inferior ability. 
 
 See Robert Dumesnil, " Le^emtre-Graveur Francais." 
 
 Patenier, de, deli pf'teh-ne_-i', or Patiner, pS'te'na', 
 (Joachim,) a Flemish landscape-painter, born at Dinant 
 about 1490. He Worked at Antwerp, and had A high 
 reputation. Albert Diirer painted his portrait in 1520, 
 and is said to have admired his works. " His perspec- 
 tives," says the "Biographie Universelle," "are charm- 
 ing, and his figures touched in an exquisite manner." 
 Died about 1545. 
 
 Pater, pS'ta', (Jean Baptiste,) a French painter, 
 born at Valenciennes in 1695, was a pupil and imitator 
 of Watteau. Died in Paris in 1736. 
 
 Pater, pa'ter, (Paul,) a mathematician, born in 1656, 
 was professor at Dantzic. He wrote a treatise on the art 
 of printing, (1710,) and a work "On the Caspian Sea," 
 (" De Mari Caspio," 1723.) Died in 1724. 
 
 Pa-ter'cu-lus, (C. Velleius,) a Roman historian, 
 born" about 20 I!. c. He entered the army in the reign 
 of Augustus, and became a military tribune. He served 
 under Tiberius, in Germany, as prefect or legatus, be- 
 tween 4 and 12 A.D., and gained the favour of the future 
 emperor. On the accession of Tiberius, in the vear 14, 
 he was chosen praetor. He wrote a valuable historical 
 compendium, (" Historiae Romanae,") the object of which 
 is to give a brief view of universal history, in connection 
 with that of Rome. He is considered impartial, except 
 where he speaks of Augustus and Tiberius, whom he 
 flatters extravagantly. His style is admired for clear- 
 ness, conciseness, and energy. He is supposed to have 
 died soon after 30 A.D. 
 
 See Mom.er, " Disputatio de Vellejo Paterculo," 1685 ; Speck- 
 ert, " Dissertation de la Since'rite' de Vellejus Paterculus," 1848. 
 
 Pat'er-son, (Samuel,) an English bibliographer, born 
 in London in 1728, was librarian to Lord Shelburne. 
 He published a "Universal Library," ("Bibliotheca 
 Universalis," 1786.) Died in 1802. 
 
 Pat'er-spn, (William,) a banker and projector, born 
 in Scotland about 1658. He is the reputed founder of 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; nit; good; moon; 
 
PATICCHI 
 
 •749 
 
 PATROCLES 
 
 the Bank of England, established in 1694. He projected 
 the Darien expedition, and was one of the directors of 
 a company which planted a colony at Darien in 1698. 
 This enterprise was a failure. He was an advocate of 
 free trade. 
 
 See his " Life," by Bannister. 
 
 Paticchi, pa-tek'kee, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Rome in 1762. He had a rare facility of in- 
 vention, and a superior talent for the imitation of the 
 great masters. Among his works is " The Translation 
 of Elijah." Died in 1788. 
 
 Patin, pa'ti.N', [Lat. Pati'nus,] (Charles,) a phy- 
 sician and numismatist, born in Paris in 1633, was a son 
 of Gui Patin, noticed below. He became professor of 
 medicine at Padua in 1677. He published, besides other 
 works, a " History of Medals," (1665,) often reprinted, 
 and " Brass Coins of the Roman Emperors Described," 
 (" Imperatoruro Romanorum Numismata ex ./Ere de- 
 scripta." 1671.) Died at Padua in 1693. 
 
 Patin, (Gui,) a French physician and writer, distin- 
 guished for his learning and wit, was born near Beauvais 
 in 1601 or 1602. He became professor at the College de 
 France, Paris, in 1654, and wrote several medical works. 
 His reputation is founded chiefly on his Letters, (7 vols., 
 1692,) which contain curious details, bon-mots, and anec- 
 dotes. Died in 1672. 
 
 See " Patiniana," 1703 ; Reveill^ Parise, " Biographie de Guy 
 Patin :" Saints- Bhuve. " Causeriesdu Lundi ;" Bavi.h, " Historical 
 and Critical Dictionary ;" "Nottvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Patin, (Henri Joseph Guillaume,) a French writer 
 and critic, born in Paris in 1793. He was chosen to 
 supply the place of Villemain at the Sorbonne in 1830, 
 and succeeded Lemaire as professor of Latin poetry in 
 1833. In 1842 he was admitted into the French Acad- 
 emy. His most important work is "Studies on the 
 Greek Tragic Poets," (3 vols., 1841-43.) 
 
 Patiflo or Patinho, pa-ten'yo, (Balthasar,) Mar- 
 tinis de Castellar, a Spanish diplomatist, born at Milan. 
 He was sent as ambassador to Paris in 1730, and died 
 there in 1733. 
 
 Patiflo or Patinho, (Jos£, or Giuseppe,) a brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Milan in 1667. He became 
 minister of the marine and of the Indies in 1726, and 
 was the most powerful minister of Spain after the death 
 of La Paz, in 1734. Died in 1736. 
 
 Patinus. See Patin. 
 
 Patkul, pat'kul, (Joiiann Reinhold,) a Livonian 
 patriot, born about 1660. He was condemned to death 
 by the Swedish court for sedition or treason in 1694. but 
 escaped, and entered the service of the Russian Czar, who 
 sent him as ambassador to the King of Poland. He ob- 
 tained in 1702 command of a corps which fought against 
 the Swedes. In accordance with a treaty dictated by 
 Charles XII. to the King of Poland, Patkul was de- 
 livered to the former, and executed in 1707. 
 
 See " I.et/te Stunden Patkirls," Cologne, 1714: "Anecdotes con- 
 cerning f. R. Patkul," London, 1761 ; Voltaire, " Histoire de 
 Charles XII." 
 
 Pat'more, (Coventry,) an English poet, born at 
 Woodford, Esse*) in 1823. He published in 1853 "Ta- 
 merton Church Tower, and other Poems." His "Angel 
 in the House" (2 Parts, 1854-56) was very favourably 
 received. Among his later works is "Faithful Forever, 
 (i860.) "His 'Angel in the House,'" says Ruskin, 
 " is a most finished piece of writing, and the sweetest 
 analysis we possess of quiet, modern domestic feeling." 
 He became assistant librarian of the British Museum 
 about 1846. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 1844, and July, 1863; 
 " North British Review" for May, 1858. 
 
 Pat'on, (Andrew A.,) an English traveller, born 
 early in the nineteenth century. He published, besides 
 other works, " Researches on the Danube and the 
 Adriatic." 
 
 Pat'pn, (Sir Joseph Noel,) a Scottish painter of high 
 reputation, born at Dunfermline in 1823. He obtained 
 a premium of ^200 for a cartoon of "The Spirit of Re- 
 ligion," (1845.) At the Westminster Hall competition, 
 in 1847, he received a second-class prize (.£300) for his 
 "Christ bearing the Cross" and "The Reconciliation 
 of Oberon and Titania." Among his works, which are 
 
 finely finished, are "Luther at Erfurt," and "Pursuit of 
 Pleasure," (1855,) which was sold for two thousand 
 guineas. He was knighted in 1867. 
 
 Paton, (Richard,) an English painter and etcher, 
 born about 1720. He excelled in naval battles and other 
 marine pieces. Among his works is the "Defeat of De 
 Grasse in 1784." • 
 
 Patouillet, pf too'yj', (Louis,) a French Jesuit, born 
 at Dijon in 1699, wr «te several controversial treatises 
 against the Jansenists and the philosophers. He was 
 one of the Jesuits against whom Voltaire directed hu 
 sarcasm and ridicule. Died in 1779. 
 
 Patrat, pi'tRa", (Joseph,) a French dramatist, born 
 at Aries in 1732. He wrote comedies which weie re- 
 ceived with favour. Died in 1801. 
 
 Patrice. See Patrick, Saint. 
 
 PatrichiB. See Patrick, Saint, and Patrizzi. 
 
 Pat'rick, [Lat. Patric'ius; Fr. Patrice, pt'tRess',] 
 Saint, the apostle and patron saint of the Irish, was 
 born at Bannevan, a small village of Tabernia, in Scot- 
 land, about 372 A.D. He is supposed to have been one 
 of the first that preached Christianity in Ireland. His 
 death is variously dated from 454 to 493. A " Confes- 
 sion" or autobiography, supposed to have been written 
 by him, is extant. The Irish observe the 17th of March 
 in his honour. 
 
 See Butler. "Lives of the Saints," 1779; J. H. Todd, "Life 
 of Saint Patrick," 1863 ; Chambers. " Biographical Dictionary of 
 Eminent Scotsmen ;" " British Quarterly Review" for October, 
 1867. 
 
 Pat'rick, (Marsf.na R.,) an American officer, born 
 in Jefferson county, New York, in 181 1. He served in 
 the Mexican war, and in 1862 became brigadier-general 
 of volunteers in the Union army. 
 
 Pat'rick, (Samuel,) an English philologist, was one 
 of the masters of the Charter-House. He published 
 editions of Hederich's "Greek Lexicon," (1727,) and 
 Ainsworth's " Latin Lexicon." Died in 1748. 
 
 Patrick, (Simon,) an eminent English divine, born 
 at Gainsborough in 1626. He became rector of Saint 
 Paul's, Covent Garden, in 1662, Dean of Peterborough 
 in 1679, Bishop of Chichester in 1689, and Bishop of Ely 
 in 1691. He wrote a Paraphrase and Commentaries on 
 the Old Testament, which are highly esteemed, and 
 other devotional works, among which are "The Heart's 
 Ease," (1659,) "Parable of the Pilgrim," (1668,) and 
 "Christian Sacrifice," (1671.) Died in 1707. 
 
 See his Autobiography, 1839; Burnet, "History of his Own 
 Times:" "Biographia Britaunica." 
 
 Patrin, pi'tRaN', (Eugene Louis Melchior,) a 
 French mineralogist, born near Lyons in 1742. He 
 was elected to the Convention in 1790, and voted for the 
 exile of the king. His chief works are a "Journey to 
 the Altai Mountains," (1783,) and a "Natural History 
 of Minerals," (5 vols., 1801.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Patrix, pi'tReks', (Pierre,) a French poet, born at 
 Caen in 1583; died in 1671. 
 
 Patrizzi, pa-tret'see, written also Patrizi, [Lat. 
 Patric'ius,] an Italian historian, born at Sienna, be- 
 came in 1460 secretary to Pope Pius II. Among his 
 works is an "Account of the Councils of Bale and 
 Florence," (" Summa Conciliorum Basiliensis et Floren- 
 tini.") Died in 1496. 
 
 Patrizzi, [Lat. Patric'ius,] (Francesco,) an Italian 
 philosopher, born in Dalmatia in 1529. He obtained a 
 chair of philosophy at Rome about 1592, and taught the 
 philosophy of Plato under the patronage of Pope Clem- 
 ent VIII. He was a zealous opponent of the doctrines 
 of Aristotle. Among his works are "Peripatetic Dis- 
 cussions," ("Discussiones peripatetics?," 1571, ) and 
 "Military Parallels," (" Paralleli militari," 1594.) Died 
 
 in '597- 
 
 See Ginguene, "Histoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" Tirabosciii, 
 " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Patrocle. See Patroclus. 
 
 Pa-tro'cleS, \UaTpOK/J/c,] a Greek statuary, mentioned 
 by Pliny and Pausanias, lived probably about 400 11. c. 
 
 Patrocles, a Macedonian general, was appointed 
 commander at Babylon by Seleucus I. about 312 B.C. 
 He was commander-in chief of the army of Antiochus I. 
 about 280 n.c. He wrote a work on the geography of 
 India, etc., which is not extant. 
 
 : as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, h, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (J^~Sce Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PATROCLUS 
 
 1750 
 
 PAUL 
 
 
 Pa-tro'clus, [Gr. HurpoiAoc; Fr. Patrocle, pi"- 
 tRokl',] a Greek hero, a son of Mencetius, and the dearest 
 friend of Achilles, with whom he fought at the siege of 
 Troy. Having borrowed the armour of Achilles, he slew 
 a multitude of Trojans, but was killed by Hector, aided 
 by Apollo. 
 
 * See the " Iliad." 
 
 Fa'tron, [Gr. Hurpuv,] an Epicurean philosopher, 
 lived at Rome, associated with Cicero, and was a friend 
 of Atticus. He afterwards went to Athens, and became 
 the head of the Epicurean school in 52 B.C. 
 
 Patru, pf'tRii', (Olivier,) an eminent French advo- 
 cate, born in Paris in 1604. He made some reforms in 
 forensic eloquence, and polished his style with minute 
 attention. He had a high reputation as a critic, and has 
 been compared to Quintilian. In 1640 he was admitted 
 into the French Academy. The speech which he made 
 at lis reception became a precedent for all such occasions. 
 His w>rks were published in 1681. Died in 1681. 
 
 See Peronne, " Barreau de Paris; £loge d'O. Patru," 1851 ; 
 N.cekos, " Memoires." 
 
 Patte, pSt, (Pierre,) a French architect, born in Paris 
 in 1723. He wrote several works on architecture. Died 
 in 1814. 
 
 Pat'ten, (Robert,) an English divine under the reign 
 of Queen Anne, born in Northumberland, was the author 
 of a " History of the Rebellion of 1715," (London, 1745.) 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. xi., (1825.) 
 
 Patten, (Thomas,) an English theologian, graduated 
 at Oxford in 1754. Died in 1790. 
 
 Pat'ter-spn, (Daniel T.,) a distinguished naval offi- 
 cer, born in the State of New York, served in the war 
 of 1812, and in 1814 commanded the naval forces at New 
 Orleans. He received the thanks of Congress for the 
 part he took in the defence of that city. Died in 1839. 
 
 Patterson, (Francis Engle,) an American general, 
 son of General Robert Patterson, noticed below, was 
 born in Philadelphia in 1821. He served in the Mexi- 
 can war, and, as brigadier-general of volunteers, fought 
 under General McClellan in 1862 in his campaign against 
 Richmond. He was killed by the accidental discharge 
 of his pistol in November of that year. 
 
 Patterson, (Robert,) LL.D., born in Ireland in 1743, 
 emigrated to America, and was appointed in 1779 pro- 
 fessor of mathematics in the University of Pennsylvania. 
 He became director of the United States Mint in 1805, 
 and was also president of the American Philosophical 
 Society. Died in 1824. 
 
 Patterson, (Robert,) a general, born in the county 
 of Tyrone, Ireland, in 1792, emigrated to Philadelphia in 
 his youth, and became a merchant. He commanded a 
 division at Cerro Gordo in 1847. In June, 1861, he ob- 
 tained command of an army of about 20,000 men, which 
 he moved across the Potomac on the 2d of July. He 
 was instructed to defeat or hold in check the army of 
 General J. E. Johnston near Winchester, but he failed to 
 effect this object, while Johnston marched to Bull Run 
 and decided the victory of July 21. General Patterson 
 was, in consequence, severely censured by many. On 
 the 18th of July, General Scott had written to him, " I 
 have certainly been expecting you to beat the enemy. . . . 
 You have been at least his equal, and, I suppose, supe- 
 rior, in numbers." Genera] Scott, however, appears 
 not to have been aware of the actual strength of John- 
 ston's army, which is now admitted to have been superior 
 to that of his opponent in the field. General Patterson 
 was honourably discharged from service when the term 
 for which his troops had been enlisted had expired. 
 
 Patterson or Paterson, (William,) an American 
 statesman and jurist, born in New Jersey, or at sea, 
 about 1744. He was one of the delegates representing 
 New Jersey in the Convention which formed the federal 
 Constitution in 1787. He was a United States Senator 
 in 1789-90, and was Governor of New Jersey from 1791 
 to 1794. In the latter year he was appointed a judge of 
 the supreme court of the United States. He is said to 
 have been an upright judge. Died in 1806. 
 
 Patti, pat'tee, (Adelina Maria Clorinda,) a popu- 
 lar operatic singer, of Italian extraction, was born in 
 Madrid in 1843. She performed at New York in 1859, 
 and in 1861 made her first appearance in London, and 
 
 became at once a distinguished favourite with the public. 
 She was received with equal applause in the chief cities 
 of the continent. Her voice is a high soprano. She is 
 distinguished for versatility and comic power. In 1868 
 she was married to the Marquis de Caux. 
 
 Patti, (Carlotta,) an excellent singer, a sister of the 
 preceding, has performed with success at concerts in 
 the United States. Her voice is said to be the highest 
 soprano ever known. 
 
 See " Men of the Times," London, 1868. 
 
 Pat'tl-son, (Robert Everett,) D.D., an American 
 Baptist divine, born at Benson, Vermont, in 1800, became 
 in 1846 president and professor of Christian theology at 
 the Baptist Theological Institute, Covington, Kentucky. 
 
 Pat'tl-son, (William,) an English poet, born in Sus- 
 sex in 1706; died in 1 727. His poems (published in 2 
 vols., 1728) are commended. 
 
 Patu, pt'tii', (.Claude Pierre,) a French dramatic 
 poet, born in Paris in 1729; died in 1757. 
 
 Patuzzi, pa-toot'see, (Giovanni Vincenzo,) an Ital- 
 ian theologian, born at Conegliano in 1700, was a Do- 
 minican friar. Among his works is "Moral Theology," 
 (7 vols., 1790.) Died in 1769. 
 
 Patzke, pats'keh, (Johann Samuel,) a German min- 
 ister and poet, born near Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1727. 
 He became a popular preacher at Magdeburg. He 
 published sermons, hymns, dramas, and a translation 
 of Tacitus, (6 vols., 1765-77.) Died in 17S7. 
 
 Paucton, p6k't6N', (Alexis Jean Pierre,) a French 
 mathematician, born in Maine in 1732 or 1736. Hi; 
 wrote an excellent work named " Metrologie, or a Treat- 
 ise on the Measures, Weights, and Coins of Ancient 
 and Modern Nations," (17S0.) Died in Paris in 1798. 
 
 Pauditz, pow'dits, (Christoph,) a painter, born in 
 Lower Saxony about 1618, was a pupil of Rembrandt, 
 He was patronized by Albert Sigismund, Duke of Ba- 
 varia. He painted history and genre. Died in 1646. 
 
 Paul, [Gr. Ylavh>c ; Lat. Pau'lus; Fr. Paul, pol ; 
 It. Paolo, pow'lo ; Ger. Paulus, pow'lus ; Sp. Pablo, 
 pa'Blo,] Saint, the great Apostle of the Gentiles, origin- 
 ally called Saul, was a native of Tarsus, a city of Ci- 
 licia. He was a Jew and a Roman citizen by birthright, 
 and a rigid Pharisee by education. He probably studied 
 Greek literature at Tarsus, which was then a celebrated 
 seat of learning, and he learned the trade of a tent- 
 maker. He afterwards received instruction in the law 
 from Gamaliel, an eminent rabbi and jurist at Jerusalem. 
 (Acts xxii. 3.) He became a zealous supporter of the 
 Jewish religion and a violent persecutor of the Christians. 
 The first passage of Scripture in which he is mentioned 
 is Acts vii. 58, narrating the death of the martyr Stephen, 
 to which Saul was accessory. During a journey from 
 Jerusalem to Damascus, about 36 A.D., he was miracu- 
 lously converted and ordained an apostle to preach the 
 gospel to the Gentiles. (Acts ix.) He went from Damas- 
 cus into Arabia, and had an interview with Saint Peter 
 at Jerusalem about the year 39, after which he preached 
 for several years in Syria and Cilicia. He passed a 
 whole year at Antioch, where he " taught much people." 
 About45 A.D. Saul and Barnabas departed from Antioch 
 on an extensive mission to the Gentiles. They traversed 
 the island of Cyprus, from which they passed into Asia 
 Minor, and Paul preached a memorable sermon at 
 Antioch in Pisidia. Though violently persecuted, they 
 converted many at Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra, and 
 returned in 47 A.D. to Antioch in Syria, where they 
 abode a long time. In the course of a second apostolic 
 journey he founded churches at Philippi and Thessa- ■ 
 lonica, and uttered a remarkable discourse at Athens. 
 He also made many converts at Corinth, where he re- 
 mained a year and a half, and where he wrote the Epis- 
 tles to the Thessalonians. Much diversity of opinion 
 prevails among the learned about the date of the prin- 
 cipal events of his life. The divine origin of his doctrine 
 was attested by many miracles, by "signs, and wonders, 
 and mighty deeds." (II. Cor. xii. 12.) 
 
 After he had visited Jerusalem the fourth time since 
 his conversion, he commenced a third apostolic tour. 
 He laboured for about two years at Ephesus, and after- 
 wards revisited the churches of Macedonia and Greece. 
 About the year 59 he was again at Jerusalem, the popu- 
 
 i, i, T, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, (at; met; not; good; moon; 
 
PAUL 
 
 1751 
 
 PAULDING 
 
 J^Forfj 
 
 lace of which assailed him, and would have killed him, 
 but an officer took him into custody and sent him to the 
 Roman governor Felix, at Caesarea. He was confined 
 in prison there for a long time, defended himself by a 
 noble and eloquent speech liefore King Agrippa, and 
 appealed to Caesar. He was taken by sea to Rome, 
 where he "dwelt two whole years in his own hired 
 house," and preached the gospel without hindrance. We 
 have no authentic record of his death ; but, according to 
 tradition, he suffered martyrdom at Rome about 66 A.n. 
 
 "In perusing the history and writings of Saint Paul," 
 says \V. I.. Alexander, "it is impossible not to be struck 
 with the amazing energy of thought and action by which 
 he was characterized. . . . Removed alike from the 
 extremes of fanaticism on the one hand and apathy on 
 the other, his whole life was a noble instance of the 
 consecration, on sound and elevated principles, of the 
 highest powers and the most indefatigable energies to 
 a work in which he had no personal interest apart from 
 that of his fellow-Christians. ... In his peculiar ca- 
 pacity as one of the founders of the Christian Church 
 and an inspired expositor of divine truth, he stands 
 without a rival in his claims upon our gratitude and rev- 
 erence." ("Encyclopaedia Britannica," article "Paul.") 
 
 Sec the Acts of the Apostles, chaps, xi., xiii.-xwiii. ; Kpistles 
 of Saint Paul; Neanoer, "History of the Church ;" Lkwins, 
 "Life and Epistles of Saint Paul," 2 vols., Loudon, 1851 ; CoNV- 
 brake and Howson, " Life of Saint Paul," 2 vols., 1850; Schradkr, 
 "Der Apostel Paulus," 5 vols., 1S29-36: Hemsen, " Der Apostel 
 Paulus." 1850; Baur, "Paulus," 1845; Lutzki.bkrgkr, "Paulus 
 und Johannes," 1839; Ernest Rbnan, "Saint-Paul," 1869. 
 
 Paul [Lat. Pau'lus; It. Paolo, pow'lo] I., a native 
 of Rome, was elected pope, as successor to Stephen III., 
 in 757 a.I). Died in 767 or 768, He was succeeded by 
 Stephen IV. 
 
 Paul II., Popk, (PiETRQBarbo — baR'bo,) a native of 
 Venice, and a nephew of Eugene IV., was born in 1418. 
 He succeeded Pius II. in 1464. He was unfavourable to 
 human learning, and suppressed an academy of literati 
 which was formed in Rome. He was the first who gave 
 the cardinals tli£ privilege to wear purple. He died in 
 1471, and was succeeded by Sixtus IV. 
 
 See Michel Canbse, "Vie de Paul II." 1740. 
 
 Paul III., Popk, (Alkssandro Farnese— far-na'sa,) 
 was born at Canino about 1466. He succeeded Clement 
 VII. in 1534. He approved the newly-formed order of 
 the Jesuits about 1540. To oppose the progress of 
 Luther, he convoked a council, which, after a delay of 
 several years, met at Trent in 1545. Before the last 
 date he excommunicated Henry VIII. of England. He 
 sent about 12,000 troops to fight for Charles V. against 
 the Protestant princes of Germany, and obtained for 
 his grandson, Ottavio Farnese, the hand of Margaret, 
 a daughter of the emperor. Paul protested against the 
 interim treaty of peace which Charles V. granted to the 
 Protestants in 1547. He died in November, 1549, and 
 was succeeded by Julius III. 
 
 See Quirini. " Imago Pontificis Paul! III. ;" Onuprio Panvinio, 
 "Vita Pauli III. ;" Rankh, " History of the Popes;" Robertson, 
 " History of Charles V.," vols. ii. and iii. 
 
 Paul IV., Pope, (Gian Pietro Caraffa— ka-raf'fa,) 
 born at Capriglio about 1476, was elected pope in 1555. 
 He was intolerant and tyrannical. He quarrelled with 
 Philip II. of Spain, whose army under the Duke of Alva 
 blockaded Rome in 1557 and compelled the pope to 
 sue for peace. He refused to recognize Elizabeth as 
 Queen of England, and by his arrogant course promoted 
 the triumph of Protestantism in England. He died in 
 1559, and was succeeded by Pius IV., who put to death 
 two nephews of Paul IV. for their crimes. 
 
 See Bromato, "Vita di Paolo IV.," 1748 ; Ranks, " History of 
 the Popes;" Robertson, " History of Charles V.," vol. iii. books 
 xi. and xii. 
 
 Paul V., Pope, (Camili.o Borghese — boR-ga'sa,) 
 born at Rome in 1552, succeeded Leo XI. in 1605. He 
 was involved in a contest with the Venetians respecting 
 the trial of ecclesiastics by lay tribunals, the foundation 
 of religious houses, etc., and placed Venice under in- 
 terdict in 1606. The senate of Venice retaliated by 
 banishing the Jesuits. Through the mediation of Henry 
 IV. of France, a compromise was effected in 1607. He 
 died in 1621, and was succeeded by Gregory XV 
 
 Paul [Russ. Pavlof, pav'lof] I., (Petrovitoh, pa- 
 tRo'vitch,) Emperor of Russia, born in 1754, was the son 
 of Peter HI. and Catherine II. After the assassination 
 of his father by order of Catherine, Paul was treated by 
 her with great severity, and deprived of all participation 
 in public affairs. He married Mary of Wiii temberg in 
 1776. On his accession to the throne, in 1796, he dis- 
 tinguished himself for a time by his liberal policy towards 
 Poland, and in 1798 joined the coalition against France. 
 He sent an army under Suwarow (Soovorof) to Italy 
 to fight against the French. (See Suwarow.) In a fit 
 of caprice, he left his former allies, and attempted to form 
 a coalition against England, in 1800. His numerous acts 
 of folly and tyranny at length caused a conspiracy to 
 take his life, at the head of which was Count Pahlen. 
 Under pretence of compelling him to sign an abdicatior 
 of the throne, the conspirators forced their way into his 
 chamber and put him to death, (March, 1801.) His death 
 was not regretted by his subjects. He was succeeded 
 by his son, Alexander I. He left three other sons, Con- 
 stantine, Nicholas, and Michael, and several daughters. 
 
 See Von Tannenberg, " Leben Pauls I.," 1804; P. R. Auouis, 
 " Histoire de Catherine II et de Paul I," 1813; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Paul, powl, (Friedrich Wilhei.m,) Duke of Wiir- 
 temberg, a German naturah'st and traveller, born at 
 Carlsruhe in 1797. He visited North America, the 
 southern parts of Europe, and Egypt, and made valuable 
 collections of objects in natural history. Died in i860. 
 
 Paul, (Gabriel R.,) an American general, born in 
 Missouri about 1814, graduated at West Point in 1834. 
 He served as captain in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) 
 and became a brigadier-general of Union volunteers in 
 
 1862. He was severely wounded at Gettysburg, July, 
 
 1863, losing both his eyes. 
 
 Paul, (Saint Vincent de.) See Vincent. 
 
 Paul [Sp. Paulo, pa'ido] de Burgos, (di booR'gis,) 
 or Paul de Santa Maria, (da san'ta ma-ree'a,) a Span- 
 ish bishop, born at Burgos about 1350, was converter 1 
 from Judaism to Christianity. Died in 1435. 
 
 Paul (or Paulus) [Gr. IlaW.or] of Samosata, [Fi 
 Paul de Samosate, pol d?h si'mo'zJt',] a noted here 
 siarch of the third century. He was chosen Bishop of 
 Antioch about 260 A.D., and soon provoked general 
 censure by his rapacity, arrogance, and affectation of 
 worldly pomp. He was also charged with heretical 
 opinions respecting the divinity of Christ, and was de- 
 posed by a council in 269. According to Epiphanius, he 
 denied the distinct personality of Christ. By the favour 
 of Queen Zenobia, Paul kept possession of the church 
 at Antioch until about 272 A.D. His opinions were 
 afterwards maintained by a small sect called Pauliani. 
 
 Paul the Sileutiary, a Greek poet, who was chief 
 of the Silentiarii in the palace of Justinian. He wrote, 
 about 562 A.D., a description of the church of Saint 
 Sophia at Constantinople, in verse. 
 
 Paul Veronese. See Cagi.iari, (Paolo.) 
 
 Pau'la, Saint, a Roman lady, noted for ascetic piety, 
 born in 347 A.D., was descended from the Scipios. She 
 was a disciple of Saint Jerome. Died in Palestine in 404. 
 
 Paul'ding, (Hiram,) an American rear-admiral, a son 
 of John Paulding, noticed below, was born in Westches- 
 ter county, New York, about 1800. He became a captain 
 in 1844, and arrested Walker the filibuster at Punta 
 Arenas in 1857. For this act he was censured by Presi- 
 dent Buchanan, who released Walker. In April, 1861, he 
 was appointed commander of the navy-yard of Norfolk, 
 and burned the shipping and other public property 
 which it seemed impossible to defend. The ships-of-war 
 had been scuttled before he took command there. He 
 commanded the Brooklyn Navy- Yard from 1862 to 1865. 
 
 See Headi.ey, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1S67; 
 Greeley, "American Conflict," 1866. 
 
 Paulding, (James Kirkf.,) a popular American novel- 
 ist and miscellaneous writer, born in Pawling, Dutchess 
 county, New York, in August, 1779. He published in 
 1807, conjointly with Washington Irving, a series of 
 wftty and satirical papers, entitled "Salmagundi," which 
 were greatly admired at the time. His satire entitled 
 "The Diverting History of John Bull and Brother 
 Jonathan" appeared in 1816, and was followed by "The 
 
 c as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; tt, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PAULDING 
 
 '752 
 
 PAUL US 
 
 Backwoodsman," a poem, (1818,) "John Bull in America, 
 or the New Munchausen," (1824,) "Merry Tales of the 
 Three Wise Men of Gotham," (1826,) and "The Dutch- 
 man's Fireside," the most admired of his novels, (1831.) 
 His more recent works are a " Life of Washington," 
 and the novel entitled " The Old Continental," (1846.) 
 Mr. Paulding was appointed in 1837 secretary of the 
 navy by President Van Buren. Died in i860. 
 
 See Griswoi.d, "Prose Writers of America ;" Duyckinck, " Cy- 
 clopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Allibone, "Dictionary 
 of Authors." 
 
 Paulding, (John,) one of the American soldiers who 
 in 1780 captured Major Andre. A monument was erected 
 to him near Peekskill. Died in 1818. 
 
 Paulet, po'li', (Jean Jacques,) a French physician, 
 born at Anduze in 1740. He wrote a good "Treatise 
 on Mushrooms," (2 vols., 1793,) and other works. Died 
 in 1826. 
 
 Pau'let or Paw'lett, (William,) Marquis of Win- 
 chester, an English courtier, born about 1476. He held 
 a place at court in the reigns of Henry VIII. and his 
 successors. Died in 1572. 
 
 See his " Life," by Rowland Broughton. 
 
 Pau'lett, (William,) Lord, an English politician, 
 born in 1666, represented Lymington in Parliament. 
 Died in 1729. 
 
 Pauli, pow'lee, (Karl Friedrich,) a German his- 
 torian, born at Saalfeld, in Prussia, in 1723, became 
 professor of history at Halle. Among his works is 
 " Preussische Staatsgeschichte," (8 vols., 1760-69.) Died 
 in 1778. 
 
 Pauli or Paulli, powl'lee, (Simon,) a German phy- 
 sician and botanist, born at Rostock in 1603, became 
 first physician to Frederick III. of Denmark. He wrote 
 "Flora Danica," (1648.) Died in 1680. 
 
 Paulian, po'le-&N', (Aime Heniu,) a French Jesuit, 
 born at Nimes in 1722. He wrote several works on 
 natural science. His "Dictionary of Physics" ("Dic- 
 tionnaire de Physique," 3 vols., 1761) was often re- 
 printed. Died in 1801. 
 
 Paulin. See Paulinus. 
 
 Paulin de Saint - Barthelemi. See Paulinus, 
 
 (JOHANN PlIILIPP WeREDIN.) 
 
 Pau-li'nus, [Gr. IVavUvos,] Bishop of Tyre, was a 
 friend of Eusebtus of Caesarea. He became Bishop of 
 Tyre before 313 A.D., and was translated to the see of 
 Antioch about 325. He was charged with being an Arian. 
 
 Paulinus ok Antioch was a leader of the Eusta- 
 thian party. He was ordained Bishop of Antioch about 
 362 a.d. Meletius was at the same time the bishop of 
 the opposite party. Died about 388. 
 
 Pau-li'nus, an Italian missionary, sent by Pope Greg- 
 ory to England, is said to have converted King Edwin 
 of Northumbria. He became Archbishop of York about 
 627. Died in 644. 
 
 Pau-li'nus, JFr. Paulin, po'laN',] (Pontius Mero- 
 rius,) Saint, Bishop of Nola, was born at Burdigala 
 (Bordeaux) about 353 A.D. He was a pupil of the poet 
 Ausonius, and became consul at Rome in 378. Having 
 been converted to Christianity, he renounced the world, 
 and was elected Bishop of Nola in 409 A D. He wrote 
 letters and poems, which are extant. Died in 431. 
 
 See F. A. Grrvaise, "Vie de S. Paulin," 1743; Rabanis, " S. 
 Paulin de Nole," 1841 ; Tillemont, " Memoires ecclesiastiques." 
 
 Paulinus, Saint, Patriarch of Aquileia, born in 
 Friuli or Austrasia about 728 a.d., was noted as a zeal- 
 ous defender of the doctrine of the Trinity. Died in 804. 
 
 Paulinus, pow-lee'nus, (Johann Philipp Wkredin,) 
 or Paulin de Saint-Barthelemi, a German Orien- 
 talist, was born at Hof, near Mannersdorf, in Austria, 
 in 1748. He was sent as a missionary to Malabar in 
 1774, and learned the Sanscrit language. He published, 
 besides other works, a "Sanscrit Grammar," (1790,) 
 and the " Liturgical, Mythological, and Civil System of 
 the Brahmans," (" Systema Brahmanicum liturgicum, 
 mythologicum et civile," 1791.) Died at Rome in 1806. 
 
 Paulli. See Pauli. 
 
 PauUini, p8wl-lee'nee, (Christian Franz,) a Ger- 
 man physician and miscellaneous writer, born at Eise- 
 nach in 1643 ; died in 1712. 
 
 Paulmier de Grentemesnil, po'me-i' deh gRdst'- 
 m&'nel', (Julien LE,) a Protestant French physician, 
 born in the Cotentin in 1520. He practised in Paris, 
 and is said to have cured Charles IX. of inability to 
 sleep, (insomnia. ) Died in 1598. 
 
 Paulmier, le, leh po'me-a', [ Lat. Palme'rius, ] 
 (Jacques,) a French philologist, born in Auge in 1587, 
 was a son. of the preceding. He served against the 
 Spaniards under Maurice about eight years, (1620-28.) 
 He wrote " Exercises on the Best Greek Authors," 
 (" Exercitationes in optimos Autores Graecos," 1668,) a 
 work of some merit, and a "Description of Ancient 
 Greece," (in Latin, 1678.) Died in 1670. 
 
 Paulmy. See Argenson, (MarcAntoine Rene.) 
 
 Paulo, (Marco.) See Polo. 
 
 Paulus. See Paul 
 
 Pau'lus was elected Patriarch of Constantinople, by 
 the orthodox or Homoousians, in 336 a.d. The Arians 
 at the same time elected Macedonius. Paulus was ban- 
 ished by the emperor, but was restored in 342, and was 
 supported by Julius, Bishop of Rome. He died in exile 
 about 350. 
 
 Paulus, pow'lus, (Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob,) 
 a German theologian, distinguished as the leader of the 
 old rationalistic school in Germany, was born near Stutt- 
 gart in 1 761. He became professor of Oriental languages 
 at Jena in 1789, and subsequently of exegesis and eccle- 
 siastical history at Heidelberg. He was the author of 
 a " Philological, Critical, and Historical Commentary on 
 the New Testament," (4 vols., 1800-04,) " Exegetic 
 Manual on the First Three Gospels," (1830,) and other 
 similar works. He died in 1851. His wife, Caroline, 
 and his daughter, Emilie, were also distinguished as 
 writers. The latter was married to A. W. Schlegel. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Pau'lus, (Julius,) one of the most eminent of the 
 Roman jurists. The place of his birth is not known. 
 Having been exiled by Elagabalus, he was recalled by 
 Alexander Severus about 222 A.D. and appointed pre- 
 torian prefect. He was remarkable fc>r fertility as a 
 writer and for the extent of his legal learning. The 
 excerpts from Paulus in the Digest are more numerous 
 than those from any other jurist except Ulpian. His 
 great work is " Ad Edictam," in eighty books. He also 
 wrote twenty-six books of "Quaestiones," and twenty- 
 three books of "Responsa." Died about 235 a.d. 
 
 See Ritterhusius, "Vita J. Pauli ;" Erscii und Gruber, "All- 
 gemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Paulus, (L. /Emilius,) TFr. Paul-Smile, pol a'mel'; 
 It. Paolo Emii.io, pow'loa-mee'le-o,] a Roman general 
 of a patrician family, was consul for the first time in 
 219 B.C. He was again elected consul for the year 216, 
 by the aristocratic party. Against his advice, his rash 
 colleague, Terentius Varro, offered battle to Hannibal 
 at Cannae, where /Emilius Paulus was killed, in 216 B.C. 
 His brave conduct on this occasion is applauded by 
 Horace. ("Carmina," Lib. I., Ode 12.) His daughter 
 Emilia was the wife of Scipio the Great, surnamed 
 Africanus. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome," books xxii. and xxiii. 
 
 Paulus, (Lucius ^milius,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born about 230 B.C., and was the most celebrated 
 member of his family. He was a fine specimen of the 
 old Roman aristocracy, and was a brother-in-law of 
 Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal. Elected 
 praetor for the year 191 B.C., he obtained as his province 
 Farther Spain, where he defeated the Lusitani in a great 
 battle. In the year 189 he returned to Rome, and in 182 
 was elected consul, after having been defeated at several 
 elections. With a view to finish the Macedonian war, 
 the people elected him consul in 168 B.C. He gained in 
 the same year a decisive victory over Perseus at Pydna, 
 and afterwards took that king prisoner. He returned to 
 Rome in 167, and obtained the honour of a triumph, with 
 the surname of Mackdonicus. He died in 160 B.C., 
 leaving a high reputation for honour and integrity. 
 Plutarch has written his life and drawn a comparison 
 between him and Timoleon. One of his sons was adopted 
 by the son of the great Scipio above named, and became 
 afterwards celebrated as Scipio Africanus the younger. 
 
 See Livv, "History of Rome," books xxxiv.-xl. ; Plutarch, 
 " Paulus jEmilius ;" Aurelius Victor, " De Viris illustribus." 
 
 i, e, J, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m£t; not; good; moon; 
 
PAULUS 
 
 '753 
 
 PAIVLETT 
 
 Paulus, pow lus, (Pieter,) a Dutch statesman, born 
 at Axel in 1754. He was president of the Assembly 
 which abolished the office of Stadtholder in 1795. He 
 wrote a "Memoir on Equality among Men," (1792.) 
 Died tit 1796. 
 
 Pau'lus JEgine'ta, (ej-e-ne'ta,) [Fr. Paul d'Egine, 
 pol da'zhen',] a celebrated Greek medical writer, of 
 whose personal history little is known, except that he 
 was born in the island of ^Egina. He is supposed to 
 have lived in the seventh century of our era. He trav- 
 elled extensively, and wrote several medical works, one 
 of which, called " De Re Medica Libri septem," is still 
 extant. It is mostly compiled from Galen and other 
 writers. The sixth book ("On Surgery") is the most 
 valuable and original part of the work. 
 
 See Sprengel, "Histoirede la Medecine;" Hauler, " Biblio- 
 theca Medica." 
 
 Paulus iEruilius. See Emilto, (Paolo.) 
 
 Pau'lus Di-ao'o-nus, [Fr. Paul Diacre, pol de'- 
 ikK',| (" Paul the Deacon,") a mediaeval historian, some- 
 times called Warnefridus, was born at Friuli (Forum 
 Julii) about 735 a.d. He passed some years at the court 
 of Charlemagne. He wrote Latin verses, and a valuable 
 " History of the Lombards," in a clear and elegant style. 
 Died about 798 A.D. 
 
 Paumgarten, von, fon powm'gaR't?n, (Maximilian 
 SiGisMUND Joseph,) Baron, an Austrian general, born 
 in Styria in 1767. He took part in the battles of Aspern 
 and Wagram, (1809.) Died in 1827. 
 
 Paur, powR, ( Theodor,) a German writer, born at 
 Neisse, in Silesia, in 1805. He became professor in the 
 College of Neisse in 1842. 
 
 Pau-sa'ul-as, [Tlavoavias,] a Spartan general, was the 
 son of Cleombrotus, and a nephew of Leonidas, who fell 
 at Thermopylae. In 479 B.C. he became guardian of his 
 cousin Pleistarchus, for whom he exercised the functions 
 of royalty for several years. He commanded the Greek 
 army which defeated the Persians under Mardonius at 
 Plataea in 479. In 477 the confederate Greeks sent out 
 a fleet under Pausanias, who captured Byzantium. 
 . Having formed ambitious and treasonable designs, he 
 made secret overtures to the King of Persia. He also 
 offended the allies by his arrogant and domineering con- 
 duct, and was recalled to Sparta. His intrigues with 
 the Persian court were detected a few years later by the 
 Ephori, who ordered his arrest. He then took refuge 
 in a temple, where he died of starvation, about 468 B.C. 
 
 See Herodotus, " History;" Cornelius Nepos, " Pausanias;" 
 Thiri.wall, " History of Greece." 
 
 Pausanias, King of Sparta, was a son of Pleistonax, 
 whom he succeeded in 444 B.C., being then an infant. 
 During the contest between Thrasybu'lus and the Thirty 
 Tyrants (403 B.C.) he intervened in favour of the former. 
 Died about 380 B.C. 
 
 Pausanias, a Greek traveller and author, who flour- 
 ished between 150 and 200 A.D. He is supposed to have 
 been born in Lydia ; but nothing is known respecting him 
 except what we learn from his writings. He was the au- 
 thor of a valuable "Itinerary or Description of Greece," 
 ('EaAucJoc Ultpii/yi/aic.) His description of places is minute 
 and accurate, but mainly relates to objects of antiquity 
 and works of art. If he mentions mountains and rivers, 
 it is chiefly for the sake of legends or myths connected 
 with them. He describes pictures, statues, etc. with 
 simplicity, and makes no pretensions to be a critic. 
 His work is the more highly prized for this reason. 
 " With the exception of Herodotus," says George Long, 
 "there is no writer of antiquity who has comprehended 
 so many valuable facts in a small volume. The work of 
 Pausanias is full of matter, — mythological, historical, 
 and artistic ; nor does he omit matters physical and eco- 
 nomical." His work has been translated into English 
 by Thomas Taylor. 
 
 See Koenig, " De Pausamae Fide et Anctoritate in Historia," etc^ 
 1832 ; Siebei.is, " Quaestio in Pausaniae Periegeue Patria," etc., 1819. 
 
 Pausias, pau'she-as, [ Tlavaiac, ] an excellent Greek 
 painter of Sicyon, flourished about 350 B.C. He was a 
 pupil of Pamphilus, and a contemporary of Apelles. 
 He excelled in painting in encaustic with the cestrum, 
 (graving-tool.) Pliny calls him "primum in hoc genere 
 nobilem." The favourite subjects of Pausias were small 
 
 panel-pictures, chiefly of boys. He was the first who 
 decorated the ceilings and walls of houses with encaustic 
 paintings. Among his master-pieces was " The Sacri- 
 fice of an Ox," in which the effects of foreshortening 
 and chiaroscuro were displayed with great success. 
 
 Pau'son, [riiu'aui',] a Greek painter of uncertain 
 epoch, is mentioned by Aristotle, who says that Polygno- 
 tus painted figures more beautiful than nature, Dionysiug 
 represented them as they are, and Pauson made them 
 appear inferior to the reality. 
 
 Pautet, po'tj', (Jules,) a French writer of prose and 
 verse, born at Beaune in 1799. 
 
 Pauthier, po'te^i', (Jean Pierre Guillaume,) a 
 French Orientalist, was born at Mamirolle in t8ot. He 
 published a French version of " Childe Harold," (1S28- 
 30,) "The Four Books of the Moral and Political Philos- 
 ophy of the Chinese," (4th edition, 1852,) " La Chine," 
 (2 vols., 1837,) a " History of the Political Relations of 
 China with the Western Powers," (1859,) and other works. 
 
 Pautre, Le. See Lepautre. 
 
 Pau-w or Faaw, (Pikteu.) See Paaw. 
 
 Panw, van, vfn pow, (Cornelis,) a Dutch writer, 
 born at Amsterdam in 1739, was a great-nephew of the 
 famous De Witt. He became canon of Xanten. He 
 displayed ingenuity and penetration in his works, .among 
 which are " Philosophical Researches on the Egyptians 
 and Chinese," (2 vols., 1774,) and "Philosophical Re- 
 searches on the Greeks," (2 vols., 1788.) Died in 1799. 
 Many of his ideas are considered paradoxical. 
 
 Pauw, van, (Jan Cornelis,) a Dutch philologist, 
 born at Utrecht. He published editions of Anacreon, 
 jEschylus, and Theophrasttts ; also notes on Pindar. 
 Died in 1749. 
 
 Pavaka, pa'va-ka, [i.e. " purifying," or the " purifier,"] 
 one of the names of Agni, which see. 
 
 Pav'a-na or Pav'an, [modern Hindoo pron. ptiv'a- 
 na or ptiv'an,] written also Pawana and Puwun, a 
 Sanscrit word, signifying "air" or "wind," and forming 
 in the Hindoo mythology the name of the god or regent 
 of Wie winds, answering in several respects to the Mollis 
 of the Greeks and Romans. He was also regarded as 
 the regent of the northwest quarter of the heavens. 
 According to some, Pavana was the father of the cele- 
 brated monkey king, Hanuman, which see. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Pavesi, pa-va'see, (Stefano,) an Italian composer, 
 born at Crema in 1778. He composed many operas, 
 among which are " Tancredi," (1812,) and "The Her- 
 mit," ("II Solitario," 1826.) Died about 1846. 
 
 Pavie, pf ve', (Theodore,) a French Orientalist, born 
 at Angers in 181 1. He became professor of Sanscrit at 
 the College de France in 1852, published a "Voyage to 
 the United States," (1827,) and translated some works 
 from Sanscrit, Chinese, etc. 
 
 Pavilion, pa"ve'y6N', (Etienne,) a French poet, 
 born in Paris in 1632, was a nephew of Nicolas. He 
 was admitted to the French Academy in 1691, although 
 his verses scarcely reach mediocrity. Died in 1705. 
 
 Pavilion, (Nicolas,) a French prelate and Tansenist, 
 born in Paris in 1597, was appointed Bishop of Aleth in 
 1637. He produced a Ritual which was condemned at 
 Rome but was widely used in France. Died in 1677. 
 
 Pavilion, du, dii pi've'y6.N', (Jean Francois du 
 Chevron — du sh&'r6N',) Chevalier, a French naval 
 officer, born at Perigueux in 1730. He made important 
 improvements in signals, and wrote a " Treatise on 
 Naval Tactics," (1778,) which is commended. He was 
 killed in battle with the British near Dominique in 1782. 
 
 Pavius. See Paaw, (Pieter.) 
 
 Pavlof, Pavlov, or Pawlow, pav'lof, (Nicholas 
 Phii.Ippovitch,) a Russian poet and novelist, born in 
 Moscow in 1802. He wrote lyric poems and dramas. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Pavon, pa-v6n', (Don Jose,) a Spanish botanist, born 
 in the last century. He went about 1778 to Peru, in the 
 exploration of which he spent many years, and aided 
 Ruiz in the composition of a " Flora Peruviana et Chi- 
 lensis." Died in 1844. 
 
 Pawaka. See Pavaka. 
 
 Pawana. See Pavana. 
 
 Pawlett. See Paulett, (William.) 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; k, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( flg~ See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
PAX 
 
 '75+ 
 
 PEALE 
 
 Fax, the tatis of Eirene, which see. 
 
 Pax'ton, (Edward F.,) an American general, born 
 in Rockbridge county, Virginia. He served as brig- 
 adier-general of the Confederate army at Antietam, 
 September, 1862, and was killed at Chancellorsville, 
 May 2, 1863. 
 
 Pax'ton, (Sir Joseph,) an English architect and 
 gardener, born near Woburn, Bedfordshire, in 1803. 
 Having entered the service of the Duke of Devonshire 
 as a gardener, he remodelled after his own designs the 
 magnificent gardens and parks at Chatsworth, and 
 gained distinction as an architect by the erection of a 
 vast conservatory at that place. The Crystal Palace 
 built for the World's Fair of 1851 was designed and 
 superintended by Mr. Paxton, who was knighted for 
 this service. He was also the architect of the Crystal 
 Palace at Sydenham, which is much admired. He 
 published " The Cottage Calendar," and other works. 
 Died in 1865. 
 
 Payen, pi'yS.N', (Anselme,) a French chemist, born 
 in Paris in 1795. He became professor of chemistry in 
 Paris, and a member of the Institute. Among his works 
 is a "Course of Elementary and Industrial Chemistry," 
 (2 vols., 1831.) 
 
 Payen, ([ean Francois,) a French medical writer, 
 born in Paris in 1800, has given special attention to 
 mineral waters. 
 
 Payer, pf ya', (Jean Baptiste,) a French botanist, 
 born at Asfeld (Ardennes) in 1818. He obtained the 
 chair of botany at the Normal School in Paris in 1841, 
 and supplied the place of Mirbel at the Sorbonne, (1S41- 
 48.) He was secretary to Lamartine while the latter 
 was in power in 1848, and succeeded Adrien de Jussieu 
 as professor of botany, etc. in 1852. His chief work is 
 a "Treatise on Comparative Vegetable Organogeny." 
 
 Paykull, de, deh pi'kul, ? (Gustaf,) Baron, a Swed- 
 ish naturalist, born at Stockholm in 1757. He became 
 first secretary to the king in 1794, and marshal of the 
 court in 1815. He wrote monographs on Swedish cole- 
 optera, and several dramas. Died in 1826. « 
 
 Payne, pan, (John,) an English engraver and de- 
 signer, born in London in 1608. He engraved portraits 
 with success. Died in 1648. 
 
 Payne, pan, (John Howard,) an American actor 
 and dramatic poet, bom in New York in 1792. At the 
 age of sixteen he made his first appearance at the Park 
 Theatre, in the character of " Young Norval," with bril- 
 liant success. He visited London in 1813, and founded 
 there a theatrical journal called "The Opera-Glass." 
 He was the author of several dramas, but he is chiefly 
 known by his beautiful and popular song of " Home, 
 Sweet Home." Mr. Payne was appointed in 1851 consul 
 to Tunis. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopedia of American Literature," vol. ii ; 
 "Monthly Review" for January, 1819. 
 
 Pays, (Rene le.) See Le Pays. 
 
 Pay'son, (Edward,) an American Congregational 
 divine, born in New Hampshire in 1783. He was the 
 author of a " Discourse before the Bible Society of 
 Maine," and a number of sermons. Died in 1827. 
 
 Paz, de, da path, (Jago Alvarez,) a Spanish Jesuit 
 and religious writer, born at Toledo in 1560; died in 
 1620. 
 
 Pazmany or Pazmani, poz'man, (Peter,) a Hun- 
 garian cardinal and writer on theology, born near Pres- 
 burg in 1570 ; died in 1637. 
 
 Pazzi, pat'see, (Cosimo,) an Italian prelate, born in 
 1467, was a nephew of Leo X., and a relative of Jacopo 
 Pazzi. He became Archbishop of Florence in 1508. 
 He translated Maximus Tyrius into Latin, (1517.) Died 
 in 1515. 
 
 Pazzi, (Jacopo,) was the head of a rich Florentine 
 family which was hostile to the Medici. He was one 
 of the chiefs of a conspiracy formed (in the name of 
 liberty) against them in 1478. The attempt to kill Lo- 
 renzo de' Medici having failed, Pazzi and his accom- 
 nlices were taken and hung. 
 
 Peabody, pee'bo-de, (Rev. Andrew P.,) D.D., an 
 American scholar and theologian, born at Beverly, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 181 1. He graduated at Harvard in 1826, 
 and subsequently studied theology at Cambridge. He 
 
 became in 1833 pastor of the South Congregational 
 Church at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and in 1854 
 assumed the editorship of the " North American Review." 
 He is the author of "Lectures on Christian Doctrine," 
 (1844,) of which numerous editions have been published, 
 and " Sermons of Consolation," (1846 ; 3d edition, 1857.) 
 He has also contributed to the "New England Maga- 
 zine," " American Monthly," and " Christian Examiner." 
 In i860 he became preacher and Plummer professor 
 of Christian morals at Harvard, — a position which he 
 has filled with the highest credit to himself and the 
 institution. 
 
 See Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Peabody, (George,) an American philanthropist, 
 born in Danvers, Massachusetts, in February, 1795, was 
 the son of poor parents. He engaged in trade in Balti- 
 more, and, after many years of prosperity, removed to 
 England in 1837. He became a banker and broker in 
 London, and amassed an ample fortune. His banking- 
 house was for many years the head-quarters of Ameri- 
 cans in London. About 1856 he gave $300,000 or more 
 to found a literary and scientific institute in Baltimore. 
 In 1862 he presented to the city of London ,£150,000, to 
 be expended in the erection of lodging-houses for the 
 working-classes, for which purpose he added ^150,000 
 more in 1866. He also gave to Harvard University 
 5150,000 for a museum, etc., and in 1867 gave two mil- 
 lion dollars to found common schools in the Southern 
 United States. Died in London in 1869. His remains 
 were conveyed with great pomp to the United States 
 in the British ship-of-war Monarch. 
 
 Peabody, (Nathaniel,) an American patriot and 
 physician, torn at Topsfield, Massachusetts, in 1741. 
 He served as colonel of the army in 1778, and was sent 
 as a delegate to Congress in 1779. He filled several 
 other high offices. Died in 1823. 
 
 Peabody, (Oliver VV. B.,) twin-brother of W. B. 
 O. Peabody, noticed below, was associate editor of the 
 "North American Review," and in 1842 became pro- 
 fessor of English literature in Jefferson College, Loui- 
 siana. Died in 1847, aged fifty-seven. 
 
 Peabody, (Rev. William B. O.,) an American poet 
 and Unitarian divine, born at Exeter, New Hampshire, 
 in 1799. He graduated at Harvard College in 1816, 
 and in 1820 became pastor at Springfield, Massachu- 
 setts. Besides a number of small poems, he contributed 
 many able articles to the " North American Review" 
 and the "Christian Examiner," and wrote the "Life of 
 Alexander Wilson" in Sparks's" American Biography." 
 Died in 1S47. 
 
 Peach/am, (Henry,) an English writer, born in 
 Hertfordshire in the sixteenth century. He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, " Minerva Britannica, or a Garden 
 of Heroical Devises," (1612,) and "The Complete Gen- 
 tleman," (1622,) which was once popular. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. i., (1S53.) 
 
 Pea'cock, (George,) an English mathematician, born 
 at Denton about 1790. He became professor of mathe- 
 matics at Cambridge, and Dean of Ely. He wrote seve- 
 ral works. Died in 1858. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1S58. 
 
 Peacock or Pe'cock, (Reynold or Reginald,) a 
 liberal English prelate, born about 1390. He became 
 Bishop of Chichester in 1449. Having questioned or 
 denied the infallibility of the pope or Church of Rome, 
 he was deposed in 1457. He was opposed to persecu- 
 tion for opinion. Died about 1460. 
 
 See Rev. John Lewis, " Life of R. Peacock," 1744. 
 
 Peacock, (Thomas Love,) an English humourist and 
 poet, born at Weymouth in 1785. He wrote, besides 
 other works, " Palmyra," a poem, (1806,) "The Genius 
 of the Thames," (1812,) "Headlong Hall," a humorous 
 and satirical novel, (1816,) and "Crotchet Castle," 
 (1822,) which are highly commended. In 1819 he was 
 appointed to a situation in the Examiners' Office at the 
 India House. Died in 1866. 
 
 See " Recent Humourists," in the " North British Review" for 
 September, 1866. 
 
 Peale, peel, (Charles Wilson,) an American painter 
 and naturalist, born at Charlestown, Maryland, in 1741. 
 
 I, e, i, 6, u, y, long; 4, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n&t; gocd; moon; 
 
PEALE 
 
 '755 
 
 PECQUET 
 
 He studied for a time in England under West, and, 
 after his return, settled in Philadelphia, where he soon 
 acquired a high reputation as a portrait-painter. He 
 afterwards formed in that city a museum of natural 
 curiosities called by his name and containing the skele- 
 ton of a mammoth. He was also one of the founders 
 of the Academy of Fine Arts, to which he contributed 
 numerous pictures. Died in 1827. 
 
 See Tuckkrman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Peale, (Rembrandt,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in 1778, studied 
 painting under West, and subsequently devoted him- 
 self to portrait-painting in Paris. After his return to 
 Philadelphia, he produced, among other works, the 
 " Court of Death," and " The Roman Daughter." Died 
 in i860. 
 
 See Dunlap, " History of the Arts of Design in America," vol. 
 ii. chap. iv. ; Tuckkrman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Pean. See P^ean. 
 
 Pearce, peerss, (James A.,) an American Senator 
 and lawyer, born at Alexandria, Virginia, in 1S05. He 
 represented a district of Maryland in Congress from 
 1835 to 1839, and was a Senator of the United States 
 from 1843 to 1862. Died in December, 1862. 
 
 Pearce, peerss, (Nathaniel,) an English traveller or 
 adventurer, born at Acton in 1780. He spent several 
 years in Abyssinia, of which he wrote an account. Died 
 in 1820. 
 
 Pearce, (Zachary,) an eminent English divine and 
 critic, born in or near London in 1690. While he was 
 a student at Cambridge he wrote two papers for the 
 " Spectator," (Nos. 572 and 633,) and edited Cicero " De 
 Oratore," (1716.) He became vicar of Saint Martin's- 
 in-the-Fields, London, in 1723, Dean of Winchester in 
 1739, Bishop of Bangor in 1748, and Bishop of Rochester 
 in 1756. His principal work is a "Commentary, with 
 Notes, on the Four Evangelists and the Acts of the 
 Apostles," (2 vols., 1777,) which was received with favour. 
 He edited Longinus " On the Sublime," (1724.) Died 
 in 1774. 
 
 Pear'sall, (Richard,) an English dissenting minister, 
 born at Kidderminster in 1698. He preached many 
 years at Taunton, and wrote "Contemplations on the 
 Ocean." Died in 1762. 
 
 Pear'son, (Edward,) an English Arminian theolo- 
 gian, born at Ipswich about 1758. He became rector of 
 Rempston, in Nottinghamshire, about 1798, and master 
 of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1808. He 
 wrote treatises against Paley's theory of Moral Obliga- 
 tion, and others against Calvinism. Some of his sermons 
 were published. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See W. P. Hunt, "Memoir of the Life of E. Pearson," 1845. 
 
 Pear'son, (Eliphai.et,) LL.D., an American scholar, 
 born in New England in 1752, became professor of He- 
 brew and Oriental languages at Harvard College, and 
 subsequently of sacred literature at Andover. Died 
 in 1826. 
 
 Pearson, (George,) an English physician and chem- 
 ist, born in 1751. He practised and lectured at Saint 
 George's Hospital, London, and wrote on the cow-pox, 
 etc. Died in 1828. 
 
 Pearson, (John,) an eminent bishop of the Anglican 
 Church, was born at Snoring, Norfolk, in 1613. He 
 was educated at Cambridge, and obtained in 1650 the 
 living of Saint Clement, London. The sermons which 
 he preached there were published in his " Exposition 
 of the Creed," (1658,) a work of high reputation, which 
 has been reprinted and used as a text-book for students. 
 He became profeSsor of divinity at Cambridge in 1661, 
 and Bishop of Chester in 1672. Died in 1686. He was 
 considered one of the most learned Englishmen of his 
 time in ancient languages, history, etc. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Pearson, (John,) an English surgeon and writer, 
 born in 1758, practised in London. He published, be- 
 sides other works, "Principles of Surgery," (1788,) and 
 a " Life of William Hey." Died in 1826. 
 
 Pearson, (Margaret Egi.inton,) an English painter 
 on glass, was a daughter of Samuel Paterson, noticed 
 in this work. Died in 1823. 
 
 Pearson, (Richard,) an English medical writer, born 
 in Birmingham in 1765. Among his works is "The- 
 saurus Medicaminum," (1810.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Pecchia, pek'ke-3, (Carlo,) an Italian historian, 
 born at Naples in 1715. He wrote a "Civil and Political 
 History of the Kingdom of Naples," (3 vols., 1778.) 
 Died in 17S4. 
 
 Pecchio, pek'ke-o, (Giuseppe,) an Italian writer and 
 political economist, was born at Milan in 1785. He 
 was councillor of state for the section of finances (at 
 Milan) from 1810 to 1814. He became a political exile 
 in 1821, after which he lived mostly in England. Among 
 his works are a " History of Public Economy in Italy," 
 ("Storia deU'Economia pubblica in Italia," 1829,) which 
 presents an able critical analysis of Italian works on 
 political economy, and "Observations of an Exile on 
 England," (1831.) He was an elegant writer, and had 
 a good talent for observation. Died at Brighton in 1835. 
 
 See Ugoni, "Vita di G. Pecchio," 1836. 
 
 Pechantrd, pa'shoN'tni', (Nicolas,) a French dra- 
 matic poet, born at Toulouse in 1638. He wrote trage- 
 dies named "Geta" (1687) and "Jugurtha," (1692.) 
 Died in 1708. 
 
 Pechlin, plK'lin, (Jan Niklaas,) an able Dutch phy- 
 sician, born at Leyden in 1646. He wrote Latin poems, 
 a treatise on Tea, entitled " Theophilus Bibaculus," 
 (1684,) and other works. Died at Stockholm in 1706. 
 
 Pechmeja, pesh'mSd'zha', (Jean,) a French writer 
 of fiction, bom at Villefranche in 1741. He wrote a 
 romance named "Telephe," (1784,) which had a tran- 
 sient vogue. Died in 1785. 
 
 Peck, (Francis,) an English antiquary, born at Stam- 
 ford, Lincolnshire, in 1692. He obtained in 1736 a 
 prebend in the cathedra] of Lincoln. Among his works 
 are " Desiderata Curiosa," (2 vols., 1732-35,) " Memoirs 
 of the Life and Poetical Works of John Milton," (1740,) 
 and "Memoirs of the Life of Oliver Cromwell," (1740.) 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 Peck, (George,) D.D., an American Methodist divine 
 and theological writer, born in 1797, has published 
 " Lives of the Apostles and Evangelists," " Christian 
 Perfection," and other works. 
 
 Peck, (John J.,) an American general, born in Onon- 
 daga county, New York, in 1821, graduated at West 
 Point in 1843. ^ e commanded a brigade at Williams- 
 burg and Fair Oaks in May, 1S62, soon after which he 
 was raised to the rank of major-general of volunteers. 
 He repulsed General Longstreet, who attacked him at 
 Suffolk, in April, 1863. 
 
 Peck, (John Mason,) D.D., an American Baptist 
 divine and missionary, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, 
 in 1789. He was one of the founders of the American 
 Baptist Home Mission Society in 1831, having previously 
 edited "The Pioneer," the first Baptist journal of the 
 West, (1829.) In 1835 he founded Shurtleff College, at 
 Upper Alton, Illinois. He afterwards settled at Phila- 
 delphia as corresponding secretary and general agent of 
 the American Baptist Publication Society. He wrote 
 the " Life of Daniel Boone" in Sparks's " American Biog- 
 raphy," and several other works. Died in 1858. 
 
 Peck (Piktkr,) a Dutch jurist, born in Zealand ; died 
 at Malines in 1589. 
 
 Peck, (William Dandridge,) an American natural- 
 ist, born at Boston in 1763. He became, in 1805, pro- 
 fessor of natural history at Harvard College. Died in 
 1822. 
 
 Peckham, pek'am, (John,) an English prelate, born 
 about 1240. He was appointed Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in 1278. His " Perspectiva Communis" (I504) has 
 been often printed. Died in 1292. 
 
 Peclet, peh-klj', (Jean Claude Eugene,) a French 
 writer on physical science, born at Besancon in 1793. He 
 was professor of physics at the Central School of Arts 
 and Manufactures. He wrote a "Course of Physics," 
 (1826,) and a " Treatise on Heat and its Applications 
 to the Arts," (2 vols., 1829.) Died in 1857. 
 
 See Qukrard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Pecock, (Reynold.) See Peacock. 
 
 Pecquet, pi'kj', (Antoine,) a French writer, born 
 in Paris in 1704. Among his works is a satire called 
 " Secret Memoirs towards the History of Persia," (" M^- 
 
 € as k; c as /; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J3p=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PECQUET 
 
 1756 
 
 PEEL 
 
 moires secrets pour servir a l'Histoire de la Perse," 
 etc., 1745.) Died In 1762. 
 
 Pecquet, (Jkan,) a French anatomist, born at Dieppe 
 in 1622. He gained a European reputation by the dis- 
 covery of the thoracic duct and the reservoir of chyle. 
 He wrote " On the Circulation of the Blood and Motion 
 of the Chyle," ("De Circulatione Sanguinis," etc., 1651,) 
 and " De Thoracis Lacteis," (1651.) Died in 1674. 
 
 See " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Pecqueur, p&'kUR', (Constant™,) a French writer 
 on social and political economy, was born at Arleux 
 (Nord) in 1801. He was a disciple of Saint-Simon and 
 Fourier. Among his works is a prize essay entitled 
 " Social Economy of the Interests of Commerce, In- 
 dustry," etc., ("Economie sociale des Interets du Com- 
 merce, de l'lndustrie," etc., 1838.) Died in 1859. 
 
 Pecqueur, (OMtsiPHORE,) a French mechanician, 
 born in 1792, invented an arithmetical machine, a dyna- 
 mometer, and other machines. Died in 1852. 
 
 Pedianus. See Asconius. 
 
 Pedma. See PadihX 
 
 Pedo. See Albinovanus. 
 
 Pedro, Dom, (of Brazil.) See Peter. 
 
 Pedro of Aragon. See Peter. 
 
 Pedrusi, pi-dRoo'see, (Paolo,) an Italian numis- 
 matist, born at Mantua in 1644 ; died in 1720. 
 
 Peel, (Frederick,) a son of the statesman Sir Robert 
 Peel, was born in London in 1823. He was elected to 
 Parliament for Leominster in 1849, and re-elected for 
 Bury in 1852 and 1859. In politics he is called Liberal 
 Conservative. He was under-secretary for the colonies 
 from 1852 to February, 1855, under-secretary of war from 
 the latter date to 1857, and secretary to the treasury 
 from i860 to 1865. 
 
 Peel, (Jonathan,) a British general, a younger son 
 of the first Sir Robert, was born in 1799. He entered 
 the army young, and rose to the rank of lieutenant- 
 general. In 1826 he was elected to Parliament for Nor- 
 wich. He was surveyor-general of the ordnance from 
 1841 to 1846, and secretary at war in the Derby ministry 
 from February, 1858, to June, 1859, and again from July, 
 t866, to March, 1867. 
 
 Peel, (Sir Robert,) an English manufacturer and 
 millionaire, born near Lancaster in 1750, was the father 
 of Robert Peel, prime minister. He became in 1773 a 
 partner in a large manufactory of cotton at Bury. By 
 his sagacity, enterprise, and remarkable aptitude for 
 business, he amassed an immense fortune. He repre- 
 sented Tamworth in Parliament from 1790 to 1820, and 
 was a supporter of the ministry and Tory party. He 
 had six sons and five daughters. Died in 1830. 
 
 Peel, (Sir Robert,) a celebrated English statesman, 
 born near Bury, in Lancashire, on the 5th of February, 
 1788, was the eldest son of the preceding. He was 
 educated at Harrow (where Lord Byron was his class- 
 fellow) and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he gained 
 the honour of "double first-class," — i.e. pre-eminence 
 both in classics and mathematics. He left college in 
 1808, and entered Parliament as a member for Cashel, 
 and a supporter of the Tory ministry, in 1809. In Janu- 
 ary, 1810, he seconded the address to the throne, and 
 made his first speech. He was appointed under-secretary 
 for the colonies in 181 1, and chief secretary for Ireland 
 in 1812. In 1815 he challenged O'Connell for offensive 
 remarks in a public speech ; but the intended duel was 
 prevented by the police. His opponents nicknamed 
 him Orange Peel, in allusion to his hostility to the 
 Catholics. He made a speech against the Roman Cath- 
 olic claims in 1817. In 1818 he was elected to Parliament 
 for the University of Oxford, in preference to Canning, 
 and resigned his office of secretary. He succeeded Mr. 
 Horner as chairman of the Bullion committee in 1819, 
 and acquired a high reputation as a financier by pro- 
 curing the passage of an act for the resumption of cash 
 payments. He married in 1820 Julia, a daughter of 
 General Sir John Floyd. 
 
 In January, 1822, he became secretary for the home 
 department in the ministry of Lord Liverpool. For 
 several years ensuing, Canning and Peel were the most 
 able and prominent members of the ministry. Although 
 Peel was less brilliant as an orator than his colleague, he 
 
 was more solid and practical, and had equal or greater 
 influence with his party. When Canning became prime 
 minister, in April, 1827, Mr. Peel retired from office, lie 
 accepted the place of home secretary in the new minis- 
 try formed by the Duke of Wellington in January, 1828, 
 and made a powerful speech in favour of Catholic eman- 
 cipation (which he had long opposed) in March, 1829. 
 By his change on this question he lost his seat as repre- 
 sentative of Oxford, in 1829. The obstinate resistance 
 of the Tory ministry to parliamentary reform caused 
 them to be defeated and driven from power in Novem- 
 ber, 1830. Earl Grey then formed a Whig ministry, and 
 Sir Robert became the leader of the opposition. At 
 the death of his father, in 1830, he inherited an immense 
 fortune and the title of baronet. He opposed the Reform 
 bill, (1831-32,) but declined to co-operate with Welling- 
 ton in the formation of a new ministry when Lord Grey 
 resigned, in 1832. In 1833 he was elected to Parliament 
 for Tamworth, which he continued to represent until 1850. 
 
 Sir Robert at this period was the recognized leader of 
 the Conservative party, which he had organized, and the 
 principles of which were modified Toryism. The Whig 
 ministry having been dismissed, Peel and Wellington 
 united to form a cabinet, in which the former became first 
 lord of the treasury, (i.e. prime minister,) in December, 
 1834. Failing to obtain the support of a majority of the 
 new Parliament elected at this period, Sir Robert was 
 compelled to resign, in April, 1835, and was succeeded 
 by Lord Melbourne. On the resignation of Melbourne, 
 in May, 1839, Sir Robert was sent for by the queen, but 
 he failed to become prime minister, because he insisted 
 on the removal of certain ladies of the bed-chamber. 
 The general election of 1841 gave the Conservatives a 
 large majority in Parliament. Lord Melbourne resigned 
 in August of that year, and was succeeded by Sir Robert 
 Peel. In the new cabinet Lord Lyndhurst was lord 
 chancellor, Lord Aberdeen foreign secretary, Lord Stan- 
 ley colonial secretary, Sir James Graham home secre- 
 tary, and Lord Ellenborough secretary at war. Peel 
 himself was first lord of the treasury. The important 
 events of his administration were the settlement of the 
 questions of the corn-laws, tariff, and income-tax. In 
 1842 he proposed a sliding-scale, according to which the 
 duty on grain should be reduced in proportion as the 
 price increased. This bill became a law. He imposed 
 an income-tax of "]d. in the pound to supply the deficit 
 in the revenue, and passed a new tariff bill, by which 
 many articles were admitted free and the duties on others 
 were reduced, (1842.) A powerful pressure against the 
 duty on breadstuffs was produced by the Anti-Corn-Law 
 League, whose interests were advocated by Cobden and 
 Bright in public speeches. The case was rendered more 
 urgent by the potato-rot in Ireland in 1845. In Novem- 
 ber, 1845, S' r Robert announced himself in favour of 
 the repeal of the corn-laws ; but some of his colleagues 
 opposed the measure. Peel then resigned, and Lord 
 John Russell was called to form a new cabinet, but did 
 not succeed. About the 20th of December, Sir Robert 
 resumed office with his former colleagues, except Lord 
 Stanley, who retired. The Tory party was divided on 
 this question into Peelites and Protectionists. By the 
 united votes of the Peelites and Liberals, the corn-laws 
 were repealed, after an eloquent speech by Sir Robert 
 in favour of the repeal, in January, 1846. Having been 
 defeated on the Irish Coercion bill, he resigned, June 29, 
 1846, and was succeeded by Lord John Russell. He had 
 acquired great popularity, which continued unabated, and 
 he would probably have been called again to the direction 
 of affairs if he had lived a few years longer. On the 
 29th of June, 1850, he was thrown from his horse and re- 
 ceived injuries of which he died on July 2 of that year. 
 
 See Taylor and Mackay, " Sir Robert Peel's Life and Times," 
 4 vols., 1846-51; Thomas Dourleday, "The Political Life of Sir 
 Robert Peel," 2 vols., 1856: Kuenzel, "Das Leben und die Reden 
 Sir R. Peels," 2 vols., 1850: GtnzoT, "Sir Robert Peel," 1859; 
 Lawkhnce Pkei., "Life of Sir Robert Peel," i860; see, also, his 
 posthumous Memoirs, edited by Lord Ma Hon and Mr. Cakdwkil : 
 Grorgk H. Francis, " The Late Sir Robert Peel ; a Critical Biog- 
 raphy," 1852; L. Da Lomenie, "Sir Robert Peel, par un Homme 
 de Rien," 1842: "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1842, 
 and October, 1846 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for September, 1850, 
 and September, i860; "Westminster Review" for December, 1843, 
 and Julv, 1852; " Macmillan's Magazine" for i860, (by Goldwik 
 Smith.) 
 
 i, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, G, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; m5t; not; good; moon; 
 
PEEL 
 
 '757 
 
 PELAFICINO 
 
 Peel, (Sir Robert,) the eldest son of the preceding, 
 was born in London in 1822. He was returned to Par- 
 liament for Tamworth in 1850, and voted with the Liberal 
 party. In 1855 he was appointed one of the lords of the 
 admiralty by Lord Palmerston. Having resigned this 
 place in 1857, he became secretary for Ireland, without 
 a seat in the cabinet, in 1861. He retired from that 
 office about 1864, and voted with the Tories against the 
 Reform bill in April, 1866. 
 
 Peel, (Sir William,) a naval officer, born in 1824, 
 was a younger son of Sir Robert Peel, prime minister. 
 He served with distinction at the siege of SebastopOl, 
 in 1855. As captain of the naval brigade, he fought 
 against the Sepoy mutineers in India in 1857. Died at 
 Cawnpore in 1858. 
 
 Peel, (William Yates,) born at Bury in 1789, was a 
 son of the first Sir Robert Peel, and brother of the cele- 
 brated statesman. He was for many years a member of 
 Parliament, which he entered in 1817. He became a lord 
 of the treasury in 1830, and again in 1834. Died in 1858. 
 
 Peele, peel, (George,) an English dramatist, born 
 in Devonshire, graduated at Oxford in 1579. He be- 
 came a resident of London, and had the title of city 
 poet. His talent was much inferior to that of Marlowe. 
 Among his plays are "The Old Wives Tale" and "The 
 Battle of Alcazar." Died about 1598. His works were 
 published by Dyce in 1828, with a memoir of his life. 
 
 Peerlkamp, paRl'kamp, (Hofman Pieter,) a Dutch 
 philologist and critic, born at Groningen in 1786. He 
 published several biographical works in Latin, and valu- 
 able editions of Xenophon of Ephesus, Horace's " Odes," 
 and " Letters to Piso." 
 
 Peet, (Harvey Prindle,) LL.D., born in Litchfield 
 county, Connecticut, in 1794, became president of the 
 Institution for the Deaf and Dumb in New York, (1845.) 
 He has published a " Course of Instruction," " Scripture 
 Lessons," and other works for deaf-mutes. 
 
 Pegase. See Pegasus. 
 
 Peg'a-sus, [Gr. YVriyaaoc ; Fr. Pegase, pi'gtz',] a 
 winged horse of classic mythology, was supposed to be 
 the offspring of Neptune and Medusa. The poets relate 
 that he carried Bellerophon in his fight with Chimaera, 
 that with a stroke of his hoof he produced the foun- 
 tain Hippocrene on Mount Helicon, that he was the 
 favourite of the Muses, and that he finally became a 
 constellation in the heavens. 
 
 Pegge, peg, (Samuel,) an English antiquary, born in 
 Staffordshire in 1704. He obtained the living of God- 
 mersham in 173 1, and that of Whittington in 1751. His 
 chief work is a " Life of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of 
 Lincoln," (1793.) Died in 1796. 
 
 Pegge, (Samuel,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 in 1731. He wrote "Curialia," and " Anecdotes of the 
 English Language." Died in 1800. 
 
 Pe'gram, (John,) an American general, born in South 
 Carolina. He graduated at West Point in 1855. He 
 served in the Confederate army in several battles in Vir- 
 ginia, and was killed at Hatcher's Run, near Petersburg, 
 February 6, 1865. 
 
 Peigiiot, pin'yo', (Etienne Gabriel,) a learned 
 French bibliographer, born at Arc-en-Barrois in 1767. 
 He was principal of colleges at Vesoul and Dijon. He 
 wrote many antiquarian treatises, biographies, and works 
 on bibliography. His "Dictionary of Bibliology" (" Dic- 
 tionnaire raisonne de Bibliologie," 2 vols., 1802) is said 
 to be important. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Quhrard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Peile, peel, (Rev. Thomas W.,) an English classical 
 scholar, born about 1806, graduated at Cambridge. He 
 published " Annotations on the Apostolical Epistles," 
 (6 vols., 1848-52.) He subsequently obtained the living 
 of Saint Paul's, Hampstead. 
 
 Peirce, peerss, (Benjamin,) LL.D., an able mathema- 
 tician, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1809, has written 
 various works on mechanics and kindred subjects. 
 
 See Ai.libone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Peirce, (Bradford K.,) an American Methodist 
 divine and reformer, was born at Royalton, Vermont, in 
 1819. He founded in 1856, at Lancaster, Massachusetts, 
 a State Industrial School for Girls, which has succeeded 
 in reforming great numbers of those who had been guilty 
 
 of petty offences. He has published a work entitled " The 
 Eminent Dead," and several religious books. 
 
 Peirce, (Cyrus,) an American teacher, born at Walt- 
 ham, Massachusetts, in 1790, became principal of the 
 first American normal school, founded at Lexington, 
 Massachusetts, in 1839. He published an essay entitled 
 " Crime : its Cause and Cure," and a " Letter on Normal 
 Schools." Died in 1859. 
 
 Peirce, peerss, (James,) an English nonconformist 
 minister, bom in London in 1673. He published ser- 
 mons and controversial works. Died in 1726. 
 
 Peiresc, de, deh p4'resk', (Nicolas Claude Fabri 
 — ft'blie',) an eminent French antiquary, scholar, and 
 patron of learning, was born at Beaugensier, in Provence, 
 in 1580. He studied law at Padua, and became a coun- 
 sellor of the parliament of Aix. He was an intimate 
 friend of Gassendi. In visits to Italy, England, etc., he 
 collected many books, medals, and specimens of nature 
 and art, which he freely distributed to his friends. He 
 maintained an active correspondence with many French 
 and foreign savants. He wrote to his friends at Rome 
 in favour of Galileo when the latter was in prison. 
 Many of his letters have been published. It was at 
 Peiresc's suggestion that Grotius wrote his work " De 
 Jure Belli et Pads." Died at Aix in 1637. 
 
 See Gassendi, "Vita N. C. F. de Peiresc," 1641; Requier, 
 "Vie de Peiresc," 1770; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Peirithoua. See Pirithous. 
 
 Peirouse. See La Peyrouse. 
 
 Peisander. See Pisander. 
 
 Peisistratus. See Pisistratus. 
 
 Pe'kah, [Heb. np3,] King of Israel, usurped the 
 throne in 758 B.C. In alliance with the King of Syria, 
 he waged war against Jotham and Ahaz, Kings of Judah. 
 He was killed by Hosea in 738 or 739. 
 
 Pek-a-hi'ah, [Heb. rvnpi),] King of Israel, began to 
 reign about 760 B.C. He was killed by Pekah, 760 B.C. 
 
 Pelage. See Pelagius. 
 
 Pe-la'gl-us, [Gr. IbAayioc ; Fr. Pelage, pl'lSzh',] the 
 founder of the sect of Pelagians, or rather the chief 
 advocate of a system of doctrines called Pelagianism, 
 was born probably in Britain. He began to propagate 
 his doctrines at Rome about 400 A.D., and formed a 
 friendship with Celestius, who became his ardent disciple. 
 He was an admirer of Origen, and an adversary of Saint 
 Augustine in relation to grace and election. Pelagius 
 rejected the dogmas of original sin and absolute predes- 
 tination. He maintained that the effects of Adam's first 
 sin were confined to himself, and that man's salvation 
 depends on his own exertions. He was condemned by 
 several councils, and was banished from Italy in 418. 
 The eminent purity of his life was freely admitted by 
 his opponents. A system called Semi-Pelagianism pre- 
 vailed widely in the middle ages, and has many adherents 
 at the present day. As the numerous works of Pelagius 
 are nearly all lost, it is difficult to ascertain exactly what 
 doctrines he taught. His adversaries complained of 
 the haze of subtle dialectics with which he involved 
 every subject of dispute. Among his extant works is a 
 " Commentary on the Epistles of Saint Paul." 
 
 See Norkis, " Historia Pelagians;" I.. Patouillet, "Vie de 
 Pelage," 1751 ; Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Saint 
 Augustine, "De Gratia Christi" and "De Peccato Originali;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Pe-la'gi-us [Fr. Pelage, pi'lSzh'] I., a native of 
 Rome, became pope in 555 a.d., after the death of 
 Vigilius. He died in 559 or 560, and was succeeded by 
 John III. 
 
 Pelagius II., Pope, a native of Rome, was born about 
 520. He succeeded Benedict I. in 578 a.d. He died 
 in 590, and was succeeded by Gregory the Great. 
 
 Pe-la'gl-us or Pelayo, pa-la'yo, [Fr. Pelage, pa'- 
 ltzh',] King of Asturias, was a descendant of the Gothic 
 kings of Spain. He fought with success about 718 a.d. 
 against the Moors, who had conquered the greater part 
 of Spain, and founded a small kingdom, which he left 
 to his son-in-law, Alfonso. Died about 738 A.D. 
 
 Pelasgue. See Pei.asgus. 
 
 Pe-las'gus, [Gr. XliXaoyoc ; Fr. Pelasgue, pa'lisg',] 
 a mythical personage, supposed to have been the ances- 
 tor of the Pelasgi, the most ancient inhabitants of Greece. 
 
 Pelavicino. See Pallavicini. * 
 
 «a»i; 5 as s;%hard; gas/; g, h, k, guttural; a, nasal; R, trilled; sass; thasinM/j. (J[^"*See Explanations, p. 23. J 
 
PELAYO 
 
 1758 
 
 PELLEGRINI 
 
 Pelayo. See Pei.agius, (of Asturias.) 
 
 Petee. See Peleus. 
 
 Pelet, peh-14', (Jean Jacques Germain,) Baron, a 
 French general, born at Toulouse about 1778. He 
 setved with distinction as aide-de-camp of Massena in 
 Italy, Austria, and Portugal, (1805-12,) and commanded 
 a brigade at Waterloo. In 1830 he became a lieutenant- 
 general. He was appointed a senator in 1852. He 
 published " Memoirs of the War of 1809," (4 vols., 1824,) 
 and other able military works. Died in 1858. 
 
 Pelet de la Lozere, peh-14' deh IS lo'zaiR', (Jean,) 
 Comte, a French legislator, born at Saint-Jean-du-Gard 
 in 1759, was distinguished for his wisdom and modera- 
 tion. He was elected to the Convention in 1792, and 
 to the Council of Five Hundred (by seventy-one de- 
 partments) in 1795. During the empire he was coun- 
 cillor of state. Died in 1842. 
 
 His son, Privat Joseph Claramond, born in 1785, 
 was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1827. He 
 distinguished himself as an orator of the Left Centre. 
 He was minister of finance under Thiers in 1840. 
 
 Peletier, pel-te-a', sometimes written Pelletier, 
 (Jacques,) a poet and mathematician, born at Mans, in 
 France, in 151 7. He lived at many places, and followed 
 various pursuits. In 1572 he became principal of the 
 College of Mans. He translated Horace's " De Arte 
 Poetica" into verse, (1544,) and wrote original poems 
 of some merit. Died in 1582. 
 
 Peletier, Le, leh pel-te-a', (Claude,) a French magis- 
 trate, born in Paris in 1630 or 1631. He was provost of 
 the merchants in 1668, and constructed the quai in Paris 
 which bears his name. In 1683 he succeeded Colbert 
 as controller-general of finance. He found himself 
 unequal to the task of raising funds for a long war, and 
 resigned in 1689. Voltaire calls him a good and just 
 man. Died in 1711. 
 
 Peletier de Sousi, Le, leh pel-te-&' deh soo'ze', 
 (Michel,) a brother of the preceding, was born in Paris 
 in 1640. He spoke many languages, ancient and modern, 
 and wrote memoirs on medals and inscriptions. He 
 served as intendant of finance from 1683 to 1 701, and 
 was chosen a member of the council of regency at the 
 death of Louis XIV. , Died in 1725. 
 
 Peleus, pee'lus or pee'le^s, [Gr. TlrjXevc; Fr. Pelee, 
 pa'la',] King of Thessaly, was a son of /Eacus, and 
 married the sea-nymph Thetis, by whom he became the 
 father of Achilles. The marriage of Peleus and Thetis 
 is said to have been attended by all the gods and god- 
 desses except Discord. According to tradition, he took 
 Eart in the Argonautic expedition, but was prevented 
 y his great age from joining in the siege of Troy. 
 
 Pe'leus, [Fr. Pilieu, pe'le-yh',] (Jui.ien,) a French 
 lawyer, born at Angers. He was appointed councillor 
 of state and historiographer by Henry IV., and wrote a 
 " History of Henry the Great," (4 vols., 1616.) Died 
 about 1625. 
 
 Pelhara. See Newcastle, Duke of. 
 
 Pelham, pjl'am, (Henry,) an English statesman, 
 born in 1694, was a brother of the Duke of Newcastle. 
 He became paymaster of the army fit 1730, and an op- 
 ponent of Walpole. On the defeat of Walpole, in 1742, 
 he obtained the office of chancellor of the exchequer. A 
 rivalry between him and Lord Carteret resulted in the 
 removal of the latter in 1743 or 1744, after whicTi Pelham 
 and his brother were the chief ministers until 1754. 
 " Henry Pelham," says Macaulay, " was by no means a 
 contemptible person. His understanding was that of 
 Walpole on a somewhat smaller scale. Though not a 
 brilliant orator, he was, like his master, a good debater, 
 a good parliamentary tactician, a good man of business. 
 . . . For the first time since the accession of the Stuarts, 
 there was no opposition." Died in 1754. 
 
 See Macaulay's Review of "Walpole's Letters to Sir Horace 
 Mann," 1833; William Coxr, "Memoirs of the Administration of 
 the Rt. Hon. Henry Pelham," 2 vols., 1829. 
 
 Pelham, (Thomas,) Earl of Chichester, was born in 
 or near London in 1756. He was elected about 1780 to 
 the House of Commons, in which he voted with the 
 Tories. He was home secretary from April, 1801, to 
 1803, and inherited the title of Earl of Chichester at 
 the death of his father, in 1805. Died in 1826. 
 
 Pelhestre, peh-lfctR', (Pierre,) a learned French 
 ecclesiastic and writer, born at Rouen in 1635 ; died in 
 1710. 
 
 Pe-li'a-des, (singular, Fe'll-as,) a name applied to 
 the daughters of Pelias, which see. 
 
 Pe'ltas, [Gr. UeUac; Fr. Pelias, pi'le'Ss',] a son 
 of Neptune and Tyro or of Cretheus and Tyro, was a 
 brother of Neleus. He usurped the throne of Iolcos 
 from /Eson, a son of Cretheus, and sent Jason to Col- 
 chis to bring the golden fleece. He was the father of 
 Acastus, Alcestis, and several other daughters. The 
 poets relate that Pelias was cut to pieces by his daugh- 
 ters, called PeliaDes, at the instigation of Medea, who 
 promised to restore him to youth. 
 
 Pelides. See Achilles. 
 
 Peligot, pi'le'go', (Eugene Melchior,) a French 
 chemist, born in Paris in 1812. He became professor 
 of chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers 
 in 1S41. 
 
 P^lissier, pi'le'se-a', (Amable Jean Jacques,) Due 
 de Malakoff, (d?h ml'll'kof/,) a French general, born 
 at Maromme (Seine-Inferieure) in 1794. He entered 
 the army in 1815, and served as aide-de-camp of General 
 Durrieu in the Morea in 1828-29. About the end of 
 1839 he was sent, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, to 
 Algeria, where he took part in many actions. He com- 
 manded the left wing at Isly, in 1844, and in 1845 fixed 
 an indelible stain upon his memory by suffocating a party 
 of Arabs in a cavern, at the mouth of which he ordered 
 a large fire to be built. In 1850 he became a general of 
 division. He was Governor-General of Algeria ad interim 
 in 1851. In January, 1855, he was ordered to the Crimea, 
 to command the first corps of the army which co-operated 
 with the British in the siege of Sebastopol. He suc- 
 ceeded Canrobert as general-in-chief on the 16th of May, 
 1855. A victory was gained by the allies on the Tcher- 
 naia in August, and the French carried by storm the 
 fort of Malakoff on the 8th of September. For this 
 success Pelissier received a marshal's baton in 1855, and 
 the title of Duke of Malakoff in 1856. He was ambas- 
 sador to England in 1858, and during the war in Italy 
 in 1859 he commanded the army of observation which 
 defended the eastern frontier. In November, i860, he 
 became Governor-General of Algeria. Died in 1864. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Pelisson. See Pellisson. 
 
 Pell, (John.) an eminent English mathematician, born 
 in Sussex in 1610, studied at Cambridge and Oxford. 
 He became professor at Amsterdam in 1643, and was 
 sent by Cromwell as agent to the Protestant Swiss 
 cantons in 1654. He returned home in 1658, became 
 rector of Fobbing, Essex, in 1661, and rector of Laing- 
 don in 1673. He published a refutation of Longomon- 
 tanus's discourse "On the True Measure of the Circle," 
 ("De vera Circuli Mensura," 1644,) an "Idea of the 
 Mathematics," and other works. It was to Pell that 
 Newton first explained his invention of fluxions. Died 
 in 1685. 
 
 See Montuct.a, " Histoire des Math^matiques." 
 
 Pellat, p&'li', (Charles Augusts,) an able Fiench 
 jurist, born at Grenoble in 1793. He obtained the chair 
 of Pandects in Paris in 1829, and published several suc- 
 cessful works on Roman law. 
 
 Pellegrin, peVgR&N'.fSiMON Joseph,) Abbe, a French 
 poet and dramatist, born at Marseilles in 1663. He 
 gained a prize of the French Academy for poetry in 
 1704. His best works are "The New World," a comedy, 
 (1723,) and " Peiopee," a tragedy, (1733,) which were suc- 
 cessful. Died at Paris in 1745. 
 
 Pellegrini, pSl-li-gree'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 painter of history, born at Venice in 1675. He worked 
 in England and Paris, and settled at Venice. Among 
 his master-pieces is "The Brazen Serpent." " He was 
 ingenious," says the "Biographie Universelle," "and 
 painted with great facility." Died in 1741. 
 
 Pellegrini, (Camillo,) an Italian historian, born at 
 Capua in 1598. He spent much time in collecting an- 
 cient documents for the history of Italy, and published 
 a valuable "History of the Princes of Lombardy," 
 (" Historia Principum LoBgobardorum," 1643.) Died 
 in 1663. 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m4t; not; good; m<5on, 
 
PELLEGRINI 
 
 1759 
 
 PELLISSON 
 
 Pellegrini, (I)omknico,) an architect and engraver, 
 born in 1541, was a brother of Pellegiino, noticed below. 
 He designed the palace de Magnani at Bologna, and 
 other fine edifices of that city. His etchings are prized 
 by amateurs. Died in 1582. 
 
 Pellegrini, (Giuseppe Luioi,) an Italian poet and 
 Jesuit, burn at Verona in 1718, was distinguished as a 
 pulpit orator. He published " Latin and Italian Poems," 
 (" Poesie Latine ed Italiane," 1791.) Died in 1799. 
 
 Pellegrini, (Pellegrino,) called also Tihaldi, te- 
 bil'dee, an eminent painter and architect, born in the 
 Milanese in 1527. He studied in Rome, and appears to 
 have taken Michael Angelo as his model. He acquired 
 a grandeur of style which was less extravagant than that 
 of Michael Angelo. Among his best paintings are the 
 frescos in the Poggi Chapel, representing John the Bap- 
 tist baptizing, and other subjects. He was appointed in 
 1570 chief architect of the Duomo (cathedral) of Milan, 
 and designed the facade of that great Gothic structure, 
 which was commenced about 1387. His design was 
 censured by many artists, but was partially executed. 
 He worked for Philip II. of Spain in the Escurial, both 
 as painter and architect. He died at Milan about 1595 
 or 1600. 
 
 SeeZANOTTT," Vita di Tibaldt ;" Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" 
 Quatremere uk Quincy, " Dictiounaire d'Architecture." 
 
 Pelleport, peTpoR', (Pierre,) Vicomte, a French 
 general, born in Haute-Garonne in 1773. He fought at 
 Jena, (1806,) at Eylau, (1807,) obtained the rank of 
 colonel at Essling, and the title of baron at Wagram, 
 (1809.) Died in 1855. 
 
 Pellerin, pel'raN', (Joseph,) a French numismatist 
 and linguist, born near Versailles in 1684. He became 
 commissioner of the navy in 1718, and chief clerk some 
 years later. He formed a cabinet of 32,500 medals, 
 which is said to have been the richest that ever belonged 
 to a private person, and published a description of them, 
 entitled " Collection of Medals of Kings, Nations, and 
 Cities," (" Recueil de Me'dailles de Rois, Peuples et 
 Villes," 10 vols., 1762-78.) He adopted an improved 
 system of classification. Died in 1782. 
 
 See Chaudon et Delandine, m Dictionnaire Universel." 
 
 Pellet, p^'lj', (Jean Francois,) a French poet and 
 advocate, bom at Epinal in 1782 ; died in 1830. 
 
 Pelletan, peTtftN', (Eugene,) an able French littera- 
 teur, born in Charente-Inferieure in 1813. His father 
 was a Protestant minister. He wrote literary critiques 
 for the " Presse" for about ten years, (1839-50,) and con- 
 tributed to other journals. In 1848 he was a republican, 
 and intimate with Lamartine. Among his popular works 
 are " The Profession of Faith of the Nineteenth Century," 
 (1853,) and '-The Pastor of the Desert," (1855.) He was 
 elected to the corps legislatif in 1869, and became a mem- 
 ber of the provisional government in September, 1870. 
 
 Pelletan, (Philippe Jean,) a French surgeon of 
 high reputation, was born in Paris in 1747. He suc- 
 ceeded Desault as surgeon-in-chief of the H&tel-Dieu 
 in Paris, and was consulting surgeon to Napoleon I. 
 He lectured in Paris about thirty years, with such elo- 
 quence that he was called the "Chrysostom of surgeons." 
 Died in 1829. 
 
 See " Bioeraphie Midicale ;" Querakd, '.' La France LitteVaire;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale. 
 
 Pelletan, (Pierre,) a son of the preceding, was. born 
 in Paris in 1782, and was a distinguished physician. He 
 became professor of physique midicale at Paris in 1823. 
 In 1843 he resigned this chair. He published a "Dic- 
 tionary of Medical Chemistry," (2 vols., 1823.) Died 
 in 1846. 
 Pelletier. See Pki.etier, Le, (Claude.) 
 Pelletier, peTte-A', (Bertrand,) an eminent French 
 chemist, born at Bayonne in 1761. He became professor 
 of chemistry at the Polytechnic School in Paris in 1795, 
 and a member of the Institute. He wrote for the " An- 
 nates de Chimie," and made some important discoveries. 
 " He showed himself a man of genius," says Fournier- 
 Pescay, " in his researches on phosphorus and on its 
 combinations with metals." Died in 1797. His col- 
 lected works were published, under the title of " Me- 
 moirs and Observations," (2 vols.,) in 1798. 
 
 Pelletier, peTte-A, (Caspar,) a Dutch physician and 
 botanist, was born at Middelburg ; died in 1659. 
 
 Pelletier, (Jean Baptiste,) a French general, born 
 at Eclaron (Haute-Marne) in 1777. He became general 
 of brigade in 1809, obtained command of the artillery, 
 and served with credit at Moskwa, (t8i2.) Died in 
 1862. 
 
 Pelletier, (Pierre Joseph,) a chemist, born in Paris 
 in 1788, was a son of Bertrand, noticed above. He dis- 
 played a rare talent for observation and analysis, and 
 discovered several vegetable salifiable bases. The im- 
 portant discovery of quinine (1820) was made by Pelle- 
 tier and Caventou, who was his associate. For this 
 service the Academy of Sciences gave him a prize of 
 ten thousand francs in 1827. He published a "Memoir 
 on Quinine," (1821,) and other works. Died in 1842. 
 
 Pelletier, Le, (Jean.) See Lepelletier. 
 
 Pellew, (Edward.) See Exmouth, Lord. 
 
 Pel'lew, (George,) D.D., a younger son of Lord 
 Exmouth, was born in 1793. He became Dean of Nor- 
 wich in 1828. Among his works is "The Seven Ages 
 of a Christian Life," (1855.) 
 
 Pellioan, pel ' Ie-kSn', [ Lat. Pellica'nus ; Ger. 
 Kurschner, kuRsh'ncr,] (Conrad,) a learned Reformer 
 and biblical critic, born at Ruffach, in Alsace, in 1478. 
 He took the monastic vows, learned Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew, and became superior of the convent at Ruffach 
 about 1517. Having been converted to the doctrines 
 of Luther, he was appointed professor of Hebrew at 
 Zurich in 1526. He was intimate with Erasmus. Among 
 his works are Latin Commentaries on the Bible, (5 vols. 
 fol., 1534-38,) which are highly esteemed. " Pellican," 
 says Richard Simon, "is more exact than the other 
 Protestants. . . . He aimed to be useful to his readers 
 rather than to display his rabbinage." Died in 1556. 
 
 See "Chronicon Vita? ipsius ab ipso conscriptum," inserted in 
 Melchior Adam's "Vita Theologortim Germanorum ;" Johann 
 Fabricius, "Oratio historica de Vita C. PeDicani," 160S; Salomon 
 Hkss, " C. Pellicans Jugendgeschichte," 1795. 
 
 Pellicanus. See Pei.lican. 
 
 Pellicer, pel-ye-thaiR', (Jos£ de Ossau — da os- 
 s5w',] a Spanish historian, born at Saragossa in 1602 ; 
 died in 1679. 
 
 Pellicer, (Juan Antonio,) a Spanish antiquary, born 
 at Valencia in 1738. He wrote " Ensayo de una Bibli- 
 oteca de Traductores Espafioles," (" Library of Spanish 
 Translations," 1778,) and published a good edition of 
 "Don Quixote," (1797.) Died in 1806. 
 
 Pellicier or Pellissier, p|'le'se-i', (Guii.i.aume,) a 
 French diplomatist, born in Languedoc about 1490. 
 He became Bishop of Montpel*ier, and was employed 
 in important missions by Francis I. His vast erudition 
 is extolled by De Thou and Turnebus. Died in 1568. 
 
 Pellico, pel'le-ko, (Silvio,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Saluzzo, Piedmont, in 1789. He became in 1810 teacher 
 of French in a college of Milan, where he formed 
 a friendship with Ugo Foscolo and Monti. He pro- 
 duced " Francesca da Rimini," a tragedy, which was 
 performed with great applause. In Milan he became 
 acquainted with Lord Byron, Madame de Stael, and 
 Lord Brougham. He was the principal founder of " II 
 Conciliatore," a literary periodical, first issued in 1818, 
 which was quickly suppressed by the Austrian govern- 
 ment. In October, 1820, he was arrested as a member 
 of a secret society, and in 1822 was condemned to im- 
 prisonment for fifteen years carcere dure He was con- 
 fined at Spielberg, in Moravia, until August, 1830, and 
 then released, having suffered with great resignation. 
 He wrote a narrative of his sufferings, entitled " My 
 Prisons," (" Le mie Prigioni," 1831,) which excited great 
 sympathy and was translated into all the languages of 
 Europe. His prose treatise " On the Duties of Man" is 
 praised for its good morality. Died at Turin in 1854. 
 
 See L. de Lomenie, "M. S. Pellicn, par tin Homme de Rien," 
 1842; V. Cmiala, "Vita di S. Pellico." 185a; " Nouvelle Rtoexaphie 
 Ge^ierale:" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for April and October, 1833. 
 
 Pellisson. p&'le'sdN', or Pellisaon-Pontanier, p4'- 
 le'soN' f6N'ti'ne-4', (Paul,) a French author, born, 
 of Protestant parents, at Be'ziers in 1624. He wrote a 
 " History of the French Academy," (1653,) which ob- 
 tained such success that this society nominated him a 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard;%M,j; G, H, K., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as •; th as in this. (Jg^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PELLOUTIER 
 
 17.60 
 
 PENATES 
 
 titular member and voted that he should be admitted 
 to the first vacant seat. In 1657 he became chief clerk 
 of Fouquet, minister of finance. He was confined for 
 four years (1661-65) in the Bastille on account of his 
 connection with Fouquet. Having been selected by 
 Louis XIV. to write the history of his reign,, he abjured 
 Protestantism in 1670, entered into holy orders, and 
 obtained several benefices. He wrote a " History of 
 Louis XIV.," (3 vols., 1749,) and other works. His 
 writings were more admired in his own time than at 
 present. Died in 1693. 
 
 See Fenelon, " Eloge de Pellisson ;" Voltaire, "Siecle de 
 Louis XIV." 
 
 Pelloutier, pi'loo'te-i', (Simon,) a French historian, 
 born at Leipsic in i694T"He became minister of a Prot- 
 estant church at Berlin in 1725, and a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences of that city in 1743. His chief 
 work is a " History of the Celts, Gauls, and Germans 
 from Fabulous Times to the Capture of Rome by the 
 Gauls," (in French, 2 vols., 1740-50,) which, says the 
 "Journal des Savants," "is extremely curious and agree- 
 able." Died at Berlin in 1757. 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Pe-lop'I-das, [ Gr. Tletomias, ] an eminent Theban 
 statesman and general, was a son of Hippoclus. He 
 inherited a large fortune, of which he made a liberal 
 use, and became an intimate and constant friend of 
 Epaminondas, who saved his life at the battle of Man- 
 tinea, (385 B.C.) As a leader of the popular party, he 
 went into - exile when the Spartans made themselves 
 masters of Thebes, in 382. lie was the master-spirit of 
 the small band of patriots who surprised by night and 
 expelled the Spartans and aristocrats from Thebes in 
 379 B.C. "It is not easy," says Plutarch, "to find an 
 instance so remarkable of the few overcoming the many, 
 merely by courage and conduct. . . . The war which 
 humbled the pride of the Spartans and deprived them 
 of empire took its rise from that night." Pelopidas was 
 chosen general-in-chief, and in 375 gained at Tegyrae a 
 decisive victory over the Spartans, who then lost their 
 prestige of invincibility. He was captain of the Sacred 
 band at the battle of Leuctra, where he gained as much 
 honour, says Plutarch, as Epaminondas, the commander- 
 in-chief. In 369 B.C. Pelopidas and his friend com- 
 manded jointly an army which entered Peloponnesus, 
 forced Argos and Arcadia to renounce the alliance of 
 the Spartans, and ravaged a large part of Laconia in a 
 winter campaign. (See Epaminondas.) He acted as 
 mediator between two sons of Amyntas, King of Mace- 
 don, and carried as a hostage to Thebes another prince, 
 who was afterwards famous as Philip of Macedon. Having 
 been sent as ambassador to Persia in 367, he was re- 
 ceived with great honour by the king and courtiers, who 
 said, " This is the man who deprived the Spartans of 
 the empire of the sea and land ;" and he induced Ar- 
 taxerxes to recognize the liberty of all the Greek states. 
 He commanded an expedition against Alexander, tyrant 
 of Pherae, in a battle with whom he was killed in 364 B.C., 
 as he too rashly urged the retreating enemy. 
 
 See " Life of Pelopidas," by Plutarch, who compares him to 
 Marcellus, and says that Pelopidas was " inclined to every virtue ;" 
 Cornelius Nepos, " Pelopidas ;"Thirlwall," History of Greece." 
 
 Pe'lops, [Gr. Tlefaif; Fr. Pelops, pi'lops',] a demi-god 
 of Greek mythology, said to have been a son of Tanta- 
 lus, a grandson of Jupiter, and a king of Pisa. Among 
 his children were Atreus and Thyestes, whose mother 
 was Hippodami'a, a daughter of CEnomaus. (See (Eno- 
 maus.) The poets relate that Tantalus once entertained 
 the gods at his house, and offered them the flesh of 
 Pelops, whom he killed and boiled, that all the guests 
 refused to partake of that dish, except Ceres, who ate 
 one shoulder, and that Pelops was restored to life by 
 Mercury, with an ivory shoulder in place of that which 
 was devoured. Tradition adds that during the siege of 
 Troy an oracle declared that this city could not be taken 
 unless one of the bones of Pelops was brought to the 
 camp of the Greeks. According to another legend, the 
 Palladium at Troy was made of the bones of Pelops. 
 The southern peninsula of Greece is supposed to have 
 derived from him the name Peloponnesus, (or "island 
 of Pelops.") 
 
 Pelouze, p^h-looz', (Theophile Jules,) a French 
 chemist, born at Valognes (Manche) in 1807, was a pupil 
 of Gay-Lussac. He obtained a chair of chemistry at 
 Lille in 1830, soon after which he became the assistant 
 (suppliant) of Gay-Lussac in the Polytechnic School. 
 He was admitted into the Institute in 1837, and was ap- 
 pointed president of the Commission des Monnaies (or 
 director of the Mint) in 1848. His labours and memoirs 
 place him in the first rank of contemporary chemists. 
 Pelouze and Fremy published a "Treatise on Chem- 
 istry," (6 vols., 1853-56.) Died in 1867. 
 
 Pels, pels, (Andreas,) a Dutch poet, who founded a 
 school or literary society which favoured the imitation 
 of French models. He wrote " The Death of Dido," a 
 tragedy, (1668,) and translated into Dutch verse Horace's 
 "Art of Poetry," (1667.) Died in 1681. 
 
 Peltan, de, deh pel'tin, or Pelte, pel'teh, [Lat. Pel- 
 ta'nus,] (Theodore Antoine,) a Flemish Jesuit, born 
 at Pelte. He wrote a " Commentary on the Book of 
 Proverbs," and other works. Died in 1584. 
 
 Peltanus. See Peltan. 
 
 Peltier, pel'te-a', or Pelletier, (Jean Gabriel,) a 
 French journalist, born at Nantes. He began to issue 
 in London, in 1800, " L'Ambigu," in which he attacked 
 Bonaparte with virulence. He was tried for libel in 
 1803, was defended in a famous speech by Sir James 
 Mackintosh, and was sentenced to pay a small fine. 
 Died in Paris in 1825. 
 
 Peluse, de, Comte. See Monge. 
 
 Pelzel, pelt'sel, (Frans Martin,) a Bohemian his- 
 torian, born at Reichenau in 1735, wrote a "History 
 of Bohemia," (1774,) and other works. Died in 1801. 
 
 Pem'ber-ton, (Ebenezer,) an able American divine, 
 born about 1672, preached in Boston. Died in 171 7. 
 
 Peniberton, (Ebenezer,) LL.D., an American 
 teacher, born in 1746. He was tutor at Princeton Col- 
 lege, and at Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts. 
 Died in Boston in 1835. 
 
 Pem'ber-tou, (Henry,) an English chemist, anat- 
 omist, and geometer, born in London in 1694, was a 
 pupil and friend of Boerhaave. He became a professor 
 of physic in Gresham College, (Oxford,) where he gave 
 lectures on chemistry, (published in 1771.) Among his 
 works are a " View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy," 
 (1728,) and "Lectures on Physiology," (1733.) He 
 edited Newton's " Principia," (1726.) Died in 1771. 
 
 Pemberton, (John C.,) an American general, born 
 in Pennsylvania about 1818, graduated at West Point 
 in 1837. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) be- 
 came a captain, and resigned his commission in April, 
 1861. Having taken arms against the Union, he ob- 
 tained the rank of lieutenant-general, and commanded 
 at Vicksburg during the long siege of that place. He 
 was defeated by General Grant at Champion Hill, May 
 16, and retired to Vicksburg, which he surrendered, with 
 more than 25,000 prisoners, on the 4th of July, 1863. 
 
 Pemble, pem'bel, (William,) a learned English Cal- 
 vinistic minister, born in Kent about 1590. He was an 
 able preacher and linguist. His works were published 
 in 1635. Died in 1623. 
 
 Pembroke, (Anne,) Countess of. See Clifford. 
 
 Pembroke, Earl of. See Herbert. 
 
 Pembroke, (Mary,) Countess of. See Sidney, 
 (Mary.) 
 
 Pembroke, pern 'brook, (Thomas,) an English 
 painter, born in 1702; died in 1730. 
 
 Pena, peh-na', (Pierre,) a French botanist of the 
 sixteenth century, was born at Nat bonne, or in the 
 diocese of Aix. He was intimate with Lobel, to whom 
 he furnished materials for his work. 
 
 Pefialosa, de, da p&n-ya-lo'sa, (Don Juan,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Baeza in 1581 ; died in 1636. 
 
 Pe-na'tes, [Fr. Penates, pa'nft',] the household 
 gods of the Romans, so called, probably, because their 
 images were kept in the penetralia, the innermost part 
 or centre of the house. The number of these gods or 
 genii was indefinite. The Lares were included among 
 the Penates, and were sometimes represented as iden- 
 tical with them. Vesta was regarded as one of the 
 Penates, which, according to some authors, were per- 
 sonifications of the powers of nature. 
 
 i, i, 1, o, u, p, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n8t; good; moon; 
 
PENAUD 
 
 1761 
 
 PENN 
 
 Penaud, peh-no', (Charles.) a French rear-admiral, 
 born in 1800, commanded the squadron which operated 
 against Russia in the Haltic in 1855. Died in 1864. 
 
 Pencz or Fentz, pints, written also Pens and Feins, 
 (Gregor,) a German painter and engraver, was born 
 at Nuremberg about 1500. Among his master-pieces 
 are a "Crucifixion," in the gallery at Augsburg, and a 
 "Judith," in the Pinakothek at Munich, His engravings 
 are numerous and of great merit. Died about 1554. 
 
 Peu'der, (William D.,) an American general, born 
 in North Carolina, graduated at West Point about 1854. 
 He commanded a division of General Lee's army at the 
 battle of Gettysburg, where he was killed, July 3, 1S63. 
 
 Pendleton, pen'del-ton, (Edmund,) an eminent 
 American statesman and judge, born in Virginia in 1721. 
 He was elected to the General Congress in 1774 and in 
 1775. In 1776 he was president of the Virginia Con- 
 vention, and was the author of the resolutions by which 
 that body instructed their delegates in Congress to vote 
 for a declaration of independence. He was appointed 
 presiding judge of the court of appeals about 1779. He 
 was president of the convention which met in Virginia 
 in 1788 to consider the new Constitution of the United 
 States, and he advocated the adoption of the same. His 
 ability as a debater was highly extolled by Thomas 
 Jefferson. Died at Richmond in 1803. 
 
 Pendleton, (George H.,) an American politician, a 
 son of Nathaniel Greene Pendleton, formerly a member 
 of Congress, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in July, 1825. 
 He became a lawyer, and was elected a member of the 
 Senate of Ohio in 1854. He represented the first dis- 
 trict of Ohio in the National House of Representatives 
 from December, 1857, till March, 1865. He acted in 
 Congress with the Democrats who opposed the coercion 
 of the secessionists, and was nominated as candidate for 
 Vice-President of the United States by the Democratic 
 Convention in August, 1864. He received twenty-one 
 electoral votes out of two hundred and thirty-three, 
 which was the whole number. About 1867 he began to 
 advocate the payment of the public debt in paper money, 
 — "greenbacks." As a candidate for the Presidency lie 
 received, at the National Democratic Convention, July 
 8, 1S68, one hundred and fifty-six and one-half votes out 
 of three hundred and seventeen, on the eighth ballot. 
 He was the Democratic candidate for Governor of Ohio 
 in 1869, but was not elected. 
 
 Pendleton, (Henry,) an American jurist, and resi- 
 dent of South Carolina, was one of the judges appointed 
 to make a digest of the laws of that State. Died in 1788. 
 
 Pene, de.deh p4n, (Henri,) a French litterateur, born 
 in Paris in 1830. He wrote for the " Figaro," and 
 offended the military by some remarks, for which he was 
 challenged by several subaltern officers in succession, 
 (1858.) In the second duel he was desperately wounded, 
 so that for a time he was not expected to live. 
 
 Pe-nel'o-pe, [Gr. Utpefcixri or RevtUmj ; Fr. Pene- 
 lope, pa'na'lop',) the wife of Ulysses, King of Ithaca, and 
 a cousin of Helen, was renowned for conjugal fidelity. 
 During the long absence of her husband she evaded 
 the importunity of her suitors by a promise to decide 
 which she would accept when she had finished a shroud 
 for the aged Laertes. She ravelled at night what she 
 had woven by day, and thus postponed the decision 
 until the return of Ulysses. She was the mother of 
 Telemachus. 
 
 Penguilly l'Haridon, de, deh p6N'ge'ye' li're'do.N', 
 (Octave,) a French painter, born in Paris in 181 1. 
 
 Penhouet, peh-noo'4', (Armand Louis Bon Mau- 
 DET,) a French antiquary, born in Bretagne in 1764. 
 He wrote " Researches on Bretagne," (1814,) and other 
 works. Died in 1839. 
 
 Penicaud, pi'ne'ko', (Pierre,) a French enameller 
 and painter on glass, born in 15 15, worked at Limoges. 
 He was an able artist. 
 
 Pen'ing-tpn, (Isaac,) an eminent minister of the 
 Society of Friends, was born about 1618. His father 
 was lord mayor of London and a member of the Long 
 Parliament. He married Mary, the widow of Sir Wil- 
 liam Springett, (whose daughter became the wife of 
 William Penn,) and resided at Chalfont, Bucks. During 
 "he reign of Charles II. he was imprisoned six times 
 
 for his religious principles. " He grew rich and fruitful 
 in all heavenly treasure," says William Penn, — "full of 
 love, faith, mercy, patience, and long-suffering. Insomuch 
 that I may say he was one of a thousand ; zealous, yet 
 tender, wise, yet humble. . . . One that ever loved power 
 and life more than words." Died in 1679. He left "Let- 
 ters" and other writings, which are highly prized. 
 
 See " The Penns and Peningtons of the Seventeenth Century," 
 by Maria Webb, London, 1867. 
 
 Penn, (Granville,) an English author, bom in Phila- 
 delphia in 1761, was a son of Thomas Penn, and a 
 grandson of William Penn. He was a clerk in the 
 British war office. Among his works are " Remarks 
 on the Eastern Origin of Mankind and of the Arts of 
 Cultivated Life," and a " Life of Admiral Penn," 
 (1833.) Died in 1844. 
 
 Penn, (John,) an American patriot, and a signer of 
 the Declaration of Independence, was born in Caroline 
 county, Virginia, jn 1 741. Having removed in 1774 to 
 North Carolina, he was elected in 1775 to the Conti- 
 nental Congress. Died in 1788. 
 
 Penn, (Sir William,) an able English admiral, father 
 of William Penn, was born at Bristol in 1621. He 
 became a rear-admiral about 1644, obtained the rank 
 of admiral in 1653, and commanded the fleet which 
 co-operated with Venables in the capture of. Jamaica 
 from the Spaniards in 1655. He promoted the restora- 
 tion of Charles II. In 1660 he was appointed governor 
 of Kinsale. He was commander-in-chief, under the 
 Duke of York, of the fleet which gained a victory over 
 the Dutch in 1665. He retired from the service in 1669, 
 and died at Wanstead, Essex, in 1670. 
 
 See Granvii.i.e Penn, " Memorials of the Life of Admiral Sir 
 William Penn," 1833. 
 
 Penn, (William,) the founder of Pennsylvania, and 
 one of the most illustrious of Christian philanthropists, 
 was born in London on the 14th of October, 1644. He 
 was the eldest son of Captain (afterwards Admiral) Penn 
 and Margaret, the daughter of John Jasper, a merchant 
 of Rotterdam. At an early age he was sent to the Chig- 
 well School, in Essex. While here, before he was eleven 
 years old, his mind was deeply impressed with the im- 
 portance of religion, and he believed that he was even 
 then divinely called to consecrate his life to the service 
 of God. When about fifteen, he was sent to Christ 
 Church, Oxford, where he became acquainted with John 
 Locke, afterwards so distinguished as the author of the 
 "Essay on the Human Understanding." While at the 
 university, Penn appears to have applied himself dili- 
 gently to his studies, and to have made rapid progress 
 not only in the classics but likewise in several of the 
 modern languages. He is said also to have devoted 
 much of his attention to theology and history. Nor did 
 he neglect the cultivation of his physical powers. With 
 a handsome person, in which were united strength and 
 grace, he appears to have been well fitted to excel in 
 those out-door exercises which were then and are still 
 in vogue among the students of Oxford. He was, we 
 are told, a skilful boatman as well as an adventurous 
 sportsman. But, while he was thus applying himself 
 with youthful zeal to the pursuits deemed appropriate to 
 young gentlemen of his condition, a new influence arose, 
 which was destined to change entirely the current of his 
 future life. Thomas Loe, who had formerly belonged 
 to the university, but now one of the new sect of Friends 
 or Quakers, preached at Oxford. The views which he 
 promulgated made a powerful impression on the mind 
 of Penn. He, with several other students who had 
 beheld with displeasure the recent attempt to intro- 
 duce into the university certain forms and observances 
 which they considered to be little better than papistical 
 mummeries, absented themselves from the established 
 worship, and began to hold meetings among themselves, 
 conducting their devotional exercises in their own way. 
 Thereupon they were fined by the heads of the college 
 for nonconformity ; but this, instead of deterring them 
 from the course they had taken, only added fuel to their 
 zeal. It happened soon after that an order came down 
 from the king that the surplice should be worn by the 
 students, according to the custom of former times. This 
 so exasperated some of them, among whom Penn appears 
 
 i; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, Yi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jJ^^See Explanations, 
 
 111 
 
 p. 23.1 
 
PENN 
 
 1762 
 
 PENN 
 
 to have taken a leading part, that they not only refused 
 to wear the surplice themselves, but, falling upon those 
 who appeared in surplices, they forcibly tore off from 
 them the offensive badge. For this flagrant and open 
 violation of the laws of the university, Penn and sev- 
 eral of his associates were expelled. 
 
 This disgrace was a bitter mortification to the admiral, 
 a worldly and ambitious man, who had built the greatest 
 hopes on his eldest and favourite son. When William 
 returned home, his father received him with cold and 
 stern disapprobation. His son, although for the time 
 carried away with a fanatical zeal, was perfectly sincere, 
 and, finding his conduct not disapproved by some men 
 of note who were jealous of what they considered the 
 encroachments of popery, would not admit that he had 
 done wrong in resisting the authority of the king with 
 respect to the surplice. His father, having tried in vain 
 to reclaim him by argument, proceeded next, like one 
 accustomed to arbitrary power, to blows, and at last, it 
 is said, turned him out-of-doors. It was not long, how- 
 ever, before the admiral, who really loved his son and 
 was proud of his abilities, began to relent ; and at the 
 intercession of his mother, an amiable and excellent 
 woman, William was forgiven and recalled. 
 
 With a view to dissipate his son's religions impres- 
 sions, the admiral at length resolved to send him to 
 France, in company with some other young gentlemen of 
 rank who were about to set out on a tour across the con- 
 tinent. At Paris he was introduced to a brilliant circle, 
 including some of the most distinguished young noble- 
 men of England, and was presented to the king, Louis 
 XIV., at whose court he is said to have been a frequent 
 and welcome guest. During his stay in the French 
 capital, as he was returning one night from a party, a 
 man, who seems to have been a total stranger, under 
 some imaginary affront, drew his rapier upon him, and, 
 in an angry tone, bade him defend himself. Penn expos- 
 tulated with him, but in vain ; so that at last, to protect 
 himself, he was fain to use his sword. His hot-headed 
 antagonist was quickly disarmed ; but, instead of taking 
 any advantage of his vanquished foeman, he courteously 
 returned him his rapier, much to the surprise, it appears, 
 of the bystanders, who naturally enough supposed that 
 he would have used the opportunity thus afforded to 
 take ample revenge upon one who had so causelessly 
 attacked him. 
 
 After leaving Paris he spent several months at Saumur, 
 reading the works of the Fathers and studying theology 
 under the instruction of Moses Amyrault, one of the 
 ablest and most learned of the French Protestant di- 
 vines. He afterwards commenced a tour through Italy, 
 but on reaching Turin he received a letter from his 
 father, recalling him to England, that he might take 
 charge of the affairs of the family while the admiral was 
 engaged abroad in the war against Holland. The ap- 
 pearance of young Penn on his return from his conti- 
 nental tour was well calculated to fill a father's heart 
 with joy and pride. He had grown into a tall, graceful, 
 and handsome man, with a countenance of singular gen- 
 tleness and sweetness, yet expressing both intelligence 
 and resolution. His sojourn in the gayest and most 
 brilliant capital of Europe appears to have completely 
 effaced those serious impressions which, in his father's 
 judgment, were so unsuited to a youth of his rank and 
 accomplishments. All the hopes which the admiral 
 had formerly cherished of the future distinction of his 
 son were now revived. That his son might not relapse 
 into his former seriou°ness, he resolved to keep him 
 constantly employed. \ ith this view, he had him entered 
 at Lincoln's Inn as a student of law. 
 
 In the early part of 1665, Admiral Penn, accompanied 
 by the Duke of York, then lord high admiral of Eng- 
 land, gained a decisive victory over the Dutch, com- 
 manded by Admiral Opdam. The duke had the good 
 sense to intrust all the important movements of the 
 fleet to the direction of Admiral Penn, who had the title 
 of Great Captain Commander. The plague having broken 
 out in London, it appears to have affected William Penn, 
 as it did thousands of others, and to have awakened ir 
 his mind the most serious thoughts. His father, fearing 
 lest he should lose the fruit of all his former care, 
 
 resolved to send his son with letters to the gay and 
 brilliant court of the Duke of Ormond, Viceroy of Ire- 
 land, with whom Admiral Penn was on terms of intimate 
 friendship. Soon after his son's arrival, a mutiny occurred 
 among the troops at Carrickfergus. Penn volunteered his 
 services in reducing them to obedience, and, in the siege 
 that followed, won by his courage and coolness general 
 applause; and the viceroy himself wrote to the admiral, 
 expressing his great satisfaction with young Penn's con- 
 duct, at the same time proposing that he should join the 
 army. He himself was at first so much elated by the 
 distinction he had acquired, that he resolved to become 
 a soldier, and, under the influence of this new ambition, 
 caused himself to be painted in military costume. "It 
 is," says Dixon, "a curious fact that the only genuine 
 portrait of the great apostle of peace existing represents 
 him armed and accoutred as a soldier." The admiral, 
 however, disapproving his son's project, sent him to 
 take charge of the large estates which he possessed in 
 the south of Ireland. While on business at Cork, Wil- 
 liam Penn had an opportunity of again hearing Thomas 
 Loe, by whose preaching he had been so strongly im- 
 pressed some years before. His early convictions were 
 revived ; and from that time he felt it to be his impera- 
 tive duty, in defiance of ridicule and p.rsecution, to 
 join his lot with the despised Quakers. Being at a 
 meeting at Cork in 1667, he was arrested, with several 
 other Quakers, and taken to prison. While here, he 
 wrote to the Earl of Orrery, setting forth the injustice 
 of his imprisonment and advocating universal toleration 
 in faith and worship. On receiving his letter, Lord Or- 
 rery gave an order for his immediate release. A rumour 
 that Penn had become a Quaker reached his father. He 
 immediately ordered him home. When the admiral, on 
 seeing his son, observed that he was still dressed like a 
 gentleman, that he wore lace, plume, and rapier, he felt 
 reassured, and began to hope that he had been misin- 
 formed. Hut these hopes were soon dispelled. His son 
 candidly acknowledged to him that his religious convic- 
 tions had undergone a radical change, and that he was 
 now a Quaker. The disappointment and vexation of the 
 admiral were extreme. Yet, in the hope of winning 
 back his son, he made use of every argument, and even 
 condescended to entreat and implore ; but all in vain. 
 The refusal of his son to uncover in the presence of his 
 superiors in rank was especially mortifying to him.* Al- 
 though his arguments and entreaties had proved alike 
 unavailing, he was unwilling to abandon all hope. As a 
 last resort, he proposed a compromise : he would yield 
 to the scruples and wishes of his son in every other re- 
 spect, if the latter would only, consent to take off his hat 
 in his father's presence and in that of the king and the 
 Duke of York. William asked time to consider this 
 proposition. After some time spent in reflection and 
 earnest prayer, he announced to his father that he was 
 unable to comply with his wishes. Thereupon the in- 
 dignant admiral again expelled him from the house. For 
 some months he was dependent upon the hospitality of 
 his friends, and upon such pecuniary aid as his mother 
 could from time to time find an opportunity of sending 
 him. At length his father relented so far as to allow 
 him to return home ; but he still refused to see or hold 
 any intercourse with him. About this time (1668) Wil- 
 liam Penn first began to preach and to write in defence 
 of the new doctrines which he had embraced. His first 
 work, entitled "Truth Exalted," was addressed to kings, 
 priests, and people, whom he earnestly exhorted to re- 
 examine the foundation of their faith and worship, and 
 to inquire how far they were built upon the authority of 
 God, or whether they did not rest in a great measure on 
 the mere notions of men. A number of publications, 
 mostly controversial, followed. One of these, entitled 
 "The Sa.idy Foundation Shaken," attracted much at- 
 tention. Pcpys considered it too good to be the pro- 
 duction of so young a man. In this work Penn had 
 attempted, among other things, to refute "the Notion 
 of one God subsisting in three distinct and separate 
 Persons." For this " heresy" he was apprehended and 
 
 * For a brief explanation of the views of the Quakers with respect 
 to taking off the hat, and some other of their prominent peculiarities, 
 see the article on George Fox. 
 
 S, e, T, o, fi, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good ; moon; 
 
PENN 
 
 '763 
 
 PENN 
 
 sent to the Tower, where he was kept in solitary con- 
 finement for more than eight months. While in the 
 Tower, a report reached him that the Bishop of London 
 had resolved that he should recant, or die in prison. 
 Perm replied, with the spirit of a martyr and a hero, 
 "that his prison should be his grave before he wouid re- 
 nounce his just opinions ; for that he owed his conscience 
 to no man." During his confinement in the Tower he 
 comp sed " No Cross, No Crown," perhaps the most 
 popular of all his larger works. He also wrote to Lord 
 Arlington, then principal secretary of state, on the in- 
 justice and absurdity of attempting to coerce men's 
 religious opinions. Learning that the views advanced 
 in his "Sandy Foundation Shaken" had been misrepre- 
 sented, he wrote " Innocency with her Open Face," in 
 which he showed that to deny the existence in the God- 
 head of "three DISTINCT and skparate persons" did 
 not necessarily involve a denial of Christ's eternal 
 divinity, which he acknowledged to the fullest extent. 
 In this Penn took substantially the same ground as was 
 afterwards taken by Barclay and many other of the lead- 
 ing Quakers. They felt that in speaking of the great 
 and awful mysteries of the Divine nature there was a 
 sort of presumption in going beyond the words of the 
 Holy Scriptures. They accordingly rejected the term 
 "Trinity," as not found in the Scriptures, and, on still 
 stronger grounds, as they conceived, they refused to 
 accept the doctrine of "three distinct and separate 
 persons" in the Godhead, as being neither expressed 
 nor necessarily implied in the language of inspiration. 
 The manly behaviour of his son while in prison ap- 
 pears to have strongly excited the respect and sympathy 
 of the admiral. He used his influence at court, and, 
 after a time, William Penn was set at liberty. 
 
 In 1669, at the desire of his father, who intimated his 
 wishes to his son through Lady Penn, William went 
 again to Ireland, to take charge of the estates belonging 
 to the admiral in that island. He remained there about 
 eight months, when he was recalled on account of his 
 father's failing health. His sister Margaret had been 
 married, and his younger brother Richard was then 
 travelling in Italy. Feeling that his days were drawing 
 to a close, the admiral was anxious to be reconciled to 
 his eldest son, who appears, before the recent disagree- 
 ment, to have always been his favourite. As soon as 
 William returned to England, the reconciliation took 
 place, to the joy of all parties, especially of his mother. 
 In August of the same year, William Penn preached at 
 a meeting in Grace Church Street, where he and William 
 Mead were arrested by warrants from the mayor of Lon- 
 don. "The trial which followed was," says Dixon, 
 " perhaps the most important trial that ever took place 
 in England. Penn stood before his judges, in this cele- 
 brated scene, not so much as a Quaker pleading for the 
 rights of conscience, as an Englishman contending for 
 the ancient and imprescriptible liberties of his race." 
 The jury having brought in a verdict favourable to the 
 prisoners, the recorder said they should be locked up, 
 without meat, drink, fire, and tobacco, "till we have a 
 verdict the court will accept, — or you shall starve for it." 
 Though repeatedly menaced with starvation and other 
 cruelties, such as slitting their noses, (a barbarous but 
 not uncommon punishment for offenders in those days,) 
 the jury still persisted in their verdict. They were kept 
 for two clays and nights without food, drink, or fire; but 
 this, as well as the threats of the court, proving in- 
 effectual, they were at last fined for their obstinacy, and, 
 on refusing to pay their fines, were sent to prison. " For 
 centuries,' says Dixon, "it had remained an unsettled 
 question of law, whether the jury had or had not a right 
 so far to exercise its own discretion as to bring in a ver- 
 dict contrary to the sense of the court." This important 
 question was now to be d cided. Bushel and his fellow- 
 jurors, at Penn's suggestion, brought an action against 
 the mayor and recorder for unjust imprisonment. The 
 case was brought before the court of common pleas, con- 
 sisting of twelve judges, and decided ail-but unanimously 
 in favour of the jurymen, who were accordingly set at 
 liberty and left their prison in triumph. Although Penn 
 and Mead had been declared not guilty by the verdict 
 of the jury, yet they were still detained in prison, be- 
 
 cause they refused to pay the fines which the mayor and 
 recorder had arbitrarily and most unjustly imposed on 
 them for contempt of court. At length, as the admiral, 
 from his increasing illness, became more and more anx- 
 ious to have his son with him, he sent privately and paid 
 the fines both for him and his friend. He also sent a 
 dying request to the Duke of York that he would be a 
 friend to his son in the trials and sufferings to which, 
 while the persecuting laws of England continued in 
 force, he foresaw he would necessarily be exposed. On 
 his death-bed the admiral expressed entire satisfaction 
 with the course his son had pursued. He said to him, 
 among other things, " Let nothing in this world temp, 
 you to wrong your conscience. Have a care of sin : it 
 is that which is the sting both of life and death." On 
 his father's decease, William Penn came into the pos- 
 session of an estate yielding an annual income of about 
 fifteen hundred pounds, a sum which was probably equal 
 to twice or three times the same numerical amount at the 
 present day. Rarely, if ever, has wealth fallen into better 
 hands. "There is abundant evidence," says Janney, 
 "that throughout life he made use of his wealth for the 
 benefit of others, rather than to promote his own ease 
 and indulgence." 
 
 The persecution against the Quakers continuing, Penn 
 published a number of books and tracts in vindication 
 of the peculiar views of the society, and in defence of 
 the great principle that in matters of faith men are ac- 
 countable to Heaven only, and, provided their moral 
 conduct is blameless, no human government has a right 
 to inquire into or exercise any control over the religious 
 opinions of its subjects. The following are the titles of 
 some of the most important of these publications : "A 
 Seasonable Caveat against Popery," (1670,) "The Great 
 Case of Liberty of Conscience Debated and Defended," 
 (1671,) "Truth Rescued from Imposture," (1671,) "The 
 Spirit of Truth Vindicated," (1672,) "Quakerism a New 
 Nickname for Old Christianity," etc., " England's Pres- 
 ent Interest Considered," (1674,) — a most able work in 
 defence of freedom of conscience and the rights of Eng- 
 lishmen. Several of his smaller works, as well as "The 
 Great Case of Liberty of Conscience," were written 
 while he was imprisoned in Newgate in 1671. In 1672, 
 when Penn was in his twenty-eighth year, he married 
 Gulielma Maria Springett, daughter of Sir William 
 Springett, who as a colonel had greatly distinguished 
 himself in the service of the Parliament, and who died 
 during the civil wars, at the early age of twenty-three. 
 His widow was afterwards married to Isaac Penington, 
 one of the most prominent of the early Quakers. In 
 1677, William Penn, accompanied by Robert Barclay and 
 others, made a journey into Holland and Germany, and 
 visited the princess Elizabeth of the Rhine, the grand- 
 daughter of James I. and sister of the famous Prince 
 Rupert. She received them with great kindness. Hav- 
 ing previously met with Penn, she was not unacquainted 
 with the religious views of the Quakers, which she 
 appears to have regarded with much favour. 
 
 Penn did not think that it was the duty of a Christian 
 to withdraw himself wholly from public affairs, but rathei 
 to strive in every way to promote the freedom, enlight- 
 enment, and happiness of mankind. The true friends 
 of liberty everywhere found in him a sympathizer and a 
 friend. A little previous to the election of 1679, when 
 the celebrated Algernon Sidney offered himself as a 
 candidate for Parliament, Penn issued a pamphlet show- 
 ing the importance of electing to the great legislative 
 body of the kingdom wise men and such as feared God 
 and hated covetousness. He not only felt the deepest 
 interest, but he himself bore a very active part, in the 
 canvass for Sidney, the representative and devoted 
 champion of political freedom. Sidney was triumph- 
 antly elected, in spite of much unfair opposition. But 
 soon after the assembling of the new Parliament it was 
 dissolved by the king, and another election became 
 necessary. Sidney was again duly returned, but he was 
 prevented from taking his place in Parliament by the 
 intrigues of the royalist party. It was a bitter disap- 
 pointment to Penn ; but, in proportion as he lost hope of 
 freedom in England, he bent his thoughts more earnestly 
 towards realizing the dream of his youth, — the founding 
 
 t as *; c as s: g hard; g asy; G, H, K,jpittural: N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PENN 
 
 1764 
 
 PENN 
 
 of a new and more perfect commonwealth amid the 
 forests of North America. In 1675 he had been chosen 
 umpire to settle a dispute between Edward Byllinge and 
 John Fenwick (both Quakers) respecting their claims 
 to a tract of land known as West Jersey. He decided 
 in favour of Byllinge ; but the latter, having become 
 much embarrassed in his affairs, in order to satisfy his 
 creditors gave up to them his interest in the territory. 
 At the earnest solicitation of Byllinge, Penn was asso- 
 ciated with the creditors as a joint trustee. Within the 
 next two or three years several vessels came to West 
 Jersey, with about eight hundred emigrants, of whom the 
 greater number were Quakers. Through the influence 
 of Penn there was adopted a very liberal constitution, 
 among the provisions of which were the right of free 
 worship and the right of the people (with only very slight 
 restrictions) to legislate for themselves. There was to 
 be no imprisonment for debt: the property of the debtor 
 being given up to his creditors, he himself was to go 
 free. Penn had inherited from his father a claim against 
 the government of ,£16,000. In 1680 he obtained from 
 the king, in payment of that claim, an extensive tract of 
 land immediately west of the river Delaware and north 
 of Maryland. In the patent given by the king the name 
 " Pennsylvania," contrary to Perm's wishes, was applied 
 to the territory. He had previously suggested Sylvania, 
 on account of its being then a land of forests. Penn 
 offered twenty guineas to one of the secretaries to have 
 the name changed, but he was refused. He even applied 
 to the king; "for," says he, " I feared lest it should be 
 looked on as a vanity in me." But the king said it 
 should remain as it was, the Penn having been added 
 in honour of the admiral. The patent conferred upon 
 the people and governor a legislative power, so that 
 no law could be made nor money raised without the 
 people's consent, and they could pass what laws they 
 pleased, provided they did not interfere with the 
 allegiance which all the colonies owed to the crown. 
 Aided by the counsels of Algernon Sidney and others, 
 he drew up a masterly scheme of government, the wis- 
 dom of which has been amply vindicated by the expe- 
 rience of two hundred years. The constitution which 
 Penn gave to his colony will compare advantageously 
 not merely with the plan of government formed by Locke 
 for Carolina, but with any of the systems of the wisest 
 lawgivers that have ever lived. " To understand," says 
 Dixon, " how much Penn was wiser than his age, . . . 
 he must be measured not only against unlettered men 
 like Fox, but against the highest types of learning and 
 liberality which it afforded. Between John Locke and 
 William Penn there is a gulf like that which separates 
 the seventeenth and the nineteenth century. Locke 
 never escaped from the thraldom of local ideas." 
 
 About the beginning of September, 1682, Penn set sail 
 in the ship Welcome, and on the 27th of October cast 
 anchor in Delaware Bay, off New Castle. He was re- 
 ceived by the inhabitants of that town with the greatest 
 enthusiasm. Soon after he proceeded to the site of 
 Philadelphia, then covered for the most part with lofty 
 trees. About the end of November, 1682, was held the 
 famous treaty with the Indians, under a magnificent 
 elm-tree, in what is now Kensington. Of this treaty, 
 Voltaire says it was "the only league between the abo- 
 rigines and the Christians which was never sworn to 
 and never broken." 
 
 Referring the reader to other works for a more particu- 
 lar account of the early colony, we shall for the future 
 confine ourselves chiefly to the personal history of Penn. 
 In 1684, having committed the government to the provin- 
 cial council, he embarked for England, leaving behind 
 him in the colony a white population of about 7000 per- 
 sons. He set sail on the 12th of August, and on the 6th 
 of October landed in Sussex, within seven miles of his own 
 house, after an absence from his family of rather more 
 than two years. He soon after visited the king and the 
 Duke of York, by both of whom, he says, he was received 
 very graciously. The first use he made of his influence 
 at court was to intercede for the persecuted Quakers, 
 against whom the recent oppressive enactments were at 
 that time enforced with a merciless rigour. Their con- 
 scientious scruples against swearing exposed them to 
 
 peculiar hardships. When evil-disposed persons charged 
 them with being disaffected to the government, they 
 might in many instances have delivered themselves from 
 the hands of their persecutors by simply taking the oath 
 of allegiance and supremacy ; but this their religious 
 convictions would not permit them to do. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary here to do more than allude to 
 the charges made by Macaulay agai»st the character of 
 Penn, as those charges have already been completely 
 and unanswerably refuted,* and are now rejected by all 
 candid and intelligent persons who have taken the trou- 
 ble to give them a careful examination. But another 
 accusation, scarcely less formidable, though somewhat 
 vague, has found supporters among men of great intel- 
 ligence and respectability, — namely, that the fact that 
 Penn enjoyed such favour with James II., and that he 
 continued at court after he had every opportunity of 
 knowing the character of that monarch, proves him to 
 have been either lax in principle or deficient in the firm- 
 ness of true virtue. If this reasoning be correct, then 
 we ought to applaud the conduct of the early Christian 
 ascetics, who held that the best mode of preserving 
 one's soul unspotted and preparing it for heaven, was to 
 abandon all intercourse with a corrupt world. But the 
 most virtuous and enlightened men of modern times 
 have usually taught a very different doctrine, — that they 
 who, without partaking of its sins, mingle with the world 
 for the purpose of reforming it, are far more praise- 
 worthy than those who, leaving it to its fate, seek shelter 
 for their feeble virtue in inactivity and selfish seclusion. 
 If it shall be clearly shown that while at court Penn was 
 guilty of a single act inconsistent with the character of 
 an honest man and a true lover of his country, we shall 
 then be prepared to abandon his defence ; but if the 
 whole charge against him limits itself simply to this, 
 that he had favour and influence with a corrupt and 
 tyrannical monarch, when it is well known that he often 
 exerted that influence successfully to restrain the injus- 
 tice, or to soften the severity, of James, and when there 
 is not a shadow of evidence that he ever, even in a soli- 
 tary instance, exerted it for any unworthy purpose, — if 
 this, we repeat, be the whole extent of the charge against 
 him, we cannot but regard such an accusation as con- 
 ferring on the accused the highest honour. 
 
 It should be remembered that Admiral Penn had 
 made a dying request to the Duke of York (afterwards 
 James II.) that he would be a friend and protector to 
 his son. It is but just to say that James, who seems to 
 have cherished the warmest regard for the admiral, not 
 only never forgot his friend's recpiest, but appears to 
 have observed it with the most scrupulous fidelity. It 
 was but natural that William Penn should be sincerely 
 attached to a prince who had been his father's friend 
 and was to him a generous and faithful guardian. He 
 doubtless gave James far more credit for liberality and 
 sincerity than he deserved. But his gratitude and affec- 
 tion towards a bigoted and, in some respects, an un- 
 scrupulous prince, appears never for a single moment 
 to have warped him from the path of rectitude. 
 
 It would have been indeed wonderful if, in the vio- 
 lent party excitements of those times, his character had 
 wholly escaped suspicion and calumny. But the various 
 charges made against him are found, on examination, to 
 be unsupported by a particle of real evidence. To have 
 absented himself from court at that time, when it was 
 in his power to do so much, not only for his persecuted 
 brethren, but for all, of whatever name, who suffered 
 from unjust laws or from the unjust suspicions of the 
 government, would have been a most culpable aliandon- 
 inent of duty. Yet the fact that he did not thus absent 
 himself has been the principal, if not the only, ground 
 of all the charges which the envious or the misinformed 
 have circulated against him. During the reign of Charles 
 II., Penn obtained for himself and his friends many 
 favours from his sovereign through the mediation of the 
 
 * For the correctness of this statement, we confidently appeal to all 
 who have dispassionately and attentively read the evidence in tha 
 case. See, on this subject, Dixon's " Life of Penn ;" \V. E. For- 
 stek's "William Penn and Thomas Babington Macaulay," 1850; J, 
 Paget's " New Examen," London, 1861 ; and the " Quarterly Re- 
 view" for April, 1868. 
 
 a, e, T, 5, u, y, hug; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ti, j?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
PENN 
 
 1765 
 
 PENTHEUS 
 
 Duke of York ; but after the accessiou of James IT. his 
 influence at court became very great. He removed his 
 residence to Holland House, at Kensington. "His in- 
 fluence with the king," says Dixon, "was well known, 
 and every man with a real grievance found in him a coun- 
 sellor and a friend." "If any fault," says the same writer, 
 in another place, 'lean be found with his conduct, it is 
 that his charity was a little too universal, a little too 
 huliscriminate." As his sympathies were chiefly with 
 the liberal party, he had often occasion to intercede for 
 mercy or indulgence to those who were regarded by the 
 king as his most determined enemies. And, though he 
 often failed in obtaining his request, he appears never to 
 have omitted an opportunity of interceding when there 
 was the slightest chance of success. He sometimes 
 excited the violent anger of James by his zeal in behalf 
 of the friends of liberty.* But nothing could deter him 
 from exercising that influence with his sovereign which 
 he believed Providence had given him for the most im- 
 portant ends, — the promotion of justice and mercy. 
 
 In 1686, chiefly through Penn's influence, a proclama- 
 tion was issued by which more than twelve hundred im- 
 prisoned Quakers were set at liberty. Another proclama- 
 tion in 1687 gave liberty of conscience to all, unrestricted 
 by any tests or penalties. After the accession of William 
 III., in 1688, Perm, having incurred suspicion on account 
 of his intimacy with James, was tried before the royal 
 council for treason ; but, no evidence, being found against 
 him, he was discharged. He was subsequently tried for 
 conspiracy, and was again honourably acquitted. In the 
 early part of 1694 he lost his wife Gulielma; about two 
 years after he married, as his second wife, Hannah Cal- 
 lowhill. In 1696 his eldest son, Springett Penn, died 
 of consumption. He made in 1699 a second visit to 
 America. But, learning not long after his arrival in the 
 colony that there was a measure before the House of 
 Lords for bringing all the proprietary governments under 
 the crown, he returned to England in 1701. Happily, 
 the obnoxious measure was soon after abandoned. 
 
 In consequence of the bad management and dishonesty 
 of some of the agents to whom he had intrusted the 
 care of his property, he sustained great losses, and be- 
 came so involved as to be unable to pay the claims of 
 his creditors. He preferred to go to prison rather than 
 attempt to satisfy certain unjust and extortionate claims 
 which the very agent who had mismanaged his affairs 
 brought against him. By the intervention of some of 
 his friends, a compromise was effected, and he was at 
 length released. It was a great sorrow to him in his 
 latter years that, although he had never spared himself 
 or his means to promote the interests of his colony, 
 when he desired of the colonial legislature a moderate 
 loan to relieve him from his difficulties it was refused. 
 Worn out at length with the incessant labours and cares 
 of a life spent almost whollv in the service of others, he 
 died, from the effects of paralysis, in 1718. 
 
 For a full account of William Penn's writings, and of 
 those which relate to him, see Joseph Smith's "Cata- 
 logue of Friends' Books," vol. ii. pp. 282-326. 
 
 See W. Hepworth Dixon. " Biographical History of William 
 Penn," 1S51 ; S. Ianney, " Life of William Penn," 1 vol. 8vo, 1852; 
 T. Ci.arkson, "Life of William Penn," 2 vols. 8vo, 1813; J. Mar- 
 sm.i.ac. "Vie He G. Penn," 2 vols., 1791: H. van Lir., " Leven, 
 Gevoelens en Lotgevallen van W. Penn," 2 vols.. 1826; Jacob Post, 
 " Popular Memoir of W. Penn," 1850: M. L. Wekms, "Life of W. 
 Penn," l82g ; W. A Teller, " Lebensbeschreibung des beriihmten 
 W. Penn," 1779 ;" Westminster Review" for October, 1850. (article 
 " William Penn and Lord Macaulay ;") " The Penn and Logan Cor- 
 iidence," published bv the Pennsylvania Historical Society, 
 1870. 
 
 Fen'nant, (Thomas.) an English naturalist and an- 
 tiquary, born it Downing, in Flintshire, in 1726. He 
 published in 1761 the first volume of a large work on 
 British Zoology, which was translated into Latin and 
 German and often reprinted. A tour on the continent 
 in 1765 procured for him the acquaintance of Buffon, 
 Halter, and Pallas. In 1771 he published a " Synopsis 
 of Quadrupeds," an enlarged edition of which appeared 
 in 1781 as a " History of Quadrupeds." This work was 
 described by Cuvier, about 1823, as "still indispensable." 
 Among his other works are the " Genera of Birds," 
 
 • For a curious instance of this kind, see Dixon's " Life of Penn," 
 pp. 330-40. 
 
 (1773, unfinished,) a "Second Tour in Scotland and a 
 Voyage to the Hebrides," (2 vols., 1774-76,) and "Arctic 
 Zoology," (3 vols., 1784-87,) which Cuvier commends 
 as pricicux to naturalists. Died in 1798. 
 
 See "The Literary Life of T. Pennant," byhimself, 1793 : Cuvier, 
 " Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" " Monthly Review" for January 
 and February, 1772, and September and October, 1801. 
 
 Pennecuik or Pennicuick, pen'ne-kuk', ? (Alex- 
 ander,) a Scottish physician and writer on various 
 subjects, born in 16^2 ; died in 1722. 
 
 Pennefather, pen'fa-ther, ? (Sir John Lysaght,) a 
 British general, born in 1800. He served with distinc- 
 tion as brigadier in India in 1843. In the Crimean war 
 he commanded a brigade at the Alma, and a division at 
 Inkerman, November, 1854. 
 
 Fermethorne, pfin'thorn, ? (James,) an English archi- 
 tect, born at Worcester in l8ot, was a pupil of Nash 
 and Pugin. He designed many public buildings of 
 London, among which are the Museum of Practical 
 Geology, the General Record Repository, and an ad- 
 dition to Somerset House. He was appointed, several 
 years since, architect and surveyor of her Majesty's 
 parks, palaces, etc. 
 
 Pennethorne, (John,) a younger brother of the pre- 
 ceding. He studied the principles of Grecian architecture 
 at Athens, and wrote a small work on " The Elements 
 and Mathematical Principles of the Greek Architects," 
 (1844.) 
 
 Penni, pen'nee, (Giovanni Francesco,) a celebrated 
 Italian painter, surnamed II. Fattore, ("the Steward,'') 
 was born at Florence in 1488. He was in his youth the 
 steward of Raphael, who was his friend. He aided Ra- 
 phael in painting the cartoons of the Vatican, and, after 
 the death of his master, he and Giulio Romano finished 
 a " Coronation of the Virgin," designed by Raphael. He 
 excelled in landscapes. Died at Naples in 1528. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy.j' 
 
 Penni, (Luca,) a painter and engraver, a brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Florence about 1500. He 
 worked for Henry VIII. in England, and with II Rosso 
 in Paris. 
 
 Pennington. See Penington. 
 
 Pen'ning-ton, (William,) an American Governor, 
 born at Newark, New Jersey, in 1797. He was elected 
 Governor of New Jersey in 1837, and re-elected four or 
 five times between that year and 1843. ^le became a 
 member of Congress in December, 1859, and, after a 
 long contest, was elected Speaker of the House by the 
 Republicans in February, i860. Died in February, 1862. 
 
 Peu'njf, (Edward,) an English portrait-painter, born 
 in Cheshire in 17 14. He was a professor in the Royal 
 Academy. Died in 1791. 
 
 Pen'rose, (Thomas,) an English poet, born in Berk- 
 shire in 1743. He was successively curate of Newbury 
 and rector of Beckington. Died in 1779. His poems 
 were published in 1781. 
 
 Pen-rud'dock, (John,) Colonel, an English royal- 
 ist, was one of the leaders of an insurrection against 
 Cromwell in 1655. He was beheaded in the jsame year. 
 
 Pen'ry, Pen'rl, or Ap Hen'rjr, (John,) a Welsh 
 religionist, called Martin Mar-Prk.i.atk, was born 
 in 1559. According to Anthonv Wood, he became a 
 Brownist or Anabaptist, and wrote against the Anglican 
 Church a tract entitled "Martin Mar-Prelate." He was 
 unjustly condemned for sedition or felony, and executed, 
 
 in 1593- 
 
 See "John Penry, the Pilgrim Martyr," by J. Waddington, 1854 
 
 Penthee. See Pentiieus. 
 
 Fenthesilee. See Peni iiesii.eia. 
 
 Pen-the-sl-le'ia or Pen-the-sl-ie'a, [Gr. lleiftai- 
 ).aa; Fr. Pentiiesu.ee, pSN'ta'/.e'la',] the queen of the 
 Amazons. According to some traditions, she fought 
 against the Greeks at the siege of Troy, and was killed 
 by Achilles, who admired too late her beauty and valour 
 and lamented her fate. 
 
 Pen'theu3, [Gr. Uevdeic ; Fr. Penthee, pSN'ti',] a 
 mythical person, said to be a son of Echion, and King of 
 Thebes. He was killed by his mother and other women 
 because he opposed the worshipof Bacchus and ascended 
 a tree to witness furtively their revels and orgies. 
 
 « u k; 5 as s; % hard; g is /; G, H, K,gultural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jgf=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PENTH1EVRE 
 
 1766 
 
 PERCEVAL 
 
 Fenthievre, de, deli p6N'te'£vR',(Louis Jean Marie 
 de Bourbon,) Due, a French nobleman, born in 1725, 
 was a son of the Count of Toulouse. He served as 
 general at Fontenoy, (1745) He was noted for his libe- 
 rality or benevolence. His daughter was the mother of 
 King Louis Philippe. Died in 1793. 
 
 Penzel, pent'sel, (Abraham Jacob,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born near Dessau in 1749, was professor of 
 poetry at Laybach. He translated Strabo's "Geog- 
 raphy'' '.nto German, (1777,) and wrote several treatises. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Pepagomenua. See Demetrius Pepagomenus. 
 
 Pepe, pa'pa, (Fi.orestan,) a Neapolitan general, born 
 at Squillace in 1780, entered the French service about 
 1806, served in Spain and Russia, and received the 
 rank of lieutenant-general from Murat in 1815. Died 
 at Naples in 1851. 
 
 Pepe, (Gabriei.lo,) an Italian officer, cousin of the 
 preceding, was born in 1781. He served in the French 
 army during the empire. About 1822 he fought a duel 
 at Florence with Lamartine, who had offended him by 
 some verses which Pepe regarded as injurious to the 
 Italian people. Died in 1849. 
 
 Pepe, |Gdguei.mo,) a general, bom in 1783, was a 
 brother of Florestan, noticed above. He joined the 
 French party in 1799, and obtained the rank of marechal- 
 rie-camp in 1813. In 1820 he was chosen commander- 
 in-chief by the insurgents who rose against the King of 
 Naples. His army was defeated or dispersed by the 
 Austrians in 1821, and he escaped to England. In 
 1848 King Ferdinand, constrained by public opinion, 
 gave him command of an army sent to aid the people 
 of Lombardy. He wrote a " History of the Revo- 
 lutions and Wars of Italy in 1847-49," (1850.) Died 
 in 1855. 
 
 Pepin. See Pepyn, (Martin.) 
 
 Pepin, pep'in or pip'in, |Fr. pron. peh-paN',] a son 
 of Louis le Debonnaire, was born about 802 A.D., and 
 was made King of Aquitania about 817. He joined his 
 brothers Lothaire and Louis in a revolt against his father 
 in 830. He died in 838 A.D., leaving a son Pepin, who 
 contested the succession with Charles the Bald and was 
 defeated. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Pepin, King of Italy, a son of Charlemagne, was born 
 in 776 A.D., and crowned by the pope in 781. He died 
 in 810, leaving a son Bernard. 
 
 Pepin, peh-paN', (Ai.phonse,) a French historical 
 and political writer, born in Paris. Among his works 
 is "Two Years of Rule," ("Deux Ans de Regne," 1830- 
 32.) Died in 1842. 
 
 Pepin leBref, peh-paN' leh bRef, King of the Franks, 
 was a son of Charles Martel, at whose death he obtained 
 Neustt ia and Burgundy. Having propitiated the favour 
 of the pope, he confined the nominal king, Childeric III., 
 in a monastery in 751 A.D., and usurped the throne. He 
 assisted the pope in a war against the Lombards, and 
 waged war with success against the Saxons. He died in 
 768 A.D., and was succeeded by his son, Charlemagne. 
 
 See Sisn»ndi, '■ Histoire des Francais ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Pepin le Gros, peh-paN' leh gRo, or Pepin d'He- 
 ristal, (d&'res'tal',) an ambitious French nobleman, be- 
 came Duke of Austrasia in the reign of Dagobert II. 
 About 680 A.D. he assumed royal power as mayor of 
 the palace, and defeated Thierri III., King of Neustria. 
 He permitted Thierri to retain the title of king, and 
 the latter was the first of a succession of rois fainiants, 
 ("do-nothing kings.") Pepin died in 714 A.D., and 
 \r.-. succeeded by his son, Charles Martel. 
 
 Pepoli,pa'po-leeorpJp'o-lee,(ALESSANPRoERCOLR,) 
 an Italian litterateur, born at Venice in 1757. He pub- 
 lished a number of dramas, or dramatic essavs, entitled 
 " Efforts of Italy," ("Tentativi dell'Italia," 6 vols., 1788.) 
 Died in 1796. 
 
 Pepoli, (Carlo,) an Italian litterateur, born at Bologna 
 in 1 801. He was exiled for political reasons, and was 
 professor of Italian literature in the London University 
 from 1839 to 1848. He composed for Bellini the words 
 of " I Puritani," an opera, and wrote other works, in 
 prose and verse. 
 
 Pep'per-ell, (Sir William,) an American general, 
 born in Maine in 1696, commanded at the siege of 
 Louisburg, in 1745. He was made a baronet for his 
 services, and in 1759 was appointed lieutenant-general. 
 Died in 1759. 
 
 See Parsons, " Life of Sir W. Pepperell," 1856. 
 
 Pepusch, pa'poosh, (Johann Christoph,) a German 
 musical composer and writer, born at Berlin in 1667. 
 He settled in England about 1700, and received front 
 the University of Oxford the degree of doctor in music. 
 He was also chosen a Fellow of the Roval Society. His 
 "Treatise on Harmony" (1731) still enjoys a high repu- 
 tation. Died in 1752. 
 
 Pepyn, pa-pin', sometimes written Pepin, (Martin,) 
 a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp about 1570. He 
 worked at Rome for some years, and painted religious 
 subjects. His works are highly praised. Died at Rome 
 in 1641. 
 
 Pepys, (Charles C.) See Cottenham. 
 
 Pepys, peps, (Lady Charlotte Maria,) a daughter 
 of Lord-Chancellor Cottenham, is the author of "Quiet 
 Moments," "Female Influence," and other works. 
 
 Pepys, (Samuel,) an English gentleman, gossip, and 
 connoisseur, celebrated as the writer of a diary, was 
 born in 1632, and educated at Cambridge. He was 
 appointed clerk of the acts of the navy in 1660, and 
 retained this important position until 1673. His official 
 duties brought him into the favourable notice of the 
 Duke of York, who was lord high admiral. He was 
 secretary to the admiralty for about four years, ending 
 at the revolution, (1688.) In 1684 he was elected presi- 
 dent of the Royal Society. He was well versed in naval 
 affairs, and was a connoisseur in the fine arts. His 
 reputation is founded on his " Memoirs, comprising a 
 Diary from 1659 to 1669," which was published in 1825. 
 Died in 1703. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for November, 1825, and October, 
 1849 : '' Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1849. 
 
 Pepys, (William Haseldine,) F.R.S., an English 
 chemist and philosopher, born in London in 1775. He 
 was one of the founders of the Askesian Society, and 
 an active member of the London Institution and of 
 the Geological Society. His skill in the construction 
 of chemical apparatus contributed to the progress of 
 science. He was associated with William Allen in 
 successful researches on respiration, and was a friend 
 of Sir Humphry Davy. Died in 1856. 
 
 Peranda, pi-ran'da, (Santo,) a Venetian painter, 
 born at Venice in 1566, was a pupil of Jacopo Palma. 
 He learned to design correctly at Rome, and painted 
 many good portraits. Among his best works are "The 
 Children of Niobe," and a "Descent from the Cross." 
 Died in 1638. 
 
 Perard-Castel, peh'riR' kis'tel', (Francois,) a 
 French canonist, born at Vire in 1647 ; died in 1687. 
 
 Perau, peh-ro', (Gabriel Louis CALABRE,)a French 
 biographer and editor, born in Paris in 1700. He edited 
 the works of Bossuet, (20 vols., 1743-53,) and continued 
 the "Lives of Illustrious Men of France," begun by 
 D'Auvigny, to which Perau added thirteen volumes, 
 (1754-60.) Died in 1767. 
 
 Perceval. See Caussin de Perceval 
 
 Per'ce-val, (John,) Earl of Egmont, was born at 
 Barton, Yorkshire, in 1683. He was one of the princi- 
 pal founders of a colony planted in Georgia about 1732. 
 He wrote several small works. Died in 1748. 
 
 Perceval, (John,) second Earl of Egmont, a son of 
 the preceding, was born in 171 1. He entered the House 
 of Lords, with the title of Lord Love! and Holland, in 
 1762, and was first lord of the admiralty from 1763 to 
 1766. He wrote a successful pamphlet named " Faction 
 detected by the Evidence of Facts." Died in 1770. 
 
 Perceval, (Spencer,) a minister of state, born in 
 London in 1762, was a son of the preceding. He studied 
 law, and practised with success on the Midland circuit. 
 Having been returned to Parliament in 1796, he became 
 a supporter of Mr. Pitt, and an able speaker. He was 
 appointed solicitor-general in 1801, and attorney-general 
 in 1802. At the death of Pitt (1806) he went out of 
 office. He became chancellor or the exchequer in 1807, 
 and first lord of the treasury (prime minister) at the 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; not .good; moon; 
 
PERCH ERON 
 
 1767 
 
 PEREF1XE 
 
 death of the Duke of Portland, (1809.) He opposed 
 reform and liberal measures, and pursued the foreign 
 policy of Pitt. On the nth of May, 1812, he was as- 
 sassinated with a pistol in the lobby of the House of 
 Commons by John Bellingham, a merchant, who had 
 resolved to kill some member of the ministry because 
 they had rejected or neglected a private claim which he 
 had preferred. 
 
 See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. i. chap, xviii: ; 
 Ciiaki.es V. Williams, "Life of the Right Hun. S. Perceval," 
 1812 ; Henki ijk Lasallk, " Essai biographique sur M. Perceval," 
 181 2. 
 
 Percheron, peRsh'ro.N', (Achii.i.e Remy,) a French 
 naturalist, born in Paris in 1797. He published several 
 works on entomology. 
 
 Percier, pek'se-i', (Charles,) a distinguished French 
 architect, born in 1764, in Paris, was a pupil of Gisors. 
 At the age of twenty-two he gained a prize, which enabled 
 him to pursue his studies at Rome. He formed a friend- 
 ship with the architect Fontaine, with whom he was 
 constantly associated in his professional labours until 
 his death. They were employed by Bonaparte to restore 
 and complete the palaces of the Tuileries and the Louvre. 
 Among their works are the triumphal arch of the Car- 
 rousel, and the northern wing of the court of the Tuile- 
 ries. By their skill and taste in design they produced 
 in their art a reformation similar to that which David 
 effected in painting. They published some excellent 
 works, among which is " The Palaces, Mansions, and 
 other Modern Edifices designed at Rome," (1798.) (See 
 Fontaine, Pierre Francois.) Percier died in 1838. 
 
 Per'cl-val, (James Gates,) an eminent American 
 poet and scholar, born at Berlin, Connecticut, in 1795. 
 He graduated at Yale College in 1815, and, having sub- 
 sequently studied medicine, took the degree of M.D. in 
 1823. He published in 1822 his "Prometheus," a poem 
 in the Spenserian stanza, also two volumes of miscella- 
 neous poetry and prose. He was appointed in 1824 
 professor of chemistry in the Military Academy at West 
 Point. In 1827 he was employed by Dr. Webster to 
 revise the manuscript of his large Dictionary, and in 
 1835 was appointed conjointly with Professor C. U. 
 Shepard to make a geological survey of Connecticut, a 
 report of which he published in 1842. He brought out 
 in 1843 "The Dream of a Day, and other Poems." He 
 was appointed in 1854 State Geologist of Wisconsin ; 
 but while preparing his second report his health declined, 
 and he died in May, 1856. He had published in 1833 
 an excellent translation of Malte-Brun's "Geography." 
 
 See " Life and Letters of James G. Percival," by J. H. Ward, 
 i860 ; " North American Review" for January, 1822, (by Edward 
 Everett,) April, 1826, and July, i860. 
 
 Per'cl-val, (Thomas,) a popular English medical and 
 moral writer, born at Warrington in 1740. He settled 
 in 1767 at Manchester, where he practised with success, 
 and founded the " Manchester Philosophical Society" 
 about 1780. He wrote, besides other works, "Essays, 
 Medical and Experimental," (3 vols., 1767-78,) "A 
 Father's Instructions, consisting of Moral Tales," etc., 
 (1788,) and "Medical Ethics," (1803.) He was a dis- 
 senter from the Anglican Church. Died in 1804. 
 
 See " Life of T. Percival," by his son, prefixed to his works, 1807. 
 
 Percy. See Northumberland. 
 
 Per'cjr, the name of an ancient and noble English 
 family, descended from William de Percy, who, in the 
 reign of William the Conqueror, possessed several 
 manors in the counties of Lincoln and York. He was 
 probably a Norman. In the reign of Edward I. a Henry 
 de Percy acquired Alnwick and other estates in North- 
 umberland. Another Henry de Percy, in the reign of 
 Edward III., married Mary Plantagenet, a great-grand- 
 daughter of King Henry III., and had two sons, Henry, 
 Earl of Northuml>erland, and Thomas, Earl of Worces- 
 ter. Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, a son of Henry 
 last named, rebelled against Henry IV., and was killed 
 at the battle of Shrewsbury, (1403.) A son of Hotspur 
 was restored to the earldom, fought for the house of 
 Lancaster, and fell at Saint Alban's, in 1455, leaving 
 several sons, who were killed in the war of the Roses. 
 In .the reign of Elizabeth a Percy, Earl of Northuml>er- 
 land, was executed for rebellion, (1572.) 
 
 Percy, pftVse', (Pierre Francois,) Baron, an emi- 
 nent French surgeon, bom in Franche-Comte in 1754. 
 He became about 1792 surgeon-in-chief of the armies 
 of the Rhine and the Moselle, and organized in concert 
 with Larrey a corps mobile of surgeons with ambulances. 
 Attached to the grand army, he served in all the cam- 
 paigns of the empire, except those of Russia and Saxony. 
 He was professor in the Faculty of Medicine, Paris, and 
 wrote several able treatises on surgery. Died in 1825. 
 
 See A. F. Silvestre, "Notice biographique sur Percy," 1S25; 
 " Histoire de la Vie de Percy," by his nephew Laurent, 1827 ; 
 " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Percy, (Thomas,) an Englishman of noble family, 
 was one of the leading conspirators in the famous Gun- 
 powder Plot, (1604-05.) He was executed in the early 
 part of 1606. 
 
 Percy, (Thomas,) an eminent English scholar and 
 writer, was born in Shropshire in 1728. He became 
 vicar of Easton Maudit in 1756, chaplain to the king in 
 1769, Dean of Carlisle in 1778, and Bishop of Dromore, 
 Ireland, in 1782. His reputation is founded on an in- 
 teresting work, entitled " Reliques of Ancient English 
 Poetry," (1765,) which has enjoyed a great popularity. 
 He translated from the French Mallet's "Northern 
 Antiquities," (1770.) Among his works are a "Key 
 to the New Testament," (1765,) and "The Hermit of 
 Warkworth," a poem, (1770.) Died in 181 1. He was 
 a friend of Dr. Johnson. 
 
 See Nichols, " Literary Anecdotes." 
 
 Perczel, pSiu'sel, (Moricz,) a distinguished Hunga- 
 rian general, born at Tolna in 1814. He gained several 
 victories over the Austrians in 1848, but after the defeat 
 of Temesvar he took refuge in Turkey, and afterwards 
 settled in the island of Jersey. 
 
 Per-dic'cas [Gr. llfptSwocac] I., King of Macedon, was, 
 according to Herodotus, the founder of the Macedonian 
 monarchy. He is supposed to have lived about 750 B.C. 
 
 Perdiccas II., King of Macedon, was the son and 
 successor of Alexander I. He waged war against the 
 Athenians. Died about 413 B.C. 
 
 Perdiccas III., a son of Amyntas II. of Macedon, 
 began to reign about 364 B.C. He was killed in battle 
 against the Illyrians in 359, and was succeeded by his 
 brother, Philip II. 
 
 Perdiccas, [Gr. nVpAxKac,] a prominent Macedonian 
 general, who commanded a division of the army of 
 Alexander the Great in his invasion of Asia, was a son 
 of Orontes. It is reported that Alexander, on his death- 
 bed, gave his royal signet to Perdiccas, as if to designate 
 him for the office of regent. Having obtained command 
 of the household troops who guarded the young king, 
 he exercised the power of regent, or chief minister, and, 
 to secure the succession of Roxana's son, put her rival 
 Statira to death. He also put to death his rival Me- 
 leager. He failed in a matrimonial intrigue in relation 
 to Cleopatra, a sister of Alexander, and became the 
 enemy of Antigonus and Antipater, who formed with 
 Ptolemy a coalition against him. Perdiccas found an 
 able adherent or ally in Eumenes, (who opposed Antip- 
 ater and Antigonus in Asia Minor,) and marched against 
 Ptolemy in Egypt. He met with a reverse near the 
 Nile, and was killed by his mutinous soldiers, in 321 
 B.C., leaving the reputation of a crafty, cruel, and am- 
 bitious man. 
 
 See Ahkian, " Anabasis ;" Justin, books xii. and xiii. ; Droy- 
 SEN, " Geschicbte Alexanders." 
 
 Per'dix, [Gr. riepdil,] a nephew, or, as some say, a 
 sister, of Daedalus, was regarded as the inventor of the 
 saw, the compasses, and other implements. According 
 to the fable, Perdix was changed into a partridge. 
 
 Pereda, de, da pa-ra'Da, (Antonio,) an eminent 
 Spanish painter, born at Valladolid in 1599. He painted 
 history and genre with success, and was patronized 
 by the Duke of Olivarez. He excelled in colouring. 
 Among his works is a picture of " Human Vanity." 
 Died in 1669. 
 
 Perefixe, de, deh pa'ra'feks', (Hardouin de Beau- 
 mont,) a French historian, born at Beaumont in 1605. 
 He was appointed preceptor to Louis XIV. in 1642, 
 succeeded Balzac in the French Academy in 1654, and 
 wrote a "History of Henry IV.," (1661,) which, says 
 
 c as k; c as s; g Hard; g as/'; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. ( J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PEREGRINO 
 
 1768 
 
 PERIANDER 
 
 M. Weiss, wilt assure him a durable reputation. He 
 became Archbishop of Paris in 1662, and required the 
 Port-Royalists to subscribe the formulary of Pope Alex- 
 ander VII. Died in December, 1670, or January, 1671. 
 
 See " Gallia Christiana," tome vii. 
 
 Peregrino (or Peregrini) da Cesena, pi-ra-gRee'- 
 no (or pa-ra-gRee'nee) dl cha-sa'na, a celebrated Italian 
 engraver and worker in niello, flourished about 1500 or 
 1520. Little is known of his life. Nagler gives a list 
 of many prints ascribed to him. 
 
 P6r-?-gri'iius Pro'te-us, a Greek Cynic philosopher, 
 notorious for his vices and licentious life, was born at 
 Parium, on the Hellespont, and lived in the reign of 
 the Antonines. He committed suicide by fire at the 
 Olympic games, in 165 A.D. 
 
 See "De Morte Peregrini, "by Lucian, (who witnessedhis death.) 
 
 Pereira, pa-ra^e-r5, (Bartholomew,) a Portuguese 
 epic poet, flourished about 1640, and wrote "Paciecis." 
 
 Pereira, pa-raVra, (Gomez, ) a Spanish physician 
 and writer, who lived about 157°. 
 
 Pereira, [Fr. Pereire, peli-raV,] (Jacob Rodri- 
 guez,) a Spaniard, born in Estremadura in 1715, is 
 called the first instructor of deaf-mutes. He removed 
 to Bordeaux about 1742, and exhibited a pupil before 
 the king, who granted him a pension in 1751. Died 
 in 1780. 
 
 Pereira, pe-ree'ra or pa-ra'ra, (Jonathan,) an Eng- 
 lish physician and pharmacologist, born in London in 
 1804. He published an excellent work entitled " Ele- 
 ments of Materia Medica and Therapeutics," (2 vols., 
 1839,) regarded as the most comprehensive and com- 
 plete treatise on materia medica in the English language, 
 and a treatise "On Food and Diet," (1842,) which is 
 highly commended. In 1846 he was appointed assistant 
 physician to the London Hospital. He became full phy- 
 sician to the same hospital in 1851. Died in 1853. 
 
 Pereira, (Manoei.,) a Portuguese sculptor of high 
 reputation, was born in 1614. He worked in Spain, 
 and died at Madrid in 1667. 
 
 Pereira or Pereyra, (Nufio Alvarez or Nunez Al- 
 varez,) a general and statesman, called " the Portuguese 
 Cid," was born in 1360. He gained victories over the 
 Spaniards. Died in 1431. 
 
 See A. de Escobar, " Heroe Portuguez. Vida del Senor N. A. 
 Pereyra," 1670; Da Costa, "De Vita et Rebus gestis N. A. Pe- 
 reira?," 1723. 
 
 Pereira de Figueiredo, pa-raVra da fe-gi-e-ra'do, 
 (Antonio,) a learned Portuguese writer, born at Macao 
 in 1725. He was an opponent of the Jesuits, and he 
 wrote an able work against the temporal power of the 
 pope, entitled "Theological Essays," ("Tentativa Theo- 
 logica," 1766.) He published a Latin Grammar, (1752,) 
 a Portuguese version of the Bible, (23 vols., 1778-90,) 
 and other works. Died at Lisbon in 1 797. 
 
 Pereire. See Pereira, (Jacob Rodriguez.) 
 
 Pereire, peh-rait', (Emile and Isaac,) French finan- 
 ciers, grandsons of Jacob Rodriguez, noticed above, were 
 born at Bordeaux in 1800 and 1806 respectively. They 
 gained distinction as originators of the railway from 
 Paris to Saint-Germain in 1835, and other railroads. 
 They were the chief founders of the Credit Mobilier, a 
 joint-stock company, with a capital of sixty million 
 francs, which was established in 1852. 
 
 Perelle, peh-rel', (Gahriel,) a French designer and 
 etcher, born at Vernon-sur-Seine ; died in 1675. His 
 sons, Nicolas and Adam, were engravers. Adam was 
 born in 1638, and died in 1695. 
 
 Pererma. See Anna Perenna. 
 
 P6res, pa'reV, (Jean Baptists,) a French litterateur, 
 who wrote a curious work, entitled " How Napoleon 
 never Existed," etc., ("Comme quoi Napoleon n'a ja- 
 mais existe, ou grand Erratum," etc., 1817, often re- 
 printed.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Pereyra, pa-raVra, (Diogo,) a skilful Portuguese 
 landscape-painter, Was born about 1570. His favourite 
 subjects were the "Burning of Troy," and the "Com- 
 bustion of Sodom." Died in 1640. 
 
 Pereyra, (Manoel, and Nuno Alvarez.) See Pe- 
 reira. 
 
 Perez, pa'rSth or pee'rez, (Antonio,) a Spanish 
 courtier, born about 1540, was a son of Gonzalo Perez, 
 
 who was secretary of state under Charles V. and Philip 
 II. He succeeded his father in 1567, and obtained 
 the confidence and favour of the king, who used him 
 as his instrument in the assassination of Escovedo, the 
 intriguing secretary of Don John of Austria, (1578.) 
 Soon after this event, Perez and the princess Eboli were 
 arrested by order of Philip, who, it appears, induced 
 Perez to give up all the papers which would implicate 
 him in the death of Escovedo. Subjected to the rack, 
 Perez confessed his own share in that crime, and ac- 
 cused the king of complicity in it. About 1590 he 
 escaped from prison, and sought refuge at Saragossa, 
 the citizens of which rose in arms to protect him and 
 assert their own civil rights. He escaped to France, 
 published an account of his sufferings, (1594,) and 
 received a pension from Henry IV. Died at Paris ir. 
 161 1, or, as others say, 1616. 
 
 ' See Prescott, "History of Philip II.:" Antonio Perez, 
 " Memorial y Relaciones," 1598; S. Bermudrz de Castro. "An- 
 tonio Perez." Madrid, 1S41 ; Mignet, "Antonio Perez et Philippe 
 II," 184s; Motley, "The Rise of the Dutch Republic;" " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for December, 1867. 
 
 Perez, (Antonio,) a Spanish painter, who lived about 
 1550, was one of the three founders of the Academy of 
 Seville. 
 
 Perez, (Antonio,) a Spanish jurist, born at Alfaro, on 
 the Ebro, in 1583. He became professor of civil law at 
 Louvain in 1628, and wrote several works. Died at 
 Louvain in 1672. 
 
 Perez, pa'redz, (Davide,) a composer, of Spanish 
 origin, born at Naples in 1711. He composed several 
 popular operas, among which is " Semiramide." Died 
 in 1778. 
 
 Perez, pa'res, (Don Jose Joaquin,) an able Chilian 
 statesman,. born at Santiago de Chili in 1801. He was 
 chosen a deputy to Congress in 1833, and was appointed 
 minister of finance in 1844. In 1849 ne became foreign 
 minister. He was afterwards a senator, and held other 
 high offices. In the summer of 1861 he was elected 
 president for five years. 
 
 Perez, [Lat. Petre'ius,] (Juan,) a Spanish poet, 
 born at Toledo in 1512, wrote an admired Latin poem 
 named " Magdalena," (1552,) and other works. Died 
 in 1545. 
 
 Perez de Pineda, pa'reth da pe-na'Dii, (Francisco,) 
 a painter, born at Seville, was one of the best pupils of 
 Murillo. Died about 1682. 
 
 Perfetti, plR-fet'tee, (Bernardino,) an Italian im- 
 provisator, born at Sienna in 1681. He exercised in 
 public his talent of extempore versification on all sub- 
 jects. He is said to have been the best improvisator of 
 Italy in his time. Died in 1747. 
 
 Pergamini, peR-ga-mee'nee, (JaCOPO,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Fossombrone, lived about 1600. He 
 published a good " Treatise on Grammar," (1602.) 
 
 Pergola, della, del'la peVgo-lS, (Angelo,) an able 
 Italian general, born near the line between Tuscany and 
 the Romagna. He served the Duke of Milan against 
 the Florentines. Died in 1427. 
 
 Pergolese. See Pergolesi. 
 
 Pergolesi, pSR-go-la'see, or Pergolese, p?R-go-15'sa, 
 [Fr. Pergolese, peVgo'lJz',] (Giovanni Battista,) a 
 celebrated Italian composer, born at Jesi about 1708, 
 (some say in 1704.) He studied at Naples under Gae- 
 tano Greco and Durante. In 1731 he produced a dra- 
 matic work called "The Servant Mistress," (" La Serva 
 Padrona,") which was warmly applauded. He devoted 
 himself chiefly to sacred music. Among his works is a 
 celebrated and pathetic " Stabat Mater," for two voices, 
 " Dixit Dominus," a motet, and " Salve Regina," a motet. 
 His death is variously dated 1736, 1737, and 1739. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens :" C. Rlasis, 
 " Biografia di Pergolese;" Tihaldo. " Biografia degli Italiani iilus- 
 tri ;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Peri, pa'ree, (Giacomo,) an Italian composer, born 
 at Florence in the latter half of the sixteenth century 
 He composed the music of " Dafne," (1594,) and "The 
 Death of Eurydice," lyrical dramas. He entered the 
 service of the Duke of Ferrara in 1601. 
 
 PSr-i-an'der, [Gr. llepmwSpoc ; Fr. Periandre, pi'. 
 re'oNclR',| tyrant of Corinth, began to reign about 625 
 B.C. He is usually reckoned among the Seven Sages of 
 
 a. e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, Ji, ?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mJt; n6t; good; moon; 
 
PERUNDER 
 
 1769 
 
 PERIGNON 
 
 Greece, — probably on account of his skill and success in 
 kingcraft. His rule was at first mild, but became severe 
 and arbitrary. It is reported that he consulted the tyrant 
 of Miletus in relation to the best mode of maintaining 
 his power, and that that tyrant answered by cutting off 
 the tallest ears in a field of corn. Periander followed 
 this advice by depressing the noble and rich. Died about 
 585 B.C 
 
 See Herodotus, "History;" Aristotle, " Political" Schu- 
 bert, " Periander von Korintn," 1765. 
 
 Periander, pa-re-an'der, (Giii.es,) a Latin poet, born 
 at Brussels about 1545, wrote the "Mirror of the Owl," 
 ("Noctuae Speculum," 1567.) 
 
 Feriandre. See Pkriandf.r. 
 
 Pericaud, pa're'ko', (Marc Antoine,) a French 
 antiquary and biographer, born at Lyons in 1782. He 
 published works on the antiquities of Lyons, and wrote 
 articles for the " liiographie Universelle." In 1827 he 
 was made keeper of the public library of Lyons. 
 
 PeVI-cles, [Gr. Ifcpedtft; Ger. Perikles, pa're-kl?s,] 
 an illustrious Athenian statesman, and one of the great- 
 est orators that ever lived, was a son of Xanthippus, who 
 defeated the Persians at Mycale. His mother, Agariste, 
 was a niece of Clisthenes. He studied various arts and 
 sciences under Damon the musician, Zeno of Elea, and 
 Anaxagoras. "The philosopher," says Plutarch, "who 
 gave him that force and sublimity of sentiment superior 
 to all the demagogues, who formed him to that admi- 
 rable dignity of manners, was -Anaxagoras." He kept 
 himself aloof from public affairs for some years after he 
 had arrived at manhood. About 470 B.C. he began his 
 public career as the leader of the democratic party, and, 
 lest he should make himself too cheap among the people, 
 reserved himself for great occasions. He had a grace- 
 ful figure, a sweet voice, and complete self-command. 
 " Adorning his orations with the rich colours of philos- 
 ophy," says Plutarch, " adding the loftiness of imagina- 
 tion and all-commanding energy with which philosophy 
 supplied him, to his native powers of genius, and using 
 whatever he found to his purpose in the study of nature, 
 he far excelled all other orators." 
 
 He gained popularity by a law that the people should 
 enjoy theatrical amusements at the public expense, and 
 deprived the Areopagus of the judicial power which ren- 
 dered it a dangerous engine of the aristocracy, (461 B.C.) 
 About this date he used his influence to procure the 
 ostracism of Cimon, the leader of the conservative or 
 aristocratic party. Pericles displayed courage at the 
 battle of Tanagra, in 457, and proposed the decree that 
 Cimon should be recalled from exile. After the death 
 of Cimon and the ostracism of Thucydides, (444 u.c.,) 
 Pericles directed the government with undisputed su- 
 premacy. " He became sole master of Athens," says 
 Plutarch ; "he kept the public good in his eye, and pur- 
 sued the strait path of honour." He commanded in the 
 Samian war, which ended in the conquest of Samns in 
 440 B.C., and extended the influence of Athens by plant- 
 ing colonies at Chalcis, Sinope, Thurii, and other places. 
 He expended the public money profusely in the erection 
 of magnificent temples and monuments, which have 
 never been equalled as models of art and taste. Under 
 his auspices the Parthenon was built and was adorned 
 with the sculptures of Phidias. The age of Pericles was 
 the most brilliant period of Grecian art and dramatic 
 literature. He silenced those who murmured at his ex- 
 travagance in building, by an offer to pay the expense 
 out of his own purse on condition that his name alone 
 should be inscribed on the new edifices. 
 
 The foreign policy of Pericles was not less far-sighted 
 than his internal policy. He constantly opposed the 
 ambitious schemes of foreign conquest which the Athe- 
 nians were prone to entertain, and took effectual measures 
 to render the maritime power of Athens superior to that 
 of any other state. The long walls which connected 
 Athens with the sea, and protected it from the attack of 
 an army by land, formed an important part of his foreign 
 policy, continuing on a gigantic scale the plans of Themis- 
 tocles. This measure excited great alarm among the Spar- 
 tans and their allies. Under his administration Athens 
 became an imperial state, with an extensive list of allies, 
 partly free and partly tributary, and attained the maxi- 
 
 mum of her power. To subvert this power, the Spartans 
 organized a league and involved all Greece in the great 
 Peioponnesian war, which began in 431 B.C The mova- 
 ble property of the Athenians was conveyed within the 
 walls of the capital, and, while the enemy ravaged Attica, 
 the fleet of Pericles made reprisals on the coast of the 
 Peloponnesus. 
 
 At the end of the first campaign, Pericles pronounced 
 a long and inimitable funeral oration on those who had 
 fallen in battle. "The eleven chapters of Thucydides 
 which comprise this funeral speech," says Grote, " are 
 among the most memorable relics of antiquity, consider- 
 ing that under the language and arrangement of the 
 historian ... we possess the substance and thoughts 
 of the illustrious statesman. . . . After a few words on 
 the magnitude of the empire, and on the glorious efforts 
 as well as endurance whereby their forefathers and they 
 had acquired it, Pericles proceeds to sketch the plan of 
 life, the constitution, and the manners under which such 
 achievements were brought about." (Chap, xlviii.) 
 
 In the second year of the war a great plague raged at 
 Athens. The people became so demoralized that they 
 deprived Pericles of command and punished hiin with 
 a fine. He had recovered his influence a short time 
 when he died, in the autumn of 429 B.C. " As a military 
 commander," says Grote, "though noway deficient in 
 personal courage, he rarely courted distinction, arid was 
 principally famous for his care of the lives of the citizens. 
 His private habits were sober and recluse, . . . while 
 the tenderest domestic attachment bound him to the 
 engaging and cultivated Aspasia." (See Aspasia.) To 
 use the language of a writer in the "Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica," "he wielded the powers of his majestic 
 intelligence and the stores of his spacious imagination 
 with consummate ease and mastery." 
 
 See Plutarch, " Lives ;" Thucvdides, " History ;" Grote, 
 " History of Greece," chaps, xlv., xlvi., xlvii., xlviii., and xlix. ; 
 Kuffnek, " Perikles der Olympier; biographische Darstellung," 2 
 vols., 1809: Ci.arissh, "Vita Periclis," Utrecht, 1835; Thirlwall, 
 " History of Greece:" F. von Raumer, "Perikles uud Aspasia," 
 1810; "Nouvelle liiographie G^ntirale." 
 
 Pe-ric'ly-tus, a Greek sculptor, of whom little is 
 known, lived probably about 420 B.C. He is mentioned 
 by Pausanias as a pupil of Polycletus. 
 
 Perier. See Perrier. 
 
 Perier, pa're-i', (Auguste Casimir Victor Lau- 
 rent,) a litterateur, born in Paris in 181 1, was a son of 
 Casimir, noticed below. He was elected a deputy in 
 1846, and sat in the Legislative Assembly of 1849. He 
 voted with the majority, and protested against the coup 
 d'etat 'of December, 185 1. He wrote for the " Revue des 
 Deux Mondes" on finance and other subjects. 
 
 Perier, (Casimir,) a French minister of state, was 
 born at Grenoble in 1777. He became about 1800 a 
 partner of his brother Scipion in a banking-house, (in 
 Paris,) which engaged in large industrial enterprises and 
 was prosperous. In 1817 he was elected to the Chamber 
 of Deputies, in which he acted with the opposition. He 
 gave an active support to the popular cause in the revo- 
 lution of 1830, and succeeded Lafitte as prime minister 
 (president of the council) on the 13th of March, 1831. 
 lie intervened with an army to aid the revolted Belgians, 
 but resisted the popular pressure which would have in- 
 volved France in a war against the allied powers for the 
 liberty of the Poles. Died, of cholera, in May, 1832. 
 
 See I.omrnik, "Galerie des Contemporains:" Guizot, " Me*- 
 moires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale ;" " Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for July and August, 183S. 
 
 Perier, (Jacques Constantin,) a French mechanician 
 and constructor of steam-engines, was born in Paris in 
 1742; died in 1818. 
 
 Periers, des. See Desperiers. 
 
 Feries, pa 're'eV, (Jean Vincent,) a French littera- 
 teur, born in 1785. lie produced a translation of the 
 complete works of Machiavel, (t2 vols., 1823-26,) which 
 is commended. He wrote many notices of artists for 
 the "Biographie Universelle." Died in Paris in 1829. 
 
 Perignon, pa'ren'yoN', (Al.EXis,) a French painter, 
 born in Paris in 1806. He gained a medal of the first 
 class in 1844. 
 
 Perignon, (Pierre,) a French monk, born at Samt- 
 Menehould about 1640. He was procureur of the abbey 
 
 e as k; 9 as r; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (JJ^-See Explanations, p. 33.) 
 
PERIGNON 
 
 1770 
 
 PER ON 
 
 of Hautvilliers, and is said to have rendered a great 
 service to Champagne by perfecting the quality of its 
 wine. He wrote a treatise on the culture of the grape 
 and the fabrication of wine. Died in 1 71 5. 
 
 Perignon, de, deh pa'ren'yiN', (Dominique Cathe- 
 rine,) Marquis, a French general, born near Toulouse 
 in 1754. He became a general of division in 1793, suc- 
 ceeded Dugommier as general-in-chief of the army in 
 Spain, and gained a victory at Escolain November, 1794. 
 He negotiated a treaty of alliance with Spain at Madrid 
 in 1796. In 1804 he became a marshal of France. Died 
 in 1818. 
 
 Perigord. See Tau.eykand. 
 
 Perikles. See Pericles. 
 
 Perin, pa'iiN', (Henri Charles Xavier,) a Belgian 
 economist, born at Mons in 1815, wrote a treatise "On 
 Riches in Christian Societies," ("De la Richesse dans 
 les Societes chretiennes," 2 vols., 1861.) 
 
 Perin, pl'raN', (Lie Louis,) a French portrait-painter, 
 born at Rheims in 1753, excelled in miniatures. Died 
 in 1817. 
 
 Perin, (Rene,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 
 1774. He wrote dramas, biographies, and other works. 
 He published "The Thoughts and Maxims of Rousseau," 
 (1820,) and "The Thoughts and Maxims of Voltaire," 
 (2 vols., 1 82 1.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Peringskiold, pli'rings-chold', (Johan,) a Swedish 
 antiquary, born at Strengnas in 1654. His original name 
 was Peringer. He published " Monuments of Upland," 
 ("Monumenta Uplandica," 2 vols., 1710-19,) and other 
 works, of some value. Died in 1720. 
 
 Perino del Vaga, pa-ree'no del vi'gi, written also 
 Pierino (pe-i-ree'no) del Vaga, an Italian painter, 
 whose proper name was Pietro Buonaccorsi, (boo-on- 
 ak-kor'see,) was born in Tuscany in 1500 or 1501. He 
 was a pupil of Raphael, whom he assisted in the decora- 
 tion of the Vatican. According to Vasari, he was the 
 greatest designer of the Florentine school after Michael 
 Angelo. About 1528 he removed from Rome to Genoa, 
 where he painted admirable frescos in the palace of Ad- 
 miral Doria. Among his works are "The Creation of 
 Eve," a fresco, a "Holy Family," (in oil,) and "The 
 Combat of Horatius Codes." Died at Rome in 1547. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Perion, pi're'd.N', (Joachim,) a French monk and 
 linguist, born in Touraine about 1500. He wrote "The 
 Lives of the Apostles," (1551,) and translated the works 
 of Aristotle, (7 vols., 1540-59.) Died in 1559. 
 
 PSr'it, (Pelatiah,) an American merchant, born at 
 Norwich, Connecticut, in 1785. He settled in the city 
 of New York in 1809, acquired a fortune by trade, and 
 became president of the chamber of commerce in 1853. 
 He was distinguished for active benevolence. Died in 
 March, 1864. 
 
 See Hunt's "Merchants' Magazine" for April, 1864. 
 
 Perizonius, pi-re-zo'ne-us, (James Voorbroek — 
 voR'budok,) an eminent Dutch philologist and critic, 
 born at Dam, in the province of Groningen, in October, 
 1651. He studied under Graevius at Leyden, became 
 rector of the gymnasium of Delft in 1674, and professor 
 of history, etc. at Franeker in 1681. In 1685 he pub- 
 lished an excellent critical work on the ancient writers 
 of Roman history, entitled " Animadversiones Histori- 
 cal," etc. He was professor of history and the Greek 
 language at Leyden from 1693 to 1715, and wrote many 
 dissertations on classical subjects. Died in 1715. 
 
 See "Life of Perizonius," prefixed to his "Opnscula minora," 2 
 vols., 1740; Wii.helm Kramer, " Elogium J. Perizonii," 1828. 
 
 Per'kins, (Elisha,) an American physician, known 
 as the inventor of the "Metallic Tractors," was born in 
 Connecticut in 1740. He practised at Plainfield, Con- 
 necticut. His metallic tractors, and his system, called 
 Perkinism, were in high repute for a time, but soon 
 sunk into neglect. He died in 1799. 
 
 Perkins, (George Roberts,) LL.D., an American 
 mathematician and astronomer, born in Otsego county, 
 New York, in 1812, was appointed in 1858 deputy State 
 engineer and surveyor of the State of New York. He 
 has published, among other works, a "Treatise on Al- 
 gebra," ( 1 841,) " Elements of Geometry," ( 1 847,) " Trigo- 
 
 nometry and Surveying," (1851,) and "Plane and Solid 
 Geometry." 
 
 Perkins, (JACOB,) an American mechanician and in- 
 ventor, born at Newburypott, Massachusetts, in 1766. 
 Among his principal inventions are a machine for cut- 
 ting and heading nails at once, a gun in which steam 
 was successfully used for propelling instead of powder, 
 the bathometer, for measuring the depth of water, and 
 the pleometer, to mark the speed with which a vessel 
 moves. He also substituted steel for copper plates in 
 engraving bank-notes. Died in 1841. 
 
 See Henry Howe, "Lives of Eminent American Mechanics," 
 1847. 
 
 Perkins, (James H.,) an American writer, born about 
 1810, was a son of Samuel G. Perkins, of Boston. He 
 contributed to the "North American Review." Died at 
 Cincinnati in 1849. 
 
 Perkins, (Nathan,) an American theologian, born 
 at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1749. He served as min- 
 ister at West Hartford about sixty-five years. He pub- 
 lished a volume of Sermons, (1795,) and other works. 
 Died in 1838, aged eighty-eight. 
 
 Perkins, (Simon,) an American general, born at 
 Norwich, Connecticut, about 1770. He served in the 
 war of 1812-14. Died in Warren, Ohio, in 1844. 
 
 Perkins, (Thomas Handasyd,) a wealthy American 
 merchant, born at Boston in 1764. He gave his house 
 and grounds on Pearl Street, Boston, valued at fifty 
 thousand dollars, for the Massachusetts Asylum for the 
 Blind, called also the Perkins Institution. He likewise 
 gave large sums to the Boston Athenaeum and General 
 Hospital. Died in 1854. 
 
 See "Memoir of T. H. Perkins," by T. G. Carey. 
 
 Per'kini, (William,) an eminent English Calvinistic 
 divine, born at Marston, in Warwickshire, in 1558. He 
 preached in Saint Andrew's, a parish of Cambridge. 
 Among his works, which were highly praised by Bishop 
 Hall, are " Foundation of the Christian Religion," and 
 commentaries on several books of the New Testament. 
 Died in 1602. His works were translated into French, 
 German, Italian, and Spanish. 
 
 Perkins, (William,) an Englishman, celebrated for 
 longevity, died in New Hampshire in 1732, at the age of 
 one hundred and sixteen years. 
 
 Permoser, peVmo-zer, ( Balthasar, ) a German 
 sculptor, born at Kammer, in Bavaria, in 1651. He 
 worked for the King of Prussia at Berlin, from which he 
 removed to Dresden in 1710. Among his works are an 
 "Ecce Homo," and a statue of Prince Eugene. Died 
 in 1732. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Perne, peRn, (Francois Louis,) a French musician, 
 born in Paris in 1772. He was appointed inspector- 
 general of the Conservatory in 1816. He wrote on the 
 musical notation of the Greeks. Died in 1832. 
 
 Pernetti, peR'n^'te', or Pernety, pern'te', (Jacques,) 
 a French priest and mediocre writer, born in Forez in 
 1696 ; died in 1777. 
 
 Pernety, peRn'te', (Antoine Joseph,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Roanne in 1716. He became libra- 
 rian of Frederick the Great some time after 1766, and 
 returned to France in 1783. He published, besides 
 other works, a " Dictionary of Painting, Sculpture, and 
 Engraving," (1757,) and a "Voyage to the Falkland 
 Islands," (2 vols., 1769.) Died in 1801. 
 
 Pernety, (Joseph Marie,) Vicomte, a French gene- 
 ral, born at Lyons in 1766. He served as colonel at 
 Austerlitz and Jena. As general of division, he con- 
 tributed to the victories of Wagram, Borodino, (1812,) 
 and Dresden, (1813.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Pernot, peVno , (Alexandre Franqois,) a French 
 landscape-painter, born at Vassy (Haute-Marne) in 1793. 
 He gained a first medal in 1839. 
 
 Perofski or Perowski, pi-rov'skee, (Leon Alf.xie- 
 VITCH,) a Russian general and politician, born in 1791. 
 He became minister of the interior in 184 1, and was 
 placed at the head of the Council of the Empire about 
 1852. Died in 1856. 
 
 Peron, pi'riN', (Franqois,) a French naturalist, born 
 at Cerilly (Allier) in 1775. He accompanied Baudin in 
 his expedition to the South Sea in 1800, as physician 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, fl, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m£t; n6t; good; moon. 
 
PER ONI 
 
 '771 
 
 PER RON ET 
 
 and zoologist,' collected more than 100,000 specimens of 
 animals, and wrote a " Voyage of Discovery to Southern 
 Lands," (" Voyage de Decouvertes aux Terres aus- 
 trales," 4 vols., 1811-16,) a work of much merit. Died 
 in 1810. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for August, 1810. 
 
 Peroni, pa-ro'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Parma about 1700; died in 1776. 
 
 Ferotti, pa-rot'tee, (Niccoi.6,) an eminent Italian 
 grammarian, born in Umbria in 1430. He became Arch- 
 bishop of Siponto, or Manfredonia, in 1458. He wrote 
 a Latin grammar, (1473,) " Cornucopia, or Commentaries 
 of the Latin Language," ("Cornucopia, sive Commen- 
 taria Lingua; Latinae," 1489,) and other works. He 
 translated into Latin the first five books of Polybius. 
 Died in 1480. 
 
 Perouse, pa'rooz', (Jean Francois Galaup de la — 
 ga"16' deh li,) an eminent French navigator, born at or 
 near Albi (Tarn) in 1741. He entered the royal navy in 
 1756, became lieutenant in 1775, and fought against the 
 English in the American war, (1778-83.) In 1782 he 
 took the British fort York, on the west coast of Hudson 
 Bay. He wis selected by the government to command 
 an exploring expedition, and sailed with the Boussole 
 and Astrolabe in August, 1785. Having doubled Cape 
 Horn, he sailed northward to the sixtieth degree, and 
 explored the coast between that point and California. 
 In the autumn of 1786 he crossed the ocean to Macao. 
 He explored the eastern coast of Asia from China to 
 Avatsha in Kamtchatka, from which point he sailed to 
 Botany Bay. The last letter received from him by his 
 friends was dated at Botany Bay, February 7, 1788. 
 About 1826 it was ascertained that he and his party 
 perished by shipwreck at Vanicoro, (or Wanicoro). 
 
 See Pjkrkh Dillon, "Relation de la Decouverte clu Sort de La 
 Perouse," Paris, 2 vols., 1836: "Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" 
 " Monthly Review" for November and December, 1798. 
 
 Perowski. See Perofski. 
 
 P?r-pen'na or P?r-per'na, (M. Vento,) a Roman 
 officer, was a partisan of Marius in the civil war. He 
 served under Sertorius in Spain about five years. 
 He was one of the assassins of Sertorius, who was 
 killed in 72 B.C. After the death of Sertorius he was 
 defeated by Pompey in Spain, taken prisoner, and put 
 to death, (72 B.C.) 
 
 Perperna. See Perpenna. 
 
 Perpinian, peR-pe-ne-aV, [Lat. Perpinia'nus,] (Pe- 
 dro Juan,) a Spanish scholar, born in the province of 
 Valencia in 1530. He was professor of eloquence at 
 Rome. His "Eighteen Orations," ("Orationes duo- 
 deviginti," 1587,) arguments for the old religion, were 
 very popular. Died at Paris in 1566. 
 
 See Lazkki, " De Vita et Scriptis P. J. Perpiniani," 1740. 
 
 Perpinianus. See Perpinian. 
 
 Perquit, peR'ke', (Sebastien Birgy,) a French gene- 
 ra!, born in the department of Bas-Rhin in 1768. He 
 served with distinction during the first empire. Died 
 in 1856. • 
 
 Perrache, pi'rtsh', (Michel,) a French sculptor, 
 born at Lyons in 1686; died in 1750. 
 
 Perraud, p4'ro', (Jean Joseph,) a French sculptor, 
 born at Monay (Jura) in 1821. He obtained a medal of 
 the first class in 1855. 
 
 Perrault, pS'ro', (Charles,) a French author, born 
 in Paris in 1628. Having obtained the favour of Col- 
 bert, he was appointed controller-general of the king's 
 buildings, (bailments.) He was admitted into the French 
 Academy in 167 1. He scandalized the admirers of 
 ancient classic authors by his " Parallel between the 
 Ancients and Moderns," (4 vols., 1688-98,) which was the 
 signal of a long literary contest. This work was refuted 
 by Boileau in his " Reflections on Longinus." Amonpj 
 his other works is one entitled " The Illustrious Men of 
 the Age of Louis XIV.," (1696-1701.) " Perrault would 
 probably have been surprised," says the " Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeWrale," "if any one had predicted to 
 him that he should owe his immortality exclusively to 
 his 'Fairy-Tales,' ('Contes des Fees, 1697,)" which 
 obtained great success in the nursery. Died in 1703. 
 
 See " Memoires de Perrault," first published in 1759: Saintk- 
 Bkuvr, "Causeries du Lundi," tome v.; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Perrault, (Claude,) a celebrated French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1613, was a brother of the preceding. 
 His reputation is founded on the design of the facade of 
 the Louvre. Colbert having invited the artists of France 
 to compete for this work, the design of Perrault was 
 preferred. The colonnade of the Louvre, commenced in 
 1666 and finished in 1670, is considered one of the most 
 beautiful structures of the seventeenth century. He was 
 also the architect of the Observatory of Paris. He pub- 
 lished a translation of Vitruvius, (1673,) and other works. 
 Died in 1688. 
 
 See Fontenav, " Dictionnairedes Artistes;" Cicognara, " Storia 
 della Scultura;" Quatkembrs dk Quincv, "Vies des plus illustres 
 Architectes." 
 
 Perray. See Duperray. 
 
 Perreau, p&'io', (Jean Andre,) a French writer and 
 jurist, born at Nemours in 1749. He was a member of 
 the Tribunat, (1800-04,) and one of the rapporteurs of 
 the Code Civil. Among his works are " Elements of 
 Natural Legislation," (1801,) and "Elements of Roman 
 Civil Law," ("Juris civilis Romani Elementa," 1809.) 
 Died in 1813. 
 
 Perreciot, peVse-o', (Claude Joseph,) a French 
 antiquary, born at Roulans in 1728. He wrote "On the 
 Civil State of Persons, etc. among the Gauls, from the 
 Celtic Times to the Adoption of the Common Laws," 
 (Coutumcs,) (1784-86.) Died in 1798. 
 
 Perree, p^'ri', (Jean Baptiste Emmanuel,) a French 
 admiral, born in Picardy in 1 761. He was killed in a 
 battle against Nelson in 1800. 
 
 Perrein, pJ'raN', (Jean,) a French naturalist, born 
 in 1750. He travelled in Africa and North America. 
 Died at New York in 1805. 
 
 Perrenot. See Granvelle. 
 
 Perret, pi'rj', (Jean Jacques,) a French cutler and 
 writer, born at Beziers in 1730. He invented surgical 
 instruments, and wrote "On the Art of Shaving One- 
 self," (1769.) Died in 1784. 
 
 Perrier. See Pokier. 
 
 Perrier or Perier, p&'re-i', (Francois,) a painter and 
 engraver, was born in Burgundy about 1590. He worked 
 at Rome and Paris, and was one of the founders of the 
 Academy of the latter city. He painted the Hotel de la 
 Vrilliere, at Paris. His engravings of antique statues, 
 etc. are commended. Died at Paris about 1654. 
 
 Perrimezzi, per-re-met'see, (Giuseppe Maria,) an 
 Italian prelate and writer, born in Calabria in 1670; 
 died in 1740. 
 
 Perrin, p&'riN', (Alphonse,) a French painter of 
 history and landscapes, born in Paris in 1798. 
 
 Perrin, (Claude.) See Victor, Duke of Belluno. 
 
 Perrin, (Jean Paul,) a French historian and Prot- 
 estant minister, born at Lyons in the sixteenth century. 
 He wrote a " History of the Vaudois," (1619.) 
 
 Perrin, (Maximilien,) a French novelist, born in 
 Paris in 1796. 
 
 Perrin, (Narcisse,) a French Orientalist, born at 
 Lyons in 1795. He wrote a work on Persia, entitled 
 "La Perse," (7 vols., 1823.) 
 
 Perrin, (Olivier Stanislas,) a French painter, born 
 at Rostrenen in 1761 ; died in 1832. 
 
 Perrin, (Pierre,) a French poet, born at Lyons, is 
 said to have been the first writer of French operas. He 
 produced a musical drama, entitled " Pastorale," in 1659, 
 and obtained letters-patent to open an academy of music 
 in Paris in 1669. Died in 1680. 
 
 Perrin des Voages, p&'raN' di vozh, (Jean Bap- 
 tiste,) a Frenchman, born at Spinal. He was elected 
 in 1792 to the Convention, in which he opposed the 
 excesses of the royalists and terrorists. He sat in the 
 Council of Elders in 1798, and was the first president 
 of the corps legislatif, about 1800. Died in 1815. 
 
 Perron, Dn. See Duperron. 
 
 Perrone, per-ro'na, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian 
 theologian, born at Chieri (Piedmont) in 1794. He 
 wrote, besides other works, " Theological Lessons," 
 (" Pra;lectioncs Theological," 9 vols., 1835 et sea.,) which 
 ran through twenty-five editions. He became rector of 
 the Roman College in 1853. 
 
 Perronet, p.Yro'n£', (Jean Rodolphe, ) an able 
 French engineer and architect, born at Suresne, near 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as t; th as in this. (Jiy~See Explanations, p. 2$.) 
 
PERROT 
 
 1772 
 
 PERSIUS 
 
 Paris, in 1708. He became first engineer of the roads 
 and bridges of France about 1750, and organized the 
 Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees, which was frequented by 
 students from foreign countries. He was a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society of London. Among his master-pieces 
 are the bridges of Neuilly, Nemours, and Pont Louis 
 XVI, Paris. He invented a number of machines. Died 
 in 1794. " Perronet," says A. Jadin, "was for bridges 
 one of those creative geniuses whose appearance makes 
 an epoch." (" Nouvelle Biographie Generale.") 
 # See Bertrand, "Notice sur Perronet ;" Prony, "Notice histo- 
 rique sur Perronet," 1829. 
 
 Perrot. See Aulancourt, d\ 
 
 Perrot, p£'ro', (Chari.es,) a French Protestant min- 
 ister, born in 1541, preached at Geneva, and advocated 
 toleration. Died in 1608. 
 
 Perrot, (Ferdinand Victor,) a French painter, born 
 at Paimboeuf in 1S08. He removed in 1840 to Saint 
 Petersburg, where he was patronized by the imperial 
 family. Died in 1841. 
 
 Per'rot, (Sir John,) an English courtier or states- 
 man, born about 1527, was appointed lord lieutenant of 
 Ireland in 1583. Died in 1592. 
 
 Perrottet, pj'ro'tl', (G. Samuel,) a French bot- 
 anist, born in 1793. He wrote narratives of voyages 
 to Senegal and other places, and a " Flora of Sene- 
 gambia," (1831.) 
 
 FSr'ry, (James,) an able British journalist, born at 
 Aberdeen in 1756. He became a resident of London 
 about 1776, and distinguished himself as a reporter for 
 the "General Advertiser." He was afterwards editor 
 of the "Gazetteer" and the "Morning Chronicle," a 
 Whig organ, which he edited more than twenty years. 
 He improved the method of reporting speeches, by 
 employing a succession or relay of reporters on the 
 same speech. Died in 1821. 
 
 See William Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1S66. 
 
 Perry, (John,) an English engineer, born about 1670. 
 He entered the service of Peter the Great, as engineer, 
 in 1698, and published a work called "The State of 
 Russia under the Present Czar," ( 1 7 1 6. ) Died in Eng- 
 land in 1733. 
 
 Per'ry\ (Matthew Gai.braith,) an American naval 
 officer, born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, in 1795, 
 was a brother of Commodore Perry. He served in the 
 Mexican war of 1847, and in 1852 commanded the expe- 
 dition to Japan, which opened the way to intercourse 
 between that country and the United States. An account 
 of this voyage was published, in 3 vols., in 1856. Died 
 in 1858. 
 
 Perry, (Oliver Hazard,) a distinguished American 
 commodore, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1785. 
 On the 13th of September, 1813, as commander of a 
 squadron on Lake Erie, he defeated the British under 
 Commodore Barclay, after an engagement of three hours. 
 For this brilliant victory he was made a captain and 
 received from Congress a gold medal. Having been 
 appointed commander of a squadron bound for the coast 
 of Columbia, he died of yellow fever, in the island of 
 Trinidad, in August, 1819. 
 
 See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans,"vol. ii. 
 
 Persaeus, per-see'us, [ne/ja<uoc,] a Greek philosopher, 
 surnamed Cittie'us because he was born at Cittium, in 
 Crete. He was a favourite disciple of Zeno the Stoic, 
 and flourished about 260 B.C. He was patronized by 
 Antigonus Gonatas, who appointed him governor or 
 commander at Corinth. According to Pausanias, he 
 was killed at the capture of Corinth, in 243 B.C. He 
 wrote several works, which are lost. 
 
 Perse. See Persius. 
 
 Persee. See Perseus. 
 
 Per-seph'o-ne, [Gr. Uepae<j>6vri ; Fr. Persephone, 
 peR'sa'fon',] the Greek name of Proserpine, which see. 
 
 Ferses^ See Perseus, King of Macedonia. 
 
 Per'seus, [Gr. Rrpori's ; Fr. Persee, peit'si',] a 
 famous hero and demi-god of classic mythology, was 
 called a son of Jupiter and Danae. (See Danae.) Ac- 
 cording to the fable, King Polydectes extorted from 
 him a rash promise to bring to him the head of Medusa. 
 To equip him for this enterprise, Minerva, Mercury, 
 and the Nymphs gave him winged sandals, a helmet 
 
 which rendered him invisible, and a mirror by means 
 of which he could see the image of the Gorgon and 
 avoid the petrifying effect of looking at the reality. 
 After he had cut off her head, he flew through the air 
 to Ethiopia, where he rescued Andromeda from a sea- 
 monster and married her. 
 
 Pfr'seus or Per'ses, [Gr. Tlepoeig; Fr. Persee, 
 peR'sa',] the last king of Macedonia, was the eldest son 
 of Philip V., whom he succeeded in 179 B.C, Before 
 this date, by perfidy and intrigues, he had procured the 
 death of his brother Demetrius. He began early to pie- 
 pare for a renewal of hostilities against the Romans, who 
 declared war against him in 171 B.C. Several campaigns 
 were fought, without decisive results, until L. /Emilius 
 Paulus took command, in 168 B.C. He defeated Per- 
 seus with great loss at Pydna, in June, 168, after which 
 the whole kingdom submitted to the victors. Perseus 
 escaped from this battle, but was soon taken prisoner, 
 and was kept in captivity at Alba until his death, about 
 164 B.C. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome," books xxxviii.-xlv. 
 
 Perseus, a Greek painter and disciple of Apelles, 
 flourished about 300 B.C. He is mentioned by Pliny. 
 
 Persiani, peR-se-a'nee, (Fanny Tacchinardi — tak- 
 ke-nait'dee,) an Italian operatic singer, born in Rome in 
 1818. She married a composer named Persiani about 
 
 1835. Died in 1867. 
 
 Persiguy, (per-seen'ye,) de, [Fr. pron. deh pcR'sfcn'- 
 ye',] (Jean Gilbert Victor de Fialin — deh fe'S'laN',) 
 Com IE, a French minister of state, born in the depart- 
 ment of Loire in 1808. He became about 1833 a zealous 
 partisan of Louis Napoleon, and is said to have been the 
 instigator of the attempt made by him at Strasbourg in 
 
 1836. In 1840 he was arrested with Louis Napoleon at 
 Boulogne, and condemned to imprisonment for twenty 
 years. He was, however, released before the revolution 
 of 1848, and renewed his intrigues. In January, 1852, 
 he obtained the office of minister of the interior, which 
 he resigned in June, 1854. He was sent as ambassador 
 to London in 1855, was reappointed minister of the in- 
 terior in November, 1S60, and removed in June, 1863. 
 Died in 1872. M. Delaroa published in 1866 a work 
 entitled " Le Due de Persiguy et l'Empire." 
 
 See H. Castille, " Le Comte de Persigny;" E. de Mirecourt, 
 "M. de Persigny." 
 
 Persil, peVsel', (Jean Charles,) a French politician 
 and advocate, born at Condom in 1785. He was minister 
 of justice in 1834 and 1835. He published a good work, 
 entitled "Regime hypothecate," (1809.) 
 
 Persio, peVse-o, (Ascanio,) an Italian philologist, 
 born at Matera about 1550. He wrote a "Treatise on 
 the Conformity of the Italian Language with the Greek," 
 etc., (1592.) His brother Antonio wrote several works 
 on philosophy. Died after 1608. 
 
 Persius, per'she-us, [Fr. Perse, p3Rss,] or, more fully, 
 Au'lus Per'sius Flac'cus, [It. Aulo Persio Flacco, 
 ow'Io peR'se-o flak'ko,] a celebrated Roman satirical 
 poet, was born of an equestrian family at Volaterras, 
 in Etruria, in 34 A.D. He was a pupil of Cornutus 
 the Stoic, to whom he became attached by an intimate 
 friendship, which lasted until the death of Persius. He 
 associated with Lucan and Seneca. His moral character 
 appears to have been excellent. He died prematurely 
 in November, 62 A.D., leaving six satires, extending 
 altogether to only six hundred and fifty hexameter lines. 
 Though his language is obscure, his style unpolished, 
 and his delineations of men and manners greatly inferior 
 to those of Horace and Juvenal, his sententious satires 
 have been verv popular in ancient, mediaeval, and mod- 
 ern times. His object is to inculcate the morality of 
 the Stoics. Among the chief merits of his satires is 
 *the moral beauty of his doctrines. His dialogues are 
 remarkably spirited, and display much dramatic power. 
 The best English versions of Persius are those by Di yden, 
 Gifford, Brewster, and Howes. Among the best editions 
 of the text are those of Isaac Casaubon, (Paris, 1605,) 
 Konig, (Gottingen, 1803,) and O. Jahn, (Leipsic, 1843.) 
 
 See " A. Persii Flacci Vita," attributed by some scholars to Sue- 
 tonius; G. Massa, "Osservazioni e Racconto della Vita di A. Per- 
 sio Flacco," 1666; Bayi.h, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Gene"rale ;" N. J. Ski. is, "Dissertation sul 
 Perse," 1783. 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
PERSON 
 
 '773 
 
 PESNE 
 
 Person, peVs6N', (Felix,) a French writer, born at 
 Caen in 1795. Ile published several books on the breed- 
 ing of horses. 
 
 Persona, peVso'na, (Cristoforo,) an Italian Hel- 
 lenist, born at Rome in 1416. He translated into Latin 
 some works of Athanasius, Origen, and Chrysostom. 
 Died in 1485. 
 
 Persona, p?R-so'na, (Gouei.in,) a German chronicler, 
 born in Westphalia in 1358; died after 1418. 
 
 Persoon, pen-son', (Christian Hendrik,) a Dutch 
 botanist and physician, born at the Cape of Good 
 Hope about 1770. He settled at Paris about 1802, 
 and published, besides several interesting works on 
 cryptogamous plants, " Synopsis of Plants," (" Synopsis 
 Plantarum," 2 vols., 1805-07.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Persoz, peVso', (Jean Francois,) a chemist, born in 
 Switzerland in 1805. He obtained a chair in the Con- 
 servatoire des Arts et Metiers, Paris, in 1852. He has 
 published a "Treatise on the Printing of Tissues," (4 
 vols., 1846,) and other works. 
 
 Persuis, de, deh peVsti-e', (Louis Luc Loiseau,) a 
 French composer, born at Metz in 1769. He composed 
 operas and ballet-music. Died in Paris in 1819. 
 
 Perthes. See Boucher de Perthes. 
 
 Perthes, peVtJs, (Frif.drich Christoph,) a learned 
 German bookseller and publisher, born at Rudolstadt 
 in 1772. He opened a bookstore in Hamburg in 1796, 
 married a daughter of the editor Claudius, and made 
 acquaintance with many literary men, among whom were 
 Voss, Stolberg, Niebuhr, and the Schlegels. In 1822 
 he removed to Gotha, where he published the " Alma- 
 nach de Gotha." He died in 1843, a,, d was succeeded 
 in his busin'ess by his son Justus. 
 
 See " F. Perthes Leben,"by his son Clemens Theodor, 2 vols., 
 1848 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1856. 
 
 Perti, peVtee, (Giacomo Antonio,) an Italian com- 
 poser, born at Bologna in 1661. He composed success- 
 ful operas. Died in 1756. 
 
 Perticart, peR-te-ka'ree, (Giui.io,) Count, an Ital- 
 ian writer, born in the Romagna in 1779. He married 
 a daughter of the poet Monti in 1812. His works, which 
 form two volumes of the " Biblioteca Scelta," (Milan, 
 1 83 1 , ) are commended. Died in 1822. 
 
 See Montanari, " Biografia di G. Perlicari," 1836. 
 
 Per'tl-nax, (Helvius,) a Roman emperor, born at 
 Alba Pompeia, on the Tanaro, in 126 a.d., was a son 
 of a dealer in charcoal. He was a teacher of grammar 
 before he entered the army. As prefect of a cohort, he 
 served with distinction against the Parthians. He was 
 admitted into the senate, and obtained command of a 
 legion in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. In 179 A.D. he 
 was consul. He suppressed a mutiny in Britain in the 
 reign of Commodus, and was proclaimed emperor by the 
 senate at the death of Commodus, in January, 193 A.p. 
 Bv the announcement of important reforms, and his 
 efforts to restore discipline, he made enemies among the 
 courtiers and praetorians, who murdered him in his 
 palace in March, 193 a.d. 
 
 See Capitounus, "Pertinax;" Dion Cassius, "History of 
 Rome :" Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Pertusier, de, deh peR'tu'ze-i', (Charles,) a lit- 
 terateur, born at Baume-les-Dames, in France, in 1779; 
 died in 1836. 
 
 Pertz, pe Rts, (Georg Heinrich,) a German historian, 
 born at Hanover in 1795. He became royal librarian 
 and councillor of the archives in his native city, and was 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. His 
 most important work is entitled " Historical Monuments 
 of Germany," (" Monumenta Germanise historica," 13 
 vols., 1854.) 
 
 Perugin, Le. See Perugino. 
 
 Perugino, pi-roo-jee'no, [called in French Le Pe- 
 rugin, leh pa'ru'zhaN',] originally Pietro Vanucci, 
 (va-noot'chee,) written, also, Vannuoci and Vanuzzi, 
 an eminent Italian painter, born at Castello della Pieve 
 in 1446. He painted some frescos for Sixtus V. in the 
 Sistine Chapel, Rome, about 1480, after which he worked 
 at Florence and Perugia, from which circumstance he 
 received his surname 11. Perugino, or "the Perugian." 
 He was a good colorist, and surpassed most of his 
 contemporaries in the gracefulness of his heads and 
 
 figures. His style, however, is considered rather dry. 
 Among his best works are an "Infant Christ with the 
 Virgin," in the Albani palace, Rome, the frescos of 
 Scriptural subjects in the Sala del Cambio at Perugia, 
 and an oil-picture of "The Holy Family," and a "Dead 
 Christ," in the Pitti palace, Florence. He was the 
 master of Raphael. Died in 1524. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" B. Orsini, " Vita di Pietro 
 Perugino," 1804; Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Mrs. 
 Jameson, "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters;" A. Mezzanottk, 
 •' Commentario storico della Vita di P. Vannucci," 1836. 
 
 Peruzzi, pa-root'see, (Baldassare,) an able Italian 
 architect and painter, born near Sienna in 1481. He 
 painted some frescos at Rome, and attained great skill 
 in perspective and scene-painting. His fresco of the 
 "Judgment of Paris," in the Villa Belcaro, is called 
 his master-piece. He designed the beautiful Palazzo 
 Massimi, Rome, and the celebrated Palazzo Farnesina, 
 in which he painted " Perseus and Medusa." Having 
 been appointed architect of Saint Peter's about 1520, he 
 made a design for that church ; but it was not executed. 
 His works are characterized by grandeur, purity of de- 
 sign, and nobleness of expression. Died in 1536. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy," Quatremere de Quincv, "Vies des plus lllus- 
 tres Architectes." 
 
 Peruzzini, pa-root-see'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 historical painter, born in 1629 ; died at Milan in 1694. 
 
 Pesarese, II. See Cantarini, (Simone.) 
 
 Pesaro, pa'sa-ro or pes'a-ro, (Giovanni,) an able 
 Venetian diplomatist, born in 1589. He was elected 
 doge in 1658. Died in 1659. 
 
 Pescaire, de, Marquis. See Avalos, d\ 
 
 Pescara, de, Marquis. See Avalos, d\ 
 
 Pescatore, pfe-ka-to'ra, (Giambatitsta,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Ravenna. He wrote a continuation of 
 Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso," (1548,) and other works. 
 Died in 1558. 
 
 Pesce, pa'sha, (Nicola or Cola,) a Sicilian, who 
 was noted as a swimmer and diver, lived about 1360- 
 80. It is said that he dived into the whirlpool of 
 Charybdis and brought up a gold cup which Frederick 
 II. had thrown there to test his skill. 
 
 Pescennius Niger. See Niger. 
 
 Peselli, pa-sel'lee, orPeseUino.pa-sel-lee'no,(FRAN- 
 Cesco,) a painter, bom in 1426, was a son of Pesello, 
 noticed below. Died in 1457. 
 
 Peselli, (Francesco Pesello,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Florence in 1380. He painted animals with 
 success. Died in 1457. 
 
 Peselli, (Pesello,) an Italian painter of history and 
 animals, born at Florence in 1404; died in 1481. 
 
 Pesh-da'dl-an or Pish-da'dl-an, [from the Persian 
 phhd&d or pishddd, i.e. " lawgiver,"'] the name of one of 
 the earliest of the ancient Persian dynasties, so called, 
 according to Sir William Jones, from Hoosheng, (Hfi- 
 sheng,) who was distinguished for his justice and was 
 su'rnamed PeshdAd, or the "lawgiver." Kaidomers, 
 the grandfather of Hoosheng, is commonly called the 
 founder of the Peshdadian dynasty, and is said to have 
 been the first who established a code of laws and a regu- 
 lar government in Persia. To this line of Persian kings 
 belonged the famous Jemsheed, (or Jamschid,) who 
 occupies so prominent a place in the ancient legends of 
 the East. 
 
 See Atkinson, "Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of Firdausl," 
 London, 1832; "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of the works 
 of Sir William Jones. 
 
 Pesmes, de, deh pirn, (Francois Louis,) a Swiss 
 general, called Sai'nt-Saphorin, (s4n si'fo'raN',) was 
 born in the Pays de Vaud in 1668. He was sent by 
 the Swiss government to the Congress of Utrecht, and 
 signed the treaty of alliance in 1714. He entered the 
 service of George I. of England in 1716 as a general, 
 and was sent as minister to Vienna. Died in 1737. 
 
 Pesne, pin, (Antoine,) a French painter, born in 
 Paris in 1683. He worked at Berlin, to which he was 
 invited by the king. He painted many portraits and 
 historical pieces, and received the title of first painter 
 to the king. Died in Berlin in 1757. 
 
 Pesne, (Jean,) a painter and engraver, the father of 
 the preceding, was born at Rouen about 1624. He en- 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PESSELIER 
 
 '774 
 
 PETER 
 
 graved many admirable prints after Nicolas Poussin, 
 whose style and spirit he reproduced with great success. 
 Died in Paris in 1700. 
 
 Pesselier, pes'le-i', (Chari.es Iitienne,) a French 
 litterateur, was born in Paris in 1712. He wrote com- 
 edies, fables, and other works. Died in 1763. 
 
 Pessuti, pes-soo'tee, ( Giovacchino, ) an Italian 
 mathematician, born at Rome in 1743. He obtained 
 in 1787 the chair of mathematics at the Roman Col- 
 lege of Sapienza. He wrote treatises on hydraulics and 
 on the occultation of fixed stars by the moon, (1802.) 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 Pestalozzi, p8s-ta-lot'see, (Jon ANN Hew rich,) a 
 Swiss teacher and educational reformer of great merit 
 and influence, was born at Zurich in 1746. He received 
 a liberal education, and became a cultivator of the soil, 
 but in this occupation he was not successful. He wrote 
 a popular novel, " Leinhardt und Gertrud," (4 vols., 
 1781,) designed to promote the better education of the 
 poor, and " Inquiries into the Process of Nature for the 
 Development of the Human Race," (1797.) In 1798 he 
 opened a school for orphans at Stanz, where he adopted 
 a system of mutual instruction. Having been driven 
 from Stanz by the Austrians in 1799, he removed to 
 Kurgdorf, where his school prospered and acquired a 
 wide reputation. In 1804 he removed to Yverdun. 
 He was distinguished for energy, philanthropy, and 
 originality, but was deficient in practical ability to 
 manage a large institution. Died in 1827. 
 
 See his Autobiography, entitled "The Fortunes of my Life,*' 1826; 
 Oppel. "J. H. Pestalozzt's Leben," 1846; Life, by Von Raumer, 
 1855; Bandmn, "Pestalozzi, seine Zeit, seine Wirkungen," 1843; 
 Bt-OCHMANN, " H. Pestalozzi," Dresden, 1846; Ahrends, "Pesta- 
 lozzi, sein Leben und sein Wirken," 1846; E. Biber, " Beitrag zur 
 Biographie T. H. Pestalozzi," 1827; " Nouvelle Biographic Gt*nt<- 
 rale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1828 ; " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for July, 1849. 
 
 Pestel, pSs'tel, (Friedrich Wilhei.m,) a German 
 jurist, born at Rinteln in 1724; died at Leyden in 1805. 
 
 Pestel, peVtel, (Paul,) a Russian revolutionist, born 
 in 1794, was a leader of a secret society or conspiracy 
 which designed to substitute liberal institutions for 
 absolutism in Russia. He was hung in 1826. 
 
 Petagna, pa-tan'ya, (Vincenzo,) an Italian botanist, 
 born at Naples in 1734. He was professor of botany 
 in the University of Naples, and published " Botanic 
 Institutes," (" Institutions Botanicae," 5 vols., 1785.) 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 Petau, peh-to', or Petavu, peh-tS'vii', [Lat. Peta'- 
 vius,] (Denis,) a French scholar and Jesuit of great 
 learning, born at Orleans in 1583. He was professor of 
 theology at Paris from 1621 to 1644. He published a 
 great work on chronology, " De Doctrina Temporum," 
 (2 vols., 1627,) which is highly esteemed. Among his 
 other works is "Theologica Dogmata," (5 vols., 1644-50.) 
 He wrote against Salmasius. Died in Paris in 1652. 
 
 See BAYf.E, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Henri de 
 Valois, "Oratio in Obitum D. Petavii," 165.1; Leon Allatiur, 
 "Melissolyra de Laudibus D. Petavii," 1653; Niceron, " M^- 
 moires." 
 
 Petau, (Paul,) an antiquary, born at Orleans in 1568. 
 He wrote on medals, etc. Died in 1614. 
 
 Petavius. See Petau, (Denis.) 
 
 Petavu. See Petau. 
 
 Pe'ter, [Gr. Ilerpoc ; Lat. Pe'trus ; Fr. Pierre, pe-aiR'; 
 Ger. Peter, pa'ter ; Ital. Pietro, pe-a'tRo ; Span. 
 Pedro, pa'DRo,] Saint, one of the twelve apostles, was 
 born at Bethsaida, on the Sea of Galilee, and was a 
 brother of Andrew. His original name was SlMON ; 
 but when he became a disciple of Christ he received 
 the name of Peter, which in Greek signifies a " rock." 
 He was sometimes called Cephas. His occupation was 
 that of a fisherman. He was a man of ardent tempera- 
 ment, affectionate and generous. He was favoured with 
 special manifestations of his Master's confidence, and 
 performed a more prominent part in the sacred history 
 than any other of the twelve disciples. Peter and An- 
 drew were the first of the apostles in the order of time. 
 On several occasions Peter acted as spokesman for his 
 fellow-apostles ; and it is supposed by many that he 
 possessed some pre-eminent authority. When the Lord 
 Jesus was arrested, Peter drew a sword and cut off the 
 ear of the high-priest's servant ; but, in the severe crisis I 
 
 that followed, his faith and courage failed, so that he 
 denied his Master. Having recovered from this lapse 
 by hearty repentance, he became a zealous and powerful 
 minister, and spoke with great effect at Jerusalem on the 
 day of Pentecost. He raised Tabitha, or Dorcas, from 
 the dead, and performed other miracles. He received a 
 divine mission to preach the gospel to Cornelius, a gen- 
 tile. About 44 A.D. he was cast into prison by Herod 
 the king, but he was delivered by an angel. The last 
 passage of sacred history which mentions Saint Peter 
 is the account of a council held at Jerusalem about 50 
 a.d. (Acts xv.) Tradition adds that he preached in 
 Galatia, Cappadocia, Bithynia, and Pontus, and that he 
 suffered martyrdom in Rome about 65 a.d. He wrote 
 two epistles, which are included in the canon of Scrip- 
 ture, and are highly prized. 
 
 See Matthew x. 2, xvi. i6-ig, xvii., xxvi. 33-75; Mark i. 10, a^, 
 ix. 2, 5, x. 28, xiv. 29, 33, 54, 66-72; Luke v., vi. 14, xviii. 28, 
 xxii. 31-34, 54-62, xxiv. 12; John 1. 40-44, vi. 68, xiii. 6-9, 24, 37, 
 xviii. 10, 15-18, 25-27, xx. 2-6, xxi. 2-21 ; Actsi., ii., iil., iv., v., viii. 
 14, 20. ix. 32-43. x. 5-48, xi. passim, xii. 3-17, and xv. 7. Also, 
 L. Cuccagni, "Vita di San Pietro," 1777. 
 
 Pe'ter, (or Pedro, pa'dRo,) often called Dom Pedro, 
 (Antonio Joze de Alcantara — di al-kin'ti-ra,) Em- 
 peror of Brazil and King of Portugal, a son of John VI. 
 of Portugal, was born at Queluz in 1798. On the con- 
 quest of Portugal by the French, in 1807, he was taken 
 by his father to Brazil. He married Maria Leopoldina 
 of Austria about 1816, and became Regent of Brazil 
 in 1821. A revolution having rendered Brazil indepen- 
 dent of Portugal, Dom Pedro was proclaimed emperor 
 on the 1 2th of October, 1822. He was recognized as 
 such by the Portuguese government in 1825. At the 
 death of his father (1826) he inherited the' throne of 
 Portugal, which he soon abdicated in favour of his 
 daughter, Donna Maria da Gloria. The disaffection of 
 his subjects became so violent that he abdicated the 
 crown of Brazil in favour of his son in 1831, and re- 
 turned to Portugal, from which he expelled his brother, 
 Dom Miguel, who had usurped the royal power. Died 
 in 1834. 
 
 See Eduard Grosse, "Dom Pedro I., oder Geschichte der 
 neuesten Revolution von Brasilien und Portugal," 1836; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Peter or Pedro II. de Alcantara, Emperor of 
 Brazil, born at Rio Janeiro in December, 1825, is a son 
 of the preceding, who abdicated in his favour in 1831. 
 He began to act as emperor on the 23d of July, 1840, 
 when he was declared of age. In 1843 ne married 
 Theresa Christina Maria, a daughter of the King of 
 the Two Sicilies. He cultivates literature, and has the 
 reputation of a liberal and popular ruler, 
 
 Peter, Emperor of Constantinople. See Courtenay, 
 de, (Pierre.) 
 
 Peter [Russ. Petr, pe-dtr'] I, or Peter the Great, 
 [Fr. Pierre i.e Grand, pe-aiit' leh gRft.N ; Ger. Peter 
 der Grosse, pa'ter der gRSs'seh ; it. Pietro il Grande, 
 pe-a'tRo el gRin'di; Lat. Pe'trus Mag'nus,] Czar of 
 Russia, born at Moscow, June 10, 1672, was the third son 
 of Alexis Mikhailovitch. His mother was Natalia, the 
 second wife of Alexis. Feodor, the eldest son of Alexis, 
 having died without issue, in 1682, Peter was recognized 
 as his successor, in preference to Ivan, who was a feeble- 
 minded youth. Their ambitious sister Sophia, however, 
 fomented a bloody mutiny among the strelitzes, and 
 procured the proclamation of Ivan and Peter as joint 
 sovereigns. Sophia acted as regent until 1689, when 
 she was confined in a convent and Peter began to reign 
 as sole autocrat. He married Eudoxia Feodorovna in 
 1689. Some years before this date he had received 
 scientific instruction from Le Fort, a native rt Geneva, 
 who became one of his advisers or ministers after his 
 accession. 
 
 Peter had received from nature violent passions and 
 an indomitable energy. In the early part of his reign 
 he determined to reform the institutions, governmental 
 system, and customs of Russia, which was far behind 
 other countries of Europe in civilization. His first care 
 was to organize an army with the European discipline; 
 and he set the example by entering the army himself as 
 a private soldier. He also gave much attention to the 
 construction of a navy, and learned practical seamanship 
 
 5, e, I, o, ft, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 0, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
PETER 
 
 •775 
 
 PETER 
 
 by cruising on the White Sea. He procured the ser- 
 vices of many foreign engineers, shipwrights, artisans, 
 etc. In 1696 he captured Azof from the Turks by the 
 aid of his new navy. 
 
 Prompted by an irrepressible activity and desire of 
 knowledge, in 1697 he visited Western Europe incognito, 
 accompanied by several of his favourite officers or min- 
 isters, who were accredited as ambassadors to Holland. 
 He took a lodging in a small house at Saardam, where 
 he worked for wages as a ship-carpenter, under the name 
 of Pieter Timmerman. 
 
 In January, 1698, he went to England, where he passed 
 about three months. Here, says Macaulay, "his stately 
 form, his intellectual forehead, his piercing black eyes, 
 his Tartar nose and mouth, his gracious smile, his frown, 
 black with all the stormy rage and hate of a barbarian 
 tyrant, . . . were during some weeks popular topics of 
 conversation." He returned to his capital, Moscow, 
 after an absence of seventeen months, and punished 
 with great severity the strelitzes, who had rebelled while 
 he was absent. He established naval and other schools, 
 caused useful works to be translated into Russian, re- 
 quired his subjects to trade with foreigners, and made 
 various other innovations, against which a great number 
 of his subjects were deeply prejudiced. He also dis- 
 banded the strelitzes, who had served as a body-guard 
 of the Czars. In 1700 he formed an alliance with the 
 Kings of Poland and Denmark against Charles XII. 
 of Sweden, who defeated the Russians at Narva in the 
 same year. Peter founded Saint Petersburg in 1703, 
 and prosecuted vigorously the war against Charles, who 
 was defeated at the decisive battle of Pultowa, in 1709. 
 (See Charles XII.) In 1711 he married Catherine, 
 a girl of obscure origin, who had been taken prisoner at 
 Marienburg. (See Catherine I.) 
 
 The war between Russia and Turkey having been re- 
 newed, Peter conducted an army in person across the 
 Pruth into the dominions of the Sultan. Hemmed in 
 by the Turkish army, and unable to obtain a regular 
 supplv of provisions, he was reduced to a dangerous 
 situation, from which, it is said, the empress Catherine 
 rescued him by overtures of peace and rich presents to 
 the grand vizier. Peter obtained peace by restoring Azof 
 and Taganrog in July, 1711, after which he prosecuted 
 with success the war against the Swedes in Pomerania 
 and conquered Finland. He transferred the senate to 
 Saint Petersburg in 1713, soon after which the imperial 
 palaces of that city were finished. In 1716 he visited 
 Germany, Holland, Denmark, and France. During his 
 visit to Copenhagen he was appointed commander-in- 
 chief of the combined fleets of Russia, Holland, England, 
 and Denmark. 
 
 Alexis, the eldest son of Peter, had constantly opposed 
 his projects of reform, and had selected his favourites 
 and advisers among the enemies of his father's policy. 
 Having remonstrated without effect against this conduct, 
 Peter compelled him, in Februarv, 1718, to renounce the 
 succession. Alexis was then tried for conspiracy by a 
 council of judges and bishops, who condemned him to 
 death. The circumstances attending the death of Alexis, 
 attested as they appear to iBkby unimpeachable wit- 
 nesses, seem to prove beyona a doubt that he was 
 poisoned by order of his father' (See Alexis.) 
 
 In 1719 Peter was afflicted by the death of his second 
 son, Peter, the heir-apparent and the issue of Catherine. 
 He made, in September, I72i,at Nystad, (or Neustadt,)' 
 a treaty of peace with the King of Sweden, who ceded 
 to him Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, Carlia, and Viborg. 
 Finland was restored to Sweden by this treaty. Having 
 thus fortunately ended a war of twenty years, he assu ned, 
 at the request of the senate, the titles of" Peter the Great, 
 Emperor of all the Russias, and Father of his Country." 
 He afterwards directed his attention to internal improve- 
 ments, and founded the Academy of Sciences about 1724. 
 The public offices and tribunals had been removed in 
 1721 to Saint Petersburg, the population of which he 
 had rapidly increased by arbitrary measures. Among 
 his favourite ministers and courtiers were Mentchikof 
 and Galitzin. He died at Saint Petersburg on the 28th 
 of January or the 8th of February, 1725, leaving two 
 daughters, Elizabeth, who became empress, and Anna. 
 
 Catherine reigned until her death, in 1727, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Peter II., a son of Alexis. 
 
 See John Mottlev, " Life of Peter the Great," 3 vols., 1739: 
 Mauvii.i.on, " Histoire de Pierre lev," 1742; Alex. Gordon, " His- 
 tory of Peter the Great," 1755 ; Voltaire, " Histoire de Russiesoul 
 Pierre le Grand," 1759-63; Claudius, " Peter der Grosse," 3 vols., 
 1708-1818; Golikow, "Life of Peter the Great," (in Russian,) 12 
 vols., 1788-98; Rabener, " Leben Petri I.," 1725; Von Halem, 
 " Leben Peters des Grossen," 3 vols., 1803-05 : Grosse, " Peter 
 der Grosse," 1836 : Ph. de Segur, " Histoire de Russie et de Pierre 
 le Grand," 1829 ; Reichb, " Peter der Grosse und seine Zeit," 1841 ; 
 Benjamin Bergmann, " Peter der Grosse als Mensch und Regent," 
 3 vols., 1823-26; "North American Review" for October, 1845, (by 
 
 J. LOTHROP MoTLBV.) 
 
 Peter H., (Alexievitch,) a grandson of Peter the 
 Great, was born in 17 14 or 1715. He began to reign in 
 May, 1727. His accession was promoted by Mentchikof, 
 who expected to have great power or influence during 
 his minority. Ivan Dolgoruki, however, became the 
 favourite of Peter, who banished Mentchikof to Siberia. 
 Peter died in January, 1730, and was succeeded by Anna 
 Ivanowna. 
 
 Peter III., (Feodorovitch,) Emperor of Russia, 
 bom in 1 728, was a grandson of Peter the Great, and a 
 son of Anna, who was married to the Duke of Holstein- 
 Gottorp. He was recognized as heir to the throne by 
 Elizabeth in 1742, and married, in 1745, Sophia Augusta 
 of Anhalt-Zerbst, who assumed the name of Catherine. 
 He succeeded his aunt Elizabeth in January, 1762. 
 Among his first acts was a treaty of peace with Frederick 
 the Great. Having provoked the enmity of the nobles 
 and clergy by some innovations, he was dethroned and 
 strangled in July, 1762, by conspirators, of whom his 
 wife was an accomplice. (See Catherine II.) 
 
 See Ran ft, " Lebensbeschreibung des Kaisers Peter HI.," 1773; 
 Thiebault de Laveaux, " Histoire de Pierre III," 3 vols., 1798; 
 Goldern, "Biographie Peters III.," 1792 ; Helbig, " Biographie 
 Peters III.," 2 vols., 1808-09. 
 
 Peter (or Pedro, pa'DRo) 1, King of Aragon, was a 
 son of Sancho Ramirez. Died in H04. 
 
 Peter (or Pedro) II, King of Aragon, born in 1174, 
 was a son of Alfonso II. Died in 1213. 
 
 Peter (or Pedro) III, surnamed the Great, King 
 of Aragon, was born in 1236, and succeeded his father, 
 James I., in 1276. He had married about 1262 Con- 
 stance, adaughter ofManfred, King of Naples and Sicily. 
 After the death of Manfred, Peter asserted his claim to 
 the kingdom of Naples against Charles of Anjou, who 
 had possession of it and who was supported by the 
 pope. The interest of Peter was promoted by the mas- 
 sacre of the French at the Sicilian Vespers, March 30, 
 1282, and by several naval victories gained by his ad- 
 miral, Roger di Loria, over the fleet of Charles. He 
 died in 1285, and was succeeded by his son, Alfonso III. 
 
 See Zurita, " Anales de Aragon ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^ni- 
 rale." 
 
 Peter (or Pedro) IV, surnamed X"E Ceremonious, 
 King of Aragon, -born in 1317, was the son of Alfonso 
 IV. He began to reign in 1336. Died in 1387. 
 
 Peter (or Pedro) I, surnamed the Cruel, King of 
 Castile and Leon, born about 1334, succeeded his father, 
 Alfonso XI., in 1350. He married Blanche de Bourbon, 
 a French princess, in 1353, but he soon imprisoned her 
 and married Juana de Castro, whom he also maltreated. 
 The friends of these ladies revolted without success, and 
 Blanche was put to death by order of Peter. About 
 1366 he was driven out of Castile by Du Guesclin and 
 others, who supported Pedro's brother, Henry de Trans- 
 tamare, as king. Peter was restored by the English 
 Black Prince in 1367, and was assassinated by Henry de 
 Transtamare in 1 ^69. 
 
 See Lopez db Avala, "Cronica de los Reyes Pedro I., eta, 
 1591 ; Count de la Roca, " El Rey Don Pedro defendido," 164S; 
 Dillon, "History of the Reign of Peter the Cruel," 2 vols., 17*8; 
 Prosper Merimbe, " Histoire de Don Pedro, Roi de Castille," 
 2 vols., 1848; Froissart, "Chronicles;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generaie." 
 
 Peter (Pedro) I, King of Portugal, born in 1320, 
 was a son of Alfonzo IV., whom he succeeded in 1357. 
 Died in 1367. 
 
 Peter (Pedro) II, King of Portugal, a younger son 
 of John IV., was born in 1648. Having deposed his 
 brother, Alfonzo VI., in 1667, he became regent. He 
 reigned as king from 1683 until his death, in 1706. 
 
 e as i.- 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JQ? - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PETER 
 
 1776 
 
 PETERS 
 
 Peter or Pedro IV. of Portugal. See Peter I., 
 Emperor of Brazil. 
 
 Peter or Pedro V., King of Portugal, born at Lisbon 
 in September, 1837, was a son of Queen Donna Maria da 
 Gloria, and a nephew of the preceding. He succeeded 
 his mother in November, 1853, under the regency of his 
 father, and assumed the functions of royalty in Septem- 
 ber or November, 1855. He was a popular prince. He 
 died in November, 1861, and was succeeded by his 
 brother, Louis I. 
 
 Peter (or Pierre, pe-aiR') I., surnamed Mauclf.rc, 
 Duke of Brittany, and Count de Dieux, was a grandson 
 of Louis VI. of France. He married, about 1212, Mix 
 de Thouars, the heiress of Brittany. He served under 
 Louis IX. in the crusade of 1249, and died in 1250. 
 
 Peter (Pierre) II., Duke of Brittany, succeeded his 
 brother, Francis I., in 1450. Died in 1457. 
 
 Peter, [Gr. Tlfrpoc,] Bishop of Alexandria, succeeded 
 Theonas in 300 A.D. He was beheaded in the reign of 
 Maximums II., in 311. He is eulogized by Eusebius. 
 
 Peter or Pe'trus of Alexandria, the companion 
 and successor of Athanasius. Having been designated 
 by the latter, he was elected bishop by the orthodox 
 party in 373 A.D., but was quickly deposed by the Arians. 
 He was restored in 378, and died in 381 A.D. 
 
 Peter of Blois, [Lat. Pe'trus Blesen'sis,] an emi- 
 nent French ecclesiastic, born at Blois. He was ap- 
 pointed Archdeacon of Bath by Henry II. of England. 
 He died in 1200, leaving many letters and other works, 
 which have been printed, (1519 and 1667.) 
 
 Peter or Pe'trus of Sebas'te, a bishop, born in 
 Cappadocia about 350 a.d., was a brother of Basil the 
 Great, by whom he was ordained a presbyter. He 
 became Bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, about 380. 
 Died after 390 A.D. 
 
 . Peter, [Lat. Pe'trus,] surnamed Chrysol'ogus, a 
 Bishop of Ravenna, who died in 450 a.d. 
 
 Peter de Bruys, (deh bRii-e',) a French preacher, 
 who began about 1 1 10 to speak against the corruptions 
 of the Church. He is said to have rejected masses, the 
 Lord's Supper, and other ordinances. He was burned 
 at the stake in 1 130. 
 
 See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. 
 
 Peter Comestor. See Comestor. 
 
 Peter the Deacon, an Italian chronicler, born at 
 Rome in 1107 ; died after 1 159. 
 
 Peter the Hermit, [Fr. Pierre i.'Ermite, pe-aiR' 
 leVmet'; It. Pietro l'Eremita, pe-a'tRo la-ri-mee'ta.] 
 a famous enthusiast, agitator, and crusader, was born in 
 the diocese of Amiens about the middle of the eleventh 
 century. He performed a pilgrimage to Palestine about 
 1094, and was filled with indignation by the oppressions 
 to which the pilgrims were subjected. On his return 
 he received a commission from Pope Urban II. to preach 
 a crusade against the infidels. He traversed France 
 and other countries barefoot, and by his fervent appeals 
 enlisted a host of crusaders and outlaws estimated at 
 nearly 100,000. He led them as far as Constantinople, 
 and, after the defeat of this rabble near Nice, he accom- 
 panied Godfrey to Jerusalem. Nearly all of the rabble 
 perished miserably. He died in Flanders in 11 15. 
 
 See Michaud, " Histoire des Croisades;" H. Prat, "Pierre 
 l'Ermite et la premiere Croisade," 1840. 
 
 Pe'ter Lom'bard, a distinguished Italian theologian, 
 born in the district of Novara. He was elected Bishop 
 of Paris in 1159. He produced a celebrated compilation 
 of sentences from the Fathers, (" Sententiarum Libri 
 IV.,") which was much used as a text-book, and often 
 reprinted and commented on. Died about 1160. 
 
 Peter Martyr. See Anghiera, de. 
 
 Pe'ter Mar'tyr, [Ital. Pietro Martire, pe-a'tRo 
 maR'te-ra,] or Pietro Vermigli, (veR-mel'yee,) an emi- 
 nent Protestant theologian, was born at Florence in 1500, 
 and educated in the Catholic faith. Having been con- 
 verted to the Reformed religion, he repaired in 1542 to 
 Zurich, where he acquired the friendship of Bullinger. 
 He afterwards became professor of theology at Stras- 
 burg, having the celebrated Bucer for his colleague. At 
 the invitation of Edward VI., he visited England, and 
 was appointed in 1549 professor of divinity at Oxford. 
 Soon after the accession of Mary, he left England, and 
 
 was invited to fill the chair of theology at Zurich. As a 
 Protestant writer he is esteemed second only to Calvin, 
 whom he is said to have surpassed in learning, and his 
 virtues and eloquence were eulogized by Catholics as 
 well as Protestants. He was the author of several com- 
 mentaries on the Scriptures, and other theological works. 
 Died at Zurich in 1562. 
 
 See M'Crie, " History of the Reformation in Italy;" Schlosser, 
 " Leben Peter Martyrs," 1S09; Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses ;" 
 Schmidt, "Vie de Pierre Martyr Vermigli," Strasbourg, 1835. 
 
 Pe'ter Mon'gus, [Gr. Xlerpoc 6 Moyyoc,] became Mo- 
 nophysite Patriarch of Alexandria in 477 A.D. Having 
 been deposed by the emperor Zeno, he was restored in 
 482. By a compromise or temporizing policy he retained 
 his office until he died, in 490. 
 
 See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. 
 
 Peter Nolasque (no'lSsk') or Nolasco, (no-las'ko,) 
 the founder of the Order of Mercy, (for the redemption 
 of captives taken by the Moors,) was born in Languedoc 
 about 1189; died in 1256. 
 
 Peter the Venerable, a French monk, born about 
 1092, became Abbot of Clugny. Died in 1156. 
 
 Peter, pa'ter, (Wenceslaus,) a Bohemian painter, 
 born at Carlsbad in 1742. He worked at Rome, and 
 was a skilful painter of animals. Died at Rome in 1829. 
 
 Peterborough. See Mordaunt. 
 
 Peterman, pa'ter-miin', (August Heinrich,) a Ger- 
 man geographer, born near Nordhausen in 1822. He 
 aided Johnston, of Edinburgh, in the " Physical Atlas," 
 and T. Milner in the " Atlas of Physical Geography." 
 He became about 1854 editor of a monthly journal 
 devoted to geographical discovery, published at Gotha. 
 He wrote or edited " An Account of the Expeditions to 
 Central Africa." 
 
 Peterneefs. See Neefs, (Peter.) 
 
 Peters, pa'ters, (Bonaventure,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1614, was the best marine painter 
 of his time. His favourite subjects were storms and 
 shipwrecks. He also painted views of the sea in a 
 calm. Died at Antwerp in 1652. 
 
 Pe'ters, (Charles,) an English divine, born in Corn- 
 wall. He became rector of Saint Mabyn in J 727, and 
 wrote a "Critical Dissertation on the Book of Job." 
 Died in 1777. A volume of his sermons was published 
 after his death. 
 
 Peters, (Francis Lucas,) a Flemish landscape- 
 painter, born at Mechlin (Malines) in 1606; died at 
 Brussels in 1654. 
 
 Peters, (Gerard.) See Pieters. 
 
 Peters or Peter, (Hugh,) an English dissenting 
 minister, born in Cornwall in 1599. He preached in 
 Salem, Massachusetts, several years, between 1635 and 
 1641. On his return to England he became a par- 
 tisan of the Parliament, acquired much influence, and 
 was a preacher to the army which fought against the 
 king. He was tried for treason and hung by the royalists 
 in 1660. His reputation is defended by some respectable 
 writers. 
 
 See S. Peters, " History of Hugh Peters," 1807 ; Brook, " Lives 
 of the Puritans." 
 
 Peters, (Jan,) an excellent Flemish marine painter, 
 a brother of Bonaventure, noticed above, was born at 
 Antwerp in 1625. His figures are well designed and 
 his landscapes finely touched. Among his master-pieces 
 is the " Port of Oran." Died in 1677. 
 
 Pe'ters, (John Charles,) M.D.,an American homce- 
 opathic physician, born in New York in 1819, has pub- 
 lished a " Treatise on Diseases of the Head," a " Treatise 
 on Diseases of the Eyes," and other medical works, and 
 was for a time editor of the " North American Journal 
 of Homoeopathy." 
 
 Peters, (Phillis Wheatley.) See Wheatley. 
 
 Peters, (Richard,) an American jurist, born in Phila- 
 delphia in 1744. He was appointed in 1776 secretary 
 of the board of war, and was afterwards judge of the 
 United States district court for Pennsylvania. Died 
 in 1828. He was remarkable for his dry humour, ready 
 wit, etc. 
 
 Peters, (Samuel,) an Episcopal divine, born at 
 Hebron, Connecticut, in 1735. During the Revolution 
 he sided with the Tories, and took refuge in England, 
 
 a, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; g36d; moon; 
 
PETERS 
 
 •777 
 
 PETIT 
 
 where he published a " General History of Connecticut." 
 He is satirized in Trumbull's " McFingal" under the 
 name of " Parson Peter." Died in 1826. 
 
 Peters, (Samuel Jarvis,) an American merchant, 
 born in Canada in 1801, settled in New Orleans, and 
 became president of the State Bank of Louisiana. Died 
 in 1855. 
 
 Petersen, pa'ter-sen, ( Frf.df.rik Christian, ) a 
 Danish scholar, and professor of philology at Copen- 
 hagen, was born in Seeland in 1786. Among his prin- 
 cipal works are a " Manual of Greek Literary History," 
 and an " Introduction to the Study of Archeology," 
 (1825.) 
 
 Petersen, (Niels Matthias,) an eminent Danish 
 historian and antiquary, born at Sanderum, in the isle 
 of Funen, in 1 791. He was a fellow-student of Rask, 
 who became his friend. He published in 1829 a "His- 
 tory of the Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish Lan- 
 guages," (2 vols.,) which is highly esteemed. In 1845 
 he became professor of Northern literature in the Uni- 
 versity of Copenhagen. Among his important works 
 are a " History of Denmark in Heathen Times," (3 
 vols., 1834-38,) and "Contributions to the History of 
 Danish Literature," ( 1st vol., 1853.) He died in Copen- 
 hagen in May, 1862. 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." 
 
 Pe'th^r, (Abraham,) an English landscape-painter, 
 born at Chichester in 1756, was a son of William Pether, 
 noticed below. He painted moonlight scenes with suc- 
 cess. Died in 1812. 
 
 His son Sebastian, born about 1790, was also a 
 landscape-painter. Died in 1844. 
 
 Pether, (William,) an English engraver in mezzotint, 
 and painter, born about 1730, flourished about 1770. 
 He engraved some works of Rembrandt, and some of 
 his own designs. 
 
 Pethion. See Petion, (Jerome.) 
 
 Petiet, pa'te-J', (Claude,) a French administrator, 
 born at Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1749. He was minister 
 of war from February, 1796, to July, 1797, and governor 
 of Lombardy, (l8oo-K)2.) Died in 1806. 
 
 Petigny, de, deh pi'ten'ye', (Franqois Jules,) a 
 French antiquary, born in Paris in 1801. He received 
 a prize of nine thousand francs for his " Studies on the 
 History, Laws, and Institutions of the Merovingian 
 Period," (2 vols., 1842-44.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Pet'I-gru, (James Louis,) an eminent American 
 lawyer and statesman, born in Abbeville district, South 
 Carolina, about 1789. He practised law at Charleston, 
 and was attorney-general of South Carolina from 1822 
 to 1830. He differed from the large majority of the 
 people of his State on the subject of nullification about 
 1831. He also opposed the secession movement of 
 1860-61. Died in 1863. 
 
 See Wm. J. Grayson, "James L. Petigrn; a Biographical 
 Sketch," 1866. 
 
 Petion, pa'te-6N', (Alexandre,) the first President 
 of the republic of Hayti, was born at Port-au-Prince in 
 1770. His father was a wealthy colonist, his mother a 
 mulatto. He was sent to France to be educated, and 
 served at an early age in the French army. Afterwards, 
 when the Revolution broke out, he took an active part 
 in the rising of the coloured people, and distinguished 
 himself as an officer of artillery. His humane disposi- 
 tion and pleasing manners gained for him the favour of 
 all classes ; and during the period of terror he succeeded 
 in protecting many of the colonists. When the blacks, 
 under Toussaint, began to proscribe the whites and 
 mulattos, Petion resisted them by arms, but he was soon 
 forced to fly from the island. Returning with General 
 Le Clerc, he fought for some time under the French 
 standard ; but, disgusted at length by the cruelties of the 
 French, and especially by their treachery towards Tous- 
 saint and their attempt to re-establish slavery, he again 
 joined Dessalines, and on the death of the latter was 
 elected President of the southern and western portion 
 of the island, while Christophe, who had been general- 
 in-chief under Dessalines, became ruler of the northern 
 part. Petion was a man of sincere and deep religious 
 convictions. As a ruler he was distinguished for the 
 republican simplicity of his manners and mode of life, 
 
 as well as for his humanity and impartial justice. But 
 the anxieties caused by the difficulties of his position, in 
 the midst of a population hitherto wholly unaccustomed 
 to self-control, — anxieties which were still further in- 
 creased, on his part, by an extreme and almost morbid 
 conscientiousness, — proved too much for his health. He 
 died, universally lamented, on the 29th of March, 1818. 
 As a military officer, he was remarkable for skill and 
 serene courage. For some very interesting particulars 
 respecting President Petion, the reader is referred to 
 numbers 48 and 49 of volume xxxix. of "The Friend," 
 (1866,) published in Philadelphia. The article in ques- 
 tion is from the pen of Stephen Grellet. 
 
 See Saint-Remi, " Potion et Haiti," Paris, 5 vols., 1854-58. 
 
 Petion (or Pethion) de Villeneuve, pi'te-6N'* 
 deh vel'nuv', (Jerome,) a French revolutionist, born at 
 Chartres in 1753. He was a radical member of the 
 National Assembly in 1790. His abilities were mediocre. 
 He was one of the three deputies sent to conduct the 
 king from Varennes to Paris in 1791, and was censured 
 for Ws harshness or rudeness to the royal captives. In 
 November, 1791, he was elected mayor of Paris, in 
 preference to La Fayette, who was supported by the 
 moderate reformers. He appears to have been remiss 
 in his duties during the massacres of August and Sep- 
 tember, 1792. Having been elected to the Convention, 
 he acted with the Girondists, and was proscribed about 
 the 1st of June, 1793. He escaped to the department 
 of the Gironde, where he was found dead in a field in 
 June, 1794. The manner of his death was not ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 See Regnault-Warin, "Vie de J. Petion, Maire de Paris," 
 1796; Lamartine, " History of the Girondists." 
 
 Petis de la Croix, peh- te' deh UkRwa, (Alexandre 
 Louis Marie,) a French Orientalist, born in Paris in 
 1698, was a son of Francois, (1653-1713.) He was pro- 
 fessor of Arabic in the Royal College. Died in 1 751. 
 
 Petis de la Croix, (Francois,) a French Oriental- 
 ist, born in 1622. He was interpreter to the king, and 
 published a " History of Genghiz-Can," (Jengis Khan,) 
 (1710.) Died in 1695. 
 
 Petis de la Croix, (Francois,) an Orientalist, born 
 in Paris in 1653, was a son of the preceding. He studied 
 Arabic, Persian, and Turkish at Aleppo, Ispahan, and 
 Constantinople. As interpreter, he rendered important 
 services in the negotiations between the French court 
 and the Sultan and the Dey of Algiers. In 1695 he 
 became interpreter to the king. He translated from 
 the Persian "The Thousand and One Days," (5 vols., 
 1710-12,) and a "History of Taimoor," (Tamerlane,) 
 (4 vols., 1722.) Died in 1713. 
 
 See Qubrard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Petit, peh-te' or p'te, (Alexis Therese,) a French 
 natural philosopher, born at Vesoul in 1791, was a 
 brother-in-law of Arago. He became a teacher of phys- 
 ics in the Polytechnic School in 1810, and titular pro- 
 fessor in the same in 1815. He wrote an able " Memoir 
 on the Use of the Principle of Living Forces in the 
 Calculation of Machines," (1818.) Died in 1820. 
 
 See J. B. Biot, " Notice sur Petit," 1821. 
 
 Petit, (ANTOiNE.)an eminent French physician, born 
 at Organs in 1718. He became professor of anatomy 
 at the Jardin du Roi, Paris, in 1768, and. attracted a 
 large concourse of auditors. He published " Palfyn's 
 Surgical Anatomy, with Notes," ("Anatomie chirurgi- 
 cale de Palfyn, avec des Notes," 1753.) Died in 1794. 
 
 Petit, (Iran Louis,) a celebrated surgeon, born in 
 Paris in 1674. He served as army surgeon from 1692 
 to 1700, and then returned to Paris. His success was 
 great as a lecturer and a practitioner. He was for some 
 years the most celebrated surgeon in Europe. "The 
 services which he rendered to surgery," says a French 
 writer, " are immense." He was one of the founders of 
 the Academy of Surgery, (1731.) His chief work is an 
 excellent "Treatise on Surgery," ("Traite des Maladies 
 chirurgicales," etc., 3 vols., 1774.) Died in 1750. 
 
 See A. Louis, " FJoge de J. L. Petit," 1750; " Biographie Mi- 
 dicale." 
 
 * We are informed in the " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale" that, 
 although Petion generally wrote his name without the accent, it was 
 always pronounced PHion. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jr^r~See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
 112 
 
PETIT 
 
 1778 
 
 PETRARCH 
 
 Petit, (J KAN Louis,) a French historical and marine 
 painter, born in Paris in 1793. He gained a first medal 
 in 1841. 
 
 Petit, (Jean Martin,) a French general, born in 
 Paris in 1772. He served as lieutenant-general at 
 Waterloo. Died in 1856. 
 
 Pet'it, (Lewis Hayes,) F.R.S., an English gentle- 
 man and patron of literature, was born in 1774; died 
 in 1849. 
 
 Petit, (Marc Antoine,) a French physician and 
 skilful surgeon, born at Lyons in 1766. He wrote 
 "Essai sur la Medecine du Cceur," (1806,) and several 
 poems. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Baumes, " Eloge de M. A. Petit," 1812. 
 
 Petit, (Pierre,) a French mathematician, born at 
 Montlucon (Allier) about 1596. He obtained the offices 
 of engineer, counsellor to the king, and intendant-gene- 
 ral of fortifications. He formed a friendship with Pas- 
 cal, whom he aided in experiments on the vacuum and 
 barometer, (1646-47.) Among his works are a treatise 
 "On the Use of the Compass of Proportion," (1634,) 
 and "Observations on the Vacuum," (1647.) He was a 
 Cartesian. Died in 1677. 
 
 See Niceron, " Mdmoires ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Petit, (Pierre,) a learned French writer, born in 
 Paris in 1617. Among his poems (in Latin) are "On 
 Tears," ("De Lacrymis Libri tres," 1661,) "Chinese 
 Tea," ("Thea Sinensis," 1685,) "On the Amazons," 
 ("De Amazonibus," 1685,) and "On the Sibyl," ("De 
 Sibylla," 1686.) He was one of the Latin poets who 
 formed the " Pleiade" of Paris. Died in 1687. 
 
 Petit, (Samuel,) a learned French Orientalist, born 
 at Nimes in 1594, was a Protestant minister. It is said 
 that he could speak Hebrew with ease. He wrote on 
 Jewish and Greek antiquities, chronology, etc. His 
 friendship was sought by Peiresc, Selden, Gassendi, 
 Vossius, and Gronovius. Died in 1643. 
 
 Petit, du, diip'te', (Francois Pourfour,) a learned 
 French physician, born in Paris in 1664. He was suc- 
 cessful in the treatment of cataract, and wrote several 
 treatises on the eyes. Died in 1741. 
 
 Petit-Didier, peh-te' de'de-4', (Mathieu,) a learned 
 French monk, was born in Lorraine in 1659. He wrote 
 " Remarks on the First Volumes of Dupin's Biblio- 
 theque Ecclesiastique," (3 vols., 1691-96,) and other 
 works. Died in 1728. 
 
 Petit-Pied, peh-te' pe-i', (Nicolas,) a French Jan- 
 senist, born in 1665. He was a doctor of the Sorbonne, 
 and wrote many'works in favour of Jansenism. Died 
 in 1747. 
 
 Petit-Radel, peh-te' rt'dJI', (Louis Charles Fran- 
 cois,) a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1756. He 
 was a member of the Institute, and keeper of the Mazarin 
 Library. He published "Explanations of the Antique 
 Monuments of the Museum," (4 vols., 1804-06,) and 
 "Researches on Cyclopean Monuments," (1841.) Died 
 in 1836. 
 
 See Querard, " La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Petit-Radel, (Louis Francois,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1740, was a brother of the preceding. 
 Died in 1818. 
 
 Petit-Radel, ( Philippe, ) a surgeon and medical 
 writer, born in Paris in 1749, was a brother of the pre- 
 ceding. He obtained in 1798 the chair of surgical clinic. 
 He published " Medical Institutes," (" Institutions de 
 Medecine," 2 vols., 1801,) and compiled the " Dictionary 
 of Surgery," (3 vols., 1790,) which forms part of the 
 "Encyclopedie Methodique." Died in 1815. 
 See "Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Petit-Thouars. See Du Petit-Thouars. 
 
 Petitain, peh-te'taV, (Louis Germain,) a French 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1765. He wrote some works 
 of fiction. Died in 1820. 
 
 Petitot, peh-te'to', (Claude Bernard,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Dijon in 1772. He translated the 
 dramatic works of Alfieri, (4 vols., 1802,) and edited 
 the works of Racine, (5 vols., 1805,) and the works of 
 Moliere, (6 vols., 1813.) Died in 1825. 
 
 Petitot, (Jean,) an eminent painter on enamel, born 
 of French parents, at Geneva in 1607. He visited Eng 
 
 land, where he obtained from the chemist Mayern some 
 important secrets respecting colours, and was patronized 
 by Charles I. He painted portraits of the royal family, 
 and copied some works of Van Dyck. About 1650 lie 
 returned to Fiance. He received a pension from Louis 
 XIV., whose portrait he painted many times. By order 
 of the king, Bossuet attempted to convert Petitot to 
 the Romish Church, but failed. His master-piece is a 
 whole-length portrait, in enamel, of the Countess of 
 Southampton, the dimensions of which are about nine 
 inches by five. His works are remarkable for delicacy 
 of design and harmonious richness of colour. Died at 
 Vevay in 1691. 
 
 See L Brightwell, " By-Paths of Biography ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge^rale." 
 
 Petitot, (Louis Messidor Leron,) a French sculptor, 
 born in Paris in 1794. He gained the grand prize in 
 1 814, and went to Rome with a pension. Among his 
 works are many marble busts of Frenchmen. His capital 
 work is a colossal monument to Louis Bonaparte at 
 Saint-Leu. He was a member of the Institute. Died 
 in June, 1862. 
 
 Petitot, (Pierre,) a sculptor, born at Langres in 
 1 75 1, was the father of the preceding. Died in Paris 
 in 1840. 
 
 Petl-ver, (James,) F.R.S., an English botanist, was 
 an apothecary of London. He furnished materials for 
 Ray's " History of Plants," published " Pterigraphia 
 Americana," (1712,) and other works, and formed a 
 rich collection of plants, minerals, and animals. Died 
 in 1718. 
 
 Pe'to, (Sir Samuel Morton,) an English engineer 
 and contractor, born in Surrey in 1809. He constructed 
 the Grand Trunk Railway in Canada, with the tubular 
 bridge near Montreal, and several railways on the con- 
 tinent of Europe. He was returned to Parliament for 
 Finsbury in 1859. Sir S. Morton Peto visited the United 
 States in 1865, and published "The Resources and Pros- 
 pects of America," (1866.) 
 
 PetSfi or Petoefi, peY6-fee, (Sandor, or Alexan- 
 der,) a Hungarian poet and litterateur, born in Little 
 Cumania in 1822. He published in 1847 a number of 
 patriotic songs, which enjoyed great popularity and had 
 a powerful influence in exciting the revolutionary feeling 
 of his countrymen. He also wrote several dramas and 
 prose works. His lyrics and odes display uncommon 
 genius, and have procured for him the name of "the 
 Hungarian Burns." He is supposed to have been 
 killed at the battle of Schassburg, (1849.) 
 
 See Kertbenv, " Petoefy der Ungarische Nationaldichter ;" 
 Chassin, " Petoefy et ses CEuvres," 1861. 
 
 Petrarca. See Petrarch. 
 
 Pe'trar€h, [It. Petrarca, pa-tRaR'ka; Fr. Pk- 
 trarque, pa'tRtRk'; Lat. Petrar'cha,] (Francesco,) a 
 celebrated Italian poet, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, 
 on the 20th of July, 1304. His father, a friend of Dante, 
 was banished from Florence in 1302 for his political 
 principles, and removed in 1313 to Avignon, which was 
 then the residence of the pope. He was sent to study 
 law at Montpellier, where he remained about four years, 
 (1318-22;) but he preferred the study of the classic au- 
 thors, especially Cicero and Virgil, lie made, however, 
 some progress in law under Cino da Pistoia at Bologna. 
 His fine personal and mental endowments procured for 
 him admission into the brilliant society of Avignon. He 
 was so handsome as to attract observation as he walked 
 in the streets. He was patronized by Cardinal Colonna, 
 and was an intimate friend of Giacomo Colonna, a 
 brother of the cardinal. 
 
 In 1327 his heart for the first time was touched by a 
 violent and profound passion. He has recorded the 
 place, the day, and the hour in which he first saw Laura 
 de Sade, a daughter of Audibert de Noves, and the wife 
 of Hugh de Sade,— a lady distinguished by her rank, 
 but more by her beauty and modesty. With consum- 
 mate tact, she contrived, by a mixture of reserve, discre- 
 tion, and sympathy, to preserve him and herself from the 
 fatal consequences of his wayward passion. "She took 
 my heart into her hand," he writes, "saying, 'Speak no 
 word of this.'" By her pure and excellent example his 
 passion appears to have been purified and exalted ; but 
 
 I, e, I, o, 3, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mJt; not ; good; moon; 
 
PETRARCH 
 
 '779 
 
 PETRIE 
 
 his admiration of her never abated, and the 'whole tenor 
 of his life was changed by her influence. He sought re- 
 lief by the composition of the sonnets andcanzoni which 
 have rendered the name of Laura immortal. She ac- 
 cepted this homage, which the usage of that age sanc- 
 tioned, and was, perhaps, proud of his admiration. He 
 passed much time in collecting, collating, and copying 
 ancient manuscripts. We owe to him the preservation 
 of many Latin authors which were # buried in the dust of 
 monastic libraries. About 1335 he visited Rome, the 
 ruins of which made a deep impression on him. He 
 also travelled in France, Germany, and Spain. He dis- 
 covered two orations of Cicero at Liege, the " Institu- 
 tions" of Quintilian at Arezzo, and Cicero's " Familiar 
 Letters" at Verona. Petrarch corresponded with the 
 most eminent scholars of his time, founded the library 
 of Saint Mark at Venice, and was one of the principal 
 revivers of classical literature in Italy. 
 
 About 1336 he retired to Vaucluse, a romantic valley 
 near Avignon, where he passed several years in solitude 
 and in vain efforts to forget his unhappy passion. Here 
 he meditated a great work which should be worthy of 
 his genius, and commenced a Latin epic poem, of which 
 Scipio Africanus was the hero. This poem, entitled 
 "Africa," is inferior to his Italian sonnets. In 1340 he 
 accepted an invitation from the Roman senate to come 
 to Rome and receive the laurel crown of poetry. He 
 was crowned at the Capitol in 1341. Petrarch appears 
 to have had much influence with several potentates of 
 his time. He exerted his eloquence to induce successive 
 popes to transfer the papal court from Avignon to Rome. 
 He was the colleague of the famous Rienzi in an embassy 
 sent by the Romans to Clement VI. for that purpose. 
 He became Archdeacon of Parma, and canon of several 
 cathedrals. His love of independence caused him to de- 
 cline the office of apostolic secretary and the dignity of 
 bishop. In 1342 he met Laura, whose beauty had faded, 
 and who was not happy in her domestic relations. Her 
 husband was jealous and ill-tempered. Laura sang to 
 Petrarch, and parted from him with emotion and regret. 
 
 The death of Laura, which occurred in 1348, inspired 
 a new series of beautiful and exquisite sonnets, the 
 melody and pathos of which have probably never been 
 surpassed. It is reported that she died on the anni- 
 versary of the day and hour that he first saw her. 
 Between 1350 and 1360 he resided at the court of Vis- 
 conti, Lord of Milan, who employed him in diplomatic 
 missions to Venice, to the Emperor of Germany, and 
 to the King of France. Among his intimate friends 
 at this period was Boccaccio. In 1370, for the sake 
 of retirement and the restoration of his health, he fixed 
 his residence at Arqua, among the Euganean Hills, 
 north of Padua. He was found dead in his library at 
 Arqua on the 19th of July, 1374.* He left, besides other 
 prose works in Latin, a treatise " On Contempt of the 
 World," (" De Contemptu Mundi,") and many epistles, 
 which are highly prized as memorials of important events 
 which he witnessed. He had composed in praise of 
 Laura above three hundred sonnets and fifty canzoni. 
 Among his most perfect productions is "The Triumph 
 of Death," ("Trionfo della Morte,") a poem, in which 
 he describes the death of Laura. The most complete 
 edition of Petrarch's works is that published at Bale. (2 
 vols, fol., 1581.) It contains, besides his Italian and 
 Latin poems, and the works already named in this notice, 
 "De Vera Sapientia," " De Officio et Virtutibus Impe- 
 ratoris," and " Vitarum Virorum IUustrinm Epitome." 
 
 "The peculiar charm of Petrarch's character," says 
 one of his biographers, "is warmth of heart and a native 
 ingenuousness of disposition, which readily laid bare 
 his soul to those around." He was a believer in re- 
 
 • His epitaph, as given by some writers, is a curious specimen of 
 Latin versification, — rhyming hexameters: 
 
 " Frigida Francisci lapis hie tegit ossa Petrarch®. 
 Suscipe Virgo Parens animam : Sale Virgine parce ; 
 Fessaque jam terris cceli requiescat in arce." 
 (See " Bibliolheca Vetus et Nova," by G. M. Konig, Altdorf, 
 1678.) 
 
 The following is a nearly literal translation: "This stone covers 
 the cold bones of Francis Petrarch. Virgin Mother, receive his 
 soul : O thou Son of the Virgin, have mercy ; and may (his soul,] 
 weary with earth, now find repose in the citadel of heaven." 
 
 vealed religion; but he often protested openly agains 
 the corruptions of the papal court. 
 
 See L. Beccadei.li, " Vita di Petrarca." (translated into English 
 by W. Pvk, 1766 ;) L. Arrtimo, "Vita di Petrarca," 1672 ; Fernow, 
 " F. Petrarca, nebst dem Leben des Dichters," 1818; Tomasini, 
 " Petrarcha Redivivus," 1635 and 1650; AbbedkSade, "M^moires 
 pour la Vie de Petrarque," 3 vols., 1764-67 ; Fabroni, " Petrarcha; 
 Vita," 1790: Levati, "Viaggi di F. Petrarca," 5 vols., 1820: Ugo 
 Foscolo, " Essay on Petrarch ;*' Longfellow, *' Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe," 1825: Thomas Campbell " Life of Petrarch," 1841 ; 
 " Lives of Eminent Men of Italy," in Lardner's " Cabinet of Biog- 
 raphy ;" Gibbon, "Decline and Fall," chap. Ixx. : S. Dobson, 
 "Life of Petrarch," 2 vols., 1775: Meinar-t, "Franc. Petrarca's 
 Iiiografie," 1794: Lord Woodhouselee, "Essay, Historical and 
 Critical, on the Life and Writings of Petrarch," 1810: Ersch und 
 Gkuber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie :" Prescott, "Miscellanies," 
 p. 616 ; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1843. 
 
 Petrarcha. See Petrarch. 
 
 Petrarque. See Petrarch. 
 
 Petrazzi, pi-tRat'see, (Astolfo,) an Italian painter 
 of the Siennese school, was born in 1579; died in 1653. 
 
 Petre, peVtr or pe'ter, (Edward,) an English Jesuit, 
 born about 1631. He was confessor or clerk of the closet 
 to James II., over whom he is said to have exerted an 
 evil influence in political affairs. Died in 1699. 
 
 Petre, (Sir William,) an English statesman, born in 
 Devonshire. He became a Fellow of All Souls' College, 
 Oxford, in 1523, and afterwards master of requests. 
 About 1543 he was appointed secretary of state. He 
 held a high office in the reign of Edward VI., and was 
 secretary of state during the reign of Mary. Died in 1572. 
 
 Pe-tre'X-us, (Marcus,) a Roman general, to whom 
 the victory over Catiline (62 n.c.) is ascribed. He was 
 a partisan of the senate in the civil war, fought against 
 Caesar at Pharsalia, and commanded (with Afranius) 
 in Spain, where he was defeated by Caesar in 49 B.C. 
 He killed himself in Africa in 46 B.C., or was killed by 
 Juba in accordance with an agreement that they should 
 kill each other. 
 
 See Dion Cassiits, " History of Rome," books xli.-xliii. 
 
 Petrettini, pa-tret-tee'nee, (Spiridion,) an Italian 
 classical scholar, born at Corfu in 1777, became a resi- 
 dent of Venice. He translated Velleius Patercnlus into 
 Italian. Died in 1833. 
 
 Petri, pa'tRee, [in Flemish, Peeters, pa'ters,! (Bar- 
 tholomew,) a Flemish theologian, born in Brabant 
 about 1545. He was professor at Louvain and Douai. 
 Died in 1630. 
 
 Petri, pa'tRee, (Bernhard,) a German rural econo- 
 mist, born at Deux-Ponts in 1767. He wrote several 
 works on the raising of sheep, and made improvements 
 in the rural economy of Germany. Ditd in 1842. 
 
 Petri, pa'tRee, (Christiern,) a Danish divine, who 
 published in 1529 a Danish version of the New Testa- 
 ment. 
 
 Petri, pa'tRee, or Peterson, pa'ter-son, (Lars,) the 
 first Protestant Archbishop of Upsal, was born at 
 Oerebro in 1499. He studied under Luther at Witten- 
 berg, and became archbishop in 1531. With the aid of 
 his brother Olaus and L. Andreae, he produced a Swedish 
 translation of the Bible, (1541.) He published several 
 works of theology. Died in 1573. 
 
 See "Biographiskt-Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Petri, (Olaus,) a brother of the preceding, was born 
 in 1497, and was a zealous preacher of the Reformed 
 religion. He became first minister of Stockholm in 
 1539. He published some religious works. Died in 1552. 
 
 Petri, pa'tRee, (Suffrid or Suffridus,) a Dutch 
 philologist, born in Friesland in 1527. He obtained a 
 chair of law at Cologne in 1577. He was very learned, 
 but was deficient in taste and critical ability. Among 
 his works are "Orations on the Utility of the Greek 
 Language," (1566,) and "On the Writers of Friesland," 
 ("De Scriptoribus Frisias Decades," 1593.) Died at 
 Cologne in 1597. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires ;" Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis." 
 
 Petrie, pee'tre, ? (Dr. George,) an Irish antiquary, 
 born at Dublin in 1791, was the author of an "Essay on 
 the Round Towers of Ireland," which obtained for him 
 the gold medal of the Royal Irish Academy. He also 
 published an "Essay on the Military Antiquities of Ire- 
 land." Died in 1866. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for September, 1845 ; " Era- 
 ser's Magazine" for July, 1858. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (St^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PETRIE 
 
 1780 
 
 PEYRARD 
 
 Petrie, pee'ti e, ? (Henry,) an English antiquary, born 
 in 1768, became keeper of the chancery records in the 
 Tower. He collected materials for the history of Great 
 Britain, of which two volumes were published, (1830-48.) 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Petrini, pa-tRee'nee, (Pietro Antonio,) an Italian 
 translator, born at Palestrina in 1722. Among his works 
 is a good version of Horace's "DeArte Poetica," (1777-) 
 Died in 1803. . „ 
 
 Petrof, Petrov, or Petrow, pa'tRof, (Vassili Pe- 
 TROVITCH,) a Russian poet, born at Moscow in 1736. He 
 wrote odes and other poems, which have some merit, 
 and translated Virgil's " ,'Eneid" into Russian, (1781-86.) 
 He became imperial librarian about 1775. Died in 1799. 
 
 Petrone. See Petronius Arbiter, 
 
 Petroni or Petronj, pa-tRo'nee, (Stefano Egidio,) 
 an Italian poet, born near Perugia in 1770. Among his 
 works is "The Napoleonid : a Lyrical-Numismatical 
 Poem," ("La Napoleonide; Poeme lyrique-numisma- 
 tique," 1810.) Died about 1845. 
 
 Pe-tro'nI-us, [Fr. Petrone, pi'tRon',] or, more fully, 
 Petro'niua Ar'biter, a licentious Latin writer, sup- 
 posed to have lived in the reign of Nero. He described 
 the vices of his time in a satire or novel, in mingled 
 prose and verse, entitled "Satyricon," fragments of 
 which are extant. His style is classical, and the work 
 displays much talent, but is extremely licentious. The 
 author of this is supposed to be identical with Petronius, 
 a refined voluptuary who figured at the court of Nero as 
 arbiter elegantia, (umpire of fashion and taste,) and who 
 killed himself in 66 A.D. 
 
 See Tacitus, " Annales," book xvi. : J. C. von Orei.i.i, "Lec- 
 tiones Petronianae." 1836; Dunlop, " History of Fiction;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Petrunti, pa-tRoon'tee, (Francesco,) a skilful Italian 
 surgeon, born at Campobasso in 1785. He practised at 
 Naples, and wrote a "Treatise on Surgery," (2 vols., 
 1822.) Died in 1839. 
 
 Petrus, the Latin for Peter, which see. 
 
 Petrus Aponis. See Arano, (Pietro di.) 
 
 Petrus Blesensis. See Peter of Bums. 
 
 Pe'trus Patricius (pa-trish'e-us) et Mag'Is-ter, a 
 Byzantine historian of the sixth century, was born at 
 Thessalonica. He wrote a work on the history of the 
 empire under Tiberius and several of his successors, 
 some portions of which have been preserved. 
 
 Petter, pet'ter, (Anton,) a German painter of history, 
 born at Vienna in 1783. He gained the grand prize for 
 his " Death of Aristides," and became director of the 
 Academv of Vienna in 1830. He painted manv clas- 
 sical subjects. He excels in harmony and brilliancy 
 of colouring. 
 
 Pettigrew, pet'te-gru, (Thomas Joseph,) an English 
 surgeon, antiquary, and biographer, born in London in 
 1790. He was admitted to the College of Surgeons in 
 1812. He published, besides other works, a "History 
 of Egyptian Mummies," (1834,) a "Medical Portrait- 
 Gallery, or Memoirs of Celebrated Physicians and Sur- 
 geons," a " Life of Lord Nelson," and a work " On 
 Superstitions connected with the Practice of Medicine," 
 (1844.) Died in 1865. 
 
 Pettiti, p2t-tee'tee, Count, an Italian general, was 
 second chief of the staff in the army led by the king 
 against the Austrians in June, 1866. 
 
 Pettrich, pSt'tRlK, (Franz,) a Bohemian sculptor, 
 born in 1770, became professor in the Academy of Arts 
 at Dresden. Died in 1844. His son Ferdinand, born 
 at Dresden in 1798, studied under Thorwaldsen at Rome. 
 He has produced several works of superior merit. 
 
 Pet'tus, (Sir John,) an English writer, born in Suf- 
 folk. He became deputy governor of the royal mines, 
 and published "The History, Laws, and Places of the 
 Chief Mines in England and Wales," (1670.) Died 
 about 1690. 
 
 Petty, (Henry.) See Lansdowne. 
 
 Petty, (William.) See Shei.burne. 
 
 Pet'ty, (Sir William,) an eminent English political 
 economist, was born at Romsey, in Hampshire, in 
 1623. He became professor of anatomy ft Oxford in 
 1650, and physician of the army in Ireland in 1652. He 
 served Henry Cromwell as secretary while he was lord 
 
 lieutenant of Ireland, about 1655. His reputation is 
 founded on his writings on commerce and political 
 economy, on which subjects he was in advance of his 
 age. Among his works are a "Treatise on Taxes and 
 Contributions," (1662,) "Political Arithmetic," (1682,) 
 and "The Political Anatomy of Ireland," (1692.) One 
 of his sons became Baron Shelburne. Died in 16S7. 
 
 See a " Notice of Sir William Petty," prefixed to his " Political 
 Arithmetic," by his son : Wood, " Athena: Oxonienses." 
 
 Pet'tjft or Pet'yt, (William,) an English writer on 
 law, born in Yorkshire in 1636. He was keeper of the 
 records of the Tower. Among his works is " Parliament- 
 ary Law," ("Jus Parliamentarium," 1739.) Died in 1707. 
 
 'Peucer, poits'er, [Lat. Peucf/rus,] (Kaspar,) a 
 German scholar and physician of high reputation, born 
 at Bautzen in 1625, married a daughter of Melanchthon. 
 He became professor of medicine at Wittenberg about 
 1559. Having offended the Lutherans by advocating 
 some doctrines of Melanchthon, he was confined in prison 
 about eleven years, (1574-85,) and treated with rigour. 
 He wrote numerous works on geometry, theology, and 
 medicine; also an account of his imprisonment, "His- 
 toria Carcerum Peuceri," (1604.) Died in 1602. 
 
 See Leupold, " Lebensbeschreibung Peucers," 1745 ; Heimburg, 
 "De Casp. Peucero," 1S42; Niceron, " AMinoires ;" Ekscii und 
 Gri'rer, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 Peucerus. See Peucer. 
 
 Peii-ces'tas or Peu-kea'tas, [Gr. newteorac,] an offi- 
 cer of Alexander the Great. He attended that princess 
 person in the expedition against Persia, and gained his 
 favour in a high degree. He was appointed satrap of 
 Persia in 331 or 330 B.C., and joined Alexander's army 
 at Babylon with about 20,000 Persians in 323. Having 
 co-operated with Eumenes against Antigonus, he was 
 deprived of his satrapy by the latter in 316 B.C. 
 
 Peuchet, pwh'shi', (Jacques,) a French litterateur, 
 born in Paris in 1758. He published, besides other 
 works, "Statistics of France and its Colonies," (7 vols., 
 1803,) "Commercial Library," ("Bibliotheque commer- 
 ciale," 12 vols., 1802-06,) and a " Dictionary of Political 
 Economy," (4 vols., 1810.) Died in 1830. 
 
 Peuk'estas. See Peucestas. 
 
 Feurbacb. See Purrach. 
 
 Peut, puh, (Francois Marie Hippoi.yte,) a French 
 publicist and economist, born at Lyons in 1809. He 
 published several journals and pamphlets. 
 
 Peuteman, puh'teh-man', (Niklaas or Pieter,) a 
 Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam about 1654. He 
 painted, with success, still life, cemeteries, and allegori- 
 cal subjects. His death was hastened by fright. As he 
 was working in an anatomical cabinet, he fell asleep 
 among some skeletons. On awaking, he was horrified 
 by seeing them move rapidly and jostle against each 
 other. This was the effect of the earthquake of Sep- 
 tember 18, 1692. He died the same month. 
 
 Peutinger, pii'tin-ger, [Ger. pron. poi'ting'er; Lat. 
 Pkutinoe'rus,] (Conrad,) an eminent German scholar 
 and antiquary, born at Augsburg in 1465. He was secre- 
 tary of the city of Augsburg, and councillor to the empe- 
 ror Maximilian. He was a diligent collector of statues, 
 medals, inscriptions, etc., and is called the founder in 
 Germany of the science of Roman and German antiqui- 
 ties. He published "Convivial Discourses," ("Sermones 
 conviviales," 1506,) "Old Roman Inscriptions," ("In- 
 scriptiones vetustae Romanae," 1520,) and other works. 
 Died in 1547. 
 
 See J C. Wendler, " De Vita et Meritis Pentingeri ;" Lotter, 
 "Vita Pentingeri," i72g; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Peutingerus. See Peutinger. 
 
 Peyer, pi'er, (Johann Conrad,) a Swiss anatomist, 
 born at Schaffhausen in 1653. He was professor of 
 logic and physical sciences at his native place, and 
 wrote several works on anatomy. He was the first who 
 described accurately the small bodies called Peyer's 
 glands. Died in 1712. 
 
 Peyrard, p^'riV, (Francois,) a French mathema- 
 tician, born at Vial (Haute-Loire) in 1760. He pub- 
 lished a treatise " On Nature and its Laws," (4th edition, 
 1794,) and other works. His translations of the works 
 of Archimedes (1807) and of Euclid (3 vols., 1814-18) 
 are said to be the best in the French language. Died 
 in 1822. 
 
 i.e.I o G, y, /ok«v a, e, 6,same,less prolonged; a, e, 1,6, xy,^, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met;n6t; good; moon; 
 
PEYRAT 
 
 1 78 1 
 
 PFEIFFER 
 
 Peyrat, p.YrS', (Ai.phonse,) a French journalist and 
 political writer, born at Toulouse in 1812. He became 
 an assistant editor of Girardin's " Presse" about 1S44. 
 
 Peyre, pSR, (An wine Francois,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1739. He gained the grand prize in 
 1763, and became a member of the Institute. He pub- 
 lished some works on architecture. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Quatremkre us Quincv, " Notice sur A. F. Peyre," 1824. 
 
 Peyre, (Antoine Marie,) an architect, born in Paris 
 in 1770, was a nephew of the preceding. He was ap- 
 pointed architect of the Palais de Justice in 1809. Among 
 his works are the Salle de Spectacle of Soissons, and the 
 restorations or additions to the Palais de Justice in Paris. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Peyre, (Marie Joseph,) a French architect, father 
 of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1730. He pub- 
 lished "Architectural Works," ("CEuvres d' Architec- 
 ture," 1765.) Peyre and Wailly were architects of the 
 theatre of Paris called the Odeon. Died in 1785. 
 
 Peyrere, de la, deh \i pYraiR', (Isaac,) a French 
 writer, born at Bordeaux in 1594. He published, be- 
 sides other works, one entitled " Pre- Adamites," (" Prse- 
 adamitae," 1655,) in which he maintained that some men 
 were created before Adam. Died in 1676. 
 
 Peyrilhe, pi'Rel' or p&re'ye, (Bernard,) a French 
 physician, was born at Pompiguan in 1737 ; died in 1804. 
 
 Peyron, p&'r6N', (Jean Franqois Pierre,) a French 
 historical painter, born at Aix, in Provence, in 1744. 
 He gained the grand prize in 1773, studied the antique 
 in Rome, and promoted the reformation of the French 
 school. Died in 18 14. 
 
 Peyron, p&'r6N', (Victor Amedee.) Aimg, an Ori- 
 entalist, born at Turin in 1785. He published a " Lexicon 
 of the Coptic Language," (1835,) and other works. 
 
 Peyronie. See La Peyronie. 
 
 Peyronnet, de, deh p,Yro'n&', (Chari.es Icnace,) 
 Count, a French politician and lawyer, born at Bor- 
 deaux in 1778. He was minister of justice from 1821 to 
 January, 1828, and became minister of the interim in 
 May, 1830. He procured in 1825 the passage of a very 
 unpopular and odious law against sacrilege. Having 
 been convicted of treason in 1830, he was imprisoned 
 six years in the fortress of Ham. Died in 1854. 
 
 Peyssonel, pj'so'nel', (Charles,) an antiquary, 
 father of the following, was born at Marseilles in 1700. 
 He explored the coasts of Asia Minor, where he col- 
 lected marbles. He wrote a "Memoir on the Kings 
 of Bosphorus," and "Travels in the Levant." Died 
 in 1757. 
 
 Peyssonel, (Charles,) a French political writer, 
 born at Marseilles in 1727. He was consul at Smyrna 
 and in the Crimea. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "The Numbers," ("Les Numeros," 4 vols., 1784.) and 
 "The Political Situation of France, and its Relations 
 with all the Powers of Europe," (2 vols., 1790.) Died 
 in 1790. 
 
 Peyton, pa'ton, (Baillie,) an American lawyer and 
 orator, born in Sumner county, Tennessee. He repre- 
 sented a district of Tennessee in Congress from 1833 to 
 1837, voted with the Whigs, and was sent as minister to 
 Chili about 1850. 
 
 Pezarese, II, a name of the painter Cantarini. (See 
 CantaSINI.) 
 
 Pezay, de, deh peh-zi', (Alexandre Frederic 
 Jacques Masson — miTsoN',) Marquis.3 French writer 
 of prose and verse, born at Versailles in 1741. He gave 
 lessons in tactics to Louis XVI. Among his works are 
 "Series of Trifles," ("Suite des Bagatelles," 1767.) and 
 "Helvetian Evenings," (" Les Soirees flelvetieuhes," 
 1771.) Voltaite addressed to him some verses. Died 
 in 1777. 
 
 Pezenas, peVna' or peh-z$h-na', (Esprit,) a French 
 Tesuit and mathematician, born at Avignon in 1692. 
 He published "Memoirs on Mathematics and Physics," 
 (5 vols., 1756,) an "Astronomy for Mariners," (1766,) 
 and other works." Died in J 770. 
 
 Pezet, pa-theV, (General Juan Antonio,) a Peruvian 
 statesman, who became vice-president of Peru in Octo- 
 ber, 1862, and at the death of San Ramon succeeded to 
 the presidency, in April. 1863. He was removed, or 
 ceased to be president, about the end of 1865. 
 
 Pezron, pez'rdN', (Paul,) an able French chronolo- 
 gist and philologist, born in Bretagne in 1639. He wrote 
 " The Antiquity of the World (des Temps) Restored 
 and Defended," (1687,) in which he argued that the 
 world was created 5872 years before the Christian era. 
 Died in 1706. 
 
 Pfaff, pfaf, (Christoph Matthaus,) an eminent Ger- 
 man Protestant theologian, born at Stuttgart in 1686, 
 was a man of great erudition. He became professor of 
 theology at Tubingen in 1717, and received the title of 
 count palatine in 1724. He wrote (in Latin) numerous 
 works, among which are " Institutions of Dogmatic and 
 Moral Theology," (1719,) remarkable for mental inde- 
 pendence, and "Introduction to the Literary History of 
 Theology," (1720.) He became dean of the faculty at 
 Giessen in 1756. Died in 1760. 
 
 See Lhporin, " Nachricht von C. M. Pfaffens Leben," etc., 1726 ; 
 HiRsciliNG. " Historisch-literariscbes Handbuch." 
 
 Pfaff, (Johann Christoph,) father of the preceding, 
 was born in Wiirtemberg in 163 1. He was professor of 
 theology at Tubingen, and wrote several works. Died 
 in 1720. 
 
 Pfaff (Johann Friedrich,) a mathematician, born 
 at Stuttgart in 1765. He became professor of mathe- 
 matics at Halle in 1810. Among his works are " Ana- 
 lytic Essays mostly relating to the Integral Calculus," 
 etc., (1797.) Died at Halle in 1S25. 
 
 Pfaff, (Karl,) a German historian, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, published a " History of Wiirtemberg," (2 vols., 
 1818-21,) and other histories. 
 
 Pfanuer, pfan'ner, (Tobias,) a German historian, born 
 at Augsburg in 1641. He was keeper of the archives at 
 Gotha. Among his works is a " History of the Peace 
 of Westphalia," (1679.) Died in 1716. 
 
 Pfeffel, pfSffel, (Christian Friedrich von Krie- 
 gelstein — fon ki<ee'gel-stin',) a historian, born at Col- 
 mar, Upper Rhine, in 1726. His chief work is a 
 "Chronological Epitome of the History of the Public 
 Law of Germany," in French, (1754; 5th edition, 1766.) 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Pfeffel, (Gottlieb Konrad,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man fabulist and poet, brother of the preceding, born 
 at Colmar in 1736, became blind while pursuing his 
 studies at Halle. He was appointed in 1803 president 
 of the Evangelical Consistory at Colmar. Died in 1809. 
 
 See Rieder, " G. C. Pl'effe] ; bioccrapliischer Versuch," 1820; 
 Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Euro|ie." 
 
 Pfefferkorn, pfJf'fer-koRn', (Johann,) a German Jew, 
 who was converted to Christianity, and, in excess of zeal, 
 advised the emperor to burn all Jewish books except the 
 Bible. He lived about 1500. 
 
 Pfeiffer, pfif'fer, (Augustus,) a German scholar, and 
 professc.-of Oriental literature at Leipsic, was born in 
 Lower Saxony in 1640. He wrote a number of works 
 in relation to Jewish antiquities and Biblical criticism. 
 Died in 1698. 
 
 See J. E. Pfeiffer, " Memoria A. Pfeifferi," 1700. 
 
 Pfeiffer, (Burchard Wilhelm,) a German jurist and 
 publicist, born at Cassel in 1777. He published "Prac- 
 tical Deductions concerning all Parts of Jurisprudence," 
 (8 vols., 1825-46,) and other works. Died in 1852. 
 
 Pfeiffer, fT'fer, (Carl,) a skilful architect, born in 
 Brunswick, Germany, in 1834. At the age of sixteen he 
 came to the United States, and passed several years as 
 assistant architect in Ohio and other parts of the West. 
 He afterwards spent four years in the same capacity in 
 the city of New Vork. In 1864 he commenced business 
 on his own account, and soon acquired a high reputation 
 as an excellent architect. Among the buildings designed 
 and erected by him are the church of the Messiahythe 
 Roosevelt Hospital, and the mansion of Mr. Barroda, 
 one of the largest houses in New York, and, for its 
 admirable arrangement, probably unsurpassed, if not 
 unequalled, by any other private dwelling in the United 
 States. His plans have recently been accepted for the 
 New Citv Hospital, and other public buildings belonging 
 to New Vork City. 
 
 Pfeiffer, pfif'fer, (Francois Louis,) a Swiss general, 
 born at Lucerne in 1716. He served with distinction in 
 the French army, ( 1 734— 75- ) Died in 1802. 
 
 c as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (ftySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PFEIFFER 
 
 1782 
 
 PHARNABAZUS 
 
 Pfeiffer, (Ida,) Madame, a celebrated German trav- 
 eller, born in Vienna about 1795. She set out in March, 
 1842, for Asia Minor, where she spent nearly a year, and 
 in 1845 made the tour of Sweden, Norway, and Iceland. 
 In 1846 she undertook a journey round the world, which 
 she accomplished in .1 little more than two years, after 
 encountering great hardships and dangers. She pub- 
 lished in 1850 "A Woman's Journey round the World, 
 from Vienna to Brazil, Chili, Tahiti, China, Hindostan," 
 etc. In 1851 she entered upon a second journey, having 
 received for this purpose a sum of money from the Aus- 
 trian government. Her account of this expedition ap- 
 peared in 1855, under the title of " A Second Voyage 
 round the World, from London to the Cape of Good 
 Hope, Borneo, the Moluccas, California, Peru, and the 
 United States." Died in 1858. 
 
 Pfeiffer, (Johann Frif.drich,) a German economist, 
 born at Berlin in 1718. He wrote many works on rural 
 and political economy, among which is a "Treatise on 
 all the Economical Sciences," (4 vols., 1770-78.) Died 
 in 1787. 
 
 Pfeiffer, (Louis,) a Swiss general, born at Lucerne in 
 1530. He fought for Charles IX. of France against the 
 Huguenots. Died in 1594. 
 
 Pfeiffer, (Louis Gkorg Kari.,) a German naturalist 
 and physician, a son of Burchard Wilhelm, noticed above, 
 was born at Cassel in 1805. He published a number 
 of treatises on botany and conchyliology, among which 
 may be named "Monograph of Living Snails," ("Mono- 
 graphia Heliceorum Viventium," 3 vols., 1847-53,) a "d 
 a " Flora of Hesse," (2 vols., 1847-55.) 
 
 Pfenninger, pfen'ning-er, (Henri,) a Swiss engraver, 
 born at Zurich in 1749. He engraved portraits for 
 Lavater's " Physiognomy," which are admired. Died 
 in 1815. 
 
 Pfenninger, (MATTHIAS,) a Swiss designer and en- 
 graver, born at Zurich in 1739. He engraved Swiss 
 landscapes with skill. Died about 1810. 
 
 Pfiuzing or Pfintzing, pffnt'sing, (Mki.chior,) a 
 German poet, born at Nuremberg in 1481. He com- 
 posed a dull poem called "The Adventures of Theuer- 
 dank," (1517.) This edition was adorned with more 
 than one hundred fine engravings, and was a master- 
 piece of typography. Died in 1535. 
 
 Pfister, pfls'ter, (Albrecht,) a German printer, born 
 about 1420. He made use of movable types ; but it is 
 not known whether he was an assistant of Gutenberg or 
 invented them himself. His principal work is a Latin 
 36-line Bible, in 3 vols. fol. Died about 1470. 
 
 Pfiater, (Johann Christian,) a German historian, 
 born near Marbach in 1772. He wrote a " History of 
 Suabia," (5 vols., 1803-27,) and a " History of the Ger- 
 mans," (5 vols., 1830-35.) He became minister of a 
 church at Stuttgart, where he died in 1835. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruhbr, " Allgemeine Encyklnpaedie." 
 Pfizer, pflt'ser, (Gustav,) a German critic and littera- 
 teur, born at Stuttgart in 1807. Among his principal 
 works are a " Life of Martin Luther," an " Essay on 
 Uhland and Riickert," (1837,) and a " History of Alex- 
 ander the Great, for the Young," (1846.) 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 Pfizer, (Paul Achatius, ) a German publicist, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Stuttgart in 
 1801. 
 
 Pforr, pfoR, (Johann Georg,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man painter of animals, was born at Upfen, in Saxony, 
 in 1745. He painted horses, hunting-scenes, battles, etc. 
 with much skill. Died in 1798. 
 Phadl. See Fadl. 
 
 Phseax, fee'aks, [*<Ka£,] an Athenian orator, who 
 was sent as ambassador to Sicily in 422 B.C. He is men- 
 tioned by Plutarch as one of the two persons capable 
 of competing in some degree with Alcibiades, — i.e. when 
 the latter first .entered the public service. 
 
 Phsedon, fee'don, or Pheedo, fee'do, ["Wowv,] a 
 Greek philosopher, born at Elis. He came to Athens 
 about 400 B.C., and was a disciple of Socrates, after whose 
 death he founded a school of philosophy at Elis. His 
 writings have not come down to us. The name of Phae- 
 don is the title of a celebrated dialogue of Plato. 
 See Diogenes Laertius; Suidas, "Phadon." 
 
 Phaedra, fee'dra, [Gr. QaiApa ; Fr. Phedre, ftdR,] a 
 daughter of Minos and Pasiphae, was the wife of The- 
 seus, King of Athens. She is said to have indulged a 
 guilty passion for her step-son Hippolytus, and to have 
 caused his death by a false accusation. 
 
 Phaedrus, fee'drus, [Gr. *<uupoc ; Fr. Phedre, f|dR,] 
 a Greek Epicurean philosopher, was a friend of Cicero. 
 He was the head of the Epicurean school at Athens from 
 80 to 70 B.C., and wrote a work which Cicero used freely 
 in composing the first book of his "Natura Deorum." 
 
 Phaedrus, a Latin fabulist, who wrote about 20 or 30 
 A.D., was originally a slave. He was probably born in 
 Thrace or Macedonia. It is supposed that he belonged 
 to Augustus, and was liberated by him. He left ninety- 
 seven fables in iambic verse, the subjects and ideas of 
 which are partly borrowed from /Esop. They are ad- 
 mired for the purity and simplicity of the style. 
 
 See Lindner, " Bemerkungen liber den Phaedrus," 17S2; 
 Schwabe, "Vita Phaedri," 1S06. 
 
 Pha'er, (Thomas,) a Welsh poet and physician, born 
 in Pembrokeshire. He translated the first nine books 
 of Virgil's " /Eneid" into English verse. Died in 1560. 
 
 Pha'e-thon or Pha'e-tdn, [Gr. QaeOav; Fr. Phae- 
 thon, fa"a't6N',] a mythical personage, called a son of 
 Helios (the Sun) or Phcebus. His name signifies "the 
 Shining." The poets feigned that, in his youthful pre- 
 sumption, he persuaded his father to permit him to guide 
 for one day the chariot of the sun, that he was unable 
 to control the fiery coursers, which ran out of the right 
 course and came too near the earth, that Jupiter killed 
 Phaethon with a thunderbolt, and he fell into the river Po. 
 
 Phalanthe. See Phai.anthus. 
 
 Pha-lan'thus, [Gr. biiXavtiog ; Fr. Phalanthe, fi'- 
 16Nt',[ a Spartan chief, who founded a Greek colony at 
 Tarentum about 708 B.C., and subdued the natives of the 
 adjacent country. 
 
 Fhal'a-ris, [Gr. *«Aap<c,] a ruler of Agrigentum, in 
 Sicily, notorious for his cruelty. He began to reign 
 about 570 B.C., according to Eusebius and Suidas. He 
 rendered his name infamous by burning his victims in 
 a brazen bull. Tradition adds that he was deposed by 
 Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron, and suffered the 
 same cruel death which he had inflicted on others. Cer- 
 tain epistles ascribed to Phalaris were the subjects of 
 a celebrated controversy between Boyle and Bentley, 
 who demonstrated them to be spurious. 
 
 See Suidas, " Phalaris :" Cicero, " De Officiis," ii. and iii. 
 
 Phalereus. See Demetrius Phalereus. 
 
 Pha'nI-as [taw'of] or Phaenias, fee'ne-as, [Qcuvias,] 
 a Greek philosopher, born in Lesbos, was one of the 
 most eminent disciples of Aristotle, and was a friend of 
 Theophrastus. He wrote many works on logic, history, 
 etc. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Gratis;" Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca 
 Graeca." 
 
 Phan'o-cles, [te(K%,] a Greek elegiac poet, who 
 lived probably between 350 and 300 B.C. He wrote a 
 poem called "Epwrfc 7} KaAoi, of which a fragment is 
 extant. This is much admired by some critics. 
 
 See Smith, "Greek and Roman Biography," etc. 
 
 Phan-o-de'mus, [^aiwlj^oc,] an Athenian historian 
 of uncertain period. He lived before the Christian era. 
 He wrote a work on the antiquities of Attica, entitled 
 'Artfe'f, of which fragments are extant. 
 
 Pha'on, [Gr. 4>uuv,j a mariner or boatman of Lesbos, 
 celebrated as a favourite of Sappho. According to the 
 fable, Venus endowed him with youth and beauty because 
 he once carried her across the water without charge. 
 
 Phar'a-mond, a king of the Franks, who is sup- 
 posed to have reigned in the first half of the fifth cen- 
 tury. His history is involved in obscurity, and is the 
 subject of some romances. The first historian who 
 mentions him is Prosper Tyro. 
 
 Pharnabaze. See Pharnabazus. 
 
 Phar-na-ba'zus, [Gr. 4>apuS<oc ; Fr. Pharnabaze, 
 faVnt'btz',] a Persian satrap, governed the provinces 
 near the Hellespont, under Darius II. He was an ally 
 of the Spartans in the war against the Athenians, and 
 was defeated by Alcibiades, near Abydos, in 409 B.C. He 
 was defeated in 395 by the Spartans, under Agesilaus, 
 who had invaded his province. Pharnabazus and Iphic- 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; flr, All, fat; met, not; good; moon; 
 
PHARNACE 
 
 1783 
 
 PHIL A 
 
 rates commanded an expedition to Egypt in 374, which 
 was a failure. 
 
 See Xenophon, *' Hellenica," books i., iii., and iv. 
 
 Pharnace. See Pharnaces. 
 
 Phar'na-ces |Gr. bapvUnw ; Fr. Pharnace, faV- 
 nSs'] L, King of Pontus, was a son of Mithridates IV., 
 whom he succeeded about 190 H.c. He invaded Galatia 
 in 181, and was opposed with success by Eumenes. He 
 was succeeded by his son, Mithridates V. 
 
 Pharnaces II., King of Pontus, was a son of Mithri- 
 dates the Great. He conspired against his fatherafter his 
 defeat by the Romans, (about 63 H.c.,) and was supported 
 by the army. He made peace with Pompey, who recog- 
 nized him as King of the Bosphorus. During the civil 
 war of Rome he seized Pontus, and provoked the hos- 
 tility of Ca:sar. He was defeated by the Romans and 
 killed in battle in 47 H.c. 
 
 Phavorinus Varinus. See Guarino. 
 
 Phedre. See Phaedra and Ph^edrus. 
 
 Pheidias. See Phidias. 
 
 Pheidon. See Phidon. 
 
 Phelippeaux, de, deh feh-le'po', or Philippeaux, 
 fe'le'po, (Antoine le Picard— leh pe'kaV,) a French 
 officer, born in Poitou in 1768. He emigrated in 1791, 
 fought against the republic, and procured the escape of 
 Sir Sidney Smith from prison, (1797.) Having entered 
 the British service, he distinguished himself at the 
 defence of Acre, where he directed the artillery, in 1799. 
 Died at Acre the same year. 
 
 Phelps, (Almira Hart Lincoln,) an American 
 teacher and educational writer, born at Berlin, Connec- 
 ticut, in 1793. She was for many years associated with 
 her sister, Mrs. Emma Willard, as teacher of the Female 
 Seminary, Troy, New York, and in 1841 took charge of 
 the Patapsco Institute, Maryland. Among her principal 
 works are "Familiar Lectures on Botany," " Geology 
 for Beginners," (1832,) "Lectures on Natural Philoso- 
 phy," (1835,) and "Hours with my Pupils," (1859.) 
 
 Phelps, (Anson Greene,) an American merchant, 
 born at Simsbury, Connecticut, in 17S1, became president 
 of the New York Blind Asylum, and of the American 
 board of commissioners for foreign missions. He died 
 in 1853, bequeathing to various charitable institutions 
 the sum of $371,000. 
 
 Phelps, (Elizabeth Stuart,) an American writer, 
 a daughter of Professor Moses Stuart, D.D , was born 
 at Andover, Massachusetts, in 181 5. She published a 
 number of moral and religious tales, which obtained' 
 great popularity. Among these we may name "The 
 Kitty Brown Series," (1850,) "The Sunny Side," (1851,) 
 " Peep at Number Five," (1851,) and " The Angel over 
 the Right Shoulder," (1851.) Died in 1852. 
 
 Her daughter, of the same name, has written, besides 
 other works, "The Gates Ajar," (1868,) which has had 
 an almost unexampled popularity, having in less than 
 one year passed through more than twentv editions. 
 
 Phelps, (John S.,) an American politician, born in 
 Hartford county, Connecticut, in 1814. He emigrated 
 to Springfield, Missouri, in 1837, and was elected to 
 Congress in 1844. He also represented the sixth dis- 
 trict of Missouri in Congress for several terms, ending 
 about 1862. He was appointed military Governor of 
 Arkansas by President Lincoln in 1862. 
 
 Phelps, (John W.,) an American general, born at 
 Guilford, Vermont, in 1813, graduated at West Point in 
 1836. He became a captain in 1850, and resigned his 
 commission in 1859. He was appointed a brigndicr- 
 general in 1861, and served under General Butler in the 
 expedition against New Orleans. In December, 1861, 
 he issued a proclamation against slavery, which was 
 disapproved by General Butler. He resigned in July 
 or August, 1862. 
 
 Phelypeaux. See Maurepas and Pontchartrain. 
 
 Pherecrate. See Piierecrates. 
 
 Phe-rSc'ra-tes, [Gr. QepeKpaTt/s ; Fr. Pherecrate, 
 fa'ri'kRit',] an Athenian poet of the old comedy, wrote 
 about 430 H.c, and was a contemporary of Plato and 
 Aristophanes. Small fragments of his plays are extant. 
 He invented a new metre, called Pherecratic. His dic- 
 tion is elegant, and his plots are ingenious. 
 
 See Mki.nkkk, " Fragment* Comicorum Graecorum." 
 
 Pbere^cyde. See Pherecydes. 
 
 Phgr-e-cy'des, [Gr. tope/cMiR f Fr. Pherecyde, fi'- 
 ri'sed',] a Greek philosopher, born at Syros about 600 
 or 570 B.C., was the teacher of Pythagoras. He is said 
 to have taught the doctrine of Metempsychosis, or the 
 transmigration of the soul. 
 
 Pherecydes, an Athenian historian, a contemporary 
 of Herodotus, lived between 490 and 450 B.C. His chief 
 work was a mythological history, in ten books, sometimes 
 entitled^ Avroxdovec. 
 
 Phidl-as, written also Pheidias, [<J>«d7ac,] regarded 
 by many as the greatest sculptor and statuary that ever 
 lived, was a son of Charmidas or Charmides. He was 
 probably born at Athens between 500 and 485 B.C. The 
 details of his personal history are very deficient, consid- 
 ering his renown. His principal master was Ageladas, 
 a sculptor of Argos. Among his earlier works were a 
 colossal bronze statue of Athena Promachos, dated about 
 460 B.C., which stood on the Acropolis for many centuries, 
 and an ivory or chryselephantine statue of Athena at 
 Pellene. Having formed a new style, characterized by 
 sublimity and ideal beauty, he obtained the friendship 
 and patronage of Pericles, who about 444 B.C. began to 
 adorn the Acropolis with works of art. " Phidias was 
 appointed by Pericles superintendent of all the public 
 edifices," says Plutarch, "although the Athenians had 
 other eminent architects." 
 
 The sculptured ornaments of the Parthenon, executed 
 by Phidias and his disciples, exhibited a perfection 
 which has never been surpassed, if equalled, by other 
 artists. He formed with his own hand the colossal 
 statue of Minerva which was enclosed within the Par- 
 thenon and was dedicated in 438 B.C. It was chrysele- 
 phantine, — that is, the naked parts were made of ivory 
 and the drapery of gold. The height of this statue was 
 nearly forty feet. It was his most celebrated work at 
 Athens. His other master-piece was a colossal ivory 
 and gold statue of Jupiter at Olympia, (Elis,) which was 
 enclosed in the temple dedicated to that god. He was 
 represented seated on a throne, holding in his right 
 hand a statue of Victory. This figure, in the opinion of 
 the Greeks, expressed and realized their highest ideal 
 of supreme majesty and divine complacency. It was 
 destroyed by fire at Constantinople about 475 a.d. 
 Some of the Elgin marbles in the British Museum are 
 considered to be works of Phidias. 
 
 In the latter part of his life, Phidias was accused of 
 defrauding the state of part of the gold appropriated to 
 the statue of Minerva ; but, as Pericles ordered the gold 
 to be taken off and weighed, this charge was abandoned ; 
 for Phidias, by the advice of Pericles, had artfully con- 
 trived that the gold could be easily taken off. According 
 to Plutarch, he died in prison, into which he was thrown 
 on a charge of impiety, because he had sculptured on 
 the shield of Minerva images of himself and Pericles. 
 Some writers ascribe his death to poison, and others 
 doubt the truth of the statement that he was imprisoned. 
 His death, however, occurred about 432 B.C. 
 
 "The three greatest architects hitherto known in the 
 world," says Ruskin. " were Phidias, Giotto, and Michael 
 Angelo, — with all of whom architecture was only their 
 play, sculpture and painting their work." In the course 
 of his remarks on Repose as a test of greatness in works 
 of art, Ruskin says, " We shall see by this light three 
 colossal images standing up side by side, looming in 
 their great rest of spirituality above the whole world- 
 horizon, — Phidias, Michael Angelo, and Dante." 
 
 See K. O. Mui.lhr. " De Pliidix Vila et Operibus Commenta- 
 tirmes tres," 1827; Cksch und Orurer, "Allgemeine Encyklo- 
 paedie:" " Nouvelle Hiotzraphie Cie'neVale." 
 
 Phi'don or Phei'don, [Gr. "MrSwv,] a king of Argos 
 and descendant of Hercules, is said to have changed the 
 government of that state to a despotism about 750 B.C. 
 He was the reputed inventor of weights and measures, 
 and is said to have been the first prince who coined 
 silver money. He was deprived of power or defeated 
 by the Spartans and Eleians. 
 
 Phi'la, |Gr. $i?/i,] a daughter of Antipater, the Re- 
 gent of Macedonia, was distinguished for her virtue 
 and wisdom. She was married to Craterus, and after 
 his death to Demetrius, the son of Antigonus. Died 
 in 287 B.C. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as e; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PHIL^ENl 
 
 1784 
 
 PHILIP 
 
 Philaeni, fe-lee'nT, [Gr. HhuvoiA two Carthaginians 
 and brothers, whose name was rendered memorable by 
 an act of patriotic devotion. When the boundary be- 
 tween Carthage and Cyrene was disputed, the parties 
 agreed that two men of each state should start at the 
 same time and walk or run towards the other, and that 
 the place where they met should be the boundary. The 
 Philaeni traversed a greater space than the Cyrenians, 
 who accused the former of unfairness. The Philaeni 
 then offered to prove their honesty by a sacrifice of their 
 lives, and were buried alive in the sand. 
 
 Phl-la'grl-us, [<MaypM>r,] a Greek medical writer of 
 Thessalonica, lived probably in the third century of our 
 era. His works are lost, except small fragments. 
 
 PM-lam'mon, [ii?M/ijxuv,] a mythical Greek poet 
 and musician, was supposed to be the son of Apollo, 
 the inventor of choral music, and the institutor of the 
 Delphian worship of Apollo. 
 
 Philander. See Philandrier. 
 
 Philandrier, fe'l&N'dRe-a', [ Lat. Philan'drr, ] 
 (Guillaume,) a French scholar, born at Chitillon-sur- 
 Seine in 1505. He published "Notes on Quintilian," 
 (1535,) and "Annotations on Vitruvius," (1544.) Died 
 in 1565. 
 
 Philarete. See Philarktus. 
 
 Philarete, fe'13'rjt', or PM-lar'e-tus, (Vasil Dro- 
 SOF,) Metropolitan of Moscow, was born near Moscow 
 in 1782. He became Kishop of Revel in 1817. and 
 Archbishop of Moscow in 1826. He published "Com- 
 mentaries on Genesis," and other works. Died in 1867. 
 
 PM-lar'e-tus, [ Fr. Philarete, fe'13'rit',] the reputed 
 author of a small Greek treatise "On the Pulse," which 
 is sometimes attributed to Philotheus. 
 
 Phi'le or Phi'les, (Manuel,) a Byzantine poet, born 
 at Ephesus about 1275. He wrote, in barbarous Greek 
 verse, a curious work, llepl fuuv IdioTijToc, ("On the 
 Nature of Animals,") which is extracted mostly from 
 ^Elian's "Natural History." Died about 1340. 
 
 Phil'e-as, [$<^£ac,] a Greek geographer, born at 
 Athens, lived probably several centuries before Christ. 
 He is quoted by Dicaearchus. He wrote a " Periplus." 
 
 Philelphe and Philelphus. See Filelfo. 
 
 Phl-le'mon, [*i^/iuf,] an eminent Athenian comic 
 poet, was born at Soli in Cilicia, or at Syracuse, about 
 360 B.C. He was a rival of Menander, and was the first 
 poet of the new comedy in order of time. He began 
 to exhibit comedies about 330 B.C., and obtained great 
 favour with the Athenians. He gained several victories 
 over Menander in dramatic contests. Fragments of his 
 works are extant. He was a witty and elegant writer. 
 Died about 262 B.C. His son, Philemon, was also a 
 comic poet, but less famous. 
 
 See Suidas. "Philemon ;" Meineke, " Menandri et Philemnnis 
 Reliquiae," and " Fragmenta Comicornm Gnecornm ;" Haupt- 
 mann, " LVssertatio de Philemone," 1745. 
 
 Philemon, a Greek grammarian, who lived probably 
 between 600 and 700 A. D., was the author of a "Lexicon 
 Technologicon," part of which is extant. 
 
 Philemon, one of the primitive Christians, was a 
 friend of the apostle Paul, who addressed to him an 
 epistle, which is included in the canon of Scripture. 
 
 Philepicus. See Philippicus. 
 
 Philetaerus, fil-e-tee'rus, [<bi/.eTatpoc] an Athenian 
 comic poet of the middle comedy. Little is known of 
 his life or works. 
 
 Philetaerus, the founder of the kingdom of Pergamus. 
 He became king about 280 B.C., and died about 262 B.C., 
 leaving the throne to his nephew Eumenes. 
 
 Phl-le'tas [4>(A??tuc] of Cos, an eminent Greek poet 
 and critic, who flourished between 350 and 290 B.C. He 
 was the preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphia. He wrote 
 elegies and epigrams, and prose works on grammar. 
 Fragments of his poems have come down to us. He was 
 a favourite model of the poet Theocritus. 
 
 See Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie :" N. Bach, 
 "Programma de Phileta Coo," 1S28. 
 
 Phil'e-us, sometimes written Phiteus, Pytheus, or 
 Phileos, an eminent Greek architect, who lived about 
 25 B.C. He designed two magnificent edifices in Asia 
 Minor, — viz., the Mausoleum and the temple of Athena 
 Polias at Priene. 
 
 Phil'I-bert I Fr. pron. fe'le'baiit'; It. Filiberto, fe-le- 
 beVto ; Lat. Philiber'tus] I., Duke of Savoy, a son 
 of Amadeus IX., was born in 1464; died in 1482. 
 
 Philibert II., Duke of Savoy, a son of Philip II., 
 was born in 1480. He succeeded his father in 1497, 
 and died in 1504, leaving the dukedom to his brother, 
 Carlo III. 
 
 Philidor. See Danican. 
 
 Philieul, fe'le-ul', (Vasquin,) a French litterateur, 
 was born at Carpentras in 1522. He published " Laure 
 d' Avignon," (1548,) and "Toutes les Qiuvres vulgaires 
 de F. Petrarque," (1555.) Died about 1582. 
 
 PM-li'llus, [<i>(A(voc,l a Greek physician, born in 
 Cos, was a pupil of Herophilus. He lived about 250 
 B.C., and wrote a treatise on botany, which is not extant. 
 He was the reputed founder of the sect of Empirici. 
 
 Philinus, an Athenian orator, a contemporary of 
 Demosthenes. 
 
 Philinus, a Greek historian, who accompanied Han- 
 nibal in his campaign in Italy, and wrote a History of 
 the First and Second Punic Wars, which is not extant. 
 He was a native of Sicily. 
 
 Phil'ip [Gr. <W/U;r5roc] 1, King of Macedonia, a son 
 of Argxus, reigned in the ninth century B.C. He was 
 succeeded by his son Aeropus. 
 
 Philip [Gr. *(X«nroc ; Lat. Philip'pus; Fr. Philippe, 
 fe'lep'; It. Filippo, fe-lep'po; Sp. Felipe, fi-lee'pa; 
 Ger. Philipp, fil'ip] H., a famous king of Macedonia, 
 a younger son of Amyntas, was born in 382 B.C. In his 
 youth he passed several years at Thebes as a hostage, 
 and enjoyed the society of Epaminondas. He succeedec" 
 his brother Perdiccas in 359, and married Olympias, 
 a daughter of the King of Epirus. During the Social 
 war, which began in 358 B.C., he extended his do- 
 minions by the capture of Amphipolis, Potidaja, and 
 Pydna from the Athenians. He availed himself of 
 another civil war, called the Sacred war, to pursue his 
 ambitious projects against the independence of the 
 Grecian states, and became the ally of the Thebans 
 against the Phocians and Athenians. In 347 B.C. he 
 besieged Olynthus with success, and made a treaty of 
 peace with Athens. By the conquest of Phocis, in 346, 
 he acquired a vote in the Amphictyonic Council. The 
 continued aggressions of Philip again involved him in 
 a war with the Athenians, who were stimulated by the 
 powerful appeals of Demosthenes, and who in 339 B.C. 
 compelled him to raise the siege of Perinthus and 
 liyzantium. A league was then formed against him by 
 the Athenians, Thebans, and others. The decisive battle 
 of Chaeronea, where Philip, commanding in person, 
 defeated the allies in 338 B.C., rendered him master of 
 Greece. He treated the Athenians with clemency. He 
 called a general congress of deputies from the Greek 
 states, who resolved to unite in an aggressive war 
 against Persia, and appointed Philip commander-in-chief. 
 During the preparations for this enterprise he was as- 
 sassinated, in 336 B.C., at the celebration of a marriage 
 between his daughter Cleopatra and the King of Epirus. 
 The assassin was Pausanias, a soldier of his own body- 
 guard, who had been insulted by Attalus, an uncle of 
 Philip's queen, and whose claim for redress had been 
 neglected by the king. Philip possessed great military 
 and political talents, with some virtues, among which 
 we may name generosity. He was, on the other hand, 
 sensual, unscrupulous, and perfidious. 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Demosthenes;" Leland, "History of 
 the Life and Reign of Philip of Macedon," 175S ; Grotk, " History 
 of Greece," vol. xi. ; Burv, " Histoire de Philips et d' Alexandre le 
 Grand," 1760: Bruckner, " Konig Philipp Sonn des Amyntas," 
 1837: Thirlwall, " History of Greece ;" Drumann, " Geschichte 
 des Verfalls der Griechischen Staaten." 
 
 Philip III. of Macedon. This title was given to 
 Arrhidanis, an illegitimate son of Philip II. (See Ar- 
 RHID.T.US.) 
 
 Philip IV. of Macedon, a son of Cassander, reigned 
 only a few months, and died in 296 B.C. 
 
 Philip V. of Macedon, born about 235 B.C., was 
 a son of Demetrius II. He succeeded his uncle, Anti- 
 gonus Doson, in 220 B.C. Having obtained command of 
 the army of the Achaean league he displayed superior 
 military talents, and defeated the /Etolians and Spartans, 
 (218-217.) The success of Hannibal at Canna: tempted 
 
 1, e, T, o, 5, y, long; a. e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m*t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
PHILIP 
 
 1785 
 
 PHILIP 
 
 Philip to form an alliance with him against the Romans 
 in 215 B.C. He is said to have poisoned Arams, who 
 had been his friend. The Romans, having recovered 
 their ascendency, sent an army against Philip, who was 
 defeated completely by T. Q. Flamininus at Cynos- 
 cephalae in 197 B.C. He died in 179 B.C., leaving the 
 throne to his son, Perseus. Philip was an able monarch, 
 but was cruel and tyrannical. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome," books xxii.-xl. 
 
 Philip or Philip'pus, a son of Herod the Great and 
 Cleopatra, became tetrarch of Gaulonitis, Trachonitis, 
 and Batanaea. Died about 34 A.D. 
 
 Philip [Lat. Phii.ip'pcs] ok Acarnania, a physician, 
 was a friend of Alexander the Great, whom he cured of a 
 fever caused by bathing in the river Cvdnus, m B.C. On 
 this occasion Parmenio warned the king by letter that 
 Philip was bribed (by Darius) to poison him. The king, 
 however, confiding in his fidelity, drank the medicine 
 as he showed the letter to Philip. (See Alexander.) 
 
 Philip, Emperor of Rome. See Philippus. 
 
 Phil'ip, [Gr. *i/U-;roc; Lat. Philip'pus; Fr. Phi- 
 lippe, fe'lep',] Saint, one of the twelve apostles, was a 
 native of Bethsaida, on the Sea of Galilee. He witnessed 
 the miracle of the loaves and fishes, (John vi. 5-7.) The 
 evangelist John records an interview between him and 
 certain Greeks, in chapter xii. 21. According to tra- 
 dition, he preached in Phrygia, and suffered martyrdom 
 at I lierapolis. 
 
 Philip, [Ger. Phii.ipp, fil'ip.l Duke of Suabia, Em- 
 peror of Germany, a son of Frederick Barbarossa, was 
 born about 11 70. He was elected emperor in 119S, but 
 his title was contested by Otho IV., and a civil war en- 
 sued. The pope favoured Otho, and excommunicated 
 Philip, but was afterwards reconciled to him. Philip 
 was assassinated in 1208. 
 
 Philip [Sp. Felipe, fi-lee'pa] I., surnamed the 
 Handsome, King of Castile, a son of Maximilian I., 
 Emperor of Germany, was born at Binges in 1478. His 
 mother was Mary of Burgundy, from whom he inherited 
 the seventeen provinces of the Low Countries. He was 
 styled Archduke of Austria in his youth. In 1496 he 
 married Joanna, a daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 (of Castile and Aragon.) On the death of Isabella 
 (1504) the crown of Castile was inherited by Joanna, 
 but, in consequence of her mental imbecility, or insanity, 
 Philip exercised the royal power. He died at Burgos 
 in September, 1506, leaving two sons, who became 
 emperors as Charles V. and Ferdinand I. 
 
 See Mariana, " De Rebus Hispanicis ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Philip [Fr. Philippe, fe'lep'] 1, King of France, a 
 son of Henry I. and Anne of Russia, was born in 1052. 
 He succeeded his father in 1060, when Baldwin, Count 
 of Flanders, became regent. He abandoned himself to 
 disgraceful sensuality. In 1092 he married Bertrade, 
 the wife of Foulques, Count of Aniou, who was still 
 living. Philip was excommunicated for this offence. He 
 was involved in a war with William Rufus of England 
 during the first crusade. He died in 1108, and was 
 succeeded by his son, Louis VI. 
 
 See Sismondi. " Histoire des Francois :" Michelet, " Histoire 
 de France ;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Philip H. of France. See Philip Auoustus. 
 
 Philip (Philippe) III., surnamed the Bold, (i.e 
 Hardi, leh //aVde' ; Lat. Philip'pus Au'dax,] bom in 
 1245, was the second son of Louis IX., whose eldest son 
 died in infancy. He married Isabella of Aragon in 1262, 
 and accompanied his father in the crusade to Tunis in 
 1269. At the death of Louis, in 1270, Philip became 
 king. Having made a treaty of peace with the King of 
 Tunis, he returned to Paris in 1271. Although he was a 
 prince of little talent and of a weak character, the royal 
 domain and power were increased during his reign. 
 Among the chief events of his reign was a war against 
 Peter of Aragon. With the sanction of the pope, who 
 had offered the crown of Aragon to Charles, a son of 
 Philip, the latter invaded Catalonia in I28jj, but was 
 10011 forced to retreat He died at Perpignan in October, 
 1285. 
 
 See Guiixaume dr Nangis, "Gesta Philippi Audacis ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Philip IV., often called Philip the Fair, [Fr 
 
 Philippe i.e Bel, fe'lep' l?h bel ; Ger. Phii.ipp der 
 Schone, fil'ip deV sho'n?h,j a son of Philip HI. and 
 Isabella of Aragon, was born in 1268. He succeeded 
 his father in 1285, before which he had married Jeanne 
 of Navarre and acquired Navarre as her dowry. He 
 was ambitious to increase the royal power, and un- 
 scrupulous in the choice of means. His favourite ad- 
 visers were lawyers, who taught him how to substitute 
 despotism for the feudal system. In 1292 or 1293 ne 
 summoned Edward I. of England to appear at Paris 
 and answer for the hostile acts of some of his sub- 
 jects. Edward sent his brother Edmund, who offered 
 reparation, and delivered to Philip six fortresses in 
 Guienne, (1294.) Having occupied all Guienne by his 
 troops, Philip condemned Edward as contumacious, and 
 declared his domains in France confiscated. In the 
 war that ensued, Edward recovered part of Guienne. 
 To raise funds for his wars, Philip debased the coin, and 
 extorted money, by persecution, from the Jews. He in- 
 vaded Flanders about 1300, but was successfully opposed 
 by the Flemings. By a treaty of 1303 he restored all 
 Guienne to Edward I. Some years before this date a 
 quarrel arose between Philip and the pope, Boniface, 
 whose person was outraged by the agents of Philip at 
 Agnani in 1303. In consequence of Philip's audacious 
 and successful efforts to humble the papacy, the court 
 of the pope was transferred to Avignon in 1308. Among 
 the last acts of his reign was his cruel persecution and 
 suppression of the order of Templars. He died in 13 14, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Louis X. 
 
 See I.bssmann, " Konig Philipp der Schone," 1829 : " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Philip (Philippe) V., surnamed le Long, (leh 16n,) 
 the second son of Philip IV., was born about 1293. He 
 became king at the death of Louis X., in 1316. Louis 
 X. had left a daughter, who was excluded from the 
 throne. The important question of succession was 
 decided on this occasion, and the Salic law became 
 thenceforth one of the bases of the French consti- 
 tution. The events of his reign were not remarkable. 
 He renewed the persecution of the Jews, many of 
 whom were massacred. He died in 1322, leaving four 
 daughters, but no son, and was succeeded by his brother, 
 Charles IV. 
 
 Philip (Philippe) VI, or Philippe de Valois, fe'- 
 lep' deh vi'lwa', born in 1293, was a son of Charles de 
 Valois, who was a brother of Philip IV. He succeeded 
 his cousin, Charles IV. le Bel, in 1328, and became the 
 founder of the royal house of Valois. He was -an in- 
 capable and prodigal prince. His reign commenced a 
 period of disasters and confusion. He became involved 
 in war with Edward III. of England, who possessed 
 Guienne and claimed to be the rightful heir of the 
 French throne, through his mother Isabelle. Philip was 
 defeated with great loss at Crecy in 1346, and lost Calais, 
 an important strategic point, in 1347, soon after which a 
 truce was concluded. He died in 1350, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son John. 
 
 See Froissart, " Chronicles ;" Dr Choisy, " Histoire de Phi- 
 lippe de Valois," 1688; Sismondi, " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Philip, [Fr. Philippe,] King of Navarre, was a grand- 
 son of Philip III. of France. He married in 1318 
 Jeanne, a daughter of Louis X., who was heiress of the 
 throne of Navarre. He died in 1343, leaving a son, 
 Charles the Bad. 
 
 Philip I. ok Spain. See Philip I. of Castile. 
 
 Philip [Sp. Felipe, fi-lee'pa; It. Filippo, fe-lep'po] 
 II., King of Spain, was the son of the emperor Charles 
 V. and Isabella of Portugal. He was born at Valladolid 
 on the 21st of May, 1527. By education and character, as 
 well as birth, he was a Spaniard, and a thorough-paced 
 bigot. He married in 1543 Maria of Portugal, who died 
 about three years later. In 1548 he visited Brussels, 
 where Charles V. held his court. In 1554 he went to 
 London to celebrate his marriage with Mary Tudor, 
 Queen-Regnant of England, who was about eleven vears 
 older than he. Having parted from her in September, 
 1555, he went to Brussels to meet his father, who, on the 
 25th of October, 1555, abdicated in his favour the sove- 
 reignty of the Netherlands. Before the end of the year, 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; C, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^""See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PHILIP 
 
 1786 
 
 PHILIP 
 
 Philip became King of Spain and the Indies by the 
 abdication of his father, and master of an empire "on 
 which the sun never set." His favourite minister, in the 
 early part of his reign, was Ruy Gomez de Silva, Count 
 of Melito and Prince of Eboli. Philip found himself, 
 against his will, in a position of hostility to the pope, 
 Paul IV., who in December, 1555, made a treaty with 
 the K.ing of France, in order to drive the Spaniards out 
 of Italy. In 1557 his army gained a complete victory 
 over the French at Saint-Quentin. This war was ter- 
 minated by the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in 1559, and 
 Philip, having appointed Margaret of Parma Regent of 
 the Netherlands, returned to Spain, which he never 
 quitted again. 
 
 Soon after the death of Mary Tudor (1558) he mar- 
 ried Elizabeth or Isabelle of France, a daughter of 
 Henry II., who had been betrothed to his son, Don 
 Carlos. He transferred his court from Toledo to Madrid, 
 which became about 1560 the permanent capital of 
 Spain. One of the first measures of his reign was to 
 re-enact the atrocious edict of 1550, condemning to 
 death every one who should print, write, copy, keep, 
 buy, sell, or give any book made by Luther or Calvin, 
 and all lay persons who should read or teach the Scrip- 
 tures. His systematic efforts to suppress religious liberty 
 by the torments of the Inquisition, in all his dominions, 
 provoked a general revolt of the Flemings and Dutch 
 in 1566. (See Orange, William of.) In August, 1567, 
 the Duke of Alva arrived in Flanders with an army, and 
 with unlimited power to subdue and punish the insur- 
 gents. Among the victims of his bloody regime were 
 the Counts of Egmont and Horn, executed in June, 1568. 
 "The execution of Egmont," says Motley. " remains an 
 enduring monument not only of Philip's cruelty and per- 
 fidy, but of his dulness. The king had everything to 
 hope from him, and nothing to fear." Alva defeated the 
 insurgents in several battles, and massacred thousands 
 of non-combatants of both sexes and all ages, but was 
 baffled by the indomitable spirit of the people, and was 
 recalled in 1573. " It was beyond the power of man's 
 ingenuity to add any fresh features of horror to the 
 religious persecution under which the provinces were 
 groaning." (Motley.) In 1568 the king's eldest son, 
 Don Carlos, died mysteriously in prison, where he had 
 been confined for some months. According to De Thou 
 and other writers, he was put to death by the order 
 of Philip. 
 
 The effort to subdue the Netherlands was continued 
 by Don John of Austria and Farnese, Duke of Parma, 
 without success. This long war exhausted the finances 
 of Philip and hindered his projects for the conquest of 
 France and England. In 1580 he obtained the crown 
 of Portugal as successor of his uncle Henrique, who died 
 without issue. He instigated the French to rebel against 
 Henry IV., and furnished subsidies to the factious League. 
 For the invasion of England he equipped a fleet of one 
 hundred and thirty or, according to some writers, one 
 hundred and fifty vessels, which sailed in May, 1588, 
 and was called "the Invincible Armada." After this 
 fleet had passed through the Strait of Dover, it was 
 damaged by English fire-ships, and attacked on the 8th 
 of August by Admiral Howard, who sunk and captured 
 many ships. The Spanish admiral retreated northward, 
 and near the Orkneys encountered a violent storm, which 
 dispersed his fleet. About fifty of his vessels were 
 wrecked. (See Elizabeth.) The war between Spain 
 and England continued many years. Philip died on the 
 13th of September, 1598, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Philip HI. 
 
 In person, Philip was meagre and below the middle 
 height. He had a fair complexion, blue eyes, aquiline 
 nose, and a very prominent lower jaw. His temper was 
 morose, his manners reserved and repulsive, but he had 
 great ambition and indefatigable industry. 
 
 See Watson, " History of Philip II.," 1777 ; Motley, " History 
 of the Rise of the Dutch Republic," 1S46: Prbscott, " History of 
 Philip II.," 3 vols., 1855-58; Campana, "Vita del Don Filippo," 
 1605: Cabrera, "Felipe II. Rey tie Espana." 1619; C6ki>ova, 
 " Vida de Felipe II.," 1662; A. Dumbsnil, " Histoire de Philippe 
 II," 1822; G. Leti. "Vita del Re Filippo II.." i6/g; San Miguel, 
 " Historia del Rey Felipe II.," 4 vols., 1S44-45: Antonio dk Hkk- 
 rhka, "Historia del Mundo en el Reynado del Rey Don Phelipe 
 II.," 3 vols., 1606; Cardinal Granve'lle's " State Papers." 
 
 Philip (Felipe) HE. of Spain, a son of Philip II., 
 was born at Madrid in April, 1578. His mother was 
 Anne of Austria. He began to reign in September, 
 1598. He was timid, indolent, and incapable, but de- 
 voted to the intolerant policy of his father. Passing his 
 time chiefly in hunting, in acts of devotion, or formalities 
 of etiquette, he abandoned the direction of affairs to his 
 favourite, the Duke of Lerma. This minister prosecuted 
 the war against the revolted provinces of the Nether- 
 lands until the exhaustion of his finances forced him, 
 in 1609, to grant a truce of twelve years (see Maurice 
 OF Nassau) and to recognize the independence of the 
 Seven United Provinces. The issue of this long con- 
 test demonstrated that Spain was no longer the most 
 powerful kingdom of Europe. The prosperity of Spain 
 was greatly impaired by the cruel expulsion of the Moors, 
 in 1610. The number of these exiles is estimated at 
 about one million. Philip had married Margaret of 
 Austria. He died in March, 1621, leaving the throne 
 to his son, Philip IV. 
 
 See Watson, "History of the Reign of Philip III.," 1783; 
 Cespedes, "Historia de Don Felipe III.," 1631 ; Avii.a, "His- 
 toria de la Vida de Don Felipe III.," 1660; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale." 
 
 Philip (Felipe) IV., a son of the preceding, was 
 born in April, 1605, and ascended the throne at the age 
 of sixteen. He submitted himself to the control and 
 ascendency of his favourite the Duke of Olivarez. He 
 renewed the war against the Dutch United Provinces 
 at the expiration of the truce, (1621,) and formed with 
 the Emperor of Germany a league against the Protest- 
 ants. His intrigues involved Europe in a long war, in 
 which the Spaniards fought against the Dutch, Swedes, 
 French, and English. In maritime war the Dutch ob- 
 tained a decided superiority. On land the Spaniards 
 were defeated by the French at Rocroy (1643) and other 
 places. Portugal revolted in 1640, and was finally sepa- 
 rated from the Spanish monarchy. By the treaty of 
 Westphalia (1648) Spain made peace with her enemies, 
 except the French, who continued the war until 1659. 
 The results of these wars were disastrous to Spain, 
 which lost several colonies, islands, and cities. Philip 
 was twice married; in 1615 he espoused Elizabeth of 
 France, and in 1649 Marie Anne of Austria. He died 
 in September, 1665, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Charles II. 
 
 See Cespedes y Menezes, " Historia de Don Felipe IV.." 1631 ; 
 Malvezzi, " Successos de la Monarquia de Espana en el Tiempo de 
 Felipe IV.." 1640; Dunlop, "Memoirs of Spain during the Reign 
 of Philip IV.," 2 vols., 1834. 
 
 Philip [Fr. Philippe; Sp. Felipe] V., King of 
 Spain, born at Versailles in December, 16S3, was a 
 grandson of Louis XIV., and the second son of Louis, 
 Dauphin of France. In his youth he was styled the 
 Duke of Anjou. He was appointed heir to the throne 
 of Spain and the Indies by the will of Charles II., who 
 died, without a direct heir, in November, 1700. His 
 title was contested by the archduke Charles of Austria, 
 whose claim was enforced by the armies of England, 
 Holland, and Austria in the war of the Spanish succes- 
 sion, which began in 1702. Philip was supported by the 
 French and the majority of the Spaniards, who gained a 
 decisive victory at Almanza in 1707. By the treaty of 
 Utrecht (1713) he was recognized as King of Spain; 
 but he gave up Flanders and Naples to the Emperor of 
 Germany. He married Elizabeth Farnese of Parma in 
 1714, and chose Cardinal Alberoni as prime minister. 
 Under the influence of a religious melancholy, he abdi- 
 cated in favour of his son Louis in 1724; but the death 
 of Louis a few months later induced him to resume the 
 royal power. He died in July, 1746, and was succeeded 
 by his son Ferdinand VI. 
 
 See W. Coxe, " Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of 
 Bourbon." 3 vols., 1813 ; Carvatal, "La Espana de los Borbones," 
 4 vols., 1844; F. X. Conde, " Elogio de Felipe V.," 1779; A. VlOL- 
 let, " Histoire des Bourbons en Espagne," 1843; Saint-Simon, 
 "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Philip, [Ger. Philipp, fil'ip,] Landgrave of Hesse, 
 surnamed DER Grossmui'Hige, (Ah gRos-mUt'io-eh,) 
 ("the Magnanimous,") born at Marburg in 1504, was 
 an able prince, and a constant friend of the Protestant 
 cause. He began to reign at the age of fourteen, and 
 introduced the Lutheran religion into Hesse in 1526. In 
 
 i, e, t, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; Hr, fill, fit; m8t; not; good; moon; 
 
PHILIP 
 
 1787 
 
 PHILIP PUS 
 
 1 53 1 he foimed with the Protestant princes the league 
 of .Schmalkaklen, which waged war against Charles V. ; 
 but he was forced to submit in 1547 to Charles, who 
 kept him a prisoner for five years. Philip was inclined 
 to toleration in religion. Died in 1567. 
 
 See Hoffmeistbr, " I.eben Pliilipp des Grossmiithigen," 1846; 
 Rovimkl, "Pliilipp der Grossmiithige," 4 vols., 182S-35 ; Rinck, 
 •' Krinnerungen an Philipp den Grossmiithigen," 1852. 
 
 Philip, (It. Fiupfo, fe-lep'po,] Duke of Parma, born 
 at Madrid in 1720, was the second son of Philip V. of 
 Spain. He invaded Italy with a Spanish army in 1742, 
 and attempted to obtain a throne by conquest, but failed. 
 The treaty of Aix-)a-Chapelle, in 1748, gave him the 
 duchy of Parma. Died in 1765. 
 
 Philip, a celebrated Indian chief, commonly called 
 King Philip. He began a war with the English in 
 1675, but was killed the following year. 
 
 Philip the Bold, [Fr. Philippe le Hardi, fe'lep' 
 leh //iVde',] Duke of Burgundy, born in 1342, was a 
 younger son of John, King of France. He was one of 
 the most powerful French princes during the minority 
 of Charles VI., and was a rival of the Duke of Orleans. 
 He acted as regent while Charles VI. was disabled by 
 insanity. He died in 1404, and left the dukedom to his 
 son, Jean Sans Peur. 
 
 Philip the Deacon, one of the primitive Christian 
 ministers, was one of seven men appointed to a special 
 service, (Acts vi. 5.) He preached in Samaria, and in- 
 structed the treasurer of Queen Candace of Ethiopia. 
 (See Acts viii. 5-40, and xxi. 8.) 
 
 See John i. 43-44, xiv. 8, 9; Matthew x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke 
 vi. 14; Acts i. 13. 
 
 Philip the Fair. See Philip IV. of France. 
 
 Philip the Good, [Fr. PHILIPPE LE Bon, fe'lep' leh 
 boN,] Duke of Burgundy, a son of Jean Sans Peur, was 
 born at Dijon in 1396. As a partisan or ally of Henry 
 V. of England, he fought against Charles VII. of France 
 from 1422 to 1435. At the latter date he entered into 
 alliance with Charles. Some years before this event he 
 had invaded the territory of Jacqueline, Countess of 
 Hainault, and compelled her to recognize him as her heir 
 in Holland, Zealand, and Hainault. He had inherited 
 Flanders and Artois in addition to Burgundy. He in- 
 stituted the order of the Golden Fleece. His wife was 
 Isabella, a daughter of John I. of Portugal. He died in 
 1467 or 1457, and was succeeded by his son, Charles the 
 Bold. Philip was one of the most powerful sovereigns 
 of his time, but had little claim to the epithet of" Good." 
 " He was certainly neither a good nor a great prince," 
 says Motley : " he was an adroit dissembler, a practical 
 politician." 
 
 See Perneei„ " Episodes du Regne de Philippe le Bon." 1S47 ; 
 Comines, " M^tnoires ;*' Froissart, "Chronicles;" Baranik, 
 ** Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Philip of Orleans. See Orleans. 
 
 Phil'ip Au-gus'tus, [Fr. Philippe Auguste, fe'lep' 
 o'giist'; Lat. Philip'pus Augus'tus,] called Philip II., 
 King of France, born in 1 165, was the son of Louis VIL, 
 whom he succeeded in 1180. He married Isabella of 
 Hainault, a niece of the Count of Flanders. In the first 
 part of his reign he banished the Jews and confiscated 
 their property. He aided and abetted the sons of Henry 
 II. of England in rebellion against their father. Having 
 taken the cross in 1188, he raised an army and united 
 with Richard I. of England in a crusade. They embarked 
 at Genoa and Marseilles in 1190, passed the winter in 
 Sicily, and arrived at Acre in the spring of 1 191. Dis- 
 sensions or jealousies having arisen between Philip and 
 Richard, the former, on the pretext of ill health, aban- 
 doned the enterprise, and arrived at Paris in December, 
 1191. (See Richard I.) A war ensued between Philip 
 and the Knglish king for the possession of Normandy, 
 and lasted until the death of Richard, in 1199. The 
 crimes and incapacity of John of England afforded a 
 favourable opportunity to the ambition of Philip, who 
 extended his dominions by the conquest of Normandy, 
 Anjou, and Touraine, (1204-06.) 
 
 In 1213, at the instigation of Pope Innocent III., who 
 had deposed John, Philip prepared to invade England. 
 He was forced to renounce this enterprise by the abject 
 submission of John to the pope, and by the loss of his 
 
 fleet, which was defeated by the English. He invaded 
 Flanders, the chief towns of which -surrendered to his 
 army, and gained in 1214 a decisive victory over the em- 
 peror Otho IV. and the Flemings at Bouvines, where 
 he commanded in person. He died in 1223, leaving his 
 throne to his son, Louis VIII. 
 
 SeeRicoRD, " DeGestis Philippi Augusti ;" Baudot de Juilly, 
 "Hisioire de Philippe Auguste." 1702; Capefigue, "Histoire de 
 Philippe Auguste," 4 vols., 1820: Sismondi, "Histoire des Fran- 
 cais;" Rymer, " Fcedera ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Philipon de la Madelaine, fe'le'p6N' deh It mtd'- 
 Ifn', (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Lyons in 
 1734. He published a "Dictionary of Homonyms," 
 (" Dictionnaire des Homonymes," 1799,) a "Dictionary 
 of the French Language," (1809,) and other works, 
 which were received with favour. Died in 1818. 
 
 Phill-pot, (John,) an English antiquary and herald, 
 born in Kent. Among the works attributed to him 
 is " Villare Cantianum, or Kent Surveyed." Died in 
 1645. 
 
 PM-lip'pa of Hainault, a daughter of William, 
 Earl of Hainault, was married to Edward III. of Eng- 
 land about 1326. She saved the lives of six citizens of 
 Calais, whom Edward intended to put to death. Died 
 in 1369. 
 
 Philippar, fe'le'paV, (Francois Aken,) a French 
 writer on agriculture, born at Peuving, Austria, in 1801. 
 He became director of the botanic garden at Versailles 
 in 1841. 
 
 Philippe, the French of Philippus, which see. 
 
 Philippe, (Kings of France.) See Philip. 
 
 Philippe de Mons, fe'lep' deh 1116N, a Belgian com- 
 poser, born at Mons about 1522. He composed masses, 
 motets, etc., and was the most famous Belgian composer 
 of his time, except Orlando de Lasso. 
 
 Philippe de Neri. See Neri. 
 
 Philippe de la Sainte-Trinite, fe'lep' deh IS saNt 
 tRe'ne'ti', (Esprit Julien,) a French missionary, born 
 in the Comtat in 1603. He preached in Syria, Persia, 
 etc., and published " Itinerarium Orientale," (1649.) 
 Died in 1671. 
 
 Philippe le Bon. See Philip the Good. 
 
 Philippe le Hardi See Philip the Bold. 
 
 Philippeaux. See Phelippeaux. 
 
 Philippeaux, fe'le'po', (Pierre,) a French revolu- 
 tionist, born in the department of Orne in 1759. He 
 was elected in 1792 to the Convention, in which he 
 voted for the death of the king and an appeal to the 
 people. He was proscribed by Saint-Just, arrested as 
 an accomplice of Danton in March, 1794, and guillotined 
 in the ensuing month. 
 
 Philippi, fe'le'pe', (Henri,) a French Jesuit, born at 
 Saint-Hubert, in the Ardennes, about 1575. He wrote 
 several works on Chronology. Died in 1636. 
 
 Phl-lip'pl-cus or Phl-lepl-cus, also called Bar- 
 Danes, Emperor of Constantinople, was a son of Ni- 
 cephorus Patricius. He began to reign in 711 a.d., 
 and was deposed in 713. He was a partisan of Mono- 
 thelism. 
 
 Philippide. See Philippides. 
 
 Phl-lip'pl-de5, [Gr. *t/Ujr™S;/c ; Fr. Philippide, fe'- 
 le'ped',] an Athenian comic poet, flourished about 300 or 
 330 B.C. His works are not extant. He was considered 
 one of the best poets of the new comedy. He is said to 
 have died of joy because one of his plays had gained the 
 prize. His character is eulogized by Phitarch in the life 
 of Demetrius. 
 
 See F'abricius. " Bibliotheca Graca." 
 
 Philippon. See Philipon. 
 
 Philippon, fe'le'po.N', (Armand,) a French general, 
 born at Rouen in 1761. He commanded at the siege 
 of Badajos, in 181 1 and 1812. Died in 1836. 
 
 Philippoteaux, fe'le'po'to', (Felix Henri Em- 
 manuel,) a French historical painter, born at Sedan 
 in 1815. He obtained a first medal in 1840. Among 
 his works is the "Last Banquet of the Girondists," 
 (1850.) 
 
 Philippus of Acarnania. See Philip of Acar- 
 nania. 
 
 Phl-lip'pus, an impostor, whose proper name was 
 Andriscus, pretended to be a son of Perseus, King of 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2y=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PHILIP PUS 
 
 1788 
 
 PHILLIPS 
 
 Macedon. He obtained some success, but was expelled 
 by the Roman general Q. Cheilitis Metellus. 
 
 Philippus, a son of Antiochus VIII., became King 
 of Syria about 88 B.C., after fighting against Antio- 
 chus X. 
 
 Philippus of Thessaloni'ca, an epigrammatic poet, 
 who is supposed to have lived about 100 A.D. He com- 
 posed many epigrams, which are in the Greek Anthol- 
 ogy, and compiled a "Greek Anthology." 
 
 Philippus, a physician, who lived about 150 A.D. and 
 belonged to the sect of Empirici. He is mentioned by 
 Galen, his contemporary. 
 
 Philippus, [Fr. Philippe, fe'lip',] (L. Marcius,) a 
 Roman general, who became consul in 186 B.C. and 
 again in 169. At the latter date he obtained the conduct 
 of the Macedonian war. He invaded the territory of 
 Perseus, King of Macedonia, without important results. 
 He was censor in 164 B.C. 
 
 Philippus, (L. Marcius,) a Roman orator, who be- 
 longed to the popular party. He was consul in 91 B.C. 
 with Sextus Julius Cesar, and was an enemy of M. Livius 
 Drusus, the tribune of the people, by whose order Philip- 
 pus was dragged to prison in the year just named. In 
 86 B.C. he was censor. He remained neutral in the war 
 between Marius and Sulla, and was afterwards a friend 
 of Pompey. He was one of the most eminent orators 
 of his time, and was noted for his sarcastic wit. Horace 
 refers to him in his Epistle i. : " Strenuus et fortis causis- 
 que Philippus agendis clarus." He died after 76 B.C. 
 
 Philippus, (L. Marcius,) a son of the preceding, 
 was consul in 56 B.C. He married Atia, a niece of Julius 
 Cesar, and thus became the stepfather of the emperor 
 Augustus. He was neutral in the civil war between 
 Csesar and Pompey. 
 
 Philippus, (M. Julius,) a Roman emperor, was a 
 native of Trachonitis. He obtained the imperial power 
 by the murder of Gordlan, in 244 A.D. The senate 
 confirmed the choice of the army. He made peace with 
 Persia in 244. In 248 or 247 A.D. he celebrated the 
 thousandth anniversary of the origin of Rome. He was 
 killed at Verona in 249 A.D., in a battle against Decius, 
 who had usurped the title of emperor. According to 
 Eusebius and other writers, Philippus was a Christian. 
 
 His son, M. Julius Philippus, who had been asso- 
 ciated with him in the empire, (247 A.D.,) was killed by 
 the partisans of Decius, in 249 a.d. 
 
 Philippus Augustus. See Philip Augustus. 
 
 Phil'ips, (Ambrose,) an English poet and dramatist, 
 born probably in Leicestershire about 1670. Among 
 his early productions were six Pastorals, (about 1708,) 
 and a " Letter from Copenhagen," in verse, (1709,) which 
 was praised by Steele and others. His tragedy " The 
 Distressed Mother" was performed with applause in 
 1712. It was highly commended in the "Spectator" 
 by Addison and Steele, who were friends of the author. 
 He was an adherent of the Whig party, and an object 
 of Pope's ill-natured satire. He made a translation of 
 Sappho's " Hymn to Venus," which Addison printed in 
 the " Spectator," No. 223. His version of Sappho's 
 "Ode to Lesbia" is praised by Addison, as "written in 
 the very spirit of Sappho." (See " Spectator," No. 229.) 
 He became secretary to Dr. Boulter, Primate of Ireland, 
 in 1723, and for some time represented the county of 
 Armagh in the Irish parliament. In 1733 he became a 
 judge of the prerogative court in Ireland. Died in 1749. 
 The term "namby-pamby" is said to have been first 
 applied to his style. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets." 
 
 Philips, (Catherine.) an English poetess, born in 
 London in 1631. Her maiden name was Fowler. She 
 translated Corneille's tragedy of " Pompey," and wrote 
 poems, which were published in 1667. She was called 
 by her admirers " the Matchless Orinda." Died in 1664. 
 See " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by L. S. C0STELI.0. 
 
 Philips or Philipps, (Fahian,) an English political 
 writer, born at Prestbury in 1601, was a lawyer and a 
 partisan of Charles I. Died in 1690. 
 
 Philips, (John,) an English poet, born at Bampton, 
 Oxfordshire, in 1676. His first successful work was 
 "The Splendid Shilling," a mock-heroic poem, (1703.) 
 He produced in 1705 "Blenheim," a poem in imitation 
 
 of the style of Milton. His principal work is a poem 
 "On Cider," (1706,) in which he imitated Virgil's 
 "Georgics" with some success. Died in 1708. 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets." 
 
 Phl-lis'cus, [ipt/U'oxoc,] an Athenian comic poet of 
 the middle comedy, wrote probably about 400 B.C. The 
 titles of some of his plays are given by Suidas. 
 
 Fhiliscus of jEgina, a Cynic philosopher, who, 
 according to Suidas, was a disciple of Diogenes the 
 Cynic, and taught grammar to Alexander the Great. 
 
 Fhiliscus of Corcyra, lived about 290 B.C., and was 
 one of the seven poets that formed the "Tragic Pleiad." 
 His works are not extant, 
 
 Fhiliscus of Rhodes, a sculptor, who is believed to 
 have flourished about 146 B.C. ; though some suppose 
 him to have lived in the reign of Augustus. His works 
 were placed in the temple of Apollo at Rome, for which 
 they were probably originally designed. Meyer identifies 
 the statue at Florence called Apollino with the Apollo 
 of Philiscus. 
 
 Phl-lis'tl-on, [Qilioriuv,] a Greek physician, born 
 in Sicily or Italy, lived in the fourth century B.C. 
 He was the teacher of Eudoxus the physician and 
 astronomer. 
 
 Fhl-lis'tus, [Gr. <J>//Uotoc,] an eminent Syracusan his- 
 torian and politician, born about 435 B.C. He aided 
 Dionysius to obtain power in Syracuse about 405 B.C.. 
 soon after which he was keeper of the citadel. About 
 396 he was banished, because he married a niece of 
 Dionysius without his consent. He was recalled from 
 exile by Dionysius the Younger, over whom he acquired 
 much influence. He used this influence against Plato 
 and Dion, and "employed his talents," says Plutarch, 
 " in defence of the despotic policy." Having been de- 
 feated in a naval battle by the party of Dion, m 356 B.C., 
 he was killed, or killed himself to avoid falling into the 
 hands of the victors. He wrote a " History of Sicily," 
 which is lost. His style resembled that of Thucydides. 
 Cicero characterizes him as "creber, acutus, brevis, pane 
 pusillus Thucydides." 
 
 See Bayi.r, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Goeller, 
 "Vita Philisti, "in his "DeSitu et Origine Syracusarum." 
 
 Phil'li-more, (John George,) M.P., an English 
 writer on law, bom in 1809. He wrote a "History of 
 the Law of Evidence," and other works. Died in 1865. 
 
 Phil'lip, (Arthur,) an English navigator, born in 
 London in 1738, was the first governor of Botany Bay. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 Phil'lip, (John,) a Scottish painter, born at Aberdeen 
 about 1815, became a resident of London. Having 
 visited Spain about 1852, he painted numerous success- 
 ful pictures of Spanish life. Among his works are a 
 "Scotch Fair," "The Letter-Writer of Seville," "El 
 Pasco," "The Spanish Contrabandistas," and "The 
 House of Commons." He was elected a Royal Acade- 
 mician in 1859 or i860. Died in 1867. 
 
 Phil'lips, (Charles,) an Irish barrister, born at 
 Sligo about 1788. He practised with success in criminal 
 cases in London, and gained a wide reputation by his 
 speeches, the style of which is rather florid. He was 
 for many years a commissioner of the insolvent debtors' 
 court in London. He published, besides other works, 
 "Recollections of Curran and some of his Contempo- 
 raries," (1818.) Died in 1859. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1817; " Monthly Re- 
 view" for December, 1819. 
 
 Phil'lips or Philipps, (Edward,) a nephew and 
 pupil of the poet Milton, was born in London in 1630. 
 He wrote a "Life of Milton," (1694,) and published, 
 besides other works, "Theatrum Poetarum," or a com- 
 plete collection of the most eminent poets of all ages, 
 with observations, ete., (1675.) It is supposed that he 
 was assisted by Milton in this work, which is highly 
 esteemed. Died about 1680. 
 
 See William Godwin, "Lives of Edward and John Phillips," 
 1815: " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1S15. 
 
 Phillips, fil'lips, (Georo,) a Prussian historian, born 
 at Konigsberg in 1804. He was a Roman Catholic of 
 the ultramontane party. In 1851 he became professor 
 of the history of law at Vienna. Among his works are 
 a " History of Germany," (1834,) and a "Treatise on 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J 1 , short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m?t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
PHILLIPS 
 
 1789 
 
 PH1L0 
 
 Canon Law," (Ktrchenrecht,) (5 vols., 1845-51.) Died 
 in i860. 
 
 Phillips, (John,) a brother of Edward, noticed above, 
 was a pupil of Milton. He wrote " Maronides," a parody 
 of part of Virgil's " /Eneid," ( 1672,) a " Defence of Mil- 
 ton," (" Miltoni Defensio,") and a few other works. 
 
 See "Lives of Edward and lohn Phiilips, Nephews and Pupils 
 o/Jolm -Milton," by William Godwins London, 1815. 
 
 Phillips, (John,) a nephew of William Smith the 
 geologist, was born December 25, 1800. He assisted this 
 uncle in the explorations and surveys which he made 
 in order to prepare geological maps of England. He 
 lectured on his favourite science with success at various 
 places. In 1844 he obtained the chair of geology at 
 Dublin. He wrote articles on geology, etc. for the 
 " Penny Cyclopaedia" and the " Encyclopaedia Britan- 
 nic a." Among his works are a "Treatise on Geology," 
 (2 vols., 1837,) and "Palaeozoic Fossils of Cornwall, 
 Devon, and West Somerset," (1841.) He became pro- 
 fessor of geology at Oxford in 1853, and president of 
 the Geological Society in 1858. 
 
 Phil'lips, (John,) LED., an American merchant, born 
 it Andover, Massachusetts, in 1719, founded an academy 
 at Exeter, New Hampshire, called by his name, and gave 
 a large sum to Phillips Academy, at Andover. Died 
 in 1795. 
 
 Phillips, (Morgan,) or Philip Morgan, a Welsh 
 Catholic writer, graduated at Oxford in 1537. He was 
 so skilful in disputation that he was called " Morgan the 
 Sophister." He wrote in 1571 an answer to Knox's 
 " Blast of the Trumpet against the Regiment of Women." 
 
 Phillips, (Sir Richard,) an English writer, born in 
 London in 1767 or 1768. He published the "Monthly 
 Magazine," which advocated liberal politics, and other 
 works. Died about 1840. 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Public and Private Life of Sir Richard 
 Phillips." 
 
 Phillips, (Richard,) F.R.S., an English chemist and 
 pharmacist, born in 1778. He learned his profession 
 with William Allen, of Plough Court, London, and ac- 
 quired great skill as an analytic chemist. He wrote 
 articles on chemistry and mineralogy for the " Penny 
 Cyclopaedia." He lectured on chemistry at the London 
 Hospital, and became president of the Chemical Society 
 about 1850. Died in 185 1. 
 
 Phillips, (Samuel,) nephew of John Phillips, noticed 
 above, (1719-95,) was born at North Andover in 1 75 1, 
 and rose through numerous offices to \k Lieutenant- 
 Governor of Massachusetts. He was the founder of 
 Phillips Academy, Andover. Died in 1802. 
 
 Phillips, (SAMUEL,) an English writer, born in Lon- 
 don in 1815. He published "Caleb Stukelv," a novel, 
 and wrote tales for "Blackwood's Magazine" and other 
 periodicals. He became an editor of the London 
 "Times," for which he wrote able literary criticisms and 
 reviews. In 1852 and 1854 he published two volumes 
 of " Essays from the Times." Died in 1854. 
 
 Phillips, (Thomas,) an English Catholic priest, born 
 in Buckinghamshire in 1708. He published a "Life of 
 Reginald Pole," (1764.) Died at Liege in 1774. 
 
 Phillips, (Thomas,) an English portrait-painter, born 
 at Dudley, in Warwickshire, in 1770. He was professor 
 of painting in the Royal Academy from 1824 to 1832. 
 Among his works are portraits of Sir Joseph Banks, 
 Lord Byron, the poets Scott, Coleridge, and Southey, 
 Lord Brougham, Sir Francis Chantrey, and Major Den- 
 ham. Died in 1845. 
 
 Phillips, (Sir Thomas,) an English antiquary, born 
 in Worcestershire in 1792. He formed a great collection 
 of manuscripts, and wrote several antiquarian treatises. 
 
 Phillips, (Wendell,) an American reformer, dis- 
 tinguished for his uncompromising hostility to the in- 
 stitution of slavery and to oppression in every form, was 
 born in Boston, Massachusetts, November 29, i8n. He 
 graduated at Harvard in 1831, studied law, and was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1834. His sympathies were strongly 
 aroused by the persecution of the early abolitionists, 
 more particularly during the Boston mob, headed by 
 "gentlemen of property and standing," in October, 1835, 
 when Garrison narrowly escaped with his life. In 1836 
 
 law liecause he was unwilling to act under an oath to 
 the Constitution of the United States. In 1837 a meeting 
 of the citizens of Massachusetts was called in Faneuil 
 Hall for the purpose of expressing public condemnation 
 of the murder of Lovejoy, who fell (November 7) at 
 Alton, Illinois, in defence of the freedom of the press. 
 The pro-slavery feeling in Boston was at that time very 
 strong, and the object of the meeting was in imminent 
 danger of being defeated through the influence of Attor- 
 ney-General Austin, who asked how Mr. Lovejoy had 
 merited the distinction of being thus commemorated, and 
 whether he had not died "as the fool dieth." At the 
 conclusion of his speech, Wendell Phillips arose, and, in 
 a burst of indignant and powerful eloquence, rebuked 
 the craven and sordid spirit of those who sought to 
 defend or excuse that great crime against the liberty of 
 the press and the rights of humanity. Dr. Channing, 
 who had been chiefly instrumental in calling the meeting 
 on that occasion, often referred to the speech of young 
 Phillips before that vast assembly, many of whom were 
 bitterly hostile to freedom, as "morally sublime." Be- 
 lieving that the Constitution of the United States was 
 an unrighteous compact between freedom and slavery, 
 Mr. Phillips refused to recognize its authority by voting 
 or in any other manner, and maintained that a dissolu- 
 tion of the Union would be the most effectual mode of 
 giving freedom to the slaves. In 1865 he succeeded Mr. 
 Garrison as president of the American Anti-Slavery 
 Society, which position he held until the dissolution of 
 the society, April 9, 1870. Mr. Phillips is an accom- 
 plished scholar, and one of the most eloquent orators 
 in the United States. In addition to his labours in the 
 anti-slavery cause, he has devoted no inconsiderable 
 portion of his time and attention to the temperance 
 movement and other reforms. His principal speeches 
 and lectures have been published in an octavo volume, 
 (Boston, 1863.) 
 
 See Mrs. Stowe, " Men of our Times," Hartford, 1868; "Golden 
 Age of American Oratory," by Edward G. Parkhr, Boston, 1857. 
 
 Phillips, (William,) F. R.S., an English mineralogist 
 and geologist, born in London in 1773, was a brother of 
 Richard, noticed above, and was a member of the Society 
 of Friends. He distinguished himself by the accurate 
 measurement of crystals by means of the reflective 
 goniometer. He published "Outlines of Mineralogy 
 and Geology," (4th edition, 1826,) and an " Introduction 
 to the Knowledge of Mineralogy," (1816.) He aided 
 Conybeare in an important work, — "The Geology of 
 England and Wales," (1822.) Died in 1828. 
 
 Phill'potts or FhiTpotts, (Henry,) an English 
 bishop, was born at Bridgewater in 1777 or 1778, and 
 educated at Oxford. He obtained the living of Stanhope, 
 became Dean of Chester in 1828, and Bishop of Exeter 
 in 1830. He acted with the Tory party in the House 
 of Lords, in opposing many measures of reform. He 
 wrote many controversial works, among which is a 
 "Letter on Catholic Emancipation," (1827.) He was 
 regarded as the head of the extreme High-Church party 
 in the House of Lords. Died in September, 1869. 
 
 See" Edinburgh Review" for January, 1852; " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for June, 1827. 
 
 Phi'lo or PhJ'loti, [<KA<jv,] a son of Antipater, a Greek 
 statuary, who lived about 330 B.C. He made a statue 
 of Zeus Ourios, which stood on the shore of the Black 
 Sea, near Chalcedon. 
 
 Philo or Philon, an excellent Greek architect, worked 
 at Athens about 320 B.C. He built the portico of twelve 
 Doric columns of the great temple at Eleusis. 
 
 Philo, a physician of the sect of Methodici, is men- 
 tioned by Galen. The time in which he lived is unknown. 
 
 Philo or Philon the Academic, a philosopher, born 
 at Larissa, was a disciple of Clitomachus. He taught 
 philosophy and rhetoric at Rome in the time of Cicero, 
 who was one of his auditors or pupils. 
 
 Philo, (Philon,) J«t><'ikj7<,] an ancient Greek physician, 
 born at Tarsus in Cilicia, lived probably about the time 
 of Augustus. He wrote, in Greek verse, directions for 
 compounding an antidote called PAHonium, which are 
 preserved by Galen. 
 
 Philo, (Q. PuBLlLitis,) a Roman general, who was 
 
 he joined the abolitionists, relinquishing the practice of | consul in 339 B.C. He procured the passage in that 
 « as A; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, h, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^y-See Explanations, p. 2j.) 
 
PHILO 
 
 1790 
 
 PHILOSTRATUS 
 
 year of the important Publilian laws, which increased 
 the power of the plebeians. He was re-elected consul 
 in 327 and in 320 B.C. In the latter year he defeated the 
 Samnites. _. ,, -. 
 
 Philo, (Philon,) [Gr. Mfaw,] called also Philo By- 
 zantius, (be-zan'she-us,) a Greek mechanician, who lived 
 in the second century B.C. He wrote a "Treatise on 
 Military Machines and Missiles," part of which is ex- 
 tant,— i.e. the fourth and fifth books,— and a treatise on 
 mechanics. 
 
 Philo [Fr. Philon, fe'loN'] of Byblos, (Herf.n- 
 NIUS,) a Greek historian and grammarian, who lived 
 between 50 and 125 a.d. Among his numerous works 
 was an account of the reign, or part of the reign, of 
 Hadrian. Suidas says he wrote fieri tes basileius Adnanou. 
 Philo made a translation of the History of Sanchoniathon, 
 a Phoenician. 
 
 Phi'lo (or Phi'lon) Judse'us, (ju-dee'us,) f Fr. Ph ii.on 
 LE Juif, fe'loN' leh zhu-ef',] (" Philo the Jew,") a Greek 
 philosopher, born at Alexandria, lived between 20 B.C. 
 and 50 A.D. He was a member of the sacerdotal family, 
 and was distinguished for learning and eloquence. He 
 was a man of mature age when he was sent by the Jews 
 of Alexandria on an embassy to Caligula, (40 a.d.) It 
 appears that he was a believer in the Platonic philoso- 
 phy. He wrote many works on the Jewish religion, on 
 the interpretation of the Pentateuch, and other subjects. 
 He is partial to figurative or allegorical interpretations. 
 See J. Brvant, "The Sentiments of Philo Judseus," 1798; Jo; 
 skphus, "Jewish Antiquities;" Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca Graca ; 
 Ritter, "History of Philosophy." 
 
 Phi'lo or Phi'lon Thy-a-ue*n'sis, an able geome- 
 trician, whose period is unknown. He wrote on curved 
 lines, and lived before 100 a.d. 
 
 PM-lo«h'a-res, a Greek painter, mentioned by Pliny. 
 He is supposed to be the same as the brother of y£s- 
 chines, who lived about 340 B.C. 
 
 PhI-lo€h'o-rus, [<t>iXo;ropoc,] a distinguished Athenian 
 writer, who states that he held an office at Athens in 306 
 B.C. He wrote a work on the antiquities, legends, and 
 history of Athens, entitled " Atthis," of which many frag- 
 ments are extant. Suidas says he was put to death by 
 order of Antigonus. According to some writers, he 
 flourished between 306 and 260 B.C. 
 
 Fhfl'o-cleS, [*(aokaw,] an Athenian tragic poet, born 
 about 468 B.C., was a nephew of the poet jKschylus, whom 
 he imitated. In 429 he gained a victory over Sophocles, 
 who on that occasion exhibited his much-admired " CEdi- 
 pus Tyrannus." None of the works of Philocles have 
 come down to us. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." 
 Philocles, an Athenian architect, (of Acharnae,) de- 
 signed the admirable Ionic temple of Athena Polias, 
 built about 333 B.C. 
 Philocrate. See Phii.ocratf.s. 
 PM-loc'ra-te5, [Gr. fctAoKpun/r ; Fr. Philocrate, 
 fe'lo'kRtt',] an Athenian orator, who was one of the 
 chief negotiators of the peace with Philip of Macedon 
 in 346 B.C. He was an opponent of Demosthenes, and 
 favoured the Macedonian party. Having been accused 
 of treason, he went into exile about 342 B.C. 
 Philoctete. See Philoctetf.s. 
 Phll-oc-te'tes, [Gr. *iAo(cr^n?c ; Fr. Philoctete, 
 fe'lok't^t',] a celebrated Greek archer, who, during the 
 Trojan war, was left on the island of Lemnos, because 
 he was wounded in the foot by a serpent or a poisoned 
 arrow. He is the subject of many legends, one of which 
 ascribes the death of Paris to a shaft from his bow. He 
 was said to have been a friend of Hercules, who be- 
 queathed to him his bow and his poisoned arrows. 
 See Sophocles, " Philoctetes," a tragedy. 
 
 Philodeme. See Philodemus. 
 
 Phll-o-de'mus, [Gr. <J>tAodV°f; Fr. Philodeme, fe - 
 lo'd&m',] a Greek Epicurean philosopher and poet, born 
 in Palestine. He lived at Rome in the time of Cicero, 
 who mentions him in a speech against Piso. Cicero 
 condemns his conduct, but recognizes his literary merit. 
 He wrote epigrams, fragments of which are extant in 
 the Greek Anthology. 
 
 Phil-o-la'us, [Gr. *iA6/taoc,] a Pythagorean philoso- 
 pher, bom at Crotona or Tarentum, was a disciple of 
 
 Archytas. He flourished about 375 or, according to 
 some authorities, 450 B.C., and wrote on physics. Plato, 
 it is said, purchased some of his writings at a high price, 
 and derived from them materials for his "Timaeus." 
 
 See August BBckh, " Philolaos des Pythagoraers Leben," 1819; 
 Ersch und Gruber, " Allgemeine Encyklopaedie." 
 
 PMl'o-me'la, [Gr. iOjofiiila ; Fr. Philomele, fe'lo'- 
 m&l',] a daughter of Pandi'on, and a sister of Procne. 
 The poets related that she was ravished by Tereus, 
 and afterwards metamorphosed into a nightingale. 
 
 See Ovid, " Metamorphoses." 
 
 Philomele. See Philomela. 
 
 Philon. See Philo. 
 
 Phi-lon'I-des, [*tAwi'«S)7r,] an Athenian comic poet 
 of the old comedy, lived in the fifth century B.C. He 
 is chiefly distinguished as one of the persons in whose 
 name the early plays of Aristophanes were produced. 
 In the opinion of some critics, he was one of the actors 
 to whom Aristophanes committed his chief characters. 
 
 Philopemen. See Philopcemen. 
 
 Philopcemen, fil-o-pee'men, [Gr. QOimmftrp/ ; Fr. 
 Philopemen, fe'lo'pa'm&N',] an eminent Greek general 
 and statesman, born at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about 
 252 B.C., was a son of Craugis. He was instructed by 
 Demophanes and Ecdemus, and chose Epaminondas 
 for his model. His favourite study was the art of war. 
 His name occurs in 222 B.C. as one of the few who re- 
 sisted Cleomenes, the Spartan, when he attacked Mega- 
 lopolis by night. The defeat of Cleomenes at Sellasia 
 (221 B.C.) was ascribed to Philopcemen. He was ap- 
 pointed general of the cavalry about 210 B.C., and made 
 reforms in discipline and tactics. In 208 he was elected 
 stratcgus ox general-in-chief of the Achaean League. His 
 reputation was greatly exalted by a victory over the 
 Spartan Machanidas at Mantinea. He defeated Nabis, 
 tyrant of Sparta, in 20t B.C., and again about 192. In 
 iSS B.C. he was appointed commander in a war against 
 Sparta, which had seceded from the Achaean League. 
 He made himself master of the Spartan capital, razed 
 the walls, put to death the prominent men, and abolished 
 the laws of Lycurgus. For these acts of severity he was 
 censured by the Roman senate. In an attempt to reduce 
 Messene to allegiance by arms, he was taken prisoner 
 bv the Messenians, and compelled to drink poison, in 
 182 B.C. He has been styled the last of the Greeks. 
 His memory was cherished with great veneration. Ac- 
 cording to Pausanias, " Miltiades was the first, and Phi- 
 lopoemen the last, benefactor to the whole of Greece." 
 See Plutarch, "Lives;" Polybius, "History." 
 
 PhMop'o-nus, (Joannes,) [Gr. 'lauwije 6 •JxAottovoc,] 
 surnamed Grammat'icus, a grammarian of Alexandria, 
 whose reputation was greater than his merit. His name 
 is chiefly memorable for his connection with the capture 
 of Alexandria by Amroo, 639 a.d. It is reported that 
 he requested the victor to grant him the great library 
 of that city, and that his request was refused. 
 Philostorge. See Philostorgius. 
 Phll-o-stor'gl-us, [Gr. Qttoaropyioc ; Fr. Philo- 
 storge, fe'lo'stoRzh',1 an Arian writer, born in Cappa- 
 docia about 360 A.D. He wrote an ecclesiastical history 
 of the period from 300 to 425 a.d., which is lost. An 
 extract from It is preserved in a work of Photius. 
 Philostrat and Philostra. See Philostratus. 
 PM-los'tra-tus, [Gr. QuubaTpaToi; ; Fr. Philostrate, 
 fe'lo'stnat' ; Ger. Philostrat, fee'los-tRat,] (Flaviijs,) 
 a Greek biographer, born in Lemnos about 175 or 180 
 A.D. He became a resident of Rome, where he taught 
 rhetoric in the reign of Septimius Severus. At the re- 
 quest of the empress, Julia Domna, he wrote a " Life of 
 Apollonius of Tyana." This work, which has exercised 
 the ingenuity of many commentators, was printed in 
 1502. Among his extant works are "The Lives of the 
 Sophists," and a description of a collection of paintings, 
 which displays richness of fancy and beauty of style. He 
 was alive in the reign of Philip, (244-249 A.D.) 
 
 See Ritter, "History of Philosophy ;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca 
 Grxca;" Rehfues, " Ueber den JUngern Philostrat," etc., 1800; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Fhilostratua the Lemnian, a Sophist, born about 
 190 a.d. He is mentioned in the writings of the Philos- 
 tratus noticed above, who was his friend and praises 
 
 i, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure: fir, fall, fat; m«t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
PHI LOT JS 
 
 1791 
 
 PHORMION 
 
 his rhetorical skill. Suidas ascribes to him a work called 
 FuaovaQ. 
 
 Phl-lo'tas, [Gr. *iA<Jrao,] a general of Alexander the 
 Great, was a son of Parmenio. He commanded the 
 Macedonian cavalry, or royal guards, in the expedition 
 against Persia, and stood high in the favour of the king. 
 Plutarch extols his valour and generosity, but adds that 
 "the loftiness of his port was altogether extravagant." 
 He received information of a plot against Alexander, but 
 neglected to mention it. His enemy Craterus used this 
 circumstance to excite the suspicion of the king. Phi- 
 lotas was tortured until he confessed his complicity, and 
 was put to death in 330 B.C. His guilt may reasonably 
 be doubted. 
 
 See Arrian, "Anabasis." 
 
 Philotas, a physician of Amphissa, in Locris, born 
 about 50 or 60 B.C. He once supped with Antyllus, (a 
 son of Antony,) who was so pleased with a syllogism of 
 Philotas that he gave him a rich present, (30 B.C.) 
 
 Phl-lo'the-us, [*jAo0coc,] (Coccinus,) a Greek writer, 
 was chosen Patriarch of Constantinople in 1355. He had 
 a high reputation, and wrote a number of works, some 
 of which have been printed. Died about 1373. 
 
 Phll-o-ti'mus, [QMrifioc,] an eminent Greek phy- 
 sician, who lived probably about 300 B.C., was a con- 
 temporary of Herophilus. His works are mentioned 
 by Galen. 
 
 Philoxene. See Philoxenus. 
 
 Fhl-lox'e-nus, [Gr. QMZevoe ; Fr. Philoxene, fe'- 
 loks'&n',] an eminent Greek dithyrambic poet, born at 
 Cythera about 435 B.C. He passed some time at the 
 court of Dionysius of Syracuse, who treated him with 
 favour and afterwards sent him to prison. His chief 
 poems were "Cyclops or Galatea," and "The Feast" 
 or " Dinner," (Atiirvov,) which were much admired. 
 Fragments of them are extant. He died in 380 B.C. 
 
 See Berglein, "De Philoxeno Cytherio Poeta," 1843; Kling- 
 bnder, "Dissertatio de Philoxeno Cytherio," 1845. 
 
 Philoxenus, an able Greek painter of Eretria, was 
 a pupil of Nicomachus of Thebes. He was noted for 
 rapidity of execution. His picture of a battle of Alex- 
 ander with Darius is highly praised by Pliny. He lived 
 about 325 B.C. 
 
 Philoxenus, an Egyptian surgeon, mentioned by 
 Celsus as the author of several valuable works on 
 surgery. He probably lived before the Christian era. 
 
 Phil'pot, (John,) an English Protestant minister, 
 born at Compton, was tried for heresy, and burned at 
 Smithfield in 1555. He left several works on theology. 
 
 Philpotts, (Henry.) See Phillpotts. 
 
 Phinee. See Phineus. 
 
 Phi'neus or Phin'e-us, [Gr. $ivei<e ; Fr. Phin£e, 
 fe'na',] a blind soothsayer of classic mythology, supposed 
 to be a son of Agenor, (or of Neptune.) According to the 
 ancient fabulists, he treated his children with extreme 
 severity, and the gods, to punish him, sent the Harpies, 
 who annoyed him exceedingly, by snatching and soiling 
 his food, until he was relieved by the Argonauts. In 
 return for this service, he gave them prophetic counsel to 
 direct them in their enterprise. The story of Phineus 
 is related with much variation by different authors, some 
 of whom call him King of Salmydessus in Thrace. 
 
 Phintias. See Damon. 
 
 Phipps, (Constantine.) See Mulgrave. 
 
 Phippa, (Constantine Henry.) See Normanby. 
 
 Phipps or Phips, (Sir William,) an American ma- 
 
 fistrate, born in Maine in 1651, became Governor of 
 lassachusetts in 1692. His " Life," by Francis Bowen, 
 is included in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. vii. 
 He commanded an expedition against Port Royal, which 
 he captured in 1690. Died in 1695. 
 
 See Cotton Mather, "Life of Sir William Phipps." 
 
 Pble'gon, [*Wyuv,] a chronologer, born at Tralles, in 
 Lydia, lived in the first half of the second century. He 
 was a freedman of the emperor Hadrian. His most im- 
 portant work is called 'Om/iitwvuujv koI xpovucuv ovva- 
 yoiyv. It is not extant. Saint Jerome cites him as a wit- 
 ness to confirm the gospel narrative in relation to the 
 miraculous darkness which occurred at the death of 
 Christ. Phlegon states that in the fourth year of the 
 
 202d Olympiad there was a great eclipse of the sun at 
 the sixth hour, and an earthquake in liithynia. 
 
 Phlegyas, flee'je-as, [Gr. *Aeyt>ac ; Fr. Phlegyas, 
 fla'zhe'a', ] a fabulous personage, said to be a son of 
 Mars, a king of the Lapithae, and the father of Coronis. 
 Having set fire to the temple of Apollo, he was killed 
 and doomed to a severe punishment in Tartarus. 
 
 See Virgil, " JEneid," book vi. 618. 
 
 Pho'cas, [Gr. <1><jkuc,] a native of Asia Minor, usurped 
 the empire of Constantinople in 602 A.D. He waged 
 war against Persia, in which he suffered great losses. He 
 rendered himself odious by his cruelty, and was deposed 
 and put to death by Heracli'us in 610 A.D. 
 
 Phocion, fo'she-on, or Phokion, fo'ke-on, [Gr. 
 $ujc<uv,] an Athenian statesman and general, born about 
 402 B.C., was a pupil of Plato and Xenocrates. He con- 
 tributed to the victory of Naxos, in 376. In 340 be com- 
 manded an army which operated with success against 
 Philip at Byzantium. He opposed Demosthenes on the 
 question of war against Philip of Macedon, and was the 
 leader of the conservative or aristocratic party. Accord- 
 ing to Plutarch, he was elected general forty-five times. 
 In his speeches he was remarkable for conciseness and 
 sententious brevity. Demosthenes used to say, when 
 Phocion arose to speak, " Here comes the primer of my 
 periods." Many of his witty sayings are recorded by 
 Plutarch. He compared the speeches of a certain orator 
 "to cypress-trees, which are high and stately, but bear 
 no fruit." He opposed the war against Antipater in 
 323 B.C. Having been unjustly condemned on a charge 
 of treason, he was put to death by the popular party in 
 317 B.c: 
 
 "The influence of Phokion as a public adviser," says 
 Grote, " during the period embraced in this volume down 
 to the battle of Chaeronea, was eminently mischievous , 
 to Athens, — all the more mischievous, partly (like that 
 of Nikias) from the respectability of his personal quali- 
 ties, partly because he espoused and sanctioned the 
 most dangerous infirmity of the Athenian mind." (" His- 
 tory of Greece," chap. Ixxxvii.) 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Phocion;" Cornelius Nepos, "Pho- 
 cion ;" DlODORUS Siculus, books xvi.-xviii. ; Thirlwall, ' History 
 of Greece :" G. Less, " Res a Phocione in Republica Atheniensi 
 gestse," 1787; " Nouvelle liiographie G^nerale." 
 
 Pho-cjfl'I-des' [$oKv?dS>ie] of Miletus, a Greek 
 poet, who flourished about 540 B.C. He wrote didactic 
 and elegiac poems, of which small fragments are extant. 
 
 Phoebe, fee'be, [Gr. *<m'6V Fr. Phebe, fa'bV,] a sur- 
 name of Artemis or Diana, goddess of the moon. (See 
 Diana.) 
 
 Phcebidas, feVe-das, [Gr. *oiff«Jac,] a Spartan gene- 
 ral, who commanded in the Olynthian war, (382 B.C.) 
 He seized by treachery the Cadmeia of Thebes. He was 
 killed in a battle against the Thebans about 378 B.C. 
 
 Phoebus, fee'bus, [Gr. $ocSck; Fr. Phebus, fa'biis',] 
 a name given by the Greeks to Apollo as god of the 
 sun. (See Apollo.) 
 
 Phoenix, fee'niks, [Gr. *o;'wf ; Fr. Phenix, fa'neks',] 
 a mythological personage, whom tradition represents as 
 King of the Dolopes, and preceptor of Achilles, whom 
 he accompanied to the siege of Troy. The invention 
 of the alphabet was ascribed to him. 
 
 Phoenix, [Gr. *<><>(£,] a son of Agenor, and brother 
 of Cadmus. It was fabled that he went to Africa to 
 search for his sister Europa, and settled in a country 
 which was from him called Phoenicia. 
 
 Phoenix is also the name of a fabulous bird, cele- 
 brated among the ancient Greeks and Orientals. Accord- 
 ing to one tradition, it attained the age of five hundred 
 years or more, and burned itself on a funeral pile, from 
 the ashes of which another Phoenix arose. 
 
 Phokion. See Phocion. 
 
 Phor'sjfs or Phor'cus, [Gr. Qopicvc or *6pieof,] the 
 old man of the sea, in classic mythology, was said to 
 be the father of the Gorgons, the Graeae, and the Hes- 
 perides. The first and second of these were called 
 Phor'cydes or Phor'cides, [Gr. *op/c«Sfc.| 
 
 Phor'ml-on, [Gr. $op/xiav,] an able Athenian genera], 
 who blockaded Potidaea in 432 B.C. He gained a deci- 
 sive victory over the Peloponnesian fleet near Naupactus, 
 in 429. Died in 428 B.c 
 
 -; as*. cas.r,-g/4flrv/;gas/; G, H, YL, guttural ; if, nasal; R, trilled ; 3as«; thasin this. ($3^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PHORMION 
 
 1792 
 
 PHTS1CK 
 
 Phormion of Ephesus, a Peripatetic philosopher, 
 who is said to have excited the disgust of Hannibal by 
 discoursing in his presence for several hours on the 
 military art. 
 
 Phoron^e. See Phoroneus. 
 
 Pho-ro'neus, [Gr. *opwvetc ; Fr. Piiouonee, fo'ro - 
 na',] a son of Inachus, and a king of Argolis, was the 
 father of Agenor, Pelasgus, and Niube. According to 
 tradition, he discovered the use of fire. 
 
 Photius, fo'she-u,s, [Gr. *ut«c,] an ambitious and 
 highly-gifted Byzantine prelate and writer, was born of 
 a noble family probably at Constantinople. He was a 
 man of sound judgment and of profound and various 
 erudition. After he had held several high civil offices, 
 he was proto-secretarius under Michael III. He be- 
 came in 857 or 858 A.D. Patriarch of Constantinople in 
 place of Ignatius, who was deposed by Bardas. The 
 cause of Ignatius was supported by Pope Nicholas, who 
 anathematized Photius in 862 or 863. A council as- 
 sembled by Photius excommunicated the pope, and thus 
 originated the great schism between the Western and 
 Eastern Churches. In 867 the emperor Basil I. ban- 
 ished Photius and restored Ignatius, whose rights were 
 confirmed by an oecumenical council in 869. Photius 
 gained the favour of Basil, and on the death of Igna- 
 tius, in 877, was restored to his see, and was recognized 
 by the pope, John VIII. A dispute about the jurisdic- 
 tion of Bulgaria, however, revived the schism between 
 the Greek and Roman Churches. Photius was banished 
 by the emperor Leo VI. in 886 A. a, and died in exile a 
 few years later. He is treated with more favour by Prot- 
 estant writers than by the Roman Catholics. He was a 
 voluminous author. His most important work, " Myrio- 
 biblion, sen Bibliotheca," is a review or critical analysis 
 of ancient Greek authors, and is considered one of the 
 most precious monuments of ancient literature. He also 
 left a Greek Lexicon, which was published in 1808. 
 
 See Ki.ose, " Geschichte und Lehre des Marcellus und Photius," 
 1837; Ls Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" J. G. Piui.irpi, 
 -Cominentatio de Photio," 1699; Ch. Faucher, " HiKtwre.de Pho- 
 tius," 1762: Maultrot, " Histoire de Samt-Isnace et de Photius. 
 iToi- Fontani, "De Photio Novas Roma: Episcopo:" Jaeger, 
 " Histoire de Photius," 1844; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Phraates. See Arsaces. 
 
 Phra-a'tes, King of Parthia, a son of Otodes, began 
 to reign in 37 B.C. He restored to Augustus in 20 11. c. 
 the prisoners and ensigns taken from Crassus in 53 B.C. 
 
 Fhrad'mon [bpu&fiuv] of Argos, a Greek statuary, 
 who lived about 425 B.C. He produced an Amazon for 
 the temple of Diana at Ephesus, in competition with 
 other eminent artists, several of whom were more suc- 
 cessful than he in this trial of skill. , , 
 
 Fhran'za or Phran'zes, [Gr. 4>p.wr,T? or •PpcivtQk] the stu()y of mec ij c ine under Dr. Adam Kuhn. It is 
 the last Byzantine historian, was born in 1401. He sa j<t tnat t he first time he witnessed the amputation of a 
 served the emperor Constantine XIII. as a diplomatist , jj m j, ne f a i nt ed, and was obliged to be taken out of the 
 
 Phrynichua, a distinguished Athenian comic poet of 
 the old comedy, flourished about 430 B.C. His vigour 
 and elegance are attested by the small fragments of his 
 works which are extant. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Grasca ;" Meineke, " Fragments 
 Comicorum Grascorum." 
 
 Phrynichua, an Athenian general, had a high com- 
 mand in 412 B.C. He co-operated with Theramenes 
 and Antiphon in the revolution by which the Four 
 Hundred came into power, in 411 B.C. 
 
 Phrynichua, a Greek grammarian, (called Arrha- 
 bius by Photius,) lived about 180 a.d. He wrote 
 " Eclogues of Attic Names and Verbs," (" Eclogas 
 Nominum et Verborum Atticorum,") in which he taught 
 the use of words as sanctioned by writers of the pure 
 Attic diction. This work has been printed. 
 
 Phryn'nia [Gr. ♦pw>wc| °r Phry'nis, an eminent 
 dithyrambic poet, born at Mitylene, lived about 425 B.C. 
 
 Phul or Pul, King of Assyria, reigned from 759 to 
 742 B.C. Menahem, King of Israel, was tributary to him. 
 
 See II. Kinj;s xv. iq. 
 
 Phull, fool, (Karl Ludwig,) Baron, born in Witr- 
 temberg, became a lieutenant-general in the Russian 
 service, and was the author of several military works. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 PhjMar'-ehus, [Gr. <bi<Xapx<K; Fr. Phylarque, fe'- 
 lli;k',] a Greek historian, born at Athens or Naucratis, 
 in Egypt, lived about 215 u.c. He wrote a History of 
 Greece from 272 to 220 B.C., of which only fragments are 
 extant. His style was graphic and animated. Plutarch's 
 lives of Cleomenes and Agis are said to be copied, or 
 taken without much change, from Phylarchus. 
 
 See J. F. Tiioms, " Dissertatio de Phylarchi Vita et Scriptis," 
 1835 ; Voss " De Historicis Grsecis." 
 
 Phylarque. See Phylarchus. 
 
 PhyTlia, [Gr. *t)AAi'c,] in classic mythology, a daugh- 
 ter of Sithon, King of Thrace, was betrothed to Demo- 
 phoon, a son of Theseus. The poets feigned that she 
 killed herself because he failed to come at the appointed 
 time, and she was changed into an almond-tree. 
 
 Phjf-rom'a-ehua, ["tupo^axof , ] an able Athenian 
 sculptor, lived about 410 B.C. He made the bas-reliefs 
 on the frieze of the temple Athena Polias. He is prob. 
 ablv the same as the Pyromachus mentioned by Pliny. 
 
 Phjfs'ick, (Philip Sing,) one of the most eminent 
 of American surgeons, was born in Philadelphia in 1768. 
 His father, Edmund Physick, was keeper of the great 
 seal under the colonial government of Pennsylvania, and, 
 after the Revolution, had charge of the estates of the 
 Penn family. In 1785 he took the degree of A.B. in the 
 University of Pennsylvania. Soon after, he commenced 
 
 and soldier, and was captured by the Turks in 1453. 
 He wrote a " Chronicon," or History, of the period from 
 1260 to 1477, which is highly prized. 
 
 Phra-or'tes, [Gr. 4>pa°P 1 "W>] King of Media, reigned 
 from 656 to 634 B.C. He conquered Persia and other 
 parts of Asia. He was killed at the siege of Nineveh, 
 and was succeeded by his son Cyaxares. 
 
 Phreas or Freas, frees, ? (John,) a learned English- 
 man, born in London, studied medicine under Guarini 
 at Ferrara. He produced some translations and poems. 
 Died at Rome in 1465. 
 
 Fhrjf-gil'lus, a very ancient and celebrated engraver 
 of precious stones, was probably a native or citizen of 
 Syracuse. 
 
 Phry'ne, [Qpvvv,] an Athenian courtesan, born at 
 Thespix, in Bceotia, lived in the fourth century B.C. 
 She was the model of the statues of Venus produced 
 by Praxiteles. 
 
 Phryn'I-«hus, [*pw^of,] an Athenian tragic poet, 
 was a disciple of Thespis. He exhibited a play in 51 1 
 B.C., and made important improvements in the drama. 
 He introduced masks representing females, but admitted 
 only one actor. The chorus retained the principal place 
 in his dramas. He gained a prize in 476 B.C. for his 
 " Phoenician Women." His works are not extant 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" K. O. MOm.kr. " History 
 of the Literature of Ancient Greece;" J. G. Droyskn, " Phrymclios, 
 ^Eschylos und die Trilogie," 1*41. 
 
 room ; but he afterwards succeeded so completely in 
 conquering this weakness of the nerves as to equal, if 
 not surpass, any other surgeon of his time in steadiness 
 of hand and perfect self-possession while performing 
 an important operation. During his attendance at the 
 Philadelphia College of Medicine, he had for his in- 
 structors Dr. Shippen and Dr. Rush, who, with Dr. 
 Kuhn, were lecturers in that institution. Early in the 
 year 1789 Mr. Edmund Physick, accompanied by his 
 son, visited London, where tlie young student was placed 
 under the care of the celebrated John Hunter, by whose 
 recommendation he was subsequently appointed to the 
 post of house-surgeon at Saint George's Hospital. In 
 one of Hunter's papers he compliments Dr. Physick on 
 the accuracy of some physiological experiments which 
 he had performed while house-surgeon at the hospital ; 
 and such were the esteem and confidence which the great 
 anatomist entertained for hiin that he actually invited 
 him, we are told, to remain in London and take a share 
 in his own extensive professional business. But this 
 offer Dr. Physick thought proper to decline. Having 
 in 1791 rtceived his license from the Royal College of 
 Surgeons, in London, he repaired to Edinburgh, where 
 he attended the medical lectures of the University, and 
 in May, 1792, took his degree of doctor of medicine. 
 He returned to Philadelphia in September of the same 
 year. He distinguished himself by his faithful atten- 
 
 i,e, 1, 6, 0, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n5t; good; moonj 
 
P1A 
 
 '793 
 
 PIC ART 
 
 tion to his professional duties during the frightful mor- 
 tality caused by the yellow fever in 1793. The alarm 
 was so great on that occasion that not only nearly all 
 the citizens, who had it in their power to go away, fled 
 from the city, but many of the physicians left also. Dr. 
 Physick himself had an attack of fever ; but it appears 
 to have been comparatively light. In 1798 he received 
 a flattering testimonial to his courage and faithfulness 
 during the epidemic* of that and preceding years, from 
 the managers of the Marine and City Hospitals, ac- 
 companied by a present of plate valued at more than 
 a thousand dollars. In 1800 he commenced, in Phila- 
 delphia, a course of lectures on surgery, which were 
 continued for several years. His success induced the 
 trustees of the University to establish a professorship 
 of surgery in the medical department of that institution, 
 and to appoint Dr. Physick to the new chair. In 1819 
 he was transferred from the chair of surgery to that of 
 anatomy, made vacant by the death of Dr. Dorsey. He 
 resigned this position in 1831 ; and the trustees of the 
 University, on accepting his resignation, unanimously 
 elected him " Emeritus professor of surgery and anat- 
 omy." In 1825 he was elected a member of the French 
 Royal Academy of Medicine, and was, it is said, the 
 first American who received this honour. He closed 
 his long and useful life on the 15th of December, 1837. 
 He had married in 1800 Miss Emlen, of Burlington, by 
 whom he had four children. 
 
 See Gross "Medical Biography," pp. 351-459: " Memoir of Dr. 
 Physick," by his son-in-law. Dr. Jacob Randolph ; " Necroloeica] 
 Notice of Dr. Physick," by Dr. W11. E. Horner; "National 
 Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. 
 
 Pia, pe'I", (Philippe Nicolas,) a French chemist, 
 born in Paris in 1721. He introduced reforms in public 
 hygiene, and invented methods or apparatus for restoring 
 the drowned. Died in 1799. 
 
 Piacentini, pe-i-chen-tee'nee, (Dionisio Gregorio,) 
 an Italian antiquary, born at Viterbo in 1684. He pub- 
 lished an "Epitome of Greek Palaeography," (1735.) 
 Died in 1754. 
 
 Piacentino. See Placentinus. 
 
 Piacenza, Duke of. See Lerrun, (Charles Fr.) 
 
 Piali Pasha, pe-a'lee pa'sha', an admiral, born in 
 Hungary about 1520. He became capudan pasha in 
 the service of the Sultan, who sent him in 1555 to aid 
 Francis I. of France. He gained in 1560 a decisive vic- 
 tory over the fleet of Philip II. of Spain and his allies. 
 In 1570 he commanded a fleet which Selim II. sent 
 against Cyprus. Died in 1 57 1 - 
 
 Piarron. See Chamousset, de. 
 
 Piazza, pe-at'si, (Andrea,) a painter of the Venetian 
 school, born at Castelfranco; died, at an advanced age, 
 in 1670. 
 
 Piazza, (Calisto,) a painter of the Venetian school, 
 called Calisto da Lodi, was born at Lodi. He was 
 a pupil and successful imitator of Titian, and was a 
 good colorist. His works are dated 1524-56. He ex- 
 celled in fresco. Among his best works is "The Mar- 
 riage at Cana," a fresco at Milan. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Ridoi.fi, " Vite deg!i 
 Pittori Veneti." 
 
 Piazza, (Girolamo Bartolommf.o,) an Italian Prot- 
 estant, who taught French and Italian at Cambridge, 
 England, and published "An Account of the Inqui- 
 sition," (1722.) Died about 1745. 
 
 Piazza, (Paolo,) an Italian painter, born at Castel- 
 franco in 1557. He was employed by the emperor Ru- 
 dolph II. and by Pope Paul V. Having liecome a 
 monk, he took the name of Cosmo. Died in 1621. 
 
 Piazza, (Vincenzo,) Marquis, an Italian poet, was 
 born in the Romagna in 1670. Among his works is the 
 "Capture of Bona," ("Bona espugnata," 1694.) Died 
 at Parma in 1745. 
 
 Piazzetta, pe-at-set'ta, (Giovanni Battista.) a dis- 
 tinguished painter, born at Venice in 1682. He was 
 skilful in chiaro-oscuro. His master-piece is "The Be- 
 heading of John the Baptist." The shades of his pictures 
 have become too dark, from the effect of time. Died 
 in 1754. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 • Yellow fever. 
 
 Piazzi, pe-it'see, (Joseph,) an eminent astronomer, 
 born at Ponte, in the Valtelline, Switzerland, in July, 
 1746. He entered the monastic order of Theatins, and 
 studied under Tiraboschi and Lesueur. In 1780 he 
 became professor of the higher mathematics at Palermo, 
 where he founded an observatory. He visited Paris 
 and London in 1787 and 1788. In 1803 he published a 
 "Catalogue of Fixed Stars," which obtained for him a 
 high reputation as an accurate observer. He discovered, 
 011 the 1st of January, 1801, the first of the asteroids, or 
 small planets, whose orbit is between the orbits of Mars 
 and Jupiter. .He gave it the name of Ceres. Among 
 his works is a " Discourse on Astronomy," (1790.) He 
 became director of an observatory at Naples in 1817. 
 Died at Naples in 1826. 
 
 See Scropani, "Elogio del Piazzi," 1826; TlPALDO, " Biografia 
 degli Italiani illnstri," vol. i. 
 
 Pibrac, de, deh pe'bRtk', [Lat. Pibra'chius,] (Gui 
 du Faur — dii foR,) Seigneur, a French poet, orator, 
 and lawyer, was born at Toulouse in 1529. He was 
 sent as ambassador to the Council of Trent by Charles 
 IX. in 1562, and obtained the office of president A mar- 
 tier in 1577. He wrote a popular poem called "Fifty 
 Quatrains, containing Useful Precepts," etc., (1574,) and 
 other works. Died in 15S4. 
 
 See Paschal, "Vidi Fabricii Pibrachii Vita," 15S4: Lupine de 
 Grainvii.lb and L*Abbe Sepher, " Memoires snr la Viede Pi- 
 brac," 1 761 : Maver, "Disconrs historique et critique stir Pibrac," 
 1778: De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeneVale." 
 
 Pibrachius. See Pibrac. 
 
 Pic de la Mirandole. See Pico. 
 
 Picard, pe'kiit', (Ernest,) a French advocate and 
 radical politician, born in Paris in 1821. He was elected 
 to the legislative body by the voters of Paris in 1858, in 
 1863, and in 1869. He became minister of finance Sep- 
 tember 4. 1870. 
 
 Picard, (Jean,) an eminent French astronomer, born 
 at La Fleche, July 21, 1620. He was a priest and prioi 
 of Ville, in Anjou, when he observed with Gassendi 
 the solar eclipse of August 25, 1645. He succeeded 
 Gassendi as professor in the College de France in 1655. 
 He was the first who applied the telescope to the meas- 
 urement of angles, and was the inventor of the lututtl 
 (Teprenve. He is said to have invented the transit in- 
 strument. His most important work was the measure- 
 ment of an arc of the meridian of Paris between Amiens 
 and Malvoisine in 1669-70, of which he wrote an account, 
 entitled " La Mesure de la Terre," (1671.) " When he 
 had," says Delambre, "so good reason to regard himself 
 as the first astronomer of France, and even of Europe, 
 he used his influence with Colbert to attract to France 
 Cassini, whose reputation was already established." 
 Died in 1682. 
 
 See Conoorcet, " filoge de Picard ;" Arago, "Notices bio- 
 graphiques," tome iii. ; Delambre, "Histoire de l'Astrononiie 
 moderne." 
 
 Picard, (Louis Benoit,) a popular French dramatist, 
 born in Paris in 1769. He produced in 1792 a comic 
 opera called "Visitandines," which had great success. 
 Among his popular comedies, in verse, are "The Col- 
 lege Friends," (" Les Amis de College," 1 795,) " Ordi- 
 nafv and Mean," ("Mediocre et Rampant," 1797,) and 
 " The Ambitious Husband." He wrote dramas, in prose, 
 entitled "The Small Town," ("La petite Ville," 1801,) 
 and "The Puppets," ("Les Marionnettes," 1805.) In 
 1807 he was admitted into the French Academy. He 
 delineates the manners of his time with much success, 
 and displays a rich fund of witty sallies. Died in 1828. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Picart, pe'kaV, (Benoit,) a French historical writer 
 and monk, born at Toul in 1663. He wrote a " History 
 of the City and Diocese of Toul," (1707,) and other 
 works. Died in 1720. 
 
 Picart, (Bernard,) a French designer and engraver, 
 born in Paris in 1673. He had a talent for the imi- 
 tation of various masters, and obtained a high reputation. 
 Having removed to Amsterdam in 1 7 10, he worked for 
 the booksellers, and lapsed into a degenerate manner. 
 He engraved after his own designs, and after Poussin, 
 Le Brun, and others. Died in 1733. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J|^~See Explanations, p. 2j.) 
 
 113 
 
PIC ART 
 
 1794 
 
 PlCffON 
 
 Picart, (Etienne,) an eminent engraver, called Le 
 RomaIN, born in Paris in 1631, was the father of the 
 preceding. lie worked some years at Rome, and settled 
 at Amsterdam in 1710. His works, which consist of 
 portraits and history, display more firmness than har- 
 mony. Died at Amsterdam in 1721. 
 
 Piccart, pik'kaiu, (Michael,) a learned German 
 philologist and philosopher, born at Nuremberg in 1574. 
 He was professor of philosophy at Altdorf. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, a "Commentary on the 
 Political Works of Aristotle," (1615,) which is com- 
 mended. Died in 1620. 
 
 Piochena, pek-ka'ua, (Curzto,) an Italian philolo- 
 g ; st, bom in Tuscany about 1550. He published a 
 good edition of Tacitus, (1607.) Died in 1629. 
 
 Piccini, pet-chee'nee, (Luigi,) a musician and com- 
 poser, born at Naples in 1766, was a son of Niccolo. He 
 composed operas which obtained little success. He was 
 chapel-master to the King of Sweden from 1796 to 1801. 
 Died in 1827. 
 
 Piccini, pet-chee'nee, or Piccirmi, pet-cheen'nee, 
 (NiccoiA) a popular Italian composer, born at Bari, in the 
 kingdom of Naples, in 1728. He studied under Leo and 
 Durante at Naples. His serious opera " Zenobia" ( 1 756) 
 obtained a complete success. His reputation was widely 
 extended by the comic opera "Good Little Daughter," 
 ("La buona Figliuola," 1760,) which some consider his 
 master-piece. In 1776 he removed to Paris, where he 
 produced the operas of " Roland," (1778,) " Atys," etc. 
 A great commotion and wordy warfare was raised by 
 the rivalry between Piccini and Gluck. The French 
 literati and the general public were divided into two par- 
 ties, the Piccinists and the Gluckists. Piccini became 
 singing-master to the queen Marie Antoinette about 
 1780. He returned to Naples in 1791. Among his 
 most admired works are " Olimpiade," and the French 
 opera of "Didon," (17S3.) Died at Passy, near Paris, 
 in 1800. 
 
 See Ginguen£, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Piccinni," 
 1800 : Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Piccinino, pet-che-nee'no, (Niccol6,) an able Ital- 
 ian general, born at Perugia in 1375. He served some 
 years under Braccio da Montone. In 1425 he entered 
 the service of Filippo Maria Visconti, of Milan, to whom 
 he remained loyal to his death. He defeated Carmagnola 
 and the Venetians in 1431, and gained a decisive victory 
 over the Florentines and Venetians near Imola in 1434. 
 Died in 1444. 
 
 See Sismondi, " Histoire des Re'publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Piccinni. See Piccini. 
 
 Piccinni, pet-cheen'nee,? (Alexandre,) a French 
 composer, born in Paris in 1779, was a grandson ol 
 Niccolo Piccini, noticed above. 
 
 Piccolomini. See Pius II. 
 
 Piccolomini, pek-ko-lom'e-nee, (Alessandro,) an 
 Italian writer and prelate, eminent for learning, was 
 born at Sienna in 1508. He was the first who wrote on 
 philosophy in the Italian language. In 1574 he was 
 appointed Archbishop of Patras. Among his works are 
 a treatise "On the Sphere of the World," (1540,) and 
 "Commentaries on Aristotle," (1575.) Died in 1578. 
 
 See Fabiani, "Vita di Piccolomini," 1749. 
 
 Piccolomini, (Alfonso,) Duke of Monte Marciano, 
 an Italian condottiere, born about 1550. He was the 
 leader of an army of brigands. In 1581 he defeated 
 the army of the pope. He was defeated by the Duke of 
 Tuscany, and hung, in 1591. 
 
 Piccolomini, (Francesco,) an Italian scholar, born 
 at Sienna in 1520, was a professor of philosophy. He 
 wrote " Universal Philosophy of Morals," etc., (" Uni- 
 versa Philosophia de Moribus," etc., 1583,) and other 
 works. Died in 1604. 
 
 Piccolomini, (Giacomo,) a cardinal, whose proper 
 name was Ammanati, was born near Lucca in 1422. 
 He left "Commentaries and Epistles," (" Commentarii 
 et Epistolae," 1506.) Died "in 1479. 
 
 Piccolomini, (Maria,) an Italian operatic singer, 
 born at Sienna about 1835. She performed in London 
 about 1856, and in Paris. In 1861 she married and re- 
 tired from the stage. 
 
 Piccolomini, (Ottavio,) an Austrian general, of 
 Italian origin, was born in 1599. He led a regiment at 
 the battle of Lutzen, in 1632, and was one of the principal 
 agents in the conspiracy which procured the ruin of 
 VVallenstein. He contributed to the victory at Notd- 
 lingen, (1634,) and was defeated by Torstenson in Silesia 
 in 1641 or 1642. In 1643 he entered the service of 
 Spain, and obtained the chief command in Flanders. 
 He became a field-marshal of the Austrian army in 1648. 
 Died in Vienna in 1656. 
 
 See Crasso, " Elogii di Capitani ilhistri ;" Schiiler, "History 
 of the Thirty Years' War," and his tragedy of " VVallenstein." 
 
 Pichat, pe'shS', (Leon Laurent,) a French poet, 
 critic, and novelist, bom in Paris in 1823. He became 
 in 1854 editor and proprietor of the " Revue de Paris," 
 which was suppressed by government in 1858. Among 
 his works are political verses entitled " Free Words," 
 (" Libres Paroles," 1847,) and " La Pai'enne," a novel, 
 
 (1857-) 
 
 Pichat, (Michel,) a French dramatic poet, born at 
 Vienne in 1786. Among his works is "Leonidas," a 
 drama, (1825.) Died in 1828. 
 
 Pichegru, pesh'gRoo or pesh'gRii', (Charles,) a 
 French general, born at Arbois (Jura) in 1761. He en- 
 tered the army in 1783, and became a zealous partisan of 
 the Revolution in 1789. He was raised to the rank of 
 general of division in 1793, and obtained command of the 
 army of the Rhine in October of that year. About the end 
 of the same year he became general-in-chief of the united 
 armies of the Rhine and the Moselle. He was a favour- 
 ite of the Jacobins at this period. In February, 1 794, 
 he succeeded Jourdan as commander of the army of 
 the North, with which, by rapid and skilful movements, 
 he gained advantages at Cassel, Courtrai, and Memo, 
 In the winter of 1794-95 he crossed the Waal on the 
 ice and reduced Holland to submission. Having taken 
 command of the army of the Rhine in 1795, he incurred 
 suspicion of treason, and was superseded by Moreau in 
 1796. He continued to intrigue against the Directory, 
 by which he was transported to Cayenne in September, 
 1797; but he escaped from that place in 1798. He con- 
 spired with Cadoudal and others against Bonaparte, and 
 was arrested by the police in Paris in February, 1804. 
 Before his trial was finished, he was found dead in prison, 
 in April, 1804. 
 
 See Cousin d'Avallon, " Histoire du General Pichegru," 1801 ; 
 Fauchk-Borel, "Notices sur Pichegru et Moreau," 1807; Gas- 
 sier, "Vie du GiSneVal Pichegru," 1814 ; Savary, Doc de Rovigo, 
 "Me'moires sur la Mort de Pichegru," 1825: " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Pichler, piic'ler, (Caroline,) originally named Von 
 Greiner, (fon gRi'ner,) a popular German novelist, born 
 in Vienna in 1769. She was married in 1796 to Andreas 
 Pichler, and in 1802 produced "Idyllen." She illustrated 
 the salutary influence of Christianity in " Agathocles," 
 a novel, (1808,) which was much admired. In 1814 
 she published "The Count von Hohenburg," the first 
 of numerous historical novels, the subjects of which 
 are taken from the national history. Among her later 
 works are " Pictures of the Times," (" Zeitbilder," 2 
 vols., 1840,) and "Memoirs of my Life," (4 vols., 1844.) 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for February, 1843. 
 
 Pichler or Pikler, (Johan.m,) a son of the following, 
 was born at Naples in 1734, and was probably the most 
 skilful engraver of gems of his time. He lived at Rome, 
 and engraved several pictures after Raphael. Among 
 his works are many portraits of modern persons, of which 
 the resemblance was the least merit. He was also a 
 painter. Died at Rome in 1791. 
 
 See Jean Gerard de Rossi, " Histoire de la Vie dt J Fikler, 
 Rome, 1792. 
 
 Pichler, (Johann Anton,) a celebrated engraver of 
 gems, born at Brixen, in the Tyrol, in 1697. He worked 
 at Naples and Rome. Died in 1779. 
 
 Pichon, pe'shoN', ( Pierre Auguste, ) a French 
 painter of history and portraits, was born at Sorreze 
 (Tarn) in 1805. He received a first medal (for history) 
 in 1846. 
 
 Pichon, (Thomas,) a French litterateur, born at Vire 
 in 1700. He was the second husband of Madame Le 
 Prince de Beaumont. He published a work " On the 
 
 a, e, ", o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n&t; good; moo 
 
 moon; 
 
PICHOX 
 
 >-9>" 
 
 PICTET 
 
 Natural and Civil History of Cape Breton," ( 1760.) 
 Died in 1781. 
 
 Pichon, (Thomas Jean,) a French writer and priest, 
 born at Mans in 1731 ; died in 1812. 
 
 Pichot, pe'sho', (AmEDEe,) a French litterateur, horn 
 at Aries in 1796. He became in 1843 chief editor of the 
 "Revue Britannique." Among his works are "Travels 
 in England," (1825,) and a "Chronicle of Charles V.," 
 (1853) 
 
 Fick'en, (Andrew,) a Scottish writer of fiction, born 
 at Paisley in 1788. Among his works is "The Domi- 
 nie's Legacy." Died in 1833. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Pick'ens, (Andrew,) a distinguished American 
 general, born at Paxton, Pennsylvania, in 1739. He 
 co-operated with General Marion in his partisan warfare 
 against the British, and commanded the militia at the 
 battle of Cowpens. He was elected to Congress in 
 1794. Died in 1817. 
 
 See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. 
 
 Pickens, (Francis W.,) a grandson of the preceding, 
 was born in Saint Paui's parish, South Carolina, in 
 1807. He was a member of Congress from 1834 to 
 1844. He was appointed in 1857 minister to Russia, 
 and in December, i860, was elected Governor of South 
 Carolina for two years. 
 
 Fick'er-ing, (Chari.es,) M.D., an American natu- 
 ralist, a grandson of Timothy Pickering, was born in 
 Susquehanna county, Pennsylvania, in 1805. Having 
 travelled in India and Eastern Africa, he published, after 
 his return, the " Races of Man and their Geographical 
 Distribution," (1848,) and "Geographical Distribution 
 of Animals and Man," (1854.) 
 
 Pickering, (John,) LL.D, an American jurist and 
 scholar, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1777, was a 
 son of Timothy Pickering. He was the founder and 
 first president of the American Oriental Society, and 
 president of the American Academy of Arts and Sci- 
 ences. He published a " Greek-and-English Lexicon," 
 (1826,) " Remarks on the Indian Languages of North 
 America," (1836,) and " Vocabulary of Americanisms." 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 Pickering, (Timothy,) an American statesman, born 
 at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 17th of July, 1745. He 
 graduated at Harvard College in 1763, studied law, and 
 became a judge of the common pleas in 1775. In the 
 autumn of 1776 he joined the army of Washington as 
 colonel. He was appointed adjutant-general in 1777, 
 and took part in the battles of Brandywine and Ger- 
 mantown, October, 1777. He was elected a member of 
 the board of war by Congress in November, 1777, and 
 quartermaster-general in August, 1780, as successor to 
 General Greene. He performed the arduous duties of 
 this office until 1785. During the Revolution he kept 
 a journal of public events. He was identified with the 
 Federal party, and was appointed postmaster-general 
 by Washington in August, 1791, and secretary of war in 
 January, 1794. In December, 1795, he became secre- 
 tary of state. He was continued in the department 
 of state by President Adams, but did not obtain his 
 confidence or approve his measures. He was removed 
 from that office in May, 1800, and settled on a farm 
 which was situated near Salem, and which he cultivated 
 with his own hands. He was elected a Senator of the 
 United States by the legislature of Massachusetts in 
 1803, and continued to serve in the Senate until 181 1. 
 From 1814 to 1817 he was a member of the national 
 House of Representatives. He had a fair reputation 
 for ability and moral character. He died at Salem in 
 January, 1829, leaving several sons. 
 
 See " Life and Correspondence of Timothy Pickering," by his son 
 Octavius, 2 vols., 1S67 ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distin- 
 guished Americans," vol. i. 
 
 Pick'erS-gill, (Frederick Richard,) an eminent 
 painter of history, born in London in 1820. He gained 
 a prize of one hundred pounds for his " Death of King 
 Lear," (1843,) and a prize of five hundred pounds for 
 his " Burial of Harold," (1847,) which was purchased for 
 the House of Lords. He was elected a Royal Acade- 
 
 mician in 1857. Among his best works is " Samson 
 Betrayed," (1850.) 
 
 Pickersgill, (Henry William,) an English por- 
 trait-painter, born about 1782. He painted many emi- 
 nent authors, statesmen, etc., and won a high reputation. 
 He was elected Royal Academician in 1825. Died In 1861. 
 
 Pick'ett, (Albert James,) an American writer, born 
 in Anson county, North Carolina, in 1810, was the author 
 of a " History of Alabama," (1851.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Pico della Mirandola, pee'ko del'la me-ran'do-U, 
 [Fr. Pic de la Mirandole, pek deh It me'ro-N'dol',] 
 (Giovanni,) an Italian theologian and philosopher, born 
 in 1463. He had a prodigious memory and great learn- 
 ing, but was rather superficial as a thinker. He offered 
 to dispute at Rome with all comers on a great number 
 of theses, " On all Things that may be known," (" De 
 Omni Re Scibili,") to which Voltaire added " and Some 
 Things besides," ("et de Quibusdam aliis.") Died in 
 1494. He left several works on theology, etc. 
 
 See a "Life of Pico della Mirandola," by his nephew, Giovanni 
 Francesco della Mirandola; Niceron, "Me'moires:" Gin- 
 ouenb, "Histoire LitteVaire d'ltalie;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^neVale." 
 
 Pico (orPicus) della Mirandola, (Giovanni Fran- 
 cesco,) Prince, an Italian writer, nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, was born about 1469. He wrote several works 
 on theology, and a "Life of Savonarola," (1530.) Died 
 
 in '533- 
 
 Picot, pe'ko', (Francois £douard,) a French his- 
 torical painter, born in Paris in 1786. He gained a first 
 medal in 1819. The palaces of the Louvre and of Ver- 
 sailles contain some of his works. 
 
 Picot, pe'ko', (Jean,) a Swiss historian, born in 1777. 
 He was for many years professor of history at Geneva. 
 He published a " History of the Gauls," (3 vols., 1804,) 
 and a " History of Geneva," (3 vols., 181 1.) 
 
 Picot, (Michel Joseph Pierre,) a French writer, 
 born near Orleans in 1770. He published, besides other 
 works, a " Memoir contributory to the Ecclesiastical 
 History of the Eighteenth Century," (3 vols., 1806.) 
 Died in 1841. He wrote many articles for the " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle." 
 
 Picot, (Pierre,) a Swiss writer, and professor of the- 
 ology, born at Geneva in 1746, was the father of Jean, 
 noticed above. He published " On the Manifold Utility 
 ofMountains,"("DemultipliciMontiumUtilitate," 1 790,) 
 and Sermons, (1823.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Pictet, pekW, (Benedict,) an eloquent Swiss Prot- 
 estant minister, born at Geneva in 1655. He became 
 professor of divinity at Geneva in 1702, and a member 
 of the Academy of Berlin in 1714. His principal works 
 are "Christian Morality," (8 vols., 1695-9S,) " Theologia 
 Christiana," (2 vols., 1696,) and a " History of the Church 
 and the World in the Eleventh Century, (1712.) Died 
 at Geneva in 1724. 
 
 See Niceron, "M&noires." 
 
 Pictet, (Franqois Jules,) a Swiss naturalist, born at 
 Geneva about 1790. He became professor of anatomy 
 and zoology in his native city. Among his works are 
 " Itinerary to the Valleys around Mont Blanc," (1818; 
 3d edition, 1840,) and a " Treatise on Palaeontology," (4 
 vols., 1845.) 
 
 Pictet, (Jean Louis,) an astronomer, born at Geneva 
 in 1739. He was employed by the Academy of Saint 
 Petersburg to observe the transit of Venus in Siberia, 
 and wrote " Observations on the Transit of Venus in 
 1769." Died at Geneva in 1781. 
 
 Pictet, (Marc Augusts,) a Swiss natural philoso- 
 pher, born at Geneva in 1752, was a brother of Charles, 
 (de Rochemont,) noticed below. He was a friend of 
 Saussure, whom he succeeded as professor of philosophy 
 in 1786. He wrote, besides other works, an "Essay 
 on Fire, (or Heat,") (1791,) and "Travels in England 
 and Scotland," (1803.) He founded in 1796 a periodical 
 entitled "Bibliotheque Britannique," and changed the 
 name in 1816 to " Bibliotheque Universelle," which still 
 exists. He gave special attention to meteorology. Died 
 in 1825. 
 
 See Vaucher, " NeCTologie de M. A. Pictet," 1825. 
 
 Pictet de Rochemont, pek'ti' deh rosh'mdN', 
 (Charles,) a Swiss rural economist, born at Geneva in 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J3f=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
P1CT0N 
 
 1796 
 
 PIERQUIN 
 
 1755. As envoy-extraordinary, he attended the Congress 
 of Vienna in 1814, and that of Paris in 1815. He wrote 
 a " Picture of the Present Condition of the United States 
 of America," (1796,) and a "Treatise on Agriculture." 
 He was one of the editors of the "Bibliotheque UniveY- 
 selle." Died in 1824. 
 
 Pic'tpn, (Sir Thomas,) a British general, born in 
 Pembrokeshi-e aJ^out 1758. He served with distinction 
 in Spain, at Badajos, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Vitoria. 
 Having obtained command of a division, he was killed 
 at Waterloo in 1815. 
 
 See H. B. Robinson, "Memoirs of Sir Thomas Picton," 1835. 
 Pictor. See Fabius Pictor. 
 Picumne. See Picumnus. 
 
 Pl-cum'nus and Pl-lum'nus, [Fr. Picumne, pe'- 
 klimn', and Pilumnf, pe'liimn',] two Roman or Latin 
 gods of matrimony, were regarded as brothers. To Pi- 
 cumnus was ascribed the discovery of the art of ma- 
 nuring land. 
 
 PI'cus, [Gr. n</coc,] a fabulous king of Latium and 
 prophetic divinity, was represented as a son of Saturn, 
 the husband of Canens, and the father of Faunus. Ac- 
 cording to the fable, Circe was enamoured of him, and 
 changed him into a woodpecker (piais) because her 
 passion was not requited. 
 Picus della Mirandola. See Pico. 
 Pidou de Saint-Olon, pe'doo' deh saNt'o'liN-', 
 (Francois,) a French diplomatist and writer, born in 
 Touraine in 1646. He wrote " An Account of the Em- 
 pire of Morocco," (1694.) Died in 1720. 
 
 Piel, pe'SI', (Louis Alexandre.) a French architect, 
 born at Lisieux in 1808. He restored the church of 
 Saint-Nicolas at Nantes, and other churches, and wrote 
 several professional works. Died in 1841. 
 
 Piemont, pe'a'moN', (Niklaas Opgang,) a Dutch 
 landscape-painter, born at Amsterdam in 1659. He 
 worked some years in Rome. Died in 1709. 
 
 Pierce, perss or peerss, (Benjamin,) born in New 
 Hampshire in 1757, was elected Governor of that State 
 in 1827 and 1829. He was the father of President 
 Franklin Pierce. Died in 1839. 
 
 Pierce, peerss, (Edward,) an English painter of his- 
 tory and portraits, lived in the reigns of Charles I. 
 and Charles II. Died near the close of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 Pierce, (Franklin,) the fourteenth President of the 
 United States, was born at Hillsborough, New Hamp- 
 shire, on the 23d of November, 1804. He was a son 
 of General Benjamin Pierce, who was Governor of New 
 Hampshire. He graduated at Bowdoin College, Maine, 
 in 1824, studied law under Levi Woodbury, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1827. He practised first at Hills- 
 borough. In 1833 he was elected a member of Congress 
 by the Democrats. Having been re-elected, he served 
 in the House of Representatives until 1837, and in that 
 yer.r was chosen a Senator of the United States bv the 
 legislature of New Hampshire. He became a resident 
 of Concord about 1838, and resigned his seat in the 
 Senate in 1842, after which he devoted himself to the 
 practice of law. He had married about 1834. He 
 favoured the annexation of Texas to the United States, 
 (1844-45,) an d served in the Mexican war with the rank 
 of brigadier-general, (1846-47.) 
 
 At the National Democratic Convention, June, 1852, 
 the prominent candidates for the Presidency were Cass, 
 Buchanan, and Douglas. After thirty-five ballots with- 
 out decisive result, the name of General Pierce was pro- 
 posed, and he was nominated on the forty-ninth ballot. 
 His Whig competitor was General Winfield Scott. 
 General Pierce was elected President, receiving two 
 hundred and fifty-four electoral votes out of two hundred 
 and ninety-six, which was the whole number. He ap- 
 pointed W. L. Marcy secretary of state, James Guthrie 
 secretary of the treasury, Jefferson Davis secretary of 
 war, Robert McClelland secretary of the interior, J. 
 Dobbin secretary of the navy, and Caleb dishing attor- 
 ney-general. In his inaugural address he denounced the 
 agitation of slavery. Among the important events of his 
 administration were the repeal of the Missouri Compro- 
 mise and the passage of the Nebraska-Kansas bill, which 
 he approved and signed in 1854, and which produced 
 
 great excitement in the Free States, and the bombard- 
 ment and destruction of Greytown, in Central America, 
 (July, 1854,) by Captain Hollins, acting under the in- 
 structions of the United States Government. In August, 
 1854, Mr. Pierce directed the American ambassadors, J. 
 Buchanan, J. Y. Mason, and P. Soule, to meet in some 
 European city and confer on the best means of acquiring 
 Cuba. They met at Ostend and issued a document called 
 the "Ostend Manifesto," the purport of which was that if 
 Spain would not sell Cuba the Americans would take it by 
 force. He used his official influence to promote the de- 
 signs of the pro-slavery party in Kansas. In the National 
 Democratic Convention of 1856, J. Buchanan and Presi- 
 dent Pierce were the chief competitors. Pierce received 
 one hundred and twenty-two votes on the first ballot, but 
 failed to obtain the nomination. He retired to private 
 life in March, 1857. In a letter to his friend Jefferson 
 Davis, dated January 6, i860, he says, "I have never 
 believed that actual disruption of the Union can occur 
 without blood ; and if, through the madness of Northern 
 abolitionists, that dire calamity must come, the fighting 
 will not be along Mason and Dixon's line merely. It 
 will be within our own borders, in our own streets, 
 between the two classes of citizens to whom I have 
 referred. Those who defy law and scout constitutional 
 obligations will, if we ever reach the arbitrament of 
 arms, find occupation enough at home." He delivered 
 an oration at Concord in the summer of 1863, in which 
 he opposed the coercion of the seceded States, and 
 called Vallandigham "that noble martyr of free speech." 
 Died in 1869. 
 
 See N. Hawthorne, " Life of Franklin Pierce," 1852. 
 
 Pierce, (George Foster,) D.D., an American Meth- 
 odist divine, born in Greene county, Georgia, in 181 1. 
 He was elected president of Emory College, Georgia, in 
 1848, and in 1854 was made a bishop. 
 
 Pierer, pee'rer, (Heinrich August,) a German 
 bookseller, born at Altenburg in 1794. His principal 
 publication was the " Encyclopedic Dictionary," (" En- 
 cyklopadischen Worterbuch," 26 vols., 1824,) begun by 
 his father. A fourth edition appeared in 1857-65, in 
 nineteen vols., under the title of " Universal-Lexikon." 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Pierer, (JoHANN Friedrich,) a German physician, 
 born at Altenburg in 1767. He founded the "General 
 Annals of Medicine." Died in 1832. 
 
 Pi-Sr'I-des, [Gr. ILepMec ; Fr. Pi£rides, pe'i'red',] 
 a surname of the Muses, which they received because 
 they were born in Pieria. 
 
 Pierino del Vaga. See Perino. 
 
 Piermarini, pe-eR-ma ree'nee, (Giuseppe,) an emi- 
 nent Italian architect, born at Foligno in 1734. He be- 
 came architect to the Archduke of Milan in 1769. He 
 designed at Milan many grand public edifices, among 
 which are the magnificent theatre Della Scala, the Monte 
 di Pieti, the Porta Orientale, and the imposing facade 
 of the Palazzo Belgiojoso. Died in 1808. 
 
 See Tipaux), " Kiografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Pieron, pe'a'rA.s', (Charles Philippe Ren£,) a 
 French judge, born at Arras in 1793, was a liberal 
 member of the Chamber of Deputies from 1834 to 1848. 
 
 Pierpont, peer'pflnt, (John,) an American poet and 
 Unitarian divine, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, in 
 April, 1785. He graduated at Yale College in 1804, 
 and afterwards studied law, which, however, he soon 
 abandoned. He published in 1816 his " Airs of Pales- 
 tine," which immediately established his reputation. In 
 the same year he studied theology at Harvard, and in 
 1819 was ordained pastor of the Hollis Street Church, 
 Boston. In 1835 he made the tour of Europe, also 
 visiting Greece and Asia Minor. Mr. Pierpont was 
 a prominent advocate of temperance, anti-slavery, and 
 other reforms. In 1845 he became minister of the 
 Unitarian church of Medford. "Many of his hymns, 
 odes, and other brief poems," says Griswold, "are 
 remarkably spirited and melodious." Died in 1866. 
 
 See R. W. Griswoi.d, "Poets and Poetry of America;" "North 
 American Review" for October, 1840; "Atlantic Monthly" for 
 December, 1866. 
 
 Pierquin, pejUit'kaN', (Jean,) a French priest and 
 writer, was born at Charleville in 1672 ; died in 1742. 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
PIERQUIN 
 
 •79/ 
 
 PIGOREAU 
 
 I 
 
 Pierquin de Gembloux, peJliR'kaN' deh zhoN'- 
 bloo', (Claude Charles,) a French antiquary and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born at Brussels in 1798. He has 
 written many works on French antiquities, medicine, 
 philology, and other subjects. 
 
 Pierre, pe-aiR', (Jean Baptiste Marie,) a French 
 aimer, who was born in Paris in 1713. He became 
 rst painter to the king in 1770. He was remarkable 
 for facility. Died in 1789. 
 
 Pierre, the French for Peter, which see. 
 
 Pierre, Saint. .See Saint-Pierre. 
 
 Pierre d'Auvergne, See Auverone, d'. 
 
 Pierre deMontereau, pe-aiR deh nioNt'ro', a French 
 architect, was patronized by Louis IX., for whom he 
 built La Sainte-Chapelle, (1248.) His works are mostly 
 in the flamboyant ogival style. Died in 1266. 
 
 Pierre des Vignes. See Pietro dei.i.k Vigne. 
 
 Pierron, pe-A'rd.N', (Eugene Athanask,) a French 
 actor and dramatic writer, born near Meulan in 1819. 
 
 Pierron, (Pierre Alexis,) a French Hellenist, born 
 jn Haute-Saone in 1814. He produced a version of 
 .Eschylus, (1841,) which was crowned by the French 
 Academy, and a version of Plutarch's " Lives," (1843.) 
 
 Pierrot, pe^i'ro', (Jules Amable,) a French classi- 
 cal scholar, was born in Paris in 1792. He published 
 a "Course of French Eloquence," (2 vols., 1S22.) Died 
 in 1845. 
 
 Pierson, peer'son, (Aurahvm,) an American divine, 
 and first president of Yale College, born about 1648. 
 He preached at Killingworth and Saybrook. Died in 
 1707. 
 
 Pierson, peeR'son, (Christoph,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at the Hague in 163 1. He settled at Gouda in 
 1679. His design and colour are commended. He 
 painted history, still life, dead game, etc. with success. 
 Died in 1714. 
 
 Pierson, (Jan,) a Dutch philologist, born in Friesland 
 in 1631. He. proposed corrections of the texts of Greek 
 and Latin authors in " Verisimilium Libri duo," (1752.) 
 Died in 1759. 
 
 Pieters, (Bonaventure.) See Peters. 
 
 Pieters, pee'ters, or Peters, pa'ters, (Geraard,) an 
 able Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam about 1580. He 
 worked at Rome, and returned to his native city. He 
 painted portraits, conversation-pieces, and interiors. 
 
 Pieters, pee'ters, (Jacob,') a Flemish painter, bom at 
 Antwerp in 1648. He removed to England, and was 
 employed by Kneller to paint draperies and accessories 
 of portraits. It is said that he counterfeited some works 
 of Rubens with skill. 
 
 Pietri, pe-a'tRee, (Pietro, ) an Italian historical 
 painter, born about 1665, worked in Rome, where he 
 died in 1716. 
 
 Pietro da Cortona. See Cortona. 
 
 Pietro della Francesca. See Francesca. 
 
 Pietro delle Vigne, pe-a'tRo del'la ven'yi, [Lat. 
 Pe'trus de Vin'eis; Fr. Pierre des Vignes, pe-aiu' 
 d4 \'6n, ] a distinguished Italian minister of state, was 
 chancellor of the emperor Frederick II. Died in 1249. 
 His "Letters," printed in 1566, have some historical 
 value. 
 
 Pieyre, pe-aiR', (Pierre Alexandre,) a French 
 dramatist, borrTat Nimes in 1752. He composed the 
 "School for Fathers," (" ficole des Peres,") a comedy, 
 (1782.) He was preceptor of the Due de Chartres, 
 (Louis Philippe.) Died in 1830. 
 
 Pigafetta, pe-ga-fet'ta, (Antonio,) an Italian voy- 
 ager and geographer, born at Vicenza about 1492. He 
 sailed as a volunteer with the expedition of Magellan, 
 who departed from Seville in August, 1519. He wit- 
 nessed the affray in which Magellan lost his life, and 
 wrote a daily journal of this voyage. In company with 
 Cano, he returned to Spain in 1522, having performed the 
 first voyage around the world. A complete copy of his 
 narrative, " First Vovage around the World," (" Primo 
 Viaggio intorno al Globo,") was found by Amoretti at 
 Milan, and was published in 1800. An abridgment, in 
 French, had been published in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Pigafetta, (Filippo,) an Italian traveller and military 
 engineer, born at Vicenza in 1533. He was sent by 
 Sixtus V. to Persia to negotiate an alliance against the 
 
 Turks. He wrote a "Treatise on the History and Use 
 of the Compass," (1586,) and other works. Died in 
 1603. 
 
 Pigalle, pe'gSl', (Jean Baptiste,) an eminent French 
 sculptor, bom in Paris in 1714, was a pupil of J. B. 
 Lemoyne. He studied at Rome, and after his return to 
 Paris produced a statue of Mercury, which opened to 
 him the doors of the Academy in 1744. He was pa- 
 tronized by Louis XV., and received the title of sculptor 
 to the king. His master-piece is a monumental group 
 in honour of Marshal Saxe at Strasbourg. He imitated 
 nature with fidelity, or, as some say, with servility, and 
 had the sentiment of the true rather than of the beautiful. 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 SeeP.TARBR, " La Vie et les CEuvres de J. B. Pigalle;" " N011- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Piganiol de la Force, pe'gt'ne-ol' deh 14 foRss, 
 (Jean Aimar,) a French litterateur, born in Auvergne 
 in 1673. He published a " Historical and Geographical 
 Description of France," (5 vols., 1715,) which was thfc 
 best work on that subject, and other works. Died in 
 
 1753- 
 
 Pigault-Lebrun, pe'go'leh-bRuN', originally Pigault 
 de L'fipinoy, (deh la/pe'nwa',) (Charles Antoine 
 Guillaume,) a popular Freijch novelist, born at Calais 
 in 1753. He wrote many successful novels, among which 
 is "The Child of the Carnival," ("L'Enfant du Carna- 
 val," 1792.) He held an office in the Custom-House, 
 Paris, from 1806 to 1824. Parisot calls him "the most 
 famous romancer of the imperial epoch." His works 
 display much fertility of imagination and an abundant 
 stock of gaiety. Died in 1835. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Pigeau, pe'zho', ( Eustache Nicolas,) a French 
 jurist, born near Senlis in 1750. He published " Intro- 
 duction a la Procedure civile," (1784; 5th edition, 1833,) 
 which is regarded as a classic work. Died in 1818. 
 
 Pighius, pee'ge-ns, (Albert,) a Dutch Catholic theo- 
 logian, born at Kempen about 1490, was the author of 
 several controversial works against the Protestants. He 
 also wrote on mathematics. Died in 1542. 
 
 See Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Nic^ron, 
 " Meinoires." 
 
 Pighius, (Stephanus Vinand,) a Dutch historian 
 and antiquary, born at Kempen in 1520, was a nephew 
 of Albert. He was librarian to Cardinal Granvelle. He 
 published a work of great research, entitled " Roman 
 Annals," (" Annates Romanorum," 1599-1615,) in 3 
 vols., only one of which was published during his 
 lifetime. Died in 1604. 
 
 Pigna, p&n'ya, (Giambatitsta,) an Italian historian 
 and poet, born at Ferrara in 1530. He wrote "The 
 Prince," ("II Principe," 1560,) to refute the famous 
 work of Machiavel, a " History of the Princes of Este," 
 (1570,) and other works. Died in 1575. 
 
 Pignatelli. See Innocent XII. 
 
 Pignone, pen-y6'na, (Simone,) a Florentine painter, 
 born about 1614. He was a good colorist. Among 
 his works is a picture of " Saint Louis of France." 
 Died in 1698. 
 
 Pignoria, pen-yo're-a,(LoRENZO,) an Italian antiquary 
 and priest, born at Padua in 1571. He wrote, besides 
 other works, "Egyptian Characters," •( "Characteres 
 ^Egyptii," 1608,) and "The Origin of Padua," (1655.) 
 Died in 163 1. 
 
 See Nic£ron, " Memoires." 
 
 Pignotti, pen-yot'tee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian histoiian, 
 poet, and physician, born at Figlini, in Tuscany, in 1739. 
 He became in 1774 professor of natural philosophy at 
 Pisa, where he remained many years. He wrote Fables 
 in verse, (1779,) which were received with much favour. 
 His chief work is a " History of Tuscany, with Essays 
 on Sciences, letters, and Arts," (9 vols., 1813,) which 
 has some merit. He was chosen rector of the Univer- 
 sity of Pisa in 1809. Died in 1812. 
 
 See Aldobranijo Paoi.ini, " Elogio storico-filosofico cii Pignotti," 
 18:7 ; TiPAi.Do, " Kiogratia degli Italiani lllustri." 
 
 Pigoreau, pe'go'rS', (Alexandre Nicolas,) born in 
 Paris in 1765, published a " Dictionnaire des Roman- 
 ciers," or a biographical and bibliographical dictionary of 
 romance-writers of all ages and countries. Died in 1851. 
 
 C as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (23f™See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PIGOTT 
 
 1798 
 
 PIN^EUS 
 
 Pig'ott, (Sir Arthur,) an English lawyer, born in 
 1750. He became attorney-general in 1805. He was a 
 friend of Edmund Burke. Died in 1819. 
 
 Pigray, pe'gRii', (Pikrrk,) a French surgeon, who 
 received the title of first surgeon to Henry IV. He 
 was the author of several professional works. Died in 
 1613 
 
 Piia de, deh pe'ess', (Antoine Pierre Augustin,) 
 a French dramatist and song-writer, born in Paris in 
 1755. He wrote some popular vaudevilles, etc. Died 
 in 1832. 
 
 Pike, (Albert,) an American poet and journalist, 
 born at Boston in 1809. At an early age he removed to 
 the Southwest, and in 1834 became editor of the "Ar- 
 kansas Advocate" at Little Rock, Arkansas. He has 
 published " Prose Sketches and Poems," " Hymns to the 
 Gods," etc. He commanded a body of Indians fighting 
 against the Union at Pea Ridge, March, 1862. 
 
 See Gkiswoi.d's " Poets and Poetry of America;" "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for June, 1839. 
 
 Pike, (Zkhulon Montgomery,) an American officer 
 and traveller, born in New Jersey in 1779. He set out 
 in 1805 to explore the sources of the Mississippi, and 
 subsequently visited the interior of Louisiana. He rose 
 to the rank of brigadier-ganeral in the war of 1812, and 
 was killed during the attack upon York, (now Toronto,) 
 in 1813. 
 
 See Henry Whiting, "Life of Zebulon M. Pike," in Spahks's 
 "American Biography," vol. v., second series. 
 
 Pikler. See Pichler. 
 
 Pilate, (Leonce.) See Leo Pilatus. 
 
 Pi'late, (PONTIUS, pon'she-us,) |Lat. Pon'tius Pila'- 
 Tus ; Fr. Ponce Pilate, piNss pe'laV, a Roman governor 
 of Judea, before wh6m Christ was arraigned by the Jews, 
 and who, against his own convictions, consented to their 
 iniquitous design. (See Matthew xxvii., Mark xv., Luke 
 xxiii., John xviii. and xix.) According to Eusebius and 
 others, Pilate was banished, and killed himself, about 
 38 A.D. 
 
 Pilati, pe-ld'tee, (Carlo Antonio,) an Italian pub- 
 licist, born at Tassulo, near Trent, in 1733. He wrote 
 several treatises on natural and civil law, and a " His- 
 tory of the German Empire and Italy from the Time of 
 Carolingi to the Peace of Westphalia," (2 vols., 1769-72.) 
 Died in 1802. 
 
 Pilatre de Rozier, pe'latR' deh ro'ze^A', (Jean 
 Francois,) a French aeronaut, born at Metz in 1756. 
 He ascended in a balloon filled with heated air in No- 
 vember, 1783, and attempted to cross the Channel in a 
 balloon of hydrogen gas surmounting a cylinder filled 
 with heated air. This apparatus fell to the ground near 
 Boulogne, and Pilatre and his companion were killed, in 
 June, 1785. 
 
 See Tournon de la Chapelle, "Vie et Memoires de Pilatre 
 de Rozier," 1786. 
 
 Pilatus. See Pilate, (Pontius.) 
 
 Piles, de, deh pel, (Roger,) a French painter, diplo- 
 matist, and writer on art, born at Clameci (Nievre) in 
 1635. He went with Amelotde la Houssaye to Venice, 
 as secretary of legation, in 1682, and was sent to the 
 Hague by Louvois about 1692, to negotiate in secret 
 while he seemed to be employed in painting. He wrote 
 "The Lives of the Painters," (1699,) and several treat- 
 ises on painting, which display good taste. He painted 
 good portraits of Boileau and Madame Dacier. Died 
 ir. 1709. 
 
 Pilk'ing-ton, (James,) born in Lancashire, England, 
 in 1520, became Bishop of Durham in 1561, and pub- 
 lished commentaries on Scripture. He was distinguished 
 as a promoter of the study of the Greek language. Died 
 in 1575. 
 
 Pilkington, (Letitia van Lew'in,) an authoress, 
 born in Dublin in 1712, was the wife of the Rev. Mat- 
 thew Pilkington, noticed below. She wrote poetry, and 
 "Memoirs of her own Life," (1749.) Died in 1750. 
 
 Pilkington, (Mary,) an English authoress, born at 
 Cambridge in 1766; 'died about 1840. 
 
 Pilkington, (Matthew,) an English biblical scholar, 
 was prebendary of Lichfield. He published, besides 
 other works, a " Rational Concordance; or, An Index 
 to the Bible," (1 749.) Died in 1765. 
 
 Pil'lans, (James,) a British scholar, born at Edin- 
 burgh in 1777. He became professor of humanity in 
 the University of Edinburgh in 1820, and filled that 
 chair about forty-three years. He published, besides 
 other works, " Lectures on the Proper Objects and 
 Methods of Education," (1836,) and " Rationale of Dis- 
 cipline," (1852.) Died in Edinburgh in 1864. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine," 1864. 
 
 Pille, pel, (Louis Antoine,) Comte, a French gene- 
 ral, born at Soissons in 1749; died in 1828. 
 
 Pillement, pe'ye-mo.N', (Jean,) a French landscape- 
 painter, born at Lyons in 1728; died in 1808. His son 
 Victor, born at Vienna in 1767, was a skilful engraver 
 and etcher. Died in Paris in 1814. 
 
 Pillet, pe'yi', (Claude Marie,) a learned French 
 litterateur, born at Chambery in 1771. He wrote articles 
 lor the "Biographie Universelle," and acted as chief 
 editor of that work from the sixth to the forty-fourth 
 volume inclusive. He devoted fourteen years to this 
 task. Died in 1826. 
 
 Pillet, (FahISN,) a French litterateur, born at Lyons 
 in 1772. He wrote dramatical critiques for the "Journal 
 de Paris" for many years, articles for the " Biographie 
 Universelle," and other works. Died in 1855. 
 
 Pilliard, pe'ye-aV, (Jacques,) a French painter, born 
 at Vienne about 1815. He has worked in Rome for 
 many years. 
 
 Pillou, pe'y6.N', (Anne Adrien Firmin,) a French 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1766, wrote comedies and 
 poems. Died in 1844. 
 
 His son, Alexandre Jean Bapttste, was born at 
 Amiens in 1792. He became librarian of the Louvre 
 in 1858. Among his works are a "Greek-and-French 
 Dictionary," (1837,) and "Greek Synonyms," (1847,) 
 which obtained the Volney prize. 
 
 Pil'low, (Gideon Johnson,) an American general, 
 born in Williamson county, Tennessee, in 1806. As brig- 
 adier-general, he fought with distinction in the Mexican 
 war, (1847,) and was promoted to be a major-general. 
 He was second in command at Fort Donelson when it 
 was taken by General Grant, in February, 1862. 
 
 See Livingston, " Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Pilon, pil'lon, ? (Frederick,) a mediocre dramatist, 
 born in Cork, Ireland, about 1750; died in 1788. 
 
 Pilon, pe'loN', (Gkkmain,) an excellent French sculp- 
 tor, born about 1^15, was patronized by Henry II. and 
 Catherine de Medicis. His master-piece is a marble 
 group (now in the museum of the Louvre) of three Graces 
 clothed, and supporting on their heads a gilded bronze 
 urn, which contained the heart of Henry II. He excelled 
 in the execution of drapery. Died about 159P. 
 
 Pilot, pe'lo', (Jean Joseph Antoine,) a French anti- 
 quary, born in Piedmont in 1806. 
 
 Pilpay, pil'pi or pil'pa'e, Pilpai, or Bidpai, bid'pl, a 
 famous Oriental fabulist, of whom little is known. He is 
 supposed to have been a Brahman gynmosophist, and to. 
 have lived several centuries before our era. Bidpai's 
 fables, originally written in Sanscrit, were translated 
 into Arabic and afterwards into almost every other lan- 
 guage. The Sanscrit collection entitled "Hitopadesa" 
 (i.e. " Friendly Counsel") was translated into English by 
 Wilkins, (1787.) Several European fabulists, including 
 La Fontaine, have drawn largely from the fables of Pilpay. 
 
 Pils, pel, (Adrien Auguste Isidore,) a French his- 
 torical painter, born in Paris in 1813. He gained the 
 grand prize of Rome in 1838. Among his works is " The 
 Battle of Alma." 
 
 Pilumnus. See Picumnus. 
 
 Pimentel, pe-men-tel', (Manoel,) a Portuguese geog- 
 rapher, born in Lisbon in 1650. He wrote on geography 
 and navigation. Died in 1719. 
 
 Pin, pax, (Elzear,) a French poet, born at Apt (Vau- 
 cluse) in 1813. He published a volume of poems in 1839. 
 
 Pina, de, da pee'na, (Ruy,) an eminent Portuguese 
 historian, who held the office of historiographer in the 
 reigns of Emmanuel and John III. He wrote "Chroni- 
 cles of the Reigns of Six Kings, from Sancho I. to Al- 
 fonzo IV., inclusive," which were published after his 
 death. Died about 1520. 
 
 Finaeus. See Pineau, (Severin.) 
 
 *, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
PINA1GR1ER 
 
 '799 
 
 PINEDA 
 
 Finaigrier, pe'nS'gRe_-A', (Rohkrt,) a French painter 
 on glas>, was born in Touraine about 1490. He worked 
 in several churches of Paris. Died about 1550. 
 
 Pinas, pee'nas, (Jan,) a Dutch painter of landscapes 
 and hi.-tory, was born at Haarlem in 1596. He painted 
 landscapes and figures with equal success.' His colouring 
 is remarkably vigorous. Among his works is "Joseph 
 Sold by his Brethren." Died about 1660. His brother 
 Jam is, or Jacob, was a skilful painter. Died in 1659. 
 
 Pinciario, pen-the-a'no, (Alonzo LorK/.,) a Spanish 
 poet, who lived about 1480-1530, was physician to Charles 
 V. He wrote " Kl Pelayo," an epic poem, and "Ancient 
 Poetical Philosophy," (" Philosophia antigua poetica.") 
 
 Pinck'ney, (Charles,) an American statesman, born 
 at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1758. His father was 
 a first-cousin of Charles C. Pinckney. The subject of 
 this article was a member of the Convention which 
 formed the Constitution of the United States in 17S7. 
 He was Governor of South Carolina from 1789 to 1792, 
 and again from 1796 to 1798. In the latter year he was 
 elected a Senator of the United States by the legislature 
 of South Carolina. He acted with the Republican party, 
 and was an eloquent speaker. He was minister to Spain 
 from 1802 to 1805. Died in 1824. 
 
 Pinckney, (CHARLES Cotesworth,) an American 
 statesman, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in Feb- 
 ruary, 1746, was a son of Chief Justice Pinckney. He 
 graduated at Oxford, England, and studied law. He 
 served as aide-de-camp to Washington at the battles of 
 Brandy wine and Germantown, September-October, 1777, 
 and obtained the rank of colonel. In October, 1779, he 
 took part in the battle of Savannah. He was taken 
 prisoner at Charleston in May, 1780, and detained until 
 the end of the war. He was a meml>er of the Conven- 
 tion which formed the Constitution of the United States, 
 (1787,) advocated the adoption of the same in the Con- 
 vention of South Carolina, and became a leader of the 
 Federal party. General Washington offered him a place 
 in his cabinet, in 1795, as secretary of war, and afterwards 
 as secretary of state, both of which positions he declined. 
 He was sent as minister to France in 1796, but the 
 French Directory refused to receive him, and ordered 
 him to leave the country in February, 1797. He after- 
 wards returned to Paris with John Marshall and E. 
 Gerry, who had been appointed his colleagues in an 
 embassy. He was appointed a major-general about 1798. 
 At the presidential election of 1800, General Pinckney 
 and John Adams were the Federal candidates ; but the 
 Republicans were victorious. He died at Charleston 
 in 1S25. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Pinckney, (Henry Laurens,) son of Charles Pinck- 
 ney, born at Charleston in 1794, distinguished himself 
 as a lawyer and politician. He became in 1819 editor 
 of the "Charleston Mercury," an organ of the "State- 
 rights" party. He published the " Life and Services of 
 Andrew Jackson," and several political works. Died 
 in February, 1863. 
 
 Pinckney, (Thomas,) an American officer and states- 
 man, brother of Charles Cotesworth, noticed above, was 
 born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1750. As aide of 
 General Lincoln, he distinguished himself at the assault 
 on Savannah, and was severely wounded at Camden, 
 August, 1780. He became Governor of South Carolina 
 in 1787, and was appointed by Washington minister to 
 London in 1792. Having ljeen afterwards sent on a 
 mission to Spain, he negotiated the treaty of Ildefonso, 
 and returned in 1796. Died in 1828. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Pincon, pJn'sAn', (Pierre,) a French bibliographer, 
 born at Montanban in 1802. He published a "Manual 
 of Universal Bibliography," (3 vols., 1857.) 
 
 Pin'dar, [Gr. Uivda/io^ ; Lat. Pin'darus; Fr. PlN- 
 dare, paN'd$R'; Ger. Pindar, pin'dar, and Pindaros, 
 pin'di-ros ; It. Pindaro, pen'da-ro, | the greatest lyric 
 poet of Greece, was born near Thebes about. 520 B.C. 
 He was a son of Daiphantus, or, according to some 
 writers, of Pagondas. It is stated that he studied poetry 
 and music at Athens under Lasus, and that he was a 
 
 pupil of the celebrated Corinna, who advised him to 
 choose themes for his muse from mythology. He after- 
 wards composed an ode in which all the mythical legends 
 of Thebes were inwoven, and showed it to Corinna, who 
 reminded him that he "ought to sow with the hand, and 
 not with the whole sack." He became a professional 
 composer of choral odes, and was employed by various 
 states and princes of Greece to write odes for special 
 occasions. Among his patrons were Hiero of Syracuse, 
 Theron of Agrigentum, and Alexander of Macedon. 
 About 473 B.C. he visited the court of Hiero, where he 
 remained four years. His rival Simonides was at Syra- 
 cuse at the same time. Pindar was a favourite of the 
 Athenians, whose city he praised in an ode, and who 
 presented to him ten thousand drachma;. He appears to 
 have taken no part in the Persian war and other great 
 events of his time. The only poems of Pindar which 
 have come down to us entire are the "Epinicia," or 
 triumphal odes composed in honour of victors at the 
 public games. Fragments of his dithyrambs, pasans, 
 encomia, and dirges are extant. Horace attributes to 
 Pindar unrivalled skill in several forms of verse. The 
 best translations of Pindar into English verse are those 
 of H. F. Cary and Abraham Moore. Pindar excelled in 
 energy, picturesque effect, and sublimity. He had a son 
 Daiphantus, and two daughters. His death is variously 
 dated at 439 or 442 B.C. 
 
 See J. G. Schneider, " Versuch Uber Pindar's Leben," 1774; 
 Mommsem, " Pindaros, zur Geschichte des Dicliters," etc., 1845; 
 Vm.i.emain, " Essai sur le Genie de Pindare," 1857 ; K O. Muu.hr, 
 "History of the Literature of Ancient Greece;" W. (Jamenz, 
 " Pindari Ingenium." 1804; Clausen, "Pindaros der Lyiiker," 
 i8u: Hii'Pard, "Pindar's Leben," 1848; " Nouvelle Biographic 
 GeneYale." 
 
 Pindar, (Peter.) See Wolcott, (John.) 
 
 Pindare. See Pindar. 
 
 Pindaro. See Pindar. 
 
 Pindarus or Pindaros. See Pindar. 
 
 Pindemonte, pen-da-mon'ti, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 dramatist, born at Verona in 1 75 1, produced several 
 tragedies. Died in 1812. 
 
 Pindemonte, (Iitolito,) an Italian poet of high 
 reputation, born at Verona in November, 1753, was a 
 brother of the preceding. He entered the order of Malta 
 in his youth, but resigned his membership about the age 
 of thirty. He described the delights of the country in 
 poems entitled " Rural Poems," (" Poesie campestri," 
 1785,) which were received with favour. He exhibited 
 a contemplative and ingenious'philosophy in his "Rural 
 Prose," ("Prose campestri," 1795.) About 1805 he 
 published a volume of Horatian satires, entitled " Ser- 
 ruoni." His translation of the "Odyssey," in blank 
 verse, (1809-22,) is commended. He was a friend of 
 Foscolo and Monti. Among his works is " Eulogies 
 of Literary Men," (" Elogj di Letterati," 2 vols., 1826,) 
 which contains biographies of Italian authors. Died at 
 Verona in 1828. 
 
 See Mario Pirri. " Intorno alia Vita ed agli Scritti di Pinde- 
 monte," in his " Elogj di Letterati," 1826: H. Montanaki, " Delia 
 Vita e delle O|iore d'lppolito Pindetnonte." 18.34: Dki. Bene, 
 " Elogio d'l. Pindemonte," 182c?: L0NGFSLI.OW, " Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1825. 
 
 Pindemonte, (Marco Antonio,) a mediocre Italian 
 poet, born at Verona in 1694, was grandfather of the 
 preceding. Died in 1744. 
 
 Pine, (John,) a skilful English engraver, born in 1690. 
 He published an edition of Horace, illustrated, (1737.) 
 Among his works is "The Destruction of the Invincible 
 Armada." Died in 1756. 
 
 Pine, (Robert Eimje,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in London about 1742, and was a painter of history 
 and portraits. A picture of "Canute on the Sea-Shore'" 
 is one of his best works. Died at Philadelphia in 1790. 
 
 Pineau, pe'no', [Lat. Pin^e'us,] (Severin,) a French 
 surgeon, born at Chartres. He wrote some works on 
 anatomy, which had a high reputation. Died in 1619. 
 
 Pineau, du, dii pe'no', [Lat. Pinei/i.us,] (Gabriel,) 
 a French jurist, born at Angers in 1573. He was noted 
 for integrity, and was called "the Cato of Anjou." Died 
 in 1644. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Pineda, de, di pe-na'oa, (Juan,) a Spanish theolo- 
 gian, born at Seville in 1557, was a monk or Jesuit. He 
 
 « as^; 9 as s; g hard; g as/,' G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (ft^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PINEL 
 
 1800 
 
 PINTO 
 
 was a counsellor to the court of the Inquisition, and was 
 charged to search out dangerous or unsound books in 
 the libraries of Spain. He wrote commentaries on 
 Scripture, and a "Universal History," (5 vols., 1620.) 
 Died in 1637. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 Pinel, pe'nel', (Philippe,) a distinguished French 
 physician, born in the department of Tarn in 1745. He 
 published in 1791 a " Treatise on Mental Alienation," 
 (vhich promoted a reform in the treatment of the Insane. 
 He became in 1793 chief physician of the Bicetre of Paris, 
 and was successful in the treatment of insanity by sub- 
 stituting kindness for harshness. His most remarkable 
 work is " Philosophical Nosography," (" La Nosogra- 
 phie philosophique," 2 vols., 1798; 6th edition, 1818.) 
 He was admitted into the Institute in 1803. Died in 
 1826. 
 
 See Cuvier, " E*loge de Pinel :" G. Dupuytren, " Notice sur 
 Pinel," 1826 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'niSrale." 
 
 Pinelli, pe-nel'lee, ( Bartolommeo, ) an eminent 
 painter and engraver, born at Rome about 1780. He 
 etched many plates representing scenery in the vicinity 
 of Rome, events in the history of ancient Rome, and 
 Roman costumes. He left designs which were highly 
 prized. Among his publications is " Istoria degli Im- 
 peratori," (1829.) Died in 1835. 
 
 See F. Gerardi, " Biografia di B. Pinelli," 1835 ; C. Falconieri, 
 " Memoria intorno alia Vita di B. Pinelli," 1835. 
 
 Pinelli. (Gian Vincenzo,) an Italian patron of learn- 
 ing and bibliophile, born at Naples in 1535. His house 
 at Padua was a rendezvous of the learned men of all 
 countries. He was a diligent collector of books and 
 manuscripts. Died in 1601. 
 
 See Paolo Gualdo, "Vita J. V. Pinelli," Augsburg, 1607. 
 
 Pinelli, (Luca,) an Italian theologian, born at Melfi. 
 He wrote several religious works, which were popular. 
 Died in 1607. 
 
 Pinelli, (Maffeo,) an Italian bibliophile, born at 
 Venice in 1736. He collected medals and pictures, and 
 formed a rich library, of which Abbe Morelli made a 
 catalogue, (in 6 vols., 17S7.) His library was sold at 
 auction in London in 1790. Died in 1785. 
 
 Pinellus. See Pineau, (Gabriel.) 
 
 Pinelo, y, e pe-na'lo, (Antonio de Leon,) a Span- 
 ish writer, born in Peru. He published, besides other 
 works, " Epitome of the Eastern and Western Nautical 
 and Geographical Library^" (" Epitome de la Bibliotheca 
 oriental y occidental nautica y geografica," 1629.) Died 
 about 1675. 
 
 Pinet, Du. See Diipinet. 
 
 Pineton de Chambrun, pen'tiN' deh sho.N'buuN', 
 (Jacques,) a French Protestant minister, born at Orange, 
 was exiled about 1685. He died in London in 16S9. 
 
 Pingel, ping'el, (Christian,) a Danish naturalist, 
 born at Copenhagen in 1793. He contributed many 
 memoirs to the "Transactions" of the Academy of 
 Sciences. 
 
 Pingeron, paNzh'riN', (Jean Claude,) a French 
 translator, born at Lyons about 1730. He translated, 
 from the Italian, Milizia's " Lives of the Architects," 
 (1771,) and other works. Died in 1795. 
 
 Pingre, paN'gRa', (Alexandre Gui,) a distinguished 
 French astronomer, born in Paris in 1711. He began 
 to study astronomy about the age of thirty-eight. His 
 observation of the transit of Mercury in 1753 procured 
 his "nomination as correspondent of the Academy. In 
 1760 he was sent to the island of Rodrigo to observe 
 the transit of Venus, (1761.) His most important work 
 is " Cometography, or a Historical and Theoretical 
 Treatise on Comets," (1783.) Died in 1796. 
 
 See Ventenat, " Notice snr la Vie d'A. G. Piugre\" 1796. 
 
 Pinheiro-Perreira, pen-ya^e-ro fer-ra^e-ra, (Silves- 
 tre,) a Portuguese writer, born in Lisbon in 1769. He 
 wrote, besides other works in French, " Principles of 
 Public Law," (3 vols., 1834.) Died in 1847. 
 
 Pini, pee'nee, (Ermenegildo,) an Italian naturalist, 
 born at Milan about 1740. He was professor of natural 
 history at Milan, (1772-1812.) He wrote treatises on 
 mineralogy, geology, and natural history. Died in 1825. 
 
 Pink'er-ton, (John,) a Scottish historian, poet, and 
 antiquary, born in Edinburgh in 1758. He became a 
 
 resident of London about 1780, and published a volume 
 of verses, entitled "Rimes," in 1781. In 1784 he pro- 
 duced an "Essay on Medals," which was well received. 
 His reputation was increased by the publication of " An- 
 cient Scottish Poems never before in Print," etc., (2 
 vols., 1786.) He published an ingenious "Dissertation 
 on the Origin and Progress of the Scythians or Goths" 
 in 1787. Among his other works are a "History of 
 Scotland from the Accession of the House of Stuart to 
 that of Mary," (2 vols., 1797,) and "Modern Geography 
 Digested after a New Plan," (2 vols., 1802,) both of 
 which have some merit. He is censured for his arro- 
 gance and his enmity to religion. Died at Paris in 1826. 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 "Monthly Review" for May, 1797. 
 
 Pink'ney, (Edward Coate,) son of William Pink- 
 ney, noticed below, was born in London in 1S02. He 
 published in 1825 " Rodolph, and other Poems." Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Pinkney, (William,) an eminent American lawyer 
 and orator, born at Annapolis, Maryland, in March, 
 1764. He was admitted to the bar in 1786, and repre- 
 sented a district of Maryland in Congress from 1 789 to 
 1792. In 1796 he was sent to London as a commissioner 
 under Jay's treaty. He remained in London about eight 
 years, and was appointed minister to England in 1806. 
 Having returned home in 181 1, he settled in Balti- 
 more. He was attorney-general of the United States 
 from December, 181 1, to February, 1814, was appointed 
 minister to Russia in 1816, and was elected a member 
 of the Senate of the United States in 1819. He advo- 
 cated the Missouri Compromise in the Senate in 1820. 
 He was a man of brilliant talents, and was generally 
 considered the foremost American lawyer of his time. 
 His wife was a sister of Commodore Rodgers. He 
 died in February, 1822. 
 
 See Hkn-ry Wheaton, "Life of William Pinkney," 1S26; 
 " Golden Age of American Oratory," by EoWAKD G. Parker, Bos- 
 ton, 1857 ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. ; " North American Review" for January, 1827, 
 
 Pino, pee'no, (Domenico,) Count, an Italian gen- 
 eral, born at Milan in 1760. He served in the French 
 army as general of division in Germany, Spain, and 
 Russia, (1805-13.) Died in 1826. 
 
 Pino, da, da pee'no, (Marco,) an able Italian painter, 
 sometimes called Marco da Sienna. He worked many 
 years at Naples, where he settled about 1560. Among 
 his chief works is a " Descent from the Cross." 
 
 Piuon, pe'nix', (Jacques,) a French lawyer and 
 writer of Latin poetry, wrote "On the Roman Year," 
 (" De Anno Romano,") and other poems. Died, at an 
 advanced age, in 1641. 
 
 Pins, de, deh pa.v, [Lat. Pi'nus,] (Jean,) a French 
 diplomatist, born at Toulouse about 1470, became Bishop 
 of Rieux in 1523. He wrote, in elegant Latin, a number 
 of epigrams, and "On Court Life," (" De Vita aulica.") 
 His style was praised by Erasmus, who said, "Potest 
 inter Tullianse dictionis competitores numerari Johannes 
 Pinus." As ambassador to Venice and Rome, about 
 1520, he displayed superior diplomatic talents. Died 
 
 '" 1537- 
 
 See Chardon, " Mifmoires pour servir a 1'filoge de J. de Pins," 
 1748. 
 
 Pinson, paN's6.N', (Nicolas,) a French painter and 
 engraver, born at Valence about 1640, worked many 
 years in Italy. 
 
 Pinsson, piN'sdN', (Francois,) a French jurist, born 
 at Bourges about 1612; died in 1691. 
 
 Pintelli, pen-tel'lee, (BaCCIO,) an Italian architect, 
 born probably at Florence. He was employed by Pope 
 Sixtus IV., who reigned from 1471 till 1484. Among his 
 great works in Rome are the church of Santa Maria del 
 Popolo, the Sistine Chapel, (in which Michael Angelo 
 painted the fresco of the "Last Judgment,") the church 
 of Saint Augustine, and a bridge called the Ponte Sisto. 
 Died about 1492. 
 
 See Vasari," Lives of the Painters," etc. ;Ticozzi, " Dizionario." 
 
 Pinto, pen'to, ( FernXo Mendez, ) a Portuguese 
 traveller, born near Coimbra about 1510. He wrote a 
 marvellous book of travels in India, etc., (1614,) which 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
PINTO 
 
 1801 
 
 PIRKHEIMER 
 
 was translated into many languages. His veracity lias 
 often been questioned. Died in 1583. 
 
 Pinto, (Hector,) a Portuguese monk or priest, be- 
 came professor at Coimbra about 1570. He wrote " Pic- 
 ture of Christian Life," (" Imagem da Vida Christam," 
 1565.) Died in 1584. 
 
 Pinto, (Isaac,) a Portuguese Jew, born about 1715. 
 He wrote an " Essay on Luxury,"'(i762,) and an " Apol- 
 ogy for the Jews," (1762.) He died at the Hague in 
 1787. 
 
 Pintor, pen-toR', (Pedro,) a Spanish physician, born 
 at Valencia in 1423 ; died in Rome in 1503. 
 
 Pinturicchio, pen-too-rek'ke-o, (Bernardino Bet- 
 TI,) an Italian painter, born at Perugia in 1454, was 
 a pupil or assistant of Perugino. He worked in the 
 Vatican for Alexander VI. Among his best works are 
 "Jesus before the Doctors," a portrait of Isabella of 
 Castile, and "The History of Pius II.," in the cathedral 
 of Sienna. It is said that Raphael assisted him in the 
 latter work. He painted portraits and landscapes with 
 success. Died in 1513. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy." 
 
 Pinus. See Pins. 
 
 Pinzon, pen-thAn', (Martin Alonzo,) a Spanish 
 navigator, who commanded the Pinta in the first voyage 
 of Columbus to America. He is said to have been en- 
 vious towards his chief. Died in 1493. 
 
 Pinzon, (Vincencio Yanez,) a younger brother of 
 the preceding, commanded the Nina in the voyage of 
 Columbus, (1492.) He conducted an expedition in 1499, 
 and explored part of the coast of Brazil. He was living 
 in 1523. 
 
 Pio. See Pius, Pope. 
 
 Pio, pee'o, (Alberto,) Prince of Carpi, an Italian 
 scholar, born about 1475, was a nephew of Pico della 
 Mirandola. He was a patron of literary men, and author 
 of a treatise against Luther. Died in Paris in 1531. 
 
 Pio, (Battista,) an Italian philologist, born at Bo- 
 logna. He wrote notes on Horace, Lucretius, Ovid, 
 and other classic authors. Died at Rome about 1540. 
 
 Piobert, pe'o'baiR', (Guillaume,) a French general 
 and mathematician, born in 1793. He was elected a 
 member of the Institute in 1840, in place of De Prony. 
 He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on Artil- 
 lery," (2 vols.) 
 
 Piola, pe-o'la, (Domenico.) a Genoese painter, born 
 in 1628. He painted infants with especial skill. Among 
 his works is a "Repose of the Holy Family." Died 
 in 1703. 
 
 Piola, (P.,) a painter, born at Genoa in 161 7, was a 
 brother of the preceding. He was an artist of high 
 promise, but died young, in 1640. 
 
 Piombino. See Bonaparte, (Marie Anne Elisa.) 
 
 Piombo, del, del pe-om'bo, (Sehastiano,) an emi- 
 nent Italian painter, born at Venice in 1485, was also 
 called Luciano or Veneziano. He was a pupi! of 
 Giorgione. In the early part of his life he went to 
 Rome, and painted in the Famese palace a fresco in 
 competition with Raphael, and received instruction from 
 Michael Angelo. He painted in San Pietro in Montorio 
 a fresco of the "Transfiguration," which is remarkable 
 for beauty of colour. Among his master-pieces is a 
 " Raising of Lazarus," which now adorns the British 
 National Gallery. He excelled in portraits. About 
 1531 he obtained from Clement VII. the office of keeper 
 of the seal, (uffizio del piomha,) and assumed the name 
 of Fra Sebastiano del Piombo. Died in 1547. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters:" BlAGI, " Memorie storiclie 
 di F. Sebastiano del Piombo," 1826; Ridoi.fi, "Vite degli Pttton 
 Veneti ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Piorry, pe'o're', (Pierre Adolphe,) a French medi- 
 cal writer, born at Poitiers in 1794. He gained dis- 
 tinction by a treatise "On Mediate Percussion," (" De 
 la Percussion mediate," 1828.) He obtained in 1840 
 a chair of internal pathology at Paris. Among his 
 works is a "Treatise on Diagnostics and Semeiology," 
 (3 vols., 1836.) 
 
 ' Piozzi, pe-oz'ze, [It. pron. pe-ot'see,] Mrs., an Eng- 
 lish authoress, whose maiden name was Esther Lynch 
 Salushury, was born in Carnarvonshire in 1739. She 
 
 became the wife of Mr. Thrale, a brewer of London, in 
 1763, and was intimate with Dr. Johnson, Having lost 
 her husband, she was married in 1784 to an Italian 
 teacher of music, named Piozzi. She published in 1786 
 "Anecdotes of Dr. Samuel Johnson during the Last 
 Twenty Years of his Life," and in 1788 "Letters to and 
 from Dr. Samuel Johnson," (2 vols.) Among her other 
 works is a short poem, called "The Three Warnings." 
 Died at Clifton in 1821. 
 
 See "Piozziana; or, Recollections of the Late Mrs. Piozzi;" 
 "Atlantic Monthly" for June, 1S61 ; Mrs. Ei.wood, "Memoirs of 
 the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of the Last 
 Century," vol. ii., (1843 ;) " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1S61 ; 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1861 ; "Blackwood's Magazine" 
 for April, 1862. 
 
 PI'per, [Sw. pron. pee'per,] (Carl,) Count, a Swed- 
 ish minister of state, was a man of superior talents. 
 He was councillor of state in the reign of Charles XI,, 
 and became the principal minister of Charles XII., 
 whom he accompanied in his campaigns. He was 
 taken prisoner at Pultowa (Poltava) in 1709, and kept 
 in prison until his death, in 1716. 
 
 See Gezei.ius, " Biographiskt- Lexicon." 
 
 Pi'per, lie, (Francis,) an English comic painter, 
 noted for his skill in portraits of ugly and deformed 
 persons. Died about 1 740. 
 
 Pippi. See Giulio Romano. 
 
 Pipping, pip'ping, (Heinrich,) a German theologian 
 and biographer, born at Leipsic in 1670; died in 1722. 
 
 Piquer, pe-kaiR', (Andres,) a Spanish medical writer, 
 born in Aragon in 171 1. He received the title of first 
 physician of the kingdom in 1752. Among his works is 
 "Medicine Old and New," ("Medicina vetus et nova," 
 1735.) Died in 1772. 
 
 Piranesi, pe-ra-na'see, ( Francesco,) an engraver, 
 born at Rome in 1748, was a son of Giovanni Battista, 
 noticed below. He succeeded his father as a dealer in 
 prints. About 1800 he removed to Paris, where he pub- 
 lished a large number of plates_of Roman antiquities, 
 partly executed by his father. Died in 1810. 
 
 Piranesi, (Giovanni Battista,) an excellent Italian 
 engraver and designer, born at Venice in 1720. He 
 studied architecture in his youth at Rome, where he 
 passed the greater part of his life. He was unrivalled 
 as an architectural draftsman and an engraver of archi- 
 tecture and ruins, and had great facility of execution. 
 He etched nearly two thousand plates, which represent 
 the edifices of ancient and modern Rome, antique bas- 
 reliefs, vases, monuments, etc. Among the titles of his 
 works are " Architectura Romana," (208 plates,) and 
 "Magnificence of the Romans," ("Magnificenza dei 
 Romani," 44 plates.) Died at Rome in 1778. His 
 daughter Laura was an engraver. She died in 1785. 
 
 See Bianconi, •' Eloqio storico del Cavaliere G. B. Piranesi," 
 1779; P. Biagi, " Sull'Incisione e sul Piranesi," 1820. 
 
 Pirckheimer. See Pirkheimer. 
 
 Pire\ de, deh pe'rk', (Hiim'oi.yte Marc Guil- 
 laume de Rosnyvinen — deh ros'ne've'n&N',) Comte, 
 a French general, born at Rennes in 1778. He com- 
 manded the light cavalry of the left wing at Waterloo. 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Piringer, pee'ring-er, (Benedict,) a German en- 
 graver, born at Vienna in 1780. He went with Count 
 A. de Laborde to Paris in 1809. Among his works 
 are landscapes after Claude Lorrain and Poussin. Died 
 at Paris in 1826. 
 
 Pl-rith'o-us or Pei-rith'o-us, [Gr. riHpiOooc,] a son 
 of Ixi'on, and a chief of the Lapithas. The celebrated 
 fight of the Lapithae and the Centaurs originated at 
 the marriage of Pirithous and Hippodami'a. He was 
 a friend of Theseus, whom he aided in the abduction of 
 Helen from Sparta. Theseus, in return, abetted him in 
 -"< attempt to carry off Proserpine from the palace of 
 Pluto; but in this they failed, and Pirithous was killed 
 by Cerberus. 
 
 See VnGfli, "jEneid," book vi. 393-397. 
 
 Pirkheimer or Pirckheimer, pdfRk'hi'mer, (Wili- 
 hai.d,) a German historian and philologist, bom at Nu- 
 remberg in 1470. He learned the Greek language, and 
 translated into Latin some writings of Plato, Xenophon, 
 and others. He was a friend of Erasmus, and was dis- 
 
 e as k; 9 as t; g hard; fc as/; G, H, K, guttural; u, nasal; R, trilled; s asz; th as in this. (jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PIROGOF 
 
 i8oz 
 
 PISO 
 
 tinguished for his efforts to diffuse learning in Germany. 
 Among his works is "Germanise perbrevis Explicatio," 
 (1530.) Died in 1530 or 1531. 
 
 See Panzer, " W. Pirckheimer und Charitas Pirckheimer," etc., 
 1802; Nicbron, "Memoires:" F. Campe, "Zum Andenken W. 
 Fiickheimer's," 1828; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Pirogof, Pirogov, or Pirogow, pee'ro-gof, (N icho- 
 LAS,) a Russian surgeon, born about 1810, celebrated as 
 the inventor of a new method of amputating the foot by 
 dividing the os calcis. He was for several years chief 
 surgeon in a military hospital at Saint Petersburg. 
 
 Piroli, pee'ro-lee or pe-ro'lee, (Prospkko,) an Italian 
 painter, born in 1761, worked several years In Russia, 
 and was patronized by the Czar. Died at Milan in 1831. 
 
 Piroli, (Tommaso,) a skilful designer and engraver, 
 born at Rome in 1750, engraved the Prophets and Sibyls 
 of the Sistine Chapel, after Michael Angelo, " Cupid and 
 Psyche," after Raphael, etc. Died in 1824. 
 
 Piromalli, pe-ro-mal'lee, (Paolo,) a learned Italian 
 missionary, born in 1592, laboured in Asia. He compiled 
 a "Latin-Persian Lexicon." Died in 1667. 
 
 Piron, pe'r6N', (Aime,) a French poet, born at Dijon 
 in 1640; died in 1727. 
 
 See Auguste db Mastaing, " Les Piron," 1844. 
 
 Piron, (Alexis,) a French dramatist and poet, born 
 at Dijon in 1689, was a son of the preceding. He. had 
 a talent for bon-mots and epigrams. In his youth he 
 wrote comedies and licentious odes. Among his works 
 are several unsuccessful tragedies. He produced in 
 1738 a drama entitled "The Mania for Writing Verse," 
 (" La Metromanie,") which is considered a master-piece 
 of intrigue, of style, and of comic genius. He married 
 Marie Therese Quenaudon when she had passed the 
 age of fifty. He was chosen a member of the French 
 Academy in 1753, but was rejected by the king. Died 
 in 1773. 
 
 See Rigolev de Juvignv, " Vie de Piron," 1776; Auguste de 
 Mastaing, "Les Piron," 1844: Cousin d'Avallon, "Pironiana, 
 011 Recueil des Aventures plaisantes, Bon-mots, etc. d'A. Piron," 
 1800; " Nouvelle Biographle Generale." 
 
 Piron, (Bernard,) a French poet, born at Dijon in 
 1718, was a nephew of the preceding. Died in 1812. 
 
 Piron, (Marie Therese Quenaudon — keh-no'- 
 d6N',) called Mademoiselle de Bar, born in 1688, was 
 a literary and witty lady. She was married in 1741 to 
 Alexis Piron. Died in 1751. 
 
 Pirro, per'ro, (Rocco,) a historian, born in Sicily in 
 1577, was chaplain to the king. He published a his- 
 tory of the churches of Sicily, entitled " Sicilia Sacra," 
 (3 vols., 1644-47,) which is esteemed valuable. Died 
 in 1651. 
 
 Pisa, (Leonard of.) See Leonardo da Pisa. 
 
 Pisan, (Christina.) See Christine de Pisan. 
 
 Pi-san'der or Pei-san'der, [Ilrio-awipoc,] a Greek 
 poet of Rhodes, flourished about 650 B.C. He wrote an 
 epic poem on the exploits of Hercules, which is lost. 
 He was received into the epic canon with Homer by 
 the critics of Alexandria. 
 
 Pisander or Peisander, an Athenian demagogue, 
 who was archon eponymus in 414 R.c. He was a promi- 
 nent agent in the revolution which subverted the de- 
 mocracy and raised the Four Hundred to power in 
 412 R.C. 
 
 Pisander, a Spartan, who was a brother-in-law of 
 Agesilaus II. He became admiral of the fleet in 395, 
 and was defeated and killed by the Athenians under 
 Conon in 394 B.C. 
 
 Pisaneilo, pe-sa-nel'lo, or Pisano, pe-sa'no, (Vit- 
 tore,) a celebrated painter of the Venetian school, 
 flourished about 1450. He surpassed the artists of his 
 time in painting horses and other animals, and was an 
 excellent engraver of medals. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Pisani, pe-sa'nee, (Niccoi.6,) a Venetian admiral, who 
 acquired celebrity in the war against the Genoese which 
 began about 1350. He commanded in an indecisive 
 battle against Paganino Doria at the outlet of the Bos- 
 phorus in 1352. 
 
 Pisani, (Vkttore or Vettor,) a famous admiral, a 
 son or nephew of the preceding, obtained command of 
 the fleet in 1378. He displayed skill in the defence of 
 
 Venice against the Genoese, whose fleet he captured at 
 Chiozza in 1380. He died in the same year. 
 
 See Giovanni Molin, " Memorie per servire alia Storia di Vet- 
 tor Pisani ;" Grass!, "Vita di Vettor Pisani," 1837. 
 
 Pisano, (Andrea.) See Andrea Pisano. 
 
 Pisano, pe-sa'no, (Giovanni,) called also Giovanni 
 da Pisa, an eminent sculptor and architect, born at Pisa 
 about 1238, was a son of the sculptor Niccol6. He was 
 architect of the famous Campo Santo (cemetery) of Pisa, 
 completed in 1283. It is a cloister of sixty-two arcades 
 or arches. He built the Castel Nuovo at Naples. Among 
 his master-pieces of sculpture are the high altar in the 
 cathedral of Arezzo, and a statue of the Virgin which 
 adorns the exterior of the cathedral of Florence. Died 
 in 1320. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" Cico- 
 gnara, " Storia della Scultura;" Ticozzi, " DizJonaiio." 
 
 Pisano, (Giunta,) an old Tuscan painter, was born 
 in the twelfth century. He was one of the most skilful 
 artists of his time. About 1235 he painted some works 
 in a church of Assisi. His works present the meagre 
 forms of the Byzantine style. A figure of Christ painted 
 on wood by Giunta still exists. 
 
 Pisano, (Niccol6.) See Niccol6 da Pisa. 
 
 Pisano, (Vittore.) See Pisanello. 
 
 Pisari, pe-sa'ree, (Pasquai.e.) an Italian composer, 
 born at Rome about 1725 ; died in 1778. 
 
 Piscator. See Fischer. 
 
 Piscinus. See Marso. 
 
 Pise, (Charles Constantine,) D.D., a distinguished 
 Catholic clergyman, born at Annapolis, Maryland, in 
 1802. He was for some time chaplain of the United 
 States Senate, and in 1849 became pastor of the church 
 of Saint Charles Borromeo, Brooklyn, New York. He 
 has published, a "History of the Church from its Es- 
 tablishment to the Reformation," (1830,) " Aletheia, or 
 Letters on the Truth of the Catholic Doctrines," " Lives 
 of Saint Ignatius and his First Companions," and nume- 
 rous hymns and other poems. 
 
 Pishdadian. See Pf.shdadian. 
 
 Pisistrate. See Pisistratus. 
 
 Pisistratidae, pis-is-trat'e-de, an appellation given to 
 the sons of Pisistratus. (See Hippias and Hipparchus.) 
 
 Pi-sis'tra-tus or Pei-sis'tra-tus, [Gr. UaaiarpaToc ; 
 Fr. PlSISTRATE, pe'ze'stRstt',] a tyrant or ruler of Athens, 
 born about 612 B.C., was a son of Hippocrates, and a 
 relative of Solon. He courted popularity by various 
 means, and obtained power by the following artifice. 
 Having inflicted wounds on himself, he presented him- 
 self to the people, pretended that he had been attacked 
 by his political enemies, and persuaded them to grant 
 him a guard of fifty men, by whose aid he seized the 
 citadel, 560 B.C. He was the head of the t>arty of the 
 highlands, which was the more popular or democratic 
 party. He was twice expelled by a coalition of the party 
 of the coast with that of the plain, but was restored as 
 often. He made little or no change in the constitution, 
 and left the reputation of an able and rather liberal ruler. 
 He patronized literature, formed a library, and erected 
 fine public buildings. It is commonly supposed that we 
 owe to him the first written text of the whole of the 
 poems of Homer. Died in 527 B.C. 
 
 See Herodotus, " History ;" Grote, " History of_ Greece ;" 
 Jan Meursius, "Pisistratus, sen de ejus Vita Liber singularis," 
 1632 ; Thirlwall, " History of Greece." 
 
 PI'so, [Fr. Pison, pe'z&s',] (Caius Calpurnius,) a 
 Roman orator, who became consul in 67 B.C., and com- 
 manded in Gallia Narbonensis in 66. He was defended 
 by Cicero, in 63 B.C., against a charge of extortion pre- 
 ferred by Caesar, and urged the former to accuse Caesar 
 as one of the conspirators with Catiline. He probably 
 died before the civil war began, (49 B.C.) 
 
 See Drumann, "Geschichte Roms." 
 
 Piso, (Caius Calpurnius,) the leader of a con- 
 spiracy against Nero in 65 A.D. He was a patrician, 
 and very popular. Having been betrayed by one of his 
 accomplices, he killed himself. 
 
 Piso, (CnSius Calpurnius,) was consul in 7 B.C., 
 with Tiberius, who, after his accession, used him as an 
 instrument to impair the influence of Germanicus. He 
 obtained command of Syria in 18 A.D., and was sus- 
 
 a, e, 1, 0,% y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m8t; not; grJod; moon: 
 
piso 
 
 1803 
 
 PITT 
 
 pected of having poisoned Germanicus. He was found 
 dead In his room in 20 A.D. 
 
 Piao, (Lucius Calpurnius,) was the father of Cal- 
 purnia, the wife of Julius Caesar. He was consul in 58 
 B.C., and promoted the banishment of Cicero. He mis- 
 governed Macedonia from 57 to 55 B.C. His public con- 
 duct and private character were denounced by Cicero in 
 a very vituperative speech, "Oratio in Pisonem," in 55 
 or 54 B.C. After the death of Caesar (44 B.C.) Piso made 
 a speech which was applauded by Cicero, (Philippic I.) 
 
 SeeAppMN, " Bellum Civile ;" Drumann, "Geschichte Roms." 
 
 Piso, (L. Calpurnius,) a son of the preceding, was 
 consul in 15 B.C. He was appointed prefect of Rome by 
 Tiberius. He was one of the persons to whom Horace 
 addressed his Epistle "De Arte Poetica," according to 
 Porphyrion. Died in 32 A.D., at the age of eighty. His 
 virtue and integrity are attested by several writers. 
 
 Piso, (Lucius Calpurnius Frugi,) a Roman his- 
 torian and consul, belonged to the aristocratic party. 
 He became consul in 133 B.C., and opposed the measures 
 of Caius Gracchus. He wrote " Annals of Rome," 
 which are not extant. 
 
 Piso, (Lucius Calpurnius Licinianus,) a Roman 
 whom Galba adopted as heir to the throne in 69 A. n. 
 He was killed by the partisans of Otho in the same year. 
 
 Pison. See Piso. 
 
 Pi'son, (Jakob,) a Latin poet, born in Transylvania ; 
 died in 1527. 
 
 Pison, pee'son, (Wii.lkm,) a Hutch naturalist and 
 physician, accompanied the Prince of Nassau in a voyage 
 to Brazil in 1637. The researches of Pison and his 
 companion Marcgraf were published, under the title of 
 "Natural History of Brazil," ("Historia Naturalis Bra- 
 silia^, " 1648,) a work of some merit. 
 
 Pistoia, da, (Cino.) See Cino. 
 
 Pistoia, da, da pes-to'ya, (Leonardo Grazia — gR5t'- 
 se-S,) an Italian painter, born at Pistoia, lived about 1550. 
 He was a pupil of F. Penni, with whom he worked at 
 the Vatican and at Naples. He was skilful in portraits. 
 • Pistorius, pis-to're-as, (Johann,) a German histo- 
 rian, born at Nidda (Hesse) about 1544. He was con- 
 verted from the Protestant faith to that of the Roman 
 Church, and was confessor to the emperor Rudolph II. 
 He wrote "German Historical Writers," (" Rerum Ger- 
 manicarum Scriptores,"3 vols., 1582-1607.) Died in 1608. 
 
 Pitagora. See PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 Pitaro, pe-ta'ro, (Antonio,) an Italian natural phi- 
 losopher and writer, born at Borgia in 1774; died in 
 Paris after 1S30. 
 
 Pitau, pe'to', (Nicolas,) a skilful Flemish engraver, 
 born at Antwerp about 1633. He worked at Paris, and 
 engraved after Raphael, Guercinn, and L Caracci. His 
 master-piece is a " Holy Family," after Raphael. Died 
 in 1676. His son Nicolas was also an engraver. Died 
 at Paris In 1724. 
 
 Pitaval, de. See Gayot. 
 
 Pitcairne, pit'kSm, (Archibald,) a Scottish phy- 
 sician, born at Edinburgh in 1652. Having finished his 
 education in Paris, he practised with great distinction 
 in his native city. His medical system was based partly 
 on mathematics. He was a zealous Jacobite. He was 
 professor of medicine at Leyden about one year, (1692,) 
 and was one of the teachers of Boerhaave. His principal 
 work is "Elementa Medicinoe physico-mathematica." 
 He also wrote Latin verses. Died in 1713. 
 
 See Chari.es Webster, " Life of A. Pitcairne," 1781 ; Cham- 
 bers. "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen.*' 
 
 Pitho. See Pithon. 
 
 Pi'thon or Pi'tho, [IL'flwv,] a Macedonian officer, 
 who had a high command under Alexander in India. 
 He was appointed satrap of Babylon by Antigonus in 
 316 B.C., and was killed fighting for Demetrius at Gaza, 
 in 312 R.C. 
 
 Pithon, [niffwv.l an officer of Alexander the Great, 
 whose person he attended as a guard. He was the 
 leader of the mutineers who killed Perdiccas in 321 
 B.C., after which he was joint regent with Arrhidseus for 
 a short time. He was second in command in the army 
 of Antigonus, to whom he rendered important services 
 in the war against Eumenes. He was put to death, by 
 order of Antigonus, in 316 B.C. 
 
 Pitboit, pe'too', (Francois,) a learned French jurist, 
 born at Troyes in 1543, was a brother of Pierre, noticed 
 below. He wrote "Traite de la Grandeur, des Droits, 
 Pre-eminences des Rois et du Royaume de France," 
 (1587.) Died in 1621. 
 
 Pithou, (Pierre,) an eminent French jurist and 
 scholar, was born at Troyes in 1539. He was educated 
 as a Protestant, but became a Roman Catholic in 1573. 
 after a narrow escape from the massacre of 1572. He 
 supported the cause of Henry IV., and was one of the 
 authors of the "Satire Menipp^e," which had an im- 
 portant influence in the political affairs of the time. 
 Among his works are "The Liberties of the Gallican 
 Church," (1594,) and "Body of Canon Law," ("Corpus 
 Juris canonic!," 1687.) Died in 1596. 
 
 See Orosi.ey, "Vie de Pierre Pithou," 1756: LnisEi.. "Vie de 
 Pierre Pithou;" Niceron, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate." 
 
 Pitiscus, pe-tis'kus, (Bartholomaus,) a German 
 geometer, born near Griinberg in 1561 ; died at Heidel- 
 berg in 1 6 1 3. 
 
 Pitiscus, pe-tis'kus, (Samuel,) a Dutch philologist, 
 born at Zutphen in 1637. He published a " Lexicon 
 Latino-Belgicum," (1704,) a "Lexicon of Roman An- 
 tiquities," (1713,) and good editions of Quintus Curtius, 
 Suetonius, and Aurelius Victor. Died in 1727. 
 
 Pit'kin, (Timothy,) an American lawyer and his- 
 torical writer, born at Farmington, Connecticut, in 1765, 
 published a " Political and Civil History of the United 
 States, from 1763 to the Close of Washington's Ad- 
 ministration," (1828.) Died in 1847. 
 
 See the " North American Review" for January, 1830. 
 
 Pitoni, pe-to'nee, (Giuseppe Oitavto,) an Italian 
 composer of sacred music, born at Rieti in 1657 ; died 
 at Rome in 1743. 
 
 Pitot, pe'to', (Henri,) a French geometer, born at 
 Aramon in 1695. He contributed several memoirs to 
 the Academy of Sciences, and published a good wnrk 
 on naval tactics, entitled "Theorie de la Manoeuvre des 
 Vaisseaux," (1731.) Died in 1771. 
 
 Plt'rl, [a Sanscrit word signifying "father,"] a title 
 applied in the Hindoo mythology to the deified pro- 
 genitors of mankind, supposed to inhabit the orbit of 
 the moon. 
 
 Pits, [Lat. Pit'seus,] (John,) an English biographer 1 , 
 born at Alton in 1560, was a Roman Catholic. He be- 
 came canon of Verdun, in Lorraine, and dean of Liver- 
 dun. He wrote " The Lives of the Kings, Bishops, and 
 Writers of England," (4 vols.) The last volume was 
 published in 1619. Died in 1616. 
 
 Pitseus. See Pits. 
 
 Pitt, (Christopher,) an English poet, born at Bland- 
 ford in 1699. He became rector of Pimpern, in Dorset- 
 shire, and published a volume of poems in 1727. He 
 produced a translation of Virgil's "/Eneid," (1740,) 
 which was received with favour. Diid in 1748. 
 
 Pitt, (Thomas,) a grandfather of the Earl of Chat- 
 ham, was born at Blandford in 1653. He was for some 
 years Governor of Madras. He purchased in India for 
 £24.000 a large diamond, (called the Pitt diamond,) 
 which he sold to the Regent of France for £135,000. 
 Died in 1726. 
 
 Pitt, (William,) Earl of Chatham, an illustrious 
 English statesman and orator, was born at Boconnoc, 
 in Cornwall, November 15, 1708. He was the second 
 son of Robert Pitt, and a grandson of Thomas Pitt, 
 Governor of Madras, who brought from India the Pitt 
 diamond, which is now esteemed the most precious of 
 the crown-jewels of France. His mother was Harriet 
 Villiers. He was educated at Eton, and at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Oxford, which he entered at the age of seventeen. 
 The torments of the gout, to which he was subject nearly 
 all his life, induced him to leave college without taking 
 a degree, and to travel in France and Italy for his health. 
 On his return home he accepted a cornet's commission 
 in the armv, and in 1735 was chosen a member of Parlia- 
 ment for Old Sarum. He began his political life as an 
 Opponent of the Walpole ministry, and addressed the 
 House for the first time in April, 1736, on the subject 
 of the marriage of the Prince of Wales. Soon after 
 this date he was appointed a groom of the bed-chamber 
 
 eas*;c as /, g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal- R. trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jt^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PITT 
 
 1804 
 
 PITT 
 
 to thai prince, and he continued tc, declaim against 
 Walpole with increasing power. His figure wis re- 
 markably graceful and commanding, and his manner 
 highly imposing. " His play of countenance," says Mac- 
 aulay, "was wonderful: he frequently disconcerted a 
 hostile orator by a single glance of indignation or scorn. 
 Every tone, from the impassioned cry to the thrilling 
 aside, was perfectly at his command. . . . Yet he was 
 not a great debater. His merit was almost entirely 
 rhetorical. He did not succeed either in exposition or 
 refutation ; but his speeches abounded with lively illus- 
 trations, happy allusions, passionate appeals. His in- 
 vective and sarcasm were tremendous.'' 
 
 Having been excluded from the new cabinet which 
 was formed on the resignation of Walpole, in 1742, he 
 continued to act with the opposition, and fiercely de- 
 nounced Carteret for the favour shown to the German 
 dominions of George II. The offence which he thus 
 gave to the king retarded his own promotion when, in 
 1744, the Pelhams came into power. By tendering their 
 resignations in the critical period of the Jacobite rebel- 
 lion, the ministers at last prevailed over the king, and 
 Pitt was appointed paymaster of the forces in 1746. 
 The rare disinterestedness which he showed in this 
 lucrative office convinced the public that he was proof 
 against all sordid temptations. He married Hester 
 Grenville, a sister of the Earl of Temple and of George 
 Grenville, in 1754. In this year the premier, Henry Pel- 
 ham, died, and was succeeded by his brother, the Duke 
 of Newcastle. Pitt, who was perhaps offended because 
 his rival Henry Fox was chosen secretary of state, be- 
 came the leader of the opposition in November, 1755, 
 soon after which date war broke out between England 
 and France. Newcastle having been forced to resign, Pitt 
 was premier about five months, ending in April, 1757. 
 The king, who disliked Pitt and his colleague Temple, 
 dismissed them, but found great difficulty in forming a 
 new ministry, as Pitt was the most popular statesman 
 in England. After the nation had remained eleven weeks 
 without a ministry, a coalition was formed between Pitt 
 and Newcastle, the former of whom became secretary 
 of state, with the supreme direction of the war and of 
 foreign affairs. He infused new energy and ardour into 
 every branch of the service, and his fame was raised to 
 the highest point by a succession of victories in Canada, 
 India, and Europe. About 1760 he was almost idolized 
 by the people, who called him " the Great Commoner" 
 and regarded him as the foremost Englishman of his 
 time. 
 
 On the accession of George III., Pitt was supplanted 
 by Lord Bute, the royal favourite, the success of whose 
 intrigues was promoted by dissensions and jealousies 
 among the ministers, some of whom were offended by 
 the imperious demeanour of the premier. Pitt resigned 
 in October, 1 761, and received an annual pension of 
 .£3000 for three lives, (i.e. his own, his wife's, and his 
 eldest son's.) In 1765 the king requested Pitt to resume 
 the direction of affairs ; but the latter declined the offer 
 because his friend the Earl of Temple refused to take 
 office with him. During the next session of Parliament 
 he condemned the Stamp Act in an eloquent speech, 
 and argued that England had no right to tax the colo- 
 nies. The renewed overtures and insidious smiles of 
 the court prevailed on him, in 1766, to form a new ad- 
 ministration, in which he took the office of privy seal. 
 At the same time he sacrificed his popularity by accepting 
 a peerage, with the title of Earl of Chatham. This was 
 the cabinet that Burke described as a " piece of joinery 
 so whimsically dovetailed ; a tesselated pavement with- 
 out cement," etc. His mental and physical maladies 
 soon became so aggravated that he ceased to take any 
 part in the government, and he resigned in October, 
 1768. With improved health, he returned to public life 
 about 1771, and spoke often against the ministers. In 
 1775 he made a brilliant speech on the American war. 
 Alluding to the Boston Port bill, etc., he exclaimed, 
 "You must repeal these acts, and you WILL repeal 
 them. I pledge myself for it that you will repeal them. 
 I stake my reputation on it. I will consent to be taken 
 for an idiot if they are not finally repealed." In 1777 
 he made a memorable speech against employing Indians 
 
 to fight in the United States. As he rose to speak in 
 'the House of Lords, in 177S, he was seized with an apo- 
 plectic fit. He lingered a few weeks, and died in May, 
 1778, leaving three sons, the second of whom was the 
 celebrated statesman William Pitt the Younger. 
 
 " His eloquence," says Brougham, " was of the very 
 highest order : vehement, fiery, close to the subject, 
 concise, sometimes eminently, even boldly, figurative : 
 it was original and surprising, yet quite natural. The 
 fine passages or felicitous hits in which all popular as- 
 semblies take boundless delight . . . form the grand 
 charm of Lord Chatham's oratory. ... A noble state- 
 ment of enlarged views, a generous avcwal of dignified 
 sentiments, a manly and somewhat severe contempt for 
 all petty and mean views, always pervaded his whole dis- 
 course ; and, more than any orator since Demosthenes, he 
 was distinguished by the grandeur of feeling with which 
 he regarded, and the amplitude of survey which he cast 
 upon, the subject-matters of debate. He is the person 
 to whom every one would at once point if desired to 
 name the most successful statesman and most brilliant 
 orator that this country ever produced. Some fragments 
 of his speeches have been handed down to us ; but these 
 bear so very small a proportion to the prodigious fame 
 which his eloquence has left behind it, that far more is 
 manifestly lost than has reached us." Several volumes, 
 entitled "Chatham Papers: Correspondence from the 
 Original MSS.," were published in 1838-40, 4 vols. 
 
 See " History of W. Pitt, Eari of Chatham, " by Francis Thack- 
 eray. 2 vol*., 1827; John Ai.mon, "Anecdotes of W. Pitt, Earl of 
 Chatham." 2 vols, 1792; Bruugh am, "Statesmen of the Time of 
 George I II. :" MaCAULAY's Review of Thackeray's " Life of Chat- 
 ham." 1S34: Macaulay. "Essay on the Earl of Chatham," in the 
 "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1844; Lotus UK Viklcastel, 
 " E^sai historique sur les deux Pitt," 2 vols., 1846. 
 
 Pitt, (The Right Honourable William,) a celebrated 
 statesman and debater, was the second son of the pre- 
 ceding, and was born at Hayes, in Kent, in May, 1759. 
 At the age of seven, when he heard that his father was 
 raised to the peerage, he said, " I am glad that I am not 
 the eldest son.' I want to speak in the House of Com- 
 mons, like papa." He received the rudiments of educa- 
 tion at home, under the diligent supervision of his father, 
 and acquired great proficiency in Latin, Greek, and 
 mathematics, before he entered Pembroke Hall, Cam- 
 bridge, in 1773. Having chosen the profession of the 
 law, he took chambers in Lincoln's Inn, and was called 
 to the bar in 1780. In 17S1 he entered Parliament for 
 Appleby, as an opponent of the ministry, and before the 
 end of the second session assumed his place in the first 
 rank of debaters. His talents and conduct amply justi- 
 fied and responded to the partiality with which the public 
 regarded the son of the Great Commoner. He acquired 
 a new claim to public favour by a motion (in May, 1782) 
 for a reform in the representation, which was rejected 
 by a small majority. His principles at that time were 
 the same with those of the Whigs. On the formation 
 of the ministry of Lord Shelburne, in July, 1782, Mr. 
 Pitt was appointed chancellor of the exchequer. By a 
 coalition between Lord North and Mr. Fox, this ministry 
 was forced to resign in March, 1783, and Pitt became 
 the leader of the opposition in the House. The king, 
 after procuring the defeat of Fox's India bill, dismissed 
 Fox and Lord North, whose coalition was very unpopular, 
 and appointed Pitt first lord of the treasury (prime min- 
 ister) in December, 1783. He bad to contend against a 
 large majority in the House, led by Fox, Burke, North, 
 and Sheridan, who triumphed in sixteen divisions. This 
 important contest lasted until March, 1784, when Parlia- 
 ment was dissolved. His appeal to the people resulted 
 in a great triumph of the minister, who, thus sustained 
 by the favour of the court and by that of the nation, 
 became at the age of twenty-five the most powerful 
 subject of Europe. 
 
 The first eight years of his administration were'peace- 
 ful and prosperous. A new constitution for the East 
 India Company was framed in 1784, and a new sinking- 
 fund established in 1786. He changed his course on the 
 question of parliamentary reform, which he opposed at 
 several periods after 1792. He supported with his elo- 
 quence and his vote the motions of Wilberforce for the 
 abolition of the slave-trade. " All authorities agree," 
 
 a, e, i, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fall, fat; m6t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
PITT 
 
 i8oj 
 
 PIUS 
 
 says Brougham, "in placing his speech on the slave- 
 trade, in 1 79 1 , before any other effort of his genius." 
 Yet he permitted, for many years, every one of his col- 
 leagues to vote against the abolition, and thus furnished 
 the ground of the gravest charge to which his memory 
 is exposed. His ascendency was confirmed by the ex- 
 cesses of the French Revolution, and by the division 
 which that subject produced in the Whig party; but the 
 tide of his success began to ebb when he involved Eng- 
 land in a war with the French republic in 1793, — a war 
 which, according to Alison, added three hundred millions 
 to the national debt. (See Bonaparte, and Georgk III.) 
 " His conduct of the war," says Brougham, " betrayed 
 no extent of views, no commanding notions of policy. 
 To form one coalition after another in Germany, and 
 subsidize them with millions of free gift, or aid with 
 profuse loans, until all the powers in our pay were de- 
 feated in succession, and most of them either destroyed 
 or converted into allies of the enemy, — such were all the 
 resources of his diplomatic policy." In 1800 an act for 
 the union of Ireland with Great Britain was passed in 
 the Parliament of the latter. He resigned office in 
 March, 1801, and was succeeded by Addington. The 
 ostensible cause of his resignation was that the king 
 objected to the measures which Pitt proposed for the 
 relief of the Roman Catholics. Alison intimates that 
 he retired to make way for a pacific administration. 
 
 A combination of Whigs and Tories having been 
 formed against Addington, he resigned, and Pitt was 
 again appointed prime minister, in May, 1804. The new 
 ministry was formed exclusively of Tories. The pre- 
 mature death of Pitt appears to have been hastened by 
 the vexation which he suffered from the failure of the 
 new coalition, and the victories of Bonaparte at Ulm and 
 Austerlitz. He died on the 23d of January, 1806, having 
 never been married. 
 
 " Unequalled in the ability with which he overcame 
 the jealousies and awakened the activity of cabinets," 
 says Alison, "he was by no means equally felicitous in 
 the warlike measures which he recommended for their 
 adoption. Napoleon has observed that he had no turn 
 for military combinations ; and a retrospect of the cam- 
 paigns which he had a share in directing, must confirm 
 the justice of the opinion. By not engaging England as 
 a principal in the contest, and trusting for land operations 
 to the continental armies put in motion by British sub- 
 sidies, he prolonged the war for an indefinite period." 
 ("History of Europe.") He is admitted by all parties 
 to have been a consummate debater, and almost un- 
 equalled as a master of sarcasm. His declamation was 
 copious, polished, and impressive. He poured forth a 
 long succession of round and stately periods, with a full 
 and sonorous voice and with an unbending dignity of 
 manner. " Yet, with all this excellence," says Brougham, 
 " the last effect of the highest eloquence was for the 
 most part wanting : we seldom forgot the speaker, or 
 lost the artist in the work." His private character is 
 described as amiable. Pride appears to have been his 
 principal fault. 
 
 See Brougham. " Statesmen of the Time of George III. ;" " Me- 
 moirs of VV, Pitt," by George Tomi.ine, 1S21 ; Macaulav, article 
 "William Pitt," in the " Encyclopaedia Britanuica;" Lord Stan- 
 hope, (MamokO ''Life of William Pitt." 1862: John Gifford, 
 " HUtorvof the Political Life of William Pitt," 3 vols., 1809: Pierre 
 Chanin,' " Vie de M Pitt," 1X05; Augusts Vidai.in, "Etude sur 
 la Cirriere de W. Pitt," 1851; Alison, "History of Europe ;" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1856, and "The Addington and Pitt 
 Administrations," in the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 185S. 
 
 Pit'ta-cus, [UiTTaKnc,] a celebrated Greek statesman, 
 philosopher, and poet, called one of the Seven Wise 
 Men of Greece, was born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, about 
 650 B.C. He distinguished himself in a battle against 
 the Athenians (whose leader, Phrynon, he killed) in 606 
 B.C. About 590 he was chosen supreme ruler by the 
 popular, party, which had expelled the aristocratic party. 
 The poet Alcseus belonged to the latter, and was exiled 
 in the time of Pittacus. Having governed the state 
 wisely for ten years, he resigned his office in 580 B.C. 
 He was famous as an elegiac poet ; but only a few of his 
 lines are extant. Died In 569 B.C. 
 
 See Diogenes Laertius; Suidas, " Pittacus." 
 
 Pitthee. See Pittheus. 
 
 Pit'theus, [Gr. riirSroc ; Fr. Pitthee, pe'ti',] a son 
 of Pelops and Hippodami'a, was a king of Troezene, the 
 father of /Ethra, and grandfather of Theseus. Pausanias 
 ascribes to him a work on the art of speaking. 
 
 Pit'tis, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born in the 
 Isle of Wight, entered Trinity College, Oxford, about 
 1652. Died in 1687. 
 
 Pittoni, pet-to'nee, (Batttsta,) an Italian painter 
 and engraver, born at Vicenza about 1520; died after 
 
 Pittoni, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Venice in 1687. Among his best works is "The 
 Miracle of the Loaves." Died in 1767. 
 
 Pittorio, pet-to're-o, or Pittori, pet-to'ree, [Lat. 
 Ptcto'rius,] (Lonovico Bini.) a Latin poet, born at 
 Ferrara in 1454. He wrote " Candida," (1491,) " Moral 
 Epigrams," (" Epigrammata moralia," 1 5 1 6, ) and other 
 poems. Died about 1524. 
 
 Pitts, (William.) an English sculptor, called "the 
 British Cellini," was bom in London in 1790. He learned 
 the trade of gold-chaser. He displayed a fine fancy for 
 design, and remarkable executive skill. Among his 
 works are "The Creation of Eve," (1824,) "The Shield 
 of /Eneas," (1828,) "The Shield of Hercules," (1834,) 
 and the " Apotheoses of Spenser, Shakspeare, and Mil- 
 ton," in bas-relief. He committed suicide in 1840. 
 
 Pi'us [It. Pio, pee'o ; Fr. Pie, pee] I., Pope or 
 Bishop of Rome, was born at Aquileia. He succeeded 
 Hyginus in 142 A.D., and died in 157. His successor 
 was Anicetus. * 
 
 Pius (or Pio) II., Pope, (/Ene'as Syl'vius Picoo- 
 lomini — pek-ko-lom'e-nee.) was born at Corsignano, 
 Tuscany, in 1405. He was liberally educated, and was 
 familiar with the ancient classics. In 1535 he produced a 
 history of the Council of Bale. He was a partisan of 
 this council in its contest against Pope Eugenius IV., 
 and became the secretary of Felix V., who was elected 
 pope in place of Eugenius, whom the council deposed. 
 About 1442 he entered the service of the emperor Fred- 
 erick III., of whom he wrote a history, " Historia Rerum 
 Friderici III." In the pontificate of Nicholas V., /Eneas 
 Sylvius was sent as nuncio to Germany. He distin- 
 guished himself as a negotiator and orator on various 
 occasions. He became a cardinal in 1456, and was 
 elected pope in 1458, in place of Calixtus III. In 1459 
 he procured the meeting of a European congress on 
 the subject of a crusade against the Turks ; but the 
 jealousies and dissensions among the Christian powers 
 rendered his efforts abortive. He issued a bull in which 
 he retracted and condemned what he had formerly writ- 
 ten in favour of the supremacy of councils. He died in 
 August, 1464, and was succeeded by Paul II. Pius II. 
 was an eminent historian and scholar. Among his nu- 
 merous works are "Epistolae," (1473,) ar| d a "History 
 of Bohemia," (14*75,) which are highly prized. 
 
 See " Pii II. Commentarii Rerum memorabtlium," an auto- 
 biography, published by his secretary, Gobelinus, 1477 and 1614; 
 Campanus or Campmanus, "Vita Pii II.;" Platina. "Vita 
 Pontincum ;" Hei.wing, " De Pii II. Rebus gestis," 1825; 
 Voigt, " Eneas Piccolomini," Berlin, 1859 ; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeniSrale." 
 
 Pius III., Pope, (Francesco Todeschini Piccolo- 
 mini— to-d2s-kee'nee pek-ko-lom'e-nee.) born at Sienna 
 in 1439, was a nephew of Pius II. He succeeded Alex- 
 ander VI. in September, 1503, and died in October of 
 the same year. His successor was Julius II. 
 
 Pius IV., Pope, (Giovanni Angklo de' Medici — 
 di mSd'e-chee,) was born at Milan in 1499, and was an 
 uncle of the eminent Carlo Borromeo. He was elected 
 pope, in place of Paul IV., about the end of 1559. He 
 convoked the Council of Trent which reassembled in 
 1 561 and finished its labours in 1563. The decrees of 
 this council in relation to discipline, etc. were rejected 
 by the French. He is represented by some historians 
 as an able but rather unscrupulous pontiff. He died 
 in December, 1565, and was succeeded by Pius V. 
 
 See Ranks, " History of the Popes." 
 
 Pius V., Pope, (Michei.e Ghislieri — ges-le-a'ree,) 
 was born at or near Alessandria id 1504. He became 
 a cardinal in 1557, and Inquisitor-General of Christen- 
 dom. In 1566 he was elected pope. He was a rigorist 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jf^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PIUS 
 
 1806 
 
 PIZARRO 
 
 in discipline, and a violent persecutor of dissenters. 
 Palearius, Zanetti, and other learned men were put to 
 death by his inquisitors. He published in 1568 the bull 
 " In Coena Domini," which asserts the extreme ultra- 
 montane doctrines in relation to the papal supremacy. 
 The publication of this bull was forbidden by the Kings 
 of France and Spain and the F.mperor of Germany. 
 Pius V. was one of the allies whose fleet gained the 
 victory of Lepanto over the Turks, in 1571. He died 
 in 1572, and was succeeded by Gregory XIII. 
 
 See Rankb, " History of the Popes ;" Agatio di Somma, "Vida 
 di Pio Quinto;" J. B. Feuillet, "Vie du Pape Pie V," 1674; De 
 Falloux, "Histoire de Saint Pie V," 2 vols., 1844: "Life and 
 Pontificate of Saint Pius V.," by Rev. Joseph Mendham, 183a. 
 
 Pius VI., Pope, (Cardinal Angei.o Braschi— bras'- 
 kee,) was born at Cesena in 1717. He succeeded Clem- 
 ent XIV. in February, 1775. He drained the Pontine 
 marshes, and enriched the Museum of the Vatican. 
 In 1782 he went in person to Vienna to treat with the 
 emperor Joseph, who had suppressed convents and 
 meddled with spiritual affairs in a manner which dis- 
 pleased the pope. He failed in his effort to change the 
 purpose of the emperor. The French Revolution in- 
 volved him in a still greater trouble. He entered into 
 alliance with Austria and other Dowers against the 
 French republic. After his states had been invaded by 
 Bonaparte, he sued for peace, which he obtained by the 
 treaty of Tolentino, in 1797. To avenge the death of 
 General Duphot, (who was killed by a Roman mob,) 
 the Ifc-ench army entered Rome in February, 1798, and 
 deposed the pope, who was conveyed to Valence, in 
 France, where he died in August, 1 799. 
 
 See Ferrari, " Vita Pii VI.," 1802 ; Tavanti, " Fasti del Papa 
 Pio VI.," 3 vols., 1804; Artaud de Montor," Hisloire de Pie 
 VI," 1847: " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Pius VII., Pope, (Cardinal Gregorio Barnaba Chi- 
 aramonti — ke-a-ri-mon'tee,) was born at Cesena in 
 August, 1742. He became a cardinal, and Bishop of 
 Imola, in 1785. After the French had become masters 
 of Imola, he exhorted his people to submit to the new 
 regime. He was elected pope by a conclave of car- 
 dinals assembled at Venice in \Iarch, 1800, and ap- 
 pointed Cardinal Consalvi secretary of state. The first 
 important event of his reign was a treaty with Bonaparte, 
 by which the Roman Catholic religion was re-established 
 in France. This treaty, called the Concordat, was signed 
 on the 15th of July, 1801. In compliance with the re- 
 quest of Bonaparte, Pius went to Paris and crowned or 
 anointed him as emperor in December, 1804. He re- 
 fused to comply with the will of Napoleon when the 
 latter required him to banish the English, Russians, and 
 Swedes from the Papal States, (1806,) and resisted him 
 in other designs. The French army occupied Rome in 
 February, 1808, but permitted the pope to retain some 
 temporal power. In May, 1809, Napoleon issued a 
 decree that the Papal States were united to the French 
 empire. The pope, having resorted to a bull of ex- 
 communication against his adversaries, was seized and 
 abducted from Rome in July, 1809. He was detained at 
 Savona, near Genoa, until 1812, and was then removed to 
 Fontaincbleau. In his captivity the pope firmly resisted 
 fhe will of the emperor, who probably wished him to 
 transfer his court from Rome to Avignon. Pius refused 
 to give canonical institution to the bishops appointed 
 by Napoleon. In January, 1813, he was persuaded to 
 sign a new concordat and to make concessions, which, 
 however, by the advice of his cardinals, he soon re- 
 tracted. In January, 1814, he received an order or 
 permission to return to Rome, which he entered in May. 
 He afterwards made some laudable reforms. He died 
 in August, 1823, and was succeeded by Leo XII. Pius 
 VII. left a fair reputation for moderation and other 
 virtues. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, " Histoire de Pie VII," 2 vols., 1836 ; 
 Cohen, " Precis historique sur Pie VII," 1823; A. de Beauchamp, 
 •' Histoire des Malheurs de Pie VII," 1814 ; Guadet, " Esqmsses 
 historiques et politiques sur Pie VII," 1823; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate ;" " London Quarterly Review" for October. 1858; "Recol- 
 lections of the Last Four Popes," by Cardinal Wiseman, Lon- 
 don, 1S58. 
 
 Pius VIII., Pope, (Cardinal Francesco Castiglioni 
 — kas-tel-yo'nee,) was born at Cingoli in 1761. He suc- 
 ceeded Leo XII. in March, 1829, and issued an encyclical 
 
 letter in which he denounced religious toleration, the 
 freedom of the press, and civil marriage, as impious, 
 lie died in November, 1830. His successor was Greg- 
 ory XVI. 
 
 Pius IX., [Ital. Pio Nono, pee'o no'no.J Pope, (Gio- 
 vanni Maria Mastai Ferretti — mas'ti fer-ret'tee,) 
 was born, of a noble family, at Sinigaglia, near Ancona, 
 on the 13th of May, 1792. He visited South America 
 in 1823 on a religious mission, and was made Archbishop 
 of Spoleto in 1827. In 1840 he obtained the dignity of 
 cardinal. He was elected by acclamation the successor 
 of Pope Gregory XVI. in June, 1846. He granted an 
 amnesty to political transgressors, and acquired great 
 popularity by various measures of reform which he 
 commenced soon after his election. His first secret at y 
 of state, Cardinal Gizzi, was a friend of progress and a 
 liberal policy. The expenses of the papal court wete 
 reduced, the censorship of the press was modified, and 
 the Jews were relieved from some oppressive regulations. 
 His reforms were partly frustrated by the ill will of many 
 of his functionaries, who opposed innovation. His popu- 
 larity began to decline before the end of 1847. Excited 
 and elated by the French revolution, theTtalian liberals 
 required greater concessions than the pope was willing 
 to grant. After several violent demonstrations of the 
 populace, Pius IX. escaped from Rome in disguise in 
 November, 1848, and retired to Gaeta. A republic was 
 organized at Rome in February, 1849, but was subverted 
 by a French army which took the city in July of that 
 year and restored the pope. Among the later events of 
 his pontificate was the formal definition and recognition 
 of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception as a 
 part of the Roman Catholic creed, (1854.) During the 
 war which Austria waged against the French and Sar- 
 dinians in 1859, the people of the Romagna and the 
 legations revolted against the pope, and the Papal States 
 were annexed to the kingdom of Victor Emmanuel. In 
 January, i860, the pope issued an anathema, or bull, 
 against those who abetted the invasion of his dominions. 
 This was probably aimed at Napoleon III., who sup- 
 pressed the journal in which it was jjnblished. Rome 
 was declared the capital of the new kingdom of Italy in 
 i860, since which the question of the pope's temporal 
 power has remained in suspense, as one of the great 
 problems of European diplomacy. The recognition of 
 the kingdom of Italy by the French court (1861) was 
 accompanied by the reservation that " French troops 
 shall continue to occupy Rome so long as the interests 
 which caused their presence shall not be protected by 
 sufficient guarantees." The pope was the only power 
 that recognized the "Confederate States of North Amer- 
 ica." The results of the war between the Emperor of 
 Austria and the allied Kings of Prussia and Italy in 1866 
 were unfavourable to papal domination. A,bout the 10th 
 of December, 1866, the French army departed from 
 Rome, and Italy was relieved from the presence of for- 
 eign soldiery, for the first time probably in a thousand 
 years. He convoked by an encyclical letter an oecu- 
 menical council which met at Rome in December, 1869, 
 to assert or define the dogma of the pope's infallibility, 
 which, after a long deliberation, was finally established 
 in July, 1870. The Italian army took Rome on the 20th 
 of September, without serious resistance, and the tem- 
 poral power of the pope was then abolished. Pius pro- 
 tested against this innovation, but he remained in Rome, 
 See A. Bai.lbvdibr, "Rome et Pie IX," 1847; G. B. Nic- 
 coi.ini, "History of the Pontificate of Pius IX.," London, >8ji • 
 Bretonnf.au, "Notice sur Pie IX." 1847; "Nouvelle 
 graphie Generate ;" " Quarterly Review" for December, 1847. 
 
 Pivati, pe-va'tee, (Giovanni Francesco 
 ian litterateur, born at Padua in 1689. He published 
 "Scientific Dictionary," etc., ("Dizionario scientifico 
 e etirioso," 10 vols., 1750.) Died in 1764. 
 
 Pix, (Mary,) originally Griffith, an English drama- 
 tist, born in Oxfordshire about 1665; died about 1720. 
 
 Fizarre. See Pizarro. 
 
 Pizarro, pe-zar'ro, [Sp. pron. pe-thlr'ro; Fr. Pi- 
 zarre, pe'ztR',] (Francisco,) the conqueror of Peru, 
 was born at Truxillo, in Spain, about 1475. He was the 
 natural son of Gonzalo Pizarro, who was a colonel in 
 the Spanish army. He was employed as a swineherd in 
 his youth, and never learned to read or write. The date 
 
 liio- 
 an Ital- 
 
 S. e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, $>, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
PIZARRO 
 
 1807 
 
 PLANCHE 
 
 of his emigration to the New World has not been pre- 
 served; but in 1 5 10 he took part in the expedition of 
 Ojeda from Hispaniola to Terra Firuia. He afterwards 
 served under Balboa, with whom he performed an ar- 
 duous march across the mountains from Darien to the 
 Pacific Ocean. In 1522 Pizarro, who had risen to the 
 rank of captain, associated himself, at Panama, with 
 Almagro and a rich priest named De Luque, in an enter- 
 prise to explore and conquer the region which lies south 
 of the Isthmus of Darien. Having enlisted in his service 
 about one hundred desperadoes, he sailed from Panama 
 with one small vessel in November, 1524. His first ex- 
 pedition was unsuccessful and attended with great hard- 
 ships. He renewed the enterprise in 1526, but made 
 slow progress and lost many men. He landed at the 
 city of Tumbez without opposition, and was stimulated 
 to pursue his project by the sight of the gold trinkets 
 and utensils which the natives displayed in great pro- 
 fusion. Having explored the coast as far as Truxillo, 
 about 9 south latitude, he found it inexpedient to pro- 
 ceed with his reduced force, and returned to Panama 
 in 1528. With the consent of Almagro and De Luque, 
 Pizarro went to Spain to solicit aid from the king. In 
 this mission he was successful. He procured for himself 
 an appointment as governor and captain-general' of the 
 region which he might conquer for a distance of two 
 hundred leagues south of Santiago ; but he neglected to 
 obtain any high office for Almagro, who was disgusted 
 with this perfidious conduct. In January, 1 531, Pizarro 
 sailed from Panama with one hundred and eighty men 
 and about thirty horses, leaving Almagro behind to 
 muster reinforcements. A civil war which raged in Pern 
 between Atahualpa and Huascar presented a favour- 
 able opportunity for his design. Having marched across 
 the sierra of the Andes to Caxamarca, he met the Inca 
 Atahualpa in November, 1532. The treacherous and 
 audacious Spaniard seized the Inca, who had come to 
 the Spanish camp for a friendly interview. To obtain 
 his liberty, the Inca offered to fill a room twenty-two 
 feet long and sixteen feet wide with golden vessels and 
 utensils, etc. up to a line as high as he could reach. 
 Pizarro assented to this proposal, and obtained about 
 1,326,000 pesos of gold, the value of which Prescott 
 estimates at over fifteen millions of dollars ; but he caused 
 Atahualpa to be put to death by the garote. "The 
 blood-stained annals of the conquest," says Prescott, 
 "afford no such example of cold-hearted and systematic 
 persecution, not of an enemy, but of one whose whole 
 deportment had been that of a friend and benefactor." 
 In November, 1533, Pizarro entered Cuzco, the capital, 
 and the conquest of Peru was virtually effected. Civil 
 war broke out in 1537 between Pizarro and Almagro, 
 who was defeated and executed in 1538. (See Ai.ma<;i:o.) 
 To avenge his death, a conspiracy was formed by Alma- 
 gro the Younger, and Pizarro was assassinated at Lima 
 in [tine. 1541. "The name of Pizarro liecame a by-word 
 of perfidy," says Prescott, who, however, praises his 
 invincible constancy. 
 
 See Prescott, "Conquest of Peru;" Robertson, "Histnvy 
 of America ;" Zarate. " Historia de la Conquista de Peru ;" Her 
 rkra, " Xnvus Orbis:" Garcii.asso de la Vega, " Conientarios 
 Keales ;" " Xouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Pizarro, (Gonzalo,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 born about 1506. He went to the New World In 1530, 
 and served under Francisco Pizarro in Peru. According 
 to Prescott, he was inferior in talent to his brother, but 
 quite as unscrupulous. He was appointed governor 
 of Quito in 1540, and discovered the river Napa In 
 1544 he became the leader of malcontents who revolted 
 against the viceroy Nufiez. About the end of 1545 the 
 latter was defeated and killed in battle by Pizarro, who 
 remained master of Peru. He in turn was defeated near 
 Cuzco by the viceroy Gasca in April, 1548, and beheaded 
 in the same month. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru;" Herrera, 
 " Novus Orbis." 
 
 Pizarro, (Hernando,) was a half-brother of the pre- 
 ceding. He left Spain in 1530, and took a prominent 
 part in the conquest of Peru. With a force of about 
 seven hundred men he defeated Almagro at Las Salinas 
 in April, 1538. He returned to Spain in 1539, and was 
 
 imprisoned twenty years, probably for the execution of 
 Almagro. Died about 1566. 
 
 See Herrera, " Novus Orbis." 
 
 Pizarro, (Juan,) a brother of the preceding, was born 
 at Truxillo about 1505. He assisted in the conquest of 
 Peru, and became governor of Cuzco. He was killed 
 in battle at Cuzco in 1535. 
 
 Pizarro, (Pedro,) a Spanish historian and soldier of 
 the sixteenth century, born at Toledo, was a relative of 
 the celebrated commander Francisco Pizarro. He wrote 
 a work entitled "Account of the Discovery and Con- 
 quest of the Kingdoms of Peru," ("Relacioncs del Des- 
 cubrimiento y Conquista de los Reynos del Pe-u,") 
 published about 1847. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. li. book 
 iii. 
 
 Pizzi, pet'see or pit'see, (Gioacchino,) an Italian 
 poet, born in Rome in 1716. Among his poems is " The 
 Vision of Eden," (1778.) Died in 1790. 
 
 Plaas, van der, vtn der pl&ss, written also Plas, 
 (David,) a Dutch portrait-painter, bom at Amsterdam 
 in 1647. He passed some years at Venice. Died at 
 Amsterdam in 1704. 
 
 Placaeua. See La Place. 
 
 Placcius, plat'se-as, (Vincenz,) a German writer, 
 born at Hamburg in 1642. He published, besides other 
 works, "Atlantis Retecta," a poem, (1659,) and "Treat- 
 ise on Anonymous and Pseudonymogs Works and 
 Writers," (" De Scriptis et Scriptoribus anonymis et 
 pseudonymis Syntagma," 1674.) Died in 1699. 
 
 Place, (Francis,) an English engraver and painter, 
 born in Durham. His etchings are highly commended. 
 Died in 1728. 
 
 Place, de la, (Josue.) See La Place, de. 
 
 Place, de la, deh lipliss, (Pierre,) a French Prot- 
 estant'jurist, born at Angouleme about 1520. He wrote 
 a journal or history of public events in France from 1556 
 to 1 56 1, (1565,) and other works. He became president 
 of the cour des aides, Paris, in the reign of Henry II. 
 He was a victim of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, 
 
 Place, de la, (Pierre Antotne,) a mediocre French 
 writer of fiction and dramas, born at Calais in 1707; died 
 in 1793. 
 
 Place, La, (Pierre Simon.) See Laplace. 
 
 Pla-cen-ti'nus, | It. Piacentino, pe-a-chen-tee'no,] 
 an Italian jurist of the twelfth century, born at Piacenza; 
 died in 1192. 
 
 Placentius, plat-sen'se-us, (Peter,) or JohannLeo, 
 a German writer, who lived about 1530, and wrote a 
 Latin poem entitled "The Battle of the Pigs," (" Pugna 
 Porcorum,") in which every word begins with P. 
 
 Placette, La. See La Placette. 
 
 Pla-cid'X-a, (Fr. Pi.acidie, pli'se'cle',1 a Roman 
 princess, borii aliout 390 A.D., was a daughter of Theo- 
 dosius the Great. She was taken captive by the Goths, 
 ami became the wife of Ataulphus, King of the Goths, 
 (414.) Died in 450 a.d. 
 
 Plac'I-tus Pa-pjrr-i-en'si3, ( Sextus, ) sometimes 
 called Sextus Platon'icus or Sextus Empir'icus, a 
 physician, who is supposed to have lived about the 
 fourth century. He wrote a work "On Medicaments 
 made from Animals," (" De Medicamentis ex Ani- 
 malibus. ') 
 
 Plaisance, de, Due. See Leprun. 
 
 Plana, pla'na, (Giovanni Antonio Amf.deo,) Baron, 
 an Italian savant, born in 1 781. He became director 
 of the observatory at Turin, professor of analysis, and 
 senator. He published, besides other works, a "Theory 
 of the Motion of the Moon," (3 vols., 1832.) 
 
 Planard, de, deh plS'naV, (Francois Antoine Eu- 
 gene.) a French dramatist, born in Aveyron in 1783, 
 He produced successful comedies and comic operas. 
 Died in 18^5. 
 
 Planche, ploN'sha', (James Robinson,) an Fnglish 
 dramatist, born in London in 1796. He published about 
 1827 "Lays and legends of the Rhine," and "The 
 Descent of the Danube." He composed numerous 
 successful extravaganzas and dramas, among which were 
 " Oberon," an opera, and "Charles XII.," (1828.) He 
 also wrote a " History of British Costume," (1834.) 
 
 e as *; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *,' th as in this. ( jgf=- See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PL AN CHE 
 
 1808 
 
 PLATNER 
 
 Planche. ploNsh, (Jean Baptiste Gustave, ) a 
 French litterateur and critic, born in Paris in 1808. He 
 wrote many able criticisms on art and literature for the 
 " Revue des Deux Mondes," and published " Literary 
 Portraits," (4 vols., 1836-49.) Died in 1857. 
 
 Planche, (Joseph,) a French Hellenist, born at La- 
 dinhac (Cantal) in 1762, was professor at the College 
 Bourbon, at Paris. He published, besides other books 
 for students, a "Greek-French Dictionary," (1809,) which 
 was successful and was adopted in the university. Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 Plancher, plftN'shi', (Urbain,) a French monk and 
 historian, born in Anjou in 1667. He wrote a " History 
 of Burgundy," (3 vols., 1739-48.) Died in 1 750. 
 
 Planciades. See Fulgentrts. 
 
 Flancius, plln'se-us, (Pietek,) a Dutch theologian, 
 born in Flanders in 1552, was a zealous Calvinist. He 
 preached at Brussels and Amsterdam. By his astro- 
 nomical and nautical science he rendered good service 
 to the commerce of Holland. Died in 1622. 
 
 Planck, plank, (Gottlieb Jakob,) an eminent Ger- 
 man theologian and church historian, born at Nurtingen, 
 in Wiirtemberg, in 1751. He was professor of theology 
 at Gottingen from 1784 to 1833. His principal works 
 are a " History of the Protes'.ant Doctrinal System," 
 (" Geschichte der Bildung des Protestantischen Lehr- 
 begriffs," 6 vols., 1781-1800,) and a "History of the 
 Origin and Development of the Organization of the 
 Christian Church," (5 vols., 1803-05.) Died in 1833. 
 
 See Luecke, " Dr. G. J. Planck ; biographischer Versuch." 
 
 Planck, (Heinrich Ludwig,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Gottingen in 1785. He wrote several 
 theological and exegetical works, and was professor of 
 theology at Gottingen. Died in 1831. 
 
 Flancon, pldN^6N', (Guillaume,) a French phy- 
 sician, born at Javron, in Maine. He translated Galen's 
 " Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates,"( 1 551.) 
 Died in 161 1. 
 
 Plan'cus, (Lucius Munatius,) a profligate Roman 
 politician, who was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war. 
 He took arms for the senate in 43 B.C., but soon deserted 
 to Antony, and was consul in 42 B.C. In 32 B.C. he 
 abandoned Antony and became a partisan of Octavius. 
 He was the person to whom Horace addressed the 
 seventh ode of his first book. 
 
 His brother, Titus Munatius Plancus Bursa, was 
 tribune of the people in 52 B.C. He was a violent 
 enemy of Milo, and caused a popular riot at the funeral 
 of Clodius, for which he was prosecuted by Cicero, and 
 condemned about 50 B.C. 
 
 Planer, pla'ner, (Johann Jacob,) a German botanist 
 and physician, born at Erfurt in 1743. He translated 
 Linnaius's " Systema Naturae" into German, (1774,) and 
 wrote several scientific treatises. Died in 1789. 
 
 Planque, ploNk, (Francois,) a French physician, 
 born at Amiens in 1696. He published a good manual 
 of surgery, "Chirurgie complete," (2 vols., 1744,) and 
 " Select Library of Medicine," (" Bibliotheque choisie 
 de Medecine," 10 vols., 1748-70.) Died in 1765. 
 
 Plant, plant, (Johann Traugott,) a German writer, 
 born at Dresden in 1756. He wrote a " Biographical 
 and Critical Treatise on the History of German Poetry," 
 (1782,) and other works. Died in 1794. 
 
 Planta, plan'tl, (Joseph,) a Swiss historian and phi- 
 lologist, born in the Grisons in 1744. He became in 
 1799 principal librarian of the British Museum. He 
 was secretary of the Royal Society of London for twenty 
 jears or more. He published a " History of the Hel- 
 vttic Confederacy," (2 vols., 1800,) and other works. 
 Died in 1827. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for June, 1800. 
 
 Planta, de, deh plln'ta, (Martin,) a Swiss natural 
 philosopher, born in 1727. He is said to have been the 
 inventor of electrical machines with plates, ( a plateaux. ) 
 Died in 1772. 
 
 Flantade, de, deh pl&N'ttd', (Francois,) a French 
 astronomer, born at Montpellier in 1670. He wrote 
 "Observations on the Aurora Borealis," (1730.) He 
 made some good maps of Languedoc. Died in 1741. 
 
 Plantagenet. See Edmund Pi.antagf.net. 
 
 Plantagenet. See Henry II. of England. 
 
 Plantin, plflN'tiN', (Christophe,) an eminent printer, 
 born near Tours, in France, in 15 14. He became ths 
 proprietor of a printing-office in Antwerp about 1550. 
 His publications were renowned for correctness and 
 beauty. He employed Kilian, Pulmann, (or Poelmann,) 
 and other learned men as correctors of the press. His 
 most remarkable performance was an edition of a Poly- 
 glot Bible, superintended by Arias Montanus, (1568-72.) 
 Died in 1589. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Plantin, pld.N'taN', (Jean Baptiste,) a Swiss histo- 
 rian, born at Lausanne about 1625. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of Switzerland," (" Helvetia antiqua et nova," 1656,) 
 and other works. Died about 1680. 
 
 Planude. See Pi.anudes. 
 
 Pla-nu'de§, [Gr. \\Mivov&nc ; Fr. Planude, pli'nud',] 
 (Maximus,) a Byzantine monk, born at Nicomedia, was 
 sent by Andronicus II. on a mission to Venice in 1327. 
 He is chiefly noted as an editor of a Greek Anthology, 
 a collection of Greek epigrams, some of which he ex- 
 tracted from an Anthology compiled by Constantinus 
 Cephalas in the tenth century. Planudes was very 
 deficient in the judgment and taste required to edit 
 such a work, and is accused of literary forgeries. His 
 Anthology was printed at Florence in 1494. 
 
 See Fauricius, " Bibliotheca Gr.-eca." 
 
 Plas, van der, vtn der plas, (Pieter,) a Dutch 
 painter, born in 1578; died at Brussels in 1634. 
 
 Platao. See Plato. 
 
 Platea, pla-ta'a, (Francesco Piazza,) an Italian 
 canonist, born at Bologna about 1390; died in 1460. 
 
 Plateau, pIS'to', (Joseph Antoine Ferdinand,! a 
 Belgian natural philosopher, born at Brussels in 1801. 
 He has written on optics and on the statics of liquids 
 removed from the effects of gravity. 
 
 Platen, von, fon pla'ten, (Duhislav Friedrich,) a 
 Prussian general, born in 1714. He served with dis- 
 tinction against the Russians and Swedes in the Seven 
 Years' war, and became a lieutenant-general about 1758. 
 Died in 17S7. 
 
 Platen-Hallermiinde, pla'ten hal'ler-miin'deh, (Au- 
 gust,) Count, a German litterateur, born at Anspach in 
 1796. Among his works are a " History of the King- 
 dom of Naples from 1414 to 1443." and a satirical poem 
 entitled " The Romantic CEdiptis." Died in 1835. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Minckwitz, 
 "Graf von Platen als Mench und Dichter," 183S. 
 
 Plater,- pi a'ter, (Emii.ie,) a Polish heroine, born at 
 Wilna in 1806.' She fought, with the rank of captain, 
 against the Russians in the insurrection of 1830. Died 
 in 1831. 
 
 See " Emilie Plater, sa Vie et sa Mort." Paris, 1834, and " Life of 
 Countess E. Plater," New York, 1842; "Democratic Review" for 
 July, 1S42. 
 
 Plater, pla'ter, (Felix,) a Swiss physician, born at 
 Bale in 1536. He lectured and practised with success 
 in that place. He wrote " Medical Practice," (" Praxis 
 Medica," 1602,) often reprinted, and other medical 
 works. Died in 1614. 
 
 Plater, (Felix,) a son of the preceding, was born in 
 1605, and became a physician of Bile. Died in 1671. 
 
 Plater, (Stanislas,) Count, a Polish soldier, his- 
 torian, and antiquary, born in Lithuania in 1782. He 
 published, in" French, a "Historical Atlas of Poland," 
 and several other works. Died in 1851. 
 
 Platina. See Paul II. 
 
 Platina, pla-tee'na, (Bartoi.ommf.o de Sacchis,) 
 an able Italian historian, born at Piadena, near Cre- 
 mona, in 1421. He wrote, besides other works, "The 
 Lives of the Popes," (" In Vitas Summorum Pontificum 
 Opus," 1479,) a work of much merit, often reprinted, 
 and a "History of Mantua," (1675.) He became li- 
 brarian of the Vatican about 1472. Died in 1481. He 
 was a member of the Academy founded at Rome by 
 Pomponius Lastus, and as such was persecuted by Pope 
 Paul II. 
 
 See Bavle. " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, 
 " M^moires ;'* Tiraborchi, " Storia delta Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Platner, plat'ner, (Eduard,) a German jurist, born 
 at Leipsic in 1786. He wrote, besides many literary 
 essays, a treatise "On the Attic Races," (" De Gentibus 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 3, e, 1, 5, ii, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; gd"6d; moon; 
 
PLATNER 
 
 1809 
 
 PLATO 
 
 Atticis," 1811,) and " Questions on the Roman Criminal 
 Law," ("Quasstiones de Jure criminum Romano," 1842.) 
 
 Platner, (Ernst,) a German philosopher and phy- 
 sician, born at Leipsic in 1744, was the father of the 
 preceding. He became professor of medicine at Leipsic 
 in 1770. He had a high reputation as a lecturer and a 
 writer. Among his works are "Anthropology for Phy- 
 sicians and Philosophers," (2 vols., 1774,) and "Philo- 
 sophic Aphorisms,'* (2 vols., 1776-82.) His style is 
 cominended for precision and elegance. Died in 1818. 
 
 See " Biographie Me"dicale." 
 
 Platner, (Ernst Zacharias,) a writer, a son of the 
 preceding, was born at Leipsic in 1773. He published 
 a " Description of Rome," (3 vols., 1830-43.) 
 
 Platner, (Johann Zacharias,) a surgeon, born at 
 Chemnitz in 1694, was the father of Ernst, noticed above. 
 He taught at Leipsic, and was a skilful oculist. He 
 wrote, in elegant Latin, " Surgical Institutes," (" Insti- 
 tutiones Chirurgiae rationales," 1745,) and other works. 
 Died in 1747. 
 
 Pla'to,»[Gr.IIAir<jv; Lat. Pla'to; Fr. Plato.v, pli"- 
 tON'; Ger. the same as the Latin ; It. Platone, pla-to'na; 
 Sp. Platon, pla-t6n'; Port. PlatSo, pla-towN'; Arab, 
 and Persian, Aflatoon, a-fli'toon',] one of the most 
 illustrious philosophers of all time, was born about 429 
 B.C. He belonged to one of the highest families of 
 Athens, being descended on the side of his father, 
 Aris'to, (or Aris'ton,) from Codrus, and on that of his 
 mother, Pericti'one, he was related to the celebrated 
 lawgiver Solon. As to the place of his birth there is 
 some dispute. Some writers say that he was born at 
 Athens ; others, in the island of «5Sgina. His original 
 name was Aris'tocles, after his grandfather : he was sur- 
 named Plato, (from jrAari>c, "broad,") on account of 
 the breadth of his forehead, or, as some say, of his 
 shoulders. Very little is certainly known of the history 
 of his life, and, as is usual in such cases, the absence 
 of positive information is liberally supplied by what is 
 legendary or fabulous. It is related that while an infant, 
 as he was one day sleeping in a bower on Mount Hymet- 
 
 nations of the East ; but of this there is not a particle 
 of trustworthy evidence. While in Sicily he became 
 acquainted with Dion, (or Dio,) who introduced him to 
 Dionysius the Elder. But the philosopher, as might 
 well be supposed, was not likely to find much favour in 
 the eyes of an unscrupulous and reckless tyrant. They 
 soon quarrelled, and on one occasion Dionysius, it is 
 said, was so deeply offended with the freedom of some 
 of Plato's remarks, that, had not Dion interposed, he 
 would have punished him with death: Although the 
 tyrant was prevailed on to spare his life, he caused hir.i to 
 be sold as a slave. He was, however, ransomed and set 
 at liberty, — some say by Dion, others, by Anniceris of 
 Cyrene. Having returned to Athens, he opened a school, 
 called the Academy, (Accidentia,) in a grove, which had 
 formerly belonged to a citizen named Academus or 
 Hecademus. His school was numerously attended by 
 young men of the most distinguished families of Athens 
 and of all Greece. Even women were numbered, it 
 is said, among his disciples. After having taught in 
 Athens more than twenty years, he again visited Sicily, 
 at the solicitation of Dion, who hoped that Plato's influ- 
 ence might be successful in winning to philosophy thr 
 younger Dionysius, and in establishing, through him, a 
 model government in Syracuse. (For a most interesting 
 account of this experiment and its failure, see Grote's 
 " History of Greece," vols. x. and xi.) He afterwards 
 visited Syracuse for the third time, In order to effect a 
 reconciliation between Dionysius and Dion ; but in this 
 attempt he was wholly unsuccessful. He returned to 
 Athens, where he continued to write and teach until his 
 death, which occurred 347 B.C., in his eighty-fourth year. 
 According to some writers, however, he died in his eighty- 
 first year. He was, as Cicero informs us, occupied in 
 writing at the very moment of his death. There is per- 
 haps in the history of the human intellect no example 
 of any one having dedicated himself with a more abso. 
 lute devotion to philosophy (the "love or study of wis. 
 dom") than Plato. He was never married ; and, from 
 the time when he first became acquainted with Socrates, 
 (about his twentieth year,) every moment of his long 
 
 tus, a number of bees dropping honey settled upon his 
 
 lips, thus foreshadowing the extraordinary sweetness of ! '' fe appears to have been spent in the interest of his 
 his eloquence. According to another story, his future j favourite pursuit. 
 
 greatness was foreshown by a dream of Socrates, who 7" n ' s entire dedication of all his powers to one grand 
 saw in his sleep a young swan coming from the grove , object has not been without results of the highest ilia, 
 of Academus; after nestling in his bosom, it soared j portance to mankind. Probably no other philosopher, 
 aloft, singing sweetly as it rose. The next morning, of whatever age or nation, has contributed so much as 
 just as Socrates had finished relating his dream, Aristo ! Plato towards the moral and intellectual culture of the 
 presented himself, leading by the hand young Plato, ! human race. This pre-eminence is to be ascribed not 
 whom he wished to place under the instruction of that i solely to his transcendent intellect or to the marvellous 
 distinguished sage. depth and comprehensiveness of his philosophic views, 
 
 Plato was a remarkable example of that universal j DUt a'so in no small measure to his poetic power, and 
 culture which characterized the best period of ancient t0 tnat unrivalled grace and beauty of style which led 
 
 Greece. He appears to have neglected no branch of 
 science or art which was considered to form any part 
 of a liberal education. He studied music, rhetoric, and 
 painting, and, after the manner of his countrymen, paid 
 great attention to gymnastics, in which he was so ex- 
 pert, we are told, that he contended at the Isthmian and 
 Pythian games. In early life he is said to have turned 
 his attention to poetry, and to have written an epic poem, 
 which, however, on comparing it with the " Iliad," he 
 burned in despair. He also composed son.e lyrics and 
 several tragedies. But "having once," as .'Elian ex- 
 presses it, " been captivated by the siren of Socrates," 
 he gave himself up wholly to the study of philosophy. 
 He was in his twentieth year, as it appears, when he 
 began to attend the school of Socrates, where he con- 
 tinued until his master's death, (399 B.C.) After this 
 event, in order to escape the persecutions which threat- 
 ened them, he, with several other Socratic disciples, 
 withdrew to Megara, where they were received bv the 
 philosopher Euclid, who had also been a pupil of Socra- 
 tes. Plato is said subsequently to have travelled exten- 
 sively, visiting Egypt, Sicily, and Magna Grascia, where 
 he became acquainted with the doctrines of Pythagoras. 
 Some writers speak of his having journeyed into the 
 interior of Asia for the purpose of enriching his mind 
 with the wisdom of the Persians, Babylonians, and other 
 
 * Chaucer gives the name Platon, or Platone, and Plato. 
 
 the ancients to say that if Jove should speak Greek he 
 would speak like Plato. Macaulay, alluding to Plato's 
 wonderful power as a writer, speaks of him as "the 
 finest of human intellects, exercising boundless dominion 
 over the finest of human languages." (" Essay on Lord 
 Bacon.'") The charms of his style, indeed, by awakening 
 the interest and admiration of all lovers of literature, 
 have doubtless been one of the chief causes of that state 
 of excellent preservation in which his works have come 
 down to us. For, by a singular good fortune, all his 
 philosophical writings, there is reason to believe, have 
 been preserved, not only unmutilated with respect to 
 the different parts, but with the text, comparatively 
 speaking, uncorrupted and unimpaired. 
 
 With respect to Plato's character as a man we know 
 scarcely anything except what is revealed in his works. 
 " Despite the disposition of the Greeks for calumny," 
 says Ritter, "there are but few evil rumours against 
 which we have to vindicate the purity of his moral con- 
 duct." The same writer not only rejects as unfounded 
 the charges against the purity of Plato's private char- 
 acter, but regards as either wholly unjust or greatly 
 exaggerated the imputation against him of malice or 
 ill feeling towards certain other disciples of Socrates, 
 such as Xenophon, Euclid, Aristippus, and others, 
 whose views on many points differed widely from his 
 own. Plato has been accused by some modem writers 
 of being wanting in patriotism and in a sympathy for 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; *h as in this. 
 
 U4 
 
 (23^™See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PLATO 
 
 1810 
 
 PLATO 
 
 humanity. Both of these charges seem to us unjust. 
 The state of political morals in his time was such that 
 he could scarcely hope to effectually good by taking an 
 active part in public affairs. By doing so, there is every 
 reason to believe, he would have only embroiled himself 
 in an endless conflict with men with whom his standard 
 of right would not permit him to co-operate. Besides, 
 his talents do not appear to have fitted him for politics ; 
 and he is certainly not to be censured for confining him- 
 self to that field of labour for which nature had best 
 qualified him. The charge that he was wanting in a 
 sympathy for human nature appears to have no other 
 foundation than the fact that he had no sympathy with 
 vice and ignorance, two most conspicuous features in 
 the human nature which he saw around him. Yet the 
 great object, and, we may add, the tendency, of nearly 
 all his teachings was to make mankind happier by 
 making them wiser and better.* 
 
 With respect to Plato's philosophic system, it is im- 
 possible to say with any precision how much of it was 
 properly his own, and how much was derived from his 
 great master. (See Socrates.) It is a fine saying of 
 Mr. Emerson, that " Socrates and Plato are the double 
 star which the most powerful instruments will not en- 
 tirely separate. "t The plan and limits of the present 
 work will permit us only to glance at some of the most 
 striking characteristics of Plato's philosophy as we find 
 it unfolded in his writings. His system may be consid- 
 ered from two points of view, — the one having reference 
 to the method, the other to the results, of his philosophic 
 investigations. His method, which appears to be scarcely 
 more than an extension of that of Socrates, was undoubt- 
 edly a great improvement, on the methods of previous 
 philosophers. 
 
 But the admirable lessons of his great teacher, re- 
 specting the manner and spirit with which the search 
 after truth should be conducted, would in all probability 
 have been quickly forgotten and lost to the world, had 
 not Plato made them immortal by his writings. Re- 
 ferring the reader to the article on SOCRATES for a brief 
 notice of the Socratic method, we shall here limit our- 
 selves to simply calling attention f\ some of the most 
 remarkable points in Plato's philosopnic creed, without 
 attempting, in our narrow space, to give even a complete 
 outline of his system. He taught that God was the 
 supreme Idea or Essence of the universe, comprising 
 within himself all other beings, and was the Cause of all 
 things, celestial and terrestrial. He alone is good, with- 
 out envy, willing good to all so far as each is capable of 
 receiving it : God alone is unchangeable. Plato strongly 
 condemned the views, then prevalent, which represented 
 the gods as having human passions and as influenced 
 by selfish human motives. While he taught the exist- 
 ence of one supreme God, the source and upholder of 
 all things, he appears to have recognized, at the same 
 time, a class of inferior deities, or beings with godlike 
 attributes, far superior to man. One of the most re- 
 markable features of Plato's philosophy is his theory of 
 ideas. With him, an idea is not simply an image or 
 conception formed by the human mind : it is rather an 
 eternal thought of the Divine mind. He held that the 
 
 * We need scarcely say that we utterly andtotally dissent from 
 Macaulay's estimate of Plato's philosophic writings, (see " Essay on 
 Lord Bacon," second part,) which he compares to a magnificent tree, 
 full of beautiful leaves and flowers, but producing no fruit. Writings 
 which have inspired the souls of so many thousands with loftier aspi- 
 rations and with a more earnest love of virtue, may be truly said to 
 have borne fruit of the most precious kind, compared with which the 
 boasted products of the Baconian philosophy are little better than 
 ihi apples of the Dead Sea. That Plato's writings have often pro- 
 duced the results which we have ascribed to them will scarcely be 
 
 denied, we think, by any one familiar with those writings orwitli the 
 history of antiquity. To cite one example out of many, Cato the 
 Younger, confessedly one of the noblest and most virtuous of all the 
 
 "krmuns, when surrounded with misfortunes on every hand, and 
 amid the ruins of his country, sought and found consolation and hope 
 -in the sublime teachings of Plato's " Phaedo." 
 
 t See "Representative Men," article "Plato," the wliole of 
 which is well worthy of perusal by those who would have a vivid 
 conception of Plato's power as a philosopher. This essay, it seems 
 to us, is one of Mr. Emerson's happiest efforts; and, if he some- 
 times exaggerates the greatness and worth of his hero, the fault is 
 -more than atoned for by a thorough and vivid appreciation of his 
 subject, — perhaps the most important, asjt is the rarest, qualification 
 of a good critic. ^ 
 
 human soul is not only immortal, but that it has always 
 existed.} In its pre-existent state it has had a perception 
 of the eternal ideas (i.e. the perfect forms or patterns 
 of things) as they exist in the mind of God. A dim, 
 shadowy remembrance of those celestial patterns is what 
 sometimes enables us to form a conception of loveliness, 
 virtue, etc. far more perfect, more divine, than anything 
 our mortal eyes have ever beheld. It is thus that the 
 gifted painter is enabled to give us forms of beauty more 
 exquisite than any that can be found in this world. It 
 is thus, also, that on hearing of a generous action we 
 are enabled to form an idea of generosity; for it is ob- 
 vious that such an action could have no significance to 
 one who had never known the feeling of generosity in his 
 soul : in a perfectly selfish man, if such a one could be 
 found, it would not awaken admiration, but simply con- 
 tempt. Xenophon tells us, in the second book of his 
 "Anabasis," that Menon the Thessalian considered 
 honesty and truth to be nothing else than stupidity or 
 folly. A Platonist would explain this by saying that ail 
 traces of the Divine ideas of truth and justice had, 
 through the love of gain or love of power, become 
 obliterated from his soul. Plato taught that the oniy 
 way in which men can rise in wisdom and virtue is 
 by striving to restore the lost ideas and to make their 
 minds approximate the mind of God. 
 
 Plato appears to have made himself thoroughly ac- 
 quainted with all the previous philosophic systems which 
 had appeared in Greece. He had not only diligently 
 studied the doctrines of Heracli'tus, Pythagoras, and 
 Socrates, but also those of Anaxagoras, Parmenides, and 
 others of less note. "He reduced," says Ritter, "into 
 a beautiful whole the scattered results of the earlier 
 Greek philosophy, reconciling their seeming differences 
 and conflicting tendencies. . . . When, indeed, we com- 
 pare the barrenness of the earlier philosophers with the 
 fertility of Plato, that love, which he knows so well how 
 to inspire in us, warms almost to veneration, so rich, so 
 varied, and so abundant are his observations, and so 
 profound his knowledge of man and of the world. . , . 
 To such richness of materials Plato united the rarest 
 skill of language and composition to a degree which has 
 never since been equalled." 
 
 Respecting Plato's intellectual power as a philosopher, 
 Mr. Emerson grandly observes that "his strength is like 
 the momentum of a falling planet, and his discretion 
 the return of its due and perfect curve." Again he says, 
 "The way to know him [Plato] is to compare him, not 
 with nature, but with other men. How many ages have 
 gone by, and he remains unapproached !" (" Representa- 
 tive Men.") 
 
 The philosophic writings of Plato are, with some 
 slight exceptions, in the form of dialogues, in all of 
 which, save one, ("The Laws,") Socrates is one of the 
 chief interlocutors. The different dialogues have been 
 distributed by Schleiermacher into three divisions. 
 
 The first division, in which the development of the 
 dialogistic method is the chief object, includes the 
 " Phaedrus," "Lysis," "Protagoras," "Laches," "Char- 
 mides," " Euthyphro," and " Parmenides," to which are 
 added, by way of appendix or supplement, the "Apology 
 of Socrates," " Critos," " Ion," " Hippias Minor," " Hip- 
 parchus," "Minos," and " Alcibiades II." The second 
 division, in which the predominant subject is the expla- 
 nation of knowledge, including the difference between 
 philosophical and common knowledge, comprises the 
 " Gorgias," "Theaetetus," "Meno," " Euthydemus," 
 "Cratylus," "Sophistes," "Politicus," ("Statesman,") 
 " Symposium," (" Banquet,") " Phaedo," (or " Phaedon,") 
 and " Philebus," with an appendix containing the "The- 
 ages," "Erastae," "Alcibiades I.," "Menexenus," " Iiip- 
 pias Major," and "Clitophon." The third division 
 consists of such as contain an objective scientific ex- 
 position, — in other words, combine practical science 
 with speculative philosophy: these are the " Republic," 
 " Timaeus," and " Critias," to which may be added " The 
 
 } He appears to have believed not that the soul has always existed 
 in its present form or condition, or anything like it, but that as God 
 is the source of all things, and as His thoughts and purposes are 
 eternal, the soulmay therefore be said to have always had an exist- 
 ence in that infinite Being of whom it is an emanation. 
 
 6, e, i, 6, ii, y, /<w a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, 6, ri, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; fiood; moon; 
 
 
PLATO 
 
 1 8 1 1 
 
 PLEMP 
 
 Laws." The first edition of Plato's entire works was 
 that published in Venice by Aldus in 15 13 ; the best 
 are perhaps — first, that of Ast, published at Leipsic, in 
 9 vols. 8vo, 1819-27, and, second, that of G. Stallbaum, 
 in 8 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1821-25, (and the same text in 8 
 vols. i2mo, 1826.) 
 
 See Friedrich Ast. " Plato's Leben und Schriften," Leipsic, 
 1816; Stallbaum, " Disputatio de Platonis Vita. Ingenio et 
 Scriptis," prefixed to his edition of Plato's works ; Ritter, " His- 
 . tory of Ancient Philosophy," translated by A. J. W Mokison, 4 
 vols. 8vo, Oxford, 1S3S ; Schi-Eikkmachfr, " Introductions to the 
 Dialogues of Plato," translated by Wu. Dubson, i vol. Svo, Cam- 
 bridge, 1836; Conkao Lagus. "Oratio de Vita Platonis," 1538; 
 "Remarks on the Life and Writings of Plato," Edinburgh, 1660; 
 Comhks-Dounous, " Fssat historique sur Platon," etc., 2 vols., 1809; 
 A. Fm.KKR. " Dissertatfo de Vita Platonis," 1707 ; Andke Dacier, 
 *' Plato's Leben, mil einer naMiern Angabe seiner pliilosophischen 
 Lehr.*aue, aus dem Fran/bsischen." 1829; I. Ogienski, "Pericles 
 et Plato: Inquisitio historica et philosophies, " 1838 ; T. van Swin- 
 dehkn, " Oratio de Platone Optimo in Legibus condendis Principe 
 IMgittrfti" 1807; also the articles on "Plato " in the " Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica," in Smith's " Greek and Roman Biography," etc., and in 
 the " Nouvelle Biographie G&ie'ra'e," from the pen of Dr. Hoefkr. 
 
 Plato, [Gr. HTuiTuv,] an eminent Athenian comic 
 poet of the old comedy, flourished about 428-390 n.c, 
 aud was contemporary with Aristophanes. He attacked 
 Cleon and other demagogues in his plays, which dis- 
 played keen wit, vigour, and purity of style. Many 
 fragments of them, have come down to us. According 
 to some critics, he was a writer of the middle comedy. 
 
 Platof, Platov, or Platow, pla'tof, Hetman of the 
 Cossacks, was born on the Don about 1760. He served 
 as general in the Russian army which marched to the 
 aid of Prussia in 1806. He harassed the retreating 
 French army in 1812, and entered Paris with a troop 
 of Cossacks in 1814. Died in 1818. 
 
 Platon. See Plato. 
 
 Platon, pla'ton, (Lefshin or Leffschin,) an eminent 
 Russian prelate, born near Moscow in 1737. He dis- 
 tinguished himself as an eloquent pulpit orator, and be- 
 came court preacher to Catherine II. He was appointed 
 Archbishop of Moscow in 1775, and Metropolitan of the 
 Russian Church in 1787. He published many sermons 
 and theological works, which are highly commended. 
 Died in November, 1812. 
 
 Platone. See Plato. 
 
 Platte-Montagne, plSt'm6N'tifi', (Matthew van 
 Pi.athen-Bkrch or Plattenberg,) a Flemish painter 
 and engraver, born at Antwerp about 1606. He removed 
 to Paris, where he painted portraits and engraved land- 
 scapes. Died in 1660. His son Nicolas (1631-1706) 
 was also a painter and engraver. 
 
 Plaute. See Plautus. 
 
 Plauto. See Plautus. 
 
 Plau'tns, [Fr. Plaute, plot ; It. Plauto, plow'to,] 
 (Marcus Acciusor Attius,) the most celebrated of the 
 Roman comic poets, was a native of Sarsina, in Umbria. 
 It is supposed that he was born about 254, or, as some 
 say, in 224 B.C. In his youth he served a baker by 
 grinding corn with a hand-mill. Little is known of his 
 history. According to Cicero, he died in 184 B.C. His 
 plays were very popular in his own time, and are gen- 
 erally admired by modern critics. His elegance, re-' 
 finement, and wit are commended by Cicero and other 
 ancient critics. Horace censures his coarse jests and 
 his versification. The titles of his extant plays are 
 "Amphitruo," "Asinaria," "Aulularia," " Bacchides," 
 "Captivi," "Curculio," "Casina," "Cistellaria,"' "Epi- 
 dicus," "Menaschmi," "Mercator," " Miles Gloriosus," 
 "Mostellaria," " Persa," " Poenulus," " Psettdolus," " Ru- 
 dens," "Stichus," "Trinummus," and "Truculentus." 
 There is a good English version of Plautus by Bonnel 
 Thornton. The "Captivi" was pronounced the most 
 perfect of comedies by Lessing, who, as a critic, had 
 scarcely any superior. 
 
 See Gronovior, " Lectiones Platitinse/' 1740; Loman. "Speci- 
 men critico-literarium in Plautum et Terentium," 1845 ; Andesrn, 
 •' De Vita Plauti," 1843: Lessing, "Von dero Leben und den 
 Werken des Plautus," in the third volume of his works, Berlin, 183S : 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" 
 for April, 1843. 
 
 Play'fair, (John,) an eminent Scottish mathemati- 
 cian and astronomer, bom at Benvie, Forfarshire, on the 
 loth of March, 1748, was educated at the University of 
 Saint Andrew's. He became minister of the parishes of 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R. 
 
 Liff and Benvie in 1773, and professor of mathematics 
 in the University of Edinburgh in 1785. In 1805 he 
 succeeded Professor Robison as professor of natural 
 philosophy in the same university. He contributed to 
 the "Edinburgh Review" many articles, among which is 
 a review of La Place's "Traite de Mecanique celeste," 
 (1808.) He published " Elements of Geometry," (1795,) 
 which was extensively used in schools, "Illustrations 
 of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth," (1S02,) and 
 "Outlines of Natural Philosophy," (2 vols., 1812.) 
 Among his contributions to the " Transactions" of the 
 Edinburgh Royal Society are " Remarks on the Astron- 
 omy of the Brahmins," and " On the Solids of Greatest 
 Attraction." He wrote the article " Physical Astronomy" 
 for the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Died in 1S19. 
 " He possessed in the highest degree," says Jeffrey, " all 
 the characteristics both of a fine and powerltil under- 
 standing, at once penetrating and vigilant, but more 
 distinguished perhaps for the caution and sureness (or 
 success) of its march than for the brilliancy or rapidity 
 of its movements." 
 
 See a "Life of J. Playfair," prefixed to his collected works, 4 
 vols., 1822; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary;'' Jeffrey, 
 " Miscellanies." 
 
 Play'fair, (Lyon,) an English chemist, born in Bengal, 
 in India, in 1819. He studied at Saint Andrew's, and at 
 Giessen under Liebig. He became in 1843 professor of 
 chemistry in the Royal'Instittttion in Manchester. For 
 his services as a commissioner of the Great Exhibition 
 of 1851 he was made a Companion of the Bath. 1 Ie was 
 appointed professor of chemistry in the University of 
 Edinburgh in 1858. He has published a number of 
 treatises and lectures on chemistry. 
 
 Playfair, (William,) a Scottish political writer and 
 ingenious inventor, born near Dundee in 1759, was a 
 brother of' Professor John Playfair. He made several 
 useful mechanical inventions. About 1814 he became 
 editor of Galignani's " Messenger," in Paris. He after- 
 wards resided in London. Among his numerous works 
 are a "History of Jacobinism," (1795.) and "British 
 Family Antiquity," (9 vols., 1809-12.) Died in 1823, 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Play'fprd, (John,) an English writer on music, born 
 in 1613 ; died in 1693. His son Henry published 
 "Orpheus Britannicus." 
 
 Pleas'on-ton, (Alfred,) an American gsnerar, born 
 in Washington, District of Columbia, in 1824, graduated 
 at West Point in 1844. He gained the rank of captain 
 in 1855, and became a brigadier-general of volunteers 
 in 1862. He commanded a body of cavalry at Antietaro, 
 September, 1862, and at Chancellorsville, May, 1863. an<l 
 had the chief command of the Union cavalry at Gettys- 
 burg, July 1-3, 1863. He served in Missouri when that 
 State was invaded by General Price in October, 1S64. 
 
 PleaS'ants, (James,) an American Senator, bora in 
 Virginia in 1769. He was a Senator of the United 
 States from 1819 to 1822, and Governor of Virginia 
 from 1822 to 1825. Died in 1836. 
 
 Pleg'mund ->n English prelate under the reign of 
 Alfred the Gr' 'nade Archbishop of Canterbur 
 
 in 890 a.d. I : shed for his learning an 
 
 virtues, and ' •• friendship of th 
 
 king. He \: ' >'n the con 
 
 pilation oft 
 
 See W. F 
 
 vol. i. chap. 
 
 Pleiad 
 
 Pl.ltlADF 
 
 daughte 
 and we' 
 were I 
 Steri 
 were 
 amo 
 plar 
 At 
 
PLEMPIUS 
 
 1812 
 
 PLOT IN US 
 
 
 Plempius. See Plkmp. 
 
 Plenck, von, fon plenk, (Joseph Jakob,) a German 
 surgeon and botanist, born at Vienna in 1738. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, one "On Diseases of the 
 Eyes," (" De Morbis Oculoru'm," 1777,) and "Figures 
 of Medicinal Plants," ("Icones Plantarum medicina- 
 lium," 7 vols., 1788-1804.) Died in 1807. 
 
 See Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutscliland." 
 
 Plessing, ples'sing, (Friedrich Victor Lebrecht,) 
 a German philosopher, born near Magdeburg in 1752. 
 He was professor of philosophy at Duisburg, and wrote 
 two works on the philosophy of the ancients, entitled 
 "Osiris and Socrates," (1783,) and "Memnonium, or 
 an Essay to Unveil the Mysteries of Antiquity," (1787.) 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Plessis. See Dupi.essis and Richelieu. 
 
 Plessis d'Argentre. See A rgentre, d\ 
 
 Flessis-Momay. See Mornay. 
 
 Plessis-Praslin. See Choiskul. 
 
 Pletho or Plethon. See Gemistus. 
 
 Pleville le Pelley, pli'vel' leh pi'li', (George 
 Rene,) a French admiral, born at Granville in 1726. He 
 fought with distinction for the United States, (1778-83.) 
 He was minister of the marine in 1797. Died in 1805. 
 
 Pleyel, pl&'el', (Joseph Ettenne Camii.lk,) a com- 
 poser and pianist, was born at Strasbnrg about 1790. 
 He became a partner of Kalkbrenner in the fabrication 
 of pianos in Paris. Died in 1855. 
 
 Pleyl, plil, or Pleyel, pli'el, (Ignaz,) a celebrated 
 composer, father of the preceding, born at Ruppersthal, 
 near Vienna, in 1756 or 1757. Having studied under 
 Haydn and subsequently visited Italy, he was appointed, 
 after his return, chapel-master at Strasburg. In 1795 
 he settled in Paris, where he established a piano-manu- 
 factory and published the " Bibliotheque Musicale." His 
 works are chiefly pieces of instrumental music, which 
 were very popular in his time. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Pline. See Puny. 
 
 Plinio. See Puny. 
 
 Plinius. See Puny. 
 
 Plin'I-us Va-le-rl-a'nus, the reputed author of a 
 medical work called " Medicinal Plinianae Libri quinque." 
 It is supposed to have been compiled several centuries 
 after the Christian era. 
 
 Plln'jf [Fr. Punk, plen ; It. Plinio, plee'ne-o] THE 
 Elder, (or, more fully, Ca'ius Plin'ius Secun'dus,) 
 a celebrated Roman naturalist, was born at Verona, or, 
 according to some authorities, Novum Comum, (the 
 modern Como,) in 23 a.d. He served in the army in 
 Germany, under Lucius Pomponius, and returned to 
 Rome about the age of thirty. He studied law, and 
 practised as a pleader for a few years. He was after- 
 wards procurator in Spain in the reign of Nero, and 
 became a friend and favoured officer of Vespasian. We 
 possess but little other information of his public life, 
 except that at the time of his death he had command 
 of a fleet stationed at Misenum. In August, 79 a.d., 
 occurred a great eruption of Vesuvius. Observing the 
 immense cloud of smoke which arose in the form of a 
 tree from the volcano, he embarked at Misenum on a 
 vessel and approached nearer to the scene of danger. 
 He calmly noted the variations of the portentous phe- 
 nomenon, amidst the shower of cinders and pumice- 
 stones which fell around his vessel, and landed at Stabia. 
 In the ensuing night he attempted to return to the vessel, 
 but he perished on land, suffocated by ashes or sul- 
 phurous exhalations. This was probably the eruption 
 which destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herc'tilanetim. 
 
 He left historical and grammatical works, which are 
 lost. The only work of Pliny that has come down to us 
 is his " Natural History," (" Naturae Historiarmn Libri 
 XXX VII.,") which is thus characterized by Cuvier, (in 
 the " Biographie Universelle :") " It is at the same time 
 
 Be of the most precious monuments that antiquity has left 
 
 4 
 
 * o«e 01 
 
 ityfojj us, and the evidence of an erudition very wonderful in 
 
 ~-i.% v % *arrfer and statesman. In order to appreciate justly 
 
 r* ; ;trii^va$A'£nd celebrated composition.it is necessary to 
 
 ■■■ ejr# 1 
 
 p-t; 
 
 ,t oag attention to the plan, the facts, and the style. 
 ./, ,^'?r|jjTOpla*v5s\jrtjmen.se. . . . He includes astronomy, 
 
 #>6|*-al 
 
 yV geography, agriculture, commerce, 
 
 medicine, and the arts, as well as natural history properly 
 so called. . . . Pliny was not an observer like Aristotle; 
 still less was he a man of genius, capable, like that great 
 philosopher, of tracing the laws and relations in ac- 
 cordance with which the works of nature are formed 
 and arranged, (co-ordonnee.) In general, he is only a 
 compiler. ... A comparison of his extracts with the 
 originals which are extant, especially with Aristotle, 
 convinces us that Pliny did not prefer to take from the 
 authors he consulted that which was most important 
 or most exact. In general, he prefers the singular and 
 marvellous. ... If Pliny has for us little merit as a 
 naturalist and critic, it is far otherwise in respect to his 
 talent as a writer, and the vast treasury of Latin terms 
 and locutions which have made his work one of the rich- 
 est depositories of the language of the Romans." He 
 was a decided pantheist, and had no faith in the future 
 existence of the human soul. His style is vigorous, 
 condensed, pointed, and abounds in antithesis. Among 
 the best editions of Pliny is that published bv Sillig, 
 Hamburg. " His profound erudition," says Buffon, "is 
 enhanced by elevation of ideas and nobleness of style. 
 He not only knew all that could be known in his time, 
 but he had that large faculty of thinking which multi- 
 plies science, he had that delicacy (finesse) of reflection 
 on which depend elegance and taste, and he imparts to 
 his reader a certain freedom of spirit and boldness of 
 thought, which is the germ of philosophy." 
 
 See Salmasius, " Exercitationes Plinianze," 1629; A. Jos. a 
 Turrs Rezzonico, " Disquisitiones Plinianae," 2 vols., 1763-07; 
 Paul Ebhr, " Dissertatio de Vita C. Plinii," 1556; A. U A. Fee, 
 " Eloge de Pline le Naturaliste," 1S21 ; Baiir, " Gesclliclite der 
 Rdtnischen Literatur:" "Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Pliny the Younger, [Fr. Pline le Jkune, plen leh 
 zhunj (or, more fully, Cai'us Plin'ius "Caecil'ius Se- 
 cun'dus,) a Latin author and orator, born at Comum, 
 (now Como,) on Lake Larius, (Lake Como,) in 6i or 63 
 A.D., was a nephew and adopted son of the preceding. 
 He was a son of Cains Caecilius and Plinia, a sister 
 of Pliny the Elder. At the age of fourteen he wrote a 
 Greek tragedy. He studied rhetoric under Quintilian, 
 and practised law at Rome. After he had held other 
 high offices, he became, in 103, governor or proconsul 
 of Bithynia. He wrote to Trajan a famous letter, in 
 which he bore testimony to the good morality of 
 the Christians and requested directions in relation to 
 their treatment. Although he was a man of humane 
 disposition, he enforced the law which condemned to 
 death those who refused to abjure their religion. He 
 was a friend of the historian Tacitus. Pliny wrote, 
 besides several works which are lost, a " Panegyric on 
 Trajan," which is greatly admired, and left a collection 
 of Letters, in ten books, which, after those of Cicero, are 
 perhaps the most precious relics of Roman epistolary 
 correspondence that have come down to us. They have 
 been translated into English by Lord Orrery and Mr. 
 Melmoth. 
 
 See Masson, "Vita Plinii jnnioris," Amsterdam, 1700: Ciu.la- 
 rius, "Vita Plinii;" "Life of Pliny the Younger," prefixed to E. 
 Thierfei.d's German version of his Epistles, etc., 182S ; Oli'K, 
 "Commentatio de C. Plinio Secundo." etc., 1784; Jules JM'N, 
 " Pline le Jeune et Quintilien," 183S ; " Nouvelle Biographie ( '• 5neV 
 rale." 
 
 Ploos van Amstel, pl5s vin am'stel, (Cornelk) a 
 Dutch amateur engraver and designer, born at Amster- 
 dam in 1726. He imitated many drawings of old Ttilian, 
 Flemish, Dutch, and German masters, and made a rich 
 collection of the engravings of those artists. Died about 
 1800. A collection of his imitations was published in 
 1821. 
 
 Plot, (Robert,) an English naturalist and antiquary, 
 born in Kent in 1041. He became professor of chemistry 
 at Oxford about 1684, and historiographer-royal i.i 1088. 
 He published a " Natural History of Oxfordshire," 
 (1677,) anda"Natural History of Staffordshire," (1686.) 
 Died in 1696. 
 
 Plotin. See Plotinus. 
 
 Plo-ti'na, (Pompeia,) the wife of the emperor Tra- 
 jan, is represented as a woman of excellent character. 
 She died in the reign of Hadrian, who erected a temple 
 in her honour. 
 
 Plo-ti'nus, [Gr. YHutUos ; Fr. Plotin, plo'taV; Ger. 
 Plotin, plo-teen',] an eminent Greek philosopher of the 
 
 •S *- V.'-- 
 
 S, t^Sce^.S, ii,y,/<«n£ ) "<l,fc l oAame, less prolonged; a, e,I, o, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon: 
 
 o *? a- t v ., %*& » 
 
 
PLOUCQUET 
 
 1 8 1 3 
 
 PL UTAH CH 
 
 Neo-Platonic school, was born at Lycopolis, in Egypt, 
 in 204 a.d. He was a pupil of Ammonius Saccas. In 
 order to become versed in the doctrines of the Oriental 
 sages, he accompanied the expedition of Gordian against 
 Parthia in 243. He taught philosophy at Rome from 
 245 a.d, until his death, and enjoyed the favour of the 
 emperor Gallienus. He had many disciples. He died 
 about 270 A.D., leaving fifty-four books on abstract sub- 
 jects of philosophy and metaphysics, which are extant 
 and have exerted an important influence in modern 
 times. His life was written by Porphyry, who was his 
 disciple. Plotinus was preferred by Longinus, who knew 
 him well, to all other philosophers of that time. " He 
 was intensely religious," says Hallam, "and if he had 
 come a century later would, instead of a heathen phi- 
 losopher, have been one of the first names among the 
 saints of the Church." 
 
 See Porphyry, " Life of Plotinus," (in Greek ;) Kirchner, " Die 
 Pliilosophie des Plotin," 1854; Daunas, "Plotin et sa Doctrine," 
 1848. 
 
 Floucquet, ploo'k£', (Godefroi,) a metaphysician, 
 born at Stuttgart in 1716. He obtained in 1750 the 
 chair of logic, etc. at Tubingen. Among his numerous 
 works is "Ground- Work of Speculative Philosophy," 
 (" Fundamenta Philosophise speculative," 1759,) in which 
 he expounds the system of Leibnitz. Died in 1790. 
 
 See J. L. Huber, " Ploucquet's Denkmal," 1790. 
 
 Plougoulm, ploo'goolm', ( Pikrre Amisroise, ) a 
 French judge, born at Rouen in 1796. He was for many 
 years procureur-general, and became a counsellor to the 
 court of cassation in 1854. 
 
 PlSw'den, (Edmund,) an eminent English lawyer, 
 born in Shropshire about 151 7, was a zealous Roman 
 Catholic. He became a serjeant-at-law in the reign of 
 Queen Mary, and left "Reports or Commentaries" of 
 cases tried in the reigns of Edward VI., Mary, and Eliza- 
 beth,— a work of high reputation. Died in 15S5- 
 
 See Ai.i.ibonk, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Plowden, (Francis,) an Irish historian and barrister, 
 wmtc, besides other works, a " History of Ireland," 
 (1812.) Having been prosecuted for libel, he retired to 
 France, where he died in 1829. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1804 ; " Monthly Review" 
 for M.iy and January, 1706. 
 
 Pluche, plush, (Noel Antoine,) an ingenious French 
 writer and naturalist, bom at Rheims in 1688. He 
 became a priest or abbe, and lectured on history ami 
 geography at Paris. In 1732 he published a description 
 of tlie outward creation, entitled " Spectacle of Nature," 
 (" Spectacle de la Nature," 9 vols.,) which had great 
 success and was often reprinted. He also wrote a work 
 of\ cosmogony, entitled "History of the Heavens," 
 ("Ilistoire du Ciel," 2 vols., 1739,) and other works, 
 and produced a version of the Psalms, which is com- 
 mended. Died in 1 761. 
 
 See R. EVienne, " FJoge de Pluche." 
 
 Pluk'e-net, (Leonard,) an English botanist, born 
 in 1642. Little is known of the events of his life, except 
 that in his old age he was appointed by Queen Mary 
 director of the garden at Hampton Court. He published 
 a work of some merit, entitled " Phytographia," ( 1691— 
 96,) also "Almagestum Botanicum," (1696,) and "Amal- 
 tlieum Botanicum," (1705.) 
 
 Plum'er, (William.) an American Governor, born 
 at Newbury, Massachusetts, in June, 1759. He studied 
 law, arid was elected a member, of the legislature of 
 New I lampshire eight times, was a Senator of the United 
 States from 1802 to 1807, and was chosen Governor of 
 N' ".v Hampshire in 1812. He was re-elected in 1816, 
 1817, and 1818. His latter years were devoted to lite- 
 rary pursuits. Died at Epping, New Hampshire, in 1850. 
 
 See a " Life of Wiliiam Plumer." by bis son William. 1856. 
 
 Plumer, (William,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Epping, New Hampshire, in 1790. He was a 
 member of Congress from 1819 to 1825. He published 
 two volumes of Poems. Died in 1854. > 
 
 Plumier, plU'me-a', (Charles,) a distinguished 
 French botanist, boriTat Marseilles in 1646, was a pupil 
 of Tournefort. He explored the West Indies with Su- 
 rian in 1689, and, soon after his return, published a 
 "Description of the Plants of America," (1693, with 108 
 
 good plates,) which was very favourably received. By 
 the order of the king, he revisited America in 1693 and 
 1695. In 1703 he produced "New Genera of American 
 Plants,"(" Nova Plantarum Americanarum Genera.") He 
 was about to sail for Peru, to make researches on the 
 subject of quinquina, (Peruvian bark,) when he died 
 near Cadiz in 1704. Among his works is a "Treatise 
 on the Ferns of America," (1705, with 172 plates, ex- 
 quisitely engraved.) "This magnificent collection," says 
 the " Biographie Universelle," "is one of the most 
 admirable monuments of skill and patience that can 
 be named." 
 
 See NicERON,"Me'moires:"MoRKRi," Dictionuaire Histcrique ;" 
 Hali.er, " Bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 Pliim'nier, (John,) an English poet, born in London 
 in 1831, removed to Northamptonshire. He published 
 a volume entitled "Songs of Labour," (i860,) and is 
 author of numerous essays. 
 
 Plum'mer, (Joseph B.,) an American general, born 
 in Massachusetts about 1822, graduated at West Point 
 in 1841. He became a captain in 1852, and a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers in October, 1861. He served in 
 several actions in Missouri. Died at Corinth, Missis- 
 sippi, in October, 1862. 
 
 Pliimp'tre, (James,) an English clergyman and dram- 
 atist, born in 1770. He obtained the living of Great 
 Gransden in 1812. He wrote "Osway," (1795,) and 
 other dramas, and "Discourses on the Amusements 
 of the Stage," (1810.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Plttm'ridge, (Sir James Hanway,) an English ad- 
 miral, born in London in 1787. He served as rear- 
 admiral in the Baltic during the Russian war, (1854-55.) 
 Died in 1863. 
 
 Plfink'et, (Oliver,) a Catholic prelate, born in the 
 county of Meath, Ireland, about 1630. He received 
 from the pope the title of Primate of Ireland in 1669. 
 He was executed at Tyburn, on a charge of treason, in 
 1681 ; but his innocence was afterwards proved. 
 
 Flunk'ett or Plunket, (William Conyngham,) 
 first Lord Plunkett, an eminent Irish orator and judge, 
 was born at Enniskillen in July, 1764. He was educated 
 at Trinitv College, Dublin, and was called to the bar in 
 1787. Having been elected to the Irish Parliament, he 
 acquired distinction by his impassioned speeches against 
 the union with England, in 1800. He acted as consul 
 for the insurgents who were engaged in the rebellion of 
 1798. He became solicitor-general for Ireland in 1803, 
 and attorney-general in 1805, but retired from office 
 with the Whigs in 1807. In the same year he was 
 elected to the British House of Commons, in which he 
 voted with the Whigs and made a. few speeches that 
 were greatly applauded. He was returned to Parlia- 
 ment for the University of Dublin in 1812, and again in 
 1818. He was a zealous advocate of Catholic emanci- 
 pation. He was lord chief justice of the common pleas 
 in Ireland for three years, (1827-30.) About 1827 he 
 was created a peer of the United Kingdom. He was 
 lord chancellor of Ireland from 1830 to 1841, excepting 
 an interval of some months in 1834-35. He died in 1854, 
 leaving the title to his son, who is Bishop of Tuam. 
 
 See tbe "Life, Letters, etc. of Lord Plunkett," London, 1867; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for July and October, 1867 ; " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for June, 1867. 
 
 Pluquet, plii'ki', (Francois AndrA Adrien,) a 
 learned and judicious French writer, born at Bayeux in 
 1716. He published in 1757 an " Inquiry into Fatalism, ' 
 (3 vols.,) which is commended. His best or most popu 
 lar work is a "Dictionary of Heresies," (2 vols., 1762) 
 He obtained in 1776 a chair of moral philosophy in the 
 College de France, Paris. He published a translation 
 of the classic books of the Chinese, collected by Pere 
 Noel, (7 vols., 1786.) Died in 1790. 
 
 See Qu^rard, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographic 
 G<*ne7ale." 
 
 Pluquet, (Frederic,) an antiquary, born at Baveux 
 in 1781, was a nephew of the preceding. He wrote 
 many works on French antiquities. Died in 1834. 
 
 Plu'tar-eh, [Gr. LUoi>raf),voc ; Lat. Plittar'ciuis , Fr. 
 Plutarque, plii'iSitk'; It. Pi.utarco, ploo tan'ko,] an 
 eminent Greek philosopher or moralist, and the greatest 
 biographer of antiquity, was a native' of Chreronea, in 
 
 C as it; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PLUTARCHUS 
 
 1814 
 
 POCHARD 
 
 Bceotia. He was born probably about 50 A.D., as, ac- 
 cording to his own statement, he studied philosophy 
 under Ammonius, at Delphi, in 66 A. D. He passed some 
 time at Rome, where he lectured on philosophy, in the 
 reign of Vespasian or of one of his sons. " When I 
 was in Rome and other parts of Italy," says Plutarch, 
 "I had not leisure to study the Latin tongue, on account 
 of the public commissions with which I was charged, 
 and the number of people that came to be instructed by 
 mo in philosophy. It was not, therefore, until a late 
 period in life that I began to read the Roman authors.'-! 
 (" Life of Demosthenes.") Plutarch resided at his native 
 place in the latter part of his life, and filled several mu- 
 nicipal offices. "As to myself," says he, "I live in a 
 little town, and I choose to live there, lest it should be- 
 come still less." He had a wife named Timoxena, and 
 ■ several children. On the death of his infant daughter 
 he wrote to his wife a consolatory letter, in which he 
 commemorated her conjugal and maternal virtues, with 
 an infusion of the antique sentiments and poetic allu- 
 sions which render his writings so attractive. He was 
 an admirer of the philosophy of Plato, and a decided 
 opponent of Epicureanism. The date of his death 
 is not known ; but it is supposed that he attained the 
 age of seventy or more. 
 
 Plutarch was a very prolific writer. His works, by 
 their extent and variety, constitute perhaps the most 
 copious treasury of facts, ideas, and traditions which we 
 have inherited from antiquity. There is no uninspired 
 Greek prose author whose works have found in modern 
 times so many readers and admirers. His principal 
 work is his " Parallel Lives" (Bioi napuAA^Aoi) of eminent 
 Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs. The biography 
 of each Greek is accompanied by the life of some Roman 
 as a pendant, and the latter is followed by a rather minute 
 comparison, in which the two persons are measured 
 together, trait for trait. The best English versions of 
 Plutarch's "Lives" are those of Sir Thomas North, 
 (1612,) of Langhorne, ( 1771, ) and of Arthur Hugh 
 Clough, (1859.) Among the extant works of Plutarch 
 are many moral e,ssays, which were translated into 
 French by Amyot. His morality, less rigid than that 
 of the Stoics and less speculative than that of Plato, is 
 generally pure and practical. Among his lost works are 
 a " Commentary on Homer," and biographies of Pindar, 
 Hesiod, Scipio, Epaminondas, Augustus, Tiberius, Ca- 
 ligula, Claudius, and Nero. 
 
 Respecting Plutarch's merits as a writer, we extract 
 the following passage from an article in the "Biographie 
 Universelle," by M. Villemain. Alluding to Plutarch's 
 truthful and naive minuteness in the delineation of his 
 characters, that great critic remarks, " Perhaps this merit, 
 which all recognize in Plutarch, has diverted attention 
 from the picturesque beauty of his style ; but it is this 
 double character of eloquence and truth which has ren- 
 dered him so powerful over al! vivid imaginations. . . . 
 This immortal vivacity of the style of Plutarch, seconded 
 by a happy choice of the noblest subjects that can occupy 
 the imagination and the thoughts, explains the prod igious 
 interest excited by his historical works. He has painted 
 man as he is ; he has worthily recorded the greatest 
 characters and most admirable actions of the human 
 species. The attraction of such reading will never pass 
 away ; it appeals to all ages and conditions of life ; it 
 kindles the enthusiasm of youth, and commends itself 
 to the sober wisdom of age." 
 
 See ■ Hkkren, " De Fontibus et Auctoritate Plutarchi," 1810; 
 
 Nitzsch, " Disputatio de Plutarcho," 1849; Rittkr. " History of 
 
 Philosophy ;" Fabricius, " liibliotheca Graeca ;" Schoeu., " His- 
 
 toire de ia Liuerature Grecque :" "Nouvelle liiographie Generate ;" 
 
 London Quarterly Review" for October, 1861. 
 
 Plutarchus. See Plutarch. 
 
 Plutarco. See Plutarch. 
 
 Plutarque. See Plutarch. 
 
 Pluto, the Italian of Plutus, which see. 
 
 Pltl'to, [Gr. nioiruv ; Fr. Pluton, plH't6N*J it.. 
 Plutone, ploo-to'na,] the god of the infernal regions, 
 was also called Hades, Orcus, Dis, and A'idoneus. 
 He was said to be a son of Saturn (Cronus or Kronos) 
 and Rhea, and a brother of Jupiter and Neptune. Ac- 
 cording to the fable, these three brothers agreed to a 
 division of the world, and Pluto obtained as his portion 
 
 the subterranean region, the realm of shades, which was 
 called Erebus or Hades, and the entrance of which was 
 guarded by Cerberus, a dog with three heads. Some 
 poets imagined that the realm of Pluto was divided into 
 two regions, — namely, Tartarus, in which the wicked 
 were confined and punished, and Elysium, or the Elysian 
 Fields, the abode of the good. 
 
 The most remarkable features in the geography of the 
 infernal world were five rivers, — namely, Ach'eron, Co- 
 cy'tus, Styx, Phleg'ethon.and Le'the, (Gr. A^(ty,)the river 
 of Oblivion. Departed souls about to enter Elysium 
 drank of the river Lethe and forgot all their troubles, or, 
 as some say, forgot all the past : 
 
 " Securos Iatices et longa oblivia potant."* 
 
 Virgil: AZneiti, book vi. 715. 
 
 The Styx was said to encompass the kingdom of P'.uto 
 seven or nine times with its circumvolutions, and was 
 described as a sluggish stream, for which reason ft was 
 sometimes caUed the Stygian pool or lake. The souls 
 of the dead were carried across the Styx in a boat by 
 Charon. The gods usually swore by the river Styx. 
 Phlegethon was described as a river of fire, and Cocytus 
 as a branch or affluent of the Styx, which see. 
 
 Among the most celebrated adventures of Pluto was 
 the abduction of Proserpine, whom he married. The 
 poets feigned that he possessed a helmet which rendered 
 the wearer invisible. (See an ample and admirable de- 
 scription of Pluto's dominions' in Virgil's "/Eneid," 
 book vi. passim.) 
 
 Pluton. See Pluto. 
 
 Plutone. See Pluto. 
 
 Plu'tus, [Gr. ITAoiroc; It. Pluto, ploo'to,] in the 
 Greek mythology, the god of riches, was said to be a son 
 of Iasion and Ceres. The poets relate that Jupiter de- 
 prived him of sight in order that he might distribute 
 riches blindly and bestow his favours indiscriminately 
 on the evil and the good. He was represented as lame, 
 because he generally comes so slowly to those who seek 
 him ; yet he had wings, to indicate how swiftly he often 
 forsakes those whom he seems most to favour. (See 
 Kuvera.) 
 
 Pluvinel, de, deh plii've'nel', (Antoine,) a French- 
 man, noted for his skill in horsemanship, was born in 
 Dauphine in 1555. He was under-governor (sous- 
 gouverneur ) of the dauphin, (Louis XIII.,) and wrote a 
 work called "Manege Royal," (1623.) Died in 1620. 
 
 Plu'vl-us, (i.e. " the rainy,") a surname of Jupiter 
 among the Romans, who invoked him during long 
 droughts. 
 
 Fluymer, ploi'mer, (Jan,) a mediocre Dutch poet, 
 born at Amsterdam, wrote during the reign of William 
 III. of England, and published a volume of verses in 
 1691. ' 
 
 Po, del, del po, (Pietro,) an Italian painter and en- 
 graver, burn at Palermo in 1610, was a pupil of Domeni- 
 chino. Died at Naples in 1692. His son Giacomo. 
 born at Rome in 1654, was a painter. He worked at 
 Naples with success. Died in 1726. 
 
 Po-ca-hon'tas, daughter of Powhatan, an Indian 
 chief of Virginia, is celebrated for her heroism in inter- 
 ceding for the life of Captain Smith, who was con- 
 demned to death by her father. She was afterwards 
 converted to Christianity, and married to John Rolfe, 
 an English gentleman. Among her descendants in Vir- 
 ginia was the celebrated John Randolph. Died in 16 1 7. 
 
 Poccetti, pot-chet'tee, properly Bernardino Bar- 
 batelli, (bait-bi-tel'lee,) a skilful Italian painter, born at 
 Florence about 1542. He painted figures, landscapes, 
 flowers, and draperies with success, and displayed a 
 great fertility of invention. Among his works is " The 
 Mission of the Apostles." " He was considered," say* 
 Peries, "the Paul Veronese of his school." Died at 
 Florence in 1612. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Pocoi, pot'ehee, (Franz,) Count, a poet and de- 
 signer, of Italian origin, was born at Munich in 1807. 
 He has written verses and tales. 
 
 Pochard, po'shtR', (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic, 
 born near Pontarlier in 17 15. He wrote "Method for 
 
 * '"They quaff profound oblivion, secure from pain and woe." 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, it, y, short; a, e, j, p, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not j good; moon; 
 
POCHOLLE 
 
 POGGIO 
 
 the Guidance of Souls," (" Methode pour la Direction 
 des Ames," 1772.) Died in 1786. 
 
 Pocholle, po'shol', (Pierre Pomponne Amedee,) a 
 French revolutionist, born at Dieppe in 1764, was a 
 member of the Convention of 1792. Died in 1832. 
 
 Pockels, pok'kels, (Karl Friedricii,) a German 
 moralist, born near Halle in 1757. He wrote, besides 
 other works, " An Essav on the Character of Women," 
 (5 vols., 1790-1802,) and "Man," ("Der Maim," 4 vols., 
 1805-08.) Died in 1814. 
 
 Po'cock, (Edward,) an eminent English divine and 
 Orientalist, born at Oxford in 1604, studied in Corpus 
 Chiisti College. He passed about six years at Aleppo 
 as chaplain to the English merchants, (1630-36,) and 
 learned Arabic, Syriac, Hebrew, etc. In 1636 he be- 
 came the first professor of Arabic at Oxford. Pocock is 
 said to have been the best Arabic scholar of his time in 
 England. He was presented to the rectory of Childrey 
 in 1643, and obtained the chair of Hebrew at Oxford in 
 1648. lie published in 1648-50 "Specimen Historian 
 Arabum," consisting of extracts from the History of 
 Aboollaiaj, ( Abulpharagius,) with a Latin version and 
 notes. His most important work is a Latin translation 
 of the entire History of the same author, which was pub- 
 lished (with the original text) in 1663, in two volumes. 
 Died at Oxford in 1691. 
 
 See a " Life of E. Pocock," prefixed to his theological works, by 
 Leonard Twells, 1740. 
 
 Pocock, (Edward,) an Oriental scholar, a son of the 
 preceding, was born about 1646. Fie published in 1671 
 the Arabic text, with a Latin version, of a work of 
 Ibn-Tofayl, "Self-Taught Philosopher," ("Philosophus 
 autodidactos.") 
 
 Pocock, (Isaac,) an English painter and dramatist, 
 born at Bristol in 1782 : died in 1835. 
 
 Pococke, po'kok, (Richard,) an English traveller, 
 born at Southampton in 1704. He travelled in Egvpt, 
 Palestine, Syria, etc. in 1734-41, and published a "De- 
 scription of the East and of Some Other Countries," (3 
 vols., 1743-45,) which was highly esteemed. He became 
 Bishop of Ossory in 1756, and Bishop of Meath in 1765. 
 Among his other works is a " Description of the Giants' 
 Causeway." Died in 1765. 
 
 Poczobut, de, deh potch'o-boot, (Martin,) a Polish 
 astronomer, born near Grodno in 1729; died in 1810. 
 
 Podesta, po-djs-ta', ( Giamkaitist\, ) an Italian 
 Orientalist, born in Istria. He became professor of 
 Arabic at Vienna in 1674, and published "Grammatical 
 Course of Oriental Languages," (" Cursus grammaticalis 
 Linguarum Orientalium," 3 vols., 1687-170V) 
 
 Podiebrad, pod-ya'brad, (George,) King of Bo- 
 hemia, born in 1420. He commanded an army of 
 Hussites in the civil war about 1450, and was elected 
 king in 1458, with the concurrence of the Catholic 
 nobles. In 1466 he was excommunicated by Pope Paul 
 II., because he maintained the right of communion 
 under two forms. The pope also caused a crusade to 
 be preached against him. In 1467 he was involved in 
 a war against Matthias Corvinus, whom he defeated. 
 He is said to have been an able and patriotic ruler. 
 He died in 147 1, and was succeeded by Ladislaus of 
 Poland. 
 
 See M. Jordan, " Das Kbnigthum Georgs Podiebrad," 1861 ; 
 " Nouvclle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Poe, po, (Edgar Ai.i.en,) a distinguished American 
 poet, bom at Baltimore in 1S11. He graduated at the 
 Univert ty of Virginia in 1826, and, having spent a year 
 in Europe, became successively editor of the " Southern 
 Literary Messenger" at Charleston, ami the "Gentle- 
 man's Magazine" and "Graham's Magazine" at Phila- 
 delphia. In 1844 he took charge of the "Broadway 
 Journal," New York. He died at Baltimore, in 1849, 
 of delirium tremens. Among his principal prose works 
 are " The Fall of the House of Usher," " Tales of the 
 Grotesque and Arabesque," and "The Gold Bug." I lis 
 " Raven" and other small poems have been much admired. 
 He also wrote a collection of critical essays. "I lis 
 poems," says R. \V. driswold, "are constructed with 
 wonderful ingenuity and finished with consummate art. 
 Thev illustrate a morbid sensitiveness of feeling, a 
 shadowy and gloomy imagination, and a taste almost 
 
 faultiest- /n the apprehension of that sort of beauty most 
 agreeable to his temper." 
 
 See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America," and a " Memoir 
 of Poe," prefixed to a collection of his works published by R. W. 
 GRISWOLO, in 3 vols. ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1S58 : "North 
 American Review" for October, 1856; " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 June, 1857. 
 
 Poel, van der, vin der pool, (Egbert,) a Dutch 
 painter, born at Rotterdam about 1620. He painted 
 landscapes, interiors, and nocturnal conflagrations with 
 success. Died about 1690. 
 
 Poelemburg, poo'lem-buRG ', (Cornelis,) surnamed 
 IL Brusco and IL Satiro, an eminent Dutch painter, 
 born at Utrecht in 1586, was a pupil of Abraham Bloe- 
 maert. After spending many years at Rome and Florence, 
 he was invited to England by Charles I., for whom he 
 painted some works. He excelled in landscape-painting, 
 and also produced several historical pictures. Died at 
 Utrecht In 1660. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, " La Vie des Peintres." 
 
 Poelitz. See Politz. 
 
 Poellnitz. See Pollnitz. 
 
 Poeppig. See Poppig. 
 
 Poerio, po-a're-o, (Carlo,) a liberal Italian politician, 
 born at Naples in 1803. He was minister of public in- 
 struction at Naples for a short time in 1848. He was 
 arrested by order of the Neapolitan government in, 
 July, 1849, and condemned to twenty-four years' im- 
 prisonment and hard labour. The cruel treatment 
 inflicted on him and others was denounced by Mr. 
 Gladstone in a famous letter to Lord Aberdeen. He 
 escaped, or was released, about 1S5S, after which he 
 was a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies. 
 Died in 1867. 
 
 Poerio, (Giuseppe,) an eloquent Italian advocate, 
 born at Catanzaro, was the father of the preceding. He 
 was an active supporter of the republic formed at Naples 
 in 1799- In 1808 he was appointed procureur-general 
 by Murat. Died at Florence in 1843. 
 
 Poemer. See Porner. 
 
 Poerson, po'eVs6N', (Charles Francois,) a French 
 painter of history, born in Paris about 1652 ; died at 
 Rome in 1725. 
 
 Pogge, Le. See Poggio. 
 
 Poggendorf, pog'gen-doRf', (Johann Christian,) a 
 German savant and professor of natural philosophy at 
 Berlin, was born at Hamburg in 1796. He became in 
 1S24 editor of the " Annals of Physics and Chemistry." 
 Among his principal works is a treatise "On the Mag- 
 netism of the Voltaic Pile," in which he was the first 
 to explain the principles of the multiplicator and its 
 application. 
 
 Poggi, de', da pod'jee, (Giusepj-e,) Chevalier, an 
 Italian writer, born near Piacenza in 1761. He was a 
 member of the French legislative bodv from 181 1 to 1814. 
 He wrote " On Sincere Reformation," (" Delle Emende 
 sincere," 3 vols., 1791,) and other works. Died in 
 France in 1842. 
 
 Poggiani, podja'nee, (G1UI.10,) an Italian scholar, 
 born at Suna, on Lake Maggiore, in 1522. He was 
 secretary of Carlo Borromeo. He left " Epistles and 
 Orations," in Latin, (4 vols., 1756-62,) which are said to 
 be elegant. Died in 1568. 
 
 Poggio Braccioliiii, pod'jo brat-cho-lee'nee, [Fr. 
 Le Pogge, leh pozh,| (Giovanni Francesco,) a dis- 
 tinguished Italian scholar and reviver of learning, was 
 born near Florence in 1380. He was a pupil of John of 
 Ravenna, was appointed apostolic secretary about 1413, 
 and served several successive popes in that capacity. 
 He rendered important services to literature by the dis- 
 covery of ancient manuscripts, for which he searched in 
 monasteries. He discovered seven orations of Cicero, 
 twelve plays of Plautus, the commentaries of Asconius 
 Pedianus, the history of Ammianus Marcellinus, and 
 other classic works. lie wrote satires against the monks 
 and clergy, and against Filelfo, with whom he was in- 
 volved in a long and acrimonious controversy. In 1435 
 he married a young lady named Selvaggia Buondelmontl, 
 After this event he resided many years at Florence, and 
 published in 1437 a collection of letters, which were 
 greatly admired. Having passed several years in Rome, 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as 2; th as in this. ( jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
POHL 
 
 1816 
 
 POISSONNIER 
 
 tie returned to Florence about 1450, and was appointed 
 chancellor there in 1453. Among his works, which are 
 all in Latin, are a "Dialogue on Nobility," (" De No- 
 bilitate Dialogus,") a " History of Florence from 1350 
 to 1455," (" Historia Florentina," etc., 1476,) and "On 
 the Mutability of Fortune," (" De Varietate Fortunae.") 
 He died in Florence in October, 1459. 
 
 See William Shepherd, "Life of Poggio Bracciolini," 1802: 
 Thorschmidt, " Dissertatio de F. Poggii Bracciolini Vita," 1713 ; 
 J. Lenfant, "Poggiana," etc., 2 vols., 1720; Nicrkon, " M£- 
 moires ;" C. Nisard, "Les Gladiateurs de la Republique des Let- 
 tres ;" " Nouveile Biographie Ge^ieVale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for 
 October, 1836. 
 
 Pohl, pol, (Johann Christoph,) a German physician, 
 born near Liegnitz in 1706; died in 1780. 
 
 Pohl, (Johann Emanuel,) a German botanist, born 
 at Vienna in 1784. He published, in Latin, "Descrip- 
 tions and Figures of Brazilian Plants," (2 vols., 1827-31,) 
 and, in German, " Travels in Brazil," (2 vols., 1832.) 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 Poilly, de, deh pwa'ye', (Francois,) an eminent 
 French engraver, born at Abbeville in 1622. He worked 
 in Rome and Paris, and engraved some works of Raphael, 
 Giulio Romano, and Poussin. In 1664 he received the 
 title of engraver to the king. Died in Paris in 1693. 
 
 Poilly, de, (Jean Baptists,) a skilful engraver, a 
 nephew of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1669 ; 
 died in Paris in 1728. 
 
 Poilly, de, (Nicolas,) an engraver, born at Abbe- 
 ville in 1626, was the father of the preceding. He was 
 not equal to his brother Francois. Died in 1696. 
 
 Poin'dex-ter, (George,) an able American states- 
 man and jurist, born in Louisa county, Virginia. Hav- 
 ing removed to Mississippi, he was appointed in 1813 
 United States judge for that district, and was elected 
 to Congress in 1817. He there distinguished himself 
 by his eloquent defence of the course of General fack- 
 Bon in the Seminole war. He was afterwards elected 
 Governor of the State, and in 183 1 a Senator of the 
 United States. He became an opponent of President 
 Jackson, and ceased to be a Senator in 1835. Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 Foin'sett, (Joel Roberts,) a distinguished Ameri- 
 can statesman and diplomatist, born at Charleston, South 
 Carolina, in 1779. Having been several times elected 
 to Congress, he was sent in 1825 as minister to Mexico 
 by President Adams. In the contest between the Nul- 
 lification and Union parties he became the leader of the 
 latter. He was appointed secretary of war by President 
 Van Buren in March, 1837. He retired from that office 
 in March, 1841, after which he was not employed in the 
 public service. He wrote " Notes on Mexico." Died 
 In December, 185 1. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans." 
 vol. i. ; " Democratic Review" for February and March, 1838, (with 
 a portrait.) 
 
 Poinsinet, pwaN'se'nJ', ( Antoine Alexandre 
 Henri,) a French dramatist, born at Fontainebleau in 
 1735. He wrote several successful comedies and comic 
 operas, among which is "The Circle, or Soiree a la 
 Mode," (1 771.) He was accidentally drowned at C6r- 
 dova, in Spain, in 1769. 
 
 Poinsinet de SUrry, pwaN'se'ni' deh se'vRe', 
 (Louis,) a French litterateur, born at Versailles in 1733. 
 He produced a popular tragedy, named " Briseis," 
 (1759,) and various other works of little merit. He 
 translated Pliny's "Natural History," (1771-81.) He 
 was a brother-in-law of Palissot. Died in 1804. 
 
 Poinsot, pwaN'so', (Louis,) a French geometer, born 
 in Paris in 1777. He published in 1803 "Elements 
 of Statics," which presents new and ingenious ideas. 
 Among his other works is a "Memoir on the Applica- 
 tion of Algebra to the Theory of Numbers," (1820.) 
 He was elected to the Institute, in place of La Grange, 
 in 1813. In 1852 he became a senator. Died in De- 
 cember, 1859. 
 
 Poiret, pwi'ri', (Jean Louis Marie,) a French 
 naturalist, born at Saint-Quentin about 1755. He pub- 
 lished "Travels in Barbary," (2 vols., 1789,) a work of 
 merit, a "Botanical Dictionary," (20 vols., 1 789-1 823.) 
 which forms part of the "Encyclopedic M^thodique," 
 and "The Philosophical, Literary, and Economical 
 
 History of the Useful Plants of Europe," (7 vols., 1825 
 -29.) Died in 1834. 
 
 See Qubrard, " La France LitteVaire.' 
 
 Poiret, (Pierre,) a French philosopher and mystical 
 writer, born at Metz in 1646. He became a Protestant 
 minister, and preached at Hamburg and Amsterdam. Il 
 is stated that he rejected the light and guidance of 
 reason. He wrote, in Latin, besides many other works, 
 "The Divine Economy," (7 vols., 1687.) Died in 17 19. 
 
 See Nichron, "M£moires;" "Nouveile Biographie Genei Je." 
 
 Poirier, pwa're-i', (Germain,) a French monk, was 
 born in Paris in 1724. He wrote a "History cl the 
 Reign of Henry I. of France." Died in 1803. 
 
 Poirson, pwlit'soN', (Auguste Simon Jean Chrv- 
 sostome,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1795. He 
 was principal of the College Charlemagne from 1837 to 
 1853. His chief works are a "History of Rome," (2 
 vols., 1824-26,) and a "History of Henry IV.," (2 vols., 
 1857.) 
 
 Poirson, ( Jean Baptis te, ) a French geographer, 
 born in the Vosges in 1760. He excelled in the con- 
 struction of terrestrial globes. Died in 1831. 
 
 Pois, Le, leh pwa, (Antoine,) a French numismatist, 
 born at Nancy in 1525; died in 1578. 
 
 Pois, Le, (Charles,) [Lat. Caro'lus Pi'so,] a dis- 
 tinguished physician, born at Nancy, France, in 1563. 
 He published a work entitled " Book of Select Observa- 
 tions and Counsels," ("Selectiorum Observationum et 
 Consiliorum Liber," 1618,) which, says Weiss, "assures 
 to him the reputation of a great physician." Died in 1633. 
 
 Pois, Le, (Nicolas,) the father of the preceding 
 born at Nancy in 1527, was a skilful physician. He 
 published a good work "On the Knowledge and Cure 
 of Diseases," (" De Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis," 
 15S0.) Died in 1587. 
 
 Poiseuille, pwa'zuT' or pwa'zuh've, (Tean Louis 
 Marie,) a French physician and physiologist, born in 
 Paris in 1799. He wrote, besides other works, "Re- 
 searches on the Course of the Blood in the Veins," 
 (183 1.) 
 
 Poissaut, pwi'sos', (Thiraut,) a French sculptor, 
 bom near Crecy in 1605 ; died in 1660. 
 
 Poisson, pwa's6N', (Nicolas Joseph,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born in Paris in 1637, was a disciple of Des- 
 cartes. He published " Delectus Actorum Ecclesiae 
 Universalis," (2 vols., 1706.) Died in 1710. 
 
 Poisson, (Raymond,) a popular French comedian, 
 born in Paris in 1633; died in 1690. His grandson, 
 Francois Arnoul, (1696-1753,) was a favourite comic 
 actor of the Parisian stage. 
 
 Poisson, (Simeon Denis,) an excellent and profound 
 French geometer, born at Pithiviets (Loiret) on the 21st 
 of June, 1 781. He entered the Polytechnic School in 
 1798, and attracted the notice of La Grange ai\(\ La 
 Place. He became professor in the same school in 
 1802, a member of the Bureau of Longitudes in 1808. a 
 member of the Institute in 1812, and counsellor of the 
 University in 1820. In 181 1 he published an excellent 
 treatise on mechanics, "Traite de Mecanique," (2 vols.) 
 In his "New Theory of Capillary Action" (1831) he 
 completes the researches of La Place by superadding 
 the consideration of the variation of density. He pub- 
 lished a " Mathematical Theory of Heat," (2 vols., 1835,) 
 and a treatise on the theory of probabilities applied to 
 judicial trials, " Recherches surla Probability des Tuge- 
 ments," etc., (1837.) He also contributed more "than 
 three hundred memoirs to various journals and periodi- 
 cals. Among these is a remarkable treatise "On the 
 Invariability of the Mean Movements of the Grand 
 Planetary Axes." It was in the domain of mathematical 
 physics that the genius of Poisson was most signally 
 displayed. He brought this science to great perfection, 
 especially in its application to static electricity and mag- 
 netism. In 1837 he was raised to the dignity of a peer 
 of France, although he never was a politician. Died in 
 April, 1840. 
 
 See Ahago, "Notices biographiques," tome ii. : "Notice sur 
 Poisson," Orleans, 1840: " Nouveile Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Poissonnier, pwa'so'ne-i', (Pierre,) a French 
 chemist and physician, born~"at Dijon in 1720. He was 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met^ot; good; moon; 
 
POITEriN 
 
 .8.7 
 
 POLI 
 
 sent by the king about 1760 on a secret mission to Eliza- 
 beth of Russia, and, on his return, received the title of 
 councillor of state. He invented an apparatus or pro- 
 cess to convert sea-water into fresh water. In 1764 he 
 became inspector and director of medicine for all the 
 hospitals and maritime arsenals of France. Died in 1798. 
 
 Poitevin, pwat'vaN',(jACQUES,) a French astronomer, 
 born at Montpellier in 1742. He published " An Essay 
 on the Climate of Montpellier," (1803.) Died in 1807. 
 
 Poitevin, (Pierre Alexandre,) a French architect, 
 born at Bordeaux in 1782 ; died in 1859. 
 
 Poitevin, (Robert,) a French physician, born proba- 
 bly in Poitou about 1390. He was employed by the 
 queen, and by Agnes Sorel. Died in 1474. 
 
 Poitevin de Maureillan, pwat'vaN' deh mo'i -J'v&n', 
 (Casimir,) Vicomtk, a French general, born at Mont- 
 pellier in 1772. He distinguished himself at Austerlitz, 
 in 1805, and at Borodino, in 1812. Died in 1829. 
 
 Poitiers, de, (Diane.) See Diane. 
 
 Poivre, pwavR, (Pierre,) a French traveller, born at 
 Lyons in 1719. He visited China in 1740, after which 
 he became an agent of the French East India Company, 
 and went to the Moluccas, from which he transplanted 
 the nutmeg-tree and other spices to the Isle of France. 
 He was inteudaut of the Isles of France and Bourbon 
 from 1767 to 1773. H e ' s siW 'o have exhibited there 
 an almost perfect model of an administrator and public 
 benefactor. Died in 1786. 
 
 See Dupont us Nbmours, " Notice sur la Vie de M. Poivre," 
 1786; A. Boullke, "Notice sur Poivre," 1835. 
 
 Poivre, Le, leh pwavR, a geometer, born at Moris, 
 Belgium, lived about 1700. He wrote a "Treatise on 
 Sections of a Cylinder and Cone," (1704.) 
 
 Poix, pwa, (Antoine Claude Dominique Just,) 
 Comte de Noailles and Prince de Poix, a French diplo- 
 matist, born in Paris in 1777 ; died in 1846. 
 
 Poix, de, deh pwa, (Louis,) a learned French monk, 
 born in the diocese of Amiens in 1714. He published 
 a new version of the Psalms, (1762,) and ■« Principles 
 discussed to facilitate the Study of the Prophetic Books," 
 (16 vols., 1755-64.) Died in 1782. 
 
 Pojarski. See PoZHAKSKI. 
 
 Polain, po'laN', (Mathieu Lambert,) a Belgian 
 historian, born at Liege in 1808. His chief work is a 
 "History of Liege," (" Histoire de l'ancien Pays de 
 Liene," 2 vols., 1844-48,) which is commended. 
 
 Polanco, po-lan'ko, the name of three good Spanish 
 painters, who were brothers and natives of Seville. 
 I'he latest work of Carlos Polanco is dated 1686. 
 
 Pole, [Lat. Po'lus,] (Reginald,) a celebrated Eng- 
 lish cardinal and scholar, was born in Staffordshire in 
 1500. His mother, Margaret Plantagenet, was a niece 
 of Edward IV., a daughter of George, Duke of Clar- 
 ence, and cousin-german to Queen Elizabeth who was 
 the mother of Henry VIII. He was educated at Oxford, 
 and became Dean of Exeter at the age of nineteen. He 
 pursued his studies at Padua, where he formed friend- | 
 ships with Erasmus, Bembo, and Sadolet, and returned 
 to England in 1525. About 1531 he lost the favour of 
 Ikiuv VIII. by his opposition to the divorce of Queen 
 Catherine. Having retired to the continent for safety, 
 he wrote a famous treatise "For the Unity of the 
 Church," (" P#o Unitate Ecclesiae,") printed at Rome 
 without date, in which he controverted the pretensions 
 of Henry to be the head of the Church. His mother 
 and brother were executed by order of the king, and he 
 was attainted. On the accession of Queen Mary (1553) 
 he was sent by the pope as legate to England. He suc- 
 ceeded Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1555 
 or 1556. Historians are divided in opinion in relation 
 to his complicity in the persecutions of this reign ; and 
 his character is commonly represented as mild and 
 humane, Died in 1558. 
 
 See Bb-caI'ELLI, "Vila Poli Cardinalis," 1553; an English ver- 
 sion of ihe iane, published by Pve in 17A6: Fkoode, " History of 
 England:" Thomas Phiixipps, "Life of R. Pole," 1764; Hume, 
 " History of England;" " Nouvelle biographic Generale." 
 
 Polemburg. See Poei.emburg. 
 
 Pol'e-mo or Pol'e-mon, [Gr. UoTJ/iuv; Fr. P01.fi- 
 |KH>, po'la'moN',] a Greek philosopher, born at Athens, 
 or in Attica. He succeeded Xenocrates as the head 
 ■)( the old Academy about 315 B.C., and wrote several 
 
 works, which are not extant. Among his disciples 
 were Zeno the Stoic, and Arcesilaus. Died about 
 272 B.C. 
 
 See Fabbicius, "Bibliotheca Grseca;" Diogenes Lakrtics. 
 
 Polemo, a Greek writer, who is supposed to have 
 lived between 100 and 250 A.D. He left a wink on 
 Physiognomy, which is extant. He is quoted if Origen. 
 
 /tes, J Fr. 
 P01.fi.MON le PfiRificfeTE, po'ii'nidN' leh pa're'a'zhjt',1 
 
 Polemo or Polemon, surnamed Periege'tes, IFr. 
 JI.fi.MON LE PfiRlfiGETE, po'14'nidN' leh pa're'a /.hit',] 
 a Greek geographer, born at Samos or bicyon, obtained 
 
 the citizenship of Athens, and lived about 200 ?.c. He 
 wrote many works on geography, etc., of which fragments 
 are extant. 
 
 Polemo, or Polemo the Sophist, a ctYsiated 
 Greek rhetorician, born at Laodicea, flourished about 
 130 A.D. He taught rhetoric at Smyrna, and obtained 
 the favour of Trajan and Hadrian. He wrote several 
 works, which are lost, except two orations. He died 
 at the age of fifty-six. 
 
 See Philostkatus, "Vita: Sophistarum ;" Fabricius, "Biblio- 
 theca Grseca." 
 
 Polemon. See Polemo. 
 
 Poleni, po-la'nee, (Giovanni,) Marquis, an Italian 
 natural philosopher, born at Venice in 1683. He be- 
 came professor of physics at Padua in 1 7 15, and suc- 
 ceeded N. Bernoulli as professor of mathematics in 1719. 
 Among his numerous works are a "Dialogue on Celes- 
 tial Vortices," (1712,) and "On the Mixed Motion of 
 Water," ("De Motu Aquae mixto," 1 71 7.) He was a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died in 1761. 
 
 See P. Cossai.1, " Elogio del Professor Poleni," 1813; Fahroni, 
 " Vita? Ttalorum doctrina excellentium ;" G. Gennari, " Elogio del 
 Marcliese G. Poleni," 1839, 
 
 Polenta, da, da po-len'ta, (Guido Novei.i.o,) became 
 Lord of Ravenna in 1275. He befriended the exiled 
 Dante, who came to his court in 13 19 and remained 
 there until his death in 1321. Died in 1323. 
 
 Polentone, po-len-to'na, [Lat. Polento'nus,] (Sec- 
 co or Xicco,) an Italian scholar and writer, l>orn at 
 Padua about 1390. Among his works are a " Life of 
 Seneca," and a comedy called "Catinia," (1842.) Died 
 about 1462. 
 
 See J. E. Kapp, " Dissertatio de X. Polentono," 1733. 
 
 Polevoi, po'lSh-voi', ( Nikolai Alexievitch, ) a 
 Russian litterateur and journalist, born in Siberia in 1 796, 
 became in 1825 editor of the "Moscow Telegraph," a 
 periodical of great ability and influence, which was after- 
 wards suppressed by the government on account of its 
 liberal views. Among his works, which are very nume- 
 rous, we may name a "Life of Soov6rof," (Suwarow.) 
 a " Life of Peter the Great," (4 vols., 1843,) regarded as 
 the best life of that sovereign that has been written, Ihe 
 dramas of " Parasha the Siberian Girl" and "The 
 Grandfather of the Russian Fleet," and a "History of 
 the Russian People," a part of which only has been 
 published. He also translated " Hamlet," and wrote 
 a number of valuable critical essays on Russian litera- 
 ture. Died in 1846. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Polhem, pnl'hem, or Polhelm, pol'helm, (Kristo- 
 fer,) a Swedish engineer and mechanician, born in 
 Gothland in i66t. He invented several useful machines, 
 constructed the docks at Carlscrona, and obtained a title 
 of nobility. Died in 1751. 
 
 Poli, po'lee, (Giuseppe Saverio,) an Italian natural- 
 ist and physiologist, born at Molfetta, in the kingdom of 
 Naples, in 1746. He became professor of geography and 
 history in a military school at Naples about 1776, alter 
 which he was sent by the king to France and England 
 to examine educational institutions and procure scientific 
 apparatus. He was the preceptor of the prince who 
 reigned as Francis I. His reputation is chiefly founded 
 on an excellent work on testaceous mollusca, " History 
 and Anatomy of the Testacea of the Two Sicilies," 
 ("Testacea utriusque Sicilian eorumque Historia et 
 Anatome," 2 vols., 1791-95.) The third volume was 
 published in 1826. "This magnificent work," says Cu- 
 vier, "represents their anatomy with much accuracy, and 
 throws new light on their physiology." Died in 1825. 
 
 See P. N. Giampaoi-o, " Elogio di S. Poli," 1S25: Serafino 
 Gatti, " Hiografiadi G. S. Poll," 1825; Tipaldo, " Biogratia clegii 
 Italiani illustri." 
 
 « as >; 9 as .r,- g hard ; %xaj ; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; sass; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
POLI 
 
 1818 
 
 POLK 
 
 Poli, (Martino,) an Italian chemist, born at Lucca 
 in 1662 ; died at Paris in 1714. 
 
 Po'll-as, [Gr. IIoAtuc , from ■Kohc, a "city,"] (the " protec- 
 tress of cities,") a surname of Athena, (Minerva.) There 
 was at Athens a celebrated temple of Athena Polias. 
 
 Polibio See Poi.yisius. 
 
 Polidoi o. See Caravaggio. 
 
 Polier, po'le-i', (Antoine Noe,) a Swiss writer, 
 born in 1 713, was a friend of Voltaire. He became 
 pastor of Lausanne in 1754, and wrote articles for the 
 "Encyclopedic" Died in 1783. 
 
 Polignac, de, deh po'len'yaV, (Auguste Jui.es Ar- 
 mand Marie,) Prince, a French minister of state, born 
 at Versailles in 1780. His mother, the Duchess of Po- 
 lignac, was a favourite of Marie Antoinette. He became 
 minister of foreign affairs in August, 1829, and the chief 
 minister before the end of the year. His ultramontane 
 and absolutist policy rendered him very unpopular. In 
 consequence of the victory of the liberals and insurgents 
 over Charles X. in 1830, he was arrested, tried for treason, 
 and condemned to imprisonment for life. He was re- 
 leased in 1836, and retired to England. Died in 1847. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1832. (by Southey.) 
 
 Polignac, de, (Meixhior,) a French diplomatist and 
 Latin poet, born at Puy-en-Velay (Upper Loire) in 1661. 
 He was sent in 1695 as ambassador to Poland, where 
 by his address he induced a majority of the electors to 
 choose the French prmce De Conti as king in 1697. He 
 succeeded Bossuet in the French Academy in 1704. In 
 1712 he was sent as plenipotentiary to the Congress of 
 Utrecht. He became a cardinal in 1713. He acquired 
 a high literary reputation by his Latin poem (in refu- 
 tation of Lucretius) entitled " Anti-Lucretius, sive de 
 Deo et Natura Libri novem," (1745.) Died in 1742. 
 Voltaire, in his "Temple du Gout," praises Polignac 
 as a successful opponent of Lucretius, and as one who 
 combined the qualities of Virgil and Plato: 
 " Reunissant Virgile avec Platon, 
 Vengeur du Ciel et vainqueur de Lucrece." 
 
 See Chrysostome Faucher, " Histoire du Cardinal de Po- 
 lignac," 2 vols., 1777; Dortous de Mairan, " E*loge du Cardinal 
 de Polignac," 1742; Saint-Simon, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 ^rapllie Generate." 
 
 Foliniere, po'le'ne^iR', (Pierre,) a French natural 
 philosopher, born near Vire in 1671. He gained dis- 
 tinction at the College of Harcourt as a teacher of natural 
 philosophy by the experimental method, and published 
 "Experiments in Physics," (1709.) Died in 1734. 
 
 Poliorcetes. See Demetrius Poi.iorcetes. 
 
 Polit, po'le', Polite, po'let', or Le Poli, leh po'le', 
 [Lat. Poi.i'tus,] (Jean,) a Flemish poet, born at or 
 near Liege about 1554; died after 1601. 
 
 Politi, po-lee'tee, (Alessandro,) an Italian scholar, 
 born at Florence in 1679. He became professor of 
 eloquence at Pisa in 1733. He published, besides other 
 vorks, an edition of fiustathius's " Commentary on 
 Homer," with a Latin version and notes, (3 vols., 1730- 
 35.) Died in 1752. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vitse Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Politi, (Lancelot.) See Catharinus. 
 
 Politian, po-lish'e-an, [It. Poliziano, po-let-se-a'no; 
 Lat. Politia'nus ; Fr. Politien, po'le'se^N',) (An- 
 tiEl.o,) a celebrated Italian classical scholar and poet, 
 born at Montepulciano, (Mons Politianus,) in Tuscany, in 
 July, 1454. Hisfamily name was Amisrogini. He studied 
 Latin under Cristoforo Landino, and Greek under An- 
 dronicus of Thessalonica. About 1468 he wrote stanzas, 
 in Italian, in honour of Giuliano de' Medici, which were 
 much admired. He was patronized by Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, who employed him as preceptor of his sons and 
 treated him as a friend as long as he lived. As pro- 
 fessor of Greek and Latin at Florence, he acquired a 
 high reputation. He produced elegant Latin versions 
 of the History of Herodian, of the Manual of Epictetus, 
 and of the " Charmides" of Plato. He wrote notes on 
 Ovid, Catullus, Pliny the Younger, and other Latin 
 authors. Among his works are Latin odes and epi- 
 grams, and a Latin poem called " Kusticus." " In his 
 Latin poems," says Ginguene, " we find the fire of an 
 imagination truly poetic, and that taste and elegance 
 which were the natural attributes of his mind." Died 
 at Florence in 1494. 
 
 " In 1480 or 1483," says Hallam, " Politian was placed 
 in the chair of Greek and Latin eloquence at Florence, 
 a station perhaps the most conspicuous and the most 
 honourable which any scholar could occupy. It is 
 beyond controversy that he stands at the head of that 
 class in the fifteenth century. The envy of some of his 
 contemporaries attested his superiority. In 1489 he 
 published his once celebrated 'Miscellanea,' consisting 
 of one hundred observations illustrating passages of 
 Latin authors." (" Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe.") He was characterized by Erasmus as " rarum 
 naturae miraculum," ("a rare miracle of nature.") 
 
 See Serassi, "Vita di A. Poliziano;" F. O t to Mencken. " His- 
 toria Vitse A. Poiitiani," 1736; William P. (Jreswell, " Memoirs 
 of Angelus Politianus," etc., 1S01 ; Fabkoni, "Klpgj di Dante, di 
 A. Poliziano," etc., 1800; D. Moller, " De Politiano, 169S ; Long- 
 fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" N. A. Bonacdus, " De 
 A. Poiitiani Vita et Operibus," 1845 ; Bayi.e, " Histcrical and 
 Critical Dictionary:" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Ita- 
 liana;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale;" "Lives of the Italian 
 Poets," by Rev. Henry Stebbing ; "Italian Narrative Poetry." 
 in the " North American Review" for October, 1824, (by PresCOTT.) 
 
 Politianus or Politiano. See Politian. 
 
 Politien. See Politian. 
 
 Politus. See Polit. 
 
 Politz or Poelitz, po'Iits, (Karl Heinrich Lur>- 
 wig,) a German historian, born at Ernstthal in 1772. 
 He became professor of history and statistics at Leipsic 
 in 1815. Among his numerous works are a "History 
 of Saxony and the Duchy of Warsaw," (3 vols., 1808-10,) 
 and " Political Sciences according to the Ideas of our 
 Epoch," (5 vols., 1S23-28.) Died in 1838. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Poliziano. See .Politian. 
 
 Polk, pok, (James Knox,) the eleventh President 
 of the United States, was born in Mecklenburg county, 
 North Carolina, on the 2d of November, 1795, and re- 
 moved with his father to Middle Tennessee in 1806. 
 He graduated in the University of North Carolina 
 about 1816, and studied law. He was elected a member 
 of Congress from Tennessee in 1825 and at several sue 
 ceeding elections. In 1835 he was chosen Speaker of 
 the House of Representatives by the Democrats. He 
 was also Speaker of the twenty-fifth Congress, (1837-38.) 
 In 1839 he was elected Governor of Tennessee for two 
 years. At the election of 1841 he was defeated by the 
 Whig candidate for Governor. In 1844 Polk and Dallas 
 were nominated for the offices of President and Vice- 
 President by the Democratic National Convention, which 
 on the first ballot had not given Mr. Polk a single vote, 
 His competitor was Henry Clay. The principal issue in 
 this election was the annexation of Texas, which Mr. 
 Polk was pledged to promote. He was elected, receiving 
 one hundred and seventy electoral votes out of two 
 hundred and seventy-five, which was the whole number. 
 He appointed James Buchanan secretary of state, and, 
 after the formal annexation of Texas to the Unior, 
 (1845,) involved the country in an aggressive war agains : 
 Mexico, which began in May, 1846. The army of tin: 
 United States, commanded by GeneraT Scott, after 
 several victories, took the city of Mexico in September, 
 1847. The Mexicans obtained peace by the cession of 
 Upper California and New Mexico. A dispute with the 
 British government about the boundary of Oregon was 
 settled during his administration, by an agreement that 
 the parallel of 49° should be the dividing line. He re- 
 tired from office in March, and died at Nashville in 
 June, 1849. 
 
 See L. Chase, " History of the Administration of James K. 
 Polk," 1850 ; Levi Woodbury, " Eulogy on James K. Polk," 1850. 
 
 Polk, (Leonidas,) an American who became famous 
 for his twofold character of bishop and general, was 
 born at Raleigh, North Carolina, in 1806, and graduated 
 at West Point in 1827. He was ordained an Episcopal 
 clergyman about 1831, and was chosen Bishop of Loui- 
 siana in 1841. In 1861 he took arms against the Union, 
 with the rank of major-general, and distinguished him- 
 self by his activity and zeal in the Confederate service. 
 He occupied Columbus, Kentucky, in September, 1861, 
 and evacuated it .about the 1st of March, 1862. He 
 commanded a division at the battle of Shiloh, April, 
 1862, and served as lieutenant-general at the battle of 
 Stone River, which ended January 2, 1863. He led a 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ij, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t. s;o6d; m65n; 
 
POLLAJUOLO 
 
 1819 
 
 POLO 
 
 corps at the battle-of Chickamattga, September 19-20, 
 1863. He was killed near Kenesaw Mountain, Georgia, 
 in June, 1864. 
 
 See a notice of General Bishop Polk in "Southern Generals," 
 1865. 
 
 Pollajuolo, pol-li-yoo-o'lo, (Antonio,) an eminent 
 Italian painter and sculptor, Lorn at Florence in 1426 or 
 1431, was also a skilful goldsmith. His master-piece of 
 painting is "The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian." He 
 was invited to Rome by Innocent VIII., for whom (with 
 the aid of his brother Pietro) he made a monument to 
 Sixtus 1 V. He excelled in composition and in knowledge 
 o f anatomy. Died in 1498. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Pollajuolo, (Pietko,) a painter and sculptor, born at 
 Florence about 1434, was a brother of the preceding, 
 whom he aided in many of his paintings and sculptures, 
 but was less eminent than he. Died in 1498. 
 
 Pollajuolo, (Simone.) See Ckonaca. 
 
 Pollet, po'14', (Joseph Michel Ange,) a French 
 sculptor, born at Palermo in 1S14. lie became a resi- 
 dent of Paris about 1844, and obtained a first medal in 
 1850. His works adorn the Tuileries and other imperial 
 palaces. 
 
 Pollet, (Victor Florence,) a French painter and 
 engraver, born in Paris about 1S10. He gained by his 
 engravings the prize of Rome in 1838, and a medal of 
 the first class in 1849. 
 
 Pol'lex-fen, (Sir Henry,) an English judge, born 
 probably in Devonshire. He was counsel for the bishops 
 in their' famous trial, (1688.) He was appointed chief 
 justice of the common pleas in 1689. Died in 1692. 
 
 See Eoss, "The Judges of England." < 
 
 Pollich, pol'liK, (Johann Adam,) a German natural- 
 ist, born at Lantern in 1740. He published a good Flora 
 of the Palatinate, " Historia Plantarum in Palatinatu 
 Klectorali sponte nascentium," (1776.) Hied in 1780. 
 
 Pollich, |l.at. I'oli.icii'il's,| (M.ARITN,) a German 
 physician, eminent for learning, born at Mellerstadt, 
 was an ancestor of the preceding. He became in 1503 
 professor of theology in the University of Wittenberg, 
 of which he was the first rector. He published. " La- 
 i;onismi," (1504,) and other works. Died in 1 5 13. 
 
 SeelloERNKR, "VitaPollichii," 1751 : Bismark, " Vila Pollichii," 
 U614. 
 
 Pollichius. See Pollich. 
 
 PolTI-o, (Asinius,) a sophist or philosopher, born at 
 Tralles, in Asia Minor. He taught at Rome about 50 
 B.C., and, according to Suidas, wrote a commentary on 
 Aristotle's treatise "On Animals." 
 
 PolTI-o, [Fr, Poi.lion, po'le'6N',| (Caius Asinius,) 
 an eminent Roman orator, author, and patron of litera- 
 ture, was born at Rome in 76 n.C He was a partisan 
 of Ca;sar in the civil war which began in 49 B.C., and 
 crossed the Rubicon with that chief. He took part in 
 the battle of Pharsalia, in 48, and commanded in Spain 
 against Sextus Pompey at the time of Caesar'* death, 44 
 B.C. Having taken arms for Antony and Octavins, he 
 obtained the office of consul by their influence in 40 
 B.C. and saved the patrimony of Virgil from confiscation. 
 Virgil addressed to him the fourth eclogue in 40 B.C., 
 and the eighth eclogue soon after that date. Pollio 
 retired from the public service about the year 38, and 
 remained neutral in the war between Octavius and An- 
 tony. He founded the first public library at Rome, and 
 patronized Virgil, Horace, and other poets. He wrote a 
 valuable history of the civil wars of Rome, and several 
 poems, which were praised by Virgil. None of these 
 works are extant. His excellence as an orator is attested 
 by Quintilian and other ancient writers. He was also 
 distinguished as a critic. He had a son named C. Asi- 
 nius Gallus. (See Gallus.) Died in 4 A.D. 
 
 See Thorbeckb, "Commentatio de C. A- Pollionis Vita et Stu- 
 diis," 1S20: Ekkrman, " Oissertatio de C. A. Pollione." 1745: 
 Appian, "De Hello Civil! :" Dp. Bugny, ''Pollion, nu le Steele 
 d'Auguste," 4 vols., 180S; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Pollio, (Trebei.lius,) a Roman historian who lived 
 in the reign of Constantine I. He was one of the 
 authors of the " Historia Augusta," to which he con- 
 tributed the lives of the two Valerians, of the two 
 Gallieni, of the Thirty Tyrants, and of Claudius. 
 
 Pollion. See Pollio. 
 
 Pollnitz or Poellnitz, pol'nits, (Karl Ludwig,) a 
 German adventurer and historical writer, born at Isso- 
 min (Prussia) in 1692. He sought fortune at several 
 courts of Europe, and was appointed grand master of 
 ceremonies by Frederick the Great. He wrote, besides 
 other works, " Saxe galante," (1737,) which narrates the 
 amours of King Augustus, and Memoirs of his own 
 life and times, (" Memoires du Baron de Poellnitz," 3 
 vols., 1734.) Died in 1775. 
 
 Pol'lock, (Sir Frederick,) an English judge, born 
 in London in 1783. He became attorney-general in 1834, 
 and lord chief baron of the exchequer in 1844, which 
 position he held until 1866. Died in 1870. 
 
 See Foss, "The Judges of England," vol. ix. ; " Autobiograt hy 
 of William Jerdan," vol. i. chaps, lii.-iv. 
 
 Pollock, (Sir George,) an English general, a brother 
 of the preceding, was born in London in 1786. He 
 commanded an army which defeated the Affghans 
 in 1841. 
 
 Pol'lpck, (James,) an American Governor, born in 
 Pennsylvania, graduated at Princeton College in 1831. 
 He represented a district of Pennsylvania in Congresi 
 from 1843 to 1849, and was elected Governor of that 
 State by the People's party, or Republicans, for three 
 years, (1855-58.) 
 
 Pol'lok, (Robert,) a British poet, born at Mint-house, 
 in Renfrewshire, Scotland, in 1798^ 1799. He studied 
 at the University of Glasgow, and chose the profession 
 of minister of the gospel. He obtained a license as 
 minister in the United Secession Church in 1827, but 
 his health was already fatally impaired by excessive 
 study. His reputation is founded on " The Course of ' 
 Time," (1827,) a didactic poem, which found many ad- 
 mirers, especially among those who take an interest in 
 religious poetry. It contains some beautiful and many 
 powerful passages, but it has great defects, and is not 
 considered very attractive as a poem, apart from its 
 religious and moral doctrines. "The Course of Time," 
 says Moir, "is a very extraordinary poem, vast in its 
 conception, vast in its plan, vast in its materials, and 
 vast, if very far from perfect, in its achievement." "The 
 Course of Time," says Professor Wilson, "for so young 
 a man, was a vast achievement. ... He had much to 
 learn in composition. . . . But the soul of poetry is 
 there, though often dimly enveloped ; and many passages 
 there are, and long ones too, that heave and hurry 
 and glow along in a divine enthusiasm." He wrote, 
 in prose, "Tales of the Covenanters." Died near 
 Southampton in September, 1827. • 
 
 See "Life of R. Pollok." by his brother, 1842; Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" " Blackwood'i 
 Magazine" for June, 1827. 
 
 Polluche, po'liish', (Daniel,) a French antiquary, 
 born at Orleans in 1689. He wrote a "Description of 
 Orleans," (1736.) Died in 1768. 
 
 Pol'Iux, a demi-god of classic mythology, and a 
 brother of Castor. See Castor and Pollux. 
 
 Pol'Iux, (Julius,) a Greek grammarian, whose proper 
 name was Polydeuces, was born at Naucratis, in Egypt, 
 about 130 A.D. He enjoyed the favour of Marcus Aure- 
 lius and Commodus, and taught rhetoric at Athens in 
 the reign of the latter. His works are all lost, except 
 his "Onomasticon," a kind of dictionary of Greek words, 
 (not in alphabetical order,) which is highly prized. He 
 died at the age of fifty-eight. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliothecn Graca." 
 
 Pol'Iux, (Julius,) a Byzantine writer, who lived in 
 the tenth or eleventh century. He wrote a "Chronicle, 
 or Universal History from the Creation to the Time of 
 Valens," which is extant. 
 
 Po'lo, (Gaspar Gil,) a Spanish poet and novelist, 
 born at Valencia about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century. He was a lawyer and a professor of Greek. 
 He gained celebrity by a poetical romance, entitled 
 "Diana in Love," ("Diana enamorada,") which was 
 translated into English, French, and Latin. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Polo, (Jaymk,) called the Elder, a Spanish painter, 
 born at Burgos in 1560, was a good colorist. Died 
 in 1600. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Ji^^See Explanations, p. 23J 
 
POLO 
 
 1820 
 
 POLYCARP 
 
 Polo, (Jayme,) the Younger, a painter, bom at 
 Burgos in 1620 ; died at Madrid in 1655. 
 
 Po'lo, (Marco,) [Kr. Marc Pol, mlUk pol, (or Paul, 
 pol,)J a famous Venetian traveller, born about 1252, 
 was a son of Niccol6 Polo, a merchant of noble rank. 
 About 1255 Niccol6 and his brother Matteo, or Maffeo, 
 commenced an extensive expedition, with a stocU of 
 precious stones, which they sold to a Tartar chief on 
 the Volga. They arrived in 1261 at Bokhara, where 
 they learned the Mongol language. Accepting the in- 
 vitation of a Persian envoy whom they met at Bokhara, 
 they accompanied him to the court of Kooblai Khan, 
 the Great Mogul, who ruled over China and Tartary. 
 This prince received them favourably, and accredited 
 them as his ambassadors to the pope, whom he desired to 
 sent! to him a hundred learned men to teach his Mongol 
 subjects. They returned home in 1269, and found that 
 the pope had died in 1268. His successor, who was 
 not elected until 127 1 or 1272, gave them letters to 
 Kooblai Khan, to whom they returned accompanied by 
 young Marco. They arrived at the court of Kooblai 
 in 1275. Marco learned several Asiatic languages, and 
 obtained the favour of the Khan, who sent him on im- 
 portant missions to China and other provinces. He 
 was the first European that entered China, in which 
 he passed several years. Having obtained the consent 
 of Kooblai Khan, the three Venetians quitted his ser- 
 vice about 1292, and, embarking on the coast of China, 
 came to Ormuz by water, and reached Venice in 1295, 
 with many diamonds, rubies, etc. of great value. Marco 
 commanded a galley in a battle against the Genoese, by 
 whom he was taken prisoner. During his long cap- 
 tivity he composed a narrative of his adventures, by the 
 aid of notes which he had written previously. It is said 
 that a French version of his book was made under his 
 direction. His narrative produced a great sensation, 
 and was translated into many languages, but for several 
 ages was regarded as a tissue of fictions or gross ex- 
 aggerations. The researches and revelations of suc- 
 cessive centuries have more and more confirmed his 
 veracity; and it is now recognized that his services had 
 great influence on the progress of navigation and com- 
 merce. " When in the long series of ages," says M. 
 Walckenaer, "we search for three men who by the 
 grandeur and influence of their discoveries have con- 
 tributed most to the progress of geography or of our 
 knowledge of the globe, the modest name of the 
 Venetian traveller presents itself in the same line with 
 the names of Alexander the Great and Christopher 
 Columbus." He died about 1324. Among the best 
 editions of his book is that of Baldelli, " II Milione di 
 Messer Marco Polo," (4 vols., 1827.) An English ver- 
 sion, by Marsden, was published in 1818. 
 
 See Placido Zukla, "Di M. Polo e dej<li a)tri antichi Viag- 
 jiatori," etc., 1818 ; Stein, " Ueber den Venetianer M. Polo," 1X21 ; 
 i. li. Baldelli, "Vita di M. Polo," 1S27 ; G. Pauthier, article 
 "Polo," in the "Nouvelle Biographie GeoeVale;" "Loudon Quar- 
 terly Review" for January, 1819, and July, 186S. 
 
 Polouceau, po'ldN'so', (Antoine Remi,) a French 
 engineer, born at Rheims in 1778. As engineer-in-chief 
 of the department of Mont Blanc, he constructed a road 
 over Mont Cenis about i8t2. Among his works is the 
 Pont du Carrousel at Paris, (1834.) He wrote several 
 professional works. Died in 1847. His son, Jean Bar- 
 tiiei.emy Camille, (1813-59,) was distinguished as a 
 railway engineer and director. 
 
 Poltrot de Mere, pol'tRo' deh meh-ra', (Jean,) a 
 French fanatic, who assassinated Francis, Duke de 
 Guise, in 1563. He was executed the same year. 
 
 Pol is. See Pole. 
 
 Po'lus, a Sophist of Agrigentum, lived about 400 B.C., 
 and was a disciple of Gorgias. He wrote a work on 
 rhetoric. 
 
 Polus, (Matthew.) See Poole. 
 
 Polwhele, pol'wheel, (Rev. Richard,) an English 
 antiquary and poet, born at Truro in 1759 or 1760. 
 Among his works is a "History of Cornwall." Died 
 in 1838. 
 
 Polyaeuus, pol-e-ee'nus, [IToAiajvoc,] of Lampsacus, 
 was an eminent mathematician ; but, having become a 
 friend and disciple of Epicurus, he renounced geometry, 
 as unworthy of his notice. 
 
 8 
 
 Polysenus, a Macedonian writer, who lived about 
 150 A.D. He wrote a work on "Stratagems in War," 
 which he dedicated to Marcus Aurelius and Verus. It 
 is extant, and is prized for the numerous anecdotes and 
 facts which he has collected, and which are not found 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Polybe. See Polymus. 
 
 Polybius. See Polybus. 
 
 Po-lyb'I-us, [Gr. rM.Mwc; Fr. Polybe, po'leb'; It. 
 P0LIBI0, po-lee'be-o,] a celebrated Greek historian, born 
 at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about 206 B.C. He was a 
 son of Lycortas, who succeeded his friend Philopcemen 
 as general of the Achaean League in 182 B.C. Polybius 
 obtained in 169 B.C. command of the cavalry raised to 
 fight for the Romans against Perseus; but his ser- 
 vices were declined by the Roman general. In 167 the 
 Romans transported to Italy, as hostages or exiles, one 
 thousand Achaaans, among whom was Polybius. He 
 found a home in the house of Paulus yEmilius, and 
 became the preceptor of his son Scipio, afterwards the 
 famous Scipio Africanus the younger. A warm friend- 
 ship was formed between this pupil and Polybius, who 
 accompanied him in all his campaigns. He witnessed the 
 conquest and destruction of Carthage, (146 B.C,) soon 
 after which he went to Greece and exerted his influence 
 with some success to procure favourable terms for the 
 conquered Achaeans. He afterwards devoted himself 
 to the completion of a general history, for which he had 
 been preparing himself for some years by studies and 
 by journeys to Egypt, Spain, Gaul, etc. The exact date 
 of his death is unknown. Lucian states that he died at 
 the age of eighty-two. His great work, entitled KnOo- 
 Aoo), noiiy laTupla, ("Universal History,") comprised the 
 period from 220 to 146 B.C., and consisted of forty 
 books, the greater part of which are lost. We have the 
 first five books entire, and many fragments and extracts 
 of several other books. His impartiality, his love of 
 truth, his sound judgment and experience in military 
 and civil affairs, render this one of the most valuable 
 and reliable histories that have ever been written by an 
 uninspired writer. He is thus briefly characterized by 
 Cicero: "Polybius bonus auctor in primis." Livy's 
 account of events after the second Punic war appears 
 to be much like a translation from Polybius. The latter 
 despised or neglected rhetorical ornaments, and was 
 deficient in imagination. His style, consequently, is 
 not attractive. He aimed only to instruct, and, accord- 
 ing to some critics, carried too far his didactic and 
 moralizing tendency. He wrote, also, a " Life of Phi- 
 lopcemen," and a "Treatise on Tactics." "Polybius 
 and Arrian," says Macaulay, " have given us authentic 
 accounts of facts ; and here their merit ends. They 
 were not men of comprehensive minds; they had not 
 the art of. telling a story in an interesting manner." 
 ("Essay on History," 1828.) An English version of 
 Polybius, by Hampton, (1772,) is commended. 
 
 See K. W. Nitzsch, "Polybius 7-ur Geschichte antiker Politik," 
 etc., 1842; L. F. Hevd, "Vita Polybii," 1812; Van Hki'sde, 
 " School van Polybius of Geschiedkunde voor the negentiende. 
 eouw," 1841 : F. H. Bothe, "Polybiana," 1844; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Pol'jf-bus, [Gr. ndAufoc; Fr. Polybe, po'leb',] a 
 king of Corinth, who was said to have educated or 
 adopted CEdiptts. 
 
 Polybus [IloADtoc] or Polybius, a pupil and son-in- 
 law of Hippocrates, lived in the island of Cos about 400 
 B.C. He was one of the founders of the sect of Dogmatic!. 
 Several treatises usually printed with the works of Hip- 
 pocrates are ascribed to Polybus by many critics. 
 
 Pol'jf-carp, [Gr. IIoAi'wapjroc ; Lat. Polycar'pus : Fr. 
 Polycarpe, po'le'kf Rp',] an eminent martyr and Father 
 of the Christian Church, of whose early history we 
 have no authentic record. Irenaeus states that Polycarp 
 had intercourse with John and others of the apostles, 
 and was appointed Bishop of Smyrna by the apostles. 
 According to some writers, he was ordained by Saint 
 John. He was Bishop of Smyrna when Ignatius of 
 Antioch passed through that city on his way to Rome, 
 which occurred between 107 and 116 A.n. Polycarp 
 visited Rome in his old age, and had a conference with 
 Anicetus, the Bishop of Rome, who differed from the 
 Eastern churches in relation to the t' u .ic >n ti.e ^se. • 
 
 If e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, All, fat; met; 1 ct, goo^; .noon: 
 
*POLTCARPE 
 
 1821 
 
 POLTNICES 
 
 (ranee of Easter. He suffered martyrdom by fire at 
 Smyrna about 166 a.d. A letter from the church of 
 Smyrna on the subject of his death is still extant. The 
 only work of Polycarp that remains is a short Epistle 
 to the Philippians, which is prized because numerous 
 passages of the New Testament are quoted in it. 
 
 See Tiu.emont, " M^moires ecclesiastiques ;" CruCIGek, "Ora- 
 tio lie Poiycarpi Vita," 1543 ; " Lite of Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna," 
 
 1*47: Ccjmtb DBCokTi.osQ.UKT, "Vie de b. Ignace et de 
 
 S. P-'.ycarpe," 1852. 
 
 Polycarpe or Polyoarpus. See Poi.YCAur. 
 
 Pol-jf-ehar'mus, [tto'Avxapf"K,\ a Greek sculptor of 
 unknown date. Pliny mentions his statue of " Venus 
 washing herself," which was at Rome In his time. 
 
 Polycleitus. See Polycletus. 
 
 Pol'y-cles, [noAi«/j?c,] a Greek sculptor, who lived 
 about 370 B.C., was probably an Athenian. He is men- 
 tioned by Pliny, who says he made a celebrated statue 
 of a hermaphrodite. 
 
 Another sculptor named Polycles is mentioned by 
 Pliny as flourishing about 155 B.C. Pausanias notices 
 some works of Polycles ; but it is doubtful which of these 
 two he refers to. 
 
 Polyclete. See Polycletus. 
 
 Pol-y-cle'tus or Pol-y-cli'tus, [Gr. noAiVXeiToc ; 
 Fr. Polyclete, po'le'kl&t',] a Greek statuary of great 
 celebrity, was also a sculptor and architect. He was a 
 native of Sicyon or Argos, and was a pupil of Ageladas, 
 the Argive statuary, who was at the same time the mas- 
 ter of Phidias. The works of Polycletus were probably 
 executed between 452 and 412 B.C. He surpassed all 
 statuaries of his time except Phidias, and equalled the 
 latter in Ijeauty if not in sublimity. He once gained 
 the first prize for a statue of an Amazon, in competition 
 with Phidias and other artists. His master-pieces in 
 bronze were a statu- of a young man called " Diadti- 
 menos" binding his head with a fillet, " Doryphorus the 
 Spear-Bearer, the Amazon noticed above, and a statue 
 called the Kavav, ("Canon,") because it was recognized 
 as a perfect model of the human figure. Some critics 
 maintain that this last statue was the "Doryphorus." 
 N.ne of his works was more celebrated than a colossal 
 ivory and gold statue of Juno, which adorned a temple 
 near Argos. He was architect of a theatre at Epidaurus, 
 win n was. according to Pausanias, the most beautiful 
 in the world. Cicero and Pliny agree in the opinion 
 that Polycletus brought the art of statuary to perfection. 
 Among his pupils were Aristides, Canachus, Atheno- 
 dorus, and Phrynon. 
 
 See Puny, "Natural History:" Cmeric David. "Vies des 
 Artiste, racieni et modernes;" K. O. Muli.er, " Handbuch der 
 Archaologie der Kunst." 
 
 Polycletus, another statuary of Argos, is mentioned 
 by Pausanias as a different person from him " who made 
 the statue of Juno," and as a pupil of Naucydes, (who 
 flourished about 410 B.C.) Several work* are variously 
 attributed to this Polycletus and to his more celebrated 
 namesake. 
 
 Polycletus of Larissa, a Greek historian of un- 
 known date. He wrote a history of Alexander the Great, 
 which is not extant. 
 Polycrate. See Polycrates 
 Po-lyc'ra-tes, [Gr. UoMapurrK ; Fr. Polycrate, 
 po'le'kKaV,]' tyrant of Samos, usurped the royal power 
 about 532 B.C. He formed a powerful navy, and con- 
 quered some other islands. He patronized literature 
 and the arts, and constructed some grand public works. 
 His court was the resort of eminent artists and poets, 
 among whom was Anacreon. He defended Samos with 
 success against an attack of the Spartans and Corinthians. 
 In 522 B.C. he was induced to go to Sard is by the satrap 
 Orcctes, who treacherously put him to death. 
 
 See Hkkowitiis, " History," book iii. ; Veecens, " DhMIMtto 
 hfatnrica ile Polycrate Samio," 1839. For a popular legend mptcttng 
 
 1' , liio, see Schiu.kk's poem entitled "Der Ring des Pnykrates.' 
 
 Polycrates, an Athenian orator and Sophist, who 
 was a contemporary of Socrates. He taught at Athens 
 and Cyprus. 
 
 Pol'-^-dec'tei, [XlohiAeK-njc,] a Greek sculptor, who 
 worked at Rome in the first century after Christ. 
 
 Polydeuces. See Pollux. 
 
 Polydore. See Polydorus. 
 
 « as t; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; 
 
 Polydore Vergil. See Vergil. 
 
 Fol-jf-do'rus, |Gr.'LloAi'(iwf>oc; Fr. Polydore, po'- 
 le'doK',1 a son of Cadmus and Harmonia, was King of 
 Thebes, and the father of Labdacus. 
 
 Polydorus, [Eng. Polydore, pol'e-dor,] the youngest 
 son of Priam, was, according to the ancient poets, com- 
 mitted to the care of Polymestor, King of Thrace, by his 
 father, who sent with him a large sum of money. Poly- 
 mestor killed the young prince and appropriated the 
 money. 
 
 Polydorus, a king of Sparta, was a son of Alca- 
 menes, and the father of Eurycrates. He lived about 
 725 B.C. 
 
 Polydorus, a sculptor of Rhodes, aided Agesander 
 (who is supposed to have been his father) in the execu- 
 tion of the famous group of Laocoon. He is mentioned 
 by Pliny. 
 
 Pol-y-euc'tus, [Gr. RoXvuvktoc ; Fr. Polyeucte, po'- 
 le'ukt',] an Athenian orator, lived about 325 B.C. He 
 was a political friend of Demosthenes, and an adversary 
 of Phocion. 
 
 Polygnote. See Polygnotus. 
 
 Pol-yg-no'tus, |Gr. UolvyvuTOc ; Fr. Polygnote, 
 po'Ieg'not'; Ger. Polygnotos, po-lig-no'tos,] an excel- 
 lent Greek painter, born in the island of Thasos, was a 
 son and pupil of Aglaophon. He flourished from about 
 460 to 430 B.C., was a contemporary of Phidias, and was a 
 brother of the painter Aristophon. He became a citizen 
 of Athens and a friend of Cimon, who employed him to 
 ornament the temple of Theseus. He painted gratui- 
 tously the Pcecile or portico of Athens. After the death 
 of Cimon (449 B.C.) Polygnotus probably retired from 
 Athens, and applied himself to the decoration of the 
 great temple at Delphi. He is styled "the Homer of 
 painting," because he treated his subjects in an epic 
 rather than a dramatic spirit. Pliny represents him as 
 the first who painted women with transparent or shining 
 drapery, (lucida vests,) and the first who contributed 
 much to the progress of the art. He had imagination 
 in the highest degree. In allusion to the ideal charac- 
 ter and moral expression of his works, Aristotle calls 
 him an ethic painter. The same critic says, in another 
 passage, Polygnotus represented men better than they 
 are, (or superior to nature.) Among his works were 
 the "Capture of Troy," and the "Visit of Ulysses to 
 the Lower World." 
 
 See Puny, "Natural History;" Pausanias, i., ix., and x. J 
 Siu.ig, "(Jatalogus Artifkum;" Suidas, "Polygnotus;'' Otto 
 Jahn, " Die GemUlde des Polygnotos in der Lesche xu Delphi," 
 1841 : "Nonvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Pol-jf-his'tor, [UohvioTup,] (Alexander, or ALEX- 
 ANDER Cornelius,) a Greek geographer arid historian, 
 born in Phrygia or Miletus, lived at Rome about 80 B.C. 
 He was surnamed Polyhistor on account of his great 
 learning, and is often quoted by Pliny the Elder. He 
 wrote a description of many countries, in forty books. 
 None of his works are extant. 
 
 Polyide. See Polyidus. 
 
 Pol-y-hym'nI-a or Po-lym'nJ-a, [from TfpMf, 
 "much," or "many," and i/ii'Of, a "hymn," or "snng,"J 
 the name of the muse who presided over singing and 
 rhetoric, and was supposed to be the inventress of 
 harmony. 
 
 Pol-y-i'dus, [Gr. tloAwnoc; Fr. Polyide, po'le'ed',] a 
 soothsayer of classic mythology, who was fabled to have 
 restored to life Glaucus, a son of Minos. This story 
 was a favourite subject of ancient poets and artists. 
 
 Polyidus, [flo/lnrior,] an Athenian poet, musician, and 
 painter, lived about 400 B.C. His productions (dithy- 
 rambs) were very popular. 
 
 Pol-y-mes'tor or Pol-ym-nes'tor, a fabulous king 
 of Thrace, was said to have been a son-in-law of Priam. 
 He murdered Polydorus, which see. His story is related 
 with much variation by different writers, some of whom 
 say that he killed his own son by mistake instead of 
 Polydorus. 
 
 Fol-ym-nes'tus [nulv/ivyaToc] or Fol-ym-nas'tus 
 of Coi.npiioN, an epic and lyric poet, and musician, lived 
 about 660 B.C. 
 
 Polynice. See Poi.yntces. 
 
 Pol-y-ni'ceS or Pol-y-nei'ces, [Gr. IToXwriWK •' Fr. 
 Polynice, po'le'ness',] a son of CEdipus, King of Thebes, 
 
 R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
POL TP HEME 
 
 1822 
 
 POM PEJUS 
 
 and Jocasta. He made an agreement with his brother 
 Eteocles that they should each reign one year alternately. 
 Eteocles, having reigned the first year, refused to resign 
 the throne. The cause of Polynices was espoused by 
 Adrastus, King of Argos, who led the famous expedition 
 against Thebes. Polynices and Eteocles killed each other 
 in single combat. 
 
 See Sophocles, " CEdipus et Colonus;" Euripides, "Plice- 
 nissai." 
 
 Folypheme. See Polyphemus. 
 
 Pol-jf-phe'mus, [Gr. noAi^or; Fr. Polypheme, 
 po'le'tjm',] a Cyclops or giant of Sicily, who was said 
 to have one eye in his forehead, and was called a son of 
 Neptune. Homer relates in the "Odyssey" a famous 
 adventure of Ulysses in the cave of Polyphemus. (See, 
 also, Virgil's " /Eneid," book iii. 617-676.) 
 
 Pol-y^-per/ehon, [Gr. UoXvanipxup,] a Macedonian 
 general, who in 332 B.C. obtained command of a division 
 in the phalanx of Alexander. He served in the cam- 
 paign of India, and was second in command of a body 
 of veterans which Craterus conducted home in 323 B.C. 
 During the absence of the regent Antipater in 321, he 
 had the chief command in Macedonia and Greece. 
 He became regent in 319 B.C., at the death of Antipater, 
 who designated him as his successor. A coalition was 
 formed against him by Antigonus and Cassander, who 
 expelled him from Macedonia in 316 B.C. In 310 he 
 raised an army to obtain the crown for Heracles, (a son 
 of Alexander and Iiarsina,) but, having been corrupted 
 by Cassander, he procured the assassination of that 
 youth. Died after 303 B.C. 
 
 See Grotk, "History of Greece;" Diodorus Siculus, books 
 xvii.-xx. ; Drovsen, "Geschiclre der Nachfolger Alexanders." 
 
 Polystrate. See Poi.ystratus. 
 
 Po-lyVtra-tus, [Gr. TloAvaTpaToi ; Fr. Polystrate, 
 po'le'stRJtt',] a Greek Epicurean philosopher, who suc- 
 ceeded Hermarchus as the head of the school. . He 
 lived probably about 250 B.C. 
 
 Po-ljfx'e-na, [Gr. tlokv^evri; Fr. Polyxene, po'lek'- 
 siu',] a daughter of Priam, King of Troy, was beloved 
 by Achilles. According to one tradition, she was sacri- 
 ficed by the Greeks on the tomb of Achilles. 
 
 Polyxene. See Polyxena. 
 
 Pomarancio, po-ma-ran'cho, thesurnameofNiccoLd 
 ClRCIGNANl, (cheR-chen-ya'nee,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Pomarancio, near Volterra. He worked in Rome, and 
 aided Titian in the Belvedere of the Vatican. One of 
 his latest works is dated 1 591. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Pomare, po-ma'ra, (Aimata,) Queen of Tahiti, was 
 born about 1822. Several chiefs having in 1842 placed 
 the island under the protection of France, she protested 
 against the act. The French admiral Du Petit-Thouars 
 attempted to depose her by force, but his act was dis- 
 avowed by the French court. She abdicated in favour 
 of her son, Tamatoa, in 1852. 
 
 Pomarius, po-ma're-us, the Latin name of Samuel 
 Baumgarten, (bowm'gaR'ten,) a German Protestant 
 minister and writer, born in 1624; died in 1683. 
 
 Pombal, de, da pom-bal' or poN-bal', (Dom Sebas- 
 tiXo Joze de Carvalho — da kaR-val'yo,) Marquis, 
 Count of Oeyras, an eminent Portuguese statesman, born 
 at Soura, near Coimbra, in 1699. He studied law at 
 Coimbra, and was sent as envoy-extraordinary to London 
 in 1739. He married a niece of the Austrian general 
 Daun, who gained the favour of the Queen of Portugal. 
 By her influence Carvalho became minister of foreign 
 affairs in 1 750. He greatly increased the prosperity of 
 Portugal, by the promotion of education, manufactures, 
 commerce, etc. He reduced the power of the Inquisition, 
 and banished the Jesuits in 1759. His administrative 
 talents appear to have been of a high order. In 1770 he 
 received the title of Marquis de Pombal. His reforms 
 and his severity towards some of the nobility, who were 
 suspected of complicity in a plot against the king's life, 
 rendered him unpopular. He was deprived of power at 
 the death of Joseph I., in 1777. Died in 1782. 
 
 S8e "Life of Pombal," by I. Smith, 1843: Gusta, "Vita di 
 Sebastiano Giuseppe di Carvalho," 4 vols., 1781; " Memoires du 
 Marquis de Pombal," 4 vols., 1784: " Administration du Marquis de 
 Pombal." 4 vols., 17S7; Oppermann, "Pombal und die Jesuiten." 
 1845; Champrobekt, "Choiseul et Pombal," 1836; " Nouvelle 
 liiographie GeneVale." 
 
 Pomerancio. See Roncalli. 
 
 Pomeranus. See Bugknhagen. 
 
 Pomet, po'irij', (Pierre,) a French botanist, born in 
 Paris in 1658. He published a "Description of Drugs," 
 etc., (1694,) which was then the best French work on 
 materia medica. Died in 1699. 
 
 Pomey, po'mi', (Francois Anne,) a French Jesuit 
 and classical teacher, born at Pernes in 1619. He pub- 
 lished a work on mythology, "Mythological Pantheon," 
 (1659,) and other works. Died in 1673. 
 
 PSm'fret, (John,) an English poet, born in Bedford- 
 shire in 1667, became rector of Maiden. He wrote, 
 besides other poems, "The Choice," which was once 
 popular. " He pleases many," says Dr. Johnson ; "and 
 he who pleases many must have merit." Died in 1703. 
 
 Pommayrac, de, deh po'm&'ritk', (Pierre Paul,) a 
 French painter of miniatures, was born in Porto-Rico 
 about 1818. He worked in Paris, and obtained a medal 
 of the first class in 1842. 
 
 Fommer, pom'nier, (Christoph Friedrich ,) a Ger- 
 man physician, born in 1787; died in 1841. 
 
 Pommeraye, pom'rj', (Jean Francois,) a French 
 monk, born at Rouen in 1617. He wrote a "History 
 of the Archbishops of Rouen," (1667.) Died jn 16S7. 
 
 Fommereul, de, deh pom'rul', (Francois Renb 
 Jean,) Baron, a French general and politician, born in 
 Bretagne in 1745 ; died in 1823. 
 
 Pommier, po'me-^', (Victor Louis Amedee,) a 
 French poet, was born at Lyons in 1804. He obtained 
 several prizes of the French Academy for poems on the 
 "Discovery of Steam Power," (1848,) and other sub- 
 jects. He published "Poesies," (1832,) "Oceanides et 
 Fantaisies," (1839,) and other collections. Died in 1862. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire." 
 
 Po-mo'na, [Fr. Pomone, po'mon'; from pomum, an 
 "apple,"] a Roman divinity supposed to preside over 
 the fruit which grows on trees. 
 
 Pomone. See Pomona. 
 
 Pompadour, de, deh p6N'pi'dooR',(Madame Jeanne 
 Antoinette Poisson,) Marquise, was born in Paris 
 in 1721. She was married in 1741 to M. d'Etioles, a 
 publican. About 1744 her beauty and accomplishments 
 attracted the favour of Louis XV., who gave her the title 
 of Marquise de Pompadour in 1745. She retained a 
 dominant influence over him until her death, in 1764. 
 She appointed ministers and generals, received ambas- 
 sadors, and maintained correspondence with foreign 
 courts. Among her diplomatic acts was the coalition of 
 France with Austria against Frederick the Great, in 1756. 
 
 See " History of the Marchioness de Pompadour," London, 2 
 vols.. 175S : Soui.avie, " Memoires de la Cour de France pendant 
 laFaveurde Madame de Pompadour," 1X02; Capefiguk, "Madame 
 de Pompadour." 1858; Voltaire. " Siecle de Louis XV :" L. de 
 Carne, " Le Gouvernement de Madame de Pompadour," in the 
 "Revue des Deux Mondes." January is, 1S59. 
 
 Pompee, the French for Pompey, which see. 
 
 Pompei, pom-pa'ee, (Girolamo,) an Italian Hellenist 
 and translator, born at Verona in 1731. He produced 
 some successful verses, entitled " Pastoral Songs," (" Can- 
 zoni pastoral!," 1766,) and several tragedies. His repu- 
 tation is founded chiefly on an Italian translation of 
 Plutarch's "Lives," (1772,) which is the best in that 
 language, and probably equal to the best version in any 
 language. Died at Verona in 1788. 
 
 See Fontana. " De Vita et Scriptis Hier. Pom]Tei," 1790; Pik- 
 demonte. " Elogio storico di G. Pompei," 1789; Tipaldo, " Bit.- 
 grafia degli Italiani illustii." 
 
 Pompeius, (Cneius.) See Pompey the Great. 
 
 Pom-pe'ius, (Quintus,) a Roman general and orator 
 was consul in 141 B.C. He commanded in Spain in 140, 
 and was defeated. In 131 B.C. he was elected censor. 
 
 Pompeius, (Rufus Q.,) a son or grandson of the 
 preceding, was tribune of the people in 100 B.C., and 
 praetor in 91. He became consul with L Sulla in 88 
 B.C., and was a partisan of Sulla in the civil war. He 
 was killed by his mutinous soldiers in 88 or 87 B.C. 
 
 Pompeius Festus. See Festus. 
 
 Pompeius Magnus. See Pompey the Great. 
 
 Pom-pe'ius Stra'bo, (Cneius,) an able Roman 
 general, was the father of Pompey the triumvir. He 
 gained several victories in the Social war, and was a 
 partisan of the aristocracy in the civil war between Sulla 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged;" a, e, T, o, ii, 'y, short; aye, i, q, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good: moon; 
 
POMP EJUS 
 
 1823 
 
 POMPONIUS 
 
 ind Marius. His avarice and cruelty rendered him 
 odious. He was killed by lightning in 87 B.C. 
 
 Pompeius Trogus. See Tkogus. 
 
 Ponipeo. See POMPEY. 
 
 Pom'pey, [Lat. PoMpe'ius; Fr. PompEe, pis'pA' ; 
 It. Pompeo, pom-pa'o,] (Cneius,) the eldest son of 
 Pompey the Great, was born about 78 B.C. His mother 
 was Mucia. He commanded a fleet for his father in 48 
 B.C., and after the death of the latter sailed to Spain, 
 where he raised an army of thirteen legions. In 45 n.C. 
 this army encountered at Munda another, commanded 
 by Caesar in person, who gained a complete but not an 
 easy victory, Pompey was overtaken in his retreat 
 and killed. 
 
 Pompey, (Pompeius,) (Sextus,) a son of the trium- 
 vir, was born in 75 n.C. He waged war with some suc- 
 cess against Caesar in Spain after the battle of Munda. 
 Soon after the death of Caesar (44 H.C.) he was appointed 
 chief admiral of the fleet by the senate ; but he was 
 proscribed as an outlaw by Antony and Octavius. He 
 made himself master of Sicily, and, by means of his 
 formidable fleet, obstructed the supply of, corn which 
 the Romans received by sea. The officers of Sextus 
 gained several victories over the fleet of Octavius. In 
 36 H.C. Agrippa defeated Pompey, who fled to Asia and 
 was put to death in 35 B.C. by the officers of Antony. 
 
 See Appian, " Bellum Civile." 
 
 Pompey the Great, [Lat. Pompk'uis Mag'nus ; 
 Fr. PompEe le Grand, po.v'pl' leh gRON,] (Cneius,) 
 a famous Roman general and triumvir, was born on 
 the 30th of September, 106 B.C., in the same year as 
 Cicero. He fought under his father in the Social war, 
 (So, n.C.,) and saved his lather's life when China attempted 
 to assassinate him in 87 B.C. He raised, without a com- 
 mission, three legions to fight for Sulla against the 
 party of Marius in 83 B.C., and began to display his 
 great military talents in the defeat of a hostile force 
 under Brutus. For this success Sulla saluted him with 
 the title of imperator. He gained another victory over 
 the legates of Carbo in 82 B.C., reduced Numidia in 81, 
 and obtained the honour of a triumph, although he 
 was but a simple eques. 
 
 In 76 B.C. he obtained command of an army sent to 
 Spain against Sertorius, who defeated Pompey in two 
 battles, but was assassinated in the year 72, soon after 
 which Spain was reduced to subjection. With a high 
 degree of popularity, Pompey returned to Italy in 71 B.C., 
 and was elected consul (with Crassus) for the year 70, 
 although he had not held any of the lower civil offices 
 and was not legally eligible for other reasons. Among 
 the important acts of his administration was the restora- 
 tion of the power of the tribunes, by which he signalized 
 his defection from the aristocratic party. He remained 
 at Rome inactive during 69 and 68 B.C. In the next 
 year his friends procured the passage of a law by which 
 he was selected to conduct a war against the pirates 
 (who infested the Mediterranean in great numbers) and 
 was invested with irresponsible power for three years. 
 He performed this service with complete success in less 
 than one year, and, it is said, took 20,000 prisoners. 
 
 The next enterprise to which he was called by his own 
 ambition and the favour of the people was the termina- 
 tion of the Mithridatic war, which had been protracted 
 for years. His claims having been advocated by Cicero 
 in a long oration, (" Pro Lege Manilla,") he superseded 
 Lucullus in 66 B.C. He defeated Mithridatts in Lesser 
 Armenia in the same year, and after that king had 
 escaped to the Crimea, which was difficult of access 
 to the Roman army, Pompey turned southward, and 
 reduced Syria to a Roman province in 64 H.C. After a 
 siege of three months, he captured Jerusalem in 63, and 
 entered the sanctuary of the Temple. Having received 
 intelligence of the death of Mithridates, and having re- 
 duced Pontus and Bithynia to subjection, he returned to 
 Italy in 62 B.C., and was received with general enthusiasm. 
 The triumph which he obtained on this occasion was the 
 most brilliant which the Romans had ever witnessed. 
 Offended by the refusal of the senate to sanction his 
 public acts in Asia, he identified himself with the popu- 
 lar party, and formed with Caesar and Crassus a coalition 
 )r triumvirate, (59 B.C.) Pompey, having divorced Mucia, 
 
 his third wife, married Julia, a daughter of Caesar. He 
 made no effort to prevent the banishment of Cicero, but 
 he supported the bill for his restoration, in 57 B.C. His 
 popularity was now on the decline. He had lost the 
 confidence of the senate by his coalition with Caesar, who 
 was his successful rival in respect to the favour of the 
 people. Pompey could only obtain the consulship in 55 
 B.C. by the aid of Cxsar, with whom he and Crassus had 
 formed another secret treaty or bargain. 
 
 Anticipating the open hostility of Caesar to his ambi- 
 tious projects, Pompey renewed his connection with the 
 aristocracy, who accepted him as their leader in 51 B.C. 
 About the end of the next year the friends of Pompey 
 obtained a decree of the senate that Caesar should dis- 
 band his army. In defiance of this decree, Caesar marched 
 to Rome with a force which Pompey was unable to resist. 
 His self-confidence was such that he had neglected to 
 levy troops, and he was compelled to retreat to Epirus, 
 where he collected, an army. (See CAESAR.) Urged on 
 by the civilians and nobles of his camp, against his own 
 judgment he offered battle to Caesar in the plain of 
 Pharsaliain August, 48 B.C. and was completely defeated. 
 lie escaped by sea, with his wife Cornelia, and sought 
 refuge in Egypt, but was murdered in the act of landing, 
 by order of Theodotus and Achillas, the chief ministers, 
 in September, 48 B.C. His moral character is repre- 
 sented as better than that of the majority of Roman 
 generals in his time. He was deficient in political 
 abilities, and was guided by no fixed principles as a 
 statesman. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Life of Pompey ;" G. Long, " The Decline of 
 the Roman Republic:" Dion CassiUS, " History;" Cickro, " Ora- 
 tio pro Lege Martina;" Drumann, "Gescliichte Roms ;" Appian, 
 " Bellum Civile ;" J. Upmarck. " Dissertatio de Pompejo Magno," 
 1709; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ue'rale." 
 
 Pompignan, de, deh p&N'pen'y5>j', (Jean Georges 
 Le Franc,) a French prelate, born at Montauban in 
 1715. He became Archbishop of Vienne in 1774, and 
 a member of the States-General in 1789. He was the 
 head of that partv of the clergy which united with the 
 Tiers-Etat. Diet! in 1790. 
 
 Pompignan, de, (Jean Jacques Le Franc,) Mar- 
 quis, a French poet, born at Montauban in 1709, was a 
 brother of the preceding. He produced in 1734 a suc- 
 cessful tragedy of " Dido," ("Didon,") and in 1740 a 
 poem entitled "Voyage de Languedoc et de Provence." 
 His "Sacred Poems" ("Poesies sacrees sur divers 
 Sujets," 1751) were admired. Me was admitted into the 
 French Academy in 1759. and pronounced a discourse 
 against the skeptical philosophers which provoked the 
 satire of Voltaire. He wrote various other poems, 
 among which is a beautifirl "Ode on the Death of J. 
 B. Rousseau." Died in 1784. 
 
 See Bertrand Barerr, "FJoge He Le Franc de Pompignan,'* 
 1785 ; G^rp.t, " Notice de Le Franc de Pompiu'nmi." prefixed to his 
 Select Works. 2 vols., 1S22 ; Marmontp.l. " Me*inoires ;" La Harpe, 
 " Cours de Litte'rature ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Pomponace. See Pomponazzi. 
 
 Pomponatiua. See Pomponazzi. 
 
 Pomponazzi, pom-po-nat'see, [Lat. Pompona'tius; 
 Fr. Pomponace, p6N'po'niss',[ (Pietro, ) an Italian 
 philosopher, born at Mantua in 1462. He taught the 
 philosophy of Aristotle at Padua, Ferrara, and Bologna. 
 In his treatise "On the Immortality of the Soul" (1516) 
 he gave offence by affirming that Aristotle did not teach 
 that doctrine. Among his works is a "Treatise on Fate. 
 Free Will," etc., (1567.) Died about 1524. 
 
 See J. G. Oi.earius, " De Potnponatio," Jena. 1705: Nichrok, 
 "Me*moires:" Bayi.e. "Historical and Critical Dictionaiy." 
 
 Pompone. See Pomponne. 
 
 Pomponio Leto. See Pomponh's L/Etus. 
 
 Pom-po'nI-us, (Sfxtus,) a Roman jurist, who is 
 supposed to have lived in the reigns of Hadrian and 
 Antoninus Pius. Many extracts from his works are 
 found in the Digest. 
 
 Pomponius Atticus. See AttiCUS. 
 
 Pom-po'nI-usLaB'tus,(lee'tus,) [It. Pomponio Lf.to, 
 pom-po'ne-o la'to,] (Jui.IUS,) an Italian antiquary and 
 scholar, born in Upper Calabria in 1425, was sometimes, 
 called Pietro r>l Calabria. He succeeded Professor 
 Lorenzo Valla at Rome in 1457, and founded there an 
 academy for the cultivation of Roman antiquities and 
 
 > i; c as 1; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (Jty~See Explanations, p . 23.) 
 
POMPONIUS 
 
 1824 
 
 PONUTOfVSKI 
 
 classic learning, which was suppressed by Paul II. in 
 1468. He and other members of this academy were 
 persecuted by Paul II. on a charge of treason and heresy. 
 Pope Sixtus IV. permitted him to resume his chair in 
 the Roman College in 1471. He wrote a " Compendium 
 of Roman History from the Death of Gordian to Justinus 
 III.," (1498,) and other works. Died in 1497. 
 
 See M. A. Sabkllicus, "Vita Pomponii Laiti," 7510; Tira- 
 boschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" Ginguene, " Histoire 
 Litte>aire d'italie." 
 
 Pomponius Mela. See Mela. 
 
 Pomponue, de, deh pflN'pon', (Simon Arnauld,) 
 Marquis, a French minister of state, born in 1618, was 
 a son of Robert Arnauld d'Andilly. He became min- 
 ister-secretary of state for foreign affairs in 1671, and 
 was removed in 1679. He was recalled at the death of 
 Louvois, in 1691. He ieft a high reputation for probity 
 and for skill in diplomacy. Died in 1699. 
 
 See Saint- Simon, " Memoires ;" Sismondi, "Histoire des 
 Fran^ais." 
 
 Pona, po'ni, (Francesco,) an Italian physician and 
 writer, born at Verona in 1594. He gained distinction 
 as a writer of numerous works, among which were some 
 romances, dramas, scientific treatises, etc. He received 
 the title of historiographer frcn the emperor Ferdinand 
 III. Died after 1652. 
 
 Ponce, p6Nss, (Nicolas,) a French engraver, born in 
 Paris in 1746. He wrote notices of several artists for 
 the " Kiographie Universelle." Died in 1831. 
 
 Ponce, p6n'tha, (PEDRO,) a Spanish Benedictine 
 monk, born at Valladolid about 1525. He is the reputed 
 inventor of the art of teaching the dumb to converse. 
 According to Ambrosio Morales, he was very successful, 
 and trained his pupils to speak viva voce. No account 
 of his method is extant. Died in 1584. 
 
 Ponce de Leon, p6n'tha da la-An', [sometimes 
 Anglicized in pronunciation as ponss de le'on,] (Juan,) 
 a Spanish discoverer of Florida, was born in Leon. 
 He accompanied Columbus in his second voyage, 
 (1493,) and served in Hispaniola under Ovando. In 
 1508 he commanded an expedition to Porto Rico, which 
 he conquered. Having heard an Indian tradition of 
 a fountain of rejuvenescence in one of the liahama isles, 
 he searched for that fountain in 1 512 without success, but 
 he discovered Florida the same year. He was mortally 
 wounded in a fight with some natives of Florida in 
 1521, and died in Cuba. 
 
 See Herrera, " Novus Orbis ;" Oviedo, " Historia general." 
 
 Ponce de Leon, (Luis,) a Spanish lyric poet, born 
 at Granada in 1528. He became professor of theology 
 at Salamanca about 1562. He translated Virgil's "Ec- 
 logues," two books of the "Georgics," and many odes 
 of Horace. He wrote odes remarkable for beauty of 
 style and elevation of thought, which are highly praised 
 by Mr. Ticknor. He is called by a critic in the " Edin- 
 burgh Review" "the greatest of the Spanish poets of 
 this age, and perhaps one of the noblest lyric poets that 
 ever existed." Died in 1591. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" Longfellow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe ; "Lyric Poetry of Spain," in the 
 " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S24. 
 
 Ponce de Leon, (Rodrioo,) Marquis de Cadiz, a 
 famous Spanish general, born in 1443. '^ e served in 
 many campaigns against the Moors, surprised the for- 
 tress of Albania in 1482, and took a prominent part in 
 the conquest of Granada, which was effected in 1492. 
 Died in 1492. 
 
 Ponce Pilate. See Pilate. 
 
 Poncelet, poNss'l&', (Francois Frederic,) a French 
 jurist, born at Mouzay (Meuse) in 1790. He pub- 
 lished several works on Roman law. Died in Paris 
 in 1843. 
 
 Poncelet, (Jean Victor,) an eminent French geom- 
 eter and engineer, born at Metz in 1788. He served in 
 the army in Russia, (1812.) He became a member of 
 the Institute, and, about 1834, professor of mechanics at 
 the Faculty of Sciences, Paris. In 1848 he obtained the 
 rank of general of engineers, and was elected to the 
 Constituent Assembly. Among his works are "Traite 
 des Propri^tes projectives des Figures," (1820,) and 
 a "Course of Mechanics applied to Machines," (1826.) 
 
 He rendered great service to the industrial art3 by his 
 improvements in hydraulics and practical mechanics. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Poncelet, (Polycarpe,) a French rural economist, 
 bom at Verdun, lived in the second half of the eighteenth 
 century. He wrote a " Natural History of Wheat," 
 (1779,) arid other works. 
 
 Poncelin, posss'laN', (Jean Charles,) a French 
 editor and compiler, born in Poitou in 1746; died in 
 1828. 
 
 Poncet de la Grave, p6N's&' deh IS gRaV, (Guil- 
 Laume,) a French writer, bom at Carcassonne in 1725, 
 wrote a " History of the Royal Navy," (2 vols., 17S0,) 
 and other works. Died in 1803. 
 
 Poncher, p6.N'sha', (Etienne,) a French prelate, 
 born at Tours in 1446. He became Bishop of Paris in 
 1503, and keeper of the seals of France in 1512. He 
 was employed as a diplomatist by Francis I. Died 
 in 1524. 
 
 Pouchino, pon-kee'no, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian painter, sometimes called BozZA'rro or Bazzacco, 
 was born at Castel- Franco about 1500. He was a pupil 
 of Titian. Died in 1570. 
 
 Poncol, de, deh poN'sol', (Henri Simon Joseph 
 Ansquer,) a French writer, born at Kemper in 1730 ; 
 died in 1783. 
 
 Poncy, pd.s'se', (Louis Charles,) a French poet, 
 born at Toulon in 1821. He worked at the trade of 
 stone-mason, and published "Les Marines," 1^842.) 
 
 Pond, (Enoch,) D.D., an American Congregational 
 divine, born at Wrentham, Massachusetts, in 1 791. In 
 1828 he edited the "Spirit of the Pilgrims," a religious 
 journal, in which he engaged in a controversy with the 
 Unitarians. He became in 1856 president and professor 
 of ecclesiastical history, etc. at Bangor Theological Semi- 
 nary, Maine. He has published a " Memoir of Count 
 Zinzendorf,"(i839,) " Memoir of John Wickliffe," (1841,) 
 "The Morning of the Reformation," (1842,) "Plato, his 
 Life, Works, Opinions, and Influence," (1846,) and 
 numerous other works. 
 
 Pond, (John,) an English astronomer, born in Lon- 
 don about 1767, studied at Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 After he left college he passed several years at West- 
 bury, near Bristol, where he made observations. He 
 was the first astronomer who depended on masses of 
 observations for the determination of all fundamental 
 data. He succeeded Maskelyne as astronomer-royal in 
 1S11, and directed his attention chiefly to a determina- 
 tion of the places of fixed stars. In 1833 he completed 
 a standard catalogue of 1 1 13 fixed stars. He has a high 
 reputation as an observer. Died in 1S36. 
 
 Pongerville, de, deh pA.N'zheVvel', (Jean Bafitste 
 AlMlt Sanson,) a French poet, born at Abbeville in 
 1792. He produced in 1823 an excellent translation of 
 Lucretius's " De Rerum Natnra" into verse, and was 
 admitted into the French Academy in 1830. Among 
 his other publications are prose versions of Lucretius, 
 (1829,) Milton's "Paradise Lost," (1838,) and Virgil's 
 " .-Eneid," (1846,) which are commended. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GrfneYale." 
 
 Poniatowski, po-ne-i-tov'skee, (Joseph Antony,) 
 Prince, an able Polish general, born at Warsaw in 1762, 
 was a nephew of Stanislas Augustus, King of Poland. 
 His father, Andreas, was a general in the Austrian ser- 
 vice. He commanded the Polish army in the war against 
 Russia in 1792, and served under Kosciusko in 1794. 
 In 1806 he raised an army of Poles to fight for Napoleon, 
 who had persuaded him that he intended to restore 
 the independence of Poland. He and his army of Poles 
 fought against the Russians in 1807, and opposed the 
 Austrian* with success in 1809. He commanded a corps 
 of the grand army which invaded Russia in 1812, and 
 -endered important services in that campaign. In Oc- 
 tober, 1813, he became a marshal of France. He was 
 wounded at Leipsic, and, in the retreat from that battle, 
 was drowned in the Elster, (1813.) 
 
 See Bogusi.awski, " Biographie de Poniatowski," 1631 ; L. 
 Chodzko, " La Pologne illustree ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^n^- 
 rale." 
 
 Poniatowski, (Stanislas,) Count, a celebrated 
 Polish statesman, born in 1677. He espoused the cause 
 
 1, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, • i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon: 
 
POKUTOiTSKI 
 
 1825 
 
 PO NT ED ERA 
 
 of Charles XII. of Sweden, and Stanislas Le zczynski, 
 against Augustus II. of Poland, and accompanied Charles 
 in Ms Russian campaign. Alter the defeat at Poltava 
 he was sent on a mission to Constantinople, where he 
 promoted the interests of the Swedish king by inducing 
 the Sultan to make war upon Russia. He was subse- 
 quently appointed to several high offices by Augustus 
 III. of Poland. Died in 1762. 
 
 See Voltairk, " Histoire de Charles XII ;" L. Chodzko, "La 
 Pologne illustree." 
 
 Foniatowski, (Stanislas Augustus.) See Stan- 
 islas Augustus, King of Poland. 
 
 Poninski, po-nen'skee, (A. L.,) a Polish poet, born 
 in the seventeenth century. He wrote Latin poems, 
 "Opera Heroica," (1739.) Died in 1742. 
 
 Ponroy, po.s'Rwa', (Pierre Gabriel Arthur,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Issoudun in 1816. He pro- 
 duced several poems, dramas, and other works. 
 
 Pons, p6.N, (Andre,) Comte de Rio, a French his- 
 torical writer, born at Cette in 1772. He was prefect 
 of Lyons in 1815. Among his works is a "History of 
 the Residence of Napoleon at Elba." Died in 1853. 
 
 Pons, (|ean Louis,) a French astronomer, born at 
 Peyres (Hautes-Alpes) in 1761. He became director of 
 the Observatory of Marseilles, where (according to the 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale") he discovered twenty- 
 three comets. In 1825 he was appointed director of an 
 observatory at Florence. Died in 1831. 
 
 Pons, de, deh poN, (Jean Francois,) a French ec- 
 clesiastic and writer, bom at Marly-le-Roi in 16S3; 
 died in 1732. 
 
 Pons de Verdun, p6N deh veVdiiN', (Robert,) a 
 French revolutionist, born at Verdun in 1749, acquired 
 some distinction as a poet. He was a member of the 
 Convention, (1792-95.) Died in 1844. 
 
 Ponsard, poN'saV, (Francois,) a French dramatic 
 poet, born at Vienne (Isere) in 1814. He produced a 
 successful tragedy of " Lucrece," (1843,) and another 
 called "Charlotte Corday," (1850,) which is admired. 
 Among his most popular works is a comedy of " Honour 
 and Money," ("L'Honneur et l'Argent," 1853,) which 
 opened to him the French Academy. Died in 1867. 
 
 Ponsludon, de, deh p6s'lu'd6N'', (Joseph Antoine 
 HEDOUlN,)a French litterateur, born. sit Rheims in 1739; 
 died in 1817. 
 
 Pon'sou-bjf, (Sir Frederick Cavendish,) an Eng- 
 lish officer, born in 1783, was a brother of the Earl of 
 Besborough. He distinguished himself in Spain, and 
 led a regiment of dragoons at Waterloo, where he was 
 wounded. Died in 1837. 
 
 Ponsouby, (George,) a lawyer, born in Ireland in 
 1755. He became leader of the opposition in the Irish 
 House of Commons, and in 1806 was appointed lord 
 chancellor of Ireland. About 1807 he entered the British 
 House of Commons, in which he was the leader of the 
 Whig party. Died in 1817. 
 
 Ponsoiiby, (John,) Baron, a diplomatist, born in 
 1770. He entered the British House of Lords in 1806, 
 and acted with the Whig party. He performed diplo- 
 matic missions to Brazil, Belgium, and Naples between 
 1828 and 1832, and negotiated a treaty of commerce 
 with Turkey about 1838. He was minister at Vienna 
 from 1846 to 1851. Died in 1855. 
 
 Ponsonby, (Sir William,) a British general, born 
 in 1782, was a younger brother of the preceding. He 
 was aide-de-camp of Wellington, and commanded a 
 brigade of cavalry at Waterloo, where he was killed 
 in 1815. 
 
 Pontano, pon-ta'no, [Lat. Ponta'nus,] (Giovanni 
 Gioviano,) an eminent Italian author and statesman, 
 born at Cereto, in Umbria, in 1426. He became secre- 
 tary of Ferdinand I. of Naples about 1458, and prime 
 minister about 1487. He had the reputation of an able 
 negotiator, and an elegant writer in prose and verse. 
 His " History of the War between Ferdinand I. and the 
 Duke of Anjoti" (1519) is called a masterpiece. He 
 wrote, in Latin, moral essays, elegies, odes, and other 
 poems, among which is "Urania," an astronomical 
 poem. Died in Naples in 1503. " A far superior name," 
 says Hallam, " is that of Pontanus, to whom, if we attend 
 to some critics, we must award the palm above all the 
 
 Latin poets of the fifteenth century." (" Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 SeeRoBRKTO daSarno, " Vita J. J. Pontani," 1761 ; F. Colan- 
 GKI.O, "Vita di G. G. Pontano," 1S20; Tiraboschi, " Storia della 
 Letterntura Italiana ;" Nicehon, "Me'moires ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Pontanus. See Dupont, Ponte, and Pontano. 
 
 Pontanus, pon-ta'nus, (Jakob,) a Jesuit and philolo- 
 gist, born in Bohemia in 1542. He published " Progym- 
 nasmata Latinitatis," (4 vols., 1588,) "Poetic Institutes," 
 (" Institutiones Poeticae," 1594,) and other works. Died 
 in 1626. 
 
 Pontanus, pon-ta'nus, (Johan Isaac,) a Danish phi- 
 lologist and historian, born at Elsinore about 1570, be- 
 came professor of physics and mathematics at Harderwyk 
 in 1604. He wrote a " History of Denmark," (in Latin, 
 1631,) and several criticisms on the classics. Died in 1639. 
 
 See "Vita Pontani," anonymous, 1640; Niceron, "M^moires." 
 
 Pontas, p6N't5', (Jean,) a French casuist, bom in 
 the diocese of Avranches in 1638. His principal work 
 is a " Dictionary of Cases of Conscience," (3 vols., 1715,) 
 which was highly esteemed. Died in 1728. 
 
 Pontault, de. See Beaulieu, De, (Sebastien.) 
 
 Pontchartrain, de, deh poN'shtK'tRaN', (Louis 
 Phei.ypeaux,) Comtf, a French minister of state, born 
 in 1643. He was appointed controller-general of the 
 finances about 1690, and chancellor of France in 1699. 
 His talents and virtues are eulogized by Saint-Simon, 
 who says "he performed more than he promised." He 
 was grandfather of the prime minister Maurepas. Died 
 in 1727. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "M^moires;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire His- 
 torique." 
 
 Pontchartrain, de, (Paul Phei.ypeaux,) Seigneur, 
 born at Blois, France, in 1569, was grandfather of the 
 preceding. He became secretary of state in 1610, and 
 wrote memoirs of events from 1610 to 1620, (1720.) 
 Died in 1621. 
 
 Pont de Veyle, de, deh pdN deh vil, (Antoine db 
 Perriol — I'eVre'ol',) Comte, a French dramatist, born 
 in 1697, was a brother of the Count of Argental. He 
 wrote three successful comedies, one of which is called 
 "The Somnambulist," ("La Somnambule," 1739.) He 
 was a member of the literary council of Voltaire. Died 
 in 1774. 
 
 Ponte, da. See Bassano, (Francesco and Jacopo.) 
 
 Ponte, da, dl pon'ta, (Giovanni,) an eminent Ital- 
 ian architect, born in Venice in 1512. He built the 
 famous bridge of the Rialto across the Grand Canal, 
 the church of Santa Croce, and other fine edifices in 
 Venice. Died in 1597. 
 
 Ponte, da, | Lat. Pon'tico Viru'nio.1 (Lodovico,) 
 an Italian scholar, born at Belluno in 1467. He wrote 
 a " Secret History of Italy," and other works. Died 
 in 1520. 
 
 Ponte, da, (Lorenzo.) See Da Ponte. 
 
 Ponte, de, di pon'ta, (Luis,) a Spanish religious 
 writer, born at Valladolid in 1554. He wrote several 
 popular works, among which is "Meditations on the 
 Mysteries of the Faith," (1605.) Died in 1624. 
 
 Ponte, de, deh poNt, [Lat. Ponta'nus, | (Pierre,) 
 a Flemish philologist, born at Bruges about 1480, was 
 biind from infancy. He published several works. Died 
 after 1529. 
 
 Ponteooulant, de, deh piN'ta'koo'loN', (Gustave 
 Doulcet — dpoisj ,) Comte, a French astronomer, born 
 about 1795. He served as an officer in the army, from 
 which he retired about 1830. He published "Analytic 
 Theory of the System of the World," (4 vols., 1829-46,) 
 ami other works on astronomy, etc. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for November, 1830. 
 
 Ponteooulant, de, (Louis Gustave Doulcet,) 
 Comte, a French Girondist, born at Caen in 1766, was 
 the father of the preceding. He was elected to the 
 Convention in 1792, was proscribed and outlawed in 
 1793, became a member of the senate in 1805, and a 
 liberal member of the Chamber of Peers in 1S19. He 
 left " Memoires," which were published in 1S62. Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 Pontedera, pon-ti-da'ra, (Giui.io,) an Italian bota- 
 nist, born atVicenzain 1688. He became in 1719 director 
 
 € as k: c as s; g hard; g as./'; G, H, VL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (ft^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 US 
 
P0NT1AC 
 
 1826 
 
 POOS HK IN 
 
 of the botanic garden and professor of botany at Padua. 
 He published a "Compendium of Botanical Plates," 
 ("Compendium Tabularum botanicarum," 1718,) and 
 "Anthology, or, On the Nature of the Flower," ( l? An- 
 thologia, sive De Floris Natura," 1720.) The genus 
 Pontederia was named in his honour by Linnaeus. Died 
 
 in 1757- 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vitaa Italorum doctrinaexcellentium ;" Gbnnari, 
 " Lettera iutorno la Vita del fu G. Pontedera," 1758. 
 
 Pon'tl-ac, a North American Indian chief, of the 
 Ottawa tribe, born about 17 12, was an ally of the French. 
 In 1762 he formed a coalition of many western tribes, 
 which, at his instigation, attacked various English gar- 
 risons and frontier settlements. He besieged Detroit 
 without success in 1763. He was killed in Illinois in 
 1769. 
 
 See Parkman, " History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac," 1851. 
 
 Pontianus, pon-she-a'nus, [Fr. Pontten, poN'se'aN',1 
 became Bishop of Rome in 230 A.D. He was banished 
 by Maximin in 235, and died in exile soon after that date. 
 
 PontiQO Virunlo. See Ponte, da, (Lodovico.) 
 
 Pontien. See Pontianus. 
 
 Pontier, pAN'te-i', (Pierre,) an able French surgeon, 
 born at Aix (Provence) in 1711; died at Aix in 1789. 
 His son, Pierre Henri, was a chemist, and wrote 
 several scientific treatises. Died at Aix in 1826. 
 
 Pontin, de, deh pon-teen', (Magnus Martin,) a Swe- 
 dish physician, born at Askeryd in 1781. He became 
 first physician to the king in 1825. He published several 
 works in prose and verse. 
 
 Pontis, de, deh p6N'tess', (Louis,) a French gentle- 
 man, born in Provence in 1583, was an officer in the 
 army. He left interesting Memoirs, (2 vols., 1676,) often 
 reprinted. Died in Paris in 1670. 
 
 Pontiua, pon'she-us, a deacon of the church of Car- 
 thage, lived about 250 a.d. He was the author of a 
 "Life of Cyprian." 
 
 Pontius, pon'te-us, or Du Pont, (dii pAn,) (Paul,) an 
 eminent Flemish engraver, born at Antwerp in 1596 or 
 1603, was a pupil of Vosterman. He engraved many 
 works after Kubens, among which is the "Massacre 
 of the Innocents," and many portraits after Van Dyck. 
 These prints are greatly admired. 
 
 Pontius de la Puente, pon'te-oos'da la fwen'ta, f Lat. 
 Pon'tius Fon'iius,] (Constanttne,) a Spanish Prot- 
 estant, who wrote in defence of the reformed doctrines, 
 and was sentenced to death, but died in prison (before 
 the sentence was executed) in 1559. 
 
 Pontius Pilate. See Pilate. 
 
 Pontmartin, de, deh pAN'maVtaN', (Armand Au- 
 gustin Joseph Marie,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Avignon in 181 1. He published several novels, and 
 "Causeries litteraires," (1854.) 
 
 Pontoppidan, pon-top'pe-dan, (Eric,) a Danish 
 poet and prelate, born in Funen about 1620. He wrote 
 many Latin poems, among which are " Aucupium Se- 
 iandiae," (1636,) "Sacred Pastorals," ("Bucolica Sacra," 
 1643,) and "Florilegium Cimbricum," (1646.) He be- 
 came Bishop of Drontheim in 1673. Died in 1678. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Pontoppidan, (Erik,) the Younger, a celebrated 
 Danish prelate, historian, and antiquary, born at Aarhuus, 
 in Jutland, in 1698. He was successively appointed 
 professor of theology at Copenhagen in 1738, Bishop 
 of Bergen in 1748, and chancellor of the University 
 at Copenhagen. Among his principal works are his 
 "Annals of the Danish Church," "Theatre of Denmark, 
 Ancient and Modern," (1730,) "Achievements of the 
 Danes out of Denmark," (1740,) and a "Description 
 of Copenhagen," (all in Latin,) also a treatise on the 
 natural history of Norway, and a "Danish Atlas," 
 (" Danske Atlas," in 7 vols.,) in the Danish language. 
 Died in 1764. 
 
 See "Danische Bibliothek," vol. vi., (autobiography :) "Retro- 
 spective Review," vol. xiii., (1826;) "Monthly Review" for July, 
 1755: Kraft og Nyerup, " Almindeliirt Litteraturlexicon;" 
 Hirschtng, " Historisch-Iiterarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Fontormo, da, da pon-toR'mo, (Jacopo Carucci or 
 Carrucci,) an eminent Florentine painter, born at Pon- 
 tormo about 1438, was a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci and 
 Andrea del Sarto. He imitated Michael Angelo. He 
 
 had three manners, the last of which was an imitation 
 of that of Albert Diirer. Among his works are a 
 " Descent from the Cross," a " Holy Family," and "The 
 Deluge," a fresco at Florence. Died in 1558. 
 
 SeeVASARi, "Livesofthe Painters:" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy;" Ticozzi, " Dizionario." 
 
 Pontoux, de, deh pAN'too', (Claude,) a French 
 poet, born at Chalons-sur-Saone about 1530; died in 
 1579- 
 
 Ponz, pAnth, (Antonio,) a Spanish painter, distin- 
 guished as a writer on the fine arts, was born in Valencia 
 in 1725. He passed about ten years at Rome (1751-60) 
 in the study of art and antiquities. Having returned to 
 Madrid, he was commissioned by Charles III. to paint 
 portraits of Spanish authors for the Escurial. He pub- 
 lished a valuable work entitled " Viage de Espaiia," (18 
 vols., 1771-94,) which treats of Spanish works of art, 
 topography, etc. Died in 1792. 
 
 See Madoz, " Diccionario geogra6co." 
 
 Ponzio, pon'ze-o, a Tuscan sculptor, called by the 
 French Mali-re Ponce, worked in France from 1530 
 to 1571. 
 
 Ponzio, (Flaminio,) an Italian architect, born about 
 1575. He designed the Capella Borghese at Rome, and 
 the Palazzo Sciara on the Corso. He was employed by 
 Pope Paul V. to continue the works of the Quirinal, 
 in which he constructed the double staircase. Died 
 about 1620. 
 
 Poogatchef, Pougatchef, Pugatschew, or Puga- 
 tschev, poo-ga-chSf', (Yemei.ian,) a Cossack rebel and 
 impostor, born in 1726. Having been told that he re- 
 sembled Peter III., he undertook to pass himself off for 
 that Czar, and incited the Cossacks to revolt in 1773. 
 He raised a large army, took several towns, gained 
 some victories, and massacred thousands of people. He 
 was taken prisoner and executed in 1775. 
 
 See Pooshkin, "History of the Rebellion of Poogatchef," 1835. 
 
 Poole, pool, [Lat. Po'lus,] (Matthew,) a learned 
 English nonconformist divine, born at York about 1624. 
 He was rector of the church of Saint Michael-le- 
 Querne, London, from which he was ejected in 1662. 
 His principal work is "Synopsis Criticorum Biblico- 
 rum," (5 vols., 1669-76,) in which he designed to present 
 a synopsis or abridgment of the writings and labours 
 of former biblical critics of all ages and countries. It 
 is esteemed a valuable work. He also left " Annota- 
 tions on the Holy Bible," (2 vols., 1685.) He died at 
 Amsterdam in 1679. 
 
 See A. Wood, " Fasti Oxoniensis ;" Niceron, "Me'moires." 
 
 Poole, (Paul Falconer,) an English historical 
 painter, born at Bristol in 1810. He is accounted one 
 of the most original and successful English artists of the 
 present time. Among his works are " The Beleaguered 
 Moors," (1844,) " The Suppression of Sion Monastery," 
 (1846,) "Job receiving Tidings of his Losses," (1850,) and 
 "The Goths in Italy," (1852.) He received in 1847a 
 prize of three hundred pounds for his picture of " King 
 Edward's Generosity to the People of Calais." He 
 was elected a Royal Academician about i86r. 
 
 Poole, van, vln pol, (Jurian,) a Dutch portrait- 
 painter, born at Amsterdam in 1666 ;.died in 1745. His 
 wife, Rachel, born in 1664, was an excellent painter of 
 flowers, fruits, etc. She was a daughter of Ruysch the 
 anatomist. Died in 1750. 
 
 Poor, (Daniel,) an American missionary, born at 
 Danvers, Massachusetts, in 1789, spent many years in 
 Hindostan and Ceylon, where he established schools. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Pooshkin, Pushkin, Pouchekine, Puschkin, or 
 Pouschkin, poosh'kin or poosh'ken, (Alexander 
 Sergeivitch,) a celebrated Russian poet, born at Saint 
 Petersburg in 1799. Having published several poems 
 of a too liberal tendency, he was banished to Odessa, 
 where he held an office under the governor -general, Count 
 Vorontsof. During his presence in Southern Russia 
 he studied the Spanish and Italian languages, and the 
 works of Byron, upon whose model he may be sail to 
 have formed himself. His first considerable poem, en- 
 titled "Ruslan and Liudmila," (1821,) was very well 
 received ; it was followed bv the "Prisoner of the Cau- 
 
 , e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, t, A, same, less prolonged ; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far. fill, fat; mSt; nAt ; good ; moon ; 
 
POOST 
 
 .827 
 
 POP HAM 
 
 casus," ("Plennik Kavkaskoi," 1822,) "The Fountain 
 of Bakhtchisarai," (1824,) which brought him three 
 thousand rubles, " Eugene Onegin," a metrical romance, 
 the "Gypsies," (" Tsigani,") and the narrative poem of 
 " Poltava." After the accession of Nicholas, Pooshkin 
 was recalled to Moscow and appointed historiographer. 
 His only historical production is an account of Poo- 
 gatchefs rebellion. Besides the above, he published 
 " Boris Godoonof," a dramatic poem, esteemed one of 
 his master-pieces, and a " History of the Iron Mask." 
 He was mortally wounded in a duel in 1837. A critic 
 in " Blackwood's Magazine" calls him "one of that small 
 but illustrious band whose writings have become part of 
 the very household language of their native land, and 
 whose expressions may be said, like those of Shakspeare, 
 of Moliere, and of Cervantes, to have become the natural 
 forms embodying the ideas which they have expressed, 
 and, in expressing, consecrated. In a word, Pooshkin is 
 undeniably and essentially the great national poet of 
 Russia." 
 
 See Galathof, " Chrestomafhie Russe :" Prince E. Mktcher- 
 ski, " Les Poetes Russes ;" Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" 
 "Sketch of Pushkin's Life and Works," by t. B. Shaw, 1845; 
 *' Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1S32 ; " Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for June and July, 1845. 
 
 Pooat or Post, post, (Frans,) a Dutch painter, born 
 at Haarlem about 1615. He passed some years in Bra- 
 zil, the scenery of which he painted. Died in 1680. 
 
 Poot, pot, (Hubert,) an eminent Dutch poet, born 
 near Delft in 1689, was a cultivator of the soil. He 
 published a volume of poems in 1716. He excelled in 
 Anacreontic poetry. Died in 1733. 
 
 See Paquot, "Memoires;" Db Vries, "Histoire de la Poe'sie 
 Hollandaise." 
 
 Pope, ( Alexander, ) a popular English poet and 
 critic, born in London on the 22d of May, 1688, was a 
 son of a linen-draper. His parents were Roman Cath- 
 olics. In consequence of his sickly constitution and 
 deformed person, he was unfitted for active life. During 
 his childhood he resolved to be a poet. His precocity 
 was remarkable. He says himself that he began to write 
 verses farther back than he could well remember. At 
 the age of eight he read with interest Ogilby's transla- 
 tion of Homer. He wrote his " Pastorals" at the age 
 of sixteen ; but they were not published until 1709. 
 Among his early productions are the " Essay on Criti- 
 cism," (1710,) which was praised by Addison, and "The 
 Rape of the Lock," (171 1,) a mock-heroic poem, which 
 was much admired. His " Messiah," an exquisite poem 
 in imitation of Virgil's fourth eclogue, appeared in Ad- 
 dison's "Spectator" in 1712. In 1713 he issued pro- 
 posals for a subscription to a translation of Homer's 
 "Iliad," which was completed in 1718-20. and obtained 
 a great popularity. It is, however, far from being a 
 faithful translation. "It is a fine poem," says Bentley, 
 "but not Homer." About 1715 he became estranged 
 from Addison, whom he accused of conspiring with 
 Tickell, who had produced (in part) a rival translation 
 of the "Iliad." Pope revenged himself by writing the 
 keen, not to say malicious, satire on " Atticus." " He 
 was," says Macaulay, "a great master of invective and 
 sarcasm. He could dissect a character in terse and 
 sonorous couplets brilliant with antithesis." (" Essay 
 on the Life and Writings of Addison.") His talent for 
 satire is conspicuous in the "Dunciad," (1728,) apoetical 
 work of much critical merit. He published in 1733 his 
 " Essay on Man," a philosophic poem, which has en- 
 joyed an extraordinary popularity, and which Bulwer 
 pronounces " unequalled in didactic solemnity and splen- 
 dour since Lucretius set to music the false creed of Epi- 
 curus." With the aid of Broome and Fenton, he translated 
 the "Odyssey," (1725.) He also produced admirable 
 " Imitations of Horace." He wrote, in prose, a number 
 of essays and letters, the style of which is considered 
 excellent. " Pope's epistolary excellence," says Dr. 
 Johnson, "had an open field: he had no English rival, 
 living or dead." In the latter part of his life he lived at 
 Twickenham, where he had purchased a house. He fa- 
 voured the Tory party and the Roman Catholic Church. 
 Among his intimate friends were Swift, Atterbury, and 
 Lord Bolingbroke. Died in May, 1744. He possessed 
 little originality or creative imagination ; but he had a 
 
 vivid sense of the beautiful, and an exquisite taste. He 
 owed much of his popularity to the easy harmony of his 
 verjse, the keenness of his satire, and the brilliancy of 
 his antithesis. 
 
 "The Essay on Man," says Dr. Johnson, "affords an 
 egregious instance of the predominance of genius, the 
 dazzling splendour of imagery, and the seductive powers 
 of eloquence. Never was penury of knowledge and 
 vulgarity of sentiment so happily disguised. The reader 
 feels his mind full, though he learns nothing, and, when 
 he meets it in its new array, no longer knows the talk 
 of his mother and his nurse." The same critic pro- 
 nounces the "Rape of the Lock" "the most airy, in- 
 genious, and delightful of his compositions, and the most 
 exquisite example of ludicrous poetry. . . . He was 
 sometimes wanton in his attacks, and before Chandos, 
 Lady Wortley, and Hill, was mean in his retreat. His 
 malignity to Philips, whom he had first made ridiculous 
 and then hated for being angry, continued too long." 
 He was extremely addicted to artifice and insidious de- 
 signs. It has been said that "he hardly drank tea 
 without a stratagem." An edition of his works, with a 
 commentary, was published by Warburton, (9 vols., 
 1751-60.) 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the Poets;" a " Memoir of Pope," by 
 Bowles, 1807; a "Memoir" prefixed to W. Roscoe's edition 
 of Pope's Works, 1824; R. Caruthers, " Life of Alexander Pope," 
 1857 ; " Life of Pope," by Owen Ruffhead, 1767; William Avre, 
 " Memoirs of the Life of A. Pope," 2 vols., 1745; Joseph Warton, 
 " Essay on tbe Genius and Writings of Pojie," 2 vols., 1756-82 ; M. 
 Mendelssohn, "Pope ein Metaphysiker," 1757; Lord Byron, 
 "Letter to Murray on Bowles's Strictures," 1821; Thackeray, 
 "The English Humourists:" Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors:" 
 " Encyclopedia Britannica," article " Pope," (by De Quincey,) also 
 "Biographical Essays," by the same; Campbell, "Specimens of 
 the British Poets; "Works and Character of Pope," in the 
 "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1825; "Pope and bis 
 Contemporaries," m the "British Quarterly Review" for August, 
 1847: Spence, "Anecdotes, Observations," etc., 1820. 
 
 Pope, (John,) an American general, born at Kas- 
 kaskia, Illinois, in March, 1823. lie graduated at West 
 Point in 1842, served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and 
 commanded an expedition sent to survey the route of 
 the Pacific Railroad in 1854-59. He obtained the rank 
 of captain in 1856, and became a brigadier-general of 
 volunteers in May, 1861. He captured New Madrid in 
 March, and Island No. 10 in April, 1862, with several 
 thousand prisoners. In June, 1862, he was appointed 
 commander of the Army of Virginia, composed of three 
 corps. He was promoted to be a brigadier-general in 
 the regular army in July, 1862. His army was defeated 
 by Stonewall Jackson at Manassas, or Bull Run, on the 
 29th and 30th of August, 1862. He retreated to Wash- 
 ington, and resigned the command about September 3, 
 after which he was employed against the Indians in 
 Minnesota. He commanded in the third military dis- 
 trict, comprising Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, from 
 March or April to December, 1867. 
 
 Pope, (Sir Thomas,) an English politician, born at 
 Dedington about 1506, was a patron of learning. He 
 held several offices in the reign of Henry VIII., and 
 had the care or custody of the princess Elizabeth in the 
 reign of Mary. He founded Trinity College, Oxford. 
 Died in 1559. 
 
 See Warton, "Life of Sir Tliofcias Pope." 
 
 Pope, (Walter,) an English physician, born in 
 Northamptonshire about 1630. He was professor of 
 astrouomy at Oxford from 1660 to 1687, and Fellow of the 
 Royal Society. He wrote "The Old Man's Wish," a 
 poem, (1693,) a " Life of Seth Ward," (1697,) and other 
 works. Died in 1714. 
 
 Popeliniere, de la, deh 13 pop'le'ne-aiR', (Lance- 
 lot Voisin — vwi'zas',) Sikur, a French historian, 
 born in Poitou about 1540. He was an officer in the 
 Huguenot army, and wrote a " History of the Civil 
 War which began in 1562," (1571,) a work'of some merit. 
 Died in 1608. 
 
 Popham, pop'am, (Sir Home Riggs,) a British naval 
 officer, born in 1762. He commanded the naval forces 
 employed in the capture of the Cape of Good Hope and 
 Buenos Ayres in 1806. He became a rear-admiral in 
 1814. Died in 1820. 
 
 Popham, (Sir John,) an English judge, born in 
 Somersetshire in 1531, became chief justice of the king's 
 
 « ast; 9 as*; %hard; gas/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal '; R, trilled; § as 17 th as in this. (jy^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
POP MA 
 
 1828 
 
 P0R80N 
 
 bench about 1592. He had a high reputation as a lawyer. 
 Died in 1607. , 
 
 Popma, pop'ma, (Ausonius,) a Dutch philologist 
 and jurist, born in Friesland in 1563. He published a 
 good work on Latin synonyms, (" De Differentiis Ver- 
 borum," 1635,) and other works. Died in 1613. 
 
 See D. Richter, "Vita Ausonii a Popma," 1746. 
 
 Poppae'a (pop-pee'a) Sa-bi'na, a Roman empress, 
 the wife of Nero, was more remarkable for beauty than 
 modesty. Died in 65 A.D. 
 
 Foppe, von, fon pop'peh, (Johann Heinrich Mo- 
 ritz,) a German scientific writer, born at Gottingen in 
 1776. He published numerous works, among which are 
 a "Technological Lexicon," (5 vols., 1816-20,) and 
 "Neueste Handwerks- und Fabrikschule," (9 vols., 1827- 
 36.) Died in 1852. 
 
 Poppi, H. See MoRANDINI. 
 
 Poppig or Poeppig, pop'piG, (Eduard,) a German 
 naturalist and traveller, bom at Plauen, in Saxony, in 
 1797. He visited the West Indies and North and South 
 America, where he made valuable zoological and botan- 
 ical collections. He published in 1835 his "Travels in 
 Chili, Peru, and on the Amazon." In 1845 he became 
 professor of zoology at Leipsic. Died in December, 
 1868. Poppig and Endlicher published a work on the 
 plants of Chili and Peru, "Nova Genera et Species 
 Plantarum," etc., (3 vols., 1835-45.) 
 
 See " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1836. 
 
 Poppo, pop'po, (Ernst Friedrich,) a German 
 scholar, born in Lower Litsatia in 1794, published 
 editions of Thucydides and other classics, and several 
 critical works. 
 
 Poquelin. See Moi.iere. 
 
 Porbus, poR'bus, (Frans,) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Bruges in 1540. He painted portraits, history, and 
 genre with success. Died about 1582. 
 
 His father, Peter, born <j» Gouda about 1510, was a 
 painter of history and portraits. Died in 1584. 
 
 Porbus, (Fr'ASs;) the Younger, a skilful painter of 
 
 Eortraits and history, a son of Frans, noticed above, was 
 orn at Antwerp in 1570. He worked mostly in Paris. 
 " His picture of the Last Supper, '"says the " Biographie 
 Universelle," " is one of the finest productions of the 
 Flemish school." Died in Paris in 1622. 
 
 See Fei.ibihM, " Entrefiens sur la Vie ties Peintres." 
 
 Porcacchi, poR-kak'kee, (Tommaso,) an Italian litte- 
 rateur, born in Tuscany about 1530. Among his works 
 are "The Most Famous Islands of the World," (1572,) 
 and " Ancient Funerals of Divers Nations," (1574.) Died 
 at Venice in 1585. 
 
 Porcellio, poR-chelle-o, (Pietro,) an Italian poet 
 and historian, was secretary of Alfonso, King of Naples, 
 in 1452. 
 
 Porchat, poR'shi', (Jean" Jacques,) a Swiss writer 
 and translator, born near Geneva in 1800. He wrote 
 "The Mission of Joan of Arc," a drama, in verse, 
 (1844,) and translated the complete works of Goethe 
 into French. 
 
 Porcberon, poRsh'r6.N', (Dom Placide,) a French 
 Benedictine monk, born at Chateauroux in 1652. He 
 edited a few old works. l")iecl in 1694. 
 
 Porcia or Portia, por'she-a, [Fr. Porcie, poR'se',] 
 a Roman matron, eminent for her magnanimity, pru- 
 dence, and fortitude, was the daughter of Cato, and 
 the wife of Marcus Brutus. Plutarch relates that she 
 inflicted a wound on herself to prove that she was 
 worthy to be the confidante of her husband in respect 
 lo affairs of state. Died in 42 R.c. 
 
 Porden, (Eleanor Annk.) See Franklin. 
 
 Pordenone, II, 61 poR-da-no'na, an excellent Italian 
 painter, whose proper name was Giovanni Antonio 
 Licinio (le-chee'ne-6) or Licino, (le-chee'no,) bom at 
 Pordenone, in Friuli, in 1483. He assumed the name 
 of Reoii.i.o. He was an imitator of Giorgione, and a 
 rival of Titian. It is not known who was his master. 
 He was a good colorist, and had great skill in design. 
 He painted frescos in Venice, Mantua, Cremona, and 
 Piacenza. His frescos (which represent subjects from 
 the New Testament) in the cathedral of Cremona are 
 highly praised. Among his best oil-paintings is his " San 
 
 Loienzo Giustiniani with John the Baptist," etc., at 
 Venice. He died at Ferrara in 1540. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters-," Lanji, "History of 
 Painting in Italy;" Ridolfi, " Vite degli illustri Pittori Veneti." 
 
 Pordenone, (Giui.10 Licinio,) a skilful painter, a 
 nephew and pupil of the preceding, was born at Venice 
 in 1500. He painted Sonic frescos at Augsburg, where 
 he died in 1561. , 
 
 Poree, po'ri', (Charles,) a French Jesuit, born near 
 Caen in 1675, was professor of rhetoric at Paris for 
 thirty years. Voltrtire was his pupil. He published 
 Latin tragedies and orations. Died in 1741. 
 
 Poree, (Charles Gahriki,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Caen in 1685. He wrote " Histoire 
 de Don Ranucck) d'Aletes," (1736,) and other works. 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 Porfirio. See Porphyry. 
 
 Porlier, poR-le-atu', (Don Juan Diaz,) Marquis de 
 Matarosa, a Spanish general, born in 1775. He fought 
 for the Cortes against the absolutists, by whom he was 
 taken prisoner and shot in 1815. 
 
 Porner or Poerner, pou'ner, (Karl Wilhei.m,) a 
 German chemist, born at Leipsic in 1732. He published 
 several works on chemistry and the art of dyeing. Died 
 in 1796. 
 
 Porphyre. See Porphyry. 
 
 Porphyrius. See Porphyry. 
 
 Porphyry, por'fe-re, [Or. U.oi>(f>vptor ; Lat. Porphyr'- 
 ius; Fr. Porphyre, poR't'en'; It. Porfirio, por-fee're-o,] 
 a celebrated Neo-Platonic philosopher, born at Bata- 
 naea, (Bashan,) in Syria, in 233 A.D. His original name 
 was Malchus or Melech, the Hebrew and Syriac 
 for "king." Porphyrius signifies "purple," or "wearer 
 of purple." He was a pupil of Lnnginus, and perhaps 
 of Origen. About the age of thirty he went to Rome, 
 where he became a disciple and friend of Plotinus, 
 whose doctrines and mysticism he adopted. He edited 
 (or corrected) and arranged the works of Plotinus, at 
 his request. He wrote (in Greek) a famous work, in 
 fifteen books, against the Christians, which is not extant, 
 the emperor Theodosius having ordered it to be burnt 
 in the fourth century. Among his extant works are a 
 "Life of Plotinus" and a "Life of 'Pythagoras." Died 
 at Rome about 304 A.D. 
 
 See Holstenius, " De Vitaet Scriptis Porphyrii," 1711 ; Ritter, 
 "History of Philnsnphy ;" Vai.ekien Parish!-, " Dissertatiu his- 
 torica de Porphyrio," 1845; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grzeca ;" F. 
 Hoefer, article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Porpora, poR'po-ra,(Niccoi.6,)a distinguished Italian 
 musician and composer, born at Naples about 1686. He 
 composed successful operas, among which is " Ariana e 
 Teseo," (1717,) also oratorios, masses, symphonies, and 
 cantatas. About 1 730 he .went to London to direct the 
 Italian Opera, and became a competitor of Handel. He 
 obtained much success in England, where he remained 
 several years. Died at Naples in 1767. 
 
 See F^TIS, " Biographie Universelle des Mnsiciens;" BrRNEY, 
 " History of Music;" " Nonvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Porporati, poR-po-ra'tee, (Carlo Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian engraver of high reputation, born near Turin in 1740 
 or 1 741. He was admitted into the Academy at Paris in 
 1773. He engraved some of the works of Raphael, Cor- 
 reggio, and other masters. Died at Turin in 1816. 
 
 Porquet, poR'ki', (PierreChari.es Franqois,) a 
 mediocre French poet, born at Vire in 1728 ; died in 1796. 
 
 Porro, por'ro, (Girolamo,) an Italian engraver, boi'n 
 at Padua about 1520, worked at Venice. 
 
 Porro, (Ignazio,) an Italian engineer, born at Pi- 
 gnerol in 1795. He settled in Paris about 1850. He 
 published a "Traite de Tachometrie," (1847.) 
 
 Por'se-na or Por-aen'na, (Lars,) a famous prince of 
 Cltisium, in Etruria. According to tradition, he marched 
 against Rome to restore the Tarquins about 508 B.C., bnt 
 wits checked by Horatius Codes, who defended a bridge 
 over the Tiber. It is the opinion of the best historians 
 that Porsena actually made himself master of Rome. 
 
 See Macaui.ay, " Horatius: a Lay of Ancient Rome;" Nikbuuk, 
 " History of Rome." 
 
 Poraenna. See Porsena. 
 
 Por'spn, (Richard,) a pre-eminent Greek scholar 
 and critic, born in Norfolk, England, December 25, 
 
 i,e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n5t; good; mobn; 
 
PORTA 
 
 1829 
 
 PORTER 
 
 1759. He was educated at Eton, and at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, of which he was elected a Fellow in 1782. 
 He became regins professor of Greek at Cambridge in 
 1790 or 1792, with a salary of forty pounds per annum. 
 His scruples against subscription to the Thirty-Nine 
 Articles induced him to decline holy orders, and he was 
 compelled to resign his Fellowship in 1791- lle ha d 
 a prodigious memory and great critical acumen, and was 
 remarkable for probity and love of truth. About 1795 
 he married Mrs. Lttnan, a widow. He edited "Seven 
 Tragedies of /Kschylus," (1795,) and the "Hecuba," 
 "Orestes," " Phcenissx," and "Medea" of Euripides, 
 (1797-1S01.) In 1S05 he was appointed librarian of the 
 London Institution. Among his works are " Letters to 
 Archdeacon Travis," (1790,) in which he maintained that 
 the seventh verse of the fifth chapter of John's First Epistle 
 is an interpolation, " Notes and Emendations on the 
 Greek Poets," (" Adversaria Notre et Emendationes in 
 PoetasGrsecos," 1812,) and an edition of the " Lexicon" 
 of Photius, (1822.) Died in London in September, 1808. 
 He is considered by the English scholars, and perhaps 
 by foreigners, the greatest verbal critic of modern times. 
 "It may safely be conceded to common fame and partial 
 friendship," says Dr. Thomas Young, "that he was one 
 of the greatest men, and the very greatest critic, of his 
 own or any other age." Poison was, according to 
 several authorities, addicted to intemperance in drink. 
 Like Dr. Johnson, he could practise abstinence more 
 easily than a moderate use of wine or ardent spirits. 
 Wonderful stories are told of his powers of memory. 
 He could repeat several pages of a book after he had 
 read them once. 
 
 '■' Life of Porson," by J- S. Watson, 1S61 ; article on Porsnn 
 in tlie " Kncvcopxdia Brilnnnica," by I)k. Thomas YOUNG; "A 
 Vindication of the Literary Character or Poison," by Ckito Canta- 
 BRiotK.Nsts. 1817; ALLIBOMS, " Diction try of Authors;" " Edinburgh 
 Review" for November, isu. and July, 1S61 ; " Porsontana." Lon- 
 don. 1814: Stephen Wkston, " Short Account of the Late R. 
 P.irton," 1IS0H. 
 
 Porta, poR'ti, (Berardo or Bernardo,) an Italian, 
 composer of operas, was born at Rome about 1755 ; died 
 in Paris in 1829. 
 
 Porta, (CARLO,) an Italian poet, born at Milan in 
 1776, wrote several popular poems. Died in 1821. 
 
 Porta, (GIOVANNI Batiisia,) a skilful Italian sculp- 
 tor, bom at Porlizza in 1542; died at Rome in I S97. 
 He is said to have been a son of Guglielmo, noticed 
 below. 
 
 Porta, (Giuseppe Salviati,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Castel-Nuovo about 1530, was a pupil of F. Salviati, 
 whose name he assumed. He settled at Venice, where 
 he painted frescos with success. He was employed by 
 Titian to decorate the library of Saint Mark. Among 
 his best oil-paintings is a "Descent from the Cross." 
 Died in 1570, or, as some say, in 1585. 
 
 See Lakzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" Ttcozzi, "Duio- 
 nario." 
 
 Porta, (Simon.) See Porzio. 
 
 Porta, della. See Baccio. 
 
 Porta, della, del'la pou'ta, (Giacomo,) a distin- 
 guished Italian architect and sculptor, born at Milan 
 about 1525. He built in Rome the portal of Saint 
 John l.ateran, (about 1574,) the College della Sapienza, 
 and the facade of Santa Maria de' Monti, (1579-) 1Ie 
 was subsequently employed to finish the basilica of 
 Saint Peter's, and, with the aid of Dotnenico Fontana, 
 constructed the vault (or roof) of the dome, after the 
 plans of Michael Angelo, (1588-90.) He died in the 
 pontificate of Clement VTIL, (1592-1605,) aged about 
 seventy -five. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" Fontenay, 
 "Diclionoaire des Artistes;" CtCoGNAUA, "Stotia della Scultura ;" 
 Quatkkmere de QuiNCV, " Dictionnaire d' Architecture." 
 
 Porta, della, ( Giambattista, ) an eminent Italian 
 natural philosopher, was bom at Naples about 1540. 
 He promoted the progress of physical science by found- 
 ing schools, and by experiments in optics, etc. He 
 was versed in the ancient languages. His house was the 
 seat of an academy called " I Segreti," which he founded 
 for the promotion of physical science. He invented 
 the camera obscura, and made improvements in lenses. 
 His principal works are " Perspectiva," (1555,) "Natural 
 
 Magic," (" Magiae Naturalis Libri XX.," 1558-S9,) " Phy- 
 toonomonica," (1583, a treatise on plants,) an able 
 "Treatise on Physiognomy," (1586, often reprinted,) 
 " Villa; Libri XII.," (on rural economy, 1592,) and " On 
 Refraction a Part of Optics," (" De Refractione Optices 
 Parte," 1593.) Died at Naples in 1615. 
 
 See Nkeron, "Memoires;" GinguknA, " Histoire Litte'raire 
 d'ltalie;" TlKABosciu, " Storia della Letteratura Ilaliana ;" G. H. 
 DfCHKSSE, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de J. H. Porta," 
 1801 ; Coi.ancei.o, "Vita di G. B. Porta," 1818; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graplite Generale." 
 
 Porta, della, (Guglielmo,) an able sculptor, born 
 near Como about 1512, was a nephew of Giacomo, noticed 
 above. He worked at Rome about 1550, and made the 
 mausoleum of Paul III. He was a favourite pupil of 
 Michael Angelo. Died about 1577. 
 
 Portaels, poR-tSls', (Jean Francois,) a Belgian 
 painter, born at Vilvorde (Brabant) in 1820. He gained 
 the grand prize of Rome in 1843. 
 
 Portal, poR'tSl', (Antoine,) Bakon, a distinguished 
 French physician and anatomist, born at Gaillac (Tarn) 
 in 1742. He began to practise in Paris about 1765, and 
 obtained the chair of medicine in the College of France 
 in 1770. He published an important work on the " His- 
 tory of Anatomy and Surgery," (.7 vols., 1770-73,) and 
 became professor of anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes 
 in 1775. He was first physician to Louis XVTII. and 
 Charles X. Among his chief works is "Course of 
 Medical Anatomy," (" Cours d'Anatomie medicale," 5 
 vols., 1803.) Died in 1832. 
 
 See Parisht, " filoge de Portal ;" " Xouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Portal, (Pierre Bartheleml) Baron, a French 
 administrator, born near Montauban in 1765. He was 
 minister of the marine from December, 1818, to Decem- 
 ber, 1821. Died in 1845. 
 
 Portalis, poR'tS'less', (Augustk.) a French writer 
 and liberal legislator, born at La Ciotat in 1801, was a 
 nephew of Jean Etienne Marie. He wrote " Essays in 
 favour of Liberty of Worship." Died in 1855. 
 
 Portalis, (Jean Etiknne Marie,) a distinguished 
 French jurist and minister of state, was born at Bausset 
 (Var) in 1745. He was an eloquent advocate before 
 the Revolution, and was imprisoned for his moderation 
 in the reign of terror. In 1795 he became a member of 
 the Council of Elders, in which he advocated humane 
 measures. He was one of the committee charged with 
 the redaction of the Civil Code in 1800, and became 
 minister of worship in 1804. Before this date he had 
 acquitted himself with credit in the task of reorganizing 
 the Roman Catholic Church in France. He published 
 several able political and legal works, and was a member 
 of the French Academy. Died in 1807. 
 
 See Hi.kssio. " GedSchtnissrede aufden Minister Portalis." 1807; 
 F. Hacoiun, " Fjoge historique de Portalis," 1845; Louts Lai.i.e- 
 mant, " Eloge de J. E. M. PorlaHs," 1861 : "Nouvelle Hiographie 
 Generale ;" Rene Lavou.ek, Portalis et ses CEuvres." 
 
 PortaUs, (Joseph Marie,) Count, an eminent states- 
 man and judge, a son of the preceding, was bom at Aix 
 in February, 1778. He became councillor of state in 
 1808, and director-general of the press and book-trade 
 (librairie) in 1810. In 1819 he was raised to the peerage. 
 In the moderate ministry of Martignac he was keeper 
 of the seals from January, 1828, to May, 1S29. lie was 
 minister of foreign affairs ixon\ that date to August 7, 
 1829, and then became first president of the court of 
 cassation. He retained until 1852 this office, (the highest 
 judicial position in France,) for which he was qualified 
 by profound knowledge of public law and a union of 
 dignity in manner with suavity of temper. Died in 1858. 
 
 See Mionkt, '.'. Notice historique sur la Vie de M. le Comte de 
 Portalis,' 1 i860; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Porte, de la, deh li poRt, (PIERRE,) a French courtier, 
 born in 1603, was a favourite agent of Anne of Austria, 
 and a valet-de-chambre of Louis XIV. He wrote "Me- 
 moires," which were printed in 1756. Died in 1680. 
 
 Porte, La. See Lapokte and La Porte. 
 
 Por'ter, (Alexander, ) born in Tyrone county, Ire- 
 land, in 1786, settled in Louisiana, where he acquired a 
 high reputation as a lawyer. He was appointed a judge, 
 of the supreme court in 1821, and in 1833 was elected to 
 the United States Senate. Died in 1844. 
 
 : as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as * ; th as in this. (J[|r=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PORTER 
 
 1830 
 
 PORTE US 
 
 Por'ter, (Andrew,) an American general, born in 
 Pennsylvania about 1810. He served as colonel at Bull 
 Run, July 21, 1861, and a few days later was appointed 
 provost-marshal of Washington. 
 
 Por'ter, (Anna Maria,) an English novelist, born at 
 Durham about 1781, was a sister of R. Ker Porter. 
 She resided successively in London, at Thames Ditton, 
 and at Esher. She wrote many popular novels, among 
 which are "The Hungarian Brothers," (1807,) "Don 
 Sebastian," (1809,) "The Recluse of Norway," (1814,) 
 "The Fast of Saint Magdalene," and "The Barony." 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 See Mks. Elwood, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England 
 from the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1843. 
 
 Porter, (Benjamin F.,) an American jurist, born at 
 Charleston, South Carolina, in 1808, translated the " Ele- 
 ments of the Institutes" of Heineccius, and published 
 a collection of poems. 
 
 Porter, (David,) an American commodore, born at 
 Boston in 1780. He became captain of the frigate Essex 
 in July, 1812, and in the same year captured the vessel- 
 of-war Alert and a number of British trading-vessels. 
 He performed a cruise in the Pacific Ocean with the 
 Essex in 1813, and took many prizes. In March, 1814, 
 the Essex was attacked near Valparaiso by two British 
 vessels, and, after a long and desperate resistance, was 
 captured. Porter served as a naval commissioner from 
 1815 to 1823, was sent as charge-d'affaires to Turkey in 
 1831, and became minister resident at Constantinople 
 in 1839. He died at Pera in 1843. He was the father 
 of Admiral D. D. Porter and Commodore William D. 
 Porter. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for July, i8rs. 
 
 Porter, (David D.,) an admiral, a son of the preced- 
 ing, was born in or near Philadelphia in June, 1813. He 
 entered the navy as midshipman in 1829, and became a 
 lieutenant about 1841. He served in the naval operations 
 against the Mexicans in 1846-47. In 1861 he was pro- 
 moted to the rank of commander. He commanded the 
 mortar-boats, twenty-one in number, which bombarded 
 Forts Jackson and Saint Philip, below New Orleans, 
 April 18-24, 1862. These forts were surrendered to him 
 on the 28th. In September or October, 1S62, he took 
 command of a flotilla of gunboats on the Mississippi 
 River. He aided the land army in the capture of Arkan- 
 sas Post, January, 1863, and co-operated with General 
 Grant in his operations against Vicksburg. For his 
 services in the reduction of the last-named place he was 
 promoted to the rank of rear-admiral by a commission 
 dated July 4, 1863. Co-operating with General Banks 
 in an expedition against Shreveport, he ascended Red 
 River with a fleet of iron-clad gunboats to a point many 
 miles above Grand Ecore, in April, 1864. He com- 
 manded the naval forces in the attack on Fort Fisher 
 in December, 1864, and bombarded the same fort with 
 success on the 14th and 15th of January, 1865. Ac- 
 cording to General Grant, this was "the most formidable 
 armada ever collected for concentration upon one given 
 point." He was appointed vice-admiral July 25, 1866, 
 and admiral in August, 1870. He holds a higher rank 
 than any other officer in the navy of the United States. 
 
 See J. T. Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 
 1867; Greeley, "American Conflict." 
 
 Porter, (Ehenezer,) an American Congregational 
 divine, born at Cornwall, Connecticut, in 1772, was ap- 
 pointed in 1812 professor of sacred rhetoric at Andover 
 Theological Seminary, of which he was afterwards presi- 
 dent. He wrote an "Analysis of the Principles of Rhe- 
 torical Delivery," (1827,) and other works. Died in 1834. 
 
 Porter, (Fitz-John,) an American general, born in 
 New Hampshire, graduated at West Point in 1845. He 
 became a captain in 1856, and a colonel in 1861. He 
 commanded a corps at the battle of Gaines's Mill, June 
 27, and at Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862, and for his bravery 
 in these engagements, in which he had to sustain the 
 brunt of the enemy's attack, was appointed a major- 
 general of volunteers the same month. His corps took 
 no part in the battle of Bull Run, August 29 and 30, 
 1S62, although it was "within sight and sound of the 
 battle." For this delinquency he was censured by Gen- 
 eral Pope, tried by a court-martial, cashiered in January, 
 
 1863, and dismissed from the service. In 1870 he ap- 
 pealed to President Grant for a reversal of the decision 
 of the court-martial : the grounds for this appeal are 
 succinctly stated in "Old and New" for June, 1870, pp. 
 816-820. 
 
 Porter, (Francis,) an Irish Catholic priest and writer, 
 became a resident of Rome, where he died in 1702. 
 
 Porter, (George Richardson,) an English writer on 
 trade, manufactures, etc., was born in London in 1792. 
 He wrote a valuable work on "The Progress of the Na- 
 tion in its Social and Commercial Relations," (3 vols., 
 1836-39.) In 1841 he became a secretary to the board 
 of trade. He was the author or compiler of statistical 
 tables issued annually by that board, and wrote a treatise 
 "On the Manufacture of Porcelain and Glass," (1842.) 
 Died in 1852 or 1855. 
 
 Porter, (Jane,) an English novelist, born at Durham 
 in 1776, was a sister of Sir Robert Ker Porter. She 
 lived with her mother and her sister Anna Maria until 
 the death of the former, in 1831. She published in 1803 
 her first novel, "Thaddeus of Warsaw," which was very 
 successful. Her historical novel of " The Scottish 
 Chiefs" (1809) also found many admirers, although it is 
 very defective as a delineation of character and manners. 
 She succeeded in mystifying the public by her anony- 
 mous story "Sir Edward Seaward's Diary," (1831.) 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 See "Eraser's Magazine" for April, r835, (with a portrait.) 
 
 Porter, (Noah,) D.D., an able American writer on 
 psychology, was born in Farmington, Connecticut, in 
 1811. He graduated at Yale College in 1831, and in 
 1846 became professor of moral philosophy and meta- 
 physics in. that institution. He has published, besides 
 other works, "The Human Intellect : with an Introduc- 
 tion upon Psychology and the Soul," (I vol. 8vo, 1868; 
 2d edition, 1869,) which has been highly praised by 
 several competent critics, among whom we may name 
 Dr. McCosh, the distinguished president of Princeton 
 College. 
 
 See Alubone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Porter, (Peter Buel,) an American general, born at 
 Salisbury, Connecticut, in 1773. On the breaking out 
 of the war of 1812 he was appointed quartermaster- 
 general of New York. He distinguished himself in tin- 
 battles of Chippewa, Lundy's Lane, and the other prin- 
 cipal actions of the war, and obtained a gold medal from 
 Congress for his services. He was appointed secretary 
 of war in May, 1828. General Porter was one of the 
 commissioners who explored a route for the Erie Canal. 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 Porter, (Sir RoiiF.RT Ker,) an English painter and 
 traveller, bom at Durham about 1 775, was a brother of 
 Anna Maria and Jane Porter. He became a student 
 of the Royal Academy, London, in 1790, and acquired 
 distinction as a painter of battles. Among his works are 
 "The Siege of Acre" and "The Battle of Agincourt," 
 and an "Ecce Homo." He went to Russia in 1804, and 
 received the title of historical painter to the emperor. 
 Having traversed several countries of Asia from 1817 to 
 1820, he published "Travels in Georgia, Persia, Arme- 
 nia, Ancient Babylonia," etc., with engravings, (2 vols., 
 1822.) Died at Saint Petersburg in 1842. 
 
 See the "Gentleman's Magazine" for July, 1S42; "Monthly Re- 
 view" for September, 1821, and January and February, 1823. 
 
 Porter, (William D.,) an American naval officer, 
 born in New Orleans in 1809, was a son of Commodore 
 David Porter, noticed above. He entered the navy in 
 1823. In 1861 he took command of the iron-clad Essex 
 on the Mississippi River. He fought at Fort Henry, 
 where the Essex was disabled and Captain Porter was 
 severely scalded, in February, 1862. In August, 1862, 
 having repaired the Essex, he destroyed the strong 
 iron-clad ram Arkansas, between Baton Rouge and Vicks- 
 burg. He was promoted to the rank of commodore. 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 See J. T. Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 
 1867. 
 
 Portes, Dea. See Desportf.s. 
 
 Por'te-tts, (Beilhy,) an English prelate of high repu- 
 tation, was born at York in 1 731. He was educated 
 at Cambridge, where he gained the Seaton's prize for an 
 
 a.e, T, o, Q, y, long;; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, 0, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moor.; 
 
PORTIA 
 
 1831 
 
 POSSEVINO 
 
 English poem "On Death." He was successively rector 
 of Hunton, prebendary of Peterborough, and rector of 
 Lambeth, (1767.) In 1769 he was appointed chaplain 
 to George III. He became Bishop of Chester in 1776, 
 and Bishop of London in 17S7. His principal work is 
 a series of " Lectures on the Gospel of Matthew," which 
 are highly esteemed. His works were published in five 
 volumes (1811) by his nephew, Robert Hodgson. Died 
 in 1808. 
 
 See "Life of Bishop Porteus," by R. Hodgson, 1811. 
 
 Portia. See Porcia. 
 
 Portland, Duke of. See Benttnck. 
 
 Port'lock, (Joseph Ellison,) Lieutenant-Colo- 
 nel, an English engineer and geologist, born about 
 1795. He assisted Colby in the trigonometrical survey 
 of Ireland commenced about 1824, and produced an 
 able " Report on the Geology of the County of London- 
 derry and of Parts of Tyrone and Fermanagh," (1843.) 
 He also wrote on Geognosy and Palaeontology. He 
 was elected president of the Geological Society in 1856. 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Portogallo, poR-to-g51'lo, (Marco Antonio SimXo,) 
 a Portuguese composer, born at Lisbon in 1763. He 
 lived many years in Italy, and composed successful 
 operas. "Fernando in Messico" is called his master- 
 piece. Died in 1829. 
 
 Port-Royalists, a name popularly given to the mem- 
 bers of the celebrated convent or society of Port-Royal- 
 des-Champs, near Versailles. It fills a prominent place 
 in the history of the Jansenist controversy. The nuns 
 were removed to Paris about 1638, (or 1644, according 
 {0 Hallam,) after which the old convent of Port-Royal- 
 des-Champs became the residence of a community of 
 religious and learned men, who practised some monastic 
 austerities and were called "Les Solitaires de Port- 
 Royal." Among these recluses were Claude Lancelot, 
 Antoine Arnauld, Le Maistre de Sacy, Pierre Nicole, 
 and lilaise Pascal. They were leaders of the Jansenist 
 party. They opened a boarding-school which became 
 celebrated, and published several good works on gram- 
 mar. The convent of nuns was suppressed by Louis 
 XIV. in 1709.. The history of Port-Royal has been 
 written by Racine, Reuchlin, Sainte-Beuve, and others. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1841: Saintr-Beuve, 
 "Histoire de Port-Royal," 4 vols., 1840-62; Mary Anne Schim- 
 melpenninck, " History of Port-Royal." 
 
 Portsmouth, Duchess of. See Keroual. 
 
 Portugal, de, da poR-too-gil', (Francisco,) Count 
 of Vimioso, a Portuguese nobleman and poet, born at 
 Ev'ora about 1490; died in 1549. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Portumne. See Portumnus. 
 
 Por-tum'nus or Por-tu'nus, [Fr. Portumne, poR'- 
 tiimn',1 a marine deity or genius among the Romans, 
 was regarded as the protector of ports and harbours, 
 and was identified with the PaL/<emon of the Greek 
 mythology. 
 
 Portunus. See Portumnus. 
 
 Portus, poK'toos, (/^mii.ius,) an eminent critic and 
 editor, born at Ferrara in 1550. He was professor of 
 Greek at Lausanne from 1581 to 1591, soon after which 
 date he obtained the chair of Greek at Heidelberg. He 
 produced good editions (with Latin versions) of Thu- 
 cydides, Aristotle on Rhetoric, Xenophon, Euripides, 
 and other Greek authors. Among his works is "Lexi- 
 con Doricum-Graeco-Latinum," (1603.) Died in 1610. 
 
 Portus, (Francis,) an eminent philologist, father 
 of the preceding, was born in Candia (Crete) in 151 1. 
 He became professor of Greek at M6dena in 1536, and 
 teacher of the sons of Renee, Duchess of Ferrara, in 
 1542. Having been converted to the Protestant faith, 
 he removed to Geneva in 1561, and obtained there 
 a chair of Greek in 1562. He wrote commentaries 
 on Aristotle, Pindar, Longinus, Thucydides, and other 
 Greeks. Died at Geneva in 1581. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" Sax, 
 " Onomasticon." 
 
 Po'rus, [Gr. Uupo^,] a king of India, who reigned 
 between the Ilydaspes and Acesines when that country 
 was invaded by Alexander the Great, 326 11. c He op- 
 posed the Macedonians with an army composed partly 
 
 of elephants, was defeated in a great battle, and taken 
 prisoner. When asked by the victor how he wished to be 
 treated, he answered, "Like a king." (Plutarch.) He was 
 restored to his kingdom by Alexander. He was killed 
 by Eudamus (or Eudemus) in 317 B.C. Another Porus 
 reigned at the same time east of the Acesines, (Chenab.) 
 
 See Arrian, "Anabasis." 
 
 Pory, por're, ? (John,) an English geographer born 
 about 1570. He published a "Geographical History 
 of Africa, translated from Leo Africanus," (1600.) In 
 1616 he went to Virginia and became secretary to that 
 colony. Died after 1623. 
 
 Porzio, poRt'se-o, (Luc Antonio,) an Italian phy- 
 sician, born near Amalfi in 1639. He taught in Rome, 
 and published a work on the diseases and treatment of 
 soldiers, (1685, often reprinted.) Died in 1723. 
 
 Porzio or Porta, poR'ta, [Lat. Pok'tius,) (Simone,) 
 an Italian philosopher, born at Naples in 1497. He pub- 
 lished a treatise "On the Human Mind," (" De Humana 
 Mente," 1 55 1,) and other works. Died in 1554. 
 
 Posadas, de las, di. las po-sa'uas, (Miguel,) a 
 Spanish painter, born at Segorbe in 171 1 ; died in 1753. 
 
 Po-sei'don or Po-si'don, [Gr. UnaetdCw,] the Greek 
 name of the god of the sea. (See Neptune.) 
 
 Poseidonius. See Posidonius. 
 
 Po'sey, (Thomas,) an American general, born on the 
 banks of the Potomac, in Virginia, in 1750. He became 
 a captain in 1775, and served with distinction at the 
 battles near Saratoga and Stillwater, September 19 and 
 October 7, 1777. He took part in the capture of Stony 
 Point, July, 1779, and commanded a brigade of the army 
 which General Wayne led against the Indians in 1792. 
 He was Governor of Indiana from 1813 to 1816. Died 
 in 1818. 
 
 See James Hall, "Memoir of Thomas Posey," in Sparks'* 
 " American Biography," vol. ix. of new series. 
 
 Posidippe. See Posidippus. 
 
 Pos-I-dip'pus, [Gr. nom'()CT-of ; Fr. Posidippe, po'- 
 ze'dep',] a Greek comic writer, born at Cassandria, in 
 Macedonia. He began to write about 290 B.C. His 
 works are lost. 
 
 Pos-I-do'ni-us or Pos-ei-do'nl-us, [Uoaetiuvtoc] 
 a Greek Stoic philosopher, born at Apamea, in Syria, 
 about 135 B.C., was a disciple of Panastius, whom he 
 succeeded as head of the school. He taught at Rhodes, 
 had a high reputation, and wrote works on astronomy, 
 history, geography, moral philosophy, etc., all of which 
 are lost. He was visited at Rhodes by Pompey about 
 68 B.C. Cicero, who was one of his pupils, expresses a 
 very favourable opinion of him. Like many other Stoics, 
 Posidonius held that pain is not an evil. According to 
 Sttidas, he removed to Rome in the consulship of M. 
 Marcellus, (52 B.C.) " Was it not a fine acknowledgment 
 of the inherent supremacy of wisdom, when the impe- 
 ratorial fasces were lowered, by command of Pompey, 
 before the person of Posidonius ?" (Arthur H. Hallam.) 
 
 See Ritter, " History of Pbilosopby ;" Fabkicius, " Bibliotheca 
 Grasca ;" Diogenes Laertius. 
 
 Posidonius of Alexandria, a mathematician, often 
 confounded with the preceding. He is said to have been 
 a pupil of Zeno. 
 
 Possel, pos'sel, (Johann,) a German philologist, born 
 at Parchim in 1528. He published "Syn taxis Grata," 
 (1560,) and other works. Died at Rostock in 1591. 
 
 Posselt, pos'sflt, (Ernst Ludwig,) a German his- 
 torian, born at Durlach, in Baden, in 1763. He began 
 to issue in 1795 "The European Annals," a periodical, 
 which he edited until 1804, and which, says Depping, 
 " was the best German periodical work on history and 
 politics." He also published several works on German 
 and French history. Died in 1804. 
 
 See Schubart, " Leben Posselt's," 1805; Gehres, "Lebenbe- 
 schreibuiiK Posselts," 2 vols., 1827. 
 
 Possevin. See Possevino. 
 
 Possevino, pos-sa-vee'no, [Lat. Possevi'nus ; Fr. 
 Possevin, pos'vaN' or pos'seh-va.s',] (Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian Jesuit, negotiator, and writer, was born at Mantua in 
 1534. He was sent by the pope on important missions 
 to Germany, Hungary, Sweden, Poland, and Russia. 
 Among his chief works are "Select Library on the 
 Method of Study," (" Bibliotheca selecta de Ratione 
 Studiorum," 2 vol*., 1593,) and "Apparatus sacer," (3 
 
 « as k; 9 a.* s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
P0SSEF1NUS 
 
 1832 
 
 POTTER 
 
 »ols., 1603-06,) in which he gives a list and review of 
 the works of all ecclesiastical writers. Died in 161 1. 
 
 See Jban d'Origny, "Vie de Possevin," 1712; Niceron, "Mi- 
 moires;" Ginguene, "Histoire Litteraire d'lta :f." " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Geneiale." 
 
 Possevinus. See PossevinO. 
 
 Post, (Francis.) See Poost. 
 
 Postel, pos'tel', [Lat. Postel'lus,] (Guillaume,) a 
 French visionary, born in Normandy in 15 10, is said to 
 have been one of the most learned men of his time. Hi 
 becanie professor of Oriental languages at Paris in 1539, 
 but soon resigned, and led a wandering life. It appears 
 that he asserted the power of reason to be sufficient to 
 demonstrate the dogmas of religion and to convert all 
 nations. His book "On the Harmony of the World" 
 ("De Orbis Terra; Concordia," 1544) is called his best 
 Work. Died in Paris in 1581. 
 
 See Dksbiu.ons, " Nouveaux fclaircissemens sur la Vie de Pos- 
 tel," 1773; Chaufepie, "Remarques sur Postel:" A. Phhhm-d, 
 "F. Wilson, G. Postel et Louis Castelvetro," 1850; Nicer.jn, 
 "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Postellus. See Postel. 
 
 Postlethwayt, pos's'l-thwat, (Malachi,) an English 
 writer on commerce, of whom little is known. It is 
 supposed that he was born about 1707. He published, 
 besides other books, " The Merchant's Public Counting 
 House," (1750,) and "Great Britain's True System," 
 (1757,) which are works of merit. Died in 1767. 
 
 Pos'tu-mus or Poat'hu-mus, a Roman general, 
 whom Valerian appointed governor of Gaul. He was 
 proclaimed emperor by his army in 257 A.D. He waged 
 war against Gallienus, and continued to rule Gaul until 
 he was murdered by his mutinous soldiers, in 267 A.D. 
 He is represented as an able and virtuous ruler. 
 
 See Mbrmet, " Notice sur Posthumus," 1827. 
 
 Pot'a-nio or Pot'a-mon, [Uoruftuv,] a Platonic or 
 Eclectic philosopher of Alexandria, is supposed to have 
 lived in the second or third century after Christ. lie 
 is sometimes called the founder of the Eclectic school. 
 His works are not extant. 
 
 Potamon. See Potamo. 
 
 Pote, (Joseph,) an English printer of Eton, wrote a 
 " History of Windsor Castle." Died in 1787. 
 
 Fo-tSni'kin, [Russ. pron. pot-yom'kin,] (Gregor 
 Alexandrovitch,) Prince, a Russian field-marshal and 
 favourite of the empress Catherine II., was born near 
 Smolensk in 1736. He rose rapidly to the highest offices 
 and honours of the empire, and exercised almost un- 
 bounded influence in political affairs. He induced the 
 empress to engage in the Turkish war of 1771, and in 
 the campaign of 1787 was appointed to the chief com- 
 mand of the Russian army. As a reward for his services 
 in taking several provinces from the Turks, Catherine 
 bestowed upon him a superb palace at Saint Petersburg, 
 which she called Taurida, the name previously given to 
 the conquered provinces. Died in 1 791. 
 
 See Madame de Cerenville, "Vie de Potemkin," 1807-08; 
 "Privatleben des Kursten von Potemkin," Gratz, 1793; "Memoirs 
 
 3f Prince Potemkin," London, 1S14 ; "Monthly Review" for 
 anuary, 1813. 
 
 Pot'en-ger or Pot'tin-ger, (John,) an English poet 
 and barrister, born at Winchester in 1647; died in 1733. 
 
 Pothier, po'te-a', (Robert Joseph,) a celebrated 
 French jurist, born at Orleans in 1699. He was ap- 
 pointed professor of French law at Orleans in 1 749, 
 before which he had served as conseiller au chatclet. 1 le 
 published a great work on Roman law, entitled "Pan- 
 dects of Justinian digested into New Order," (" Pandectae 
 Justinianae in Novum Ordinem digestae," 3 vols., 174S- 
 ■52,) and several treatises on contracts. The compilers 
 of the Napoleonic Civil Code availed themselves of the 
 works of Pothier to a large extent. Died at Orleans 
 in 1772. 
 
 See Jousse, " K"lOge de Pothier," 1772: P. Bernaoeau. "Vies 
 de Dbmat, Furgole et Pothier," 1789; DuplN, "Dissertation sur la 
 Vie et lesOiivrages de Pothier," 1827; Fremont, " Rechei-ches bio- 
 graplliques sur Pothier," 1859. 
 
 Pothoven, pot'ho'ven, (Henri,) a Dutch painter of 
 portraits and cabinet-pictures, born at Amsterdam in 
 1725 ; died about 1795. 
 
 Potter, po'te-V, (Charles Gabriel,) a French 
 comedian, was bom in Paris in 1774; died in I838. 
 
 Potocki, po-tots'kee, (Claudia,) Countess, a patri- 
 otic Polish lady, born in Posen in 1802, was noted for 
 her benefactions to the sick and wounded during the 
 war in 1830-33. Died in 1836. 
 
 Potocki, (Ignatius,) Count, a Polish patriot, born 
 about 1750. He was a coadjutor of Kosciusko in 1794. 
 Died in 1809. 
 
 Potocki, (Jan,) Count, a Polish historian, born in 
 1761, was the author of a "Primitive History of the 
 Russian People," "Chronicles, Memoirs, and Researches 
 towards the History of all the Slavic Nations," and 
 other works of the kind, in French. Died in 1815. 
 
 Potocki, (Stanislas Felix,) Count, a Polish noble- 
 man, born in 1750, took sides with Russia in the Polish 
 revolution of 1791, and was made a field-marshal by 
 Catherine II. Died in 1803. 
 
 Potocki, (Stanislas Kostka,) Count, a Polish 
 patriot and statesman, born in 1757. As a member of 
 the Diet of 1788-92, he was celebrated for his eloquence. 
 He was appointed in 1815 minister of public instruc- 
 tion. He wrote an admired treatise " On Eloquence and 
 Style." Died in 1821. 
 
 See LEt.EWEt., " Histoire de Pologne," rS44. 
 
 Pott, pot, (August Frikdrich,) a German philolo-' 
 gist, born near Minden, in Hanover, in 1802. He be- 
 came professor of philology at Halle in r833- Among 
 his works are " Researches in the Etymology of the Indo- 
 Germanic Languages," (2 vols., 1833-36,) and "Personen- 
 Namen," (a treatise on proper names, 1853.) 
 
 Pott, (Iohann Heinrich,) a German chemist, born 
 at Halberstadt in 1692. He was professor of chemistry 
 in Berlin, and was chiefly noted for his successful ex- 
 periments in search of clay for the manufacture of 
 porcelain. Died in 1777. 
 
 Pott, (Percival,) F. R.S., an eminent fingfflsh sur- 
 geon, bovn in London in 17 13. He was surgeon of 
 Bartholomew's Hospital from 1749 to 1787, and made 
 important improvements in the practice of surgery. He 
 wrote many able works, among which are a "Treatise 
 on Ruptures," (1756,) "Observations on Injuries of the 
 Head," (1760,) "Remarks on Fistula in Ano," (1765,) 
 and " Remarks on Fractures and Dislocations," (1768.) 
 The style of his writings is much admired. Died in 
 1788. 
 
 See John Eari.e, "Short Account of the Life of P. Pott," 1790. 
 
 Pot'ter, (Alonzo,) D.D., LL.D.,an American Episco- 
 pal bishop, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1800. 
 He graduated at Union College, where he was elected in 
 1821 professor of mathematics and natural philosophy. 
 Having been ordained the same year, he became rector 
 of Saint Paul's Church, Boston, in 1826, and in 1831 
 vice-president and professor of moral philosophy at 
 Union College. He was consecrated Bishop of Penn- 
 sylvania in 1845. He published "Political Economy, 
 its Objects, Uses, and Principles considered," (1841,) 
 " Hand-Book for Readers add Students," (1847,) and 
 other works. Died in 1863. 
 
 Pot'ter, (Barnabas or Barnaby,) an English prelate. 
 born in Westmoreland in 1 578. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Carlisle in 1628. He was an eloquent preacher, 
 but was regarded by the high-church party as a Puritan. 
 Died in 1642. 
 
 Potter, (Christopher,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 wa# born near Kendal in 1591. He becanie Dean 
 of Worcester in 1635, and vice-chancellor of Oxford 
 University in ^640. He was a partisan of Charles I. in 
 the civil war. He translated Sarpi's " History of the 
 Quarrels of Pope Paul V. with the State of Venice," 
 (1626.) Died in 1646. 
 
 Potter, (Citriani,) an eminent English musician 
 and Composer, born in London in 179?!. He Was prin- 
 cipal of the Royal Academy of Music in London for 
 many years. He composed overtures, symphonies, duets, 
 trios, and sonatas for the piano, On which he was a skilful 
 performer. His style is represented as purely classical. 
 He became professor of composition in the Royal Acad- 
 emy soon after it was founded. 
 
 Potter, (FRANCls,)an English mechanician and clergy- 
 man, born in 1 594; died in 1678. 
 
 Potter, (Hazard Arnold,) an American physician 
 and surgeon, born in Yates county, New York, in l8tt. 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, fl, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, y\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fit, fill, fit; met; not j good; moon; 
 
POTTER 
 
 •833 
 
 POURCHOT 
 
 graduated at Bowdoin College in 1835. He subsequently 
 settled at Geneva, New York, where he acquired a high 
 reputation as a surgeon. 
 
 Potter, (Horatio,) D.D., LI.D., brother of Alonzo 
 Potter, noticed above, was born in Dutchess county, New 
 York, in 1802. He graduated at Union College, and in 
 1828 was appointed professor of mathematics and natu- 
 ral philosophy at Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut. 
 He became Bishop of the diocese of New York in 1861. 
 Potter, (John,) Archbishop of Canterbury, was born 
 at Wakefield,- Yorkshire, in 1674. While a student at 
 Oxford he published "Antiquities of Greece," ("Ar- 
 chaeologia Graeca," 2 vols., 1698,) often reprinted. He 
 became Bishop of Oxford in 1715, and Archbishop of 
 Canterbury in 1737. He was author of some works 
 on theology, and editor of a good edition of Clemens 
 Alexandrinus, (1715.) Died in 1747. 
 
 See Anderson and Dunbak, "Life of John Potter;" Hook, 
 " Lives of ihe Archbishops of Canterbury." 
 
 Potter, pot'ter, (Paul,) a celebrated Dutch painter 
 of animals, was born at Enkhuysen in 1625. Among his 
 master-pieces are a " Herdsman with Cattle," in the 
 gallerv of the Louvre, a "Bear-Hunt," in the Amster- 
 dam Museum, and a landscape with cattle and figures, 
 in the collection of the Marquis of Westminster. His 
 pictures are generally of cabinet size, and are remark- 
 able for accuracy of design and exquisite finish, lit- 
 also produced a number of excellent engravings. Died 
 in 1654. 
 
 See Dbscawps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands :" Lrcarpentirr, 
 "Paul Potter," 1818; Nagi.er, " Allgeineines Kiinsller-Lexikon." 
 Potter, (Robert,) an English poet and translator, 
 born in 1721. He became vicar of Seaming, prebendary 
 of Norwich, and vicar of Lowestoft and Kessingland. 
 He published a volume of poems in 1774, and a trans- 
 lation of ^Eschylus in 1777, which is commended. He 
 also translated Euripides (1782) and Sophocles, (1788.) 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 Potter, de, deh pot'ter, (Louis Joseph Antoine,) a 
 Belgian historian and liberal politician, bom at Bruges 
 in 17S6. He published a rationalistic history of the 
 Church, entitled "Esprit de Tfiglise," (6 vols., 1821,) 
 which produced a great sensation. He was a chief 
 promoter of the union of Catholics with Liberals which 
 secured the success of the revolt against the King of 
 Holland in 1830. Among his works is a " Philosophical, 
 Political, and Critical History of Christianity," (8 vols., 
 1836.) Died in 1859. 
 
 See " Nouvelle liin^raphie G<*ne>ale." 
 
 Pottier, po'te-4', (ANDRE ArioDant,) a French an- 
 tiquary and savant, born in Paris in 1799, lived many 
 years at Rouen. 
 
 Pottier, (Francois,) a French missionary, born at 
 Loches in 1718, laboured in China. Died in 1792. 
 
 Fot'tin-ger, (Sir Henry,) Bart., G.C.B., a British 
 administrator, born in Down cointy, Ireland, in 1789. 
 He entered the service of the East India Company in 
 his youth. About 1840 he was sent to China as am- 
 bassador and superintendent of the British trade. He 
 negotiated in 1842 a treaty which ended the opium war 
 in China. In 1846 he became Governor of the Cape 
 of Good Hope, and in 1847 Governor and commander- 
 in-chief of Madras. He returned to England in 1854, 
 and died at Malta in 1856. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1856. 
 Pottinger, (John.) See Potenger. 
 Pouchard, poo'shiV, (JuutN,) a French classical 
 scholar, born near Domfront in 1656. He was chief 
 editor of the "Journal des Savants." Died in 1705. 
 
 Pouchet, poo'shj', (Felix ArchimEde,) an eminent 
 French naturalist and physiologist, born at Rouen in 
 I800. He acquired distinction by his numerous works, 
 among which are an " Elementary Treatise on Botany," 
 (1835,) a "Natural History of the Animal Kingdom," 
 (2 vols., 1841,1 and a " Theory of Spontaneous Ovulation 
 and Fecundation of Mammifera," (1847.) He is an 
 advocate of the doctrine of spontaneous generation, on 
 wiiich he wrote "Traite de la Generation spontanee," 
 (1859,) and "Nouvelles Experiences stir la Generation 
 spontanee et la Resistance vitale," (1863.) " His works," 
 s.-ws the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale," "are distin- 
 
 guished for scrupulous accuracy, extent of views, and an 
 excellent method. To him belongs the honour of having 
 formulated in a neat and precise manner the fundamental 
 laws of fecundation among the mammifera. His experi- 
 ments on spontaneous generation, in opposition to those 
 of M. Pasteur, had a great celebrity ( retentissement ) in 
 the scientific world." One of his works has been trans- 
 lated into English, with the title " The Universe : the 
 Infinitely Great and Infinitely Little," (1870.) 
 See the " British Quarterly Review," 1869. 
 
 Pouchkin or Pouschkin. See Pooshkin. 
 
 Pougatchef or Pougatchev. See Poogatchef. 
 
 Pougens, de, deh poo'zhoN', (Marie Charles Jo- 
 seph,) a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1755. He 
 became blind at the age of twenty-four. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "The Four Ages," a poem, (1819,) 
 and " Philosophical Letters," (1826.) He was a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Inscriptions. Died in 1833. 
 
 See T. Lorin, " Notice sur Charles de Pougens," 1836; SlL- 
 vestrb dkSacy, " Notice sur la Vie de M. le Chevalier de Pougens," 
 ■ 837- 
 
 Ponget, poo'zhi', (Francois Aung,) a French priest, 
 born at Montpellier in 1666, was vicar of Saint- Roch, 
 in Paris. He published a " Catechisme de Montpellier," 
 (1702,) which was adopted in all France. Died in 1723. 
 
 Pouillet, poo'yi', (Claude Servais Matthias,) a 
 French natural philosopher and elegant writer, born in 
 the department of Doubs in 1791. He was elected to 
 the Academy of Sciences in 1837, and obtained the 
 chair of physics at the Sorbonne in 1838. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, " Elements of Experimental 
 Physics and Meteorology," (2 vols., 1827; 7th edition, 
 1856,) which is said to be the most complete and best- 
 written treatise on that subject in French. Died in 1S68. 
 
 Pouilly, de. See Levesquk. 
 
 Poujoulat, poo'zhoo'li', (Jean Joseph Francois,) a 
 French litterateur, born at I^a Fare (Bouches du Rhone) 
 in 1808. lie accompanied Midland on a visit to the 
 Levant, (1830,) and wrote, in partnership with him, 
 " Oriental Correspondence," ( " La Correspondance 
 d'Orient," 7 vols., 1832-35.) He received prizes from 
 the French Academy for his " History of Jerusalem" 
 (1840) and " Historv of Saint Augustine," (3 vols., 1844.) 
 
 Poullain-Duparc, poo'laN' dii'paV, (Auc.ustin 
 Marie,) a French jurist, born at Rennes in 1703, was 
 a brother of Poullain de Saint-Foix. He wrote on the 
 laws of Bretagne. Died in 1782. 
 
 Poullain de Grandprey, poo'laN' deh gK&N'pRa', 
 (Joseph Clement,) a French politician, born near 
 Mirecourt in 1744. He was a moderate republican 
 member of the Convention, 1792-95. Died in 1826. 
 
 Poullain de Saint-Foix. See Saint-Foix. 
 
 Poulle, pool, ( Nicolas Ixhms, ) a French pulpit 
 orator, born at Avignon in 1703. He obtained the title 
 of preacher to the king. Died in 1781. 
 
 Poulletier de la Salle, pool'te-i' deh 1$ sSl, (Fran- 
 cois Paul Lyon,) a French physician and chemist, born 
 in Lyons in 1719. He founded three hospitals in Paris, 
 and aided Macquer in a " Dictionary of Chemistry," 
 (1766.) Died in 1788. 
 
 Poultier-Delmotte, pool'te-i' del'mot', (Francois 
 Martin,) a French revolutionrsL'born at Montreuil-sur- 
 Mer in 1753. He voted for the death of the king in the 
 Convention, and edited the "Ami des Lois," a journal, 
 (1795-1800.) Died in 1826. 
 
 Pounds, (John,) an English philanthropist, born at 
 Portsmouth in 1766, was a shoemaker, and the founder 
 of ragged schools. He collected a number of poor 
 children in his workshop and taught them gratis. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Poupart, poo'piR', (Francois,) a French naturalist 
 and anatomist, born at Mans in 1661 ; died in 1709. 
 
 Pouqueville, pook'vel', (Francois Charles Hu- 
 cues Laurent,) a French writer of travels, -was born 
 in Ome in 1 770. He published a work entitled "Travels 
 in the Morea," etc., (" Voyage en Moree, a Constanti- 
 nople et en Albanie," 1805,) and "Travels in Greece," 
 ("Voyage en Grece," 5 vols., 1820-22.) Died in 1838. 
 
 Pourchot, pooR'sho', (Edme,) a French philosopher, 
 born at Poilly, near Sens, in 1651. He became about 
 1678 professor of philosophy in the University of Paris, 
 
 e as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, m, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (B^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
POVRBUS 
 
 1834 
 
 POTNET 
 
 of which he was chosen rector seven times. He was a 
 friend of Boileau and Racine. He published "Philo- 
 sophical Institutes," (" Institutiones Philosophical," 
 1695,) which was highly esteemed. It is said that he 
 was one of the first who taught philosophy by a rational 
 method. Died in 1734. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Pourbus. See Porbus. 
 
 Pourfour. See Petit, du. 
 
 Foussin, (Gaspar.) See Dughet. 
 
 Poussin, poo'saN', (Nicolas,) an excellent French 
 painter of history and landscapes, called "the Raphael 
 of France," was born at or near Andelys, on the Seine, in 
 Normandy, in 1594. He studied design with Quentin 
 Varin, of Amiens, and at the age of eighteen went to 
 Paris, where he received lessons from Ferdinand Elle. 
 His early efforts were embarrassed by poverty. He made 
 several attempts to visit Rome, which failed for want of 
 funds. His long-cherished desire to see that metropolis 
 of art was gratified in 1624. He there formed an inti- 
 macy with the sculptor F. Huquesnoy, and studied the 
 works of Raphael with ardent admiration. He also 
 made designs or models of antique statues and bas-reliefs. 
 For Cardinal Barberini, who became his patron, he 
 painted " The Death of Germanicus," and " The Capture 
 of Jerusalem by Titus." 
 
 Poussin married in 1630 Anne Marie Dughet, a sister 
 of the eminent painter Gaspard Dughet surnamed Pous- 
 sin. Among the works which he painted (in oil) at Rome 
 are a series of "The Seven Sacraments," "The Rape 
 of the Sabine Women," "The Triumph of Flora," and 
 "The Passage of the Red Sea." He had acquired a 
 wide celebrity when, about the end of 1640, he returned 
 to France at the request of the king, who appointed him 
 his first painter. He painted for the king a beautiful 
 altar-piece of "The Last Supper," but soon became dis- 
 gusted with the intrigues of the court and the jealousy 
 of rival artists. In 1642 he returned to Rome, where 
 he remained until his death, November, 1665. 
 
 " With a laborious and mighty grasp," says Hazlitt, 
 "he put NSture into the mould of the ideal and antique, 
 and was among painters (more than any one else) what 
 Milton was among poets. There is in both something 
 of the same pedantry, the same stiffness, the same ele- 
 vation, the same grandeur, the same mixture of art and 
 nature, the same richness of borrowed materials, the 
 same unity of character." (" Table-Talk.") 
 
 " His life," says Delacroix, " was reflected in his works, 
 and accorded with the beauty and nobleness of his in- 
 ventions." He is considered the greatest historical 
 painter that France has produced. " Poussin has a far 
 greater power," says Ruskin, "and his landscapes, though 
 more limited in material, are incomparably nobler, than 
 Claude's." The same critic calls him "the principal 
 master of the classical landscape." ("Modern Painters.") 
 
 See Charles Blanc, " Eludes stir N. Poussin ;" Maria Gra- 
 ham, "Memoirs of N. Poussin," 1820; Castellan, "Vie de N. 
 Poussin," 1S11 ; E\mehic-David, " Discours sur la Viede Poussin," 
 1812; Raoul-Rochette, "Discours sur N. Poussin," 1X43; Pas- 
 ser!, " Le Vite de' Pittori," 1772: Bouchitth, " Le Poussin, sa 
 Vie et son CEuvre ;" Gandar, "Les Andelys et N. Poussin ;" Ke- 
 lihien, " Entretiens sur la Vie des Peimres ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 pliie Generate. " 
 
 Poussines, poo'sen', (Pierre,) a French Jesuit, born 
 at Laurac in 1609. He edited and translated several 
 Greek works, among which was Anna Comnena's 
 " Alexias." Died in 1686. 
 
 Pouteau, poo'to', (Claude,) a French surgeon, born 
 at Lyons in 1724. He published several volumes on 
 surgery. Died in 1775. 
 
 Fow'ell, (The Rev. Baden,) F.R.S., an English phi- 
 losopher and geometer, born in or near London about 
 1798. He became in 1827 Savilian professor of geometry 
 at Oxford, of which he was a graduate. He contributed 
 to the " Philosophical Transactions" and " Philosophical 
 Magazine" able memoirs on optics and other sciences. 
 He was. elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1824. 
 Among his principal works are " A Historical View of 
 the Progress of Physical and Mathematical Sciences," 
 (1 vol., 1834,) "The Connection of Natural and Divine 
 Truth," (1838,) a "View of the Undulatory Theory as 
 applied to the Dispersion of Light," (1841,) "The Unity 
 
 of Worlds and of Nature : Three Essays on the Spirit 
 of the Inductive Philosophy, the Plurality of Worlds, 
 and the Philosophy of Creation," (1856,) "Christianity 
 without Judaism," (1857,) and "The Order of Nature 
 considered with Reference to the Claims of Revelation," 
 (1859.) Died in i860. 
 
 See the " North British Review" for November, 1859. 
 
 PSw'ell, (David,) a Welsh historian, born in Den- 
 bighshire about 1552, was vicar of Ruabon and rector 
 of Llanfyllin. He published Caradoc's "History of 
 Cambria," with notes, (1584.) Died in '.598. 
 
 Powell, (Edward,) an English Roman Catholic 
 priest, wrote against the divorce of Henry VIII. and 
 Catherine, and was hung in 1540 for that offence. 
 
 Powell, (Gahriel,) a son of David, noticed above, 
 was born in 1575. He was distinguished for learning, 
 and was author of some polemical works on theology. 
 Died in 1611. 
 
 Powell, (George,) an English actor and dramatist, 
 wrote "Alphonso,"a tragedy. Died in 1 7 14. 
 
 P6w'ell, (George,) an American historical painter, 
 born in New York in 1823. Among his works is "The 
 Discovery of the Mississippi." 
 
 Powell, (Griffith,) was born in Wales in 1561. 
 He became principal of Jesus College, Oxford. Died 
 in 1620. 
 
 Powell, (Sir John,) a British judge, noted for his 
 honesty, was bom in Carmarthenshire. He was de- 
 prived of office by James II. about 1688 for his conduct 
 in the trial of the seven bishops. Died in 1696. 
 
 Powell, (William,) an English actor, who performed 
 with success at Drury Lane from 1763 until 1767. Died 
 in 1769. 
 
 Powell, (William Samuel,) an English parson, 
 born at Colchester in 1717, became archdeacon of that 
 place about 1766. Died in 1775. 
 
 PSw'er, (Tyrone,) an Irish comic actor, born in the 
 county of Waterford in 1795. He performed in the 
 United States in 1840, and took passage in the steamer 
 President, which left New York in March, 1841, and 
 was never heard of afterwards. 
 
 FSw'ers, (Hiram,) an eminent American sculptor, 
 born at Woodstock, Vermont, in 1805. Having re- 
 moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, he employed himself for a 
 time in modelling busts in plaster, and subsequently 
 engaged in the same occupation at Washington. In 
 1837 he was enabled to visit Italy, where he has resided 
 many years. His statue of " Eve" was exhibited in 1838, 
 and was at once acknowledged as a master-piece. It 
 was followed soon after by his "Greek Slave," which 
 became widely celebrated and has placed the artist in 
 the first rank of living sculptors. Among his other 
 works may be named " II Penseroso," " The Fisher- 
 Boy," "California," "America," statues of Washington 
 and Calhoun, and busts of Chief-Justice Marshall, 
 Adams, Webster, and Van Buren. 
 
 See Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists;" "Living Age" for 
 October, 1847, by Edward Everett. 
 
 PSw'hat-ail', an Indian sachem who ruled over a 
 tract of country in the vicinity of James River, Virginia. 
 Died in 1618. (See Pocahontas.) 
 
 F6w'i8, (William Herbert,) Earl of, an English 
 peer, who in his youth fought for Charles I. against the 
 Parliament. He was regarded as the chief of the Roman 
 Catholic aristocracy. He was sworn of the privy council 
 in 1686, and, according to Macaulay, gave James II. 
 judicious and patriotic advice. 
 
 Powlett See Pawlett and Pa u let. 
 
 PSw'nall, (Thomas,) an English governor and an- 
 tiquary, born at Lincoln in 1722. He became Governor 
 of Massachusetts Bay in 1757, and of New Jersey in 
 1759. He returned to England in 1761. Among his 
 works is a "Description of the Antiquities of the Pro- 
 viticia Romana of Gaul," (1788.) Died at Bath in 1805. 
 
 Poyet, pwl'yj', (Bernard,) a French architect, born 
 at Dijon in 1742; died at Paris in 1824. 
 
 Poy'net or Po'net, (John,) an English bishop, born 
 in Kent about 1516, was a zealous advocate of the 
 Reformation. He became Bishop of Rochester in 1549, 
 and Bishop of Winchester in 155 1. He wrote, beside* 
 other works, a book called " King Edward's Catechism," 
 
 , e, 1, 5, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t; nit; good; 
 
 moon; 
 
POTNINGS 
 
 1835 
 
 PR AS LIN 
 
 (1553.) Having gone into exile on the accession of Mary, 
 in 1553, he died at Strasburg in 1556. 
 
 Poyn'ings, (Sir EDWARD,) an English gentleman, 
 who in the reign of Henry VII. performed an important 
 part in the suppression of the Irish rebellion of which 
 Desmond and Kildare were the leaders. Died in 1512. 
 
 Fozharski or Pojarski, po-zhaR'skee, (Dmitri,) 
 Prince, a Russian general, born in 1578, drove out the 
 Poles from Moscow in 1612. He is called by Prince 
 A. Gallitsin " one of the most popular heroes of Russia.'' 
 Died in 1642. 
 
 See Malinowskv, " Life of Pozharski," (in Russian,) 1817. 
 
 Pozzetti, pot-set'tee, (Pompilio,) a Florentine writer 
 of biography, etc., born in 1769; died in 1816. 
 
 Pozzi, pot'see, (Giovanni Battista, ) an Italian 
 painter, born at Milan, flourished about 1585. Died at 
 the age of twenty-eight. 
 
 Pozzi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian poet and physician, 
 born at Bologna about 1695 ; died in 1752. 
 
 Pozzo, pot'so, (Andrea,) an Italian painter and 
 architect, born at Trent in 1642, was a Jesuit. He 
 excelled in colouring and perspective, and adorned the 
 ceiling of Sant' Ignazio, Rome, with pictures, which 
 are commended. He published a "Treatise on Per- 
 spective," (2 vols., 1693-1702.) Died at Vienna in 1709. 
 
 See Lanzi, m History of Painting in Italy ;" Milizia, " Memorie 
 degli Architetti." 
 
 Pozzo, (Modesta.) See Fonte, (Moderata.) 
 
 Pozzo, dal, dal pot'so, (Cassiano,) an Italian an- 
 tiquary, born at Turin in 1584. He formed at Rome a 
 rich cabinet of antiquities, and was a friend and patron 
 of N. Poussin. Died in 1657. 
 
 Pozzo, dal, (Ferdinando,) Count, an Italian lawyer 
 and political writer, born in Piedmont in 176S. He was 
 elected to the French legislative body in 1803, and be- 
 came first president of the imperial court at Genoa in 
 1809. Died at Turin in 1843. 
 
 Pozzo, dal, (Girolamo,) Count, an Italian archi- 
 tect, born at Verona in 1718, was a skilful amateur. 
 
 Pozzo di Borgo, pot'so de boR'go, (Carlo An- 
 drea,) an eminent diplomatist, born at or near Ajaccio, 
 in Corsica, in 1764. He entered the service of Paoli 
 about 1790, and was elected to the French Legislative 
 Assembly in 1791. He was secretary of state in the 
 new government formed by Paoli in 1793. In 1803 he 
 entered the service of Russia, and devoted himself to 
 diplomacy, for which he was qualified by his penetration 
 and address. He performed a mission to Vienna in 
 1804 or 1805, and another to Turkey in 1807. He re- 
 garded Napoleon as a personal enemy, and contributed 
 to his overthrow. In 1813 he took a prominent part at 
 the Congress of Frankfort, and composed the famous 
 declaration of the allies. He acted as Russian commis- 
 sioner with the army of the allies in 1815, and signed 
 the treaty of Paris. He was Russian ambassador at 
 Paris from 1815 to 1835. Died in 1842. 
 
 See Vuhrer. "Notice bingraphique sur Pozzo di Borgo," 1843: 
 Capefigue. " Notice sur la Vie du Comte Pozzo di Borgo," 1844 ; 
 Lamartink, " History of the Restoration ;" "Nouveile Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Pradel, de, deh pRi'del', (Pierre Marie Michel 
 Coutray,) a French poet and iniprovisateur, born in 
 Paris in 1787. He produced many short poems. Died 
 at Brussels in 1857. 
 
 Pradier, prt'de-a', (Jacques,) a French sculptor of 
 high reputation, was born at Geneva in 1792. He gained 
 the grand prize of Rome (at Paris) in 1813, and studied 
 at Rome for five years. He became a member of the 
 Institute in 1827. His works are remarkable for soft- 
 ness and grace. His imagination was vivid, his design 
 correct, his execution good ; and with more elevation of 
 style he would have raised himself to the highest rank 
 of French sculptors. Among his best works are a 
 " Isyche," (1824,) "The Three Graces," (1831,) a mar- 
 ble group of " Venus and Cupid " (1836,) and a marble 
 statue of Sappho, (1852.) Died near Paris in 1852. 
 
 See Grorce Bell, "Pradier," Paris, 1852; "Nouveile Biogra- 
 phic Generale." 
 
 Prado, prI'do, (Ionacio,) a Peruvian general, was 
 appointed president or dictator of Peru about the end 
 of 1865. 
 
 Prado, del, del pRa'Do, (Bi.as,) a Spanish painter, 
 born at Toledo in 1544, was patronized by Philip II. 
 Died about 1605. 
 
 Pradon, pKa"d6.\', (Nicolas,) a mediocre French 
 tragic poet, born at Rouen in 1632. He produced in 
 1674 " Pyramus and Thisbe," and attempted to rival 
 Racine in " Phedre et Hippolyte," (1677,) which was 
 applauded by a certain party or cabale. Died in 1698. 
 
 See " Nouveile liiographie GeneYale." 
 
 Pradt, de, deh puat, (Abbe Dominique Dufour,) a 
 French diplomatist and political writer, born in Auvergne 
 in 1759. He became almoner of Napoleon about 1804, 
 Bishop of Poitiers in 1805, and Archbishop of Malines 
 in 1808. In 1812 he was sent as ambassador to Warsaw, 
 and, according to some writers, incurred the displeasure 
 of Napoleon, with whom he had a curious conversation 
 during his retreat from Moscow. He published many 
 political and historical works, among which is a " His- 
 tory of the Embassy to Warsaw," (1815.) Died in 1837. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire:" "Nouveile Biographie 
 Generale;" "London Quarterly Review" for January, 1816; 
 "Monthly Review," vol. Ixxx., 1816, (Appendix.) 
 
 Praed, prad, (Winthkop Mackworth,) an English 
 poet and lawyer, born in London in 1802. He was the 
 chief contributor to "The Etonian," a monthly paper 
 issued in 1820; after which he entered Trinity College, 
 Cambridge. He gained prizes for the Greek ode and 
 epigram, and for English poems, entitled " Australia," 
 (1823,) and "Athens," (1824.) In 1829 he was called to 
 the bar. He was returned to Parliament about 1830, 
 opposed the Reform bill, and was re-elected in 1835. 
 He became a successful debater and a zealous conserva- 
 tive. Died in 1839. His poems are highly commended 
 for wit and elegance. 
 
 See the "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1865; "British 
 Quarterly Review" for 1866. 
 
 Praet, van, vin prit, (Joseph Basii.e Bernard,) a 
 Belgian bibliographer, born at Bruges in 1754. He 
 became in 1784 an assistant in the Royal Library at Paris. 
 About 1795 Van Praet and Capperonnier were appointed 
 keepers of the same. He published a " Catalogue of 
 the Books printed on Vellum in the Royal Library," 
 (5 vols., 1822-28.) Died in 1837. 
 
 See Daunow, " Notice sur Van Praet ;" " Nouveile Biographia 
 Generale." 
 
 Prajapatl, pra-ja'pa-ti, [from the Sanscrit prdjd, 
 "people," or the "world," and patl, "master,"] in the 
 Hindoo mythology, a title given to certain divine per 
 sonages, called also Brahmadikas, among whom are 
 Marichi, Bhrigu, Daksha, and Narada. 
 
 See Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary." 
 
 Pram, pRam, (Christian Henriksen,) a distiiT 
 guished litterateur and journalist, born in Guldbrands- 
 dal, in Norway, in 1756. He founded at Copenhagen, 
 conjointly with Rahbek, the periodical entitled " The 
 Minerva," and in 181 1 became president of the Scandi- 
 navian Literary Society. Among his principal works, 
 which are written in Danish, are " Emilias Kilde," a 
 poem, (1782,) a heroic poem entitled " Starkodder," 
 (1785,) and the tragedy of "Damon and Pythias." He 
 also published several treatises on political economy 
 and statistics. His genius and character are eulogized 
 by Oehlenschlager. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Ersi.ew, " Forfatter-Lexicon ;" J. K. Hoest, " C. H. Prain : 
 biografisk Omrids," 1820; Howitt, "Literature and Romance of 
 Northern Europe." 
 
 Prarond, pRt'riN', (Ernest,) a French writer of 
 verses, fiction, etc., born at Abbeville in 1821. 
 
 Praslin, de, deh pRS'laN', (Cesar Gahriei. de 
 Choiseul — deh shwa'zul',) Due, a French minister of 
 state, burn in Paris in 171 2, was a cousin of the Due 
 de Choiseul. He obtained in 1748 the rank of lieutenant- 
 general, became minister of foreign affairs in 1760, and 
 minister of the marine in 1766. He was removed in 
 1770. Died in 1785. 
 
 See Condorcet, " Fjoge du Due de Praslin." 
 
 Praslin de Choiseul, pri'laN' deh shwa'zul', 
 (Chari.es Raynard Laure Felix,) Due, a French 
 peer, born in Paris in 1778 ; died in 1841. 
 
 See Nestor Aronssohn, " Notice sur M. le Due de Praslin," 
 1844. 
 
 easA 1 ; c as * ; g zW*/; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sass; th as in this. (U^"*See Explanations, 
 
 P- 23.) 
 
PRAT 
 
 1836. 
 
 PRENTICE 
 
 Prat, du. See Duprat. 
 
 Prati, pRl'tee, (Giovanni,) an Italian lyric poet, born 
 at Dascindo, in the province of Trent, in 1&15. lie 
 composed " Ednienegarda," a poem, (1841,) which was 
 received with favour. Among his other popular poems 
 ire " A Hymn to Italy," " The Song of the Future," 
 "Rodolfo," and "Count Riga," ("II Conte Riga," 1856.) 
 In 1861 he published a poem called " Ariberto," (2 vols.) 
 
 Pratilli, pRa-tel'lee, (Francesco Maria.) an Italian 
 antiquary, born at Capua about 1700; died about 1766. 
 
 Prat'I-nas, [n^ari'vac,] an Athenian dramatic and 
 lyric poet, lived about 500 B.C., and made an improve- 
 ment in the tragic art. He is regarded by some as the 
 inventor of the satiric drama. 
 
 Pratt, (Benjamin,) an American judge, born at Bos- 
 ton in 1709. He gained distinction as a lawyer, and 
 became chief justice of New York. Died in 1763. 
 
 Pratt, (Calvin E.,) an American lawyer and soldier, 
 born near Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1828. He 
 practised law for a time in New York City, and in 1861 
 commanded the Thirty-first regiment of New York 
 volunteers at the battle of Bull Run. He became 
 brigadier-general of volunteers soon after the battle of 
 Antietam. 
 
 Pratt, (Charles.) See Camden, Earl of. 
 
 Pratt, (Sir Charles,) a British general, born in 1771, 
 served in the Peninsular war at Vitoria, Nivelles, Or- 
 •hes, etc. Died in 1839. 
 
 Pratt, (Samuel Jackson,) an English poet and novel- 
 ist, born in Huntingdonshire in 1749. lie published, 
 under the assumed name of Courtney Melmoth, 
 "Sympathy," and other poems, and several successful 
 novels, among which are "The Pupil of Pleasure," 
 (1779,) and "Emma Corbett," (1781.) Died in 1814. 
 
 Praun, von, ton pnown, (Georg Andreas .Septi- 
 mus,) Baron, a German numismatist, bom in Vienna in 
 1701. He published a "Treatise on Coins or Numis- 
 matics," (1739.) Died in 1786. 
 
 Prax-ag'ct-ras, [LTpa^oyopac,] an eminent Greek phy- 
 sician of Cos, lived about 300 B.C. He was noted for his 
 skill in anatomy, and appears to have been the first who 
 explained the difference between veins and arteries. He 
 wrote several works, of which only a few fragments are 
 extant. Among his pupils was Herophilus. 
 
 See Sprengei., " Histoire de la M^decine." 
 
 Prax-il'la, [Il/aufiAAa,] a Greek lyric poetess, born at 
 Sicyon, lived about 450 B.C. Her works are lost. 
 
 Praxiphane. See Praxiphanes. 
 
 Prax-iph'a-nes, [Gr. UpaZtQiivris ; Fr. Praxiphane, 
 pRtks'e'ftn',] a Greek philosopher, born at Mitylene, 
 was a pupil of Theophrastus, and a teacher of Epicurus. 
 
 See Preller, "De Praxiphane," 1842. 
 
 Praxitele. See Praxiteles. 
 
 Prax-it'e-les, [Gr. npa-jtri: Aiyc ,• Fr. Praxitei.e, 
 pRtks'e't^l',] one of the greatest of Grecian sculptors, 
 flourished about 360 B.C. The time and place of his 
 birth are unknown. He was probably a contemporary 
 of Apelles, and an Athenian. According to Pausanias, 
 he lived three generations after Alcamenes. The name 
 of his master has not been preserved. Praxiteles is 
 regarded as the founder of a school, or the author of a 
 new style of art. Ancient writers represent him as cele- 
 brated for refinement and softness of contour, grace in 
 attitude, and delicacy in the expression of tender affec- 
 tions. Cicero considered the expression which animated 
 the heads of Praxiteles as one of the most admirable 
 and difficult results which human skill could attain. 
 Among his best works in bronze were a statue of Bac- 
 chus, a Satyr or Faun, and a statue of Apollo, called 
 " Sauroctonos." An ancient copy (in marble) of the last 
 work is preserved in the Vatican. His master-piece was 
 a marble statue of Venus (of Cnidos) without drapery, 
 which was destroyed by fire at Constantinople about 475 
 a.d. No work of Grecian sculptors, except the Jupiter 
 of Phidias, appears to have been so celebrated as this 
 Venus of Cnidos. He produced also a statue of Venus 
 draped, and a marble statue of Cupid, which was praised 
 by Pliny. He was one of the lovers of the celebrated 
 courtesan Phryne. 
 
 See Puny, "Natural History;" K. O. MOller, "Archaologie 
 der Kunst ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Pray, pnoi, (George,) a Hungarian historian, bom at 
 Presburg in 1723 or 1724. He published " Annals of the 
 Ancient Huns," (" Annates veterum Hunnorum," 176;,) 
 and a " History of Hungary from 997 to 1564," (5 vols., 
 1764-70.) Died: in 1801. 
 
 Preau. See Dupr^au. 
 
 Preault, pRa'6', (Auguste,) a French sculptor, born 
 in Palis in 1809. Among his works are a bust of N. 
 Poussin in the Louvre, Charlemagne, (1836,) and " Ophe- 
 lia," a bas-relief, (1849.) 
 
 Preble, prSb'l, (Edward,) a celebrated American 
 commodore, born in Maine in 1761. Having been made 
 a captain in 1799, he sailed m the Essex to Batavia, 
 whence he convoyed home a fleet of fourteen merchant- 
 vessels. In 1803 he was appointed to command a 
 squadron sent against Tripoli, having for his flag-ship 
 the Constitution. He attacked the batteries and gun- 
 boats which defended Tripoli several times in August 
 and September, 1804. He captured three gun-boats, 
 and sunk four others. For these services he received a 
 gold medal from Congress. Died in 1807. 
 
 See Sparks, "American Biography;" "National Portrait-Gal- 
 lery of Distinguished Americans," vol. li. 
 
 Frecipiano, di, de pRi-che-pe-a'no, (Humbert 
 Guillaume,) Count, a prelate, born at Besancon in 
 1626. He became Archbishop of Malines in 1690, and 
 was an opponent of Quesnel. Died in 171 1. 
 
 Precy, de, deli pRa'se', (Louis FRANgois Perrin — 
 p^'RaN - ',) Comte, an able French general, born near 
 Scmur in 1742. He was chosen general-in-chief by the 
 insurgents of Lyons who revolted against the Conven- 
 tion in 1793. He defended Lyons for about sixty days 
 against the besieging army, and escaped to Switzerland. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 Preisler or Preissler, pius'ler, (Georg Martin,) a' 
 German engraver and painter, bom at Nuremberg in 
 1 700; died in 1754. 
 
 Preisler or Preissler, (Johann Daniel,) a German 
 painter and designer, the father of the preceding, was 
 born at Dresden in 1665. Died in 1737. 
 
 Preisler or Preissler, (Johann Gkoug,) an engrave^ 
 born at Copenhagen in 1757, was a son of Johann Justin, 
 noticed below. Died in 1808. 
 
 Preisler or Preissler, (Johann Justin,) an engraver 
 and painter, born at Nuremberg in 1698, was a brother 
 of Georg Martin, noticed above. He etched some works 
 of Kubens. Died in 1771. 
 
 Preisler or Preissler, (Johann Martin,) a skilful 
 engraver, a brother of the preceding, was born at Nu- 
 remberg in 1715. He was appointed court engraver at 
 Copenhagen, to which he removed in 1744. His en- 
 graving of " Frederick V. on Horseback" is esteemed 
 a master-piece. He executed some works of Raphael 
 and other masters. Died in 1794. 
 
 Preissler. See Preisler. 
 
 Preller, pitel'ler, (Ludwig, ) a German classical 
 scholar and antiquary, born at Hamburg in 1809. He 
 became professor at Jena in 1846. Among his works are 
 a "History of Greek and Roman Philosophy," (1838,) 
 and a "Greek Mythology," (2 vols., 1854.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Preraare, piti'ttdtft*, (Joseph Henri,) a French mis- 
 sionary, born about 1670. He went to China in 1698, 
 and studied Chinese literature with success. He wiita 
 " Account of the Chinese Language," ("Notitia Ling. us 
 Sinicae,") and " Letters on China." Died at Peking 
 about 1735. 
 
 Premontval, pRa'moN'vfl', the assumed name of 
 Andre Pierre Le Guay, (gj,) a French writer, born at 
 Charenton in 1716. He removed to Berlin in 1752, and 
 was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of 
 that city. He wrote " Monogamy," (" La Monogamie," 
 3 vols., 1 75 1,) and other works. Died in 1764. 
 
 Premier, von, fon pRen'ner, (Anton Joseph,) a Ger- 
 man painter and engraver, born at Wallerstein in 1683. 
 He engraved the pictures of the Belvedere gallery of 
 Vienna. Died in 1743. 
 
 Premier, von, (Georg Caspar,) a painter and en- 
 graver, a nephew of the preceding, was born in 1708. 
 He worked at Rome, where he died in 1766. 
 
 Prentioe, prSn'tiss, (George Dknison,) an American 
 poet and journalist, born at Preston, Connecticut, in 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; S, e, 1, 5, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moonj 
 
PRENTISS 
 
 1837 
 
 PRESCOTT 
 
 1802, graduated at Brown University in 1823. He 
 founded in 1828 "The New England Review,'' and, 
 having removed to Kentucky, became in 1831 editor of 
 the " Louisville Journal," which soon acquired the repu- 
 tation of one of the ablest and most brilliant journals 
 in the country. He published a number of small poems 
 of great beauty. A collection of his witticisms, entitled 
 " Prenticeana," appeared In i860. Died in 1870. 
 See Griswold," Poets ami Poetry of America." 
 
 Pren'tiss, (Benjamin M.,) an American general, born 
 in Wood county, Virginia, in 1819. He became a citi- 
 zen of Illinois about 1842, and was appointed a brigadier- 
 general in 1861. He was taken prisoner at Shiloh, April 
 6, 1862. About July 3, 1863, he defeated Generals Holmes 
 and Price, who attacked him at Helena, Arkansas. 
 
 Prentiss, (Sergeant Smm'H,) an American orator, 
 born at Portland, Maine, in r8o8. He studied law, and 
 became about 1832 a resident of Vicksburg, Mississippi, 
 where he practised with success. He was elected a 
 member of Congress by the Whigs in 1837. In 1840 he 
 advocated the election of General Harrison by several 
 public speeches. He had a high reputation as an 
 orator, and as an advocate in jury-trials was equal or 
 superior to any lawyer in the Southwestern States. 
 Died near Natchez in 1850. 
 
 See a '' Memoir of S. S. Prentiss," by his brother, 1855. 
 
 Fres'cott, (George,) Colonel, an American officer, 
 born in Littleton, Massachusetts, in 1829. He served 
 as colonel at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, and at the great 
 battles in Virginia in May, 1864. He was killed near 
 Petersburg, June 18, 1864. 
 
 Prescott, (Oliver,) M.D., an American physician 
 and patriot of the Revolution, born at Groton, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1731. He served as an officer in the 
 Revolutionary war. Died in 1804. 
 
 Prescott, (Oliver,) an American physician, a son of 
 the preceding, was born in 1762. He practised at Gro- 
 ton, and wrote several medical treatises. Died in 1827. 
 
 Prescott, (William,) Colonel, an American officer 
 of the Revolution, born at Groton, Massachusetts, in 
 1725, was a brother of Oliver, noticed above. He fought 
 with distinguished bravery at the battle of Bunker Hill, 
 where he appears to have had the chief command, and 
 in other important engagements. Died in 1795. 
 
 Prescott, (William,) LL.D., an American jurist, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Pepperell in 1762. He 
 was appointed in 1818 a judge of the court of common 
 pleas. He enjoyed a high reputation for legal attainments. 
 He was the father of William II. Prescott, the historian. 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 Prescott, (William HicKi.ino,) an eminent American 
 historian, a son of the preceding, and grandson of Colonel 
 Prescott who commanded at Bunker Hill, was born at 
 Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May, 1796. Both his 
 parents were remarkable for their high moral qualities. 
 His father was distinguished for his manly beauty, as 
 well as for the dignity and gentleness of his character. 
 His mother, originally Miss Catherine Greene Hickling, 
 was a woman of great energy, vivacity, and active be- 
 nevolence ; and to her influence her son appears to have 
 owed not only much of the happiness of his life, but also 
 some of those admirable moral traits which formed the 
 crowning ornament to his rare intellectual endowments. 
 In the summer of 1808 his father removed to Boston, 
 and the following autumn sent his son to what was then 
 regarded as the best classical school in New England. It 
 was kept by Dr. Gardiner, an excellent scholar, who had 
 been educated in England under the celebrated Dr. Parr. 
 In 181 1 young Prescott entered the Sophomore class 
 at Harvard College. In his knowledge 6f Greek and 
 Latin he was far in advance of most of the members of 
 his class; but he had no fondness for mathematics, and 
 never attained any proficiency in mathematical studies. 
 During his lur.ior year at college an accident befell him 
 which was destined to influence the whole of his subse- 
 quent life. One day in the Commons Hall, while the 
 students — as too often happened after the professors had 
 left the table — were indulging in a rude frolic, Prescott 
 rose to go out of the room, but, attracted by the tumult 
 behind him, suddenly turned his head to see what it 
 was. At that instant a hard piece of bread, thrown at 
 
 random, struck him on his left eye, which, under the 
 peculiar circumstances, having no warning, was open, 
 so that nothing — not even the eyelid — was interposed 
 to mitigate the blow. He instantly fell prostrate and 
 powerless, as if the brain itself had received a severe 
 concussion. After some weeks he was able to resume 
 his studies ; but the sight of his left eye — though this 
 was to appearance unchanged — was gone forever. 
 
 This early misfortune, while it tended to check his 
 somewhat exuberant vivacity, far from discouraging him 
 in the pursuit of his studies, seemed to excite in him 
 a more earnest and determined resolution to become 
 a respectable scholar. He graduated in August, 1814, 
 and soon after commenced the study of law. But the 
 excessive use of his remaining eye induced a severe 
 inflammation in the organ, followed by opacity of the 
 cornea, so that for some weeks the power of vision was 
 completely lost. 
 
 Among the many interesting and admirable traits 
 in Mr. Prescott's character, perhaps none is more re- 
 markable than the invincible cheerfulness and heroic 
 resignation with which he bore the frequent and severe 
 suffering and the life-long privations to which he was 
 subjected in consequence of the injury of his sight. 
 
 In the hope of improving his general health, which 
 had been seriously impaired by confinement, and also of 
 indirectly benefiting his eyes, he was induced to under- 
 take a voyage to Europe. He set out in the autumn of 
 1815. He remained abroad nearly two years, visiting 
 England, France, and Italy. His sight, though not 
 strong enough to permit him to read much, seems to 
 have been sufficient to give him a vivid enjoyment of 
 the various scenes and places through which he trav- 
 elled ; but his health appears not to have been benefited 
 by his foreign tour, and in the summer of 1817 he re. 
 turned to his native country. He now decided to aban- 
 don the law and devote himself wholly to literature. 
 His eye, however, was so irritable and feeble that he was 
 obliged to pass much of his time in a darkened room, 
 with barely light enough to admit of some one reading 
 to him, — this being now his only means of cultivating 
 an acquaintance with his favourite authors. 
 
 In May, 1820, Mr. Prescott was married to Miss Susan 
 Amory ; and the union appears to have been a singularly 
 happy one. About 1821 he commenced a systematic 
 course of reading, (by the ear,) which was to embrace 
 the works of the best English prose writers from Roger 
 Ascham to the present day, and afterwards the best 
 productions of the literatures of France and Italy. He 
 appears to have enjoyed with a peculiar zest the great 
 works of Italian genius, and especially the " Divina Coin- 
 media" of Dante. He seems to have taken less delight 
 in the celebrated authors of France, though he admired 
 Montaigne and Pascal, and, above all, La Fontaine and 
 Moliere. In the autumn of 1824 he commenced in 
 earnest the study of that magnificent language and lite- 
 rature which have been immortalized by the genius of 
 Lope de Vega and Cervantes. " This," says Mr. Tick- 
 nor, " was the opening of the Spanish campaign, which 
 ended only with his life." He had at one time enter- 
 tained the design of writing a sort of general history 
 of Italian literature ; but this was now abandoned for 
 labour in a different field. After "long choosing," to 
 adopt the words of Milton, "and beginning late," he at 
 last decided, in January, 1826, to write the " History of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella," which, eleven years later, was 
 published, in three 8vo volumes, simultaneously in Bos- 
 ton and in London. The success of the work was of the 
 most flattering kind, and at once placed him in the very 
 highest rank of contemporary historians. After six 
 years of additional labour, appeared his "Conquest of 
 Mexico," (3 vols. 8vo, 1843.) Four years afterwards he 
 gave the world his "Conquest of Peru," (2 vols. 8vo.) 
 in 1845 appeared a volume of his " Miscellanies," con- 
 sisting of contributions to the "North American Review." 
 In 1850 he made a short visit to Europe. Soon after his 
 return he commenced the " History of the Reign of 
 Philip II. of Spain," a work which he did not live to 
 complete, although the first three volumes were published 
 in his lifetime, the first two having appeared in 1855, 
 the third in 1858. The entire work was designed to 
 
 task; 9 as s: %hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; %,trilled; lass; th as in this. (2ty*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PRESL 
 
 1838 
 
 PREV1LLE 
 
 be included in 6 vols. 8vo. The third volume was pub- 
 lished in the summer of 1858, after the occurrence of 
 his first slight apoplectic attack, (Februarys 1858,) from 
 which he seemed speedily to recover. He resumed his 
 literary labours, but was forced to limit himself to the 
 lightest kind of work ; and he never afterwards had that 
 enjoyment in his studies which he had experienced in 
 previous years. On the 28th of January, 1859, he was 
 seized with a second attack of apoplexy, of which he 
 died in about three hours. 
 
 In person Mr. Prescott was tall and well formed, with 
 light-brown hair, a fine clear complexion, and an ex- 
 pression of countenance singularly bright, genial, and 
 attractive. " His smile," says Mr. Ticknor, " was abso- 
 lutely the most contagious I ever looked upon." His 
 disposition was in the highest degree social, generous, 
 and kindly. " Indeed, take him for all in all," says Mr. 
 Ticknor, " I think no man ever walked our streets, as 
 he did day by day, that attracted such regard and good 
 will from so. many ; for, however few he might know, 
 there were very many that knew him, and watched him 
 with unspoken welcomes as he passed along." 
 
 Mr. Prescott's merits as a historian are of the very 
 highest order. In vigour of thought and in grandeur of 
 style he has undoubtedly been surpassed by many of 
 the great masters of historical composition ; but he pos- 
 sessed other qualities, which, if less imposing, are far 
 more essential to the character of a perfect historian. 
 In that spirit of thorough research which never rests 
 satisfied until every field has been explored and every 
 accessible source of information consulted and ex- 
 hausted, he has had few if any superiors ; while in that 
 impartiality which proceeds from a high and scrupulous 
 sense if justice and unswerving devotion to truth, he 
 has perhaps never been equalled — certainly never sur- 
 passed — by any historian, of whatever age or country. 
 His style, moreover, js for the most part remarkable for 
 its animation, clearness, and grace ; and in the general 
 treatment of his subject he exhibits in an eminent de- 
 gree the " eloquence" and " lucid order" which the great 
 poet-critic of ancient Rome tells us will not be wanting 
 to him who knows how to choose his subject wisely.* 
 
 (For the opinions of various eminent critics on the 
 works of Mr. Prescott, the reader is particularly re- 
 ferred to Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors.") 
 
 See, also, the admirable " Life of William Hickling Prescott," by 
 George Ticknor, Boston, 1864: R. W. Griswolo, " Prose Writers 
 of America:" Duyckinck, "Cyclopedia of American Literature," 
 vol. ii. : " New American Cyclopaedia ;" "London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for December, 1843, and September, 1847 ; " North American 
 Review" for January, 1864. 
 
 Presl, pResl, (Jan Swatopluk,) a Bohemian botanist, 
 born at Prague in 1 791. He wrote " Symboloe Botanic*," 
 (1832,) and other works. Died in 1849. 
 
 Presle, de, deh pR§l, (Ciiari.es Marie Wladimir 
 Brunei - ,) a French Hellenist, born in Paris in 1809. 
 He published, besides other works,' a "Critical Inquiry 
 into the Succession of Egyptian Dynasties," (1850,) and 
 " Greece since the Roman Conquest," (" La Grece depuis 
 la Conqu€te Romaine," 1859.) 
 
 Pressense, de, deh pR^'soN'si', (Edmond,) an emi- 
 nent French Protestant divine and pulpit orator of the 
 present age. Among his works are a " History of the 
 First Three Centuries of the Church," "The Religions 
 before Christ : being an Introduction to the History of 
 the First Three Centuries of the Church," (1862,) and 
 "Jesus Christ: his Times, Life, and Work," (1866.) 
 The second and third of these have been translated into 
 English. With respect to faith he is evangelical. 
 
 Prestel, pRes'tel, (Johann Gottlieb,) a German 
 engraver and portrait-painter, born at Grlinbach, in 
 Suabia, in 1739. He worked at Nuremberg for some 
 years. Died in 1808. 
 
 Pres'ter John or J0S0, [Fr. Le Pretre Jean, 
 leh pratR zhoN,] ("the Priest John,") the title of an 
 imaginary personage whom the Europeans of the middle 
 ages supposed to reign in the interior of Asia and to 
 have been converted to Christianity. Rubruquis, a friar, 
 was sent by Louis IX. of France to search for Prester 
 
 • " Cui lecta potenter erit res, 
 Non facundia deseret hunc, nee lucidus ordo." 
 
 Horace: De Arte Poetica. 
 
 John, in 1253, and explored Central Tartary, but did not 
 rind him. The general belief in his existence originated 
 perhaps in a report of some Nestorian missionaries that 
 Oong, (or Oungh,) a Khan of Tartary, had been con- 
 verted by them. 
 
 See S. Baring-Gould, "Curious Myths of the Middle Ages;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Prestet, pr^'tj', (Jean,) a French mathematician, born 
 at Chalons-sur-Sa6ne in 1648 ; died in 1690. 
 
 Pres'tpn, (John,) an eminent English divine and 
 Puritan, born at Heyford, in Northamptonshire, in 1587, 
 adopted Calvinistic opinions. He was chosen master of 
 Emmanuel College, Cambridge, about 1622. He was the 
 author of a "Treatise on the Covenant," and other 
 works. By the favour of the Duke of Buckingham, he 
 obtained the lectureship of Trinity Church, Cambridge. 
 According to Fuller, he was "an excellent preacher, a 
 celebrated disputant, and a perfect politician." Died 
 in 1628. 
 
 Pres'tpn, (John S.,) an American politician, brother 
 of W. C. Preston, was born near Abingdon, Virginia, in 
 1809. He removed to South Carolina, where he was 
 elected to the State legislature. Soon after the election 
 of Mr. Lincoln to the Presidency, he joined the seces- 
 sionists. 
 
 Preston, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, was a 
 F'ellow of King's College, Cambridge. He wrote about 
 1564 "A Lamentable Tragedy, mixed full of Pleasant 
 Mirth, containing the Life of Cambyses, King of Persia." 
 Died in 1598. 
 
 Preston, (William,) an American general, born near 
 Louisville, Kentucky, in 1816. He practised law in 
 Louisville, and was sent as minister to Spain in 1858.- 
 He joined the disunionists in 1861, and was appointed a 
 brigadier-general. 
 
 Preston, (William C.,) an American Senator and 
 orator, born in Philadelphia in 1794. His grandmother 
 was a sister of Patrick Henry. He studied in Edin- 
 burgh. About 1822 he removed to Columbia, South 
 Carolina, where he practised law and gained much dis- 
 tinction. He was elected a Senator of the United States 
 by the legislature of South Carolina in 1832. He op- 
 posed the policy of John C. Calhoun, and resigned his 
 seat about 1842. He was afterwards president of the 
 South Carolina College. Died at Columbia in i860. 
 
 Pretender, The First. See James Francis Ed- 
 ward. 
 
 Pretender, The Second. See Charles Edward 
 Stuart. 
 
 Preti, pRa'tee, (Girolamo,) an Italian poet, born in 
 Tuscany in 1582; died in 1626. 
 
 Preti, (Mattia,) called II Calabrese, an Italian 
 painter, born in Calabria in 1613, was a pupil of Lan- 
 franc and Guercino. He worked in Rome, Naples, and 
 other places, preferring scriptural and tragical subjects. 
 Among his works are frescos of the life of Saint An- 
 drew, at Rome. His design was vigorous rathei than 
 graceful, and his colouring sombre. Died in 1699. 
 
 SecPAscoLl, " Vite de' Pittori moderui ;" Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Preuschen, pRoi'shen, (A. T.,) a German litthatair 
 and theologian, born in Hesse in 1734. Among his 
 works is " Monuments of Ancient Physical and Political 
 Revolutions in Germany," (1787.) He invented typonJ- 
 trie, or the art of printing plans and maps with movable 
 types. Died in 1803. 
 
 ' Preuss, pRoiss, (Johann David Erdmann,) a Ger- 
 man historian, born at Landsberg, on the Warthe, in 
 1785. He published several works relating to Frederick 
 the Great and his times, among which is a " Biography 
 of Frederick the Great," (9 vols., 1832-34.) 
 
 Preval, de, deh pRa'vil', (Claude Antoine Hip- 
 polyte,) VicomTe, a French general, born at Salins 
 (Jura) in 1776. He became a lieutenant-general in 1814, 
 and president of the committee of war in the council 
 of state in 1837. He gained distinction as a writer on 
 military affairs. Died in 1853. 
 
 See Du Haillan, "Biographie du G^neVal PreVal," 1842: 
 Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Preville, pRa'vel', (Pierre Louis Dubus,) a popular 
 French comic actor, born in Paris in 1721. He performed 
 in Paris from 1753 to 1786. Died in 1799. 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, j>, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon: 
 
 
PREV1TALE 
 
 '839 
 
 PRICE 
 
 Previtale, pRa-ve-tJ'li, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Bergamo, was a pupil of Giovanni Bellini. He 
 painted Madonnas, which are highly commended. Died 
 about 1528. 
 
 Provost, pRa'vo', (Claude Joseph,) a French jurist, 
 born in Paris in 1674; died in 1753. 
 
 Prevost, preVost, ? (Sir George,) an English gen- 
 eral, born in 1767. He distinguished himself at the 
 attack on Martinique in 1809, and became Governor- 
 General of the British possessions in North America in 
 1812. He was defeated at Plattsburg in 1814, soon after 
 which he was recalled. Died in London in 1816. 
 
 See " Some Account of the Public Life of General Sir George 
 Prevost," London, 1823. 
 
 Prevost, pRa'vo', (Isaac BENofr,) a Swiss natu- 
 ral philosopher, born at Geneva in 1755. He became 
 professor of philosophy at Montauban in 1810. His 
 chief work is a " Memoir on the Cause of the Caries of 
 Wheat, and of other Diseases of Plants," (1807.) Died 
 in 1819. 
 
 See P. Provost, " Notice sur I. B. PreVost," 1820. 
 
 Prevost, (Jean,) a Swiss medical writer, born near 
 Bale in 1585. He succeeded Alpini as professor of 
 botany at Padua in 1617, and wrote many works, which 
 were often reprinted. Died at Padua in 1631. 
 
 Prevost, (Louis Constant,) an eminent French 
 geologist, born in Paris in 1787. He published in 1S20 
 an important work " On the Geological Constitution of 
 the Basin of Vienna," (in Austria,) and became professor 
 of geology at the Sorbonne in 1831. Among his works 
 are " Chronology of Rocks and Synchronism of Forma- 
 tions," (1845,) and "Bearing of Ancient Fossils in the 
 Basin of the Gironde." Died in 1856. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Prevost, (Pierre,) a Swiss natural philosopher, born 
 at Geneva in 1751, was eminent for the variety and pro- 
 foundness of his learning. He became professor of 
 philosophy at Berlin in 1780, and professor of belles- 
 lettres at Geneva about 1784. In 1788 he published a 
 work "On the Origin of Magnetic Forces." He obtained 
 the chair of philosophy at Geneva in 1793, and that of 
 general physics in 1810. He published, besides other 
 works, " Researches on Heat," ( 1 792,) " Radiant Caloric," 
 (1809,) and an " Exposition of the Principles of Radiant 
 Heat," (1832,) which were highly esteemed. Died in 1839. 
 
 See A. P. Decandolle, "Notice sur P. Prevost," in the " Bi- 
 bliotheque universale de Geneve," 1839. 
 
 Prevost, (Pierre,) a French painter of landscapes 
 and panoramas, born near Chateaudun in 1764. He 
 designed or painted from nature panoramas of Rome, 
 Naples, Jerusalem, Athens, etc " He would perhaps 
 have obtained," says Peries, " only the second rank of 
 landscape-painters, if a new discovery had not induced 
 him to adopt a kind of painting in which he remains un- 
 rivalled." The invention of the panorama is ascribed 
 both to Prevost and to Robert Fulton. Died in 1823. 
 
 Prevost, (Zachee,) an eminent French engraver, born 
 in Paris in 1797. He obtained a medal in 1827 for 
 " Corinne at Cape Misenum," after Gerard, and a medal 
 of the first class in 1839. He engraved "The Wedding 
 at Cana," after Paul Veronese, (1852.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Prevost d'Exiles, pRa'vo' deVsel', (Antoine Fran- 
 cois,) a French writer, born in Artois in 1697. He took 
 the monastic vows in his youth, but soon became dis- 
 gusted with that life, and fled to Holland. He wrote 
 nearly two hundred volumes, including many works of 
 fiction, among which his novel entitled " Manon Les- 
 caut" (1733) was especially celebrated. He published a 
 "General History of Voyages," (20 vols., 1745-70.) Died 
 in 1763. 
 
 See Le Blanc, " Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de 1'AbW Pro- 
 vost," 1810 ; J. Janin, " Notice sur Prevost," prefixed to an edition 
 of " Manon Lescaut," 1838; P. Bernard, " Essai sur la Vie de 
 I'AbM Prevost," 1810; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Prevost d'Exmes, Le, Ieh pRa'vo' dSksm, (Fran- 
 cois,) a French litterateur, born near Argentan in 1729; 
 died in 1793. 
 
 Prdvost-Paradol, pRa'vo' pt'iS'dol', (Lucien Ana- 
 TOI.E,)a French litterateur and orator of great eminence, 
 born in Paris in 1829. He obtained from the French 
 Academy in 1851 the prize of eloquence for an "Eloge 
 
 de Bernardin de Saint-Pierre." In 1856 he began to 
 write for the "Journal des Debats," of which he was 
 for many years one of the ablest editors. He was ad- 
 mitted into the French Academy in 1865, in place of 
 Ampere. On this occasion Guizot addressed him in a 
 very complimentary speech. He published a volume of 
 " Essais de Politique et de Litterature," (1859,) " Essais 
 de Politique et de Morale," (1862,) and "Etudes sur les 
 Moralistes Francais," (1864.) He had a great talent for 
 irony and raillery. In June, 1870, he was appointed 
 minister to the United States. He committed suicide at 
 Washington, July 20 of the same year. 
 
 Pri'am, [Gr. Tlpiaftoc ; Lat. Pri'amus; Fr. Priam, 
 pRe'SN*,] a famous king of Troy, in whose reign occurred 
 the siege of Troy, which is the theme of Homer's " Iliad." 
 He was a son of Laomedon, and the father of Hector, 
 Paiis, and other heroes. According to Virgil, he nil 
 killed by Pyrrhtis at the capture of Troy. 
 
 See the ".^neid," book ii. 506-558. 
 
 Priamus. See Priam. 
 
 Priape. See Priapus. 
 
 Fri-a'pus, [Gr. Upiaxoc; Fr. Priape, pRe'fp',] an 
 obscene idol ot the Greek and Roman mythology, repre- 
 sented as a son of Bacchus and Venus, and worshipped 
 as the protector of flocks of sheep and goats, of grape- 
 vines and gardens, and as the god of fertility. 
 
 Price, (David,) an English Orientalist, born in 1762. 
 He served as a major in the army of the East India 
 Company, and published a " Chronological Retrospect ; 
 or, Memoirs of the Principal Events in Mohammedan 
 History from the Death of the Arabian Legislator to 
 the Accession of the Emperor Akbar," (4 vols., 181 1-21.) 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 Price, (James,) an English chemist or alchemist, born 
 in 1752. He committed suicide in 1783. 
 
 Price, (Sir John,) an English or Welsh antiquary, 
 wrote a "Defence of British History," in answer to 
 Polydore Vergil, (1573.) . Died about 1553. 
 
 Price, (John,) an English critic, born in London in 
 1600. He published commentaries on Scripture. Died 
 in a convent at Rome in 1676. 
 
 Price, (John,) an English divine, who was chaplain 
 to General Monk, and became rector of Petworth, in 
 Sussex, under the reign of Charles II. He published 
 "The Mystery and Method of his Majesty's Happy 
 Restauration," etc., (London, 1660.) Died in 1691. 
 
 See "Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot. 
 
 Price, (Richard,) an eminent English dissenting min- 
 ister and speculative philosopher, was born at Tynton, 
 in Glamorganshire, in 1723. He was chaplain to Mr. 
 Streathfield, or Streatfield, from 1743 to 1756, after 
 which he preached at Newington Green Chapel and the 
 Gravel-Pit Meeting-House, at Hackney. He married 
 in 1757 a Miss Blundell. He advocated the cause of 
 American liberty in his " Observations on Civil Liberty 
 and the Justice and Policy of the War with America," 
 (1776,) which was a popular work. In 1778 he was in- 
 vited by Congress to become a citizen of the United 
 States; but he declined. He was an intimate friend of 
 Dr. Franklin and Dr. Priestley. Among his chief works 
 are a "Review of the Principal Questions and Diffi- 
 culties in Morals," (1758,) "Four Dissertations, on 
 Providence, Prayer, the State of Virtuous Men after 
 Death, and Christianity," (1766-68,) and Sermons. Died 
 in London in 1 791. 
 
 See " Life of R. Price," by W. Morgan, 1815. 
 
 Price, (Sterling,) an American general, born in 
 Virginia. He emigrated to Missouri, and represented a 
 district of that State in Congress from 1845 t0 '847. He 
 was Governor of Missouri from 1853 to 1857, and joined 
 the disunionists in 1861. He served as major-general at 
 Wilson's Creek in August, 1861, took Lexington, Sep- 
 tember 20, and retired to Springfield. He commanded 
 a division at Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and at Corinth, in 
 October of that year. In September, 1864, he entered 
 Southeastern Missouri with an army, made a successful 
 raid to Lexington, and, after several fights, returned by 
 a different route to Arkansas about the end of October. 
 Died' in 1867. 
 
 See a notice of Sterling Price in " Southern Generals," 1865. 
 
 « as av c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; s, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this, (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
PRICE 
 
 1840 
 
 PRIEUR 
 
 Price, (Rev. Thomas,) a distinguished Welsh scholar, 
 born at Pencaerelin, near Builth, in 1787. He became 
 vicar of Cwmdu in 1825. He wrote, besides other works, 
 " A Critical Essay on the Language and Literature of 
 Wales," and (in Welsh) a '.' History of Wales and the 
 Welsh Nation from the Early Ages to the Death of 
 Llewelyn ap Gruffydd," (1836-42,) which is said to be 
 the best work on the subject. Died in 1848. 
 
 Price, (Sir Uvedale,) an English gentleman, born in 
 Herefordshire in 1747. He made some improvements 
 in landscape-gardening, and wrote a work on that sub- 
 ject, entitled "An Essay on the Picturesque as compared 
 with the Sublime and Beautiful ; and on the Use of 
 Studying Pictures for the Purpose of Improving Real 
 Landscape," (1794.) An enlarged edition was published 
 in 2 vols., 1797. Died in 1829. 
 
 Price, (William,) an English Orientalist, born in 
 1780. He went to Persia in 1810 as secretary of the 
 British embassy. He published a " Grammar of the 
 Hindostanee, Persian, and Arabic Languages," (1823,) 
 and other works. Died in 1830. 
 
 Prichard prltch'ard, (James Cowles,) an eminent 
 English ethnologist and physiologist, born at Ross, 
 Herefordshire, in 1785. He graduated as a physician at 
 Edinburgh, and began to practise at Bristol about 1810. 
 In 1813 he published "Researches into the Physical 
 History of Mankind," (I vol. ; 3d edition, 5 vols., 1849,) 
 a work of high reputation. He wrote a more popular 
 treatise on the same subject, entitled "The Natural His- 
 tory of Man," (1843.) Among his important works are 
 "The Diseases of the Nervous System," (1822,) "The 
 Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations," (1831,) and a 
 "Treatise on Insanity," (1834.) He removed from Bristol 
 to London in 1845. Died in December, 1848. 
 
 See Callisen, " Medicmisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;" "Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for September, 1836;*" Fraser's Magazine" 
 for November, 1844. 
 
 Prichard, pritch'ard, (Rev. Rees,) a Welsh poet, 
 born in Carmarthenshire ; died in 1644. 
 
 Prideaux, prWo or prld'ux, (Humphrey,) a learned 
 English divine and historian, born at Padstow, in Corn- 
 wall, in 1648. He was educated at Oxford, where he 
 published the inscriptions of the Arundel marbles in 
 1676. He became prebendary of Norwich in 1681, rector 
 of Bladen in 1683, rector of Saham in 1686; archdeacon 
 of Suffolk in 1688, vicar of Trowse in 1696, and Dean 
 of Norwich in 1702. He opposed the acts of James II. 
 which caused the revolution of 1688. His principal 
 works are "A Life of Mahomet," (1697,) once held in 
 high esteem, but now admitted to be very deficient in 
 impartiality as well as in true historical research, and a 
 " History of the Connection of the Old and New Testa- 
 ment," (6 vols., 1715-17,) which was much esteemed 
 and often reprinted. Died in 1724. 
 
 See "Life of H. Prideaux," anonymous, 1748: " Biographia 
 Britannica." 
 
 Prideaux, (John,) an English divine of great learn- 
 ing, was born at Stowford, in Devonshire, in 1578. He 
 became in 161 5 regius professor of divinity at Oxford, 
 canon of Christ Church, and rector of Ewelme. In 1641 
 he was appointed Bishop of Worcester. He suffered 
 much loss in consequence of his adherence to the royal- 
 ist party in the civil war. He left many works on the- 
 ology, logic, and other subjects. Died in 1650. 
 
 See Wood, " Athenas Oxonienses." 
 
 Prierias. See Mazolini. 
 
 Priessnitz, pRees'nits, (Vincenz,) celebrated as the 
 founder of the system of hydropathy, ( JCaltwnssercur, 
 "cold-water cure,") was born at Grafenberg, in Austrian 
 Silesia, in 1799. Having been severely injured by a 
 loaded cart passing over his body, he was enabled to 
 effect a cure by the application of cold water, which he 
 subsequently made use of as a healing agent in various 
 diseases when consulted by his neighbours. In 1826 
 he opened a hydropathic institution at Grafenberg, which 
 was soon resorted to by invalids from different parts of 
 Germany and other countries of Europe. The fame 
 of his successes became at length so great that the num- 
 ber of his annual guests exceeded one thousand. His 
 system excluded all medicine and stimulants of whatever 
 kind, as well as blistering and depletion in any form, 
 
 relying only on the various applications of water, abun- 
 dant out-door exercise, wholesome diet, etc. He died 
 in 1851. The water-cure has been received with favour 
 in the principal countries of Europe, and in the United 
 States. 
 
 See Decken-Himmelkbich, "V. Priessnitz und die Wassercur;" 
 1845; Sbunger, "Vincenz Priessnitz," 1852. 
 
 Priestley, preest'le, (Joseph,) an eminent English 
 philosopher, chemist, and theologian, was born at Field- 
 head, near Leeds, on the 13th of March, 1733. He 
 studied at a dissenting academy at Daventry about three 
 years, (1752-55,) and became versed in Latin, Greek, 
 and Hebrew. At an early age he admitted doubts re- 
 specting some doctrines of the orthodox creed, though 
 he had been educated as a Calvinist. He preached to 
 a small company of dissenters at Needham-Market from 
 1755 to 1758, and then removed to Nantwich, Cheshire. 
 In 1761 he became tutor of languages and belles-lettres 
 in the academy of Warrington, and published "The 
 Scripture Doctrine of Remission," in which he rejects 
 the dogma of the atonement. 
 
 During a visit to London he formed an acquaintance 
 with Dr. Franklin, who encouraged him to write a " His- 
 tory of Electricity." He published in 1767 a work with 
 this title, which was favourably received. He was elected 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1766. In 1767 he took 
 charge of a dissenting congregation at Leeds, where he 
 wrote several works on theology and found recreation 
 in experiments on pneumatic chemistry. He obtained 
 in 1773 the Copley medal for his "Observations on Dif- 
 ferent Kinds of Air." He discovered the effect of respi- 
 ration on the blood, and the tendency of vegetation to 
 restore to vitiated air its vivifying principle. He also 
 discovered nitrous gas, muriatic gas, and oxygen, which 
 he called "dephlogisticated air." He obtained the last 
 in 1774 from red precipitate of mercury. "As a physicist 
 and chemist," says Cuvier, "the talents of Priestley were 
 of the first order. His researches and writings have 
 contributed much to the progress of the science." 
 
 He published in 1772-74 "Institutes of Natural and 
 Revealed Religion." He was librarian and literary 
 companion of the Earl of Shelburne from 1773 to 1780, 
 during which period he published "Experiments and 
 Observations on Air," (5 vols., 1774-80,) a "Defence of 
 Socinianism," and other works. In 1780 he settled at 
 Birmingham as minister of the principal dissenting con- 
 gregation. He incurred public odium by the heterodox 
 and liberal opinions expressed in his " History of the 
 Corruptions of Christianity," (1782,) "Familiar letters 
 to the Inhabitants of Birmingham," (1790,) and "Reply 
 to Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution," (1791.) 
 In July, 1 791, his house was attacked and set on fire by 
 a mob, who inflicted great damage on his library, appa- 
 ratus, etc., while he and his family escaped by flight. 
 For the sake of a more tranquil life, he emigrated with 
 his wife and children in 1794 to Northumberland, Penn- 
 sylvania, where he was coldly received, especially by the 
 Anti-Gallican party. Died in February, 1804. 
 
 See John Corry, "Life of Priestley, " 1805: " Autobiographic 
 Memoirs," 1806; Cuvier, " Sloge de Priestley," 1S05: Thomson, 
 " Annals of Philosophy," vol. i., iSi} ; J. P. Smith, '! Discourse on 
 the Death of J. Priestley," 1805; English translation of Cuvikr'3 
 eulogy, in the " Smithsonian Report" for 1858, page 138 : Dr. Hohfer, 
 " Histoire de la Chimie;" T. Bei.sham, "Discourse on tile Death 
 of Joseph Priestley;" Ai.libone, "Dictionary of Authors ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneVale :" " Edinburgh Review" for October, 
 1806, (by Jeffrey:! "Monthly Review" for August, October, and 
 December, 1 767, et seq. 
 
 Prieur, pre'uR', (Barthei.emy,) a French sculptor 
 and Huguenot. His chief work was a monument to 
 Constable Anne <le Montmorency. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Prieur de la Maine pRe'im'deh IS mimi, a French 
 revolutionist and lawyer, born in Champagne about 
 1760. He was an active democratic member of the 
 Convention, and voted for the death of the king. In 
 June, 1794, he became a member of the committee of 
 public safety. Died at Brussels in 1827. 
 
 Frieur-Duvernois, pite'uR' dii'veVnwa', (Claude 
 Antoine,) a French republican, born at Auxonne in 
 1763. He was chosen a member of the Convention in 
 1792, and of the committee of public safety in 1793. 
 He is said to have shared With his friend Carnot the 
 honour of having organized victory. The reform which 
 
 5,8,1, 6, u,y, long;k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, ti, y, short: a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; m?t;n6t;gr56d: moon: 
 
PRIEUR 
 
 1841 
 
 PRIOLO 
 
 rendered weights and measures uniform in France is 
 ascribed mostly to him. Died in 183a. 
 
 Prieur.Le, leh pRe'uR', (Philippe,) a French scholar, 
 born at Saint- Vaast, published a work "On Canonical 
 Letters," (" De Literis canonicis," 1675.) Died in 1680. 
 
 Friezac, de, deh pRe'zik', (Daniel,) a French advo- 
 cate and writer on law, politics, etc., was born in lias- 
 Limousin in 1590. He was a member of the French 
 Academy. Died in 1662. His son Solomon was author 
 of numerous works, among which is a " History of Ele- 
 phants," (1650.) 
 
 Prilesky, pRe-lcVkee, (John Baptist,) a Jesuit, born 
 in Hungary in 1709. He wrote several works, among 
 which is " Account of the Holy Fathers who flourished 
 in the Two First Centuries," ("Notitia SS. Patrum qui 
 duobus primis Seculis floruerunt," 1753.) 
 
 Prim, pRem, (Juan,) Count de Reus and Marquis 
 de los Castillejos, a Spanish general, born in Catalonia 
 about 1814. He took arms against Espartero in 1843, 
 and acted with the party of Progresistas. In 1859 or 
 i860 he obtained command of a division of the army 
 sent against Morocco, and was rewarded for his services 
 at Marabout with the title of Marquis de los Castillejos. 
 He commanded the Spanish army which co-operated 
 with the French and British in the invasion of Mexico in 
 1861, and returned to Spain in 1862. He was a leader 
 of the insurgents who deposed Queen Isabel in Septem- 
 ber, 1868, and he became in the next Noveml>er minister 
 of war and commander-in-chief of the army of Spain. 
 Prim and Serrano were the most powerful and promi- 
 nent members of the provisional government formed by 
 the insurgent*; and the former was the virtual dictator of 
 Spain in 1869-70, He was assassinated, December, 187a 
 
 Primaticcio, pRe-mJ-tet'cho, [Fr. Le Primatice, 
 leh pRe'mS'tess',] (Francesco,) an Italian painter, sculp- 
 tor, and architect, born at Bologna in 1490. He studied 
 design under Innocenzio da Imola, Bagnacavallo, and 
 Giulio Romano. In 1531 he went to France, And was 
 employed by Francis I. to adorn the chateau of Fan- 
 tainebleau, in which he painted a number of large frescos. 
 Among these were pictures of scenes from the "Odys- 
 sey," which were much admired. He was patronized 
 by Henry II. and Francis II. Died at Paris in 1570. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters:" Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy:" BoloGMINi-Amorini. "Vita del Pittnre F. Pri- 
 maticcio," 1838 ; Fonthnay, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Primatice, I»e. See Primaticcio. 
 
 Prime, (Samuel Iren^us,) D.D., an American Pres- 
 byterian divine, born in Saratoga county, New York, in 
 1812. He became editor of the " New York Observer" 
 in 1840. He has published "Travels in Europe and the 
 East," (2 vols., 1855,) "The Power of Prayer," (1859,) 
 and various other works. 
 
 Prime, (VVii.i.iam Cowper,) a lawyer, a brother of 
 the preceding, was born in Washington county, New 
 York, in 1825. He has published, among other works, 
 "The Old House by the River," (1853,) "Boat-Life in 
 Egypt and Nubia," (1857,) and "Tent-Life in the Holy 
 Land," (1857.) 
 
 Primerose or Primrose, prim'roz, (Gilbert,) an 
 ecclesiastic, born in Scotland. He became chaplain to 
 the king, and canon of Windsor. Died in 1643. 
 
 Primerose, (James,) a physician, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Bordeaux. He practised in York- 
 shire, and wrote several medical works, which are 
 commended. Died about 1660. 
 
 Pri'mui, (Marcus Antonius,) a Roman general, 
 
 .born at Tolosa, (Toulouse,) in Gaul. He raised an 
 
 army for Vespasian in 69 A.D., and gained victories 
 
 over the troops of Vitellius at Verona, Bedriacum, 
 
 and Rome. 
 
 Prince, (Hf.nrv,) an American officer, born at East- 
 port, Maine, in 181 1, fought with distinction in the 
 Mexican war, and was made brigadier-general of volun- 
 teers in the United States army in 1862. 
 
 Prince, (John,) an English' biographer, born at Ax- 
 minster in 1643, was vicar of Totness. He wrote "The 
 Worthies of Devon," (1710.) Died in 1723. 
 
 Prince, (Oliver H.,) an American jurist and United 
 States Senator from Georgia, perished in the wreck of 
 the steamboat Home in 1837. 
 
 Prince, (Thomas,) an American divine, born in New 
 England in 1687, was the author of several historical 
 and religious works. Died in 1758. 
 
 Prince de Beaumont See Le Prince. 
 
 Prince, lie. See Le Prince. 
 
 Pringle, pring'g'l, (Sir John,) a British physician, 
 born in Roxburghshire, Scotland, in 1707. He studied 
 at Leyden and in Paris, settled in Edinburgh about 1734, 
 and became physician to the Earl of Stair, who was 
 commander of the army on the continent, in 1742. In 
 1743 he was appointed chief physician to the army in 
 Flanders. He held this office until the peace of 1748, 
 afte,r which he resided in London. He gained a Euro- 
 pean reputation by a valuable work "On the Diseases 
 of the Army," (1752.) In 1763 he was appointed phy- 
 sician to the queen. He was elected president of the 
 Royal Society in 1772, and became physician-extraor- 
 dinary to George III. in 1774. In 1778 he succeeded 
 Linnaeus as member of the Academy of Sciences of 
 Paris. He corresponded with the most eminent scien- 
 tific men of Europe. Among his works was a treatise 
 entitled "Experiments on Septic and Antiseptic Sub- 
 stances," (1750,) which obtained the Copley medal. 
 Died in 1782. 
 
 See A. Ktppis, "Life of Sir John Pringle." 1783: Condorcet, 
 "Eloge de Pringle :" Vico-n'AzYR, " FJoge de J. Pringle," 1787; 
 " Biographie Medicale;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of 
 Kn:inent Scotsmen." 
 
 Pringle, (Thomas,) a meritorious Scottish poet, born 
 at Blaiklaw, in Teviotdale, in January, 1789. During 
 his infancy an accident occurred which compelled him 
 to use crutches for life. He wrote in 1816 " The Au- 
 tumnal Excursion," a poem, which procured for him the 
 friendship of Sir Walter Scott. In 1817 he united with 
 Lockhart, Wilson, and others in founding the " Edin- 
 
 1 burgh Monthly Magazine," of which for a short time 
 he was the editor. During his connection with it the 
 
 j name was changed to "Blackwood's Magazine." He 
 emigrated in 1820 to the Cape of Good Hope, where 
 
 j he edited the " South African Journal" and founded an 
 academy. His success having been hindered by the 
 enmity of the governor, he returned to England in 1826, 
 and published a very interesting "Narrative of a Resi- 
 dence in South Africa." He wrote a number of poems, 
 which are admired for elegance. Died in 1834. 
 
 See L. Ritchik. " Life of Thomas Pringle," prefixed to his Poems ; 
 Chamhrrs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent -Scotsmen," (Sup- 
 plement :) J. Condrr, " Biographical Sketch of T. Pringle," 1835. 
 
 Prins, pRlns, (J. H.,) a Dutch painter, born at the 
 Hague in 1758 or 1759. He painted views of the in- 
 teriors of cities. Died about 1805. 
 
 Prin'sep, (Charles Robert,) an English political 
 economist, born about 1788, published an "Essay on 
 Money," (1818,) and translated Say's " Political Econ- 
 omy" from the French. Died in 1864. 
 
 Priiisep, (Henry Thobv,) an English Orientalist, 
 born in 1792, was a son of John Prinsep, M.P., of Lon- 
 don. He entered the civil service of the East India 
 Company, and became a director of the same in 1849. 
 
 Prinsep, (James,) an eminent English Orientalist, 
 born in 1800. He entered the service of the East India 
 Company in his youth, passed some years at Benares 
 as assay-master, and wrote "Sketches of Benares." 
 Having removed to Calcutta, he liecame in 1832 editor 
 of the "Journal of the Asiatic Society," for which he 
 wrote valuable articles on chemistry, Indian coins, and 
 Indian antiquities. He succeeded H. H. Wilson as 
 secretary of the Asiatic Society in 1832. He made some 
 important discoveries in the history of India by the aid 
 of inscriptions, which he deciphered, and which had 
 baffled other antiquaries. He died at sea, during a 
 voyage to England, in 1840. 
 
 Prints, pRlnts, ( Wolfgang Caspar, ) a German 
 composer, bom in the Palatinate in 1641. He published 
 a "Historical Description of Song and Music," (1690,) 
 and other works. Died at Sorau in 1717. 
 
 Priolo, pRe'o'lo', or Prioli, pRe'o'le', (Benjamin,) a 
 French historian, of Italian extraction, was born in 
 Saintonge in 1602. He wrote, in Latin, a " History of 
 France from the Death of Louis XIII.," (1662,) which 
 is praised by Bayle. Died in 1667. 
 
 See J. Rhodius, "De Vita B. Prioli," 167*. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; r, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (Jiy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 Il6 
 
PRIOR 
 
 1842 
 
 PROCJCCINI 
 
 Pri'pr, (Sir James,) an English biographer and sur- 
 geon, born in 1790, served many years in the navy. He 
 wrote a " Life of Edmund Burke," (1824,) regarded as the 
 best life of that great statesman that has yet appeared, 
 *nd a " Life of Oliver Goldsmith," (1836.) Died in 1869. 
 
 See Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Prior, (Matthew,) an English poet and diplomatist, 
 was born in Dorsetshire on the 21st of July, 1664. 
 He was educated, at the expense of the Earl of Dorset, 
 in Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he was ad- 
 mitted to his bachelor's degree in 1686, and obtained a 
 Fellowship. To ridicule Dryden's " Hind and Panther," 
 Prior and Charles Montague wrote a poem entitled 
 "The City Mouse and Country Mouse," (1687.) About 
 1690 he was initiated into public business as secretary 
 to the embassy which was sent to the Congress of the 
 Hague. He was secretary to the embassy which nego- 
 tiated the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, and under-secretary 
 of state for a short time in 1699. In 1700 he produced 
 "Carmen Seculare," a poetical panegyric on William 
 III., which Johnson calls "one of his most splendid 
 compositions." He entered Parliament in 1701, and, 
 deserting the Whigs, joined the Tory party, which, 
 having attained power, sent Prior to Paris privately with 
 propositions of peace in July, 171 1. He was accredited 
 as ambassador at Paris in August, 1 713, and obtained 
 the reputation of a skilful diplomatist. The Whigs, 
 having come into power, recalled him in August, 1714, 
 and charged him with treason. He was imprisoned 
 about two years, (during which he wrote "Alma," a 
 poem,) and was then released without trial. He died at 
 Wimpole in September, 1 721. Among his poems are 
 "Solomon," an "Ode on the Battle of Ramillies," (1706,) 
 and several tales. " Prior has written with great variety," 
 says Dr. Johnson, " and his variety has made him popu- 
 lar. . . . If "his poetry be generally considered, his praise 
 will be that of correctness and industry rather than of 
 compass of comprehension or activity of fancy. He 
 never made any effort of invention." 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the Poets ;" Campbell, " Specimens of 
 the British Poets ;" " Biographia Britannica :" Thackeray, "The 
 English Humourists:" " North British Review" for November, 1S57. 
 
 Pri'pr, (Thomas,) an Irishman, noted for public 
 spirit, was born at Rathdowney, Queens county, in 1679. 
 He founded the Royal Dublin Society, and published 
 " A List of Absentees, with Observations on Trade," 
 etc., (1729.) Died in 1751. 
 
 Priscian, prish'e-an, [Lat. Priscia'nus ; Fr. Pris- 
 CIEN, pRe'se^N',] a distinguished Roman grammarian, 
 is supposed to have been a Christian, and native of 
 Caesarea. He taught grammar at Constantinople about 
 525 A.D., and left several works, which are extant. His 
 work " De Arte Grammatica," or "Commentaria Gram- 
 matica," is the most complete and philosophic treatise 
 on that subject that has come down to us from antiquity. 
 Its value is enhanced by many quotations from works 
 which are lost. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Latina ;" BXhr, "Geschichte der 
 Kbmischen Literatur." 
 
 Priscianua. See Priscian. 
 
 Priscien. See Priscian. 
 
 Fris-cil'll-an, [Lat. Priscii.ua'nus ; Fr. Priscil- 
 I.ien, pRe'se'leAN',] a Spanish ecclesiastic, born near 
 Corduba, (Cordova,) is said to have professed the doc- 
 trines of the Gnostics and Manicheans. He was charged 
 with heresy and beheaded by Maximus about 385 A.D. 
 
 See Bavi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Friscillianus. See Prisciu.ian. 
 
 Friscillien. See Priscillian. 
 
 Pris'cus, |Gr. IlpioKo;,] an able Byzantine historian, 
 born at Panium, in Thrace. He was sent by Theodosius 
 on an embassy to Attila in 445 A.n. He wrote an 
 account of this embassy, and of the life of Attila, frag- 
 ments of which are extant. His style is commended, 
 and his history is esteemed for veracity. Died about 
 470 A.D. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca." 
 
 Priacus, (C. Lutorius,) a Roman poet, composed a 
 
 f>oem on the death of Germanicus, which was very popu- 
 ar. Died about 21 A.D. 
 
 Priacua, (Hf.i.vidius,) a Roman senator, distinguished 
 for his love of liberty and his boldness of speech. He 
 was banished by Nero in 66 A.D., and became praetor in 
 70, soon after which he was put to death by Vespasian. 
 
 Priacus, (Tarqiiinius.) See Tarqiiinius. 
 
 Pritch'ard, (Andrew,) an English naturalist and 
 microscopist of the present century. He published a 
 number of valuable works, among which are " The Mi- 
 croscopic Cabinet," (1832,) a " Natural History of Ani- 
 malcules," (1834,) " Micrographia : Essays on Micro- 
 scopes," (1837,) and a " History of Infusoria, Living and 
 Fossil," (1841 ; 4th edition, 1861.) 
 
 Pritz, pRits, (Johann Georg,) a German Lutheran 
 minister, born at Leipsicin 1662. He preached at Leip- 
 sic, Zerbst, and Frankfort, and published several works 
 Died in 1732. 
 
 Proaeresius, pro-e-ree'she-us, [Gr. Rpnaijieaio^ ] a 
 teacher of rhetoric, born in Armenia about 275 A.D. He 
 taught at Athens with a high reputation. Died about 
 365 A.D. 
 
 Pro'bus, (Marcus Aurei.ius,) an excellent Roman 
 emperor, born at Sirmium about 235 A.D. He served 
 with distinction in the armies of Valerian and succeeding 
 emperors, in Egypt, Arabia, Persia, and Germany. He 
 received the command of all the legions in the East from 
 Tacitus, at whose death, in 276 A.D., Probus was pro- 
 claimed emperor by his army. The senate confirmed 
 their choice. He defeated the Germans in Gaul, and 
 his rivals Saturninus, Proculus, and Bonosus. He was 
 killed by mutinous soldiers in 282 A.D., and left a very 
 high reputation for virtue and ability. It is said that 
 he had offended his troops by the expression of a hope 
 that the time was near when armies would be no longer 
 necessary. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Aure- 
 lius Victor, " De Czesaribus" and " Epitome." 
 
 Probus, (Marcus Valerius,) a Roman grammarian, 
 born at Berytus, (Beyroot,) lived in the first century of 
 our era. He is identified by some with the Probus of 
 the next article. 
 
 Probus, (Valerius,) an eminent Roman grammarian, 
 who flourished probably about 100 A.D. He wrote a 
 commentary on Virgil, often cited by Servius, and other 
 works. 
 
 Procaccini, pRo-kat-chee'nee, (Andrea,) an Italian 
 painter, born in Rome about 1675. He became painter 
 to the King of Spain in 1720. Died in Spain in 1734. 
 
 Procaccini, (Camillo,) a painter, born at Bologna 
 in 1545 or 1546, was a son and pupil of Ercole the Elder. 
 He was remarkable for facility and for fecundity of in- 
 vention. " He had," says Lanzi, " a simplicity, grace, 
 and spirit which charm the eye, if they do not always 
 satisfy the judgment." Among his works are a fresco 
 of "The Last Judgment," at Reggio, and an oil-picture 
 of "Saint Rocco curing the Sick." Died in 1626. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzi, "Dizio- 
 nario." 
 
 Procaccini, (Carlo Antonio,) a painter, was a 
 younger brother of the preceding. He painted land- 
 scapes, fruits, and flowers with success. Some of his 
 works are dated 1605. 
 
 Procaccini, (Ercole,) the Elder, a painter, born at 
 Bologna in 1520, was the father of the preceding. His 
 style was accurate and free from mannerism, but his 
 design was rather minute. Among his disciples were 
 Sabbatini, Bertoja, his three sons, and other eminent 
 artists. He was living in 1591. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Procaccini, (Ercole,) the Younger, a son of Carlo 
 Antonio, was bom at Milan in 1596. He was an able 
 painter of flowers and history. Died in 1676. 
 
 Procaccini, (Giulio Cesare,) a brother of Camillo, 
 noticed above, was born at Bologna in 15481 and was the 
 ablest painter of the family. He was one of the best 
 imitators of the style of Correggio. Among his works 
 are a "Virgin and Child" and "The Passage of the Red 
 Sea." His design was correct, his composition inge- 
 nious, and his style noble, or grandiose. He worked 
 mostly at Milan, where he died in 1626. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzl, "Dtzio 
 nario." 
 
 5 S, T, o, 0, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, J?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
PROCIDA 
 
 1843 
 
 PR 0K0P0V1TCH 
 
 Procida, di, de pRo'che-dJ, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 conspirator, born at Salerno about 1225, was a partisan 
 of the house of Hohenstaufen. He entered the service 
 of Pedro of Aragon, and was engaged in intrigues or 
 conspiracies against Charles of Anion, who had made 
 himself master of Sicily. He is said to have been the 
 master-spirit of that massacre of the French called the 
 Sicilian Vespers, (March 30, 1282.) Died after 1302. 
 
 See N. BusCRMi, " Saggio della Vita di Giovanni di Procida," 
 i8y>: Amari, " La Guerra del Vespro Siciliano;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Geii^rale." 
 
 Pro-cil'H-us, a Roman historian, was a contemporary 
 of Cicero. His works are not extant. 
 
 Pro'clei, |ripoAv%,J a skilful Greek engraver of 
 medals, whose period is unknown. His name is found 
 on coins of Naxos and Catana. 
 
 Pro'clus, [Gr. IIpaicAoc; Ger. Pro'klus,] an eminent 
 Greek philosopher of the Neo-Platonic sch<)ol, was born 
 at Constantinople in 412 A.n., and was surnamed Hia- 
 tus, ("the Successor.") He studied under Hero 
 and Olympiodorus at Alexandria, and under Plutarchus 
 at Athens, where he afterwards succeeded Syrian us as the 
 head of the Neo-Platonic school. He was very deficient 
 in judgment. Among his numerous works are a treatise 
 " On the Sphere," commentaries on the " Parmenides" 
 and "Timaeus" of Plato, a treatise against the Chris- 
 tians, and " Institutio Theologica," (STot^a'woic 9co/j>-/ikji,) 
 all of which are extant, (except part of the commentary 
 on the "Timaeus.") He died in 485 a.d. According to 
 the extravagant estimate of M. Cousin, all the philo- 
 sophic rays which emanated from Pythagoras, Plato, 
 Aristotle, etc. were concentrated in Proclus. 
 
 See Krucurr, " History of Philosophy ;" Rtttrr. " History of 
 Philosophy;" Tennemann, " Geschichte der Philosophies" " Nou- 
 velle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Proclus, Saint, was Patriarch of Constantinople 
 from 434 A.U until his death, in 446. He left homilies 
 and epistles, which are extant. 
 
 Proc'ne, [Gr. UpoKvrj; Fr. Progne, pRog'na',] a- 
 daughter of Pandi'on, King of Athens, a sister of Philo- 
 mela, and wife of Tereus. She was said to have been 
 changed into a swallow. 
 
 Procope. See Procopius. 
 
 Procope-Couteau, pRo'kop' koo'to', a French phy- 
 sician and comic author, born in Paris in 1684. His real 
 name was MiCHSL Coltelli. Died in 1753. 
 
 Pro-co'pl-us, a Roman general, born in Cilicia. He 
 aspired to supreme power in the East in 363 A. D., and 
 waged war against Valens, by whom he was put to death 
 in 366. -. 
 
 £» Pro-co'pl-us, [Gr. npo/comoc; Fr. Procope, pRo'- 
 Kop',] an eminent Byzantine historian, born at Caasarea, 
 in Palestine, about 495 A.D. He became in 527 A.D. 
 secretary to Belisatius, whom he attended in his cam- 
 paigns against the Persians, the Vandals, (in Africa,) 
 and the Goths. In the Gothic war he had a high com- 
 mand in the navy. He returned to Constantinople about 
 541 A.D., and obtained the favour of Justinian, who ap- 
 pointed him a senator and in 562 prefect of the capital. 
 The question whether he was a Christian or a Pagan has 
 been disputed by many modern writers. His principal 
 work is a " History of his Own Times," in eight books, 
 which is highly esteemed for veracity. His style is com- 
 mended for vigour and elegance. There is extant a secret 
 and scandalous history of the Byzantine court, entitled 
 'Avemhra, which is ascribed to him ; but his authorship 
 is doubted. Died about 565 a.d. 
 
 See Farricius, " Bibliotheca Gneca:" Cave, " Historia Lite- 
 raria;" Hankius, " Scriptores Byzantini ;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generate." 
 
 Procopius, (Anthemtus.) See ANTHE%tius. 
 
 Procopius, (Demetrius,) a biographer, born at Mos- 
 copolis, in Macedonia, lived about 1 730. He wrote, in 
 Greek, a series of biographies of Greek scholars of the 
 seventeenth century, which is commended. It was 
 published by Fabricius in 1722 in his "Bibliotheca 
 Gra;ca." 
 
 Procopius of Gaza, a biblical commentator, flour- 
 ished about 550 a.d. 
 
 Pro-oo'pl-us Ra'sa, an able Bohemian general, suc- 
 ceeded Ziska in 1424 as the leader of the Hussites or 
 Taborites. He defeated the Austrians in a number of 
 
 battles, and ravaged Moravia, Austria, and Saxony. In 
 143 1 he routed an imperial army which had invaded 
 Bohemia. He was killed in battle in 1434. 
 
 Pro-crus'te3, [Gr. ripo/coro-r^c ; Fr. Procruste, pRo'- 
 kRiist',1 (i.e. "the Stretcher,") a surname of Damastks 
 or Poi.ypemon, a famous robber, who compelled his 
 captives to lie on a bed, and made them coincide with 
 it in length by cutting off their legs or stretching them 
 in case they were too long or too short. He was killed 
 by Theseus. 
 
 Froc'ter, ( Adelaide Anne,) an English poetess, 
 born in London in 1825, was a daughter of Bryan 
 Waller Procter. She became in 1853 a contributor to 
 " Household Words" and " All the Year Round," and 
 published in 1858 "Legends and Lyrics." A second 
 volume of "Legends and Lyrics" came out in 1861. 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 See an article, by Charles Dickens, in the "Atlantic Monthly" 
 for December, 1865. 
 
 Procter, (Bryan Waller,) an English poet, who 
 wrote' under the assumed name of Barry Cornwall, 
 was born about 1790. He studied law, and was called 
 to the bar in 1831. He acquired distinction by a volume 
 entitled "Dramatic Scenes, and other Poems," (1819.) 
 His tragedy of " Mirandola" (1821) was performed with 
 success. Among his other works are " The Flood of 
 Thessaly," "English Songs, and other Small Poems," 
 (1832,) "Essays and Tales in Prose," (1851,) and 
 "Charles Lamb: a Memoir," (1866.) His songs have 
 obtained much popularity. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for January and November, 1820; 
 " Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1820, and May, 1823. 
 
 Proc-u-le'Ius, (Caius,) a Roman knight, was an in- 
 timate friend of Octavian, (Augustus.) After the battle 
 of Actium he was sent by the victor to Antony and 
 Cleopatra. He is mentioned favourably by Horace, 
 (Carm. ii. 2.) 
 
 Proc'u-lus, an eminent Roman jurist, was a contem- 
 porary of Nerva. He gave his name to a school or sect, 
 (Proculiani or Proculani.) Among the jurists cited in 
 the Digest he is the second in order of time. 
 
 Proculus, a Roman officer, who attempted to usurp 
 imperial power in Gaul in 280 A.D. He was defeated 
 by Probus, and put to death. 
 
 Prodl-cus, [ripdo.-/<or,] an eloquent Greek Sophist or 
 philosopher, bom in Ceos, lived about 430 B.C. He 
 lectured at Athens and other places. Among his pupils 
 or auditors were Isocrates, Euripides, and perhaps Soc- 
 rates. He was accused of atheism without sufficient 
 evidence. He wrote a beautiful apologue entitled "The 
 Choice of Hercules," an outline or abridgment of which 
 has been preserved by Xenophon. 
 
 See Xenophon, "Memorabilia:" Hummel, "Dissertatio his- 
 torica de Prodico Sophista," 1S47; Plato, "Protagoras." 
 
 Progne. See Procne. 
 
 Proetides, pret'e-dez, the daughters of Proetus, King 
 of Argolis or Argos, were named Lysippe, Iphinoe, and 
 Iphianassa. According to the fable, they became insane 
 and imagined that they were cows. 
 
 Proetus, pree'tus, (Gr. IlfXMTOc,] a king of Argos, was 
 a twin-brother of Acnsius, by whom he was defeated in 
 a contest for the throne. He afterwards recovered a 
 share of the kingdom, by the aid of Jobates. He is 
 said to have given Melampus a part of his kingdom 
 for curing his daughter of insanity. 
 
 Prokesch-Osten, von, fon pRo'kesh os'ten, (Anton,) 
 Baron, an Austrian diplomatist, general, and able writer, 
 born at Gratz, in Styria, in 1795. He was sent as am- 
 bassador to Athens in 1834, to Berlin in 1849, and to 
 Constantinople in 1855. He published "Memoirs and 
 Souvenirs of the Orient," (1836,) which is said to be a 
 work of much merit. Died in 1867. 
 
 Proklus. See Proclus. 
 
 Prokne. See Procne. 
 
 Prokofief or Prokophief, pro-ko'fe-ef, (Ivan Pro- 
 Kofievitch,) a Russian sculptor, born in Saint Peters- 
 burg in 1758, was a pupil of Julien, of Paris. He worked 
 with success at his native place. Died in 1828. 
 
 Pro-ko'po-vitch, (Theophanes,) a Russian prelate, 
 born at Kiev in 1681. He became Bishop of Pskof in 
 1715, and composed, at the request of Peter the Great, 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jiy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PROMETHEE 
 
 1844 
 
 PROTOGENE 
 
 an ecclesiastical code, in which priests are treated as 
 employees of the civil power. Died in 1736. 
 
 See Tchistovitch, "Thiophane Prokopovitch et Theophilacte 
 Lopatinski," 1861. 
 
 Promethee. See Prometheus. 
 
 Pro-me'the-us, [Gr. Ilpofitfievc ; Fr. Promethee, 
 pRo'ina'ti',] a personage of the Greek mythology, was a 
 son ot Iapetus. According to one tradition, he stole fire 
 from heaven, for which offence Jupiter chained him to 
 a rock or pillar, and an eagle daily devoured his liver, 
 which was nightly restored. /Eschylus represents him 
 as an immortal being, a benefactor of men, the giver of 
 fire, and a heroic sufferer, who was oppressed by the 
 power of Jupiter, but maintained an inflexible spirit 
 until he was liberated by Hercules. His name signifies 
 "forethought." Some authors relate that he created a 
 man out of clay and animated him with fire which he 
 stole from heaven, and that he was the husband of Pan- 
 dora. (See Eschylus, " Prometheus Bound.") 
 
 See, also, Lassaulx, "Prometheus; die Sage und ihr Sinn," 
 1843- 
 
 Fro-mo'tus, (./Elius,) a physician of Alexandria, 
 whose period is unknown. It is supposed that he lived 
 before the Christian era. Some of his works are extant 
 in manuscript. 
 
 Prompsault, drAn'so', (Jean Henri Romain,) a 
 French ecclesiastical writer, born at Montelimart in 
 1798. He published a " Dictionary of Canon Law," 
 and several works on grammar. Died in 1858. 
 
 Prony, de, deh pRo'ne', (Gaspard Clair Francois 
 Makie Riche,) a French mathematician and engineer, 
 born at Chamelet (Rhone) in July, 1755. '" le was ap- 
 pointed in 1791 director of the Cadastre, and received 
 an order to compose logarithms or mathematical tables 
 adapted to the decimal division of the circle, a work of 
 great labour and utility. In 1791 he was appointed chief 
 engineer of bridges and causeways. He became about 
 1794 professor of mechanics in the Polytechnic School, a 
 member of the Bureau of Longitudes, and a member of 
 the Institute. In 1798 he was invited by Bonaparte to 
 join the expedition to Egypt, but declined. He received 
 the title of baron in 1828, and became a peer of France 
 in 1835. Among his principal works are "Hydraulic 
 Architecture," (2 vols., 1790-96,) "Philosophical Me- 
 chanics," (1800,) "Lectures on Analytical Mechanics," 
 (1810,) and a " Hydrographic and Statistical Description 
 of the Pontine Marshes," (1823,) which is a work of 
 much merit. He wrote a number of articles for the 
 "Biographie Universelle." Died in 1839. 
 
 See Arago, " Notices biographiques," tome iii. ; " fiioge de 
 Prony," by C Dupin ; " Nouvetle iliographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Properce. See Propertius. 
 
 Propertius, pro-pet 'shejis, [Fr. Properce, pRo'- 
 pSi<ss'; It. Properzio, pRo^Rt'se-o,] (SEXTOS Aure- 
 Lius,) an eminent Roman elegiac poet, born in Umbria 
 about 50 B.C. He informs us that he was born in Umbria, 
 on the border of Ftruria. His paternal estate was confis- 
 cated by Octavitis because his father had been a partisan 
 of Antony. He began early to write poetry, became a resi- 
 dent of Rome, and obtained the patronage of Maecenas. 
 His life appears to have been that of "a man of wit 
 and pleasure about town." His career as a poet was 
 influenced by a passion for Cynthia, a poetess and lady 
 of superior talents, who furnished a theme for his early 
 elegies. He chose Callimachus as his model, and be- 
 came a rather pedantic imitator of the Greeks. His 
 style is censured as too artificial. Both ancient and 
 modern critics, however, assign to him a high rank as 
 a poet. He enjoyed the friendship of Ovid. The time 
 of his death is unknown. Four books of elegies are the 
 only works of Propertius that are now extant. A cor- 
 rect English version of his first book was published 
 anonymously in 1 781. Among the best editions of the 
 text is that of Lachmann, (Leipsic, 1816.) 
 
 See "Vita Propertii," in Lachmann's edition, 1816; Gii.lrt de 
 Moivre, " La Vie et les Amours de Properce," 1744: " Nouvelle 
 1 iographie Ge'neiale ;" " Westminster Review" for January, 1854. 
 
 Properzio. See Propertius. 
 
 Piopiac, de, deh pro'pe'Sk', (Catherine Joseph 
 Ferdinand Girard,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Dijon in 1759; died in 1823. 
 
 Pros'er-pine, [Gr. XlepoeQovi), ( Perseph' one ; ) Fr 
 Proserpine, pRo'zeVpen'; Lat. Proserpi'na,) the 
 goddess and queen of the infernal regions, was said 
 to have been a daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, and the 
 wife of Pluto. The poets feigned that as she was gather- 
 ing flowers near Enna she was abducted by Pluto ; that 
 Ceres, not knowing what had become of her, searched 
 for her with torches in all parts of the earth for nine 
 days ; that Helios revealed the secret of her abduction ; 
 that Jupiter, induced by the importunity of Ceres, re- 
 quested Pluto to restore her, and that Pluto consented 
 that she should spend two-thirds of the year with the 
 gods above, and the other third in the lower world. 
 Later writers say that she was to pass the half of her 
 time in Hades and the other half in the regions of light. 
 She is supposed to be a symbol of vegetation, and of 
 the creative and destructive power of heat. 
 
 Prosper, pRos'paiR', surnanied Aqutta'nus, ("of 
 Aquitaine,") a theologian, born at Bordeaux, in Gaul, 
 about 404 a.d. He was a zealous opponent of the Semi- 
 Pelagians, and wrote in defence of the doctrines of Saint 
 Augustine. 'His works, among which are some poems, 
 are still extant. Died after 463 a.d. 
 
 Pros'per Ti'ro or Ty'ro, a poet, who is often con- 
 founded with Prosper Aquitanus, was born in Gaul, and 
 lived about 400 a.d. He wrote a " Poem of a Husband 
 to his Wife," (" Poema Conjugis ad Uxorem.") 
 
 Frost, pRo, (Claude,) Baron, a French general, 
 born at Auxonne in 1764; died in 1834. 
 
 Prost de Royer, pRo deh rwa'ya', (Antoine Fran- 
 cois,) a French jurist, born at Lyons in 1729; died in 
 1784. 
 
 Fro-tag'o-ras, [Gr. Upumyopac ; Fr. Protagore, 
 pRo'tt'goR',] an eminent Greek philosopher and Sophist, 
 born at Abdera, in Thrace, flourished about 440 B.C. He 
 is said to have been a pupil of Detnocritus ; but this 
 is doubted by some, because Protagoras was probably 
 older than his supposed master. According to Plato 
 and Diogenes, he was the first who adopted the name 
 of Sophist and taught for pay. , He taught oratory at 
 Athens and other cities. He was banished from Athens 
 because he said that he did not know whether the gods 
 existed or not. His works, which treated on ethics, 
 physics, etc., are lost, but his peculiar doctrines are ex- 
 plained in the " Theaetetus" of Plato. He reached the 
 age of seventy or more, and died about 410 B.C. It was 
 a maxim of Protagoras that "man is the measure of the 
 universe or of all things, and that whatever he judges to 
 be true is true." Cicero says, " Putet id cuique verum 
 esse quod cuique videatur." (" Quaestiones Academic*.") 
 
 See Plato's dialogue entitled " Protagoras ;" Grote. " Plato and 
 the other Companions of Socrates," 3 vols., 1865; Hkhhst, "Dflfa 
 Protagoras Leben und Sophistik," etc., 1832; J. P'kei, "Quaestiones 
 Protagore^," Bonn, 1845: Vitringa, " Disquisitio de Protagora 
 Vita et Philosophia," 1853; C. Mai.let, " fittides philosophiques," 
 tome ii. ; Gkotk, " History of Greece," chap. Ixvii. 
 
 Protagore. See Protagoras. 
 
 Protain, pRo'taN', (Jean Constantin,) a French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1769. He was employed in 
 Egypt in 1798-99 as architect to the commission of arts 
 and sciences, and became a member of the Institute of 
 Cairo in 1801. Died in 1837. 
 
 Protee. See Proteus. 
 
 Protet, pRo'tJ', (Auguste Leopold,) a French rear- 
 admiral, born at Saint-Servan about 1810. He was 
 Governor of Senegal from 1850 to 1855, during which 
 period he made an exploration of that region. He was 
 killed in a battle against the Taepingsof China, in 1862. 
 
 Pro'te-us, [Gr. Upurrix ; Fr. Protee, pRo'ta',] a 
 divinity of the Greek mythology, was sometimes called 
 a son of Neptune and a king of Egypt. He was repre- 
 sented as a prophetic old man, who lived in the sea and 
 could foretell future events, but eluded those who seized 
 and importuned him to prophesy, by transforming him- 
 self into a great variety of shapes. If his efforts to 
 escape were baffled, he resumed his original or usual form 
 and revealed his secrei knowledge. His occupation was 
 to tend the flocks of seals or sea-calves belonging to 
 Neptune. 
 
 See Homer, "Odyssey," book iv. ; Virgil, "Georgics," book 
 'v- 387-529- 
 
 Protogene. See Protogenes. 
 
 1, e, I, 6, u, 3?, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
PROTOGENES 
 
 "845' 
 
 PR USI4S 
 
 Pro-tofc'e-neS, [Gr. IlttuToycvric ; Fr. Protogeni •', 
 pRo'to'zh&n',] a Greek painter of great celebrity, was a 
 native of Caunus, in Caria. He flourished about 332 
 B.C., was a contemporary of Apelles, and lived mostly 
 at Rhodes. The name of his master is not known. His 
 advancement in fame and fortune was retarded by his 
 modesty, until Apelles visited Rhodes and purchased, at 
 the enormous price of fifty talents each, several of his 
 pictures, which he proposed to sell as his own works. 
 (See Apelles.) In the opinion of some, l'rotogenes 
 carried the elaboration of his works to a fault ; but 
 Cicero speaks of his works as perfect in every respect. 
 His master-piece was a picture of Ialysus, on which he 
 is said to have expended seven years. One of the ad- 
 mirable parts of this picture was the foam at the mouth 
 of a hound, " which," says Pliny, " he produced, after 
 many vain efforts, by throwing a sponge at the place, 
 under the impulse of vexation or despair." 
 
 See Puny, "Natural History," book XXXV.; SuiDAS, "Proto- 
 genes;" K. O. Mullek, " Arcliaologie der Kunst." 
 
 Proudhon, pRoo'dd.N', sometimes written Prudhon, 
 (Jean Baptistf. Victor,) a French jurist, born in 
 Franche-Conite in 1758. He was for many years pro- 
 fessor of law at Dijon. He published, besides other 
 works, an excellent treatise on the laws of Usufruct, 
 etc., "Traite des Droits d'Usufruit, d'Usage, d'Habita- 
 tion et de Superficie," (9 vols., 1823-25,) said to be the 
 best work on that subject. Died in 1838. 
 
 See Lorain, " FJoge tiistorique de M. Proudhon," 1839; J. Cu- 
 RA480N, " Eloge de M. Proudhon," 1839. 
 
 Proudhon, (Pierre Joseph,) a French socialist and 
 political writer, born at Besancon in 1809. In 1848 he 
 became editor of "The Representative of the People," 
 and was elected to the Constituent Assemblv. He made 
 a motion which a large majority of the Assembly rejected 
 as "an odious attack on public morality and subversive 
 of the rights of property." He published several works 
 on social and political economy. In his essav entitled 
 "What is Property?" ("Quest-ce que la Propriete?") 
 he affirms that "property is robbery;" ("La propriete, 
 e'est le vol.") Died in 1865. 
 
 See f. Vkau, " Proudhon et son Economic politique," 1S53; 
 Qubkard. "La France Litleraire :" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rate;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1840. 
 
 Proust, pRoo, (Louis Joseph,) a French chemist, 
 born at Angers about 1760. He was admitted into the 
 Institute in i8r6. He contributed many memoirs on 
 chemistry to various periodicals, and distinguished him- 
 self as a supporter of the theory of equivalents or definite 
 proportions. Died in 1826. 
 
 Prousteau, pKoo'to', (Guillaump.,) a French jurist, 
 born at Tours in 1628. He founded a public library at 
 Orleans, and wrote legal works. Died in 171 5. 
 
 Prout, Father, the assumed name of Francis Ma- 
 honey. (See Mahoney.) 
 
 Prout, prowt, (Samuel,) a skilful English painter 
 of architecture, scenery, etc., was born at Plymouth in 
 1783. He published about 1816" Views in the North 
 and West of England," " Rudiments of Landscape," and 
 other successful works. He acquired distinction as a 
 painter in water-colours, a delineator of mediaeval archi- 
 tecture, and a lithographer. After a tour on the conti- 
 nent, he published lithographic " Fac-Similes of Sketches 
 made in Flanders and Germany," and " Sketches in 
 France, Switzerland, and Italy," (1839.) Died in 1852. 
 Ruskin pronounces him " a very great man, who, though, 
 partly by chance and partly by choice, limited in range 
 of subject, possessed for that subject the profoundest 
 and noblest sympathy. ... In reality he is to be num- 
 bered among the true masters of the nobler picturesque." 
 ("Modern Painters.") 
 
 See J. Ruskin, " Memoir of S. Prout," in the "Art Journal," 
 
 1840. 
 
 Prout, (William,) an eminent English chemist and 
 physician, was born in 1786. He practised in London, 
 and was probably the first physician who applied the 
 doctrines of chemistry to the explanation of the phe- 
 nomena of disease. Among his important works art 
 one "On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and 
 Renal Diseases ; being an Inquiry into the Connection 
 of Diabetes, Calculus, etc. with Indigestion," and 
 
 "Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Diges- 
 tion considered with Reference to Natural Theology." 
 The latter is one of the " Bridgewater Treatises." Died 
 in London in 1850. 
 
 Provana, pRo-va'na, (Andrea,) an Italian admiral, 
 born in Piedmont in 1511 ; died in 1592. 
 
 Provenzale, pRo-ven-za'la, (Marcello,) an Italian 
 painter in mosaic, born at Cento in 1575. Among his 
 works is a portrait of Paul V. Died in 1639. 
 
 Provoost, pro'vost, ? (Samuel,) D.D., an American 
 divine, born in New York in 1742, was chaplain to the 
 Continental Congress and subsequently to the United 
 States Senate. He was elected Bishop of New York in 
 1786. Died in 181 5. 
 
 Provostaye, de la, deh IS pRo'vo'sti', (Ferdinand 
 Herve,) a French natural philosopher, born at Redon 
 in 1S12. He has written on optics, heat, etc. 
 
 Proyart, puwa'yaV, (Abbe Lievin Bonaventure,) 
 a French historian, born at Arras in 1743, published, 
 besides other works, a "History of Stanislas, King of 
 Poland," (2 vols., 1782,) which' is commended. Died 
 in 1808. 
 
 Prudence. See Prudenttus. 
 
 Prudent, prii'dfiN', (Emile,) a French composer and 
 pianist, born at Angouleme in 1S17. Among his works 
 is " Fantaisie sur Lucie," (1842.) 
 
 Prudentius, pru-den'shfcjis, or Pru'dence, Saint, 
 a learned bishop, born in Spain. He became Bishop of 
 Troyes about 846. He wrote against Erigena on pre- 
 destination. Died in 861. 
 
 See Le Clerc, "Vie de Saint- Prudenco," 16S9 ; Breyer, "Vie 
 de Saint-Prudence," 1725. 
 
 Pruden'tius (pru-den'she-us) [Fr! Prudence, pRii'- 
 dd.Nss'j Clem'ens. (Aureluj?,) a Latin Christian poet, 
 was born in Spain in 348 a.d. He practised law, and 
 became a judge of a civil and criminal court. He wrote, 
 in barbarous or unclassical Latin, hymns, and other re- 
 ligious poems, which procured for him a high reputation 
 in the middle ages and are admired by some modern 
 critics. He visited Rome about 405, and passed his 
 latter years in Spain. Erasmus thought that his piety 
 and learning entitled him to a place among the doctors 
 of the Church. 
 
 See Ludewig, " Dissertatio de Vita A. Prudeotii Clementis," 
 1692; Tii.le.mont, " Memoires ecclesiastiques." 
 
 Prudhomme, pRii'doni', (Louis Marie,) a French 
 revolutionist, born at Lyons in 1752. He issued an ultra- 
 republican journal in Paris in 1789. Among his works 
 is a " History of the French Revolution," (6 vols., 1796,) 
 which is of little value. Died in 1830. 
 
 Prudhon, (Jean Baptists Victor.) See Prou- 
 dhon. 
 
 Prud'hon, prii'diN', (Pierre Paul,) a French histor- 
 ical painter, was born at Cluny (Saone-et-Loire) in 1758. 
 Having studied in Rome, he settled in Paris in 1789, 
 and obtained a high reputation. Among his works are 
 "Venus and Adonis," "The Abduction of Psyche," and 
 "Justice and Divine Vengeance pursuing Crime." The 
 gracefulness of his style has procured for him the sur- 
 name of "the French Correggio." Died in 1823. 
 
 See Ar^ene Houssayk, " Philosophers and Actresses," vol. ii. ; 
 Voiart, " Notice historique sur la Vie de Prud'hon," 1824 : Qua- 
 tkkmeke dk Quincy, "Notice sur P. P. Prud'hon," 1824; "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Prunelle, pRu'neV, (Clement Francois Vicior 
 Gaiiriel,) a French physician, born at La Tour du Pin 
 (Isere) in 1777. He lectured a.t Montpellier from 1807 
 to 1819, and published several medical works. Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 See A. F. F. Potton, " Le Docteur Prunelle," 1855. 
 
 Pruner, pRoo'ner, (Franz,) a German physician and 
 ethnologist, bom in Bavaria in 1808. He became chief 
 physician of Abbas Pasha of Egypt in 1847, before 
 which he had visited Syria and other parts of the Le- 
 vant. He afterwards returned to Europe. Among his 
 works is "Man in Space and Time," (" Der Mensch im 
 Rmnri and in der Zeit," 1859.) 
 
 Pruuias, prii'she-as, |Gr. Jlpovaiac] I., King of Bithy- 
 nia, was a grandson of Nicomedes I. He began to reign 
 about 228 K.c, and gained a great victory over the Gauls 
 in 216. He aided Philip of Macedon in his first war 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; % hard; g a»>; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as *; th as in this. (JJ= See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PR US US 
 
 1846 
 
 PTOLEMY 
 
 against the Romans, but became the ally of the latter 
 about 190 B.C. The power and prosperity of the king- 
 dom were increased by his ability as a ruler. He 
 lacked the virtue or courage to refuse when the Romans 
 demanded the surrender of Hannibal, who had taken 
 refuge in his dominions. 
 
 See Polvbius, "History;" Appian, "Syriaca." 
 
 Prusias II. OF Bithynia was the son and successor 
 of the preceding. He began to reign about 180 B.C. He 
 was neutral in the war between the Romans and Perseus, 
 his brother-in-law. In 156-154 he waged war against 
 Attalus of Pergamus. Having rendered himself odious 
 by his cruelty, he was killed by his subjects in 149 B.C. 
 
 Prutz, pRoots, (Robert Ernst.) a German poet and 
 prose writer, born at Stettin in 1816. He became pro- 
 fessor of literary history at Halle in 1849. Among his 
 works are "Poems," (1841,) "Political and Literary 
 Essays," (2 vols., 1847,) a "d " Dramatic Works," (4 
 vols., 1847-49.) 
 
 Prymie, prln, (William,) an English Puritan poli- 
 tician and antiquary, was born near Bath in 1600. He 
 published in 1632 a scurrilous pamphlet, entitled " His- 
 trio-Mastix, or a Scourge for Stage-Players," for which 
 the court of the Star-Chamber sentenced him to pay a 
 large fine, to be exposed in a pillory, to lose his ears, 
 and to be imprisoned for life. He was released by a 
 warrant from the Speaker of the Commons in 1641, and 
 elected to the Long Parliament. He was an spponent 
 of Cromwell's, and was ejected from the House of 
 Commons by the army in 1648. He compiled several 
 volumes of Records. Died in 1669. 
 
 See Anthony Wood, "Athens Oxonienses;" Disraeli, "Ca- 
 lamities of Authors." 
 
 Pry'or, (Roger A.,) an American general, born at 
 Richmond, or in Dinwiddie county, Virginia, about 1826. 
 He was editor of several papers issued at Petersburg 
 and Richmond, and was elected to Congress in 1859. 
 He challenged John F. Potter, M.C., in i860, but refused 
 to fight with the weapons which the latter selected. He 
 fought against the Union, with the rank of brigadier- 
 general, in the civil war. 
 
 Przipcovius, pzhlp-ko've-us, (Samuel,) a Polish 
 Socinian writer, born about 1592; died in 1670. 
 
 Przybylski, pzhjp-bll'skee, (HYACINTH,) a Polish 
 writer and translator, born at Cracow in 1756. He pro- 
 duced versions of Homer, Milton, Virgil, Horace, etc. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Psalmanazar, sal-ma-na'zar, (George,) the assumed 
 name of a literary impostor, born about 1679, probably 
 in the south of France. He passed his youth as a vaga- 
 bond, pretended to be a native of Formosa, and pub- 
 lished in England a fictitious account of that island,( 1 704.) 
 About the age of thirty-two he renounced his evil habits, 
 became religious, and applied himself diligently to study. 
 He obtained considerable success as an English author. 
 He wrote for a work entitled "Universal History" nearly 
 all of the ancient history except that of Rome, and left 
 memoirs of his own life, (1765.) His proper name re- 
 mains a secret. Died in London in 1753 or 1763. 
 
 See " Memoirs of * * *, commonly known by the name of George 
 Psalmanazar," 1765; " Nouvelle BioRraphie G^nerale;" "Monthly 
 Review" for November and December, 1764. 
 
 Psammeuitus, sam-me-nl'tus, [Gr. -ta/i/<ap>tToc ; Fr. 
 Psammenite, psS'ma'net',] King of Egypt, succeeded 
 his father, Amasis, in 526 B.C. He was conquered and 
 deposed in 525 B.C. by Cambyses. Soon after this event 
 he was accused of inciting the Egyptians to revolt, and 
 was put to death. 
 
 Psammetichus or Psametik. See Psammitichus. 
 
 Psammis, sam'mis, (Gr. Vdfi/uc,] King of Egypt, a 
 son of Necho, reigned from 601 to 595 B.C., and was 
 succeeded by his son Apries. 
 
 Psammitichu8, sam-mit'e-kus, or Psammetichus, 
 sam-met'e-kus, [Gr. ¥a/i/Mnxoc or "J'a/^rq'oc ; Fr. Psam- 
 mitique, psi'me'tek' ; Egyptian, I'samitik,] a king of 
 Egypt, and founder of the Saitic dynasty, began to reign 
 about 670 B.C. According to Herodotus, he reigned fifty- 
 four years. During his reign, which was an important 
 epoch, the Greeks were first introduced into Egypt. 
 
 See Herodotus, "History:" Grote, " History of Greece." 
 
 Psammitique. See Psammitichus. 
 
 Psellus, sel'lus, [IriMoc,] (Michael,) a Greek scholai 
 of the ninth century, was a native of Andros, and emi- 
 nent for learning. 
 
 Psellus, (Michael Co.nstantinus, ) a celebrated 
 Greek writer, born at Constantinople in 1020 A.D. He 
 is said to have been the most excellent scholar of his 
 time. He wrote in prose and verse on various subjects, 
 and received from several emperors the title of " Prince 
 of Philosophers." He was living in 1105. 
 
 Psyche, si'ke, [Gr. *vxy ; Fr. Psyche, pse'ki',] the 
 name given by ancient Greek poets and fabulists to a 
 personification of the human soul. Having gained the 
 affections of the god of Love, (Amor,) she lived happily 
 with him until her curiosity to know who he was de- 
 prived her of his presence. Wandering in search of 
 Amor, she entered the palace of Venus, who reduced 
 her to slavery, from which she was finally liberated bv 
 the return of her first love. According to a beautiful, 
 allegory of Apuleius, Psyche was a daughter of a king, 
 and her beauty excited the jealousy of Venus, who per- 
 secuted her. She was represented in works of art as a 
 maiden with the wings of a butterfly. 
 
 See Thorlacius, " Disquisitio mythologica de Psyche et Cu- 
 pidine," 1801. 
 
 Psychristus, sl-kris'tus, or Psycochristus, si-ko- 
 kris'tus, (Jacobus,) an eminent physician of the fifth 
 century, was a native of Alexandria. He became phy- 
 sician to Leo the Great, who reigned at Constantinople 
 from 457 to 474 A.D. 
 
 Ptolemseus. See Ptolemy. 
 
 Ptolemaus and Ptolemaer. See Ptolemy. 
 
 Ptolemee. See Ptolemy. 
 
 Ptolemy, tol'e-me, [Gr. TlToteiuHoc ; Lat. Ptole- 
 m^'us ; Fr. Ptolemee, pto'li'mi' ; Ger. Ptolemaus, 
 pto-leh-ma'us, plural Ptolemaer, pto-leh-ma'er ; It. 
 Tolomeo, to-lo-ma'o, plural Toi.omei, to-lo-ma'ee,] I., 
 surnamed Soter, or " Saviour," the son of Lagus, was 
 the founder of the dynasty of Greek kings of Egypt. 
 It is supposed that he was a son of Philip II. of Mace- 
 don, as his mother was a concubine of that king. He 
 had a high command in the army of Alexander, and 
 displayed great abilities as a general in India. He was 
 one of the personal attendants of Alexander, who ap- 
 pears to have regarded him with great favour. At the 
 distribution of provinces which followed the death of the 
 king, (323 B.C.,) Ptolemy obtained the government of 
 Egypt. He raised a large army, and formed a secret 
 alliance with Antipater against Perdiccas, who invaded 
 Egypt in 321 and was defeated. As the ally of Cas- 
 sander, Seleucus, and Lysimachus, he waged by sea 
 and land a long war against Antigonus. This war began 
 in 315, and was ended by the defeat of Antigonus at 
 Ipsus, in 301 B.C. By his able administration Ptolemy 
 rendered the kingdom prosperous and powerful. He 
 promoted commerce, science, and literature, and invited 
 many Greek philosophers and authors to his court. 
 Historians generally represent him as eminent for po- 
 litical wisdom. He died in 283 B.C., and was succeeded 
 by his son, Ptolemy Philadelphia. 
 
 See Geier, "De Ptoleman I.agida? Vita et Scriptis;" Akrian, 
 " Anabasis," books ii.-vii. ; Diodorus Sicui.lfs, *' History," books 
 xvii.-xx. ; Drumann, "Dissertatio de Rebus Ptolema^orum," 1821. 
 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) II., commonly called Ptol- ' 
 emy Philadelphus* [Fr. Ptolemee PHJLADEi.fHK, 
 pto'li'mi' fe'li'djlf',] a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Cos in 309 B.C. His mother was Bereni'ce. 
 The partial favour of his father secured the throne for 
 him in preference to the eldest son, P. Ceraunus. He 
 pursued a pacific policy, promoted foreign commerce, 
 and employed his vast resources in the patronage of 
 literature and science and the construction of public 
 works. He founded a great library at Alexandria, and 
 a museum which was the resort of eminent philosophers. 
 He had received a learned education, and manifested a 
 special interest in natural history. Among the celebrated 
 
 * I.e. "brother loving," so called in irony, because he had ex- 
 cluded his brother Ceraunus from the throne and put to death two 
 other of his brothers. Some writers, however, suppose that he 
 received the surname (which may also mean "loving one's sister") 
 from his having married his sister Arsinoe, to whom he appears to 
 have been tenderly attached, and to whose memory he caused a 
 temple to be erected after her death. 
 
 a, e, J, 6, u, y, long; a, c, 6, same, iess prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
PTOLEMT 
 
 1 8+7 
 
 PTOLEMY 
 
 men whom he attracted to his court were the poet The- 
 ocritus, Hegesias the philosopher, Euclid the geometer, 
 and Aratus the astronomer. According to a tradition 
 which is credited by many, the Holy Scriptures were 
 translated into Greek by his" command. His dominions 
 included Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, Ccele-Syria, and parts 
 of Arabia and of Libya. During his reign Egypt was 
 raised to a high degree of power and prosperity. He 
 died in 247 B.C. " 
 
 See Justin, " History," books xvii. and xviii. : Drovsen, " Hel- 
 lenismus ;" Gborg Green, " Dissertatio de Ptoleina;o (II.) Phila- 
 delpho," 1676; Drumann, "Dissertatio de Rebus Plolemaeoruin," 
 1821. 
 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) HI., surnamed Euer'getf.s, 
 (the "Benefactor,") [Fr. Ptoi.emee Evergete, pto'la'- 
 ma' a'veVzhit',] was a son of the preceding, whom he 
 succeeded in 247 B.C. To avenge the death of his sister 
 Bereni'ce, he invaded Syria about 245 B.C., defeated 
 Seleucus Callini'cus, took Babylon, and subjected many 
 large provinces of his enemy. His victorious career was 
 interrupted by a sedition in Egypt, to which he re- 
 turned about 243 B.C. He was distinguished as a patron 
 of literature, and made large additions to the library of 
 Alexandria. His reign was eminently prosperous. He 
 died in 222 B.C. According to Justin, he was poisoned 
 by his son, Ptolemy Philopator. 
 
 See Justin, " History," book xxvii. 
 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) IV., surnamed Phii.sp'a- 
 tor,* the eldest son of the preceding, began to reign in 
 222 B.C. He was greatly inferior to his predecessors in 
 ability, and was notorious for cruelty and sensual vices. 
 He put to death his mother and his brother Magas. His 
 army defeated Antiochus the Great at Raphia, near 
 Gaza, in 217 B.C. He died in 205 B.C., leaving one son, 
 Ptolemy V. 
 
 See Polvbius " History," books v., xiv., and xv. 
 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) V., surnamed Epiph'anes, 
 (the " Illustrious,") succeeded his father in 205 B.C., when 
 he was only five years old. During his minority Antio- 
 chus the Great conquered Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and 
 Judea, but was checked in his encroachments by the 
 intervention of the Romans. At his coronation, in 196 
 B.C., a decree was issued which has been preserved in 
 the famous inscription of the Rosetta Stone. In his 
 reign the power of the Egyptian monarchy declined 
 rapidly. He died (it is said, by poison) in 181 B.C. 
 
 See Polybius, "History," books xv., xvi., xvii., etc. 
 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) VI., surnamed Philome'- 
 TOR, was an infant when he succeeded his father, Ptolemy 
 V., in 181 B.C. His mother, Cleopatra, was regent until 
 her death, in 173. Antiochus of Syria invaded Egypt 
 in 171 B.C., reduced several cities, and took the young 
 king prisoner. The title of king was then assumed by 
 a younger brother, Ptolemy Euergetes or Physcon. 
 Philometor was soon released, and reigned jointly with 
 his brother for several years. Dissensions having arisen 
 between them, about 164 B.C. Philometor invoked the 
 mediation of the Roman senate, who restored him to the 
 sole sovereignty of Egypt. As an ally of Demetrius II., 
 he led an army into Syria, took Antioch, and defeated 
 Alexander Balas, in 146 B.C. At this battle he was fatally 
 injured by a fall from his horse. 
 
 See Poi.ybius, " History," books xxvii.-xxxiii. 
 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) VII, surnamed Euf.r'gf.tf.s 
 or Phvs'con, obtained the throne in 146 B.C., and put to 
 death Ptolemy Eu'pator, the infant heir of the late king. 
 Provoked by his cruelty and vices, the people revolted. 
 burnt his palace, and drove him out of Egypt in 130 B.C. 
 He recovered the throne in 127, and died in 117 B.C. 
 
 See Justin, " History," books xxxviii. and xxxix. 
 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) VHX, surnamed So'tf.r II., 
 and more frequently called I.ath'yrus, [Fr. Ptoi.emek. 
 Lathyrf, pto'la'ma' li'teR', ] succeeded his father, 
 Ptolemy VII., in 117 B.C. He reigned jointly with his 
 mother, Cleopatra, until 107, when she procured his ex- 
 pulsion in order to raise to the throne her favourite son, 
 Alexander. Ptolemy reigned in Cyprus until the death 
 
 • I.e. " father-loving," so styled ironically because he was sus- 
 pected (though probably without sufficient grounds) of having poisoned 
 his father. 
 
 of his mother, (89 B.C.,) and was then restored to the 
 throne of Egypt. He died in 81 B.C., leaving a daughter, 
 Berenice, who succeeded him, and a natural son, Ptolemy 
 Auletes. 
 
 The Alexander mentioned in the preceding para- 
 graph is styled Ptolemy IX. by some writers. 
 
 See Justin, "History," book xxxix. 
 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) X., (sometimes called Alex- 
 ander II.,) the son of Ptolemy VIII., was killed by the 
 Alexandrians on account of his cruelty. 
 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) XI., surnamed Aui.e'tes, 
 (i.e. the "Piper,") [Fr. Ptolemee Aui.ete, pto'la'ma' 
 6'IJt',] also surnamed Ne'us Diony'sus, was a son of 
 Ptolemy VIII. He began to reign in 80 B.C. He was 
 one of the worst kings of the race of Ptolemies, and 
 was dethroned by his subjects in 58 B.C. In 55 he was 
 restored by the Roman proconsul Gabinius. He had 
 two sons named Ptolemy, and a daughter, the famous 
 Cleopatra. Died in 51 B.C. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome." 
 
 Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) XII. of Egypt was the 
 eldest son of the preceding. According to his father's 
 will, he reigned jointly with Cleopatra from 51 to 48 B.C. 
 Dissensions between the minister Pothinus and the 
 young queen resulted in her expulsion. Ptolemy was 
 involved in war with Caesar, who entered Egypt in 48 
 B.C., and he was drowned in a retreat from a fight with 
 the Romans about the end of that year. 
 
 His brother Ptolemy received from Caesar the title 
 of king in conjunction with Cleopatra ; but his reign was 
 merely nominal. He was put to death by Cleopatra in 
 
 43 n- c - 
 
 See C«sar, " Bellum Civile." 
 
 Ptolemy, (Ptolemaeus,) a nephew of Antigonus, 
 King of Asia. He obtained in 315 B.C. command of one 
 of the armies of Antigonus, and defeated the generals of 
 Cassander in Asia Minor and Greece. He was put to 
 death by Ptolemy Soter in 309 B.C. 
 
 Ptolemy, (Ptolemaeus,) a son of Pyrrhus, King of 
 Epirus, born in 295 B.C., was a prince of great promise. 
 He was left in charge of Epirus when his father led the 
 expedition against Italy, in 280. He was slain in a 
 combat against the Spartans, in 272 B.C. 
 
 Ptol'e-my (Ptolemae'us) ^e^au'iius, [Gr. oKepav- 
 vor,\ King of Macedonia, was a son of Ptolemy I. of 
 Egypt by his wife Eurydice. Having been disinherited 
 by his father, he retired to Thrace. He murdered 
 Seleucus of Macedonia, and usurped his throne, in 280 
 B.C. About a year later he was killed in battle by the 
 Gauls, who had invaded Macedonia. 
 
 Ptol'e-my (Ptolemae'us) Clau'dl-us, [Gr. Tlro?.f- 
 ficuoc KaoMjoc; Fr. Ptoi.emee Claude, pto'la'mi' 
 klod,] a celebrated Greek astronomer and geographer, 
 was a native of Egypt, and lived at Alexandria. His 
 mature life probably extended from 125 to about 160 
 a.d. Of his personal history we know nothing, lie 
 was the most celebrated, but not the greatest, astronomer 
 of antiquity. His contemporaries and commentators 
 usually adefed to his name the epithet " admirable" or 
 "divine." He was also a great mathematician. His prin- 
 cipal work is a treatise on astronomy, entitled MeytiXq 
 Ztnrraftf ttjc ' XaTpovo/iiar, to which the Arabian translators 
 gave the name of "Almagest," composed of the Arabic 
 article al and the Greek \ityiarr), i.e. " greatest." In this 
 work he availed himself of the observations and dis- 
 coveries of Hipparchus, to whom he gives the credit with 
 commendable candour. Indeed, it is chiefly through the 
 medium of the "Almagest" that the merit of Hipparchus 
 has been recognized by the moderns. Ptolemy main- 
 tained that the earth is a sphere, and that the sun and 
 stars revolve daily around the earth, which is fixed in 
 the centre of the universe. " We find in the Almagest," 
 says Delambre, "a clear exposition of the system of the 
 world, of the arrangement of the celestial bodies and 
 their revolutions, a complete treatise of rectilinear and 
 spherical trigonometry, and all the phenomena of diur- 
 nal motion explained and calculated with remarkable 
 precision. . . . Such was the ' Syntaxis,' (' Almagest,') a 
 monument of great value at the present day, since it 
 alone contains the verified (avM) history of the science. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jg^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PTOLEMY 
 
 1848 
 
 PUG IN 
 
 and the whole astronomical knowledge of his times." 
 His astronomical theory is called the Ptolemaic system. 
 He also wrote a work on general geography, (IVw- 
 ypatpudj 'Y<j>r/y7]ai(,) which for many ages was the chief 
 authority on that subject, and did not become obsolete 
 until the fifteenth century. He gave special attention 
 to the determination of the latitudes and longitudes 
 of places by mathematical processes, but neglected the 
 descriptive part of geography. 
 
 See Schaubach, "Ueber den Griechischen Astronomen C. 
 Ptolemseus," 1825; Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Gneca;" Heeren, 
 " Commentatio de Fontibus Geographicorum Ptoleman," etc., 1828; 
 Dr. Hoefkr. article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. " 
 
 Ptoiemy Lagi, (or the son of Lagus.) See Ptol- 
 
 KMY I. SOTER. 
 
 Fub-lic'o-la, (L. Gellius,) a Roman general, was 
 elected consul in 72 B.C., and was defeated in'battle by 
 Spartacus. He supported Cicero in opposition to Cati- 
 line. Died soon after 55 B.C. 
 
 Publicola, (Publius Valerius,) one of the founders 
 of the Roman republic, was consul with Brutus in 509 
 B.C., and was author of laws which protected the liber- 
 ties of the common people, who gave hint the surname 
 of Publicola, " the people's friend." He was re-elected 
 consul in 508 and 507 B.C., and fought against Porsena, 
 who attempted to restore the Tarqttins. It is supposed 
 that he was killed at the battle of Regillus, (496 B.C.) 
 
 See Niebuhr, " History of Rome ;" Cicero, " De Republica." 
 
 Pub-lil'I-ua, (Voi/ero,) a Roman, who effected a 
 change in the constitution. He was tribune of the 
 people in 472 B.C., and procured for the plebeians 
 greater freedom in the election of tribunes. 
 
 Pub'11-us Sy'rus, an eminent nomographer, born in 
 Syria, lived at Rome in the time of Julius Caesar. He 
 was a slave in his youth. At games exhibited by Caesar 
 in 45 B.C. Publius excelled all competitors as a composer 
 of mimes. There is extant a collection of proverbs or 
 moral sayings ascribed to him. 
 
 Pucci, poot'chee, [Lat. Puc'cius,] (Francesco,) an 
 'Italian theologian, born at Florence ; died in 1600. 
 
 Puccinelli, poot-che-nel'lee, (Placido,) an Italian 
 biographer, born in Tuscany about 1609; died in 1685. 
 
 Puccius. See Pucct. 
 
 Pucelle, pli'sSl', (Rene,) a French lawyer, born in 
 Paris in 1655, was a nephew of Marshal Catinat. Died 
 in 1745. 
 
 Pucelle d'Orleans. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 Puchta, pooK'ta, (Gf.org Friedrich,) a German 
 jurist, born at Cadolzburg in 1798. He published an 
 excellent work on Roman law, " Cursus der Instittt- 
 tionen," (3 vols., 1841-47,) and a " Manual of the Pan- 
 dects," (5th edition, 1854.) Died at Berlin in 1846. 
 
 Puchta, (Wolfgang Heinrich,) a German jurist, 
 father of the preceding, was born near Erlangen in 1 769 ; 
 died in 1845. 
 
 Ftickler-Muskau, ptJk'ler mrJos'kow, (Hermann 
 Ludwig Heinrich,) Prince of, a German writer of 
 travels, born at Muskau, in I.usatia, in 1785. He visited 
 England, France, Northern Africa, and Asia, and gave 
 an account of those countries in a work entitled " Let- 
 ters of a Defunct," ("Briefe eines Verstorbenen," 1830.) 
 This was followed by "Semilasso in Africa," (1836,) and 
 other sketches of travel. Died in 1871. 
 
 See the "London Quarterly Review" for June, 1837: "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for May, 1832. May, 1834, and July, 1836. 
 
 Puech-Dupont, push du'p6N', (Leonard,) a French 
 naturalist and anatomist, born at Bayeux in 1795; died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Pufendorf, poo'fen-doRf, written also Puffendorf, 
 (Esaias,) a German writer, born in 1628, was a brother 
 of Samuel. He is supposed to be the author of a satirical 
 work entitled " Anecdotes of Sweden." Died in 1689. 
 
 Pufendorf, (Samuel.) See Puffendorf. 
 
 Ptif'fen-dorf, [Ger. Pufendorf, poo'fen-doRf'; Lat. 
 Pufendor'fius,] (Samuel,) Baron, an eminent Ger- 
 man jurist and publicist, born near Chemnitz, in Saxony, 
 in 1632. He studied at Leipsic and Jena, giving his 
 attention chiefly to the political works of Grotius and 
 Hobbes. He published in 1660 his "Elements of Uni- 
 versal Jurisprudence," (in Latin,) which was received 
 with general favour. Puffendorf was soon after appointed 
 by the Elector-Palatine, Charles Louis, professor of the 
 
 law of nature and of nations at Heidelberg, that chair 
 having been created expressly for him. He exposed the 
 absurdities of the constitution of the Germanic empire 
 in his work "De Statu Imperii Germanici," published 
 under the name of "Severini de Mozambano," (1667,) 
 which attracted great attention. On the invitation of 
 Charles XI. of Sweden, he accepted a similar professor- 
 ship at Lund in 1670. He brought out in 1672 his 
 greatest work, entitled " On the Law' of Nature and of 
 Nations," (" De Jure Naturae et Gentium.") This treat- 
 ise is regarded as superior in some respects to that of 
 Grotius. The new principles which he advocated were 
 violently opposed by some of his contemporaries ; but 
 the work procured for him a durable European reputa- 
 tion. He was subsequently appointed historiographer 
 to the King of Sweden, and made a baron. Died at 
 Berlin in 1694. 
 
 See Jenisch, "Vita Pufendorfii," 1802; Daniel Mui.i.er, 
 "Laudes Pufendorfii," 1723; Niceron, "M^inoires;" Sax, "One- 
 masticon." 
 
 Pugatchef. See Poogatchf.f. 
 
 Pugatschew. See Poogatchef. 
 
 Puget, pti'zhi', (Francois,) a French painter and 
 architect, was a son of Pierre, noticed below. He excelled 
 in portraits. Died in 1707. 
 
 Puget, (Hilarion Paul Francois Bienvfnu,) a 
 French general, born in Paris in 1754. He had a, high 
 command in the campaign against Spain in 1793. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Puget, (Louis,) a French naturalist, born at Lyons in 
 1629. He gained distinction by researches on magnetism. 
 Died in 1709. 
 
 Puget, (Pierrk,) an eminent French sculptor, archi- 
 tect, and painter, born at Marseilles in 1622, was a pupil 
 of Pietro da Cortona, with whom he worked at Rome. 
 He worked as architect at Marseilles, where he also 
 painted some historical pieces. About 1655 he renounced 
 painting, on account of ill health, and devoted himself to 
 sculpture, on which his celebrity is founded. At Genoa, 
 where he passed some years, he executed an admirable 
 statue of Saint Sebastian, abas-relief of the Assumption, 
 and other works. Having been invited by Colbert, he 
 returned to France in 1669, after which he produced, as 
 sculptor, " Alexander and Diogenes," and " Milo of Cro- 
 tona," which is regarded as his master-piece. He has 
 been called " the Michael Angelo of France." Died at 
 Marseilles in 1694. 
 
 See Cicogn-ara, " Storia della Scultura ;" £mkric-D \vm. "Vie 
 de P. Pujet, Peintre." etc., 1S40: Ferauo, "Etoge historiqiie de 
 P. Puget." 1807; A. Rarbe, "filoge de P. Puget," 1807: "Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneYale. " 
 
 Pughe, pa, (William Owen,) a Welsh philologist 
 and antiquary, lxtrn in Merionethshire in 1759. He 
 published a " Welsh-and-English Dictionary," (1793- 
 1S03,) a collection of old Welsh poetrv and chronicles, 
 entitled "Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales," (1801-07,) 
 and "Cambrian Biography," (1803.) Died in 1835. 
 
 Pugin, pu'zhJN', (Augustus,) an eminent architec- 
 tural draftsman, born in Normandy about 1765, emi- 
 grated to London in his youth. He published, besides 
 other works, " Specimens of Gothic Architecture, se- 
 lected from Various Ancient Edifices of England," (2 
 vols., 1821-23,) an d "Specimens of the Architectural 
 Antiquities of Normandv," (1825-28.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Pu'gin, (Augustus Nortiimork Wfi.by,) an able 
 English architect, born in London in 181 1, was a son 
 of the preceding. He was a zealous Roman Catholic, 
 and an admirer of the mediaeval Gothic style of archi- 
 tecture. He designed the Cathedral of Saint Marie at 
 Derby, and a great number of Roman Catholic churches 
 at Liverpool, Oxford, Cambridge, Reading, Newcastle, 
 and other places. It appears that his zeal would not 
 permit him to build a Protestant church. His writings, 
 one of which is entitled " The True Principles of Pointed 
 or Christian Architecture," (1S41,) contributed much to 
 the prevalence of the Gothic style of churches. He 
 ruined his constitution by excessive labour, was sent to 
 a lunatic-asylum, and died in 1852. 
 
 See R. Ferrev. "Recollections of A. N. Welby Pugin and Au- 
 gustus Pugin;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1861. 
 
 Pugin, (Edward Welby,) an architect, and a son of 
 the preceding, was born in 1834. He designed several 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, )?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
PUG L 10 
 
 1849 
 
 PULTENEY 
 
 large churches of Liverpool, and completed some works 
 which his father had commenced. 
 
 Puglio. See Pui.igo. 
 
 Fuguani, poon-ya'nee, (Gaetano,) an Italian com- 
 poser, born at Turin in 1728; died in 1798. 
 
 Pugnet, piin'yi', (Jkan Francois Xavikr,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Lyons in 1765, was chief phy- 
 sician of a hospital at Dunkirk from 1805 to 1821. Died 
 in 1S46. 
 
 Puibusque, de, deh pii-e'biisk', (Adoi.phe Louis,) 
 a French litterateur, born in Paris in 1801. He obtained 
 a prize of the French Academy for his "Comparative 
 History of the Spanish and French Literatures," (2 
 vols., 1843.) 
 
 Puisaye, de, deh pu-e'zi', (Joseph Genevieve,) 
 Count, a French royalist general, born in 1754. He 
 commanded the army of emigrants and Chouans which 
 was completely defeated at Quiberon in 1794. He died 
 in England in 1827. 
 
 Puiseux, pii-e'zuh', (Victor Alexandre,) a French 
 mathematician, born at Argenteuil in 1820. He became 
 in 1857 professor of astronomy at the Faculty of Sciences 
 in Paris. He has written several memoirs on astronomy. 
 
 Puisieux, de, deh pu-e'ze-yh', (Madeleine d'Ar- 
 sant,) a French authoress, born in Paris in 1720, wrote 
 " Les Caracteres," and other works. Died in 1798. 
 
 Puisieux, de, (Pierre Brulart,) VlCOM it., Marquis 
 de Siilery, a French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1583. 
 He was employed in important missions in the reign 
 of Louis XIII., with whom he had much influence. 
 Died in 1640. 
 
 Puissant, pu-e's8N', (Louis,) a French mathemati- 
 cian, born near Chatelet (Seine-et-Marne) in 1769. He 
 devoted himself chiefly to geodesy, in which he acquired 
 eminence, and succeeded La Place in the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1828. Among his works is a "Treatise on 
 Geodesy," (1805.) Died in 1843. 
 
 Puja'ti, poo-ya'tee, (Giuseppe Antonio,) an Italian 
 physician, bom in Friuli in 1701. He became professor 
 at Padua in 1754. Died in 1760. 
 
 Pujol, pii'zhol', (Alexandre Denis Abel,) called 
 Abel DE Pujol, a French historical painter, born at 
 Valenciennes in 1785, was a pupil of David. He gained 
 the first prize in 181 1, and went to Rome with a pension. 
 Among his best works are "Saint Stephen preaching 
 the Gospel," "Caesar on the Ides of March," and a large 
 picture of the " Renaissance of the Arts," painted" on a 
 ceiling in the Louvre. He was chosen a member of the 
 Academy in 1835. Died in 1861. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Pujol, (Alexis,) a French medical writer, born near 
 rWziers in 1739. His best work is an " Essay on Chronic 
 Inflammations of the Viscera," (1791.) Died in 1804. 
 
 Pujoulx, pii'zhoo', (Jean Baptiste,) a mediocre 
 French litterateur, born in Gironde in 1762 : died in 1821. 
 
 Pulaski, pulas'ke, [Polish pron. poo-IXs'kee,l (Count 
 C'asimir,) a celebrated Polish officer, was born in 1747. 
 He was a son of the patriotic Count Pulaski who 
 formed the Confederation of Barr in 1768. Casimir 
 took arms in that year against the Russian invaders, 
 commanded in many battles and sieges, and performed 
 many daring exploits. " Never was there a warrior," 
 says Rulhiere, " who possessed greater dexterity in every 
 kind of service." He went into exile in 1772. and en- 
 tered the service of the United States in 1777. Four 
 days after the battle of Brandvwine he was appointed 
 commander of the cavalry, with the rank of brigadier- 
 general. He resigned this command in March, 1778, and 
 raised a body called Pulaski's Legion, which was ordered 
 to South Carolina in February, 1779. He was killed in 
 the autumn of that year, at the siege of Savannah. 
 See Sparks, " American BioRraphy," vol. iv. of second series. 
 
 Pnl-ehe'rf-a, [Gr. Tlovlxepia; Fr. Pui.cherie, pUT- 
 sh.Vre',| Empress of the East, born in 399 A.D., was- a 
 daughter of Arcadius. She governed the empire in the 
 name of her brother Theodosius from 414 until his 
 death, in 450 A.D., and in her own name from that event 
 until her death, in 453 a.d. She was canonized as a 
 saint by the Greek Church. 
 
 See Cmibon. "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Con- 
 TUCtl, "Vila dell'Iinperalrice Pulcheria," 1754. 
 
 Pulci, pool'chee, (Bernardo,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Florence about 1425, was a brother of Luigi, noticed 
 below. He translated Virgil's "Bucolics," (1481,) and 
 wrote several elegies. He was living in 1494. 
 
 Pulci, (Luca,) an Italian poet, was a brother of the 
 preceding. He wrote " II Ciriflb Calvaneo," and other 
 poems. 
 
 Pulci, (Luigi,) an Italian poet, was born at Florence 
 in 1431. He lived on familiar terms with Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, to whom his wit rendered him an agreeable com- 
 panion. His principal work is "Morgante Maggiore," 
 (1481,) a romantic poem, in which the serious and ludi- 
 crous are blended, and which contains some beautiful 
 passages. It is sometimes styled a heroico-comic poem. 
 He employed the idioms and niceties of the Tuscan 
 language with much skill. His style was commended 
 as a model by Machiavel. Died about 1487. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana:" Long- 
 PBLLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Ginguen^, "Histoire 
 Litleiiiire d'ltalie ;" " Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. Hknry 
 Stkhbing ; " North American Review" for October, 1824, article 
 " Italian Narrative Poetry," (by Pkescott.) 
 
 Pulgar, del, del pool-gaR', (Hernando,) a Spanish 
 historian of high reputation, was born at Pulgar, near 
 Toledo, about 1436. He was appointed in 1482 histo- 
 riographer of Castile by Queen Isabella, whom he served 
 as secretary and attended in various journeys and cam- 
 paigns. He wrote a " Histofy of the Reign of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella," (1565,) which, however, does not extend 
 quite to the capture of Granada. Among his works is 
 a collection of biographies, entitled "Claros Varones de 
 Espafia," ("Illustrious Men of Spain," 1524.) He died 
 about 1490. 
 
 See Ticknor. " History of Spanish Literature ;" Prrscott, 
 " History of Ferdinand and Isab«lla," vol. i. part i. ; N. Antonio, 
 " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Puligo, poo-lee'go, or Puglio, pool'yo, (Domenico,) 
 an Italian painter, born at Florence in 1475 ; died in 
 1527. 
 
 Pul'lus or PuITen, (Robert,) an English cardinal, 
 noted as a promoter of learning. Died about 11 50. 
 
 Pulmann, pool'man, [written in Dutch Pof.lmann,] 
 (Theodor,) a German philologist, born in the duchy 
 of Cleves about 1 5 10; died about 1580. 
 
 Pulszky, pool'ske, (Francis Aurelius,) a Hunga- 
 rian writer and patriot, born at Eperies in 1814. Having 
 made the tour of Great Britain and Ireland, he published 
 in 1837 "Extracts from the Journal of a Hungarian trav- 
 elling in Great Britain," (in German.) He took a promi- 
 nent part in the revolution of 1848, and was appointed 
 under-secretary of'state for Hungary. After the defeat 
 of the Hungarians he accompanied Kossuth as an inti- 
 mate friend to America, and published in 1851 an account 
 of the journey, entitled " Red, White, and Black," (in 
 English,) in which his wife had a part. She was also a 
 contributor to his "Tales and Traditions of Hungary," 
 (3 vols., 1851.) 
 
 See the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1851. 
 
 Pulszky, (Theresa,) an authoress, the wife of the 
 preceding, was born in Vienna in 1815. She was mar- 
 ried about 1845. She published " Memoirs of a Hunga- 
 rian Lady," (in English, 2 vols., 1851.) 
 "Pultehey, pult'ne, (Richard,) an English botanist 
 and physician, born in Leicestershire in 1730. 1 Ie wrote 
 a "General View of the Writings of Linnaeus," (1782,) 
 and " Sketches of the Progress of Botany in England," 
 (2 vols., 1790.) Died in 1801. 
 
 Pulteney, (William,) Earl of Bath, an English 
 statesman and orator, born in 1682, descended from an 
 old family of Leicestershire. He began his public life 
 as a Whig, entered Parliament about 1705, was appointed 
 secretary at war on the accession of George I., in 1715, 
 and became a brilliant debater in Parliament. He ceased 
 t.> act with the ministry in 1725, after which he was a 
 determined opponent of Walpole. As the leader of 
 the opposition, or the " patriots," he enjoyed great 
 popularity for a number of years. He contributed to 
 "The Craftsman," edited by Lord Holinghroke. " He 
 became," says Lord Macaulay, "the greatest leader of 
 opposition that the House of Commons had ever seen." 
 (Review of Thackeray's "Life of Chatham.") When 
 Walpole was removed from power, in 1742, Pulteney 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as *; th as in this. (Jiy"See Explanations, p. 23.I 
 
PULTOCK 
 
 1850 
 
 PUTNAM 
 
 might have been his successor. The formation of a new 
 ministry was intrusted to him, but, from timidity or some 
 other reason, he declined the office of prime minister, 
 and recommended the incompetent Lord Wilmington. 
 At the same time he sacrificed his own popularity by 
 accepting the title of Earl of Bath. The composition 
 of the new cabinet was unsatisfactory to his party and 
 to the public. His rival, Walpole, meeting him In the 
 House of Lords, said, " Here we are, my lord, the two 
 most insignificant fellows in England." " He was," says 
 the "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1840, "one of the 
 most accomplished debaters, perhaps one of the finest 
 speakers, that ever appeared in our senate. . . . His 
 style was correct and classical beyond that of all other 
 men, and his unpremeditated compositions were as 
 correct and elegant as his most prepared." He died in 
 1764, and left no issue. 
 
 See Chalmers, "Biographical Dictionary;" " Nouvclle Bio- 
 grapliie Generale." 
 
 Pul'tock, (Robert,) an English author of the eigh- 
 teenth century. Very little is known of his life. He 
 published in 1750 "The Life and Adventures of Peter 
 Wilkins," a romance, which was praised by Southey. 
 
 Pulzone, pool-zo'na, (Scipionk,) a skilful Italian 
 painter, born at Gaeta in 1550 ; died about 1590. 
 
 Fu-pl-e'nus Maxl-mus, (Clodius,) a Roman 
 officer, who was elected (238 A.D.) emperor with Balbinus. 
 He was killed in 239 by his mutinous soldiers. 
 
 Puraua, pdo-ralia, a Sanscrit word, signifying " an- 
 cient," and applied to certain sacred books of the Hin- 
 doos, treating of the creation, destruction, and renovation 
 of worlds, and of the history of gods and heroes. There 
 are eighteen recognized as eminently sacred. The pu- 
 ranas are very voluminous, comprising, according to 
 Piofessor Wilson, four hundred thousand stanzas. 
 
 See Wilson's Preface to his translation of the Vishnu Pur&na. 
 
 Purbach,pooR'baK,orPeurbach,poiR'baK,(GEORG,) 
 an eminent German astronomer, born at Peurbach, in 
 Austria, in 1423. He studied at Vienna and subsequently 
 in Italy, and, after his return, succeeded Gnuinden as 
 professor of astronomy at Vienna. He wrote an ex- 
 planation of the first six books of the " Almagest" of 
 Ptolemy, and a work entitled " New Theories of the 
 Planets," ("Theorise novae Planetarum,") which had a 
 high reputation in his time. The celebrated Muller 
 (Regiomontanus) was his pupil. Died in 1461. 
 
 Pur'cell, (Henry,) an eminent English musician and 
 composer, born, probably in Westminster, in 1658, was 
 a pupil of Captain Cook. He became organist of West- 
 minster Abbey in 1676, and one of the organists of the 
 chapel royal in 1682. His first compositions were an- 
 thems, which were greatly admired. He displayed 
 greater genius in dramatic music and other secular 
 music. In 1690 he produced the music of Lee's "The- 
 odosius ; or, The Force of Love," and that of the 
 "Tempest" as altered by Dryden. He composed many 
 songs, cantatas, sonatas, duets, glees, etc. Among his 
 popular works are the song "Genius of England," 
 "Britons, strike Home," (in "Bonduca,") the cantata 
 of "Mad Bess," and several songs in Dryden's "King 
 Arthur." He is considered by some critics the most 
 excellent composer that England has produced. Died 
 in November, 1695. 
 
 See Buknrv, " History of Music;" Fans, " Biographie Univer- 
 selle des Musiciens." 
 
 Purcell, (Thomas,) an English musician and com- 
 poser, was an uncle of the preceding. He became a 
 gentleman of the chapel royal in 1660. Died in 1682. 
 
 Pur'chas, (Samuel,) an English compiler of travels, 
 was bom at Thaxted, in Essex, in 1577. He became 
 rector of Saint Martin's, Ludgate, in London, and chap- 
 lain to Archbishop Abbott. He published " Purchas 
 his Pilgrimage ; or, Relations of the World and the Re- 
 ligions observed in all Ages and Places," etc., (1613,) 
 and "Purchas his Pilgrimes," (1625,) which are collec- 
 tions of great research and some value. Died in 1628. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Puri, poo'ree or pii're', (David,) a Swiss philanthro- 
 pist, born at Neufch&tel in 1709. He founded a hospital 
 at his native town, to which he bequeathed about five 
 million francs for charitable objects. Died in 1786. 
 
 Puricelli, poo-re-chel'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Milan about 1657; died in 1738. 
 
 Puricelli, (Giovanni Pietro,) an Italian scholar and 
 priest, born in the Milanese in 1589. He published 
 " Ambrosianae Mediolanae Basilicae Monumenta," (1645.) 
 Died in 1659. 
 
 Fursh, (Frederick,) a distinguished botanist, born at 
 Tobolsk, in Siberia, in 1774. He resided in the United 
 States from 1799 to 1811, and in the latter year went to 
 England. He published a valuable work on the plants 
 of North America, entitled "Flora Americas Septentrio- 
 nalis," (London, 1814.) Died at Montreal in 1820. 
 
 Pur'v^r, (Anthony,) an English linguist, born in 
 Hampshire about 1702, was a minister of the Society 
 of Friends. He studied Greek and Hebrew, and pro- 
 duced a new version of the Old and New Testament, 
 which he published (1764) by the aid of Dr. Fothergill. 
 Died in 1777. Purver's translation of the Bible has 
 been pronounced superior to all others for "closeness to 
 the original." (For an interesting account of Purver's 
 life, see " Social Hours with Friends," New York, 1867, 
 PP- 75-770 ;•'!•. 
 
 See "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. L, 1839. 
 
 Puschkin. See Pooshkin. 
 
 Pfi'sey, (Edward Bouverie,) D.D., the founder of 
 Buseyism, was born in 1800. His father, Philip Bou- 
 verie, was a brother of the Earl of Radnor, and assumed 
 the name ot Pusey. He graduated at Oxford in 1822, 
 became Fellow of Oriel College, canon of Christ Church, 
 and Regius professor of Hebrew in 1828. In conjunction 
 with John Henry Newman, he wrote "Tracts for the 
 Times," (1833,) which produced great excitement. He 
 was suspended from his pastoral functions on account 
 of a sermon on the eucharist, which he preached in 1843. 
 He favours auricular confession and several doctrines 
 and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 See R. H. Horne, " New Spirit of the Age," 1844. 
 
 Pusey, (Philip,) an agriculturist, a brother of the 
 preceding, was born in 1799. He inherited an estate 
 in Berkshire, which county he represented in Parliament 
 from 1834 to 1852. His political principles were con- 
 servative. He wrote several essays on agriculture, and 
 edited the "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society." 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Pushkin. See Pooshkin. 
 
 Puteanua. See Dupuy. 
 
 Puteanus, pii-ta-a'nus, (Erycius,) originally Hen- 
 drik van der Putten, (vSn der piit'ten,) a Flemish 
 antiquary and historian, born at Venloo in 1574. He 
 became in 1606 professor of ancient literature at Lou- 
 vain. Died in 1646. 
 
 Puthod, pii'tod', (Jacques Pierre Marie Louis 
 Joseph,) a French general, born in Bresse in 1 769 ; died 
 in 1837. 
 
 Putlitz, poot'lits, (Gustav Heinrich Gans,) a Ger- 
 man nobleman and litterateur, born in 1 821, has published 
 several dramas, and a collection of charming tales, en- 
 titled " What the Forest tells Itself," (" Was sich der 
 WaW erzahlt.") 
 
 Put'nam, (Israel,) a celebrated American general 
 of the Revolution, born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 
 1718. He distinguished himself in the French war by 
 his reckless courage and adventurous spirit, and, being 
 captured by the Indians in the neighbourhood of Ticon- 
 deroga in 1 758, was only saved from being burned alive 
 by the interposition of a French officer. On the breaking 
 out of the Revolutionary war, he embraced with ardour 
 the cause of the patriots, and was conspicuous for his 
 skill and bravery at the battle of Bunker Hill. He 
 was made a major-general in 1775. In May, 1777, he 
 was appointed commander of the army of the Highlands 
 in New York. He superintended the construction of 
 the fortifications at West Point. Died in 1790. Among 
 his exploits was a fight with a wolf, which he followed 
 into a dark cavern with a torch and killed with a gun. 
 The aperture of the cavern being very small, he crept 
 in head-foremost, and had a rope fastened to his legs, by 
 which his companions drew him out. This occurred at 
 Pomfret, Connecticut, where he resided. According to 
 President D wight, he was a " man whose generosity was 
 singular, whose honesty was proverbial, who raised him- 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nSt; good; moon; 
 
PUTNAM 
 
 1851 
 
 PYM 
 
 -IFOR'S* 
 
 self to universal esteem and offices of eminent distinction 
 by personal worth and a useful life." 
 
 See "Essay on the Life of General Putnam," by D. Humphrkys; 
 O. W. Peaoouy, " Life of Israel Putnam." in Sp.nrks's " American 
 Biography," vol. vii. ; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished 
 Americans," vol. i. 
 
 Putnam, (Kufus,) an American general of the Revo- 
 lution, born at Sutton, Massachusetts, in 1738, was one 
 of the first settlers of the State of Ohio. In 1788, in 
 company with a considerable number of colonists from 
 New England, he founded the city of Marietta. He 
 was appointed in 1796 surveyor-general of United States 
 lands. Died in 1824. 
 
 Putnam, (William Lowell,) an American officer, 
 born in Boston in 1840, was a nephew of the poet James 
 R. Lowell. He graduated at Harvard College, and gave 
 promise of extraordinary genius. Having enlisted as 
 a lieutenant, he was killed at the battle of Ball's Bluff, 
 October, 1861. 
 
 Putschiua, pfit'sKe-us, (Elias,) a Flemish philolo- 
 gist, born at Antwerp about 15S0. He published a 
 valuable work on the ancient grammarians, entitled 
 " Grammatical Latinae Auctores antiqui," (1605.) Died 
 at Stade in 1606. 
 
 Putte, van, (Henry.) See Dupuy, (Henry.) 
 
 Puttenham, put'ten-am, (George,) an English poet, 
 born about 1533. He wrote " Partheniades," and "The 
 Art of I'oesie," (1589.) Died about 1600. 
 
 Putter or Puetter, pfit'ter, (J oh an n Stephan,) a 
 celebrated German publicist, bom at Iserlohn, in West- 
 phalia, in 1725. He became in 1757 professor of public 
 law at Gottingen, where he lectured more than forty 
 years. Among his numerous works are "Institutes 
 of German Public Law," (" Institutiones Juris publici 
 Germanici," 1770,) and a "Historical Development of 
 the Constitution of the German Empire," (3 vols., 17S6.) 
 Died at Gottingen in 1807. 
 
 See " Putters Selbsfbiographie," 1798. 
 
 Puvis, pii'vess', (Marc Antoine,) a French agricul- 
 turist, born at Cuiseaux (Saone-et- Loire) in 1776. He 
 rendered important services by his experiments and 
 writings on agriculture. Died in 1851. 
 
 Puy, du. See Dupuy. 
 
 Puymaurin, de, deh pu-e'mr/raN', (Nicolas Joseph 
 DE Marcassus,) a French administrator and painter, 
 born at Toulouse in 1718 ; died in 1791. His son, Jean 
 Pierre Casimir, (1757-1841,) was a useful member of 
 the Chamber of Deputies, and wrote some scientific 
 treatises. 
 
 Puysegur, de, deh pu-e'za'guV, (Antoine Hya- 
 cinths Anne,) a French naval officer, born in 1752; 
 died in 1809. 
 
 Puysegur, de,(ARMAND Marie Jacques de Chaste- 
 net — ,leh shat'ni',) Marquis, a French general, born 
 in 1751. He was a zealous advocate of animal magnet- 
 ism, on which he wroteseveral works. Died in 1825. 
 
 Puysegur, de, (Jacques Francois de Chastenet,) 
 Marquis, an able French general, born in Paris in 
 1656. He was sent to Spain in 1703, with the title of 
 director-general of the troops, and was raised to the 
 rank of lieutenant-general in 1704. In 1734 he received 
 a marshal's baton. Died in 1743. He left a "Treatise 
 on the Art of War." His father, Jacques, born in 1602, 
 was a general of some distinction. Died in 1682. 
 
 See Dk Coircellks, " Dktionnaire des Gene>aux Francais." 
 
 Puzos, pii'zo', (Nicolas,) a French physician, born 
 in Paris in 1686, excelled in obstetrics. Died in 1753. 
 
 Pyat, pe'J', (Felix,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Vierz.m (Cher) in 1810. He has composed several 
 dramas and contributed to various journals. He is a 
 radical in politics. He joined Ledru-Rollin in a se- 
 ditious plot in June, 1849, after which he became an 
 exile. He was one of the Communist leaders in 1871. 
 
 Pye, pi, (Henry James,) an English poet, bom in 
 London in 1745. He translated Aristotle's "Poetics," 
 and wrote many poems, among which are "The Progress 
 of Refinement," (1783,) and "Alfred," an epic poem, 
 (1802.) He became poet-laureate in 1790, and was a 
 member of Parliament. Died m 1813. 
 
 Pye, (John,) an English engraver of landscapes, was 
 born at Birmingham in 1782. He engraved with success 
 
 some pictures of Turner, among which are " Pope's 
 Villa" and " The Temple of Jupiter." He published a 
 work entitled " Patronage of British Art," (1845.) 
 
 Pyg-ma'll-on, [Uvyfui>j.uv,\ in Greek mythology, a 
 king of Cyprus, who is said to have fallen in love with 
 an ivory image of a young woman which he had formed, 
 and which Venus at his request endowed with life. 
 
 Pygmalion, King of Tyre, and a son of Belus, is 
 supposed to have lived about 800 u.c, and to have been 
 the brother of Dido, who founded Carthage. 
 
 See Virgil's " ./Eneid," book i. 
 
 Pygmees or Pygmsei. See Pygmies. 
 
 Pyg'mies, [Gr. [Iv/naioi ; Lat. Pygm.-ei, pig-mee'i ; 
 Fr. Pygmees, peg'ma',] a fabulous nation of dwarfs, 
 whom the ancients supposed to live near the sources of 
 the Nile, or in India. According to Homer, they waged 
 against the cranes a warfare which was annually re- 
 newed. Some writers relate that an army of pygmies 
 once assailed Hercules when he was asleep. 
 
 Pylade. See Pyi.adks. 
 
 Pyl'a-dei, [Gr. OuXa&K f Ft- Pylade, pe'lSd^,] a son 
 of Strophius, King of Phocis, was a cousin and intimate 
 friend of Orestes, whose sister Elcctra he married. The 
 friendship of Pylades and Orestes was proverbial. (See 
 Orestes.) 
 
 Pyle, pil, (Thomas,) an English theologian, bom in 
 Norfolk in 1674. He was prebendary of Salisbury, and 
 vicar of Saint Margaret, at Lynn. He wrote paraphrases 
 on the Acts, Epistles, and some other books of the Bible. 
 Died in 1756. 
 
 Pym, (John,) an eminent British statesman and 
 orator, bom at Brymore, in Somersetshire, in 1584. He 
 entered Broadgate Hall, now Pembroke College, Oxford, 
 in 1599, and was elected to Parliament in 1614, after he 
 had acquired financial skill by a service of some years 
 in the Exchequer. He became a leader of the country 
 party, and so strenuously opposed the measures of the 
 court that King James I. stigmatized him as "a very ill- 
 tempered spirit." He represented Tavistock in all the 
 Parliaments held in the reign of Charles I. In 1626 he 
 was one of the managers of an impeachment against the 
 Duke of Buckingham, and made a speech for which he 
 was imprisoned by the court. He was released on his 
 election to the third Parliament. He was once a friend 
 of Wentworth, who, having resolved to desert the pop- 
 ular cause, obtained a private interview with Pym and 
 began to sound him in a set speech. Pym, understand- 
 ing his drift, stopped him short with these words : " You 
 need not use all this art to tell me that you have a mind 
 to leave us ; but, remember what I tell you, I will never 
 leave you while your head is on your shoulders !" In 
 the Parliament which met in April, 1640, Pym made a 
 long and celebrated speech on grievances. "A more 
 massive document," says Forster, "was never given to 
 history." Pym and Hampden were the most eminent 
 leaders of the popular party when the Long Parliament 
 met, in November, 1640. He attacked Wentworth (now 
 Earl of Strafford) in a powerful speech, which had such 
 an effect that he was unanimously, and without delay, 
 impeached of high treason. " The result," says Forster, 
 "proved this to have been, what Pym anticipated, the 
 master-stroke of the time. It struck instant terror into 
 every quarter of the court, and left the king, for a time, 
 powerless and alone." At the trial of Strafford he ap- 
 peared as accuser. His influence is thus estimated by 
 Clarendon: "I think Mr. Pym was at this time [ 1 64 1 J 
 the most popular man, and the most able to do hurt, 
 that hath lived in any time." On the 22d of November, 
 1641, he presented to the House the Grand Remon- 
 strance, a final appeal to the people. In January, 1642, 
 the king attempted to arrest Pym and four other mem- 
 bers of the House; but they escaped. (See Chaki.es 
 I., and Hampden.) Pym had received, through Lady 
 Carlisle, timely notice of this attempt. At a conference 
 of the two Houses on the subject of grievances, in the 
 same month, Pym made a celebrated speech. He was 
 nicknamed " King Pym" by the royalists. He was ap- 
 pointed lieutenant-general of the ordnance of the king- 
 dom in November, 1643. He d ; ed in December of that 
 year, leaving several children. Pym was a consummate 
 master of parliamentary science and political tactics. He 
 
 «asii;casj;g/ior</;gas_/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; sas«; thasin//i;>. (J53?~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PYM 
 
 1852 
 
 PYRRHUS 
 
 was nut extreme in his opinions, and did not partake 
 of the Puritanic formality and rigorism which prevailed 
 among the members of his party. "There is nothing 
 more remarkable in the speeches of Pym," says Forster, 
 "than what maybe emphatically termed their wisdom. 
 . . . The wisdom I have spoken of was, as it always 
 is with the greatest men, a junction of the plain and 
 practical with the profound and contemplative ; to such 
 an extent, however, in his case, and in such perfection, 
 as may not be equalled in that of any other speaker of 
 ancient or modern times, with the single exception 
 of Burke." 
 
 See Forster, " Lives of Eminent British Statesmen ;" Claren- 
 don, "History of the Rebellion;" Hume, "History of England." 
 
 Pym, (Sir William,) an English physician, born in 
 Edinburgh or in Warwickshire about 1775. He served 
 as surgeon in the army, and was appointed inspector- 
 general of the army hospitals about 1816. He wrote 
 a "Treatise 011 the Yellow Fever," (1815.) Died in 
 1861. 
 
 Pynacker. See Pynaker. 
 
 Pynaker or Pynacker, pl'na'ker, (Adam,) a skilful 
 Dutch landscape-painter, born at Pynaker, between Delft 
 and Schiedam, in 162 1. He studied at Rome, and re- 
 turned to Holland. "In his small compositions," says 
 the " Biographie Universelle," "he shows himself a skil- 
 ful artist. We distinguish the form and aspect of the 
 different species of trees ; his colour is always beautiful 
 and true ; his distances and skies are vapory," etc. 
 Died about 1676. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais." 
 
 Fyn'chpn, (William,) an Anglo-American writer 
 on theology, born about 1591. He emigrated from 
 England in 1630, and was one of the first settlers of 
 Springfield, Massachusetts. Died in Buckinghamshire 
 in 1662. • 
 
 Pyne, pin, (Jamks B.,) an able English landscape- 
 painter, born at Bristol in 1800. He became a resident 
 of London about 1835, and visited Italy and Switzerland 
 in 1846. In 1853 he published some beautiful landscapes 
 in a volume entitled "The English Lake District." His 
 style is vigorous and brilliant, but not free from manner- 
 ism. He was vice-president of the Society of British 
 Artists for many years. Died in 1870. 
 
 Pyne, (William Henry,) an English painter and 
 writer, born in London in 1770. He painted portraits 
 and landscapes with some success, but gained more 
 distinction by his publications, viz., "The Microcosm, 
 or a Picturesque Delineation of the Arts, Manufactures, 
 etc. of Great Britain," (1803,) a " History of the Royal 
 Residences," (3 vols., 1819,) and " Wine and Walnuts," 
 (1823.) Died in 1843. 
 
 See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iii. chap. vii. 
 
 Pyn'spn, (Richard,) an early printer, who was bom 
 in Normandy, and lived in England about 1500. He was 
 king's printer in the reign of Henry VII. 
 
 Pyot, pe'o', (Jean Jacques Richard,) a French phy- 
 sician, born at Isomes (Haute-Marne) in 1792; died in 
 1841. 
 
 Fypers, pi'pers, (Pieter,) a Dutch poet, born at 
 Amersfoort in 1749. He wrote several short poems, 
 and produced many dramas, some of which were trans- 
 lated or imitated from the French. Died in 1805. 
 
 See Van der Aa, " Biographisch Woordenboek." 
 
 Pyra, pee'ra, (Jacob Emanuel,) a German poet, born 
 in Lusatia in 1 715. He wrote "The Temple of True 
 Poetry," and other poems. Died in 1744. 
 
 Pyr'a-mus, (Fr. Pyrame, pe'rim'.] See Thisbe. 
 
 Pyrard, pe'raV, (Francois,) a French voyager, born 
 at Laval about 1570. He published a "Narrative of a 
 Voyage to the East Indies," (161 1,) which is highly 
 commended. Died in 1621. 
 
 Fy-re'i-cus, a Greek painter of unknown period, is 
 supposed to have lived after Alexander the Great. lie 
 painted low subjects with success. 
 
 Pyr-got'e-les, [nvpyoreX?/;,] an excellent Gieek en- 
 graver of gems, lived about 330 B.C. An edict of Alex- 
 ander the Great designated him as the only artist who 
 was permitted to engrave the royal seal-rings or gems. 
 The extant works ascribed to him are probably forgeries. 
 
 Pyrker, peeVker, (Johann Ladislaw,) a German 
 poet, born at Laugh, in Hungary, in 1772. He became 
 Archbishop of Erlau in 1821. Among his poems is one 
 entitled " Pearls of the Good Old Time," (" Perlen der 
 heiligen Vorzeit," 1823.) Died in 1847. 
 
 Py-rom'a-€hus, | Ylvpo/iaxoc, ] sometimes written 
 Phyromachus or Philomachus, a Greek statuarv, 
 who is supposed to have flourished about 300 or 250 
 B.C. A famous statue of Asclepius is ascribed to him. 
 
 FyVrha, a daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora, was 
 the wife of Deucalion. According to tradition, she and 
 her husband were saved in an ark when mankind were 
 generally drowned by a deluge. (See Deucalion.) 
 
 Pyr'rho or Pyr'rhon, [tivfipuv,] a Greek philosopher 
 and skeptic, was a native of Elis, and was born about 
 380 B.C. He was a pupil of Anaxarchus or Anaxan- 
 drus. It is said that he accompanied Alexander the 
 Great to India. His writings, if he left any, are not 
 extant. He had numerous disciples, and is regarded as 
 the founder of a skeptical school, the doctrines of which 
 are called Pyrrhonism. He recommended a suspension 
 of judgment, and cultivated a habitual composure or 
 tranquillity of mind, {inraOeia.) After his return from 
 India he became high-priest at Elis. Died about the 
 age of ninety. 
 
 See C. Mai.i.ht, "Eludes philosophiqties," tome ii. : Diogenes 
 Laertius: Munch, " De Notione et Indole Scepticismi nominatim 
 Pyrrhonismi," 1797; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Pyrrhon. See Pyrrho. 
 
 Pyrrhus. See Neoptoi.emus. 
 
 Pyr'rhus, [flt'^c,] King of Epirus, a son of King 
 .■Eacides and Phthia, was born about 318 B.C. His 
 father was killed in battle while Pyrrhus was a child. 
 The young prince himself was expelled by the Epirotes 
 at the age of seventeen, and then joined the army of 
 Demetrius, who was his brother-in-law. He signalized 
 his courage at the battle of Ipsus, (301 B.C.) Having 
 raised a small army, he entered EptnfS, and obtained 
 the throne in 295 B.C. His courage and generosity 
 rendered him very popular. Ambition appears to have 
 been his ruling passion. ' In 291 B.c he was involved in 
 a war against Demetrius, his brother-in-law, for the pos- 
 session of Macedonia, which he invaded in 287 B.C. The 
 army which Demetrius led against him, impelled by ad- 
 miration of the character of Pyrrhus, deserted to him in 
 a body, and Demetrius fled from the kingdom. Pyrrhus 
 divided his conquest with his ally Lysimachus, who soon 
 made himself master of all Macedonia. An irresistible 
 temptation was presented to the ambition of Pyrrhus by 
 the Tarentines, who in 281 B.C. solicited his aid in a war 
 against the Romans. His wise minister Cineas could 
 not prevail on him to renounce his vast projects of for- 
 eign conquest. In 280 B.C. he crossed over to Italy with 
 about 25,000 men and a number of elephants. The 
 frivolous and unwarlike Tarentines failed to support him 
 with the large army which they had promised. He en- 
 countered the superior numbers of the Romans on the 
 river Siris, and defeated them after a long and obstinate 
 contest. His victory was so dearly bought that he is 
 reported to have said, " Another such victory, and I must 
 return to Epirus alone." He made overtures of peace, 
 which were rejected by the Roman senate. 
 
 In 279 B.C. another battle was fought, near Asculum, 
 where the Romans lost 6000 and Pyrrhus 3500 men. 
 Pyrrhus was unable to improve his victory, and, having 
 received an invitation to aid the Greeks of Sicily against 
 the Carthaginians, he concluded a truce with the Romans 
 in 278 B.C. He remained two years in Sicily, and gained 
 some victories, but failed to conquer the island. Hav- 
 ing returned to Tarentum to renew the war against the 
 Romans, he was defeated by M. Curius Dentatus near 
 Beneventum. He retired from Italy to Epirus in 274 
 B.C., and invaded Macedonia, of which he soon became 
 master in consequence of the desertion of the Macedonian 
 army from Antigonus Gonatas. At the request of Cle- 
 onymus, he engaged in a new enterprise, a war against 
 the Spartans, who repulsed his attack on their capital. 
 He was killed in Argos, in battle, in 272 B.C., after hav- 
 ing been stunned by a tile thrown from a house by a 
 woman. He was the greatest general of his time, and 
 I lannibal is reported to have said that he was the great- 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
 1 
 
PYTHAGORAS 
 
 i8; 3 
 
 PYTHON 
 
 est of any age. " He was reputed," says Plutarch, "to 
 excel in military experience and personal prowess all the 
 princes of his time. But what he gained by his achieve- 
 ments he lost by vain hopes ; his desire of something 
 absent never suffered him effectually to persevere in a 
 present pursuit." 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Pyrrhus;" J. B. Jourdan, " Histoire 
 de Pyrrhus," a vols., 1749, and English version of the same ; Livv, 
 "History of Rome," book xxxv. ; Jacob Abbott, "History of 
 pyrrlius," 1853. 
 
 Py-thag'o-ras, [Gr. Hvdayopac ; Fr. Pythagore, pe'- 
 ti'gok' ; It. Pitagora, pe-ta'go-ra,] one of the most 
 celebrated philosophers of antiquity, was born in Samos 
 about 600 B.C. Very little is known with certainty re- 
 specting his personal history. His father was Mnesar- 
 chus, a merchant, and generally believed to have been 
 a foreigner, (not a native of Samos,) but whether a 
 Phoenician or Pelasgian is uncertain. He is said to have 
 been first instructed in his own country by Creophilus, 
 and afterwards by Pherecydes in Syros. There was a 
 prevailing belief among the ancients that Pythagoras 
 travelled very extensively, visiting Egypt, Babylon, and 
 even India. That he visited Egypt seems very probable, 
 and it is perhaps not improbable that he journeyed 
 as far as Babylonia. The notion that he included India 
 in his travels would seem to have no other ground than 
 the circumstance that certain doctrines of his bear a 
 striking resemblance to some of those held by the Indian 
 Brahmans or Booddhists. He not only taught the doc- 
 trine of metempsychosis, (or transmigration of souls,) 
 but, like the Hindoos, made this the ground for incul- 
 cating the duty of kindness and tenderness towards 
 animals, and of abstinence from their flesh. It is related 
 that on a certain occasion he interceded to prevent a 
 dog from being beaten, saying that he recognized in its 
 cries the voice of one of his friends who had died. Py- 
 thagoras attached a great importance to the study of 
 mathematics. He is regarded as the inventor of several 
 important geometrical theorems, among which may be 
 named the following: that the three angles of a triangle 
 are together equal to two right angles, and that in any 
 right-angled triangle the square formed on the hypo- 
 tenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two 
 sides. He is said also to have been the inventor of 
 stringed musical instruments. 
 
 It is said that Pythagoras first made use of the word 
 philosopher, (4>t/4oo-o^or,) applying it to himself. He had, 
 we are told, witnessed the various public games of 
 Greece, and came at length to Phlius, in Achaia. Leon, 
 the king of that country, was delighted with his ingenuity 
 and eloquence, and asked him what art or profession he 
 followed. He replied that he was a philosopher. Leon 
 asked him wherein philosophers differed from other men. 
 Pythagoras answered that as at the public games some 
 were contending for glory and others were buying and 
 selling for the sake of gain, but there was one class 
 who came simply as spectators, so in human life there 
 were those who, regarding as unworthy of a wise man 
 the desire of fame or of gain, sought above all to be- 
 come wise : those he called philosophers, or lovers of 
 wisdom. 
 
 Pythagoras differed essentially from the other cele- 
 brated teachers of wisdom among the ancient Greeks, 
 in that he combined the character of priest with that of 
 philosopher. He appears to have given great attention to 
 the means of acquiring influence over the minds of men, 
 and for this purpose established a secret brotherhood 
 among his disciples and followers. He had certain doc- 
 trines of which he spoke only to his chosen disciples, 
 which, as being strictly limited to those within the 
 
 favoured circle, were called esoteric, (tourepiKu.) Other 
 doctrines were freely communicated to those without, or 
 to the people at large : these were called exoter'ic, {lijuTc- 
 piKu.) One of the necessary parts of the discipline of his 
 pupils was the practice of absolute silence. According 
 to some authorities, they were required to maintain 
 silence for five years, and during that period were not 
 allowed once to behold the face of Pythagoras ; but this 
 is probably an exaggeration. 
 
 So great was his authority with his disciples that when 
 any one asked why they believed this or practised that, 
 they were wont to answer, airdc itpti, (or e<j>a,) i.e. "he 
 himself said so," (in Latin, ipse dixit,) which was re- 
 garded as the most efficient mode of silencing all cavils 
 or doubts. 
 
 Pythagoras, on returning from his travels, settled at 
 Crotona, in Italy, where for a time he seems to have pos- 
 sessed an almost boundless influence over the minds of 
 the people. Many of the most wealthy and influential 
 among the citizens of Crotona joined the brotherhood, 
 which soon became the controlling power in the state. 
 Its extraordinary success appears to have rendered its 
 members so arrogant that they became objects of jeal- 
 ousy and bitter hatred to those who were not admitted 
 to the favoured circle, — that is, to the large majority of 
 the populace. An attack was made upon them while 
 assembled in one of their general meetings. The building 
 in which they met was set on fire, so that a great number 
 of them perished in the flames : only the younger and 
 more active, it is said, were able to escape. According 
 to one account, Py.hagoras himself perished with the 
 others on this occasion, though some writers state that 
 he died at Metapontum soon after the expulsion of his 
 disciples from Crotona. A similar reaction took place 
 in other parts of Italy; many of the Pythagoreans were 
 killed, and many others were driven into exile. The 
 brotherhood as an organization was completely sup- 
 pressed. Amid the uncertainty which prevails in regard 
 to the history of Pythagoras and his doctrines, we can 
 form only an imperfect conjecture respecting the greater 
 number of his religious and philosophic tenets. None 
 of his writings are extant ; and what we know of his 
 philosophy is derived mainly from writers who under- 
 stood it very imperfectly. 
 
 See Anoke Dacier, " Vie de Pythagore," 1706 ; A. Postei.man, 
 " Leven vau Pythagoras," 1724 ; Hamberger, " Dissertatio de Vita 
 et Symbolis Pythagorse," 1678; Eilstock, " Historisch kritisches 
 Leben des weltweiscn Pythagoras," 1756: Tiedemann, "Griechen- 
 lands erste Philosophen, oder Leben des Orpheus, Pythagoras," etc., 
 1780; Heinkich RtTTER, "Geschichte der Pylhagoraischen Philo- 
 sophic" 1826: Rbinhoi.d, "Beitragzur Erl'auterung der PyfhagoriL 
 ischen Metaphysik," 1S27 ; Ritter, " History of Philosophy;" G 
 H. Lewes, "biographical History of Philosophy." 
 
 Pytb/e-as [Gr. IlvOiac; Fr. Pythee, pe'ti'] of Mas- 
 silia, in Gaul, an ancient Greek navigator of unknown 
 period. He probably lived between 350 and 200 is.c 
 He sailed to the western and northern parts of Europe, 
 and wrote an account of his discoveries, which is not 
 extant. He described a place called Thule, composed 
 of a mixture of earth, sea, and air. His statements were 
 credited by Hipparchus, but discredited by Strabo and 
 others. 
 
 Pythee. See Pytheas. 
 
 Pyth'I-a, the name of the priestess of Apollo at 
 Delphi, where she uttered oracles. 
 
 Pythias. See Damon. 
 
 Pythl-us, lllt'fliof,] a surname of Apollo, applied to 
 him because he was worshipped at Delphi, the ancient 
 name of which was Pytho. 
 
 Py'thon, lIKflui',] the name of a fabulous dragon of 
 Delphi, killed by Apollo. 
 
 « a* k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this. (Jg^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
QUJCKENBOS 
 
 .854 
 
 QUATREMERE 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quack'en-bos, (George Payne,) an American 
 teacher and educational writer, born in New York in 
 1826, has published an "Advanced Course of Compo- 
 sition and Rhetoric," (1854,) "Primary History of the 
 United States," (i860,) "English Grammar," (1862,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Quade, kwa'deh, (Michael Friedrich,) a German 
 philologist, born in Pomerania in 1628. He wrote much 
 of what the Germans call micrologie, — i.e. treatises on 
 minute or unimportant subjects. Died in 1757. 
 
 See Oei.richs, " Memoria M. F. Qitade," 1758. 
 
 Quaden, kwa'den, (Matthias,) a German geogra- 
 pher, born at Kilkenbach ; died at Cologne in 1609. 
 
 Quad-ra'tus, [Gr, Koopdroc,] an early Christian min- 
 ister, who, according to Saint Jerome, was chosen Bishop 
 of Athens in 125 a.d. He presented an Apology for 
 the Christian religion to Adrian in 126 A.D. 
 
 Quadri, kwa'cluee, (Antonio,) an Italian writer on 
 statistics and political economy, was born at Vicenza in 
 1777. He obtained in 1815 the office of secretary of the 
 government at Venice. 
 
 Quadri, (Giovanni Lodovico,) an Italian architect 
 and engraver, born at Bologna in 1700; died in 1748. 
 
 Quad-rl-ga'rl-us, (Quintus Claudius,) a Roman 
 historian, lived about 80 B.C. He wrote Roman Annals, 
 some extracts from which are preserved by Aulus 
 Gellius. 
 
 Quadrio, kwa'dRe-o, (Francesco Saverio,) a learned 
 Italian Jesuit and critic, born in Valtellina in 1695. He 
 was employed as professor at Padua, Bologna, Venice, 
 etc. He published, besides other works, a general his- 
 tory of poetry of all nations, (" Storia e Ragione d'ogni 
 Poesia," 7 vols., 1739-59,) a work of great labour and 
 some value. It contains extracts from a great number 
 of poets. Died in 1756. 
 
 Quaglio, kwal'yo, (Angelo,) an able scene-painter, 
 was a brother of the following. Died in 1815. 
 
 Quaglio, (Domenico,) a painter, born at Munich in 
 1786, was surnamed the German Canaletto. He 
 acquired a wide reputation as a painter of architecture. 
 Among his works is a picture of the Ratisbon Cathedral. 
 He contributed much to revive a taste for the archi- 
 tecture of the middle ages. Died in 1837. His father. 
 Giuseppe, born in 1747, was a skilful scene-painter. 
 Died at Munich in 1828. 
 
 See Naglkr, " Allgememes Kimstler-Lexikon." 
 Quaglio, (Giulio,) an Italian fresco-painter, born at 
 Laino, was the ancestor of several artists, noticed above 
 and below. Died in 1800. 
 
 Quaglio, (Lorenzo,) an architect, born at Laino in 
 1730, was a son of Giovanni Maria, an architect, who 
 worked at Vienna. Lorenzo designed theatres at Man- 
 heim and Frankfort. He died at Munich in 1804. He 
 was an uncle of Giuseppe, noticed above, and father of 
 Giovanni Maria, a painter of architecture and dra- 
 matic scenery, who was born in 1772. 
 
 Quain, kwan, (Jones,) a skilful anatomist, born at 
 Mallow, Ireland, studied in Paris. He distinguished 
 himself as professor of anatomy and physiology in the 
 London University, now called University College, and 
 resigned this position in 1836. His chief work is " Ele- 
 ments of Anatomy," (6th edition, 1856,) which is said to 
 be better than any English work previously published 
 on systematic anatomv. Died in 1865. 
 
 Quain, (Richard,') a younger brother of the pre- 
 ceding, and a distinguished anatomist and surgeon, was 
 born at Mallow. He became professor of anatomy at 
 University College, London, about 1836. He was ap- 
 pointed professor of clinical surgery at the University 
 College Hospital in 1848. He published an excellent 
 work entitled "The Anatomy of the Arteries of the 
 Human Body," (1845.) 
 
 Quain, (Richard,) a cousin of the preceding, became 
 a physician to the Consumption Hospital, Brompton, and 
 invented an instrument called the Stethometer. 
 
 Quaini, kwi'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Bologna in 1611, was particularly successful in 
 painting architectural views. Died about 1680. 
 
 Quaini, (Lodovico,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 at Bologna in 1643, and was a pupil of Carlo Cignani, 
 whom he imitated. He is said to have painted the land- 
 scapes and architecture of some of Cignani's great works. 
 He worked in partnership with Franceschini at Rome, 
 Genoa, etc., and painted some historical pictures com- 
 posed by himself. Died in 1717. 
 
 Quandt, Uwant, (Johann Gottlob,) a German writer 
 on fine arts, born at Leipsic in 1787, became distin- 
 guished as an amateur and collector of pictures. Among 
 his works are " Excursions in the Domain of Art," and 
 " Lectures on /Esthetics." Died in 1859. 
 
 Quanz, kwants, (Johann Joachim,) a German com- 
 poser, born near Gottingen in 1697; died in 1773. 
 
 Quarenghi, kwa-ren'gee, (Giacomo ii. Cavalierk,) 
 an Italian architect, born at Bergamo in 1744. Invited 
 by the empress Catherine, he went to Saint Petersburg, 
 and acquired a high reputation by works erected in that 
 city. Among these are the Exchange, and the Theatre 
 of the Hermitage. Died in 1817. 
 
 See Naglkr, " AUgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Quarin, kwa-reen', (Joseph,) a German physician, 
 born at Vienna in 1733. He gained distinction bv 
 his writings on Fevers and Inflammations, (1774,) and 
 became first physician to the emperor Joseph II. Died 
 in 1814. 
 
 Quarles, kw5rlz, (Francis,) a quaint but popular 
 English poet, born in Essex in 1592. He was secretary 
 to Archbishop Usher before 1641, and was then deprived 
 of his situation by the Irish rebellion. In the civil war 
 he favoured the royalist party. His most popular poem 
 is entitled "Emblems," (1635,) and has been often re- 
 printed. Among his other works are "Divine Poems," 
 " Hadassa," and a " History of Samson." " We find in 
 Quarles," says Headley, "original imagery, striking 
 sentiment, fertility of expression, and happy combina- 
 tions." Died in 1644. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. v., (1822;) Wood, "Athenae 
 Oxonienses ;" Alubone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Quarles, (John,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 in Essex in 1624. He wrote several poems. Died in 
 1665. 
 
 Quarre, ki'ri', (Antoinette Suzanne,) a French 
 poetess, born at Recey-sur-Ource in 1813; died at Dijon 
 in 1847. 
 
 Quatrefages de Breau, de, deh kttR'fizh' deh 1>r5, 
 (Jean Louis Armand,) a French naturalist, born in the 
 department of Gard in 1810. He became professor of 
 anatomy and ethnology at the Museum of Natural His- 
 tory, Paris. His favourite science is zoology. He has 
 written numerous works, among which are "Souvenirs 
 of a Naturalist," (2 vols., 1854,) and " Anatomical and 
 Zoological Researches made during a Voyage to Sicily." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " North British Review" 
 for February, 1858; " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1858. 
 
 Quatremere, kStR'maiR', (Etienne Marc,) an emi- 
 nent French Orientalist, born in Paris, July 12, 1782. He 
 was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1815, 
 and became professor of Hebrew, Syriac, etc. at the 
 College of France in 1819. Among his principal works 
 are " Researches on the Language and Literature of 
 Egypt," (1808,) "Geographical and Historical Memoirs 
 of Egypt," (2 vols., 1810,) and a " History of the Mon- 
 gols of Persia," (1836.) Died in 1857. He had a library 
 of about 50,000 volumes. His father was first-cousin 
 to Quatremere de Quincy. " Few savants," says Ernest 
 Renan, "can be compared to him for extent and accuracy 
 of erudition." 
 
 See Renan's article in the " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Quatremere de Quincy, kitR'maiR' deh kaN'se', 
 (Antoine Chrysostome,) a French archaeologist and 
 art-critic, was born in Paris in October, 1755. He pub- 
 
 *. e, 1, 0, 5, y, long, 4, h, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon : 
 
QUATREMERE 
 
 1 855 
 
 QUESNEL 
 
 lished the first volume of his " Dictionary of Architec- 
 ture" in 1788. In 1791 he was elected to the Legislative 
 Assembly, and in 1797 was condemned to deportation 
 as a royalist ; but he escaped. He was appointed in- 
 tendant of arts and public monuments in 1815, and 
 perpetual secretary of the Academy of Fine Arts in 1816. 
 Among his works are " Letters to Canova on the Elgin 
 Marbles," (1818,) an "Essay on the Nature, Object, and 
 Means of Imitation in the Fine Arts," (1823,) and a 
 "History of the Life and Works of Raphael," (1824.) 
 Died in 1849. 
 
 Sec Querard, "La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate. " 
 
 Quatremere-Disjonval, kitR'maiR' de'zh6N'vil', 
 (Denis Bernard,) a naturalist, born in Paris about 
 1754, was a brother of Quatremere de Quincy. He was 
 very eccentric, and was confined for some years in an 
 asylum for the insane. Died in 1830. 
 
 Quatremere - Roissy, kttK'maiu' Rwa'se', (Jean 
 Nicolas,) a French writer of biography and tales, born 
 in Paris in 1754, was an uncle of Etienne Marc, above 
 noticed. Died in 1834. 
 
 Quattromani, kwat-tRo-ma'nee, (Sertorio,) an Ital- 
 ian writer, born at Cosenza in 1541 ; died in 1611. 
 
 Queeiis'ber-ry^ (William Douglas,.) fourth Duke 
 OF, and Earl of March, a Scottish peer, born about 1724, 
 was notorious for his vices. He became Duke of Queens- 
 berry about 1778, and inherited a large fortune. Died, 
 without issue, in 1810. 
 
 See " Life of George Selwvn," by J. H. Jesse. 
 
 Queiros, de, da kaVr6s, or Quiros, de, da kee'r6s, 
 (Pedro Fernandez,) a Spanish or Portuguese navi- 
 gator, born about 1560, commanded an exploring 
 expedition sent from Callao in 1605. He discovered 
 Tahiti, the New Hebrides, and other small islands of 
 the Pacific, and wrote a narrative of his voyage. Died 
 at Panama in 1614. 
 
 Quekett, kwek'et, (John,) an English microscopist, 
 born in Somersetshire in 1815. He published a "Treat- 
 ise on the Use of the Microscope," and " Lectures on 
 Histology," (18154.) He succeeded Professor Owen as 
 conservator of the Hunterian Museum in London. Died 
 in 1861. 
 
 Quelen, de, deh keh'loN', (Hyacinthe Louis,) a 
 French prelate, born in Paris in 1778. He became 
 Archbishop of Paris in 1821, and a member of the 
 French Academy in 1824. Died in 1839. 
 
 See Henrion, " Vie et Travanx de M. de Quelen," 1840 ; Belle- 
 mare, "M. de Quelen pendant dix Ans," 1840. 
 
 Quellinus. See Quei.lyn. 
 
 Quellyn, kwel-lin', (Artus,) a Flemish sculptor, born 
 at Antwerp in 1630, was a nephew of Erasmus, noticed 
 below. Died in 1715. 
 
 Quellyn, [Lat. Queli.i'nus,] (Erasmus,) an eminent 
 Flemish painter of history and landscapes, born at Ant- 
 werp in 1607. His design, colour, and distribution of 
 light and shade are commended. Among his works 
 are a "Repose in Egypt," a "Last Supper," and "The 
 Guardian Angel." Died in 1678. 
 
 Quellyn, (Jan Erasmus,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Antwerp in 1629 or 1630, and was a good 
 painter of history. He worked in his native city and 
 other towns of Flanders. A picture of "Christ healing 
 the Sick" is called his master-piece. "Some of his 
 works," says Descamps, "may be compared to those 
 of Paul Veronese." Died in 1715. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Quenatedt, kwen'stet, (Johann Andreas,) a Ger- 
 man Lutheran theologian, born at Quedlinburg in 1617. 
 He was professor of theology at Wittenberg, and pub- 
 lished several works. Died in 1688. 
 
 Quental, do, do WN-tal', (Bartholomf.u,) a Por- 
 tuguese theologian, born in one of the Azores in 1626. 
 He was the author of works which are said to be well 
 written. Died in 1698. 
 
 Quentel or Quentell, kwen'tel, (Heinrich,) a cele- 
 brated printer of Cologne, flourished in the fifteenth 
 century. 
 
 Quentin, koN'tlN', (Nicolas,) a French painter, born 
 at Dijon, where he died in 1636. 
 
 Quer y Martinez, kaiR e maR-tee'nJth, (JosE,) a 
 Spanish botanist, bom at Perpignan in 1695. He pub- 
 lished a Flora of Spain according to the system of Tourne- 
 fort, — "Flora Espanola, o Historia de las Plantas que 
 se crian en Espafia," (6 vols., 1762-84.) He is said to 
 have been the first Spaniard who published a work on 
 Spanish plants. Died in 1764. 
 
 Querard, ka'riit', (Joseph Marie,) a French bibli- 
 ographer, born at Rennes in 1797. He published an 
 important work on French bibliography, entitled " La 
 France Litteraire, ou Dictionnaire bibliographique," (10 
 vols., 1826-42.) He left several unfinished works. Died 
 about December 1, 1865. 
 
 See " Life and Works of J. M. Que>ard," by O. Hamst, London, 
 1867; Querard, "La France Litteraire," tome xi. 
 
 Querbeuf, de, deh keR'buf, (Yves Mathurin Ma- 
 rie,) a French litterateur, born at Landerneau in 1726; 
 died about 1799. 
 
 Quercetanua, the Latin of Duchesne, which see. 
 
 Quercia, della, deYla kweVcha, (Jacopo,) an able 
 Italian sculptor, born near Sienna about 1378. He 
 decorated the Duomo or Cathedral of Florence with 
 some bas-reliefs, and sculptured the ornaments of the 
 door-way of San Petronio at Bologna. Died in 1442. 
 
 Querenghi, kwa-ren'gee, (Antonio,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Padua in 1546. He was secretary of the Sacred 
 College at Rome under five popes. He wrote verses in 
 Latin and Italian. Died in 1633. 
 
 Querini, kwa-ree'nee, or Quirini, kwe-ree'nee, [Lat. 
 Queri'nus,] (Angelo Maria,) Cardinal, an eminent 
 Italian writer, born of a noble family at Venice in 1680. 
 He published on the liturgy of the Greek Church a 
 work entitled "Officium Quadrigesimale Groecorum," 
 (1721.) About 1722 he was made Archbishop of Corfu. 
 He was translated to the see of Brescia in 1728, soon 
 after which he became librarian of the Vatican. Among 
 his works are " Specimen of Brescian Literature," 
 ("Specimen Literaturae Brixianae," 1739,) and many 
 Latin Epistles, (1742-49.) Voltaire dedicated his "Semi- 
 ramis" to Querini, who was remarkable for his amiable 
 virtues. Died in 1755. 
 
 See his autobiography, " Commentarius de Rebus pertinentibus 
 ad A. M. Querinum," 2 vols., 1749; Brkithaupt, "Geschichte des 
 Cardinal Querini," 1752 ; C. F. Hoffman, " Proiiramma de Quirino 
 glorioso," 1753; Samhuca, " Lettera intorno alia Morte del Cardinal 
 Quirini," 1757 ; Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gdne>ale." 
 
 Querlon, de, deh keR'16N', (Anne Gabriel Me*us- 
 nier,) a French editor and compiler, born at Nantes in 
 1702. He edited the works of many ancient and mod- 
 ern authors, and was for twentv years editor of a journal 
 entitled "Les Petites Affiches.'' Died in 1780. 
 
 Querno, kweVno, (Camili.o,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Monopoli about 1470. He wrote a Latin poem en- 
 titled "Alexias." Died at Naples in 1528. 
 
 Querouaille. See Keroual, de, (Louise.) 
 
 Quesnay, kj'nj', (Francois,) a French physician, 
 distinguished as a political economist, was born at Merei, 
 near Montfort l'Amaury, in 1694. He was self-educated, 
 and settled in Paris about 1737. He purchased the 
 office of physician-in-ordinary to the king about 1745. 
 He advocated the abolition of corvttes, free trade in grain, 
 and other reforms, which have been since adopted. 
 Among his works was one entitled "Economic Pic- 
 ture," ("Tableau economique," 1758.) He was called 
 the chief of the sect of Iconomistes, whose favourite maxim 
 was " Laissez faire et laissez passer," (" Let things take 
 care of themselves.") Died in 1774. Turgot was one 
 of his disciples. 
 
 See "Vie de Quesnay," prefixed to his works; Grandjean dh 
 Fouchv, " E*!oge de Quesnay;" Albon, " Fjoge historique de M. 
 Quesnay," 1775; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Queane, k|'na', (Jacques Salbigoton,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Pavilly in 1778; died in 1859. 
 See " Confessions de J. S. QuesneV' 3 vols., 1828-35. 
 
 Quesne, du. See Duquesne. 
 
 Queanel, k&'nel', (Francois,) a painter, of French 
 origin, born at Edinburgh about 1544; died in Paris in 
 1619. 
 
 Queanel, (Francois Jean Baptiste,) Baron, a 
 French general, born at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1765 ; 
 died in 1819. 
 
 < is k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; r, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
QUESNEL 
 
 1856 
 
 QUINCr 
 
 Quesnel, (Louis Francois,) a French genera], born 
 in Paris in 1773. He distinguished himself in Spain, 
 (1808-11.) Died in 1815. 
 
 Quesnel, (Pasquier,) a French Jansenist writer, born 
 in Paris in 1634. He became a priest of the Oratory, 
 from which he was expelled in 1684 because he refused 
 to sign a formulary which condemned Jansenism. To 
 escape persecution, he retired to Brussels in 1685, and 
 published his work on the New Testament, called " Re- 
 flexions morales," etc., (1694,) which was condemned 
 by the spiritual and temporal powers and anathematized 
 by the pope in the famous bull " Unigenitus," (1713.) 
 Quesnel wrote other works, and, after the death of Ar- 
 nauld, was regarded as the chief of the Jansenists. He 
 died at Amsterdam in 1 719. 
 
 See "Causa Quesndliana," Brussels, 1704; MoriSri, " Diction- 
 naire Historique ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Quesnel, (Pierre,) a French writer, born at Dieppe 
 about 1699. He wrote a " History of the Jesuits," (4 
 vols., 1740,) in which he shows himself hostile to that 
 society. Died about 1774. 
 
 Qu'esnoy, du. See Duquesnoy. 
 
 Questel, k&'tel', (Charles Augusts,) a French 
 architect, born in Paris in 1807. He obtained medals 
 of the first class in 1852 and 1855. 
 
 Quetant, keh-tftN', (Antoine Francois,) a French 
 dramatic author, born in Paris in 1733 ; died in 1823. 
 
 Quetelet, ket-1^', (Lambert Adolphe Jacques,) a 
 Belgian astronomer, born at Ghent in 1796. He became 
 director of the Royal Observatory of Brussels in 1828, 
 and perpetual secretary of the Royal Academy in 1834. 
 Among his numerous works are " Criminal Statistics 
 of Belgium," (1832,) "Elements of Astronomy," (4th 
 edition, 1848,) and " Annals of the Royal Observatory," 
 (14 vols., 1843-59.) He contributed many scientific 
 articles to various journals. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^ne*rale." 
 
 Quetif, keh-tef, (Jacques), a learned French Do- 
 minican monk, born in Paris in 1618. He wrote 
 "Scriptores Ordinis Praedicatorum recensiti," (2 vols., 
 1719-21,) which contains notices of many Dominicans 
 who were authors. Died in 1698. 
 
 Quevedo. See Mauzinho. 
 
 Quevedo y Villegas, de, da ki-va'no e vel-ya'gas, 
 usually called simply Quevedo, (Francisco Gomez — 
 go'meth,) an eminent and original Spanish author and 
 safirist, bom in Madrid in September, 1580. He was 
 brought up in the royal palace by his mother, who was a 
 lady of the bed-chamber, and learned the ancient lan- 
 guages at Alcala. He was distinguished for his gallantry, 
 was an expert swordsman, and fought several duels. In 
 the prime of life he was employed in important affairs 
 at Naples by the viceroy, the Duke of Ossufia. He 
 wrote in prose and verse a variety of works, which were 
 very popular. Among his prose works are " Suenos," 
 (" Visions," or "Dreams," 1649,) which are greatly ad- 
 mired for their wit and humour, and " Life of the Great 
 Knave," (" Vida del gran Tacano,") a romance. He 
 wrote dramas, (which are lost,) odes, sonnets, satires, etc. 
 He is said to have resembled Voltaire in his talent 
 for ridicule, his versatility, and the skill with which he 
 arraigned abuses before the tribunal of public opinion. 
 He suffered much political persecution, and was im- 
 prisoned several years. Died in 1645. 
 
 See Don Pablo Antonio de Tarsia, "Vida de Don Fr.de 
 Quevedo y Villegas," Madrid. 1663; "Nouvelle Biographie G£ne*- 
 rale ;" Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature," vol. ii. ; Bahna, 
 " Hijos de Madrid," vol. 11. 
 
 Queverdo, keh-veVdo', (Francois Marie Isidore,) 
 a French designer and etcher, born in Bretagne in 1740 ; 
 died in 1808. 
 
 Quicherat, kesh'Ra", (Jules,) a French antiquary, 
 born in Paris in 181 5, has written several works on 
 French antiquities and on the history of Joan of Arc. 
 
 Quicherat, (Louis,) a lexicographer, a brother of the 
 preceding, was born in Paris in 1799. He published an 
 excellent " Poetical Treasury of the Latin Language," 
 ("Thesaurus poeticus Linguae Latinae," 1836,) and a 
 Latin-French Dictionary, (1844,) which is said to be the 
 best work of the kind published in France. 
 
 Quick, (John,) an English nonconformist minister, 
 born at Plymouth in 1636. He wrote, besides other 
 
 works, " Synodicon in Gallia reformata," (1692.) He 
 preached in London for many years. Died in 1706. 
 
 Quick, (John,) an English comedian, born in London 
 in 1748 ; died in 1831. 
 
 Quien. See Lequien. 
 
 Qui-e'tus, a Roman, who in 260 a.d. was supported 
 by part of the army as emperor or partner of his brother 
 Macrianus in imperial power. He was put to death in 
 Asia by Odenatus in 262 a.d. 
 
 Quignones. See Quinones. 
 
 Quillet, ke'yi', (Claude,) a French writer of Latin 
 poetry, sometimes called Calvidus L/BTUS, was born at 
 Chinon, in Touraine, in 1602. He wrote a poem entitled 
 " On the Method of having Beautiful Offspring," (" Calli- 
 paedia, seu de pulchrae Prolis habendae Ratione," 1655,) 
 which was generally admired. Died in 1661. 
 
 Quilliar'd, ke'e-ytR', (Pierre Antoine,) a French 
 painter and etcher, born in Paris in 17M ; died in Lisbon 
 
 in 1733- 
 
 Quin, (James,) an eminent English actor, born in 
 London in 1693, was a grandson of Mark Quin, a lord 
 mayor of Dublin. He began to perform at Drury Lane 
 about 1716, obtained great success in the rile of "Fal- 
 staff " in 1720, and was the most popular actor of England 
 until he was surpassed by Garrick. He taught elocution 
 to Prince George, (afterwards George III.) On hearing 
 that king's first speech from the throne, Quin exclaimed, 
 " I taught the boy to speak." He once released the poet 
 Thomson from prison by payment of the debt for which 
 he was confined. He retired from the stage in 1748. 
 Died at Bath in 1766. 
 
 See a " Life of Quin," anonymous, 1766. 
 
 Quinault, ke'no', ( Jean Baptiste Maurice, ) a 
 French comic actor, born in Paris about 1690; died 
 in 1744. 
 
 Quinault, (Jeanne Franchise, ) a comic actress, 
 a sister of the preceding, was born about 1700; died 
 
 in 1783- 
 
 Quinault, (Philippe,) a French dramatic poet, born 
 in Paris in 1635. He produced in his youth several 
 tragedies and comedies, among which is "La Mere 
 Coquette," (1664,) and was admitted into the French 
 Academy in 1670. His reputation is founded chiefly on 
 his operas, the music of which was composed by Lulli. 
 Between 1672 and 1686 Quinault and Lulli produced 
 fourteen operas, among which "Armide" (1686) is the 
 master-piece. Others are entitled " Cadmus," " Alceste," 
 "Isis," " Persee," "Roland," etc. He is called by 
 some the first writer of French operas. " What can be 
 more beautiful, and even sublime," says Voltaire, "than 
 this chorus in ' Alceste,' ' Tout morte! doit ici paraitre' ?" 
 etc. Died in 1688. 
 
 See "Vie de Quinault." prefixed to his Works, 5 vols., 1739; 
 Craphlet, "Notice sur la Vie de Quinault," 1824; Pkrrault, 
 " Les Hommes illustres;" "Nouvelle Biographic Ginerale." 
 
 Quinault-Dufresne, ke'no' dii'fK§N', ( Abraham 
 Alexis,) a popular French actor, born at Verdun-sur- 
 le-Doubs in 1693. He performed in tragedy and high 
 comedy. He was a brother of Jean B. M. Quinault, 
 noticed above. Died in 1767. 
 
 Quin'by, (Isaac F.,) an American general, born in 
 New Jersey, graduated at West Point about 1843. He 
 became a brigadier-general of volunteers early in 1862, 
 and commanded a division of General Grant's army in 
 the operations against Vicksburg in 1863. 
 
 Quincey, De. See De Quincey. 
 
 Quinctilianus. See Quintii.ian. 
 
 Quin'cy, (Kdmund,) an American writer and oppo- 
 nent of slavery, a son of Josiah Quincy, notjced below, 
 was born in Boston in 1808. He contributed to several 
 newspapers and periodicals, and wrote " Wensley, a 
 Story without a Moral," (1854.) 
 
 Quin'cjf, (John,) an English medical writer, practised 
 medicine in London. Among his works is " Lexicon 
 Physico-Medicum." Died in 1723. 
 
 Ouincy, (Josiah,) an American orator and patriot, 
 born in Massachusetts in 1744, was a son of Josiah 
 Quincy, a merchant of Boston. He became a lawyer 
 and began about 1767 to write political essays against 
 the measures of the British ministry. He also rendered 
 important services to the popular cause by his fervid 
 
 B, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat j met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
QUI NCI 
 
 1857 
 
 QUINTUS 
 
 and powerful eloquence. His chief political work is 
 "Observations on the Boston Port Bill) with Thoughts 
 on Civil Government," etc., (1774.) He gave proof of 
 moral courage by defending Captain Preston and several 
 soldiers in their trial for killing certain citizens in the 
 Boston massacre of March, 1770. To promote the public 
 welfare and the cause of liberty, he made a voyage to 
 England in October, 1774. He heard and reported a 
 celebrated speech made by Lord Chatham in defence 
 of the Americans, January 20, 1775. He conferred with 
 Dr. Franklin and other friends of the cause in England, 
 and hastened to return with counsels and plans which it 
 was not prudent to commit to writing; but before the 
 end of his voyage he died at sea, April, 1775. He was 
 deeply lamented by the public. 
 
 See a " Life of Josiah Quincy, Jr.," by his son Josiah, 1825. 
 
 Quincy, (Josiah,) an eminent statesman ar.d scholar, 
 born in Boston on the 4th of February, 1 772, was a son 
 of the preceding. He graduated at Harvard College in 
 1790, and studied'law. He joined the Federalist party, 
 and represented Boston in Congress from 1804 to 1813. 
 During this period he opposed the measures of the 
 dominant party with gTeat energy and decision. He 
 made a celebrated speech against the bill for the admis- 
 sion of Louisiana in 181 1, and opposed the war of 1812. 
 " He was equal to the emergency," says R. \V. Griswold, 
 "and sustained himself on all occasions with manly in- 
 dependence, sound argument, and fervid declamation." 
 He was a member of the Senate of Massachusetts from 
 1814 to 1820, became a judge of the municipal court of 
 Boston in 1822, and served as mayor of Boston from 
 1823 to 1829. In 1829 he was elected president of Har- 
 vard University. He published, besides other works, 
 a "Memoir of Josiah Quincy, Jr.," (1825,) a "History 
 of Harvard University," (2 vols., 1840,) "Speeches in 
 Congress and Orations," and a " Life of John Q. Adams," 
 (1858.) He resigned the presidency of Harvard in 1845. 
 In 1856 he publicly advocated the election of Colonel 
 Fremont to the Presidency; He died in July, 1864, aged 
 ninety-two. 
 
 See " Life of Josiah Quincy," by his son, Edmund Quincy : R. 
 W. Griswold, "Prose Writers of America ;" Duvckinck, "Cyclo- 
 paedia of American Literature." vol. i. 
 
 Quincy, de, deh kaN'se', (Chari.es Sevin — seh- 
 v&n',) Marquis, a French general and military writer, 
 born near Meaux in 1666. He wrote a "Military His- 
 tory of the Reign of Louis XIV.," (8 vols., 1726.) Died 
 in 1736. 
 
 Quincy, de, (Quatremere.) See Quatremere. 
 
 Quinet, ke'n&', (EDGAR,) a French writer and phi- 
 .osopher, born at Bourg (Ain) in 1803, became a friend 
 of Michelet. He obtained in 1842 in the College of 
 France a chair of southern literatures, ( 'littlraturts mlri- 
 dionales.) He acted with the republicans (extreme gauche) 
 in the Constituent and Legislative Assemblies of 1848-9. 
 Among his various works are " Prometheus," a poem, 
 (1838,) "Germany and Italy: Philosophy and Poetry," 
 (1839,) "The Genius of Religions," (1843,) and "The 
 Revolutions of Italy," (3 vols., 1852.) He was banished 
 from France in 1852. 
 
 See Chassin, " K. Quinet, sa Vie et son OZuvre," 1859; G. 
 Planche, "Portraits Litte'iaires ;" Bataii.lard, "OZuvre philoso- 
 pliique et sociale d'E. Quinet." 1845; Quinet, "Histoire de me* 
 ldt*es," 1858; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Quinette, ke'net', (Nicolas Marie,) a French revo- 
 lutionist, born at Soissons in 1762. He was elected to 
 the Convention in 1792, and was one of the four com- 
 missaries sent to arrest Dumouriez, who seized and 
 delivered them to the Austrians, (April, 1793.) He was 
 minister of the interior for a short time in 1799. Died 
 in 1821. 
 
 Quinones, de, da ken-yo'n?s, sometimes written 
 Quignonez, (Francisco,) a Spanish cardinal, born in 
 the kingdom of Leon, became confessor to Charles V. 
 He negotiated the release of Pope Clement VII., de- 
 tained or besieged by the Spanish army, in 1527. He 
 published "Breviarium Romanum," (1535.) Died in 
 1540. 
 
 Quinsonas, de, deh kas'so nas', (Francois Dugas,) 
 a French poet, born at Lyons in 1719, wrote epigrams 
 against Voltaire. Died in 1768. 
 
 Quintana, kcn-t.Vna, (Manuel Jos*,) an eminent 
 Spanish poet and patriot, was born in Madrid in Apiil, 
 1772. He studied law at Salamanca, where he formed 
 a friendship with Melendez and Cienfuegos. He began 
 to write verses about 1790. His "Ode to the Sea" 
 (1798) is one of the most beautiful in the Spanish lan- 
 guage. He wrote other excellent odes, one of which 
 is "On the Battle of Trafalgar." In 1807 he published 
 the first volume of the " Lives of Celebrated Spaniards," 
 (3 vols., 1807-34,) which is highly commended. Between 
 1808 and 1814 he employed his talents and influence 
 against the French invaders, and wrote several eloquent 
 manifestoes for the national party. These services were 
 rewarded with rigorous imprisonment for six years 
 (1814-20) by Ferdinand VII., who was offended because 
 Quintana advocated liberal principles. He propitiated 
 the king by an ode in honour of nil marriage in 1828, 
 and was permitted to return to Madrid. In 1835 he 
 was appointed director-general of public instruction, 
 and became a senator. He directed the education 
 of the young queen in 1840-43. He was publicly 
 crowned with laurel by the queen in 1855. Died in 
 March, 1857. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature :" Kennedy, 
 " Modern Poets of Spain ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Quinte-Curce. See Quintus Curtius. 
 
 Quin-til'I-an, [Lat. Quintilia'nus or Quinctilia'. 
 nus ; Fr. Quintilien, kiN'te'leJ.N',] (Marcus Fabius,) 
 a celebrated Roman critic and teacher of rhetoric, was 
 born probably between 40 and 50 A.n. Jerome states 
 that he was a native of Calagurris, (Calanorra,) in the 
 northern part of Spain ; but some modern writers think 
 he was born in Rome. He obtained a high reputation 
 as a pleader, and was the first public instructor who 
 received from the imperial treasury a regular salary. 
 Among his pupils was the Younger Pliny. He taught 
 rhetoric for twenty years, and retired from that pro- 
 fession in the reign of Domitian, who appointed him 
 preceptor of his grand-nephews. His chief work is a 
 treatise on the education of an orator, " Institutio Ora- 
 toria," divided into twelve books. This is the most 
 complete and methodical treatise on rhetoric that has 
 come down to us from antiquity. An entire copy of it 
 was found by Poggio at Saint Gall in 1417. His style 
 is clear, elegant, and highly polished. His practical 
 ideas are good, but his criticisms are rather superficial. 
 He gives judicious precepts for students, and interesting 
 details of the education and classic studies of the an- 
 cients. His merit consists in sound judgment, propriety, 
 and good taste, rather than in originality or elevation of 
 mind. He is supposed to have died about 118 a.d. He 
 wrote a work on the corruption or decadence of elo- 
 quence, "De Causis Corruptee Eloquentiae," which is 
 not extant. His "Institutio" has been translated into 
 English by Guthrie (1756) and Patsall, (1774.) 
 
 See ROdiger, "De Quintiliano Paedagogo," 1S50; V. Otto, 
 "Quintilian und Rousseau," 1836; J. Janin, "Piine le Jeune et 
 Quintilien," 183S : Hummel, "Quintiliani Vita," 1843; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Quintilianus. See Quintilian. 
 
 Quintilien. See Quintilian. 
 
 Quintinie, de la, deh li ka.v'te'ne', (Jean,) an emi- 
 nent French gardener and writer on gardening, was born 
 at Chabanais (Angoumois) in 1626. He was appointed 
 intendant of the fruit-gardens of the king at Versailles 
 in 1673. He made much improvement in the cultivation 
 of fruit-trees, and left a work which was for a long time 
 the guide of French cultivators. It is entitled " Direc- 
 tions for Fruit and Kitchen Gardens," (" Instructions 
 pour les Jardins fruitiers et potagers," 1690.) Died in 
 1688. 
 
 Quinto Curzio. See Quintus Curtius. 
 
 Quin'tus Cal'a-ber or Q. Smyr-uas'us, (smir- 
 nee'us,) [Fr. Quin'tus de Calabre, kaN'tiiss' deh kS'- 
 ltbR', or Quintus de Smyrne, kaN'tiiss' deh sm&Rn,] 
 a Greek poet, known only as the author of one poem, is 
 supposed to have lived about 500 a.d. He is called 
 Calaber because a manuscript of his work was found 
 in Calabria. According to his own statement, he was a 
 native of Smyrna. He wrote a continuation of Homer's 
 " Iliad," (0/j.fipov XlapaXnroueva,) which contains some 
 
 « asi; 9 as s: %hard; gas/; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; th as in this. (J^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 117 
 
QUINTUS 
 
 1858 
 
 RABELAIS 
 
 beautiful passages. The subjects of it are those events 
 of the Trojan war which are not related by Homer. 
 Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius. See Quadri- 
 
 GARIUS. 
 
 Quin'tus Cur'tius (kur'she^us) Ru'fus, [Fr. Quinte- 
 Curce, kaNt kiiRss ; It. QuTnto Curzio, kwen'to 
 kooRt'se-o,] a Roman historian of uncertain period, is 
 supposed to have lived after the Augustan age. Nothing 
 is known of his birthplace or personal history. We 
 find in ancient writers no passage which certainly refers 
 to him. He is the author of a " History of Alexan- 
 der the Great," (" De Rebus Alexandri Magni Regis 
 Macedonum,") in ten books, of which the first and second 
 are lost. The merit of this history is variously estimated. 
 His style is easy, clear, and rhetorical. He is deficient 
 in critical judgment and in a knowledge of geography 
 and military tactics. Among his modern admirers are 
 Vossius, Bayle, Rapin, Tiraboschi, and La Harpe. His 
 work has been translated into English by Brende and 
 Digby. 
 
 See Buttmann, " Ueber das Leben des Geschichtschreibers 
 Quintus Curtius Rufus," 1820; J. E. Mui.ler, " Programma de 
 Q. Curtio Rufo," 1695: Adolph Hirt, "Ueber das Leben des 
 Geschichtschreibers Q. Curtius Ruths," 1820; Niebuhr, "Kleine 
 Schriften," i. 
 
 Quintus de Calabre or de Smyrne. See Quin- 
 tus Calaber. 
 
 Quiot du Passage, keV dii pi'stzh', (Jerome 
 Joachim,) a French general, born at Alixan (Drome) in 
 1775 ; died in 1849. 
 
 Quirini. See Querini. 
 
 Quiriuus, a surname of Romulus, (which see.) 
 
 Quiroga, ke-ro'ga, (Jose,) a Spanish Jesuit, bcrn in 
 Galicia in 1707. About 1745 he was sent by the King 
 of Spain to explore Patagonia. He wrote a journal of 
 his voyage, which was inserted by Charlevoix in his 
 " History of Paraguay." Died in 1784. 
 
 Quiros, kee'ros, (Lorenzo,) a Spanish painter, born 
 in Estremadura in 1717. He worked at Seville, and 
 imitated Murillo with success. Died in 1789. 
 
 Quiros, (Pedro.) See Queiros. 
 
 Quirot, ke'ro', (Jean Baptiste,) a French advocate, 
 born in Franche-Comte about 1760, was a moderate 
 member of the Convention, (1792-95.) In the trial of 
 the king he voted for imprisonment. Died in 1830. 
 
 Quistorp, kwis'toRp, (Johann,) a German Lutheran 
 divine and biblical commentator, born at Rostock in 
 1584. He became professor of divinity in his native 
 city in 1614. Died in 1648. 
 
 Quistorp, von, fon kwis'toRp, (Johann Christian,) 
 a German jurist, born at Rostock in 1737, became pro- 
 fessor of law at Biitzow. Died in 1795. 
 
 Quita, kee'ta, (Domingos dos Reis,) a Portuguese 
 poet, born in 1728. He wrote "Inez de Castro," and 
 other tragedies. Died in 1770. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Quit'man, (John Anthony,) an American general 
 and Democratic politician, bom in Dutchess county, 
 New York, in 1799. Appointed to the command of a 
 brigade in 1846, he fought with distinction in the prin- 
 cipal engagements of the Mexican war, and was subse- 
 quently elected Governor of Mississippi. He was chosen 
 a member of Congress in 1855 and in 1857. Died in 1858. 
 
 See Claiborne, " Life of J. A. Quitman," i860. 
 
 R 
 
 Rabanis, ri'bt'ness', (Jean,) a French historian, born 
 about 1800. He wrote a "History of Bordeaux," (1st 
 vol., 1837.) 
 
 Raban Maur. See Rabanus. 
 
 Rabanus Maurus Magnentius, ra-ba'm'is mow'- 
 rus mag-neVse-us, [Fr. Raban Maur, rS'b&N' nioR,] a 
 German theologian, born at or near Mentz about 786 or 
 776 a.d. He became Archbishop of Mentz in 847. He 
 wrote commentaries on Scripture, and was regarded as 
 one of the greatest scholars and writers of his time. 
 Died in 856 a.d. 
 
 See " Gallia Christiana ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"neVale." 
 
 Rabaut, ri'bo', (Paul,) an eminent French Protestant 
 minister, born at Bedarieux in 1718. He preached many 
 years at Nimes, and was much persecuted. Died at 
 Nimes in 1794. 
 
 See J. Pons, "Notice sur P. Rabaut," 180S. 
 
 Rabaut-Pommier, rt'bo' po'me-i', (Jacques An- 
 TOINE,) a French Girondist, born atN^mes in 1744, was 
 .1 son of the preceding. He was elected to the Conven- 
 tion in 1792, was proscribed in 1793, and imprisoned 
 until the 9th Thermidor, 1794. In 1801 lie became pas- 
 tor of the Protestant Church of Paris. Some French 
 writers claim for him the honour of the discovery of 
 vaccination. Died in 1820. 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Rabaut-Saint-Btienne, rS'bo' saN'ta'te-eV, (Jean- 
 Paul,) a brother of the preceding, was born at Nimes in 
 1743, and was a Protestant minister before the Revolu- 
 tion. He distinguished himself by his eloquence in the 
 Constituent Assembly, (1789-92,) and voted against the 
 death of the king in the Convention. Having taken side 
 with the Girondists, he was outlawed in July, and exe- 
 cuted in December, 1793. He left several able historical 
 and political works. 
 
 See Collin de Plancy, " Notice de Rabaut-Saint-E"tienne," 
 prefixed to his works, 1826; Haag, "La France protestante;" 
 
 Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Rabbe, rSb, (Alphonse,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Riez, in Provence, in 1786. He was one of the editors 
 of the " Biographie universale des Contemporains," by 
 Rabbe, Boisjolin, and Saint-Preuve. Died in 1830. 
 
 Rabel, rS'bel', (Daniel,) a French painter of por- 
 traits and flowers, was born about 1578; died after 1630. 
 
 Rabel, (Jean,) a painter and engraver, born at Beau- 
 vais, was the father of the preceding. He painted 
 portraits of several kings and queens. Died in Paris 
 in 1603. 
 
 Rabelaesius. See Rabelais. 
 
 Rabelais, rt'beh-li' or ra1>'l&', [Lat. Rabel^e'sius,] 
 (Francois,) a famous and humorous French satirist, 
 born at Chinon, in Touraine, in 1495, or, as some say, in 
 1483. At an early age he joined the order of Franciscans, 
 but, finding the monastic life incompatible with his genial 
 disposition, he quitted the convent without the consent 
 of his superiors. He had made himself master of Greek, 
 Latin, and other languages. He was also versed in 
 several sciences. It is difficult or impossible to distin- 
 guish the real events of his life amidst the multitude of 
 strange adventures and ludicrous anecdotes which are 
 told respecting him. He began to study medicine at 
 Montpellier about 1530, after which he practised at 
 Lyons. In 1 536 he accompanied to Rome the ambas- 
 sador Cardinal Du Bellay, who had been his friend in 
 early life. He obtained absolution from the pope for his 
 neglect of the monastic vows, and took his degree in 
 medicine at Montpellier in 1537. His chief work is a 
 humorous romance, entitled " The Pleasant Story of the 
 Giant Gargantua and his Son Pantagruel," ("Les Faits 
 et Diets du Geant Gargantua et de son Fils Panta- 
 gruel,") in which he satirizes all classes 'of society, es- 
 pecially the monks. He obtained from Francis I. in 
 1545 a privilege to print the third part of this work. 
 The first part had been published anonymously in 1535. 
 The work was denounced as heretical by the clergy and 
 monks, but the author was protected by Francis I. He 
 became curate of Meudon about 1545. Died about 1553. 
 
 "The most celebrated," says Ilallam, "and certainly 
 the most brilliant performance in the path of fiction that 
 belongs to this age is that of Rabelais. Few books are 
 less likely to obtain the praise of a rigorous critic ; but 
 few have more the stamp of originality, or show a more 
 redundant fertility always of language and sometimes of 
 imagination." (" Introduction to the Literature of Eu- 
 rope.") " Beyond a doubt," says Coleridge, " he was 
 among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his 
 age. ... I class Rabelais with the great creative minds, 
 Shakspeare, Dante, Cervantes, etc." 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, ail, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
RABENER 
 
 1859 
 
 RACINE 
 
 A good edition of his chief work was published by 
 Burgaud des Marets and Rathery, (2 vols., 1858.) 
 
 See Delecluse, " F. Rabelais," 1841; P. Lacroix, "Vie de 
 Rabelais," 1859; E. NoIl, "Legendes Francaises ; Rabelais," 
 1859; Almquist, " Disserlatio de Vita et Scriplis F. Rabelxsii," 
 1838; "Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. 
 Shelley; " Nouvelle Biographic Ge*neVale ;" " Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1843 ; " British Quarterly Review" for November, 
 1849; " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1S39. 
 
 Rabener, ri'beh-ner, (Gottlieb Wii.hf.i.m,) a popu- 
 lar German writer, born near Leipsic in 1714, was an 
 intimate friend of Gellert. He published a collection 
 of satires in the form of letters, (1751,) also "Friendly 
 Letters." He was employed many years at Dresden as 
 counsellor in the department of customs. Died in 1771. 
 
 See Murr, "An Rabeners Schatten," 1771 ; Gervinus, " Natio- 
 nalliteratur." 
 
 Ra-blrl-us, (Caius,) a Roman poet, was a contem- 
 porary of Virgil. He wrote a poem on the battle of 
 Actium, fragments of which are extant. 
 
 Rabirius, (Caius,) a Roman, who was accused of 
 complicity in the death of Saturninus. He was defended 
 by Cicero (63 B.C.) in a speech, part of which is extant. 
 
 Raboteau, ri'bo'to', (Pierre 1'aul,) a French poet, 
 born at La Rochelle in 1765 ; died in 1825. 
 
 Rabou, rS'boo', (Chaklf.s,) a French novelist and 
 journalist, born in Paris in 1803. 
 
 RabueL, r i'bii-el', (Claude,) a French mathematician, 
 born at Ponte-de-Vesle in 1669 ; died at Lyons in 1728. 
 
 Rabus, ra'bus, (Pieter,) a Dutch poet, born at Rot- 
 terdam in 1660. He wrote " Britain Delivered," (" Ver- 
 lost Britannie," 1689,) and some prose works. Died in 
 1702. 
 
 RabutiiL See Bussy-Rabutin. 
 
 Rabutin, de, deh rt'bii'taN', (Francois,) a French 
 historical writer, was a grandfather of Bussy-Rabutin. 
 He wrote a " History of the War between Henry II. 
 and Charles V.," (1555.) Died in 1582. 
 
 Racagni, ra-kan'yee, (Giovanni,) an Italian pro- 
 fessor of physical sciences, born near Voghera in 1 741. 
 He wrote "Theory of Fluids," ("Teorica de' Fluidi," 
 1779.) Died at Milan in 1822. 
 
 Racan, de, deh ri'koN', (Honorat de Bueil — deh 
 bul or buh'ye,) Marquis, a French poet, born in Tou- 
 raine in 1589, was a friend of Malherbe. He wrote 
 "Les Bergeries," ("Pastorals," 1628,) and other poems. 
 *' Racan had more genius than Malherbe," says Boileau, 
 " but he was more negligent." He was a member of the 
 French Academy. Died in 1670. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ie'rale." 
 
 Racchetti, rak-ket'tee, (Bernardo,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Milan in 1639; died in 1702. 
 
 Ra'chel, [Heb. Vm ; It. Raciiele, ra-ka'li,) a He- 
 brew matron, was a daughter of Laban, and the favourite 
 wife of the patriarch Jacob. 
 
 See Genesis xxix., xxx., xxxi., and xxxv. 
 
 Rachel, rt'shSK, ( Elisabeth Rachel Felix, ) a 
 French tragic actress, born in the canton of Argovic, 
 Switzerland, in 1821, was a daughter of a Jewish ped- 
 lar. She made her d^but at the Theatre Francais 
 of Paris in 1838, and performed parts in the tragedies 
 of Corneille and Racine with great success. Her gait, 
 attitudes, gestures, and voice concurred to produce power- 
 ful effects with a great simplicity of means. She was 
 much applauded in the rtiles of " Marie Stuart" and 
 "Joan of Arc." In 1855 she performed in New York, 
 Boston, and Philadelphia. She died near Cannes (Var) 
 in 1858. 
 
 See Euhbne deMirecourt, " Mademoiselle Rachel :" L. Beau- 
 vai.i.et, " Rachel et le Nouveau-Monde," 1856; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge'nerale. " 
 
 Rachel, raK'el, (Joachim,) a German satirical poet, 
 born at Lunden, Holstein, in 1618. He was rector of 
 colleges at Norden and Sleswick, and wrote ten satires, 
 (1664,) in which he imitated Juvenal and Pcrsius with 
 some success. Died in 1669. 
 
 See Gervinus, " Nationalliteratur." 
 
 Rachetti, rl-ket'tee, or Racchetti, rak-ket'tee, 
 (VlNCENZO,) an Italian physician, born at Crema in 
 1777. He wrote a "Theory of the Physical Prosperity 
 of Nations," (1802.) Died in 1819. 
 
 See Co*neliami, " Elogiodel Professore V. Rachetti," 183a. 
 
 Racine, rS'sen', (Bonaventurf.,) a French Jansenist 
 ecclesiastic, born in the diocese of Noyon in 1708, was a 
 relative of the poet Racine. He published an " Eccle- 
 siastical History," (13 vols., 1748-56.) Died in 1755. 
 
 Racine, ras'seen' or ri'sen', (Jean,) an excellent 
 French dramatic poet, born at Ferte-Milon (Aisne) De- 
 cember 21, 1639. His parents, who were bourgeois, died 
 before he was four years old. He studied at the College 
 of Beauvais, and afterwards at the famous school of Port- 
 Royal, in which he passed three years, (1655-58.) He 
 became a good Latin and Greek scholar. He began his 
 poetical career by " La Nymphe de la Seine," (1660,) an 
 ode on occasion of the marriage of Louis XIV., which 
 procured for him a small pension. Having become dis- 
 gusted with the study of theology, which an uncle had 
 persuaded him to pursue, he went to Paris, and formed 
 friendships with Boileau and Moliere. He produced in 
 1664 the tragedy of " La Thebaide, ou les Freres enne- 
 mis," which had some success. The first work which 
 revealed the power and peculiar character of his genius 
 was " Andromaque," (1667.) In 1668 he surprised the 
 public by a comedy called "The Litigants," ("Les Plai- 
 deurs,") which was very successful. He afterwards pro- 
 duced the tragedies of " Britannicus," (1669,) " Bere- 
 nice," (1670,) "Bajazet," (1672,) " Mithridate," (1673,) 
 " Iphigenie," (1674,) and " Phedre," (1677.) " I avow," 
 says Voltaire, "that I regard 'Iphigenie' as the chef- 
 d'ceuvre of the stage." He was admitted into the 
 French Academy in 1673. 
 
 At the age of thirty-eight he resolved to renounce 
 dramatic composition. This resolution is variously 
 ascribed to religious scruples, wounded sensibilities, or 
 disgust excited by envious intrigues and malicious criti- 
 cisms. He married in 1677 a pious young woman of 
 Amiens, named Catherine Romanet, and was appointed 
 historiographer by Louis XIV. In compliance with the 
 wish of Madame de Maintenon, Racine wrote " Esther," 
 a drama, (1689,) and "Athalie," (1691,) which was his 
 last, and, in the opinion of Boileau, his best, drama. In 
 the latter part of his life he was gentleman-in-ordinary 
 to the king, who often conversed with him, and treated 
 him with favour. Among his intimate friends were 
 Boileau, La Fontaine, and La Biuyere. Racine wrote 
 about 1695 a "History of Port-Royal," the style of 
 which is so neat and perspicuous that it entitles him to 
 rank in the list of those authors who have succeeded 
 both in verse and prose. His natural disposition was 
 rather melancholy and tender. During the last twenty 
 years of his life he was a devout member of the Church. 
 He died on the 21st of April, 1699. 
 
 It is usual to compare Racine with Corneille as a rival 
 poet. "Voltaire, La Harpe, and in general the later 
 French critics," says Hallam, "have given the prefer- 
 ence to Racine. I presume to join my suffrage to theirs. 
 Racine appears to me the superior tragedian ; and I 
 must add that I think him next to Shakspeare among 
 all the moderns. The comparison with Euripides is so 
 natural that it can hardly be avoided. Certainly no 
 tragedy of the Greek poet is so skilful or perfect as 
 'Athalie' or 'Britannicus.' . . . The style of Racine is 
 exquisite. Perhaps he is second only to Virgil among 
 all poets. But I will give the praise of this in the words 
 of a native critic: 'If we consider that his perfection in 
 these respects may be opposed to that of Virgil, and 
 that he spoke a language less flexible, less poetical, and 
 less harmonious, we shall readily believe that Racine is, 
 of all mankind, the one to whom nature has given the 
 greatest talent for versification.' (La Harpe.)" 
 
 See " Memoirs of J. Racine," by his son Louis, 174^7: La Harpe, 
 " itloge de Racine," 1772: Sainte-Beuvb, "Canseries du Lundi;" 
 Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Euroiw ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeWrale ;" L. A. C. Beyle, "Racine et Shakspeare," 2 vols., 1823- 
 25; Naigeon, "Notice stir la Vie de Racine," 1783: Villemain, 
 "Cours de Litterature ;" "Lives of the Most Eminent French 
 Writers," by Mrs. Shelley. 
 
 Racine, (Louis,) the second son of the preceding, 
 was born in Paris in 1692, and was a poet and critic of 
 considerable merit. Boileau advised him not to write 
 verse ; for, said he, " since the world began there has 
 been no instance of two great poets related to each other 
 as father and son." He wrote a poem entitled "La 
 Grace," (1720,) and another entitled "La Religion," 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RACK 
 
 i860 
 
 RADOWITZ 
 
 (1742) which Was highly praised bv }. B. Rousseau.' Rademaoher, ra'deh-maK'er, or Radermaoher, ra'- 
 and passed through sixty editions, ke was employed der-maK'er, (J. C. M.,) a Dutch geographer, born in 1 741. 
 for many years as clerk or collector of taxes, (directcur He founded the Society of Sciences at Batavia 111 1778. 
 des fermes.) In 1755 his son was drowned at Cadiz by Died at sea in 1783 
 
 the earthquake which nearly destroyed Lisbon. Died 
 in 1763. 
 
 See Lk Beau, "Eloge de Louis Racine," 1763: Adrien de i.a 
 Roque, "Vie de L. Racine," 1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Gein!- 
 rale." 
 
 Rack, (Edmund,) an English poet, born in Norfolk 
 in 1735; died in 1787. 
 
 Raole, rtkl, (Leonard,) a French architect, born in 
 Dijon in 1736. He was employed at Femey by Voltaire, 
 who recommended him to the prime minister Choiseul. 
 Died in 1791. u - t . 
 
 Raczynski, ra-chin'skee, (Athanasius,) a Polish 
 writer on art, born in 1788. He was Prussian minister 
 at Copenhagen, Lisbon, and Madrid from 1840 to 1853. 
 He wrote (in French) a "History of Modern Art in 
 Germany," (3 vols., 1836-42,) which is a work of some 
 merit. 
 
 Raczynski, (Eduard,) a Polish count and writer, 
 born at Posen in 1786, was a brother of the preceding. 
 He presented to his native city a library of twenty thou- 
 sand volumes. Among his publications are "Travels in 
 the Ottoman Empire," (1821,) and a "Cabinet of Polish 
 Medals," (4 vols., 1841-45.) He committed suicide in 
 1845. 
 
 RadTjert, [Fr. pron. rfd'baiR',] (Paschase,) a French 
 monk, born near Soissons. He wrote several works, 
 one of which is " On the Eucharist." He advocated 
 the dogma of transubstantiation. Died in 865 A.D. 
 
 Radcliffe or Radclyffe, rad'klif, (Ann,) a popular 
 English novelist, born in London in 1764. Her maiden 
 name was Ward. She was married about 17S6 to Wil- 
 liam Radcliffe, editor of the " English Chronicle." Her 
 most successful works are "The Romance of the Forest," 
 (1791,) and "The Mysteries of Udolpho," (1794.) The 
 terrible, sombre, mysterious, and marvellous predomi- 
 nate in her compositions. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Sin Walter Scott's Miscellaneous Prose Works: Mrs. 
 E i.wood, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the 
 Commencement of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1S4.V. "Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1834; "Monthly Review" for May, 1792, and 
 March, 1797. 
 
 Radcliffe, (James.) See Derwentwater. 
 Radcliffe, (John,) a successful English physician, 
 born at Wakefield, Yorkshire, in 1650, was educated at 
 Oxford. He settled in London in 1684, and soon ob- 
 tained a large practice, to which his talent for pleasantry 
 and witticisms is said to have contributed, lie became 
 chief physician to the princess Anne in 1686, after which 
 date he was employed professionally by King William, 
 whom he once offended by his rudeness or freedom of 
 speech. He died in November, 1714. He bequeathed 
 ^40,000 to build or found a library at Oxford which 
 bears his name, and other large sums for charitable uses. 
 See W. Pittis, " Radcliffe's Life and Letters," 1715; " Biogra- 
 phia Britannica." 
 
 Radcliffe or Ratcliffe, (Thomas,) Earl of Sussex, 
 an English statesman, born about 1526, was a son of 
 Henry, Earl of Sussex. He was sent to Spain to nego- 
 tiate the marriage between Queen Maty and Philip II., 
 and on his return became lord deputy of Ireland. In 
 1569 he was appointed president of the North. He 
 rendered important services m the suppression of the 
 northern rebellion. He became lord chamberlain about 
 1572. Died in 1583. 
 
 Raddi, rad'dee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian botanist, born 
 at Florence in 1770.' He was associated in 1828 with 
 Rosellini and Champollion in a mission to Egypt. When 
 about to return home, he died at Rhodes in 1829. 
 See G. Savi, " Alia Memoria di G. Raddi," 1830. 
 Radegunde, ra'deh-grjon'deh, or Radegonde, rf- 
 deh-g5Ncl', a Thuringian princess, whom Clothaire I. 
 made captive and forced to become his wife. She was 
 noted for piety, and abounded in works of charity to the 
 poor. She escaped from Clothaire about 544 A.D., be- 
 came a nun, and founded a large convent at Poitiers. 
 Died in 587 A.D. 
 
 See Ed. de Fleury, "Viede Sainte-Radegonde," 1S43; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Rademaoher, ra'deh-maK'er, (Johann Gottfried,) 
 a distinguished German physician, born at Hamm in 
 1772 ; died in 1849. 
 
 Rademacker. See Rademaker. 
 
 Rademaker, ra'deh-mak'er, written also Rade- 
 macker, (Abraham,) a Dutch landscape-painter and 
 engraver of high reputation, born at Amsterdam in 1675. 
 He painted in oil and in water-colours. His landscapes 
 are adorned with figures, ruins, and buildings. He pro- 
 duced after his own designs many engravings, which are 
 highly prized. Died in 1735. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Rademaker or Rademacker, (Gerard,) an emi- 
 nent painter of history and architecture, born at Amster- 
 dam in 1673, is supposed to have been a brother of the 
 preceding. He studied in Rome, and returned to Holland. 
 He excelled in invention, in facility of execution, and in 
 perspective. Died in 1711. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands, Hollandais." etc. 
 
 Rader, ra'der, [Lat. Rade'rus,] (Matthaus,) a 
 learned Jesuit, born in the Tyrol in 1 561. He wrote 
 notes on Quintus Curtius and Martial, and several 
 original works, among which is " Bavaria Sancta," (3 
 vols., 1625-27.) Died at Munich in 1634. 
 
 Rader or Raeder, ra'der, (Jacob Tode,) a military 
 writer, born in Norway in 1798. He wrote a "Military 
 and Political History of Denmark," (3 vols., 1845-52.) 
 
 Raderus. See Rader. 
 
 Radet, ri'dj', (Etienne,) a French general, born at 
 Stenay in 1762. He was made a general of brigade in 
 1800 by Bonaparte, who gave him the chief command 
 of all the gendarmerie, (armed police.) In 1809 he was 
 ordered to Rome. In July of that year he arrested the 
 pope in his palace and conducted him to Florence. He 
 received the title of baron, (1809,) and became a general 
 of division in 1813. Died in 1825. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G&ierale." 
 
 Radet, (Jean Bafimste,) a French dramatist, born 
 at Dijon in 1752. He wrote vaudevilles. Died in 1830. 
 
 Radetzky, ri-dSt'skee, (Joseph Wenzel,) a cele- 
 brated field-marshal in the Austrian service, born in 
 Bohemia in 1766. He served in the Turkish campaigns 
 of 1788-89, and subsequently against the French on the 
 Rhine and in Italy. For his distinguished bravery at 
 the battle of Wagram he was made lieutenant-field-mar- 
 shal, and he took an active part in the campaigns from 
 1813 to 1815. In the revolution of 1848 he effected a 
 masterly retreat from Milan, then in open revolt against 
 Austria, and, having soon after gained several advantages 
 over the Sardinians under Charles Albert, signally de- 
 feated them at Novara in March, 1849. He next took 
 possession of Venice, after an obstinate siege, and was 
 appointed governor-general and military commander of 
 Upper Italy. He had been created a field-marshal in 
 1836, and had received the order of Maria Theresa and 
 the principal military orders of Europe. Died in 1858. ' 
 See Graf Radetzky, " Bingraphische Skizze nach den eigenen 
 Dictaten," etc., Stuttgart, 185S; Prince Tkubetzkoi. " Les Cam- 
 pagnes de Radetzky," 1S61 ; "Jahrbuch zum Conversations-Lexi- 
 kon," i860. 
 
 Rad'fo-rd, (William,) an American naval officer, 
 born in Virginia. He entered the navy in 1S25. He 
 adhered to the Union in 1861, and commanded tho 
 Ironsides in the attack on Fort Fisher in December, 
 1864. He was appointed rear-admiral in July, 1866. 
 
 Radier, du. See Dreux du Radier. 
 
 Rad'nor, (William Pleydell Bouverik,) Earl 
 of, an English peer, born in 1779. He acted with the 
 Liberal party. 
 
 Radonvilliers, de, deh ri^N've'ye^i', (Claude 
 Francois Lysarde,) a French writer, born in Paris in 
 1709. He became sub-preceptor of the princes in 1757, 
 and was admitted into the French Academy in 1763. 
 Among his works is a "Treatise on Grammar," (1768.) 
 Died in 1789. 
 
 Radowitz, von, fon ra'do-ftits', (Joseph,) a Prussian 
 statesman and general, born at Blankenburg in 1797, 
 
 i. e, T, 6, 0, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
R ADZ 1 IV ILL 
 
 1861 
 
 RAGNAR 
 
 became professor of mathematics at the military school 
 at Cassel, and was subsequently appointed teacher to 
 Prince Albert. He was minister-plenipotentiary to the 
 Diet at Frankfort in 1836. He published several works 
 on mathematics and military affairs. Died in 1853. 
 
 Radziwill, rad'ze-\vil, (Christopher,) a Lithuanian 
 general, born in 1585. He commanded a Polish army 
 which held Gustavus Adolphus in check in Livonia and 
 Courland. Died in 1640. 
 
 Radziwill, (George,) a Lithuanian general, born in 
 1480. He gained a number of victories over the Mus- 
 covites and Tartars, and in 1533 obtained the rank of 
 grand general. Died in 1 541. 
 
 Radziwill, (Nicolas,) a Lithuanian nobleman, born 
 about 15 15. He was palatin of Wilna, and a zealous 
 supporter of the Reformation. Died about 1565. 
 
 Rae, ra, (Sir William,) a Scottish lawyer, born in 
 1772, was a son of Sir David Rae, a judge. He became 
 a conservative member of Parliament, and lord ad- 
 vocate of Scotland. Died in 1842. 
 
 Raeburn, ra'burn, (Sir Henry,) a British portrait- 
 painter, born at or near Edinburgh in 1756. He studied 
 in Italy, from which he returned to Edinburgh in 17S7. 
 He was afterwards the most eminent portrait-painter 
 of that city or of all Scotland. In 1815 he was chosen a 
 member of the Royal Academy of London. Among his 
 works are portraits of Sir Walter Scott, Lord Jeffrey, 
 and James Watt. The heads of his portraits are es- 
 pecially admired. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Raeder. See Rader. 
 
 REeniond. Sec Remond. 
 
 Raepsaet, rSp'sit, (Jean Joseph,) a Belgian histo- 
 rian, born in 1750. He sat in the corps ttgislatij 'of France 
 from 1803 to 1813. His chief work is " An Analysis of 
 the Origin and Progress of the Civil, Political, and Re- 
 ligious Laws of the Belgians and Gauls." Died in 1832. 
 
 See Cornbussen, " Notice sur M. Raepsaet," 1836. 
 
 Raethel. See Rathel. 
 
 Raffaelle or Raffaello. See Raphael. 
 
 Raffaelli, raf-fa-el'lee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian advo- 
 cate and jurist, born in Calabria in 1750. He succeeded 
 Beccaria in the chair of public law at Milan in 1801. His 
 chief work is "Nomotesia Penale," (5 vols., 1820-25.) 
 Died at Naples in 1826. 
 
 Raffaelllno dal Colle. See Coi.i.e, dal. 
 
 Raffaellino del Garbo, raf-fa-Sl-lee'no del gaR'bo, a 
 painter, born at Florence in 1466. His style is said to 
 have degenerated in consequence of the haste with which 
 he worked after he began to be pressed with the care 
 of a family. Died in 1524. 
 
 Raffei, raf-fa'ee, (Stf.fano,) an Italian antiquary, born 
 in Tuscany in 1712 ; died in 1788. 
 
 Raffeneau-Delile, rSf'no' deh-lel', ( Ai.irf.,) a French 
 botanist, born at Versailles in 177S. He was associated 
 with the savants who accompanied the expedition to 
 Egypt in 1798, and performed a scientific mission to the 
 • United States in 1803. He wrote a "Flora of Egypt," 
 and other works. Died at Montpellier in 1850. 
 
 Raffenel, rSf'nel', (Anne Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 traveller, born at Versailles in 1809. He published 
 "Travels in Western Africa, comprising the Exploration 
 of the Senegal," (1846,) and a description of Soudan, 
 entitled "New Journey in the Country of the Negroes," 
 ("Nouveau Voyage dans le Pays des Negres," 2 vols., 
 1856.) Died in Madagascar in 1858. 
 
 Raffenel. (Claude Denis,) a French littirateur, born 
 in 1797 ; died at Athens in 1827. 
 
 Raffet, ifft', (Denis Augustk Marie,) a French 
 designer and painter, born in Paris in 1804. He pub- 
 lished many lithographs of battles and other martial 
 scenes. Died in i860. 
 
 Raffles, raf felz, (Thomas,) D.D., LL.D., an English 
 dissenting minister, born in London in 17SS, was a 
 cousin of Sir Stamford Raffles. He became minister 
 of a Congregational church in Great George Street, 
 Liverpool, about 1812, and acquired a wide reputation 
 as a preacher. He continued to occupy that pulpit 
 about fifty years. He published a number of sermons 
 and lectures. Died in Liverpool in 1863. 
 
 See Bai.PWW Brown. " Life of Thomas Raffles," 1863. 
 
 Raffles, (Sir Thomas Stamford,) an English natu- 
 ralist and administrator, born at sea, off Jamaica, in 
 1 781. He was appointed secretary of the government 
 of the East India Company at Pulo-Penang about 1806, 
 and became in 1811 lieutenant-governor of Java, to the 
 capture of which he had greatly contributed. He made 
 researches into the geography and natural history of 
 that island, and published a " History of Java," (2 vols., 
 1817.) In 1818 he was appointed lieutenant-governor 
 at Bencoolen, in Sumatra, in the zoology of which he 
 made some discoveries. He made a large collection 
 of animals, plants, etc., many of which, with his papers 
 and drawings, were destroyed by fire on board of a ship, 
 (1824.) His loss was estimated at ^20,000. He re- 
 signed in 1824, and died in England in 1826. 
 
 See "Memoir of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles," by his wife, 
 1S30; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for March, 1830; " Monthly Review" for August, 1818. 
 
 Rafinesque, ri'fe'nesk', (C. S.,) born near Constan- 
 tinople, of French parents, in 1784, became professor of 
 botany and natural history at Transylvania University, 
 Lexington, Kentucky, and subsequently settled in Phila- 
 delphia. He published a book of travels and several 
 botanical works. Died about 1840. 
 
 Raffort, rt'foR', (Etiennf.,) a French painter, born 
 at Chalons-sur-Saone about 1805. He painted land- 
 scapes, sea-ports, etc. 
 
 Rafn, ram, (Carl Christian,) a Danish antiquary, 
 distinguished as a lover of Icelandic literature, was 
 born in the island of Fiinen in 1796. He published 
 " Heroic Traditions of the North," (3 vols., 1825-30,) 
 "Nordlanda," (3 vols., 1829-30,) and "American An- 
 tiquities," (" Antiquitates Americanse," 1837,) which 
 contains evidence that the Icelanders or Scandinavians 
 discovered America in the tenth century. He resided 
 at Copenhagen. Died in 1865. 
 
 See ERSt.RW, " Utlsigt over C. Rafn's Levnet," 1S40, and " For- 
 fetter- Lexicon." 
 
 Raggi, rad'jee, (Nicolas Bernard,) a sculptor, born 
 at Carrara in 1791, worked at Paris. Among his works 
 are statues of Henry IV., "Bayard dying," and " Meta- 
 bus, King of the Volsci." Died in 1862. 
 
 Rag'lau,(jAMF.s Henry Fitzroy Somerset,) Baron, 
 an English general, born in 1788, was a younger son of 
 Henry, fifth Duke of Beaufort. His mother was a 
 daughter of Admiral Boscawen. He served as aide-de- 
 camp to the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsula from 
 1809 to 1814, and at Waterloo, where he lost his right 
 arm. In 1819 he became military secretary to the Duke 
 of Wellington, whom he accompanied to the Congress 
 of Vienna and that of Verona, (1822.) He was appointed 
 master-general of the ordnance in 1852, and raised to 
 the peerage as Baron Raglan. Before this promotion 
 he was styled Lord Fitzroy Somerset. He commanded 
 the British army in the Crimean war, which began in 
 
 1854, and co-operated with the French at Alma in Sep- 
 tember. His army suffered great disasters during the 
 long siege of Sebastopol, (1854-55,) for want of pro- 
 visions, etc. He was painfully affected by the repulses 
 and losses of the allies, and died in the camp in June, 
 
 1855, leaving his title to his son, Richard Henry Fitzroy. 
 See E. Trxier, " Les Hommes de la Guerre d'Orient : Lord 
 
 Raglan," 1S54: "Biographical Sketches." by H. Martineau; 
 " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1857. 
 
 Ragnar, rag'nar, (or Ragnar Lodbrok — lod'brok,) 
 written also Reg'ner, a famous legendary hero of the 
 Northmen, is supposed to have been the son of King 
 Sigurd of Sweden, and to have lived about S00 A.. J. 
 Matthew Arnold calls hint* 
 
 " No god. but of the bero troop the chief. — 
 Regner, who swept the northern sea witb fleets, 
 And ruled o*er Denmark and tbe heathy isles; 
 
 • * • # # * » 
 
 A Itlng whose f.one then filled tbe vast of Heaven; 
 Now time obscures it, and men's later deeds." 
 
 He is regarded as the most striking type of the ancient 
 vikings of the North. There is a legendary history of 
 him, entitled " History of King Ragnar Lodbrok and his 
 Sons," ("Saga af Ragnari Konungi LoSbrok ok Sonum 
 hans,") which is supposed to have been written in the 
 
 * In the poem entitled " Balder Dead." 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K,gutturaJ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (23?"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RAGNAROCK 
 
 [862 
 
 RAINS 
 
 fourteenth century, although it contains many poems of 
 an older date, belonging to the golden age of Skaldic 
 literature, — that is, about the tenth century. (For an 
 account of some of the principal events of the life of 
 Ragnar, the reader is referred to Thorpe's " Northern 
 Mythology," vol. i. pp. 108-113; see, also, the Intro- 
 duction to Keyser's " Religion of the Northmen.") 
 
 Ragnarock. See Loki. 
 
 Ragon, ri'gdN', (F.,) a French historian, born about 
 1795. He published a "General History of Modern 
 Times," (3 vols., 1846,) and other works. 
 
 Ragotzky. See RAk6czy. 
 
 Ragueau, rt'go', (Francois,) a French jurist, born 
 at Iiourges ; died in 1605. 
 
 Raguenet, rig'nj', (Francois,) a French priest and 
 litterateur, born at Rouen about 1660. He published a 
 " Life ofCromwell,"(i6oi,) " The Monuments of Rome," 
 (1700,) and a " Life of Turenne," (1738.) Died in 1722. 
 
 Raguet, rS'g^', f (Condy,) an American diplomatist 
 and writer, born at Philadelphia in 1784, was appointed 
 in 1822 consul at Rio Janeiro. He was the author of a 
 treatise "On Currency and Banking," "Principles of 
 Free Trade," and other works. Died in 1842. 
 
 Ragusa, Duke of. See Marmont. 
 
 Ragusa, ra-goo'sa, (Geronimo,) a learned Jesuit, 
 born in Sicily in 1655; died about 1715. 
 
 Rahbek, ra'bek, (K.NUD Lyne,) a Danish author and 
 critic, born at Copenhagen in 1760. He became pro- 
 fessor of aesthetics in his native city in 1790. He wrote 
 dramas, tales, and lyric poems, and translated many 
 English works. Among his best works is "The Danish 
 Spectator," a periodical, (1791-1806.) He was a judi- 
 cious and candid critic. His writings are said to have 
 exerted a happy influence on Danish literature and the 
 public taste. He resigned the chair of aesthetics in 1825. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 See Ins Souvenirs, " Erindringer af mit Liv," 4 vols., 1824-29 ; J. 
 P. Mynster, " Ved Eta^sraad Professor K. L. Rahbek's Jorde- 
 faerd," etc., 1830; Beeken, " Etatsraad Professor og Ridder K. L. 
 Rahbek's," etc., 1838; Erslew, " Forfatter- Lexicon ;" Howitt, 
 " Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," vol. ii. ; '* Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for June, 1830, article " Danish and Norwegian 
 Literature ;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Rahl, rSl, (Karl,) a historical painter, son of the 
 following, was born at Vienna in 1812. 
 
 Rahl, (Karl Heinrich,) a German engraver, born 
 near Heidelberg in 1779, was a member of the'Academy 
 of Arts at Vienna. Among his master-pieces are prints 
 after Raphael's " Saint Margaret," Correggio's " Night," 
 and the "Madonna" of Perugino. Died in 184;. 
 
 Rahn. rSn, (Johann Hkinkich,) a Swiss physician, 
 born at Zurich in 1749, w:is noted tor his beneficence. 
 He published numerous works. Died in 1812. 
 
 See Usteri, "Denkrede auf Rahn," 1812. 
 
 Rahn, (Johann Heinrich,) a Swiss historian, born 
 at Zurich in 1646. He wrote in German, besides other 
 works, a "History of Switzerland," (1690.) Died in 
 1708. 
 
 Rahu, ra'hoo, in the Hindoo mythology, a mighty 
 giant, the son of Kasyapa and Diti, (or, according to 
 some authorities, the so*n of Sinhika,) was supposed to 
 cause eclipses by swallowing the sun or moon. This 
 fable is doubtless astronomical in its origin : rd/iu 
 signifies also the "ascending node." 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon," p. 282. 
 
 Raibolini. See Francia. 
 
 Raider, ri'djl, [Lat. Raide'lius,] (Georg Martin,) 
 a German savant, born at Nuremberg in 1702, wrote 
 a work "On the Geography of Ptolemy," etc., (" De 
 Ptolema:i Geographia ejusque Codicibus," 1737.) Died 
 in 1741. 
 
 See A. Gotz, " Vita Raidelii," 1741. 
 
 Raikes, raks, (Robert,) an English philanthropist, 
 born at Gloucester in 1735 or 1736, was a printer, and 
 the editor of the " Gloucester Journal." He is noted as 
 the founder of Sunday-schools. In 1781 he employed 
 several women to teach a number of ragged children 
 found in the streets of Gloucester. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Raim'baeh, (Abraham,) an English line-engraver, 
 born in London in 1776, was a pupil of J. Hall. He 
 became an intimate friend of Wilkie, who employed him 
 
 to engrave a number of his paintings, among which are 
 "The Village Politicians," " The Rent-Day," (1816,) and 
 "Blindman's Buff." These engravings are highly prized. 
 Died in 1843. He left an autobiography, published in 
 1843, entitled "Memoirs and Recollections." 
 
 Raimond. See Raymond. 
 
 Raimondi, rl-mon'dee, (Annibale,) an Italian 
 mathematician, born at Verona in 1505. He published 
 a "Treatise on the Flow and Ebb of the Sea," 
 ("Trattato del Flusso e Reflusso del Mare," 1589.) 
 
 Raimondi, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian Ori- 
 entalist, born at Cremona about 1540. He was director 
 of an establishment of Oriental typography at Rome, 
 and printed in Arabic the Gospels (1591) and Euclid. 
 (1594.) Died about 1610. 
 
 Raimondi, (Marcantonio,) an excellent Italian en- 
 graver, born at Bologna about 1475, or, as some say, in 
 1488. He studied design under Raibolini called Francia. 
 He went to Rome about 1510, and formed a friendship 
 or acquaintance with Raphael, who employed him to 
 engrave some of his paintings. He engraved for that 
 master "The Death of Lucretia," "The Judgment of 
 Paris," "The Massacre of the Innocents," "Saint Ce- 
 cilia," "The Last Supper," "Parnassus," "Saint Paul 
 preaching at Athens," and other works. He was the 
 first Italian engraver who acquired great celebrity. He 
 was a correct designer, and rendered the outlines with 
 fidelity. When Rome was taken and pillaged by the 
 army of Constable Bourbon, in 1527, Raimondi lost his 
 property and removed to Bologna, where he continued 
 until his death, which is variously dated 1534 and 1546. 
 One of his prints is dated 1539. 
 
 See Vasaki, "Lives of the Painters." etc.; Dei.essert, "No- 
 tice sur la Vie de M. A. Raimondi," 1853; N. Belloni, "Vita di 
 M. Raimondi," 1815 ; Malvasia, " Felsina Pittrice ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GtWrale." 
 
 Raimund, ri'moont, (Ferdinand,) a German litte- 
 rateur, born at Vienna in 1791, published a number of 
 dramatic works and poems. Died in 1836. 
 
 Rainaldi, n-nal'dee, (Carlo,) an Italian architect, 
 born at Rome in 161 1. He designed the old Acade- 
 mie de France at Rome, the church of Saint Agnes, the 
 church of Santa Maria di Miracoli, and that of Santa 
 Maria del Monte Santo. The last two are on the Piazza 
 del Popolo at Rome. Died in 1691. 
 
 Rainaldi, (Francesco,) an Italian Jesuit, born in 
 the march of Ancona in 1600. He published " Food 
 for the Soul," ("Cibo dell'Anima," 1637,) and other 
 works. Died in 1677. 
 
 Rainaldi, (Girolamo,) an architect, born at Rome 
 in 1570, was the father of Carlo, noticed above. Among 
 his works were the ducal palace of Parma, and the 
 Palazzo Pamfili (or Pamphili) at Rome. Died in 1655. 
 
 See MtLtztA, " Memorie degli Architetti." 
 
 Rainaldi, (Oderic.) See Rinaldi. 
 
 Rainaud. See Raynaud. 
 
 Raine, ran, (James,) an English antiquary, born at 
 Ovington, Yorkshire, in 1791, became rector of Meldon 
 in 1822. He published a " History of North Durham," 
 (1830-52.) Died in 185S. 
 
 Raine, (Matthew,) an English scholar, born in 1760, 
 became preacher of Gray's Inn in 1809. Died in 1810. 
 
 Rainer, ri'ner, (Joseph Johann Michael Franz 
 Hieronymus,) Archduke of Austria, and seventh son 
 of the emperor Leopold II., was born in 1783. He 
 became Viceroy of Austrian Italy in 1818. On the 
 breaking out of the insurrection at Milan in 1848, he 
 left Lombardy for the Southern Tyrol, where he died in 
 1853. He had married in 1820 Elizabeth, sister of 
 Charles Albert, King of Sardinia. 
 
 Rainolds, r^n'oldz, (John,) an English theologian, 
 born near Exeter in 1549. He was professor of divinity 
 at Oxford, and favoured the Puritan doctrines. He was 
 one of the persons who assisted in translating the Bible 
 into English by order of James I. Died in 1607. 
 
 Rainolda, (William,) a brother of the preceding, 
 became a Fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1562. He 
 was afterwards professor of Hebrew at Rheims, France. 
 Died in 1594. 
 
 Rains, (James,) an American general, born in North 
 Carolina, graduated at West Point in 1827. He com- 
 
 5, e, 1, o, u, y,long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, ti, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
R A1NSS A NT 
 
 1863 
 
 RALEIGH 
 
 Tianded a division of the army of General Bragg, when 
 he was killed at the battle of Stone River, which ended 
 January 2, 1863. 
 
 Raiussant, raN'sSN', (Pierre,) a French numis- 
 matist, born at Rheims about 1640. He became keeper 
 of the royal cabinet of medals. Died in 1689. 
 
 Rais or Retz, de, deh r&ss, (Gili.es de Laval— deh 
 li'vil',) Lord, a French baron, notorious for his prodi- 
 gality and crimes, was born about 1406, and inherited a 
 great estate. He entered the army, and became a mar- 
 shal of Prance about the age of twenty-three. He was 
 accused of sorcery and of sacrificing children in dia- 
 bolical rites. He was executed in 1440. 
 
 See Akmand Gueraud, " Notice sur Gilies de Rais," 1855. 
 
 Raisson, r&'siN', (Horace Napoleon,) a French 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1798. He published a " His- 
 tory of Napoleon," (10 vols., 1830,) and other works on 
 recent French history. Died in 1854. 
 
 Rai'tch, ra'itch or ritch, a Servian historian, born 
 at Karlovitz in 1726. He published a "History of 
 the Slavonians and Servians," (4 vols., 1795.) Died in 
 1S01. 
 
 Rakoczy, ra'kot-se, written also Racoczi and 
 Ragotzky, (Franz Leopold,) Prince of Transylvania, 
 born near Patak in 1676. He commanded the Hun- 
 garian insurgents who revolted against Austria in 1703. 
 He was defeated in a decisive action in 1708. Died in 
 exile at Rodosto in 1735. 
 
 See Horn, " Fr. Rakoczy," Leipsic, 1854. 
 
 Rale or Rasle, ral, (S^bastien,) a French Jesuit and 
 missionary, born in Franche-Comte in 1658. He was 
 sent on a mission to the Indians of Canada in 1689, and 
 laboured nearly thirty years at Norridgewock, on the 
 Kennebec River. He gained great influence over the 
 Indians, and, according to some authorities, instigated 
 them to hostile acts against the English colonists of 
 Massachusetts, who regarded him as their worst enemy. 
 He was killed by a party of English soldiers who sur- 
 prised the village at Norridgewock in 1724. 
 
 See Convers Francis, " Life of Sebastian Rale," in Sparks'* 
 'American Biography," vol. vii., new series. 
 
 Raleigh, raw'le, (Carew,) a son of Sir Walter, was 
 born in the Tower of London in 1604. He was educated 
 fct Oxford. After the accession of Charles I. an act was 
 passed to " restore him in blood ;" but he failed to obtain 
 the paternal estate. He wrote a vindication of his father, 
 (1645,) and a "Brief Relation of Sir Walter Raleigh's 
 Troubles." In 1659 he was appointed Governor of 
 Jersey. Died in 1666. 
 
 Raleigh or Ralegh, (Sir Walter,) a famous English 
 navigator, author, courtier, and comn ander, was born 
 at Hayes, in Devonshire, in 1552. He was a son of 
 Walter Raleigh, Esq., and Catherine Champernon, who 
 by a former marriage was the mother of Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert. He studied for a short time at Oriel College, 
 Oxford, and in 1569 joined a company of volunteers, 
 with whom he fought for the Huguenots in France for 
 five years. He took part in several great battles of that 
 war. In 1580, as commander of a company, he served 
 with distinction against the Irish insurgents. He is 
 supposed to have gained the favour of Queen Elizabeth 
 by an act of gallantry, of which we have no evidence but 
 tradition. According to this tradition, the queen, in her 
 progress from the royal barge to the palace, came to a 
 spot where the ground was so wet that she hesitated. 
 Raleigh immediately covered the place with his richly- 
 embroidered cloak, on which she stepped with much 
 complacency. It is stated that he received a grant of 
 twelve thousand acres of forfeited land in Ireland soon 
 after he attracted the notice of the queen. One of his 
 biographers observes that "all the more important and 
 interesting transactions and occurrences of his life are 
 involved in obscurity or perplexed with doubt." 
 
 In 1584 he obtained a royal patent investing him with 
 ample powers to colonize and govern any territories he 
 might acquire in the unoccupied parts of North America. 
 An exploring party in his service discovered in 1584 a 
 
 region to which the queen gave'the name of Virginia. 
 
 J585 a body of colonists who attempted 
 
 to settle on or near Roanoke Island, but failed, and re 
 
 ncn 
 
 He sent out 11V1585 a body of colonists who attempted 
 
 or «< 
 turned before the end of 1586. He renewed the enter 
 
 prise in 1587 ; but this colony did not prosper, and those 
 colonists who escaped disease and famine were killed 
 by the natives. In 1589 he transferred his patent and 
 colonial privileges to a company of merchants. Accord- 
 ing to some writers, he distinguished himself in several 
 contests with the Spanish Armada in 1588, and rendered 
 important services to the queen as a member of Parlia- 
 ment. The introduction of the potato and tobacco into 
 Europe is generally attributed to him. 
 
 About 1590 he became intimate with the poet Spenser, 
 and married privately a daughter of Sir Nicholas Throg- 
 morton. She was a maid of honour to the queen, who 
 showed her resentment by confining Raleigh in the 
 Tower for several weeks. Being excluded from the 
 royal favour through his marriage, his ambitious and 
 adventurous spirit was attracted by a project for the 
 discovery and conquest of El Dorado, a fabled paradise 
 of gold-seekers, which was supposed to exist in South 
 America. He sailed from Plymouth with five vessels in 
 February, 1595, and ascended the Orinoco in boats about 
 sixty leagues, but his farther progress is said to have 
 been prevented by the sudden rise of the water. Having 
 returned to England before the end of 1 595, he published 
 a rather fabulous narrative, entitled "The Discovery of 
 the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana." 
 
 Raleigh was restored to the roval favour soon after 
 his return, and served as rear-aomiral at the capture 
 of Cadiz, in 1596, to which his skill greatly contributed. 
 He had the chief command of the fleet which took Fayal 
 in 1597. He was appointed Captain of the Guard and 
 Governor of Jersey about 1597. It is stated by some of 
 his biographers that he received large sums of money 
 from the condemned partisans of the Earl of Essex, who 
 bribed him to intercede for them with the queen. The 
 death of Elizabeth terminated the prosperity of Raleigh, 
 who had rendered himself very unpopular by his enmity 
 to Essex and perhaps by his habitual haughty demeanour. 
 It appears that James I. was prejudiced against him by 
 the insinuations of his rival Cecil. Accused of com- 
 plicity in Lord Cobham's treason, Sir Walter was 
 arrested in July, 1602, and convicted, without sufficient 
 proof, in 1603. During his trial the public sentiment 
 was converted from hostility to warm sympathy and 
 admiration. 
 
 In expectat*en^>f?a speedy death, he wrote to his wife 
 an affecting letterRjmhich is praised by William Penn. 
 Near the close or it he writes thus: "I can say no 
 more : Time and Death call me away. The everlasting 
 God, powerful, infinite, and inscrutable, God Almighty, 
 who is goodness itself, the true light and life, keep thee 
 and thine, have mercy on me, and send us to meet in his 
 glorious kingdom." He was, however, reprieved, and 
 confined in the Tower, where he remained thirteen years 
 and wrote his chief work, "The History of the World," 
 (from the creation to the year 150 B.C.) "The Greek 
 and Roman story," says Hallam, " is told more fully and 
 exactly than by any earlier English writer, and with a 
 plain eloquence which has given this book a classical 
 reputation in our language." Another eminent critic 
 (Hume) pronounces Raleigh "the best model of our 
 ancient style." He wrote several short poems, which are 
 admired. 
 
 In 1615 he obtained his release by bribery and by an 
 offer to open a mine of gold in Guiana. He conducted 
 a fleet of thirteen vessels to Guiana in 1617, and sent an 
 exploring party up the Orinoco. They encountered at 
 Saint Thomas a body of Spaniards, in a fight with whom 
 Raleigh's son Walter was killed ; but their search for 
 the gold-mine was unsuccessful. Raleigh sailed for New- 
 foundland, intending to refit and to obtain provisions ; 
 but he was forced by his mutinous crew to return to 
 England, where he arrived in July, 1618. He was soon 
 after arrested, and a demand was made by the Spanish 
 court that he should be punished for the attack on Saint 
 Thomas. The king at that time courted the alliance of 
 the Spanish monarch, and sacrificed the required victim 
 to promote his policy. He resolved to execute the 
 sentence which had been passed on him in 1603, and 
 for which pardon had never been granted. Raleigh was 
 beheaded in October, 1618. His stature was tall, his 
 features handsome, and his presence imposing. His 
 
 € asi;$a&s;%hard; g as/- G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; sas«; th as in this. (Jt^^See Explanations, p. J3.) 
 
RALPH 
 
 1864 
 
 RAMEL 
 
 moral character seems to have been deformed by several 
 vices. Impartial writers agree that truth and probity 
 were not always his guiding principles. 
 
 "The name of Sir Walter Raleigh," says the " Edin- 
 burgh Review," "is unquestionably one of the most 
 renowned and attractive, and, in some respects, the most 
 remarkable, in English story. . . . His mind presents a 
 surprising union of strength and versatility, of intellect- 
 ual and practical power, and of an observing, reflective, 
 and philosophical with a highly imaginative or poetical 
 temperament." 
 
 An able French critic and geographer, M. Walckenaer, 
 defends Raleigh from the charge of falsehood and ex- 
 aggeration : "The details which he has published on 
 his voyage [to Guiana in 1595] include nothing which 
 has not been confirmed by subsequent explorers : they 
 are definite, exact, important, and do honour to his 
 sagacity as well as his truthfulness." 
 
 See Macvev Napier, "Lord Bacon and Sir Walter Raleigh," 
 1853 ; Edward Edwards, " Lite of Raleigh," 1S68 ; Arthur Cay- 
 lev, " Life of Sir W. Raleigh," 1805 ; W. Oi.dvs, " Lite of Sir W. 
 Raleigh," 1740; Mrs. A. T. Thomson, " Memoirs of the Life of Sir 
 W. Raleigh," 1830; P. Fraser Tytler, " Life of S.r W. Raleigh," 
 etc., 1833; J. Barrow, " Memoirs of the Naval Worthies of Queen 
 Elizabeth's Reign," 1845; Campbell, "Lives of the British Ad- 
 mirals;" De Thou, " Histoire universelle ;" Hume. " History of 
 England," particularly chaps, xlv. and xlviif. ; Gardiner, " History 
 of England from 1603 to 1616," chap. ii. ; " Edinburgh Review" 
 for April, 1840; "Fraser^ Magazine" for July, 1832; Southey, 
 "Lives of British Admirals," vol. iv., 1837. 
 
 Ralph of Escures, an English prelate, who was 
 elected Archbishop of Canterbury in 11 14. He had a 
 high reputation for learning and virtue. Died in 1122. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. ii. chap. iv. 
 
 Ralph, (James,) an English pamphleteer and poetas- 
 ter, born at Philadelphia. He emigrated to England 
 in 1725111 company with Benjamin Franklin, and pub- 
 lished a poem on "Night" in 1728, which was ridiculed 
 by Pope in these lines of the "Dunciad :" 
 
 "Silence, ye wolves, while Ralph to Cynthia howls 
 And makes night hideous ; answer hnn, ye owls !" 
 
 He afterwards wrote several dramas and political pam- 
 phlets. His continuation of Guthrie's "History of 
 England" (2 vols., 1744-46) is a work of some value. 
 Died in 1762. 
 
 Ram. See RAma. 
 
 Ram, de, deh r6N, (Pierre Francois Xavier,) a 
 lielgian historian, born at Louvain in 1804, published " Sy- 
 nodicon Belgicum," (4 vols., 1828-58,) and other works. 
 
 Rama, ra'ma, often called Ram (rim) by the modern 
 Hindoos, [a Sanscrit word signifying " pleasing," " dear," 
 "beloved," from the verb ram, to "play,] called also 
 Rama Chandra, (chiin'dia,) in the Hindoo mythology, 
 the name of the seventh avatar of Vishnu, who on this 
 occasion appeared as a great hero and warrior. It is 
 generally supposed that, with the exception of Krishna, 
 this is the most glorious of all the manifestations of the 
 preserving deity. The. great Hindoo epic entitled Ri- 
 miyani (rS-ma'ya-na) is chiefly occupied with the ad- 
 ventures and exploits of Rama and his famous minister 
 Hanumin, the monkey king. The consort of Kama was 
 Siti, (see'tl,) eminent for her purity and other virtues. 
 Her deliverance from the power of the great giant Ra- 
 vana, and the triumphant issue of the ordeal by fire, by 
 which her perfect virtue was completely established, form 
 perhaps the most interesting portion of the great poem 
 or romance above named. They are also among the 
 most popular subjects for pictures among the Hindoos. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Ramage, ram'ej, (Adam,) a distinguished mechani- 
 cian, born in Scotland in 1770, settled in America. He 
 was the inventor of a printing-press called by his name. 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Ramanuja or Ramanoudja, rl-ma-noo'ja, a Hindoo 
 philosopher, a votary of Vishnu and adversary of Bood- 
 dhism. He is supposed to have lived in the tenth century. 
 
 Ramayana. See RAma, and VAlmiki. 
 
 Ramazzini, ra-matsee'nee, (Bernardo or Bernar- 
 dino,) an eminent Italian physician, born at Carpi in 
 1633. He became professor of medicine at M6dena 
 about 1680, and removed to Padua in 1700. He ob- 
 tained the first chair of medicine at Padua in 1708. He 
 
 wrote, besides other works, a popular treatise " On the 
 Diseases of Artisans," (" De Morbis Artificum," 1701,) 
 which was often reprinted, and was translated into 
 French by Fourcroy, Died in 1714. 
 
 See Ettmuller, "Vie de B. Ramazzini," 1711 ; a "Memoir of 
 Ramazzini," prefixed to his collected works ("Opera Omnia") by 
 his nephew, Bart. Ramazzini, London, 1716: Fabroni, " Vita; 
 Italorum doctrina excellentium ;" Nicbron, "Memoires." 
 
 Rambaldi, ram-bal'dee, (Carlo,) an Italian painter 
 of history, born at Bologna in 1680; died in 171 7. 
 
 Ramberg, ram'beRG, (Johann Heinrich,) a German 
 painter and engraver, born at Hanover in 1763, studied 
 in London under Sir Joshua Reynolds. He was after- 
 wards appointed court painter at Hanover. He excelled 
 in caricature, and produced, among other works, illus- 
 trations of" Reineke Fuchs." Died in 1840. 
 
 Ram'bha' or Rem'bha', [ modern Hindoo pron. 
 riimb'ha',1 sometimes incorrectly written Rhemba, [ety- 
 mology obscure,] the name, in the Hindoo mythology, 
 of a famous ApsarS, produced by the churning of the 
 ocean. (See ApsarA and KOrma.) Rambha is some- 
 times identified with Lakshmi. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Rambouillet, de, deh roN'boo'yi', (Catherine de 
 Vivonne — deh ve'von',) Marquise, a French lady, 
 born in 1588, became mistress of the H6tel Rambouillet, 
 in which she presided over a celebrated reunion of the 
 ilite of Paris, the first which in France united the aris- 
 tocracy of rank and of genius in one circle. Her house 
 was frequented by Malherbe, La Rochefoucauld, Voiture, 
 Balzac, Corneille, and many other literati of successive 
 generations. The court over which she presided was 
 recognized as the arbiter of taste and propriety in 
 language, manners, etc. Died in 1665. Her daughter, 
 Jui.ia d'Angennes, (doN'zhen',) was celebrated for 
 her beauty and accomplishments. She was married to 
 the Duke of Montausier. (See Montausier.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Rambour, roN'booR', (Ahraham,) a French Prot- 
 estant minister, born at Sedan about 1590. He became 
 professor of Hebrew at Sedan in 1620, and published 
 several works. Died in 1651. 
 
 Rambuteau, de, deh rdiVbii'to', (Claude Puii.ihert 
 Barthelot — biiu'lo',)' Count, a French administrator, 
 born at Chamay in 1781. He was prefect of the depart- 
 ment of Seine from 1833 to 1848. 
 
 Rameau, rt'mo', (Jean Philippe,) a celebrated 
 French composer and writer on music, was born at 
 Dijon in October, 1683. He received his first lessons 
 in music from his father, and visited Milan in 1701. 
 Having joined a company of itinerant actors or singers, 
 he performed on the violin in various cities of France. 
 He became organist of the cathedral of Clermont (An 
 vergne) about 1718, and settled in Paris in 1722. He 
 established his reputation as a theorist by a " Treatise 
 on Harmony," (1722,) and "New System of Theoretic 
 Music," (1726,) in which he developed his theory of 
 basse fondamentale. In 1733 he composed the music 
 of the opera " Hippolyte et Aricie," which was very 
 successful and produced a great excitement in the 
 musical world. The partisans of Lulli were indignant 
 at the innovations of Rameau. He produced in 1737 
 the opera of " Castor and Pollux," which is called his 
 master-piece. Among his numerous operas are " Dar- 
 danus," (1739,) and "Zoroaster," (1749.) Died in 1764. 
 
 SeeMARET, "£loge historique de Rameau," 1766; Fktis, " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene"- 
 rale." 
 
 Ramee, ri'ma', (Daniel,) an architect, born at Ham- 
 burg in 1806, was a son of Joseph Jacques, noticed below. 
 He restored the cathedrals of Noyon, Senlis, and Beau- 
 vais. He published a " Manual of the History of Archi- 
 tecture," (2 vols., 1843,) a "d other works. 
 
 Ramee, (Joseph Jacques,) a French architect, born 
 at Charlemont in 1764. He designed the Exchange of 
 Hamburg, and Union College, at Schenectady, in the 
 United States. Died near Noyon in 1842. 
 
 Ramee, La. See Ramus. 
 
 Ramel. See Nogaret, de, (Jacques.) 
 
 Ramel, rfmel', (Jean Pierke.) a French general, 
 born at Cahors in 1768, was assassinated in August, 1815, 
 at Toulouse, of which he was then the commandant. 
 
 *,e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; ndt; goal; moon; 
 
 
RAMELLI 
 
 1865 
 
 RJMSDEN 
 
 Ramelli, ra-mel'lee, (AcosriNO,) an Italian mecha- 
 nician, born at Milan about 1530, served as engineer in 
 the army of Charles V. Died in 1590. 
 
 Ramelli, (Felick,) an Italian priest and painter in 
 miniature, born in Piedmont in 1666. He worked at 
 Rome. Died in 1740. 
 
 Ramenghl See Bagnacavallo. 
 
 Ram'e-ses or Ram'ses, written also Ramesses, 
 a name common to several kings of ancient Egypt. 
 Rameses III. became king about 1550 B.C., and 
 reigned nearly sixty years. He was succeeded by his 
 son Rameses, (also called Amenophis II.,) who, ac- 
 cording to some historians, was the father of Rameses 
 the Great, otherwise called Sesostris. 
 
 See Bunsen, " Egypt's Place in Universal History." 
 
 Ramey, ri'm&', (Claude,) a French sculptor, born 
 at Dijon in 1754. He gained the grand prize in 1782. 
 Among his works are statues of Napoleon and Riche- 
 lieu. Died in Paris in 1838. His son, Etienne Jules, 
 born in 1796, was also a successful sculptor. He adorned 
 the Louvre with several works, and was admitted into 
 the Institute in 1829. Died in 1852. 
 
 Ramirez, ra-mee'rjth, (Jose.) a Spanish painter, born 
 at Valencia in 1624 ; died m 1692. 
 
 Ramiro (ra-mee'ro) I., King of Asturias, was a son 
 of Bermudez. He began to reign in 842 A.D., and 
 defeated the Normans in 843. Died in 850. 
 
 Ramiro H., King of Asturias and Leon, began to 
 reign about 930 A.D. He defeated a large army of the 
 caliph Abderrahman III. in 939 A.D. on the plain of 
 Simancas. Died in 950 A.D. 
 
 Ramler, ram'l^r, (Kari. Wii.hei.m.) a German poet, 
 born at Kolberg, on the Baltic Sea, in 1725. He was for 
 many years professor of belles-lettres at Berlin. His 
 works are chiefly lyrics, and are remarkable for elegance 
 of language. His "Death of Jesus," one of his most 
 esteemed pieces, was set to music by Graun. He also 
 translated Horace, Martial, Catullus, and Sappho's odes. 
 Died in Berlin in 1798. 
 
 See Heinsius, " Biographische Skizze Ramlers," 179S ; Long- 
 fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Gkkvini':-;. "Geschichte 
 der Deutschen Dichtung:" Hirschin'g. " Historisch-literarisches 
 Hamlbuch ;" " Notivelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Ram'mo-hvin' Roy, a Hindoo reformer and linguist, 
 
 was born in Bengal about 1776. His parents were Brah- 
 mans of high rank. He was master of Sanscrit, Persian, 
 Arabic, Hindostanee, and English. At an early age he 
 renounced the Brahmanical religion. He believed in 
 Christ as a divine teacher, but held Arian or Unitarian 
 views. He wrote several works against the prevailing 
 superstitions of India, and published in 1820 "The 
 Precepts of Jesus the Guide to Peace and Happiness," 
 which consists of selections from the New Testament. 
 In 1830 he was sent by the King of Delhi as ambas- 
 sador to London. Died near Bristol in 1833. 
 
 See Lant Carpenter, " Review of the Labours. Opinions, and 
 Character of Ranintoluin Roy ;" " Last Days in England of the 
 Rajah Rammohun Roy," edited by MARY Carpenter, London, 
 1867; "Blackwood's ^Iaga7.ine" for November, 1S18. 
 
 Ramond de Carbonnieres, ra"m6.\'' deli kiu'bo'- 
 ne-aiR', (Louts Francois,) Baron, a distinguished 
 French savant and politician, born at Strasburg in 1755. 
 He was elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, 
 and sat in the corps legislatif from 1800 to 1806. He 
 wrote several able scientific and descriptive works, 
 among which is "Travels in the Pyrenees," (1801,) 
 which treats of geology, etc. Died in 1827. Cuvier 
 wrote a eulogy on him. 
 
 See, also, Qubrard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Ramondini, ra-mon-dee'nee, (Vincenzo,) an Italian 
 naturalist, born at Messina in 1758, was professor at 
 Naples. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Ramorino. See Remorino. 
 
 Ramos, ri'm6s. (Enrique,) a Spanish writer, bom 
 at Alicante in 1738, was an officer of the army. He 
 wrote successful tragedies, named "Guzman," (1780,) 
 and " Pelagius" or " Pelayo," (1784.) Died in 1801. 
 
 Rampalle, roN'ptl', (N.,) a French poet, whom Boi- 
 leau, in his " Art Poetique," mentions among authors 
 who were no longer read in his time. Died about 1660. 
 
 Rampen, ram' pen, (Hendrik,) a Flemish theologian, 
 born at I lui in 1572 ; died at Louvain in 1641. 
 
 Rampinelli, ram-pe-nel'lee, (Ramiro,) an Italian 
 mathematician, born at Brescia in 1697 ; died at Milan 
 in 1759. 
 
 Rampon, r6.N'p6N', (AntopneGuillaume,) Count, 
 a French general, born at Saint-Fortunat (Ardeche) in 
 1759. He distinguished himself as general of brigade 
 at Montenotte, Roveredo, and Areola, (1796.) For his 
 services at the battle of the Pyramids and in Syria he 
 was made general of division in 1S00. Died in 1842. 
 
 Ramsay, ram'ze, (Alexander,) born in England 
 about 1760, emigrated to America, where he died in 
 1824. He published an " Anatomy of the Heart, Brain, 
 etc.," (1813.) 
 
 Ramsay, ram'ze, (Allan,) a distinguished Scottish 
 poet, born of poor parents in Lanarkshire in 1685. He 
 was successively a barber and bookseller in Edinburgh. 
 He published in 1721 a volume of poems, which were 
 well received. His principal work is a pastoral poem 
 called "The Gentle Shepherd," (1729,) which has been 
 greatly admired. Died in 1758. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Campbell. " Specimens of British Poets;" Allibone, "Dictionary 
 of Authors;" "Monthly Review" for March, 176a. 
 
 Ramsay, (Allan,) a portrait-painter, a son of the 
 preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1713. He became 
 principal painter to George III. in 1767, and surpassed 
 most of his British contemporaries in his art. He wrote 
 several political tracts, and visited Rome four times. 
 On his return from his last journey he died at Dover, in 
 1784, leaving a son, who became a general in the army. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Ramsay, [Fr. pron. r&N'zJt',] (Andrew Michael,) 
 called Chevalier Ramsay, was born at Ayr, in Scot- 
 land, in 1686. He was converted by Fenelon from 
 skepticism to Roman Catholicism about 1709, and be- 
 came tutor to the Prince de Turenne. He acquired 
 distinction by his writings, which are in French and 
 are admired for purity of style. His chief works are 
 "Travels of Cyrus," ("Voyages de Cyrus," 1727,) which 
 is an imitation of Fenelon's "Telemachus," a valuable 
 "Life of Fenelon," (1723,) and a "Life of Turenne," 
 (1735.) Died in France in 1743. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmeu;" 
 " Biographia Britannica. ' 
 
 Ramsay, ram'ze, (David,) an American historian and 
 physician, born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in 
 1749. Having graduated in 1765 at Princeton College, 
 he studied medicine in Philadelphia under Dr. Rush. 
 He soon after removed to Charleston, and became a 
 member of the legislature of South Carolina, and in 1782 
 was elected to the Continental Congress. He published 
 in 1785 his "History of the Revolution in South Caro- 
 lina," which was followed in 1790 by the " History of 
 the American Revolution." His "Life of Washington" 
 appeared in 1801. He also wrote a "Eulogium on Dr, 
 Rush," and other works on various subjects. He was 
 mortally wounded by a lunatic in the streets of Charles- 
 ton in 1815. His work entitled "Universal History 
 Americanized" was published after his death. He wrote 
 "Memoirs of Martha Laurens Ramsay." 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. ; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Ramsay, (Edward Bannerman,) a Scottish writer, 
 born about 1793. He liecame an Episcopal minister in 
 Edinburgh in 1830. Among his works are "Reminis- 
 cences of Scottish, Life and Character," (1857,) and 
 "Thomas Chalmers, D.D., a Biographical Notice," 
 (1867.) 
 
 Ramsay, (George and James.) See Dalhousie. 
 
 Ramsay, (James,) a clergyman, born in Aberdeen- 
 shire, Scotland, in 1733. He published Sermons, and 
 other works. Died in 1789. 
 
 Ramsay, (William,) an eminent classical scholar, 
 born at Edinburgh in 1806. He became professor of 
 humanity in the University of Glasgow in 1831, and 
 published, besides other works, a "Manual of Roman 
 Antiquities," (1851.) He was one of the principal con- 
 tributors to Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Biography." Died in 1865. 
 
 Rams'deti, (Jesse,) an eminent English optician and 
 maker of astronomical instruments, was born near 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RAMSES 
 
 1866 
 
 RANDOLPH 
 
 Halifax, Yorkshire, in 1735. He settled in London 
 about 1755, married a daughter of Mr. Dollond, and 
 became master of a manufactory of instruments about 
 1764. He improved the sextant, and invented a dividing 
 machine for the graduation of instruments, for which he 
 received a premium of six hundred and fifteen pounds 
 from the board of longitude in 1777. Among his re- 
 markable productions were telescopes erected at the 
 Observatories of Blenheim, Paris, Gotha, and Dublin. 
 He improved the theodolite, equatorial, micrometer, 
 barometer, etc. He was elected Fellow of the Royal 
 Society in 1786. Died at Brighton in 1800. 
 
 See Thomson, "History of the Royal Society;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gene"rale." 
 
 Ramses. See Rameses. 
 
 Ramus, ri'miis', (Joseph Marius,) a French sculp- 
 tor, bom at Aix in 1805. He obtained a first medal in 
 1839. His works are praised for elevation of style. 
 
 Ramus, ri'mus', (Peter,) or Pierre de la Ra- 
 mee, pe-aiR' deh If rit'ma', a French philosopher and 
 classical scholar, born in Vermandois in 15 15, or, as 
 others say, in 1502. He was a son of poor parents, 
 who employed him to tend sheep in his boyhood. 
 Prompted by a thirst of knowledge, he ran away from 
 home and entered the College of Navarre, in Paris, as 
 a servant. He showed his independence of mind at 
 college by writing a thesis to prove that Aristotle was 
 not infallible. He incurred much persecution from the 
 partisans of Aristotle, and was accused of impiety. In 
 1543 he published a "Treatise on Logic," which ob- 
 tained great success. He was appointed by the king 
 professor of philosophy and eloquence in the College of 
 France in 1551. About 1562 he avowed his attachment 
 to the Reformed religion. He published many works 
 on grammar, mathematics, philosophy, theology, etc., 
 among which is " Dialectique," (1555.) His disciples, 
 called Ramists, were numerous in France and England. 
 He perished in the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, at 
 Paris, in 1572. He is called the precursor of Descartes. 
 
 See Waddington, "Ramus, sa Vie, ses ficrits et ses Opinions," 
 1855 ; Lentz, " Historia P. Rami," 1713 : Tennemann, "Geschichte 
 der Philosophic;" Breithaupt, " Dissertatio de tribns Logical 
 Restauratoribus, Ramo, Verulamio et Cartesio," 1712 ; E. Saisskt, 
 " Les Precurseurs de Descartes." 1862 ; Bavle, " Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Ramusio, ra-moo'se-o, or Rannusio, ran-noo'se-o, 
 (Giamhattista,) an Italian compiler and translator, 
 was born at Treviso in 1485. He was for many years 
 secretary to the Venetian Council of Ten. He pub- 
 lished a valuable collection of narratives of voyages and 
 discoveries made in ancient and modern times, entitled 
 "Collection of Navigations and Journeys," ("Raccolta 
 di Navigazioni e Viaggi," 3 vols., 1550-59.) He trans- 
 lated into Italian those narratives which were written in 
 other languages, and inserted some prefaces and dis- 
 courses written by himself. Died in 1557. 
 
 See Niceron, " Mdmoires ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Lettera- 
 tura Italiana;" De Thou, "filoges." 
 
 Ran. See CEgir. 
 
 Ranc, r&N, (Jean,) a French painter, born at Mont- 
 pellier in 1674. He was patronized by Philip V. of 
 Spain. Died at Madrid in 1735. 
 
 Ranee, de, deh rdN'sa', (Armand Jean le Bouthil- 
 lier — leh boo'te'ye-i',) a French abbe, born in Paris in 
 1626, was noted as the reformer of the monks of La 
 Trappe. He subjected them to the practice of great 
 austerities and the endurance of extreme privations. 
 Died in 1700. 
 
 See Le Nain de Tii.lemont, " Vie de Rance\" 1719; Marsoi.- 
 LiER,"Viede 1'Abbe" de Ranee," 1703 : ChAtf.aubkiand, " Vie de 
 Rance\" 1844: Chari.es Butler, "Lives of A. J. le Bouthillier, 
 Thomas a Kempis," etc. 
 
 Ranchin, roN'shaN', (Francois,) a French physician, 
 born at Montpellier in 1564; died in 1641. 
 
 Ranconet, de, d?h idN'ko'n&', (Aimar,) a learned 
 French jurist, born at Perigueux about 1498, was a 
 Greek and Latin scholar. He wrote "Treasure of the 
 French Language," (" Tresor de la Langue Franchise," 
 1606.) Died at Paris in 1559. 
 
 Randa, ran'da, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Bologna, painted sacred history. Died in 1650. 
 
 Ran'dall, (John,) an English divine, born in Bucks. 
 He was chosen a Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, in 
 1587, after which he preached in London. He pub- 
 lished Sermons and other works. Died in 1622. 
 
 Ran'dolph, (Edmund,) a son of John Randolph, 
 (who left the country with Lord Dunmore at the breaking 
 out of the Revolution,) was elected Governor of Virginia 
 in 1786, and was a member of the Convention Which 
 formed the Federal Constitution in 1787. In 1789 he wa* 
 appointed attorney-general. He was a political friend 
 of Jefferson, whom he succeeded as secretary of state in 
 January, 1794. Having been accused of bribery and a 
 corrupt intrigue on the evidence of an intercepted de- 
 spatch from Fauchet, the French envoy, he resigned in 
 August, 1 795, and published a vindication of his course. 
 Died in 1813. 
 
 Randolph, (George W.,) an American politician, 
 born in King George county, Virginia, about 1812, was a 
 son of Governor Thomas M. Randolph. He was a 
 lawyer before the civil war, took arms against the Union 
 in 1861, and became a brigadier-general. He was secre- 
 tary of war of the Confederate States from March to 
 November, 1862. Died in 1867. 
 
 Ran'dolph, (John,) an English prelate, born in 1749, 
 was a son of Thomas, (1701-83.) He became Bishop 
 of Oxford in 1799, of Bangor in 1807, and of London 
 (or York) in 1809. Died in 1813. 
 
 Randolph, (John,) of Roanoke, an American orator, 
 born at Cawsons, in Chesterfield county, Virginia, in 
 June, 1773, was ason of John Randolph. He claimed to 
 be a descendant of Pocahontas the Indian princess. He 
 studied at Princeton and Columbia College, New York, 
 for short periods. In 1799 he was elected a member of 
 Congress to represent the Charlotte district. He was 
 a Democrat, a partisan of State rights, and a political 
 friend of Jefferson. He was re-elected many times to 
 Congress, and gained a high reputation as a debater. 
 About the end of 1804 he was appointed chief manager 
 to conduct the trial of Judge Chase, who was impeached 
 before the Senate. He became estranged from Jefferson 
 about 1S06, separated from his political associates, tried 
 to defeat the election of Madison, and opposed the war 
 of 1812. He was defeated at the next election, (1813,) 
 but was again elected in 1814 or 1815. He opposed the 
 charter of the United States Bank in 1816. In a letter 
 dated September, 1818, he says, " When I speak of my 
 country, I mean the commonwealth of Virginia." He 
 spoke against the Missouri Compromise bill of 1820, 
 because it prohibited the extension of slavery north of 
 the line 36 30'. At the same time he stigmatized the 
 Northern members who voted for it as " dough-faces," 
 a term which has since come into general use in the 
 United States. He was elected a Senator of the United 
 States in December, 1824, to fill a vacancy for two years. 
 In a speech against the President in 1826, he insulted 
 Mr. Clay by allusion to a "combination of the Puritan 
 with the blackleg." His apologist Garland admits that 
 "he indulged in language of the grossest personal in- 
 sult." He was challenged by Mr. Clay, and a duel ensued. 
 Randolph's pistol went oft before the word, Clay fired 
 without effect, and his adversary then threw away his 
 fire. He was defeated in the election of Senator in 1827. 
 In a letter dated May 27, 1828, he wrote, "The country 
 is ruined, thanks to Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Ritchie." He 
 supported General Jackson for the Presidency in 1828, 
 and was appointed minister to Russia in 1830. He re- 
 turned home, in very feeble health, in the autumn of 1831. 
 He sympathized with the milliners of South Carolina, 
 and in December, 1832, denounced the proclamation of 
 President Jackson, which he called " the ferocious and 
 bloodthirsty proclamation of our Djezzar Pacha." He 
 died, in 1833, in Philadelphia, to which he went to take 
 passage for Europe. He was never married. He owned 
 about three hundred slaves, whom he manumitted by his 
 last will. In 1803, as chairman of a committee of Con- 
 gress, he reported against the introduction of slaves into 
 Indiana, as not calculated to promote the prosperity of 
 the territory. He was a man of decided genius, and was 
 distinguished for his ready wit, which, joined to his 
 mastery of the weapons of sarcasm and invective, ren- 
 dered him a formidable opponent in debate. " He was 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
RANDOLPH 
 
 1867 
 
 RJOUL 
 
 like an Ishmaelite," says Garland, — " his hand against 
 every man, and every man's hand against him." 
 
 See Hugh A. Garland, "Life of John Randolph," 2 vols., 
 1850; Jambs Parton. "Famous Americans of Recent Times." 
 1867 ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. 
 iv. ; " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1807 ; " North American 
 Review" for July, 1866. 
 
 Randolph, (Peyton,) an American jurist and states- 
 man, born in Virginia in 1723, was first president of 
 the American Congress which met in 1774. He was 
 re-elected president of that body in May, 1775. Died 
 in Philadelphia, October, 1775. 
 
 Randolph, (Sir Thomas,) an able British diploma- 
 tist, born in Kent about 1525. He performed many 
 missions to Scotland, France, and Russia in the reign 
 of Elizabeth, and was an adept in political intrigues. 
 He married a sister of Walsingham. Died in 1590. 
 His Letters, which are of great historical importance, 
 are preserved in the British Museum, and ate largely 
 quoted by Froude in his " History of England." 
 
 Randolph, (Thomas,) an English poet, born in 
 Northamptonshire in 1605. On leaving college he be- 
 came a resident of London and a friend or protege of 
 Ben Jonson. He wrote, besides other poems, several 
 dramas, among which is "The Muses' Looking-Glass," 
 (1638.) His habits were dissipated. Died in 1634. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. vi., (1822.) 
 
 Randolph, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born 
 at Canterbury in 1701. He became professor of divinity 
 at Oxford in 1768. He published several works on 
 theology, among which is "Christian Faith," (1744.) 
 Died in 1783. 
 
 Randon, r&N'd6N', (Charles Joseph,) Comte de 
 Pully, a French general, born in Paris in 1751 ; died 
 in 1832. 
 
 Randon, (Jacques Louis Cesar Alexandre,) 
 Count, a French general, born at Grenoble in 1795. 
 He became a colonel in 1838, served in Algeria, and 
 obtained the rank of general of division in 1847. He 
 was appointed minister of war in January, 185 1, and 
 Governor-General of Algeria in December of that year. 
 In 1856 he was made a marshal of France. He was 
 minister of war from 1859 to 1867. Died in 1871. 
 
 Randon-Dulauloy, rON'do.N' du'lo'lw.V, (Charles 
 Francois,) Count, a French general, born at Laon in 
 1764. As general of division, he distinguished himself 
 at Eylau, Friedland, Lutzen, and Dresden. Died in 1832. 
 
 Rangabe. See Rizo Rangabe. 
 
 Rauiert ra-ne-a'ree, (Antonio,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Naples in 1806. He wrote " Ginevra," a tale, 
 (1838,) and a "History of Italy from Theodosius to 
 Charlemagne," (1841.) 
 
 Ranieri-Biscia, ra-ne-a'ree bee'shi, (Luir.i,) an Ital- 
 ian poet, born in Tuscany in 1744. He wrote a poem 
 "On the Cultivation of Anise," (1772,) and other works. 
 Died about 1824. 
 
 Rank, rink, (Joseph,) a German writer of tales, born 
 near Neumark, Bohemia, in 1815. He wrote, besides 
 other works, " Aus dem Boehmerwalde," (3 vols., 1851,) 
 and " Florian," (1853.) 
 
 Ranke, rjnk'eh, (Frif.drich Hf.inrich,) a distin- 
 guished Protestant theologian and preacher, brother of 
 the historian Leopold, was born in 1797. He became 
 professor of dogmatics at Erlangen in. 1840. 
 
 Ranke, (Karl Ferdinand,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1802. He published several 
 educational and philological works. 
 
 Ranke, (Leopold,) one of the most eminent. German 
 historians of recent times, was born at Wiehe, in Thurirj- 
 gia, in 1795. He published in 1824 a " History of the 
 Roman and German People from 1494 to 1535," and was 
 appointed the following year professor-extraordinary of 
 history at Berlin. To this succeeded his " Princes and 
 Nations of Southern Europe in the Sixteenth and Seven- 
 teenth Centuries," (1827,) "The Servian Revolution," 
 (1829,) and " The Conspiracy against Venice in 1688," 
 (1831.) His " Popes of Rome, their Church and State 
 in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," (3 vols., 
 1834,) and "German History during the Reformation," 
 (5 vols., 1839-43,) are among his most popular works, 
 smd have become widely known by the admirable trans- 
 
 lations of Mrs. Austin. Besides the above-named, he 
 published "Nine Books of Prussian History," (3 vols., 
 1847,) which has been translated by Sir Alexander and 
 Lady Duff Gordon, a " History of France in the Six- 
 teenth and Seventeenth Centuries," (1852,) and other 
 similar works. Ranke was appointed historiographer 
 of Prussia in 1841. His " History of the Popes" is 
 highly commended by Macaulay. 
 
 See Macaulay's review of the same, first published in the 
 "Edinburgh Review" for October, 18^0; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale ;" Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon;" " Foreigu 
 Quarterly Review" for October, 1840. 
 
 Rankine, rank'in, (William John Macquorn, ) 
 F.R.S., a British civil engineer, distinguished as a 
 writer on heat, elasticity, mechanics, etc. He became 
 professor of civil engineering and mechanics at Glas- 
 gow abotlt 1855. Among his works are a " Manual of 
 Applied Mechanics," (1858,) and "On Energetics." 
 
 Rannequin, raVneh-kin, Ren'kiu, or Renuequin, 
 (Swalm,) a hydraulic engineer, born at Liege in 1644. 
 He constructed the machine of Marly, near Versailles, 
 in Fiance. Died in 1708. 
 
 Ran'som, (Thomas Edward Greenfield,) a brave 
 and skilful American general, born at Norwich, Ver- 
 mont, in November, 1834. He was a civil engineer in 
 Illinois before the civil war. In July, 1861, he became 
 a lieutenant-colonel, and in February, 1862, he was se. 
 verely wounded at Fort Donelson. He commanded a 
 regiment at Shiloh in April, 1862, obtained the rank of 
 brigadier-general in January, 1863, and served" under 
 General Banks in the Red River expedition. He was 
 disabled by a wound at Sabine Cross- Roads, Louisiana, 
 in April, 1864. He joined the army of Sherman after 
 his wound had healed, and took command of a division 
 or corpsjust before the capture of Atlanta, (September 2.) 
 He died at Rome, Georgia, in October, 1864. 
 
 See Tennsv, "Military History of the Rebellion," p. 793; 
 " Sherman and his Campaigns," by Colonels Bowman and Irwin. 
 
 Ransonnette, rds'so'nSt', (Charles Nicolas,) a 
 French engraver, born in Paris in 1797. He engraved 
 plates for several books of travel. 
 
 RautouL, ran/tool, (Robert,) a distinguished states- 
 man of the Democratic party, was born in Beverlv, 
 Massachusetts, in 1805. He studied law, was admitted 
 to the bar in 1827, and was elected in 1834 to the legis- 
 lature, in which he advocated the abolition of capital 
 punishment. In 1845 he was appointed a district attor- 
 ney of the United States by the President, and in 1851 
 succeeded Daniel Webster as Senator of the United 
 States for a short term. Having avowed himself a 
 decided opponent of the extension of slavery, he was 
 elected to Congress by the united votes of the Demo- 
 crats and Free-Soilers. Died in August, 1852. 
 
 See " Memoir" prefixed to a volume of his speeches, published 
 by U Hamilton in 1834; "Democratic Review" for October, 1850, 
 (with a portrait.) 
 
 Rantzau, de, deh roNt'so', (Josias,) Count, a mar- 
 shal of France, born in Denmark in 1609. He com- 
 manded a French army with success in Flanders from 
 1642 to 1649. Died in 1650. 
 
 Rantzau, von, ion rant'sow, (Johann,) Count, a 
 German general, born in 1492. He entered the service 
 of the Duke of Holstein, (afterwards Frederick I. of 
 Denmark,) for whom he conquered Denmark about 
 1525. Died in 156J. 
 
 Ranzani, ran-za'nee, (Camillo Abbate,) an eminent 
 Italian naturalist, born at Bologna in 1775. He was 
 appointed professor of natural history in the university 
 of his native city in 1803. About 1810 he visited Paris, 
 where he was treated with much attention by Cuvier. 
 He began in 1819 to publish a great work entitled " Ele- 
 ments of Zoology," which he was not able to finish. 
 About' twelve volumes of it have been published. Died 
 in 1841. 
 
 See Corrado Politi, " Elogio di C. Ranzani," 1842; Tipaldo, 
 " Biogralia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Raoul, ri'ool', or Rodolphe, ro'dolf, [Lat. Ra- 
 dui/fus,] Duke of Burgundy, married Emma, a daughter 
 of Robert, Duke of France. In 923 he was chosen king 
 by the barons who deposed Charles 1 1 1. He waged war 
 against the Normans under Rollo. Died in 936. 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (JJ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RJOUL 
 
 1868 
 
 RAP IN 
 
 Raoul. See R0U.0. 
 
 Raoul-Rochette. See Rociiei te. 
 
 Raouz, rS'oo',' (Jean,) a French painter, born at 
 Montpellier in 1677. He obtained some vogue as a 
 portrait-painter. Died in 1734. 
 
 Raoux, (Scipion Sdouard,) a Swiss litterateur, bom 
 at Mens (Isere) in 1817, became professor at Lausanne. 
 
 Rapetti, ra-pet'tee, (Louis Nicolas,) a distinguished 
 jurist and biographer, born at BeVgamo in 1812. He 
 wrote for the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale" a notice 
 of Napoleon I., and other articles. He lectured on 
 Roman law in the College of France from 1841 to 1848. 
 
 Raphael (ra'fael or rif'a-el) [It. Raffaelle, riffi- 
 el'la] Sanzio, san'ze-o, (Raffaello,) the most illus- 
 trious of modern painters, was born at Urbino, in the 
 Papal States, April 6, 1483. He was the only son of 
 Giovanni di Santi (or Sanzio) and Magia Ciarla. After 
 he had received the first lessons in design from his 
 father, who was a painter of moderate talents, he became 
 about 1495 a pupil of Perugino. whom he imitated so 
 well that when that master and Raphael worked on the 
 same canvas the result seemed to be the product of one 
 hand. Among his earliest works are a " Holy Family," 
 (1500,) the "Adoration of the Magi," "The Coronation 
 of the Virgin," (now in the Vatican,) and " The Marriage 
 of the Virgin," (" Sposalizio,") dated 1504, which is now 
 at Milan. "The Virgin," says Lanzi, "is a model of 
 celestial beauty." In the autumn of 1504 he visited 
 Florence, where he painted several works and formed 
 friendships with Fra Bartolommeo and Ridolfo Ghir- 
 landaio. During the period from 1505 to 1508, which 
 he passed at Perugia and Florence, he produced a 
 Christ in glory, the "Madonna del Gran Duca," and 
 other Madonnas. These works show that his style had 
 been modified by his studies in Florence. 
 
 Having received from Julius II. an invitation to orna- 
 ment the Vatican, he went to Rome in 1508. Here he 
 studied the remains of Grecian genius, associated with 
 eminent scholars, among whom were Bembo, Ariosto, 
 and Sadoleto, and entered into a rivalry with Michael 
 Angelo. Raphael painted in the Vatican (in fresco) the 
 large and noble composition called "Disputa del Sacra- 
 mento," the admirable "School of Athens," " Parnassus," 
 (1511,) "The Miracle of Bolsena," "Attila repelled from 
 Rome," and other frescos. " In the composition and 
 execution of the 'School of Athens,'" says Quatremere 
 de Quincy, "Raphael had recovered, so to speak, the 
 long-lost thread of the manner and taste of antiquity, 
 and had at length connected with the eternal models of 
 the true and beautiful the chain of modern inventions." 
 He also painted in oil numerous works, among which 
 are the "Madonna di Foligno," (1511,) and a portrait 
 of Julius II. Soon after his arrival at Rome he adopted 
 what is called his third style. 
 
 Like all great painters of the sixteenth century, 
 Raphael was a skilful architect. In 1 51 5 the pope ap- 
 pointed him chief architect of Saint Peter's Church, in 
 compliance with the dying request of Bramante. Raphael 
 made a model or design for this edifice ; but it was not 
 executed. He designed the Pandolfini palace at Flor- 
 ence, of which an able critic remarks, "There is not in 
 architecture a palatial design more noble, of a purer 
 style, of a more judicious distribution." About 1515 he 
 produced the celebrated Cartoons, ten designs for the 
 tapestry of the pope's chapel, seven of which are now 
 at Hampton Court, England. They represent " The 
 Charge to Peter," " Saint Paul preaching at Athens," 
 and other scenes from sacred history. 
 
 Among his later oil-paintings are " Saint Cecilia." (at 
 Bologna,) the " Madonna del Pesce," (or " del Pez,") (at 
 the Escurial,) the "Madonna di San Sisto," (the glory 
 of the gallery of Dresden,) and the " Transfiguration," 
 which some consider his master-piece, and which is 
 now in the Vatican. His great power was in the ex- 
 pression of passion and character. He also excelled in 
 composition, invention, and design ; but as a colorist 
 he was inferior to Titian and others. It is asserted that 
 in all his endless inventions a single repetition of him- 
 self is not to be found. He died at Rome on the 6th 
 of April, 1520, at the age of thirty-seven. He was 
 never married. He had a delicate constitution, brown 
 
 hair and eyes, regular and handsome features. His 
 modest, amiable, and noble character rendered him a 
 general favourite. 
 
 "The bent of his genius," says Lanzi, "led him to 
 that ideal beauty, grace, and expression, the most 
 refined and difficult province of painting. . , . Raffaelle 
 is by common consent placed at the head of his art." 
 " Raffaelle was solely a painter," says Hazlitt ; " but in 
 that one art he seemed to pour out all the treasures and 
 various excellence of nature, — grandeur and scope of 
 design, exquisite finishing, force, grace, delicacy, the 
 strength of man, the softness of woman, the playfulness 
 of infancy, thought, feeling, invention,- etc. He received 
 his inspiration from without, and his genius caught the 
 lambent flames of peace, of truth and grandeur, which 
 are reflected in his works with a light clear, transparent, 
 and unfading." " If Michael Angelo is the first of 
 draughtsmen," says Quatremere de Quincy, " Raphael 
 is the first of painters. . . . His 'Galatea' is a work 
 which explains, far better than any language of ours, 
 the diversity between Michael Angelo and Raphael, 
 manifesting the exquisite refinement of the latter, and 
 his tendency towards that pure, noble, graceful manner 
 which constituted the beau-ideal of the ancient Greeks." 
 Among the numerous eminent pupils of Raphael were 
 Giulio Romano, Penni called II Fattore, Perino del 
 Vaga, Pellegrino da M6dena, Garofalo, and Polidoro da 
 Caravaggio. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters:" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy;" Duppa, "Life of Raphael," 1815; Passavant, "Ra- 
 phael d'Urbino," 1839 : G. C. Braun, "Raphael Sanzio's Leben," 
 1S15: Quatremere dr Quincy. "Vie de Raphael," 1824. (trans- 
 lated into English by Hazlitt, 1846:) Von Wolzogbn, "Raphael 
 Santis Leben," (an English version of which was published in 1866 ;) 
 N \gler, " Raphael als Mensch und Kiinstler;" Landon. " Vie et 
 CEuvres de Raphael ;" C. F. von Rumohr, " Ueber Raphael von 
 Urbino:" Pungileoni, " Elogio storico di Raffaello," 1829: Baldi- 
 nucci, "Notizie:" Auolph Siret, "Raphael et Rubens," 1849: 
 Carlo Fea. "Notizie intorno Raffaello Sanzio," 1822: F. Rehberg, 
 " Raphael Sanzinaus Urbino," 2 vols., 1824: Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge'ne'rale;" " Raphael and his Times," in the "London Quarterly 
 Review" for April, 1870. 
 
 Raphael of Volterra. See Mafff.i, (Raphael.) 
 
 Raphall, ra'fal, (Morris Jacor,) a Jewish rabbi and 
 theological writer, born at Stockholm, in Sweden, in 1 798. 
 He studied in Germany, and subsequently resided many 
 years in England, where he edited in 1834 "The He- 
 brew Review, or Magazine of Rabbinical Literature." 
 Having removed to New York in 1849, he became 
 rabbi-preacher of the first Anglo-German Hebrew con- 
 gregation in that city. He published "Post-Biblical 
 History of the Jews," (1856,) and other works, and made 
 translations from the Hebrew. 
 
 Rapheleng, ri'feh-leng', Rapheling, ra'feh-ling', 
 written also Raulengien, (Francis,) a learned printer, 
 born near Lille in 1539, was a son-in-law of Plantin. 
 He worked at Antwerp, taught Hebrew at Leyden, and 
 published an Arabic Lexicon. Died in 1597. 
 
 Rapheling. See Rapheleng. 
 
 Rapin, rS'paN', (Nicolas,) a French poet, born at 
 Fontenay-le-Comte about 1540. He fought for Henry 
 IV. against the League, and wrote part of the famous 
 "Satire Menippee." (See Leroy, (Pierre,) and Du- 
 rant.) He produced, in Latin and French, a number 
 of odes, epigrams, elegies, etc., which were admired. 
 Died in i6o§. 
 
 See Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" "Nouvel.e 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Rapin, (Rene,) a French Jesuit, distinguished as a 
 Latin poet, was born at Tours in 1621. He composed, 
 besides many other works, a series of " Parallels of 
 Great Men of Antiquity," (Homer, Virgil, Demosthenes, 
 Cicero, Plato, and Aristotle,) (1669-71.) His chief pro- 
 duction is an ingenious Latin poem "On Gardens," 
 (" Hortorum Libri IV.," 1665,) which was translated into 
 English by Evelyn. "For skill in varying and adorning 
 his subjects," says Hallam, " for a truly Virgilian spirit 
 of expression, for the exclusion of feeble, prosaic, or 
 awkward lines, he may perhaps be equal to any poet,— 
 to Sannazarius himself." (" Introduction to the Litera- 
 ture of Europe.") Died in Paris in 1687. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary:" Bouhours, 
 " Vie de Rapin," in his " Poemata," 1723 ; Nic^ron, " Memoires :" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 i, e, J, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, ?, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon- 
 
RAP IN 
 
 1869 
 
 RAT HI EH. 
 
 Rapin, de, deh rap'in or rf pis', (Paul,) Sieur de 
 Thoyras, a French historian, born of a Protestant family 
 at Castres in 1661. He entered the service of William, 
 Prince of Orange, with whom he went to England in 
 1688. He served as captain in the war in Ireland about 
 1690. In 1724 he published, in French, a " History of 
 England from the Roman Conquest to the Death of 
 Charles I.," (8 vols.,) a work of considerable merit. 
 According to Voltaire, it was the best history of Eng- 
 land that had then appeared. It was translated into 
 English by Tindal, who also wrote a continuation of 
 Rapin's work. (See Tindal.) Died at Wesel in 1725. 
 
 Sec HaaG, "La France protestante ;" "Nouveile Blttgraphie 
 Generate. " 
 
 Rapoport, ra'po-poRt', (Solomon Jehudah,) a Jew- 
 ish scholar and rabbi, born at Lemberg, in Germany, 
 in 1790. He published, in Hebrew, a number of his- 
 torical and antiquarian treatises, and translated Racine's 
 "Esther' into Hebrew. 
 
 Rapp, (George,) the founder of the sect of Har- 
 monists or Rappites, born at Wiirtemberg, Germany, 
 in 1770. He emigrated in 1803 to the United States, 
 and founded a community at Economy, Beaver county, 
 Pennsylvania. Died in 1847. 
 
 Rapp, rip, (Jean,) Count, an able French general, 
 born at Colmar in 1772. He was aide-de-camp of De- 
 saix at Marengo, and on his death became an aide to 
 Bonaparte, whose confidence he acquired. For his ser- 
 vices at Austerlitz (1805) he was raised to the rank of a 
 general of division. He received his ninth wound at 
 Golymin, (1806,) obtained the chief command at Dant- 
 zic in 1807, and distinguished himself at Essling in 1809. 
 He received four wounds at the battle of Moskwa, 
 (1812.) In 1815 he was appointed by Napoleon com- 
 mander of the army of the Rhine, and fought several 
 actions against the allies. He is said to have been 
 noted for his humanity and moderation. Died in Paris 
 in 1821. 
 
 See " Memoirs of General Count Rapp, First Aide-de-Camp to 
 Napoleon, by himself;" Nouveile Biographie Geuerale." 
 
 Ra'rey, (John S.,) a celebrated American horse- 
 tamer, born at Madison, Franklin county, Ohio, about 
 1825. He was very successful in subduing the most 
 vicious animals by substituting kindness and scientific 
 skill for the harshness usually employed on such occa- 
 sions. Died in 1866. 
 
 Rasario, ra si're-o, [Lat. Rasa'rius,] (Giambat- 
 tista,) an Italian physician, born in the province of 
 Novara in 151 7. He was professor of Greek and rhetoric 
 at Venice for twenty-two years. He translated from 
 Greek into Latin some works of Pachymeres, Oribasius, 
 and Galen. Died at Pavia in 1578. 
 
 SeeGHlLlNl, "Teatro d'Uomini letterati." 
 
 Rasarius. See Rasa mo. 
 
 Rascas, ris'kls', (Piekke Antoine,) Sieur de Bagar- 
 ris, a French antiquary, born at Aix about 1567. He 
 was keeper of the cabinet of Henry IV., and wrote a 
 treatise on medals. Died in 1620. 
 
 Rasche, rash'eh, (Johann Christoph,) a German 
 numismatist, born near Eisenach, in Saxony, in 1703. 
 He published, besides other works, " Lexicon of the 
 Monetary Affairs of the Ancients," (" Lexicon universal 
 Rei numariae Veterum," 6 vols., 1785-94.) Died in 1805. 
 
 Raachi, ras'Kee, ? (Rabbi Solomon,) an eminent Jew- 
 ish writer, born at Troyes, in France, in 1040. He 
 wrote commentaries on the Pentateuch and Talmud. 
 Died in 1 105. 
 
 Raschid, AL See Haroun-al-Raschid. 
 
 Rasheed-Eddeen or Raschid-Eddin, ra-sheed' 
 ed deen', a Persian historian, born at Hamadan in the 
 thirteenth century. Died about 1320. 
 
 Rasia. See Razes. 
 
 Rasis or Rases. See Razee. 
 
 Rask, risk, (Ramus or Rasmus Christian,) an emi- 
 nent Danish linguist, was born near Odense, in the isle 
 of Fiinen, in 1787. He gave much attention to com- 
 parative philology, in the prosecution of which study he 
 risited Russia, Persia, India, etc., (1817-21.) He be- 
 came professor of literary history at Copenhagen in 1825, 
 and professor of Oriental languages at the same univer- 
 sity in 1828. Aming his works are an "Anglo-Saxon 
 
 Grammar," (1817,) "Researches on the Origin of the 
 Icelandic Language," (1818,) and "On the Age and 
 Authenticity of the Zend-Avesta," (1826.) He possessed 
 a rare talent for linguistic researches. Died in 1832. 
 
 See P. L. Moeli.er, " R. K. Rask;" Erslew, '■ Forfatter- Lexi- 
 con ;" " Nouveile Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 Rasmussen, ras'moos'sen, (Janus Lassen,) a Dan- 
 ish Orientalist, born at Vestenkov in 1785. He published 
 a " History of the Kingdoms of the Arabs," (" Historia 
 Arabum Kegnorum," 1817,) "Annals of the Moslems," 
 ("Annales Islamica;," 1825,) and other works. Died 
 about 1828. 
 
 Rasori, ra-so'ree, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian 
 physician, born at Parma in 1766 or 1767. He became 
 professor at Pavia about 1796, and settled at Milan in 
 1800. He was author of a new medical doctrine, called 
 "theory of the Counter-Stimulus," and wrote several 
 medical works. He died in 1837. 
 
 See G Pkrini, " Cenni sulla Mente di G. Rasori," 1S37 ; Cm- 
 appa, "Delia Vita di G. Rasori," 1S38; "Nouveile Biographie 
 GeneVale." 
 
 Raspail, rSs'pil' or rts'pS'ye, (Francois Vincent,) 
 an able French chemist and politician, born at Carpen- 
 tras in 1794. He took arms against Charles X. in 1830, 
 and became a leader of the republicans. In 1S31 he 
 published the first volume of his able "Course of Agri- 
 culture and Rural Economy." At the revolution of 
 February, 1848, he proclaimed a republic at the Hotel 
 de Ville before the formation of a provisional govern- 
 ment. In March, 1849, he was condemned to six years' 
 imprisonment for conspiracy against the new regime. 
 Among his works is a " New System of Organic Chem- 
 istry," (2d edition, 3 vols., 1838,) which has been trans- 
 lated into English, and " The Natural History of Health 
 and Disease of Plants and Animals, especially Man," 
 (3 vols., 1846.) He was elected to the corps legislatij 
 in 1869. 
 
 See Chari.es Marchal, " Biographie de F. V. Raspail," 1848 J 
 Querard, " La France LitteYaire ; Nouveile Biographie Gene^ 
 rale." 
 
 Raspe, ras'peh, (Rorolph Eric,) a German anti- 
 quary, born at Hanover in 1737 ; died in Ireland in 1794. 
 
 Rasponi, ras-po'nee, (Cesare,) an Italian cardinal 
 and negotiator, born at Ravenna in 1615 ; died in 1675. 
 
 Ras'tall or Ras'telL (John,) an English printer, 
 was a native or citizen of London. One of the first 
 books which he printed is dated 1517. He was con- 
 verted to the Protestant religion by J. Frith. He was the 
 reputed author of " Chronicle of the Kings of England," 
 (" Anglorum Regum Chronicon," 1529.) Died in 1536. 
 
 His son William, born in 1508, was a printer and 
 lawyer. He emigrated to Louvain in 1558, and died 
 there in 1565. 
 
 Rast-Maupas, ras-mo'pi', (Jean Lours,) a French 
 rural economist, born at La Voulte in 1731. He founded 
 the Condition das Soies, and made several useful inven- 
 tions. Died at Lyons in 182 1. 
 
 RaBtopchin. See Rostopchin. 
 
 Rastrelli, ras-tRel'lee, (Joseph,) a German composer 
 and musician, born at Dresden in 1799. He composed 
 "Salvator Rosa," (1832,) and other operas. 
 
 Rataller, ra-ta'ler, (George,) a Dutch philologist 
 and jurist, born at Leeuwarden in 1528. He translated 
 into I,atin verse Hesiod's great poem and the tragedies 
 of Sophocles. He became president of the council at 
 Utrecht about 1570. Died in 1581. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Ratazzi. See Rattazzi. 
 
 Ratcliffe, (Thomas,) Earl of Sussex. See Rad- 
 
 C LI FEE. 
 
 Ratdolt. See Rathoi.d. 
 
 Rathel or Raethel, ra'tel, (Wolfgang Christoph,) 
 a German scholar, born at Selbitz in 1663 ; died in 1729. 
 
 Ratherius. See Rathif.r. 
 
 Rathery, rSt're', (Emtl Jacques Benott,) a French 
 littlrateur, born in Paris in 1807. He became assistant 
 keeper of the Imperial Library in 1859. He has con- 
 tributed to the "Nouveile Biographie Generale," the 
 " Revue des Deux Mondcs," and other periodicals. 
 
 Rathier, rS'te-i', [Lat. Rathe'rius,| a learned ec- 
 clesiastic, was born at Liege. He became Bishop of 
 Verona in 931 a.d. Died about 974 a.d. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in this. (£3?""See Explanation s, p. 23.) 
 
RATHOLD 
 
 1870 
 
 RAFJISSON 
 
 Rathold, rat'holt, written also Ratdolt, (Erhard,) 
 a German printer, born at Augsburg. He settled at 
 Venice in 1475, where he published excellent editions 
 of Appian, Euclid, and other classics. Died about 1516. 
 
 RStl, written also Rett, [modern Hindoo pron. rut'i,] 
 a Sanscrit word signifying "passion," "sexual desire, 
 and forming, in the Hindoo mythology, the name of the 
 consort of Kamadeva, or the Indian god of love. 
 
 See Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary." 
 
 Ratier, rS'te-i', (Flh.ix Severin,) a French medical 
 writer, was borrTin Paris in 1797. He published nu- 
 merous works. 
 
 Ratramne. rS trim', [Lat. Ratram'nus,] a learned 
 French monk of the ninth century, belonged to the 
 abbey of Corbie. He wrote a treatise " On the Body 
 and Blood of the Lord," (" De Corpore et Sanguine 
 Domini,") which was printed in 1532 and 1712. He 
 is sometimes called Bertram. Died after 868 a.d. 
 
 Ratramnus. See Ratramne. 
 
 Ratschky, ratsh'kee, (Joseph Franz,) a German 
 poet, born in Vienna in 1757. He published a volume 
 of poems in 1785, which were somewhat popular. He 
 became a councillor of state. Died in Vienna in 1810. 
 
 Rattazzi, rat-tat'see, or Ratazzi, (Urbano, ) an 
 Italian minister of state, born at Alessandria about 1810. 
 He gained distinction as an advocate, was elected to the 
 Chamber of Deputies at Turin in 1848, »nd became a 
 leader of the democratic party. About the end of 1848 
 he was intrusted with the formation of a new ministry, 
 which was dissolved in consequence of the disastrous 
 battle of Novara, March, 1849. He was appointed min- 
 ister of justice in 1854, was prime minister a short time 
 in 1859, and succeeded Ricasoli as prime minister about 
 March 1, 1862. His opponents denounced him as sub- 
 servient to the policy of the French emperor. He went 
 out of power about December 1, 1862, and became prime 
 minister again in April, 1867. He is the leader of the 
 "left centre." He resigned in October, 1867. 
 
 See " Westminster Review" for January, 1S63 ; '* Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Ratte, de, deh rf t, (Ettenne Hyacinthe,) a French 
 astronomer, born at Montpellier in 1722. He wrote 
 scientific articles for the "Encyclopedic" and observed 
 the transit of Venus in 1761. Died in 1805. 
 
 See J. Poitevin, " filoge &'&. H. de Ratte," 1805. 
 
 Ratti, rat'tee, (Niccola,) an Italian antiquary, born 
 at Rome in 1759, published several biographies and 
 antiquarian treatises. Died in 1833. 
 
 Rau, (Christian.) See Ravius. 
 
 Rau, row, (Johann Jakob,) a German physician, 
 born at Baden, in Suabia, in 1668, was a successful 
 lithotomist. He became professor of anatomy at Leyden 
 in 1713. Died in 1719. 
 
 Rau, (Karl Heinrich,) a German political econo- 
 mist, born at Erlangen in 1792, became in 1822 professor 
 of political economy and financial science at Heidelberg. 
 His principal work is a "Manual of Political Economy," 
 (3 vols., 1826-32,) which is highly commended. Died 
 in 1870. 
 
 Rau, (Sebald,) a German Orientalist, born at Herborn 
 in 1724. He obtained the chair of Oriental languages 
 at Utrecht in 1749. Died about 1810. 
 
 Rau, (Sebald Foulques Jan,) an Orientalist, a son 
 of the preceding, was born at Utrecht in 1765. He be- 
 came minister of a church at Leyden in 1788. Died in 1807. 
 
 See Teissbdre l'Ange, "Vie de Ran," 1810. 
 
 Rauch, rowK, (Christian,) one of the most eminent 
 German sculptors, born at Arolsen, in the principality 
 of Waldeck, in 1 777. He studied for a time under Pro- 
 fessor Ruhl, at Cassel, and in 1804 was enabled to visit 
 Rome, where he was patronized by W. von Humboldt 
 and acquired the friendship of Thorwaldsen. While at 
 Rome he executed the bas-reliefs of " Hippolytus and 
 Phaedra," and "Mars and Venus wounded by Diomed," 
 also a colossal bust of the King of Prussia, a life-size 
 bust of his queen Louise, and a portrait bust of Raphael 
 Mengs. In 1813 he completed the monument of the 
 Queen of Prussia, at Charlottenburg, which is esteemed 
 one of the most admirable works of the kind. During 
 a second visit to Rome he executed statues of Generals 
 Scharnhorst and Bulow, and a great number of busts of 
 
 celebrated persons. After his return to Prussia he pro- 
 duced two colossal bronze statues of Marshal Bliicher, 
 a statue of Goethe, regarded as the most perfect re- 
 semblance to that great writer, a monument to Albert 
 Durer, and statues of Luther, Schiller, and other eminent 
 Germans. In 1851 he finished his monument to Fred- 
 erick the Great, with an equestrian statue, at Berlin, 
 upon which he was employed more than ten years, and 
 which is esteemed his greatest work. Died in 1857. 
 
 See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale ;" " Jahrbuch zum Conversations- Lexikon," 1859. 
 
 Raulengien. See Rapheleng. 
 
 Raulin, ro'laN', (Felix Victor,) a French geologist, 
 born in Paris in 1815. He has written several treatises 
 on geology. 
 
 Raulin, (Jean,) a French professor of theology at 
 Paris, born at Toul in 1443 ; died in 15 14. 
 
 Raulin, (Joseph,) a French physician, born near Auch 
 in 1708. He became physician to the king, and wrote 
 several able medical works. He was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society of London. Died in Paris in 1784. 
 
 Raumer, von, fon row'mer, (Friedrich Ludwig 
 Georg,) an eminent German historian, born near Des- 
 sau in 1781. He studied law and financial science at 
 Halle and Gottingen, and in 1819 became professor of 
 history and political economy at Berlin. He published 
 in 1810 a treatise "On the British System of Taxation," 
 and in 1813 a " Manual of Remarkable Passages from 
 the Latin Historians of the Middle Ages." His "His- 
 tory of the Hohenstaufen and their Times" (6 vols., 
 1823) was very well received, and is esteemed a standard 
 work. Among his other productions may be named a 
 "History of Europe from the End of the Fifteenth Cen- 
 tury," (1832,) " England in 1835," which was translated 
 by Mrs. Austin, and "The United States of North 
 America," (1845.) Died in 1871. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Brockhaus, " Conver- 
 sattons-Lexikon ;" "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1835; 
 '' Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1829, and April, 1833. 
 
 Raumer, von, (Georg Wii.helm,) a German jurist 
 and historical writer, born at Berlin about 1790; died 
 in 1856. 
 
 Raumer, von, (Karl Georg,) a German geologist, 
 born at Worlitz in 1783, became professor of natural 
 history and mineralogy at Erlangen. He was a brother 
 of the eminent historian. 
 
 Raumer, von, (Rudolf,) son of the preceding, was 
 born at Breslau in 1815. He was professor of the Ger- 
 man language and literature at Erlangen in 1852. 
 
 Raupach, row'paK, (Ernst Benjamin Solomon,) a 
 popular dramatic poet, born near Liegnitz, in Silesia, in 
 1784. After residing several years in Russia as a teacher, 
 he became professor of German literature at Saint Peters- 
 burg in 1817. His works, which are very numerous 
 and include both tragedy and comedy, were published 
 in 18 vols., 1830-44. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Paul! nf. Raupach, "Raupach ; biographische Skizze," 1854; 
 "Blackwood's Magazine" for February, 1838. 
 
 Rauter, row'ter or ro'taiR', (Jacques Frederic,) a 
 French jurist, born at Strasburg in 1784. He was pro- 
 fessor of law in his native city. Died in 1854. 
 
 Rauwolf, row'<volf, (Leonhard,) a German botanist, 
 born at Augsburg. He visited the Levant in 1573, in 
 order to study and identify the plants noticed by Pliny, 
 Galen, Dioscorides, etc. After his return he published 
 a valuable " Narrative of a Journey in Syria, Judea, 
 Arabia, Mesopotamia," etc., (1582.) Died in 1596. 
 
 See M. Adam, "Vitae Medicorum ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale," 
 
 Ravaillac, ri'vaTyak' or ri'vS'yik', (Francois,) a 
 French assassin and fanatic, born at Angoul£me in 1578. 
 He approached the royal carriage, which was stopped 
 in the street by a number of wagons, and stabbed Henry 
 IV. mortally, in May, 1610. At his examination he de- 
 nied that he had any accomplice. He was executed in 
 May, 16 10. 
 
 Ravaisaon, rS'vi's6N', (Jean Gaspard Felix,) a 
 French philosopher, born at Namtir in 1813. He was 
 admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions in 1849, and 
 became a member of the imperial council of public 
 instruction in 1852. He wrote an " Essay on the Meta- 
 physics of Aristotle," (2 vols., 1837-46.) 
 
 "t, e, I, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; nftt; good; moon; 
 
R AV AN A 
 
 1871 
 
 RAY 
 
 Ravana,* ra'va-na, or Ravanen, in the Hindoo my- 
 thology, the name of a famous many-headed giant, King 
 of Ceylon, who was killed by Kama. (See RAma.) 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Ravenel, rSv'nel', ( Jules AmEdEe Desire,) a French 
 bibliographer, born in Paris in 1S01. He Ijecame keeper 
 of the printed works of the Royal Library in 1848. 
 
 Ravenet, riv'nj', (Simon Francois,) an eminent 
 French engraver, born in Paris about 1708, removed to 
 England in 1750. Died in 1774. 
 
 Ravenet, (Simon Francois,) an engraver, born in 
 London about 1755, was a son of the preceding. He 
 went to Parma, and engraved the works of Correggio. 
 Died about 1812. 
 
 Ravenna, da, da ra-ven'na, (Marco,) an able Italian 
 engraver, born at Ravenna about 1496, was a pupil of 
 Raimondi. He engraved some works of Raphael. Died 
 at Rome in 1527. 
 
 Ravenna, di, de ra-ven'ni, (Giovanni Malpa- 
 GHINO,) an Italian classical scholar, born at Ravenna. 
 He was employed by Petrarch as a copyist, and after- 
 wards taught the classics at Florence. Died about 1420. 
 
 Ra'vens-croft, (John Stark,) born in Prince George 
 county, Virginia, in 1772, was elected in 1823 Bishop of 
 the diocese of North Carolina. Died in 1830. 
 
 Ra'vens-croft, ( Thomas, ) an English composer, 
 born in 1592. He published in 161 1 a collection of 
 songs called "Melismata, Musical Phansies,"etc, and in 
 1621 "The Whole Book of Psalms, composed into Four 
 Parts by Sundry Authors to such Several Tunes as are 
 usually sung in England," etc. He was the composer 
 of some of these tunes. 
 
 Ravesteyn, van, vin ra'veh-stIn',(HuBERT,) aDutch 
 painter, born at Dort about 1645, painted fairs, interiors 
 of shops, etc. 
 
 Ravesteyn, van, (Jan,) a Dutch portrait-painter, 
 born at the Hague about 1575. His works are highly 
 praised by Descamps and others. Died at the Hague in 
 1657. His son Arnold (1615-67) was a portrait-painter. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Ravesteyn, van, (Nikolaas,) a relative of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Bommel in 1661. He painted por- 
 traits and history with success. Died at Bommel in 1750. 
 
 Ravignan, de, deh ri'ven'yftN', (Gustave Francois 
 Xavier Delacroix,) a French Jesuit, noted as a pulpit 
 orator, was born at Bayonne in 1795. He preached in 
 Notre-Dame, Paris, for ten years, (1837-48,) and wrote 
 a book in defence of the Jesuits, (7th edition, 1855.) 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 See P. DE PoNLEVOY, " Le Pere de Ravignan," 2 vols., 1850 ; H. 
 de Saint-Albin, "Vie du Pere de Ravignan." 
 
 Ra-vis'I-us Tex'tor, the Latin name of Jean Tixier 
 DE Ravisi, (te'se-i' deh rt've'ze',) a French classical 
 scholar, born in Nivernais about 1480. He published 
 "Latin Epithets," (" Epitheta Latina," 1518,) and other 
 works. Died in 1524. 
 
 Ravius, ra've-Cts, Rave, ra'veh, or Rau, row, (Chris- 
 tian,) a German Orientalist, born at Berlin in 1603, or, 
 as others say, in 1613. He went to the Levant in 1639, 
 and studied the Turkish, Persian, Italian, Modern Greek, 
 etc. at Smyrna. In 1644 he obtained the chair of Oriental 
 languages at Utrecht, and in 1651 became professor of 
 Arabic at Upsal. Among his works are a Latin version 
 of part of the Koran," Primae tredecim Partium Alcora- 
 ni," etc., (1646,) and a " Grammar of the Hebrew, Syriac, 
 Arabic, and Chaldaic Languages," (1650.) Died in 1677. 
 
 See Buhmanm, "Trajectum eruditum ;" " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Geneiale." 
 
 Ravizza, ra-vet'sa or ra-vit'sa, (Domenico,) an Ital- 
 ian writer, born in the Abruzzi in 1707; died in 1767. 
 
 Rawdou, Lord. See Hastings, Marquis ok. 
 
 Rawle, rawl, (William,) a distinguished American 
 jurist, born in Philadelphia in 1759, was appointed by 
 Washington district attorney of Pennsylvania. He drew 
 up the new civil code of Pennsylvania, and wrote several 
 legal works. Died in 1836. 
 
 Rawleigh. See Raleigh. 
 
 Raw'ley, (William,) an English clergyman, born at 
 Norwich about 1588. He became chaplain to Lord 
 Bacon and to Charles I. He wrote a " Life of Bacon," 
 
 • He is called Ravbnrn in Southby's " Curse of Kehama." 
 
 which Hallam calls " the best authority we have," and 
 edited the works of Bacon, (1657.) Died in 1667. 
 
 Raw'linS, (John A.,) a distinguished American 
 general, born in Jo Daviess county, Illinois, in 1831, was 
 a lawyer before the civil war. He became assistant 
 adjutant-general of General Grant in September, 1861, 
 and served as such in the campaigns of 1862 and 1863. 
 In March, 1865, he was appointed chief of General 
 Grant's staff, with the rank of brigadier-general in the 
 regular army. He became secretary of war in March, 
 1869. Died in September, 1869. 
 
 Raw'lin-son, (Christopher,) an English antiquary, 
 born in Essex in 1677. He published an edition of King 
 Alfred's Saxon version of Boethius " De Consolatione 
 Philosophise," (1698.) Died in 1733. 
 
 Rawlinson, (Rev. George,) an English scholar, born 
 about 1815, was educated at Oxford, and was chosen a 
 Fellow of Exeter College in 1840. He became professor 
 of ancient history at Oxford in 1861. He published a 
 translation of Herodotus, (4 vols., 1858-60,) in which 
 he was assisted by his brother Sir Ilenry, and "The 
 Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World," 
 (4 vols., 1862-68,) which is highly esteemed. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for January, i860 ; " North British 
 Review" for June, 1866. 
 
 Rawlinson, (Sir Henry Creswick,) an English 
 Orientalist, a brother of the preceding, was born in 
 Oxfordshire in 1810. He entered the military service 
 of the East India Company about 1826, and served in 
 Persia some years, during which he studied the Persian 
 cuneiform inscriptions with success. In 1843 he became 
 political resident, or agent, at Bagdad. He deciphered 
 the cuneiform inscriptions at Nineveh, and wrote " An 
 Outline of the History of Assyria as collected from 
 the Inscriptions," etc., (1852.) He was sent as British 
 ambassador to the court of Persia in 1859, and obtained 
 the rank of major-general. 
 
 Rawlinson, (Richard,) an English antiquary, born 
 in London about 1690. He published a " Life of Anthony 
 Wood," ( 1 7 1 1,) and " The English Topographer," ( 1 720.) 
 Died in 1755. 
 
 Rawlinson, (Thomas,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born about 1680. He was noted as a collector of 
 books, and is supposed to have been the original of 
 Addison's character of " Tom Folio." (See the " Tatler," 
 No. 158.) Died in 1725. 
 
 Raw'son, (Sir William,) an English surgeon and 
 oculist, born in Cornwall. His family name was Adams, 
 which he exchanged for Rawson when he became heir 
 to a person of that name. He settled in London in 1810. 
 Died in 1829. 
 
 Raxis, rfk'sess', (Gaetan,) Comte de Flassans, a 
 French publicist, born at Bedouin in 1760. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, a " History of French 
 Diplomacy," (6 vols., 1808.) Died in Paris in 1845. 
 
 Ray, (Isaac,) M.D., an American physician, born at 
 Beverly, Massachusetts, in 1807, was appointed in 1841 
 superintendent of the State Insane Hospital at Augusta, 
 Maine, and in 1845 of the Butler Hospital for the In- 
 sane at Providence, Rhode Island. He has published 
 "Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity," (1838,) which is 
 highly commended. 
 
 Ray or Wray, (John,) an eminent English botanist 
 and zoologist, born near Braintree, in Essex, on the 
 29th of November, 1628, was the son of a blacksmith. 
 He studied in Trinity College, Cambridge, where he 
 became Greek lecturer at the age of twenty-three. In 
 1660 he published a " Catalogue of Plants growing 
 around Cambridge." He was ordained as a priest, but 
 declined to subscribe to the Act of Uniformitj of 1662, 
 and never performed clerical functions. He found a 
 friend and patron in Francis Willoughby, in company 
 with whom he made scientific excursions in France, 
 Germany, and Italy in 1663-66. In 1667 he was chosen 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a " Cata- 
 logue of the Plants of England," ("Catalogus Plan- 
 tarum Angliae," 1670 or 1677,) and in 1682 a " New 
 Method of Plants," ("Methodus Plantarum Nova,") in 
 which he proposed a new method of classification. Of 
 this work Cuvier and Du Petit-Thouars (" Biographie 
 Universelle") remark, " We find the natural families of 
 
 e as k; 9 as s ; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (ft^~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RAY 
 
 1872 
 
 RATNAVD 
 
 plants better defined, and the grand division of mono- 
 cotyledons and Dicotyledons fully established ; he gave 
 the characters of many classes with much precision, and 
 introduced several technical terms which are very use- 
 ful ; finally, he established many principles and general 
 laws of classification which have since been adopted." 
 His principal or largest botanical work is " Universal 
 History of Plants," (" Historia Plantarum Universalis," 
 
 3 vols., 1686-1704.) Ray is said to have been the first 
 modern zoologist who made use of comparative anat- 
 omy. He published in 1693 "Synopsis of Quadrupeds 
 and Serpents," (" Synopsis Animalium Quadrupedum 
 et Serpentini Generis.") " His works on zoology," says 
 Cuvier, " are even more important than those on botany, 
 for their utility has been more durable. They may be 
 considered as the foundation of all modem zoology. . . . 
 His distribution of the classes of quadrupeds and birds 
 has been followed by the English naturalists almost to 
 our own days." He wrote other works. Died in 1705. 
 
 See Dr. Derham, "Select Remains of J. Ray," 1760; |' Memo- 
 rials of J. Rav." bv Edwin Lankester, 8vo, 1844: " Biographia 
 Kritanmca;" Dr. Hoefer's article in the " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale ;" Ai.lihone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Ray, (Joseph,) an American mathematician, born in 
 1807. He was an eminent teacher, employed in various 
 places, and published several works on algebra and 
 arithmetic. Died in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1855. 
 
 Ray, (William,) an American poet, born at Salis- 
 bury, Connecticut, in 1771 ; died in 1827. 
 
 Rayer, rt'yl', (Pierre Franqois Olive,) a French 
 physician, born at Saint-Sylvain (Calvados) in 1793. He 
 practised in Paris, and in 1852 was comprised in the 
 medical service of the household of the emperor. He 
 published several works. 
 
 Ray'mond (or Raimond) I., Count of Toulouse, 
 succeeded his brother Fredelon in 852 A.I). Died in 
 864 or 865. 
 
 Raymond (or Raimond) XL succeeded his father, 
 Eudes, in 918. He gained a victory over the Normans 
 in 923 A.D. Died the same year. 
 
 Raymond III, called Raymond Pons, a son of 
 the preceding, began to reign in 923. His dominions 
 included the large territory extending from the Loire 
 to the Pyrenees and eastward to the Rhone. Died 
 about 950. 
 
 Raymond IV., called Raymond de Saint-Gii.i.es, 
 became Count of Toulouse about 1090, about the age of 
 forty-five. He was one of the most powerful princes of 
 Southern Europe, and was a famous leader in the first 
 crusade. In 1096 he led a large army (about 100,000 
 men) by land to Asia. Jerusalem was taken in 1099 by 
 the crusaders, who appreciated so highly the talents and 
 merit of Raymond that they offered him the throne j but 
 he declined it. He died at Tripoli in 1 105, and was 
 succeeded by his son Bertrand. 
 
 See Moi-ink de Saint- Yon, " Histoire des Corhtes de Toulouse," 
 
 4 vols., 1862 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Raymond V., a grandson of the preceding, born in 
 1134, became Count of Toulouse in 1148. He married 
 Constance, a sister of Louis VII. of France. Henry II. 
 of England invaded his dominions and besieged Tou- 
 louse about 1 160, but Raymond, aided by Louis of 
 France, made a successful resistance. Died in 1 194. 
 
 Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, born in 11 56, 
 succeeded his father, Raymond V., in 1194. His reign 
 was disturbed by wars and crusades instigated by the 
 pope in order to exterminate the Albigenses, who were 
 very numerous in Provence. Raymond was disposed to 
 protect or tolerate these subjects, and was excommu- 
 nicated several times. His dominions were invaded by 
 a large army of crusaders under Simon de Montfort 
 in 1210. Raymond opposed them bravely in several 
 batties, but was decisively defeated in 1213, and lost 
 his throne. He was restored in 1217. Died in 1222. 
 
 See Mot-INE de Saint- Yon, "Histoire des Comtes deToulouse," 
 4 vols., 1862 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Raymond, the last Count of Toulouse, a son of the 
 preceding, made peace with the pope and became a 
 persecutor of the Albigenses. Died in 1249. 
 
 Raymond, rJ'miN', (George Marie,) a meritorious 
 teacher and writer, born at Chambery, in Savoy, in 1769. 
 
 He published a variety of works on education, morality, 
 etc., and wrote many articles for the "Biographie Uni- 
 verselle." Died in 1839. 
 
 Ray'mpnd, (Henry jARVis,)an able American jour- 
 nalist, born in Livingston county, New York, in 1820. 
 He became associate editor of the " New York Courier 
 and Enquirer" in 1843, and in 1851 founded the "New 
 York Times." He was elected Lieutenant-Governor 
 of the State in 1854, and, as a leader of the Republican 
 party, favoured the election of Mr. Lincoln In i860. 
 The " New York Times," which he continued to edit 
 until his death, was very successful. In 1864 he was 
 elected a member of Congress by the Republican voters 
 of New York City. He published "The Life, Public 
 Services, and State Papers of Abraham Lincoln," (1865.) 
 He took a prominent part in the National Conven- 
 tion of the friends of Andrew Johnson which met in 
 Philadelphia in the summer of 1866 for the purpose of 
 forming a new political party, and wrote the address to 
 the people of the United States which that convention 
 issued. This enterprise proved a complete failure. 
 Died in June, 1869. 
 
 See " Henry J. Raymond and the New York Press for Thiily 
 Years," hy Augustus Maverick, 1870. 
 
 Raymond, rJ'm6N', (Jean Arnaud,) a French 
 architect, born at Toulouse in 1742, was a member of 
 the Institute. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Raymond, (Jean Michel,) a French chemist, born 
 at Saint- Vallier (Drdme) in 1766. He was professor of 
 chemistry at Lyons. About 1810 he discovered a colour 
 called bleu- Raymond, for which he received a present of 
 8000 francs from the government. Died in 1837. 
 
 Raymond, (Michel Joachim Marie,) an able 
 French general, born near Auch in 1755. He entered 
 the service of the NizSm of Deccan about 1786, and 
 fought against the English and Mahrattas. Died at 
 Hyderabad in 1798. 
 
 Raymond, (Rohert,) Lord, an English judge, born 
 about 1673, was chief justice of the king's bench in 
 the reign of George I., and a privy councillor. His 
 "Reports" were published in 3 vols. Died in 1733. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Chief Justices." 
 
 Raymond, (Xavier,) a French journalist, born in 
 Paris in 1810 or 1812. He became an editor of the 
 "Journal des Debats" about 1838, and published works 
 entitled " L' Afghanistan," (1843,) a,ld "L'Inde," (1845.) 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S63. 
 
 Raymond-Be>enger. See Berk.nger. 
 
 Raymond Lulli. See Lui.i.i. 
 
 Raymond (Raimond, rl-moncl'. orRamon, r5-mon') 
 de Penafort, (Pegnafort,) da pan'yi-foRt', a Spanish 
 canonist and Dominican, bom at Barcelona in 1175 or 
 1 186. He compiled the "Decretals." Died in 1275. 
 
 Raymond!. See Raimond!. 
 
 Raynal, ri'nil', (Gi.hli.au.me Thomas Francois,) 
 L'Abbe, a French philosopher and historian, born at 
 Saint-Geniez, in Rouergue, in 1711. He was a priest in 
 his youth, but renounced that profession soon after his 
 removal to Paris,*(l747.) He published several mediocre 
 histories, and became intimate with Helvetius and Baron 
 Holbach. He acquired temporary celebrity by a "His- 
 tory of the Colonies planted by Europeans in America 
 and India, and of their Influence on the Political Con- 
 dition, Commerce, and Prosperity of Europe," (" His- 
 toire philosophique et politique des Etablissements et 
 du Commerce des Europeens dans les deux Indes," 4 
 vols., 1770.) It is said that Diderot wrote some of the 
 ablest passages of this work, which abounds in declama- 
 tions' against the political and religious institutions of 
 France. The Parliament in 1781 ordered the book to 
 be burnt and the author to be arrested ; but he escaped, 
 and passed about six years in exile. Died in Paris in 
 1796. 
 
 See A. Jay, " Notice bioeraphique sur Raynal." 1821 ; Cherhal- 
 Montreal, " filoge philosophique de Raynal," 1796 ; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Raynal, de, deh rJ'nJl', (Louis Hector Chaudru,) 
 a French historian of the present age. His chief work 
 is a " History of Berri," (4 vols., 1844-47.) 
 
 Raynaud, rj'no', written also Rainaud and Ral- 
 naudo, (ri-n5w'do,) (Th^ophile,) an i'talian Jesuit, 
 
 S, e, T, 5, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; mit; not; g<56d; moon; 
 
RATNEFAL 
 
 1873 
 
 REAGAN 
 
 born in the county of Nice in 1583. He wrote many 
 works on theology, which obtained success, though 
 they are said to be trivial and prolix. Died in 1663. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Rayneval, de, deh rjn'vil', (Alphonse Gerard,) a 
 French diplomatist, born in Paris in 181 3. He was ap- 
 pointed to represent the French government at the court 
 of Pius IX. after his flight to Gaeta, (1849,) and entered 
 Rome with the army which restored the pope. He was 
 raised to the rank of ambassador in 1851, and remained 
 at Rome in that capacity six years. Died in 1858. 
 
 Rayneval, de, (Francois Maximilien Gerard,) 
 the father of the preceding, was born in 1778. He was 
 sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1829, and to Madrid in 
 1832. Died at Madrid in 1836. 
 
 His father, Joseph, (1746-1812,) was author of a 
 "Treatise on the Law of Nature and of Nations," (3d 
 edition, 1832,) and "On the Liberty of the Seas," (2 
 vols., 181 1.) 
 
 Raynolds. See Rainolds. 
 
 Raynouard, r4'noo-ii<', (Francois Juste Marie,) a 
 French author and philologist, born at Brignoles (Pro- 
 vence) in 1 761. He practised law in his youth, was im- 
 prisoned as a Girondist in 1793, and became a resident 
 of Paris about 1800. He produced in 1805 a tragedy 
 (in verse) entitled "The Templars," (" Les Templiers,") 
 which was very successful, and opened to him the doors 
 of the French Academy, (1807,) of which he became 
 perpetual secretary in 1817. He was a member of the 
 legislative body from 1806 to 1813. He wrote other 
 dramas, and philological treatises, among which is a 
 "Dictionary of the Language of the Troubadours," (6 
 vols., 1838-44.) Died in 1836. 
 
 See C Labitte, notice of Raynouard in the " Revue des Deux 
 Moudes," February 1, 1837; Reiffenberg, "A la Menioire de 
 F. J. M. Raynouard," 1839; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Razee or Razi, AL dl-ri'zee or ar-ra'zee, [written in 
 Latin Ra'zis.Ra'sIS.ot Ra'ses,] (Ahmed-Ibn-Moham- 
 med-Ibn-Moosa,(or-Musa,)aii'medib'nmo-ham'med 
 ih'n moo'sa,) an Arabian historian, born at Cordova, in 
 Spain, about 866 A.D. He wrote a "History of the 
 Conquest of Spain by the Arabs." Only portions of his 
 works are extant. There appears to have been another 
 Arabian or Moorish historian bearing the same name. 
 
 See Ai.-Makkari, " History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in 
 Spain," translated by Gayangos, vol. i. p. 314. 
 
 Ra'zes, Rba'zes, or Ra'sis, Latin forms of the sur- 
 name Razee, rj'zee, (or, rather, Ar-Razee or AR-RAzf,) 
 of a celebrated Arabian physician, whose proper name 
 was Mohammed-Ibn-Zakakia-Aboo-Bekr, (mo-ham'- 
 med ib'n za-ka-ree'a a'boo bekr'.) He was born in 
 Irak-Ajemee about the middle of the ninth century. He 
 practised at Bagdad, and travelled into several foreign 
 countries. Among his numerous works are " Al-Hawi," 
 or "Continens," and a treatise on the smallpox and 
 measles. He is said to have been the first who de- 
 scribed the smallpox accurately. Died about 930 A.n. 
 
 See Ibn-Khaxlikan, "Biographical Dictionary;" Sprengei., 
 "Geschichte der Medicin ;" "Nouvelle Biographie G«*neVa!e." 
 
 Razis. See Razee. 
 
 Razoomofski or Razoumovski, razoo-mof'skee, 
 written also Razumowskij, (Gregory,) a Russian 
 savant, published in French several works on mineralogy, 
 and " Coup-d'Giil geognostique sur le Nord de l'Europe," 
 ( 1 S 1 6. ) Died in Moravia in 1837. 
 
 Razout, rS'zoo', (Jean Nicolas,) a French general, 
 born at Paris in 1772. He distinguished himself as 
 general of division at Borodino (1812) and at Dresden, 
 (1813.) Died in 1820. 
 
 Razzi, rat'see, or Bazzi, (Giovanni Antonio,) 
 Cavai.iere, surnamed il Sodoma, (el so-do'ma,) an 
 able Italian painter, born at Vercelli, in Piedmont, or at 
 Vergelli, near Sienna, about 1479. He painted in the 
 Vatican some works which were effaced by order of 
 Julius II. to make room for those of Raphael. The 
 palace called Farnesina, at Rome, contains his picture 
 of "The Marriage of Roxana." He afterwards worked 
 at Sienna. A picture of "The Scourging of Christ" (at 
 Sienna) is called his master-piece. Died about 1550. 
 
 Sec Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy." 
 
 Razzi, (Girolamo,) afterwards called Silvano, sel- 
 va'no, an Italian monk and writer, born at Florence 
 about 1530. He produced several dramas and biogra- 
 phies. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Re, ra, (Fii.ippo,) an Italian agriculturist, born at 
 Reggio in 1763. He published in 1798 an excellent 
 work on agriculture, "Elementi d'Agricoltura," (2 vols.,) 
 and became professor of agriculture at Bologna in 1803. 
 He was author of other works on rural economy, etc. 
 Died in 1817. 
 
 See A. Fappani, " Elogio del Conte F. Re," 1820. 
 
 Re, (Giovanni Francesco,) an Italian botanist and 
 physician, born near Susa in 1773. He published a 
 "Flora of Susa," (1805,) and a "Flora of Turin," (2 
 vols., 1825,) both in Latin. Died at Turin in 1833. 
 
 Reach, (Angus Bethune,) a Scottish author and 
 journalist, born at Inverness in 1821. He wrote a novel 
 entitled "Clement Lorimer," and contributed to various 
 periodicals. Died in 1856. 
 
 Read, (Abner,) an American naval officer, born in 
 Ohio about 1820. He served in the civil war with dis- 
 tinction, and gained the rank of commander. He was 
 killed near Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July, 1863. 
 
 See Tennev, "Military History of the Rebellion," p. 763. 
 
 Read, (Alexander,) a Scottish medical writer, grad- 
 uated at Oxford in 1620 ; died about 1680. 
 
 Read, (George,) an American patriot and signer of 
 the Declaration of Independence, born in Maryland in 
 1734. He was elected to the Congress of 1774, and 
 was subsequently a member of the Convention which 
 framed the United States Constitution, and chief justice 
 of the supreme court of the State of Delaware. Died 
 in 1798. 
 
 Read, (John Meredith,) an American lawyer, born 
 in Philadelphia in 1797, was a grandson of the pre- 
 ceding. He was called to the bar in 1818, and became 
 a district attorney of the United States. In 1851 he was 
 associated with Thaddeus Stevens as counsel for the 
 defence in the celebrated trial of C. Hanway for con 
 ■tractive treason. About 1854 he began to advocate the 
 principles of the Republican party by his speeches and 
 writings. About i860 he was elected a judge of the 
 supreme court of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Read, (Nathan,) an American mechanician, born in 
 Worcester county, Massachusetts, in 1759. He invented 
 a machine for cutting nails which formed heads on the 
 nails by the same operation. In 1800 he was elected a 
 member of Congress. He made ome improvements 
 in the steam-engine about 1790. Died in Maine in 1849. 
 
 Read, (Thomas Buchanan,) a distinguished Amer- 
 ican poet and artist, torn in Chester county, Pennsyl- 
 vania, in 1822. He visited Italy in 1850, and subsequently 
 spent some time in England, where he published a col- 
 lection of poems, which were very favourably received. 
 Me afterwards resided several years at Florence and 
 Rome, whence he returned in 1858. Among his works 
 may lw named his prose romance "The Pilgrims of the 
 Great Saint Bernard," and his poems of " The House 
 by the Sea," " The New Pastoral," (1855,) " Sylvia, or the 
 Lost Shepherd," etc., (1857,) and "The Wagoner of the 
 Alleghenies, a Poem," (1862.) His group of " Longfel- 
 low's Children" is esteemed one of his best pictures. 
 
 See "Quarterly Review" for October, 1857; "North British 
 Review" for August, 1852 ; Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Reade, reed, (Charles,) a popular English novelist, 
 born in 1814, graduated at Magdalene College, Oxford, 
 in 1835. He established his reputation by " Peg Wof- 
 fington," (1852.) In 1856 he published "Never too Late 
 to Mend." Among his other novels are " Love me Little, 
 Love me Long," (1859,) " The Cloister and the Hearth," 
 (1861,) "Very Hard Cash," (1863,) "Griffith Gaunt," 
 (1866,) "Foul Play," (1868,) (written conjointly with, 
 Boucicault.) and "Put Yourself in his Place," (1870.) 
 
 See "Atlantic Monthly" for August, 1864; "Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for October, 1S69. 
 
 Reading, red'ing, (John,) an English clergyman, boriv 
 in Buckinghamshire in 1588. He was chaplain to Charles- 
 I., and favoured the royalist cause in the civil war. He> 
 wrote several works on theology. Died in 1667.- 
 
 Reagan, ree'gan, ?(John H.,) an American politician, 
 born in Sevier county, Tennessee, in 1818. He emi- 
 
 e as k ■ c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. 
 
 Il8 
 
 (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
REAL 
 
 1874 
 
 RECHBERGER 
 
 grated to Texas, and became a member of Congress in 
 1857. He was re-elected in 1859. Ho was postmaster- 
 general of the Confederate States from March, 1861, 
 to April, 1865. 
 
 Real, de, deh ra'tl', (Gaspard,) Seigneur de Curban, 
 a French publicist, born at Sisteron in 1682. He wrote 
 an able work "On the Science of Government," (8 
 vols., 1751-64.) Died at Paris in 1752. 
 
 Real, de, (Pierrk Francois,) Count, a French poli- 
 tician and lawyer, born near Paris about 1760. He was 
 a partisan of Danton in 1793, and contributed actively 
 in 1799 to the success of Bonaparte, who appointed him 
 a councillor of state and gave him in 180S the title of 
 count. Died in 1834. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Real, Saint. See Saint-Rf.ai.. 
 
 Realino, ri-a-lee'no, (Bernardino,) a learned Italian 
 Jesuit, born at Carpi in 1530. He wrote notes on Catul- 
 lus and other ancient authors. Died in 1616. 
 
 Reaumur, de, deh ra'o'muR', (Rene Antoinf. Ff.r- 
 CHAUI.T,) a celebrated French natural philosopher and 
 entomologist, born at Rochelle in February, 1683. He 
 inherited an easy or independent fortune, and became 
 a resident of Paris in 1703. By some memoirs on 
 geometry he obtained admission into the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1708. His favourite studies were general 
 physics, natural history, and the industrial arts. He 
 made important discoveries or improvements in the fab- 
 rication of steel, and published in 1722 a "Treatise on the 
 Art of Converting Iron into Steel," for which he received 
 a pension of 12,000 livres. He made successful experi- 
 ments on the artificial incubation of eggs and on the 
 manufacture of tin wares. His most important contribu- 
 tion to general physics was the thermometer, which he 
 invented in 1731. He divided the interval between the 
 freezing and boiling points of water into eighty degrees. 
 "The most remarkable of the works of Reaumur," says 
 Cuvier, "are his 'Memoirs Illustrating the History of 
 Insects,' ('Memoires pour servir a 1'Histoire des In- 
 sectes,' 6 vols., 1734-42.) The author here exhibits the 
 highest degree of sagacity in the observation and dis- 
 covery of all those instincts, so complicated and so 
 constant in each species, which maintain these feeble 
 creatures. He constantly excites our curiosity by new 
 and singular details. . . . Unfortunately, it is not quite 
 finished." Died in 1757. 
 
 See Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^neYale." 
 
 Rebecque. See Constant. 
 
 Rebecqui, reh-bi'ke', ( Franqois Trophime, ) a 
 French Girondist, born at Marseilles about 1760. He 
 was a member of the Convention, was proscribed in 
 June, 1793, and escaped to Marseilles. Having learned 
 the fate of his colleagues, he drowned himself in the sea 
 in June, 1794. 
 
 Rebentisch, ra'ben-tish', (Johann Frif.dricii,) a 
 German botanist, born at Landsberg in 1772. He pub- 
 lished a Catalogue of Plants growing near Berlin, (1805.) 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 Reber, ri'baiR', (Napoleon Henri,) a French mu- 
 sician and composer, born at Mulhouse in 1807. He 
 composed melodies for a single voice, and comic operas, 
 entitled "Christmas Eve," (1848,) and " Le Pere Gail- 
 lard," (1852,) which are highly commended. 
 
 Rebkdw or Repkow, von, fon r£p'ko, |Lat. RF.r- 
 Ko'vius,] (Eykk,) a German jurist, born in Thuringia, 
 flourished about 1210-40. He compiled a code or col- 
 lection of laws, entitled " Speculum Saxonicum," which 
 was extensively used in Germany. His German trans- 
 lation of it, called " Sachsenspiegel," was printed in the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 Rebolledo, de, da ra-bol-ya'oo, ( Bernardino, ) 
 Count, a Spanish poet and commander, born at Leon 
 in 1597. He distinguished himself at the capture of 
 Nice, (1626,) commanded a corps of lancers in Flanders 
 in 1632, and was the leader of a force sent in 1636 to 
 aid the emperor Ferdinand II., who rewarded his ser- 
 vices with the title of count of the empire. He was sent 
 as ambassador to the court of Denmark about 1650 or 
 1648. He showed respectable talents as a poet in his 
 "Military and Political Groves,"? ("Selvas militares y 
 
 politicas," 1652,) "Selvas Danicas," (1655,) and "Selvas 
 sagradas," (1657.) Died at Madrid in 1676. 
 
 See TrcKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature ;" Bouthrwek, 
 " Geschichte der Poesie." 
 
 Reboul, reh-bool', (Henri Paul Irenee,) a French 
 savant, born at Pezenas in 1763. He assisted Lavoisier 
 in his scientific labours, and wrote several treatises on 
 geology and other sciences. He was appointed admin- 
 istrator of Lombardy by Bonaparte about 1798. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Reboul, (Jean,) a French poet, born at Nimes in 
 1796. He produced in 1828 a poem called "The Angel 
 and the Infant," which was much praised. He after- 
 wards wrote other successful poems. Died in 1864. 
 
 See Collombet, " fitude biographique sur Reboul," 1839. 
 
 Reboulet, reh-boo'li', (Simon,) a French historian, 
 born at Avignon in 1687. He wrote a mediocre " His- 
 tory of the Reign of Louis XIV.," (3 vols., 1742-44.) 
 Died in 1752. 
 
 Rebuff!, reh-bii'fe', (Pierre,) an eminent French 
 jurist, born near Montpellier in 1487. He lectured on 
 law at Bourses and Paris, and published several works. 
 Died in Paris in 1557. 
 
 Recamier, ra'kt'me-4', (Jeanne Franchise Julie 
 Adelaide Bernard, ) a beautiful and accomplished 
 French lady, born at Lyons in 1777. She was married 
 to M. Recamier, a rich banker, in 1793, after which she 
 became an intimate friend of Madame de Stae'l. She 
 was courted in vain by Napoleon in 1805. In conse- 
 quence of the bankruptcy of her husband, (1806,) she 
 went to reside with Madame de Stae'l at Coppet. There 
 she captivated the heart of Prince August of Prussia, and 
 gave him a promise of marriage ; but her compassion 
 for her first husband, who was living, prevailed on her 
 to break the engagement. In 181 1 she was banished 
 from Paris by Napoleon,' on account of her intimacy 
 and sympathy with Madame de Stae'l and other enemies 
 of the emperor. Having returned to Paris after the 
 restoration, she lived in intimate relations with Cha- 
 teaubriand until his death. Her salon at L'Abbaye-aux- 
 Bois was the most celebrated of those which flourished 
 between 1815 and 1840. There was a remarkable dis- 
 proportion between the modesty of her life and the 
 greatness of her fame. Died in 1849. " We think with 
 infinite respect of one Who, having an unequalled in- 
 fluence over the hearts and wills of men, scorned to ask 
 a favour, and endured poverty . . . and exile, which fell 
 with tenfold severity on one so beloved and admired, 
 without the smallest sacrifice of dignity and independ- 
 ence." ("Edinburgh Review" for January, i860.) 
 
 See " Memoirs and Correspondence of Madame Recamier," trans- 
 lated from the French and edited by Miss LirvsTKR, Boston, 1867: 
 an eloquently-written article on "Madame Recamier and her 
 Friends," in the "Christian Examiner" for May, 1867; "Atlantic 
 Monthly" for October, 1864; W. H. Adams, _" Famous Beauties 
 and Historic Women ;" " London Quarterly Review" for April, i860; 
 " Fvaser's Magazine" for September, 1849. 
 
 Recamier, (Joseph Claude Anthelme,) a French 
 physician, born near Belley (Ain) in 1774. He was 
 physician (mldecin ordinaire) at the Hotel-Dieu, Paris, 
 for forty years, (1806-46,) and succeeded Laennec as 
 professor at the College of France in 1827. He was 
 deprived of this place by the revolution of 1830. Died 
 in 1852. 
 
 See Sachaile, "Les M^decinsde Paris." 
 
 Recchi, rek'kee, (Nardo Antonio,) an Italian bota- 
 nist and physician, born at Montecorvo, lived about 
 1550-80. He prepared an abridgment of the manuscripts 
 left by Hernandez. After the death of Recchi this work 
 was published under the title of "Treasury of the Ma- 
 teria Medica of New Spain," (" Rerum medicinalium 
 Novae Hispanije Thesaurus," 1651.) 
 
 Receveur, res-vim', (Francois Joseph Xavier,) a 
 French ecclesiastic, born at Longueville (Doubs) in 1S00. 
 He published, besides other works, a " History of the 
 Church from its Foundation until the Pontificate of 
 Gregory XVI.," (8 vols., 1840-47.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Rechberger, reK'beRc'er, (Franz,) an eminent Ger- 
 man designer, landscape-painter, and etcher, born in 
 Vienna in 1771. His etchings of landscapes are said 
 to be beautiful and spirited. Died about 1842. 
 
 i, e. I, o, Q, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good: moon; 
 
RECKE 
 
 1875 
 
 REED 
 
 Recke, von der, fon der rek'keh, (Ei.isaheth 
 Charlotte Constantia,) a German authoress, born 
 in Courland in 1754. She was for a time a believer 
 in Cagliostro's pretensions of holding intercourse with 
 the dead, but subsequently wrote a work entitled 
 "Cagliostro Unmasked," (1787.) She also published 
 "Travels in Italy," and several poems. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Reclam, rdk'lam, (Frif.drich,) a German painter 
 and engraver, born at Magdeburg in 1734 ; died in 1774. 
 
 Reclam, (Pierre Chretien Frederic,) a Protest- 
 ant minister, of French origin, born at Magdeburg in 
 1741. He became minister of a church in Berlin in 1767. 
 Died in 1789. 
 
 Recorde, rek'ord, ? (RorsERT,) an eminent British 
 mathematician, born in Pembrokeshire about 1500. He 
 studied at Oxford, and took the degree of M.D. at Cam- 
 bridge in 1545. He also taught mathematics at Oxford, 
 and published several works, among which are "The 
 Ground of Arts, teaching the Work and Practice of 
 Arithmetic," (1540,) and "The Castle of Knowledge," 
 (1556.) The latter treats on astronomy. He was phy- 
 sician to Edward VI. and to Queen Mary. He is said 
 to have invented the sign of equality in algebra. Died 
 in 1558. 
 
 See Wood, " Athens Oxonienses ;" Hutton, "Mathematical 
 Dictionary." 
 
 Recupero, ra-koo-pa'ro, (Alessandro,) an Italian 
 numismatist, born at Catania about 1740 ; died in 1803. 
 
 Recupero, (Giuseppe,) an Italian mineralogist, born 
 at Catania in 1720, was a brother of the preceding. 1 Ie 
 wrote a "Natural History of Etna," (1815.) Died in 
 1778 or 1787. 
 
 Recurt, reh-kuV, (Adrien Barnahe Athanase,) 
 a French physician and republican, born at Lassalle 
 (Hautes-Pyrenees) in 1797. He was elected to the 
 Constituent Assembly in 1848, and became minister of 
 the interior on the nth of May. He was minister of 
 public works from June to October, 1848. 
 
 Red-Beard, (Barbarossa.) See Frederick I. 
 
 Red'ding, (Cyrus,) an English journalist and poet, 
 born at Penryn about 1785. He was associated with the 
 poet Campbell in the editorship of the " New Monthly 
 Magazine" from 1820 to 1830. He published, besides 
 other works, a "History of Modern Wines," (1833,) 
 " Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas 
 Campbell," (2 vols., 1859,) and " Past Celebrities whom 
 I have known," (2 vols., 1865.) Died in 1870. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for February, 1858. 
 
 Reden, von, fon ra'den, (Frif.drich Wii.hei.m 
 Otto Ludwig,) Baron, an eminent German writer on 
 statistics, was born in Lippe-Detmold in 1804. Among 
 his works are " General and Comparative Statistics of 
 Finances," (2 vols., 1851-56,) and "Statistics of the 
 Products and Commerce of Prussia," (3 vols., 1854.) 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 See Brockhaus, "Conversatioiis-Lexikon." 
 
 Redern, von, fon ra'dern, (Sigismond Ehrf.nrf.ich,) 
 Count, a Prussian diplomatist, born in Berlin in 1755. 
 He became a partner of Saint-Simon, the French so- 
 cialist, in speculations. Died in 1835. 
 
 Redesdale, reeds'dal, (John Freeman Mitford,) 
 Baron, an English lawyer, born in 1748. As solicitor- 
 general, he conducted the state trials in 1794. He 
 became attorney-general in 1799, and Speaker of the 
 House of Commons in 1801. Died in 1830. 
 
 Red'field, (William C.,) an American geologist and 
 meteorologist, born in Middletown, Connecticut, in 
 1789, became a resident of New York about 1825. 
 He contributed articles on meteorology to several 
 periodicals, and wrote on steam-navigation. Died in 
 February, 1857. "The ingenious theories of Mr. 
 Redfield and Mr. Espy," says R. W. Griswold, "have 
 commanded the respect and admiration of scholars." 
 (" Prose Writers of America," p. 27.) 
 
 Red'grave, (Richard,) an English painter of land- 
 scapes, domestic scenes, etc., was born in London in 
 1804. He exhibited in 1837 a successful picture of 
 "Gulliver on the Farmer's Table." His favourite subjects 
 in a subsequent period were illustrations of the trials 
 
 of the poor, such as " The Sempstress" and " The Poor 
 Teacher." He also acquired popularity as a painter of 
 landscapes. He was elected a Royal Academician in 
 1851. Among his works are "The Country Cousins," 
 "Ophelia," and "Little Red-Riding-Hood." 
 
 Redi, ra'dee, (Francesco,) an eminent Italian natu- 
 ralist and poet, born at Arezzo in 1626. He practised 
 medicine at Florence with a high reputation, and wrote 
 poetry with success. In philosophy he belonged to the 
 school of Galileo. He is ranked among the greatest 
 observers of his age. Among his works are " Experi- 
 ments on the Generation of Insects," (1668,) a poem on 
 the wine of Tuscany, called " Bacchus in Tuscany," 
 (" Bacco in Toscana," 1685,) and " Letters on Philoso- 
 phy, Natural History," etc., (2 vols., 1724-27.) "Few 
 have done so much in any part of science," says Hal- 
 lam, "who have also shone so brightly in the walks 
 of taste. The sonnets of Redi are esteemed ; but his 
 famous dithyrambic ' Bacco in Toscana' is admitted to 
 be the first poem of that kind in modern language." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died at 
 Pisa about 1695. 
 
 See Gorani, " Elogj di due illustri Scopritori, (Redi e P.andini,") 
 1786; A. Fabroni, "Vita; Itaiarum illustrium ;" Longfellow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Nickron, " Memoires ;" G. V. M. 
 Fabroni, " Elogio storico di F. Redi." 1796 : Tiraboschi, " Storia 
 della Letteratura Italians ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Redi, (Tommaso or Giuseppe,) an Italian painter of 
 history and portraits, born at Florence in 1665, was a 
 pupil of Carlo Maratta. Died in 1726. 
 
 Reding, von, fon ra'ding, (Aloys,) a Swiss officer, 
 born in 1755. He commanded the Swiss troops that 
 checked the French army at Morgarten in May, 1798, 
 and was elected Landamman in 1801. He was the chief 
 of the confederSs, the aristocratic and anti-Gallican party. 
 Died in 1818. 
 
 Red Jack'et, or Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, ( " Keeper- 
 Awake,") a celebrated Indian chief of the Senecas, born 
 in Western New York about 1759. He was noted for 
 his eloquence, and earnestly opposed the treaty between 
 the Six Nations and the United States for the cession 
 of lands. General Washington bestowed upon him a 
 silver medal. Died in 1830. 
 
 See the "Life and Times of Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, or Red Jacket," 
 1841, by William L. Stone. 
 
 Red'man or Red'mayne, (John,) an English divine, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1499. He was chosen master 
 of Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1547, and became 
 archdeacon of Taunton. He wrote several works on 
 theology. Died in 1551. 
 
 Red'man, (John,) an American physician, born in 
 Philadelphia in 1722, graduated at Leyden. He acquired 
 a high reputation in his profession, and was the first 
 president of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. 
 Died in 1808. 
 
 Redmayne. See Redman. 
 
 Redoute, reh-doo'ti', (Pierre Joseph,) an eminent 
 French painter of flowers, born at Saint-Hubert, near 
 Liege, in 1759. He worked mostly in Paris, and received 
 the title of painter of the cabinet of Queen Marie An- 
 toinette. He published an admirable "Monography of 
 the Roses," (" Monographie des Roses," 3 vols., 1817- 
 24.) In 1832 he became professor of iconography at 
 the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. Died in 1840. 
 
 See Bouchard, " Notice sur la Vie et les Travaux de M R*- 
 douteV' 1840 ; M. Bonafous, " Notice historiquc sur P. J. Redoute 1 . 
 
 Redschid. See Reshked Pasha. 
 
 Redwitz, r?d'<vits, (Oskar,) Baron, a German poet 
 and litterateur, born near Anspach in 1823. He became 
 in 1851 professor of literary history at Vienna. Among 
 his principal works are the poem 'of "The Amaranth," 
 and "Tales of the Forest-Brook and Fir-Tree," (1850.) 
 
 Reed, (Andrew,) D.D., an English dissenter and 
 philanthropist, born in London in 1787. He was sent 
 on amission to the churches of the United States ih 1834 
 by the Congregationalists. He preached at Wycliffe 
 Chapel, Stepney, for fifty years, and founded two orphan- 
 asylums and a hospital for incurables. Died in 1862. 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Life, etc. of Andrew Reed," London, 1863. 
 
 Reed, (Henry,) a distinguished American scholar 
 and writer, born in Philadelphia in 1808. He graduated 
 
 e m n: c as s: g hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th-as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
REED 
 
 1876 
 
 REGIS 
 
 in 1825 at the University of Pennsylvania, became assist- 
 ant professor of moral philosophy in 1831, and in 1835 
 professor of rhetoric and English literature, in that insti- 
 tution. In 1854 he visited Europe, and, having embarked 
 in the steamship Arctic, was lost on the voyage home. 
 He was the author of " Lectures on English Literature 
 from Chaucer to Tennyson," (1855,) "Lectures on the 
 British Poets," (2 vols., 1857,) " Lectures on English His- 
 tory," etc., and the "Life of Joseph Reed" in Sparks's 
 " American Biography." He also prepared editions 
 of Graham's " English Synonymes," Am >ld's " Lec- 
 tures on Modern History," Lord Mahon's " History of 
 England," and the " Poetical Works of Thomas Gray." 
 
 See Duvckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. it. ; 
 Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Reed, (Isaac,) an English editor, critic, and biogra- 
 pher, born in London in 1742. He wrote biographical 
 notices for Dodsley's "Collection," (6 vols., 1782,) 
 contributed to the "Gentleman's Magazine," and 
 edited, among other works, " Biographia Dramatica," 
 (1782,) and Shakspeare's Works, (10 vols., 1785.) Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 Reed, (Joseph,) an English dramatist and miscella- 
 neous writer, born at Stockton-upon-Tees in 1723. 
 Among his works are "Dido," a tragedy, (1767,) and 
 "Tom Jones," an opera, (1769.) Died in 1787. 
 
 Reed, (Joseph,) an American officer of the Revo- 
 lution, born at Trenton, New Jersey, in 1741. He was 
 president of the first provincial convention held in Penn- 
 sylvania, (1775,) and was subsequently aide-de-camp 
 and secretary to General Washington. He was made 
 adjutant-general in 1776, and in 1778 became president 
 of the supreme executive council of Pennsylvania. He 
 died in 1785. His Life, written by his grandson, Pro- 
 fessor Henry Reed, is included in Sparks's "American 
 Biography." 
 
 Respecting President Reed's character as a man and a patriot, 
 very different opinions have prevailed from his own time to the 
 present day. See, on this subject, Bancroft's "History of the 
 United Slates," vols. viii. and ix. ; a pamphlet by Wiu.iam B. Reed, 
 entitled " President Reed of Pennsylvania, a Reply to Mr. George 
 Bancroft and Others," February, 1867, and Mr. Bancroft's re- 
 joinder, — "Joseph Reed, a Historical Essay." 1S67. See, also, Ref.u, 
 (William B.,) in Allibone's "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Reedtz, rats, (Holgf.r Christian,) a Danish min- 
 ister of state, born at Odense in 1800. He was minister 
 of foreign affairs from August, 1850, to December, 1851. 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 Rees, reess, (Abraham,) an English encyclopaedist, 
 born in North Wales in 1743. He became minister of 
 a dissenting congregation in London about 1768. He 
 edited "Chambers's Cyclopaedia," (4 vols., 1778-85,) 
 and used that as the basis of a more extensive and 
 extremely valuable work published under the title of 
 " Rees's Cyclopaedia," (45 vols., 1802-20.) Died in 1825. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine" for August, 1825. 
 
 Reeve, reev, (Clara,) an English authoress, born 
 at Ipswich in 1725. She produced in 1778 a romance 
 called "The Old English Baron," which was often 
 reprinted. Among her works is "The Progress of Ro- 
 mance through Times, Countries, and Manners," (2 
 vols., 1785.) Died in 1803. 
 
 Reeve, (Lovell, ) an English conchologist, born 
 about 1814. He published "Conchologia Systematica, 
 or a Complete System of Conchology," (London, 2 vols. 
 4to, 1842,) and "Conchologia Iconica, or Figures and 
 Descriptions of the Shells of Molluscous Animals, with 
 Critical Remarks," etc., (1856.) Died in 1865. 
 
 Reeve, reev, (Tapping,) an eminent American lawyer, 
 born on Long Island in 1744. He began to practise at 
 Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1772, and married a sister 
 of Aaron Burr. In 1792 he opened a law school, which 
 he taught for many years at Litchfield. He became a 
 judge of the superior court in 1798. Died in 1823. 
 
 Reeves, reevz, (John,) an English lawyer, born in 
 London in 1752. He wrote, besides other works, a 
 " History of English Laws," (1783.) He was a deter- 
 mined opponent of reform. Died in 1829. 
 
 Reeves, (William,) an English clergyman, born in 
 1668. He was vicar of Saint Mary's, Reading. Several 
 volumes of his sermons were published, (1704-29.) Died 
 in 1726. 
 
 Rega, ra'gi or ra'na, (Henri Joseph,) a Flemish 
 physician, born at Louvain in 1690. His reputation is 
 founded on a work "On Sympathy," (" De Sympathia," 
 1721.) Died at Louvain in 1754. 
 
 See Martens, " Notice stir la Vie de H. J. Riga," 1840 ; Mal- 
 corfs, " Rega, sa Vie et ses Merits," 1846. 
 
 Reganhac, de, deh reh-gJt'naV, (Geraud Valet,) a 
 French lyric poet, born at or near Cahors in 1719 ; died 
 in 1784 
 
 Reggio, Duke of. See Oudinot. 
 
 Reggio, red'jo, (Francesco,) an Italian astronomer, 
 born at Genoa in 1743. He wrote several memoirs on 
 astronomy, and aided in the triangulation of Northern 
 Italy, finished in 1794. Died in 1804. 
 
 Reggio, da, (Luca.) See Ferrari. 
 
 Regillo. See Pordenone. 
 
 Re-gi'no, [Fr. Reginon, ra'zhe'niN',] a learned monk 
 of the ninth century, was Abbot of Prum, in the diocese 
 of Treves. He wrote a chronicle, which has been printed. 
 Died in 915 A.D. 
 
 Regio, ra'jo, (Raffaei.lo,) an Italian classical scholar, 
 born at Bergamo; died in 1520. 
 
 Regiomontan. See Rf.giomontanus. 
 
 Re-gl-o-mon-ta'nus or Regiomontan, ra'ge-o-mon- 
 tan', a celebrated German astronomer, whose proper 
 name was Johann Muller, (mUl'ler,) was born in June, 
 1436, probably nearKbnigsberg, (Saxe-Hildburghausen.) 
 The Latin name Regiomontanus is derived from Konigs- 
 berg. Doppelmayer and others give KSnigshofen, in 
 Franconia, as the place of his birth. He wrote his 
 own name sometimes Johannes Gkrmanus de Regio- 
 monte. About the age of fifteen he began to study 
 astronomy under Purbach, in the University of Vienna. 
 In 1462 he went to Rome, where he studied Greek and 
 bought or copied Greek manuscripts on his favourite 
 science. He passed several years in Rome, Padua, and 
 Venice, whence he returned to Vienna and became 
 professor of mathematics. About 1471 he removed to 
 Nuremberg, where, by the liberal aid of a rich citizen, 
 Bernard Walter, he was enabled to construct instru- 
 ments, and made a series of observations. He published 
 there, with his own press, his " Ephemerides" for thirty 
 years, (1475-1506,) and other works, among which was a 
 " New Calendar" (" Kalendarium Novum") for the years 
 1475, 1494, and 1513. This is supposed to have been the 
 first almanac published in Europe. Pope Sixtus IV. in- 
 vited him to Rome to reform the calendar, and offered him 
 the bishopric of Ratisbon. About a year after his arrival 
 in Rome he died there, in 1476. " He was a man of 
 great sagacity and enterprise," says Delambre, " by whose 
 premature death astronomy sustained a loss which for a 
 long time was not repaired." A treatise " On Triangles, 
 Plane and Spherical," ("De Triangulis Planiset Spheri- 
 cis Libri V.,") composed about 1464, but not published 
 until more than fifty years after his death, is pronounced 
 by Delambre his most interesting work. 
 
 See E. Rheinholt, "Oratiode J Regiomontano," 1549: Pan- 
 zer. " Bruchstucke zu J. Regiomontan's Leben," 1706. 
 
 Regis, ra'jess, (Francesco,) an Italian professor of 
 Greek, born near Mondovi. He produced a good Ital- 
 ian version of Xenophon's " Cyropaedia," (1809.) Died 
 at Turin in 181 1. 
 
 Regis, ra'zhess', (Jean Baptists,) a French Jesuit, 
 born about 1665, was a missionary to Peking, in China. 
 He spent several years in executing a map of China for 
 the emperor. Died in China in 1737. 
 
 Regis, (Jean FRANgois,) a French Jesuit, born in the 
 diocese of Narbonne in 1597. He gave to the poor 
 large sums of money which he collected by begging. 
 Died in 1640. He was canonized in 1737. 
 
 See D'Aiibenton, " Vie de Saint-Francois-Regis," 1716 ; A. 
 Bonnet, "Vita J. F. Regis," 1692. 
 
 Regis, (Pierre,) a French physician, born at Mont- 
 pellier in 1656; died at Amsterdam in 1726. 
 
 Regis, (Sylvain, or Jean Sylvain,) a French Car- 
 tesian philosopher, was born near Agen in 1632. He 
 propagated the doctrines of Descartes by lectures at 
 Toulouse and Paris. His chief work is a " System of 
 Philosophy according to the Principles of Descartes," 
 (3 vols., 1690.) Died in Paris in 1707. "No one has 
 left," says Hallam, "so comprehensive a statement and 
 
 i, e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, o^obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t: not; good; moon; 
 
REGIUS 
 
 1877 
 
 REGNIER 
 
 defence of Cartesianism as Jean Sylvain Regis." ("In- 
 troduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 S;e Bavlk, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" NlCKRON, 
 ••Memoires;" Fontenellb, " £loge de Regis." 
 
 Regius. See Leroy. 
 
 Regnard, reh-niR', (Jean Francois,) a popular 
 French comic poet, born in Paris in 1655, was a son of 
 a merchant, who left him a handsome fortune. On a 
 voyage between Civita Vecchia and Toulon, Regnard 
 and a lady whom he loved were captured in 1678 by 
 Algerine pirates, who sold them as slaves. They were 
 ransomed after a captivity of two years. It is said he 
 was on the point of marrying the lady when the fact 
 transpired that her first husband was living. In 1681 
 and 1682 he performed a tour through Sweden and Lap- 
 land as far as the Frozen Ocean. Having returned to 
 Paris, he purchased the office of treasurer, (tresorier de 
 France.) He was much addicted to the vice of gambling. 
 " Regnard," says Hallam, " is always placed next to 
 Moliere among the comic writers of France in this, and 
 perhaps in any, age. The plays, indeed, which entitle 
 him to such a rank are but few. Of these the best 
 is acknowledged to be ' The Gambler,' (' I.e Joueur,' 
 1696.) Regnard, taught by his own experience, has 
 here admirably delineated the character of an inveterate 
 gamester." (" Introduction to the Literature of Eu- 
 rope.") Among his most admired works are " The 
 Absent-Minded," (" Le Distrait," 1697,) and "The Uni- 
 versal Legatee," (1708.) His comedies are characterized 
 by an inexhaustible fund of humorous sallies. Died in 
 September, 1709. 
 
 See Gilbert, "E*loge de Regnard," 1857; "Atlantic Monthly" 
 for June, 1865; Saintb-Beuve. " Causeries du Lundi ;" Nicehon, 
 "Memoires;" La Harps, "Cours de Litterature ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G&ie>ale." 
 
 Regiiaud, reh-no', (Pierre Etienne,) a French 
 political writer, born in Paris in 1736, was a constant 
 adherent of the Bourbons. Died about 1820. 
 
 Regnaud (or Regnault) de Saint-Jeau-d'An- 
 gely,* reh'116' deli s&N zhfiN ddN'zhA'le', (Auojuste 
 Michel Etienne,) Count, a French general, born in 
 Paris in 1794. He served as a volunteer in the Morca 
 in 1828, became general of brigade in 1841, and general 
 of division in July, 1848. He commanded the imperial 
 guard at the battle of Magenta, June 4, 1859, and on 
 the next day was made a marshal of France. Died in 
 December, 1869. 
 
 Regnaud (or Regnault) de Saint-Jean-d'Angely, 
 (Michel Louis Etienne,) Count, the father of the 
 preceding, was born at Saint-Fargeau (Yonne) in 1762. 
 He was a moderate member of the Assembly in 1790, 
 and became a member of the council of state in 1800. 
 He was employed in important affairs during the em- 
 pire as procureur-general and secretary de retat of the 
 imperial family. In 1803 he was chosen a member of 
 the French Academy. Died in 1819. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Geneiale." 
 
 Regnauldin or Regnaudin, reli'no'daN', (Thomas,) 
 a French sculptor, born at Moulins in 1627. He exe- 
 cuted some works for Louis XIV. at Versailles. Died 
 in 1706. 
 
 Regnault. See Regnaud. 
 
 Regnault, reh-no', (Elias,) a French historian, born 
 in Paris about 1802. He published, besides other works, 
 a " History of Napoleon," (4 vols., 1847.) 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1850. 
 
 Regnault, (Henri Victor,) a distinguished French 
 chemist and natural philosopher, was born at Aix-la- 
 Chapclle in 1810. He was admitted into the Academy 
 of Sciences in 1840, and obtained a chair of physic* in 
 the College of France in 1841. He has written memoirs 
 on the compressibility of elastic fluids, on the elastic 
 forces of aqueous vapour at different temperatures, and 
 on the laws and numerical data which enter into the 
 calculations respecting the construction and power of 
 steam-engines. He published a good " Elementary 
 
 • Authorities are divided in regard to the proper mode of writing 
 this name: formerly it was universally written Anc;elv, hut at pres- 
 ent many respectable works systematically omit the accent, and some 
 aay that the t should be suppressed in pronunciation. (See note 
 uuder Pktion (or Prthion) de Vili.eneuve.) 
 
 Treatise on Chemistry," (4 vols., 1849,) which has been 
 translated into English. 
 
 Regnault, (Jean Baptiste,) Baron, a French painter 
 of history, born in Paris in 1754. He gained the first 
 prize in 1 776. Among his best works are a " Descent 
 from the Cross," and the " Education of Achilles," 
 (1783.) He was a member of the Institute. Died in 
 1829. 
 
 See C. Blanc " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Regnault, (Jean Baptiste Etienne,) a French phy- 
 sician, born at Niort in 1759, was consulting physician 
 to Louis XVIII. Died in 1836. 
 
 Regnault, (Noel,) a French natural philosopher and 
 Cartesian, born at Arras in 1683. He wrote a popular 
 work entitled " Conversations of Ariste and Eudoxe on 
 Philosophy," (" Entretiens physiques d'Ariste," etc., 3 
 vols., 1729.) Died in 1762. 
 
 Regnault-Warin, reh'no' vS'raV, (Jean Baptiste 
 JOSEPH,) a mediocre French li'terateur, born at Bar-le- 
 Duc about 1772. He wrote "Memoirs of La Fayette," 
 (1824,) and many other works. Died in 1844. 
 
 Regner. See Ragner. 
 
 Regner van Oosterga, rer/ner vin os-teVgX, (or os- 
 t?R'Hi,) (Cyprian,) a Dutch jurist, born in Friesland in 
 1614: died at Utrecht in 1687. 
 
 Regnier, reh-ne-i', (Claude Ambroise,) Due de 
 Massa, (mi'si",) a French minister of state, born at 
 Blamont, in Lorraine, in 1736. As a member of the 
 Council of Elders, he supported Bonaparte on the iSth 
 Brumaire, 1799. During the consulate he was one of the 
 redacteurs of the Civil Code. He was appointed grand 
 juge (minister of justice) in 1802, and received the title 
 of Due de Massa in 1809. Died in 1814. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Regnier, (Edme,) a French mechanician, born at 
 Senuir-en-Auxois in 1751. He invented a number of 
 machines or instruments. Died in Paris in 1825. 
 
 Regnier, General. See Reynier. 
 
 Regnier, (Jacques Auguste Adoi.phe,) a French 
 philologist, born at Mentz in 1804. He became in 1843 
 preceptor of the Count de Paris, whom he followed into 
 exile in 1848. He was admitted into the Institute in 
 1855. Among his works are a " German Dictionary," 
 (1841,) in which he was aided by Sinister, and the " Pri- 
 ticakya" of the "Rig- Veda," Sanscrit text, with French 
 version, (3 vols., 1856-58.) 
 
 Regnier, (Jacques Augustin,) a French landscape- 
 painter, born in Paris in 1787. 
 
 Regnier, (Louis,) Sieur de la Planche, a French 
 Huguenot, noted as a negotiator and writer. He wrote 
 a " History of Fiance in the Reign of Francis II.," (1576,) 
 which is commended. Died about 1580. 
 
 Regnier, (Mathurin,) a French satirical poet, born 
 at Chartres in 1573, was a nephew of the poet P. Des- 
 portes. He obtained a canonicate at Chartres in 1604, 
 but he was licentious in morals. His works consist of six- 
 teen satires, and some elegies, odes, etc., the first edition 
 of which was dated 1608. He imitated Horace, Juvenal, 
 and Martial. His style is natural and remarkable for 
 facility. "The satires of Regnier," says Hallam, " have 
 been highly praised by Boileau, — a competent judge, no 
 doubt, in such matters. Some have preferred Regnier 
 even to himself, and found in this old Juvenal of France 
 a certain stamp of satirical genius which the more pol- 
 ished critic wanted." ("Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe.") Died at Rouen in 16 13. 
 
 See Brossettb. " Notice sur Regnier." prefixed to an edition of 
 his works. 1720: Moreri. "Dictionnaire Historique:" Nickron, 
 " Memoires;" Saintb-Rbuvs, "Tableau de la Poesie Francaise;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Regnier-Desmarais, reh-ne-i' dj/mi'ii', (Francois 
 Sekaphin,) a French poet antT grammarian, born in 
 Paris in 1632. He was appointed prior of Gramrabnt 
 by the king in 1668, and admitted into the French Acad- 
 emy in 1670. He was one of the principal authors or 
 editors of the Dictionary of the French Academy. 
 Among his works are a good "Treatise on French 
 Grammar," (1705,) and "Poems in French, Italian, 
 Spanish, and Latin," (1707.) Died in 1 7 13. 
 
 See D'Alembkrt, " Histoire des Membres de l'Academie Fran- 
 caise." 
 
 € as t; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
REGNIER 
 
 1878 
 
 REID 
 
 Regnier-Destourbet, reh-ne-&' di'tooR'bi', (Hippo- 
 l'yte Francois,) a French litterateur, born at Langres 
 in 1804, wrote dramas, tales, etc. Died in Paris in 1832. 
 
 Reg'u-lua, (Marcus Atiluus,) a Roman general, 
 distinguished in the first Punic war. He was consul 
 for the second time in 256 B.C., and gained a naval vic- 
 tory over the Carthaginians. Having invaded Africa, 
 he defeated the enemy and advanced nearly to Carthage. 
 He was defeated in turn, and taken prisoner, in 255. 
 The victors sent him with some ambassadors to Rome 
 to negotiate a peace, on condition that he should return 
 if the Roman senate should reject their terms. He 
 advised the senate not to make peace, and returned to 
 Carthage. This act of patriotism was much celebrated 
 by ancient writers, according to whom Regulus died a 
 vi;tim to the cruelty of his captors. 
 
 See Ernesti, " Dissertatio de M. A. Regulo," 16S4; Niebuhr, 
 "History of Rome;" J. Rey, "Dissertation sur Regulus," 1836; 
 Ciceko, " De Officiis." 
 
 Rehberg, ra'b?RG, (August Wii.hki.m,) a German 
 publicist, born at Hanover in 1757; died in 1836. 
 
 Rehfues, von, fon ra'fiis, (Phii.ipp Joseph,) a Ger- 
 man writer and joumah'st, born at Tubingen in 1779. 
 He was for a time associate editor of the " Morgenblatt." 
 He published in 1813 his work on Spain, which was 
 translated into French by Guizot. Died in 1843. 
 
 Rehm, ram, (Frikdrich,) a German historian, born 
 in Hesse in 1792. He wrote a " History of the Middle 
 Ages," (8 vols., 1820-38.) Died in 1847. 
 
 Rehnskjold, ran'chold, (Carl Gustav,) Count 
 of, a Swedish general, born at Stralsund in 1651. He 
 gained a victory over the King of Poland at Frauen- 
 stadt, (1703,) and accompanied Charles XII. in the 
 invasion of Russia. After Charles was wounded at 
 Pultowa, (1709,) Rehnskjold took command of the army, 
 and was made a prisoner. Died in 1722. 
 
 Re-ho-bo'am, [Heb. Dpm ; Fr. Roboam, ro'- 
 bo'&N',] King of Judah, succeeded his father Solomon 
 in 975 B.C. By his rash and ungracious answer to a 
 petition that he would lighten the yoke which his father 
 had imposed, he provoked ten tribes to revolt. He 
 waged a long war against Jeroboam, the leader of the 
 ten tribes. His reign lasted seventeen years. 
 
 See I. Kings xii. and xiv. ; II. Chronicles x., xi., and xii. 
 
 Reicha, rl'Ka, (Anton,) a German composer and 
 eminent writer on music, was born at Prague in 1770. 
 He produced a symphony which was performed with 
 success at Paris in 1799. About 1802 he went to Vienna, 
 where he became intimate with Haydn and Beethoven, 
 and composed, besides other works, thirty-six fugues for 
 the piano. He resided in Paris from 1808 until his 
 death. His reputation is founded chiefly on his "Treat- 
 ise on Melody," ("Traite' de Melodie," 1814,) and his 
 "System of Harmony," ("Traite complet et raisonne 
 d'Harmonie pratique," 1818.) Died in 1836. 
 
 ^ See F^Tls, " Biographie Universelle Hes Musiciens ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale ;" Delaire, "Notice sur Reicha, Musicien," 
 1837- 
 
 Reichard, ri'KaRt, (Christian Gottlieb,) a Ger- 
 man geographer, born at Schleiz in 1758. He published 
 a number of valuable maps and charts, among which 
 we may name the "Chart of the World according to 
 Mercator's Projection," and "Chart of Gaul" for the 
 explanation of Caesar's writings. Died in 1837. 
 
 Reichard, (Heinrich August,) a German litterateur, 
 born at Gotha in 1751. He wrote dramas, political 
 treatises, descriptive works, and a "Traveller's Guide" 
 for Europe, (1793,) which was very successful. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Reichard, (Heinrich Gottfried,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born at Schleiz in 1742. He produced a Latin 
 version of the New Testament, (1799,) the style of which 
 is praised for purity. Died in 1801. 
 
 Reichardt, ri'KaRt, (Johann Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man composer and writer on music, was born at Konigs- 
 berg in 1751. He was patronized by Frederick the 
 Great, who appointed him chapel -master at Berlin on 
 the death of Graun. Among his master-pieces is. a 
 funeral hymn ( Trauercantate ) for Frederick the Great. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Reichenbach, ri'K?n-baK', (Anton Benedict,) a 
 German naturalist, a brother of the following, was born 
 at Leipsic in 1807. He has published several works on 
 animals, etc. 
 
 Reichenbach, ( Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig, ) 
 professor of natural history in the Surgical Academy at 
 Dresden, was born at Leipsic in 1793. He published a 
 "Flora Germanica," (in 15 vols., 1853,) and the first 
 part of a great work devoted to birds and mammalia. 
 
 His son Gustav, born in 1822, a botanist, aided in 
 the composition of the " Flora Germanica." 
 
 Reichenbach, von, fon rt'Ken-baK', ( Georg, ) a 
 German mechanician, born at Durlach in 1772. He 
 established at Munich a great manufactory of telescopes 
 and other optical and philosophical instruments of su- 
 perior quality. Fraunhofer was his assistant or partner. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Reichenbach, von, ( Karl, ) Baron, a German 
 chemist, born at Stuttgart in 1788. He discovered 
 paraffin and creosote, and wrote, besides other works, 
 "Geological Researches in Moravia," (1834.) He main- 
 tained the existence of an imponderable agent, which 
 he calls Od, and which he supposes to be widely diffused 
 in nature. Died in 1869. 
 
 Reichstadt, rlK'stat, Duke of, (Napoleon II.,) 
 King of Rome, the only son of Napoleon I. and Maria 
 Louisa, was born in Paris on the 20th of March, 181 1. 
 His full name was Napoleon Francois Charles 
 Joseph. In 1814 Napoleon I. abdicated in favour of his 
 son; but Louis XVIII. was preferred by the senate, 
 and the young Napoleon was taken to Austria by Maria 
 Louisa. He received the title of Duke of Reichstadt 
 from the Emperor of Austria in 1818. He entered the 
 Austrian army, and obtained the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonel in 1831. His physical organization was feeble, 
 but his intellect was active, and he is said to have pos- 
 sessed a rare aptitude for the acquisition of languages. 
 Died near Vienna in July, 1832. 
 
 See De Montbei., " Le Due de Reichstadt," 1832; Fr. Lb- 
 comte, "Histoire de Napoleon II," 1842; J. de Saint-Felix, 
 "Histoire de Napoleon II," 1856. 
 
 Reid, reed, (David Boswell,) M.D., a Scottish 
 chemist and writer, born in Edinburgh in 1805. He 
 began to lecture on chemistry in Edinburgh in 1833. 
 He invented an improved method of ventilation, and 
 was employed about five years in the ventilation of the 
 new Houses of Parliament. He published, besides other 
 works, a "Text-Book for Students of Chemistry," (1834.) 
 About 1856 he removed to the United States. Died in 
 Washington in April, 1863. 
 
 Reid, reed, (Mayne,) a novelist, born in the north of 
 Ireland in 1818. He began about 1838 a tour in Mexico, 
 Texas, etc., and passed some months among the savages. 
 In 1846 and 1847 he fought as captain in the army of the 
 United States against the Mexicans. He wrote several 
 successful novels, among which are " The Rifle Rangers," 
 (1849,) and "The War-Trail," (1857.) 
 
 Reid, reed, (Samuel Chester,) Captain, an Ameri- 
 can naval officer, born at Norwich, Connecticut, in 1783. 
 He commanded the brig General Armstrong in a fight 
 against three British vessels at Fayalin September, 1814. 
 Died at New York in 1861. 
 
 Reid, (Thomas,) a Scottish divine and eminent writer 
 on mental philosophy, was born at Strachan, in Kin- 
 cardineshire, in April, 1710. He studied at Marischal 
 College, Aberdeen, and became minister of New Machar 
 in 1737. In 1752 he was appointed professor of moral 
 philosophy at King's College, Aberdeen. He succeeded 
 Adam Smith as professor of moral philosophy at Glas- 
 gow in 1763, and published an " Inquiry into the Human 
 Mind," (1764,) which was designed to neutralize the 
 skeptical doctrines which Hume had advocated as de- 
 ductions from the ideal system of Berkeley. His other 
 principal works are "Essays on the Intellectual Powers 
 of Man," (1785,) and "Essays on the Active Power of 
 the Human Mind," (1788.) Died at Glasgow in October, 
 1796. In reply to some writers who are disposed to 
 deny the name of philosopher to Reid, Mackintosh 
 observes, " As there are too many who seem more wise 
 than they are, so it was the more uncommon fault of 
 Reid to appear less a philosopher than he really was." 
 
 t, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
 
REID 
 
 1879 
 
 REINESIUS 
 
 In another place he calls Reid "a patient, modest, and 
 deep thinker." Hume himself appears to have enter- 
 tained a similar estimate of Reid, although differing from 
 him so widely in his philosophical views. 
 
 See a " Life of Dr. Reid," by Dugald Stewart, prefixed to a 
 posthumous edition of his "Essays;" Chamukks, " Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Mackintosh, "view of the 
 Progress of Ethical Philosophy," in his preliminary remarks on 
 Dugald Stewart; Allibonk, "Dictionary ot Authors;" "Monthly 
 Review" for May and July, 1764, and February. 1804; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for January, 1804; "British Quarterly Review" lor May, 
 1847. 
 
 Reid, (Sir William,) Major-Gk.neral, F.R.S., a 
 British engineer and scientific writer, born in Fifcshirc 
 in 1791. He served as an officer of engineers in Spain, 
 America, etc., became Governor of Bermuda in 1838, 
 and commanding engineer at Woolwich in 1849. He 
 published a work entitled "An Attempt to Develop the 
 Law of Storms by Means of Facts arranged according 
 to Place and Time," (1838,) which attracted much at- 
 tention. In 1849 he produced "The Progress of the 
 Development of the Law of Storms," etc. He was 
 Governor of Malta from 1851 to 1858. Died in London 
 in October, 1858. 
 
 Reiffenberg, de, deh riffen-beRC.', (Frederic Au- 
 guste Ferdinand Thomas,) Baron, a Belgian litte- 
 rateur, born at Mons in 1795. He wrote a " History of 
 the Order of the Golden Fleece," (1830,) and several 
 works on the history of Flanders. Died in 1850. 
 
 See Luthereau, " Notice sur M. le P.aron de Reiffenberg." 1850 ; 
 Quetelet, "Notice sur F. A. F. T. Baron de Reiffenberg," 1852. 
 
 Reigny, rin'ye', (Louis Abel Befkroi, ) called 
 
 Cousin Jacques, an eccentric French writer of plays 
 
 and burlesque works, was born at Laon in 1757; died 
 
 in 1S10. 
 Reil, ril, (Johann Christian,) a Dutch or German 
 
 physician, born at Rauden, in East Friesland, in 1758. 
 
 He became professor of therapeutics at Halle in 1788. 
 
 He published a number of esteemed medical works. 
 
 Died in 1813. 
 Reille, ril or r.Vye, (Honore Charles Michel 
 
 Joseph,) Count, a French general, born at Antibes 
 
 (Var) in 1775. He commanded a brigade at the battle 
 
 of Jena, (1806,) soon after which he became a general 
 
 of division, and aide-de-camp to Napoleon. He con- 
 tributed to the victory at Friedland, (1807,) distinguished 
 
 himself at Wagram, (1809,) and obtained command of 
 
 the army of Portugal in 1812. In 1815 he fought for 
 
 Napoleon at Waterloo, where he commanded a corps- 
 
 d'armee. He became a marshal of France in 1847. Died 
 
 in i860. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Reimar. See Reimarus. 
 
 Reimarua, rl-ma'rus, [Fr. Reimar, r.VmSK'.l (IIer- 
 
 MANN SAMUKi.,)a German philologist, bom at Hamburg 
 
 in 1694, became professor of Hebrew and mathematics 
 
 in his native city. He was the author of the celebrated 
 
 " Wolfenbiittel Fragments," a series of essays published 
 
 by Lessing in 1777. (See Lessing.) Reimarus was a 
 
 son-in-law of J. A. Fabricius, whom he assisted in sev- 
 eral of his philological works. He also wrote a treatise 
 
 "On the Principal Truths of Natural Religion," (1754,) 
 
 and "Observations on the Instinct of Animals," (1762.) 
 
 Died in 1765 or 1768. 
 
 See J. G. BCsch, "Memoria Reimari," 1769; Hirsching, 
 " Histor.sch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Reimarus, (Johann Albrecht Hkinrich,) a Ger- 
 man philosopher and economist, born at Hamburg in 
 1729, was a son of the preceding. He practised medi- 
 cine at Hamburg, and wrote several works on commerce 
 and political economy. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Ebeling, " Memoria Reimari," 1815 ; and " Autobiography," 
 1814. 
 
 Reimer, ri'nrer, (Georg Andreas,) a German book- 
 seller, born at Greifswalde in 1776, founded at Berlin, in 
 1800, a publishing-house which rose to be one of the 
 most important in Germany. Among the works is-ut-d 
 from this establishment were the writings of Jean Paul. 
 Novalis, W. von Huml>o]<>t, Niebuhr, Ranke, Lach- 
 mann, and other Germans most eminent in literature 
 and science, to which we may add Schlegel's transla- 
 tion of Shakspeare. Died in 1842. 
 
 t as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; 5 as s; th as in this. (Efj^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 Reimmann, rim'man, (Jakob Friedrich,) a German 
 bibliographer, born at Groningen in 1668. He became 
 minister of a church at Hildesheim in 1717. Among 
 his works are " An Essay of an Introduction to Literary 
 History," (6 vols., 1703-13,) and "Idea of the Literary 
 System of Antiquity," ("Idea Systematis Antiquitatis 
 literarise," 1718.) Died in 1743. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;'* Reimmann, Autobiog- 
 raphy, (" Eigene Lebensbeschreibung," etc.,) 1745. 
 
 Reina, ra'e-na, ? (Francesco,) an Italian litterateur, 
 born in the province of Como in 1772. He edited the 
 works of Ariosto, Zanotti, and other Italian authors. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Reinagle, rin'a-g?'.? (George Philip,) an excellent 
 English marine painter, born in London about 1802, was 
 a son of R. Ramsay Reinagle. Among his works is 
 " The Battle of Navarino." He witnessed this action. 
 Died in 1833 or 1835. 
 
 Reinagle, (Philip,) an able English painter of land- 
 scapes, hunting-scenes, and animals, born about 1750, 
 was a pupil of Allan Ramsay. He was elected a mem- 
 ber of the Royal Academy in 181 1. Among his worka 
 is the " Sportsmen's Cabinet." Died in 1833 or 1834. 
 
 Reinagle, (Richard Ramsay,) a son of the preceding, 
 born about 1772, painted portraits and landscapes with 
 success. He was elected Royal Academician in 1822. 
 
 Reinaud, ri'no', (Joseph Toussaint,) a French 
 Orientalist, born at Lambesc (Bouches-du-Rhone) in 
 1795. He was admitted into the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions in 1832, and succeeded Silvestre de Sacy as pro- 
 fessor of Arabic at Paris in 1838. In 1854 he became 
 keeper of the Oriental manuscripts of the Imperial 
 Library. Among his works is "The Invasions of the 
 Saracens in France, Savoy, and Piedmont in the Eighth, 
 Ninth, and Tenth Centuries," (1836.) Died in June, 
 1867. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Reinbeck, rin'bek, (Johann Gustav,) a German 
 Lutheran divine, born at'Zell in 1683. He became first 
 minister of the church of Saint Peter, Berlin, (or at Co- 
 logne on the Spree,) in 1717. He wrote, besides other 
 works, " Considerations on the Divine Truths contained 
 in the Confession of Augsburg," (4 vols., 1731-41.) Died 
 in 1742. 
 
 Reiiidfel, rin'del, (Alhrecht,) a German engraver, 
 born at Nuremberg in 1784, numbered among his pupils 
 Wagner, Miiller, and other distinguished artists. He 
 was professor in the Academy of Fine Arts of Nurem- 
 berg. Died in 1853. 
 
 Reineccius. See Reineck. 
 
 Reineccius, ri-neYse-us, (Christian,) a German 
 theologian, born in the principality of Anhalt-Zerbst in 
 1668. He wrote, in Latin, a " Hebrew Key (Janua) to 
 the Old Testament," (1733.) Died in 1752. 
 
 Reineck, ri'nek, [Lat. Reinec'cius,] (Reiner,) a 
 German historian, born at or near Paderbom in 1541. 
 He taught belles-lettres at Frankfort and Helmstedt. 
 Among his works is "Syntagma heroicum, continens 
 Historiam Chaldajorum, Assyriorum," etc., (3 vols., 
 1594,) which treats of the history of the Chaldeans and 
 Assyrians. Died in 1595. 
 
 See Haberlin, "De Reineccii Meritis," etc., 1746; Teissier, 
 " E*loges." 
 
 Reinecke, ri'nJk-keh, (Johann Friedrich,) a noted 
 German actor, born at Helmstedt in 1747 ; died in 1787. 
 
 Reineggs, ri'negs or ri'nJks, (Jakob,) a German 
 physician, born at Eisleben in 1744. He practised at 
 Titlis, in Georgia, and wrote a "Description of Cau- 
 casus." Died at Saint Petersburg in 1793. 
 
 Reiner, rl'ner, (Wenzel Lorknz,) a German painter, 
 born at Prague in 1686. He painted history and land- 
 scapes with success, both in oil and fresco. His design 
 and colour are much praised. Died at Prague in 1743. 
 
 Reinesius, ri-na'ze-us, (Thomas,) a German phy- 
 sician and scholar, born at Gotha in 1587, was styled by 
 Haller "a miracle of learning." lie was for several 
 years public physician at Altenburg, and subsequently 
 removed to Leipsic. About the same time he was made 
 a councillor by the Elector of Saxony. Among his 
 numerous works may be named "On the Syrian Gods," 
 (1623,) "Syntagma of Ancient Inscriptions," (1682,) 
 
REINHARD 
 
 1880 
 
 RELAND 
 
 "Critical Dissertation on the Sibylline Oracles," (1702,) 
 and "Observations on Suidas," (all in. Latin.) He also 
 wrote an account of his life, (in German.) Died in 1667. 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Niceron, 
 "Memoires." 
 
 Reinhard, rin'haRt, (Christian Tobias Ephraim,) 
 a German physician, born at Camenz in 1719; died in 
 1792. 
 
 Reinhard, (Franz Volkmar,) a Protestant theolo- 
 gian and distinguished pulpit orator, born at Vohen- 
 strauss, in Bavaria, in 1753. He became professor of 
 theology at Wittenberg in 1782, and in 1792 chief court 
 preacher at Dresden. He died in 1812, leaving a num- 
 ber of sermons and religious treatises. His "System of 
 Christian Morality" (5 vols., 1788-1815) is regarded as 
 a valuable and profound work. 
 
 See Karl August Bottiger, " F. V. Reinhard," etc., 1813: 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Politz, "Reinhard nach semein 
 Leben und Wirken," 1813. 
 
 Reinhard, (Karl Friedrich,) a diplomatist, born in 
 Wtirtemberg in 1761. He became French minister of 
 foreign affairs in July, 1799, and was employed in several 
 missions by Bonaparte from 1800 to 1814. He owed his 
 promotion to the favour of Talleyrand. Died in Paris 
 in 1837. 
 
 Reinhard, von, fon rln'haRt, (Adolf Friedrich,) 
 a German philosopher, born at Strelitz in 1726. He 
 wrote a treatise "On Optimism," (1755,) and other 
 works. Died at Wetzlar in 1783. 
 
 Reinhart, rln'haRt, (Johann Christian,) a German 
 landscape-painter and engraver, born at Hof in 1761. 
 Some of his best pictures are to be seen in the Massimi 
 palace at Rome. His " Landscape in a Storm," one of 
 his master-pieces in engraving, was dedicated to Schiller. 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 Reinhold, rin'holt, (Christian Ernst Gottlieb 
 Tens,) a philosopher, a son of Karl Leonhard, noticed 
 below, was born at Jena in 1793. He became professor 
 of logic and metaphysics in his native city, and wrote, 
 besides other works, a " History of Philosophy," (2 
 vols., 1828-29.) uied '» l8 55- 
 
 Reinhold, [Lat. Reinhoi/dus,] (Erasmus,) a Ger- 
 man astronomer, born at Saalfeld, in Thuringia, in 
 October, 151 1. He taught astronomy and mathematics 
 for some years at the University of Wittenberg, from 
 which he removed in 1552. He published a "Com- 
 mentary on Purbach's New Theory of Planets," (" Com- 
 mentarius Theoricae novas Planetarum G. Purbachii," 
 1542,) and tables formed from the observations of 
 Copernicus compared with those of Hipparchus and 
 Ptolemy, "Tables of the Motions of the Heavenly 
 Bodies," (" Prutenica: Tabulae Ccelestium Motuum," 
 1551,) in which he clearly explains the equation of time. 
 Died in 1553. His son, Erasmus, was a physician and 
 astronomer. 
 
 See Delambre, " Astronomie moderne." 
 
 Reinhold, (Karl Leonhard,) a German philoso- 
 pher, born at Vienna in 1758. Having married the 
 daughter of Wieland, he became associated with him as 
 editor of the " Deutschen Mercur." In 1794 he became 
 professor of philosophy at Kiel. He was the author of 
 " Letters on the Philosophy of Kant," and other works. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 See "K. L. Reinholds Leben," by his son, 1828; Kuno Fis- 
 cher, "Die neuere Philosophic seit Kant;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 General e." 
 
 Reinholdus. See Reinhold, (Erasmus.) 
 
 Reinick, ri'nik, (Robert,) a German painter and 
 poet, born at Dantzic in 1805 ; died in 1852. 
 
 Reinoso, ri-e-no'so, (Antonio Garcia,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Cabral in 1623, was also an architect. 
 He died at Cordova in 1677. 
 
 Reinsberg, von, fon rlns'bjRG, (Ida von Diirings- 
 feld — fon du'rings-felt',) Baroness, a German authoress, 
 born in Silesia in 181 5. She has written many tales 
 and novels, which are said to display a rich imagination 
 and much knowledge of human nature. Among them 
 are "Sketches of the Great World," (1845,) "Antonio 
 Foscarini," (1850,) and "Clotilda," (1855.) 
 
 Reinwardt, rin'ftaRt, (Caspar Georo Carl,) a 
 naturalist, born at Liittiinghausen, in Germany, in 1772. 
 
 He wrote "Observations on the Gold-Mines and Natural 
 History of the Moluccas." Died at Leyden in 1854. 
 
 Reisch, rish, (Georg,) a German savant and ecclesi- 
 astic, lived in the second half of the fifteenth century. 
 He was confessor to the emperor Maximilian I. He 
 wrote "Margarita philosophica," ("Philosophic Pearl," 
 1496,) often reprinted. 
 
 Reisen, rl'zen, (Charles C.,) an able engraver of 
 gems, born in London about 1695, was the son of a 
 Danish artist. Died in London in 1725. 
 
 Reiser, (Anton.) See Mokitz, (Karl Philipp.) 
 
 Reiset, de, deh ri'zj', (Mauie An toine,) Vicomte, 
 a French general, born at Colmar in 1775. He distin- 
 guished himself at the battle of Dresden, (1813.) Died 
 in 1836. 
 
 See " Notice sur Jacques et Antoine de Reiset," 1851. 
 
 Reisig, ri'ziG, (Karl Christian,) a German philolo 
 gist, born at Weissensee in 1792. He was professor ol 
 ancient literature at Halle. He wrote " Vorlesungen 
 iiber Lateinische Sprachwissenschaft," ( " Praelections 
 on Latin Philology.") Died at Venice in 1829. 
 
 Reiske, rls'keh, (Johann,) a German teacher and 
 writer on various subjects, born at Gera in 1641 ; died 
 in 1701. 
 
 Reiske, [Lat. Reis'kius,] (Johann Jakob,) a Ger- 
 man physician and Orientalist, bom near Leipsic in 
 1716. At the University of Leipsic he devoted himself 
 chiefly to the study of Arabic, and subsequently visited 
 Leyden, where he was patronized by Burmann and other 
 learned men. On his return to Leipsic he obtained 
 the title of professor of Arabic, and became rector of 
 the College of Saint Nicholas. Among his works are 
 Latin translations of the "Geography" of Abulfeda, the 
 "Moslem Annals" of the same writer, and a German 
 translation of the poems of Mootenabbee, (Motenabbi,) 
 (unpublished,) also editions of Theocritus, (1766,) "The 
 Greek Orators," (12 vols., 1770-75,) Plutarch's Works, 
 (12 vols., 1774-79,) Dionysius of Halicarnassus, (6 vols., 
 1774-77,) alK ' other Greek and Latin classics. Died 
 in 1774. 
 
 His wife, Ernestine Christine Mlti.i.er, born near 
 Wittenberg, was distinguished for her love of learning, 
 and rendered him important assistance in his literary 
 labours. After his death she completed several of his 
 works. She also published a work entitled " Hellas," 
 (2 vols., 1778.) Died in 1798, aged about sixty-three. 
 
 See Reiske's Autobiography, Leipsic, 1783: S. F. N. Morus, 
 "Vita Reiskii," 1777; Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutscliland ;" Hir- 
 sching," Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeneVale." 
 
 Reiskius. See Reiske. 
 
 Reissiger, ri'siG-er, (Karl Gottlieb,) a German 
 musician and composer, bom near Wittenberg in 1798. 
 He was appointed first chapel-master at Dresden in 
 1827. He composed religious music, and a number 
 of operas, among which are " Didone," (1823,) and 
 "Turandot." Died in 1859. 
 
 Reiz, rits, (Friedrich Wolfgang,) a German phi- 
 lologist, bom at Windsheim, Franconia, in 1733. He 
 became professor of Greek and Latin at Leipsic in 1782, 
 and edited some works of Aristotle, Persius, and other 
 classics. Died in 1790. 
 
 Reiz or Reitz, rits, (Johann Friedrich,) a German 
 philologist, born at Braunfels in 1695 ; died at Utrecht 
 in 1778. 
 
 Reland, ra'lant, [Lat. Relan'dus,] (Adrtaan,) an 
 eminent Dutch Orientalist, born at Ryp, near Alkmaar, 
 in 1676. He was versed in Greek and Roman antiquities, 
 as well as in many Oriental languages. He became pro- 
 fessor of Oriental languages and ecclesiastical history at 
 Utrecht in 1700. His principal woi'ks are an " Account 
 of the Moslem Religion," (" De Religione Mohammedica 
 Libri duo," 1705,) and " Palestine illustrated by Monu- 
 ments," (" Palestina ex Monumentis veteribus illustrata," 
 2 vols., 1 7 1 4, ) which is highly commended. He died at 
 Utrecht in February, 1718. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires ;" Paquot, " Memoires ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie G^nerale;" Serrurier, " Oratio in Obitum A. 
 Relandi," 1718. 
 
 Reland, (Pieter,) a brother of the preceding, was a 
 magistrate of Haarlem. He wrote a work entitled 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
RELJNDUS 
 
 1881 
 
 REMT 
 
 "Consular Calendars," (" Fasti Consulares,") published 
 in 1715. He died before that date. 
 
 Relandus. See Rei.and. 
 
 Relhan, rel'an, (Richard,) an English botanist, born 
 about 1755. He became rector of Hunningsby, Lin- 
 colnshire, in 1791. He wrote a "Flora Caiitabrigensis," 
 (1785.) Died in 1823. 
 
 Rellstab, rel'stap, (Ludwig,) a German litterateur, 
 born at Berlin in 1799, published romances, dramas, 
 and critical essays. Died at Berlin in i860. 
 
 See ihe " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1837. 
 
 Rem-ber'tus, [Ger. pron. rem-beVtus,] Archbishop 
 of Hamburg, born in Flanders, was a disciple of Ansgar. 
 He laboured as a missionary in Denmark. Died in 888. 
 
 Rembha. See Rambha. 
 
 Rembrandt van Ryn or Rijn, rem'bRant vin rin, 
 or Rembrandt Gerritz, rem'bRant Her'rits, (Paul,) 
 a celebrated Dutch painter of history and portraits, was 
 born on the Rhine, near Leyden.June 15, 1606. He was 
 a son of a miller named Hermann Gerritz. His masters 
 in design were P. Lastmann and Jacob Pinus, to whom 
 some add George Schooten. He became a citizen of 
 Amsterdam in 1630, and soon acquired celebrity by the 
 originality of his style, formed by the study of nature. 
 In 1632 he painted " The Lecture on Anatomy of Dr. 
 Tulp." He married in 1634. He became the master 
 of a numerous school, and, it is said, sold the copies 
 painted by his pupils as original works, after he had 
 retouched them. His biographers represent him as 
 avaricious, and some of them affirm that he contracted 
 the habits of a miser ; but this charge is not substantiated. 
 He derived a very large income from the sale of his 
 etchings, the fees of his pupils, and the sale of copies 
 of his works made by his pupils ; yet he became insol- 
 vent in 1656. 
 
 Rembrandt was a brilliant colorist, and a consummate 
 master of chiaroscuro. He imitated the effects of light 
 with great success, but was deficient in design and taste. 
 He neglected or despised the antique. Among his cele- 
 brated pictures are "Tobit and the Angel Raphael," 
 "The Woman taken in Adultery," "The Round of the 
 Night," "The Syndics of the Merchant Drapers," and 
 a portrait of himself with his wife. His portraits are 
 by some critics considered more admirable than his his- 
 torical works. He produced a great number of etchings, 
 some of which command enormous prices, (100 guineas 
 each.) As an engraver in aquafortis he has never been 
 surpassed. Among his engravings are a " Descent from 
 the Cross," "Christ healing the Sick," "The Raising 
 of Lazarus," and portraits of Van Coppenol and Van 
 Thol. He died at Amsterdam in October, 1669. 
 
 See a " Life of Rembrandt," by J. Burnkt, 1S4S ; P. Schkltema, 
 "Redevoering over het Leven en de Verdiensten van Rembrandt 
 van Rijn," 1853; Dkscamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamanils," etc. ; 
 J. Immkkzkki., " Lofrede op Rembrandt," 1841 : Nagi.hh. " Leben 
 und Werke des Maiers Rembrandt von Ryn," 1S43; J. Kenooviek, 
 " Des Types et des Manieres des Maitres-Graveurs ;" Houhkakkn, 
 "Vies des Peintres;" Daulby. "Descriptive Catalogue of the 
 Works of Rembrandt," 1796; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Rembrantz, rem'bRints, (Thierry,) a Dutch as- 
 tronomer, born near the Zuyderzee about 1615; died 
 after 1677. 
 
 Remer, ra'mer, (Julius August,) a German historian, 
 born at Brunswick in 1736. He published a " Manual of 
 Universal History," (3 vols., 1783,) which was received 
 with favour. Died in 1803. 
 
 Remi, ra'me, or Re-niig'I-us, Archbishop of Rheims, 
 converted Clovis to Christianity. Died in 533 A.I). 
 
 Remi or Remigius, a French prelate, was Arch- 
 bishop of Lyons. Died in 875 a.d. 
 
 Remi (or Remigius) of Auxerre, a French monk, 
 who wrote on theology and grammar. He is said to 
 have been the first doctor who taught publicly in Paris. 
 Died about 908. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Remi, ri'me', (Joseph Honore,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Remiremont in 1738; died in Paris in 1782. 
 
 Remigio, ra-mee'io, (Fiorkntino,) an Italian Do- 
 minican and writer, born at Florence about 1518. He 
 translated Ovid's "Heroic Epistles," and Cornelius 
 Nepos. Died in 1580. 
 
 Remigius. See Remi. 
 
 Remilly, reh-me'ye', (Ovide,) a French politician, 
 born at Versailles in 1800. He was elected mayoi of 
 Versailles seven times between 1837 and 1855, and was 
 a member of the Chamber of Deputies from 1839 to 
 
 1848. He was a moderate republican in the Constituent 
 Assembly of 1848. 
 
 Remond, ra'mdN', (Francois,) a French Jesuit and 
 Latin poet, born at Dijon in 1558; died at Mantua in 
 1631. 
 
 Remond, de, deh ri'mAN', written also Raemond, 
 (Fi.okimond,) a French historian, born at Agen about 
 1540. He wrote a " History of the Rise and Progress 
 of Heresy in this Century," (1605.) Died in 1602. 
 
 Remond de Sainte-Albine, ra'm6N' deh saNt 
 aTben', (Pierre,) a French critic, born in Paris in 1699 
 lie wrote a work entitled " Le Comedien," (1747.) 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 Remond de Saint-Maid, ra'mi.N' deh saw uiSr, 
 (Toi'ssaint,) a mediocre F'rench writer, born in Paris 
 in 1682 ; died in 1757. 
 
 Remondiui, ra-mon-dee'nee, (Baldassare Maria,) 
 an Italian antiquary, born at Bassano in 1698, was 
 Bishop of Zante. He wrote a work "On the Antiqui- 
 ties of Zante," (1756.) Died in 1777. 
 
 Remorino, ri-mo-ree'no, (Giovanni Pietro, ) 
 sometimes improperly written Ramorino, (Jerome,) 
 an Italian general, born at Genoa about 1790. He com- 
 manded a. division of the Sardinian army at Novara in 
 
 1849. He was tried for disloyalty by a military court, 
 and shot, in May, 1849. 
 
 Re'inus, one of the founders of Rome, was a brother 
 of Romui.us, which see. 
 
 Remusat, ra'mu'zi', (Jean Pierre Abel,) an emi- 
 nent French Orientalist, born in Paris in September, 
 17S8. He studied medicine in compliance with the 
 wish of his father, and learned the Chinese language 
 without a teacher. In 1811 he published an " Essay on 
 the Chinese Language and Literature." He obtained an 
 exemption from the conscription of 1813 by the influence 
 of his friend Silvestre de Sacy, and became professor of 
 Chinese in the College of France in 1814. In 1822 he 
 founded the Asiatic Society of Paris. Among his chief 
 works are " Researches into the Tartar Languages," 
 (1820,) and " Elements of the Chinese Grammar," (1822.) 
 " This vast and important work," says Henri Thiers, " is 
 the true monument of the reputation acquired by Abel 
 Remusat." He wrote articles for the "Biographie 
 Universelle." Died in 1832. 
 
 See Silvkstre de Sacy. " filoge d'Abel Remusat;" Ampere, 
 " Notice sur Abel Re'musat" in the " Revue des Deux Mondes," 
 November 1, 1832, and November 15, 1833; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Remusat, de, deh ra'mii'zi', (Auguste Laurent,) 
 Count, a French politician and advocate, born in 
 Provence in 1762. He became first chamberlain of 
 Napoleon in 1804. Died in 1823. 
 
 Remusat, de, (Chari.es,) Count, a French philoso- 
 pher and minister of state, born in Paris in 1797, was a 
 son of the preceding. He was elected in 1830 to the 
 Chamber of Deputies, in which he acted with the con- 
 servatives. He was minister of the interior from March 
 to October, 1840. In 1842 he published "Essays on 
 Philosophy," which were received with favour. He was 
 admitted into the French Academy in 1846, in place of 
 Royer-Collard. In the Constituent and Legislative As- 
 semblies of 1848 and 1849 he voted with the friends of 
 order, (droite moderee.) He has been a frequent con- 
 tributor to the "Revue des Deux Mondes." Among 
 his works is a "Treatise on German Philosophy," (1845,) 
 " Abelard," (2 vols., 1845,) and "Bacon, sa Vie, son 
 Temps," etc., (1858.) 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Derniers Portraits ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Remusat, de, (Claire Elisabeth Jeanne,) Count- 
 ess, the mother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 
 1780. She was a companion (dame du palais) of the 
 empress Josephine, and wrote an " Essay on the Edu- 
 cation of Women," (1824.) Died in 1821. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, " Portraits des Femmes celebres." 
 Remy, rehme', (Jui.es,) a French traveller and 
 naturalist, born near Chalons-sur-Marne in 1826. He 
 spent several years in the exploration of Brazil, Peiu, 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, TL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RENJN 
 
 i88z 
 
 RENDU 
 
 Chili, the Sandwich Isles, California, Utah, etc. He 
 has published, besides other works, a "Journey to the 
 Country of the Mormons," (2 vols., i860,) and a " His- 
 tory of the Sandwich Isles," (1862.) 
 
 Renan, reh-n&N', (Ernest,) an eminent French 
 writer, Orientalist, and critic, bom at Treguier (Cotes 
 du Nord) in 1823. He began to study for the priesthood, 
 but renounced that profession because he doubted the 
 truth of the orthodox creed. He displayed much learn- 
 ing in his "General History of the Semitic Languages," 
 (1855,) was admitted into the Academy of Inscriptions 
 in 1856, and was sent to Syria in i860 to search for relics 
 of ancient learning and civilization. Soon after his return 
 he was appointed professor of Hebrew in the College of 
 France, but he was suspended in 1862, in deference to the 
 will of those who considered him unsound in faith. He 
 admits the excellence of the Christian religion, but dis- 
 credits its supernatural origin and rejects the miracles. 
 Among his works is a "Life of Jesus," (1863,) the suc- 
 cess of which is attributed'partly to the perfection of his 
 style. It has been denounced as impious by several 
 French prelates. Among his later works is " Histoire 
 des Origines de Christianisme," "The Apostles," (" Les 
 Apotres," 1866,) and " Vie de Saint-Paul," (1869.) " It 
 is not easy," says M. de Pressense, " to grasp the He- 
 gelian atheism athwart the sensibilities, the lyric and 
 mystic effusions, the prayers to the Celestial Father, 
 which abound in M. Kenan's books ; but under this 
 unctuous surface is soon perceived the hollow void, 
 the abyss whence we have emerged, the impersonal 
 ideal of which the name of God is a heavy and vulgar 
 translation." 
 
 See Schrrer, "Melanges;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" 
 "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1864: "Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 November, 1S61 ; " British Quarterly Review" for July and October, 
 1863, and October, 1866 ; "Westminster Review" for October, 1S66; 
 " North British Review" for February, 1864. 
 
 Renard, reh-naV, (Jean Augustin,) a French archi- 
 tect, born in Paris in 1744. He studied in Rome, and 
 was patronized by the king. Among his works was the 
 glass roof (comble) of the Salon d'Exposition of the 
 Louvre. Died in 1807. 
 
 Renard, (Jean Baptiste Bruno,) a Belgian military 
 writer, born at Tournai in 1804. Among his works is a 
 "Political and Military History of Belgium," (2 vols., 
 1847-51.) 
 
 Renard, (Simon,) a diplomatist, born at Vesoul, m 
 France, entered the service of Philip II. of Spain, who 
 employed him as an ambassador. He was an enemy of 
 Cardinal Granvelle. Died at Madrid in 1575. 
 
 Renata. See Rfnee. 
 
 Renatus. See Rene. 
 
 Renau d'filisagaray, reh-no' da'le'sS'gt'ri', (Ber- 
 nard,) a French naval officer and military engineer, 
 born in Beam in 1652. He made improvements in the 
 construction of vessels, and invented bomb-vessels or 
 mortar-boats, (galiotes,) with which Algiers was bom- 
 barded in 1680. He directed the siege of Gibraltar in 
 1704, m the service of Philip V. of Spain. He published 
 a "Theorie de la Manoeuvre des Vaisseaux," (1689.) 
 Died in 1719. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Siecle de Louts XIV ;" Fontenelle, " FJoges ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Renaud. See Regnaud. 
 
 Renaudie, de la, deh IS reh-no'de', (Godefroi,) a 
 French Huguenot, was the leader of a conspiracy against 
 the family of Guise, called " the conspiracy of Amboise." 
 The design having been betrayed, he was killed in a 
 fight with the partisans of the Guises, in 1560. 
 
 See Davila, "The Civil Wars of France;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 fcraphie Generale." 
 
 Renaudiere, La. See La Renaudiere. 
 
 Renaudin, reh-no'dSN', (Jean Francois,) a French 
 admiral, born in Saintonge in 1757. He distinguished 
 himself as captain of Le Vengeur hi a battle against the 
 English on the 1st of June, 1794. His ship was sunk 
 in this action. Died in 1809. 
 
 See Van Tenac, " Histoire de la Marine ;" " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Renaudin, (Leopold,) a French Jacobin, born in 
 Lorraine in 1749, was a partisan of Robespierre. He 
 was guillotined with Fouquier-Tinville in 1795. 
 
 Renaudot, reh-no'do', (Claude,) a French histoiian, 
 born at Vesoul about 1730, wrote "The Revolutions 
 of Empires," (2 vols., 1769,) and other works. Died 
 about 1780. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Renaudot, (Eusehe,) Ahue, a French Orientalist 
 and writer on the history •of the Eastern Church, a 
 grandson of Theophraste, noticed below, was born in 
 Paris in 1646. He was versed in the Syriac and Arabic 
 languages. In 1689 he was chosen a member of the 
 French Academy. Among his principal works are a 
 "History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria," (1713, ) 
 which is said to be the most complete work on the 
 ecclesiastic history of Christian Egypt, and a "Col- 
 lection of Oriental Liturgies," (2 vols., 1716.) Died 
 in 1720. 
 
 See NtcERON,"Memoires;" Morbri," Dictionnaire Historique ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Renaudot, (Theophraste,) a French physician and 
 journalist, born at Loudun in 1584, was the grandfather 
 of the preceding. He founded in 1631 the "Gazette de 
 France," the first of French newspapers, which he 
 continued to publish in Paris until his death, in 1653. 
 After his death it was published by his sons, Eusebe 
 and Isaac. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Renauldin, reh-no'daN', ( Leopold Joseph,) a French 
 physician, born at Nancy in 1775. He served as phy- 
 sician in the army during the empire, and was one of 
 the consulting physicians of King Louis Philippe. He 
 wrote articles for the " Biographie Universelle," and a 
 "Sketch of the History of Medicine," (1812.) Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 See Sachaile, " Les Me'decins de Paris." 
 
 Renazzi, ra-nat'see, (Filippo Maria,) an Italian 
 jurist, born at Rome in 1742. He was professor of 
 criminal law at Rome about thirty-four years. He pub- 
 lished "Elements of Criminal Law," (3 vols., 1773-81,) 
 which was highly esteemed and often reprinted. Died 
 in 1808. 
 
 See Montanari, "Elogio delPAvvocato F,. M. Renazzi," 1836; 
 Cancelliehi, " Elogio di F. M. Renazzi," 1819. 
 
 Ren'del, (James Meadows,) an English civil engi- 
 neer, born near Dartmoor, in Devonshire, in 1799. He 
 was distinguished as a constructor of bridges, docks, 
 harbours, and hydraulic works. He settled in London 
 in 1838. Among his works are the harbours of Holy- 
 head and Portland, and the docks at Birkenhead, h-. 
 1855 he was employed by the senate of Hamburg to 
 protect the port of that city from the accumulation of 
 sand. Died in November, 1856. 
 
 Rendu, rfiN'du', (Amhroisk Marie Modestf.,) a 
 Frenchman, noted as the organizer of primary instruc- 
 tion in France, was born in 1778. He was appointed a 
 member of the council of the university in 1809, and 
 was for many years superintendent of primary schools. 
 ; He wrote several works on education, morals, etc Died 
 in i860. 
 
 See Eugene Rendu, "Ambroise Rendu et I'Universite 1 de 
 France," 1861 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Rendu, (Eugene,) a publicist, a son of the preceding, 
 was born in Paris in 1824. He has written on educa- 
 tion, and on the political relations of France, Italy, and 
 Germany. 
 
 Rendu, (Jeanne Marie,) called Sister Rosalie, a 
 French nun and philanthropist, born at Comfort in 1787. 
 She lived in Paris, and was eminent for her charitable 
 deeds. Several sovereigns selected her as the dispenser 
 of their alms. Died in 1856. 
 
 See Eugene Rendu, " Notice sur la Soeur Rosalie Rendu," 
 1856; Vicomte de Melun, "Vie de la Sceur Rosalie," 1857; 
 Bessie R. Parkes, "Twelve Biographical Sketches;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Rendu, (Louis,) a French prelate and writer, born 
 at Meyrin in 1789, was a first-cousin of the preceding. 
 He became Bishop of Annecy in 1843. He wrote sev- 
 eral scientific works, and a "Treatise on the Influence 
 of Laws on Morals, and of Morals on Laws," (1833.) 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 Rendu, (Victor,) a French writer on rural economy, 
 born in Paris about 1800, is a son of Ambroise Marie, 
 
 S, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; m£t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
RENE 
 
 1883 
 
 RENOU 
 
 noticed above. Me wrote " Nouveau Spectacle de la 
 Nature," (10 vols., 1839.) j 
 
 Rene, reh-na', [Eat. Rena'tis,] of Anjou, Duke of 
 Anjou and Lorraine, King of Naples, etc., called "the 
 
 food King Rene" by his subjects, was born in 1409. | 
 le was a son of Louis II., Duke of Anjou and Count of 
 Provence. He succeeded his brother, I.ouis I II., in 1434, 
 and by the will of Queen Joanna, who died in 1435, 
 he became heir to the throne of Naples. This throne, 
 however, was claimed by Alfonso of Aragon, who drove 
 Rene out of Naples in 1442 and remained master of 
 that kingdom. Rene was an ally of Charles VII. of 
 France in his war against the English. He found recrea- 
 tion in art and literature ; he was a painter and a poet. 
 His daughter Margaret was the wife of Henry VI. of 
 England. He died in 1480, after which Provence was 
 annexed to France. 
 
 See M. DE Villeneuve-Bargrmont, " Histoire de Rene d'An- 
 jou," 3 vols., 1825; Cordei.likk-Dklanoue, "Rene d' Anjou," 
 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Reneaulme, reh-nom', ( Michel Louis,) a French 
 botanist, born at Blois about 1675. He became a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Sciences, and was charged by 
 his colleagues to revise and publish the manuscripts of 
 Tournefort, but appears not to have performed that task. 
 Died in 1739. 
 
 Reneaulme, de, deh reh-nom', (Paul,) a French 
 botanist and physician, born at Blois about 1560. He 
 published " Specimen of the History of Plants," ("Speci- 
 men Historian Plantarum," 161 1.) Died in 1624. 
 
 Renee, [It. Renata, ra-na'ta,| or Renee de Prance, 
 r?h-na' deh fR&Nss, a daughter of Louis XII., was born 
 in 1510. and was married in 1527 to the Duke of Ferrara. 
 She was eminent for talents and learning, and was a 
 liberal patron of literary men. She was converted to 
 Protestantism by Calvin about 1535. After the death 
 of her husband (1559) she resided in France, at Mon- 
 targis, where she displayed firmness and courage in 
 protecting the persecuted Huguenots. Died in 1575 
 or 1576. 
 
 See Catteau-Callevii.i.e, "Vie de Renee de France," 1781; 
 MOnch, "Renee von Est," 1831 ; "Memorials of Renee of France, 
 Duchess of Ferrara," London, 185$. 
 
 Renee, reh-ni', (Amedee,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Caen in 1808. He became librarian of the Sorbonne 
 in 1849, and chief editor of the "Constitutionnel" in 
 1857. He wrote articles for the "Nouvelle Riographie 
 Generale," and published several works, one of which 
 is entitled "The Nieces of Mazarin," (2 vols., 1856.) 
 Died in November, 1859. 
 
 Reni, (Guido.) See Guido. 
 
 Renier, r?h-ne-A', (Charles Alphonse Leon,) a 
 French antiquary7"born at Charleville (Ardennes) in 
 1809. He became a member of the Academy of In- 
 scriptions in 1856. His researches in Latin inscriptions 
 were so successful that a chair of Roman antiquities and 
 epigraphy was founded for him at Paris in 1861. In 
 1855 he was elected president of the Imperial Society 
 of Antiquaries. 
 
 Renier, ra-ne-aiR', (Stefano Andrea.) an Italian 
 naturalist, born at Chioggia, near Venice, in 1759. He 
 obtained the chair of natural history at Padua in 1806. 
 He wrote "Tables of Zoology," a "Catalogue of Shell- 
 Fish," (1802,) and "Elements of Mineralogy," (1825-28.) 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 See Calcagno, "Elogio storico di S. A. Renier," 1S30. 
 
 Renieri, ra-ne-a'ree, (Vinces'/.o,) an Italian astron- 
 omer, was born at Genoa. He was a pupil of Galileo, 
 who, when his sight failed in 1637, committed to his care 
 some observations on the satellites of Jupiter. Renieri 
 published these, under the title of "Tabula? Medicea; 
 universales," (2 vols., 1639-47.) Died at Pisa in 1648. 
 
 Renkin, (Swalm.) See Rannequin. 
 
 Rennefort, de, deh reVfoit', (Ukbain Souchu,) a 
 French traveller, born about 1630. He published a 
 "Narrative of a Voyage to Madagascar," (1668,) and a 
 "History of the East Indies," (1688.) 
 
 Renn'el. See Rennell. 
 
 Ren'nell or Ren'nel, (James,) a British engineer 
 and eminent geographer, was born near Chudleigh, in 
 Devonshire, in 1742. As an engineer of the East India 
 
 Company, he served in the campaigns of Lord Clive, 
 obtained the rank of major, and became surveyor-gene- 
 ral of Bengal. Having returned to England about 1782, 
 lie published an excellent map of Hindostan, accom- 
 panied by a Memoir, (1783.) He was elected about 
 1783 a Fellow of the Royal Society. His reputation 
 was widely extended by "The Geographical System of 
 Herodotus Examined and Explained," (1800,) a work of 
 great merit. Among his other works are " Illustrations, 
 chiefly Geographical, of the History of the Expedition 
 of the Younger Cyrus from Sardis to Babylon, and the 
 Retreat of the Ten Thousand," (1816,) and a "Treatise 
 on the Comparative Geography of Western Asia," with 
 an Atlas, (1831.) Died in London in 1830. 
 
 See Wai.ckenaer, "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de 
 M. Rennet]," 1842; "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale;" "Monthly 
 Review" for December, 1X00. 
 
 Rennell, (Thomas,) an English portrait-painter, born 
 in Devonshire in 1718; died in 1788. 
 
 Rennell, (Thomas,) an eloquent English preacher, 
 born in 1753. He became Dean of Winchester in 1805. 
 It is said that William Pitt called him the "Demos- 
 thenes of the pulpit." A volume of his sermons was 
 published. Died in 1840. 
 
 Rennell or Rennel, (Thomas,) a learned English 
 theologian, born at Winchester in 1787. He became 
 vicar of Kensington in 1816, and prebendary of Salis- 
 bury in 1823. He wrote several works on theology. 
 Died in 1824. 
 
 Renneville, de, deh ren'vel', (Rene Auguste Con- 
 si ani'in,) a French litterateur, born at Caen about 1650. 
 He was confined in the Bastille from 1702 to 1713, on a 
 charge that he was a spy. He wrote a " History of the 
 Bastille," (1715,) and several poems. Died in 1723. 
 
 Reunie, ren'ne, (George,) a civil and mechanical 
 engineer, born in Surrey in 1791, was a son of John, 
 noticed below. He formed a partnership with his 
 brother John. They built docks at Deptford, Chatham, 
 and Plymouth, the East and West India Docks at 
 London, the harbour of Liverpool, and other harbours. 
 They constructed steam-engines for many vessels-of- 
 war and for the steamers of the Peninsular and Oriental 
 Navigation Company. Among their works are several 
 iron ships, the dock -gates of Sebastopol, and a number 
 of railroads. George Rennie wrote treatises "On the 
 Friction of Solids," and "On Hydraulics." Died in 1866. 
 
 Rennie, (John,) a distinguished British civil engineer, 
 architect, and mechanician, born at I'hantassie, in Had- 
 dingtonshire, Scotland, in June, 1761. He removed to 
 London about 1782, and was first employed in the fabri- 
 cation of steam-engines and other machinery. About 
 1800 he erected a fine bridge at Kelso. He was after- 
 wards employed as engineer of many public works, 
 among which are the Kennet and Avon Canal, the South- 
 wark Bridge over the Thames, the London Docks, the 
 pier at Holyhead, and the Waterloo Bridge, which is 
 considered his best work of that class. It was finished 
 about 1817. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Smii.es, " Lives of the Engineers;" Chambers, " Biographi- 
 cal Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Rennie, (Sir John,) F.R.S., a younger son of the 
 preceding, was born about 1796. He was architect of 
 the London Bridge, which was finished in 1831. He 
 ceased to be a partner of his brother in 1845, after 
 which he devoted his time to architecture. 
 
 Ren'nI-ger, written also Rhanger, (Michael,) an 
 English clergyman and Latin poet, born in Hampshire 
 in 1529. He was one of the chaplains of Queen Eliza- 
 beth, and Archdeacon of Winchester. Died in 1609. 
 
 Re'no, (Jesse L.,) an American general, born in Vir- 
 ginia in 1825, graduated at West Point in 1846. He 
 served as an officer in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and 
 became a captain in i860. He commanded a brigade 
 of the Union army at Roanoke Island and at Newbem, 
 March, 1862. He served with the rank of major-gene- 
 ral at the second battle of Bull Run, August 29 and 30 
 of the same year. He rendered important services at 
 South Mountain, where he was killed, September 14, 
 1862. 
 
 Renou, reh-noo', (Antoine,) a French painter and 
 versifier, born in Paris in 1 731. He translated Dufres- 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; i as »; th as in Ms. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RENOUARD 
 
 RESENDE 
 
 noy's Latin poem on Painting, (1789,) and Tasso's "Je- 
 rusalem Delivered." Died in 1806. 
 
 Renouard, reh-noo'Sit', (Antoine Augustin,) a 
 French bibliographer, born in Paris in 1765, was a book- 
 seller. He published, besides other works, " Annals of 
 the Printing-Press of Aldus, or a History of the Three 
 Manutii and their Editions," (1803,) and a " History of 
 the Family of Estienne (Stephanus) and of their Edi- 
 tions," (1838.) Died in 1853. 
 
 See Querard, M La France LilteVaire." 
 
 Renouard, (Augustin Chari.es,) an advocate, a 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1 794. He became a 
 peer of France in 1846. He published a " Treatise on 
 the Rights of Authors in Literature," etc., (2 vols., 1838,) 
 and other works. 
 
 Renouard, (Nicolas,) a French translator, born in 
 Berry, lived about 1615-40. He produced a version 
 of Ovid's "Metamorphoses," (1615,) which was very 
 popular. 
 
 Renouvier, reh-noo've-4', (Charles Bernard,) a 
 French writer on politics and philosophy, born in 1815, 
 joined the radical party. Among his works are a 
 "Manual of Ancient Philosophy," (2 vols., 1844,) and 
 "Essays of General Criticism," (•" Essais de Critique 
 generale," 1854.) 
 
 Renouvier, (Jules,) a French archaeologist, born at 
 Montpellier in 1804. He was a republican member of 
 the Constituent Assembly of 1848, and an opponent of 
 Louis Napoleon in 1850. He wrote, besides other works, 
 " Notes on the Gothic Monuments of Pisa, Florence, 
 Rome, and Naples," (1841,) and a valuable treatise on 
 engraving, entitled " Des Types et des Man teres des 
 Maitres-Graveurs," (4 parts, 1853-56.) Died in Paris 
 in i860. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Ren'shaw, (William B.,) an American naval officer, 
 born in New York State, entered the navy in 183 1. He 
 became a lieutenant in 1841, and a commander in 1861. 
 In the latter part of 182 he obtained command of a 
 squadron which blockaded Galveston. He blew up 
 his ship, which had run aground near Galveston, rather 
 than surrender it, and was killed by the explosion, in 
 January, 1863. 
 
 See Tenney, " Military and Naval History of the Rebellion." 
 
 Renti or Renty, de, deh roN'te', (Gaston Jean 
 Baptiste,) Baron, a French ascetic, bom near Bayeux 
 in 161 1, was noted for piety. Died in 1648. 
 
 See P. de Saint-Jure. " Vie de M. de Renty," 1651. (This 
 was abridged by John Wesley.) 
 
 Renty, de. See Renti, de. 
 
 Renucci, ra-noot'chee, (Francesco Ottaviano,) an 
 Italian historian, born in Corsica in 1767. He wrote a 
 "History of Corsica from 1789 to 1830," (1834.) Died 
 in 1842. 
 
 Renusson, de, deh reli-iiu'sos', (Philippe,) a French 
 jurist, born at Mans in 1632 ; died in 1669. The French 
 biographer who gives the dates as above says, '• At the 
 age of forty-nine he passed for one of the ablest jurists." 
 
 Ren'wick, (James,) a Scottish preacher, called a 
 martyr of the Covenant, was born in Dumfries-shire 
 about 1662. He was an active and uncompromising 
 promoter of the cause of the Covenanters. He was 
 executed in 1688. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Ren'wick, (James,) T.I..D., an American savant, 
 born in 1792, became in 1820 professor of chemistry and 
 physics at Columbia College, New York. He published 
 "Treatise on the Steam Engine," (1830,) "Outlines 
 of Natural Philosophy," (1832,) "Outlines of Geology," 
 (1838,) a "Memoir of De Witt Clinton," (1840,) and 
 Lives of Robert Fulton, David Rittenhouse, and Count 
 Rumford, in Sparks's "American Biography." Died in 
 New York in 1863. 
 
 See Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Renzi, ren'zee, (Antonio,) an Italian scholar and 
 critic, born at Castelsalfi in 1780. He edited the works 
 of Dante, Ariosto, and Petrarch. Died in 1823. 
 
 Repelaer van Driel, ra'peh-laV vSn dReel, (Ok- 
 KER,) a Dutch statesman, born at Dort in 1759; died 
 in 1832. 
 
 Repfold, rep'foltJJoHANN Georg,) a German mecha- 
 nician, born in the kingdom of Hanover in 1770, became 
 noted for the excellence of his astronomical and other 
 instruments. Died in 1830. 
 
 Repnin, rep-nen' or rep-neen', written also Repnine, 
 (Nicholas Vasilievitch,) Prince, a Russian general 
 and diplomatist, born in 1734, was a nephew of Count 
 Panin. He was sent as ambassador to Poland in 1764, 
 and gave much offence to the Poles by his arrogance 
 and by his efforts to destroy their nationality. In 1774 
 he signed with the Turkish vizier the treaty of Koutchouk- 
 Kainardji. Having obtained command of the artn^ oi 
 the Ukraine, he defeated the Turks at Matzin in 1791. 
 He was raised to the rank of field-marshal in 1 796, 
 Died in 1S01. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Repp, rep, (Thorleif Gudmundsson,) an Icelandic 
 linguist, born at Reykiadal in 1794. He was versed in 
 nearly all the modern languages of Europe, and in 
 Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. About 1825 he became 
 under-librarian of the Advocates' Library of Edinburgh. 
 He removed to Copenhagen in 1837. Among his works 
 are a " Historical Treatise on the Trial by Jury," in Eng- 
 lish, (1832,) and "Dano-Hungarian Discoveries," (1843.) 
 
 See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." 
 
 Rep'ton, (Humphry,) an English landscape-gardener, 
 born at Hury Saint Edmund's in 1752. He was a mer- 
 chant in his youth, but, having failed in business, he 
 adopted the profession of landscape-gardener, in which 
 he found little or no competition. He was author of 
 "Sketches and Hints on Landscape-Gardening," (1795,) 
 and other professional works. Died in 1818. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for July, 1804. 
 
 Requeno y Vives, ri-ka'no e vee'ves, (Vincencio,) 
 a Spanish antiquary and writer on fine arts, was born at 
 Granada about 1730. (Another writer says he was born 
 at Calatraho in 1743.) He became a resident of Rome 
 about 1767. He produced a treatise on ancient painting, 
 entitled " Essay on the Restoration of Ancient Art," 
 ("Saggiosul Ristabilimentodell'antica Arte," etc., 1784.) 
 Died about 1805. 
 
 Requesens, ra-ka-sens', (Luis de Zufiiga — thoon- 
 yee'ga,) a Spanish commander, born in 1522. He dis- 
 tinguished himself as lieutenant of Don John of Austria 
 at the battle of Lepanto, and succeeded the Duke of 
 Alva in 1573 as Governor of the Netherlands, the people 
 of which were then in arms against the Spanish domi- 
 nation. His army gained a victory over Louis of Nassau 
 near Nymwegen ; but this advantage was neutralized by a 
 mutiny of the Spaniards. While his army was besieging 
 Ziriczee, he died, in 1576. He was an able general, and 
 inclined to moderation in the use of power. 
 
 See Motley's " History of the Dutch Republic," vol. ii. 
 
 Requier, reh-ke^i', ? (Augustus Julian,) an Ameri- 
 can politician and writer, was born at Charleston, South 
 Carolina, in 1825. On the secession of Alabama, in 1861, 
 he was appointed district attorney for the southern 
 district of that State. He has written several poems 
 and dramas. 
 
 Requier, reh-ke-i', (Jean Baptiste,) a French writer 
 and translator, born at Pignans in 1715; died in 1799. 
 
 Requin, reh-kaN', (Achille Pierre,) a French medi- 
 cal writer, born at Lyons in 1803 ; died in Paris in 1855 
 
 Reresby, reers'be, (Sir John,) an English loyalist 
 and member of Parliament, wrote " Memoirs containing 
 several Private and Remarkable Transactions from the 
 Restoration to the Revolution inclusively," (1734.) 
 
 See " Memoires de Sir John Reresby," Paris: "Monk's Con- 
 temporaries," by Guizot: "Retrospective Review," vol. viii., (1823.) 
 
 Resbecq, de, deh res'bek', (Adoi.phe Charles 
 Theodose Fontaine,) a French writer, born at Lille 
 in 1813. He published many juvenile books. 
 
 Rescind. See Resheed. 
 
 Resende, de, da ra-sen'da, (Garcia,) a Portuguese 
 historian, born at Evora about 1470. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of John II.," (1545.) Died in 1554. 
 
 Resende, de, (L. Andrea,) a Portuguese antiquary 
 and poet, born at Evora in 1498. He wrote, besides 
 other works, "Antiquities of Portugal," (" Antiquitates 
 Lusitaniae," 1593.) He opened a school at Evora, in 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, t, 6, ii, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
RESENIUS 
 
 1885 
 
 REUCHLIN 
 
 which many eminent scholars were educated. According 
 to M. Weiss, he was "the restorer of learning in Por- 
 tugal." Died in 1573. 
 
 Resenius, ra-sa'ne-as, (Johan Paul,) a Danish theo- 
 logian, born in Jutland about 1560. He was professor 
 of theology at Copenhagen, and translated the Bible 
 into Danish. Died in 1638. 
 
 Resenius, (Peter,) a grandson of the preceding, was 
 born at Copenhagen in 1625. He obtained a chair of law 
 in the University of that city in 1662. He published 
 " Copenhagen Inscriptions, Latin, Danish, and German," 
 (" Inscriptiones Hafnienses, Latinae, Danicae et Germa- 
 nicae," 1668,) and some legal works. Died in 1688. 
 
 See NicAron, " Me'moires." 
 
 Resheed (or Reschid) Pasha, reh-shced' pa'sha', 
 called also Mustafa (moos'ta-fa) Resheed, a Turkish 
 grand vizier and reformer, born at Constantinople about 
 1800, was a brother-in-law of Alee Pasha. He obtained 
 the rank of pasha in 1834, and was sent as ambassador 
 to Paris and London. He was grand vizier for a short 
 time in 1837, and was appointed minister of foreign 
 affairs in 1839, and afterwards ably and constantly 
 promoted the political and social reforms begun by 
 Mahmood II. Died in 1858. 
 
 Resnel du Bellay, du, dii fl'nel' dii bj'l^', (Jean 
 Francois,) Abbe, a French poet and translator, born at 
 Rouen in 1692, became canon of a church in Paris in 
 1724. He produced poetical versions of Pope's " Essay 
 on Criticism" (1730) and "Essay on Man," (1737,) in 
 which, it is said, he was aided by Voltaire. He was ad- 
 mitted into the French Academy in 1742. Died in 1761. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Restaurand, res'to'roN', (Raymond,) a French 
 medical writer, born at Pont Saint-Esprit about 1627 ; 
 died in 1682. 
 
 Restaur., res'to', (Pierre,) a French grammarian and 
 advocate, born at Beauvais in 1696. He wrote an ele- 
 mentary "Treatise on French Grammar," (1730,) which 
 the University adopted as classic. Died in 1764. 
 
 Restout, res'too', (Jean,) a French painter, born at 
 Rouen in 1692, was a pupil and nephew of Jouvenet. 
 His works were more admired by his contemporaries 
 than they are now. Died in 1768. 
 
 Restout, (Jean Bernard,) a painter, born in Paris 
 in 1732, was a son of the preceding. He gained the 
 first prize in 1758, after which he studied at Rome. 
 Died in 1796. 
 
 Rethel, ra'tel, (Alfred,) an eminent German his- 
 torical painter, born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1816. He 
 studied at the Academy of Dusseldorf, and there painted 
 " Daniel in the Lions' Den," and a picture of " Nemesis," 
 both of which were greatly admired. About 1840 he 
 removed to Frankfort. Among his chief works are a 
 series of frescos at Aix-la-Chapelle, representing the 
 exploits of Charlemagne, and "The Passage of the Alps 
 by Hannibal." He was an excellent designer. His last 
 years were passed at Rome, where he died in 1859. 
 
 Reti. See Rati. 
 
 Retif or Restif de la Bretonne, ra'tef' deli IS bueh- 
 ton', (Nicolas Edme,) a prolific and licentious French 
 writer of fiction, born near Auxerre in 1734; died poor, 
 in Paris, in 1806. , 
 
 Rettberg, ret'WRG, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a Ger- 
 man theologian and professor of theology at Marburg, 
 born atCelle in 1805. His principal work is an " Eccle- 
 siastical History of Germany," (1846.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Retz, rjss, (N.,) a French medical writer, born at 
 \nas. He obtained the title of physician to the king 
 about 1790. Died about 1810. 
 
 Retz, de, deh r&ss, (Albert de Gondi — deh goN'- 
 de',) a French courtier and general, born at Florence in 
 1522, was a grandfather of Cardinal de Retz. He be- 
 came a favourite of Charles IX., and was one of the 
 instigators of the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, ( 1 572.) 
 Died in 1602. 
 
 See Brantome, "Grands Capitaines;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire 
 Historique." 
 
 Retz, de, (Gili.es.) See Rais. 
 
 Retz, rets, de, [Fr. pron. deh r&ss,] (Jean Francois 
 Paul de Gondi,) Cardinal, an ambitious French prel- 
 ate, distinguished for his talents and factious intrigues, 
 
 was born of a noble family at Montmirail in 1614. He 
 attempted, by debaucheries and scandalous actions, to 
 frustrate the purpose of his family, who destined him 
 for the church. He studied, however, with ardour, 
 gained distinction as a disputant, and courted popularity 
 by profuse donations to the poor. In 1643 he was 
 nominated coadjutor of the Archbishop of Paris, who 
 was his uncle. The civil war of the Fronde, which 
 began in 1649, afforded him an opportunity to gratify 
 his ambition to be the chief of a party. He became 
 the master-spirit of the Frondeurs, but is said to have 
 opposed the more violent tendencies of that faction. 
 He was nominated a cardinal by the queen-regent, who 
 wished to conciliate him. Mazarin having recovered 
 his power in Paris, De Retz was arrested in December, 
 1652, and confined at Vincennes. He was transferred 
 to the chateau of Nantes, from which he escaped in 
 1654. He went to Rome and took part in the election 
 of a new pope. After he had passed some years in the 
 Low Countries, he was permitted to return to France. 
 He paid his debts, which were very large, and spent the 
 rest of his life in retirement. It appears that his moral 
 character was somewhat reformed after his imprison- 
 ment. He died in 1679, leaving some interesting " Me- 
 moires," (1717,) which have been translated into English, 
 "Their animated style," says Hallam, "their excellent 
 portraitures of character, their acute and brilliant re- 
 marks, distinguish their pages as much as the similar 
 qualities did their author." "They are written," says 
 Voltaire, "with an air of greatness, an impetuosity, and 
 an inequality which are the image of his life." 
 
 See " Me^noires du Cardinal de Retz," first printed in 3 vols., 
 1717; Voltaire, " Siecle de Louis XIV;" Musset- Pathay, 
 " Recherches historiques sur le Cardinal de Retz," 1S07. and 4 vols., 
 1859; English translation of Retz's "Me'moires," 1723; Saintb- 
 Beuvr, "Causeries du Lundi :" Michei.f.t, " Histoire de France;'* 
 SisMONDl, " Histoire des Francais ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene^ 
 rale." ^ 
 
 Retzius, r?t'se-as, (Anders Johan,) a Swedish natu- 
 ralist, born at Christianstadt in 1742, was a pupil of 
 Linnaeus. He became professor of natural history at 
 Lund in 1777, and published a good work on the plants 
 of Sweden, Norway, etc., entitled " Florae Scandinavias 
 Prodromus," (1779.) His treatise on botany, "Obser- 
 vationes botanicae," (1779-91,) is called his capital work. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 See Gezei.ius, " Biographiskt-Lexicon." 
 
 Retzius, (Anders Olof or Adolf,) a Swedish phy. 
 sician, born at Lund in 1796, was a son of the preceding. 
 He became professor of anatomy at Lund about 1824. 
 He wrote important works on medicine and natural 
 history. Died at Stockholm in i860. 
 
 Retzius, (Magnus Christian,) an able medical 
 writer, a brother of the preceding, was born at Lund 
 about 1794. He became professor of chemistry at 
 Stockholm about 1820. 
 
 Retzsch, retsh, (Moritz,) an eminent German de- 
 signer and painter, born at Dresden in 1779. He studied 
 at the Academy of Arts in that city, where he became 
 professor of painting in 1824. His etchings illustrating 
 Goethe's "Faust," published in 1812, established his 
 reputation both in Germany and other countries. They 
 were followed by illustrations of Schiller and Shakspeare, 
 of Burger's " Lenore" and " Ballads," and other popular 
 works. As a portrait-painter, also, Retzsch is highly 
 esteemed. He was pre-eminent as an original designer 
 in outline among the artists of his time : his illustra- 
 tions of Goethe's " Faust," in particular, have probably 
 never been surpassed by any works of the kind. Died 
 at Dresden in 1857. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kilnstler- Lexikon ;" "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for June, 1828, October, 1833, and October, 
 1836. 
 
 Reubell. See Rewbell. • 
 
 Reu'ben, [Heb. pUO ; Fr. Ruben, ruT^N',! the 
 eldest son of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob, was the an- 
 cestor of one of the twelve tribes of Israel. 
 
 See Genesis xxix. 32, xxxv. 22, and xxxvii. 
 
 Renchlin, roiK-leen',[ Lat. Reuchli'nus,] Hellenized 
 as Capnio, kap'ne-o, (Joiiann,) an eminent German 
 writer, bom at Pforzheim in 1455. He became an 
 excellent Greek and Latin scholar, and studied law at 
 
 eas *; 9 as*;g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; sas t; th as in this. (JfySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
REUCHLINUS 
 
 1886 
 
 REWBELL 
 
 Orleans. He was patronized by Eberhard, Duke of 
 Wurtemberg, who employed him as secretary. Having 
 accompanied Eberhard to Rome, he became acquainted 
 with Politian and other eminent Italian literati. He 
 resided mostly at Stuttgart, where he was appointed 
 assessor of the supreme court about 1484. Me was sub- 
 jected to persecution because he opposed a proposition 
 to burn all Hebrew books except the Bible, and was 
 involved in a long controversy with the monks and bigots 
 on this subject. He defended his opinions in relation 
 to Hebrew books in his " Ocular Mirror," (" Speculum 
 Oculare," 151 1.) Between 1518 and 1522 he taught 
 Hebrew and Greek at Ingolstadt and Tubingen. He 
 published a " Hebrew Lexicon," and several other works. 
 He contributed much to the revival of classical learning. 
 Died at Stuttgart in 1522. 
 
 See Mei.anchthon, " Historic Reuchlini," 1552: J. H. Ma.tus, 
 "Vita Reuchlini," 1687 ; Mayerhoff. ■' Reuchhn unci seine Zelt," 
 1830; Lamev, "Johann Reuchlin," 1855 ; F. Barham, " Life and 
 Times of Reuchlin," 1843; Gabler, "Dissertatio de J. Reiichlmo, 
 1822: M. Adam, "Vitse Philosophorum ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^neVale." 
 
 Reuchlinus. See Reuchlin. 
 
 Reuilly, ruh'ye', (Jean,) a French traveller, born in 
 Picardy in 1780. He published "Travels in the Crimea 
 in 1803," (1806.) Died at Pisa in 1810. 
 
 Reumont, von, fon roi'mont, (Alfred,) a German 
 diplomatist and litterateur, born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 
 1808, was employed on missions to Florence and Rome. 
 He wrote several works on Italian history and art, among 
 which are " Roman Letters," (" Romische Briefe," 4 vols., 
 1840-44,) and "Benvenuto Cellini," (1846.) 
 
 Reusner, rois'ner, [Lat. Reusne'rus,] (Nikolaus,) 
 a German poet and jurist, born at Lemberg, in Silesia, in 
 1545. He was professor of law at Strasburg and at Jena. 
 He published numerous poems and treatises on law. 
 Died at Jena in 1602. 
 
 See Johann Wbitz, "Vita N. Reusneri," 1603 ; ." Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Geneiale." 
 
 Reusa, roiss, (Eduard Wilhelm Eugen,) a Prot- 
 estant theologian, born at Strasburg. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age," (in 
 French,) and other works. 
 
 Reuter, roi'ter, (Fritz,) a distinguished German 
 poet, born at Stavenhagen, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
 November 7, 1810. He studied jurisprudence at Ros- 
 tock, and in 1832 went to Jena, where he joined the 
 Bursehensckaft* (the association of German students,) 
 and the next year was arrested in Prussia and con- 
 demned to death ; but the sentence was commuted to 
 thirty years' imprisonment. He was, however, released 
 in 1840, having been included in the general amnesty. 
 He has written, in the Low German ( Plattdeutsch) 
 dialect, various poems, comedies, and novels, which are 
 much admired. Among his works are " Lauschen 
 un Riemels," (1853; 3d edition, 1856,) " Polterabendge- 
 dichte," (1855,) " Reise na Belligen," (1855,) a poetical 
 romance, " Bliicher in Treptow," etc., (1857,) a comedy, 
 "Kein Hiisung," (1858,) a poem, and "Olle Kamellen," 
 (i860,) a novel. 
 
 See Pierer, " Universal- Lexikon." 
 
 Reuter, (Julius,) a German, born about 181 5, gained 
 distinction as the institutor of a telegraphic system. He 
 was the first who furnished telegrams of political or 
 general news to the public journals of Europe. He 
 established his office in London in 1851. 
 
 Reuterdahl, roi'ter-daT, (Henrik,) a Swedish theo- 
 logian, bom at MalmS in 1795. He was appointed 
 professor of theology at Lund in 1844. Among his works 
 are an "Introduction to Theology," (1837,) and a. "His- 
 tory of the Swedish Church," (1838 et seq.) 
 
 Reuven, ruh'ven, (Pieter,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 Leyden in 1650 ; died in 1718. 
 
 Reuvens, roi'v^ns, (Caspar Jacob Christian,) a 
 Dutch antiquary, born at the Hague in 1793. He 
 became professor of history and archaeology at Leyden 
 
 • The Burschenschaft was very obnoxious to the government on 
 account of its political character, and also on account of some of its 
 overt acts. It was as a member of the Burschenschaft that Sand 
 assassinated KoUebue, who had shown himself a determined enemy 
 of the association. 
 
 in 1818, and wrote several antiquarian treatises. Died 
 in 1837. 
 
 See Leemans, " Epistola de Vita Reuvensii," 1838. 
 
 Reuvens, (Jan Everaaro,) an eminent Dutch jurist, 
 born at Haarlem in 1763, was the father of the preceding. 
 He became a counsellor of the supreme court at Paris 
 about 1810, and was author of the criminal code of Hol- 
 land. Died in 1816. 
 
 Revay, ra'voi, (Nicholas,) a Hungarian poet and 
 philologist, born in 1751. He was professor of litera- 
 ture at Pesth. Died in 1807. 
 
 Reveille-Farise, ra'v£'ya' pi'rez', (Joseph Henri.) 
 a French medical writer, bom at Nevers in 1782. He 
 practised in Paris, and wrote, besides other works, 
 " Researches on the Physique, Habits, and Diseases of 
 Literary Men," (1834,) which gained the Montyon prize 
 in 1835 and is called a model treatise. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Callisen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon." 
 
 Revel, reh-vSl', (Gabriel,) a French painter, born 
 at Chateau-Thierry in 1643 ; died in 1712. 
 
 Rev'e-ley, (Willey,) an English architect and an- 
 tiquary. According to several authorities, he completed 
 the "Antiquities of Athens," left unfinished by Stuart. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 Revelliere-Lepaux. See Lareveillere. 
 
 Rever, reh-va', (Marie FRANgois'GiLLES,) a French 
 antiquary, born at Dol in 1753 ; died in 1828. 
 
 Reverchon, reh-veVsh6N , 1 (Jacques,) a French 
 Jacobin, born in 1746, was a member of the Convention, 
 (1792-95,) of the Council of Five Hundred, and of the 
 Council of Elders. Died in 1828. 
 
 Revere, ra-va'ri, (Giuseppe,) an Italian writer, born 
 at Trieste in 1812. He published between 1829 and 
 1840 four dramas, which were popular, and one of which 
 is entitled " Lorenzo de' Medici." He has also written 
 some sonnets. 
 
 Revere, re-veer', (Paul,) an American patriot of 
 the Revolution, and one of the earliest American en- 
 gravers, was born at Boston in 1735. Among his best 
 prints are "The Seventeen Rescinders," and "The 
 Boston Massacre." He took an active part in the 
 destruction of the tea in Boston harbour, and was con- 
 spicuous for his patriotism in the political movements 
 of the time. His midnight expedition to Concord, to 
 give notice of the intended attack of General Gage, 
 forms the subject of one of the poems in Longfellow's 
 "Wayside Inn." Died in 1818. 
 
 Revere, (Paul Joseph,) Colonel, an officer, born 
 in Boston in 1832, was a grandson of the preceding. He 
 was severely wounded at Antietam, September, 1862, 
 and was killed at Gettysburg, July 3, 1S63. 
 
 See P. C. Headi.ey, " Massachusetts in the Rebellion," p. 634. 
 
 Reveroni, ra-va-ro'nee, (Jacques Antoinf.,) a French 
 military engineer, born at Lyons in 1767. He wrote sev- 
 eral dramas, novels, and military works. Died in 1828. 
 
 Reves, de, deh ra'vSs, [Lat. Re'vius,] (Jakob,) a 
 Dutch Protestant divine, born at Deventer in 1586. He 
 became professor of theology at Leyden about 1640, and 
 wrote several works. Died in 1658. 
 
 Rev'ett, (Nicholas,) an English antiquary and archi- 
 tect, was born in Suffolk in 1722. In company with 
 James Stuart, he went to Greece about 1750 and spent 
 two years in exploring and delineating the ruins of 
 Athens. He was a partner of Stuart in the important 
 work entitled the " Antiquities of Athens," (3 vols., 
 1762, 1790, 1794.) He also produced, with Chandler, 
 "Ionian Antiquities," (1769.) After his return to Eng- 
 land he practised as an architect. Died in 1804. 
 
 Reviczky, ra'vits-ke, ? (Karl Emerich,) Count of, 
 a Hungarian linguist and diplomatist, born in 1737. He 
 published an edition of Petronius, (1784,) and a Cata- 
 logue of his own library, (Berlin, 1784.) Died in 1793. 
 
 Revius. See Reves, (Jakob.) 
 
 Revoil, reh-vwal', (Pierre Henri,) a French painter 
 of history and genre, bom at Lyons in 1776, was a pupil 
 of David. lie was professor of design in the Academy 
 of Lyons. He composed songs and other verses with 
 some success. Died in 1842. 
 
 Rewbell or Reubell, ruh'bel', (Jean Baptists.) a 
 French republican and Director, bom at Colmar, near 
 
 i, e, T, 6, 5, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, 11, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
RET 
 
 1887 
 
 RETNOLDS 
 
 the Rhine, about 1746. He was a memljer of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly and of the Convention) in which he 
 mostly voted with the radicals ; but after tlie 9th Ther- 
 midor he became an opponent of the Jacobins. In 1795 
 he was chosen a memljer of the Directory, and assumed 
 control of foreign affairs. He acted with the victorious 
 party in the coup a" Mat of 18th Fructidor, 1797, and was 
 dismissed from office by lot in May, 1799. Died in 1807. 
 See Dk Barante, "Histoire du Directoire;" Thiers, "History 
 of the French Revolution." 
 
 Rey, rj, (Antoine Gaurif.i. Venance,) a French 
 general, born in Rouergue in 1768. He became a gene- 
 ral of division in 1793 or 1794, and commanded with 
 success in several actions in Spain between 1808 and 
 1813. Died in 1836. 
 
 Rey, (Guillaume,) a French medical writer, born in 
 1687, practised in Lyons. Died in 1 756. 
 
 Rey, (Jean,) a French physician and chemist, born 
 at Bugue, in Perigord. He published in 1630 "Essays 
 to ascertain the Cause why Tin and Lead increase in 
 Weight when they are calcined." He maintains that 
 this increase is the result of a combination of the metal 
 with atmospheric air. Died about 1645. 
 
 Rey, (Jf.an,) a French writer and manufacturer, born 
 at Montpellier in 1773. He substituted the forms of 
 flowers for the fantastic designs of the Orientals in the 
 fabrication of Cashmere shawls. Among his works is a 
 " Histoire des Chafes," (1823.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Rey, (Jean Baptiste,) a French composer, born in 
 1734, became director of the emperor's chapel in 1804. 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 Rey, (Joseph Auguste,) a French writer on law, 
 education, etc., was born at Grenoble in 1794- Among 
 his works is "Theory and Practice of Social Science," 
 (3 vols., 1842.) 
 
 Reybaud, ri'bo', (Charles,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Marseilles in 1800, was a brother of Marie Roch 
 Louis, noticed below. 
 
 Reybaud, (Henrif.ttf. Arnaud,) a French novel- 
 ist, born at Aries about 1800, became the wife of the 
 preceding. 
 
 Reybaud, (Marie Roch Louis,) a popular French 
 author, born at Marseilles in 1799. He began life as 
 a merchant, and settled in Paris about 1830. In 1841 
 he gained the Montyon prize of the French Academy 
 (5000 francs) for his " Studies on Modern Reformers 
 or Socialists," (2 vols., 1840-43.) His most original 
 and popular work is a novel called "Jerome Paturot in 
 Search of a Social Position," (3 vols., 1843.) " e has 
 written other novels. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale ;" " London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for September, 1848 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for September, 
 1843- 
 
 Reyher, ri'er, (Samuel,) a German professor of law 
 and mathematics, was born in Saxony in 1635. " e P"'>" 
 lished "Mathesis Mosaico-Iiib'lica, (1678,) and other 
 works. Died at Kiel in 1714. 
 
 Reyn, de, deh tin, (Jean,) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Dunkirk about 1610, was a pupil of Van Dyck, whom 
 he is said to have imitated with success. He worked in 
 England for Van Dyck ; but after the death of the latter 
 he returned to Dunkirk. " The majority of his pictures," 
 says Peries, " have often passed for the works of his 
 master." Died in 1678. 
 
 Reyna, de, da ra'ni or ra^e-na, (Cassiodorus,) a 
 Spanish translator of the BibleTborn at Seville, is said 
 to have been a Protestant. His version of the Bible, 
 printed at Bale in 1569, was the first in the Spanish 
 language. Died at Frankfort in 1594. 
 
 Reynaud, rj'no', (Antoine Andre Louis,) Baron, 
 a French mathematician, born in Paris in 1771. He was 
 employed about thirty years in the Polytechnic School 
 as teacher and examiner. He published a number of 
 standard works on geometry and algebra, which were in- 
 troduced as text-books into public schools. Died in 1844. 
 
 See Quebard, " La France Litukaire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate." 
 
 Reynaud, (Jean Ernest,) a French philosopher, 
 born at Lyons in 1806. In 1836 he became associated 
 with Pierre Leroux as editor of the " Encyclopedic Nou- 
 velle." He was a moderate democrat in the Assembly 
 
 of 1848, and supported Cavaignac. His chief work, 
 entitled "Earth and Heaven," ("Terre et Ciel," 1854,) 
 had great success. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Reyneau, r&'no', (Charles Rene,) a French ge- 
 ometer, born at Brissac, in Anjou, in 1656. He was 
 professor in a college at Angers. He published 
 "Analysis Demonstrated," (1708,) and " Elements of 
 Mathematics," (1714.) Died in 1728. 
 
 Reyner, ra'ner, ? (Edward,) an English Puritan 
 minister, born in Yorkshire in 1600. He preached at 
 Lincoln. Died about 1670. 
 
 Reynier, r&'ne-i', (Augustin Benolt,) a Belgian 
 poet, born at Liege in 1759; died at Cologne in 1792. 
 
 Reynier, ri'ne-a', (Jean Louis,) a French general, 
 was born at Lausanne in 1771. As chief of the staff of Mo- 
 reau, he displayed skill at Rastadt, Friedberg, Biberach, 
 and in the famous retreat of 1796. He commanded at 
 the siege of Acre in the temporary absence of Bonaparte, 
 and is said to have decided the victory at Heliopolis, 
 (1799.) In 1807 he had command of the army of Joseph, 
 King of Naples. He was taken prisoner at Leipsic, 
 (1813.) Died in 1814. 
 
 Reynier, r^'ne-i', (Jean Louis Antoine,) a Swiss 
 naturalist, born at Lausanne in 1762, was a brother of 
 the preceding. He accompanied the expedition to 
 Egypt in 1798. Among his works are " Egypt under the 
 Domination of the Romans," (1807,) and "Treatises 
 on the Public and Rural Economy of the Celts and 
 Germans," (1808,) of the "Arabs and Jews," (1820,) of the 
 "Persians and Phoenicians," (1829,) etc. Died in 1824. 
 
 See La Harpe, "Notice sur L. Reynier," 1825; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Reynold de Chauvancy, de, deh rS'nol' deh sho'- 
 voN'se', (Charles,) a French naval officer, born at Pont 
 de Veyle (Ain) in 1810. He produced a work on mari- 
 time signals, entitled " Code de Signaux, Telegraphie 
 nautique polyglotte," (1856,) which has been adopted 
 by seventeen maritime powers. 
 
 Reynolds, ren'olz, (Alexander W.,) an American 
 officer in the Confederate service, born in Virginia, was 
 made a brigadier-general in 1861. 
 
 Reynolds, ren'olz, (Edward,) an English bishop, 
 born at Southampton in 1599. He favoured the Pres- 
 byterians during the civil war, and took the Covenant. 
 In 1648 he became Dean of Christ Church and vice- 
 chancellor of the University of Oxford. He was ejected 
 from these positions about 1650, after which "he preached 
 in London. He was appointed Bishop of Norwich in 
 1660. He published a number of religious works, which 
 are highly esteemed. Died in 1676. 
 
 Reynolds, (John.) See Rainolds. 
 
 Reynolds, (John Fulton,) an American general, 
 born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1820, graduated at 
 West Point in 1841. He served as first lieutenant in 
 the Mexican war, (1846-47,) and obtained the rank of 
 captain in 1855. He commanded a brigade in the Seven 
 Days' battles near Richmond in June, 1862, and for his 
 services there received brevets as colonel and brigadier- 
 general in the regular army. In January, 1863, he was 
 appointed a major-general of volunteers. His corps 
 j formed the vanguard of the army at Gettysburg, where 
 1 he was killed on the 1st of July, 1863. 
 
 See Tennev, " Military and Naval History of the Refcel.'i.m,* 
 p. 760. 
 
 j Reynolds, (John Hamilton,) an English pott, born 
 in 1795, was a member of the legal profession. He 
 j wrote a poem called " Safie." Died at Newport in 1852. 
 Reynolds, (Sir Joshua,) the most celebrated por- 
 trait-painter that England has produced, was born at 
 Plympton, in Devonshire, on the 16th of July, 1723. He 
 was a son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds. At the age of 
 eighteen he became a. pupil of Hudson in London, with 
 whom he remained about two years. He afterwards 
 worked at Plymouth as a portrait-painter until 1746, 
 when he settled in London. About 1750 he visited 
 Rome, Florence, Venice, and other cities of Italy. 
 When he first saw the works of Raphael in the Vatican, 
 he felt much disappointment, — which he attributed to 
 his own ignorance. The works of Titian and Tintoretto 
 contributed more to the formation of his style than those 
 
 .■ cas <; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; X,)iasal; R, trilled; sasj; th as in Mm. (JQP~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
REYNOLDS 
 
 1888 
 
 RHET1CUS 
 
 of the Roman school. He returned to England in the 
 autumn of 1752, soon after which he acquired a high 
 reputation by a portrait of Commodore Keppel. In 
 1760 he raised his price to twenty -five guineas for a 
 head, and one hundred guineas for a whole-length por- 
 trait. He painted in 1762 a picture of " Garrick between 
 Tragedy and Comedy." 
 
 In 1764 Mr. Reynolds and Dr. Johnson, who had 
 become intimate friends, founded the Literary Club, 
 composed of twelve members, among whom were Burke 
 and Goldsmith. He was chosen president of the Royal 
 Academy in 1768, and was knighted on that occasion. 
 He delivered before the Academy a series of " Lectures 
 on Painting," which were generally admired and were 
 translated into several languages. In 1784 he produced 
 a beautiful allegorical portrait of " Mrs. Sicldons as the 
 Tragic Muse," and received the title of principal painter 
 to the king. He painted for the Empress of Russia a 
 picture of " The Infant Hercules strangling the Ser- 
 pents," (1786,) which is one of his best historical works. 
 He was never married. His career was a remarkable 
 instance of continual prosperity. He died in February, 
 1792, leaving an estate of about £80,000. 
 
 Sir Joshua is considered as the founder or the head 
 of the British school of painting. He obtained powerful 
 effects by a rich and harmonious colour and by his 
 distribution of light and shade. His historical pieces 
 indicate that he was deficient in the grand style of design. 
 "Sir Joshua Reynolds is the most invulnerable man I 
 know," says Dr. Johnson, — "the man with whom if you 
 should quarrel, you will find the most difficulty how to 
 abuse." " Reynolds, swiftest of painters, was gentlest 
 of companions," says Ruskin; "so, also, Velasquez, 
 Titian, and Veronese." 
 
 See James Northcote. "Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds," 
 1818; Malone, "Life of Sir J. Reynolds;" Thomas Reynolds, 
 "Life of Sir J. Reynolds," by his son, 2 vols., 1839; "Life of 
 Sir J. Reynolds," commenced by C. R. Leslie and completed by 
 Tom Taylor, j vols., 1865: "Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds," 
 by Joseph Farrington, London, 1819; "London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for April and July, 1866 ; " Edinburgh Review" for August, 1820. 
 
 Reynolds, (Richard,) an English benefactor, born 
 in Bristol in 1735, was a member of the Society of 
 Friends. He married Hannah Darby in 1757, and be- 
 came a partner in the iron and coal works at Ketley. 
 In 1763 he removed to Coalbrook Dale, where he super- 
 intended a large manufactory of iron. He is said to have 
 been the first who employed iron instead of wood in the 
 construction of railways. His business afforded him a 
 large income, a great part of which he expended in deeds 
 of charity. He removed to Bristol in 1804. Died in 1816. 
 
 See " Letters of Richard Reynolds, with a Memoir of his Life," 
 Dy his granddaughter, Hannah Marv Rathbone, Philadelphia, 
 • 855- 
 
 Reynolds, (Samuel William) an eminent English 
 engraver in mezzotint, was born in 1774. He engraved 
 many portraits and historical pieces after Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, also Rubens's "Chapeau de Paille," and a 
 number of the works of Horace Vernet. Died in 1835. 
 
 Reynoso. See Reinoso. 
 
 Reyrac, de, deh r&'rSk', (Francois Philippe Du- 
 Laurens,) a French poet and priest, born in Limousin 
 in 1734. He wrote "Rural Poems," and a " Hymn to 
 the Sun," (1777,) in poetical prose, which was often 
 reprinted. Died in 1782. 
 
 See Berenger, " Eloge de Reyrac," 1783. 
 
 Reyre, &aiR, (AbW Joseph,) a French teacher and 
 writer of juvenile books, was born in Provence in 1735 ; 
 died in 1812. 
 
 Reys, dos, d6s ras, (Antonio,) a Portuguese priest 
 and Latin poet, born near Santarem in 1690; died in 
 
 ■738. 
 
 Rezzano, rSt-sa'no, (Francesco,) a mediocre Italian 
 poet, born at Como in 1731 ; died in 1780. 
 
 Rezzonico, ret-so-nee'ko, (Antonio Giuseppe,) 
 Count de la Tour, (or della Torre, del'la tor'ri,) an 
 Italian litterateur, born at Como in 1709, became an 
 officer in the Spanish army. His chief work is " Re- 
 searches into the Life and Writings of Pliny," ("Disqui- 
 sitiones Plinianae," 2 vols, in fol., 1763-67,) which is 
 praised as a model of criticism. Died at Parma in 1785. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Rezzonico, (Carlo.) See Clement XIII. 
 
 Rezzonico, (Carlo Gaston della Torre,) Count 
 an Italian poet and prose writer, born at Como in 1742, 
 was a son of Antonio Giuseppe, noticed above. Among 
 his works is a poem entitled "The Ruin of Como, ' 
 which is admired. Died at Naples in 1796. 
 
 See G. B. Gtovto, " Delia Vita di G. Rezzonico," 1802. 
 
 Rhadamante. See Rhadamanthus. 
 
 Rhad-a-man'thus, [Gr. 'Paia/iavdoc; ; Fr. Rhada- 
 mante, ra'dS'md.Nt',] a son of Jupiter and Europa, and 
 a brother of Minos. According to tradition, he married 
 Alcmena, the mother of Hercules, was eminent for his 
 justice, and after death became one of the chief judges 
 of the lower world, or Elysium. 
 
 Rhallis, ral'lis, (George Alexander,) a modern 
 Greek jurist, born at Constantinople in 1804. He be- 
 came minister of justice of Greece in 1841, and after- 
 wards president of the Areopagus, or court of cassation. 
 He published several legal works. 
 
 Rliam, ram, (Rev. William Lewis,) an eminent 
 writer on agriculture, born at Utrecht in 1778. He was 
 educated at Edinburgh and at Cambridge University, 
 and became rector of Fersfield, Norfolk. He wrote 
 many articles for the " Penny Cyclopaedia," which were 
 published separately under the title of " Dictionary of 
 the Farm." Died in 1843. 
 
 Rhangabe. See Rizo RANGABlt. 
 
 Rhe'a, [Gr. 'Peia, 'Pea, Tot;, or 'Per/; Fr. RHltA, ra'a'.J 
 a goddess of classic mythology, whom the Romans 
 called Ops or Cybele. According to Hesiod, she was a 
 daughter of Uranus and Ge, or Ccelus and Terra, the 
 wife of Cronos, (Saturn,) and the mother of Jupiter, 
 Neptune, Pluto, Juno, Ceres, and Vesta. She was 
 called "the Great Mother," and "the Mother of the 
 Gods." The principal seat of her worship was Pessinus, 
 in Galatia. (See Cybele.) 
 
 See Smith's " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and 
 Mythology." 
 
 Rhe'a Sil'vl-a, or R1-a, [Fr. Rea (or Rhea) Silvia, 
 ri'a' sel've'S', or'lLlE, e'le',] in Roman mythology, was 
 a daughter of Numitor, and mother of Romulus and 
 Remus, whose father was supposed to be Mars. The 
 king Amulius had compelled her to become a vestal 
 virgin to prevent her from having offspring, and after 
 the birth of her sons he drowned her in the river. The 
 poets feigned that she was changed into a goddess and 
 became the wife of the Anio. 
 
 Rheede, van, van ra'deh, (Hendrik Adriaan 
 Draakenstein — dua'ken-stin',) a Dutch naturalist, who 
 became Governor-General of the Malabar coast. He 
 collected materials for a costly work on the plants of 
 India, entitled " Hortus Indicus Malabaricus," (12 
 vols,, 1670-1703,) in which he was aided by Casearius, 
 Commelin, and others. He died about 1700. 
 
 Rbegas. See Rhigas. 
 
 Rheinek, ri'nSk, (Christoph,) a German musical 
 composer, born at Memmingen in 1748, was author of 
 several operas. Died in 1796. 
 
 Rheita, von, fon ri'ta, (Anion Maria Schyrle,) 3 
 German astronomer, born in Bohemia about 1597. He 
 constructed a telescope with four lenses. Died at Ra- 
 venna in 1660. 
 
 Rhenanus, (Beatus.) See Beatus. 
 
 Rhenferd, reVfgRt, (Jakoh,) a German Orientalist, 
 born in 1654. He became professor of Oriental lan- 
 guages at Franeker. Died in 1712. 
 
 Rhese, rees, ? (John David,) M.D., a philologist, 
 born in the island of Anglesey in 1534. He taught 
 school in Italy, and published a number of works in the 
 Italian language. Died in 1609. 
 
 Rhetl-cus, [Ger. pron. ra'te-kus,! the surname of an 
 astronomer, whose proper name was George Joachim. 
 He was born at Feldkirch, near the Rhine, in 1514. He 
 became a pupil and assistant of Copernicus in 1539 or 
 1540, and advocated the Copernican system in his " Nar- 
 ratio de Libris Revolutionum Copernici," (1540.) In 
 1 541 he obtained a chair of mathematics at Wittenberg. 
 He left a work of great labour, entitled " Opus Palatinutn 
 de Triangulis," (1596,) which contains, besides a treatise 
 on trigonometry, a table of sines, cosines, tangents, etc. 
 Died in 1576. 
 
 3, e, 1. 6, u y, long; a, t, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J>, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall,"fat; met; not; goo.l, moon; 
 
RHETT 
 
 1889 
 
 R.BERA 
 
 Rhett, (Robert Barnwell,) an American politician, 
 born at Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1S00. Being elected 
 in 1833 attorney-general of the State, he acted with the 
 Nullification party, and in 1850 became a United States 
 Senator. On the election of Mr. Lincoln, in 1860, he was 
 a member of the State Convention which passed an 
 ordinance of secession, and drew up the address giving 
 reasons for this measure. 
 
 RhI-a'nus, a Greek poet, born in Crete, lived about 
 250 or 225 B.C. He wrote five or more poems, two of 
 which are entitled " Heracleia" and " Thessalica." Frag- 
 ments of his works are extant. 
 
 Rhigas, ree'gas, written also Rhegas and Rigas, 
 a modern Greek patriot and writer, born in Thessaly 
 about 1760. He formed in early life a design to liberate 
 Greece from the Turkish yoke, and, in order to promote 
 this design, organized a secret society, wrote popular 
 songs, founded a journal, published educational works, 
 etc. All these were in the modern Greek language. 
 In 1798 he was arrested at Trieste, delivered by the 
 Austrians to the Turks, and drowned in the Danube 
 by the latter. 
 
 See Revbaud, " M^moires sur la Grece ;" " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Rhin'thon, ['P/vflov,] a Greek dramatic poet, born at 
 Syracuse or Tarentum, lived about 300 B.C. His works 
 are not extant. 
 
 Rhizos Rhangavis. See Rizo Rangabe. 
 
 Rho, ro, (Ai.essandro,) an Italian jurist, born at 
 Milan in 1543 ; died in 1627. 
 
 Rhode, ro'deh, or Rhodius, ro'de-us, (Johann,) a 
 Danish medical writer and antiquary, born at Copen- 
 hagen about 1587 ; died at Padua in 1659. 
 
 Rhode, ro'deh, (Johann Georg,) a German Orien- 
 talist of Breslau, was noted for his researches in the 
 antiquities and natural history of India. Died in 1827. 
 
 Rhodes, rod/., (Robert E.,) an American general, 
 born at Lynchburg, Virginia, commanded a division of 
 General Lee's army at Gettysburg, July, 1863. He was 
 killed at the battle of Winchester, September 19, 1S64. 
 
 Rhodes, de, deh rod, (Alexandre,) a French mis- 
 sionary, born in 1591. He preached in Cochin China 
 and Tonquin. He published a " History of Tonquin," 
 (1650,) and other works. Died in Persia in 1660. 
 
 Rhodiginus, ro-de-jee'noos, ( Ccei.ius, ) an Italian 
 philologist, whose family name was Ricciiieri (rek-ke- 
 a'ree) or Riccheri, (rek-ka'ree,) was born at Rovigo 
 about 1450. He became professor of Greek and Latin 
 at Milan in 1515. Mischief work is "Ancient Readings," 
 ("Antiquse Lectiones," 1 5 1 6. ) Died in 1525. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Rhodius. See Rhode, (Johan.) 
 
 Rhodomarm. See Rhodom annus. 
 
 Rhodomannus, ro-do-man'nus, or Rhodomarm, 
 ro'do-man', (Laurentius,) a German Hellenist, born 
 at Sassawerf, in Saxony, in 1546. He was professor of 
 Greek at Jena, and afterwards lectured on history at 
 Wittenberg. He wrote Greek verse with facility, and is 
 called one of the restorers of the Greek language in 
 Germany. Among his works are a " Life of Luther, in 
 Greek Verse," ( r 5 79, ) and "Christian Poem on Pales- 
 tine," ("Poesis Christiana Palestinas," 1589.) Died in 
 I6\A 
 
 See Lance, "Vita Rhodomanni," 1741 ; Nickron, " Me'moires. " 
 
 Rlninken. See Ruhnken. 
 
 Rhy'mer, Thomas the, or Thomas of Ercil- 
 doune, a Scottish poet, flourished between 1250 and 
 1300. He had the reputation of a prophet. 
 
 Rhyndacenus or Rhyndaconus. See Lascaris. 
 
 Rhyne, Ten, ten rl'neh, (Willem,) a Dutch natu- 
 ralist, born at Deventer about 1640. He practised 
 medicine at ^iatavia, explored the plants of Java, and 
 aided Van Rheede in composing his "Horlus Mala- 
 baricus." 
 
 Rhyzelius, re-za'le-us, (Andreas,) a Swedish an- 
 tiquary, born in Westgothland in 1677. He became 
 Bishop of Linkoping, and wrote several works on 
 Swedish antiquities. Died about 1758. 
 
 Riancey, de, deh re'6N's&', (Henri L£on Ca- 
 MUSat,) a French historian, born in Paris in 1816. He 
 
 published, besides other works, a " History of the 
 World," (4 vols., 1838-41.) In 1852 he became chief 
 editor of "L'Union," a journal. 
 
 Rianzares, Duke of. See Munoz, (Fernando.) 
 
 Riario, re-a're-o, (Girolamo,) Seigneur of Forll and 
 Imola, a nephew of Pope Sixtus IV., was born about 
 1442. He was an enemy of Lorenzo de' Medici and of 
 the family of Colonna. He was assassinated by his own 
 guards in 1488. 
 
 Riario, (Pietro,) Cardinal, a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1445. He was a corrupt favourite 
 of Sixtus IV., who appointed him Archbishop of Flor- 
 ence. He had great influence at the papal court, and was 
 notorious for his debauchery. Died in 1474. 
 
 Ribadeneira, re-Ba-di-naVra, (Pedro,) a Spanish 
 Jesuit and biographer, was born at Toledo in 1527. He 
 gained some distinction as a preacher, and was employed 
 by Loyola to propagate Jesuitism in F'landers and Spain. 
 He wrote, besides other works, a " Life of Loyola," 
 (" Vida de San Ignacio," 1570.) He is said to have 
 been deficient in judgment. Died at Madrid in 1611. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispatia Nova;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Ribalta, re-Bal'ta, (Francisco,) an eminent Span- 
 ish painter, born at Castellon de la Plana in 1551. He 
 studied the works of Raphael and Sebastian del Piombo 
 in Rome, and settled in Valencia. His design, colour, 
 and composition are highly commended. Among his 
 works are a " Last Supper," a " Holy Family," and 
 "The Entombment of Christ." He was a skilful anato- 
 mist. Died in 1628. 
 
 Ribalta, de, di re-Bal'ta, (Juan,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Valencia in 1597. He was a paintei 
 of great promise, and died prematurely in 1628. 
 
 Ribas, de, deh ree'bas, (Joseph,) born at Naples 
 about 1735, entered the service of Russia, and became 
 an admiral. He commanded a fleet which operated 
 against the Turks in 1790. 
 
 Ribault or Ribaut, re'bo', (Jean,) a French Prot- 
 estant navigator, born at Dieppe about 1520. He com- 
 manded a party sent by Coligni in 1562 to explore and 
 colonize some parts of North America. He explored 
 Port Royal, South Carolina, built a fort there, and re- 
 turned to F'rance. In 1565 he obtained command of a 
 fort and colony which the French had planted on the 
 Saint John's River, Florida. He had seven vessels under 
 his command. The French were attacked by a Spanish 
 fleet just after the arrival of Ribault. He was about to 
 bring his vessels into action, when a storm drove them 
 ashore. Ribault and his men escaped to land, but were 
 massacred by the Spaniards. " John Ribault," says 
 Sparks, "was the pioneer of a great enterprise; . . . 
 and, although he was assisted by brave and able asso- 
 ciates, yet his energy and zeal were the chief springs of 
 the whole." 
 
 See Sparks, " Life of Ribault," in the seventh volume of his 
 " American Biography," second series : Hildreth, " History of the 
 United Slates," vol. i. chap. iii. 
 
 Ribault, re'bo', (J. F.,) a French engraver, born in 
 Paris in 1767; died in 1820. 
 
 Ribbing von Leuven, rib'bing fon loi'ven, ? (Adolph 
 Ludwig,) a Swedish conspirator, bom at Stockholm 
 in 1764. He was an accomplice of those who killed 
 Gustavus III., and was banished for life. Died in 
 Paris in 1 843. 
 
 Ribeiro or Ribeyro, re-ba^e-ro, (Bernardin,) a 
 Portuguese pastoral poet of the sixteenth century, was- 
 born at Torrao, in Alemtejo. He is pronounced by. 
 Longfellow " one of the best poets of Portugal, and the 
 first Portuguese writer who gained a high reputation as. 
 a pastoral poet." 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Ribeiro dos Santos, re-ba'ero d6s san't6s, (Amtc- 
 NIO,) a Portuguese poet of the present century, has pub- 
 lished, among other works, an " Ode to the Infante Dom, 
 Henrique," which is greatly admired. 
 
 See Longfeli-ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Ribera. See Spagnoi.etto. 
 
 Ribera, re-ita'ra, (Carlos Luis,) a Spanish, painter, 
 the son of a distinguished artist, was born in Rome 
 about 1812. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; g, h, k, guttural; H, nasai; R, trilled; § ; 
 
 II 9 
 
 s," th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RIBERA 
 
 1890 
 
 RICCIARDI 
 
 Ribera, (FranjisCO,) a Spanish Jesuit and commen- 
 tator, born in Segovia in 1537. He wrote Commentaries 
 on the minor prophets and on the Gospel of John. Died 
 at Salamanca in 1591. 
 
 Ribera, de, da re-isa'ra, (Anastasio Pantaleon,) a 
 Spanish wit and burlesque poet, born at Saragossa in 
 1580. He was assassinated at Madrid in 1629. 
 
 Ribes, reb, (Francois,) a French surgeon, born at 
 Bagneres de Bigorre in 1770. He succeeded Desgenettes 
 as chief physician at the Hotel des Invalides in 1837. 
 He wrote on anatomy, eta Died in 1845. 
 
 Ribes, de, deh rib, (Anne Arnaud,) a French 
 officer of engineers, born in 1731 ; died in 1811. 
 
 Ribeyro. See Ribeiro. 
 
 Riboud, re'boo', (Thomas Philibert,) a French 
 litterateur and judge, born at Bourg-en-Bresse in 1755. 
 He was a member of successive legislative bodies be- 
 tween 1791 and 1814. Died in 1835. 
 
 Riboutte, re'boo'ti', (FranQois Louis,) a French 
 dramatist, born at Lyons in 1770 ; died in 1834. 
 
 Ricard, re'kaV, (Dominique,) a French abbe and 
 translator, born at Toulouse in 1 741. He translated 
 Plutarch's "Moral Works," (17 vols., 1783-95,) and his 
 "Parallel Lives," (13 vols., 1798-1803.) He wrote a 
 poem on the Sphere. Died in 1803. 
 
 Ricard, (Etienne Pierre Silvestre,) a French 
 general, born at Castres in 1771. He won the rank of 
 general of division at Borodino in 1812. Died in 1843. 
 
 Ricard, (Jean Marie,) an eminent French jurist, 
 born at Beauvais in 1622 ; died in Paris in 1678. 
 
 Ricardo, re-kar'do, (David,) an eminent political 
 economist, bom in London in April, 1772, was a son of 
 a Jewish broker. He became a member of the Stock 
 Exchange in London, and a partner of his father. In 
 consequence of his marriage with a Christian, in 1793, 
 this partnership was dissolved. He published in 1809 a 
 pamphlet called "The High Price of Bullion a Proof of 
 the Depreciation of Bank-Notes." His reputation' is 
 founded on "The Principles of Political Economy and 
 Taxation," (1817,) which is highly esteemed. He was 
 elected to Parliament in 1819, and spoke frequently on 
 financial subjects. Died in September, 1823. 
 
 See J. R. McCulloch, " Life of Ricardo," prefixed to Ricardo's 
 Works, 1846; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gencirale :" "Edinburgh Review" for June, 1818; 
 "Monthly Review" for December, 1820. 
 
 Ricardo, (John Lewis,) an English writer on inter- 
 national law, born in 1812. He was elected a member 
 of Parliament in 1841, and greatly promoted the suc- 
 cessful operation of the electric telegraph. Among his 
 works is a " History and Anatomy of the Navigation 
 Laws." Died in London in 1862. 
 
 Ricardos, re-kait'cl6s, (Don Antonio,) a Spanish 
 general, born at Seville in 1727. He commanded the 
 army which opposed with some success the French 
 invaders in 1793, and he was promoted to be captain- 
 general in 1794. Died in 1794. 
 
 See J. M. Hervas de Almenakia, " Elogio historico del Gene- 
 ral A. Ricardos," 1798. 
 
 Ricardus Corinensis. See Richard of Ciren- 
 cester. 
 
 Ricasoli, re-ka'so-lee, (Baron Bettino,) an eminent 
 Italian statesman, born of an ancient noble family in 
 Tuscany about 1S05. He was a prominent advocate of 
 the independence and unity of Italy in 1848, and acted 
 as dictator of Tuscany in 1859. In June, 1861, he suc- 
 ceeded Cavour as prime minister of Italy. The policy 
 of his administration was similar to that of Cavour. He 
 resigned about the 1st of March, 1862, and was succeeded 
 by Ratazzi. In June, 1866, he again assumed the direc- 
 tion of the government as president of the council and 
 minister of the interior. He retired from office about 
 April 7, 1867. 
 
 See F. dali.'Ongaro, "Bettino Ricasoli;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie GeneYale." 
 
 Ricaut. See Rycaut. 
 
 Riccaltoun or Riccalton, rik'al-ton,? (Robert,) a 
 Scottish divine, born near Jedburgh in 1691. He 
 preached for many years at Hobkirk, and wrote several 
 able and suggestive religious works, among which is the 
 "Sober Inquiry," etc. Died in 1769. 
 
 Riccati, di, de rek-ki'tee, (Jacopo Francesco,) 
 Count, an Italian mathematician, born at Venice in 
 1676, was the father of Vincenzo, noticed below. Died 
 in 1754. 
 
 His son Giordano, born in 1709, was a mathema- 
 tician and writer. Died in 1790. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illnstri." 
 
 Riccati, di, (Vincenzo,) an Italian mathematician, 
 born at Castel-Franco in 1707; died in 1773. 
 
 Ricchieri, (Lodovico.) See Rhodiginus. 
 
 Ricci, ret'ehee, (Antonio,) called Barbalunga, 
 (bai<-ba-loon'ga,) an Italian painter, born at Messina in 
 1600; died in 1649. 
 
 Ricci, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian Latinist, born at 
 Lugo in 1490. He wrote, besides other works, a Dic- 
 tionary of the Latin language, entitled "Apparatus 
 Latina; Locutionis," (1533.) Died in 1569. 
 
 See G. della Casa, " Discorso sulla Vita di B. Ricci," 1834. 
 
 Ricci, (Camillo,) an Italian painter, born at Ferrara 
 in 1580 ; died at Ferrara in 1618. 
 
 Ricci, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Novara in 1545. He was employed by Pope 
 Sixtus V. in the Vatican and Quirinal. Died at Rome 
 in 1620. 
 
 Ricci, (Lorenzo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Florence 
 in 1703, was elected general of the order of Jesuits in 
 1758. He opposed the proposition to reform that order, 
 which was suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. in 1773. 
 Died in prison at Rome in 1775. 
 
 See Sainte-Foi, "Vie du Pere Ricci ;" Caracciou, "Vie du 
 Pere Ricci," 1776. 
 
 Ricci, (Marco,) a painter, born at Belluno in 1676. 
 He worked some years as assistant of his uncle Se- 
 bastian in England. According to the "Biographie 
 Universelle," he was one of the most skilful landscape- 
 painters of the Venetian school. Died at Venice about 
 1728. 
 
 Ricci, (Matteo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Macerata 
 in 1552. He was one of the first missionaries who went 
 to China, (1583.) In 1600 he was admitted into Peking, 
 where he gained the favour of the emperor. He wrote 
 interesting Memoirs and Letters on China. Abel Re- 
 musat calls him the founder of the mission of China. 
 Died in Peking in 1610. 
 
 See D'Orleans, " Vie de M. Ricci," 1693 ; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 General*. " 
 
 Ricci, (Michelangelo,) an Italian cardinal and 
 mathematician, born at Rome in 1619 ; died in 1682. 
 
 Ricci or Riccbi, rek'kee, (Pietro, ) an Italian 
 painter, born at Lucca in 1606, worked at Milan and 
 Venice. Died in 1675. 
 
 Ricci, (Scipione,) an Italian reformer, born at Flor- 
 ence in 1741. He became Bishop of Pistoia and Prato 
 in 1780, and co-operated with the grand duke Leopold 
 in his projects of religious reform. He was opposed to 
 monastic orders, to indulgences, and other practices of 
 the Church of Rome. In consequence of the riotous 
 demonstrations of the populace against him, he resigned 
 in 1790. Died in 1810. 
 
 See De Potter, "Vie et Memoires de Scipion Ricci," 4 vols., 
 1825, (translated into English by Thomas Roscoe, 1829 ;) " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Ricci or Rizzi, ret'see, (Sebastiano,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Cividal di Belluno (Venetia) in 1660. 
 He worked at Rome, Vienna, Florence, and London, to 
 which he was invited by Queen Anne. Having passed 
 ten years in England, he returned to Venice, and prac- 
 tised his art with success. He was a skilful imitator of 
 the styles of many masters. Among his remarkable 
 works are "The Abduction of the Sabines," at Rome, 
 and "The Assumption of the Virgin." Died at Venice 
 
 in 1734- 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" ■"icozzi, "D1110- 
 nario." 
 
 Ricciardi, ret-chaR'dee, (Francesco,) Count de 
 Camaldoli, an Italian statesman, born at Foggia in 1758. 
 He was minister of justice under Murat from 1809 to 
 1815. He made some reforms in the penal code. Died 
 in 1842. 
 
 See Ceva-Grimaldi, " Elogio storico del Conte F. Ricciardi," 
 ■ 834- 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y\ short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; flr, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
RICCIARDI 
 
 1891 
 
 RICHARD 
 
 Ricciardi, (Irene,) an Italian poetess, a sister of 
 Joseph Napoleon Ricciardi. She was married in 1831 
 to a composer named Capecelatro. 
 
 Ricciardi, (Joskph Napoleon,) an Italian poet 
 and politician, a son of Francesco, noticed above, was 
 born in Naples in 1808. A liberal in politics, he has 
 lived in exile since 1848. He has written a " History 
 of the Italian Revolution," (1850,) and several political 
 poems. 
 
 Ricciarelli. See Volterra, de, (Daniele.) 
 
 Riccio, (Bartolommeo.) See Nf.roni. 
 
 Riccio, (David.) See Rizzto. 
 
 Riccio, ret'cho, (Domenico,) an eminent painter of 
 the Venetian school, surnamed Brusasorci, ("Rat- 
 Burner,") was born at Verona in 1494. His father in- 
 vented a rat-trap and burned rats : hence the Surname. 
 He studied the works of Titian, and perhaps was his 
 pupil. He painted in the Palazzo Ridolfi, in Venice, a 
 fresco called the "Cavalcade of Clement VII. and 
 Charles V.," (in Bologna.) Died in 1567. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives ofthe Painters;" Ridoi.fi, "Vite degli 
 illustri Pittori Veneti ;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Riccio, (Felice,) a son of the preceding, born at 
 Verona in 1540, was a skilful painter, especially of 
 portraits. Died in 1605. 
 
 Riccioli, ret'cho-lee, (Giovanni Battista, ) an 
 Italian astronomer and Jesuit, born at Ferrara in 1598. 
 He was professor of philosophy, theology, etc. at 
 Bologna and Parma. His superiors authorized him to 
 devote himself to astronomy, that he might confute the 
 Copernican system. This he attempted to do in his 
 "Almagestum Novum," (2 vols., 165 1.) According to 
 his theory, the sun, moon, Jupiter, and Saturn revolve 
 around the earth, while Mercury, Venus, and Mars are 
 satellites ofthe sun. He also published an able treatise 
 on mathematical geography and hydrography, (1661,) 
 and " Improved Astronomy," ("Astronomia Reformata," 
 1665.) Died in 1671. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita? Italornm doctrina excellentium ;" Tira- 
 boschi, "Storiadella Letteratura Italiana;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge^ieYaie." 
 
 Riccoboni, rek-ko-bo'nee, (Antoine Francois,) a 
 son of Luigi, noticed below, was born at Mantua in 
 1707, and lived in Paris. He wrote an ingenious work 
 called "Theatrical Art," (" L'Art du Theatre," 1750.) 
 Died in 1772. 
 
 His wife, Marie Jeanne Laboras de Mezieres, 
 born in Paris in 1714, was a successful novelist. Among 
 her novels are "The Letters of Julia Catesby," (1758,) 
 "Ernestine," and "Sophie de Valliere," (1771.) M. 
 Weiss calls her one of the most spirituelle women of her 
 time. Died in 1792. 
 
 Riccoboni, (Antonio,) an Italian philologist, born 
 at Rovigo in 1541. He translated into Latin Aristotle's 
 " Rhetoric," " Ethics," and " Poetica," (1579,) and wrote 
 several works. Died in 1599. 
 
 Riccoboni, ( Luigi, ) an Italian comic writer and 
 actor, born at Modena about 1675. Among his works is 
 a poem " On Representative Art," (" Delia Arte repre- 
 sentativa," 1728.) Died in Paris in 1753. 
 
 Rice, ( Luther,) an American Baptist divine and 
 missionary, born at Northborough, Massachusetts, in 
 1783. He was one of the founders of the American board 
 of commissioners for foreign missions, and assisted in 
 the establishment of the Columbian College, at Wash- 
 ington, District of Columbia. Died in 1836. 
 
 Rich, (Claudius James,) an Orientalist and traveller, 
 born at Dijon, in France, in 1787, was educated at Bris- 
 tol. He learned Arabic, Syriac, Persian, etc in his early 
 youth, became an excellent linguist, and entered the 
 service ofthe East India Company in 1803. In 1808 he 
 married a daughter of Sir James Mackintosh, at Bombay, 
 and was appointed the East India Company's resident 
 at Bagdad. He collected in that vicinity many Oriental 
 manuscripts, medals, and coins, and wrote a " Memoir 
 on the Ruins of Babylon," which he had visited in 181 1. 
 A second edition of it was issued in 1839. He visited 
 the ruins of Nineveh and Persepolis, and made an ex- 
 cursion into Koordistan. He died of cholera, at ShirSz, 
 in October, 1821, leaving a "Narrative of a Residence in 
 Koordistan," (1836.) 
 
 See a brief notice of his life, prefixed to the work last named. 
 
 Rich, (Richard,) Baron, an English judge, born in 
 London about 1498. He became solicitor-general in 
 1533, and lord chancellor in 1547. He united with Pro- 
 tector Somerset in measures for the conviction and exe- 
 cution of Lord Seymour. In 1551 he resigned his office 
 on pretext of ill health. Died in 1568. According to 
 Lord Campbell, he was "a very consistent character 
 in all that was base and profligate." One of his sons 
 became Earl of Warwick. 
 
 See Lord Cami-bell's "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. ii. 
 
 Rich'ard [Lat. Richar'dus ; It. Ricardo, re'-kaR'do] 
 I., King of England, surnamed Coxur de Lion, (kUR 
 deh le'6N',) was the third or second son of Henry II. 
 and his queen Eleanor. He was born at Oxford in 
 1 1 57, and was invested in the duchy of Guienne. He 
 united with his brother Henry in a revolt against his 
 father in 1 173. On the death of Prince Henry, in 1183, 
 Richard became the heir-apparent to the throne. He 
 formed in 1 188 a secret alliance with Philip, King of 
 France, the enemy of Henry II., and openly revolted 
 against the latter in 1189. The allies waged war with 
 success against Henry in France, and induced him to 
 accept their terms of peace. At this juncture Henry 
 died, in July, 1189. Richard showed compunction for 
 his undutiful conduct, and chose for his ministers the 
 faithful servants of his father. Having agreed a short 
 time before his accession to join the King of France in 
 a crusade, he appointed his mother regent of the king- 
 dom. " Impelled more by the love of military glory 
 than by superstition," says Hume, " he acted from the 
 beginning of his reign as if the sole purpose of his 
 government had been the relief of the Holy Land and 
 the recovery of Jerusalem from the Saracens." 
 
 The combined army of Richard and Philip, amounting 
 to 100,000 men, began to march in 1190. They em- 
 barked on ships at Marseilles and Genoa, and sailed to 
 Sicily, where they passed the winter, during which serious 
 dissensions arose between Richard and Philip, who re- 
 garded each other with jealous rivalry. Richard married 
 Berengaria, Princess of Navarre, at Cyprus, in 1191, and 
 in the summer of that year arrived at Acre, which had 
 been besieged by the crusaders for two years and was 
 still defended by Saladin. The French and English 
 kings were incited by emulation to extraordinary acts 
 of valour at this siege. "Richard in particular," says 
 Hume, "animated with a more precipitate courage than 
 Philip, . . . acquired a great and splendid reputation." 
 Acre surrendered in July, 1191, soon after which Philip 
 returned to France. In September, Richard defeated 
 Saladin in a great battle, in which "he performed," says 
 Hume, "the part both of a consummate general and 
 gallant soldier." 
 
 Having concluded a truce with Saladin for three years, 
 three months, three weeks, and three days, he sailed 
 homeward in October, 1 192, and was wrecked on the 
 coast of Istria. Attempting to pass through Germany 
 in disguise, he was arrested by Leopold of Austria, who 
 transferred him to the emperor, Henry VI., who was an 
 enemy of the captive prince. He was confined in a 
 dungeon, and subjected to many insults, until February, 
 1 194, when he obtained his liberation by paying a large 
 ransom. In the mean time his brother John had at- 
 tempted to usurp the royal power, but was resisted with 
 success. The rivalry between Richard and Philip after- 
 wards involved them in several wars, the results of which 
 were insignificant. Hostilities were suspended in 1198 
 by a truce of five years. At the siege of the castle of 
 one of his vassals near Limoges, Richard was mortally 
 wounded by an arrow, in March, 1199. He left no lawful 
 issue, and was succeeded by his brother John. " Of an 
 impetuous and vehement spirit," says Hume, "he was 
 distinguished by all the good as well as the bad qualities 
 incident to that character : he was open, frank, generous, 
 sincere, and brave ; he was revengeful, domineering, 
 ambitious, haughty, and cruel." Richard I. forms a 
 prominent and brilliant character in Scott's novel of 
 " Ivanhoe." 
 
 See P. J. Bruns, "De Rebus gestis Richardi Anglia; Regis," 
 1780; J. White, "Adventures of Richard Cceur de Lion," 3 vols., 
 1791 ; G P. R. James, "Life of Richard I.," 1843; Humr, " History 
 of England," chap. x. ; W. E. Avtoun, " Life of Richard I. of 
 England," 1840. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,gutturaI; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. (Jf^"See Explanations, p. 83.) 
 
RICHARD 
 
 1892 
 
 RICHARD 
 
 Richard II, King of England, born at Bordeaux in \ 
 1366, was a son of Edward the lilack Prince. He suc- 
 ceeded his grandfather, Edward III., in June, 1377. ! 
 Among the remarkable events which occurred during 
 his minority was the rebellion of Wat Tyler, (1381,) j 
 which was provoked partly by the tax imposed to sup- 1 
 port a war against France. The insurgents, who were | 
 peasants or common people, entered London, massacred , 
 many persons of the higher class, among whom was the | 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, and committed other out- 
 rages. Richard acted with much presence of mind, and 
 persuaded the rioters to disperse. A great number of J 
 them were afterwards executed. Edward III. had left 
 the kingdom involved in wars against the French and j 
 the Scotch. In 1385 Richard invaded Scotland and 
 reduced to ashes Edinburgh, Perth, Dundee, etc. The 
 Scots offered no resistance, but at the same time made j 
 a successful raid into England. The power of Richard, 
 who was indolent and incapable, was nullified for a time 
 by his uncle the Duke of Gloucester, who put to death 
 the king's favourites and ministers in 1388. The wars 
 against France and Scotland were conducted with little 
 vigour, and suspended by frequent truces. In 1396 
 Richard concluded a long truce with the French court, 
 and was affianced to Isabella of France, who was seven 
 years of age. In 1398 he banished the Dukes of Here- 
 ford and Norfolk, who had met to fight a duel. Here- 
 ford (who at the death of his father became Henry, Duke 
 of Lancaster) had gained the favour of the people by his 
 conduct and abilities. Taking advantage of the absence 
 of Richard, who was in Ireland, Henry landed in Eng- 
 land in July, 1399, raised a large army, and made him- 
 self master of the kingdom without serious opposition. 
 The troops which Richard brought from Ireland nearly 
 all deserted. " His personal character had brought him 
 into contempt," says Hume. He was deposed by Par- 
 liament, which recognized his rival as King Henry IV., 
 and ordered or advised that Richard should be impris- 
 oned in some secret place. He died mysteriously in the 
 thirty-fourth year of his age. "It is more probable," 
 says Hume, " that he was starved to death in prison." 
 He left no posterity. Richard II. gives name to one of 
 Shakspeare's tragedies. 
 
 See J. Evesham, "Historia Richardi II.," 1729; Hume. " His- 
 tory of England," chap. xvii. ; "Life and Reign of Richard II.," 
 London, 1681 : R. Howard, " History of the Reigns of Edward III. 
 and Richard II.," 1600. 
 
 Richard III, King of England, a younger son of 
 Richard, Duke of York, and a brother of Edward IV., 
 was born in Northamptonshire on the 2d of October, 
 1452, and was styled the Duke of Gloucester. He took 
 part in the battle of Tewksbury, in 1471, and, according 
 to a report which obtained currency, was instrumental 
 in the death of Henry VI. In 1472 he married Lady 
 Anne Nevil, a daughter of the Earl of Warwick. He 
 became regent or protector at the accession of his 
 nephew, Edward V., who was a minor, (April, 1483.) 
 " His exorbitant ambition," says Hume, " unrestrained 
 by any principle either of justice or humanity, made him 
 carry his views to the possession of the crown itself." 
 By dissimulation and professions of loyalty he obtained 
 possession of the king's person. He arrested and exe- 
 cuted the Earl of Rivers, Edward's maternal uncle and 
 tutor, with other friends of the young king. About the 
 end of June, 1483, he usurped the royal power openly 
 and without resistance. Soon after this date Edward 
 V. md his brother were put to death in the Tower by 
 tht order of Richard. His authority was recognized by 
 a Parliament which met in 1484. " But the crimes of 
 Richard were so horrid and so shocking to humanity 
 that the natural sentiments of men, without any political 
 or public views, were sufficient to render his government 
 unstable." (Hume.) Many nobles and malcontents as- 
 sembled in Brittany and offered their services to Henry, 
 Earl of Richmond, who was regarded by the Lancas- 
 trians as the rightful heir to the crown. Henry landed 
 at Milford Haven in August, 1485, with a small army, 
 which was increased to 6000 men. The rivals met at 
 Bosworth on the 21st of August. In number of men 
 Richard had the advantage ; but, soon after the battle 
 began, Lord Stanley, whose conduct had been equivocal, 
 
 joined Richmond with about 7000 men and decided the 
 victory. Richard fought with the energy of despair, 
 and was slain as he was rushing forward to attack Henry 
 in person. Richard was of small stature, humpbacked, 
 and had a disagreeable countenance. Several modern 
 writers have appeared as his apologists. Richard III. 
 furnishes the name to one of Shakspeare's most popular 
 dramas. 
 
 See Sir George Buck, "Life of Richard III. ;" Jesse, "Life 
 of Richard III.," i860: Beai.e, "Richard III. and his Times," 
 1844: Sir Thomas More. " History of Edward V. and the Duke of 
 York," 1641 ; Hume, " History of England," chap, xxiii. ; Horace 
 Walpole, "Historic Doubts on Richard III," 1768: J. Rev, 
 " Essais historiques et critiques stir Richard III." 1818. 
 
 Richard (re'shiit') I, Duke of Normandy, surnamed 
 Sans Peur, ("without fear,") was born about 933 ; died 
 in 996. 
 
 Richard H, Duke of Normandy, was the son of the 
 preceding, whom he succeeded. He died in 1027 or 1026, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Richard III., who died 
 in 1028. 
 
 Richard, a native of Normandy, was a friend of 
 Thomas k Becket, whom he succeeded as Archbishop' 
 of Canterbury in 1 174. Died in 1184. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. ii. chap. viii. 
 
 Richard, a learned and liberal prelate, whose family 
 name was Frrz- Ralph. He became Archbishop of 
 Armagh in 1347, and denounced the superstition and 
 licentious habits of the mendicant friars. For this 
 offence he was arraigned before Pope Innocent VI., 
 and condemned. Died at Avignon in 1360. 
 
 Richard, re'shaV, (Achille,) a French botanist, 
 born in Paris in 1794, was a son of Louis Claude Marie, 
 noticed below. He wrote many monographs, and con- 
 tributed greatly to popularize the science of botany. 
 His " Elements of Botany and Vegetable Physiology" 
 (1819 ; 7th edition, 1846) is highly commended as a text- 
 book for students. It has been translated into many 
 languages. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Bouchardot, " filoges de Royer-Collard et d'A. Richard," 
 1S53 ; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Richard, (Charles Louis,) a French theologian, 
 born in Lorraine in 171 1. He published a "Diction- 
 ary of Ecclesiastical Sciences," (6 vols., 1760.) Died 
 in 1794. 
 
 Richard, (Flkury FuANgois,) a French historical 
 painter, born in Lyons in 1777. He received the title 
 of painter to Charles X. about 1824. 
 
 Richard, (Francois,) called Richard Lenoir, a 
 French manufacturer, born in Calvados in 1765. He 
 and his partner Lenoir introduced the manufacture of 
 fine cotton stuffs into France about 1795. Died in 1839. 
 
 See his autobiographic " Memoires," 1837. 
 
 Richard, (Francois Marie Claude,) Baron, a 
 French physician, born in the eighteenth century. He 
 was the author of " Observations on the Medicine of the 
 Military Hospitals," (" Observations de Medecine des 
 Hopitaux militaires," 1 766.) He died in the reign of 
 I Louis XVI. 
 
 Richard, (Jean,) a French moralist and religious 
 writer, born at Verdun in 1638. His chief work is 
 " Universal Science of the Pulpit, or Moral Dictionary," 
 ("La Science universelle de la Chaire, ou Dictionnaiie 
 morale," etc., 5 vols., 1700-12.) Died in 1719. 
 
 Richard, (Joseph Charles,) a French revolutionist, 
 born at La Fleche in 1752, was a moderate member of 
 the Convention. He was specially excepted from the 
 operation of the law which exiled regicides in 1816. 
 Died in 1834. 
 
 Richard, (Louis Claude Marie,) an emineVit French 
 botanist, born at Versailles in 1754. He passed about 
 eight years (1781-89) in exploring the botanical and 
 other productions of Guiana and the Antilles. After 
 his return he was admitted into the Institute, and was 
 professor of botany in the Ecole de Medecine, Paris. I le 
 was a good observer, and was versed in various branches 
 of natural history. He wrote, besides several memoirs 
 or monographs, an excellent " Analysis of the Fruit, 
 considered in general," (1808.) Died in 1821. 
 
 See Cuvier, " filoge de L. C. M. Richard;" Kunth, "Notice 
 sur L. C. M. Richard," 1824; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 a, e, i, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, f, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; n5t; good; moon; 
 
RICHARD 
 
 1893 
 
 RICHARDSON 
 
 Richard, (Rene,) a French historian, born at Sau- 
 mtir in 1654, obtained the office of royal censor, (of 
 books.) Died in 1727. 
 
 Richard, (Theodore,) a French landscape-painter, 
 born at Milliau (Aveyron) about 1805. 
 
 Richard de Bury, an English prelate and patron of 
 learning, whose family name was Richard Angerville 
 or Angarville, was born at Bury Saint Edmund's in 
 12S7. He was tutor to Prince Edward, (afterwards Ed- 
 ward III.) Having been sent on a mission to the pope, 
 he formed a friendship with Petrarch, was appointed 
 Bishop of Durham in 1333, and chancellor of England 
 in 1334. He collected a great number of books, which 
 he bequeathed to a company of scholars at Oxford. It 
 is stated that he owned more books than all the other 
 English bishops together. He was eminent for learning. 
 Died in 1345. 
 
 See an account of his life in his " Philobiblon," an English ver- 
 sion of which was published in London, 1832. 
 
 Richard de Saint-Victor, re'shaV deh sin vek'- 
 toR', a mystical theologian and philosopher, born in 
 Scotland, was a pupil of Hugh de Saint-Victor. He 
 became prior of the abbey of Saint-Victor, at Paris, in 
 1 164. He was an eloquent and celebrated writer on 
 theology, ethics, etc. An edition of his works was pub- 
 lished by John of Toulouse in 1650. Died in 1173. 
 
 See Joannes de Tolosa, " Vita Richardi," prefixed to the edi- 
 tion of his works, 1650. 
 
 Richard of Cirencester, (sis'e-ter,) an English his- 
 torian and monk, called Ricar'dusCorinen'sis, or the 
 Monk OF WESTMINSTER. He entered a monastery at 
 Westminster in 1350. He wrote, besides several works 
 on Saxon and British history, a celebrated " Description 
 of Britain," (" De Situ Britannia?,") the manuscript of 
 which was first found in 1747 by Charles Julius Bertram, 
 of Copenhagen. The authenticity of this work is 
 doubted by manv critics. 
 
 Richard of Hexham. See Roger. 
 
 Richard Plantagenet See York, third Duke of. 
 
 Rich'ard Plan-tag'e-net, Earl of Cornwall, a son 
 of John, King of England, was born in 1208. "His 
 ruling passion was to amass money, — in which he suc- 
 ceeded so well as to become the richest subject in Chris- 
 tendom, " (Hume.) According to Michaud, he fought 
 as a crusader in Palestine about 1240. He was elected 
 King of the Romans in 1256. " He was tempted," says 
 Hume, "to expend vast sums of money on his election." 
 Though he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, his reign 
 was only nominal. He died in England in 1272. 
 
 See Rymer, " Fcedera ;" Gebauer, " Leben und Thaten Herrn 
 Richards," etc., 1744. 
 
 Richardot, re'shaR'do', (Francois,) Bishop of Arras, 
 a learned French prelate, born in 1507 ; died in 1574. 
 
 Rich'ards, (William,) an American missionary, born 
 at Plainti'eld, Massachusetts, in 1792. He sailed in 1822 
 to the Sandwich Islands, where he became interpreter 
 and chaplain to the king, and in 1845 was appointed 
 minister of public instruction. Died in 1847. 
 
 Richards, (W. T.,) a distinguished American land- 
 scape-painter, is a resident of Philadelphia. He is one 
 of the most successful cultivators of the pre-Raphaelite 
 style in landscape-painting. His works are remarkable 
 for their accuracy of detail and the perfection of their 
 finish. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Rich'ard-son, (Charles,) an eminent English lexi- 
 cographer, born in 1775. He published in 1805 "Illus- 
 trations of English Philology," in which he advocated 
 the philological opinions of Home Tooke. His chief 
 work is a "Dictionary of the English Language," (2 
 vols. 4to, 1835-37, reissued in 1838, 1839. 1844, 1849, and 
 1855; with Supplement, 1856 and 1859,) which is verv 
 highly esteemed. It was pronounced by Dean Trench 
 the best dictionary in the language. Died in 1865. 
 
 See Ai.libone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Rich'ard-son, (Israel B.,) an American general, 
 born at Burlington, Vermont, about 1818, graduated at 
 West Point in 1841. He served with distinction in the 
 Mexican war, became a captain in 1851, and resigned 
 his commission in 1855. He commanded a division in 
 
 the Chickahominy campaign, (May-July, 1862,) was ap- 
 pointed a major-general in July, and rendered important 
 services at Antietam, September 17, 1862. He received 
 in this battle a wound of which he died, November, 1862. 
 See Tennev, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion." 
 
 Richardson, (James,) an English traveller, born in 
 Lincolnshire in 1806. He engaged in an expedition to 
 Lake Tchad, in Africa, and departed from Tripoli in 
 1850 with Barth. He died at Ungouratona in March, 
 1851, leaving a "Narrative of a Mission to Central 
 Africa," (1853.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle lliographie GeneVale." 
 
 Richardson, (John,) a learned English theologian, 
 born at Chester. He became Bishop of Ardagh, Ire- 
 land, in 1633. Died in London in 1654. 
 
 Rich'ard-son, (Sir John,) a British naturalist and 
 traveller, born at Dumfries, Scotland, in 1787. He 
 served as surgeon to Captain Franklin's expedition to 
 the Arctic Ocean in 1819, and to the second expedition 
 of that navigator in 1825. He published "Zoology of 
 the Northern Parts of British America," (" Fauna Bo- 
 reali-Americana," 3 parts, 1829-37,) in which he was 
 assisted by William Swainson and William Kirby. In 
 1848 he conducted an expedition sent to search for Sir 
 John Franklin. His route was through the lakes of 
 British America to Slave Lake, and thence down the 
 Mackenzie River, the mouth of which he reached in 
 August, 1848. After his return he published a " Journal 
 of a Boat- Voyage through Rupert's Land to the Arctic 
 Sea," etc., (1851.) Died in 1865. 
 
 See "Life of Sir John Richardson," London, 1868; "Bio- 
 graphical Sketches," by H. Martineau. 
 
 Richardson, (John Peter,) an American statesman, 
 grandson of Richard, noticed below, was born in Sumter 
 district, South Carolina, in 1801. He was a prominent 
 leader of the Union party in the Nullification contest 
 of 1835, was elected to Congress in 1836, and became 
 Governor of the State in 1841. Died in 1850. 
 
 Richardson, (Jonathan,) an English portrait- 
 painter and writer on art, was born about 1665. He 
 painted heads with great success, but failed in attitudes, 
 draperies, and backgrounds. After the death of Knel- 
 ler he was considered the foremost portrait-painter of 
 England. His durable reputation is founded on an 
 "Essay on the Whole Art of Criticism as it relates to 
 Painting, and an Argument in behalf of the Science of 
 a Connoisseur," (1719,) which is highly commended. 
 Died in 1745. 
 
 Richardson, (Joseph,) an English poet, born in 
 Northumberland. He studied law, and was called to 
 the bar in 1784. He was one of the writers of the 
 satires of the " Rolliad" and the " Probationary Odes." 
 Died in 1803. 
 
 Richardson, (Richard,) an American soldier and 
 patriot, born near Jamestown, Virginia, in 1704, served 
 in the Revolutionary war, and was made a brigadier- 
 general. Died in 1780. 
 
 Richardson, (Samuel,) an eminent English novel- 
 ist, born in Derbyshire in 1689, was a son of a joiner. 
 At the village school which he attended he began to dis- 
 play his faculty for invention. He has informed us that 
 in his boyhood he was a favourite of young women, who 
 availed themselves of his talents in the composition of 
 letters to their lovers. About the age of seventeen he 
 was apprenticed to a printer of Ixmdon, named Wilde. 
 He served as foreman in the printing-office about five 
 years, and then became a master-printer in Fleet Street. 
 He married Miss Wilde, a daughter of his former 
 master. In 1740 he published his first novel, "Pa- 
 mela," which was very popular and opened a new era in 
 English romantic literature. Fielding's novel "Joseph 
 Andrews" was an avowed burlesque of " Pamela." 
 Richardson acquired a European reputation by his 
 "History of Clarissa Harlowe," (1748,) which is con- 
 sidered his capital work. " His personages have all 
 the reality possible," says Diderot; "his incidents are 
 realized in the manners of all polished nations. What 
 fertility in the invention of personages ! what variety 
 in the delineation of characters !" He afterwards 
 produced the novel of "Sir Charles Grandison," (1753,) 
 which was less successful. Richardson was prosperous in 
 
 task; fas s; %hard; gas_/';G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; thasin this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RICHARDSON 
 
 1894 
 
 RICHELIEU 
 
 business. By the favour of Speaker Onslow he obtained 
 the lucrative privilege of printing the Journals of the 
 House of Commons. He wrote No. XCVII. of the 
 " Rambler" of Dr. Johnson, who was his friend and a 
 warm admirer of his works. Died on the 4th of July, 
 1761. 
 
 See Francis Jeffrey, " Swift and Richardson," 1S53 ; Dide- 
 eot, "EJoge de S. Richardson," 1762; Mrs. Barbaui.d, "Life of 
 S. Richardson," prefixed to his " Correspondence," 6 vols., 1803; 
 Sir Walter Scott, " Memoirs of Eminent Novelists ;" E. Man- 
 gin," Lite and Writings of S. Richardson," tSu ; Ai.ijbone, "Dic- 
 tionary of Authors ;" "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1804; 
 "Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1S69, article "Historical 
 Sketches of the Reign of George II. ;" "Westminster Review" for 
 January, 1869; " Monthly Review" for January, 1805. 
 
 Richardson, (Sir Thomas,) an English judge, born 
 in Norfolk in 1569. He was elected Speaker of the 
 Commons in 1621, and became chief justice of the court 
 of common pleas in 1625 or 1626. He decided that 
 torture was an illegal mode of obtaining evidence when 
 it was proposed to apply it to Felton the assassin, (1628.) 
 In 163 1 he was appointed chief justice of the king's 
 bench. He was a noted jester. Died in 1635. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices;" Foss, 
 "The Judges of England." 
 
 Richardson, (William,) an English clergyman, born 
 near Bedford in 1698. He became chaplain to the king 
 in 1746. Some of his sermons were published. Died 
 
 in '775- . , . , . . 
 
 Richardson, (William,) a British writer and critic, 
 born in Perthshire in 1743. He was professor of hu- 
 manity at Glasgow from 1773 to 1814, and was a 
 contributor to the "Mirror." Among his works are 
 "Anecdotes of the Russian Empire," and "Essays on 
 the Characters of Shakspeare," (3 vols., 1775,) which 
 was received with favour. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Riche, resh, (Claude Antoinf. Gaspard,) a French 
 naturalist, born in Beaujolais in 1762. He was a coad- 
 jutor of Vicq d'Azyr in the " Encyclopedic Methodique." 
 He accompanied as a naturalist the expedition which 
 was sent in search of La Perouse in 1791. On their 
 arrival at Java, in 1793, the collections and journal of 
 Riche were seized by the Dutch. He died in 1797, 
 leaving many memoirs on natural history. He was a 
 brother of De Prony, the great engineer and geometer. 
 
 See Cuvier, " Eloge du Citoyen Riche," 1798. 
 
 Riche, re'sha', (Jkan Baptists,) President of Hayti, 
 was born at Cap-Haitien about 1780. He served as a 
 general under Christophe, and became President in 
 March, 1846. Died in February, 1847. 
 
 Riche de Prony. See Prony, de. 
 
 Richelet, resh'li', (Pierre,) a French grammarian, 
 born at Cheminon in 1631. He published, besides other 
 works, a "Dictionary of the French Language," (1680,) 
 the success of which was promoted by many satirical 
 remarks contained in it. Died at Paris in 1698. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Richelieu, de, deli resh'le-yh', (Ai.phonse Louis 
 du Plessis— d-1 pl£'se',) caileti Cardinal de Lyon, 
 born in Paris in 1582, was a brother of the great states- 
 man. He became Archbishop of Lyons in 1628, and 
 cardinal in 1629. He meddled little with the intrigues 
 of the court. Died in 1653. 
 
 See Abbe de Pure, "Vie de Richelieu, Cardinal de Lyon." 
 
 Richelieu, de, (Armand Emanuel du Plessis.) 
 Duke, a statesman, born in Paris in 1766, was a grand- 
 son of Marshal Richelieu, (1696-1788.) He emigrated 
 in 1789 or 1790, entered the Russian army, and became 
 governor of Odessa in 1803. Having returned to France 
 in 1814, he was appointed minister of foreign affairs and 
 president of the council (i.e. prime minister) in Sep- 
 tember, 1 81 5. He negotiated with the allies a treaty 
 which secured the territorial integrity of France. He 
 resigned office about the end of 1818, an,d was recalled 
 to the presidency of the council February 20, 1820. In 
 November, 1821, he retired because the majority of the 
 Chamber opposed his policy. He was a man of estimable 
 character. Died in May, 1822. 
 
 Sec L. F. de Bausskt. " Notice sur M. le Due de Richelieu," 
 1822; Lamartine, " History of the Restoration;" Guizot, "Me*- 
 moires," tome i. ; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Richelieu, resh'e/-loo, de, [Fr. pron. deh resh'le-yh',! 
 (Armand Jean du Plessis,) Cardinal, a celebrated 
 and ambitious French statesman, born at Paris or in 
 Poitou on the 5th of September, 1585, was a son of 
 Franjois du Plessis and Susanne de la Porte. He 
 studied at the College of Navarre and that of Lisieux, 
 and chose the clerical profession. In 1607 he was 
 consecrated at Rome as Bishop of Lucon. Having been 
 selected by the States-General to harangue the king in 
 1614, he acquitted himself so well that he was appointed 
 almoner to the queen-regnant. He was secretary of 
 state for a short time in 1616, and acted as mediator 
 between the king and his mother, Marie de Medicis, 
 by whose influence he obtained the dignity of cardinal 
 iii 1622. About two years later he was admitted into 
 the royal council, which he entered as a master rather 
 than an adviser. Even the king was overawed by the 
 intensity of his imperious will. Richelieu soon became 
 prime minister, and pursued a policy which tended 
 to humble the powerful nobility, to centralize the ad- 
 ministration, to render the monarchy absolute, and 
 to restore the balance of power in Europe, which the 
 ascendency of the House of Austria had disturbed. 
 His most powerful opponents were Marie de Medicis 
 and the king's brother Gaston, who incited an armed 
 revolt, which was suppressed without difficulty. Among 
 the important achievements of Richelieu was the subjec- 
 tion of the Calvinists, who had attempted to gain their 
 independence or defend their rights by arms, and whose 
 head-quarters were at Rochelle. He directed in person 
 the siege of this city, which surrendered in 1628 on 
 condition that a general pardon should be granted, with 
 religious toleration to the Protestants. A contest for 
 ascendency between Richelieu and Marie de Medicis 
 ended in the exile of the latter in 1630. He maintained 
 the independence of the civil power against the usurpa- 
 tions of the Romish Church. He exhibited excessive 
 severity in the execution of Marillac, Montmorency, 
 Cinq-Mars, and other noblemen, who were implicated 
 in a conspiracy against him. The first two of these 
 were executed in 1632. ' 
 
 In the pursuance of his design to reduce the power 
 of Austria, he supported with a subsidy the Protestants 
 of Germany, who were waging war against the emperor, 
 and used his influence to defeat the negotiations for 
 peace. He also ordered a large body of French troops 
 to co-operate with the Swedes on the Rhine in 1635. 
 About this time his armies opposed the Spaniards in 
 Flanders and Italy, but without much success. In 1635 
 he founded and endowed the French Academy, the most 
 splendid literary institution of Europe. In the same 
 year he made a treaty with Holland, which became his 
 ally in a war against Philip IV. of Spain. The French 
 gained several victories in Germany and Italy in 1640- 
 42. During his administration Alsace, Artois, and Rous- 
 sillon were annexed to France. Richelieu detected a 
 dangerous conspiracy formed by Cinq-Mars and Gaston 
 of Orleans, the former of whom was executed in Sep- 
 tember, 1642. He died in Paris on the 4th of December, 
 1642. The people expressed by bonfires their joy for 
 his death. 
 
 Richelieu had some literary taste, and was a liberal 
 patron of authors, artists, etc. He was the reputed 
 author of several works, among which are " Memoires 
 du Cardinal de Richelieu," first printed in 1823, and his 
 "Political Testament," ("Testament politique,") the 
 authenticity of which was discredited by Voltaire and 
 delended by Foncemagne. Although Richelieu was a 
 great and successful statesman, he is not a general 
 favourite with the French, like Henry IV. or Louis XIV. 
 Many modern French writers argue that his policy did 
 not conduce to the real and durable prosperity of the 
 nation. His system is severely criticised by De Tocque- 
 ville, (in his "Ancien Regime et la Revolution,") by 
 Quinet, and by Charles de Remusat. 
 
 SeeAuBERY, "Memoires du Cardinal de Richelieu," 1660 ; Jay, 
 " Histoire du Ministere de Richelieu;" Capefigue, "Richelieu et 
 Mazarin," 1836; Henri Martin, "Histoire de France;" Miche- 
 let, " Histoire de France ;" Violart, " Histoire du Ministere de 
 Richelieu," 1649; J. Caili.et, " L' Administration en France sous 
 Richelieu," 2 vols., 1861 ; "Life of Cardinal Richelieu," by William 
 Robson, 1854 ; Sully, " Memoires ;" Cardinal de Retz, " Me- 
 moires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale. " 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, % short; a, e, i, p, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon: 
 
RICHELIEU 
 
 1895 
 
 R1CHTER 
 
 Richelieu, de, (Louis Francois Armand du Ples- 
 sis,) a brilliant and profligate courtier, born in 1696, was 
 a grand-nephew of Cardinal Richelieu. He was a son 
 of Armand Jean Vignerod, Due de Richelieu. His in- 
 trigues and libertinism caused him to be thrice confined 
 in the llastille. He obtained the favour of Louis XV., 
 and distinguished himself as a general at Fontenoy in 
 1745. About 1748 he was made a marshal of France. 
 He disgraced himself by his cupidity, arrogance, and 
 scandalous vices. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Fai'r, "Vie privee du Marechal de Richelieu," 1790: Sou- 
 lavie, M Mlmoires du Mare'chat de Richelieu;" Voltaire, " Cor- 
 respondance ge'ne'rale ;" Saint-Simon, " Memoires ;" Capefigue, 
 *' Le Marechal de Richelieu," 1837; Danghau, "Journal;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gijne'rale." 
 
 Riohemont, de, deh resh'moN', (Louis' Augusts 
 Camus,) a French general, born in 1770; died in 1853. 
 
 Richepanse or Richepauce, 1 esh'p&Nss', ( An- 
 TOINE,) a French general, born at Metz in 1770. He 
 became a general of brigade in 1796, and a general 
 of division in 1799. Having obtained command of a 
 division of the army of Moreau, he contributed to the 
 victory of Hohenlinden, (1800.) Died at Guadeloupe 
 in 1803. 
 
 See Nollet-Fabert, " Le GeWral Rlchepance," 1853. 
 
 Richer, re'sha', [Lat. Riche'rus,] a French chroni- 
 cler, who flourished about 980-1000. He wrote (in 
 Latin) a history of the period from 888 to 995, which 
 is highly prized. The manuscript of this work was dis- 
 covered in 1833 by Pertz and Boehmer. 
 
 Richer, (Adkikn,) a French biographer and historian, 
 bom at Avranches in 1720. He wrote "The Lives of 
 Celebrated Mariners," (13 vols., 1780-86,) and other 
 works. Died at Paris in 1798. 
 
 Richer, (Ci.audf.,) a French mathematician, born at 
 Auxerre in 1680; died in 1756. 
 
 Richer, (Kdmond,) a French canonist w born in Cham- 
 pagne in 1559 or 1560. He became an adherent of 
 Henry IV. about 1590, and syndic of the Faculty of 
 Theology at Paris in 1608. He defended the privileges 
 of the Galilean Church, and published a work "On 
 Ecclesiastical and Political Power," (161 1,) which sub- 
 jected him to persecution. Died in 1631. "His fame," 
 says Hallain, "has risen in later times." 
 
 See Baii-let, "Vie de Richer," 1714: Perau, "Vie d'E. 
 Richer," 1748; Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Richer, (Edouard,) a French author, born in La 
 Vendee in 1792. He produced a poem entitled "Victor 
 et Amelie," (1816,) and a " History of Brittany," (1821,) 
 which is commended. Having been converted to the 
 doctrines of Swedenborg, he published a work called 
 "The New Jerusalem," (8 vols., 1832-36.) Died at 
 Nantes in 1834. 
 
 See Piet, " Memoires sur la Vie de Richer," 1836. 
 
 Richer, (Francois,) a French jurist, a brother of 
 Adrien, noticed above, was born at Avranches in 17 18. 
 He wrote a "Treatise on Civil Death," (" De la Mort 
 civile," 1755,) and "Celebrated Trials," (22 vols., 1772 
 -88.) Died in 1790. 
 
 Richer, (Henri,) a mediocre French writer, born at 
 Longueil in 1685. Among his works are " Fables in 
 Verse," (1729,) and a " Life of Maecenas," (1746.) Died 
 in 1748. 
 
 Richer, (Jhan,) a French astronomer, was sent to 
 Cayenne in 1671 to observe the parallax of the sun. 
 Died in 1696. 
 
 Richer d'Aube, re'shi' dob, (Francois,) a French 
 jurist, born at Rouen in 1686, was a nephew of Fonte- 
 nelle. Died in 1752. 
 
 Richerand, resh'roN', (Anthklmf.) an eminent 
 French physician and surgeon, born at Belley, in Bugey, 
 in 1779. He published "Elements of Physiology," 
 (1801 ; 10th edition, 1832,) which had great success, and 
 became professor in the Faculty of Medicine in Paris 
 in 1806. He wrote articles for the "Biographie Uni- 
 verselle." Died in 1840. 
 
 See Dubois d'Amiens, "E*loge de Richerand," 1851 ; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^ne>ale." 
 
 Richerus. See Richer. 
 
 Richier, re'she^', (Ligier,) a skilful French sculptor, 
 born in Lorraine about 1500. He studied in Rome, 
 
 and returned to Lorraine while he was still young. 
 Died about 1572. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GiSne'rale." 
 
 Richmann, riK'man, or Rickman, rik'man, (GeorG 
 Wilhelm,) born in Livonia in 1711, became professor 
 of natural history at Saint Petersburg in 1745. He was 
 killed by lightning, while repeating the experiment of 
 Dr. Franklin, in 1753. 
 
 Rich'mond, (Charles Gordon Lennox,) Dukf. 
 OF, born in London in 1791, was a son of Charles 
 Lennox, (1764-1819.) He was a member of the privy 
 council, and of the cabinet formed by Earl Grey in 1831. 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 Richmond, (Charles Henry Gordon Lennox,) 
 Duke of, an English peer, born in 1818, was educated 
 at Oxford. He was appointed president of the poor- 
 law board in 1859, resigned the same year, and succeeded 
 his father as duke in i860. He was president of the 
 board of trade in 1867 and 1868. In 1870 he became 
 leader of the Conservatives in the House of Lords. 
 
 Richmond, (Charles Lennox,) Duke of, born 
 in 1672, was a son of Charles II. and the Duchess of 
 Portsmouth. He served in the army under William 
 III. in Flanders. He died in 1723, and left the title to 
 his son Charles. 
 
 Richmond, (Charles Lennox,) Duke of, a British 
 general, born in 1735, was a grandson of a natural son 
 of King Charles II. He was a friend of liberty and 
 reform, and a man of superior talents. In 1778 he pro- 
 posed to recognize the independence of the revolted 
 American colonies. He became master of the ordnance 
 in 1782. Died in 1806. His sister, Sarah Lennox, 
 became the wife of George Napier and mother of the 
 famous commanders of that name. 
 
 Richmond, (Charles Lennox,) Duke of, a British 
 peer, born in 1764. He entered the army in his youth. 
 In 1806 he inherited the dukedom at the death of his 
 uncle. He was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland in 
 1808, and governor-general of the British possessions in 
 North America about 1816. He died in Canada, of 
 hydrophobia, in 1819, and was succeeded by his son 
 Charles. 
 
 Richmond, Earl of. See Henry VII. of Eng. 
 land. 
 
 Richmond, (George,) an English portrait-painter, 
 born about 1809. He became popular as a painter in 
 water-colours in London. His more recent works are 
 chiefly portraits in oil. He was elected an associate of 
 the Royal Academy in 1857. 
 
 Richmond, (Ja^Ks Stuart,) fourth Duke of, born 
 in 1612, was a nephew of Ludovic Stuart, noticed below. 
 He inherited the title of duke about 1641. He was a 
 devoted adherent of Charles I. in the civil war. Died 
 in 1655. 
 
 Richmond, (Leigh,) an English clergyman, born in 
 Liverpool in 1772. He was educated at Cambridge, and 
 obtained a curacy in the Isle of Wight, from which he 
 removed to London in 1S05 and became chaplain of the 
 Lock Hospital. He was presented to the rectory of 
 Turvey, in Bedfordshire, about 1808. He published 
 "Annals of the Poor," containing "The Dairyman's 
 Daughter" and other narratives, which obtained a wide 
 circulation ; also, "The Fathers of the English Church," 
 (8 vols., 1807-11.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See " Memoir of the Rev. Leigh Richmond," by Rev. T. S. 
 Gkimsuaw. 
 
 Rich'mond and Len'nox, (Ludovic Stuart,) sec- 
 ond Duke of, born in 1574, was a son of the first Duke 
 of Lennox, and a cousin of James I. of England. He 
 gained the favour of that king, who created him Duke of 
 Richmond in 1623. He died, without issue, in 1624. 
 
 Richomme, re'shom', (Joseph THEODORE,) an emi- 
 nent French engraver, born in Paris in 1785. He gained 
 the grand prize in 1806 or 1816. He engraved a number 
 of works after Raphael. Died about 1850. 
 
 Richter, riK'ter, (Adolph,) a German painter, born 
 at Thorn in 1813. 
 
 Richter, (Adrian Ludwig,) an eminent German 
 painter and engraver, born at Dresden in 1803. His 
 works are chiefly landscapes representing German and 
 Italian scenes. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asj; g', h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. ( JiySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RICHTER 
 
 1896 
 
 R1DGLEY 
 
 Richter, (/Emilius Ludwig,) professor of canon law 
 at Marburg, born at Stolpen in 1808, published a 
 " Manual of Catholic and Evangelical Canon Law," 
 (1841.) 
 
 Richter, (August Gottlob,) a German surgeon, born 
 in Saxony in 1742. He was professor of surgery at Got- 
 tingen for more than forty years, and wrote several works 
 on that subject. Died in 1812. 
 
 Richter, (Georg Gotti.ob,) a German physician, 
 born at Schneeburg, in Misnia, in 1694. He became 
 professor of medicine at Gottingen in 1736, and pub- 
 lished many medical treatises. Died in 1773. 
 
 Richter, rik'ujr, (Henry,) an English painter of 
 genre and occasionally of history, born in 1772, was 
 of German extraction. He resided mostly in London, 
 where he died in 1857. His most important historical 
 work is "Christ Restoring Sight to the Blind," now in 
 a church at Greenwich, England. 
 
 Richter, (Hermann Euerhard,) a German phy- 
 sician, born at Leipsic in 1808, published a number 
 of medical and botanical works. 
 
 Richter, (Jean Paul Friedrich,) commonly called 
 Jean Paul, a popular, quaint, and original German 
 author, born at Wunsiedel, near Baireuth, (Bavaria,) on 
 the 21st of March, 1763. His father was a subaltern 
 teacher in the gymnasium of that place, and afterwards a 
 clergyman. His early education was defective. He had, 
 however, made good progress in Latin and Greek when 
 he entered the University of Leipsic, in 1780. He was 
 destined for theology, but a strong predilection for poetry 
 and philosophy caused him to neglect, and at length to 
 abandon, his appointed profession. During his attend- 
 ance at the university he was reduced to extreme indi- 
 gence. To supply his urgent want of funds, he wrote a 
 work entitled "Greenland Lawsuits," (1783,) which but 
 slightly improved his pecuniary affairs. He also wrote 
 a "Selection from the Papers of the Devil," (" Auswahl 
 aus des Teufels Papieren," 1788.) He quitted Leipsic 
 in 1785, after which he lived some time with his mother 
 at Hof. He was afterwards a tutor in a family of rank, 
 and in 1793 became teacher of a school at Schwarzen- 
 bach. He produced in 1793 "The Invisible Lodge," 
 (" Die unsichtbare Loge,") which was received with 
 favour. His "Hesperus," a novel, (4 vols., 1794,) was 
 greatly admired. " By degrees," says Carlyle, " Jean 
 Paul began to be considered, not a strange crack-brained 
 mixture of enthusiast and buffoon, but a man of infinite 
 humour, sensibility, force, and penetration." He changed 
 his residence frequently, living successively at Leipsic, 
 Weimar, Meiningen, etc. In 1798 he published "The 
 Valley of Campan, or a Discourse on the Immortality 
 of the Soul," (" Das Campanerthal, oder die Unsterb- 
 lichkeit der Seele.") He married Caroline Mayer, of 
 Berlin, in 1801, soon after which he settled at Baireuth. 
 The prince-primate Carl von Dalberg granted him in 
 1809 an annual pension of 1000 florins. According to 
 Carlyle, he received a pension from the King of Bavaria 
 in 1802. Richter is represented as having been eminently 
 happy in his domestic relations. Died at Baireuth in 
 November, 1825. 
 
 Among his principal works are novels entitled "Quin- 
 tus Fixlein," (1796,) " Parson in Jubilee," (" Der Jubel 
 Senior," 1797,) "Titan," (1800-03,) anc ' " Flegeljahre," 
 (which maybe translated "Wild Oats," 1805.) "Titan," 
 which he considered his master-piece, has been trans- 
 lated into English, (1863.) He also wrote two works 
 of high order, entitled " Introduction to /Esthetics," 
 ("Vorschule der iEsthetik," 3 vols., 1804,) and " Le- 
 vana," (1807,) a profound philosophical essay on educa- 
 tion. He left an autobiography, " Wahrheit aus Jean 
 Paul's Leben, (8 vols., 1826-33,) l ^e last part of which 
 was written by Dr. Otto. " Except by name," said Car- 
 lyle in 1827, "Richter is little known out of Germany. 
 The only thing connected with him, we think, that has 
 reached this country is his saying imported by Madame 
 de Stael and thankfully pocketed by most newspaper 
 critics: 'Providence has given to the French the empire 
 of the land, to the English that of the sea, and to the 
 Germans that of — the air !' Of this last element, indeed, 
 his own genius might easily seem to have been a denizen. 
 His thoughts, his feelings, the creations of his spirit, 
 
 walk before us embodied under wondrous shapes, in 
 motley and ever-fluctuating groups; but his essential 
 character, however he disguised it, is that of a philoso- 
 pher and moral poet, . . . whose delight and best 
 endeavour are with all that is beautiful and tender and 
 mysteriously sublime in the fate or history of man." As 
 a humourist, he is preeminent among the Germans. 
 
 See Carlyle, " Essays," vols. i. and ii. ; E. Forstek, "Life of 
 Jean Paul Richter," 1863; DBuiNG, "Leben und Charakteristik J. 
 P. Richters," 1830; R. O. Spaziek, "Jean Paul Richter; ein bio- 
 graphischer Commentar zu seinen Werken," 5 vols., 1833: Z. 
 Funck, "Notice sur Jean Paul Richter," 1839; L. Boerne, 
 "Denkrede auf J. P. F. Richter," 1826; " Nouvelle Giographie 
 G6ie>ale;" Eliza Lee," Life of J. P. F. Richter," Boston, 1842; 
 " Edinburgh Review" for June, 1827: "British Quarterly Review" 
 for November, 1847; "Blackwood's Magazine" tor July, 1847, and 
 September, 1863. 
 
 Richter, (Jeremias Benjamin,) a Prussian chemist, 
 born at Hirschberg, in Silesia, in 1762. He published, 
 besides other works, "Rudiments of the Art of Measuring 
 Chemical Elements," (4 vols., 1792-94.) It is stated that 
 he discovered the law of multiple proportions. Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 See Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland." 
 
 Richter, (Karl Friedrich,) a German Orientalist, 
 bonrat Freyberg in 1773 ; died in 1806. 
 
 Richter, von, fon nK'ter, (Otto Friedrich,) a 
 Russian traveller, 1x>rn in 1792. He visited Egypt, 
 Syria, etc. Died at Smyrna in 1816 or 1817. 
 
 Ric/l-mer, an ambitious general of the Roman army, 
 was a Gothic chief. He deposed Avitus about 457 a.d., 
 and raised to the throne Majorian, whom he put to 
 death in 461. He obtained imperial power, though he 
 did not assume the title of emperor. In 472 a.d. he 
 captured Rome, and caused Anthemius to be killed. 
 He died the same year. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire;" Lb BeAu, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Rick'etts, (James B.,) an American general, born in 
 the city of New York. He graduated at West Point in 
 1839, and became a captain in 1852. He commanded a 
 division at the battle of Antietam, September, 1862, and 
 at that of the Wilderness, May 5 and 6, 1864. He was 
 disabled by a severe wound at the battle of Cedar Creek, 
 Virginia, October 19, 1864. 
 
 Rickman, (Georg Wilhelm.) See Richmann. 
 
 Rick'man, (John,) F.R.S., an English statistician, 
 born in 1771, was assistant clerk of the House of Com- 
 mons. Died in 1841. 
 
 Rickman, (Thomas,) an English architect and emi- 
 nent writer on Gothic architecture, was born at Maiden- 
 head in 1776. He became a clerk in the service of an 
 insurance-broker of Liverpool about 1808, after which 
 he began to study design in his leisure hours. Having 
 adopted the profession of architect, he removed to Bir- 
 mingham, and published " An Attempt to discriminate 
 the Styles of Architecture in England," (181 7,) which 
 is esteemed a standard work. He was the architect of 
 many Gothic churches erected at Bristol, Birmingham, 
 Carlisle, Liverpool, etc. Among his best works is the 
 New Court of Saint John's College, Cambridge. Died 
 in 1841. 
 
 Ricord, re'koR', (Philippe,) a skilful physician, of 
 French parentage, born at Baltimore, United States, in 
 1800. He became chief surgeon of the Hopital du 
 Midi, Paris, in 1S31, and gave special attention to vene- 
 real diseases, on which he has written with great suc- 
 cess. His practice is said to be immense : it is probably 
 not surpassed by that of any other physician in Paris 
 Among his works are " Letters on Syphilis," (1854.) 
 
 Ri'der, (John,) a Protestant bishop, born in Cheshire 
 about 1562. He became Bishop of Killaloe, in Ireland, 
 in 1612. Among his works is "An English-Latin and 
 Latin-English Dictionary," (1589.) Died in 1632. 
 
 Rider, (Rev. William,) an English historian, pub- 
 lished a " History of England." Died in 1785. 
 
 Ridg'ley, (Thomas,) a dissenting minister, born in 
 London about 1666. He succeeded Thomas Gouge in 
 London about 1 700, and became tutor in an academy of 
 the Independents in 1712. He published a "Body of 
 Divinity," (1731.) Died in 1734. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, S, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, Q, j?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; 
 
 moon; 
 
R WINGER 
 
 1897 
 
 RIENZI 
 
 Ridiuger. Sec RlKliiKGBR. 
 
 Rid'ley, (Gloucester,) an English clergyman, born 
 at sea, on board the "Gloucester" Kast Indiaman, in 
 1702. lie wrote a " Life of Dr. Nicholas Ridley, Bishop 
 of London," (1763,) and several poems, one of which 
 was called " Psyche," (1782.) Died in 1774. 
 
 Ridley, (James,) a son of the preceding, was a chap- 
 lain in the army. He wrote "Tales of the Genii," 
 often reprinted. Died prematurely in 1765. 
 
 Ridley, (Nicholas,) an eminent English Reformer 
 and martyr, born in Northumberland near the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century. He was educated at Pembroke 
 College, Cambridge, and obtained a high reputation as 
 a preacher. About 1540 he became chaplain to the 
 king, lie was appointed Bishop of Rochester in 1547, 
 and succeeded Bonner as Bishop of London in 1550. 
 He assisted Cranmer in 'composing forty-one or forty- 
 two articles of faith in 155 1, attempted to convert the 
 princess Marv, and induced King Edward to found 
 several hospitals in London. On the death of Edward 
 VI. he advocated the claim of Lady Jane Grey. He 
 was committed to the Tower by Queen Mary in July, 
 1553, and was removed in 1554 to Oxford, where he 
 took part in a disputation on the questions which divided 
 the Protestants from the Roman Catholics. Having 
 been condemned as a heretic, he suffered death by fire 
 with fortitude on the 16th of October, 1555. 
 
 See Gloucester Ridley. "Life of Bishop Ridley." 1763; Hume, 
 "History of England;" "Monthly Review" for December, 1763, 
 and January, 1764. 
 
 Ridley, (Sir Thomas,) an English civilian, born at 
 Ely. He wrote a " View of the Civil and Ecclesiastical 
 Law." Died in 1629. 
 
 Ridolfi, re-dol'fee, (Carlo,) an able painter of the 
 Venetian school, was born at or near Vicenza about 
 1598. He avoided the degenerate style which prevailed 
 among his contemporaries. A "Visitation" which he 
 painted for a church in. Venice is especially admired. 
 He wrote "The Lives of the Venetian Painters," (2 
 vols., 1648,) which is a work of much literary and critical 
 merit. Died about 1660. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Ridolfi, (Claudio,) an Italian painter, bom at Ve- 
 rona in 1560, was a pupil of Paul Veronese. He is 
 gaid to have been a good colorist. Died in 1644. 
 
 Ridolfi, (LORENZO,) a popular Florentine statesman, 
 who in 1425 rendered an important service to the re- 
 public by inducing the Venetians to form an alliance 
 with Florence against the Duke of Milan. 
 
 Ridolfi, di, de re-dol'fee, (Cosimo,) Marquis, an 
 Italian agriculturist, born at Florence in 1794. He 
 founded an agricultural school at Meleto, and wrote 
 articles for the "Journal of Agriculture," founded by 
 himself and a few others in 1827. He was minister of 
 the interior and president of the council for a short 
 time in 1847 and 1848.' 
 
 Riedel, ree'del. (August,) a German painter, was 
 born at Baireuth in 1800. He worked some years in 
 Rome. 
 
 Riedel, (Friedrich Justus,) a German litterateur, 
 bom near Erfurt in 1742. Among his works are Satires, 
 (3 vols., 1786.) Died in Vienna in 1785. 
 
 Riedesel, ree'deh-zel', (Joseph Hermann,) a German 
 traveller, bom in 1740. He published an account of 
 his travels in Greece, etc., (" Remarques d'un Voyageur 
 an Levant," 177L) Died in 1785. 
 
 Riedesel, vo'u, fon ree'deh-zel', (Frf.dkrika.) Bar- 
 oness, a German lady, born at Brandenburg in 1746. 
 She went to the United States in 1777 with her husband, 
 an officer in the British service. She wrote Letters on 
 the campaign which she witnessed in New York. Died 
 in Berlin in 1808. 
 
 See the " North American Review" for January, 1828. 
 
 Riedesel, von, (Friedrich Adolph,) Baron, a 
 German officer, bom in 1738, was the husband of the 
 preceding. He served in the British army against the 
 Americans, (1777-82,) and obtained the rank of general. 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 See " Memoirs, Letters, and Journals of Majnr-General Riede- 
 lel," translated from the German by William L. Stone, (New 
 York, 1 
 
 Riedinger or Ridinger, ree'ding-er, ( JohanN 
 Elias,) an eminent German designer and engraver, 
 born at Ulm in 1695. His delineations of animals, es- 
 pecially wild ones, are unsurpassed for accuracy and 
 fidelity to nature. Among his master-pieces are " Obser- 
 vations on Wild Animals," (40 copper-plates,) "Fables 
 of Animals," (16 plates,) and "Paradise," (12 plates.) 
 He worked mostly at Augsburg. Died in 1767. 
 
 See Nagler, "Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon;" HlRSCHING, 
 " Historisch-liter.arisches Handbuch." 
 
 Riegger, von, fon reeg'ger, (Joseph Anton,) a Ger- 
 man jurist and writer on canon law. He became 
 professor of law at Vienna in 1764. Died in 1795. 
 
 Riego y Nunez, del, dSl re-a'go e noon'yeth, a Span- 
 ish general and patriot, bom in Asturias about 1785, 
 He was a leader of the insurgents who in January, 1820, 
 took arms for the Constitution of 1812. He was afier- 
 wards appointed Captain-General of Asturias, or of 
 Aragon, and president of the Cortes. He resisted the 
 French army of intervention in 1823, was taken prisoner, 
 and executed in November of that year. 
 
 See Miguel Riego, "Memoirs of the Life of Riego," 1823; 
 Nard y Pirala. " Vida militar y politica de Riego," 1S44; Ed. 
 Burckhardt, "Riego und Mina, 1835. 
 
 Rieni, teem, (Johann,) a German rural economist, 
 born at Frankenthal, on the Rhine, in 1739. He wrote 
 on the methods of raising bees and obtaining honey. 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Riemer, ree'mer, (Friedrich Wii.helm,) a German 
 scholar and writer, born at Glatz in 1774. He was 
 employed as a tutor in the family of W. von Humboldt, 
 and subsequently in that of Goethe. He became first 
 librarian at Weimar in 1828. He published a " Greek- 
 German Hand-Lexicon," and a number of poems. Died 
 in 1845. 
 
 Riencourt, de, deh rej^N'kooR', (Simon,) a French 
 historian, born about 1605, in Paris, published a " His- 
 tory of the French Monarchy under the Reign of Louis 
 XIV.," (2 vols., 1688,) and a "History of Louis XIII.," 
 (1695.) Died in 1693. 
 
 Rienzi, re-dn'zee, or Rienzo, re-en'zo, (Nicola Ga- 
 BRINI,) called Colas di Rienzi, ko'lasdee re-en'zee, an 
 eloquent Roman tribune, was born probably at Rome. 
 He received a liberal education, and became a friend of 
 Petrarch about 1340. At that period anarchy prevailed 
 in Rome, the citizens of which were robbed and out- 
 raged by barons who occupied fortified castles. Rienzi 
 was a colleague of Petrarch in a deputation sent by the 
 Romans to Avignon in 1342 to persuade the pope to 
 return to Rome. In 1347, by the popular favour, he 
 obtained power, with the title of tribune, and made some 
 reforms, lie soon became elated with success, and dis- 
 gusted the people by his vain pomp and extravagance. 
 " He degenerated," says Gibbon, "into the vices of a 
 king." He was driven out of the city about the end of 
 1347, after he had been anathematized as a rebel and a 
 heretic by the legate of the pope. Having passed seven 
 years as a fugitive in Germany, etc., he was arrested and 
 taken to Avignon, as a captive or culprit, in 1352. In 
 1354 he was sent to Rome, with the title of senator, by the 
 pope, who proposed to use the talents and influence of 
 Rienzi for the restoration of order in that capital. Before 
 the end of the year he was killed in a tumult fomented 
 by the barons. " Never, perhaps," says Gibbon, " has the 
 energy and effect of a single mind been more remarkably 
 felt than in the sudden though transient reformation 
 of Rome by the tribune Rienzi. . . . More eloquent 
 than judicious, more enterprising than resolute, the 
 faculties of Rienzi were not balanced by cool and com- 
 manding reason." Byron apostrophizes Rienzi as the 
 " Redeemer of dark centuries of shame, — 
 The friend of Petrarch, — hope of Italy, — 
 Rienzi 1 last of Romans !" 
 
 Childe Harold, canto iv. stanza cxlv. 
 The history of Rienzi forms the basis of one of Bui- 
 wer's most popular novels. 
 
 See Ginnov, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," vol. iv. 
 chap. Ixx. ; Schiller, " History of Rebellions;" " Life of Rienzi," 
 in French, by l)u (ercrau, 1733: Gabrini, " Osservazioni sulla 
 Vita di Rienzo." iSo<>; Zkkirino Rfc, " La Vita di Rienzi," 1828; 
 PaFKNCORDT, "Rienzi et Rome a son fipoque," 1841; "The Life 
 and Times of Rienzi," Philadelphia, 1K36: V. Benedetti, "Vita 
 di Rienzi," 1S31 ; " Nouvelie Hiographie Generate ;" "London 
 Quarterly Review" for March, 1842. 
 
 < a* *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JSy^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RIENZO 
 
 1898 
 
 RIMINALD1 
 
 Rienzo. See Rienzi. 
 
 Riepenhausen, ree'pen-how'zen, (Franz,) an emi- 
 nent German painter of history, and engraver, born at 
 Gottingen in 1786. He went to Rome about 1807 with 
 his brother Johann. They produced several oil-paintings, 
 and designs to illustrate the poems of Goethe and Schil- 
 ler ; also a " History of Painting in Italy," (3 vols., 1820, 
 with twenty-four engravings after Italian masters.) He 
 died at Rome in 1831. 
 
 Riepenhausen, (Johann,) a painter and engraver, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born at Gottingen in 
 1788. He worked many years at Rome. After the 
 death of Franz, he published a series of engravings 
 illustrative of the life of Raphael, under the title of 
 "Vita di Raffaello," (1834.) 
 
 Ries, reess, (Fkrdinand,) a German composer and 
 pianist, born at Bonn in 1784, was a pupil of Beethoven. 
 He visited Paris, Stockholm, Saint Petersburg, and 
 London, and in the last-named city was received with 
 distinguished favour. His compositions include sym- 
 phonies, instrument pieces, and operas ; also an oratorio 
 called "David." Died in 1838. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Rieter, ree'ter, (Henri,) a Swiss landscape-painter, 
 born at Winterthur in 175 1. He worked at Berne, and 
 painted Swiss scenery with success. He published col- 
 oured engravings of the same subjects. Died in 1818. 
 
 Rietschel, reet'shel, (Ernst,) an eminent German 
 sculptor, and professor in the Academy of Arts at Dres- 
 den, was born at Pulsnitz in 1804. He studied under 
 Rauch at Berlin, and subsequently in Italy. Among his 
 master-pieces we may name " Mary Kneeling over the 
 Dead Body of Christ," a bust of Luther, a " Ceres," 
 colossal statues of Goethe and Schiller, (at Weimar,) 
 and the "Christ-Angel." Died at Dresden in 1S61. 
 
 See "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Rietschoof, reet'sKof, (Hendrik,) a skilful Dutch 
 painter of marine views, was born in 1678. 
 
 Rietschoof, (Jan Ki.aasz,) a Dutch painter of ma- 
 rine views, born at Hoorn in 1652, was father ot the 
 preceding. Died in 1719. 
 
 Rieux, de, deh re-uh', (Jean,) a marshal of France, 
 who was born in 1342. He served with distinction under 
 Charles VI., and became marshal in 1397. Died in 1417. 
 
 Rieux, de, (Pierre,) a French general, a son of the 
 preceding, was called Marechal de Rochkfort, and 
 was born at Ancenis in 1389. He fought for Charles 
 VII. against the English. Died in 1438. 
 
 Riffault, re'fo', (Jean Rene Denis,) a French chem- 
 ist, born at Saumur in 1752. He improved the method 
 of making gunpowder, and wrote, besides other works, a 
 "Manual of Chemistry," (1825.) Died at Paris in 1826. 
 
 Riffaut or Riffault, re'fo', ( Adolphe Pierre,) a 
 French engraver, born in Paris in 1821. He obtained 
 a medal of the first class in 1855. Died in 1859. 
 
 Rigal, re'gil', (Jean Jacques,) a French surgeon and 
 writer, born at Cussac in 1 755 ; died in 1823. 
 
 Rigaltius. See Rigault. 
 
 Rigas. See Rhigas. 
 
 Rigau or Rigaud, re'go', (Antoinf.,) a French gene- 
 ral, born at Agen in 1758. He commanded the depart- 
 ment of the Marne when Napoleon returned from Elba. 
 Having been condemned to death for his defection from 
 the cause of the Bourbons in 1815, he escaped to the 
 United States. He died in 1820. 
 
 Rigaud, (Hyacinths,) an eminent French portrait- 
 painter, born at Perpignan in 1659, was a pupil of Ranc 
 and of other masters. He painted Philip V. of Spain 
 in 1700, and Louis XIV. in 1701, soon after which he 
 received the title of court painter. Among his works 
 are portraits of Bossuet and Lebrun. His touch is bold 
 and free and his design correct. He has been called 
 "the French Van Dyck." His portraits have been 
 engraved by Edelinck and Audran. Died in 1743. 
 
 See Fontenay, "Dictionnaire des Artistes;" C. Blanc, " His- 
 toire des Peintres." 
 
 Rigaud, (Pierre Augustin, often called Auguste,) 
 a French fabulist and merchant, born at Montpellier in 
 1760. He published, besides several poems, a volume 
 of Fables, (1823,) by which he is said to have acquired 
 a durable reputation. Died in 1835. 
 
 Rigaud, re'go',? (Stephen Peter,) F.R.S., an able 
 English astronomer, born at Richmond, Surrey, in 1774. 
 He became Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford 
 in 1810. In 1827 he was appointed director of the Rad- 
 cliffe Observatory, and Savilian professor of astronomy 
 at Oxford. He wrote papers for several scientific pe- 
 riodicals on astronomy and other physical sciences, and 
 edited the "Miscellaneous Works and Correspondence 
 of Bradley," (183 1.) He was eminent as a mathematical 
 antiquary. Died in 1839. 
 
 Rigault, re'go', (Ange Hippolyte,) an able French 
 litterateur, born at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1821. He 
 became an editor of the "Journal des Debars" in 1853. 
 He wrote a " Histoire de la Querelle des Anciens et 
 des Modernes," (1856,) which gained the prize of the 
 French Academy. Died in December, 1858. 
 
 Rigault, [Lat. Rigal'tius,] (Nicolas,) a French 
 philologist and able critic, born in Paris in 1577. He 
 succeeded Casaubon as keeper of the King's Library 
 about 1610, and obtained the office of procureur-general 
 at Nancy after 1633. He edited Martial, Juvenal, and 
 Tertullian. Among his works are an ingenious satire 
 called "Funus Parasiticum," (1601,) and a continuation 
 of the "History" of De Thou, (1620.) Died in 1654. 
 
 See_ Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Mokeki, 
 "Dictionnaire Historique;" Niceron, " M^moires." 
 
 Rigault de Genouilly, re'go' deh zheh-noo'ye', 
 (CHARLES,) a French admiral, born in 1807. He ob- 
 tained the rank of rear-admiral in 1854, and served in 
 the Crimean war. He commanded the naval division 
 which co-operated with the British in the capture of 
 Canton in 1857. 
 
 Rig'bjf, (Edward,) an English physiologist, born at 
 Norwich in 1747. He produced, besides other works, 
 an "Essay on the Theory of the Production of Animal 
 Heat," (1785.) Died in 1821. 
 
 Righini, re-gee'nee, (Vincenzo,) an able Italian 
 composer, born at Bologna about 1758. He composed, 
 besides other operas, " Armida" and "Tigrane," which 
 are commended. Died in 1812. 
 
 Rigny, de, deh ren'ye', (Henri Gauthier,) Comte, 
 an able French admiral, born at Toul in 1782. He 
 commanded the French fleet which defeated the Turks 
 at Navarino in October, 1827. He became minister of 
 the marine in March, 1831, and was minister of foreign 
 affairs from April, 1834, to March, 1835. Died in 1835. 
 
 See " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Rigoley de Juvigny, re'go'li' de zhii'ven'ye', (Jean 
 Antoine,) a mediocre French litterateur, wrote " On the 
 Decadence of Letters and Morals since the Times of 
 the Greeks and Romans," (17S7.) Died in 1788. 
 
 Rigollot, re'go'lo', (Marc Jer6me,) a French anti- 
 quary and physician, born at Doullens in 1796, wrote 
 several treatises on French antiquities. Died in 1854. 
 
 Rigord, re'goR', [Lat. Rigor'dus,] a French chron- 
 icler, born in Languedoc, wrote a history of the reign 
 of Philip Augustus of France. Died in 1207. 
 
 Rigord, (Jean Pierre,) a French antiquary, born at 
 Marseilles in 1656; died in 1727. 
 
 RI'ley, (James,) an American sea-captain, born at 
 Middletown, Connecticut. He was wrecked on the 
 western coast of Africa in 1815, and afterwards pub- 
 lished a "Narrative" of his captivity among the Arabs, 
 which enjoyed a great popularity. Died in 1840. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1817. 
 
 Ri'ley, (John,) an English portrait-painter, born in 
 London in 1646, took Van Dyck as his model. He 
 was patronized by Charles II., James II., and William 
 III. He is considered the best English portrait-painter 
 before Sir Joshua Reynolds. Died in 1691. 
 
 Rileyef] re-la'ef, written also Rylejew, Rilieff, and 
 Rileef, (Konrad,) a Russian poet and republican, was 
 a leader of a secret society formed about 1820 to liberate 
 Russia from absolute power. He was hung in 1826. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1832. 
 
 Rilieff. See Rileyef. 
 
 Rimfaxi or Rimfaxe. See N6rvl 
 
 Riminaldi, re-me-nal'dee, (Domenico,) an Italian 
 sculptor in wood, was born at Pisa in 1595; died in 
 1637- 
 
 5, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; m£t; ndt; good; moon; 
 
RIMIN^LDI 
 
 l»99 
 
 RIPLET 
 
 Riniinaldi, (Orazio,) an Italian painter of sacred 
 history, born at Pisa in 1 598, was a promising artist 
 when he died, in 1630. 
 
 Rinaldi, re-nal'dee, (Oderico,) an Italian ecclesi- 
 astical historian, born at Treviso in 1595. He wrote a 
 continuation of Baronius's " Ecclesiastical Annals," to 
 which he added ten volumes, (1646-77,) extending the 
 narrative to 1564. Died in 1671. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Rinck or Rink, rink, (Friedrich Theodor,) a 
 German Orientalist, born at Slave in 1770; died in 181 1. 
 
 Rincon, del, del ren-kdn', (Antonio,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Guadalaxara about 1446. He aban- 
 doned the Gothic style, promoted a revolution in Spanish 
 art, and was. considered the best Spanish painter of his 
 time. He was court painter to Ferdinand the Catholic. 
 Died at Seville in 1500. His son Fernando was also a 
 skilful painter. 
 
 See Palomino, " El Museo pictorico." 
 
 Ring, (John,) an English surgeon and writer, born 
 near Salisbury in 1751. He published a "Translation 
 of the Works of Virgil," partly original and partly 
 altered from Dryden and Pitt, (1820.) Died in 1821. 
 
 Ring, van, vfn ring, (Pietek,) a Dutch painter of 
 still life, flourished about 1650. 
 
 Ringelbergh, van, vfn ring'el-beRC.', [Lat. Ringel- 
 ber'gius,] (Joachim Sterck or Joachim Fortius,) a 
 Flemish philosopher and professor of Greek, born at 
 Antwerp about 1500. He was the author of various 
 well-written works. Died in 1536. 
 
 See Niceron, " M^moires." 
 
 Ringelbergius. See Ringelhergh. 
 
 Ring'gold, (Major Samuel,) an American officer, 
 born in Washington county, Maryland, in 1S00, served 
 with distinction in the Mexican war. He was mortally 
 wounded at the battle of Palo Alto, (May 8, 1846,) and 
 died a few days after. 
 
 Ringli, ring'lee, written also Ringly and Ringgli, 
 (Gothard,) a Swiss painter and engraver, born at 
 Zurich in 1575, passed most of his life at Berne. His 
 works are highly commended. Died in 1635. 
 
 Ringwaldt, ring'walt, (Barthoj.omaus,) a German 
 preacher and sacred poet, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
 in 1530; died in 1598. 
 
 Rink or Rinck, rink, (Eucharius Gottueis,) a 
 German biographer and numismatist, born in Saxony in 
 1670. Among his works are a treatise "On the Value 
 and Quality of Ancient Money," (" De veteris Numis- 
 matis Potentia et Qualitate," 1701,) and a "Life of 
 Leopold the Great," (1708.) Died in 1745. 
 
 See Heumann, " Lebensbeschreibung E. G. Rinkens," 1749. 
 
 Rink, (Joiiann Christian H kin rich,) a German 
 
 organist and composer, born in the duchy of Saxe-Gotha 
 in 1770. He became court organist at Darmstadt in 
 1813. His reputation is founded on his compositions 
 for the organ. Died in 1846. 
 
 Rinmann, rin'man, (Sven,) a Swedish mineralogist, 
 wrote a " History of Iron," (1782,) and other works. 
 Died in 1 792, aged seventy-three. 
 
 Rintoul, rin'tool, (Robert Stephen,) a British editor, 
 born near Perth in 1787, became a resident of London 
 about 1825. He was the founder and editor of the 
 "Spectator," a liberal journal. Died in 1858. 
 
 See " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1858. 
 
 Rinuccini,re-noot-chee'nee, (Ai.aman.no,) an Italian 
 scholar and translator of Greek authors, was born at 
 Florence in 1426; died in 1504. 
 
 Rinuccini, (Ottavio,) an Italian poet, born at Flor- 
 ence about 1565. He was one of the inventor* of the 
 lyrical drama, and excelled in the anacreontic verse. 
 Among his works are pastorals or operas entitled " Eu- 
 ridice," (1600,) and "Arianna," (1608.) Died in 1621. 
 
 See Gincuen*, " Histnire I.itteraire d'ltalie;" Tiraboschi, 
 * Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Rio, di, de ree'o, (Niccoi.6,) Count, an Italian 
 geologist, born in 1 765. I [e was president of the Faculty 
 of Philosophy in the University of Padua. Died in 1845. 
 
 See Saint-Maurice-Cabanv, " Le Comte N. de Rio." 1845. 
 
 Rioja, de, da re-o'Ha, (Francisco,) a Spanish poet, 
 born at Seville in 1600. He was librarian to the Duke 
 
 of Olivares while he was prime minister. He wrote a 
 number of short poems which are regarded as models 
 of elegance. Died in 1658. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Rioja, de, (Pedro Soto,) a Spanish poet, born at 
 Granada about 1590, was a friend of Lope de Vega. 
 Died in 1658. 
 
 Riolan, re'o'loN', (Jean,) a learned French physician 
 and writer, born at Amiens in 1539. He practised in 
 Paris. Among his works if a "Compendium of Universal 
 Medicine," (" Universal Medicinae Compendium," 1598.) 
 Died in 1606. 
 
 Riolan, (Jean,) an able anatomist and medical writer, 
 born in Paris about 1578, was a son of the preceding. 
 1 le was chief physician to Queen Marie de Medicis. He 
 wrote, besides other works, "Anatomy of the Human 
 Body," ("Anatome Corporis humani," 1610,) and was 
 an adversary of the doctrine of the circulation of the 
 blood. Died in 1657. 
 
 See " Biographic Medicale." 
 
 Rions, de, deh re'6.N', (Franqois Hector d'Albert,) 
 Comte, a French naval officer, born at Avignon in 1728; 
 died in 1802. 
 
 Rioomantsof or Rjumanzow, ryoo-man'tsof, 
 sometimes written Rioumiantzof, Romanzof, and 
 Romantzof, (Alexander,) a Russian diplomatist, 
 born in 1680, was a favourite of Peter I. Died in 1749. 
 
 Rioomantsof or Romanzof, (written in Polish 
 Rumiancow,) (Nicholas,) a minister of state and 
 patron of learning/bom in 1754, was a son of the fol- 
 lowing. He became minister of foreign affairs in 1807. 
 At his expense Kotzebue sailed on a scientific and 
 exploring expedition in 1815-18. Died in 1826. 
 
 Rioomantsof-Zadoonaiski, ryoo-man'tsof zS-doo- 
 ni'skee, written also Rioumiantzof- (or Rumian- 
 cov-) Zadunaiski, (Peter,) Count, a Russian general, 
 born in 1725, was surnamed the Russian Turenne. 
 He gained a great victory over the Turks on the Kagool 
 in 1770, and negotiated the famous treaty of Koutchouk- 
 Kainardji. Died in 1796. 
 
 See " Vie du Comte Rioumiantzof," Moscow, 1803. 
 
 Rioumiantzof. See Rioomantsof. 
 
 Rios, de los, deh 16s ree'6s, (Jean Francois,) a 
 Flemish bibliographer, born at Antwerp in 1728. He 
 published notices of rare books in a work called "Biblio- 
 graphic instructive," etc., (Lyons, 1777.) Died in 1820. 
 
 Rios y Rosas, de los, da Ids ree'As e ro/sis, (An- 
 tonio,) a Spanish politician and minister of state, 
 born at Ronda in 1812. He opposed Espartero and 
 the progresistas. He became minister of the interior 
 in 1856. 
 
 Riouffe, re'ooP, (Honor£,) Baron, a French poli- 
 tician, born at Rouen in 1764, was a member of the 
 Tribunat, (1800-1804.) Died in 1813. 
 
 See Pariset, "Notice sur Riouffe;" Berr, "Notice sur lo 
 1 Baron Riouffe," 1823. 
 
 Rioult, re'oo', (Louis Edouard,) a French painter, 
 , born at Montdidier in 1790 ; died in 1855. 
 
 Ripamonte, re-pl-mon'tl, (Giuseppe,) an Italian 
 historian, born at Tignone in 1573 ; died in 1641. 
 
 Ripault. See Desormeaux. 
 
 Ripault, re'po', (Louis Madeleine,) a French litte- 
 rateur and Orientalist, born at Orleans in 1775, was a 
 nephew of Desormeaux. He was a member of the 
 scientific commission of Egypt in 1708, and wrote " An 
 Abridged Description of the Monuments of Upper 
 Egypt," (l8O0,) also a " History of Marcus Aurelius," 
 (4 vols., 1820.) Died in 1823. 
 
 Ripert. See Monclar, de. 
 
 Rip'ley, (Ei.eazar Wheelock,) an American officer, 
 born at Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1782, served with 
 distinction in the war of 1812, and was made a major- 
 ■ general. Died in 1839. 
 
 Rip'ley, (George or Gregory,) an English poet and 
 ' alchemist, wrote "A Compound of Alchemie." Died 
 in 1490. 
 
 Ripley, (George,) an able American editor and 
 
 scholar, bom at Greenfield, Massachusetts, in 1802. 
 
 j Among his publications are " Edited Specimens of 
 
 Foreign Standard Literature," (14 vols.. 1838-42,) and 
 
 " Hand-Book of Literature and the Fine Arts," (1852- 
 
 j 
 
 OOril rtL DCVIIIC 111 1UW. lie Wrta imm.ui.iii iu mv. i/uni. »*«...... ~ .. — — 1 \--_j- 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (S^f See Exp'an ation s, p. 23, 
 
RIP LET 
 
 1900 
 
 RITSON 
 
 1 
 
 54,) conjointly with Bayard Taylor. In 1849 ne became 
 literary editor of the New York "Tribune." He was 
 associated as chief editor with Mr. C. A. Dana in the 
 publication of Appleton's " New American Cyclopaedia," 
 (16 vols, large 8vo, 1858-63.) 
 
 See Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Ripley, (Henry Jones,) D.D., an American Bap- 
 tist divine, born at Boston in 1798, became professor of 
 biblical literature at the Newton Theological institution, 
 Massachusetts. He has published " Notes on the Four 
 Gospels," and other theological works. 
 
 Ripley, (James W.,) an American general, born in 
 Connecticut in 1797, graduated at West Point in 1814. 
 He became a captain in 1825, a lieutenant-colonel in 
 1854, and a brigadier-general in 1861.' Died in 1870. 
 
 Ripley, (Rosvvell S.,) an American general, born in 
 Ohio about 1824, graduated at West Point in 1843. He 
 published "The War in Mexico," (2 vols., 1849.) He 
 was an officer in the confederate army during the war 
 and since its close has resided in London. 
 
 Rip'911, (Frederick John Robinson,) first Earl 
 of, an English minister of state, born in London in 
 1782, was a younger son of Lord Grantham. He began 
 public life as a moderate Tory. He became a member 
 of the board of admiralty in 1810, and vice-president of 
 Hie board of trade in 1812. In January, 1823, he was 
 appointed chancellor of the exchequer. When Canning 
 became prime minister, in 1827, he obtained the office of 
 colonial secretary, and entered the House of Lords, with 
 the title of Lord Goderich. He was prime minister 
 from the death of Canning, August, 1827, to January, 
 1828. In the Whig ministry formed in 1830 he was 
 colonial secretary and lord privy seal. He was created 
 Earl of Ripon about 1833, and resigned office in 1834. 
 In 1841 he accepted the presidency of the board of trade 
 from Sir Robert Peel, who appointed him president 
 of the Indian board in 1843. He resigned with Peel in 
 1846. Died in 1859. 
 
 See William Jerdan, " Men I have known," London, 1866. 
 
 Riposo, II. See Ficherei.i.i. 
 
 Ripperda, de, deh rip-peVda, (Jan Willem.) Duke, 
 an adventurer and diplomatist, was bom at Groningen 
 (Holland) in 1680. He served in the Dutch army, and 
 attained the rank of colonel. About 1715 he was sent 
 as envoy to Madrid to negotiate a commercial treaty. 
 Having acquired the favour of Alberoni and the King 
 of Spain, he abjured the Protestant religion in 1718, and 
 was appointed director of the royal manufactories. He 
 negotiated a secret treaty between the King of Spain 
 and the emperor Charles VI. in 1725, and was rewarded 
 with the title of duke. He was prime minister of Spain ! 
 
 Ris'dpn, (Tristram,) an English topographer, born 
 in Devonshire in 1580; died in 1640. 
 
 RIsh'I, a Sanscrit word, signifying "saint" or "sage," 
 and applied in the Hindoo mythology to certain sages 
 or demi-gods, among whom Kasyapa, Viswamitra, and 
 Gautama are perhaps the most worthy of mention. 
 
 See MotTR, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Ris'ley, (Thomas,) an English Puritan preacher, 
 born near Warrington in 1630. He was ejected as a 
 nonconformist in 1662. Died in 1716. 
 
 Risso, res'so, (Antonio,) a distinguished Italian 
 naturalist, born at Nice in 1777. He made discoveries 
 in the zoology of the Mediterranean, and published, be- 
 sides other works, "The Ichthyology of Nice," (1810,) 
 and a " Natural History of the Principal Productions 
 of Southern Europe," etc., (5 vols., 1826,) both in French. 
 Died in 1845. 
 
 Riat, 11st, (Johann,) a once popular German poet, 
 born near Hamburg in 1607. He wrote dramas and 
 religious poems, which are said by a French critic to be 
 elegant in style but devoid of sentiment. Died in 1667. 
 
 Ristori, res-to'ree, (ADELAIDE,) a celebrated Italian 
 actress, born in Venetia in 182 1. She has performed 
 with great applause both in tragedy and comedy. She 
 visited the United States in September, 1866. " In ac- 
 cording to Ristori the highest order of dramatic genius, 
 we merely allow what has long since been decided beyond 
 appeal by the critical tribunals of France, Italy, Ger- 
 many, England, and Spain. What Shakspeare is among 
 dramatists, Ristori is among actors." ("Atlantic Monthly" 
 for April, 1867.) 
 
 Risueno, re-swan'yo, written also Risvenno, (Fose,) 
 a Spanish painter and sculptor, born at Granada in 
 1652, was a pupil of Alonzo Cano. Died in 1721. 
 
 Ritchie, ritch'e, originally Ogden, (Mrs. Anna Cora 
 Mowatt,) an American authoress and actress, born in 
 Bordeaux, France, of American parents, about 1822. 
 She was married first to a Mr. Mowatt, and afterwards 
 to Mr. W. Ritchie, an editor,, of Richmond, Virginia, 
 about 1854. She published, besides other works, 
 " Pelayo, or the Cavern of Covadonga," a poem, a 
 comedy entitled "Fashion," (1845,) and " Armand," a 
 drama, (1847.) She made her debut as an actress about 
 1845. Died in 1870. 
 
 See "Autobiography of an Actress," by Anna C. Ritchik; 
 Griswold, " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Ritchie, ritch'e, (Joseph,) an Englishman who ac- 
 companied Captain Lyon in an expedition to Central 
 Africa. He died during the journey, in 1819. 
 
 Ritchie, ritch'e, (Leitch,) a British journalist and 
 i novelist, born at Greenock about 1800. Among his 
 
 ...... .lib lii.1* vm vium.. »».. i..u M iiiiv. iniiii. hi wi .1 y.llll I iifl-11 ,,-.11 r 
 
 for a few months in 1726-27, and his next step was into \ '™. e ls L" « „ Schmderhannes or the Robber of the 
 
 . , ... . '. . _'_ . ! K 11110 " ttXtX 1 " T .a (lima ..F I .1^ '' / rUr . I n ,. J 41 Tl. » 
 
 prison, from which he escaped about 1729. He entered 
 the service of the King of Morocco about 1732. Died 
 at TetuSn in 1737. 
 
 See "Vie du Due de Ripperda," par P. M. B., 1719. which was 
 translated into English by John Campuell, 1739: " Vidadel Duque 
 de Ripperda," Madrid. 1740; G. Moore, " Lives of Cardinal Albe- 
 rt)ni and the Duke de Ripperda," 1806. 
 
 Rippingill, rip'ing-gil, ? (Edward Vii.liers,) an 
 English painter, bom at King's Lvnn in 1798; died in 
 I8.S9. 
 
 Riquet. See Caraman, de. 
 
 Riquet, re'k&', (Pierre Paul,) Baron de Bonrepos, 
 a French engineer, born at Beziers in 1604, was a rela- 
 tive of the famous Mirabeau. He acquired honourable 
 distinction as the projector and engineer of the great 
 canal of Languedoc, which extends from the Garonne 
 to the Mediterranean. It was commenced in 1667 and 
 finished about 1680. Died in 1680. 
 
 See Andreossy, " Histoiredu Canal du Midi ;" Decampe, " filoge 
 de P. Riquet," 1812. 
 
 Riquetti. See Mirabeau. 
 
 Risbeck, ris'bek, (Caspar,) a German publicist, born 
 near Mentz in 1749 or 1750. His reputation is founded 
 on "Letters of a French Traveller about Germany," (2 
 vols., 1783,) in which he exposed with ability the political 
 and social evils which prevailed in that country. Died 
 in 1786. 
 
 S^e J. Pezzl, " Blographisches Denkmal J. C. Risbeck's," 1786; 
 Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch." 
 
 Rhine," (184S,) "The Game of Life," (1851,) and "The 
 Magician," (3 vols., 1853.) He contributed to several 
 London journals and magazines. In the latter part of 
 his life he was an editor of " Chambers's Journal" of 
 Edinburgh. Died in 1865. 
 
 Ritchie, (Thomas,) an American journalist and poli- 
 tician of the Democratic party, was born at Tappahan- 
 nock, Virginia, in 1778. In 1804 he became editor of the 
 " Richmond Enquirer," over which he continued to 
 preside for forty years, and which, under his editorship, 
 was, for a time, the most influential journal of his party. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Rit'ner, (Joseph,) an American Governor, born near 
 Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1780. He served in the legis- 
 lature of that State from 1820 to 1827, and was nomi- 
 nated for the office of Governor by the Anti-Masonic 
 party in 1829, but was not elected. In 1835 be was 
 chosen Governor for three years. He was an efficient 
 promoter of common schools, and was distinguished for 
 his opposition to slavery. Died in 1869. 
 
 Ritschl, rltsh'l, (Fk'iedrich Wilhei.m,) a German 
 philologist, and professor of classical literature at Bonn, 
 was born in Thuringia in 1806. He published several 
 critical treatises on the classics, and a number of anti- 
 quarian works. His edition of Plautus (3 vols., 1848- 
 53) is highly praised. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Iliograpbie G<hie>ale." 
 
 Rit'spn, (Isaac,) an English writer, born near Pen- 
 rith in 1761, resided in London. Died in 1789. 
 
 J, e, 1, 0, Q, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, Q, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
R1TS0N 
 
 1901 
 
 R1VAVD 
 
 Ritson, (Joseph,) an English antiquary and poetical 
 critic, born at Stockton (Durham) in 1752, resided mostly 
 in London. He published many works, among which 
 are "Observations on (Warton's) History of English 
 Poetry," (1782,) "Ancient Songs from the Time of 
 Henry HI. to 1688," (1790,) and " Robin Hood," (1795.) 
 Died in 1803. 
 
 See Sir N. Harris Nicoi.as, " Life and Letters of J. Ritson," 
 1833: Hasi.ewoud, " Life of J. Ritson," 1824; "Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for January, 1806: " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1834; 
 " Monthly Review" for September, 1803. 
 
 Rit'ten-house, (David,) an eminent American as- 
 tronomer and mathematician, born at Germantown, near 
 Philadelphia, on the 8th of April, 1732. He worked on 
 his father's farm in his early youth, learned to make 
 c'.ocks without instruction, and made himself master of 
 Newton's " Principia" about 1750. It is stated that he 
 discovered the method of fluxions before the age of 
 nineteen. He learned Latin after he was nineteen or 
 twenty years old. He worked for some years at the 
 trade of clock-maker at Norriton, in Montgomery 
 county, Pennsylvania. About 1767 he constructed an 
 orrery, which was purchased by Princeton College. 
 He also made mathematical instruments of a superior 
 quality. His first communication to the American 
 Philosophical Society was a calculation of the transit 
 of Venus which occurred on the 3d of June, 1769, and 
 which he observed with success. In 1764 he married 
 Eleanor Colston. He was elected treasurer of Penn- 
 sylvania in 1777, and continued to fill that office until 
 1789. During this period he was employed to determine 
 the boundaries of Pennsylvania. He was chosen presi- 
 dent of the American Philosophical Society in 1791, 
 and became first director of the Mint, at Philadelphia, 
 in 1792. In 1795 he was chosen a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society of London. Having lost his first wife, he mar- 
 ried Hannah Jacobs, of Philadelphia, about 1774. On 
 account of ill health, he resigned in 1795 the direction 
 of the Mint, which he had organized by arduous and 
 successful efforts. He contributed numerous scientific 
 treatises to the "Transactions of the American Philo- 
 sophical Society." Died in Philadelphia, June, 1796. 
 " Were we called upon," says Renwick, " to assign him 
 a rank among the philosophers whom America has 
 produced, we should place him, in point of scientific 
 merit, as second to Franklin alone. . . . He had shown 
 himself the equal, in point of learning and skill as an 
 observer, to any practical astronomer then living." 
 
 See James Renwick, "Life of David Rittenhouse," in Sparks's 
 "American Biography," vol. vii. ; W. Barton, "Life of David 
 Rittenhouse." 181 j; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished 
 Americans," vol. ii. 
 
 Ritter, rit't^r, (Heinrich,) a German philosopher 
 and historian, born at Zerbst in 1791. He became pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Berlin about 1824, and removed 
 to Gottingen in 1837. He published a number of works 
 on philosophy, etc. His principal work is a " History 
 of Philosophy," ("Geschichteder Philosophic" 12 vols., 
 1829-53,) which is highly esteemed. It has been well 
 translated into English by A. J. W. Morrison, (4 vols. 
 8vo, 1838-46.) Ritter is called an Eclectic philosopher. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Rit'ter, ( Henry,) an artist, born at Montreal, in 
 Canada, about 1815, studied painting at Hamburg and 
 Dusseldorf. Among his principal works may be named 
 "Indians Flying from a Burning Prairie." Died in 1853. 
 
 Ritter, (Joiiann Daniel,) a German scholar and 
 writer on Roman antiquities, etc., was born near Bres- 
 lau in 1709 ; died at Wittenberg in 1775. 
 
 Ritter, (Johann Wii.hei.m,) a German natural phi- 
 losopher, born at Samitz, in Silesia, in 1776. He wrote 
 "Memoirs on Physics and Chemistry," (3 vols., 1806,) 
 and an autobiography, (2 vols., 1810.) Died at Munich 
 in 1810. 
 
 Ritter, (Joseph Ignaz,) a German Catholic theo- 
 logian, born near Griineberg in 1787. He became in 
 1823 professor of ecclesiastical history at Bonn. Died 
 in 1857. 
 
 Ritter, (Karl,) an eminent German geographer, born 
 at Quedlinburg in 1779. Having travelled in Switzer- 
 land, France, and Italy, h* succeeded Schlosser as pro- 
 fessor of history at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1819. His 
 
 " Portico of a History of the European Nations before 
 Herodotus" came out in 1820. In 1822 he published 
 the first volume of the second and enlarged edition of 
 his "Geography in Relation to the Nature and Histor) 
 of Man," (" Die Erdekunde im Verhaltniss zur Natut 
 and zur Geschichte des Menschen," 18 vols., 1822-59,) 
 which is esteemed his greatest work. Among his other 
 production* we may name "A Glance at Palestine and 
 its Christian Population," "The Colonization of New 
 Zealand," (1842,) and "The Jordan and the Navigation 
 of the Dead Sea," (1850.) Ritter was a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and of the Royal So 
 ciety of London. He has been called the founder of 
 the science of comparative geography. Died in Berlin 
 in 1859. 
 
 See W. L. Gaor, "Life of Karl Ritter," New York, 1867; 
 "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1837; " Nouvelie Bio- 
 graphic Ge'uerale." 
 
 Rittershuys, rit'ters-hois', or Rittershausen, rit'- 
 ters-how'zen, |[.at. Rittershu'sius,] (Conrad,) a Ger- 
 man jurist and able critic, born at Brunswick in 1560. 
 He became professor of law at Altorf. He was a good 
 classical scholar, and wrote commentaries on Phsdrus, 
 Oppian, and other authors. Died in 1613. 
 
 See "Vita C. Rittershusii," by his son Georg ; M. Adam, 
 "Vita: Gerinanorum Jurisconsultorum." 
 
 Rittershuys, (Nikolaus,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Altorf in 1597. He wrote "Genealogy of 
 Emperors, Kings," etc., ("Genealogia Imperatorum, 
 Regum, etc, 1400-1664," 1674.) Died in 1670. 
 
 Ritzio. See R17.Z10. 
 
 Rivail. See Rivault. 
 
 Rivallius. See Rivault. 
 
 Rivalz, re'vil', (Antoine,) a French painter and 
 engraver, born at Toulouse in 1667; died in 1735. 
 
 His father, Jean Pieruk, born in 1625, was a painter 
 at Toulouse, where he died in 1706. 
 
 Rivard, re'viV, (Denis,) a French surgeon and 
 lithotomist, born at Neufchateau, practised at Luneville. 
 Died in 1746. 
 
 Rivard, (Dominique Franqois,) a French mathe- 
 matician, born at Neufchateau in 1697. He was professor 
 in the College of Beauvais for forty years, and published 
 several valuable works on geometry and mathematics. 
 Died in Paris in 1778. 
 
 Rivarol, re'vi'rol', (Antoine,) a witty and satirical 
 French writer, born at Bagnols, in Languedoc, in 1753, 
 assumed the title of Count de Rivarol!" He was cele- 
 brated for his colloquial powers, and abounded in that 
 ready wit which goes far to justify all pretensions and 
 to excuse all excesses of audacity. He produced in 
 1784 an able "Essay on the Universality of the French 
 Language," and a free translation of Dante's " Inferno," 
 which had a great success. His talent for satire, irony, 
 and persiflage was displayed in a series of lampoons 
 against living authors, entitled "Little Almanac of 
 Great Men," ("Petit Almanach des grands Homines," 
 1788.) He also gained distinction as a journalist. . He 
 married an English lady named Flint. Having identi- 
 fied himself with the royalist party, he emigrated in 
 1792. Died in Berlin in 1801. 
 
 See Cuoikrrs-Pai.mbzbaux, "Vie de Rivarol," 1803: Imbert 
 dr la Platisre, "Vie de Rivarol," 1808; Leonck-Curnier, 
 "Rivnrol, sa Vie et ses Ouvrages," 1858: Sainte Beuvk, " Cause- 
 ries du Lundi," tome v.; Lkscure, "Rivarol, sa Vie et ses Ou- 
 vrages," iSfu; "Notice sur Rivarol," by his wife, 1802; "Nouvelie 
 Biographie Ge^ieVale. " 
 
 Rivarol, (Claude Francois,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Bagnols in 1762. He was a captain 
 in the army, and a royalist emigrant in 1 791. Having 
 returned to Paris as a secret agent of the Bourbons, 
 he was imprisoned twenty-two months, (1795-97.) He 
 wrote dramas, verses, etc. Died in 1848. 
 
 Rivarola, re-vi-ro'la, (Alfonso,) a promising Italian 
 painter, born at Ferrara in 1607, was a pupil of Carlo 
 Bononi. Among his works is "The Brazen Serpent." 
 Died in 1640. 
 
 Rivas, de, Duke. See Saavedra. 
 
 Rivaud de la Raffiniere, re'vo' deh If ri'fe'ne-aiR', 
 (Olivier Macoux,) a French general, bom in Poitou 
 in 1766. He served with distinction at Marengo and 
 Austerlitz. Died in 1839. 
 
 «! as*; 9 as if %hard; gas/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; v.,trillea'; sasj; th as in this. (2^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
R1VAULT 
 
 1902 
 
 RIZZ10 
 
 Rivault, re'vo', [Lat. Rival'lius,] (Aymar,) written 
 »lso Rivail, a French jurist, born about 1490. He was 
 counsellor to the parliament of Grenoble, and wrote a 
 " History of the Civil or Roman Law," (" Historia Juris 
 c vilis," 1527.) 
 
 Rivault, (David,) a French writer, born at Laval 
 about 1571. He was appointed preceptor to the young 
 king Louis XIII. in 1612. He published, besides other 
 works, "Minerva Armed, or the Union of Literature 
 and Arms," (" Minerva armata, sive de Conjungendis 
 Literis et Armis," 1610,) and "Archimedis Opera," 
 (1615.) Died in 1616. 
 
 Rivaz, de, deh re'va', (Pierre Joseph,) a Swiss 
 mechanist and inventor, born at Saint Gingolph, on the 
 Lake of Geneva, in 171 1 ; died in 1772. 
 
 Rive, rev, (Joseph Jean,) a French bibliographer, 
 born at Apt in 1730. He wrote numerous works, and 
 was librarian to the Due de la Valliere. Died in 1791. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Rive, de la, (Auguste.) See La Rive, de. 
 
 Rivera, re-va'ra, (Josi Fructuoso,) a South Amer- 
 ican general, born about 1790, was a Gaucho. He was 
 elected president of the republic of Uruguay in 1830 
 for four years. Died in 1854. 
 
 Riverius. See Riviere. 
 
 Riv'ers, (Anthony Woodvili.e or Wvdeville,) 
 Earl OF, an accomplished English peer, born in 1442, 
 was a brother of the queen of Edward IV. After the 
 death of that king he had charge of the young heir to 
 the throne. He was beheaded by Richard III., without 
 a form of trial, in 1483. He left some original poems 
 and translations from the classics, which are commended. 
 (Cunningham's "History of England," vol. i.) 
 
 Riv'ers, (William J.,) born at Charleston, South 
 Carolina, in 1822, became professor of Greek literature 
 at South Carolina College in 1856. He has published 
 Beveral works, in prose and verse. 
 
 Rives, reevz, (John C.,) an American editor, born 
 in Kentucky about 1796. With F. P. Blair, he founded 
 at Washington "The Congressional Globe" about 1830. 
 He continued to publish that journal until his death, 
 in 1864. 
 
 Rives, (William C.,) an American Senator, born in 
 Nelson county, Virginia, in May, 1793. He studied law, 
 and was elected a member of Congress in 1823. He was 
 sent as minister to France in 1829, returned in 1832, and 
 was then elected to the Senate of the United States by the 
 legislature of Virginia. Having resigned his seat in 1834, 
 he was reelected in 1835. In 1840 he was elected a 
 Senator for a third term. He was minister to France 
 again from 184910 1853. He published the "Life and 
 Times of James Madison," (3 vols., 1859-68, unfinished.) 
 He was a member of the Confederate Congress from 
 February, 1862, until the end of the rebellion. Died in 
 April, 1868. 
 
 See the " Democratic Review" for January, 1838, (with a por- 
 trait.) 
 
 Rivet, re'vj', [Lat. Rivf/tus,! (Andr£,) a French 
 Protestant minister and biblical critic, born at Saint- 
 Maxent in 1572 or 1573. He became professor of 
 theology at Leyden in 1620, and was governor of the 
 young Prince of Orange, (William III. of England.) 
 He wrote several works on theology. Died at Breda 
 in 1651. " Rivet," says Hallam, " was the highest name 
 among the Calvinists," (tit, in the department of sacred 
 criticism.) 
 
 See Daubrr, " Oratio funebris in Excessum A. Riveti," 1651: 
 Haag, " La France protestante." 
 
 Rivet de Champvernon, re'v|' deh sh6N'veVn6N', 
 (Guillaume,) a Protestant minister, born at Saint- 
 Maxent in 1 580, was a brother of the preceding. He 
 wrote on theology. Died in 165 1. 
 
 Rivet de la Grange, re'v|'deh If gR5Nzh,( Antoine,) 
 a learned French Benedictine, born at Confolens in 1683. 
 He was punished for opposition to the bull " Unigenitus" 
 by confinement in a monastery at Mans. He projected 
 a great work entitled " The Literary History of France," 
 of which he composed 9 vols., (1733-50.)' He died in 
 1749. His work was continued by CMmencet and others. 
 
 See C. L. Taillandier, " Eloge historique de Dom Rivet," in 
 the ninth volume of the "Literary History of France." 
 
 Rivetus. See Rivet, (Andre.) 
 
 Riviere. See Mercier and Lariviere. 
 
 Riviere, re-ve-aiR', [Lat. Rive'rius,] (Lazare,) a 
 French medical writer, born at Montpellier in 1589. 
 His "Praxis Medica" ("Medical Practice," 1640) was 
 often reprinted. Died in 1655. 
 
 Riviere, de, deh re've-ajk', (Charles Francois de 
 Riffardeau — deh re'fjR'do',) Due, a French royalist 
 officer, born at Ferte-sur-Cher in 1763. He was sen- 
 tenced to death as an accomplice of Pichegru in 1804, 
 but his life was saved by the empress Josephine. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Riviere, de la, deh IS re've-aiR', (Roch le Baillif, 
 rosh leh bSI'yef',) Sieur, a French physician, born at 
 Falaise ; died in Paris in 1605. 
 
 Rivieren, van, vSn re-vee4en, [Lat. Riv'ius,] (Jean,) 
 a Belgian monk, born at Louvain in 1599. He wrote a 
 "Life of Saint Augustine,'' (1646.) Died in 1665. 
 
 Riv'ing-tcm, (James,) an English printer and book- 
 seller, born in London about 1724, emigrated to Amer- 
 ica, and founded in New York a journal entitled the 
 " New York Gazetteer, or the Connecticut, New Jersey, 
 Hudson's River, and Quebec Weekly Advertiser." In 
 consequence of his denunciations of the patriots, his 
 press was destroyed in 1775 by a party of American 
 soldiers. He subsequently resumed the publication of 
 his journal, under the title of the " Royal Gazette." After 
 the evacuation of New York by the British he changed 
 the name of his paper to " Rivington's New York Ga- 
 zette and Universal Advertiser." Died in 1802. 
 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Rivinus, re-vee'nus, (Andreas,) a German philolo- 
 gist and physician, born at Halle in 1600 or 1601. His 
 proper name was Bachmann. He was professor of 
 poetry and medicine at Leipsic. Died in 1656. 
 
 See Kromaybr, " Progranuna ad Funus A. Rivini," 1656. 
 
 Rivinus, (August Quirinus,) an eminent botanist 
 and anatomist, son of the preceding, was bom at Leipsic 
 in 1652. He became professor of physiology and botany 
 in his native city in 1691. His chief work is "General 
 Introduction to Botany," (" Introductio generalis in Rem 
 Herbariam," 1690,) in which he proposed a classifica- 
 tion of plants founded on the form of the corolla. Died 
 in 1723. 
 
 See G. F. Jknichhn, "Programma in A. Q. Rivini Obitum,* 
 1724;" Biographie Universale ;" Nic^ron, "Memoires;" "Bio- 
 graphie Medicale." 
 
 Rivius. See Rivieren. 
 
 Rivoli, Duke of. See Massena. 
 
 Rizi, re-Mee', ? (Francisco,) Don, a Spanish painter, 
 born in Madrid in 1608, was a pupil of Carduccio. He 
 became first painter to Philip IV. about 1656. He had 
 great fertility of invention and facility of execution, but 
 contributed to the decline of art by his superficial habits. 
 Died in 1685. 
 
 Rizi, (Juan,) a Spanish painter, born at Madrid in 
 159;, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1675. 
 
 Rizo-Rhangabe, ree'zo rin'ga-be, (Alexander,) 
 also written Rhizos-Rhangavis, an eminent Greek 
 poet, orator, and statesman, was born about 1810. He 
 published in 1837 a collection of poems, among which is 
 a drama called "The Eve," ('H Ylapa/xovij,) and in 1842 
 "Hellenic Antiquities," ("Antiquites Helleniques,") in 
 French. In 1845 ne was appointed professor of arche- 
 ology at Athens. He was minister of foreign affairs 
 from April, 1856, to June, 1859. The second volume 
 of " Hellenic Antiquities" appeared in 1855. He was 
 appointed minister to the United States in 1867. 
 
 Rizzio or Ritzio, rit'se-o, written also Riccio, 
 (David,) an Italian musician, born in Piedmont about 
 1540. He went to Edinburgh about 1563, in the train 
 of the ambassador from Savoy, and gained the favour 
 of Mary Queen of Scots, who employed him as her 
 French secretary. " He became," says Froude, " the 
 queen's inseparable companion in the council-room and 
 the cabinet. She kept late hours, and he was often alone 
 with her till midnight. He had the control of all the 
 business of the state." The same historian, alluding to 
 the injurious influence of Rizzio over Mary Stuart, says, 
 " The counsels of David Ritzio were worth an army to 
 English liberty." (" History of England," vol. viii. chap. 
 
 8. e, T, 0, u, y, long; 4, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,I, o, S, y\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; mobnj 
 
ROBBIA 
 
 •9°3 
 
 ROBERT 
 
 ix.) lie was dragged from the queen's presence and 
 assassinated by Lord Darnley and others, in 1566. 
 
 See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. iv. chaps, xliii. and 
 xliv. ; Robertson, " History of Scotland." 
 
 Robbia, della, del'll rob'be-a, (Andrea,) an Italian 
 Sculptor, bom at Florence in 1444. He worked in 
 marble and enamelled terracotta. Died in 1527. 
 
 His son Giovanni, born in 1470, was a sculptor. 
 Another son, Giroi.amo, went to France, and was 
 employed by Francis I. He made a marble statue of 
 Catherine de Meklicis at Saint-Denis. 
 
 See Barbet de Jouy, " Les Delia Robbia, Etude." 
 
 Robbia, della, (Luca,) a famous sculptor and 
 worker in enamelled terracotta, born at Florence about 
 1390 or 1400, was a brother or an uncle of Andrea. 
 He adorned with bassi-rilievi the Campanile of the 
 Cathedral of Florence, and made a bronze door for the 
 sacristy of the same. He invented the enamelled terra- 
 cotta, and acquired a European reputation by the fabri- 
 cation of figures of this material, which are called " della 
 Robbia" ware. Died in 1463, or, as some say, 1482. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Rob'bins, (Ashur,) an American lawyer and states- 
 man, born at Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1757, settled 
 in Rhode Island, and was elected to the United States 
 Senate in 1825. He served in the Senate fourteen years. 
 Died in 1845. 
 
 Roberjot, ro'beR'zho', (Claude,) a French diplo- 
 matist, born at Macon in 1753, was a republican member 
 of the Convention, (1793.) With Bonnier and Debry, he 
 represented France at the Congress of Rastadt, in 1799. 
 He was assassinated by Austrian soldiers just after he 
 departed from Rastadt, in April of that year. 
 
 Rob'ert of Bavaria, born in 1352, was elected Em- 
 peror of Germany in 1400. He attempted to conquer 
 the Milanese, but was defeated by Visconti in 1401. 
 Died in 1410. 
 
 Rob'ert [Fr. pron. ro'baiR' ; Eat. Rober'tus ; It. 
 Rorerto, ro-beVto] I., King of France, was the second 
 son of Robert the Strong, Duke of France. After the 
 death of his brother Eudes, 898 a.d., the throne was 
 obtained by Charles the Simple. In 922 the malcontent 
 barons revolted against Charles, and proclaimed Robert 
 as his successor. In 923 the army of Robert gained a 
 victory over that of his rival ; but Robert was killed in 
 the action. 
 
 Robert II., King of France, born at Orleans in 971, 
 was a son of Hugh Capet, whom he succeeded in 996. 
 He was reputed to be very devout, but was excommu- 
 nicated by the pope for his marriage with a cousin in 
 the fourth degree. In 1024 he refused the imperial 
 crown, offered to him by the Italians. His reign was 
 pacific. He died in 1031, and left the throne to his son 
 Henry. 
 
 See Raoul Glaber, " Chronique ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate. " 
 
 Robert of Anjou. King of Naples, born about 1275, 
 was a son of Charles II. He began to reign in 1309, 
 and waged war against the emperor Henrv VII. He 
 was the judge selected to decide whether Petrarch was 
 qualified to receive the crown of poet-laureate. Died 
 
 in 1343- 
 
 Robert L of Scotland. See Bruce, (Robert.) 
 
 Rob'ert IX, King of Scotland, born in 1316, was the 
 first king of the House of Stewart or Stuart. The family 
 name was originally Allan, or Alan. (See Stuart 
 Family.) His mother, Marjory, was a daughter of 
 Robert Bruce, and his father, Walter Allan, was the 
 high steward of Scotland. He acted as regent from 
 1338 to 1341, and again while David II. was held as 
 a prisoner by the English, (1346-57.) He succeeded 
 David II. in 1371. Among the important events of his 
 reign were a war against the English, and the battle of 
 Otterburne, (1388.) Died in 1390. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. tii. chap. xxvi. 
 
 Robert IH., King of Scotland, born about 1340, was 
 a son of Robert II. His baptismal name was John ; 
 but John Baliol (called "King John") had rendered this 
 so unpopular that it was changed to Robert. He began 
 to reign in 1390. Hostilities were renewed between the 
 
 Scotch and English in 1399, and the former were de 
 feated at Homildon Hill, in 1402. Robert died in 1406, 
 leaving the throne to his son, James I. 
 
 See Burton, "History of Scotland," chap. xxvi. 
 
 Robert [Fr. pron. ro-baiR'] I., Duke of Normandy, 
 surnamed LE Diable, leh de'Sbl', ("the Devil,") was 3 
 son of Richard IT. He succeeded his brother, Richard 
 III., in 1027. In 1035 he made a pilgrimage to the 
 Holy Land, on his return from which he died at Nicaea 
 in July, 1035. He was succeeded by his son, William 
 the Conqueror of England. 
 
 See Depping, " Histoire de Normandie;" A. Deville, "Notice 
 historique sur Robert le Diable," 1836. 
 
 Robert II., Duke of Normandy, surnamed Curt- 
 Hose or Short-Shanks, born about 960, was the eldest 
 son of William I. surnamed the Conqueror. He was 
 brave, but imprudent and unstable. He obtained the 
 dukedom of Normandy in 1087. In 1096 he went to 
 Palestine as a leader of the first crusade. He distin- 
 guished himself at the siege of Antioch and at the battle 
 of Dorylseum, (1097,) and returned home in 1100. In 
 his absence his younger brother, Henry, obtained pos- 
 session of the throne of England, left vacant by the 
 death of William Rufus. In the war that ensued between 
 Robert and Henry, the former was defeated and taken 
 prisoner in 1106. He was confined at Cardiff until his 
 death, in 1134. 
 
 See Depping, " Histoire de Normandie ;" Ordericus Vitalis, 
 " History of Normandy." 
 
 Robert I., Count of Artois, born in 1216, was a son 
 of Louis VIII. of France. He accompanied his brother, 
 Saint Louis, in a crusade against the Saracens, and was 
 killed at Mansourah in 1250. 
 
 His son Robert, born in 1250, gained a victory over 
 the English near Dax in 1296, and over the Flemings 
 at Furnes in 1297. He was killed in battle in 1302. 
 
 Robert III., Count of Artois, a grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1287. He was banished by Philip 
 VI. of France in 1332, and entered the service of Edward 
 III. of England. Died in 1343. 
 
 Robert, ro'baiR', (Cesar Alphonse,) a French sur- 
 geon and medical writer, born at Marseilles in 1801. 
 He became a resident of Paris. 
 
 Robert, (Claude,) a French ecclesiastical historian, 
 born near Bar-sur-Seine in 1564 or 1565. His chief 
 work is " Christian Gaul," (" Gallia Christiana," 1626,) 
 which was continued by the Benedictines and extended 
 to thirteen volumes, (1785.) Died in 1637. 
 
 See E. Socard, " Notice historique sur Claude Robert." 
 
 Robert, ro'beRt, (Ernst Friedrich Ludwio,) a 
 German litterateur, of Jewish extraction, born at Berlin 
 in 1778, was a brother of Rahel Vamhagen von Ense. 
 He was the author of poems, tales, and dramas. Died 
 in 1832. 
 
 Robert, (Francois,) a French geographer, born near 
 Chalons-sur-Sa6ne in 1737. He published, besides other 
 works, a "Geographical Dictionary," (1818.) Died in 
 1819. 
 
 Robert, (Hubert,) an excellent French painter of 
 architecture, etc., was born in Paris in 1733. He studied 
 in Rome, and passed twelve years in Italy, (1753-65.) 
 He painted views of the monuments and ruins of Rome. 
 After his return to Paris he was appointed keeper of 
 the royal cabinet and dessinateur of the royal gardens. 
 Died in Paris in 1808. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Robert, (Louis Leopold,) an eminent painter, born 
 at Chaux-le-Fonds, in the canton of Neufchatel, in 1794. 
 He was a pupil of Girardet and of David. In 1818 
 he went to Italy, in which he passed the remainder of 
 his life. He represented Italian life and scenery with 
 fidelity in numerous works, among which are "The 
 Neapolitan Improvisator," (1824,) "The Vintage in 
 Tuscany," " The Reapers of the Pontine Marshes," and 
 "The Departure of the Fishermen of the Adriatic," 
 (1835.) He committed suicide at Venice in 1835. This 
 act is ascribed to a passion for Charlotte, a daughter of 
 Joseph Bonaparte. 
 
 See E. Dei.eci.uze, " Notice sur la Vie de L. Robert," 1838 ; 
 FKUtt.t.ET dr Conches, " L. Robert, sa Vie et ses (Euvres," 1848 ; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'n^rale." 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/, - G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (Uy"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROBERT 
 
 1904 
 
 ROBERTSON 
 
 Robert, (Louis Valentin Emas,) a French sculp- 
 tor, born at Etampes about 1818. 
 
 Robert, (Nicolas,) a French miniature- and flower- 
 painter, born at Langres about 1610. He commenced a 
 work called " Recueil de Velins." Died in Paris in 1684. 
 Robert, (Paul Ponce Antoine,) a French painter 
 and engraver, born near Rheims in 1686; died in 1733. 
 
 Robert, (Pierre Francois Joseph,) a French regi- 
 cide, born at Gimnee in 1763, was a friend of Danton. 
 He married Mademoiselle de Keralio, the authoress. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Robert de Courtenay, ro'baiR' deh kooRt'n&', a 
 French prince, a son of Pierre de Courtenay, became 
 Latin Emperor of Constantinople in 1220. Died in 1228. 
 Robert de Vaugondy, ro'baiR' d?h vo'gdN'de', 
 (Didier,) a French geographer, born in Paris in 1723. 
 He published an "Atlas of France and Europe," (1785,) 
 and other works. Died in 1786. 
 
 Robert de Vaugondy, (Gilles,) a French geogra- 
 pher, born in Paris in 1688, was the father of the pre- 
 ceding, and a grandson of Nicolas Sanson. He produced 
 a "Universal Atlas," (1758.) Died in 1766. 
 
 Robert of Avesbury, an English chronicler, author 
 of an unfinished " History of the Reign of Edward III.," 
 which comes down to 1356. Died about 1360. 
 Robert of Bavaria. See Rupert, Prince. 
 Robert of Geneva, (Anti-Pope,) born in 1342, was 
 elected pope in 1378, in opposition to Urban VI. He 
 took the name of Clement VII., reigned at Avignon, 
 and was recognized by the French and Spaniards. Died 
 in 1394. 
 
 Robert of Gloucester, an English chronicler of 
 the thirteenth century. He wrote, in verse, a chronicle 
 or history of England from fabulous times down to 
 the death of Henry III. De Quincey speaks of this 
 chronicle as "the very earliest of all English books." 
 
 See the interesting account of De Quincey's interview with George 
 III., in his " Autobiographic Sketches." 
 
 Robert the Strong, [Fr. Robert le Fort, ro'baiR' 
 leh foR,| Count of Anjou and Duke of France, was 
 noted as a military chief. He was killed in a fight with 
 some Normans, led by the famous sea-king Hastings, 
 in 866 a.d. He was great-grandfather of Hugh Capet. 
 
 Robert Grosstete. See Grosseteste. 
 
 Robert-Fleury, ro'baiR' fluh're', (Joseph Nicolas,) 
 a popular French historical painter, was born at Co- 
 logne in 1797. He was elected a member of the 
 Institute in 1850. Among his works are "Benvenuto 
 Cellini" and "Charles V. at the Monastery of Saint 
 Just." About 1855 he became professor in the Ecole 
 des Beaux-Arts. 
 
 Roberti, ro-beVtee, (Albert,) a Belgian painter, 
 born at Brussels in 181 1. 
 
 Roberti, ro-beVtee, (Giovanni Battista,) a me- 
 diocre Italian poet and essayist, born at Bassano in 
 1719. He was professor of philosophy at Bologna. Died 
 in 1786. 
 
 Roberti, (Jean,) a learned Belgian Jesuit, born at 
 Saint-Hubert in 1569; died in 1651. 
 
 Roberto, the Italian for Robert, which see. 
 
 Rob'erts, (Benjamin S.,) an American general, born 
 at Manchester, Vermont, about 1811, graduated at West 
 Point in 1835. He was serving with the rank of major 
 in New Mexico when the civil war began. In July, 1862, 
 he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers in the 
 Union army. 
 
 Rob'erts, (David,) an eminent British painter of 
 landscapes and architecture, was born at Stockbridge, 
 Edinburgh, in 1796. Between 1838 and 1840 he travelled 
 in Egypt and Syria, in which he sketched many scenes 
 which he afterwards reproduced on canvas. He was 
 elected a Royal Academician in 1841. Among his works 
 are "Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives," (1841,) 
 "Pyramids of Ghizeh," (1844,) "Ruins of the Great 
 Temple of Kamak," "The Destruction of Jerusalem," 
 (1849,) and " Rome," (1855.) The splendid work entitled 
 " The Holy Land, Syria, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia" 
 (4 vols., 1842) is illustrated by lithographs of his 
 sketches. Died in 1864. 
 
 See William Jfrdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866; 
 "Biographical Sketches," by Harriet Martinkau. 
 
 Roberts, (Emma,) an English authoress, wrote 
 "Memoirs of the Rival Houses of York and Lancas- 
 ter," and " Oriental Scenes, Sketches, and Tales." Died 
 at Poonah, in India, in 1840. 
 
 Roberts, (Francis,) an English Puritan minister and 
 writer, born in Yorkshire in 1609, became rector of 
 Wrington in 1649. He wrote " Key to the Scriptures," 
 ("Clavis Bibliorum," 1649,) "The True Way to the 
 Tree of Life," (1673,) a,Kl other works. Died in 1675. 
 
 Roberts, (William,) an English writer, born in 1768. 
 Among his works is a " Life of Hannah More." Died 
 In 1849. 
 
 Robertson, ro'baiR's6N', (Etienne Gaspard Ro- 
 bert,) a Belgian aeronaut and natural philosopher, born 
 at Liege in 1763. It is stated that he made fifty-nine 
 ascensions in balloons. Died in 1837. 
 
 Rob'eit-son, (Frederick William,) an eloquent 
 minister and original thinker of the Anglican Church, 
 was born in London on the 3d of February, 1816. He 
 was the eldest son of Captain Frederick Robertson, of 
 the royal artillery. After preparatory studies at Edin- 
 burgh, he entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1836. 
 Among his fellow-students at Oxford was John Ruskin, 
 in whom he found a congenial spirit. He would have 
 preferred the profession of a soldier ; but, in compliance 
 with the wishes of his father, he devoted himself to the 
 church. After he left college he improved his health by 
 a pedestrian tour among the Alps, and on that occasion 
 became acquainted with Miss Helen Denys, whom he 
 married in 1842. He served as curate at Cheltenham 
 about four years, and became incumbent of Trinity 
 Chapel, Brighton, in August, 1847. Though he rather 
 shunned than courted popularity, his eloquence and 
 originality soon excited general admiration. The libe- 
 rality and independence of his principles, however, 
 subjected him to persecution from some members of his 
 own communion. He belonged to what is called the 
 Broad Church. Three series of his sermons have been 
 published, and have passed through about eight editions. 
 He delivered several "Lectures and Addresses on Lit- 
 erary and Social Topics," which have been printed. He 
 died August 15, 1853, and was buried at Brighton. 
 
 See Stopford A. Brookk, " Life and Letters of F. W. Robert- 
 son," 2 vols., 1865; "Blackwood's Magazine" for January, 1866. 
 
 Robertson, (George,) an English landscape-painter, 
 born in London about 1742; died in 1788. 
 
 Rob'ert-son, (James,) called Rabbi Robertson, was 
 born at Cromarty, in Scotland. He became professor of 
 Oriental languages at Edinburgh in 1751. Died in 1795. 
 
 Robertson, (James,) D.D., a Scottish divine, born in 
 1803. He became professor of ecclesiastical history at 
 Edinburgh. Died in i860. 
 
 Robertson, (Rev. Joseph,) an English writer, born 
 in 1726. He wrote an "Essay on Punctuation," and 
 translated "Telemachus," (1795.) Died in 1802. 
 
 Robertson, (Patrick,) a Scottish judge, versifier, 
 and lawyer, noted for his wit and humour, was born in 
 1794. He was elected Dean of the Faculty of Advocates 
 in 1842. Died in 1855. 
 
 Robertson, (Thomas,) an English grammarian, born 
 at or near Wakefield. He became a Fellow of Magda- 
 lene College, Oxford, in 1532, and Dean of Durham about 
 1557. Died about 1560. 
 
 Rob'ert-son, (William,) an Irish divine, born in 
 Dublin in 1705, is reputed to have been an Arian or 
 Unitarian. He wrote "An Attempt to Explain the 
 Words Reason, Substance, Person, Creed, Orthodoxy," 
 etc. Died in 1783. 
 
 Robertson, (William,) often called Principal Rob- 
 ertson, a celebrated Scottish historian, was born at 
 Borthwick.in Edinburghshire, (Mid-Lothian,) September 
 19, 1721. His father, the Rev. William Robertson, was 
 minister at Borthwick when his son was born. He 
 afterwards removed to Edinburgh. Young Robertson 
 manifested an ardent devotion to literature from a very 
 early age. He began to preach before he was twenty 
 years old. He was presented to the living of Gladsmuir, 
 in East Lothian, in 1743, and acquired a high reputation 
 as an eloquent pulpit orator. He took a prominent part 
 in the debates of the General Assembly of the Church 
 of Scotland, and obtained great influence in ecclesiastical 
 
 S, e, i, o, u, y, hug; a, 4, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; 0r, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
ROBERVAl 
 
 1905 
 
 ROBESPIERRE 
 
 affairs. He was the leader of what was called the mode- 
 rate party, and was more inclined to liberality and tole- 
 rance than many other members of his church. He has, 
 however, been charged, perhaps not without reason, with 
 preferring the interests of literature to those of religion. 
 In 1759 he published a " History of Scotland during the 
 Reigns of Mary and of James VI. till his Accession to 
 the Crown of Kngland," which was received with great 
 and general favour. It was extolled by Hume, Burke, 
 and other eminent critics. He removed to Edinburgh 
 about 1759, became one of the king's chaplains in 1761, 
 and principal of the University of Edinburgh in 1762. 
 His reputation was increased by his " History of the 
 Emperor Charles V., with a Sketch of the Political and 
 Social State of Europe," etc., (3 vols., 1769,) which is 
 considered his capital work. He afterwards published 
 a " History of America," (2 vols., 1777.) He is gene- 
 rally accurate and impartial in the narration of events 
 and judicious in the estimation of character. His style 
 is elegant, clear, and vigorous, with occasional passages 
 of great beauty. As a writer he is remarkable for a 
 sustained unimpassioned dignity of manner, which, how- 
 ever, too often approaches monotony. In politics he 
 was a Whig, with a strong leaning towards republicanism. 
 He died in June, 1793. 
 
 See Dugald Stewart, "Account of the Life and Writings of 
 W. Roberteon," 180; : Suard, " Notice sur la Vie et les ficrits de 
 Dr. Robertson ;" " Memoirs of Adam Smith. W. Robertson, and 
 Thomas Reid," 1S11 ; Bishop Gt-Hto, " Me«loir of W. Robertson," 
 prefixed to his works ; Rrougham, " Men of Letters in the Time of 
 George III.;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen;" Ali.ibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Monthly Re- 
 view" for July and August, 1769. 
 
 Roberval, de, deh ro'beVvtl', (Giles Personne — 
 pen'son', or Fersonier, peR'so'ne-A',) a French mathe- 
 matician, was born at Roberval, near Senlis, in 1602. 
 He removed to Paris in 1627, and formed an intimacy 
 with Mersenne. About 1632 he obtained the chair of 
 mathematics founded by Ramus at the College de 
 France. He discovered about 1636 a method to deter- 
 mine the area of a cycloid, and a method to determine 
 the direction of a tangent at any point of a curve line. 
 Among his works are a "Treatise on Indivisibles," 
 (" Traite des Indivisibles,") and "On the World's Mo- 
 tions and Parts, according to the System of Aristarchus 
 the Samian," ("Aristarchi Samii de Mundi Systemate 
 Partibus et Motibus," 1644.) It is related that, having 
 been asked how he liked a dramatical performance 
 which he had just witnessed, he answered, "Qu'est-ce 
 que cela prouve?" (" What does that prove?") Died in 
 Paris in 1675. 
 
 Robespierre, ro'bes'pe-atR', (Augustin Bon Jo- 
 seph,) called THE YouNtCa brother of the dictator, 
 was born at Arras in 1764. He was elected to the 
 National Convention in 1792. When the Convention 
 ordered the arrest of his brother, he exclaimed, " In- 
 clude me with him ; I partake his crimes I" He was 
 executed July 28, 1794. 
 
 Robespierre, rob'es-peer, [Fr. pron. ro'b?s'pe_-aiR',] 
 (MaXIMII.IEN Marie Isidore,) a French demagogue 
 and Jacobin, was born at Arras on the 6th of May, 
 1758. He was sent to the College of Arras, from which 
 he passed in 1770 to the College Louis-le-Grand, in 
 Paris. His habits at college were studious and regular. 
 He studied law, acquired some distinction as an advo- 
 cate at Arras, and was sent to the States-General in 
 M11, 1789, as one of the sixteen representatives of the 
 province of Artois. He was a person of small stature, 
 and had nothing attractive or imposing in his aspect. 
 His voice was weak, his complexion "sea-green," his 
 disp, ait ion reserved and timid, and his moral habits tem- 
 erate and regular. 'According to M. Etienne Dumont, 
 
 e had a sinister aspect, and a continual blinking 
 (tlignotement) of the eyes. In political opinions he was 
 a radical democrat. He spoke often in the Constituent 
 Assembly and in the Jacobin Club, over which he 
 goon acquired a predominant influence. While men of 
 greater talents wasted their energies in vain efforts to 
 refonn the old regime by half-way measures and tem- 
 porizing expedients, he seems to have perceived the 
 -ity of a radical revolution. " He will go far," says 
 Mira!>eau; "for he believes all he says." 
 
 I 
 
 In the Constituent Assembly he maintained a position 
 somewhat independent of party. He defended with zeal 
 the interests of the inferior clergy, advocated the abo- 
 lition of the death-penalty, (May, 1791,) and made a 
 vehement speech against the re-election of the members 
 of the Constituent Assembly to the Legislative Assem- 
 bly, on which question he differed from the othei chiefs 
 of 'the gauche. On critical occasions he usually presented 
 himself to the people as a resigned and devoted victim 
 whom nefarious persons designed to immolate because 
 he loved the people too well. Thus, after he had de- 
 nounced the king, the ministry, etc., June 21, 1791, he 
 said, " I know that I sharpen against myself a thousand 
 daggers ; but if in the first stage of the Revolution, when 
 1 was scarcely known in the National Assembly, I offered 
 my life as a sacrifice to truth, now that the approbation 
 of my fellow-citizens has rewarded me for this sacrifice, 
 I should receive almost as a benefit a death which shall 
 prevent me from witnessing the public calamities which 
 I foresee to be inevitable." In December, 1791, he 
 opposed in a speech the declaration of war against 
 the Emperor of Germany which was proposed by the 
 Girondists. Although not a great orator, he was 
 always plausible, and more logical than the most of his 
 competitors. He never took an active or open part 
 in the violent acts and outrages of the populace, such 
 as the attack on the Tuileries, August, 1792. 
 
 In September, 1792, he was elected to the Convention 
 as a deputy from Paris. A few days after the session 
 began, several Girondist deputies accused him of aspiring 
 to a dictatorship, and cast on him the responsibility of 
 the recent massacre in the prisons of Paris. These 
 charges were repeated by Louvet in a long speech, 
 (October 29,) to which Robespierre read an artful 
 and successful defence. The result of this affair was 
 that Robespierre became the accepted chief of the 
 Mountain and the implacable enemy of the Girondists. 
 The first victim of his unscrupulous policy was the 
 king, whom the Girondists wished to save. He said, 
 (December 2, 1792,) "I pronounce with regret this 
 fatal truth ; but Louis must die that the country may 
 live," ("Louis doit niourir parcequ'il faut que la patrie 
 vive.") Aided by the commune of Paris and the mob, 
 he triumphed over the Girondists about June I, 1793. 
 Then began the Reign of Terror, during which, as presi- 
 dent of the committee of public safety, (or salvation,) 
 Robespierre exercised almost unlimited power. Two 
 of his partisans, Couthon and Saint-Just, were associated 
 with him in the triumvirate of Robespierre. It is 
 just to admit that they defended France with great 
 vigour and ability against the allied armies of nearly 
 all Europe and the Vendean royalist insurgents. 
 
 In March, 1794, Hebert and the Hebeitists were 
 guillotined as exagerh or ultra-revolutionary. It is stated 
 that when the committee of public safety determined 
 to destroy Danton and his friends, Robespierre at first 
 opposed the measure; but he supported, by a speech in 
 the Convention, Saint-Just's motion for their arrest, and 
 Danton, with Desmoulins and others, was executed in 
 April, 1794. But the death of a powerful rival did not 
 render his own position secure. His statesmanship was 
 not adequate to solve the enigma of the Revolution. He 
 presided as a high-priest and pronounced an oration at 
 a public ceremony called the Festival of the Supreme 
 Being, in June, 1794. In the mean time, multitudes ot 
 innocent persons, of both sexes, perished daily by the 
 guillotine. This excessive cruelty provoked against him 
 a combination of various parties, afterwards called 
 " Thermidoriens," including Tallien, Barras, Billaud- 
 Varennes, Fouche, and Carnot. The Convention ordered 
 the arrest of Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor. His 
 partisans rallied in the night and released him from 
 arrest. He was then declared an outlaw by the Conven- 
 tion, and was guillotined, with twenty of his partisans, on 
 the 10th Thermidor, (28th of July,) 1794. lie was sur- 
 named " the Incorruptible," because he was proof against 
 pecuniary temptations. " Robespierre," says Macaulay, 
 in his article on Barere, "was a vain, envious, and sus- 
 picious man, with a hard heart, weak nerves, and a 
 gloomy temper. But we cannot with truth deny that he 
 was, in the vulgar sense of the word, disinterested, tha* 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 I 20 
 
 (ilty See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROB IL ANT 
 
 1906 
 
 ROBINSON 
 
 his private life was correct, or that lie was sincerely 
 zealous for his own system of politics and morals." 
 
 See Lodieu, " Biographie de Robespierre ;" Vilate, " Causes 
 secret»s de la Revolution du 9 Thernlidor," 1796; Pkovart, " Viede 
 Robespierre," 1794: George H. Lewes, "History of Maximilian 
 Robespierre," 1S49; Lamartine, " Histoire des Girondins :" Er- 
 nest Hamel, " Histoire de Robespierre," 3 vols., 1867 ; Carlyi.k, 
 " History of the French Revolution ;" P. F. Tissot, " Histoire de 
 Robespierre," a vols., 1844; Opitz, " Robespierre's Triumph und 
 Sturz," 1850: Mignet, "Histoire de la Revolution Franchise;" 
 •' Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for 
 September, 1835. 
 
 Robilant, de, deh ro'be'ldN', ? (Esprit BENofr Nico- 
 las,) an engineer and writer on metallurgy, etc., born at 
 Turin in 1724. He was a son of Count Joseph Robilant, 
 author of an able work on Strategy, (1744.) Died in 1801. 
 
 Robin, ro'b&N', (Chari.es Philippe,) a French anato- 
 mist and microscopist, born at Jafferon (Ain) in 1821. 
 He became professor of anatomy at Paris (professeur 
 agregihla Faculte) in 1847. He applied the microscope 
 to the study of anatomy and the intimate structure of 
 tissues. He published a number of professional works, 
 among which is "Traite de Chimie anatomique et phy- 
 siologique, normale et pathologique," (1852.) 
 
 Robin, (Jean,) a French botanist, born in Paris in 
 1550. He was patronized by Henry IV., and planted a 
 garden which was the finest in Paris. He published a 
 work on the plants which grow near Paris, " Catalogus 
 Stirpium tam indigenarum quam exoticarum," etc., 
 (1601.) The genus Robinia was named in his honour. 
 Died in 1629. 
 
 See Haller. " Bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 Robin, (Vespasien,) a botanist, born in Paris in 1579, 
 was a son of the preceding. He succeeded his father in 
 the title of arboriste du roi, and lectured on botany at the 
 Jardin Royal. Died in 1662. 
 
 Robin Hood. See Hood, (Robin.) 
 
 Robineau. See Beaunoir. 
 
 Robinet, ro'be'ni', (Edmond,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Saint-Pol-de-Leon in 181 1. He wrote several 
 historical works. 
 
 Robinet, (Jean Baptiste Rene,) a French writer 
 on various subjects, born at Rennes in 1735 ; died in 1820. 
 
 Robinet, (Stephane,) a French chemist, born in 
 Paris in 1796. 
 
 Rob'ins, (Benjamin,) an eminent English mathema- 
 tician, born at Bath in 1707, is called the founder of the 
 science of gunnery. He was chosen a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society at the age of twenty. His chief work is 
 "New Principles of Gunnery," (1742.) He was ap- 
 pointed chief engineer of the East India Company in 
 1749, and died at Madras in 1751. 
 
 See Dr. Wilson, "Life of Benjamin Robins;" " Biographia 
 Britannica," (Supplement.) 
 
 Robins or Robyns, (John,) an English astronomer, 
 born in Staffordshire about 1500. He was canon of 
 Windsor, and chaplain to Henry VIII. He left in manu- 
 script several treatises on the Fixed Stars. Died in 
 
 Rob'in-son, (Anastasia,) an English singer, who 
 was married to the Earl of Peterborough before 1735. 
 Died in 1750. 
 
 Rob'in-son, (Edward,) an eminent American bibli- 
 cal scholar, born at Soutliington, Connecticut, in 1794. 
 He graduated at Hamilton College, New York, in 1816, 
 and went to Europe in 1826, after which he studied 
 Oriental languages at Paris and Halle. About 1828 he 
 married a daughter of Professor Jacobi or von Jakob, 
 of Halle. He began to edit the " Biblical Repository" 
 in 1831, was appointed professor of biblical literature 
 in the Union Theological Seminary, in the city of New 
 York, in 1837, and travelled in Palestine in 1838. In 
 1841 he published his principal work, "Biblical Re- 
 searches in Palestine, Mount Sinai, and Arabia Petraea," 
 (3 vols.,) which is considered the best that had then 
 been published on that subject. "The work was recog- 
 nized," says R. W. Griswold, "as one of the most 
 learned and judicious produced in the world in this 
 century." He received for this work the gold medal of 
 the Royal Geographical Society of London. Among his 
 other works is " The Harmony of the Four Gospels," in 
 Greek, (1845,) and " Bibliotheca Sacra." Died in New 
 
 York in January, 1863. " The names of Edward Robin- 
 son and Moses Stuart," says R. W. Griswold, " stand 
 at the head of the catalogue of learned men who have 
 cultivated biblical literature in America." (" Prose 
 Writers of America," p. 382.) 
 
 See tile "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1841 ; 
 " North American Review" for April, 1851. 
 
 Robinson, (Frederick John.) See Ripon, Earl 
 of. 
 
 Robinson, (Henry Crabb,) an English lawyer and 
 writer, born at Bury Saint Edmund's, was an. intimate 
 friend of Coleridge, Wordsworth, and other eminent per- 
 sons of his time. He died in London in 1867, at the age 
 of ninety-one, leaving a very interesting " Diary, Remi- 
 niscences, and Correspondence," (3 vols., London, 1869.) 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1869 ; " British Quar- 
 terly Review" forOctober, 1869; " F laser's Magazine" for October, 
 1869; " Macmillan's Magazine" for August, 1869, (by Professor 
 Maurice.) 
 
 Robinson, (John,) an English dissenting minister, 
 born in 1575, was educated at Cambridge. To escape 
 from persecution, he emigrated to Holland with the con- 
 gregation of which he was pastor, in 1608. He and they 
 settled at Leyden, where they remained eleven years. 
 A portion of his society emigrated to Plymouth, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1620, in the Mayflower. He intended to 
 follow them, but was prevented by death. He was an 
 Independent, and a man of superior talents. He wrote 
 several religious works. Died at Leyden in 1625. 
 
 Robinson, (John,) an English prelate, born in York- 
 shire in 1650. He became Bishop of Bristol in 1710, 
 and was one of the plenipotentiaries who formed the 
 treaty of Utrecht, (1713.) He was transferred to the see 
 of London in 1714. Died in 1723. 
 
 Robinson, (John C.,) an American general, born at 
 Binghamton, New York, in 1817. He was appointed a 
 brigadier-general about April, 1862, and served at the 
 battle of Gaines's Mill, June 27, and at Malvern Hill, 
 July 1, 1862. He commanded a division at the battle 
 of Gettysburg, July, 1863, and at that of the Wilderness, 
 May, 1864. In the advance from the Wilderness to 
 Spottsylvania Court-House he was severely wounded, 
 May 7. 
 
 Robinson, (John H.,) an able English line-engraver, 
 born at Bolton, Lancashire, in 1796. He engraved a 
 portrait of Sir Walter Scott, after Lawrence, Leslie's 
 "Mother and Child," Murillo's " Flower-Girl," etc. 
 
 Robinson, (Mary or Maria,) an English poetess 
 and actress, born at Bristol in 1758. Her maiden name 
 was Darby. She was a mistress of the Prince of Wales, 
 (afterwards George IV.) Died in 1800. 
 
 See " Autobiography of Mrs. Robinson," London, 1827 ; 
 " Monthly Review" for September and December, 1801. 
 
 Robinson, (Richard,) Archbishop of Armagh, and 
 Baron Rokeby, was born in Yorkshire in 1709. He 
 founded a public library and a school at Armagh. Died 
 in 1794. 
 
 Robinson, (Robert,) an English Baptist minister, 
 born at Swaffham, in Norfolk, in 1735. He preached 
 at Cambridge from 1759 to 1773, and then removed to 
 Chesterton. He was an eloquent preacher. In the 
 latter part of his life he adopted Socinian doctrines. 
 He wrote, besides other religious works, a "History of 
 Baptism," (1790.) Died in 1790. 
 
 See George Dver, "Life of R. Robinson," 1796. 
 
 Robinson, (Tancred, ) an English physician and 
 writer, received the title of physician-in-ordinary to 
 George I. Died in 1748. 
 
 Robinson, (Therkse Ai.bertine Louise,) wife of 
 Dr. E. Robinson, noticed above, was born at Halle, 
 Germany, in 1797. She published a collection of tales 
 under the signature of Talvi, and translated a nuriber 
 of poems from the Servian language, entitled "Volks- 
 lieder der Serben." She has also translated into Ger- 
 man Pickering's treatise " On the Indian Tongues of 
 North America." Among her other works may be 
 named a " Historical View of the Languages and Lite- 
 rature of the Slavic Nations, with a Sketch of their 
 Popular Poetry." Died in 1870. 
 
 Robinson, (Rev. Thomas,) an English naturalist, 
 wrote an " Essay toward the Natural History of West- 
 moreland and Cumberland." Died in 1719. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fl, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
ROBINSON 
 
 1907 
 
 ROCHEFOUCAULD 
 
 Robinson, (Thomas,) an English divine, born at 
 Wakefield in 1749. Fie preached at Leicester for many 
 years, and published "The Christian System Unfolded/' 
 Died in 1813. 
 
 See Edward T. Vaughan, "Life of T. Rnbinson." 
 
 Robiquet, ro'be'kj', (Pierre Jean,) a French 
 chemist, born at Rennes in 1780. He was professor of 
 chemistry and materia medica in Paris, and succeeded 
 Chaptal in the Academy of Sciences in 1833. Died in 
 Paris in 1840. 
 
 See " Biographic Universelle." 
 
 Robl-spn, (John,) a Scottish mathematician and 
 natural philosopher, born at Boghall, county of Stirling, 
 or at Rosehall, near Glasgow, in 1739. He succeeded 
 Dr. Black as professor of chemistry at Glasgow in 1767, 
 and was appointed professor of natural philosophy at 
 the University of Edinburgh in 1774. His principal 
 work is "Elements of Mechanical Philosophy," (4 vols., 
 1822.) Died in Edinburgh in 1805. 
 
 See David Brewster, " Notice of J. Robison," prefixed to the 
 work above named; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Emi- 
 nent Scotsmen." 
 
 Roboam. See Rehoboam. / 
 
 Robortello, ro-boR-tel'lo, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 philologist and antiquary, born at Udine in 1516. He 
 was professor of rhetoric at Venice, and taught Greek 
 and Latin at Padua. Among his works are "Annotations 
 of Various Passages," ("Variorum Locorum Annota- 
 tiones," 1543,) and " De Facultate historica," (1548.) 
 Died in 1567. 
 
 See Ghiuni, " Teatro d'Uomini letterati ;" Tiraboschi, "Storia 
 della Letteralnra Ttaliana." 
 
 Rob Roy, a Scottish adventurer, whose original 
 name was Macgregor, born about 1660, was a partisan 
 of the Pretender in the rebellion of 1715. The Duke 
 of Montrose having seized his lands, Ro1j Roy carried 
 on a war of reprisals for many years, and became widely 
 celebrated for his exploits. He is the hero of one of 
 Sir Walter Scott's most popular novels. Died in 1743. 
 
 See K.. Macleav, "Historical Memoirs of Rob Roy," 1818; 
 "Blackwood's Magazine" for October, November, and December. 
 1817. 
 
 Rob'son, (Frederick,) an English comic actor, born 
 at Margate in 1821. He performed in London and 
 Dublin with success. Died in 1864. 
 
 Robson, (George Fennel,) an English landscape- 
 painter, born at Durham, worked in London. Died in 
 1833. 
 
 Robusti. See Tintoretto. 
 
 Robusti, ro-boos'tee, (Domenico,) a painter, some- 
 times called Tintoretto, born at Venice in 1562, was 
 a son and pupil of the great painter Tintoretto. He 
 painted history and portraits with success. Among his 
 works are an "Annunciation" and a "Nativity of Christ." 
 Died in 1637. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Robusti, (Marietta,) an excellent Italian portrait- 
 painter, born in 1560, was a daughter of Tintoretto. She 
 died in 1590. 
 
 Ro'by, (John,) an English writer of prose and verse, 
 bcrn in Lancashire, became a banker of Rochdale. He 
 wrote "Sir Bartram," a poem, (1815,) and "Traditions 
 of Lancashire," (2 vols., 1829.) He perished in the 
 wreck of the Orion, in June, 1850. 
 
 Rocaberti, de, da ro-ka-beVtee, (Juan Tommaso,) 
 a Spanish prelate, born at Perelada about 1625. He 
 advocated the infallibility of the pope in his work "On 
 the Authority of the Roman Pontiff," (" De Romani 
 Pontificis Auctoritate," 1693.) Died in 1699. 
 
 Rocca, rok'ki, (Angelo,) an Italian scholar, born at 
 Rocca Contrata in 1545. He founded at Rome a public 
 library called Bibliotheca Angelica. Died in 1620. 
 
 Roch, rok, Saint, born at Montpellier, in France, in 
 1295, was renowned for his charity and his humane 
 attentions to the sick. Died in 1327. 
 
 See DESAINT-Al.BAN,"yiedeSaint-Roch," 1849; Coppintrrrs 
 "Saint-Roch, Etude historique," 1855; Mrs. Jameson, "History 
 •f Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 Rochambeau, de, deh ro'shoNlxV, (DoNATlF.N(do'- 
 nfsej^N') Marie Joseph de Vimeur — deh ve'muR',) 
 Vicomte, a French general, born near Vend6me in 
 
 1750. He went to Saint Domingo with Leclerc, at 
 whose death, in 1802, he became commander-in-chief. 
 He was killed at Leipsic in 1813. 
 
 Rochambeau, de, (Jean Baptists Donatien de 
 Vimeur,) a French marshal, bom at Vendome in 1725, 
 was the father of the preceding. He served with dis- 
 tinction in Minorca, at Crevelt, and at Minden, (1759.) 
 He commanded an army of six thousand men sent to 
 the United States in 1780, and contributed to the victory 
 at Yorktown in October, 1781. In 1791 he obtained the 
 baton of marshal. He commanded an army against the 
 Atistrians in 1792, but resigned in the same year. Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 _ See " Memoires de Rochambeau." by himself, 1809; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneYale;" " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Roche, rosh, (Achii.i.e,) a French political and his- 
 torical writer, born in Paris in 1801, was a republican. 
 He wrote "Albert Renaud," (4 vols., 1825,) and a " His- 
 tory of the French Revolution," (1825.) Died in 1834. 
 
 Roche, (Charles Louis,) a French medical writer, 
 born at Nevers in 1790. Among his works is " Elements 
 of Medico-Surgical Pathology," (5 vols., 1825-28.) 
 
 Roche, rotch, ? (Maria Regina,) an English novelist, 
 born in 1764. She wrote " The Children of the Abbey," 
 and other tales. Died in 1845. 
 
 Roche-Aymon, de, deh rosh 4'm6N', (Antoine 
 Charles Etienne,) Marquis, a French general and 
 writer on the art of war, born in Paris about 1775. He 
 was aide-de-camp of Prince Henry of Prussia, (1794- 
 1802.) Died in 1862. 
 
 Rochechouart. See Montespan, de, and Morte- 
 mart, de. 
 
 Rochefort, rosh'foR', (Guillaume,) Chancellor of 
 France, was noted for wisdom. Died in 1492. ' 
 
 Rochefort, (Henri,) Vicomte de Lucay, (deh lii'si',) 
 a French republican agitator, born about 1835.' He "be- 
 came editor of the "Lanterne," in which he so violently 
 assailed the imperial policy that he was banished. 
 Having returned to Paris, he began to issue a journal 
 called "The Marseillaise," and was elected a member 
 of the legislative body in 1869. He published offensive 
 remarks and lampoons on Napoleon III., for which he 
 was in 1870 sentenced to an imprisonment of six months. 
 He became a member of the provisional government, Sep- 
 tember^ 1870, but resigned about the 1st of November. 
 
 Rochefort, de, deh rosh'foR', (Guillaume Dubois,) 
 a French writer and translator, born at Lyons in 1731. 
 He wrote against the Materialists, and translated Ho- 
 mer's "Iliad" (1770) and "Odyssey," (1777,) also the 
 works of Sophocles, (1788.) Died in 1788. 
 
 Rochefort, de, (Henri Louis d'Aloigny,) Mar- 
 quis, a French general, who became marshal of France 
 in 1675. Died in 1676. 
 
 Rochefoucauld, de la, deh IS rosh'foo'ko', (Fran- 
 COIS,) Prince de Marsillac, (maR'se-ytk',) a French 
 Huguenot leader, was a brother-in-law of the Prince of 
 Conde. He fought at Chartres and Jarnac, (1569.) He 
 perished in the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, in Paris, ' 
 August 24. 1572. 
 
 Rochefoucauld, de la, (Francois,) Due, Prince de 
 Marsillac, a celebrated French moralist and courtier, 
 born in December, 1613. He married Mademoiselle de 
 Vivonne about 1637. In his youth he was engaged at 
 court as the confidential agent of the queen in intrigues 
 against Richelieu. He formed in 1646 a liaison with 
 Madame de Longueville, and in the war of the Fronde 
 was one of the chiefs of the party which opposed the 
 court. He was severely wounded at the battle near 
 Paris in 1652, after which he renounced intrigues and fac- 
 tious enterprises. He produced in 1665 his "Maxims," 
 (" Reflexions, ou Sentences et Maximes morales,") which, 
 according to Voltaire, is one of the works which con- 
 tributed most to form and rectify the national taste. 
 The essential principle of this book is that self love or 
 interest is the chief motive of human actions. In his 
 latter years he enjoyed the friendship of Madame de La 
 Fayette and Madame de Sevigne. Died in 1680. 
 
 See his autobiographic " Memoires," 1662 ; StMRD, " Notice sur 
 La Rochefoucauld," 1782; Madame dp.SrVignpL," Lettres;" Sainte- 
 liEnVE, "Etudes sur La Rochefoucauld," 1851: G. B. Depping, 
 "Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de La Rochefoucauld," 1822; 
 " Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by Mrs. Shelley. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s: g hard;gasj; G, H, K, guttural ': N, nasal; R, trilled; § as t; th as in this. (Jr^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROCHEFOUCAULD 
 
 1908 
 
 RODGERS 
 
 Rochefoucauld, de la, (Frederic Chari.es,) Earl 
 of Lifford, a French general, born in 1633, was a zealous 
 Protestant. Died at Math, England, in 1690. 
 
 Rochefoucauld, de la, (I^ouis Alexandre,) Due 
 de la Roche-Guyon, (deh 13 rosh ge'6N',) a French 
 patriot, born in 1743. He favoured the popular cause in 
 the Revolution, and was an active member of the States- 
 General in 1789. lie was massacred at Gisors in 1792. 
 
 Rochefoucauld-Liaucourt, de la, deh IS rosh'- 
 (oo'ko' le'6N'kooR', (Francois Alexandre Frederic,) 
 Pl'0 a liberal French peer and philanthropist, born in 
 1747 was a cousin of the preceding. He was a member 
 of the Constituent Assembly in 1789-90, and went into 
 exile in 1792, after which he travelled in the United 
 States. He returned to Paris in 1799. He founded the 
 school of Arts et Metiers, (at Chalons,) and the first 
 saving-fund in France. He published "Travels in the 
 United States of America," (8 vols., 1800.) Died in 1827. 
 His son, Frederic GaEtan, Marquis de la Rochefou- 
 cauld-Liancourt, born at Liancourt in 1779, is author 
 of several poems, dramas, and historical works. 
 
 See Gaetan de i.a Rochefoucauld, "Vie du Due de la Roche- 
 foucauld-Liancourt," 1827; " Biographic Universelle." 
 
 Rochejaquelein, de la, deh IS rosh'zhtk'laN', 
 (Henri du Verger — du veK'zha',) Count, a French 
 royalist chief of the Vendean war, was born in Poitou in 
 1772. He took command of a band of peasants in 1793, 
 and was victorious in several small battles. He said to 
 his men, " If I jtlvance, follow me ; if I retreat, kill me ; 
 if I die, avenge me." In October, 1793, he was appointed 
 general-in-chief of the insurgents. He gained a victory 
 at Entrames, October 27, but was defeated with great 
 loss at Mans, December 13. He was killed in battle at 
 NouaiHe in March, 1794. 
 
 _ See Theodore Muret, "Vie populaire de H. de la Rochejaque- 
 lein," 1K45. 
 
 Rochejaquelein, de la, (Louis,) a brother of the 
 preceding, was born in 1777. He was an officer in the 
 army, and served against the negroes in Hayti. In May, 
 1S15, he raised a body of Vendeans to fight for Louis 
 XV II I. He was killed in an action at Pont des Mathis 
 in June of that year. 
 
 See Madame de i.a Rochejaquelein, "Memoires;" "London 
 Quarterly Review" for April, i8]6. 
 
 Rochejaquelein, de la, (Marie Louise Victoire 
 de Donnissan — deh do'ne'sd.N',) Marquise, was born 
 at Versailles in 1772. She married in 1790 the Marquis 
 de Lescure, who was killed at the battle of Chollet. 
 About 1800 she became the wife of Louis de la Roche- 
 jaquelein, noticed above. She wrote " Memoires" of 
 her own life and of the exploits of those whose name 
 she bore, (1815.) Died in 1857. 
 
 See Ai.rRED Nettf.mhnt, " Vie de Madame de la Rochejaque- 
 lein," 1859; "Edinburgh Review" for February, 1816. 
 
 Rochers, Des, See Desrochers. 
 
 Roches, Des. See Desroches. 
 
 Rochester. See Hyde, (Lawrence.) 
 
 Rochester, Bishop of. See Fisher. 
 
 Roch'es-ter, (John WlLMOT,) Earl of, a witty and 
 profligate English courtier, bom in Oxfordshire in 1647, 
 was a son of Henry, Earl of Rochester. He became a 
 favourite of Charles II., and indulged in debauchery and 
 drunkenness to such excess that his constitution was 
 eventually ruined. In 1665 he entered the navy, and 
 signalized his courage in several actions. He wrote a 
 number of songs, satires, etc. He died in 1680, professing 
 penitence for his sins. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets ;" Burnet, " Some 
 Passages of the Life and Death of John. Ear] of Rochester," 1681. 
 
 Rochet, ro'sh&', (Louis,) a French sculptor, born in 
 Paris in 181 7. 
 
 Rochette, ro'shet', (D£sir£ Raoul,) an eminent 
 French archaeologist, born at Saint-Amand (Cher) in 
 1790. He married a daughter of Houdon the sculptor, 
 and succeeded Guizot as professor of modern history in 
 181 5. He became professor of archaeology in Paris in 
 1826, and acquired much popularity as a lecturer. In 
 1S38 or 1839 he was elected perpetual secretary of the 
 Academy of Fine Arts. He published, besides other 
 works, a " Critical History of the Greek Colonies," (4 
 vols., 1815,) and "Memoirs of Comparative Archaeology, 
 
 Asiatic, Greek, and Etruscan," (1848.) He left unfinished 
 a " History of Ancient Art." Died in 1854. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte"raire;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Ge*neVale;" "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Rochlitz, roK'lits, (Friedrich,) a German litterateur, 
 born at Leipsic in 1769 or 1770, published a number of 
 tales and musical treatises, among which is "Blicke in 
 das Gebiet der Kiinste." Died in 1842. 
 
 Rochon, ro'shoN', (Alexis Marie,) a French as- 
 tronomer and navigator, born at Brest in 1741. He was 
 appointed astronomer of the marine in 1766, and made 
 a voyage to the East Indies, of which he published an 
 account, (3 vols., 1791.) He wrote an "Essay on An- 
 cient and Modern Coins," (1792,) treatises on optics, 
 etc. Died in 1817. 
 
 See Dei.ambre, "Notice sur Rochon," j8i8: "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Rochon de Chabannes, ro'sh6N' deh shi'btn', 
 (Marc Antoine Jacques,) a French dramatist, born 
 in Paris in 1730. He wrote some successful comedies. 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 Rocho-w, von, fon ro'Ko, (Giistav Adolf Rochus,) 
 a Prussian statesman, born in Rathenowin 1792, became 
 minister of the interior and of the police in 1834. Died 
 in 1847. 
 
 Rockingham, rok'ing-am, (Charles Watson Wf.nt- 
 wokth,) second Marquis of, an English Whig states- 
 man, was born in 1730. He succeeded to the marquisate 
 in 1750, and inherited a large fortune, which, joined with 
 an honourable character, rendered him a person of great 
 influence. He became prime minister in July, 1765, and 
 took Edmund Burke into his service as private secretary. 
 The notorious Stamp Act was repealed by this ministry, 
 which by the enmity of the king was driven from power 
 in July, 1766. He opposed the measures by which Lord 
 North provoked the American colonies to revolt. When 
 North resigned, (in March, 1782,) the king was reduced 
 to the painful necessity of accepting a Whig ministry, 
 of which Lord Rockingham was premier. He died July 
 I, 1782, leaving no issue. 
 
 S-e Lord Aliirmari.e, "Memoirs of the Marquis of Rocking- 
 ham," 2 vols., 1852: Lord Mahon, "History of England;" 
 "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S52. 
 
 Rock'well, (James Otis,) an American poet, born 
 in Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1807. He became associate 
 editor of the Boston "Statesman," and in 1829 assumed 
 charge of the "Patriot," a journal published at Provi- 
 dence. He died in 1831, of an illness caused chiefly, it 
 is supposed, by pecuniary embarrassment. Among his 
 poems we may name "The Lost at Sea," and lines "To 
 the Ice-Mountain." The former is of remarkable beauty 
 and pathos. Rockwell was a friend of Whittier, who 
 has written an eloquent tribute to his memory. 
 
 See Griswoi.u, "Poets and Poetry of America.'' 
 
 Rocoles, de, deh ro'kol', (Jean BAPTisTE,)a French 
 historian, born at Beziers in 1620. He changed sides 
 three or four times in religion, being a Catholic in France 
 and a Protestant in Holland. Died in 1696. 
 
 Rode, ro'deh, (Christian Bernhard,) a German 
 painter and engraver, born at Berlin in 1725. He painted 
 history and portraits. Among his prints are illustrations 
 of Gellert's " Fables." Died in 1797. 
 
 Rode, rod, (Pierre,) a French violinist and com- 
 poser, born at Bordeaux in 1774. He composed con- 
 certos, which are much admired. Died in 1830. 
 
 Rod'er-ic or Roderick, |Fr. Rodrigue, ro'dReg'; 
 Lat. RoDERl'ctis,] King of the Visigoths in Spain, re- 
 belled against Witiza and usurped the throne in 700 or 
 708 a.d. Soon after this event his dominions were invaded 
 by an army of Arabs or Berbers, tinder Tarik, whose aid 
 was perhaps solicited by the sons of Witiza. RodeVic 
 was defeated and killed by these invaders in 711. He 
 was the last of the Visigoths that reigned in Spain. 1 lis 
 story forms the subject of one of Southey's most popular 
 poems, entitled " Roderick the Goth." 
 
 See Conde, "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes:" Mas- 
 deu, " Historia critica." 
 
 Rodericus. See Sanchez DE; Arevalo, and Ro- 
 driguez. 
 
 Rodg'ers, (John,) an American commodore, born in 
 Maryland in 1 771. Being appointed to the command of 
 
 S, e, T, o, S, y, long; a, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ti, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
RODGERS 
 
 1909 
 
 ROGER 
 
 a squadron on the breaking out of the war of 1812, he 
 captured seven British merchantmen. He was after- 
 wards president of the board of navy commissioners, 
 and commander of the squadron in the Mediterranean. 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 Rodgers, (John,) a brave American commodore, born 
 in Maryland alwut 1809. He entered the navy in 1825. 
 He served with distinction at the battle of 1'ort Royal, 
 in November, 1861. In May, 1862, he attacked Fort 
 Darling, or Druty's Bluff, on the James River, with the 
 iron-clad Galena and other gun-boats, but was repulsed. 
 He commanded the Weehawken in the attack on Fort 
 Sumter in April, 1863, and captured the iron-clad At- 
 lanta near Savannah in June of that year. He was 
 complimented by the secretary of the navy "for these 
 heroic and serviceable acts." In 1870 he was raised to 
 the rank of rear-admiral. 
 
 See Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," p. 542. 
 
 Rod'man, (Isaac Peace,) an American general, born 
 at South Kingston, Rhode Island, in 1822. He served 
 as captain at Bull Run, July 21, 1861, and as colonel at 
 the cap* '.re of Roanoke Island and at Newbern, North 
 Carolina. He became a. brigadier-general in 1862, com- 
 manded a division at Fredericksburg, and was killed at 
 the battle of Antietam, in September of the same year. 
 
 See Tennev, " Military History of the Rebellion," p. 737. 
 'Rod'ney, (Cssar,) one of the signers of the Decla- 
 ration of American Independence, was born at Dover, 
 in Delaware, about 1730. He became a member of the 
 Continental Congress of 1774, and in 1777 was elected 
 President of the State of Delaware. Died in 1783. 
 
 See " Lives of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence." 
 
 Rod'ney, (George Brydgf.s,) Lord, a British ad- 
 miral, born at Walton -upon-Thames in 1718. Heobtained 
 the rank of rear-admiral in 1759. and that of admiral of 
 the white in 1778. He defeated a Spanish fleet near Cape 
 Saint Vincent in 1780. Having been raised to the rank 
 of vice-admiral of England, he gained an important vic- 
 tory over the French admiral De Grasse in the West 
 Indies, April 12, 1782. He was raised to the peerage, as 
 Baron Rodney. Died in 1792. 
 
 SeeMltNnv, "Life of Lord Rodney;" Campbell, "Lives of the 
 British Admirals." 
 
 Rodolph of Hapsburg. See Rudolph. 
 
 Rodolphe, the French for Rudolph, which see. 
 
 Rodon, de. See Dkrodon. 
 
 Rodrigues, ro'dReg', (BENJAMIN Oi.inde,) a French 
 socialist, born at Bordeaux in 1794. He became a favour- 
 ite disciple of Saint-Simon, who bequeathed to him his 
 manuscripts. Died in 18^0. 
 
 Rodriguez, rodRee'gith, fl.at. Roderi'cus,] (Al- 
 EONSOja Spanish theologian, born at Valladolid in 1526. 
 He wrote a work on "Christian Perfection," (1614,) 
 which was often reprinted and translated. Died in 1616. 
 
 Rodriguez, (Ventura,) an eminent Spanish archi- 
 tect, born at Cienpozuelos in 1717. He designed or 
 constructed churches, palaces, and colleges at Saragoesa, 
 Toledo, Malaga, Granada, etc. He liecame professor of 
 architecture at Madrid in 1752. Died in 1785. 
 
 See Pokz, "Viage de Espafia." 
 
 Roe, ro, (A/.ki. STEVENS,) an American novelist, born 
 in New York in 1798. Among his principal works are 
 "The Star and the Cloud," " A Long Look Ahead," 
 "Time and Tide, or Strive and Win," (1S52,) and " True 
 to the Last," (1859.) 
 
 Roe, ro, (Sir Thomas,) an English ambassador, born 
 in Essex about 1580. He was sent on an embassy to 
 the Great Mogul in 1614, and to Constantinople in 1621. 
 Died in 1644. 
 
 Roe'buck, (John,) an English chemist and iron- 
 master, born in .Sheffield in 1718, practised medicine in 
 Birmingham. He invented a method of procuring sul- 
 phuric acid at a greatly-reduced cost, and about 1760 
 established at Carron extensive iron-works, in which he 
 improved the method of smelting iron, lie was con- 
 nected with James Watt in his early experiments on the 
 Steam-engine. Died in 1794. 
 
 Roebuck, (John Arthur,) a British politician, a 
 
 frandson of the preceding, was born at Madras in i8ot. 
 le was elected member of Parliament for Bath in 1832, 
 
 and again in 1841. After 1849 he represented Sheffield 
 in the House of Commons until he was defeated in 1868. 
 He originated the motion on the conduct of the Crimean 
 war which resulted in the defeat and removal of the 
 Aberdeen ministry. He displayed a violent hostility to 
 the United States and sympathy with the slavehokiing 
 Confederacy during the great civil war. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for July, 1852 ; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for November, 1846, (article " Contemporary Orators.") 
 
 Roederer, rb'deh-rer or ra'deh-raiR',(jEAN Georoks,) 
 a French physician, born at Strasburg in 1726. He 
 became professor of midwifery at Gottingen in 1751. 
 He published "Elements of the Obstetric Art," ("Ele- 
 ment.! Artis obstetrician," 1752,) "On Mucous Disease," 
 ("De Morbo mucoso," 1762,) and other works. Died 
 in 1763. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale. " 
 
 Roederer, (Pif.rrk Louis,) Comte, a French states- 
 man, was born at Metz in 1754. As a member of the 
 National Assembly, (1790,) he advocated liberty and 
 equality. He was elected a member of the Institute 
 in 179ft. promoted the accession of Bonaparte to power 
 in 170., and became a senator in 1802. In 1806 Joseph 
 Bonaparte appointed him minister of finance in Naples. 
 He held no office under the Bourbons. He wrote an 
 able "Memoir on Polite Society in France," (1835.) 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 See Mignet, " Roederer, sa Vie et ses Travaux," 1838: Sainte- 
 Bhuvk, "Causeries duLundi," and "LeComtede Roederer," 1853; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Roelas, de las, da las ro-a'las, (Juan,) an excellent 
 Spanish painter, born at Seville about 1560, was called 
 El Clerigo Roelas. He worked for some time in 
 Madrid, and removed to Olivates about 1624. The 
 churches of Seville are adorned with many of his works. 
 Among his master-pieces are " El Transito" of San Isi- 
 doro, a " Holy Family," and " Santiago." Died in 1625. 
 
 See Cean-Hermudez, "Diccionario Historico." 
 
 Roell. See Roi.i- 
 
 Roemer. See Romer. 
 
 Roerme. See Ronne. 
 
 Roepel, roo'pel, (Conrad,) a Dutch painter of flowers 
 and fruits, born at the Hague in 1679 ; died in 1748. 
 
 Roer or Roeer, ro'er, (Hans Heinrich Eduard,) 
 a German Orientalist, born at Brunswick in 1805. In 
 1839 he visited Calcutta, and became in 1846 one of 
 the secretaries of the Asiatic Society. About the same 
 time he founded the " Bibliotheca Indica," to which he 
 contributed a number of translations from the Sanscrit, 
 Arabic, and Persic. 
 
 Roestraten, roos'tRa'ten, (Pif.ter,) a Dutch painter 
 of portraits and still life, born at Haarlem in 1627. He 
 worked for some years in London, where he died in 
 1698. 
 
 Roetscher. See Rotscher. 
 
 Roffensis. See Fisher, Bishop of Rochester. 
 
 Rog'er, [It. RuoGlEito, rood-jS'ro,] Count of Sicily, 
 born in Normandy in 1031, was an enterprising warrior. 
 He conquered Sicily from the Saracens. Died in 1101. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Roger I., King of Sicily, born about 1096, was a 
 son and successor of the preceding. At the death of 
 his cousin, Duke of Apulia, he obtained possession of 
 Apulia and Calabria, (1127.) He took arms against 
 Pope Innocent II., and made him prisoner, in 11 39. 
 By recognizing Roger as King of Sicily, etc., the pope 
 obtained his liberty. Roger was an able and powerful 
 prince. Died in 1 154. 
 
 See Mcratori, "Anuali d'ltalia;" ORnFtiicus Vitalis, "Hit- 
 toria Kcciesi.tslica :" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Rog'er, Bishop of Salisbury, a powerful English prel- 
 ate, became prime minister of Henry I. about 1107. 
 Died in 1 139. 
 
 Roger, ro'zha', (Adoi.phe,) a French painter of his- 
 tory, born at Palaiseau (Seine-et-Oise) about 1797. 
 
 Roger, (Gustavk HlPPOLYTB,) a French vocalist, 
 born in Paris in 1815. His voice is a pure tenor. 
 
 Roger, (Jean Francois,) a French dramatist, bom 
 at I.angres in 1776. He produced "The Lawyer," 
 ("L'Avocat," 1806,) and other successful comedies' In 
 l8i6he became secretary-general of the post-office. He 
 
 « as <■; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jg^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROGER 
 
 191 
 
 ROGNETTA 
 
 Died 
 
 was admitted into the French Academy in 181 7. 
 in 1842. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Roger, (Pierre.) See Clement VI. 
 Roger Ducos. See Ducos. 
 Roger di Loria. See Loria, di. 
 Roger (or Richard) of Hexham, an English chroni- 
 cler, was prior of a convent at Hexham about 1 150. 
 Roger of Hoveden. See Hoveden, de. 
 Roger of Wendover, an English chronicler, wrote 
 "Flowers of History," (" Flores Historiarum,") which 
 commences at the creation. Died in 1237. 
 
 Rog'ers, (Benjamin,) an English composer of sacred 
 music, born at Windsor ; died about 1698. 
 
 Rogers, (Chari.es,) an English antiquary, born in 
 Westminster in 171 1 ; died in 1784. 
 
 Rogers, (Daniel,) an English scholar and diplo- 
 matist, born at Aston about 1540, was a pupil of Me- 
 ianchthon. He was employed by Queen Elizabeth in 
 embassies to Germany, etc. Died in 1590. 
 See Wood, "Athena; Oxonienses." 
 
 Rogers, (George,) an English theological writer, 
 born in 1741. He was rector of Sproughton for about 
 fifty years. Died in 1835. 
 
 Rogers, (Henry,) a distinguished English essayist, 
 born at Saint Alban's in 1806, was an Independent min- 
 ister in early life. He contributed to the "Edinburgh 
 Review" a number of essays and biographical notices, 
 which were republished in 1850. He is author of "The 
 Eclipse of Faith," (1852,) and of other works, some of 
 which are designed to prove that philosophy and re- 
 vealed religion are in accordance with each other. He 
 became principal of an Independent College near Man- 
 chester in 1857. In 1866 he published "Reason and 
 Faith, with other Essays." 
 
 Rog'ers, (Henry Darwin,) an eminent American 
 geologist, born at Philadelphia in 1809. He made a 
 survey of the State of New Jersey, of which he published 
 a report, and a geological map, in 1835. His report on 
 the geology of Pennsylvania came out in 1858, (2 vols. 
 4to.) It enjoys a high reputation for thoroughness and 
 accuracy. He was appointed in 1857 regius professor 
 of geology and natural history at Glasgow, Scotland. 
 He also became associate editor of the " New Philo- 
 sophical Journal," Edinburgh, and contributed to various 
 other periodicals. Died in Glasgow in May, 1866. 
 
 Rogers, (James Blytiik,) M.D., an American phy- 
 sician, brother of the preceding, was born in Philadelphia 
 in 1803. He was appointed in 1847 professor ot chem- 
 istry in the University of Pennsylvania. He was author 
 of several valuable scientific treatises. Died in 1852. 
 
 Rogers, (John,) an English martyr, was in his youth 
 a Roman Catholic priest. Having been converted at 
 Antwerp, he settled at Wittenberg as pastor of a Prot- 
 estant church. He returned to England in the reign of 
 Edward VI., and became prebendary of Saint Paul's. 
 He was committed to prison in 1553 or 1554, condemned 
 as a heretic by Bonner and Gardiner, and burned at 
 Smithfield in 1555, refusing to save his life by apostasy 
 from the truth. 
 
 See Chester, " Life of John Rogers." 
 Rogers, (Rev. John,) an English writer on theology, 
 born at Enshain, in Oxfordshire, in 1679, lived some 
 time in London. He published a " Discourse of the 
 Visible and Invisible Church of Christ," (1719,) and 
 other controversial works. Died in 1729. 
 See Samuel Miller, "Memoirs of John Rogers." 
 Rogers, (John,) an American sculptor, born at Salem, 
 Massachusetts. Among his works are the " Slave Auc- 
 tion," " The Returned Volunteer," "The Picket Guard," 
 "The Wounded Scout," "The Union Refugees," and 
 )ther spirited illustrations of the war of 1861-65, and 
 if common life. 
 
 See Tuckbrman, "Book of the Artists." 
 Rogers, (Robert Empie,) M.D., brother of Henry 
 Darwin, noticed above, was born at Baltimore in 1814. 
 He graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, where 
 he became in 1852 professor of chemistry. He was 
 subsequently appointed dean of the medical faculty 
 in that institution. 
 
 Rogers, (Samuel,) an eminent English poet, born at 
 Newington Green, a suburb of London, on the 30th of 
 July, 1763. He was the third son of Thomas Rogers, a 
 London banker. After leaving school he became suc- 
 cessively a clerk and a partner in his father's banking- 
 
 house. He published in 1786 a volume entitled "An 
 Ode to Superstition, and other Poems," which attracted 
 little notice. In 1792 he produced his "Pleasures of 
 Memory," a beautiful and highly-finished poem, which 
 was received with much favour. He removed in 1803 
 to a fine house in Saint James Place, in which he passed 
 the rest of his long life. This house was celebrated as 
 a resort of eminent literary and political characters, 
 including Scott, Byron, Moore, Wordsworth, Southey, 
 and Coleridge. He retired from business in the prime 
 of life, with an ample fortune, of which he made a gen- 
 erous use. He gave liberally to artists and literary men 
 who were in pecuniary distress. His reputation was fully 
 maintained, or perhaps increased, by "Human Lite, 
 a poem, (1819.) In 1822 he produced the first part of 
 an admirable poem, entitled "Italy," which is his most 
 extensive work. It is stated that he spent £10,000 in 
 the illustration of this poem, the complete edition of 
 which, with engravings after Prout and Turner, appeared 
 in 1836. He was never married. Died in December, 
 1855, over ninety-two years of age. 
 
 See " Recollections of the Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers,;' 1856 ; 
 Iefkkfy "Miscellanies:" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale ; Ed- 
 inburgh Review" for October, 18.3, anil March, .s.g; London 
 Quarterly Review" for March, 18,3: " F™*''^.^? 1 ."?. S'5SSi 
 iS<6- All. bone, " Dictionary of Authors;" "North British Review 
 for August, .S56; " Biographical Sketches," by H. Martinbau 
 
 Rogers, (Thomas,) an English theologian, entered a 
 college at Oxford in 1568. Died in 1616. 
 
 Rogers, (William,) D.D., an American Baptist di- 
 vine born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1751. He was 
 appointed in 1778 a chaplain in the Continental army, 
 and in 1792 became professor of English and oratory in 
 the University of Pennsylvania. Died in 1824. 
 
 Rogers, (William Barton,) brother of Henry Dar- 
 win, noticed above, born in Philadelphia in 1805, was 
 appointed professor of natural philosophy and geology 
 in the University of Virginia. He has published, among 
 other works, "Elements of Mechanical Philosophy," 
 (1852,) and has contributed to various scientific journals, 
 both American and foreign. 
 
 Rogers, (Woodes,) Captain, an English navigator 
 and buccaneer, commanded an expedition against the 
 Spaniards in the South Sea about 1709. Died in 1732. 
 Roget, ro'zha', (Peter Mark,) F.R.S., an English 
 physiologist and physician, of French extraction, born 
 in 1779, graduated as M.D. at Edinburgh in 1798. He 
 settled in London, and was secretary to the Royal 
 Society His reputation is founded on an able work 
 entitled "Animal and Vegetable Physiology," (1834,) 
 which is one of the "Bridgewater Treatises. He is 
 author of other scientific works, and of a "Thesaurus 
 of English Words and Phrases," (1853.) Died in 
 September, 1869. 
 
 See " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1834. 
 Roggeween, rog'geh-wan', (Jacoh,) a Dutch navi- 
 gator, born in Zealand in 1669. He commanded an 
 exploring expedition sent from Holland to the South 
 Sea in 172 1. Died in 1733. 
 
 Roghman, roo'man, (Roland,) a Dutch landscape- 
 painter, born at Amsterdam in 1597. He painted Dutch 
 and German scenery. He also produced some fine 
 etchings of landscapes. Died in 1686. 
 
 Rogier, ro'zhe^', (Charles Latour, ) a Belgian 
 statesman, was born at Saint-Quentin in 1800. He was 
 a prominent member of the provisional government 
 formed in 1830. In 1832 he was appointed minister of 
 the interior, and in 1840 minister of public works. 
 He became again in 1847 minister of the interior in a 
 cabinet of which the king confided to him the formation. 
 Having retired in 1852, he was reappointed to the same 
 office in 1857, and became minister of foreign affairs in 
 1861. He 'is a leader of the Liberal party. 
 
 See L. DE Lomenie, " M. Rogier, par 1111 Homme de Rien." 1843. 
 Rognetta, r6n-yet'ti, (Fii.ippo.) an Italian medical 
 writer, born about 1805, practised in Paris. Died at 
 Naples in 1857. 
 
 a, e, T, o, B, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, ii, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ROGNUT 
 
 191 1 
 
 ROLAND 
 
 Rogniat, ron'yejf, (Joseph,) Karon, a French gene- 
 lal of engineers, born at Saint- Priest in 1776. He was 
 chief engineer of the grand army in 1812. Died in 1840. 
 
 Rohan, de. See Sotmsfc. 
 
 Rohan, de, deh p/on', (Anne,) a French Protestant 
 lady, distinguished for her piety and learning, born in 
 15S4, was a sister of Henri, Due de Rohan. She was 
 mistress of the Hebrew and other ancient languages. 
 Died in Paris in 1646. 
 
 Rohan, de, (Henri,) Due, Prince de Leon, an able 
 French Huguenot chief, born in Brittany in 1579, was a 
 son of Renee, noticed below. He married in 1605 
 Marguerite de Bethune, daughter of the Due de Sully. 
 He commanded an army which fought for religious 
 liberty in the civil war Which began in 1621, was sus- 
 pended by a treaty in 1623, renewed in 1627, and ended 
 in 1629. Having retired to Venice, he was appointed 
 general-in-chief of the Venetian army in 1630, and was 
 chosen by Cardinal Richelieu to direct the war in the 
 Valtelline. He defeated the Imperialists in 1635 at 
 Luvinq and Tirano. He was mortally wounded at 
 Rheinfelden, where he fought for his friend Bernard 
 of Saxe-Weimar, in 1638. He left Memoirs of events 
 which occurred in France from 1610 to 1629, and a 
 treatise on war, — "Le parfait Capitaine," (1636.) 
 
 See Courtii.z de Sandras, "Histoire secrete du Due H. de 
 Rohan." 1607: Haag, " La France protestante;" Hazin, "Histoire 
 de Louis XIII ;" " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Rohan, de, (Louis,) Prince, a Frenchman, noted 
 for his gallantry and intrigues, was born about 1635. 
 He was a son of Louis de Rohan, Prince de Guemene. 
 Having engaged in a conspiracy against Louis XIV., he 
 was executed in 1674. 
 
 Rohan, de, (Louis Rf.n£ £douard,) Prince Car- 
 dinal, was born in Paris in 1734. He was sent as 
 ambassador to Vienna in 1772, but, having offended 
 Maria Theresa, he was recalled in 1774. He became 
 a cardinal in 1778. He was a patron of Cagliostro, 
 and was scandalously implicated in the affair of the 
 "Diamond Necklace," (1784,) in which he was the dupe 
 of Madame La Motte, who, by forged letters, signed 
 " Marie Antoinette," persuaded the cardinal to buy a 
 necklace as a present to the queen. For this he was 
 tried and acquitted. Died in 1803. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Rohan, de, (Marie.) See Chevreuse, de. 
 
 Rohan, de, (Rk.nee,) Vicomte, Sieur de Pontivy 
 et de Krontenay, a French Protestant, born in 1550, 
 was one of the most valiant captains of his time. He 
 married the celebrated Catherine de Parthenay-Larche- 
 v§que. Died in 1586. 
 
 See Ravi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary:" Haag, "La 
 France protestante." 
 
 Rohault, ro'5', (Jacques,) a French natural philoso- 
 pher, born at Amiens in 1620, was a teacher of Cartesian 
 philosophy. He wrote a " Treatise on Physics," (" Traite 
 de Physique," 1671,) which was for a long time a standard 
 work on that subject. Died in 1675. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historiqiic." 
 
 Rohault de Fleury, ro'6' deh fluh're', (Charles,) 
 a French architect, born in Paris in 1801. The govern- 
 ment committed to him the construction of the Museum 
 of Natural History about 1830. 
 
 Rdhlni, ro'hi-nee', [etymology obscure,] in the 
 Hindoo mythology, the name of one of the daughters 
 of Daksha, said to be the favourite wife of Chandra, (or 
 the moon.*) She is the bright star in the bull's eye, 
 called in Arabic Aldebaran, (or Al Dabaran.) Other 
 stars regarded as the sisters of Rohini are also num- 
 bered among the wives of Chandra. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Rohmann, ro'mjn, (Jorgen Lindf.gaard,) a Danish 
 historian and poet, born in the island of Seeland in 1797. 
 He published several works on Danish history, and be- 
 came Bishop of Kunen. Died in 1855. 
 
 R6hr or Roehr, roR, (Johann Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man theologian, born near Naumburg in 1777. He was 
 identified with the rationalistic school, and published 
 
 • The moon in Sanscrit (as in German) is masculine, — not feminine, 
 as in the languages of Greece and Rome. 
 
 several works on theology. He resided at Weimar, 
 where he died in 1848. 
 
 Rohrbacher, rok'bS'shaiR', (Rene Francois,) a 
 French ecclesiastical writer, born at Langatte in 1789. 
 He wrote a "General History of the Catholic Church," 
 (29 vols., 1849-53.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Rojas or Roxas, de, di ro'iiis, (Fernando,) a cele- 
 brated Spanish author, who flourished about 1500. His 
 dramatic romance "Celestina" obtained great popu- 
 larity. The first edition of it was dated 1500. 
 
 Rbjaa or Rojas-Zorilla, de, da ro'iias tho-rel'y5, 
 (Francisco,) an eminent Spanish dramatist, born at 
 Toledo in 1601. Among his dramas are " Garcia del Cas- 
 tanar,""El Desden vengado," ("The Insult Avenged,") 
 " Progne y Filomena," and " Entre Bobos anda el Juego." 
 
 Rokes, ro'kgs, (Henry,) called Zorg, a skilful Dutch 
 painter, born at Rotterdam in 1621, was a pupil of 
 David Teniers. Died in 1682. 
 
 Rokitansky, ro-ke-tin'ske, (Kari.,) a distinguished 
 physician and pathologist, born at Koniggratz; in Bo- 
 hemia, in 1804. He became in 1844 professor of patho- 
 logical anatomy at Vienna, and subsequently a member 
 of the Academy of Sciences and rector of the University 
 in that city. He was the projector of the great Vienna 
 Hospital. He has published a " Manual of Pathological 
 Anatomy," (5 vols., 1842,) which is regarded as a stand- 
 ard work and has been translated into English. 
 
 Rokmeny. See RuKMiNt. 
 
 Ro'land, [Lat. Rutlan'dus; It. Orlando or Ro- 
 lando,} a hero celebrated in the romances of chivalry, 
 was supposed to have been a nephew of Charlemagne. 
 He was killed at the battle of Roncesvalles, in 778 A.D. 
 
 See Ariosto, "Orlando Furioso." 
 
 Roland, ro'16N', a brave and able leader of the 
 French Camisards, was born in Gard in 1675. He 
 gained several victories about 1702 over the royal forces, 
 who could not capture him until he was betrayed by one 
 of his party. He was shot in 1704. 
 
 Ro'land, [Fr. pron. ro'loN',] Madame, (originally 
 Marie Jeanne Phlipon (fle'p6.N') or Philipon, (fe - 
 le'po.N',) also called Manon PhiIPON,) one of the most 
 noble and highly-gifted women that France has produced, 
 was born in Paris, March 17, 1754. She was the only 
 child of an engraver, and was liberally educated. Latin 
 and music were included in the list of her studies. She 
 was fond of books in early childhood, and received a 
 lasting influence from Plutarch, who was her favourite 
 author when she was nine years of age. In youth she 
 was an enthusiastic devotee of the Catholic Church, and 
 about the age of twelve persuaded her parents to send 
 her to a convent for one year. Her mature opinions 
 about religion are thus indicated in a passage of her 
 Memoirs: "I can still attend with interest the celebra- 
 tion of divine worship when it is conducted with dignity. 
 I forget the quackery of the priests, their ridiculous 
 fables, and their absurd mysteries. . . . The woes of 
 mankind, the consoling hope of an all-powerful Remune- 
 rator, occupy my thoughts ; all other fancies vanish ; the 
 sense of duty is quickened," etc. After she had arrived 
 at womanhood, though her faith in the Church was 
 shaken, she preferred studious retirement to the hollow 
 and frivolous pleasures of the gay world. She rejected 
 many successive suitors, whom her beauty attracted in 
 such numbers that she compared them to 3. levee en masse, 
 and resolved to marry none but a philosopher. 
 
 About 1775 she was introduced to M. Roland, whom 
 she characterizes as "un veritable homme de bien," ("a 
 truly good man.") He took several years to consider 
 the subject, and when he offered his hand her father 
 refused his consent, although he (M. Phlipon) was re- 
 cently ruined in fortune by his dissipated habits. Before 
 this time, it appears, she had lost her mother, who was 
 an excellent woman. Her father's house having ceased 
 to be a desirable, or even tolerable, residence, she retired 
 to the convent in Paris in which she had formerly passed 
 a year. After she had lived here five months, M. Roland 
 renewed his offer, which was accepted. They were mar- 
 ried in 1780, after which they resided successively at 
 Paris, Amiens, and Lyons. She visited England with 
 her husband in 1784, and Switzerland in 1787. She 
 was an enthusiastic votary of republican liberty, and in 
 
 « as k; 9 a* t; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROLAND 
 
 IQI2 
 
 ROLLI 
 
 the first stage of the Revolution enlisted in the cause 
 with ardour, although she expressed a presentiment that 
 she would be placed in the forlorn hope of the army. 
 By her fascinating manners, commanding genius, and 
 great conversational powers, she acquired such an influ- 
 ence in the councils of the Girondists that she has been 
 called the "inspiring soul" of that party. She assisted 
 M. Roland in his official duties while he was minister of 
 the interior', in 1792. He found that the literary success 
 of his reports, etc. was in an exact ratio to the part that 
 she took in their composition, and people were surprised 
 at the amount of work which he despatched. She com- 
 posed the important letter addressed by her husband to 
 Louis XVI. in May, 1792. 
 
 About this time she became deeply interested — too 
 deeply for her own peace — in Buzot, a young Girondist 
 of noble character and handsome person, to whom she 
 alludes in this passage of her "Memoires:" "I honour 
 and cherish my husband as a sensible girl loves a vir- 
 tuous father, to whom she would sacrifice even her 
 lover ; but I have found a man who might be this lover ; 
 and, remaining faithful to my duties, my ingenuity has 
 failed to conceal the feelings or passion which for the 
 sake of duty I subdued." She adds that her husband 
 became jealous, and they were both unhappy. 
 
 M. Roland, having been proscribed by the Jacobins, 
 retired to the country in May, 1793; but his wife pre- 
 ferred to remain in Paris, and was committed to prison 
 about the 1st of June. She seems to have considered 
 the prison as an asylum from the suspicion of a jealous 
 husband, and her imprisonment as a relief from the 
 struggle of passion against duty. In a letter to Buzot 
 she says, " I owe to my persecutors the possibility of 
 combining love and duty. Ah ! do not pity me ! Others 
 may admire my courage, — you alone can appreciate my 
 joy." She improved her time in prison by writing her 
 " Memoires," which are enlivened by many anecdotes 
 and portraits of eminent persons. Her style is admi- 
 rable and graceful in the highest degree. " I never 
 heard any woman," said Count Beugnot, " speak with 
 so much accuracy and elegance." In the passage from 
 the prison to the scaffold she had a full view of the 
 house in which she had spent many happy years in 
 youth. There was the window from which she had often 
 gazed on the sun setting behind the distant hills. Her 
 last words, according to a popular statement, were, "O 
 Liberty ! what crimes are committed in thy name !" She 
 was beheaded on the 9th of November, 1793. She left 
 one child, Eudora, born in 1781. 
 
 " According to our modern notions," says the " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for April, 1865, " she was neither gentle, 
 nor pious, nor delicate, nor even virtuous. . . . But, 
 viewed by that strange light of her own times, she stands 
 out in noble and lofty pre-eminence. Of her greatness, 
 if heroism is greatness, there can be no doubt." 
 
 pee C. A. Dauban. " E*tude sur Madame Roland et son Temps, 
 suivie des Lettres de Madame Roland a Buzot," 1864 ; " Memoires 
 de Madame Roland e'crites dnrant sa Captivite*," nonvelle Edition, 
 revue et completive par M. P. Faugbrk, 1864: Louise Colet, 
 " Charlotte Cordav et Madame Roland," 1843; "Memoires de Ma- 
 dame Roland," edition entierement conforme au inanuscrit auto- 
 graphe, etc., public avec des notes par C. A. Dauban, 1864: 
 Sai vte-Beuvb, " Portraits ;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 186$ : 
 " Nonvelle BiographieGtmeVale ;" " Memoires de Madame Roland." 
 byMM. BsRVlMJlaad Barrisre; "Appeal to Impartial Posterity," 
 etc., by Madame Roland; "Lives of the Most Eminent French 
 Writers," by Mrs. Shellbv. 
 
 Roland, (Philippe Laurent,) an able French sculp- 
 tor, born at Marcq-en-13aroeul (Nord) in 1746. He was 
 a member of the Institute of Paris, and was commissioned 
 by the government to make statues of Homer, Solon, and 
 Malesherbes. Died in Paris in 1816. 
 
 Roland d'Erceville. See Roi.i.and. 
 
 Roland de la Platiere, ro'ldN' deh 13 pli'te-aiR', 
 (Jean Marie,) a French Girondist minister of state, was 
 born near Villefranche (Heaujolais) in 1734. He was 
 inspector-general of manufactures before the Revolution. 
 His house in Paris was the head-quarters of the patty 
 of the Gironde in 1791-92. He became minister of the 
 interior in March, 1792, but was dismissed from office in 
 June of the same year, in consequence of a famous letter 
 addressed to the king. This letter was composed by 
 his wife. (See Roland, Madame, noticed above.) He 
 
 again acted as minister of the interior from August 10, 
 1792, to January 23, 1793, when he resigned, having 
 vainly striven against the reign of anarchy and violence. 
 He retired to Rouen in May, and, on hearing of the 
 death of his wife, committed suicide, in November, 1793. 
 
 See Madame Roland, "Memoires;" Lamartink, "History 
 of the Girondists;" "Nouvelle Biographie G6ieVale." 
 
 Rolander, ro-lan'der, (Daniel,) a Swedish natural- 
 ist, born in Smiland, explored the botany and zoology 
 of Surinam in 1755, and returned home in 1756. He died 
 soon after, before he could publish his manuscripts. 
 
 Rolandiiio, ro-lan-dee'no, an Italian chronicler, born 
 at Padua about 1200. He wrote a Latin chronicle of 
 events which occurred from 1200 to 1260. Died in 1276. 
 
 Rolando, ro-lan'do, (LuiGI,) an eminent Italian anat- 
 omist, born at Turin in 1773, became professor of anatomy 
 in the university of that city about 1814, and wrote 
 several able works, etc. Died in 183 1. 
 
 See Carlo Bei.lingeri, " Elogio storico del Professore L. Ro- 
 lando;" " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Roldan, rol-dan', (Pedro,) a Spanish sculptor, born 
 at Seville in 1624, worked at Rome, Madrid, and ^Seville, 
 where he died in 1700. 
 
 Rolewinck, ro'leh-wink', (Werner,) a German 
 monk, born in 1425, wrote a.popular history of the world, 
 called " Fasciculus Temporum," (1474.) Died in 1502. 
 
 Rolfe, (R. Monsey.) See C KAN WORTH, Lord. 
 
 Rolfink, rol'fink, (Werner,) a German medical 
 writer, born at Hamburg in 1599; died at Jena in 1673. 
 
 Roll or Roell, rbl, (Hermann Alexander,) a Ger- 
 man Protestant divine, born at Doelberg in 1653. He 
 was professor of theology at Utrecht, (1704-18,) and 
 wrote several commentaries on Scripture. Died in 1718. 
 
 Rollaiid (or Roland) d'Erceville, ro'l6.N'deuss'vel', 
 (BarthEi.emi Gabriel,) a French writer and judge, 
 born in 1 734, was an adversary of the Jesuits. He was 
 executed by the terrorists in 1794. 
 
 Rolle, rol, ? (Denis,) M.P., an opulent Englishman, 
 born in Devonshire in 1725. He purchased a large tract 
 in Florida, and there planted a colony, (about 1766,) 
 which was soon abandoned. Died in England in 1797. 
 
 Rolle, (Henry,) an English judge, born in Devon- 
 shire fn 1589. He compiled adigest, which was published 
 with the title of "Rolle's Abridgment." In 1648 he was 
 appointed chief justice of the king's bench by the Parlia- 
 ment, which he had supported in the civil war. He re- 
 fused to preside at the trial of Charles I. Died in 1656. 
 " He was," says Sir Matthew Hale, "a person of great 
 learning in the common law, profound judgment, great 
 moderation, justice, and integrity." (Preface to " Rolle's 
 Abridgment.") 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. i. ; 
 Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Rolle, rol'leh, (Johann Heinrich,) a German com- 
 poser of church music, born at Quedlinburg in 1718. 
 He succeeded his father as director of music at Mag- 
 deburg in 1752. Among his principal works are the 
 oratorios of the "Death of Abel" and "Abraham on 
 Mount Moriah." Died in 1785. 
 
 Rolle, (John,) Lord, an English Tory politician, born 
 in Devonshire in 1 751. He was raised to the peerage 
 in 1796. He is said to have used a large fortune liberally, 
 and to have been the subject of" The Rolliad," a political 
 satire, written by several Whigs. Died in 1842. 
 
 Rolle, rol, (Michel,) a French mathematician, born 
 at Ambert in 1652; died in Paris in 1749. "He ten- 
 dered," says Fontenelle, "great service to science." 
 
 Rolle, (Pierre Nicolas,) a French writer, born at 
 Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1770, was author of " Researches 
 into the Worship of Bacchus," (3 vols., 1824.) Died in 
 1855. His son, Jacques Hippolytk, born at Dijon in 
 1804, became an able journalist of Paris. 
 
 Rollenhagen, rol'len-ha'gen, ( Georg, ) a German 
 fabulist and didactic poet, born at Bernau in 1542; died 
 in 1609. 
 
 Rolli, rol'lee, (Paolo Antonio,) an Italian poet, born 
 in 1687. He went to England about 1725, and taught 
 Italian to the princesses of the royal family. He trans- 
 lated "Paradise Lost" into Italian verse, (1729,) and 
 wrote some original poems, which were popular. Died 
 in Italy in 1767. 
 
 , e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m£t; not; good; moon; 
 
R0LL1N 
 
 '9'3 
 
 ROMBERG 
 
 Rollin, rol'lin or ro'l&V, ( Chari.es,) an eminent 
 French historian and professor of belles-lettres, was 
 born in Paris in January, 1661. He became professor 
 of rhetoric at the College du Plessis in 1687, and ob- 
 tained the chair of eloquence at the College de France 
 in 1688. He was rector of the University about two 
 years, (1694-96.) He revived the study of Greek, and 
 made reforms in the system of education. In 1726 he 
 published a good work on the Study of Belles-I-ettres, 
 ("Traite de la Maniere d'etudier et d'enseigner les 
 Belles- I.ettres.") He also wrote a " History of Rome," 
 (1738,) and an " Ancient History," ("Histoire ancier.ne," 
 12 vols., 1730-38,) which enjoyed much popularity, es- 
 pecially with the young. It has been translated into 
 English. According to Voltaire, Rollin was one of the 
 first French authors who wrote a good style in prose. 
 His character was amiable and virtuous. Died in 1741. 
 
 See Gusnkau i>R Mussv, "Vie de Roliin ;" Trognom, " filoge 
 de Roliin," 1818; Sainte-Bkuve, "Causeriesdu Lundi," tome vi. ; 
 N DE Hairet, " Essai sur la Vie de Rollin;" Niceron, 
 '• M moires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Rollin, (Ledru.) See Ledru-RoLlin. 
 
 Rol'lo, Rou, roo, or Hrolf, |Fr. Roi.i.on, ro'loN', 
 and RAOUL, rt'oof,] first Duke of Normandy, born 
 about S60 a.d. He was originally a Norwegian viking or 
 pirate, and was noted for strength and martial prowess. 
 In the reign of Charles the Bald he ascended the Seine 
 and took Rouen, which he kept as a base of operations. 
 He gained a number of victories over the Franks, and 
 extorted from Charles III. in 912 the cession of the 
 province since called Normandy. By the famous treaty 
 which Charles and Rollo signed at this time the latter 
 agreed to adopt the Christian religion. Died about 930. 
 
 See Lf. Canut, "Raoul I, Due de Normandie," 2 vols., 1781 ; 
 Okdericus Vitaus, " Historia." 
 
 Rol'lock, (ROBERT,) a Scottish divine and scholar, 
 born near Stirling in 1555. He was the first principal 
 of the University of Edinburgh, founded about 1582. 
 He wrote commentaries on Scripture. Died in 1598. 
 
 See Chambkrs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Rollon. See Roi.lo. 
 
 Rolph, (John A.,) an English artist and engraver 
 of landscapes, born in Essex in 1798. He emigrated 
 to the United States in 1833, and worked in New York 
 City. Died in Brooklyn in 1862. 
 
 Rolt, (Richard,) an English writer of history, biog- 
 raphy, etc., was born in 1724 or 1725. Among his 
 works is a " History of the General War" which ended 
 in 1748, 4 vols., and "Cambria," a poem, (1749.) Died 
 in 1770. 
 
 Romagnosi, ro-man-yo'see, (Giovanni Domenico,) 
 an eminent Italian jurist and publicist, bom near Pia- 
 cenza in 1761. He published in 1791 an able work on 
 penal legislation, " Ge lesis of Penal Law," (" Genesi 
 del Diritto penale.") About 1806 he and other jurists 
 formed a new Italian criminal code at Milan. He wrote 
 numerous legal works, and lectured on law at Milan lor 
 many years. Died in 1835. 
 
 See Canto, " Noiizia di G. D. Romagnosi," 1815; Ferrari, 
 "Vila di Romagnosi," 1835; G. Sacchi. " Biografia di G. D. Ro- 
 magnosi," 1835; "Nouveile Biographie Generale." 
 
 Romain. See Romanus. 
 
 Romain, ro'maN', (Adrian,) a Flemish geometer 
 and physician, born at I.ouvain in 1561. , He wrote on 
 geometry, etc. Died at Mentz in 1615. 
 
 Romain, (Jules,) the French name of Giulio Ro- 
 mano. 
 
 Romain de Hooghe. See Hoogk. 
 
 Romaine, ro-man', (William,) an eminent English 
 Calvinistic theologian of the Anglican Church, born at 
 Hartlepool in 1714. He became a popular preacher in 
 London, married a Miss Price in 1755, and was appointed 
 rector of Klackfriars' in 1764. He preached at this place 
 about thirty years. Among his most popular works are 
 "The Waik of Faith." (1771,) and "The Triumph of 
 Faith," ((795.) Died in 1795. 
 
 See W K. Cadooan, "Life of W. Romaine," 1796; Thomas 
 Hawiks. " Life of the Rev. W. Romaine," 1797. 
 
 Roman, ro'mcW', (Jean Baptiste Louis.) a French 
 •tatuarv, born in Paris in 1792, gained the grand prize 
 in 1816. Died in 1835. 
 
 Roman, ro'man, (Johan Helmich,) a Swedish mu- 
 sician and composer, born at Stockholm in 1694; died 
 in 1758. 
 
 Roniana, de la, da la ro-mi'iia, (Don Pedro Caro 
 y Sureda — ka'ro e soo-ra'Da,) Marquis, a Spanish 
 general, born in Majorca in 1761, He served with dis- 
 tinction in the war against the French, (1793-95 and 
 1809-10.) Died in 181 1. 
 
 Romanelli, ro-ma-nel'lee, (Domenico,) an Italian 
 antiquary, born in the Abruzzi in 1756; died in 1819. 
 
 Romanelli, (Giovanni Francesco,) an eminent 
 painter of the Roman school, born at Viterbo in 161 7, 
 was a pupil of Pietro da Cortona. He was employed 
 at Paris by Louis XIV. and Cardinal Mazarin. He 
 also adorned several churches of Rome with his work;. 
 Died in 1663. His son Urbano, born in 1652, was a 
 painter. Died in 1682. m 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Romanet, ro'mt'nj', (Antoine Louis,) a French 
 line-engraven, born in Paris in 1748. He engraved 
 successfully some works of Raphael and Titian. Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 Romani. See Romanino, (Giroi.amo.) 
 
 Romanino, ro-ma-nee'no, (Giorgio,) an able Italian 
 painter, born at Rome about 1500. He was invited to 
 France, and painted some frescos in the Louvre. His 
 design and colour are highly praised. 
 
 Romanino or Romani, ro-ma'nee, (Girolamo,) an 
 Italian painter, born at Brescia about 1490, imitated 
 Titian, and was a good colorist. He painted some 
 frescos in the Louvre, Paris. Died about 1560. 
 
 Romano. See Giulio Romano. 
 
 Romano, da, da ro-ma'no, (Ezzelino, ?t-sa-lee'no, 
 or Eccelino, St-cha-lee'no,) an able commander and a 
 famous Ghibeline leader, remarkable for his reckless 
 courage and for his cruelty, was born in 1194. As an 
 ally or partisan of the emperor Frederick II., he fought 
 against the Marquis d'Este, and captured Padua in 1237. 
 He was excommunicated by the pope about 1252, and a 
 league was formed against him by several cities and 
 princes of Lombardy. He died, or was killed in battle, 
 in 1259. 
 
 Romanof, Romanov, or Romanow, ro-nia'nof, 
 (Michael Feodorovi tch,) the founder of the reigning 
 dynasty of Russia, was a son of the Metropolitan of 
 Kostof He was elected Czar or emperor in 1613, when 
 he was only fifteen or sixteen years old. He made peace 
 with the Swedes by the cession of Ingria and Karelia, 
 and afterwards waged against the Poles a defensive war, 
 which ended in 1619. He promoted the civilization of 
 his subjects, and made reforms""in the laws. He died in 
 1645, and was succeeded by his son Alexis. 
 
 See Wichmann, " Urkunde Uber die Wahl Michael Romanows," 
 etc., 1819. 
 
 Ro-ma'uus I., Emperor of the East, called Leca- 
 pf.nus, [Fr. Romain Lecapene, ro'maN' la'ki'pkn',] 
 was a native of Armenia, and father-in-law of Constan- 
 tine VII., who made Romanus his colleague in the 
 empire in 919. Died in 948. 
 
 Romanus II., a grandson of the preceding, and son 
 of Constantine VII., was born in 939. He poisoned his 
 father and obtained the throne in 959. Died in 963. 
 
 Romanus III., Argy'rus, | Fr. Romain Argyrk, r? • 
 maN' Su'zheR',1 was born about 968. He married Z.v, 
 a daughter of Constantine IX., whom he succeeded in 
 1028. He was poisoned by Zoe, his wife, in 1034. 
 
 Romanus IV., Diogenes, obtained the throne by 
 marriage with Eudocia, the widow of Constantine Ducas, 
 in 1067 or 1068. He gained several victories over the 
 Turks in Asia Minor, but was defeated by Alp Arslan 
 in Armenia. He was deposed by Michael \ II., bf 
 whose order he was put to death about 1072. 
 
 See Le Bkau, "Histoire du Bag- Empire ;" Gibbon, "Declins 
 and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Romanus, (/Egidius.) See Coi.onna, (Egidio.) 
 
 Ro-ma'nus, [Fr. Romain, ro'mkN',] Pope, born near 
 Civita Castellana, in Italy. He was elected pope in 
 September, 897 A.n. Died in 898. 
 
 Romanzof. See Rioomantsof. 
 
 Romberg, rom'beRG, (Andreas,) a German violinist 
 and composer, born in 1767, became director of music 
 
 e as k; c as /; g hard; g as yv G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROMBERG 
 
 1914 
 
 ROMNET 
 
 at Gotha in 1815. He produced several sacred pieces 
 and operas, and set to music Schiller's "Song of the 
 Bell" and other poems. Died in 1821. 
 
 Romberg, (Bernhard,) a cousin of Andreas, born 
 at Bonn in 1770, was celebrated for his performance on 
 the violoncello. He was appointed professor at the 
 Conservatory of Music in Paris in 1801. Died in 1841. 
 
 Rombout, rom'bowt, (J.,) a Dutch landscape-painter, 
 lived about 1670. 
 
 Rombouts, rom'bowts, (Theodore,) an excellent 
 Flemish painter of history, born at Antwerp in 1597, 
 was a pupil of A. Janssens. He worked in Rome and 
 Florence, from which he returned to Antwerp in 1625. 
 Among his works are "The Sacrifice of Abraham," 
 "The Oath of Hannibal," and a "Descent from the 
 Cross." Died in 1637. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Rome de Lisle, (or de l'lsle,) ro'mi' deh lei', (Jean 
 Haptiste Louis,) a French mineralogist, born at Grai 
 in 1736. He visited India and China, and returned to 
 France in 1764. He wrote a work on "Crystallography," 
 (4 vols., 1783,) and "Metrologie," (1789.) Died in 1790. 
 " He first ascertained the important fact of the constancy 
 of the angles at which the faces of crystals meet, and, 
 observing further that many of them appear in several 
 different shapes, first conceived the idea that these 
 shapes might be reducible to one, appropriated in a 
 peculiar manner to each substance and modified by strict 
 geometrical laws." (Sir John F. W. Herschel, "Dis- 
 course on the Study of Natural Philosophy.") 
 
 See La Methbrie, " E*loge de Rome" de Lisle," 1790; " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle." 
 
 Romegas, ro'mi'gSs', (Mathlirin d'Aux-Lescout, 
 mt'tu'riN' do'les'koo',) a brave French knight of the 
 order of Malta, which he joined in 1547. He distin- 
 guished himself, in battle against the pirates and the 
 Turks. He was appointed commander of the galleys, 
 and lieutenant-general. Died in 1581. 
 
 Romer or Roemer, rb'mer, (Olaf or Olaus,) a 
 Danish astronomer, born at Aarhuus on the 25th of 
 September, 1644. He went to Paris in 1672, and aided 
 Picard, who procured for him the office of tutor to the 
 dauphin. In 1675 he made (at Paris) the important 
 discovery of the velocity of light by observations of the 
 eclipses of Jupiter's satellites. He became professor of 
 mathematics in the University of Copenhagen in 1681. 
 He first applied the epicycloidal curve in the formation 
 of the teeth of wheels. Romer held several high civil 
 offices. Died in 1710. 
 
 See a notice of Romer prefixed by Horrebow to Romer's 
 "Basis Astionomiai," 1735; Nverup, " Litteraturlexicon ;" De- 
 lambre, "Histoire de l'Astronomie modeme;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Romer or Roemer, von, fon rb'mer, (Friedrich,) 
 a German statesman, born in the Wiirtemberg Alps in 
 1795. He was appointed minister of justice for Wiir- 
 temberg in 1848, and resigned office in October, 1849. 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 Romey, ro'mi', (Charles Octave,) a French his- 
 torian, born in Paris in 1804. He produced, besides 
 other works, a " History of Spain," 10 vols., (1838-48.) 
 
 Romeyn, ro'min, (Theodoric D.,) an influential 
 minister of the Dutch Reformed Church, was born at 
 New Barbadoes, New Jersey, in 1744. He preached 
 many years at Schenectady, New York, to which he 
 removed in 1784. He is said to have been the principal 
 founder of Union College, Schenectady. Died in 1804. 
 
 Romieu, de, deh ro'me-uh', (Marie,) a French poet- 
 ess and prose writer, lived at Viviers. Died after 1584. 
 
 Romiguieres, ro'me'ge-aiR', (Jkan Dominique Jo- 
 seph Louis,) a French advocate, born at Toulouse in 
 1775, was a constant adherent of the liberal party. Died 
 in Paris in 1847. 
 
 Romilly, ro'me'ye', (Jean Edme, ) a Swiss Protest- 
 ant minister, born at Geneva in 1739, was a friend of 
 Rousseau. Died in 1779. His father, Jean, born in 
 1714, was a skilful watchmaker. Died in Paris in 1796. 
 
 Rom'il-iy, (John,) Baron, an English lawyer, a son 
 of Sir Samuel Romilly, was born in London in 1802. 
 He was elected to Parliament as a Liberal in 1832, was 
 appointed solicitor-general in 1848, and attorney-general 
 
 in 1850. In 1851 he became master of the rolls, and was 
 raised to the peerage, as Baron Romilly, in 1866. 
 See Foss, " The Judges of England," vol. ix. 
 
 Romilly, (Sir Samuel,) a celebrated English lawyer 
 and statesman, born in London on the 1st of March, 
 1757. He was a son of Peter Romilly, a jeweller, whose 
 father was a French Protestant exiled for his religion. 
 His education at school was defective, but he studied 
 Latin after he was fifteen years of age, and became a 
 good self-taught scholar. He entered himself at Gray's 
 Inn as a student of law in 1778, and was called to the bar 
 in 1783. In 1784 he became acquainted with the famous 
 Mirabeau, who introduced him to a Mr. Vaughan. By the 
 favour of the latter, Romilly made the acquaintance of 
 Lord Lansdowne, in whom he found a friend and patron. 
 He obtained an extensive practice in the court of chan- 
 cery. In politics he was a Whig and advanced liberal. 
 In 1806 he was elected to Parliament and appointed 
 solicitor-general. He acquired great reputation by his 
 eloquent speech against the slave-trade. In 1807 he was 
 removed from office in consequence of the dissolution 
 of the Whig ministry. He afterwards directed his efforts 
 to the reform of the penal code, which at that period was 
 very severe. Nearly three hundred crimes of various 
 grades were punishable by death. He procured the pas- 
 sage of a bill, about 1809, to repeal the statute which 
 made stealing from the person a capital crime. In this 
 enterprise he encountered strong opposition from igno- 
 rance, prejudice, and party spirit. He made an unsuc- 
 cessful effort in 1810 to repeal the statute which punished 
 with death the crime of stealing from a shop goods valued 
 at five shillings. He opposed in an eloquent speech the 
 declaration of war against Napoleon on his return from 
 Elba in 1815. He was a zealous advocate of Roman 
 Catholic Emancipation. In his profession he is said to 
 have been more successful and more distinguished than 
 any other Englishman of his time. Although his style 
 was remarkable for plainness and simplicity, the im- 
 pressiveness of his speeches was, we are told, almost 
 unparalleled. In 1818 he was returned, at the head of 
 the poll, by the voters of Westminster. His wife died in 
 October, 1818. In a fit of delirium or insanity, he put 
 an end to his own life in November, 1818. He was 
 author of " Observations on the Criminal Law of Eng- 
 land," (1810.) 
 
 See "The Lite of Sir Samuel Romilly, written by himself," edited 
 by his sons, 3 vols., 1840; Benjamin Constant, " Eloge de Sir 
 Samuel Romilly," 1S19 ; RuscoE, "Lives of Eminent British Law- 
 yers;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale;" "Edinburgh Review" 
 for February, 1812: " Westminster Review" for June, 1840 ; "Lon- 
 don Quarterly Review" for September, 1840. 
 
 Romme, rom, (Charles,) a French geometer, born 
 at Riom about 1744. He wrote several useful works on 
 navigation, etc. Died in 1805. 
 
 Romme, (Gilhert,) a brother of the preceding, born 
 at Riom in 1750, was a Jacobin and an active member 
 of the Convention. Having been condemned to death 
 by the Thermidoriens, he killed himself in 1795. 
 
 Rommel, rom'mel, (Dietrich Christoph,) a Ger- 
 man historian, born at Cassel in 1781, became in 1815 
 professor of history at Marburg. He wrote a " History 
 of Hesse since the Peace of Westphalia," (1853.) Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 Rom'ney, (George,) an eminent English historical 
 and portrait painter, was born at Dalton, in Lancashire, 
 in December, 1734. In his youth he worked in the shop 
 of his' father, a cabinet-maker. He married Mary Ab- 
 bot in 1756. After he had studied and practised paint- 
 ing at Kendal for five years, he settled in London in 1762, 
 but left his wife and children in the country, where they 
 remained neglected while he was prosperous and famous. 
 Ik- obtained rapid success in his profession, and became 
 the rival of Reynolds. He passed about two years 
 (1773-75) in visits to several cities of Italy. At Rome 
 he painted a " Wood Nymph," which was greatly ad- 
 mired. He gradually raised his price for a portrait to 
 thirty-five guineas for a head and sixty guineas for a 
 whole-length. Among his works are "Milton and his 
 Daughters," " Nature unveiling herself to Shakspeare," 
 and portraits of Cowper the poet, Warren Hastings, 
 Lord Chatham, and William Pitt. About 1798 he was 
 compelled to desist from work by ill health and nervous 
 
 a,e 
 
 , 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, 5, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ROMNET 
 
 1915 
 
 ROOMOFSKI 
 
 dejection. He removed in 1799 to Kendal, where he 
 was nursed by his patient and forgiving wife until he 
 died, in November, 1802. 
 
 See Haylkv, " Life of G. Romney," 1809 : J. Romnrv, (his 
 •on,) "Memoirs of the Life and Works oi G. Romney," 1830; 
 Allan Cunningham, "Lives of British Painters;" "London 
 Quarterly Review" for November, 1809. 
 
 Romney, (Henry Sidney,) Earl of. See Sidney. 
 
 Rom'u-lus. called also QuI-ri'nus, the founder of 
 Rome, a semi-fabulous personage, supposed to have 
 lived about 750 B.C. According to tradition, Romulus 
 and Remus were the twin sons of Mars and Rhea Silvia, 
 who was a daughter of Numitor, King of Alba. Amu- 
 lius dethroned Numitor and ordered the young twins to 
 be exposed to destruction ; but they were suckled by a 
 wolf and educated by Faustulus, a shepherd of the king. 
 After they were grown up and informed of the secret of 
 their birth, they killed Amulius, restored Numitor, and 
 founded the city of Rome. Remus was punished with 
 death by Romulus for jumping, in derision, over the wall 
 of the new city, and Romulus became the first and sole 
 king of Rome, the population of which was increased 
 by exiles, outlaws, and fugitive slaves invited from ad- 
 jacent states. The deficiency of wives was remedied 
 by the abduction of Sabine maidens who assembled at 
 Rome as spectators of a public festival. The Sabines 
 waged war against Rome on this account, but peace was 
 restored by the mediation of the Sabine wives, and the 
 Romans and Sabines were united into one state, which 
 Romulus and the Sabine Tatius ruled jointly. Romulus 
 reigned about thirty-seven years, and, after death, was 
 worshipped under the name of Quirinus. According 
 to tradition, he disappeared mysteriously during a thun- 
 der-storm which occurred as he was reviewing his army 
 in the Campus Martins, and the opinion prevailed that 
 he was carried up to heaven. 
 
 See Niebuhr, "History of Rome;" Tanneguv-Lefevre, 
 " Discours sur Romulus," 1666; Plutarch, "Life of Romulus;" 
 J. Ghonovius, " Oratio de Origine Romuli," 1684. 
 
 Romulus Augustulus. See Augustulus. 
 Roncaglia, ron-kal'ya, (Constantino,) an Italian 
 writer on theology, etc., born at Lucca in 1677 ; died 
 
 '» '737- 
 
 Roucalli, ron-kal'lee, (Cristoforo,) called Pome- 
 rancio or Pomarancio, an excellent painter of the 
 Florentine school, born at Pomerance in 1552, was a 
 pupil of N. Circignani. He worked at Rome, Genoa, 
 etc., and painted the cupola of the church of Loretto. 
 Died at Rome in 1626. 
 
 Rondani, ron-da'nee, (Francesco Maria,) an Ital- 
 ian painter, born at Parma about 1490, was a pupil of 
 Coneggio. Died about 1548. 
 
 Rondel, du, (lit rdN'del', (Jacques,) a French phi- 
 losopher, bom about 1630, was professor of Greek at 
 Sedan from 1664 to 1681. He published a "Life of 
 Epicurus," (1679,) and other works. Bayle, who was 
 his friend, calls him (under the article " Epicurus") a 
 good poet and a good Greek scholar. Died at Maastricht 
 in 1715. 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Rondelet, rdNd'14' "' roN'deh-14', (Guii.i.aume,) a 
 French naturalist, born at Montpellier in 1507. He 
 practised medicine and lectured in that city. He pub- 
 lished a treatise "On Sea-Fish," (" De Piscibus marinis," 
 1554,) and several medical works. Died in 1566. 
 
 See Nicbron, " Memoires ;" Sainte-Marthe, "filoges;" 
 "Biographic MWicale." 
 
 Rondelet, (Jean,) a French architect, born in Lyons 
 in 1734, or, as some say, in 1743. He was a pupil of 
 Soiifnot, and became in 1781 his successor as architect 
 of the Pantheon, or church of Sainte-Genevieve, at Paris. 
 He built the dome of this edifice. He published an 
 important treatise on architecture, " Traite de l'Ai t de 
 Bitir," (5 vols., 1802-17,) which is called a classical 
 work. Died in Paris in 1829. 
 
 See Vaudoyer, "Discours sur la Tombe de J. Rondelet," 1829. 
 
 Rondet, ron'd4', (Laurent Etienne,) a French 
 writer on religion and morality, born in Paris in 1717; 
 died in 1785. 
 
 Rondot, rdN'do', (Natalis,) a French economist and 
 editor, born at Saint-Quentin in 1821. 
 
 Ronge, rong'eh, (Johannes,) a celebrated reformer 
 among the Catholics, born in Silesia in 1813. He was 
 ordained a Catholic priest in 1840 ; but he was soon 
 after suspended for his heretical opinions, and in 1844 
 published a letter denouncing the exhibition of the 
 "holy coat," which Arnoldi, Bishop of Treves, had just 
 proclaimed. Although excommunicated by the chapter 
 of Breslau, Ronge rapidly gained adherents, and in 
 1845 a German Catholic Chinch, independent of that of 
 Rome, was founded. In the revolution of 1848 he took 
 refuge in England, and many of the new societies were 
 suppressed. 
 
 See "Vindication of J. Ronge," translated from the German by 
 Robert Taylor, 1845; Eduard Duller, "J. Ronge und die freie 
 Kirche," 1849; " Autobiography of J. Ronge," translated from tile 
 German by John Lord, London, 1846; " Westminster Review" for 
 December, 1845, (article " German Theology.") 
 
 Ronne or Roenne, von, Ion ron'neh, (Ludwig 
 Moritz Peter,) a German jurist, born in Holstein in 
 1804. He became about 1843 a judge or councillor in 
 Berlin. Among his important works is "The Political 
 Law of the Prussian Monarchy," (1st vol., 1850.) 
 
 See " Jahrbuch zum Conversations- Lexikon," 1857. 
 
 Ronsard, de, deh riN'siV, (Pierre,) an eminent 
 French poet, born in the Vendomois in 1524. He learned 
 to speak English, German, and Italian, and was instructed 
 in Greek by Dorat and Turnebe. He wrote odes, epi- 
 grams, hymns, eclogues, etc., and was considered the 
 most popular poet of his time. Malherbe and Boi- 
 leau, however, did not appreciate him highly. Ronsard 
 conceived the idea of grouping seven French poets, 
 including himself, into a constellation called the Pliiade. 
 The other six were his imitators. Died in 1585. 
 
 See Claude Binet, "Vie de Ronsard," 1586; Guillaume Col* 
 letkt, "Vie de Ronsard," prefixed to an edition of his works, 1854 
 Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" E. Gandar, " Ron- 
 sard consider^ comme Imitateur d'Homere et de Pindare," 1854; 
 " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Rousiii, rdw'sa.N', (Chari.es Philippe,) a French 
 Jacobin and dramatist, born at Soissons in 1752. He 
 became a general in 1793, and was one of the most 
 violent agents of his party. He was executed with 
 Hebert in 1794. 
 
 Ron'tho, (MATTHEW,) a monk and Latin poet, born 
 in Greece, translated Dante's "Divina Commedia" into 
 Latin verse. Died at Sienna in 1443. 
 
 Roodtseus.rol'se-us, (Jan Albert,) a Dutch portrait- 
 painter, born at Hnorn in 1615 or 1617; died in 1674. 
 
 Rooke, rook, (Sir George,) an English admiral, born 
 near Canterbury in 1650. He obtained the rank of 
 post-captain about 1680, and that of vice-admiral of the 
 blue in 1692. In this year he burnt ten or more French 
 ships at La Hogue. He was appointed "vice-admiral 
 and lieutenant of the admiralty" by Queen Anne in 1702. 
 Sir George Rooke and Sir Cloudesley Shovel captured 
 Gibraltar in July, 1704. He commanded the combined 
 English and Dutch fleets in the war of the Spanish 
 succession, which began about 1702. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Campbell, "Lives of British Admirals;" " Biographia Bri- 
 taunica. " 
 
 Rooke, (Lawrence,) an English mathematician and 
 astronomer, born at Deptford in 1623, was one of the 
 original Fellows of the Royal Society. He became 
 professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London, in 
 1652. Died in 1662. 
 
 Roo'ker, (Michael Angelo,) an English landscape- 
 painter and engraver, born in London in 1743, was a 
 son of Edward Rooker, an engraver. Died in 1801. 
 
 Rook'wood, (Ambrose,) an accomplice in the Gun- 
 powder Plot, was the head of an old and wealthy ringlish 
 family. He was induced by his friendship for Catesby 
 and by his sectarian zeal to take part in that conspiracy. 
 He was put to death in 1606, aged about twenty-eight. 
 
 Roonie, room, (Kdward,) an English lawyer and 
 satirist. He offended Pope by a satire entitled "Pas- 
 quin," and wrote "The Jovial Crew," a drama. Died 
 in 1729. 
 
 Roomofskl, Roumovsky, or Rumowsky, roo- 
 mof'skee, (STEPHEN,) a Russian astronomer, horn in 
 Vladimir in 1734. He became professor of astronomy 
 at Saint Petersburg in 1763, and vice-president of the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1800. He published several 
 
 « as *; 5 as s; g hard;.%i&j; G, H, K,giittural; N, nasal; R, trilled; las z; th as in this. (!J^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROON 
 
 1916 
 
 ROSA 
 
 mathematical works, and translated the " Annals" of 
 Tacitus into Russian, (1808.) Died about 1814. 
 
 R0011, von, fon ron, (Albrecht Thf.odor Emu.,) a 
 Prussian general and writer, born at Kolberg about 1803. 
 He became a major-general in 1856, and minister of war 
 in 1859. He rendered important services by the re- 
 organization of the army. The Prussian Chambers in 
 1866 voted 1,500,000 thalers as a national recompense to 
 six men, among whom was Von Roon. He has published 
 several valuable treatises on geography and ethnology. 
 
 Roorda van Eysinga, rou'di vin i'sing-a, (Pieter 
 Theodore,) a Dutch Orientalist, born at Leeuwarden 
 about 1 790. He published, besides other works, a Dutch- 
 Javanese Dictionary, (1855.) Died in i860. 
 
 Roore, de, deh ro'reh, (Jacob,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1686, was a pupil of Van Opstal. 
 Among his works are "The Capitol besieged by Bren- 
 nus," and "The History of Pandora." Died in 1747. 
 
 Roos, ros, (Johann Heinrich,) a celebrated German 
 
 Eainter of landscapes and animals, and a skilful engraver, 
 orn at Otterndorf in 1631. Both his prints and paintings 
 command high prices. Died at Frankfort in 1685. 
 
 Roos, (Johann Melchior,) a painter of landscapes 
 and animals, born at Frankfort in 1659, was a son of the 
 preceding. He was not equal to his brother Philip Peter. 
 Died in 1731. 
 
 Roos, (Philip Peter,) surnamed Rosa da Tivoli, a 
 skilful painter of animals and landscapes, born at Frank- 
 fort about 1655, was a son of Johann Heinrich, noticed 
 above. He worked many years at Tivoli : hence his sur- 
 name. He painted with great facility. His touch is said 
 to be broad and mellow. Among his works are many 
 pastoral landscapes. His backgrounds and skies are 
 admirable for fidelity to nature. Died at Rome in 1705. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy;" " Biographie Univer- 
 telle." 
 
 Roos, (Theodor,) a German painter, born at Wesel 
 in 1638, was a brother of Johann Heinrich, noticed above. 
 He painted portraits and landscapes. Died in 1698. 
 
 Roose. See Liemaecker, (Nikolaas.) 
 
 Roose, n/zeh, (Theodor Georg August,) a Ger- 
 man medical writer, born at Brunswick in 1771. He 
 published "Principles of Legal Medicine," (1802,) and 
 other works. Died in 1803. 
 
 Roostam, Roostem, Roostum, Rustem, or Rus- 
 tam, idos'tem, written also Roustem, Roustam, and 
 Rostam, the most illustrious of Persian heroes, is sup- 
 posed to have lived about 600 years B.C. He was the 
 son of the celebrated warrior Zal or Zalzer and an Indian 
 princess named Rudaba. The exploits of Roostam form 
 the favourite theme of the Persian poets and romance- 
 writers ; and it is difficult to determine what is historical 
 and what is fiction in the accounts of him which have 
 come down to us. Sir William Jones says, " Rostam 
 was certainly a commander under Cyrus, [the Great.]" 
 Roostam forms the most prominent figure in Firdousee's 
 great epic, the "Shah Nameh," or "Book of Kings." 
 
 See "A Short History of Persia" in volume v. of Sir W. Jonhs's 
 Works ; J. Atkinson, "Abridgment of the ShSh NSmeli of Firdausi," 
 London, 1832; "Memoirs of Celebrated Characters," bj Lamar- 
 tine, 1856. 
 
 Roostam- (Roustam- or Rustam-) Pasha, roos'- 
 tam pa'sha', an able and unscrupulous Turkish ministei 
 of !f*.ate, became grand vizier under Solyman the Mag- 
 nificent, who reigned from 1520 to 1566. 
 
 Root, (Erastus,) an American politician, born at 
 Hebron, Connecticut, in 1772. He removed to Delhi, 
 New York, about 1796, and was elected a member of 
 Congress four times between 1802 and 1817. He was a 
 political friend of De Witt Clinton. Died in 1846. 
 
 Ro'per, (William,) an English biographer, married 
 in 1528 Margaret, a daughter of Sir Thomas More, a 
 learned and accomplished lady. He wrote a "Life of 
 Sir Thomas More," which is commended. 
 
 Roque, de la, deh li rok, (Antoine,) a French lit- 
 terateur, born at Marseilles in 1672, edited the " Mercure 
 de France" from 1721 until 1744. Died in 1744. 
 
 Roque, de la, (Gilles Andre,) a French genealogist, 
 born near Caen about 1598. Among his works is a 
 valuable "Treatise on the Nobility," ("Traite' de la 
 Noblesse," 1678.) Died in 1686. 
 
 Roque, de la, (Jean,) a French traveller, born at 
 Marseilles in 1661, was a brother of Antoine, noticed 
 above. He published several books of travels in Arabia, 
 Palestine, and Syria, (1716, 1717, 1722.) Died in 1745. 
 
 Roquefort, de, deh rok'fon', (Jean Baptiste Bona- 
 venture,) a French philologist and antiquary, born at 
 Mons in 1777. He published an "Etymological Dic- 
 tionary of the French Language," (1829.) Died in 1834. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ie'rale." 
 
 Roquelaure, de, deh rok'loR', (Antoine,) Baron, 
 a French marshal, born in 1544, was a constant adherent 
 of Henry IV. He was in the carriage with that king 
 when the latter was killed, (1610.) Died in 1625. 
 
 See Morbki, " Dictiounaire Historique;" L'Estoile, "Journal." 
 
 Roquelaure, de, (Gaston Jean Baptiste,) Die, a 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1617. He served in 
 the army, and obtained the rank of lieutenant-general. 
 He was noted for his facetious sayings. Died in 10S3. 
 His son Antoine Gaston Jean Baptiste, born in 
 1656, became marshal of France. Died in 1738. 
 
 Roqueplan, rok'ploN', (Camili.e Joseph Etienne,) 
 an eminent French painter of landscapes and genre, born 
 at Marlemort in 1802, was a pupil of Gros and Abel de 
 Pujol. He obtained a medal of the first class in 1828. 
 Many of his works are illustrative of Rousseau's "Con- 
 fessions" and Sir Walter Scott's Novels. Died in 1855. 
 
 Roqueplan, (Louis VICTOR Nestor,] a. litterateur, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born at Marlemort in 
 1804. He became editon of the " Figaro" about 1827, 
 and was director of the Opera of Paris from 1847 to 
 1854. Died in 1870. 
 
 Roques, rok, (Pierre,) a French Protestant writer, 
 born at La Caune in 1685. He became pastor of a church 
 at Bale in 1710, and published, besides other works, " The 
 Evangelical Pastor," (1723,) and a new edition of Moreri's 
 "Dictionary," (6 vols., 1731.) Died in 1748. 
 
 See Fhey, "Vie de Pierre Roques," 1784. 
 
 Roquette, de, deh ro'keV, (Gabriel,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Toulouse in 1623, became Bishop 
 of Autun in 1666. He was notorious as the prototype 
 of Moliere's "Tartuffe." Died in 1707. 
 
 Rorario, ro-ra're-o, [Lat. Rora'rius,] (Girolamo,) 
 an Italian ecclesiastic and writer, born at Pordenone in 
 1485. He wrote a curious treatise "That Brutes often 
 reason better than Man," (" Quod Animalia bruta ssepe 
 Ratione utantur melius Homine," 1648.) Died in 1556. 
 
 Rorarius. See Rorario. 
 
 Rosa, rc/sa, (Cristoforo,) a painter of the Venetian 
 school, born at Brescia. He excelled in perspective, 
 and painted the architecture in some works of Titian. 
 Died in 1576. 
 
 Rosa, (Pietro,) a son of the preceding, was a favour- 
 ite pupil of Titian. He was a good colorist. He died 
 young, in 1576. 
 
 Rosa, (Sai.vator,) [Anglicized in pronunciation as 
 siU-va'tor ro'za,] a famous Italian painter of history, 
 landscapes, and battles, was born at Arenella, near 
 Naples, on the 20th of June, 1615. He received lessons 
 in art from F. Francanzani, his brother-in-law, and was 
 a diligent student of nature. About 1635 he went to 
 Rome, where he worked and attained a high reputation 
 [11 1647 he took part in the revolt at Naples, and fought 
 for Masaniello. After the final defeat of the insurgent.-', 
 Salvator escaped to Florence, where he was patronized 
 by the grand duke. He was partial to wild, romantic, 
 and desolate scenery. His imagination was morb d, 
 gloomy, and extravagant. After he had worked at 
 Florence for several years, he returned to Rome, where 
 he exhibited some pictures in 1663. He produced at 
 Rome his "Conspiracy of Catiline," which is accounted 
 his master-piece. He made for himself enemies at 
 Rome by his poetical satires. Died in March, 1673. 
 " Salvator possessed real genius," says Ruskin, " but 
 was crushed by misery in his youth. ... In heart 
 disdainful, in temper adventurous, conscious of power, 
 impatient of labour, ... he fled to the Calabrian hills, 
 seeking not knowledge, but freedom. . . . He had not 
 the sacred sense, — the sense of colour : all tht loveliest 
 hues of the Calabrian air were invisible to him. He 
 saw only what was gross and terrible. ... I see in him, 
 
 a, e, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ti, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, St' mSt; not; good; moon: 
 
ROSA 
 
 1917 
 
 ROSE 
 
 notwithstanding his baseness, the last traces of spiritual 
 'ife in the art of Europe." 
 
 See Cant(j, "Salvator Rosa," 1844; Lady Morgan, "Life of 
 Salvator Rosa," London, 2 vols., 1824, which is said to be a romance, 
 or romantic biography; J.anzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" 
 Ruskis", "Modem Painters;" Passkri, "Vite de' Pittori ;" Do- 
 menici, "Vite de* Pittori Napoletani ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gene'rale ;" " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1824. 
 
 Rosa da Tivoli. See Roos, (Philip Peter.) 
 
 Rosa, de la, (F. Martinez.) See Martinez. 
 
 Rosalba Camera, ro-sal'ba kjt-re-a'rj, a famous 
 Italian portrait-painter, often called simply Rosalba, was 
 born at or near Venice about 1674. She is said to have 
 been the most excellent artist of her time in the use of 
 the crayon or pastel. Her Madonnas were much ad- 
 mired. She visited Paris in 1720, and obtained there great 
 success. About 1746 she became blind. Died in 1757. 
 
 Rosamel, de, deh ro'st'mel', (Claude Chari.es 
 Marie Ducampe — dii'koNp',) a French admiral, born 
 at Trencq in 1774. He was minister of marine from 
 September, 1836, to March, 1839. Died in 1848. 
 
 Ros'a-mond, [Fr. Rosemonde, roz'miNd', or Rosa- 
 MONDE, ro'zi'mdNd',1 often called The Fair Rosamond, 
 was a daughter of Walter, Lord Clifford. She became a 
 favourite of Henry II. of England, and mother of two 
 sons, William Longsvvord, and Jeffery, Archbishop of 
 York. Died in 1 177. 
 
 Rosapina, ro-sa-pee'na, or Rosaspina, ro-si-spee'- 
 n3, (Francesco,) an Italian engraver, born at Bologna 
 about 1 762. Among his chief works is " La Pinacoteca," 
 a series of seventy-two engravings of the finest pictures 
 of the gallery of Bologna. Died in 1841. 
 
 Rosas, de, da ro'sis, (Juan Manuel Ortiz — or- 
 teth',) a South American dictator, born in Buenos Ayres 
 in 1793. He lived as a Gaucho in his youth, and was an 
 active partisan of the Federals in the civil war against 
 the Unitarians. In 1829 he was elected Governor of 
 the Argentine Republic, or Buenos Ayres. He became 
 dictator in 1835. By some writers he is represented 
 as a monster of crueity. His administration, however, 
 was beneficial in respect to trade and finance. He was 
 defeated in battle by an army under General Urquiza 
 in February, 1852, after which he lived in exile. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale ;" " Fraser*s Magazine" for 
 May, 1852; "Democratic Review" for May, 1S46. 
 
 Roscelin, his'IAn', written also Ruzelin, [Lat. Ros- 
 celi'nus or Roscelli'nus,] a famous French theologian 
 and schoolman, born at or near Compiegne. He was a 
 Nominalist, and was for some time regarded as the 
 inventor of Nominalism. In 1092 he was condemned 
 as a heretic by a council at Soissons. Died about 1122. 
 
 See B. Haureau, "De la Philosophic scolastique ;" Chladen, 
 " De Vita et Hajresi Roscelini," 1756. 
 
 Roscelinus or Roscellinus. See Roscelin. 
 
 Roscher, rosh'er, (Wii.hklm,) a German political 
 economist, bom at Hanover in 1817. He became pro- 
 fessor of political science, etc. at Leipsic in 1848. He 
 published, besides other works, "The Life and Times 
 of Thucydides," (1842.) 
 
 Roschid, (or Roschd,) Ibn. See Averroes. 
 
 Rbschlaub or Roeschlaub, rosh'lowp, (Andreas,) 
 a German medical writer, born in 1768 ; died in 1835. 
 
 Roscius, rosh'e-us, (Quintus,) a celebrated Roman 
 acior, was born neat Lanuvium. He amassed a large 
 fortune by his performance on the stage. His name 
 was so proverbial for excellence that Garrick was styled 
 "the British Roscius." An oration which Cicero pro- 
 nounced for Roscius in a civil suit is extant. Died 
 about 60 B.C. 
 
 Ros'coe, (Henry,) an English lawyer and writer, 
 born in 1800, was a son of the historian. He wrote 
 a " Life of William Roscoe," (1833,) and "The Lives of 
 Eminent British Lawyers," in Lardner's "Cyclopaedia." 
 Died in 1836. 
 
 Roscoe, (James,) an English poet and lawyer, born 
 about 1791. He resided at Knutsford, Cheshire, for 
 nearly fifty years. He contributed to "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" and other periodicals. Died in May, 1864. 
 
 Roscoe, (Robert,) a barrister, a brother of Henry, 
 noticed abcve, was born about 1790. He wrote poems 
 of some merit. Died in 1850. 
 
 Roscoe, (Thomas,) an English author and translator, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born about 1790. He 
 produced several poems and tales, a "Tour in the Isle 
 of Wight," and other illustrated works. Among the 
 works translated by him are Sismondi's " Literature of 
 Southern Europe," and Silvio Pellico's "Memoirs." 
 
 Roscoe, (William,) an eminent English historian 
 and poet, born at or near Liverpool on the 8th of March, 
 ■753-. He practised as an attorney in his early life, and 
 married Miss Griffiths in 1781. He wrote several pam- 
 phlets against the slave-trade, and a poem on the same 
 subject. His reputation is chieflv founded on his " Life 
 of Lorenzo de' Medici, called the' Magnificent," (2 vols., 
 1796,) which was very successful and was translated into 
 French, German, and Italian. He retired from business 
 as an attorney about 1800, became partner in a banking- 
 house, and purchased an estate in land. In 1805 he pub- 
 lished an interesting and popular work, "The Life and 
 Pontificate of Leo X." He became a Whig member of 
 Parliament (for Liverpool) in 1806. He vvas the prin- 
 cipal founder of the Royal Institution of Liverpool. 
 In 1816 the banking-house with which he was connected 
 failed, and he was under the necessity of parting with 
 his magnificent library. He died in June, 1831, leaving 
 four sons, noticed in this work. As a historian, Roscoe 
 has been censured by some critics for a too great indul- 
 gence shown to the character of Leo X. and to the vices 
 of his court, and particularly for his defence of Lucretia 
 Borgia. (See, on this subject, the "Edinburgh Review" 
 for January, 1806; also Dr. Hoefer's article on Alex- 
 andre VI, in the "Nouvelle Biographie Generale.") 
 
 See Henry Roscoe, "Life of William Roscoe," 2 vols., 1833: 
 "Lives of Distinguished Northerns," by Hartley Coleridge; 
 Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Edinburgh Review" for 
 July, 1833; "Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1832, (with a 
 portrait.) 
 
 Roscoe, (W. S.,) an English poet, born in 1781, was 
 a son of the preceding. He was author of a volume of 
 poems. Died in 1843. 
 
 Ros-com'mon, (Wentworth Dillon,) Earl of, 
 an English poet, born in Ireland about 1633, was the son 
 of James Dillon, third Earl of Roscommon, and a Ro- 
 man Catholic. His mother was a sister of the famous 
 Earl of Strafford. When the latter was impeached, young 
 Dillon was sent to study at Caen, under Bochart. He 
 returned to England about 1660, became master of the 
 horse to the Duchess of York, and married Frances, a 
 daughter of the Earl of Burlington. He wrote odes, 
 prologues, epilogues, and an "Essay on Translated 
 Verse," (1680.) He also translated Horace's "Art of 
 Poetry" into blank verse, (1680.) Died in 1684. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets." 
 
 Rose, (George,) a British politician, born at Brechin, 
 Scotland, in 1744, was noted for business talents and 
 practical sagacity. He was secretary of the treasury 
 from 1782 to 1801, and was a constant adherent of Mr. 
 Pitt, who in 1804 appointed him joint paymaster-general 
 of the forces. In 1807 he became treasurer of the navy. 
 He was a grandfather of General Sir Hugh Henry Rose. 
 Died in 1 81 8. 
 
 See "Diaries and Correspondence of George Rose," 3 vols., 
 i860; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ■" 
 "Edinburgh Review" for July, i860. 
 
 Rose, roz, [Lat. Ross^/us,] (Guii.i.aume,) a French 
 prelate, notorious for his factious violence, was born at 
 Chaumont about 1542. He was a partisan of the League 
 against Henry III. and Henry IV. Died in 1602. 
 'Rose, ro'zeh, (Gustav, ) a distinguished German 
 mineralogist, a brother of Heinrich, noticed below, was 
 born at Berlin in 1798. He became (1822) keeper of 
 the mineral collection and professor of mineralogy (1839) 
 at Berlin. He wrote "Elements of Crystallography," 
 and contributed the geognostic and mineralogical part 
 to the "Journey to the Ural and Altai Mountains," 
 etc., which he made with Humboldt and Ehrenberg 
 in 1829. 
 
 Rose, (Heinrich,) son of Valentin the Younger, born 
 at Berlin in 1795, was a pupil of Berzelius at Stockholm. 
 He became, after his return, professor of chemistry in 
 his native city, in 1835. His principal work, entitled 
 "Manual of Analytical Chemistry," (2 vols., 1851,) has 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (U^"*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROSE 
 
 ig i 8 
 
 ROSENMULLER 
 
 been translated into several languages. As a practical 
 analyst in the department of inorganic chemistry he is 
 highly distinguished. He discovered in 1844 the sub- 
 stance called Niobium. 
 
 Rose, (Sir Hugh Henry,) an able British general, 
 born in 1803. His father, Sir George H. Rose, was 
 British minister at Berlin. He commanded a division 
 in India, (1857-60,) and contributed to the suppression 
 of the mutiny of the Sepoys. In 1866 he was raised to 
 the peerage, as Baron Strathnairn. 
 
 Rose, (Hugh James,) an English divine and volumi- 
 nous writer, born in Surrey in 1795. He became vicar 
 of Horsham in 1821, and rector of Hadleigh in 1830. 
 In 1836 he was appointed principal of King's College, 
 London. He published numerous sermons and contro- 
 versial works, and a new edition of Parkhurst's "Greek 
 Lexicon." He projected the " Biographical Dictionary" 
 which bears his name, but did not live to finish it. Died 
 at Florence in 1838. 
 
 Rose, (Jean Baptiste,) a French priest and writer on 
 morals, born in Franche-Comte in 1714; died in 1805. 
 
 Rose, (Samuel,) an English lawyer and biographer, 
 born at Chiswick in 1767. He wrote a "Life of Oliver 
 Goldsmith." Died in 1804. 
 
 Rose, (Valentin,) the Elder, a German pharma- 
 cist, born at Neu-Ruppin in 1 735, was assessor of the 
 medical college at Berlin. Died in 1771. 
 
 Rose, (Valentin,) the Younger, a son of the 
 preceding, was born at Berlin in 1762. He studied 
 chemistry under Klaproth, and was author of several 
 useful chemical treatises. Died in 1807. 
 
 Rose, (William Stewart,) a distinguished scholar 
 and translator, born in the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century, was a friend of Sir Walter Scott. He was the 
 author of a "Naval History of the Late War," (1802,) 
 and translated "Amadis de Gaul" from the French, 
 and the "Orlando Innamorato" (1823) and "Orlando 
 Furioso" (1823-31) from the Italian. These translations 
 are highly commended. Died in 1843. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1823 ; " Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for July, 1823; "North American Review" for 
 October, 1824, (by W. H. Prescott.) 
 
 Rosecrans, roz'krans, (William Stark,) an Ameri- 
 can general, born at Kingston, Delaware county, Ohio, in 
 September, 1819. He was educated at West Point, where 
 he graduated in 1842. He was employed as engineer 
 until 1854, when he resigned his place in the army. 
 In the summer of 1861 he was appointed a brigadier- 
 general and sent to Western Virginia. He defeated the 
 insurgents at Rich Mountain in July, 1861, after which 
 he commanded in West Virginia for several months. He 
 obtained command of the army of the Mississippi in 
 June, 1862, and gained a decisive victory at Corinth 
 (October 4) over Van Dorn and Price. He commanded 
 the Union army at the great battle of Stone River, near 
 Murfreesboro', which ended on the 2d of January, 1863. 
 General Bragg retreated by night, leaving Rosecrans 
 master of the field. The Union loss was 1533 killed 
 and 7245 wounded. General Rosecrans in June moved 
 his army southeastward in pursuit of Bragg, who retired 
 into Georgia, and the Union army occupied Chattanooga 
 about the 9th of September. Bragg, having been rein- 
 forced, turned back and attacked Rosecrans on the 19th 
 and 20th of September at Chickamauga. This battle 
 was disastrous to the Union army, which retreated to 
 Chattanooga. Rosecrans was relieved from the com- 
 mand about the 20th of October, 1863, and was appointed 
 commander of the district of Missouri in January, 1864. 
 He was sent as minister to Mexico in July, 1868, but was 
 recalled a few months later. 
 
 See "The Army of the Cumberland;" Tenney, "Military and 
 Naval History of the Rebellion," 1865. 
 
 Roseingrave, ro'zin-grav, ? (Thomas,) an Irish mu- 
 sician, went to Rome to study in 1710. He became 
 organist of the church of Saint George, London, in 1725. 
 Died in 1750. 
 
 Rosel or Roesel, rb'zel, (August Johann,) a Ger- 
 man painter and naturalist, born near Arnstadt in 1705. 
 He received the title of Von Rosenhof. He published 
 a periodical on insects, with good figures, (4 vols., 1746 
 -61.) Died in 1759. 
 
 Roselli, ro-sel'lee, or Rosselli, (Cosimo,) an emi- 
 nent Florentine painter, born at Florence in 1439. He 
 painted frescos in the Sistine Chapel at Rome, which 
 gained the prize offered by the pope, when among his 
 competitors were Perugino and Gtiirlandaio. He suc- 
 ceeded by a profuse use of gold and ultramarine, 
 although he was inferior to his competitors. Di^d 
 after 1506. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy;" Baldinucci, "Notizie." 
 
 Roselli or Rosselli, (Matteo,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Florence in 1578, was a pupil of Pagani. He 
 opened at Florence a school, in which several able artists 
 were formed. Died in 1650. 
 
 Rosellini, ros'el-lee'nee or ro-sll-lee'nee, (Ippolito,) 
 Cavaliere, an eminent Italian antiquary and writer on 
 Egyptian antiquities, born in August, 1800. He became 
 professor of Oriental languages at Pisa in 1824. In 1827 
 he was commissioned by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to 
 explore the monuments of Egypt, assisted by six com- 
 panions, some of whom were artists. He co-operated 
 with Champollion, who at the same time was sent to 
 Egypt by the French government. They returned in 
 1830, and, Champollion having died in 1832, the results 
 of their researches were published by Rosellini in a 
 capital work entitled "The Monuments of Egypt and 
 Nubia Explained and Illustrated," (" I Monumenti dell' 
 Egitto e della Nubia," etc., 10 vols., 1832-40.) He 
 obtained the chair of universal history at Pisa in 1840. 
 Died in June, 1843. 
 
 See Bardei.i.i, " Biografia del Professore I. Rosellini," 1843; 
 G. Dei, " Biografia del Professore I. Rosellini," 1843; C. Cavedoni, 
 " Biografia d'l. Rosellini," 1845. 
 
 Rosemonde. See Rosamond. 
 
 Rosen, ro'zen, (Friedrich August,) a celebrated 
 German Orientalist and philologist, born at Hanover 
 on the 2d of September, 1805. He was educated at the 
 University of Leipsic and that of Berlin, the latter of 
 which he entered in 1824. He gave special attention 
 to Sanscrit and the Semitic languages, and published an 
 important work entitled "Sanscrit Roots," ("Radices 
 Sanscritae," 1827.) In 1828 he became professor of 
 Oriental languages in the University of London, since 
 called University College. He was appointed secretary 
 to the Oriental Translation Committee, and in the latter 
 part of his life was professor of Sanscrit in the college 
 above named. He wrote the articles relating to Oriental 
 literature for the "Penny Cyclopaedia." Among his 
 numerous publications is " Rig-Vedae Specimen," (1830,) 
 and a valuable fragment of the " Rig- Veda," "Sanhita 
 Liber primus, Sanscrite et Latine," ([838, unfinished.) 
 He died prematurely in September, 1837. 
 
 See " Biographie Universelle," (new edition.) 
 
 Rosea, ( Georg, ) a German Orientalist, born at 
 Detmold in 1821. 
 
 Rosen, ro'zen, (Nikolaus,) a Swedish medical writer, 
 born near Gothenburg in 1706. He was ennobled in 
 1762, and his name was then changed to Rosenstein. 
 Died in 1773. 
 
 Rosen, von, fon ro'zen, (George,) Baron, a Russian 
 poet, born in Saint Petersburg about 1805, was an inti- 
 mate friend of Pooshkin. He produced, besides other 
 poems, "Ivan the Terrible," (1833,) and " Basmanof," 
 (1836.) Died in i860. 
 
 Rosenblut, ro'zen-bloot', (Hans,) sometimes calif 1 
 Rosener, a German poet and dramatic writer of the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 Rosenhof, von. See Rosel. 
 
 Rosenkranz, ro'zen-kRants', (Johann Karl Fried- 
 rich,) professor of philosophy at Konigsberg, was born 
 at Magdeburg in 1805. lie published a number of 
 works in favour of Hegel's philosophy. Among his 
 works is a "General History of Poetry," (3 vols., 1833,) 
 and a " Life of Hegel," (1844.) 
 
 Rosenmiiller, ro'zen mtfl'ler, (Ernst Friedrich 
 Karl,) an eminent German Orientalist, born near Hild- 
 burghausen in 1768. He studied at Leipsic, where he 
 became in 1813 professor of Oriental literature. He 
 was the author of " Scholia on the Old Testament," 
 (" Scholia in Vetus Testamentum," 23 vols., 1788-1835,) 
 "Manual for the Literature of Biblical Criticism and 
 Exegesis," (4 vols., 1 797-1800,) " Institutes of the Arabic 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon- 
 
ROSENMULLER 
 
 1919 
 
 ROSS 
 
 Language, (1 818,) and " Manual of Biblical Antiquities," 
 (4 vols., 1823.) Died at Leipsic in 1835. 
 
 See " Biographie Universelle," (new edition.) 
 
 Rosenmiiller, (Johann Christian,) a distinguished 
 anatomist, a brother of the preceding, was born at Hess- 
 berg in 1 771. He became professor of anatomy and 
 surgery at Leipsic, and prosector at the Anatomical 
 Theatre. He published several anatomical and scientific 
 works. Died in 1820. 
 
 Rosenmiiller, (Johann Georg,) a German Prot- 
 estant theologian and pulpit orator, born at Utnmer- 
 stadt in 1736, was the father of the preceding. He 
 became successively professor of theology at Erlangen, 
 at Giessen, and at Leipsic. He published "Scholia in 
 Novum Testamentum," (6 vols., 1777-1807,) and a " His- 
 tory of the Interpretation of the Sacred hooks in the 
 Christian Church from the Age of the Apostles to the 
 Restoration of Letters," (in Latin, 5 vols., 1795— 1814 ;) 
 also several religious treatises in German. Died at 
 Leipsic in 1815. 
 
 See Chr. Dolz, "J. G. Rosenmttller's Leben," 1816; "Biogra- 
 phie Universelle." 
 
 Rosenstein. See Rosen, (Nikoi.aus.) 
 
 Rosenthal, ro'zen-til', (Friedrich Christian,) a 
 German anatomist and writer, born at Greifswalde in 
 1779. He published several professional works. Died 
 in 1829. 
 
 Rosenvinge, ro'zen-ving'eji, (Janus Lars Andreas 
 Kolderup — kol'der oop',) a Danish jurist, born at 
 Copenhagen in 1792. He published "Elements of 
 the History of Danish Law," (1823.) 
 
 Rosetti. See Rossetti. 
 
 Rosetti, ro-set'tee, (Constantine,) a poet, born at 
 Bucharest (Wallachia) about 1816. He was democratic 
 or liberal in politics, was exiled about 1848, and took 
 refuge in Paris. 
 
 Rosetti, ro-set'tee, (Domenico,) an Italian painter 
 and engraver, born at Venice about 1690. He is chiefly 
 known as an engraver. 
 
 Roshd, (or Roshed,) Ibn. See Averroes. 
 
 Rosier, ro'ze-a', ( N.,) a French dramatic author, 
 born in Paris about 1805. Among his works is a comedy 
 called " Le Mari de ma Femme," (1830.) 
 
 Rosin. See Rosinus. 
 
 Rosini, ro-see'nee, ( Carlo Maria, ) an Italian 
 archaeologist and bishop, born at Naples in 1748. He 
 deciphered and published some manuscripts of Hercu- 
 laneum, and wrote other works. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Prospero della Rosa, "Vita di C. M. Rosini," 1837. 
 
 Rosini, (Giovanni,) a distinguished Italian poet and 
 novelist, born at Lucignano, in Tuscany, in 1776. He 
 was professor of Italian literature at Pisa from 1803 
 until 1849. Among his numerous works are " Luisa 
 Strozzi," (4 vols., 1833,) "Torquato Tasso," a drama, 
 (1835,) and-a "History of Italian Painting," (7 vols., 
 1838-54.) He wrote an " Essay on the Life and Works 
 of Canova," (1825,) and published a good edition of 
 Tasso's works, (30 vols., 1820-30.) Died in 1855. 
 
 See Pozzoi.ini. " Vita di G. Rosini," 1855 ; Alfred von Reu- 
 mont, "G Rosini's Leben," i860; "Biographie Universelle;" 
 " foreign Quarterly Review" for August, 1829. 
 
 Ro-si'nus, [Ger. pron. ro-zee'nus ; Fr. Rosin, ro'- 
 ziN',1 (Johann,) a German antiquary, whose proper 
 name was Rossfeld or Roszfei.d, was born at Eisenach 
 in 1551. He published a "Complete Body of Roman 
 Antiquities," ("Antiquitatum Romanorum Corpus abso- 
 lutissimum," 1583.) Died in 1626. 
 
 Roslin, ros-leen', (Alexander,) a Swedish portrait- 
 painter, born at Malmo about 1718. He worked for 
 many years in Paris, where he obtained great success. 
 He was admitted into the French Academy of Art in 
 1753. Died in Paris in 1793. 
 
 Rosmini, de', di ros-mee'nee, (Carlo,) an Italian 
 biographer, born at Roveredo in 1758. He published, 
 besides other works, a "Life of Ovid," (1789,) a " Life 
 of Seneca," (1793,) a " Life of Victorir.o da Feltro," (4 
 vols., 1801,) and a "History of Milan," ("Storia di Mi- 
 lano," 4 vols., 1820.) His works are commended as 
 accurate and impartial. Died at Milan in 1827. 
 
 See TiPALDo,"Biogra6a degli Italiani illustri;" A. M. Menb- 
 Chblli, " Rosmini e sue Opere," 1827. 
 
 Rosmini-Serbati, ros-mee'nee sfR-ba'tee, (Anto- 
 nio,) an eminent Italian ecclesiastic and philosopher, 
 born at Roveredo in 1787 or 1797. He produced " New 
 Essay on the Origin of Ideas," ("II nuovo Saggio 
 suH'Origine delle Idee," 1830,) and propounded a new 
 system of philosophy. He wrote numerous other works, 
 on ethics, theology, education, etc. Died in 1855. 
 
 SeeV. Gioberti, "DegliErrorifilosofici di A. Rosmini-Serbati," 
 3 vols., 1844; "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Rosny, de. See Sully. 
 
 Rospigliosi. See Clement IX. 
 
 Ross, (Alexander,) a Scottish theologian, born 
 about 1570, became minister at Aberdeen in 1636. He 
 was an adversary of the Covenanters. Died in 1639. 
 
 Ross, (Alexander,) a Scottish divine and writer, 
 born at Aberdeen in 1590. He was a zealous partisan 
 of Charles I. in the civil war, (1642-49.) Among his 
 numerous works are. a "View of All Religions," anil 
 "Virgilii Evangel izantis Christias," (1634.) Died in 
 1654. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Ross, (Alexander,) a Scottish poet and teacher, 
 born in Aberdeenshire in 1699. He wrote " Helenore, 
 or the Fortunate Shepherdess," (1768.) Died in 1784. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Ross, (Frederick Augustus,) a Presbyterian min- 
 ister, born at Richmond, Virginia, in 1796. He became 
 pastor of a church at Huntsville, Alabama, in 1855, and 
 published " Slavery ordained of God," (1857.) 
 
 Ross, (George,) an American patriot and signer of 
 the Declaration of Independence, was born at New Cas- 
 tle, Delaware, in 1730. He was a member of Congress 
 from 1774 until 1777. He was appointed in 1779 a judge 
 of the court of admiralty for the State of Pennsylvania, 
 and died the same year. 
 
 Ross, (Sir James Clark,) Admiral, F.R.S., an emi- 
 nent English Arctic navigator, born in London in April, • 
 1800. He served his uncle, Sir John Ross, as midship- 
 man in his first voyage in search of a Northwest Passage, 
 (1818.) Between 1819 and 1825 he made three voyages 
 under Captain E. Parry. He took a prominent part in 
 Sir John Ross's second voyage, (1829-33,) anc I was 
 raised to the rank of post-captain in 1834. In 1839 he 
 was appointed commander of an expedition sent with 
 two vessels, the Erebus and Terror, to explore the Ant- 
 arctic regions with special reference to the science of 
 magnetism. He reached the seventy-eighth degree of 
 south latitude, and discovered an ice-bound continent, 
 to which he gave the name of Victoria Land, and the 
 coast of which his party traced for seven hundred miles. 
 After a highly successful voyage of four years, he arrived 
 at England in September, 1843. He published a "Voy- 
 age of Discovery and Research in the Southern and 
 Antarctic Regions," etc., (2 vols., 1847.) He was raised 
 to the rank of rear-admiral in 1856. Died in 1862. 
 
 See William Jerdan, "Men I have known," London, 1866; 
 "Edinburgh Review" for March, 1819, and July, 1835; "London 
 Quarterly Review" for January, 1819, July, 1835, and June, 1847; 
 " North British Review for November, 1847. 
 
 Ross, (Sir John,) Rear-Admiral, a famous Arctic 
 navigator, born at Balsarroch, (county of Wigton,) Scot- 
 land, in 1777, was an uncle of the preceding. He served 
 as an officer in several naval actions against the French 
 and Spaniards between 1800 and 1814. In 1818 he was 
 appointed commander of the first expedition sent to 
 search for a Northwest Passage. Lieutenant Parry was 
 the second in command. He passed through Baffin's 
 Bay to Lancaster Sound, where he imagined he saw 
 a barrier of mountains interposed, and he returned 
 home in the same year. (See Parry, Captain.) In 
 1829 he renewed the enterprise in the Victory, entered 
 Prince Regent Inlet, and was frozen up in the Gulf of 
 Boothia in October, 1829. His party passed about four 
 years of privation and peril in the Arctic seas, and 
 abandoned the Victory in 1832. Captain Ross dis- 
 covered in 1831 a point which he believed to be the 
 Northern Magnetic Pole. He and his party returned 
 by boats to Lancaster Sound, where they were rescued 
 bv a whaling-vessel, and arrived home 'in September, 
 1833. He published in 1835 a narrative of his second 
 voyage. Died in 1856. 
 
 « as i; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as *; th as in this. (J^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROSS 
 
 1920 
 
 ROSSI 
 
 Ross, written also Rouse and Rows, (John,) known 
 as "the Antiquary of Warwick," wrote "History of the 
 Kings of England," (in Latin, 1716.) Died in 1491. 
 
 Ross, (John,) Bishop of Exeter, an English writer, 
 bom in Herefordshire. He edited Cicero's " Familiar 
 Letters," ("Epistolae Familiares," 174c.) Died in 1792. 
 
 Ross, (John,) [called Koo'wes-koo'we in the 
 Cherokee language,] a noted half-breed Indian, and 
 head chief of the Cherokees, was born in Georgia about 
 T790; died at Washington in 1866. 
 
 Ross, (Lkonard Fulton,) an American officer, born 
 in Fulton county, Illinois. He served in the Mexican 
 war, and was made brigadier-general of Union volun- 
 teers in 1862. 
 
 Ross, ross, (Ludwig,) a German antiquary, born in 
 Holstein in 1806, became in 1837 professor of archae- 
 ology in the Otto University at Athens, in Greece. He 
 subsequently filled the same chair at Halle. 
 . Ross, (Sir William Charlks,) R.A., a popular 
 English miniature-painter, born in London in June, 
 1794, was a nephew of Anker Smith, the engraver. In 
 the early part of his career he painted history and por- 
 traits. He excelled in miniature, and became in this 
 department the most fashionable artist of his time. In 
 1837 he was appointed miniature-painter to the queen. 
 He gained a prize of ,£100 for a picture of "The Angel 
 Raphael discoursing with Adam," (1843.) Died in i860. 
 
 Rossaeus. See Rose, (Guillaumk.) 
 
 Rosse, ross, (William Parsons,) third Earl of, an 
 eminent English practical astronomer, born in June, 1800, 
 was educated at the University of Oxford. He became 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1831, and succeeded 
 his father in the peerage in 1841. He acquired a wide 
 reputation by the construction of a telescope which was 
 finished about 1844 and is unrivalled in dimensions and 
 space-penetrating power, and by his discoveries in 
 sidereal or nebular astronomy. This telescope, which 
 has an aperture of six feet and a length of fifty-six feet, 
 is located near Parsonstown, Kings county, Ireland. He 
 was elected president of the Royal Society in 1849. 
 Died in October, 1867. 
 
 Rossel, de, deh ro'sel', (Elisabeth Paul Edouard,) 
 Chevalier, a French navigator, born at Sens in 1765. 
 He accompanied D'Entrecasteaux in his expedition in 
 search of La Perouse, and succeeded to the chief com- 
 mand in 1794. He was taken' prisoner by the English 
 in 1795, and released about 1802. In 1809 he published 
 the " Voyage of D'Entrecasteaux in Search of La Pi- 
 rouse," (2 vols.,) containing a good treatise on nautical 
 astronomy. Died in 1829. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Rosselli. See Roselli. 
 
 Rossellino, ros-sel-lee'no, or Rossellini, ros-sel- 
 lee'nee, (Antonio,) an able Italian sculptor, whose 
 family name was Gambarelli, was born at Florence 
 about 1427. Among his works are several statues of 
 the Madonna. Died in 1490. 
 
 Rossellino or Rossellini, (Bernardo,) an architect 
 and sculptor, born at Florence in 1409, was a brother of 
 the preceding. He was patronized by Pope Nicholas 
 V., and designed or restored several churches of Rome. 
 Died about 1470. 
 
 Rosset, ro's&', (Joseph,) a French sculptor, born at 
 Saint-Claude in 1706; died in 1786. 
 
 Rossetti, ros-set'tee, (Christina,) an English con- 
 temporary poetess, sister of Dante Gabriel, noticed 
 below, has written "Goblin Market," (1862,) "The 
 Ptince's Progress," (1866,) and other works. 
 
 Rossetti, (Dante Gabriel.) an English painter and 
 poet, born in London about 1828, is a son of Gabriel 
 Rossetti, noticed below. He was the leader of the 
 movement called Pre-Raphaelitism, an attempt to revive 
 the style of Italian painters who preceded Raphael. He 
 prefers religious subjects, and finishes his works with 
 
 freat minuteness. In 1862 he produced "The Early 
 talian Poets, from Cuillo d'Alcamo to Dante, (1 100-1200 
 -1300,) in the Original Metres, together with Dante's 
 'Vita Nuova,' translated by D. G. Rossetti." He pub- 
 lished a volume of original poems in 1870. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1870; " Putnam's Magazine" 
 for July, 1870. 
 
 Rossetti orRosetti, (Gabriel,) an Italian poet and 
 critic, born in 1783. He became professor of Italian in 
 King's College, London, and well known as a commen- 
 tator on Dante. Died in 1854. 
 
 Rossetti, (William M.,) an English writer, a son 
 of the preceding, was born in London. He wrote an 
 article on "English Opinion on the American War" 
 for the "Atlantic Monthly" for February, 1866. He 
 contributed to the "Imperial Dictionary of Universal 
 Biography." Among his works is a "Life of Percy 
 Bysshe Shelley," (2 vols., 1869.) 
 
 Rossfeld. See Rosinus. 
 
 Rosshirt, ros'he~SRt, (Konrad Franz,) a German 
 jurist, born at Bamberg in 1793, was professor of law 
 at Heidelberg. He wrote a number of legal works. 
 
 Rossi, ros'see, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Zoldo about the end of the fourteenth century. He 
 is said to have been the first master of Titian. 
 
 Rossi, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born at Bologna 
 about 1700; died about 1750. 
 
 Rossi, (Francesco.) See Salviati. 
 
 Rossi, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian architect, 
 born at Rome in 1616. Among his works are the 
 Palazzo Rinuccini, and the church of San Pantaleon, 
 Rome. Died in 1695. 
 
 Rossi, [Lat. Erythr^e'us,] (Giovanni Vittorio,) 
 an Italian scholar, noted as a Latinist, was born at Rome 
 in 1577. Among his works is "Pinacotheca Imaginum 
 illustrium Virorum," ("Gallery of Portraits of Illustrious 
 Men," 1643-48.) Died in 1647. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Tiraboschi, "Storia della Lettera- 
 tura Italiana." 
 
 Rossi, (Girolamo,) an Italian historian, born at 
 Ravenna in 1539. His Latin name was Rubeus or 
 De Rubeis. He wrote, in Latin, a good " History of 
 Ravenna," (1572.) Died in 1607. 
 
 Rossi, ros'see, (John Charles Felix,) an English 
 sculptor, born at Nottingham in 1762, was of Italian 
 origin. He gained the gold medal at London in 1784, 
 after which he studied at Rome, and returned in 1788. 
 He became sculptor to William IV. His best works 
 are monuments of Lord Cornwallis, Lord Heathfield, 
 Captain Riou, Captain Faulkner, and Lord Rodney, in 
 Saint Paul's Cathedral. Died in 1839. 
 
 Rossi, (Luigi,) an Italian musician, born at Naples 
 about 1590. He corhposed cantatas, etc. Died after 
 1640. 
 
 Rossi, (Ottavio.) an Italian writer, born at Brescia 
 in 1570. Among his works is " Brescian Memoirs," 
 (" Memorie Bresciane," 1616.) Died in 1630. 
 
 Rossi, (Pasquale.) See Pasqualino. 
 
 Rossi, (Pellegrino Luigi Odoardo,) Count, an 
 Italian orator, minister of state, and writer on law, was 
 born at Carrara in 1787. As a partisan of the French 
 regime and of Murat, he was exiled in 1815. He became 
 professor of Roman law at Geneva in 1819, and estab- 
 lished his reputation as a jurist by his "Treatise on 
 Penal Law," (Paris, 3 vols., 1825.) In 1832 he was 
 appointed professor of political economy in the College 
 de Fiance, Paris. He was nominated a peer of France 
 in 1839, and sent as ambassador to Rome in 1845. I" 
 September, 1848, he was appointed chief minister of 
 state by the pope. He was assassinated, November 15, 
 1848, by his political enemies. 
 
 See J. Garnier, "Notice sur la Vie de Rossi," 1849; Hitber- 
 Sai.adin, " M. Rossi en Suisse de 1S16 a 1833," 1849; Mignkt, 
 " Notice liistorique sur la Vie de M. Rossi," 1849; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G^neVale." 
 
 Rossi, de', da ros'see, fin Latin, De Ru'beis,] (Ber- 
 nardo Maria,) a learned Italian monk, born in Friuli 
 in 1687. He wrote, besides other works, "On the Life, 
 Writings, and Doctrine of Thomas Aquinas," (" De 
 Gestis et Scriptia ac Doctrina Thomae Aquinatis," 1750.) 
 Died in 1775. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vitae Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 Rossi, de', (Giovanni Bernardo,) an Italian Ori- 
 entalist, born in Piedmont in 1742. Among his numerous 
 works is " Various Readings of the Old Testament," 
 (" Variae Lectiones Veteris Testamenti," 4 vols., 17S4- 
 88.) He was for many years professor of Oriental 
 languages at Parma. Died in 183 1. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, 5, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, h, ', 6, Ci, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mJt; nit; good; moon; 
 
ROSSI 
 
 1921 
 
 ROSZFELD 
 
 Rossi, de\ (Giovanni Ghekardo,) an Italian writer 
 and antiquary, born in Rome in 1754. He displayed 
 imagination, learning, and taste in numerous works, 
 among which are several comedies, a " Life of G. Pik- 
 ler," (1792,) and "Poetical and Pictorial Sports,'' 
 (" Scherzi poetici e pittorici," 1795.) Died in 1827. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Rossi, de', (Pkoperzia,) a skilful Italian sculptor and 
 musician, born at Bologna about 1490. Her master- 
 piece is a bas-relief of "Joseph rejecting the Overtures 
 of Potiphar's Wife." She made beautiful cameos of 
 peach stones. Died in 1530. 
 
 Rossi, de', (Rosso.) See Rosso. 
 
 Rossignol, ro'sen'yol', (Jean Antoine,) a French 
 Jacobin, born in Paris in 1759. He obtained command 
 of an army sent against the Vendeans in 1793, but was 
 removed for incapacity in 1794. He was banished in 
 1801, and died on the African island of Anjouan in 1802. 
 
 Rossignol, (JkaN Joseph,) a French Jesuit and 
 writer, born in 1726. He wrote several scientific works. 
 Died at Turin in 1817. 
 
 Rossignol, (Jean Pierre,) a French scholar, born 
 at Sarlat about 1805. He became a member of the 
 Institute in 1853, and professor of Greek in the College 
 de France in 1855. He produced, besides other works, 
 "Virgile et Constantin le Grand," (1846,) and a Latin 
 poem called "Scholastic Life," ("Vita Scholastica," 
 1836.) 
 
 Rossini, ros-see'nee, (Gioacchimo,) the most cele- 
 brated composer of music of the present time, was born 
 at Pesaro, in the Papal States, on the 29th of February, 
 1792. His father was a horn-blower, and his mother 
 an actress or singer, in an itinerant opera-company. He 
 received some instruction in music from Padre Mattei, 
 of Bologna; but he formed his style chiefly by the study 
 of Mozart and Haydn. In 181 2 he produced "The 
 Fortunate Deceit," ("L'Inganno felice,") and several 
 other operas. His first famous work was the opera of 
 "Tancredi," (1813,) which, performed first at Venice, 
 was received with great enthusiasm and announced the 
 advent of anew epoch in dramatic music. In 181 5 he was 
 engaged for a term of seven years as musical director 
 of the theatre of San Carlo at Naples. He produced 
 many operas in rapid succession. In 1816 appeared 
 "The Barber of Seville," ("II Barbiere di Seviglia,") 
 which is perhaps the most popular of all his works, and 
 has been performed in many languages and in every 
 theatre of the civilized world. His "Mose in Egitto" 
 (181 8) was performed with success. He married Made- 
 moiselle Colbran or Colbrand, a singer, about 1822, 
 and left Italy in 1823. He was director of the Italian 
 Opera in Paris from 1824 to 1830. In 1829 he produced 
 the original and incomparable opera of " William Tell,'' 
 which, says Dr. Hoefer, "was pronounced by all con- 
 noisseurs the most beautiful of all the works of Rossini." 
 It was also his last, except the "Stabat Mater," (1842.) 
 He resolved to compose no more, saying, " Another 
 success would add nothing to my celebrity, and a failure 
 might impair it." The revolution of 1830 deprived him 
 of the office of director or intendant-general in Paris, 
 for which his indolence rendered him incompetent. In 
 1836 he returned to Italy, and resided for many years at 
 Bologna. After 1855 he lived in Paris, where he died 
 in November, 1868. 
 
 See Bbvle, (or Strnoahi-) "Vie de Rossini," 2 vols., 1823, 
 and English version of the same, 18*4: "Life of Rossini," by H. S. 
 Edwards. 1869; Adoi.phe Adam, " Derniers Souvenirs d'un Musi- 
 cien," iSqn; L. DS Lomenik, "M. Rossini, par on Homme de Rien," 
 1842: Frtis. " Biographic Universelledes Mnsiciens :" Dr. Hokfkr. 
 article in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" " British Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1869. 
 
 Rosslyn, Earl of. See Wedderhurn. 
 
 RossTjfn, (James Saint Clair Erskine,) Earl 
 OF, a general, born about 1762, was a son of General 
 Harry Erskine, and a nephew of A. Wedderburn, Earl 
 of Rosslyn. He became a major-general in 1798, and 
 lieutenant-general in 1805, after which he served in 
 Portugal, Holland, etc. He inherited the title of earl 
 in 1805. In 1829 he was appointed keeper of the 
 privy seal. He was president of the council in the 
 cabinet of Peel from December, 1834, to April, 1835. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Rossmassler or Rossmaessler, ross'mess'ler, 
 (Emil Adolf,) a German naturalist, born at Leipsic in 
 1806. He has published " Iconography of the European 
 Land and Fresh-Water Mollusks," (with sixty plates, 
 '835-) 
 
 Rosso, del, del ros'so, (Giuseppe,) an Italian archi- 
 tect, born in Rome in 1760, lived for many years in 
 Florence. He published many works on architecture. 
 Died in 183 1. 
 
 Rosso, del, (Paolo,) an Italian writer, born at Flor- 
 ence, was author of "Physics," ("La Fisica," 1578,) a 
 poem. Died in 1 569. 
 
 Rosso, II, el ros'so, or del Rosso, del ros'so, 
 or Rossi, (Giovanni Battista,) an eminent Italian 
 painter, born at Florence in 1496, was called by the 
 French MaJtre Roux. He studied the works of Mi- 
 chael Angelo. About 1535 he went to France. He was 
 patronized by Francis I., and adorned the palace of 
 Fontaineblcau with his works. His style is remarkably 
 bold. Died in France in 1541. 
 
 See Vasaki, "Lives of the Painters:" Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Rossotto, ros-sot'to,(ANDREA,)an Italian biographer, 
 born at Mondovi in 1610, wrote " Index of Piedmontese 
 Writers," ("Syllabus Scriptorum Pedemontii," 1667.) 
 Died in 1667. 
 
 Rost, rost, (Friedrich Wii.hei.m Ehrenfried,) a 
 German philologist, born at Budissin in 1768. He 
 became rector of the "Thomasschule" at Leipsic, and 
 published several critical works on the Greek and Latin 
 classics. Died in 1835. 
 
 Rost, (Johann Christoph,) a German litterateur, 
 born at Leipsic in 1717, published a number of tales, 
 poems, and satires. Died in 1765. 
 
 Rost, (Valentin Christian Friedrich,) a German 
 lexicographer, born near Gotha in 1790. Among his 
 principal works are a "Greek Grammar," a "Greek- 
 German Dictionary," and a " German-Greek Dictionary," 
 (1832.) Died in 1862. 
 
 Rostan, ros'toN', (Louis Leon,) a French medical 
 writer, born at Saint-Maximin (Var) in 1790. He be- 
 came professor of medicine in Paris in 1833. 
 
 Rostgaard, de, deh rost'goRd or rost'gauR, (Fred- 
 eric,) a learned Danish writer, born at Kraagerup in 
 1 67 1. He held several high civil offices. He published, 
 besides other works, " Beauties of the Danish Poets," 
 ("Deliciae Poetarum Danorum," 2 vols., 1693.) Died 
 in 174^. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyerup, " Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Rostolan, de, deh ros'to'16N', ( Louis,) a French 
 general, born at Aix in 1791. He served in several 
 campaigns in Algeria, and distinguished himself at 
 the siege of Rome in 1849. Died in 1862. 
 
 Rostoptchin, ros-top-chen' or ros-top-cheen', written 
 also Rastopchin and Rostoptschiu, (Feodor Vasi- 
 lievitch,) Count, a Russian general, born in the 
 province of Orel in 1765. He was minister of foreign 
 affairs for a short time under Paul 1. In May, 1812, he 
 was appointed governor of Moscow. According to the 
 French accounts, he was the author of the conflagration 
 of that city. He disclaimed his responsibility for that 
 event, and affirmed that it was burned partly by the 
 French and partly, perhaps, by some Russians acting 
 without orders. He was removed from "the office of 
 governor in 1814. He published, besides other works, 
 " Memoirs of Count Rostoptchin, written in Ten Min- 
 utes," (in French,) and "Truth about the Burning of 
 Moscow," (1823.) Died in 1826. 
 
 See General Scarrow, "Notice stir le Comte Rostnptchine " 
 1854; Gc.inka. "History of Russia," (in Russian;) "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVaie." 
 
 Rosweide or Rosweyde, ros'wl'deh, (IIeribf.rt,) 
 a Dutch Jesuit, born at Utrecht in 1569.' He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, " Lives of the Fathers," etc., (" Vita* 
 Patrnm, sive I listeria eremitica," 1615,) and planned 
 the "Acta Sanctorum," which was continued by Bolland 
 and others. Died in 1629. 
 
 See Fcipprns, " Bibliotheca Belgica." 
 
 Rosweyde. See Rosweide. 
 Roswitha. See Hrotsvitha. 
 Roszfeld. See Rosinus. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g is J; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. 
 
 121 
 
 (23r"See Explanations, p. 73.) 
 
ROT J 
 
 1922 
 
 ROU 
 
 Rota, ro'ta, (Bernardino,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Naples in 1509. He wrote Latin elegies, Italian sonnets 
 in imitation of Petrarch, and eclogues of the sea, entitled 
 " Piscatorie," (1560.) Died in 1575. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Long- 
 fellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Rota, (Martin,) a skilful engraver and designer, 
 born at Sebenico, in Dalmatia, flourished between 1550 
 and 1590. He worked at Rome and Venice. He en- 
 graved some works of Titian and Raphael, and "The 
 Last Judgment," after Michael Angelo. 
 was born about 1540. 
 
 Rota, (Vincf.nzo,) an Italian poet, born at Padua in 
 1703 ; died in 1785. 
 
 See F. Fanzago, "Memorie intorno all'Abbate V. Rota," 1798. 
 
 Rotari, ro-ta'ree, (Pif.tro,) Count, an Italian painter 
 of history and portraits, born at Verona in 1707. He 
 worked at Vienna, Dresden, and Saint Petersburg. 
 Died about 1762. 
 
 Rotembourg, ro'tSN'booR', (Henri,) Baron, a 
 French general; born at Phalsbourg in 1769. He served 
 with distinction at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden, with 
 the rank of general of brigade, in 1812-13. Died in 1857. 
 
 Rotgans, rot'gins or rot'ttans, (Lucas,) an eminent 
 Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam in 1645. He wrote 
 "The Life of William III.," in verse, and some other 
 poems. Died in 1710. 
 
 See Chalmot, " Biographisch Woordenboek." 
 
 Roth, rot, (Johann Rudolf,) a German naturalist, 
 born at Nuremberg in 1815, travelled in Syria and 
 Hindostan, and subsequently accompanied Harris's 
 expedition to Abyssinia. He contributed the botanical, 
 geological, and zoological portions to "The Highlands 
 pf Ethiopia," published by Major Harris. He died in 
 Palestine in 1858, while on another journey to the East. 
 
 Roth'a-ris, King of the Lombards, began to reign 
 in 636 A.b. He conquered Genoa and Liguria. Died 
 in 652. 
 
 Rothelin, de, deh rot'laN', (Charles d'Orleans,) 
 Abbe, a French antiquary, noted as a collector of medals 
 and manuscripts, born in Paris in 1691 ; died in 1744. 
 
 Rothenhamer. See Rottenhammer. 
 
 Roth'er-am, (John,) a minister of the Anglican 
 Church, was' born in Cumberland. He wrote several 
 religious works. Died in 1788. 
 
 Rotheram, (John,) an English physician, wrote a 
 "Philosophical Inquiry into the Nature and Properties 
 of Water." Died in 1787. 
 
 Rotherham, roth'er-am, alias Scott, (Thomas,) 
 Archbishop of York, was born in 1423. He became lord 
 chancellor of England in 1474. Died in 1500. 
 
 Roth'er-mel, ( Pktf.r F.,) an eminent American 
 painter, born in Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, in 1817. 
 Among his principal works are " De Soto discover- 
 ing the Mississippi," "Columbus before Isabella the 
 Catholic," "Christabel," and the "Christian Martyrs," 
 finished in the early part of 1864, and exhibited at the 
 great Sanitary Fair held in Philadelphia in June and 
 July of that year. He was employed by the legislature 
 of Pennsylvania to paint a grand historical piece, the 
 '• Battle of Gettysburg," (finished in 1871.) 
 
 Roth'say or Rothesay, (David,) first Duke of, 
 born in 1378, -was the eldest son of Robert III. of Scot- 
 land. He contracted profligate and disorderly habits. 
 I lis uncle the Duke of Albany procured from the aged 
 king an order for his confinement in prison, where he 
 died in 1402. It is supposed that he died of starvation. 
 
 Roth'say, Dukeof, one of the titles of Prince Albert, 
 the heir-apparent to the throne of Great Britain. 
 
 Rothschild, ros'chlld, [Ger. pron. rot'shllt,] (Mayf.r 
 (or Mkyf.r) Anselm,) a famous Jewish banker, and the 
 founder of the great monetary house of Rothschild, was 
 born at Frankfort in 1743. He commenced business on 
 a small scale as an exchange-broker, and acquired a 
 high reputation for probity. He died in 1812, leaving 
 five sons, — Anselm, who was born in 1773, settled at 
 Frankfort, and died in 1855 ; Solomon, who was born 
 in 1774, became banker at Vienna, and died in 1855; 
 Nathan Maykr, (see separate article ;) Ca-rl, who was 
 born in 1788, and died at Naples in 1855 ; and James, 
 
 born in 1792, died in November, 1868. These brothers 
 operated as members of one firm. 
 
 See " Notice sur la Maison Rotbschild," Paris, 1831. 
 
 Rothschild, (Nathan Mayer or Mevkk,) an emi- 
 nent financier and millionaire, born at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Main in 1777. He settled in London about 1800, and 
 after the death of his father was the head of the house 
 of Rothschild. He engaged in large financial opera- 
 tions, was very successful as negotiator of loans fot 
 various European powers, and became the foremost 
 Bryan says he : capitalist of the world. He died in 1836, and was 
 succeeded by his eldest son, Lionel Nathan, Baron de 
 Rothschild, born in 1808. Lionel was elected several 
 times a member of Parliament for London, but was not 
 admitted to a seat until 1858, because the oath adminis- 
 tered to members was such as a Jew could not take. 
 
 See Treskow, " Bingraphische Notizen iiber Nathan Meyer 
 Rothschild," 1837; Michauo et Villrnavr, " Histoire de Saint- 
 Simonisme et de la Famille de Rothschild," 1847. 
 
 Rotrou, de, deh ro'tRoo', (Jean,) a popular French 
 dramatic poet, born at Dreux in 1609, is styled "the 
 founder of the French theatre." He produced numerous 
 successful tragedies and comedies, and was patronized 
 by Cardinal Richelieu. His tragedy of " Venceslas" 
 was highly commended by Voltaire. Among his other 
 works are "Cosroes" and "Antigone." He was a 
 friend of Corneille, who called Rotrou his master. Died 
 in 1650. 
 
 See Bun de Sainmore, " Essai stir la Vie de J. Rotrou," 1S05 ; 
 Niceron, "Memoires:" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Rotscher or Roetscher, rot'sher, (Heinrich The- 
 odore,) a German dramatic poet and critic, born in the 
 duchy of Brandenburg in 1804. He published, besides 
 other works, " Dissertations on the Philosophy of Art," 
 (4 vols., 1837-42.) 
 
 Rotteck, von, fon rot'tSk, (Karl,) an eminent Ger- 
 man historian, statesman, and jurist, born at Freiburg 
 in 1775. He studied in his native town, where he 
 became in 1798 professor of history. In 1819 he repre- 
 sented his university in the first chamber of the States 
 of Baden, where he distinguished himself by his liberal 
 views and his eloquent advocacy of political reform. 
 Having excited the hostility of the conservative party, 
 he was forbidden by the government to edit any news- 
 paper for five years, and to lecture in the university. 
 The persecution to which he was exposed hastened his 
 death, which occurred in 1840. Rotteck's "Universal 
 History" (9 vols., 1827) is perhaps the most popular 
 work of the kind that has yet appeared, and in 1841 
 had reached fifteen editions. It was translated into the 
 principal languages of Europe, and a continuation, in 
 two volumes, was published by Hermes in 1841. Rot- 
 teck also wrote a number of valuable treatises on legal, 
 historical, and political subjects. 
 
 See MOnch, "Carl von Rotteck geschildert," etc., 1831 ; Brock- 
 haus, "Conversations-Lexikon j" " Life of Rotteck," (in German,) 
 by his son Hermann, 1842. 
 
 Rottenhammer, rot'ten-ham'mer, written also Ro- 
 thenhamer, (Johann,) a celebrated German painter, 
 
 born at Munich in 1564. He studied for a time under 
 Tintoretto at Venice, and afterwards visited Rome, 
 where he produced several historical pieces of great 
 excellence.. Among his master-pieces is "The Feast 
 of the Gods," painted for the emperor Rudolph II. 
 Died about 1620. 
 
 See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Rottmann, rot'min, (Karl,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man landscape-painter, born near Heidelberg in 1798. 
 He adorned with frescos the arcades of the Hofgarten 
 at Munich, and painted several works for the Pina- 
 kothek. His " Field of Marathon" is much admired. 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Rou, roo, (Jean,) a French Protestant writer, born 
 in Paris in 1638, lived in England and Holland. He 
 became in 1689 secretary and interpreter to the States- 
 General. He published, besides other works, " Seduction 
 Avoided," (" La Seduction eludee,") a series of letters 
 exchanged between Bossuet, on the one hand, and De 
 Vrillac and Rou on the other. Died in 1711. He left 
 "Memoires," which were first published in 2 vols., 1857. 
 
 See Ha ag, "La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generate." 
 
 1, 6, 1, 6, ii, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, j?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ROUBAUD 
 
 1923 
 
 ROUSSEAU 
 
 Roubaud, roo'bo', (Pierre Joseph Andre,) a 
 French writer on grammar and history, was born at 
 Avignon in 1730. Among his works is "New French 
 Synonyms," (" Nouveaux Synonymes Francais," 4 vols., 
 1785,) which is commended. Died in 1791. 
 
 Roubiliac, roo'be'le^k', sometimes written Rou- 
 billac, (Louis Francois,) an eminent French sculptor, 
 born at Lyons in 1695. He passed a large part of his 
 life in England, where he worked with great success. 
 Among his works, which are remarkable for minuteness 
 of finish, are a statue of Sir Isaac Newton, at Cambridge, 
 the monument of the Nightingale family, in Westminster 
 Abbey, and a statue of Shakspeare, executed for Garrick 
 and given by him to the British Museum. Died in Lon- 
 don in 1762. 
 
 See Allan Cunningham, "Lives of Painters," etc. : Walpole, 
 '* Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Roubiliac. See Roubiliac. 
 
 Roucher, roo'sha', (Jean Antoine,) a French poet, 
 born at Montpellier in 1745. He published a poem en- 
 titled "On the Months," ("Des Mois," 1779.) He was 
 imprisoned in Paris for seven months, and guillotined, 
 with his friend Andre Chenier, in July, 1794. 
 
 See Rigaud, "Eloge de Roucher," 1807; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Rouelle, roo'el', (Guii.i.aumf. Francois,) a French 
 chemist, born near Caen in 1703, was the father-in-law 
 of J. Darcet. The celebrated Lavoisier was one of his 
 pupils. He contributed greatly to popularize chemistry 
 by his lectures in Paris, and exerted, says Dr. Hoefer, a 
 great influence on the progress of that science. He was 
 professor or demonstrateur at the Jardin du Roi. Died 
 in 1770. 
 
 See "Biographie Universale :" Paul Antoine Cap, " Biogra- 
 
 ?hie Chimique : Rouelle," 1842; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" 
 [oefer, " Histoire de la Chimie." 
 
 Rouelle, (Hilaire Marin,) a French chemist, born 
 in 1718, was a brother of the preceding, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 1768 at the Jardin du Roi. Died in 1779. 
 
 Rouge, de, deh roo'zha', (Olivier Charles Ca- 
 MII.i.e,) a French archaeologist, born in Paris in 181 1. 
 He distinguished himself as an Egyptologist, and was 
 admitted into the Institute in 1853. Among his works 
 is "Chrestomathie figyptienne." He became professor 
 of Egyptian archaeology, etc. in the College of France 
 in i860. 
 
 Rouget, roo'zhi', (Georges,) a French painter of 
 history and portraits, born in Paris in 1781. He gained 
 a medal of the first class in 1855. 
 
 Rouget de Lisle, (or Delisle,) roo'zhV deh lei, 
 (Claude Joseph,) a French poet and musician, born at 
 Lons-le-Saulnierin 1760. He was an officer of engineers 
 in the army when the Revolution began. Just after the 
 declaration of war in April, 1792, he dined with the 
 mayor of Strasbourg, where a wish was expressed that 
 some poetical inspiration might respond to, or appeal 
 to, the national enthusiasm. In the ensuing evening 
 he composed for this purpose the famous war-song 
 called the "Marseillaise." He was imprisoned during 
 the reign of terror, and wounded at Quiberon, in 1795. 
 He was author of numerous ballads, musical airs, etc. 
 Died near Paris in 1836. 
 
 See Longfeli-ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe :" Miramont, 
 * Biographie de Rouget-Delisle," 1842; Felix Pvat. " I.a Mar- 
 seillaise, avec une Notice litteraire sur Rouget-Delisle," 1842; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Rougier, roo'zhe-i', (Louis Augustf.,) a French 
 medical writer, born~at Lyons in I/93- He published 
 several valuable medical works. Died in 1863. 
 
 Rougier de la Bergerie, roo'zhe-i' deh li beRzh're', 
 (Jksn Baptiste,) a French writer on agriculture, was 
 born at Beaulieu in 1757. Among his numerous works 
 are " French Georgics," a poem, (2 vols., 1804,) and a 
 "History of the Ancient Agriculture of the Romans," 
 (1834.) Died in 1836. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Rougnon, roon'yoN', (Nicolas Francois,) a French 
 medical writer, born in Franche-Comte' in 1727; died 
 in 1799. 
 
 Rouher, roo'a', (Eugene,) an eloquent French ad- 
 vocate and minister of state, born at Riom in 1814. 
 
 Having made profession of republican principles, he was 
 elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1848. He suc- 
 ceeded Odillon-Barrot as minister of justice in October, 
 1849, and retired from office in October, 1851. He was 
 afterwards vice-president of the council of state, and in 
 February, 1855, was appointed minister of agriculture, 
 commerce, and public works. In June, 1863, he ex- 
 changed that office for the position of president of the 
 council. He became minister of state October 19, 1863, 
 and as such had precedence of all the other ministers. 
 In January or February, 1867, he was appointed minister 
 of finance. Rouher was the chief organ of the govern- 
 ment in the corps ligislatif. In April, 1867, he made 
 a rather passionate speech in reply to Thiers on the 
 foreign policy of Napoleon HI. In July, 1869, he ceased 
 to be minister of state, and became president of the 
 senate, which was abolished in September, 1870. 
 
 Rouille, roo'yi', (Pierre.) Seigneur de Marbeut, a 
 French diplomatist, born in Paris in 1657. He was 
 sent as ambassador to Portugal in 1697, and negotiated 
 a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, between 
 France and that power. In 1709 he was sent to Holland 
 to treat secretly for a general peace ; but he failed in 
 this mission. Died in 1712. 
 
 Rouille, (Pierre Julien,) a French Jesuit, born at 
 Tours in 1681. He was one of the authors or compilers 
 of the "Memoires de Trevoux." Died in 1740. 
 
 Roujoux, de, deh roo'zhoo', (Prudence Guil- 
 laume,) Baron, a French historian, born at Lander- 
 neau in 1779. He published, besides other works, a 
 translation of Lingard's " History of England," (14 
 vols., 1825-31.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Roulahd, roo'loN', (Gustave,) a French minister 
 of state, born at Yvetot in 1802. He was appointed 
 advocate-general of the court of cassation in 1S47, and 
 was minister of public instruction and worship from 
 August, 1856, to June, 1863. 
 
 Roulin, roo'laN', (Francois Desire,) a French nat- 
 uralist, born at Rennes in 1796. He contributed to 
 several scientific journals, and was one of the editors 
 of a new edition of Cuvier's " Regne animal." 
 
 Roullet, roo'li', (Jean Louis,) a French engraver, 
 born at Aries in 1645. He engraved after the Italian 
 masters. Died in Paris in 1699. 
 
 Roulliard, roo'lejtR', (Sehastien.) a French lawyer 
 and pedantic writer, was born at Melun. He died in 
 Paris, at an advanced age, in 1639. 
 
 Rouquette, roo'keV, (Adrian,) an American poet, 
 born at New Orleans about 1808, has published poems 
 in French and English. His brother, Francois Domi- 
 nique, has written a work on the Choctaw nation, and a 
 number of poems. 
 
 Rourik. See Rurik. 
 
 Rous or Rouse, (Francis,) an English republican 
 legislator and writer on theology, was born at Halton 
 in 1579. He was a friend of Pvm, the great orator, and 
 was a member of several Parliaments. He became a 
 supporter of Cromwell, and obtained a seat in the House 
 of Lords in 1657. Died in 1659. 
 
 Rouse, (John.) See Ross. 
 
 Roussat, roo'sf, (Jean,) a French patriot, born at 
 Langres in 1543, was noted for his devotion to Henry 
 IV. and his hostility to the League. Eighty letters 
 written to him by that king are extant, and were printed 
 in 1816. Died in 1613. 
 
 Rousseau, roo'so', (Georg LudWig Claude,) a 
 German chemist, born near Wurzburg in 1724, was 
 professor of chemistry at Ingolstadt. Died in 1794. 
 
 Rousseau, roo'so', (Jacques,) a French painter and 
 engraver, born in Paris in 1630, was a Protestant. He 
 worked some years for Louis XIV. at Versailles and 
 Saint-Cloud ; but after the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes (1685) he went into exile. Died in London in 
 
 1693 or '694- 
 
 Rousseau, (Jean Baptists,) a French lyric poet of 
 great eminence, was born in Paris on the 6th of April, 
 1670. He was the son of a shoemaker, by whom he 
 was liberally educated. His first productions were come- 
 dies, which were not successful. About 1698 he served 
 Marshal Tallard as secretary in his embassy to London. 
 His reputation is founded on his odes, sacred and pro- 
 
 e as i; c as s ; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural: N, nasal; R, trilltd; 5 as t; %h as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROUSSEAU 
 
 1924 
 
 ROUSSEAU 
 
 lane, epigrams, and cantatas. He was admitted into 
 the Academy, of Inscriptions in 1701. He made many 
 enemies by his satires and couplets. In 1712 he was 
 banished for life for anonymous satires against La Motte 
 and Saurin. It seems that he was convicted on circum- 
 stantial evidence only. He passed the rest of his life 
 in exile at Brussels, Vienna, London, etc., and found 
 powerful patrons, among whom was Prince Eugene. 
 About 1 71 7 he declined the offer of a pardon from the 
 French court, and insisted on a formal recognition of 
 the injustice of his sentence. He died at Brussels in 
 March, 1741. By some critics he is considered the 
 greatest lyric poet of France. According to the " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale," his reputation has declined 
 since the eighteenth century. "Rousseau is extremely 
 skilful in versification," says Fournel, "a very adroit 
 artisan of lyrical strophes. It was by calculation and 
 not by inspiration that tie became a lyrical poet." (" Nou- 
 ve.lle Biographie Generale.") 
 
 See Seguy, " Notice sur la Vie et les CEuvres de J. P.. Rous- 
 seau," 1743; Amar-Durivier, " Nouvel Essai sur la Vie et les 
 Ecrits de J. B. Rousseau," prefixed to his works, 5 vols., 1S20 ; 
 " Vie de J. B. Rousseau," 174S, attributed to Voltaire ; Vai.mont 
 Bourev. "J. B. Rousseau ; Etude litteraire," 1S52 ; Sainte-Beuve, 
 "Portraits litteVaires." 
 
 Rousseau, (Jean Francois Xavier,) a French 
 diplomatist, born at Ispahan in 1738. He was consul 
 at Bagdad, and was employed in negotiations with the 
 Persian court. Died at Aleppo in 1808.- 
 
 His son, Jean Baptiste Louts Jacques, born in 
 1780, was. an Orientalist. He wrote a "Historical 
 Notice of Persia," (1818,) and other works. Died at 
 Tripoli in 1831. 
 
 Rousseau, (Jean Jacques,) a celebrated Swiss phi- 
 losopher and eloquent writer, born at Geneva on the 28th 
 of June, 1712, was a son of Isaac Rousseau, a watch- 
 maker. His mother, whose maiden name was Bernard, 
 and who is said to have been amiable and highly gifted, 
 died during the infancy of the subject of this article, 
 who was not fortunate in his education. His favourite 
 author in childhood was Plutarch, to whose influence 
 Rousseau ascribed his own republican tendencies and his 
 love of independence. Jean Jacques had one brother, 
 who in early youth went to saek his fortune in a foreign 
 country and was never heard of afterwards. In conse- 
 quence of a quarrel with a military officer, Isaac Rous- 
 seau fled or removed to Nyon in 1722, leaving his son at 
 Geneva in the care of his uncle, M. Bernard. About 
 1726 he was placed as an apprentice with an engraver, 
 named Ducommnn, a coarse man and harsh master, by 
 whom he was so ill treated that in March, 1728, he ran 
 away in the direction o( Savoy. He was received as a 
 guest at the house of Madame de Warens, of Annecy, a 
 benevolent and frail lady, to whom he formed a lasting 
 attachment. Having become an outcast and wanderer 
 in a strange country and without resources, he changed 
 his relig'on by a formal abjuration at Turin. He was 
 employed for a short time at Turin as a servant of the 
 Countess de Vercellis and the Count de Gouvon ; but his 
 success was hindered by irregular habits and instability. 
 He returned and became a second time an inmate in 
 the house of Madame de Warens, who procured for 
 him a situation as clerk in the bureau of the cadastre. 
 Finding this employment uncongenial, he soon aban- 
 doned it, and adopted the profession of a teacher of 
 music, (of which he was very fond,) although he was 
 scarcely qualified to teach it. He obtained, however, a 
 1 umber of pupils. 
 
 In the summei of 1736 Rousseau and Madame de 
 Warens removed to a rural residence called Charmettes, 
 near Chambery, where they passed two or three years, 
 which, he informs us, were among the happiest of his 
 life. His early career presents a series of bizarre ad- 
 ventures, absurd vagaries, and surprising vicissitudes, of 
 which he has given an extremely candid and unreserved 
 narrative in his "Confessions." He was subject to hy- 
 pochondria and morbid imaginations even in his youth. 
 Having invented a system of musical notation by figures, 
 (c/iiffres,) which he hoped would promote his interest 
 and reputation, he went to Paris in the autumn of 1741, 
 with only a few silver coins in his purse. He was 
 presented to the Academy of Sciences by Reaumur, and 
 
 read a memoir on his system of notation to that body, 
 which decided that it was neither new nor practicable. 
 He lived in great indigence until he obtained, in 1743, 
 the place of secretary to M. de Montaigu, French 
 ambassador to Venice, whom Rousseau represents as an 
 incompetent and villanous person. After he had passed 
 about eighteen months at Venice, Rousseau returned 
 to Paris in 1745, and formed intimacies with Diderot, 
 Grimm, Madame d'Epinay, and Therese Le Vasseur. 
 The last was an illiterate woman, of low birth, whom he 
 married after they had lived together as husband and 
 wife for many years. They had five children, whom 
 Rousseau sent to the foundling-hospital. He received 
 a small legacy from his father, who died in 1747, after 
 which he served as secretary to Madame Dupin of Paris, 
 and her son, M. de Francueil, receiver-general of finances. 
 In 1750 he gained the prize offered by the Academy of 
 Dijon for an essay on the question whether the progress 
 of the sciences and arts had contributed to corrupt 
 morals. He took the affirmative ; and never was a 
 paradox supported with greater eloquence. 
 
 Rousseau's physical infirmities, his fondness for para- 
 dox, and his hostility to conventional maxims and usurp- 
 ation, combined to render him eccentric and singular 
 in his manners and mode of living. He simplified his 
 costume, renounced fashionable and convivial parties, 
 and affected a stern and sententious tone. According 
 to his own confession, a peculiar contempt for the riches 
 and pleasures of the world was one of the prominent 
 traits of his character. About 1750 he was appointed 
 cashier to M. de Francueil ; but he soon resigned that 
 place, because it seemed fatal to his health and incom- 
 patible with his principles, — " for with what grace could 
 the cashier of a receiver-general preach disinterest- 
 edness and poverty?" He afterwards earned a scanty 
 subsistence by copying music. In 1752 he produced 
 his opera " Le Devin du Village," which was performed 
 before the king at Fontainebleau and had a great success. 
 The king expressed a wish to see the author; but the 
 timidity of Rousseau caused him to decline the honour. 
 
 He produced in 1753 a " Discourse on the Origin of 
 Inequality among Men," in which he maintains that all 
 men are born equal. " He was the father of modern 
 democracy," says Professor Lowell, in the " North 
 American Review" for July, 1867, "and without him 
 our Declaration of Independence would have wanted 
 some of those sentences in which the immemorial long- 
 ings of the poor and the dreams of solitary enthusiasts 
 were at last affirmed as axioms in the manifesto of a 
 nation, so that all the world might hear." He offended 
 the national vanity by his " Letter on French Music," 
 (1753,) but in many respects he was a typical French- 
 man. In 1754 he visited Geneva, where he was received 
 with honour and was formally admitted into the Prot- 
 estant Communion. He passed seven days in a tour or 
 promenade, by means of a boat, around Lake Geneva. 
 
 In 1756 he was persuaded by Madame d'Epinay to 
 occupy the Hermitage, a rural residence which she 
 built for him in the valley of Montmorency, near Paris. 
 He resided there about two years, and began to write a 
 novel entitled "Julie, or the New Heloise," ("Nouvelle 
 Heloise," 1760,) which was greatly admired for its elo- 
 quence and sensibility. Before this work was finished 
 he became enamoured of Madame d'Houdetot, who was 
 a sister of Madame d'Epinay and was a married woman. 
 He was alienated from Diderot, Grimm, and other friends, 
 whom he accused of perfidious intrigues against his peace 
 and reputation. " It was not so much my literary celebrity 
 as my personal reformation that excited their jealousy. 
 They could not pardon me for giving, in my conduct, an 
 example which seemed to testily against them." (Rous- 
 seau, " Confessions.") It appears certain that Grimm 
 became a malevolent calumniator of Rousseau. His 
 next important works were "The Social Contract," 
 (" I)u Contrat social, 011 Principes du Droit politique," 
 1762,) and "Emile, oil de l'Education," (4 vols., 1762,) 
 which, considered as a speculative philosophical treatise, 
 is a work of a high order. It produced some useful re- 
 forms in the treatment of young children ; but its tend- 
 ency was considered so dangerous that it was burned at 
 Geneva, and the Parliament of Paris issued an order for 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ROUSSEAU 
 
 192; 
 
 ROUX 
 
 the arrest of Rousseau, who escaped by flight. He found 
 refuge in the principality of Neufch&tel, the governor of 
 which, Lord Keith, received him with kindness. In 1765 
 David Hume, who was then in France, offered the exiled 
 author of "Emile" an asylum in England. Rousseau 
 accepted the invitation, arrived in London in January, 
 1766, and went to reside at Wootton, in Staffordshire. 
 He was annoyed by an offensive and libellous letter pub- 
 lished in the journals with the signature of the King of 
 Prussia; but the real author of it was Horace Walpole. 
 Having become possessed by a suspicion that Hume 
 was not his true friend, he returned to France in May, 
 1767 It is stated by M. Morin in the "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale" that Hume avowed, in a letter pub- 
 lished in 1820, that he co-operated in the redaction of 
 the forged letter from the King of Prussia. Rousseau 
 married Therese I.e Vasseur in 1768, resided in Paris 
 from 1770 until 1778, and was always on the verge of 
 poverty. Among his later works were a " Dictionary of 
 Music," (1767,) and his autobiographic "Confessions," 
 which he began to write about 1766 and which were not 
 published before 1782. Botany was one of his favourite 
 pursuits when in the country. In the spring of 1778 he 
 removed to Ermenonville, where he died on the 2d of 
 July in the same year. He was a man of middle stature 
 and well proportioned. "It was perhaps his sensibility 
 to the surrounding atmosphere of feeling and specula- 
 tion which made Rousseau more directly influential on 
 contemporary thought (or perhaps we should say senti- 
 ment) than any other writer of his time." (" Rousseau 
 and the Sentimentalists," in the " North American 
 Review" for July, 1867, written by Professor Lowell.) 
 The same critic observes, "There was a faith and an 
 ardour of conviction in him that distinguish him from 
 most of the writers of his time. Nor were his practice 
 and his preaching always inconsistent. He contrived to 
 pay regularly, whatever his own circumstances were, 
 one hundred livres a year to a maternal aunt who had 
 been kind to him in childhood." " Though I see," says 
 Hume, " some tincture of extravagance in all his writings, 
 I also think I see so much eloquence and force of 
 imagination, such, an energy of expression, and such 
 a boldness of conception, as entitle him to a place 
 amongst the first writers of his age." (Quoted in the 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica.") 
 
 See Barri'f.i.-Beauvert, "Vie (te J. J. Rousseau," 17S9: Hen- 
 Nls-r;s, " Rousseau," Berlin, 1797 ; Musset-Pathav, " Histoire de 
 la Vie et def Ouvrages de j. J. Rousseau," 2 vols., 1S21 ; Lord 
 Brougham, "Voltaire and Rousseau," 1845: G. H. Moriw " Ks- 
 sai surla Vie et leCaractere de I, |. Rousseau," 1851 : P. H AzaYs, 
 "Jugement philosophique sur J. J. Rousseau." etc.. 1817; ZoLUtR, 
 "Pestalosxl und Rousseau," 1851 ; Saintk-Beuve, " Causeries dn 
 Lundi ;" BroCKBRHOPF, "J. J. Rousseau," (in German.) 3 vols., 
 1863 ; " Lives of the Most Eminent French Writers," by M ks, 
 Shhi.i.ky: " Nouvelle Biographie Generale :" " Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for February, 1S22; " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 
 1843 ; " Westminster Review" for October. 1859 ; " North American 
 Review" for July, 1822, (by A. H. Everett.) 
 
 Rousseau, (Lotus Franc/xs Emmanuf.i,) a French 
 naturalist, born at Belleville iSeine) in 1788. 
 
 Rousseau, roo'so', (L0VEI.1. H.,) an American general, 
 born in Lincoln county, Kentucky, about 1820. He was a 
 lawyer, and a resident of Louisville before the civil war. 
 He commanded a brigade of the Union army at Shiloh, 
 April, 1862, and a division at the battle of Stone River, 
 which ended January 2, 1863. He became a member 
 of Congress about 1865. Died in January, 1869. 
 
 Rousseau, (PHILIPPE,) a French landscape-painter, 
 born in Paris about 1808. He obtained a medal of the 
 first class in 1848. 
 
 Rousseau, (SAMUEL,) an English Orientalist, born 
 in London in 1765. He published "The Flowers of 
 Persian Literature, in Prose and Verse," (1801,) and 
 other works. Died in 1820. 
 
 Rousseau, (TlIBODOKE,) an excellent French land- 
 •cape-painter, born'in Paris in 1812. He gained a medal 
 of the first class in 1849. His works are commended 
 for harmony of colout and for the transparency of the 
 skies. Died in 1867. 
 
 Roussel, roo'sgl', [I.at. Ru'fus,! (Gerard,) written 
 also Rum, a French Protestant Reformer, born near 
 Amiens. He became in 1526 chaplain to Marguerite, a 
 sister of Francis I., and in 1536 Bishop of Oleron. He 
 
 wished to propagate Reformed doctrines without a 
 separation from the old Church. Died in 1550. 
 
 See Ch. Schmidt, "Gerard Roussel," 184s; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Roussel, (Guillaume,) a French Benedictine and 
 writer, born at Conches in 1658. He produced a French 
 version of the "Letters of Saint Jerome," (3 vols., 1704- 
 07.) Died in 1717. 
 
 Roussel, (Henri Pierre Ansei.me,) a French 
 medical writer, born near Domfront in 1748; died at 
 Caen in 1812. 
 
 Roussel, (Napoleon,) a French Protestant minister, 
 born about 1805. He preached for many years at Saint- 
 Etienne, from which he removed to Paris. He published 
 numerous works on theology. 
 
 Roussel, (Pierre,) a French physician and able 
 writer, born at Aqs, near Foix, in 1742. He produced 
 in 1775 "The Physical and Moral System of Woman," 
 I which passed through many editions. He explained 
 the organization of woman with great penetration 
 and subtletv. " Roussel writes with elegance and in- 
 terest," says La Harpe : "his observations are truly 
 philosophic." Died in 1802. 
 
 See Aubert, " filoges de Spallanzani, Galvani, Roussel et 
 Bichat," 1806; " Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Rousselet. See Chatf.au-Regnaud. 
 
 Rousseliu. See Saint-Albin. 
 
 Rousselot de Surgy, rooslo' deh suVzhe', 
 (Jacques Philibkrt,) a French litterateur, born at Di. 
 jon in 1737, obtained the office of royal censor at Paris. 
 
 Rousset de Missy, roo'si' deh me'se', (Jean,) a 
 French historical writer, born at Laon in 1686, was 
 exiled for his religion ( Protestantism ) and settled in 
 Holland about 1705. He published numerous mediocre 
 works, among which are "Memoirs of the Reign of 
 Peter the Great," (4 vols., 1726 ) Died in 1762. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Roussin, roo'saN', (Alrin Reine,) Baron, a French 
 admiral, born at Dijon in 1781. He was ambassador at 
 Constantinople from 1832 to 1839, and was minister of 
 ■narine from March to October, 1840. Died in 1854. 
 
 Roustain, roo'staN', ( Aron Jean Baptistk Pierre,) 
 a French jurist, born in Paris in 1804. He obtained a 
 chair of Roman law in Paris in 1855. Died in 1856. 
 
 Roustam. See Roostam. 
 
 Roustan, roo'st8N', (originally Roustam, roos'tam,) 
 a Mameluke, born probably in Georgia in 1782. Having 
 rendered some service to Napoleon in Egypt, the latter 
 brought him to France in 1799. Roostan became a 
 favourite personal attendant of Napoleon, and accom- 
 panied him in his campaigns and journeys. Died in 
 France in 1845. 
 
 Roustan, roo'stfiN', (Antoine Jacques,) a Swiss 
 Protestant minister and writer, born at Geneva in 1734. 
 He was minister of a Swiss church in London for twenty- 
 six years, (1764-90.) He was author of several religious 
 and moral works, which were highly esteemed, and of 
 an "Abridgment of Universal History," (9 vols., 1790.) 
 Died at Geneva in 1808. 
 
 Roustem. See Roostam. 
 
 Routh, rowth, (Rev. Martin Joseph,) an English 
 scholar and writer, born near Beccles, in Suffolk, in Sep. 
 tember, 1755, was educated at Oxford. He became 
 president of Magdalene College in 1791, and rector of 
 Tylehurst, near Reading, in 1810. In 1814 he publishid 
 a work of superior merit on the fragments of authors 
 of the second and third centuries, most of whose writ- 
 ings are lost, entitled "Sacred Relics," etc., ("Reliquiae 
 Sacrae," etc., 3 vols.) Died in 1854, aged ninety-nine. 
 
 Rouviere, roo've-aik', (PHILIBERT,) a French painter 
 and actor, bom at Nimes in 1809. 
 
 Roux, 100, (Auc.ustin,) a learned French physician, 
 born at Bordeaux in 1726, settled in Paris about 1750. 
 He obtained the chair of chemistry in the Faculty of 
 Medicine in 1770, and published "Typographic Annals: 
 or, Account of the Progress of Human Knowledge," 
 ("Annales typographiquts, on Notice du Progres des 
 Connaissances humaines," 10 vols., 1758-62,) which is a 
 work of merit. Died in 1776. 
 
 See J. Darckt, " filoge de Roux," 1777. 
 
 « as k, 9 as 1; g hard; g as ;', <;, H, Yi,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. {$*jf°" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROUX 
 
 1926 
 
 rot 
 
 Roux, (Joseph Philibert,) an eminent French sur- 
 geon, born at Auxerre in April, 1780, was a favourite 
 pupil of Bichat. He published in 1812 a "Treatise on 
 Resection," ("Traite sur la Resection,") and invented 
 in 1819 an operation called Staphyloraphy. In 1820 he 
 obtained the chair of pathology at the Ecole de Mede- 
 cine in Paris, and in 1835 succeeded Dupuytren at the 
 Hotel-Dieu. He was author of several surgical treatises. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 See Sachaile, " Les Medecins de Paris;" "Biographic M^di- 
 cile ;" Mai.gaigne, " E"loge de M. Roux," 1855; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GeneYale." 
 
 Roux, MaItre. See Rosso, It-. 
 
 Roux de Fazillac, roo deh fi'ze'ytk', (Pierre,) a 
 French revolutionist, born at Excideuil in 1743. He 
 was a member of the Convention, and voted for the 
 leath of Louis XVI. He wrote a " History of the War 
 :ji Germany in 1756,"' (2 vols., 1803.) Died in 1833. 
 
 Roux-Lavergne, roo li'vSufi', (Pierre Celestin,) 
 a French publicist, born at Figeac in 1802. He aided 
 M. Buchez in the "Parliamentary History of the French 
 Revolution," (40 vols., 1833-3S.) 
 
 Roux. lie. See Leroux. 
 
 Rovelli, ro-vJl'lee, (Giuseppe,) Marquis, an Italian 
 historian, born at Como in 1738. He published a 
 " History of Como," (5 vols., 1789 et seg.) Died in 1813. 
 
 Rovere, de la. See Sixtus IV. and Julius II. 
 
 Rovere, della, del'la ro'vi-ra, (Francesco Maria,) 
 Duke of Urbino, an Italian general, born in 1490, 
 was a nephew of Pope Julius II. He commanded the 
 papal army, and took several towns from the French, in 
 1512. Having been appointed captain-general of the 
 Venetian armies about 1526, he displayed great military 
 skill in the war against Charles V. Died in 1538. 
 
 See Dennjstoun, "Memoirs of the Dukes of Urbino," 1851 ; 
 Ugolini, "Storia dei Conti e Duchi d'Urbino," 2 vols., 1859; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Rovere, della, (Francesco Maria,) born in 1548, 
 was a grandson of the preceding, and was eminent as a 
 patron of learning. He was the last Duke of Urbino. 
 He died in 1631, when Urbino was annexed to the Papal 
 States. 
 
 See Ugolini, "Storia dei Conti e Duchi d'Urbino," 1859. 
 
 Rovigo, de, Due. See Savary. 
 
 Row, ro, (John,) a Scottish divine, born near Stirling 
 about 1526. He was agent of the Scottish clergy at the 
 Vatican, Rome, in 1550, and afterwards became a Prot- 
 estant minister. He was one of the six ministers who 
 composed the Scottish Confession and " First Book of 
 Discipline." Died in 1580. 
 
 Row, (John,) a son of the preceding, was born at 
 Perth in 1568. It is stated that he could read the Old 
 Testament in Hebrew at the age of seven. He was 
 minister of the parish of Carnock for about fifty years, 
 and wrote a " History of the. Kirk of Scotland from 1558 
 to 1637." Died in 1646. 
 
 Row, (John,) a Hebrew scholar, born at Carnock 
 about 1598, was a son of the preceding. He was a 
 Covenanter in the civil war, and, while Cromwell was 
 in power, held the office of principal of King's College, 
 Aberdeen. He published a Hebrew Grammar in 1644. 
 Died about 1672. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Rowan, ro'an, (Stephen C.,) a rear-admiral, born in 
 Ireland. He came to the United States in early youth, 
 and entered the navy in 1826. He gained the rank of 
 commander about 1855. In February, 1862, he defeated 
 jmkI destroyed six gunboats near Elizabeth City, North 
 Carolina. He commanded the fleet which co-operated 
 with General Bumside in the capture of Newborn, 
 March 14, 1862. In July, 1863, Captain Rowan took 
 command of the New Ironsides, which performed a 
 prominent part in the operations against the defences 
 of Charleston harbour, August-September, 1863. It is 
 stated that the New Ironsides was hit ninety-four times 
 in the actions of September 7 and 8. He was raised to 
 the rank of rear-admiral in July, 1866, and that of vice- 
 admiral in 1870. 
 
 See J. T. Headlev, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders." 
 Rowe, ro, (Elizabeth Singer,) an English authoress, 
 born at llchesler in 1674, became in 1709 the wife of 
 
 Thomas Rowe, noticed below. She wrote several works, 
 in prose and verse, one of which is entitled "Friendship 
 in Death," (1728.) Died in 1737. 
 
 Rowe, (Nicholas,) an English dramatic poet, born 
 at Little Beckford, in Bedfordshire, in 1673. He studied 
 law in the Middle Temple, but did not practise. In 
 1698 he produced "The Ambitious Step-Mother," and 
 in 1702 the tragedy of "Tamerlane," which was very 
 popular. His other chief works are "The Fair Penitent," 
 (1703,) "Ulysses," (1706,) "The Royal Convert," (1708,) 
 "Jane Shore," (1 714,) and "Lady Jane Grey," (1715.) 
 He was under-secretary of state for three years while 
 the Duke of Queensberry was secretary of state. Rowe 
 produced a version of Lucan's " Pharsalia," which was 
 praised by Dr. Johnson, and an edition of Shakspeare's 
 works, with a life of the author, (1709.) He became 
 poet-laureate in 1714. Died in 1718. 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets:" Baker. " Bio- 
 graphia Draniatica ;" Campbell, "Siiecimensof the British Poets;" 
 Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Rowe, (Thomas,) an English poet and historian, 
 born in 1687, married Elizabeth Singer, an authoress. 
 He wrote a Supplement to Plutarch's " Lives," (1728.) 
 Died in 171 5. 
 
 Rowe, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist minister, 
 born in Devonshire, wrote "The Christian's Work." 
 Died about 1698. 
 
 Row'lands, (Henry,) a Welsh antiquary, born in 
 Anglesey. He published an account of that island, 
 called "Mona Restored," ("Mona Restaurata.") Died 
 in 1722. 
 
 Row'land-son, (Thomas,) an English artist, noted 
 as a caricaturist, was born in London in 1756. Among 
 his works are the plates of " Doctor Syntax." Died 
 in 1827. 
 
 Rowley, row'le, (Sir Josias,) a British admiral, born 
 in Ireland in 1765 ; died in 1842. 
 
 Rowley, row'le, (William,) an English dramatist, 
 who flourished in the reign of James I. and was a 
 contemporary of Shakspeare. Among his plays are 
 a " Match at' Midnight," and "The Birth of Merlin." 
 
 Rowley, (William,) an English physician, born in 
 London in 1743, wrote " New School of Universal Medi- 
 cine," ("Schola Medicinse universalis nova," 1793.) 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 R6w'ning, (Rev. John,) an English mathematician, 
 born in 1699. He wrote on philosophy and mathe- 
 matics. Died in 177 1. 
 
 Rox-a'na, |Fr. Roxane, rok'sSn',] a beautiful Bac- 
 trian or Persian princess, was captured by the Macedo- 
 nians in 327 B.C. Soon after this date she became the 
 wife of Alexander the Great. She had a son, Alexander, 
 (born in 323,) who was recognized as one of the heirs 
 of the king. She procured the death of Statira, one 
 of the wives of Alexander, and was put to death by 
 Cassander in 311 B.C. 
 
 See Justin, books xii.-xv. ; Arrian, "Anabasis," books iv., vi., 
 and vii. 
 
 Roxane. See Roxana. 
 
 Roxaa. See Rojas. 
 
 Roxas or Rojas, de, dl ro'nas, (Domingo,) a 
 Spanish Protestant, was originally a Dominican monk. 
 Having been condemned to death by the Inquisition, 
 he was burned at an auto de fe in Valladolid in 1559. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Philip II.," vol. i. book ii. 
 
 Roxburgh, Duke of. See Ker, (John.) 
 
 Roxburgh, rox'biir-eh, (William,) an eminent bota- 
 nist, born in Scotland in 1759, was employed for many 
 years as a physician in the service of the East India 
 Company. He introduced the culture of coffee, the 
 nutmeg, the breadfruit-tree, etc. into India. He was 
 superintendent of the botanic garden of Calcutta from 
 1793 to 1814. His chief works are entitled " Coroman- 
 del Plants," and "Flora Indica," (3 vols., 1832.) Died 
 in 1815. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Roy, Rwa, (Antoine,) Count, a French financier 
 and legislator, born at Savigny (Haute-Marne) in 1764. 
 He became a member of the Chamber of Deputies 
 in 1815, and was minister of finance from November, 
 
 i, e, T, 6, Q, y, long; 1, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
rot 
 
 1927 
 
 ROZIERE 
 
 1819, to December, 1S21. He obtained the same office 
 in January, 1828, and resigned in August, 1829. Died 
 in 1847. 
 
 See *' Nouvetle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Roy, (Pierre Chari.es,) a French dramatic poet of 
 little merit, born in Paris in 1683; died in 1764. 
 
 Roy, (Rammohun.) See Rammohun Roy. 
 
 Roy, (Major-General William,) F.R.S., a British 
 surveyor, who acquired distinction by a trigonometrical 
 survey of Great Britain. He received the Copley medal 
 in 1785 for his measurement of a base on Hounslow 
 Heath. He directed the triangnlation by which a portion 
 of the British arc of the meridian was measured in 1788. 
 He wrote "The Military Antiquities of the Romans in 
 North Britain," (1793.) Died in 1790. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Roy, de, deh Rwa, [hat Re'gius,] (Hknki,) a Dutch 
 writer on medicine and philosophy, born at Utrecht in 
 1598. He published " Principles of Physics," (" Fund*- 
 nienta Physices," 1648,) and other works. Died in 1679. 
 
 Roy, de, (Jean Bvpitste,) a Flemish painter of land- 
 scape and cattle, born at Brussels in 1759 ; died in 1839. 
 
 Roy, Le. See Le Roy, (Julien David.) 
 
 Roy, Le, leh Rwa, [Lat. Re'gius,] (Louis,) a French 
 scholar, who became professor of Greek at Paris in 
 1570. He wrote a "Life of Budieus." Died in 1577. 
 
 Roye, de, deh Rwi, (Guy,) a French prelate, born 
 near Soissons about 1345. He became Archbishop of 
 Rheims, and founded the College of Rheims at Paris. 
 Died in 1409. 
 
 Roy en, van, vln roy'en, (Adrian,) a Dutch botanist, 
 born in 1705. He succeeded Boerhaave as professor of 
 botany at Leyden, and published " Florae Leidensis Pro- 
 aromus," (1740.) Died in 1779. 
 
 Royer, RwS'ya', ( Alphonse,) a French dramatist, 
 born in Paris in 1803. He produced, besides other 
 works, "The Constable Bourbon," (2 vols., 1838,) " Don 
 Pasquale," an opera, (1843,) "The janissaries," (2 vols., 
 1844,) and several comedies. 
 
 Royer, Rwa'ya'j (Louis,) a Belgian or Dutch sculptor, 
 born at Malines in 1793. He became director of the 
 Royal Academy of Amsterdam. 
 
 Royer, de, deh Rwa'yi', (Paul Henri Ernest,) a 
 French minister of state, born about 1808. He studied 
 law, and became a partisan of Napoleon III., who ap- 
 pointed him procureur-general to the court of cassation 
 in 1853, and minister of justice in November, 1857. 
 
 Royer-Collard, Rwa'yk' ko'IIr', (Albert Paul,) a 
 French jurist, born in Paris in 1797, was a nephew of 
 the eminent statesman of that name. He obtained the 
 chair of the law of nations in Paris in 1829. 
 
 Royer-Collard, ( Antoine A thanase, ) an able 
 French physician, born at Sompuis in 1768, was a 
 brother of Pierre Paul, noticed below. He founded in 
 1803 the "Bibliotheque Medicale," a .periodical. In 
 1806 he was placed at the head of the institution for 
 the insane at Charenton. He became professor of legal 
 medicine in Paris in 1816, and physician-in-ordinary 
 to Louis XVIII. He wrote some able treatises on 
 insanity, etc. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Philippe, " Royer-Collard," 1861 ; " Biographie Medicale;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Royer-Collard, (Hippoi.yte Louis,) a French phy- 
 sician, born in Paris in 1802, was a son of the preceding. 
 He succeeded Desgenettes as professor of hygiene in 
 1838. Died in 1850. 
 
 See Bouchardot, " Fjoges de Royer-Collard et d'A. Richard," 
 1853- 
 
 Royer-Collard, (Pierre Paul,) an eminent French 
 philosopher and statesman, born at Sompuis (Marne) on 
 the 21st of June, 1763. His father's family name was 
 Royer, to which he joined the name of his wife, Mademoi- 
 selle Collard. He chose the profession of an advocate, 
 and favoured the popular cause in the Revolution, but 
 was always a moderate royalist. From 1790 to 17^2 he 
 acted as a clerk ( ' secretairegreffier ) of the municipality 
 of Paris. He retired for safety to the country in June, 
 1793, and remained in privacy during the reign of terror. 
 About 1810 he was appointed professor of philosophy in 
 the University of France. He adopted an eclectic sys- 
 tem of philosophy, and became the founder of a school 
 
 called the Doctrinaire. His system of philosophy is the 
 same as the Spiritualism of Reid. Jouffroy and Cousir 
 were his most eminent disciples. 
 
 In l8l5hewas appointed president of the commissior. 
 of public instruction, and elected to the Chamber of 
 Deputies, in which he supported liberal measures. He 
 preferred a moderate and middle course between that 
 of the ultra-royalists and that of the Bonapartists and 
 democrats. He was admitted into the French Academy 
 in 1827, and was elected president of the Chamber of 
 Deputies in 1828. In 1S30 he presented to Charles X. 
 the address of two hundred and twenty-one deputies 
 who protested against the arbitrary measures of the 
 court. He died in September, 1845, leaving a fair repu- 
 tation for integrity, firmness, and civic virtues. His last 
 words were, "There is nothing solid or substantial in 
 this world except religious ideas." 
 
 See Barantb, ""Vie politique de- Royer-Collard," 2 vols., i86t ; 
 Philippe, "Royer-Collard," t86t ; De Reaiusat, " Eloge de 
 Rover Collaid ;" M. DE Lacombe, "Vie de Royer-Collard," 1863; 
 Genty de Birssv, " Menioires sur Royer-Collard :" L. de I.omenie, 
 "M. Royer-Collard, par un Homme de Rien," 1842; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Geuerale ;" " North British Review" for August, 1863. 
 
 Royle, roil, (John Forbes,) M.D., an English bota- 
 nist, born at Cawnpore about 1799. He was educated 
 at Edinburgh, and entered the service of the East India 
 Company as assistant surgeon. He made a large collec- 
 tion of the plants of Hindostan. Having returned to 
 England about 1831, he published an important work 
 entitled " Illustrations of the Botany and other Branches 
 of Natural History of the Himalaya Mountains," (2 vols., 
 1839.) He was professor of materia medica in King's 
 College, London, and published a "Manual of Materia 
 Medica." Died near London in 1858. 
 
 Royou, Rwa'yoo', (Jacques Corentin,) a French 
 historian and advocate, born at Quiinper about 1745. 
 He published a "Roman History," (4 vols., 1806,) a 
 " History of France," (6 vols., 1 8 1 9, ) and other histories ; 
 also the " Fault- Finder," (" Frondeur,") a comedy, 
 (1819.) Died in 1828. 
 
 Royou, (Thomas Maurice,) Abbe, a journalist, born 
 at Quiinper about 1740, was a brother of the preceding. 
 I te was professor of philosophy at the College Louis-le- 
 Grand for twenty years, and editor of the " Ami du Roi," 
 a royalist journal of Paris, (1790-^2.) Died in 1792. 
 
 Roze, roz, (Nicolas,) a French philanthropist of 
 Marseilles, born in 1671, was a merchant in his youth. 
 His name was rendered memorable by his devoted and 
 courageous conduct during the prevalence of the plague 
 at Marseilles in 1720. Died in 1733. 
 
 Roze, (Nicolas,) Abbe, a French composer of sacjed 
 music, born at Bourg-Neuf in 1745. He was appointed 
 maitre de chapelle to the First Consul, but declined the 
 office because he was an ecclesiastic. Died in 1819. 
 
 Rozee, ro'zi', M \dkmoiselle, a Dutch artist, born 
 at Leyden in 1632. She produced landscapes, portraits, 
 etc. embroidered with silk floss. Died in 1682. 
 
 Rozet, ro'zJ', (Claude Antoink,) a French geolo- 
 gist, born at Chauvart (Marne) in 1798. He published, 
 besides other works, " Travels in Algeria," (3 vols., 
 1833.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Rozier, ro'ze-a', (Franqois,) Abb6, a French bota- 
 nist and writer on agriculture, born at Lyons in 1734. 
 He edited at Paris the "Journal de Physique'" for ten 
 years, (1771-80.) His principal work is a treatise on 
 agriculture, "Cours complet d'Agriculture theorique et 
 pratique," (9 vols., 1781-93,) which was highly esteemed. 
 He was killed in his house by a bomb during the siege 
 of Lyons, in September, 1793. 
 
 See A. de Boissieu, " FJoge de F. Rozier." 183a; Cochard, 
 "Notice histonqtie sur M. l'Abbe F. Rozier," 1832 ; "Nouvelle 
 !'.i>>-i .iphie Generate. " 
 
 Roziere, de la, deh 11 ro'zejiiR', (Louis Fran- 
 5018 Carlet — kiR'l&',) Marquis, a French general 
 and writer on military tactics, was born near Charleville 
 in 1735. He served in the Seven Years' war with 
 distinction, became marechal-de-camp in 1 781, and 
 emigrated in 1791, after which he fought against the 
 French republic. lie wrote, besides other works, "The 
 Campaign of the Prince of Conde in Flanders in 1674," 
 (1765.) Died at Lisbon in 1808. 
 
 See Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; O, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (3^**See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ROZOI 
 
 1928 
 
 RUCHRATH 
 
 Rozoi, de, deh ro'zwa', (Barnaul Farmain, ) a 
 mediocre French litterateur, born in Paris in 1743, was 
 a royalist in the Revolution. He was guillotined in 
 1792. 
 
 Rozoir, du. See Du Rozoir. 
 
 Rualdus. See Ruault. 
 
 Ruar, roo'ar, [Lat. Rua'rus,]' (Martin,) a learned 
 German controversial writer, born in Holstein in 1588, 
 was a Protestant minister. Died near Dantzic in 1657. 
 "His 'Epistles,'" says Hallam, "throw much light on 
 the theological opinions of the age." ("Introduction to 
 the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Ruarus. See Ruar. 
 
 Ruault, rii'6', [Lat. Rual'dus,] (Jean,) a French 
 classical scholar, born at Coutances about 1575. He was 
 twice elected rector of the University of Paris, and he 
 became professor of belles-lettres at the College Royal 
 in 1629. He published a good edition of Plutarch, 
 (1624.) Died in 1636. 
 
 Rubbi, roob'bee, (Andrea,) an Italian scholar and 
 mediocre poet, born at Venice in 1738. He edited 
 " Parnasso Italiano," (56 vols., 1784-91,) which is a col- 
 lection of Italian poetry. Among his best works is a 
 " Dictionary of Sacred and Profane Antiquities," (16 
 vols., 1793-1805.) Died in 1817. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Rubeia or Rubeus. See Rossi. 
 
 Ruben, the French of Reuben, which see. 
 
 Ruben, roo'ben, (Christoph,) director of the Acad- 
 emy of Arts at Vienna, was born at Treves in 1805. He 
 studied painting under Cornelius. 
 
 Rubens, roo'benz, [Fr. pron. rii'bfiN',] (Albert,) an 
 antiquary, born at Antwerp in 1614, was a son of the 
 great painter. He wrote " On the Clothing Material 
 of the Ancients," ("De Re Vestiaria Veterum," 1665,) 
 which was edited by Graevius. Died ill 1657. 
 
 Rubens, (Peter Paul,) the most celebrated of the 
 Flemish painters, was born at Siegen (not,'as often stated, 
 at Cologne) in 1577. His birth is variously dated in 
 May and on the 29th of June. He was the son of John 
 Rubens, a lawyer, and Mary Pypeling, both natives of 
 Antwerp, to which, after the death of John Rubens, his 
 widow returned with her children in 1587. His early 
 masters in art were A. van Noort and Otto van Veen, 
 (or Otto Venius.) In 1600 he went to Italy, where he 
 passed about eight years at Venice, Mantua, Rome, 
 Florence, and Genoa, and painted numerous works. 
 He returned to Antwerp in 1608, was appointed court 
 painter to the archduke Albert, and married Isabelle 
 Brant or Brandt in 1609. Soon after this date he pro- 
 duced his " Descent from the Cross," which is con- 
 sidered by many his master-piece and is now in the 
 cathedral of Antwerp. He rose rapidly to fame and 
 affluence, and was employed in diplomatic missions by 
 the Flemish court. In 1629 he was sent as ambassador 
 to England, where he painted for Charles I. the alle- 
 gorical picture of "War and Peace." He succeeded 
 in his mission, the object of which was to restore peace 
 between England and Spain. Having lost his first 
 wife, he married Helena Forman or Fourment, (1630,) 
 wiu was only sixteen years of age. He received 
 the honour of knighthood in 1630 from Charles I. of 
 England, and also from Philip IV. of Spain. He was 
 simple and temperate in his habits. Rising early, he 
 went in the morning to church to hear mass. In the 
 evening he often took a ride on horseback. 
 
 Rubens painted history, portraits, landscapes, and ani- 
 mals with equal success. He was a magnificent colorist, 
 was unsurpassed in technical skill and facility of execu- 
 tion, but was deficient in a taste for form. Among his 
 famous productions are "The Last Judgment," at Mu- 
 nich, "The Battle of the Amazons," "The Rape of the 
 Sabines,"and "The Judgment of Paris," in London. It 
 is stated that the gallery of Munich contains no less than 
 ninety-five of his works. He died at Antwerp in May, 
 1640. His principal pupils were Van Dyck, Jordaens, 
 Van Thulden, Diepenbeck, and Quellyn. " Rubens," 
 says Ruskin, " was an honourable and entirely well- 
 intentioned man. He is a healthy, worthy, kind-hearted, 
 courtly-phrased — Animal, — without any clearly per- 
 
 ceptible traces of a soul, except when he paints chil- 
 dren. . . . We saw how Veronese painted himself and 
 his family as worshipping the Madonna. Rubens also 
 painted himself and his family in an equally elaborate 
 piece. But they are not worshipping the Madonna : 
 they are performing the Madonna and her saintly 
 entourage." ("Modern Painters.") 
 
 See A. van Hasski.t. " Histoire de Rubens," 1840; G. Alvin, 
 "Vie de Rubens," 1840; Waagkn, "P. P. Rubens, sein Leben und 
 Genius," i84o,(trans!ated into English by R. R. Noel ;) A. Michirls, 
 " Rubens et l'Ecole d' An vers," 1S54; (i. PlanCHH, " Rubens, sa Vie 
 et ses CEuvres," 1854: A. Sirkt, "Raphael et Rubens," 1849; W 
 Noel Sainsbmry, "Original Unpublished Papers illustrative of the 
 Life of Sir Peter Paul Rubens," 1850; WlERT*. "P. P. Rubens," 
 1840; Michel, "Histoire de Rubens," 1771 : " Nouvelle Bmgraphifc 
 Generate ;" " Edinburgh Review" for January, 1841, and January, 
 1863. 
 
 Rubens, (Philip,) a Flemish philologist, born at 
 Cologne in 1574, was a brother of the preceding. He 
 was appointed secretary of state by the senate of Antwerp 
 in 1609. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Rubini, roo-bee'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) a popu- 
 lar Italian vocalist, born at Romano, near Bergamo, in 
 1795. He performed with success in Paris and London. 
 He was reputed the first Italian tenor of his time. Died 
 in 1854. 
 
 See " Biographie Universale," (new edition.) 
 
 Rubini, (Pietro,) an Italian medical writer, born at 
 Parma in 1760. He was professor of medicine at Parma. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Rubio, roo'be-o, (Luigi,) an Italian painter of history, 
 born at Rome in 1797. He settled at Geneva about 
 1857. 
 
 Rubruquis, de, deh ru'bRii'kess', (Guillaume, ) 
 sometimes called De Ruysbroek (rois'brook) or Rys- 
 bruck, (ris'bKoqk,) a mediaeval traveller and missionary, 
 born in Brabant about 1220 or 1230. In 1253 he and 
 two other friars were sent to Tartary by Louis IX. of 
 France, who charged them to propagate Christianity 
 among the Tartars, to search for Prester John, and to 
 visit Sartach, a Tartar chief who was reported to be a 
 Christian. Rubruquis performed this arduous enterprise 
 bravely, and, returning through Persia and Asia Minor, 
 reached home in August, 1255. He wrote a narrative, 
 in which the Caspian Sea is correctly described. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Rucellai, roo-chel-U', [Lat. Oricf.lla'rius,] (Ber- 
 nardo,) an Italian writer, born of a noble family at 
 Florence in 1449. He married Nannina, a sister of 
 Lorenzo the Magnificent. He was a liberal patron 
 of the Platonic Academy. His chief work is entitled 
 "On the City of Rome," (" De Urbe Roma,") written 
 in elegant Latin. Died in 1514. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Stnria delta Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Rucellai, (Giovanni,) an eminent poet, born at 
 Florence in 1475, was a son of the preceding, and a 
 cousin-german to Pope Leo X. He wrote "Rosmunda," 
 a drama, (1525,) and a poem on bees, ("Le Api,") which 
 is regarded as his finest production. It was printed in 
 1539. He was sent as nuncio to France by Leo X. 
 Died in 1525. 
 
 See Nicekon, " Mdmoires ;" Ginguene, " Histoire Litte'raire 
 d'ltalie." 
 
 Ruchat, rii'sha 1 ', (Abraham,) a Swiss writer, born 
 about 1680, taught theology at the Academy of Lau- 
 sanne. He published a " History of the Reformation 
 of Switzerland, 1516-56," (6 vols., 1727-40.) Die J 
 in 1750. 
 
 Ruchel, von, fon rooK'el, (Ernst Friedrich M'rr.- 
 helm,) a Prussian general, born in Pomerania in 1754. 
 He commanded a division at the battle of Jena, (1806.) 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 Ruchrath, rd"OK'rit, (called JoHANN von Wcsel — 
 fon wa'zel,) a German Reformer, born at Ober-Wesel, 
 on the Rhine, about 1410. He became a professor of 
 divinity at Erfurt, and afterwards preached at Worms 
 for seventeen years. He wrote a " Treatise against 
 Indulgences," and a work "Concerning the Authority, 
 Duty, and Power of Pastors." He was accused of 
 heresy, tried before the Inquisition in 1479, and, ra 
 escape death or torture, recanted. Died in 1481. 
 
 See Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nSt; good; moon 
 
RUCKERT 
 
 1929 
 
 RUDOLPH 
 
 Ruckert, rtik'keit, (Fkikdkich,) a popular German 
 lyric poet and Oriental scholar, born at Schweinfujt in 
 17S9. He studied at Jena, and in 1818 visited Rome. 
 In 1826 he became professor of Oriental languages at 
 Erlangen. His "German Foems" came out in 1814, 
 and were followed by " Napoleon ; a Political Comedy," 
 (1816,) "The Crown of the Time," (1817,) and "Eastern 
 Roses," (1822.) He also published " Legends and Tales 
 of the East," (1837,) "Brahman Tales," (1839,) and a 
 translation of Hareeree's (Hariri's) "Makamat," under 
 the title of " Metamorphoses of Abu-Seid." His poems 
 are remarkable for beauty of versification as well as the 
 great variety of forms of which he is a master, and he 
 resembles in glowing fancy and inventive power the 
 Eastern poets whom he made his study. He was pro- 
 fessor in the University of Berlin from 1840 to 1849. 
 Died in i860. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Atlantic 
 Monthly" for July. 1866; G. Pfizkr, "Uhland und Ruckert; 
 kritischer Versuch," 1837 ; " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Ruckert, (Hkinrich,) a German historian, son of 
 the preceding, was born at Coburg in 1823. He pub- 
 lished "Annals of German History," (1850,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Rudbeck, rood'bSk, [Lat. Rudrf.ck'ius,] (Joiian,) 
 a learned and meritorious Swedish prelate and Re- 
 former, born at Oerebro about 1580. He was chaplain 
 to Gustavus Adolphus, and Bishop of Westeris. Died 
 in 1646. 
 
 Rudbeck, [Lat. Rudbkck'ius,] (Oi.aus or Oi.af,) 
 an eminent Swedish anatomist and botanist, born at 
 Westeris in 1630, was a son of the preceding. He dis- 
 covered the lymphatic vessels about 1650, after which 
 he became professor at Upsal. His principal works are 
 " Atlantica, " (4 vols., 1675-98,) in which, with great 
 learning and ingenuity, he maintains that Sweden is the 
 "Atlantis" of Plato, and a botanical treatise called 
 " Elysian Fields," ("Campi Elysii," 2 vols., 1701.) lie 
 was remarkable for versatility and activity of mind. 
 The genus Rudbeckia was named in his honour. Died 
 in 1702. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Sax, " Onomasticon ;" " Biogra- 
 phiskt Lexicon ofver namnkunnige Svenska Man." 
 
 Rudbeck, (Oi.aus,) the Younger, a naturalist and 
 philologist, born at Upsal in 1660, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. He succeeded his father as professor of botany 
 and anatomy at Upsal, and published some works on 
 botany, etc. He assisted his father in writing the 
 "Campi Elysii." Died in 1740. 
 
 See C. R. Bekcm, "Olaus Rudbeck's Lefvernesbeskrifning," 
 1798. 
 
 Rudberg, rood'bfRg, (Fredrik,) a Swedish natu- 
 ral philosopher, born at Norrkjoping in 1800. He 
 became professor of physics at Upsal about 1828. He 
 was the author of a number of able treatises on phi- 
 losophy, and ascertained the rate of the expansion of air 
 by heat. Died in 1839. 
 
 Rtid'borue or Rod'burne, (Thomas,) an English 
 prelate and skilful architect. He was chaplain to Henry 
 V., and became Bishop of Saint David's in 1433. He 
 built the tower and gateway of Merton College, Oxford. 
 Died about 1442. 
 
 Rudder, de, deh ru'daiR', (Louis Henri,) a French 
 painter of history, horn in Paris in 1807. He gained a 
 medal of the second class in 1848. 
 
 Rud'dl-man, (Thomas,) an eminent Scottish gram- 
 marian and critic, born in the parish of Boyndie, county 
 of Banff, in October, 1674, was educated at King's Col- 
 lege, Aberdeen. He published in 1 7 14 his " Rudiments 
 of the Latin Tongue," a popular school-book. Among 
 his other works is " Institutes of Latin Grammar," 
 ("Grammaticae Latinae Institutiones," 1725-32.) Died 
 in 1757. 
 
 See Ghorok Chalmers, " Life of Ruddiman," 1794 : Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Rude, riid, (Francois,) an eminent French sculptor, 
 born at Dijon in 1784. He went to Rome in 1812 to 
 pursue his studies, and returned to Paris about 1827. 
 He adorned with some figures the Arc de 1'Etoile at 
 Paris. At the Exposition of 1855 he gained the grand 
 medal of honour. Among his works are a marble 
 
 statue of Joan of Arc in the Luxembourg, and bronze 
 statues of Monge and Marshal Ney. Died in 1855. 
 
 See " Rude, sa Vie, ses CEuvres," etc., (anonymous,) Paris, 1856: 
 " Biographic Universelle." 
 
 Rudel, ru'del', (Geoffrqi,) a French poet of the 
 latter part of the twelfth century, was Prince of Blaye 
 and a favourite of Geoffrey Plantagenet. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Rudelbach, roo'del-baK', (Andreas,) a Danish the- 
 ologian, bom at Copenhagen in 1792. He published 
 a number of dogmatic works, in which he advocates the 
 orthodox Lutheran creed. He became superintendent 
 at Glauchau, Saxony, in 1829. Died in 1862. 
 
 Rttdiger, rii'dio-er, (Feodor Vasilievi tcii,) Count, 
 a Russian general, born about 1790. He commanded a 
 division in the war against the Turks in 1828, and gained 
 several victories over the Poles in 1831. Having obtained 
 command of a corps-d'armee in the Hungarian war, he 
 defeated Gorgei, who surrendered to him at Vilagos in 
 August, 1849. Died in 1856. 
 
 Ru'ding, (Rev. Rogers,) an English antiquary and 
 numismatist, born at Leicester in 1751. He became 
 vicar of Maldon, in Surrey, in 1793. He published an 
 important work, entitled " Annals of the Coinage of 
 Britain and its Dependencies," (4 vols., 1817.) Died 
 in 1820. 
 
 Rudolf. See Rudolph. 
 
 Rudolph or Rudolf of Ems, a mediaeval German 
 poet or minnesinger, born in Switzerland, flourished 
 between 1220 and 1250. His works are highly extolled 
 by some critics. 
 
 'Ru'dolph (or Ru'dolf) [Lat. Rudoi/i'HUS ; It. R[- 
 DOLFO, re-dol'fo] OF IlAltSHURG, [Fr. RoDoi.PHF. DE 
 Hahsboiirg, ro'dolf deh hibs'ljooR',] Emperor of Ger- 
 many, and founder of the Austrian empire, was born in 
 1218. He was the son of Albert IV., Count of Habs- 
 burg, and at an early age fought under Frederick II. in 
 Italy. In 1255 he assisted Ottocar, King of Bohemia, 
 in his crusade against the pagans of Prussia. On the 
 death of his father, in 1240, he had succeeded to his 
 possessions, and was involved in many contests with the 
 feudal barons of the country, in which he was generally 
 victorious. His high reputation for courage and love 
 of justice caused him to be elected in 1273 Emperor 
 of Germany, and he was soon after crowned at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. He procured from Pope Gregory X. the 
 ratification of his right, which had been contested by 
 Alfonso of Castile and Ottocar of Bohemia; and, after 
 a war with the latter, a treaty was concluded by which 
 Rudolph confirmed him in the possession of Bohemia and 
 Moravia. He had previously given two of his daughters 
 in marriage to Albert, Duke of Saxony, and the Count 
 Palatine Louis of Bavaria. Having secured himself on 
 the throne, he gave his attention to various reforms in 
 the government and to restraining the power of the 
 turbulent nobles, nearly seventy of whose castles in 
 Thuringia he is said to have destroyed. He afterwards 
 gave one of his daughters in marriage to Wenzel, the 
 young king of Bohemia. He died in 1291, having been 
 unable to secure the election of his son Albert as emperor, 
 and was succeeded by Adolphus of Nassau. 
 
 See I. J. Fischf.k, " Biographic Rudolph's I. von Habs l .?irg, w 
 17S4; Hunki.er, " Rodolphe de Habsbourg Empefeur," etc., 1843 ; 
 K M. vnN LlCHNOWSKV, "Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg, *j 
 vols., iSyi-42; I.. Mkister, "Kaiser Rudolph von Habs'-.'re." 
 17^1: Maii.ath, " Histoire d'Autriche;" "Nouvelle Biogr pn,6 
 Gentirale." 
 
 Rudolph (Rudolf) TX, Emperor of Germany, born 
 in 1 152, was the son of Maximilian II., and was educated 
 at the Spanish court. He ascended the throne in Oc- 
 tober, 1576, and, through the influence of the Jesuits, 
 prohibited the exercise of the Protestant religion and 
 gave all the principal offices to the Catholics. He was 
 an intolerant and incapable ruler. Absorbed in the 
 study of astrology and alchemy, he neglected the affairs 
 of his empire, which was subject to much disorder during 
 his reign. To protect themselves against persecution, 
 the Protestant princes of Germany formed in 1608 a 
 confederation, of which the Elector Palatine Frederick 
 IV. was the head. Between 1608 and 161 1 his brother 
 Matthias extorted front Rudolph successively the sove- 
 reignty of Austria, Moravia, Hungary, Bohemia, etc. 
 
 c as k; c. as s; g hard; g *&j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; fch as in this. (^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RUDOLPH 
 
 1930 
 
 RUFUS 
 
 He died, without issue, in January, 1612, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Matthias. 
 
 See P. Santorio, " # Vite di Ridolfo II. e Manias Imperatori," 
 1664; F. S. K.URZ, "Oesterreich tinier Rudolph," 1S21 ; Immanuel 
 Whukr, "Dissertatio de Rudoloho II.," 1707. 
 
 Rudolph von Rothenberg, roo'dolf fon ro'ten- 
 beno', a German soldier and minnesinger, lived under 
 the reign of the emperor Frederick II. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 Rudolphi, roo-dol'fee, (Carl Asmund, ) an able 
 Swedish naturalist and physiologist, born at Stockholm 
 in 1 771. He became professor of anatomy and physi- 
 ology at Berlin in 1810. Among his numerous works 
 are "The Anatomy of Plants," (1807,) "The Natural 
 History of Entozoa," (2 vols., 1808-10,) and " The Prin- 
 ciples of Physiology," (3 vols., 1821-28.) Died in Berlin 
 in 1832. 
 
 See J. MOller, " GedSchtnissrede auf C. A. Rudolplii," 1837; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie GeueVale." 
 
 Rudia, rood'ra, [etymology uncertain,] in the Hindoo 
 mythology, a name of Siva, also applied to certain mani- 
 festations of Siva in his character of fate or destiny. 
 The eleven Rudras appear to correspond in the main, 
 though not in number, to the Parcae of the Romans 
 and the Moirae {Molpcu) of the Greeks. (See Siva.) 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon ;" Wilson, " Sanscrit Dictionary." 
 Rud'yard, (Sir Benjamin,) an English gentleman 
 and elegant scholar, born in 1572. He became an influ- 
 ential and eloquent member of the Long Parliament, in 
 which he acted with Hampden and Pym. In the civil 
 war which began in 1642 he was a moderate partisan 
 of the Parliament, and often raised his voice for peace. 
 Some of his speeches and poems have been published. 
 Died in 1658. 
 
 See "Memoirs of Sir Benjamin Rudyard," by J. A. Manning, 
 1841. 
 
 Rue, de la, (Charles.) See La Rue. 
 
 Rue.de la, deh IS rii, (Charles,) a French Bene- 
 dictine and eminent scholar, born at Corbie, Picardy, in 
 1684. He published a good edition of the works of 
 Origen, (3 vols., 1733.) Died in Paris in 1739. His 
 nephew, Vincent de la Rue, born in 1707, published 
 the 4th volume of Origen in 1759. Died in 1762. 
 
 Rue, de la, (Gervais.) See Dei.arue. 
 
 Rueda, de, (Lope.) See Lope de Rueda. 
 
 Ruediger. See Rudiger. 
 
 Ruehle von Lilienstern. See Run i.e. 
 
 Ruel, rti'el', [Lat. Ruel'lius,] (Jean,) a French phy- 
 sician and botanist, born at Soissons in 1479. He was 
 physician to Francis I., and wrote, besides other works, 
 "On the Nature of Plants," ("De Natura Stirpium," 
 1536.) Died in Paris in 1537. 
 
 Ruellius. See Ruel. 
 
 Rueppell. See ROppei.l. 
 
 Riite or Ruete, rii'teh, (Christian Georg, ) a 
 German medical writer and oculist, born near Bremen 
 in 1810. He settled at Leipsic in 1852. 
 
 Ruff'head, (Owen,) an English barrister and writer, 
 born in Westminster about 1723. Among his works is 
 1 : ' Life of Alexander Pope." Died in 1769. 
 
 Ruffi or Ruffy, de, deh rii'fe', (Antoine,) a French 
 historian, born at Marseilles in 1607, wrote a "History 
 of Marseilles," (1643.) Died in 1689. 
 
 Ruffi 01 Ruffy, de, (Louis Antoine,) a historian, a 
 son' of the preceding, was born at Marseilles in 1657 ; 
 died in 1724. 
 
 RufBn, rii'faN', (Francois,) Count, a French gene- 
 ral, born at Bolbec in 1771. He served with distinc- 
 tion at Austerlitz in 1805, and at Eylau. He became 
 a general of division about 1808, after which he was 
 employed in Spain. He was mortally wounded near 
 Cadiz in 181 1. 
 
 RufBn, [Lat. Ruffi'nus.] (Pierre Jean Marie,) a 
 diplomatist and linguist, of French extraction, born at 
 Salonica, in Turkey, in 1742. He became interpreter 
 to the king for Oriental languages at Paris in 1774, 
 and charge-d'affaires at Constantinople in 1798. Died 
 in 1824. 
 
 See Hianchi, "Notice historique sur M. Rnffin," 1825. 
 
 Ruffini, roof-fee'nee, an Italian patriot, known under 
 the pseudonym of I/jrenzo Benoni, was born at Genoa 
 
 about 1800. In 1833 he took refuge in England, where 
 he wrote interesting Memoirs. He was appointed am- 
 bassador to Paris by Charles Albert in 1848. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1854 ; " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for June, 1853; " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1853. 
 
 Ruffini, (Paolo,) an Italian mathematician, born at 
 Valentano (Papal States) in 1765. He was professor 
 of mathematics and medicine at Modena, and author of 
 several works on algebra, which were highly esteemed. 
 Died at Modena in 1822. 
 
 See Lombardi, "Notizie sulla Vita di P. Ruffini," 1824. 
 
 Ruffinus. See Rufinus, and Rufmn. 
 
 Ruffo, roof'fo, (Dionigi Faiirizio,) an Italian cardinal 
 and general, born at Naples, or in Calabria, about 1744. 
 He raised in Calabria a large body of royalists, called 
 the army of the Holy Faith, which, under his command, 
 expelled the French and republicans from the country 
 in 1799 and restored King Ferdinand IV. to the throne. 
 He took at Naples a number of republican chiefs as 
 prisoners of war, who were treacherously put to death 
 by order of the king. Died in 1827. 
 
 See Lacchinei.li, "Memorie sulla Vita di F. D. Ruffo," 1836; 
 "Nouvelle Biographic G^neVale." 
 
 Ruffo, (Fabrizio.) Prince of Castelcicala, an Italian 
 diplomatist, born at Naples about 1755. He was ac- 
 cessary to the judicial murder of the republicans who 
 were taken prisoners and executed in 1799. He was 
 Neapolitan ambassador at Paris from 1815 until his 
 death, which occurred in 1832. 
 
 Ruffy. See Ruffi. 
 
 Rufin. See Rufinus. 
 
 Rufino, roo-fee'no, (Casimir Riifino Ruiz,) a Span- 
 ish economist, born at Soto de Cameros in 1806. He 
 published, besides other works, "The Universal History 
 of Commerce," ("La Historia mercantil universal," 2 
 vols., i8t;2-53.) 
 
 Ru-fl'uus, [Fr. Rufin, rii'faN',] an ambitious Roman 
 courtier, born at Elusa, in Gaul, about 335 A.n. He 
 gained the favour of the emperor Theodosius at Con- 
 stantinople, and became in 394 chief minister. He 
 rendered himself odious by his crueltv, and engaged in 
 a disloyal intrigue with Alaric the Visigoth, in order to 
 thwart Stilico, who was his rival. He was assassinated 
 in 395 by a soldier, at the instigation of Gainas, a friend 
 of Stilico. He was the subject of Claudian's poem 
 "In Rufinum." 
 
 See Girron. " Historv of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire:" Lh Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generate. " 
 
 Rufinus, sumamed Tora'nius, Tora'nus, Tyran'- 
 nius, or Turra'nius, a theologian and monk, bom 
 about 350 A.D. He is supposed to have been a native 
 of Aquileia. In early life he was a friend of Saint 
 Jerome. He went to Palestine in 377, and built a mon- 
 astery on Mount Olivet, where he passed many years, 
 and translated some works of Origen, whose doctrines 
 he favoured. On this subject he was involved in a con- 
 troversy with Saint Jerome, who denounced him with 
 extreme animosity. Rufinus wrote, besides other works, 
 an " Explanation of the Apostles' Creed," and translated 
 into Latin several works of the Greek Fathers. He 
 was an able writer. Died in 410. 
 
 See Fontanini, "Historia literaria Aquilejensis;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge"uerale." 
 
 Rufinus, (Licinius,) a Roman jurist, who flourished 
 about 215 A.n. 
 
 Ru'fus or Ru'phus, an ancient Greek medical writer 
 of Ephesus, called Rufus Ephesius, of whom little is 
 known. According to Suidas, he lived in the reign of 
 Trajan, (98-117 A.D.) He wrote, besides other works, 
 an interesting treatise on anatomy, entitled "On the 
 Names of the Parts of the Human Body," which is 
 extant and was printed at Paris in 1554. 
 
 See Sprengrl, "Histoire dela Me'decine." 
 
 Rufus, (M. Coelius,) a Roman orator, born at Puteoli 
 in 82 B.C., was a friend of Cicero, who calls him " adoles- 
 centem illustri ingenio." In the year 56 he was accused 
 of an attempt to poison Clodia, a woman of depraved 
 morals. He was defended by Cicero and acquitted. He 
 became tribune of the people in 52 H.c, and supported 
 
 5, e, I, o, Q, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 3, g, T, 6, ii, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
RUFUS 
 
 »93' 
 
 RUM BOLD 
 
 Milo against Clodius. In 49 B.C. he was a partisan of 
 Caesar. Died in 48 B.C. . 
 
 See Ciceho, "Oratio pro M. Ccelio." 
 
 Rufus, ( Rutilius,) a Roman orator, who became 
 consul in 105 B.C. and was banished unjustly in 92 B.C. 
 
 Rufus Fes'tus or Sex'tus Ru'fus, a Latin his- 
 torian, lived between 350 and 400 A.D. He wrote an 
 Abridged History of Rome, (" Breviarium de Victoriis 
 et Provinciis Populi Romani.") 
 
 Ruge, roo'geh, (Arnold,) a German scholar and 
 journalist, born at Bergen, on the island of Riigen, in 
 1802, studied at the University of Jena. During a five 
 years' imprisonment to which he was condemned for 
 his liberal opinions, he translated the " GEdipus in 
 Colonos" of Sophocles. After his release he became 
 associated with Echtermeyer as editor of the " Halli- 
 schen Jahrbiicher," which was suppressed in 1843. In 
 1848 he published at Leipsic a radical journal entitled 
 " Reform," and represented Breslau in the Frankfort 
 Parliament. In 1850 he repaired to London, where he 
 wrote a German translation of the " Letters of Junius" 
 and the works of P. Courier. 
 
 Rugendas, roo-gen'das, (Gf.org Philipp,) one of 
 the greatest battle-painters of Germany, was born at 
 Augsburg in 1666. He visited Rome and Venice, and 
 after his return became director of the Academy of 
 Augsburg in 1710. He also produced a number of en- 
 gravings, among which is "The Siege of Augsburg," 
 of which he was an eye-witness. Died in 1742. 
 
 See J. C. Fiissi.l, "LebenGeort; Philipp Rugendas." 175S: C. 
 Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres;" Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler- 
 Lexikun." 
 
 Rugendas, (Ghorg Philipp,) a painter and engraver, 
 born at Augsburg in 1701, was a son of the preceding. 
 Died in 1774. 
 
 Rugendas, (Johann Christian,) a skilful engraver, 
 born at Augsburg in 1708, was a brother of the pre- 
 ceding. Died in 1781. 
 
 Rugendas, (Johann Moritz,) a German painter 
 and designer, a relative of the preceding, was born at 
 Augsburg about 1800. He spent many years in South 
 America, and published in 1827 "A Painter's Journey 
 in Brazil." His collection of nearly three thousand 
 pictures and designs was purchased by the Bavarian 
 government. Died in 1858. 
 
 See Naglek, " Allgemeines Kiinstler- Lexikon." 
 
 Ruggieri, rood-ja'ree, (Constantin,) an Italian phi- 
 lologist and antiquary, born near Ravenna in 1714; 
 diecl in 1766. 
 
 Rug'gle, (George,) an English dramatist, born at 
 Lavenham in 1575, was a Fellow of a college at Cam- 
 bridge. He wrote a satirical play entitled " Ignoramus," 
 (1614.) Died in 1622. 
 
 Ruggles, rug'gelz, (Daniel,) an American general in 
 the Confederate service, born in Massachusetts about 
 1814. 
 
 Ruhl, rool, (Johann Christian,) a German sculptor 
 and painter, born at Cassel in 1764; died in 1842. 
 
 Ruhl, riil, (Philippe Jacques,) a French Jacobin and 
 member of the Convention, was born near Strasburg. 
 He killed himself in May, 1795. 
 
 Riihle von Lilienstern, ruh'leh fon lee'le-en-steRn'. 
 (Johann Jakob Otto August,) a Prussian general and 
 distinguished writer, born at Berlin in 1780, served in 
 the campaigns of 1813-15. He published several mili- 
 tary and historical works, among which is a " Historical 
 Sketch of the Prussian Nation," (1837.) Died in 1847. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 RuhmkorfF, room'koRf, (N.,) a mechanician, born in 
 Germany. He settled in Paris, and gained distinction as 
 a maker of electro-magnetic apparatus, coil-machines, etc. 
 
 Ruhnken, roon'ken, or Ruhneken, roo'neh-ken, 
 (Lat. Riihnke'nius,]' (David,) an eminent German 
 philologist and critic, born at Stolpe, in Pomerania, in 
 1723. lie studied history, law, and classical literature 
 at Wittenberg. Through the influence of his friend 
 the celebrated Hemsterhuys, he was appointed in 1757 
 lector of the Greek language in the University of Ley- 
 den, and in 1761 succeeded Oudendorp as professor of 
 history, eloquence, and antiquities in that citv. Among 
 his numerous and valuable works are editions of the 
 
 "Lexicon of Timaeus," of Velleius Paterculus, Homer's 
 " Hymn to Ceres," with a Latin translation and com- 
 mentary, (1780,) and the works of Muretus, (4 vols., 
 1789.) He also wrote several Latin essays of remark- 
 able elegance, among which we may name his " Epistolae 
 Critical," (1751,) "Eulogy on Hemsterhuys," (1768,) and 
 " Dissertation on the Life and Writings of Longinus," 
 (1776.) He died at Leyden in 1797, with the reputa- 
 tion of one of the first critics and Latin writers of the 
 eighteenth century. 
 
 See D. Wyttenbach, "Vita Ruhnkenii," 1709; Rink, "T. 
 Hemsterhuys und D. Ruhneken," 1X01 ; Meusel, "Lexikon;" 
 HiKscntNG, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GeneYale." 
 
 Ruhnkenius. See Ruhnken. 
 
 Riihs or Ruehs, riis, (Christoph Friedrich,) a 
 German historian, born in Pomerania in 1780, became 
 professor of history in Berlin. He wrote, besides other 
 works, a " History of Sweden," (5 vols., 1803-13,) which 
 is commended, and a " Manual of Mediaeval History," 
 (1816.) Died in 1820. 
 
 Ruinart, rii-e'ntR', (Thierri,) Dom, a learned French 
 writer and Benedictine monk, born at Rheims in 1657. 
 He became a pupil and coadjutor of Mabillon. In 1689 
 he published the " Acts of the First Martyrs," (" Acta 
 primorum Martyrum." He took a large part in the 
 composition of Mabillon's "Acta Sanctorum," (1700.) 
 Died in 1709. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Ruisch or Ruysch, roisK, (Frederic,) an eminent 
 Dutch anatomist, born at the Hague in 1638. He was 
 professor of anatomy at Amsterdam from 1665 until his 
 death. He discovered a mode of preserving dead 
 bodies for many years. He made several discoveries 
 in anatomy, and published an "Anatomical Treasury," 
 ("Thesaurus anatomicus," 1 701-15,) which is said to 
 be a capital work. Peter the Great purchased his 
 anatomical collection for 30,000 florins. Died in 1731. 
 
 See Fontenelle, " FJoge de Ruisch;" Schreiber, "Vita F- 
 Ruisch," 1732; Niceron, "Mamoires." 
 
 Ruisch or Ruysch, (Rachel,) a skilful Dutch 
 flower-painter, born in Amsterdam in 1664, was a 
 daughter of the preceding. She married a painter 
 named Juriaen Pool in 1695. Her works command 
 high prices. Died in 1750. 
 
 Ruisdael. See Ruysdael. ■ 
 
 Ruiter, de. See Ruyter, de. 
 
 Ruiz, roo-eth', (Juan,) Archpriest of Hita, a Spanish 
 poet and satirist, born probably at Alcala de Henares. 
 He was imprisoned thirteen years, (1333-47.) One of 
 his principal poems is entitled " Praise of Little Women." 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe. " 
 
 Rukmeni. See Rukminl 
 
 Rukmini, rook'mT-nee', written also, but less cor- 
 rectly, Rokmeny and Rukmeni, [i.e. "golden" or 
 " possessing gold," in allusion perhaps to Lakshmi 
 being the goddess of riches,] the name of an avatar of 
 Lakshmi, who under this form was the favourite wife 
 of Krishna, (an avatar of Vishnu.) 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Ruland, roo'lant, (Martin,) a German physician and 
 philologist, born at Frcisingen in 1532 ; died in 1602. 
 
 Rulhiere, de, deh rlBe-aife', (Claude Carloman,) 
 a French historian, was Irofn at Bondv, near Paris, in 
 1735. He accompanied the Baron de Breteuil to Russia 
 as secretary of embassy in 1760, and wrote " Anecdotes 
 of the Revolution of Russia in 1762," (1797.) In 1787 
 he was admitted into the French Academy. His chief 
 work is a " History of the Anarchy of Poland and of 
 the Partition of that Republic," (4 vols., 1807.) Died 
 in 1791. 
 
 _ See Daunou, " Notice sur Rulhiere :" Qubrard, " La France 
 Litteraire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gt^neVale." 
 
 Rulliere, ru'lejj.iR', (Joseph Marcei.i.in,) a French 
 general, born in liaute-Loire in 1787. He commanded 
 an army in Algeria in 1838, and was minister of war 
 from December, 1848, until October, 1S49. 
 
 Rumancow. See Rioomantsok. 
 
 Rum'bold. (Colonel Richard.) an English repub- 
 lican, was implicated in the Rye-House Plot, (1683,) and 
 was owner of the building from which that plot derived 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jljf^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RUM FORD 
 
 1932 
 
 R VNJEET 
 
 its name, lie escaped to Holland, and in 1685 followed 
 Argyll in his expedition to Scotland, where he was mor- 
 tally wounded, and, after a hurried trial, executed. 
 
 Rtlm'ford, (Benjamin Thompson,) Count, a cele- 
 brated natural philosopher and economist, born at 
 Wobum, Massachusetts, March 26, 1753 or 1752. 
 His mother was named Ruth Simonds. After he left 
 school, about the age of fourteen, he was employed for a 
 short time as a clerk by a merchant in Salem. In 1770 
 he attended lectures on experimental philosophy at 
 Harvard University. He was school-master at Rumford, 
 (now Concord,) New Hampshire, for about two years, 
 (1770-72.) In 1772 he married a rich widow of Rum- 
 ford, named Mrs. Rolfe, and removed with her to Wo- 
 bum. He was a person of tall stature, a model of manly 
 beauty in form and feature, and had the manners of a 
 courtier. According to Renwick, he fought at Lexington, 
 and applied for a commission in the Continental army 
 in 1775, but his services were rejected. Renwick speaks 
 of his "loyalty, manifested by actual service at the 
 battle of Lexington," but does not say on which side 
 he fought. His arguments, however, seem designed to 
 prove that Rumford would have fought for independence 
 if prejudice and persecution had not driven him into the 
 ranks of the royalists. He was regarded as a tory by his 
 fellow-citizens, and was pursued by a mob with threats 
 of violence. Having resorted for safety to the royalist 
 camp at Huston, he was sent to England in the autumn 
 of 1775 as a bearer of despatches to Lord George Ger- 
 main, who appointed him a clerk in the foreign office. 
 In the course of four years he rendered such services 
 that he obtained in 1780 the important position of under- 
 secretary of state. He returned to the United States in 
 1 781 or 1782 with a commission as mrtjor or lieutenant- 
 colonel in the British army, but never took part in any 
 action of the war. 
 
 The next scene of his eventful and prosperous career 
 opens at Munich, whither he went in 1784. He soon 
 became aide-de-camp and chamberlain to the reigning 
 prince of Bavaria. Having reformed the military es- 
 tablishment and rendered important public services, 
 he was rewarded with the rank of major-general, and 
 appointed a councillor of state. Rising by rapid gra- 
 dations, he became successively lieutenant-general, com- 
 mander-in-chief, minister of war, and in 1790 a count of 
 the Holy Roman Empire. On this occasion he assumed 
 the title of Rumford, from the town where he resided in 
 early life. He suppressed mendicity at Munich by the 
 establishment of work-houses in which beggars were 
 compelled to earn their subsistence. In devising the 
 means to warm and clothe the poor with economy, he 
 was led to experiments on heat and light which resulted 
 in important discoveries. He proved that gases are 
 non-conductors, and fluids very imperfect conductors, of 
 heat, — explained that heat is propagated in liquids only 
 by convection, or the continuous transposition of the 
 particles of the liquid, and that a flame in open air gives 
 but little heat except to bodies placed above it. He made 
 improvements in the construction of chimneys and in 
 the apparatus for heating and lighting houses. In 1795 
 he visited London, where he published some essays on 
 the subjects above mentioned. He returned to Munich 
 in 1796, and was appointed ambassador to London in 
 1798; but the English court would not receive him in 
 that capacity, because he was a British subject. He 
 formed the plan of the Royal Institution of London, 
 founded about 1800. His power and influence at the 
 court of Munich having ceased, in consequence of the 
 death of the Elector, in 1799, he removed to France. 
 His first wife, whom he left in the United States when 
 he first crossed the Atlantic, was no longer living. He 
 married the widow of Lavoisier, the gnat chemist, in 
 1805; but they soon separated, from mutual repulsion. 
 He died at Auteuil in August, 1814. His "Essays, Po- 
 litical, Economical, and Philosophical," were published 
 in 3 vols., (1798-1806.) The Rumford medal of the Royal 
 Society derives its name frum him. 
 
 " It is a matter of just national pride that the two men 
 who first demonstrated the capital propositions of pure 
 science, that lightning is but a case of common elec- 
 tricity, and that heat is but a mode of motion, — who first 
 
 converted these conjectures of fancy to facts of science, 
 — were not only Americans by birth and education, but 
 men eminently representative of the peculiarities of 
 American character, — Benjamin Franklin and Benjamin 
 Thompson." (Edward L. Youmans, "The Correlation 
 and Conservation of Forces.") 
 
 See Cuvier, " Eloge de Rumford ;" Jambs Renwick, " Life of 
 Count Rumford," in Sparks's "American Biography," vol. v., 
 second series ; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale ;" " Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1804. 
 
 Rumford, de, deh ruN'foR',(M\RiE Anne Pierrette 
 Paulze — pe'4'reV polz,) Countkss, a French lady of 
 superior talent, was born at Montbrison in 1758. She 
 was married to Lavoisier, the chemist, in 1771. She 
 aided him in experiments, and, having learned the art 
 of engraving, she engraved plates for his treatise on 
 Chemistry. In 1805 she became the wife of Count 
 Rumford, from whom she separated in 1809. Died 
 in 1836. 
 
 See Guizot, "Madame de Rumford," 1841, and his article in the 
 " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Rumiantzov or Rumiantzow. See Rioomantsof. 
 
 Riimker, rfim'ker, (Karl) a German astronomer, 
 born at Stargard in 1788. He made observations at 
 Paramatta, in Australia, from 1822 to 1831, and was 
 afterwards director of the Observatory at Hamburg 
 for many years. Among his works is a " Manual of 
 Navigation," (5th edition, 1850.) Died in 1862. 
 
 Rumohr, roo'moR, (Karl Frikdrich Ludyvig Fe- 
 lix,) a German writer on art, born near Dresden in 
 1785, was a pupfl of Fiorillo, a painter. He made the 
 tour of Italy in 1804, and revisited that country in 1816 
 and 1828. His " Italian Researches" (3 vols.) came out 
 in 1827. It is a critical history of the origin and de- 
 velopment of modern painting, composed from original 
 documents, and is esteemed a standard work. He like- 
 wise published a " History of the Royal Collection of 
 Engravings at Copenhagen," (1835,) and other treatises 
 on art ; also a number of poems and prose essays on 
 various subjects. Died at Dresden in 1843. 
 
 See H. W. Schui.ze, "C. F. von Rumohr, sein Lebe"n und seine 
 Schriften," 1S44: Brockhaus, " Couversations-Lexikon." 
 
 Rumowsky. See Roomofski. 
 
 Rumph, rdomf, [Lat. Rum'phius,] (Georo Evk- 
 rard,) a German naturalist, born at Hanau in 1637. He 
 passed some years at Ambovna, where he was consul 
 or counsellor to the Dutch East India Company. He 
 was author of a botanical work entitled " Herbarium 
 Amboinense," (7 vols., 1741-55.) Died in 1706. 
 
 Rumphius. See Rumph. 
 
 Rvim'sey, (JaMKS.1 an American mechanician, born 
 in Cecil county. Maryland, in 1743, was the inventor of 
 a steamboat, which he exhibited on the Potomac in 1786. 
 A company called by his name was formed in Philadelphia 
 for the purpose of promoting his projects. In 1792 he 
 made a successful trial of his steamboat on the Thames, 
 and was preparing for another, when he died in Decem- 
 ber of the same year. 
 
 Riin'ci-man, (Alexander,) a Scottish historical 
 painter, born in Edinburgh in 1736. Among his works 
 are "The Ascension," "King Lear." and a series of 
 pictures of scenes from Ossian. His style is extrava- 
 gant. Died in 1785. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Runsberg, n»o'neh-beRg', (Jon an LunwtG,) a very 
 popular Swedish poet, born at Jacobstad, in Finland, 
 in 1S04. He was educated at the University of Abo. 
 About 1840 he became a teacher of Greek at Borgi, (or 
 Borgo.) Among his principal productions are "Na- 
 deschda," a poetical tale, (1841,) "Kung Fialar," (1844,) 
 and "Stories of Ensign StAI," ("Fanrik Stals Sagner.") 
 An edition of his collected works appeared in 1852. 
 
 See Howitt, "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe." 
 
 Runge, roong'eh, (Otto Phii.ipp,) a German painter, 
 born in the latter part of the eighteenth century, fur- 
 nished illustrations to "Ossian." His son, Otto Sieg- 
 mund, studied sculpture under Thorwaldsen at Rome. 
 
 Runius, roo'ne-us, (Johan,) a popular Swedish poet, 
 born in West Gothland in 1679 j died in 1 7 13. 
 
 Runjeet Singh, rtin-jeet' sing, (or sing'h,) called 
 Maha Rajah, ma-ha'ra'ja, (i.e. "Great Rajah,") an am- 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; 9, e, i, 0, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon, 
 
RUNNINGTON 
 
 '933 
 
 RUSH 
 
 bitious East Indian prince, born at Gugaramvala, in the 
 Punjab, in 1780, is called the founder of the Sikh empire. 
 By t series of aggressions against feeble and umvarlike 
 chiefs he extended his dominions. He received the 
 province of Lahore as a gift from the Shah of Afghan- 
 istan in 1799, and obtained Cashmere by conquest in 
 1819. In 1809 he made a treaty with the British, with 
 whom he always maintained peaceful relations. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 See H. T. Prinsrp, "Origin of the Power of the Sikhs and the 
 Political Life of Runjeet Singh," 1X30: W. I,. Macgrkc.or, " Runjeet 
 Singh: History of the Sikhs;" " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale. 
 
 Run'ning-ton, (Chari.ks,) an English lawyer and 
 writer, born in Hertfordshire in 1751. He edited some 
 legal works of Hale, Gill>ert, eta Died in 1821. 
 
 Rupert, roo'pert, [ Ger. Ruprecht, roo'pReKt, ] 
 Prince, sometimes called ROBERT OK BAVARIA, son 
 of the Elector Palatine Frederick V. and Elizabeth, 
 daughter of James I. of England, was born at Prague in 
 1609. Having previously served against the Imperialists 
 in the Thirty Years' war, he entered the royalist army 
 in England, and was appointed by his uncle, Charles I., 
 commander of a regiment of cavalry. He distinguished 
 himself by his energy and headlong courage at Worcester 
 and Edgehill, and took Bristol ; but he was signally de- 
 feated at Marston Moor in 1644. Being made general 
 of all the roval forces, he commanded the left wing at 
 Naseby in 1645. Owing to his rash pursuit of a part of 
 Cromwell's army while the main body remained on the 
 field, the day was lost, and he soon after surrendered 
 Bristol, after a short defence. He was, in consequence, 
 deprived of his command by the king ; but in 1648 he 
 obtained command of the fleet, and assisted Lord Or- 
 mond on the coast of Ireland. In 1649 he was blockaded 
 in the harbour of Kinsale by the parliamentary squadron 
 under Blake. Having forced his way out, he steered for 
 Portugal, where he was protected by the king of that 
 country. In 165 1 Blake attacked his fleet and destroyed 
 all but five of his vessels. Rupert subsisted for some 
 time by piracy In the West Indies. After the restoration 
 of 1660, he served as admiral against the Dutch. Died 
 in 1682. 
 
 See "Historical Memoirs of Prince Rupert," London, 1683; E. 
 Warburton, "Memoirs of Prince Rupert," 3 vols., 1849; Clar- 
 endon, " History of the Great Rebellion :" Hume, " History of 
 England ;" " Lives of the Warriors of the Civil Wart of France and 
 England," by Sir Edward Cust, London, 1867. 
 
 Ru-per'tus or Ruprecht, roo'pRStct, called also 
 Rhodbert, one of the early apostles of Christianity 
 in Germany, was Bishop of Worms, and lived in the 
 seventh century. 
 
 Riippell or Rueppell, rop'pel, (Wii.hki.m Peter 
 Eihard Simon,) a German naturalist, born at Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main in 1794. He visited Arabia, Nubia, 
 •and other parts of Africa, and published in 1829 "Travels 
 in Nubia, Kordofan, and Arabia Petrsea." He also gave 
 an account of the birds of Northern and Eastern Africa, 
 and made valuable contributions to the Senkenberg 
 Museum, at Frankfort. 
 
 Rupprecht, ro6p'pr?Kt, (Friedrich Karl,) a Ger- 
 man landscape-painter and etcher, born near Anspach 
 in 1779; died in 1831. 
 
 Ruprecht. See Rupert. 
 
 Rurik, roo'rik, [Fr. Rourik, roo'rek',1 the founder 
 of the Russian empire, was originally a Scandinavian. 
 He invaded Russia about 862 A.D., defeated the natives, 
 who were commanded by Vadim, and selected Novogo- 
 rod as his capital. He died in 879, leaving a son, Igor, 
 a minor. 
 
 Rusbroek. See Ruysbroek. 
 
 Rusca, roos'kJ, (Carlo Francesco,) an Italian 
 portrait-painter, born at Lugano in 1701 ; died in 1769. 
 
 Rusca, rus'kt', (F. DOMINIQUE,) born near Nice in 
 1761, became a general in the French army. He con- 
 tributed to the victory at I-odi, and was made a general 
 of division in 1796. He was commander of Elba from 
 1802 to 1805. He was killed at Soissons in 1814. 
 
 Rusca, (GIOVANNI Alessandro,) a learned Italian 
 monk and writer, born at Turin about 1600 : died in 1680. 
 
 Ruscelli,roo-shel'lee, (GlRol AMo,) an Italian scholar 
 and prolific writer, born at Viterbo. Among his works 
 are "On the Art of making Verse," ("Del Modo di 
 
 comporre in Versi," 1559,) and " Illustrious Enterprises," 
 (" Imprest illustri," 1566.) Died at Venice in 1566. 
 
 Ruschenberger, roo'shen-ber'ger, (William S. W.,) 
 M.D., an American physician and naturalist, born in 
 Cumberland county, New Jersey, in 1807, was appointed 
 in 1843 superintendent of the United States Naval Hos- 
 pital at Brooklyn, New York. He has published a 
 "Voyage round the World, including an Embassy to 
 Muscat and Siam," (1838,) also "Elements of Natural 
 History," (1850,) and other scientific works. 
 
 Ruscheweyh, roosh'eh-wl'. (Ferdinand,) an emi- 
 nent German engraver, born at Mecklenburg, commenced 
 his studies about 1802, and went to Rome in 1808. He 
 engraved some works of Raphael, Giulio Romano, Over- 
 beck, and others. 
 
 Rusconi, roos-ko'nee, (Camii.lo,) a skilful Italian 
 sculptor, born at Milan about 1658. Among his works 
 is the mausoleum of Gregory XIII. in Saint Peter's at 
 Rome. Died in 1728. 
 
 Rush, (Benjamin,) an eminent American physician 
 and philanthropist, born near Philadelphia, December 
 24, 1745. He graduated at Princeton College, New 
 Jersey, in 1760, and afterwards studied medicine in 
 Edinburgh, London, and Paris. He was elected pro- 
 fessor of chemistry in the Medical College of Philadelphia 
 in 1769. He was an active supporter of the popular 
 cause in the Revolution, was elected a member of Con- 
 gress in 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence. In the" same year he married Julia Stockton, a 
 daughter of Judge Richard Stockton, of New Jersey. 
 
 In 1777 he was appointed surgeon-general and phy- 
 sician-general of the army. He acquired distinction as a 
 writer on medicine, philosophy, political affairs, etc. He 
 voted for the adoption of the Constitution of the United 
 States in the State convention which met in 1787. In 
 1739 he became professor of the theory and practice of 
 medicine in the medical college of Philadelphia. He 
 was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine in 
 the University of Pennsylvania in 1791, when the medical 
 college was united with the University. He was a popu- 
 lar lecturer, and was eminently qualified as a teacher of 
 medical science by his fluency of expression as well as 
 his profound learning. His reputation was increased by 
 his successful treatment of cases of yellow fever, which 
 prevailed in Philadelphia in 1793. It is stated that he 
 visited and prescribed for one hundred patients in one 
 day. His remedies for yellow fever were purging and 
 bleeding. He was treasurer of the Mint during the last 
 fourteen years of his life, was president of the society 
 for the abolition of slavery, and vice-president of the 
 Bible Society of Philadelphia. He was distinguished 
 for his industry, benevolence, and piety. In 181 1 the 
 Emperor of Russia sent him a diamond ring as a testi- 
 monial of respect for his medical skill. Among his 
 writings are "Medical Inquiries and Observations," (2 
 vols., 1788-93,) and a "Treatise on Diseases of the 
 Mind," (1812.) He died in Philadelphia in April, 1813, 
 leaving about nine children, among whom was Richard 
 Rush, the statesman. 
 
 See Thachkr, "Medical Biography:" S. D. Gross, " Lives of 
 American Physicians." 1861 ; Duvckinck. "Cyclopaedia of Ameri- 
 can Literature," vol. i. ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished 
 Americans," vol. iii. 
 
 Rush, (Jacob,) LL.D., an American jurist, born in 
 1746, was a brother of the celebrated Dr. Rush. He was 
 president of the court of common pleas for Philadelphia. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 Rush, (James,) a son of Dr. Benjamin Rush, born in 
 Philadelphia in 1786, was author of a treatise entitled 
 " Philosophy of the Human Voice," (1827 ; 6th edition, 
 1867,) which has been highly commended, and of other 
 works. About 1840 he married Miss Ridgway, daughter 
 of Jacob Ridgway, a noted millionaire. lie died in 1869, 
 leaving by his will about one million dollars for the pur- 
 pose of establishing a free public library in Philadelphia. 
 Rush, (Richard,) an American statesman, born in 
 Philadelphia in August, 1780, was a son of Dr. Benjamin 
 Rush. He graduated at Princeton College in 1797, 
 I studied law, and was appointed comptroller of the treas- 
 I ury by President Madison. He was attorney-general of 
 \ the United States from February, 1814, to March, 1817. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
R USHTON 
 
 '934 
 
 R USSELL 
 
 Tn the latter year he was sent to England by President 
 Monroe as minister-plenipotentiary. After he had ne- 
 gotiated several important treaties, he returned in 1825. 
 He served as secretary of the treasury from March, 1825, 
 to March, 1829. He was nominated for the Vice-Presi- 
 dency by the friends of John Quincy Adams in 1828, and 
 received eighty-three electoral votes, but was not elected. 
 In 1836 he was sent to England as a special agent or 
 commissioner by the President. He was appointed min- 
 ister to France in 1847, and was the first of the foreign 
 ministers at Paris to recognize the French republic 
 formed in 1848. He resigned his office in 1849, and 
 retired from the public service. He published in 1833 
 "Memorials of a Residence at the Court of Saint 
 James," another volume on the same subject in 1845, 
 and " Washington in Domestic Life," (1857.) Died in 
 Philadelphia in July, 1859. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1833 ; " Edinburgh 
 Review" for July, 1833, article "Richard Rush at the Court of 
 London ;" '* Democratic Review" for April, 1840. 
 
 Rush'tpn, (Edward,) an English Roman Catholic 
 priest, born in Lancashire, graduated at Oxford in 1572. 
 He published Sanders's work "On the Anglican Schism," 
 (" De Schismate Anglicano," 1585,) with additions. Died 
 at Louvain in 1586. 
 
 Rush/worth, ( John, ) an English lawyer, distin- 
 guished as a compiler of materials for history, was born 
 in Northumberland about 1607. He was assistant clerk 
 to the House of Commons during the Long Parliament. 
 He diligently pursued the practice of taking notes of 
 public transactions, and reported, in short-hand, the 
 speeches of members of Parliament. He served Sir T. 
 Fairfax as secretary from 1645 to 1650, during which 
 period Fairfax was commander-in-chief. He published 
 " Historical Collections of Private Passages of State, 
 Weighty Matters in Law," etc., (8 vols., 1659-1701.) 
 Died in 1690. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Rusk, (Thomas J.,) an American officer and politician, 
 born in South Carolina in 1803. He removed to Texas 
 about 1835, was the first secretary of war of the republic 
 of Texas, and commanded the army after General Hous- 
 ton was wounded at San Jacinto, April, 1836. In 1845 
 he was elected a Senator of the United States by the 
 legislature of Texas. He was re-elected Senator about 
 1851. Died at Nacogdoches in 1856. 
 
 Rus'kin, (John,) an English artist and eloquent 
 writer on art and nature, was born in London in Feb- 
 ruary, 1819. He was the only child of a wine-merchant, 
 and inherited an ample fortune. "The first thing which 
 I remember as an event in life," says he, "was being 
 taken by my nurse to the brow of Friar's Crag on Der- 
 wentwater." In his childhood he enjoyed other excur- 
 sions to the country, on which subject he remarks, " In 
 such journeyings, whenever they brought me near hills, 
 and in all mountain ground and scenery, I had a pleasure, 
 as early as I can remember, and continuing till I was 
 eighteen or twenty, infinitely greater than any which has 
 been since possible to me in anything. . . . Although 
 there was no definite religious sentiment mingled with 
 it, there was a continual perception of sanctity in the 
 whole of nature, from the slightest thing to the vastest, 
 — an instinctive awe mixed with delight ; an indefinable 
 thrill such as we sometimes imagine to indicate the 
 presence of a disembodied spirit." ("Modern Painters," 
 vol. iii. chap, xvii.) He was educated at Christ Church, 
 Oxford, gained the Newdigate prize in 1839 for an 
 English poem entitled " Salsetto and Elephanta," and 
 graduated in 1842. He received lessons in drawing and 
 painting from Copley, Fielding, and J. D. Harding, and 
 became an ardent admirer of Turner. To defend Turner 
 from hostile critics, he wrote the first volume of his 
 "Modern Painters," (1843, by a Graduate of Oxford.) 
 This work, which was expanded into a treatise on art, 
 nature, etc. and extended to five volumes, established 
 his reputation as the greatest art-critic of England, 
 although many of his opinions are paradoxical. It dis- 
 plays a rare faculty of observation, a rich imagination, 
 and great mastery of language. He discusses many 
 questions of ethics and philosophy in an earnest but 
 rather impulsive and wayward spirit. He devoted sev- 
 
 eral years to the study of art in Italy, especially in Venice. 
 In 1849 he. produced "The Seven Lamps of Architec- 
 ture," and afterwards an eloquent and brilliant work 
 on "The Stones of Venice," (3 vols., 1851-53.) He 
 advocated the cause of the Pre-Raphaelites in a pam- 
 phlet entitled " Pre-Raphaelitism," (1851.) In 1854 he 
 published " Lectures on Architecture and Painting," 
 (delivered at Edinburgh.) In i860 he contributed to the 
 "Cornhill Magazine" a series of essays on political 
 economy. Among his recent works are "Sesame and 
 Lilies," (1864,) "The Ethics of the Dust: Ten Lectures 
 to Little Housewives on the Elements of Crystalliza- 
 tion," (1865,) "The Crown of Wild Olive : Three Lec- 
 tures on Work, Traffic, and War," (1866,) and "The 
 Queen of the Air : being a Study of the Greek Myths 
 of Cloud and Storm," (1869.) He built a number of 
 model houses for the poor, in London. He was elected 
 Slade professor of art at Oxford in 1869. 
 
 " Mr. Ruskin," said Charlotte Bronte\ " seems to me 
 one of the few genuine writers, as distinguished from 
 book-makers, of this age. . . . He writes like a con- 
 secrated priest of the Abstract and Ideal." 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for September, 1851, and Novem- 
 ber, 1856: "London Quarterly Review" for April, 1856; Fraser's 
 Magazine" for April, 1S54 ; " North British Review" for February, 
 1862; "British Quarterly Review" for May, 1847; "Westminster 
 Review" for April, 1856; Au.ibonk, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Russ, (John Denison,) M.D., an American physician 
 and philanthropist, born at Essex, Massachusetts, in 
 1801. He was appointed in 1832 superintendent of the 
 New York Institution for the Blind. He was also one 
 of the vice-presidents of the New York Prison Associa- 
 tion, and was connected with various other charitable 
 institutions. 
 
 Rusa, rooss, (Karl,) a German historical painter, 
 born in Vienna in 1779, was patronized by the archduke 
 John of Austria. He etched some of his own pictures. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Rus'sell, (Alexander,) F.R.S., a Scottish physician 
 and naturalist, born in Edinburgh. He was appointed 
 physician to the English Factory at Aleppo in 1740. In 
 1754 he returned to England, and published a " Natural 
 History of Aleppo," (1755,) which was received with 
 favour. He afterwards practised in London. Died 
 in 1768. , 
 
 See " Essay on the Character of Alexander Russell ;" Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Rus'sell, (Benjamin,) an American journalist of the 
 Revolution, was born at Boston in 1761. In 1784 he 
 founded the " Columbia Centinel," a leading journal of 
 the Federal party. Died in 1845. 
 
 Russell, (David A.,) an American general, a son of 
 David Russell, M.C., of Salem, New York, was born 
 about 1822. He graduated at West Point in 1845, served, 
 in the Mexican war, and became a captain in 1854. He 
 commanded a division at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863, 
 and at the battle of the Wilderness, May 5 and 6, 1864. 
 He was killed at the battle of Opequan Creek, near 
 Winchester, in September, 1864. 
 
 See Trnney, " Military History of the Rebellion," p. 790. 
 
 Rus'sell, (Edward,) Earl of Orford, an English 
 admiral, born in 165 1, was a nephew of the first Duke 
 of Bedford. He was a prominent Whig chief in the 
 revolution of 1688. About 1690 he was appointed 
 commander of the combined navies of England and 
 Holland ; but, not satisfied with this honour, he is said 
 to have secretly conspired to restore James II. In 
 1692 he gained a great victory over the French off La 
 Hogue. He became first lord of the admiralty in 1693, 
 after which he commanded with success in the Mediter- 
 ranean. He was created Earl of Orford and Viscount 
 Barfleur in 1697. Died in 1727. 
 
 See Macaulav, " History of England." 
 
 Russell, (Francis,) seventh Duke of Bedford, born, 
 in 1788, was a brother of Lord John (Earl) Russell. He 
 was an active supporter of the Whig measures in Par- 
 liament. He devoted much attention to agriculture, in 
 which he is said to have made important improvements. 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 Russell, (George,) an English poet and parson, 
 born in Minorca in 1728; died in 1767. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; m 8t; not; good; moon; 
 
RUSSELL 
 
 '935 
 
 R USSELL 
 
 Russell, (Sir Henry,) an English judge, born in 
 1751. He was appointed chief justice of Bengal in 
 1797. Died in 1836. ' 
 
 Russell, (John,) first Earl of Bedford, obtained a 
 high position at court in 1505. He served with distinc- 
 tion in the expedition which Henry VIII. led against 
 France in 15 13, and was rewarded with lands attached 
 to the abbey of Tavistock and the monastery of Wobum. 
 He was appointed lord high admiral and created Earl 
 of Bedford in 1550. Died in 1555. 
 
 See J. H. Wiffbn, "Historical Memoirs of the House of Rus- 
 «ell," 1833. 
 
 Russell, (John,) fourth Duke of Bedford, an Eng- 
 lish statesman, born in 1710, succeeded to the dukedom 
 in 1732. He became secretary of state in 1748, and ne- 
 gotiated in 1762 a treaty of peace with France. He was 
 president of the council in the Grenville ministry, (1763- 
 65.) He was a man of good intentions, but was misled 
 by a set of political jobbers, called the " Bloomsbury 
 gang." Died in 1771. 
 
 See David Ross, " Sketch of the History of the House of Rus- 
 •ell," 1848. 
 
 Russell, (Lord John,) afterwards Earl Russell, 
 an eminent british Whig statesman, born in London on 
 the iSth of August, 1792. He was the third son of the 
 sixth Duke of Bedford. His mother was a daughter of 
 the fourth Viscount Torrington. He studied first at the 
 Westminster School, from which he passed to the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh, where he attended the lectures of 
 Dugald Stewart and Thomas Brown and was a pupil of 
 Playfair. He was elected to Parliament for Tavistock in 
 18 1 3, and began his career as a member of the Whig party, 
 which was then in the opposition. He soon became 
 a zealous advocate of Parliamentary reform, and made 
 motions for the suppression of rotten boroughs, which 
 he repeated year after year. In 1821 he published " An 
 Essay on the History of the English Government and 
 Constitution," and in 1822 "Don Carlos, or Persecu- 
 tion," a tragedy. He procured in 1828 the repeal of the 
 Test acts which subjected Protestant dissenters to civil 
 disabilities. On the accession of the Whig party to 
 power in 1830, Lord John was appointed paymaster of 
 the forces, and a member of the committee of four by 
 which the celebrated Reform bill was prepared. Russell 
 is reputed to be the principal author of this bill, which 
 was introduced in March, 1831, and was rejected by a 
 small majority. The ministers, having dissolved Parlia- 
 ment and appealed to the country, obtained a large ma- 
 jority in the new House of Commons, and, after a long 
 and violent crisis, caused by the hostility of the House 
 of Lords, the Reform bill became a law in 1832. Lord 
 John was the leader of the Whig party in the House of 
 Commons after 1834, and was appointed secretary for 
 the home department by Lord Melbourne in April, 1835. 
 He married in 1835 Adelaide, the widow of Lord Ribbles- 
 dale and the daughter of Thomas Lister. He represented 
 Stroud in Parliament from 1834 to 1841, and was secre- 
 tary for the colonies from August, 1839, to September, 
 1841. In the latter year he was chosen one of the mem- 
 bers for the city of London, and resigned office with his 
 colleagues. He contributed in 1845 to the repeal of the 
 Corn Laws. The Whig party having been restored to 
 power by the defeat of Sir Robert Peel, Russell became 
 prime minister* in July, 1846. He resigned office in 
 February or March, 1852, and in December of that year 
 entered the ministry of Lord Aberdeen as secretary for 
 foreign affairs. Having retired from this position in 
 February, 1853, he was president of the council from 
 April or June, 1854, to January, 1855. He served under 
 Palmerston as colonial secretary for a short time in 1855. 
 
 On the formation of a new ministry by Lord Palmer- 
 ston in June, 1859, Lord John was appointed secretary 
 for foreign affairs. In July, 1861, he was raised to the 
 peerage, as Earl Russell of Kingston-Russell, and passed 
 into the House of Lords. During the civil war in Amer- 
 ica he pursued a policy of neutrality and non-interven- 
 tion. Like many other European statesmen, he hastily 
 judged that the Union was doomed to a premature 
 dissolution. In October, 1865, he was called by public 
 opinion and the will of the queen to the office of prime 
 minister, vacated by the death of Lord Palmerston. The 
 
 cabinet on this occasion was reorganized by the admis- 
 sion of a few new members. His principal colleagues 
 were W. E. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer, 
 Lord Clarendon, secretary for foreign affairs, Lord Gran- 
 ville, president of the council, the Duke of Somerset, 
 first lord of the admiralty, Edward Cardwell, secretary 
 for the colonies, and Milner Gibson, president of the 
 board of trade. In the jearly part of the session of 1866 
 the ministry introduced a bill for the extension of the 
 elective franchise, with which they pledged themselves 
 to stand or fall. In this Reform bill they proposed to 
 give the franchise to every citizen of a borough who 
 occupied, as owner or tenant, a house of the clear 
 yearly value of seven pounds. A long and excited 
 debate followed. Although the professed Liberals 
 were a large majority of the House, the bill was de- 
 feated by a majority of eleven, June 18, 1866, and the 
 ministry resigned. 
 
 See Alison, " History of Europe ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale :" L. de Lombnie, " Lord J. Russell, par un Homme de 
 Rien," 1840; S. Smm.es, " Brief Biographies;" " London Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1823 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1838, June, 
 1845, December, 1852; "Westminster Review" for October, 1848. 
 
 Russell, (John Scott,) F.R.S., a British engineer 
 and naval architect, was born in the Vale of Clyde, in 
 Scotland, in 1808. He settled in London in 1844. He 
 distinguished himself by his experiments to ascertain the 
 form of ships which will encounter the least resistance, 
 and adopted the theory that a ship should resemble in 
 form a " wave of translation." The Great Eastern is 
 constructed according to his system. 
 
 Russell, (Michael,) LL.D., Bishop of Glasgow, an 
 able writer, born in Edinburgh in 1781. He became 
 incumbent of Saint James's Chapel, Leith, about 1810. 
 His principal work is "The Connection of Sacred and 
 Profane History," (3 vols., 1821-27,) which is highly 
 esteemed. He became Bishop of Glasgow in 1837. Died 
 in 1848. 
 
 Russell, (Patrick,) M.D., born in Scotland in 1726, 
 was a brother of Alexander, noticed above. He suc- 
 ceeded his brother in 1754 as physician at Aleppo, where 
 he witnessed the prevalence of the great plague of 1760. 
 He published in 1791 an excellent "Treatise on the 
 Plague." Died in 1805. 
 
 Russell, (Lady Rachel Wriothesley— rot'es-le,) 
 born about 1636, was a daughter of the Earl of South- 
 ampton, and one of the most lovely and noble of women. 
 Her first husband was Lord Vaughan. In 1669 she was 
 married to Lord William Russell, at whose trial she 
 served him as amanuensis. Her conduct on this occa- 
 sion excited general admiration and sympathy. Died 
 in 1723. 
 
 See "Letters of Lady Russell;" "Lady Russell: an Historical 
 Study," translated from the French of Guizot, whose work is entitled 
 " L' Amour dans le Mariage," 8th edition, 1862; "Some Account of 
 the Life of Rachel Wriothesley, Lady Russell ;" " Memoirs of Emi- 
 nent Englishwomen," by Louisa S. Costrllo, 1844. 
 
 Russell, (William,) fifth Earl, and afterwards Duke 
 of Bedford, born about 1614, inherited the earldom at 
 the death of his father, in 1641. He was an adherent 
 of the Parliament in the beginning of the civil war, but 
 became a royalist in 1643. He was the father of Lord 
 William Russell who was beheaded in 1683. In 1694 
 he was created Duke of Bedford. Died in 1700. 
 
 Russell, (William,) Lord, an English patriot, son of 
 the preceding, was born in 1639. He entered Parliament 
 in 1660, and married in 1669 the widow of Lord Vaughan, 
 (see Russell, Lady,) with whom he passed many happy 
 years. By his honourable character and high rank he 
 acquired great political influence, which he employed in 
 defence of civil and religious liberty. He was appointed 
 by Charles II. a member of a new council of ministers 
 formed in 1679. In 1680 he and his friends procured 
 the passage of a bill for the exclusion of the Duke of 
 York from the throne because he was a papist. The 
 bill was rejected by the peers. A conspiracy against the 
 king, called the Rye-House Plot, was formed by some 
 inferior partisans. This plot having been detected, Lord 
 Russell was accused of complicity in it, and unjustly 
 condemned to death. He was beheaded on the 22d of 
 July, 1683. He left a son, who became Duke of Bedford, 
 " He had given such proofs of an undaunted courage and 
 
 « as i; 9, as /; g hard; g as,/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; £ as »; *h as in thit. (J^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
R USSELL 
 
 •936 
 
 R UXTON 
 
 unshaken firmness," says Burnet, "that no man of that 
 time had so entire a credit in the nation as he had." 
 
 See Lord John Russell, " Life of William Lord Russell," i8ig; 
 T. H. Wiffen, " Memoirs of the House of Russell," 2 vols., 1833 ; 
 "Lord Russell's Case, with Observations upon it," by Henry 
 Lord de la Mere; Burnet, "History of bis Own Time;" D. 
 Ross, "Sketch of the History of the House of Russell," 1848; 
 "Monthly Review" for March, 1820. 
 
 Russell, (William,) LL.D., a British historian, born 
 in the county of Selkirk in 1741. He became a resident 
 of London in 1767, and published various works in 
 prose and verse. His most popular work is a " History 
 of Modem Europe," (5 vols., 1779-84.) Died in 1793. 
 
 See Irvine, "Life of William Russell," 1801; "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for July, 1818. 
 
 Russell, (William,) a teacher and educational writer, 
 born at Glasgow, Scotland, in 1798. Having emigrated 
 to the United States, he became in 1826 editor of the 
 "American Journal of Education." He has published 
 several text-books for schools. 
 
 Rus'sell, (William Howard,) an Irish writer, noted 
 as correspondent of the London "Times," was born in 
 Dublin in 1821. He accompanied the British army to 
 the Crimea in 1854, and wrote letters on the Crimean 
 war, which attracted great attention and were collected 
 in two volumes, (1856.) In 1861 he was sent to the 
 United States to report for the "Times" the progress 
 of the rebellion. 
 
 Rust, (George,) an English divine, born at Cam- 
 bridge. He became Bishop of Dromore in 1667, and 
 published several religious works. Died in 1670. 
 
 Rustam or Rustem. See Roostam. 
 
 Rustici, roos'tee-chee, (Francesco,) an able Italian 
 painter, born at Sienna about 1595. He died prema- 
 turely in 1625. 
 
 Rustici, (Giovanni Francesco,) a skilful Italian 
 sculptor, born at Florence about 1460 or 1470, was a 
 pupil of Leonardo da Vinci. He executed three colossal 
 bronze statues — Saint John, a Pharisee, and a Levite — 
 for the baptistery of Florence. He removed to France 
 about 1528. In the latter part of his life he worked in 
 Paris for Francis I. Died about 1550. " He was without 
 an equal for the casting of works in metal," says Vasari, 
 who also praises his character in high terms. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors." 
 
 Rut'gers, (Colonel Henry,) an American patriot, 
 born about 1746, fought in the Revolutionary war, and 
 was afterwards a citizen of New York City. He was very 
 rich, and gave large sums for charity. Died in 1830. 
 
 Rutgers, rut'gers or rut' Hers, (John,) an able Dutch 
 critic, bom at Dort in 1589, was a brother-in-law of 
 Daniel Heinsius. He was appointed a councillor of 
 state by the King of Sweden in 1614, after which he 
 was employed by Gustavus Adolphus in diplomatic mis- 
 sions. Among his works are " Variae Lectiones," (1618,) 
 and an autobiography, (1646.) Died in 1625. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Ruth, [Heb. nil,] a Moabite woman, who was mar- 
 ried to Mahlon, a Hebrew, and afterwards to Boaz. She 
 was a great-grandmother of King David. Her story is 
 the subject of the canonical book of Ruth. 
 
 Ruth'er-ford, (Daniel,) a Scottish physician and 
 botanist, born in Edinburgh in 1749. He is regarded as 
 the discoverer of nitrogen, on which he wrote a thesis, 
 " De Aere mephitico," (1772.) He became professor of 
 medicine and botany at Edinburgh in 1786. Died in 1819. 
 
 Rutherford, (Samuel,) a Scottish minister and Cov- 
 enanter, born in the parish of Nisbet, Roxburghshire, 
 about 1600, was an eloquent and zealous preacher. He 
 was ordained minister at Anworth in 1627, and became 
 professor of divinity at Saint Andrew's in 1639. He 
 wrote against the divine right of kings, in a work en- 
 titled "Law is King," ("Lex Rex.") Among his 
 works are "The Trial and Triumph of Faith," (1645,) 
 and religious " Letters." Died in 1661. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Charles Thomson, "Letters and Life of the Rev. Samuel Ruther- 
 ford," 2 vols., 1846. 
 
 Rttth'er-forth, (Thomas,) D.D., F.R.S., an English 
 writer, born in Cambridgeshire in 1712. He became 
 rector of Barley and Archdeacon of Essex. He wrote 
 several works on religion, philosophy, etc. Died in 1771. 
 
 Rfith'er-furd, (Andrew,) a learned and able Scot- 
 tish lawyer and judge, born in 1791, was an intimate 
 friend of Lord Jeffrey. He was appointed lord advocate 
 of Scotland in 1839, retired from that office in 1841, and 
 was restored in 1846. In 185: he became a lord of 
 session. Died in 1854. 
 
 Ruthven. See Gowrie, Earl of. 
 
 Ru-till-us Lu'pus, a Roman rhetorician of an un- 
 certain epoch. He was author of a work " On the 
 Figures of Sentences and Elocution," (" De Figuris Sen- 
 tentiarum et Elocutionis,") which is accounted valuable. 
 Some suppose he was a son of Rutilius Lupus who was 
 tribune of the people about 55 B.C. 
 
 Rutil'ius Numatia'nus, (nu-ma-she-a'nus,) (Clau- 
 dius,) a Roman poet, born in Gaul about the end of the 
 fourth century, was a pagan. He became prtzfectus urbi 
 at Rome, and described a journey from Rome to Gaul 
 in a poem called " Itinerarimn," which is a work of 
 much merit. Nearly half of it is lost. 
 
 Rut'land, (Charles Cecil John Manners,) Duke 
 of, eldest son of John Henry Manners, fifth Duke of 
 Rutland, was born in 181 5. He was styled Marquis of 
 Granby before he succeeded to the dukedom, in 1857. 
 He is a conservative in politics. 
 
 Rutland, (Charles Manners,) fourth Duke of, was 
 the eldest son of the general, Marquis of Granby. He 
 succeeded his grandfather, the third duke, in 1779. He 
 was a personal and political friend of William Pitt, and 
 was a patron of the poet Crabbe. He was eminent for 
 generosity and benevolence. Died in 1787. 
 
 Rutland, Earl of, an English peer, whose family 
 name was Manners, was a favourite of Henry VIII. 
 He held important offices in the reign of that king, and 
 was created Earl of Rutland in 1525. One of his de- 
 scendants, John Manners, the tenth earl, was created 
 Marquis of Granby and Duke of Rutland about 1702. 
 
 Rut'ledge, (Edward,) an American jurist, and signer 
 of the Declaration.of Independence, was born at Charles- 
 ton, South Carolina, in 1749. At the age of twenty-five 
 he was elected to the Congress of 1774, and in 1798 
 became Governor of South Carolina. He enjoyed a high 
 reputation as a lawyer and orator. Died in 1800. 
 
 Rutledge, (John,) an American jurist and orator, 
 born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1739, was a 
 brother of the preceding. He became in 1774 a member 
 of the General Congress, in which he was a bold and 
 prominent supporter of independence. He was elected 
 president of South Carolina in 1776, and Governor of 
 that State in 1779. In 1787 he was a member of the 
 National Convention which framed the Constitution of 
 the United States, the adoption of which he afterwards 
 advocated. He was appointed a judge of the supreme 
 court of the United States in 1789, and chief justice of 
 South Carolina in 1791. He was nominated chief justice 
 of the United States in July, 1795, but was rejected by 
 the Senate in December of that year. He was an elo- 
 quent orator, and a man of eminent talents. Died in 
 July, 1800. 
 
 See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Rut'tjf, (John,) a physician and writer, born in Dub- 
 lin in 1698, was a member of the Society of Friends. 
 He practised in Dublin, and wrote, besides some medical 
 works, a " History of the Rise and Progress of the 
 People called Quakers in Ireland," (1751,) and a "Spir- 
 itual Diary and Soliloquies," (2 vols., 1776.) Died in 
 
 ■775- 
 
 Ruvigny, de, deh rii'ven'ye', (Henri de Massue — 
 deh mt'sii',) Marquis, a French Huguenot general and 
 able diplomatist, born in 1610, was an uncle of the excel- 
 lent Lady Rachel Russell. He fought for the king in the 
 war of the Fronde. Having been sent by Louis XIV. on a 
 mission to Charles II. in 1675, he induced the latter for 
 a pecuniary consideration to become subservient to the 
 designs of the French king. He emigrated to England 
 in 1686, and died in 1689, leaving a son, who was a 
 famous general. (See Gai.way, Earl of.) 
 
 See Haag. "La France protestante." 
 
 Rux'ton, (George Frederick,) an English traveller, 
 born in 1820, became a lieutenant in the British army. 
 He wrote " Adventures in the Rocky Mountains and 
 
 5, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
RVTSBROEK 
 
 '937 
 
 RTS BRACK 
 
 Mexico," and " Life in the Far West." Died at Saint 
 Louis, Missouri, in 1848. 
 
 Ruysbroek. See Rubruquis. 
 
 Ruysbroek, de, deh rois'bRook, (Jan,) called thk 
 Ecstatic Doctor, a Flemish mystic and writer, born 
 about 1204; died in 1381. 
 
 See Engklhardt, '* Richard von St. Victor und Jan Ruysbroek," 
 
 Ruysch. See Ruisch. 
 
 Ruysdael, Ruysdaal, or Ruisdael, rois'dSl, (Ja- 
 con,) a Dutch landscape-painter of high reputation, was 
 born at Haarlem about 1630. His birth is variously 
 dated 1625, 1630, and 1635. He was a friend of Nicholas 
 Berghem, from whom perhaps he received instruction 
 in art. He imitated nature with fidelity. His favourite 
 subjects were sylvan scenes, cascades, and marine views. 
 Among his master-pieces is "The Stag- Hunt," in the 
 gallery of Dresden. Died in 1681. 
 
 See Descamps, "Viesdes Peintres Flamands,Hollandais," etc. 
 
 Ruysdael, (Solomon,) a painter, born at Haarlem 
 in 1616, was a brother of the preceding. He invented 
 a composition which was a good imitation of variegated 
 marble. Died in 1670. 
 
 Ruyter or Ruiter, de, deh rl'ter, [Dutch pron. cleh 
 roi'ter,] (Mtchakl Adriaanzoon,) a celebrated Dutch 
 admiral, born at Flushing in 1607. He obtained the 
 rank of rear-admiral in 1645, and fought an indecisive 
 battle against the English near Plymouth in 1652. In 
 1653 he distinguished himself in a great battle between 
 the Dutch, under Van Tromp, and the English, under 
 Blake. In the service of the King of Denmark be de- 
 feated the Swedes in 1659. He sailed up the Thames 
 in 1667 and destroyed the shipping at Sheerness. In 
 167 1 he commanded a fleet which the combined fleets 
 of England and France were not able to defeat. He 
 was mortally wounded in a fight against the French 
 admiral Duquesne in the Mediterranean in 1675. 
 
 See G. Brandt, " Leven en Bedrijf van M. van Ruiter," 16S7 : 
 Otto Klopp, " I.eben und Thaten des Admirals de Ruiter." 1852 ; 
 Last, "Leven van M. A. de Ruyter," 1.842; "Life of M. A. de 
 Ruyter," London, 1687; Brand, "Hulde aan den Admiraal de 
 Ruyter," 1827. 
 
 Ruyven, van, vSn roi'ven, (Pktf.r,) a Dutch his- 
 torical painter, born in 1650, was a pupil of Jordaens. 
 Died in 1718. 
 
 Ruzeea- (or Razia-) Begum, ruz-ee'a ba'gum, the 
 eldest daughter of Altmish Shems -ood-Deen, ascended 
 the throne of Delhi in 1236. On one occasion her father 
 had appointed her regent during his absence on a dis- 
 tant campaign. When asked by his officers why he 
 preferred his daughter to any of his sons, he replied that 
 his older sons gave themselves up to wine and every 
 excess, — that she, though a woman, was better than 
 twenty such sons. At first she ruled the empire with 
 great prudence as well as ability. But her partiality to 
 one of her officers, who was an Abyssinian, greatly 
 offended her nobles, in consequence of which she was 
 dethroned and put to death in 1239, after a reign of only 
 three years and six months. "She was,"s.iAs 1'erishta, 
 "possessed of every good quality which usually adorns 
 the ablest princes; and those who scrutinize her actions 
 most severely will find in her no fault but that she was a 
 woman." Ruzeea-Begum was a half-sister of the able 
 but eccentric Mahmood-Nasirood-Deen. 
 
 See Ferismta, " History of the Mahomedan Power in India," 
 translated by Hrigos, vol. i. pp. 214-222. 
 
 Rybaut or Ribaut, re'b5', ( Paul, ) an excellent 
 French Protestant minister, born near Montpelfler in 
 1718. He lived in caves and huts in the forest, where 
 he preached for many vears while the law denounced 
 death as the penalty of preaching the Protestant doc- 
 trines. He had great influence, and restrained his peo- 
 ple from rash and desperate measures. Died in 1795. 
 
 Rycaut or Ricaut, re'ko', ? (Sir Paul,) F.R.S., an 
 English diplomatist and historical writer, born in London, 
 graduated at Cambridge in 1650. He was secretary 
 of embassy at Constantinople from 1661 to 1669. He 
 published "The Present State of the Ottoman Empire," 
 (1670,) a " History of the Turkish Empire from 1623 
 to 1677," (1680,) and other works. In 1690 he was 
 appointed resident at the Hanse Towns. Died in 1700. 
 
 Ryckaert,rik'SRt, (David,) a skilful Flemish painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1615. He painted interiors, fairs, 
 rustic gatherings, musical parties, etc. Died in 1677. 
 
 Ryckaert, (Martin,) a landscape-painter, born at 
 Antwerp in 1591, was the father of the preceding. 
 He studied in Italy, and returned to Antwerp. Died 
 in 1636. 
 
 Rycke.de, deh rl'keh, [Lat. Ric'QUiusor Ryc'quius,] 
 (JossE,)a Flemish poet and antiquary, born at Ghent in 
 1587. Among his works are "Two Books of Odes," 
 ("Odarum Libri duo," 1614,) and "On the Roman 
 Capital," (" De Capitolio Romano," 1617.) Died in 
 1627. 
 
 Rycke, van, vin rl'keh, (Theodork,) a Dutch critic, 
 born at Arnhem in 1640. He was professor of hisiory 
 at the University of Leyden, and published an edition 
 of Tacitus, (1687.) Died in 1690. 
 
 Rycquius. See Rycke. 
 
 Ry'der, (Sir Dudley,) an English judge, born in 
 London in 1694. He became attorney-general in 1737, 
 and lord chief justice of the king's bench in 1754. He 
 was an ancestor of the Earl of Harrowby. Died in 1756. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Chief Justices;" Foss, 
 "The Judges of England." 
 
 Ryder, (Henry,) D.D., an English prelate, born 
 in 1777, was a younger son of the Earl of Harrowby. 
 He became Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1824. 
 Died in 1836. 
 
 Rydqvist, rid'kwlst, (Johan Erik,) a Swedish 
 critic and writer, born at Gothenburg in 1800. He 
 published, besides other works, " The Laws of the 
 Swedish Language," (2 vols., 1852-57.) 
 
 Ryer, Du. See Du Ryer. 
 
 Ry'er-spn, (Adolphus Egerton,) D.D., LL.D., a 
 Canadian Methodist divine, born in Upper Canada in 
 1803. He was appointed in 1844 superintendent of 
 public schools in Upper Canada. 
 
 Ryk, rlk, (Julius Constantine,) a Dutch naval 
 officer, born in Amsterdam in 1787. He became a 
 rear-admiral in 1838, minister of the marine in 1842, 
 and vice-admiral in 1844. 
 
 Ry'land, (John,) an eminent English Baptist minis- 
 ter, born at Warwick in 1753, was a son of Rev. J. C. 
 Ryland, principal of the Enfield Academy. He became 
 pastor of the Broadmead Chapel, Bristol, in 1793, and 
 wrote a " Life of Andrew Fuller," (1816.) Died in 1825. 
 
 Ry'land, (John,) a Baptist minister, preached at 
 Northampton. He wrote "The Christian Student and 
 Pastor," and other works, and was principal of an 
 academy at Enfield, where he died in 1792. 
 
 Ryland, (William Wynne,) an able English en- 
 graver, born in London in 1732, was a pupil of Le Bas, 
 of Paris. He was appointed engraver to George III. 
 with a pension of ^200 per annum, and engaged in busi- 
 ness as a dealer in prints. He introduced the chalk or 
 stipple method into England. He was convicted of 
 forgery of a bill of .£210 on the East India Company, 
 and was executed in 1783. He asserted his innocence 
 to the last. According to Strutt, " he was a man re- 
 spected and beloved by all that were acquainted with 
 him." He excelled in the use of the graver and needle 
 combined. 
 
 See Strutt, " Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Rylejew. See Rileyef. 
 
 Rymer. See Hrym. 
 
 Ry'mer, (Thomas,) an English antiquary and editor, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1638 or 1639, was a son of Ralph 
 Rymer, who was executed for insurrection in 1663. He 
 was appointed historiographer to William III. in 1692, 
 with a salary of ^200, and was charged to collect and 
 edit, under the auspices of Lord Somers and Mr. Mon- 
 tagu, the documents relating to transactions between 
 England and foreign powers. The first volume of this 
 important work, called " Rymer's Fcedera," appeared 
 in 1703, and was followed by sixteen other volumes. 
 Died in 17 14. 
 
 See " Nonvelle Bineraphie Ge'nerale ;" Chambers, "Biograph- 
 ical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Rysbrack, ris'bRak, written also Rysbraeck, (Mi- 
 ch all or John Michael,) an eminent Flemish sculp- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. 
 
 122 
 
 (JiySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
RTS BRACK 
 
 •938 
 
 SAAVEDRA 
 
 tor, born at Antwerp about 1694, was a son of Peter, 
 noticed below. He settled in London in 1720, and soon 
 became the most popular or successful sculptor in Eng- 
 land except Roubiliac. Among his best works are a 
 monument to Sir Isaac Newton in Westminster Abbey, 
 and a monument to the Duke of Marlborough at Blen- 
 heim. Died in 1770. 
 
 Rysbrack, Rysbraeck, or Rysbraech, some- 
 times written Rysbrechts, (Peter,) an able landscape- 
 painter, born at Antwerp in 1657, was the father of the 
 preceding. He imitated the style of N. Poussin with 
 success. He excelled in colouring and in boldness and 
 freedom of touch. Died in 17 16. 
 
 Rysbraeck. See Rysbrack. 
 
 Rysbrechts. See Rysbrack. 
 
 Ryves, rlvz, (Bruno,) a minister of the Anglican 
 Church, born in Dorsetshire, became chaplain of Mag- 
 
 dalene College, Oxford, in 1616. He was afterwards 
 chaplain to Charles I., and was persecuted during the 
 civil war. Died in 1677. 
 
 Ryves, (Sir Thomas,) an English civilian, became a 
 Fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1598, and a master 
 in chancery in 1618. He was in the civil war a zealous 
 partisan of Charles I., whom he assisted in the treaty of 
 the Isle of Wight. He wrote "Ancient Naval History," 
 (" Historia navalis antiqua,") and other works. Died 
 in 1651. 
 
 Rzewuski, Rzewusky, zha-woos'ke, written also 
 Rzewiesky, (Wenceslas,) a Polish general and noble- 
 man, born in 1705, was noted for his literary attainments. 
 He was imprisoned six years at Smolensk and Kalouga 
 for his opposition to the election of Stanislas Ponia- 
 towski, in 1767. He wrote poems, dramas, etc. Died 
 in 1779. 
 
 s. 
 
 Saa, de, da si, (Emanuel,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born 
 in 1530, became professor of divinity at Rome, and was 
 employed by PiusV. to superintend a new edition of the 
 Vulgate. Died in 1596. 
 
 Saa de Miranda. See Miranda. 
 
 Sa da Bandeira, de, da sa da ban-da'e-ra, (Ber- 
 nardo,) a Portuguese soldier and statesman, born in 
 1796, fought against the French in the Peninsular war, 
 and subsequently became a partisan of Dom Pedro, who 
 made him a peer and minister of the marine. 
 
 Saad-ed-Deen or Saad-Eddin, sa'ad ed-deen', 
 (Mohammed EiTendi, mo-ham'med ef-fen'dee,) an 
 eminent Turkish historian, born in 1536, was educated 
 at the court of the Sultan Selim I. He became pro- 
 fessor of theology and jurisprudence in the college 
 attached to the mosque of Saint Sophia, and in 1573 was 
 appointed by Selim II. khoja or preceptor to his son, 
 Amurath III. He also enjoyed the favour of Mohammed 
 III., the successor of Amurath, and in 1598 was raised 
 to the dignity of grand mufti. He had previously been 
 appointed by Amurath imperial historiographer, — an 
 office created expressly for him. His principal work, 
 entitled "The Crown of Histories," ( "Taj-al-Towa- 
 rikh,") is regarded by the Turks as a model of elegance 
 in style, and is highly commended by Sir William Jones. 
 It was translated into Italian by Vincenzo Bratutti. Died 
 in 1599. 
 
 Saadee, Saadi, or Sadi, sa'a-dee or sa'dee, (Mus- 
 lih-ed-Deen* (or -eddin,) moos'liH ed-deen',) a cele- 
 brated Persian poet, born at Shiraz about 1184. He 
 early manifested a remarkable spirit of devotion, and he 
 is said to have made during his life no fewer than fifteen 
 pilgrimages to Mecca, besides which he visited in his 
 travels Bagdad, Damascus, Jerusalem, Morocco, Egypt, 
 Abyssinia, Hindostan, and other countries. Among his 
 other adventures, he was taken prisoner in battle with 
 the crusaders, by whom he was held for some time in 
 captivity. On his return from his extended peregrina- 
 tions he took up his abode in his native city, where, 
 chiefly on account of his religious character, he appears 
 to have been regarded with the highest respect and 
 veneration. Princes and nobles are said often to have 
 visited him, bringing him presents. He died in 1291, 
 having, it is said, attained the extraordinary age of one 
 hundred and seven years, or, as the Moslem writers 
 state it, of one hundred and ten (lunar) years. After his 
 death he was regarded as a saint, and tradition ascribed 
 to him the power of working miracles. 
 
 The works of Saadee are probably more extensively 
 read than those of any other Persian writer, Firdousee 
 (the Homer of Persia) not excepted. His "Gulistan" 
 (" Rose-Garden") is deservedly the most popular of all 
 his works. It consists of stories, anecdotes, and moral 
 observations and reflections, partly in prose and partly 
 in verse, and possesses, besides other merits, the charm 
 
 • Muslih (or Moslih) signifies "mediator," "pacificator." Mus- 
 lih-ed Deen maybe translated " pacificator, friend, or promoter of 
 the Faith." 
 
 of endless variety. The religious character of his mind 
 is conspicuous in his writings ; he appears, moreover, to 
 have possessed a kindly and humane spirit, and his 
 moral sentiments may be said to be for the most part 
 elevated and pure, with one important exception, his 
 encouraging or conniving at deceit, which, like most 
 other Asiatics, he seems to have regarded as often a 
 venial fault and sometimes as a virtue of high order. 
 Among Saadee's other writings is the " Bostan," (" Fruit- 
 Garden,") which is a religious and moral poem, divided 
 into ten books. Saadee is greatly admired by his coun- 
 trymen as a lyric poet. 
 
 The style of Saadee is usually clear, simple, and ani- 
 mated ; he is sometimes eloquent and highly poetical. 
 According to the opinion of some eminent critics, he 
 makes a more sparing use of hyperbole and metaphor 
 than most other Oriental writers. His language, how- 
 ever, differs from that of Firdousee in containing fewer 
 words from the original Persian, and a much larger 
 admixture of Arabic terms and phrases. 
 
 See L. M. Langles, " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de 
 Sa'ady," about 1820; D'Herbelot, " Bibliotheque Orientate ;" 
 Ousei.ey, "Biographical Notices of the Persian Potts ;" Silvkstre 
 de Sacy, "Notices;" Von Hammer, "Geschichte der schbnen 
 Redekiinste Persiens." 
 
 Saadia, sa'dee'a, (Ben Joseph,) a celebrated Jewish 
 theologian and philosopher, sometimes called Saadias- 
 Gaon, born at Fayoom, in Egypt, in 892. He was teacher 
 of the Jewish academy at Sura, and made an Arabic 
 translation of the Pentateuch. He also wrote, in Arabic, 
 a treatise "On Religions and Doctrines." Died in 942. 
 
 Saa*, sas, (Jean,) a French ecclesiastic and bibliogra- 
 pher, bi.rn at Rouen in 1703 ; died in 1774. 
 
 Saavidra, de. See Cervantes. 
 
 Saavedra, de, da siva'DRa, (Angei.,) Duke of Rivas, 
 a distinguished Spanish poet, statesman, and soldier, 
 born at Cordova in 1791. He fought against the French 
 at Talavera, and was severely wounded at the battle of 
 Ocafia, in 1809. On the French invasion of 1823, he 
 repaired to London, and subsequently to Malta, where 
 he devoted himself to the study of English literature. 
 Soon after his return he was appointed procer of the 
 kingdom, and became a member of the ministry under 
 Isturiz in 1836. He was afterwards ambassador to 
 Naples, and filled other important offices. Among his 
 principal works are the poem of "The Moorish Found- 
 ling," ("El Moro Exposito," 1834,) the tragedy of " Don 
 Alvaro," (1835,) "La Morisca de Alajuar," a drama, 
 (1842,) and a history of Masaniello's insurrection at 
 Naples. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Keni.hdy, 
 "Modern Poets of Spain." 
 
 Saavedra y Fajardo, (or Faxardo,) si-va'DRae fa- 
 HaR'do, (Diego,) a Spanish diplomatist and distinguished 
 writer, born in the province of Murcia in 1584. He was 
 sent on diplomatic missions to several courts of Germany 
 and Italy. His principal works are an "Idea of a Chris- 
 tian Prince," (" Idea de tin Principe politico Christiano," 
 etc., 1640,) consisting chiefly of a collection of political 
 
 a, e, f, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
I, ABA 
 
 '939 
 
 SACADAS 
 
 maxims, and an ingenious critique of ancient and 
 modern writers, entitled "Republica Literaria," (1670.) 
 Died in 1648. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature;" G. Mayans v 
 Siscar, "Oracion en Alabanza de las Obras de Don D. de Saavedra* 
 y Faxarclo," 1725. 
 
 Sa'ba or Sa'bas, [SuSac,] a Greek monk of high 
 reputation, born in Cappadocia about 439 A.D. He 
 founded a monastery near the river Jordan. He was an 
 opponent of the Monophysites. Died in 532 A.D. 
 
 Sab'a-Cpn or Sab'a-co, [Gr. Saganuv,] King of 
 Ethiopia, invaded Egypt, dethroned its king, and reigned 
 many years over that country. He lived probably about 
 750 or 800 B.C. 
 
 Sabas. See Saba. 
 
 Sabatei Sevi, sa-bl-ta'ee sa'vee, a Jewish impostor, 
 born at Smyrna in 1626, claimed to be the Messiah. 
 Being made prisoner by the Turks, he saved his life by 
 embracing Mohammedanism. Died in 1676. 
 
 Sabatier, sa'bS'te-i', (Andre Hyacinthe,) a French 
 lyric poet, was born at Cavaillon in 1726; died at 
 Avignon in 1806. 
 
 Sabatier or Sabbathier, st'bS'te-A', (Pierre,) a 
 French Benedictine monk, was born at Poitiers in 
 1682. He prepared an edition of all the Latin versions 
 of the Scriptures. Died in 1742. 
 
 Sabatier, (Raphael Bienvenu,) a French surgeon, 
 bom in Paris in 1732, was royal censor of the Academy 
 of Sciences, and received from Bonaparte the cross of 
 the legion of honour. He published several able surgical 
 treatises. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Sabatier de Castres, sf bS'te-i' deh ktstR, (An- 
 TOI.ne,) a French writer, was born at Castres in 1742. 
 He published a work entitled " The Three Ages of 
 French Literature," etc., (3 vols., 1772,) in opposition 
 to the doctrines of Helvetius. He also wrote "The 
 Heathen Ages, or Mythological, Political, Literary, 
 and Geographical Dictionary of Pagan Antiquity," (9 
 vols., 1784,) and other works. Died in 1817. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litte'raire;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge"neVaIe." 
 
 Sabatini, sa-ba-tee'nee, (Francesco,) a distinguished 
 Italian architect, born at Palermo in 1722, was a son- 
 in-law of Vanvitelli, whom he assisted in building the 
 palace of Caserta near Naples. He afterwards settled 
 at Madrid, where he built the custom-house, (Aduana,) 
 ' the gate of Alcala, and that of San Vincente. Died 
 in 1798. 
 
 Sabbathier, si'bS'te-i', (Francois,) a French mis- 
 cellaneous writer, born at Condom in 1735. His 
 chief work is " Dictionnaire pour 1'Intelligence des 
 Auteurs Grecs et Latins," (37 vols., 1766-1815,) which 
 treats of ancient history, geography, mythology, etc. 
 and presents a copious analysis of the Greek and Latin 
 historians. Died in 1807. 
 
 Sabbathier, (Pierre.) See Sabatier. 
 
 Sabbatini, sab-ba-tee'nee, (Andrea,) an Italian 
 painter, sometimes called Andrea da Salerno, born 
 about 1480, was a pupil of Raphael. He settled at 
 Naples, where several of his master-pieces are to be 
 seen. He is regarded as the best painter of the Nea- 
 politan school. Died in 1545. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Sabbatini, (Lorenzo,) an Italian painter, called 
 Lorenza da Bologna, was born in that city about 
 1540; died in 1577. 
 
 Sabbatini, (P. Ludovico Antonio,) an Italian 
 musician and writer of the eighteenth century, is some- 
 times called Sabbatini of Padua. Died in 1809. 
 
 Sa-bel'11-cus, (Marcus Antonius Coccius,) origin- 
 ally Marcantonio Coccio, (kot'cho,) an Italian histo- 
 rian and scholar, born in the Campagna di Roma in 
 1436. He became professor of eloquence at Venice. 
 His principal work is a "History of the Republic of 
 Venice," (in Latin, 1487.) Died in 1508. 
 
 See Vossius, "De Historicis Latinis ;" Bavlk, " Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary;" NiciRON, "M^moires." 
 
 Sa-bel'11-us, an African bishop or presbyter, who 
 lived about 250-270 A.D. and dissented from the ortho- 
 dox creed in relation to the Trinity. His doctrines were 
 adopted by a numerous sect, called Sabellians. Little is 
 
 known of his personal history. He taught that there is 
 only one hypostasis, or person, in the Divine nature. 
 See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography." 
 
 Sa-bi'na, a Roman empress, was married to the 
 emperor Hadrian about 100 A.D., and received the 
 title of Augusta. Having been ill treated by Hadrian, 
 she committed s"uicide about 137 A.D. 
 
 Sabina, (Popp^ea.) See Popp^sa. 
 
 Sab'Ine, (Edward,) an English mathematician and 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, born in October, 1788, 
 accompanied Parry's expedition to the Arctic regions 
 in 1819. He published in the "Philosophical Trans- 
 actions," after his return, the result of his observations 
 on the action of the magnetic needle. In 1822 he made 
 a voyage to Africa and North and South America, of 
 which he gave an account in his " Pendulum Expe- 
 dition," (1825.) He has also written "Reports on 
 Magnetic and Meteorological Observations," and other 
 similar works. He became vice-president of the Royal 
 Society in 1850, and president of the same in 1861. 
 
 Sabine, (Joseph,) an English savant, born in 1770, 
 was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and filled the post 
 of vice-president of the Zoological Society, and other 
 important offices. Died in 1837. 
 
 Sa-bin-I-a'nus [Fr. Sabinien, si'be'ne^N'] suc- 
 ceeded Gregory I. as Pope of Rome in 604, A.D. He 
 survived his election only eighteen months, and Boni- 
 face III. was his successor. 
 
 Sa-bi'nus, (Aulus,) a Roman poet, was the friend 
 of Ovid, and the author of Epistles, or " Heroides," in 
 reply to those of Ovid. Only three of them are extant. 
 
 Sabinus, (Calvisius,) a Roman commander, was an 
 adherent of Caesar in the civil war. He obtained the 
 province of Africa in 45 B.C., was consul in 39, and 
 commanded the fleet of Octavius in 38 B.C. 
 
 Sabinus, (Ccelius M.,) a Roman jurist, flourished in 
 the reign of Vespasian, and became consul in 69 A.D. 
 
 Sabinus, (Flavius,) a Roman general of high repu- 
 tation, was a brother of the emperor Vespasian. He held 
 the high office of prafectus urbis from 58 to 69 A.D. 
 Having been taken prisoner by the soldiers of Vitellius, 
 he was massacred at Rome in 69 A.D. 
 
 Sabinus, sa-bee'nits, (Georg,) a German scholar and 
 Latin poet, whose original name was Schuler, (shu'ler,) 
 was born at Brandenburg in 1508. He was a son-in-law 
 of Melanchthon. He became professor of poetry and 
 eloquence at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and in 1544 rector 
 of the University of Konigsberg. Among his works we 
 may name his Latin elegies, entitled " Sabini Carmina." 
 Died in 1560. 
 
 See P. Albinus, "Vita G. Sabini," 1724; M. W. Heffter, 
 "Erinnerung an G. Sabinus," 1844 ; A. FOkstenhaupt, "Georg 
 Sabinus," 1849. 
 
 Sabinus, (Julius,) a Gallic chieftain of the district 
 of the Lingones, caused himself to be proclaimed Csesai 
 about 70 A.D., and invaded the territory of the Sequani. 
 He was soon after arrested and put to death by order ol 
 Vespasian. 
 
 Sabinus, (Massurius or Masurius,) an eminent 
 Roman jurist, lived in the reigns of Tiberius and Ca- 
 ligula. He was a pupil of Capito, and the founder of 
 a school of jurists called Sabiniani. He wrote an im- 
 portant treatise on civil law, on which Pomponius, 
 Paulus, and Ulpian wrote commentaries. 
 
 See Grotius, " Vitae Jurisconsultorum ;" Arntzen, " De Ma- 
 surio Sabino," 176S. 
 
 Sablier, sf'ble-4', (Chari.es,) a French writer, born 
 in Paris in 1693^ He wrote, besides several dramas, 
 " An Essay on Languages in general, and the French 
 in particular," (1777.) Died in 1786. 
 
 Sabliere, de la, deh IS si'ble-aiR', (Antoink Ram- 
 bouillet — rfi.N'boo'ya',) a French poet, born about 
 1615, inherited a large fortune. He wrote a number of 
 madrigals, which were praised by Voltaire, (" Siecle de 
 Louis XIV," 1751, tome ii.) He died in 1680. 
 
 His wife, Madame de la Sabliere, was celebrated 
 for her talents and accomplishments. She was a friend 
 and benefactor of La Fontaine. Died in 1693. 
 
 Sac'a-das [Zaituiac] of Argos, an eminent Greek 
 musician and poet, lived about 600 B.C. He excelled as 
 a flute-player. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (jgf=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SACCHETTI 
 
 1940 
 
 SADE 
 
 Sacchetti, sak-ket'tee, (Franco,) an Italian novelist 
 and poet, born at Florence about 1335, was contempo- 
 rary with Boccaccio. As a novelist, he was regarded 
 by his countrymen as only second in genius to that 
 celebrated writer. Died in 1410. 
 
 Sacchetti, (Giamhattista,) a distinguished archi- 
 tect, born at Turin in 1736. He was patronized by 
 Philip V. of Spain, who employed him to build the new 
 palace at Madrid. He afterwards became director of the 
 public school of architecture in that city. Died in 1764. 
 
 Sacchi, sak'kee, (Andrea,) an eminent Italian 
 painter of the Roman school, was born near Rome 
 about 1598. He was patronized by Urban VIII., who 
 ;mployed him to paint one of the great altar-pieces of 
 Saint Peter's. Among his other works we may name a 
 fresco in the Barberini palace representing " Divine 
 Wisdom," eight pictures from the life of John the 
 Baptist, the "Miracle of Saint Anthony," and "Saint 
 Romualdo relating his Vision to Five Monks of his 
 Order." The last-named is esteemed his master-piece, 
 and one of the best productions of the Roman school. 
 Sacchi numbered among his pupils Carlo Maratta and 
 N. Poussin. Died in 1661. 
 
 See Passeri, "Vite de' Pittori;" Lanzi, " History of Painting in 
 Italy." 
 
 Sacchi, (Pif.tro Francesco,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Pavia. He began to work in Milan about 1460. 
 Many years after that date he lived at Genoa. 
 
 Sacchi, or Sacchini, sik-kee'nee, (Juvenal,) an 
 Italian writer 1 on music, born at Milan in 1726, was a 
 monk or priest. He wrote, besides other works, an 
 " Essay on the Music of the Ancient Greeks," (177S.) 
 Died in 1789. 
 
 Sacchini, sik-kee'nee, (Antonio Maria Gasparo,) 
 an Italian composer of great celebrity in his time, born 
 at Naples in 1735, was a pupil of Durante. Among his 
 best worksjare the operas of "CEdipe a Colone," "Mon- 
 tezuma," "The Cid," and "Olympia." He passed about 
 eight years in England, whither he went in 1772. He 
 wrote with purity and elegance, and accomplished great 
 effects by simple means. Died in Paris in 17S6. 
 
 See Framery, " FJoge de Sacchini," 1787 ; Fetk, " Biographie 
 Universale des Mnsiciens;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Sacchini, (Francesco,) an Italian Jesuit, born 
 near Perugia in 1570, was professor of rhetoric in the 
 Jesuits' College at Rome. He wrote a continuation 
 of Orlandino's History of his Order, and other works. 
 Died in 1625. 
 
 Sacheverell, sa-sh?v'e-rel, (Henry,) an English 
 churchman, notorious as a partisan of Toryism, was bom 
 about 1672, and was educated at Oxford. He was ap- 
 pointed preacher at Saint Saviour's, Southwark, in 1705, 
 and preached in 1709 two political sermons which were 
 offensive to the ministry and the majority of Parliament. 
 He was impeached for libel by the House of Commons, 
 and convicted in 17 10 by the peers, who sentenced him 
 to suspension from the ministry for three years. The 
 clergy and country squires sympathized with him as the 
 champion of the Church. The excitement occasioned 
 by his trial contributed to the defeat of the Whigs in the 
 next general election, and to the removal of Godolphin 
 and his colleagues from power, (1710.) Queen Anne 
 rewarded him with the valuable rectory of Saint An- 
 drew's, Holborn, in 1 7 13. Died in 1724. 
 
 See " The Life of Dr. H. Sacheverell," London, 1710. 
 
 Sachs. See Hans Sachs. 
 
 Sachsen, von, (Moiutz.) See Saxe, (Hermann 
 Maurice.) 
 
 Sachtleven, siKt-la'ven, or Zachtleven, ziKt-la'- 
 ven, (Cornei.is,) a Dutch painter, born at Rotterdam 
 in 1606 or 1612. His subjects are generally taken from 
 low life, and painted in the style of Brauwer and Teniers. 
 Died in 1685. 
 
 Sachtleven, (Herman,) a Dutch landscape-painter 
 of great merit, born at Rotterdam in 1609, was a pupil 
 of J. van Goyen. He painted many scenes on the Rhine 
 and Meuse. Died in 1685. 
 
 Saci. See Lemaistre de Saci. 
 
 Sack, sak, (Friedrich Samuel Gottfried,) a Ger- 
 man theologian, born at Magdeburg- in 1738, was the 
 author of a treatise "On the Union of the Two Prot- 
 
 estant Church Parties," (1812,) which was chiefly in- 
 strumental in promoting the union of the Lutheran and 
 Reformed Churches in Prussia. He also translated the 
 principal part of Blair's " Sermons" into German. Died 
 in 1817. 
 
 Sack, (Johann August,) an able Prussian adminis- 
 trator, born at Cleves in 1764. He was appointed in 
 1800 privy councillor of finance at Berlin, ( Oberfinanz- 
 rath,) and in 1813 became civil governor of all the country 
 between the Elbe and the Oder. Died in 1831. 
 
 Sack, (Karl Heinrich,) a son of Friedrich Samuel 
 Gottfried, noticed above, was born at Berlin in 1790. 
 He became professor of theology at Bonn in 1823, and 
 published several theological works. 
 
 Sackborn. See Saxius, (Christoph.) 
 
 Sacken. See Osten-Sacken. 
 
 Sackville, (Charles.) See Dorset, Earl of. 
 
 Sackville, (Edward.) See Dorset, Earl ok. 
 
 Sack'ville, ( George, ) Viscount, called Lord 
 George Germain, son of the Duke of Dorset, was born 
 in 1 7 16. He served in the Seven Years' war, and at 
 the battle of Minden, in 1759, commanded the British 
 forces under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. Having 
 disobeyed the prince's orders, he was tried in England 
 by a court-martial and dismissed the service. Under 
 George III. he became in 1775 secretary of state for 
 the colonies. In this capacity he directed the military 
 operations in the American war. Having inherited 
 the estates of Lady Germain, he assumed that name in 
 1770. Died in 1785. 
 
 See R. Cumberland, " Character of Lord G. Germain," 1785; 
 Lord Stanhope, tMAHON,) "History of England." 
 
 Sacvo-Bosco. See Holywood. 
 
 Sacy, de, deh si'se', (Antoine Isaac Silvestre,) 
 Baron, often called simply Silvestre de Sacy, an 
 eminent French Orientalist, born in Paris on the 21st 
 of September, 1758. He was a son of J. Abraham Sil- 
 vestre, a notary. After he had become a good classical 
 scholar, he studied Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, Arabic, 
 and Persian. He was also versed in German, English, 
 Italian, and Spanish. In 1785 he was admitted into 
 the Academy of Inscriptions, and wrote a "Memoir on 
 the History of the Arabs before Mohammed." He con- 
 tributed to the Academy four able "Memoirs on Divers 
 Antiquities of Persia," printed in 1793. He was ap- 
 pointed professor of Arabic in a school founded at Paris . 
 in 1795. In 1799 he published his " Principles of Gen- 
 eral Grammar," which is one of his best works. He 
 became professor of Persian in the College of France 
 in 1806, and published in the same year a work called 
 "Chrestomathie Arabe," consisting of extracts from 
 Arabian authors, with French versions and notes. He 
 wrote many articles for the " Biographie Universelle" 
 and the "Journal Asiatique." In the reign of Louis 
 XVIII. he was a member of the council of public in- 
 struction. S. de Sacy and Abel Kemusat founded the 
 Asiatic Society in 1822. He became a member of the 
 Chamber of Peers in 1832, and perpetual secretary of 
 the Academy of Inscriptions in 1833. Among his works 
 are an Arabic Grammar, (1810,) and " Pend-Nameh," 
 in Persian and French, (1819.) Died in February, 1838. 
 
 See Reinaud, "Notice historiqite et litte"raire sur Silvestre de 
 Sacy," 1S3S : Daunou, " EWe de Silvestre de Sacy," 183* : " Nou- 
 velle . Biographie Gene"rale; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 September, 182S. 
 
 Sacy, de, deh sf 'se', (Louis,) a French advocate and 
 litterateur, born in 1654, was a member of the French 
 Academy. He published a "Treatise on Friendship," 
 and translated some works of Pliny the Younger. Died 
 in 1727. 
 
 Sacy, de, (Louis Isaac.) See Lemaistre. 
 
 Sacy, de, (Samuel Ustaza Silvestre,) a French 
 journalist, a son of the eminent Orientalist, was born in 
 Paris in 1801. He was one of the principal contributors 
 to the "Journal des Debats." In 1854 he was elected to 
 the French Academy. It is stated that during a period 
 of twenty years (1828-48) he furnished two-thirds of the 
 political articles of the "Journal des Debats." 
 
 Sade, de, deh sSd, (Donatikn Alphonse Francois,) 
 Marquis, a profligate French novelist, a nephew of the 
 following, was born in Paris in 1740; died in 1814. 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long ; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; mS t; nftt; good: moon; 
 
SADE 
 
 '9+1 
 
 SAHAGUN 
 
 Sade, de, (Jacques Francois Paul Alphonsk,) 
 Akise, a French ecclesiastic, born in 1705, wrote " Me- 
 moirs of the Life of Petrarch," (3 vols., 1764,) which 
 is said to be a work of much merit. Died in 1778. 
 
 Sadeel, (Antoine.) See Chandieu. 
 
 Sadeler, sa'deh-ler, (Giles,) a Flemish engraver, 
 born at Antwerp in 1570, was a brother or nephew of 
 Jean, noticed below. He engraved after the Italian 
 masters. Among his works are "Vestiges of Roman 
 Antiquities." Died in 1629. He is said to have been 
 the best engraver of the family. 
 
 Sadeler, (Jean,) an able Flemish engraver and 
 designer, born at Brussels in 1550. He studied and 
 worked in Italy, and engraved many works of Italian 
 masters. Among his prints are scriptural subjects, por- 
 'raits, and landscapes. He died at Venice about 1600 
 or 1 6 10. 
 
 Sadeler, (Raphael,) a skilful Flemish engraver, 
 a brother of the preceding, was born in 1555; died 
 in 1616. 
 
 Sadi. See Saadee. 
 
 Sad'ler, (Anthony,) an English divine, born in Wilt- 
 shire, became chaplain to Charles II. He published a 
 number of sermons, and a work entitled a " Divine 
 Masque." Died in 1680. 
 
 Sadler, (John,) an English writer, born in Shropshire 
 in 1615. He published "Rights of the Kingdom, or 
 Customs of our Ancestors." Died in 1674. 
 
 Sadler, (Michael Thomas,) an English philanthro- 
 pist and statesman, born in Derbyshire in 1780. He 
 was twice elected to Parliament for Newark-upon-Trent, 
 and in 1831 represented Aldborough, in Yorkshire. He 
 laboured earnestly to improve the condition of the poor 
 and of the children employed in factories. He wrote a 
 work entitled " Ireland : its Evils and their Remedies," 
 and "The Law of Population." Died in 1835. 
 
 See "Memoirs of the Life of M. T. Sadler," 1842; " Rlack- 
 wood's Magazine" for February, 1831: "Malthus and Sadler." in 
 the " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1831 ; " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for September, 1835. 
 
 Sadler, (Sir Ralph,) was born in Middlesex, Eng- 
 land, in 1507. At an early age he obtained the notice 
 and patronage of Henry VIII., who employed him in 
 various important missions. For his courage at the 
 battle of Pinkie he was made knight-banneret on the 
 field. After the accession of Elizabeth he became a 
 member of her first Parliament, and, on the imprison- 
 ment of Mary Queen of Scots at Tutbury, was appointed 
 her keeper. He died in 1587. His " State Papers and 
 Letters," edited by Arthur Clifford, appeared in 1809. 
 
 See Sir Walter Scott. Miscellaneous Pro*e Works; Froude. 
 "History of England;* 1 Burton, "History of Scotland ;" "Edin- 
 burgh Review" for August, 1810; " London Quarterly Review" for 
 November, 1810. 
 
 Sadler, (William Windham,! an English aeronaut 
 and chemist, who crossed the Irish Channel from Dub- 
 lin to Wales, and made many other voyages of the kind. 
 He was subsequently killed by a fall from his balloon, in 
 1824, at the age of about twenty-eight. 
 
 Sadlier, sfd'Ie-i', ? (Mary Anne,) a writer of fiction, 
 whose original name was Madden, was born in the 
 county of Cavan, Ireland, in 1820. Having emigrated 
 to Canada, she married a Mr. Sadlier, and published a 
 number of tales in favour of Catholicism. 
 
 Sa'doc or Za'dok, a learned Jew, who lived about 
 250 B.C., was the disciple of Antigonus Sochaeus, and 
 became the principal founder of the sect of Sadducees. 
 
 Sadolet See Sadoleto. 
 
 Sadoleto, sa-do-la'to, or Sadoletti, sa-do-let'tee, 
 [Fr. Sadolet, st' do'li',] (Jacopo,) an eminent Italian 
 writer and cardinal, born at Modenain 1477, was a friend 
 of Bembo. He became secretary to Leo X. about 1514, 
 and was appointed Bishop of Car'pentras in 1517. He was 
 employed as secretary by Clement VII., and was made a 
 cardinal by Paul III. about 1536, after which he passed 
 the most of his time at Rome. In 1542 he was sent as 
 ambassador to Francis I. of France. He is represented 
 as a man of noble character, pious, modest, and liberal. 
 Among his principal works are a treatise on education, 
 entitled " De Liberis recte Instituendis," (1533,) "On 
 the Merits of Philosophy," (" Phaedrus, sive de Laudihus 
 Philosophias," 1538,) and " Latin Poems," (1548.) Died 
 
 at Rome in 1547. "There were two," says Hallam, 
 " Bembo and Sadolet, who had by common confession 
 reached a consummate elegance of style, in comparison 
 of which the best productions of the last age seemed 
 very imperfect." (" Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe.") 
 
 See F. G. Cancellieri, " Elogio storico di J. Sadoletti," 1828; 
 A. Prricaud, "Fragments biographioues sur J. Sadolet," 1849; 
 Joly, " Erude sur Sadolet," 1857 ; Nicekon, " NUmoires ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Sadoleto or Sadolet, (Paolo,) a poet and bishop, 
 born at Modena in 1508, was a cousin-gernian or nephew 
 of the preceding. He became Bishop of Carpentras 
 in 1547. He wrote Latin Poems and Epistles. Died 
 in 1572. 
 
 Saeed (or Said) Pasha, sa'eed' pa'shS', Viceroy of 
 Egypt, and fourth son of Mehemet Alee, was born in 
 1822, and succeeded AbbSs Pasha in 1854. He died in 
 January, 1863. 
 
 Saehrimnir, sa-rim'nir, written also Serimner, the 
 boar on whose flesh the heroes who are admitted to 
 Valhalla feast. Although boiled and served up every 
 day, the boar is always whole again at evening. 
 
 See Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. 
 
 Saemund. See Samund. 
 
 Saenredam, sSn'reh-dam', (Jan,) an able Dutch 
 designer and engraver, born at Leyden about 1565. 
 He engraved historical and scriptural subjects after 
 various masters, also some of his own designs. Died 
 in 1607. 
 
 Saenredam, (Pieter,) a painter, born at Assendelft 
 about 1597, was a son of the preceding. He painted 
 architecture and interiors of churches. His works are 
 highly praised. Died in 1666. 
 
 Safarik. See Schaearik. 
 
 Saga, sa'ga, [from saga or saga, to "say," to "re- 
 late,"] according to the Norse mythology, the goddess 
 or muse of history. She is the intimate companion of 
 Odin, (or " Mind.") 
 
 Sage, sizh, (Balthasar Georc.f.s,) a French chemist 
 and natural philosopher, born in Paris in 1740. He pub- 
 lished numerous treatises on chemistry, mineralogy, and 
 electricity. He was the principal founder of the School 
 of Mines, (1783,) and contributed much to the art of 
 docimasie in France. In 1801 he was admitted into the 
 Institute. Died in 1824. 
 
 See his " Autobiography," 1818 ; " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Sage, (John,) a bishop of the Scottish Episcopal 
 Church, born in Fifeshire in 1652, was eminent for 
 learning and talents. He preached at Edinburgh, wrote 
 several polemical works against the Presbyterians, and 
 became a bishop in 1705. Died in 171 1. 
 
 See J. Gii.lan, "Life of John Sage." 1714; Chambers, " Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Sage, lie. See Le Sage. 
 
 Sagittarius. See Schutz, (Heinrich.) 
 
 Sagittarius, sa-git-ta'ie-us, (Caspar,) a German his- 
 torian and Lutheran minister, born at Lunenburg in 
 1643. He became professor of history at Jena in 1674. 
 He wrote several works on German history, and an 
 " Introduction to Ecclesiastic History," (1694.) Died 
 in 1694. 
 
 Sagittarius, (Johann Christfried,) a German 
 writer, born at Breslau in 1617, became professor of 
 history at Jena. He wrote many dissertations, and 
 edited the works of Luther, (9 vols, folio, 1661-^4.) 
 Died in 1689. 
 
 Sagoskiu. See Zogoskin. 
 
 Sagra, de la, da 15 sa'gRa, (Don Ramon,) a Spanish 
 writer, born at Corunna in 1798, published "The 
 Physical, Political, and Natural History of the Island 
 of Cuba," (1837,) and several treatises on political 
 economy. 
 
 Sagredo, si-gRa'do, (Giovanni,) a Venetian diplo- 
 matist and historian, published " Historical Memoirs 
 of the Ottoman Monarchs from 1300 to 1646," (1677,) 
 said to be well written. He became procurator of Saint 
 Mark's about 1668. Died after 1691. 
 
 Sahagun, de, di sa-a-goon', (Bernardino,) a Fran- 
 ciscan friar, born at Sahagun, in Spain, was a missionary 
 to Mexico in 1529. He wrote a valuable history entitled 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this, (fj^— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SAID 
 
 1942 
 
 SAINTE-AULAIRE 
 
 " Historia universal de Nueva Espafia," first published 
 at tylexico in 1829. Died in 1590. 
 
 See Prescott, "History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i. 
 book i. 
 
 Said. See Saeed. 
 
 Said-Ibn-Batric. See Eutychius. 
 
 Saigey, s&'zh|', ( Jacques Frederic, ) a French 
 savant, born at Montbeliard in 1797, published a num- 
 ber of scientific treatises. 
 
 Sailer, slier, (Johann Michael,) a German Catholic 
 theologian, born near Schrobenhausen, in Bavaria, in 
 1751. He was successively professor of divinity at 
 Ingolstadt and at Landshut, and Bishop of Ratisbon, 
 (1829.) He published a " Prayer-Book for Catholic 
 Christians," (1831,) and other religious works. Died 
 in 1832. 
 
 See E. von Schbnk, "Die Bischofe J. M. von Sailer und G. M. 
 Wittinanu," 1838. 
 
 Saillet, de, deh si'y4', (Alexandre,) a French litte- 
 rateur and educational writer, born about 1805. 
 
 Sainctes, de, deh sa.Nkt, (Claude,) a French prelate 
 and controversial writer, born in 1525, became a deputy 
 to the Council of Trent. He was made Bishop of fivreux 
 in 1575, and distinguished himself by his zeal in the cause 
 of the Catholic League. Died in 1591. 
 
 Saint-Aignan, de, deh stN't&n'yo.N', (Paul de 
 Beauvillier — deh bo've'ya',) Due, a French nobleman, 
 born at Saint-Aignan in 1648. He was appointed presi- 
 dent of the council of finances in 1685, and governor of 
 the Duke of Burgundy in 1689. He was a friend of 
 Fenelon, whom he selected as preceptor of that prince, 
 and to whom he remained faithful after Fenelon had 
 lost the royal favour. He was a favourite counsellor of 
 Louis XIV. Died in 1714. 
 
 Saint-Albin, de, deh sa.N'til'baN', (Alexandre 
 Charles Omer Rousselin de Corbeau — roos'la.N' 
 deh koR'bo',) Comte, a French writer and epigram- 
 matist, born in 1773. He became in 1816 editor of the 
 "Constitutionnel," a liberal journal of Paris. Among 
 his works are lyric poems, epigrams, and a "Life of 
 General Hoche," (2 vols., 1798.) Died in 1847. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Saint-Aldegonde. See Marnix. 
 
 Saint- Allais, de, deh sl.N'ti'l^', (Nicolas Viton — 
 ve'tdN',) a French genealogist and litterateur, born at 
 Langres in 1773. He published, besides many works 
 on genealogy, a new edition of "The Art of Verifying 
 Dates," (6 vols. 4to, and 23 vols. 8vo, 1818-20.) Died 
 in 1842. 
 
 Saint- Alphonse, de, deh saN'til'fdNs', ( Pierre 
 Wathier,) born at Laon, in France, in 1770, served 
 under Napoleon in several campaigns, and rose to be 
 general of division in 181 1. He was afterwards made a 
 count of the empire, and grand officer of the legion of 
 honour. Died in 1840. 
 
 Saint Am'and, (James,) an English scholar, made 
 a valuable collection of books and manuscripts, which 
 at his death, in 1754, he bequeathed to the Bodleian 
 Library. 
 
 Saint-Amans, de, deh saN'ti'mdN', (Jean Flo- 
 RIMOND Boudon,) a French antiquary and naturalist, 
 was born at Agen in 1748. He published numerous 
 treatises on agriculture, botany, and antiquities. Died 
 in 1831. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Saint-Atnant, saN'tt'm&N', (Marc Antoine Ge- 
 rard,) a French poet, born at Rouen in 1594, became 
 a member of the French Academy in 1633. He wrote 
 odes, idyls, satires, etc. Died in 1661. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G^ne>a!e." 
 
 Saint-Amour, sa.N'ti'mooR', (Louis,) a doctor of 
 theology of the Sorbonne, and a distinguished advocate 
 of Jansenism, was born in Paris in 1619; died in 1687. 
 
 Saint- Amour, de, deh saN'tt'mooR', (Guillaume,) 
 a French philosopher and theologian, born at Saint- 
 Amour, in Franche-Comte. He became professor of 
 philosophy in Paris, and rector of the University. His 
 name is chiefly memorable on account of the prominent 
 part he performed in defending the privileges of the 
 University against the Dominicans, who were favoured 
 
 by the pope. He was the author of a work entitled 
 "Perils of the Latter Times," ("De Periculis novissi- 
 morum Temporum.") Died in 1272. 
 
 See Dupin, " Histoire des Controverses dans le treizieme 
 Siecle." 
 
 Saint- Andre, (Jean Bon.) See Jean Bon Saint- 
 Andre. 
 
 Saint- Andre, de, deh saN'tSN'dRa', (Jacques dAl- 
 bon — da1'b6N',) Marshal, a French commander, who 
 united with the Due de Guise and Constable Mont- 
 morency to form a triumvirate against the Huguenots. 
 He was killed in battle in the civil war in 1562. 
 
 Saint-Ange, de, deh saN't&Nzh', (Ange Francois 
 Fariau,) a French poet, born at Blois in 1747. He 
 produced a French version of Ovid's " Metamorphoses," 
 (1778-89,) which was received with favour. He trans- 
 lated other poems of Ovid, and was admitted to the 
 French Academy in 1810. Died in Paris in 1810. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge*nerale." 
 
 Saint- Arnaud. See Leroy de Saint-Arnaud. 
 
 Saint-Aubin, saN'to'baN', (Jean,) a physician of 
 Metz, assisted Foes in his translation of Hippocrates, 
 and wrote a work on the plague. Died in 1597. 
 
 Saint-Aubin, de, deh saN'to'baN', (Augustin,) a 
 French engraver, born in Paris in 1736. He engraved 
 fine portraits and vignettes for books. His works are 
 extremely numerous. Died in 1807. 
 
 Saint-Aubin, de, (Charles Germain,) a designer 
 and engraver, born in Paris in 1721, was a brother of 
 the preceding. Died in 1786. 
 
 Saint-Aubin, de, (Gabriel Jacques,) a painter and 
 engraver, born in Paris in 1724, was a brother of the 
 preceding. Died in 1780. 
 
 Saint-Aubin, de, (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born in 
 1587, wrote a " History of the City of Lyons, Ancient 
 and Modern." Died in 1660. 
 
 Saint-Bris. See Lambert, de, (Henri.) 
 
 Saint-Chamans, de, deh saN'shi'n>a.N', (Auguste,) 
 Viscount, a French jurist and statesman, born in Peri- 
 gord in 1777, published several political and miscel- 
 laneous works. 
 
 Saint-Clair, sent klar, (Arthur,) a general, born in 
 Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1735. He became a citizen of 
 Pennsylvania, and served as brigadier-general at the 
 battles of Trenton and Princeton, in the winter of 1776 
 -77. He was appointed a major-general in February, 
 1777, elected a member of Congress in 1785, and Presi- 
 dent of Congress in 1787. In 1789 he was appointed 
 Governor of Ohio. He commanded an army which 
 was sent against the Miami Indians, and was defeated 
 in Ohio, near the Miami River, with heavy loss, in No- 
 vember, 1791. He ceased to be Governor of Ohio in 
 1802. Died in 1818. 
 
 See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. 
 
 Saint-Clost, de, deh siN'klost', or Saint-Cloud, 
 de, deh saN'kloo', (Perros or Pierre,) a French writer 
 of the thirteenth century, whose principal work is an 
 allegorical poem entitled "The Romance of the Fox." 
 
 Saint-Cyran. See Duvergier. 
 
 Saint-Didier. See LimoJon. 
 
 Sainte-Aulaire, de, deh sas'to'laV, (C6me Joseph 
 de Beaupoil— deh bo'pwal',) Count, a French royal- 
 ist, born about 1742, served against France during and 
 after the Revolution, and attained the rank of lieutenant- 
 general in 1814. Died in 1822. 
 
 Sainte-Aulaire, de, (Francois Joseph de Beau- 
 poil,) Marquis, a French poet and member of the 
 French Academy, born in the Limousin in 1643. He 
 wrote madrigals and amatory verses. Died in 1742. 
 
 Sainte-Aulaire, de, (Louis Clair df. Beaupoil,) 
 Comte, a French writer and diplomatist, born in Peri- 
 gord in 1778. He was a member of the Chamber of 
 Deputies from 1818 to 1824, entered the Chamber of 
 Peers about 1830, and was sent as ambassador to Vienna 
 in 1833. In 1841 he was elected a member of the 
 French Academy. He was minister at London from 
 1841 to 1847. His chief work is a "History of the 
 Fronde," (3 vols., 1827.) Died in 1854. 
 
 See De Bakante, " E*tudes historiques et biographiques ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 S. e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, 9> obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
 / 
 
SAINTE-AVLAIRE 
 
 •943 
 
 SA1NT-GELAIS 
 
 Sainte-Aulaire, de, (Martial Louis dk Beau- 
 poil,) a French prelate, born in 1720, became Iiishop of 
 Poitiers, and was a deputy of the clergy from Poitou to 
 the States-General in 1789. Died in 1798. 
 
 Sainte-Beuve, saNt'buv', (Charlks Augustin,) 
 one of the most eminent of French critics, was born at 
 Boulogne-sur-Meron the 23d of December, 1804. He was 
 educated in several colleges of Paris, and studied medi- 
 cine, which he practised several years. He was succes- 
 sively a contributor to the "Globe,", the" Revue des Deux 
 Monties," and the " National." He published in 1828 his 
 " Historical and Critical Picture of French Poetry and the 
 French Theatre in the Sixteenth Century," and in 1S29 
 poems entitled "Life, Poetry, and Thoughts of Joseph 
 Delorme." His other principal works are "Consola- 
 tions," a collection of poems, (1830,) "Literary Por- 
 traits," (8 vols., 1832-39,) a series of criticisms which 
 first appeared in the reviews, an excellent " History 
 of Port- Royal," (4 vols., 1840-62,) and a series of able 
 critiques entitled "Causeries du Lundi," (13 vols., 1851- 
 57,) which first appeared in the "Constitutionnel." He 
 was admitted into the French Academy in 1845. In 
 1852 he was appointed professor of Latin poetry in the 
 College of France, and in 1857 maitre des conferences 
 in the Normal School. In 1865 he was raised to the 
 dignity of a senator. Among his other works are " Etude 
 sur Virgile," (2 vols., 1857,) and "Nouveaux Lundis," 
 (1863.) Died in October, 18 9. 
 
 "The peculiarity and excellence of his criticism is 
 its disinterestedness, its singular power of appreciating 
 whatever may be good in the most opposite schools, 
 and its wonderful faculty for penetrating into the secrets 
 of the most strangely different natures. And now, if we 
 turn from the man's works to the man himself, we see 
 great natural power, a mind originally pliable, subtle, 
 and comprehensive to the very highest degree, curious 
 and penetrative, impartial to a fault." (" Quarterly 
 Review" for January, 1866.) 
 
 See L. DE Lomenie. " M. Sainte-Beuve, par un Homme de 
 Rien," 1841 ; Pi.anche, "Portraits litt^raires ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Sainte-Beuve, (Jacques,) a French casuist, born in 
 Paris in 1613. He was professor of theology in the 
 Sorbonne from 1643 to 1654. Died in 1677. 
 
 Sainte - Claire - Deville, saNt'kl&R' deh-vel', 
 (Chari.es,) a French geologist, born at Saint Thomas, 
 in the Antilles, in 1814. He has published a "Geo- 
 logical Voyage to the Antilles and the Island of Tene- 
 riffe," etc., and other scientific works. 
 
 Sainte-Claire-Deville, (Henri,) a French chemist, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Saint Thomas in 
 1818. He studied in France, and in 1851 succeeded 
 Balard as professor of chemistry in the Normal School. 
 He is chiefly distinguished for having invented a 
 method of producing in considerable quantities the 
 metal aluminum, first discovered by Wohler in 1827. 
 He published an account of his experiments in the "An- 
 nates de Chimie et de Physique," (vols, xliii. and xlvi.) 
 
 Sainte-Croix, de, deh saNt'kRwa', (Guii.i.aume 
 F.m wiiki. Joseph Guilhem de Clermont-Lodeve — 
 ge'loN' deh kleVm6N'' lo'djv',) Baron, a French anti- 
 quary and scholar, born at Mormoiron in 1746. He 
 published, lwsides other works, "Historical Researches 
 into the Mysteries of Paganism," (1784,) aiid a "Critical 
 Examination of the Historians of Alexander the Great," 
 (1804,) which are praised by Silvestre de Sacy. He was 
 a member of the Institute. Died in 1809. 
 
 See Dacier. " FJoge de Sainte-Croix ;" Sm.vestee de Sacy, 
 " Notice sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. de Sainte-Croix," 1809; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Sainte-Edme, saN'tSdm', (properly Edme Theo- 
 dore Bourg — booR,) a French political writer and 
 biographer, born in Paris in 1785. He wrote against 
 the Bourbons and Louis Philippe. In conjunction 
 with Sarrut, he published " Biography of Living Men," 
 (" Biographie des Hommes du Jour," 6 vols., 1835-42.) 
 He committed suicide in Paris in 1852. 
 
 See Qurrard, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Sainte-Elme, sav'telni', (Ida,) a French courtesan, 
 whose real name was Iii.zi:i.iN\ Tolstoi Vanayl de 
 Yongh, was born in 1778. She was the author of 
 
 " Memoirs of a Contemporary, or Recollections of the 
 Principal Personages of the Republic, the Consulate, 
 the Empire, and the Restoration," (8 vols., 1827.) Died 
 in 1845. 
 
 Sainte-Foi, saNt'fwa', (Eloi Jourdan,) a French 
 theologian, born at Beaufort in 1806, has published 
 several religious works. 
 
 Sainte-Marie, saNt'mi're', (Etiennf,) a French 
 physician, born near Lyons in 1777, published several 
 medical works. Died in 1829. 
 
 Sainte-Marthe, de, deh saNt'miRt', (Abel,) a French 
 lawyer and Latin poet, born at Lotidun in 1566, was 
 a son of Scevole, noticed below. He was appointed a 
 councillor of state by Louis XIII. Died in 1652. 
 
 Sainte-Marthe, de, (Aisel Louis,) a French theo- 
 logian, born in Paris in 1621, was a son of Scevoie the 
 Younger. He became general of the Oratory in 1672. 
 He wrote a work entitled "The Christian World," 
 ("Orbis Christianus,"9 vols., manuscript.) Died in 1697. 
 
 See Nicrkon, *' Me^noires." 
 
 Sainte-Marthe, de, (Charles,) a French poet, born 
 at Fontevrault, He taught Hebrew and Greek at Lyons, 
 after he had been imprisoned two years on suspicion of 
 being a Lutheran. Died after 1562. 
 
 Sainte-Marthe, de, (Denis,) a theologian, born in 
 Paris in 1650. He published, besides other works, 
 "Gallia Christiana," (4 vols., 1715-28.) Died in 1725. 
 
 See Morbri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Sainte-Marthe, de, [Lat. Sammartha'nus,] (Sce- 
 vole or Gaucher,) a French writer and Latin poet, 
 born at Loudun in 1536, was a nephew of Charles. He 
 held several high offices under Henry III. and Henry 
 IV., and was an opponent of the League. He wrote 
 " I'asdotrophia," and other Latin poems, which were 
 much admired. Died in 1623. 
 
 See La Rochr-Mau.let, "Vie de Sainte-Marthe," 1629: Leon 
 FeugBRE, " fitude sur S. de Sainte-Marthe," 1853; '"Nouvelle 
 liiugraphie Generale." 
 
 Sainte-Marthe, de, (Scevole and Louis,) twin 
 brothers, born at Loudun in 1571, were sons of the pre- 
 ceding. They produced an account of French bishops, 
 entitled "Gallia Christiana," (4 vols., 1656.) Scevole 
 died in 1650 ; Louis died in 1656. 
 
 See NtcBRON, "M^moires." 
 
 Sainte-Maure. See Montausier, (Due de.) 
 Sainte-Palaye, de, deh saNt'pflJ', (Jean Baptists 
 de Lacurne,) a distinguished writer, and a member of 
 the French Academy, was born at Auxerre in 1697. He 
 published "Memoirs of Ancient Chivalry," (3 vols., 
 1759-81,) which was translated into English, and col- 
 lected materials for a "History of the Troubadours," 
 which was published by Millot, (1774.) Died in 1781. 
 
 See Sbguier, " Fjoge de Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye," 1782; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Sainte-Suzanne, de, deh saNt'sii'zaV, (Gilbert 
 T> >s i- fit Martin Bruneteau — biuin'to',) Comte, a 
 French general, born near Poivre (Aube) in 1760. He 
 became a general of division in 1796, and count in 1809. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 Saint-Etienne. See Rabaut. 
 
 Saint-Eve, saN't&v', (Jean Marie,) a skilful French 
 engraver, born in Lyons in 1810. Having gained the 
 grand prize in 1840, he went to Rome with a pension, 
 and engraved some works of Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, 
 and Ary Scheffer. Died in 1856. 
 
 Saint-EVremond. See Evkemond. 
 
 Saint-Fargeau. See Le Pkllf.tier. 
 
 Saint-Felix, de, deh saN'fa'leks', (Jules,) called 
 also Felix d'Amoreux, a F'rench poet and novelist, 
 born at Uzes in 1806. 
 
 Saint-Foix, de, deh saN'fwa', (Germain Francois 
 Pouli.ain,) a French litterateur, born at Rennes, in 
 Brittany, in 1698, was the author of "Turkish Letters," 
 (1730,) and several dramas and other works. He was a 
 famous duellist. Died in 1776. 
 
 See Docoudray, " filoge de Saint-Foix," 1777 ; " Nouvelle Bio 
 graphic Ge'neVale. " 
 
 Saint-Fond. See Faujas de Saint-Fond. 
 Saint-Gelais, de, deh saN'zheh-IJ', (Mei.lin, ) a 
 French ecclesiastic, born at AngoulCme in 1491, pub- 
 
 € as k; $ as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J5P"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SAINT-GELAIS 
 
 '944 
 
 SAINT JOHN 
 
 Hshed a number of poems in Latin and French. Died 
 in 1558. He was a nephew (or, as some say, a son) of 
 Octavien, noticed below. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Castaigne, "Notice sur les Saint- 
 Gelais," 1836. 
 
 Saint-Gelais, de, (Octavien,) a French poet and 
 prelate, born at Cognac in 1466. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Angouleme in 1494. His principal work is 
 "The Abode of Honour," ("Le Sejour d'Honneur.") 
 Died in 1502. 
 
 See E. Castaigne, *' Notice sur les Saint-Gelais," 1836. 
 
 Saint - Genius, saN'zheh-ne-&', (Jean,) a French 
 scholar and Latin poet, was born at Avignon in 1607. 
 He wrote elegies, idyls, and satires, (1654,) which are 
 commended. Died in 1663. 
 
 Saint-Georges, saN'zhoRzh', (N.,) Chevalier, a 
 composer and violinist, born at Guadeloupe in 1745. 
 His mother was a mulatto. He was an expert fencer. 
 He composed several operas. Died in Paris in 1799. 
 
 Saint-Georges, de, deh saN'zhoRzh', CHEVALIER, 
 a French naval officer, who, as commander of the 
 Invincible, was defeated by Lord Anson off the coast of 
 Spain, in 1747, while assisting to convoy a fleet of 
 merchant-vessels. Died in 1763. 
 
 Saint-Georges, de, (Jules Henri Vernoy, ) a 
 French dramatist, born in Paris in 1801, has published 
 numerous dramatic works and romances. 
 
 Saint-Germain, saN'zheVniaN', Count, a notorious 
 adventurer, sometimes called the Marquis de Betmar, 
 is supposed to have been a Portuguese. About 1770 
 he appeared at the Parisian court, where he made a 
 great sensation by his various accomplishments and 
 pretended skill in alchemy. He professed to be three 
 hundred and fifty years old, and to possess the elixir of 
 life and the philosopher's stone. Died in 1795. 
 
 See " Nachrichten vom Grafen Saint-Germain," 17S0. 
 
 Saint-Germain, de, deh saN'zheVniaN', (Claude 
 Louis,) Comte, a French general, born near Lons-le- 
 Saulnier in 1707. He served as general in the Seven 
 Years' war, (1755-62,) and afterwards passed several 
 years in the Danish service, in which he obtained the 
 rank of field-marshal. He became minister of war in 
 France in 1775, and made important reforms in that 
 department. He resigned in 1777. Died in 1778. 
 
 See Abbe de la Montagne, "Memoires du Comte de Saint- 
 Germain," 1770: " Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" Sismondi, 
 " Histoire des Francais." 
 
 Saint-Ger'man or Ger'main, (Christopher,) an 
 English jurist, published a work entitled " The Doctor 
 and Student, or Dialogues between a Doctor of Divinity 
 and Student in the Laws of England," (1523, in Latin.) 
 Died in 1540. 
 
 Saint-Haouen, saN'//f'w6N', (Yvks Marie Gabriel 
 Pierre Lecoat — leh-ko'f',) Baron, born in Brittany in 
 1756, entered the navy at an early age, and served against 
 the English in several campaigns of the Revolution. He 
 was made an officer of the legion of honour in 1804, and 
 subsequently a rear-admiral. Died in 1826. 
 
 Saint-Hilaire. See Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. 
 
 Saint-Hilaire, saN'te'laV, (Jean Henri,) sometimes 
 called Jaume Saint-Hilaire, a French botanist, born 
 at Grasse in 1772. A genus of composite plants was 
 named Jaumea in his honour. Died in 1845. 
 
 Saint-Hilaire, (Jules Barthelemy.) See Barthe- 
 lemy. 
 
 Saint-Hilaire, de, deh saN'te'laV, (Auouste,) a 
 French naturalist, born at Orleans in 1779, (some author- 
 ities say 1799,) spent six years in a botanical exploration 
 of Brazil, to which he went in 1816. His principal 
 works are his "Flora Brasilia; Meridionalis," (1825, 
 with 192 coloured plates,) "Travels in the Provinces 
 of Rio Janeiro and Minas Geraes," (1830,) " History of 
 the Most Remarkable Plants of Brazil and Paraguay," 
 "Journey to the Diamond District of Brazil," (1833,) and 
 "Lectures on Botany," ("Lecons de Botanique," 1841.) 
 He became a member of the Institute in 1830. Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Saint-Hilaire, de, (Emii.e Marc Hilaire,) some- 
 times called Marco de Saint-Hilaire, a French 
 writer, born about 1790, became at an early age oue 
 
 of the pages of the emperor Napoleon. He published 
 "Recollections of the Private Life of Napoleon," (1838,) 
 "History of the Imperial Guard," (1845,) and other 
 works illustrating the history of his time. 
 
 Saint-Hilaire, de, (Louis Joseph Vincent Le- 
 blond,) a French general of division, born at Ribemont, 
 in Picardy, in 1766, served in the army of Napoleon in 
 Italy, and in the principal Austrian campaigns. He died 
 of a wound received at Essling in 1809. 
 
 Saint-Huberti, saN'/WbeVte', (Anne Antoinette 
 Clavel,) a favourite French actress, born about 1756. 
 She performed operas with great success in Paris. About 
 1790 she was married to the Count d'Entraigues. who 
 became an exile in England. They were assassinated 
 near London in 1812. 
 
 Saint-Hyacinthe. See Charriere, de, (Madame) 
 
 Saint-Hyaciuthe, saN'te'i'saNt', (Hyacinthe Cor- 
 donnier,) called also Chevalier de Themiseul, (deh 
 ta'me'zul', ) a French litterateur, born at Orleans in 
 1684. He wrote, besides other works, a satire called 
 "The Master- Piece of an Unknown Author," ( " Le 
 Chef-d'Gluvre d'un Inconnu," 1714.) He was a Prot- 
 estant, and an adversary of Voltaire. Died in 1746. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" MM. Haag, " La France 
 protestante." 
 
 Saintine, saN'ten', (Joseph Xavier Boniface,) a 
 distinguished French writer, born in Paris in 1790. He 
 published dramas, poems, and romances, a collection 
 of philosophical stories, emitted "Jonathan the Vision- 
 ary," (1827,) and " History of the Wars in Italy." His 
 most popular work is the tale of " Picciola," for which 
 he received the Monthyon prize in 1837. It passed 
 through ten editions in eight years, and was translated 
 into several languages. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1838. 
 
 Saint-Ives or Saint- Yves, sa.s'tev', (Charles,) an 
 eminent French oculist, born near Rocroy in 1667. His 
 principal work, entitled " New Treatise on Diseases of 
 the Eye," (1722,) was translated into English and Ger- 
 man. Died in 1733. 
 
 Saint-Jacques de Sylvabelle, de, deh saN'zhtk' 
 deh sel'vtt'bSl', (Guillaume,) a French savant, and 
 director of the observatory at Marseilles, was born in 
 that city in 1722. He published numerous treatises on 
 mathematics, astronomy, etc. Died in 1801. 
 
 Saint-Jean, saN'zhoN', (Simon,) a French flower- 
 painter, born at Lyons in 1812. 
 
 Saint John. See Bolingbroke. 
 
 Saint John, popularly called sin'jen, (Bayi.e,) sort 
 of James Augustus, noticed below, was born in London 
 in 1822. He published, among other works, "Adven- 
 tures in the Libyan Desert," "The Subalpine Kingdom," 
 " Purple Tints of Paris," and "The Turks in Europe," 
 (1853.) Died in 1859. His brother Horace has written 
 a " History of British Conquests in India," and several 
 other works. 
 
 Saint John, (James Augustus,) a distinguished 
 writer and traveller, born in Caermarthenshire, in Wales, 
 about the beginning of the nineteenth century. He was 
 for a time associated with J. S. Buckingham as editor 
 of the "Oriental Herald," for which he wrote a history 
 of British dominion in India. Having visited Egypt, 
 Malta, and Italy, he published in 1834 a "Description 
 of Egypt and Nubia." Among his other works we may 
 name "The Lives of Celebrated Travellers," (1830,) a 
 " History of the Manners and Customs of the Ancient 
 Greeks," (3 vols., 1842,) and " Philosophy at the Foot 
 of the Cross," (1855 ;) also the novels of " Margaret 
 Ravenscroft" and " Sir Cosmo Digby." 
 
 Saint John, (Oliver,) an English judge and re- 
 publican, born in Bedfordshire about 1596, was an able 
 lawyer. He was elected to Parliament about 1628, and 
 became a leader of the country party. He was counsel 
 for Hampden in the Ship-money case, (1637,) and then 
 " delivered the finest argument that had ever been heard 
 in Westminster Hall." (Lord Campbell.) In 1640 he 
 became a member of the Long Parliament. According 
 to Lord Campbell, "he was the first Englishman that 
 seriously planned the establishment of a republican form 
 of government in this country." He was appointed 
 solicitor-general in i64l,andwas influential in procuring 
 
 3, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged-; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
SAINT-JORRT 
 
 '945 
 
 SA1NT-M4RTIN 
 
 the condemnation of the Earl of Strafford. In 1648 he 
 became chief justice of the common pleas. He retained 
 that position till the restoration, (1660.) He was ap- 
 pointed a member of Cromwell's House of Lords in 
 1657. His life was spared at the restoration, on condition 
 that he should never hold any office. He died in 1673. 
 Clarendon says " he was a man reserved, and of a 
 dark and clouded countenance, very proud, and con- 
 versing with very few." He was a great-grandfather of 
 Henry Saint John, Lord Bolingbroke. 
 
 See Lokd Campbell " Lives of the Chief Justices," vol. i. ; 
 Foss, "The Judges of England ;" Clarendon, "History of the 
 Great Rebellion." 
 
 Saint-Jorry, de, deh saN'zho're', (Pierre du Faur 
 — dii foR,) [Lat. Fe'trus Fa'ber,] a French jurist, born 
 at Toulouse in 1540; died in 1600. 
 
 Saint-Jullien, saN'zhu'leJ.N', (Barthelemi Eme,) 
 Baron, a French diplomatist, was patronized by Fran- 
 cis I., who employed him in several embassies. Died 
 in 1597. 
 
 Saint-Just. See Freteau. 
 
 Saint-Just, de, deh saN'zhiist', (Antoine Louis 
 Leon.) a French revolutionist, born at Decize in 1767 
 or 1768, was an intimate friend of Robespierre, through 
 whose influence he became a member of the National 
 Convention in 1792. He voted for the death of the king 
 without delay or appeal to the people, and distinguished 
 himself as one of the most violent of the Jacobin party. 
 He had a prominent part in the downfall of the Giron- 
 dists, and, as a member of the committee of public safety, 
 was sent with Lebas to the Rhine, where he established 
 the guillotine and put to death great numbers of the 
 people. Appointed president of the Convention in 1794, 
 he contributed mainly to the defeat of Danton's party, 
 and became, with Robespierre and Couthon, one of the 
 triumvirate of the reign of terror. He was involved 
 in the ruin of Robespierre and his associates, with whom 
 he was executed in July, 1794. He left a number of 
 political works. 
 
 See Fleurv, "Saint- Just et la Terreur," 2 vols.. 1852: E. Ha- 
 mel, " Histoire de Saint-Just," itVf, Thiers, " History of the 
 French Revolution;" Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" 
 *' Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Saint-Just, de, (C. Godard d'Aucour— do'kooR',) 
 Baron, a French dramatist, born in Paris in 1769, was 
 the author of tragedies, comedies, and comic operas. 
 Among the last-named the " Caliph of Bagdad" was 
 very successful. Died in 1826. 
 
 Saint-Lambert, de, deh saN'lo.s'baiR', (Chari.es 
 Francois,) Marquis, a French poet and infidel phi- 
 losopher, born at Vezelise, in Lorraine, in 1716 or 
 1717. He was a contributor to the "Encyclopedic," 
 and an intimate friend of Voltaire, who commends his 
 poems in extravagant terms. The principal of these, 
 entitled "The Seasons," (1769,) procured for him ad- 
 mission to the French Academy. He also published 
 " Universal Catechism," (1798,) and other philosophical 
 works. Died in 1803. 
 
 See Plvmaiore, " Saint- Lambert," 1840 ; Querard, " La France 
 Litteraire;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Saint-Laurent, saN'16'r6N', (Nombret, n6N'bR2i',) 
 a French dramatist, published a number of popular 
 vaudevilles. Died in 1833. 
 
 Saint-Leger. See Mercier. 
 
 Saint-Legier, de, deh sa.s'la'zhe-i', (Jean Georges 
 LAURENT,) a French litterateur, born in the latter part 
 of the eighteenth century. 
 
 Saint Leonards, sent len'ardz, (Edward Burten- 
 sii.vw SiK.DF.N,) Baron, an English jurist and statesman, 
 born in London in 1781. He became a member of Par- 
 liament for Weymouth in 1828, and in 1829 was appointed 
 solicitor-general under the Duke of Wellington, and made 
 a knight. He was lord chancellor of Ireland from 1841 to 
 1846, and in 1852 was created a peer and lord chancellor 
 of England. Among his principal works are "Practical 
 Treatise on Powers," (1808,) " A Series of Letters to a 
 Man of Property on Sales, Purchases, Mortgages," etc., 
 (1809,) and " Treatise on the Law of Property as admin- 
 istered in the House of Lords," (1849.) l )ied in l8 7°- 
 
 Saint-Leu, de, Duchesse. See Hortense Beau- 
 harnais. 
 
 Saint-Lo, de, deh saN'lo', (Alexis,) a French Ca- 
 puchin friar, born in Normandy, visited America and 
 Africa as a missionary, and published in 1637311 "Ac- 
 count of a Voyage to Cape Verd." Died in 1638. 
 
 Saint Loe, (Sir William,-) an English diplomatist, 
 born about 1520, was captain of the guard to Queen 
 Elizabeth, and held other important offices. Died about 
 
 I SOS- 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 2d series, 1828. 
 
 Saint Louis. See Louis IX. of France. 
 
 Saint-Luc, de, deh saN'liik', (Francois d'Espinay,) 
 a French soldier of the sixteenth century, was appointed 
 grand master of artillery by Henry IV. He was killed 
 at the siege of Amiens, in 1597. 
 
 Saint-Luc, de, (Timoleon d'Espinay,) a French 
 marshal, son of the preceding, was born about 1580; 
 died in 1644. 
 
 Saint-Marc, de, deh saN'mink', (Chari.es IIugues 
 Leeebvke,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1698. His 
 principal work is a "Chronological Abridgment of the 
 History of Italy from the Downfall of the Western 
 Empire," (6 vols., 1761-70.) Died in 1769. 
 
 Saint-Marc, de, (Jean Paul Andre des Rasins — 
 di iS'za.N',) Marquis, a French lyric and dramatic poet, 
 born in the province of Guienne in 1728. His opera 
 of "Adele de Ponthieu" met with brilliant success, and 
 was set to music by Piccini. Died in 1818. 
 
 Saint - Marc - Girardin, saN'niSi<k'zhe'rSR'daN', 3 
 French writer and statesman, born in Paris in 1801. He 
 succeeded Guizot as professor of history in the Faculty 
 of Letters about 1830, and was appointed minister of 
 public instruction in 1848. He has published "Essays 
 on Literature and Morals," and other works, and has 
 contributed to the "Journal des Debats" and the 
 " Revue des Deux Mondes." He was elected to the 
 French Academy in 1844. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Saint-Marcellin, saN'mins'lar:', (Jean Victor,) a 
 French officer and litterateur, born in 1 791, served in the 
 Russian campaign of 1812. He fell in a duel in 1819. 
 
 Saiut-Mard. See Remond de Saint-Mard. 
 
 Saint-Marsan, de, deh saN'mtu'sSN', (Antoine 
 Marie Philippe Asinari — t'ze'nf re',) Marquis, born 
 at Turin in 1761, was appointed by Napoleon in 1809 
 minister -plenipotentiary to Berlin, and was subse- 
 quently minister of war under Victor Emanuel. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 Saint-Martin, saN'maVt&N', (Antoine Jean,) a 
 French Orientalist, born in Paris in 1791, was a disciple 
 of Silvestre de Sacy, through whose influence he became 
 in 1820 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He 
 was afterwards associated with Abel Remusat as editor 
 of the absolutist journal " L'Universel." He was the 
 author of " Historical and Geographical Memoirs on 
 Armenia," (1818,) "New Researches on the Epoch of 
 the Death of Alexander and the Chronology of the 
 Ptolemies," (1820,) "Historical Notice on the Zodiac 
 of Denderah," (1822,) and several other works. He 
 published a good edition of Lebeau's " Histoire du Bas- 
 Empire," (21 vols., 1824-36.) Died in 1832. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire ;" " Biographie Univer- 
 selle. " 
 
 Saint-Martin, (Jean Baptiste Pasinato— pa-se- 
 na'to,) an Italian savant, born in the province of Treviso 
 in 1739, published a number of treatises on agriculture 
 and natural science. Died in 1800. 
 
 Saint-Martin, de, deh saN'maVtaN', (Jean Didier,) 
 a French missionary to China, born in Paris in 1743, 
 translated into Chinese the " Imitation of Christ," and 
 other works. Died in 1801. 
 
 Saint-Martin, de, (Louis Claude,) Marquis, a 
 French mystic, sometimes called "the Unknown Phi- 
 losopher," (" Le Philosophe inconnu,") was born at Am- 
 bbise in 1743. He was a warm admirer of the writings 
 of Jacob Bbhme, a number of which he translated into 
 French. Among Saint-Martin's principal works are his 
 treatise "On Errors and on Truth," (1775,) "Natural 
 View of the Relations which exist between God, Man, 
 and the Universe," (1782,) "The New Man," (1792,) 
 and "On the Spirit of Things," (1800.) Died in 1803. 
 
 e as k; 9, as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this (Jjy^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SAINT-MARTIN 
 
 1946 
 
 SAINT-PRIEST 
 
 Chateaubriand characterized him as " a man of great 
 merit." 
 
 See Gence, "Notice sur L. C. de Saint-Martin," 1824; Caro, 
 " Essai sur la Vie et la Doctrine de Saint-Martin," 1852 ; Matter, 
 " Saint-Martin, le Philosophe inconnu," 1862 ; " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale." 
 
 Saint-Martin de la Motte, de, deh saN'mf R'taN' 
 deh It mot, (Felix,) Comte, a Piedmontese jurist and 
 naturalist, born at Turin, was created by Napoleon a 
 count and senator. Died in 1818. 
 
 Saint-Maur. See Duru.fi de Saint-Maur. 
 
 Saint-Maurice, de, deh saN'mo'ress', (Charles 
 R. E.,) a French historian and novelist, born about 1796. 
 Among his works is a " History of the Crusades," (1824.) 
 
 Saint-Mauris, de, deh saN'mo'ress', (Jean,) a 
 French jurist, born at Dole about 1495, became pro- 
 fessor of law in his native city. Died in 1555. 
 
 Saint-Morys, de, deh saN'mo're', ? (fi tienne Bour- 
 gevin - Vialart — booRzh'vaN' ve'S'liV, ) Comte, a 
 French writer, born in Paris in 1772, published several 
 political and miscellaneous works. Died in 1817. 
 
 Saint-Noii, de, deh saN'ndN', (Jean Claude Ri- 
 chard,) Abbe, a French amateur artist, born in Paris 
 in 1727. He published in 1781 "Voyage pittoresque 
 de Naples et de Sicile," in 5 vols., illustrated with fine 
 engravings. Died in 1 791. 
 
 Saint-Olon. See Pidou. 
 
 Saintonge, saN'tANzh', (Louise Genevieve Gillot 
 — zhe'yo',) born in 1650, was the author of dramatic 
 works and poems on various subjects. She was the 
 daughter of Madame de Gomez, also a distinguished 
 writer. Died in 17 18. 
 
 Saint-Ours, de, deh saN'tooR', (Jean Pierre,) a 
 Swiss painter, born at Geneva about 1756; died in 1809. 
 
 Saint-Pard, de, deh saN'paV, (Pierre Nicolas 
 van Blotaque — vaii blo'tik',) Abbe, born near Liege 
 in 1734, studied in Paris, where he was appointed hon- 
 orary canon. He wrote a number of religious works. 
 Died in 1&24 
 
 Saint Paul, (the Apostle.) See Paul, (Saint.) 
 
 Saint-Paul, de. See Saint-Pol, de. 
 
 Saint-Paul, de, deh saN'pol', (Francois Paul Bar- 
 LETTi,) a French scholar, born in Paris in 1734, became 
 professor of belles-lettres at Segovia, in Spain, in 1770. 
 He was the author of several educational works. Died 
 in 1809. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Saint-Pavin, de, deh saN'pS'vaN', (Denis Sanguin,) 
 a French poet, born in Paris, was a priest or abbe. His 
 works are chiefly sonnets, epistles, and epigrams. Died 
 in 1670. 
 
 Saint-Peravi, de, deh saN'peh-rf've', (Jean Nico- 
 las Marcellin GuERiNEAU,)a French poet and mis- 
 cellaneous writer, bom at Janville in 1732 ; died in 1789. 
 
 Saint-Pern, de, deh sa.s'peRn', (Bertrand,) a 
 French soldier, born in Brittany, was a friend and 
 companion-in-arms of the famous Du Guesclin. He 
 lived about 1330—60. 
 
 Saint-Pern, de, (Judes Vincent,) Marquis, a 
 French lieutenant-general, born in 1694, served in Flan- 
 ders under Marshal Saxe, and subsequently in the Seven 
 Years' war. Died in 1761. 
 
 Saint Philip, Marquis of. See Baccalar ySanna. 
 
 Saint-Pierre, de, deh saN'pe-aiu', (Charles Ire- 
 nee Castel,) a French writer and priest, born near 
 Barfleur, in Normandy, in 1658, was a friend of Fon- 
 tenelle. He was eccentric and eminently benevolent. 
 It is said that he was the first who used the word bien- 
 faisance, ("beneficence.") In 1695 he was admitted into 
 the French Academy. He wrote a number of works on 
 politics, morality, and political economy. His favourite 
 hobby was a project to maintain perpetual peace by 
 a congress or European Diet. Having censured the 
 policy of Louis XIV. in his " Polysynodie," (1718,) he 
 was expelled from the Academy. J. J. Rousseau ex- 
 pressed the opinion that " he was an honour to his age 
 and to his species." Died in 1743. 
 
 See D'Al.EMBERT, "filoge de l'Abbe de Saint- Pierre," 1775; 
 Ali.ktz, "Reves d'un Homme de Bien, on Vues utiles et praticables 
 de l'Abbe de Saint-Pierre," 1775: OODMV, " fitudes sur la Vie de 
 l'Abbe de Saint- Pierre," t86i ; Prevost-Paradoi., " filoge de 
 l'Abbe de Saint- Pierre;" Molinari, "L'Abbe de Saint- Pierre," 
 1861. 
 
 Saint-Pierre, de, (Eustache,) a noble citizen of 
 Calais, who, as Froissart relates, when that city was 
 besieged by Edward HI. of England, offered himself 
 with five others to the English, on condition that the 
 rest of the inhabitants should be spared. 
 
 See Froissart, " Chronicles." 
 
 Saint-Pierre, de, (Jacques Henri Bernardin — 
 beVniR'daN',) a celebrated French writer, was born at 
 Havre on the 19th of January, 1737. Having finished 
 his studies with distinction at the College of Rouen, he 
 entered the army as a military engineer, but he was soon 
 after dismissed the service for an act of insubordination. 
 He subsequently went to Russia, where he remained 
 four years, employed as an engineer. Having returned 
 to France in 1766, he obtained a commission as engineer 
 for the Isle of France. After a residence of three years 
 in that country, he set out in 1771 for Paris, where he 
 resolved to devote himself to literature, and formed an 
 intimacy with Rousseau and other distinguished writers 
 of the time. He published in 1773 his "Voyage to 
 the Isle of France," etc., and in 1784 his "Studies of 
 Nature," which was very favourably received. It was 
 followed in 1788 by the charming tale of "Paul and 
 Virginia," which passed rapidly through numerous edi- 
 tions and was translated into the principal languages 
 of Europe. Among his other works are "The Desires 
 of a Solitary," (" Les Vceux d'un Solitaire," 1789,) 
 "The Indian Cottage," (1791,) " Harmonies of Nature," 
 and "Essay on J. J. Rousseau." Saint-Pierre enjoyed 
 the patronage of Louis XVI., Joseph Bonaparte, and 
 the emperor Napoleon. He died in January, 1814. He 
 is regarded as one of the best prose writers of France, 
 and his "Paul and Virginia" is pronounced by a French 
 critic not only the chef-d'oeuvre of the author, but one 
 of the che/s-tfceitvre of the language. He married a 
 daughter of Pierre F. Didot, book-publisher of Paris, 
 and had two children, named Paul and Virginie. 
 
 See Louis Aime-Martin, "Vie de Bernardin de Saint-Pierre," 
 prefixed to his complete works, 12 vols., 1817-20, also. " Memoires 
 sur la Vie de B. de Saint-Pierre," 1826; Patin, " filoge de B. de 
 Saint- Pierre," 1816; Sainte-Bkuve, "Portraits liueraires;" A. 
 Fj.EURY, " Vie de Bernardin de Saint-Pierre," 1844; "Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale;" "North American Review" lor July, 1821, 
 (by A. H. Everett;) "Monthly Review" for February and March. 
 1816. 
 
 Saint-Pol, de. See Luxembourg, de, (Louis.) 
 
 Saint-Pol, de, deh saN'pol', (A ntoineMontbeton,) 
 a French marshal of the sixteenth century, was an ad- 
 herent of the Guises, and took an active part in the 
 wars of the League. He was treacherously assassin- 
 ated by the Duke of Guise, son of Henry of Lorraine, 
 about 1594. 
 
 Saint-Pol or Saint-Paul, de, (Francois de Bour- 
 bon-Venddnie — deh booR'IAs' vdN'dom',) Comte, a 
 French soldier, born in Picardy in 1491, was a friend of 
 the Count of Angouleme, afterwards Francis I., whom 
 he accompanied in his principal military expeditions. 
 Died in 1545. 
 
 Saiut-Prest or Saint-Pret, de, deh saN'pRi', (Jean 
 Yves,) a French jurist, was director of the political 
 academy founded at Paris in 17 10 by M. de Torcy. He 
 wrote for the pupils of this institution a "History 
 of the Treaties made between the Different European 
 Powers, from the Reign of Henry IV. to the Peace of 
 Nymwegen, in 1679." Died in 1720. 
 
 Saint-Priest, de, deh saVpRe'est', (Alexis,) Count, 
 a diplomatist and litterateur, of French extraction, born 
 at Saint Petersburg in 1805, was a nephew of Guillaume 
 Emmanuel, noticed below. He was successively French 
 ambassador to Brazil, Portugal, and Copenhagen be- 
 tween 1833 and 1841. He wrote a " History of the Fall 
 of the Jesuits in the Eighteenth Century," (1844,) " His- 
 tory of the Conquest of Naples by Charles of Anjou," 
 (1847,) which procured him admission to the French 
 Academy in 1849, and " Diplomatic and Literary 
 Studies," (1850.) Died at Moscow in 1851. 
 
 See De Barante, " Notice sur M. le Comte A. de Saint-Priest," 
 1852; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Saint-Priest, de, (Kmmanuel Louis Marie Gui- 
 gnard — gen'yaV,) Vicomte, a general and diplomatist, 
 born in Paris in 1789, was a son of Francois Emmanuel, 
 noticed below. He fought in the Russian army at Aus- 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nflt; good; moon, 
 
SAINT-PRIEST 
 
 '947 
 
 SAINT-SIMON 
 
 terlitz and Lutzen. He became French ambassador at 
 Berlin in 1825, and was minister at Madrid from 1827 
 to 1831. 
 
 See Dk Barantk, " E*tudeshistoriques et biographiques ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Saint-Priest, de, (Francois Emmanuki.,) Comte, a 
 French diplomatist and statesman, bom at Grenoble in 
 1735, was employed before the Revolution in important 
 embassies to Portugal, Constantinople, and the Hague. 
 He succeeded Villedeuil as secretary of state or minister 
 of the interior in 1789, and resigned in December, 1790. 
 Died in 183 1. 
 
 Saint-Priest, de, (Guillaume Emmanuel,) Comte, 
 son of the preceding, was born at Constantinople in 1776. 
 Having entered the Russian service, he fought against 
 the French at Austerlitz and in other engagements, and 
 obtained the rank of general. He was mortally wounded 
 at Rheims in 1814. 
 
 Saint-Prix, saN'pRe', (Jean Amable Foucault,) a 
 French actor, born in Paris in 1759; died in 1834. 
 
 Saint-Prosper, de, deh siN'pRos'paiR', (Antoine 
 Jean Casse,) a French journalist and political writer, 
 bom in Paris in 1790; died in 1841. 
 
 Saintrailles or Xaintrailles, de, deh saN'tRJH' or 
 sa.v'tKi'ye, (Poton,) a French warrior, born about 1395, 
 fought for Charles VII. against the English, and became 
 marshal of France in 1454. Died in 1461. 
 
 Saint-Rambert, de, deh saN'rd.N'baiR', (Gabriel,) 
 a French philosopher of the school of Descartes, born 
 at Pontarlier, was the author of " Physical Explana- 
 tions of the First Chapter of Genesis," (1713.) Died 
 about 1720. 
 
 Saintre, de, deh sas'tRa', written also Xaintre, 
 (I kan or Jehan,) a brave French soldier, born at 
 Vendome in 1320, distinguished himself at thl battle 
 of Poitiers, where he was severely wounded. Died 
 in 1368. 
 
 Saint-Real, de, deh SaN ra'il', (Cesar Vichard, 
 sa'i-iR' ve'shiV,) Abbe, a distinguished historical writer, 
 born at Chambery, in Savoy, in 1639. He published 
 a treatise "On the Use of History," (1671,) the his- 
 torical romance of "Don Carlos," (1672,) a "History 
 of the Spanish Conspiracy against the Republic of 
 Venice in 1618," (1674,) and several other works. He 
 resided mostly in Paris, and was intimate with Hor- 
 tense Mancini. Died in 1692. His work on the 
 "Conspiracy against Venice" was ranked among the 
 chefs-d'eeuvre of the French language by Voltaire, who 
 savs that "his style is comparable to that of Sallust." 
 ("Siecle de Louis XIV.") A large part of this work 
 is fictitious. 
 
 See F. Dl Barolo, " Memnrie spettanti alia Vita di Saint-Real," 
 1788; NllKRoN, " Memoires ;" Mokeri, " Dictionnaire Histo- 
 rique ;" " Nuuvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Saint-Remy, de, deh saN'ra'me', (Pierre Surirky,) 
 a French general, born about 1650, was the author of 
 ■ Memoirs of Artillery." Died in 1716. 
 
 Saint-Ruth, si.N'rut', a French general, and perse- 
 cutor of the Huguenots,, notorious for his cruelty. He 
 was sent to Ireland in 1691 as commander-in-chief of 
 the army which fought for James II., and was opposed 
 by General Ginkell. He was defeated and killed at 
 Aughrim in 1691. 
 
 See Macaulay's " History of England," vol. iv. 
 
 Saint-Samson, de, deh saN's&VsdN', (Jean,) a 
 Ftench Carmelite monk and devotional writer, who 
 became blind in infancy, was born at Sens in 1571 ; 
 died in 1636. 
 
 Saint-Saphorin, de, deh saN'si'fo'riN', (Akm\ni> 
 Francois Loins,) a French diplomatist, born in 1738, 
 entered the service of Frederick V. of Denmark, who 
 made him a privy councillor and conferred upon him 
 other distinctions. Died in 1805. 
 
 Saint-Silvestre, de, deh saN'sel'vestR', (Juste 
 Louis du Faure — dii for,) Marquis, a French lieu- 
 tenant-general, bom in Paris in 1627. He served under 
 Turenne in 1672, and subsequently in the Spanish cam- 
 paign of 1693. Died in 1719. 
 
 Saint-Simon, de, deh saN'se'm6N', ( Charles 
 Francois Vermandois de Rouvroy-Saudricourt 
 — veVmoN'dwa' deh roo'vRwa' s&N'dre'kooK',) a French 
 
 prelate, born in Paris in 1727, became Bishop of Agde 
 and a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He 
 was executed in 1794, by order of the Revolutionary 
 Tribunal. 
 
 Saint-Simon, de, (Claude Annk,) Marquis, a 
 French commander, born in 1743, entered the Spanish 
 service, and was created captain-general by Ferdinand 
 VII. Died about 1820. 
 
 Saint-Simon, de, (Claude de Rouvroy,) Due, 
 a French general, born in 1607, was the father of the 
 famous writer of Memoirs. Died in 1693. 
 
 Saint-Simon, de, (Claude DE Rouvuoy,) a French 
 prelate, of noble family, born in Paris in 1695, became 
 Bishop of Metz in 1733. Died in 1760. 
 
 Saint-Simon, sant si'mon, de, [Fr. pron. deh s&n'- 
 se'md.N',] (Claude Henri,) Count, a famous French 
 socialist and philosopher, born in Paris in October, 
 1760, was a nephew of Charles Francois, Bishop of 
 Agde, and a relative of the Due de Saint-Simon. He 
 was endowed with great energy of character. Having 
 entered the army young, he served under Washington 
 in the United States. After the end of the American 
 war he passed several years in travel. He took little 
 part in the French Revolution, but, ill partnership with 
 Count de Redem, speculated in confiscated property. 
 They realized a large fortune ; but Redem appropriated 
 all of it except 530,000. Saint-Simon entertained or 
 professed a conviction that his mission was to be a social 
 reformer, for which he qualified himself by various 
 studies. In 1S01 he married Mademoiselle de Champ- 
 grand, whom he divorced in 1802 because he wished to 
 marry Madame de Stae'l ; but she declined his offer. He 
 soon dissipated his money in projects, experiments, etc. 
 In 1807 he published an " Introduction to the Scientific 
 Labours of the Nineteenth Century." With the aid 
 of his disciple Augustin Thierry, he produced " The 
 Reorganization of European Society," (1814.) Among 
 his most remarkable works is " New Christianity," 
 (" Nouveau Christianisme,*' 1825,) in which he maintains 
 that Christianity is progressive. His doctrines exerted 
 great influence in France, and attracted many eminent 
 disciples, among whom were Auguste Comte, Michel 
 Chevalier, Hyppolite Camot, and O. Rodrigues. He 
 died in 1825. After his death, Bazard, Rodrigues, and 
 Eufautin were chief priests of the Saint-Simonian sect, 
 which was very numerous until divergent tendencies 
 produced its dissolution. 
 
 See VlI.l.ENAVE, " Histoire du Saint-Simonisme," 1847; G« 
 II 1 11HARD, " Saint-Simon, sa Vie et ses Travaux." 1857 ; Lomexie, 
 "Galerie des Contetuporains," vol. x. ; F. W. Carove, "Der S.iint- 
 Sinionismus," etc., 1831 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" " 1 doc- 
 trines of Saint-Simon," in " London Quarterly Review" for July, 
 1831, (by Southey ;) Westminster Review" tor July, 1863. 
 
 Saint-Simon, de, (Henri Jean Victor de Rou- 
 vroy,) Marquis, a French general and statesman, bom 
 at Prereuil in 1782. He served under Marshal Ney in 
 Spain, and, after the second restoration, was appointed 
 minister-plenipotentiary to Copenhagen, (1820.) He 
 was afterwards created lieutenant-general and senator, 
 and obtained the grand cross of the legion of honour. 
 
 Saint-Simon, de, (Louis de Rouvroy,) Due, a 
 celebrated French writer and diplomatist, born in 1675. 
 He entered the army at an early age, and took part in 
 several important engagements under Marshal Luxem- 
 bourg. At the court of Louis XIV., who had never 
 regarded him with favour, Saint-Simon became a partisan 
 of the Duke of Orleans and an opponent of the legiti- 
 mate princes. He was also a zealous Jansenist and friend 
 of Fenelon. After the death of the king he was appointed 
 by the regent Orleans one of his council, and in 1721 was 
 sent to Spain to negotiate the marriage of Louis XV. 
 with the Infanta. Though unsuccessful in this affair, he 
 was made a knight of the Golden Fleece, and obtained 
 other distinctions. On the death of the regent, Saint- 
 Simon applied himself to the composition of his "Me- 
 moires," portions of which were first published in 17S8. 
 A complete edition came out in 1830, entitled " Complete 
 and Authentic Memoirs of the Duke of Saint-Simon on 
 the Age of Louis XIV. and the Regency," (20 vols.) 
 They are distinguished by great independence of thought 
 and expression, fearless satire, and fine delineation of 
 character, and rank among the most valuable and attract- 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g zsj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this, (jy See Explanati ma, p. 23.) 
 
SAINT-SIMON 
 
 1948 
 
 SALADINUS 
 
 ive works of the kind. An abridged English version was 
 published by Bayle Saint John in 1857. Died in 1755. 
 
 See A. Lefevre-Pontalis, " Discours sur la Vie et les CEuvres 
 de Saint-Simon," 1S55; Saintk-Beuve, "Canseries dn Lnndi ;" V. 
 Tkemblay, " Biograpllie du Ducde Saint-Simon," 1S50 ; " Nouvelle 
 Biograpllie GeneVale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 
 1832 ; " Eraser'*, Magazine" for November, 1857. 
 
 Saint-Simon, de, (Maximilien Henri,) Marquis, 
 a French litterateur, born about 1720, was a brother of 
 Charles Francois, Bishop of Agde. He published sev- 
 eral historical works, and translated Pope's "Essay on 
 Man." Died neat Utrecht in 1799. 
 
 Saint-Sorliii. See Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin. 
 
 Saint-TJrsin, de, deh sa.N'tuR'sa.N', (Marie,) a French 
 physician and medical writer, born at Chartres in 1763; 
 died in 1818. 
 
 Saiut-Vallier, sas'vi'le^i', (Jean de Poitiers,) a 
 French soldier of noble family, born in Dauphine about 
 1475, served in the Italian wars of Charles VIII. and 
 Louis XII. 
 
 Saint-Venant, de, deh sa.N'veh-ndN', Madame, a 
 French novelist, born in the eighteenth century ; died 
 in 1815. 
 
 Saint-Victor, de, deh saN'vek'toR', (Jacques Ben- 
 jamin Binsse,) Comte, a French litterateur, born in 
 1772. He published various works in prose and verse, 
 and translated the Odes of Anacreon into verse, (1810.) 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 Saint- Vincens, de, deh saN'vaN'soN', (Alexandre 
 Jules Antoine Fauris — fo'ress',) son of the following, 
 was born at Aix in 1750. He made large additions to 
 the valuable collection of medals formed by his father, 
 and wrote numerous treatises on numismatics and the 
 ancient monuments of France. Died in 1819. 
 
 Saint-Vincens, de, (Jules Francois Paul Fau- 
 ris,) a French antiquary, born at Aix in 1 7 18, published 
 several treatises on numismatics. Died in 1798. 
 
 Saint Vincent, Earl of. See Jervis, (John.) 
 
 Saint- Vincent, sa.N'vaN'sdN', (Gregory,) a Flemish 
 mathematician, born at Bruges in 1584, was a pupil of 
 Clavius. His " Opus Geometricum Quadraturx Circuli," 
 etc. (1647) is highly commended by Montucla. Died in 
 1667. 
 
 Saisset, si'si', (Emile Edmond,) a French philo- 
 sophical writer, born at Montpellier in 1814. He became 
 in 1856 professor of the history of philosophy at the 
 Sorbonne. Among his principal works is a complete 
 history of skepticism, entitled "/Enesideme," (1840;) 
 he also contributed to the " Dictionnaire des Sciences 
 philosophiques" and to other periodicals a number of 
 philosophical essays of great merit. Died in 1863. 
 
 See the "North British Review" for May, 1863. 
 
 Saisseval, de, deh sis'vil', (Claude Louis,) Mar- 
 quis, born in 1754, attained the rank of marechal-de- 
 camp in the French army. He wrote a number of 
 treatises on politics and finance. Died about 1820. 
 
 Saissy, s&'se', (Jean Antoine,) a French surgeon 
 and anatomist, born near Grasse, in Provence, in 1756; 
 died in 1822. 
 
 Saiva, si'va, written also Sbaiva, the name applied 
 by the Hindoos to the worshippers of Siva, which see. 
 
 Saix, du, dusk, [Lat. Saxa'nus,] (Antoine,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Bourg in 1 5 15, wrote several re- 
 ligious and moral works. Died about 1579. 
 
 Sakawee, (Sakawi,) sa-ka'wee, ? written also Sa- 
 kavi, an Arab writer of the fourteenth century, was the 
 author of a " History of Great Men from 1340 to 1383." 
 
 SAK' Tl or SHAIC Tf, written also SACT?, [modern 
 Hindoo pron. suk'tee or shtik'tee,] a Sanscrit word de- 
 noting " power" or " energy," often applied in the Hindoo 
 mythology to the wives or consorts of the chief deities ; 
 or, to speak more definitely, the power of each of the 
 male deities was supposed to be personified in his consort. 
 Thus, Lakshmi was the Sakti (" power" or "energy") of 
 Vishnu ; Parvati or Kali was the Sakti of Siva ; and so on. 
 
 Sakya Muni or Sakya Siugha. See Gautama. 
 
 Sala, sa'la, (Angiolo,) an Italian chemist, born at 
 Vicenza, flourished about 1610-40. He lived in Holland 
 from 1613 to 161 7, removed to Hamburg about 1620, 
 and became physician to the Duke of Mecklenburg about 
 1632. He wrote numerous chemical works, which were 
 
 highly commended by Haller. They were published 
 collectively in 1647, under the title of "Opera Medico- 
 Chymica. 
 
 See Haller, " Bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 Sa'la, (George Augustus,) an English litterateur, 
 born iti London in 1827, has contributed numerous 
 articles to " Household Words." Among his principal 
 works are "Twice round the Clock, or the Hours of 
 the Day and Night in London," (1859,) "The Badding- 
 ton Peerage ; a Story of the Best and Worst Society," 
 (i860,) "The Seven Sons of Mammon," (3 vols., 1861,) 
 "Quite Alone," (3 vols., 1864,) "My Diary in America 
 in the Midst of War," (2 vols., 1S65,) and "Rome and 
 Venice, with other Wanderings, 1866-67," (1869.) 
 
 Sala, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian composer and writer on 
 music, born at Naples about 1702. He produced " Re- 
 gole del Contrapunto pratico," (1794.) Died in 1800. 
 
 Sala, (Vitalk,) an Italian painter, born near Cano in 
 1803 ; died in 1835. 
 
 Sala y Berart, sa'la e bi-raRt', (Gaspar,) a Spanish 
 theologian and preacher, born at Saragossa ;' died in 
 1670. 
 
 Salaberry, de, deh sS'lS'bi're', (Charles Marie 
 d'Yrumberry — de'ru.\''14're',) Comte, a French roy- 
 alist, born in Paris in 1766, became a member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies in 1815. He was afterwards as- 
 sociated with Chateaubriand as editor of the "Conser- 
 vateur." He published several political and historical 
 works, and was a contributor to the " Biograpllie 
 Universelle." Died in 1847. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biograpllie Generale." 
 
 Sal'a-din, [ Fr. pron. sl'IfdiN',] the common English 
 and French form of Salah-ed-Deen or Salah-eddin 
 — sa'la-tH ed-deen', i.e. the " Integrity of the Faith," fl.at. 
 Saladi'nus; It. Saladino, sa-la-dee'no,] I., (Malek- 
 Nasir-Yoosuf, (or -Yousouf,) mSl'ek na'sir yoo'- 
 soof,) a famous Sultan of Egypt, born at the castle of 
 Tekrit, on the Tigris, in 1137, was a son of Aiyoob, a 
 Koord, who had a high rank in the army of Noor-ed- 
 Deen. In 1168 he became vizier of Egypt, then under 
 Noor-ed-Deen. Saladin, however, refused to obey him, 
 and assumed the sovereign power. After the death of 
 Noor-ed-Deen, (1 173,) he made himself master of South- 
 ern Syria. His ambitious efforts to extend his conquests 
 soon brought him into collision with the Christians of 
 Palestine, whom he defeated in the great battle of Tibe- 
 rias or Hitten in July, 1187. Jerusalem surrendered to 
 Saladin in October of the same year. His victorious 
 progress was arrested by the armies of the third crusade, 
 led by Richard I. of England and Philip Augustus of 
 France. The crusaders commenced in 1189 the memo- 
 rable siege of Acre, which was defended by Saladin with 
 great valour, but was taken in July, 1191. He excited 
 the admiration even of his enemies by his chivalrous 
 spirit and magnanimity. In September, 1 192, Saladin 
 and Richard Coeur de Lion suspended hostilities by a 
 truce of three years. The former remained master of 
 Jerusalem. He treated with humanity the numerous 
 Christian prisoners that fell into his power. He died at 
 Damascus in March, 1 193, leaving three or more sons, 
 among whom his vast dominions were divided. 
 
 See Aboolfeda, " Life of Saladin ;" Bohadin, "Saladini Vita et 
 Res gestae;" Ma kin, " Histoire de Saladin," 2 vols., 1763; Rkinaud, 
 "Notice sur la Vie de Saladin." 1824: A. Sciiui.tbns, "Saladini 
 Vita," 1755: Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. iii. ; Michaud. 
 " History of the Crusades ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GfineVale." 
 
 Saladin or Salah-ed-Deen II., Sultan of Aleppr 
 born in 1229, was a great-grandson of the preceding. 
 His dominions were invaded by the Mongols, who took 
 Aleppo in 1260. Saladin was killed by Hoolagoo, the 
 chief of the Mongols, in 1261. 
 
 Saladin, sS'lS'daN', (Jean Baptiste Michel,) a 
 French lawyer, was a member of the Convention, (1792- 
 95,) and opposed the excesses of the Jacobins. Died 
 in 1813. 
 
 Saladin, (Nicolas Joseph,) a French mathematician, 
 born at La Bassee in 1743. He became professor of 
 mathematics and physics at Douai in 1792. Died in 
 1829. 
 
 Saladino. See Saladin. 
 
 Saladinus. See Saladin. 
 
 i, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SJLJGNr 
 
 1949 
 
 SALFI 
 
 Salagny, de, deh st'lSn'ye', (Geoffroi,) a French 
 jurist, born in 1316; died in 1374. 
 
 Salah-ed-Deen, (or -eddiu.) See S ai.adin. 
 
 Salai, sa-li', or Salaino, sa-H'no, (ANDRHA,) an 
 Italian painter, of remarkable personal beauty, was born 
 at Milan about 1475. He was a pupil of Leonardo da 
 Vinci, whom he frequently served as a model. Me pro- 
 duced several admired works in the style of Da Vinci. 
 
 See Vasaki, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " History of Paint- 
 ing in Italy." 
 
 Salamanca, sa-la-man'ka, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 dealer in prints, flourished at Rome about 1540-50. He 
 published many engravings, and is supposed to have 
 engraved a "Pieta" of Michael Angelo. 
 
 Salamee or Salami, sa-la'mee, (Abool-Hassan- 
 Mohammed,) an Arab poet, born at Bagdad in 915 ; 
 died in 1002. 
 
 Salamon, de, deh sflS'mAN', (Louis Sifrein Jo- 
 seph Foncrose,) a French ecclesiastic, born at Carpen- 
 tras in 1759, was appointed Bishop of Belley in 1817, 
 and of Saint-Flour in 1823. Died in 1829. 
 
 Salandri, sa-lan'dRee, (Pei.legrino,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Reggio in 1723. He wrote sonnets and other 
 short poems, the style of which is said to be pure and 
 elegant. Died in 1771. 
 
 Salas, sa'las, (Gregorio Francisco,) a Spanish pas- 
 toral poet, born in Estremadura in 1740; died in 1808. 
 
 Salat, sa'lat, (Jakob,) a German philosopher and 
 Catholic priest, born at Abbtsgmiind in 1766. He be- 
 came professor of moral philosophy at Landshut in 
 1807, and published numerous works on philosophy, 
 psychology, etc. Died in 1851. 
 
 Salat, sa-lat', (Don Jose,) a Spanish jurist and writer, 
 born at Cervera in 1762 ; died about 1828. 
 
 Salaville, st'13'vel', (Jean Baptiste, ) a French 
 writer, born at Saint-Leger in 1755, published an 
 " Essay on Duelling," and several political works. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 Salaza, de, da sa-li'tha, (Castro Luis,) historiogra- 
 pher of Charles II. of Spain, lived about 1680. He 
 published, among other works, a "Genealogical History 
 of the House of Silva," (1685.) 
 
 Salazar, de. See Mendoza, de, (Pedro.) 
 
 Salazar y Torres, de, da sa-la-thau' e tor'res, (Au- 
 GUSTIN,) a Spanish poet, born at Soria in 1642. He 
 wrote comedies, one of which is entitled " Segunda 
 Celestina," and lyric poems. Died in 1675. 
 
 Saldanha Oliveira e Daun, sal-dan'ya o-le-va'e-ra 
 a down, (J0X0 Carlos,) Duke of, a Portuguese states- 
 man and marshal, was born at Arinhaga about 1785. He 
 was a grandson of the famous Marquis de Pombal. In 
 1825 he was appointed minister of foreign affairs, and 
 subsequently minister of war under Dom Pedro. After 
 the breaking out of the insurrection at Oporto, he 
 became conjointly with Palmella commander-in-chief 
 of the constitutional army. With the assistance of the 
 Duke of Terceira, he gained several victories over the 
 Miguelists in 1833. He was prime minister from 185 1 
 to June, 1856. He recovered power by a coup d'itat in 
 May, 1870. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale. " 
 
 Balden, sal'den, [ Lat. Salde'nus, ] (Wii.i.f.m,) a 
 Dutch theologian, was a native of Utrecht. He pub- 
 lished a number of learned works in Latin and Dutch. 
 Died in 1694. 
 
 Saldenus. See Sai.den. 
 
 Saldern, von, fon sal'deRn, (Friedrich Christoph,) 
 a Prussian general and skilful tactician, born in 1 7 19, 
 served in the Seven Years' war. He published " In- 
 fantry Tactics," and other military works. Died in 1785. 
 
 Sale, (George,) an English Orientalist, born in 1680. 
 His principal work is an excellent English translation 
 of the Koran, (1734,) with explanatory notes from the 
 most approved commentators. He also contributed to 
 the "Universal History" edited by Swinton and others, 
 and to the "General Dictionary" published in London 
 in 1734. Died in 1736. 
 
 Sale, (Sir Roiiert Henry,) an eminent British gene- 
 ral, born in 1782. He became a captain in 1806, and a 
 major in 1813. After he had served many years in India, 
 he gained distinction in the Afghan war, which began 
 
 about 1838, and became a major-general in 1840. He 
 commanded the army which stormed the Khoord Cabool 
 Pass in 1841, and defended Jelalabad in a long siege, 
 from November, 1 S4. 1 , till April, 1842. For his conduct 
 at the capture of Cabool he was knighted. He was killed 
 in a battle against the Sikhs at Mookee in 1845. 
 
 Saleh-Ib'n-Nahala. See Salih-Idn-Nahala. 
 
 Salel, st'lel', (Hugues,) a French poet and ecclesi- 
 astic, born in 1504, was patronized by Francis I. 
 
 Salemon or Salmon, sSI'moN', (Jean Baptiste,) a 
 French, litterateur, born at Nancy in 1744; died in 1814. 
 
 Salemon, sa-la-mon', or Salmon, sal -mem', (Don 
 Manuel Gonzales,) a Spanish statesman, born at 
 Cadiz in 1778, was employed in important missions to 
 Portugal, France, and Saxony, and was appointed by 
 Ferdinand VII., in 1830, first secretary of state, and 
 minister of foreign affairs. Died in 1832. 
 
 Salerne, st'l&Rn', (Francois,) a French physician 
 and naturalist, born at Orleans, translated Ray's "Orni- 
 thology." Died in 1760. 
 
 Sales, de, deh sal, (Charles,) brother of the fol- 
 lowing, was born at Thorens in 1625. In 1665 he was 
 appointed by Louis XIV. Viceroy of Saint Christopher 
 and the adjacent islands. He was killed in an engage- 
 ment with the English in 1666. 
 
 Sales, de, (Charles Auguste,) nephew - of Saint 
 Francis de Sales, born in Savoy in 1606, became Bishop 
 and Prince of Geneva. He wrote "The Life of Saint 
 Francis de Sales," (in Latin and French,) and other 
 works. Died in 1660. 
 
 Sales, de, deh sil or sa'les, [sometimes Anglicized 
 in pron. as siilz,] (Saint Francis,) an excellent bishop 
 and writer, born at Sales, in Savoy, on the 21st of 
 August, 1567, was a son of the Count de Sales. He 
 entered the College of the Jesuits, in Paris, in 1578, 
 and studied Greek, with philosophy and theology. He 
 afterwards studied law at Padua, where he also became 
 a pupil of Antonio Possevino. Having resolved to 
 renounce the world, he was ordained a priest in 1593, 
 and became not only an eloquent preacher but a model 
 of humility and other Christian virtues. He was soon 
 employed as a missionary among the Calvinists of Ge- 
 neva and Chablais, many of whom he- is said to have 
 converted. About 1602 he visited Paris and preached 
 before Henry IV. He was appointed Bishop of Geneva 
 in 1602. He enforced strict discipline, reformed the 
 monasteries, and abounded in works of charity to the 
 poor. In 1608 he published an " Introduction to a 
 Religious Life," which was highly esteemed. He was 
 offered the dignity of a cardinal, but he declined it. 
 Among the eminent persons converted by him was 
 Marshal Lesdiguieres. He wrote, besides other works, 
 a "Treatise on the Love of God," ("Traite de l'Amour 
 de Dieu," 1616.) He died at Lyons in December, 1622, 
 and was canonized in 1665. 
 
 See"Histoire de Francois de Sales," by his nephew, Charli<s 
 Augustb de Sales, 1614; Jean Pierre Camus, "Esprit de 
 Saint-Francois de Sales," 1641 : Louis de la Riviere, " Vie de ]J. 
 Francois de Sales," 1634; Gali.izia, "La Vila di S. Francesco .le 
 Sales," 1711; Marsdllier, "Vie de Saint- Francois de Sales," 
 1700, (and English version of the same, 1737 ;) Rensing, " Lebei s 
 geschichte des lieiiigen Franz von Sales," 181S. 
 
 Sales, de, (Louis,) a Catholic theologian, born in 
 Savoy in 1564, was a cousin of the celebrated Saint 
 Francis de Sales. Died in 1625. 
 
 Sales, de, (Louis,) Comte, a brother of Saint Fran- 
 cis de Sales, was born in Chablais in 1577. He sened 
 as general of the army of the Duke of Savoy. ) lis 
 character is representee! as excellent. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Buffier, " Vie de Louis de Sales," 171S. 
 
 Salfi. sal'fee, (Francesco,) an Italian philosopher 
 and litterateur, born at Cosenza, in Calabria, in 1759. 
 He became professor of history and philosophy at Milan 
 in 1800, and subsequently of public law. He published 
 a number of dramas, among which are "Medea," " Ido 
 meneo," and " Saul," and critical essays, and wrote a 
 continuation of Ginguene's "Literary History of Italy,'' 
 (1834.) He was also a contributor to the " Biographic 
 Universelle." Died near Paris in 1832. 
 
 See Angelo Renzi, "Memoire surla Vie politique etlitte'inirr de 
 F. Salfi." 1832 ; L. Gieco, " Vita letteraria ossia Analisidelle Oi>eie 
 di F. Salfi," 1S39. 
 
 eas/c; cas.r;g hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; Sass; th as in this. (jr^"See Explanations, p. 23 ) 
 
SALGUES 
 
 1950 
 
 SJLLENGROS 
 
 Salgues, silg, (Jacques Barthei.emy,) a French 
 litterateur and journalist, born at Sens about 1760. 
 Among his works is " Memoirs towards the History of 
 Krance under Napoleon," (9 vols., 1814-28.) Died in 
 1830. 
 
 Salian, si'le'oN', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit, born in 
 1557, was rector of the College of Besancon. He wrote 
 "Ecclesiastical Annals," (in Latin.) Died in 1640. 
 
 Salicet. See Sai.iceto. 
 
 Saliceti, sa-le-cha'tee, (Aurei.io,) an Italian jurist, 
 born in the Abruzzo in 1804, filled several important 
 offices under the government. 
 
 Saliceti, [Fr. pron. sS'le'sa'te',] (Christophe,) born 
 at Bastia, in Corsica, in 1757, was a deputy to the French 
 National Convention in 1792, and voted for the death of 
 the king. He was subsequently a member of the Coun- 
 cil of Five Hundred, and minister of war at Naples under 
 Joseph Bonaparte. Died in 1809. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Saliceto, si-le-cha'to, [Lat. Placenti'nus ; Fr. 
 Salicet, si'le'si',] (Gugliei.mo,) an Italian physician, 
 born at Piacenza, was the author of a treatise "On Sur- 
 gery," (1476.) and other medical works, in Latin, which 
 were highly esteemed in his time. The celebrated Lan- 
 franc was one of his disciples. Died in 1280. 
 
 Salieri, si-Ie-5'ree, (Antonio,) a celebrated Italian 
 composer, born at Legnano, in the Venetian States, in 
 1750. He studied under Gassmann at Vienna, where 
 he made the acquaintance of Gluck, at whose request 
 he composed the opera of " Les Danaides," for the Royal 
 Academy of Music in Paris. This work was received 
 with the greatest favour, and was followed bv " La Grotta 
 de Trofonio," "Tarare," "Assur Roi d'Ormus," and 
 other popular operas. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Mosel, "Life and Works of Salieri," (in German,) 1827; 
 Fhtis, "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Gene>ale." 
 
 Salies or Saliez, de, deh si'le-i', (Antoinette 
 Salvan,) a French authoress, born at Alby in 1638. 
 Her works comprise poems, historical romances, and 
 religious essays. Died in 1730. 
 
 Salignac, de, deh st'len'yik', (Bertrand,) a French 
 diplomatist, was 'a great-uncle of the illustrious Fenelon. 
 He was ambassador at London from 1572 to 1575, and 
 was afterwards sent on a mission to Madrid by Henry 
 IV. Died in 1599. 
 
 Salih-Ibn-Nahala, sa'liH ib'n nt'ha-la, sometimes 
 written Salih- (or Saleh-) Ben-Bahleh, a celebrated 
 physician of Bagd&d, lived in the reign of Haroun-al- 
 Raschid. According to Abulpharagius, (Aboolfaraj,) he 
 was a native of India. 
 
 Salimbeni, si-lem-ba'nee, written also Salimbene, 
 (Arcangiolo,) an eminent Italian painter, born about 
 1536, was a native of Sienna. 
 
 Salimbeni, (Ventura,) a painter, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Sienna in 1557. He executed a 
 number of fine frescos at Rome. Among his works is 
 "Abraham and the Angels." He is sometimes called 
 Bevilacqua, after his patron the cardinal of that name. 
 Died in 1613. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy:" Ticozzi, "Dizio- 
 nano." 
 
 Salinas, de, da sa-lee'nis, (Francisco,) a Spanish 
 musician and writer on the theory of music, was born at 
 Burgos about 1512, and was blind from his infancy. He 
 published in 1577 his celebrated treatise "De Musica," 
 in seven books. Died in 1590. 
 
 Salinas y Cordova, de, da sa-lee'nas e koR'do-va, 
 (Bonavkntura,) a Franciscan monk, born at Lima, in 
 Peru, became vicar-general of his order for the provinces 
 of New Spain, Florida, and the Philippines. Died in 
 1653. His brother Diego was historiographer of his 
 order in South America. 
 
 Sal-I-na'tor, (M. Livius,) a Roman general, was 
 consul with L. ^Emilius Paulus in 219 B.C. He was 
 again elected consul in 207, as a colleague of C. Claudius 
 Nero, who was his personal enemv. The consuls, how- 
 ever, co-operated in opposing the Carthaginian invaders, 
 and gained a decisive victory over Hasdrubal on the 
 Metaurus, (207 B.C.) He became censor in 204 B.C., 
 and put a tax on salt : hence his surname Salinator. 
 
 Salins, de, deh sS'IIn', (Hugues,) a French phy- 
 sician and antiquarian writer, born at Beaune in 1632 ; 
 died in 1710. 
 
 Salio, sa'le-o, (Giuseppe,) an Italian litterateur, born 
 at Padua in 1700. His principal work is a sacred poem 
 on the Messiah. Died in 1737. 
 
 Salis, de, deh st'less', (Charles Ui.ysse,) a Swiss 
 writer, born at Marschlins in 1728. He was appointed 
 French minister for the Grisons in 1768. He published 
 several historical works. Died in 1800. 
 
 Salis, de, deh st'less', (Rodolphe Antoine Hu- 
 bert,) Baron, born in 1732, entered the French service, 
 and obtained the rank of marechal-de-camp. Died in 
 1807. 
 
 Salis, de, (Tatius Rodolphe Gilbert,) a French 
 royalist, born in Lorraine in 1 752, became a member cf 
 the Chamber of Deputies for Ardennes. Died in 1820. 
 
 Salis, de, (Ulysse,) Baron, a Swiss soldier and 
 writer, born in 1594, distinguished himself at the siege 
 of La Rochelle and in other important engagements. 
 He died in 1674, leaving a collection of "Memoirs," 
 written in Italian, which are highly commended by 
 Haller. 
 
 Salisbury, Earl of. See Cecil, (Robert.) 
 
 Salisbury, (John of,) the Elder. See John of 
 Salisbury. 
 
 Salisbury, saulz'ber-e, (John of,) the Younger, 
 an English Jesuit, born about 1575, translated several 
 religious works into Welsh. Died in 1625. 
 
 Salisbury, Marquis of. See Cranborne. 
 
 Salisbury, (Richard Anthony,) an English bot- 
 anist, born in 1762, contributed a number of treatises 
 to the " Acts" of the Linnaean Society, of which he 
 was a member. 
 
 Salisbury or Salesbury, saulz'ber-e, ? (William,) 
 a Welsh writer, born in Denbighshire, published a 
 "Dictionary in English and Welsh," (1547,) and assisted 
 Bishop Davies in translating the New Testament into 
 Welsh. He also translated into that language the Lit- 
 urgy of the Church of England. 
 
 Salis-Seewis, sa'lis sa'ftis or st'less' sa'vess', (Jo- 
 hann Gaudenz,) Baron, bom at Malans, (or Seewis,) 
 in Switzerland, in 1762, published a collection of lyric 
 poems, (in German.) He was an intimate friend of the 
 poet Matthisson. Died in 1834. 
 
 See Longfeu.ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Salis-Soglio, von, fon sa'lesssdl'yo, (Johann Ul- 
 RIC,) a general, born at Chur, Switzerland, in 1790. He 
 commanded the army of the Sitnderbimd — i.e. the league 
 formed by the seven Roman Catholic cantons — in 1847. 
 He was reduced to subjection in November of that year. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Salle, st'li', (Jacques Antoine,) a French jurist, 
 bom in Paris in 1712, was the author of "Spirit of the 
 Statutes of Louis XV.," and other legal works. Died 
 in 1778. 
 
 Salle, de la, deh If stl, (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 ecclesiastic, born at Rheinis in 165 1, was founder of the 
 Institution of Brethren of the Christian Schools, having 
 for its object the gratuitous instruction of the poor. Died 
 in 1719. 
 
 Salle, de la, (Philippe,) an ingenious French artisan 
 and mechanician, born at Seyssel in 1723. He obtained 
 in 1783 a gold medal for his improvements in the silk- 
 loom. Died in 1804. 
 
 Salle de Letang, de la, deh IS sil deh la'tSs', (Si- 
 mon Philibert,) a French agricultural writer, born at 
 Rheims about 1700; died in 1765. 
 Salle, La. See La Salle. 
 
 Sallengre, sil-leng'creh, ? (Albert Hendrik,) a 
 Dutch writer, born at the Hague in 1694. He pub- 
 lished, among other works, a " New Treasury of Roman 
 Antiquities," (3 vols., 1716-19,) and was a contributor 
 to the " Literary Journal of the Hague." He died in 
 1723, leaving a "History of the United Provinces for 
 the Year 1621," which came out in 1728. 
 See NicgRON, "Memoires." 
 
 Sallengros, st'loN'gRo', (A. BenoJt Francois,) a 
 French Jacobin, was a deputy to the National Conven- 
 tion in 1792, and voted for the death of the king. Died 
 about 1816. 
 
 i, 6 i, o, fj, y, long; 1, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
SALLES 
 
 •95 1 
 
 SALM-DTCK 
 
 Salles, s$l, (Eusebe Francois,) a French physician 
 and Oriental scholar, born at Montpellier in 1799. He 
 was appointed in 1835 professor of Arabic at Marseilles. 
 Among his principal works are a "General History 
 of Legal Medicine,'' " Peregrinations in the East," and 
 "General History of the Human Races, or Ethnographic 
 Philosophy." 
 
 Salles, (Jean Bafhste,) a French revolutionist and 
 member of the National Convention. During the trial 
 of the king he voted for the appeal to the people, which 
 he was the first to propose. He was executed at Bor- 
 deaux in 1794. 
 
 Salles, de, deh sSl, (Charles Marie,) Comte, a 
 French general, born about 1804. He commanded a 
 division at Sebastopol in May-September, 1855. Died 
 in 1858. 
 
 Sallet, von, fon si'li', (Friedrich,) a German poet 
 and litterateur, of French extraction, born at Neisse, in 
 Silesia, in 1812. His principal work, entitled " Laien- 
 evangelium," is a poem in praise of Pantheism. Died 
 ir. 1S43. 
 
 Sallier, st'le^-i', (Claude,) a French philologist, 
 born at Saulieu v fn'i685. In I7i9he succeeded Sarrazin 
 as professor of Hebrew in the Royal College, and was 
 afterwards appointed keeper of the manuscripts in the 
 Royal Library. He was elected tothe French Academy 
 in 1729, and was a member of the Royal Societies of 
 London and Berlin. His works are chiefly critical and 
 antiquarian treatises. Died in 1761. 
 
 SaUier-Chamont, si'le-V shaVm6N', (Gui Marie,) 
 a French writer, born about' 1750. He was appointed 
 in 1814 master of requests, and chevalier of the legion 
 of honour. Died about 1840. 
 
 Sallin, si'las', (Maurice,) a Savoyard artist, skilled 
 in sculpture and engraving, born in 1760; died in 1809. 
 
 Sallior, sS'le'oR', (Marie Franqois,) a French poli- 
 tician and writer, born at Versailles about 1740; died 
 in 1804. 
 
 Sallo, de, deh si'lo', (Denis,) Sieur de La Coudraye, 
 born in Paris in 1626, is called the founder of modern 
 literary journals. He brought out in 1665, conjointly 
 with other writers, the "Journal des Savants," which 
 was at first very successful, but subsequently gave great 
 offence by the freedom and severity of its criticisms. 
 The Abbe Gallois afterwards became editor of the 
 " Journal," which was continued till 1792. Died in 1669. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Niceron, " Me- 
 moires." 
 
 Sal'lust, [Lat. Sallus'tius ; Fr. Salluste, st'liist'; 
 It. Sali.ustio, sil-loos'te-o,] (or, more fully, Caius Sal- 
 lustius Crispus,) a celebrated Roman historian, who 
 was born of a plebeian family at Amitemum in 86 B.C. 
 He was elected tribune of the people in 52 B.C., and was 
 expelled from the senate by the censors in 50 for alleged 
 immoral conduct. He was a partisan of Caesar in the 
 civil war. In the year 47 he obtained the office of praetor, 
 and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign. He 
 was appointed governor of Numidia by Caesar in 46 B.C. 
 According to Dion Cassius, he enriched himself by the 
 oppression and plunder of the people of that province. 
 After the death of Julius Caesar he returned to Rome, 
 and built a sumptuous palace on the Quirinal, with 
 large gardens, still called Horti Sallustiani. Having 
 retired from public life, he devoted his latter years to 
 literary pursuits. He died in 34 B.C. The scandalous 
 charges against the character of Sallust, made by several 
 ancient and modem writers, may have been true, but, in 
 the opinion of some of the best critics, they are far from 
 having been established by any decisive evidence. He 
 was much influenced by party spirit, and probably 
 hated the aristocratic party more than he loved the ple- 
 beians. Sallust wrote a " History of the Conspiracy of 
 Catiline," (" Bellum Catilinarium,") and a "History of 
 the War between the Romans and Jugurtha," (" Helium 
 Jugurthinum.") The speeches which he ascribes to 
 Cato, Cxsar, and others in his histories, though proba- 
 bly expressed in the language of Sallust, give us, there 
 is reason to believe, the substance of what was said by 
 those eminent men. He also wrote a history of Rome 
 for the period included between 78 and 66 B.C., which 
 is lost. "The ancient critics," says Macaulay, "placed 
 
 Sallust in the same rank with Livy ; and unquestionably 
 the small portion of his works which has come down to 
 us is calculated to give a high opinion of his ta'ents. 
 But his style is not very pleasant ; and his most power- 
 ful work, the account of the conspiracy of Catiline, has 
 rather the air of a clever party pamphlet than that of a 
 history." (Essay on History in the "Edinburgh Re- 
 view," 1828.) 
 
 See Dks Brosses, "Vie de Salluste;" D. W. Moi.i.er, "De C. 
 Sallustio," 1684; MiJl.l.KR, "C. Sallustius, nder historische Un- 
 tersuchung," etc., 1817; F. D. Geri.ach, " Ueber den Geschichts- 
 schreiber C. Sallustins Crispus," 1831 ; E. C. de Gkri.achh, 
 " Etudes sur Salluste." etc., 1847; Bregolini, "Vita di C. C. 
 Sallustio," 1802; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate;" " Frascr't 
 Marine" for February, 1846. 
 
 Salluste, the French for Sallust, which see. 
 
 Sallustio. See Sallust. 
 
 Sallustins. See Sallust. 
 
 Sal-lus'tl-us or Salus'tius, surnamed the Philoso- 
 pher, a Roman officer, and a pagan, was pretorian pre- 
 fect under the emperor Julian. He dissuaded the latter 
 from persecuting the Christians. He is supposed to 
 have been the author of an extant work " On the Gods 
 and the World." 
 
 Sallustius, a Cynic philosopher, born in Syria, lived 
 probably between 450 and 500 A.D. He gained distinc- 
 tion as an orator. 
 
 Sallus'tius Cris'pus, (Caius,) a Roman knight and 
 courtier, was a grand-nephew of Sallust the historian, 
 whose large fortune he inherited. He was a man of 
 superior talents for public affairs, and became one of the 
 most favoured and influential advisers of Augustus. He 
 also obtained the confidence of Tiberius. Died in 20 A.D. 
 
 Salm, sflm, a French general, born in the depart- 
 ment of Vosges in 1768, served under Pichegru in 1794, 
 and subsequently in Italy and Spain. He was mortally 
 wounded at the siege of Olivo, in 181 1. 
 
 Salmanasar. See Shai.maneser. 
 
 Salmasius, sal-ma'she-us, (Claudius,) [Fr. Claude 
 DE Saumaise, klod deh~so'm&z',] a celebrated French 
 scholar, born at S^mur in 1588. He is said to have 
 written Latin and Greek verses and to have read Pin- 
 dar at the age of ten. While pursuing his studies in 
 Paris, he acquired the friendship of Casaubon, by whom 
 he was induced to become a Protestant. He subse- 
 quently studied at Heidelberg, where he became ac- 
 quainted with Gruter, to whom h* dedicated his edition 
 of Florus, published in 1609. This was succeeded by 
 his "Historiae Augustae Scriptores Sex," (1620,) a con- 
 tinuation of the "Twelve Caesars" of Suetonius; edi- 
 tions of Tertullian's "De Pallio," of Achilles Tatius, and 
 other classics. His greatest work is entitled " Plinianae 
 Exercitationesin C. J. Solini Polyhistoria," (2 vols., 1629.) 
 The immense and varied learning displayed in this 
 production raised his reputation to the highest point, 
 and he received invitations from several princes of 
 Europe to settle in their respective countries. In 1632 
 he became honorary professor at Leyden, where he con- 
 tinued chiefly to reside till he visited Sweden in 1650 at 
 the invitation of Queen Christina. At the request of 
 Charles II., then in Holland, Salmasius wrote his " De- 
 fensio Regia pro Carolo I.," (1649,) being a defence 
 of monarchy and of the king Charles I., who had just 
 been put to death. This called forth Milton's celebrated 
 reply entitled " Defensio pro Populo Anglicano," which 
 Salmasius was about to answer, when he died, in 1653. 
 
 "But the greatest," says Itallam, " in this province of 
 literature [philology] was Claude Saumaise, best known 
 in the Latin form Salmasius, whom the general suffrage 
 of his compeers placed at their head. An incredible 
 erudition, so that it was said what Salmasius did not 
 know was beyond the bounds of knowledge, — a memory 
 such as none but those great scholars of former times 
 seem to have possessed, — a life passed, naturally enough, 
 in solitary labour, — were sufficient to establish his fame 
 among the learned." (" Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe.") 
 
 See A. Clement, "Vita Salmasit,"or "Vie de Saumaise," 1656; 
 Mokhri, "Dictionnaire Historique;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gini- 
 rale." 
 
 Salm-Dyck, sSlm'dik', (Constance Marie,) Prin- 
 cess of, a French poetess and miscellaneous writer, 
 
 « as k; 9 as s ■ g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; 1 as z; th as in this. (J[y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SALMEGGIA 
 
 1952 
 
 SALTONSTALL 
 
 whose original name was Theis, born at Nantes in 1767, 
 was the author of the lyric tragedy of " Sappho," set to 
 music by Martini, " Epistle to Women," " Eulogy on 
 Lalande," and " My Political and Literary Reminis- 
 cences," (1833.) Died in 1845. 
 
 See Miami. Bhrr, " Notice sur la Princesse de Salm J" A. Mon- 
 TdMoNT, " Notice stir la Prit.ceasede Salm-Dyck," 1845; " Nouvelle 
 Biogvaphie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Salmeggia, salmld'ja, (Enea,) an Italian painter, 
 surnamed IL Tai.pino, was a native of Bergamo. He 
 studied at Rome under Raphael, and became one of his 
 most successful imitators. Among his best productions 
 are the altar-pieces in the churches of Santa Marta and 
 Santa Grata at Bergamo. He wrote a " Treatise on 
 Painting." Died in 1626, at an advanced age. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Salmeron, sal-ml-r6n', (Alfonso,) a Spanish Jesuit, 
 born at Toledo in 1515, was one of the chief disciples of 
 Ignatius Loyola. He published several theological works, 
 and had a prominent part in founding the order of Jesuits. 
 He was one of the orators of the Council of Trent, to 
 which he was sent by Pope Paul HI. Died in 1585. 
 
 See Ribadeneira, " Vita Salmeronis;" N.Antonio, " Biblio- 
 theca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Salmeron, (Cristoval Garcia,) a Spanish painter, 
 born at Cttenca in 1603 ; died in 1666. 
 
 Salm-Kyrburg, de, deh sSlm-keR'biiR', (Frederic 
 Ernest Otto,) Prince, born in Paris in 1789, served 
 in the army of Napoleon in the campaign of 1807, and 
 afterwards in Portugal, Spain, and Italy. Died in 1835. 
 
 Salmon, sSl'm6N', (Francois,) a doctor of the Sor- 
 bonne, born in Paris in 1677, published a "Treatise on 
 the Study of the Councils," (1724.) Died in 1736. 
 
 Salmon, (Jean,) surnamed Maigret (m^'gR^') or 
 Macki'nus, a French scholar, born at Loudun in 1490, 
 was the author of Latin odes, which were highly esteemed 
 in his time. Died in 1557. His son Charles was like- 
 wise noted for his learningTand was preceptor to Cathe- 
 rine of Bourbon, sister of Henry IV. He perished in 
 the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, in 1572. 
 
 Salmon, (Loins Adolphe,) a French engraver, born 
 in Paris in 1806. Among his works are plates after 
 Raphael, Michael Angelo, and Da Vinci. 
 
 Salmon, sl'mon, (Nathaniel,) an English divine 
 and antiquary, born in Bedfordshire. He published a 
 " History of Hertfordshire," " Survey of the Roman 
 Stations in Britain, according to the Roman Itinerary," 
 (1721,) "Survey of the Roman Stations in the Midland 
 Counties," (1726,) "Antiquities of Surrey," (1736,) and 
 other works. Died in 1742. 
 
 Salmon, (Robert,) an English mechanician, born in 
 Warwickshire in 1763; died in 1821. 
 
 Salmon, (Thomas,) brother of Nathaniel, noticed 
 above, was the author of "The Chronological Histo- 
 rian," "Examination of Burnet's History of his Own 
 Times," and other similar works. Died about 1745. 
 
 Salmon, (William,) a celebrated English empiric, 
 published "A Universal Herbal," "Compendium of the 
 Theory and Practice of Physic," and several other works. 
 Died in 1700. 
 
 Salmon^e. See Salmoneus. 
 
 Sal-mo'neus, [Gr. 2aXftuvei>c ; Fr. Salmonee, sil'- 
 mo'na',] in classic mythology, a son of ^olus, a brother 
 of Sisyphus, and a king of Elis. The poets relate that he 
 claimed divine honours, imitated thunder and lightning 
 by driving his chariot over a brazen bridge, and by 
 throwing burning torches, etc., for which impiety he was 
 killed by a thunderbolt from Jupiter. 
 
 See Virgil, "vEneid," book vi., 585. 
 
 Salm-Reifferscheidt, salm n'fer-shlt', (Nicholas,) 
 Count, a distinguished general in the Austrian service, 
 was present at the battle of Pavia, and took prisoner the 
 French king, Francis I. In 1530 he defended Vienna 
 against the Turks under Solyman II., but he was mor- 
 tally wounded during the last' attack. 
 
 Salm-Salm, slim slim, (Felix,) Prince, was born 
 of a distinguished Austrian family, December 28, 1828. 
 In 1862 he married Mademoiselle Le Clerq, of New 
 York, which act offended his family and caused his 
 exclusion from the Austrian court. He served with 
 distinction in the Federal army during the civil war, 
 
 towards the close of which he was made post-commander 
 at Atlanta. He accompanied Maximilian to Mexico in 
 1864, and was appointed by him aide-de-camp and chief 
 of his household. After the downfall and death of Maxi- 
 milian, to whom he remained faithful to the last, he re- 
 turned to Europe^ Having entered the Prussian service, 
 as major in the fourth regiment of grenadiers, he was 
 killed at the battle of Gravelotte, August 16—17, 1870. 
 
 Salnove, de, deh stl'nov', (Robert,) a French writer 
 on the art of hunting, was a favourite at the court of 
 Louis XIII. His principal work is entitled " Venerie 
 royale," (1655.) 
 
 Sa-lo'me, [Gr. ZaJuj/zi;,] an artful and cruel woman, 
 who was a sister of Herod the Great. By calumnious 
 accusations she induced Herod to put to death her own 
 husband, Josephus, and Mariamne the wife of Herod. 
 Died about 12 A.D. 
 
 Salomon, the French for Solomon, which see. 
 
 Salomon, sS'lo'miN', (FRANgois Henri,) a French 
 litterateur of little merit, bom at Bordeaux in 1629, be- 
 came a member of the French Academy in 1646, having 
 for his competitor the great Corneille. Died in 1670. 
 
 Sal'o-mon or Sol'o-mon, (Frederick,) a general, 
 born in Prussia in 1826. He emigrated to the United 
 States, and worked as an engineer in Wisconsin before 
 the civil war. He was appointed a brigadier-general 
 about July, 1862. 
 
 Salomon, sl'lo-mon', (Gotthoi.d,) a Jewish theo- 
 logian and preacher at Hamburg, born in 1784, wrote 
 commentaries on the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. 
 
 Salomon, (Johann Peter,) a celebrated German 
 composer and violinist, born at Bonn in 1745. After 
 visiting Berlin and Paris, he settled in London, where 
 he began about 1790 a series of subscription concerts, 
 for which Haydn produced his twelve grand symphonies, 
 generally known as "composed for Salomon's Concerts." 
 Haydn's oratorio of " The Creation" was brought out 
 in 1798 by Salomon at the Opera concert-room. Died 
 in 181;. 
 
 Sal'o-monB, (David,) a Jewish magistrate and states- 
 man, born in London in 1801. He was elected to Par- 
 liament for Greenwicn in 1851, and in 1855 became 
 lord mayor of London, being the first Jew who had 
 ever filled that office. 
 
 Sal-o-m'na, (Publia Licinia Julia Cornelia,) a 
 Roman empress, was the wife of Gallienus, to whom 
 she was married about 240 A.D. Died about 268. 
 
 Sa-lo'nI-us, a French prelate of the fifth century, was 
 the son of ihe Bishop of Lyons. 
 
 Salornay, de, deh sS'loR'nl', (Jean,) a French eccle- 
 siastic, who became Bishop of Micon. Died about 1445. 
 
 Salt, (Henry,) an English antiquary and savant, born 
 in Yorkshire, accompanied in 1802 Lord Valentia as 
 secretary and draughtsman on an expedition to Egypt, 
 Abyssinia, and Hindostan. He discovered the cele- 
 brated inscription at Axoom, in Abyssinia, and gave 
 an accurate description of the grand obelisk and other 
 monuments of that city. About 1815 he was appointed 
 English consul in Egypt, where he prosecuted his anti- 
 quarian researches, and was treated with distinguished 
 favour by Mehemet Alee. He died in 1827, while en- 
 gaged on a work relating to Egyptian antiquities and 
 hieroglyphics. He had previously published a splendid 
 atlas of engravings, entitled "Twenty-Four Large Views 
 taken in Saint Helena, the Cape, Abyssinia, Egypt, 
 etc.," (1809,) and an "Account of a Voyage to Abys- 
 sinia, and Travels in the Interior of that Country," (1814.) 
 
 See T. J. Ham, "The Life and Correspondence of H. Salt," 
 1834; " Monthly Review" for December, 1814, and January, 1815. 
 
 Sal'ter, (Samuel,) an English divine and Greek 
 scholar, was born at Norwich. He became rector of 
 Saint Bartholomew, London, in 1756, and master of the 
 Charter-House in 1761. He was one of the writers of 
 the "Athenian Letters." (See Yorke, Charles.) Died 
 in 1778. 
 
 Salt'marsh, (John,) an English divine, born in York- 
 shire, wrote several treatises in favour of Antinomianism, 
 which were replied to by Gataker. Died in 1647. 
 
 Sal'ton-stall, (Gurdon,) an American Presbyterian 
 divine, born at Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1666, was 
 elected Governor of Connecticut in 1707. Died in 1724. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long ; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Q, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SALTONSTALL 
 
 '953 
 
 SALV0L1N1 
 
 Saltoustall, (I.everktt,) LL.D., an American jurist, 
 and member of Congress, a relative of the preceding, 
 was born at Haverhill, Massachusetts, about 1782. He 
 served in Congress from 1S39 to 1843. Died at Salem 
 in 1845. 
 
 Saltoun, sil'toon or sil'ton, (Alexander George 
 Fraser,) Ia>rd, a British general, born probably in 
 Scotland in 1785. He served in the Peninsula, 1808- 
 13, and distinguished himself in the defence of Hougou- 
 mont, near Waterloo, in June, 1815. Died in 1853. 
 
 Saluces. See Saluzzo. 
 
 Saluces, de, deh si'liis', (Dieudonnee,) Countess 
 of Revel, an Italian poetess, born at Turin in 1774, 
 wrote both in French and Italian. Her principal work 
 in entitled " Hypatia," ("Ippazia," 1817.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Salutato. See Coi.uccio. 
 
 Saluzzo di Menusiglio, sa-loot'so de ma-noo- 
 sel'yo, [Fr. Saluces, sS'liis',] (Giuseppe Angei.o,) 
 Count, an Italian chemist and general, born at Sa- 
 luzzo in 1734. He made discoveries in gases, and was 
 one of the founders of the Academy of Sciences of 
 Turin, for which he wrote several able memoirs. Died 
 in 1S10. 
 
 See Grassi, *' Elogio storico del Conte G. A. Saluzzo di Menu- 
 siglio," 1813. 
 
 Salva, sal'va, (Francisco,) a Spanish physician, born 
 at Tortosa in 1747, was the first to introduce inoculation 
 into Cataloitfa. He published several medical and sci- 
 entific works. Died about 1808. 
 
 Salva y Perez, sal'va e pa'rith, (Don Vincente,) a 
 learned Spanish bookseller of recent times, was a native 
 of Valencia. He became professor of Greek at the 
 University of Alcala. He published editions of Men- 
 doza's " History of the Wars of Granada," and other 
 standard works in Spanish, and a translation of Cor- 
 nelius Nepos, with notes. Died in 1851. 
 
 Salvador, stl'vfdon', (Joseph,) a French writer, of 
 Jewish extraction, born at Montpellier in 1796, pub- 
 lished a treatise "On the Law of Moses, or the Reli- 
 gious and Political System of the Hebrews," and other 
 works. 
 
 Salvador, sal-va-rx!)R', (Juan,) born at Barcelona in 
 1683, wrote a number of botanical treatises, (still in 
 manuscript.) Died in 1726. His brother Jose was also 
 a distinguished botanist and anatomist, and was a mem- 
 ber of the Royal Medical Academy of Spain. Died in 
 1771. The genus Salvadora was named in honour of 
 this family of naturalists, who rendered great service to 
 botanical science in Spain. 
 
 Salvador y Bosca, sal-va-n6R' e hostel, (Don 
 Juan.) a Spanish botanist, born in Catalonia in 1598, 
 was the father of the preceding. Died in 1681. 
 
 Salvador yPedrol, sal-va-ndR'e pa-nnol', (Jayme,) 
 son of Don Juan Salvador, the first of that name, was 
 born at Barcelona in 1649. He enjoyed a high reputa- 
 tion as a naturalist, and was a friend of Tournefort, 
 Boerhaave, and other eminent savants. Died in 1740. 
 
 Salvandy, de, deh sSl'vftN'de', (Narcisse Achii.i.f,) 
 Com IE, a French statesman and litttrateitr, was born at 
 Condom in 1795. He became master of requests in 
 the State Council in 1819, having previously published 
 "The Coalition and France," and other political pam- 
 phlets. He was elected to the French Academy in 1855, 
 and was minister of public instruction from April, 1837, 
 to March, 1839. Among his principal works are "Don 
 Alonzo, or Spain," a political romance, (1824,) a " His- 
 tory of Poland before and under the Reign of John 
 Sobieski," (3 vols., 1827-29,) and "Sixteen Months, or 
 the Revolution of 1830." Died in 1856. 
 
 See I.. Die I.nMKsiK, " M. de Salvandy, parun Homme de Rien," 
 1841: Chari.es Kohin, " Biographic de M. de Salvandy." 1X4S ; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "Blackwood's Magazine" tor 
 June, 183a. 
 
 Salvemini. See Castili.on, dr. 
 
 Salverte, stl'vent', (Anne Joseph Eusehe Bacon- 
 NIERE,) a French litterateur and statesman, born in 
 Paris in 1771. He became a member of the Chamber 
 of Deputies for the department of Seine in 1828, and 
 voted with the opposition. He was the author of a 
 " Literary Picture of France in the Eighteenth Century," 
 (1809,) "Historical and Philosophical Essays on the 
 
 Names of Men, Nations, and Places," etc., (1824,) *nd 
 other works. Died in 1839. 
 
 See Queraru, " La France LitteVaire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1830. 
 
 Salvi, sal'vee, (Giambatitsta,) an Italian historical 
 painter, surnamed Sassoferrato, born in that place in 
 1605. His pictures of the Virgin and Child are particu- 
 larly admired ; also the altar-piece in the cathedral of 
 Montefiascone representing the death of Saint Joseph. 
 Died in 16S5. 
 
 See Lanzi. " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Salvi, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian architect, born in 1699. 
 His greatest work is the fountain of Trevi, at Rome, 
 executed by order of Clement XII. Died in 1751. 
 
 Salviani, sal-ve-a'nee, (Ippolito,) an Italian natural- 
 ist, and physician to Pope Julius HI., was born at Citta 
 di Castello in 1514. His principal work is entitled 
 " History of Water Animals," (" Aquatilium Animalium 
 Historia," 1554.) Died in 1572. 
 
 See Cuvihr, " Histoire des Sciences naturelies." 
 
 Sal-vl-a'nus, [Fr. Salvien, saTveJ.N',] a presbyter 
 of Marseilles, supposed to have been a native of Cologne, 
 flourished in the fifth century. He was the author of a 
 "Treatise against Avarice," and one "On the Govern- 
 ment of God," which are written in elegant Latin. 
 
 Salviati, sal-ve-a'tee, (Bernardo,) an Italian cardi- 
 nal, born at Florence before 1500; died in 1568. 
 
 Salviati, (Francesco Rossi da — ros'see da,) called 
 also Cecco (chek'ko) Rossi, an eminent Italian painter, 
 born at Florence in 1 5 10, was patronized by Cardinal 
 Salviati, who conferred upon him his name. He was a 
 pupil of Andrea del Sarto and of Bandinelli. He was 
 also the intimate friend of Vasari, who was his fellow- 
 student at Rome. Among his master-pieces are " The 
 Battles and Triumph of Camillus," in the Palazzo Vec- 
 chio at Florence, "The Taking down from the Cross," 
 in the church of the Celestines in Paris, and the frescos 
 representing the history of Psyche in the Palazzo Gri- 
 mani. Died at Rome in 1563. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters:" Lanzi, " History of 
 Painting in Italy;" Ticozzr, " Dizionario." 
 
 Salviati, (Giovanni,) an Italian cardinal, born at 
 Florence in 1490, was a bfother of Bernardo, noticed 
 above, and a grandson of Lorenzo the Magnificent. He 
 was a liberal patron of learning and the arts. Died in 
 
 '553- * 
 
 See Paoi.o Giovio, " Elogia." 
 
 Salviati, (Giuseppe.) See Porta. 
 
 Salviati, (Leonardo,) an Italian scholar and litt/ra- 
 teur, born at Florence in 1540, was an adversary of 
 Tasso, and caused the Academy Delia Crusca to share 
 his hostility against that poet. He wrote comedies and 
 treatises on language, rhetoric, etc. His " Avvertimenti 
 della Lingua sopra'l Decamerone" (2 vols., 1584-86) was 
 highly esteemed. Died in 1589. 
 
 See Negri. *' Scrittori Fiorentini;" TtRABoscm, " Storia delta 
 Letteratura Italiana;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Salvien. See Salvianus. 
 
 Salvini, sal-vee'nee, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian 
 philologist and writer, born at Florence in 1653. He 
 translated several Greek and Latin authors into Italian. 
 In 1676 he became professor of Greek at Florence. He 
 wrote, besides many other works, " Academic Dis- 
 courses," (3 vols., 1695-1733,) "Prose sacre," (1716,) 
 and "Sonetti," (1728.) Died in 1729. 
 
 See Fabroni. "Vita: Italorum," etc.; Pkruzzi, " Orazione in 
 Morte di A. M. Salvini," 1731 ; " Nouvelle Biographie GJnerale." 
 
 Salvini, (Salving,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 born at Florence in 1667. He was the author of several 
 learned works, among which is " Fasti consolari dell' 
 Accademia Fiorentina," (1717.) Died in 1751. 
 
 Salvino degli Armati, sal-vee'no dal'yee ait-ma'tee, 
 born at Florence about the middle of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, is supposed by many to have been the inventor of 
 spectacles, — though the Chinese appear to have used 
 them ages before. 
 
 Salvolini, sal-vo-lee'nee, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 Orientalist, born at Faenza in 1809, was a pupil of the 
 celebrated Mezzofanti. He published a "Grammatical 
 Analysis of the Different Ancient Egyptian Texts," 
 (1836.) Died in 1838. 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as *; th as in this. 
 
 123 
 
 (£y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SALV0N1 
 
 •954 
 
 SANCHES 
 
 Salvoni, sal-vo'nee, (Piero Bernardo,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Parma in 1723; died in 1784. 
 
 Saly, si'le', (Jacques Francois Joseph,) a French 
 sculptor, born at Valenciennes in 1717, worked about 
 twenty years at Copenhagen. His chief work is an 
 equestrian statue of Frederick V. of Denmark. Died 
 in 1776. 
 
 Salza, von, fon salt'sa, (Hermann,) a German diplo- 
 matist and soldier, born about 1 180; died in 1239. 
 
 Salzmann, salts'man, (Christian Gotthilf, ) a 
 German Protestant divine and educational writer, born 
 near Erfurt in 1744. He founded in 1784, at Schnep- 
 fenthal, a school on the system of Basedow and Rous- 
 seau, which became widely popular. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Salzmann, (Friedrich Zacharias,) a German 
 horticulturist, born in 1730, was gardener to Frederick 
 the Great of Prussia. He published several wo'ks on 
 gardening and fruit-culture. Died in 1801. 
 
 Samacchini, sa-mak-kee'nee, (Orazio,) an llilian 
 painter, born at Bologna in 1532, was a pupil of I die- 
 grino. His picture of the " Purification," in the church 
 of Saint James at Bologna, is esteemed a master-piece. 
 Died in 1577. 
 
 Saman or Samani. See Samanides. 
 
 Samanidae. See Samanides. 
 
 Samaniden. See Samanides. 
 
 Samanides, sam'a-nidz or sa-man'idz, sing. Sam'a- 
 nide, [Fr. pron. si'mS'ned'; Ger. Samaniden, sa-ma- 
 nee'den ; Lat. Saman'iive,] the name of a Persian 
 dynasty, which ruled in the tenth century. Its founder 
 was Saman, (sa'man',) who flourished about 930. The 
 last prince of this line was assassinated in the reign of 
 Mahmood the Gaznevide, about the beginning of the 
 eleventh century. 
 
 Samaniego, sa-ma-ne-a'go, (Felix Maria,) a dis- 
 tinguished fabulist, sometimes called "the Spanish La 
 Fontaine," born at Bilbao about 1742. His works are 
 entitled "Fables in Verse." Died about 1804. 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Samary, st'mf're', (Philippe,) a French Jesuit and 
 poet, born at Carcassonne in 1731 ; died in 1803. 
 
 Sambhu, a surname of Siva, (which see.) 
 
 Sambiasi, sam-be-a'see, (Francesco,) an Italian mis- 
 sionary to China, born at Cosenza in 1582 ; died in 1649. 
 
 Sambin, sftN'ba*', (Hugues,) a French architect, 
 and pupil of Michael Angelo, was born at Dijon. He 
 wrote "On the Terms used in Architecture," (1572.) 
 
 Samblaucai, de, deh sdN'bloN'si', (Jacques de 
 Beaune — bon,) Baron, a French statesman, born in the 
 fifteenth century, was superintendent of finance under 
 Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I. Being ac- 
 cused of peculation by the queen-mother, the Duchess 
 of Angouleme, he was executed in 1527. 
 
 Sam-bu'cus, (John,) a distinguished scholar, born 
 at Tyrnau, in Hungary, in 1531. He was historiogra- 
 pher to the emperor Maximilian II., and was also 
 patronized by his successor, Rudolph II. He wrote, in 
 Latin, a continuation of the " History of Hungary" of 
 Bonfinius ; also commentaries on various classics. Died 
 in 1584. 
 
 See Horanyi, " Memoria Hungarorum ;" Sax, "Onomasticon." 
 
 Sa-me'rl-us, (Henry,) a Jesuit, born in France in 
 1540, was for a time confessor to Mary Queen of Scots. 
 He was the author of a work entitled " Sacred Chro- 
 nology," (in Latin.) Died about 1610. 
 
 Sammarthanus. See Sainte-Marthe. 
 
 Sammartino, sam-maR-tee'no, (Matteo,) Count of 
 Vische, born in Piedmont in 1494, was the author of 
 " Eclogues" and other poems ; also " Grammatical and 
 Poetical Observations on the Italian Language." 
 
 Sammes, samz, (Aylett,) an English antiquary, who 
 wrote "The Antiquities of Ancient Britain derived from 
 the Phoenicians." Died in 1679. 
 
 Sammicheli. See Sanmicheli. 
 
 Sa-mon'I-cus or Sam-monl-cns, (Quintus Se- 
 RENUS,) a Roman writer, of whom little is known, ex- 
 cept that he was put to death by Caracalla about 212 
 a.d. A medical treatise, in verse, entitled "Carmen de 
 Medicina," is ascribed to him. 
 
 See Reuss, " Lectiones Sammomcae," 1837. 
 
 Sampietro, sam-pe-a'tKo, a Corsican soldier, born 
 in the district of Ajaccio about 1500, served with dis- 
 tinction in the French army under Francis I. and Henry 
 II. He perished by assassination in 1567. 
 
 Samp'son, (Henry,) an English physician and non- 
 conformist divine, born in Nottinghamshire, studied at 
 Leyden and Padua, and became a member of the College 
 of Physicians. Died in 1705. 
 
 Sampson, (Thomas,) an English Puritan divine and 
 theologian, born in Suffolk in 1517; died in 1589. 
 
 Sam Slick. See Haliburton. 
 
 Samsde, sSm-sb'eh, (Ole Johan,) a Danish writer, 
 born at Nestved in 1759. His principal works are 
 " Frithiof" and other Scandinavian tales, and the tragedy 
 of " Dyvecke," which was very successful. Died in 1796. 
 
 Sam'son, [Heb. JIBPOt?,] one of the judges of Israel, 
 of the tribe of Dan, and the son of Manoah, was 
 born about 1155 B.C., and at an early age gave proof 
 of supernatural bodily strength. After performing 
 several wonderful actions, he was made prisoner and 
 deprived of his sight by the Philistines, a great number 
 of whom he subsequently destroyed, along with him- 
 self, by pulling down the temple in which they were 
 assembled. 
 
 See Judges xiii., xiv., xv., xvi. 
 
 Sam'son, (George Whitfield,) D.D., an American 
 Baptist divine, born in Worcester county, Massachusetts, 
 in 1 8 19, was elected in 1859 president of Columbian 
 College, Washington. He has published letters on 
 Egypt, Palestine, etc., and a treatise entitled "Spiritual- 
 ism Tested." 
 
 Samson, s6n's6n', (Joseph Isidore,) a French actor 
 and dramatist, born at Saint-Denis in 1793. 
 
 Samuel, [Heb. bxiDtyi] a Hebrew prophet and judge, 
 born about 1155 or 1170 B.C., was the son of Elkanah 
 and Hannah. About the age of forty he became judge 
 or chief ruler of Israel. Having been urgently requested 
 by the elders to give them a king, he anointed Saul to 
 reign over Israel. He afterwards prophesied against 
 Saul, and anointed David as his successor. He died 
 about the age of ninety-five. His name has been given 
 to two historical books of Scripture. He is supposed 
 to have written the first twenty-four chapters of the first 
 book of Samuel, which see. 
 
 See " Life and Times of Samuel," London, 1843. 
 
 Samund, sa'mocSnd, a distinguished scholar and his- 
 torian, born in Iceland about 1056. His principal work 
 was a " History of the Norwegian Kings from Harold 
 Haarfager to Magnus the Good," which was highly 
 esteemed by his contemporaries. He is supposed by 
 some writers to have been one of the authors of the 
 " Edda." Died in 1133. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Sam'well, (David,) a native of Denbighshire, Wales, 
 accompanied Captain Cook on his last voyage, and was 
 a witness of his murder, of which he published an ac- 
 count. Died in 1799. 
 
 San, s6n or san, (Gerard Xavier,) a Belgian his- 
 torical painter, born at Bruges in 1754 ; died in 1830. 
 
 Sanadon, si'ni'ddN', (Noel Etienne,) a learned 
 French Jesuit, born at Rouen in 1676, was appointed 
 in 1728 librarian of the College of Louis le Grand in 
 Paris. He is chiefly known by his French translation 
 of Horace, (in prose, 1728,) which was highly esteemed 
 at that time. He also wrote elegant Latin poems. Died 
 W '733- 
 
 See Mor£ri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Sanatroces, (Sanadrug.) See Arsaces XI. of 
 Parthia. 
 
 San Carlos, sin kaR'16s, (Josef Miguel de Carva- 
 jal — kaR-va-nal',) Duke OF, a statesman and diploma- 
 tist, born at Lima, in South America, in 1 771. Having 
 been educated in Spain, he was appointed governor to 
 the Prince of Asturias, afterwards Ferdinand VII., and 
 in 1807 became Viceroy of Navarre. 
 
 Sanche. See Sancho. 
 
 Sanches, san'shes, (Antonio Nunhez Ribeiro,) a 
 Portuguese physician, born in 1699, studied at Leyden 
 under Boerhaave, and subsequently became physician 
 to the Empress of Russia, (17,31.) Died in 1783. 
 
 i, e, T, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, jr, short; a, e, i, <),obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; .noon; 
 
SANCHEZ 
 
 •955 
 
 SAND 
 
 Sanchez, san'cheth, [Lat. Sanc'tius,] (Francisco,) 
 an eminent Spanish scholar, born at Las Btocas, in 
 Estremadura, in 1523, became professor of the Greek 
 and Latin languages and rhetoric at Salamanca. He 
 published editions of several Latin classics, and a num- 
 ber of original treatises in Latin, among which we may 
 name his "Minerva, seu de Causis Linguae Latinae Corn- 
 men tarius," ("Commentary on the Principles of the 
 Latin Tongue,") which was esteemed a standard work. 
 Died in 1601. 
 
 See N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Sanchez, (Francisco,) a Spanish physician, of Jew- 
 ish extraction, was the author of a "Commentary on the 
 Physics of Aristotle," (in Latin,) and several medical 
 works. Died in 1632. 
 
 Sanchez, (Gaspard,) a Spanish Jesuit and biblical 
 critic, born at Cifuentes about 1553, became professor 
 of theology at Alcala. Died fa 1628. 
 
 Sanchez, (Pkdro Antonio,) a Spanish ecclesiastic, 
 born in Galicia in 1740, was celebrated for his eloquence. 
 He wrote a number of religious works, and filled the 
 chair of divinity in the University of Santiago de Com- 
 postella. Died in 1796. 
 
 Sanchez, (Tomas,) a Spanish Jesuit and theologian, 
 born at Cordova in 1550. His principal work is en- 
 titled "Disputations concerning the Holy Sacrament of 
 Marriage," ("Disputationes de Sancto Matrimonii Sa- 
 cramento," 1602.) Died in 1610. 
 
 Sanchez, (Tomas Antonio,) a Spanish scholar and 
 antiquary, born in 1730, published a "Collection of 
 Castilian Poetry before the Fifteenth Century." Died 
 in 1798. 
 
 Sanchez de Arevalo, san'cheth di a-ri-va'lo, (Ro- 
 drigo,) [Lat. Koderi'cus Sanc'tius,] a learned Spanish 
 ecclesiastic, born in the diocese of Segovia in 1404. He 
 was appointed by Pope Paul II. governor of the castle 
 of Sant' Angelo, and Bishop successively of Zamora, 
 Calahorra, and Palencia. He wrote a number of works 
 in Latin, among which maybe named his "Mirror of 
 Human Life," ("Speculum Vitae Humanae,") and a 
 "History of Spain." Died in 1470. 
 
 See N. Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus." 
 
 Sanchez Coello. See Coeixo. 
 
 Sancho, san'cho or san'cho, [Fr. Sanche, sSnsVi,] I., 
 King of Leon, succeeded his brother, Ordofio III., in 
 955 A.D. Died in 967. 
 
 Sancho II., King of Castile and Leon, born about 
 1035. He succeeded his father, Ferdinand I., in 1065. 
 Died in 1072. 
 
 Sancho IH., a son of Alfonso VIII., born about 1130, 
 began to reign over Castile in 11 57. Died in 11 58. 
 
 Sancho IV., surnamed EL Bravo, (" the Brave,") 
 King of Castile and Leon, born in 1258, was a son of 
 Alfonso X. He revolted against his father in 1282, and 
 involved the country in a long civil war. He became 
 king at the death of Alfonso, in 1284. Died in 1295. 
 He was succeeded by his son, Fernando IV. 
 
 See Mariana, " Historia de Espana ;'* " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Sancho IIX, King of Navarre, called the Great, 
 was born about 965 A.D., and succeeded his father, 
 Garcia II., about 1000. He was a warlike prince, and 
 extended his dominions by conquest. Died in 1035. 
 
 San'cho [Port. pron. saVsho] I., King of Portugal, 
 born in 1154, succeeded his father, Alfonso I., in 1185. 
 He is said to have been a prudent and beneficent ruler. 
 Died in 12 1 2. 
 
 Sancho, san'cho or sank'o, (Ignatius,) a negro 
 poet and miscellaneous writer, born on board a slave- 
 ship in 1729, was taken to England, where he was 
 educated, and acquired the friendship of Dr. Johnson, 
 Garrick, and other distinguished persons. He published 
 poems, dramatic works, and " Letters." Died in 1780. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for December, 1783. 
 
 San-€ho-ni'a-thon or San-ehu-ni'a-thon, [Gr. 
 Xayxouviuduv,] a Phoenician writer, supposed to have 
 been a native of Ber'ytus, and to have nourished about 
 fourteen centuries B.C. His principal work is a " His- 
 tory of Phoenicia," which was translated into Greek from 
 the Phoenician by Philo of Byblus. The manuscript of 
 
 this translation is said to have been found in Portugal in 
 1835 ; but it is now generally believed to be spurious. 
 It was translated into German by Wagenfeld, (1836.) 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca ;" F. L. Vibe, "Commen- 
 tatio de Sanchoniathone," 1842 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 San Concordio, da, da san kon-koR'de-o, (Barto- 
 i.ommeo,) an Italian ecclesiastic, born near Pisa in 1262. 
 His work entitled " Ammaestramenti degli Antichi" is a 
 translation from the maxims of the ancient philosophers, 
 and is esteemed a model of elegance in style. 
 
 San'croft, (William,) an eminent English prelate 
 and nonjuror, born in Suffolk in 1616, rose through 
 various preferments to be Archbishop of Canterbury in 
 1678. After James II. had issued his edict of toleration, 
 Sancroft and six other bishops presented a petition 
 against it, and were, in consequence, imprisoned for a 
 time in the Tower. Having refused to take the oaths 
 on the accession of William and Mary, (1689,) he was 
 superseded in his office by Archbishop Tillotson. Died 
 in 1693. 
 
 See the "Life of William Sancroft," by George D'Ovi.ey, Lon- 
 don, 1866; Macaulay, " Historyof England ;" Miss Strickland, 
 "Lives of the Seven Bishops." 
 
 Sanctius. See Sanchez, (Francisco.) 
 Sanc-to'rl-us, an eminent Italian physician, whose 
 original name was Santorio, (san-to're-o,) was born at 
 Capo d'Istria in 1561. He was appointed in l6u pro- 
 fessor of the theory of medicine at Padua. He published 
 several valuable medical works, the most important of 
 which is entitled "Ars de Statica Medicina Sectionibus 
 Aphorismorum Septem Comprehensa." This treatise, 
 which was translated into several languages, gives the 
 result of a series of experiments on insensible perspira- 
 tion. Died in 1636. 
 
 See A. Capelli, " De Vita Sanctorii," 1750; Hai.i.er, "Biblio- 
 theca Medica ;" notice in the " Biographie Medicale,"(by Boisseau.) 
 
 Sancy, de, deh sfiN'se', (Nicolas Haki.ay, ) a 
 French statesman, born in 1546, rose to be superintend- 
 ent of finance under Henry III. Died in 1629. 
 
 Sand, sant, [Lat. San'dius,] (Christoph,) a Ger- 
 man theologian, born at Konigsberg in 1644, published 
 several works in favour of Socinianism. Died in 1680. 
 
 Sand, [Fr. pron. soNd,] (George,) the assumed name 
 of Amantine* Lucile Aurore Dupin, (t'mdN'tei/ 
 lu'sel' o'roK' dii'paN',) Madame Dudevant, (dii'deh-v&N',) 
 a celebrated French novelist, born in Paris on the 1st 
 of July, 1804. Her father, Maurice Dupin, an officer of 
 the army, was a son of M. Dupin de Francueil, who mar- 
 ried a daughter of the famous Maurice de Saxe. The 
 subject of this article is thus a great-granddaughter of 
 Maurice de Saxe, who was a natural son of Augustus 
 II. of Poland. Her father having died in 1808, she was 
 educated by her grandmother, Madame Dupin, at the 
 chiteau de Nohant, in the department of Indre, where 
 she had full liberty to indulge and develop her romantic 
 and wayward tendencies. She passed three years (1817- 
 20) in the convent of the Augustines Anglaises, Paris, 
 and was for a time a zealous devotee, accepting the 
 mysteries of Catholicism with ecstasy, which was fol- 
 lowed by a morbid reaction. She tormented herself 
 with scruples, accused herself of constant sin, and be- 
 came very despondent. In 1820 she left the convent 
 and returned to Nohant, where her love and taste for 
 natural scenery were fostered and developed. She 
 delighted in horseback-excursions, and studied philos- 
 ophy in the works of Aristotle, Leibnitz, and Locke ; 
 but Rousseau was her prime favourite among authors. 
 
 She inherited the estate of Nohant on the death of her 
 grandmother, in 1821, and was married in 1822 to M. 
 Dudevant, a retired officer of the army. They had two 
 children, Maurice and Solange. After living together 
 about ten years, they separated by mutual consent, be- 
 cause their tastes or tempers were incompatible. She 
 became a resident of Paris, and, having given up her for- 
 tune to her husband, adopted the profession of literature 
 for a subsistence. In conjunction with her friend Jules 
 Sandeau, she wrote " Rose et Blanche," a tale, (5 vols., 
 1831.) She alone produced in 1832 a novel called " In- 
 
 * The " Nouvelle Biographie Generale" gives this name as 
 Armanuink; Pierer'a " Universal-I.exikon" has Amandine ; nearly 
 all the other authorities, including Vapereau, have it as given above. 
 
 «as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas 2; th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SAND 
 
 1956 
 
 SAND FORD 
 
 diana," which appeared under the pseudonym of George 
 Sand and had great success. Her celebrity was in- 
 creased by "Valentine," (2 vols., 1832,) and a paradoxi- 
 cal work of fiction, entitled " Lelia," (2 vols., 1833,) which, 
 says the " National Review," " is the most famous and 
 the most typical of her novels. It is to an English 
 reader, and judged of from the point of view of common, 
 sense, one of the i.iost incoherent, foolish, morbid, blas- 
 phemous, and useless books that have been sent across 
 the Channel during the present century." The same 
 critic remarks, "She has a true and a wide appreciation 
 of beauty, a constant command of rich and glowing 
 language, and a considerable faculty of self-analysis 
 and self-reflection. ... In spite of all her defects, she 
 awakens an admiration which cannot lie reasoned away." 
 (See article "George Sand" in the "National Review," 
 reprinted in the "Living Age" of February 27, 1858.) 
 
 She afterwards produced " Metella," (1833,) "Leone 
 Leoni," (1834,) "Jacques," (1834,) and "Mauprat," (2 
 vols., 1836,) which, with other tales, appeared first in the 
 "Revue des Deux Mondes." Her " Spiridion" (1839) 
 and "Consuelo" (1844) are said to have been written 
 under the inspiration of her friend Pierre Leroux. 
 Between 1844 and 1850 she published pastoral romances 
 entitled "La Mare au Diable," (1846,) " Francois le 
 Champi," (1849,) and "La petite Fadette," which were 
 much admired, as models of a new style of fiction. 
 " They are free," says the " National Review," " from all 
 that provokes censure in her other writings, — from theo- 
 ries, from declamation, from indelicacy. They move as 
 with a quiet flow that is irresistibly fascinating, and are 
 full of beauties of language to which it is impossible to 
 do justice." 
 
 George Sand is an advanced liberal in politics. About 
 the beginning of her literary career she assumed the 
 costume of the male sex. She professes to be a socialist, 
 and denounces the conventional system of marriage. She 
 was an ardent partisan of the revolution of 1848, after 
 which she edited a democratic weekly paper for a short 
 time. She is author of a number of dramas, among 
 which are " Claudie," (1851,) " Moliere," (1853,) " Fla- 
 minio," (1854,) and "Lucie," (1856.) In 1854 she pub- 
 lished her autobiography, " Histoire de ma Vie," (10 
 vols.,) in which the disappointed public found too little, 
 of personalities and anecdotes and too much of psychol- 
 ogy. Among her recent works are "Constance Ver- 
 rier," (i860,) " Flavie," (i860,) "Tamaris," (1861,) 
 " Antonia," (1861,) and " Laura," (1864.) " G. Sand," 
 says the "Nouvelle Biographie Generate, " "stands in 
 the first rank among contemporary novelists. Her com- 
 positions are in general magnificently planned or ar- 
 ranged, (ordonnees.) . . . She has had the original 
 merit to perceive and express the poetry of the land- 
 scapes of France. . . . But it is by her style that she 
 especially excels." 
 
 See R. Walsh, "George Sand," 1837: Sainte Beuve, " Cau- 
 series du Lundi ;" Lumenie, "Galerie des Conteinporains ;" 
 " Foreign Quarterly Review" for December, 1834, January, 1843, 
 July, 1844, and April, 1846. 
 
 Sand, sand or zant, (Karl Ludwig,) the murderer of 
 Kotzebue, born at Wunsiedel in 1795. While a student 
 at Jena he embraced with ardour the cause of the patriots, 
 and, exasperated by Kotzebtie's ridicule of the liberal 
 party, stabbed him at his residence in Mannheim in 1819. 
 He was executed in 1820. 
 
 See " Memoir of Charles Louis Sand ;" " Monthly Review" for 
 February, 1820. 
 
 Sandberg, sand'beRg, (Johan Gustaf,) a Swedish 
 historical painter, born in 1782, worked at Stockholm, 
 where he died in 1854. 
 
 Sand'by\ (Paul,) R.A., a celebrated English painter 
 and engraver, born at Nottingham about 1730. He 
 was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1768, 
 and the same year appointed chief drawing-master to 
 the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. He was the 
 first of his countrymen to execute aquatint engravings ; 
 and among his master-pieces of this kind are "The 
 Carnival at Rome," after David Allan, and "Views of 
 Windsor and Eton." As a painter in water-colours he 
 occupies a high rank, and he is regarded as the founder 
 of that school of art in England. Died in 1809. 
 
 Sandby, (Thomas,) brother of the preceding, was 
 born at Nottingham in 1721. On the foundation of the 
 Royal Academy, in 1768, he became first professor of 
 architecture in that institution. As deputy ranger of 
 Windsor Great Park, he planned the construction of 
 Virginia Water, (1754,) and in 1775 he furnished the 
 design of Freemasons' Hall, London, Died in 1798. 
 
 Sande, van den, vtn den sSn'deh, (Jan - ,) a Flemish 
 jurist and historical writer, born in Gelderland in the 
 sixteenth century ; died in 1638. 
 
 Sandeau, sS.N'do', (Leonard Sylvain Jules,) a 
 French novelist, born at Aubusson in 181 1. He began 
 his literary career as an associate of George Sand, (Du- 
 devant,) in conjunction with whom he wrote " Rose et 
 Blanche," (5 vols., 183 1,) and other novels. Among 
 his Ivorks are "Mariana," (2 vols., 1839,) " Valcreu.se." 
 (1847,) "Un Heritage," (1849,) and "Olivier," (1854.) 
 He was admitted into the French Academy in 1858, and 
 became keeper of the Mazarin Library in 1859. 
 
 Sand'e-man, (Robert,) born at Perth, in Scotland, 
 in !7l8or 1723, was the founder of the sect called by 
 his name. He emigrated in 1764 to New England, 
 where he died in 1771. He was a son-in-law of John 
 Glass, the founder of the Glassites. 
 
 Sander, san'der, (Antony,) a Flemish ecclesiastic, 
 born at Antwerp in 1586, was the author of several re- 
 ligious and historical works, (in Latin.) Died in 1664. 
 
 Sander, san'der or zan'der, (Heinkich,) a German 
 naturalist, born in 1754; died in 1782. 
 
 See Feddeksen, " Leben H. Sander's," 1784; Goetz, " Leben 
 H. Sander's," 1786. 
 
 San'ders, (William P.,) an American general, born 
 in Kentucky about 1833, graduated at West Point in 
 1856. He fought for the Union as an officer of cavalry 
 in several campaigns, and was killed near Knoxville, 
 Tennessee, in November, 1863. 
 
 San'ders or Sauu'ders, [Lat. Sandf/rus,] (Nich- 
 olas,) an English Catholic theologian, born in Surrey 
 in 1527, published several controversial works. Died 
 about 1580. 
 
 San'ders, (RoRERT,) a Scottish litterateur, born at 
 Breadalbane in 1727. He published "The Newgate 
 Calendar," (1764,) and other works. Died in 1783. 
 
 San'der-son, (John,) an American litterateur, born 
 at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1785. He was one of the 
 authors of the "Biography of the Signers of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence," (1827.) In 1835 he visited 
 France, and published, after his return, "Sketches of 
 Paris," etc., which was afterwards enlarged and entitled 
 "The American in Paris." It was very favourably re- 
 ceived, and was translated into French by Jules Janin. 
 About 1836 he was appointed professor of the Latin 
 and Greek languages in the Philadelphia High School. 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 See Gk-iswoi.d, "Prose Writers of America." 
 
 San'der-son, (Robert,) an English prelate, born 
 at Rotherham, in Yorkshire, in 1587. He graduated 
 at Lincoln College, Oxford, was afterwards appointed 
 chaplain to Charles I., and in 1642 became regius pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Oxford. He refused to sign the 
 covenant. He was made Bishop of Lincoln in 1660, 
 after the accession of Charles II. Among his principal 
 works are his treatise "On the Obligation of Oaths," 
 ("l)e Juramenti Obligatione," 1647,) and "Nine Cases 
 of Conscience Resolved," (1678.) Died in 1663. 
 
 See Isaac Walton, "Life of Bishop Sanderson," 1678. 
 
 Sanderson, (RobertJ an English antiquary, born in 
 Durham in 1660. He assisted in the compilation of 
 Rymer's " Fcedera," and wrote a " History of Henry V." 
 Hied in 1741. 
 
 Sanderus. See Sanders. 
 
 Sand'ford, (Sir Daniel Keyte,) a Scottish professor 
 of Greek, born about 1798, was a son of Bishop Sand- 
 ford of Edinburgh. He was professor in the University 
 of Glasgow, also a popular orator and advocate of the 
 Reform bill. Died in 1838. 
 
 Sand'ford, (Fkancis,) an Irish writer and herald, 
 born in the county of Wicklow in 1630, published a 
 "Genealogical History of the Kings of Portugal,' and 
 other similar works. Died in 1693. 
 
 :, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m£t; not; good; moon; 
 
 a,e 
 
SAND IFOR T 
 
 '957 
 
 * SAN GALLO 
 
 Sandifott. san'de-fott', (EduarD.) a Dutch anato- 
 mist, bum at Doit in 1742, became professor of anatomy 
 at Leyden, and published several works on that science. 
 Died in 1814. 
 
 His son Gerard, born at Leyden in 1779, was pro- 
 fessor of "anatomy and physiology in his native city. 
 Died in 1848. 
 
 Sandini, sin-dee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian writer, 
 and professor flf ecclesiastical history at Padua, born at 
 Yicentino in 1692. He was the author of the "Lives 
 of the Roman Pontiffs," (in Latin,) and other works. 
 Dud in 1751. 
 
 Sandius. See Sand, (Christoph.) 
 
 Sandoval, de, da san-do-val', (Gonzalo,) a brave 
 and able Spanish general, who fought under Cortez in 
 Mexico and was distinguished by his especial favour. 
 " He was," says Prescott, " in many respects the most 
 eminent of the great captains formed under the eye of 
 Cortez." Died in 1528, soon after his return to Spain. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vols. ii. 
 and iii. 
 
 Sandoval, de, (Fray Prudencio,) a Spanish prelate 
 and historian, born at Valladolid about 1560. He was 
 appointed historiographer to Philip HI., who employed 
 him to continue the "Cronica General" of Ambrosio 
 Morales, which appeared under the title of " History 
 of the Kings of Castile and I^eon." Among his other 
 works are a "History of the Life and Deeds of the 
 Emperor Charles V.,'' which is esteemed a standard 
 work, and has been translated into English, and a 
 "Chronicle of the Illustrious Emperor of Spain, Don 
 Alonzo VII." Sandoval was created Bishop of Pampe- 
 luna in 1612. Died in 1621. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" N. Antonio, 
 " Bib.iotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Sandrart, von, fon san'drart or zin'dulRt, (Joa- 
 chim,) a German painter, engraver, and art-historian, 
 born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1606. He studied 
 painting at Utrecht under Gerard Honthorst, and sub- 
 sequently spent several years in Italy, where he executed 
 a number of works for Cardinal Barberini. After residing 
 for a time at Amsterdam, he settled at Nuremberg, where 
 he died in 1688. Sandrart's pictures and engravings had 
 a high reputation in his time ; but his fame rests chiefly 
 on his work entitled "German Academy of Architecture, 
 Sculpture, and Painting," (" Die Deutsche Academie 
 der Bau, Bildhauer und Malerkunst," 2 vols., 1675,) a 
 part of which has been translated into Latin, under the 
 title of "Academia Artis Picturse." 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Lebenslauf Joachims von Sandrart," 
 1675: Chari.es Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres ;" Nagler, " All- 
 geineines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Sandras. See Courttlz. 
 
 Sandras, s8.\'d nits', (Claude Marif. Stanislas,) a 
 French physician, born at Rocroy in 1802. He pub- 
 lished a "History of the Cholera," and other medical 
 works. Died in [856. 
 
 San-dro-cot'tus, |Gr. 'LavUfMiaoTTor ; Sanscrit.CHAN'- 
 Di; u.up'ta, modern Hindoo pron. chun-dra-g6op'ta,| an 
 Indian king, who reigned over the region watered by 
 the Ganges about 310-300 H.C. His capital was Pali- 
 bothra. He resisted, with success, Seleucus Nicator, 
 who invaded his dominions. He is the Chaudragupta 
 of Sanscrit writers. He was a man of low caste, and 
 his history is especially interesting as marking the 
 progress of that great revolution which accompanied 
 the introduction of Booddhism into India. (See GaU- 
 
 TAM \.) 
 
 SandS, (Robert Charles,) a distinguished Ameri- 
 can journalist and litterateur, born in New York City or 
 at Flatbush, Long Island, in 1799. He graduated at 
 Columbia College, and published in 1820 the poem of 
 "Yamoyden," written conjointly with his friend James 
 Wallis Eastburn. He subsequently liecame associated 
 with the poet Bryant and Mr. G. C. Verplanck as a 
 writer for "The Talisman," a literary annual of a high 
 character. He was editor for a lime of the "Atlantic 
 Magazine," and in 1827 became associate editor of the 
 New York "Commercial Advertiser." Among his other 
 works are a " Historical Notice of Hernan Cortez," and 
 the "Life and Correspondence of John Paul Jones." He 
 
 was also a contributor to the "Tales of Glauber Spa," 
 published in 1832. Died in 1832. 
 
 See G. C. Vkrplanck, "Life of R. C. Sands;" Griswold, 
 " Poets of America ;" Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Lite- 
 rature," vol. ii. ; "Knickerbocker Magazine" for Match and May, 
 ■ »34- 
 
 Sandwich, Earl of. See Montagu, (Edward.) 
 San'd^s, (Edwin,) an English prelate, born in Lan- 
 cashire in 1519. He rose to be vice-chancellor of the 
 University in 1553, but he was deprived of this office on 
 the accession of Queen Mary, on account of his refusal 
 to proclaim her. Under the reign of Elizabeth he was 
 successively created Bishop of Worcester, (1559,) of 
 London, (1570,) and Archbishop of York, (1576.) He 
 assisted in the translation of the Scriptures known as 
 the Bishops' Bible, and was one of the commissioners 
 appointed to revise the Liturgy. Died in 1588. 
 See Wuitaker, " Life of Edwin Sandys." 
 
 Sandys, (Sir Edwin,) son of the preceding, was born 
 in Worcestershire about 1561. He was employed by 
 James I. on several missions, and was the author of a 
 work entitled " Europae Speculum," being an account 
 of his travels. Died in 1629. 
 
 Sandys, (George,) an English poet, born at York 
 in 1577, was a son of Dr. Sandys, Archbishop of York, 
 noticed above. In 1610 he visited Palestine, Egypt, and 
 Turkey, of which he published an account after his re- 
 turn. Among his other works are paraphrases upon the 
 Psalms, the book of Job, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, the 
 Song of Solomon, etc., and a translation of Ovid's 
 "Metamorphoses." His poetry is eulogized by Dryden, 
 Pope, Warton, and other eminent writers. Died about 
 1644. 
 
 See H. J. Tonn, " Memoir of the Life of G. Sandys," 1S30; StR 
 E. Bryuges, "Censura Literaria;" Wii.j.mott, "Lives of the 
 English Sacred Poets." 
 
 Sane, si'na', (Jacques Noei„) Baron, an eminent 
 French naval engineer, born at Brest in 1740. He was 
 called "the Vaulian of the navy." Died in 1831. 
 
 San/ford, (Edward,) an American poet, born in the 
 city of New York in 1805, was a son of Nathan, noticed 
 below. He studied law, but declined to practise. He 
 was editor of the "Standard," a Democratic journal of 
 New York, and afterwards one of the editors of the 
 "Globe" at Washington. Among his poems, which are 
 distinguished for grace, vivacity, and delicate humour, 
 we mav name the "Lines to a Mosquito," and the ad- 
 dress "To Black-Hawk." 
 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; 
 Griswolo, "Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Sanford, (Nathan,) an American jurist and states- 
 man, born on Long Island in 1779. He was elected 
 to the United States Senate in 1816, and in 1823 be- 
 came chancellor of the State of New York. Died in 
 1838. 
 
 San Gallo, da, da san gal'lo, (Antonio,) an eminent 
 Italian architect, whose original name was PiccoHl, 
 (pek-ko'nee,) a nephew of Antonio Giamberti, was born 
 at Mugello about 1482. Under the patronage of Alex- 
 ander Famese, afterwards Paul HI., he constructed a 
 number of magnificent edifices at Rome, among which 
 we may name the Palazzo Sacchetti, and the church of 
 Madonna di I.oretto. In 1536 he was appointed sole 
 architect of Saint Peter's, for which he prepared a 
 model at great cost ; but it was not approved by Michael 
 Angelo, and was finally rejected. The Palazzo Farnese, 
 in which he was assisted by Michael Angelo, is esteemed 
 one of his best works. Died in 1546. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." etc. : Qiiatrrmbre de 
 Quincy, "Vies des Architectes;" Ttcozzt, " Dizionario." 
 
 San Gallo, da, (Antonio Batitsta Gobbo,) brother 
 of the preceding, was also distinguished as an architect, 
 and assisted in most of the important works of his 
 brother. 
 
 San Gallo or Sangallo, da, (Antonio Giamberti,) 
 an Italian architect and sculptor, born at Florence in the 
 fifteenth century. Among his best works are the church 
 of the Madonna at Montepulciano, the fortress of Ci vita 
 Castellana, and the castle of Sant' Angelo, formerly the 
 mausoleum of Hadrian. He was a brother of Giuliano, 
 noticed below. Died in 1534. 
 
 tazk; $ass;ghard;g3Sj;G, H, K, guttural; H, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SAN GALLO 
 
 1958 
 
 SANTA ANA 
 
 San Gallo, da, (Bastiano,) an Italian painter, and 
 relative of the preceding, born at Florence in 1481 ; 
 died in 1551. 
 
 San Gallo, da, or Sangallo, (Giui.iano,) an emi- 
 nent Italian architect, whose proper name was Giuliano 
 Giamherti, was born at Florence in 1443. He was 
 patronized bv Lorenzo de' Medici, for whom he built a 
 palace or villa at Poggio Cajano, and a large convent at 
 Florence, near the gate of San Gallo, from which he 
 derived his name. Among his works was a palace at 
 Savona for Pope Julius II. He was selected by Leo X. 
 to succeed Bramante as architect of Saint Peter's ; but 
 he declined the honour. He was a brother of Antonio 
 Giamberti da San Gallo. Died in 1517. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. ; Cicognara, " Storia 
 della Scultura;" Quatrkmere de Quincy, "Dictiomiaire d'Ar- 
 chitecture." 
 
 Sangro, da, da san'gRo, (Raimondo,) -Prince of San 
 .Severe, an Italian savant, bom in Naples in 1710. He 
 was versed in various sciences, arts, and languages, and 
 displayed much inventive genius. Died in 1771. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Sanlecque, de, deh so.N'leV, (Louis,) a French 
 satirical poet, born in Paris in 1652, was also a priest. 
 Died in 1714. 
 
 San Michell, sin me-ka'le, written also Sammi- 
 cheli or San Michele, (Gian Girolamo,) an able 
 Italian architect, born about 1514, was a nephew and 
 pupil of the following, whom he aided in his works. 
 Died in 1559. 
 
 San Micheli, sin me-ka'lee, or Sammicheli, sim- 
 me-ka'lee, (Michei.k,) a celebrated civil and military 
 architect, born at Verona, in Italy, in 1484. Having 
 resided for several years at Rome, where he acquired 
 the friendship of Michael Angelo, Bramante, and other 
 artists of the time, he was employed about 1525 to con- 
 struct the new fortifications of Verona, in which he first 
 introduced the angular bastions, since generally adopted 
 by engineers. Among his other works may be named 
 the Grimani and Coniaro palaces at Venice, and the 
 Cappella Pellegrini and church of the Madonna di Cam- 
 pagna at Verona. Died in 1559. 
 
 See Vasari. " Lives of the Painters." etc. ; A. Sei.va, " Elogio di 
 M. Sanmicheli," 1814: Mm.izia, "Vite degli Arcliitetti ;" Cico- 
 gnara. " Storia delia Scultura :" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 San Miguel, sin me-gel', (Don Evariste,) a Span- 
 ish general and statesman, born in the Asturias in 1780, 
 served in the campaigns of 1808 and 1820, and subse- 
 quently was appointed military governor of Aragon. 
 He was afterwards made captain-general of Madrid, and 
 president of the revolutionary junta. Died in 1862. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Sannazar. See Sannazaro. 
 
 Sannazarius. See Sannazaro. 
 
 Sannazaro, sin-nad-zi'ro, [ Lat. Sannaza'rius ; 
 Fr. Sannazar, si'nt'ziR',] (Jacopo,) a distinguished 
 Italian poet, born at Naples in 1458, was descended 
 from a noble family in Spain. While on a visit in France 
 he composed his "Arcadia," (1504,) a pastoral in prose 
 and verse, which is esteemed a model of elegance and 
 purity of style. He also wrote a number of Latin poems 
 which were greatly admired, and several dramatic works 
 and sonnets in Italian. Sannazaro was patronized by 
 Frederick, King of Naples, and accompanied that mon- 
 arch in his exile to France. He died at Naples in 1530, 
 having attained the rank of one of the best classics of 
 his country. 
 
 See "Lives of the Italian Poets," by Rev. H. Stebbing: Long- 
 fellow, " Poets and Poetry of Kurope :" Crispo, " Vita di Sanna- 
 zaio," 1585; J. A. Volhi, " Saniia/.aris Vita;" T. Coi.angelo, "Vita 
 di G Sannazaro," 1819; Niceron, " Meinoires:" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Gt£ne>ale :" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" 
 "Retrospective Review," vol. x., (1824.) 
 
 San-n^rl-on, [ 'Zavwpiuv, | an Athenian comic poet, 
 flourished about 400-375 B.C., and was a contemporary 
 of Aristophanes. 
 
 San Roman, san-ro-maV, (Miguel,) a Peruvian 
 general, born in 1802. He had obtained a high rank in 
 the army, when he was elected President of Peru in 
 1862. Died in April, 1863. 
 
 San Severe See Sangro, da. 
 
 Sans-Malice. See Akakia. 
 
 Sanson, s8n's6n', (Adrien,) a French geographer; 
 was a son of Nicolas, noticed below. He had the title 
 of geographer to the king. Died in 1708 or 1718. 
 
 Sanson, (Guii.laume,) a geographer of Paris, was a 
 brother of the preceding. He published several works. 
 Died in 1703. . 
 
 Sanson, (Louis Joseph,) a distinguished French 
 surgeon, born in Paris in 1790. He succeeded Dupuy- 
 tren as professor of clinical surgery in the Hotel-Dieu 
 in 1836. He was eminent as a practitioner and a writer. 
 Among his works are "New Elements of Medico-Sur- 
 gical Pathology," (4 vols., 1825,) and "Des Hemorrhagies 
 traumatiques," (1836.) Died in 1841. 
 
 See " Biographie Universelle," (new edition.) 
 
 Sanson, (Nicolas,) one of the earliest French geog- 
 raphers, born at Abbeville in 1600. His first work was 
 a map of ancient Gaul, which obtained for him the 
 patronage of Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIII., and 
 he was employed by the latter as an engineer in Picardy. 
 He was treated with marked distinction by the king, 
 who appointed him his geographer about 1640. Besides 
 his numerous maps, he published a work entitled " Bri- 
 tannia, or Researches concerning the Antiquity of Abbe- 
 ville," (1638.) Died in 1667. 
 
 Sanson, (Nicolas,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 about 1626. He rescued Chancellor Seguier from the 
 fury of a mob in Paris, but was killed himself on that 
 occasion, in 1648. 
 
 Sansovino, san-so-vee'no, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 litterateur, son of Jacopo, noticed below, was born at 
 Rome in 1521. Among the most important of his works 
 are his " Hundred Novels from the Most Eminent Italian 
 Writers," ("Cento Novelle scelti de' piu nobili Scrittori 
 della Lingua volgare,") "Turkish Annals," (1573,) and 
 a "Description of Venice," (1604.) 
 
 See Fontanini and Zeno, " Biblioteca Italiana ;" Niceron, 
 " M^moires ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Sansovino, (Jacopo Tatti,) an eminent Italian 
 sculptor and architect, bom at Florence in 1479. He 
 studied sculpture under Contucci da Monte Sansovino, 
 whose surname he assumed. He afterwards visited 
 Rome, where he acquired the friendship of Bramante 
 and other artists and was patronized by Pope Julius II. 
 After the sack of Rome he repaired to Venice, where he 
 constructed numerous public and private edifices. Among 
 these may be named La Zecca, or Mint, the Palazzo Cor- 
 naro, and La Scuola della Misericordia. His colossal 
 statues of Mars and Neptune in the Doge's palace, and 
 the Four Evangelists in the chapel of Saint Mark, are 
 ranked among his master-pieces in sculpture. Died 
 about 1570. 
 
 See Giorgio Vasari, "Vita di J. Sansovino," 17S5; Temanza, 
 "Vita di J. Sansovino." 1752 ; Mm.izia, "Vite deeli Arcliitetti:" 
 Quatrkmere DE Quincy, " Vies des Architectes;" Ticozzi, "Dizi- 
 onario." 
 
 Sansovino, da, da san-so-vee'no, ( Andrea Con- 
 tucci,) an eminent Italian sculptor and architect, born 
 in 1460. He worked at Rome and Loretto. He was 
 the master of Jacopo Sansovino. Died in 1529. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters and Sculptors;" Cico- 
 gnara, '* Storia della Scultura." • 
 
 Santa Ana, (or Anna,) de, di san'ta an'na, (Anto- 
 nio Lopez,) a Mexican President and general, bom in 
 Mexico or Jalapa about 1798. He fought against Itur- 
 bide in 1823, against Pedraza in 1828, and against Bus- 
 tamente in 1830. He was chosen President in 1833, and 
 became dictator in 1835. The Texans revolted against 
 Santa Anna, who was defeated and taken prisoner at 
 San Jacinto in April, 1836, by General Houston. He 
 was released in 1837, and lost a leg in a battle against 
 the French in December, 1838. He recovered power in 
 1841, was banished in 1845, but returned in 1846, and 
 became general-in-chief. lie was defeated by General 
 Taylor at Buena Vista in February, 1847, and at Cerro 
 Gordo by General Scott in April of that year. About 
 this time he was again chosen President ; but, the 
 American army having taken the capital of Mexico in 
 September, 1847, he went into exile. In 1853 he re- 
 turned, and was appointed dictator for life. After he 
 had ruled with despotic power about two years, he was 
 compelled to abdicate in August, 1855, after which he 
 
 3, e, I, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moor.; 
 
SANTA CRUZ 
 
 >959 
 
 SAPOR 
 
 passed many years in exile. Soon after the death of 
 Maximilian, June, 1S67, Santa Anna returned and made 
 an attempt against the republic, but failed, and was made 
 a prisoner. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale ;" " North American Re- 
 view" for July, 1836. 
 
 Santa Cruz, san'ti Icrooss, (or kRooth,) (Andres,) a 
 South American statesman and soldier, born in Peru 
 about 1800, served in the war of independence in 1823, 
 and in 1829 succeeded General Sucre as President of 
 Bolivia. He was defeated at Yungai in 1839, and com- 
 pelled to leave the country. In 1849 he became minister- 
 pleni|)Otentiary from Bolivia to London, Paris, Rome, 
 and Madrid. 
 
 Santa Cruz, de, da san'tJ kRooth, or Sainte-Croix, 
 sa.Nt'UKwa', (Don Alvarez de Bassano — da ba-s5'- 
 no,) Marquis, a Spanish admiral, born about 1510, 
 distinguished himself at the battle of Lepanto." He 
 was appointed about 1587 to the chief command of the 
 Invincible Armada, but died before it was ready for 
 action. 
 
 Santa Cruz de Marzenado, de, da san'tj kRooth 
 da maK-tha-na'Do, (Alvar de Navia Osorio, al-vaV 
 di ni-vee'a o-so're-o,) Marquis, a Spanish officer and 
 military writer, born in 1687, served in the war of the 
 Spanish succession, and became governor of Oran. He 
 was killed in an action near that town in 1732. 
 
 Santafede, san-ta-fa'di, (Fahkizio,) a skilful Italian 
 painter, born at Naples in 1560. He worked mostly in 
 his native city. Died in 1634. 
 
 Santande'r, siln-tan-daiK', (Francisco de Paula — 
 da pow'la,) a South American statesman, born in New 
 Granada in 1792. He fought against Spain in the war 
 of independence, and was elected Vice-President of the 
 republic of Colombia in 1821. Having conspired against 
 Bolivar about 1828, he was banished. In 1832 he was 
 elected President of New Granada. Died in 1840. 
 
 Santarelli, santa-rel'lee, (Giovanni Antonio,) an 
 Italian engraver, born in the Abruzzi in 1759, worked 
 in Rome and Florence. Died in 1826. 
 
 Santarem, san-ta-r?N', ( Manoki. Francisco de 
 Barros y Souza — di baVris e so'zi,) Viscount, a 
 Portuguese diplomatist and writer, born at Lisbon in 
 1790, was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to Copen- 
 hagen, and in 1827 became minister of state. He was 
 the author of an " Essay on the History of Cosmography 
 and Cartography during the Middle Ages," (1849,) and 
 other works. Died in 1856. 
 
 Santen, van, vin san'ten, (Laurent,) a Dutch phi- 
 lologist, born at Amsterdam in 1746. He resided mostly 
 at Leyden. He edited several ancient Greek and Latin 
 works, on which he wrote critical notes. Died in 1798. 
 
 See Bp.kc.man, " Levensschets van L. van Santen," 1840. 
 
 Santerre, s&.VtaiR', (Antoine Joseph,) a French 
 revolutionist of the Jacobin party, born in Paris in 1752, 
 had acquired a large fortune as a brewer in the Faubourg 
 Saint-Antoine. He took an active part in the storming 
 of the Bastille, and in the subsequent insurrections of 
 the 20th of June and the 10th of August. As com- 
 mander of the National Guard, he caused the king to be 
 conveyed to the tower, and afterwards presided at his 
 execution. He was defeated by the Vendeans, under 
 Piron de la Varenne, in September, 1793. Died in 1808 
 or 1809. 
 
 See Carro, " Santerre, sa Vie publique et privee," 1847. 
 
 Santerre, (Jean Baptistk, ) a French historical 
 painter, born near Pontoise in 1651 ; died in 1717. 
 
 Santeul, sos'tul', (Claude,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and I.atin poet, born in Paris in 1628, was a brother of 
 Jean, noticed below. Died in 1684. 
 
 Santeul, sos'tul', or Santeuil, de, deh s&N'tuI', 
 (Jean,) |Lat. Santo'lius,] an excellent Latin poet, 
 born in Paris in 1630, was a canon regular of Saint-Vic- 
 tor. He wrote Latin hymns with great success. " A 
 nobleness of thought and splendour of language," says 
 Hallam, "distinguished the poetry of Santeul, who fur- 
 nished many inscriptions for public monuments." (" In- 
 troduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died in 1697. 
 
 See " Vie et bons mots de Santeul," Cologne, 1735; Dinouart, 
 "Santoliana," 1764 ; Montalant-Boiigi.kux. '* Santeul, oil la Poiaic 
 Latine sous Louis XIV," 1854 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene'rale." 
 
 Santi, sin'tee, or Sanzio, sin'ze-o, (Giovanni,) an 
 Italian poet and painter, born at Colbordolo, was the 
 father of Raphael. He painted Madonnas and other 
 religious subjects. Died in 1494. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters;" Passavant, " Rafael von 
 Urbino und sein Vater, G. Santi." 
 
 Santi di Tito or Titi. See Tiro. 
 
 Santillana. See Mendoza, (Inigo Lopez.) 
 
 Sautini, san-tee'nee, (Giovanni,) an Italian savant, 
 born in Tuscany in 1786. He became rector of the 
 University of Padua in 1825, and was afterwards ap- 
 pointed professor of astronomy and director of mathe- 
 matical studies in that institution. He is a corresponding 
 member of the French Institute, and has published 
 several scientific works. 
 
 Santolius. See Santeul. 
 
 Sautorini, san-to-ree'nee, (Giovanni Domenico,) 
 an Italian anatomist, born at Venice in 1681. He wrote 
 several able works on anatomy and medicine. Died in 
 
 I73 6 - 
 
 See Haixkr, " Bibliotheca Anatomica ;" Poli.aroli, " Notizie 
 per servire alia Storia della Vita di G. D. Santorini," 1763. 
 
 Santorio. See Sanctorius. 
 
 Sanuto, si-noo'to, (Livio,) an Italian geographer of 
 the sixteenth century ; died before 1588. 
 
 Sanuto, (Marino,) called Torseli.o, (toR-sel'lo,) a 
 Venetian traveller, who visited the Levant and wrote the 
 " Book of F'aithful Secrets concerning the Recovery 
 of the Holy Land," (" Liber Secretorum fidelium super 
 Terras Sanctae Recuperatione.") Died after 1330. 
 
 See Postansque, "De Marino Sanuto," 1856; Tiraboschi, 
 "Storia della Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Sanuto, (Marino,) the Younger, an Italian his- 
 torian, born in Venice in 1466, was a member of the 
 Academy founded by Aldus Manutitts. He wrote, in 
 Italian, a history of the Republic of Venice, which was 
 published in 1733 in Muratori's "Italian Scriptores," 
 under the title of " Lives of the Doges of Venice," 
 (" Vitae Diicum Venetorum.") Died in 1535. 
 
 See Rawoon Brown, " Raggnagli sulla Vita e sulle Opere di M. 
 Sanuto," 3 vols., 1837-38; Tiraboschi, " Storii della Letteratura 
 Italiana." 
 
 Sanvitale, sin-ve-ta'la, (Giacomo Antonio,)Count, 
 an Italian poet and diplomatist, born at Parma in 1699. 
 He published numerous poems, one of which is entitled 
 " Poema Parabolica," (1746.) Died in 1780. 
 
 Sanz, santh, (Augustin,) a Spanish architect, born 
 at Saragossa in 1724, was appointed in 1792 director of 
 the Academy of San Luis. Among his best works are 
 the church of Santa Cruz and the theatre at Saragossa. 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 Sanzio, (Raphael.) See Raphael. 
 
 Saphir, s.Vl'etR, (Moritz,) a distinguished writer, of 
 Jewish extraction, bom at Pesth in 1794, successively 
 edited the journals entitled " Berliner Schnellpost," 
 " Der Deutsche Ilorizont," and " Der Humorist." 
 Among his works, which are chiefly of a humorous and 
 satirical character, we may name his " Humoristische 
 Damenbibliothek," and his " Dictionary of Wit and 
 Humour," (" Conversations- Lexikon fur Geist, Witz und 
 Humor.") Died in 1858. 
 
 See F. FOrstrr, " M. G. Saphir und Berlin," 1828; Brock- 
 haus, " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Sapieha, sap-ya'ha, (John Peter,) a Polish military 
 commander, born in 1569, distinguished himself in the 
 wars with Sweden and Russia. Died in l6n. 
 
 Sapieha, (Leo,) high chancellor of Lithuania, born 
 in 1557, served against the Russians under Stephen 
 Bathori in 1579, and subsequently concluded a peace of 
 twenty years with the Czar. After the death of Bathori 
 he promoted the election of the Swedish king, Sigis- 
 mund HI., to the throne of Poland. Died in 1633. 
 
 Sa'por [Persian, Shapoor or ShapOk, sha'poor'] I., 
 son of Artaxerxes, succeeded to the throne of Persia in 
 238 a.d. He conquered Mesopotamia and Syria, and 
 caused the emperor Valerian to be put to death. He 
 was eventually assassinated by his satraps, (269 a.d.) 
 
 Sapor II. succeeded Hormisdas II. as King of Persia. 
 He was engaged in wars with the Romans, and distin- 
 guished himself by his persecution of the Christians. 
 Died in 380 A.D. 
 
 «as£; $3as;%hard; gas/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JiySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SAPPHO 
 
 i960 
 
 SARMIENTO 
 
 Sappho, saph'o, [Gr. 2a7rpo>, genitive Samps' ; Lat. 
 Sappho, genitive Sapphus ; Ital. Saffo, saffo,] written 
 alsoSapho, ,1 Greek lyric poetess of great celebrity, was 
 born at Mitylene or Eresos.in the island of Lesbos, about 
 625 B.C. We have little positive knowledge of the 
 events of her life, but it is known that she lived about 
 600 B.C. and was a friend of the poet Alcseus. The 
 popular tradition that she cherished an unrequited love 
 for Phaon, and that she threw herself in despair from 
 the Leucadian rock into the sea, is rejected by modern 
 critics. She belonged to the Mo)\an race, the women 
 of which were not kept in so strict seclusion as the 
 Ionians. She wrote hymns, elegies, and erotic odes of 
 exquisite beauty. It is admitted that she has never been 
 surpassed in sweetness and grace by any lyric poet, 
 ancient or modem. Her works are lost, except a hymn 
 to Venus and short fragments of other poems. "Among 
 the mutilated poets of antiquity," says Addison, "there 
 is none whose fragments are so beautiful as those of 
 Sappho. . . . One may see, by what is left of them, that 
 she followed nature in all her thoughts, without descend- 
 ing to those little points, conceits, and turns of wit with 
 which many of our modern lyrics are so miserably in- 
 fected. Her soul seems to have been made up of love 
 and poetry. She felt the passion in all its warmth and 
 described it in all its symptoms. She is called by ancient 
 authors the tenth muse." (See the " Spectator," No. 
 223, which contains an English version of her hymn to 
 Venus.) Versions of her ode to Lesbia, by Catullus, 
 Boileau, and A. Philips, may be found in the " Spectator," 
 No. 229. 
 
 See F. G. Welcker, " Sappho von einem herrschenden Vorur- 
 theil befreit," 1816; MOi.lkr, " Literature of Ancient Greece," 
 vol. i. ; E. Tkgner, "Sapphus Vita et Cannula," 1817; Richter, 
 "Sappho und Erinna," 1833; C. M. dkSai.m Dvck, " Precis de la 
 Vie de Sapho," 1810; "Nouvelle Uiographie Genera e." 
 
 Saracino, si-ra-chee'no, or Saraceni, sa-ra-cha'nee, 
 (Caki.o,) an Italian painter, born at Venice in 1585, 
 painted frescos in the Vatican at Rome. Died in 1625. 
 
 Sa'rah or Sarai, [Heb. miff, originally nis\] a He- 
 brew matron, was the wife of Abraham, and the mother 
 of Isaac. Her name signifies "princess." 
 
 See Genesis xi. 29, xii., xvi., xvii. 15-21, xviii., xx., xxi. 
 
 Sarapis. See Serapis. 
 
 Sarasin. See Sarrasin. 
 
 Sar'as-wat'l, [modern Hindoo pron. sur'tis-wut'ee, 
 from Sarasw&t, a Sanscrit word, signifying "juicy," 
 "racy," "flowing," also "elegant,"] the name of the 
 consort of Brahma, and the goddess of speech, elo- 
 quence, and music. She was regarded as the inventress 
 of the Sanscrit language and of the Devanagari alphabet. 
 (See Introduction, p. 21.) As the patroness of music, 
 she has by some writers been identified with Minerva, 
 ('A9t/vu,) who was sometimes surnamed Musice, {fiovainr/,) 
 and who is said to have been the inventor of the flute. 
 Sir William Jones addressed to Saraswati a hymn, in 
 which he speaks of her as one 
 
 " Whose sigh is music, and each tear a pearl." 
 
 See Mook, " Hindu Pantheon," p. 125 et seq. 
 
 Saravia, s5-ra-vee'i or st'ii've'i', (Hadrian A.,) a 
 Protestant theologian, of Spanish extraction, born at 
 Artois, in France, in 1531, became professor of divinity 
 at Leyden. Having settled in England in 1587, he was 
 made prebendary of Westminster. He was an intimate 
 friend of the celebrated Hooker, and was one of the 
 divines employed by James I. in the translation of the 
 Bible. Died in 1613. 
 
 See Paquot, "Me'moires;" Meursius, " Athense Batavae." 
 
 Sarazin or Sarrazin, si'ri'zaN', (Jacques,) a French 
 sculptor, born at Noyon in 1590. He resided many 
 years at Rome, where he was patronized by Cardinal 
 Aldobrandini, for whom he executed the colossal statues 
 of Atlas and Polyphemus at the Villa Frascati. Among 
 his master-pieces in Paris may be named the Mauso- 
 leum of Cardinal Berulle, "Group of Children playing 
 with Goats," "The Four Cardinal Virtues," in the 
 church of Saint Louis, and the Mausoleum of Henri de 
 Bourbon-Conde. Died in 1660. 
 
 See V. Tremblayj " Notice sur Sarrazin," 1848 : " Riographie de 
 J. Sarrazb," Noyon, 1851; Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura." 
 
 Sarazin, (Jean.) See Sarrazin. 
 
 Sarbievius. See Sarbikwskx 
 
 Sarbiewski, saR-be-eVskee, [Lat. Sarbie'vius,] 
 (Matthias Kashmir,) a Polish Jesuit and poet, born in 
 1595, became court preacher to Ladislaus IV. lie was 
 the author of Latin lyrics and other poems, which ob- 
 tained for him the name of the Sarmatian Horace. Died 
 in 1640. 
 
 See Langbein, "Commentatio de M. C. Sarbievii Vita," 1753. 
 
 Sarcey, sSk's&', (Francisque,) a French litterateur, 
 born at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise) in 1828. Among his 
 works is a collection of tales entitled " Le Nouveau 
 Seigneur," (1862.) 
 
 Sarcmasius. See Schurtzfi.eisch. 
 
 Sarcone, saR-ko'na, (Michei.e,) an Italian medical 
 writer, born in Apulia in 1732 ; died in 1797. 
 
 Sardanapale. See Sardanapalus. 
 
 Sar-da-na-pa'lus, [Gr. 2ap<5ai>u7raAoc ; Fr. Sardana- 
 pale,* siu'il'S'ni'pS 1 '.] a kil> S °f Assyria, noted for the 
 weakness and effeminacy of his character, is supposed 
 to have lived about 880 lt.c. His satrap Arbaces having 
 conspired with the Medes against him and besieged 
 Nineveh, Sardanapalus defended his capital with great 
 courage and resolution nearly two years. At length, 
 finding resistance vain, he is said to have set fire to his 
 palace and consumed himself, together with his women 
 and his treasures. He is supposed to have been the 
 last king of Assyria. His fortunes have been made the 
 subject of one of Lord Byron's best tragedies. The 
 story of Sardanapalus is probably fabulous : it is sup- 
 ported by no authority except Ctesias. It does not 
 seem probable that such a man would die like a stoic. 
 
 See Koopmans, " Disputatio de Sardanapalo," 181Q. 
 
 Sardi, saR'dee, (Alessandro,) an Italian antiquary, 
 born at Ferrara about 1520. Among his works is a 
 "1'reatise on Coins," ("De Nummis Tractatus," 1579.) 
 Died in 1588. 
 
 Sardou, siu'doo', (Victorien,) a French dramatist, 
 born in Paris in 1831. He produced numerous suc- 
 cessful dramas, among which are " Nos Intimes," "Les 
 Ganaches," (1862,) and "La Patrie," (1869.) 
 
 Sar'gent, (Epks, eps,) an American journalist and 
 miscellaneous writer, born at Gloucester, Massachusetts, 
 in 1812. He has been successively editor of the New 
 York "Mirror" and the Boston "Evening Transcript." 
 He has published " Velasco," a tragedy, and several other 
 dramas, "Songs of the Sea, and other Poems," " Arctic 
 Adventures by Sea and Land," (1857,) and a number of 
 excellent educational works. 
 
 See Griswold, "Prose Writers of America." 
 
 Sargent, (John Osborne,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 1810. He 
 became associate editor of the New York "Courier 
 and Enquirer" in 1837, and subsequently of the " Re- 
 public" at Washington. 
 
 Sargent, (LUCIUS Mani.ius,) an able and popular 
 American writer, born at Boston in 1786. fie pub- 
 lished a series of "Temperance Tales," which were 
 very favourably received, a work entitled " Dealings 
 with the Dead, by a Sexton of the Old School," (2 
 vols., 1856,) and a number of poems. Died in 1867. 
 
 Sar'gon, a king of Assyria, ascended the throne in 
 721 B.C. He conquered several adjoining nations, cap- 
 tured Samaria, and carried away many Israelites as 
 captives. Died in 704 B.C. 
 
 Sar'jeant or Serjeant, (John,) a Catholic priest, 
 born in Lincolnshire about 1621, became secretary of 
 the secular clergy in England. He published a greai 
 number of controversial works. Died in 1707. 
 
 Sarmiento, saR-me-Sn'to, (Martin,) a Spanish 
 scholar and teacher, born at Segovia in 1692. He wrote 
 several literary works. Died at Madrid in 1770. 
 
 Sarmiento, de, <}k saR-tne-en'to, (Juan,) a Spanish 
 historian, who lived about 1550, travelled in Peru, and 
 wrote a work entitled "Account of the Government of 
 the Incas," (" Relacion de la Sucesion y Govierno de las 
 Ingas," etc., in manuscript.) He is praised by Prescott 
 for his candour and accuracy and the humane spirit he 
 
 * In Sir David Lindsay's "Three Estates" the name is written 
 Sardanapatl. 
 
 1, e T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
SJRNELLI 
 
 1961 
 
 SJSSAKIDjE 
 
 manifests towards the natives. Me held the office of 
 president of the Council of the Indies. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. i. 
 book i. 
 
 Sarnelli, saR-nel'lee, (Pompeo,) an Italian writer and 
 ecclesiastic, born at Polignano in 1649. He wrote various 
 works, in prose and verse. Died in 1724. 
 
 See Nic^kon, " M6moires." 
 
 Saion or Sarron. See Bociiart df. Sarron. 
 
 Sar-pe'don, [Or. ZapTri/duv ; Fr. Sarpedon, saVpa'- 
 doN',) a personage in the Greek mythology, regarded 
 as the son of Jupiter and Europa, and a brother of Mi- 
 nos. Having been expelled from Crete by Minos, he 
 retired to Lycia, of which he became king. 
 
 Sarpedon, a hero and prince of Lycia, mentioned 
 in the "Iliad," supposed to have been a son of Jupiter 
 and Laodami'a. According to Homer, he fought for the 
 Trojans and was killed by Patroelus. 
 
 Sarpi, saR'pee, (Paolo,) an eminent Italian writer 
 and theologian, born at Venice in 1552, is generally 
 known as Fra Paolo, or Father Paul. He entered 
 the order of Servites at an early age, was subsequently 
 appointed professor of philosophy at Venice, and in 
 1579 was elected general of his order, Being made 
 procureur-general in 1585, he went to reside at Rome, 
 where he acquired the friendship of Cardinal Bellarmine 
 and other distinguished men ; but, having been suspected 
 of heretical opinions and threatened with the Inquisi- 
 tion, he returned to Venice. He was chosen in 1605 
 consulting theologian of the republic during'its contest 
 with Pope Paul V., and defended its cause with signal 
 ability and success. Repeated attempts on his life, and 
 the entreaties of his friends, induced him to retire to a 
 convent, where he died in 1623. His "History of the 
 Council of Trent" (" Istoria del Concilio Tridentino," 
 1619) is his most celebrated work, and was translated 
 into Latin and several other languages. In his writings 
 Father Paul has boldly attacked the infallibility of the 
 pope and condemned his usurpations of temporal power. 
 He is also supposed to have favoured Protestantism. 
 
 See Micanzto, "Vita Hi Sarpi," 1646; Ghiseuni, " Meniorie 
 spettanti alia Vita di Sarpi," 1760; Bianchi Giovihi, " Biogrwfia 
 di Fra Paolo." 2 vols., 1836: G. Fontanini, " Storia arcana della 
 Vita di Fra Paolo Sarpi," 1S05; Dr. Johnson's Works, vol xii., 
 1812; "Nouvelle Biographic Generate ;" "Westminster Review" 
 for April, 183S, (by James Martinp.au.) 
 
 Sarrans, sit'rftN', (Bernard,) a French journalist and 
 political writer, born near Toulouse in 1795, became 
 editor of "La Nouvelle Minerve" about 1830. He 
 published a treatise "On the Spanish War and the 
 Tyranny of the Bourbons," " History of Bemadotte, 
 King of Sweden," etc., (1841;,) and oilier works. 
 
 Sarrasin or Sarasin, sj'ri'zaV, (Jean Franqois,) 
 a facetious French litterateur, bom near Caen in 1603, 
 was the author of a "History of the Siege of Dunkirk," 
 (1649,) "The Conspiracy of Wallensteiu," and other 
 works, in prose and verse. He was secretary to the 
 Prince de Conti, and a literary rival of Voiture. Died 
 in 1654. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memnires :" "Menagiana;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie GeneVale." 
 
 Sarrazin, (Jacques.) See Sarazin. 
 
 Sarrazin, sit'iS'zaN'', (Jean,) a French general, born 
 in 1770. He obtained the rank of general of brigade 
 about 1800, after which he served in several campaigns. 
 In 1810 he deserted to the British. Died about 1840. 
 
 Sarrus, si'iiis', (P. F.,) a French mathematician, 
 born in the department of Aveyron about 1795. He 
 became professor of analysis at Strasbourg. 
 
 Sarrut, sS'rii', (GERMAIN,) a French littlrateur and 
 democrat, born at Toulouse in 1800, has published a 
 number of political and miscellaneous works. 
 
 Bars, (Michael,) an eminent zoologist, born at Ber- 
 gen, in Norway, August 30, 1805. In 1830 he was 
 pastor of Kinn, and in 1840 of Manger, on the coast of 
 Norway. He published in 1S46 the first part of his 
 "Fauna Littoralis Norvegiae," which established his 
 reputation. In 1854 he became professor of geology in 
 the University of Christiania, which office he filled with 
 great honotu to his country until his death. His " Me- 
 moire pour servir a la Connaissance des Crinoides vi- 
 vants" attracted much attention by showing that the 
 
 crinoids, or "stone-lilies," supposed to have been long 
 extinct, occur in a living state in the abysses of the 
 Atlantic Ocean. Died October 22, 1869. 
 
 Sars'field, (Patrick,) an able Irish commander and 
 Roman Catholic, who was a partisan of James II. He 
 took a prominent part in the battle of the Boyne, (1690.) 
 He won the confidence of the Irish Jacobites in an emi« 
 nent degree, induced a large part of his army to accom- 
 pany him to France in 1691, and entered the service of 
 Louis XIV. He was killed at the battle of Landen, 
 in 1693. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. iv. chap. xvii. 
 
 Sartain, sar-tan', (John,) a distinguished engiaver, 
 born in London in 1808, emigrated to America in 1830, 
 and settled in Philadelphia. He was the first to in- 
 troduce mezzotinto engraving into the United States. 
 In 1849 he established "Sartain's Union Magazine," (pub- 
 lished monthly.) of which he was for some time editor. 
 Besides engraving, Mr. Sartain has given considerable 
 attention to painting in oil and to architecture. Among 
 his works in the latter field we may mention the lofty 
 granite monument in Monument Cemetery, near Phila- 
 delphia, in which, also, the colossal medallion portraits 
 of Washington and La Fayette were cast in bronze from 
 his models. 
 
 Sarti, saR'tee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian composer, born 
 at Faenza about 1730. He became successively chapel- 
 master at the court of Copenhagen, the Conservatorio 
 della Pieta, at Venice, and the Conservatory of Kate- 
 rinoslaf, in Russia. The empress Catherine II. also 
 conferred upon him a munificent salary, and created him 
 a noble of the first rank. His works are principally 
 sacred music and operas: of the latter, his " Giulio Sa- 
 bino" is most esteemed. Died in 1802. 
 
 See F^tis, "Biographic Universelle des Musiciens;" "Nouvelle 
 Bio;„'rapliie Gen^rale." 
 
 Sarti, (Mauko,) an Italian scholar, born at Bologna 
 in 1709, was a monk of the order of Camaldules. He 
 wrote, besides other works, a " History of the Univer- 
 sity of Bologna," in Latin, (2 vols., 1769-71.) Died in 
 1766. 
 
 Sartine, de, deh sSu'ten', (Antoine Raymond Jean 
 Guai.bert Gabriel,) Comte d'Alby, a French adminis- 
 trator, born in 1729. He became lieutenant-general of 
 police (in Paris) in 1759, and was minister of marine 
 from 1774 until 17S0. Died in 1801. 
 
 Sarto, del, del saR'to, (Andrea Vanucchi — va- 
 nook'kee,) a celebrated painter of the Florentine school, 
 born at Florence in 1488. He studied under Pietro di 
 Cosimo, and subsequently visited Rome. Among his 
 masterpieces at Florence are his " Madonna di San 
 Francesco," in the Florentine gallery, "The Last Sup- 
 per," (a fresco,) and "Descent of the Holy Ghost," in 
 the monastery of the Salvi. He also executed several 
 works for the French king, Francis I. Sarto is distin- 
 guished for correctness of design, harmonious colouring, 
 and skill in chiaroscuro. Died in 1530. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of tile Painters," etc.: Mrs. Jameson, 
 " Memoir* of Karlv Italian Painters :" A Reumcjnt, " A. del Sarto," 
 1S35; L. Biaci, " Notizie inedite della Vita d'A. del Sarto," 1S30. 
 
 Sartorius, san-to're-us, (Ernst Wii.hei.m Chris- 
 tian,) a German theologian and religious writer, born 
 at Darmstadt in 1797 ; died in 1859. 
 
 Sartorius, (G euro,) Baron von Waltershausen, bo~i 
 at Cassel in 1765, wrote a " History of the Hanseatic 
 League," (1802,) and other works. Died in 1828. 
 
 Sartorius, sur to'ie-oos, (Luis Jose,) Count de San 
 Luis, a Spanish journalist and statesman, of German. 
 extinction, born about 1810. He was appointed in 1847 
 minister of the interior in the cabinet of Narvaez. 
 
 Sas'nett, (William J.,) D.D., an American Method- 
 ist divine and writer, bom in Georgia in 1X20. 
 
 Bass, sis, (Frederick,) a Russian general, born in 
 Courland in 1798; died in 1852. 
 
 Sassanid, (plural Sassanids.) See SassaniD/E. 
 
 Sassanidse, sas-san'e-de, [Fr. Sassanides, si'st'- 
 ned' ; Ger. Sassanidkn, sas-sa-nee'den ; the English 
 form Sassan'ids is also used,] the name of a cele'orated 
 dynasty which reigned in Persia from 226 to 65 1 A.D. 
 It was founded by Ardsheer Babegan, a grandson of 
 Sassan, (or Sasdn,) from whom it took its name. Among 
 
 « as k; 9 as f g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (jy"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SJSS4NJDES 
 
 1962 
 
 SJURJU 
 
 the chief rulers of this dynasty were Sapor (Shapoor) 
 and Chosroes I., (Noushirvin.) 
 
 See Smith, '"Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. 
 
 Sassanides or Sassaniden. See Sassanid.e. 
 
 Sassi, sas'see, [Lat. Sax'ujs,] (Giuseppe Antonio,) 
 an Italian scholar and writer, born at Milan in 1673 or 
 1675. He wrote on the antiquities of Milan, and aided 
 his friend Muratori in his great work. Died in 175 1. 
 
 Sassi, (Panfilo,) an Italian poet, born at Modena 
 about 1455 : die( l i» I527- 
 
 Sassoferrato. See Salvi, (Giambattista.) 
 
 S ass one, II. See Hassk, (Johann Adolf.) 
 
 Sat'i, Sut'ee, or Sut' tee, [modern Hindoo pron. 
 sut'ee', the feminine form of the Sanscrit adjective silt, 
 " true," "good," "virtuous," "pure,"] the name given by 
 the Hindoos to those widows who burn themselves on 
 the funeral pile of their husbands, from the belief not 
 merely that no true or good wife will marry a second 
 time, but that no devoted wife ought to survive her hus- 
 band. According to one of the Hindoo legends, Sati 
 was the name of a daughter of Daksha and wife of 
 Siva : through indignation on account of some disre- 
 spect shown by her father to Siva or to herself, she cast 
 herself into a sacrificial fire, and was consumed. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Sat/urn, (Gr. Kijotoc; Lat. Satur'nus or Cro'nus; 
 Fr. Saturne, sa'tuRn',] a god of classic mythology, 
 and a mythical king of Italy, was called a son of Uranus 
 and Ge, (or Ccelus and Terra,) the husband of Rhea, 
 and the father of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, Ceres, 
 and Vesta. The poets feigned that he dethroned Uranus, 
 and devoured his own children as soon as they were 
 born ; but Rhea deceived him by giving him stones, 
 (wrapped in a cloth,) which he swallowed, and she thus 
 saved the lives of those above named. He was de- 
 throned by Jupiter, took refuge in Italy, and was kindly 
 received by Janus, the king of that country, who gave 
 him a share of the royal power. Saturn is said to have 
 civilized the people of Italy and to have taught them agri- 
 culture and useful arts. His reign was so mild, pacific, 
 and beneficent that it was called the Golden Age. 
 
 The Romans, in honour of Saturn, celebrated an an- 
 nual festival called Saturnalia, during which general 
 mirth and license prevailed and slaves were waited on 
 at table by their masters, with whom they were allowed 
 to jest with impunity. Saturn was represented as an 
 old man, holding in his hand a scythe or pruning-kpife, 
 with a serpent biting its own tail, (the emblem of eternity.) 
 Saturnalia. See Saturn. 
 Saturne. See Saturn. 
 Saturnin. See Saturninus. 
 
 Sat-ur-ui'nus or Saturnilus, one of the earliest 
 of the Syrian Gnostics, flourished about 125 A.D. 
 
 Sat-ur-ui'nus, (Claudius,) a Roman jurist, the time 
 of whose birth is unknown, is the supposed author of a 
 work entitled " De Pcenis Paganorum." 
 
 Saturninus, [Fr. Saturnin, st'tiiR'naN',] (Lucius 
 Appuleius,) a celebrated Roman demagogue, who 
 became a formidable enemy of the senate and aristo- 
 cratic party. He was tribune of the people in 102 B.C., 
 and again in the year 100. He proposed an agrarian 
 law, which was passed. His conduct was so seditious 
 and violent that he was killed, by order of the senate, in 
 99 B.C. 
 
 See Smith, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. 
 Saturninus, (Venulius,) a Roman jurist, supposed 
 to have lived in the time of Alexander Severus. 
 Saturuus. See Saturn. 
 
 Sat'yr, [Gr. Sunywc; Lat. Sat'yrus ; Fr. Satyre, 
 st'teR'.J The Satyrs were fabulous beings, or demi-gods, 
 associated with the worship of Hacchus, and supposed 
 to have been the offspring of Mercury. They were rep- 
 resented as having a body like a man, with the legs and 
 feet of a goat, and small horns on the head. They were 
 fond of wine, sleep, and sensual pleasure, and were con- 
 founded or identified by some with the Fauni of the 
 Roman mythology. The older Satyrs were called Silent. 
 Satyre or Satyrus. See Satyr. 
 Saucerctte, sos'rot', (Nicolas,) a French surgical 
 
 His grandson, Antoine Constant Saucerotte, 
 bom at Moscow in 1805, became a physician at Lune- 
 ville. He wrote several works on medicine and natural 
 history. 
 
 Saul, [Heb. SlNB>,] the son of Kish, and of the tribe 
 of Benjamin, was anointed first king of the Israelites, by 
 Samuel. He waged war successfully against the Am- 
 nionites and Philistines, and in a battle with the Anialek- 
 ites took captive their king, Agag. Having through 
 disobedience incurred the displeasure of Jehovah, he 
 was killed in an engagement with the Philistines, to- 
 gether with three of his sons, B.C. 1056. 
 
 See I. Samuel ix.-xxxi. 
 
 Saul of Tarsus. See Paul, Saint. 
 
 Saulcy, de, deh so'se', (Louis Felicien Joseph 
 Caignart — k&n'ytit',) a French archaeologist, born at 
 Lille' in 1807. He published in 1836 an "Essay on the 
 Classification of Byzantine Coins," which obtained the 
 prize from the French Institute. In 1842 he succeeded 
 Mionnet as a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, 
 and in 1859 became a senator. Having visited Pales- 
 tine in 1850, he published his " Travels around the Dead 
 Sea and in the Biblical Lands," (1852.) He has written 
 other works on numismatics, etc. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Saulx de Tavannes. See Tavannes. 
 
 Saumaise. See Sai.masius. 
 
 Saumarez or Sausmarez, de, deh so'mi'ra', 
 (James,) Lord, a British admiral, of French extraction, 
 born on the island of Guernsey in 1757. Having served 
 for a time in America, and subsequently against the 
 Dutch in 1781, he was appointed in 1793 to the com- 
 mand of the Crescent, and distinguished himself in 
 several engagements with the French. As commander 
 of the Orion, he assisted in gaining the victory over the 
 Spanish fleet off Saint Vincent in 1797, and was after- 
 wards second in command at the battle of the Nile. 
 Having been made rear-admiral of the blue in 1801, he 
 was appointed to command the squadron off Cadiz, and 
 soon after gained a signal victory over the united French 
 and Spanish fleet, for which achievement the order of 
 the Bath was conferred upon him. In the subsequent 
 war with Russia he commanded the Baltic fleet, and 
 after peace was restored was created in 1821 vice-ad- 
 miral of Great Britain. He was made a peer, with the 
 title of Baron de Sausmarez, in 1831. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Sir John Ross, " Memoirs, etc. of Admiral Lord de Sau- 
 marez," 1838; CAMPBKLT., "Lives of the British Admirals." 
 
 Saun'ders, (Sir Edmund,) an English jurist under 
 the reign of Charles II., rose to be chief justice of the 
 court of king's bench in 1682. Died in 1683. 
 
 Saunders, (John Cunningham,) an English sur- 
 geon and oculist, born in Devonshire in [773, published 
 treatises "On the Diseases of the Eye" and "On the 
 Anatomy and Diseases of the Ear." Died in 1810. 
 
 Saun'ders, (Prince,) an American negro, born at 
 Thetford, Vermont, about 1775, was for a time teacher 
 of free coloured schools in Connecticut and at Boston. 
 He afterwards studied divinity and became pastor of a 
 church at Philadelphia. He was subsequently appointed 
 attorney-general of the republic of Hayti, where he died 
 in 1840. 
 
 Saunders, (William,) M.D., born in 1743, was ap- 
 pointed senior physician to Guy's Hospital, London. 
 He wrote several medical works. Died in 1819. 
 
 Saun'der-sc>n, (Nicholas,) an English scholar and 
 mathematician, born in Yorkshire in 1682. He lost his 
 sight at the age of twelve months, but, notwithstanding 
 this misfortune, he made rapid progress both in the 
 classics and the exact sciences. In 171 1 he succeeded 
 Whiston as Lncasian professor of mathematics at Cam- 
 bridge, having previously received the degree of M.A., 
 and in 1728 he was made Doctor of Laws. He was the 
 author of treatises on the "Elements of Algebra" and 
 " On Fluxions." He was a friend of Newton and other 
 eminent philosophers of the time. Died in 1739. 
 
 See "Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i., 1839. 
 
 Saurau, von, fon so'r5', (Franz,) Count, an Aus- 
 
 writer, bom at Luneville in 1741, was chief surgeon of trian statesman, bom in Vienna in 1760. He was 
 
 a French army from 1794 to 1798. Died in 1814. | pointed govern or of the province of Austria in 1810, and 
 
 .5, 6, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, All, fat; met; ndt; gSod; moon; 
 
SAURIN 
 
 1963 
 
 SAVAGE 
 
 governor of Lombardy in 1815. In the last-named year 
 he became the chief of all the chanceries of the empire. 
 Died about 1830. 
 
 Sauriii, sci'iaN', (Bernard Josk.ph,) a French drama- 
 tist, born in Paris in 1706, was a son of Joseph Saurin, 
 noticed below. He was the author of "Spartacus," a 
 tragedy, (1760.) "The Manners of the Time," ("Mceurs 
 du Temps,") and other comedies. He was a member of 
 the French Academy, and numbered among his friends 
 Voltaire and Montesquieu. Died in 1781. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Saurin, (Ei.ias,) a French Protestant divine, born in 
 1639, was the author of " Reflections on the Rights of 
 Conscience," and other similar works. Died in 1703. 
 
 Saurin, (Jacques,) a French Protestant divine and 
 eloquent pulpit orator, born at Nimes in 1677. Having 
 studied at Geneva, he became in 1701 pastor of the 
 Walloon church in London, and subsequently resided 
 at the Hague, in Holland, where he preached for twenty- 
 five years with the highest reputation. He published 
 a large collection of sermons, some of which have been 
 translated into English, a treatise "On the State of 
 Christianity in France," (1725,) and " Discourses, His- 
 torical, Theological, and Moral, on the Principal Events 
 of the Old and New Testaments." Died in 1730. 
 
 See Charles Weiss, " Notice sur la Vie de J. Saurin," 1854; 
 J. P. Roman. " Essai sur Saurin," 1836; Haag, " La France pro- 
 testante ;" "Monthly Review" for March, 1785; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Saurin, (Joseph,) a French mathematician, brother 
 of Elias, noticed above, was born at Courtaison in 1659. 
 In 1707 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, to 
 which he contributed a number of valuable scientific 
 essays. He was originally a Calvinist minister, but sub- 
 sequently became a Catholic. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Sau'rin, (William,) an Irish jurist and statesman, 
 born in 1767, became attorney-general for Ireland in 
 1807. Died in 1840. 
 
 Sausmarez. See Saumarez. 
 
 Saussay, so'sj', (Andre,) a French ecclesiastic, born 
 in Paris about 1595, was appointed preaclier-in-ordinary 
 to Louis XIII., and made Bishop of Tool in 1649. He 
 published a work entitled " Martyrologium Gallicanum." 
 Died in 1 675. 
 
 Saussaye, La. See La Saussaye, de. 
 
 Saussure, (Alrerttne Adrienne.) See Nkcker. 
 
 Saussure, de, deh so'suk', (Horace Benedict,) an 
 eminent Swiss naturalist, born at Geneva in February, 
 1740. He was assisted in his scientific studies by his 
 maternal uncle, Bonnet, and by the celebrated Haller, 
 and at the age of twenty-two became professor of philos- 
 ophy in the College of Geneva. Having made numerous 
 excursions among the Alps, Jura, and other mountain- 
 chains, with the view of exploring their natural phe- 
 nomena, he ascended in 1788 to the summit of Mont 
 Blanc. His most important work, entitled " Voyages 
 dans les Alpes," was published in 4 yols. in 1796. 
 Among his other writings we may name a " Physical 
 Dissertation on Fire," (1759, in Latin,) " Essays on Hy- 
 grometry," (1783,) and "Relation abregee d'un Voyage 
 a la Cime du Mont Blanc en Aout, 1787," (1787.) He 
 was the inventor of instruments called the cyanometer 
 and the diaphanometer, for ascertaining the transparency 
 of the air at different heights, and also made improve- 
 ments in the thermometer, hygrometer, etc. Of Saus- 
 sure, Cuvier observes, "The new facts which he has 
 signalized, and the errors he has destroyed, will always 
 render his labours infinitely valuable to naturalists, and 
 will make of them the principal base and true touch- 
 stone of the systems one can imagine for the future." 
 Died at Geneva in 1799. 
 
 See Cuvirr, " filoge de Saussure ;" Srnebirr, " Me'moirrs his- 
 toriques sur la Vie et les E*crils de Saussure," 1801; "Nouvelle 
 Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Saussure, de, (Nicolas,) a Swiss rural economist, 
 born at Geneva in 1709, was the father of the preceding. 
 He published several works on rural economy. Died 
 in 1790. 
 
 Saussure, de, (Nicolas Theodore,) a chemist and 
 naturalist, born at Geneva in 1767, was a son of Horace | 
 
 Benedict, noticed above. He published "Chemical Re- 
 searches on Vegetation," (1804,) and contributed many 
 memoirs to several scientific journals. In 1810 he was 
 elected a corresponding member of the French Institute. 
 Died in 1845. 
 
 Sautel, so'tel', (Pierre Just,) a French Jesuit and 
 Latin poet, born at Valence in 1613. He wrote several 
 elegant Latin poems. Died in 1662. 
 
 Sauvage, so'vSzh', (Denis,) Sieur Du Pare, a French 
 litterateur, born about 1520, became historiographer to 
 Henry II. He edited the works of Froissart, Comines, 
 and Monstrelet. Died about 1587. 
 
 Sauvage, so'vSzh', (Etienne Noel Joseph,) a Bel- 
 gian advocate, born at Liege in 1789. He was minister 
 of the interior from March to August, 1831, and became 
 president of the court of cassation in 1832. 
 
 Sauvages, de, deh so'vSzh', (Francois Boissier,) a 
 French medical writer and botanist, born at Alais (Gard) 
 in 1706. He became professor at Montpellier about 
 1740, and published, besides other works, "Methodical 
 Nosology," ("Nosologia Methodica," 5 vols., 1763.) 
 Died in 1767. 
 
 See Barbaste, " E*tude sur Boissier de Sauvages," 1791 ; " Bio- 
 graphie Medicale ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Sauval, so'vSl', (Henri,) a French historian, born 
 in Paris about 1620. He wrote a " History of the An- 
 tiquities of Paris," (3 vols., 1724.) Died in 1669 or 1670. 
 
 Sauveur, so'vur', (Joseph,) a French mathematician 
 and philosopher, born at La Fleche in 1653. He was 
 appointed in 1680 teacher to the pages of the dauphin- 
 ess, and in 1686 professor of mathematics in the Royal 
 College at Paris. He was elected to the Academy of 
 Sciences in 1696. He was especially distinguished for 
 his improvements in the science of acoustics, upon which 
 he published a number of essays. Died in 1716. 
 
 See Fontenelle, " filoges ;" Montucla, " Histoire des Mathe- 
 matiques." 
 
 Sauzet, s5'z&', (Jean Pierre Paul,) an eloquent 
 French advocate and politician, born at Lyons in 1800. 
 He gained distinction as counsel for the defence in 
 political trials, and was elected to the Chamber of 
 Deputies in 1834. He was minister of justice from 
 February to September, 1836. Between 1839 and 1848 
 he was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies 
 ten times. He presided during the revolution of Febru- 
 ary, 1848, and resisted the insurgents who invaded the 
 chamber. Since that event he has taken no part in 
 public life. 
 
 See Cormenin, " Livre des Orateurs ;" Louis Blanc, " Histoire 
 de dix Ans ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Sav'age, (Edward,) an American painter and en- 
 graver, born at Princeton, Massachusetts, in 1761, was 
 a pupil of Benjamin West. He painted the family of 
 Washington. Died in 1817. 
 
 Sav'age, (Henry,) an English divine, born in Wor- 
 cestershire about 1604, was chaplain-in-ordinary to 
 Charles II., and rector of Bladon, in Oxfordshire. He 
 published a " History of Baliol College." Died in 1672. 
 
 Savage, (John,) an English divine of the eighteenth 
 century, published a "Collection of Letters of the An- 
 cients, whereby is discovered the Morality, Wit, Hu- 
 mour, etc. of the Greeks and Romans." Died in 1747. 
 
 Savage, (John.) an American jurist, born about 1780. 
 He was chief justice of the supreme court of New York 
 for fourteen years. Died at Utica in October, 1863. 
 
 Savage, (Richard,) an English poet, noted for his 
 misfortunes and for his dissolute habits, was born in 
 London in 1698. He is believed to have been a natural 
 son of the Countess of Macclesfield and the Earl of 
 Rivers. He was abandoned by his mother and placed 
 with a nurse, who was charged to bring him up in ig- 
 norance of his birth. Having subsequently discovered 
 the secret of his parentage, he made many ineffectual 
 attempts to obtain recognition and support from Lady 
 Macclesfield. He was befriended by Sir Richard Steele 
 and Dr. Johnson. Among his works were "The Wan- 
 derer," a poem, (1729,) and several dramas. He killed 
 a man in a brawl in 1727, and was condemned to death, 
 but was pardoned. Died in 1743. 
 
 See Johnson. " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jj^ = "See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SAVARON 
 
 1964 
 
 SAVONAROLA 
 
 Savaron, si'vi'rAN', (Jean,) a French historian and 
 political writer, born at Clermont in 1550. He was an 
 advocate of the rights of the tiers-Hat, (third estate,) and 
 wrote, besides other works, a " History of the States- 
 General," (1615.) Died in 1622. 
 
 See Niceron." Memoires;" Mokeri,'* Dictionnaire Historique ;" 
 H. Cochon, "Etudes historiques et litteraires sur J. Savaron," 
 1847. 
 
 Savart, st'vfR', (Felix,) a French savant, born at 
 Mezieres in 1791, was a physician. He succeeded Am- 
 pere as professor of physical philosophy in the College 
 of France. He wrote on the vibrations of bodies and 
 the laws of their communication. Died in Paris in 1841. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Savary, st'vt're', (Anne Jean Marie Ren^,) Due 
 de Kovigo, an able French general and diplomatist, 
 born at Marcq (Ardennes) in 1774. He entered the 
 army in 1790, served as captain under Moreau in 1796, 
 and was aide-de-camp of Desaix in Egypt in 1 798-1800. 
 He became aide-de-camp to Bonaparte in 1800, a gen- 
 eral of brigade in 1803, and general of division in 1805. 
 Having obtained command of a corps, he gained a vic- 
 tory over the Russians at Ostrolenka in 1807. In 1808 
 he received the title of Due de Rovigo, and was sent on 
 a diplomatic mission to Madrid. He succeeded Fouche 
 as minister of police in June, 1810. He adhered to Bona- 
 parte after his defeat at Waterloo, and offered to accom- 
 pany him to Saint Helena, but was detained in prison 
 at Malta seven months. He wrote autobiographic " Me- 
 moires," (8 vols., 1828.) In 1831 he obtained the chief 
 command of the army in Algeria. Died in 1833. 
 
 See Acim.t.E Roche, "De MM. le Due de Rovigo et le Prince 
 de Talleyrand." 1823 ; Thiers, " History of the Consulate and the 
 Empire;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale;" "London Quarterly 
 Review" for July, 1823. 
 
 Savary, (Francois.) See Braves, de. 
 
 Savary, (Jacques,) a French writer on commerce, 
 born in Anjou in 1622. He published a work entitled 
 "The Complete Merchant," (" Le parfait Negociant,") 
 which was translated into the principal European lan- 
 guages. Died in 1690. 
 
 Savary, (Nicolas,) a French traveller, born at Vitre, 
 in Brittany, in 1750. He set out in 1776 for Egypt, where 
 he passed three years, and subsequently visited the 
 Grecian Archipelago. On his return to France he pub- 
 lished a translation of the Koran, accompanied with 
 notes, and a Life of Mohammed, which is esteemed the 
 best in the French language. His " Letters on Egypt" 
 came out in 1785, and obtained great popularity, having 
 been translated into English, German, Dutch, and Swed- 
 ish. His " Letters on Greece" came out a short time 
 after his death, which took place in 1788. He also trans- 
 lated from the Arabic a tale entitled "The Loves of 
 Anas Eloujoud and Ouardi," (1789.) 
 
 Savary des Brulons, sS'vi're' d^ 1)rU'16n', 
 (Jacques,) a son of Jacques Savary, noticed above, was 
 born in 1657. He was appointed inspector-general of 
 manufactures in 1686. With the aid of his brother 
 Philemon Louis, he compiled a " Dictionary of Com- 
 merce, Arts, and Trades," (3 vols., 1723-30.) Died in 
 1716. Philemon Louis was bom in 1654; died in 1727. 
 
 Savelli. See Honorius III. 
 
 Saverien, siv'reJ^N', (Alexandre,) a French savant 
 and writer, born at Aries about 1722, was a naval en- 
 gineer, (iitginUur de marine.) He wrote, besides other 
 works, a "Marine Dictionary," (" Dictionnaire de Ma- 
 rine," 1758,) and a " History of Modern Philosophers," 
 (4 vols., 1760-73.) Died in Paris in 1805. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Saverio. See Xavier, (Francis.) 
 
 Savery, stv're', (Roland,) an eminent Flemish 
 landscape-painter, born at Courtray in 1576, was a pupil 
 of his father. He was patronized by the emperor Ru- 
 dolph II., for whom he worked at Prague. He removed 
 to Utrecht in 1612. Many of his pictures are rocky land- 
 scapes adorned with figures of animals. Died in 1639. 
 
 Sa'ver-jf, (Thomas,) Captain, an English engineer, 
 and one of the inventors of the steam-engine. He was 
 associated with Newcomen as patentee of the invention 
 for producing a vacuum under the piston. Died in 1715. 
 
 Savigny, von, fon sS'ven'ye', (Friedrich Karl,) an 
 eminent German jurist, of French extraction, born at 
 Frankfort-on-the Main in 1779. He published in 1803 
 an important work entitled " Right of Possession," 
 ("Rechtdes Besitzes.") In 1804 he married Miss Bren- 
 tano, a sister of the poet of that name. He became 
 professor of law at Landshut in 1808, and obtained in 
 1810 a chair in the University of Berlin, which he filled 
 thirty-two years. He was appointed a member of the 
 council of state about 1817. His principal works are 
 a " History of Roman Law during the Middle Ages," (6 
 vols., 1815-31,) and "System of Modern Roman Law," 
 (" System ties heutigen Romischen Rechts," 8 vols., 
 [840-48.) In 1842 he was appointed minister of justice 
 of Prussia. " His ideas have made the tour of the world," 
 says Laboulaye ; " they have transformed the science.™ 
 Died in October, 1861. 
 
 See Laboui.ave, " F. C. de Savigny," 1S42 ; Ritoorff, " Eriu- 
 nerung an Savigny," 1K62; StiNZING, " F. C. von Savigny," 1862; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Geneiale." 
 
 Savile or Saville, (George.) See Halifax, Mar- 
 quis OF. 
 
 Savile, sav'il, (Sir Henry,) an English mathemati- 
 cian and classical scholar, born in Yorkshire in 1549. 
 He graduated at Oxford in 1570, and, after his return 
 from a tour on the continent, became tutor in the Greek 
 language and mathematics to Queen Elizabeth. He was 
 made provost of Eton College in 1596, and was subse- 
 quently knighted by James I. He was the founder of two 
 professorships in the University ol Oxford, besides other 
 liberal donations to that institution, to which he also 
 bequeathed a valuable library. Among his principal 
 publications are " Lectures on the First Book of Euclid's 
 Elements," a collection of English historians, entitled 
 " Rerun) Anglicaruin Scriptores post Bedam," (1596,) 
 and an excellent edition of the works of Saint Chrys- 
 ostom, (1613.) lie died in 1622, having acquired the 
 reputation of one of the most profound and accomplished 
 scholars of his time. " We may justly deem him," says 
 Hallam, "the most learned Englishman in profane liter- 
 ature of the reign of Elizabeth." 
 
 See Wood, " Athena? Oxonienses ;" Allibonk, " Dictionary of 
 Authors." 
 
 Savioli, si-ve-o'lee, (Luigi Victor,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Bologna in 1729. He wrote Anacreontic poems, 
 entitled "Amori," (1795.) Died in 1804. 
 
 Savonarola, si-vo-na-ro'la, (Giovanni Michele,) 
 an eminent Italian physician, born at Padua in 1384. was 
 a grandfather of Girolaino, noticed below. He became 
 professor of medicine at Ferrara, and published several 
 medical works. Died in 1461. 
 
 Savonarola, [Fr. Savon \rolk, »fvo'nf rol',] (Gl- 
 roi.\mo,) a celebrated Italian reformer and pulpit 
 orator, born at Ferrara in 1452. He became a Dominican 
 monk in 1475. His first attempts to preach proved a 
 failure; but he persevered until he became an eloquent 
 and popular preacher. He boldly denounced the cor- 
 ruptions of the Church, and the vices of priests and 
 monks. He also advocated republicanism or political 
 liberty. In 1491 he was chosen prior of the convent of 
 Saint Mark at Florence, where he effected important 
 reforms. He acquired great political influence at Flor- 
 ence, and after the expulsion of the Medici (1494) was 
 the leader of the lilwral party, called " Piagnoni," (pe-an- 
 yo'nee,) by which a new constitution was adopted on 
 Christian principles. Having refused to submit to papal 
 authority, he was excommunicated by Alexander VI. in 
 1497. The popular enthusiasm grew cool, a reaction 
 ensued, and the enemies of Savonarola gained the ascend- 
 ency in Florence. 1 le was arrested, tortured, condemned, 
 and strangled in May, 1498. A few years later, Raphael 
 painted his portrait in the Vatican among the saints and 
 doctors of the Church. Savonarola published, besides 
 other works, "The Triumph of the Cross," etc., 
 ("Triumphus Crucis de Veritate Fidei," 1497.) "His 
 absolutely blameless moral character, his wonderful 
 abilities, his command of all the knowledge of his time, 
 his power of communicating his own holiness to others, 
 even his rigid authority as regards the great doctrines 
 of his Church, who will impeach?" ("Quarterly Re- 
 view," article on Savonarola, reprinted in the "Living 
 
 i, 6, T, 6, u, y, long; 1, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
SAFOT 
 
 1965 
 
 SATOUS 
 
 Age," vol. 1. p. 641, 1856.) His complete works were 
 published at Lyons, (6 vols., 1633-40.) 
 
 See T.Neri, "Apoloeiain Difesa della Dottrina di G. Savonarola," 
 1564; Pico dki.i.a Mikandola, "Vita Savonaro a;," 1674: Spang- 
 knher<;. " I.eben. Lehre und Tod Savonarola," 1557: Buri.amac- 
 CH1, " Vita di G. Savonarola," 1764 : Rodbi-bach, " Savonarola und 
 aeine Zeit," 1835; Fr. Kaki. Mbikr, " G. Savonarola." 1836; K. 
 Makion or Marin, "Viede J. Savnnarole," 1*39: P J- Caklk, 
 *■ Histoire de Savonarole." 1K42; Maddkn. "Lite and Martyrdom 
 of Savonarola," 2 vols., 1853 ; PKRRENS, " Savonarole, sa Vie, etc., 
 1854; P. Viu.aki, "Storia di G. Savonarola," i860, (translated into 
 English by HuRnkr, 1863;) W. Hodgson, "Reformers and M.ir- 
 tyrs." Phiadelplna, 1867; "London Quarterly Review" for July. 
 1856; " Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1863 ; " British Quarterly 
 Review" for November, 1849. 
 
 Savot, si'vo', (l.ouis,) a French physician and anti- 
 quary, born at Saulieu in 1579, was physician to Louis 
 XIII. He published several treatises on medicine and 
 numismatics. Died in 1640. 
 
 Savoy, Counts and Dukes of. See Amadeus and 
 Chari.es Emmanuel. 
 
 Saw'yer, (Caroline M. Fisher,) wife of T. J. Saw- 
 yer, noticed below, was born at Newton, Massachusetts, 
 in 1812. She has published several religions works, and 
 made numerous translations from the German and 
 French. In 1861 she became editor of the "Ladies' 
 Repository." 
 
 Saw'yer, ( Sir Robert, ) an English lawyer and 
 statesman, rose to be attorney-general in 1.680. He 
 was afterwards a member of Parliament for the Univer- 
 sity of Cambridge. He was accessory to the death of 
 Lord Russell. Died in 1692. 
 
 Sawyer, (Thomas Jefferson, D.D.J an American 
 Universalist preacher, born in Windsor county, Ver- 
 mont, in 1804. He published a "Discussion of the 
 Doctrine of Universal Salvation," (1854.) 
 
 Sax, sate, (Antoine Joseph Adoi.phe,) a Belgian 
 maker of musical instruments, born at Dinant in 1814. 
 He invented the saxophone and other brass instruments 
 of military music. He became professor of music in the 
 Conservatory of Paris in 1857. 
 
 Sax, saks, [Lat. Sax'tus,] (Christoph,) a German 
 scholar, born in Saxony in 1 7 14. He became in 1753 
 professor of history at Utrecht. His chief work is his 
 "Onomasticon Literarium, sive Nomenclator historico- 
 criticus praestantissimorum omnis /Etatis, Populi, Arti- 
 umque Formulae Scriptorum," etc., (8 vols., 1775-90.) 
 This is a dictionary of the eminent authors of all ages 
 and countries. Died in 1806. 
 
 Saxe, saks, (Hermann Maurice.) [Ger. Moritz 
 von Sachsen, mo'rits fon saks'en,] Count of, a fa- 
 mous general, born at Goslar or Dresden, in Saxony, 
 Octol»er 28, 1696, was a son of Augustus II., Elector 
 of Saxony and King of Poland, and the Countess von 
 Konigsmark. He entered the army in 1708, and dis- 
 tinguished himself in several battles against the Swedes 
 and French. About 1720 he entered the French ser- 
 vice. He was elected Duke of Courland in 1726, but 
 was soon driven out of that duchy by the Russians and 
 Poles. He was for a time the favoured lover of Anna 
 Ivanovna, who became Empress of Russia in 1730. In 
 1734 he fought against the Austrians and obtained the 
 rank of lieutenant-general in the French army. He 
 captured Prague in 1 741, was raised to the rank of 
 marshal of France in 1744, and obtained command of 
 the army in Flanders in 1745. He gained victories over 
 the allies at Fontenoy, (1745,) Raucoux, (1746,) and 
 taufeld, (1747.) He had married a Countess of Loben 
 about 1 712, but he obtained a divorce from her a few 
 years later. He wrote a work on military affairs, en- 
 titkd "My Reveries," ("Mes Reveries," 5 vols., 1757.) 
 Died in 1750. His daughter, Madame Dupin, was a 
 grandmother of George Sand the authoress. 
 
 See Baron d'Espagnac, " Histoire du Marechal Saxe:" Ranft, 
 ■* Leben de* Grafen von Sachsen," 1746: La Barrb nu Pat.^q, 
 " Kioiiraphie et Maximes du Marechal de Saxe." 1851 : C von 
 Wkkkk, "Moritz von Sachsen," 1863: Major Gkvt.kai. J. MlT- 
 chkil, " Biographies of Eminent Soldiers of 'lie Last Four Cen- 
 turies." 1865: A. Thomas. " E"loee de Maurice Comte de Saxe," 
 1759 : " Nouve'le Biographic Ge'nerale ;" " Edinburgh Review" fur 
 October, 1*64; "Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1841. 
 
 Saxe, saks, (John Godfrey,) a distinguished Ameri- 
 can humorous poet, born in Franklin county, Vermont, 
 in 1816. He graduated at Middlebury College, Vermont, 
 in 1839, and subsequently became editor of the "Bur- 
 
 lington Sentinel." He was elected State's attorney in 
 1851. A collection of his poems appeared in 1849. 
 They rank among the most successful productions of 
 their kind, and have obtained extensive popularity. A 
 new edition of his collected poems nut published in 
 1864. He produced in 1866 "The Masquerade, and 
 other Poems." 
 
 See Allihonb, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Saxe-Coburg, Duke of. See Ernest. 
 
 Saxe-Coburg, Prince of. See CohurG. 
 
 Saxe- Weimar, Duke of. See Bernhard. 
 
 Saxius, (Christoph.) See Sax. 
 
 Sax'o Gram-mat'I-cus, (genitive, Saxo'nis Gram- 
 mat'ici,) an eminent Danish historian, born in the first 
 half of the twelfth century, was a priest, and secretary 
 of Absalom, Archbishop of Lund. He wrote (in Latin) 
 a " History of Denmark," which is one of the most cu- 
 rious documents of the middle ages. It abounds in 
 traditions and romantic or fabulous legends. Died 
 about 1204. 
 
 See Reimkr, "De Vita Saxonis Grammatici," 176a; G. L. 
 Bai>kn, " Oni vor Danske Histories Fader Saxo Grammaiicus," 
 iSoo: J. B. Carpzov, "Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptis Saxonis 
 Grammatici," 1762. 
 
 Sax'ton, (Rufus,) an American general, born at 
 Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1824, graduated at West 
 Point in 1849. He was appointed a brigadier-general 
 of volunteers about April, 1862, and defended Harper's 
 Ferry with success in May of that year. He was assigned 
 to the command at Port Royal about the end of 1862, 
 and was employed in South Carolina until 1865. 
 
 Say, si, (Horace Emile,) a French writer on politi- 
 cal economy, son of Jean Baptiste, noticed l>elow, was 
 born near Paris in 1794. He has published a "History 
 of the Commercial Relations between France and Bra- 
 zil," etc., and other works. 
 
 Say, (Jean Baptiste,) a distinguished French writer 
 on political economy, born at Lyons in 1767. At an 
 early age he visited England, where he became conver- 
 sant with the writings of Adam Smith. In 1794 he was 
 one of the founders of " La Decade philosophique," a 
 literary and political journal in Paris, of which he was 
 principal editor for six years. He was appointed in 
 1799 a member of the Tribunate, but resigned on Napo- 
 leon's becoming emperor. He was a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences at Saint Petersburg, and of other 
 learned institutions. Among his principal works are a 
 "Treatise on Political Economy," (2 vols., 1803,) which 
 has been translated into the principal European lan- 
 guages, a "Catechism of Political Economy," (1815,) 
 and "On England and the English." Died in 1832. 
 
 See A. P. Decandoi.le, " Notice sur J. B. Say," 1832; Bt.ANQl't, 
 "Notice sur la Vie de J. B. Say," 1841 ; " Nouvelie Biographic 
 Ge'neYale." 
 
 Bay, (Samuel,) an English dissenting divine, born in 
 1675, became pastor at Westminster in 1734. He was 
 the author of a number of poems and prose essays. 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 Say, (Thomas,) an American naturalist, born at 
 Philadelphia in 1787, was one of the founders of the 
 Academy of Natural Sciences in that city. In 1819 he 
 accompanied Long's expedition to the Rocky Mountains 
 as chief zoologist. His principal work is an "American 
 Entomology," illustrated. Died in 1834. 
 
 See " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Say, (William,) an English mezzotinto engraver, 
 born at or near Norwich in 1768. He engraved history, 
 landscapes, etc. Died in 1834. 
 
 Saye and Sele. See Fiennes, (William.) 
 
 Say'eis, (Frank,) an English physician and writer, 
 born in London in 1763. He published "Dramatic 
 Sketches of the Ancient Northern Mythology," (1700,) 
 "Disquisitions, Metaphysical and Literary," (1793,) and 
 other works. Died in 1817. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1827, (by 
 Southbv.) 
 
 Sayous, sS'yoo', (Pierre Andre,) a Swiss litllra- 
 tear, born at Geneva in 1808. He published, besides 
 other works, a "History of French Literature among 
 Foreign Nations," (ii rjStranger,) (2 vols., 1853.) 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g tsj; G, H, K, guttural; H, nasal; r, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (JjySee Explanations p. aj.) 
 
SCJCCHI 
 
 1966 
 
 SCJNDERBEG 
 
 Scacchi, skik'kee, (Fortunato,) an Italian anti- 
 quary and monk, born at Ancona about 1572. He pub- 
 lished " Sacrorum Elseochrismatum Myrothecia," (3 vols., 
 1625-37.) Died in 1643. 
 
 Scaevola, seVo-la, [Fr. Scevole, si'vol',] (C. Mu- 
 Cius,) a Roman, who, according to the ancient legends, 
 went to the camp of Porsena, then besieging Rome, 
 and attempted to kill him with a dagger. He was seized 
 by the guards of the king, who ordered him to be put to 
 death. Scasvola, it is said, held his right hand in a fire, 
 which was at hand, until it was consumed, so that Por- 
 sena, struck with admiration at his extraordinary forti- 
 tude, spared his life. From this circumstance he is said 
 to have received the surname of Scaevola, or " left- 
 handed." 
 
 Scaevola, (Publius Mucius,) a Roman jurist, was 
 elected consul in 133 B.C., and two years after was created 
 pontifex maximus. He was the author of several legal 
 works. 
 
 Scaevola, (Quintus Ckrvidius,) a Roman jurist, 
 lived under the reign of Marcus Antoninus. He num- 
 bered among his pupils Septimius Severus, afterwards 
 emperor. There are extracts from his works contained 
 in the Digest of Justinian. 
 
 Scaevola, (Quintus Mucius,) surnamed the Augur, 
 became a Roman consul, with L. Cecilius Metellus, 117 
 n.c. He was eminent as a jurist, and was one of the 
 teachers of Cicero, who has introduced him into his 
 treatises " De Oratore," " De Amicitia," and " De Re- 
 publica." His wife was a daughter of C. Laelius Sapiens. 
 Died after 88 B.C. 
 
 Scaevola, (Quintus Mucius,) surnamed Pontifex, 
 was the son of Publius, noticed above. He was chosen 
 consul in 95 B.C., and was subsequently proconsul of 
 Asia, and pontifex maximus. He enjoyed a high repu- 
 tation as a jurist and orator, and wrote several legal 
 works, which are not extant. Having been proscribed 
 by the younger Marius, he was killed in the temple of 
 Vesta, 82 B.C. His virtues are highly extolled by Cicero. 
 
 Scala, ski'li, (Bartoi.ommko,) an Italian writer, 
 born in 1430, published a " History of the Florentine 
 Republic." His daughter Alessandra was distinguished 
 as a classical scholar, and became the wife of the poet 
 Marullus. Died in 1497. 
 
 Scala, della, del'la ski'la, or Scaligeri, ski-1e-ja'- 
 ree, (Can Francesco,) an Italian military commander, 
 born about 1290, was a prominent leader of the Ghibe- 
 line faction in Lombardy. He died in 1329, having been 
 ruler over Verona nearly twenty years. He was a liberal 
 patron of literature and the fine arts, and has been cele- 
 brated by Dante, who found an asylum at his court. 
 
 Scala, della, (Mastino,) an uncle of the preceding, 
 became Podesti of Verona about 1260. He was assas- 
 sinated about 1275. 
 
 Scal'i-ger, [Lat. Scal'iger, genitive Scal'igeri,] 
 (Joseph Justus,) a celebrated philologist, a son of Julius 
 Caesar, noticed below, was born at Agen, in France, in 
 August, 1540. Under the instruction of his father he 
 early became a proficient in the Latin language, and 
 subsequently studied Greek and the Oriental languages 
 in Paris. He became professor of belles-lettres at the 
 University of Leyden in 1593, and numbered among his 
 pupils the celebrated Grotius. Among his numerous 
 works, which are characterized by the most profound 
 learning and critical acumen, we may name his treatise 
 " De Emendatione Temporum," (1583,) being an ex- 
 planation of the Julian period, "Thesaurus Temporum," 
 (1606,) Latin poems and epistles, a Latin translation of 
 Arabian proverbs, besides commentaries on Ausonius, 
 Varro, and other classics. He adopted the Protestant 
 religion in his youth, and took an active part in the civil 
 war about 1568. He was generally recognized as the 
 most eminent scholar of his time. Died at Leyden in 
 1609. " Scaliger," says Niebuhr, "stood on the summit 
 of universal solid philological learning in a degree that 
 none have leached since ; so high in every branch of 
 knowledge, that from the resources of his own mind he 
 could comprehend, apply, and decide on whatever came 
 in his way." (Quoted in the " Quarterly Review," i860.) 
 
 "The two greatest scholars of the sixteenth century," 
 Bays Hallam, "are yet unnamed; Joseph Scaliger and 
 
 Isaac Casaubon. The former, son of Julius Caesar 
 Scaliger, and, in the estimation at least of some, his in- 
 ferior in natural genius, though much above him in 
 learning and judgment, was perhaps the most extraordi- 
 nary master of general erudition that has ever lived. . . . 
 He was, in fact, conversant with all ancient, and very 
 extensively with modern, literature. ... In the depart- 
 ment of philology he was conspicuous as an excellent 
 critic, both of the Latin and Greek languages ; though 
 Bayle, in his own paradoxical but acute and truly judi- 
 cious spirit, has suggested that Scaliger's talents and 
 learning were too great for a good commentator, — the 
 one making him discover in authors more hidden sense 
 than they possessed, the other leading him to perceive 
 a thousand allusions which had never been designed." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Heinsius, " Orationes II. in Obitum J. J. Scaligeri," 1609; 
 J. Bp.HNAYS, "J. J. Scaliger," Berlin, 1855; "Scaligerana," Am- 
 sterdam, 1695: Charles Nisaro, " Le Triumvirat litteraire au 
 XVI Siecle ;" Juste Lipse, "J. Scaliger et I. Casaubon," 1852; 
 NicERON, " Mdmoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale ;" "Quar- 
 terly Review" for July, 1860. 
 
 Scaliger, (Julius Caesar,) a celebrated Italian 
 scholar and critic, father of the preceding, was born on 
 Lago di Garda or at Padua on the 23d of April, 1484. 
 His real name is said to have been Bordone. He pre- 
 tended to be descended from the noble family Della 
 Scala. He studied medicine, and practised some years 
 in Italy. According to his own account, he served sev- 
 eral campaigns in the army of the emperor Maximilian 
 in his youth. In 1525 he removed to Agen, France, to 
 which lie had been invited by the bishop of that diocese. 
 There he practised medicine and passed the rest of his 
 life. He married Andiette de Roques-Lobejac about 
 1528. Scaliger published, besides other works, " An 
 Oration against Erasmus," ("Adversus D. Erasmum 
 Oratio," 1531,) "On the Principles of the Latin Lan- 
 guage," (" De Causis Linguae Latinas," 1540,) "Seven 
 Books of Poetry," (" Poetices Libri septem," 1561,) and 
 "On the Art of Poetry," ("De Arte Poetica.") He was 
 an excellent classical scholar, and was considered one of 
 the greatest intellects of his time. His stature was tall, 
 his presence dignified and imposing. He died at Agen 
 in October, 1558. 
 
 See J. J. Scaliger, " De Vetustate et Splendore gentis Scaligerje 
 et Vita J. C. Scaligeri," Tt04 ; BVvi.E. " Historical and Critical Dic- 
 tionary:" Briquet, " FJoge de J. C. Scaliger," 1812; Niceron, 
 " Memnires ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieYale." 
 
 Scaligeri. See Scala, della. 
 
 Scam'mon, (Eliakim P.,) an American general, 
 born in Maine, graduated at West Point in 1837. He 
 became a captain in 1853, and a brigadier-general of 
 volunteers in October, 1862. He was taken prisoner 
 on the Kanawha River in February, 1864. 
 
 Scamozzi. See Bertottt-Scamozzi. 
 
 Scamozzi, ski-mot'see, ( Vincenzio, ) an Italian 
 architect and writer, born at Vicenza in 1552. Having 
 spent some time at Rome and Naples, he settled at 
 Venice, where he was employed to finish some works 
 left incomplete by Sansovino and Palladio, who had 
 recently died. He afterwards constructed the church 
 of San Niccoli di Tolentino, and the range of buildings 
 called the Procuratie Nuove at Venice. He was em- 
 ployed in 1604 by the Archbishop of Salzburg to design 
 the cathedral in that city, which is esteemed one of his 
 master-pieces. His work entitled " Architettura Uni- 
 versale" came out in 1616, a few months before his 
 death. 
 
 See Scoi.ari, "Vita di Scamozzi," 1837; Mit.iztA, " Memorie 
 degli Arcbitetti ;" Cicognara, " Storia della Scultura :" Temanza, 
 "Vita di V. -Scamozzi," 1770; "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Scan'der-beg, [from Scantier or Iskander* " Alexan- 
 der," and beg, "lord" or "chief,"] a celebrated Eastern 
 warrior, born in Albania in 1404, was originally named 
 George Castriota, (or Castrioto.) At an early age 
 he was sent by his father, a prince of Albania, who was 
 tributary to the Turks, to the court of Amurath II,, 
 
 * Byron speaks of him under the name of Iskander : — 
 " Land of Albania ! where Iskander rose. 
 
 Theme of the young, and beacon of the wise, 
 And he. his namesake, whose oft-baffled foes 
 Shrunk from his deeds of chivalrous emprise." 
 
 Childe Harold, canto ii., stanza xxxviii. 
 
 X, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, g, I, 6, u, f, short; », e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mit; not; good; moon.' 
 
SCJPINELLI 
 
 1967 
 
 SCHADOW 
 
 where he soon acquired the favour and confidence of 
 that monarch. His father having. died in 1432, his prin- 
 cipality was seized by the Sultan, upon which Scander- 
 beg entered into an agreement with Huniades, com- 
 mander of the Christian army in Transylvania, to betray 
 into his hand the Turkish forces under his commancl. 
 He soon after took possession of his hereditary do- 
 minions, and renounced Mohammedanism, in which he 
 had been educated. He subsequently carried on a 
 successful war with the Turks, and in 1462 assisted 
 Ferdinand, King of Naples, against the Count of Anjou. 
 Died in 1467. 
 
 See Major-General J. Mitchell, "Biographies of Eminent 
 Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries,'' 1865; Hammer-I'urgstall, 
 "Geschichte des Osmanisches Reichs;" C. G. Moore, "George 
 Castriot. surnamed Scanderbeg ;" Monardo, " Vitadi G. Castriolo," 
 1501; S. Fufpendorf, " G. Castriota; Historia," 1684; P-\r, \ni:i., 
 "Histoire de Scanderbeg," 1855; M. Barlesio, " De Vita, Mori- 
 bus ac Rebus gestis G. Castrioti," 1537; " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generate. " 
 
 Scapinelli, ska-pe-nel'lee, (Lodovico,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Modena in 1585, was blind from his birth. 
 Died in 1634. 
 
 Scapula, ski'poo-1 J, (Johann,) a German philologist, 
 born about 1545, was employed as a proof-reader in the 
 printing-office of Henry Estienne at Geneva. He pub- 
 lished a " Lexicon Graeco-Latinum," (1579,) an abridg- 
 ment of Stephanus's (Estienne's) "Thesaurus." 
 
 Scaramuccia, ska-r a-moot'chj, (Lonovico,) an Ital- 
 ian painter and engraver, born at Perugia in 1616, was a 
 pupil of Guido Reni. Died in 1680. 
 
 Scarborough, skar'bflr-eh, (Sir Charles,) an Eng- 
 lish physician, born about 1616. He succeeded Harvey 
 as Lumleian lecturer on anatomy in 1656. He was after- 
 wards appointed first physician to Charles II., James II., 
 and William HI. He was the author of several medical 
 and mathematical treatises, and was a Fellow of the 
 College of Physicians. Died in 1693. 
 
 Scarcellino. See Scarsei.la. 
 
 Scarlatti, skaR-lat'tee, (Alessandro,) a celebrated 
 Italian composer and musician, born at Naples about 
 1656, was a pupil of Carissimi. His productions are 
 very numerous, including one hundred operas and three 
 thousand cantatas, and he is said to have originated 
 ritornels and violin accompaniments. Died in 1725. 
 
 See Fetis, " Biographie Universelle des Musiciens." 
 
 Scarlatti, (Domenico,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in 1683. He was appointed in 1735 chapel-master 
 to the Queen of Spain. His principal work is a collec- 
 tion of pieces for the harpsichord. Died about 1755. 
 
 Scarlatti, (Giuseppe,) a composer, born at Naples in 
 1 7 18, was a son or nephew of the preceding. He com- 
 posed numerous operas. Died at Vienna in 1796. 
 
 Scarlett, (James.) See Abinger. 
 
 Scar'lett, (Sir James Yorke,) an English general, 
 born in 1799. He served in the Crimean war of 1854, 
 and attained the rank of major-general, and commander 
 of the cavalry. Died in 1871. 
 
 Scarpa, skaR'pa, (Antonio.) a celebrated Italian 
 anatomist and surgeon, bom at La Motta, in Friuli, on 
 the 13th of June, 1747. He studied under Morgagni, 
 at Padua, and was appointed professor of anatomv at 
 M6dena in 1772. After a journey to France and Eng- 
 land, he obtained the chair of anatomy in the University 
 of Pavia in 1 783. He acquired a European reputation 
 by his researches and treatises on the anatomy of the 
 ear, the organs of smell, the nerves of the heart, etc. 
 In i8ot he produced an able treatise on the diseases of 
 the eye. He received the title of surgeon to Napoleon 
 in 1805. Among his numerous works is an excellent 
 "Treatise on Hernia," (" Sull' Ernie Memorie," i8oq.) 
 He was an accomplished scholar, and a very skilful 
 draughtsman. He was never married. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Tagi.iaferri. " Ragionamenjo intorno !a Vita del Cavaliere 
 A. Scarpa," 1834; Tipai.do, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri ;" 
 Begin, notice in the " Biographie Me*dicale ;" " Nouveile Bio- 
 graphie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Scarron. skf'r6N', (Paul,) a French dramatist and 
 comic writer, born in Paris about 1610. After leading 
 a very dissolute life, he was deprived of the use of his 
 limbs by an accident, at the age of twenty-seven, and 
 henceforth devoted himself to literature. His principal 
 
 works are "The Comic Romance," (1651,) and the 
 "./Eneid Travestied." He married in 1652 Mademoi- 
 selle d'Aubigne, afterwards known as Madame de 
 Maintenon. (See Maintenon.) Died in 1660. 
 
 See Cousin d'Avalon, "Scarroniana," 1801 : Bam.j.et, "Juge- 
 ments des Savants;" Tali.emant dks Reaux, " Historiettes ;' 
 "JNouvelle Biographie G^ne>a!e ;" "Retrospective Review," vol. 
 xii., 1825. 
 
 Scai sella, skaR-sel'IJ, or Scarsellino, skaR-seL 
 lee'no, (Ippolito,) a skilful Italian painter, born at 
 Ferrara about 1560. He imitated Paul Veronese with 
 success. Died in 1621. 
 
 Scars'gill or Scar'gill, (W. P.,) an English writer, 
 published, among other works, ."Provincial Sketches," 
 "The Usurer's Daughter," and "The Puritan's Grave." 
 Died in 1836. 
 
 Scau'rus, (M. .iEmilius,) a Roman soldier and states- 
 man, born in 163 B.C. After serving for a time in 
 Spain, he became successively praetor urbanus, consul, 
 and princeps senatus. His talents and virtues are eulo- 
 gized by Cicero. He died about 90 B.C., and his widow 
 afterwards married the celebrated Sulla. 
 
 See Drumann, "Geschichte Roms." 
 
 Scaurus, (M. /Emilius,) a son of the preceding, 
 served as quaestor under Pompey in the Mithridatic 
 war, and afterwards filled several offices in the republic. 
 He was chiefly noted for his profligacy and extrava- 
 gance, and was twice brought to trial for his crimes, 
 being on both occasions defended by Cicero. 
 
 Scaurus, (Mamercus,) a grandson of the preceding, 
 was distinguished as a poet and orator. Accused of high 
 treason and other crimes, he committed suicide, 34 a.d. 
 
 Sceve, siv, (Maurice,) a French poet, born at Lyons, 
 was an advocate by profession. Among his works are 
 "La Saulsaye," (1547,) and " Le Microcosme, ou petit 
 Monde," (1562.) Died in 1564. 
 
 Scevole. See Scbvola. 
 
 Schaaf, shif, (Charles,) a German Orientalist, born 
 in 1646, became professor of the Oriental languages 
 at Leyden. He published several grammatical works. 
 Died in 1729. 
 
 Schack, von, fon shjk, (Adolf Friedrich,) a 
 German litterateur, born near Schwerin in 1815. He 
 published a " History of Dramatic Literature and Art 
 in Spain," (1845,) which has a high reputation, and made 
 several translations from the Persian. 
 
 Schad, shSt or shSd, (Johann Baptist,) a German 
 philosopher, born at Mursbach in 1758. He succeeded 
 Fichte as professor of philosophy at Jena about 1800, 
 and obtained a chair of philosophy at Kharkof, in Rus- 
 sia, in 1804. He published several esteemed works 
 designed to popularize the philosophy of Fichte. Died 
 in 1834. 
 
 See his Autobiography, 2 vols., 1804. 
 
 Schadow, shj'tlo, (Johann Gottfried,) a cele- 
 brated German sculptor, bom at Berlin in 1764. Having 
 spent several years in Italy, he returned to Berlin in 
 1788, and was subsequently appointed director of the 
 Academy of Arts. Among his master-pieces are statues 
 of Frederick the Great, Marshal Blucher, and General 
 Ziethen, a group of Queen Luise and her sister, the 
 Duchess of Cumberland, the monument of Luther at 
 Wittenberg, and that of Tauenzien at Breslau. He 
 numbered among his pupils Dannecker, Rauch, and 
 other eminent sculptors, and he is regarded as the 
 founder of the modern school of sculpture in Germ.my. 
 He was the authoi of several valuable treatises on art. 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 See his autobiography, entitled " Knnstwerke und Kunsta*- 
 sichten," 1849; Nagler, *" Allgemeines Kilnstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Schadow, (Rudolf,) a sculptor, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1785. He was instructed by his 
 father, and afterwards visited Rome, where he died in 
 1822. He left several portrait-busts and statues of great 
 beauty. Among the latter may be named " The Girl fast- 
 ening her Sandal." 
 
 Schadow-Oodenhaus, von, fon shl'do go'den- 
 h5wss', (Friedrich Wilhelm,) an eminent painter of 
 history and portraits, a brother of the preceding, was 
 bom at Berlin in 1789. He studied at Rome under 
 Cornelius and Overbeck, whose peculiar views of art 
 
 nasi; casj; giard; gasy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; *, trilled; 5 as t; than in this. (Jfy-See Explanations, p. 43.) 
 
SCHAEFFER 
 
 1968 
 
 SCHEFFER 
 
 he adopted. (See Cornelius and Overbeck.) Having 
 joined the Catholic Church while at Rome, he returned 
 to Berlin, where he became professor in the Academy of 
 Fine Arts, and In 1826 succeeded Cornelius as director 
 of the Academy at Dusseldorf. Among his principal 
 historical pictures are the Four Evangelists, in the 
 Werder Church at Berlin, an " Ascension of Mary," in 
 the Paulskirche at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a series repre- 
 senting " Paradise," " Purgatory," and " Hell." Schadow 
 numbers among his pupils Lessing, Schroter, and other 
 distinguished German artists. Died in 1862. 
 
 See Nagi.rr, "Allgemeines Kunstler- Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Schaeffer. See Schaffer. 
 
 Schaeffer, sha'fer, (Charles Frederick,) an Ameri- 
 can divine and scholar, born at Germantown in 1807, 
 graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1827. 
 lie has been chairman of the faculty in the Lutheran 
 Seminary in Philadelphia since its organization in 1S64. 
 He has published, besides numerous other works, an 
 excellent translation from the German of Lechler's "Acts 
 of the Apostles : an Exegetical Commentary," etc., (1866.) 
 
 Schafei. See ShAfey. 
 
 Schafarik, shi'fa-rik, written also Safarik, (Paul 
 Joseph,) a distinguished philologist and antiquary, born 
 in Northern Hungary in 1795. Among his works are a 
 " History of the Slavonic Language and Literature," 
 etc., (in German, 1826,) " Slavonic Ethnology," and 
 "Bohemian Antiquities." Died in i86t. 
 
 Schaff, shaf, (Philip,) D.D., a theologian and divine 
 of the German Reformed Church, was born in Switzer- 
 land in 1819. He graduated at Berlin in 1841, and in 
 1844 emigrated to America, and was appointed professor 
 of theology at Mercersburg, Pennsylvania. He pub- 
 lished " The Principles of Protestantism," (in German 
 and English, 1845,) a "History of the Apostolic Church," 
 (in German, 1851,) a " History of the Christian Church 
 from the Birth of Christ to the Reign of Constantine, 
 A.D. 1-311," (1859,) "The Person of Christ the Miracle 
 of History," (1865,) and many other works. He became 
 in 1870 professor in the Union Theological Seminary, 
 New York. 
 
 See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Schaffer or Schaeffer, shef'fer, (Jakob Christian,) 
 a German naturalist, born at Querfurt, Prussia, in 1718. 
 He wrote on entomology, botany, etc., and was skilful 
 in the fabrication of optical instruments. Died in 1790. 
 
 See Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" "Nou- 
 velle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Schaffner, shiftier, (Martin,) a German historical 
 and portrait painter of Ulm, flourished from 1508 to 
 1539. His works are highly praised. 
 
 Schagen, van, vin sKa'gen or sKi'iien, (/Egidius,) 
 a Dutch historical painter, born at Alkmaar in 1616. 
 Among his works are interiors and conversation-pieces. 
 Died in 1668. 
 
 Schalcken, sKll'ken, (Godfrey,) a Dutch painter 
 of genre, born at Dort in 1643, was a pupil of Gerard 
 Dow. He painted the effects of candle-light with suc- 
 cess. Died at the Hague in 1706. 
 
 Schaldemose, shal'deh-mo'seh, (Friedrich Ju- 
 lian,) a Danish littlrateur, born in the island of Fionia 
 in 1782, made numerous translations from the German, 
 English, French, and other languages, and published 
 several original works. 
 
 Schall, shal, (Johann Adam,) a German Jesuit and 
 missionary, born at Cologne in 1591. He went to China 
 in 1622, and obtained favour at the court of Peking by 
 his skill in astronomy and other sciences. Died in 
 Peking in 1669. 
 
 Schall, (Karl,) a German dramatist, born at Breslau 
 in 1780, was the founder, and for many years the editor, 
 of the "Breslau Zeitung." Died in 1833. 
 
 Schaller, shal'ler, (Anton,) a German painter, born 
 at Vienna in 1772 ; died in 1844. 
 
 Schaller, (Johann,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 born in 1777. He became in 1823 professor of sculp- 
 ture in the Academy at Vienna. Died in 1847. 
 
 SchaPer, (Julius,) a German writer, born at Magde- 
 burg in 1810, publisher a "History of Natural Philos- 
 ophy from Bacon to the Present Time," (1844.) 
 
 Schammai, sham'ml, a celebrated Jewish doctor of 
 law, lived at Jerusalem about 80-50 B.C., and was a rival 
 of Hillel the Elder. 
 
 See Geioer et Gkissmann, "Brevis Commentatio de Hillela et 
 Schammai," 1707. 
 
 Schamyl. See Shamyl. 
 
 Schanfari. See Shanfarf.e. 
 
 Schank, shank, ?(JoHN,) a Scottish naval officer and 
 engineer, born in Fifeshire in 1740. He served in the 
 American war, and was subsequently employed in the 
 defence of the British coast against the French. He was 
 made admiral of the blue in 1821. Died in 1823. 
 
 Scharmat, shan'nat, (Johann Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man historian, born at Luxemburg in 1683. He wrote 
 several works on German history. Died in 1739. 
 
 Schard, shaRt, (Simon,) a learned German lawyer 
 and compiler, born in Saxony in 1535, published " Opus 
 historicum de Rebus Germanicis," (4 vols., 1574.) Died 
 
 in 1573- 
 
 Scharling, shaR'ling, (Carl Emile,) a Danish theo- 
 logian, born at Copenhagen in 1803. He published, 
 besides other works, "The Theological Review," (1837 
 
 -49) 
 
 Scharling, (Edward Augustus,) a chemist,abrother 
 of the preceding, was born at Copenhagen in 1807. 
 
 Scharnhorst, von, fon shaitn'hoRst, (Gerhard 
 David,) a Prussian commander and military writer, 
 born at Hamelsee, in Hanover, in 1756. He was pres- 
 ent at the battle of Auerstadt, in 1806, and, as chief of 
 Blucher's staff, distinguished himself at Eylau, in 1807. 
 Having been made lieutenant-general, and retaining the 
 position of chief of the staff of Bliicher, he was severely 
 wounded in the battle near Grossgorchen, and died from 
 the effects of his wound, in June, 1813. 
 
 See Boyen, " Rertrage zur Kenntniss von Scharnhorst," 1833; 
 Claosf.witz, " Leben von Scharnhorst," 1S33. 
 
 Schatz, shits, (Georg,) a German writer, born at 
 Gotha in 1763, published fables, sonnets, and critical 
 essays ; he also made a translation of Machiavelli's 
 "History of Florence," (unfinished.) Died in 1795. 
 
 Schauflein or Schauffelein. See Scheuffelin. 
 
 Schaumbourg. See Lippe-Schaumbourg. 
 
 Schedone. See Schidoni. 
 
 Schedoni, ska-do'nee, (Pietro,) an Italian philoso- 
 pher, born in the duchy of Modena in 1759, published 
 several works on moral philosophy. Died in 1835. 
 
 Scheele, sheel, [Sw. pron. shil'leh,] (Carl Wil- 
 hei.m,) an eminent Swedish chemist, born at Stralsund 
 in December, 1742. He served an apprenticeship to an 
 apothecary of Gothenburg, and devoted his leisure and 
 his nights to the study of chemistry. About 1770 he re- 
 moved to Upsal, where he formed friendships with Gahn 
 and Bergman. In 1 774 he produced a remarkable treatise 
 on Manganese, lie discovered tartaric acid, fluoric (or 
 fluo-silicic) acid, barytes, chlorine, and several other 
 substances. He settled as an apothecary at Kdping in 
 1775. '" 1 777 he published his discovery of " empyreal 
 air," (oxygen.) This gas had been previously discovered 
 by Priestley; but Scheele was not aware of the fact. 
 He was the first that ascertained the composition of 
 prussic acid. Among his works is a "Treatise on Air 
 and Fire," (1777) He was an excellent observer and 
 experimenter. Died at Koping in 1786. 
 
 See VicQ-n'AzvR, " Fjoge de Scheele," 17^7: Gezeuus, 
 " Biographiskt-Lexicon :" F. Hoefer, " Histoire de la Ctiimie ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Scheelstrate, van, vin sKal'stiti'teh or shil'stRat, 
 or Schelstraate, sK^I'stki'teh, (Emanuel,) a Flemish 
 antiquary and priest, born at Antwerp in 1649, was a zeal- 
 ous asserter of papal supremacy. Died in Rome in 1692. 
 
 Scheemakers, sKa'ma'kers, (Pietkr,) a distin- 
 guished sculptor, born at Antwerp in 1691, studied at 
 Rome, and subsequently resided many years in England. 
 Among his principal works are the monuments to Shak- 
 speare and Dryden in Westminster Abliey, and the statue 
 of Lord Clive in the India House. Died about 1770. 
 
 Schefer, sha'fer, (Leopold,) a German physician 
 and litterateur, born in Lower Lt>satia in 1784, published 
 numerous poems and novels. Died in 1862. 
 
 Scheffer, sheffer, (Arnold,) a brother of Ary 
 Scheffer, was born in Holland in 1796. He was for a 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, it, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SCHEFFER 
 
 1969 
 
 SCHEMMELPENNINCK 
 
 time associated with Armand Carrel as editor of the 
 " National" in Paris. He published (in French) " Po- 
 litical Pictures of Germany," " Essavs on Four Political 
 Questions," and other works. Died in 1853. 
 
 Scheffer, (Ary,) an eminent painter, of French ex- 
 traction, born at Dort, in Holland, in 1795, studied under 
 Guerin in Paris. He painted portraits of I.a Fayette, 
 Beranger, and Lamartine. He worked chiefly in Paris. 
 Among his master-pieces are " Francesca da Rimini," 
 (1835,) Byron's "Giaour," "Christ the Comforter," 
 (1836,) Goethe's "Faust," "Margaret at the Spinning- 
 Wheel," and " Margaret at Church." He married the 
 widow of General Baudrand about 1850. His works 
 are characterized as sentimental and poetical. Died 
 near Paris in 1858. 
 
 See Ctex, " Ary Scheffer," 1859: Mrs. Grots, "Life of Ary 
 Scheffer," 1S60; " Nouvelle Hiographie Generale;" "London 
 Quarterly Review" for July, i860; "Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 November, 1S60. 
 
 Scheffer, (Henri,) a painter, a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at the Hague in 1798. He studied in 
 Paris under Guerin. Among his works we may name 
 "Charlotte Corday protected by the Members of the 
 Section against the Fury of the People," and " Parents 
 Weeping for the Death of their Child." Died in 1862. 
 
 Scheffer, sheffer, (Henky Tiieophilus,) a grandson 
 of Johann Scheffer, noticed below, was born at Stock- 
 holm in 1710. He acquired considerable reputation 
 as a chemist, and was a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences in his native city. Died in 1759. 
 
 See Cronstedt, " Aminnelse Tal ofver H. T Scheffer," 1760. 
 
 Scheffer, (Johann,) a German scholar, born at 
 Strasburg in 1621, published editions of numerous 
 classics, and a treatise " On the Naval Militia of the 
 Ancients." Died in 1679. 
 
 Scheibel, slu'liel, (Johann Gottfried,) a German 
 Protestant theologian, born at Breslau in 1783. He be- 
 came professor of theology in his native city in 1818. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Scheie!. "sKlt, fLat. Schei'dius,] (Everard,) an 
 eminent Dutch philologist, born at Arnhem in 1742, 
 became professor of Oriental literature at Leyden. 
 Among his principal works are an Arabic Grammar, 
 " Minerva, seu de Causis Latinae Linguae," and " Ebn- 
 Doreydi Kassida, sive Idyllium Arabicum," etc. Died 
 in 179;. 
 
 Scheidius, See Schf.idt. 
 
 Scheldt, shit, (Bai.thasar,) a German scholar and 
 theologian, born at Strasburg in 1614, liecame professor 
 of Oriental languages in his native citv. He was the 
 author of several learned works. Died in 1670. 
 
 Scheidt, [Eat. Schei'dius,] (Christian Ludwig,) 
 a German jurist, born at Waldenburg in 1709. He 
 studied at Gbttingen, and became professor of the law 
 of nature and of nations at Copenhagen. He was the 
 author of several legal works, in Latin. Died in 1761. 
 
 Schemer, shi'ner, (Christoph,) a German Jesuit 
 and savant, born near Mundelsheim, in Suabia, in 1575, 
 became professor of mathematics and astronomy at In- 
 golstadt. He observed the spots on the sun in 161 1, 
 wrote a number of scientific works, and was the in- 
 ventor of the instrument called the pantograph. Died 
 in 1650. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Schelhammer, shel'ham'mer, (Gunthf.r Chris- 
 lOPH,) a German physician and writer, born at Jena in 
 1649. liecame professor of medicine at Kiel, in Holstein. 
 Died in 1716. 
 
 Schelhorn, shel'hoRn, (Johann Gf.org,) the Elder, 
 a German theologian and scholar, born at Memmingen 
 in 1694. He became pastor of that town in 1734, and 
 published, besides other works, "Literary Amenities," 
 (" Amoenitates Literarias," 7 vols., 1725.) He was dis- 
 tinguished as a bibliographer. Died in 1773. 
 
 Schelhorn, (Johann Gf.org,) the Younger, bom 
 at Memmingen in 1733, published several historical and 
 theological works. Died in 1802. 
 
 Scheller, shel'ler, (Immanuei. Johann Gerhard,) 
 a German lexicographer, born at Jhlow, in Saxony, in 
 1735. He published a "Complete Latin-German and 
 German-Latin Dictionary," (3 vols., 1783,) a "Small 
 
 Latin Dictionary," a "Latin Grammar," and other simi- 
 lar works. Died in 1803. 
 
 Schelling, von, fon shel'ling, (Frif.drich Wil- 
 helm Joseph,) an eminent German philosopher, born 
 at Leonberg, near Stuttgart, on the 27th of January, 
 1775. His early education was directed by his father, a 
 distinguished Orientalist, who became prelate at Manl- 
 bronn. About 1790 he entered the University of Tu- 
 bingen, where he studied philosophy and theology and 
 remained until 1795. In the latter year he published a 
 treatise " On the Possibility of a Form of Philosophy," 
 (" Ueber die Moglichkeit einer Form der Philosophic," 
 etc.,) and " On the Ego as the Principle of Philosophy," 
 (" Vom Ich als Princip der Philosophic.") He removed 
 about 1795 to Leipsic, where he was employed as tutor 
 to a young nobleman, and in 1798 became professor- 
 extiaordinary at Jena, which was then the great focus 
 of German philosophy. Here he associated with Fichte 
 and Hegel, and delivered lectures on philosophy which 
 excited great enthusiasm and displayed a remarkable 
 beauty of style. He produced, in rapid succession, 
 " Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature," (" Ideen zu einer 
 Philosophie der Natur," 1797,) "On the Soul of the 
 World," etc., ("Von der Weltseele, eine llypothese der 
 hohern Physik,"etc, 1798,) a "First Sketch of a System 
 of the Philosophy of Nature," (" Erste Entwurf eines 
 Systems der Naturphilosophie," 1799,) and a "System 
 of Transcendental Idealism," (" System des transcen 
 dentalen Idealismus," 1800.) 
 
 In 1803 he was appointed professor of philosophy at 
 Wurzburg, and in 1808 became secretary to the Academy 
 of Arts in Munich, where he remained until 1841. Ho 
 obtained the chair of philosophy in the University of 
 Munich about 1826. His celebrity as a lecturer attracted 
 multitudes of students from various countries of Europe. 
 He was appointed president of the Academy of Sciences, 
 and was ennobled by the King of Bavaria. Having lost 
 his first wife, Caroline Michaelis, in 1810, he married 
 Pauline Gotter. He succeeded Hegel as professor of 
 philosophy at Berlin in 1841.. 
 
 Schelling is one of the four chief metaphysical philoso- 
 phers of Germany. His system, like those of Fichte and 
 Hegel, was originally a sort of idealistic pantheism ; but 
 in his later writings his views seem to approximate more 
 and more nearly to those which may be said to form 
 the philosophic basis of Christianity. On his succeeding 
 Hegel, in 1841, he was hailed as one who was destined 
 to deliver Philosophy from the logic of pantheism and 
 lead her back to Christ. Schelling is distinguished from 
 the other great philosophers of Germany by his com- 
 bining with rare intellectual powers poetic gifts of a 
 high order. 
 
 Among his works, besides those already mentioned, are 
 " Bruno, or the Divine and Natural Principle of Things," 
 (" Bruno, oder iiber das gottliche und natiirliche Princip 
 der Dinge," 1802,) " Philosophy and Religion," (" Phi- 
 losophie und Religion," 1804,) and "On the Relation of 
 Art to Nature," ("Ueber das Verhaltniss der bildenden 
 Kunste zu der Natur," 1807.) He regarded art as the 
 perfect union of the real with the ideal. He also wrote 
 "Philosophic Researches on the Essence of Human 
 Liberty," (" Philosophischen Untersuchungen iiber das 
 Weseii der menschlichen Freiheit," 1809.) He died at 
 Ragaz, in Switzerland, in August, 1854, leaving several 
 sons and daughters. His collected works were pub- 
 lished at Stuttgart, in 14 vols. 8vo, 1856-61. 
 
 See Rosenkranz. " Schellinff. Vorlesungen gel.Alten im Sommer 
 1S42." etc., 184}; Matter, " Schelline, oil la Philosophie de la 
 Nature."etc, 1845 : L. de Lombnie. " M. Schellmx, par tin Homme 
 de Rien," 1844 : Coleridge, " Biographia Literaria :" Ritter, 
 "History of Philosophy;" Appleton's "New American Cyclo- 
 paedia." 
 
 Schellinks, sKel'links, (Danifi.,) a Dutch landscape- 
 painter, born at Amsterdam in 1633 or 1638; died in 
 1701. 
 
 Schellinks, sKel'links, (Wili.em.) a Dutch painter 
 of landscapes and sea-ports, born at Amsterdam in 1632, 
 was a brother of Daniel. He worked in England. Ac- 
 cording to Bryan, he was a first-rate artist. Died in 1678. 
 
 Schemmelpenninck, sKem'mel -pen'nink, or 
 Schimmelpenninck, sKim'mel-pen'nink, (Riitgkr 
 Jan,) a Dutch statesman, born at Deventer in 1761, 
 
 «as*; 9 as s; g hard; gas/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; *h as in Mm. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 124 
 
SCHENCK 
 
 1970 
 
 SCHILLER 
 
 was grand pensionary of Holland in 1805. He refused 
 to hold office under King Louis Bonaparte. Died in 
 1825. 
 
 See M. C. van Hall, "R. J. Schimmelpenninck," etc., 1847; 
 "Nouvelle Biograpllie Ge^ieYale.' 
 
 Schenck, shenk, (Johann,) a German medical writer, 
 born in Brisgau in 1531, practised at Friburg. Died in 
 1598. 
 
 Schenck, (Johann Georg,) a medical writer, a son 
 of the preceding, born at Friburg; died about 1620. 
 
 Schenck, skjnk, (Robert C.,) an American lawyer 
 and general, born in Warren county, Ohio, in 1809. He 
 represented a district of Ohio in Congress from 1843 to 
 1851, and was minister to Brazil in 1852-53. He com- 
 manded a brigade at Bull Run, July 21, 1861, was 
 wounded at the second battle of Bull Run, August 30, 
 1862, and was raised to the rank of major-general about 
 October of that year. He was a Republican member 
 of Congress for the third district of Ohio from 1863 to 
 1869, and was chairman of the committee of ways and 
 means in the Fortieth Congress and the Forty-first 
 Congress. He was re-nominated as a member of Con- 
 gress in 1870. 
 
 Schenk, sKenk, (Martin,) a Dutch soldier of for- 
 tune, noted for his courage and ferocity, was born in 
 Gelderland in 1549. He served for a time under William 
 of Orange, but subsequently went over to the Duke of 
 Parma. Dissatisfied, however, with his treatment, and 
 thinking his services ill rewarded, he joined the patriots 
 in 1585, and performed many daring exploits, among 
 which was the capture of Bonn. Having attempted to 
 take Nymwegen in 1589, he was drowned while making 
 his retreat. 
 
 See Motlev, " United Netherlands," vol. ii. chaps, ix.-xx. 
 
 Schenkels, shenk'els, (Lambert Thomas,) a Dutch 
 grammarian, born at Bois-le-Duc in 1547. He wrote on 
 grammar and mnemonics. Died about 1630. 
 
 Schenkendorf, von, fon shenk'en-doRf, (Max,) 
 born at Konigsberg about 1784, wrote "Christian 
 Poems," and other poetical- works. Died in 1817. 
 
 Scherer, sha/raiV, (Barthelemi Louis Joseph,) a 
 French general, born at Delle (Haut-Rhin) in 1747. He 
 obtained the chief command of the army of the Pyrenees 
 in 1795, and defeated the Austrians at Loano in Novem- 
 ber of that year. He was minister of war from July, 
 1797, to February, 1 799, after which date he commanded 
 in Italy for a few months. Died in 1804. 
 
 See"Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ie'rale ;" De Courcelles, "Dic- 
 tionnaire des GeneVaux Francais." 
 
 Scherr, sheR, (Thomas Ignaz,) a German teacher 
 and educational writer, born at Hohenrechberg, in 
 Wurtemberg, in 1801, was the founder of the Institute 
 for the Deaf and Dumb at Zurich. 
 
 Scherz, sheRts, (Joseph Gkorg,) a German jurist 
 and antiquary, born at Strasburg in 1678, became pro- 
 fessor of law at Halle in 1711. Died in 1754. 
 
 Scheuchzer, shoiK'tser, (Johann,) a Swiss natural- 
 ist, born at Zurich in 1682, became professor of natural 
 history in his native city. He published a number of 
 botanical works, in Latin. Died in 1738. 
 
 Scheuchzer, (Johann Jakob,) a Swiss naturalist and 
 physician, brother of the preceding, was born at Zurich 
 in 1672. He was the author of several scientific works, 
 among which we name a " Natural History of Switzer- 
 land," (in German, 3 vols., 1708,) and "Physica Sacra," 
 or natural history of the Bible, (8 vols., 1732-37,) written 
 111 German and translated into French and Latin. Died 
 
 >" 1733- 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Scheuchzer, (Johann Kaspar,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Zurich in 1702. He translated 
 KHmpfer's " History of Japan" into English, and pub- 
 lished a "Treatise on Inoculation." Died in 1729. 
 
 Scheuffelin, shoif feh-leen', or Scheuffelein, shoif' - 
 feh-lin', (Hans,) an eminent German painter and wood- 
 engraver, born at Nuremberg about 1490, was a favourite 
 pupil of Albert Durer. His engravings resemble those 
 of Durer. He worked at Nordlingen, where he died in 
 1539 or 1540. 
 
 See Renouvier, " Des Types et des Manieres des Maitres- 
 Graveurs." 
 
 Scheuren, shoi'ren, (Kaspar,) a German landscape* 
 painter of the Dusseldorf school, was born at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle in 1810. 
 
 Scheutz, shoits, (George and Edward,) two scien- 
 tific Swedes of the present century, distinguished as 
 inventors of a machine which calculates mathematical 
 tables and prints the results. Edward is a son of George. 
 Their machine is said to be a success. A gold medal 
 was awarded to the inventors by a committee of the 
 Exposition of Paris in 1855. 
 
 Schiavone, ske-a-vo'ni, (Andrea,) an Italian 
 painter, surnamed Mkdula, was born at Sebenico, in 
 Dalmatia, in 1522. Among his master-pieces are "The 
 Nativity of Christ," and the " Assumption of the Virgin." 
 He excelled as a colorist, and was emplov-d by Titian 
 in painting the ceilings of the Library of San Marco, in 
 Venice. Died in 1582. 
 
 See Vasaki, "Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, "History of 
 Painting in Italy;" Ridolfi, " Vite degli Pittori Veneti." 
 
 Schiavonetti, ske-a-vo-net'tee, (Luigi,) an Italian 
 engraver, born at Bassano in 1765, was a friend of Bar- 
 tolozzi, whose style he imitated successfully. He resided 
 many years in London, where he died in 1810. Among 
 his best works are a " Mater Dolorosa," after Van Dyck, 
 and the " Nativity of Christ," after Correggio. 
 
 Schicht, shlKt, (Johann Gottfried,) a German 
 composer and writer on music, was born near Zittau in 
 1753. His works are principally oratorios and other 
 sacred music. Died in 1823. 
 
 Schick, shlk, (Gottlieb,) a German painter, born 
 at Stuttgart in 1779, studied in Paris under David. He 
 painted history and portraits, and acquired a high repu- 
 tation. Died in 1812. 
 
 Schickard, shik'kaRt, or Schickhard, shik'hlRt, 
 (WlLHELM,) a German Orientalist and astronomer, born 
 at Herrenberg, near Tubingen, in 1592. He became 
 pastor at Nurtingen in 1616, and professor of Hebrew 
 at Tiibingen in 1619. He also learned Arabic, Persian, 
 and Turkish without a master. He published several 
 works on Oriental languages and on astronomy. Died 
 at Tubingen in 1635. 
 
 See Schnurrer, " Schickard's Leben," 1792; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G^nerale." 
 
 Schidoni, ske-do'nee, or Schedone, ska-do'ni, 
 (Bartolommeo,) an Italian painter, born at Modena in 
 1560. He painted both historical pieces and portraits 
 with success, and is esteemed one of the best imitators 
 of Correggio. Died in 1615. 
 
 Schikaneder, shee'ka-ni'der, (Emanuel,) a Ger- 
 man dramatist, born at Ratisbon in 1 751. His principal 
 work, the " Zauberflbte," (" Magic Flute,") was set to 
 music by Mozart, and enjoyed great popularity. Died 
 in 1812. 
 
 Schilder, shil'der, (Charles Andreievitch,) a Rus- 
 sian general, born about 1795, was distinguished as a 
 military engineer. Died in 1857. 
 
 Schill, von, fon shll, (Ferdinand,) a Prussian par- 
 tisan officer, born near Pless in 1773. He commanded 
 a regiment or free corps, with which he fought against 
 the French and performed daring exploits. He was 
 attacked by the Dutch and Danes at Stralsund, and was 
 killed in the defence of that place, in 1809. 
 
 See " Schilliana." 1810-ig: Haken, "Ferdinand von Schill," 
 1824 ; Daering, " Leben Schill's," 183S. 
 
 Schiller, von, fon shil'ler, (Johann Christoph 
 Friedrich,) the great national poet of Germany, was born 
 at Marbach, November 10, 1759. His father was for a time 
 an army-surgeon, and was afterwards employed by the 
 Duke of Wurtemberg as inspector of his nurseries and 
 ornamental gardens. From his mother, whose maiden- 
 name was Kodweis, the poet appears to have inherited 
 his sensitive and enthusiastic temperament and his love 
 for poetry. His parents having removed to Ludwigs- 
 burg, he was sent to the Latin school of that town. His 
 mother wished him to become a minister ; but his tastes 
 led him in a different direction. At first he made choice 
 of the legal profession, but soon after turned his attention 
 to medicine. Later the works of Shakspeare, Rousseau, 
 and Goethe appear to have determined the direction of 
 his mind to the drama and general literature. Lessing, 
 Herder, and Klopstock seem to have had no unimportant 
 
 , i, o, ii, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
SCHILLER 
 
 1571 
 
 SCHINKEL 
 
 influence in the formation of his literary character. Among 
 his earliest essays in composition were an epic poem 
 entitled " Moses," and two dramas, " Der Student von 
 Nassau" and "Cosmo von Medici," of which only a few 
 fragments have been preserved. In 1777, when only 
 eighteen years of age, he wrote " The Robbers," (" Die 
 Rauber,") a tragedy of extraordinary power, though he 
 himself, at a later day, characterized it as a " monster for 
 which fortunately there was no original." It was trans- 
 lated and read in every part of Europe, and, having been 
 remodelled, was brought out on the stage at Mannheim 
 in 17S2. The author, having gone incognito to witness 
 the representation, was arrested, and the Duke of Wiir- 
 temberg sternly forbade him to write anything except 
 what related to the medical profession. To escape from 
 this intolerable thraldom, he fled to Mannheim, and after- 
 wards spent some time in Franconia, near Meiningen ; 
 lubsequently (in 1783) he was naturalized as a subject of 
 the Elector-Palatine, and was thus freed from all control 
 of the Duke of Wurtemberg. He took up his residence 
 at Mannheim, where he became poet to the theatre. About 
 this time he wrote his tragedies of " Fiesco" and " Cabale 
 und Liebe." He began in 1784 to edit the "Thalia," 
 a literary journal, chiefly devoted to the stage, in which 
 were published the first parts of his tragedy of " Don 
 Carlos." In 1785 he left Mannheim for Leipsic, where he 
 made the acquaintance of Huber and the elder. Korner, 
 and wrote his beautiful "Ode to Joy," ("Lied an die 
 Freude.") His tale entitled the " Ghost-Seer" ("Geist- 
 Sieher") was never finished. Having visited Weimar 
 in 1787, he acquired the friendship of Goethe, Herder, 
 and Wieland, and, on the recommendation of Goethe, 
 was appointed in 1789 professor of history at Jena. The 
 next year he married Charlotte von Lengefeld, a lady of 
 fine intellect and culture. In 1791 he brought out his 
 " History of the Thirty Years' War," (pronounced by 
 Carlyle in 1824 as the best historical performance which 
 Germany could boast of,) and soon after commenced his 
 " Wallenstein," which was completed in 1799. It is per- 
 haps his greatest work, and is regarded by many as the 
 finest tragedy in the German language. It consists of 
 three parts, "The Camp of Wallenstein," (" Wallen- 
 stein's Lager,") "The Piccolomini," and the "Death of 
 Wallenstein," (" Wallenstein's Tod.") The second and 
 third parts, rendered into English blank verse by Cole- 
 ridge, constitute one of the most admirable and perfect 
 translations to be found in our language. In 1 799 Schiller 
 removed to Weimar. His growing intimacy with Goethe 
 appears to have exercised a most happy influence upon 
 the productions of his genius. Between 1799 and 1801 
 he composed, besides smaller works, his dramas entitled 
 "The Maid of Orleans," (" Die lungfrau von Orleans,") 
 "Mary Stuart," and "The Bride of Messina," ("Die 
 Braut von Messina.") He was associated with Goethe 
 in contributions to the "Musen-Almanach," of which 
 for a time Schiller was the editor. Among his minor 
 poems " The Song of the Bell" (" Das Lied von der 
 Glocke," 1801) may claim the first place. Nothing more 
 admirable in its way has ever been written in any lan- 
 guage, ancient or modern. In it the three great events 
 of human life — Birth, (or Christening,) Marriage, and 
 Death, all marked by the ringing of the bell — are touched 
 upon with an exquisite beauty and pathos which, had 
 the author composed nothing else but this single poem, 
 would have secured him a place among those rare poets 
 whose fame seems destined to be coeval with the exist- 
 ence of the human race. In 1804 Schiller produced hi-* 
 "William Tell," the most popular of all his dramas. 
 He died on the 9th of May, 1805, ot an affection of the 
 lungs, under which he hacf suffered for many years. His 
 last words, uttered a little before he expired, were, 
 "Many things are growing plain and clear to me." 
 
 As a poet, Schiller is characterized by strong feeling 
 and intense ideality. His mind is eminently subjective, 
 all his representations being strongly coloured with his 
 own individuality, and in this ond respect he is much 
 inferior as a dramatist to Goethe ; but his enthusiastic 
 faith in ideal excellence, and his deep and earnest sym- 
 pathy with all human joy and sorrow, have given him 
 an influence over the common heart of mankind not 
 possessed by his many-sided and more gifted rival 
 
 There is indeed between Schiller and Goethe something 
 of the same kind of difference that exists between Byron 
 and Shakspeare, the one being characterized by intense 
 concentrated feeling, the other by endless variety. The 
 comparison, however, fails to do justice to Schiller, who, 
 if he had less passion, had far greater wealth of thought 
 and far higher moral endowments than Byron. On the 
 other hand, Goethe, though scarcely yielding to Shak- 
 speare in his profound knowledge of the human heart 
 or in the inexhaustible riches of his ideas, was yet infe- 
 rior to the great English dramatist in the very point in 
 which he was inferior to Schiller, viz., in a deep and 
 earnest sympathy with universal humanity; and this 
 will explain why the dramatic works of Goethe, though 
 giving proof of genius of the richest and rarest order, 
 have never possessed that strong hold upon the popular 
 heart for which the dramas of Schiller and Shakspeare 
 are so remarkable. 
 
 See Thomas Cart.yi.h, "Life of Schiller," 1825; E. Lytton 
 Bulwkk, "Life and Works of Schiller," 1S47; H. Doking, " F. 
 von Schiller; biographisches Denkmal," 1832; Viana, " Schiller's 
 Leben und Werken," 1836; Hopfmeister, " Schiller's J.eben," 5 
 vols., 183S-42: E. Boas, "Schiller und Goethe im Xenienkampie," 
 2 vols., 185: ; Caroline von Woi.zdgkn, " F. von Schiller's Le- 
 ben," 2 vols., 1830: G. Schwab, " Urkunden ttber Sclulier und seine 
 Familie," 1840; the article in " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1831, 
 (by Cari.yi.e;) "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1841; translations 
 from Schiller's Poems in " Blackwood's Magazine" for September, 
 1843, February and April, 1S43, (by Bui.wer:) "North American 
 Review" for October, 1823, (by Bancroft.) 
 
 Schilling, shil'ling, (Frikdrich Gustav,) a German 
 novelist and dramatic writer, born at Dresden in 1766, 
 became a captain in the Saxon army. His works display 
 much originality and talent for invention. Died in 1839. 
 
 Schilling, (Gustav,) a German writer on music, bom 
 in Hanover in 1805, published a "Universal Dictionary 
 of Music," ("Universal Lexikon der Tonkunst,") and 
 other similar works. Died in i860. 
 
 Schilter, shll'ter, (Johann,) a German jurist, born 
 at Pegau in 1632, published a number of legal and anti- 
 quarian works, in Latin. Died in 1705. 
 
 Schimmelpenninck. See Schkmmei.pknninck. 
 
 Schimmelpenninck, shim'mel-pen'nink, (Mary 
 Annk,) an English authoress, originally named Gai.ton, 
 was born at Birmingham in 1778. Her mother was a 
 Barclay, highly gifted and a good scholar. Mary Anne 
 Galton was a cousin of Priscilla Gurney and of Mrs. 
 Fry. She was well versed in Latin, German, and French. 
 In l8o6she married a Dutchman named Lambert Schim- 
 melpenninck, who is said to have been a brother of the 
 pensionary or chief ruler of Holland. She joined the 
 Moravian Church about 1818. She wrote, besides other 
 works, " Memoirs of Port- Royal," (2 vols., 1853.) Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 See " Life of M. A. Schimmelpenninck," 2 vols., 1859. the first 
 volume of which is autobiography ; " Living Age" for April 16, 1859. 
 
 Schimper, shaN'paiR', (Guii.i.aumk Philippe,) a 
 French naturalist, born in Alsace in 1808, has published 
 a number of botanical treatises, and " Palaeontologica 
 Alsatica." 
 
 Schimper, sMm'per, (Wii.hkt.m,) a German natu- 
 ralist and traveller, born at Mannheim in 1S04, visited 
 Egypt, Arabia, and Abyssinia, and published in 1834 
 his "Travels in Algeria." 
 
 Schiuderhannes, shin'der-han'nes, or Schinder- 
 hans, shin'der-hanss', a German robber-chief of the 
 eighteenth century, who for several years infested with 
 his band the shores of the Rhine. He was taken and 
 executed, with a number of his companions, in 1803. 
 His adventures form the subject of a novel by Leitch 
 Ritchie. 
 
 Schindler, sMnd'ler, ( Valentine, ) a German 
 scholar, and professor of Oriental languages at Witten- 
 berg, was the author of " Institutiones Hebraicae," and 
 other works. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Schinkel, shlnk'el, (Karl Frif.dricii,) a German 
 architect of great celebrity, born at Neu-Ruppin, in 
 Brandenburg, in March, 1781, was a pupil of David 
 Gilly, of Berlin. He practised landscape-painting in 
 his early life. About 1804 he visited Italy. Having 
 returned to Berlin in 1806, he became about 1815 archi- 
 tect of the king, who employed him in the erection of 
 public edifices in his capital. He designed the Royal 
 
 5 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 1; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
 e as« 
 
SCHINNER 
 
 1972 
 
 SCHLEIERMACHER 
 
 Museum, a large building of the Ionic order, which was 
 greatly admired, and the theatre in Berlin. Among his 
 other works was a theatre at Hamburg. He preferred 
 the Greek style of architecture. Died in 1841. 
 
 See F. Kugler, " K. F. Schinkel; eine Charakteristik," etc., 
 1842 
 
 Schinner, shin'ner, (Matthew,) a German or Swiss 
 bishop, called Cardinal de Sign, was born in the 
 Valais about 1470. He became a cardinal in 151 1. He 
 instigated the Swiss to fight against Francis I. of France, 
 and took an active part in the battle of Marignano, 
 (1515.) Died in 1522. 
 
 Scbirach, von, fon shee'raK, (GorrLOB Benedict,) 
 a German historian, born in Upper Lusatia in 1743. 
 In 1770 he became professor of philosophy at Helin- 
 stedt. He published, among other works, a " Biography 
 of the Fmperor Charles VI.," (1776,) for which he was 
 ennobled by the empress Maria Theresa. He trans- 
 lated Plutarch's " Lives" into German. Died in 1804. 
 
 Schirmer, shdeVmer, (Johann Wilhei.m,) a Ger- 
 man landscape-painter of great merit, and professor at 
 the Academy of Dusseldorf, was born at Jiilich in 1807. 
 
 Schischkow. See Sh'ishkof. 
 
 Schlagintweit, shla'gin-twTt', (Adolf,) a German 
 traveller, born at Munich in 1829. Having explored 
 the Alps in company with his brother Hermann, he pub- 
 lished in 1850 an account of their researches. In 1854 he 
 set out for India, accompanied by his brothers Hermann 
 and Robert, for the purpose of making scientific investi- 
 gations. Adolf was killed at Kashgar in 1857 or 1858. 
 An account of their travels and researches in India was 
 published about 1861. 
 
 Schlatter, shlat'ter, (Michael,) a Swiss divine and 
 missionary, born at Saint Gall in 1716, emigrated to 
 America, where he assisted in organizing the synod of 
 the German Reformed Church. Died in 1790. 
 
 Sclilegel, shla'gel, (Johann Adolf,) a German 
 divine and pulpit orator, born at Meissen in 1721, 
 became professor of theology at Zerbst. He published 
 "Fables and Tales," in verse, and "Spiritual Songs." 
 Died in 1793. 
 
 Schlegei, (Johann Eli as,) elder brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was bom at Meissen in 1718. He published the 
 tragedies of "Hermann" and "Canute," and the com- 
 edy of " Dumb Beauty," (" Stumme Schbnheit.") Died 
 in 1749. 
 
 See J. H. Schlegei., " Leben J. E. Schlegels," 1770. 
 
 Schlegei, (Johann Friedkich Wilhelm,) son of 
 the following, was born at Copenhagen in 1765, and 
 became professor of law in his native city in 1800. He 
 wrote several legal works in Danish. Died in 1836. 
 
 Schlegei, (Johann Heinrich,) a younger brother 
 of Johann Adolf, noticed above, was born at Meissen in 
 1724. He became professor of history and royal his- 
 toriographer at Copenhagen. He wrote a " History of 
 the Danish Kings of the House of Oldenburg," and 
 translated several of Thomson's dramas into German. 
 Died in 1780. 
 
 Schlegei, (Johann Karl.) fourth brother of August 
 Wilhelm von Schlegei, noticed below, was born at Zerbst 
 in 1758. He wrote "Ecclesiastical History of North- 
 ern Germany," (1828,) and other works. Died in 1831. 
 
 Schlegei, (Karl Gustav Moritz,) brother of the 
 preceding, was bom at Hanover in 1756. He became 
 superintendent-general and first preacher at Harburg, 
 and wrote several theological works. Died in 1826. 
 
 Schlegei, von, fon shla'gel, (August Wilhelm,) a 
 celebrated German poet. Orientalist, and critic, born at 
 Hanover on the 8th of Septemlier, 1767, was a son of 
 Johann Adolf, noticed above. He was a pupil of Heyne 
 at the University of Gbttingen, which he quitted in 1793. 
 In 1797 he became professor or teacher of Greek and 
 Latin at Jena. In the early part of his life he formed a 
 friendship with Schiller. About 1798 Schlegei and his 
 brother Friedrich began to edit the " Athenaeum," a 
 critical review, which had great influence in propagating 
 the principles of the romantic school. He was a warm 
 admirer of Shakspeare's works, of which he produced 
 a translation, (n vols., 1798-1810.) He resided in Ber- 
 lin from 1802 to 1805, and became a friend of Madame 
 de Stael, whom he accompanied in her travels, as her 
 
 instructor and as tutor to her children. He passed a 
 number of years in her society, and exercised a decided 
 influence over her literary character. In 1808 he de- 
 livered at Vienna a course of lectures on dramatic 
 literature and art, which were greatly admired both in 
 Germany and foreign countries. They were translated 
 into English by John Black, (1840.) 
 
 " I was at Vienna," says Madame de Stael, " when W. 
 Schlegei gave his public course of lectures. I expected 
 only good sense and instruction, where the object was 
 only to convey information. I was astonished to hear a 
 critic as eloquent as an orator." In another place she 
 calls him "the first literary critic of Germany." (De 
 StaeTs "Germany.") 
 
 Schlegei served as secretary to Bernadotte, Crown- 
 Prince of Sweden, in 1813—14, and wrote several polit- 
 ical pamphlets. After the end of the war, in 1815, he 
 remained with Madame de Stael until her death. He 
 was appointed professor of history at Bonn in 1819, and 
 applied himself rather late in life to the study of San- 
 scrit, in which he became proficient. He founded about 
 1820 the " Indische Bibliothek," a review devoted to 
 Indian languages and antiquities. Having lost his first 
 wife, whose name was Michaelis, he married a daughter 
 of the eminent Professor Paulus, from whom he was 
 soon divorced. Among his remarkable productions are 
 a poem entitled " Arion," and a German version of some 
 of Calderon's dramas, (1803-09.) He also wrote, in 
 French, "Literary and Historic Fssays," (" Essais litte- 
 raires et historiques," 1842.) Died at Bonn, in May, 1845. 
 His complete works were published by Bocking, (13 
 vols., 1846.) 
 
 See Louis de LomEnie, "M. A. W. de Schlegei, par un Homme 
 de Rien," 1842; " Nouvelle Biographie G6ne>ale :" "London 
 Quarterly Review" for October, 1814; "Edinburgh Review" tor 
 February, 1816; "Foreign Quarterly Review" tor April, 1833, and 
 October, 1843. 
 
 Schlegei, von, (Karl Wilhelm Friedrich,) an 
 eminent German scholar and writer, a brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Hanover on the 10th of March, 
 1772. His first important work was "Greeks and 
 Romans," ("Griechen und Rbiner," 1797,) which was 
 received with favour. In 1799 he published the first 
 volume of " Lucinde," a novel, which has been cen- 
 sured as immoral. It was never finished. About 1S00 
 he married Madame Veit, a daughter of Mendelssohn. 
 Her first husband was living, but she obtained a divorce 
 in order to marry Schlegei. In 1802 he produced a 
 tragedy called " Alarkos." Having been converted to 
 the Roman Catholic religion about 1808, he removed to 
 Vienna, where he became secretary to the archduke 
 Charles in 1809. He composed the proclamations which 
 were issued to excite the Austrians against Napoleon. 
 He delivered at Vienna several courses of lectures, 
 (which were published,) and edited "The German Mu- 
 seum," (1812-13.) Among his works are a " History of 
 Ancient and Modern Literature," (2 vols., 1815,) "Lec- 
 tures on the Philosophy of Life," (1828,) and " Lectures 
 on the Philosophy of History," (2 vols., 1829.) He 
 was an admirer of mediaeval life and institutions, and 
 belonged to the romantic school in literature. He was 
 an intimate friend of Schleiermacher. Died at Dresden 
 in 1829. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic GtSneVale ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" 
 for August, 1818. 
 
 Schleiden, shll'den, (Matthias Jakob,) a German 
 physician and botanist, born at Hamburg in 1804, pub- 
 lished " Elements of Scientific Botany," (1842,) "Plants 
 and their Life," (1850,) and other works. He became 
 professor-extraordinary at Jena in 1839. 
 
 Schleiden, (Rudolf,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Hamburg. He became in 1853 minister for 
 Bremen at Washington. 
 
 Schleiermacher, shll'er-maK'er, (Friedrich Ernst 
 Daniel,) a distinguished German author, critic, and 
 pulpit orator, was bom at Breslau on the 21st of No- 
 vember, 1768. He was sent to a Moravian school at 
 Barby to study for the ministry. About 1786 he entered 
 the University of Halle, where he devoted himself to 
 theology, philosophy, and the ancient languages. He 
 quitted the university in 1790, after which he was em- 
 ployed several years as a tutor in a private family and 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; si, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n&t; good; moon- 
 
SCHLESINGER 
 
 '973 
 
 SCHMID 
 
 in a seminary in Berlin. In 1796 he was appointed 
 preacher to the hospital of Charite in Berlin. He pub- 
 lished in 1799 an excellent work entitled "Discourses 
 on Religion," the doctrines of which were approved by 
 pious and orthodox readers. He removed to Stolpe in 
 1802, with the title of court preacher, and wrote there a 
 "Critique of all Past Systems of Ethics," ("Grundlinien 
 einer Kritik der bishengen Sittenlehre," 1803,) which is 
 highly esteemed. In i804he became professorof theology 
 and philosophy at Halle. He acquired great influence 
 as a theologian. The conquests of Napoleon having 
 separated llalle from the kingdom of Prussia, Schleier- 
 macher removed to Berlin about 1806. He produced an 
 excellent translation of a large portion of Plato's works, 
 (published in 3 vols., 1804-28,) with an introduction, 
 which may be pronounced one of the most important 
 contributions towards the elucidation of Plato's philo- 
 sophic system that have been made in modern times. 
 In 1809 he was appointed preacher of Trinity Church, 
 Berlin, and in 1810 Uecame professor of theology in the 
 new university of that capital. His profound learning, 
 eloquent language, and original thoughts rendered him 
 very popular as a professor and preacher. He was 
 chosen secretary to the philosophical section of the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1814. 
 
 Among his most important works are "A Critical 
 Essay on the Writings of Luke," (" Ueber die Schriften 
 des I.ukas, ein kritischer Versuch," 1817,) and "Exhibi- 
 tion of the Christian Faith according to the Principles 
 of the Evangelical Church," (" Darstellung des Christ- 
 lichen Glaubens nach den Grundsatzen der Evange- 
 lischen Kirche," 2 vols., 1821-22.) "To his vast sweep 
 of thought, now ranging round the outposts of theological 
 systems, and again darting upon the smallest detail and 
 opening it up to the light, he united immense learning, 
 not of the cumbrous bibliographical sort so peculiar to 
 the Germans, but of the living facts and principles of 
 all times, combined with a grand faculty of utterance 
 which gave the most musical form to the most golden 
 thoughts, holding his hearers in raptures while he spoke, 
 and carrying them breathless away with him in his airy 
 chariot of fire." (" Encyclopaedia Britannica.") Hied in 
 Berlin in February, 1834. 
 
 See a collection 'A his letters, entitled " Ans Schleiermacher's 
 Leben in Briefen," 2 vols., 1S5S ; " Life of Schleiermacher." trans- 
 lated from the German: K. Bonnki.i.. "Erinnerung an Schleier- 
 macher als Lehrer," 1S3S: F. Dki.rkUck. " Der verewigrte Schleier- 
 m.icher," 1S37; " British Quarterly Review" for M.iv. 1S40: 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1861 ; "Westminster Review" 
 for July, 1861. 
 
 Schlesinger, shla'zing-er, (WlUHELM Hkinricii,) a 
 German painter, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main about 
 1814. He became a resident of Paris. 
 
 Schlichtegroll, shllK'teh-gRol', (Adoi.f Hkinricii 
 Frifdrich,) aGerman antiquary, born at Waltershausen 
 in 1765, became secretary-general of the Royal Academy 
 of Sciences at Munich. lie published the "Obituary of 
 the Germans," ("Xckrolog der Deutsche!!," 28 vols., 
 1791,) and other similar works. Died in 1822. 
 
 Schlichting, schliK'ting, or Schlichtingius, shllK- 
 ting'ge-us, (Jonas,) a Polish Socinian, apparently of 
 German extraction, was born at Bucowiec in 1596. He 
 wiote a "Confession of Faith," for which he was ban- 
 ished, and the work was publicly burnt. Died in 1664. 
 
 Schlik or Schlick, shlik, (Franz,) an Austrian 
 general, born at Prague in 1789. He served in the 
 campaign of 1813 against the French, and in the Hun- 
 garian war of 1849. 
 
 Scbloetzer. See Schio/.kr. 
 
 Schlosser, shlos'ser, (Frikdrich Christoimi,) a 
 celebrated German historian, born at Jever in 1776. In 
 1793 he entered the University of Gottingen, where, 
 in addition to theology, history, and mathematics, he 
 applied himself to the study of English, Italian, and 
 Spanish literature. He published in 1812 his " History 
 of the Iconoclast Emperors of the East Roman Empire." 
 In 1817 he became professorof history at Heidell>erg. 
 His chief works are a "History of the World in a Con- 
 nected Relation," (4 vols., 1817-41,) and the "History 
 of the Eighteenth Century and Nineteenth till the Fall 
 of the French Empire," (8 vols., 1846,) which has been 
 translated into English. He also wrote a "Critical 
 
 Examination of Napoleon," and other works. As a his- 
 torian, Schlosser occupies a high rank and has acquired 
 extensive popularity. Died at Heidelberg in 1861. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexiknn ;" " Jahrbuch 7.11m 
 Conversations-Lexikon," 1862; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 April, 1*41 ; " Westminster Review" for September, 1845 ; Gervi- 
 NUS, " NeCrolog Sclilosser's," 1862. 
 
 Schlosser, (Johann Gkorc,,) a German writer, born 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1739, was a brother-in-law 
 of Goethe. He published several prose essays, and 
 made translations from yEschylus, Plato, and Aristotle. 
 Died in 1799. 
 
 See Nicolovius, "J. G. Sclilosser's Leben," 1844. 
 
 Schlotheim, von, fon shlot'hlm, (Ernst Frif.d- 
 rich,) Baron, a German savant, born in 1764, published 
 several works on mineralogy. Died in 1832. 
 
 Schlozer or Schloezer, von, fon shlot'ser, (Au- 
 gust Ludwk;,) an eminent German historian, born in 
 the principality of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg in 1735. He 
 studied theology at Wittenberg and Gottingen. In 
 1755 he went as a private teacher to Sweden, where he 
 wrote a "History of Commerce," (in Swedish.) He 
 was appointed in 1765 professor of Russian history at 
 the Academy of Saint Petersburg, and in 1767 of political 
 science at Gottingen. His principal works are entitled 
 " General History of the North," (2 vols., 1772,) " Pre- 
 paratory History of the World for Children," (1790,) 
 and ■' History of the World in Extracts and Connection," 
 (2 vols., 1792.) He also translated, from the Russian, 
 Nestor's " Chronicle" to the year 980, and wrote several 
 able political treatises. He was ennobled by the Em- 
 peror of Russia in 1804. He died in 1809. His daughter 
 DOROTHEA was highly distinguished for her talents and 
 acquirements, and the degree of doctor was conferred 
 upon her in 1787. Died in 1825. 
 
 See "A. L. von Scblozer's Leben," by llis son, 1828; Heinrich 
 DSkiNG, " Leben A. L. von Scblbzer's, 1836 : Adolph Bock, "A. 
 L. Schlozer," 1844. 
 
 Schlozer or Schloezer, von, (Christian.) son of 
 the preceding, was the author of" Elements of Political 
 Science," (1804, in German and Russian,) and published 
 a life of his father. Died in 1831. 
 
 Schliiter or Schlueter, shlii'ter, (Andrkas,) a 
 German architect and sculptor, born about 1662, was 
 patronized by Frederick I. of Prussia. He built several 
 edifices at Berlin, where he also executed a number of 
 admirable works in sculpture. Died in 1714. 
 
 Schlyter, shlii'ter, (Car!. Johan,) a Swedish jurist 
 and legal writer, born at Carlscrona in 1795. 
 
 Schmaltz, shmalts, (Moritz Ferdinand,) a German 
 Protestant theologian, born near Dresden in 1785, has 
 published numerous sermons and other religious works. 
 
 Schmalz, (Thkodor Anton Hkinrich,) a German 
 jurist, bom at Hanover in 1760, published treatises on 
 law and political economy. Died in 1831. 
 
 Schmauss, shmowss, (Johann Jakoh,) a distin- 
 guished German writer on public iaw, was born at 
 Landau, in Alsatia, in 1690. He became in 1734 pro- 
 lessor of the law of nature and of nations at Gottingen. 
 Among his works are a "Life of Charles XII. ot 
 Sweden," (1720,) and "Corpus Juris Gentium Academi- 
 cum," (2 vols., 1730.) Died in 1757. 
 
 Schmeller, shmel'ler, (Johann Andreas,) a Ger- 
 man philologist, born at Titschenreuth in 1785, pub- 
 lished "The Dialects of Bavaria," (1821,) and a " Bava- 
 rian Dictionary," (1827.) Died in 1852. 
 
 Schmerling, von, fon shmeVling, (Anton,) an 
 Austrian jurist and statesman, born at Vienna in 1805, 
 rote to be president of the first tribunal and court of 
 cassation at Vienna, (1851,) and was appointed ptinie 
 minister in 1861. He resigned or was removed in 1866. 
 
 Schmettau, von, fon shmet'iow, (Samuki.,) a Prus- 
 sian commander, born in 1684. He served under Prince 
 Eugene and Marlborough, and subsequently entered 
 the Austrian army and fought against the Spaniards in 
 Sicily. He was made a field-marshal in 1741, and was 
 afterwards employed by Frederick the Great in several 
 embassies. Died in 1751. 
 
 See " Lebensgeschjchte des Grafen von Schmettau," Berlin, 1806. 
 
 Schmid, shmjt, (Kari, Christian Krhakd,) pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Jena, was bom near Weimar in 
 
 c as a-; c as s; g hard; g a.-/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SCHMID 
 
 "974 
 
 SCHNORR 
 
 1761. He wrote several works in favour of the system 
 of Kant. Died in 1812. 
 
 Schmid, (Karl Ernst,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 was born at Weimar in 1774. He became professor of 
 law at Jena in 1809, wrote a number of legal treatises, and 
 contributed to Brockhaus's "Conversations-Lexikon." 
 Died in 1852. 
 
 Schnrid, (Reinhold,) a German jurist, born at Jena 
 in 1800. He published a work "On the Theory of 
 Civil Law," (1848,) which is esteemed. 
 
 Schmid, von, fon shmlt, (Christoph,) a German 
 writer, born at Dinkelsbuhl in 176S, published a number 
 of moral and religious works for children and youth. 
 
 Schmidel.shmee'del, (Casimir Christoph,) a Ger- 
 man botanist, born at Baireuth in 1718. He published 
 " Icones Plantarum et Analyses Partium," (I747-) ^ eA 
 in 1792. . . 
 
 Schmidt, shmlt, (Christoph,) a German jurist and 
 writer, born at Nordheimer in 1740, wrote ■" Letters on 
 Russia," and several historical works. Died in 1 801. 
 
 Schmidt, (Ebkrhard Karl Klamer,) a German 
 poet and fabulist, born at Halberstadt in 1746, was an 
 intimate friend of Gleim. He translated the " Odes and 
 Epodes" of Florace. Died in 1824. 
 
 See "E. K. Schmidt's Leben." 
 
 Schmidt, (Erasmus,) a German scholar, born in 
 Misnia in 1560, became professor of Greek and math- 
 ematics at Wittenberg. He published a "Concordance 
 to the Greek Testament," an edition of Pindar, with a 
 Latin version and notes, and other works. Died in 1637. 
 
 Schmidt, (Georg Friedrich,) a German engraver, 
 born at Berlin, executed numerous portraits of great 
 merit. He was a member of the Academy of Fine Arts 
 in Paris. Died in 1 775. 
 
 Schmidt, (Isaak Jakob,) a German Orientalist, born 
 in 1779, published a Grammar and a Dictionary of the 
 Mongol Language, also a "Thibetan Grammar," and 
 made several translations from the Mongol and Thibetic. 
 He was a member of the Academy of Saint Petersburg. 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 Schmidt, (Johann Andreas,) a German Lutheran 
 divine, born at Worms in 1652, became professor of the- 
 ology and ecclesiastical history at Helmstedt. He 
 translated Patdie's "Elements of Geometry" from 
 French into Latin, and wrote several controversial 
 works. Died in 1726. 
 
 Schmidt, ( Michael Ignaz,) a German historian, 
 born at Arnstein in 1736, was appointed director of the 
 archives at Vienna. He wrote a good " History of the 
 Germans," (22 vols., 1778-1808,) which was very pop- 
 ular, and other works. He was appointed aulic coun- 
 cillor at Vienna in 1780. Died in 1794. 
 
 Schmidt, (Sebastian.) a German scholar of the 
 seventeenth century, was professor of Oriental lan- 
 guages at Strashurg. Died in 1697. 
 
 Schmith, shmlt, (Nicholas,) a Hungarian Jesuit 
 and historical writer, was rector of the college at Tyr- 
 nau. Died in 1767. 
 
 Schmitthenner, shmit'hSh'ner, (Friedrich Jakob,) 
 professor of political science at Giessen, was born in 
 1796. He published several works on philology, his- 
 tory, and political economy. Died in 1850. 
 
 Schmitz, shmlts, (Leonard.) a historian and philol- 
 ogist, born near Aix-la-Chapelle in 1807. He removed 
 to England about 1836, and became rector of the High 
 School of Edinburgh in 1845. He published a " History 
 of Rome," a " Manual of Ancient History." and other 
 works. He also contributed to W. Smith's " Classical 
 Dictionary of Biography." 
 
 Schmuck'er, (Samuel M.,) an American writer, 
 born at New Market, Virginia, in 1823. He practised 
 law in Philadelphia. He wrote a number of historical 
 works and biographies, Died in 1863. 
 
 Schmutzer, shmoot'ser, (Jakob Matthias.) a Ger- 
 man engraver, born at Vienna in 1733, became director 
 of the Academy of Design in that city, and court en- 
 graver. His prints after Rubens are highly esteemed. 
 Died in 1813. 
 
 Schnaase, shni'zeh, (Karl,) born at Dantzic in 
 1798, published a " History of the Plastic Arts," (1843,) 
 and other similar works. 
 
 Schneb'be-lie, (Jacob,) an English artist, born at 
 Westminster in 1760, was appointed draughtsman to 
 the Society of Antiquaries. Died in 1792. 
 
 Schneider, shni'daiR', ( Antoine Virgile,) a French 
 general, born in 1780. He was minister of war from 
 May, 1839, to March, 1840. Died in 1847. 
 
 Schneider, shm'der, (Conrad Victor,) a German 
 physician, born at Bitterfekl, in Saxony, in 1610, was 
 the author of a valuable work entitled " De Catarrhis," 
 in which he gives an anatomical description of the in- 
 terior structure of the nose. The lining of the cavities 
 of the nose, which he first described, has been named, 
 in his honour, the Schneiderian membrane. Died in 
 1680. 
 
 Schneider, (Eugene,) a French manufacturer, born 
 at Nancy in 1805. He became proprietor of a very 
 extensive manufactory of machinery, locomotives, etc., 
 at Creuzot. He was elected in 1852 and in 1857 a 
 member of the legislative body, of which he was presi- 
 dent from 1867 until September 4,* 1870. 
 
 Schneider, shm'der, (Johann Christian Fried- 
 rich,) a German composer, born near Zittau in 1786. 
 His works comprise oratorios, operas, and instrument- 
 pieces. Died in 1853 or 1854. 
 
 Schneider, (Johann Georg, called afterwards Eu- 
 logius,) a German poet and monk, born at Wipfeld, in 
 Bavaria, in 1756. Having removed to Strasburg in 1791, 
 he became a violent revolutionist, and caused many 
 persons to be put to death. He was guillotined in Paris 
 in April, 1794. 
 
 See Heitz, " Notes sur la Vie d'Euloge Schneider," 1862. 
 
 Schneider, (Johann Goti lob,) a brother of Johann 
 Christian Friedrich, noticed above, was born near Zittau 
 in 1789. He was appointed court organist at Dresden 
 in 1825, and composed a number of pieces for the organ. 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Schneider, (Joh\nn Gottlou,) a German philolo- 
 gist and naturalist, born near Wurzen, in Saxony, in 
 1750. He studied under Heyne at Gottingen, and in 
 1776 became professor of ancient languages and elo- 
 quence at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He published edi- 
 tions of Nicander's " Alexipharmaca," /Elian's " De 
 Natura Aniihalium," Xenophon's Works, the " Ar- 
 gonautica" of Orpheus, the " Politics" of Aristotle, 
 /Esop's " Fables," and the Works of Theophrastus. 
 He also wrote numerous treatises on natural history, 
 among which we may name " Ichthyology of the An- 
 cients," (1782,) and " Physiology of Amphibioi-s Ani- 
 mals," (1790.) His"Greek-and-German Lexicon" (1797) 
 is esteemed a standard work. Died in 1822. 
 
 See Cuvirr, " Histoire des Sciences natiirelles ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Schneider, (Karl Ernst Chuisi'oph.) a German 
 scholar, born at Wiehe, in the duchv of Saxony, in 1786. 
 He translated some of Plato's works into German, and 
 published an edition of Caesar's " Commentaries. " 
 
 Schneidewin, shnl'deh-win', (Fuieduich Wil- 
 helm,) a German scholar, born at Helmstedt in 1810. 
 He was appointed in 1842 professor of classic literature 
 at Gottingen. He published "Critical Observations on 
 the Lyric Poets of Greece," "Commentaries on Sopho- 
 cles," and other original works ; also editions of several 
 Greek and Latin classics. Died in 1856. 
 
 Schneller, shnel'ler, (Julius Franz Bohgias,) a 
 historian, born at Strasburg in 1777, was the author of 
 several historical and dramatic works. Died in 1833. 
 
 Schnetz, shnets, (Jean Victor,) a French painter, 
 born at Versailles in 1787. He became director of the 
 French school of painting at Rome in 1840. Among his 
 works we may name "The Sack of Rome by the Con- 
 stable de Bourbon," and " Christ calling Little Children," 
 for which, at the Universal Exposition of 1855, he gained 
 a medal of the first class. 
 
 Schnitzler, shnits'ler, (Jean Henri,) a litterateur, 
 born at Strasbourg in 1802. He published, besides 
 other historical and statistical works, "General Statistics 
 of the Empire of Russia," (1829,) "General, Methodi- 
 cal, and Complete Statistics of France," (4 vols., 1846,) 
 and "Ancient and Modern Russia," (1854.) 
 
 Schnorr, shnoR, (Ludwig Ferdinand,) an artist, a 
 brother of the following, was born at Leipsic in 1789. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, d, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Q, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
SCHNORR 
 
 >975 
 
 SCHOMBERG 
 
 He is chiefly known from his illustrations of Goethe's 
 '• Faust", in the Belvedere Gallery at Vienna. Died in 
 1853- 
 
 Schnorr von Karolsfeld, shnoR fon ki'rols-fSlt', 
 (Julils,) an eminent painter, son ol Veit Hans, noticed 
 below, was born at Leipsic in 1794. Alter studying for 
 a time at Vienna, he visited Rome in 1818, and during 
 his residence there executed the frescos in the Villa 
 Massimi in conjunction with Cornelius and Overbed; ; 
 he also painted a " Madonna and Child," " The Marriage 
 in Cina," "The Flight into Egypt," and other oil-pic- 
 tures of great excellence. In 1S27 he was appointed 
 professor of historical painting in the Academy ol Arts 
 at Munich, and was commissioned by Ludwig, alterw.irus 
 King :i Bavaria, to decorate the new palace with frescos 
 illustrating the poeiu of the " Nibelungen." His next 
 productions were a series of paintings in encaustic in 
 the Fest-Saalbau, representing events from the history 
 of Charlemagne, Frederick Barbarossa, and Rudolph 
 of Habsburg. He* became in 1846 professor in the 
 Academy of Fine Arts and director of the Picture- 
 Gallery at Dresden. Schnorr also executed a series 
 of Bible pictures, ("Die Bibel in Bildern,") which have 
 been engraved. He has been censured by some critics 
 for his mannerism. 
 
 See " Hiojirapliie Universelle," (new edition ;) Brockhaus, 
 "Con versalions Lexikon. " 
 
 Schnorr von Karolsfeld, (Veit Hans,) a German 
 painter, and professor in the Academy of Art at Leipsic, 
 born at Schneeberg in 1764, was the author of " In- 
 struction in the Art of Design." Died in 1841. 
 
 Schnurrer, shnoor'rer, (Christian Frikdrich,) a 
 German Orientalist, born at Cannstadt, in Wurteniherg, 
 in 1742. lie became professor of philosophy at Tubin- 
 gen, (1770,) and chancellor of the university, (1S05.) Me 
 published, among other works, a " Bibliotheca Arabica." 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 Schoeffer. See Schoffer. 
 
 Schoelcher, shol'Ker or sho'eTshaiR', (Victor,) a 
 French journalist and litterateur, born in Paris in 1804, 
 has published several treatises on African slavery and 
 in favour of emancipation. He has also written a " Life 
 of Handel," (in English.) and other works. 
 
 Schoell. See Scholl. 
 
 Schoemann. See Schomann. 
 
 Schoeubein. See Schonhein. 
 
 Scboenlein. See Schon 1.1:1 n. 
 
 Schoenning. See Schonning. 
 
 Schoepf. See Schopf. 
 
 Schoepflin. See Schopfi.in. 
 
 Schoffer or Schoeffer, sh6f'fer, (Pkter,) celebrated 
 for his improvements in the art of printing, was born at 
 Gernsheim, in Hesse-Darmstadt. He invented punches 
 in types while in the employ of Gutenberg and Faust at 
 Mentz, and after their separation became the partner 
 of Faust, who was his father-in-law. Schoffer continued 
 the business after the death of Faust, and published, 
 among other books, a Latin Bible, the Institutes of 
 Justinian, and some of the works of Saint Thomas 
 Aquinas. Died about 1502. 
 
 See A. F. Diuot's article in the " Nouvelle Biographie G^n^- 
 rele." 
 
 Schoffer, (Peter,) a printer, a son of the preceding, 
 worked at Worms several years, (1513-20,) removed to 
 Strasburg about 1521, and to Venice in 1541. 
 
 See Hhi.big, " Notice sur P. Schoffer fils," 1S46. 
 
 Seho'field, (John McAllister,) an American gene- 
 ral, born in Chautauqua county. New York, in 183 1. 
 He was educated at the Military Academy at West Point, 
 where he graduated in 1853, in the same class with 
 P. H. Sheridan and J. B. Mcpherson. He obtained the 
 rank of captain in May, 1861, soon after which he be- 
 came the chief of the staff of General Lyons, with 
 whom he served in Missouri. In Novemlwr, 1861. he 
 was appointed a brigadier-general of volunteers, and 
 in the spring of 1862 he was selected to command the 
 district of Missouri. He resigned this position in Sep- 
 tember, but was restored to it in May, 1863, with the 
 rank of major-general. The forces under his command 
 operated with success in Arkansas after the capture of 
 Vicksburg, and took Little Rock. In February, 1864, 
 
 Schofield was appointed commander of the army of the 
 Ohio. He contributed to the success of Sherman's 
 brilliant campaign which resulted in the capture of At- 
 lanta on the 2d of September, 1864. 
 
 About the end of October he was sent with the 
 Twenty-third corps to Chattanooga, with orders to report 
 to General Thomas at Nashville. He commanded at 
 the battle of Franklin, where he was attacked by Hood 
 on the 30th of November, and, having repulsed the 
 enemy, fell back towards Nashville during the night. In 
 this action Hood lost 1750 killed and 3800 wounded; 
 the entire loss of the Union army was 2300. This 
 campaign was ended by the decisive victory gained by 
 General Thomas near Nashville on the 15th and 16th 
 of December. In February, 1865, the State of North 
 Carolina was constituted into a military department, 
 of which General Schofield was appointed commander, 
 with instructions to co-operate with General Sherman, 
 He captured Fort Anderson, occupied Wilmington on 
 the 22d of February, and formed a junction with Sher- 
 man at Goldsborough, where he arrived on the 21st of 
 March. In the spring of 1867 he was appointed com- 
 mander of the first military district, which was created 
 by an act of Congress passed in March, 1867, and which 
 comprised the State of Virginia. He became secretary 
 of war in May, 1868, resigned in March, 1869, and was 
 then promoted to be a major-general of the regular 
 armv. 
 
 Scholarius. See Gennadius. 
 
 Scholefield, skol'feld, ? (James,) an English divine 
 and scholar, born in Oxfordshire in 1789. He graduated 
 at Cambridge, and in 1825 became regius professor of 
 Greek in that university. Among his publications are 
 an edition of /Eschylus with notes, an edition of Middle- 
 ton's "Treatise on the Greek Article," and "Hints for 
 an Improved Translation of the New Testament." Died 
 in 1853. 
 
 See " Life of J. Scholefield," by his widow, 1S55. 
 
 Scholl or Schoell, shbl, (Adolf,) a German scholar, 
 born at Briinn in 1805, became professor of archaeology 
 at Halle, in 1842. He published a translation of Hero- 
 dotus, and of the " Ajax" of Sophocles, and has written 
 several critical essays. 
 
 Scholl or Schoell, (Maximilian Samson Fried- 
 rich,) a German historian and publicist, bom in the 
 duchy of Saarbriick in 1766. He was Prussian secre- 
 tary of legation at Paris, (1816-18,) and became privy 
 councillor at Berlin in 1819. He published, besides 
 other works, a " History of Roman Literature," in 
 French, (Paris, 4 vols., 1815,) a "History of Greek Lit- 
 erature from its Origin," etc., ("Histoire de la Littera- 
 ture Grecque profane depuis son Origine jusqti'a la Prise 
 de Constantinople," 8 vols., 1823-25,) and "A Course 
 of History of the European States to 1789," (46 vols., 
 1830-34,) which is commended as accurate and impartial. 
 Died in Paris in 1833. 
 
 See Pihan dk t.A Foment, " Es*ai stir la Vie de Schoell," 1S34 : 
 "Biographie V. SchoeH's." i.»ip*ic, 1821 ; "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generate; "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Scholz, sholts, (Joiiann Martin Augustin,) a Ger- 
 man Catholic theologian and scholar, born near Breslau 
 in 1794. He visited Palestine and Syria in 1821, and 
 published in 1822 an account of his journey. He became 
 professor of theology at Bonn in 1823. Among his 
 other works we may name his " Novum Testamentum 
 Graece," (2 vols., 1830,) and " Manual of Biblical Archae- 
 ology," (1834.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Schomann or Schoemann, shb'man, ( Gkokg 
 Friedrich,) a German philologist, born at Stralsund 
 in 1793, became professor of ancient literature and elo- 
 quence at Greifswalde. He has published a number of 
 critical essays (in Latin) on the Greek classics. 
 
 Schomberg, shom'berg, (Ai.k.wndf.r Crowcher,) 
 an English divine, born in 1756, published a "Chrono- 
 logical View of the Roman Laws," and other similar 
 works. Died in 1792. 
 
 Schomberg, (Isaac,) an English naval officer, 
 served under Admiral Rodney in the American war, 
 and subsequently under Lord Howe in 1794. He was 
 the author of "Naval Chronology," (5 vols.) Died 
 in 1813, 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ';■ N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. (J[^"~See Explanations, p. 23.I 
 
SCHOMBERG 
 
 1976 
 
 SCHOONJANS 
 
 Schomberg, de, de shom'berg or deh sli6.N'baiR', 
 (Chari.es,) Due d'Halluin, a marshal of France, born 
 in 1601, was a son of Henry, noticed below. He gained 
 in September, 1637, a victory over the Spaniards at 
 Lucate. Died in 1656. 
 
 Schomberg, de, Duchess. See Hautefort, d\ 
 
 Schomberg, shom'berg, de, |Kr. pron. deh shd>j'- 
 baiu',] (Henri,) Count, an eminent French general 
 and statesman, born in Paris in 1575, (or, as some say, 
 in 1583,) was a son of the following. He was ap- 
 pointed superintendent of the finances in 1619, soon 
 after which he gained victories over the Huguenots. 
 He became a marshal of France in 1625, repulsed the 
 English at the Isle of Rhe in 1627, and defeated the 
 insurgents under Montmorency at Castelnaudary in 1632. 
 Died in 1632. 
 
 See Bachot. "Tombeau du Marechal de Schomberg," 1635; De 
 Courcei.les, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Schom'berg, von, [Ger. pron. ton shom'WuG,] (Cas- 
 par,) a German general, born in Saxony in 1540. He 
 entered the service of the French king, and fought 
 against the Huguenots about 1567-75. In 1597 Schom- 
 berg and De Thou prepared the bases of the edict of 
 Nantes. Died in 1599. 
 
 Schomberg, von, fon shom'beKR, (Frikdrich Ar- 
 Mand Hermann,) a celebrated Protestant military 
 commander, was born at Heidelberg in 1616. Having 
 served in the Swedish army in the Thirty Years' war, 
 he fought successively in the armies of the Netherlands, 
 France, and Portugal, and attained the rank of marshal 
 of France in 1675. He was driven from France by per- 
 secution in 1685. In 1688 he accompanied William, 
 Prince of Orange, to England, and, as commander-in- 
 chief of the forces in Ireland, was killed at the battle of 
 the Boyne, in 1690. " He was generally esteemed," says 
 Macaulay, " the greatest living master of the art of war. 
 His rectitude and piety, tried by strong temptations and 
 never found wanting, commanded general respect and 
 confidence. Though a Protestant, he had been during 
 many years in the service of Louis, and had, in spite of 
 the ill offices of the Jesuits, extorted from his employer, 
 by a series of great actions, the staff of marshal of 
 France." (" History of England.") 
 
 See Kazner, "Leben F. von Schomberg," 2 vols., 1789 : " Abr^g^ 
 de laViede F. von Schomberg," by Bkauchateau, 1690; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Schomburgk, shom'boORk, (Otto,) a German writer, 
 born about 1810, was a brother of Sir Robert Hermann, 
 noticed below. He translated into German his brother's 
 "Description of British Guiana." Died in 1857. 
 
 Schomburgk, shom'biirk, [Ger. pron. shom'boORk,] 
 (Sir Robert Hermann,) a celebrated German traveller, 
 born at Freiburg in 1804. Having been sent in 1835 
 by the Geographical Society of London to explore the 
 interior of Guiana, he discovered the magnificent water- 
 lily to which he gave the name of the Victoria Regia. 
 He published, after his return, a " Description of British 
 Guiana," which was followed in 1847 by a " History of 
 Barbadoes." Appointed in 1848 British consul to Saint 
 Domingo, he contributed to the Journal of the Geo- 
 graphical Society a number of valuable articles on the 
 physical geography of that island. Schomburgk was 
 elected a member of various learned societies in Europe, 
 created a chevalier of the legion of honour, and knight 
 of the Prussian order of the Red Eagle, and obtained 
 other similar distinctions. Died in 1865. The plant 
 called Schomburgkia Orchida was named in his honour. 
 
 Schorl or Schoen, shon, or Schongauer, shon'- 
 gow'er, (Martin,) an eminent German painter, was a 
 native of Kolmbach or Ulm, and is supposed to have 
 been a pupil of Franz Stoss. He was called Buon Mar- 
 tino by the Italians, and was a friend of Pietro Perugino. 
 His principal works are at Colmar, Vienna, Munich, and 
 Nuremberg. His " Madonna," in the minster at Colmar, 
 ranks among the most admirable productions of early 
 German art. He also executed a number of excellent 
 engravings. Died in 1488. 
 
 See Gamchon, "Martin Schongauer," 1859; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge^ie'rale." 
 
 Schonseus. See Schoon. 
 
 Schonbein or Schoenbein, shon'bln, (Christian 
 Friedrich,) a German chemist, and the inventor of 
 gun-cotton, born at Mitzingen in 1799. He became pro- 
 fessor at the University of Basle in 1828. In 1839 he 
 discovered ozone, and subsequently made the discovery 
 of nitro-saccharin and nitro -fibrin or gun-cotton. He 
 published "Contributions to Physical Chemistry," (1844,) 
 and other works. Died in September, 1868. 
 
 See "Smithsonian Report" for 1868. 
 
 Schoner, sho'ner, (Johann,) a German mathema- 
 tician and astronomer, bom at Carlstadt in 1477, was 
 professor of mathematics at Nuremberg. Died in 1547. 
 
 Schongauer. See Schon. 
 
 Schoning or Schoening, sho'ning, (Gerrard,) a 
 Norwegian scholar, born in Nordland in 1722, became 
 professor of history and eloquence at Soroe. Died in 
 1780. 
 
 Schonlein or Schoenlein, shon'lin, (Johann 
 Lukas,) an eminent German physician, born at Bam 
 berg in 1793. He was appointed professor of pathology 
 and therapeutics at Berlin in 1840, and acquired a high 
 reputation by his lectures. 
 
 See G. W. Schari.au, "Dr. Schonlein und sein Anhang," 1843; 
 RichTer, "Dr. Schonlein und sein Verhaltniss zur neuern Heil- 
 kunde," etc., 1843. 
 
 Schoockius, sKo'ke-us, or Schoock, sKok, (Mar- 
 tin,) born at Utrecht in 1614, was professor of languages, 
 history, etc. in his native city, and at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Oder. He published several critical and historical 
 works. Died in 1669. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Schoolcraft, skool'kraft, (Henry Rowe,) LL.D., a 
 distinguished American traveller, ethnologist, and scien- 
 tific writer, born near Albany, New York, in 1793. In 
 1818 he made a geological survey of Missouri and 
 Arkansas, and published in 1819 his "View of the Lead- 
 Mines of Missouri," etc. In 1820, as geologist, he accom- 
 panied General Cass on his expedition to the Lake 
 Superior copper-region, of which he published a narra- 
 tive in 1821. Being appointed in 1822 agent for Indian 
 affairs, he resided several years in the vicinity of Lake 
 Superior, and in 1832, while on an embassy to some 
 Indian tribes near the head-waters of the Mississippi, 
 discovered the sources of that river in the Itasca Lake. 
 An account of this tour was published, entitled a " Nar- 
 rative of an Expedition to Itasca Lake," etc., (1834.) In 
 1828 he founded the Michigan Historical Society, of 
 which he was afterwards elected president. Among his 
 numerous and valuable works we may name "Notes 
 on the Iroquois, or Contributions to American History, 
 Antiquities, and General Ethnology," (1848,) " Algic 
 Researches," etc., " Personal Memoirs of a Residence 
 of Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes on the Ameri- 
 can Frontiers," (1853,) and "The Myth of Hiawatha, and 
 other Oral Legends of the North American Indians." 
 He married about 1823 a daughter of John Johnston, 
 of Saulte Sainte-Marie. She was the granddaughter of 
 an Indian chief. Died in 1864. 
 
 "Mr. Schoolcraft's ethnological writings," says R. W. 
 Griswold, "are among the most important contributions 
 that have been made to the literature of this country. . . . 
 His works abound in materials for the future artist and 
 man of letters, and will on this account continue to be 
 read when the greater portion of the popular literature 
 of the day is forgotten." 
 
 See R. W. Griswold, " Prose Writers of America ." " North 
 American Review" for July, 1822, and October, 1839. 
 
 Schoolcraft, (Laurence,) Colonel, an American 
 officer, born in 1760, was the father of the preceding. 
 He fought in the Revolutionary war. It is stated that 
 the original family name was Calcraft. Died at Verona, 
 New York, in 1840. 
 
 Schoon, van, vin sKon, [Lat. Schon^e'us,] (Corne- 
 lius,) a Dutch dramatist and Latin poet, born at Gouda 
 about 1540. He published "Carmintim Libellus," 
 (1570,) and "Terentius Christianas," (1614.) The latter 
 is a collection of dramas in imitation of Terence. Died 
 in 1 fin. 
 
 Schoonjans, SKon'yans, (Anthony,) a Flemish 
 painter, born at Antwerp about 1650. He worked in 
 Vienna and England. Died in Vienna in 1726. 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6 same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; nit; good; moon; 
 
SCHOOTEN 
 
 1977 
 
 SCHRODER 
 
 Bchooten, sKo'ten, (Frans,) a Dutch mathematician, 
 and professor of mathematics at Leyden. He published, 
 among other works, " Principia Malheseos," and " Ma- 
 thematical Exercises." Died In 1659. 
 
 Schopenhauer, sho'pen-how'er, (Arthur,) a cele- 
 brated pessimist philosopher of Germany, a son of 
 Johanna, mentioned below, was born at Dantzic in 1788. 
 He published "The World as Will and Appearance 
 or Representation," ("Die Welt als Wille tind Vor- 
 stellung," 1819,) " The Two Ground- Problems of Ethics," 
 (1841,) " On the Freedom of the Will," and a collection 
 of essavs entitled " Parerga und Paralipomena," (1851.) 
 According to Schopenhauer, Will is the one reality in the 
 universe, all else is mere appearance. He taught, among 
 other things, that the world is essentially and radically 
 evil. Died in i860. 
 
 See Gwinner, "Schopenhauer's Leben ;" " Edinburgh Review" 
 for February, 1^43. 
 
 Schopenhauer, (Johanna,) a German authoress, 
 born at Dantzic in 1770, published a number of tales 
 and romances, the most popular of which are "Gabri- 
 ele," " Die Tante," ("The Aunt,") and "Sidonia." Died 
 in 1840. 
 
 See "Youthful Life and Pictures of Travel; Autobiography of 
 Madame Schopenhauer." # 
 
 Schbpf or Schoepf, shopf, (Ai.hin,) a general, born 
 in Hungary about 1822. He fought against Austria in 
 1848 and 1849, after which he emigrated to the United 
 States. He was appointed a brigadier-general in 1861, 
 and defeated a body of insurgents at Camp Wild-Cat, 
 Kentucky, October 21 of that year. 
 
 Schopflin or Schoepflin. shop'fieen, (Johann 
 Daniki.,) a German historian, born at Sulzbtirg in 1694, 
 became professor of history and eloquence at Strasburg, 
 (1720.) He was the author of " Alsatia lllustrata," (2 
 vols., 1 751—61,) and other historical works. Died in 1771. 
 "Without any close contact," says Goethe, "he had 
 had a deep influence on me. ... He was one of those 
 happy persons who are able to unite the past and the 
 present, and know how to knit the interests of life and 
 historical knowledge together. . . . He came into con- 
 tact with all the scholars of his time; he entertained 
 princes ; he gained the confidence of statesmen, elabo- 
 rated for them the most profound deductions, and thus 
 found everywhere a theatre for his talents." ("Auto- 
 biography," vol. ii. p. 24.) 
 
 See Ring. "Vita J. D. Schoepflini." 1764; Lobstfin, "Leben 
 J. D. Schoi'flins," 1776; " Nouvelle Biographic Generate. " 
 
 Schopin or Chopin, sho'paN', (Henri Frederic,) 
 a painter, of French extraction, born at Lubeck in 1804, 
 was a pupil of Baron Gros. His works are principally 
 historical pictures. 
 
 Schopp. See Scioppius. 
 
 Schoppe, shop'peh, (Amai.ia Emma,) born on the 
 bland of Femern, on the coast of Holstein, in 1 791, 
 published romances, tales, and historical works. Died 
 in 18 ,8. 
 
 Schoreel, sKo-ral', ? Scoorel, or Schorel, sKo'rel, 
 Han,) a Dutch painter, born near Alkmaar in 1495. 
 Having previously visited Palestine, he spent several 
 years at Home in studying the works of the Italian 
 masters. His pictures enjoy a high reputation, but they 
 are very rare, owing to the destruction of many of thetn 
 by the Iconoclasts in the disturbances of 1566. Died 
 in ic,62. 
 
 Schorel. See Schorfki. 
 
 Schorn, von, fon shoRn, (Jcjhann Karl Ludwig,) 
 a German writer upon art, born in Franconia in 1793, 
 became professor of aesthetics and the history of art at 
 Munich. Died in 1842. 
 
 Schorn, von, (Karl,) a historical painter, nephew 
 of the preceding, was born at Dusseldorf in 1802. 
 
 Schotanus,'sK»-ta'nus, (Christian,) a Dutch divine, 
 born in Ftiesland in 1603, became profeMOr "f Creek and 
 ecclesiastical history at Franeker. He was the author 
 of a " History of Friesland down to 1558," and several 
 other works. Died in 1671. 
 
 Schott, sKot, (Andrkas,) an eminent Dutch scholar, 
 born at Antwerp in 1552. He studied at Louvain, and 
 subsequently visited Paris and Spain, lie was appointed 
 in 1584 professor of Greek and rhetoric at Saragossa, 
 
 and, having entered the order of Jesuits, was afterwards 
 invited to fill the chair of rhetoric in the Jesuits' College 
 at Rome. His works are very numerous, and display 
 profound learning ; among the most esteemed we may 
 name " Hispania lllustrata," etc., a collection of the his- 
 torians of Spain, Portugal, India, etc., (4 vols., 1603-08,) 
 "Hispania Bibliotheca," (1608,) being an account of the 
 libraries and state of letters in Spain, " Selecta Variorum 
 Commentaria in Orationes Ciceronis," (3 vols., 1621,) 
 and " Adagia sive Proverbia Graecorum ex Zenobio," 
 etc. He also edited the works of Pomponius Mela, 
 Saint Basil, and other classics. Died in 1629. 
 
 See Nic^ron, " Memoires ;" F6lix van Hulst, "A. Schott," 
 1847; Fohpkns, "Bibliotheca Belgica." 
 
 Schott, shot, (Hf.inrich August,) a learned writer 
 born at Leipsic in 1780, became successively professor 
 of philosophy and theology in his native city, and of 
 theology at Wittenberg and Jena. Died in 1835. 
 
 Schott, (Kaspak,) a German Jesuit and experimental 
 philosopher, born in 1608. He published a number of 
 scientific works, in Latin. Died in 1666. 
 
 Schott, (Wilhelm,) a German Orientalist, born at 
 Mentz in 1807. 
 
 Schottgen or Schoettgen, shot'oen or shot'gen, 
 (Christian,) a German philologist, born in Saxony in 
 16S7, published "Mora; Hebraicae." Died in 1751. 
 
 Schouvaloff. See Siioovalof. 
 
 Schouw, skow, (Joachim Frkdric,) a Danish botan- 
 ist, born at Copenhagen in 1789. He was appointed in 
 1 82 1 professor of botany in his native city. In 1835 he 
 represented the University in the Danish Assembly, of 
 which he was afterwards president. He was the author 
 of " Elements of a Universal Geography of Plants," 
 (1822,) " Delineations of Nature," (1839,) " Earth, Plants, 
 and Man," and other works. Died in 1852. 
 
 Schrader, shua'der, (Hf.inrich Adolf,) a German 
 physician, botanist, and writer, born near Hildesheim in 
 1761 ; died in 1836. 
 
 Schrader, (Hf.inrich Eduard Sif.gfrifd.) a Ger- 
 man jurist and writer on law, was born at Hildesheim 
 in 1779 ; died in i860. 
 
 Schrader, (Julius,) a German painter, born at Berlin 
 in 1815. Among his principal works are "The Death 
 of Leonardo da Vinci," " The Temptation," and " Milton 
 Dictating to his Daughter." 
 
 Schramm, shRam, (Jf.an Paul Adam,) Comte, a 
 French general, born at Arras in 1789. He commanded 
 an army in Algeria in 1840, was minister of war from Oc- 
 tober to December, 1850, and became a senator in 1852. 
 
 Schraudolph, shRow'dolf, (Johann,) a German his- 
 torical painter, born at Obersdorf in 1808. He painted 
 a number of frescos at Munich. 
 
 Schreber, von, fon shua'ber, (Johann Christian 
 Danifi.,) a German naturalist, born in Thuringia in 
 1739, studied under Linnaeus at Upsal. He became 
 professor of medicine and botany at Erlangen in 1769. 
 Among his works is a "Description of the Grasses," (in 
 German, 1769-74.) Died in 1810! 
 
 Schreiber, shiu'ber, (Aloys Wilhelm,) a German 
 historian and miscellaneous writer, born in the grand 
 duchy of Baden in 1763 ; died in 1841. 
 
 Schreiber, (Hkinrich,) a theological writer, born at 
 Fribourg, in Belgium, in 1793, was appointed in 1826 
 professor of moral theology in his native city. 
 
 Schrevel. See Schrkvei.ius. 
 
 Schrevelius, skre-vee'le-us, |Dutch pron. sKRa-va'- 
 le-us,] originally Schrevel, sKRa'vel, (Cornf.lis,) a 
 distinguished classical scholar, born at Haarlem, in Hoi. 
 land, about 1615, was rector of a school at Leyden. His 
 most important work is his "Lexicon Manuate Graeco- 
 Latinum," (1645,) which has passed through many 
 editions. He also published editions of numerous Latin 
 classics. Died about 1665. 
 
 Sclnockh or Schroeckh, shRok, (Johann Mat- 
 thias,) a German scholar, born at Vienna in 1733, was 
 a contributor to the "Acta Eruditorum," and wrote two 
 valuable works on ecclesiastical history. Died in 1808. 
 
 Schrbder or Schroeder, sliRo'der, (Frif.drich 
 Ludwig,) a celebrated German actor and dramatist, born 
 at Schwerin in 1744. He wrote a number of comedies, 
 and made translations from Shakspcarc , whose works 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, YL, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SCHRODER 
 
 1978 
 
 SCHULTZE 
 
 he contributed to make popular in Germany. Died in 
 I&16. 
 
 See Meyer, " F. L. Schroder," 1819; LBdner, " F. L. Schroder, 
 biografisk Skizze," 1847. 
 
 SchrBder or Schroeder, (Johann Joachim,) a 
 German Orientalist, born in Hesse-Cassel in 1680. He 
 visited Armenia, and published, after his return, his 
 "Thesaurus Lingua; Armenicae." Died in 1756. 
 
 Schroder or Schroeder, (Sophie,) a German 
 actress, born at Paderbom in 1 781, attained the highest 
 reputation in her profession, particularly ia tragic parts. 
 Her daughter, Wilhelmine Schroder-Devi ient, was one 
 of the most distinguished vocalists of Germany. Sophie 
 died about 1856. 
 
 SchrBder-Devrient, (deVre-SN',) (Wilhelmine,) a 
 popular singer, a daughter of the preceding, was born in 
 Hamburg in 1805. She was married in 1823 to Karl 
 August Devrient, an actor. She performed in Paris, 
 London, and Saint Petersburg. Died in i860. 
 
 Schroderus. See Skytte. 
 
 SchrBdter or Schroadter, shRot'tijr, (Adolf,) a 
 German comic painter, bom at Schwedt in 1805. 
 
 Schroeckh. See Schrockh. 
 
 Schroeder. See Schroder. 
 
 Schroter or Schroeter, shRo'ter, (Christoph 
 Gottlieb,) the inventor of the pianoforte, was born at 
 Hohenstein, in Saxony, in 1699. He became organist 
 at Minden, and afterwards at Nordhausen, where he died 
 in 1782. 
 
 Schroter or Schroeter, (Johann Hieronymus,) 
 a German astronomer, born at Erfurt in 1745. He con- 
 structed a telescope which Lalande declared one of the 
 best that had been made, and published several astro- 
 nomical works. Died in 1816. 
 
 Schryver, sKri'ver, [Lat. Scuive'rius,] (Peter,) a 
 Dutch writer, born at Haarlem in 1576, published a 
 number of poems and critical treatises, in Latin ; also 
 " Antiquitatum Batavicarum Tabularium," (1609.) Died 
 in 1660. 
 
 Schubart, shoo'baRt, (Christian Friedrich Dan- 
 iel,) a German litterateur and poet, born in 1739, founded 
 in 1774 a literary and political journal, entitled the 
 " Deutsche Chronik." He was the author of a "Hymn 
 to Frederick the Great." Died in 1791. 
 
 See David F. Strauss, "Schubart's I.eben in seineu Briefen," 
 J849; L. A. Schubart, "C. F. D. Schubart's Charakter," 178*). 
 
 Schubart vou Kleefeld, shoo'baitt fun kla'fglt, 
 (Johann Christian,) a German agriculturist, born at 
 Zeitz, in Prussia, in 1734; died in 1787. 
 
 See Rockstroh, "J. C. Schubart von Kleefeld," 1846. 
 
 Schubert, shoo'beRt, (Fran/.,) an eminent German 
 composer, born at Vienna in 1797. He became at an 
 early age one of the singers of the court chapel, and 
 was subsequently instructed in music by Ruziczka and 
 Salieri. He exercised himself in almost every species 
 of musical composition ; but his reputation rests chiefly 
 on his songs and ballads, which are ranked among Ihe 
 most exquisite productions of the kind. Died in 1828. 
 
 See " Kranz Schubert: a Musical Biography," by Dr. Kreissle 
 Von Hklluokn, London, 1866. 
 
 Schubert, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German writer 
 on history and statistics, was born at Konigsberg in 1799. 
 
 Schubert, von, fon shoo'bjiu, (Friedrich Theo- 
 DOR,) a German astronomer, born in 1758. He removed 
 to Saint Petersburg about 1785, and became in 1805 
 director of the observatory of the Academy of Sciences 
 in that capital. In 1816 he was appointed councillor 
 of state by the Czar of Russia. Among his works is a 
 "Treatise on Theoretical Astronomy," (in German, 3 
 vols., 1798.) Died in 1825. 
 
 Schubert, von, (Gotthii.f Heinrich,) a German 
 naturalist and philosophical writer, born at Hohenstein, 
 in Saxony, in 1780. He studied at Leipsic and Jena, 
 and became professor of natural science at Erlangen. 
 He published "Views of the Night Side of Natural 
 Science," (1808,) "History of the Soul," (1830,) and 
 Manuals of Natural History, Mineralogy, etc. Died in 
 i860. 
 
 Schticking or Schuecking, shiik'king, (Christoph 
 Bernhahd Leven,) a German litterateur, born in 1814, 
 has published poems, dramas, and romances. 
 
 Schuetz. See SchOiz. 
 
 Schuleuburg, von, fon shoo'len-booRG', or Schu- 
 lemberg, shoo'lem -IjSkg', (Adolf Friedrich,) Count, 
 a Prussian general, born at Wolfenbiittel in 1685, was a 
 nephew of Johann Matthias, noticed below. He was 
 killed at the battle of Mollwitz, where he commanded 
 the cavalry, in April, 174L 
 
 Schulenburg, Schulenburg, or Schulembourg, 
 von, (Johann Matthias,) Count, a Prussian general, 
 born at Magdeburg in 1661, served in the Polish wars 
 under Sobieski, and subsequently became commander- 
 in-chief of the Venetian army, and defended Corfu 
 against the Turks. Died about 1745. 
 
 See " Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries," by J. 
 Mitchell, 1865; " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1840. 
 
 Schuler. See Sabinus, (Georg.) 
 
 Schuler, shoo'ler, (Charles Augusts,) an engraver, 
 born at Strasbourg in 1804 ; died in 1859. 
 
 Schultens, sKiil'tens, (Albert,) an eminent Dutch 
 Orientalist and theologian, born at Groningen in 1686. 
 He was ordained a minister in 1708, and became pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew and other Oriental language«it Ley- 
 den about 1720. He filled this chair until hi' death. 
 He published, besides other works, " Hebrew Roots," 
 ("Origines Hebrasae," 2 vols., 1724-38,) "Older Monu- 
 ments of Arabia," (" Monumenta vetustiora Arabia;," 
 1740,) and a "Life of Saladin," in Arabic and Latin, 
 (1755.) Died in 1750. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Schultens, (Hendrik Albert,) grandson of the 
 preceding, was born at Herborn in 1749. He studied 
 the classics and the Oriental tongues at Leyden, and 
 afterwards spent some time in England. He was ap- 
 pointed in 1778 professor of the Oriental languages at 
 Leyden, and became rector of the university in 1787. 
 He published "On the Diligence of the Belgians in cul- 
 tivating Arabic Literature," (" De Studio Belgarum in 
 Literis Arabicis Excolendis," 1779.) "Part of the Arabic 
 Proverbs of Meidan, with Notes," ("Meidanii Prover- 
 bioium Arabicorum Pars, Latine, cum Notis," 1795,) 
 and either works. Died in 1793. 
 
 See F. T. Rinck. " H. A. Schultens," 1795 ; Kantelaar, " Lot* 
 rede op H. A. Schultens," 1794. 
 
 Schultens, (Jan Jacob,) an Orientalist, born at 
 Franeker in 1716, was a son of Albert, and the father 
 of the preceding. He succeeded his father as professor 
 at Leyden. Died in 1778. 
 
 Schultet, shool'tet, I Lat. Scitltf/tus,] (Abraham,) 
 a German Protestant divine, born in Silesia in 1556 or 
 1566, became professor of theology at Heidelberg. He 
 was the author of several moral and theological works. 
 Died in 1625. 
 
 Schulting, SKul'ting, (Antonius,) a Dutch jurist and 
 legal writer, born at Nymwegen in 1659. In 17 13 he was 
 associated with Noodt as professor of law at Leyden. 
 His greatest work is entitled "Jurisprudence before the 
 Time of Justinian," (" Jurisprudent Vetus ante-Justi- 
 nianea.") Died in 1734. 
 
 Schulting, (Cornelius,) a Dutch theologian, born 
 at Steenwyck about 1540. He published, besides other 
 works, " Bibliotheca Catholica contra Theologiam Cal- 
 vinianam," (2 vols., 1602.) Died in 1604. 
 
 Schultz, shoolts, [Lat. Scui.te'tus,] (Bartholo- 
 MAUS,) a German astronomer, born at Gdrlitz in 1540, 
 contributed to the reform of the calendar. Died in 1614. 
 
 Schultz, (David,) a German Protestant theologian, 
 born near Freistadt in 1779. He published several 
 commentaries on the Scriptures. Died in 1854. 
 
 Schultz, (Friedrich,) a German novelist and his- 
 torical writer, born at Magdeburg in 1762; died in 1798. 
 
 Schultz-Schultzenstein, shoolts-shdolt'sen-stln', 
 (Karl Heinrich,) a German physiologist, born at Alt 
 Ruppin in 1798. He studied at Berlin, where he became 
 professor of medicine in 1833. Among his principal 
 works are a treatise (in French) " On the Circulation and 
 Lactiferous Vessels in Plants," (1839,) and "Discovery 
 of the True Nourishment of Plants." He has also 
 published the "Universal Doctrine of Disease," (1844,) 
 and other valual le medical treatises. 
 
 Schultze, si dolt'seh, (Johann Abraham Peter,) 
 a German com] oser, born at Liineburg in 1747. His 
 
 a, e, I, o, ft, y, long; a, t, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SCHULZ 
 
 •979 
 
 SCHWJNTHALER 
 
 works include oratorios, hymns, and songs. His ballad 
 " \m Khein" enjoys great popularity. Died in 1800. 
 
 Schulz, shoolts, (Wn.iiEi.M,) a German political 
 writer, born at Darmstadt in 1 7<17- 
 
 Schulze or Sohultze, shoolt'seb, (Ernst,) a Ger- 
 man poet, born at Celle in 1789. While a student at 
 Gbttingen, he published his narrative poem of " Psyche," 
 and subsequently " Cecilia, a Romantic Poem, in Twenty 
 Cantos." His "Enchanted Rose" ("Die bezauberte 
 Rose," 1818) is esteemed his master-piece, and has 
 taken its place among German classics. It was trans- 
 lated into English by Caroline von Crespigny. He died 
 in 1817. A collection of his works, with a biography 
 prefixed, was published in 1822 by his friend Bouterwek. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" tor November, 1827. 
 
 Schulze, (Frif.drich August,) a German novelist 
 and poet, born at Dresden in 1770, assumed the syno- 
 nym of Friedrich Laun. Died in 1849. 
 
 Schulze, (Friedrich Goitlob,) a German econo- 
 mist, born near Meissen in 1795. He published several 
 works on political economy. Died in i860. 
 
 Schulze, (Goitlob Ernst,) a German philosopher, 
 born at Heldrungen, in Thuringia, in 1761, published 
 several treatises against the systems of Kant and Rein- 
 hold. Died in 1833. 
 
 Schulze, (Johann,) a German scholar, and reformer 
 in education, born in 1786. He entered the Prussian 
 civil service, and became privy councillor. He directed 
 for many years, ending in 1840, the administration of 
 the Prussian colleges, universities, and public libraries, 
 and was the principal manager of great scientific enter- 
 prises and voyages of exploration. In these services 
 he displayed wisdom and great activity. 
 
 Schulze, (Johann Heinrich,) a German physician 
 and anatomist, born in the duchy of Magdeburg in 1687, 
 wrote " Historia Medicinae ad Annum Romas 535," 
 (1728,) and other works. Died in 1745. 
 
 Schumacher, shoo'maK'er, (Christian Andreas,) 
 a Danish mathematician and natural philosopher, born 
 in Seeland in 1810, is a nephew of Heinrich Christian, 
 noticed below. He translated Humboldt's "Cosmos" 
 into Danish. 
 
 Schumacher, (Heinrich Christian,) an able 
 astronomer, born at Bramstedt, Holstein, in 1780. He 
 became professor of astronomy at Copenhagen in 181-5, 
 a few years after which date he was appointed director 
 of the Observatory of Altona. He edited for many 
 years a valuable periodical entitled " Astronomische 
 Nachrichten." Died in 1850. 
 
 See Quetelet, "Notice sur H. C. Schumacher," 1851. 
 
 Schumann, shoo'man, (Robert,) a German musician 
 and composer, born at Zwickau in 1810, became in 1850 
 chapel-master at Dusseldorf. Among his best works is 
 the oratorio of " Paradise and the Peri." He died in 
 1856. His wife, Clara Wikck, is one of the most dis- 
 tinguished female pianists of the time. 
 
 Schuppen, van, vin sKtip'pen, (Pieter,) a Flemish 
 designer and engraver, born at Antwerp about 1625, was 
 a pupil of Nanteuil. He worked in Paris, where he died 
 in 1702. His son Jacques (1670-1751) was a portrait- 
 paiijter. 
 
 Schurmann, von, fon shooii'man, (Anna Maria,) a 
 German lady, distinguished for her talents, learning, and 
 piety, was born at Cologne in 1607. She became a con- 
 vert to the doctrines of the mystic Labadie, and after his 
 death retired to a religious association near Leeuwarden, 
 where she died in 1678. 
 
 See Nicrron, " M^moires ;" Morrri, " Dictionnaire Histo- 
 rique;" SWOTS!* "A. M. von Schurmann," 1854. 
 
 Schurtzfleisch, shoonts'flish, |Lat. Sarcma'sius,] 
 (Conrad Samuei,) a German scholar, born in 1641, 
 became professor of Greek and of history at Wittenberg. 
 Died in 1708. 
 
 Schurz, shoorts, (Carl,) a German orator and gen- 
 eral, born near Cologne in 1829, was liberally educated. 
 He took part in the revolutionary movements of 1849, 
 and when they were defeated he went into exile. About 
 1852 he emigrated to the United States, and settled at 
 Madison, Wisconsin. In 1856 he advocated the election 
 of Fremont by public speeches in the German language. 
 
 He afterwards made political speeches in English, and 
 acquired a high reputation as an orator. In 1860 h« 
 addressed the people of various States in favour of the 
 election of Lincoln. He was appointed minister to Spain 
 in 1861, and brigadier-general in 1862. He commanded 
 a division at Chancellorsville, May, 1863, and a corps at 
 Gettysburg, July 1-3 of that year. In 1869 he was 
 elected a Senator of the United States from Missouri. 
 
 Schuselka, shoo'zel-ka, (Franz,) a German publicist, 
 born at Budweis in 1811, has written a number of politi- 
 cal and miscellaneous works. 
 
 Schuster, shoo'ster, (Ignaz,) a German comic actor 
 of great popularity, born about 1780, was a resident of 
 Vienna. Died in 1835. 
 
 Schut, sKut, (Cornelius,) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Antwerp about 1600, was a pupil of Rubens. He 
 had a brilliant imagination and great facility of execu- 
 tion. Died in 1649. 
 
 Schiitz or Schuetz, shttts, (Christian Gottfrii •'.!>,) 
 a German scholar, born at Duderstadt in 1747, was one 
 of the founders of the " Allgemeine Literaturzeitung" 
 at Jena, (1785.) He published editions of /Eschylus 
 and Cicero. Died in 1832. 
 
 Schiitz, [I,at. Sagi tta'rius,] (Heinrich,) aGerman 
 composer and musician, born in Voigtland in 1585. He 
 studied at Venice, and became first chapel-master at 
 Dresden. His church music was highly esteemed by 
 his contemporaries, and he is said to have first intro- 
 duced the Italian Opera into Germany. Died in 1672. 
 
 Schiitze or Schuetze, shut'seh, (Johann Ste- 
 phan,) a German litterateur, born near Magdeburg in 
 1 77 1, wrote tales, travels, and dramatic works. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Schuur, van der, vin der skur, (Theodorus,) a 
 Dutch historical painter, born at the Hague in 1628. 
 He worked at Rome fourteen years, and returned to the 
 Hague in 1665. Died in 1705. 
 
 Schuyler, skl'ler, (Philip,) an able American gen- 
 eral and Senator, born at Albany in November, 1733. 
 He served in the war against the French and Indians in 
 1756. In June, 1775, he was appointed commander of 
 an army in New York, with the rank of major-general. 
 He was about to move the army into Canada, but he 
 was taken sick, and the command devolved in Septem- 
 ber on General Montgomery. In August, 1777, he was 
 superseded by General Gates, in consequence of the un- 
 reasonable jealousy with which Congress regarded him. 
 His conduct was vindicated by a court of inquiry. He 
 afterwards rendered important services in military affairs, 
 although he declined to take command of an army. He 
 was a member of the General Congress from 177S to 
 1781, and was elected a Senator of the United States by 
 the legislature of New York in 1789. He was again 
 elected a Senator, in place of Aaron Burr, in 1797. One 
 of his daughters was the wife of Alexander Hamilton. 
 Died at Albany in November, 1804. 
 
 See Benson J. Lossing, "Life and Times of Philip Schuyler," 
 1S60; BANCROFT, " History of the United States;" "National Por- 
 trait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. 
 
 Schwab, shwap, (Gustav,) a distinguished German 
 litterateur, born at Stuttgart in 1792. He became in 
 1817 professor of ancient literature in his native city. 
 He published a number of popular songs and ballads, 
 also prose essays on various subjects, and an excellent 
 "Life of Schiller." He was for a time associated with 
 Chamisso as editor of the " Musenalnianach." Died in 
 1850. 
 
 See Wassermann, " G. Schwab, der edle Barde Schwabens," 
 18:1. 
 
 Schwanthaler, shwan'ii'ler, (Ludwig Michael,) 
 an eminent German artist, born at Munich in 1802. 
 He studied for a short time at Rome, and on his return, 
 in 1826, executed two bas-relief friezes for the Glypto- 
 thek, and a statue of Shakspeare for the theatre. He 
 hrmmr in 1835 professor of sculpture at the Academy 
 of Munich. Among the numerous works which he 
 produced within about twelve years, we may name the 
 relievo frieze, over two hundred feet long, in the Barba- 
 rossa Hall, the twelve colossal statins of the ancestors 
 of the house of Wittelsbach, the "Myth of Aphrodite," 
 and the fifteen statues of the " Battle ai h.x\\\m\\\i" ( Her- 
 
 «as£; 9 ass; %hard; gas j; a, h, k, guttural; n, nasal ; v., trilled ; sas«; thasin this. (Jr^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SCHWARTZ 
 
 1980 
 
 SCIOPPIUS 
 
 manns-schlacht,) in the northern pediment of the Wal- 
 halla at Katisbon. His colossal bronze statue of " Ba- 
 varia," in the Hall of Fame at Munich, esteemed one of 
 his master-pieces, is of gr-ater magnitude than any other 
 group of modern sculpture, the main figure being fifty- 
 Four feet high. Schwanthaler also executed statues ol 
 the emperor Rudolph, of Goethe, Mozart, and Jean Paul 
 Richter, as well as numerous subjects from Grecian 
 mythology. He died in 1848. Among his most distin- 
 guished pupils are Hrugger, Widmann, and Kriesmeyer. 
 
 See Brockhaus, " Conversations- Lexikon ;" Pieker, " Univer- 
 sal-Lexikon." 
 
 Schwartz, shwaRts, (Christoph,) a German painter, 
 born at Ingolstadt about 1550, worked at Munich. Died 
 in 1594. 
 
 Schwarz, shwaRts, (Bkrthoi.d,) called also Con- 
 STAntineAncklitzen, (ank'klit'sen,) a German chemist 
 and Franciscan monk, born at Freiburg, is said to have 
 invented gunpowder about 1330. A monument was 
 erected to him at Freiburg in 1853. 
 
 Schwarz or Schwartz, shwaRts, (Christian Fried- 
 rich,) an eminent German missionary, born at Sonnen- 
 burg, Prussia, in 1726. He went to India in 1750, and 
 laboured many years about Tranquebar, Tanjore, and 
 Trichinopoly with great success. He gained the confi- 
 dence of Hyder Ali. His character was highly com- 
 mended by Bishop Heber. Died in India in 1798. 
 
 See Pearson, " Life of Schwarz," 1834. 
 
 Schwarz, (Christian Gottlieb,) a learned German 
 writer and bibliographer, born in Misnia in 1675, was 
 professor of eloquence at Altorf. Died in 175 1. 
 
 Schwarz, (Fkiedrich Hkinrich Christian,) pro- 
 fessor of theology at Heidelberg, was born at Giessen 
 in 1766. He married a daughter of Jung-Stilling, and 
 published several educational works-. Died in 1837. 
 
 Schwarzenberg.shwaiu'sen-beRc/, (Felix LuTjWIG 
 Johann Fkiedrich,) an Austrian statesman and mili- 
 tary commander, born at Krumau, in Bohemia, in 1800. 
 He was made lieutenant-field-marshal in 1848, and sub- 
 sequently became prime minister. Died in 1852. 
 
 Schwarzenberg, von, fon shwart'sen-bSRG', (Fried- 
 rich Johann Joseph,) Prince, an Austrian prelate, 
 born in 1809. He became Archbishop of Salzburg in 
 1836, cardinal in 1842, and Archbishop of Prague in 
 1850. He was a member of the Council of Rome in 
 1869-70. 
 
 Schwarzenberg, von, (Karl Philipp,) Prince, 
 an Austrian field-marshal, born at Vienna in 1771. He 
 served against the French in the campaigns of 1794 and 
 1799, and was present at the battle of Hohenlinden, 
 where he succeeded in saving his own corps. In 1808 
 he was sent as ambassador to Saint Petersburg, and in 
 1810 became general of the Austrian cavalry. After the 
 peace of Vienna he was appointed to negotiate the 
 marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa. On the alli- 
 ance of Austria with France, he was placed by Napoleon 
 at the head of the Austrian forces in the Russian cam- 
 paign of 1812, and obtained for his services the rank 
 of field-marshal. In 1813 he was made commander- 
 in-chief of the allied armies, and, having defeated the 
 French at Leipsic, advanced to Paris. After the battle 
 of Waterloo he was appointed president of the imperial 
 council of war, and obtained many other distinctions. 
 Died in 1820. 
 
 See Prokesch von Osten, " Leben des Feldmarschalls Karl zu 
 Schwarzenberg," 1822; " Nonvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Schwegler, shvVec'ler, (Alkrecht,) a German theo- 
 logian and disciple of Baur, born at Michelbach, in 
 Wurtemberg, in 1819. He published a "History of 
 Philosophy," and "Roman History," (1853,) also Ger- 
 man translations of Aristotle's "Metaphysics" and the 
 "Church History" of Eusebius. Died in 1857. 
 
 Schweidel, shwT'del, (Georg Jakob,) a German 
 bibliographer, born at Nuremberg about 1690, published 
 "Thesaurus Bibliothecalis," (4 vols., 1739.) Died in 
 1752. 
 
 Schweigaard, shwl'gaitd, (Antony Martin,) a 
 Norwegian jurist, born at Krageroe in 1808, was ap- 
 pointed professor of political economy and statistics at 
 the University of Christiania. He has published several 
 works on law, finance, and statistics. 
 
 Schweighauser, shwio'hoi'zer, (Jean Geoffroi,) 
 an antiquary, a son of the following, was born at Stras- 
 burg in 1776; died in 1844. 
 
 Schweighauser or Schweighaeuaer, shwlc'hoi'- 
 zer, (Johann,) a German scholar, born at Strasburg in 
 1742, became in 1778 professor of Greek and Oriental 
 languages in his native city. He published editions of 
 Appianus, Polybius, Herodotus, and other classics. Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 See Cuvier, " FJoge de Schweighaeuser," 1830: Stibvenart, 
 " E"loge de J. Schweighaeuser," 1830; "Nouvelle Biographie Qhwi- 
 rale." 
 
 Schweinitz, von, fon shwi'nits, (Lewis David,) an 
 American botanist and Moravian minister, was born at 
 Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in 1780. He discovered more 
 than a thousand new species of plants, and wrote several 
 treatises on Fungi. Died in 1834. 
 
 Schweizer, shwit'ser, (Alexander,) a German the- 
 ologian of the Reformed Church, was born at Murter. 
 in 1808. 
 
 Schwenkfeld, shftenk'felt, (Kaspar,) founder of a 
 sect called by his name, was born at Ossig, in Silesia, in 
 1490. He embraced with zeal the cause of the Refor- 
 mation, but differed from the other Protestants in his 
 views of the eucharist, (he deified the body of Christ,) 
 and in other points of Christian doctrine. He died about 
 1560. A number of his followers took refuge in North 
 America in 1733. 
 
 Schwerin, von, fon shweh-reen', (Kurt Chris- 
 toph,) Count, a distinguished commander, born in 
 Swedish Pomerania in 1684. He served under Eugene 
 and Marlborough, and subsequently in the army of 
 Frederick the Great of Prussia, who raised him to the 
 rank of field-marshal and made him a count. He gained 
 a signal victory over the Austrians at Molhvitz, in 1741. 
 He was killed at the battle of Prague, in 1757. 
 
 See Varnhagkn von Ense, "Leben des Grafen von Schwerin," 
 1841 ; Koenig, " Lebeiisbeschreibimg des Grafen von Schwann," 
 1700; Pauli, " Leben grosser Helden ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeneVale." 
 
 Schwilgue, shvel'gl', (Jean Baptiste,) a French 
 mechanician, born at Strasburg in 1776. He invented 
 several useful instruments, and reconstructed the ad- 
 mirable mechanism of the clock of the Strasburg Cathe- 
 dral. Died in 1856. 
 
 Schwind, von, fon shwint, (Moritz,) professor of 
 painting in the Academy of Arts at Munich, was born 
 at Vienna in 1804. He was a pupil of Cornelius, and 
 has produced a number of frescos and oil-paintings. 
 
 Schyrle. See R it kit a, von. 
 
 Scialoia, sha-lo'ya or she-a-lo'ya, (Antonio,) an 
 Italian jurist, born near Naples in 1817, has published 
 " Principles of Soda 1 Economy," and other works. 
 
 Sciarpelloni. See Credi, di. 
 
 Scina, she-nil', (Domenico,) an eminent Italian 
 mathematician and scientific writer, born at Palermo in 
 1765, became professor of physics in his native city. He 
 was the author of a " Report on the Fossils of Mar- 
 dolce," etc., " Introduction to Experimental Physics," 
 (1803,) "Memoirs of the Life and Philosophy of Era- 
 pedocles," (1813.) "Topography of Palermo and its 
 Environs," (1818,) "View of the Literary History of 
 Italy in the Eighteenth Century," (3 vols., 1827.) 't Ex- 
 periments and Discoveries in Electro-Magnetism," and 
 other works, which are highly esteemed. Died in 1837. 
 
 See S. Costanzo, "Vida pnblica y privada de D. Scini," 1*46! 
 Mai.vica. " ICIoeio di U. Scina," 1S3S; D. Avella, " Esequie \\\i 
 Metnuri* di D. Scina," 1838. 
 
 Scioppius, stse-op'pe-us, [Ger. Schopp, shop,| (Cas- 
 par,) a celebrated classical scholar, born at Neumark, 
 in the Palatinate, in 1576. Having visited Rome, he 
 was patronized by the pope and renounced the Prot- 
 estant religion. He was afterwards created a count 
 palatine by the Emperor of Austria. Among his numer- 
 ous works we may name his " Elements of Stoic Moral 
 Philosophy," (" El'ementa Philosophise Stoicse Moralis,") 
 " De Arte Critica," etc., " Paradoxa Literaria," and 
 "Grammatica Philosophica,"or Institutes of Latin Gram- 
 mar. He also wrote a number of controversia' works 
 against the Protestants and their leaders, particularly 
 Henry IV. of France and James I. of England. Sciop- 
 pius was one of the most learned men of his time; but 
 
 I, e, 1, 0, 2, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, G, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SCIPIO 
 
 198 1 
 
 SCIPIO 
 
 he was equally conspicuous for his intolerance and 
 quarrelsome propensities. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Bavle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary:" NtcrfRON, 
 " Memoires ;" C. Nis.ard, " I.es Oladiatenrs de la RtSpublique des 
 Lettres ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Scipio, slp'e-o, [Gr. Zttniuv; Fr. SCIPION, se'pe'oN'; 
 It. Scipionk, she-pe-o'na,| the name of an illustrious 
 Roman family of the patrician pens Cornelia. The word 
 Srifio signifies a "staff" or "stick." The first member 
 of this family that appears in history was PUBLIUS 
 Cornelius Scipio, who was appointed master of the 
 horse by the dictator Furius Camillas in 396 B.C. He 
 was consular or military tribune in 394, and interrex in 
 389 n.c. A Publius Cornelius Scipio, probably a 
 son of the preceding, was one of the curule aediles 
 appointed iii 366 B.C. Lucius Cornklius Scipio was 
 
 consul ill 350 B.C. PllBl.lUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO BaR- 
 BAtuswas chosen dictator in 306 and pontifex maximus 
 in 305 B.C. Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barhatus was 
 consul in 298 B.C., and defeated the Ktruscans. He 
 was the father of Cnkius Cornklius Scipio Asina 
 (see separate article) and of Lucius Cornklius, who 
 was consul in 259 B.C. and defeated the Carthaginians 
 in Sardinia and Corsica. 
 
 Scipio, |Fr. Scipion, se'pe'oN',] (Publius Corne- 
 lius,) a Roman commander, father of the great Scipio, 
 (sin named " Africanus,") was consul in the first year of 
 the second Punic war, 218 B.C. He commanded the 
 army of Noilhern Italy when Hannibal crossed the Alps 
 on his way to Rome. Scipio met the enemy near the 
 Ticino, where he was defeated and severely wounded. 
 Soon after this event the other consul, Sempronius, took 
 command of the army, which was again defeated, with 
 great loss, 011 the Trebia, 218 B.C. Scipio was sent to 
 Spain in 217, and fought many battles against the Car- 
 thaginians in that peninsula. He was defeated and 
 killed in 211 B.C. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome." 
 
 Scipio, or, more fully, Scipl-o Af-rl-ca'nus* 
 Ma'jor, [Fr. Scipion l'Africain, se'pe'6N' li'fRe'- 
 kiN',1 (Publius Cornklius,) an illustrious Roman com- 
 mander, a son of the preceding, was born in 235 or 234 
 B.C. After he had assumed the togavirilis, he was accus- 
 tomed to pass several hours each morning in the Capi- 
 tol in solitary devotion or meditation. He gained in his 
 youth the confidence of the people, who were persuaded 
 that he was a special favourite of the gods. It is also 
 Stated that he professed to seek and receive divine coun- 
 sel, by which his public conduct was directed. He fought 
 at the battle of the Ticino, and rescued his wounded father 
 there, in 218 B.C. In 216, as military tribune, he took 
 part in the battle of Cannae. Scipio and Appius Claudius 
 were appointed commanders of the troops which escaped 
 from that battle. He was elected aedile in 212 B.C., and 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Spain in 
 210. He took New Carthage (Cartagena) in the first 
 campaign, and his personal influence or liberal policy 
 induced many native chiefs to become allies of Rome. 
 In 209 he gained a great victory over Hasdrubal in the 
 south of Spain. Another decisive victory at Silpia, 
 Carmo, or Elinga, in 207, rendered him master of nearly) 
 all Spain. Soon after this event he crossed over to 
 Africa with a few attendants, and attempted to gain the 
 alliance of Syphax. Having completed the conquest of 
 Spain, in 206 B.C. he returned to Rome, and was elected 
 consul for 205, although he was under the legal age. He 
 at once resolved to carry the war into Africa, although 
 Hannibal still remained 111 Italy. This plan was opposed 
 byFabius Maximus and other senators. Scipio obtained 
 Sicily as his province, with permission to cross into 
 Africa ; but the senate refused to grant him an army for 
 that purpose. He thereupon raised an army of volun- 
 teers, invaded Africa in 204, and was joined by King 
 Ma.'sinissa. He defeated Hasdrubal (son of Gisco) and 
 Syphax in several battles, after which the Carthaginians 
 recalled Hannibal for the defence of their capital. The 
 question of peace was discussed by Scipio and Hanni- 
 bal in a personal interview ; but they failed to agree on 
 
 • Chaucer calls him simply Affrikan, obviously a corruption of 
 Africanus. (See " Assembly of Koules.") 
 
 the terms. In October, 202, Scipio defeated Hannibal 
 in the memorable battle of Zama, which decided the 
 fate of Carthage. On his return to Rome, in 201, he 
 was received with great enthusiasm, and obtained the 
 surname of Africanus. The people proposed to make 
 him dictator for life ; but he declined the honour. He 
 was chosen censor in 199, and consul in 194 B.C. 
 
 In the year 190 he volunteered to serve as legate of 
 his brother, Lucius Scipio, who was then consul, and 
 who commanded in the war against Antiochus of Syria. 
 The two Scipios defeated Antiochus, and ended the war 
 by a treaty of peace. About 187 B.C. Afr.canus and his 
 brother were publicly accused of receiving biibes from 
 Antiochus. Lucius was first tried, and condemned to 
 pay a large fine. Africanus, in defiance of the law, res- 
 cued his brother from the officer who was dragging him 
 to prison. He was afterwards prosecuted, and made a 
 speech in his defence, which was partially successful, as 
 his enemies and judges abandoned the case. Deeply 
 affected by the ingratitude of the people, he left Rome, 
 never to return, and died at Liternum in 183 B.C., in the 
 same year as Hannibal. He had married /Emilia, a 
 daughter of L /Emilius Paulus, and left two sons and 
 two daughters, one of whom was the famous Cornelia. 
 With the exception of Julius Caesar, (and perhaps of 
 Sertorius,) Scipio was probably the greatest military 
 genius that Rome ever produced. He cultivated the 
 Greek language and literature. He had a high repu- 
 tation for generosity and clemency, but is censured by 
 some for his disregard of the forms of law. 
 
 See Poi.ywus, "History," books x.-xxiv. : Livy, " History of 
 Rome," books xxi.-xxxix. ; Seran de la Tour, " Histoirede Scipiou 
 1'Afiicain." 1738; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale;" "Memoirs of 
 the Life of the Elder Scipio Africanus," by Rev. Edward Ber- 
 wick. 
 
 Scip'io iEmilia'nus Africa'nus Mi'nor, (Publius 
 Cornklius,) a famous Roman general, born about 185 
 B.C., was a son of /Emilius Paulus, and an adopted son 
 of Publius Cornelius Scipio, whose father was the great 
 Scipio. He was liberally educated, and was well versed 
 in Greek literature and philosophy. In 168 B.C. he fought 
 at the battle of Pydna, where his father commanded. 
 He formed an intimate friendship with the historian 
 Polybius, who became the companion of his studies and 
 military expeditions. As military tribune, he went to 
 Spain in 151 B.C., and signalized his courage in a single 
 combat with a gigantic Spanish chief, whom he killed. 
 In the third Punic war, which began about 149, he dis- 
 played great military ability in Africa. Having returned 
 to Rome in 148, he was elected consul for 147, and ob- 
 tained Africa as his province. He finished the Punic war 
 by the capture and destruction of the city of Carthage in 
 146 B.C., and was granted a splendid triumph at Rome for 
 this victory. In the year 142 he became censor with L. 
 Mummius. He endeavoured to restrain the growing 
 love of luxury of the Romans and to maintain the simple 
 habits and austere virtues of their ancestors ; but in this 
 he was not successful. Having been elected consul, 134 
 B.C., he obtained the chief command in Spain, and took 
 Numantia, after a long and obstinate defence, in 133. He 
 was an inflexible supporter of the aristocratic party, and 
 approved the execution of Tiberius Gracchus, although 
 his wife Sempronia was a sister of that tribune. He lost 
 his popularity by his course in this affair. He was found 
 dead in his bed in 129 B.C. The public suspected that 
 he was murdered ; but no person was convicted of the 
 crime. Scipio was eminent for his learning, and was 
 one of the most eloquent Roman orators of his time. 
 Cicero expresses a high opinion of him in his book 
 " De Republica." A report prevailed among the an- 
 cients that he assisted Terence in the composition of 
 his plays. 
 
 See Polybius. books xxxii.-xxxix. : Carlo Sir onio, " De Vita et 
 Rebus gestis P. Scipionis," 1569: F. D. Gerl .ch, "Tod des P. 
 C. Scipio ^Kmilianus." 1839; L. Normann, " Sripio Africanus Mi- 
 nor," Upsala, 1688: "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieYale." 
 
 Scip'I-o A-sI-atl-cua or A-sI-ag'e-nes, [Fr. Sci- 
 pion i.'Asiatiquf, se'pe'oN' li'ze'S'tek',] (Lucius Cor- 
 nelius,) was a brother of Africanus Major. He was 
 chosen praetor in 193 B.C., and consul in 190, when he 
 obtained the province of Greece. With the aid of his 
 brother, he defeated Antiochus at Mount Sipylus in 190, 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. ( jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SCIPJO 
 
 1982 
 
 SCOTT 
 
 a few years after which he was fined for taking a bribe 
 from that king. 
 
 Scipio Asiaticus, (Lucius Cornelius,) was a par- 
 tisan of Marius in the civil war, and became consul with 
 C. Norbanus in 83 B.C. He marched against Sulla in 
 that year, but was deserted by his troops, and went into 
 exile in 82 B.C. 
 
 Scip'io Asl-na, (Cnf.ius Cornelius,) a Roman 
 commander, was consul with C. Duilius in 260 B.C. He 
 obtained command of a fleet, and was taken prisoner by 
 the Carthaginians. He became consul again in 254 B.C. 
 His son Publius Cornelius was consul in 221 B.C., and 
 interrex in 217. 
 
 Scip'io Cal'vus, (Cnf.ius Cornelius,) a Roman 
 general, became consul with M. Claudius Marcellus in 
 222 B.C. He went to Spain in 217 B.C. as legate of his 
 brother, Publius Cornelius Scipio, with whom he served 
 about eight years against the Carthaginians in the second 
 Punic war. He was killed in Spain in 211 B.C. 
 
 Scip'io His-pal'lus, (Cneius Cornelius,) a nephew 
 of the preceding, was consul in 171 B.C. He had a son 
 of the same name, who was praetor in 139 B.C. 
 
 Scip'io Na-si'ca, (Publius Cornelius,) a Roman 
 consul and jurist, was a son of Cn. C. Scipio Calvus, who 
 was killed in Spain in 21 1 B.C. He was praetor in 194, 
 and served with distinction in Spain in 193. Having 
 been chosen consul for 191 B.C., he gained a victory over 
 the Boii. ' He died after 171 B.C. 
 
 Scip'io Nasi'ca Cor'cu-lum, (Publius Corne- 
 lius,) a son of the preceding, was an able jurist. He 
 married a daughter of Scipio Africanus Major. He was 
 censor in 159 B.C., and consul in 155. During his con- 
 sulship he procured the demolition of a new theatre, as 
 injurious to the public morals. He became pontifex 
 maximus in 150 B.C. 
 
 Scip'io Nasi'ca Se-ra'pl-o, (Publius Cornelius,) 
 a son of the preceding, was a violent partisan of the 
 aristocracy. He became consul in 138 B.C. with D. 
 Junius Brutus, and was the leader of the party which 
 assassinated Tiberius Gracchus in 133. 
 
 His son, Publius Cornelius Scifio Nasica, was 
 consul in III B.C. He was greatly distinguished for wit 
 and humour. He left a son of the same name, who was 
 praetor in 94 B.C. This last was the father of Q. Metellus 
 Pius Scipio, the father-in-law of Pompey the Great. (See 
 Metellus.) 
 
 Scipion, the French for Scirio, which see. 
 
 Scla't^r, (Philip L.,) F.R.S., an English naturalist, 
 born in 1829. He published several treatises on birds, 
 and edited "The Natural History Review." 
 
 Sclater, (William,) an English clergyman and poet, 
 born in Somersetshire. He obtained the living of Otter- 
 den, Kent, and wrote verses in Latin and English. Died 
 in 1647. Another William Sclater was vicar of Fitmin- 
 ster. Died in 1626. 
 
 Sclo'pia, (Count Federigo,) an Italian senator and 
 lawyer, born in Turin in 1798. He became a senator 
 in 1849, and president of the senate in 1857. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, a " History of Italian Legis- 
 lation," (3 vols., 1840-57.) 
 
 Scolari, sko-14'ree, (Filippo,) Count of Ozora, called 
 Pippo Spano, (pep'po spS'no,) an Italian general, born 
 at Florence in 1369. He rendered important services 
 to the emperor Sigismund. Died in 1426. 
 
 See Mei.lini, "Vitadi F. Scolari," 157a 
 
 ScooreL See Schoreel. 
 
 Sco'pau, [S/cotoc,] an eminent Grecian sculptor and 
 architect, born in the island of Paros, is supposed to 
 have flourished after 400 B.C. Among his master-pieces 
 in sculpture Pliny mentions a number of figures, repre- 
 senting Neptune, Thetis, the Nereids, etc., mounted on 
 dolphins, and statues of Venus, Vesta, and Apollo. He 
 also assisted in executing the celebrated monument to 
 Mausolus about 350 B.C. The temple of Minerva Alea 
 at Tegea was constructed by Scopas. 
 
 See Pliny, "Natural History ;"StT.UG, "Catalogus Artificum ;" 
 Nag*.kr, " Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GineYale." 
 
 Scopoli, skop'o-lee, (Giovanni Antonio,) a cele- 
 brated naturalist, was born at Cavalese, in the Tyrol, in 
 1723. He became professor of mineralogy at Schemnitz 
 
 in 1766, and in 1777 filled the chair of natural history at 
 Pavia. He was the author of " Entomologia Camiolica," 
 "Flora Camiolica," (1769,) "Crystallogrnphia Hunga- 
 rica," (1776,) and other scientific works. He was a friend 
 of Linnaeus, who named a plant in his honour. Died 
 in 1788. 
 
 See Maironi da Ponte, " Elogjo del Dottore G. A. Scopoli,** 
 1S11 ; Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Scores'by\ (William,) a celebrated English navi- 
 gator, born in Yorkshire in 1760. Having engaged in 
 the Greenland whale-fishery, he made his first voyage 
 in 1791. His voyages, amounting to thirty in all, were 
 eminently successful, — he having returned from one of 
 them with thirty-six whales. He made a number of 
 improvements in the apparatus for whale-fishing, and 
 invented the cylindrical observatory attached to the main- 
 top-mast, called the "round topgallant crow's-nest." 
 Died in 1829. 
 
 See a " Life of W. Scoresby," by his son, 1851. 
 
 Scoresby, (William,) D.D., F.R.S., an Arctic navi- 
 gator, a son of the preceding, was born in 1790. In 
 1806 he served as chief mate to his father in a voyage 
 which extended to latitude 81° 12', a point nearer the 
 north pole than any other navigator had reached. He 
 published in 1820 a valuable "Account of the Arctic 
 Regions, with a History of the Northern Whale-Fish- 
 ery." He ceased to follow the sea, studied at Cam- 
 bridge, graduated in 1834, and was ordained a priest. He 
 became vicar of Bradford, Yorkshire. Among his works 
 are " Memorials of the Sea," and " My Father : being 
 Records of the Adventurous Life of William Scoresby," 
 (1851.) He wrote several papers on magnetism and the 
 influence of iron ships on the mariner's compass. Died 
 in 1857. 
 
 See "Monthly Review" for November and December, 1820. 
 
 Scorza, skoRd'za, (Sinibai.do,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Voltaggio in 1589. He painted landscapes with 
 animals; also mythological subjects. Died in 1631. 
 
 Scot, (Reginald,) a learned English writer and Re- 
 former, published a work entitled " The Discoverie of 
 Witchcraft," in which he boldly condemns the super- 
 stitions of the time. It was against this book, and that 
 of Wierus, that James I. of England wrote his " Demon- 
 ologie," in which he says that' Scot " is not ashamed in 
 public print to deny that there can be such a thing as 
 witchcraft." Died in 1599. 
 
 Scot, (Thomas.) See Rotherham. 
 
 Scott, (Benjamin,) an English writer, born probably 
 in London in 1814. He published several educational 
 works, and became chamberlain of London about 1858. 
 
 Scott, (David,) a Scottish writer, born in East Lo- 
 thian in 1675, was author of a " History of Scotland." 
 Died in 1742. 
 
 Scott, (David,) a Scottish painter, born at Edin- 
 burgh in 1806. He resided for a time at Rome, where 
 he produced several large pictures. Among his best 
 works may be named "Vasco da Gama encountered by 
 the Spirit of the Storm in passing the Cape," "The 
 Genius of Discord," and " Orestes pursued by Furies." 
 He published "Essays on the Characteristics of the 
 'Great Masters," and other works on art. Died in 1849. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsinc n," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Scott, (Sir Francis Edward,) an English writer on 
 art, born in 1824, lived near Birmingham. He devoted 
 much time to the study and promotion of art. Died 
 in 1863. 
 
 Scott, (George Gilbert,) an eminent English archi- 
 tect, born near Buckingham about 1810. Among his 
 most admired edifices are the Gothic church of Saint 
 Nicholas at Hamburg, in Germany, and the cathedral 
 of Saint John, in Newfoundland. He furnished the 
 design for the Hotel de Ville at Hamburg, which when 
 completed will probably be one of the finest Gothic 
 structures of recent times. Mr. Scott was elected an 
 associate of the Roval Academy in 1855. He published 
 " A Plea for the Faithful Restoration of onr Ancient 
 Cathedrals," (1850,) and "Some Remarks on Secular 
 and Domestic Architecture, Present and Future," (1857.) 
 
 See the " North British Review" for May, 1858. 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m5t; n6t; good; moon; 
 
SCOTT 
 
 1983 
 
 SCOTT 
 
 Scott, (Gkorge Lewis,) a mathematician, born at 
 Hanover, was appointed one of the preceptors of George 
 III. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died in 
 1780. 
 
 Scott, (Hei.f.nus,) a Scottish physician and writer, 
 who resided for some time in India, was the author of 
 a romance entitled " The Adventures of a Rupee." Died 
 in 1821. 
 
 Scott, (James,) an English divine, born at Leeds in 
 1733, became rector of Simonburn, in Northumberland. 
 He was distinguished as a pulpit orator, and was the 
 author of political essays published under the signature 
 of " .-\nti-Sej;\nus" and " Old Slyboots." Died in 1814. 
 
 Scott, (John.) See Ei.don, Lord. 
 
 Scott, ( foHN,) an English divine, born in Wiltshire 
 in 1638, became prebendary of Saint Paul's, London. 
 He published a work entitled "The Christian Life." 
 Died in 1694. 
 
 Scott of Amwf.ll, (John,) an English poet, born at 
 Bermondsey, near London, about 1736, was a member of 
 the Sociely of Friends. He wrote, besides other works, 
 " Amwell, a Descriptive Poem," (1776.) Died in 1783. 
 
 Scott, (John,) an English journalist, and first editor 
 of the "London Magazine," was killed, in 1821, in a 
 duel resulting from a dispute with the editor of " Black- 
 wood's Magazine." He published " A Visit to Paris in 
 1814." 
 
 Scott, [Lat. Sco'tus,] (Sir Michael,) a Scottish 
 writer, celebrated for his learning, is supposed to have 
 been a native of Fifeshire. He passed several years 
 in France, and at the court of the German emperor 
 Frederick II. Among the principal works attributed 
 to him are the " Philosopher's Banquet," ("Mensa Phi- 
 losophica,") " Questio curiosa de Natura Solis et Luna," 
 a treatise on the transmutation of silver and gold, and 
 a " History of Animals," (in Latin.) His uncommon 
 attainments in science caused him to be regarded as a 
 magician by his contemporaries ; and Sir Walter Scott 
 has introduced the legends concerning him, with great 
 effect, into his " Lay of the Last Minstrel." He is also 
 alluded to in Dante's " Inferno." Died about 1290. 
 
 See G. Naudk\ " Apologie des grands Hommes accuses de Ma- 
 gic ;" Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Scott, (Samuel,) a skilful English painter of land- 
 scapes and marine views. Died in 1772. 
 
 Scott, (Thomas,) an English dissenting divine and 
 resident of Ipswich, published a poetical version of the 
 book of Job, (1774.) 
 
 Scott or Scot, (Thomas,) an English prelate. (See 
 
 ROTHERHAM.) 
 
 Scott, (Thomas,) an English Calvinistic divine and 
 commentator, born in Lincolnshire in 1747. He became 
 curate of Olney in 1781, and rector of Aston-Sandford in 
 1801. He associated with Cowper and Newton at Olney. 
 He published, besides other religious works, a "Com- 
 mentary on the Bible," (1796,) which had an extensive 
 circulation, and a defence of Calvinism, (2 vols., 181 1.) 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 See " Life of T. Scott," (partly autobiographical.) by his son, 
 John Scott, 1832: Ai-libonh, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Scott, (Sir Walter,) a celebrated novelist and poet, 
 was born in Edinburgh, August 15, 1 77 1. He was de- 
 scended from Walter Scott, the famous freebooter, known 
 in border story as "Auld Wat." His father, named also 
 Walter Scott, was a writer to the signet; his mother, 
 Anne Rutherford, was the daughter of Dr. John Ruther- 
 ford, medical professor in the University of Edinburgh. 
 Walter was the seventh child in a family of twelve. 
 When he was about eighteen months old, he was attacked 
 with a fever, which '.eft him, after a few days, with a 
 lameness that proved incurable. In 1779 he was sent to 
 the Edinburgh High School. In addition to the instruc- 
 tion received at school^he had a tutor at home, by whom 
 he was taught writing, arithmetic, and French, and from 
 whom he may be said to have also taken lessons in the 
 art of disputation. The pupil was a Tory and Cavalier, 
 the tutor a Whig and Roundhead, so that they never were 
 at a loss for subjects about which to argue. " I took up 
 my politics at that period," gays Scott, " as King Charles 
 II. did his religion, from an idea that the Cavalier creed 
 was the more gentlemanlike persuasion of the two." I le 
 
 studied Latin under the celebrated Dr. Adam, then rec- 
 tor of the High School ; and, though he seems to have 
 had but little relish for the details of syntax or prosody, 
 he was not, even at that age, without an appreciation of 
 the beauties of the Roman classics. "This was really," 
 he observes in his autobiography, "gathering grapes 
 from thistles ; nor shall I soon forget the' swelling of my 
 little pride when the rector pronounced that, though 
 many of my school-fellows understood Latin better, 
 Gnalterus Scott 'was behind few in following and enjoying 
 the author's meaning." " In the intervals of my school- 
 hours," says he, " I had always perused with avidity such 
 books of history or poetry, or voyages and travels, as 
 chance presented to me, — not forgetting the usual, or 
 rather ten times the usual, quantity of fairy-tales East- 
 ern stories, romances, etc." He left the High School, he 
 says, "with a great quantity of general information, ill 
 arranged, indeed, and collected without system, yet 
 deeply impressed upon my mind, and gilded, if I may 
 be permitted to say so, by a vivid and active imagina- 
 tion." About this time he read Hoole's translation of 
 Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered;" he likewise became 
 acquainted with Richardson's novels, and other works 
 of imagination. Having spent some months at the 
 house of a relative living at Kelso, the beauties of that 
 romantic spot, with the neighbouring ruins, appear to 
 have awakened in his mind that passionate love for the 
 beautiful and picturesque in nature, for which he was 
 afterwards so distinguished. 
 
 In 1783 he entered the university, and commenced 
 Greek under the learned and accomplished Professor 
 Dalzell. But, having no previous acquaintance with that 
 tongue, he found himself far behind the rest of the class. 
 "I could," he says, " hit upon no better mode of vindi- 
 cating my equality than by professing my contempt for 
 the language, and my resolution not to learn it." He 
 afterwards excited the utmost indignation of the pro- 
 fessor by writing a composition in which he endeavoured 
 to show that Ariosto was superior to Homer. In some 
 of his other collegiate studies he appears to have been 
 more successful. In moral philosophy he had the good 
 fortune to be instructed by Dugald Stewart, "whose 
 striking and impressive eloquence riveted the attention 
 even of the most volatile student."* 
 
 In 1786 he was indentured as an apprentice to his 
 father, and "entered upon the dry and barren wilderness 
 of forms and conveyances." He did not, however, dis- 
 continue the perusal of works of imagination. He even 
 studied Italian, and added an acquaintance with several 
 eminent authors in that tongue, as Dante, Boiardo, Pulci, 
 etc., to his previous stores of romantic and historic lore. 
 About the second year of his apprenticeship, in conse- 
 quence of an attack of hemorrhage, he was for several 
 weeks confined to his chamber ; during this time he 
 amused himself by representing the battles and sieges of 
 which he had read, by means of shells, pebbles, or other 
 objects. His recovery, though interrupted by one or two 
 relapses, was at length complete ; and from that time 
 until near his death he enjoyed the most robust health. 
 
 In 1792 Scott began the study of German, in which he 
 afterwards made such proficiency that (in 1796) he pub- 
 lished poetical translations of Burger's " I.enore" and 
 "Wild Huntsman." This was his first appearance be- 
 fore the public as an author. 
 
 In December, 1797, he married Charlotte Margaret 
 Carpenter, daughter of Jean Charpentier, of Lyons, a 
 devoted French royalist. She had been educated in the 
 Protestant religion, and when her father died, at the be- 
 ginning of the French Revolution, she and her mother 
 fled to England, where they found a friend and protector 
 in the Marquis of Downshire, who had previously be- 
 come acquainted with the family during his travels on 
 
 # The following testimony from Scott's autobiography, in favour of 
 a solid and thorough education, is too important to be omitted. " If," 
 says he, " it should ever fall to the lot of youth to peruse these pages, 
 let such a reader remember that it is with the deepest regret that I 
 recollect in my manhood the opportunities of learning which I neg- 
 lected in my youth : that through every part of my literary career I 
 have felt pinched and hampered by my own ' ignorance ; and that I 
 would at this moment give half the reputation I have bad the good 
 fortune to acquire, if by doing so I could rest the remaining part upon 
 a sound foundation of learning and science." 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SCOTT 
 
 1984 
 
 SCOTT' 
 
 the continent. In 1798 Scott became acquainted with 
 M. G. Lewis, by whom he was prevailed on to furnish 
 several contributions to the "Tales of Wonder," a mis- 
 cellany gotten ii]) under the auspices of Lewis. Scott's 
 translation of Goethe's famous historical drama, " Goetz 
 von Berlichingen of the Iron Hand," appeared in 1799. 
 The first two volumes of the " Minstrelsy of the Scot- 
 tish Border," a collection of ancient ballads that had 
 occupied his attention for many years, were published 
 in 1802. In the following year appeared the third vol- 
 ume of the "Border Minstrelsy," consisting of original 
 ballads by Scott and others. He contributed during 
 the years 1803-04 several articles to the " Edinburgh 
 Review." His poem " Sir Tristrem" was given to the 
 public in 1804. The "Lay of the Last Minstrel," which 
 had been commenced several years before, made its ap- 
 pearance in January, 1805, 'and at once gave its author 
 a place among the most distinguished poets of the age. 
 Its popularity was so great that more than forty thousand 
 copies were sold in Great Britain before 1830. " In the 
 history of British poetry," says Lockhart, (writing about 
 1833,) " nothing has ever equalled the demand for the 
 'Lay of the Last Minstrel.'" In November, 1806, he 
 began "Marmion;" it was finished and ready for publi- 
 cation by the middle of February, 1808. "Constable," 
 says Lockhart, " offered a thousand guineas for the poem 
 shortly after it was begun, and without having seen one 
 line of it; and Scott, without hesitation, accepted this 
 proposal." Two other booksellers, however, Miller and 
 Murrav, were admitted to the honour of sharing in the 
 publication of the new poem. 
 
 Scott was zealously engaged, in the latter part of 1808, 
 in starting a new review, which, while espousing different 
 political views from those of the " Edinburgh," should, if 
 possible, rival that journal in literary ability and surpass 
 it in moderation and impartiality. The result of these 
 efforts was the " London Quarterly,' 1 the first number 
 of which appeared in January, 1809. The " Lady of 
 the Lake," the last of Scott's three great poems, was 
 published in May, 1810. In a critical notice of it in 
 the " Edinburgh Review," Mr. Jeffrey says, " Upon the 
 whole, we are inclined to think more highly of the ' Lady 
 of the Lake' than of either of its author's former publi- 
 cations. . . . There is nothing so fine, perhaps, as the 
 battle in ' Marmion,' or so picturesque as some of the 
 scattered sketches of the ' Lay,' but there is a richness 
 and a spirit in the whole piece which does not pervade 
 either of those poems, — a profusion of incident and a 
 shifting brilliancy of colouring that reminds us of the 
 witchery of Ariosto." According to Lockhart, " the 
 ' Lay' is generally considered as the most natural and 
 original, ' Marmion' as the most powerful and splendid, 
 and the ' Lady of the Lake' as the most interesting, {o- 
 mantic, picturesque, and graceful, of. his great poems." 
 " The Lady of the Lake," says Prescott, " was welcomed 
 with an enthusiasm surpassing that which attended any 
 other of his poems. It seemed like the sweet breathings 
 of his native pibroch stealing over glen and mountain 
 and calling up all the delicious associations of rural soli- 
 tude, which beautifully contrasted with the din of battle 
 and the shrill cry of the war-trumpet that stirred the 
 soul in every page of his 'Marmion.'" Twenty thou- 
 sand copies of the " Lady of the Lake" were disposed 
 of within a year after its publication, and not less than 
 fifty thousand were sold in Great Britain before the mid- 
 dle of 1836. In 181 r, encouraged by the extraordinary 
 success of the " Lady of the Lake," Scott resolved, in- 
 stead of remaining a " tenant at will under a heavy rent," 
 to purchase a freehold estate for himself. After some 
 deliberation, he fixed upon Abbotsford, (in the county 
 of Roxburgh, about twenty-eight miles southeast from 
 Edinburgh,) a beautiful site, commanding a view of the 
 Tweed, and of Melrose Abbey, the most graceful and 
 picturesque of all the monastic ruins in Scotland. The 
 great expense which he was tempted to incur in order 
 to improve and beautify this place became afterwards the 
 chief source of his pecuniary difficulties. The "Vision 
 of Don Roderick," a poem in the Spenserian measure, 
 came out in 181 1. " Rokeby" appeared towards the 
 close of 1812 ; it was followed within two months by an- 
 other smaller poem, entitled the " Bridal of Triermain." 
 
 The latter, having been composed pari passu with 
 " Rokeby," was published anonymously. Coming out as 
 it did so soon after the other, many persons were led 
 to believe it must be the production of a different author. 
 Some eminent critics, indeed, regarded it as a very suc- 
 cessful imitation of Scott's style of composition, and, 
 while it was admitted that, as a whole, it fell below the 
 best works of the great master, it was pronounced to be 
 in some respects fully equal, if not superior, to them. 
 The popularity enjoyed by " Rokeby" was far from equal- 
 ling that of Scott's earlier poems. This was probably 
 due in part to the public having become, in consequence 
 of the great number of wretched imitations which had 
 appeared, surfeited with that kind of poetry, and per- 
 haps still more — as Scott himself believed — to the rising 
 influence of Byron's bolder and more impassioned genius. 
 The position of poet-laureate was offered to Scott on 
 the part of the prince regent in August, 1813, but was 
 respectfully declined. In July, 1814, was published 
 " Waverley, or 'Tis Sixty Years Since," the first of that 
 marvellous series of novels which were destined to form 
 a new era in the history of romance, and to place the 
 name of Scott on the highest pinnacle of literary fame. 
 
 Contrasting " Waverley" with the coarse prosaic or 
 gossiping character of some of the previous popular 
 novels, Prescott observes, " But a work now appeared in 
 which the author swept over the whole range of charac- 
 ter with entire freedom as well as fidelity, ennobling the 
 whole by high historic associations, and in a style varying 
 with his theme, but whose pure and classic flow was tinc- 
 tured with just so much of poetic colouring as suited the 
 purposes of romance. It was Shakspeare in prose." 
 
 " Waverley" had been commenced nine years before, 
 but, discouraged by the criticism of one of his friends, Scott 
 had laid the work aside. He appears, however, not to 
 have wholly lost sight of it; for in 1810 he sent a por- 
 tion of it to his friend James Ballantyne the publisher, 
 desiring his opinion. Ballantyne, although severely 
 criticising some parts, warmly praised the humour and 
 spirit of the work ; and in reply to the question, " Should 
 the author go on ?" said, "Certainly: I have no doubt 
 of success, though it is impossible to guess how much." 
 
 In a letter to a friend, Scott says, " I had written a 
 great part of the first volume, and sketched other pas- 
 sages, when I mislaid the manuscript, and only found it 
 by the merest accident as I was rummaging the drawers 
 of an old cabinet ; and I took the fancy of finishing it, 
 which I did so fast that the last two volumes were written 
 ii) three weeks." 
 
 The work was published anonymously. Five editions 
 of it (in all, 6000 copies) were called for within less than 
 seven months. " ' Guy Mannering,' by the author of 
 'Waverley,'" followed in February, 1815. The name 
 " Waverley Novels" was afterwards applied to the en- 
 tire series of those wonderful fictions ; and their anony- 
 mous author was popularly styled "the Great Unknown." 
 The " Lord of the Isles," which Scott had had for some 
 time in preparation, was published a month before "Guy 
 Mannering." This is one of the most delightful of his 
 minor poems. If in its general tone it is not equal to 
 " Marmion" or the " Lady of the Lake," it has occasional 
 passages which are scarcely if at all inferior to the finest 
 in those poems. "The Field of Waterloo," generally 
 considered as among the least successful of Scott's 
 poetical works, made its appearance in October, 1815. 
 " Harold the Dauntless." another poem, published in 
 181 7, may be regarded as the last of his efforts in this 
 line. He appears afterwards to have directed all his 
 energies towards working the new and richer mine of 
 prose fiction, which his genius had so lately opened. 
 Next to his ail-but unrivalled skill in the delineation of 
 character, and the graphic power and wonderful vivid- 
 ness of his pictures, — whether of the scenes of tranquil 
 nature, or of the intense excitement and wild tumult of 
 battle, — what most amazes us is the marvellous fertility 
 of his genius. There is in the whole history of literature 
 no other example of such rapid and inexhaustible pro- 
 ductiveness, if we take into consideration the character 
 as well as the number and extent of his writings, — Lope 
 de Vega alone excepted. " Guy Mannering" was followed 
 by "The Antiquary," in May, 1816, "The Black Dwarf* 
 
 i, e, 1, o, u, y, long; 4, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, jf, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nit; good; moon; 
 
SCOTT 
 
 1985 
 
 SCOTT 
 
 and "Old Mortality" appeared in December of the same 
 year, "Rob Roy" was published in 1817; and thus for 
 more than ten years he continued to pour forth, appa- 
 rently without effort, those brilliant and fascinating 
 fictions which quickly spread his fame not merely 
 wherever the English language was spoken, but to the 
 utmost limits of the civilized world. A list of his novels 
 and other prose writings will be given in another place. 
 In 1820, without any solicitation on his part or that 
 of his friends, the rank of a baronet was conferred on 
 Scott by the king. Up to his fifty-fifth year Scott ap- 
 pears to have experienced a degree of prosperity rarely 
 vouchsafed to mortals. His success as a writer had 
 been without example in the history of literature. He 
 had enjoyed in the largest measure not merely the ap- 
 plause of the multitude and the friendship of the great, 
 but what was far more, — the universal esteem of those 
 whose esteem was most to be valued. His good sense, 
 his manly modesty, his unaffected kindness of heart, 
 and his nobleness of spirit, commanded the respect 
 and admiration of those who, from religious or party 
 prejudice, were the most opposed to him, — for personal 
 enemies he had none. Perhaps the only considerable 
 weakness in his character was his ambition to found a 
 new family, which should constitute a distinct branch 
 of the famous house or clan from which he boasted his 
 descent To accomplish this grand aim was the goal 
 of all his aspirations, — the object of all his plans and 
 labours, By his friendship for the Ballantynes, whom he 
 had known from boyhood, he was induced not only to 
 intrust to them the publication of his works, but to be- 
 come a secret partner in their firm. He was thus com- 
 plicated in commercial speculations which were destined 
 to involve him in irretrievable disaster. He appears 
 to have reposed unlimited confidence in the prudence 
 and mercantile ability of the Ballantynes, as well as in 
 that of Constable, with whom they were commercially 
 connected. But Constable, though an able man, was 
 sometimes rash ; and James Kallantyne appears to have 
 been wanting in thorough business habits. The final 
 catastrophe was hastened by the commercial excitement 
 of 1825. After some months of painful suspense, the 
 storm at length burst, in all its fury, in January of 1826. 
 On examining into the state of their affairs, it was found 
 that Constable & Co. were able to pay only two shillings 
 and ninepence on the pound. The firm of Ballantyne 
 & Co., by allowing itself to be declared bankrupt, might 
 readily have come to a settlement with its creditors, had 
 not Scott been a partner. He would listen to no terms 
 of compromise ; all he asked for was time. He was 
 resolved to devote the remainder of his life, if necessary, 
 to the payment of his debts, even to the uttermost far- 
 thing. His heroic purpose was at last crowned with 
 success ; but it cost him his life. To be brief, from this 
 time forward he applied himself to his literary labours 
 with an assiduity and zeal such as even he had never 
 exhibited before. Neither the attacks of severe indis- 
 position nor the overwhelming grief caused by the death 
 of his wife, (which occurred in May, 1826,) in the midst 
 of the other misfortunes, were allowed to interpose more 
 than a temporary interruption to the arduous task which 
 he had undertaken. In consequence of these .unre- 
 mitting and unparalleled exertions, he had a severe 
 paralytic attack on the 15th of February, 1 830; but he 
 recovered in a few weeks so far as to be able to resume his 
 labours. He had, however, another attack in Novem- 
 ber, 1830, and one still more severe in April, 1831. As 
 his health continued to fail, it was at length resolved, in 
 the autumn of 1831, that he should pass the winter in 
 Italy. He arrived in Naples in December, and re- 
 mained there till the middle of April, 1832. In one of 
 his letters, written while at Naples, he says, " My plan 
 of paying my debts has been — thank Gocf — completely 
 successful ; and, what I think worth telling, I have paid 
 very near one hundred and twenty thousand pounds, with- 
 out owing anyone a halfpenny, — at least, I am sure this 
 will be the case by midsummer." After spending a short 
 time in Rome, he manifested a great anxiety to return 
 to his native country. He reached London on the 13th of 
 Tune. Four weeks later he arrived at Abbotsford, where 
 he died on the 21st of September, 1832. 
 
 Scott has the rare distinction of uniting with his fame 
 as an eminently successful author a character as a man 
 remarkable not only for modesty, manliness, and com- 
 mon sense, but for a genuine kindliness towards all with 
 whom he came in contact. 
 
 "As to Scott," says Washington Irving, "I cannot 
 express my delight at his character and manners. He 
 is a sterling, golden-hearted old worthy, full of the 
 joyousness of youth, with an imagination continually 
 furnishing forth pictures, and a charming simplicity of 
 manner that puts you at ease with him in a moment. It 
 has been a constant source of pleasure to me to remark 
 his deportment towards his family, his neighbours, his 
 domestics, his very dogs and cats ; everything that 
 comes within his influence seems to catch a beam of 
 that sunshine which plays round his heart." (" Life and 
 Letters," vol. i. pp. 381-2.) 
 
 Referring to a conversation about Goethe, which 
 Scott had with Mr. Cheney in Rome in the spring of 
 1832, the latter remarks, " He did not seem, however, to 
 be a great admirer of some of Goethe's works ; . . . 
 much of his popularity, he observed, was owing to 
 pieces which in his latter moments he might have 
 wished recalled. He spoke with much feeling. I 
 answered, he must derive great consolation in the re- 
 flection that his own popularity was owing to no such 
 cause. . . . He added, ' It is a comfort to me to think 
 that I have tried to unsettle no man's faith, to corrupt 
 no man's principles, and that I have written nothing 
 which on my death-Bed I should wish blotted.' " 
 
 The following is a list of Scott's novels, with the dates 
 of their publication: "Waverley," July, 1814; "Guy 
 Mannering," February, 1815 ; "The Antiquary," May, 
 1816; "The Black Dwarf" and "Old Mortality," (forming 
 the first series of the "Tales of my Landlord,") Decem- 
 ber, 1816; "Rob Roy," December, 18:7; "The Heart 
 of Midlothian," (" Tales of my Landlord," second series,) 
 June, 1 818; "The Bride of Lammerinoor" and "Legend 
 of Montrose," (third series of "Tales of my Landlord,") 
 June, 1819; " Ivanhoe," December, 1819; "The Mon- 
 astery," March, 1820; "The Abbot," September, 1820 ; 
 " Kenil worth," January, 1821 ; "The Pirate," December, 
 1821; "The Fortunes of Nigel," May, 1822; " Peveril 
 of the Peak," January, 1823 ; " Quentin Durward," 
 June, 1823; "Saint Ronan's Well," December, 1823; 
 "The Red Gauntlet," June, 1824; "The Talisman" and 
 "The Betrothed," ("Talesof the Crusaders,") June, 1825 ; 
 " Woodstock," June, 1826; "Chronicles of Canongate," 
 (containing the " Highland Widow," and other tales,) 
 November, 1827; "Fair Maid of Perth," April, 1828; 
 "Anne of Geierstein," May, 1829; "Count Robert of 
 Paris" and " Castle Dangerous," (fourth series of " Tales 
 of my Landlord,") November, 1831. Scott had written 
 in the department of history "The Life of Buonaparte," 
 of which two editions yielded to the author's creditors 
 the enormous sum of ,£18,000. Of the "Tales of a 
 Grandfather," a popularized history of Scotland, (dedi- 
 cated to his little grandson, John Hugh Lockhart,) the 
 first series appeared in December, 1827, the second was 
 completed in December, 1828, and the third in Decem- 
 ber, 1829. A "History of France," constituting a fourth 
 series of the "Tales of a Grandfather," was published 
 in 1830. In addition to his poems, novels, and histories, 
 Scott wrote many books of less importance, among 
 which the following are the principal : a " Life of Dry- 
 den," prefixed to his works in eighteen volumes, edited 
 by Scott, 1808; "Swift's Life," prefixed to his works in 
 nineteen volumes, 1814; "Paul's Letters to his Kins- 
 folk, written from the Continent after the Battle of 
 Waterloo," January, 1816; "Letters of Malachi Mc- 
 (•i outlier," March, 1820; "Letters on Demonology and 
 Witchcraft," December, 1830 ; miscellaneous writings, 
 including critical notices of various authors, etc. 
 
 Among those writers, of whatever age or country, 
 who have successfully attempted the delineation of char- 
 acter, Scott may justly claim to stand in the foremost 
 rank. Shakspeare, it must be confessed, surpassed him 
 in versatility as well as in depth and power; Goethe was 
 undoubtedly his superior in that exquisite art which 
 seems to be only another name for nature herself; Field- 
 ing may perhaps be allowed to have excelled him in 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. 
 
 '25 
 
 (^g^—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SCOTT 
 
 1986 
 
 SCOTT 
 
 the occasional representation of some individual char- 
 acter; Victor Hugo, Bulwer, and many others may 
 sometimes rise above him in that sort of interest which 
 is due to an artfully-devised plot or to the eloquent ex- 
 pression of intense passion. But if we take into account 
 ALL those qualifications which properly belong to this 
 kind of writing, such as the power of vivid description, 
 a just appreciation of the nice shades of character, an 
 easy and exquisite humour, a sustained interest, not 
 dependent so much on marvellous or startling occur- 
 rences, or on unheard-of and harrowing complications of 
 calamity, as upon the power and vividness of the repre- 
 sentation and the depth of genuine feeling evinced by the 
 author, — if to such qualifications be added a healthy, 
 pure, and elevated moral sentiment, as far removed from 
 narrowness and bigoted austerity on the one hand, as 
 from affectation and extravagance on the other, we 
 cannot deny that, although many writers may have ex- 
 celled Scott in some one or two points, yet, "take him 
 for all in all," few have equalled and scarcely any have 
 surpassed him. 
 
 "Sir Walter Scott," says a writer in "Blackwood," 
 "did for literature what Shakspeare did for the drama, 
 — provided a long and gorgeous gallery of great, noble, 
 and sublime characters, that live in all memories, and 
 become, though they are fictitious, as real as if we all 
 of us had actually seen and conversed with them." (See 
 article on Charles Kean in " Blackwood's Magazine" 
 for April, 1868.) 
 
 Scott has often been called, on account of his marvel- 
 lous power of creating illusions, "the Great Enchanter." 
 "Great and good enchanter," says Miss Edgeworth ; " for 
 in his magic there is no dealing with unlawful means. 
 . . , In his writings there is no private scandal, no per- 
 sonal satire, no bribe to human frailty, no libel upon 
 human nature. . . . His morality is not in purple patches 
 ostentatiously obtrusive, but woven in through the very 
 texture of the stuff." (See Miss Edgeworth's " Helen," 
 vol. i. chap, xii.) It has often been urged as a reproach 
 to Scott that he had, on the one hand, such a high re- 
 spect for royalty and aristocracy, and, on the other, 
 such an aversion to everything like democracy. This 
 peculiarity — or weakness, as some may call it — was due 
 in part to an innate reverence for antiquity, which seemed 
 indeed to be an essential element of his mental consti- 
 tution, and in part to the influence of the French Revo- 
 lution, which occurred at that period of his youth when 
 the character is peculiarly susceptible of being moulded 
 by external circumstances. Indeed, not a few persons who 
 could boast of a cooler temperament, if not of stronger 
 intellect, were powerfully influenced bv that strange and 
 terrible phenomenon, and some who otherwise would, in 
 all probability, have been ardent republicans, appear to 
 have lost by that event all confidence in the power of 
 the common people to govern themselves. 
 
 Walter Scott had two sons and two daughters ; his 
 eldest daughter, Sophia, was married in 1820 to Mr. 
 Lockhart, afterwards editor of the "Quarterly Review." 
 Their daughter was married a few years since to Mr. 
 Robert Hope, who, by act of Parliament, took the name 
 of Scott, and whose daughter, Miss Hope Scott, is the 
 possessor of Abbotsford, and the only surviving descend- 
 ant of Sir Walter. The eldest son, Walter, born in 1799, 
 entered the army, and on the death of his father inherited 
 his title. He died on his return from India in 1847, and 
 with him the title became extinct. His younger 
 brother, Charles, bom in 1805, had died previously. 
 
 See Lockhart, "Life of Sir Walter Scott," 3 vols., 1835: George 
 Allah, " Life of Sir W. Scott;" James Hogg. " Familiar Anecdotes 
 of Sir W. Scott," 1834; Amedee Pichot, " Notice sur la Vie de W. 
 Scott," 1821; C. G. Jacob, " W. Scott; biographisch-literarischer 
 Versuch," 1820; Nayi.er, "Memoirs of the Life of W. Scott," 
 1S33; L. de Lomenie, "Sir W. Scott, par un Homme de Rien," 
 1841; S. Roberts, " W. Scott's Jungendleben," 1S37: C. P. Hag- 
 berg, " Cervantes et W. Scott," 1838 ; G. von Kramer, " Leben nod 
 Werke W. Scotts," 1833; Prescott. "Biographical and Critical 
 Miscellanies;" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1S0S. February 
 1815, and March, 1817, (by Jefkrkv:) "Quarterly Review" for 
 Mav, 1S10. December, 1812, April, 1S16, January and April, 1S68; 
 "Westminster Review" for January, 1S3S, (bv Cari.yi*:) " North 
 American Review" for .April, 1S3S, (by Pkkscott;) "Domestic 
 Manners of Sir W. Scott," in " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 
 1834, (by James Hogg.) 
 
 Scott, (William.) See Stowf.i.i, Lord. 
 
 Scott, (Winfif.ld,) one of the most distinguished 
 of American generals, was bom near Petersburg, Vir- 
 ginia, on the 13th of June, 1786. His paternal grand- 
 father, a native of Scotland, took part in the rebellion 
 of 1745, and, after the disastrous battle of Culloden, in 
 which his elder brother was slain, emigrated to Vir- 
 ginia, where he married, and engaged in the profession 
 of law. His son William married Ann Mason, — a lady 
 of one" of the most respectable families in the State. Of 
 the two sons of William Scott, who died in 1791, Win- 
 field, the subject of the present article, was the younger. 
 He studied law at William and Mary College, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1806. In 1807 he became a 
 volunteer in a troop of horse, called out under the pro- 
 clamation which President Jefferson issued after the at- 
 tack on the Chesapeake, forbidding English war-vessels 
 to enter the harbours of the United States. During the 
 next session of Congress (1807-08) a bill was passed for 
 increasing the army ; and Scott was soon after appointed 
 a captain of artillery. In 1809 he was ordered to New 
 Orleans, to join the army under General Wilkinson. 
 Having indiscreetly censured the conduct of his gene- 
 ral, and even intimated his complicity with the treason 
 of Burr, Scott was tried by a court-martial, and sen- 
 tenced to be suspended for one year. What was de- 
 signed as a punishment proved, it would seem, a real 
 advantage to him. He spent the term of his suspension 
 in the diligent prosecution of studies connected with his 
 profession, and laid the foundation of that thorough 
 acquaintance with military science for which he became 
 afterwards so distinguished. On the breaking out of 
 the war of 1812 he was made a lieutenant-colonel and 
 ordered to the Canada frontier. In October, General 
 Van Rensselaer planned an attack on the British forces 
 then occupying Queenstowu Heights. Some time after 
 the action had commenced, Scott crossed over from 
 Lewiston, and arrived on the field. Colonel Van Rens- 
 selaer, who had the chief command of the American 
 troops on the Canada side, having been severely 
 wounded, Scott succeeded to the command. His ex- 
 hortations, supported by his heroic example, so in- 
 spirited his men that they drove back the enemy with 
 great loss ; and even after the British had been largely 
 reinforced by the arrival of Genera] Sheaffe, they still 
 for a time bravely maintained the fight, though out- 
 numbered by more than three to one. Unhappily, at 
 this critical juncture, the main body of the American 
 army, which had not yet crossed the river, was seized 
 with a panic, and could not by any considerations be 
 prevailed upon to enter the boats. All hope of succour 
 being thus cut off, Scott was compelled to surrender his 
 entire force ; which he did with the honours of war. 
 Having been exchanged in the early part of 1813, he 
 soon after joined, with the rank of colonel, the army 
 under General Dearborn, in the capacity of adiutant- 
 general. He especially distinguished himself at the 
 capture of Fort George, Upper Canada, in May, 1813. 
 After braving incredible perils, he carried the place, 
 which he was the first to enter, and with his own hands 
 took down the flag that was waving over it. We cannot 
 here forbear to relate an incident which, while it shows 
 the magnanimity of Scott's character, may serve to re- 
 lieve for a moment the harsh and repulsive features of 
 " grim-visaged war." After Scott had been taken pris- 
 oner at Queenstown, a British officer asked him if he 
 had ever seen the neighbouring Falls. Scott answered, 
 " Yes ; from the American side." The other remarked, 
 "You must have a successful fight before you can see 
 them in all their grandeur," (the finest view being from 
 the Canada shore.) Scott rejoined, " Sir, if it be your 
 intention to insult me, honour should have prompted 
 you first to return me my sword." The officer was re- 
 buked by General Sheaffe, and the subject was dropped 
 for the time. At the capture of Fort George, this 
 same officer was taken prisoner in turn. Scott treated 
 him with every mark of attention and kindness, and at 
 last obtained permission for him to return to England 
 on parole. Overcome by this generosity, he said, with 
 feeling, " I have long owed you an apology, sir. You 
 have overwhelmed me with kindnesses. You can now 
 at your leisure view the Falls in all their glory." 
 
 4, e, T, o, ft, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, t, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
SCOTT 
 
 1987 
 
 SCR I BAN I 
 
 In March, 1814, Scott was made a brigadier-general. 
 Soon afterwards, the troops of three brigades were 
 placed in a camp of instruction at Buffalo, under his 
 immediate supervision, and for three months were 
 thoroughly drilled in the modern French system of 
 tactics. The discipline thus acquired was of the greatest 
 importance in the operations of the ensuing campaign. 
 On the 3d of July, the American army, consisting of 
 Scott's and Ripley's brigades and Hiudman's artillery, 
 crossed the Niagara River and captured Fort Erie. On 
 the 5th, the battle of Chippewa was fought, and the 
 British army under General Riall was driven beyond the 
 Chippewa River. The 25th of July witnessed the hard- 
 fought battle of Lundy's Lane, (otherwise called " the 
 battle of Niagara,") on which occasion General Scott 
 had two horses killed under him, and was twice wounded, 
 the second time severely, by a musket-ball passing 
 through the left shoulder. It was after eleven o'clock 
 P.M. when the fighting ceased, the Americans remaining 
 for the night in possession of the field of battle, al- 
 though, unhappily, for the want of water, they were 
 compelled to abandon it early the next morning. Several 
 months elapsed before Scott had recovered from his 
 wounds. For his eminent services he was raised to 
 the rank of major-general, and, not long after, Congress 
 passed a vote of thanks, (November 3, 1814,) at the 
 same time requesting the President to bestow upon him 
 a gold medal " for his distinguished services" and for 
 his "uniform gallantry and good conduct in sustaining 
 the reputation of the arms of the United States." The 
 medal was afterwards presented to him by President 
 Monroe. The treaty of peace having been ratified by 
 the Senate in February, 1815, Scott was offered a seat 
 in the cabinet as secretary of war, which position, how- 
 ever, he declined. In the summer of 181 5 he visited 
 Europe in a diplomatic as well as military capacity; 
 and he afterwards received a letter of thanks from the 
 President, through the secretary of state, for the success 
 with which he had fulfilled his mission. He returned 
 to the United States in 1816 ; and the following year he 
 was married to the daughter of John Mayo, Esq., of 
 Richmond, Virginia. 
 
 In 1832 a war broke out between the Sac Indians, 
 under their chief Black Hawk, and the whites on the 
 northwestern frontier. Scott was ordered by the war 
 department to proceed to 'the scene of action ; but 
 Black Hawk was taken prisoner and the war virtually 
 brought to a close before he reached the place of his ! 
 destination. During the passage the cholera broke out ! 
 among his troops with a fearful fatality. On this oc- 
 casion General Scott exhibited traits of character more 
 rare, and certainly not less glorious, than those which 
 had won for him so brilliant a reputation on the battle- 
 field. Not satisfied with merely making such general 
 arrangements as were required for the proper attendance 
 of the sick, and such as were deemed necessary to pre- 
 vent the spread of infection, he visited and comforted 
 the suffering, and by his courageous example sought 
 to inspire the well with hope and confidence, — which 
 was the more difficult because at that time the cholera 
 was almost universally regarded as contagious. When, 
 towards the end of 1832, the nullification difficulties 
 began in South Carolina, General Scott was sent by 
 President Jackson on a confidential mission to Charles- 
 ton, that he might take the proper measures to prevent, 
 or, if need be, to quell, the threatened insurrection. In 
 this difficult enterprise he displayed great tact as well as 
 prudence and firmness, and was completely successful. 
 On the death of General Macomb, in June, 1841, Scott 
 succeeded to the position of commander-in-chief of the 
 army of the United States. 
 
 After the commencement of the war with Mexico, in 
 the spring of 1846, the first campaign was made, and 
 the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and 
 Buena Vista were fought, under the conduct of General 
 Taylor. In 1847 vigorous preparations were made for 
 prosecuting the war on a more extensive scale, and 
 General Scott was directed to take the chief command 
 of the army in Mexico. A particular account of the 
 operations which followed belongs rather to history than 
 to a biography. Suffice it to say that if Scott had ac- 
 
 quired on the fields of Chippewa and Niagara the most 
 brilliant reputation as a gallant and skilful soldier, in the 
 Mexican war he gave proof of strategic talents of the 
 highest order, and won for himselfa place in the front rank 
 of the most distinguished generals of the age. He began 
 the campaign in March, 1847, by investing the city of 
 Vera Cruz, which, with the Castle of San Juan d'Ulloa, 
 capitulated on the 26th of that month, — the garrison, 
 which consisted of about five thousand men, surren- 
 dering on parole. The army of the besiegers amounted 
 to about twelve thousand men. On the 18th of April 
 Scott attacked and took Cerro Gordo, — a mountain- 
 fastness of great strength, defended by fifteen thousand 
 Mexicans under the command of Santa Anna himself. 
 Subsequently were fought the battles of Churubusco, 
 (August 20,) Molino del Rey, (September 8,) and Cha- 
 pultepec, (September 13,) — all in the immediate vicinity 
 of the city of Mexico. Early in the morning of Sep- 
 tember 14 the army of General Scott entered the city 
 in triumph ; and at seven a.m. the American flag floated 
 over the National Palace. The treaty of Guadalupe 
 Hidalgo was signed February 2, 1848, and the Mexican 
 capital was soon after evacuated by the American forces. 
 
 In 1852, Scott was nominated by the Whig party as 
 their candidate for the Presidency ; but, in the subse- 
 quent election, General Pierce, the Democratic nominee, 
 was chosen President, Scott receiving the electoral vote 
 of but four States. In 1855 the honorary rank of lieu- 
 tenant-general was conferred upon Scott, with the pro- 
 vision that the title should cease at his death. 
 
 He worthily closed his long and illustrious public 
 career, by casting his powerful influence into the trem- 
 bling scale of his country's fortunes, at a time when not 
 only his native State, but a large number of his former 
 friends and comrades, in whom the nation once trusted 
 with unwavering confidence, were doing everything in 
 their power to strengthen the cause of rebellion. In 
 November, 1861, Scott resigned his active duties at 
 Washington, and retired to private life, though he re- 
 tained his full pay, according to a special provision 
 passed by Congress in the summer session. Having 
 sailed to Europe for his health, a few days after he 
 landed, the news of Mason and Slidell's capture arrived 
 in England. The danger of a war between Great 
 Britain and the United States appearing imminent, that 
 his country might not be deprived of his counsels or 
 services at so critical a moment, regardless of all merely 
 personal considerations, he at once returned to his 
 native shores. He soon after retired to his residence 
 in New York. He died at West Point in May, 1866. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Lieutenant-General Scott, written by Himself," 
 2 vols., 1864; Mansfield, " Life of General Scott," 1846; Heaui.ev, 
 " Life ot Scott," 1852 ; " National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished 
 Americans," vol. iv. : Mansfield, "Mexican War," 1848. 
 
 Scotti, skot'tee, (Giulio Ci.emente,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Piacenza in 1602. He joined the order 
 of Jesuits, but afterwards became their enemy. Among 
 his works is " Monarchia Solipsorum," (1645,) directed 
 against the Jesuits. Died in 1669. 
 
 Scotti, (Marceu.o,) a political writer, born at Naples 
 in 1742 ; died in 1800. 
 
 Scotus. See Scott and Duns Scotus. 
 
 Scotus, (Duns.) See Duns Scotus. 
 
 Scotus, (John.) See Erigena. 
 
 Scougal, skoo'gal, (Henry,) a Scottish divine ani 
 professor of philosophy at Al>erdeen, was born in East 
 Lothian in 1650. His principal work is entitled "The 
 Life of God in the Soul of Man," etc. Died in 1678. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Scoutetten, skoo'ti'tftN', (Robert Josepfi Henri,) 
 a French surgeon, born at Lille in 1799, has published a 
 number of medical works. 
 
 Scran'ton, (George W.,) an American manufacturer, 
 born in New Haven county, Connecticut, in 181 1. He 
 removed to Pennsylvania, and established iron-works at 
 Scranton, which was named in his honour. He repre- 
 sented the twelfth district of Pennsylvania in Congress 
 from 1859 until his death. He died in 1861. 
 
 Scribani, skRe-b.Vnee, (Chari.es,) a Flemish Jesuit, 
 born at Brussels in 1561. He wrote many theological 
 and polemical works. Died in 1629. 
 
 cas i; 9 as s: %hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N. nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (J^~\See Explanations, p. 23.' 
 
SCRIBE 
 
 1988 
 
 SEBA 
 
 Scribe. skReb,(AUGUSTW Eugene,) a popular French 
 tomic dramatist, born in Paris in 1791. He wrote comic 
 operas and vaudevilles in which the character and foibles 
 of the middle classes of Paris are well represented. He 
 employed many collaborators in the production of his 
 works, which are very numerous. In 1835 he was ad- 
 mitted into the French Academy, where Villemain re- 
 ceived him with a complimentary speech. Among his 
 works are "The Solicitor," (" Le Solliciteur," 1817,) 
 " Fra Diavolo," (1830,) "The Crown Diamonds," (1841,) 
 " The Glass of Water," ( 1 842,) and " Bertrand et Raton." 
 His plots are ingenious, and his dialogues natural and 
 animated. Died in 1861. 
 
 See L. DE Lomenie, " Galerie des Contemporains ;" Sainte- 
 Beuvh, " Portraits contemporains ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^- 
 rale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for May, 1832. 
 
 Scri-bo'nl-us Lar'gus Des-ig-na-tl-a'nus, (des- 
 ig-na-she-a'nus,) a Roman physician in the time of Tibe- 
 rius and Claudius, was the author of a work entitled 
 "On the Composition of Medicaments," (" De Compo- 
 sitione Medicamentorum.") 
 
 Scrim'zeor or Scrim'ger, (Henry,) a Scottish 
 critic, eminent for learning, was born at Dundee in 
 1506. He became professor of philosophy and civil 
 law at Geneva, where he died in 1571 or 1572. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminem Scotsmen." 
 
 Scriv'en, (Edward.) an English engraver in the 
 chalk and dotted manner, was born at Alcester in 1775. 
 He engraved portraits and illustrated various expensive 
 works lor the booksellers. Died in 1841. 
 
 Scriver,sl<Ree'ver,(CHRiSTiAN,)a German divine, born 
 at Kendsburg in 1629, was court preacher at Quedlinburg 
 in 1690. He was the author of "Gotthold's Emblems," 
 and other works. Died in 1693. 
 
 Scriverius. See Schryver. 
 
 Scroggs, (Sir William,) a English judge of ill repu- 
 tation, born in Oxfordshire in 1623. He was appointed 
 chief justice of the king's bench in 1678. Suspected of 
 collusion with Titus Oates in the Popish Plot, he was 
 removed in 1681. Died in 1683. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Chief Justices." 
 
 Scrope, (George Poulett Thomson,) an English 
 geologist, Fellow of the Royal Society, and a brother 
 of Lord Sydenham, was born in 1797. He published, 
 among other works, a treatise " On the Geology of Cen- 
 tral France," (1827,) and a "Life of Lord Sydenham," 
 . (1843.) He was elected to Parliament, as a Liberal, for 
 the borough of Stroud, in 1833. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1S47. 
 
 Scud'der, (Henry,) an English Presbyterian divine 
 of the time of Cromwell, was the author of a popular 
 work entitled "The Christian's Daily Walk." 
 - Scud'der, (John M.,) M.D., an American physician 
 and divine of the Dutch Reformed Church, was born at 
 New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1793. In 1819 he sailed 
 as a missionary to Ceylon, where he resided nineteen 
 years. He was the author of "The Redeemer's Last 
 Command," "Letters to Children on Missionary Sub- 
 jects," and other religious works. Died in 1855. 
 
 Scuderi or Scudery.de, deh skii'da're', (George,) 
 a French dramatist, was born at Havre about 1601. He 
 was patronized by Cardinal Richelieu, and his works 
 had great popularity in his time, but are now forgotten. 
 He was a member of the French Academv. Died in 1667. 
 
 Scuderi or Scudery, de, (Madeleine,) sister of the 
 preceding, was born in 1607. She wrote numerous ro- 
 mances, which were greatly admired by her contempo- 
 raries. Among these we may name " Artamene, 011 le 
 Grand Cyrus," (10 vols.,) " Clelie," (10 vols.,) and " Ibra- 
 ham, ou 1'illustre Bassa." She also published numerous 
 tales, fables, and poems. Mademoiselle de Scuderi was 
 the most distinguished member of the society which 
 met at the Hotel de Rambouillet, and which has been 
 immortalized by Moliere in his " Precieuses ridicules." 
 Died in 1701. 
 
 See Tali.emant des Reaux, " Historiettes ;" Niceron, "Me- 
 moires ; Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Scudery. See Scuderi. 
 
 Scultetus. See Schultet, Schultz, and Scultz 
 
 Scultz, skoolts, [Lat. Sculte'tus,] (Johann.) a 
 
 German surgeon, born at Ulm in 1595, was a pupil of 
 
 Spigelius. He was the author of "Armamentarium 
 Chirurgicum," a surgical work highly esteemed at the 
 time. Died in 1645. 
 
 Scylax, si'laks, [2iovla|,] a Greek mathematician and 
 geographer, was a native of Caryanda, near Halicarnas- 
 sus, and is supposed to have lived about 500 R.c. He 
 was the author of a " Periplus of the Parts beyond the 
 Columns of Hercules," which was first published by 
 Hoeschel in 1600. 
 
 Scy-lit'zes or Scy-lit'za, [iKv'AiTljic,] (John,) a 
 Byzantine historian, sometimes called Curopala'tes, 
 flourished about 1050-80. He wrote a valuable history 
 of the Greek Empire, 'Zivmpu; laropiuv. 
 
 See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography." 
 
 Scyl'la [Gr. 2/cfAXa] and -eha-ryb'dis, of classic 
 mythology, were represented as two monsters which in- 
 fested the strait between Italy and Sicily and rendered 
 the navigation of that passage very dangerous. They 
 were located one on each side of a narrow channel, 
 through which ships must pass, so that the mariner who 
 avoided one was apt to become a victim of the other, 
 as the proverb says, — 
 
 "Incidit in Scyllam qui vult vitare Charybdim." 
 
 The poets feigned that Scylla was a maiden transformed 
 by Circe into a monster that barked like a dog. Scylla 
 is, perhaps, the personification of a rock, and Charybdis 
 of a whirlpool. 
 
 Scymnus, sim'nus, [2/ay«'or,] of Chios, a Greek 
 geographer, who lived about 80 B.C., was the author of a 
 description of the earth, in Iambic verse, of which only 
 fragments are extant. 
 
 Seabury, see'ber-e, (Samuel,) D.D., an American 
 divine, born at Groton, Connecticut, in 1729. He grad- 
 uated at Yale College, and was chosen Bishop of Con- 
 necticut in 1783. Died in 1796. 
 
 Seabury, (Samuel,) D.D., an American divine of 
 the Episcopal Church, grandson of the preceding, was 
 born in 1801. He became editor of the New York 
 "Churchman" in 1834. He published "American Sla- 
 very Justified by the Law of Nature," (l86l,),and othet 
 works. 
 
 Seals'field, (Charles,) a litterateur, of German ex- 
 traction, resided many years in the United States, and be- 
 came associate editor of the "Courrier des Etats-Unis," 
 New York, in 1829. He published (in English) "Tokeah, 
 or the White Rose," and " Sketches of Transatlantic 
 Travels," "Pictures of Life from both Hemispheres," 
 and "South and North," (in German, 3 vols., 1842.) 
 Translations of portions of the three last-named works 
 appeared in "Blackwood's Magazine." Died in 1864. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 1846. 
 
 Sea'man, (Lazarus,) an English dissenter of the 
 seventeenth century, was one of the divines of the 
 Westminster Assembly. Died in 1675. 
 
 Sears, seerz, (Barnas,) D.D., an American divine 
 and scholar, born at Sandisfield, Massachusetts, in 1S02. 
 Having studied at several German universities, he be- 
 came, after his return, president of Brown University, 
 at Providence, (1855.) He has published, among other 
 works, "Ciceroniana ; or, The Prussian Mode of In- 
 struction in Latin," and a "Life of Luther, with Special 
 Reference to its Earlier Periods," etc., (1850.) He has 
 also contributed to the "Bibliotheca Sacra" and the 
 "Christian Review." 
 
 Sea'ton, (John Colborne,) Baron, an English 
 general and statesman, born in 1776. He served with 
 distinction in the Peninsular war, and was afterwards 
 appointed Governor of Canada. He obtained the 
 grand cross of the order of the Bath in 1838, was 
 made a general in 1854, and in 1855 commander of the 
 military forces in Ireland. Died in 1863. 
 
 Sea'tpn, (Willi\m Winston,) an American jour- 
 nalist, born in King William county, Virginia, in 1785, 
 was editor successively of the Petersburg "Republican" 
 and the " North Carolina Journal," and in 1812 became 
 associated with his brother-in-law, Mr. Gales, as editor 
 of the "National Intelligencer," at Washington. Died 
 in t866. 
 
 Seba, sa'ba, (Albert,) a Dutch amateur naturalist, 
 born in East Friesland in 1665, acquired a large fortune 
 
 I, e, I, o, 8, y. long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mgt; nflt; good; moon; 
 
SEBASTIAN 
 
 1989 
 
 SEDAINE 
 
 in the service of the Dutch East India Company, which 
 he spent in forming a museum of objects in natural his- 
 tory. This collection having been purchased by Peter 
 the Great of Russia, Seba made another, still larger, 
 which was esteemed the finest in Europe. He pub- 
 lished a description of his museum, in Latin and French, 
 (4 vols, fol.) He died in 1736, soon after which his col- 
 lection was sold at auction. 
 
 Sebastian, se-bast'yan, [Port. SebastiXo, sk-bas-te- 
 Bwn'j Fr. SEBASTIEN, si/bas'tg-^N'; Sp. SEBASTIAN, 
 si-bas-te-an'; Lat. Sebastia'nus,] Dom, King of Por- 
 tugal, and grandson of the emperor Charles V., was 
 born at Lisbon in 1554. He manifested at an early age 
 a passion for military adventure and romantic exploits. 
 In 1578 he took advantage of the dissensions which had 
 broken out in Morocco to invade that country, under 
 the pretext of assisting Muley Mohammed to recover his 
 throne, which had been usurped by his uncle, Abdul- 
 Melek (or -Malek.) He invaded Morocco, and was op- 
 posed by Abdul-Melek in a battle near Alcazar-quivir, 
 where Sebastian was defeated and killed in 1578. 
 
 See Bernardo da Cruz, "Chronica de Dom Sebastiao," 1837; 
 Barbosa Machado, "Memorias para a Historia de Portugal," 4 
 vols., 1736-51: "Noiivelle Biographie G^neYale;" Baena Pakeda, 
 " Vida de D. Sebastian," 1691. 
 
 Sebastian, [Lat. Sebastia'nus; Fr. Sebastien, si'- 
 bis'te4.N'; It. Sebastiano, sa-bas-te-a'no,] Saint, a 
 celebrated Christian martyr of the third century, is sup- 
 posed to have been a native of Narbonne, in France. 
 He served as a captain in the praetorian guard under 
 Diocletian. Having refused to abjure his faith, he was 
 tied to a tree and pierced with arrows, a.d. 288. His 
 martyrdom has been a favourite subject with the painters 
 of the middle ages, and his protection is invoked by the 
 Catholics against pestilence. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, " Sacred and Legendary Art" 
 
 Sebastian del Piombo. See Piombo. 
 
 Sebastiani, sa-bas-te-a'nee or sa'bSs'te'i'ne', (Hor- 
 ace FRANCOIS,) Count, a distinguished general and 
 diplomatist in the French service, was born in Corsica 
 about 1775. He took part in the Italian campaigns of 
 1796 and 1799, and rose to be general of brigade in 1802. 
 He afterwards served in Austria, Spain, ftnd Russia. 
 He was appointed minister of marine after the revolution 
 of 1S30 by Louis Philippe, and subsequently minister of 
 foreign affairs. In 1835 he was ambassador to Loudon, 
 and was made a marshal of France in 1840. Died in 1851. 
 
 See L. de Lomenie, " M. le Comte de Sebastiani," 1841 ; 
 " Noiivelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Sebastiani, (Jean Andre Tiburce,) Viscount, a 
 general, a brother of the preceding, was born in Cor- 
 sica in 1788. He took part in the Spanish campaigns 
 from, 1808 to 181 1, and accompanied the grand army to 
 Russia in 1812. He was made a lieutenant-general after 
 the revolution of 1830, and received the grand cross of 
 the legion of honour in 1845. 
 
 Sebastiano. See Sebastian. 
 
 Sebastiauus. See Sebastian. 
 
 Sebastiao. See Sebastian. 
 
 Sebastien. See Sebastian. 
 
 Seber, sa'ber or za'ljer, (Wolfgang,) a German 
 scholar and divine, born at Sula in 1 573, published an 
 "Index of all the Words in Homer," ("Index omnium 
 in Homero Verborum,") and editions of several Greek 
 classics. Died in 1634. 
 
 Sebonde, de, da sa-bon'di, or Sabunde, sa-boon'- 
 di, (RAYMOND,) a Spanish physician and theologian, 
 bom at Barcelona, became professor of medicine, phi- 
 losophy, and divinity at Toulouse. He was the author 
 of "Theologia Naturalis," (1496,) which was translated 
 into French by Montaigne. Died about 1432. 
 
 See Bavlk, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" J. H01.BERG, 
 " De Theologia Natural! R. de Sebonde," 1846, 
 
 Sebron, sa'l)R6N', (Hivpolyte,) a French painter, 
 born in 1801, was a pupil of Daguerre. 
 
 Sechelles. See HERAULT des Secheu.es. 
 
 Seckendorf, von, fon s6k'en-doRf or zek'en-doRf*, 
 (CHRISTIAN Adolf,) Baron, a German dramatist and 
 poet, bom in 1767; died in 1833. 
 
 Seckendorf, von, (Friedreich Heinrich,) Count, 
 a German commander and diplomatist, born at Konigs- 
 
 berg, in Franconia, in 1673, was a nephew of Veit Lud- 
 wig, noticed below. He served against the Turks under 
 Prince Eugene, and in the war of the Spanish succes- 
 sion, and subsequently entered the army of Augustus 
 II. of Poland. As Polish ambassador at the Hague, he 
 assisted in negotiating the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. 
 Created field-marshal-lieutenant in 1717, he fought under 
 Eugene at the battle of Belgrade, and was soon after 
 made a count of the empire, general of ordnance, and 
 governor of Leipsic. He concluded the treaty of Wus- 
 terhausen, in 1726. On the death of Eugene he became 
 commander-in-chief of the Austrian army at Belgrade. 
 Died in 1763. 
 
 See Theresius von Seckendorf, " Lebeusbeschreibung dea 
 Grafen von Seckendorf," 1792-94 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Genii- 
 rale." 
 
 Seckendorf, von, (Gustav,) Baron, a German 
 writer, known by the pseudonym of Patrick Peale, 
 born near Altenburg in 1775, was author of a number 
 of dramas and prose essavs. He died in America 
 in 1823. 
 
 Seckendorf, von, (Leo.) Baron, a German litti- 
 rateur, brother of Christian Adolf, noticed above, was 
 born near Hassfurt about 1773 ; died in 1809. 
 
 Seckendorf, von, (Veit Ludwig,) an eminent 
 German statesman, scholar, and theologian, born near 
 Krlangen in 1626. In 1691 he was appointed by the 
 Elector Frederick III. (afterwards Frederick I. of Prus- 
 sia) his privy councillor, and made chancellor of the 
 University of Halle. He was the author of a political 
 work entitled " Deutsche Furstenstaat," (1665,) "His- 
 torical and Apologetical Commentary on Lutheranism," 
 "Compendium of Ecclesiastical History," (both in 
 Latin, 1666,) and "Christenstaat," a defence of Chris- 
 tianity against the infidel philosophers. Died in 1692. 
 
 See Schkeber, "Historia Vitae V. L. a Seckendorf," 1733; 
 Pipping, " Memorias Theologorum." 
 
 Seck'er, (Thomas,) an eminent English prelate, born 
 at Nottingham in 1693. He studied at an academy for 
 dissenters at Tewkesbury, where Butler, the author of 
 the "Analogy," was one of his fellow-students. He 
 afterwards conformed to the Church of England, entered 
 Exeter College, Oxford, and was ordained in 1723. He 
 was made Bishop of Bristol, (1735,) of Oxford, (1737,) 
 and Archbishop of Canterbury, (175S.) He died in 1768, 
 leaving a number of sermons, lectures, etc. 
 
 See Bkilby Porteus, "Review of the Life and Character of 
 Archbishop Seeker." 
 
 Second, (Jean.) See Everard, (Joannes.) 
 
 Secondat, de. See Montesquieu, de. 
 
 Secondat, de, deh seh-koN'dS', (Jean Baptiste.) 
 Baron, a son of the celebrated Montesquieu, was born 
 near Bordeaux in 1716. He wrote several scientific 
 treatises. Died in 1796. 
 
 Secondo, sa-kon'do, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian 
 lawyer and litterateur, born at Lucera'in 1 715. Among 
 his works is a " Life of Julius Caesar," (" Storia della 
 Vita di C. Giulio Cesare," 3 vols., 1777.) Died in 1798. 
 
 Secousse, seh-kocss', (Denis Franqois,) a French 
 historical writer, born in Paris in 1691. He was a 
 member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and held the 
 office of censor royal. He published "Memoires de 
 Conde," (5 vols., 1743,) "Memoirs towards the History 
 of Charles the Bad," (1755-58,) a "Collection of Royal 
 Ordinances," and other works. Died in 1754. 
 
 Secretan, sa'kreh-tan'? (Louis,) a Swiss writer and 
 politician, born at Lausanne in 1758. He was a member 
 of the executive directory in 1799. Died in 1839. 
 
 Secundus, (Joannes.) See Everard, (Joannes.) 
 
 Sedaine, sa'd&n', (Michel Jean,) a popular French 
 dramatist, born in Paris in 1719. Among his principal 
 works are the comedies entitled " The Philosopher with- 
 out knowing it," (" Le Philosophe sans le savoir,") 
 "The Unexpected Wager," ("La Gageure imprevue,") 
 and " Raimond, Count of Toulouse ;" also the operas 
 of "Aline, Queen of Golconda," "Amphitryon," " Rich- 
 ard CutMir-de-Lion," and "William Telk" He was 
 chosen a member of the French Academy in 1786. 
 Died in 1797. 
 
 See Madame de Sai.m-Dyck, " filnge de Sijdaine," 1797; 
 "Noiivelle Biographie G<ne>ale ;" La Harps, "Cours de Lit- 
 erature." 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; I as »; th as in this. (JE^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SEDJKO 
 
 1990 
 
 S ED LET 
 
 Sedano, de, da sa-da'no, (Don Juan Jose Lopez,) 
 a Spanish antiquary, born at Alcala de Henares in 1729, 
 published a " Dissertation on the Medals and Ancient 
 Monuments found in Spain," a compilation of poems 
 entitled "The Spanish Parnassus," and other works. 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 Sed'dpti, (James A.,) an American politician and 
 lawyer, born in Virginia. He was elected a member of 
 Congress in 1845 and in 1849. He was appointed secre- 
 tary of war of the Confederate States about November, 
 1862, and retained that office until January, 1865. 
 
 Sedecias, the French for Zedekiah, (King of Judah,) 
 which see. 
 
 S6dg'wick, (Adam,) an eminent English geologist, 
 born at Dent, in Yorkshire, in 1785 or 17S6. He was 
 educated at Cambridge, and became a Fellow of Trinity 
 College in 1809. He obtained in 1818 the chair of' 
 geology founded at Cambridge by Dr. Woodward, and 
 became a canon of Norwich in 1834. Professor Sedgwick 
 gave much attention to the crystalline and palaeozoic 
 rocks, and contributed greatly to the progress of geology 
 in England. Among his works is a " Synopsis of the 
 Classification of the British Palaeozoic Rocks." He is 
 reputed to have written an able criticism which appeared 
 in the "Edinburgh Review" on a book called " Vestiges 
 of Creation." 
 
 Sedgwick, (Amy,) (Mrs. Parkes,) a popular Eng- 
 lish actress, born at Bristol in 1835. 
 
 SSdg'wick, (Catherine Maria,) an eminent Amer- 
 ican writer and moralist, daughter of Judge Sedgwick, 
 noticed below, was born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, 
 in 1789. Her first publication, entitled " The New Eng- 
 land Tale," (1822,) was received with great favour, and 
 was followed by " Redwood," a novel, (1824.) Her tale 
 of " Hope Leslie" came out in 1827, and soon obtained 
 a wide popularity in America and Europe, having been 
 translated into German. Her other novels are entitled 
 " Clarence, or a Tale of our Own Times," (1830,) " The 
 Linwoods," (1835,) and "Married or Single," (1857.) 
 She also wrote numerous popular tales for the young, 
 which are among the most valuable and attractive works 
 of the kind. Among these may be named the " Love- 
 Token for Children," " Poor Rich Man and Rich Poor 
 Man," " Live and Let Live," " Means and Ends of Self- 
 Training," and " Morals of Manners." Having visited 
 Europe, Miss Sedgwick published in 1841 " Letters from 
 Abroad to Kindred at Home." She contributed to 
 Sparks's " American Biography" the " Life of Lucretia 
 Maria Davidson," and wrote a number of tales for the 
 leading periodicals. Died in 1867. 
 
 See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America ;" Harriet Mar- 
 tineau, article in "Westminster Review" for October, 1837 ; " North 
 American Review" for April, 1825. April, 1828. January. 1831, and 
 October, 1837; "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Ameri- 
 cans," vol. i. 
 
 Sedgwick, (John,) an able American general, born 
 in Connecticut about 181 5, graduated at West Point in 
 1837. He served in the Mexican war as first lieutenant, 
 (1846-47,) and was a lieutenant-colonel in the regular 
 army when the civil war began. He obtained command 
 of a brigade in August, 1861, distinguished himself at 
 Fair Oaks, May 31 and June 1, 1862, and took part in 
 the Seven Days' battles, June 26 to July 1. Having 
 displayed great courage and skill at Antietam, Septem- 
 ber 16 and 17, he was raised to the rank of major-general 
 in December. He commanded a corps at the battle of 
 Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863, and in the army which 
 (!rant moved towards Richmond. He was killed near 
 Spottsylvania Court-House on the 9th of May, 1864. 
 
 See Tenney, " Military and Naval History of the Rebellion," p. 
 777- 
 
 Sedgwick, (Ouadiah,) an English Puritan divine, 
 born in Wiltshire in 1600. lie was preacher at Saint 
 Paul's, London, and a member of the Westminster 
 Assembly. He was the author of " The Anatomy 
 of Secret Sins," and other religious works. Died in 
 1658. 
 
 Sedgwick, (Robert,) an ancestor of Theodore Sedg- 
 wick, was a major-general in the army of Cromwell. 
 He was one of the early settlers of Charlestown, Mas- 
 sachusetts. He took Port Royal from the French. Died 
 in Jamaica in 1656. 
 
 Sedgwick, (Susan Ridley,) wife of Theodore Sedg- 
 wick, (the second of the name,) has published several 
 fictitious works and juvenile tales, among which we may 
 name "The Young Emigrants," "The Morals of Pleas- 
 ure," (1829,) "The Children's Week," (1830,) "Allen 
 Prescott," (1834,) and " Walter Thornley," (1859.) 
 
 Sedgwick, (Theodore,) an able American jurist 
 and statesman, born at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1746. 
 He entered the army on the breaking out of the Revo- 
 lutionary war, and in 1785 was elected to the Continental 
 Congress, in which he served until 1 796. He became a 
 United States Senator in 1796, and was chosen Speaker 
 of the House of Representatives in 1799. He was ap- 
 pointed in 1802 judge of the supreme court of Massa- 
 chusetts. In this post he was conspicuous for his earn- 
 est opposition to slavery; and to his efforts was owing, 
 in a great degree, the abolition of that institution in Mas- 
 sachusetts. He resided many years at Stockbridge, to 
 which he removed in 1785. He was an active member 
 of the Federal party, and was a communicant in the 
 church of Dr. Channing in Boston, where he died in 
 January, 1813. 
 
 Sedgwick, (Theodore,) an American jurist, born at 
 Sheffield, Massachusetts, in 1780, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. He was the author of a work entitled "Public 
 and Private Economy, illustrated by Observations made 
 in Europe in 1836-7." As a member of the State legis- 
 lature, he was an earnest advocate of the anti-slavery, 
 temperance, and other reforms. Died in 1839. 
 
 See Ihe " Democratic Review" for February, 1840. 
 
 Sedgwick, (Theodore,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Albany in 181 1. He graduated at Columbia 
 College in 1829, and subsequently made the tour of 
 Europe. He obtained a high reputation and extensive 
 practice as a lawyer, and published several legal works 
 of great merit. Among these we may name his "Treat- 
 ise on the Measure of Damages, or an Inquiry into the 
 Principles which govern the Amount of Compensation 
 recovered in Suits at Law," (1847.) In 1858 he was 
 appointed United States attorney for the southern dis- 
 trict of New York. Died in 1859. 
 
 Sedgwick, (William,) an English Puritan, was 
 called " the^Apostle of Ely," also "Doomsday Sedgwick," 
 from his prophecies of the end of the world being near. 
 Died about 1669. 
 
 Sedillot, sa'de'yo', (Charles Emmanuel,) a skilful 
 French physician and surgeon, born in Paris in 1804, 
 was appointed in 1841 professor of surgical clinics in the 
 Faculty of Medicine at Strasbourg. He published a 
 "Manual of Legal Medicine," (1830,) and other works. 
 
 Sedillot, (Jean,) a French physician, born near 
 Rambouillet in 1757. He founded in 1797 the "Journal 
 of Medicine, Surgerv, and Pharmacy," which he edited 
 for twenty years. Died in 1840. 
 
 Sedillot, (Jean Jacques Emmanuel,) a French 
 Orientalist, the father of Charles Emmanuel, noticed 
 above, was born at Montmorency in 1777 ; died in 1832. 
 
 Sedillot, (Louis Pierre Eugene Amei.ie,) a French 
 Orientalist, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris 
 in 1808. He was successively appointed professor of 
 history in the Colleges of Bourbon and Saint Louis, 
 secretary in the College of France, and of the school for 
 living Oriental tongues. Among his numerous works 
 we may name " Letters on some Points of Oriental 
 Astronomy," (1834,) "New Researches towards the 
 History of Mathematical Science among the Orientals," 
 (1837,) and a "History of the Arabs," (18,4) 
 
 Sed'ley, (Catherine,) a daughter of Sir Charles 
 Sedley, "whose abilities and impudence," says Mac- 
 aulay, "she inherited." She became the mistress of 
 James II., who gave her the title of Countess of Dor- 
 chester. She co-operated with the king's ministers in 
 resisting his infatuated purpose to hazard the loss of the 
 throne by his zeal for popery. Died in 1692. 
 
 See Macaulay, "History of England." chap. vi. 
 
 Sedley, (Sir Charles,) an English poet and drama- 
 tist, born in Kent in 1639, was distinguished at the 
 court of Charles II. for his wit and profligacy. He was 
 a member of Parliament from New Romney, Kent, and 
 after the revolution of 1688 he joined the party of the 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long;; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
SEDVLIVS 
 
 1991 
 
 SEG UIER 
 
 Prince of Orange. He was the author of tragedies 
 entitled "Antony and Cleopatra" and "The Tyrant 
 King of Crete," also a number of comedies and licen- 
 tious poems. Died in 1701. 
 
 Se-du'11-us, (C/EL1US,) a Roman poet and Christian 
 of the fifth century, was the author of "Mirabilium Di- 
 vinorum," being portions of the history of the Bible, in 
 hexameter verse, a "Hymnus" in praise of Christ, and 
 other similar works. 
 
 Seebach, sa'baK or za'baK, (Marik,) a popular Ger- 
 man actress, born at Riga in 1837. After she had 
 acquired a European reputation, she visited the United 
 States in 1870. 
 
 Seebach, von, fon za'baK, (Albin Leo,) a German 
 diplomatist, born at Langensalza in 181 1. He became 
 ambassador from Saxony to Saint Petersburg in 1847, 
 and to Paris in 1853. 
 
 Seebeck, sa'bek or za'bek, (Johann Thomas,) a 
 German natural philosopher, born at Reval in 1770, be- 
 came a resident of Nuremberg about 1812. He afterwards 
 removed to Berlin, and was a member of the Royal 
 Academy of that city. He made discoveries in optics, and 
 invented the thermo-electric pile, (1821.) Died in 1831. 
 
 See "Biographie Univeiselle," (new edition.) 
 
 Seebode, sa'bo'deh or za'bo'deh, (Joachim Gott- 
 fried,) a German philologist, born in 1792. He edited 
 the works of Tacitus and Thucydides. Died in i860. 
 
 Seed, (Jeremiah,) an English divine, born in Cum- 
 berland, published a number of Sermons, Letters, 
 Essays, etc. He preached at Twickenham and Enham. 
 Died in 1747. 
 
 Seekatz, sa'kats or za'kats, (Johann Konrad,) a 
 German painter of superior merit, born at Griinstadt in 
 1719 ; died in 1768. 
 
 Seelen, von, fon sa'len or za'len, (J. H.,) a German 
 philologist, born at Bremen in 1687; died in 1762. 
 
 Seeta. See Sh'A. 
 
 Seetzen, sat'sen or zat'sen, (Ui.rich Jasper,) a 
 German naturalist, born near Oldenburg in 1767, 
 travelled in Palestine, Egypt, and Arabia, and made a 
 valuable collection of manuscripts and objects in natural 
 history, now in the museum at Gotha. He is said to 
 have adopted the Moslem religion. He died near Mocha, 
 Arabia, in 181 1. 
 
 Seeva. See Siva. 
 
 Sefi, sSPee, written also Suffee, originally Sanv 
 Meerza, (Mirz&,) sSm meer'zS, Sultan of Persia, was 
 a grandson of Abbas the Great. He began to reign in 
 1628, and committed great excesses of cruelty. lie was 
 involved in war with the Turkish Sultan Amurath IV., 
 who took Bagdad. Died in 1642. 
 
 Sefstrom or Sefstroem, seY'strbm, (Nils Gabriel,) 
 a Swedish chemist, born at Helsingland in 1787. He dis- 
 covered the metal Vanadium about 1830. Died in 1854. 
 
 Segalas, sa'git'lSs', (Pierre Salomon,) a French 
 physician, born at Saint-Palais in 1792, published a 
 number of medical works. 
 
 Se'gar, (Sir William,) an English magistrate and 
 writer, held the office of Garter king-at-arms. He pub- 
 lished a work entitled " Honour, Civil and Military." 
 Died in 1633. 
 
 Seghers or Segers, sa'gers or sa'ners, (Daniel,) a 
 Dutch painter of fruit- and flower-pieces, born at Antwerp 
 in 1590, was a pupil of Breughel. He attained great ex- 
 cellence in his department of the art, and was employed 
 by Rubens to paint the flowers in some of his historical 
 pictures. Died in 1660. 
 
 Seghers, (Geraart,) brother or cousin of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Antwerp about 1589. He studied 
 painting at Rome, and afterwards visited Spain, where 
 he was patronized by the court. His works are chiefly 
 historical. Died in 1651. 
 
 Segneri, san-ya'ree, (Paolo,) an Italian Jesuit and 
 celebrated pulpit orator, born near Rome in 1624. He 
 filled the post of preacher to Pope Innocent XII. His 
 "Quaresimale," or sermons for Lent, are esteemed 
 among the best productions of the kind in the language. 
 Died in 1694. 
 
 See G. Masse! or Maffhi, "Vita del P. Segneri," 1717; Mr- 
 npghki.i.i, " Elogio storico di P. Segneri," 1815; Niceron, "Mi- 
 moires ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura ltaliana." 
 
 Segneri, (Paolo,) a nephew of the preceding, was 
 born at Rome in 1673. He was a Jesuit and a noted 
 preacher. Died in 17 13. 
 
 See Galuzzi, "Vita del P. Segneri Juniore," 1716. 
 
 Segni, san'yee, (Bernardo,) an Italian historian, 
 born at Florence in the fifteenth century. His principal 
 work, a " History of Florence from 1527 to 1555," has 
 a high reputation. He also translated several works of 
 Aristotle into Italian. Died in 1559. 
 
 Segrais, de, deh seh-gR&', (Jean Regnauld,) a 
 French poet and novelist, born at Caen in 1624. He 
 was secretary of Mademoiselle de Montpensier for many 
 years. He translated Virgil into verse, and wrote pas- 
 toral poems, the style of which was praised by Boileau. 
 Died in 1701. 
 
 See Brhuif, "Segrais, sa Vie et ses CEnvres," 1863; Niceron, 
 "Memoires;" A. Galland, " Segraisiana," 1720; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 jguier, sa'ge-a', (Antoine,) a French -judge, born 
 
 in Paris in 1552, was a son of Pierre, (1504-80.) He 
 was appointed advocate-general in 1587, was loyal to 
 the king during the League, and defended the liberty 
 of the Gallican Church against Pope Gregory XIV. 
 Died in 1624. 
 
 Seguier, (Antoine Jean Mathieu,) a French judge, 
 born in Paris in 1768. He was appointed president of 
 the court of appeal, Paris, in 1802, and retained that 
 position more than forty years. Died in 1848. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Seguier, (Antoine Louis,) a celebrated French jurist 
 and orator, born in Paris in 1726, was the father of the 
 preceding. Appointed advocate-general in the Parlia- 
 ment of Paris in 1755, he soon acquired the highest 
 reputation for eloquence, legal knowledge, and integrity. 
 In 1757 he succeeded Fontenelle as a member of the 
 French Academy. Died in 1792. 
 
 See Portaus, " FJoged'A. L. Seguier," 1S06; Voltaire, " Let- 
 tres;" Sapev, " Les Siguier;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Seguier, (Armand Pierre,) Baron, a French ad- 
 vocate, a son of Antoine Jean Mathieu, noticed above, 
 was born at Montpellier in 1803. He became about 
 1830 a councillor at the royal court of Paris. In 1848 
 he resigned his functions and devoted himself to works of 
 mechanism. He is noted for his mechanical skill and 
 knowledge of machines, and is a member of the Institute. 
 
 Seguier, (Jean Francois,) a French antiquary and 
 naturalist, born at Nimes in 1703, vvas related to the 
 eminent jurists of that name. He was an intimate friend 
 of Scipio Maffei, in conjunction with whom he made a 
 large collection of ancient inscriptions. He died in 1784, 
 leaving his museum of medals and objects in natural 
 history to the Academy of Nimes. He translated into 
 French the " Memoirs of Alexander, Marquis of Maffei," 
 and wrote a work entitled "Bibliotheca Botanica." 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Seguier, (Nicolas Maximii.ien Sidoine,) Marquis 
 de Saint- Brisson, a French writer, bom at Beauvais in 
 1773. Among his works is an " Essay on Polytheism," 
 (2 vols., 1840.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Seguier, (Pierre,) an eminent French jurist and 
 magistrate, born in Paris in 1504. He rose through 
 several important offices to be president a mortier in 
 1554, and, while filling this post, was chiefly instrumental 
 in preventing the introduction of the Inquisition into 
 France. He died in 1580, leaving six sons, who were 
 distinguished for their legal attainments. 
 
 See MoRERI, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Seguier, (Pierre,) an eminent French statesman 
 and patron of learning, born in Paris in May, 1588, was 
 a grandson of the preceding, and a son of Jean Seguier. 
 He became chancellor of France in 1635, and retained 
 that office (except for short intervals) until his death. 
 He was a friend of Richelieu, with whom he shares the 
 honour of being the founder of the French Academy, of 
 which he was president. Voltaire praised his fidelity in 
 these terms, — " Toujours fidele dans un temps oil c'etait 
 un merite de ne pas l'etre," (" Always faithful in a time 
 when it was a merit not to be so.") Died in 1672. 
 
 See F1.0QUBT, " Diaire du Chancelier Siguier," 1842; Sapey, 
 " Les Siguier ;" F. Tat.i.emant, " Fjloge funebre de P. Seguier," 
 1672; "Nouvelle Biographie Ginerale;" " Biographie Univeiselle.' 
 
 € as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as 2; th as in this. (2y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SEGUR 
 
 1992 
 
 SELDEN 
 
 Segur, de, deh sa'guV, (Henri Francois,) Comte, 
 a French soldier, born in 1689, served with distinction 
 in Spain and Italy, and was made lieutenant-general in 
 1738. Died in 1751. 
 
 Segur, de, (J0SKPH Alexandre,) Vicomte, brother 
 of Count Louis Philippe, was born in Paris in 1756. 
 He was the author of "Romances and Songs," "Women : 
 their Condition and Influence in the Social Order," 
 (1820,) and numerous comedies, operas, and romances. 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 See Qubrard, "La France Litte'raire." 
 
 Segur, de, (Louis Philippe,) Comte, a French diplo- 
 matist and litterateur, born in Paris in 1753, was a son 
 of Philippe Henri, noticed below. He served under 
 Rochambeau in the American war, and after its ter- 
 mination was appointed in 1784 ambassador to Saint 
 Petersburg, where he was treated with great distinc- 
 tion by Catherine II. He was elected to the National 
 Assembly after the breaking out of the French Revolu- 
 tion, and in 1792 was sent on a mission to the court 
 of Prussia. He was chosen a member of the French 
 Academy in 1803, and was subsequently made a peer 
 by Louis XVIII. He published a " Historical and 
 Political Picture of Europe from 1786 to 1796," " Moral 
 and Political Tales," " Universal History, Ancient and 
 Modern," (1819,) "Moral and Political Gallery," and 
 " Memoirs, Souvenirs, and Anecdotes," (3 vols., 1824.) 
 The last-named, a very entertaining and attractive work, 
 obtained great popularity. Died in 1830. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene"rale ;" Sain te-Beuve, notice in 
 the " Revue des Deux Mondes" for May 15, 1843. 
 
 Segur, de, (Philippe Henri,) Marquis, son of 
 Henri Francois, noticed above, was born in 1724. He 
 served with distinction in the Italian and German cam- 
 paigns of Louis XV., and attained the rank of lieutenant- 
 general. He was appointed minister of war in 1780, and 
 marshal of France in 1783. Died in 1801. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Segur, de, (Philippe Paul,) Comte, a general and 
 historian, born in Paris in 1780, was a son of Louis 
 Philippe, noticed above. He became an officer of Bo- 
 naparte's staff, and obtained the confidence of that chief, 
 who employed him in several foreign missions. He 
 served as a general of the imperial staff in the campaign 
 of Russia. He wrote a " History of Napoleon and the 
 Grand Army in 1812," (1824,) which had great success, 
 and a " History of Russia and Peter the Great," (1S29.) 
 In 1830 he was admitted into the French Academy. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 S6gur d'Aguesseau, de, deh sa'giiR' df'gVso', 
 (Raymond Joseph Paul,) Comte, born in Paris in 
 1803, studied law, and became a senator in 1852. 
 
 Seguy, seh-ge', (Joseph,) a French preacher and 
 poet, born at Kodez in 1689, became a member of the 
 French Academy in 1736. Died in 1761. 
 
 Seidl, sld'l or zid'l, (Johann Gahriel,) an Austrian 
 litterateur and antiquary, born at Vienna in 1804, was 
 appointed in 1840 keeper of the cabinet of coins and 
 antiques at Vienna. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1852. 
 
 Seignelay, de. See Colhert, (Jean Baptiste.) 
 
 Seiler, si'lerorzi'ler, (Georg Fkiedrich,) a German 
 writer, born near Baireuth in 1733, became in 1770 pro- 
 fessor of theology at Krlangen. Died in 1807. 
 
 Seiss, seess, (Joseph Augustus,) D. D., a learned 
 Lutheran divine, born near Emmetsburg, Maryland, in 
 1823, became in 1858 the pastor of Saint John's Church, 
 Philadelphia. He has published, besides many other 
 works, sermons, etc., " The Last Times and the Great 
 Consummation," (1856 ; 6th edition, 1864.) 
 
 Seisael, de, deh si's£l', (Claude,) a French histo- 
 rian, born in Savoy about 1450. He became Bishop of 
 Marseilles in 1509. He wrote, besides other works, " La 
 grande Monarchic de France," (1519.) Died in 1520. 
 
 Sejan. See Set an us. 
 
 Sejan, sa'zhfi.N', (Nicolas.) a French composer and 
 excellent organist, born in Paris in 1745 ; died in 1819. 
 
 Se-ja'nus, [Fr. Sejan, sa'zho\',| (Lucius /Elius,) 
 a celebrated Roman courtier and favourite of the em- 
 peror Tiberius, was born at Vulsinii, in Etruria. He 
 
 rose through various promotions to be commander-in- 
 chief of the praetorian cohorts, and, aiming at the im- 
 perial power, soon after effected the death of Drusus, son 
 of the emperor, by poison, in 23 A.D., having previously 
 seduced Livia, the wife of Drusus, and made her an 
 accomplice in his crime. With a view of obtaining the 
 sole direction of public affairs, he induced Tiberius to 
 retire to the island of Caprex, and subsequently caused 
 Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, and her sons, to be 
 put to death. The emperor, aroused at length to sus- 
 picion, deprived Sejanus of his office, and ordered him 
 to be arrested and executed, 31 a.d. 
 
 See Tacitus, "Annales;" J. Arrhenius, " Dissertatio de Se- 
 jano," 1696; Merivale, "The Romans under the Empire." 
 
 Sejour, sa'zhooR', (Victor,) a French dramatist, 
 born in Paris about 1816. 
 
 Sel'bjf, (PrideauxJohn,) an English ornithologist, 
 was the author of " Figures of British Birds," (Edin- 
 burgh, 1821,) which, says Professor Wilson, "is perhaps 
 the most splendid work of the kind ever published in 
 Britain," and of a " History of British Forest-Trees," 
 (London, 1842.) Died in 1867. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for November, 1826, and June, 
 1828. 
 
 Sel'dea, (Dudley,) an American lawyer, practised 
 his profession in New York with distinction, and was 
 elected to Congress in 1833. Died in Paris in 1855. 
 
 Sel'den, (John,) a celebrated English lawyer and 
 statesman, born at Salvington, in Sussex, or. the t6th 
 of December, 1584. He was educated at Oxford, which 
 he quitted about 1602, and entered the Inner Temple, 
 London, in 1604. He was an intimate friend of Ben 
 Jonson. He was profoundly versed in history, lan- 
 guages, antiquities, etc. His first work was " Analecton 
 Anglo-Britannicon," (1606.) In 1614 he published a 
 work " On Titles of Honour," which was highly esteemed. 
 His reputation was augmented by a learned treatise 
 "On Syrian Divinities," (" De Diis Syris," 1617.) In 
 1623 he was elected to Parliament, in which he acted 
 with the country party, or opposition. He was one of 
 the managers of the prosecution of the Duke of Buck- 
 ingham, in 1626-28. In the session of 1629 Selden was 
 a prominent opponent of the arbitrary measures of the 
 king, who committed him, with other leaders, to the 
 Tower. After he had passed eight months in prison, the 
 court offered to release him if he would give security for 
 his good behaviour, which he refused to do. He was 
 then transferred to another place of confinement, and 
 detained until 1634. In 1635 he published a celebrated 
 work entitled the " Closed Sea," (" Mare Clausum,") in 
 which he claimed for England the exclusive use of the 
 sea. This was written to refute the work of Grotius 
 called " Open Sea," (" Mare Liberum.") He represented 
 the University of Oxford in the Long Parliament, which 
 met in 1640. In the contest between the king and the 
 Parliament he pursued a moderate or irresolute course. 
 He opposed the execution of the Earl of Strafford, but 
 subscribed the Covenant in 1643, and was one of the lay 
 members of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster. 
 Among his important works are one "On the Law of 
 Nature and of Nations according to the Teaching of 
 the Hebrews," ("De Jure natural! et Gentium juxta 
 Disciplinam Hebraeorum," 1640,) and " A Commentary 
 on English Law," (" Fleta, seu Commentarius Juris 
 Anglicani," 1647.) Selden remained in Parliament until 
 1650 or later. His latter years were passed in the house 
 of the Countess-dowager of Kent, to whom it was re- 
 ported he was married. He died in November, 1654. 
 His character is highly extolled by men of both parties, 
 including Clarendon, who says, "Mr. Selden was a 
 person whom no character can flatter or transmit in any 
 expressions equal to his merit and virtue." " His say- 
 ings," says Hallam, "are full of vigour, raciness, and a 
 kind of scorn of the half-learned far less rude but more 
 cutting than that of Scaliger. It has been said that 
 the Table-Talk of Selden is worth all the Ana of the 
 Continent. In this I should be disposed to concur." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of B^urope.") 
 
 See W11.KINS, " Life of Seidell," 1726 ; J. Aikin, " Life of John 
 Selden," 1812 ; G.W.Johnson, "Memoirs of J. Seidell." 1835; 
 "Selden's Table Talk," 1680: "London Quarterly Review" for 
 January, 1856: Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 ii, e, !, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SELDJOUKIDES 
 
 '993 
 
 SELWYN 
 
 Seldjoukides. See SUJOOKIDB& 
 Seldschukeu or Seldschukiden. See Seljoo- 
 
 Kims. 
 
 Se-le'ne, [Gr. "ZsTj/vt] ; Fr. Sfii.ENE, si'ljn'; I.at. 
 Lu'na,] the goddess of the moon, sometimes called 
 Mene or PlKEiiE. She was said to he a daughter of 
 Helios or Hyperion, and by some writers was identified 
 with Diana, (which see.) 
 
 Seleucidse, se-lu'sl-de, the name of the dynasty 
 founded l>v Seleucus Nicator. (See next article.) 
 
 Se-leu'cus [Gr. 2eA£tMcoc[ I., surnamed Nica'tor, 
 founder of the dynasty of the Seleucida?, was the son 
 of Antiochus, a general in the service of Philip of Mace- 
 don. He rose to the highest rank in the army of Alex- 
 ander the Great, and, after the death of that sovereign, 
 became Satrap of Babylonia about 321 B.C. He subse- 
 quently carried on a war against Antigonus and his son 
 Demetrius, which resulted in his obtaining possession 
 of Media, Bactria, and other large portions of Asia, and 
 forming thereby the Syrian monarchy. Having set out 
 on an expedition against Macedonia, he was assassinated 
 by Ptolemy Ceraunus, 280 B.C. He founded the cities 
 of Antioch and Seleucia, (or, more correctly, Seleuceia,) 
 and was a liberal patron of learning. He was highly 
 distinguished for military ability. He was succeeded by 
 his son, Antiochus I. 
 
 Se-leu'cus Cal-H-nl'cus, son of Antiochus II., as- 
 cended the throne of Syria in 246 B.C. He carried on 
 wars with the Egyptians and Parthians. Died about 
 226 B.C. 
 
 Seleu'cus III. Qe-rau'nus, King of Syria, was a 
 son of Seleucus Callinicus, whom he succeeded in 226 
 B.C. He died in 223, and was succeeded by his brother, 
 Antiochus III. 
 
 Seleu'cus IV. Philop'ator, a son of Antiochus III., 
 became King of Syria in 186 or 187 B.C. He paid a 
 large sum of money to the Romans, who had defeated 
 Antiochus. Died in 175 B.C. 
 
 Seleucus V, a son of Demetrius Nicator, began to 
 reign in 124 B.C. He was put to death by his mother, 
 Cleopatra, in the same year. 
 
 Seleucus VI., surnamed Epiph'anks, was a son of 
 Antiochus VIII. He became king in 96, and was killed 
 in 95 or 94 B.C. 
 
 Se'lim [Turk. Sei.eem or SklI m, seh-leem'] I., a son 
 of Bayazeed (Bajazet) II., was bom in 1467, and became 
 Emperor of Turkey in 1512. Having put to death his 
 two brothers, he invaded Persia, took its capital, and 
 subsequently carried on a successful war against Kgypt 
 and Syria. He was preparing for another invasion of 
 Persia, when he died, in 1520. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte ties Osmanisclien Reichs." 
 
 Selim (Seleem) II., grandson of the preceding, and 
 son of Solyman the Magnificent, was born about 1524, 
 and ascended the throne in 1566. Among the principal 
 events of his reign were the conquest of Cyprus from 
 the Venetians, and the signal defeat of the Turks in the 
 naval battle of Lepanto, (1571.) Died in 1574. 
 
 See Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osmanisclien Rt_-ichs." 
 
 Selim (Seleem) III., son of Mustafa HI., born in 
 1761, became Sultan of Turkey in 1789. Having an 
 earnest desire to reform the government, he had. before 
 his accession, corresponded with the French ambassador, 
 Count Choiseul, and with other distinguished statesmen. 
 After the termination of the wars in which Turkey had 
 been engaged with Russia, Austria, and France, Selim 
 entered upon his various reforms, among the most im- 
 portant of which was the Nizam Jedeed, (or Jedid,) i.e. 
 the "new order," or organization of the army after the 
 European manner. In 1806 war again broke out between 
 Turkey and the allied armies of Russia and England, 
 and the Janissaries, availing themselves of the dissatis- 
 faction of the army with the new arrangements, openly 
 revolted, and took possession of the arsenal. The Sultan 
 was deposed, and succeeded by Mustafa IV., who soon 
 after caused him to be strangled in prison, (1808.) 
 
 See I.amartink, " Histoire de la Turquic ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Generale." 
 
 Selis, sa'less', (Nrcot.As Joseph,) a French poet, 
 born in Paris in 1737, became professor of Latin poetry 
 
 in the College of France in 1796. He produced a good 
 translation of the Satires of Persius. Among his works, 
 which are commended as elegant in style, are "Epistles 
 in Verse on Various Subjects," (1776.) Died in 1802. 
 
 Seljookides or Seljukides, sel-joo'kidz, sing. 
 Seljukide or Seljookide, sel-joo'kid, [Fr. Seldjou- 
 kides, sel'joo'ked'; Ger. Seldschuken, sel-joo'ken, or 
 Seldschukiden, s£l-joo-kee'den ; Lat. Selgiu'kid/E 
 or Seiju'kiDj«,] the name of a celebrated dynasty, 
 which was established in the latter half of the eleventh 
 century. Its founder was Togrul Beg, whose grand- 
 father Seljook, (Seljuk,) having been expelled from 
 Toorkistan by the ruling prince, accompanied by a 
 powerful tribe, (of which he was the head,) settlecl in 
 Bokhara and embraced the Mohammedan religion. 
 Seljook, when over a hundred years of age, was killed 
 in battle, and was succeeded by his grandson, Togrul 
 Beg. This chieftain overran a large part of Central 
 Asia, took Bagddd, and obtained possession of the per- 
 son of the Caliph, whom, however, he treated with 
 profound respect. The prince of the faithful afterwards 
 appointed Togrul the lieutenant of his vast empire, and 
 gave him his daughter in marriage. Togrul Beg was 
 succeeded by his nephew, the famous Alp-Arslan, 
 (which see.) Under him and his son, Malik Shah, the 
 Seljookian empire attained its highest point of power 
 and glory. It soon after began to decline, and ended 
 with the death of Togrul III. 
 
 Seljuk. See Seljookides. 
 
 Seljukides. See Seljookides. 
 
 Sel'kjrk, (Alexander,) a Scottish sailor, born at 
 Largo ii; 1676. Having in one of his voyages quar- 
 relled with his captain, he was left on the uninhabited 
 island of Juan Fernandez in 1704, with only his gun, 
 axe, ammunition, and a few other necessaries. Here 
 he remained more than four years, living on game 
 and clothing himself with the skins of goats. He was 
 taken off in 1709, by Captain Woodes Rogers, who made 
 him his mate. He died in 1723, having attained the 
 rank of lieutenant in the navy. Selkirk's adventures 
 suggested to Defoe the celebrated romance of " Robinson 
 Crusoe." 
 
 See John Howell, " Life and Adventures of Alexander Selkirk." 
 
 Selle, sel'leh or zel'leh, (Christian Theophilus,) 
 a Gel man physician and writer, born at Stettin, in Pome- 
 rania, in 1748, became physician to Frederick the Great 
 of Prussia. He was the author of several valuable medi- 
 J cal works, and treatises against the philosophy of Kant. 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 Sel'ler, (Abednego,) an English divine, born at 
 Plymouth, wrote " Tracts against Popery," " The Devout 
 Communicant," and other works. Died about 1720. 
 
 Sellius, sel'le-us, (Godfrey,) a German writer, born 
 at Dantzic, published a " Dictionary of Monograms," 
 "Geographical Description of Dutch Brabant," and 
 other works. Died in 1767. 
 
 Sel'lcm, (Baker John,) an English lawyer, born in 
 1762, was the author of an "Analysis of the Practice of 
 the Court of King's Bench and Common Pleas," which 
 is highly esteemed. Died in 1835. 
 
 Sellon, (Priscilla Lydia,) an English philanthro- 
 pist, born about 1820, established in 1S49 a Protestant 
 sisterhood, corresponding with the religious orders of 
 the Catholic Church, their chief employment being the 
 care of the sick and the education of poor children. 
 
 Selmer, sel'mer, (Hannibal Peter,) a Norwegian 
 writer, born at Gaarden-Mein, in Norway, in 1802. 
 
 Selva, sel'va, (Gianantonio,) an Italian architect, 
 born at Venice in 1753; died in 1819. 
 
 Selve, de, deh selv, (Jean,) a French judge and 
 negotiator, born in Limousin. He was sent to Madrid 
 in 1525 to negotiate for the liberation of Francis I., who 
 had been taken prisoner at Pavia. Died in 1529. 
 
 Sel'wjfu, (George,) an English gentleman, distin- 
 guished for his wit, was born in 1719. lie became a 
 member of Parliament. Died in 1791. 
 
 See J. H. Jksse, " George Selwyn and his Contemporaries," 
 ■ 8«. 
 
 Selwyn, (William,) an English jurist, born in 
 Surrey in 1774, published, among other works, an 
 " Abridgment of the Law of Nisi Prius." Died in 1855. 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (2^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SELWTN 
 
 1994 
 
 SENARMONT 
 
 Selwyn, (William,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in 1806. He became Lady Margaret professor of 
 divinity at Cambridge in 1855, and published several 
 works on theology, etc. 
 
 Selys-Longchamps, de, deh seh-less' IdN'sh&N', 
 (Michel Edmond,) Baron, a naturalist, born in Paris 
 in 1813. He published, besides other works, a "Belgian 
 Fauna," (1st vol., 1842.) 
 
 Sem, the French for Shem, which see. 
 
 Sem'e-le, [Gr. 2e/jefai ; Fr. Semei.e, si'mi'li',] a 
 daughter of Cadmus, and sister of Ino, was said to have 
 been beloved by Jupiter, and to have been by him the 
 mother of Bacchus. The poets feigned that she re- 
 quested Jupiter to appear to hev with his greatest 
 splendour, and that he came with flashes of lightning, 
 by which she was consumed, and that Bacchus rescued 
 her from Erebus and raised her to Olympus, where she 
 wa> called Thyo'ne. 
 
 Semini, sa-mee'nee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Genoa in 1510; died in 1594. 
 
 Semini, (Antonio,) a painter, the father of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Genoa in 1485 ; died in 1550. 
 
 Semini, (Ottavio,) a painter, a son of the preceding, 
 was born in 1520 ; died in 1604. 
 
 Semiramide. See Semiramis. 
 
 Se-mlr'a-mis, [Gr. Zefiipafue ; It. Semiramide, si- 
 me'ra-mee'da,] a celebrated queen of Assyria, whose 
 history is greatly obscured by fables, supposed to have 
 reigned about 1250 B.C. She was, according to Dio- 
 dorus, the wife of Omnes, a general in the Assyrian 
 army; but, having attracted the notice of Ninus, King 
 of Assyria, he made her his queen. Having succeeded 
 to the throne on the death of Ninus, she built Babylon 
 and several other cities, and planned a number of mag- 
 nificent works. She invaded Persia and Ethiopia, and 
 conquered large portions of those countries. She was 
 less successful in her invasion of India, where her army 
 was overthrown, chiefly, as it would appear, by means 
 of the war elephants which her enemies possessed. She 
 is stated by some writers to have been murdered by 
 her son Ninyas, and by others to have been killed in 
 battle. 
 
 See Niebuhr. "Geschichte Assurs tind Babels," 1S57: Rawi.in- 
 son, "The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World." 
 
 Sernler, sem'ler or zem'ler, (Johann Salmon,) an 
 influential and liberal German theologian, was born at 
 Saalfeid in December, 1721, (or, as some writers say, 
 1725.) He studied in the University of Halle, and 
 became professor of theology there in 1 75 1. He has 
 been called "the father of German rationalism." In 
 1757 he succeeded Baumgarten as director of the theo- 
 logical seminary. He acquired distinction by his method 
 of historical hermeneutics. He wrote, besides many 
 other works, "Apparatus ad Liberam Novi Testamenti 
 Interpretationem," (1767,) and a "Treatise on the 
 Examination of the Canon," ("Abhandlung von der 
 Untersuchung des Kanons," 4 vols., 1771-75.) Died 
 at Halle in 1791. 
 
 See his Autobiography, entitled " Semlers Lebensbeschreibung," 
 2 vols., 1781-S2 ; F. A. W01.F, " Ueber Semler's letzte Lebenstag'e," 
 1701 ; H. ScHMtD, "Theologie Semler's," 1858; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Semmes, semz, (Raphael,) an American naval 
 officer, born in Maryland, entered the navy about 1826. 
 He obtained the rank of commander about 1855. In 
 the summer of 1861 he took command of the steamer 
 Sumter, which captured many merchant-vessels owned 
 by citizens of the United States. In August, 1862, 
 he became captain of a swift war-steamer, called the 
 "290," or Alabama, just built in England, and manned 
 by British subjects. He inflicted immense damage on 
 the American mercantile marine. On the 19th of June, 
 1864, he encountered, near Cherbourg, France, the 
 Kearsarge, Captain Winslow. In the battle that ensued, 
 both vessels moved rapidly in circles, swinging around 
 an ever-changing centre. After they had described 
 seven circles, the Alabama began to sink, and Semmes 
 escaped in the English yacht Deerhound. He lost nine 
 killed and twenty-one wounded, while Captain Winslow 
 lost only one killed and two wounded. 
 
 See Tennev, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion," pp. 
 376-81. 
 
 Semolei. See Franco, (Battista.) 
 
 Semonville, de, deh seh-mdN'vel', (Charles Louis 
 Huguet — //ii'gi',) Marquis, a French diplomatist, born 
 in Paris in 1759. Having been sent on a mission to 
 Italy in 1 793, he was imprisoned by the Austrians for 
 two years. He became a member of the senate in 1805, 
 and sat in the Chamber of Peers from 1815 to 1830. 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 See Mounier, " E*loge de Semonville ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Semper, sem'per or zim'per, (Gottfried,) a Ger- 
 man architect, born at Hamburg in 1804. Among his 
 best works is the new theatre at Dresden. He pub- 
 lished two esteemed works, entitled "The Four Elements 
 of Architecture," (1851,) and "Science, Industry, and 
 Art," (1852.) 
 
 Semple, sem'p'l, (Robert Baylor,) an American 
 Baptist divine, born in King and Queen county, Virginia, 
 in 1 769. He published a " History of Virginia Baptists," 
 and other works. Died in 1831. 
 
 Sem-pro'ni-a, a Roman lady, was the sister of the 
 celebrated Gracchi, and the wife of Scipio Africanus the 
 Younger. 
 
 Sempronia, the beautiful but profligate wife of D. 
 Junius Brutus, who was consul in 77 B.C. She was 
 distinguished for her literary talents, and was an ac- 
 complice in the conspiracy of Catiline. 
 
 Sempronia Gens, an ancient Roman gens, was 
 divided into many families, known as the Atratini, 
 Gracchi, Longi, Rufi, Tuditani, etc. A. Sempronius 
 Atratinus, who was consul in 497 B.C., belonged to this 
 gens. 
 
 Sem-pro'nI-us Tu-di-ta'nus, (Caius,) a Roman his- 
 torian, became consul in 129 B.C. His works are not 
 extant. 
 
 Senac, seh-nSk', (Jean,) a French physician and 
 medical writer, born at Lombez in 1693, became phy- 
 sician to the king in 1752. He was author of a treat- 
 ise on the structure and diseases of the heart, which 
 was esteemed a standard work at the time. Died in 
 1770. 
 
 Senac de Meilhan, seh-nik' deh m&'l&N', (Ga- 
 briel,) a French writer, born In Paris in 1736, was a son 
 of the preceding. He published fictitious " Memoirs 
 of Anne de Gonzague," (1786,) and "Considerations 
 on Mind (or Intellect) and Manners," ("Considerations 
 sur l'Esprit et les Moeurs," 1787.) Died at Vienna in 
 1803. 
 
 See Craufuru, " Essai biographique sur Senac de Meilhan," 
 1S03; Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi ;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Senan, sS-nln', a celebrated physician and astron- 
 omer, born in Mesopotamia, flourished in the tenth 
 century. He was appointed archiater or chief of the 
 physicians by Moktader, Caliph of BagdSd. He wrote 
 several works on geometry and astronomy, and on the 
 doctrines of the Sabians. He died in 942 a.d. 
 
 Seuancour, de, deh seh-nftN'kooR', (Etienne Pi- 
 vert,) a French writer, born in Paris in 1770, was a 
 melancholy and meditative person. He published, be- 
 sides other works, " Reveries on the Primitive Nature 
 of Man," (1799,) "Obermann," a tale, (1804,) and "Free 
 Meditations of a Recluse," (" Libres Meditations d'un 
 Solitaire," 1819.) M. Villemain procured for him a 
 pension from the state. Died in 1846.- 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits contemporains;" Qu^rakd, 
 "La France LitteVaire ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 Senarmont, de, deh seh-naVm6N', (Alexandre 
 Antoine Hureau — hu'xb',) Baron, a French general, 
 born at Strasburg in 1769. He distinguished himself 
 at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, where he directed the 
 artillery, (1807.) He was killed at the siege of Cadiz, 
 in 1810. 
 
 See Marion, " Memoires sur General de Senarmont," 1846. 
 
 Senarmont, de, (Henri Hureau,) a mineralogist 
 and engineer, born at Broue in 1808, was a nephew of 
 the preceding. He wrote a "Treatise on the Modifica- 
 tions which Reflection at the Surface of Crystals produces 
 in Polarized Light," (1840,) a "Geological Description 
 of the Department of Seine-et-Marne," (1844,) and other 
 works. Died in 1862. 
 
 a. e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, G, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moiaj 
 
SENJRT 
 
 '995 
 
 SENNERT 
 
 Senart, si'niR', (Antoine Marie Jules,) a French 
 advocate and republican, born at Rouen in 1800. Me 
 became president of the Constituent Assembly about 
 May, 1848, and was minister of the interior for a short 
 time in that year. 
 
 Senault, seh-no', (John Francis,) a Flemish ecclesi- 
 astic, born at Antwerp about 1600. He settled in Paris, 
 where he became celebrated as a pulpit orator. He 
 published several moral and religious works. Died in 
 1672. 
 
 Senebier, sen'be-a', (Jean,) a Swiss naturalist and 
 litUrateui; was bornafGeneva in 1742. I Ie was ordained 
 a minister about 1762, and preached several years at 
 Chancy. In 1773 he was appointed keeper of the public 
 library of Geneva. He wrote numerous and various 
 works, among which are " Essay on the Art of Observing 
 and Making Experiments," (2 vols., 1775,) a "Literary 
 History of Geneva," (3 vols., 1786,) and " Vegetable 
 Physiology," (5 vols., 1800.) Died in 1809. 
 
 See Maunoir, " filoge de J. Senebier," 1810; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic G^u^rale." 
 
 Sen'e-ca,[Fr. SENEQUE,*.sa'n?k'.](r.ucius Ann.eus,) 
 an eminent Roman Stoic, philosopher, and moralist, born 
 at Corduba, in Spain, about 5 H.c. He was educated in 
 Rome, whither he was brought by his parents in his child- 
 hood. Having studied rhetoric, philosophy, and law, he 
 gained distinction as a pleader. Accused by Messalina 
 of improper intimacy with Julia, a niece of Claudius, he 
 was banished to Corsica in4l A.n. During his exile he 
 composed his " Consolatio ad Helviam." (Ilelvia was 
 the name of his mother.) Through the influence of 
 Agrippina, he obtained permission to return to Rome in 
 49 A.D., was raised to the prastorship, and appointed 
 tutor to L. Domitius, (commonly known as Nero,) who 
 became emperor in 54 a.d. According to Tacitus, Sen- 
 eca endeavoured to reform or restrain the evil propensi- 
 ties of his pupil. Some writers, however, censure his 
 conduct in this connection, by arguments which derive 
 plausibility from the immense wealth which Seneca 
 amassed. About the year 56 he wrote a treatise on 
 clemency, addressed to Nero, " De Clementia, ad Nero- 
 nem." Seneca consented to the death of Nero's mother, 
 Agrippina, who was killed by order of her son in 60 a.d., 
 and wrote the letter which Nero addressed to the senate 
 in his justification. He was afterwards supplanted in 
 the favour of Nero by Tigellinus and Rufus, who sought 
 to ruin Seneca by exciting the suspicion of the tyrant 
 against him. He was accused of being an accomplice 
 of Piso, (who had conspired against the emperor,) and 
 was ordered to put himself to death. Having opened 
 his veins, he died in a warm bath in 65 a.d. He was 
 an uncle of the poet Lucan. 
 
 Seneca was an eloquent and popular writer. His style 
 is aphoristic, antithetical, and somewhat inflated. Anion" 
 his numerous works are a treatise "On Anger," (" De 
 Ira,") "A Book on Providence," (" De Providentia 
 Liber,") "On Tranquillity of Mind," ("De Animi Tran- 
 quillitate,") "On the Brevity of Eife,"("De Krevitate 
 Vita?,") essays on natural science, entitled " Qutestiones 
 Naturales," and numerous epistles, " Epistolae ad Lu- 
 cilium," which are a collection of moral maxims. We 
 have also ten tragedies in verse which are attributed to 
 Seneca, and which, though not adapted to the stage, 
 have considerable literary merit. 
 
 There has been great diversity of opinion respecting 
 the character and writings of Seneca. He has been 
 quoted as an authority by councils and fathers of the 
 Church. He was highly extolled as a writer by Mon- 
 taigne. Quintilian observes that his writings "abound 
 in charming defects," (dulcibusvitiis.) Macaulay is among 
 those who take the least favourable view of the character 
 and influence of the great Stoic. He says, "It is very 
 reluctantly that Seneca can be brought to confess that 
 anv philosopher had ever paid the smallest attention 
 to anything that could possibly promote what vulgar 
 people would consider as the well-being of mankind. 
 . . . The business of a philosopher was to declaim in 
 praise of poverty, with two millions sterling out at 
 usury ; to meditate epigrammatic conceits about the 
 
 • Chaucer usually ha* Sknrk, with theaccent on the last syllable ; 
 sometimes, though rarely, Sknhc. 
 
 evils of luxury, in gardens which moved the envy of sove- 
 reigns ; to rant about liberty, while fawning on the 
 insolent and pampered freedmen of a tyrant." ("Essay 
 on Lord Bacon.") 
 
 See Rosmini, "Vita di Seneca," 1793; Justus Lipsius, "Vita 
 L. A. Senecas," 1607; Klotzscu, "Seneca," 2 vols., 1799-1802; 
 Rkinhardt, "De Seneca Vita et Scriptis," 1817; Vernier, " Vie 
 de Seneque," 1812; Am. Fi.euky, "Seneque et Saint-Paul," 2 
 vols., 1853; P. Ekerman, "Vita et Dogmata L. A. Senecae," 1742; 
 Hitter, " History of Philosophy;" Hirschig, " Dood en Gedach- 
 tenis van Seneca," 1831 ; Denis Diderot, " Essai sur la Vie de 
 Seneque," 1779; F. Salvador], "II Filosofo cortigiano, o sia 
 il Seneca," 1674; Tacitus, "Annales;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate?' 
 
 Seneca, (Marcus Ann^eus,) a Latin rhetorician, 
 born at Corduba (C6rdova) about 61 B.C., was the father 
 of the preceding, and the grandfather of Lucan. He 
 wrote " Book of Persuasives," (" Suasoriaruin Liber,") 
 and " Ten Books of Controversies," (" Controversia- 
 l-urn Libri decern,") which are extant, but have little 
 merit. 
 
 Senecai or Senece, de, deh sa'neh-sa' or san'sl', 
 (Anioine Bauderon,) a French poet, born at Macon 
 in 1643. He wrote "Kaimac; Les Travauxd'Apollon," 
 and other works. Died in 1737. 
 
 Senecio, se-nee'she-o, (Herennius,) a native of 
 Spain, was put to death by order of Domitian. The 
 charges against him were that he was a candidate for 
 no public office, and that he had written the life of Hel- 
 vidius Priscus. 
 
 Senefelder, sa'neh-feld'er, (Alois,) the inventor of 
 lithography, was born at Prague in 1771. He became a 
 play-actor in his youth, but did not succeed in that pur- 
 suit. He also wrote several dramas. Being poor, he 
 meditated various new modes of printing his works 
 cheaply, and tried experiments in etching, and writing 
 backwards on calcareous stone. One day it was neces- 
 sary to make a memorandum in haste, but he had no 
 white paper : so he wrote it on a smooth stone with a 
 peculiar ink. It afterwards occurred to him to apply 
 diluted nitric acid, which etched away the stone where 
 there had been no ink, the part on which the ink had 
 been placed being protected from the action of the acid, 
 so that the letters were left in relief. He invented about 
 1798 the process of lithography which is now generally 
 used, and was appointed director of the royal lithographic 
 office at Munich in 1809. He published a "History of 
 Lithography," (1819.) Died in 1834. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Senek. See Seneca. 
 
 Senior, seen'vor, (Nassau William,) an English 
 lawyer, born in Berkshire in 1790, became in 1826 pro- 
 fessor of political economy at Oxford. He published 
 "On Foreign Poor-Laws and Labourers," (1840,) a 
 "Treatise on Political Economy," (1850,) and other 
 works. Died in 1864. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1859. 
 
 Senkenberg, von, fon senk'en-bjRG' or z§nk'en- 
 bSRc/, (Heinrich Christoph,) Baron, a German 
 jurist, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1704, became 
 professor of law at Gdttingen. Died in 1768. 
 
 Senkenberg, von, (Johann Christian,) brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 
 1717. He founded in that city a hospital, with a library, 
 botanical garden, anatomical theatre, etc. Died in 1772. 
 The Senkenberg Museum of Natural History was estab- 
 lished in his honour in 1817. 
 
 Sen-na-eh'er-ib, [Heb. Tirus,] King of Assyria, 
 was a son of Sargon, whom he succeeded about 702 B.C. 
 He invaded Judea in the reign of Hezekiah, defeated 
 the Egyptian allies of the King of Judah, and extorted 
 from him a large amount of gold and silver. His army 
 besieged Jerusalem, but was overthrown by the angel of 
 the Lord, who "went forth and smote in the camp of 
 the Assyrians an hundred and fourscore and five thou- 
 sand," so that Sennacherib returned in haste to Nineveh. 
 He reigned twenty-two years. 
 
 See II. Kings xviii., xix. ; Niebuhr. "Geschichte Assurs und 
 Babeht" 
 
 Sennert, seVniitt, [Lit Senner'tus,! (Andreas,) 
 a German Orientalist, born at Wittenberg in 1606. was 
 a son of Daniel, noticed below. He became professor 
 
 •€ as k; c, as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (tfg^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SENNERT 
 
 1996' 
 
 SERGIUS 
 
 of Hebrew at Wittenberg in 1638. He published a 
 number of works. Died in 1689. 
 
 See Nic^ron, " M^moires." 
 
 Sennert or Sen-ner'tus, [Fr. Sennert, s&'naiR',] 
 (Daniel,) a German physician, born at Breslau in 1572, 
 became professor of medicine at WUrtemberg. He was 
 the author of numerous works, and enjoyed a high repu- 
 tation in his profession. Died in 1637. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" Nichkon, 
 "M^moires." 
 
 Sennertus. See Sennert. 
 
 Senneterre. See Ferte-Senneterre. 
 
 Sen'ter, (Isaac) an eminent American physician, 
 born in New Hampshire in 1755. He served as surgeon 
 in the Revolutionary war, and afterwards practised at 
 Newport, Rhode Island. Died in 1799. 
 
 Seona. See Siofn. 
 
 Sepp, s§p or zSp, (Johann Nepomuk,) a Catholic 
 theologian, born at Toltz, in Bavaria, in 1816, became 
 professor of history at Munich. He wrote a " Life of 
 Jesus," in answer to that of Strauss, and " Paganism 
 and its Signification for Christianity," (1S53,) in which 
 he favours the system of Schelling. 
 
 Sep'pings, (Sir Robert,) an English naval architect, 
 born in 1768, made several important improvements in 
 ship-building, among which was the system of diagonal 
 bracing and trussing. In acknowledgment of his ser- 
 vices he was elected to the Royal Society in 1814, and 
 obtained the Copley medal from that institution. He 
 published a treatise "On a New Principle of construct- 
 ing Ships in the Mercantile Navy," and other similar 
 works, in the " Philosophical Transactions." Died in 1840. 
 
 Septaliua. See Settala. 
 
 Septimius Severus. See Severus. 
 
 Sepulveda, de, da sa-pool'va-Da, (Juan Gink,) a 
 celebrated Spanish historian and scholar, born near 
 Cordova about 1490. He studied at the University 
 of Alcala, and' subsequently at Rome, where he was 
 patronized by Cardinal Carpi. In 1536 he became his- 
 toriographer to the emperor Charles V., and was after- 
 wards appointed tutor to his son Philip. Among his 
 principal historical works are his " History of the Em- 
 peror Charles V.," " History of Philip II.," and " His- 
 tory of the Spanish Conquests in Mexico," all in Latin. 
 He also wrote a treatise entitled " Democrates Se- 
 cundus," in which he attempts to justify the barbarous 
 treatment of the Indians by the Spaniards, and to refute 
 the arguments of Las Casas in their favour. The work 
 was condemned by the principal Spanish universities, 
 and was never printed. Sepulveda translated portions 
 of Aristotle into Latin, and published a number of 
 learned essays in that language. He was one of the 
 most accomplished scholars and writers of his time. 
 Died in 1574. 
 
 See N. Antonio," Bibliotheca Hispana Nova:" Andre Schott, 
 " Vita Sepulveda;." prefixed to Sepulveda's works, Cologne, 1602: 
 Niceron, "MtSmoires;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Sepulveda, de, (Lorenzo,) a Spanish writer of the 
 sixteenth century, was the author of " Romances nueva- 
 mente sacadas de Historias antiguas de la Cronica de 
 Espana," and other works of the kind, which had a high 
 reputation at the time. 
 
 Sequard. See Brown-Sequard. 
 
 Serao, si-ra'o, [Lat. Sera'us,] (Francesco,) ah 
 Italian physician, born near Aversa in 1702. He be- 
 came professor of medicine at Naples, and chief physician 
 to Ferdinand IV. Died in 1783. 
 
 See Fasano, " De Vita et Scriptis Serai," 1784. 
 
 Se-ra'pl-on, [Sepamuv,] a physician of the sect of 
 the Empirici, who lived at Alexandria about 250 B.C. 
 
 Serapion, a Syrian physician, called Serapion Se- 
 nior, is supposed to have flourished in the tenth century. 
 Two of his medical works are extant. 
 
 Serapion, an Arabian physician, commonly called 
 Junior, is supposed to have lived in the eleventh century. 
 lie was the author of a work " On Simple Medicaments!" 
 which has been translated into Latin. 
 
 Se-ra'pis or Sa-ra'pis, [Gr. lupairu; ; Fr. Serapis, 
 sa'rt'pess',] the name of an Egyptian divinity, was 
 regarded by some writers as another title of Osiris. 
 Clemens of Alexandria, Macrobius, and others mention 
 
 Serapis and Isis as the great divinities of Egypt. Ac- 
 cording to Apollodorus, Serapis was a name given to 
 Apis after his death. 
 
 Se-ra'rI-us or sa'rfre'Us', (Nicolas,) a learned 
 French Jesuit, born in Lorraine about 1550. He wrote 
 several works against Luther; also, commentaries on 
 Scripture. Died in 1609 or 1610. 
 
 Serassi, si-ras'see, (Pietro Antonio,) an Italian 
 biographer and critic, born at Bergamo in 1721. He 
 became secretary to Cardinal Furietti at Rome about 
 1760. He edited the poems of Petrarch, Dante, and 
 other Italian poets. His chief work is a "Life of Tor- 
 qtiato Tasso," (" Vita di T. Tasso," 1785,) which is 
 highly esteemed, and presents a vivid picture of the 
 literary history of Tasso's time. Died in 1791. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italiani illustri;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Serbelloni, seR-ttSMo'nee, (Garriel,) an able Italian 
 general, born at Milan in 1508. He fought for Charles 
 V. and Philip II. of Spain. He distinguished himself 
 at the battle of Lepanto, (1571.) Died in 15S0. 
 
 Sercey, de, deh seVsi', (Pierre Cesar Charles 
 Guillaume,) Marquis, a French vice-admiral, born 
 near Autun in 1753. He commanded in the East Indies 
 with success in 1796-99. Died in 1836. 
 
 Se-re'nus, (Aulus Septimius,) a Roman lyric poet, 
 and contemporary of Martial, was the author of " Opus- 
 cula Ruralia," on the enjoyments of country life. A few 
 fragments only of this work are extant. 
 
 Serenus, (Quintus.) See Samonicus. 
 
 Sergardi, seR-gaR'dee, (Lonovico,) an Italian satiri- 
 cal poet, born at Sienna in 1660, called himself Quintus 
 Sectanus. He attacked Gravina in a series of satires 
 entitled "Satires of Quintus Sectanus against Philode- 
 mus," (" Quinti Sectani Satyrae in Philodemum," 1694.) 
 Died in 1726. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita; Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Serge'. See Sergius. • 
 
 Sergeant, sar'jant, (John,) an eminent American 
 jurist and statesman, bom in Philadelphia in 1779. He 
 was a son of Jonathan Dickinson Sergeant, who was 
 attorney-general of Pennsylvania. He graduated at 
 Princeton College in 1795, and practised law in Phila- 
 delphia. He was retained as counsel in the most impor- 
 tant cases in the supreme court of his own State and 
 in that of the United States. He represented a district 
 of his native city in Congress from 1815 to 1823, from 
 1827 to 1829, and from 1837 to 1842. In 1832 he was 
 the Whig candidate for the office of Vice-President, 
 (Henry Clay being the Presidential candidate,) but re- 
 ceived only forty-nine electoral votes. He took an 
 important part against the extension of slavery in the 
 contest which resulted in the Missouri compromise of 
 1820, and delivered on that occasion a speech of rare 
 eloquence and power. He was a man of high integrity 
 and great personal influence in the community. Died in 
 Philadelphia in November, 1852. His " Select Speeches" 
 were published in Philadelphia in 1832. 
 
 See W. M. Meredith, " Eulogy on John Sergeant," 1853. 
 
 Sergei or Sergell, seVgel, (Johan Tobias,) an emi- 
 nent Swedish sculptor, born at Stockholm in 1740. He 
 visited Rome in 1767, where he resided many years, and, 
 after his return, was appointed by Gustavus III. court 
 sculptor and professor in the Academy of Arts. Among 
 his master-pieces are "Cupid and Psyche," "Othryade's 
 the Spartan," and " Diomedes carrying off the Palla- 
 dium." Died in 1814. 
 
 Sergent, sSr'zIion', (Antoine Francois,) a French 
 Jacobin, born at Chartres in 1751. He was a violent 
 member of the Convention, (1792-95,) and published 
 several works. Died in 1847. 
 
 See Noel Parfait, "Notice sur A. F. Sergent," 1848. 
 
 Ser'gi-us [Fr. Serge, sSrzIi ; It. Sergio, sSu'je-o or 
 seVjo] I., Pope of Rome, born at Palermo, succeeded 
 Conon in 687 a.d. He sent missionaries to convert the 
 Saxons. Having refused his consent to the canons 
 issued by the council assembled in Constantinople by 
 Justinian II., the latter ordered his arrest ; but, the 
 soldiers taking sides with the pope, he remained in pos- 
 session of his see. He died in 701, and was succeeded 
 by John VI. 
 
 a, e. 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, at; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
SERGIO'S 
 
 <997 
 
 ShRTORIUS 
 
 Sergius II., born at Rome, was elected pope in 844 
 A.D. During his pontificate the Saracens invaded Italy 
 and ravaged the country near Rome, but did not enter 
 the city. Died in 847. 
 
 Sergius III. succeeded Christopher as pope in 904 
 A.D., being ele" f ed through the influence of the Marquis 
 of Tuscany and the profligate Theodora and her daugh- 
 ter Marozia. His son by Marozia was afterwards Pope 
 John X. Sergius died in 913, and was succeeded by 
 Anastasius IV. 
 
 Sergius IV. was elected successor to John XVIII. 
 in 1009 A.D. He died in 1012, and Benedict VIII. was 
 chosen to succeed him. 
 
 Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, born probably 
 in Syria, was a Monothelite. He became patriarch in 
 610, and died in 639 A.D. 
 
 Serieys, seh-re-i', (Antoine,) a French compiler of 
 histories, etc., born in Rouergue in 1755; died in 1829. 
 
 Serimnir. See Saehrimnir. 
 
 Seripandi, si-re-pan'dee, or Seripando, sa-re-pan'- 
 do, (Gikoi.amo,) a learned Italian prelate and writer, 
 born at Naples in 1493, distinguished himself at the 
 Council of Trent. Died in 1563. 
 
 Serizay, de, deh seh-re'zi', (Jacques,) a French 
 poet, born in Paris about 1590, was one of the first 
 members of the French Academy. Died in 1653. 
 
 Serle, serl, (Ambrose,) an English devotional writer, 
 born about 1740. Among his works is "Christian Hus- 
 bandry," (1804.) Died in 1812. 
 
 Serlio, seVle-o, (Sebastiano,) an Italian architect 
 and writer upon art, born at Bologna in 1475. He was 
 appointed in 1541, by Francis I., King of France, archi- 
 tect at the palace of Fontainebleau. Hi ~'=s author of 
 "Treatises on Architecture," ("Opere di Architettura.") 
 Died in 1552. 
 
 Sermoneta, da. See Siciolante. 
 
 Seroux d'Agincourt See D'Agincourt. 
 
 Serrano, ser-ra'no, (Francisco,) a Spanish general 
 and politician, born in the eighteenth century. He was 
 appointed captain-general of the -artillery in 1854. He 
 opposed Narvaez in 1857, and was Captain-General 
 of Cuba from i860 to 1862. He was president of the 
 provisional government formed by the insurgents who 
 deposed Isabel in September, 1868, and was elected 
 Regent of Spain by the Cortes in June, 1869. 
 
 Serranus. See Lambert, (Francois,) and Serres, 
 de, (Jean.) 
 
 Serrao, ser-ra'o, (Giovan Andrea,) a learned Ital- 
 ian ecclesiastic, born in Calabria in 1731. He became 
 Bishop of Potenza in 1782. In 1799 he was massacred 
 by the royalists because he was a Liberal. 
 
 See Davanzati, "Vie d' Andrea Serrao," 1S06. 
 
 Serre, de, deh saiR, (Pierre Francois Herc.ui.e,) 
 Com'I'e, a French orator and minister of state, born near 
 Pont-a-Mousson in 1776. He was appointed first presi- 
 dent of the court of Colmar in 181 5, and president of 
 the Chamber of Deputies in 1816. He was a moderate 
 royalist and doctrinaire in politics. In December, 1818, 
 he became keeper of the seals, or minister of justice. 
 He resigned office in December, 1821. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Guizot, " Me'moires," tome i. ; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^- 
 rale." 
 
 Serres, saiR or sairz, ? (Dominic,) a painter of ma- 
 rine views and naval battles, was born at Auch, in 
 France. He went to England about 1764, and worked 
 in that country many years. Died in 1793. 
 
 Serres, sai r, (En en neKrnaudAugustin,) a French 
 physiologist, born at Clairac in 1787. He became pro- 
 fessor of comparative anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes 
 in 1839. He produced, besides other works, "The 
 Laws of Osteogeny," (1815,) and "The Comparative 
 Anatomy of the Brain in the Four Classes of Vertebrate 
 Animals," (2 vols., 1824-26.) He discovered that the 
 development of animals and their organs proceeds from 
 the circumference towards the centre. 
 
 See" Nouvelle Biographie GcSneVale;" Caluskn," Medicitiisches 
 Schvi ftsteller- Lexikon." 
 
 Serres, sairz,? (Olive,) an English artist, wife of 
 Dominic, noticed above, was born at Warwick in 1772, 
 and was appointed landscape-painter to the Prince of 
 Wales. In 1815 she publicly claimed the title of Princess 
 
 of Cumberland, pretending that she was the daughter 
 of Henry Frederick, Duke of Cumberland, by his mar- 
 riage with a Miss Wilmot. In 1822 a motion was made 
 in the House of Commons to investigate her claims, 
 which was successfully opposed by Sir Robert Peel. 
 She died in poverty in 1834. 
 
 Serres, de, deh sain, [Lat. Serra'nus,] (Jean,) a 
 French Protestant minister and historian, born at Ville- 
 neuve de Berg about 1540. He wrote, besides other 
 works, "Memoirs of the Third Civil War," (1569,) and 
 " History of France in the Reigns of Henry II., Francis 
 II., Charles IX., and Henry III.," (1595.) He received 
 from Henry IV. the title of historiographer in 1597. 
 Died at Geneva in 1598. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires;" MM. Haag, "La France piotes- 
 tante;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Serres, de, (Marcel,) a French naturalist, born at 
 Montpellier in 1782. He was appointed professor of 
 geology and natural history in his native city in 1820, 
 and wrote numerous works on geology, palaeontology, 
 etc., among which is "The Cosmogony of Moses com- 
 pared with Geological Facts," (1838.) Died in 1862. 
 
 Serres, de, (Olivier,) Seigneur de Pradel, a French 
 Protestant and writer on agriculture, born near Ville- 
 neuve de Berg (Ardeche) about 1539, was a brother of 
 the preceding. He published a valuable work on rational 
 and methodical agriculture, entitled " Le Theatre d' Agri- 
 culture," (1600,) often reprinted. His style is admirable 
 and finely adapted to the subject. Died in 1619. 
 
 See F. de Neufchateau, " FJoge historique d'O. de Serres," 
 1700; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ie>ale ;" MM. Haag, "La France 
 protestante." 
 
 Serret, sk'ri', (Joseph Alfred,) a French mathe- 
 matician, born in 1819, has written on analysis, etc. 
 
 Serrigny, si'ren'ye', (Denis,) a French jurist, born 
 at Savigny-sur-Beaune about 1804. He published a 
 "Treatise on the Public Law of the French," (2 vols., 
 1845,) and other works. 
 
 Sertorio. See Sertorius. 
 
 Ser-to'rI-us, [It. Sertorio, s?R-to're-o,] (Quintus,) 
 a famous Roman general, born at Nursia, in the country 
 of the Sabines. He was liberally educated. He displayed 
 courage and capacity in the war which Marius conducted 
 against the Cimbri and Teutones about ioi B.C. Just 
 before the Marsic war began, he was appointed quaestor 
 in Cisalpine Gaul, 91 B.C. "His martial intrepidity did 
 not abate," says Plutarch, " when he arrived at the de- 
 gree of general. His personal exploits were still great, 
 and he faced danger in the most fearless manner ; in 
 consequence of which he had one of his eyes struck 
 out." He offered himself as a candidate for the office 
 of tribune, but was defeated by Sulla's faction, and 
 became an enemy of that great leader. In the civil war 
 which began about 88 he fought with China against the 
 partisans of Sulla. After Marius returned from Africa, 
 the troops of the popular party were divided into three 
 equal parts, commanded respectively by Marius, Ser- 
 torius, and Cinna, who, acting in concert, defeated the 
 enemy and made themselves masters of Rome. Ser- 
 torius was the only one of the three that treated the 
 vanquished with humanity, and he reproached Marius 
 for his cruelty. The return of Sulla with a large army 
 from the East, in 83 B.C., put an end to the ascendency 
 of Marius. Sertorius, having obtained the office of pro- 
 consul, retired with a few troops to Spain, from which he 
 soon passed over to Africa. Having been invited by 
 the Lusitanians to commandtheir army, he returned to 
 Spain, where he acquired great popularity. He defeated 
 several Roman generals, and extended his power over a 
 great part of Spain. " He subdued several great nations," 
 says Plutarch, who expresses the opinion that he was 
 not inferior to Hannibal in capacity. About 76 B.C. 
 Pompey arrived in Spain with a new army. Sertorius 
 defeated Pompey at Sucro, and again near Saguntum. 
 " When he was victorious he would make an offer to 
 Metellus or Pompey to lay down his arms on condition 
 that he might be permitted to return in the capacity of 
 a private man. He said he would rather be the meanest 
 citizen in Rome, than an exile with the command of all 
 the other countries in the world. . . . The magnanimity 
 of Sertorius appeared in every step he took." (Plu- 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jgp"See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
SER ULLAS 
 
 1998 
 
 SESSI 
 
 tarch.) He was assassinated by Perpenna and several 
 accomplices in 72 B.C. It may well be doubted whether 
 he had any superior in military genius among all the 
 great generals that Rome ever produced, with the single 
 exception of Julius Caesar. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Life of Sertorius ;" Drumann, "Geschichte 
 Roms;" Appian, " History ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Serullas, si-ru'lts', (written also without the accent,) 
 (Georges Simon,) a French chemist and apothecary, 
 born at Poncin (Ain) in 1774. He discovered some 
 compounds of iodine and bromine, and wrote a number 
 of memoirs on chemistry. He succeeded Vauquelin 
 in the Academy of Sciences in 1829. Died in Paris 
 in 1832. 
 
 See Virky, "Notice sur Serullas," 1832; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale;" "Biograpliie Uuiverselle." 
 
 Serurier, seh-ru-re-i', (Jean Mathieu Philihert,) 
 Comte, a French general, born at Laon in 1742. lie 
 became a general of brigade in 1793, a general of di- 
 vision in 1795, and served with distinction in the Italian 
 campaigns of 1796-97. As commandant at Saint-Cloud, 
 he supported Bonaparte on the 18th Brumaire, 1799. 
 He became a marshal of France in 1804. Died in 1819. 
 
 See De Courcei.i.es, " Dictionriaire des Generaux Francais;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Servan, scr'von', (Antoine Joseph Michel,) an 
 eloquent French advocate and publicist, born at Romans 
 in 1737. He wrote many works on legislation, politics, 
 etc, and promoted legal reforms. Died in 1807. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biograpliie Generale." 
 
 Servan de Gerbey, seR'vfi.N' deh zheVbi',(JosEPH,) 
 a French Girondist and general, born at Romans in 1741, 
 was a brother of the preceding. He was minister of 
 war from May to October, 1792, and commanded the 
 army of the Pyrenees from the latter date to May, 1793. 
 Died in 1808. 
 
 Servan de Sugny, sSr'von' deh siin'ye', (Pierre 
 Francois Jules,) a French poet, born at Lyons in 1796 ; 
 died in 183 1. 
 
 Servandoni, seR-van-do'nee, (Jean Jeu6me,) a dis- 
 tinguished painter and architect, born at Florence in- 
 1695. At an early age he visited Paris, where he ac- 
 quired great celebrity as a scene-painter. The most 
 important of his architectural works is the facade of the 
 church of Saint-Sulpice in Paris. Died in 1766. 
 
 See Quatremere de Quincv, " Vies des Architectes;" Ticozzi, 
 " Dizionario ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Servet. See Servetus. 
 
 Ser-ve'tus, [Fr. Servet, sIr'vJ' ; It. Serveto, sSr- 
 va'to,] (Michael,) a Spanish theologian and physician, 
 born in Aragon in 1509. His family name is said to have 
 been Reves, (ra'ves.) He opposed the dogma of the 
 Trinity, in a work entitled " On the Errors of the Trin- 
 ity," (" De Trinitatis Erroribus," 1531.) About 1533 he 
 studied medicine at Paris. He published a treatise on 
 syrups, " Universal Theory of Syrups," (" Syruporum 
 universa Ratio," Paris, 1537.) After he left Paris he 
 practised medicine at Lyons, and had a doctrinal con- 
 troversy with Calvin. He published anonymously his 
 "Christianity Restored," (" Christianismi Restitutio," 
 etc., Vienne, 1553.) Calvin having informed against 
 him, Servetus was arrested on a charge of heresy by 
 the Inquisition in France ; but he escaped from prison 
 and sought refuge in Geneva. Calvin caused him to be 
 again arrested, and took an active part in the prosecu- 
 tion which led to the death of Servetus, who was burned 
 at Geneva in October, 1553. (See Calvin.) 
 
 See Boysen, " Historia M. Serveti," 1712; "Impartial History 
 of Michael Servetus," London, 1724; Alwokdkn, "Historia M. 
 Serveti," 1727; Mosheim, "Geschichte M. Serveti," 174S ; W. H. 
 Drummond, "Life of Michael Sevvetus," 1S4S; J. Jairo, " Life of 
 Servetus," 1771 : Paul Henry, " Life of Calvin," 1835 : " Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^ntSrale ;" " British Quarterly Review" tor May, 1840. 
 See, also, Coleridge's "Table-Talk," (January 3, 1834.) 
 
 Servien, seR'veJ,N', (Aiiel,) Marquis de Sable, a 
 French diplomatist, born at Grenoble in 1593. He be- 
 came secretary of state for war in 1630, and resigned in 
 1636. Servien and Avaux represented France at Mini- 
 ster in 1643 and the ensuing years. The former signed 
 the treaty of Westphalia, in 1648. Died in 1659. 
 
 See G. Menage, " Histoire de Sable" ;" Moreri, " Dictionnaire 
 Historique;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Ser-vil'I-a, [Fr. Servilie, seVve'Ie',] a Roman lady, 
 was a niece of the celebrated M. Livius Drusus, and the 
 wife of Marcus Junius Brutus, and mother of M. Junius 
 Brutus the younger, who killed Caesar. She was a fa- 
 vourite mistress of that dictator. 
 
 Servilia Gens, a Roman gens, originally patrician, 
 was highly distinguished in the early ages of the republic. 
 Among the families into which it was divided were Ahala, 
 Caepio, Casca, and Priscus. 
 
 Servilie. See Servilia. 
 
 Ser-vil'I-us, (Caius,) a Roman statesman, who be- 
 came praetor in 206 B.C., consul in 203, dictator in 202, 
 and pontifex maximus in 183. Died in 180 B.C. 
 
 Servin, seR'vaN', (Louis,) a French magistrate, born 
 in the Vend6mois in 1555. He was appointed advocate- 
 general in 1589, and was a strenuous asserter of the 
 liberties of the Gallican Church, on which subject he 
 wrote a work called " Defence of the Liberty of the 
 Gallican Church," ("Vindiciae secundum Libertatem 
 Ecclesiae Gallicanae," 1590.) Died in 1626. 
 
 See " Le Tombeau de L. Servin," Paris, 1626 ; Grangier, "Ora- 
 tioin Laudem L. Servini,"i626 ; Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Ser'vl-us, (Mau'rus Honora'tus,) a Roman gram- 
 marian, supposed to have lived between 300 and 400 
 A.D. He wrote, besides several grammatical works, com- 
 mentaries on the " Eclogues," " Georgics," and " ^Eneid" 
 of Virgil, which are highly valued for the variety of in- 
 formation they contain relating to the Romans. 
 
 Ser'vi-us Tul'11-us, the sixth King of Rome, began 
 to reign about 578 B.C. According to tradition, he was 
 a son of Ocrisia, a female slave of Queen Tanaquil, and 
 was adopted as a son by King Tarquin, whom he suc- 
 ceeded. His reign, which lasted forty-four years, was 
 pacific. He granted a new constitution to the Romans, 
 and formed a federal union or league between Rome and 
 the towns of Latium. His constitution is supposed to 
 have been beneficial to the plebeians. He was killed 
 by Tarquinius Superbus, with whom his own daughter 
 1 ullia was an accomplice. 
 
 See Nirbuhr, " History of Rome ;" Mommren, "Histoire Ro- 
 maine ;" F. D. Gerlach, "Die Verfassung des Servius Tullius," 
 1837 ; Cicero, " De Repubtica ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale." 
 
 S&sha, sa'sha, or ShSshS, sha'sha, [etymology ob- 
 scure,] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a vast 
 thousand-headed serpent, the emblem of eternity, on 
 which Vishnu is believed to repose. (See Vishnu.) 
 He is often called Ananta, which signifies "without 
 end." Sesha is regarded as the great king of the serpent 
 race. He is also called Vasuki (va's6"6-kl) or Vasoky, 
 and is fabled to have been used as the churn-string when 
 the gods and giants (Asurs) churned the ocean. (See 
 KOrma.) 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Seso, de, d£ sa'so, (Carlos,) a Protestant Reformer, 
 born at Florence, resided in Spain, where he was pa- 
 tronized by the emperor Charles V. He was one 
 of the chief champions of the Reformation in Spain, 
 and perished at the stake, by order of the Inquisition, 
 in 1559. 
 
 See Prescott, "History of Philip II.," vol. i. book ii. 
 
 Se-sos'tris, [Gr. Sraworptc,] written also Sesoosis, 
 a celebrated king of Egypt, also called Rameses, is 
 supposed to have reigned about 1400 or 1350 B.C. He 
 was a powerful and warlike monarch. According to 
 tradition, he conquered Ethiopia, Thrace, and several 
 countries of Southern Asia. He also made canals in 
 Egypt, built a great wall from Pelusium to Heliopolis, 
 and erected several obelisks and temples. Monuments 
 bearing his name are still extant in Egypt, of which he 
 was the great national hero. 
 
 See Herodotus, "History:" Bunsen, "Egypt's Place in Uni- 
 versal History;" " Biographie Uuiverselle." 
 
 Sessa, ses'sa, an Indian mathematician, to whom is 
 attributed the invention of the game of chess, is sup- 
 posed to have lived in the eleventh century. 
 
 Sessi, ses'see, (Anna Maria,) an Italian vocalist, 
 born at Rome in 1793. She performed with success at 
 Vienna and other cities of Germany, and assumed, after 
 her marriage, the name of Neumann-Sessi. Her sister 
 Impekatrick, born at Rome in 17S3, also acquired a 
 high reputation as a vocalist. Died in 1808. 
 
 a, e, i, o, 3, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SESTINI 
 
 '999 
 
 SEVER US 
 
 Sestini, s?s-tee'nee, (Domenico,) an eminent Italian 
 antiquary and traveller, born at Florence about 1750. 
 Having successively visited Constantinople, the Levant, 
 Germany, and France, he was appointed in 1814 honor- 
 ary professor in the University of Pisa. Among his 
 works on numismatics, which are ranked among the 
 most valuable of their kind, we may name his "System 
 of Numismatics," ("Sistema Numismatico," 14 vols. 
 fol.,) "General Classes of Numismatic Geography, or 
 Coins of the Cities, Nations, and Kings, in Geographical 
 Order," ("Classes generales Geographite NumUmaticae, 
 sen Monetae Urbium, Populorum et Regum, Ordine 
 Geographico," etc., 1797,) and "Numismatic Letters and 
 Dissertations," (9 vols., 1813.) He also published a 
 "Journey from Constantinople to Bucharest," (1794,) a 
 "Scientific and Antiquarian Voyage through Wallachia, 
 Transylvania, and Hungary to Vienna," (1815,) and 
 other works of travels. Sestini was a member of various 
 learned societies in Europe. Died in 1832. 
 
 See Monaldi, "Elogio di D. Sestini," 1S35: " Biographic Uni- 
 verselle," (new edition.) 
 
 Sesto, da, dasls'to, (Cesare,) an able Italian painter, 
 called also Cesare Milanese, born at Milan, was a 
 pupil of Leonardo da Vinci, whom he imitated with 
 success. Died about 1524. 
 
 Sethos, a name of Sksostris, which see. 
 
 Se'thos, King of Egypt, was a son of Rameses, and 
 the father of Rameses the Great, (Sesostris.) He is sup- 
 posed to have reigned about 1425 B.C., and is said to 
 have gained victories over several neighbouring nations. 
 He adorned Egypt with fine monuments, temples, etc. 
 
 Se'tpn, (Ann Eliza,) an American lady, born in 
 New York in 1774, founded at Emmettsburg, Maryland, 
 in 1809, the first establishment of Sisters of Charity in 
 the United States. Died in 1821. 
 
 Settala, s?t-ta'la, [Lat. Septa'i.ius,] (Lodovico,) an 
 Italian physician, born at Milan about 1550. He pub- 
 lished several medical works, and was professor at 
 Milan. Died in 1633. His son Manfred!, bom in 
 1600, was distinguished for learning and inventive talent 
 as a mechanician. Died at Milan in 1680. 
 
 Settimo, set'te-mo, (Ruggiero,) an Italian patriot, 
 born at Palermo in 1778, inherited a large estate. He 
 served in the navy, and gained the rank of admiral. He 
 was one of the chief agents of the revolutionary move- 
 ment which in 1820 extorted some reforms from the 
 king. In 1848 he became the chief of the Sicilian in- 
 surgents, and organized a provisional government. He 
 was chosen president by the new parliament, which gave 
 him royal power to appoint ministers, etc. He was very 
 popular, and was saluted as the father of his country. 
 On the restoration of the king, Ferdinand II., he retired 
 to Malta. Died in 1863. 
 
 Settle, set't'l, (Elkanah,) an English dramatic poet, 
 born at Dunstable in 1648, is noted for having been 
 for a time the successful rival of Dryden. Under the 
 patronage of Wilmot, Earl of Rochester, the enemy of 
 Dryden, he brought out his tragedies of " Cambyses" 
 and the "Empress of Morocco," which, though pos- 
 sessing little merit, were received with great applause. 
 He was afterwards engaged in a controversy with Dry- 
 den, who satirized him under the name of " Doeg" in his 
 " Absalom and Achitophel." He was also introduced 
 into Pope's " Dunciad." He died in poverty in 1723. 
 
 Seume, soi'm?h or zoi'meh, (Johann Gottfried,) 
 a German poet and miscellaneous writer, born in 1763. 
 He travelled extensively on foot. Among his works is 
 'Obolen," (2 vols., 1797.) Died in 1810. 
 
 See his Autobiography, " Mein Leben," 1813; H. During, 
 " Lebensumrisse von Carl August von Sachsen- Weimar, von Moe- 
 sei, Falk, Seume," etc., 1840; "Nouvclle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Seun-King. See Siun-King. 
 
 Seurre, sur, (Bernard Gabriel,) a French sculptor, 
 born in Paris in 1795. He gained the grand prize of 
 Rome in 1818, and was admitted into the Institute in 
 1852. Among his works is a statue of Napoleon I. for 
 the Colonne Vendome. 
 
 Seurre, (Chari.es Marie Smile,) a sculptor, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1797. 
 He obtained the grand prize in 1824. His master-piece 
 is a statue of Napoleon I. Died in 1858. 
 
 Sevajee or Sivaji, se-vl'jee, the founder of the 
 Mali rat ta empire in India, was born at Poonah in 1627. 
 He was ambitious and warlike. By a series of conquests 
 he made himself master of a large part of Southern 
 India. About 1670 he was involved in war with Aurung- 
 Zeb, whose army he defeated. Died in 1680. 
 
 Severe. See Severus, (Alexander.) 
 
 Severino, sa-vi-ree'no, (Marco Aurelio,) an emi- 
 nent Italian phvsician, born in Calabria in 1580, is said 
 to have been the principal restorer of surgery in Italy. 
 He became professor of anatomy and medicine at Na- 
 ples, and published a number of professional works. 
 Died in 1656. 
 
 See Magliart, "Elogio di M. A. Severino," 1815: " Nouvelle 
 Biograpliie G&ierale." 
 
 Sev-er-i'nus, [Fr. Severin, s&v'raN',] Pope, was a 
 native of Rome. He succeeded Honorius I. in 640 A.D., 
 and died the same year. 
 
 Se-ve'rus, a Gnostic, who lived about 180 A.D. and 
 founded a heretical sect called Severiani. Their doc- 
 trines were similar to those of Tatian, (which see.) 
 
 Se-ve'rus, [Fr. Severe, sa'vaiR',] (Alexander,) a 
 Roman emperor, born in Phoenicia about 205 A.D., was 
 a son of Gessius Marcjanus and Julia Mammaea. In 
 221 he was adopted by his cousin Elagabalus, then em- 
 peror, who also gave him the title of Caesar. He was 
 called M. Aurelius Alexander before his accession to 
 the throne. Elagabalus soon became jealous, and made 
 several unsuccessful efforts to destroy Alexander. He 
 succeeded Elagabalus in March, 222 A.D , and assumed 
 the name 0/ Severus. During the first nine years he 
 reigned in peace, and applied himself to the reform of 
 abuses. The King of Persia having renewed hostilities, 
 Severus marched across the Euphrates, defeated the 
 Persians in 232, and returned to Rome. He was pre- 
 paring to repel an irruption of the Germans, when he 
 was killed by his mutinous troops in 235 A.D. He was 
 greatly distinguished for his wisdom, justice, clemency, 
 and other virtues. 
 
 See Gibbon, '* Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire :" Tili.e- 
 mont, " Histoire des Empereurs ;" Lampridius, "Alexander 
 Severus." 
 
 Severus, (Alexandrinus,) a Greek writer of the 
 fifth century, was the author of "Narratives" and 
 " Ethopceiae," or speeches attributed to supposed per- 
 sons. The latter are contained in Gale's " Rhetores 
 Selecti." 
 
 Severus, (Cornelius,) a Roman poet under the 
 reign of Augustus, was the author of an epic poem on 
 the "Sicilian War," ("Bellum Siculum,") and an account 
 of the death of Cicero, (in verse.) A fragment of the 
 latter is extant. 
 
 Severus, [Fr. Severe, sa'vaiR',j(Lucius Septimius,) 
 a Roman emperor, born at Leptis, in Africa, in 146 A.D. 
 He was educated at Rome, and, after filling various 
 offices, became proconsul of Africa. While commander 
 of the Pannonian legions in Germany, he heard of the 
 death of Commodus, upon which he hastened to Rome, 
 and was proclaimed emperor by the army in 193 A.D. 
 in opposition to Didius Julianus, who was soon after 
 assassinated. He next marched against Pescennius 
 Niger, commander of the Syrian legions, who had lately 
 been proclaimed emperor by his troops. He defeated 
 Niger at Issus or Cyzicus in 194, after which he waged 
 war with success against the Parthians. In 197 he 
 gained a decisive victory over Albinus (a rival claimant 
 of the throne) near Lyons. He renewed the war against 
 Parthia in 198, defeated the Parthians, and took Ctesi- 
 phon, their capital. In 208 he led an army to Britain 
 to subdue the Caledonians, and built a rampart, called 
 the wall of Severus, extending across the island. He 
 died at York in 211 A.D., leaving two sons, Caracalla 
 and Geta. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome." books xxiv.-xxvi. : 
 Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Gdne'iale." 
 
 Severus, (Sulpicius,) (Fr. Sui.pice Severe, suT- 
 pess' sa'vaiR',] a Christian historian, born in Aquitania, 
 Gaul, about 363 a.d., was the author of" Historia Sacra," 
 and a " Life of Saint Martin," in Latin. He has been 
 styled "the Christian Sallust." Died about 410. 
 
 « as*; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; H,trilled;iiat; thasin this. (33P - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SEVIER 
 
 2O00 
 
 SEWARD 
 
 Sevier, se-veer', (Ambrose H.,) an American Senator, 
 born in East Tennessee in 1802. He removed to Ar- 
 kansas at an early age, and was elected to the Senate 
 of the United States by the legislature of that State 
 in 1836. In 1848 he resigned his seat in the Senate, 
 and went on a special mission to Mexico, where he 
 negotiated a treaty of peace. Died at Little Rock in 
 December, 1848. 
 
 Sevier, (John,) an American Governor, born in Ten- 
 nessee in 1744. He served with distinction at the battle 
 of King's Mountain, in 1780. He was elected Governor 
 of Tennessee in 1796, and again in 1803, and was a mem- 
 ber of Congress from 181 1 to 1815. Died in 1815. 
 
 Sevigne, de, deh sa'ven'ya', (Marie de Rabutin- 
 Chantal— deh rt'bii'taN' shoVtil',) Madame, a cele- 
 brated French writer and beauty, born in Burgundy 
 about 1626. Left an orphan at an early age, she re- 
 ceived an excellent education from her maternal uncle, 
 the Abbe de Coulanges, and learned Latin, Italian, and 
 Spanish. She was married in 1644 to the dissolute 
 Marquis de Sevigne, who was killed in a duel in 1651, 
 leaving one son and one daughter. She was courted by 
 Turenne, the Prince of Conti, and the poet Menage, but 
 declined all overtures for a second marriage. She was 
 one of the most admired ladies of the circle of the Hotel 
 de Rambouillet, and was celebrated for her epistolary 
 talent. Her letters display a fertile imagination, a re- 
 fined sensibility, a graceful and naive vivacity, and are 
 much admired for their charming and picturesque style. 
 She has been pronounced the most admirable letter- 
 writer that ever lived. Died in 1696. Among the best 
 editions of her Letters is that of Adolph Regnier, (12 
 vols., 1862-64.) 
 
 See Madame Achille Comtr, "E*logede Madame deSevigneV' 
 1840; J. A. Walsh, "Vie de Madame de SevigneV' 1842: VVALC- 
 kenaer, " Momoires touchant la Viede Marie de Ributin Chantal," 
 4 vols., 1842-48; Aubenas, " Histoire de Madame de SevigneV' 
 etc., 1842; Sainte-Beuve, " Causeries du Lundi;" Lamaktinb, 
 " Memoirs of Celebrated Characters;" "Edinburgh Review," vol. 
 lxxvi. ; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale ;" "Madame de KeVigne' 
 and her Contemporaries," London, 1841 ; " Edinburgh Review" 
 for October, 1842 ; " Quarterly Review" for 1864. 
 
 Sevin, seh-v&N', (Francois,) a French philologist, 
 born at Villeneuve-le-Roi in 1682, was a collector of 
 Oriental manuscripts. Died in 1741. 
 
 Sewall, sQ'al, (Joseph,) a clergyman, born in 1688, 
 was a son of Samuel, the chief justice of Massachu- 
 setts. He preached in Boston for many years. Died 
 in 1769. 
 
 Sewall, (Samuel,) a judge, born at Bishop-Stoke, 
 England, in 1652. He was brought to America in his 
 childhood. He became a judge in 1692, and chief justice 
 of the supreme court of Massachusetts in 1718. He is 
 said to have been eminent for wisdom and learning. 
 He resigned his office in 1728, and died in 1730. 
 
 Sewall, (Samuel,) a jurist, born in Boston in 1757, 
 was a grandson of Joseph Sewall, noticed above. He 
 was a member of Congress from 1796 to 1800, and was 
 appointed chief justice of Massachusetts in 1813. Died 
 at Wiscasset, Maine, in 1814. 
 
 Sewall, (Stephen,) an American judge, born in 
 Massachusetts about 1702, was a nephew of Samuel, 
 (1652-1730.) He became chief justice of the superior 
 court in 1752. Died in 1760. 
 
 Sewall, (Stephen,) an American scholar, born at 
 York, Maine, in 1734. He became professor of Hebrew 
 at Harvard College about 1765, and published various 
 works. Died in 1804. 
 
 Sew'ard, (Anna,) an English writer of considerable 
 reputation in her time, was born at Eyam, in Derbyshire, 
 in 1747. Her metrical novel entitled " Louisa" (1782) 
 was very successful, and was followed by a collection of 
 sonnets, and a " Life of Dr. Darwin," (1804,) in which 
 she claims to have written the first fifty lines of his 
 "Botanic Garden." She died in 1809. Her poems 
 and part of her literary correspondence were, at her 
 request, published by Sir Walter Scott, (1810.) Her 
 works possess little merit of any kind, and are now 
 nearly forgotten. 
 
 See Walter Scott's Miscellaneous Prose Works; "Monthly 
 Review" for October and November, 1811 ; Mrs. Elwood, " Me- 
 moirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement 
 of the Last Century," vol. i., 1843. 
 
 Seward, (Thomas,) an English poet, the father of 
 the preceding, was born in 1708. He. became canon- 
 residentiary of Lichfield. Died in 1790. 
 
 Seward, (William,) an English writer, and friend 
 of Dr. Johnson, born in London in 1747. He published 
 " Biographiana," and "Anecdotes of Distinguished Per- 
 sons." Died in 1799. 
 
 Seward, su'ard or soo'ard, (William Henry,) an 
 eminent American statesman, born at Florida, Orange 
 county, New York, on the 16th of May, 1801, was a son 
 of Samuel S. Seward, M.D. His mother's maiden- 
 name was Mary Jennings. He was educated at Union 
 College, Schenectady, which he entered in i8f6. His 
 favourite studies were rhetoric, moral philosophy, and 
 the ancient classics. He taught school in one of the 
 Southern States for six months in 1819, and returned to 
 Union College in 1820. Having studied law under John 
 Duer and Ogden Hoffman, he was admitted to the bar 
 in 1822. He became a resident of Auburn, Cayuga 
 county, in 1823, and married in 1824 Frances Adeline, a 
 daughter of Judge Elijah Miller. He acquired a high 
 reputation as a lawyer, and in criminal trials acted 
 almost exclusively as counsel for the defendant. 
 
 In 1828 he was president of a State Convention of 
 young men who favoured the re-election of John Quincy 
 Adams to the Presidential chair. Soon after this date 
 he joined the Anti-Masonic party, by which he was 
 elected to the Senate of New York, in 1830, by a large 
 majority. In the session of 1832 he made an able speech 
 in favour of the United States Bank. He became the 
 leader of the opposition party in his own State, and a 
 supporter of the national, party which afterwards adopted 
 the name of Whig. In 1833 he crossed the Atlantic, 
 and made a rapid tour through Great Britain, Ireland, 
 Holland, Germany, and France. He published some 
 observations on those countries, in a series of letters. 
 
 He was nominated as the Whig candidate for Governor 
 of New York in 1834, but was defeated by William L. 
 Marcy. He joined the Protestant Episcopal Church in 
 1837. In 1838 he was elected Governor of the State by 
 a majority of 10,000, being the first Whig that was ever 
 elected to that office. In the exercise of his official 
 power he favoured internal improvements, reform in the 
 courts of law and chancery, and the extension of edu- 
 cation among the people. Among the events of his ad- 
 ministration was a controversy with the executive of 
 Virginia, who claimed the surrender of tjiree coloured 
 seamen charged with abetting a slave to escape from 
 his master. Governor Seward refused to comply with 
 this requisition, and argued that no State can force 
 a requisition on another State, founded on an act 
 which is only criminal according to its own legislation, 
 but which compared with genera] standards is humane 
 and praiseworthy. Through his influence the legislature 
 repealed the law which permitted a slaveholder, travel- 
 ling with his slaves, to hold them for nine months in 
 the State of New York. 
 
 Mr. Seward supported General Harrison for President 
 in 1840, and at the same time was re-elected Governor 
 for two years. He declined to be a candidate in 1842, 
 and resumed the practice of law in the courts of his own 
 State and in those of the United States. He displayed 
 much courage and coolness in the defence of Free- 
 man, a negro who massacred a family near Auburn in 
 1845, and he provoked a violent explosion of popular 
 indignation by his effort to prove that Freeman was 
 insane. Although his argument failed to convince the 
 jury, it was confirmed by a post-mortem examination 
 of the brain of Freeman. In the Presidential election 
 of 1844 he was an active supporter of Henry Clay, and 
 opposed the annexation of Texas to the United States. 
 He wrote a "Life of John Quincy Adams," (published 
 in 1849.) 
 
 In 1848 he advocated the nomination and election of 
 General Taylor to the Presidency. In February, 1849, 
 Mr. Seward was elected by the State legislature to the 
 Senate of the United States, receiving one hundred and 
 twenty-one votes against thirty for all others. He soon 
 became an intimate friend and favourite counsellor of 
 President Taylor, and distinguished himself by his firm 
 resistance to the extension of slavery. In March, 1850, 
 
 5,e 1 I,5,ri,y i /c;(j-;a,e,6,same,lessprolonged;a,e,I,o,u,j?,j/4or/;a,e,i,9,o*j-<-«r<-; far, fill, fat; r e:: ndt; good; moor.; 
 
SEWARD 
 
 200 1 
 
 SEXTUS 
 
 he made a speech in favour of the admission of Cali- 
 fornia into the Union, in which occurs his famous phrase 
 "the higher law." "The Constitution," he said, "de- 
 votes the .lational domain to union, to justice, to defence, 
 to welfare, and to liberty. But there is a higher law 
 than the Constitution, which regulates our authority 
 over the domain, and devotes it to the same noble pur- 
 poses." He opposed the "Compromise Bill" (July, 
 1850) in an elaborate and eloquent speech, asserting 
 that " the love of liberty is a public, universal, and un- 
 dying affection." For his course on the slavery question 
 he was denounced as a seditious agitator. It was his 
 habitual practice never to notice the abusive person- 
 alities which were often applied to him by his opponents 
 in the Senate. 
 
 In 1852 he voted for General Scott, the Whig candi- 
 date for President. He constantly opposed the Native 
 America* or Know-Nothing party, which was secretly 
 organized about 1854, " on a foreign and frivolous issue," 
 and he was one of the chief founders of the Republican 
 party, which was formed about the same period, wi-th 
 a view to prevent the extension of slavery. He was 
 re-elected a Senator of the United States in 1855. In 
 a speech at Rochester in October, 1858, he declared 
 that the antagonism between freedom and slavery " is 
 an irrepressible conflict between opposing and endur- 
 ing forces ;" but this oft-quoted phrase ("irrepressible 
 conflict") is said to have been first used by Abraham 
 Lincoln. 
 
 About this time he predicted that the Democratic 
 party would be fatally damaged by its support of slavery. 
 In a memorable speech delivered in the Senate, March 
 3, 1858, he said, " All parties in this country that have 
 tolerated the extension of slavery, except one, have 
 perished for that error already. That last one — the 
 Democratic party — is hurrying on irretrievably to the 
 same fate." 
 
 Mr. Seward visited Europe a second time in 1859. 
 At the Republican Convention which met in i860 to 
 nominate a candidate for President, Seward received 
 one hundred and seventy-three votes on the first ballot, 
 (more than any other candidate,) two hundred and 
 thirty-three votes being necessary for a choice. His 
 failure to obtain the nomination was attributed to the hos- 
 tility of Horace Greeley. During the session of i860- 
 61 he made an able speech in the Senate against dis- 
 union. He was appointed secretary of state in March, 
 1861. It is generally admitted that he displayed much 
 ability in the direction of the foreign policy during the ! 
 civil war. Among the important acts of his ministry 
 was the liberation of Mason and Slidell, who were . 
 arrested on board the British steamer Trent in Novem- ! 
 ber, 1861, and were demanded by the British govern- ! 
 ment. "To his admirable skill, foresight, and good 
 judgment," says the "North American Review" for [ 
 •April, 1866, "the country owes its deliverance from 
 perils and embarrassments such as it never before 
 encountered. His fairness and good temper have been 
 more than a match for the plausible insincerity of 
 Thouvenel and Drotiyn de Lhuys and the haughty arro- 
 gance of Earl Russell. . . . Some of his despatches, 
 especially that relating to the Trent case, have a world- 
 wide renown, and there are sentences scattered through 
 his published volumes which deserve to live forever." 
 A different and far less favourable view, however, is 
 taken of his despatches and his policy in a number of 
 the same periodical published October, 1S66. 
 
 The invasion of Mexico by the French in 1862 raised 
 another important subject of diplomacy. In despatches 
 dated September and October, 1863, Mr. Seward dis- 
 claimed the right and the disposition to intervene by 
 force in Mexico. He persisted in recognizing the 
 government of Juarez, and after the House of Repre- 
 sentatives (April, 1864) declared, by a unanimous vote, 
 against the recognition of the Mexican empire, he 
 affirmed that this resolution "truly interprets the unani- 
 mous sentiment of the people." In November, 1865, 
 he wrote to Mr. Bigelow, the American minister at 
 Paris, "The United States regard the effort to establish 
 permanently a foreign and imperial government in 
 Mexico as disallowable and impracticable." The result 
 
 of this despatch, and of others of the same import, was 
 that the French army was withdrawn about the end 
 of t866, and Napoleon III. witnessed the disastrous 
 and humiliating failure of his costly and ill-judged 
 enterprise. 
 
 In the spring of 1865 Secretary Seward was thrown 
 from his carriage with such violence that his arm and 
 jaw were broken. While he was lying in this crippled 
 condition, on the 14th of April, 1865, Lewis Payne, 
 alias Powell, — an accomplice of J. Wilkes Booth, — pre- 
 sented himself at the door of his house, rushed past the 
 porter, broke the skull of Frederick Seward, and in- 
 flicted with a knife several severe wounds on the neck 
 and face of the secretary of state. The assassin was 
 then grasped by Mr. Robinson, so that he failed to effect 
 his purpose, but stabbed two other men as he ran out 
 of the house. 
 
 Mr. Seward was retained in the office of secretary of 
 state by President Johnson, and supported his policy in 
 relation to reconstruction, against the almost unanimous 
 sentiment of the Republican party. In August and 
 September, 1866, President Johnson, accompanied by 
 his secretary of state, made an extensive electioneering 
 tour, on which occasion Mr. Seward gave great offence 
 even to the most moderate and impartial of his former 
 friends. At Niagara, in attempting to answer the charge 
 that he had deserted his party, he said, in addition to 
 many other things still more objectionable, "Must I 
 desert my course, my government, and my country 
 to follow a party divided, distracted, weak, imbecile?' 
 The next ensuing elections, however, gave a decisive 
 and unanswerable refutation to the misstatement that 
 the party was weak and distracted. (See, on this 
 subject, the "North American Review" for October, 
 1866.) 
 
 That historic impartiality which belongs to the biogra- 
 phy of public men, forbids us wholly to pass over those 
 errors and foibles which have disappointed so many of 
 Mr. Seward's former friends; but we gladly turn from 
 the consideration of such topics to the contemplation of 
 his long life of usefulness, and especially of his eminent 
 services to his country in her late hour of trial. 
 
 See "Memoir of W. H. Seward," prefixed to his works, by 
 •Georgh E. Baker, 3 vols., 1853 ; Bartlett, " Modern Agitators. ' 
 
 Sew'el, (William,) M.D., a historian and linguist, 
 of English extraction, born at Amsterdam in 1654, was 
 a member of the Society of Friends. He published a 
 "Dictionary of the Dutch and English Languages," 
 (1690,) and a "History of the Origin and Progress of 
 the Society called Quakers," (1717,) which is highly 
 esteemed. Died about 1725. 
 
 Sew'ell, (George,) an English physician and miscel- 
 laneous writer, born at Windsor, was a pupil of Boer- 
 haave. He published a "Vindication of the English 
 Stage," "Sir Walter Raleigh," a tragedy, and trans- 
 lations from Lucan and other Latin poets. Died in 
 1726. 
 
 Sewell, (Rev. William,) an English writer and 
 teacher, born in the Isle of Wight about 1805. He 
 was a tutor or professor at Oxford University. He 
 published, besides other works, "Christian Morals," 
 (1840,) "Christian Politics," and a version of the Odes 
 of Horace. 
 
 Sex'tl-us, (Caius,) was elected Roman consul in 124 
 B.C., and was afterwards proconsul in Southern Gaul, 
 where he gained a victory over the Arverni. Near the 
 warm springs, where one of his battles was fought, he 
 founded the city of Aquae Sextiae, now Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 Sex'fJ-us, Sex'tus, or Six'tus, (Quintus,) a 
 Roman Stoic philosopher, who lived about 50 B.C. and 
 is highly praised by Seneca. He is supposed to have 
 been the author of a book of moral aphorisms, (" Sen- 
 tential,") which Rufinus translated from Greek into 
 Latin. 
 
 Sex'tus [Zc£re>f) of -Cheron^e'a, a Greek Stoic 
 philosopher of the second century, was a nephew of 
 Plutarch, and a preceptor of Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 Sex'tus Em-pIr'I-cus, [Se^roc b 'E/iireifwuos,] a cele- 
 brated Greek skeptical philosopher and physician, whose 
 birthplace is unknown, flourished about 200 A.I). He 
 belonged to the medical sect of Empiric!. He wrote 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as ; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as «; th as in this. ( jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 126 
 
SETBERT 
 
 20O2 
 
 SFORZA 
 
 two works which have come down to us, namely, "Against 
 
 the Mathematicians or Dogmatists," (" Adversns Mathe- 
 maticos,") and " Pyrrhon'istic Sketches," (" Pyrrhonae 
 Hypotyposes.") These works are highly prized as docu- 
 ments for the history of philosophy. They contain all the 
 arguments and maxims of the ancient skeptics, and tend 
 to involve in doubt all the doctrines of science, religion, 
 and philosophy. The former work has been described 
 as "a perfect store-house of doubts regarding every 
 imaginable phasis of human knowledge." ("Encyclo- 
 paedia Britannica.") 
 
 See C. Jourdain, "Sextus Empiricus et la Philosophie scolas- 
 tique," 1858; Tennemann, " Geschichte der Philosophic ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Seybert, sl'bert, (Adam,) an American mineralogist 
 and physician, born in Philadelphia in 1773. studied 
 in Paris, Edinburgh, and Gottingen. He was a member 
 of Congress from 1809 to 1815. He published " Statis- 
 tical Annals of the United States from 1789 to 1818." 
 Died in Paris in 1825. 
 
 Seydelmann, sl'del-man' or zi'del-man', (Jakob 
 Crkscenz,) a German artist, celebrated for his admira- 
 ble drawings in sepia, was born at Dresden in 1750. 
 Among his master-pieces is a copy of Correggio's 
 "Night." Died in 1829. 
 
 Seydelniami, (Karl,) a celebrated German actor, 
 born at Glatz, in Silesia, in 1795 ; died in 1843. 
 
 Seydlitz, von, fon sld'lits or zid'lits, (Friedrich 
 Wilhei.m,) a Prussian general, born near Cleves in 
 1721, served in the Seven Years' war. For his distin- 
 guished bravery at the battle of Kossbach, in 1757, 
 he received from his sovereign the order of the Black 
 Eagle. He became general of cavalry in 1767. Died 
 in 1773- 
 
 See Varnhagbn von Ense, " Leben des Generals von Seydlitz," 
 1834; Count von Bismark, "Der General F. von Seydlitz," 1837; 
 Blankenburg, "Charakter des Generals von Seydlitz," 1707. 
 
 Seyffarth, sif'faitt or zif'faRt, (Gustav,) a German 
 antiquary and professor of archaeology at Leipsic, was 
 born at Uebigau, in the duchy of Saxony, in 1796. He 
 was the author of " Rudimenta Hieroglyphices," (1826,) 
 and of " Principles of Mythology," and wrote a continua- 
 tion of Spohli's treatise " On the Language and Letters 
 of the Ancient Egyptians." In 1855 he became professor 
 in the Lutheran College of Saint Louis, in the United 
 States. Died in 1860. 
 
 See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Seyfried, si'fRet or zI'fRet, (Ignaz,) a German com- 
 poser, born at Vienna in 1776; died in 1841. 
 
 Seymour, (F.dward.) See Somerset, Duke of. 
 
 Seymour, see'miir, (Edward,) an English Tory 
 politician, was a lineal descendant of the Duke of Som- 
 erset, who was Protector in the reign of Edward VI. 
 He was one of the most skilful debaters in the kingdom. 
 He joined the party of William, Prince of Orange, in 
 1688. In 1692 he was appointed a commissioner of the 
 treasury and member of the cabinet. He was removed 
 in 1694. He was factious in politics and licentious in 
 morals. Died in 1707. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. i. 
 
 Seymour, (Sir George Hamilton,) an English di- 
 plomatist, born about 1797. He was sent to Saint 
 Petersburg in 1851 as envoy-extraordinary and minister- 
 plenipotentiary. In 1853 Nicholas I. made to him over- 
 tures on the subject of Turkey, offering, it is said, to 
 co-operate with England in the spoliation of "the sick 
 man." His mission in Russia ended in 1854. 
 
 Seymour, see'miir, (Horatio,) an American poli- 
 tician, born in Onondaga county, New York, in 1811. 
 He studied law, which he practised for several years in 
 Utica. He was nominated for the office of Governor of 
 New York by the Democratic party in 1850, but was 
 defeated by Washington Hunt. Having been nominated 
 again in 1852, he was elected Governor for two years 
 by a large majority. In 1854 he was an unsuccessful 
 candidate for the same office. In the crisis of i86r he 
 opposed the coercion of the secessionists. According 
 to Mr. Greeley, he was understood to urge the adhesion 
 of New York to the Southern Confederacy. (" American 
 Conflict," vol. i. p. 438.) He was elected Governor of 
 New York in 1862. About the 1st of August, 1863, 
 
 he urged President Lincoln to suspend the draft, and 
 insisted that the enforcement of the draft should be 
 postponed till the courts decided the question of ita 
 constitutionality. He was president of the National 
 Democratic Convention which met at Chicago in August, 
 1864, and then made a speech, in which he declared, 
 "This administration cannot now save this Union if it 
 would. It has by its proclamations, by vindictive legis- 
 lation, by displays of hate and passion, placed obstacles 
 in its own pathway which it cannot overcome, and has 
 hampered its own freedom of action by unconstitutional 
 acts." He was again presented as a candidate for the 
 office of Governor in November, 1864, and was defeated. 
 He was president of the National Democratic Convention 
 which met in New York, July 4, 1868, and was nomi- 
 nated as the candidate for the Presidency of the United 
 States on the 9th of that month, although he had an- 
 nounced his resolution to decline the honourf and had 
 declared in that convention that "he could not be nomi- 
 nated without putting himself and the Democratic party 
 in peril." He received only eighty electoral votes, and 
 was defeated by General Grant. 
 
 Seymour, (Jane,) was a sister of Edward, Duke of 
 Somerset, and the third wife of Henry VIII., to whom 
 she was married in 1536. She was the mother of Ed- 
 ward VI. Died in 1537. 
 
 Seymour, (Sir Michael,) an English vice-admiral, 
 born in 1802. He became a rear-admiral in 1855, and 
 commanded the naval force which operated against 
 Canton in 1857. 
 
 Seymour, (Thomas,) Lord Sudely, lord high ad- 
 miral of England, was a brother of FMward, Duke of 
 Somerset. He married Catherine Parr, a widow of 
 Henry VIII., and, after her death, became a suitor of 
 the princess Elizabeth. He aspired to be governor of the 
 young king, and to supplant the Duke of Somerset as 
 regent or protector. Having been convicted of treason, 
 he was beheaded in 1549. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England." 
 
 Seymour, (Truman,) an American general, born at 
 Burlington, Vermont, about 1824, graduated at West 
 Point in 1846. He was a captain in Fort Sumter when it 
 was bombarded in April, 1861, and became a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers about April, 1862. He served at 
 the battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862, and com- 
 manded a small army which was defeated at Olustee, 
 Florida, on the 20th of February, 1864. 
 
 Seymour, (William,) Duke of Somerset, was a 
 great-grandson of Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset. 
 He offended James I. by his marriage with Arabella 
 Stuart, who was a cousin of the king. In the civil war 
 he fought for Charles I. Died in 1660. (See Stuart, 
 Arabella.) 
 
 Seyssel. See Seissf.l. 
 
 Seze, de, deh s&z, (Raymond,) Count, a French ad- 
 vocate and royalist, born at Bordeaux in 1748. He was ' 
 one of the counsel selected by Louis XVI. to defend 
 him in his trial, and made an eloquent plea before the 
 Convention. He became first president of the court of 
 cassation in 181 5, and a member of the French Acad- 
 emy in 1816. Died in 1828. 
 
 See Chateaubriand. " E* oge du Comte de Size," 1S61 ; Mar 
 Monte!., " MtSmoires ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge"ne>ale." 
 
 Sfondrati, sfon-dRa'tee, (Celestino,) an Italian 
 cardinal and writer, born at Milan in 1644; died in 
 1696. 
 
 Sfondrati, (Francesco,) an Italian cardinal, born a* 
 Cremona in 1493, was an influential adviser of Pope 
 Paul III. He wrote a Latin poem " On the Rape of 
 Helen," (" De Raptu Helenas," 1559.) Died in 1550. 
 
 Sforce. See Sforza. 
 
 Sforza. See Bonna Sforza. 
 
 Sforza, sfoRt'sa, [Fr. Sforce, sfoRss,] (Francesco,) 
 son of Giacomuzzo, noticed below, was born in 1401, 
 and was equally distinguished as a warrior. After he 
 had for a time assisted the Florentines against Kilippo 
 Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan, the latter gave him in 
 marriage his daughter Bianca. On the death of Visconti 
 he took possession of Milan, with the assistance of the 
 Venetians, and was proclaimed duke in 1450. He dis- 
 played great ability and moderation as a ruler, and, 
 
 3, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SFORZA 
 
 2003 
 
 SHJFTESBURr 
 
 among other valuable public works, constructed the 
 Naviglio della Martesana, or canal between Milan and 
 the Adda. Died in 1465. 
 
 See Hover. " Franz Sr'ona," 2 vols., 1846; "The Life and Times 
 of Francesco Sforca," by W. P. Urquhart, 1851; G. Simonetta. 
 "De Rebus gestis F. Sforia;," 14S0; Robertson, "History of 
 Charles V.," vol. ii. books iv.-vi ; SlSMONDI, " Histoire des Repub- 
 liqiu-s Italiennes;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Sforza, (Francesco Maria,) the last Duke of Milan, 
 a son of Ludovico " il Moro," was born in 1492. He 
 obtained the dukedom by the aid of the emperor Charles 
 V., about 1525, and died, without issue, in 1535. 
 
 Sforza, (Gai.eazzo Maria,) a son of Francesco, was 
 bom in 1444. He became Duke of Milan in 1465. 
 Having made himself odious to the people by his tyranny 
 and licentiousness, he was assassinated in 1476. 
 
 Sforza, (Giacomuzzo Attendolo, jl-ko-moot'so 
 It-teVdo-lo,) an Italian soldier of fortune, born near 
 Faenza about 1370. At an early age he entered the 
 service of Alberico da Barbiano, one of the most noted 
 of the "condottieri," or party leaders of the time, who 
 were striving for the deliverance of Italy from foreign 
 mercenaries. By his distinguished bravery and energy 
 he contributed to the success of Alberico's enterprises, 
 and received from him the surname of "Sforza," from 
 his great strength. He afterwards assisted the Floren- 
 tines against the republic of Pisa, and, having entered 
 the service of Joanna, Queen of Naples, attained the 
 rank of commander-in-chief. Having marched against 
 Braccio da Montone, he was drowned while attempting 
 to ford the river Pescara, in 1424. 
 
 See Ratti, "Memorie della Famiglia Sforza," 2 vols., 1795; Sis- 
 mondi, "Histoire des Rt^publiques Italiennes." 
 
 Sforza, (Giovanni Galeazzo Maria,) Duke of 
 Milan, the son of Galeazzo Maria, noticed above, was 
 born in 1468. He succeeded his father in 1476, his 
 mother acting as regent; but the power was usurped 
 about 1480 by his uncle Ludovico. Died in 1494. 
 
 Sforza, (Ludovico,) surnamed il Moro, ("the 
 Moor,") brother of Galeazzo Maria, was born in 1451. 
 He imprisoned his nephew, the legitimate heir, and 
 usurped the government of Milan, about 1480. In order 
 to strengthen himself against Ferdinand, King of Naples, 
 who had espoused the cause of the young duke, he in- 
 vited Charles VIII. of France to attempt the conquest 
 of Naples, thus originating the devastating wars which 
 afflicted Italy in the sixteenth century. The French, 
 having taken Naples, soon roused the people to resist- 
 ance by their oppression, and were expelled from Italy 
 by the united efforts of Ludovico, the pope, and the 
 Venetians. On the invasion of Italy by the French 
 king, Louis XII., in 1499, Ludovico, after opposing him 
 with varying success, was taken prisoner, and died in 
 France in 1510. He was a liberal patron of learning 
 and the arts, and made numerous improvements in the 
 city of Milan. 
 
 See Monti, "Vita di Ludovico Sforra," 1653 : StSMOKDI, " His- 
 toire des Republiques Italiennes ;" RoscoE, " Pontificate of Leo X. ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Sforza, (Massimiliano,) a son of the preceding, 
 enjoyed for a time the rank of Duke of Milan, but was 
 deposed by the French king, Francis I., after the battle 
 of Marignano, in 1515. Died in 1530. His brother 
 Francesco was made Duke of Milan by the emperor 
 Charles V., to whom, on his dying without issue in 
 1535, he bequeathed the dukedom. 
 
 Sgravesande. See Gravesanre. 
 
 Sgricci, sgRet'chee, (Tommaso,) a celebrated Italian 
 improvisatore, born in the latter part of the eighteenth 
 century. His productions entitled " The Death of 
 Charles I." (" La Morte di Carlo I.") and " L'Ettore" 
 were published in 1825. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Shad'well, (Thomas,) an English dramatist, born in 
 Norfolk in 1640, was for a time a friend of Dryden, who 
 subsequently satirized him in his poem of " MacFleck- 
 noe." He succeeded Dryden as poet-laureate in 1688, 
 through the influence of the Earl of Rochester. He 
 published, among other comedies, "The Humourist," 
 "The Sullen Lovers," "The Lancashire Witches," and 
 "The Volunteers." Died in 1692. 
 
 See "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., second series, (1828.) 
 
 Shafey, sha'ta' or sha'fl', [Lat. Shafei'us.] written 
 also Shafay and Schafei, (sometimes called Aboo- 
 Abdallah- Mohammed - Ibn - Idrees, (or -EdrJs,) 
 a'boo ab-dal'lah mo-ham'med Ib'n e-drees',) a cele- 
 brated Mohammedan doctor, born at Gaza in 767 A.D., 
 was the founder of one of the four orthodox sects of 
 Moslems, and one of the most learned men of his time. 
 He lived for many years at Mecca, and wrote treatises 
 on canon and civil law. Died about 820. 
 
 Shaftesbury, shafs'ber-e, (Anthony Ashley 
 COOPER,) Load Ashley, and first Earl of, an English 
 politician, famous for his talents, intrigues, and versa- 
 tility, was born at Wimbome Saint Giles, Dorsetshire, 
 on the 22d or 23d of July, 1621. He was a son of Sir 
 John Cooper, and a grandson of Sir Anthony Ashley, 
 from each of whom he inherited a large estate. 
 
 He was a member of the Short Parliament of 1640. 
 In the civil war he first supported the cause of the king, 
 but in 1643 he joined the popular party, and took Ware- 
 ham in 1644. He became a member of Parliament in 
 1653, after which he was appointed a member of Crom- 
 well's council of state. Between 1654 and 1660 he sat 
 in several Parliaments, was an opponent of Cromwell, 
 and very efficiently promoted the restoration. Charles 
 If. rewarded him in 1660 with the office of chancellor 
 of the exchequer, and raised him to the peerage, as 
 Baron Ashley, in 1661. Lord Ashley was a political 
 opponent of Lord Clarendon while the latter was prime 
 minister. He became in 1670 a member of the famous 
 and notorious Cabal ministry, whose domestic policy 
 was arbitrary, and whose foreign policy was basely sub- 
 servient to the will of Louis XIV. " Ashley, with a far 
 stronger head [than Buckingham]," says Macaulay, "and 
 with a far fiercer and more earnest ambition, had been 
 equally versatile ; but Ashley's versatility was the effect 
 not of levity, but of selfishness. He had served and 
 betrayed a succession of.govemments ; but he had timed 
 all his treacheries so well that through all revolutions 
 his fortunes had been constantly rising." ("History 
 of England.") He was created Earl of Shaftesbury in 
 1672, and held the office of lord chancellor from No- 
 vember, 1672, till November, 1673. After the seals had 
 been taken from him, he went over to the opposition or 
 country party, and signalized his zeal against popery. A 
 majority of the Commons having opposed the measures 
 of the court, the king prorogued that House from time 
 to time. When it assembled in 1677, Shaftesbury as- 
 serted that it was dissolved. For this offence he was 
 confined in the Tower for more than a year. This affair, 
 and his officious action in relation to the Popish Plot, 
 rendered him so popular that he was appointed president 
 of the new council formed in 1679. While he held this 
 high position, he procured the passage of the famous 
 Habeas Corpus act, of which he was the author. Having 
 been dismissed from the presidency of the council in 
 October, 1679, he presented the Duke of York to the 
 grand jury as a popish recusant. Suspected of conspir- 
 ing with the Duke of Monmouth, he was seized in July, 
 1681, and confined in the Tower on a charge of treason ; 
 but the bill of indictment was ignored by the grand jury. 
 Dryden satirized him, under the name of " Achitophel," 
 in his admirable poem of "Absalom and Achitophel." 
 It is said that Shaftesbury advised his partv to revolt 
 openly against the court, but the other leaders refused 
 to follow this advice. He therefore left England in 1682, 
 and died at Amsterdam in June, 1683, leaving one son. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" " Life 
 of Lord Shaftesbury," by B. Martin and Dr. Kipris, new edition, 
 by C. W. Cook, 1836: also "Memoirs, Letters, and Speeches," 
 edited by W. D. Christie. 
 
 Shaftesbury, (Anthony Ashley Cooper,) seventh 
 Earl OF, an English philanthropist, the eldest son of 
 the sixth Earl, was born in 1S01. He was styled Lord 
 Ashley in his youth. He graduated at Oxford, as fust 
 class in classics, in 1822, and entered Parliament in 1826. 
 He procured the passage of the " Ten Hours' Bill," which 
 requires that children in factories shall not work more 
 than ten hours in a day. He distinguished himself as 
 an advocate of the "Evangelical party" of the Anglican 
 Church, and as a promoter of benevolent enterprises. 
 At the death of his father, in 1851, he inherited the 
 earldom. 
 
 « as *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled: 3 as z: th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SHJFTESBURr 
 
 2004 
 
 SHAKSPEARE 
 
 Shaftesbury, (Anthony Cooper,) third Earl of, 
 a celebrated English writer, born in London in 1671, 
 was a grandson of the first Earl. He was educated by 
 John Locke, the philosopher, who was a friend of his 
 grandfather. According to a statement of the pupil 
 himself, Locke "had the absolute direction of his educa- 
 tion." In 1693 he entered Parliament, where he acted 
 with the Whigs. During a residence in Holland, to 
 which he went in 1698, he became acquainted with 
 Bayle and Leclerc. On the death of his father, in 1699, 
 he passed into the House of Lords. He was a political 
 friend of William III., who consulted him in important 
 affairs. After the death of William (1705) he retired 
 from public service. He published a " Letter on Enthu- 
 siasm," (1708,) "Moralists, a Philosophical Rhapsody," 
 (1709,) and "Sensus Communis, or Essay on Wit and 
 Humour," (1709.) His style as a writer was greatly ad- 
 mired, though it is wanting in ease and simplicity. He 
 died at Naples in February, 1713, leaving one son, An- 
 thony. His collected works were published in 1713, 
 under the title of "Characteristics of Men, Manners, 
 Opinions, and Times." Leibnitz warmly applauded his 
 " Characteristics." " His fine genius and generous spirit," 
 says Sir J. Mackintosh, "shine through his writings; 
 but their lustre is often dimmed by peculiarities, and, it 
 must be said, by affectations, which are peculiarly fatal to 
 the permanence of fame." Referring to his "Moralists," 
 the same critic says, " Perhaps there is scarcely any 
 composition in our language more lofty in its moral and 
 religious sentiments and more exquisitely elegant and 
 musical in its diction. . . . 'The Inquiry concerning 
 Virtue' is nearly exempt from the faulty peculiarities of 
 the author; the method is perfect, the reasoning just, 
 the style precise and clear. . . . This production is un- 
 questionably entitled to a place in the first rank of 
 English tracts on moral philosophy. It contains more 
 intimations of an original and important nature on the 
 theory of ethics than perhaps any preceding work of 
 modern times. His demonstration of the utility of vir- 
 tue to the individual far surpasses all attempts of the 
 name nature, — being founded not on a calculation of 
 outward advantages or inconveniences, alike uncer- 
 tain, precarious, and degrading, but on the unshaken 
 foundation of the delight which is of the very essence 
 of social affection and virtuous sentiment, ... on the 
 all-important truth that to love is to be happy and to 
 hate is to be miserable, that affection is its own reward 
 and ill will its own punishment. . . . The relation of 
 religion to morality, as far as it can be discovered by 
 human reason, was never more justly or more beauti- 
 fully stated." (See " General View of the Progress of 
 Ethical Philosophy.") 
 
 SHAH, shSh, a Persian word, signifying "king," and 
 forming part of the name or title of many Oriental sove- 
 reigns ; as, Shah AbbSs, i.e. "King AbbSs," Nadir 
 Shah, " wonderful king," etc. 
 
 Shah-Alam, shah a'lam, ("King of the World,") 
 written also Schah-Alam (-Alem or -Alim) and 
 Shah-Alum, (or -Allum,) sometimes called Bahadur 
 Shah, ba-ha'dd"6r shah, ("Brave King,") a son of 
 Aurung-Zeb, Emperor of India, whom he succeeded in 
 1707. He died in 1712, while carrying on a war against 
 the Sikhs. 
 
 Shah-Alam (or Schah-Alem) II. ascended the 
 throne of India in 1759. In order to strengthen his 
 authority over his empire, he had recourse to the British, 
 to whom he gave a grant of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, 
 in return for the city and district of Allahabad which 
 they assigned him. Died in 1806. 
 
 Shah-Jehau or Shahjehan, shih je-hln', written 
 also Shah-Jahan and Schah- (01 Chah-) Djehan, 
 (" King of the World,") the fifth Mogul Emperor of 
 India, the son of Jehan-Geer, whom he succeeded in 
 1627. His reign was disturbed by the rebellion of his 
 sons, one of whom, the famous Aurung-Zeb, put to death 
 two of his brothers and deposed his father. He died in 
 1666 at Agra, where a large establishment had been 
 granted him. The court of Shah-Jehan was celebrated 
 for its splendour. The "peacock throne," formed of 
 jewels valued at £6,500,000, was constructed by him. 
 He also founded the city of Shah Jehanabad, or New 
 
 Delhi, and erected many magnificent public buildings, 
 among which the Taj-Mahal, a mausoleum, erected in 
 honour of his favourite wife, called Taj-Mahal, ("the 
 Crown of the Palace,") near Agra, is justly regarded 
 as one of the wonders of the world, and, in the opin- 
 ion of several competent judges, is the most elegant 
 and splendid edifice on the globe. It is said to have 
 cost — in a country where almost every kind of labour 
 is marvellously cheap — not less than sixty millions 
 of dollars. 
 
 Shah-Rokh-Behadur, shah roK be-ha'door, or 
 Shah-Rokh-Meerza, a son of Tamerlane, succeeded 
 him on the throne in 1405. He rebuilt the fortress of 
 the city of Herat, and constructed other public edifices. 
 Died about 1450. 
 
 Shah-Teman, shih te-min', or Shah-Temaun, 
 (" King of the Age,") succeeded his father, Timoor Shah, 
 as King of Cabul and Afghanistan in 1793. 
 
 Shaiva. See Saiva. 
 
 Shakhovsky or Schachowski, sha-Kov'ske, 
 (ALEXANDER Alexandkovitch,) Prince, a celebrated 
 Russian dramatist, born in the government of Smolensk 
 in 1777. Among his numerous and popular works may 
 be named his "Aristophanes," a comedy, and "A Lesson 
 to Coquettes." Died in 1846. 
 
 Shakespear, shak'speer, (John,) an English Orien- 
 talist, born at Lount, Leicestershire, in 1774. He was 
 professor of Hindostanee at the Royal Military College, 
 and published, among other works, an excellent " Dic- 
 tionary of the Hindustani Language," (1817,) and a 
 "Grammar of the Hindustani Language," (6th edition, 
 1S55, Svo.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Shakspeare or Shakespeare* shak'speer, (Wil- 
 liam,) the greatest dramatic genius that ever lived, 
 was born at Stratford-upon-Avon in April, (probably 
 on the 23d,) 1564. His father, John Shakspeare, was a 
 glover. His mother's maiden-name was Mary Arden ; 
 she belonged to a respectable and ancient family of 
 Warwickshire. William was the eldest of four brothers ; 
 he had four sisters, two of whom were older and two 
 younger than himself. The materials for writing the 
 life of Shakspeare are extremely meagre. Of his child- 
 hood, after his christening, (which took place on the 
 26th of April,) and his early youth, we know absolutely 
 nothing. It is certain, however, that he was married in 
 his nineteenth year to Anne Hathaway. He appears 
 soon after his marriage to have gone to London, where 
 he followed the profession of an actor, and, if Aubrey's 
 statement may be trusted, he " did act exceedingly well." 
 There is a pretty generally received tradition that he 
 fled from Warwickshire in consequence of having been 
 detected in deer-stealing. Rowe, in his Life of Shak- 
 speare, relates the story as follows : " He had, by a 
 misfortune common enough to young fellows, fallen into 
 ill company; and amongst them some that made a fre- 
 quent practice of deer-stealing engaged him with them 
 more than once in robbing a park that belonged to Sir 
 Thomas Lucy, of Charlecote, near Stratford. For this 
 he was prosecuted by that gentleman, as he thought, 
 somewhat too severely ; and in order to revenge that ill 
 usage, he made a ballad upon him. And though this, 
 probably the first essay of his poetry, be lost, yet it is 
 said to have been so very bitter that it redoubled the 
 prosecution against him, to that degree that he was 
 obliged to leave his business and family in Warwickshire 
 for some time, and shelter himself in London." It 
 seems very probable that the passage in the first scene 
 of the " Merry Wives of Windsor," in which the " luces" 
 (or "louses") on Justice Shallow's coat are spoken of, 
 was intended as a hit at Sir Thomas Lucy. A similar 
 play upon the name of Lucy occurs in a coarse ballad 
 which tradition ascribes to Shakspeare. After having 
 taken up his abode in London, he appears to have acted 
 by turns at the Globe and at Blackfriars' Theatre. 
 
 Speaking of Shakspeare soon after his arrival in Lon- 
 don, Rowe says, " He was received into the company 
 then in being, at first in a very mean rank ; but his ad- 
 mirable wit, and the natural turn of it to the stage, soon 
 
 * Respecting the spelling of this name, see Allibcine's " Diction- 
 ary ol Authors." 
 
 5, e, t, o, B, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, ail, fat; met; ndt ; good 1 moon; 
 
SHAKSPEARE 
 
 2005 
 
 SHAKSPEARE 
 
 distinguished him, if not as an extraordinary actor, yet 
 as an excellent writer. His name is printed, as the 
 custom was in those times, amongst those of the other 
 players, before some old plays, but without any particu- 
 lar account of what sort of parts he used to play ; and, 
 though I have inquired, I could never meet with any 
 further account of him this way than that the top of his 
 performance was the ghost in his own ' Hamlet.'" 
 
 It is not known when Shakspeare first began to write 
 plays, or which he wrote first. " He began early," says 
 Aubrey, "to make essays at dramatic poetry, which at 
 that time was very low, and his plays took well." In 
 his dedication of "Venus and Adonis," which appeared 
 > n '593> Shakspeare calls this poem the first heir of his 
 invention. It is, however, not impossible that he might 
 have commenced the work many years earlier. His first 
 published play appeared in 1594, the same year that his 
 " Lucrece" was given to the world. From this time 
 there is reason to suppose that, although he may have 
 continued to act occasionally, his principal attention was 
 directed to the composition of his dramas ; since, accord- 
 ing to Meres, he had written the "Two Gentlemen of 
 Verona," " Comedy of Errors," " Love's Labour's Lost," 
 "Love's Labour's Won," (i.e., perhaps, "All's Well 
 that Ends Well,") " Midsummer Night's Dream," " Mer- 
 chant of Venice," "Richard II.," "Richard III.," 
 "Henry IV.," "King John," "Titus Andronicus," and 
 "Romeo and Juliet" before the end of 1598. 
 
 There is much evidence to show that the genius of 
 Shakspeare was greatly admired by his contemporaries. 
 The Earl of Southampton was so captivated with his 
 accomplishments that " he gave him a thousand pounds 
 to enable him to go through with a purchase which he 
 heard he had a mind to." (Rowe's" Life of Shakspeare.") 
 In order properly to appreciate the munificence of this 
 gift, it should be borne in mind that a thousand pounds 
 at that day was, in all probability, equal to five or six 
 thousand at the present time, if not more. The poet 
 dedicated to the Earl of Southampton his earliest works, 
 — " Venus and Adonis," and " Lucrece." In the dedica- 
 tion of the latter, he says, among other things, "The 
 love I dedicate to your lordship is without end." 
 
 In 1596 Shakspeare lost his only son. In 1598 he 
 became acquainted with Ben Jonson, as Rowe tells us, 
 in the following manner: "Jonson, who was at that 
 time altogether unknown to the world, had offered one 
 of his plays to the players in order to have it acted, and 
 the persons into whose hands it was put, after turning it 
 carelessly and superciliously over, were just upon return- 
 ing to him an ill-natured answer, that it would be of no 
 use to their company, when Shakspeare luckily cast his 
 eye upon it, and found something so well in it as to 
 engage him first to read it through, and afterwards to 
 recommend Mr. Jonson and his writings to the public. 
 After this they were professed friends." The play 
 referred to was "Every Man in his Humour." If any- 
 thing could be wanting to the honour thus conferred 
 upon Jonson 's play by the approbation of the greatest 
 dramatic genius the world ever saw, it was surely sup- 
 plied in the fact that Shakspeare himself was one of the 
 actors in the piece which he had already recommended 
 to the public. 
 
 The great dramatist appears to have enjoyed a large 
 measure of the favour of his sovereigns. Queen Eliza- 
 beth and King James I. " Besides the advantages of his 
 wit," says Rowe, " he was in himself a good-natured 
 man, of great sweetness in his manners, and a most 
 agreeable companion. . . . Queen Elizabeth had several 
 of his plays acted before her, and without doubt gave 
 him many gracious marks of her favour. . . . She was 
 so well pleased with that character of Falstaff, in the 
 two parts of 'Henry IV.,' that she commanded him to 
 continue it for one play more, and to show him in love." 
 This is said to have been the occasion of his writing 
 the "Merry Wives of Windsor." It is stated that 
 King James I., who was fond of dramatic exhibitions, 
 had six of Shakspeare's plays acted before him at White- 
 hall between the beginning of November, 1604, and the 
 end of March, 1605, and that the monarch, as a mark 
 of his particular favour, wrote the poet a letter with his 
 own hand. 
 
 Shakspeare had lost his father in 1601. In 1607 his 
 daughter Susanna was married to Dr. Hall, a highly 
 respectable physician of Warwickshire. In the year 
 following, his mother died. The great poet passed, it is 
 said, the last years of his life in his native Stratford in 
 honour and affluence. One writer (the Rev. John Ward, 
 Vicar of Stratford) says he had heard that " in his elder 
 days he lived at Stratford, and supplied the stage with 
 two plays every year ; and for it had an allowance so 
 large that he spent at the rate of ^1000 a year." He 
 closed his earthly career on the 23d of April, (supposed 
 to be the anniversary of his birth,) 1616, at the age of 
 fifty-two. - — 
 
 In regard to Shakspeare's intellectual and moral 
 attributes, we have far less difficulty in coming at the 
 truth, than we meet with in seeking to trace the events 
 of his life. Respecting his mental endowments, indeed, 
 the data furnished by his dramas, added to the testimony 
 of Jonson and other writers living at or near his time, 
 would seem to be ample and explicit. We are warranted 
 in inferring from his writings that he was, as Rowe in- 
 forms us, not merely a "good-natured" man, and "of a 
 free and open nature," as we are told by Jonson, but 
 that he was of an extremely generous and forgiving dis- 
 position. In his imaginative dramas (in which he was 
 under no obligation to follow the facts of history) he 
 shows a disinclination to treat with severity even the 
 most flagrant offences. Thus, for example, in " The Tem- 
 pest," Prospero, as it appears, not only freely pardons 
 Alonzo and Antonio, by whom he had been expelled 
 from his dukedom, but the monster Caliban, though 
 detected in an attempt to take the life of his master, is 
 let off with a very slight punishment. A similar example 
 of clemency occurs in the " Two Gentlemen of Verona," 
 in which Valentine, after freely forgiving Proteus, who 
 had been the author of all his calamities, uses these 
 words : 
 
 " Who by repentance is not satisfied, 
 Is nor of heaven nor earth." 
 
 But perhaps the most remarkable instance is found in 
 "Cymbeline," the plot of which is from Boccaccio. The 
 Italian novelist makes the wretch, who has so cruelly 
 destroyed the reputation of a lovely and innocent lady, 
 expiate his crime at last by a death of lingering torture.* 
 Shakspeare, while taking many other of the leading 
 incidents of his plot from the Italian story, changes the 
 issue entirely. When Iachimo kneels beseeching Post- 
 humus to take his life, the latter replies, 
 
 " Kneel not to me; 
 The power that I have on you, is to spare you ; 
 The malice towards you, to forgive you." 
 
 We have no means of determining the exact order 
 in which Shakspeare composed his different plays. To 
 those already mentioned, on the authority of Meres, 
 as having been produced before 1598, we may add the 
 second and third parts of " Henry VI.," published pre- 
 viously to 1596. It is probable that "Taming of the 
 Shrew," the "Twelfth Night," "Hamlet," (as first writ- 
 ten,) " Henry V.," " Much Ado about Nothing," and 
 the " Merry Wives of Windsor" were composed before 
 1600. His other dramas are as follows: "King Lear," 
 "Macbeth," "Timon of Athens," "Hamlet," (altered 
 and enlarged,) " Cymbeline," " The Winter's Tale," 
 "The Tempest," "Measure for Measure," "Antony and 
 Cleopatra," "Julius Caesar," "Troilus and Cressida," 
 "Coriolanus," (and "Pericles, Prince of Tyre.") Of 
 Shakspeare's tragedies, " Macbeth," " King Lear," 
 "Othello," "Hamlet," and "Romeo and Juliet," are 
 especially remarkable for the power with which the 
 mightiest passions of the human soul are portrayed. 
 But he was scarcely, if at all, less successful in comedy. 
 Of the character of Falstaff in " Henry the Fourth, ' it 
 is not too much to say that there is nothing superior to 
 it in the whole range of comedy, ancient or modern. 
 Among his best comic pieces may also be mentioned 
 "Twelfth Night," " Much Ado about Nothing," " Mid- 
 summer Night's Dream," " Merry Wives of Wind- 
 sor," and " Taming of the Shrew." Of Shakspeare's 
 dramas which cannot properly be classed under the 
 
 ' See Giornata II., Novella IX. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JiySee Explanations, t>. 23.) 
 
SHAKSPEARE 
 
 zoo6 
 
 SHAKSPEARE 
 
 head either of comedy or tragedy, "The Merchant of 
 Venice," "The Tempest," and " As You Like It" are 
 perhaps the most admirable. Two of the plays com- 
 monly printed with Shakspeare's works are believed by 
 a large majority of the best critics not to be his, viz. : 
 "Titus Andronicus" and "Pericles, Prince of Tyre." 
 In "Titus Andronicus," both the thoughts and the style 
 »eem very unlike and inferior to Shakspeare's. The 
 same is true, though perhaps not in the same degree, of 
 "Pericles, Prince of Tyre." Some passages in both 
 plays may probably have been retouched by the great 
 dramatist, and thus his name may have become asso- 
 ciated with them. . 
 Shakspeare appears to have taken the plots of his 
 plays, for the most part, from other writers, making little 
 or no change in the general conduct of the story, but 
 exhibiting the different dramatis persona, and their end- 
 less variety of character, with that inimitable grace and 
 power which are so peculiarly his own. His historical 
 dramas, generally speaking, correspond very exactly, in 
 regard to the principal persons and events, to the actual 
 histories from which they are derived. There is the 
 same exact conformity in some of his plays which are 
 not properly historical. Thus, "All's Well that Ends 
 Well," taken from the "Decameron," (Giornata III., 
 Novella IX.,) not only follows the plot of the story as 
 related by Boccaccio, but even the names of the chief 
 personages are the same, with such modifications only 
 as the difference of the languages requires. 
 
 " If ever any author," says Pope, "deserved the name 
 of an original, it was Shakspeare." " He is not so much 
 an imitator as an instrument of nature ; and it is not so 
 just to say that he speaks from her, as that she speaks 
 through him. His characters are so much nature her- 
 self, that it is a sort of injury to call them by so distant 
 a name as copies of her." 
 
 " Widely excelling," says Warburton, " in the know- 
 ledge of human nature, he hath given to his infinitely 
 varied pictures of it such truth of design, such force of 
 drawing, such beauty of colouring, as was hardly ever 
 equalled by any writer, whether his aim was the use, or 
 only the entertainment, of mankind." v 
 
 " Never, perhaps," says Schlegel, the great German 
 critic, " was there so comprehensive a talent for the 
 delineation of character as Shakspeare's. It not only 
 grasps the diversities of rank, sex, and age down to the 
 dawnings of infancv, not only do the king and the beg- 
 gar, the hero and the pickpocket, the sage and the idiot, 
 speak and act with equal truth, but he opens the gates 
 of the magical world of spirits, calls up the midnight 
 ghost, peoples the air with sportive fancies and sylphs ; 
 and these beings existing only in the imagination pos- 
 sess such truth and consistency that, even when deformed 
 monsters like Caliban, he extorts the conviction that if 
 there should be such beings they would so conduct 
 themselves." The following observation, by the same 
 writer, is not less strikingly just than the foregoing : " If 
 Shakspeare deserves our admiration for his characters, 
 he is equally deserving of it for his exhibition of passion, 
 taking this word in its widest signification, as including 
 every mental condition, every tone from indifference or 
 familiar mirth to the wildest rage and despair." 
 
 "Of all poets," says Lessing, "perhaps he alone has 
 portrayed the mental diseases, melancholy, delirium, 
 lunacy, with such wonderful and in every respect definite 
 ti uth, that the physician may enrich his observations 
 from them in the same manner as from real cases." 
 
 Put, among all the critics who have treated of the 
 merits of Shakspeare, none has portrayed his character- 
 istics as a poet more admirably than Dryden : 
 
 " He was the man who, of all modern and perhaps 
 ancient poets, had the largest and most comprehensive 
 soul : all the images of nature were still present to him, 
 and he drew them, not laboriously, but luckily : when 
 he describes anything, yon more than see it, — you feel it 
 too. Those who accuse him to have wanted learning, 
 give him the greater commendation : he was naturally 
 learned ; he needed not the spectacles of books to read 
 nature, — he looked inwards and found her there. I can- 
 not say he is everywhere alike. . . . But he is always 
 great when some great occasion is presented to him ; no 
 
 man can say he had a fit subject for his wit and did not 
 then raise himself as high above the rest of poets 
 " ' Quantum lenta solent inter viburna cupressi.' "* 
 From the data, imperfect as they are, which we pos- 
 sess concerning the life of Shakspeare, we seem war- 
 ranted in inferring that his scholastic education must 
 have been extremely defective. This inference is sup- 
 ported by the direct testimony of Ben Jonson, who says 
 that Shakspeare had " small Latin and less Greek." 
 That one with so little opportunities of learning should 
 have exhibited not merely a wonderful mastery of the 
 human heart, with its infinitely complex affections and 
 motives, but also a familiar acquaintance with many of 
 the operations of external' nature, and, what is perhaps 
 still more remarkable, with some of the nicest points of 
 English law, has to not a few appeared strange and 
 inexplicable, if not absolutely incredible. In attempting 
 to solve the difficulty, some have adopted the extraor- 
 dinary hypothesis that the dramas going under the name 
 of Shakspeare must have been written by some other 
 person. The late Delia Bacon appears to have been the 
 fust to start this hypothesis. She publicly announced the 
 idea in an article' published in " Putnam's Magazine" 
 for January, 1856. In the following year appeared her 
 "Philosophy of the Plays of Shakspeare unfolded," in 
 which she states in full her reasons for believing that 
 Lord Bacon was the true "Shakspeare." Since then, 
 Mr. Nathaniel Holmes, late of Saint Louis, Missouri, 
 now professor of law at Harvard, availing himself of 
 the suggestion given by Miss Bacon, but taking a some- 
 what different view of the question, has published a 
 well-written 1 and highly readable book entitled "The 
 Authorship of Shakspeare," in which he sets forth with 
 elaborate ingenuity the various arguments against the 
 claims of William Shakspeare and in favour of those of 
 Lord Bacon. 
 
 Here is not the place to enter into a particular con- 
 sideration of this question. We may, however, observe 
 that Mr. Holmes adduces as by far his strongest argu- 
 ment the great number of coincidences which are found 
 to exist between the ideas and expressions of Shak- 
 speare and those occurring in the works of Bacon, 
 (or, as he states it, " that general, inwrought, and all- 
 pervading identity which is found in these writings ;") a 
 very large proportion of these coincidences or proofs of 
 identity being, as it seems to us, just sirch as might by dili- 
 gent search be discovered in the voluminous works of any 
 two authors living in the same age and writing on a great 
 variety of subjects: though some of them are clearly the 
 creation of the writer's fancy, as when, in pointing out the 
 similarity between the leading ideas of "The Tempest" 
 and those of the " New Atlantis" of Bacon, he says, " Like 
 the island of Atlantis, Prospero's isle is situated afar 
 off in the midst of the ocean, somewhere near the 'still- 
 vexed Bermoothes.' " Now, this supposition is not 
 improbable merely, — it is simply impossible. For, in 
 the first place, there is not the slightest intimation in 
 the words of the poet of Prospero and his daughter 
 having made a long voyage in " the rotten carcass of a 
 boat" without tackle, sail, or, mast ; on the contrary, 
 the inevitable inference is that it was a very short one ; 
 and, in the second place, it was clearly impossible that 
 the brief storm which wrecked the king and his com- 
 panions on their return from Tunis to Naples, could 
 have carried their fleet not only out of the Mediter- 
 ranean through the Straits of Gibraltar, but more than 
 half-way across the Atlantic. (See "The Tempest," Act 
 I. Scene 2, and Act II. Scene 1.) Add to this that 
 Bacon distinctly and repeatedly tells us that the New 
 Atlantis was in the " South Sea, r and not in the At- 
 lantic Ocean. 
 
 But were Bacon's claims to the authorship of Shak 
 speare's dramas a hundred times stronger than they are, 
 they could scarcely outweigh the direct and uniform 
 testimony of the contemporaries of those illustrious 
 men. Can it be believed that Ben Jonson, who was 
 personally and, as it appears, intimately acquainted with 
 Shakspeare, would have spoken of him in the manner 
 
 * Literally, "As the cypresses are wont [to raise themselves] 
 among the pliant viburnums." (See Virgil, " Eclogue I.") 
 
 , e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, p, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SHAKSPEARE 
 
 2007 
 
 SHAO-KANG 
 
 that he has done had he been a mere man of straw, 
 whose only use was to conceal from public view the 
 greatest genius the world had ever known? For, in 
 addition to these well-known lines, — 
 
 * To draw no envy, Shakspeare, on thy name, 
 Am I thus ample to thy book and fame ; 
 While I confess thy writings to be such 
 As neither Man nor Muse can praise too much. 
 
 • •**#•• 
 Triumph, my Britain [ thou hast one to show 
 To whom all scenes* of Europe homage owe. 
 He was not of an age, but for all time ! 
 
 • •••*• 
 Nature herself was proud of his designs, 
 And joyed to wear the dressing of his lines ; 
 Whicn were so richly spun and woven so fit, 
 As since she will vouchsafe no other wit.*' 
 
 — Written in t/tt Folio edition 0/ Shakspeare 's Plays, published in 
 1623,— 
 
 Jonson.says, in another place, "I loved the man, and do 
 honour his memory— -on this side idolatry — as much as 
 any. He was indeed honest and of an open and free 
 nature, had an excellent phantasy, [fancy,] brave nqtions, 
 and gentle expressions, wherein he flowed with that fa- 
 cility that sometimes it was necessary that he should be 
 stopped." How strikingly descriptive is this of Shak- 
 speare's most remarkable peculiarity ! It is this excess- 
 ive "facility" or exuberance of expression, joined with 
 his "excellent phantasy," which perhaps more than any 
 other quality distinguishes him above all other writers, 
 ancient or modern. Or are we to suppose that Jonson 
 was in the secret, and composed this lying eulogy of 
 Shakspeare for the express purpose of deceiving pos- 
 terity, and also that the poet Spenser, Mr. Meres, the Earl 
 of Southampton, the <jueen,'the managers of the thea- 
 tres, besides many others, (see the conversation, reported 
 by Howe, between Hen Jonson and Sir John Suckling, 
 Sir William D'Avenant, and others,) were all in the same 
 conspiracy, and kept the secret so faithfully that not a 
 line or a word tending to expose the stupendous decep- 
 tion has come down to us? But this is not all ; the new 
 hypothesis would require us to believe not merely that, 
 in all the works that go under his name, Bacon was at 
 the pains to curb and repress that "excellent phantasy" 
 and wonderful "facility" of expression, and to exhibit 
 them in his dramatic writings only, but that he pur- 
 posely affected ignorance about things with which he 
 must have been perfectly acquainted, as, for example, 
 when he makes Cassius (in "Julius Caesar") speak 
 of the " eternal devil, "t when he gives the names of 
 Bottom, Quince, Snug, and Snout (in "Midsummer 
 Night's Dream") to Athenian mechanics, or when (in 
 " Winter's Tale") he represents Bohemia as a maritime 
 kingdom ! 
 
 There might be good reasons why Bacon should not 
 wish to be known as a dramatic writer in the early 
 part of his career, when he was aspiring to the highest 
 honours in the state; but it is inconceivable that he 
 should have taken such extraordinary pains to keep the 
 secret of his poetic genius from posterity. But the 
 advocates of the new hypothesis lose sight of the most 
 essential point of all. The great wonder is not that a 
 man without learning should have written such plays 
 as those which go under the name of Shakspeare : the 
 wonder is that any man should have written them. The 
 works of a great genius must always seem marvellous in 
 our eyes ; and, if the genius be transcendent, the con- 
 templation of its productions must fill us with a sort of 
 bewildering astonishment. It would, however, be still 
 more miraculous if it could be proved that Bacon, and 
 not Shakspeare, had written those wonderful dramas ; 
 for examples have repeatedly occurred of men in whom 
 a rare genius has supplied the want of almost every 
 external advantage, but no well-authenticated instance 
 can be found in the whole history of the human intel- 
 lect, of one and the same man belonging to the highest 
 rank of philosophers and, the highest rank of poets. 
 Nor can a single example be cited of any one author 
 
 • I.e. all the " Stages" of Europe. 
 
 t The reader need scarcely be told that not only the word " devil," 
 (diaoolus,) but all idea of a devil, as understood in modern times, was 
 wholly unknown to the Romans before the Christian era. 
 
 writing in two styles so totally different as those of 
 Bacon and Shakspeare. 
 
 See Ma lone, " Life of Shakespeare," 1821 ; N. Drake, " Shak- 
 speare and his Times," 2 vols., 1S17; Charles Knight, "Shak- 
 spere; a Biography," 1845: J. O. HalliwelL, " New Life of W. 
 Shakespeare," 1S47 ; Georg O. Gervinus, " Shakespeare," 4 vols., 
 1840-50; R. G. White, " Memoirs of the Life of W. Shakespeare," 
 1865; W. Hazlitt, "Characters of Shakspeare's Plays," 1S17; 
 Guizot, "Shakspere et son Temps," 1851: Richard Farmer, 
 "Essays on the Learning of Shakespeare," 1767; J. Britton, 
 " Remarks on the Life and Writings of Shakespeare," 1814 : Franz 
 Horn, "Shakespeare's Schauspiele erlautert," 5 vols., 1822-31 : J. 
 P. Collier, " Life of Shakespeare," 1841 : J. Meyer, " Leben 
 Shakespeare's," 1825: S. T. Coleridge, "Notes and Lectures on 
 Shakespeare," etc., 2 vols., 1849 ; S. Neil, " Critical Biography of 
 Shakespeare," 1861 : P. Chasi.es, " Eludes sur Shakspere," 1852; 
 Victor Hugo, "William Shakespeare." 1864; A. Dvcb, " Life of 
 Shakespeare," 1857 ; A. Skottowe, "Life of Shakesj>eare," 1824; 
 R. Whhler, " Life of Shakespeare," 1S06 ; Joseph Hunter, "New 
 Illustrations of the Life of Shakespeare," 2 vols . 1S45 : F. Douce, 
 " Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Ancient Manners," 2 vols., 
 1807 ; J. J. Eschenburg, " Ueber W. Shakespeare," 17S7I Na- 
 thaniel Drake, "Memorials of Shakspeare, or Sketches' of his 
 Character and Genius," 1828; Charles' Knight, "Studies and Il- 
 lustrations of Shakspere," etc., 1850; Hudson, " Lecture/011 Shake- 
 speare," 1848; Hagberg, "Shakspeare och Skaldcfna," Lund, 
 1848; N. Delius, " Der Mythus von W. Shakspeare," 1851 ; De 
 Quincev, " Life of Shakspeare," in the " Encyclopaedia Brilannica," 
 republished in his works, vol. xv. ; Hai.lam, " Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe;" A. W. von Schlkgel, "Lectures on Dra- 
 matic Art and Literature," (translated into English by John Black, 
 1815 ;) Sir Walter Scott, "Essay on the Drama ; " Biographia 
 Dramatical" Cibber. "Lives of the Poets:" article, by Lord 
 Jeffrey, in the "Edinburgh Review" for August, 1817: " Shake- 
 speariana: a List of Works illustralive of the Life and Writings of 
 Shakespeare," etc., by J. O. Hai.liwei.l, 1867 ; Mary Cowden 
 Clarke, "Complete Concordance to Shakspeare," 1844-45; Dr. 
 Johnson, Preface to bis edition of Shakespeare, 1765; also the 
 excellent and elaborate article on Shakspeare in Allibone's "Dic- 
 tionary of Authors." 
 
 Shaller, shal'ler, (Eumvir,,) a German sculptor, born 
 at Vienna in 1804. He worked at Munich for the King 
 of Bavaria. 
 
 ShalTum, [Heb. D'7ST/,] King of Israel, obtained the 
 throne by killing Zachariah, in 770 B.C. He was assas- 
 sinated by Menahem in the same year. 
 
 See II. Kings xv. 
 
 Shambhu. See Siva. 
 
 Shamul, sha-mool', written also Samoul, a learned 
 Jewish physician, born in Spain, vVas converted to Mo- 
 hammedanism. He was the author of treatises on medi- 
 cine, astronomy, and mathematics. Died about 11 75. 
 
 Shamyl or Schamyl, sham'il, a famous Circassian 
 chief, born at Himry in 1797, was a man of great energy. 
 In religion he was a Mohammedan. He fought bravely 
 against the Russian invaders in 1828 and the ensuing 
 years. In 1834 he was chosen Imam of Circassia. He 
 displayed much political as well as military ability in 
 the long contest against Russia. Avoiding regular 
 battles, he wasted the enemy by ambuscades, surprises, 
 and partisan warfare. After a heroic defence against 
 superior numbers, he surrendered about the end of 1859. 
 Krom that time the emperor assigned him a residence 
 (with a pension) at Kalooga, in Russia. Died in 1871. 
 
 See Rounovski, "Schamyl;" "Schamyl, the Sultan, Warrior, 
 and Prophet of the Caucasus," (translated from the German of Wag- 
 ner and Bodenstedt, 1854 ;) " Blackwood's Magazine" for Feb- 
 ruary, 1855; " Westminster Review" for April, 1854: E. Texier, 
 " Les Hommes de la Guerre d'Orient: Schamyl." 1S54 ; Major 
 Warner, "Schamyl, le Prophete du Caucase," 1854; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Shanfaree or Schanfari, shan-fa'ree, an Arabic 
 poet, who lived a short time before Mohammed, was 
 the author of a poem called "Eamayat el-Arab," which 
 is admired for richness of imagery. A French version 
 of it was published by Silvestre de Sacy in 1806. 
 
 Shao-Hao or Chao-Hao, sha'o ha'o, almost show- 
 how', second Emperor of China, was the son of Hoang- 
 Tee, whom he succeeded in 2597 H.c. He is censured 
 for having tolerated the rise and progress of idolatry in 
 his reign, from a lack of firmness and energy. He died, 
 it is said, after a reign of eighty-four years. 
 
 See Pautiiier, "Chine." 
 
 Shao-Kang or Chao-Kang, sha'o king, a Chinese 
 emperor, (opposed to have been born 21 18 H.c, was the 
 son of Tee-Siang, who was killed in battle the same year. 
 A usurper then obtained the throne, and the young 
 prince lived disguised as a shepherd until he was about 
 forty years old. He raised an army, defeated the usurper, 
 and reigned in peace until he died, at the age of sixty-one. 
 
 « a&A; (is;; ghard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in Mir. (2ySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SHAPOOR 
 
 2C08 
 
 SHAYS 
 
 Shapoor or Shapur. See Sapor. 
 
 Sharp, (Abraham,) an English mathematician and 
 mechanist, born near Bradford in 165 1. He became an 
 assistant to Flamsteed, royal astronomer, about 1688. 
 He graduated, with extraordinary accuracy, a mural 
 quadrant or sector for the Observatory of Greenwich, 
 and calculated excellent logarithmic tables. Died in 1742. 
 
 Sharp, (DANIEL,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born at 
 Huddersfield, England, in 1783. He became pastor of 
 a church at Boston in 1812, and subsequently one of 
 the editors of the "American Baptist Magazine." He 
 published a number of sermons, etc. Died in 1853. 
 
 Sharp, (Granville,) an eminent English philanthro- 
 pist, born in Durham in 1734, was a son of Dr. Thomas 
 Sharp, noticed below. He early distinguished himself 
 by his earnest opposition to negro slavery, and published 
 in 1769 "A Representation of the Injustice and Danger- 
 ous Tendency of tolerating Slavery in England," etc. 
 About the same time, having met with a negro named 
 Somerset, who, being ill, had been turned into the 
 streets of London by his master, he took him under his 
 care, and, on his recovery, procured him employment. 
 Two years after, Somerset was claimed by his former 
 owner ; but, the case being brought before the lord 
 mayor on the application of Sharp, it was decided 
 against the master, who, however, insisted upon retain- 
 ing his slave. After a trial before the court of king's 
 bench in 1772, it was finally decided that a slave could 
 not be held in England. Granville Sharp was one of 
 the originators of the Association for the Abolition of 
 Negro Slavery, and took a prominent part in founding 
 the colony of Sierra Leone, in Africa. He published, 
 besides numerous treatises against slavery, a " Declara- 
 tion of the People's Natural Rights to a Share in the 
 Legislature," etc., (1778,) " Remarks on the Prophecies," 
 and " Remarks on the Uses of the Definitive Article in 
 the Greek Testament." Died in 1813. 
 
 See Prince Hoarh, "Memoirs of Granville Sharp," 1810: 
 Charles Stuart, "Memoirs of G. Sharp," New York, 1836. 
 
 Sharp, (James,) a Scottish prelate, born in 1618, 
 studied at the University of Aberdeen, and, was after- 
 wards professor of philosophy in Saint Leonard's Col- 
 lege, at Saint Andrew's. In 1660 he was sent by several 
 leading Presbyterians as their representative to General 
 Monk, and, after a conference with Charles II. at Breda, 
 went over to the Church of England. He was rewarded 
 for his apostasy by being created Archbishop of Saint 
 Andrew's, and obtaining other distinctions. In 1679, 
 while travelling from Kennoway to Saint Andrew's, he 
 was assassinated by a party of Presbyterians, who were 
 lying in wait for another person. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England;" Chambers, "Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Sharp, (John,) a learned English prelate, born in 
 Yorkshire in 1644. He graduated at Oxford in 1669, 
 became Dean of Norwich in 1681, and was subsequently 
 chaplain to Charles II. and his successor, James II. 
 Having given great offence to the latter by a sermon 
 which he preached against popery, he was suspended 
 for a time from his functions. In 1689 he succeeded 
 Tillotson as Dean of Canterbury, and was created Arch- 
 bishop of York >n 1691. He died in 1714, leaving 
 numerous sermons, often reprinted. 
 
 See "Life of Archbishop Sharp," by his son, Thomas Sharp, 
 1829. 
 
 Sharp, (Richard,) an English littiratenr and Whig 
 member of Parliament, born about 1759, obtained the 
 sobriquet of "Conversation Sharp," from his extra- 
 ordinary colloquial powers. He published " Letters 
 and Essays in Prose and Verse." Died in 1835. 
 
 Sharp, (Thomas,) a son of John Sharp, Archbishop 
 of York, was born about 1693. He rose through several 
 preferments to be Archdeacon of Northumberland and 
 prebendary of Durham. He published " Discourses on 
 the Hebrew Tongue," and other works. Died in 1758. 
 
 Sharp, (William,) acelebrated English line-engraver, 
 born in London about 1745. Among his master-pieces 
 are the "Virgin and Child," after Carlo Dolce, "Saint 
 Cecilia," after Domenichino, the portrait of John Hunter, 
 after Sir Joshua Reynolds, and the " Sortie from Gibral- 
 tar," after Trumbull. Sharp was remarkable for his 
 
 credulity, and became a dupe to the impostures of Joanna 
 Southcott and other fanatics. Died in 1824. 
 
 Sharpe, sharp, (Daniel,) F.K.S., an English geolo- 
 gist, born in London in 1806, was a nephew of Samuel 
 Rogers the poet. He visited Portugal, and wrote several 
 treatises on the geology of that country. Among his 
 works are " Memoirs on the Silurian Rocks and Old 
 Red Sandstone of Wales," (1S42-44.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Sharpe, (Gregory,) an English divine and Orien- 
 talist, born in Yorkshire in 1713. He published "Dis- 
 sertations on the Origin of Languages and the Powers 
 of Letters, with a Hebrew Lexicon," " Defence of Dr. 
 Clarke against Leibnitz," and other works. Died in 1771. 
 
 Shar'pey, (William,) a Scottish physician and phys- 
 iologist, bom at Arbroath. In 1837 he became professor 
 of anatomy and physiology in University College, Edin- 
 burgh. He has contributed several valuable treatises to 
 the "Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology." 
 
 Shars'wood, (George,) an eminent jurist, born in 
 Philadelphia, July 7, 1810, graduated with the highest 
 honours at the University of Pennsylvania in 1828. Ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1831, he became in 1845 associate 
 judge, and in 1848 president judge, of the district court 
 of the city and county of Philadelphia. He was after- 
 wards elected one of the judges of the supreme court 
 of the State, and was for many years professor of law 
 in the University of Pennsylvania. Judge Sharswood's 
 legal writings enjoy the very highest character with the 
 profession. His "Byles on Bills of Exchange" has 
 been adopted as a text-book at Harvard. 
 
 Shaw, (Cuthhert,) an English poet, born in York- 
 shire in 1738. He was the author of "Odes on the Four 
 Seasons," "Liberty," "The"Race,"a satire, "Address to 
 a Nightingale," and other poems. Died in 1771. 
 
 Shaw, (George,) an English naturalist, born in Buck- 
 inghamshire in 1751. He studied medicine at Edinburgh, 
 and was afterwards appointed keeper of natural history 
 at the British Museum. He was elected a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society in 1789. He wrote "General Zoology, or 
 Natural History," (9 vols.,) "The Naturalist's Miscel- 
 lany," and other works. Died in 1813. 
 
 See Cuvirr, "Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale;" "Monthly Review" for September and 
 October, 1802, et seq. 
 
 Shaw, (Sir James,) a British merchant, born in Ayr- 
 shire in 1764, became lord mayor of London in 1805, and 
 was afterwards a member of Parliament. Died in 1843. 
 
 Shaw, (Lemuel,) an able American jurist, born at 
 Barnstable, Massachusetts, in 1781. I To was many years 
 a member of the State legislature, and in 1830 was ap- 
 pointed chief justice of Massachusetts. He performed 
 the duties of that office with great credit for thirty years, 
 and resigned in i860. His reported decisions have been 
 published by Pickering, Cushing, and others. He died 
 in Boston in 1861. 
 
 Shaw, (Peter,) an English physician, edited Bacon's 
 "Philosophical Works." Died in 1763. 
 
 Shaw, (Robert Gould,) Colonel, an American 
 officer, born about 1836, was a son of Francis G. Shaw, 
 of Staten Island. He commanded the first coloured 
 regiment organized in a free State. He was killed in the 
 ass:mlt on Fort Wagner, South Carolina, July, 1863. 
 
 Shaw, (Stebbing,) an English divine, born in Staf- 
 fordshire in 1762. wrote a " History of Staffordshire," 
 "Tour in the West of England," and "The Topogra- 
 pher." Died in 1802. 
 
 Shaw, (Thomas,) an English divine and scholar, born 
 at Kendal about 1692, became chaplain to the English 
 factory at Algiers. He was afterwards appointed regius 
 professor of Greek at Oxford, and elected a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society. He published "Travels or Obser- 
 vations relating to Several Parts of Barbary and the 
 Levant," (1738.) Died in 1751. 
 
 Shaw, (Thomas Budd,) an English writer, born in 
 London in 1813. He becanie professor of English 
 literature in the Imperial Lyceum of Saint Petersburg in 
 1842. He published "Outlines of English Literature," 
 (1848,) and translated several Russian works into Eng- 
 lish. Died in 1862. 
 
 Shays, (Daniel,) an American soldier, born in 1740, 
 was the leader of a rebellion which broke out in Massa- 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, at; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
SHEA 
 
 2C09 
 
 SHELLEY 
 
 chusetts in 17S6 and was called by his name. The 
 insurgents gave as reasons for their revolt the high taxes, 
 the extortions of the lawyers, etc. The rebellion was 
 suppressed by an armed force in 1787. Died in 1825. 
 
 Shea, sha, ? (Daniel.) a distinguished Orientalist, 
 born at Dublin in 1772, became professor at Haileybury 
 College. He made a translation of Mirkhond's " His- 
 tory of the Early Kings of Persia." Died in 1836. 
 
 Shea, sha, (John Augustus,) an Irish poet, born in 
 Cork about 1S02, emigrated to New York in 1827. He 
 wrote for several journals and magazines, and several 
 volumes of poems. Died in 1845. 
 
 Shebbeare, sheb-beer', ? (John,) an English phy- 
 sician and political writer, born in Devonshire in 1709, 
 published "Letters on the English Nation," " History 
 of the Sumatrans," a satire, and other works. Died in 
 17S8. 
 
 Shee, (Sir Martin Archer,) a distinguished portrait- 
 painter, born at Dublin in 1770. Having visited London 
 In 1788, he acquired the friendship of Burke and Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds, and became a student in the Royal 
 Academy. He was elected an associate in 1798, and in 
 1800 an Academician. Though inferior as an artist to 
 Sir Thomas Lawrence, he obtained extensive patronage 
 among the aristocracy. In 1830 he succeeded Lawrence 
 as president of the Royal Academy. Sir Martin was 
 the author of "Rhymes on Art, or the Remonstrance of 
 a Painter," " Alasco," a tragedy, and other poems. Died 
 in 1850. 
 
 See " Life of Sir Martin Archer Shee," by his son, i860; " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for April, 1S06. 
 
 Sheep'shanks, (John,) a collector of books and 
 pictures, was a brother of Richard, noticed below. 
 About 1857 he presented to the English nation his 
 large collection of the pictures of British artists. Died 
 in 1863. 
 
 Sheepshanks, (Rev. Richard,) F.R.S., an English 
 astronomer, born at Leeds in 1794, inherited an easy 
 fortune. He was ordained a priest, but devoted his time 
 chiefly to science. He contributed to the " Penny Cyclo- 
 paedia" several articles on astronomical instruments, and 
 aided Professor Airy in his operations with the pendulum 
 in Cornwall. Having been appointed a member of a 
 commission for the restoration of the standards of weight 
 and measure, (which had been destroyed by fire,) he 
 expended the labour of several years in determining the 
 standard of measure. Died at Reading in 1855. 
 
 Sheffield, (John.) See Buckinghamshire, Duke 
 
 OF. 
 
 Sheil, shee!, (Richard Lalor,) a celebrated Irish 
 orator and patriot, born at Dublin in 1793, studied' at 
 Trinity College, in his native city. As a member of the 
 Catholic Association, he was active in promoting the 
 election of Mr. O'Connell to Parliament for the county 
 of Clare. Mr. Sheil was elected in 1829 to represent 
 the borough of Milborne Port, and soon became con- 
 spicuous for his brilliant eloquence. In 1832 he" was 
 returned to Parliament for the county of Tipperary. He 
 became vice-president of the board of trade, and a 
 member of the privy council, in 1839, was appointed 
 master of the Mint under Lord Russell's ministry in 
 1846, and British minister at Florence in 1850. Mr. 
 Sheil was the author of several popular dramas, and 
 "Sketches of the Irish Bar." Died at Florence in 1851. 
 
 See M'Cuu.agh, "Memoirs of R. L. Sheil," 1S55; Thomas 
 McGbk, "Sketches of O'Connell and his Friends;" Allibone, 
 " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Shel'bunie, (William Petty,) Earl of, and Mar- 
 quis of Lansdowne, an English statesman, born in 1737, 
 was the second son of the Earl of Shelburne. He in- 
 herited the earldom at the death of his father, in 1761, 
 and was appointed president of the board of trade in 
 1763. He opposed the measures by which the ministers 
 endeavoured to coerce the American colonists, and soon 
 resigned his office. He became a political friend of 
 William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, who in 1766 appointed 
 him secretary of state. In this office he had the direc- 
 tion of the American colonies, and pursued a liberal or 
 conciliatory policy; but he was counteracted by other 
 members of the cabinet, and by the king. He was dis- 
 missed from office in Octolier, 1768, by the Duke of 
 
 Grafton, who had become prime minister. In conse- 
 quence of this event Lord Chatham resigned. 
 
 Lord Shel bin ne acquired a high reputation as a debater, 
 and was distinguished for his political knowledge. He 
 opposed the administration of Lord North on the most 
 important questions, and after the death of Lord Chatham 
 formed a political connection with Rockingham, who in 
 March, 1782, succeeded Lord North as prime minister. 
 Lord Shelburne was secretary of state in this ministry, 
 which was dissolved by the death of its chief, and the 
 favour of the king enabled him to become prime minister 
 about July 1, 1782. During his administration Howe and 
 Rodney gained decisive naval victories over the French, 
 and a treaty of peace was negotiated which recognized 
 the independence of the United States. He was driven 
 from power by the coalition of Fox and Lord North, 
 February, 1783, after which he never returned to office. 
 In 1784 he received the title of Marquis of Lansdowne. 
 He afterwards supported the ministry of Pitt, but op- 
 posed the war against the French republic. He was a 
 liberal patron of learned men, and had one of the finest 
 private libraries in the kingdom. About 1765 he had 
 married Sophia Carteret, a daughter of the Earl of Gran- 
 ville. He died in May, 1805, leaving two sons, one of 
 whom was an eminent statesman. (See Lansdowne, 
 Marquis of.) 
 
 See Kkougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George III.;" 
 " Quarterly Review" for January, 1S54. 
 
 Shel'bjr, (Isaac,) an American officer of the Revolu- 
 tion, born near Hagerstown, Maryland, in 1750, became 
 Governor of Kentucky in 1792, and again in 1812. He 
 distinguished himself at the battle of King's Mountain, 
 1780. Died in 1826. 
 
 Seethe "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. i. 
 
 Shel'don, (David Newton,) D.D., an American 
 divine, born at Suffield, Connecticut, in 1807, was origi- 
 nally a Baptist, but subsequently became a Unitarian. 
 He published a work entitled "Sin and Redemption." 
 
 Shel'don, (GILBERT,) an English prelate, born in 
 Staffordshire in 1598. He graduated at Trinity College, 
 Oxford, in 1620, and, having taken orders, rose through 
 various preferments to be chaplain - in -ordinary to 
 Charles I. On the accession of Charles II. he was made 
 Bishop of London, (1660,) and in 1663 succeeded J.uxon 
 as Archbishop of Canterbury. Dr. Sheldon was distin- 
 guished for his liberality ancf his extensive charities, and 
 constructed, among other public works, the theatre at 
 Oxford called by his name. Died in 1677. 
 
 Shel'ley, (Percy Bysshe — bish,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish poet, born at Field Place, near Horsham, in the 
 county of Sussex, August 4, 1792. He was the eldest 
 son of Sir Timothy Shelley, Bart. At the age of thir- 
 teen he was sent to school at Eton, where his refusal to 
 fag exposed him to the anger and persecution of the 
 other boys. His painful experiences at this period con- 
 tributed much, no doubt, to the development of that 
 intense hatred of established wrong which afterwards 
 became the ruling passion of his life. Shelley was early 
 distinguished for his romantic and speculative turn of 
 mind, as well as for a remarkable facility in the acquisi- 
 tion of every kind of knowledge in which he took any 
 interest. When he was about sixteen, he composed two 
 romances, the one entitled "Zastrozzi," the other " Saint 
 Irvyne ; or, The Rosicrucian." In 1810 he went to 
 Oxford, and was entered at University College. Here 
 he published a small pamphlet on the necessity of athe- 
 ism. The authorities, in consideration, it would seem, 
 of Shelley's youth and peculiar character, at first resolved 
 to take no notice of it. But this did not satisfy the 
 young enthusiast : "so he sent," says De Quincey, "his 
 pamphlet, with five-and-twentyseparate letters, addressed 
 to the five-and-twenty heads of colleges, courteously 
 inviting all and every of them to notify, at his earliest 
 convenience, his adhesion to the enclosed unanswerable 
 arguments for atheism." Thereupon he was summoned 
 before the master and some of the Fellows of the col- 
 lege, and, as he could not deny that he was the author 
 of the pamphlet, he was expelled. Shelley and some 
 of his friends have bitterly complained of his expulsion, 
 as an act of injustice and cruelty ; but it is difficult to see, 
 
 , « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as^'y G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this, (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SHELLET 
 
 20iO 
 
 SHENSTONE 
 
 if De Quincey's account of the transaction be correct, 
 how he could with any propriety have been treated with 
 greater lenity than was shown him on that occasion. As 
 he refused to make any concessions, his father also 
 rejected him, and forbade his appearance at Field Place. 
 Shelley then went to London, where he composed 
 "Queen Mab," which, however, he did not publish, but 
 only distributed a few copies of it among his friends. 
 While in London, money is said to have been furnished 
 for his support by his sisters, who employed one of their 
 school-mates, Harriet Westbrook, (the daughter of a re- 
 tired hotel-keeper,) as the medium of communication with 
 their brother. After a very short acquaintance, Shelley 
 eloped with Miss Westbrook, and married her at Gretna 
 Green in August, 181 r. They soon discovered that they 
 were not suited to each other, and in 1813 they separated, 
 it is said, by mutual consent. The next year Shelley 
 visited the continent in company with Miss Mary God- 
 win, (a daughter of William Godwin and Mary Woll- 
 stonecraft,) who all considered marriage a useless or 
 tyrann'ca! institution.' In 1816 he learned that his wife 
 had dr wned herself. His sorrow, perhaps not unmin- 
 gled with remorse, is said to have rendereti him for a 
 time almost insane. But the same year he was formally 
 married to Miss Godwin, and settled at or near Marlow, 
 in Buckinghamshire. His first wife had borne him two 
 children, of whom he now claimed the custody, but 
 their grandfather, Mr. Westbrook, refused to give them 
 up. This led to a suit in chancery; and in March, 
 1817, Lord Eldon gave his decision, that, on account of 
 Shelley's demoralizing and atheistical opinions, he was 
 unfit to have charge of the children, who were, accord- 
 ingly, committed to the care of Mr. Westbrook. 
 
 While at Marlow, in 1817, Shelley wrote the "Revolt 
 of Islam," the longest of all his poems, and the one in 
 which he has most fully developed his political senti- 
 ments and his peculiar views respecting the regenera- 
 tion of society. It abounds in passages of surpassing 
 beauty, but, as a story, is deficient in connection, and, 
 we may add, in human interest. Amid the wilderness 
 of luxuriant imagery, and of subtle, vague, or visionary 
 though sometimes glorious thoughts, the reader often 
 finds it difficult to trace his way and retain the thread 
 of the narrative. 
 
 In 1818, fearing lest his son by Mary Godwin should 
 be taken from him, as his other children had been, he 
 left England, never to return. He went to Italy, where 
 he composed "The Cenci," (1819,) perhaps the most 
 successful of all his larger works, the " Witch of Atlas," 
 (1819,) "Prometheus Unbound," (1820,) "Adonais," an 
 elegy on the death of John Keats, (1821,) and many 
 minor poems, some of which are of exquisite beauty. 
 
 In July, 1822, he set sail from Leghorn for Lerici. 
 The boat, having been overtaken by a sudden squall, 
 disappeared. Two weeks afterwards, Shelley's body was 
 washed ashore, with a copy of Keats's poems in one of 
 his pockets. The Tuscan quarantine regulations at that 
 time required that whatever came ashore from the sea 
 should be burned. Shelley's body was accordingly 
 placed on a pile and reduced to ashes, in the presence 
 of Lord Byron, Leigh Hunt, and Mr. Trelawney. His 
 ashes were collected, and interred in the Protestant 
 burying-ground at Rome, near the grave of his friend 
 Keats. 
 
 There is perhaps no writer (as De Quincey intimates) 
 of whom it is so difficult to speak with a proper regard 
 for the interests of society, and at the same time making 
 that charitable allowance for his eccentricities and errors 
 which his peculiar temperament and his amiable and 
 noble traits of character seem justly to claim, as Percy 
 Bysshe Shelley. We cannot, however, agree with De 
 Quincey in the opinion that " harsh treatment had no 
 concern in riveting his fanaticism." What is more prob- 
 able than that his bitter experience at Eton, where he 
 was exasperated almost to madness by the galling 
 "chain of Custom," acting on a mind so sensitive yet so 
 resolute and withal so speculative as his, should, at that 
 susceptible and most critical age, have led him first to 
 question, and then to deny and spurn, every custom 
 that would impose the slightest restraint upon his free- 
 
 to reject or adopt opinions or systems according as he 
 conceived them to favour or oppose the power of the 
 hated tyrant, which he also styles the "Anarch Cus- 
 tom." That he was influenced by such motives in the 
 choice of his pursuits clearly appears from the follow- 
 ing lines : 
 
 "And from that hour did I with earnest thought 
 Heap knowledge from forbidden mines of lore; 
 Yet nothing- that my tyrants knew or taught 
 I cared to learn."* 
 In his poetry he repeatedly associates " Faith" and 
 "Custom," (or "Tyranny;") he evidently considered 
 the former the chief support of the latter, and cherished 
 towards them both an equal hatred. Whatever may 
 have been his early opinions, he would appear not to 
 have been an atheist when he wrote the preface to his 
 " Revolt of Islam ;" for he there says, " The erroneous 
 and degrading idea which men have conceived of a Su- 
 preme Being is spoken against, — not the Supreme Being 
 itself. . . . The belief which some* persons entertain of 
 the Deity is widely different from mvown." 
 
 Speaking of Shelley's poetry, Bulwer observes, "Each 
 line is a separate thought; the effort glitters on the eye 
 till it aches with the glare ; it is the mirror broken into 
 a thousand pieces, and the representation it would give 
 is rendered confused and phantasmagoric by the mul- 
 tiplication of the images." " La Cenci," however, is 
 expressly excepted from the above criticism. 
 
 The intimacy that subsisted between Shelley and 
 Byron, and the supposed similarity of their principles, 
 have led to frequent comparisons between these eminent 
 poets. But they had in fact scarcely anything in com- 
 mon, except a vivid and intense feeling of poetic beauty. 
 The mind of Shelley was singularly speculative, and he 
 had a great facility in persuading himself of the truth of 
 whatever he wished to believe. Byron, on the other hand, 
 with an equally intense ideality, (i.e. feeling or sentiment 
 of beauty,) was by the constitution of his mind restricted 
 far more within the limits of the actual,— or, it may be, 
 the conventional. It would seem to have been one of the 
 great efforts of his life to cast off the trammels imposed 
 upon him by his religious education ; but in this he was 
 never wholly successful. To this deep-rooted respect 
 for the actual, or the established, must be ascribed the 
 intense feeling of reality which pervades his poetry, as 
 well as the strong, practical common sense evinced in 
 his actions when not under the influence of passion. But 
 if we compare the moral attributes of the two men, 
 Shelley will be found to stand immeasurably higher than 
 Byron. Whatever may have been the errors of his head, 
 his heart appears, by the testimony of all who knew him, 
 to have been eminently kind, generous, and unselfish. 
 And if his conduct seems occasionally to contradict this 
 view, it was a rare exception to the general rule, while 
 with Byron the reverse was true, — pride and selfishness 
 were the rule, disinterestedness the exception. 
 
 Se« Thomas Medwin, "Life of P. B Shelley," 2 vols., 1R47; 
 Chari.es S. Middle-ton, " Shellev and his Works," 18(8; T J 
 Hogg, "Life of p. B. Shellev," i8sS; William M. Rossrtti, 
 ' the Life of Percy Kysshe Shellev," 2 vols., 1869; E. J. Tre- 
 lawney, " Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron," 
 1S5S; De Quincey, " Essays on the Poets," Boston, 1853; "Quar- 
 terly Review" for October. i86t : article on Shelley in the "Atlantic 
 Monthly" for February, 1863, " bv one who knew him," (i.e Thorn- 
 ton Hunt;) " Edinburgh Review" for July, 1S24, and July, 1839; 
 Ai.i.ibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" ■•Memoir" prefixed to his 
 works by Mrs. Shelley, 1839; "The Shelley Memorials, from 
 Authentic Sources," edited by Lady Shelley, 1859. 
 
 Shel'tpn, (Frederick William,) an American 
 writer and Episcopalian divine, born at Jamaica, Long 
 Island, about 1814. He has published " Salander and 
 the Dragon," a romance, "The Rector of Saint Bar- 
 dolph's, or Superannuated," (1853,) and other works. 
 
 Shem, |Heb. UW ; Gr. Iri/i ; Fr. Sem, sem,] a pa 
 tnarch, the eldest son of Noah, and one of the survivor! 
 of the deluge. He was the ancestor of the Semitic (or 
 Shemitic) nations. 
 
 See Genesis v. 32, ix. 18-27, x. t, 21, it. 
 Shen'stone, (William,) an English pastoral poet, 
 born in Shropshire in 1714. He was the author of odes, 
 elegies, and pastorals, and a poem entitled " The School- 
 
 dom or his pleasure ? It was but another step for him IslanL" addressed to his wife, prefixed to the "Revolt of 
 
 i. e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, ail, fat; met; not; good; moorTi 
 
SHEPARD 
 
 20 1 1 
 
 SHERIDAN 
 
 mistress," which, Dr. Johnson observes, " is the most 
 pleasing of Shenstone's performances." In the latter 
 part of his life he became involved in debt, owing to 
 expenses incurred in the embellishment of his grounds, 
 " He was always wishing," says Gray, " for money, for 
 fame, and other distinctions, and his whole philosophy 
 consisted in living, against his will, in retirement, and in 
 a place which his taste had adorned, but which he only 
 enjoyed when people of note came to see and commend 
 it," Died in 1763. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the Poets;" "Monthly Review" for 
 May and June, 1764. 
 
 Shep'ard, (Charles Ui'Ham.) M.D., L.L.D., an 
 American naturalist, born at Little Compton, Rhode 
 Island, in 1804, graduated at Amherst College. Me was 
 appointed professor of chemistry in the Charleston Medi- 
 cal College in 1834, and professor of natural history in 
 Amherst College. He wrote a "Report on the Geo- 
 logical Survey of Connecticut," (1837,) and other works. 
 
 Sliepard, (Samuel,) M.D., a physician and Baptist 
 divine, born at Salisbury, Massachusetts, in 1739, pub- 
 lished a number of controversial treatises. Died in 1815. 
 
 Shepard, (Thomas,) an English Puritan divine, born 
 in 1605, emigrated to New England, and was one of the 
 founders of Harvard College. Died ill 1649. 
 
 Shep'herd, (William,) a general, born in Massachu- 
 setts in 1737, fought in twenty-two battles. He was a 
 member of Congress from 1797 to 1803. Died in 1817. 
 
 Shep'herd Kings, called by the Egyptians Hyk'sos, 
 [from hyk, "king," and sos, a "shepherd,"] a race of kings, 
 probably of Tartar origin, supposed to have ruled over 
 Egypt from about 2200 to 1550 u.c. The only account 
 we have of them is given in a fragment of Manetho, 
 preserved by Josephus. . 
 
 See article " Hyksos," in the " New American Cyclopaedia." 
 
 Shep'ley, (George F.,) an American general, born 
 at Saco, Maine, about 1820. He served under General 
 Butler, with the rank of colonel, and was appointed 
 military governor of New Orleans about May 1, 1862. 
 
 Shep'pard, (Elizabeth Sara,) an English novelist, 
 born at Blackheath about 1830. She wrote, besides other 
 works, "The Double Coronet," a npvel, (2 vols., 1856,) 
 and " Rumour," a novel, (3 vols., 1858.) Died in 1862. 
 
 Shep'reve, (John,) an English scholar, became pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew at Oxford about 1538. Died in 1542. 
 
 ShSr'ard, (William.) an English botanist and ama- 
 teur, born in Leicestershire in 1659. Having visited 
 various parts of Europe, he was appointed in 1702 Brit- 
 ish consul at Smyrna, where he made collections for his 
 valuable " Herbarium." While travelling on the con- 
 tinent, he had acquired the friendship of Tournefort and 
 Dillenius, and on his invitation the latter came to Eng- 
 land, where he subsequently filled the chair of botany 
 at Oxford, endowed by Mr. Sherard. Sherard died in 
 1728, leaving his Herbarium of more than 12,000 species 
 to the University of Oxford. 
 
 Sher'burne, (Sir Edward,) an English scholar and 
 writer, born in London in 1618, was clerk of the ord- 
 nance under Charles I. He translated several works 
 from the Latin, among which we may name Seneca's 
 " Troades" and " Medea." Died in 1 702. 
 
 Shereef-ed-Deen-Alee or Scherif-Eddin-Ali, 
 sheh-reef' ed-deen' a'lee, a Persian author, whose style 
 is compared to pearls and diamonds of the first water, 
 was a native of Yezd. He composed, about 1425, a 
 " History of Tamerlane." 
 
 See Pins dk la Croix, " Histoire de Timnr Bey." 
 
 Sher'I-dan, (Frances,) wife of Thomas Sheridan, 
 (the second of the name,) born in Ireland in 1724, 
 was the author of an Oriental romance entitled " Nour- 
 jahad," " Sidney Biddulph," a novel, highly commended 
 by Dr.. Johnson, and the comedies of "The Dupe" and 
 "The Discovery," the latter of which Garrick pro- 
 nounced "one of the best he ever read." Died in 1766. 
 
 See Mrs. Ei.wood, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England 
 from the Commencement of the Last Century, vol. i. ; " Monthly 
 Review" for April, 1761. 
 
 ShSr'I-dan, (Philip Henry,) an eminent American 
 general, born in Perry county, Ohio, in 1831. He en- 
 tered the Military Academy at West Point in 1848, and 
 graduated with honour in 1853, as a classmate of McPher- 
 
 son and Schofield. He served several years in Oregon, 
 and, having returned to the East, was appointed a captain 
 in the regular army in May, 1861. In March or May, 
 1862, he became chief quartermaster under General 
 Halleck. He was appointed colonel of the Second 
 Michigan cavalry in May, and obtained command of a 
 cavalry brigade in June, 1862. Having defeated a troop 
 superior in number to his own, at Booneville, Mississippi, 
 he was raised to the rank of brigadier-general in July. 
 He took command of a division of the army of the Ohio 
 in September, and distinguished himself at the battle of 
 Perryville, October 8, 1862. For his gallant conduct at 
 the great battle of Stone River, which ended on the 2d 
 of January, 1863, he was rewarded with the rank of 
 major-general of volunteers. He commanded a division 
 at Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, and at the battle 
 of Chattanooga or Missionary Ridge, November 25, 1863. 
 
 In April, 1864, he was appointed commander of all 
 the cavalry of the army of the Potomac, which crossed 
 the Rapidan and began operations against Lee's army 
 on the 4th of May. On the 9th Sheridan started on a 
 raid against the enemy's lines of communication with 
 Richmond. He destroyed the depots, etc. at Beaver 
 Dam and Ashland, advanced to the outer defences of 
 Richmond, defeated the rebel cavalry under General 
 Stuart, and rejoined the army of General Grant on the 
 25th of May. On the 7th of June he led an expedition 
 against the Virginia Central Railroad, from which ha 
 returned to the White House on the 19th, after he had 
 routed the enemy's cavalry at Trevilian Station and 
 destroyed part of the railroad. About the 7th of August 
 he was assigned to the command of the " Middle Mili- 
 tary Division," which was then constituted in order to 
 oppose the incursions of the rebels from the Shenandoah 
 Valley into Maryland and Pennsylvania. 
 
 His operations durjng the month of August and the 
 first part of September were of both an offensive and 
 defensive character, resulting in many severe skirmishes 
 with the army of General Early. On the 15th of Septem- 
 ber General Grant left City Point to visit Sheridan and 
 confer with him. " I saw," says Grant, "there were but 
 two words of instruction necessary — Go in !" Sheridan 
 attacked Early on the 19th near Winchester, defeated 
 him, and took several thousand prisoners. He gained 
 another victory at Fisher's Hill on the 20th, and pur- 
 sued the enemy with great energy through Harrisonburg 
 and Staunton. Soon after this battle he was appointed 
 a brigadier-general in the regular army. During a brief 
 absence of Sheridan, who was called to Washington, 
 General Early, having been reinforced, attacked suddenly 
 the Union army near Cedar Creek and Strasburg on the 
 19th of October, and at first was victorious. After the 
 Federals had retreated about three miles with much 
 loss, Sheridan, riding at full speed, arrived on the field, 
 rallied his men with words of magical power, and con- 
 verted the disaster of the morning into a complete vic- 
 tory. General Early lost here the most of his artillery 
 and trains, besides 1500 prisoners. In a letter dated 
 October 20, General Grant wrote thus : " Turning what 
 bid fair to be a disaster into a glorious victory, stamps 
 Sheridan, what I have always thought him, one of the 
 ablest of generals." He was appointed a major-general 
 of the regular army in place of McClellan, resigned, 
 Novem!>er, 1864. 
 
 Sheridan moved from Winchester on the 27th of 
 February, 1865, took Staunton on the 2d of March, and 
 defeated Early near Waynesborough. Having inflicted 
 much damage on several railroads and the James River 
 Canal, he reached his base at the White House about 
 the 19th of March. On the 27th he joined the main 
 army of General Grant near Petersburg, and on the 
 29th commenced, with nine thousand cavalry, a move- 
 ment for the destruction of the Danville and South Side 
 Railroads, the only remaining avenues of supply to 
 Lee's army. He was supported by a corps of infantry. 
 He encountered near Five Forks a superior force on 
 the 31st of March, and was driven back towards Din- 
 widdie Court-House. " Here," says General Grant, 
 "General Sheridan displayed great generalship. In- 
 stead of retreating with his whole command on the main 
 army to tell the story of superior forces encountered, he 
 
 € as *,- 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. ( Jl^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SHERIDAN 
 
 2012 
 
 SHERMAN 
 
 deployed his cavalry on foot, leaving only mounted men 
 enough to take charge of the horses." On the 1st of 
 April, Sheridan, having been reinforced, drove the enemy 
 back on Five Forks, assaulted and carried his strongly 
 fortified position, and captured over five thousand pris- 
 oners. He pursued Lee's army retreating from Rich- 
 mond and Petersburg, attacketl it near Sailor's Creek 
 on the 6th of April, and took about six thousand pris- 
 oners. A few days after this action the war was virtu- 
 ally ended by the surrender of General Lee. In the 
 spring of 1867 Sheridan was appointed commander of 
 the Fifth Military District, comprising the States of 
 Louisiana and Texas. He removed the Governors of 
 those States because they were impediments to recon- 
 struction, and he supported Congress in its contest with 
 President Johnson. He was removed from his command 
 by Johnson in August, 1867, against the advice of Gene- 
 ral Grant, who declared that Sheridan "has performed 
 his civil duties faithfully and intelligently," and protested 
 against his removal, for military, pecuniary, and patriotic 
 reasons. Sheridan was then ordered to take command 
 of the Department of the Missouri. In March, 1869, he 
 was raised to the rank of lieutenant-general. 
 
 See a notice of General Sheridan in Rrcip's " Ohio in the War." 
 pp. 495-560; Grehley, "American Conflict;" P. C. Heaui.ey, 
 " Life of Sheridan ;" " Life of Sheridan," by G. W. Denison. 
 
 Sheridan, (Richard Brinsley Butler,) acelebrated 
 Irish orator and dramatist, born at Dublin in 1751. He 
 studied in his native city, and at Harrow, where he was 
 chiefly noted for his indolence ; and he left school with 
 the reputation of an " impenetrable dunce." He mar- 
 ried Miss Linley in 1772. His first important publica- 
 tion was the comedy of "The Rivals," (1775,) which, 
 though at first coldly received, soon acquired great popu- 
 larity. It was followed in the same year by the opera 
 of "The Duenna," which also metwith brilliant success, 
 being acted seventy-five times during the season. His 
 " School for Scandal," published in 1777, established his 
 reputation as a dramatic genius of the highest order. 
 He soon after purchased a share in the Drury Lane 
 Theatre. His farce of "The Critic" came out in 1779. 
 In 1780 he represented Stafford in Parliament, where he 
 soon became conspicuous as an orator, and supported 
 the measures of Fox and the opposition party. He also 
 filled for a time the post of under-secretary of state. On 
 the impeachment of Warren Hastings, in 1787, he de- 
 livered his celebrated Begum speech, which made an 
 extraordinary sensation at the time, and is still regarded 
 as one of the most splendid displays of eloquence in 
 ancient or modern times. The Whigs having come into 
 power on the death of Pitt, (1806,) Sheridan was ap- 
 pointed treasurer of the navy and a privy councillor. 
 He was returned to Parliament for Westminster in 1S06. 
 His style of living was so extravagant that he was much 
 embarrassed by debts in the latter part of his life. Died 
 in July, 1816. 
 
 " Mr. Sheridan," says Hazlitt, " has been justly called 
 a dramatic star of the first magnitude ; and, indeed, 
 among the comic writers of the last century he shines 
 like Hesperus among the lesser lights. The ' School for 
 Scandal' is, if not the most original, perhaps the most 
 finished and faultless comedy which we have." It must 
 be confessed, however, that the moral tone of this drama 
 (reflecting, as it doubtless does, the morals of the upper 
 classes of English society at that time) is not very ele- 
 vated. Byron observes, " Whatever Sheridan has done, 
 or chosen to do, has been, par excellence, always the best 
 of its kind." 
 
 See Thomas Moork, " Memoirs of the Life of R. V>. Sheridan," 
 1825; W. Smvth, "Memoir of Mr. Sheridan," 1840; Au.ibone, 
 "Dictionary of Authors ;" "Edinburgh Review" for December, 
 1826 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for February, July, and August, 
 1826: " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1842. 
 
 Sheridan, (Dr. Thomas,) born in the county of 
 Cavan, Ireland, in 1684, studied at Trinity College, 
 Dublin, and subsequently became teacher of a free 
 school at Cavan. He published prose translations of 
 the "Satires" of Persius. He was an intimate friend 
 of Dean Swift. Died in 1738. 
 
 Sheridan, (Thomas,) a son of the preceding, and 
 the father of R. B. Sheridan, was born at Quilca, Ire- 
 land, in 1721. He graduated at Trinity College, and, 
 
 having embraced the profession of an actor, obtained 
 considerable reputation and success. He was after- 
 wards for many years manager of the Dublin Theatre. 
 He published a "Course of Oratorical Lectures," an 
 essay entitled "British Education," (1756,) a "Pro- 
 nouncing Dictionary of the English Language," (2 vols., 
 1780,) and a "Life of Swift," (1784.) Died in 1788. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for September and October, 1762, and 
 October, 1780. 
 
 Sher'lpck, (Richard,) an English clergyman, born 
 in Cheshire in 1613. He became rector of Winwick, 
 and published "The Practical Christian." Died in 1689. 
 
 Sherlock, (Thomas,) a learned English prelate, bom 
 in London in 1678, was a son of William Sherlock, 
 noticed below. He studied at Cambridge, became vice- 
 chancellor of that university in 1714, and in 1715 Dean 
 of Chichester. He was afterwards created successively 
 Bishop of Bangor, Salisbury, and London, (1748.) He 
 published several works in opposition to Dr. Hoadly 
 in the Bangorian controversy; also a number of valu- 
 able religious treatises, among which we may name his 
 " Use and Intent of Prophecy" and "Trial of the Wit- 
 nesses of the Resurrection of Jesus." Died in 1761. 
 
 Sherlock, (Dr. William,) an English theologian, 
 born at Southwark, London, in 1641. He studied at 
 Cambridge, became master of the Temple in 1684, and 
 Dean of Saint Paul's in 1691. "No name," says Mac- 
 aulay, "was in 1689 cited by the Jacobites so proudly 
 and fondly as that of Sherlock." But in 1690 he took 
 the oaths to William III., and published in his justifi- 
 cation "The Case of Allegiance to Sovereign Powers 
 Stated." "The sensation produced by this work was 
 immense. The rage of the nonjurors amounted almost 
 to frenzy." - (" History of England.") His chief work is 
 a " Discourse on Death," (1690.) Died in 1707. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica ;" Burnet, " History of his Own 
 Trmes." 
 
 Sher'man, (John,) an English Puritan minister, born 
 in 1613. He emigrated to Massachusetts in 1634, and 
 preached at Watertown from 1644 until his death. He 
 was an eminent mathematician. Died in 1675. 
 
 Sher'man, (Joiuj,) an American Senator, a brother 
 of General William T. Sherman, was born at Lancaster, 
 Ohio, in May, 1823. He studied law, and was admitted 
 to the bar in 1844. He was elected a member of Con- 
 gress in 1854, in 1856, and again in 1858. He was the 
 Republican candidate for Speaker of the House in De- 
 cember, 1859 ; but he lacked a few votes of being elected, 
 and, after a contest of eight weeks, his party elected an- 
 other candidate. He served as chairman of the commit' 
 tee of ways and means in 1860-61. In i860 he was again 
 chosen to represent the thirteenth district of Ohio in Con- 
 gress. He was elected a Senator of the United States by 
 the legislature of Ohio for a term of six years, (1861-67.) 
 Thaddeus Stevens and Senator Sherman were the au- 
 thors of the bill which Congress enacted in the winter 
 of 1866-67 f° r tne reconstruction of the seceded States. 
 By this act those States were reduced to the condition 
 of territories, to be governed by military power until 
 they should have passed through a certain process ot 
 restoration to the Union. He was re-elected a Senator 
 of the United States in 1867. He is one of the ablest 
 debaters in the Senate, has acted a prominent part in 
 financial affairs, and is now (1870) chairman of the com- 
 mittee on finances. 
 
 Sherman, (Roger.) an American statesman, born at 
 Newton, Massachusetts, on the 19th of April, 1721. He 
 worked at the trade of shoemaker in his youth, removed 
 to New Milford, Connecticut, in 1743, and soon after 
 that date became a partner of his brother, who was a 
 merchant. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 
 1754, and settled at New Haven in 1761. About 1765 
 he was appointed a judge of the superior court or com- 
 mon pleas. He was elected a member of the General 
 Congress in 1774, and continued to serve in that body 
 for nineteen years. He signed the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence in 1776, and was a member of the Convention 
 which framed the Constitution of the United States in 
 1787. During the Revolutionary war he rendered im- 
 portant services on committees of Congress. " Roger 
 Sherman," said Mr. Macon, " had more common sense 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; A, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, q, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; m<5on; 
 
SHERMAN 
 
 2013 
 
 SHERMAN 
 
 than any man I ever knew." He was elected a Senator 
 ot the United States in 1 791. Died at New Haven in 
 
 July. '793- 
 
 See Sanderson, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration 
 of Independence," 1848. 
 
 Sherman, (Roger Minott,) a lawyer, born in Wo- 
 burn, Massachusetts, about 1772, was a nephew of the 
 preceding. He practised law with distinction at Nor- 
 walk and Fairfield, in Connecticut. Died in 1844. 
 
 Sherman, (Thomas W.,) an American general, born 
 in Rhode Island about 1818, graduated at West Point 
 in 1836. He served as brigadier-general at Hull Run, 
 July 21, 1S61, and commanded the land-forces which, 
 aided by the fleet, took Port Royal in November of that 
 year. He commanded a division under General Banks 
 in Louisiana in 1863. 
 
 Sherman, (William Tecumseh,) a distinguished 
 American general, born at Lancaster, Ohio, on the 8th 
 of February, 1820, is a son of Charles Robert Sherman, 
 once a judge of the superior court of Ohio, and a brother 
 of John Sherman, a Senator of the United States. His 
 mother was named Mary Hoyt. After the death of 
 his father, which occurred in 1829, he was adopted as 
 a son by Thomas Ewing, M.C., through whose influence 
 he was admitted into the Military Academy of West 
 Point in 1836. He graduated there in June, 1840, stand- 
 ing sixth in the order of general merit among a class of 
 forty members, including George H. Thomas and Rich- 
 ard S. Ewell. Immediately after his graduation he was 
 appointed second lieutenant in the artillery and ordered 
 to Florida. He became a first lieutenant in January, 
 1842, a few months after which his company was sta- 
 tioned at Fort Moultrie, near Charleston. He went 
 with his company to California by sea in 1846, returned 
 to the Atlantic States in 1850, and in May of that year 
 married Ellen Ewing, a daughter of Thomas Ewing, 
 then secretary of the interior. In 1851 he obtained the 
 rank of captain, and in 1853 he resigned his commission 
 in the army and engaged in the business of banker at 
 San Francisco. 
 
 In the early part of i860 he accepted the position of 
 superintendent of a new military academy founded by 
 the State of Louisiana. He proved himself so eminently 
 qualified for the duties of this place that the leaders of 
 the secession movement in Louisiana wished to secure 
 his services in the impending conflict, and made efforts 
 to pervert his loyalty to the Union, but without success. 
 He resigned his office in January, 1861. In March he 
 went to Washington, and endeavoured in vain to con- 
 vince the authorities, who were then unable to realize 
 the greatness of the crisis, of the necessity of preparing 
 for war on a large scale. 
 
 He received a commission as colonel of the thirteenth 
 regiment of infantry in June, 1861, and commanded a 
 brigade at the battle of Bull Run, July 21. On the 3d 
 of August ensuing, he was promoted to the rank of 
 brigadier-general of volunteers, and in the next month 
 he was ordered to Kentucky. In consequence of the 
 ill health of General Anderson, the chief command of 
 the department of Kentucky devolved on Sherman in 
 October, 1861. When asked by the secretary of war 
 how many men he should require, he replied, "Sixty 
 thousand to drive the enemy out of Kentucky, and two 
 hundred thousand to finish the war in this section." 
 His estimate was considered as wildly extravagant, and 
 he was removed from the command, with orders to 
 report to General Halleck, who was commander of the 
 department of the West. 
 
 In March, 1862, Sherman obtained command of the 
 fifth division of General Grant's army of the Tennessee. 
 He displayed great coolness, energy, and skill in the 
 sanguinary battle of Shiloh, (Pittsburg-Landing,) on the 
 6th and 7th of April of that year. His services were 
 acknowledged by General Grant in these terms: "At 
 the battle of Shiloh, on the first day, he held, with raw 
 troops, the key-point of the landing. ... To his indi- 
 vidual efforts I am indebted for the success of that 
 battle." (Letter to the War Department, July 26, 1863.) 
 He was wounded in the hand on this occasion, and had 
 three horses shot under him. His division took a 
 prominent part in the siege of Corinth, which the enemy 
 
 evacuated on the 29th of May. A few days before that 
 date he received a commission as major-general. He 
 was appointed commander of the military post of 
 Memphis in July, 1862. In the campaign against 
 Vicksburg, which began in December, Sherman, who 
 commanded the first division of the army, was ordered 
 to proceed to the mouth of the Yazoo River and attempt 
 to capture Vicksburg from the north side. This enter- 
 prise was not successful. General Sherman rendered 
 important services in several battles which were fought 
 in Mississippi during the months of April and May, and 
 which preceded the siege of Vicksburg. He commanded 
 one of the three corps which made an unsuccessful as- 
 sault on the works at Vicksburg on the 22d of May. 
 After the surrender of that fortress, July 4, 1863, Sherman 
 marched against General Johnson, and occupied Jack- 
 son, from which the enemy were driven on the 17th of the 
 month. About this date he wrote a letter in which these 
 sentences occur : "The people of the North must con- 
 quer or be conquered. There can be no middle course." 
 
 He was appointed commander of the department of 
 the Tennessee in October, 1863, and, moving his army 
 by rapid marches, joined the army of General Grant 
 at Chattanooga about the 15th of November. Sher- 
 man occupied Missionary Ridge on the 24th, rendered 
 important services at the battle of Chattanooga on 
 the 25th of November, and, three days later, began to 
 move his army, with the utmost celerity, to the relief 
 of Burnside, who was besieged at Knoxville. His cav- 
 alry reached Knoxville on the 3d of December, before 
 which date the enemy had raised the siege and fled. 
 Sherman returned to Chattanooga, and thence to Mem- 
 phis, where he arrived in January, 1864. Having or- 
 ganized a large column, he marched from Vicksburg 
 eastward, destroying the railroads, and entered Meridian 
 about the 14th of February. After he had destroyed 
 the depots, arsenals, etc. at Meridian, he returned to 
 Vicksburg. In March he received a letter from General 
 Grant, who mentioned his own nomination to the rank of 
 lieutenant-general, and said, " I express my thanks to you 
 and McPherson as the men to whom, above all others, 
 I feel indebted for whatever I have had of success." 
 
 When Grant was transferred to Virginia, in March, 
 1864, Sherman was appointed to the command of the 
 military division of the Mississippi, embracing all the 
 armies between the Mississippi River and the Alleghany 
 Mountains. He was instructed to move against the 
 army of General Joseph E. Johnston, who occupied a 
 strong position at Dalton, Georgia, covering and defend- 
 ing Atlanta, which was the objective point of General 
 Sherman. On the 6th of May he moved from Chatta- 
 nooga with the armies of the Cumberland, Tennessee, 
 and Ohio, commanded respectively by Generals Thomas, 
 McPherson, and Schofield. His force amounted then 
 to 98,797 men and 254 pieces of cannon. He com- 
 menced operations by turning the enemy's position with 
 a part of his army, so that General Johnston, finding his 
 retreat likely to be cut off, fell back to his fortified post 
 at Resaca, where he was attacked on the 15th of May. 
 After a severe battle, Johnston retreated during the 
 night towards the south, and made another stand at 
 Allatoona. Sherman again turned the flank of the enemy 
 by moving his army to Dallas, through a rugged and 
 densely-wooded country. Severe actions were fought 
 at Dallas and New Hope Church about the 28th of 
 May, and on the 4th of June the rebels retreated to the 
 strong positions of Kenesaw, Pine, and Lost Mountains. 
 On the 27th of June the Union army assaulted the works 
 of Kenesaw Mountain, but were repulsed with severe 
 loss. In consequence of another flank movement of 
 Sherman's army, General Johnston abandoned his posi- 
 tion at Kenesaw on the 3d of July, and retreated across 
 the Chattahoochee. After resting several davs, the Union 
 army crossed that river on the 17th of July, and drove 
 the enemy to Atlanta. At this date General Hood took 
 command of the insurgents and assumed the offensive- 
 defensive policy. On the 22d of July Hood attacked 
 Sherman near Atlanta, and was repulsed with great loss. 
 In August, 1864, Sherman was appointed a major-general 
 in the regular army. About the 28th of August he 
 moved his main force ound by the enemy's left flank, 
 
 « aj k; 9 as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, v.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (JtySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SHER-SHAH 
 
 2014 
 
 SHIRLET 
 
 and gained \ ictories at Jonesborough and Lovejoy's. 
 These actions forced Hood to evacuate Atlanta on the 
 1st of September. The capture of Atlanta excited great 
 exultation among the Unionists. "General Sherman's 
 movement from Chattanooga to Atlanta," says General 
 Grant, "was prompt, skilful, and brilliant." 
 
 By moving his army northwestward for the inva- 
 sion of Middle Tennessee, in October, Hood opened 
 the way for Sherman to march through Georgia to the 
 sea without much resistance. Abandoning his com- 
 munications with Chattanooga, and leaving Atlanta in 
 ruins, Sherman began his famous march on the 14th 
 of November, with about 65,000 men. His plan was 
 to obtain subsistence from the country through which 
 he passed, and to destroy the railroads and other public 
 
 Eroperty. His army, moving in three columns, passed 
 etween Macon and Augusta, had several skirmishes 
 with the enemy's cavalry, and arrived, after a very safe 
 and successful march, at the outworks of Savannah on 
 the 10th of December. " We have not lost a wagon 
 on the trip," says Sherman, "and our trains are in a 
 better condition than when we started." On the 20th of 
 December General Hardee evacuated Savannah, which 
 Sherman occupied on the 21st. In this march of three 
 hundred miles he had lost 63 killed and 245 wounded. 
 
 Sherman left Savannah with his veteran army on the 
 15th of January, 1865, marched northward, and took 
 Columbia on the 17th of February. This operation 
 compelled the enemy to evacuate Charleston, which was 
 occupied by the Federal army on the 18th. Proposing 
 to co-operate or unite with the army of Grant, which 
 was then near Petersburg, Virginia, Sherman moved, 
 by way of Cheraw and Fayetteville, towards Goldsbo- 
 rough, North Carolina. He met and defeated a body 
 of rebels at Averysborough about the 16th of March. 
 On the 18th the combined forces of the enemy, under 
 General J. E. Johnston, attacked the Union army at Ben- 
 tonville. Having repulsed this attack, Sherman entered 
 Goldsborough on the 23d of March, and there formed 
 a junction with the army of Schofield. After he had 
 received the news of the capture of Richmond, April 3, 
 he moved against the army of Johnston, then " the only 
 remaining strategic point." He entered Raleigh on the 
 13th, had an interview with General Johnston on the 
 17th, and agreed with him on a memorandum or basis 
 of peace, which was disapproved by the President and 
 cabinet. The terms offered by Sherman were deemed 
 too liberal. On the 26th of April Johnston surrendered 
 his army on the same terms as were granted to Lee, and 
 the war ended. Sherman was appointed lieutenant- 
 general in place of U. S. Grant, promoted, in July or 
 August, 1866. He was nominated general by brevet 
 in February, 1868, by President Johnson ; but he de- 
 clined. When General Grant became President, in 
 March, 1869, Sherman succeeded him as general and 
 commander-in-chief of the army. General Sherman is a 
 man of nervous temperament and intense energy. His 
 stature is tall, his hair brown or auburn, his eyes dark 
 hazel, large, and piercing. 
 
 See " Sherman and his Campaigns," by Colonel S. M. Bowman 
 and Lieutenant-Colonel R. B. Irwin, 1865 ; Reid, " Ohio in the 
 War," 1868. 
 
 Sher-Shah, shair shlh, (i.e. "the Lion King,") an 
 Indian prince, whose original name was Fereed, (or 
 Feryd.) He acquired the chief power in Bahar and 
 Bengal, defeated the Sultan Humayoon in battle in 1540, 
 and became master of Hindostan. He is said to have 
 been an able and popular ruler. Died in 1545. 
 
 Sher'win, (John Keyse,) an eminent English en- 
 graver, born in Sussex about 1 75 1. He was of humble 
 parentage, and was employed in his youth as a wood- 
 cutter on the estate of Mr. Mitford, near Petworth. 
 Having produced a drawing which obtained the silver 
 medal from the Society of Arts, he became a pupil of 
 Bartolozzi in London, and soon attained great excellence 
 in his art. In 1785 he succeeded Woollett as engraver 
 to the king. Died in 1790. 
 
 Sher'wood, (Mrs. Mary Martha,) a popular Eng- 
 lish writer, born in Worcestershire in 1775, published 
 tales of a moral and religious character, among which 
 we may name " The Lady of the Manor," " Roxobel," 
 
 " Ermina," and " Little Henry and his Bearer." She 
 also wrote " Chronology of Ancient History," and 
 " Dictionary of Scripture Types." Died in 1851. 
 
 See "Life of Mrs. Sherwood," by her daughter; "Quarterly 
 Review" for May, 1843. 
 
 Shesha. See Sesha. 
 
 Shew, (Joel,) M.D., an American physician, born 
 in Saratoga county, New York, in 1816, was one of the 
 earliest hydropathic practitioners in America, and the 
 founder of the " Water-Cure Journal," New York. He 
 published the "Water-Cure Manual," (1850,) "Hydro- 
 pathic Family Physician," (1854,) and other similar 
 works. Died in 1855. 
 
 Shield, sheeld, (WiLLtAM,) an English composer 
 and musician, born in the county of Durham about 
 1750. Among his most popular works are the operas 
 of" Rosina," "Robin Hood," "The Poor Soldier," and 
 "The Woodman." Died in 1829. 
 
 Shields, sheeldz,. (James,) a general, born in Tyrone 
 county, Ireland, in 1810, emigrated to the United States 
 about 1826. He served in the Mexican war, (1846-47,) 
 and was elected a Senator of the United States by the 
 legislature of Illinois in 1849. in '857 he was elected 
 a Senator for the State of Minnesota. He commanded 
 the division which defeated Stonewall Jackson near 
 Winchester, March 23, 1862. 
 
 Shil'11-toe, (Thomas,) an English philanthropist and 
 missionary, born in London in 1754, was a minister of 
 the Society of Friends. He travelled on the continent 
 of Europe and in the United States. Died in 1836. 
 
 See the " Journal of the Life, Labours, and Travels of Thomas 
 Shillitoe," etc.. London, 1839. and "Thomas Shillitoe, the Quaker 
 Missionary and Temperance Pioneer," London, 1867, by William 
 Tallack. 
 
 Ship'ley, (Jonathan,) an English prelate, born in 
 1 7 14, rose through several preferments to be Bishop of 
 Saint Asaph in 1766. One of his daughters was the 
 wife of Sir William Jones. Died in 1788. 
 
 Shipley, (William,) the originator of the Society 
 for the Encouragement of Arts, and a brother of the 
 preceding, was born about 1715. He was a teacher 
 of drawing in London. Died in 1804. 
 
 Shipley, (William Davies,) born in Berkshire in 
 1745, was a son of Dr. Shipley, Bishop of Saint Asaph, 
 and a brother-in-law of Sir William Jones. He became 
 Dean of Saint Asaph in 1774. Died in 1826. 
 
 Ship'pen, (Edward,) a native of England, who emi- 
 grated to Massachusetts and settled at Boston about 
 1669. He was a member of the Society of Friends, and 
 was driven from Boston by persecution. He removed 
 to Philadelphia, of which city he became the first mayor. 
 
 Ship'pen, (Edward,) an able American lawyer and 
 jurist, born at Philadelphia in 1729. He became chief 
 justice of Pennsylvania in 1799. Died in 1806. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. 
 
 Shipper), (William,) an American physician, born 
 in Pennsylvania in 1734, was a descendant of Edward 
 Shippen, (the first of the name.) He studied medicine 
 in Edinburgh, and commenced in 1764 a course of lec- 
 tures on anatomy at Philadelphia. In 1765 he became 
 professor of anatomy in the medical school of which he 
 was one of the founders. Died in 1808. 
 
 Shippen, (William,) an English Jacobite member 
 of Parliament, was a son of the rector of Stockport. 
 He was an opponent of Walpole, and was characterized 
 by Pope as "downright Shippen." Died about 1742. 
 
 Shjr'ley or Sher'ley, (Sir Anthony,) an English 
 traveller and navigator, born in 1565. In 1598 he visited 
 Persia, where he was treated with great distinction by 
 Shah Abbas, by whom he was sent on a mission to the 
 different European courts, to induce them to form a 
 league with him against the Turks. He died in Spain 
 about 1630, having been previously created admiral of 
 the Levant Seas, by the King of Spain. His principal 
 works are entitled " A True Relation of the Voyage 
 undertaken by Sir Anthony Shirley, Knight, in 1596," 
 etc., and " Relation of Sir Anthony Shirley's Travels in 
 Persia," (1632.) 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. ii., (1820.) 
 
 Shirley, (James,) an English dramatist, bom in Lon- 
 don about 1594. Among his plays, which amount in ail 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, p, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
SHIR LET 
 
 2015 
 
 SHUTTLEWORTH 
 
 to about forty, we may name " The Traitor," a tragedy. 
 He also wrote a poem, entitled " The Echo, or the Un- 
 fortunate Lovers." Died in [666. . x 
 
 See Baker, " Biographia Dramatica ;" Wood, "Athena; Oxo- 
 nienses ;" Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Shirley, (Robert,) brother of Sir Anthony, noticed 
 above, was born about 1570. He served for a time in 
 the army of Shah AbbSs, and was afterwaras employed 
 by him in several missions. Died in 1628. 
 
 Shirley, (Thomas,) eldest brother of the preceding, 
 was born in 1564. He visited Turkey, and published an 
 account of his travels in that country. 
 
 Shirley, (William,) an Anglo-American Governor, 
 born in England about 1705. He became Governor of 
 Massachusetts in 1741, and was commander-in-chief of 
 the British forces in America in 1755. He ceased to be 
 Governor in 1757. Died in 1771. 
 
 Shishkof, Schischkow, or Chischkof, shish'kof, 
 (Alexander Semenovitch,) a Russian writer and 
 minister of state, born in 1754. He rose gradually in 
 the navy to the rank of admiral. He published a "Mari- 
 time Dictionary, English, French, and Russian," an ex- 
 cellent "Treatise on the Old and New Russian Style," 
 (1802,) and other works. In 1816 he was chosen presi- 
 dent of the Russian Academy, which he enriched with 
 philological essays. He was appointed a member of 
 the council of the empire in 1820, and was minister of 
 public instruction from 1824 to 1828. Died in 1841. 
 
 See " Memoiren des Admirals A. Schischkoff iiber die Zeit seines 
 Aufeiuhattes," etc., 1833. 
 
 Shiva. See Siva. 
 
 Shoovalof, Chouvalof, or Schuwalow, shoo-va'- 
 lof, (Andrei Petrovitch,) a Russian poet and courtier, 
 who, in the reign of Catherine II., became a member of 
 the imperial council and a senator. He was intimate 
 with Voltaire and other French authors. He wrote, in 
 French verse, an " Epistle to Voltaire" and an "Epistle 
 to Ninon de Lenclos." Died in 1789. 
 
 His son Paul, born about 1775, became a general at 
 the age of twenty-five. In the campaign of 1813 he was 
 a personal attendant of the Czar Alexander, and in 1814 
 he accompanied, in the name of Russia, Bonaparte to 
 Elba. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Levesque, " Histoire de Russie ;" Voltaire, " Correspon- 
 dance GeneYale." 
 
 Shoovalof or Chouvalof, (Peter,) a Russian gene- 
 ral, was the inventor of a kind of cannon which bears 
 his name. He was the father of Andrei Petrovitch, 
 noticed above. Died in 1762. 
 
 Shore, (Jane,) the wife of a London jeweller, subse- 
 quently became the mistress of Edward IV., King of 
 England. After his death she formed a connection with 
 Lord Hastings. She was tried for witchcraft by order 
 of the Duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. 
 Died about 1525. 
 
 See Hume. " History of England." 
 
 Shore, (John.) See Teignmouth, Lord. 
 
 Short, (James,) a Scottish mathematician and op- 
 tician, born at Edinburgh in 1710, was employed to 
 make a survey of the Orkney Islands. He was a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society, and acquired a high reputation as 
 a constructor of telescopes. Died in 1768. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Short, (Thomas,) a Scottish physician, was the au- 
 thor of the "Natural History of Mineral and Medicinal 
 Waters," and other similar works. Died in 1772. 
 
 Shovel, shiiv'el, (Sir Ci.oudesley,) a distinguished 
 English admiral, born in Norfolk in 1650. In 1688 he 
 became an adherent of William HI., who made him a 
 knight for his services at the battle of Bantry Bay. He 
 had a prominent share in the victory of La Hogue, and 
 was soon after appointed vice-admiral of the red. In 
 1705 he commanded the fleet sent against Spain, and 
 subsequently assisted at the siege of Toulon in 1707, 
 but, while on his voyage home, was wrecked off the 
 Scilly Isles, and all on board perished. 
 
 See CAMfORLt., "Lives of the British Admirals;" Hiwk, "His- 
 tory of England." 
 
 ShSw'er, (Sir Bartholomew,) an English lawyer 
 under the reign of James II., was a native of Exeter. 
 
 He became recorder of London, and published a work 
 entitled "Cases in Parliament Resolved." 
 
 Shower, (John,) a Puritan divine, born at Exeter in 
 1657, was a brother of the preceding. He wrote " Re- 
 flections on Time and Eternity," and other works. Died 
 in 1715. 
 
 Shrap'nel, (Henry,) an English general, entered the 
 army about 1779. He invented the case-shot called 
 shrapnel-shells. Died in 1842. 
 
 Shrewsbury, shroz'ber-e or shruz'ber-e, (Charles 
 Talbot,) Duke of, an English peer and scholar, born 
 in 1660, was educated as a Roman Catholic. He became 
 a Protestant and Whig, promoted the revolution of 
 1688, and was appointed one of the secretaries of state 
 in 1689. He resigned about 1691. In 1694 he was again 
 appointed to that office, and was created Duke of Shrews- 
 bury. He was very popular. " Before he was of age," 
 says Macaulay, " he was allowed to be one of the finest 
 gentlemen and finest scholars of his time. He was 
 early called the king of hearts, and never, through a 
 long, eventful, and checkered life, lost his right to that 
 name." (" History of England," vol. ii.) He resigned 
 office in 1700, became Viceroy of Ireland in 1 713, and 
 lord treasurer in 1714. Died In 1718. 
 
 See " Life of Charles, Duke of Shrewsbury," 1718. 
 
 Shrewsbury, Earl of. See Talbot, (John.) 
 
 Shu'brick, (John Templar,) an American naval 
 officer, born in South Carolina in 1778. He served as 
 first lieutenant under Commodore Decatur against the 
 Algerines in 1815. After peace was concluded with Al- 
 giers, he sailed as commander of the Epervier for the 
 United States, and the vessel was lost at sea in the 
 same year. 
 
 Shuck'burgh-Ev'e-iyn, (Sir George,) F.R.S., an 
 English classical scholar and natural philosopher, born 
 in 1750, resided in Warwickshire. He determined the 
 relation between the British unit of measure (i.e. the 
 yard) and the length of a pendulum which makes a cer- 
 tain number of vibrations in a given time. He also 
 wrote on the measurement of altitudes by the barome- 
 ter, etc. Died in 1804. 
 
 Shvlck'ford, (Samuel,) an English divine, became 
 prebendary of Canterbury. He published a " History 
 of the World, Sacred and Profane." Died in 1754. 
 
 Shukowski. See ZhooKofski. 
 
 Shun or Chun, shtiN, an ancient Chinese sage and 
 ruler, who, according to Pauthier, was raised to the im- 
 perial throne 2285 B.C. (See Yao.) On account of his 
 rare wisdom and virtue, he was selected by Yao to be 
 his successor ; but Shun, deeming himself unworthy, at 
 first declined the proffered honour, and was with diffi- 
 culty prevailed on to accept it. Like Yao, he introduced 
 many useful regulations, encouraged science and the 
 arts, and was particularly distinguished by the attention 
 which he paid to music. He materially modified the 
 penal code of China, rendering it more humane, and 
 making the various punishments bear a just proportion 
 to the grade of the offence. Every three years he made 
 an examination into the conduct of his officers, punishing 
 the culpable and rewarding those who had properly per- 
 formed their duties. He died (according to Pauthier, 
 2208 B.C.) after a long and prosperous reign, and was 
 succeeded by Yu. 
 
 See Pauthier's "Chine," pp. 36-42. 
 
 Shun-Tchee or Chun-Tchi, shiiN-chee, the first Chi- 
 nese emperor of the present Tartar or Mantchoo dynasty, 
 obtained the throne in 1644 in consequence of a revolu- 
 tion. He was the heir of the Khan of Tartary, and was 
 born about 1637. He retained the ancient laws and 
 institutions of the Chinese. To the Dutch embassy, 
 which came in 1656 to open commercial intercourse, he 
 accorded permission to enter his ports once only in eight 
 years. He died in i6ui,and was succeeded by his son, 
 Knng-Hee, (or Kang-Hi.) 
 
 Shute, ffoSIASj) an English clergyman, became Arch- 
 deacon of Colchester. He published a volume of Ser- 
 mons on Genesis xvi. Died in 1643. 
 
 Shu't?r, (Edward,) a popular English comedian, 
 died in 1776. 
 
 ShSt'tle-worth, (Philip Nicholas,) an English 
 prelate, born in 1782. He was appointed Bishop of 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (tfy See Explanations, p. 23,) 
 
S1BAUTEH 
 
 2016 
 
 SICKLER 
 
 Chichester in 1840. He published several works on 
 theology. Died in 1842. 
 
 Sibauyeh, se-bow'yeh, or Sibooyeh, (or Sibuyeh,) 
 se-boo'yeh, written also Sibouieh or Sibouyeh, (Am- 
 roo (Amru) Ibn Othman, am'ido Ib'n oth-mSn',) a 
 celebrated Arabian grammarian, born in Farsistan about 
 750 a.d. ; died about 800. He is sometimes called Al- 
 Farsee, (-Farsl.) i.e. " the Persian." 
 
 Sib'bald, (Sir Robert,) a Scottish physician, born 
 in Fifeshire, was one of the founders, and the first presi- 
 dent, of the College of Physicians at Edinburgh. He 
 was the author of " Scotia lllustrata," and other works, 
 and filled the post of physician and geographer to 
 Charles II. Sibbaldia, a genus of plants, w^s so named 
 i ■ his honour. Died in 1 7 12. 
 
 See "Autobiography of Sir R. Sibbald," 1833; Chambers, 
 " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Sibbern, sil/bern, (Frederik Christian,) a Danish 
 jurist and philosophical writer, born at Copenhagen in 
 1785. After visiting Germany, he was appointed in 1813 
 professor of philosophy in his native city. Among his 
 numerous works, which favour the system of Schelling, 
 we may name his " Psychology introduced through Bi- 
 ology," (1849,) and "On Poetry and Art, or Discourses 
 on Universal ^Esthetics and Poetry," (1853.) Died in 
 1859. 
 
 Sibbes or Sibbs, (Richard,) an eminent English 
 Puritan minister, born in Suffolk in 1577, was a Fellow 
 of Saint John's College, Cambridge. He became 
 preacher of Gray's Inn in 1618, and master of Cathe- 
 rine's Hall about 1625. He wrote, besides other works, 
 " The Bruised Reed." Died in 1635. 
 
 Sibbs. See Sibbes. 
 
 Sibert, de, deh se'baiR', (Gautier,) a French his- 
 torian, born at Tonnerre about 1720. Among his works 
 is "The Variations of the French Monarchy in its Po- 
 litical, Civil, and Military Government," (4 vols., 1765.) 
 Died in 1798. 
 
 Sibilet, se'be'li', (Thomas,) a French litterateur, 
 born in Paris about 1512. His chief work is " L'Art 
 poetique Francois," (1548.) Died in 1589. 
 
 Sib'ley, (Henry,) an American general, born in 
 Louisiana about 1815, graduated at West Point in 1838. 
 He took arms against the Union in 1861. He com- 
 manded a small army which invaded New Mexico, 
 attacked Fort Craig, in February, 1862, and was re- 
 pulsed. 
 
 Sibley, (Henry H.,) an American Governor, born at 
 Detroit, Michigan, in 181 1. He was elected Governor 
 of Minnesota in 1857, and appointed a brigadier-general 
 in 1862. He led an expedition against the Sioux In- 
 dians in June and July, 1863. 
 
 Sibley, (Mark H.,) an eloquent American lawyer, 
 born at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in 1796. He 
 practised at Canandaigua, New York, and was elected 
 to Congress in 1837. Died in 1852. 
 
 Sib'ljf, (Manoah,) an English Orientalist and Swe- 
 denborgian divine, born in London in 1757; died in 
 1840. 
 
 aibooyeh. See Sibauyeh. 
 
 Sibouieh. See Sibauyeh. 
 
 Sibour, se'booR', (Marie Dominique Auguste,) a 
 French prelate, born in the department of Dr6me in 
 1792. He studied at Avignon and Paris, and became 
 successively Bishop of Digne (1840) and Archbishop of 
 Paris, (1848.) He was afterwards made a senator, and 
 officer of the legion of honour, (1854.) He was assas- 
 sinated in 1857, by a priest named Jean Verger, who 
 had been suspended, (interdit.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge"nerale." 
 
 Sibrecht, see'bReKt, or Sibrechts, see'bR?Kts, 
 (Jan,) a Flemish landscape-painter, born at Antwerp in 
 1625, worked in London. Died in 1703. 
 
 Sib'thorp, (John,) an eminent English botanist, 
 born at Oxford in 1758. Having studied medicine at 
 Edinburgh, and subsequently visited France, he was 
 appointed, after his return, to succeed his father in the 
 chair of botany at Oxford. In 1786 he set out on a 
 scientific expedition to Greece and the adjacent regions, 
 and in 1794 revisited those countries. His principal 
 works are his " Flora Oxoniensis," (1794,) and " Flora 
 
 Graeca," (10 vols, fol.) He died in 1796, leaving to the 
 University of Oxford two hundred pounds a year for the 
 publication of his " Flora Graeca," a magnificent work, 
 with plates. 
 
 Sibuyeh. See Sibauyeh. 
 
 Sibyl. See Sibylla. 
 
 Sl-byl'la, [Gr. ZiSvitta; Fr. Sibylle, se'bel' ; Eng- 
 lish, Sib'yl,] the name of several ancient prophetesses, 
 the most celebrated of whom was the Cumaean Sibyl, 
 sometimes called Deiph'obe, Amalthe'a, or Demoph'ile. 
 According to Virgil, she accompanied tineas in his visit 
 to the infernal regions. (See "^Eneid," book vi.) 
 
 See Isaac Vossius, "Tractatus de Sibyllarum Oraculis," 1680; 
 R. Volkmann, " De Oraculis Sibyllinis Dissertatio," 1854; O. 
 Panvinio, "Tractatus de Sibyllis," 1673. 
 
 Sibylle. See Sibylla. 
 
 Sicard, se'kSii', (Francois,) a French military writer, 
 born at Thionville (Meurthe) in 1787. He entered the 
 army, and became a captain. Among his works is a 
 "History of the Military Institutions of the French," 
 (4 vols., 1830-31.) 
 
 Sicard, (Roch Ambroise Cucurron,) a French 
 abbe, distinguished as a teacher of the deaf and dumb, 
 was born at Fousseret, near Toulouse, in 1742. He 
 went to Paris to learn the method of the Abbe l'fipee, 
 whom he succeeded in 1789 as director of the Institution 
 in Paris. During the Revolution he was arrested and 
 confined in prison, from which he was released in Sep- 
 tember, 1792, after a narrow escape from massacre. 
 He became professor of grammar in the normal school 
 about 1795, and a member of the Institute. He had 
 great success as a teacher of grammar. In 1800 he 
 established a printing-press for the use of the deaf-mutes. 
 He improved or perfected the method of instructing 
 such persons, and wrote, besides other works, a " The- 
 ory of Signs for the Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, " (1808.) 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 See Duvivier, " Notice sur l'Abbe Sicard ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie GeneVale." 
 
 Sichel, slK'el orzlK'el, (Julius,) askilful oculist, born 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Main about 1800, graduated at Ber- 
 lin in 1825. He began to practise in Paris about 1833, 
 and published several treatises on ophthalmy. " He is, 
 says Vapereau, "the most popular oculist of Paris." 
 
 SI-cin'1-us Den-ta'tus, a Roman warrior, who is 
 said to have fought in one hundred and twenty battles, 
 and to have decided the victory in many of them, was a 
 champion of the plebeians in the contest against the 
 patricians. He was a tribune of the people in 454 B.C., 
 and was assassinated in 450 by the opposite party. 
 
 Siciolante, se-cho-lan'ta, or Da Sermoneta, da 
 se-R-mo-na'ta, (Girolamo,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Sermoneta in 1504. He was employed by Pope Gregory 
 XIII. Died in 1550. 
 
 Sickingen, von, fon sik'king'en or zik'king'en, 
 (Franz,) a celebrated German soldier and Protestant 
 Reformer, born in the grand duchy of Baden in 1481. 
 He enjoyed the favour of the emperor Maximilian, and 
 of Charles V., whom he accompanied in several of his 
 expeditions. He distinguished himself on all occasions 
 as the champion of the oppressed, and the patron of 
 learned men ; he gave an asylum to CEcolampadius, 
 Bucer, and Ulrich von Ilutten, and protected Reuchlin 
 from the persecution of the monks of Cologne. Having 
 become involved in a feud with Hesse and the Palatinate, 
 he was mortally wounded while defending his castle of 
 Neustall, in 1523. 
 
 See Budueus, " Franz von Sickingen," 1794 : Munch, " Franz 
 von Sickingen," 3 vols., 1S27; Bouteii.ler, " Histoire de F. von 
 Sickingen," Metz, i860: Karl Lang, " Ritter F. von Sickingen," 
 1825; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " m 
 
 Sickler, sik'ler or zik'ler, (Friedrich Karl Lud- 
 WIG,) a German antiquary, son of Johann Volkmar, 
 noticed below, was born near Gotha in 1773. He pub- 
 lished, among other works, "The Political History and 
 Antiquities of Rome." Died in 1836. 
 
 Sickler, (Johann Volkmar,) a German pomologist, 
 born at Gotha in 1742, published "The German Fruit- 
 Cultivator," ("Deutscher Obstgartner,") " Pomological 
 Cabinet," (1796,) and other similar works. Died in 
 1820. 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir,' fall, fit; mJt; nSt; good; moon; 
 
SICKLES 
 
 201 7 
 
 S1DNET 
 
 Sickles, sik'elz, (Daniel E.,) an American general, 
 born in New York City in 1822. He studied law, and 
 was elected to Congress by the Democrats of New 
 York in 1856. He killed Philip Barton Key in Feb- 
 ruary, 1859, for criminal connection with his wife. In 
 i860 he was re-elected to Congress by the voters of the 
 third district of New York. He commanded a brigade 
 in the battles near Richmond in June, 1862, a division 
 at the battle of Antietam, September 17, and a corps 
 at Chancellorsville, May 2 and 3, 1863. At the battle 
 of Gettysburg he directed the third corps, and lost a leg 
 on the 2d of July, 1863. He was appointed commander 
 of the Second Military District, comprising North and 
 South Carolina, about April, 1867. Having supported 
 the policy of Congress in preference to that of Presi- 
 dent Johnson, he was removed, August 26, 1867. He 
 was appointed minister to Spain in May, 1869. 
 
 Siddharta. See Gautama. 
 
 Sid'dons, (Sarah,) a celebrated English tragic act- 
 ress, born at Brecon, South Wales, in July, 1755, was 
 a daughter of Roger Kemble. She was married in 1773 
 to an actor named Siddons, and made her first appear- 
 ance at Drury Lane in December, 1775. Her form was 
 exquisitely symmetrical, her countenance beautiful, and 
 her deportment majestic. She was for many years the 
 most popular tragic actress on the English stage. Her 
 performance of the part of" Lady Macbeth" was especially 
 admired. She retired from the stage in 1812. Her private 
 character is said to have been irreproachable. She is, 
 by general consent, admitted to have been the greatest 
 actress that England has produced. Died in 183 1. 
 
 A critic of rare taste, and one not likely to be swayed 
 by the opinions of the multitude, speaks thus of Mrs. 
 Siddons as an actress, although, when he saw her, she 
 had been long past her prime: "What a wonderful 
 woman ! The very first time I saw her perform, I was 
 struck with admiration. . . . Her looks, her voice, her 
 gestures, delighted me. She penetrated in a moment to 
 my heart. She froze and melted it by turns ; a glance 
 of her eye, a start, an exclamation, thrilled through my 
 whole frame. The more I see her, the more I admire 
 her. I hardly breathe while she is on the stage. She 
 works up my feelings till I am like a mere child." (See 
 " The Life and Letters of Washington Irving," vol. i. 
 P- 159) 
 
 See Thomas Campbell, "Life of S. Siddons," 2 vols., 1834; 
 James Boaden, "Memoirs of the Life of Mrs. Siddons," 1832; 
 London Quarterly Review" for August, 1834. 
 
 Sidi-Mohammed, sidl mo-ham'med, Emperor of 
 Morocco, born about 1702, succeeded his father, Muley 
 Abdallah, in 1757. Adopting a pacific policy, he made 
 treaties of peace with England, Fiance, Spain, and other 
 powers. During his reign Morocco enjoyed an unusual 
 degree of prosperity. Died in 1790. 
 Sidmouth, Lord. See Addington, (Henry.) 
 Sid'ney or Sjpd'ney, (Algernon,) an eminent 
 English republican patriot, born in 1622, was a younger 
 son of Robert, Earl of Leicester, and a grand-nephew 
 of Sir Philip Sidney. His mother was Dorothy Percy, 
 a daughter of the Earl of Northumberland. He served 
 against the Irish insurgents in 1642, while his father 
 was lord lieutenant of Ireland, entered the army of Par- 
 liament in 1643, and obtained the rank of colonel in 
 1645. In 1646 he served as lieutenant-general of the 
 horse under his brother, Lord Lisle, who was lieutenant- 
 general of Ireland. He was appointed one of the judges 
 for the trial of the king in 1648, but was not present 
 when he was condemned. He held no office under 
 Cromwell. In May, 1659, he was appointed a member 
 of the council of state. He was absent on a mission to 
 the court of Denmark when Charles II. was restored to 
 the throne in 1660, and thought it most prudent to re- 
 main on the continent. About 1666 he solicited Louis 
 XIV. to co-operate with him and his friends in estab- 
 lishing a republic in England. By the permission of 
 the English government, he returned home in 1677 to 
 see his aged father, who left him a legacy of £5 too. 
 He afterwards acted in concert with Lord Russell and 
 Shaftesbury, leaders of the popular party. According 
 to the statement of the French minister Barillon, Sidney 
 and other leaders of his party received bribes or presents 
 
 from Louis XIV.* In June, 1683, Sidney and Russel! 
 were arrested as accomplices in the Rye-House Plot. 
 He was tried before Jeffries, convicted without good 
 evidence, and beheaded in December, 1683. His sen- 
 tence was declared unjust by Parliament about 1690. 
 He left "Discourses on Government," which were pub- 
 lished in 1698. Burnet, who knew Sidney, represents 
 him as "a man of most extraordinary courage, a steady 
 man even to obstinacy, sincere, but of a rough and bois- 
 terous temper that could not bear contradiction." 
 
 See George W. Meadley, "Life of Algernon Sidney," 1813; 
 R. C. Sidney, "Brief Memoirs of A. Sidney," 1835 ; G. van Sant- 
 voord, " Life of A. Sidney," New York, 1S51 : Burnet, " History 
 of his Own Time ;" Arthur Collins, " Memoirs of the Lives and 
 Actions of the Sydneys," 1746; Wjnthrop. "Algernon Sidney: a 
 Lecture;" "North American Review" for January, 1822. 
 
 Sidney, (Edwin,) a popular English preacher of the 
 Anglican Church. He graduated at Cambridge about 
 1820. He published a " Life of General Lord Hill," a 
 number of sermons, and other works. 
 
 Sidney, (Sir Henry,) an English statesman, and the 
 father of Sir Philip. He was a favoured companion of 
 Edward VI., who sent him as ambassador to France. In 
 the reign of Elizabeth he was lord deputy of Ireland 
 He had a high reputation for ability and integrity. Died 
 in 1586. 
 
 Sidney, (Henry,) Earl of Romney, an English Whig, 
 was a son of the Earl of Leicester, and a younger brother 
 of Algernon Sidney. He was an efficient promoter of 
 the revolution of 1688, and enjoyed the confidence of 
 William III., who gave him the title of Earl of Romney. 
 He was secretary of state in 1690—92. " Sidney," says 
 Macaulay, "with a sweet temper and winning manners, 
 seemed to be deficient in capacity and knowledge, and 
 to be sunk in voluptuousness and indolence. His face 
 and form were eminently handsome." The same writer 
 adds that he had a rare political tact', and "the conse- 
 quence was that he did what Mordaunt, with all his 
 vivacity and invention, or Burnet, with all his multi- 
 farious knowledge and fluid elocution, never could have 
 done." ("History of England.") Died in 1700. 
 
 Sidney, (Mary,) Countess of Pembroke, "Sidney's 
 sister, Pembroke's mother," an accomplished lady, and 
 sister of Sir Philip Sidney, was married to Henry, Earl 
 of Pembroke, in 1576. She wrote "An Elegy on Sir 
 Philip Sidney," and a " Pastoral Dialogue in Praise of 
 Astraea," (Queen Elizabeth.) She translated many psalms 
 from the Hebrew into English verse, and several works 
 from the French. Died in 1621. Ben Jonson wrote for 
 her a well-known epitaph. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by Louisa S. Cos- 
 TELLO, London, 1844. 
 
 Sidney, (Sir Philip,) an English gentleman, soldier, 
 and author, possessed of rare accomplishments, born 
 at Penshurst, in Kent, on the 29th of November, 1554, 
 was a son of Sir Henry Sidney, and a nephew of the 
 famous Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. His mother 
 was Mary Dudley, a daughter of the Duke of North- 
 umberland. He entered Chrjst Church, Oxford, in 1568 
 or 1569, and commenced a tour on the continent in 1 572. 
 He was in Paris during the Massacre of Saint Bartholo- 
 mew, and afterwards visited Germany and Italy. During 
 this tour he formed a friendship with Hubert Languet, 
 who was afterwards a regular correspondent of Sidney. 
 He returned to England in 1575, and became a lover of 
 Penelope, a daughter of the Earl of Essex; but she was 
 compelled to marry another. She was the " Stella" of 
 his amatory poems. Sir Philip gained the favour and 
 confidence of Queen Elizabeth, and in 1577 was sent to 
 Vienna on a diplomatic mission, ostensibly to condole 
 with the emperor on the- death of his father, but with 
 instructions to promote union among the Protestant 
 princes. His first literary production was " The Lady 
 of the May," a masque, performed in 1578. He had 
 the courage to address to the queen a letter of remon- 
 strance against her proposed marriage with the Duke 
 of Anjou about 1580. He retired, or was exiled, from 
 court for a time, and resided at Wilton with his sister 
 Mary, Countess of Pembroke, and there composed his 
 
 * This charge, if admitted, does not necessarily convict him of any 
 infidelity to his principles. 
 
 e as A; $ as s; % Aard; gasj; G, H, Y., guttural; N, nasal; t.,trilltd; 5as«; *h as in this. (J[^™See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 127 
 
SIDONIUS 
 
 20 ! 8 
 
 SIETES 
 
 "Arcadia," a pastoral romance of much celebrity, pub- 
 lished in 1590. In 1583 he was knighted, and married 
 Frances, a daughter of Sir Francis Walsingham, secre- 
 tary of state. According to some writers, the crown of 
 Poland was offered to him, but he declined it. He was 
 about to accompany Sir Francis Drake in his expedition 
 against the Spaniards, when the queen interposed, and 
 sent him, in 1585, as Governor of Flushing, to the seat 
 of war between the Dutch and the King of Spain. The 
 troops under his command took Axel, and again encoun- 
 tered the enemy at Zutphen, where he was mortally 
 wounded, in September, 1586. After he was wounded 
 he called for some drink, which was brought, but, before 
 he had tasted it, gave the bottle to a wounded soldier, 
 saying, "Thy necessity is greater than mine." He died 
 at Amhem in October, 1586. He left one child, Eliza- 
 beth, Countess of Rutland. Among his principal works 
 is "The Defence of Poesie," (1595,) an admirable pro- 
 duction, displaying great erudition and taste. "The 
 first good prose writer," says Hallam, "in any positive 
 sense of the word, is Sir Philip Sidney. . . . The 'Ar- 
 cadia' displayed a superior mind rather complying with 
 a temporary taste than affected by it. ... I think it, never- 
 theless, on the whole, inferior, in sense, style, and spirit, 
 to the ' Defence of Poesie.' " (" Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe.") "The highest testimony to his 
 merits," says the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," " was his 
 having won the esteem and affection of William, Prince 
 of Orarige, probably the most wise and politic chief of 
 his time. He enjoined it to be told to the queen that, 
 if he were a judge, she had in Philip Sidney one of 
 the ripest and greatest councillors of state in that day 
 in Europe." 
 
 See F. Greville, (Lord Brookh,) " Life of Sir Philip Sidney," 
 1652 : Thomas Zouch, " Memoirs of the Life of Sir Philip Sid- 
 ney," 1808; H. R. F. Bourne, "Memoir of Sir Philip Sidney," 
 1862; "Retrospective Review," vol. ii., 1820; "British Quarterly 
 Review" for February, 1847, and January, 1863 ; Allibone, " Dic- 
 tionary of Authors." 
 
 Sidoniua. See Apoi.i.tnaris Sidonius. 
 
 Siebenkees, see'ben-kas' or zee'ben-kas', (Johann 
 Phii.ipp,) a German antiquary and Hellenist, born 
 at Nuremberg in 1759. He published, besides other 
 works, a " History of the State Inquisition at Venice," 
 ( 1 79 1 , ) and a good edition of Strabo. Died at Altdorf 
 in 1796. 
 
 See Koenig, " Memoria J. P. Siebenkees," 1796. 
 
 Siebold, von, fori see'bolt or zee'bolt, (Adam Ei.ias,) 
 the fourth son of Karl Kaspar, noticed below, was born 
 at Wurzburg in 1775. He became professor of medicine 
 in his native city, and subsequently at Berlin. He pub- 
 lished a " Manual for the Knowledge and Cure of the 
 Diseases of Women," (1811.) Died in 1828. 
 
 Siebold, von, (Eduard Kaspar Jakob,) a German 
 physician, a son of the following, was Bom at Wiirzburg 
 in 1801. He became in 1833 professor of medicine and 
 surgery at Gottingen. He published several works on 
 obstetrics. Died in 1861. 
 
 Siebold, von, (Karl Kaspar,) a German surgeon, 
 born in the duchy of Jiilich in 1736, became professor 
 of anatomy, surgery, and obstetrics at Wurzburg, and 
 was ennobled in 1801. Died in 1807. His sons Johann 
 Georg Christoph, Johann Theodor Damian, and 
 Johann Barthel were likewise distinguished physi- 
 cians and surgeons. 
 
 Siebold, von, (Karl Theodor Ernst,) a German 
 physiologist, a son of Adam Elias, noticed above, was 
 born at Wurzburg in 1804. He became successively 
 professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at Er- 
 langen, Freiburg, and Munich. He wrote, among other 
 works, a "Manual of the Comparative Anatomy of the 
 Invertebrate Animals," (1848,) which has been translated 
 into English and French. 
 
 Siebold, von, (Phii.ipp Franz,) a celebrated German 
 naturalist, a grandson of Karl Kaspar, noticed above, 
 was born at Wurzburg in 1796. He accompanied the 
 Dutch embassy to Japan as physician and naturalist in 
 1823, and spent about seven years in scientific researches 
 in that country. He published after his return a num- 
 ber of valuable works, among which we may name 
 " Epitome of the Japanese Language," (1824,) " Flora Ja- 
 ponica,"(i835,) " Catalogue of Japanese Books," (1845,) 
 
 " Atlas of Land and Marine Charts of the Japanese 
 Empire," also "Fauna Japonica," (1833,) in which he 
 was assisted by Temminck and other savants. His 
 " Archives towards the Description of Japan" is still 
 unfinished. 
 
 Siegen, von, fon see'gen, (LuDvvir,,) a celebrated 
 artist, of German extraction, born at Utrecht in 1609, 
 was the inventor of mezzotint engraving. His first 
 production in the new art was a portrait of Amelia 
 Elizabeth, mother of the Landgrave of Hesse, which he 
 executed about 1640. Siegen subsequently imparted 
 his discovery to Prince Rupert, who introduced it into 
 England, and who has been generally regarded as the 
 inventor of mezzotinto. Among Siegen's other engrav- 
 ings may be named a " Holy Family," after Annibal 
 Carracci, and a portrait of Ferdinand III. of Austria. 
 Died about 1680. 
 
 See Evelyn, " Sculptura, or History of Chalcography ;" Nagler, 
 " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Siegenbeek, see'gen-bak' or see'Hen-bak', (Mat- 
 THIJS,) a Dutch writer and divine, born at Amsterdam 
 in 1774, was preacher to the Mennonite congregation at 
 Leyden, and became in 1797 professor of eloquence in 
 the university of that city. He was the author of a 
 " Dictionary for Dutch Orthography," (" Woordenboek 
 voor de Nederduitsche Spelling,") and other works. 
 Died about 1850. 
 
 Siegfried, seeg'freed, [Ger. pron. zeeG'fReet,] [from 
 siegen, to "conquer," and Frieite, "peace." In the 
 Norse legends the name is usually written Sigurd, 
 (which see,)] the name of a legendary or semi-fabulous 
 personage who occupies a conspicuous place in many 
 of the ancient tales of the Teutonic nations. He is 
 especially distinguished as the hero of the famous 
 German epic known as the " Niebelungen - Lied," 
 (nee'beh-lSong'en leet,) or the "Lay of the Niebe- 
 lungen."* For an account of this poem, and the ex- 
 ploits of Siegfried, the reader is referred to Carlyle's 
 "Miscellanies" and Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe," pp. 217-227. 
 
 Siena, da. See Matteo. 
 
 Sienna, Simon of. See Martini, Dr. 
 
 Sieveking, see'veh-king' or zee'veh-king', (Amalie 
 Wilhei.mine,) born at Hamburg in 1794, was celebrated 
 for her philanthropy, and founded several charitable 
 institutions for the poor in Hamburg and other cities. 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 See the " Life of Amelia Sieveking," translated from the German, 
 London, 1863. 
 
 Sieveking, (Karl,) a German diplomatist, born at 
 Hamburg in 1787, was sent in 1819 as resident minister 
 to Saint Petersburg. Died in 1847. 
 
 Sieves, se'ess' or se'A'ySs', (Emmanuel Joseph,) 
 Comte, commonly called Abke Sieves, a French poli- 
 tician and publicist, born at Frejtis in May, 1748. He 
 was educated in the seminary of Saint-Sulpice, in Paris, 
 and in 1780 went to Chartres, where he became canon, 
 vicar-general, and chancellor. He advocated the popular 
 cause in his famous pamphlet entitled " What is the 
 Third Estate?" (" Qu'est-ce que le Tiers-Etat ?" 1789,) 
 which placed him at the head of the publicists who 
 favoured the Revolution. Having been sent to the 
 States-General by the electors of Paris, he was the chief 
 promoter of the union of the orders, and one of the 
 most radical leaders of the Constituent Assembly. He 
 opposed, however, the abolition of tithes, and on that 
 question used the famous phrase, "They would be free, 
 and they do not know how to be just." He became in 
 1792 a member of the Convention, in which he pursued 
 a cautious and silent course ; but he voted for the death 
 of the king. He was elected to the Council of Five 
 Hundred in 1795, was sent as ambassador to Berlin in 
 
 1798, and was chosen a member of the Directory in May, 
 
 1799. He formed a coalition with Bonaparte, promoted 
 the revolution of the 18th Brumaire, and was one of the 
 three consuls of the new regime. His power and in- 
 fluence ended about the end of 1799; and his plan of a 
 new constitution was not adopted. He held no office 
 
 * The name Niebelungen is said to be derived from an ancient 
 Burgundian race or family, whose downfall forms the subject of the 
 poem. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short: a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; not; good: moon- 
 
SIF 
 
 2019 
 
 S1G0RGNE 
 
 under the empire, and he lived in exile from 1S15 to 
 1830. Died in Paris in 1836. 
 
 See CElsner, " Des Opinions politique* de Sieves et de sa Vie," 
 »8oo: Von Srida, "Sieves und Napoleon." 1S24; E. DE Beau- 
 vekuhr, " Etude surSieyes," 185 1 ; Mk;nkt, '* Notices historiques;" 
 Thihrs, " History of the French Revolution :" Lamartine, " Les 
 Coustituants ;" Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Sif, seef, [probably allied to the Anglo-Saxon sifi, 
 " pure," " chaste," "inviolate,"] in the Norse mythology, 
 the wife of Thor, and the goddess of harvests. She is 
 said to have a head of hair of pure gold, — in allusion, 
 doubtless, to the golden fields of ripening grain. Her 
 connection with Thor, the great warrior-god of the 
 Northmen, may denote the dependence of the arts of 
 peace, and of agriculture in particular, on the protecting 
 arm of war. 
 
 See Kevser, " Religion of the Northmen," translated by Pen- 
 nock, p. 131 ; Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. 
 
 Sigalon, se'gi'loN', (Xavier,) a French painter of 
 history, born at Uzes about 1790, was a pupil of Gucrin. 
 He worked in Paris for many years. In 1833 he went 
 to Rome, and painted for M. Thiers a copy of Michael 
 Angelo's " Last Judgment," for which he received eighty- 
 eight thousand francs. Died at Rome in 1837. 
 
 See Ch. Saint-Maurice. " E"loge de Xavier Sigalon," 1848; 
 Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Sigaud-Lafond, se'go' 13'foN', (Joseph Aignan,) a 
 French surgeon and natural philosopher, born at Hourges 
 in 1730 or 1740, wrote treatises on electricity, and pub- 
 lished a " Dictionary of Physics," (5 vols., 17S0-82.) He 
 became a member of the Institute in 1796. Died in 1810. 
 
 See Mechin-Desquins, "Notice sur Sigaud-Lafond;" J. P. 
 Chevalier, "Notice sur Sigaud-Lafond," 1841 ; Qcbrard, "La 
 France Litt^raire." 
 
 Sig'e-bert [Fr. pron. se'zhe'baiR.'; Lat. Sigeber'- 
 TUS] I, King of Austrasia, born about 535 A.D., was a 
 son of Clotaire I., King of the Franks. He obtained in 
 561 the kingdom of Austrasia, which included Germany 
 and the northeast of Gaul. He was involved in war 
 with his brother Chilperic, whom he defeated. In 575 
 he was killed by assassins who were hired by Frede- 
 gunda, the wife of Chilperic. 
 
 Sigebert II., King of Austrasia, born about 601 A.D., 
 was a son of Thierry II. He was killed by order of 
 Clotaire II. 
 
 Sigebert IH., born in 630 A.D., was a son of Dagobert 
 I., at whose death, about 634, the kingdom was divided 
 between Sigebert and his brother Clovis. Died in 654. 
 
 Sig'e-bert ofGemblours, [Lat. Sigf.ber'tus Gem- 
 BLACEn'sis,] a learned monk and historian, born in Bra- 
 bant about 1030, wrote a "Chronicon" (or "History") 
 "of Germany from 381 to 1112." Died in 1112. 
 
 Sigebertus. See Sigebert. 
 
 Sigel, see'gel, (Franz,) a general, born in Baden, 
 Germany, in 1824. He became minister of war of the 
 government formed by the revolutionists of Baden in 
 June, 1848. About 1850 he emigrated to the United 
 States. He enlisted as a colonel in the Union army 
 early in 1861, defeated a superior force at Carthage, 
 Missouri, July 5, and was appointed a brigadier-general 
 in August of that year. He commanded a division at 
 Pea Ridge, March 6 and 7, 1862, and a corps under 
 General Pope in Virginia, July-September of that year. 
 He was defeated at New Market, May 15, 1864. 
 
 Sigismond. See Sigismund. 
 
 Si|'is-mttnd, [Fr. Sigismond, se'zhess'mos',] writ- 
 ten also Sigmund, Emperor of Germanv, born in 
 1368, was the son of the emperor Charles IV. Having 
 married, in 1386, Maria, daughter of Lewis, King of 
 Poland, he was crowned King of Hungary in 1387. In 
 1396 he was signally defeated by the Turks under 
 Bayazeed (Bajazet) at Nicopolis. He was elected Em- 
 peror of Germany in 1410, and crowned in 1414. In 
 consequence of his treachery in consenting to the mar- 
 tyrdom of John Huss after he had granted him a safe- 
 conduct, Sigismund was involved in a war with the 
 Bohemians, and was several times defeated by the 
 celebrated Ziska. The treaty of Iglau was concluded 
 between them in 1435. Died in 1437. 
 
 See Aschbach, "Geschichte Sigismunds," 4 vols., 1838-45 ; Ka- 
 tona, " Historia Rerum Hungariorum :" Engel, " Geschichte von 
 Ungarn ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Sig'is-miiud [Polish Zygmunt, zlg'moont] 1, King 
 of Poland, son of Casimir IV., was born in 1466. He 
 ascended the throne in 1507. He was involved in wars 
 with the Russians, Moldavians, and Wallachians, against 
 whom he was eventually successful. Died in 1548. 
 
 See Lelewel, " Histoire de Pologne ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^n^ra'e." 
 
 Sigismund (called also Augustus) IX, a son of the 
 preceding, was born in 1518. He was elected king 
 during his father's lifetime, and came to the thrqne in 
 1548. During his reign Lithuania was united to Poland, 
 to which Livonia was also annexed. Sigismund is sup- 
 posed to have secretly favoured the Reformed religion, 
 which made great progress under his rule ; he was also a 
 liberal patron of learning and the arts. Died in 1572. 
 
 See Lelewel, "Histoire de Pologne." 
 
 Sigismund III., King of Poland and Sweden, born 
 in 1566, was the son of John III. of Sweden and Cathe- 
 rine, sister of Sigismund II. of Poland. He was elected 
 in 1587 to the throne of Poland, and in 1594 crowned 
 King of Sweden. His zeal in behalf of Catholicism 
 having made him unpopular with the Swedes, his uncle, 
 the Duke of Sudermania, caused himself to be made 
 king, in 1604, under the name of Charles IX., and thus 
 laid the foundation of a protracted strife between the 
 two countries. In 1610 he invaded Russia, and placed 
 his son Vladislaf on the throne, which, however, he was 
 subsequently compelled to resign to Michael Feodoro- 
 vitch. He was also involved in wars with the Turks, 
 Tartars, and Cossacks, and was obliged to yield to 
 Gustavus Adolphus a considerable part of Livonia and 
 Prussia. He died in 1632, and was succeeded by his 
 son, Vladislaf IV. • 
 
 See Niemckwicz, "Histoire du Regne de Sigismond III.," 3 
 vols., 1819. 
 
 Sig'is-mttnd or Sigismond, King of Burgundy, 
 was a son of Gondebaud, (Gundibald,) whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 516 A.D. Having been defeated in battle by 
 the sons of Clovis, he was killed, by order of Clodomir, 
 in 1524. 
 
 Sigmund. See Sigismund. 
 
 Signol, sen'y61', (Emii.e,) a French historical painter, 
 born in Paris in 1804. He gained a medal of the first 
 class in 1835. 
 
 Signorelli, sen-yo-rel'lee, (Luca,) an eminent Italian 
 painter, born at Cortona in 1439, was a nephew of Vasari. 
 His frescos of "The Last Judgment," in the cathedral 
 of Orvieto, are esteemed master-pieces, aiid were highly 
 commended by Michael Angelo. Died in 1521. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson. "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters;" 
 Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. 
 
 Signorelli, (Pietro Napoi.i,) an Italian critic and 
 historical writer, born at Naples in 1731. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a literary history of Naples and 
 Sicily, entitled " Vicende della Coltura nelle Due Sicilie," 
 (5 vols., 1784-86.) Died in 1815. 
 
 See F. M. Avri.lino, " Elogio storico di P. N. Signorelli," 1815 ; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Ge"ne>ale. " 
 
 Sigonio, se-go'ne-o, [Lat. Sigo'nius,] (Carlo,) an 
 eminent Italian historian and antiquary, born at Modena 
 about 1520. He became professor of Greek literature 
 in his native city in 1546, and obtained in 1560 the chair 
 of eloquence at Padua. Among his principal works are 
 his treatise " On the Ancient Law of Roman Citizens," 
 ("De antiquo Jure Civium Romanorum," 1560,) "His- 
 tory of the Western Empire," (" Historian de Occidental) 
 Imperio," 1577,) and "Ecclesiastical History," (" His- 
 torian Ecclesiasticae.") Sigonio was one of the first 
 scholars of his time, and his Latin style is remarkable 
 for clearness and elegance. He also wrote "On the 
 Athenian Republic," (" De Republica Athenicnsium," 
 1564,) and a "Life of Scipio Afiicanus Minor," (1569.) 
 Died in 1584. 
 
 See Moratori, "Vita C. Sigonii," prefixed to Sigonio's works. 
 6 vols., 1732-37; J. P. Krebs, "Vita C. Sigonii," 1837; J. P. 
 Krrbs, "(J. Sigonius, einer der grBssten Humanisten," etc., 1840: 
 
 GiNGUKNii, "Histoire LituSraire d'ltalie; 
 GdneYale. " 
 
 ' Nouvelle Biographie 
 
 Sigonius. See Sigonio. 
 
 Sigorgne, se'goRfi', (Pierre,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and natural philosopher, born in Lorraine in 1719. He 
 
 « as *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. ( jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
S1G0URNET 
 
 2020 
 
 SILLIMAN 
 
 advocated the Newtonian philosophy. Died at Macon 
 in 1809. 
 
 Sigourney, sig'ur-ne, (Lydia Huntley,) an Ameri- 
 can poet and miscellaneous writer, born at Norwich, 
 Connecticut, in 1791. She published, in 1815, "Moral 
 Pieces in Prose and Verse." Having visited Europe in 
 1840, she brought out in 1842 a work entitled " Pleasant 
 Memories of Pleasant Lands." She was married in 
 1819 to Charles Sigourney, a merchant of Hartford. 
 Among her numerous poems are "The Aborigines of 
 America," (1822,) and "Pocahontas," (1841.) She also 
 wrote many works in prose. Died in 1865. 
 
 See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America;" "National 
 Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iv. ; " North 
 American Review" for October, 1835. 
 
 Siguenza, de, da se-gweVza, (Jose,) a Spanish monk 
 and historical writer, born about 1545, published a " Life 
 of Saint Jerome," (1595,) and other works. Died in 1606. 
 
 Sigurd, see'goord or see'gtird, [from a root cognate 
 with the German Sieg and Swedish Seger, victorv,] the 
 name of a hero celebrated in the legends of the North 
 as the greatest of human warriors. He may be styled 
 the Roostam of the Northmen. He had a sword with 
 which he could cleave an anvil and cut through floating 
 wool. Sigurd appears to be another name for Siegfried, 
 (which see.) For the particulars of Sigurd's lineage and 
 history, see Thorpe's "Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 
 91-108. 
 
 Sike or Siecke, see'keh or zee'keh, (Heinrich,) a 
 German philologist, born at Bremen in the latter part of 
 the seventeenth century, became professor of Oriental 
 languages at Utrecht, and subsequently at Cambridge, 
 England. He committed suicide in 1712. 
 
 Sl-la'nl-on, [SiXaviav,] a Greek statuary in bronze, 
 lived in the fourth century B.C. According to Pliny, he 
 was a contemporary of Lysippus, and excelled in the 
 imitation of strong passions.' Among his works was a 
 statue of Sappho, which was highly praised by Cicero, a 
 statue of Plato, and a statue of Jocasta dying. 
 
 Sl-la'nus, (Decimus Junius,) a Roman senator, was 
 elected consul in 63 B.C. In the trial of Catiline's ac- 
 complices, he, as consul elect, was the first to express 
 his opinion. He advocated severe measures. 
 
 Silanus, (M. Junius,) an orator, was a grandson of 
 D. Junius Silanus. He became consul in 19 a.d. His 
 daughter Claudia was the wife of Caligula, who caused 
 Silanus to be put to death. 
 
 Silbermann, sil'ber-man' or zil'ber-man', (Gott- 
 fried,) a German organ-builder, born near Frauenstein, 
 in Saxony, in 1683 ; died in 1753. 
 
 Silberschlag, sil'ber-shlio'or zil'ber-shllo',(JoHANN 
 Jesaias,) a German natural philosopher, born at Aschers- 
 leben in 1721. He was pastor at Magdeburg, and rector 
 of the Real-Schule in Berlin. Died in 1791. 
 
 See his Autobiography, 1788. 
 
 Silene. See Silenus. 
 
 Sileno. See Silenus. 
 
 SMe'ims or Sei-le'nus, JGr. Icdr/voc ; Fr. Sn.feNE, 
 se'ljn'; It. Sileno, se-la'no,j in the classic mythology, 
 one of the Satyrs, supposed to be a son of Mercury, and 
 the preceptor and inseparable attendant of Bacchus. 
 He was represented as a jovial old man, corpulent, bald, 
 always intoxicated, and carrying in his hand a wine-bag, 
 and often riding on an ass. Like the other Satyrs, he 
 was fond of sleep, music, and dancing. He was also 
 renowned for his prophetic insight into the future. 
 
 See Virgil's Sixth Eclogue, entitled "Silenus." 
 
 Silhon, de, deh se'ldN', (Jean,) a French author, born 
 near Nerac about 1596. He was one of the first mem- 
 bers of the French Academy, and was employed by 
 Richelieu in political affairs. Among his works is a 
 "Treatise on the Immortality of the Soul," (1662.) 
 Died in 1667. 
 
 Silhouette, de, deh se'loo'eV, (firiENNE,) a French 
 financier and writer on politics, etc., was born at Li- 
 moges in 1709. He became controller-general of the 
 finances in 1 759, practised excessive economy, but was 
 found to be incompetent, and resigned before the end of 
 the year. Died in 1767. His name is applied to an 
 economical sort of portrait, (commonly called a profile.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Sil'I-us I-tal'I-cus, (Caius,) a Roman poet and imi- 
 tator of Virgil, whose birthplace is unknown, lived under 
 the reign of Nero, and in 68 a.d. was elected consul. 
 He was afterwards proconsul in Asia. His only work 
 extant is an epic poem entitled " Punica," in seventeen 
 books, giving an account of the second Punic war. It 
 is a long and very dull poem. Died about 100 a.d. 
 
 See C. Celi.arius, " Dissertatio de C. Silio Italico," 1712; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Siljestiom, seel'yes-tRom', (Pehr Adam,) a Swedish 
 writer, born at Calmar in 1815, became professor of ex- 
 perimental physics at Upsal. He was the author of a 
 report on the educational system of the United States. 
 
 Sill, (Joshua W.,) born at Chillicothe, Ohio, in 1831 
 graduated at West Point in 1853. He became a briga- 
 dier-general in the Union army in July, 1862, and was 
 killed at Stone River, December 31 of that year. 
 
 Silla, the Italian of Sulla, (which see.) 
 
 Sillery, de, deh sel're', (Charles Alexis Brulart 
 — bKii'liR',) Marquis, and Count de Genlis, a French 
 officer, born in Paris in 1737, was the husband of Ma- 
 dame de Genlis the authoress. He served as captain in 
 the navy in his youth, and became a member of the 
 States-General in 1789. He was a follower of the Duke 
 of Orleans in politics, and was guillotined in October, 
 1793- 
 
 Sillery, de, (Nicolas Bruslart — bni'l$R',) Mar 
 quis, an able French diplomatist, born in Champagn; 
 in 1544. He was employed in foreign missions bj 
 Henry IV., and became chancellor of France in 1607, 
 Died in 1624. 
 
 See Boutrays, " Breviarium Vita: N. Brulartii," 1624 : Sully 
 " Me'moires." 
 
 Sillig, sil'lic or zil'lic, (Karl Julius,) a German 
 scholar, born at Dresden in 1801, published an editior, 
 of the "Natural History" of Pliny, (1851,) and a valu- 
 able " Catalogue of Greek and Roman Artists," (" Cata- 
 logue Artificum Graecorum et Romanorum,") which 
 has been translated into English. Died in 1857. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1838. 
 
 Sil'11-man, (Benjamin,) an eminent American natu- 
 ralist and professor, born in North Stratford, (now 
 Trumbull,) Connecticut, on the 8th of August, 1779. 
 He was a son of Gold Selleck Silliman, a general who 
 served in the war of the Revolution. He entered Yale 
 College in 1792, graduated in 1796, and was appointed 
 tutor in that institution in 1799. About 1802, Dr. 
 Dwight offered hiin a chair of chemistry in Yale Col- 
 lege. To prepare himself for that position, he studied 
 chemistry at Philadelphia for two years. He began to 
 lecture to the students of Yale College in 1804, and 
 performed a voyage to Europe about the end of 1805. 
 Having returned, after an absence of fourteen months, 
 he resumed the chair of chemistry, and published a 
 "Journal of Travels in England, Holland, and Scot- 
 land," (2 vols., 1810,) which was a very interesting and 
 popular book. Soon after his return he made a geo- 
 logical survey of a part of Connecticut. In 1809 he 
 married Harriet, a daughler of Governor Trumbull, of 
 Connecticut. He made a chemical analysis of a famous 
 meteorite which fell at Weston, Connecticut, in 1807. 
 In 1818 he founded "The American Journal of Science 
 and Arts," usually called " Silliman s Journal," which 
 was recognized at home and in Europe as the chief 
 repository of American science. He was the sole 
 editor of this journal for twenty years, and maintained 
 it at his own pecuniary risk. 
 
 He attained great eminence as a lecturer and teacher 
 of science. "The professor's chair, in the laboratory 
 or the lecture-room, was the place above all others in 
 which his enthusiasm, his sympathy with youthful aspira- 
 tions, his varied acquisitions, and his graceful utterance, 
 exerted their highest and most enduring influence." 
 ("American Journal of Science and Arts," May, 1865.) 
 He applied the blowpipe to the fusion of a variety of 
 bodies which were before regarded as infusible. About 
 1822 he demonstrated the transfer of particles of carbop 
 from one charcoal point to the other in the galvanic 
 battery. He published a text-book on chemistry in 1830. 
 Between 1835 and 1850 he delivered popular lectures 
 on chemistry and geology in Boston, Lowell, New York, 
 
 i, e, t, o,vt,y, long; a, 4,6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, 6,11, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; nit; good; moon; 
 
SILLIMAN 
 
 2021 
 
 SIMLER 
 
 Philadelphia, Saint Louis, and New Orleans. He was 
 one of the few men in the country that could hold a 
 popular audience with a lecture on science. In 1853 he 
 resigned his professorship, and published " A Visit to 
 Europe in 1851," (2 vols.,) which was often reprinted. 
 He felt a deep interest in the cause of liberty, and when 
 Kansas became the scene of conflict, about 1857, he 
 came out with all his youthful ardour as the opponent of 
 the slave-power. He died at New Haven on the 24th 
 of November, 1864. In the language of the writer already 
 quoted above, " he was a man of vigorous understanding 
 and sound judgment, led on, but never carried away, by 
 an enthusiastic disposition, glowing and constant. . . . 
 Blending with and ennobling all these virtues was the 
 childlike simplicity of his Christian faith." 
 
 Sec "American Journal of Science and Arts," May, 1865; George 
 P. Fisher, " Life of Benjamin Silliman," a vols., 1866 ; " North 
 American Review" for January, 1832. 
 
 Silliman, (Benjamin,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born at New Haven in 1816, and graduated at Yale Col- 
 lege in 1837. He was employed as teacher of chemistry 
 in that college for a number of years, and was appointed 
 professor of chemistry applied to the arts in 1846. About 
 1838 he became associate editor of the "American Jour- 
 nal of Science and Arts," of which he and Professor 
 J. D. Dana are now the chief editors. He succeeded his 
 father as professor of general and applied chemistry in 
 Yale College in 1854. He published " First Princi- 
 ples of Chemistry," (1846,) and " Principles of Physics," 
 (1858.) 
 
 Silly, de, deh se'ye', (Jacques Joseph Vipart — 
 ve'ptR.',) Marquis, a French general, born in Normandy 
 in 1671. He was a friend of Madame de Stael. Died 
 ,in 1727. 
 
 Silva, sel'vt', (Jean Baptiste,) a French physician, 
 born at Bordeaux in 1682. He practised in Paris, and 
 received the title of consulting physician to Louis XV. 
 in 1724. Died in 1742. 
 
 Silva y Figueroa. See Figuf.roa, de. 
 
 Silvani, sel-va'nee, (Gherardo,) an Italian architect, 
 born at Florence in 1579. He built, besides other 
 edifices in his native city, the magnificent Palazzo Maru- 
 celli and the Palazzo Ricardi. His design for the facade 
 Of the cathedral of Florence was adopted and executed. 
 Died in 1675. 
 
 Sil-va'nus or Syl-va'nus, [Fr. Syi.vain, sel'vaN',] 
 [from silva or sylva, a " wood" or " grove,"] a rural deity 
 in Roman mythology, was the guardian of groves, fields, 
 and cattle. He was supposed to be the protector of the 
 boundaries of fields or farms. By some mythographers 
 he was identified with Faunus and with Pan. 
 
 Sil-ve'rI-us or Sylverius, [Fr. Silvers, sel'vaiR',1 
 a native of Frosinone, near Rome, became pope in 536 
 A.D. He was a son of Pope Hormisdas. In 537 he 
 was banished to Lycia by Belisarius, who chose Vigil i us 
 ts his successor. Died in 538. 
 
 Silvester, Pope. See Sylvester. 
 
 Silvestre, sel-ves'tRl, (Gregorio,) born at Lisbon 
 in 1520, was the author of numerous poems published 
 in 1592, under the title of "Obras poeticas." Died in 
 1570. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Silvestre, sel'vestR', (Israel,) a French designer and 
 engraver, born at Nancy in 1621. He worked in Paris, 
 and received the title of engraver to the king in 1662. 
 He engraved views of French and Italian scenery. Died 
 in 1691. 
 
 Silvestre, de, deh sel'vestR', (Augustin Francois,) 
 Baron, a French savant and rural economist, born in 
 1762, was descended from the preceding. He was chief 
 of the bureau of agriculture during the first empire. He 
 contributed to several scientific journals, and wrote 
 biographies of many French savants. Died in 1851. 
 
 See Bouchard, '* Notice sur Baron de Silvestre," 1852 : Qubrard, 
 "La France Litteraire." 
 
 Silvestre, de, (Lours,) a painter, born in Paris in 
 1675, was a son of Israel Silvestre, noticed above. He 
 was patronized by Augustus, King of Poland, and tie- 
 came director of the Academy of Dresden. Died in 
 1760. His nephew, Nicolas Charles, (1698-1767,) 
 was a painter and engraver. 
 
 Silvestre de Sacy. See Sacy, de. 
 
 Silvia. See Rhea Silvia. 
 
 Simart, se'maV, (Pierre Charles,) a French sculp- 
 tor, born at Troyes in 1806, was a pupil of Pradier. He 
 gained the grand prize of Rome in 1833. He was em- 
 ployed by the government to execute statues and bas- 
 reliefs Jpr the Louvre and other public buildings. Among 
 his works is an imitation of Phidias' statue of Pallas 
 Athene, composed of gold and ivory. Died in 1857. 
 
 See C. Lbvkque, " Notice sur la Vie de Simart," 1857 ; G. Ey- 
 Rlfts, " Simart Statuaire," i860 ; Halew, " Notice sur la Vie et les 
 Ouvrages de Simart," 1861. 
 
 Sim'e-on, [Heb. pj/'Oiy,] the second son of Jacob and 
 Leah, received his father's curse on account of his share 
 in the treacherous murder of the Shechemites. 
 
 See Genesis xxxiv. 
 
 Sim'e-911 of Durham, an English chronicler of the 
 eleventh century, was the author of a " History of the 
 Kings of England from 616 to 1130." 
 
 Simeon of Polotzk, a Russian poet and :nciik born 
 at Polotzk in 1628. He was the preceptor of Feodor, 
 who became Czar of Russia in 1676. He wrote dramas 
 and religious treatises. Died in 1680. 
 
 Sim'e-on surnamed Styli'tes, [Gr. Zv/ieuvric 6 SniAi- 
 Tj?c ; Fr. SimSon Stylite, se'mi'oN' ste'let',] an ascetic 
 or fanatic, born near the boundary of Syria and Cilicia 
 about 390 a.d. He acquired a sort of celebrity by stand- 
 ing or living for many years on the top of a pillar, and 
 attracted crowds of spectators, who came from a great 
 distance, and to whom he preached. He was venerated 
 as a saint. Died about 460. 
 
 See Lautensach, "De Simeone Stylita," 1700; Uhlemann, 
 "Simeon der erste Sftulenheilige in Syrien," 1846; Krbbs, "Disser- 
 tatio de Stylitis," 1753. 
 
 Sim'e-on, (Rev. Charles,) an English divine, born 
 at Reading in 1759, became rector of Trinity Church, 
 Cambridge. He was the author of numerous theo- 
 logical and devotional works, which are highly esteemed. 
 He was distinguished for his earnest piety and zeal in 
 the cause of religion, and gave large sums to the Society 
 for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, and other 
 similar associations. Died in 1830. 
 
 See W. Carus, " Life of Charles Simeon," 1847 ; Rev. EasKIMS 
 Neale. "Christianity and Infidelity Contrasted ;" "North British 
 Review" for August, 1847. 
 
 Simeon, se'ma'6N', (Joseph Bai.thasar,) Comte, a 
 French politician, bom at Aix in 1 781, was a son of the 
 following. He was prefect of several departments be- 
 tween 1815 and 1824, and entered the Chamber of Peers 
 in 1835. Died in 1846. 
 
 Simeon, (Joseph Jer&me,) Count, a French min- 
 ister of state, born at Aix in 1749. He became a mem- 
 ber of the council of state in 1804, and minister of the 
 interior in Westphalia in 1807. He was French minister 
 of the interior from February, 1820, to December, 1821. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 See Mignet, " Notice historique suf la Vie de M. le Comte 
 Simeon," 1844; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Sim'e-on Met-a-phras'te§, a theologian, who lived 
 in the reign of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. He was 
 the author of" Lives of the Saints." Died in 976. 
 
 Sim'e-on Se'thus or Simeon Seth, a learned 
 Greek writer of the eleventh century, was a resident 
 of Constantinople. He was the author of a treatise 
 on edible things and their properties, which has been 
 translated into Latin under the title of " Syntagma 
 de Cibariorum Facultate." He translated into Greek 
 the Arabic Fables of Pilpay ; and the translation of a 
 fabulous history of Alexander the Great, from the Per- 
 sian, is also ascribed to him. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale. " 
 
 Simeoni, se-ma-o'nee, (Gabrieli.o,) an Italian writer 
 on various subjects, was born at Florence in 1509. He 
 led a wandering life. Among his works is " Devices 
 and Emblems," (" Devises et Emblemes," in French, 
 1559.) Died in 1575. 
 
 Simiane, de, deh se'me'in', (Pauline d'Adhemar 
 de Monteil de Grignan — di'da'tiiaV deh m6.\'til' 
 deh gRen'yoN',) Marquise, a French lady, born in Paris 
 in 1674, was a granddaughter of Madame de Sevigne. 
 Died in 1737. Her Letters were published in 1773. 
 
 Sim'ler, (Josias,) a Swiss Protestant minister and 
 historian, born at Cappel, near Zurich, in 1530. He was 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (^ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SJMMIJS 
 
 2022 
 
 SIMON IDES 
 
 professor of theology at Zurich, and wrote, besides 
 treatises on theology, a " History of the Swiss Republic," 
 ("De Helvetiorum Kepublica," 1574.) Died in 1576. 
 
 See Stuck, " Vila J. Simleri," 1577 ; Nic£ron, " Memoires." 
 
 Sim'ml-as, [Si^/u'oc,] a Greek grammarian, born at 
 Rhodes, is supposed to have lived about 300 B.C. Some 
 fragments of his poems are contained in the "Antnologia 
 Graeca." Another writer of this name was the author of a 
 historical work, not extant. 
 
 Simmias of Thebes, a Greek philosopher, was a 
 disciple and friend of Socrates, at whose death he was 
 present. He and his brother Cebes are the chief speakers 
 (besides Socrates) in the " Phaedon" of Plato. His 
 works are not extant. 
 
 Sim'mons, (Samuel Foart,) an English physician, 
 born in Kent in 1752, studied at Edinburgh, and took 
 his medical degree at Leyden. Having settled in Lon- 
 don, he was appointed physician of Saint Luke's Hos- 
 pital and to George III., and elected a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society. He published several medical works. 
 Died in 1813. 
 
 Simms, (William Gilmore,) an American novelist 
 a id voluminous writer, born at Charleston, South Caro- 
 lina, in 1806. He published a number of poetical pieces 
 at an early age, and brought out in 1833 his " Atalantis, 
 a Storv of the Sea," which is esteemed his finest poem. 
 Among his numerous romances may lie named " Guy 
 Rivers," (1834,) "The Yemassee," (1835,) "The Parti- 
 san," (1835,) "Mellichampe," (1836,) «« Pelayo," (1838,) 
 "The Wigwam and the Cabin," and "Katherine Wal- 
 ton," (1.851.) He also wrote a " History of South Caro- 
 lina," (1840,) a "Life of Marion," (1844,) and other 
 biographical works, and was a frequent contributor to 
 various Reviews. Died in June, 1870. 
 
 See Gkiswold, "Prose Writers of America;" Duyckinck, 
 "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. : Ali.ibonk, "Dic- 
 tionary of Authors;" " North American Review" for October, 1846. 
 
 Sim'nel, (Lambert,) an English impostor, born at 
 Oxford about 1472, was the son of a joiner or baker. In 
 i486 he assumed to be Edward Plantagenet, Earl of 
 Warwick, a nephew of Richard III., and was supported 
 by many partisans of the House of York. The army 
 of Simnel was defeated by the royal army at Stoke in 
 1487. Simnel was taken prisoner, but his life was 
 spared. 
 
 Simolin, see'mo-leen', (Johann Mathias,) an emi- 
 nent diplomatist, born at Abo, in Finland, was employed 
 by the Russian empress Catherine on important mis- 
 sions to Austria, Denmark, Sweden, and England. Died 
 in 1799. 
 
 Simolin, (Karl Gustav,) Baron, a Russian diplo- 
 matist, born at Abo in 1 7 1 5. He was ennobled by 
 Stanislas Augustus, King of Poland. Died in 1777. 
 
 Simon. See Peter, Saint. 
 
 Simon, se'm6>j', (Edouard Thomas,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Troyes in 1740 ; died in 1818. 
 
 Simon, (Jean Franqois,) a French antiquary, born 
 in Paris in 1654; died in 1 719. 
 
 Si'mpn, (John,) an English surgeon and anatomist, 
 born in 1810, studied at King's College, became in 1844 
 a Fellow of the College of Surgeons, London, and was 
 subsequently appointed medical officer to the general 
 board of health. He published a treatise " On the Phys- 
 iology of the Thymus Gland," (1845,) and "Lectures on 
 General Pathology," (1850.) The former obtained the 
 Astley Cooper prize. 
 
 Simon, (Jules,) sometimes called Jules Simox- 
 Suisse, a French philosopher and legislator, born at 
 Lorient in 1814. He was chosen in 1839 by M. Cousin 
 to supply his place as professor at the Sorbonne, where 
 he lectured about twelve years. In 1848 he was elected 
 a member of the Constituent Assembly. He published, 
 besides other works, "Studies on the Theodicea of 
 Plato and Aristotle," (1840,) a " History of the School 
 of Alexandria," (2 vols., 1844-45,) ant ' "Natural Re- 
 ligion," (1856.) " His works," says the "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale," "give proof of profound study, and 
 are remarkable for elevation of thought." In 1863 he 
 was elected a member of the legislative body by the 
 voters of Paris, and was admitted into the Academy of 
 Moral and Political Sciences. He is an advanced liberal 
 
 in politics. In 1869 he was re-elected to the legislative 
 body, and in September, 1870, became minister of public 
 instruction under the republic. 
 
 Simon, (RICHARD,) an eminent and liberal French 
 theologian and critic, born at Dieppe in May, 1638, was 
 a man of profound learning. He entered the congrega- 
 tion of the Oratory, studied the Oriental languages, and 
 became professor of philosophy in the College of Juilly. 
 His principal work is a "Critical History of the Old 
 Testament," (1678,) which was condemned as unsound 
 and suppressed. He was proscribed by Bossuet as a 
 heretic, and was expelled from the Oratory. He was 
 much addicted to controversy, and was very tenacious 
 of his opinions. Among his works is a "Critical His- 
 tory of the New Testament," (1689.) Died at Dieppe 
 in 1712. 
 
 See Nitron, "Memoires:" Mor^ri, " Dictionnaire Histo- 
 rique ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Simon, (Thomas,) an English engraver of medals, 
 born about 1612. He was employed as engraver to 
 the Mint during the Commonwealth. Died in 1665. 
 
 Si'mon Maccabae'us (mak-ka-bee'us) or Mat'thes, 
 [Fr. Simon Machabee, se'mdx' mi'shS'ba',] called 
 also Tha'si, was the brother of Judas Maccabaeus. He 
 succeeded his brother Jonathan in 143 B.C. as high- 
 priest and ruler of the jews. He formed an alliance 
 with Demetrius Nicator, of Syria, who recognized the 
 independence of the Jews. Judea was invaded in 139 
 by an army of Antiochus Sidetes, which Simon defeated. 
 He was assassinated by his son-in-law Ptolemaeus, in 
 135 B.C. 
 
 Si'mon Ma'gus, [Fr. Simon i.k Magicikn, se'moN' 
 leh mi'zhe'se^N',] a magician of Samaria, and a pre- 
 tended convert to Christianity, who offered money to 
 the apostles Peter and John to obtain from them the 
 power of conferring the Holy Ghost. For this he was 
 severely rebuked by Peter. 
 
 See Acts viii. 18, 19, 20, etc. 
 
 Simon de Montfort. See Mon wort, de. 
 
 Simond, se'm6N', (Phii.ibert,) a Jacobin, born in. 
 Savoy in 1755, was a member of the French Convention 
 of 1792. He was proscribed as a friend of Danton, and 
 executed in April, 1794. 
 
 Simonde de Sismondi. See Sismondi. 
 
 Simone da Pesaro. See Cantarini. 
 
 Simonet, se'mo'nj', (Edmond,) a French Jesuit and 
 writer on theology, born at Langres in 1662 ; died in 
 
 1773- 
 
 Simonetta, se-mo-net'ta, (Bontf\zio,) an Italian 
 historian, born about 1430. He wrote "De Persecu- 
 tionibus Christianae Fidei et Romanorum Pontificum," 
 (1492.) 
 
 Simonetta, (Francesco,) an Italian politician, an 
 uncle of the preceding, was born in Calabria in 1410. 
 He became the chief adviser or minister of Galeazzo 
 Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan, and had much power 
 during the minority of that prince's son. He was be- 
 headed, by order of Ludovico Sforza, in 1480. 
 
 'Simonetta, (Giovanni,) an Italian historian, a bro- 
 ther of the preceding, was born in Calabria. He wrote, 
 in Latin, a " History of Francesco Sforza," (1480.) Died 
 about 1491. 
 
 Simonide. See Simonides. 
 
 Si-mon'I-des [Gr. 2i/iuniiSrtf ; Fr. Simonide, se'mo'- 
 ned'| of Amorous, a Greek poet, born at Samos, 
 flourished about 690-665 B.C. tie wrote satires in the 
 Iambic metre. His satire on women is extant. 
 
 See K. O. Muli.er, " History of the Literature of Ancient 
 Greece." 
 
 Simonides of Ceos, a famous Greek lyric poet, 
 born at Julis, in the island of Ceos, about 556 B.C. He 
 became a resident of Athens in the reign of Hipparclius, 
 by whom he was patronized, and there associated with 
 Anacreon. After the death of Hipparclius (about 514) 
 he retired to Thessaly. He returned to Athens about 
 the time of the Persian invasion, celebrated the victory 
 of Marathon in verse, 489 B.C., and acquired great popu- 
 larity. He was employed by the Amphictyons to write 
 inscriptions for the tombs of those who fell in defence 
 of Greece against the Persians. For those who fell at 
 Thermopylae he composed an inscription which may be 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fl, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mil; not; good; moon; 
 
SIMONNEJU 
 
 2023 
 
 SINCLAIR 
 
 translated, "Stranger, tell the Lacedaemonians that we 
 lie here in obedience to their laws." He was intimate 
 with Themistocles, and was a rival of Pindar. His lat- 
 ter years were passed at the court of Hieron of Syra- 
 cuse, where he died in 467 B.C. His works are lost, 
 except small fragments. He excelled in epigram and 
 in pathetic poetry. Many witty sayings are ascribed to 
 him. He was victorious over ^Eschylus in a contest for 
 the prize which was offered for the best elegy on those 
 who fell at Marathon. He was greatly distinguished 
 for his moral wisdom and moderation. 
 
 S^e Boissv, " Histoire de la Vie de Simonide," 1755; Schnei- 
 BKWiH, "De Vita et Carminibus Simonidis Cei," 1X35: Duckkh, 
 "Dc Simonide," 1768; F. W. RlCHTEK, "' .Simonides der Aeltere 
 von Keos nach seinem Leben," etc., 1836: K. O. Mullkk, " Hisrmy 
 ofthe Literature of Ancient Greece;" "Nouvelle Biographic Gthie- 
 rale;" " Eraser's Magazine" for August, 1830. 
 
 Simonneau, se'mo'nS', (Chari.es,) a French en- 
 graver, born at Orleans in 1645. He engraved the works 
 of several French masters. Died in 1728. 
 
 Simonneau, (Louis,) an engraver, born at Orleans 
 in 1654, was a brother of the preceding. Died in 1727. 
 
 Simplicius, sim-plish'e^us, (Si/z-Ai/cioc,) a Neo-Pla- 
 tonic philosopher and coimnentator on Aristotle, was 
 born in Cilicia. He was persecuted as a pagan in the reign 
 of Justinian, who closed the school at Athens in 529 A.n. 
 He wrote commentaries on Aristotle's "Categories," 
 "De Ccelo," and " De Anima" and " Physica Ausculta- 
 tio." These are esteemed the most valuable of all the 
 Greek commentaries on Aristotle that are extant. 
 
 See Hoffmann, " Bibliographicum Lexicon:" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Generale;" Buhle, " Dissertatio de Simplicii Vita," etc., 
 1816. 
 
 Simplicius, sim-plish'e-us, an Italian prelate, born at 
 Tivoli, (Tibur,) became Bishop of Rome in 467 a.d. Died 
 in 4S3. 
 
 Simp'son, (Christopher,) an English composer, 
 born about 1610 ; died about 1668. 
 
 Simpson, (Edward,) an English writer on chro- 
 nology and theology, born at Tottenham in 1578. He 
 became rector of Eastling, Kent. Among his works is 
 "Universal Chronology," ("Chronicon Catholicum," 
 1652.) Died in 1651. 
 
 Simpson, (Sir James,) a British general, bom at 
 Edinburgh in 1792. He served against the French in 
 the campaigns of 1812 and 1815, and subsequently 
 under Sir Charles Napier in India. In 1855 he suc- 
 ceeded Lord Kaglan as commander of the British forces 
 in the Crimea. He received from Napoleon III. the 
 grand cross of the legion of honour. Died in 1868. 
 
 Simp'son, (Sir James Young,) a Scottish physician, 
 born in Linlithgowshire in 181 1, graduated at Edin- 
 burgh in 1832. He became professor of midwifery in 
 the university of that city in 1840, and was the first who 
 employed anaesthetics in obstetric practice, (1847.) In 
 1856 he received from the French Academy of Sciences 
 the Monthyon prize of two thousand francs. He was 
 elected president of the Royal College of Physicians, 
 Edinburgh, and a foreign associate of the French Acad- 
 emy of Medicine and of other similar institutions. He 
 was author of "Contributions to Obstetric Pathology," 
 "Essays on Anaesthesia," and other medical works. 
 Died in 1870. 
 
 Simp'son, (Matthew,) a bishop of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, was born at Cadiz, Ohio, June 21, 
 1810. While he was still an infant, his father died, and 
 the care of his education devolved upon his mother. 
 In addition to the ordinary English branches, he l>egan 
 the »t'jdy of German when he was eiuht years of a^e, 
 and the following year read the Bible through in the 
 German language. He afterwards studieil Latin, Greek, 
 and Hebrew. He graduated as a physician in 1833. 
 He had joined the Church in 1829, and in iS-;9 he w:is 
 elected president of the Indiana Asbury University, 
 (Methodist,) and did much to promote the usefulness 
 and success of that institution. In 1848 he was ap- 
 
 fointed editor of " The Western Christian Advocate." 
 le was elected bishop in 1852. He took a deep in- 
 terest in the national cause during the war of the rebel- 
 lion, and by his zeal and eloquence contributed much to 
 strengthen the confidence of the people and to uphold 
 the hands of the government during that great crisis in 
 
 our country's history. Bishop Simpson was an intimate 
 personal friend of President Lincoln. 
 
 Simpson, (Thomas,) an able English mathematician, 
 born at Market-Bosworth in 1710. He learned the trade 
 of a weaver, and practised astrology or fortune-telling 
 in his early life. About 1736 he removed to London, 
 where he became a teacher of mathematics. He pub- 
 lished a " New Treatise on Fluxions," (1737,) and seve- 
 ral works on mathematics. In 1743 he was appointed 
 professor of mathematics in the Military Academy at 
 Woolwich. Died in 1761. 
 
 See Hutton, "Mathematical Dictionary;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Simrock, sim'rok or zim'rok, (Kari.,) a distinguished 
 German poet and translator, born at Bonn in 1802. He 
 published in 1827 a translation of the " Nibelungenlied," 
 and in 1831 a work entitled "Sources of Shakspeare's 
 l'lots in Novels, Tales, and Legends," in which he was 
 assisted by Echtermeyer and Henschel. He also trans- 
 lated "Twenty Songs of the Nibelungen," (1840,) pro- 
 nounced genuine by Lachmann, and several other Ger- 
 man poems of the middle ages. Among his principal 
 original works are his poem of " Wieland the Smith," 
 " Legends of the Rhine, from the Mouths of the People 
 and the German Poets," (1850,) and "Manual of Ger- 
 man Mythology." He became professor of the German 
 language and literature at Bonn in 1850. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Sims, (James,) an English physician and botanist, 
 born at Canterbury. He published " Observations on 
 Epidemic Disorders," (1773,) " Principles and Practice 
 of Midwifery," and other medical works. He was a 
 member of the Linnaean Society. Died in 1831. 
 
 Sims, (James Marion,) a distinguished American 
 surgeon, born in South Carolina in 1813. He removed 
 in 1853 to New York, where he was instrumental in 
 founding a hospital for the treatment of the diseases of 
 women. 
 
 Simson, sim'son or zim'son, (Martin Eduard,) a 
 German jurist and statesman, born at KSnigsberg. In 
 1S10 he studied at Bonn under Niebuhr, and in 1836 
 became professor of law at KSnigsberg. In 1848 he 
 was elected president of the National Assembly at 
 Frankfort. 
 
 Sim'son, (Robert,) an eminent Scottish rnathe- 
 : matician, born at Kirton Hall, Ayrshire, in 1687. He 
 became professor of mathematics in the University of 
 Glasgow in 171 1, and continued to fill that chair about 
 fifty years. He produced an edition of Euclid's " Ele- 
 ments," which was highly esteemed, and made some 
 discoveries in relation to the porisms of the ancients. 
 Died in 1768. 
 
 See William Trail, " Account of the Life and Writings of R. 
 Siiii-iin," 1812; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen." 
 
 Sina, Ibn. See Avicenna. 
 
 Sinan, se-nan', (SCIPIONB Cicai.e,) an Italian rene- 
 gade, born about 1 5 1 5. He became a Turkish general 
 and grand vizier. Died in 1595. 
 
 Sin'clair, (Catherine,) a daughter of Sir John Sin- 
 clair, noticed below, was born in 1800. She published 
 numerous tales and novels, which have had an extensive 
 circulation : among these we may name " Modern Soci- 
 ety." "Beatrice," "Business of Life," and "James Bou- 
 verie." She also wrote several bonks for children, the 
 "Kaleidoscope of Anecdotes and Aphorisms," " Shet- 
 land and the Shetlanders," etc. Died in 1864. 
 
 Sinclair, sin'klair, ? (Charles Gideon,) Baron, a 
 Swedish general and military writer, born about 1730. 
 He served with distinction in many campaigns in Fiance, 
 Prussia, and Saxony. Died in 1803. 
 
 Sinclair, (Sir John,) a Scottish statesman and phi- 
 lanthropist, born in the county of Caithness in 1754. 
 He studied at Edinburgh and Oxford, and in 1780 rep- 
 resented his native county in Parliament, being several 
 times re-elected. He was conspicuous for his efforts to 
 promote interna! improvements in his country, originated 
 the board of agriculture, of which he became first presi- 
 dent, and founded a society for the improvement of wool. 
 Among his numerous aim valuable treatises, which em- 
 brace a great variety of subjects, may be named his 
 
 taak;qass;%Aard;giSj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; sasz; th as in this. (JiySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SINCLARE 
 
 2024 
 
 SISENNJ 
 
 " History of the Revenue of Great Britain," " Considera- 
 tions on Militias and Standing Armies," " Essays on 
 Agriculture," and "Statistical Account of Scotland." 
 The last-named is esteemed a standard work. Died 
 in 1835. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 ' Memoir of Sir John Sinclair," bv his son, 1837 ; " Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for April, 1803; "Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1837; 
 "Monthly Review" for June, 180S, and September, 1814. 
 
 Sin'clare or Sinclair, (George,) a Scottish mathe- 
 matician and philosopher, was professor of philosophy 
 at Glasgow. He published several scientific treatises, 
 and a work entitled "Satan's Invisible World dis- 
 covered." Died in 1696. 
 
 SeeCttAMBERS, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Sin'dl-a or Scin'di-ah, (DSw'lut R8w,) a Mah- 
 ratta chief, born about 1780, was a grand-nephew of 
 Madajee, noticed below, whom he succeeded in 1794. 
 He was involved in war against the British, who, under 
 Sir A. Wellesley, gained a decisive victory over him at 
 Assaye in 1803. His army was defeated in several 
 battles in the same year, and he was forced to cede a 
 large part of his territories. Died in 1827. 
 
 Sindia, (Madajee or Madhajee, ma-da'jee,) a cele- 
 brated Mahratta chief, born in Hindostan about 1741. 
 He was a warlike and energetic prince, made extensive 
 conquests, and became master of Delhi. His dominions 
 extended from the Ganges to the Nerbudda. Died in 
 1794- 
 
 Singh, (Runjeet.) See Runjeet Singh. 
 
 Sin'gle-ton, (Henry,) an English painter, born in 
 London in 1766. He produced both historical pictures 
 and portraits ; among his master-pieces are a series of 
 illustrations from Shakspeare, "Christ Healing the 
 Blind," " Coriolanus and his Mother," and " The Storm- 
 ing of Seringapatam." Died in 1839. 
 
 Singlin, saN'glaN', (Antoine,) a French theologian, 
 born in Paris, was confessor to the nuns of Port-Royal. 
 He preached with much unction. It is stated that Pascal 
 had so high an opinion of the solidity of his judgment 
 that he read all his works to Singlin before he published 
 them. Died in 1664. 
 
 See Goutet, "Vie de Singlin," prefixed to Singlin's "Instruc- 
 tions chretiennes," 12 vols., 1736. 
 
 Sinnamus. See Cinnamus. 
 
 Sinner, sin'ner or zin'ner, [Fr. pron. se'naJR',] (Jo- 
 hann Rudolf,) a Swiss philologist, born at Berne in 
 1730; died in 1787. 
 
 Sinner, de, deh se'naiR', (R. G. Louis,) a Swiss Hel- 
 lenist, bom in the canton of Berne in 1801. He published 
 good editions of Aristophanes, Plato, Euripides, Sopho- 
 cles, and Xenophon, (1829-47.) 
 
 Si'non, [Gr. Sivuv,] a semi-fabulous or fictitious per- 
 son, who, according to Homer and Virgil, acted an in- 
 sidious part in the siege of Troy. They relate that he 
 presented himself to the Trojans as a deserter from the 
 Greek army, affirming that the Greeks had abandoned 
 the siege, and that he ran away because they were about 
 to offer him as a sacrifice. By his artful tale and well- 
 feigned passion he imposed on the credulous Trojans, 
 and persuaded them to introduce the wooden horse into 
 Troy. 
 
 See Virgil's " .ASneid," book ii., 57-198. 
 Sintenis, sin'teh-nis or zin'teh-nis, (Christian 
 Friedrich,) a German theologian and miscellaneous 
 writer, born at Zerbst in 1750. His voluminous works 
 comprise sermons, educational treatises, and moral and 
 religious romances. Died in 1820. 
 
 Sintenis, (Karl Friedrich Ferdinand,) a German 
 jurist, grandson of the preceding, was born at Zerbst 
 in 1804. 
 
 Siofn, se-6fn', written also Se-o'na, [etymology 
 doubtful,] a goddess in the Norse mythology, whose 
 office it is to inspire the passion of love. She may be 
 said to be a sort of female Cupid. From her name a 
 lover is called Siafni. 
 
 See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Mallet, " North- 
 ern Antiquities," vol. ii. Fable XVIII. 
 
 Sionita, (Gabriel.) See Gabriel. 
 Sirani, sera'nee, (Elisabetta,) an Italian historical 
 painter, born at Bologna in 1638, was a daughter of 
 
 Giovanni Andrea, noticed below. She imitated the 
 second manner of Guido with success, and acquired a 
 high reputation. Died in 1665. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" C. Bonaeede, 
 Elisabetta Sirani Azione storico-drammatica," 1856. 
 
 Sirani, (Giovanni Andrea,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Bologna in 1610, was a successful imitator of the style 
 of Guido. Died in 1670. 
 
 Si'rens, singular Si'ren, [Gr. leipijrec, (singular 
 Zetpr/v;) Lat. Sire'nes or Seike'nes; Fr. Sikenes, 
 se'r£n',] mythical beings, who were supposed to have 
 the power of enchanting all who heard them sing. Ac- 
 cording to Homer and other poets, they lived in an 
 island near the coast of Italy, where they sat in a meadow 
 near the shore and allured those who were sailing past 
 the island ; and whoever listened to their song forgot 
 his home and remained with the Sirens until he perished 
 or became brutalized. 
 
 Siret, se'ri', (Adolphe,) a Belgian litterateur, born 
 at Beaumont, in Hainault, about 1805. He published, 
 besides several poems and dramas, a " Historical Dic- 
 tionary of Painters of all Schools," (1848.) 
 
 Siret, (Louis Pierre,) a French grammarian, born 
 at Evreux in 1745, published good works on English 
 and Italian grammar for French students. Died in 
 ■797- 
 
 Siret, (Pierre Hubert,) a French preacher, born at 
 Rheims in 1754; died in 1834. 
 
 Sirey, se'r&', (Jean Baptiste,) a French jurist, born 
 at Sarlat (Perigord) in 1762, published several legal 
 works. Died in 1845. 
 
 Siri, see'ree, (Vittorio,) an Italian monk and his- 
 torian, born at Parma about 1615, was patronized by 
 Louis XIV. of France, who made him his almoner and 
 historiographer. He conducted for many years a jour- 
 nal entitled "Mercurio Politico," (15 vols.,) which treats 
 of events that occurred from 1635 to 1655. He also 
 published " Secret Memoirs," (" Memorie recondite,") 
 a journal in 8 vols. Died in 1685. 
 
 Siricius, se-rish'ejjs, [Fr. Sirice, se'ress',] born at 
 Rome about 324 A.D., was elected Pope or Bishop of 
 Rome in 384. He issued decrees against the Mani- 
 cheans, Donatists, and other heretics. Died in 398. 
 
 Siries, see're-gs', (Violante Beatrice,) an Italian 
 portrait-painter, born in 1710; died about 1760. 
 
 Sirleto, seR-la'to, [Lat. Sikle'tus ; Fr. Sirlet, s4r'- 
 li',] (Guglielmo,) a learned Italian cardinal, born in 
 Calabria in 1514 He became keeper of the library of 
 the Vatican in 1549. He acted as intermediary between 
 the pope and the Council of Trent about 1 Soo. Died 
 in 1585. 
 Sirletus. See Sirleto. 
 
 Sirmond, seK'mAN', [Lat. Sirmond'us,] (Jacques,) 
 a learned French Jesuit and antiquary, born at Riom in 
 '559. was for a time professor of rhetoric in Paris. He 
 subsequently examined the archives of the convents, 
 where he obtained many valuable manuscripts. Among 
 these he published editions of Apollinaris Sidonius, the 
 "Chronicles" of Ida ti us and Marcellinus, the "Opus- 
 cules" of Geoffroi, Abbe de Vendome, and other writers 
 of the middle ages. Sirmond was appointed in 1637 
 confessor to Louis XIII. He wrote several valuable 
 antiquarian treatises. Died in 1651. 
 
 See Briet, " Eulogium J. Sirmondi," 1653; Coi.omiks, "Vie du 
 Pere Sirmond," 1671 ; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Sirmond, (Jean,) a writer, born at Riom about 1589, 
 was a nephew of the preceding. He was a member of 
 the French Academy, and received a pension from Riche- 
 lieu. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Sis'e-but [Lat. Sisebu'tus] was elected King of the 
 Visigoths in Spain in 612 a.d. He was a zealous pro- 
 fessor of the Christian religion, and was an able ruler. 
 Died in 620 A.D. 
 
 Sl-aen'na, (Lucius Cornelius,) a Roman annalist, 
 born about 118 B.C. He was praetor about 78 B.C. He 
 wrote a work on Roman history, entitled "Historise," 
 which was praised by Cicero, (" Brutus" and " De Legi- 
 bus.") 
 
 See Karl L. Roth, "L. C. Sisennae Vita," 1834. 
 
 5, e, I, 6, u, y, Ung; 4, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, % short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
SISIFO 
 
 2025 
 
 SIVA 
 
 Sisifo. See Sisyphus. 
 
 Sl-sin'nI-us, a native of Syria, liecame pope at the 
 death of John VII., in 708. He died in the next month, 
 
 Sismondi, sis-mon'dee, [It. pron. ses-mon'dee,] de, 
 [Fr. pron. deh ses'miN'de',] (Jean Chaki.es Leonard 
 Si MONDE,) an eminent Swiss historian and publicist, of 
 Tuscan extraction, was born at Geneva on the 9th of 
 May, 1773. He was educated in the College of Geneva, 
 and became a clerk in the counting-house of a merchant 
 or banker in Lyons. In consequence of the civil war, he 
 left this position in 1792 and visited England, the lan- 
 guage and institutions of which he appears to have 
 studied with much attention. In 1795 he removed with 
 his father to Val Chiusa, Tuscany, where he was employed 
 as a farmer for five years. He returned to Geneva in 
 1800, and published a work "On Commercial Riches," 
 (2 vols., 1803,) in which he advocated the doctrines of 
 Adam Smith. Soon after this event he formed a friend- 
 ship with Madame de Stae'l, with whom he travelled in 
 Italy and Germany, (1804-08.') By the advice of his 
 mother, he devoted himself to the composition of history. 
 In 1807 he published the first and second volumes of an 
 important work, "The History of the Italian Repub- 
 lics," which was received with favour. The sixteenth 
 and last volume appeared in 1818. "Sismondi," says 
 Mignet, "has traced this history with vast learning, a 
 noble spirit, a vigorous talent, sufficient art, and much 
 eloquence." He contributed many articles to the " Bio- 
 graphie Universelle" of Michaud. In 1819 he married 
 Miss Allen, an English lady and a sister-in-law of Sir 
 James Mackintosh. About this time Guizot offered to 
 him a professorship in the College of France, but he 
 declined it. He expended many years in writing his 
 " History of the French," (" Histoire des Francais," 30 
 vols., 1821-44,) which some critics consider his best 
 work. Sismondi was a Protestant and a republican. 
 His moral character is highly commended. He died at 
 Geneva in 1842, leaving no children. 
 
 See "Vie de Sismondi," Paris, 1845; Lomenie, "Galerie des 
 Contemporains," tome vii. ; K. A. A. MlGNBT, ''Notice historique 
 sur la Vie de M. de Sismondi." 1S45 ; " Nouvelle Biographie GtiutS- 
 rale ;" " London Quarterly Review" for June, 1812, and September, 
 1843; *' Edinburgn Review" for June, 1815; "Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" for April, 1829. 
 
 Sisto, the Italian of Sixtus, which see. 
 
 Sisto Rosa. See Badalocchio. 
 
 Sis'^-phus, [Gr. "Liavyoc ; Fr. Sisyphe, se'sef ; It. 
 Sisifo, see'se-fo,] a fabulous king of Corinth, was called 
 a son of .'Eolus, a brother of Cretheus, Athamas, and 
 Salmoneus, and the husband of Merope. He was ex- 
 tremely crafty and deceitful. The poets feigned that 
 when Death was sent to take him he outwitted Heath 
 and bound him in fetters ; and that for his various crimes 
 he was doomed in the infernal regions to roll up hill a 
 large stone, which, as soon as it reached the top, rolled 
 down again. According to one tradition, he was the 
 father of Ulysses. 
 
 Sita, see'ta, written also Seeta, in the Hindoo my- 
 thology, the name of the beautiful and spotless wife of the 
 god Rama. As Kama was an avatar of Vishnu, so Sita 
 is regarded as an avatar of Eakshmi. (See Kama.) 
 
 Siun- (or Seun-) King, se-uN king, a Chinese phi- 
 losopher, regarded by many as the ablest of all the fol- 
 lowers of Confucius, flourished from about 270 to 220 
 11. C He wrote a refutation of the doctrine of Mencius 
 that man is naturally good. He maintained, on the 
 contrary, that " the nature of man is evil ; that the good 
 which it shows is factitious, (or artificial.") I le supports 
 his position with great ingenuity and force of reasoning. 
 He says, if man's nature were good, men would not need 
 to be continually taught and governed ; they would do 
 right spontaneously. To live properly and virtuously 
 requires continual self-denial ; but why deny our natural 
 inclinations, if these are good? "A straight piece of 
 wood," he says, "does not need the pressing-boards to 
 make it straight: it is so by its nature. A crooked 
 piece of wood must be submitted to the pressing-boards 
 to soften and straighten it, because it is not straight by 
 its nature." As man is naturally crooked and perverse, 
 his nature needs to be corrected by the government of 
 ■rise rulers and the restraints of just laws. (See Legge's 
 "Chinese Classics," vol. ii. page 2 and pages 81-91.) 
 
 Siva, see'va, the goddess of harvests among the 
 Wends and some other northern nations. She is called 
 in the Norse mythology SlF, which see. 
 
 See Thokpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. p. 170. 
 
 SIv'a or Qiva, commonly pronounced (in English) 
 and sometimes written See'va, spelled also Shiva, [from 
 the Sanscrit adjective shfvds, shfvd, shfv&m, " prosper- 
 ous," " happy,"] the usual name of one of the gods of 
 the Hindoo triad ; also popularly known as Mahadeva, 
 ma-ha' da'va, (generally called by the common people 
 of India Mahadeo, ma-ha' da'o,) or the "great god." 
 Mahesa (ma-ha'sa) is another, and one of the most 
 common, of his many names. He maybe said to repre- 
 sent the destructive powers of nature ; and since, in the 
 present order of things, destruction seems necessary to 
 prepare the way for a renewal of life, he is also believed 
 to preside over generation or reproduction. In this lat- 
 ter character his power is typified by the phallic emblem 
 called in Sanscrit the Linga (ling'ga) or IJngam ; which 
 is commonly, if not invariably, found in temples or places 
 dedicated to his worship. Among the gods of classic 
 mythology the character of Saturn, or Time, (who both 
 produces and destroys,) would, in its leading features, 
 seem most to resemble that of Siva ; but the attributes 
 and offices of the Hindoo deity are so multitudinous 
 that we must seek his counterpart, not in one, but in 
 several, of the Western divinities. As being the might- 
 iest of all the gods, as he is usually regarded at least by 
 the common people, ami as his name Mahadeva would 
 appear to imply, he may be said to correspond to the 
 Zeus (or Jupiter) of the Greeks and Romans ; and, if we 
 take simply the radical part of the two names, Zeu or 
 Zev,* and SiiA or Shh>,\ the resemblance might well 
 seem to be something more than a mere accident. Add 
 to this that Siva is represented with three eyes, (one in 
 the middle of his forehead,) whence he was surnamed 
 in Sanscrit trSSch&uS, (or "three-eyed,") and that the 
 Greek triophthalmos, having exactly the same meaning, 
 was also an epithet of Zeus.} It is, moreover, expressly 
 stated by Hindoo authorities that Siva had a thousand 
 separate names. Zeus also had a multitude of names; 
 in the noble hymn to Jupiter by Cleanthes the god is 
 addressed as ■noAvuwue, "thou many-named." (See, 
 on this subject, Sir William Jones's article "On the 
 Gods of Greece, Italy, and India," in vol. i. of " Asiatic 
 Researches.") 
 
 In India, a country where the vegetation is so often 
 destroyed by the heat of the sun, it would be natural to 
 associate not only fire or heat, but the sun itself, with 
 the destroying power. Accordingly, not only fire§ in 
 general, but the sun in particular, is considered to be 
 one of the many forms of Siva. Again, cold, another 
 cause of the destruction of life, would seem to be an 
 especial favourite with Mahadeva. who is said to have 
 selected the inaccessible snows of Mount Kailasa (or 
 Cailasa) as his permanent abode. There his devoted 
 consort Parvati (i.e. the "mountain-born") is ever at 
 
 * As it may have been pronounced by the ancients, and as it is 
 pronounced by the modern Greeks. 
 
 t So called in the common dialect of India 
 
 t We are told by Pausauias that a statue of Zeus had been found 
 having a third eye in his forehead. 
 
 § There is in one of the Purdnas a singular legend, which runs 
 substantially as follows 1 One day, as Brahma and Vishnu were dis- 
 puting which was the elder, Siva came between them in great wrath, 
 saying. " It is I who am truly the first born ; but I will yield my pre- 
 tentions to either of you who shall be able to reach or behold the 
 summit of my head or the soles of my feet." Brahma instantly 
 ascended, but, having searched in vain in the regions of iinnier.sity, 
 he returned and falsely declared that he had seen the crown of 
 Siva's head. When Vishnu came back from his search, he frankly 
 acknowledged he had not been able to find the feet of Siva. There- 
 lipofl Mahadeva cut off the fifth head of Brahma for his falsehood, 
 leaving bun only four. This story seems at first sight sufficiently 
 absurd ; but if we may suppose that the Hindoos were acquainted 
 with the internal heat of the earth, (and why may not the nation 
 which was in advance of all others in some departments of mathe- 
 matics, and astronomy have known something also of geology?) the 
 explanation of the fable is simple enough. Brahma is the earth; 
 Vishnu, water, (including the sea;) Siva, lire in all its forms. As the 
 highest parts of the earth (the mountains) can never reach the 
 heavenly fire, (the sun,) so the sea can never reach the feet or losvesl 
 itart of the internal fire of the earth. Brahma's four heads are doubt- 
 less the four corners of the earth ; the fifth head may possibly have 
 biern some mountain whose summit (like that of Vesuvius in the year 
 70 a.d.) was carried away by volcanic fire. 
 
 «: as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as j; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJ° See Explanations, p. 23. J 
 
SIVAJI 
 
 2026 
 
 SKELTON 
 
 his side. It is related that on a certain occasion, in 
 beseeching a favour of her lord, — or, as some say, in 
 mere playfulness, — she placed one of her hands upon 
 his forehead ; his middle eye (the sun) was completely 
 eclipsed, and, although she instantly took her hand 
 away, the period of darkness seemed an age to the in- 
 habitants of the earth. When she removed her hand, 
 it was covered with the perspiration from Siva's temples. 
 Shaking off the moisture, she produced the Ganges. The 
 fable is related variously, but the universal tradition is 
 that the Ganges sprang from Siva's hair ; and in many of 
 his pictures it is seen flowing from the top of his head. 
 
 As the destroying power, the office of Siva is to rid the 
 world of monsters, wicked men or evil giants; although 
 in this capacity his Sakti (Kali or Durgaj is more usually 
 employed. (See KalI and Parvati.) As presiding over 
 generation, he is worshipped with offerings by those who 
 are desirous of obtaining offspring. In this character 
 he is sometimes represented as Ardha-Nari, or Ardha- 
 Narisha, (see Viraj,) a being combining the two sexes 
 or two principles, male and female, of which the Linga 
 (or Ling) and Yoni are the respective symbols. 
 
 Siva has a great multitude of names, as Sambhu,* (or 
 Shambhu,) Rudra.t (tdod'ra,) and Nilakantha, (nee'la- 
 kun't'ha,) i.e. the " blue-throated," because, when the 
 gods and Asurs churned the ocean, there came forth a 
 poison of such deadly power that it would have destroyed 
 all the inhabitants of the world had not Siva come to the 
 rescue and swallowed it ; its only effect was to leave a 
 dark-blue mark on his neck or throat, whence he is olten 
 called the "blue-throated." He is also styled Iswara or 
 Isa, (or 19a,) i.e. " ruler." Mahesa is a contraction of 
 Malta Isa, i.e. the " Great Ruler. 
 
 A worshipper of Siva is called by the Hindoos Saiva, 
 (si'va.) It may be remarked that while the pious Hindoos 
 render a sort of homage to all the gods, they have certain 
 favourites to whom they dedicate an especial worship. 
 
 In pictures, Siva is sometimes represented with one, 
 and sometimes with five heads, usually riding on a white 
 bull called Nandi. Like his consort Kali, he is generally 
 adorned with a necklace of human skulls, and olten has a 
 trident (Iristlld) in his hand. He frequently holds an 
 antelope in one of his hands, typical perhaps of his skill 
 as a hunter. His son Ganesa is usually near at hand, 
 sometimes as an infant in the arms of Parvati, and some- 
 times as an attendant waiting on his parents. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon;" Guigniaut, "Religions de 
 1'AntiquileV' vol. i. book i. chap. ii. 
 
 Sivaji. See Sevajee. 
 
 Six, six, (John,) a Dutch dramatic poet, born in 161S 
 in Amsterdam, of which he became burgomaster. His 
 tragedy of "Medea" was much admired. Died in 1700 
 
 See De Bosch, " Histoire de la Poesie Hollandaise." 
 
 Sixte. See Sixtus. * 
 
 Six'tus [Fr. Sixte, sekst ; It. Sisto, ses'to] I., a 
 bishop of Rome, of whom little is known, succeeded 
 Alexander I. He is supposed to have died alxmt 1 28 a. n. 
 
 Sixtus II. became Bishop of Rome in 257 a.d., and 
 suffered martyrdom under Valerianic in 258 A.D. 
 
 Sixtus III. succeeded Celestine I. as Bishop of Rome 
 in 431 a.d. Died in 440. 
 
 Sixtus IV., (Francesco della Rovere — del'la ro- 
 va'ra,) Pope, born about 1414, succeeded Paul II. in 
 1471. He was an accomplice or abettor of the Pazzi, 
 who conspired against Lorenzo de' Medici, and he ex- 
 communicated Lorenzo for hanging the Archbishop of 
 Pisa. The clergy of Florence supported Lorenzo and 
 openly condemned the conduct of the pope. He ren- 
 dered himself unpopular by his nepotism, simony, and 
 other vices. Died in 1484. 
 
 S. ee Platina, "De Vitis Pontificum ;" Artaud de Montor, 
 Histoire des Pontifes Romains." 
 
 Sixtus V., [Fr. Sixte-Quint, sekst'kaN'; Lat. Six'- 
 tus Quin'tus,] whose original name was Felix Pe- 
 retti, was born near Montalto in 1521, and in 1585 
 succeeded Gregory XIII. as pope. As a ruler he was 
 distinguished for his energy and munificent spirit : he 
 constructed the Vatican Library, the obelisk in the piazza 
 
 * From the Sanscrit shAmbhA, "prosperous." 
 
 t Signifying a " storm," or " stormy," according to some writers. 
 
 of Saint Peter's Church, the great acpieduct called by 
 his name, and other magnificent public works. He also 
 founded several colleges, published editions of the Vul- 
 gate and the Septuagint, and edited the works of Saint 
 Ambrose. Died in 1589. He was succeeded by Urban 
 VII. It is reported that Sixtus V., before his election, 
 simulated the infirmities of old age so artfully that 
 the cardinals thought he had not long to live ; but as 
 soon as he became pope he threw away his crutch and 
 astonished them by his vigour. 
 
 See Tkmi'Hsti, " Storia della Vita e Gesti di Sisto V.," 1754; 
 Ranke, " History of the Popes;" V. Rob\kdi, " Sixti V. Gesta," 
 1500; J. Lorentz, "Sixtus V. und seine Zeit," 1852: G. Rogkri, 
 "Vita di Sisto V.;" "Life of Sixtus V.," by G. Leti, (translated 
 from the Italian;) Skgrktwn, "Sixte Vet Henri IV," 1S61 ; 
 " Nouvelle Kiographie G^uerale." 
 
 Sixtus ok Sienna, an Italian monk and popular 
 preacher, born at Sienna in 1520. He wrote " Sacred 
 Library," ("Bibliotheca Sancta," 1586.) Died in 1569. 
 
 Sjoberg or Sjoeberg, shd'heng, (Erik,) a Swedish 
 poet, born in Sodermanland in 1794. He published in 
 1819a collection of lyrics under the signature of Vitai.is, 
 which gave him a high reputation. He also translated 
 into Swedish some of the works of Washington Irving. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Sjogren or Schoegren, sho'gnen, (Andreas Jo- 
 han,) a distinguished philologist, born in Finland in 
 1794. He studied at the University of Abo, and sub- 
 sequently resided in Russia. He was appointed in 1833 
 adjunct librarian of the Academy of Saint Petersburg, 
 and in 1845 director of the Ethnographical Museum of 
 that institution. He published an " Ossetic Grammar 
 and Vocabulary," (1844, in German,) a treatise "On 
 the Finnish Language and Literature," and other similar 
 works of a high character. Died in 1855. 
 
 Skadi, ska'de, or Skao'i, ska'the, [from skada, to 
 " injure," cognate with the Danish skade, the German 
 schaden, and the English scath,\ in the Norse mythol- 
 ogy, the daughter of the Jotun Thiassi, (or Thjassi,) 
 and the wife of Njdrd, with whom, however, she does 
 not live harmoniously. Njbrd prefers the fertile plains 
 near the sea, or the ocean ruled by gentle winds, (see 
 Njord;) but Skadi delights in the storms of the moun- 
 tains. Her dwelling is called Thrymheim, (the " home 
 or habitation of storms.") She excels in running on 
 snow-shoes, and in shooting with her bow the wild beasts 
 of the mountain. 
 
 See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Keyser, "Re- 
 ligion of the Northmen." 
 
 Skanda. See Kartikeya. 
 
 Skanderbeg. See Scanderbeo. 
 
 Skarbek, skan'bek, (Fredrik Fi.orian,) Count, a 
 popular Polish writer, born at Thorn in 1792, was ap- 
 pointed in 1818 professor of political economy at the 
 University of Warsaw. Among his principal works are 
 his "Theory of Financial Science," (1824,) "Theory of 
 Social Wealth," (in French,) and a collection of "Tales 
 and Humorous Writings," (6 vols., 1840,) which have 
 won for him a high reputation. 
 
 Skarga, skaR'gi, (Piotr Pawei.ski,) a celebrated 
 pulpit orator and theologian, surnamed the Polish 
 Chrysostom, born in Masovia in 1536. Having entered 
 the order of Jesuits at Rome, he contributed greatly by 
 his eloquence to the establishment of Catholicism in 
 Poland. He was for many years court preacher to 
 Sigismund III. He was the author of numerous ser- 
 mons, and of " Lives of the S?ints," which is esteemed 
 a model of elegance in style, and has passed through 
 many editions. Died in 1612. 
 
 Skel'toii, (John,) an English poet and scholar, born 
 about 1460. Having studied at Cambridge and taken 
 holy orders, he was appointed "utor to the Duke of 
 York, afterwards Henry VIII. He was the author of 
 satires, elegies, and religious pieces. His learning is 
 highly commended by Erasmus. Died in 1529. 
 
 See article entitled "Satirical Laureate of the Sixteenth Century," 
 in the "Dublin University Magazine" for January. 1867 ; "Retro- 
 spective Review," vol. vi., 1S22 ; "Quarterly Review" for March, 
 ■ 844- 
 
 Skel'ton, (Philip,) an Irish divine, born in 1707, 
 was the author of " Deism Revealed," and " Proposals 
 
 i, e, T, o, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SK1NFAXI 
 
 2027 
 
 SLINGELANDT 
 
 for the Revival of Christianity." The latter was ascribed 
 to Dean Swift. Diet! iii 1787. 
 
 Skinfaxi. See NORVI. 
 
 Skin'ner, (Ezekiel,) M.D., an American physician 
 and Baptist divine, born in Connecticut in 1777; died 
 in 185V 
 
 Skin'ner, (John,) a Scottish divine and poet, bom 
 in the county of Aberdeen in 1721. lie published an 
 "Ecclesiastical History of Scotland," and a number of 
 popular lyrics. Died in 1807. 
 
 Skinner, (John Stuart,) an American journalist 
 and agricultural writer, born in Maryland in 1788. In 
 1819 he became editor of the "American Farmer," the 
 first agricultural journal published in the United States. 
 He afterwards edited successively the "Turf Register," 
 "The Farmer's Library and Agricultural Journal," and 
 •The Plough, The Loom, and The Anvil." Died in 185 1. 
 
 Skinner, (Richard,) an American jurist and states- 
 man, born at Litchfield, Connecticut, in 177S. He was 
 elected to Congress in 1812, and in 1817 chief justice 
 of Vermont, and was subsequently twice elected Gov- 
 ernor of that State. Died in 1S33. 
 
 Skin'ner, (Stephen,) an English philologist and 
 physician, born in London in 1623. He studied at Ox- 
 ford, and took his medical degree at Heidelberg. I It- 
 died in 1667, leaving unfinished an etymological dic- 
 tionary of the English language, which was published, 
 with additions, by Thomas Henshaw, under the title of 
 "Etymologicon Linguae Anglican*." 
 
 Skinner, (Thomas Harvey.) D.D., an American 
 Presbyterian divine, born at Harvey's Neck, North 
 Carolina, in 1791. He became in 1848 professor of 
 sacred rhetoric and pastoral theology at the Union 
 Theological Seminary, New York. He has published 
 " Hints to Christians," and other religious works. 
 
 Skoda, sko'da, (Joseph,) a distinguished physician, 
 born at Pilsen, in Bohemia, in 1805. He became in 
 1846 professor of clinics at Vienna, and in 1848 a mem- 
 ber of the Academy of Sciences. 
 
 Skovoroda, sko-vo-ro'da, known also as Gregory 
 Savitch, a Russian ecclesiastic and writer, born near 
 Kief about 1730. He studied theology at Halle, and, 
 after his return to the Ukraine, devoted himself to the 
 work of reconciling the so-called United Greeks with the 
 national Church. He died in 1778, leaving a number of 
 poems, moral fables, and a prose work entitled "Sym- 
 phonon," also some translations from the Homilies of 
 Saint Chrysostom. He is regarded as the greatest 
 writer the Ukraine has produced. 
 
 Skr^m'uir, Skrjrm'ner, or Skrym'er, [supposed 
 to be so called from Skrum, "show," " feint," on account 
 of the illusions which he practised.] the name of a 
 mighty giant, (mentioned in the Edda,) who baffled, 
 with his magic illusions, all the prowess of Thor. The 
 god of thunaer is said to have struck, with his terrible 
 Miolnir, the sleeping Skrymniron his head, putting forth 
 all his might. The giant awoke, and asked whether 
 some small leaf or a grain of dust had not fallen on his 
 head. The myth of Skrymnir is supposed to typify the 
 unconquerable might of a Northern winter. 
 
 For a particular account of Thor's adventures with Skrymnir. see 
 Mai. t.ET. "Northern Antiquities," vol. it. Fables XX11I.-XXVI. ; 
 ThoRPB, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 57-65. 
 
 Skrzynecki, skzhe-nlt'skee, (John,) a Polish gene- 
 ral, born in Galicia in 1787, served with distinction in 
 the army of Napoleon against the Austrian* anil Rus- 
 sians, and, soon after the breaking out of the revolution 
 of 1830, succeeded Prince Radziwill as conimanderin- 
 chief of the Polish forces. After the defeat of the Poles 
 at Ostrolenka, (1831,) he was deprived of his command, 
 and retired to Belgium, where he resided till a short 
 time before his death, in 1S60. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Skytte, skfit'teh or skit'ieh, (Johan,) called also 
 Schroderus, a Swedish statesman and writer, born at 
 Nvkbping in 1577. He was the preceptor of Gustavui 
 Adolphus, who appointed him president of the chamber 
 of accounts in 1620. He was employed in several 
 n missions, and obtained the dignity of senator. 
 Died in 1645. 
 
 See Nkiktkr, " Monumenta et Liters HUtoriam J. Skytte illus- 
 Vantes," 1802. 
 
 Slade, (Adolphus,) an English naval officer, born 
 about 1804. He entered the Turkish naval service, 
 in which he effected several reforms. He published 
 " Records of Travels in Turkey." 
 
 Slade, (William,) an American Governor, born in 
 Cornwall, Vermont, in 1786. He served in Congress 
 from 1831 to 1843, distinguished himself by his oppo- 
 sition to slavery, and was elected Governor of Vermont 
 in 184A. Died in 1859. 
 
 Sla'ter, (Samuel,) an English artisan and mecha- 
 nician, born in Derbyshire in 1768. Having emigrated 
 to America, he established at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, 
 in 1790, one of the first cotton-factories in the United 
 Stales. Died in 1835. 
 
 Slater or Slatyer, (William,) Rev., an English 
 poet, born in Somersetshire in 1587. He became rector 
 of Otterden, in Kent. Among his works is " Palav 
 Albion; or, A History of Great Britain, in Latin and 
 English Verse." Died in 1647. 
 
 Slee'man, (Sir William Henry,) an English officer 
 and writer, born in Cornwall in 1788. He served in the 
 Indian campaign of 1812, and was appointed in 1820 
 agent for the districts of Nerbudda and Saugur. I le 
 was the author of a " Review and Analysis of the Pe- 
 culiar Doctrines of the System of Political Economy 
 founded by Ricardo," "Rambles and Recollections of 
 an Indian Officer," (1843,) and other works. Sir William 
 was made a knight commander of the Bath for his 
 services in suppressing the Thugs, and for other reforms 
 in India. Died in 1856. 
 
 Sleidan, sli'dan or sli'ddN', [Lat. Sleida'nus,] 
 (Johann,) an eminent historian and diplomatist, whose 
 original name was Phii.ipsohn, was born at Sleida, near 
 Cologne, in 1506. He studied law at Liege, Louvain, 
 Paris, and Orleans, and was subsequently employed by 
 Francis I. of France as his delegate to the Diet of Katis- 
 bon. He became professor of law at Strasburg in 1542, 
 and in 1545 was sent on an embassy to England by 
 the Protestant princes, who had previously appointed 
 him historiographer of the Schmalkaldic League. He 
 was a deputy from Strasburg to the Council of Trent 
 in 1551. His principal work is entitled "Commentaries 
 on the State of Religion and of the Republic, under 
 the Emperor Charles V.,"("De Statu Religionis et Rei- 
 pttblicae Carolo V. Caesare Commentarii," in 25 books, 
 1555.) It is highly esteemed for its accuracy and im- 
 partiality, and for the purity of its style, and has been 
 translated into several languages. Died in 1556. 
 
 See D. W. M01.1.ER. " Disputatio circularis de J. Sleidano," 
 1697: Am Ende, "Vernuschte Annierkungen den beriihinten J. 
 Sleidan," 17S0: Theodor Paur, "Conimenlatio de J. Sleidano," 
 1842; "Nouvelle Biographie Gerierale." 
 
 Sleidanus. See Sleidan. 
 
 Sleipnir or Sleipner, sllp'nir, [from sleipr, "smooth," 
 "gliding," cognate with the English "slippery,"] a 
 wondrous horse belonging to Odin, on which the god 
 rode over land and sea. He had eight legs, which, ac- 
 cording to some writers, are simply expressive of his 
 extraordinary fleetness ; others, with much plausibility, 
 suggest that the myth is intended to represent the wind 
 blowing from the eight principal point* of the compass. 
 Sleipnir is occasionally spoken of as four-footed. 
 
 See Thorpr, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. : Mai.i.kt, " North- 
 ern Antiquities," vol. ii. Pablo XXI. ; also .Matthew Aknolu's 
 poem entitled " Balder Dead." 
 
 Sli-dell', (John,) an American lawyer and politician, 
 born in New York in 1793. Having removed to New 
 Orleans, he was elected to Congress in 1S43, and in 
 1845 was appointed minister-plenipotentiary to Mexico. 
 He was subsequently elected (1853) to the United States 
 Senate, from which he withdrew after the ordinance of 
 secession was passed in 1861. During a voyage to 
 France, to which he was sent by Jefferson I l.tvis, he 
 was captured from the steamer Trent, in November, 
 1861, by Captain Wilkes, of the United States navy. 
 (See Mason, James Murray.) 
 
 Slingelaudt, van, vSn sling'eh-lant', (Piktkr,) a 
 celebrated Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1640, was 
 a pupil of Gerard Dow, whose works he imitated suc- 
 cessfully in exquisite finish and minuteness of detail. 
 Among his master-pieces may be named the portraits 
 of the Meerman family, in the Louvre, upon which he 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jr^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SLINGENETER 
 
 2028 
 
 SMERDIS 
 
 is said to have been employed three years. Died in 
 1691. 
 
 See Charles Blanc " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Slingeneyer, sling'en-i'er. (Ernest,) a Belgian his- 
 torical painter, born near Ghent in 1823. Among his 
 works are " The Death of Jacobsen," " The Battle of 
 Lepanto," and "The Death "of Nelson." 
 
 Sloan, slon, (Samuel,) an American architect, born 
 in Chester county, Pennsylvania, March 7, 1815. He es- 
 tablished himself in Philadelphia, and published, besides 
 other works, the "Model Architect," (1850-51,) "City 
 and Suburban Architecture," (1859,) and " Homestead 
 Architecture," (i860.) He also publishes the "Archi- 
 tectural Review," (commenced in 1868.) Some of the 
 most important edifices in Pennsylvania and other States 
 have been built after his designs. Among these we 
 may name the Blockley Hospital for the Insane, near 
 Philadelphia, and the State Hospital for the Insane, at 
 Montgomery, in Alabama. 
 
 Sloane, slon, (Sir Hans,) a celebrated physician and 
 naturalist, of Scottish extraction, born in the county 
 of Down, Ireland, in 1660. He studied medicine and 
 the natural sciences in London, and subsequently visited 
 France, where he acquired the friendship of Tournefort 
 and other distinguished savants. Having returned to 
 London with a large collection of plants, he settled as a 
 physician in that city, and was elected in 1685 a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society. He afterwards spent some time 
 in Jamaica and other West India islands, where he 
 collected a great number of plants. After his return, 
 he became successively secretary to the Royal Society, 
 (1693,) physician-general to the army, (1716,) president 
 of the College of Physicians, (1719,) and physician to 
 the king, (1727.) About the same time he succeeded 
 Newton as president of the Royal Society. He filled 
 for thirty years the post of physician to Christ's Hos- 
 pital, London, devoting his salary entirely to charitable 
 purposes, and assisted in establishing the Foundling 
 Hospital. He died in 1753, leaving his library of fifty 
 thousand volumes, a cabinet of two hundred volumes 
 of dried plants, and an immense collection of other 
 objects in natural history, chiefly accumulated by him- 
 self, to be offered to the nation for twenty thousand 
 pounds. This purchase being made by the govern- 
 ment, originated the British Museum. Besides numer- 
 ous contributions to the " Philosophical Transactions," 
 Sir Hans Sloane published the ".Natural History of 
 Jamaica," (2 vols, fol., 1725,) a work of high reputation. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannic* ;" Grandjean de Fouchv," Eloges," 
 tome i. : " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Slo'cum, (Henry Wadsworth,) an American gene- 
 ral, born at or near Syracuse, New York, in 1827. He 
 entered the Academy at West Point in 1848, and gradu- 
 ated there in 1852. In 1856 he resigned his commission 
 in the army, and adopted the profession of lawyer. Soon 
 after the civil war began, he became colonel of a regi- 
 ment of volunteers, and was sent to Virginia. He was 
 appointed a brigadier-general in the autumn of 1861, 
 commanded a division in the battles of Gaines's Mill, 
 White Oak Swamp, and Malvern Hill, and was pro- 
 moted to the rank of major-general in July, 1862. He 
 commanded a corps at the battle of Chancellorsville, 
 and at Gettysburg, July 2 and 3, 1863. In August, 1864, 
 he obtained command of a corps in the army of Gene- 
 ral Sherman. He led one of the wings or columns of 
 that army in the great march from Atlanta to Savannah, 
 November-December, 1864. 
 
 Slodtz, slos or slots, (Paul Ambroise,) a painter, 
 born in Paris in 1702, was a son of Sebastien, noticed 
 below. Died in 1758. 
 
 Slodtz, (Rkne Michel,) a French sculptor,, called 
 Michael Angelo, was born in Paris in 1705. His 
 chief work is "The Tomb of the Curate Languet." 
 Died in 1764. 
 
 Slodtz, sl6ts, (Sebastien,) a Flemish sculptor, born 
 at Antwerp in 1655, was the father of Paul Ambroise, 
 noticed above. Died in Paris in 1726. 
 
 Slowacki, slo-vJts'kee, (Julius,) a popular Polish 
 poet, born at Wilna in 1809. He took an active part 
 as a soldier in the revolution of 1830, and published a 
 
 number of spirited lyrics in favour of the patriotic 
 cause. He also wrote epic poems, entitled " Jan Bie- 
 lecki," "Lambro," and "Hugo;" also " Mazeppa," 
 " Maria Stuart," and other dramas. Died in 1851. 
 
 Sluse, sliiz, (R. F. Walter,) a Flemish Orientalist 
 and mathematician, born at Vise in 1622, was canon of 
 Liege. Died in 1685. 
 
 Sluya, van der, vtn der slois, (Jacob,) a skilful 
 Dutch painter, born at Leyden in 1660. His favourite 
 subjects were festivals, conversation-pieces, and assem- 
 blies. Died in 1736. 
 
 Smalbroke, smawl'brook, (Richard,) an English 
 theologian, born at Birmingham in 1672 or 1673. He 
 became Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1730, and 
 wrote a " Vindication of Our Saviour's Miracles," (1729.) 
 Died in 1749. 
 
 Sraalcius, smalt'se-us, or Smalz, smalts, (Valen- 
 tin,) a German Unitarian minister and writer, bom at 
 Gotha in 1572. He preached at Racow, in Poland. Died 
 in 1622. 
 
 Smal'rldge, (George,) a learned English prelate, 
 born at Lichfield in 1663. lie became Bishop of Bristol 
 in 1714. He published a volume of Sermons, (171 7.) 
 Died in 1719. 
 
 Smalz. See Smalcius. 
 
 Smart, (Christopher,) an English poet, born in 
 Kent in 1722. He studied at Cambridge, where he be- 
 came noted for his classical knowledge, and subsequently 
 made prose translations from Horace and Phaedrus. 
 He was a friend of Dr. Johnson, who wrote his biogra- 
 phy. Died in 1770. 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Smea'ton, (John,) an eminent English civil engineer 
 and mechanic, born at Austhorpe, near Leeds, in 1724. 
 He commenced business as a maker of mathematical 
 instruments. He had great mechanical ingenuity, and 
 made improvements in hydraulic machinery. In 1759 
 he received a gold medal from the Royal Society for his 
 treatise " On the Natural Power of Wind and Water to 
 drive Mills." His greatest work is the Eddystone Light- 
 House, finished in 1759. He constructed Ramsgate 
 harbour, and was the engineer of the great canal of 
 Scotland, extending from the Clyde to the Forth. Died 
 in 1792. 
 
 See Smiles, "Lives of the Engineers;" "Monthly Review" for 
 July, August, and September, 1701. 
 
 SmSd'ley, (Rev. Edward,) an English divine and 
 miscellaneous writer, born about 1790. He studied at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, where he obtained suc- 
 cessively four Seatonian prizes for English poems. He 
 also wrote a " History of the Reformed Religion in 
 France," and was editor for a time of the "Encyclo- 
 paedia Metropolitana." Died in 1836. 
 
 Smedley, (Francis E.,) an English nrtvelist, born 
 about 1820. He published " Lewis Arundel," (1852,) and 
 "The Fortunes of the Colville Family," (1856.)" Died 
 in 1864. 
 
 Smee, (Alfred,) an English surgeon and scientific 
 writer, born in 1818, published, among other works, 
 " Lectures on Electro-Metallurgy" (1841) and "Electro- 
 Biology," (1849.) He became a member of the Royal 
 College of Surgeons in 1840, and a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society in 1841. 
 
 Smel'lie, (William,) a Scottish surgeon and writer 
 on midwifery. He practised for some years in Scotland, 
 and afterwards in London. He gave many courses 
 of lectures on midwifery in London, and published a 
 "Treatise on Midwifery" in 1752. Died in 1763. 
 
 Smellie, (William,) a Scottish naturalist, printer, 
 and writer, born in Edinburgh about 1740. He printed 
 a good edition of Terence, wrote "The Philosophy of 
 Natural History," (2 vols., 1790-95,) and translated 
 Buffon's " Natural History." He printed the first edi- 
 tion of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," to which he 
 contributed several articles. Died in 1795. 
 
 See Robert Kerr, "Memoirs of the Life of W. Smellie," 2 
 vols.. 181 1 ; Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men." 
 
 Smer'dis, [Gr. 2/iepAtc,] a Persian prince, was a 
 younger son of Cyrus the Great. He went to Egypt 
 with his brother Cambyses, who sent him back to Persia 
 
 a, e, T, o, 5, y, long; a, e, A, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, 5, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SMET 
 
 2029 
 
 SMITH 
 
 and caused him to be secretly put to death. A Magian 
 who resembled Smerdis pretended that he was the son 
 of Cyrus, and usurped the throne. The false Smerdis 
 was fcilled by seven conspirators, in 521 B.C. 
 
 See Grote, " History of Greece;'* Herodotus, " History." 
 
 Smet, de, deh smet or sm&, (Joseph Jean,) a Belgian 
 writer, born at Ghent in 1794. Among his works is a 
 "History of Belgium," (1822.) 
 
 Smet van der Ketten, smet vin tier ket'ten, [Lai. 
 Sme'tius,] (Jan,) a Dutch antiquary, born in Gelder- 
 land about 1585 ; died in 1651. 
 
 Smi'bert or Smy'bert, (John,) a Scottish painter, 
 born at Edinburgh about 1680, emigrated in 1728 to 
 America, and followed his profession in Boston. Died 
 in 1751. 
 
 Smidt, smit, (Johann,) a German diplomatist, born 
 at Bremen in 1773 ; died in 1857. 
 
 Smiedel, smee'del, or Schmeidel, shmi'del, (Ul- 
 rich,) a German traveller, born at Straubingen. He 
 was one of a party which went to South America 
 about 1534 and founded Buenos Ayres. He explored 
 the river Paraguay and visited Peru. An account of 
 his travels was published in 1554. 
 
 Smiglecius or Smigletius, sml-glee'she-us, (Mar- 
 tin,) a Polish Jesuit and logician, born in 1562. He 
 wrote several works against Protestantism, and a " Sys- 
 tem of Logic," (1618.) Died in 1618. 
 
 Smiles, (Samuel,) a British biographer, born at 
 Haddington about 1816. He was editor of the Leeds 
 "Times," and published, besides other works, a "Life 
 of George Stephenson," (1859,) and "The Lives of the 
 Engineers," (3 vols., 1861.) 
 
 See Alubone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Smin'theus, [Gr. Zjutv0n>c ; Fr. SMiNTHtE.smaN'ta',] 
 a surname of Apollo, (which see.) 
 
 Smirke, smjrk, (Robert,) a distinguished English 
 painter, born in 1751. Among his master-pieces, which 
 are principally domestic and rural scenes and comic 
 subjects, we may name "The Combat between Don 
 Quixote and the Giants," "Sancho's Audience of the 
 Duchess," "The Gypsy," and "Prince Henry and Fal- 
 staff." He was elected an Academician in 1792. Died 
 in 184;. 
 
 Smirke, (Sir Robert,) an architect, a son of the 
 preceding, was born in 1780. Having visited Italy, 
 Germany, and Greece in 1805, he published, after his 
 return, " Specimens of Continental Architecture," (1S06.) 
 He constructed a number of public edifices in London, 
 among which the British Museum is the most celebrated. 
 It is of the Ionic order, and is regarded as the most 
 superb Grecian structure in the city. His other princi- 
 pal works are the new PostOffice, the Mint, the College 
 of Physicians, and the restoration of York Minster. He 
 was elected a Royal Academician in 1812. Died in 1867. 
 
 Smirke, (Sydney,) brother of the preceding, also 
 distinguished as an architect, executed several works in 
 conjunction with Sir Robert. The New Reading-Room 
 of the British Museum is esteemed his master-piece. 
 
 Smith, (Adam,) a celebrated Scottish philosopher 
 and political economist, born at Kirkaldy, in Fifeshire, 
 June 5, 1723. He was educated at the University of 
 Glasgow, where he remained from 1737 to 1740, and 
 at Balliol College, Oxford, which he quitted about 1747. 
 Having returned to Scotland, he formed friendships 
 with Hume and Lord Kames. In 1751 he obtained the 
 chair of logic in the University of Glasgow. He became 
 professor of moral philosophy in the same university in 
 1752, and published his "Theory of Moral Sentiments" 
 in 1759. He was very popular as a lecturer. In 1763 
 he resigned his professorship, and accepted the place 
 of companion to the young Duke of Bticcleugh, with 
 whom he travelled on the continent two or three years. 
 He associated in Paris with D'Alembert, Nccker, Tur- 
 got, and Quesnay. In 1766 he returned to Kirkaldy, 
 where he passed ten years in the composition of the 
 work on which his reputation is chiefly founded, " An 
 Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of 
 Nations," (2 vols., 1776.) He maintains that labour 
 rather than money or land is the true source of national 
 wealth. He also advocated free trade and opposed the 
 policy of those governments which attempt to control 
 
 the laws of supply and demand. After the publication 
 of this work he passed two years in London. He was 
 appointed -0116 of the commissioners of customs for 
 Scotland in 1778, after which date he resided in Edin- 
 burgh until his death. He never married. Died in 
 July, 1790. 
 
 " Perhaps," says Mackintosh, " there is no ethical 
 work since Cicero's 'Offices,' of which an abridgment 
 enables the reader so inadequately to estimate the merit, 
 as the ' Theory of Moral Sentiments.' This is not chiefly 
 owing to the beauty of diction, as in the case of Cicero, 
 but to the variety of explanations of life and manners 
 which embellish the book often more than they illustrate 
 the theory. Yet, on the other hand, it must be owned 
 that for philosophical purposes few works more need 
 abridgment ; for the most careful reader frequently loses 
 sight of principles buried under illustrations. . . . That 
 Smith is the first who has drawn the attention of phi- 
 losophers to one of the most curious and important parts 
 of human nature — who has looked closely and steadily 
 into the workings of sympathy, its sudden action and 
 reaction, its instantaneous conflicts and its emotions, its 
 minute play and varied illusions — is sufficient to place 
 him high among the cultivators of mental philosophy." 
 The same writer speaks of Smith's " Wealth of Nations" 
 as "perhaps the only book which produced an imme- 
 diate general and irrevocable change in some of the 
 most important parts of the legislation of all civilized 
 nations." 
 
 See Dugald Stewart, " Life and Writings of Adam Smith ;" 
 Lord Brougham, " Memoir of Adam Smith," in " Lives of Men 
 of Letters and Science;" Mackintosh, "General View of the 
 Progress of Ethical Philosophy;" Chambers, "Biographical Dic- 
 tionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" Alubone, "Dictionary of Au- 
 thors;" " Monthly Review" for July, 1759, and April, 1776. 
 
 Smith, (Albert,) an English littiratewr, born at 
 Chertsey in 1816. Among his principal works are 
 novels, entitled "The Scattergood Family," "The Pot- 
 tleton Legacy," " Marchioness of Brinvilliers ;" also the 
 "National Histories of Stuck-up People," "The Idler 
 upon Town," and other humorous sketches. In 1851: 
 he ascended the summit of Mont Blanc, which adven- 
 ture he afterwards made the subject of a popular dramatic 
 entertainment. Died in i860. 
 
 Smith, (Alexander,) a Scottish poet, born at Kilmar- 
 nock, Ayrshire, in 1829 or 1830. He learned the business 
 of pattern-drawer. About 1852 he produced a poem 
 entitled "The Life Drama," which was greatly admired 
 by many. He was elected secretary of the University 
 of Edinburgh in 1854, and married Flora Macdonald in 
 1858. He contributed articles in prose to the " North 
 British Review," " Blackwood's Magazine," and other 
 periodicals. Among his chief works were " City Poems," 
 (1857,) and "Edwin of Deira," ahistotical poem, (1861.) 
 His style is censured as spasmodic by some critics. His 
 poetry abounds in beautiful images ; but he is deficient 
 in sustained power. His prose writings have been much 
 and generally admired. Died in January, 1867. 
 
 See Allebone, "Dictionary of Authors;'' " Fraser's Magazine" 
 for October, 185s: "Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1854; 
 "North British "Review" for August, 1853; "Good Words" for 
 March, 1867; " London Review" for January, 1867. 
 
 Smith, (Andrew J.,) an American major-general, 
 born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, about 1814, gradu- 
 ated at West Point in 1838. He commanded two divis- 
 ions which were sent by General Sherman to aid General 
 Hanks, and took Fort de Russy, on Red River, March 
 14, 1864. He defeated the enemy at Tupelo, Mississippi, 
 about July 14, and aided to drive General Price out of 
 Missouri in October, 1864. He commanded a corps at 
 the great battle of Nashville, December 15 and 16, 1864, 
 and m the operations against Mobile, March-April, 1865. 
 He became a colonel of cavalry in the United States 
 army in 1866. 
 
 See Greeley, " American Conflict," vol. ii. 
 
 Smith, (Anker,) an English engraver, born in Lon- 
 don in 1759. Among his best works may be named 
 the " Death of Wat Tyler," after Northcote, and the 
 " Apotheosis of Handel." He was elected an associate 
 of the Royal Academy in 1797. Died in 1819. 
 
 Smith, (Caleb B.,) an American politician, born in 
 Boston, Massachusetts, in 1808. He removed to Indiana, 
 
 « a* k; c as /; g hard; g as./; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilltJ; 3 as t; *h as in this. [Itff See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SMITH 
 
 2030 
 
 SMITH 
 
 and represented a district of that State in Congress from 
 1843 to 1849. He was appointed secretary of the in- 
 terior in March, 1861, and resigned in December, 1862. 
 Died in January, 1864. 
 
 Smith, (CHARLES Ferguson,) an American general, 
 born about 1806. He graduated at the Academy of 
 West Point in 1825, and was employed there for many 
 years as instructor in tactics and commandant of cadets. 
 For his services in the Mexican war he received three 
 brevets, as major, lieutenant-colonel, and colonel. He 
 was appointed a brigadier-general in August, 1861, and 
 rendered important services at Fort Donelson, February, 
 1862, soon after which he was promoted to be a major- 
 general. He died at Savannah, Tennessee, in April, 
 1S62. "The more perfect beau-idial of a soldier," says 
 Coppee, " never existed in any army than General 
 Smith." 
 
 Smith, (Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Hamilton,) an 
 English officer and naturalist, born about 1790, pub- 
 lished, among other works, a treatise " On the Races 
 and Varieties of Man," and " Observations on some 
 Animals of America allied to the Genus Antilope." 
 
 Smith, (Charlotte,) a popular English novelist, 
 born In Sussex in 1749. She was the author of "The 
 Old Manor-House," "Marchmont," "Desmond," "The 
 Romance of Real Life," and other novels ; a'.30 " Elegiac 
 Sonnets," and various other poems. Her life was 
 written by Sir Walter Scott. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Sir Walter Scott, Miscellaneous Prose Works; Mrs. 
 Elwood, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England," etc. 
 
 Smith, (Christopher W.,) an English ornithologist, 
 born about 1794. He wrote a work on the " Ornithology 
 of Hindostan." 
 
 Smith, (Edmund Kirby.) an American general, born 
 at Saint Augustine, Florida, about 1825, graduated at 
 West Point in 1845. ^ e became a captain in 1855, 
 resigned his commission in 1861, and commanded a 
 division of General Bragg's army which invaded Ken- 
 tucky in August, 1862. He was raised to the rank of 
 lieutenant-general, and directed a corps at the battle of 
 Stone River, which ended January 2, 1863. He had the 
 command of all the forces in Texas and Arkansas from 
 April, 1863, till April, 1865. 
 
 See a notice of General E. K. Smith in " Southern Generals," 
 1865. 
 
 Smith, (Edmund Neale,) an English poet, born in 
 1668. His family name was Neale, to which he added 
 Smith. Died in 17 10. 
 
 Smith, (Eli,) an American missionary and accom- 
 plished Arabic scholar, born near New Haven, Con- 
 necticut, in 1801. He went to Syria in 1826, studied 
 Arabic, and settled at Beyroot. in 1838 he explored 
 Palestine in company with Dr. Edward Robinson. He 
 translated portions of the Bible into Arabic. Died at 
 Beyroot in January, 1857. 
 
 Smith, (Elizabeth,) an English lady, distinguished 
 for her attainments in the languages, mathematics, and 
 the natural sciences, was born near Durham in 1776. 
 Besides Latin and Greek and the principal European 
 languages, she was versed in the Hebrew, Arabic, and 
 Persian. She wrote a "Life of Klopstock," and trans- 
 lated the book of Job. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Miss Bowdi.br, "Life of Elizabeth Smith:" Mrs. Elwood, 
 " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commence- 
 ment of the Last Century," vol. ii., 1843; " Monthly Review" for 
 January and June, 181 1. 
 
 Smith, (Mrs. Elizabeth Oakes,) an American poet 
 and miscellaneous writer, wife of Seba Smith, noticed 
 below, was born near Portland, Maine. She has pub- 
 lished "The Sinless Child, and other Poems," "Jacob 
 Leisler," a tragedy, "Woman and her Needs," (1851,) 
 and other works. Mrs. Smith has been a prominent 
 advocate of the rights of woman, both as a writer and 
 lecturer. 
 
 See Griswold, " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Smith, (Francis Pettit,) an English inventor, born 
 at Hythe, Kent, in 1808. He invented the mode of pro- 
 pelling steamboats by the screw, which was employed 
 in the royal navy about 1838. 
 
 Smith, (Gabriel,) an English engraver, born in 
 London in 1724; died in 1783. 
 
 Smith, (George,) an English landscape-painter, born 
 in 1714; died in 1776. 
 
 His brothers John and William were also distin- 
 guished as painters. 
 
 Smith, (Gerrit,) a distinguished American philan- 
 thropist, born at Utica, New York, in 1797. He gradu- 
 ated at Hamilton College, Clinton, New York, and 
 studied law. After a temporary connection with the 
 American Colonization Society, he withdrew from it in 
 1835, and became a prominent and active member of the 
 Anti-Slavery Society. He has also been an earnest advo- 
 cate of temperance and other reforms, and, having in- 
 herited one of the largest landed estates in the country, 
 has distributed nearly two hundred thousand acres of 
 it among the poor, without distinction of colour. Mr, 
 Smith was elected to Congress in 1852. 
 
 Smith, (Goldwin,) an English teacher and writer, 
 bom at Reading in 1823. He was educated at Oxford, 
 and became regius professor of modern history at that 
 university in 1858. Among his works are " Irish His- 
 tory and Irish Character," (1861,) and "Three English 
 Statesmen, (Pym, Cromwell, and Pitt)," 1867. In poli- 
 tics he is an advanced Liberal. He visited the United 
 States in 1864, and was appointed professor of English 
 history in Cornell University, at Ithaca, in 1868. 
 
 See Allibonb, " Dictionary of Authors;" "North British Re- 
 view" for August, 1862. 
 
 Smith, (Green Clay,) an American general and 
 lawyer, born at Richmond, Kentucky, about 1831. He 
 was appointed a brigadier-general of the Union army 
 about June, 1862, and served in several actions. He 
 was elected a member of Congress in 1863. 
 
 Smith, (Gustavus W.,) an American general, born 
 in Kentucky about 1822, graduated at West Point in 
 1842. He was a street commissioner in New York City 
 when the civil war began. About September, 1861, he 
 became a major-general of the Confederate army. He 
 succeeded to the command at Fair Oaks when General 
 J. E. Johnston was wounded, May 31, 1862. 
 
 Smith, (Henry,) called "the Silver-Tongued," an 
 English Puritan minister, born in Leicestershire in 1550. 
 He preached in London, and was patronized by Lord 
 Burleigh. He wrote several religious works. Died 
 about 1595. 
 
 See Fuller, " Life of H. Smith." 
 
 Smith, (Henry Boynton,) D.D.,an American Con- 
 gregational minister and scholar, born at Portland, Maine, 
 in 1815. He was appointed in 1855 professor of sys- 
 tematic theology in the Union Theological Seminary, 
 New York. He published "The Relations of Faith 
 to Philosophy," (1849,) "The History of the Church 
 of Christ, in Chronological Tables," etc., (1859,) and 
 other similar works. He became in 1859 editor of the 
 "American Theological Review," and contributed a 
 number of able articles to Appleton's "Cyclopaedia." 
 
 Smith, (Sir Henry George Wakei.yn,) an English 
 general, born at Whittlesea, in the isle of Ely, in 1788. 
 He served with distinction in the principal battles of the 
 Peninsular war, and afterwards in the American war of 
 1812. He commanded as adjutant-general in the Indian 
 campaigns of 1840 and 1846, and had a prominent share 
 in the signal victory over the Sikhs at Aliwal. For 
 these services he was made a baronet and received the 
 grand cross of the order of the Hath. Appointed Gov- 
 ernor of the Cape of Good Hope in 1847, he brought 
 the Caffir war to a successful close in 1852. He was 
 created lieutenant-general ill 1854. 
 
 Smith, (Horace and James,) English humorists and 
 miscellaneous writers, born in London, the former about 
 1780, the latter in 1775. They first became known by 
 their contributions to " The Pic-Nic," the " London Re- 
 view," and the "Monthly Mirror;" the poems entitled 
 " Horace in London," in the last-named periodical, 
 being mostly written by James Smith. In 1812 they 
 brought out their "Rejected Addresses," composed on 
 the occasion of the opening of the new theatre at Drury 
 Lane, the committee of which had requested a number 
 of addresses to be sent in, one of which should obtain 
 the prize. These poems, which are humorous imitations 
 of Coleridge, Wordsworth, Byron, Scott, Crabbe, and 
 other prominent writers of the time, met with brilliant 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; m8t; not: good; moon; 
 
SMITH 
 
 2031 
 
 SMITH 
 
 success, and passed rapidly through numerous editions. 
 James Smith wrote for the so-called "entertainments" 
 of Charles Mathews "Trips to Paris," "Country 
 Cousins," and other comic sketches. He died in 1839, 
 and his " Memoirs, Letters," etc. were published by his 
 brother in 1840. Among the other works of Horace 
 Smith we may name the novels of " Jirambletye House," 
 "The Moneyed Man," and "Love and Mesmerism." 
 Died in 1849. 
 
 See the "London Quarterly Review'* for September, 1812; 
 "Edinburgh Review" for November, 1812; " Eraser's Magazine" 
 for July, 1833, and November, 1S34. 
 
 Smith, (Jamks,) one of the signers of the Declaration 
 of American Independence, born in Ireland about 1719. 
 Having emigrated to Pennsylvania, he was elected in 
 1776 to the Continental Congress. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Sanderson, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration 
 of Independence." 
 
 Smith, (James,) of Deanston, a Scottish agriculturist 
 and mechanician, born at Glasgow in 1789. He pub- 
 lished in 1831 a treatise " On Thorough Draining and 
 Deep Ploughing," which improvemonts he was the first 
 to bring into general use. He was the inventor of a 
 reaping-machine, for which he obtained a gold medal 
 from the Agricultural Society of Saint Petersburg. He 
 invented other useful machines. Died in 1850. 
 
 Smith, (Sir Jamks Edward,) an English physician 
 and botanist, born at Norwich in 1759. He studied at 
 Edinburgh, and graduated af Leyden, and, after his 
 return, became in 1788 one of the founders and first 
 president of the Linnsean Society. He had previously 
 purchased the natural history collections and library of 
 Linnaeus. He was appointed in 1792 teacher of botany 
 to Queen Charlotte and the princesses, and in 1814 
 received the honour of knighthood. His principal works 
 are his " English Flora," (4 vols.,) " Flora Britannica," 
 (3 vols., 1804,) "English Botany," (36 vols., 1807,) with 
 more than 2000 coloured plates by Sowerby, and " Flora 
 Graeca," (1808.) He also wrote the principal articles on 
 botany in kees's " Cyclopaedia." Died in 1828. 
 
 See " Memoir and Correspondence of Sir James Edward Smith," 
 by Lady Smith ; " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1833. 
 
 Smith, (Jeremiah,) an American jurist and states- 
 man, born at Peterborough, New Hampshire. He was 
 elected a member of Congress in 1791, served in that 
 body until 1797, and was chosen Governor of New 
 Hampshire in 1809, after which he held the office of 
 judge. His ability and merit are highly extolled. Died 
 m 1842. 
 
 See J. H. Morrison, "Life of Jeremiah Smith," 1845. 
 
 Smith, (John,) an English divine, born in Warwick- 
 shire in 1563, was lecturer in Saint Paul's Cathedral. 
 Died in 1616. 
 
 Smith, (John,) an English writer on theology, born 
 in Northamptonshire in 1618, was a Fellow of Queen's 
 College, Cambridge. Died in 1652. 
 
 Smith, (John,) Captain, the founder of Virginia, was 
 born in Lincolnshire, England, in 1579. He began at 
 an early age to display a propensity to daring adven- 
 tures. About 1600 he enlisted in the Austrian army, 
 and performed bold and successful exploits against the 
 Turks. He was taken prisoner, reduced to slavery, 
 killed his master, and escaped into Russia. Having 
 returned to England, he accompanied a party of emi- 
 grants who formed a colony at Jamestown, Virginia, in 
 April, 1607. He was captured by the Indians, and was 
 condemned to death by Powhatan, but his life was saved 
 by Pocahontas, a daughter of that chief. He became 
 the principal person of the colony, which was saved 
 from ruin by his energy and fortitude. In 1608 he ex- 
 plored the coasts of Chesapeake Bay, of which he con- 
 structed a map. He made a voyage to England in 1609, 
 and explored the coast of New England in 1614. The 
 latter part of his life was passed in England. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, a "General History of Vir- 
 ginia, New England, and the Summer Isles," (1627,) and 
 "The True Travels and Adventures of Captain John 
 Smith in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America," (1630.) 
 Died in London in 1631. ' 
 
 See Hit-LARD, "Life of John Smith," in Sparks's "American 
 Biography," vol. ii. ; " North American Review" for January, 1867. 
 
 Smith, (Sir John,) an English diplomatist and sol- 
 dier in the time of Queen Elizabeth, was sent in 1576 
 on an embassy to Philip II. of Spain. Died in 1600. 
 
 Smith, (John,) an English physician, born in 1630, 
 wrote a work entitled "The Portrait of Old Age." Died 
 in 1679. 
 
 Smith, (John,) a learned English divine and anti- 
 quary, born in 1659, published an edition of the his- 
 torical works of the Venerable Bede. Died in 1715. 
 
 Smith, (John,) an eminent English mezzotint en- 
 graver, born about 1654. He executed numerous por- 
 traits after Kneller. Died about 1720. 
 
 Smith, (John,) of Chichester, an English landscape- 
 painter, born in 1 71 7, was a brother of George, noticed 
 above. Died in 1764. 
 
 Smith, (John Blair,) born at Peqtiea, Pennsylvania, 
 about 1756, was a brother of Samuel Stanhope, noticed 
 below. He became in 1795 first president of Union 
 College, Schenectady. Died in 1709. 
 
 Smith, (John Pyk,) D.D., LL.D, a learned English 
 divine and theologian, born at Sheffield in 1774, became 
 pastor of the Independent church at Homerton. He 
 received the degree of D.D. from Vale College, Con- 
 necticut, in 1807. Among his numerous and valuable 
 works may be named "The Scripture Testimony to 
 the Messiah," (2 vols., 182 1,) " Four Discourses on the 
 Sacrifice and Priesthood of Jesus Christ," (1827,) and 
 "The Mosaic Account of the Creation and the Deluge 
 illustrated by the Discoveries of Modern Science," 
 (1837.) Dr. Smith was also distinguished as a geologist, 
 and was a Fellow of the Geological Society and the Royal 
 Society. Died in 185 1. 
 
 See John Mrdway, " Memoir of the Life and Writings of John 
 Pye Smith," 1853. 
 
 Smith, (John Raphael,) an English engraver and 
 portrait-painter, born at Derby about 1750. He was 
 chiefly noted for his mezzotint engravings, among which 
 is a full-length portrait of Charles James Fox. Died 
 in 1812. 
 
 Smith, (John Stafford,) an English composer of 
 great merit, was born at Gloucester about 1750, and 
 succeeded Dr. Arnold In 1802 as organist of the chapel 
 royal. He produced a number of admired glees and 
 madrigals, and published "Antient Songs of the Fif- 
 teenth Century." Died in 1836. 
 
 Smith, (John Thomas,) an English engraver and 
 amateur, born in London in 1766. He studied draw- 
 ing with the sculptor Nollekens, and subsequently 
 entered the Royal Academy. He published in 1800 
 his " Antiquities of London and its Environs," which 
 was followed by "Antiquities of Westminster," (1807,) 
 "Ancient Topography of London," (1815, 4to, with 
 thirty-two plates,) and " Nollekens and his Times," 
 (1828.) He was appointed in 1816 keeper of the prints 
 in the British Museum. Died in 1833. 
 
 Smith, (Joseph,) the founder of the sect of Mormons, 
 was born in Sharon, Windsor county, Vermont, in 1805. 
 He was taken by his parents to Palmyra, New York, 
 about 1815, and, according to his own account, worked 
 on his father's farm in his youth. The residents of that 
 vicinity, however, testified that the Smith family avoided 
 honest labour, had a bad reputation, and spent much 
 time in digging for hidden treasures. He pretended 
 that he received in 1827 a divine revelation written on 
 golden plates which were brought to him by an angel, 
 and that the " Book of Mormon," which he published 
 in 1830, was translated from those golden plates. The 
 real author of the " Book of Mormon" was Solomon 
 Spalding, a Presbyterian minister, who at his death left 
 in manuscript an absurd story of his invention, purport- 
 ing to be a narrative of the migration of the ten lost 
 tribes of Israel to America, and maintaining the hy- 
 pothesis that the American Indians are descended from 
 the Hebrews. Smith obtained possession of this manu- 
 script, and published it with some additions. Having 
 made a number of converts, he removed with them to 
 Kirtland, Ohio, in 1831, and afterwards to Independence, 
 Missouri. The number of his disciples increased rapidly, 
 but they came into violent collision with the "Gentiles," 
 and were expelled from Missouri about 1838, after they 
 had defied the officers of the law and committed many 
 
 9 as s; g hard; g as ; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in this. (jy'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SMITH 
 
 2032 
 
 SMITH 
 
 outrages. They next settled in Illinois and founded the 
 town of Nauvoo, where they began to build a great tem- 
 ple in 1841, Smith amassed a large fortune, assumed 
 the title of lieutenant-general and president of the Church, 
 and exercised absolute authority over his " saints." He 
 provoked the popular indignation by attempts to seduce 
 the wives of other men, and was arrested and confined in 
 jail at Carthage. In June, 1844, a mob broke into the 
 jail and killed Joseph Smith. He was succeeded by 
 Brigham Young. (See Young, Brioham.) 
 
 See "Autobiography of Joseph Smith;" " Mormonisltl ; its 
 Leaders and Designs," by John Hyde, Jr., 1857; J. B. Turner, 
 " Life of Joseph Smith ;" also article " Mormons," in the " New 
 American Cyclopaedia." 
 
 Smith, (Melancthon,) an American naval officer, 
 born in the city of New York in 1810. He obtained 
 the rank of commander in 1855. He commanded the 
 steamer Mississippi in the battle by which Captain Far- 
 ragut took New Orleans in April, 1862. On the 5th 
 of May, 1864, he fought an indecisive battle against the 
 iron-clad ram Albemarle at the mouth of the Roanoke 
 River. 
 
 See J. T. Headley, "Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 
 1867. • 
 
 Smith, (Miles,) an English bishop, born at Hereford 
 in 1568, was one of the principal translators of the Bible. 
 Died in 1624. 
 
 Smith, (Richard,) an English Roman Catholic priest, 
 born in Worcestershire in 1500. He became a professor 
 of divinity at Oxford, and chaplain to Queen Mary. At 
 the execution of Ridley and Latimer, Smith preached a 
 sermon on the text, " Though I give my body to be 
 burned, and have not charity, it profiteth me nothing." 
 Died in 1563. 
 
 Smith, (Richard,) an English polemical writer, born 
 in Lincolnshire in 1566. He wrote in defence of popery. 
 Died in 1655. 
 
 Smith, (Robert,) D.D., an English divine and dis- 
 tinguished mathematician, born in 1689, was preceptor 
 to the Duke of Cumberland. He became Plumian pro- 
 fessor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1716, and in 1742 
 succeeded Bentley as master of Trinity College. He 
 was the author of a treatise entitled " Harmonics, or 
 the Philosophy of Musical Sounds," and a " Complete 
 System of Optics," (2 vols. 4to, 1738:) the latter is es- 
 teemed a standard work. Dr. Smith was a cousin of 
 Roger Cotes, some of whose writings he published. He 
 had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1718. 
 Died in 1768. 
 
 Smith, (Robert,) of Maryland, an American minister 
 of state, born about 1757. He was secretary of the navy 
 from January, 1802, to March, 1805, and secretary of 
 state from March, 1809, to November, 181 1. Died in 
 Baltimore in 1842. 
 
 Smith, (Robert Angus,) F.R.S., a Scottish chemist, 
 born near Glasgow about 181 7. He wrote, besides other 
 works, a " Life of Dalton and a History of the Atomic 
 Theory." 
 
 Smith, (Robert Payne,) an English clergyman, dis- 
 tinguished as a Hebraist and Arabic scholar, was born 
 in 1818. He became in 1865 regius professor of divinity 
 in the University of Oxford, of which he was a graduate. 
 He published, besides other works, "The Authenticity 
 and Messianic Interpretation of the Prophecies of Isaiah 
 vindicated in a Course of Sermons," (Oxford, 1862.) 
 
 Smith, (Robert Vernon.) See Lyveden, Lord. 
 
 Smith, (Samuel,) a popular English writer of re- 
 ligious tracts, born in Worcestershire in 1588, was a 
 Presbyterian preacher during the civil war which began 
 in 1642. He wrote, besides other works, "The Great 
 Assize." Died after 1660. 
 
 Smith, (Samuel,) an American historian, born at 
 Burlington, New Jersey, in 1720. He published a "His- 
 tory of New Jersey," (1755.) Died in 1776. 
 
 Smith, (Samuel,) an English engraver of great merit, 
 lived in the eighteenth century. 
 
 Smith, (Samuel Francis,) D.D., an American Bap- 
 tist divine, born at Boston in 1808. He became in 1842 
 editor of the "Christian Review," at Newton, Massa- 
 chusetts. He has published a number of popular lyrics 
 and hymns. 
 
 Smith, (Samuel J.,) an American poet, born near 
 Burlington, New Jersey, in 1 771. He died in 1835, and 
 his " Miscellaneous Writings" were published in 1836. 
 
 See Cleveland's " Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Smith, (Samuel Stanhope,) D.D., LL.D., an Amer- 
 ican Presbyterian divine, born at Pequea, Pennsylvania, 
 in 1750. He was appointed in 1779 professor of moral 
 philosophy in the C°" e g e of New Jersey, and in 1794 
 succeeded his father-in-law, Dr. Witherspoon, as presi- 
 dent of that institution. He was the author of " Lec- 
 tures on the Evidences of the Christian Religion," and 
 other works. Died in 1819. 
 
 Smith, (Seba,) an American writer, born at Buck- 
 field, Maine. He published in 1833, under the name of 
 " Major Jack Downing," a series of humorous letters on 
 political subjects, which became widely popular. His 
 other principal works are " Powhatan," a poem, "Away 
 Down East, or Portraitures of Yankee Life," (1855,) and 
 "New Elements of Geometry." Died in 1868. 
 
 Smith, (Rev. Sydney,) a celebrated English divine 
 and writer, was born at Woodford, in Essex, in 1771. He 
 studied at New College, Oxford, of which he became a 
 Fellow in 1790. Having taken holy orders, he obtained 
 the curacy of Netherhaven, in Wiltshire, about 1795. He 
 became tutor to the son of a Mr. Beach, with whom lie 
 passed about five years in Edinburgh, where he asso- 
 ciated with Jeffrey, Brougham, and other Whigs. He 
 was one of the lotinders and the first editor of the 
 " Edinburgh Review," the first number of which was 
 issued in 1802. He married about 1800 a lady named 
 Pybus, and removed to London in 1804. In 1806 he 
 was presented to the living of Foston-le-Clay, in York- 
 shire. He greatly promoted the cause of Catholic eman- 
 cipation by an anonymous work, entitled " Letters on 
 the Subject of the Catholics to my Brother Abraham, 
 by Peter Plymley," (1807-08,) which had a very large 
 circulation. In 1809 he published two volumes of Ser- 
 mons. For many years he was a regular contributor 
 to the "Edinburgh Review." He was appointed preb- 
 endary of Bristol, and rector of Combe-Florey, (near 
 Taunton,) in 1828, and obtained a prebendal stall in 
 Saint Paul's, London, in 1831. Died in February, 1845. 
 
 Sydney Smith was greatly distinguished for his wit, 
 humour, and conversational powers. Among his works 
 is "Elementary Sketches of Moral Philosophy," (1850.) 
 
 See a "Memoir of Sydney Smith," by his daughter. Lady Hol- 
 land, 2 vols., 1855; A1.LtB0.VK, "Dictionary of Authors;" " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for April, 1S50, and July, 1855: " Quarterly Review," 
 vol. xcvii., published in June and September, 1855 ; " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for July, 1855; "North American Review" for July, 
 1844, (by E. P. Whipple.) 
 
 Smith, (Sir Thomas,) an English statesman and 
 scholar, born in Essex about 1512. He studied at 
 Queen's College, Cambridge. Having spent several 
 years in France and Italy, and taken the degree of LL.D. 
 at Padua, he was appointed, after his return, regius 
 professor of law at Cambridge. After the accession of 
 Edward VI., he was appointed in 1548 secretary of state, 
 and subsequently sent on missions to Brussels and to 
 the court of Henry II. of France. He was author of a 
 work entitled "The English Commonwealth," (1584,) 
 a treatise "On the Correct Pronunciation of the Greek 
 Language," (in Latin,) and other works. Died in 1577. 
 
 See Strvpe, "Life of Sir Thomas Smith," 1698; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Geneiale." 
 
 Smith, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born in 
 London in 1638, wrote a treatise "On the Credibility of 
 the Mysteries of the Christian Religion." Died in 1710. 
 
 Smith, (Thomas Sou 1H Wood,) M.D., an English 
 physician and writer of great merit, born about 1790. 
 He studied at Edinburgh, and subsequently settled in 
 London, where he became physician to the Fever Hos- 
 pital. He was one of the founders of the " Westminster 
 Review," to which he contributed several excellent 
 treatises, one of which, entitled "The Use of the Dead 
 to the Living," obtained extensive popularity. His other 
 principal works are an essay on the " Divine Govern- 
 ment," "The Philosophy of Health," (1834,) and a 
 " Treatise on Fever," esteemed one of the most valua- 
 ble that has appeared on the subject. 
 
 See Ai.libone, "Dictionary of Authors;" "New Spirit of tht 
 Age," by R. H. Horne. 
 
 S, e ',0, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, j?, short; a, e, i, 0, obscure; ftr, fall, fat; met; not; good; mrJon; 
 
SMITH 
 
 *°33 
 
 SMTTH 
 
 Smith, (William,) an English herald and antiquary, 
 wrote a "Description of Cheshire." Died in 1618. 
 
 Smith, (William,) of Chichester, an English por- 
 trait-painter, born in 1707, was a brother of George, 
 noticed above. Died in 1764. 
 
 Smith, (William,) an English translator, born at 
 Worcester in 1 71 1. He translated Longinus and Thu- 
 cydides into English. He became Dean of Chester 
 about 1758. Died in 1787. 
 
 Smith, (William,) an English statesman, was elected 
 to Parliament from Sudbury in 1784, and was a repre- 
 sentative from Norwich In 1802. He was an earnest 
 advocate of the cause of the dissenters, and of other 
 reforms. Died in 1835. 
 
 Smith, (William,) an English geologist, born at 
 Churchill, in Oxfordshire, in 1769, is called the father 
 of English geology. He was the first in England to 
 discover the constancy in the order of the superposition 
 of strata. In 1799 he published a treatise "On the 
 Order of the Strata and their Imbedded Organic Re- 
 mains in the Vicinity of Bath." He published the first 
 "Geological Map of England," (1801,) and a larger map 
 of the same about 181 5. He was ar nele of John 
 Phillips the geologist. Died in 1839. 
 
 See John Phillips, "Memoirs of William Smith." 1844. 
 
 Smith, (William,) LED., an English philologist and 
 jurist, born in London in 1814. He studied in the 
 University of London, and afterwards became professor 
 of the Latin, Greek, and German languages at the in- 
 dependent colleges of Homerton and Highburv. He 
 published in 1842 his "Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Antiquities," (t vol. 8vo,) in which he was assisted by 
 other distinguished scholars. This was followed by the 
 " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and My- 
 thology," (3 vols. 8vo, 1849,) and the "Dictionary of 
 Greek and Roman Geography," (2 vols. 8vo, 1857.) 
 These excellent works are probably the most valuable 
 of the kind in the language, and are illustrated by- 
 numerous engravings. Dr. Smith has also written a 
 "School History of Greece, from the Earliest Times to 
 the Roman Conquest," etc., a "Latin-English Diction- 
 ary," (1855,) and other educational books. He is the 
 chief editor of a "Dictionary of the Bible ; comprising 
 its Antiquities, Biography, Geography, and Natural His- 
 tory," (3 vols. 8vo, 1860-63.) In 1867 he became editor 
 of the "Quarterly Review." 
 
 See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors ;" "Quarterly Review" 
 for July, 1854. and October, 1864. 
 
 Smith, (Sir William Cusack,) a distinguished Irish 
 jurist, and friend of Edmund Burke, born in 1766. He 
 studied at Oxford, and rose through several high offices 
 to be solicitor-general for Ireland in 1800, and baron of 
 the exchequer in 1802. He had a high reputation for 
 eloquence, legal knowledge, and moral rectitude, and 
 was an advocate of Catholic emancipation and other 
 important reforms. Died in 1836. 
 
 Smith, (William F.,) an American general, born 
 at Saint Alban's, Vermont, in 1824, graduated at West 
 Point in 1845. He commanded a division in the Chick- 
 ahominy campaign, became a major-general about July, 
 1862, and served at the battle of Antietam, September 17 
 of that year. He led a corps at the battle of Fredericks- 
 burg, December 13, 1862, and at that of Cold Harbour, 
 June 3, 1864. His corps made an unsuccessful attack 
 upon the defences of Petersburg, June 15, 1864. 
 
 Smith, (William Loughton,) an American diplo- 
 matist and statesman, was elected to Congress from 
 South Carolina in 1789, and in 1800 was appointed 
 minister to Spain. He published several political works 
 and essays, under the signature of "Phocion." Died 
 in 1812. 
 
 Smith, (Sir William Sidney,) a celebrated English 
 admiral, born at Westminster about 1764. He entered 
 the navy at an early age, attained the rank of captain, 
 and commanded a flotilla against the French in the 
 campaign of 1706, in which he was taken prisoner. 
 Having effected his escape in 1798, he was appointed to 
 command a squadron on the coast of Egypt, and distin- 
 guished himself by his skill and bravery in the defence 
 of Saint Jean d'Acre against Napoleon's army. After 
 signing a treaty with Kleber for the evacuation of Egypt 
 
 by the French, he returned to England, and was elected 
 to Parliament for the city of Rochester in 1802. He 
 became vice-admiral in 1810, and admiral in 1821. Died 
 in 1840 or 1841. 
 
 See Campbell "Lives of the British Admirals;" John Bar- 
 row, "Life and Correspondence of Sir Wm. Sidney Smith," 1848; 
 Captain Marryat, "Memoirs of Sir Wm. Sidney Smith, " 1839; 
 La Roquette. "Notice historique sur Sidnev Smith," 1850; 
 " Nouvelle Biographic Generale; "Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 March, 1848. 
 
 Smith'son, (James,) an English chemist and scien- 
 tific writer, born in the eighteenth century. He studied 
 at Oxford, where he devoted himself to chemical analysis 
 and experimental physics. He published, among other 
 works, a treatise " On the Composition and Crystalliza- 
 tion of Certain Sulphurets from Huel Boys in Cornwall," 
 "On a Saline Substance from Mount Vesuvius," and 
 " Facts relating to the Colouring-Matter of Vegetables." 
 He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and a friend of Sir 
 Humphry Davy and other eminent philosophers of the 
 time. He died in 1829, leaving the whole of his property 
 to found at Washington, in the United States, an insti- 
 tution, called by his name, for the increase and diffusion 
 of knowledge. 
 
 Smlts, (Dirk,) a Dutch poet, born at Rotterdam in 
 1702. His productions, among which is " De Rotte 
 Stroom," (1750,) are eulogized by Gravenweert. Died 
 in 1752. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Gravbm- 
 weert, " Litterature Neerlandaise." 
 
 Smitz or Smite, smlts, (Gaspar,) a Dutch portrait- 
 painter, who worked in England and Ireland. He ex- 
 celled in painting Magdalens, and was called Magdalen 
 Smith. Died in 1689. 
 
 Smitz, (Louis,) a Dutch painter of flowers and fruit, 
 born at Dort in 1635; died in 1675. 
 
 Smollett, (Touias George,) a distinguished British 
 novelist and historian, born in the vale of Leven, Dum- 
 bartonshire, Scotland, in 1 72 1. He studied medicine at 
 Glasgow, and entered the royal navy as surgeon's mate 
 about 1741. Having quitted the naval service in disgust 
 about 1744, he settled in London. He produced coarse 
 satires, entitled " Advice," (1746,) and "Reproof." In 
 
 1747 he married a Creole named Miss Lascelles, and in 
 
 1748 published "Roderick Random," a novel, which 
 was successful and displayed a great talent for humour. 
 His next work was " Peregrine Pickle," a coarse and li- 
 centious tale, (1751.) "Count Fathom," another romance, 
 similar in character to the preceding, appeared in 1753. 
 He was not successful in obtaining practice as a phy- 
 sician. In 1758 he published a "Complete History of 
 England from the Earliest Times to the Treaty of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle," (6 vols.,) which was received with favour, 
 although it has little merit except the style. He after- 
 wards wrote a " Continuation of the History of England" 
 to the year 1764. During the administration of Lord 
 Bute, Smollett edited "The Briton," a political paper 
 which supported the ministry and was denounced by 
 John Wilkes in the "North Briton." Among his 
 numerous works is "The Expedition of Humphrey 
 Clinker," (1771.) He went to Italy for his health in 
 1770, and died, near Leghorn, in October, 1771. 
 
 See R. Anderson, "Life of T. Smollett," 1803; Sir Walter 
 Scott, " Biographical Memoirs of Eminent Novelists :" Dh. Moore, 
 "Life of Smollett ;" Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary ot Eminent 
 Scotsmen ;" Hazlitt, " Comic Writers ;" " Inedited Memorials of 
 Smollett." in the "Atlantic Monthly" for June, 1859 ; Caky, " Lives 
 of English Poets from Johnson to Kirke White ;" Allibone, " Dic- 
 tionary of Authors ;" " London Quarterly Revjew" for January, 1858. 
 
 Smybert See Smihert. 
 
 Smyth, (James Carmichael,) a Scottish physician, 
 born in 1741, published several medical works, and dis- 
 covered a method of preventing contagion by the use 
 of nitrous vapour. He was a Fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety. Died in 1S21. 
 
 Smyth, (Thomas,) D.D., born at Belfast, Ireland, in 
 1808, emigrated to the United States, and in 1832 be- 
 came pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church in 
 Charleston, South Carolina. He has published "The 
 Life and Character of Calvin Defended," and other 
 theological and controversial works. 
 
 Smyth, (Thomas A.,) a general, born in Ireland, 
 emigrated to the United States. For his conduct at 
 
 c as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z: «h as in this. 
 
 128 
 
 (2ySee Explanations, p. 23.] 
 
SMYTH 
 
 2°34 
 
 SOBIESKI 
 
 Cold Harbour, June, 1864, he was appointed a brigadier- 
 general. He was killed near Farmville, Virginia, in 
 April, 1865. 
 
 Smyth, (William,) an English poet and scholar, 
 born at Liverpool in 1766. He took his degree at 
 Cambridge, where he was appointed in 1809 professor 
 of modern history. He published a treatise " On the 
 Evidences of Christianity," " English Lyrics," and a 
 collection of " Lectures." Died in 1849. 
 
 Smyth, (William Henry,) an English naval officer, 
 boyi in Westminster in 1788, was employed in 1823 
 in a survey of the coast of Sardinia. He published 
 a " Sketch of the Present State of the Island of Sar- 
 dinia," and " The Mediterranean : a Memoir, Physical, 
 Historical, and Nautical," (1854.) He was made a 
 rear-admiral in 1853. Died in 1865. 
 
 His son, Charles P. Smyth, has published a work 
 entitled " Teneriffe : an Astronomer's Visit," giving an 
 account of his scientific observations. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for March, 1866. 
 
 Snape, (Andrew,) an English theologian, born at 
 Hampton Court about 1670. He wrote against Hoadly. 
 Died in 1742. 
 
 Snayers, sni'ers. (Henry,) a skilful Flemish en- 
 graver, born at Antwerp in 1612. He engraved some 
 works of Rubens. 
 
 Snayers, (Pierre,) a Flemish painter, born at Ant- 
 werp in 1593. He painted landscapes and battles. Died 
 in 1670. 
 
 Snell, (Ludwig,) born at Idstein, in the duchy of 
 Nassau, in 1785, became professor of political science 
 at Berne, in Switzerland. Died in 1854. 
 
 Snell, (Rudolph,) a Dutch mathematician and phi- 
 lologist, born at Oudenarde in 1547, became professor 
 of mathematics at Leyden. Died in 1613. 
 
 Snell, (Wilhelm,) a German jurist, brother of Lud- 
 wig, noticed above, was born at Idstein in 1789. He 
 became successively professor of law at Bale, Zurich, 
 and Berne, in Switzerland. Died in 1851. 
 
 Snell, (Lat. Snel'lius,] (Willebrod, ) a Dutch 
 mathematician, born at Leyden in 1591, was a son of 
 Rudolph, noticed above. He discovered the law of the 
 refraction of light, that the sines of the angles of incidence 
 and refraction have to each other a constant ratio. He 
 published, besides other works, " Cyclometricus," ( 162 1,) 
 a treatise on the measurement of a circle. Died in 1626. 
 
 See Foppens, " BibKotheca Belgica ;" Montucla, " Histoire des 
 Mathe'matiques." 
 
 Snellaert, snel'lSRt, (Ferdinand Augustyn,) a 
 distinguished Belgian writer, born at Courtrai in 1809. 
 Among his principal works are an essay on the history 
 of Flemish poetry, entitled " Over de Nederlandsche 
 Dichtkunst in Belgie," (1838,) and "A Brief Sketch of 
 Dutch and Flemish Literature," (" Kort Begrip eener 
 Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde," 1849.) 
 He has founded a society for the cultivation of the 
 Flemish language. 
 
 Snellincks, snel'links, or Snellinx, (Jan,) a Flem- 
 ish painter of history and battles, born at Mechlin in 
 1544. He worked at Antwerp. Died in 1638. 
 
 Snellius. See Snell. 
 
 Sne'then, (Nicholas,) an American Methodist di- 
 vine, born on Long Island in 1769, settled in Maryland, 
 and was elected chaplain to Congress. He was an 
 eloquent and popular preacher, and one of the principal 
 founders of the Methodist Protestant Church. Died in 
 
 1845. 
 
 Sneyders. See Snyders. 
 
 Sniadecki, sne-a-d£ts'skee, (Andrew.) a Polish 
 physiologist, born in 1768, studied at Pavia under Gal- 
 vani and Volta, and subsequently at Edinburgh. He 
 became professor of chemistry and pharmacy at Wilna 
 in 1797. He was the author of a "Theory of Organic 
 Existences," (in Polish,) which is regarded as a standard 
 work and has been translated into French and German. 
 Died in 1838. 
 
 See Balinski, " Biographie d'A. Sniadecki," 1846. 
 
 Sniadecki,(JoHN,) a celebrated Polish mathematician 
 and astronomer, born in Gnesen in 1756, was a brother 
 of Andrew, noticed above. He studied at Cracow, and 
 subsequently visited Paris, where he made the acquaint- 
 
 ance of D'Alembert, Laplace, and other eminent savants, 
 and on his return to Poland became professor of astron- 
 omy and mathematics at Cracow. Having resided for a 
 time in England, and made another tour on the continent, 
 he was appointed in 1806 rector of the University of 
 Wilna, which under his direction obtained the highest 
 reputation for the culture of the exact sciences. Snia- 
 decki was a corresponding member of the Saint Peters- 
 burg Academy, to which he contributed a number of 
 valuable astronomical observations. He published a 
 " Physical and Mathematical Description of the Globe," 
 " Philosophy of the Human Mind," in which he opposes 
 the system of Kant, "Spherical Trigonometry," (1820,) 
 "Miscellaneous Writings," 2 vols., (1822-24,) and other 
 works, which are highly esteemed. Died in 1830. 
 
 Snorri-Sturluson, snou'ree stur'Hi-son, written also 
 -Sturleson or -Sturulson, one of the most eminent 
 poets and scholars of Iceland, was born in 1 178. He 
 was educated by the learned Ion, and soon distinguished 
 himself by his attainments in almost every department 
 of knowledge. He was afterwards appointed to the high 
 office of interpreter of the law, and obtained the rank 
 of jarl, (a word etymologically related and nearly corre- 
 sponding to our "earl.") His avarice and his turbulent 
 disposition, however, involved him in a quarrel with his 
 own family, several of whom joined a faction of his ene- 
 mies, and he was murdered by his own sons-in-law, (1 241.) 
 His greatest work is a collection of sagas, entitled the 
 " Heimskringla," which has been translated into Latin, 
 Swedish, and Danish ; he is also supposed to have writ- 
 ten the first part of the Snorra-Edda, entitled " The 
 Gylfa-Ginning," the Scaldic songs called "Kanningar," 
 and " Hattalykill," (the "Key of the Wise.") 
 
 See Cronhoj.m, '* Dissertatio de Snorronis Sturlonidis Historia," 
 1841 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Snoy, snoi, (Regnier or Renier,) a Dutch historian 
 and physician, born at Gouda in 1477. He wrote a 
 Latin history of Holland, " De Rebus Batavicis," (1620.) 
 Died in 1537. 
 
 Snyders or Sneyders, sni'ders, or Snyers, sni'ers, 
 (Francis,) an eminent Flemish painter, born at Ant- 
 werp in 1579, studied fruit- and flower-painting under 
 Henry van Balen. He afterwards devoted himself 
 chiefly to the delineation of animals and hunting-scenes, 
 which are among the most admirable works of their 
 kind. He was an intimate friend of Rubens and Jor- 
 daens, for whose pictures he frequently painted the 
 animals and still life. Among his master-pieces are 
 a stag-hunt, and other similar productions, painted for 
 Philip III. of Spain. Died in 1657. 
 
 See Dkscamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Soane, (Sir John,) a celebrated English architect, 
 born at Reading in 1753. Having studied for a time 
 under Dance and Holland, he was enabled, through the 
 influence of Sir William Chambers, to visit Italy as 
 a student of the Royal Academy. After his return to 
 England he was successively appointed architect to the 
 royal woods and forests, surveyor to Chelsea Hospital, 
 and professor of architecture at the Royal Academy, 
 (1806.) Among his principal works are the Free- 
 masons' Hall, Dulwich Gallery, and the State Paper 
 Office in Saint James's Park, London. He died in 
 1837, bequeathing to the nation his valuable collections 
 of ancient and modern art. 
 
 Soanen, so'S'hon', (Jean,) a French prelate, born at 
 Riom in 1647, was an eloquent preacher. He became 
 Bishop of Senez in 1695, and, having identified himself 
 with the Jansenists, was suspended in 1727. Died in 
 1740. 
 
 See Abbe Gaultier, "Vie de Soanen," 1750. 
 
 Soave, so-a'va, (Francesco,) an Italian teacher and 
 writer, born at Lugano in 1743. He was professor of 
 philosophy at Milan, and professor of ideology at Pavia. 
 He published, besides other works, "Moral Tales," 
 (" Novelle morali,") which are highly commended. Died 
 at Pavia in 1806. 
 
 See Savioi.1, " Elogio di Soave," 1806 ; " Vita di Fr. Soave," 
 (anonymous,) 1815. 
 
 Sobieski, so-be-Ss'kee, (James Louis,) a Polish 
 nobleman, a son of the following, was born in Paris in 
 
 B, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, t>, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, i, 0, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
SOBIESKI 
 
 2°35 
 
 SOCRATES 
 
 1667. He displayed great courage in the campaign 
 against the Turks in 1683. After the death of his father, 
 in 1696, he aspired to the throne ; but the Poles pre- 
 ferred Augustus of Saxony. Died in 1734. 
 
 Sobieski, (John III.,) a celebrated Polish warrior 
 and king, born of a noble family in Galicia in 1629. At 
 an early age he distinguished himself by repelling the 
 invasions of the Cossacks, Tartars, and Russians, and 
 in 1665 was made grand marshal and hetman of Po- 
 land. In 1671 he defeated the Turks under Mahomet 
 IV., and took the fortress of Kotzim. On the death of 
 Michael, King of Poland, in 1674, John Sobieski was 
 elected his successor. The Turks, having again invaded 
 Poland, were soon after driven out by Sobieski, and a 
 peace was concluded between the nations. In 1683 he 
 marched to the relief of the Austrians besieged in Vi- 
 enna by a numerous army under the grand-vizier Kara 
 Mustafa, and, with the assistance of his French and 
 German allies, raised the siege of the city and expelled 
 the Turks from the country. He died in 1696, having 
 earned the reputation of one of the truest patriots his 
 country has produced. 
 
 See Cover, "Histoire de Jean Sobieski," 3 vols., 1761; Sal- 
 vandy, "Histoire de Pologne sous Jean Sobieski," 3 vols., 1829: 
 L. Rogalski, " Histoire du Regne de Sobieski," 1847 : " Authentic 
 Memoirs of John Sobieski," by A. T. Palmer; " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Socin. See Socinus. 
 
 So-cl'nus, (Faustus,) the Latin name of Fausto 
 SozzinJ, (fows'to sot-see'nee,) [Fr. Fauste Socin, lost 
 so'saN',] an eminent Italian theologian, born at Sienna 
 in 1539. He passed twelve years at Florence in the 
 service of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and adopted 
 anti-trinitarian opinions. In 1574 he removed to Swit- 
 zerland. After he had spent three years at Bale in the 
 study of theology, he visited Transylvania, and in 1579 
 began to propagate his doctrines m Poland, where he 
 made many converts. He rejected the doctrines of pre- 
 destination, atonement, and original sin. In 1594 he 
 published a work "On Christ the Saviour," ("De Jesu 
 Christo Servatore,") for which he was violently perse- 
 cuted. Died in Poland in 1604. 
 
 See J. Toulmin, "Life of F. Socinus," 1777; Samuel Przyp- 
 Covius, "Vita Fausti Socini," 1636 ; Bayle, " Historical and Critical 
 Dictionary:" Pisarski, " Dissertatio de Vita F. Socini," 1788; 
 •' Nouvelle Biographie Gine>ale." 
 
 Socinus, (Ltelius,) an uncle of the preceding, and 
 the first teacher of Socinian doctrines, was born at Sienna 
 in 1525. He was versed in the Hebrew and Greek lan- 
 guages. About 1545 he emigrated from Italy, probably 
 to avoid persecution. He travelled or wandered in 
 France, England, Germany, and Poland. He appears 
 to have acted with much circumspection and reserve in 
 the assertion of his opinions, which were similar to 
 those of Faustus Socinus, and which neither Catholics 
 nor Protestants would then tolerate. Died at Zurich 
 in 1562. 
 
 See C. F. Illgen, " Vita F. Socini," 1814 ; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 General*." 
 
 Socquet, so'k&', (Joseph Marie,) a chemfst, born 
 in Savoy in 1771, became professor of chemistry at 
 Lyons in 1809. He published several works. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 Soc'ra-tei, [Gr. luKparr/c ; Lat. Soc'rates ; Fr. So- 
 CRATE, so'kRlt' ; It. Socrate, so-kRa'ti,] the illustrious 
 founder* of Grecian philosophy, was born at Athens 
 about 470 B.C. Several modern writers, on the author- 
 ity of Demetrius Phalereus and others, have given the 
 fourth year of the seventy-seventh Olympiad — that is, 
 468 B.C. — as the date of his birth ; but this can scarcely 
 be correct, as we are told in the " Apology" of Socrates 
 that he was then (399 B.C.) more than seventy years old : 
 hence he could not have been born later than 469 11. c. 
 His father, Sophroniscus, was a sculptor, his mother, 
 Phaenarete, a midwife. He was educated to his father's 
 art, by which he supported himself after he was grown 
 to manhood. Subsequently Crito, a wealthy and gener- 
 ous Athenian, admiring the zeal for knowledge and the 
 genius evinced by Socrates, furnished him with the means 
 
 • " He may be justly called." says Cicero, " the father of Philoso- 
 phy," {parens Philosophic jurt did potest') (" De Finibus," ii. 1.) 
 
 to procure books and pay his teachers in the various 
 branches of art and science then taught at Athens, and 
 afterwards became one of his most faithful and devoted 
 disciples. According to some writers, Socrates was a 
 pupil of Anaxagoras ; but this is very doubtful, as Plate 
 represents him in the " Phaedo" as saying that he be- 
 came acquainted with the doctrines of Anaxagoras from 
 a book written by this philosopher. 
 
 Socrates served as a soldier during the Peloponnesian 
 war in three different campaigns. He was remarkable 
 for the fortitude, or rather indifference, with which he 
 bore the severest privations and hardships of a military 
 life. In one of the actions during his first campaign he 
 saved the life of his pupil Alcibiades, for which exploit 
 he would have received the prize of bravery, (uixaraa ;) 
 but, at Socrates' own request, it was transferred to Alci- 
 biades. In the second campaign, at the battle of Delium, 
 in which the Athenians were defeated, he saved the life 
 of Xenophon, another of his pupils. On this occasion, 
 when everywhere around him was fear and flight, he 
 exhibited a calm, determined courage which inspired his 
 pursuers with such respect and fear that they gladly 
 permitted him to retreat unmolested. He afterwards, 
 as senator, displayed a far higher and rarer courage. 
 He was ordered by the Thirty Tyrants to assist in 
 bringing back to Athens Leon, who, to escape their 
 tyranny, had fled to Salamis. Socrates firmly refused 
 to take any part in the affair, for which he would per- 
 haps have suffered death had not the government of 
 the Thirty been soon after overthrown. On a previous 
 occasion, when president (epis'tates) of the Prytanes, 
 his inflexible devotion to justice was still more signally 
 shown. The question before the assembly was the sen- 
 tence to be passed on the admirals who had neglected 
 to bury the dead after the battle of Arginilsoe. The 
 burial of the dead was regarded by the ancient Greeks 
 as among the most important and sacred of all duties. 
 It was, however, clearly proved that, owing to a violent 
 storm, it was impossible to recover the bodies of the 
 slain. Had the question then been put to vote, the ad- 
 mirals would beyond doubt have been acquitted. But 
 the accusers succeeded in adjourning the assembly, on 
 the pretext that it was then too dark to count the hands 
 of the voters. Meanwhile, everything possible was done 
 to inflame the minds of the people against the accused.. 
 In their pity for the dead, the multitude lost sight of 
 their duty to the living. The votes were to be given on 
 the general question whether the admirals had been 
 guilty in omitting the recovery of the bodies of those 
 who fell at Arginusa;. If they should be found guilty, 
 the penalty for all was death and the confiscation of 
 their property. But it was contrary to law to condemn 
 all by one vote of the assembly. Socrates, as epistates, 
 refused to put the question to vote ; he would in no wise 
 sanction what was illegal and unjust. The populace be- 
 came furious, and demanded that those who opposed 
 their will should themselves be punished. The other 
 prytanes yielded ; Socrates alone remained firm and 
 unmoved by the menaces of the angry multitude.* So 
 the question could not be put to vote that day, and the 
 assembly was again adjourned. Afterwards, however, 
 another epistates was chosen, and the admirals were 
 condemned. (See Wigger's "Life of Socrates," pp. lii.- 
 lv.) Socrates appears to have held no office in the gov- 
 ernment except that of senator, already referred to. He 
 believed that he was called by Heaven to a different 
 class of duties, — to be a teacher of wisdom and virtue, 
 — and, therefore, the voice of the divinityt within him had 
 
 * It seems more than probable that Horace had before his mind 
 the example of Socrates braving the fury of the Athenian mob, and 
 resisting the tyrannical command of the Thirty, when he wrote those 
 well-known lines " On the Just Man," (lib. iii., ode 3.) 
 " Justum et tenacem propositi virum 
 
 Non civium ardor prava jubentium, 
 
 Non vultus instantis tyranni 
 
 Mente quatit solidiL" 
 t It may not be improper to caution the reader against a mistake 
 that has sometimes arisen from the use of the term " demon" or 
 "daemon" in speaking of the divine intimations which Socrates be- 
 lieved were sometimes given him. The primary^iicnification of the ex- 
 pression to daifiofiof, (from &u/xoy, "god,") which Socrates applied 
 to his supernatural monitor, is the divinity," or "the divine one." 
 He doubtless meant simply to say that some divine power admonished 
 
 e as k; 9 as s: g hard; g as/; G, H, K,gutlural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; %h as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SOCRATES 
 
 2036 
 
 SOCRATES 
 
 warned him against engaging in the contests of a political 
 life. He availed himself of every opportunity of awaking 
 in the minds of the young the love of wisdom ; and, if 
 we may trust the accounts that have come down to us, 
 he was endowed not only with a talent for subtle and 
 profound reasoning, which rendered him more than a 
 match for the ablest sophists and rhetoricians of that 
 age, but there was also a marvellous and irresistible 
 fascination in his talk, of which history furnishes per- 
 haps no other example, JEWan calls this peculiar power 
 "the Siren of Socrates." " When I hear him speak," 
 says Alcibiades,* " my heart leaps up more than the 
 hearts of those who celebrate the Corybantic mysteries ; 
 my tears are poured out as he talks, — a thing I have seen 
 happen to many others besides myself. I have heard 
 Pericles and other excellent orators, and I have been 
 pleased with their discourses, but I suffered nothing of 
 this kind ; nor was my soul ever on these occasions 
 disturbed and filled with self-reproach. . . . But he has 
 often affected me in the way I describe, until the life 
 which I lead seemed hardly worth living. ... I stop 
 my ears, therefore, as from the Sirens, and flee away as 
 fast as possible, that I may not sit down beside him and 
 grow old in listening to his talk. . . . But I know not 
 if any one of you have ever seen the divine images 
 which are within when he is serious and opens himself. 
 I have seen them ; and they are so supremely beautiful, 
 so golden, so divine and wonderful, that everything which 
 Socrates commands surely ought to be obeyed, even like 
 the voice of a God." 
 
 It is impossible to state precisely at what time Socra- 
 tes first began to teach ; but from the manner in which 
 he is spoken of in the " Clouds" of Aristophanes, (repre- 
 sented for the first time 423 B.C.,) he must have been 
 already well known as a teacher of philosophy. Some 
 have assumed that, as the representation of that comedy 
 occurred twenty-four years before the death of Socrates, 
 it could have had no share in producing his condemna- 
 tion ; but the truth of this is very questionable. It is 
 by no means improbable that a popular drama addressed 
 to the prejudices of the masses should leave upon their 
 minds a permanently unfavourable impression, which 
 any fresh cause might excite into active hostility. 
 
 Be this as it may, about 400 B.C. an orator named Lycon, 
 with Meletus, a poet, and Anytus, an influential dema- 
 gogue, brought an accusation against Socrates that he 
 disbelieved the gods of his country and sought to intro- 
 duce new deities, and that, moreover, he was guilty of 
 corrupting the Athenian youth. The judges declared 
 him guilty, leaving the punishment as yet undetermined. 
 When called upon to offer what he could in mitigation 
 of the sentence, he would make no concession. Con- 
 scious of innocence, he would not confess himself guilty. 
 His calm, dignified, and almost haughty manner ap- 
 pears to have irritated and incensed the judges, who 
 were accustomed to the most humble and even abject 
 behaviour from those whom thev had condemned. He 
 closed his defence, or "apology," with these memorable 
 words : " We must now depart, I to die, and yon to 
 live ; but which of us has the happier destiny is known 
 only to God." He was sentenced to death by a majority 
 far greater than that by which he had beeji pronounced 
 guilty. By a law of Athens, the sentence could not be 
 carried into execution until the return from Delos of the 
 vessel which had been sent thither on the periodic reli- 
 gious embassy or mission called Theoria. This obtained 
 for him a reprieve of thirty days, which he spent in con- 
 versation with his friends on the highest and most im- 
 portant subjects, — among others, on the duty of obeying 
 the laws, and not seeking to escape from them, even in 
 cases, like his own, where they might seem to be applied 
 unjustly; and on the immortality of the soul, for his 
 own belief in which he gave perhaps the most admirable 
 arguments that have ever yet been offered by the human 
 intellect in support of that sublime doctrine. 
 
 him to do or not to do certain things. The suggestion of some modern 
 writers that Socrates used to Satfiovtov merely to express certain 
 intuitions or practical judgments which he could not readily explain, 
 will scarcely bear examination. It appears to be quite evident that 
 he himself considered these intimations to be not merely inexplicable, 
 but, in the strictest sense, supernatural and divine. 
 * See Plato's " Banquet," (or " Symposium.") 
 
 When at length the sacred vessel had returned from 
 Delos, and the order was sent for his execution, he 
 drank the fatal hemlock with the utmost composure, as 
 one who was setting out on a happy journey might drink 
 to the health of the friends he left behind. In the clos- 
 ing scene of his life he was serene and even cheerful, 
 but in his manner there was nothing like bravado, no- 
 thing in his conduct or language that was not indicative 
 of simplicity and entire sincerity. He approached his 
 death not as one who demanded of the gods a happy 
 futurity in return for a virtuous life, but rather as one 
 who had a firm though humble hope that the Great 
 Being, whom he believed to exercise a benevolent and 
 constant care for man, would free him from the disease 
 and darkness incident to his earthly life, and give him 
 an inheritance in a divine and spiritual kingdom. He 
 died in 399 or, as some say, 400 B.C. 
 
 Socrates has been regarded by almost universal con- 
 sent as the most perfect example of a wise and virtuous 
 man that pagan antiquity presents to us. Pope but ex- 
 presses the prevailing sentiment when he assigns to him 
 the first place among the heroes 
 
 "Of less noisy and less guilty fame, 
 Fair Virtue's silent train : supreme of these 
 Here ever shines the godlike Socrates." — Temple of Fame. 
 
 His character is thus given by his friend and disciple 
 Xenophon : " As to myself, knowing him to be such a 
 man as I have described ; so pious towards the gods as 
 never to undertake anything without first consulting 
 them ; so just towards men as never to do the slightest 
 injury to any one, while he conferred the greatest bene- 
 fits on all who came in contact with him ; so temperate 
 and chaste as never to prefer pleasure to what was right ; 
 so wise as never to err in judging of good and evil, nor 
 needing the aid of others in order properly to discrimi- 
 nate between them ; so able to discourse upon, and 
 accurately define, such points as those of which we have 
 been speaking; so skilful in penetrating the hidden 
 characters of men, and seizing the fittest time to reprove 
 the erring and turn them to the paths of virtue; being 
 such, I cannot but consider him as the most excellent 
 and most happy of mankind. But if any one thinks 
 differently, let him compare the character of Socrates 
 with that of any other man whatsoever, and then let 
 him decide." 
 
 Socrates is commonly believed to have been very 
 unfortunate in his domestic relations. It is, however, 
 probable that there is much exaggeration in the reports 
 that have come down to us of Xanthippe's intolerable 
 temper. Socrates evidently entertained for her a sincere 
 regard, and speaks highly of her domestic virtues. (See 
 Xenophon 's " Memorabilia," lib. ii. 2, 7.) 
 
 Socrates committed nothing to writing; he taught his 
 disciples by oral instruction only. Almost all that we 
 know of his philosophic views, as well as of his personal 
 character, is derived from the works of his disciples 
 Plato and Xenophon. Of all whom he taught, Plato 
 alone appears to have fully understood the essential 
 character, the depth and extent, of his philosophy. But 
 although Plato makes Socrates the chief interlocutor in 
 his dialogues, we are not therefore warranted in as- 
 suming that the master taught every doctrine which the 
 disciple has attributed to him. Plato, doubtless, often 
 puts his own thoughts into the mouth of Socrates, either 
 from motives of modesty or for the purpose of clothing 
 them with greater authority. As Mr. Emerson has aptly 
 remarked, "Socrates and Plato are the double star which 
 the most powerful instruments will not entirely separ- 
 ate."* By a comparison, however, of the writings of 
 Xenophon and Plato, we are enabled to conjecture with 
 a good degree of confidence the essentia] characteristics 
 of Socrates' philosophy. That which cannot fail to 
 strike every thoughtful reader is the prominence which 
 he gives to morality in all his teachings. He may be 
 said, indeed, to contemplate the universe from an ex- 
 clusively moral stand-point. Anaxagoras had previously 
 taught that there was an infinite autocratic Intelligence 
 or Soul, that created and governed all things ; but he 
 ascribed to this Intelligence no distinctly moral attri- 
 
 * See article "Plato," in his "Representative Men." 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long;\, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ft, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
SOCRATES 
 
 2037 
 
 SOLE 
 
 butes. Socrates likewise recognized an infinite creative 
 Intelligence as the Soul of the universe, but he also 
 taught that this power was invariably exerted in con- 
 formity to certain moral attributes which constituted, so 
 to speak, the basis of the Divine character. 
 
 In the opinion of some able critics, (of Schleiermacher 
 among others,) the world is less indebted to Socrates 
 for the truths which he arrived at or discovered than 
 for his improved method of philosophic investigation. 
 Socrates employed with remarkable success a mode of 
 reasoning first introduced by Zeno of Elea. He would 
 ask some person, the errors of whose opinions he wished 
 to expose, a simple question, the answer to which would 
 seem to be quite obvious, then gradually lead him on 
 from one admission to another, till it was too late to 
 retreat, and impossible to advance without ending in 
 some absurdity. It is often difficult to determine (as 
 already intimated) how much of the improved method, 
 or of the great doctrines which we discover in the writings 
 of Plato, are to be ascribed to Socrates, and how much to 
 his illustrious disciple. (See Plato.) We have, however, 
 the direct testimony of Aristotle that Socrates must be 
 regarded as the author of inductive reasoning and of ab- 
 stract definitions. In Socrates inductive reasoning is seen 
 in its incipient and simplest form. Subsequently Aris- 
 totle improved greatly on the idea of Socrates, and he 
 has given us a definition of induction so complete and 
 perfect that it could scarcely be bettered even in the light 
 of modern science. (See Aristotle.) But philosophy 
 is under the greatest obligation to Socrates for teaching 
 so clearly and impressively the manner and spirit with 
 which the search after truth should be conducted. Hy 
 pointing out the importance of thoroughly and accurately 
 defining our ideas before we proceed to reason upon 
 them, he has done much to remove the most fruitful 
 and most universal source of error connected with human 
 thought. While exposing the pretended knowledge of 
 the Sophists, who claimed to be so wise, he taught how 
 necessary were modesty and a just appreciation of the 
 limits and weakness of the human intellect, as well as 
 of its powers, for the successful pursuit of truth. So 
 great, so transcendent are his merits in these respects, 
 that, as has justly been observed, his life forms an era 
 not merely in the history of philosophy, but in that of 
 the human race. 
 
 See Wigger, " Life of Socrates ;" Ritter, " History of Ancient 
 Philosophy," (translated by A. J. W. Morrison, Oxford, 1838 
 C. H. Lewes, "Biographical History of Philosophy ;" the excellent 
 article on" Socrates" in the " Encyclopaedia Hritannica ;" SCHLKIEft- 
 maceirr on the "Worth of Socrates as a Philosopher," (translated 
 by Thirlwall, and included in the recent English version of Wig- 
 cer's "Life of Socrates ;") F. Charpentier. "Vie de Socrate," 
 1650; Gilbert Coophh, "Life of Socrates," 1740: K. D. Gerlach, 
 "Socrates und die Sophisten," 1S27: J. A. Ebkrharu, " Neue 
 Apolngie des Socrates," 1772; H. VV\ Heller. "Socrates," 2 
 vols., 1789; J. G. Haman'N. " Socratische Denkwiirdigkeiten," 1759 '• 
 Rnorr, "Dissertatio de Vita, Fatis atqne Philosophia Socratis," 
 1720; A. Winbom, " Dissertatio de Socrate," 1734 : Xenophon, "Me- 
 morabilia ;" Plato, "Dialogues;" Grotr, " History of Greece," 
 Chap. Ixvii. ; "London Quarterly Review" for December, 1850. 
 
 Socrates, a Greek painter, mentioned by Pliny, and 
 supposed to have lived about 320 B.C. 
 
 Socrates surnatned Scholas'ttcus, [Fr. Socrate le 
 Scholastique, so'kRJSt' leh sko'lis'tek',] a Greek eccle- 
 siastical historian, born at Constantinople about 379 A. D. 
 He was an advocate or lawyer. He wrote a " History 
 of the Church from 306 to 439 A.n.," which is a continua- 
 tion of the history of Eusebius, and is highly esteemed 
 for accuracy, moderation, and impartiality. He was op- 
 posed to all persecution for religious opinions. Died 
 after 440. 
 
 See Valrsil-s or Valois, "De Vita et Scriptis Socratis;" Voss, 
 " De Historicis Grzecis." 
 
 Soden, so'den or zo'den, (Friedrich Julius Hein- 
 rich,) Count, a German writer, born at Anspach in 
 1754. He published several dramas, and treatises on 
 political economy. Died in 1831. 
 
 Soderini, so-di-ree'nee, (Giovanni Vettorio,) an 
 Italian writer on agriculture, was born at Florence in 
 1526 ; died in 1596. 
 
 Soderini, (Pietro,) an Italian magistrate, born at 
 Florence about 1450. He was elected gonfalonier for 
 jfe in 1502, but was deposed in 1512. Died in 1513. 
 
 See S. Razzi, "Vitadi P. Soderini," 1737. 
 
 Sodoma, H. See Razzi. 
 
 Soemmering. See Sommering. 
 
 Soest. See Sosr. 
 
 Sosur, Le, leh sur, sometimes written Le Sueur, 
 (Hubert,) an able French sculptor, born in the sixteenth 
 century, removed to London about 1630. Among his 
 works is a bronze equestrian statue of Charles I., now 
 at Charing Cross. 
 
 Sogaro, II. See Gatti, (Bernardino.) 
 
 Sogliani,sol-ya'nee, (Giovanni Antonio,) an Italian 
 painter of the Florentine school, lived about 1530. 
 
 Sografi, so-gRa'fee, (Antonio Simone,) an Italian 
 dramatist, born at Padua in 1760. He produced suc- 
 cessful comedies, among which is " Olive and Pascal." 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 Sohn, son or zon, (Karl Ferdinand,) a German 
 painter of the Dusseldorf school, and professor in the 
 Academy of that city, was born at Berlin in 1805. 
 
 Soil on, von, foil swa'ro.N', (Alexander,) a German 
 politician, born at Mannheim in 1805. Devoted to the 
 cause of the unity of Germany, he took a prominent part 
 in the movements of 1848. 
 
 Soissons, de, deh swS's6n', (Charles de Bour- 
 bon — deh booR'boN',) Count, born in 1566, was a son 
 of Louis I., Prince of Conde. He fought for Henry IV. 
 against the League, and was appointed grand master of 
 France in 1589. He was turbulent and inclined to 
 treachery. Died in 1612. 
 
 Soissons, de, Countess. See Mancini, (Olympia.) 
 
 Soissons, de, (Louis,) Count, a son of Charles, 
 noticed above, was born in Paris in 1604. He rebelled 
 against Cardinal Richelieu, and was killed in battle 
 in 1641. 
 
 Solander, so-lan'der, (Daniel Charles,) an emi- 
 nent Swedish naturalist and physician, born in Nordland 
 in 1736, was a pupil of Linnaeus. He took his medical 
 degree at the University of Upsal, and afterwards visited 
 Russia and England, where he subsequently became an 
 assistant in the natural history department of the Brit- 
 ish Museum, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society in 1764. He sailed in 1768, accompanied by Sir 
 Joseph Banks, with Captain Cook on his first voyage 
 round the world. They returned in 1771, having made 
 a large and valuable collection of objects in natural his- 
 tory, and in 1773 Solander was appointed under-librarian 
 at the British Museum. He contributed several valuable 
 articles to the " Philosophical Transactions," and other 
 scientific journals. Died in 1782. 
 
 Solari, so-la'ree, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, called 
 also Andrea del Gobbo, an Italian painter, flourished 
 at Milan about 1500-20. 
 
 Solari, (Cristoforo,) called il Gobbo, an Italian 
 sculptor, a brother of Andrea, noticed above, worked 
 at Milan about 1500. 
 
 Solario, da, da so-la're-o, or Solari, so-la'ree, (An- 
 tonio,) an Italian painter, surnamed il Zingaro, ("the 
 Gypsy,") born about 1382, was originally a blacksmith. 
 He became the son-in-law of Colantonio del Fiore, who 
 gave him his daughter on condition of his acquiring 
 distinction as a painter. Died in -1455. 
 
 See G. A. Moschini, "Memorie dellaVita di A. de Solario," 1828. 
 
 Soldaui, sol-di'nee, (Ambrogio,) an Italian natural- 
 ist, born at Foppi, in Tuscany, in 1733. He gained 
 distinction by his researches in microscopic fossil shells, 
 and published " Testaceography and Zoophytography," 
 etc., (" Testaceographia ac Zoophytographia parva et 
 microscopica," 3 vols., 1789-98.) Died in 1808. 
 
 See G. BlANCHl, " Elogio storico di A. Soldani," 1808; Ricca, 
 " Discorso sopra le Opere di A. Soldani," 1810; Tipaldo, " Bio- 
 grafia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Soldani, (Jacopo,) an Italian poet, born at Florence 
 in 1579. He wrote seven Satires, which the Academy 
 Delia Crusca approved as testi di lingua. Died in 1641. 
 
 Soldani, (Massimiliano,) an Italian sculptor and en- 
 graver of medals, born at Florence in 1658; died in 1740 
 
 Sole, del, del so'li, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian 
 landscape-painter, born about 1600 ; died about 1680. 
 
 Sole, del, (Giangioseffo,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Bologna in 1654, was a son of the preceding. He 
 painted some frescos at Milan. His works (part of 
 which are in oil) are highly praised. Died in 17 19. 
 
 e as*; 92s s;% Aard; g as j;G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; %,trilled;lasz; th as in //4/r. (jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SOLEIL 
 
 2038 
 
 SOLON 
 
 Soleil, so'l&I' or so'l^'ye, (N.,) a Frenchman, dis- 
 tinguished for his skill in the fabrication of optica] in- 
 struments and philosophical apparatus, was born In 
 Paris in 1798. He was a coadjutor of Fresnel in his 
 scientific labours. 
 
 Solger, sol'ger or zol'ger, (Karl Wilhelm Ferdi- 
 nand,) a German writer on philosophy and aesthetics, 
 born at Schwedt in 1780; died in 1819. 
 
 Solie, so'le-4', or Soulier, soo'le-i', (Jean Pierre,) 
 a French actor and composer of operas, was born at 
 Nimes in 1755 ; died in 1812. 
 
 Solignac, so'len'yik', (Pierre Joseph,) a French 
 writer, born at Montpellier in 1687, became secretary to 
 Stanislaus, King of Poland. He was the author of a 
 " History of Poland," (6 vols., 1751.} Died in 1773. 
 
 Soliman, (Sultans of Turkey.) See Soi.yman. 
 
 Soliman or Solyman, so'le-min', Sultan of Persia, 
 born in 1646, was the son of Abbas II., whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 1666. He was a weak and depraved prince, 
 and abandoned the control of the empire to his able 
 minister, Sheik Alee Khan. Died in 1694. 
 
 See Malcolm, "History of Persia." 
 
 Soliman, so'le-mtn', or Suleyman, soo-la-mln', 
 written also Solyman, (Ibn-Abd-el-Malek,ib'n il Ki- 
 el mil'ek,) seventh Caliph of the Omeyyade dynasty, 
 succeeded to the throne in 715 A.D. Died in 717. 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. x:. 
 
 Soliman or Suleyman, (Ibn-Al-Hakem, ib'n al- 
 ha'kem,) a Moorish soldier, who took possession of 
 Cordova, and caused himself to be proclaimed king, in 
 1009 a.d. He was defeated and slain in 1016. 
 
 Solimena, so-le-ma'na, (Francesco,) a Neapolitan 
 painter and poet, sometimes called L'Abate Ciccio, 
 (chet'cho,) was born in 1657. Among his masterpieces 
 are his oil-paintings in the chapel of San Felippo Neri, 
 and the frescos of the sacristy of the Theatines of San 
 Paolo Maggiore. He was a friend of Luca Giordano, 
 whom he equalled in genius and reputation. He pub- 
 lished a collection of sonnets. Died in 1747. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Domenici, "Vite 
 de' Pittori Napoletani. 
 
 Solin. See Solinus. 
 
 So-li'nus, [Fr. Solin, so'I&n',] (Caius Julius,) a 
 Latin writer, of whom little is known, lived probably in 
 the third century. He left a work called " Polyhistor," 
 which describes the world known to the ancients, and 
 is a compilation from Pliny's " Natural History." Sal- 
 masius published an edition of the " Polyhistor," in 
 1629. 
 
 Solis, de, di so'less, (Juan Diaz,) a Spanish navi- 
 gator, born in the province of Seville, sailed in company 
 with Pinzon to the northern coast of South America, and 
 discovered Yucatan. In 1512 Solis set out on another 
 voyage, in which he discovered Cape Frio and obtained 
 information from the Indians of gold on the banks of the 
 river Paraguay. Having returned with this account, he 
 sailed again, in 15 15, with three vessels, but was mur- 
 dered, with a great part of his crew, by the Indians, soon 
 after landing. 
 
 Solis y Ribadeneira, de, da so'less e re-ba-Da- 
 na^e-ra, (Antonio,) a celebrated Spanish dramatist and 
 historian, born at Alcala de Henares in 1610. While 
 studying law at Salamanca, he published a comedy en- 
 titled " Love and Duty," which was very successful. 
 He was appointed secretary to Philip IV., and, after his 
 death, historiographer of the transactions of the Span- 
 iards in the Indies. Among his dramas we may name 
 the co.nedies of "The Gypsy-Girl of Madrid," (" La 
 Gitanilla" (or " Preciosa") "de Madrid,") "One Fool 
 will make a Hundred," (" Un Hobo hace Ciento,") and 
 " The Castle of Mystery," (" El Alcazar de Secreto.") 
 His " History of the Conquest of Mexico," (" Con- 
 quista de Mejico," 5 vols., 1684,) though not reliable in 
 point of accuracy and impartiality, possesses merit of a 
 rery high order, and has been translated into several 
 languages. Prescott observes, " In the judgment of 
 eminent Spanish critics, the style of Soils claims the 
 merits of perspicuity, copiousness, and classic elegance;" 
 and he adds, "such is the charm of its composition and 
 its exquisite finish as a work of art, that it will doubtless 
 be as imperishable as the language in which it is written, 
 
 or the memory of the events which it records." Died 
 in 1686. 
 
 See Prescott, " Conquest of Mexico," vol. iii. book vi. : Tick- 
 nor, " History of Spanish Literature ;" N. Antonio, " Bibliotheca 
 Hispana Nova ;" Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Sollohub or Sollogub. See Zoi.logub. 
 
 Sol'o-mon, [Heb. noSt? ; Gr. 2oXo,uuv; Fr. Salo- 
 mon, sa"lo'm6.N' ; Ger. Salomo, za'lo-mo,] a Jewish 
 king, whose name is proverbial for wisdom, was a son 
 of King David and Bathsheba. He was bom about 
 1033 B.C., and succeeded his father in 1015. He formed 
 an alliance with Pharaoh, King of Egypt, whose daughter 
 he married. Soon after his accession he began to build 
 the magnificent Temple which bore his name. He founded 
 the city of Tadmor or Palmyra. In his pacific reign the 
 Jewish kingdom rose to its highest prosperity and great- 
 est power. He wrote or compiled the collection of 
 Proverbs which form one of the canonical books of the 
 Bible ; also the Book of Ecclesiastes, and the Book of 
 Canticles. He married a large number of "strange 
 women," who seduced him into idolatry. He died, after 
 a reign of forty years, and was succeeded by' his son 
 Rehoboam. 
 
 See I. Kings i.— xi. : II. Chronicles i.-x. ; Thomas Thomas, 
 " History of the Reign of Solomon," 1813: J. L. EWALD. "Salomo; 
 Versuch einer psychologisch-bio.craphischen Darstellung," 1800. 
 
 Sol'o-mon, (Abraham,) an English painter, born 
 about 1823. Among his works is " Waiting for the 
 Verdict." Died at Biarritz in December, 1862. 
 
 Sol'o-mon Ben I'saac, a learned Jewish rabbi, 
 sometimes called Rashi, born at Troyes, in France, 
 about 1040, was the author of Commentaries on the 
 Hebrew Scriptures and the Talmud. Died in 1 105. 
 
 Sol'o-mon Ben Vir'ga, a Spanish physician and 
 rabbi of the sixteenth century, wrote, a history of the 
 Jews. ' 
 
 Sol'o-moa, (Denys,) Count, a modern Greek poet, 
 born in the island of Zante in 1798. Besides other poems, 
 he wrote about 1825 a " Hymn to Liberty," which was 
 very popular. Died in 1857. 
 
 So'lon, [Gr. ZoAwv; It. Soi.ONE, so-lo'ni,] an illus- 
 trious Athenian legislator, born in the island of Salamis 
 about 638 B.C., was a son of Execestides and a descend- 
 ant of Codrus. In his youth he was a merchant and 
 visited foreign countries. Some say, however, that he 
 travelled rather to gratify his curiosity and extend his 
 knowledge than to improve his fortune. He gained 
 distinction by his poetical talents in the early part of 
 his life, and cultivated chiefly that part of moral phi- 
 losophy which treats of civil obligations. Fragments 
 of his poetry are still extant and highly prized. The 
 first recorded public service of Solon was his successful 
 expedition to Salamis, which he recovered from the Me- 
 garians. When he began his career, the Athenian state 
 was demoralized by discordant factions and oppressive 
 laws. A large portion of the people were insolvent 
 debtors, liable to be reduced to slavery. There were 
 three political parties, thus described by Plutarch : " The 
 inhabitants of the mountains were, it seems, for a de- 
 mocracy, those of the plains for an oligarchy, and those 
 of the sea-coast contended for a mixed kind of govern- 
 ment." In 594 B.C. he was elected archon, and was 
 accepted as mediator and lawgiver .by the opposing 
 parties, "the rich accepting him readily as one of them, 
 and the poor as a good and worthy man." (Plutarch.) 
 He relieved debtors by a reduction of the rale of interest, 
 and, according to some authorities, cancelled debts and 
 liberated lands from mortgage. "This was the first ol 
 his public acts," says Plutarch, "that debts should be 
 forgiven, and that no man should take the body of his 
 debtor for security." He refused to make himself King 
 of Athens, although both parties urged him to accept 
 the supreme power. He repealed the bloody laws of 
 Draco, except those made for the punishment of munler. 
 He established the council or court of the Areopagus to be 
 inspectors and guardians of the laws, and he remodelled 
 the political constitution by dividing the people into four 
 classes, the influence or privilege of which was propor- 
 tioned to their income. The lowest class could vote, but 
 could not hold ofiice. He ordained that new measures 
 should be first considered in the senate, and, if they were 
 approved by that body, should be proposed to the popular 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; mowtj 
 
SOLON 
 
 2039 
 
 SOMERS 
 
 assembly, which had power to adopt or reject them. 
 Having been asked whether he had given the Athenians 
 the beat of laws, he answered, " The best they were 
 capable of receiving." After he had finished his great 
 legislative task, he obtained leave of absence for ten 
 years, and visited Egypt and Asia Minor. He returned 
 to Athens in his old age, and opposed the ambitious 
 designs of Pisistratus. Me began a poem, the subject 
 of which was the fabulous island of Atlantis, but did not 
 live to finish it Solon was ranked among the Seven 
 Sages of Greece. Died about 558 B.C. 
 
 See Plutarch, " Life of Solon ;" Meuksius, " Solon, seu de ejus 
 Vita, Legions," etc., 1632; G. Schmidt, *'De Solone Legislatore," 
 t68S : H. ScilEl.l.lNG, " De Solonis I^egibus," 1842 ; Grote. " History 
 of Greece ;" Bockh, "Economic politique des Atb^niens;" Kleine, 
 " Quajstiones de Solonis Vita et Fragmentis," 1832. 
 
 Solon, a Greek gem-engraver, who flourished proba- 
 bly about I A.D., and was a contemporary of Dioscorides. 
 His name occurs on several gems. 
 
 Soltikof, sol'te-kof, written also Soltikow, Sol- 
 tikov, and Ssaltykow, (Nicolai Ivanovitch,) a Rus- 
 sian general and statesman, born in 1736, was tutor to 
 the grand duke Alexander, afterwards emperor. He was 
 appointed field-marshal in 1796, president of the Impe- 
 rial Council in 1812, and made a prince in 1814. Died 
 in 1816. His grandson Alexei has published "Travels 
 in India," (1849,) and "Travels in Persia," (1851,) in 
 French and Russian. 
 
 See Svinini. " Histoire du Feld-Marechal Soltikof." 1818. 
 
 Soltikof, Soltikow, or Ssaltykow, (Peter Se- 
 MENOvitch,) a Russian general, born about 1700, became 
 in 1759 commander-in-chief of the Russian army in the 
 Seven Years' war, and shared in the victory of iCuners- 
 dorf over Frederick the Great. He was created a field- 
 marshal, and appointed governor-general of Moscow. 
 Died in 1772. 
 
 Soltikof or Soltikow, (Prascovia Fedorovna,) 
 was married to the Czar Ivan Alexeievitch, and was the 
 mother of the empress Anna. 
 
 Soltyk, sol'tik, (Roman,) a Polish nobleman and 
 patriot, born at Warsaw in 1 791, served in the French 
 army in the campaigns of 1810-12, and afterwards took 
 an active part in the insurrection of 1830. He died in 
 1843, leaving a work entitled " Napoleon in 1812." 
 
 Soltyk, (Stanislas,) a Polish patriot, born in 1751, 
 was the father of the preceding. Me was exiled about 
 1794, and was marshal of the Diet in 181 1. Died in 
 1830. 
 
 SolvyriB, sol-vins', (Francis Bai.thasar,) a Flemish 
 writer and artist, born at Antwerp in 1760. Me spent 
 many years in Mindostan, and published, after his re- 
 turn, a work entitled "The Hindoos, or a Picturesque 
 Description of the Manners, Customs, and Religious 
 Ceremonies of this People," (4 vols., in French.) Died 
 in 1824. 
 
 Sol'y^man or Soliman [Turk. pron. so'lee-min' or 
 so-la-mSn'| I., written also Suleyman, sdo-la-min', an 
 Ottoman Sultan, eldest son of Bayazeed, (Hajazet,) was 
 involved in a contest with his brother Moosa, and was 
 killed in battle in 1410. 
 
 Solyman or Soliman It, surnamed the Magnifi- 
 cent, Sultan of Turkey, born in 1496, was the son of 
 Selim I., whom he succeeded in 1520 a.d. Soon after 
 his accession he invaded Hungary and took Belgrade, 
 and in 1522 besieged Rhodes, which surrendered after 
 an obstinate defence. In 1526 he defeated Louis M., 
 King of Hungary, at the battle of Mohacz. Having 
 bestowed the crown of Hungary upon John Zapolya, 
 Solyman roused the opposition of Ferdinand of Austria, 
 against whom he subsequently turned his arms. He 
 also subjected a large portion of Persia and Arabia, and 
 in 1537 gained a signal victory over the Austrian* at 
 Esseic, resulting in the conquest of Croatia. In 1560 his 
 general, Piali, defeated the combined fleet of the Chris- 
 tian powers at Jerbeh, and a truce was concluded with 
 Austria in 1562, leaving Turkey in possession of her 
 conquests in Hungary. The Turks, having besieged 
 Malta in 1565, were repulsed with a heavy loss, and in 
 1566 Solyman died, while engaged in the siege of Szi- 
 geth in Hungary. He was one of the ablest rulers of his 
 country and his time, and equally eminent in the arts of 
 
 war and of peace. He constructed numerous magnifi- 
 cent public edifices, encouraged learning and the arts, 
 and was distinguished for his literary attainments. He 
 was succeeded by his son, Selim II. 
 
 See C. Ancillon, " Histoire de la Vie de Soliman II," J706; 
 Von Hammer, "Geschichte des Osinanischen Reichs ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale ;" Robertson, " History of Charles V.," vol. ii. 
 book ii. 
 
 Solyman or Soliman, son of Ibraheem, became 
 Sultan of Turkey in 1687, his brother, Mahomet IV., 
 having been deposed. During his reign the Austrian* 
 regained a great part of Hungary, previously conquered 
 by the Turks. He died in 1691, and was succeeded by 
 his brother, Ahmed II. 
 
 So'ma, in the Hindoo mythology, a name for the 
 moon. (See Chandra.) 
 
 Sombreuil, de, deh s6N'bRuI', (Charles Virot,) a 
 French officer, distinguished for his zeal and courage in 
 the defence of the royal cause, was born in 1769. He 
 commanded a party of royalist emigrants who took arms 
 against the republic. He was captured at Quiberon, and 
 shot, in 1795. 
 
 Sombreuil, de, (Marie Maurii.le Virot,) a sister 
 of the preceding, was born near Limoges in 1774. She 
 saved the life of her father from the massacre of Sep- 
 tember, 1793, after he had been imprisoned in Paris. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 Somer, van. See Vansomer, (Paul.) 
 
 Somer, van, vin so'mer, (Jan,) a Dutch mezzotint 
 engraver, flourished about 1675. • 
 
 Someren, van, vSn so'mer-en, (Jan,) a Dutch lawyer 
 and poet, born at Dort in 1622, was a friend of Htty- 
 ghens. He was noted for learning and eloquence. Died 
 in 1676. 
 
 Somers, sum'erz, (John,) Lord Somers, an excellent 
 English statesman and lawyer, born at Worcester about 
 1650, was a son of John Somers, an attorney. He was 
 educated at Trinity College, Oxford, studied law at the 
 Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1076. He 
 continued to reside for about five years at the university, 
 where he wrote, besides other works, "A Brief History 
 of the Succession of the Crown of England," (1681,) and 
 "The Security of Englishmen's Lives; or, The Trust, 
 Power, and Duty of the Grand Juries of England." He 
 also translated into verse some of Ovid's " Epistles." In 
 1682 he began to practise law in London. His success 
 as a pleader was remarkably rapid. He was selected in 
 1688 as one of the counsel for the defence in the impor- 
 tant trial of the seven bishops. He spoke briefly in this 
 case, "but every word," says Macaulay, "was full of 
 weighty matter ; and when he sat down,^iis reputation 
 as an orator and a constitutional lawyer was established." 
 
 He was an intimate friend of the Earl of Shrewsbury, 
 and was a constant adherent of the Whig party. He 
 represented Worcester in the Parliament or Conven- 
 tion which met in January, 1689, and was a member 
 of the first, and chairman of the second, of the two com- 
 mittees which prepared the memorable Declaration of 
 Rights. In 1689 he was appointed solicitor-general, and 
 knighted. He became attorney-general in May, 1692, and 
 lord keeper of the great seal in March, 1693. "Neither 
 in forensic nor in parliamentary eloquence," says Mac- 
 aulay, "had he any superior. The consistency of his 
 public conduct had gained for him the entire confidence 
 of the Whigs; and the urbanity of his manners had 
 conciliated the Tories. It was not without great reluc- 
 tance that he consented to quit an assembly over which 
 he exercised an immense influence for an assembly where 
 it would be necessary for him to sit in silence." (" His- 
 tory of England," vol. iv. chap, xix.) 
 
 In 1697 he was appointed lord chancellor, and received 
 the title of Baron Somers of Evesham. The great seal 
 was taken from him in 1700, in consequence of a reso- 
 lution of the House of Commons. He was impeached 
 by the Tory majority of the lower House, but was 
 acquitted by the Lords, (1701.) While he was in power 
 he patronized Locke and Addison, the latter of whom 
 dedicated to Lord Somers the first volume of his " Spec- 
 tator," and said, " I know that the homage I now pay 
 you is offering a kind of violence to one who is as 
 solicitous to shun applause as he is assiduous to deserve 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. {$&~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SOMEkSET 
 
 2040 
 
 SONNE RAT 
 
 it." He was appointed president of the council in 1708, 
 when the Whig party returned to power. He died In 
 April, 1716. Lord Somers was never married. " He was 
 equally eminent," says Macaulay, "as a jurist and as a 
 
 Eolitician, as an orator and as a writer. His speeches 
 ave perished; but his state papers remain, and are 
 models of terse, luminous, and dignified eloquence." 
 ("History of England," vol. iv. chap, xx.) 
 
 See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors ;" Cook- 
 bey, "Essay on the Life and Character of Lord Somers," 1791 ; 
 Henry Maddock, "Life of Lord Somers," 1812; "Westminster 
 Review" for October, 1847. 
 
 Somerset, siim'er-set, (Chari.es,) was an illegitimate 
 son of Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, who was 
 executed in 1463. He was a man of eminent talents, 
 and performed important diplomatic missions in the 
 reign of Henry VII. He was created Earl of Worcester 
 in 1513 or 1514. Died in 1526. 
 
 Somerset, (Chari.es Seymour,) Duke of, called 
 " the Proud Duke of Somerset," was the second in rank 
 among the temporal peers of the realm. He acquired 
 ":he greatest estate in England by his marriage with the 
 heiress of the noble family of Percy. He was a Prot- 
 estant and a Whig. In 1687 he offended James II. by 
 his refusal to officiate in a procession of the papal nuncio. 
 He was an adherent of William HI. in 1688, and acted 
 a prominent part in the reign of Anne. Died in 1748, 
 aged eighty-seven. 
 
 Somerset, Earl of, (favourite of James I.) See 
 Carr, Robert. . 
 
 Somerset, (Edward.) See Worcester, Marquisof. 
 
 Somerset, (Edward Adolphus Saint Maur,) 
 Duke of, an English Liberal statesman, the eldest son 
 of the eleventh Duke, was born in 1804. He was styled 
 Ivord Seymour previous to 1855, when he succeeded to 
 the dukedom. He was first lord of the admiralty from 
 June, 1859, to June, 1866. 
 
 Somerset, (Edward Seymour,) Earl of He-rtford, 
 Duke of Somerset, and Protector of England, was a 
 brother of Jane Seymour, queen of Henry VIII., and 
 an uncle of Edward VI. He commanded an army which 
 invaded Scotland in 1544 and committed great devas- 
 tation. On the death of Henry VIII., in 1547, he re- 
 seived the title of Duke of Somerset, and became lord 
 treasurer and Protector of the realm. He favoured the 
 Protestant cause. In 1547 he undertook to coerce Mary, 
 Queen of Scots, to marry Edward VI., and defeated the 
 Scotch at Pinkie Cleugh. He found a rival in his own 
 brother, Thomas Seymour, who conspired against the 
 Protector and was executed for treason in 1 549. Som- 
 erset made many enemies by his ambition, his severity, 
 and his zeal against popery. His most powerful enemy 
 was the Earl of Warwick, by whose agency he was de- 
 prived of his high office in 1549. He was tried on the 
 charges of treason and felony, convicted of the latter 
 crime, and beheaded in January, 1552. He left several 
 sons, one of whom, named Edward, was created Earl 
 of Hertford about 1558, and married Catherine Grey, a 
 sister of Lady Jane. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England." 
 
 Somerset, (Fitzroy.) See Raglan, Lord. 
 
 Somerset, (Sir Henry,) a British general, born in 
 1794, was a grandson of the Duke of Beaufort. He 
 served with distinction in the Caffre war. Died in 1862. 
 
 Somerset, (Henry de Beaufort,) Duke of, was 
 a descendant of John of Gaunt. He fought for the Lan- 
 castrians in the war of the Roses, was taken prisoner at 
 Hexham and beheaded in 1463. 
 
 Somerset, (John de Beaufort,) Earl of, a son 
 of John of Gaunt, and a grandson of Edward III., was 
 created Earl of Somerset about 1396. Died in 1410. 
 
 Somerville, siim'er-vii, (Mrs. Mary,) an eminent 
 astronomer and scientific writer, che daughter of Sir 
 William Fairfax, was born at Jedburgh, in Scotland, 
 about 1780. At the request of Lord Brougham, she 
 wrote for the " Library of Useful Knowledge" a summary 
 of the " Mecanique Celeste" of Laplace, which appeared 
 in 1832 under the title of " Mechanism of the Heavens." 
 Her other principal works are a treatise " On the Con- 
 nexion of the Physical Sciences," (1834,) and " Physical 
 Geography," (2 vols. i2mo, 1848.) She was elected an 
 
 honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society, 
 and received a pension of three hundred pounds a year 
 in acknowledgment of her great services to science. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1832; "Blackwood's Mag- 
 azine" for October, 1849; and a notice in the "Atlantic Monthly" 
 for May, i860, (by Miss Maria Mitchell) 
 
 Somerville, (Thomas,) a Scottish divine and his- 
 torian, was born at Hawick in 1741. He published a 
 " History of the Reign of William III.," (1792,) and a 
 " History of Great Britain under the Reign of Queen 
 Anne," (1798.) Died in 1830. 
 
 See his "Autobiography," 1861. 
 
 Somerville, stim'er-vil, (William,) an English poet, 
 born in Warwickshire in 1692. His principal work is 
 a poem in blank verse, entitled "The Chase." He also 
 wrote lyrics, tales, and fables, and a poem called "Field 
 Sports." Died in 1742. 
 
 Sommariva, som-ma-ree'va, (Giovanni Batttsta,) 
 an Italian statesman and celebrated collector of pictures, 
 was born at Milan. He was one of the directors of the 
 Cisalpine republic in 1800-1802. Died in 1826. 
 
 Sommer, so'maiR', (Jean Edouard Albert,) a 
 French writer, born at Nancy in 1822. He published 
 several dictionaries. 
 
 Sommerard. See Du Sommerard. 
 
 Sommering or Soemmering, von, fon som'meh- 
 ring or zbm'meh-ring, (Samuel Thomas,) a celebrated 
 German anatomist and physiologist, born at Thorn in 
 1755. He studied at Gbttingen, and became professor 
 of anatomy at Mentz in 1784. Among his numerous and 
 valuable works we may name his treatise, in German, " On 
 the Brain and Spinal Marrow," (1788,) "On the Struc- 
 ture of the Human Body," (5 vols., 1791,) " On the Organ 
 of the Soul," (1796.) and (in Latin) "On the Diseases 
 of the Absorbing Vessels of the Human Body." He 
 maintained the theory that the nerves act independently 
 of the brain, which he considered not essential to the 
 continuance of life. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Rudolph Wagner, " Soemmering's Leben und Verkebr mit 
 seinen Zeitgenossen," 2 vols., 1844: I. Dollinger, "Gedachtniss- 
 rede anf S. T. von Soemmering," 1830; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale." 
 
 Sommier, so'me-i', (Jean Claude,) a French prel- 
 ate and writer, borTT'at Vauvillers in 1661, published 
 "Dogmatic History of Religion," (" Histoire dogmatique 
 de la Religion," 6 vols., 1708-11,) and other works. 
 Died in 1737. 
 
 Somner, sum'ner, (William,) an English antiquary 
 and philologist, born at Canterbury in 1606. He pub- 
 lished "The Antiquities of Canterbury," ( 1640,) a " Saxon 
 Dictionary," (1659,) a "Treatise on Gavelkind," one "On 
 the Roman Ports and Forts in Kent," and other valuable 
 works. He was a friend of Archbishop Usher and other 
 learned men of the time. Died in 1669. 
 
 Som'nus, |Gr. "Tttvoc; Fr. Sommeil, so'mil' or so'- 
 mA'ye,] in classic mythology, the god of sleep, was called 
 a son of Erebus and Nox, and a brother of Death, 
 (Mors or Thanatos.) (See Morpheus.) 
 
 Sonderland, son'der-lant'or zon'der-lant', (Johann 
 BAPTIST,) a German painter and engraver, born at Dus- 
 seldorf in 1804, was a pupil of Schadow. Among his 
 best works are etchings illustrating Burger's "Lenore," 
 and "The Magician's Pupil," by Goethe. 
 
 Sonnenberg, son'nen-beRu' or zon ' nen - 1>2rg', 
 (Franz Anton Joseph Ignaz Maria,) Baron, a 
 German poet and imitator of Klopstock, was born at 
 Minister, in Westphalia, in 1779. Died in 1805. 
 
 See Gruber, " Lebensbeschreibung Sonnenbergs," 1806. 
 
 Sonneufels, von, fon son'nen-fSIs' or zrm'nen-fils', 
 (Joseph,) a German writer, born at Nikolsburg, in 
 Moravia, in 1733. He became professor of political 
 science at Vienna in 1763, and filled several high offices 
 under Maria Theresa and the emperor Francis II. He 
 published in 1775 a treatise "On the Abolition of the 
 Torture," which was chiefly instrumental in abolishing 
 that barbarous practice in Austria. Died in 1817. 
 
 Sonnerat, son'rS', (Pierre,) a French naturalist, 
 born at Lyons about 1746. He spent about seven years 
 in exploring Hindostan, Malacca, the Philippine Islands, 
 etc., and published an account of his travels, entitled 
 "Travels in the East Indies and China," ("Voyage aux 
 
 a, e, I, o, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, 1?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
SOKNLXI 
 
 2041 
 
 SOPHRON 
 
 Incles Orienlales et a la Chine," 2 vols., 17S2,) which is 
 esteemed valuable. Died in Paris in 1S14. 
 
 Sonnini de Manoncourt. so'uc'nc' deh mit'noN'- 
 kooR', (Ciiaki.es Nicolas Sm;isbekt,) a celebrated 
 French naturalist and traveller, born at Luneville in 
 1 751. He studied at the Jesuits' College at Pont-a- 
 Mousson, and in 1772 was sent as an officer of marine 
 engineers to Cayenne, where he spent several years in 
 scientific researches. In 1777 he accompanied Baron 
 de Tott on his African expedition, visiting Egypt, 
 Greece, and Asia Minor. He returned to France in 
 1780, and was imprisoned in the reign of terror. Among 
 his chief works are "Travels in Egypt," (3 vt>ls., 1799,) 
 "Travels in Greece and Turkey," (2 vols., t8ot,) and 
 "Natural History of Fishes and Cetaceae," (14 vols., 
 1804.) He published a complete edition of the works 
 of LSuffon, (127 vols., 1798-1807.) Died in Paris In 1812. 
 He had been employed by Buffon to describe many 
 species of birds for his "Natural History." 
 
 SeeTmiBAUT de Berneauo, " £loge historique de Sonnini," 
 1812: " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale;" " Monthly Review" for 
 January, 1802. 
 
 Sontag, son'tag or zon'tac, (Henriettk,) one of the 
 most celebrated female vocalists of Germany, was born at 
 Coblentz in 1805. Having studied at the Conservatory 
 of Music at Prague, she visited successively the principal 
 cities of Germany, Paris, and London, being received 
 everywhere with enthusiastic applause. In 1830 she 
 was married to Count Rossi, ambassador of Sardinia at 
 the Hague, and retired from the stage. Owing to pecu- 
 niary embarrassments, she appeared again in public in 
 1S4S, and in 1853 set out for America, where she also 
 met with brilliant success. She died in 1854, while on 
 the way to Mexico. 
 
 See "Memoirs of the Countess de Rossi," London, 1849; T. 
 Gautirr. " L'Ambassadrice ; Biographie de la Comtesse de Rossi," 
 1850; " Blackwood's Magazine" for June, 1850. 
 
 Sonthonajt,sAN'to'nSks',(LECER F£uciTE,)aFrench 
 political agent, born in Bugey (Ain) in 1763. He was 
 sent in 1792 as commissary to Hayti to restore order, 
 and liberated the slaves of that island in 1793, in con- 
 sequence of which the pro-slavery party commenced a 
 civil war. Died in 1813. 
 
 Soodra or Sudra, written also Cudra, soo'dra, 
 Called Soo'der by the modern Hindoos, [etymology 
 uncertain.) The Soodras are the lowest of the four prin- 
 cipal Hindoo castes. (See Brahmanism.) 
 
 Soomarokof or Sumarokow, soo-ma-ro'kof, writ- 
 ten also Somarokof and Sumarokov, a Russian 
 poet and dramatist, called the founder of the Russian 
 drama, was born at Moscow in 1718 or 1727. He was 
 the author of both comedies and tragedies. Anion!; 
 the latter we may name his "Demetrius," and " Sinov 
 and Truvor." lie also wrote numerous lyrics, elegies, 
 sonnets, epigrams, and satires. Died in 1777. 
 
 Soora. See Suras. 
 
 Soorya. See SOrya. 
 
 Sop'a-ter [£<ijrarpoc] of Apamea, a Greek Sophist, 
 and a pupil of Jamblichus. He enjoyed for a time the 
 favour of Constantine the Great, but was afterwards put 
 to death by him, about 334 \.i>. 
 
 So-phi'a, |Ger. Sophie, zo-fee'eh ; Fr. Sophie, so'- 
 fe ',] Electressof Hanover, born about 1630, was adaugh- 
 ter of the Elector-Palatine. Her mother was Elizabeth, 
 a daughter of James I. of England. Sophia was married 
 in 1658 to Ernest Augustus, Duke of Biunswick-I.ime- 
 burg, who became Elector of Hanover. She was intimate 
 with Leibnitz. In 1701 she was recognized as the heir 
 to the English crown (next to the princes* Anne) by 
 Parliament, which preferred her to other members of 
 the royal family because she was a Protestant. Her son 
 became George I. of England. She died in 1 7 14 
 
 See Fedek, *' Sophie Churfiirsten von Hannover, »m Umriss," 
 1810. 
 
 So-phi'a Al-ex-I-ev'na, a Russian princess, (laugh- 
 ter of the Czar Alexis Mikhailovitch, and half-sister of 
 Peter the Great, was born in 1657. She was ambitious and 
 energetic. At the death of Feodor (1682) she instigated 
 the Strelitzes to revolt against Peter I., and caused her 
 brother Ivan to be recognized as joint sovereign with 
 Peter. She acted as regent from 1682 to 1689, and then 
 was confined in a convent. Died in 1704. 
 
 So-phi'a Dor-o-the'a [Ger, Sophie Dorothea, zo- 
 fee'eh do-ro-ta'a ; Fr. Sophie Dokoth£k, so'fe' do'ro'- 
 ta'J of Brunswick, born in 1666, was a daughter of 
 George William, Duke of Zell. She was married in 1682 
 to her cousin George, afterwards George I. of England, 
 who treated her ill. Having been suspected of a passion 
 for the Count de Konigsmarck, she was divorced in 1694, 
 and confined in prison until she died, in 1726. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Sophia Dorothea, Consort of George I.," Lon- 
 don, 2 vols., 1845; Henri Blaze, "Les Koenigsmark," 1S56. 
 
 Sophia Dorothea, Queen of Prussia, bom in 1687, 
 was a daughter of George I. of England. She was mar- 
 ried to Frederick William I. of Prussia. Died in 1757. 
 
 Sophie. See Sophia. 
 
 Soph'o-cles, |Gr. SocWjkv Fr. Sophoci.e. so'fok'1',1 
 a celebrated Greek tragic poet, born at the village of 
 Colonus, near Athens, in 495 B.C. He received a liberal 
 education. His first drama was represented in 468, when 
 he appeared as a rival of ^ischylus, and gained the first 
 prize, which was awarded by Cimon and other judges. 
 The drama which he exhibited at this time is supposed 
 to have been "Triptolemus," which is not extant. We 
 have no record of the events of his life between the years 
 468 and 440 B.C., when he produced his "Antigone," 
 which was very successful. The Athenians were so well 
 pleased with it that they elected Sophocles one of the 
 ten strategi, or generals. The illustrious Pericles was 
 one of the strategi chosen at the same time. Sophocles 
 acted as a general in the war against Samos in 440- 
 439, but did not distinguish himself in military affairs. 
 His conduct appears to have been consistent with 
 the patriotic sentiments expressed in his writings. He 
 was invited to their courts by several monarchs, but 
 always refused to abandon his native country or accept 
 their patronage. 
 
 He composed more than a hundred tragedies, of which 
 seven are extant, namely, "Antigone," "Electra," "Tra- 
 chiniae," "CEdipus Tyrannus," " Ajax," " Philoctetes," 
 and "CEdipus at Colonus." He is said to have gained 
 the first prize twenty times or more. His son Iophon 
 was distinguished as a dramatic poet. Sophocles was 
 remarkable for personal beauty and symmetry, and 
 excelled in music and gymnastics. He died in 405 B.C. 
 
 " By the universal consent of the best critics," says 
 Professor Philip Smith, "both of ancient and of modern 
 times, the tragedies of Sophocles are not only the per- 
 fection of the Greek drama, but they approach as nearly 
 as is conceivable to the perfect ideal model of that 
 species of poetry." (See Smith's "Dictionary of Greek 
 and Roman Biography," etc.) 
 
 " Sophocles was the high-priest of humanity. He 
 chose, as he phrased it, ' to put away the pomp of /tis- 
 chylus along with his childish things ;' and he exhibited 
 that mild grandeur and matchless refinement in which 
 he excels all the dramatists of Greece. He made tragic 
 poetry a true mirror of the passions of the soul of 
 man, and exhibited, as has seldom been done, the true 
 moral significance of human action." ("Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica.") 
 
 See Lessing, "Leben des Sophocles," 1790; Scholi., " Sopho- 
 kles, sein Leben tind Wirken," etc.. 1S42; Bengk, " De Vita So- 
 phoclis," 1858; K. O. Mui.tJiR, "History of the Literature of 
 Ancient Greece ;" Wki.cker, " Die Griechischen Tragodien," 3 
 vols., 1830-41: F. Scnt'1-TZ. " Coninientatio de Vita Sophoclis 
 Poetae." 1836; Reuter, " Dissertatio de ^Eschylo, Sophocle et 
 Kuripide," 1831. 
 
 Sophocles, the son of Ariston, an Athenian tragic 
 poet, was a grandson of the great Sophocles. He flour- 
 ished about 390 B.C., and produced numerous dramas, 
 some of which gained prizes. 
 
 Sophonie or Sophonias. See Zephaniah. 
 
 Soph-o-nis'ba, [Gr. Xo<jiitvta6a ; Fr. Sophonisbe, go'- 
 fo'nesb',] a Carthaginian lady, became the wife of Syphax, 
 King of Numidia, about 206 B.C. She was taken pris- 
 oner in 203 by Masinissa, who had formerly been her 
 lover. He married her, or resolved to many her; but 
 Scipio would not permit him to keep her, because he 
 feared she would convert him into an ally of Carthage. 
 She died by poison given to her by Masinissa. 
 
 Sophonisbe. See Sophunisiia. 
 
 So'phron, [Zutyw,] a Greek comic poet, born at 
 Syracuse about 450 or 425 B.C. He is considered to be 
 
 eas&;<;3ss;g/iard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; i as *; th as in this. (Jig^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SOPRANI 
 
 2042 
 
 SOVBISE 
 
 the inventor of " mimes." His works, which are lost, 
 except small fragments, were greatly admired by Plato, 
 who is said to have been largely indebted to them. So- 
 phron wrote in the Doric dialect. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graeca;" Grysar, "De Comcedia 
 Doriensium : de Sophrone mimographo," 1838. 
 
 Soprani, so-pra'nee, (Raffaello,) an Italian biogra- 
 pher, born at Genoa in 1612. He wrote "The Lives of 
 the Genoese Painters, Sculptors, and Architects," (in 
 Italian, 1674.) Died in 1672. 
 
 So-ra'nus, [Swpavoc,] a celebrated Greek physician, 
 born at Ephesus, was the son of Menander, and lived 
 under the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. He was the 
 author of a treatise " On the Obstetric Art," etc., a por- 
 tion of which is extant, and of other medical works. 
 
 Soranzo, so-ran'zo, (Giovanni,) a Venetian states- 
 man, was elected doge in 1312. He is said to have 
 governed wisely. Died in 1327. 
 
 Sorbait, soR'bi' or soR'blt, (Paul,) a medical writer, 
 born in Hainault, practised in Vienna. Died in 1691. 
 
 Sorbier, soR'be-4', (Jean Bartholome,) a French 
 general of artillery, was born in Paris in 1762. He served 
 at Borodino, Lutzen, and Leipsic. Died in 1827. 
 
 Sorbiere, soK'be^aJR', (Samuel,) a French littera- 
 teur, born at Saint-Ambroix in 1615. He studied medi- 
 cine, and wrote, besides other works, " Letters on Divers 
 Curious Matters," (1660,) and a " Life of Gassendi," 
 (1662.) He received the title of historiographer to the 
 king in 1660. Died in 1670. 
 
 See " Sorberiana," Toulouse, 1691 ; Nickron, "Memoires." 
 
 Sorbin de Sainte-Foi, soR'baN' deh saNt'fwa', 
 (Arnaud,) a French priest and polemical writer, born 
 in 1532. He became court preacher to Charles IX. and 
 Henry III., the latter of whom appointed him Bishop 
 of Nevers in 1578. Died in 1606. 
 
 See Rev, " Vie d'A. Sorbin," i860 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Q6n&- 
 rale." 
 
 Sorbon, de, deh sor'1)6n', (Robert,) a French ec- 
 clesiastic, born near Rethel in 1201, was confessor to 
 Saint Louis, and founded about 1250 the College of the 
 Sorbonne in Paris. Died in 1274. 
 
 See Morkri, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Sor'bjf, (Henry Clifton,) an English geologist, 
 born at Sheffield in 1826. He has contributed numerous 
 scientific articles to the " Edinburgh New Philosophical 
 Journal," and other periodicals of the kind, and has been 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Geo- 
 logical Society. 
 
 Sordello, soR-del'lo, an Italian poet, born near 
 Mantua in the twelfth century. He was patronized by 
 Charles of Anjou, and wrote amatory and satirical 
 poems. He is eulogized by Dante in his " Purgatorio." 
 Died after 1266. 
 
 Sorel, so'rel', (Agnes,) a beautiful Frenchwoman, 
 born in Touraine, became the mistress of King Charles 
 VII., over whom she exercised great influence. She 
 incited him to greater resolution and activity in resisting 
 the English invaders, who had conquered a large part 
 of France. She was a woman of superior talents. Died 
 in 1450. 
 
 Sorel, (Charles,) a French novelist and historian, 
 born in Paris about 1597. Among his works were a 
 "Comic History of Francion," (" Histoire comique de 
 Francion," 1622,) a " History of the French Monarchy," 
 (1636,) and "French Library," (" Bibliotheque Fran- 
 chise," 1664.) Died in 1674. 
 
 Sorgo. See Zorgh. 
 
 Sorri, sor'ree, (PiETRO,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Sienna in 1556. He painted history, landscapes, and 
 portraits. His works are highly praised. Died in 1622. 
 
 Sor-tain', (Joseph,) an English writer, born in 1809, 
 was for many years minister of an Independent church 
 at Brighton. He published, besides other works, " Lec- 
 tures on Romanism and Anglo-Catholicism," (1841,) 
 and a " Life of Lord Bacon," (1851.) Died in i860. 
 
 See " Life of J. Sortain," by his widow, 1861. 
 
 So-sib'I-us, [Swot'Sioc,] an Athenian sculptor of un- 
 known date. Among his works is a vase adorned with 
 figures of Artemis and Hermes. This vase is now in the 
 Louvre, at Paris. 
 
 So-sig'e-nes, [Gr. Y,umyhrjc ; Fr. Sosigene, so'ze'- 
 zh£n',] a Greek or Egyptian astronomer, born in Egypt, 
 was a Peripatetic in philosophy. He was employed by 
 Julius Caesar (46 B.C.) to reform the calendar, and de- 
 fined a year to be three hundred and sixty-five jays and 
 five or six hours. 
 
 So-aiph'a-nes, [Gr. "Zuaupavris ; Fr. Sosiphane, so'- 
 zc'fSn',] a Greek tragic poet of Syracuse, lived about 
 300 B.C. He is said to have been one of the seven 
 poets called the " Tragic Pleiad." 
 
 Sosithee. See Sositheus. 
 
 So-sith'e-us, [Gr. Zuotteoc; Fr. Sosithee, so'ze'tj',] 
 a Greek poet of the Alexandrian school, lived in the 
 third century B.C. 
 
 Sost, sost, Soest, or Zoest, (Gerard,) a German 
 portrait-painter, born in Westphalia in 1637. He worked 
 in England. Died in 1681. 
 
 Sostrate. See Sostratus. 
 
 Sos'tra-tus, [Gr. Zworparoc,' Fr. Sostrate, so'strSt', 1 
 a Greek architect, born at Cnidos, lived about 300 B.C. 
 Among his works was the Pharos of Alexandria. 
 
 Sostratus of Chios, a Greek statuary, the master 
 of Pandas, is supposed to have lived about 400 B.C. 
 
 Sot'a-de3, [Gr. luruirK; Fr. Sotade, so'ttd',] a 
 Greek poet, who flourished at Alexandria about 280 
 B.C. His poems were extremely lascivious. He was 
 imprisoned by Ptolemy Philadelphus, against whom he 
 had written a lampoon. 
 
 So'ter, was elected Bishop of Rome about 165 a.d. 
 He is said to have opposed the doctrines of Montanus. 
 Died in 177. 
 
 Sotheby, siith'be, (Samuel Leigh,) an English 
 antiquary and bibliographer of London, bom in 1805 ; 
 died in 1861. 
 
 Sotheby, (William,) an English scholar and poet, 
 born in London in 1757. He made a number of trans- 
 lations from the German and other languages, among 
 which we may name the "Oberon" of Wieland, Virgil's 
 "Georgics," and Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey." He 
 was also the author of a tragedy entitled " Orestes," 
 and of "Constance de Castile," and other poems. He 
 was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and of the Society of 
 Antiquaries. Died in 1833. 
 
 See "Edinburgh Review" for April, 1807; " Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for April and May, 1831, and February, 1832. 
 
 Soto, so'to, (Domingo,) a Spanish Dominican monk, 
 born at Segovia in 1494, became professor of philosophy 
 at Alcala in 1519. He was sent in 1545 by Charles V. 
 as his first theologian to the Council of Trent, where he 
 was conspicuous for learning and ability. He afterwards 
 became confessor to Charles V. He wrote "Summulae," 
 or a treatise on the Dialects and Physics of Aristotle, 
 and other works in Latin. Died in 1560. 
 
 Soto, so'to, (Pedro,) a Spanish monk, who went to 
 England with Philip II. He was afterwards a member 
 of the Council of Trent. Died in 1563. 
 
 Soto, de, (Hernando.) See De Soto. 
 
 Sotomayor, de, da so-to -ma-yoR', (Luis,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Valencia in 1635 ; died in 1673. 
 
 Sotzmann, sots'man, (Daniel Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man geographer, born at Spandau in 1754, published a 
 number of valuable maps and charts. Died in 1840. 
 
 Soubeiran, soo'bi'roN', (Eugene,) a French writer 
 on pharmacy, born in Paris in 1797. He became pro- 
 fessor in the School of Pharmacy, Paris. Died in 185S. 
 
 Soubeyran, (Pierre,) a Swiss engraver, born at 
 Geneva in 1709, worked in Paris. Died in 1775. 
 
 Soubise, soo'bez', (Jean de Parthenai — deh piRt'- 
 ni/,) Lord of, a Huguenot leader, born of a noble 
 family of Poitou about 1512. Sent by the Prince of 
 Conde to defend Lyons, he compelled the Duke of Ne- 
 mours to raise the siege of that place. Died in 1566. 
 
 Soubise, de, deh soo'bez', (Benjamin de Rohan — 
 deh ro'dN',) Seigneur, a French nobleman and soldier 
 of the Huguenot party, born about 1585, was a brother 
 of the Duke de Rohan. He took an active part in the 
 religious wars of the time, and fought with varying suc- 
 cess against Louis XIII. and the Catholic faction. He 
 was noted for his turbulence and audacity. In 1626 a 
 peace was concluded, and Soubise was created a duke. 
 Soon after this date he induced the Duke of Bucking- 
 
 I, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SOUBISE 
 
 2043 
 
 SOU MET 
 
 ham to aid the Huguenots with an English fleet. He 
 passed his latter years in England, and died in London 
 in 1642. 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Soubise, de, (Charles de Rohan,) Prince, a 
 French general, born in Paris in 1715. He became a 
 favourite courtier of Louis XV. In 1757 he was de- 
 feated by Frederick the Great at Rossbach. He gained 
 two victories in 1758, at Sondershausen and Lutzelberg, 
 and was rewarded with the rank of marshal of France. 
 Died in 1787. 
 
 See De Courcellbs, " Dictionnaire des Geneiaux Francais;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Souchay or Souchai, soo'shj', (Jean Baptists,) a 
 French writer and editor, born near Vendome in 1688. 
 I le edited the works of Boileau (1 735) and other authors. 
 Died in 1746. 
 
 Souckon, soo'shdN', (Francois,) a French painter, 
 born at Alais (Gard) in 1785 ; died in 1857. 
 
 Souciet, soo'se-j', or Souchiet, soo'she-i', (En- 
 ENNE,) a learned French priest, born at Bourges in 
 1671. He wrote on theology, chronology, etc Died 
 in 1744. 
 
 Souciet, (Etienne Augustin,) a brother of the 
 preceding, born at Bourges in 1685, was an elegant 
 Latinist. He wrote a Latin poem on comets, (" Co- 
 meta;," 1710.) Died in 1744. 
 
 Soufflot, soo'flo', (Jacques Germain,) a celebrated 
 French architect, born near Auxerre in 1713. He spent 
 several years at Rome in the study of his profession, 
 and after his return constructed the Great Hospital at 
 Lyons, also a theatre of uncommon size and elegance. 
 Having settled in Paris, he was elected to the Academy 
 of Architecture, and in J 757 was employed to rebuild 
 the church of Saint Genevieve, since called the Pan- 
 theon, a superb edifice, which, however, he did not live 
 to complete. Died in 1781. 
 
 See Quatremere DE Qoincv. "Vies des plus ce'lebres Archi- 
 tectes ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Souham, soo'Sn', (Joseph,) a French general, born 
 at Lubersac in 1760. He became a general of division 
 in 1793, and served under Pichegru in Flanders. Sus- 
 pected of complicity with Moreau, he was imprisoned 
 in 1804, but was restored to his rank in the army in 
 1807. He rendered important services at Lutzen (1813) 
 and Leipsic. Died in 1837. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale.' 
 
 Soulange-Bodin, soo'loNzh' bo'daN', (Etiennf.,) a 
 French horticulturist and writer, born at Tours in 1774. 
 He planted a botanic garden at Fromont, (Seine-et-Oise.) 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 Soulange-Teiasier, soo'loNzh' tJ'se-4', (Loins Ema- 
 nuel,) a French lithographer, was born at Amiens in 
 1815. 
 
 Soulas. See Floridor. 
 
 Soulavie, soo'li've', (Jean Louis Giraud,) a French 
 historical writer, born in Ardeche in 1752. He was 
 appointed French resident at Geneva in 1793. He 
 published, besides other works, "Memoirs of Marshal 
 Richelieu," (9 vols., I79t,) and "Historical Memoirs of 
 the Reign of Louis XVI.," (6 vols., 1802.) Died in 1813. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Lilteraire :" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Soule, sool, (Joshua,) D.D., an American Method- 
 ist divine, born at Bristol, Maine, in 1781, rose through 
 several promotions to be senior bishop of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church in 1843. 
 
 Soule, soo'la', (Pierre,) a diplomatist and politician, 
 born in the department of Ariege, France, about 1802, 
 emigrated to America in 1825,. and settled in New Or- 
 leans, where he rose to distinction as a lawyer. He was 
 elected to the United States Senate In 1849. and in 1853 
 appointed minister to Spain. He was one of the authors 
 of the "Ostend Manifesto" in relation to Cuba, (1854.) 
 He returned home in 1855. In 1862 he was arrested for 
 disloyalty in New Orleans. Died in 1870. 
 
 Soulie, soo'le-&', (Mf.lchior Frederic,) a French 
 novelist and dramatic writer, born at Foix, in the de- 
 partment of Ariege, in 1800. Among his numerous ro- 
 mances, which appeared originally in the journals as 
 
 feuilletons, we may name the " Vicomte de Sellers," 
 (1834,) "Le Magnetiseur," "Diane et Louise," (1836,) 
 "The Man of Letters," (1838,) and "Memoirs of the 
 Devil," (1842.) The last-named had an immense sale 
 and great popularity. His drama of "Clotilde" was 
 also highly successful. Died in 1847. 
 
 SeeM. Champion, " F. Soulie, saVieetses Ouvrages,"t847; QuB- 
 rakd, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Soulouque.soo'look', (Faustin,) Emperor of Hayti, 
 a negro, born about 1785, was originally a slave. He 
 entered the army, and attained the rank of general. He 
 was elected president in 1847, and usurped the title of 
 emperor in 1849. His reign is said to have been tyran- 
 nical and cruel. He was deposed in 1859, and retired 
 to France. Died in 1867. 
 
 See G. d'Alaux, "Soulouqueet son Empire;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Generale." 
 
 Soult, soolt, (Napoleon Hector,) Duke of Dal ma- 
 tia, a diplomatist, born in 1801, was a son of Marshal 
 Soult. He was sent as ambassador to Turin in 1839, 
 and to Berlin in 1843. He was recalled in 1848. Died 
 in 1857. 
 
 Soult, (Nicolas Jean de Dieu,) Duke of Dalmatia, 
 a celebrated French general, born at Saint-Amans la 
 Bastide (Tarn) in March, 1769. He entered the army 
 in 1785, became general of brigade in 1794, gained sev- 
 eral victories in Germany, and obtained the rank of a 
 general of division in 1799. He shared with Massena 
 the honour of defending Genoa in 1800, was appointed 
 a colonel of the consular guard in 1802, and became a 
 marshal of France in 1804. He rendered important 
 services at Austerlitz, in 1805, and at Jena, in 1806. In 
 
 1807 he received the title of Due de Dalmatie, and in 
 
 1808 was sent to Spain. He commanded the army which 
 attacked Sir John Moore at Corunna in January, 1809, 
 and was repulsed. In March ensuing he took Oporto. 
 Having succeeded Jourdan as commander-in-chief of 
 the armies in Spain, he gained a victory at Ocana in 
 November, 1809, and occupied Andalusia in 1810. He 
 was defeated by General Beresford at Albuera in May, 
 181 1. Dissension arose in 1812 between Soult and 
 King Joseph, who preferred Jourdan as his second in 
 command. In March, 1813, Soult joined the grand 
 army in Germany. He commanded the Old Guard at 
 Lutzen, and the centre at Bautzen. In the summer of 
 1813 he was sent as commander-in-chief to oppose the 
 victorious progress of Wellington in Spain. He dis- 
 played great skill in this campaign, but was defeated at 
 Orthez, February, 1814. The English also claimed the 
 victory at the great battle of Toulouse, fought in April, 
 1814, after the allies had taken Paris. 
 
 Soult was appointed minister of war by Louis XVIII. 
 in December, 1814, but he joined the standard of Napo- 
 leon in March, 1815, and fought at Waterloo. He was 
 banished in January, 1816, recalled in 1819, and restored 
 to the rank of marshal in 1820. He became minister ot 
 war in November, 1830, and prime minister in October, 
 1832, with Guizot as one of his colleagues. In July, 
 1834, he retired from office, and was succeeded by M. 
 Tillers. Soult was president of the council from May, 
 1839, to March I, 1840. In October, 1840, Guizot and 
 Soult were requested by the king to form a new ministry, 
 in which Soult was president of the council and minister 
 of war, but the former was the real chief. He resigned 
 in September, 1847, and died in November, 1851. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution," and " His- 
 toire de I'Empire;" Southev, " History of the Peninsular War;" 
 W. Nafikk, " History of the War in the Peninsula," 6 vols., 1828- 
 40: Sau.e. "Vie politique du Marechal .Soult." 18*4; Lomrnir, 
 " Galerie des Conteniporains;" Guizot, " Me'moires;" Groze- 
 i.ier, " Le Marechal Soult. sa Vie militaire," 1852 ; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for June, 
 1835 : " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1844. 
 
 Soult, (Pierre Benoit,) Baron, a brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Saint-Amans in 1770. He 
 became a general of brigade in 1807, and a general of 
 division in 1813. Died in 1843. 
 
 Soumarokbf. See SoOMAROKOT. 
 
 Soumet, soo'mi', (Alexandre,) a French poet, born 
 at Castelnaudary in 1788. He produced, in 1822, trage- 
 dies entitled "Clytemnestra" and " Saul," which were 
 successful, and was elected a member of the French 
 
 « as *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (|y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SOURDIS 
 
 2044 
 
 SOUTHET 
 
 Academy in 1824. Among his other works are "The 
 Divine Epopee," ("La divine Epopee," 1840,) and 
 "Joan of Arc," an epic poem, (1845.) Died in 1845. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic G&ierale." 
 
 Sourdis, de, deh sooR'dess', (Francois d'Escou- 
 BLEAU,) a French cardinal, born in 1575. He became 
 Archbishop of Bordeaux in 1599. Died in 1628. 
 
 Sourdis, de, (Henri,) a prelate, a brotherof the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1593. He became Archbishop of 
 Bordeaux in 1629. Died in 1645. 
 
 Bousa. See Faria y Souza. 
 
 South, (Sir James,) F.R.S., an English astronomer, 
 bom probably in London. He practised medicine or 
 surgery in his early life. He was one of the founders 
 of the Royal Astronomical Society, organized about 
 1820, and he distinguished himself as an observer. In 
 1826 he obtained the Copley medal of the Royal Society. 
 Died in October, 1867. 
 
 South, (Robert,) D.D., an eminent English divine, 
 born in Middlesex in 1633. He studied at Christ Church, 
 Oxford, where John Locke was one of his fellow-students. 
 He graduated in 1657, was ordained in 1658, and in 1660 
 became university orator. He was made a canon of 
 Christ Church, Oxford, in 1670. He subsequently ac- 
 companied Lawrence Hyde, son of Chancellor Claren- 
 don, on his mission to John Sobieski, King of Poland. 
 After his return he was appointed rector of Islip, in 
 Oxfordshire, and chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles II. He 
 was repeatedly offered the highest preferments in the 
 Church by that sovereign and his successor, James II., 
 but he declined them all. Dr. South was a zealous ad- 
 vocate of the doctrine of the divine right of kings, and 
 strongly opposed to Roman Catholics and dissenters, 
 whom he frequently assailed in his sermons with all the 
 powers of his brilliant wit and keen sarcasm. He wrote 
 a polemical work on the Trinity against Dr. Sherlock 
 about 1693. Died in 17 16. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. ix„ 1824 ; " London Quarterly 
 Review" for April, 1868. 
 
 Southampton, suth-ham'ton, (Henry Wriothes- 
 
 to have been the first occurring in any English writer. 
 Died in 1746. 
 
 See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets." 
 
 Southey, sow'the, (Caroline Anne Bowles,) an 
 authoress, born at Buckland, Hampshire, in 1787. She 
 wrote, besides other works, "Ellen Fitz-Arthur," a 
 poem, (1820,) "The Widows Tale, and other Poems," 
 (1822,) and "Solitary Hours," prose and verse, (1826,) 
 which were received with favour. In 1839 she was 
 married to Robert Southey, whose mental faculties soon 
 after failed. She nursed him with patient devotion to 
 the end of his life. Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for March, 1837. 
 
 Southey, (Henry Herbert, or Thomas,) an Eng- 
 lish medical writer, born about 1784, was a brother of 
 the poet, Robert Southey. He was physician-in-ordinary 
 to George IV., and examiner of lunatics under the court 
 of chancery. He wrote " On Pulmonary Consumption," 
 and other works. Died in June, 1865. 
 
 Southey, (Robert,) an eminent English author, was 
 born at Bristol on the 12th of August, 1774. He was 
 the son of a linen-draper, who failed in business and left 
 him little or nothing. During his childhood he lived in 
 the house of his maiden aunt, Miss Tyler, an eccentric 
 lady, who often took him to the theatre before he was 
 seven years of age, but subjected him to a rigid disci- 
 pline. He began to write verse before he was ten years 
 old, and was placed at Westminster School in 1788, with 
 the assistance of his mother's brother, the Rev. Herbert 
 Hill. In 1792 he was expelled from Westminster for 
 writing an essay against corporal punishment, which was 
 printed in a school periodical called "The Flagellant." 
 His political principles at this period were republican 
 or radical. He entered Balliol College, Oxford, in 1792, 
 and there adopted Unitarian t doctrines. In 1793 he 
 wrote "Wat Tyler," a drama," and "Joan of Arc," an 
 epic poem, which was first published in 1796. In June, 
 1794, he was introduced at Oxford to S. T. Coleridge! 
 with whom he formed an intimate friendship. As he' 
 had no definite prospect, and was much perplexed in 
 
 ley,) Earl of, an English peer, noted as a patron of I ~ , ." to .'"e choice of a profession, he resolved to join 
 
 ! Coleridge in his visionary project to emigrate to Penn- 
 t sylvama and found a Pantisocracy on the banks of the 
 Susquehanna. His aunt Tyler, who was a staunch Tory 
 and abhorred dissenters, on being informed of his pro- 
 ject and opinions, turned him out of her house in a 
 rainy night of October, 1794. He left Oxford in the 
 same year, received from Joseph Cottle fifty guineas for 
 his "Joan of Arc," and married Edith Fricker'in Novem- 
 ber, 1795. About the same date the project of Pantisoc- 
 racy was abandoned, for want of money. Immediately 
 after his marriage he sailed for Lisbon with his uncle 
 Mr. Hill, who was chaplain to the British embassy in 
 that city. He remained about six months in the penin- 
 sula, and laid the foundation of that acquaintance with 
 Spanish and Portuguese literature in which he was sur- 
 passed by few, if any, Englishmen. After his return, he 
 published " Letters written during a Short Residence in 
 
 Shakspeare, was born about 1573. Shakspe'are ded. 
 cated his " Venus and Adonis" to him in 1593. South- 
 ampton was implicated in the conspiracy of the Earl of 
 Essex, (1601,) and was imprisoned for that offence, but 
 was released in 1603, and became a favourite of James 
 I. Died about 1624. 
 
 Southard, suth'ard, (Samuel L,) an American 
 statesman, born at Baskingridge, New Jersey, in June, 
 1787. He acquired eminence as a lawyer, was elected 
 a Senator of the United States in 1821, and was appointed 
 secretary of the navy in December, 1823, by President 
 Monroe. He was retained in that office by President 
 Adams from 1825 to 1829, became Governor of New 
 Jersey in 1832, and was again elected a Senator of the 
 United States by the legislature of that State in 1833. 
 He continued to serve for nine years in the national 
 Senate, of which he was president in 1842. Died in 
 Virginia in June, 1842. 
 
 South'cott or South'cpte, (Joanna,) a religious 
 fanatic and pretended prophetess, born in Devonshire 
 about 1750, was originally a domestic servant at Exeter. 
 About 1792 she claimed to have received divine revela- 
 tions, and afterwards published "A Warning to the 
 Whole World from the Sealed Prophecies of Joanna 
 Southcott,' (1803,) "The Book of Wonders, in Five 
 I arts," (1813,) and other pamphlets of absurd and nearly 
 unintelligible contents. She died in 1814, having pre- 
 viously announced that she would give birth to the 
 'second Shiloh" or the "Prince of Peace." Her fob 
 lowers were very numerous, and are not yet quite extinct. 
 
 See David Hughson, " Life of J. Southcott, 
 Review" for February, 1815. 
 
 1 1814; "Edinburgh 
 
 Southern, suth'ern, (Thomas,) an Irish dramatist 
 born in the county of Dublin in 1660, was a friend of Pope 
 and Dryden. Among his best works are the tragedies of 
 
 Oronooko" and "Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage." He 
 f.nM W ^°' e comedies entitled "The Rambling Lady" 
 
 1 he Disappointment," and "The Wives' Excuse " His 
 denunciations of the slave-trade in " Oronooko" are said 
 
 Spain and Portugal," (1797,) and, having entered Gray's 
 Inn, London, began to study law, which he found so 
 uncongenial that he soon abandoned it. Reading law 
 seemed to him "like thrashing straw." 
 
 He published in 1801 "fhalaba the Destroyer: a 
 Metrical Romance." After various adventures, and sev- 
 eral changes of occupation and residence, he settled in 
 1803 at Greta Hall, near Keswick, with Coleridge, who 
 was Ins brother-in-law. Here he enjoyed the societ\ of 
 Wordsworth and the most beautiful scenery of England, 
 —the lake country. The subsequent part of his life 
 attords an example of almost unequalled literary indus- 
 try, combined with a faithful performance of his domestic 
 duties. After his youthful enthusiasm had cooled, he 
 became a conservative in politics, and a zealous member 
 of the Anglican Church. In 1805 he published "Met- 
 rical Tales, and other Poems ;" and " Madoc, a Poem, in 
 1 wo Parts," which was not received with much favour. 
 He became a contributor to the "Quarterly Review" 
 a '"™ t «So8, published a Indian poem entitled "The Curse 
 of Kehama" in 1810, and was appointed poet-laureate in 
 1813. He generously supported the family of Coleridge, 
 whom the latter left dependent on him at Greta Hall. 
 
 S, 6, i, 6. fi, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e> j, o, obscure; flr , m , fit; met; not; good; moTm; 
 
SOVTHGATE 
 
 2045 
 
 SPADA 
 
 In 1835 he received a pension of three hundred pounds 
 a year from the government. Having lost his wife in 
 1837, he married Caroline Bowles in 1839. About this 
 time his overtasked faculties became prostrated, and he 
 sank into a state of mental imbecility. He died at Greta 
 Hall, March 21, 1843. Besides the poems above named, 
 he wrote "Roderick, the Last of the Goths," (1814.) 
 Among his numerous prose works are an excellent 
 "Life of Lord Nelson," (2 vols., 1813,) a "Life of John 
 Wesley," (2 vols., 1820,) a "History of the Peninsular 
 War," (3 vols., 1822-32,) "Essays, Moral and Political," 
 (1832,) "The Doctor," (7 vols., 1834-37,) and a "Life 
 of William Cowper." 
 
 "Mr. Southey's prose style," says Hazlitt, "can 
 scarcely be too much praised. It is plain, clear, pointed, 
 familiar, perfectly modern in its texture, but with a grave 
 and sparkling admixture of archaisms in its ornaments 
 and occasional phraseology." ("Spirit of the Age."| "It 
 is Southey's almost unexampled felicitv," says Coleridge, 
 "to possess the best gifts of talent and genius, free from 
 all their characteristic defects. ... As son, brother, hus- 
 band, father, master, friend, he moves with firm yet light 
 steps, alike unostentatious and alike exemplary. As a 
 writer, he has uniformly made his talents subservient 
 to the best interests of humanity, of public virtue, and 
 domestic piety." (" Biographia Literaria.") 
 
 See "The Life and Correspondence of Robert Southev," edited 
 by his son, the Rev. Charles Cuthbbkt Southev, 6 vols., 1840- 
 50: Joseph Cottle, "Reminiscences of S. T. Coleridge and R. 
 Southey," 1847; CharlrsT. Browne, "The Life ofR. Southey," 
 1854; "Selections from the Letters of R. Southey," edited by his 
 Son-in-law, J. W. Wartbr, 4 vols., 1856: " Edinburgh Review" for 
 April, 1851 : Macaulay's essay entitled "Southey's Colloquies on 
 Society," 1830; Jeffrey's critiques in the " Edinburgh Review" 
 for February, 181 1, (vol. xvii.,) and for June, 1815, (vol. xxv. ,) Al- 
 libone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 South'gate, (Richard,) Rev., an English antiquary, 
 born in Huntingdonshire in 1729. He became an assist- 
 ant librarian of the British Museum. Died in 1795. 
 
 South'welL, (Nathaniel,) was secretary to the 
 general of the order of Jesuits at Rome about 1650. He 
 wrote a continuation of the " Bibliotheca Scriptorum 
 Societatis Jesu," or "Jesuits' Library," down to 1676, in 
 which year he died. 
 
 Sou'th'well, (Robert,) an English Catholic, born in 
 1560, became prefect of the English Jesuits' College at 
 Rome, and was afterwards sent as a missionary to Eng- 
 land. Having admitted that he came for the purpose 
 of making converts, he was tried and executed in 1595. 
 He was the author of hymns and religious treatises. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for November, 1798; "Retro- 
 spective Review," vol. iv., (182! ;) Cleveland, "Compendium of 
 English Literature." 
 
 South/worth, (Mrs. Emma D. E. Nf.vitt,) an 
 American novelist, born at Washington, District of 
 Columbia, in 1818. She contributed a number of tales 
 and sketches to the "National Era" at Washington, and 
 subsequently published in that journal her novel entitled 
 "Retribution. - " Among her other works may be named 
 "The Deserted Wife," "The Lost Heiress," and the 
 "Curse of Clifford." 
 
 Soutman, s5wt'man, (Peter,) a Dutch painter of 
 history, born about 1590; died in 16^3. 
 
 Soutzo, soot'zo, or Sutzos, soot'zos, (Alexander,) 
 a modern -Greek poet and historian, born at Constanti- 
 nople about 1800. He wrote political satires against 
 various parties which divided Greece after 1824. In 
 1829 he published, in French, a " History of the Greek 
 Revolution." He is considered by some writers as the 
 greatest poet of modern Greece. 
 
 Soutzo, (P.,) a modern Greek poet, was a younger 
 brother of the preceding. He became councillor of 
 *tate at Athens. 
 
 Souvarof. See SuwaroW. 
 
 Souvestre, soo'vestR', (£mii.e,) a French writer and 
 journalist of high reputation, born at Morlaix, in Brit- 
 tany, in 1806. He published in 1836 a work entitled 
 "Les derniers Bretons," an admirable description of the 
 manners, customs, etc of Brittany. About the same 
 time he became associate editor of the " Revue de Paris" 
 and the "Revue des Deux Mondes." Among his lust 
 productions, many of which appeared first in the leading 
 Parisian journals, we may name "The Confessions of a | 
 
 Workman," ("Les Confessions d'un Ouvrier,") " Pierre 
 et Jean," "Travels in Finisterre," (1836,) "The Greased 
 Pole," ("Le Mat de Cocagne," 1842,) and " Le Philo- 
 sophe sous les Toits." His works are highly commended 
 for their moral purity. Died in Paris in 1854. 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Souvorof or Souvorov. See Suwarow. 
 
 Souza. See Faria Y Souza. 
 
 Souza, de, da so'za, (Adele,) Marchioness, a 
 French romance-writer, whose original name was Fil- 
 I.eut., was born in Normandy in 1760. She was first 
 married in 1784 to Count Flahault, who perished under 
 the guillotine in 1793, and in 1802 became the wife of 
 the Portuguese ambassador Souza- Botelho, noticed be- 
 low. She published several popular romances, among 
 which we may name "Eugene de Rathelin," (1808,) and 
 "Adele de Senanges." Died in 1836. 
 
 See Qiierarr, "La France Litte'raire ;" Sainte-Beuve, " Cri- 
 tiques et Portraits." 
 
 Souza, de, (J0X0,) a learned monk, born at Damas- 
 cus, in Syria, about 1730, settled in Portugal, where he 
 became professor of Arabic. He was the author of an 
 Arabic Grammar. Died in 1812. 
 
 Souza, de, (Pedro Lopez,) a Portuguese navigator, 
 who explored the coast of Brazil about 1532. He was 
 drowned on the coast of Madagascar in 1539. 
 
 Souza-Botelho, so'za bo-tel'yo, (Dom Joze Maria,) 
 a Portuguese diplomatist and writer, born at Oporto in 
 1758, was employed in important embassies to Sweden, 
 Denmark, England, and France. He published in 1818 
 a valuable edition of the works of Camoens. Died in 
 1819. 
 
 Sow'er-bjf, (George Bretttngham,) an English 
 naturalist, born in 1788, was a son of James, noticed 
 below. He gave special attention to conchology and 
 entomology. Died in 1854 
 
 Sowerby, (George Bretttngham,) an artist and 
 naturalist, a son of the preceding, was born in 1812. 
 He wrote, besides other works, a " Popular British 
 Conchology," (1854,) and "Illustrated Index of British 
 Shells," (1859.) 
 
 Sowerby, (James,) an English naturalist and artist, 
 born at Lambeth about 1760. He published "English 
 Botany," (1790,) in conjunction with Sir James Smith; 
 also, "Exotic Mineralogy," a treatise "On the Eng. 
 lish Fungi or Mushrooms," (3 vols., 1797-1803,) " Brit- 
 ish Mineralogy," (5 vols,, 1804-17,) and the "Mineral 
 Conchology of Great Britain," (6 vols., 1812-30.) These 
 works are beautifully illustrated bv himself with coloured 
 plates. Died in 1822. His son, James de Carle, born 
 in 1787, was one of the founders of the Royal Botanical 
 Society, of which he was appointed secretary. 
 
 Soyer, swa'yi', (Alexis,) a celebrated French cook 
 and writer on gastronomy, born about 1800 : died in 
 1858. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1851. 
 
 Soz'o-men, [Gr. Sufo^eroc; Lat. Sozom'enus ; Fr, 
 Sozomene, so'zo'm&n',) or, more fully, So-zom'e-nos 
 Her'ml-as, a Greek ecclesiastical historian, born at 
 Bethel, in Palestine, about 400 A.D. He practised law 
 at Constantinople, and wrote a History of the Church 
 from 323 to 439 A.D., which is extant. He is deficient 
 in judgment, compared with Socrates, (who lived at the 
 same time and wrote on the same subject,) but his style 
 is commended. 
 
 See Valerius, "De Vitis et Scriptis Socratis et S. omeni ;" 
 Voss, "De Hisloricis Grascis;" Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Graca." 
 
 Sozomene and Sozomenus. See Sozomen. 
 
 Sozzini. See Socinus. 
 
 Spach, spSk, (Edouard,) a French naturalist, born 
 at Stiasburg in 1801. He wrote several botanical works. 
 
 Spada, spa'di, (Bernardino,) an Italian cardinal, 
 born in the Romagna in 1594, was a patron of literature 
 and the fine arts. Died in 1661. 
 
 Spada, (Lionf.li.o,) a celebrated Italian painter, 
 born at Bologna in 1576. He studied at Rome under 
 Caravaggio, whose manner he adopted and refined. 
 Among his master-pieces are his "San Domenico burn- 
 ing the Proscribed Books of the Heretics," at Bologna, 
 " Return of the Prodigal Son," at M6dena, and " The 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as t; th as in this. (Jiy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SPADAFORA 
 
 2046 
 
 SPARKS 
 
 Miracle of Saint Benedict," in the monastery of San 
 Michele at Bosco. He excelled as a colorist, and was 
 esteemed one of the best artists of his time. Died in 
 1622. 
 
 See Malvasia, " Felsina pittrice." 
 
 Spadafora, spi-da-fo'ri, (Pi.acido,) an Italian gram- 
 marian, born at Palermo in 1628. Among his works is 
 " Prosodia Italiana," (1682.) Died in 1691. 
 
 Spaendonck, van, vtn span'donk, (Gf.raart,) a 
 celebrated Dutch flower-painter, born at Tilburg about 
 1750. He became miniature-painter to the King of 
 France in 1774, and professor of iconography at the 
 Jardin des Plantes. Died in Paris in 1822. 
 
 Spaguoletto, spln-yo-let'to, [Fr. Espagnolet, Is'- 
 pf n'yo'l&',] an eminent Spanish painter, whose proper 
 name was Jose Ribera, (re-Ka'ra,) was born at San 
 Felipe de Xativa in 1588. He was a pupil of Michael 
 Angelo de Caravaggio. He worked at Rome, Naples, 
 and Madrid, and was afterwards appointed painter to 
 the court of Spain. Among his master-pieces are "The 
 Adoration of the Shepherds," and a "Mater Dolorosa." 
 His favourite subjects were martyrdoms, executions, and 
 other tragical scenes. Died at Naples in 1656. 
 
 Spagnuoli, spin-yoo-o'lee, or Spagnoli, span-yo'iee, 
 (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian poet and monk, born 
 at Mantua. He wrote Latin verses which were admired 
 by his contemporaries. Died in 1516. 
 
 Spalatin, spi'li-teen', [Lat. Spalati'nus,] (Georg,) 
 a German scholar and Reformer, whose original name 
 was Burckhard, was born at Spalt, in the bishopric of 
 Eichstadt, in 1484. Having become a convert to the 
 doctrines of Luther, he was appointed In 1514 by Fred- 
 erick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, his court chaplain 
 and private secretary. Among his works we may name 
 his biographies of Frederick the Wise and John the 
 Constant, and " History of the Popes and Emperors of 
 the Time of the Reformation." Died in 1545. 
 
 See Schleghl, " Historia Vitas G. Spalatini ;" P. Ekerman, 
 " Dissertatio de G. Spalatino," 1760; J. Wagnkr, "G. Spalatin 
 und die Reformation der Kirchen," etc., 1830; Bkkthel, " G. 
 Spalatini in Emendationem sacrorum Merita," 1S40. 
 
 Spalatiiius. See Spalatin. 
 
 Spalding, spil'ding, (Georg Ludwig,) a distinguished 
 philologist, a son of Johann Joachim, noticed below, was 
 born at Barth in 1762. He prepared an excellent edi- 
 tion of the works of Quintilian, published after his death. 
 He also wrote (in Latin) " Vindication of the Megaric 
 Philosophers." He was a member of the Academy of 
 Sciences at Berlin, and councillor in the ministry for 
 public instruction. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Georg Ludwig Spalding, " Memoria G. L. Spaldingii," 
 1832. 
 
 Spalding, (Johann Joachim,) a Protestant theolo- 
 gian and religious writer, born in Swedish Pomerania in 
 1714; died in 1804. 
 
 Spal'ding, (John,) a Scottish historian, lived in Aber- 
 deen. He wrote " Memorials of the Troubles in Scot- 
 land." Died about 1670. 
 
 Spal'ding, (Lyman,) an eminent American physician, 
 bom at Cornish, New Hampshire, in 1775. He gradu- 
 ated at Harvard College in 1797, and settled at Ports- 
 mouth in 1799. He published a " New Nomenclature 
 of Chemistry," (1799.) In 1812 he became president of 
 the College of Physicians at Fairfield, New York, and 
 professor of anatomy and surgery. He removed to the 
 city of New York in 1813. He originated the " Phar- 
 macopoeia of the United States," the plan of which he 
 formed about 1818. He died in October, 1821. 
 
 SeeTHACHER, "Medical Biography." 
 
 Spal'ding, (Samuel,) an English theologian and dis- 
 senting divine, born in London in 1807. He died in 
 1844 at the Cape of Good Hope, whither he had gone 
 on account of his health. His principal work is entitled 
 "The Philosophy of Christian Morals." 
 
 Spalding, (William,) a Scottish critic and writer, 
 born at Aberdeen about 1809. He wrote, besides other 
 works, " Italy and the Italian Islands from the Earliest 
 Ages," etc., (3 vols., 1841,) and became professor of logic 
 in the University of Saint Andrew's in 1845. He con- 
 tributed to the "Encyclopaedia Britannica." Died in 
 1859. 
 
 Spallanzani, spil-lin-za'nee, (Lazzaro,) an eminent 
 Italian anatomist, born at Scandiano, in the duchy of 
 M6dena, in 1729, was educated at Bologna. He became 
 professor of logic and Greek at Reggio in 1754. and ob- 
 tained a chair at M6dena in 1761. In 1768 he published 
 " On the Action of the Heart in 'he Ulood-Vessels," 
 (" Dell' Azione del Cuore ne' Vasi sanguigni.") He was 
 appointed professor of natural history at Pavia about 
 1770. He wrote treatises on respiration, digestion, re- 
 production, etc. Died in 1799. 
 
 See J. Tourdes, " Notice snr la Vie de Spallanzani," 1799 ; Poz- 
 zetti, " Elogio di L. Spallanzani," 1800 ; J. L. Alibert, "filoge 
 historique de Spallanzani," 1806; "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Spangenberg, spang'gen-berg' or spang'en-beRo', 
 (August Gottlieb,) founder of the Moravian Church 
 in America, was born at Klettenberg, in Germany, in 
 1704. In 1735 he visited America and founded a Mo- 
 ravian settlement in Georgia. Having been made a 
 bishop in 1744, he continued to reside nearly twenty 
 years in America, where he was instrumental in estab- 
 lishing Moravian colonies at Bethlehem in Pennsylvania, 
 and in North Carolina. He returned to Germany in 
 1762, and died in 1792. He wrote, among other works, 
 a "Life of Count Zinzendorf," (1772,) and "Exposition 
 of the Doctrine of the United Brethren," (" Idea Fidei 
 Fratrum.") 
 
 Spangenberg, sping'en-beRG', (Cyriacus,) a Ger- 
 man theologian and historical writer, born at Herden 
 in 1528, was the author of "Chronicles of Henneberg, 
 Holstein, etc." Died in 1604. 
 
 Spanheim, span'hlm, (Ezekiel,) an eminent Swiss 
 diplomatist, scholar, and numismatist, born at Geneva 
 in 1629. He studied Hebrew, Arabic, and theology at 
 Leyden. In 1659 he was sent by the Elector- Palatine to 
 Italy on a diplomatic mission. He published at Rome a 
 work on ancient coins, " De Piasstantia et Usu Numis- 
 matum antiquorum," (1664.) He returned to Heidelberg 
 in 1665, after which he was employed by the Elector as 
 minister to England. About 1680 he entered the service 
 of the Elector of Brandenburg, who sent him as ambas- 
 sador to Paris. Among his works is " The Roman 
 World," etc., ("Orbis Romanus," etc., 1697.) Died in 
 London in 17 10. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Senebier, "Histoire Htteraire de 
 Geneve ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 Spanheim, span'hlm, (Friedrich,) a theologian, 
 born at Amberg, in Bavaria, in 1600, was the father of 
 the preceding. He was appointed professor of theology 
 at Leyden in 1642. He published, besides other works, 
 " Gospel Doubts," (" Dubia Evangelica," 1639,) and 
 a "Treatise on Universal Grace," (1646.) Died in 1649. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires;" Bayle, "Historical and Critical 
 Dictionary." 
 
 Spanheim, (Friedrich,) a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Geneva in 1632. He became professor of 
 divinity at Heidelberg in 1655, and obtained the chair 
 of theology and sacred history at Leyden in 1670. 
 Among his works is " A Summary of Ecclesiastical 
 History," (" Summa Historia; ecclesiasticae," 1689.) 
 Died in 1701. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Spark or Sparke, (Thomas,) an English clergy- 
 man, born in 1655, became prebendary of Lichfield and 
 Rochester. He published an edition of Lactantius, 
 (1684.) Died in 1692. 
 
 Sparke, (Thomas,) a learned English Puritan min- 
 ister, born in Lincolnshire in 1548. He became preb- 
 endary of Lincoln in 1582. He wrote several religious 
 works. Died in 1616. 
 
 Sparks, (Jared,) a distinguished American historian 
 and biographer, born at Willington, Connecticut, in 
 May, 1789, graduated at Harvard College in 1 815. He 
 studied theology, and was ordained minister of the First 
 Unitarian Church of Baltimore in 1819, after which he 
 wrote several treatises on theology. He became in 1823 
 the editor of the "North American Review," which he 
 conducted (in Boston) until 1830. He published "The 
 Life of John Ledyard," (1829,) and " The Life of Gouver- 
 neur Morris," (3 vols., 1832,) and expended much 
 labour on "The Life and Writings of George Wash- 
 ington ; being his Correspondence, Addresses, Mes- 
 
 l, e, T, 0, 5, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nflt; good; moon; 
 
SPJRR 
 
 2047 
 
 SPENCE 
 
 sages, etc.," (12 vols. 8vo, 1833-40,) which, says R. W. 
 Griswold, is "a work in all respects as nearly perfect 
 as possible." He published a good edition of the com- 
 plete works of Franklin, (10 vols., 1835-40.) In 1839 
 he was appointed professor of ancient and modern history 
 in Harvard University. He edited "The Library or 
 American Biography," (First Series, 10 vols., 1835-39, 
 and Second Series, 15 vols., 1844-48.) For this valuable 
 collection he wrote the biographies of Ethan Allen, Ben- 
 edict Arnold, Marquette, Count Pulaski, La Salle, Ri- 
 bault, and General Charles Lee. He was president of 
 Harvard University from 184910 1852. It is stated that 
 he was engaged for many years on a History of the 
 American Revolution. Died in 1866. 
 
 "The great merits of Mr. Sparks," says Griswold, 
 "are reverence for truth, soundness of judgment in re- 
 gard to evidence, and exhausting fulness of detail and 
 illustration." (See "Prose Writers of America.") 
 
 See Brantz Meyer, "Memoir of Jared Sparks," i860; Rev. 
 George E. Ellis, " Memoirs of Jared Sparks," 1869; Ai.libone, 
 "Dictionary of Authors;" "North American Review" for July, 
 1844. 
 
 Sparr, span, (Otto Christoph,) Baron, a German 
 commander, born in 1593, served against the Swedes in 
 1655, and was made field-marshal-general in 1657. Died 
 in 1668. 
 
 Sparre, spar'reh, (Eric Larsson,) a Swedish states- 
 man and writer, born in 1550. He was an adherent of 
 Sigismund in a civil war which resulted in the de- 
 thronement of that king. He was executed for treason 
 in 1600. 
 
 Sparre, (Gehr Georg,) a Swedish novelist, born 
 near Kronoberg in 1790. He entered the army in 1807, 
 and became a colonel in 1832. 
 
 Sparrmann, spaR'man, (Andreas,) a Swedish natu- 
 ralist, born in the province of Upland about 1747. He 
 studied at Upsal under Linnasus, and in 1772 visited 
 the Cape of Good Hope. - He afterwards accompanied 
 the Forsters in their voyage round the world with Cap- 
 tain Cook in 1772. In 1775 he set out for the interior 
 of Africa, where he made a valuable collection of plants, 
 animals, etc. After his return to Sweden, he was elected 
 a member of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, 
 and appointed conservator of the Museum. His travels 
 are highly esteemed for their accuracy, and have been 
 translateci into several languages. Died in 1820. 
 
 Spar'row, (Anthony,) an English prelate under the 
 reign of Charles II., became Bishop of Norwich. He 
 published a " Rationale of the Book of Common Prayer." 
 Died in 1685. 
 
 Spar'ta-cus, a Thracian soldier, who was taken 
 prisoner by the Romans, reduced to slavery, and trained 
 as a gladiator. Having escaped with a number of his 
 associates, he became leader of a numerous band, and 
 defeated Claudius Pulcher, who was sent against him 
 about 73 R>c. Having proclaimed freedom to all slaves 
 who should join him, he raised a powerful army and de- 
 feated several times the consuls sent against him. He 
 was prudent as well as brave. His army amounted to 
 about 100,000 men, and was invincible until dissensions 
 arose among them. In 71 B.C. he was blockaded by 
 M. Licinius Crassus at Rhegium, and killed in a battle 
 which ended the great Servile war. Spartacus was an 
 extraordinary man, and had the qualities of a hero. 
 
 See Livv, " Epitome;" Merimeb, "Guerre sociaie;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Spartianus, spar-she-a'nus, [Fr. Spartien, sptR'- 
 se^N',] (/Emus,) a Roman historian, who lived about 
 300 A.D., wrote a " History in Single Biographies of the 
 Roman Emperors from Caesar down to his Own Time." 
 Only fragments of it are extant. 
 
 Spartien. See Spartianus. 
 
 Sparwenfeldt, spaR'wen-felt', (Johan Gabriel,) a 
 Swedish linguist, born in 1655. lie left, in manuscript, 
 a "Lexicon Slavonicum." Died in 1727. 
 
 Speckbacher, speVbaic'er, (Joseph,) a Tyrolese 
 patriot, and friend of Hofer, was born near Innspruck in 
 1768; died in 1820. 
 
 Speckter, spSk'ter, (Erwin,) a German painter, 
 born at Hamburg in 1806, was a pupil of Cornelius at 
 Munich. He visited Italy in 1824, and while at Rome 
 
 produced his picture of the " Sleeping Samson," es- 
 teemed one of his master-pieces. He died in 1835. 
 His interesting " Letters of a German Artist from Italy" 
 were published in 1846. 
 
 Speckter, (Otto,) a brother of the preceding, was 
 born at Hamburg in 1807. He acquired a high repu- 
 tation as a painter of landscapes and animals, and exe- 
 cuted a number of lithographs and etchings, among 
 which we may name " Twelve Etchings to Puss in 
 Boots." 
 
 Spedalieri, spi-da-le-a'ree, (NiccoiA) an Italian 
 priest and writer, born in Sicily in 1740. He pub- 
 lished a work on the Rights of Man, "De' Diritti del 
 Uomo," (1791,) which gave offence to the clergy. Died 
 in 1795. 
 
 Spee, von, fon spa, (Friedrich,) a German Jesuit, 
 born near Kaiserswerth, on the Rhine, about 1595, 
 wrote devotional poems of great beauty, and an able 
 treatise against the belief in witchcraft. Died in 1635. 
 
 Speed, (John,) an English historian, born in Che- 
 shire about 1550. He was the author of a chronicle 
 entitled "The History of Great Britain under the Con- 
 quests of the Romans, Saxons, Danes, and Normans," 
 (161 1,) "The Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain," 
 and other works. Died in 1629. 
 
 Spegel, spii'gel, (Haquin,) a Swedish prelate, born 
 at Ronneby in 1645. He wrote, besides other works, 
 a " History of the Swedish Church," ("Svenska Kyrke- 
 historie," 2 vols., 1708.) In 1711 he became Archbishop 
 of Upsal. Died in 1713 or 1714. 
 
 Speke, speek, (Captain John Hanning,) an English 
 officer, distinguished as an explorer of Africa, was born 
 in 1827. He served in the army in India several years. 
 About 1855-57 he was a companion of Captain Burton 
 in a journey in Africa. He discovered Lake Victoria 
 Nyanza in 1858. In company with Mr. Grant, he per- 
 formed another journey to that part of Africa in 1860-61, 
 and discovered the sources of the Nile in 1862 by tracing 
 that river to Lake Nyanza. He was killed in England 
 in 1864 by the accidental discharge of his own gun. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for November, 1864; "Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for November, 1859, and May, i860; "London 
 Quarterly Review" for January, 1864. 
 
 Spel'man, (Edward,) an English scholar and trans- 
 lator, was a descendant of Sir Henry, noticed below. 
 He translated Xenophon's "Cyropaedia," and Dionysius 
 of Halicarnassus. Died in 1767. 
 
 Spelman, (Sir Henry,) an eminent English anti- 
 quary, born in Norfolk in 1562. He studied at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, and afterwards settled in London. 
 He published in 1626 the first part of his "Glossarium 
 Archaiologicum," a standard work of its kind, which he 
 left unfinished ; the remaining part was brought out by 
 his friend Sir William Dugdale. He also wrote " Coun- 
 cils, Decrees, Laws, etc. of Britain in Ecclesiastical 
 Affairs," (in Latin, unfinished.) Died in 1641. 
 
 His son, Sir John Spelman, wrote a "Critical Life 
 of King Alfred," and another son, Clement, became 
 baron of the exchequer under Charles II. Sir John 
 died in 1643. 
 
 Spelta, spel'ta, (Antonio Maria,) an Italian littira- 
 teur, born at Pavfa in 1559. He published, besides other 
 works, "Istoria de' Fatti notabili occorsi nell' Universo," 
 etc., (1603.) Died in 1632. 
 
 Spgnce, (Joseph,) an English divine and critic, born 
 in Hampshire in 1699. He studied at Oxford, entered 
 into orders, and in 1728 became professor of poetry in 
 that college. Having travelled on the continent, he was 
 appointed after his return professor of modern history 
 at Oxford. His principal work is entitled " Polymetis ; 
 or, An Enquiry concerning the Agreement between the 
 Works of the Roman Poets and the Remains of the 
 Ancient Artists," etc., which was very well received. 
 He also wrote an " Essay on Pope's Translation of the 
 Odyssey," which procured for him the friendship of 
 that poet, and "Anecdotes, Observations, and Charac- 
 ters of Books and Men," a valuable and interesting 
 work. Mr. Spence was made a prebendary of Durham 
 Cathedral in 1754.. He was accidentally drowned in 
 1768. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for July, i8ao. 
 
 « as >, 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; %h as in this. (fr^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SPENCE 
 
 2048 
 
 SPENSER 
 
 Spence, (William,) an eminent English entomolo- 
 gist, born in 1783, published a number of treatises on 
 natural history, among Which we may name "Obser- 
 vations relative to Dr. Carus's Discovery of the Circu- 
 lation of Blood in Insects." He also assisted the Rev. 
 William Kirby in his "Introduction to Entomology, 
 or Elements of the Natural History of Insects." He 
 was a Fellow of the Royal Society and other learned 
 institutions. (See Kirby.) Died in i860. 
 
 Spfin'cer, (Ambrose,) LL.D., an able American 
 jurist, born at Salisbury, Connecticut, in 1765. He 
 graduated at Harvard College, and subsequently rose 
 through various offices to be chief justice of the State 
 of New York in 1810. He retired from the bench in 
 1823. He married successively two sisters of De Witt 
 Clinton. Died in 1848. 
 
 Spencer, (Charles.) See Sunderland, Earl of. 
 
 Speu'ogr, (Charles,) Duke of Marlborough, born 
 in 1707, was a son of Charles III., Earl of Sunderland, 
 and a grandson of the famous Duke of Marlborough, 
 whose title he inherited in 1733. He served in the army, 
 and obtained the rank of lieutenant-general. Died in 
 
 1759- 
 
 Spencer, (Frederick,) Earl of Spencer, an English 
 peer, born in London in 1798. He served in the navy, 
 and gained the rank of rear-admiral. In 1845 ne entered 
 the House of Lords. 
 
 Spencer, (George,) a Roman Catholic priest, bom 
 in 1799, was a younger brother of Viscount Althorp. 
 He joined the order of Passionists, and assumed the 
 name of Father Ignatius. Died in 1864. 
 
 Spencer, (George John,) Earl Spencer, born about 
 1758, was a grandson of the third Earl of Sunderland. 
 He was a member of the cabinet under Pitt about 1795— 
 1801. He died in 1834, leaving a son John Charles, 
 Lord Althorp. 
 
 Spencer, (Henry.) See Sunderland, Earl of. 
 
 Spencer, (Herbert,) a distinguished English philos- 
 opher and author, was born at Derby about 1820. He 
 learned the business of civil engineer, which he aban- 
 doned about 1845. He published "Social Statics; or 
 the Conditions essential to Human Happiness Speci- 
 fied," etc., (1851,) and "The Principles of Psychology," 
 (1855.) His contributions to the "Westminster Re- 
 view" and other periodicals were reprinted in a volume 
 entitled " Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative," 
 (1857.) Among his principal works, which have attracted 
 much attention, are" Education, Intellectual, Moral, and 
 Physical," (1861,) "Progress, its Law and Course," 
 " First Principles," (1862,) " The Principles of Biology," 
 (1863,) and" Illustrations of Universal Progress," (1864.) 
 Some of these are portions of an extensive work entitled 
 a " System of Philosophy," the prospectus of which was 
 issued in i860. 
 
 See the " British Quarterly Review" for January, 1863. 
 
 Spencer, (Hugh.) See Df.spencer. 
 
 Spencer, (Jesse Ames,) D.D., an American Episco- 
 palian divine and theologian, born in Dutchess county, 
 New York, in 1816. He was appointed in 1850 professor 
 of Latin and Oriental languages at Burlington College, 
 New Jersey. He published a " History of the English 
 Reformation," (1846,) "Egypt and the Holy Land," 
 (1849,) and other works. 
 
 Spencer, (John,) D.D., an English divine and scholar, 
 born in Kent in 1630, was created Dean of Ely. He 
 wrote a work entitled "De Legibus Hebraeorum Ritu- 
 alibus et eorum Rationibus." Died in 1695. 
 
 Spencer, (John Canfield,) an American lawyer 
 and statesman, born at Hudson, New York, in I7'88, 
 was a son of Ambrose, noticed above. He practised 
 for many years at Canandaigua, to which he removed in 
 1809. lie was elected to Congress in 1816, and was a 
 member of the Senate of New York from 1824 to 1828. 
 He gained a high reputation by his revision of the statutes 
 of New York, on which he wrote a series of essays. In 
 1839 he became secretary of state for New York. He 
 was secretary of war under the national government 
 from October, 1841, to March, 1843, anc l was appointed 
 secretary of the treasury at the latter date. He resigned 
 in 1844 because he was opposed to the annexation of 
 Texas to the Union. About 1845 he removed from 
 
 Canandaigua to Albany, where he died in May, 1855. 
 He is said to have been a man of powerful intellect and 
 intense energy. 
 
 Spencer, (John Charlks.) See Althorp, Lord. 
 
 Spencer, (Joseph,) an American general, born in 
 Connecticut about 1714. He was appointed a major- 
 general in August, 1776, resigned in 1778, and was 
 elected to the General Congress in that year. Died 
 in 1789. 
 
 Spencer, (Hon. William Robert,) an accomplished 
 English writer, son of Lord Charles Spencer, was born 
 in 1770. He produced a translation of " Lenore." Died 
 in 1834. 
 
 Spener, spa'ner, (Jakob Karl,) a German writer and 
 jurist, a son of the following, was born at Frankfort in 
 16S4. He published, besides other works, a "General 
 History of Germany," (" Historia Germanise Universalis 
 et Pragmatica," 2 vols., 171 7.) Died in 1730. 
 
 Spener, (Philipp Jakob,) an eminent German Prot- 
 estant minister, born at Rappoltsweiler, now Ribeauville, 
 in Alsace, in January, 1635. He is called the founder 
 of the sect of Pietists. He studied theology, Hebrew, 
 etc. at Strasburg, and began to preach in that city in 
 1663. Having acquired a high reputation as a preacher, 
 he became in 1666 first pastor of the Lutheran church 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Main. He instituted, about 1670, 
 meetings for religious instruction and prayer, which were 
 called collegia pietatis. In 1675 he published a small work 
 entitled " Pious Desires," (" Pia Desideria,") which was 
 highly esteemed. He was appointed court preacher at 
 Dresden in 16S6, and removed in 1691 to Berlin, where 
 he obtained the office of provost of the church of Saint 
 Nicholas and enjoyed great influence. He was eminent 
 for charity and tolerance. His efforts were directed to 
 the promotion of vital and practical religion. The chairs 
 of theology in the new University of Halle were filled 
 by disciples of Spener. A controversy arose between 
 his friends and the faculty of Wittenberg, who censured 
 as heretical two hundred and sixty-four propositions 
 found in his writings. He died in Berlin in February, 
 1705, leaving numerous works, among which are "The 
 Interior and Spiritual Peace," (1686,) and "The Duties 
 of the Evangelical Life," (1692.) 
 
 See Canstein, " Lebensbeschreibung Speners," 1740 ; Hossbach, 
 "Spener und seine Zeil," 2 .vols., 1828: W. Thm.o, "Spener als 
 Katechet," 1840: Wm.dknhahn, "P. J. Spener." 1842; A. Stein- 
 METZ, " Leben P. J. Speller's," 1741 ; Pfannenbekg, "P. J. Spe- 
 ner der Kirchenv'ater ties Evanpeliscllen Deutschlands," 1S33; Ha AG, 
 " La France protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 SpSn'ser, [Lat. Spense'rus,] (Edmund,) an illus- 
 trious English poet, was born in East Smithfield, Lon- 
 don, about 1553. His early history is involved in much 
 obscurity ; he is supposed, however, to have been of a 
 good family, though probably in indigent circumstances, 
 as he entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, as a sizar, in 
 1569. Having taken the degree of A.M. in 1576, he 
 resided for a time in the North of England, where he 
 wrote his " Shephearde's Calendar," a pastoral poem, 
 dedicated to his friend and patron Sir Philip Sidney, 
 and first published in 1579. He became secretary to 
 Lord Grey de Wilton, Viceroy of Ireland, in 1580, and 
 obtained for his services a grant of 3028 acres of land 
 from the forfeited estate of the Earl of Desmond. Soon 
 after he had fixed his residence in this place, which was 
 situated in the county of Cork, he acquired the friend- 
 ship and patronage of Sir Walter Raleigh, to whom he 
 dedicated his poem entitled "Colin Clout's come Home 
 Again," (1 591.) About the same time he published the 
 first three books of his "Faerie Queene," and in 1595 
 his " Astrophel," an elegy on Sir Philip Sidney. He 
 married the same year an Irish lady, supposed to have 
 been a Miss Nagle, and wrote on the occasion an epi- 
 thalamium, which Hallam styles a "splendid little poem, 
 . . . an intoxication of ecstasy, ardent, noble, and pure." 
 The fourth, fifth, and sixth books of " The Faerie 
 Queene" came out in 1596. Spenser was appointed in 
 1798 sheriff of the county of Cork. The rebellion of 
 the Earl of Tyrone having broken out soon after, he 
 was compelled to leave his estate, which was plundered 
 by the rebels, and the house burned, with, it is said, an 
 infant child in it. He did not long survive this severe 
 calamity, and died in great destitution. He was buried 
 
 8, e, I, o, u, % long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nftt; good: moon; 
 
SPENSER US 
 
 2049 
 
 SPILLER 
 
 in Westminster Abbey, near Chaucer, in compliance with 
 his own request. He left two sons, Sylvanus and Pere- 
 grine. Of Spenser's poetry Campbell olserves, " He 
 threw the soul of harmony into our verse, and made it 
 more warmly, tenderly, and magnificently descriptive 
 than it ever was before, or, with a few exceptions, than 
 it has ever been since ;" and Hazlitt says, " There is an 
 originality, richness, and variety in his allegorical per- 
 sonages and fictions which almost vies with the splen- 
 dour of the ancient mythology. If Ariosto transports 
 us into the regions of romance, Spenser's poetry is all 
 fairy-land." 
 
 See J. P. Collier, "Life of E. Spenser," 1862; Dr. John 
 Aikin', "Life of E. Spenser," 1806; H. J. Todd, "Life of E. 
 Spenser," 1805; Prkscott, "Miscellanies;" Warton, "Observa- 
 tions on the Faerie Queen :" " Blackwood's Magazine" for Novem- 
 ber, 1833 ; Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Spenserus. See Spenser. 
 
 Speransky or Speranski, spa-ran'ske, (Michael,) 
 C.MJNT, an eminent Russian statesman and mathemati- 
 cian, born in the government of Vladimir in 1772. He 
 became secretary to the privy council in 1801, and col- 
 league of the minister of justice in 1808. He made 
 important reforms in several departments of the gov- 
 ernment. In 1812 he was removed from office, but in 
 1819 he was appointed Governor-General of Siberia. He 
 enjoyed in a high degree the confidence of the emperor 
 Nicholas, and was placed at the head of a commission 
 appointed to make a digest or code of Russian laws, 
 which was published in 45 vols., 1830. For these 
 services he was rewarded with the title of count. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 See Baron von Korf. " Vie du Comte Speranski," 2 vols., 
 1861 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Sperling, speu/ling, (Otto,) a German naturalist, 
 born at Hamburg in 1602. He practised medicine at 
 Copenhagen and at Hamburg. He wrote on botany. 
 Died in 1681. 
 
 See Moller, "Cimbria Literata." 
 
 Sperling, (Otto,) an antiquary, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Christiania in 1634 He became 
 professor of history and law at Copenhagen in 1692, 
 and published several works on- numismatics and North- 
 ern antiquities, among which is " Montimentum Ham- 
 burgense Uenedictinum," (1675.) Died in 1715. 
 
 See Mdt.LER, "Cimbria Literata." 
 
 Speroni, spi-ro'nee, (Sperone,) an eminent Italian 
 writer and orator, born at Padua in 1500. He passed 
 for the foremost orator of Italy in his time. He wrote 
 several works in verse and prose, among which are 
 moral dialogues, ("Dialoghi," 1542,) and an admired 
 tragedy, called "Canace," (1546.) His style is highly 
 praised. Died in 1588. His complete works were pub- 
 lished at Venice in 5 vols. 4to, 1740. 
 
 See De Thou, "E*loges;" Niceron, "Me'moires;" Gin'gukn'e, 
 "Hwtoire Litteraire d'ltalie ;" Tiraboschi, " Storia della Lettera- 
 tura Italiana." 
 
 Speusippe. See Speusippus. 
 
 Speu-sip'pus, I Gr. 27rn'o-«T7roc; Fr. Speusippe, spuh'- 
 zep',| a Greek philosopher, born in Attica about 380 
 B.C., was a disciple and nephew of Plato. His mother, 
 Potone, was a sister of Plato, whom he accompanied in 
 his third journey to Syracuse. Having been selected 
 by Plato as his successor, Speusippus directed the 
 Academy from 347 to 339 B.C. He adopted the Platonic 
 philosophy, with slight modifications. Aristotle testified 
 his respect for the ability of Speusippus by writing a 
 refutation of his doctrines. His works are not extant. 
 Died in 339 B.C. 
 
 See Ritter, " History of Philosophy:" Ravaisson, "Speusippi 
 de Primis Rerum Principiis Placita," 1838; M. A. Fischer, " Scrip- 
 tio Academica de Speusippi Vita," 1845. 
 
 Sphaerua, sfee'rus, [S^aJpoc,] a Greek Stoic philoso- 
 pher, was a pupil of Zeno, and lived at Alexandria in 
 the reigns of Ptolemy I. and Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
 
 Sphinx, sfinks, |2</><}f,] a monster of the Greek 
 mythology, was said to have the face of a woman, 
 the wings of a bird, and the breast, feet, and tail of a 
 lion. According to some writers, the Sphinx was the 
 offspring of Typhon and Chimxra. The poets feigned 
 that this monster appeared near Thebes, in Boeotia, 
 
 proposed a riddle to every person that passed, and de- 
 stroyed all that failed to solve the enigma. After many 
 had failed and had perished, OZdipus came, and the 
 Sphinx demanded, " What animal is that which goes on 
 four feet in the morning, on two at noon, and on three 
 at evening?" He answered, "That is Man, who creeps in 
 infancy, walks on two feet in manhood, and uses a staff 
 in old age." The Sphinx then killed herself, or disap- 
 peared. This was a favourite emblem among the ancient 
 Egyptians, with whom it probably originated. At the 
 present time there may be seen near the pyramid of 
 Ghizeh a colossal figure of a sphinx, cut out of a solid 
 rock, and probably as old as the pyramids. 
 
 See "Biographie Universale," (Partie mythologique ;) Smith, 
 "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology." 
 
 Spiegel, spee'gel, (Friedrich,) a German Orientalist, 
 born near Wurzburg in 1820, has published a " Chres- 
 tomathia Persica," and an edition of the " Zend Avesta," 
 or the sacred books of the Parsees, with a translation. 
 He became in 1849 professor of Oriental languages at 
 Erlangen. 
 
 Spiegel, spee'gel or spee'nel, (Hendrik,) a Dutch 
 poet and merchant,' called the Dutch Ennius, born 
 at Amsterdam in 1549. He wrote "The Mirror of the 
 Heart," (" Hart Spieghel," 1614.) Died in 1612. 
 
 Spieghel, van den. See Spigelius. 
 
 Spieker, spee'ker, (Christian Wilhelm,) a Ge> 
 man Protestant theologian, born at Brandenburg, on 
 the Havel, in 1780. He wrote a number of religious 
 and educational works, which were very popular. 
 
 Spielberg. See Spilberg. 
 
 Spielbergen, van, vSn speel'beVgen, or Spilber- 
 gen, (George,) a Dutch navigator, who made a voyage 
 to the East Indies in 1601. In 1614 he commanded a 
 flotilla of six vessels which sailed through the Strait of 
 Magellan to the Moluccas. 
 
 Spielmann, speel'man, (Jakob Reinhoi.d,) born at 
 Strasburg in 1722, became professor of chemistry in his 
 native town. He published " Elements of Chemistry," 
 and other scientific works. Died in 1782. 
 
 Spieriiigs (spee'rings) of Antwerp, (Henry,) an 
 able landscape-painter, born about 1633. He worked 
 in France for Louis XIV., and in Italy. Died in 1 7 1 5. 
 
 Spierings, (Nicholas,) a Flemish landscape-painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1633, imitated Salvator Rosa with 
 success. Died at Antwerp in 1691. 
 
 Spiers, van, vin speeRs, (Albert,) a Dutch his- 
 torical painter, born at Amsterdam in 1666. He worked 
 at Rome and Venice, and returned to Amsterdam in 
 1697. Died in 1718. 
 
 Spieshammer. See Cuspinian. 
 
 Spiess, speess, (Christian Heinrich,) a German 
 novelist and dramatic writer, born at Freiberg, in Sax- 
 ony, in 1755 ; died in 1799. 
 
 Spifame, spe'fim', (Jacques Paul,) a Frenchman, 
 born in Paris in 1502. He became Bishop of Nevers 
 in 1548, abjured Catholicism in 1559, and was ordained 
 a minister bv Calvin at Geneva. Charged with calumny 
 and other offences, he was executed at Geneva in 1566. 
 
 See Bavi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Spifame, (Raoul,) a lawyer, a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, having become deranged, imagined that he was 
 King Henry II. of France, whom he resembled in 
 features. He was confined by that king, who ordered 
 him to be treated as a sovereign. Died in 1563. 
 
 Spi-ge'11-us, (or spe-Ha'le-us,) (Adrian,) a Flemish 
 anatomist and physician, whose original name was Van 
 den Spieghel, was born at Brussels in 1578. He studied 
 at Louvain and Padua, where he graduated in medicine, 
 and became professor of anatomy and surgery in 1616. 
 He was the author of a valuable work "On the Struc- 
 ture of the Hitman Body," (1627,) and other treatises. 
 One of the lobes of the liver has been called by his 
 name. Died in 1625. 
 
 Spilberg or Spielberg, speel'bSRG, (Johann,) a 
 German paintei of history, born at Dusseldorf in 1019, 
 was a pupil of Flink. He was patronized by the Count- 
 Palatine. Died in 1690. 
 
 Spllbergen, van. See Spielbergen, van. 
 
 Spil'ler, (John,) an English sculptor, born in Lon- 
 don in 1763, was a pupil of Bacon. His principal work 
 
 « as k; c as s; g Hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; sas z; *h as in this. 
 
 129 
 
 (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SPINCKES 
 
 2050 
 
 SPIRITO 
 
 is the statue of Charles II. in the centre of the Royal 
 Exchange. He died soon after its completion, in 1794. 
 
 Spinckes, spirits, (Nathaniel,) an English non- 
 juror, born at Castor in 1653 or 1654. He became 
 prebendary of Salisbury about 1687, and was ordained 
 a bishop of the nonjurors in 1713. Died in 1727. 
 
 Spindler, spind'ler,(KARt.,) a popular and voluminous 
 German novelist, born at Breslau about 1795. Among 
 his works we may mention "The Jew," (1827.) "The 
 Jesuit," (1829,) "The Invalid," and "The Bird-Fancier 
 of Imst," (" Der Vogelh'andler von Imst.") His writings, 
 including several dramatic pieces, amount to one hun- 
 dred volumes. Died in 1855. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1833. 
 
 Spinelli. See Spinelli). 
 
 Spinelli, spe-nel'lee, (Niccol6,) an Italian jurist, born 
 at Naples about 1325. He was appointed chancellor 
 of the kingdom by Queen Joan I. of Naples. Died 
 after 1394. 
 
 Spinelli, (Parri,) an Italian painter, born at Arezzo 
 about 1390, was the son of the artist Spinello Aretino, 
 by whom he was instructed in painting. His frescos 
 were distinguished for their richness of colouring. His 
 death is variously dated about 1410, 1426, or 1444. 
 
 Spinello, (Aretino.) See Aretino. 
 
 Spinello, spe-nel'lo, or Spinelli, spe-nel'lee, (Mat- 
 teo,) an Italian chronicler, born in the province of Bari 
 in 1230, wrote a chronicle of events of his time in Italy. 
 Died after 1285. 
 
 Spin'ner, (Francis E.,) an American politician, born 
 in Herkimer county, New York, in 1802. He repre- 
 sented the seventeenth district of New York in Congress 
 from 1855 to 1861, and was then appointed treasurer of 
 the United States. 
 
 Spinola, spee'no-la, (Amiirosio,) Marquis of, a 
 celebrated military commander, born at Genoa in 1569. 
 In conjunction with his brother Frederick, at that time 
 admiral of the Spanish fleet on the coast of Holland, 
 he fought against the Flemish insurgents in the cam- 
 paign of 1602. His brother having been killed in an 
 engagement with the Dutch in 1603, Spinola became 
 general-in-chief of the Spanish army in the Nether- 
 lands, and in 1604 took the city of Ostend, which had 
 been besieged more than three years by the Spaniards. 
 He afterwards opposed Maurice, Prince of Orange, 
 without, however, gaining any decided victory ; and, the 
 Spanish fleet near Gibraltar having been defeated by 
 Admiral Heemskerk in 1607, a truce was concluded 
 with Maurice for twelve years, (1609.) Hostilities being 
 renewed in 1621, Spinola was again the opponent of 
 Maurice, over whom he gained several important vic- 
 tories, among which was the capture of Juliers, Wesel, 
 and Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1625, after a siege of ten 
 months, he took the city of Breda, Maurice having died 
 of a fever during the progress of the siege. Spinola 
 afterwards commanded against the French in Italy ; but 
 he died in 1630. 
 
 See Adolphe Siret, "A. Spinola, Episode," etc., 1851 ; J. Ba- 
 linus, " De Bello Belgico Auspieiis A. Spinola," 1609; P. Casoni, 
 "Vita d'Ambrogio Spinola," 1691 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene- 
 rale ;" Motley, " History of the Netherlands," chap. xlii. 
 
 Spinosa. See Spinoza. 
 
 Spinoza, spe-no'zj, or Spinosa, spe-no'sj, (Bene- 
 dict,) a celebrated pantheistical philosopher, born at 
 Amsterdam on the 24th of November, 1632. His parents 
 were Spanish or Portuguese Jews, who gave him the 
 name of Baruch, which he exchanged for its equivalent 
 Benedict. He learned Hebrew and other ancient lan- 
 guages, and read with avidity the works of Descartes, 
 who was one of his favourite authors. At an early age 
 he announced opinions which were considered heretical 
 and for which he was excommunicated by the Jews. 
 One of them also attempted to assassinate him in the 
 night, about 1656; but he escaped with a slight wound. 
 To avoid persecution, he retired to Leyden or Ryns- 
 berg, and gained a subsistence by making lenses for 
 telescopes and microscopes. He passed his life as a 
 solitary recluse, and practised great frugality. About 
 1668 he settled at the Hague, where he remained until 
 his death. He published a "Theological and Political 
 Treatise," ("Tractatus theologico-politicus," 1670,) and 
 
 left several works, which were published in 1677 under 
 the title of "Opera Posthutna." 
 
 Spinoza was never married. In 1673 the Elector-Pal- 
 atine, Charles Louis, offered him a chair of philosophy 
 at Heidelberg, promising to allow him liberty of thought 
 and discussion provided he should not speak or write 
 against the established religion. He politely declined 
 this offer. His constitution was naturally frail and 
 delicate. He died in February, 1677. For more than 
 a century after his death he was generally stigmatized as 
 an atheist, a monster, and a blasphemer. A reaction 
 followed, especially in Germany, and he became a great 
 favourite with Goethe, Lessing, Novalis, and Schleier- 
 macher. His most important work is " Ethics De- 
 monstrated by a Geometrical Method," (" Ethica More 
 Geometrico d.emonstrata.") "Spinosa was truly," says 
 Hallam, " what Voltaire has with rather less justice 
 called Clarke, — a reasoning machine. A few leading 
 theorems, too hastily taken up as axiomatic, were sufficient 
 to make him sacrifice, with no compromise or hesitation, 
 not only every principle of religion and moral right, but 
 the clear intuitive notions of common sense. . . . Spi- 
 nosa does not essentially differ from the Pantheists of 
 old. He conceived, as they had done, that the infinity 
 of God required the exclusion of all other substance." 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 " Bayle's article 'Spinoza,'" says Goethe, "excited 
 displeasure and mistrust in me. In the first place, the 
 man was represented as an atheist, and his opinions as 
 most abominable ; but immediately after it was con- 
 fessed that he was a calm, reflective, diligent scholar, a 
 good citizen, a sympathizing neighbour, and a peaceable, 
 domestic man. They seemed to have quite forgotten 
 the words of the gospel : ' By their fruits you shall 
 know them.'''''' ("Autobiography," book xvi. p. 2.) The 
 same critic says in another place, "The mind which 
 worked upon me so decisively, and which was destined 
 to affect so deeply my whole mode of thinking, was 
 Spinoza. After looking through the world in vain to 
 find a means of development for my strange nature, I 
 at last fell upon the ' Ethics' of this man. . . . Here 
 I found a sedative for my passions, and a free wide view 
 over the material world seemed to open before me. But 
 what especially bound me to him was the great disin- 
 terestedness that shone from every sentence. . . . The 
 all-composing calmness of Spinoza was in striking con- 
 trast with my all-disturbing activity, his mathematical 
 method was the opposite of my poetic imagination and 
 way of writing, and the very precision which was thought 
 ill adapted to moral subjects, made me his enthusiastic 
 disciple, his most decided worshipper." (" Autobiog- 
 raphy," book xiv. p. 170.) From the article "Spinoza," 
 in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," by John Downes, 
 we extract the following : "The character of Spinoza is 
 naturally one of the most devout on record, for his life 
 was, in a manner, one unbroken hymn. He was not a 
 pious man, as that word is now usually understood, for 
 he was not a Christian, at least in profession." Among 
 the numerous biographies of Spinoza, that of J. Colerus, 
 "Vie de B. Spinosa," (1706,) is said to be the best. 
 
 See, also, Lucas Vr^sr, " La Vie et I' Esprit de Spinoza," 1719; 
 H. F. von Dietz, "Spinoza nacli Leben und l.ehre," 1783; Piekrr 
 Bayle, "Het Leven van B. de Spinoza," 1698; Jacobi, "Brief* 
 ueber die Lehre des Spinoza," 17S6; Philippson, "Leben von 
 Spinoza," 1790; Kaki. Thomas. "Spinoza als Metaphvsiker," 1840; 
 A. Saintes, " Histoire de la Vie de Spinoza," 1842: Conrad von 
 Orelli, " Spinozas Leben und Lehre," 1S43 ; Von Vloten, " Ba- 
 ruch d'Espinoza," 1862. For an excellent (popular) notice of the 
 philosophic system of Spinoza, see Froudk, "Short Studies on 
 Great Subjects," 1868; see, also, Matthew Arnold, "Essays in 
 Criticism;" "Westminster Review" for May, 1S43. (by G. H. 
 Lewes ;) " British Quarterly Review" for November. 1848; " North 
 British Review" for May, 1863, article "Saisset and Spinoza." 
 
 Spira, de, deh spee'rj, (Johannes,) or John of 
 Speyer, a German printer, who in the latter part of the 
 fifteenth century removed to Venice, where he founded 
 the first printing-establishment. Among the works 
 issued from his press were editions of Cicero's "Epistles" 
 and Pliny's " Natural History," (1469.) 
 
 Spiriti, spee'retee, (Sai.vatore,) Marquis, an Ital- 
 ian litth-ateur, born at Cosenza in 1712 ; died in 1776. 
 
 Spirito, spee're-to, (Lorenzo,) an Italian satirical 
 poet, born at Perugia about 1430. He wrote " Sorti," 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long: a, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SP1TTA 
 
 2051 
 
 SPRAGUE 
 
 (1473,) an( ' other works, which were once popular. He 
 died about 1495. 
 
 Spitta, spit'ta, (Karl Johann Philipp,) a German 
 devotional poet, born at Hanover in 1801. 
 
 Spittler, spit'ler, (Ludwig Timothf.us,) Baron, 
 born at Stuttgart in 1752, became in 1779 professor 
 of philosophy at Gottingen. Me published several his- 
 torical and ecclesiastical works. Died in 1810. 
 
 Spitzel. See Spizei.ius. 
 
 Spix, von, fon spfks, (Johann Baptist,) a German 
 naturalist, born at Mochstadt, in Bavaria, in 1781. Hav- 
 ing published in 181 1 his "History and Review of all 
 Systems of Zoology," he was elected to the Academy of 
 Sciences, and made conservator of the Zoological Mu- 
 seum at Munich. In [817 he accompanied Von Martins 
 3ti his scientific expedition to Brazil. H» died in 1826, 
 having with some assistance completed five splendidly 
 iiiustrated works on the birds, apes, bats, and reptiles 
 of Brazil. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for February, 1S30 ; 
 " Mnntltiy Review" for December, 1824. 
 
 Spizelius, spit-sa'le-us, or Spitzel, spit'sel, (Theo- 
 Ptiii.us,) a German scholar and ecclesiastic, born at 
 Augsburg in 1639, wrote a " Commentary on the State 
 of Literature among the Chinese," (1600,) and other 
 works. Died in 1691. 
 
 Spof'forth, (Rkgtnald,) an English composer of 
 great merit, born in Nottinghamshire in 1768. He is 
 chiefly known by his glees, which are esteemed master- 
 pieces of their kind. Died in 1826. 
 
 Spohn, spon, [Lat. Spoh'nius,] (Frif.drich Au- 
 gust Wii.hki.m,) an eminent German scholar, born at 
 Dortmund in 1792. He studied at Leipsic, where he 
 became in 1819 professor of the Greek and Latin lan- 
 guages. He published editions of the " Panegyrtcus" 
 ot Isocrates, the two geographical works of Nicephorus 
 Blemmida, and the "Opera et Dies" of Hesiod. He 
 died in 1824, leaving a work on hieroglyphics, entitled 
 "De Lingua* et Literis veterum /Egyptiorum," which 
 was continued and published by Seyffarth in 1825. 
 
 See G. Sevffarth, " Memoria F. A. G. Spohnii," 1825. 
 
 Spohuius. See Spohn. 
 
 Spohr, spoR, (Louis,) one of the greatest composers 
 and musicians of recent times, was born at Brunswick in 
 17S4. lie was instructed in violin-playing by Maucourt 
 and Eck, and subsequently made a professional tour in 
 Russia, France, and Italy, being everywhere received 
 with distinguished favour. In 1813 he became chapel- 
 master at Vienna, where he produced his opera of 
 "Faust," and several other admired works. He was 
 appointed in 1822 chapel-master to the Duke of Hesse- 
 Cassel, and soon after composed his popular operas of 
 "Jessonda," "The Alchymist," " Pietro of Abano," and 
 "The Crusader." His oratorios of "The Crucifixion," 
 " The Last Judgment," and the " Fall of Babylon" are 
 entitled to a very high rank among works of the kind ; 
 the last-named was composed for a musical festival in 
 England, where Spohr's music enjoys great popularity. 
 He also produced numerous symphonies, cantatas, 
 and pieces for the violin and other instruments. Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 See " Autobiography of Louis Spohr," 1865 ; Ebf.rs, " Spohr und 
 HaleVy," etc., 1837; Choron ct Favollk, "Dictionnaire des Mu- 
 siciens :" " Nouvelle Rtographie Ge*ne>ale ;" " Jahrbuch zum Con- 
 versations Lexikon," 1863. 
 
 Spolverini, spol-vi-ree'nee, (GrAMiiATiiSTA,) Mar- 
 quis, an Italian poet, born at Verona in 1695. He wrote 
 a poem " On the Cultivation of Rice," (" La Coltivazione 
 del Riso," 1758,) which was much admired. Died in 
 1762. 
 
 Spolverini, (Hii.arion,) an Italian painter of battles, 
 was born at Parma in 1657; died in 1734. 
 
 Spon, spWt, (Charles,) a French physician, born at 
 Lyons in 1609. He practised at Lyons, and translated 
 into Latin verse the "Prognostics" of Hippocrates, 
 (1661.) Died in 1684. 
 
 Spon, (Jacop.,) a celebrated French antiquary and 
 physician, born at Lyons in 1647, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. In 1676 he explored Greece, from which he 
 brought several thousand inscriptions. He published 
 "'Researches on the Antiquities of Lyons," (1673,) 
 
 "Travels in Italy, Dalmatia, Greece, and the Levant," 
 (3 vols., 1678,) which was highly esteemed, a " History 
 of the Republic of Geneva," (1680,) and other works. 
 Died in 1685. 
 
 See Moreri, "Dictionnaire Historique;" Haag, "La France 
 protestante ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Geuerale." 
 
 Spondanus. See Spondk, de. 
 
 Sponde,de,deh spoNd, [Lat. Sponda'nus,! (Henry,) 
 a French prelate, born at Mauleon in 1568, became 
 Bishop of Pamiers in 1626. He published an abridgment 
 of the " Annals" of Baronius, and wrote a continuation 
 of them from 1197 to 1640, (2 vols., 1639.) Died in 
 1643. 
 
 See Moreki, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Sponde, de, [Lat. Sponda'nus,] (Jean,) a French 
 scholar, born at Mauleon in 1557, was a brother of the 
 preceding. He published a Latin version of Homer's 
 poems, with notes, (1583.) Died in 1595. 
 
 Sponneck, von, ton spon'nek, (Wilhelm Carl 
 Kppingkn,) Count, a Danish economist and financier, 
 born at Rinkjobing in 1815. He published a systematic 
 treatise on customs, or tariffs, (2 vols., 1840.) He was 
 appointed minister of finance in 1848. 
 
 Spontini, spon-tee'nee, (Gasparo Luigi Pacifico,) 
 an Italian musician and composer, born at Jesi in 1778 
 or 1779. He produced in 1796 an opera called " I Pun- 
 tigli delle Donne." About 1803 he removed to Paris, 
 where his " Finta Filosofa" was performed in 1804. He 
 composed "La Vestale," an opera, (1807,) which had 
 great success. In 1820 he became director of the Royal 
 Opera in Berlin, and chapel-master to the king. Among 
 his chief works are " Olympie" and " Fernand Cortez." 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 See L. de Lomenie, " M. Spontini, par un Homme de Rien," 
 1841 : E. M. Oettincier, "Spontini," 1843; Raoul-Rochktte, 
 " Notice historique stir la Vie de M. Spontini," 1852 ; Fetis, " Uio- 
 graphie Universelle des Musicieus;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Spontone, spon-to'na, (Ciro,) an Italian litterateur, 
 born at Bologna about 1552. He wrote many works, in 
 prose and verse. Died about 1610. 
 
 Spork, von, fon spoRk, (Johann,) Count, a Ger- 
 man general, born in Westphalia in 1597. He fought 
 for the Elector of Bavaria, and afterwards for the em- 
 peror Ferdinand III. Died in 1679. 
 
 See Rosenkranz, "Johann Spork," 1845. 
 
 His son, Franz Anton, also a count, born in 1662, 
 was a philanthropist in Bohemia. He founded hospitals 
 and public libraries. Died in 1738. 
 
 See Stillenau, " Lebensgeschichte des Grafen Spork," 1725. 
 
 Spots'wood or Spot'tis-wood, (John,) an ambi- 
 tious Scottish prelate, born at Mid-Calder in 1565. He 
 became Archbishop of Glasgow in 1603, and Archbishop 
 of Saint Andrew's in 1615. He was the object of popu- 
 lar odium among the Scotch. In 1635 he was appointed 
 lord chancellor of Scotland. He wrote a " History of 
 the Church of Scotland," (1655.) In 1638 he was de- 
 posed and declared infamous. Died in 1639. 
 
 SeeCtiAMBERS, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Spotawood, (Sir Robert,) a lawyer, a son of the 
 preceding, was born about 1596. He was appointed 
 lord president of the court of session by Charles I. In 
 the civil war he was a royalist, fought under Montrose, 
 was taken prisoner, and executed in 1646. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen."' 
 
 Spottiswood. See Spotswood. 
 
 Spragg or Spragge, (Sir Edward,) an English ad- 
 miral under the reign of Charles Undistinguished him- 
 self in several engagements with the Dutch in 1666-67, 
 and subsequently fought Van Trump in three successive 
 battles. During the last he was drowned, while going 
 from one boat to another, (1673.) 
 
 Sprague, sprag, (Charles,) an American poet, born 
 in Boston on the 26th of October, 1791. He left school 
 at an early age, to acquire a practical knowledge of mer- 
 cantile business, which he pursued for some years. 
 About 1825 he was elected cashier of the Globe Bank 
 of Boston. He produced in 1823 an ode in honour of 
 Shakspeare, "which," says R. \v". Gtiswold, "is one of 
 the most vigorous and beautiful lyrics in the English 
 
 « as k; 9 ass; g hard; g as/'; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sag z; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SPRAGUE 
 
 2052 
 
 SQUARCIONE 
 
 language." His most extensive work is " Curiosity," 
 a didactic and satirical poem, delivered before the Phi 
 Beta Kappa Society of Harvard University in 1829. 
 Among his other works are a centennial ode on the foun- 
 dation of Boston, pronounced in 1830, and short poems 
 entitled " The Winged Worshippers," " Art," and " The 
 Family Meeting," which exhibit much skill in the use 
 of language. 
 
 See R. W. Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America ;" " North 
 American Review" for April, 1830. 
 
 Sprague, (William,) an American Senator, a nephew 
 of William Sprague who was chosen Senator of the 
 United States in 1842, was born at Cranston, Rhode 
 Island, September 12, 1830. He was elected Governor 
 of Rhode Island in i860. In 1861 he raised a regiment, 
 with which he fought at Bull Run, July 21. He was 
 elected a Senator of the United States, by the legislature 
 of Rhode Island, for six years, (1863-69,) and re-elected 
 in June, 1868. He married a daughter of Chief-Justice 
 Chase. 
 
 Sprague, (William Buei,) D.D., an American Pres- 
 byterian divine, born at Andover, Connecticut, in 1795. 
 He published "Lectures to Young People," (1825,) 
 "Hints on Christian Intercourse," (1834,) "Visits to 
 European Celebrities," (1855,) and "Annals of the 
 American Pulpit," (9 vols., 1856-69.) Of this valuable 
 work, vols. i. and ii. treat of Trinitarian Congregationalist 
 divines ; vols. iii. and iv., Presbyterian ; vol. v., Epis- 
 copalian ; vol. vi., Baptist ; vol. vii., Methodist ; vol. viii., 
 Unitarian, and vol. ix., Lutheran, Dutch Reformed, etc. 
 He also contributed a " Life of Timothy Dwight" to 
 Sparks's " American Biography." 
 
 See the "North American Review" for April, 1S57; Allibone, 
 "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Spranger or Sprangher, spuang'er or spiiang'Her, 
 (Bartholomew,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp 
 in 1546, studied in Italy, and while at Rome was patron- 
 ized by Pius V. and Cardinal Farnese. He painted for 
 the former a " Last Judgment," containing nearly five 
 hundred heads. Died about 1625. 
 
 Sprat, (Thomas,) an English writer, born in Devon- 
 shire in 1636. He graduated at Oxford in 1657, was 
 appointed successively chaplain to Charles H., Dean of 
 Westminster, (1683,) and Bishop of Rochester, (16S4.) 
 He was the author of a poem " On the Death of Oliver 
 Cromwell," and other poetical pieces, and an account 
 of the Rye-House Plot, entitled "A True Account and 
 Declaration of the Horrid Conspiracy against the Late 
 King," etc. He also published a " Life of Cowley," and 
 a " History of the Royal Society," of which he was one 
 of the original members; and he is said to have been 
 associated with the Duke of Buckingham, Butler, and 
 others in writing "The Rehearsal." Died in 1713. 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets," and a "Life of Thomas 
 Sprat," London, 1715. . 
 
 SprSng, (James,) called Pr^epos'itus, a Flemish theo- 
 logian, born at Ypres about 1485. He adopted the prin- 
 ciples of Luther, and became in 1524 pastor of a church 
 at Bremen. Died in 1562. 
 
 See J. H. von Seelen, "Vita J. Prapositi," 1747; Janssen, 
 "Jacobus Praepositus," 1862. 
 
 Sprengel, spkSng'el, (Karl,) professor of agricultural 
 science at Brunswick, was born near Hanover in 1787. 
 He published "Chemistry for Farmers," (1831,) and 
 other similar works. Died in 1859. 
 
 Spiengel, (Kurt,) one of the most eminent phy- 
 sicians and botanists of Get many, was born near Anklatii, 
 in Pomerania, in 1766. He studied at Halle, where he 
 took his medical degree in 1787, and in 1797 became 
 professor of botany. Among his works we may name 
 his "Manual of Pathology," (3 vols., 1795,) " Institu- 
 tiones Medicae," (6 vols., 1809,) a "History of Botany," 
 (181 7,) "New Discoveries in the Entire, Circuit of Bot- 
 any," (3 vols., 1819,) "Pragmatic History of Medicine," 
 (5 vols., 1828,) "Historia Rei Herbaria;," and "Flora 
 flalensis." Died at Halle in 1833. 
 
 See Lkroy Duprb, "Notice historique sur Sprengel," 1850; 
 Cali.isen, " Medicinisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon," (Supplement;) 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Gen^rale." 
 
 Sprengel, (Maithaus Christian,) an uncle of the 
 preceding, was born at Rostock in 1746, and became 
 
 professor of history at Halle in f»79. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of Great Britain and Ireland," a " History of the 
 Mahrattas," (1786,) and other works. Died in 1803. 
 
 Sprenger, spueng'er, (Aloys,) a distinguished Ori- 
 entalist, born in the Tyrol in 1813. After a residence 
 of several years in Hindostan, he became in 1850 inter- 
 preter of the government at Calcutta and secretary of 
 the Asiatic Society of Bengal. He translated from the 
 Arabic into English Masoodee's " Meadows of Gold," 
 (1849,) wrote a valuable " Life of Mohammad," (1851,) 
 and published several translations of English works into 
 Hindostanee. 
 
 Sprenger, (Placidus,) a German monk and writer, 
 born at Wuizburg in 1735. He published, besides other 
 works, "The Literature of Catholic Germany," (11 vols., 
 1775-90.) Died in 1806. 
 
 Spreti, spRa'tee, (Desiderio,) an Italian historian, 
 born at Ravenna in 1444, wrote (in Latin) a "History 
 of Ravenna," (1489.) Died about 1474. 
 
 Spring, (Gardiner,) D.D., LL.D., a son of Samuel 
 Spring, noticed below, was born at Newburyport, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1785. Having graduated at Yale College, 
 he became in 1S10 pastor of a Presbyterian chinch 
 in New York. He published, among other works, 
 " Obligations of the World to the Bible'," (1844,) "The 
 Attraction of the Cross," (1845,) " Discourses to Sea- 
 men," and " The Power of the Pulpit," (184s.) 
 
 See "Personal Reminiscences of the Life and Times of Gardiner 
 Spring," 1866. 
 
 Spring, (Samuel,) D.D., an American Presbyterian 
 divine, born at Northbridge, Massachusetts, in 1746, 
 became a chaplain in the Continental army in 1775. 
 He published a number of religious and controversial 
 works. Died in 1819. 
 
 Spruner, von, fon spRoo'ner, (Karl,) a German 
 historian and geographer, born at Stuttgart in 1803. 
 He published a "District Map of East Franconia, ' 
 (■835,) a " Historical-Geographical Hand-Atlas," (1837,) 
 which is esteemed a standard work, a " Universal His- 
 torical School-Atlas," and other works of the kind. 
 
 Spurgeon, spur'jon, (Charles Haddon,) a popula- 
 and eloquent English Baptist preacher, born at Kelve- 
 don, Essex, in 1834. He began to preach in London 
 about 1853, and attracted large audiences in Exeter 
 Hall and Surrey Music-Hall. A new chapel, of vast 
 dimensions, was erected for him, and opened in 1861. 
 He has published several religious works. 
 
 See " Life of C. H. Spurgeon," New York, 1857. 
 
 Spu-rin'na,(VESTRicius,)a Roman poet and soldier, 
 was a contemporary of Tacitus and Pliny the Younger. 
 He gained several victories over the Germans on the 
 Rhine, and held various offices under the government. 
 His lyric poems, in Latin and Greek, are praised bv Plinv. 
 
 Spfirs'tow, (William,) an English clergyman and 
 writer, was minister of Hackney, from which he was 
 ejected for nonconformity in 1662. Died in 1666. 
 
 Spurzheim, spooius'liim, (Johann Kaspar,) a Ger- 
 man physician, and one of the earliest advocates of phre- 
 nology, was born at Longwich, near Treves, in 1776. He 
 studied medicine at Vienna, and there met Dr. Gall, of 
 whom he became a disciple. About 1805 he left Vienna, 
 and accompanied Dr. Gall in visits to various cities of 
 Germany, France, etc. As partners, they lectured in 
 Paris from 1807 to 1813, and published "The Anatomy 
 and Physiology of the Nervous System in general, and 
 of the Brain in particular." Spurzheim is reputed to 
 have discovered the fibrous structure of the brain. He 
 lectured in England several years, and returned to Paris 
 in 1 81 7. He published a number of works on phre- 
 nology, etc. He visited the United States in 1832, and 
 died at Boston in the same year. 
 
 See "Memoir of the Life and Philosophy of Spurzheim," by A. 
 Carmichaei., 1833; " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale ;" "Monthly 
 Review" for October, 1815. 
 
 Squarcione, skwaR-cho'na, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 
 painter and amateur, born at Padua in 1394. He enjoyed 
 
 a very high reputation as a teacher, and numbered among 
 
 his pupils Bellini, Marco Zoppo, and Andrea Mantegna. 
 
 He possessed great wealth, and was the owner of a large 
 
 and choice collection of works of art. Died in 1444. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Selvatico, "IlPittoreF. 
 Squarcione," 1839. 
 
 1. e, f, 6, ft, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, fi, ?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; mdbn. 
 
SQUIER 
 
 2053 
 
 STAEL-HOLSTEIN 
 
 Squl'er, (EriiRAiM George,) an American archae- 
 ologist, born in Albany county, New York, in 1821. He 
 became in 1843 editor of the " Hartford Daily Journal," 
 an organ of the Whig party, and in 1844 too ' < charge 
 of the "Scioto Gazette," Ohio. In 1S48 he published 
 in the "Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge" a 
 description of the ancient monuments of the Mississippi 
 valley, and in 1849 an account of the aboriginal monu- 
 ments of the State of New York. He was soon after 
 appointed charge-d'affaires to Guatemala. In 1851 he 
 furnished the plan for an inter-oceanic railway through 
 Honduras, the survey of which road he subsequently 
 conducted. Among his principal works may be named 
 " Nicaragua, its People, Scenery, Ancient Monuments," 
 etc., (1852,) "Notes on Central America," etc., (1854,) 
 " Monograph of Authors who have written on the Abo- 
 riginal Languages of Central America," and " Tropical 
 Fibres : their Production and their Economic Extraction," 
 (1861.) Mr. Squier has been a contributor to the 
 "Encyclopaedia Britannica" and Appleton's "American 
 Cyclopaedia," and has been admitted to the London 
 Society of Antiquaries, and other learned institutions 
 of Europe. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1S52. 
 
 Squire, (Samuel,) an English writer and scholar, 
 born in Wiltshire in 1714. He studied at Cambridge, 
 and rose through several preferments to be Bishop of 
 Saint David's in 1761. He was the author of " An En- 
 quiry into the Origin of the Greek Language," ( 1 74 1 , ) 
 "The Ancient History of the Hebrews Vindicated," 
 (1741,) and other learned works, also a number of ser- 
 mons. Died in 1766. 
 
 Sree. See Skf. 
 
 SrS, sree, or Shri, shree, (sometimes written Sree,) 
 a Sanscrit word, signifying " prosperity," " wealth," 
 " splendour," is often applied as an epithet to Lakshnii, 
 the consort of Vishnu, and is sometimes given as a name 
 to Saraswati, the wife of Brahma, and the goddess of 
 music and eloquence. (See Laksiimi and Saraswati.) 
 
 Sse-ma-Kwang, (or -Kouang,) si ma kvvang, writ- 
 ten also Sze-ma-K'wang, an eminent Chinese his- 
 torian, born in the province of Shen-see about 1018 
 A.D. He enjoyed the favour of several successive sove- 
 reigns. About the year 1084 he was appointed presi- 
 dent of the Imperial Academy of Han-lin, the highest 
 literary institution in China. lie died in 1086. He left 
 a great historical work, entitled "Universal Mirror," 
 ("Toong-Kian,") which has been translated into French 
 by Pere Mailla. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Sse-ma-Tsien, sa-ma-tse-en (or -tse-an,) or Sse-ma- 
 Tsian, written alsoSze-ma-Ts'een and Se-ma-Tsien, 
 a celebrated Chinese historiographer, scholar, and critic, 
 born in the province of Shen-see about 145 B.C. His 
 father, who held the office of historiographer to the em- 
 peror Woo-tee, greatly distinguished himself by his zeal 
 in collecting and arranging the writings of the ancients. 
 After his death the son succeeded to his office, and ap- 
 plied himself with equal industry and zeal to collecting 
 and preserving the writings of antiquity. Having by 
 his freedom and boldness incurred the anger of the em- 
 peror, he was banished. While in exile, he wrote his 
 principal work, entitled "Historical Memoirs," (" Sse- 
 Kee *or -Ki,") which was not published until after his 
 death. Having recovered the favour of his sovereign, he 
 was recalled from banishment and treated with distin- 
 guished regard. He is supposed to have died about 
 80 n.c. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Staal, von, fon stll, (Karl,) a Russian general, of 
 German extraction, born at Reval in 1777, served under 
 Suwarow in Italy in 1799, and subsequently in the princi- 
 pal Austrian and German campaigns against the French. 
 He was afterwards appointed by the emperor Nicholas 
 commandant of Moscow and general of cavalry, (1843.) 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 Staal, von, fon stll, (Marguerite Jeanne Cordier 
 ■ — koR'de-i',) Baroness, an accomplished French writer, 
 born in Paris in 1693, was the daughter of the painter 
 Launai, and was married to Baron von Staal, a Swiss 
 
 officer. She was the author of poems, letters, and 
 " Memoirs," (3 vols., 1755,) which are remarkable for 
 the elegance of their style. Died in 1750. 
 
 Staben, sta'ben, (HKNDRiK,)a Flemish painter, born 
 in 1578, was a pupil of Tintoretto. He worked at Venice, 
 and excelled in pictures of small dimensions. Died in 
 1658. 
 
 Stabili. See Cecco d'Ascoli. 
 
 Stace, the French for Statius, which see. 
 
 Stackelberg, stak'el -bSRc', (Otto Magnus,) 
 Baron, a distinguished archaeologist, of German extrac- 
 tion, born near Reval, in Russia, in 1787. His principal 
 works are entitled "The Sepulchres of the Greeks," 
 and "Greece, Picturesque and Topographic Views," 
 (1830.) Died in 1834. 
 
 Stack'house, (stak'us,) (John,) an English botanist, 
 wasa nephew of Thomas Stackhouse, noticed below. He 
 published in 1801 a description, in English and Latin, 
 of the Algae, Fuci, and Confervas of England, entitled 
 " Nereis Britannica," (fob, with coloured plates.) Among 
 his other works are "Illustrations of Theophrastus," (in 
 Latin, 181 1,) and contributions to the "Transactions" 
 of the Linnaean Society, of which he was a member. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Stackhouse, (Thomas,) an English divine and the- 
 ological writer, born in 1681, became vicar of Benham, 
 in Berkshire. He published "Memoirs of Bishop Af- 
 terbury," (1723,) a "History of the Holy Bible," (2 
 vols., 1732,) and other works. Died in 1752. 
 
 Stadion, sta'de-on, (Johann Philipp Karl Joseph,) 
 Count, an Austrian diplomatist and statesman, born at 
 Mentz in 1763, was sent as ambassador to Stockholm, 
 London, and Saint Petersburg, and succeeded Cobenzl 
 as minister of foreign affairs in 1806. He relinquished 
 this post to Count Metternich in 1809. He was restored 
 to power in 1813, and signed the peace of Paris in 1814. 
 Died in 1824. 
 
 Stadius, sta'de-tis, (Jan,) a Dutch astronomer and 
 astrologer, born in Brabant in 1527, wrote "Roman 
 Calendars," (" Fasti Romanorum,") and other works. 
 Died in 1579. 
 
 Stadler, stad'ler, (Maximilian,) a German organist 
 and composer of church music, born at Melk in 1748. 
 Among his works we may name his oratorio of "The 
 Deliverance of Jerusalem." Died in 1833. 
 
 Stael-Holsteiu, de, deh stal-hol'stln, [Fr. pron. 
 stS'el' ^ol'sta.s',] (Anne Louise Germaine Necker,) 
 Baronne, commonly called Madame de Stael, a 
 French lady of great genius, and the most celebrated 
 authoress of modern times, was born in Paris on the 22d 
 of April, 1766. She was the only child of Necker, the 
 eminent financier. Her education was directed by her 
 mother, whose nature was far less genial and expansive 
 than that of the daughter. Madame Necker subjected her 
 to a strict and rigid regime of formalism, adapted rather 
 to contract than to develop her genius. Her character 
 was better appreciated by her father, for whom she always 
 felt the most ardent affection and even adoration. In her 
 early youth she listened with interest to the conversation 
 of Marmontel, Raynal, and other authors, who frequented 
 her father's house. To restore her health, impaired by 
 hard study, she was sent to the country at about the age 
 of fourteen, and enjoyed more liberty. Her favourite 
 author at this period of her life was J. J. Rousseau. 
 " She was from the first the very incarnation of genius 
 and of impulse. Her precocity was extraordinary, and 
 her vivacity and vehemence, both of intellect aim tem- 
 perament, baffled all her mother's efforts at regulation 
 and control." ("North British Review" for November, 
 1853.) In 1786 she was married to Eric, Baron de Stael, 
 a Swedish diplomatist, and received from her father an 
 immense dowry. It appears that she did not love De 
 Stael, but that she or her parents preferred him to other 
 suitors because he was a Protestant and intended to 
 reside permanently at Paris. Her first literary produc- 
 tion was "Letters on the Writings and Character of 
 J. J. Rousseau," (1788.) During the reign of terror she 
 made courageous and successful efforts to save the lives 
 of a number of proscribed persons, among whom was the 
 Count de Narbonne. 
 
 In 1793 she retired to England, and resided for a time 
 
 € as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jraf="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STAEL-HOLSTEIN 
 
 2054 
 
 STAHL 
 
 near Richmond with M. Talleyrand, the Count de Nar- 
 bonne, and other French exiles. She returned to Paris in 
 1795, and passed her time happily for the next four years. 
 She was an advocate of constitutional liberty, and during 
 the Directory was the leading spirit of a party whose 
 chief orator was Benjamin Constant. Her influence was 
 so great as to excite the jealousy of Bonaparte, to whom 
 she constantly refused to offer homage. A mutual and 
 invincible antipathy arose between her and the First 
 Consul, who not only persecuted her but bullied and 
 banished others because they sympathized with her. 
 She published in 1800 a work "On Literature consid- 
 ered in its Relations with Social Institutions." In 1802 
 she was banished from Paris and forbidden to reside 
 within forty leagues of that capital, the social charms 
 of which she deemed indispensable to her happiness. 
 She published in 1802 a novel entitled " Delphine," and 
 visited Germany, where she associated with Goethe, 
 Schiller, and A. \V. Schlegel, (1803-04.) Some of these 
 are said to have listened to her brilliant conversation 
 "with vast admiration and not a little fatigue." "To 
 philosophize in society," observes Goethe, "means to 
 talk with vivacity about insoluble problems. This was 
 her peculiar pleasure and passion. . . . More than once 
 I had regular dialogues with her, with no one else pres- 
 ent : in these, however, she was likewise burdensome ; 
 never granting, on the most important topics, a moment 
 of reflection, but passionately demanding that we should 
 despatch the deepest concerns as lightly as if it were a 
 game at shuttlecock." (" Dichtung und Wahrheit.") 
 
 After a tour in Italy, she produced in 1S07 her " Co- 
 rinne," a novel, which displays profound insight and 
 equal sensibility. It had immense success, which irri- 
 tated Napoleon to renew his persecution of the author. 
 She was ordered to leave France. She afterwards 
 travelled in Germany, and settled at Coppet in Switzer- 
 land, where a number of her friends came to console 
 her. Among these were Sismondi, Schlegel. Madame 
 Recamier, and B. Constant. In 1S10 she published her 
 capital work on Germany, (" De l'AUemagne,") which, in 
 the opinion of Goethe, " ought to be considered a power- 
 ful battery which made a wide breach in the sort of 
 wall raised up between the two nations by superannuated 
 prejudices." "Thus terminates," says Sir J. Mackin- 
 tosh, " a work which, for variety of knowledge, flexi- 
 bility "f power, elevation of view, and comprehension of 
 mind, is unequalled among the works, of women, and 
 which in the union of the graces of society and litera- 
 ture with the genius of philosophy is not surpassed by 
 many among those of men." ("Edinburgh Review" for 
 October, 1813.) Among her other works are her auto- 
 biographic memoirs, entitled " Ten Years of Exile," and 
 " Considerations on the French Revolution," (" Con- 
 siderations sur la Revolution Franchise," 1818.) She 
 was privately married to M. Rocca, a young Italian 
 officer, in iSio or 1812. In 1813 she visited Saint 
 Petersburg and England, and after the abdication of 
 Napoleon she returned to Paris, where she died in July, 
 1817. She was rather deficient in personal beauty, but 
 she is said to have had magnificent eyes. She had two 
 sons and one daughter, who became the Duchess de 
 Broglie. 
 
 See. Madame dr StaeL, " Dix Ans d'Exil ;" Madams Neckrr 
 de Saussure. " Notice sur le Caractere et les E*ciits de Madame de 
 Stael." 1820; F. Schi.osshk. "Madame de Stael et Madame Ro- 
 land," 1830: Sainte-Bfuve, "Portraits de Femmes:" Maria 
 Nokkis, "Tile Life and Times of Madame de Stael." 1853 ; Marc 
 Antoinr Puvis. "Notice sur Madame de Stael-Holstein," 1828; 
 Vir.l.KMAlN, "Tableau du dix-huitieme Siecle :" Chatraukki and. 
 " Me^noiresd'Outre-Tombe;" Baudrillart. "Eloge de Madame de 
 Stael," 1850; Sainte-Bruvr. " Causeries du I.undi :" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge'ne'rale ;" articles by Jrffrev in the " Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for February, 1813, September, 1818, and October, 1821 ; 
 'London Quarterly Review" for January, 1814: "Foreign Quar- 
 terly Review" for July, 1834 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for Sep- 
 tember, 181S. 
 
 Stael-Holstein, de, (Augusts Louis,) Baron, 
 boril in Paris in 1790, was a son of the preceding. His 
 education was directed by August W. Schlegel at Cop- 
 pet. He was a Protestant, and a distinguished philan- 
 thropist. He was an earnest advocate of the abolition 
 of the slave-trade, and gave much attention to the im- 
 provement of rural economy. His character is said to 
 have been highly honourable. Died in 1827. His 
 
 writings, "CEuvres diverses," were published in 5 vols., 
 1829, 
 
 See C. Mounard, "Notice sur Aug. de Stael-Holstein," 1S27. 
 
 Stael-Holstein, de, (Eric Magnus,) Baron, a 
 Swedish diplomatist, was the father of the preceding. 
 He was appointed ambassador at Paris about 1783, and 
 married the daughter of M. Necker in 1786. He was 
 many years older than his wife, and was very prodigal 
 of money. They were not compatible, and soon sepa- 
 rated by mutual consent. He ceased to be ambassador 
 at Paris in 1799. Died in 1802. 
 
 Staeudlin. See Staudi.in. 
 
 Stafford, (Anthony,) a learned English writer, born 
 in Northamptonshire, took his degree at Oxford in 1623. 
 He wrote " Niobe dissolved into Nilus," " The Life and 
 Death of Our Blessed Lady, the Holy Virgin Mary," 
 (1635,) and other works. Died in 1641. 
 
 Stafford, (John,) an English prelate, became Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury in 1443. ^ e was also lorc ' chan- 
 cellor for nearly eighteen years. Died in 1452. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. v. chap. xtx. 
 
 Stafford, (William Howard,) Viscount of, born 
 in 1612, was a son of Thomas Howard, the Earl of 
 Arundel. He married a sister and heiress of Baron 
 Stafford. He was a Roman Catholic, and a royalist in 
 the civil war. Having been accused by Titus Oates 
 of complicity in the Popish Plot, he was convicted of 
 treason and executed in 1680. He was probably in- 
 nocent. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England ;" Burnet, " History of his 
 Own Times." 
 
 Stafford, de, (HENRY,) Duke of Buckingham, was a 
 son of Humphrey, noticed below. He gained the favour 
 of Richard III., and was accessory to his crimes, but 
 revolted against him, and was beheaded in 1483. 
 
 See A. Stafford, " Life of Henry, Lord Stafford," 1640; Shak- 
 sprarh, "Richard III." 
 
 Stafford, de, (HUMPHREY,) an English peer, was 
 an adherent of the house of Lancaster in the war of 
 the Roses. He was created Duke of Buckingham about 
 1465. 
 
 Stagemann or Staegemann, von, fon sta'geh- 
 man', (Friedrich August,) a Prussian statesman and 
 writer, born in 1763. He published a number of poems 
 and political treatises. Died in 1840. 
 
 Stagnelius, stag nu'le-us, (Erik Johan,) an eminent 
 Swedish poet, born in 1793 at Col mar, where his father 
 was bishop. He studied at the Universities of Lund 
 and Upsal. His epic poem entitled "Wladimir the 
 Great" ("Wladimir den Store," 181 7) obtained the 
 prize from the Swedish Academy. This was followed 
 by "The Lilies of Sharon," ("Liljor i Saron," 1821,) 
 and tragedies entitled "The Bacchanals," and "The 
 Martyrs." He became a clerk in the office or depart- 
 ment of ecclesiastical affairs in 1815. Died in 1823. 
 
 See L0NGPEI.1.OW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" HowtTT, 
 "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe ;" H ammerskorld, 
 " E. J. Stagnelius," 1823. 
 
 Stahel, sta'el, or Stahl, stil, (Julius,) a general, 
 born in Hungary in 1825. He fought against Austria in 
 1848-49, and afterwards emigrated to the United States. 
 He became a brigadier-general of Union volunteers 
 about November, 1861, and commanded a brigade at 
 Cross Keys, June 8, 1862. 
 
 Stahejin or Staehelin, sta'el-leen', (Benedict,) a 
 Swiss botanist and physician, born at Bale in 1695. He 
 distinguished himself by his researches in cryptogamous 
 plants, and published several works. Died in 1750. 
 
 Stahl, stil, (Friedrich Julius,) a German jurist, of 
 Jewish extraction, born at Munich in 1802, became pro- 
 fessor of law at Berlin in 1840. He published several 
 political and philosophical works. Died in 1861. 
 
 See " Jahrbuch zum Conversations- Lexikon," 1862. 
 
 Stahl, (Georg Ernst.) an eminent German physician 
 and chemist, born at Anspach in 1660. He became 
 professor of medicine at Halle in 1694, and in 1716 
 physician to the King of Prussia. His principal medical 
 work is entitled " Theoria Medica Vera," (1707,) in 
 which he opposes Hoffmann's theories and advances a 
 new doctrine of physical influence. He made several 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 5, f, snort; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
STJHR 
 
 2055 
 
 STANHOPE 
 
 valuable discoveries concerning the alkalies, acids, etc., 
 originated the theory of phlogiston, and contributed 
 more than any other of his contemporaries to give to 
 chemistry a scientific form. He published, among other 
 works on this subject, " Experimenta et Obsevvationes 
 Chemicx," (1731,) and " Fundamenta Chytniae Dog- 
 matical," (3 vols., 1723.) Died in 1734. 
 
 See Sprenc.ei., " History of Medicine;" Hoefer, " Histoire de 
 la Chimie ;" Strerei, "Programma de Vita Stahi," 1759; A. Le- 
 .\!<>i\e, " I,e Vitalisme et rAnimisme de Stahl," 1864; "Nouvelle 
 Biograpliie Ge^ierale." 
 
 Stahl(P. J.) See Hktzkl. 
 
 Stahr, stilt, (A 1101. f Wiluklm Thkoix>r,) a German 
 write/, born at Prenzlau, in the Uckermark, in 1805. He 
 published "Aristotelia," (1832,) or an explanation and 
 criticism of Aristotle's works, "The Republicans in Na- 
 ples," a romance, (3 vols., 1849,) and various other works, j 
 lie married Fanny Lewald, the authoress, about 1854. 
 
 Stahreniberg! See Starhemberg. 
 
 Stai'ner or Stayner, (Sir Richard,) an English 
 naval officer, who contributed to the victory of Blake 
 over the Spaniards at Santa Cruz in 1657. For this 
 service he was knighted by Cromwell. He became a 
 rear-admiral. Died in 1662. 
 
 Stair, Lord. See Dai.rymple, (James.) 
 
 Stalbent, slal'bent, (Adrian,) of Antwerp, a skilful 
 Flemish landscape-painter, born in 1580. He worked 
 in England for Charles II. Died at Antwerp in 1660. 
 
 Stallbaum, stal'bowm, (Gottfried,) a distinguished 
 German scholar, born near Delitzsch in 1793. His 
 editions of the works of Plato are particularly esteemed. 
 He was professor of classics in the University of Leipsic, 
 and wrote several works on education. 
 
 Stam'ford, (Henry William,) a general and poet, 
 born at Bourges, France, in 1742. He entered the ser- 
 vice of Holland, and obtained the rank of lieutenant- 
 general. Died at Hamburg in 1807. 
 
 Stam'ford, (Thomas Grey,) Earl of, an English 
 peer, accused of a share in the Rye- House Plot, was 
 committed to the Tower in 1685, and liberated the same 
 year, having turned king's evidence. He joined William 
 III. in 1688. 
 
 Stampa, stiini'pa, [Fr. Estampes, eVt&Mp',] (Gas- 
 para,) an Italian poetess, born at Padua about 1524, 
 wrote under the assumed name of Anasii.la. She was 
 a victim of unrequited love. Died at Venice in 1554. 
 
 Stampart, stam'part, (Francis,) a Flemish por- 
 trait-painter, born at Antwerp in 1675. He worked in 
 Vienna, and was painter to the emperor Leopold. Died 
 in 1750. 
 
 Stampfli or Staempfli, stempf'lee, (Jakob,) a 
 Swiss politician, born in the canton of Berne in 1820. 
 He became about 1845 a leader of the radical party, was 
 elected president of the canton of Berne in 1849, and 
 federal president in 1858. 
 
 Stau'bridge, (John,) an English schoolmaster, born 
 in Northamptonshire* became a Fellow of New College, 
 Oxford, about 1480. He wrote several school-books. 
 Died after 1522. 
 
 Stancari, stan-ka'ree, [Lat. Stanca'rus,] (Fran- 
 cesco,) an Italian theologian, born at Mantua in 1501. 
 He became a Protestant, and emigrated to Poland. He 
 taught Hebrew at Cracow, and published several works. 
 Died in 1574. 
 
 See Bayi.k, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic G^nerale." 
 
 Stancari, (Viitorio Francesco,) an Italian mathe- 
 matician, born at Bologna in 1678, was director of the 
 Observatory of that city. Died in 1709. 
 
 Stancel, stan'sel, [Port. Estancel, es-tan-sjl',] 
 (Valentin,) a German astronomer and Jesuit, born near 
 Briinn, in Moravia, in 1621. He became professor of 
 theology at San Salvador, in Brazil, about 1663. Died 
 in 1 7 1 5. 
 
 Stand'ish, (Frank Hall,) an English writer and 
 connoisseur of art, was born in 1798. He wrote a " Life 
 of Voltaire," a volume of poems, and other works. Died 
 in 1840. 
 
 Standish, (Miles,) an English officer, born in Lan- 
 cashire about 1584. He was one of the emigrants that 
 arrived at Plymouth in the "Mayflower" in 1620, and 
 became the military leader of the pilgrims in their war 
 
 against the Indians. His adventures form the subject 
 of one of Longfellow's poems. Died in 1656. 
 
 Stan'iield, (Clarkson,) an eminent English marine 
 painter, born at Sunderland in 1798. He served for a 
 time as a sailor, and subsequently employed himself in 
 scene-painting at the London theatres, where he brought 
 that branch of the art to a perfection hitherto scarcely 
 known. He was elected a Royal Academician in 1835. 
 He contributed to the exhibitions of the Academy a 
 great number of pictures of marine and coast scenery, 
 which he delineated with a beauty and fidelity per- 
 haps never surpassed. Among these are views on the 
 Adriatic, the Italian lakes, and the coasts of Holland, 
 Normandy, and England. He also executed several 
 admirable works of a different character, such as " Saint 
 Sebastian during the Siege under the Duke of Welling- 
 ton," and " Port na Spans, near the Giant's Causeway, 
 with the Wrecked Vessels of the Armada." Died in 
 May, 1867. 
 
 Stanfield, (George,) a landscape-painter, a son of 
 the preceding, was born about 1822.. 
 
 Stan'fprd, (John,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born in 
 England in 1754, emigrated to the United States, and 
 settled as a pastor at New York. He was the author 
 of several religious works. Died in 1834. 
 
 Stanhope, (Charles.) See Harrington, Earl ok. 
 
 Stanhope, stan'op or stan'tip, (Charles,) ihiul 
 Earl, a liberal English nobleman, distinguished for his 
 mechanical inventions, born in 1753, was a son of Philip, 
 the second Earl. He married Hester Pift, a daughter of 
 the great Earl of Chatham. He invented the printing- 
 press which bears his name, a calculating machine, etc 
 In politics he was radical. He opposed the American 
 war and the war against the French republic. He was 
 the father of Lady Hester Stanhope, and grandfather of 
 Lord Mahon the historian. Died in 1816. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale.". 
 
 Stanhope, (George,) an English divine and pulpit 
 orator, born in Derbyshire in 1660. He studied at 
 Cambridge, and became Dean of Canterbury in 1701. 
 He was the author of a " Paraphrase and Comment on 
 the Epistles and Gospels as they are read in the Book 
 of Common Prayer," (4 vols. 8vo,) which passed through 
 numerous editions ; he also translated Charron's" Three 
 Books of Wisdom," "Pious Breathings," from Saint 
 Augustine, and other devotional works. Died in 1728. 
 
 Stanhope, (Lady Hester,) an eccentric English- 
 woman, born in London in 1766, was a daughter of 
 Charles, Earl Stanhope, and a niece of William Pitt the 
 eminent statesman. She lost her mother in her infancy, 
 and her education was consequently neglected. About 
 the age of twenty she went to reside with her uncle, 
 then prime minister, whom she aided in his corre- 
 spondence. She was energetic, impulsive, and disdainful 
 of conventionality. The death of Pitt, in 1806, was felt 
 by her as a great disaster. In iSioshe abandoned Eng- 
 land in disgust, and entered on a career of, Oriental ad- 
 venture. She arrived in Syria in 1812, adopted Oriental 
 customs, and excited the admiration of the natives, who 
 were disposed to receive her as a queen. She resided 
 many years on or near Mount Lebanon, with a large 
 retinue of servants or subjects, and acquired great pres- 
 tige as a magician and mistress of mystical lore. Died 
 in Syria in 1839. 
 
 See " Memoirs of Lady Hester Stanhope," by lier physician, 3 
 vols, 1S45; Lamartink, " Souvenirs d'un Voyage en Orient;" \V . 
 Russei.i., " Eccentric Personages," 2 vols., 1.S64; "Memoirs of a 
 Babylonian Princess," 2 vols, 1S45: A. K. Didot, article in the 
 '■ Nouvelle Riograpme Gene>a!e ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 
 1845; " London Quarterly Review" fur September, 1S45. 
 
 Stanhope, (James Stanhope,) first Earl, a British 
 general and statesman, born in 1673, was a son of Alex- 
 ander Stanhope, and a grandson of Philip, Earl of Ches- 
 terfield. He became a brigadier-general in 1704, and 
 distinguished himself in Spain in 1705. In 1708 he was 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the army in Spain. 
 1 ie gained victories at Almenara and Saragossa in 1710, 
 but was compelled to surrender his army to the Duke 
 of Vendome before the end of that year. He became a 
 leader of the Whig party, and was appointed one of the 
 chief secretaries of state in 1714. He was first lord of 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s ass; th as in this. (Jfy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STANHOPE 
 
 2056 
 
 STAN LET 
 
 (he treasury and chancellor of the exchequer from April, 
 1717, to March, 1718. About this date he received the 
 title of Earl Stanhope, and resumed the office of secre- 
 tary of state. He died in 1721, leaving a fair reputation 
 as a statesman. 
 
 See Lord Mahon, " History of England ;" Coxe, ■ History of 
 Spain." 
 
 Stanhope, (Philip.) second Earl, born about 1712, 
 was the eldest son of the preceding. He was the father 
 of Charles, above noticed, and was a patron of learning. 
 Died in 1786. 
 
 Stanhope, (Captain Philip,) an English naval officer, 
 brother of James, first Earl Stanhope, was commander 
 of the Milford at the siege of Ostend, and subsequently 
 served in the Mediterranean. He was killed in the 
 attack on Port Mahon, in 1708. 
 
 Stanhope, (Philip Dormer.) See Chesterfield, 
 (Lord.) 
 
 Stanhope, (Philip Henry,) fifth Earl of, an Eng- 
 lish statesman and historian, born in Kent in 1805. He 
 studied at Oxford, and was elected in 1832 member of 
 Parliament, as Lord Mahon, for Wotton Basset. In 1835 
 he was returned for Hertford, which he continued to 
 represent until 1852. He was appointed under-secretary 
 of state for foreign affairs in 1834, and was afterwards 
 secretary to the board of control under Sir Robert Peel. 
 He introduced and carried, while in Parliament, the 
 copyright act known by his name. He has published a 
 " History of the War of the Succession in Spain," (8vo, 
 1832,) " Spain under Charles II.," (1840,) " Life of Louis, 
 Prince of Conde," "Life of Joan of Arc," (1853,) " His- 
 tory of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace 
 of Versailles, 1713-1783," (1854,) which is regarded as a 
 standard work, and " Historical Essays" contributed to 
 the " Quarterly Review." 
 
 See the "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1833, and October. 
 1836 ; " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1836, and January, 
 1839; "Eraser's Magazine" for April, 1847. 
 
 Stan'is-las or Stan'is-laus, Saint, a Polish prelate, 
 born in 1030, became Bishop of Cracow in 1071. He 
 was killed in 1079 by King Boleslaus, because he had 
 rebuked the wickedness of that monarch. 
 
 Stan'is-las (or Stan'is-laus) Augustus, King of 
 Poland, born in Lithuania in 1732, was the son of Count 
 Stanislas Poniatowski. He was in his youth a favour- 
 ite of Catherine II. of Russia. Through the influence 
 of his uncles the princes Czartoryski, assisted by Russia, 
 he was elected to the throne of Poland in 1764. The 
 first partition of that country, which took place In 1772, 
 was in vain opposed by him ; and he subsequently de- 
 voted Himself to internal improvements and promoted 
 various reforms, the most important of which was the 
 new constitution of 1792. Overawed by the power of 
 Russia, he afterwards joined the Confederation of Tar- 
 gowicz, formed for the overthrow of the constitution, 
 and which was followed by a second partition of Poland, 
 in 1793. After the entire dismemberment of his country, 
 in 1795, Stanislas abdicated the throne and retired to 
 Saint Petersburg, where a pension was assigned him by 
 the emperor Paul. Died in 1798. 
 
 See Rui.hiere, " Histoire de 1' Anarchie de Pologne :" Lelrwbl, 
 "Regne du Roi Stanislas Auguste," 1X18; Chodzko, "La Pologne 
 illustne'e ;" De Ferranu, " Histoire des trois Demembrements de 
 la Pologne," 3 vols., 1820 ; " Nouvelle Biographie GiSneYale." 
 
 Stanislas Leszczynski, (lesh-chin'skee,) written 
 also Leszinski, King of Poland, born at Lemberg in 
 1677, was a son of the grand treasurer of Poland. Having 
 been sent in 1 704, by the Diet of Warsaw, to Charles XII. 
 of Sweden, to consult him on the election of a king to 
 succeed- Augustus II., he made so favourable an impres- 
 sion upon Charles that he recommended him as a can- 
 didate, and he was elected the following year. Being 
 compelled to abdicate after the battle of Poltava, (Pul- 
 towa,) in 1709, he was again called to the throne on the 
 death of Augustus II., in 1733 ; but he was finally forced 
 to resign the crown in favour of Augustus III., whose 
 claims were supported by Austria and Russia. He was 
 afterwards invested with the duchies of Lorraine and 
 Bar, in 1737, retaining the title of King of Poland. He 
 was distinguished for his talents and literary attain- 
 ments, and published, in French, "The Works of the 
 Benevolent Philosopher," (1765.) His daughter Maria 
 
 became the wife of Louis XV. of France. Died in 
 February, 1766. 
 
 See A. Aubert, "Vie de Stanislas Leszczynskt," 1760; Sevi.er, 
 "Leben Stanislai I.," 1237: Bombart, "Elogedu Roi Stanislas I," 
 1766- Abbe Maury, "Elogedu feu Roi Stanislas," 1766; Proyart, 
 '•Stanislas I," 2 vols., 17S4: " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. 
 
 Stan'ley, (Anthony D.,) an American mathema- 
 tician, born in 1812. He was professor of mathematics 
 at Yale College, and published a "Treatise on Spherical 
 Trigonometry." Died in 1853. 
 
 Stan'ley, (Rev. Arthur Penrhyn,) commonly 
 known as Dean Stanley, son of the Bishop of Nor- 
 wich, noticed below, was born in Cheshire in 1815. He 
 studied at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, and subsequently 
 graduated at Oxford. He published in 1844 "The 
 
 grad_.. 
 
 Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold, D.D., 
 which obtained wide popularity and has been trans- 
 lated into several languages. He was appointed chap- 
 lain to Prince Albert, and in 1856 was elected regius 
 professor of ecclesiastical history at Oxford. Among 
 his other works maybe named " Historical Memorials 
 of Canterbury," etc., (1855,) "Sinai and Palestine in 
 Connection with their History," (1856,) "Lectures on 
 the Eastern Church," (1861,) "Lectures on the History 
 of the Jewish Church," (1863,) and numerous Sermons, 
 published at different times. He became a canon of 
 Christ Church in 1858, and Dean of Westminster in 
 1864. He has contributed to the "Quarterly Review" 
 and "Edinburgh Review." 
 
 See Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Stanley, (David S.,) an American general, bom in 
 Wayne county, Ohio, in 1828, graduated at West Point 
 in 1852. He was a captain of cavalry when the civil 
 war began, served in several actions in Missouri, and 
 was appointed a brigadier-general in September, 1861. 
 He commanded a division of the army of General Rose- 
 crans at the battle of Corinth, October 4, 1862, and dis- 
 tinguished himself as commander of all the cavalry at 
 the great battle of Stone River, which ended on the 2d 
 of January, 1863. He was afterwards promoted to the 
 rank of major-general of volunteers. About the 1st of 
 August, 1864, he obtained command of the fourth corps 
 in the army of Sherman, then near Atlanta. General 
 Stanley and his corps were sent back to Chattanooga in 
 October or November, with orders to report to General 
 Thoim.s at Nashville. He took part in the battle of 
 Franklin, November 30, 1864. He obtained the rank of 
 colonel in the United States army in 1866. 
 
 Stanley, (Edward.) See Derby, Earl of. 
 
 Stanley, (Rev. Edward,) D.D., an English divine 
 and naturalist, born in London in 1779. He gradu- 
 ated at Cambridge in 1805, was subsequently appointed 
 rector of Alderley, and in 1837 Bishop of Norwich. He 
 was the author of " A Familiar History of Birds, their 
 Nature, Habits, and Instincts," (2 vols., 1835,) and 
 contributed a number of treatises on natural history to 
 "Blackwood's Magazine." He was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society. Died in 1849. 
 
 See " Eraser's Magazine" for May, 1851. 
 
 Stanley, (Edward Henry,) Earl of Derby, formerly 
 styled Lord Stanley, an able English statesman, born 
 at Knowsley in 1826, was the eldest son of the Eaf! of 
 Derby. He was educated at Rugby and at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, where he graduated as first-class in 
 classics in 1848. He entered Parliament in 1848, and 
 became under-secretary of state for foreign affairs in 1852. 
 I He gained distinction as a social reformer, and became 
 ] one of the most liberal and popular members of the 
 Conservative party. In February, 1858, he was appointed 
 secretary of state for the colonies, and in May ol that 
 year became commissioner for the affairs of India. He 
 resigned office in 1859. On the formation of a new min- 
 istry by his father, in June, 1866, he was appointed sec- 
 retary for foreign affairs. He presided at the European 
 Conference which met at London and settled the dis- 
 pute between France and Prussia in May, 1867. Lord 
 Stanley retired with his colleagues from office in Decem- 
 ber, 1868, and became Earl of Derby on the death of his 
 father, in 1869. 
 
 Stanley, (Edward John,) Lord Stanley of Alderley, 
 an English statesman of the Liberal party, was born in 
 Cheshire in 1802. He was a relative of the Earl of 
 
 a, e, i, 6, Q, y, Ion?; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
STANLEY 
 
 2057 
 
 STOPFER 
 
 Derby. He entered Parliament about 1831, after which 
 he became secretary of the treasury, (1835-41,) and 
 under-secretary of stale for foreign affairs, (1846-52.) In 
 1848 he was raised to the peerage, as Baron Eddisbury. 
 He inherited the title of Karon Stanley of Alderley at 
 the death of his father, in 1850, and was a member of 
 the cabinet, as postmaster-general, from 1859 to June, 
 1866. Died in June, 1869. 
 
 Stanley, (John,) an English musician and composer, 
 born in 1713. He became blind at the age of two years, 
 but, notwithstanding this misfortune, made such pro- 
 gress in music, under the tuition of Dr. Greene, that 
 he was appointed organist of Saint Andrew's, llolbom, 
 London, at the age of thirteen. He was appointed mas- 
 ter of the king's band in 1 779. His compositions are 
 chiefly voluntaries for the organ, songs, cantatas, etc. 
 Died 'in 1786. 
 
 Stanley, (Thomas,) an eminent English scholar and 
 writer, bom at Cuinberlow, in Herts, in 1625, was a son 
 of Sir Thomas Stanley, a poet of some note. He was 
 educated at Cambridge. His reputation is founded on a 
 " History of Philosophy, containing the Lives, Opinions, 
 Actions, and Discourses of the Philosophers of every 
 Sect," (3 vols., 1655-60,) which was highly esteemecf, 
 and a good edition of /Eschylus, (1663.) He also pub- 
 lished " Poems and Translations," (1647.) Died in 1678. 
 
 See Egrrton Hrydgks, "Memoir of Stanley," prefixed to an 
 edition of Stanley's Poems, 1814-15 ; Wood, "Athena: Oxonienses." 
 
 Stanley, (William,) an English divine, born in Lei- 
 cestershire in 1647. He became Archdeacon of London 
 in 1692, and Dean of Saint Asaph in 1706. Died in 1731. 
 
 Staunina. See Starni.na. 
 
 Stansel. See Stancel. 
 
 Stans'feld, (TAME*,) an English lawyer and radical, 
 born at Halifax in 1820. He was elected a member of 
 Parliament for Halifax in 1859, was appointed a lord of 
 the admiralty in April, 1863, and resigned in April, 1864. 
 He was under-secretary of state from February to July, 
 I 366, and became third lord of the treasury in 1868, and 
 financial secretary in October, 1S69. 
 
 Stan'ton, (Edwin M.,) an American statesman and 
 lawyer, born at Steubenville, Ohio, in 1815. He studied 
 l;iw, was admitted to the bar about 1836, and practised 
 for some time at Steubenville with success. In 1847 or 
 1^48 he removed to Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, where he 
 became the leader of the bar. He was frequently em- , 
 ployed in the supreme court at Washington, of which J 
 city he became a resident about 1857. In 185S he was 
 engaged by the government to conduct an important ! 
 case in relation to some land in California. He was 
 appointed attorney-general of the United States in De- 
 cember, i860, and in the great crisis that ensued op- 
 posed the designs of the disunionists with energy and ; 
 efficiency. He retired from office on the 4th of March, 
 1 56i, and was appointed secretary of war about the 12th 
 of January, 1862. In this position, which he occupied 
 through all the subsequent portion of the civil war, he 
 displayed great administrative abilities and rendered 
 important services to the cause of the Union. After 
 the death of President Lincoln, Mr. Stanton continued 
 to conduct the department of war. In the controversy 
 which arose about the reconstruction of the seceded 
 States between President Johnson and Congress, he 
 took no prominent part. During the years 1865 and 
 1866 he did not appear as a decided partisan or oppo- 
 nent of the policy of Johnson. To prevent the removal 
 of Mr. Stanton and others, the Senate passed the Tenure- 
 of-Office Bill, He was invited to resign by the Presi- 
 dent, August 5, 1S67, but he refused to comply, assigning 
 as his motive important public considerations. About 
 the 12th of August, 1867, he was suspended by the 
 President, who appointed General Grant secretary of 
 war ad int erim . The President expected, with the co- 
 operation of General Grant, to render his suspension 
 permanent ; but that general defeated his design by 
 surrendering the office on the 14th of January, 1S68, to 
 Mr. Stanton, who had been reinstated by the Senate on 
 the 13th. Great excitement was produced by the pub- 
 lication, in February, 1868, of the letters exchanged on 
 this subject Iwtween the President and General Grant. 
 The public then learned that the gcneral-in-chief recog- 
 
 nized Mr. Stanton as secretary.of war, although he was 
 directed by the President to disobey his orders. On the 
 2 1st of February, General Lorenzo Thomas was appointed 
 secretary of war ad interim, and attempted to get pos- 
 session of the department of war, but was not successful. 
 Mr. Stanton retired from the office of secretary of war 
 on the 26th of May, 1868, in consequence of the decision 
 of the Senate that Johnson was not guilty of the crimes 
 for which he had been impeached. In December, 1S69, 
 he was appointed an associate justice of the supreme 
 court of the United States. Died in December, 1869. 
 
 Stanton, (Mrs. Ei.izaheth Cady,) distinguished 
 as an advocate of "Women's Rights," was born at 
 Johnstown, Fulton county, New York, in 1816. Her 
 father, Daniel Cady, was for many years an able and . 
 prominent lawyer, and afterwards judge, in Fulton 
 county. In her early years she was accustomed to 
 spend much time in her father's office, and her attention 
 was first drawn to the wrongs of women by hearing the 
 complaints which they made to her father of the injus- 
 tice of the laws towards their sex She had been deeply 
 mortified to notice how little regard was shown to girls 
 compared with boys, and she formed a resolution to 
 prove herself not inferior in courage and ability to the 
 more favoured half of the human family, to whom an 
 unjust and arbitrary usage had given a monopoly of 
 privilege and power. She studied mathematics, Latin, 
 and Greek. In the last-named study she strove for and 
 won, as her first prize, a Greek Testament. She after- 
 wards, we are told, graduated at the academy in her 
 native place at the head of her class. Kut, though boys 
 who were far behind her in ability, or at least in appli- 
 cation, could be sent to college, no such privilege existed 
 for her. This excited her utmost indignation. In 1839 
 she was married to Mr. Henry R. Stanton, then a popu- 
 lar and eloquent anti-slavery lecturer, and soon after 
 set out with him for Europe to attend the " World's 
 Anti-Slavery Convention," (held in London in 1840,) to 
 which Mr. Stanton was a delegate. Many female dele- 
 gates also left their homes in America to attend the 
 convention ; but they were not admitted, because they 
 were women. 'In the number of these was Lucretia 
 Mott, with whom Mrs. Stanton formed an intimate 
 friendship. After her return- to her native country, she 
 resolved to devote the energies of her life to resisting, 
 in all its forms, the time-honoured tyranny against her 
 sex. In July, 1848, chiefly through Mrs. Stanton's in- 
 fluence, " the first ' Women's Rights Convention,' (known 
 to history by that name,)" says Mr. Tilton, " was held 
 at Seneca Falls, in New York." Since that time no one 
 has been more active than she in promoting the move- 
 ments in this cause which have recently attracted so 
 much attention both in England and America. 
 
 See article on Mrs. Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the "' Eminent 
 Women of the Age," by Thkodore Tilton. 
 
 Stanton, (Henry B.J an American lawyer, distin- 
 guished as an opponent of slavery, was born in New 
 London county, Connecticut, in 1810. In 1839 he mar- 
 ried Miss Elizabeth Cady. (See preceding article.) He 
 has published "Sketches of Reforms and Reformers of 
 Great Britain and Ireland," (1849,) and other works. 
 
 Stan'jf-hurst, (Richard,) an Irish poet, historian, 
 and Roman Catholic priest, born in Dublin in 1545 or 
 1546, was an uncle of Archbishop Usher. Died in 1618. 
 
 Stanzioni, stan-ze-o'nee, (Massimo,) a Neapolitan 
 painter, sometimes called "the Guido of Naples," was 
 born in 1585. His works are principally frescos and 
 portraits. Died in 1650. 
 
 Stapel, sta'pel, (John Kod/EUS,) a Dutch botanist 
 and physician, born at Amsterdam in the seventeenth 
 century. He studied at Leyden under Vorstitis. His 
 principal work is an edition of the botanical writings of 
 Theophrastus, which, however, he did not live to com- 
 plete, dying in 1636. An edition of the ten books of 
 Theophrastus, entitled " De Historia Plantarum," was 
 published in 1644. The genus Stapelia was named in 
 his honour by Linnaeus. 
 
 Stapfer, stilp'ler, (Jkan,) a Swiss preacher and 
 writer, born in 1719. He produced a metrical version 
 of the Psalms, which was used in the churches of 
 Kerne; also several volumes of sermons. Died in i8ci. 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STAPFER 
 
 20C8 
 
 STAUNTON 
 
 Stapfer, (TEAN Frederic,) a theologian, born at 
 Brugg in 1708, was a brother of the preceding. He 
 preached at Diesbach, and published, besides other 
 works, "The Principles of True Religion," (12 vols., 
 1746-53.) Died in 1775. 
 
 Stapfer, (Philip Albert,) a Swiss litterateur, born 
 at Heme in 1766. He published, besides other works, 
 "De Philosophia Socratis," (1786,) and " De Republica 
 Ethica," (1797.) He was professor of philosophy and 
 theology at Heme. Died in Paris in 1840. 
 
 Stapleaux, stS'plo', (Michel Ghislain,) a Belgian 
 
 painter, born in Brussels in 1798, was a pupil of David. 
 
 He gained the grand prize at Antwerp and Brussels in 
 
 1822 and 1823. His works are mostly portraits and 
 
 ■ historical pictures. 
 
 Sta'ple-dcm, (Walter,) an English prelate, founded 
 Exeter College, Oxford, and became Bishop of Exeter 
 in 1307 ; died in 1326. 
 
 Sta'ple-tpn, (Sir Robert,) an English officer, of the 
 royalist party, served with distinction in the army of 
 Charles I. He published several dramas, and a trans- 
 lation of Juvenal. Died in 1669. 
 
 Stapleton, (Thomas,) an English controversialist, 
 born in Sussex in 1535, was a Roman Catholic priest. 
 Died at Louvain in 1598. 
 
 Starckor Stark, staitk, (Johann August,) Baron, 
 a German divine and scholar, born in Mecklenburg in 
 1 741. He became professor of Oriental languages at 
 Konigsberg in 1769, and in 1 781 chief court preacher at 
 Darmstadt. He published several theological works. 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 Starhemberg or Stahremberg, sta'rem-b5RG', 
 (Ernst Rudiger,) Count, an Austrian field-marshal, 
 bom in 1635, distinguished himself in the defence of 
 Vienna against the Turks in 1683. For his services on 
 that occasion he was made a marshal and a minister of 
 state by the emperor Leopold, who also gave him a ring 
 worth 100,000 thalers. Died in 1701. 
 
 Starhemberg or Stahremberg, (Guido,) Count, 
 an Austrian field-marshal, born in 1657, was a cousin of 
 the preceding. He assisted in the defence of Vienna in 
 1683, and served in the subsequent campaigns against 
 the Turks. He afterwards took part in the war of the 
 Spanish succession, and gained a signal victory over 
 the French at Almenara in 1710. He became, in the 
 absence' of Prince Eugene, president of the imperial 
 council of war at Vienna. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Alfred Arneth, "Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen G. 
 Starhemberg," 1853 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Geuerale." 
 
 Stark, (John,) an American general of the Revolu- 
 tion, born at Londonderry, New Hampshire, in 1728. 
 He served with distinction in the war against the French 
 in 1754, and subsequently fought at Bunker Hill, Tren- 
 ton, and Princeton. In August, 1777, he gained a signal 
 victory over the British at Bennington, for which he was 
 made a brigadier-general and received the thanks of 
 Congress. He joined the army of General Gates in 
 September, 1777, served in Rhode Island in 1779, and 
 in New Jersey in 1780. He had the command of the 
 Northern department, with his head-quarters at Saratoga, 
 in 1781. Died in 1822. 
 
 See the " Life of General Stark," by Edward Everett, in 
 Sparks's "American Biography," vol. i. of second series; "Me- 
 moirs, etc. of General John Stark," by Caleb Stark, 1S60. 
 
 Stark, (William,) M.D., an English physician, born 
 at Birmingham in 1740. He graduated at Leyden in 
 1767, and after his return made a series of experiments 
 on diet for the purpose of ascertaining the effect of dit- 
 ferent kinds of food on the human body. He died in 
 1769, in consequence of illness brought on by his experi- 
 ments. He was the author of several medical works. 
 
 Starke, stau'keh, (Gotthei.f Wii.hei.m Chris- 
 toi'H,) a German theologian, born at Bernburg in 1762. 
 He published a number of hymns, and other poems. 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 Stamina, staR-nee'na, or Starmilia, stan-nee'na, 
 (Gherardo,) a Florentine painter, born about 1350. 
 He acquired a high reputation in art. Died about 1405. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Starowolski, sta-ro-wol'skee, [Lat. Starovol'- 
 Scius,] (Simon,) a Polish historian and biographer, born 
 
 in 1585. He wrote numerous works on Polish history. 
 Died in 1656. 
 
 Stas'a-nor, [Gr. Sracuvup,] an officer of Alexander 
 the Great, was born in Cyprus. He was Satrap of 
 Drangiana during Alexander's campaign in India, and 
 in 321 B.C. became Governor of Bactriana and Sogdiana. 
 
 Sta-si'nus [Sraowoc] of Cyprus, a Greek epic poet, 
 who lived about 700 B.C., or earlier. He is supposed to 
 have been the author of a poem entitled " Cypria,'" 
 (Kinrpta,) which was one of the poems of the epic cyclt 
 relating to the Trojan war, and was ascribed to Homer 
 by some ancient critics. 
 
 Stassart, de, deb stS'saV or stas'sart, (Goswin Jo- 
 seph AugusTin,) Baron, a Belgian litterateur and sen- 
 ator, born at Mechlin in 1780. He became Governor of 
 Brabant in 1834, and was a member of the senate from 
 1831101847. He wrote various works. Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Notice stir M. le Baron de Stassart," Brussels, 1852. 
 
 Stassart, de, (Jacques Joseph,) Baron, a Belgian 
 judge and statesman, born at Charleroi in 1711, was a 
 grandfather of the preceding. Died in 1801. 
 
 Staszyc, sta'shits, (Xavier Stanislas,) a Polish 
 philanthropist and miscellaneous writer, born at Pila in 
 1755. He studied at Leipsic and Gottingen, and after- 
 wards visited Paris, where he made the acquaintance of 
 D'Alembert and Buffon, whose " Epochs of Nature" he 
 translated into Polish. Among his principal works are 
 his " Geography of the Carpathian Mountains," " The 
 Political Balance of Europe," and " Statistics of Poland." 
 He died in 1806, leaving large bequests to various chari- 
 table and educational institutions. 
 
 Sta-tl'ra, [Gr. Zrureipa,] a Persian lady, celebrated 
 for her beauty, was the wife of Darius Codomannus. 
 She was taken prisoner at the battle of Issus, 333 B.C., 
 and treated with much courtesy by Alexander. She 
 died about 331 B.C. 
 
 Statius, (Achilles.) See Estaco. 
 
 Statius, sta'she^-us, [Fr. Stack, sttss,] (Pubi.ius 
 Papinius,) a RomaTTpoet, born at Naples about 60 A.D., 
 was a son of an eminent grammarian of the same names. 
 He wrote a heroic poem entitled " Thebais," (" Thebaid," 
 in 12 books,) "Svlva;," a collection of poems on various 
 subjects, and " Achilleis," an unfinished epic poem. His 
 poems were received by his contemporaries with warm 
 applause, to which Juvenal refers in his Satire VII. 
 Modern critics prefer his "Sylvae" to the "Thebaid," 
 which is deficient in creative energy. Died about 100 a.d. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Sta'tor, [i.e. "he who stops or stays,"] a surname 
 given to Jupiter by the Romans, because he stopped or 
 stayed them when they were retreating from the Sabines. 
 Romulus erected a temple to Jupiter Stator at Rome. 
 
 Staudenmaier, stow'den-'mi'er, (Franz Anton,) a 
 German theologian and philosopher, born at Danzdorf, 
 in Wiirtemberg, in 1800, was a Roman Catholic priest. 
 He became professor of theology at Giessen about 1830. 
 He published, besides other works, "The Spirit of 
 Christianity," (1835,) and a systematic treatise on the- 
 ology, entitled "Die Christliche Dogmatik," (4 vols., 
 1844-52.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Staudigel, stow'de-gel, or Staudigl, (Ui.rich,) a 
 learned German monk, born at Landsberg in 1644. He 
 wrote, besides other works, "Logica Practica," (1686.) 
 Died in 1720. 
 
 Staudlin or Staeudlin, stoid-leen', (Karl Fried- 
 rich,) a German Protestant theologian, born at Stutt- 
 gart in 1761, became professor at Gottingen in 1790. He 
 published numerous works on religion, morals, and 
 ecclesiastical history. Died in 1826. 
 
 Staughton, staw'ton, (William,) D.D., a Baptist 
 divine and popular preacher, born in Warwickshire, 
 England, in 1770. Having emigrated to America, he 
 became in 1805 pastor of the First Baptist Church at 
 Philadelphia, and in 1823 was appointed president of 
 Columbian College, Washington. Died in 1829. 
 
 Staim'ford or Stan'ford, (Sir William,) an Eng- 
 lish lawyer, born at lladley in 1509. He became a judge 
 of common pleas in 1554,' and wrote "Placita Coronae." 
 Died in 1558. 
 
 Staun'ton, (Sir George Leonard,) a distinguished 
 diplomatist and writer, born at Cargin, in Ireland, in 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; Rood; moon; 
 
STAUNTON 
 
 20,-9 
 
 STEFANO 
 
 1737. Having studied medicine at Montpellier, he re- 
 sided for some years at Granada, in the West Indies, 
 where he acquired the friendship at Lord Macartney, 
 Governor of the island. He accompanied that noble- 
 man, who had been appointed Governor of Madras, as 
 his secretary, and while in India negotiated a treaty of 
 peace with Tippoo Sultan, (1784,) and was employed in 
 other important missions. In 1792 Lord Macartney and 
 Sir George were sent on an embassy to the court of 
 Peking. He published "An Authentic Account of an 
 Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor 
 of China," which is still regarded as a standard work. 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 See "Memoirs of the Life of Sir G. L. Staunton," 1S23, by 
 G. T. Stauntow ; " Monthly Review" for September, October, and 
 November, 1797. 
 
 Staunton, (Sir Georgk Thomas,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Salisbury in 1781. In 1816 he 
 accompanied Lord Amherst on his embassy to China, 
 where he devoted himself to the study of the Chinese 
 language. He published " Miscellaneous Notices re- 
 lating to China," etc., (1822,) and translated the criminal 
 code of China into English. Died in 1S59. 
 
 Staupitius. See Staupitz. 
 
 Staupitz, stow'pits, [Lat. Staupi'tius,] (John,) cel- 
 ebrated as the friend and patron of Luther, was vicar- 
 general of the order of the Augustines in Germany. He 
 was the author of Latin treatises " On the Love of 
 God" and "On Christian Faith." Oied in 1524. 
 
 See Arnold, " Ketzer-Historie :" Cruder. "Vita J. Staupitii," 
 1837 ; L. W. Grimm, "Dissertatio de J. Staupitio," 1837. 
 
 Stavely, stav'le, (Thomas,) an English antiquary 
 and lawyer, wrote a " History of Churches in England," 
 (1712.) Died in 1683. 
 
 Stay, stl, (Benedetto,) a Latin poet, born at Ra- 
 gusa in 1714, was a priest. He wrote poems on natural 
 philosophy, entitled "Modern Philosophy," (" Philoso- 
 phia recentior," 3 vols.. 1655-92,) and "Philosophy in 
 Verse," ("Philosophia Versibus tradita," 1744.) Died 
 in tSot. 
 
 Stayner. See Stainer. 
 
 Steb'bing, (Henry,) an English divine and theolo- 
 gian, was engaged in the Bangorian controversy. Died 
 in 1763. 
 
 Stebbing, (Henry,) an English clergyman, born 
 about 1800. He published "Lives of the Italian Poets," 
 (3 vols., 1 83 1 , ) a " History of the Christian Church," (2 
 vols., 1833-34,) a " History of the Reformation," (2 vols., 
 1836,) and other works. He became rector of Saint 
 Mary Somerset, in or near London, about 1857. 
 
 Sted'man, (John Gabriel,) a Scottish officer, born 
 in 1745, served in the Dutch army, and wrote a " Nar- 
 rative of an Expedition against the Revolted Negroes 
 of Surinam." Died in 1797. 
 
 Steed'man, (James B.,) an American general, born 
 in Union county, Pennsylvania, abour/1820. He l>ecame 
 a brigadier-general in the summer of 1862, served at 
 the battle of Chickamauga, September, 1863, and com- 
 manded a corps, or several detachments, at the battle 
 of Nashville, December 15 and 16, 1864. 
 
 Steele, (Frederick,) an American general, born at 
 Delhi, New York, graduated at West Point in 1843. 
 He commanded a division of the army which assaulted 
 Vicksburg, May 22, 1863. He took Little Rock on the 
 9th or 10th of September. In March, 1864, he moved 
 his army from Little Rock towards Shreveport, designing 
 to co-operate with General Banks ; but that design was 
 frustrated. 
 
 Steele, (Sir Richard,) a popular essayist and dram- 
 atist, was lx>rn in Dublin in 1671. He was educated 
 at Merton College, and became in early life a friend of 
 Addison. After he left college he was an ensign in the 
 guards. He produced " The Christian Hero" in ,1701, 
 and a comedy called " The Funeral, or Grief a la Mode," 
 (1702.) His comedy of "The Tender Husband" was 
 performed in 1703. In 1709 he began to publish, under 
 the assumed name of " Isaac Bickerstaff," " The Tatler," 
 a series of periodical essays, to which Addison was a 
 frequent contributor. The "Tatler" was issued three 
 times a week, with great success, until January, 1711. 
 In politics Steele was a zealous Whig. Steele and Ad- 
 
 dison were associated as editors of the "Spectator," 
 which was published daily from March I, 171 1, to De- 
 cember 6, 1712. They afterwards produced an >ther 
 series of essays, under the title of "The Guardian," 
 (1713.) Steele was elected to Parliament in 1 7 13, and 
 expelled in 1713 or 1714 for writing "The Crisis," a 
 political pamphlet. He was appointed surveyor of the 
 royal stables in 1715, and commissioner of forfeited 
 estates in Scotland. In 1722 he produced a successful 
 comedy called "The Conscious Lovers." He involved 
 himself in debt and trouble by his improvidence and 
 expensive habits. " He was," says Mrs. Barbauld, "a 
 character vibrating between virtue and vice." He was 
 a sprightly and genial writer, rather negligent in style. 
 Died in 1729. 
 
 See H. R. Montgomery, "Life of Sir Richard Steele," 1S64; 
 Macaulav, "Essay?," article "Addison:" Drake, " Essays ;" 
 JOHN FoRSTSR, " Historical and Biographical Essays," 185S ; " Bio- 
 graphia Britannica :" " Quarterly Review" for April, 1S55 ; " Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for June, 1806; Allibone, "Dictionary of Au- 
 thors." 
 
 Steell, (John,) a Scottish sculptor, born at Aberdeen 
 in 1804. Among his works are a marble statue of Sir 
 Walter Scott, a bronze equestrian statue of the Duke of 
 Wellington at Edinburgh, and a marble statue of Lord 
 Jeffrey. 
 
 Steen, stan, (Jan,) an eminent Dutch painter, born 
 at Leyden in 1636. He was a pupil of Brouwer, and 
 subsequently of Van Goyen, whose daughter he married. 
 Many of his master-pieces are tavern-scenes, which he 
 represented with unrivalled fidelity, and with which his 
 occupation as landlord made him familiar. He died 
 in 1689, in extreme poverty, caused by his dissipated 
 habits. 
 
 See Van Westrheenen, "Jan Steen," 1S56. 
 
 Steen, van den, (Corneus.) See Lapide. 
 
 Steenbock, (Magnus,) Count. See Stenbock. 
 
 Steeustrup, stan'strup, (Johann Japhet Smith,) a 
 Danish naturalist, born at Vang in 1813. He published 
 several works. , 
 
 Steenwyk or Steenwijk, stan'wlk, (Hendrik,) 
 the ELDER, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Steen- 
 wyk in 1550. He was a pupil of De Vries. His inte- 
 riors of Gothic churches are exceedingly admired for 
 the perfect disposition of light and shade and the know- 
 ledge of chiaroscuro which they display. Died in 1604. 
 
 Steenwyk, (Hendrik,) the Younger, a son of the 
 preceding, was born about 1588. He was instructed in 
 painting by his father, and, like him, excelled in archi- 
 tectural views and interiors of churches and palaces. 
 He was introduced by his friend Van Dyck to the court 
 of England, where he was extensively patronized. His 
 wife was also celebrated as a painter. Died after 1642. 
 
 Steers, (George,) an American naval constructor, 
 born in 1821. He built the famous yacht America, the 
 steam-packet Adriatic, and the United States steam- 
 frigate Niagara. He died on Long Island in 1856. 
 
 Stee'vens, (George.) an English critic, born at 
 Stepney in 1736. He published in 1766 "Twenty of 
 the Plays of Shakspeare, being the Whole Number 
 printed in Quarto during his Lifetime," etc. He was 
 afterwards associated with Dr. Johnson in preparing an 
 edition of Shakspeare, which came out in 1773. He 
 was also a contributor to Nichols's " Biographical Anec- 
 dotes of Hogarth" and the " Biographia Dramatica." 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 See the "Monthly Review" for January, 178a 
 
 Stefaneschi, stef'a-neVkee, (Giovanni Battista,) 
 a Florentine historical painter, born in 1582; died in 
 1659. 
 
 Stefani, de, da stef'a-nee or sta'fa-nee, (Tommaso,) 
 one of the earliest Neapolitan painters, was born about 
 1230. None of his works have been preserved. 
 
 Stefano, stef'a-no, an Italian painter, surnamed Fio- 
 rentino, born at Florence in 1301, was a grandson and 
 pupil of Giotto. He is said to have been the first artist 
 who attempted foreshortening. Died in 1350. 
 
 Stefano, di, dee stef'a-no, (Tommaso,) an Italian 
 painter, surnamed Giotti.no, born in 1324, is supposed 
 to have been a son of the preceding. His style strongly 
 resembles that of Giotto. Died in 1356. 
 
 ■€ as i; 9 as j; f hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STEFFANI 
 
 2060 
 
 STELLA 
 
 Steffani, stePfa-nee, (Agostino,) a celebrated Italian 
 composer, bom at Castel-Franco about 1650. He was 
 patronized by the Duke of Brunswick, father of Geo/ge 
 I. of England, who appointed him manager of the Opera 
 in Hanover. He composed operas, madrigals, and duets. 
 The last-named are esteemed master-pieces of their 
 kind. Died in 1729. 
 
 See Fbtis, " Biographie Uuiverselle des Musiciens." 
 Steffens, steffens, (Heinrich,) an eminent Norwe- 
 gian writer and philosopher, born at Stavanger in 1773. 
 He studied at the University of Copenhagen, and after- 
 wards visited Jena, where he became an earnest advo- 
 cate of the doctrines of Schelling, who intrusted him 
 with the revision of his works on natural philosophy. 
 While on a visit to Freiberg, he acquired the friend- 
 ship of Werner, and wrote his "Geognostic-Geological 
 Essays," which in 1819 he expanded into a "Manual 
 of Oryctognosy," (" Handbuch der Oryktognosie.") In 
 1804 he was offered a professorship at Halle, where he 
 soon after embraced the cause of the patriots in their 
 resistance to French domination, and entered the Prus- 
 sian army as a volunteer. On his return, in 1813, he 
 became professor of physics and natural history at Bres- 
 lau, and in 1831 filled the same chair at Berlin. Among 
 his works not yet mentioned, we may name " Elements 
 of Philosophical Natural Science," (1806,) "On False 
 Theology and True Faith," (1824,) "On the Secret So- 
 cieties of the Universities," (1835,) and " Caricatures of 
 the Holiest," (" Caricaturen des Heiligsten.") He also 
 published religious essays of a Pietistic character, one 
 of which is entitled " How I became again a Lutheran, 
 and what Lutheranism is to me," (1831.) Steffens like- 
 wise wrote several novels of a high character, entitled 
 " The Four Norwegians," (" Die vier Norweger," 6 
 vols.,) "The Families of Walseth and Leith," (3 vols.,) 
 and " Malcolm." They contain fine delineations of Nor- 
 wegian character and manners, and beautiful descriptive 
 passages, and are imbued with deep religious feeling. 
 Died in 1845. 
 
 See his Memoirs, called " What I have seen," (or " experienced,") 
 ("Was ich erlebte,") 10 vols., 1840-44; H. Gelzer, "Zur Erinne- 
 rung an H. Steffens." 1845; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale ;" 
 " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1843; "North American 
 Review" for October, 1843. 
 
 Stefonio, sta-fo'ne-o, (Bernardino,) an Italian 
 Jesuit and Latin poet, born in the Papal States in 1560. 
 He was the author of tragedies, orations, and epistles. 
 Died in '620. 
 
 Steibelt, stl'bSlt, (Daniel,) a celebrated German 
 pianist and composer for the piano, was born at Berlin 
 in 1756. He was patronized by Frederick the Great, 
 and became imperial chapel-master at Saint Petersburg. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 Steigentesch, sti'gen-tSsh', (August,) Baron, a 
 German dramatist, born at Hildesheim in 1774; died 
 in 1826. 
 
 Stein, stln, (Christian Gottfried Daniel,) a Ger- 
 man geographer, born at Leipsic in 1771, published a 
 "Manual of Geography and Statistics," (1809,) and 
 other works of the kind. Died in 1830. 
 
 Stein, (Johann Andreas,) a German organist and 
 maker of musical instruments, born in the Palatinate in 
 1728 ; died in 1792. 
 
 Stein, (Ludwig,) a distinguished German jurist and 
 writer, born in Sleswick in 1813. Having studied at 
 Kiel and Jena, he visited Paris, where he became ac- 
 quainted with the doctrines of Fourier, and published a 
 work entitled "The Socialism and Communism of 
 France at the Present Time," (1844.) In 1846 he be- 
 came professor at Kiel, and the same year brought out, 
 in conjunction with Warnkonig, a " History of French 
 Jurisprudence." He also wrote a " System of Political 
 Science," (1854.) 
 
 Stein, von, fon stln, (Heinrich Friedrich Karl,) 
 Baron, a celebrated Prussian statesman, born at Nassau 
 in October, 1757. He studied law at Gottingen, and 
 entered the service of Prussia in 1778 as director of 
 mines. In 1786 he visited England, the institutions of 
 which he studied with much interest. Having been 
 appointed president of the Westphalian Chambers at 
 Wesel, Hamm, and Minden in 1796 or 1797, he dis- 
 
 played superior administrative talents. He was minister 
 of commerce, customs, etc. at Berlin from 1804 to i8t7, 
 and became prime minister after the peace of Tilsit, 
 July, 1807. He resolved to "compensate the kingdom's 
 loss in extensive greatness by intensive strength," and 
 reorganized the political system of Prussia on a more 
 liberal basis. Serfdom and feudal privileges were abol- 
 ished. These and other reforms constituted what was 
 called " Stein's system." The enmity of Napoleon caused 
 him to be removed from office in November, 1808, and 
 exiled. He founded the Tugend-Bund, ("League of 
 Virtue,") a secret society to promote the liberation of 
 Germany. In 1813 he was chief of the council for the 
 administration of the German territories which had been 
 reoccupied by the allies. He lost his influence in 1815, 
 and retired from public life. Died in 183 1. 
 
 See Pertz, " Leben des Freiherrn von Stein," 5 vols.. 1855; 
 " Leben des Freiherrn von und 7.11m Stein," Leipsic, 2 vols., 1S41 ; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie G&ieVale;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 September, 1S45. 
 
 Steinbach, von. See Erwin von Steinbach. 
 
 Steinbart, stin'baRt, (Gotthelf Samuel,) a Ger- 
 man theologian of the rationalistic school, born at Ziil- 
 lichau in 1738; died in 1809. 
 
 Steinbock. See Stenbock. 
 
 Steinbrtick, sttn'bKuK, (Eduard,) a German painter, 
 born at Magdeburg in 1802. He worked at Dusseldorf 
 from 1833 to 1846, and then removed to Berlin. 
 
 Steinla, stin'la, (Moritz Muller,) a German en- 
 graver, born at Steinla in 1 791. His proper name was 
 Muller. He engraved Raphael's "Massacre of the In- 
 nocents" and " Madonna di San Sisto ;" also some works 
 of Titian and Holbein. Died at Dresden in 1858. 
 
 Steinle, stin'leh, (Johann Eduard,) a German 
 painter, born at Vienna in 1810. 
 
 Steinmar, stln'mar, a German minnesinger, of a 
 Tyrolese family, lived about 1250. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Steinmetz, von, fon stTn'mets, (Karl Friedrich,) 
 a German general, born at Eisenach in 1796. He served 
 as lieutenant in, France in 1814, and entered Paris with 
 the army of the allies. In 1866 he commanded an army 
 corps which gained victories over the Austrians at Ska- 
 litz and other places. The Prussian Chambers in the 
 autumn of 1866 voted 1,500,000 thalers as a national 
 recompense to six men, among whom was General von 
 Steinmetz. He commanded the first army which in- 
 vaded France in August, 1870, and contributed to the 
 great victory near Metz in that month. He was re- 
 moved from command about the 1st of September. 
 
 Steinwehr, von, fon stin'waR, (Adolph Wii.helm 
 August,) Baron, a general, born in the duchy of Bruns- 
 wick in 1822. He emigrated to the United States about 
 1854, and became a brigadier-general of Union volun- 
 teers in October, 1861. He commanded a division at 
 Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. 
 
 Stella. See Johnson, (Esther.) 
 
 Stella, sti'lS', (ANTOiNEBouzonnet — boo'zo'ni',) a 
 French painter, a nephew of Jacques, noticed below, was 
 born at Lyons in 1637 ; died in 1682. 
 
 Stella, (Claudine BouzoNNET,)a French engraver, 
 born at Lyons in 1636, was sister of the preceding. 
 She died at Paris in 1697. 
 
 Stella, sti'li', (Franqois,) a Flemish painter, born 
 at Malines in 1563, was the father of Jacques, noticed 
 below. Died at Lyons in 1605. 
 
 Stella, (FKANgois,) a painter, born at Lyons about 
 1602, was a son of the preceding. He worked in Paris, 
 where he died in 1647. 
 
 Stella, stel'la, (Giulio Cesare,) a Latin poet, born 
 at Rome in 1564. He was author of an unfinished poem 
 on the discovery of Columbus, (1585.) Died about 1624. 
 
 Stella, (Jacques,) a French painter, born at Lyons 
 in 1596. He resided many years in Florence, where he 
 was patronized by the grand duke Cosimo II. After 
 his return to Paris he was appointed painter to the king, 
 and obtained the cross of Saint Michael, and other dis- 
 tinctions. He was a friend of Poussin, whose style 
 he imitated. Died in 1657. 
 
 See Felibirn, " Entretiens ;" Fontenav, " Dictionnaire des 
 Artistes;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale." 
 
 a, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; i, 6, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ST ELLIN I 
 
 2061 
 
 STEPHEN 
 
 Stellini, stel-lee'nee, (Jacopo or Giacopo,) a learned 
 Italian ethical writer, born at Cividale di Friuli in 1699. 
 He was professor of moral philosophy at Padua, and 
 wrote several works. Died in 1770. 
 
 See Caronelli, "Vila del J. Stellini," 1784; P. Cossai.i, 
 " Elngio di G. Stellini," 1811 ; Fabroni, "Vitx ltalorum ductrina 
 excellentittm." 
 
 Stelliola, stel-le-o'15, (Niccoi.6 Antonio,) an Italian 
 natural philosopher, born at Nola in 1547. He became 
 professor of medicine in the University of Naples, and 
 wrote, besides other works, "II Telescopio," (1627.) 
 Died in 1623. 
 
 Stelluti, stel-Ioo'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian poet 
 and naturalist, born at Fabriano in 1577, was a member 
 of the Academy of Lincei. Among his works is " II 
 Parnasso," a canzone, (1631.) Died after 1651. 
 
 Stenbock, stSn'bok, or Steenbock, (Magnus,) a 
 Swedish commander under Charles XII., was born at 
 Stockholm in 1664. He distinguished himself at the 
 battle of Narva, and gained a signal victory over the 
 Danes at Helsingborg in 1710. Being afterwards be- 
 sieged in the fortress of Tonningen by the Russian, 
 Danish, and Saxon army, he was forced to capitulate, 
 and was made prisoner by the King of Denmark. He 
 died in prison in 171 7, leaving a narrative of his life. 
 
 See Geijer, " History of Sweden ;" Gezklius, " Biographiskt- 
 Lexicon ;" Loenbom, " M. Stenbocks Lefverne," 4 vols., 1757-65: 
 Enberg, "Areminne bfver M. Stenbock," 1817; Oxenstierna, 
 " M. Stenbock och Viliars Sammanstallde," 1790. 
 
 Stendahl or Stendhal. See Beyle. 
 
 Steno, sta'no, (Michei.e,) a Venetian ruler, born in 
 1331. He was elected Doge of Venice in 1400. Verona, 
 Padua, and other places were added to the state during 
 his administration. Died in 1413. 
 
 See Daru, " Histoire de Venise." 
 
 Steno, sta'no, (Nicholas,) an eminent Danish anat- 
 omist, born at Copenhagen in 1638. He studied three 
 years in the University of Leyden, which he entered in 
 1661, and afterwards pursued his researches in Paris. 
 About 1662 he discovered and described the duct of the 
 parotid gland, called Steno's duct. He made other dis- 
 coveries, and published several works, (in Latin,) among 
 which are a "Treatise on the Muscles and Glands," 
 (1664,) and one " On the Anatomy of the Brain," (1669.) 
 He became a Catholic priest in 1675, after which he 
 wrote works on theology. Haller called him "magnus 
 inventor." Died at Schwerin in 1687. 
 
 See Manni, "Vita del litteratissimo Stenone," 1775: Fabroni, 
 "Vita? ltalorum doctrina excellentium ;" Hauler, " Bibliotheca 
 anatomica;" " Nouvelle Biographie G£ne"rale." 
 
 Stgn'tor, [Jrn'rup,] a Grecian warrior or herald, 
 who served in the Trojan war, and whose voice, accord- 
 ing to Homer, was as loud as the combined voices of 
 fiftv men. 
 
 Stenzel, stent'sel, (Gustav Adolf Harald,) a Ger- 
 man historian, born at Zerbst in 1792. He wrote, among 
 other works, a " History of Germany under the Frank- 
 ish Emperors," (1827.) Died in 1854. 
 
 Stephani, sta'fi-nee, (Heinrich,) a German educa- 
 tional writer, born near Wurzburg in 1761 ; died in 1850. 
 
 Stephanie, sta'fi-nee, (Christian Goitlob,) a Ger- 
 man actor and dramatist, born at Breslau in 1733 ; died 
 in 1798. 
 
 Stephanus, the Latin of Stephen and Etienne, 
 which see. 
 
 Steph'a-nus [Si-f^ravoc] A-the-nl-en'sis, a Greek 
 physician, the time and place of whose birth are un- 
 known. Among his extant works are a commentary on 
 the " Prognostics" of Hippocrates, and a commentary on 
 one of the works of Galen. 
 
 Steph'anus By-zan-ti'nus, or Stephen of By- 
 zantium, [Fr. Etienne de Byzance, 4'te-en' deli 
 be'zoNss',] a Greek writer, supposed to have lived in the 
 fifth century. He was the author of a geographical dic- 
 tionary, entitled " Ethnica," of which only an abridgment 
 is extant, and which is supposed to have been the first 
 work of the kind ever written. 
 
 Stephen, stee'ven, [Fr. Etienne, i'te-en' ; It. Ste- 
 fano, stef'a-no,] the first Christian martyr, was one of 
 the seven deacons of the Christian Church at Jerusalem. 
 Being charged by the Jews with blasphemy, he was 
 
 stoned to death. The time of this event is variously 
 estimated at from 35 to 37 A.D. 
 
 See Acts vi., vii. 
 
 Stephen [Lat. Steph'anus] I. succeeded Lucius as 
 Bishop of Rome in 253 A.D. He was engaged in a con- 
 troversy with Cyprian on the baptism of heretics. He 
 died in 257 A.D. 
 
 Stephen II., chosen pope in 752 A.D., died three 
 days after his election, and is not generally mentioned in 
 the series of the popes. 
 
 Stephen III., sometimes called Stephen U., (see 
 preceding article,) was elected pope in 752 A.D. Astol- 
 phus, King of the Longobards, having threatened Rome, 
 Stephen solicited the aid of Pepin, King of the Franks, 
 who marched into Italy, defeated Astolphus, and com- 
 pelled him to give up the district (Exarchate) of Ravenna, 
 and other provinces previously conquered by him. In 
 755 Astolphus, with a recruited army, again attacked 
 Rome, but was finally driven back by Pepin, who con- 
 ferred upon the Roman See Pentapolis and the Exarch- 
 ate of Ravenna. Stephen died in 757, and was succeeded 
 by Paul I. 
 
 Stephen IV., a native of Sicily, became pope in 76S 
 A.D. During his pontificate the Longobards again took 
 possession of portions of the Exarchate of Ravenna. 
 He died in 772, and was succeeded by Adrian I. 
 
 Stephen V. was elected pope in 816 a.d. His pon- 
 tificate was marked by no important events, and he died 
 within a vear after his consecration. 
 
 Stephen VI. succeeded Adrian III. as Pope of Rome 
 in 885. In the quarrel between Guido, Duke of Spoleto, 
 and Berengarius, Duke of Friuli, he espoused the cause 
 of theiformer, whom he crowned King of Italy in 891. 
 
 Stephen VIX succeeded Benedict VI. in 896. He 
 annulled the acts and decrees of Formosus, one of his 
 predecessors, and a political opponent, and caused his 
 remains to be treated with dishonour. In 897 he was 
 thrown into prison, and strangled by the friends of 
 Formosus. 
 
 Stephen VTII. succeeded Leo VI. in 928. He died 
 in 930, and was followed by John XL, son of Marozia, 
 Duchess of Tuscany. (See' Marozia.) 
 
 Stephen IX. was elected pope in 939, and died in 
 942. He was succeeded by Martin III. 
 
 Stephen X., brother of Godfrey, Duke of Lorraine, 
 was elected pope in 1057. Under his rule occurred the 
 schism between the Greek and Roman Churches, and a 
 long controversy was carried on concerning the celibacy 
 of the clergy. Died in 1058. 
 
 Stephen, Saint, King of Hungary, born at Gran 
 about 979, was the son of a chief named Geysa. He 
 was instructed in the Christian faith, and in 995 married 
 the sister of the emperor Otho III. He was crowned 
 in 1000 first King of Hungary, with the sanction of the 
 pope. During his reign Christianity was firmly estab- 
 lished in his country. Died in 1038. 
 
 Stephen II., King of Hungary, was the son of Kolo- 
 man, and ascended the throne in 1 1 14. He carried on 
 unsuccessful wars with Poland, Austria, and Russia, and 
 in 1 131 abdicated his throne in favour of a relative 
 named Bela. He died in a monastery in the same year. 
 
 Stephen UI., son of the preceding, was crowned in 
 1 161, but he was soon forced to resign in favour of his 
 uncle Ladislaus, whose claims were supported by the 
 Emperor of Constantinople. 
 
 Stephen IV. became King of Hungary on the death 
 of Ladislaus, in 1161. His subjects, however, soon re- 
 volted against him, and restored Stephen III. to the 
 throne. Stephen IV. died in 1163, and his nephew, 
 Stephen III., in 1 173. 
 
 Stephen V. succeeded his father Bela in 1270 as 
 King of Hungary. He carried on war with the Bohe- 
 mians and Bulgarians, and died in 1272. 
 
 Stephen, stee'ven, [Lat. Steph'anus; Fr. Etienne, 
 i'te-en',] King of England, born in France in 1105, was 
 a son of Stephen, Count of Blois. His mother, Adela, 
 was a daughter of William the Conqueror. He ren- 
 dered himself popular in England by his martial courage, 
 and became a competitor for the crown at the death 
 of Henry I., in 1 135, although th.it king had designated 
 his daughter Matilda as his successor. Stephen was 
 
 s k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STEPHEN 
 
 2062 
 
 STEPHENSON 
 
 recognized as king by a large portion of the people, and 
 a civil war began in 1 139. In 1 153 Prince Henry, a son 
 of Matilda, came from Normandy with an army. The 
 contest was decided by an agreement that Stephen 
 should retain the throne until his death, and that Henry 
 sjiould succeed him. Died in 1154. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England." chap. vii. 
 
 Stephen, KtNG of Poland. See Bathori. 
 
 Stephen of Muret, [Fr. Etienne de Muret, 
 i'te-en' deh mu'r&',] Saint, a French monk, born in 
 Auvergne in 1048. He founded a monastery at Muret. 
 Died in 1 124. 
 
 Stephen of Tournay. See Etienne de Tournay. 
 
 Ste'phen, (Sir George,) brother of Sir James, no- 
 ticed below, was born about 1794. He published "The 
 Jesuit at Cambridge," "Adventures of an Attorney," 
 and several other works. 
 
 Stephen, (James,) an English lawyer and philan- 
 thropist, born in Dorsetshire. He was an earnest advo- 
 cate of African emancipation, and he is said to have 
 planned the system of the continental blockade during 
 the French war. He published a treatise entitled " War 
 in Disguise, or the Frauds of Neutral Flags." He be- 
 came a member of Parliament for Tralee, and for many 
 years held the post of a master in chancery. Died in 
 1832. 
 
 Stephen, (Sir James,) K.C.B., an English writer and 
 statesman, born in London about 1790. He studied at 
 Cambridge, and rose through various offices to be per- 
 manent under-secretary to the colonial department, which 
 post he filled with eminent ability. He was appointed 
 in 1849 regius professor of modem history at Cambridge. 
 He published " Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography," 
 originally published in the " Edinburgh Review," " Lec- 
 tures on the History of France," (1S51,) and other works, 
 which enjoy a high reputation. Died in 1859. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1859. 
 
 Stephen, sta'pen, (John,) a Danish professor of his- 
 tory, born at Copenhagen in 1599; died in 1650. 
 
 Stephens, (celebrated printers.) See Etienne. 
 
 Stephens, stee'venz, (Alexander,) a Scottish writer, 
 born at Elgin in 1757, published "Memoirs of Home 
 Tooke," and other works. Died in 1821. 
 
 Stephens, stee'vens, (Alexander H.,) an American 
 statesman, born in Taliaferro county, Georgia, in 1812. 
 He was elected to Congress by the Whig party in 1843, 
 and continued in office till 1859. He was one of the 
 first advocates of the annexation of Texas, and was 
 active in promoting the passage of the Kansas and 
 Nebraska Act of 1854. He subsequently joined the 
 Democratic party, and supported the measures of Presi- 
 dent Buchanan. He opposed the secession of Georgia 
 in i860, but, having subsequently joined the secession- 
 ists, was elected in 1861 Vice-President of the Confede- 
 rate States. He published "A Constitutional View of 
 the War between the States," (1870.) 
 
 Stephens, (Mrs. Ann Sophia W.,) a popular Ameri- 
 can novelist, born at Derby, Connecticut, in 1813. She 
 has published " The Heiress of Greenhurst," " The Old 
 I ("inestead," "Fashion and Famine," (1854,) and con- 
 tributed numerous tales to "Graham's Magazine" and 
 other periodicals. 
 
 Stephens, (Henry,) a Scottish writer on agriculture, 
 born in Bengal in 1795, was educated at Edinburgh. 
 He published "The Book of the Farm," (3 vols., 1844,) 
 and other works. 
 
 See " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1849 ; " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for May, 1851. 
 
 Stephens, stee'vens, (James Francis,) an English 
 entomologist, born in Sussex in 1792. He was the 
 author of " The Systematic Catalogue of British Insects," 
 "A Manual of the British Coleoptera," and " Illustra- 
 tions of British Entomology," (10 vols ) The last-named 
 is regarded as one of the most valuable works of the 
 kind. He was president of the Entomological Society, 
 and a Fellow of the Linnaean Society. Died in 1852. ' 
 
 Stephens, (Jeremy,) an English theologian, born in 
 Shropshire in 1592. He became rector of Wotton, and 
 published several works. Died in 1665. 
 
 Stephens, (John Lloyd,) an American traveller, 
 born at Shrewsbury, New Jersey, in 1805. He published 
 
 born at Shrewsbury, New Jersey, in 1805. He published 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, i, 6, same, less prolonged; i, e, t, 6, ii, % 
 
 in 1837 "Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia Petraea, 
 and the Holy Land," which was followed in 1S3S by 
 "Travels in Greece, Turkey, Russia," etc. Being ap- 
 pointed in 1839 ambassador to Central America, he 
 brought out, alter his return, " Incidents of Travel in 
 Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan," ( 1 84 1 , ) and 
 "Incidents of Travel in Yucatan," (1843,) illustrated by 
 Catherwood. These works obtained great popularity 
 both in this country and in Europe, and the two last- 
 named are esteemed among the most valuable contribu- 
 tions to American antiquities. Mr. Stephens was elected 
 president of the Panama Railroad Company about 1850. 
 Died in 1852. 
 
 See Ali.ibone, "Dictionary of Authors :" "London Quarterly 
 Review" for December, 1841: "Edinburgh Review" for July, i^z; 
 "North American Review" for October, 1S41, and July, 1843. 
 
 Stephens, (Robert,) an English antiquary, entered 
 a college at Oxford in 1681, and was appointed royal 
 historiographer. He published the "Letters" of Lord 
 Bacon. Died in 1732. 
 
 Stephenson, stee'ven-son, (George,) an eminent 
 English engineer, and inventor of the locomotive engine, 
 was born at Wylam, in Northumberland, June 9, 1781. 
 His father was a fireman of a colliery, and was unable 
 to give his children an education at school. At the age 
 of fourteen, George became an assistant fireman in the 
 colliery. He learned to read and write at a night-school. 
 Having been promoted to the office of brakesman, he 
 married Fanny Henderson about 1802. He exercised 
 his mechanical skill in mending clocks, studied me- 
 chanics, and acquired a knowledge of steam-engines. 
 In 1812 he became chief engineer of Killingworth Col- 
 liery. His first locomotive engine was completed in 
 July, 1814, and drew eight loaded cars four miles an 
 hour. He made another, with important improvements, 
 and applied the steam blast-pipe, in 1815, and soon after 
 that date improved the construction of the railway. In 
 1S22 he was employed to construct a railway from Stock- 
 ton to Darlington, which was opened in 1825 and was 
 the first railway made for public use. About 1S24 Mr. 
 Stephenson and Edward Pease, of Darlington, established 
 a manufactory of locomotives at Newcastle. He was 
 chief engineer of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 
 finished in 1830, not without violent opposition from 
 land-owners and others. A prize of five hundred pounds, 
 offered by the directors of this railway for the best loco- 
 motive, was awarded to the " Rocket," made by George 
 Stephenson and his son Robert, (1830.) This engine is 
 said to have run at the rate of thirty miles an hour, to 
 the great amazement of the public. He was employed 
 as engineer of the Grand Junction Railway, of that which 
 connects London with Birmingham, and of others. His 
 latter years were spent in the superintendence of exten- 
 sive coal-mines which he owned. Died at Tapton in 
 August, 1848. 
 
 " By patient industry," says Smiles, " and laborious 
 contrivance, he was enabled to do for the locomotive 
 what James Watt had done for the condensing engine. 
 He found it clumsy and inefficient ; and he made it 
 powerful, efficient, and useful." " Men in the best ranks 
 of life have said of him that he was one of Nature's 
 gentlemen." 
 
 See Smiles, "Life of George Stephenson," 1859; "London 
 Quarterly Review" for October, 1857. 
 
 Stephenson, (Robert,) a distinguished engineer, a 
 son of the preceding, was bom at Willington in October, 
 1803. He studied for one session at the University of 
 Edinburgh, (1820-21,) after which he assisted his father 
 in the construction of the Stockton and Darlington Rail- 
 way, and in the manufacture of locomotives. In 1824 
 he was employed in South America as inspector of gold- 
 and silver-mines. Heteturned to England in 1827, and 
 became associated \vifn his father in the fabrication of 
 locomotives. He was engineer of the Leicester and 
 Swannington Railway, and of the London and Birming- 
 ham Railway which was opened in 1838. He acquired 
 a high reputation as a railway engineer, and was em- 
 ployed as such in various foreign countries. Among his 
 greatest works are the viaduct over the Tweed at Ber- 
 wick, the high level bridge at Newcastle, the Britannia 
 tubular bridge over Menai Straits, (1850,) the Victor, ia 
 
 short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
STEPNET 
 
 2063 
 
 ST 'E TENS 
 
 tubular bridge at Montreal, finished about t86o, and a 
 railway connecting Cairo with Alexandria, in Egypt. He 
 was elected a member of Parliament for Whitby in 1S47. 
 Died in October, 1859. 
 
 See Smiles, " Lives of the Engineers :" J. C. Jeaffreson, 
 "Life of Robert Stephenson," 1S64 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 December, 1859. 
 
 Step'ney, (Gkorge,) an English diplomatist and 
 poet, born at Westminster in 1663. Me was employed 
 in embassies to Germany, Poland, and the States-Gene- 
 ral, (Netherlands.) He was the author of several origi- 
 nal poems, and assisted Dryden in his translation of 
 Juvenal. "He is," says Johnson, "a very licentious 
 translator, and does not recompense the neglect of his 
 author by I>eauties of his own." Died in 1707. 
 
 Sterbeeck, van, v3n steit'bak, (Francis,) a Flemish 
 botanist and priest, torn at Antwerp in 1631. He pub- 
 lished "Theatrum Fungorum." Died in 1693. 
 
 Ster'ling, (Edward,) a journalist, born at Waterford, 
 in Ireland, in 1773. He wasacaptain in the army in his 
 early life. He began about 1812 to write for the London 
 "Times," of which he became editor. He wrote many 
 political editorials for that journal, and supported the 
 Reform bill of 1832. Died in 1847. 
 
 Ster'ling, (John,) a British poet and miscellaneous 
 writer, a son of the preceding, was born in the island of 
 Bute in 1806. He finished his studies at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, where he acquired the friendship of Mr. 
 (afterwards Archdeacon) Hare, Monckton Milnes, and 
 other distinguished men. Having taken holy orders, 
 he became curate of Hurstmonceaux, in Sussex, in 1834. 
 He was the author of "Arthur Coningsby," a novel, 
 (1833,) "The Election ; a Poem, in Seven Books," (1 841,) 
 " Strafford," a tragedy, (1S43,) and " Essays and Tales." 
 He numbered among his friends Coleridge and Thonias 
 Carlvle, and his Life has been written by the latter. 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 See T. Carlyle, "Life of John Sterlinsr," 1S51 ; " Brief Biogra- 
 phies." by Samuel Smiles: "Fraser's Magazine" for February, 
 i v 4^ ; " Britisii Quarterly Review" for August, 1848. 
 
 Stern, (Daniel.) See Agoui.t, d'. 
 
 Stern, (Marie be Fi.avignv.) See Agoui.t, d'. 
 
 Sternberg, steRn'Mitc, (Ai.exandf.r,) Baron, a 
 celebrated novelist, born in Esthonia, in Russia, in 1806, 
 studied at Dorpat,.and in 1830 settled in Germany. 
 Among his most popular works, which are written in 
 German, we may name "The Missionary," "Diana," 
 and " Saint Sylvan." 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1837. 
 
 Sternberg, (Kaspar Maria,) Count, a German 
 naturalist, and president of the Bohemian National 
 Museum, born in 1761 ; died in 1838. 
 
 Sterne, stem, (Laurence,) a celebrated humorist, 
 born at Clonmel, Ireland, in 1713, was .1 great-grandson 
 of Richard Sterne, Archbishop of York. His father 
 was a lieutenant in the army. He was educated at 
 Cambridge, which he entered in 1733, took holy orders, 
 and became vicar of Sutton about 1738. He wasmarrried 
 in 1741. Through the influence of an uncle, he obtained 
 a prebend in York Cathedral. He remained nearly 
 twenty years at Sutton, and acquired a sudden celebrity 
 bv the' publication of two volumes of "Tristram Shandy, 
 (1759,) a humorous story, which had a great success. In 
 1760 he published two volumes of sermons, and was 
 appointed curate of Coxwold, Yorkshire. The poet 
 Gray praises his sermons, as snowing "a strong imagi- 
 nation and a sensible heart," but adds, "you see him 
 [the preacher] often tottering on the verge of laughter, 
 and ready to throw his periwig in the face of his audi- 
 ence." (See Gray's " Letters.") Sterne's promotion in 
 the Church was hindered by his dissipated or irregular 
 habits. He visited Paris and other parts of France in 
 1762-63, and published the ninth volume of "Tristram 
 Shandy" in 1767. Having made another tour in France 
 and Italy, he produced in 1768 his "Sentimental Jour- 
 ney," which enjoyed a great popularity. He died in 
 London in 1768, leaving one child, a daughter. 
 
 Sterne is considered one of the most humorous and 
 original writers in the language. "His wit," says Haz- 
 litt, "is poignant, though artificial; and his characters 
 Chough the groundwork of some of them had been laid 
 
 before) have yet invaluable original differences ; and the 
 spirit of the execution, the master-strokes constantly 
 thrown into them, are not to be surpassed." (" Lectures 
 on the English Comic Writers.") 
 
 See Medalle, *' Letters of Laurence Sterile, to which are pre- 
 fixed Memoirs of his Life, written by himself," 3 vols., 1775; Sir 
 Walter Scott, "Memoirs of Eminent Novelists;" Thackeray, 
 " Lectures on the English Humourists;" Percy Fitzgerald, *' Life 
 of Laurence Sterne," 2 vols.. 1864; John Ferriar, " Illustrations 
 of Laurence Sterne, with other Essays," 1798; Ali.irone. "Dic- 
 tionary of Authors:" " London Quarterly Review" for April, 1854; 
 " British Quarterly Review" for July, 1864. 
 
 Sterne, (Richard,) an English prelate, born in Not- 
 tinghamshire in 1596, rose to be Archbishop of York in 
 the reign of Charles II. He assisted in revising the 
 Book of Common Prayer. Died in 1683. 
 
 Stern'hold, (Thomas,) an English writer, born in 
 Hampshire, was groom of the robes to Henry VIII. 
 and his successor Edward VI. He is chiefly known 
 from his English version of the Psalms, of which he 
 translated fifty-one. The principal part of the remainder 
 were translated by John Hopkins, the whole being pub- 
 lished in 1562, and annexed to the Book of Common 
 Prayer, under the title of" The Whole Booke of Psalmes, 
 collected into English Metre, by T. Stemhold, J. Hop- 
 kins, and others," etc. Died in 1549. 
 
 Stesichore. See Stesichorus. 
 
 Ste-sieh'o-rus, [Gr. ZrT/oiropoc,' Fr. Stesichore, 
 sti'ze'koR' ; It Stesicoro, sta-se-ko'ro,] a celebrated 
 Greek poet, born at Ilimera, in Sicily, is supposed to 
 have flourished about 600 B.C, He is styled the inventor 
 of choral songs, and his original name of Tisias was 
 changed to Stesichorus on account of his directing the 
 choruses at religious festivals. His works, of which only 
 fragments remain, were composed in the language of the 
 epic poets, with a mixture of Doricisms, and combine 
 the material of the epic poem with the lyric form. They 
 are warmly eulogized by Cicero, Quintilian, and other 
 eminent writers of antiquity. He died about 555 B.C., 
 aged about 85. 
 
 See Kleine, " De Stesichori Vita," 182s; Fabricius, " Biblio- 
 theca Grasca ;" F. de Beaumont. "Menmria sopra X.into. Aris- 
 tossene e Stesicoro," 1835 : K. O. Muli.er, " History of the Litera- 
 ture of Ancient Greece :" " Nouvc:lle Bin-raphie Ginerale." 
 
 Steuart. See Stewart, (Sir Jamks.) 
 
 Steuben, stu'ben, [Ger. pron. stoi'ben, j (Frederick 
 William Augustus,) Baron, a celebrated general 
 of the American Revolution, was born at Magdeburg, 
 Prussia, in 1730. He served with distinction in the 
 Seven Years' war, and rose to be adjutant-general in 
 the king's staff in 1762. In 1777 he offered his services 
 to General Washington as a volunteer in the American 
 army. He was appointed major-general in 177S. and 
 subsequently took an active part in the battle of Mon- 
 mouth and the siege of Yorktown. A life-annuity of 
 $2500 was voted him by Congress in 1790, and he also 
 received 16,000 acres of land in Oneida county, New 
 York, where he died in 1794. His life, written by 
 Francis Bowen, is included in Sparks's "American 
 Biography." 
 
 See the " North American Review" for October, 18*4. 
 
 Steuben, von, fon stoi'ben, (K \ri. Wii.helm Au- 
 gust,) Baron, a German historical painter, born near 
 Mannheim about 1790, worked in Paris and in Russia, 
 where he was patronized by the emperor Nicholas. 
 Among his works are "Napoleon's Return from Elba," 
 and " Esmeralda and Quasimodo." Died in Paris in 1856. 
 
 Steuco, sN§ -oo'ko, (Lat. Steu'chus,] (Agostino,) an 
 Italian scholar, born at Gubbio in 1496. He succeeded 
 Aleandro as prefect of the Vatican Library in 1542. He 
 wrote several theological works. Died in 1549. 
 
 See Niceron, "Me'moires." 
 
 Ste'venS, (Abel,) an American Methodist divine, 
 hornet Philadelphia in 1815. He lias edited succes- 
 sively several religious journals, and published, among 
 other works, "Memorials of the Introduction of Meth- 
 odism into New England," and " History of the Re- 
 ligious Movement of the Eighteenth Century, called 
 Methodism," (1859.) 
 
 Ste'venS, (Alexander,) an English architect, con- 
 structed the bridge over the Liffey at Dublin, and other 
 important works. Died in 1796. 
 
 € as *: c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasml; R, trilled; i as z; th as in Ms. (2^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STEVENS 
 
 2064 
 
 STEF1N 
 
 Ste'vens, [Belgian pron. sta'vens,] (Alfred,) a Bel- 
 gian painter, born at Brussels about 1822. He gained 
 a medal of the first class in 1851. 
 
 Stevens, (Edward,) an American general, born in 
 Virginia. He was commended by General Washington 
 for his conduct at the battles of Brandywine and Ger- 
 mantown, September-October, 1777. Died in 1820. 
 
 Stevens, (Gkorgk Alexander,) aa English actor 
 and dramatic writer, born in London, was the author of 
 a novel entitled "Tom Fool," and other works of a 
 comic and satirical character. Among these may be 
 named a " Lecture on Heads," " Distress upon Dis- 
 tress," a burlesque tragedy, and " The Adventures of a 
 Speculist." He also wrote a number of popular songs. 
 Died in 1784. 
 
 Stevens, (Isaac Ingali.s.) an American general, 
 born in or near Andover, Massachusetts, in 1818, gradu- 
 ated at West Point in 1839, at the head of his class. 
 He was appointed Governor of Washington Territory 
 in 1853, and resigned in 1857. In September, 1861, he 
 became a brigadier-general of Union volunteers. He 
 served in the army which captured Port Royal, South 
 Carolina, in November, 1861, was raised to the rank of 
 major-general in the ensuing summer, and was killed 
 at the battle of Chantilly, September I, 1862. 
 
 See Tenney, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion," 
 P- 734- 
 
 Stevens, (John,) an American mechanician, born 
 at New York in 1749, was the inventor of a steamboat, 
 which he exhibited in 1804. He also wrote a pamphlet 
 giving plans for a railway and steam-carriages. Died 
 in 1838. 
 
 His son, Robert Livingston Stevens, born in 
 1788, also distinguished himself as an inventor, and 
 made numerous improvements in steamboats. Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 Stevens, (Joseph,) a Belgian painter, a brother of 
 Alfred, noticed above, was born at Brussels about 1819. 
 He has resided alternately in Brussels and Paris. He 
 excels in the painting of animals, especially dogs. 
 
 Stevens, (Richard James Samuel,) an English 
 composer, born in London about 1750, published nu- 
 merous songs and glees, which are ranked among the 
 master-pieces of their kind. Died in 1837. 
 
 Stevens, (Thaddeus,) an eminent American legis- 
 lator, distinguished as an opponent of slavery, was born 
 in Caledonia county, Vermont, on the 4th of April, 
 1793. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1814, 
 removed to Pennsylvania, and studied law. He was 
 elected to the legislature of Pennsylvania in 1833, and 
 re-elected four times between that date and 1841. In 
 April, 1835, he made a powerful speech for common 
 schools, and secured the triumph of a system to which 
 the majority of the legislature had been hostile. In 
 1836 he was a member of the Convention which revised 
 the Constitution of the State. He settled at Lancaster 
 about 1842, and was elected a member of Congress by 
 the voters of the ninth district in 1848. He acted with 
 the Whig party while that party survived, and was re- 
 elected to Congress in 1850. About 1855 he joined the 
 Republican party, which was at first called in Pennsyl- 
 vania the People's party. He represented the ninth dis- 
 trict, i.e. Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, in Congress 
 from 1858 to 1868. He was chairman of the committee 
 of ways and means in the Thirty-seventh Congress, 
 1861-63, anc ' '" several subsequent terms. In Decem- 
 ber, 1S61, he offered a resolution that all slaves who 
 shall leave their masters or aid in quelling the rebellion 
 shall be declared free. After the end of the civil war 
 he became the most prominent and influential member of 
 the House of Representatives, and a strenuous opponent 
 of President Johnson's policy. He advocated the exten- 
 sion of the right of suffrage to the freedmen, and other 
 measures of the Radical party. Mr. Stevens and Sena- 
 tor Sherman were the authors of the bill for the recon- 
 struction of the seceded States which was passed by 
 Congress in the session of 1866-67 a»d became a law 
 notwithstanding the veto of the President. By this act, 
 ten of the Southern States were divided into five mili- 
 tary districts, and each district was subjected to the 
 authority of a military commander until the people of 
 
 those districts should adopt new Constitutions conceding 
 impartial suffrage. Mr. Stevens, who was chairman of 
 the joint committee on reconstruction, reported in Feb- 
 ruary, 1867, the original bill, which Senator Sherman 
 modified by an important amendment. He advocated 
 the impeachment of Andrew Johnson in a speech on the 
 24th of February, 1868, and was a member of the com- 
 mittee of seven then appointed to prepare and report 
 articles of impeachment. He was also one of the seven 
 members elected March 2, 1868, as managers to conduct 
 the impeachment of President Johnson. He was never 
 married. Died at Washington in August, 1868. 
 
 " He was one of the few who are not afraid to grasp 
 first principles and lay hold of great truths, or to push 
 them to their remotest logical result." (New York 
 "Times" for August 13, 1868.) 
 
 Stevens, (William,) an English writer on religion, 
 born in London in 1732, was a cousin of George Home, 
 Bishop of Norwich. He wrote an "Essay on the Nature 
 and Constitution of the Christian Church," and other 
 works. Died in 1807. 
 
 Stevens, (William Barshaw,) an English divine, 
 born at Abingdon about 1755. Me was the author of 
 " Retirement," a poem, and of a collection of sermons. 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 Ste'ven-son, (Andrew,) an American statesman 
 born in Culpepper county, Virginia, in 1784. He studied 
 law, became eminent as a pleader, and represented a 
 district of Virginia in Congress from 1821 to 1834. 
 During this period he was thrice elected Speaker of 
 the House of Representatives, in 1827, 1829, and 1831. 
 He was minister to England from 1836 to 1841. He 
 acted with the Democratic party. Died in 1857. 
 
 Ste'ven-son, (Sir John ANDREW,)an Irish composer, 
 born in Dublin in 1761. He produced numerous duets, 
 songs, and anthems, and an oratorio, entitled "The 
 Thanksgiving." Died in 1833. 
 
 Ste'ven-son, (John Hall,) an English satiric poet, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1718, was a friend of Laurence 
 Sterne, who has described him in his "Tristram Shandy" 
 under the name of " Eugenius." He published " Lyric 
 Epistles," " Fables for Grown Gentlemen," and other 
 works. Died in 1785. 
 
 Ste'ven-son,(RoHERT,)an eminent Scottish engineer, 
 born at Glasgow in 1772. About 1 796 he became en- 
 gineer to the Northern Light-House Commissioners. He 
 began in 1807 the construction of the Bell Rock Light- 
 House, off Arbroath, in Forfarshire, which was completed 
 in 181 1. He built upwards of twenty light-houses, and 
 was employed in various other important works in Scot- 
 land and England. To him is ascribed the suggestion 
 of malleable iron instead of the cast-iron rails hitherto 
 used. Died in 1850. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Stevenson, (Thomas G.,) an American general, born 
 about 1836, was a son of the Hon. J. Thomas Stevenson, 
 of Boston. He was appointed a brigadier-general about 
 the end of 1862. He commanded a division when he 
 was killed, near Spottsylvania, May 10, 1864. 
 
 See Tenney, " Military and Naval History of the Rebellion," 
 P- 77«- 
 
 Stevenson, (William,) an English writer, born 
 about 1772, held a situation in the Treasury. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " Historical Sketch of the Pro- 
 gress of Discovery, Navigation, and Commerce." Died 
 in 1829. 
 
 Stevenson, (William,) an English antiquary, born 
 in Nottinghamshire, was proprietor of the " Norfolk 
 Chronicle" for thirty-five years. Died in 1821. 
 
 Stgv'in [Fr. pron. sti'vaN'] or Stevinus, sta-vee'- 
 nus, (Simon,) an able Flemish engineer and mathema- 
 tician, born at Bruges about 1550. He was employed as 
 civil engineer and inspector of dykes by the government 
 of Holland. He made important improvements in 
 arithmetic, algebra, and mechanics. Among his works 
 are a "Treatise on Arithmetic," (1585,) a "Treatise on 
 Statics and Hydrostatics," (1586,) and a "Treatise on 
 Navigation," (1599.) Died about 1620. 
 
 See Goethals, " Notice historlqne sur la Vie de S. Stevin," 1841 ; 
 Quetei.kt, " Simon Stevin," 1S45; Steichen. " Memoire sur la 
 Vie de Stevin," 1846; " Nouvelle Hiographie GeneVale." 
 
 a, e, T, 0, 1, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, u, J?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
STEFINUS 
 
 206; 
 
 STIGAND 
 
 Stevinus. See Stevin. 
 
 Stew'art, (Chaklks,) a distinguished American 
 naval officer, bom in Philadelphia in 1778. Reserved 
 as lieutenant in the operations against Tripoli in 1804, 
 and obtained the rank of captain in 1806. In 1812 the 
 government of the United States adopted the over- 
 cautious policy of withdrawing all their vessels of war 
 from the ocean, but Captain Stewart and VV. Bainbridge 
 induced them to abandon that policy. The former, 
 in the summer of 1813, took command of the frigate 
 Constitution, which carried fifty-two guns. He cap- 
 tured in February, 1815, the British ship Cyane and 
 the sloop Levant,' for which service he received a gold 
 medal from Congress. He afterwards rendered impor- 
 tant services in the organization of the navy, and during 
 the civil war was raised to the rank of rear-admiral. 
 Hied in 1869. 
 
 Stewart, (Charlks William.) See Londonderry. 
 
 Stew'art, (Dugald,) an eminent Scottish professor 
 of moral philosophy, was born in Edinburgh on the 22d 
 of November, 1753. He was a son of Matthew, noticed 
 below, was educated at the High School of Edinburgh, 
 and attended the lectures of Reid at Glasgow. In 1772 
 he wrote an "Essay on Dreaming," and became an as- 
 sistant or substitute of his father in the chair of mathe- 
 matics. He was appointed joint professor of mathematics 
 at Edinburgh in 1775, and succeeded Dr. Ferguson as 
 professor of moral philosophy in the same university in 
 1785. He acquired a high reputation as a didactic orator, 
 and his lectures were attended by many students from 
 England, and even from the continent. He promoted 
 the triumph of liberal opinions in politics by his influ- 
 ence over such men as Lord Brougham, Lord Jeffrey, 
 and Lord John Russell, who were his pupils. In 1792 
 he published the first volume of his "Elements of the 
 Philosophy of the Human Mind," which, being written 
 in an elegant and attractive style, enjoyed a great popu- 
 larity. The second volume appeared in 1814, and the 
 third in 1827. He produced "Outlines of Moral Phi- 
 losophy" in 1793, a "Life of Dr. Robertson" in 1796, 
 and a "Life of Dr. Reid" in 1802. On account of his 
 feeble health, he resigned the active duties of his pro- 
 fessorship in 1810. Among his chief works are a "Phi- 
 losophical Essay," (1 vol., 1810,) and his preliminary 
 dissertation to the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," entitled 
 a "General View of the Progress of Metaphysical, 
 Ethical, and Political Science since the -Revival of Let- 
 ters," which is highly esteemed. He married Helen 
 Bannatyne about 1783, and after her death a Miss Crans- 
 toun. Died at Edinburgh in June, 1828. 
 
 Referring to Stewart as a lecturer, Sir Walter Scott 
 says, his "striking and impressive eloquence riveted the 
 attention even of the most volatile student." "Perhaps 
 few men ever lived," says Mackintosh, "who poured 
 into the breasts of youth a more fervid and yet reason- 
 able love of liberty,' of truth, and of virtue. How many 
 are still alive in different countries, and in every rank 
 to which education reaches, who, if they accurately 
 examined their own minds and lives, would not ascribe 
 much of whatever goodness and happiness they possess 
 to the early impressions of his gentle and persuasive 
 eloquence ! . . . Without derogation from his writings, 
 it mav be said that his disciples were among his best 
 works." Respecting his style, the same able writer 
 observes, " He reminds us not unfrequently of the 
 character given by Cicero to one of his contemporaries, 
 ' who expressed refined and abstruse thoughts in soft and 
 transparent diction.' ... It would be difficult to name 
 works in which so much refined philosophy is joined 
 with so fine a fancy, — so much elegant literature with 
 such a delicate perception of the distinguishing excel- 
 lences of great writers, and with an estimate in general 
 so just of the services rendered to knowledge by a suc- 
 cession of philosophers." 
 
 See "Ceneral Review of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy ;*' 
 Chamrrks. "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen;" 
 Cousin, "(Jours de Philosophic et Fragments philosophiques," aiso 
 the same writer in the "Journal des Savants," 1S17; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for November, 1810, September, 1S16, and October, 1S21 : 
 " London (Quarterly Review" for January, 1815, and January, 1822; 
 "North British Review" for May, 1H58: article in the "Edinburgh 
 Review" for October, 1830, (by Sir William Hamilton ;) " Biack- 
 wood's Magazine," 1828; "Encyclopaedia Britannica." 
 
 Stewart or Steuart, (Sir James,) a Scottish political 
 economist, born in Edinburgh in 1713, was a Jacobite. 
 He married a daughter of the Earl of Wemyss. Having 
 joined the army of the Pretender in 1745, he was exiled 
 for many years. He returned about 1763, and published, 
 besides other works, an " Inquiry into the Principles of 
 Political Economy," (1767.) Died in 1780. 
 
 Stew'art, (James Haldane,) an English theologian, 
 born in 1775, was rector of Limpsfield, in Surrey. He 
 published several religious works. Died in 1854. 
 
 See a " Life of J. H. Stewart," by his son, 1856. 
 
 Stewart, (John,) called Walking Stewart, an 
 English traveller, born in London before 1750. He per- 
 formed journeys on foot through Hindostan, Persia, 
 Nubia, etc., and walked back to England. Died in Lon- 
 don in 1822. 
 
 See DeQuincey's interesting account of Stewart in bis " Literary 
 Reminiscences," vol. il. 
 
 Stewart, (Matthew,) a Scottish mathematician, 
 born at Rothsay, in the Isle of Bute, in 1717, was the 
 father of Dugald Stewart. He was minister of the parish 
 of Rosneath, in the west of Scotland, in his early life. 
 In 1747 he succeeded Maclaurin as professor of mathe- 
 matics in the University of Edinburgh. He published 
 "General Theorems," etc., (1746,) "Tracts, Physical 
 and Mathematical," (1761,) and "Propositions demon- 
 strated by the Method of the Ancients," (1762.) He 
 was well versed in Greek geometry. Died in 1785. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Stewart, (Robert.) See Castlereagh, Lord. 
 
 Stewart (or Steward) Family. See Stuart. 
 
 Sthen'e-lus, [Gr. ZdeveXoc ; Fr. Sthenei.e, sta'n&l',] 
 a king of Mycenae, was a son of Perseus and Andromeda, 
 and the father of Eurystheus. 
 
 Sthenelus, a son of Capaneus, was one of the Epi- 
 goni, (i.e. the sons of the seven chiefs who led the expe- 
 dition against Thebes.) He was a friend of Diomede, 
 under whom he served in the Trojan war, and was one 
 of the band inclosed in the wooden horse. 
 
 Stiefel or Stifel, stee'fel, [Lat. Stife'lius,] (Mi- 
 chael,) a German mathematician, born at FJsslingen, in 
 Saxony, in i486. He was a Lutheran minister, and 
 preached at various places, including Lochau and Holts- 
 dorf, near Wittenberg. He made discoveries in algebra. 
 His principal work is "Arithmetica Integra," (1544.) 
 Died in 1567. 
 
 See Bayle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Stieglitz, steeG'lits, (Christian Ludwig,) a German 
 writer upon art, born at Leipsic in 1756, published, 
 among other works, a "History of Architecture from 
 the Earliest Antiquity to Modern Times," ( 1827,) 
 " Archaeology of the Architecture of the Greeks and 
 Romans," and "On the Pigments used by Ancient 
 Artists." He also wrote a number of war lyrics. Died 
 in 1836. 
 
 Stieglitz, (Hf.INRICH,) a German litterateur, born at 
 Arolsen, in YValdeck, in 1803, was the author of poems 
 and dramatic works. Died in 1849. 
 
 Stieglitz, (Johann,) a German physician, of Jewish 
 extraction, was born at Arolsen in 1767. He published 
 a treatise "On Animal Magnetism," and other works. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Stieler, stee'ler, (Adolf,) a German geographer, 
 born at Gotha in 1775 ; died in 1836. 
 
 Stier, steeR, (Wii.helm,) a German architect, born 
 near Warsaw in 1 799. He became professor at the 
 Academy of Architecture at Berlin, and the founder of 
 a new school of architects. He designed the cathedral 
 of Berlin and the Athenaeum of Munich. 
 
 Stiernhielm. See Stjernhjelm. 
 
 Stifel. See Stiefel. 
 
 Stifelius. See Stiefel. 
 
 Stifter, stif'ter, (Adalbert,) a German litterateur, 
 bom in Southern Bohemia in 1806, wrote novels, poems, 
 and prose essays. " He is," says Vapereau, " one of the 
 best prose-writers of his country." 
 
 Stig'and, a Saxon prelate under the reigns of Ed- 
 ward the Confessor and William the Conqueror, be- 
 came Archbishop of Canterbury in 1052. Having been 
 convicted of several misdemeanours, he was deprived of 
 
 e as k: c as s: g hard; gas j; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled ; sass; th as in this. 
 
 130 
 
 (By See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
5 TIG A NT 
 
 2066 
 
 STIRLING 
 
 his office and condemned to perpetual imprisonment, 
 but he died soon after the sentence was passed. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury." 
 
 Stig'ant, (William,) an English writer and lawyer, 
 born in 1827. He contributed to the "Edinburgh Re- 
 view," and published a collection of poems, including the 
 "Vision of Barbarossa," (i860.) 
 
 Stigliani, stel-ya'nee, (Tommaso,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Matera in 1545. Among his works is "The 
 New World," ("II Mondo nuovo," 161 7.) Died at 
 Rome in 1625. 
 
 Stiglmaier or Stiglmayer, stigl'mi'er. (Johann 
 Baptist,) a celebrated German brass founder, born near 
 Munich in 1791. He visited Italy in 1819, with a view 
 of perfecting his knowledge of the art, and soon es- 
 tablished his reputation by his bust of Lewis, King of 
 Bavaria, after Thorwaldsen's model. After his return 
 he was appointed, in 1824, superintendent of the bronze- 
 foundry at Munich. Among the numerous works which 
 he executed during the twenty years following, are the 
 monument of Schiller at Stuttgart, after Thorwaldsen, 
 the fourteen colossal statues of the Bavarian princes in 
 the new palace at Munich, after Schwanthaler, the eques- 
 trian statue of the Elector Maximilian, after Thorwald- 
 sen, and Schwanthaler's colossal statue of" Bavaria," in 
 front of the Ruhmeshalle at Munich. Died in 1844. 
 
 Stiles, (Ezra,) D.D., an American theologian and 
 scholar, bom at North Haven, Connecticut, in 1727. 
 He graduated at Yale College, and in 1756 became 
 pastor of the Second Congregational Church at Newport, 
 Rhode Island. He was elected in 1777 president of 
 Yale College, and subsequently professor of ecclesias- 
 tical history. He was well versed in the Hebrew, Greek, 
 and Oriental tongues, and was esteemed one of the most 
 learned of American divines. He was an intimate friend 
 of Dr. Franklin, and was the first one in New England 
 who made experiments in electricity. He published an 
 "Account of the Settlement of Bristol," (1785,) "His- 
 tory of Three of the Judges of Charles I.," and a num- 
 ber of sermons and orations. Died in 1795. 
 
 See the "Life of Ezra Stiles," in Spakks's "American Biogra- 
 phy," by J. L. Kingslev, vol. vi., second series ; Spkague, " Aimals 
 of the American Pulpit," vol. i. 
 
 Still-eho, [Gr. ZtiMxoh ; Fr. Stilicon, ste'le'k6N',] 
 (Flavius,) an eminent commander of the Roman armies, 
 was a son of a Vandal officer. He rose rapidly in the 
 reign of Theodosius, and was sent as ambassador to 
 Persia in 384 a.d., at which date he was a young man. 
 On his return he married Serena, a niece of Theodosius 
 I., and became commander-in-chief of the army. He 
 found a rival and dangerous enemy in Rufinus, the chief 
 minister of Theodosius. In 394 Theodosius appointed 
 Stilicho guardian of his young son Honoiius, to whom 
 he gave the Western Empire. Rufinus at the same time 
 was chief minister of Arcadius, Emperor of the East. 
 After the death of Theodosius, (395,) Stilicho ruled 
 with unlimited authority at Rome. He marched against 
 the Goths, who had invaded Thrace, and who were 
 aided by the treacherous intrigues of Rufinus. This 
 rival was removed by assassination in 395 A.n. Stilicho 
 drove Alaric out of the Peloponnesus in 396 A.D. ; but 
 his victorious progress was checked by the jealousy of 
 Arcadius, who made a treaty with Alaric and took him 
 into his own service. The war was renewed by Alaric, 
 who invaded Italy about 402. Stilicho gained a decisive 
 victory over him at Pollentia (or Polentia) in 403, soon 
 after which the Goths retired from Italy. It is stated 
 that he formed an alliance with Alaric against Arca- 
 dius, with a design to make himself master of both the 
 Eastern and Western Empires. In 406 he defeated a 
 host of barbarians who invaded Northern Italy under 
 Radagaisus. The enemies of Stilicho excited the fears 
 and suspicion of Honorius against him, and procured 
 an order for his death. He was massacred at Ravenna 
 in 408 A.D. 
 
 See Claudian, " De Laudibus Stilichonis:" Gibbon, "History 
 „J h £ Tjecll - e a "d Fall of the Roman Empire;" C. F. Schulzbl 
 F. Stilicho em Wallenstein der Vorzeit," 1805; Ln Beau, "His- 
 tonedu Bas-Empire;" " Nouvelle Biogiaphie Gdmirale." 
 
 Stilicon. See Stilicho. 
 
 Stilke, stll'keh, (Hermann,) a German historical 
 painter, born in Berlin in 1803, was a pupil of Cor- 
 
 nelius at Dusseldorf. He painted many religious and 
 mediaeval subjects, and was employed by the King of 
 Prussia to adorn with frescos a hall in the castle of 
 Stolzenfels. 
 
 Still, (John,) a learned English prelate, born in Lin- 
 colnshire in 1543. He became Lady Margaret professor 
 at Cambridge in 1570, and was afterwards master of 
 Saint John's and Trinity Colleges. He was made 
 Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1592. He is believed to 
 have been the author of one of the earliest comedies in 
 the English language, entitled "A Ryght Pithy, Pleas- 
 aunt, and Merie Comedie, intytuled Gammer Gurton's 
 Nedle." Died in 1607. 
 
 Stille, stil'le, (Charles Jankway,) LL.D., an Amer- 
 ican writer a— 4 scholar, born in Philadelphia in 1819. 
 He graduate!., at Yale College in 1839. He published 
 in 1862 a well-timed and able pamphlet, entitled " How 
 a Free People Conduct a Long War," (republished in 
 Littell's "Living Age" and " Harper's Monthly Maga- 
 zine.") Among his other works we may name his 
 " History of the United States Sanitary Commission," 
 etc., (1866.) In May, 1866, he was elected professor 
 of the English language and literature in the Univer- 
 sity of Pennsylvania, and in 1868 provost of the same 
 institution. 
 
 See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Stille, (Karl.) See Demme. 
 
 Stilling. See Jung. 
 
 Stil'ling-fleet, (Benjamin,) grandson of Edward 
 Stillingfieet, noticed below, was born in 1702. He 
 studied at Cambridge, and subsequently travelled on 
 the continent. Among his publications may be named 
 "Miscellaneous Tracts on Natural History," being 
 chiefly translations from Linnaeus, and an abridgment 
 of Tartini's "Treatise on Music." Died in 1771. 
 
 See William Coxe, "Life and Works of Benjamin Stilling- 
 fieet," 1811. 
 
 Stillingfleet, (Edward,) an eminent English prel- 
 ate and polemical writer, born at Cranbourn, in Dorset, 
 in April, 1635, was educated at Cambridge. He became 
 rector of Sutton in 1657. His reputation is chiefly 
 founded on his"Origines Sacrae, or Rational Account 
 of the Christian Faith as to the Truth and Divine Au- 
 thority of the Scriptures," (1662.) He wrote a number 
 of works against popery and the nonconformists. He 
 was one of the chaplains of Charles II., and was ap- 
 pointed Dean of Saint Paul's in 1678. In answer to 
 Baxter, Howe, and Owen, he published "The Unrea- 
 sonableness of Separation," (1681.) " Stillingfleet," says 
 Macaulay, " was renowned as a consummate master 
 of all the weapons of controversy." (" History of Eng- 
 land," vol. ii.) In 1685 he produced " Origines Bri- 
 tannicae, or Antiquities of the British Churches." He 
 became Bishop of Worcester in 1689. Died in 1699. 
 
 See Goodwin, " Life of E. Stillingfleet," 1710. 
 
 Still'man, (Samuel,) D.I)., an American Baptist 
 divine, born at Philadelphia in 1737. He settled at 
 Boston as pastor of the First Baptist Church, and 
 enjoyed a high reputation as a pulpit orator. He was 
 one of the founders of Brown University, and was 
 conspicuous for his benevolence. Died in 1807. 
 
 Stil'po, [Gr. SriAirwv; Fr. Stii.I'on, stel'p6N',] an 
 eminent Greek philosopher, born at Megara, lived about 
 325 or 300 n.c. He was highly esteemed for his wisdom 
 by the ancients, and attracted a large number of dis- 
 ciples, among whom were Zeno the Stoic and Crates 
 the Cynic. Little is known about his life or doctrines, 
 which seem to have been similar to those of the Megaric 
 school. 
 
 See Diogenes Laertius; Mallet, " Histoire de l'ltcole de 
 Megare." 
 
 Stilpon. See Stilpo. 
 
 Stirling, Earl of. See Alexander, (William.) 
 Stir'ling, (James,) a Scottish mathematician, born in 
 Stirlingshire about 1690. He was elected a Fellow of 
 the Royal Society in 1729. His chief work is entitled 
 "The Differential Method, or Treatise on the Summing 
 Up and Interpolation of the Infinite Series," ("Methodus 
 Differentialis, sive Tractatus de Summatione et Inter- 
 polatione Serierum Infinitarum," 1730.) Died about 
 1770. 
 
 «, e, T, 5, u, y, long; 4, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, 5?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure ■ fir, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
STIRLING 
 
 2067 
 
 STOFFLER 
 
 Stirling or Maxwell, (William,) a Scottish writer 
 and statesman, born near Glasgow in 1818. Having 
 graduated at Cambridge, he visited Spain, where he 
 resided several years. He was elected to Parliament 
 for Perthshire in 1852. He has published " Annals of 
 the Artists of Spain," (1848,) "The Cloister-Life of the 
 Emperor Charles V.," (1852,) and " Velasquez and his 
 Works," (1S55.) He assumed the name of Maxwell in 
 1866. 
 
 Stjernhjelm, sh?Rn'he-?Im, (George,) a Swedish 
 savant and poet, born in 1598; died in 1672. 
 
 Stjernhok or Stieruhoek, shSRn'hok, (Jan,) a 
 Swedish jurist, born in Dalecarlia in 1596. He pub- 
 lished a work "On the Ancient Law of the Swedes and 
 Goths," (" De Jure Sueonum et Gothorum vetusto," 
 1672.) Died in 1675. 
 
 Stjernstolpe, sh?Rns'stol-peh, (Jonas Magnus,) a 
 Swedish litterateur, bom in the province of Soderman- 
 land in 1777. He was the author of tales in verse, and 
 made numerous translations from the German, French, 
 English, and Spanish. He was noted for his wit and 
 conversational powers. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Beskow, " Minnesord iifver J. M. Stjernstolpe," 1833. 
 
 Stobseus, sto-bee'us, [Gr. SroSaioc: Fr. Stobee, 
 sto'bi',] (Joannes,) a Greek writer, born at Stobi, in 
 Macedonia, lived probably between 350 and 500 A.D. 
 He made a collection of extracts from about five hun- 
 dred Greek authors, in prose and verse. This work is 
 divided into " Eclogae Physical et Ethicae," and "An- 
 thologicon, or Sermones," and is of great value as 
 preserving portions of authors which would otherwise 
 have been lost. 
 
 See Fabricius " Bibliotheca Grseca :" Jacobs, " Lectiones Sto- 
 benses," 1797; Bering, " Remarques critiques sur Stobee," 1833. 
 
 Stobee. See Stob/EUS. 
 
 Stobee, sto-ba', ? (Kilian,) a Swedish naturalist, 
 born in Scania in 1690; died in 1742. 
 
 Stbber or Stoeber, sto'ber, (August,) a son of 
 Daniel, noticed below, was born in 1S0S. He published 
 (in German) in 1852 "The Traditions of Alsace." 
 
 Stober or Stoeber, (Daniel Ehrenfried,) born 
 at Strasburg in 1779, was the author of lyric poems, a 
 "Life of Jeremias J. Oberlin," and other works. Died 
 in 1S35. • ' 
 
 Stoccade, stolid', (Nicholas de Helt or van 
 Helt,) a Flemish historical painter, born at Nymwegen 
 in 1614. He worked at Rome, Venice, and Paris. His 
 pictures were highly prized. 
 
 Stock, (Simon,) an English Catholic, who became 
 general of the order of Carmelites. He is said to have 
 founded the Brotherhood of the Scapulary, in honour of 
 the Virgin Mary. Died in 1265. 
 
 Stock'dale, (Pf.rcivai.,) Rev., an English writer on 
 various subjects, born in 1736; died in 181 1. 
 
 See "Memoirs of Percival Stockdale," by himself; "London 
 Quarterly Review" for May, 1809. 
 
 Stockfleth, stok'flet, (Niels Joachim Christian,) 
 a Norwegian missionary to Lapland, born at Christiania 
 in 1787. He translated into Lappish portions of the 
 New Testament, and Luther's " Small Catechism." He 
 also wrote a "Lappish Grammar," and other works. 
 
 Stdckhardt or Stoeckhardt, stcik'haRt, (Julius 
 Adoi.ph,) a German chemist, born near Meissen in 1809. 
 He became in 1847 professor of agricultural chemistry 
 at the Academy for Agriculture and Forest Science at 
 Tharand. 
 
 Stockmans, stok'mSns, (Peter,) a Flemish jurist 
 and statesman, born at Antwerp in 1608. He became a 
 member of the privy council about 1663, and held other 
 high offices in Flanders. He published several legal 
 works. Died in 1671. 
 
 See C. de Bavay, "P. Stockmans, Jurisconsnlte Beige," 1844. 
 
 Stocks, (John E.,) an English physician and natural- 
 ist, born in 1822. He visited India, where he made a 
 valuable collection of plants. Died in 1854. 
 
 Stocks, (Lumb,) an English line-engraver, born in 
 Yorkshire in 1812. He engraved plates for the "Art 
 Journal," and Frith's picture of Claude Duval. 
 
 Stock'ton, (Richard,) an American patriot, and 
 signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born 
 
 near Princeton, New Jersey, in 1730. He rose to distinc- 
 tion as a lawyer, and was appointed in 1774 a judge of 
 the supreme court of New Jersey. He was elected to 
 the Continental Congress in 1776. Died in 178 1. 
 
 His daughter Julia was the wife of Dr. Benjamin 
 Rush. 
 
 See Sanderson, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration 
 of Independence," 184S. 
 
 Stockton, (Richard,) an eminent lawyer, born at 
 Princeton, New Jersey, in 1764, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. He was a Senator of the United States from 
 1796 to 1799, and was elected to the House of Repre- 
 sentatives in 1813. He was at the head of the bar of 
 New Jersey for many yeaTs. Died at Princeton in 1828. 
 
 Stockton, (ROBERT Field,) an American commo- 
 dore, born at Princeton, New Jersey, in 1796, was a son 
 of the preceding. He served in several naval actions 
 in the war of 1812-14. About 1823 he cruised on the 
 coast of Africa, and captured several slavers. He be- 
 came a post-captain in 1839. He gave much attention 
 to naval architecture, and was one of the first American 
 officers to apply steam to vessels of war. The sloop-of- 
 war Princeton, which was finished in 1844, was built 
 according to his plan, and was a very successful experi- 
 ment. By the explosion of one of the guns of the 
 Princeton, in 1844, two members of the cabinet, Gilmer 
 and Upshur, were killed. He obtained command of the 
 squadron on the Pacific coast about the end of 1845. In 
 1846 he conquered California, in which he established a 
 provisional government. He was elected a Senator of 
 the United States for six years by the legislature of New 
 Jersey in 1851. Died in 1866. 
 
 Stockton, (Thomas Hewlings,) D.D., an eloquem 
 Methodist divine, born at Mount Holly, New Jersey, 
 in 1808, for many years filled the post of chaplain to 
 Congress. He published a number of religious works. 
 Died in 1868. 
 
 Stod'art, '(James,) F.R.S., an English cutler and 
 metallurgist, born about 1760, lived in London. He 
 manufactured surgical instruments, and was associated 
 with Faraday in experiments on the alloys of steel. He 
 also made improvements in the art of tempering steel. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 Stodart, (Sir John,) an English lawyer and writer, 
 born in Westminster in 1773, became in 181 2 political 
 editor of the "Times." He translated Schiller's " Don 
 Carlos" and " Fiesco," and wrote several works on va- 
 rious subjects. He was appointed in 1826 chief justice 
 and judge of the vice-admiralty court at Malta. Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 Stod'dard, (Richard Henry,) an American poet, 
 born at Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1825. He pub- 
 lished a volume entitled "Footprints" in 1848, and a 
 second collection of poems in 185 1. About 1852 he 
 married Elizabeth D. Barstow, a poetess, and obtained 
 a place in the customhouse of New York. Among hiss 
 other poems is "The Burden of Unrest." " His style," 
 says R. W. Griswold, " is characterized by purity and 
 grace of expression. He is a master of rhythmical 
 melody, and his mode of treating a subject is sometimes 
 exquisitely subtle." 
 
 See Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Stoddard, (Solomon,) an American clergyman, born 
 in Boston in 1643. He was minister at Northampton 
 from 1672 until his death, and published numerous 
 works on theology. He was a grandfather of Jonathan 
 Edwards. Died in 1729. 
 
 Stod'dart or Stod'dard, Captain, an English 
 officer, who was sent as envoy to Bokhara about 1838. 
 It is supposed that he was murdered by the ruler of 
 Bokhara in 1842 or. 1843. 
 
 Stoeber. See Stober. 
 
 StoefHer. See Stoiti.kr. . 
 
 Stoeflerus. See "Stoffi.er. 
 
 Stoerk. See Stork, von, (Anton.) 
 
 StofHer or StoefHer, stof'ner, [Lat. Stoffleri'nus 
 or Stoefle'rus,] (Johann,) a German astronomer, born 
 in Suabia in 1452, was professor of mathematics, as- 
 tronomy, and geography at Tubingen, and numbered 
 Melanchthon and Miinster among his pupils. He pub- 
 lished an account of an astrolabe of his own construc- 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (^°*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STOFFLET 
 
 2068 
 
 STONE MAN 
 
 tion, and other scientific works. Died in 1531. He 
 predicted that there would be a great deluge in 1524. 
 
 See Wahl, "De J. Stofflerino Matliematico," 1743; Baylb, 
 " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Stofllet, sto'flj', (Nicolas,) a French general of the 
 royalist party, born at Luneville in 1751. He joined the 
 Vendeans in the spring of 1793, and was appointed 
 major-general in July of that year. After fighting with 
 great bravery in numerous battles with the republicans, 
 he was betrayed into the hands of his enemies, and exe- 
 cuted, in 1796. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Stokes, (George Gabriel,) F.R.S., an eminent 
 mathematician and physicist, born in Ireland about 
 1820. He was educated at Cambridge, and became 
 Lucasian professor of mathematics there in 1849. The 
 Rumford medal of the Royal Society was awarded to 
 him in 1852 for his discovery of the change in the re- 
 frangibilitv of light. 
 
 Stolberg, stol'beRG, (Christian,) Count, a German 
 litterateur,\>oxn at Hamburg in 1748, was the author of 
 several dramas and a collection of poems. He also 
 published a translation of Sophocles, and other poems 
 from the Greek. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Stolberg, (Friedrich Leopold,) Count, a brother 
 of the preceding, was born in 1750. He was sent in 
 1777 by the Prince Bishop of Ltibeck as minister-pleni- 
 potentiary to Copenhagen, where he resided several 
 years, and in 1789 was Danish ambassador to Berlin. 
 Among his principal works are his romance of "The 
 Island," the classical drama of " Theseus," "Travels 
 through Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Sicily," (1794,) 
 and a " Life of Alfred the Great," (1815.) He translated 
 into German Homer's " Iliad," four tragedies of /Eschy- 
 lus, some of the works of Plato, and the poems of Ossian. 
 In 1800 he was converted to the Roman Catholic faith, 
 soon after which he brought out his "History of the 
 Religion of Jesus Christ," (15 vols., 181 1.) Died in 1819. 
 
 See A. Nicolovius, " F. L. Graf zu Stolberg," 1-846 ; Lonofel- 
 low, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" J. H. Marx, "DesGrafen 
 F. L. zu Stolberg religibser Geist," 1818: •"Nouvelle Biographic 
 Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Stoll, (Maximilian.) a German physician, born in 
 Suabia in 1742. He practised in Vienna, and wrote, 
 besides other works, "Ratio Medendi," (3 vols., 1777- 
 80,) which was highly esteemed. Died in 1788. 
 
 See J. Pkzzl, " Denkmal auf M. Stoll," 17SS ; Sprengel, " His- 
 toire de la Medecine. " 
 
 Stolle, stol'leh, (Gottlieb,) a German writer, born 
 at Liegnitz, in Silesia, in 1673. He became in 1717 pro- 
 fessor of political sciences at Jena. Among his works 
 are an "Introduction to the History of Erudition," 
 ( 1 7 1 8, ) and an " Account of the Lives and Writings of 
 the Fathers of the Church," (1733.) Died in 1744. 
 
 Stolle, (Ludwig Ferdinand,) a German poet and 
 novelist, born at Dresden in 1806. He published 
 "Stolle's Werke," (25 vols., 1847,) and (in German) 
 "Palms of Peace," (1855.) 
 
 Stolo. See Licinius Stolo. 
 
 Stolze, stolt'seh, (Heinrich August Wilhei.m,) a 
 German stenographer, born at Berlin in 1794, published 
 a "Theoretical-Practical Manual of German Stenog- 
 raphy." 
 
 Stone, (Charles P.,) an American general, born in 
 Greenfield, Massachusetts, in 1826, graduated at West 
 Point in 1845. He was appointed a brigadier-general 
 in the summer of 1861, and commanded a division sta- 
 tioned on the Potomac River. A part of his command 
 was defeated at Ball's Bluff, October 21, 1861. He was 
 by some suspected of treachery on that occasion, and was 
 imprisoned, apparently without any just cause, in Fort 
 Lafayette frorn February to August, 1862. 
 
 Stone, (Edmund,) a British mathematician, born 
 about 1690. He published a " Mathematical Dictionary," 
 (1726,) and translated L'Hopital's "Analysis of Infini- 
 tesimals," and Bion's " Treatise on Mathematical In- 
 struments," from the French. Died in 1768. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 ■ Stone, (Frank,) an English artist, born at Manches- 
 ter in 1800. He settled in London, where he contributed 
 
 a number of oil-paintings to the exhibitions of the Royal 
 Academy, and in 185 1 was elected an associate of that 
 institution. Among his most admired works we may 
 name "Christ and the Woman of Bethany," "The 
 Gardener's Daughter," and a group of French peasants, 
 entitled " Bon-Jour, Messieurs." Died in 1859. 
 
 Stone, (HENRY,) an English painter and sculptor of 
 the seventeenth century, called "Old Stone." He made 
 numerous and good copies from Flemish and Italian 
 pictures. Died in 1653. He was a son of Nicholas 
 Stone, architect, noticed below. 
 
 Stone, (John,) a brother of the preceding, devoted 
 himself to sculpture, and was also the author of a treat- 
 ise on fortification, entitled "Enchiridion." Died in 1699. 
 
 Stone, (John H.,) an American officer, born probably 
 in Maryland. He distinguished himself at the battles 
 of Long Island and Princeton, and was Governor of 
 Maryland from 1794 to 1797. Died in 1804. 
 
 Stone, (Lucy,) a distinguished advocate of" Women's 
 Rights," was born at West Brookfield, Massachusetts, 
 in 1818. At an early age she determined to go to 
 college and obtain a liberal education. She went to Ober- 
 lin, then the only college in the United States open to 
 her sex. liy hard work between the hours of study, 
 she earned enough to pay both her board and tuition 
 for nearly the whole of her collegiate course. In the 
 debating-society at Oberlin her rare oratorical talents 
 were first manifested and developed. Having graduated 
 with high honours, she became an agent and lecturer 
 of the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, in which 
 capacity she often pleaded for the rights of woman as 
 well as for those of the slave. "Lucy Stone," says Mrs. 
 E. C. Stanton, "was the first speaker who really stirred 
 the nation's heart on the subject of woman's wrongs." 
 In 1855 Miss Stone was married to Henry B. Blackwell, 
 (the brother of Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman in 
 the United States who took the degree of M.D. ;) but, 
 believing that her influence as an individual would be 
 compromised by giving up her name, it was expressly 
 agreed that she should still retain the one she had always 
 borne. As a speaker, Mrs. Stone's merits are of a pe- 
 culiar and rare order. Though possessing uncommon 
 logical abilitv, it is not to this that she owes her remark- 
 able influence over her auditors; nor is it due to the 
 eloquence of emotion or passion, in the ordinary signifi- 
 cation of these. words, but rather to a magnetic sympathy, 
 which seems all the more powerful from its being united 
 with the utmost quietness and simplicity of manner in 
 the orator. 
 
 Stone, (Nicholas,) an English architect and sculptor. 
 born near Exeter about 1586, was appointed master- 
 mason of Windsor Castle by Charles I. Among his 
 works are a monument to Spenser in Westminster 
 Abbey, and statues of Edward V. and Henry VII. Died 
 in 1647. 
 
 Stone, (Nicholas,) a son of the preceding, was also a 
 sculptor, and made copies of the " Laocdon" and other 
 celebrated works. Died in 1647. 
 
 / Stone, (Thomas,) an American patriot, and signer 
 of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Charles 
 county, Maryland, in 1743. He became a member of 
 the Congress of 1 774, and was subsequently three times 
 re-elected. Died in 1787. 
 
 Stone, (William Lkete,) an American journalist 
 and miscellaneous writer, born in Ulster county, New 
 York, in 1792. He became in 1821 editor of the " Com- 
 mercial Advertiser," a political and literary journal in 
 New York, which he conducted with great ability. He 
 published, among other works, "Letters on Masonry 
 and Anti-Masonry," (1832,) " Border Wars of the Ameri- 
 can Revolution," (1834,) "Ups and Downs in the Life 
 of a Distressed Gentleman," (1836,) which was very 
 popular, "The Life of Joseph Brant," (1838,) and "The 
 Poetry and History of Wyoming," (1841.) Died in 1844. 
 
 Stone'mau, (GEORGE,) an American general, born 
 in Chautauqua county, New York, about 1824, gradu- 
 ated at West Point in 1846. He gained the rank of 
 captain in 1858, and became brigadier-general of volun- 
 teers in August, 1861. He commanded 'the cavalry of 
 the army of the Potomac at the battle of Chancellors- 
 ville, May, 1863. While serving under Genefal Slier- 
 
 i, e, T, 0, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 5, 8, y\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; not; good; moor.; 
 
S1VNH0USE 
 
 2069 
 
 STORT 
 
 man near Atlanta, he conducted a raid against Macon 
 witli very ill success, July, 1864. He and a large part 
 of liis command were captured. 
 
 Ston'house, (Sir James,) an English physician and 
 divine, born near Abingdon in 1716. He graduated at 
 Oxford, and subsequently studied medicine in France. 
 Having practised his profession for many years with 
 eminent success, he entered holy orders, and acquired a 
 high reputation as a preacher. He was noted for his 
 practical benevolence, and published a number of tracts 
 on moral and religious subjects. Died in 1795. 
 
 Stoordza, Stourdza, or Sturdza, stooRd'zi, 
 (ALEXANDER,) a Russian writer and diplomatist, born 
 at Jassy in 1788. He was privy councillor in the reign 
 of Nicholas. He wrote several political and religious 
 works. Died in 1854. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Stop'ford, (Sir Robert,) an able English naval offi- 
 cer, born in 1768. Having obtained the rank of captain, 
 he served with distinction under Lord Howe in the 
 battle against the French, June I, 1794. He afterwards 
 captured many French vessels, became a rear-admiral 
 about 1808, and full admiral in 1S25. He commanded 
 the naval force which took Acre in November, 1840. 
 Died in 1847. 
 
 Storace, sto-ra'cha or stor'ass, (Ann \,) a singer and 
 actress, born in 1761, was a sister of the following. She 
 performed in England. Died in 1814. 
 
 Storace, (Stephen or Stekano,) a distinguished 
 composer, of Italian extraction, born in London in 1763. 
 Among his best works are the operas of "The Siege of 
 Belgrade," "The Haunted Tower," and "The Pirates." 
 Died in 1796. His sister, ANNA Selina, was a highly 
 esteemed vocalist. 
 
 Storch, stoRK, [Lat. Pei.ar'gus,] (Christoph,) a 
 German Lutheran theologian, born at Schweidnitz in 
 1565. He wrote, besides other works, "Epitome Uni- 
 versal Theologiae," (1617.) Died in 1633. 
 
 Storch, (Johann,) a German physician and chemist, 
 born near Eisenach in 1681. He wrote several profes- 
 sional works. Died in 175 1. 
 
 Storch, (Ludwig,) a German litterateur, bom in 
 Thuringia in 1803, published a number of lyric poems 
 and historical romances. 
 
 Storch, (Nicholas,) a German Anabaptist preacher, 
 born at Stolberg, in Saxony, about 1490, is called the 
 founder of the sect of Pacificators. He taught that men 
 should be guided by immediate revelation or inspira- 
 tion, and opposed infant baptism. By the agency of 
 Luther he was banished from Saxony. He gained many 
 proselytes in Suabia, Thuringia, etc. Died in 1530. 
 
 Storch, von, fon stoRK, (Heinrich Friedrich,) a 
 Russian political economist, born in 1766. He pub- 
 lished a "Historical and Statistical View of Russia at 
 the End of the Eighteenth Century." Died in 1835. 
 
 Sto'rer, (Thomas,) an English poet, born in London. 
 He wrote, besides other works, a poem on "The Life 
 and Death of Cardinal Wolsey," (1599.) Died in 1604. 
 
 Stork, stoRk, (Abraham,) a Dutch marine painter 
 of the latter part of the seventeenth century, was a 
 native of Amsterdam. His sea-views are distinguished 
 by great spirit aud fidelity to nature. Died in 1708. 
 
 Stork or Stoerk, von, fon sioRk, (Anion,) Haron, 
 a German medical writer, born in Suabia in 1 73 1. He 
 practised at Vienna, and became physician to the em- 
 press Maria Theresa. He published several medical 
 works. Died in 1803. 
 
 Storks, (Sir Henry,) a British general, born about 
 181 1. He was appointed lord high commissioner of 
 the Ionian Islands in 1859, and succeeded Mr. Eyre as 
 Governor of Jamaica in November, 1865. 
 
 Storm, (El)WARH,) a Norwegian poet, bom in 1749, 
 was the author of a didactic poem entitled " Infodret- 
 ten," a number of popular lyrics, and a collection of 
 " Fables and Tales." Died in 1794. 
 
 See I.ONGPHI.I.OW, "Poets and Poetry of Europe :" HowiTT, 
 " Literature and Romance of Northern Kuropa;" " Korean Quar- 
 terly Review" for June, 1830, article " Danish aud Norwegian Lit- 
 erature." 
 
 Stor'mont, (David Murray,) Viscount, and Earl 
 of MarAfield, a British statesman, born about 1728, was 
 
 a nephew of the famous Lord Mansfield. He was am- 
 bassador at Vienna and at Paris. In the ministry formed 
 by Fox and Lord North (1783) he was president of the 
 council. Died in 1 796. 
 
 Storr, (GoTTi.oit Christian,) a German theologian, 
 and professor of divinity at Tubingen, was born at Stutt- 
 gart in 1746. He was the author of "Biblical Theology" 
 and other works. Died in 1805. 
 
 Storrs, (Charles B.,) an American clergyman, bora 
 about 1794, was a son of the Rev. Richard Salter Storrs, 
 who died in 1819. He became president of the Western 
 Reserve College, Ohio, about 1830. Died at Braintree 
 in 1833. 
 
 Storrs, (Henry Randolph,) an American lawyer 
 and orator, born at Middletown, Connecticut, in 1787. 
 He practised law at Utica, New York, and represented 
 the Oneida district in Congress from 1819 to 1832, ex- 
 cept one term. It is stated that he had a ready and 
 powerful elocution, and as a debater attained the first 
 rank. He was an adherent of President Adams. He 
 died in the city of New York in 1837. 
 
 Storrs, (Richard Salter,) Junior, an American 
 Congregational divine, born at Braintree, Massachusetts, 
 in 1821. He became pastor of the Church of the Pil- 
 grims, Brooklyn, New York, in 1846, and in 1848 asso- 
 ciate editor of "The Independent," a religious journal 
 published in that city. He has published a number of 
 sermons and orations, and " Lectures on the Wisdom, 
 Power, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Con- 
 stitution of the Human Soul." 
 
 Storrs, (William Lucius,) an American jurist, bom 
 in Middletown, Connecticut, in 1795, was a brother of 
 Henry R. Storrs, noticed above. He was elected a 
 member of Congress in 1829, in 1831, and in 1839. He 
 became a judge of the supreme court of Connecticut 
 about 1840, and chief justice of the same in 1856. 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 Sto'rjf, (Joseph,) an eminent American jurist, bom 
 in Marblehead, Massachusetts, on the 18th of Septem- 
 ber, 1779, was a son of Elisha Story, a physician. He 
 graduated in 1798 at Harvard College, where William 
 E. Channing was his classmate. He studied law under 
 Samuel Sewall and Judge Putnam, was admitted to the 
 bar in 1801, and began to practise at Salem. In 1802 
 he produced a didactic poem called " The Power of 
 Solitude," which was reprinted with several short poems 
 in 1804. He then ceased to cultivate his poetical talents, 
 and devoted himself with great assiduity to legal sci- 
 ence, in which he became profoundly versed. He was 
 elected to the legislature of Massachusetts in 1805, be- 
 gan his political life as a Democrat, and was chosen a 
 member of Congress in 1808. He acquired a high repu- 
 tation as a debater. In 1809 or 1810 he advocated the 
 repeal of the embargo, and became an opponent of Jef- 
 ferson on that question. He declined to be a candidate 
 for Congress in 1810, was Speaker of the House of 
 Representatives of Massachusetts in 181 1, and was ap- 
 pointed a justice of the supreme court of the United 
 States by President Madison in November of that year. 
 So young a man had never before, in America or Eng- 
 land, been appointed to so high a judicial position. He 
 continued to occupy that office for thirty-four years. He 
 was a member of the convention which revised the 
 constitution of Massachusetts in 1820. In 1829 he ac- 
 cepted a chair of law founded in Harvard College by 
 Nathan Dane. He delivered courses of lectures on the 
 law of nature, the laws of nations, maritime and com- 
 mercial law, federal equity, and the constitutional law of 
 the United States. He acquired a European reputa- 
 tion by the publication of a series of works, — viz., " Com- 
 mentaries on the Constitution of the United Slates," 
 (1833,) "Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws," (3 
 vols., 1834,) regarded by some critics as the most origi- 
 nal and profound of his writings, "Commentaries on 
 Equity Jurisprudence," (1836,) and a "Treatise on the 
 Law of Agency," (1839.) His judgments in the supreme 
 court may be found in the Reports of Cranch, Whealon, 
 Peters, and Howard. His principal literary writings are 
 contained in a collection of his discourses, reviews, and 
 miscellanies, published in 1835. " I think all the treatises 
 of Story," says Chancellor Kent, "are on the whole the 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as •; th as in this. ( J^""See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STORT 
 
 Z070 
 
 STOWE 
 
 most finished and perfect of their kind to be met with in 
 any language, foreign or domestic ; and for learning, in- 
 dustry, and talent, he is the most extraordinary jurist of 
 the age." The Earl of Carlisle (formerly Lord Morpeth) 
 speaks of Story as one "whose reputation and authority 
 as a commentator and expounder of law stand high wher- 
 ever law is known or honoured, and who was, what at 
 least is more generally attractive, one of the most gener- 
 ous and single-hearted of men." He was endowed with 
 extraordinary conversational powers, which rendered him 
 a great favourite in society. His constitutional doctrines 
 were similar to those of Marshall and the Federalists. 
 He was a member of the Unitarian Church. Died at 
 Cambridge on the 10th of September, 1845. He left one 
 daughter, who was married to George W. Curtis. 
 
 Judge Story's works are more voluminous than those 
 of any other lawyer of great eminence. His commen- 
 taries and his written judgments in his own circuit 
 occupy twenty-seven volumes, and his judgments in the 
 supreme court form an important part of thirty-four 
 volumes more. 
 
 See a '* Life of Joseph Story," by his son, William W. Stoky, 
 2 vols., 1851 : Griswold, " Prose Writers of America ;" M National 
 Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. iii. ; " Edinburgh 
 Review" for October, 1852; " London Quarterly Review" for Janu- 
 ary, 1853; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors. 
 
 Sto'ry, (Robert,) a British lyric poet, born in North- 
 umberland about 1790, was minister at Roseneath or 
 Rosneath. Died in 1859. 
 
 See R. H. Story, " Memoir of the Life of Robert Story," 1862. 
 
 Story, (Thomas,) born in Cumberland about 1666, 
 was an eminent minister of the Society of Friends. He 
 visited the United States in 1698. Died in 1742. 
 
 See"Journal of the Life of Thomas Story," etc., 1747; and an 
 abridgment of the same in " Friends' Library," vol. x. ; J. Kendall, 
 " Life of T. Story," 1801. 
 
 Story, (William Wetmore,) a lawyer and sculptor, 
 a son of Chief-Justice Story, was born at Salem, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in February, 1819. He graduated at Har- 
 vard College in 1838, studied law, and was admitted to 
 the Boston bar. He published a "Treatise on the 
 Law of Contracts," (1844,) a volume of Poems, (1847,) 
 and a " Life of Joseph Story," (his father,) (1851.) He 
 afterwards studied sculpture at Rome, where he passed 
 manv years. He published a second volume of Poems 
 in 1865. 
 
 Stosch, von, fon stosh, (Phii.ipp,) Baron, a German 
 diplomatist and amateur, born at Kiistrin in 1691, resided 
 several years in Rome and Florence, and made a large 
 and choice collection of works of art. He published 
 "Gemmae antiquae Sculptorum imaginibus insignitae," 
 (2 vols., 1724.) A catalogue was published by Winckel- 
 niann in 1760, entitled "Description of the Engraved 
 Gems of the Late Baron Stosch," (in French.) Died 
 in 1757. 
 
 See Lenz, " Historische Abhandlung von dem Gen. von Stosch," 
 1751 ; Sax, "Onomasticon ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Gene>ale." 
 
 Stoss, stos, (VeiT,) one of the most distinguished of 
 the early German sculptors, was bom at Nuremberg in 
 1490 ; died in 1542. 
 
 Stoth'ard, (Charles Alfred,) an English painter 
 and designer, born in London in 1786, was a son of 
 Thomas Stothard, noticed below. Having been ap- 
 pointed historical draughtsman to the Society of An- 
 tiquaries in 1815, he visited France, where he made 
 drawings of the Bayeux tapestry. After his return, he 
 published in the " Archaeologia" a treatise proving the 
 tapestry to be coeval with the Norman Conquest. He 
 brought out in 1820 the ninth part of his "Monumental 
 Effigies of Great Britain," which was very favourably 
 received. He was killed by a fall in 1821, and his last- 
 named work was completed by his widow, afterwards 
 Mrs. Bray. 
 
 See "Memoirs of C. A. Stothard," by Mrs. Bray. 
 
 Stothard, (Thomas,) an English artist, born at Long- 
 acre in 1755. He studied at the Royal Academy, of 
 which he was elected an Associate in 1785, and in 1794 
 an Academician. Among his best works are his designs 
 for Rogers's " Poems," Boydeli's " Shakspeare," anil 
 "The Canterbury Pilgrims." Died in 1834. 
 
 See Mrs. Bray, "Life of Thomas Stothard," 1851 ; "Black- 
 wood's Magazine" for May and June, 1836. 
 
 Stouf, stoof, (Jean Baptiste,) a French sculptor, 
 born in Paris in 1742. He was a member of the Insti- 
 tute. Died in 1826. 
 
 Stourdza. See Stoordza. 
 
 Stow, (Baron,) D.D., an American Baptist divine, 
 born in Sullivan county, New Hampshire, in 1801. He 
 published " Daily Manna for Christian Pilgrims," (1848,) 
 "Question-Book of Christian Doctrine," and other re- 
 ligious works. 
 
 Stow, (John,) an English antiquary, born in London 
 in 1525. He was the author of a "Summary of the 
 Chronicles of England," afterwards enlarged, and pub- 
 lished under the title of " Flores Historiarum; or, An- 
 nals of this Kingdom from the Time of the Ancient 
 Britons to his Own," (1600,) and a " Survey of London." 
 He died in 1605, leaving materials for a "Chronicle 
 of England," subsequently published, with additions, by 
 Edmund Howes. In the latter part of his life Stow 
 was reduced to great indigence, and lettets-patent were 
 granted him by James I., permitting him to collect 
 gratuities throughout the country and in the churches. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica;" Strype, "Life of Stow," prefixed 
 to his works. 
 
 Stowe.sto, (Calvin Ellis,) D.D., an American divine 
 and scholar, born at Natick, Massachusetts, in 1812. 
 He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1824, became pro- 
 fessor of languages at Dartmouth College in 1830, and in 
 1833 professor of biblical literature at Lane Seminary, 
 Cincinnati, Ohio. Having visited Europe in 1836, he 
 published, after his return, a report on " Elementary 
 Education in Europe." He was appointed in 1852 
 professor of sacred literature in Andover Theological 
 Seminary. 
 
 Stowe, (Mrs. Harriet Beecher,) one of the most 
 distinguished of American authors, was born at Litch- 
 field, Connecticut, on the 14th of June, 1812. She was 
 the third daughter and sixth child of the celebrated 
 Lyman Beecher. Her mother, whose maiden-name 
 was Roxana Foote, was a granddaughter of General 
 Ward, who served under Washington in the Revolu- 
 tionary war. When Harriet was not yet four years old, 
 her mother died ; but the memory of her spirit and ex- 
 ample appears to have had no little influence in moulding 
 the character of her gifted daughter. After about two 
 years, Mr. Beecher married, as his second wife, Harriet 
 Porter, of Maine. The new step-mother, writing soon 
 after to her friends, said, " Harriet and Henry . . . are 
 as lovely children as I ever saw, — amiable, affectionate, 
 and very bright." While still a child, Harriet was pas- 
 sionately fond of books ; among those in which she 
 took especial delight were Scott's novels, the "Arabian 
 Nights," and " Don Quixote." When at Mr. Brace's 
 school in Litchfield, between the ages of nine and twelve, 
 she was deeply interested in hearing him converse on his- 
 tory and moral philosophy. Before she had completed 
 her twelfth year, she wrote a composition on the ques- 
 tion, "Can the immortality of the soul be proved by the 
 light of nature r" maintaining the negative. At an exhi- 
 bition in the school, the compositions were read aloud 
 before " the literati of Litchfield." When hers came to 
 be read, she noticed that her father, " who was sitting on 
 high by Mr. Brace, brightened and looked interested." 
 To Mr. Beecher's question, "Who wrote that?" the 
 reply was, "Your daughter, sir." That, she tells us, 
 "was the proudest moment of her life." At the age 
 of thirteen she became a pupil of her sister Catherine, 
 then principal of the Female Seminary at Hartford, in 
 which institution she remained several years. Her 
 father having in 1832 been elected president of Lane 
 Seminary at Cincinnati, Ohio, she accompanied him 
 thither. In 1836 she was married to Professor Calvin 
 E. Stowe, (see preceding article.) A charming sketch 
 entitled "Uncle Tim," written in 1834, and afterwards 
 published in "The Mayflower," first attracted public 
 attention to her as a writer of rare promise. In 1850 she 
 accompanied her husband, who had been appointed to a 
 professorship in Bowdoin College, to Brunswick. Maine. 
 While here, she wrote her novel of "Uncle Tom's 
 Cabin," furnished to the "National Era" (published at 
 Washington) in weekly contributions. The success of 
 this work has been without a parallel in the history of 
 
 5. e. i, 5, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nftt; good; moot:; 
 
STOW ELL 
 
 2071 
 
 STRAFFORD 
 
 literature. It is said that nearly half a million have 
 been sold in the United States, and probably more than 
 that number have been distributed in the British do- 
 minions, the work there not being protected bv copy- 
 right. Add to this that it has been translated into all 
 the principal Kuropean and into several Asiatic lan- 
 guages, intituling, it is said, the Chinese and Japanese. 
 Two different translations of it have been made into 
 Russian, three into the Magyar language, and thirteen or 
 fourteen into Gerraan. In 1853 Mrs. Stowe visited Eng- 
 land and the European continent, and on her return gave 
 to the world her " .Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands," 
 (2 vols., 1854.) "Dred, a Tale of the Dismal Swamp," 
 appeared in' 1856; "The Minister's Wooing," a tale of 
 New England life, (1 vol. 121110,) in 1859,'first published 
 in the "Atlantic Monthly," in which appeared also "The 
 Pearl of Oi r's Island," and " Agnes of Sorrento," (gener- 
 ally regarded as inferior to her other works of fiction.) 
 I ler " Men of our Times," a biographical work, came out 
 in 1868. In 1869 appeared her "Oldtown Folks," pre- 
 senting, among other things, a masterly picture of the 
 phases of religious thought and feeling in New Eng- 
 land in the last century. In 1868 there was published 
 in London a book entitled "My Recollections of Lord 
 Byron, and those of Eye- Witnesses of his Life," (with- 
 out a name, but supposed to have been written by the 
 Countess Guiccioli,) which contained some very severe 
 reflections on the character of the late Lady Byron. 
 Partly in reply to these, Mrs. Stowe wrote the "True 
 Story of Lord Byron's Life," published in September, 
 1869, in the " Atlantic Monthly," Boston, and " Macmil- 
 lan's Magazine," London. This was severely criticised 
 in several European and American journals. " As an 
 impartial chronicler," says Dr. Allibone, "it is proper 
 to state that we know of no instance of such sweeping 
 censure — of such general, almost universal, condemna- 
 tion — as that with which Mrs. Stowe 's alleged offence was 
 visited; and this equally by the few who believed as 
 by the many who disbelieved her story." Mrs. Stowe 
 replied to her critics in a small volume entitled "Lady 
 Byron Vindicated," (December, 1869.) 
 
 See the interesting notice of Harriet Beecher Stowe in the " Emi- 
 nent Women of the Age," (by ihe Rev. E. P. Parker ;) Allibone, 
 " Dictionary of Authors ;" " New American Cyclopaedia. M 
 
 Stow'ell, (HUGH,) an English theologian and writer, 
 bom in the Isle of Man in 1 799. He took orders in 
 the Anglican Church, and preached at Salford. He 
 published numerous religious works. Died in 1865. 
 
 See J. H. Marsuen, "Life of Hugh Stowell," 1866. 
 
 Stowell, (William Scott,) Baron, an English 
 judge, born near Newcastle in 1745, was a brother 
 of Lord Eldon. He was educated at Oxford, where he 
 became Camden reader of ancient history. He passed 
 about eighteen years at Oxford, (1761-79.) About 1778 
 he was elected a member of the famous Literary Club, 
 and became a friend of Dr. Johnson. He was called to 
 the bar in 1780, and practised in the ecclesiastical courts 
 and high court of admiralty. He was more distinguished 
 for learning than for oratorical talents. In 1788 he was 
 appointed a judge of the consistory court, advocate- 
 general, and privy councillor. He was elected a mem- 
 ber of Parliament in 1790, and became judge of the high 
 court of admiralty in 1798. He represented the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford in Parliament from 1801 till 1821, and 
 constantly supported the Tory party. He was raised to 
 the peerage, as Baron Stowell, in 1821. Lord Stowell 
 is regarded as a high authority for ecclesiastical and 
 international law. Died in 1836. 
 
 See the " British Quarterly Review" for November, 1849; Lord 
 BXOUGHAM, " Statesmen of the Time of George III. ;" W. E. Sur- 
 tkks, " Lives of Lords Slowell and Eldon," 1846. 
 
 Stra'bo, [Gr. iTpuSuv ; Fr. Strabon, sIrI'Iion',] an 
 eminent Greek geographer, born at Amasia, in Pontus, 
 about 60 B.C. He studied under Aristodemus, Tvran- 
 nio, and Xenarchus the Peripatetic, and in philosophy 
 adopted the doctrines of the Stoics. He also pursued 
 his education by extensive journeys in Egypt, Greece, 
 Asia Minor, and Italy, lie passed a number of years at 
 Rome, and devoted much time to the composition of a 
 work on geography which he designed to lie attractive 
 in form and adapted to general use. To the descriptions 
 
 of countries he added notices of the customs and former 
 history of the people, enlivened by the anecdotes, tra- 
 ditions, and comparisons which give interest to positive 
 geography. His work is highly prized as an animated, 
 broadly conceived, and skilfully executed picture of the 
 world as known to the ancients. He is rather deficient 
 in the department of physical geography. Died about 
 24 A.D. 
 
 See Sihbei.is, " De Strabonis Patria, Genere. iEtate," etc., 1828 ; 
 Meinecke, "Vindicia? Sttabonianae," 1852 ; Vossius, "De His- 
 toricis Grarcis;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graca;" " Nouveile 
 Uiographie GeneVale." 
 
 Stra'bo, (Caius Fannius,) a Roman orator, was 
 consul in 122 B.C. He made a famous speech against 
 C. Gracchus on the subject of giving the franchise to 
 the Latins. 
 
 Strabo, (Caius Fannius,) a Roman historian, was 
 a son-in-law of Laslius. He distinguished himself at 
 the capture of Carthage, 146 B.C. He wrote a work on 
 Roman history, which is lost. 
 
 Strabon. See Strabo. 
 
 Strack, stRak, (Johann Heinrich,) a German 
 architect, and professor in the Academy at Berlin, was 
 born at Biickeburg in 1806. Among his best works 
 are the castle of Fredericksborg, built for the King of 
 Denmark, and Peter's Church (Petrikirche) at Berlin. 
 
 Strada, stua'da, (Famiano,) [Lat. Famia'nus,] an 
 Italian Jesuit and historian, born at Rome in 1572, was 
 professor of rhetoric in the Gregorian College in that 
 city. His principal work is entitled " De Bello Belgico 
 ab.Excessu Carli V. ad Annum 1590," or a history of 
 the revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, (2 vols., 
 1632-47.) He also wrote Latin essays, entitled " Pro- 
 lusiones," (1617,) being commentaries on the classics 
 and ancient literature. Died in 1649. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, "Storiadella Letteratura Italiana." 
 
 Strada or Stradano, stRa-da'no, called also Stra- 
 dan, [Lat. Strada'nus ; Fr. Stradan, stRi'dON', |(Jan,) 
 a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Bruges in 1536. 
 He studied in Italy, where he was patronized by the 
 Duke of Tuscany, Cosimo I. Among his master-pieces 
 we may name his "Crucifixion," in the Church of the 
 Annunciation at Bruges. He also excelled in painting 
 animals, hunting-scenes, etc. Died in 1605. 
 
 Strada, di, de stRa'da, (Jacopo,) an Italian anti- 
 quary, born at Mantua about 1 5 1 5, was an expert con- 
 noisseur of art. He published, besides other works, 
 " Epitome Thesauri Antiquitatuni, hoc est Imperatorum 
 Roniaiiorum Iconum," etc., (1553,) which treats of the 
 medals of the Roman emperors. Died in 1588. 
 
 Stradan or Stradano. See Strada. 
 
 Stradanus. See Strada. 
 
 Stradella, stRa-del'la, (Alessandro,) a celebrated 
 Italian composer, born at Naples in 1645. His oratorio 
 of "San Giovanni Battista" is greatly admired; and he 
 produced a number of cantatas, duets, etc. of remarkable 
 beauty. He was assassinated about 1678 by the lover 
 of a Venetian lady whom he had seduced. 
 
 Stradivarius, stRa-de-va're-ooss, (Antonio,) an 
 Italian maker of stringed instruments, born at Cremona 
 about 1670 ; died about 1735. 
 
 Straeten, van der, yln der stRa'ten, sometimes 
 written Streten, (Hendkik,) a Dutch landscape-painter, 
 born about 1665 or 1680. He worked in England. 
 
 Strafford, (George Stevens Byng,) Earl of, an 
 English peer, was born in 1806. He was a Liberal 
 member of the House of Commons from 1831 to 1852, 
 and held several high civil offices. In i860 he succeeded 
 to the earldom. 
 
 Strafford, (John Byng,) Earl of, a British general, 
 born in London about 1775, was the father of the pre- 
 ceding. He served with distinction as major-general 
 at the battles of Vitoria, Nivelle, and Orthez. He ob- 
 tained the rank of field-marshal. Died about i860. 
 
 Strafford, (Thomas Wentworth,) Earl of, an 
 English politician, born in London in April, 1593, was 
 the eldest son of Sir William Wentworth, from whom 
 he inherited a large estate. He was educated at Saint 
 John's College, Cambridge, and married in 161 1 a Miss 
 Clifford, a daughter of the Earl of Cumberland. In 
 1614 he was elected to Parliament for Yorkshire, which 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( Jr^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ST RAH AN 
 
 2072 
 
 STRATON 
 
 he also represented in that which met in 1621. His 
 wife having died in 1622, he married Arabella Holhs, a 
 daughter of the Earl of Clare. He was appointed sheriff 
 of Yorkshire in 1625. In the Parliament which met in 
 1628, he acted with the popular party, and made able 
 speeches against the arbitrary measures of the court, 111 
 order, perhaps, to give the king a proper idea of the 
 value of his services. Before the end of the year he 
 was created a baron, and on the death of the Duke of 
 Buckingham (1628) he was appointed lord president 
 of the North, and privy councillor. He was a political 
 and personal friend of Archbishop Laud. He was am- 
 bitious, energetic, haughty, and unscrupulous. He de- 
 clared that he would " lay any man by the heels" who 
 should appeal from his sentence to the courts at West- 
 minster. In 1631 or 1632 he was appointed lord deputy 
 of Ireland, which he governed in a tyrannical manner. 
 His cruelty to Lord Mountmorris and others excited 
 great indignation. He directed his highest energies to 
 the formation of a standing army, and boasted that in 
 Ireland "the king was as absolute as any prince in the 
 whole world could be." (Letter to Laud, 1634.) He 
 was created Earl of Strafford in 1639 or 1640. 
 
 "He had been," says Macaulay, "one of the most dis- 
 tinguished members of the opposition, and felt towards 
 those whom he had deserted that peculiar malignity 
 whidi has in all ages been characteristic of apostates. 
 He perfectly understood the feelings, the resources, and 
 the policy of the party to which he had lately belonged, 
 and had formed a vast and deeply-meditated scheme, 
 which very nearly confounded even the able tactics ot 
 the statesmen by whom the House of Commons had 
 been directed. To this scheme, in his confidential cor- 
 respondence, he gave the expressive name of Thorough." 
 (" History of England," vol. i. p. 25.) His design was 
 to make the royal power as absolute in England as it 
 was in Ireland. The revolt of the Scotch, whom the 
 king foolishly provoked to fight for their religious rights, 
 interfered with the success of Strafford's scheme. He 
 was summoned to London by Charles I. in 1639, and 
 appointed general-in-chief in 1640; but before he could 
 join the army it was driven from the border by the 
 insurgents, and the war was ended by a treaty. The 
 Long Parliament, which met in November, 1640, im- 
 peached Strafford of high treason. He was accused of 
 an attempt " to subvert the fundamental laws of the 
 country." John Pym was the principal speaker against 
 him. (See Pym.) The Commons abandoned the im- 
 peachment and passed a bill of attainder by a large 
 majority, of whom Falkland was one. He was beheaded 
 in May, 1641. Two volumes of his "Letters and De- 
 spatches" have been published. 
 
 See George Radci.iffe, " Life of the Earl of Strafford ;" Hume, 
 " History of England ;" John Forstek, " Lives of Eminent British 
 Statesmen;" Macaui.av, Review of Lord Nugent's "Memorials 
 of Hampden;" Clarendon, "History of the Great Rebellion:" 
 Lai.lv-Toi.i.endai, " Essai snr la Vie du Coime de Strafford," 
 1795; Guizot, "Histoire de la Revolution d'Angleterre ;" " Bio- 
 graphia Britannica." 
 
 Strahan, strS'an, (William,) an eminent Scottish 
 printer, born in Edinburgh about 1715. He became 
 a resident of London, and was elected a member of 
 Parliament in 1775 Died in 1785. 
 
 StrabI, stR.ll, (Moriiz Hermann,) a German phy- 
 sician and writer, born at Glogau in 1800. He became 
 in 1842 Sanitatsrath in Berlin. Among his works is 
 " Der Mensch nach seiner leiblichen und geistigen 
 Natur," (1835-38.) 
 
 Strange, (Sir Robert,) an eminent Scottish engraver, 
 born in Pomona, one of the Orkney Islands, in 1721. He 
 studied under Le Bas in Paris, passed several years in 
 Italy, and settled in London, where he worked with great 
 success. Among his master-pieces are " Saint Jerome," 
 after Correggio, "Saint Cecilia," after Raphael, "The 
 Death of Dido," after Guercino, and " Venus Reclining," 
 after Titian. Died in 1792. 
 
 See J. Dennistoun, " Memoirs of Sir R. Strange and of his 
 Brother-in-Law A. Lumisden," 2 vols., 1854: Chambers "Bio- 
 graphical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" C. L. Brightwki.i, 
 " Annals of Industry and Genius," 1S63 ; " Eraser's Magazine" for 
 June. 1855. 
 
 Strang'ford, (Percy Clinton Sydney Smythe,) 
 Viscount, an Irish diplomatist and scholar, born in 
 
 1780. He graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, and 
 became successively British ambassador to Stockholm 
 in 1817, to Constantinople in 1820, and to Saint Peters- 
 burg in 1825. He was vice-president of the Society of 
 Antiquaries, and knight grand cross of the Hanoverian 
 Guelphic Order. He made a translation of the poems 
 of Camoens, which was commended by Lord Byron. 
 In 1825 he was raised to the peerage of the United 
 Kingdom, as Lord Penshurst. Died in 1855. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1805 ; " Monthly Re- 
 view" for September, 1804. 
 
 Strangford, (Percy Ellen Algernon Frederick 
 William Sydney Smythe,) Viscount, an Orientalist, 
 a son of the preceding, was bom in Saint Petersburg in 
 1825. His "Selected Writings; Political, Geographical, 
 and Social," were published in 2 vols., 1869. Died in 1869. 
 
 Straparola, stua-pa-ro'li, (Gian Francesco,) an 
 Italian writer of tales, was born at Caravaggio before 
 1500. He published " Piacevole Notte," (2 vols., 1550- 
 54,) often reprinted. Died after 1557. 
 
 Strat'ford, (Nicholas,) a learned English theolo- 
 gian, born in Hertfordshire in 1633. He became Dean 
 of Saint Asaph in 1673, and chaplain to the king. In 
 1689 he was appointed Bishop of Chester. He wrote 
 several works against popery. Died in 1707. 
 
 Strat'ford de Red'cllffe, (Stratford Canning,) 
 first Viscount, a cousin of George Canning, was born 
 in London in 1788. He studied ai King's College, Cam- 
 bridge, and in 1810 succeeded Mr. Robert Adair as 
 minister-plenipotentiary at Constantinople. He became 
 envoy-extraordinary and minister-plenipotentiary to the 
 United States in 1820, and in 1825 was again sent as 
 minister to Constantinople, where he exerted himself to 
 procure from the Sultan some alleviation of the oppres- 
 sion under which the Greeks were then suffering. His 
 appeals being unheeded, the chief European powers 
 determined upon coercive measures, and the battle of 
 Navarino, in 1827, decided the fate of Greece. Mr. 
 Canning was soon after elected to Parliament for Old 
 Sarum, and in 1829 was created knight grand cross of the 
 Bath. In 1841 he was a third time appointed minister 
 to Constantinople, having on a previous mission taken a 
 prominent part in defining the boundaries of Greece. In 
 this post he continued till 1858, when he returned to 
 England. Through his influence with the Sultan, he pro- 
 moted many reforms, among which are the abolition of 
 torture, and the establishment of political and religious 
 freedom for the Protestants in Turkey. 
 
 Strathnairn, Baron. See Rose, (Sir Hugh Henry.) 
 
 Stratico, stRl'te-ko, (Simone,) Count, a celebrated 
 mathematician, born at Zara, in Dalmatia, about 1730. 
 He became professor of navigation and mathematics at 
 Padua, and in 1801 filled the chair of navigation at I'avia. 
 In 1803 he was made a senator by Napoleon, who also 
 bestowed upon him the orders of the legion of honour 
 and the iron crown. He was the author of a " Marine 
 Vocabulary," and several works on hydraulics, navi- 
 gation, etc., which have a high reputation. He also 
 prepared, conjointly with Poleni, a valuable edition of 
 Vitruvius, published after the death of Stratico, which 
 took place in 1824. 
 
 Strato. See Straton. 
 
 Strat'o-cles, [SrparoK/lr/r,] an Athenian orator and 
 demagogue, lived about 325 B.C. He was a violent op- 
 ponent of Demosthenes. 
 
 Stra'ton [Gr. Ziyjaruv] or Stra'to, a Greek physi- 
 cian and medical writer, a pupil of Erasistratus, lived in 
 the third century B.C. 
 
 Straton (or Strato) of Lampsacus, [Fr Straton 
 DE Lamfsaque, strf't6.N' deh loMp'stk',] a Greek Peri- 
 patetic philosopher, born at Lampsacus, succeeded 
 Theophrastus as chief of the school about 288 B.C. He 
 was the preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphia. According 
 to some authorities, he taught that each particle of 
 matter has a principle of motion, or a plastic power. 
 
 See Ritter, " History of Philosophy;" Nauwekck, "De Stra- 
 tone Philosopho," 1836. 
 
 Straton (or Strato) of Sardis, a Greek epigram- 
 matic poet, who probably lived in the second century 
 of our era. He compiled an anthology of licentious 
 epigrams, many of which he composed. 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; mJt; nflt; good; moon; 
 
STRAT0N1CE 
 
 2073 
 
 STRICKLAND 
 
 Strat-o-ni'ce, [Gr. 'LrparovUrj,] a beautiful queen of 
 Syria, born about 316 B.C., was a daughter of Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes. She was married to Seleucus I. of Syria, 
 whose son, Antiochus I., became enamoured of her. 
 She had a daughter Stratonice, who was married to 
 Demetrius II. of Macedonia. Antiochus I. was the 
 father of the second Stratonice. 
 
 Strat'tis, [Srpurnc,] an Athenian comic poet of the 
 old comedy, nourished about 410-380 ii.c. His works 
 are lost. 
 
 Strauchius, stRow'Ke-us, (/Egidius,) a German Lu- 
 theran theologian and mathematician, bom at Wittenberg 
 in 1632, was the author of a " Breviarium Chronologicum" 
 and a number of controversial works. Died in 1682. 
 
 Strauss, stRowss, (David Frikdrich,) a German 
 rationalistic theologian, the author of what is termed the 
 "mythical theory" of interpreting the Gospels, was born 
 at Ludwigsburg, in Wurtemberg, in 1808. Me studied 
 theology at Tubingen. In 1832 he became assistant 
 teacher (repetent) in the Theological Institute of Tubin- 
 gen. He produced in 1835 his "Life of Jesus Critically 
 Treated," in which he attempts to prove that the New 
 Testament history is substantially a tissue of fables. He 
 was appointed professor of divinity at Zurich in 1839, but 
 (he hostility of the people to his doctrines was so loudly 
 expressed that his position there became untenable. 
 He published several other works, among which are 
 "The Christian Dogmatics considered in its Historical 
 Development and its Conflict with Modern Science," (2 
 vols., 1840-41,) and a " New Life of Jesus," (" Das Leben 
 Jesu : fur das Deutsche Volk bearbeitet," 1864.) 
 
 Strauss's idea of a God appears to be similar to that 
 of many other Hegelians, who regard the Deity not as a 
 conscious Being, but as an unconscious spirit or influ- 
 ence, or what might be termed a system of laws, mate- 
 rial and spiritual. This spirit first becomes conscious 
 in Humanity, which, according to Strauss and his fol- 
 lowers, is God manifest in the flesh. 
 
 "Thirty years ago," says the "London Quarterly 
 Review," "'The Life of Jesus' of Strauss startled the 
 world like a clap of thunder out of a calm sky. ... In 
 the name of criticism, he declared that the Gospels were 
 almost valueless as historical materials ; in the name of 
 science, he pronounced that miracles were impossible." 
 (See article on "The Life of our Lord," October, 1866.) 
 "The supposition that the healthiest, simplest, and 
 sanest form of religion the world has ever seen should 
 have taken its rise from such a hotbed of fatuity and 
 insanity as Strauss would have us believe, appears to 
 us to make greater demands by far upon our credulity 
 than the hypothesis it is invented to supersede." (See 
 " Edinburgh Review," article on " Strauss, Renan, and j 
 'Ecce Homo,'" October, 1866.) 
 
 " Strauss declined," says Dorner, in his able work 
 entitled " History of Protestant Theology," " the rude 
 method of combating Christianity in the style of the 
 ' Wolfenbuttel Fragments;' as he likewise covered with 
 ridicule the naturalistic explanations of the miracles 
 by Dr. Paulus. To the biblical supernaturalism which 
 sought to found the truth of Christianity upon inspira- 
 tion, miracles, and prophecy, he opposed the mythical 
 theory ; according to which, the portrait of Christ in 
 the Gospels was the product of tradition, of which the 
 historic element was obscure, determined in its unin- 
 tentional fabrication by Old Testament images, par- 
 ticularly the Messianic. Christ, however, to whom the 
 Messianic prediction! were transferred by the common 
 people, could not have been a supernatural phenomenon, 
 since a miracle includes an impossibility ; so also the 
 four Gospels could not have proceeded from apostles or 
 eyewitnesses, because, with their better knowledge, de- 
 signed fabrication must be imputed to them. He then 
 seeks for internal contradictions in the Gospels, in order 
 thereby to prove their unhistoric character. As, how- 
 ever, these contradictions do not extend to what is es- 
 sential, it is clear that they are not what really decided 
 him. He demands a historical criticism, free from pre- 
 assumptions,* and yet he makes (as we have seen) for 
 
 • The expression in the original is " eine voraussetzungslose his- 
 torische Kritik," that is, "a historical critique without pre-sup|M,si- 
 lious or pre assumptions." 
 
 his mythical theory a twofold pre-assumption, — the one 
 dogmatic,* the other historical. "t (See Dorner's " Ge- 
 schichte der protestantischen Theologie," p. 787.) 
 
 See " Straussiade in Zurich," 1840; " Nouvelle Biographic Gene- 
 rale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 183S; "British 
 Quarterly Review" for February, 1S47. 
 
 Strauss, (Frikdrich Adolf,) a Protestant minister, 
 a son of Gerhard Friedrich, noticed below, was born at 
 Elberfeld in 1817. Among his works we may name 
 "Sinai and Golgotha: Travels in the East," (1847,) 
 which has been translated into several languages. 
 
 Strauss, (GERHARD Frikdrich,) professor of the- 
 ology at Berlin, was born at Iserlohn in 1786. He 
 published a number of popular religious works, of which 
 we may name " Helon's Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, "(1820,) 
 and "The Baptism in Jordan," (1822.) 
 
 Strauss, (Johann,) a celebrated German composer, 
 born at Vitnna in 1804. .His works are principally 
 waltzes and other lively airs, in which department of 
 music he has never been surpassed. He was appointed 
 director of music for the court balls at Vienna. Died 
 in 1849. 
 
 Streat'er, (Robert,) an English painter, born in 
 1624. His landscapes and historical pictures were 
 highly esteemed by his contemporaries. Died in 1680. 
 
 Streckfuss, stReVfoos, (Adolf Frikdrich Karl,) 
 a German litterateur, born at Gera in 1779. He wrote 
 a number of poems and tales, and translated into Ger- 
 man Tasso's "Gerusaleninie Liberata," the "Orlando 
 Furioso" of Ariosto, and Dante's " Inferno," " Purga- 
 torio," and " Paradiso." Died in 1844. 
 
 Streek, van, vtn stRak, (Jurian,) a Flemish or 
 Dutch painter of still life, born at Amsterdam in 1632; 
 died in 1678. His son Henry, born in 1659, was a 
 painter of interiors of churches, etc. Died in 17 13. 
 
 Street, (Alfred Billings,) an American poet and 
 miscellaneous writer, born at Poughkeepsie in 181 1. 
 Among his principal works are " Frontenac," a poem, 
 "The Burning of Schenectady, and other Poems," 
 " Woods and Waters, or the Saranacs and Racket," an 
 account of the forests of Northern New York, and "The 
 Council of Revision," (in prose.) He practised law in 
 Albany, to which he removed in 1839. 
 
 See R. W. Griswold, "Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Streight, strat, (Abel D.,) Colonel, an American 
 officer, was a resident of Indiana. He commanded a 
 party of 1800 cavalry sent from Tennessee on a faid 
 into Northern Georgia in April, 1863. He was cap- 
 tured near Rome, and confined in a prison at Richmond, 
 from which he escaped in February, 1864. He was killed 
 at Dalton, Georgia, in August, 1864. 
 
 Strein, stKln, or Strin'I-us, (Richard,) a German 
 baron and antiquary, born in Austria in 1538, was libra- 
 rian to the Emperor of Germany. Died in 1600 or 1601. 
 
 Stremcmius. See Austrkmoink. 
 
 Streten. See Stkaetkn. 
 
 Strick van Linschoten, strik vtn lins'Ko'ten, 
 BASON, a Dutch poet, born at Utrecht in 1769. He 
 was appointed in 1795 ambassador to the court of Wiir- 
 temberg. Died in 1819. 
 
 Strick'land, (Agnes,) an English historical writer, 
 born in Suffolk in 1806. Among her numerous works 
 are "Lives of the Queens of England, from the Nor- 
 man Conquest," etc., (12 vols., with portraits, 1849,) 
 " Lives of the Queens of Scotland and English Prin- 
 cesses connected with the Regal Succession of Great 
 Britain," (6 vols. 8vo, 1850,) both written conjointly with 
 her sister Elizabeth, "The Pilgrims of Walsingham, or 
 Tales of the Middle Ages," (1835,) "Worcester Field, 
 or the Cavalier; a Poem, in Four Cantos," and "Tales 
 and Stories from History," (1836.) She brought out in 
 
 • In assuming that a miracle is impossible. 
 
 t In rejecting the histtirica! character of the Gospels: not on 
 account ol the minute discrepancies found in them, — but evidently 
 from a predetermination to make out his mythical theory at whatever 
 cost. For if the minute discrepancies, not essentially affecting the 
 main narrative, destroy the historical character of tin- Gospels, simi- 
 lar or greater discrepancies would overthrow Al.l. history, ancient and 
 modern. 'A great historical critic, who will scarcely be accused of 
 any tendency to credulity, took a very different view of the Gospel 
 narratives. (See the article on Nikuumk the historian, in this 
 work.) 
 
 k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 € as 
 
STRICKLAND 
 
 2074 
 
 STRONG 
 
 1842 " Letters of Mary Queen of Scots, now first pub- 
 lished from the Originals," etc. Miss Strickland's 
 productions have acquired an extensive popularity both 
 in Great Britain and America. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1849. 
 
 Strickland, (Catherine Parr,) sister of the pre- 
 ceding, was married to Lieutenant Trail, of the twenty- 
 first British Fusileers. Having settled in Canada, she 
 published "The Canadian Crusoes, a Tale of the Rice- 
 Lake Plains," and " The Backwoods of America, being 
 Letters from the Wife of an Emigrant Officer," etc. 
 
 Strickland, (Hugh Edwin,) an English naturalist, 
 born in Yorkshire in 181 1. He visited Asia Minor in 
 1835, and published, after his return, a treatise " On the 
 Geology of the Thracian Bosphorus," and other similar 
 works. He also wrote " Descriptions of New Species 
 of Birds from West Africa," and a volume " On the 
 Dodo and its Kindred, or th'e History and Affinities of 
 the Dodo, Solitaire, and other Extinct Birds," (1848.) 
 He was killed by a railroad-train in 1853. 
 
 Strickland, (Samuel,) a brother of Agnes, noticed 
 above, was born about 1810. He published "Twenty- 
 Seven Years in Canada West, or the Experience of an 
 Early Settler," (1853.) Died in 1867. 
 
 Strickland, (Susanna,) sister of Agnes Strickland, 
 was married to J. W. D. Moodie, of the British Fusi- 
 leers, and subsequently removed to Canada. She pub- 
 lished "Roughing it in the Bush, or Life in Canada," 
 (1852,) " Life in the Clearings," etc., and novels entitled 
 " Mark Hurdlestone" (1852) and " Flora Lindsay," (2 
 vols., 1854.) 
 
 Her sister, Jane Margaret, has published a work 
 entitled " Rome, Regal and Republican." 
 
 StrickTand, (William,) an eminent American ar- 
 chitect, boni in Philadelphia in 1787. He studied archi- 
 tecture under Latrobe. His first public work of any 
 importance was the old Masonic Hall in Chestnut 
 Street. This established his reputation as an architect, 
 and he was subsequently employed to prepare the 
 designs and superintend the erection of the United 
 States Bank, (now the Custom-House,) in Chestnut 
 Street, above Fourth, long regarded as the most mag- 
 nificent edifice in his native city. For many years he 
 was the architect of nearly all the most remarkable 
 public buildings in Philadelphia or its vicinity : we may 
 name, among others, the Merchants' Exchange, (near 
 Thfrd and Dock Streets,) the United States Mint, and 
 the United States Naval Asylum. In 1825 he was 
 appointed by the Franklin Institute commissioner to 
 visit England for the purpose of examining the canal 
 and railway systems of that country. On his return, he 
 was employed to superintend the construction of the rail- 
 road between Newcastle and Frenchtown, in Maryland, 
 which was one of the first passenger-railways made in 
 the United States. He was elected a member of the 
 Royal Society of Civil Engineers, and also a member 
 of the American Philosophical Society. His last and 
 perhaps greatest work was the Capitol at Nashville, 
 Tennessee, commenced in 1845 an d completed in 1857. 
 He died at Nashville, April 7, 1854 ; and, according to 
 a special act of the Tennessee legislature, his remains 
 were deposited in a vault under that magnificent edifice 
 wh : n.h may be said to have been the crowning glory of 
 his life. 
 
 Stxickland, (William P.,) D.D., an American 
 MethcJist divine, born at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in 
 1809. He has published a "History of the American 
 Bible S •ciety," " Genius and Mission of Methodism," 
 and other works. 
 
 StrigeL stRee'gel, [Lat. Strige'lius,) (Victorin,) a 
 German theologian, born in 1514, was a pupil of Mel- 
 anchthon. He was engaged in a controversy with 
 Flacius, and subsequently became a Calvinist. He 
 was professor at Leipsic and Heidelberg. Died in 1569. 
 
 See Wkissmann, "Historia Vita: V. Strigelii," 1732; J. K. T. 
 Otto. " De V. Slrigeiio liberioris mentis in Ecclesia Lutherana Vin- 
 dice," 1843. 
 
 Strigelius. See Strigel. 
 
 Stringham, string'am, (Silas H.,) an American 
 naval officer, born in Orange county, New York, about 
 1798. He obtained the rank of lieutenant in 1821. In 
 
 1846 he commanded the ship Ohio at the bombardment 
 of Vera Cruz. On the breaking out of the civil war 
 lie was appointed (about April, 1861) flag-officer of the 
 Atlantic blockading squadron. He commanded the 
 naval forces of the armament which captured Fort llat- 
 teras, August 29, 1861. He was appointed a rear-admiral 
 on the retired list, August I, 1862. 
 
 See J. T. Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867. 
 
 Strinius. See Strein. 
 
 Strinnholm, stRin'holm, (Anders Magnus,) a 
 Swedish historian, born hi the province of Westerbot- 
 ten in 1786. His principal work is entitled a "History 
 of Sweden from the Earliest to the Present Time, 
 (" Svenska Folkets Historia fran aldsta till narvarende 
 Tider," 1834.) In 1837 he became a member of the 
 Swedish Academy, and in 1845 of the Royal Academy 
 of Sciences. 
 
 Stritter, von, fon stRit'ter, (Johann Gotthilf,) a 
 German historian, born at Idstein in 1740, became a resi- 
 dent of Russia. He published a " History of the Russian 
 Empire," (in German, 2 vols., 1800.) Died in 1S01. 
 
 Strobel, stRo'bel, (Adam Walther,) a German 
 historian, born at Strasburg in 1792. His principal 
 work is a "History of Alsace," (6 vols., 1841,) which 
 was continued by Engelhardt. Died in 1850. 
 
 Stroctius. See Strozzi, (Palla.) 
 
 Stroemer. See StrOmer. 
 
 Strogonof or Stroganow, stRo'ga-nof, (Alex- 
 ander,) Count, a Russian nobleman, born in 1734, 
 was a distinguished patron of learning and the arts. He 
 was appointed a privy councillor of the first class, and 
 president of the Academy of Sciences at Saint Peters- 
 burg. Died in 181 r. 
 
 Strogonof, Stroganov, or Stroganow, (Alex- 
 ander,) Count, second son of Gregory, noticed below, 
 served against the Turks and Poles, and rose to be 
 successively minister of the interior, (1839,) member of 
 the imperial council at Saint Petersburg, and Governor- 
 General of New Russia, (1855.) 
 
 Strogonof, (Gregory,) a Russian diplomatist, born 
 at Moscow in 1770, was successively employed in mis- 
 sions to Madrid, Stockholm, and Constantinople, (1821.) 
 In 1838 he was sent as ambassador-extraordinary to 
 England on the occasion of the coronation of Queen 
 Victoria. He was created high chamberlain in 1846. 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Strogonof, (Karl Sergei,) a general, the eldest 
 son of the preceding, was born about 1800, filled several 
 high offices under the government, and attained the 
 dignity of senator. He published a number of treatises 
 on Russian antiquities. Died in 1857. 
 
 Strogonof, (Paul,) Count, a Russian general, a son 
 of Alexander, (1734-1811,) was bom about 1774. He 
 was a friend and adviser of the Czar Alexander. Died 
 in 1817. His wife, Soi'HiE Gallitsin, was distinguished 
 for her talents. 
 
 Strombeck, von, fonstRom'Wk, (Friedrich Karl,) 
 a German jurist and litterateur, born at Brunswick in 
 1771. He published a number of legal and miscel- 
 laneous works, and made translations from Tacitus, 
 Sallust, and other classics. Died in 1848. 
 
 His brother, Friedrich Heinrich, was also a distin- 
 guished jurist. Died in 1832. 
 
 See F. K. von Stromueck, " Darstellungen aus meinem Leben," 
 2 vols., 1835. 
 
 Stromer or Stroemer, stRo'mer, (Martin,) a Swed- 
 ish savant, born at Upsal in 1707, succeeded Celsius 
 as professor of astronomy in that city. He translated 
 Euclid's "Elements" into Swedish. Died in 1770. 
 
 Stromeyer, stRo'ml'er, (Gforg Friedrich Louis,) 
 a German surgeon, born at Hanover in 1804, became 
 successively professor at Erlangen, Munich, and Frei- 
 burg. He published several works on surgery. 
 
 Strong, (Caleb,) an American statesman, born at 
 Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1745. He was elected 
 to the United States Senate in 1789 and in 1793, and 
 became Governor of the State in 1800, which office he 
 continued to fill for ten years. Died in 1819. 
 
 Strong, (James,) an American theologian and scholar, 
 born at New York in 1822. He published a "Har- 
 mony and Exposition of the Gospels," (1852,) a "Greek 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
STRONG 
 
 2075 
 
 STR UENSEE 
 
 Harmony of the Gospels," (1854,) and has contributed 
 numerous articles to the "Methodist Quarterly Review." 
 He was appointed in 1858 professor of biblical literature 
 and acting president of the Troy University. In con- 
 junction with the late Dr. McClintock, he published a 
 valuable work entitled " Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Ecclesi- 
 astical, and Theological Literature," (6 vols., 1867 et seg.) 
 
 Strong, (Nathan,) an American clergyman, born in 
 Connecticut in 1748. He preached at Hartford, and 
 published numerous sermons. Died in 1816. 
 
 Strong'bow, the surname of Richard de Clare, Earl 
 of Pembroke, an English warrior, distinguished for his 
 victories over the Irish. Died in 11 76. 
 
 Stroth, stK5t, (Erikdrich ANDREAS,) a German 
 scholar, born in Pomerania in 1750. He published 
 several classical works. Died in 1795 or 1785. 
 
 Strozzi, stRot'see, (BERNARDO,) surnamed 11. Capuc- 
 CIN ), or "The Genoese Priest," an eminent Italian 
 painter, born at Genoa in 1 5S1. His" Virgin and Child" 
 is esteemed his master-piece. He painted many easel- 
 pictures, and was an excellent colorist. Died in 1644. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Soprani, "Pittori 
 Genovesi." 
 
 Strozzi, (Ciriaco, che-ree'a-ko,) an Italian philoso- 
 pher, born near Florence in 1504. He wrote a sup- 
 plement to Aristotle's work " De Republica," (1562.) 
 Died in 1565. 
 
 See Papike Masson, "Vita Kyriaci Strozse," 1604. 
 
 Strozzi, (Ercole,) an Italian poet, a son of Tito 
 Vespasiano, noticed below, was born at Ferrara in 1471. 
 He was the author of Latin and Italian poems, which 
 were highly esteemed by his contemporaries. He was 
 assassinated in 1508 by some person unknown. 
 
 See Paolo Giovio, "Elogio;" Ginguknk, "Histoire Litteraire 
 d'ltaiie." 
 
 Strozzi, (FlLIPPO.) an opulent Florentine merchant, 
 noted for his generosity, was born in 1426. He built 
 the magnificent Palazzo Strozzi at Florence, which is 
 still standing. Died in 1491. 
 
 Strozzi, (Fii.ippo,) a Florentine statesman, born in 
 1488, was a son of the preceding. Though connected 
 with the Medici by his marriage with Clarice, niece of 
 Leo X., he exerted himself to deprive that family of the 
 chief power in Florence. After the murder of the duke 
 Alexander de' Medici, and the election of Cosimo as his 
 successor, Strozzi became one of the leaders of an army 
 of French and Italia 1 mercenaries, and marched against 
 the troops of Cosimo, who was assisted by the soldiers 
 of Charles V. The insurgents were signally defeated, 
 (1537,) and Strozzi ivas made prisoner, and confined for 
 a year in a fortress, where he committed suicide in 1538. 
 
 See LoKRNZO Strozzi, " Vie de P. Strozzi," (translated from the 
 Italian by RsQUISR,) 1762; G. B. Nkouni, "Vita di F. Sln>//.i," 
 1847 ; " Vita di K. Strozzi, scritta da Lorenzo Strozzi suo Figiio," 
 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographic Gthierale." 
 
 Strozzi, (Fii.ippo,) a commander, born at Venice in 
 1541, was a grandson of the preceding, and a son of 
 Piero, noticed below. He served with distinction atrainst 
 the French Huguenots in the civil wars which began 
 about 1562, and was appointed in 1581 lieutenant-general 
 of the naval army by Henry III. He was killed in a 
 naval action against the Spaniards in 1582. 
 
 See Xokxav, "Vie de P. Strozzi," 1608; Davii.a, "History of 
 the Civil Wars of France." 
 
 Strozzi, (Fkancksco di Soldo — de sol'do,) an Ital- 
 ian scholar, who translated Thucydides, and Xenophon's 
 " History of Greece," into Italian, (1550.) 
 
 Strozzi, (Giamiiati tst'a,) an Italian scholar and 
 writer, born at Florence in 1551, was a nephew of Piero, 
 noticed below. He was conspicuous for his generous 
 patronage of learning, and was the author of several 
 works, in prose and verse. Died in 1634. 
 
 Strozzi, (Giulio,) a Venetian poet, born about 1583, 
 resided at Rome, where he became papal prothono- 
 tary. He was the author of "The Building of Venice," 
 (" Venezia Edificata,") an epic poem, and other works. 
 Died in 1660. 
 
 Strozzi, (LEONE.) a naval officer, born at Florence 
 in 1 5 1 5 , was a son of PiKppo Strozzi, (1488-1538.) He 
 obtained command of a French fleet about 1550, and 
 
 was opposed to Andrew Doria in the Mediterraneaa 
 Died in 1554. 
 
 Strozzi, (Niccot.6,) an Italian writer, was the author 
 of idyls, sonnets, etc., and tragedies entitled " Conradus" 
 and "David of Trebizond." Died in 1654, 
 
 Strozzi, [Lat. Stroc'ttus,] (Palla,) an Italian di- 
 plomatist and scholar, born at Florence in 1372. He 
 was a liberal patron of literature, and devoted his large 
 fortune to the promotion of classical studies, employing 
 in his house many copyists to transcribe ancient manu- 
 scripts. He also founded several chairs in the Univer- 
 sity of Florence. Having opposed the Medici, he was 
 banished about 1434, and settled at Padua. Died in 1462. 
 
 See Angelo Farkoni, "P. Stroctii Vita," 1802; /Eneas Syl- 
 vius, " Connnentarii." 
 
 Strozzi, (Piero,) an able general, a son of Filippo 
 Strozzi, ( 1488—1538,) was born in 1500, and entered the 
 French army after the death of his father. In 1553 he was 
 sent to the defence of Sienna, then besieged by Cosimo 
 I. ; but, having imprudently invaded Tuscany, he was 
 defeated bv the Marcpiis of Marignano, near Lucignano, 
 in 1554- rle was afterwards charged by the pope, Paul 
 IV., with the defence of Rome against the Duke of Alva. 
 In 1558 he assisted the Duke of Guise in the capture of 
 Calais, but he was killed the same year at the siege of 
 Thionville. He had been created marshal of France by 
 Henry 1 1, about 1555. 
 
 See Brantome, "Vies des Capitaines Grangers:" Varciii, 
 " Storia Fiorentina ;" De Courcei.i.es, " Dictionnaire des Gene>aux 
 Francais ;" F. Trucchi, " Vita e Geste di P. Strozzi," 1847 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Strozzi, (Pietro,) an Italian scholar, born at Flor- 
 ence about 1575, was professor of philosophy at Pisa. 
 He published a work on the Nestorians, entitled " De 
 Origins et Dogmatibus Chaldjeornm, sive hodiernorum 
 Nestorianorum," (1617.) Died about 1640. 
 
 Strozzi, (Tito Vespasiano,) an Italian scholar and 
 poet, born at Ferrara about 1422. He was the author 
 of Latin lyrics, satires, and epigrams. He became 
 president of the supreme council of Ferrara in 1485. 
 Died about 1508. 
 
 Strudel or Strudell.stnoo'del, (Peter.) a historical 
 painter, born in the Tyrol in 1680, or, as some say, in 
 1660. He worked in Vienna, and was patronized by 
 the emperor Leopold. Died in 1717. 
 
 Struensee, stuoo'en-za', (Adam,) a German theo- 
 logian, born at Brandenburg in 1708. He preached at 
 Halle, and became superintendent or bishop of Sles- 
 wick and Holstein in 1761. He wrote several religious 
 works. Died in 1 791. 
 
 Struensee, von, fon stRoo'en-za', (Johann Fried- 
 rich,) Count, a minister of state, born at Halle in 1737, 
 was a son of the preceding. He studied medicine, and 
 practised with success at Altona. His habits are said 
 to have been licentious. In 1768 he became physician 
 to Christian VII. of Denmark, whom he attended in a 
 tour through Germany, France, and England. He in- 
 sinuated himself into the favour of Christian VI!., and 
 of his queen, Caroline Matilda, a sister of George III. 
 of England. His talents and ambition enabled him to 
 gain an ascendency over the king, who was a man of 
 feeble character. He was aided in his ambitious projects 
 by his friend Brandt, and by the queen. He procured 
 the removal of Count Bernstorff in 1770, and became 
 prima minister. He made many innovations in political 
 affairs, some of which were beneficial ; but he offended 
 the people by his preference of the German to the Danish 
 language. Prince Frederick and others formed a con- 
 spiracy against Struensee, who was arrested, tried, and 
 put to death in April, 1772. 
 
 See Fai.kf.nsktoi.d, " Memoirs of Struensee," (in German,) 1788; 
 J. fv. Host, "Struensee og hans Ministeriiim," 3 vols,, 1X24; J. 
 Gikssino, "Struensee," 1S4S : Rkvhrdh.. " Struensee a la Cour de 
 Copefthague,** 185S; " Authentic Elucidation of the History of 
 Struensee and Brandt ;" Dr. Muntp.r, " Narrative of the Conversion 
 and Death of Count Struensee;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate:* 1 
 "Edinburgh Review" for September. iSjli, ;irtiele " Danish Revo- 
 lutions under Count Struensee," (by Sir Ja.mks Mackintosh.) 
 
 Struensee, von, (Kari. Aiku'.st,) brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Halle in 1735. He became in 
 1757 professor of philosophy and mathematics at the 
 military academy of Liegnitz. His "Rudiments of 
 Artillery," published in 1760, obtained for him the notice 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; %hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; thasin this. (Sty^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STRVTHERS 
 
 2076 
 
 STUART 
 
 and patronage of Frederick the Great. It was followed 
 in 1 77 1 by "Elements of Military Architecture," esteemed 
 the best work on the subject that had then appeared in 
 Germany. After the publication of his "Description of 
 the Commerce of the Principal European States," he 
 was ennobledand made minister of state and president 
 of the board of excise. Died in 1804. 
 
 See Meusel, "Gelehrtes Deutschland;" Hirsching, " His- 
 torisch literarisches Handbuch ;" Von Held, "Struensee, Skiziie 
 fiir Diejenigen," etc., 1805. 
 
 Strfith'erB, (John,) a Scottish poet, born in Lanark- 
 shire in 1776, worked at the trade of shoemaker in his 
 youth. Among his works is " The Poor Man's Sabbath," 
 (1804.) Died in 1853. 
 
 Strutt, (Edward,) Baron Belper, an English peer, 
 born in 1801. He was chosen a Liberal member of 
 Parliament in 1830, and was re-elected several times. 
 
 Strutt, (JOSEPH,) an English antiquary and engraver, 
 born in Essex in 1742. lie was the author of "The 
 Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England," etc., 
 " Ilorda Angel Cynnan ; or, View of the Manners, Cus- 
 toms, etc. of the Inhabitants of England from the Arrival 
 of the Saxons," (3 vols., 1776,) a "Biographical Diction- 
 ary of Engravers from the Earliest Period to the Present 
 Time," (2 vols., 1786,) and "Sports and Pastimes of the 
 People of England," etc., (1801.) Among his engravings 
 are a series of illustrations of the " Pilgrim's Progress." 
 He died in 1802, leaving several works in manuscript, 
 one of which, a romance, entitled " Queen-Hoo Hall," 
 was completed by Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for May, 1775, and June, 1802. 
 
 Struve, stroo'veh, (Burkhaud Gotthelf,) a jurist, 
 a son of Georg Adam, noticed below, was born at 
 Weimar in 1671. He studied law and history at Jena 
 and Helmstedt, became professor of history at Jena in 
 1704, and in 1730 of public and feudal law. Among his 
 voluminous works we may name his "Syntagma Juris 
 Publici," (1711,) " Body of German History," ("Corpus 
 Historian Germanicae," 1730,) and "Introduction to the 
 History of the German Empire," (in German.) He 
 also published an edition of the " Illustres Veteres Scrip- 
 tores" of Pistorius, and of Freher's " Rerum Germani- 
 Carum Scriptores." Died in 1738. 
 
 See Hirsching," Historisch-literarischesHandbuch;" Liprnius, 
 '* Bibliolheca Jtiridica." 
 
 Struve, (Friedrich Georg Wilhelm,) an eminent 
 German astronomer, born at Altona in April, 1793. He 
 was appointed director of the Observatory of Dorpat 
 about 1818. In 1839 he became director of a new and 
 magnificent observatory erected by the Russian govern- 
 ment at Pulkova, near Saint Petersburg. He acquired 
 distinction by his observations on double and multiple 
 stars, and published, besides other works, " Astronom- 
 ical Observations," (" Observationes Astronomies," 8 
 vols., 1820-40,) "Micrometric Measurements of the 
 Double Stars," (" Stellarum duplicium Mensuras micro- 
 metricae," 1827,) and "Studies of Sidereal Astronomy 
 on the Milky Way," ("Etudes d'Astronomie stellaire 
 sur la Voie lactee," etc., 1847.) Died in 1864. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic GeneVale ;" Brockhaus, " Conversa- 
 tions-Lexikon." 
 
 Struve, (Georg Adam,) a German jurist, born at 
 Magdeburg in 1619. He became professor of law at Jena 
 in 1646, and in 1667 was appointed privy councillor to 
 the Duke of Weimar. Among his numerous legal works, 
 which had a high reputation in his time, we may name 
 his " Jurisprudent Romano-Germanica forensis," and 
 "Syntagma Juris Feudalis." Died in 1692. 
 
 See li. G. Struve, "Vita G. A. Struvii," 1705. 
 
 Struve, (Gustavus,) a German political writer and 
 revolutionist, born in Livonia about 1805. He took a 
 prominent part in the insurrection in Baden in 1848, and 
 became an exile in 1849. He published, besides other 
 works, a "System of Political Science," (4 vols., 1847.) 
 Died in 1870. 
 
 Struve, (Otto Wii.helm,) an astronomer, a son of 
 Friedrich Georg Wilhelm, was born at Dorpat in 1819. 
 He obtained the position of second astronomer at Pol- 
 kowa. He discovered many double stars, and computed 
 the movement of translation of the solar system. 
 
 Struve, von, fon stRoo'veh, (Heinrich Chris- 
 Tot'H Gottfried,) a German diplomatist, born at Ratis- 
 bon in 1772, was employed in embassies to Hamburg, 
 Saint Petersburg, and other European courts. Died 
 in 1851. 
 
 Struys, stRois, (Jan,) a Dutch traveller, who visited 
 several countries of Asia, and published a narrative in 
 1677. Died in 1694. 
 
 Stry, van, vstn stuT, (Abraham,) a skilful Dutch 
 painter, born at Doit in 1753, imitated A. Cuyp. He 
 painted landscapes, cattle, etc. Died in 1826. 
 
 Stry, van, (Jacob,) a skilful painter of landscapes and 
 cattle, a brother of the preceding, was born at Dort in 
 1756. "Many of his imitations of Albert Cuyp," says 
 Bryan, "have passed as originals of that master." Died 
 in 1815. 
 
 Stryk, stulk, |Lat. Stryk'ius,] (Samuel,) a German 
 jurist, born at Lenzen in 1640. He became, professor 
 of law at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1672, and obtained 
 a chair in the University of Wittenberg in 1691. He 
 acquired a European reputation by his writings on law. 
 Died in 1710. 
 
 See Berger, " Memoria Strykii," 1711. 
 
 Strykius. See Stryk. 
 
 Strype, strip, (John,) an English divine and biogra- 
 pher, born in London in 1643. Among his numerous 
 works are " Memorials of the Most Renowned Father 
 in God, Thomas Cranmer," etc., (1694,) "Historical 
 Collections relating to the Life and Acts of Bishop 
 Aylmer," (1701,) "Life and Acts of Archbishop Parker," 
 (171 1,) "Ecclesiastical Memorials, relating chiefly to 
 Religion and the Reformation of it," etc., and "Annals 
 of the Reformation and Establishment of Religion," (4 
 vols., 1731.) Died in 1737. 
 
 Stu'art, (Alexander H. H-,) an American politician, 
 born at Staunton, Virginia, in 1807. He gained dis- 
 tinction as a lawyer, became an orator of the Whig 
 party, and was elected to Congress in 1841. He was 
 secretary of the interior from September, 1850, to March, 
 1853. He was loyal to the Union, until the secession 
 of Virginia induced him to change sides. 
 
 Stu'art, (Arabella,) born about 1575, was a daughter 
 of Charles Stuart, Duke of Lennox, (a brother of Lord 
 Darnley,) and was a cousin german to James I. of Eng- 
 land. She was secretly married about 1609 to William 
 Seymour, against the will of the king, who imprisoned 
 her in the Tower. She was so harshly treated that she 
 became insane, and died in the Tower in September, 
 1615. William Seymour was afterwards made Marquis 
 of Hertford. Arabella Stuart was a woman of superior 
 talents and high spirit. 
 
 See" Life and Letters of Arabella Stuart, "by Elizabeth Cooper, 
 London, 1S66: Gardiner, " History of England from 1603 to 1616," 
 vol. ii. chap. x. ; " Memoirs of Eminent Englishwomen," by Louisa 
 S. Costeli-o. 
 
 Stuart, (Sir Charles,) a British general, born in 
 '753. was a younger son of Lord Bute, the prime min- 
 ister. He fought against the American patriots, ( 1 776-82,) 
 gained the rank of major-general in 1793, and com- 
 manded in Corsica in 1794. He took Minorca in 1798. 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 Stuart, (Charles Edward,) the Pretender. See 
 Charles Edward. 
 
 Stuart, (Gilbert,) LL.D., a Scottish journalist and 
 miscellaneous writer, born at Edinburgh about 1746. 
 He became in 1773 associate editor of "The Edinburgh 
 Magazine and Review," in which he published criti- 
 cisms on prominent authors, displaying great ability, but 
 disfigured by bitter personalities. He was aflerwards 
 a contributor to the " Political Herald" and " English 
 Review," London. Among his principal works are a 
 " Historical Disquisition concerning the Antiquity of 
 the British Constitution," (1767,) "View of Society in 
 Europe in its Progress from Rudeness to Refinement," 
 etc., (1768,) "History of the Establishment of the Re- 
 formation of Religion in Scotland, 1517-1561," (1780,) 
 and " History of Scotland from the Establishment of 
 the Reformation to the Death of Queen Mary," (1782.) 
 Died in 1786. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 Ai.lip.onr, " Dictionary of Authors ;" " >Ionthly Review" for Sep- 
 tember and October, 1783. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, hug; a, k, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nit; good; moon; 
 
STUART 
 
 2077 
 
 STURE 
 
 Stuart, (Gilbert Charles,) an eminent American 
 painter, bom at Narraganset, Rhode Island, in 1756. 
 He studied in London under West, and subsequently 
 executed a number of portraits, which obtained for him 
 a high reputation. Among these may be named that of 
 George III., Sir Joshua Reynolds, and John Kemble. 
 After his return to America he painted a portrait of 
 Washington, which is esteemed the best ever taken ; 
 also portraits of Mrs. Washington, John Adams, Jeffer- 
 son, Madison, and other distinguished Americans. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. i. 
 
 Stuart, (Henry Benedict,) Cardinal York, born in 
 1725, was a grandson of James It. of England, and a 
 brother of Charles Edward the Pretender. He lived 
 at Rome, and became a cardinal in 1747. Died in 1807. 
 
 Stuart, (James,) an English antiquary and architect, 
 commonly known as " Athenian Stuart," was born in 
 London in 1 713. He resided many years at Rome, 
 where he studied antiquities and the ancient languages, 
 and in 1750 visited Athens in company with Nicholas 
 Revett, also an artist. In 1762 he brought out the first 
 volume of the " Antiquities of Athens," in which he 
 was assisted by Mr. Revett. It was received with great 
 favour, and a second and a third volume were published 
 after his death, which took place in 1788. Among his 
 architectural works may be named the chapel of Green- 
 wich Hospital. 
 
 Stuart, (James E. B.,) an American general, born in 
 Patrick county, Virginia, about 1833, graduated at West 
 Point in 1854. He became a brigadier-general of the 
 insurgents in September, 1861, and obtained command 
 of a body of cavalry. In August, 1862, he surprised 
 General Pope's head-quarters at Catlett's Station and 
 captured some of his private papers. In October of 
 that year he conducted a daring and successful raid to 
 Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. His cavalry covered the 
 retreat of General Lee after the battle of Gettysburg, July, 
 1863. He commanded the cavalry at the battle of the 
 Wilderness, in May, 1864, and was mortally wounded in a 
 battle against General Sheridan, at Yellow Tavern, on 
 the 1 2th of May in that year. 
 
 See a notice of General Stuart in "Southern Generals," 1865; 
 Tenney's "Military History of the Rebellion," p. 779. 
 
 Stuart, (James F. E.,) the Pretender. See James 
 Francis Edward. 
 
 Stuart, (John.) See Bute, Lord. 
 
 Stuart, (John,) a Scottish antiquary, born in 1751, 
 was professor of Greek at Alierdeen. Died in 1827. 
 
 Stuart, (Moses,) an American theologian and Con- 
 gregational divine, bom at Wilton, Connecticut, in 1780. 
 He was appointed in 1809 professor of sacred literature 
 at Andover Theological Seminary, which post he held 
 for more than thirty years. He was the author of a 
 "Grammar of the Hebrew Language, without Points," 
 (1813,) " Letters to Dr. Channing on Religious Liberty," 
 (1830,) "Hints on the Prophecies," (1842,)"" A Scrip- 
 tural View of the Wine Question," (1848,) and a number 
 of commentaries on the Scriptures. He published in 
 1827 a " Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews," 
 which, says R. W. Griswold, "continues in all countries 
 to be regarded as one of the noblest examples of philo- 
 logical theology and exegetical criticism." (" Prose 
 Writers of America.") Died in 1852. 
 
 See Ai-LIBokh, "Dictionary of Authors;" "North American 
 Review" for January, 1822. 
 
 Stu'ait or Stew'art Family, a famous and unfor- 
 tunate royal family which reigned in Scotland several 
 centuries and in England for more than a century. The 
 first member of this family that became king was Robert 
 II., whose father was Walter, high steward of Scotland, 
 and whose mother was a daughter of Robert Bruce. (See 
 Robert II.) The last king of this dynasty was James II., 
 who was deposed in 1688, after which two of his descend- 
 ants, styled Pretenders, attempted to ascend the throne. 
 (See James Francis Edward, and Charles Edward.) 
 
 "The name of the family," says Burton, "was Allan 
 or Fitz-Allan ; but it had become habitual to call them 
 by the name of the feudal office held by them in Scot- 
 land, and hence Robert II. was the first of the Steward 
 
 — or, as it came to be written, the Stewart — dynasty.' 
 (" History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap, xxvi.) 
 
 See C. D. Voss, " Geschiclite der Stuarts aitf dem Englischen 
 Throne," 4 vols., 1794-97 ; R. Vauchan, " Memorials of the Stuart 
 Dynasty," 2 vols., 1831. 
 
 Stti'art de Rothe'say, (roth'sa,) (Charles Stu- 
 art,) Lord, a distinguished British diplomatist, grandson 
 of Lord Bute, was born in 1779. He was sent in 1810 
 as minister-plenipotentiary to Portugal, and for his ser- 
 vices on this occasion obtained from the prince-regent the 
 grand cross of the order of the Hath. The King of Por- 
 tugal also made him a grandee of that kingdom. He was 
 afterwards successively minister at Paris, the Hague, 
 and Saint Petersburg. In 1828 he was raised to the peer- 
 age, with the title of Stuart de Rothesay. Died in '845. 
 
 Stubbe, stub, (Henry,) an English writer anfl 
 scholar, born in Lincolnshire in 1631. He joined the 
 party of Cromwell during the civil war, and wrote " A 
 Vindication of Sir Harry Vane," " Light shining out 
 of Darkness, with an Apology for the Quakers," and 
 other works. After the restoration he went over to the 
 royalists, and published numerous attacks on his former 
 friends. He was accidentally drowned in 1676. 
 
 Stubbe, (John.) See Stubbs, (John.) 
 
 Stubbs, (George,) an English painter, born at Liver- 
 pool in 1724, was distinguished for his knowledge of 
 anatomy. He excelled in delineating animals, par- 
 ticularly horses. He published in 1766 a treatise " On 
 the Anatomy of the Horse." His picture of "The 
 Grosvenor Hunt" is esteemed one of his master-pieces. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Stubbs or Stubbe, (John,) an English lawyer and 
 Puritan, born about 1540. Having written a pamphlet 
 against Queen Elizabeth's marriage with the Duke of 
 Anjou, entitled "The Discovery of a Gaping Gtilph, 
 wherein England is like to be swallowed by anothet 
 French Marriage," his right hand was amputated by 
 order of the queen. 
 
 Stuck. See Battistin. 
 
 Stuck, stook, [Lat. Stuck'ius,] (Tohann Wilhelm,) 
 a Swiss scholar and antiquary, born at Zurich about 
 1550. He published a "Treatise on the Feasts of the 
 Ancients, and their Sacrifices," (1591.) Died in 1607. 
 
 Studer, stoo'der, (Bernhard,) a Swiss savant, born 
 at Buren-on-the-Aar in 1794, became professor of geol- 
 ogy at Berne. He published several scientific works. 
 
 Stuerbout, stu'er-bowt',(D I erick,) one of the earliest 
 Dutch painters, sometimes called Dirk van Haarlem, 
 was born in that town. He lived about 1450-70. There 
 are two historical pictures by him in the royal collection 
 at the Hague, representing incidents in the life of the 
 emperor Otho HI. and his empress. Stuerbout ranked 
 among the first artists of his time. 
 
 See " Lives of the Eariv Flemish Painters." 
 
 Stuermer. See Sturmer. 
 
 Stuhr, stooR, (Peter Feddersf.n,) a Danish writer, 
 born at Flensborg in 1787, published a number of philo- 
 sophical and historical works. Died in 1851. 
 
 Stuke'ley, (William,) M.D., an English divine, an- 
 tiquary, and physician, born in Lincolnshire in 1687. 
 Having practised medicine for a time with great reputa- 
 tion and success, he took holy orders, and in 1747 
 obtained the rectory of Saint George the Martyr, in Lon- 
 don. He was the author of " Itinerarium Curiosum, or 
 an Account of the Antiquities, etc. observed in Travels 
 through Great Britain," (1724,) " Pala;ographia Britan- 
 nica, or Discourses on Antiquities in Britain," (1743-54,) 
 "Some Account of the Medallic History of Marcus 
 Aurelius Valerius Carausius, Emperor of Britain," 
 (1757-59,) and other valuable antiquarian works; also 
 a collection of sermons, entitled " Palsographia Sacra," 
 (1760-63.) Died in 1765. 
 
 Stiiler or Stueler, stu'ler, (August,) a German 
 architect, born in Berlin in 1800, was one of the most 
 distinguished pupils of Schinkel. Among his greatest 
 works are the new museum at Berlin, and the Exchange 
 at Frankforton-the-Main. 
 
 Sturdza. See Stoordza. 
 
 Sture, stoo'reh, (Sten,) called the Elder, a Swed- 
 ish statesman, related to the royal family of Sweden. 
 On the death of Charles VIII., in 1470, he became re- 
 gent of the kingdom, which he defended with signal 
 
 € as k; c, as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. (2E^— See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STURE 
 
 2078 
 
 srrx 
 
 ability against the attempts of the Danes and the Rus- 
 sians. Died in 1504. 
 ' See Geijkr, " Areminne bfver S. Sture," 1803. 
 
 Sture, (Sten,) the Younger, son of Svante Sture, 
 noticed below, succeeded his father as regent in 1512. 
 He was distinguished for his courage and ability, and 
 for a time successfully resisted the encroachments of 
 Denmark, but he was mortally wounded in the battle 
 near Jonkoping, in 1520. 
 
 See Silfverstolpe, "Areminne bfver S. Sture," 1791. 
 
 Sture, (Svante,) became Regent of Sweden on the 
 death of Sten Sture the Elder, in 1504. Died in 1512. 
 
 Sturge, sturj, (Joseph,) an English philanthropist, 
 born at Elberton, Gloucestershire, in 1793, was a member 
 of the Society of Friends. He became a corn-factor 
 at Bewdley, from which he removed to Birmingham In 
 1822. By his probity, energy, and moral courage he 
 acquired much influence. He was one of the first in 
 England to advocate the immediate abolition of slavery, 
 and he became a prominent leader of the anti-slavery 
 movement. In 1836 he visited the West Indies, and 
 collected evidence against the slaveholders. He per- 
 formed an anti-slavery mission to the United States 
 in 1841. After his return he co-operated actively with 
 Cobden and Bright in the anti-corn-law movement. 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 See Henry Richard, " Memoir of Joseph Sturge," 1864. 
 
 Sturgeoni (William,) an English electrician, born 
 in Lancashire in. 1783. He learned the trade of shoe- 
 maker, and served a number of years in the royal artil- 
 lery. He invented or improved an electro-magnetic 
 machine, and wrote several treatises on electro-magnet- 
 ism. Died at Manchester in 1850. 
 
 Stur'gea, (John,) an English divine, was prebendary 
 of Winchester. He published " Discourses on the Evi- 
 dence of Natural and Revealed Religion," and was en- 
 gaged in a controversy with Dr. Milner. Died in 1807. 
 
 Stur'gis, (Samuel D.,) an American general, born at 
 Shippensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1822, graduated at West 
 Point in 1846. He obtained the rank of major in May, 
 l86t, and succeeded to the command of the army at 
 Wilson's Creek when Genera) Lyon was killed, August 
 10 of that year. He commanded an army which was 
 defeated at Guntown, Mississippi, June io, 1864. 
 
 Sturleson. See Snorro-Sturleson. 
 
 Sturm, stooRm, or Sturme, first abbot of Fulda, 
 was born in Bavaria about 715 A.D. He founded about 
 744 the monastery of Fulda, which became a famous 
 seat of learning. Died in 780. 
 
 Sturm, stooRm, (Christoph Christian,) a Ger- 
 man moralist and preacher, born at Augsburg in 1740. 
 He preached at Magdeburg and Hamburg, and wrote 
 a number of popular religious works, among which was 
 " Meditations on the Works of God in the Kingdom 
 of Nature," (2 vols., 1772-97.) Died in 1786. 
 
 See Feddersen, "Leben und Charakter des Hauptpastors C. 
 C. Sturm," 1786; Hirsching, " Historisch-liierarisches Hand- 
 bucli." 
 
 Sturm, stSoRm or stuRm, (Jacques Charles Fran- 
 cois.) an excellent Swiss mathematician, born at Geneva 
 in September, 1803. He was a tutor to the son of 
 Madame de Stael, with whom he visited Paris in 1823. 
 In 1827 Sturm and his friend Colladon obtained the 
 grand prize of mathematics proposed by the Academy of 
 Sciences in Paris for the best memoir on the compres- 
 sion of liquids. He discovered in 1829 the celebrated 
 theorem which completes the resolution of numerical 
 equations by determining the number of real roots which 
 are included between given limits. This is known as 
 " Sturm's theorem." He became professor of mathe- 
 matics at the College Rollin in 1830, a member of the 
 Institute in 1836, and professor of analysis at the Poly- 
 technic School in 1840. Died in 1855. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Sturm, (Jakob,) an eminent German statesman and 
 Reformer, born at Strasburg in 1489. He became in 
 early life a convert to the doctrines of Luther, and was 
 chosen mayor or chief magistrate of Strasburg in 1526. 
 His learning and wisdom were such that he was regarded 
 as an oracle by his fellow-citizens. It is stated that he 
 
 was sent ninety-one times on missions to various courts, 
 between 1525 and 1552. Died in 1553. 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Sturm, [Lat. Stur'mius,] (Johann,) an eminent 
 scholar and teacher, sumamed "the German Cicero," 
 was born at Schleiden in 1507. He became in 1538 rector 
 of the gymnasium at Strasburg, which, under his direc- 
 tion, attained a very high reputation. He published an 
 edition of Cicero, '(9 vols., 1557 et seq.,) a number of 
 translations from the Latin, and several original works 
 in that language: among these we may name "On the 
 Proper Opening of Schools of Learning," (" De Litera- 
 rum Ludis recte Aperiendis," 1538,) and "On the Uni- 
 versal Method of Rhetorical Elocution," ("De universa 
 Ratione Elocutionis Rhetoricae," 1576.) Died in 1589. 
 
 See Bayi.k, "Historical and Critical Dictionary :" Nicekon, 
 "Memoires:" M. Adam, " Viiae Germanorum Philosophorum ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Sturm, (Johann Christoph,) a German philosopher 
 and mathematician, born in Bavaria in 1635. Having 
 graduated at fena, he became professor of mathematics 
 at Altdorf in 1669. He translated into Latin Bockler's 
 " Hydraulic Architecture," and published several valua- 
 ble works on mathematics and physical science. Died 
 in 1703. 
 
 Sturm, (Leonhard Christoph,) an architect, a son 
 of the preceding, was born at Altdorf in 1669. He 
 wrote a "Treatise on Military Architecture," and other 
 similar works. Died in 1719. 
 
 Sturmer or Stuermer, stuVmer, (Bartholomaus,) 
 Count, son of Ignaz, noticed below, was born at Con- 
 stantinople in 1787, and was educated at Vienna. He 
 was consul-general to the United States in 1818, and in 
 1834 appointed internuncio at Constantinople. 
 
 Sturmer or Stuermer, (Ignaz,) Baron, a German 
 diplomatist and Oriental scholar, born at Vienna in 1752. 
 He was appointed in 1789 court interpreter, and in 1802 
 internuncio at the Porte, and magnate of Hungary in 
 1820. Died in 1829. 
 
 Sturmiua. See Sturm, (Johann.) 
 
 Sturt, (John,) an English engraver, born in London 
 in 165S, was celebrated for his exquisite illustrations of 
 the " Book of Common Prayer." Died in 1730. 
 
 Sturtzenbecher, stooius'en-bek'er, (Oscar Pat- 
 rick,) a Swedish writer and liberal politician, born at 
 Stockholm in 181 1. 
 
 Sturz, stooRts, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German 
 scholar, born near Freiberg in 1762, published editions 
 of Empedocles, the fragments of Hellanicus, and of other 
 Greek writers. Died in 1832. 
 
 Sturz, (Helfreich Peter,) a German writer, born at 
 Darmstadt in 1736, was a friend of Klopstock, and was 
 patronized by Count Bemstorff. His principal works 
 are " Recollections of the Life of Bemstorff," and " Let- 
 ters of a Traveller." Died in 1779. 
 
 Sttive or Stueve, stii'veh,( Johann Karl Bertram,) 
 a German jurist, born at Osnabriick in 1798, filled several 
 offices under the government, and wrote a number of 
 political treatises. 
 
 Stuven, stoo'ven, (Ernst,) a German flower-painter, 
 born at Hamburg in 1657 ; died in 1712. 
 
 Stuyvesant, stl've-sant, (Peter,) the last Dutch 
 Governor of the New Netherlands, (New York,) was 
 born about 1602. He was appointed governor or di- 
 rector-general about 1645. He had previously served 
 in the West Indies, and lost a leg in battle. In 1655 
 he conquered a Swedish colony on the Delaware River. 
 His administration was vigorous and rather arbitrary. 
 New Amsterdam was attacked by an English fleet, to 
 which Governor Stuyvesant surrendered in September, 
 1664. He died at New York in 1682. Peter Stuyvesant 
 forms a conspicuous character in Irving's humorous 
 work entitled " History of New York, by Diedrich 
 Knickerbocker." 
 
 Style, (William,) an English law-writer, born in 
 1603. He published "Reports," (1658.) Died in 1679. 
 
 Stylites. See Simeon Stylites. 
 
 St^x, [Gr. 2ti>{,| a personage of classic mythology, 
 was said to be a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, the 
 wife of Pallas, and the mother of Victory, (Nice,) Power, 
 (Cratos,) and Zelus. She is a personification of a cele- 
 
 a. e, i, 5, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; i, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
SUABED1SSEN 
 
 2079 
 
 SUE 
 
 brated river of Hades. The poets feigned that the gods 
 in taking a solemn oath used to swear by Styx, and if 
 they violated such an oath they were deprived of nectar 
 for nine years. 
 
 Suabedissen, soo'a-beh-dis'sen, (David Theodor 
 August,) a German philosophical writer, born at Mel- 
 sungen in 1773 ; died in 1835. 
 
 Sualem, (Ri-.nkin.) See Rannequin. 
 
 Suard, su'Sk', (Jean Baptiste Antoine,) a French 
 journalist and litterateur, born at Besancon in 1734. 
 He was successively associate editor of the "Gazette de 
 France," and editor of the political journals entitled 
 " I.es Independants" and "Le Publiciste." He trans- 
 lated into French Robertson's " History of Charles V.," 
 and published, among other works, "Literary Miscel- 
 lanies," (5 vols., 1805,) and "Lettres de l'Anonyme de 
 Yaugirard," a witty and satirical production, which ob- 
 tained great and deserved popularity. He also made 
 numerous valuable contributions to the " Biographie 
 Universelle." He was chosen a member of the French 
 Academy in 1772, and afterwards became perpetual 
 secretary of that institution. Died in 1817. 
 
 See C. Nisard, "Me'moires et Correspondance LitteYaire sur 
 Suard," 1859; Garat, "Historical Memoirs of M. Suard;" Pk- 
 kennes, "Fjoge de Suard," 1841; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Suard, Madame, the wife of the preceding, was born 
 at Lille in 1750, and was a sister of Charles J. Panc- 
 koucke the author. She wrote, besides other works, 
 " Memoirs of M. Suard," (" Essai de Memoires sur M. 
 Suard," 1820.) Died in 1830. 
 
 Suares, sii't'ress', (Joskph Marie,) a French anti- 
 quary, born at Avignon in 1599, became Bishop of 
 Vaison in 1633. He wrote numerous antiquarian works. 
 Died at Rome in 1677. 
 
 Suaresius. See Suarez. 
 
 Suarez, swa'reth, [Lat. Suarf/sius,] (Francis,) a 
 learned and eloquent Spanish Jesuit and theologian, 
 born at Granada in 1548. He became successively pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Valladolid, Rome, Alcala, and Coim- 
 bra. Among his principal works is his "Defensio Fidei 
 Catholicae," etc., (1613,) being designed as a refutation 
 of the oath of allegiance exacted by James I. of England 
 from his subjects, and a "Treatise on Laws." Died 
 about 161 5. 
 
 See Deschamps, " Vita Fr. Suaresii," 1671 ; " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie Generale." 
 
 Suavius, swa've-us, or Suterman, soo'ter-man', 
 (Lambert,) sometimes called Schwab, a Flemish en- 
 graver, born at Liege, flourished about 1550. He 
 engraved his own designs, and others. Died about 1565. 
 
 Subervie, sii'beVve', (Jacques Gervais — zheVvi',) 
 Baron, a French general, born at Lectoure in 1776. He 
 served as general of brigade in Spain, (1808-11,) and 
 in Russia in 1812. He became a general of division 
 in 1814, and fought at Waterloo. He was republican 
 minister of war from February 25 to March 19, 1848. 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 See Alexandre Thierrv, " Le General Subervie," 1856 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Sublet, sii'biy, (Francois,) a French minister of 
 state, born about 1580. He was secretary of war from 
 1636 till 1643. Died in 1645. 
 
 Subleyras, sii'blj'ras', (Pierre,) a French painter, 
 born at Uzes in 1699. He resided many years in Rome, 
 where he was patronized by Pope Benedict XIV. Among 
 his master-pieces are "Saint Basil celebrating Mass in 
 the Presence of the Emperor Valens," and " Saint 
 Benedict restoring a Child to Life." Died in 1749. 
 
 Subow. See Zoobof. 
 
 Subtermans. See Sustermans. 
 
 Suchet, sii'shj', (Louis Gabriel,) Duke of Albufera, 
 a celebrated French marshal, born at Lyons in March, 
 1770. He served in the Italian campaign of 1796, and 
 obtained the rank of general of brigade for his distin- 
 guished bravery at the battle of Neumark, (1797.) Ap- 
 pointed in 1799 general of division under Massena, he 
 successfully opposed the Austrians under General Melas, 
 and made a divers on in favour of Massena, then besieged 
 at Genoa, (1800.) After the battle of Marengo, in which 
 he took a prominent part, he was made governor of 
 
 Genoa and commander of the centre of the army of 
 Italy. He successively defeated the Austrians at Poz- 
 zolo, Borghetto, Verona, and Montebello, and in 1805 
 commanded the left wing of Marshal Lannes's division 
 or corps in the battle of AusterlitA Having been created 
 by Napoleon a count of the empire, he was appointed 
 in : 808 to the command of a division of the army of 
 Spain. In this post, by his brilliant successes at Lerida, 
 Mequinanza, (1810,) Tortosa, (1811,) and Tarragona, 
 (181 1,) he won the highest reputation as a brave officer 
 and an able disciplinarian and tactician. He was made 
 a marshal of France in 181 1. His subsequent victories 
 at Murviedro, Valencia, and Albufera were rewarded 
 by Napoleon with a large domain, and the title of Duke 
 of Albufera. After the restoration of the Bourbons he 
 was deprived of the greater part of his honours ; but the 
 title of peer was restored to him by Louis XVIII. in 
 1819. He died in 1826, leaving "Memoirs of the War 
 in Spain," (1829.) It is stated that Napoleon estimated 
 his ability higher than that of any other of his marshals 
 except Massena. 
 
 See Bolo, " Notice sur le Marechal Suchet," 1826 ; Barrault- 
 Rout.coN, "Le Marechal Suchet," 1854; De Courcem.es, " Dic- 
 tionnaire des Generaux Krancais ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Suchtelen, suK'teh-len', (Jan Pieter,) Count, a 
 Dutch general and diplomatist, born in Oberyssel in 
 1759, entered the Russian service, and distinguished 
 himself at the capture of Sweaborg, (1789.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Suck'ling, (Sir John,) an English poet, born in 
 Middlesex about 1608. He studied at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, and, after travelling on the continent, served 
 for a time in the army of Gustavus Adolphus, King of 
 Sweden. He subsequently became celebrated as a wit 
 at the court of Charles I. In 1640 he was elected to the 
 Long Parliament for Bramber, but, having joined in the 
 conspiracy to rescue the Earl of Strafford from the 
 Tower, in 1641, he was compelled to take refuge in 
 France, where he died about 1642. His reputation rests 
 chiefly on his lyric poems; but he also wrote several 
 dramas and satires, and a treatise entitled " An Account 
 of Religion by Reason." " His style," says Hazlitt, "is 
 almost entirely free from the charge of pedantry and 
 affectation. His compositions are almost all of them 
 short and lively effusions of wit and gallantry, written 
 in a familiar but spirited style." 
 
 See Hazutt, "Comic Writers;" "Retrospective Review," vol. 
 ix., (1824.) 
 
 Suckow, sook'ko, (Kart. Adoi.f,) a German novelist, 
 born at Miinsterberg, in Silesia, in 1802, has written 
 under the pseudonym of Posgaru. Died in 1847. 
 
 Sucre, de, da soo'kRa, (Antonio Jose,) a South 
 American patriot and general, born at Cumana in 1793, 
 fought under Bolivar, and in 1819 was made a brigadier- 
 general. He defeated the Spaniards at Pichincha in 
 1822, and in 1824, having succeeded Bolivar as com- 
 mander-in-chief, gained a signal victory over the royal- 
 ists at Ayacucho, by which the country was delivered 
 from the Spanish yoke. He was created grand marshal 
 of Ayacucho by Bolivar, and in 1825 chosen President 
 of Bolivia. He was elected to the Constituent Congress 
 from Quito in 1830. He was assassinated soon after, at 
 the instigation, it is supposed, of General Ovando. 
 
 Sudtiddana, soo-d'ho'da-na, a Hindoo prince, the 
 father of Gautama, (which see.) 
 
 Sudra or Suder. See Soodra. 
 
 Sudre, siidR, (Jkan Pierre,) a French lithographer, 
 born at Alby in 1783. He produced lithographs of 
 several works of Raphael and Ingres. He gained a 
 medal of the first class in 1834. 
 
 Sue, sii, (Eugenk,) a popular French novelist, borrt 
 in Paris in 1804, was a son of Jean Joseph Sue, (1760- 
 1830.) He was named in honour of Eugene de Beau- 
 harnais, son of the empress Josephine, who was his 
 sponsor. Having studied medicine, he accompanied 
 the French army into Spain in 1823 as military surgeon. 
 On the death of his father, from whom he inherited a 
 large fortune, he studied painting for a time under 
 Gudin ; but he soon renounced this art for literature, 
 and published several tales of sea-life, entitled " Kernock 
 le Pirate," (1830,) " Plick et Plock," (1831,) " Atar Gull," 
 "La Salamandre," (1832,) and "La Vigie de Koatven," 
 
 e as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (JBy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SUE 
 
 2080 
 
 SUIDAS 
 
 (1833.) Kncouraged by the success of these productions, 
 he brought out in the Paris feuilletons a series of his- 
 torical romances, among which we may name "Latreau- 
 monte," "Jean Cavalier," " Le Vicomte de Letorieres," 
 and " Le Commandeur de Malte." He next published 
 in rapid succession his " Mathilde," " Therese Dunoyer," 
 "Mysteres de Paris," (1842,) and " Le Juif errant," 
 (" The Wandering Jew," 1846.) These romances, in which 
 Sue has unveiled the most revolting forms of vice, and 
 for the most part represented wickedness triumphant, 
 obtained great popularity, and were translated into the 
 principal European languages. He was elected in 1850 
 a member of the Assemblee Nationale. Died in 1857. 
 Sec G. Planche, " Portraits LitteVaires ;" Querard, " La France 
 LituSraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ginerale ;" " Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" tor July, 1S38, and July. 1842. 
 
 Sue, (Jean,) a French surgeon and writer, born in 
 Var in 1699. He practised in Paris. Died in 1762. 
 
 Sue, (Jf.an Joskph,) a French writer on anatomy and 
 surgery, born in [710, was a brother of the preceding. 
 He lectured on anatomy in Paris, where he died in 1792. 
 
 See " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Sue, (Jean Joskph,) a surgeon, a son of the preceding, 
 was born in Paris in 1760. He wrote "Physiological 
 Researches on Vitality," (1798,) and other works. He 
 became consulting physician to the king in 1824. Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 Sue, (Pierre,) a learned surgeon, born in Paris in 
 1739, was a son of Jean Sue, noticed above. He pub- 
 lished numerous works on surgery and medicine, which 
 are commended. Died in 1816. 
 
 See " Biographie M^dicale." 
 
 Sueno. See Aagesen and Sweyn. 
 
 Suenon, the French for Sweyn, King of Denmark. 
 (See Sweyn.) 
 
 Suetone. See Suetonius. 
 
 Sue-to'nI-us, [ Fr. Suetone, sii-a'ton',] (Caius 
 Tranquillus,) an eminent Latin historian, born about 
 70 A.D., was a son of a military tribune. He was a friend 
 of Pliny the Younger, who wrote to Suetonius several 
 letters, which are extant. He practised law, and was 
 versed in various departments of learning. In the reign 
 of Hadrian he obtained the office of magister epistolarum, 
 or secretary, but he did not keep it long. Pliny the 
 Younger speaks in high terms of his integrity and learn- 
 ing. Suetonius wrote, besides numerous works which 
 are lost, "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars," (" Vitae 
 Caesarum," which is highly prized, and appears to be 
 impartial. The subjects of this work are the twelve 
 emperors from Julius Caesar to Domitian inclusive, 
 whose private lives and vices he exposes, with copious 
 details. Saint Jerome says pithily of Suetonius, "that 
 he wrote of the emperors with the same freedom that 
 they themselves lived," ("pari libertate ac ipsi vixerunt.") 
 His work is rather anecdotical than historical. There 
 are extant two other works ascribed to him, — namely, 
 "On Illustrious Grammarians," (" De Grammaticis il- 
 lustribus,") and "On Celebrated Orators," (" De Claris 
 Rhetoribus.") 
 
 See A. Kraush, "De Suetonii Fontibus," etc., 1831; D. W. 
 M01.LF.R, "Disputatio circularis de C. Suetonio," 1685; Bayi.e, 
 " Historical and Critical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^i^- 
 rale." 
 
 Sue-to'nI-ua Pau-H'nus, a Roman general, served 
 in Mauritania in 42 A.r>. He was appointed commander 
 of Nero's army in Britain in 59, and defeated the natives 
 commanded by Boadicea. Died after 70 a.d. 
 
 Su'ett, (Richard,) a celebrated English comedian, 
 born in London ; died in 1805. 
 
 Sueur, Le, (Eustache.) See Le Sueur. 
 
 Sueur, Le, (Hubert.) See Scsur. 
 
 Sueur, Le, (Jean Francois.) See Le Sueur. 
 
 Suffee, (King of Persia.) See Sefee. 
 
 Suf'field, (Henry Harbord,) an English statesman, 
 born in 1781, was elected in 1820 a member of Parlia- 
 ment for Shaftesbury. He was an advocate of the abo- 
 lition of colonial slavery, and of other important reforms. 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 Suffolk, Duke of. See Brandon, (Chari.es.) 
 
 Suffolk, suf'fok, (Michael de la Pole,) first Earl 
 OF, an English statesman, who served in the army under 
 
 Edward III. He became lord chancellor in March, 1383, 
 was created Earl of Suffolk in August, 1386, and removed 
 in October of that year. Died in 1389. 
 
 Suffolk, (William de la Pole,) Duke of, was lord 
 high admiral of England. He commanded at the siege 
 of Orleans, in 1429, and was defeated by Joan of Arc. 
 He was beheaded, on a charge of treason, in 1450. 
 
 Suffren, sfi'fitBN', (Jean,) a French Jesuit, born in 
 Provence in 1565. He was for many years confessor to 
 the queen Marie de Medicis. He wrote "The Christian 
 Year," (" Annee chretienne," 1641.) Died in 1641. 
 
 Suffren Saint-Tropez, de, deh sii'fR&N' saN tRo'pi',) 
 (Pierre Andre\) a distinguished French naval com- 
 mander, born in Provence in 1726. Soon after his en- 
 tering the naval service he became a member of the 
 Maltese order, from which he received the honorary 
 title of Bailli. He accompanied Count d'Estaing to 
 America in 1778, and, being subsequently appointed to 
 a command under Don Luis de C6rdova, took twelve 
 merchant-ships from the British, (1780.) In 1781 he 
 defeated the British commodore Johnstone near the 
 Cape Verd Islands. He was made a vice-admiral in 
 1784. Died in 1788. 
 
 See Tkubi.et, " Essai historique sur la Vie et Jes Campagnes 
 du Bailli de Suffren:" Hennequin, "Essai historique sur la Vie 
 et lesCampagnes du Bailli de Suffren." 1S24 ; Cunat. " Histoire du 
 Bailli de Suffren," 1852 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Sugden. See Saint Leonard's. 
 
 Suger, su'zha', Abbe of Saint- Denis, an able and 
 powerful French statesman, born about 1085. He was 
 chosen Abbe of Saint-Denis about 1122, and became the 
 favourite counsellor and chief minister of Louis VI. 
 His influence was equally great in the reign of Louis 
 VII., and his administration was beneficent to the peo- 
 ple. Died in 1 152. 
 
 See Baudier, " Histoire de l'Administration de TAbbe" Suger," 
 1645; Ghrvaise, "Histoire de Stiver," 3 vols., 1721: A. Nettb- 
 ment, "Histoire de Suger," 1842: F. CoMnES, "Suger et sor 
 Ministere," 1853: " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Sugny. See Servan de Sug.ny. 
 
 Sugriva, soo-gree'va, \i.e. " handsome-necked," from 
 the Sanscrit su, " handsome," and grtvS, "neck,"] in the 
 Hindoo mythology, the name of a monkey chief, the son 
 of Surya, (or the Sun,) and the next in rank among the 
 monkeys to Hanuman, and, like the last-named hero, a 
 great favourite with KSma. (See HanumXn.) 
 
 Suhm, soom, (Peder Fredf.RIK,) an eminent Danish 
 historian and miscellaneous writer, bdVn at Copenhagen 
 in 1728, was a son of Ulrich Friedrich, noticed below. 
 He devoted himself to the study of philology, Northern 
 antiquities, etc., and published " On the Origin of the 
 Northern Nations," (2 vols., 1770,) "Odin, or the My- 
 thology of Northern Paganism," ( 1771,) " History of the 
 Migration of the Northern Nations," (2 vols., 1773,) 
 "Critical History of Denmark in the Time of the Pa- 
 gans," (4 vols., 1781,) and " History of Denmark to the 
 Year 1319," (11 vols., 1812.) He was also the author of 
 " Idyls," and several tales and romances, which enjoy a 
 high reputation. Died in 1798. 
 
 See Rasmus Nyerup, "Udsigt over P. F. Suhms Levnet og 
 Skrifter," 1708: R. Nverup, " Suhmiaoa," 1799; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Suhm, von, fon soom or zoom, (Ulrich Friedrich,) 
 an intimate friend of Frederick the Great of Prussia, was 
 born at Dresden in 1691. His "Familiar and Friendly 
 Correspondence with Frederick II." (in French) was 
 published after the king's death. Died in 1740. 
 
 Suicer, swlt'ser, or Schweitzer, shwit'ser, (Jo- 
 HANN Caspar,) a Swiss scholar and theologian, born at 
 Zurich in 1620, became professor of Greek and Hebrew 
 in the university of his native city. His principal work 
 is entitled " Ecclesiastical Thesaurus of the Writings 
 of the Greek Fathers," ("Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus e 
 Patribus Grascis," etc., 2 vols., 1682.) Died in 1684. 
 
 Suicer, (Johann Heinrich,) son of the preceding, 
 was born at Zurich in 1644. He succeeded his father in 
 the chair of Greek and Hebrew in 1683, and published 
 a "Compendium of the Aristotelico-Cartesian Philoso- 
 phy," and other works, in Latin. Died in 1705. 
 
 Sul-das, [Gr. ZovMac,] a Greek grammarian and 
 lexicographer, supposed to have flourished about the 
 tenth century. Nothing is known of him, except that 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ii, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n8t; good; moon; 
 
SUIDGER 
 
 zoSi 
 
 sunr 
 
 he compiled a Lexicon or encyclopaedia of biography, 
 literature, geography, etc. This work, though defective 
 in plan and not accurately executed, is highly prized, as 
 a contribution to the literary history of antiquity, and 
 contains many valuable extracts from writers whose 
 works are lost. A good edition of this Lexicon was 
 published by T. Gaisford, Oxford, (3 vols., 1834.) 
 
 Sec Fabrictos, "Bibliotheca Graca;" MOller, "Programma 
 de Suida," 1796. 
 
 Suidger. See Clement II. 
 
 Suintila, swin'ti-la, became King of the Visigoths in 
 Spain in 621 A.D. Died about 630. 
 
 Suleau, sii'lo', (Francois Lours,) a French royalist 
 and pamphleteer, born in 1757. He was massacred by 
 the mob of Paris in August, 1792. 
 
 Suleyman. See Soi/yman and Soi.iman. 
 
 Sul'I-van, (Sir Richard Joseph,) an Irish writer, 
 and member of Parliament for Seaford, published " A 
 View of Nature, in Letters to a Traveller among the 
 Alps," and other works. Died in 1806. 
 
 Sulkowski, sool-kov'skee, (Anton Paul,) Prince, 
 a Polish general, born at Lissa in 1785, served with dis- 
 tinction in Napoleon's army, and was made a general of 
 division in 1812. Died in 1836. 
 
 Sulkowski, (Josef,) a relative of the preceding, 
 entered the French service, and, having accompanied 
 Napoleon to Egypt as adjutant, was killed in the insur- 
 rection at Cairo in 1798. He wrote " Historical, Political, 
 and Military Memoirs of the Polish Revolutions," etc. 
 
 SulTa or Sjfl'la, (Faustus Cornelius,) a son of 
 the dictator, was born about 88 B.C. He served under 
 Pompey in Asia, and was the first to mount the wall of 
 the Temple at Jerusalem, in 63. He was a partisan of 
 the senate in the civil war, fought at Pharsalia, 48 B.C., 
 and at Thapsus, in 46. Having been taken prisoner, 
 he was murdered by the soldiers of Caesar in 46 B.C. 
 
 Sulla or Sylla, [It. Silla, sel'la,] (Lucius Cor- 
 nelius,) surnamed FelLX, (the "Fortunate,") a famous 
 Roman general, born in 138 B.C., was of a patrician 
 family. Though addicted to pleasure, and though his 
 favourite companions are said to have been actors, 
 buffoons, and mimics, he early gave indications of un- 
 common powers, and was particularly distinguished by 
 the art he possessed of reading the various characters 
 of men. He obtained the office of quaestor in 107 B.C., 
 and served under Marius against Jngurtha, who was be- 
 trayed by Bocchus into the power of the Romans. Sulla 
 took a prominent part in the capture of Jugnrtha, and 
 shared with Marius the credit of that achievement. In 
 104 he was employed as legate of Marius in the war 
 against the Cimbri and Teutones. He joined the army 
 of L. Catulus in 102, and gave proof of great military 
 talents. His personal qualities were eminently adapted 
 to render a general popular with his soldiers. Having 
 been elected praetor in 93 B.C., he was sent the next 
 year to Cilicia, and restored Ariobarzanes to the throne 
 of Cappadocia. 
 
 In the year 9t began the Social war, in which, says 
 Plutarch, " Sulla performed so many memorable things 
 that the citizens looked upon him as a great general, 
 his friends as the greatest in the world, and his enemies 
 as the most fortunate." Sulla became the leader of the 
 aristocratic party, was elected consul for 88 B.C., and 
 obtained from the senate the command of the war 
 against Mithridates, which command was also coveted 
 by his rival Marius. A violent contest arose between 
 these two leaders, which was the beginning of a great 
 civil war. Sulla marched with an army against Rome, 
 and Marius escaped to Africa,' leaving his enemy master 
 of the capital. Sulla departed from Rome early in 87 H.C., 
 and commenced the war against Mithridates by an attack 
 on Athens, which he took, after a long siege, in March, 
 86 B.C. The Athenians were treated with great cruelty 
 by the victor on this occasion. Sulla gained a decisive 
 victory over Archelaus, a general of Mithridates, at Chae- 
 ronea, and again at Orchomenus, in 85 B.C., after which 
 he crossed the Hellespont. In the mean time the Marian 
 party had recovered possession of Rome, and had mas- 
 sacred many partisans of Sulla. He concluded a peace 
 with Mithridates, extorted large sums of money from 
 the Orientals, and returned, with his army of veterans, 
 
 to Italy, where he arrived in the spring of 83, and re- 
 newed the civil war. The popular party had a larger 
 army than that of Sulla, but had no able geneials. Sulla 
 defeated Norbanus near Capua in the year 83, and young 
 Marius at Sacriportus in 82 B.C. He then became master 
 of Rome, massacred his opponents and prisoners by 
 thousands, and gained a victory over the Samnites and 
 Lucanians near Rome. He made a list of his enemies, 
 whom he outlawed, and called this list a Proscriptio. 
 This was the first instance of a proscription among the 
 Romans. Sulla was appointed dictator for an unlimited 
 time, and made important changes in the constitution, 
 tending to increase the power of the senate and aris- 
 tocracy and to destroy the authority of the tribunes of 
 the people. He also made reforms in the criminal law, 
 which were more enduring than the changes just men- 
 tioned. He resigned the dictatorship in 79, and died 
 in 78 B.C. Byron apostrophizes Sulla in the following 
 striking lines : — 
 
 "O thou, whose chariot roll'd on fortune's wheel, 
 Triumphant Syila I thou who didst subdue 
 Thy country's foes ere thou wouldst pause to feel 
 The wrath of thy own wrongs, or reap the due 
 Of hoarded vengeance till thine eagles flew 
 O'er prostrate Asia ; — thou, who with thy frown 
 Annihilated Senates, — Roman, too, 
 With all thy vices, for thou didst lay down, 
 With an atoning smile, a more than earthly crown." 
 
 Chihie Harold, canto iv., stanza lxxxiii. 
 See Plutarch, " Life of Sulla ;" Dkumann, " Geschichte Roms," 
 vol. ii. ; f. A. Hartmann\ "Dissertatio de Sulla," 1727 ; L. Sachsk, 
 " Lebendes Dictators Sulla," 1791 ; ZACHARtas, " L. Cornelius Sulla 
 als Ordner des Rbmischen Freistaales," 1S34: Appian, " Bellum 
 Civile:" Pliny, "Natural History," books vii., xi., and xxvi. ; 
 Mommskn, " Histoire Romaine :" A. Cybulski, "De Bello Civili 
 Sullano," 1S38. 
 
 Sulla, (Puri.ius Cornelius,) a Roman patrician, 
 was a great-grandfather of the dictator Sulla. He was 
 praetor urbanus in 212 B.C., and presided over the Ludi 
 Apollinares, then first instituted. His son, of the same 
 names, was praetor in 186 B.C. 
 
 Sulla, (Publius Cornelius,) a nephew of the dic- 
 tator Sulla. He was probably an accomplice of Catiline, 
 but after a trial, in which he was defended by Cicero, he 
 was acquitted. He fought for Caesar in the civil war, 
 and commanded the right wing at Pharsalia, 48 B.C. 
 Died in 45 B.C. 
 
 Sul'11-van, (George,) LLD., son of General Sulli- 
 van, noticed below, was born at Durham, New Hamp- 
 shire, in 1774. He attained a high reputation as a jurist, 
 and rose to be attorney-general of his native State in 
 1805. Died in 1838. 
 
 Sullivan, (James,) a brother of General Sullivan, was 
 born at Berwick, Maine, in 1744. He became attorney- 
 general of Massachusetts in 1790, and was twice elected 
 Governor of that State. He wrote a " History of the 
 District of Maine," and other works. Died in 1808. 
 
 See a "Life of James Sullivan," by T. C. Amory, 1859. 
 
 Sullivan, (John,) an American general of the Revo- 
 lution, was born at Berwick, Maine, in 1740. He was 
 present at the battles of Trenton and Princeton, and led 
 the right wing at the battle of Brandywine. He was after- 
 wards appointed attorney-general of New Hampshire, 
 and thrice elected President of that State. His life is 
 included in Sparks's "American Biography." Died in 
 
 i71v 
 
 Sullivan, (John L.,) an engineer and physician, born 
 at Saco, in Maine, in 1 777, was a son of James, noticed 
 above. He invented the steam tow-boat about 1814. It 
 is stated that he made discoveries in medicine and 
 surgery. 
 
 SuUivan, (William,) I.L.D., a son of James Sullivan, 
 noticed above, was born at Saco, Maine, in 1774. He was 
 the author of "Familiar Letters on Public Characters 
 and Events from 1783 to 1815," "The Public Men of 
 the Revolution," and other works. Died in 1839. 
 
 Sully, sul'H, [Fr. pron. sii'le',] (Maximilien de Be- 
 thune — deh hi tun',) Due de, and Baron de Rosnv, a 
 French statesman of great merit and celebrity, was bom 
 at Rosny, near Mantes, in December, 1560. He was a 
 son of Francois, Baron de Rosny, who was a Protestant, 
 and who presented Maximilien to Henry of Navarre in 
 1571. He was a student in Paris when the Massacre of 
 Saint Bartholomew occurred. In 1575 he entered the 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. 
 
 »3i 
 
 (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SULLT 
 
 2082 
 
 SUMNER 
 
 - 
 
 ice of Henry of Navarre, whom he accompanied in 
 /escape from Paris and his perilous enterprises which 
 (lowed. By his courage, prudence, and immutable 
 .lilelity he gained the friendship of Henry, who appointed 
 him a councillor of Navarre in 1580. He married Anne 
 de Courtenay in 1583. In 1587 he contributed to the 
 victory at Coutras, where he directed the artillery. He 
 received several wounds at the battle of Ivry, and was 
 severely wounded at the siege of Chartres, in 1591. He 
 advised Henry IV. to adopt the Roman Catholic reli- 
 gion, being convinced that by this policy only could 
 peace be restored on a permanent basis. Sully himself, 
 however, constantly adhered to the Protestant Church. 
 Having been appointed councillor of state and of 
 finances in 1596, he reformed many abuses in the ad- 
 ministration of the finances, and became superintendent 
 of the same in 1599. By order and economy he greatly 
 improved the financial condition of France and the 
 prosperity of the people. He turned his attention to 
 other departments of government, and soon became 
 virtually prime minister. He encouraged agriculture 
 more than manufactures or commerce, and projected a 
 system of canals to unite all the large rivers of France. 
 In 1606 he received the title of Due de Sully. His 
 morals were austere, compared with those of the court 
 and the king, to whom he acted in the capacity of a 
 faithful Mentor. He even ventured to tear, in the pres- 
 ence of the king, a paper on which Henry had written a 
 promise to marry the Marquise de Verneuil. The death 
 of Henry, in 1610, ended Sully's political power. He 
 resigned the direction of the finances, and retired from 
 court, but retained the position of grand master of ar- 
 tillery, and some other offices. In 1634 he received the 
 baton of marshal of France. He employed his latter 
 years in writing memoirs of his life and times, entitled 
 "Memoires des sages et royales (Economies d'Estat de 
 Henri le Grand," (4 vols., 1634-62.) He died at Ville- 
 bon in December, 1641, leaving a son and several 
 daughters. 
 
 See Thomas, " filoge de Sully," 1763; SfSMONni, " Histoire des 
 Francois;" Michelrt, " Histoire de France;" Hofp, " Biographie 
 des Herzogs von Sully," 17S2; Motlky, "United Netherlands," 
 vol. iv. ; Sbwrin, "Les Amis de Henri IV," 3 vols., 1S05; D'Au- 
 bigne, "Histoire universelle ;" Baumstarck, "Des Herzogs von 
 Sully Verdienste," etc., 1828; "Nouvelle Biographie G£ne>ale;" 
 " Retrospective Review," vol. vi., (1822;) " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 April and May, 1831. 
 
 Sul'ljf, (Thomas,) an eminent painter, born in Lin- 
 colnshire, England, in 1783. Having emigrated to Amer- 
 ica in 1792, he studied at Charleston, South Carolina, 
 and afterwards applied himself to portrait-painting suc- 
 cessively at Richmond, New York, and Philadelphia. 
 Among his best works are full-length portraits of Jeffer- 
 son, La Fayette, Commodore Decatur, George Frederick 
 Cooke as " Richard III.," and Queen Victoria. He has 
 also produced several historical pictures, among which 
 we may name " Washington crossing the Delaware." 
 
 See Dl'NLAP, " History of the Arts of Design in America," vol. 
 ii. chaps, vi., vii., and viii. ; Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists." 
 
 Sulpice. See Sulpicius. 
 
 Sulpice Severe. See Severus, (Sulpicius.) 
 
 Sulpicia, sul-pish'e-a, a Roman poetess under the 
 reign of Domitian. ller only extant work is a satire 
 against that emperor on his condemnation of the phi- 
 losophers to exile. It is entitled "De Edicto Domitiani 
 quo Philosophos Urbe exegit." 
 
 Sulpicia Gens, an ancient Roman gens, originally 
 patrician, produced many distinguished men. Among 
 the names of the families into which this gens was 
 divided were Galba, Gallus, Longus, and.Rufus. 
 
 Sulpicius. See Severus, (Sulpicius.) 
 
 Sulpicius, sfil-pish'g-jjs, [Fr. Sulpice, siil'pess',] 
 (Lemon ia Rufus ServTus,) a celebrated Roman jurist 
 and orator, born about 106 B.C. He was elected consul 
 in 51 B.C., and filled other high offices. After his death 
 a eulogy was pronounced on him by Cicero, who was 
 his intimate friend. His legal works were very numerous 
 and highly esteemed, but only fragments of them are 
 extant. He was appointed Governor of Achaia by Caesar 
 in 46 or 45 B.C. Died in 43 B.C. 
 
 Sulpicius Rufus, (Publius,) a Roman orator, born 
 in 124 B.C., became tribune in 88 B.C., and was an ad- 
 
 herent of Marius in the civil war with Sulla. His elo- 
 quence is commended in the highest terms by Cicero, 
 who has introduced him into his dialogue " De Oratore." 
 After the capture of Rome by Sulla, Sulpicius was be- 
 trayed into his hands and put to death, 87 B.C. 
 
 Sulzer, soolt'ser, (Johann Geokg,) a Swiss philoso- 
 pher and aesthetic writer, born at Winterthur in 1720. 
 He became in 1747 professor of mathematics in the 
 Joachimsthal Gymnasium, Berlin, where he made the 
 acquaintance of Euler and Maupertuis, and was elected 
 in 1750 to the Academy of Sciences. He was afterwards 
 appointed professor in the Ritter-Academie at Berlin. 
 His principal work isentitled "A Universal Theory of the 
 Fine Arts," (" Allgemeine Theorie der Schonen-Kiinste," 
 1794,) a cyclopaedia of art and literature, which has a 
 high reputation. Died in 1779. 
 
 See Hans Caspar Hikzel, " Ueber Sulzer den Weltweisen," 
 1780 ; " J. G. Sulzer's Lebensbeschreibung, von ihm selbst aufgesetzt," 
 etc., 1809. 
 
 Sum-ma'nus, an ancient Roman or Etruscan divinity, 
 whose character is involved in obscurity. Some authors 
 represent him as equal in rank to Jupiter. Nocturnal 
 lightnings were supposed to be manifestations of his 
 power. 
 
 Sum'mer-field, (John,) a Methodist divine and 
 distinguished pulpit orator, born at Preston, England, 
 in 1798. He emigrated in 1821 to America, where his 
 labours as a preacher were eminently successful. He 
 was one of the founders of the American Tract Society. 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 See J. Holland, " Life of J. Summerfield," 1829. 
 
 Sttm'mers, (Thomas Osmond,) D.D., a Methodist 
 divine, born in Dorsetshire, England, in 1812, emi- 
 grated to the United States, and became in 1858 editor 
 of the " Methodist Quarterly Review." He has written 
 a "Treatise on Baptism," "The Golden Censer," and 
 other religious works. 
 
 Summonte, soom-mon'ta, (Gian Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian historian, born at Naples. He wrote a " History of 
 the City and Kingdom of Naples," (" Istoria della Citta 
 e Regno di Napoii," (4 vols., 1601-43.) Died in 1602. 
 
 Sttm'ner, (Charles,) an American lawyer and 
 Senator, distinguished as an opponent of slavery, was 
 born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 6th of January, 
 181 1. He graduated at Harvard College in 1830, after 
 which he was a pupil of Judge Story in the law-school 
 of Cambridge. He was admitted to the bar in 1834, 
 practised law in Boston, and was appointed reporter in 
 the circuit court of the United States. He published 
 three volumes entitled "Sumner's Reports," edited the 
 "American Jurist," and, in the absence of Judge Story, 
 lectured to the students of the law-school at Cambridge, 
 (1834-37.) He passed about three years in visits to 
 various countries of Europe, (1837-40.) On the 4th 
 of July, 1845, he pronounced in Boston an oration on 
 "The True Grandeur of Nations," which attracted much 
 attention in the United States and in Europe. The de- 
 sign of this argument was to promote the cause of peace. 
 He opposed the annexation of Texas to the United 
 States in 1845. About this time he separated himself 
 from the Whig party and joined that of the Free-Soilers. 
 He supported Martin Van Buren for the Presidency in 
 1848. He delivered numerous orations and lectures on 
 various subjects, which were published in two volumes, 
 (1850.) By a coalition of Democrats and Free-Soilers 
 he was elected a Senator of the United States in 1850 
 as the successor of Daniel Webster. He opposed the 
 Fugitive Slave bill by a speech in the Senate, and took a 
 prominent part in the debate on the Nebraska-Kansas 
 bill in 1854. On the 19th and 20th of May, 1856, he 
 made in the Senate an eloquent speech on the contest 
 in Kansas and on the aggressions of the slave-power. 
 Some passages of this speech excited the anger of Pres- 
 ton S. Brooks, a Southern member of Congress, who, on 
 the 22d of May, 1856, assaulted Mr. Sumner while he 
 was sitting in the Senate-chamber, and beat him on the 
 head with a cane until he became insensible. Mr. Sum- 
 ner was so severely injured that he was disabled for the 
 public service for several years, and he sailed to Europe 
 in March, 1857, for the benefit of his health. He was 
 re-elected to the Senate by an almost unanimous vote in 
 
 i, e, T, 6, Q, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m4t; not; good; moon; 
 
SUMNER 
 
 2083 
 
 SUNDERLAND 
 
 lanuarv, 1857, and returned home in the autumn of that 
 year, but made another voyage to Europe in the spring 
 of 1858. He remained under medical treatment in Paris 
 for a year or more, and resumed his seat about the end 
 of 1859. He afterwards denounced the peculiar institu- 
 tion of the Southern States in a speech which was pub- 
 lished under the title of "The Barbarism of Slavery" 
 and produced an immense effect. In i860 he advocated 
 the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency. 
 During the session of 1860-61 he opposed the attempts 
 to propitiate the disunionists by concessions which would 
 sacrifice the rights of the oppressed or favour the in- 
 terests of slavery. He was appointed chairman of the 
 committee on foreign relations in March, 1861, and about 
 the end of 1862 was again elected a Senator for six 
 years, ending March 4, 1869. He was the author of 
 the admirable resolutions on foreign mediation which 
 were passed March 3, 1863, by both Houses of Con- 
 
 fress. In a series of resolutions which he offered on the 
 th of February, 1864, he affirmed that "any system of 
 reconstruction must be rejected which does not provide 
 by irreversible guarantees against the continued exist- 
 ence or possible revival of slavery." After the close of 
 the civil war he advocated the reconstruction of the se- 
 ceded States on the basis of impartial suffrage. During 
 the rebellion he was a confidential adviser of President 
 Lincoln, who, in April, 1865, said to Mr. Sumner, 
 " There is no person with whom I have more advised 
 throughout my administration than yourself." Among 
 his important services was the production of the Freed- 
 man's Bureau bill. He has been chairman of the com- 
 mittee on foreign relations since 1861, and has lived to 
 witness the triumph of the principles for which he so 
 long and strenuously contended. In April, 1869, he 
 made an elaborate speech on the Alabama claims. His 
 complete works were published in 8 vols., 1870. 
 
 See Charles A. Phelps, "Life of Charles Sumner," 1870: D. 
 Haksha, "Life of C. Sumner," 1856; Mrs. Stowe, " Men of Our 
 Time," 1868. 
 
 Siim'ner, (Charles Richard,) an English prelate, 
 brother of Archbishop Sumner, noticed below, was born 
 at Kenilworth in 1790. He studied at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, was subsequently appointed historiographer 
 to George IV., made Bishop of Llandaff in 1826, and of 
 Winchester in 1827. He published in 1825 a translation 
 from the Latin of Milton's "Treatise on Christian Doc- 
 trine." He is identified with the evangelical party. 
 
 Sumner, (Edwin V.,) an American general, born in 
 Boston in 1 796. He served as captain on the Western 
 frontier for many years, obtained the rank of major in 
 1846, and distinguished himself in the Mexican war, 
 which ended in 1847. He became a colonel in 1855, 
 escorted Abraham Lincoln from Springfield to Washing- 
 ton in February, 1861, and. was appointed a brigadier- 
 feneral in the regular army in March of the same year, 
 le commanded a corps at the battle of Fair Oaks, May 
 31-June 1, 1862, at Malvern Hill, July 1, and at the 
 battle of Antietam, September 17' of that year. He 
 directed one of the three grand divisions of Burnside's 
 army at the battle of Fredericksburg, December 13, 
 1862. He died at Syracuse, New York, in March, 1863. 
 See Tennev, "Military and Naval History of the Rebellion," 
 P- 7«7- 
 
 Sumner, (Increase,) an American judge and Gov- 
 ernor, born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1746. He 
 was appointed a judge of the supreme court of Massa- 
 chusetts in 1782, and was elected Governor of that State 
 in 1797 and in 1798. His ability and merit are highly 
 commended. Died at Roxbury in 1799. 
 
 See a " Memoir of J. Sumner," by his son William, in the 
 " New England Register" for April, 1854. 
 
 Sumner, (John Bird,) an English prelate, born at 
 Kenilworth in 1780. Having studied at King's College, 
 Cambridge, he was created Bishop of Chester in 1828, 
 and in 1848 Archbishop of Canterbury. He published 
 "Records of Creation," (1816,) "Evidences of Chris- 
 tianity," (1824,) an essay "On Apostolical Preaching," 
 and other works. Died in 1862. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1816. 
 
 Stim'ter, (Thomas,) an American general of the 
 Revolution, born in South Carolina about 1734, was 
 
 distinguished for his skill and success as a partisan 
 leader, and obtained several important advantages over 
 the British. He was afterwards elected to Congress, 
 was appointed minister to Brazil in 1809, and elected to 
 the United States Senate in 181 1. Died in 1832. 
 
 See "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 Stin'der-land, (Charles Spencer,) third Earl of, 
 an English statesman, bom in 1674, was a younger son 
 of Robert, the second Earl. At the death of his elder 
 brother, in 1690, he received the title of Lord Spencer. 
 He was elected to Parliament in 1695, succeeded his 
 father as earl in 1 702, and was sent as envoy to Vienna 
 in 1705. He married Anne Churchill, a daughter of the 
 Duke of Marlborough, about 1700, and became a leader 
 of the Whig party. He was secretary of state from 
 1707 to June, 1 7 10. On the accession of George I., 
 September, 1714, he became lord lieutenant of Ireland. 
 He entered the cabinet as lord privy seal in 17 15, and 
 supplanted his rival, Lord Townshend, in the favour of 
 the king. By his intrigues or influence the ministry was 
 changed in April, 1717, when Sunderland and his friend 
 Joseph Addison became the two secretaries of state. In 
 1718 he exchanged his office for that of first lord of the 
 treasury, — i.e. prime minister. He was accused in 1721 
 of having received a bribe from the South Sea Com- 
 pany, but was acquitted by a large majority of his judges. 
 He resigned office in April, 1721, although the king de- 
 sired to retain him in power. He died in 1722, leaving 
 three sons, Robert, Charles, and John. 
 
 See Lord Stanhope, (Mahon.) " History of England." 
 
 Sunderland, (Henry Spencer,) first Earl of, born 
 about 1622, was a son of Lord Spencer. He married 
 Dorothy Sidney, a sister of Algernon Sidney, a lady 
 whom Waller praised under the name of " Saccharissa. ' 
 Although he disapproved the measures of the court, 
 he joined the royal army in the civil war, assigning 
 " the punctilio of honour" as his motive. He fought at 
 Edgehill, (1642,) received the title of Earl of Sunderland 
 in 1643, and was killed at the battle of Newbury, in the 
 same year. 
 
 See Clarendon, " History of the Great Rebellion." 
 
 Sunderland, (Robert Spencer,) second Earl of, 
 a courtier and politician, famous for his talents and in- 
 trigues, was born about 1642, and was the only son of the 
 preceding. He was sent as ambassador to Paris in 1672, 
 and was appointed secretary of state in 1679. Having 
 been dismissed in the spring of 1681, he was restored to 
 the same office in 16S2. He appears to have been totally 
 destitute of any fixed principles, and had great facility in 
 changing sides in the game of politics. He insinuated 
 himself into the favour of the Duke of York, who, on his 
 accession to the throne, in 1685, retained Sunderland in the 
 office of secretary of state. About this time he received 
 a large bribe or pension from Louis XIV. He became 
 president of the council in December, 1685, and prime 
 minister in 1686. "It was only in private conference," 
 says Macaulay, "that his eminent abilities displayed 
 themselves. In the royal closet, or in a very small circle, 
 he exercised great influence, but at the council-board he 
 was taciturn, and in the House of Lords he never opened 
 his lips." (" History of England," vol. i.) In June, 
 1688, he openly avowed his conversion to the Roman 
 Catholic Church, and before the end of the year made 
 overtures to William of Orange, to whom he revealed 
 the plans of James II. Sunderland was dismissed from 
 power in October, 1688, on suspicion of treason. A few 
 weeks later he fled to Holland in disguise, and changed 
 his religion. " He had rendered to the cause of liberty 
 and the Protestant religion services of which it is diffi- 
 cult to overrate either the wickedness or the ut'lity." 
 ("Macaulay's History," vol. iv.) He returned to Eng- 
 land about the end of 1690, and soon regained his influ- 
 ence at court. It is stated that he was the chief adviser 
 of William III. for several years, although he held no 
 office until 1695, when he was appointed lord chamber- 
 lain. He resigned office in 1697. His wife was a 
 daughter of the Earl of Bristol. He died in 1702, leaving 
 his title to his son Charles. " His tact," says Ma :aulay, 
 " his quick eye for the foibles of individuals, his caressing 
 
 c a* *; 9 as s; g hard; g as /; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( $^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SUNDER ALL 
 
 2084 
 
 SUTHERLAND 
 
 manners, his power of insinuation, and, above all, his 
 apparent frankness, made him irresistible in private 
 conversation." (" History of England," vol. iv.) 
 
 See, also, Burnet, " History of his Own Time ;" Lodge, " Por- 
 traits." 
 
 Suudevall, soon'deh-val', (Carl Jakob,) a Swedish 
 naturalist, bora at Hoegestad in 1801. He became di- 
 rector of the museum of natural history at Lund in 1835. 
 
 Su'per-i, [i.e. those "above" or "on high," from 
 superus, "high,"] a name applied by the Romans to the 
 gods, particularly to the gods of the celestial regions. 
 
 Superville, de, deh su'peR'vel', (Daniel,) a French 
 Protestant minister, born at Saumur in 1657. He re- 
 moved to Rotterdam about 1685, and preached there 
 until his death. Died in 1728. 
 
 Sura. See SuRADEvf and Suras. 
 
 Surabhi, a name of Kamadhenu, (which see.) 
 
 Suraddvi, soo-ra-da'vee, called also simply Sura, 
 sdo'ra, [from the Sanscrit Surd, " wine," and Dh>i, 
 "goddess,"] the Hindoo goddess of wine, was supposed 
 to have been produced from the churning of the ocean. 
 (See KOrma.) 
 
 Surajah Do wlah, soo-ri'ja dow'la, a Hindoo prince, 
 who took Calcutta in 1756 and confined a number of 
 English prisoners in the Black Hole. His army was 
 defeated by Clive at the famous battle of Plassey, June 
 23, 1757; and he was taken a few days after and put to 
 death by the order of Meer Jaffier. 
 
 See Macaulav's article on Lord Clive, (in his " Essays.") 
 
 Suras or Sooras, soo'ras, [from the Sanscrit Surd, 
 a "god,") in the Hindoo mythology, a class of inferior 
 deities, the children of Kasyapa and Aditi. They appear 
 to be the same as the Adityas, (see Aditya,) and are 
 regarded as the natural enemies or opponents of the 
 Asurs, (which see.) 
 
 Surcouf, suVkoof , (Robert,) a French corsair, born 
 at Saint-Malo in 1773. He captured many English 
 merchant-vessels. Died in 1S27. 
 
 See Cunat, " Histoire de R. Surcouf," 1S47. 
 
 Su-re'na or Su-re'nas, a Parthian general in the 
 service of King Orodes. He gained a decisive victory 
 over the Roman general Crassus near Carrhas in 53 B.C. 
 According to Plutarch, " he was superior to the Parthians 
 of his time in courage and capacity." (" Life of Crassus.") 
 He was put to death by Orodes about 52 B.C. 
 
 See Mkrivale, "History of the Romans;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge^ierale." 
 
 Surenhuis.su'ren-hois', [tat Surf.nhu'sius,] (Wil- 
 LEM,) a Dutch Orientalist, lived about 1700. He was 
 professor of Hebrew and Greek at Amsterdam, and 
 published an edition of the Mishna, (3 vols., 1698-1703.) 
 
 Surenhusius. See Surenhuis. 
 
 Sarin, su'iis', (Jean Joseph,) a French Jesuit and 
 ascetic writer, born at Bordeaux in 1600. He went in 
 1634 to Loudun to exorcise some persons possessed 
 with demons, and became himself, as we are told, a de- 
 moniac, or victim of the demons. So much, at least, is 
 certain, that he was insane for many years. Died in 1665. 
 
 See Boudon. "Vie de Surin," i68q: " Nouvelle Bioizraphie 
 Generale." 
 
 Su'rl-us, (Laurentius,) a German monk, bora at 
 Lubeck in 1522. He wrote "Lives of the Saints," 
 (1570.) Died in 1578. 
 
 Surlet de Chokier, siiR.^'deh sho'ke-^.', (Erasmk 
 Ixwis,) Baron, a Belgian statesman, borfT'at Liege in 
 1769. Having previously filled several high offices, he 
 was elected Regent of Belgium in 1831. Died in 1839. 
 
 Surowiecki, soo-rove-et'skee, (L W.,) a Polish 
 scholar and antiquary, born near Gnesen in 1769, pub- 
 lished a work "On the Origin of the Slavic Nations," 
 and other treatises. Died in 1827. 
 
 Surrey. See Howard, (Henry,) Earl of. 
 
 Surt, soort, or Surtur, (Surtr,) soor'ter, [etymologic- 
 ally related to the Danish sort, English swart, and Ger- 
 man schwarz, "black," because it is the property of fire 
 to blacken what it burns,] in the Norse mythology, the 
 god of fire, who rules over Muspellheim, the entrance 
 to which he guards with a flaming sword. At Ragna- 
 rock he will lead the formidable band of Muspell's sons, 
 his fire-sword flashing more brightly than the sun itself. 
 In the battle with the vEsir he will slay Frev ; and after 
 
 the other gods have fallen, be will scatter his fire over 
 the world and burn it up. (Compare Seneca's descrip- 
 tion of the destruction of the world, in his " Hercules 
 CEtaeus," 1. 1102.) 
 
 See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. : Keyser, " Reli- 
 gion of the Northmen ;" Mai.i.kt. " Northern Antiquities," vol. ii. 
 Fables XXXII. and XXXIII. ;. Petersen, " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Sur'tees, (Robert,) an English antiquary and poet, 
 born at Durham in 1779. He published a "History of 
 Durham," (about 1820.) Died in 1834. 
 
 Suruswuttee. See Saraswa'". 
 
 Surville, suVvel', (Marguerite Eleonore Clo- 
 tilde de Vallon-Chai.is,) a French poetess, born 
 about 1405, was the author of a heroic poem entitled 
 " Lygdamir." Died about 1480. 
 
 See Longfem.ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Surya, soor'ya, the Sanscrit name of the Sun, re- 
 garded as an important deity in the Hindoo mythology, 
 though much more so in the primeval ages than later 
 when Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva claimed nearly all the 
 devotion of mankind. In the earlier Sanscrit Writings 
 the Sun is often called Mitra. Surya is represented in 
 a human form, (but having four arms,) surrounded by 
 radiating flames and riding in a car drawn by seven 
 horses. 
 
 Su-sa'rI-on, [Hovaapiuv,] a Greek poet, to whom the 
 origin of the Athenian comedy is attributed, was born 
 in Megara, and lived about 575 B.C. He was the first 
 who employed metrical composition in comedy. 
 
 Suso, soo'zo, (Heinrich,) a celebrated mystic and 
 theologian, surnamed Amandus, was born at Constance, 
 Switzerland, about 1300. He entered the order of Do- 
 minicans at an early age, and subsequently acquired a 
 high reputation as a preacher. He was the author of a 
 work entitled " Book of Eternal Wisdom," (" Horolo- 
 gium Sapientiae Eternae,") and a "Dialogue on Truth." 
 They were translated into the principal European lan- 
 guages, and obtained extensive popularity. Died in 1365. 
 
 Susruta, soos'roo-ta, or Sushruta, sdosh'roo-ta, a 
 Hindoo physician, supposed to have been one of the 
 earliest medical writers in India. The date and the 
 place of his birth are unknown. One of his works was 
 published in 1836 by the Asiatic Society of Calcutta. 
 
 Sussex, Duke of. See Augustus'Frederick. 
 
 Sussmeyer, siis'ml'er, (Fr\nz X aver,) a German 
 composer, bora in 1766, became chapel-master at the 
 court of Vienna. He completed the parts of Mozart's 
 Requiem which the latter left unfinished. Died in 1803. 
 
 Sussmilch, soos'milK, (Johann Peter,) a German 
 Lutheran minister, born about 1706. He wrote on sta- 
 tistics and population. Died in 1767. 
 
 Siiss-Oppenheimer, siis op'pen-hi'mer, a German 
 Jew" who rose to be minister of finance to Karl Alex- 
 ander, Duke of Wiirtemberg. For his abuse of power 
 and many acts of oppression he 
 and executed in 1738. His ha 
 one of Hauff s popular noveJJB^ 
 
 Sustermans, sus'terd^MFXritten also Subter- 
 mans, (Justus,) a Flej^BQ^er, born at Antwerp in 
 1597. He resided ia^^BRj^and became court painter 
 to the gran dHJik^B SiglT. de' Medici. His works, 
 which include |jiwffsyg^rnd historical pictures, are eulo- 
 gized by Ruberrs ; » Hied in 1681. 
 
 See Desca mps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Sut'cliffe, (Matthew,) an English divine, born in 
 Devonshire, was the founder of a college at Chelsea, the 
 Fellows of which were required to assail the errors of 
 Romanism, Pelagianism, etc. Died in 1629. 
 
 Sutee or Suttee. See S at!. 
 
 Suterman. See Suavius. 
 
 Suth'er-land, (Alexander John,) F.R.S., an Eng- 
 lish physician, born about 1 810. He became physician 
 to St. Luke's. Hospital, London, and wrote several 
 treatises on insanity. Died in 1867. 
 
 Sutherland, (George Granville Leveson Gowkr,) 
 Duke of, an English peer and Liberal, born in 1786, 
 was a son of the first Duke of Sutherland. He married 
 a daughter of the Earl of Carlisle. He died in 1861, 
 leaving his title to his son. 
 
 Sutherland, (Georgians Howard,) Duchess of, 
 the wife of the preceding, born about 1806, was a 
 
 was condemned to death, 
 lory forms the subject of 
 
 *> e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 3, e, 1, 6, G, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, All, fat; met; not; good; moon: 
 
SUTTEE 
 
 2085 
 
 SWARTZ 
 
 daughter of the Earl of Carlisle. She was distinguished 
 fur beauty, talents, and beneficence. About 1846 she 
 became mistress of the robes to the queen. She em- 
 ployed her influence against slavery. Died in October, 
 1 868. 
 
 See an article in the " Atlantic Monthly" for February, 1S69, by 
 Mrs. Stowk. 
 
 Suttee. See Sat!. 
 
 Sut'ton, (Amos,) an English missionary to Orissa, 
 India, was born in Kent in 1798. He translated the 
 Scriptures into the Oriya language, and also published 
 a dictionary, grammar, and other works in that tongue. 
 He wrote a " Narrative of the Mission to Orissa," and 
 several religious treatises. Died in 1854. 
 
 Sutton, (Charles Manners.) See Canterbury, 
 Viscount. 
 
 Sut'ton, (Chari.es Manners,) an English prelate, 
 born in 1755. He became Bishop of Norwich in 1792, 
 and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1805. Died in 1828. 
 His son became Viscount Canterbury. 
 
 Sutton, (Sir Richari>,) an English lawyer, noted 
 as one of the founders and benefactors of Brazennose 
 College, Oxford. Died about 1524. 
 
 Sutton, (Thomas,) an English merchant, born in 
 Lincolnshire in 1532, was the founder of a hospital for 
 the poor, known as the Charter-House, and which was 
 formerly the monastery of the Chartreux in Suffolk. 
 Died in 161 1. 
 
 Sutzoa. See Sourzo. 
 
 Suvee, sii'vi', (Joseph BENofT,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Bruges in 1743. He became director of the 
 French School of Art in Rome. Died in 1807. 
 
 Su-war'ow, or, more properly, Soo-vo'rof, written 
 also Souvorot Suvorov, Souvarof, Suworow, and 
 Suwarrow, (Alexander Vasilievitch,) surnamed 
 Rvmnikski, (rim-nik'skee,) a famous Russian general, 
 bom in Finland in 1729, was of Swedish origin. His 
 father was a general of high rank. He served as lieu- 
 tenant in the Seven Years' war, 1755-63, and became a 
 colonel in 1763. Having obtained the rank of a general, 
 he distinguished himself in the war against the Turks 
 in 1774. He commanded in a war against the Turks 
 which began in 1787, and gained a victory on the river 
 Ryninik, (1789,) for which he received the title of Count 
 Rymnikski. In 1794 he conquered the revolted Poles, 
 whom he treated with great barbarity, and for this ser- 
 vice was raised to the rank of field-marshal. In 1799 
 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian 
 and Austrian armies which opposed the French in Italy. 
 He defeated Macdonald on the Trebia in June, and 
 gained a victory over Joubert at the great battle of 
 Novi, in August, 1799. Soon after this event the army 
 was recalled, and Suwarow lost the favour of Paul I. 
 He died at Saint Petersburg in May, 1800. He was a 
 great favourite with the soldiers, and was probably the 
 ablest of all the Russian generals. 
 
 See Anthing, "Versucii einer Kriegsgeschichte des Grafen 
 Suwarow," 3 vols., 1799. (English translation of the same;) J Ik 
 L-AVKkNE, " Histnire tie Souvarow," 1809 : Shrgr Gi.inka, " Vie de 
 Souvarof," 1819; F. von Schmitt, "Suworow's Leben und Heer- 
 ziiu'e," 2 vols., 1834: Astafiep, "Souvenirs de Souvorof," 1856; 
 Maior-Genf.kai. J. Mitchkll. " Bkjgrapht£&.of Eminent Soldiers 
 of the Last Four Centuries," 18*5; "Sketch of Suwarrow and his 
 Last Campaign," by E. Nevil Macready, 1851. 
 
 Suwarrow. See Suwarow. 
 
 Suze, de la. See Colioni, de, (Henriette.) 
 
 Svanberg or Svansberg. See Swanberg. " 
 
 Svartalfar. See Elves. 
 
 Svartz. See Swartz. 
 
 Svedberg. See Sweiiherg. 
 
 Svedenborg. See Swedenhoro. 
 
 Svetchine or Swetchine, svetch-en', (Sophia 
 Soymonof,) Madame, a Russian lady and writer, born 
 at Moscow in 1782, became the wife of General Svetch- 
 ine. She removed to Paris in 1818, joined the Roman 
 Catholic Church, and was distinguished for her piety 
 and talents. Died in Paris in 1857. 
 
 See M. de Fai.i.oux, " Madame de Swetchine, sa Vie et ses CE11- 
 vres."a vols., 1858; Ernest Naville, "Madame Svetchine," 1863. 
 
 Swain, (Charles,) an English writer and engraver, 
 known as "the Manchester poet," was born in thai 
 city in 1803. He published " Metrical Essays," (1828,) 
 " Beauties of the Mind," etc., (1831,)" Rhymes for Child- 
 
 hood," (1846,) "English Melodies," (1849,) and other 
 works, in prose and verse. His "Drybnrgh Abbey," an 
 elegy on Sir Walter Scott, is particularly admired. 
 
 See "Autobiography of William Jerdan," vol. iv. chap. xx. 
 
 Swain, (David Lowry,) an American jurist, born in 
 Buncombe county, North Carolina, in 1801. He was 
 elected Governor of the State in 1832, and in 1835 oe " 
 came president of the University of North Carolina. 
 Died in 1868. 
 
 Swain'son, (William,) an English naturalist and 
 voluminous writer, born at Liverpool in 1789. He visited 
 South America and the shores of the Mediterranean, 
 and made valuable collections of objects in natural his 
 tory. Among his principal works are his " Zoological 
 Illustrations, or Original Figures and Descriptions of 
 New, Rare, or Interesting Animals," (6 vols., .1820,) 
 "Exotic Conchology," (1821,) and a "Treatise oh 
 Malacology," (1840.) He also contributed to Lardner's 
 "Cabinet Cyclopaedia" numerous treatises on natural 
 history, of which we may name "The Natural History 
 and Classification of Fishes, Amphibians," etc., (2 vols., 
 1838-39,) and "On the Habits and Instincts of Animals," 
 (1840.) He was likewise a contributor to the " Fauna 
 Boreali-Americana" of Sir John Richardson. Mr. 
 Swainson emigrated in 1841 to New Zealand, where he 
 died in 1855. 
 
 Swammerdam, swam'mei -dam', (Jan, or John,) an 
 eminent Dutch naturalist, born at Amsterdam in Feb- 
 ruary, 1637. He studied medicine at Leyden, but not with 
 a design to practise as a physician. He also passed some 
 years at Saumur and Paris in the study of anatomy and 
 entomology. In 1664 he discovered the valves of the 
 lymphatic vessels. He took the degree of doctor of medi- 
 cine in 1667, and published in 1669 a "General History 
 of Insects," a work of great merit. He made several 
 discoveries in entomology, and was very skilful in the 
 dissection of insects. Among his works are a "Natural 
 History of Bees," (1673,) and "The Book of Nature, or 
 the Natural History of Insects," etc., ("Biblia Naturae, 
 seu Historia Insectorum in certas Classes redacta," 2 
 vols., 1737-38.) He destroyed his health by intense ap- 
 plication, became melancholy, and diverted his attention 
 from science to religion. He entered into religious 
 fellowship with Antoinette Bourignon. Died at Am- 
 sterdam in 1680. 
 
 See Boerhaave, " Life of Swammerdam," prefixed to the " Biblia 
 Natura;," 1737-3S: Cuvier, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" 
 "Biographic Medicale;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Swanberg or Svanberg, svan'beRg, written also 
 Svansberg, (Jons,) a Swedish mathematician, born in 
 the province of Westerbotten in 1771. In 1801, in con- 
 junction with Oefverbom, he measured an arc of the 
 meridian in Lapland. Of this enterprise he published 
 an account which obtained a prize from the French 
 Institute. He became professor of mathematics at 
 Upsal in 181 1, and published a "Theory of the Planets 
 and Comets," and other scientific works. Died in 1851. 
 
 Swanevelt, van, vin swi'neh-velt', (Herman,) an 
 eminent Dutch landscape-painter, born at Woerden about 
 1620, was a pupil of Gerard Dow, and subsequently of 
 Claude Lorrain. His pictures are few in number, but 
 of great excellence. He died about 1690, at Rome, 
 where he had long resided. He also executed many 
 admirable etchings. He was surnamed the He km it, 
 from his solitary habits. 
 
 Swar'ga, [modern Hindoo pron. swur'ga or swtirg,] 
 written also Swerga, in the Hindoo mythology, the 
 name of Indra's heaven or paradise, supposed to be 
 situated among the clouds in the sky, and regarded as 
 the abode of the inferior gods and deified mortals. (See 
 Indra.) 
 
 Swartz or Svartz, swaRts, (Olaus or O1.0F,) a Swed- 
 ish botanist, born at Norrkopihg in 1760. He studied at 
 Upsal, and subsequently travelled in Finland, Lapland, 
 the West Indies, and the western part of America, 
 bringing with him on his return a rich collection of plants. 
 He was soon after appointed professor of natural history 
 in the Medico-Chirurgical Institute at Stockholm. He 
 was also made a knight of the Polar Star, and received 
 other distinctions. Among his works we may name his 
 " Icones Plantarum Incognitarum," illustrating the rare 
 
 « as k; 5 as t; g hard; g as/; g, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( JJr-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SWAYAMBHU 
 
 2086 
 
 SWEDENBORG 
 
 plants of the West Indies, " Flora Indiae Occidentalis," 
 (1806, 3 vols., with plates,) and " Synopsis of the Ferns," 
 ("Synopsis Filicum," 1806.) He also wrote the text of 
 four volumes of the "Botany of Sweden," ("Svensk 
 Botanik,") and contributed to the "Transactions" of the 
 Linnaean Society, London, of which he was a member. 
 He died in 1818, having acquired the reputation of one 
 of the first botanists of his time. The genus Swartzia, 
 of the order Leguminosae, was named in his honour. 
 
 See Wilkstroem, " Biographie iiber den Professor O. Swartz," 
 1828. 
 
 Swayambhfi, swl'am-b'h.60', or Swayambhuva, 
 %wl'am-iyhd6'va, [from the Sanscrit swdyam, "self," and 
 $ HA, to "exist,"] a Sanscrit term, signifying "self-exist- 
 ent," and used in the Hindoo mythology as an epithet 
 of Brahm (the infinite eternal Being) and of Brahma. 
 It is also sometimes applied to the first Manu, (or 
 Menu.) in which case it may, perhaps, mean "born (or 
 son) of the Self-existent," A'/iu signifying to "be born" 
 as well as to "exist." (See Manu.) 
 
 Swedberg, swed'beug, written also Svedberg, (Jes- 
 PEK,) a Swedish theologian, father of the celebrated 
 Emanuel Swedenborg, was born near Fahlun in 1653. 
 He became professor of theology at Upsal in 1692, and 
 in 1702 was made Bishop of Skara by Charles XII. His 
 family was ennobled in 1719, under the name of Sweden- 
 borg. He died in 1735, leaving a number of religious 
 and miscellaneous works. 
 
 See Fahlcrantz, "Minneskrift bfver Biskopen Dr. Svedberg," 
 1852. 
 
 Swe'd?n-borg, [Sw. pron. swiT'den-boRg',] written 
 also Svedenborg, (originally Swed'berg,) (Ema- 
 nuel,) a celebrated Swedish naturalist, mathematician, 
 and theosophist, was born at Stockholm on the 29th of 
 January, 1688. His father, Jesper Swedberg, at that 
 time a chaplain of the army, became afterwards Bishop 
 of Skara. The family was ennobled by Queen Ulrica 
 in 1719, and the name was changed to Swedenborg. 
 Even in early childhood Emanuel appears to have given 
 indications of those peculiar powers for which he was 
 afterwards so distinguished. He says, in a letter to Dr. 
 Beyer, " From my fourth to my tenth year my thoughts 
 were constantly engrossed by reflections on God, on 
 salvation, and on the spiritual affections of man. I often 
 revealed things in my discourse which filled my parents 
 with astonishment, and made them declare at times that 
 certainly the angels spoke through my mouth." He 
 was educated at the University of Upsal, where, in his 
 twenty-second year, he took the degree of' doctor of 
 philosophy. On leaving the university he set out on 
 his travels. He passed about a year in England ; he 
 then visited the chief cities of Holland, spent subse- 
 quently a year in Paris and Versailles, and returned by 
 Hamburg and Greifswalde to his native country, after an 
 absence of more than four years. In early life Sweden- 
 borg's favourite pursuit was mathematics. About 171 5— 
 16 he edited a scientific publication entitled " Daedalus 
 Hyperboreus." The distinction which he had acquired 
 as a mathematician brought him to the notice of Charles 
 XII., who employed him in the construction of some of 
 his military works. In the siegeof Fredericshall, (1718,) 
 under the direction of Swedenborg, rolling-machines 
 were made by means of which two galleys, five large 
 boats, and a sloop were carried overland a distance of 
 fourteen miles. He had been appointed by Charles 
 XII., in 1716, assessor of the board of mines. In 1717 
 he published "An Introduction to Algebra," and "At- 
 tempts to find the Longitude of Places by Lunar Obser- 
 vations." Soon after he wrote several other works on 
 kindred subjects. Some of these have not been published. 
 
 In 1721 he again visited Holland, and while in that 
 country published (at Amsterdam) several small works, 
 chiefly on subjects connected with natural philosophy. 
 The following year he published at Leipsic "Miscel- 
 laneous Observations connected with the Physical Sci- 
 ences," (" Miscellanea Observata circa Res Naturales.") 
 All the above works give indications of a profound and 
 most original intellect. In 1733 l,e published at Leipsic 
 and Dresden his "Opera Philosophica et Mineralia," 
 in 3 vols, fol., with numerous engravings. This work, 
 as its title indicates, is written in Latin. The first 
 
 volume in particular, entitled " Principia, or the First 
 Principles of Natural Things, being a New Attempt 
 towards a Philosophical Explanation of the Elementary 
 World," has attracted great attention. It is claimed by 
 Swedenborg's admirers that this publication anticipated 
 several of the most important discoveries of modern 
 science. Gorres, a distinguished German writer and 
 journalist, says of the " Principia," " It is a production 
 indicative of profound thought in all its parts, and not 
 unworthy of being placed by the side of Newton's ' Ma- 
 thematical Principia of Natural Philosophy.'" Sweden- 
 borg's father died in 1735. The next year he again set 
 out on his travels, visiting Holland and France, and 
 afterwards Italy, where he passed rather more than a 
 year, five months being spent at Rome. He appears to 
 have returned to Sweden in 1740. In 1740-41 he pub- 
 lished at Amsterdam his " Economy of the Animal 
 Kingdom," ("CEconomia Regni Animalis.") The " Ani- 
 mal Kingdom," (" Regnum Animate,") which may be 
 said to be a continuation of the preceding work, appeared 
 in 1744-45, parts one and two being published at the 
 Hague, and part three in London. Swedenborg, refer- 
 ring to the plan pursued in the foregoing works, savs, 
 " The reader may see that the end I propose to myself in 
 the loork is a knowledge of the soul, since this knoiulcdge 
 will constitute the croivn of my studies." In one of his 
 manuscripts, also, he observes, " I have gone through 
 anatomy with the single end of investigating the soul." 
 Of the "Animal Kingdom," Emerson remarks, " It was 
 an anatomist's account of the human body in the highest 
 style of poetry. Nothing can exceed the bold and bril- 
 liant treatment of a subject usually so dry and repulsive." 
 When Swedenborg reached the age of fifty-seven, his 
 life took a new direction. He no longer occupied himself 
 with the pursuit of physical science. He had, it appears, 
 in 1747, resigned his assessorship ; but, in consideration 
 of his long and faithful services, his full salary was con- 
 tinued to him to the end of his life. Some time before 
 he had, as he believed, been brought into intimate com- 
 munication with the spiritual world, and " the Lord him- 
 self," as Swedenborg says in one of his letters, " granted 
 me the privilege of conversing with spirits and angels 
 which I enjoy to this day." No candid and intelligent 
 person who attentively peruses the writings of the 
 Swedish sage can doubt the perfect sincerity of his own 
 belief in his divine illumination. Nor can the random 
 assertion that he was a dreamer, or that he was insane, 
 be accepted as any satisfactory refutation of his claims. 
 As Tennemann well observes, in his "History of Phi- 
 losophy," "If he must needs be mad, there is a rare 
 method in his madness. In vain will you ransack the 
 archives of his family or his personal history for any 
 trace of insanity." As probably few who are compe- 
 tent to form an intelligent and impartial opinion would 
 be disposed to deny that Swedenborg was gifted with a 
 rare insight into the mysteries of external nature, so 
 it would seem almost impossible for any one, who will 
 allow unimpeachable testimony to prevail against preju- 
 dice or skepticism, to doubt that he was endowed with 
 an extraordinary perception of some things not discern- 
 ible by the senses or mental faculties of the generality 
 of mankind. On Saturday, the 19th of July, 1759, Swe- 
 denborg was at Gottenburg, (which is about three hun- 
 dred English miles from Stockholm,) having recently 
 arrived from England. He was at the house of Mr. 
 Castel, with a party of fifteen persons. "At about six 
 o'clock P.M.," says Kant, the celebrated German phi- 
 losopher, "Swedenborg went out, and, after a short 
 interval, returned to the company quite pale and 
 alarmed. He stated that a dangerous fire had broken 
 out in Stockholm, at Sundermalm, and that it was 
 spreading very fast. He was restless, and went out 
 often. He said that the house of one of his friends, 
 whom he named, was already in ashes, and that his own 
 was in danger. At eight o'clock, after he had been out 
 again, he joyfully exclaimed, 'Thank God! the fire is 
 extinguished the third door from my house.' . . . The 
 next morning Swedenborg was sent for by the governor, 
 who questioned him concerning the disaster. Sweden- 
 borg described the fire precisely, — how it had begun, in 
 what manner it had ceased, and how long it had con- 
 
 t, e, i, 6, u, y, long; A, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
SWEDENBORG 
 
 2087 
 
 SWETT 
 
 tinned. . . On Monday evening a messenger arrived 
 at Gottenburg, who was despatched during the time of 
 the fire. In the letters brought by him the fire was de- 
 scribed precisely in the manner stated by Swedenborg." 
 Kant states this on the authority of a friend of his, who, 
 he says, " has examined the circumstances of this extra- 
 ordinary case, not only at Stockholm, but also at Gotten- 
 burg, where he is acquainted with the most respectable 
 houses, and where he could obtain the most authentic 
 and complete information, as the greatest part of the 
 inhabitants, who are still alive, were witnesses to the 
 memorable occurrence." It is proper to observe that 
 Kant was skeptically inclined respecting the extra- 
 ordinary claims of Swedenborg; those, indeed, who are 
 acquainted with the character of that philosopher need 
 not be told that he, of all men, was one of the least likely 
 to give credence to any marvellous statement, unless it 
 were supported by evidence of the most unimpeachable 
 character.* 
 
 The first volume of Swedenborg's first theological 
 work, entitled the " Secrets or Mysteries of Heaven," 
 ("Arcana Ccelestia,") appeared in 1749. It was com- 
 pleted in 1756, having extended to eight quarto volumes. 
 The work is an exposition of the books of Genesis and 
 Exodus, with intervening chapters describing the won- 
 ders of the future world. In 1758 Swedenborg published 
 in London the following works : "An Account of the 
 Last Judgment and the Destruction of Babylon ; show- 
 ing that all the Predictions in the Apocalypse are at 
 this day fulfilled, being a Relation of Things Heard and 
 Seen," "Concerning Heaven and its Wonders, and Con- 
 cerning Hell, being a Relation of Things Heard and Seen," 
 "On the White Horse mentioned in the Apocalypse," 
 "On the Planets in our Solar System, and on those in 
 the Starry Heavens, with an Account of their Inhabitants 
 and of their Spirits and Angels," and "On the New 
 Jerusalem and its Heavenly Doctrine as revealed from 
 Heaven." In 1763 he published at Amsterdam "The 
 Doctrine of the New Jerusalem concerning the Lord," 
 "The Sacred Scripture," "Faith," a "Continuation re- 
 specting the Last Judgment and the Destruction of 
 Babylon," and "Angelic Wisdom concerning the Divine 
 Love and Divine Wisdom." He published at Amster- 
 dam in 1766 an explanation of the book of Revelation, 
 entitled "The Apocalypse Revealed," (" Apocalypsis 
 Revelata ;") a much more extensive work on the same 
 subject, written also in Latin, was published after his 
 death, in 1790; it was translated into English, and pub- 
 lished in 1815 with the title of " Apocalypse Explained." 
 In 1768 he published at Amsterdam his treatise on " Con- 
 jugal (Conjugial) Love," (" Amor Conjugialis,") in which 
 he teaches that the marriage relation exists in heaven 
 as well as on earth. In 1769 appeared at Amsterdam a 
 small work entitled a "Brief Exposition of the Doctrine 
 of the New Church," and in the same year, at London, 
 another little book, — "The Intercourse between the 
 Soul and the Body." He published in 1771, at Amster- 
 dam, the last and one of the most important of his works, 
 — "The True Christian Religion," ("Vera Christiana 
 Religio,") which is in fact a system of universal theology 
 of the "New Church," (i.e. the Church introduced or 
 revealed by Swedenborg.) 
 
 Swedenborg died in London, from the effects of a 
 paralytic stroke, the 29th of March, 1772, in the eighty- 
 fifth year of his age. He was never married. In person 
 he was of a medium height ; his manners were dignified 
 and somewhat reserved ; his countenance mild and 
 pleasing. He had a slight impediment in his speech, in 
 consequence of which he talked slowly but very distinctly. 
 
 The views entertained of the theological doctrines of 
 Swedenborg, and of his ideas of a future life, will, of 
 course, vary according to the preconceived opinions or 
 the habits of thought of his readers ; but of his merits 
 as a writer on intellectual and moral subjects, several 
 competent and (as we have reason to believe) impartial 
 critics have spoken in terms of the highest praise. 
 
 " I have often thought," says Coleridge, " of writing a 
 work to be entitled ' Vindication of Great Men unjustly 
 branded ;' and at such times the names prominent to my 
 
 • See Kant's letter on this subject to the Frau von Knobloch. 
 
 mind's eye have been Giordano Bruno, Bbhmen, Spl 
 noza, and Swedenborg. Grant that the origin of the 
 Swedenborgian theology is a problem ; yet, on which- 
 ever of the three possible hypotheses (possible, I mean, for 
 gentlemen, scholars, and Christians) it maybe solved, — 
 I, Swedenborg's own assertion and constant belief in the 
 hypothesis of a supernatural illumination ; or, 2, that 
 the great and excellent man was led into this belief by 
 becoming the subject of a very rare but not (it is said) 
 altogether unique conjunction of the somniative facul'y 
 with the voluntary and other powers of the waking state ; 
 or, 3, the modest suggestion that the first and second may 
 not be so incompatible as they appear, — still it is neve^ 
 to be forgotten that the merit and value of Swedenborg's 
 system do only in a very secondary degree depend on any 
 one of the three. ... So much, even from a very partial 
 acquaintance with the works of Swedenborg, 1 may ven- 
 ture to assert, that as a moralist he is above all praise, 
 and that as a naturalist, psychologist, and theologian he 
 has strong claims on the gratitude and admiration of the 
 professional and philosophical student." (See " Notes 
 on Noble's Appeal," in Coleridge's " Literary Remains.") 
 
 " There is," says Emerson, " an invariable method and 
 order in his delivery of his truth, the habitual proceed- 
 ing of the mind from inmost to outmost. What earnest- 
 ness and weightiness ! — his eye never roving, without one 
 swell of vanity or one look to self in any common form 
 of literary pride ! a theoretic or speculative man, but 
 whom no practical man in the universe could affect to 
 scorn." In another place he says, " Not every man 
 can read them, [his books,] but they will reward him 
 who can. . . . The grandeur of the topics makes the 
 grandeur of the style. . . . His writings would be a 
 sufficient library to a lonely and athletic student ; and 
 the ' Economy of the Animal Kingdom' is one of those 
 books which, by the sustained dignity of thinking, is an 
 honour to the human race." But this high praise is 
 not bestowed without important qualifications. (See 
 "Swedenborg, or the Mystic," in "Representative Men.") 
 
 Professor von Gorres, already refer' ad to in this article, 
 says of Swedenborg, " He was guided in his researches 
 by a mind clear, acutely analytic, endowed with skill, and 
 well disciplined in mathematics and logic." 
 
 Our limits will not permit us to attempt even an out- 
 line of his theosophic system ; suffice it to say that what 
 seems to be the great central idea in this system is the 
 doctrine of correspondences, according to which every 
 thing in the natural world is a correspondent or type 
 of something existing in the supernatural or spiritual 
 world. 
 
 It cannot be denied that Swedenborg's theosophy has 
 exerted an important influence upon many gifted minds 
 who are far from accepting all the details of his extra- 
 ordinary revelations. This need surprise us the less 
 because " what appears as Swedenborg's crudities and 
 fantasies," to adopt the words of the Rev. E. H. Sears, 
 "are extraneous to his essential system." (See " Monthly 
 Religious Magazine" for March, 1865.) 
 
 See " Emanuel Swedenborg : bis Life and Writings," by William 
 White, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1X67, (pronounced by Henry James "by 
 far the best life of Swedenborg ;" see " North American Review" for 
 July, 1S67;) J. G. Wilkinson, " E. Swedenborg r a Biography, 1849; 
 Goerkes, " E. Swedenborg," 1827; S. Sandels, " Aminnelse-Tal 
 bfver E. Swedenborg," 1772; Carl F. Ranz, " E. Swedenborg, der 
 Nordisclie Seller," etc., 1841 ; Edwin V. Hood, "Swedenborg; a 
 Biography and Exposition," 1N54; Ei.niu Rich, "-Biographical 
 Sketch ot E. Swedenborg," 1849: Barrett, " Life of E. Sweden- 
 borg," 1S42; Tafkl, " E. Swedenborg und seine Gegner," 2 vols., 
 1841 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for February, 1857, and June, 1868. 
 
 Sweerta, swaxts, (Emmanuel,) a Belgian botanist, 
 born near Breda about 1552, published " Florilegium 
 Amplissimum et Selectissimum," (1612.) 
 
 Sweerta, (Pierre Franqois,) a Belgian historian, 
 born at Antwerp in 1567 ; died in 1629. 
 
 Swerga. See Swarga. 
 
 Swetchine, (Madame Sophia.) See Svetchine. 
 
 Swett, (John Apfi.eton,) M.D., an American phy- 
 sician, born at Boston in 1808. He became in 184c 
 associate editor of the " New York Journal of Medicine," 
 and in 1853 professor of the theory and practice of medi- 
 cine in the University of the City of New York. He 
 published a "Treatise on Diseases of the Chest," (1852.) 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
SWEYN 
 
 zo88 
 
 SWINBURNE 
 
 Sweyn, swan, [Lat. Sue'no ; Fr. SuENoN,sii a'noN',] 
 King of Denmark, obtained the throne about 986 a.d. 
 He began about 994 a series of piratical expeditions 
 against the Anglo-Saxons, and ravaged the coasts of 
 England. King Ethelred, unable to protect his realm 
 by arms, induced Sweyn to retire by paying him a large 
 sum of money. Sweyn soon returned, and obtained 
 possession of a great part of England. He died about 
 1014, and was succeeded by his son, Canute the Great. 
 
 Sweyn II., a grandson of the preceding, was born 
 about 1025, and became King of Denmark in 1047. 
 Died in 1076. 
 
 , Sweynneyro, swin'hlm, (Conrad,) a German 
 printer, who, in conjunction with his friend Pannartz, 
 first introduced printing into Italy. Died about 1476. 
 
 Swieten, van, vin swee'ten, (Geraakd,) an eminent 
 Dutch physician, born at Leyden in 1700. He studied 
 medicine and chemistry under Boerhaave, and became 
 professor of medicine in his native city. Having been 
 obliged to resign this professorship on account of his 
 being a Catholic, he was appointed in 1745 first phy- 
 sician to Maria Theresa of Austria. He was created by 
 the empress a baron of the empire, superintendent of 
 the Imperial Library, and per|>etual president of the 
 medical faculty. His "Commentaries on the Aphorisms 
 of Hermann Boerhaave on the Diagnosis and Cure of 
 Diseases" ("Commentaria in H. Boerhaavii Aphorismos 
 de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis") is regarded as a 
 standard work. 
 
 Swift, (Deane,) a relative of the celebrated writer, 
 noticed below, was the author of an "Essay on the Life, 
 Character, and Writings of Dr. Jonathan Swift," etc., 
 (1755.) He published in 1765 an edition of the works 
 of Swift. Died in 1783. 
 
 Swift, (Jonathan,) a celebrated humorist and 
 satirist, bom in Dublin on the 30th of November, 1667, 
 was a son of Jonathan Swift, an English attorney, who 
 removed to Ireland, and died before the birth of the 
 subject of this article. He was educated at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Dublin, (which he entered in 1682,) at the expense 
 of his uncle, Godwin Swift, for he inherited nothing from 
 his father. He graduated in 1685, and remained at 
 Trinity College until [638. Alxmt this date he entered 
 into the service of Sir William Temple, (a distant relative 
 of Swift's mother,) who employed him as secretary and 
 received him as an inmate in his family at Moor Park. 
 His salary was only twenty pounds a year. He obtained 
 the degree of M.A. at Oxford in 1692, after which he 
 took holy orders. Aspiring to a more independent 
 position, he left the service of Sir William Temple in 
 1694, and went to Ireland. He became prebendary of 
 Kilroot, but, having received an invitation from Sir 
 William, with promise of patronage, he returned to Moor 
 Park in 1695. He was treated as a friend by Temple, 
 who died in 1699 and left him a legacy. At Moor Park 
 he became acquainted with Esther Johnson, to whom 
 he gave the poetical name of" Stella." In 1699 or 1700 
 he was appointed rector of Agher and vicar of Laracor 
 in Ireland. At his invitation, Miss Johnson went in 1700 
 to reside at or near Laracor, expecting that Swift would 
 make her an offer of marriage. It appears that he did 
 not wish to marry, but was fond of her society, and 
 generally conversed with her in the presence of some 
 third person. 
 
 In 1701'he published a political tract, entitled "A 
 Discourse of the Contests and Dissensions between the 
 Nobles and Commons of Athens and Rome," which 
 procured for him the friendship of the Whig leaders, 
 Somers, Halifax, and Addison. He produced in 1704 
 his humorous and satirical "Tale of a Tub," (anony- 
 mous,) and "The Battle of the Books." "The 'Tale of 
 a Tub,'" says Hallam, " is, in my apprehension, the mas- 
 ter-piece of Swift : certainly Rabelais has nothing superior 
 even in invention, nor anything so condensed, so pointed, 
 so full of real meaning, of biting satire, of felicitous 
 analogy." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 
 Swift was often disappointed in his hopes of prefer, 
 ment, and gradually turned from the Whig to the Tory 
 party. About 1708 he published a "Project for the 
 Advancement of Religion," which is said to be the only 
 work to which he ever put his name. During a visit to 
 
 London he wrote a series of letters to Miss Johnson, 
 entitled "Journal to Stella." He edited the " Examiner." 
 a weekly Tory paper, (from November, 1710, to June 
 14, 171 1,) in which he displayed great talents for satire 
 and raillery in personal attacks on Godolphin, Sunder- 
 land, Marlborough, and others. He became very inti- 
 mate with Harley, Earl of Oxford, with Lord Bolingbroke, 
 and with Pope, the poet. He advocated the cessation of 
 hostilities against Louis XIV., in an able tract on "The 
 Conduct of the Allies," (1712,) which had great- success, 
 and efficiently promoted the peace of Utrecht, (1713.) 
 For this service he was rewarded with the place of Dean 
 of Saint Patrick's, Dublin, in 1713. He would probably 
 have obtained a bishopric if he had not written the " Tale 
 of a Tub," in which he exposed religious abuses, and 
 popery especially, with great freedom and even levity. 
 Though ill satisfied with his recent preferment, he went 
 to take possession of the deanery ; but he remained only 
 a few weeks in Dublin. He returned to London, where 
 his presence was required to reconcile Oxford and Boling- 
 broke ; but he failed in this attempt. 
 
 About 1713 he formed an acquaintance with Esther 
 Vanhomrigh, ("Vanessa,") who became fondly attached 
 to him, and is said to have made him a proposal of mar- 
 riage, which he declined. On this subject he wrote a 
 poem entitled "Cadenus and Vanessa." In 1716 Swift 
 and Stella were privately married ; but they never lived 
 together or met except when others were present. She 
 presided at his table on public days, and attended him 
 during illness. She died in 1728. He produced in 1726 
 or 1727 his famous "Travels of Lemuel Gulliver," a 
 satirical romance, displaying great originality and wit. 
 In the latter part of his life he became morose, misan- 
 thropic, and solitary. His memory and other faculties 
 failed in *74I. He died in Dublin in October, 1745. 
 
 There was much paradox and inconsistency in Swift's 
 character. He is said to have given a large part of his 
 income to the poor, and he acquired great popularity 
 among the Irish, although he regarded them as aliens 
 and inferiors. Swift's style is remarkable for its direct- 
 ness, simplicity, and perspicuity. In description, even 
 of the most commonplace things, his power is often 
 perfectly marvellous ; everything is presented to the 
 mind with a distinctness and vividness which remind 
 one of the works of the old Dutch painters. Macaulay 
 describes him at Moor Park as a " poor scholar, under 
 whose plain garb and ungainly deportment were con- 
 cealed some of the choicest gifts that have ever been 
 bestowed on any of the children of men, — rare powers of 
 observation, brilliant wit, grotesque invention, humour 
 of the most austere flavour, yet exquisitely delicious, 
 eloquence singularly pure, manly, and perspicuous." 
 (" History of England," vol. iv.) 
 
 See J. Hawkesworth, " Life of Jonathan Swift." 1755; T. 
 Shrriuan, " Lite of Swift," 17K4: JOHKSON, " Lives of ihe English- 
 Poets ;" Sir Walter Scott, " Biographies o( Eminent Novelists ;" 
 Thackeray, "English Humorists;" " Edinburgh Review," Sep- 
 tember, 1S16 ; Deane Swift, " Essay on the Life and Character of 
 Swift," 1735 '• Quintin Craufurp. " Kssai historique snr !e D<»cteur 
 Swift," iSqS: CAMPBELL, "Specimens of the British Poets;" Lord 
 Jeffrey, "Essays;" "Swit'tiana," London, 2 vols., 1S04; Carl 
 Nyhen, "J. Swift's Lefverne," 1700; W. Ruksbll, "Eccentric 
 Personages," 1864: H. Reynald, " liiographie de J. Swift," 1S60: 
 Allihonh, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Swift, (JOSEPH GARDNER,) an American general and 
 engineer, born in Nantucket in 1783. He graduated at 
 the Military Academy at West Point, and was subse- 
 quently made captain of engineers. He was appointed 
 in 1829 superintendent of the harbour improvements on 
 the lakes. He has published several scientific works. 
 
 Swift, (Thkoi'Hilus,) son of Deane Swift, noticed 
 above, was the author of poems entitled " The Gamblers" 
 and "The Temple of Folly," an " Essay on the Rise and 
 Progress of Rhyme," and other works. Died in 1815. 
 
 Swift, (ZePHANIAH,) an American jurist, born at 
 Warehain, Massachusetts, in 1759, was secretary of the 
 embassy to France in 1800, and in 1806 chief justice 
 of Connecticut. He published a "Treatise on Bills of 
 Exchange," and other legal works. Died in 1823. 
 
 Swinburne, swln'biirn, (Algernon Charles,) an 
 English poet, born near Henley-on-Thames in 1843. 
 He studied at Oxford, which he quitted without a de- 
 gree. He published, besides other works, " Atalanta 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
SWINBURNE 
 
 2089 
 
 STLFIUS 
 
 in Calydon," (1864,) "Chastelard," a tragedy, (1865,) 
 "Poems and Ballads," (1866,) "Siena," a poem, (first 
 published in " IJppincott's Magazine," 1868,) and " Both- 
 well," a tragedy, (1870.) 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1866; " Eclectic Maga- 
 zine" for November, i860 : Au.ihonk. '* Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Swinburne, (Hknry,) an English civilian and jurist, 
 born at York. He wrote on wills, etc. Died in 1624. 
 
 Swinburne, (Henry,) an English traveller, born in 
 1752. He spent many years in visiting France, Spain, 
 Italy, and Sicily, and published "Travels through Spain 
 in 1775 and 1776," "Travels in the Two Sicilies," and a 
 correspondence entitled the "Courts of Europe at the 
 Close of the Last Century," (1841.) I>ied in 1803. 
 
 See the ** London Quarterly Review" for June, 1841. 
 
 Swin'den, (Tobias,) an English divine, wrote a 
 work entitled "An Inquiry into the Nature and Place 
 of Hell." Died in 1720. 
 
 Swinden, van, vin swin'den, (Jan Hendrik,) a 
 Dutch philosopher and mathematician, born at the 
 Hague in 1746. He became in 1785 professor of physics 
 and astronomy at Amsterdam. He was a corresponding 
 mcml>er of the French Institute and of other learned 
 societies, and filled several important offices under the 
 government. Among his principal works are a " Dis- 
 sertation on the Analogy between Electricity and Mag- 
 netism," and a "Treatise on Weights and Measures,'' 
 (1802.) Died in 1823. 
 
 See G. Moll, " Redevoering over J. H. van Swinden," 1814. 
 
 Swin'nock, (Gkorge,) an English nonconformist 
 minister, born at Maidstone. He wrote several religious 
 works. Died in 1673. 
 
 Swiu'ton, (John,) a learned English divine, born in 
 Cheshire in 1703. He became keeper of the archives 
 at Oxford, and published several treatises on Roman 
 and Phoenician antiquities. He was also a contributor 
 to the "Universal History." Died in 1777. 
 
 Swith'in, Saint, an English prelate, was chaplain 
 to King Egbert, and preceptor to his son Ethelwolf. He 
 was afterwards tutor to Prince Alfred, and in 852 was 
 made Bishop of Winchester. Died in 862. 
 
 Swoboda, s<vo-bo'da, (Weszel A LOTS,) a Bohemian 
 litterateur, born in 1781, published tales, novels, and 
 treatises on music. He also translated Seneca's dramas 
 into German. Died in 1S49. 
 
 Swurg or Swurga. See Swarga. 
 
 Sy-a'grl-us, Saint, an influential French ecclesiastic, 
 born at Anton (Augustodumnn) about 520 a.d. He 
 became Bishop of Auttin about 560. Died in 600. 
 
 Sybrecht, (Jan.) See Sihrkciit. 
 
 Sydenham, sjd'en-am, (CHARLES Edward Poulf.tt 
 Thompson,) Lord, an English Whig statesman, born 
 in Surrey in 1 799, was a merchant in his youth. He 
 was i -lectc-d to Parliament for Dover m 1826, and again 
 in 1830. His superior talents for business procured for 
 him a rapid promotion. He became president of the 
 board of trade in June, 1834, and a member of the cabi 
 net in 1835. He represented Manchester in Parliament 
 from 1832 till 1839, was appointed Governor-General 
 of Canada in 1839, and raised to the peerage, as Baron 
 Sydenham, in 1840. Died in Canada in September, 1841. 
 
 See Scrope, " Liie of Lord Sydenham," 1843: " Westminster 
 Review" for December, 1843 ; " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 
 1843. 
 
 Sydenham, (Floyer,) an English scholar, born in 
 1710. He published an excellent translation of the 
 principal part of the works of Plato, but, having lie- 
 come embarrassed, he was imprisoned for debt, and 
 died in 1787. This melancholy event gave rise to the 
 establishment of the Literary Fund for the relief of in- 
 digent and deserving writers. Sydenham also published 
 "Onomasticon Theologicum ; or, An Essay on the 
 Divine Names, according to the Platonic Philosophy," 
 and a " Dissertation on the Doctrine of Heraclitus," 
 etc., (1775.) 
 
 Sydenham, (Thomas,) a celebrated English physi- 
 cian, sometimes called "the English Hippocrates," was 
 born in Dorsetshire in 1624. lie entered Magdalene 
 Hall, Oxford, as a commoner in 1642, and took the 
 degree of bachelor of physic In 164S. Having subse- 
 quently graduated as doctor of medicine at Cambridge, 
 
 he settled in London about 1660. In 1663 he was ad- 
 mitted as a licentiate of the College of Physicians, the 
 majority of whom, it is said, were hostile to him. He 
 rose rapidly to the foremost rank in his profession, and 
 enjoyed the friendship of Locke and Boyle. In 1666 
 he published a "Treatise on Fevers." He discovered 
 the efficacy of a cool regimen in smallpox, by which dis- 
 covery he saved many thousand lives. He wrote several 
 short medical treatises, which were published collectively 
 with the title of "Opera Omnia Medica," (1685,) and 
 have been often reprinted. The best edition is that 
 entitled "Opera Medica," published at Geneva, (2 vols. 
 410, 1716.) In the latter years of his life he suffered 
 much from the gout. Died in December, 1689. "His 
 skill in physic," says Dr. Johnson, "was not his highest 
 excellence ; his whole character was amiable : his chief 
 view was the benefit of mankind, and the chief motive 
 of his actions, the will of God, whom he mentions with 
 a reverence well becoming the most enlightened and 
 most penetrating mind." 
 
 See Johnson, "Life of Sydenham," 1742: Prunei.le, "Notice 
 sur la Vie de Sydenham," 1816; F. Jahn, "Sydenham: Beitrag 
 zur wissenschaftlichen Medicin," 1S40; Goedhn, " T. Sydenham," 
 1827; "Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" "Lives of the British Phy- 
 sicians," London, 1857 ; " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Sydney, (Sir Philip.) See Sidney. 
 
 Sykes, siks, (Arthur Ashley,) an English divine, 
 born in London about 1684, rose through several prefer- 
 ments to be preliendary of Winchester. He was the 
 author of an " Essay on the Truth of the Christian 
 Religion," etc., and other works. Died in 1756. 
 
 See Disnev, "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of A. A. Sykes." 
 
 Sykes, (Gkorge,) an American general, born in 
 Delaware or Maryland about 1824, graduated at West 
 Point in 1842. He commanded a division at Gaines's 
 Mill, June 27, 1862, and a corps at the battle of Gettys- 
 burg, July 1-3, 1863. 
 
 Sylburg, sIl'bdoRG, [Lat. Sylbur'gius.1 (Fried- 
 rich,) a German scholar, born near Marburg in 1536. 
 He studied Greek at Jena, and subsequently entered 
 into a connection with the printer Jerome Conimelin, 
 at Heidelberg, as director of the printing of the Greek 
 and Latin classics. He published editions of Pausa- 
 nias, Aristotle, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Zosimus, 
 ftistin Martyr, and other ancient writers. He also 
 contributed to the " Thesaurus" of Henry Stephens. 
 Sylburg was one of the greatest scholars of his time, 
 and his editions of the classics have perhaps never been 
 surpassed in critical accuracy. Died in 1596. 
 
 See J. O. Jung, " Lebensbeschreibung F. Syibnrg's," 1745: M. 
 Adam, "Vitae Philosophorum ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grseca." 
 
 Sylburgius. See Sylburg. 
 
 Sylla. See Sulla. 
 
 Sylvanus. See Silvanus. 
 
 Sylverius. See Silvkkius. 
 
 Sjfl-ves'ter, | Fr. Sii.vestre, sil'vestR' ; It. Sii.ves- 
 tro, sel-ves'tRo,] Saint, was elected Pope of Rome 
 in 314 A.D. Under his pontificate the celebrated Coun- 
 cil of Nice was assembled (325) and the Arian heresy 
 was first promulgated. Died in 335. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, " History of Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 Sylvester H. succeeded Gregory V. as Pope of 
 Rome in 999 A.n. His original name was Gekbrkt, 
 and he was a native of Auvergne. He was distinguished 
 for his attainments In mathematics and philosophy, and 
 made several valuable discoveries. He died in 1003, 
 leaving a number of scientific treatises. 
 
 Sylvester III., ANTI-POPE, was raised to the pon- 
 tificate in 1013, in opposition to Benedict IX., but after 
 a short time he was deposed. 
 
 Sjrl-vSs'ter, (Joshua,) an English Puritan writer, 
 born in 1563, was the author of a poem entitled "To- 
 bacco Battered and the Pi|>es Shattered by a Volley of 
 Holy Shot Thundered from Mount Helicon." He made 
 several translations from the French. Died in 1618. 
 
 Sylvester, (Matthew,) an English nonconformist 
 minister, was ejected about 1662, after which he preached 
 in London. He edited Baxter's " History of his- Life 
 and Times." Died in 1708. 
 
 Sylvius, the Latin of Dunois, (which see.) 
 
 Sylvius, (/Eneas.) See Plus 11. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,gitttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (J^*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
STLFIUS 
 
 2090 
 
 SZ1GLIGETI 
 
 Sylvius, sll've-ns, (Franz,) a German physician, 
 originally named Lf. BoE, born at Hanau in 1614. He 
 became professor of medicine at Leyden, where he died 
 ji 1672. He published several medical works, in Latin. 
 
 Sylvius, sll've-us, (Lambert,) or Van den Bosch, 
 vfn din bosk, a Dutch writer, born at Dort in 1610. 
 He wrote histories, poems, etc. Died in 1688. 
 
 Syme, (James,) an eminent Scottish surgeon and phy- 
 sician, born in Fifeshire about 1800. He was a pupil 
 of Robert Liston, at Edinburgh. He gained a high 
 reputation as an operator and as a writer on surgery. 
 About 1833 he became professor of clinical surgery in 
 the University of Edinburgh. Among his works are a 
 ' Treatise on the Excision of Diseased Joints," (1831,) 
 ' Principles of Surgery," (1832,) and a "Treatise on 
 Diseases of the Rectum," (1838-46.) Died in 1870. 
 
 Symes, slmz, (Michaei.,) an English officer and di- 
 plomatist, was ambassador to the Burmese court in 1795, 
 and published, after his return, his "Embassy to the 
 Kingdom of Ava." Died in 1809. 
 
 Sym'ing-ton, (W.,) a Scottish theologian, born in 
 1795. He was a professor of theology of the Re- 
 formed Presbyterian Church, and lived in Glasgow. He 
 published works entitled "The Atonement and Interces- 
 sion of Christ," and "Mediatorial Dominion of Christ." 
 Died in Glasgow in January, 1862. 
 
 Sym'ma-ehus, [Gr. lifi/iaxoc ; Fr. Symmaque, se'- 
 mSk',] surnamed the Samaritan, is supposed to have 
 flourished about 200 A.D. Having been converted to 
 Christianity, he made a translation of the Old Testament 
 into Greek, which has been highly commended for the 
 grace and perspicuity of its style. 
 
 Symmachus, (Ccelius,) born in Sardinia, succeeded 
 Anastasius II. as Pope of Rome in 498 A.D. Died in 514. 
 
 Symmachus, (Quintus Aurei.ius,) a Roman orator 
 and statesman. He became successively proconsul of 
 Africa, prefect of Rome, (384,) and consul, (391 A.D.) 
 - He was a zealous defender of paganism, and laboured 
 earnestly to prevent its downfall. Died about 410. 
 Among his extant works are ten books of letters, which 
 contain a great deal of interesting and valuable infor- 
 mation. He is said to have been a man of great ability 
 and learning. Fragments of his orations have been pub- 
 lished by Angelo Mai. 
 
 See Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Latina ;" Angelo Mai, "Com- 
 mentarii Prievii de Synnuacho;" E. Mown, " fitude sur la Vie de 
 Symmaque," 1847; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Symmaque. See Symmachus. 
 
 Symmes, simz, (John Cleves,) an American soldier, 
 born in New Jersey about 1780, is chiefly known as the 
 advocate of a theory representing the earth as hollow, 
 open at the poles, and habitable within. He wrote 
 several treatises on the subject, but made very few 
 converts. Died in 1829. 
 
 Sjfrn'mpns, (Charles,) M.D., born at Cardigan, 
 Wales, in 1749, was the author of a "Life of Milton," 
 and dramatic poems entitled "Inez" and " Constantia." 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Sy'monds, (Sir William,) an English rear-admiral 
 and naval architect, born in 1782. He made improve- 
 ments in the construction of ships, and was surveyor of 
 the navy from 1832 to 1847. Died in 1856. 
 
 Sy'mons, (Jklinger C.,) an English writer and phi- 
 lanthropist, born in 1809 or 1810. He wrote on educa- 
 tion and social reform. Died in i860. 
 
 Syn, sin, or Synia, sin'e-a, [perhaps from tyn, 
 "sight," and so named on account of her watchfulness 
 and sagacity,] a goddess in the Norse mythology, the 
 portress of the hall or palace of Odin, and also the 
 patron of those who in a lawsuit are in clanger of being 
 injured by false testimony. 
 
 Syn-cel'lus, [Gr. 2>y/ce;Uocy ; Fr. Le Synckllk, leh 
 saN'seV,| (George,) a Greek monk and chronicler of the 
 eighth century, was the author of a " Chronography," or 
 chronological history of the world from the creation to 
 the time of Diocletian. 
 
 Synesius, si-nee'she-us, [Gr. Suvcoto?,] a celebrated 
 Neo- Platonic philosopher, was born at Cyrene, in Africa, 
 in 378 A.D. He was a disciple of Ilypatia at Alexandria ; 
 but he was afterwards converted to Christianity, and 
 became Bishop of Ptolemais in 410 A.D. He was the 
 
 author of a treatise " On Dreams," " Dion, or on Self- 
 Discipline," a large collection of letters, and several 
 hymns and epigrams. His works are admired for the 
 style and other merits. Died about 430. 
 
 See Claurkn, "De Synesio Philosonho," 1831; Drouon, 
 " fitude sur la Vie et les CEuvres de Synesius," 1859: B. Koi.bh, 
 "Der Bischol" Synesius von Cyrene als Physiker," 1S50 ; Tillkmont, 
 " Memoires eccl^siastiques ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene>a!e." 
 
 Synesius, a Greek writer on medicine, the date of 
 whose birth is unknown. His "Treatise on Fevers," a 
 translation from the Arabic of Ibnu'l-Jezzar, is his only 
 extant work. • 
 
 Synge, slnj, (Edward,) born at Cork, in Ireland, in 
 1659, rose to be Archbishop of Tuam. He was the 
 author of several religious works. Died in 1741. 
 
 Syn'tl-pas, the Greek form of the name of Sende- 
 bad, sen'deh-bid', a Hindoo or Persian philosopher, to 
 whom is ascribed a collection of tales and apologues 
 which were translated into Greek by Michael Andreo- 
 poulos. These tales were published by Boissonnade 
 in 1828. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Sy'phax, [Gr. £v^a£,] a king of Numidia, made an 
 alliance with the Romans in 213 B.C., after which he 
 waged war against Masinissa. About the year 204 he 
 became an ally of Carthage in the second Punic war. 
 He was defeated by Scipio in 203 B.C., and was taken 
 as a prisoner to Rome. Died about 201. 
 
 See Livy, " History of Rome." 
 
 Syr-I-a'nus, [Gr. Zvpiavoc,] a Greek philosopher of 
 the Neo-Platonic school, was born at Alexandria or 
 Gaza. He succeeded Plutarchus as the head of the 
 Neo-Platonic school at Athens. Among his disciples 
 was the celebrated Proclus, who expressed a very high 
 opinion of Syrianus. He wrote several works, which 
 are lost, and a "Commentary on the Metaphysics of 
 Aristotle," which is extant. Died about 450 A.D. 
 
 See Rittkr, "History of Philosophy ;" Fabricius, " Bibliotheca 
 Graeca." 
 
 Sy>-o-pu'lus, (Sylvester,) an ecclesiastic of the 
 Greek Church, and resident of Constantinople in the 
 fifteenth century, was the author of a " History of the 
 Council of Florence." 
 
 Syrus. See Publius Syrus. 
 
 Szabo, sa'bo, (David,) a Transylvanian poet, born 
 in 1739, made a translation of Milton's " Paradise Lost" 
 and of Virgil's " /Eneid," and published a poem entitled 
 a "Description of Rural Life." Died in 1819. 
 
 Szalay, soh'loi, (Ladislaus,) a Hungarian writer, 
 born at Buda in 1813, succeeded Kossuth in 1844 as 
 editor of the " Pesti Hirlap." Among his principal 
 works are a " History of Hungary," " The Book of 
 Statesmen," (1847,) and " Publicistic Writings," (1847.) 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Szalkai, sol'ki, (Anthony,) a Hungarian dramatic 
 poet of the eighteenth century. His " Pikko Hertzeg" 
 is said to have been the first regular drama in the Hun- 
 garian language. Died in 1804. 
 
 Szechenyi, sa'Ken-ye, (Stkphen,) Count, a Hun- 
 garian nobleman, eminent for his public spirit, was born 
 at Vienna in 1792. He was a liberal patron of learning 
 and promoter of rural economy. He was a pioneer in 
 the navigation of the Danube by steam. In politics he 
 opposed the measures of Kossuth which produced or 
 preceded the revolution of 1848. Died in i860. 
 
 Szegedi, sa'ged-e, (John Baptist,) a Hungarian 
 Jesuit, born at Eisenstadt in 1699. He published seve- 
 ral works on Hungarian history and laws. Died in 1760. 
 
 Sze-ma-Kwang. See Sse-ma-Kwang. 
 
 Sze-ma-Tsien. See Ssk-ma-Tsie.m. 
 
 Szemere, sa'meh-ra, (Bartholomew,) a Hungarian 
 patriot and statesman, born in the county of Borsod in 
 1812. Having previously filled several important offices 
 under the government, he became in 1849 president of 
 the new ministry. After Gorgev became dictator, Sze- 
 mere took up his residence in Paris, where he published 
 a number of political treatises. Died in 1865. 
 
 Szigligeti, sig'le-gi-te, (Joseph,) a distinguished 
 Hungarian dramatist, born at Grosswardein in 1814. He 
 has published, among other plays, "The Travelling 
 Actor," and "Crown and Sword." 
 
 8, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
TABARAUD 
 
 2091 
 
 T A FUR I 
 
 T. 
 
 Tabaraud, ti'bS'ro', (Matkif.u Mathurin,) a 
 French Jansenist priest and writer, born at Limoges in 
 1744. He wrote "Histoire de Pierre de Berulle," (2 
 vols., 181 7,) and many controversial works, among which 
 is an "Essay on the State of the Jesuits in France," 
 (1828.) Died in 1832. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Tabaree or_Tabari, (Aboo- (Abu-) Jaafar-Mo- 
 hamrned, it'boo ja'a-far mo-ham'med,) an eminent Arab 
 historian, born in Tabaristan in 839 A.D. He was the 
 author of a "Universal History from the Creation 10314 
 A.D.," a "Commentary on the Koran," and other works. 
 
 Tabari. See Tabaree. 
 
 Tabarrani, ta-bar-ra'nee, (P.,) an Italian physician, 
 born near Lucca in 1702. He was professor of medicine 
 at Rome and Padua, and published " Observationes 
 Anatomicse," (1753.) Died in 1779. 
 
 Tabernaemcuitanus, ta-beK'na-mon-ta'nOs, (Jaco- 
 bus Thf.odorus,) a physician and naturalist, born at 
 Berg-Zabern, in Alsace, about 1520. His principal work 
 is entitled a "New Complete Herbal," ("Neue volkom- 
 tnen Krauterbuch,") which was highly esteemed in his 
 time. Died in 1590. 
 
 Tabor, ta'bor, (Johann Otho,) a German jurist, 
 born at Bautzen in 1604; died in 1674. 
 
 Tabouet, ti'boo-J', [Lat. Taboe'tius,] (Julien,) a 
 French jurist and historian, born near Le Mans about 
 1500. He was banished in 1556 for an alleged official 
 misdemeanour. Died in 1562. 
 
 Tabourot, ti'boo'ro', (Etienne,) a French lawyer 
 and humorous writer, called the "Seigneur des Accords," 
 Was born at Dijon in 1547. He published a collection 
 of facetious poems entitled "Les Bigarrures et Touches 
 du Seigneur des Accords," etc., (1572.) Died in 1590. 
 
 See Abel Jeandet, "Tabourot Seigneur des Accords," 1861. 
 
 Tabreezee or Tabrizi, ta-bi ee'zee, (Aboo- (Abfi-) 
 Zacharia-Yahia, a'boo za-Ka-ree'a yah'he-a,) an Arab 
 grammarian and critical writer, was professor at Bagdad. 
 
 Tabrizi. See Tabreezee. 
 
 Tacca, tak'ka, (Pietro Giacomo,) an Italian sculptor, 
 was a pupil of John of Bologna. Died in 1640. 
 
 Taccoli, tak'ko-lee, (Niccoi.6.) Count, an Italian 
 historian, born at Reggio in 1690; died in 1768. 
 
 Tac-fa-ri'nas, a Numidian, who, during the reign of 
 Tiberius, took arms against the Romans, about 18 A.D. 
 He gained some victories, but was defeated and killed 
 in 24 a.d. 
 
 Tachard, ti'shaV, (Gut,) a French Jesuit and mis- 
 sionary to Siam in 1685, published, after his return, an 
 account of his travels, (2 vols., 1689.) Died in 171 1. 
 
 Tacite. See Tacitus. 
 
 Tacito. See Tacitus. 
 
 Tac'I-tua, [ Kr. Tacite, tS'set'; It. Tacito, ta'che-to,] 
 (Caius Cornelius,) a celebrated Roman historian, was 
 born about 55 A.D. The events of his early life have 
 not been recorded. He entered the public service in 
 the reign of Vespasian, and married a daughter of C. 
 Julius Agricola, the famous general, in 78 A.I). He was 
 an intimate friend of Pliny the Younger, from whose 
 letters we derive a large part of the knowledge which 
 we have of his life. In the year 88 he obtained the 
 office of praetor. He was one of the most eloquent 
 orators of his time. In the reign of Nurva he became 
 consul, 97 A.D., and about the same date he wrote his 
 work on Germany, — "On the Situation, Customs, etc. 
 of Germany," (" DeSitu, Moribuset Populis Germanise.") 
 Tacitus and Pliny conducted the prosecution against 
 Marios Priscus, who was convicted of cruelty and other 
 crimes in too A.D. 
 
 Among his earlier works is a " Life of Agricola," 
 which is much admired. After the death of Ncrva, he 
 wrote "The Histories," (" Historiarum Libri XIV.,") 
 which treat of the period from 68 to 96 a.d. This work 
 is lost, except the first five books. His reputation is 
 chiefly founded on his " Annals," (" Annales,") in sixteen 
 
 books, which record the history of the Roman empire from 
 the death of Augustus, 14 A.D., to the death of Nero, 68 
 A.D. This excellent work is extant, except the seventh, 
 eighth, ninth, and tenth books, and parts of three other 
 books. His "Annals" were completed about 116 A.D. 
 The date of his death is not known. He was a Stoic in 
 philosophy, and probably knew nothing of Christianity. 
 According to Gibbon, " he was the first historian who 
 applied the science of philosophy to the study of facts." 
 (" History," vol. i. 225.) He displays profound insight 
 into the motives of human conduct and the dark recesses 
 of character. His style is eminently concise and vigorous. 
 
 "Of the Latin historians," says Macaulay, "Tacitus 
 was certainly the greatest. His style, indeed, is not only 
 faulty in itself, but is in some respects peculiarly unfit 
 for historical composition. . . . He tells a fine story 
 finely, but he cannot tell a plain story plainly. He stim- 
 ulates till all stimulants lose their power. ... In the 
 delineation of character, Tacitus is unrivalled among 
 historians, and has very few superiors among dramatists 
 and novelists." (Essay on " History," published in the 
 "Edinburgh Review," 1828.) 
 
 "Tacitus," says F. W. Farrar, "towered like a giant 
 above all his contemporaries, isolated and unapproach- 
 able. . . . The little we know of his private life is in 
 perfect accordance with the noble standard of his re- 
 corded sentiments." (" Encyclopaedia Britannica.") 
 
 See Botticher, " De Vita. Scriptis ac Sii!o Tacili," 1834 ; Sie- 
 vers, "Tacitus und Tiberius," 1850; Di'buis-Gucuan, "Tacite et 
 son Siecle," 2 vols., 1857; Baylk, "Historical and Critical Dic- 
 tionary;" D. W. Mollhh, * Disputatio de C C. Tacito, : ' 16S6; 
 Malvezzi, " Discorsi sopra Tacito," 1622; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Tacitus, (Marcus Claudius,) Emperor of Rome, 
 was elected to succeed Aurelian in 275 A.D. He was 
 distinguished for the wisdom and energy of his admin- 
 istration. He defeated the Scythians, who had invaded 
 Pontus, but he soon after died (276) of a fever, (though 
 one account says he fell a victim to a conspiracy and 
 was assassinated,) having reigned about eight months. 
 
 Tacormet, tS'ko'ni', (ToussaintGaspard,) a French 
 actor and dramatic writer, born in Paris in 1730; died 
 in 1774. 
 
 Tacquet, ti'k&', (Andrew,) a learned Flemish Jesuit, 
 born at Antwerp in 1611, became professor of mathe- 
 matics in his native city. He was the author of several 
 mathematical works, in Latin. Died in 1660. 
 
 Tadda, del. See Ferrucci, (Francesco.) 
 
 Tadino, td-dce'no, (Gabriel,) an Italian general, 
 born near Bergamo about 1480. He fought for the Ve- 
 netians against the League of Cambray, and became 
 grand master of the artillery of Charles V. Died in 1543. 
 
 Tadolini, ta-do-lee'nee, (Adamo,) an Italian sculp- 
 tor, born at Bologna in 1789, was a pupil of Canova. 
 His statue of Saint Francis de Sales is highly praised. 
 
 Tadolini, (Giovanni,) an Italian composer, born at 
 Bologna in 1793. He composed successful operas, 
 among which were "II Tamerlano" and "Almanzor." 
 
 Tafel, ta'fel, (COTTLIKB LUCAS Frikdkich,) a German 
 scholar and antiquary, born in 1787; died at Ulm in i860. 
 
 Tafel, (Joiiann Frieijrich Immanuei.,) a distin- 
 guished German Swedenborgian, was born at Sulzbach, 
 in Wurtemberg, in 1796. lie became librarian of the 
 University at Tubingen, translated several of Sweden- 
 borg's works into German, and wrote, besides many 
 other works, " Swedenboig and his Opponents," (" Swe- 
 denborg und seine Gcgner," 2 vols., 1841.) Died at 
 Rogaz, in Switzerland, in 1862. 
 
 See C. D0BCRG, " Leben und Wirken von Dr. J. F. Immanuei 
 Tafel," WUinar, 1M4, 
 
 Taffl, taf'fee, (ANDREA,) a Florentine artist, born in 
 1213, was the first to introduce the art of painting in 
 mosaic into Italy. Died in 1294. 
 
 Taiuri, ta-foo'ree, (G. B.,) an Italian writer, born at 
 Nardo in 1695. lie published, besides other works, an 
 "Account of the Writers born in the Kingdom of 
 Naples," (9 vols., 1744-70.) Died in 1760. 
 
 « as i; 9 as 1; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as t; th as in this. (jy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TATUR1 
 
 2092 
 
 TALBOT 
 
 Tafuri, (Matteo,) called Matth^eus Soleta'nus, an 
 Italian philosopher and physician, born at Soleto in 
 1492. He wrote on theology, medicine, astronomy, etc. 
 Died about 1585. 
 
 Ta'gei, [Fr. Tages, tS'zhes',] an Etrurian genius or 
 mythical personage, who is sai ' to have issued from a 
 clod of earth, and is represented as a boy with the wis- 
 dom of an old man. He is said to have taught the art 
 of predicting the future by the inspection of the entrails 
 of victims. 
 
 Tagesen. See Taussen. 
 
 Tagliacarne, tal-ya-kaR'ni, (Benedetto,) called 
 Theocrk'nus, [Fr. Theocrene, taVkR^n',] an Italian 
 litterateur and poet, born at Sarzana about 1480. He 
 removed to France, obtained the favour of Francis I., 
 and was appointed Bishop of Grasse in 1533. Died 
 in 1536. 
 
 Tagliacozio. See Tagi.iacozzi. 
 
 Tagliacozzi, tal-ya-kot'see, or Tagliacozio, tal-ya- 
 kot'se-o, [Lat. Taliaco'tius,] (Gasparo,) an eminent 
 Italian surgeon, born at Bologna in 1546. He became 
 professor of anatomy and surgery in his native city, 
 where he enjoyed a high reputation as a lecturer ; but his 
 fame rests chiefly on his skill in restoring lost features, 
 particularly noses. He published several surgical works, 
 in Latin. His method of forming the nose has been 
 called the "Taliacotian process." Died in 1599. 
 
 See "Biographie MeMicale;" Fantuzzi, " Scriltori Bolognesi." 
 
 Taglioni, tal-yo'nee, (Marie,) a celebrated opera- 
 dancer, born in 1804 at Stockholm, where her father, 
 Filippo Taglioni, held the post of ballet-master. She 
 performed with brilliant success in Paris, London, and 
 the other principal cities of Europe. In 1832 she was 
 married to Count Gilbert de Voisins, and in 1847 retired 
 from the stage, having amassed a large fortune. Her 
 brother, Paul Taglioni, born at Vienna in 1808, became 
 royal ballet-master in London, and composed a number 
 of ballets. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tahureau, tS'u'ro', (Jacques,) a French poet, born 
 at Mans in 1527 ; died in 1555. 
 
 Taillandier, t4'y8N'de-i', (Alphonse Honore,) a 
 French publicist and lawyer, born in Paris in 1797. He 
 was a Liberal member of the Chamber of Deputies in 
 the reign of Louis Philippe. He published several works 
 on legislation and penal laws, and contributed to the 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Taillandier, (Charles Louis,) a learned French 
 Benedictine monk and writer, was bom at Arras in 1705 ; 
 died in 1786. 
 
 Taillandier, (Rene Gaspard Ernest,) a French 
 philosopher and critic, born in Paris in 181 7. He 
 studied in Paris, and subsequently at Heidelberg, and 
 was appointed in 1843 professor of French literature at 
 Montpellier. He published, among other works, a treat- 
 ise " On Erigena the Scot, and the Scholastic Philos- 
 ophy," (1843,) a " History of Young Germany," (1848,) 
 and "Maurice de Saxe," (2 vols., 1865.) He has been a 
 frequent contributor to the " Revue des Deux Mondes." 
 
 Taillasson, tS'yi'siN', (Jkan Joseph,) a skilful 
 French historical painter and litterateur, born near Bor- 
 deaux in 1746, was a pupil of Vien. He was admitted 
 into the Academy of Painting in 1784. Died in 1809. 
 
 Taillepied, tSi'pg-4'or ti'ye-pe-i', (Noel,) a French 
 biographer and antiquary, born near Rouen about 1540. 
 He published, besides other works, a " Life of Luther," 
 (1577,) and a " History of the State and Republic of the 
 Druids," etc, (1585.) Died in 1589. 
 
 Taine, t4n, (Hippolyte Adolphe,) a French litte- 
 rateur, born at Vouziers in 1828. He has published, 
 besides other works, an " Essay on Titus Livius," (1854,) 
 "The French Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century," 
 (1856,) and a "History of English Literature," (4 vols., 
 1864.) In 1864 he was chosen to teach aesthetics and 
 the history of art in the New School of Fine Arts. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale;" " Westminster Review" 
 for April, 1866. 
 
 Tai-Ping-Wang. See Tien-Tf, 
 Taisand, t&'zoN', (Pierre,) a French jurist, born at 
 Dijon in 1644. He wrote " The Lives of the Most Cele- 
 
 brated Jurists of all Nations," (in French, 1721.) Died 
 in 1715. 
 
 Tait, (Archibald Campbell,) a British prelate, born 
 in Edinburgh in 181 1. He was educated at Oxford, 
 where he opposed the Tractarian principles and gradu- 
 ated about 1836. He succeeded Dr. Arnold as head- 
 master of Rugby School in 1842, was appointed Dean of 
 Carlisle in 1850, Bishop of London in 1856, and Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury in Novemlier, 1868. Among his 
 works is "The Dangers and Safeguards of Theology." 
 
 Talachon. See Talochon. 
 
 Talbert, taTbaiR', (FRANgois Xavier,) a French 
 writer and ecclesiastic, born at Besancon in 1728, pub- 
 lished eulogies on Bossuet, Montaigne, and other emi- 
 nent men ; also several poems. Died in 1803. 
 
 Tal'bot, (Catherine,) an English writer, grand- 
 daughter of the Bishop of Durham, was born in 1720. 
 She was the author of " Reflections on the Seven Days 
 of the Week," " Letters to a Friend on a Future State," 
 " Essays on Various Subjects," " Dialogues," " Pas- 
 torals, and " Poems." She is also said to have con- 
 tributed to the " Athenian Letters," and to have written 
 the thirtieth number of "The Rambler." She was an 
 intimate friend of Mrs. Elizabeth Carter. Died in 1770. 
 
 See Pennington, " Life of C. Talbot ;" Drake, " Essays ;" 
 Mrs. Ei.Woou, "Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from 
 the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. i. ; " Monthly Re- 
 view" for April, 1772. 
 
 Talbot, (Charles.) See Shrewsbury, Duke of. 
 
 Talbot, (Charles,) an eminent English jurist, born 
 in 1684, was a son of W. Talbot, Bishop of Durham. 
 He practised law with great success, and acquired a 
 high reputation as an eloquent debater in Parliament. 
 In 1733 he became lord chancellor of England, and was 
 created Baron Talbot. According to Lord Campbell, 
 "he was without an accuser, without an enemy, without 
 a detractor, without any one, from malice or mistake, to 
 cavil at any part of his character, conduct, or demean-' 
 our." Died in 1737. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. iv. I 
 Foss, "The Judges of England." 
 
 Talbot, tSl'bo', (Eugene,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Chartres in 1814. He became professor of rhetoric 
 in the College Louis-le-Grand, Paris. He produced ver- 
 sions of the works of Lucian and Xenophon, (1857-58.) 
 
 Talbot, (John,) Earl of Shrewsbury, a celebrated 
 military commander, born in Shropshire, England, in 
 1373. Appointed in 1414 lieutenant of Ireland, he 
 brought the insurgent chiefs into subjection, and took 
 prisoner the famous Donald McMurrough. From 1419 
 to 1422 he served in the French campaigns of Henry 
 V., and, after the death of that sovereign, gained a 
 succession of signal victories over the French armies. 
 Having laid siege to Orleans, he was compelled to 
 retire before the forces of the enemy, led on by Joan of 
 Arc, (1429,) and after the battle of Patai, in the same 
 year, was made prisoner. He was created commander- 
 in-chief after his release, and took Le Crotoy, Harrleur, 
 and several other towns. He was subsequently made 
 Earl of Shrewsbury in England, Earl of Waterford 
 and Wexford in Ireland, and in 1446 appointed for the 
 third time lord lieutenant of Ireland. While attempting 
 to raise the siege of Castellan, in France, in 1453, n4 
 was killed, together with his son, Lord de l'lsle. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England ;" " Nouvelle Biographie C»^n£- 
 rale;" Monstrki.et, " Chronicle ;" Shakspeare's " Henry VI, ' 
 part i. act iv. 
 
 Talbot, (Peter,) a learned Jesuit and writer on the- 
 ology, born in Ireland in 1620. He was appointed Arch- 
 bishop of Dublin in 1669. He published a "Treatise 
 on the Nature of Faith," (1657,) and several controver- 
 sial works. Accused of complicity in the Popish Plot, 
 he was confined in prison from 1678 until his death, in 
 1680. He was a brother of Richard, Earl of Tyrconnel, 
 
 Talbot, (Richard.) See Tyrconnel. 
 
 Talbot, (Robert,) an English divine, and prebendary 
 of Wells Cathedral, was a native of Northamptonshire. 
 He published a commentary and notes on the " Itine- 
 rary" of Antoninus. Died in 1558. 
 
 Tal'bpt, (Silas,) an American Revolutionary officer, 
 born in Rhode Island about 1750, distinguished himself 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
TALBOT 
 
 2093 
 
 TALLEYRAND 
 
 m several important engagements both by land and sea. 
 Having been made a captain in the navy, he was ap- 
 pointed to the command of the frigate Constitution in 
 1799, Died fa 1813. His life has been written by H. T. 
 TuckermaH. 
 
 Talbot, (William,) an English prelate, born in 
 Staffordshire in 1659. He became Bishop of Oxford in 
 1699, and of Salisbury in 1715. He was transferred to 
 the see of Durham in 1722. Died in 1730. His son 
 Charles became lord chancellor. 
 
 Talbot, (William Hknry Fox,) the inventor of 
 photography on paper, was born in Wiltshire, England, 
 m 1800. He discovered the process of photography in 
 1833 or 1834, but he did not announce it to the public 
 until 1839. Daguerre anticipated him by the publication 
 of a similar discovery. The process of Talbot was 
 called Calotype, and Talbotype. He published "The 
 Pencil of Nature," (1844,) and other works. 
 
 Talfourd, tawl'ford, (Thomas Noon,) called Ser- 
 geant Talfourd, an English dramatist, essayist, and 
 lawyer, born at Doxey, a suburb of Stafford, in 1795. He 
 was a pupil of Dr. Valpy, and studied law under Mr. 
 Chitty. Having been called to the bar in 1821, he married 
 a Miss Rutt, and joined the Oxford circuit. In 1835 ne 
 became a Liberal member of Parliament, in which he 
 procured the passage of an important law of copy- 
 right He contributed to the "Edinburgh Review" 
 and other periodicals. In 1835 he produced " Ion," a 
 tragedy, which was very successful. He wrote several 
 other dramas, and " Memorials of Charles Lamb," (1848.) 
 He was appointed a judge in 1849. Died in 1854. 
 
 See R. H. Horne, " New Spirit of the Age." 1844: Ai.ubone, 
 " Dictionary of Authors;" "Edinburgh Review" fur April. 1*36; 
 " North British Review" for May, 1856 ; " North American Review" 
 for January, 1838. 
 
 Talhouet, de, deh tfloo'4', (Auguste Frederic 
 Bon Amour,) Marquis, a French peer, born at Rennes 
 in 1788, was rich, and noted for his liberality. He 
 founded in 1819 a society for the amelioration of prisons. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Taliacotiua. See Tagliacozzi. 
 
 Taliaferro, tol'e-ver, (John,) an American statesman, 
 born in Virginia in 1768, was a member of Congress 
 more than twenty years, and for a time librarian of the 
 treasury department at Washington. Died in 1853. 
 
 Tal'ie-ain, a British poet of the sixth century, said to 
 have been the son of Henwg, wassurnamed Chief ofthe 
 Bards. Scarcely anything is positively known of his life. 
 
 Tallard or Tallart, de.deh ti'liR'/fCAMiLLK d"Hos- 
 tun — dos'tus',) Due, a French marshal, born in Dau- 
 phine in 1652. Having previously served under Conde 
 and Turenne, he was sent as ambassador-extraordinary 
 to England in 1697 to negotiate with respect to the Span- 
 ish succession. In 1703 he was made a marshal of France, 
 and soon after gained a signal victory over the Imperial- 
 ists, under the Prince of Hesse, at Spire ; but he was 
 subsequently defeated by the Dttke of Marlborough at 
 Blenheim, (1704,) and made prisoner. He was created 
 in 1712 Duke of Hostun, and afterwards became minister 
 of state under Louis XV. Died in 1728. 
 
 See Fontenbllb, " filoge du Mare'chal de Tallart:" Saint- 
 Simon, "Memoires;" De Couhcem.es. " Dictionnaire del Generaux 
 Francais;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generate." 
 
 Tallart. See Tallard. 
 
 Tallemant, til'moN', ( Fr ancois,) a French translator, 
 bom near Jonzac in 1620. He translated Plutarch's 
 " Lives" into French. Died in 1693. 
 
 Tallemant, (Paul,) a French priest and mediocre 
 writer, born in Paris in 1642, was a cousin of the pre- 
 ceding. He was admitted into the French Academy in 
 1666. Died in 1712. 
 
 Tallemant des Reaux, til'mos' d& rk'6', (GEdeon,) 
 a French litterateur, born at La Rochelle in 1619, was a 
 brother of Francois, noticed above. He was one of the 
 wits that frequented the Hotel Rambouillet, and wrote 
 " Historiettes," (6 vols. 1833-35,) a gossiping record of 
 what he had heard and witnessed. This work contains 
 3iuch interesting matter, highly seasoned with scandal 
 and anecdotes, the truth of many of which may reason- 
 ably be doubted. Died in 1692. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Bbgraphie Generate ;" MonmehouA, " Notice 
 fur Talleman: des Re'aux, 1836. 
 
 Talleyrand, the famous diplomatist. See Talley- 
 rand- Perigord, de, (Charles Maurice.) 
 
 Talleyrand, de, deh tS'lJ'rdN', (Auguste Louis,) 
 Com IK, a French diplomatist, born in 1770, was a nephew 
 of the cardinal. He was minister to Switzerland from 
 1814 to 1823. Died in 1832. 
 
 Talleyrand, de,(fii.iE,) Cardinal de Perigord, a French 
 prelate, eminent for his learning, was born at Perigueux 
 in 1301. He was a friend of Petrarch, and had much 
 influence both in the church and state. Died in 1364. 
 
 See Aubery, " Histoire des Cardinaux ;" " Nouvelle Bio-'raphie 
 Generate." 
 
 Talleyrand, de, (Gabriel- Marie,) Comte de Peri- 
 gord, a French general, born in 1726, was an uncle of 
 Talleyrand the famous diplomatist. He served with 
 distinction at Hastenbeck and Crefeld. Died in 1795. 
 
 Talleyrand, de, (Henri,) Comte de Chalais, a 
 French courtier, born in 1599, was a friend of Gaston, 
 Duke of Orleans, with whom he conspired against Riche- 
 lieu. He was convicted of treason and executed in 1626. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographi* Generate ;" Bassompierrb, "Mi- 
 moires." 
 
 Talleyrand-Perigord, de, deh tf IJ'rSN' pa're'goR', 
 (Alexandre AngBi.iquk,) a French cardinal, born in 
 Paris in 1736, was a brother of Gabriel Marie, noticed 
 above. He became Archbishop of Rheims in 1777, and a 
 member ofthe States-General in 1789, soon after which 
 he emigrated. In 1817 he obtained the dignity of cardi- 
 nal. Died in 1821. 
 
 See De Baussrt, " Notice historique surle Cardinal de Talleyrand- 
 Perigord," 1821 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Talleyrand-Perigord, de, deh tt'l^'roN' pa're'goR', 
 (Charles Maurice.) Prince of Benevento, (ba-na-ven'- 
 to,) [Fr. Prince de Ben-Even t, pftaNSS d?h ba'n&'v&N',] 
 commonly known as simply Tal'ley-rand, a celebrated 
 French diplomatist and wit, born in Paris on the 13th of 
 February, 1754, was the eldest son of Charles Daniel, 
 Count de Talleyrand. An accident which occurred in 
 his infancy made him lame for liie. In consequence of 
 this lameness, he was required to renounce his birthright 
 and enter the Church, although the clerical profession 
 was very distasteful to him. In his youth he was styled 
 the Abbe de Perigord. He was appointed general agent 
 ofthe clergy of France in 1780, and held this important 
 office for eight years. In 1788 he became Bishop of 
 Autun, and in 1789 a member of the States-General. 
 Enlisting in the service of liberty and equality, he joined 
 the Third Estate, and was a member of the committee 
 appointed by the National Assembly to form a consti- 
 tution. Among the important measures which he pro- 
 posed was the confiscation of the lands of the Church. 
 He also supported the civil constitution of the clergy, 
 and resigned the bishopric of Autun about the end of 
 1790. He was the author of an able and celebrated 
 report on public instruction read in September, 1791. 
 Early in 1792 he was sent to London, without official 
 character, to dissuade the British ministry from joining 
 the allies in hostilities against France. He enjoyed the 
 society of his friend Madame de Stael, who was then 
 in England, but was treated with neglect or incivility by 
 the English aristocrats and ministers. In 1793 he was 
 ordered by Pitt to quit the island in twenty-lour hours, 
 and, as he had been proscribed by Robespierre, he took 
 refuge in the United States. By the agency of Chenier, 
 he obtained permission to return to France in Septem- 
 ber, 1795. About this time he wrote an able "Memoir 
 on the Commercial Relations of the United States with 
 England," and was admitted into the Institute. In 
 July, 1797, he became minister of foreign affairs, partly 
 through the influence of Madame de Stael. He re- 
 signed in July, 1799, co-operated with Bonaparte in the 
 revolution of the 18th Brumaire, and was appointed 
 minister of foreign affairs in November, 1 799. He 
 was grand chamberlain from 1804 to 1809. 
 
 Talleyrand was distinguished for his sarcastic and 
 subtle wit, his exquisite tact, his moderation and self- 
 restraint, and his finesse and dexterity as a negotiator. 
 " He was a profound thinker," says the " North British 
 Review," (Novemlwr, 1853 ;) " he had strong political 
 opinions, if he had no moral principles ; he was at least 
 as bold, daring, and decided in action as he was saga- 
 
 ea»^;5as*;gA<jr^;gasyV g, h, K.guttural; N, nasal '; *,trilltd; las*; th asin/Aw. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
T ALLIEN 
 
 2094 
 
 TALON 
 
 ciou3 in council ; his political and social tact — which is 
 wisdom so quick and piercing as to seem unreasoning — 
 had the promptitude and certainty of an instinct." His 
 coolness, sobriety, and "masterly inactivity" were well 
 adapted to temper the impetuosity and redundant energy 
 or ambition of Napoleon. He received the title of Prince 
 of Benevento in 1806. He offended the emperor by the 
 boldness with which he opposed some of his measures. 
 In August, 1807, he resigned his office. Napoleon in- 
 vited him to resume the direction of foreign affairs in 
 
 1813, but he declined. 
 
 Talleyrand promoted the restoration of Louis XVIII., 
 and insisted on the "Charter," by which a constitutional 
 government was guaranteed. He became minister of 
 foreign affairs in the first cabinet of Louis XVIII., repre- 
 sented France at the Congress of Vienna which met in 
 
 1814, and obtained favourable terms for his country by 
 sowing dissension among the allies. He resigned in 
 September, 1815, because he would not sign the humili- 
 ating treaty which was concluded with the allied powers. 
 He became the leader of the, Liberal opposition in the 
 Chamber of Peers, and opposed the reactionary policy 
 of the government in the reigns of Louis XVIII. and 
 Charles X. In September, 1830, he was sent to London 
 as ambassador and minister-plenipotentiary, and had an 
 opportunity to realize what had long been with him a 
 favourite object, — the formation of an alliance between 
 France and England. His mission ended about the close 
 of 1834. He died in Paris in May, 1838, leaving "Me- 
 moires," which he ordered should not be published until 
 thirty years after his death. Among his famous sayings 
 is, " Language is given to man to conceal his thoughts." 
 
 See Salle," Vie politique du Prince de Talleyrand," 1S34; Mignet, 
 * Notices et Portraits ;" Villemarest, " M. de Talleyrand," 1835 ; 
 Dufour de la Thuilerie, " Histoire de la Vie du Prince de Tal- 
 fcyiand," 1838; L. de Lomenik, " M. Talleyrand, par un Homme 
 de kien," 1841 ; G. A. Vogel, "Talleyrand der grbsste Diplomat 
 seiner Zeit," 1838; Mignet, "Notice histmique sur la Vie de M. 
 le Prince de Talleyrand," 1830; L. G. Michaud, " Histoire politique 
 et privet de C. M. de Talleyrand," 1853; De Barante, " EJoge 
 de M. le Prince de Talleyrand," 183S : Lamartine, " History of the 
 Restoration;" Thiers, "History of the Consulate and the Em- 
 pire;" Guizot, "Memoires;" " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale ;" 
 "Historical Characters," by H. L. Bui.wer, 186S; "Edinburgh 
 Review" for April and October, 1805, (the former article by Brou- 
 gham, the latter by Jeffrey ;) " Eraser's Magazine" for February 
 and March, 1839. 
 
 Tallien, ti'le^N', (Jean Lamhert,) a French Jacobin, 
 born in Paris in 1769. He published in 1792 the "Citi- 
 zen's Friend," ("Ami du Citoyen,") gained distinction 
 by his audacious eloquence, took an active part in the 
 violent riot of the 10th of August, 1792, and became 
 secretary of the commune of Paris. Having been elected 
 a member of the National Convention, he voted for the 
 death of the king, and was an active persecutor of the 
 Girondists. In 1793 Tallien and Isabeau were sent by 
 the Convention to Bordeaux, where they established 
 the reign of terror by numerous executions. He was 
 induced to adopt a milder policy by the influence of Ma- 
 dame de Fontenay, nie Cabarrus, who became Madame 
 Tallien. He returned to Paris in April, 1794, after the 
 death of his friend Danton, and formed with Fouche\ 
 Barras, and others a conspiracy against Robespierre, 
 who denounced Tallien in the Convention, June 12, 
 1794. Tallien was the boldest or most prominent leader 
 of the party or coalition of parties which triumphed 
 on the 9th Thermidor, July, 1794. It is stated that he 
 drew a dagger in the Convention and threatened the 
 life of Robespierre. He continued to oppose the reign 
 of terror, and used his influence in favour of humanity, 
 excepting in the case of the royalists captured at Qui- 
 beron. He took part in the expedition to Egypt in 1798, 
 with the title of savant, and returned in 1801, after which 
 he fell into neglect and obscurity. Died in Paris in 1820. 
 
 See Lamartine," History of the Girondists;" Thiers, " History 
 of the French Revolution;" Duval, "Souvenirs Thermidoriens ;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Tallien, Madame. See Chimay, de. 
 
 Tal'lis, (Thomas,) an eminent English composer of 
 church music, lived under the reigns of Edward VI., 
 Mary, and Elizabeth. He held the office of organist of 
 the chapel royal. His works are exclusively of a religious 
 character, and his anthems and other compositions are 
 esteemed master-pieces of the kind. Died in 1585. 
 
 Tallmadge, til'mij, (Benjamin,) an American officer 
 of the Revolution, born on Long Island in 1754. He 
 obtained the rank of colonel, and was afterwards a. 
 member of Congress from Connecticut. Died in 1835. 
 
 See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. 
 
 Tallmadge, (James,) LL.D., an American jurist and 
 statesman, born 111 Dutchess county, New York, in 1778. 
 He was elected to Congress in 1817, and in 1825 became 
 Lieutenant-Governor of New York. He was appointed 
 president of the American Institute in 1833, and was 
 one of the founders of the New York University. While 
 in Congress he distinguished himself by his opposition 
 to the extension of slavery beyond the Mississippi. 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 Talma, til'mi', (Charlotte Vanhove,) an actress, 
 the wife of the following, was born at the Hague in 1771. 
 She was married to Talma in 1802. She excelled in 
 comedy, and wrote " Studies on the Theatrical Art," 
 (1835.) Died in i860. 
 
 Tal'ma, [Fr. pron. til'mS',] (FRANgois Joseph,) a 
 celebrated French tragedian, born in Paris in 1763. He 
 manifested at an early age an extraordinary predilection 
 for the drama. His father, who was a dentist, took 
 him to London, where he passed several years in his 
 childhood. Young Talma also practised dentistry in 
 early life. He made his debut at the TheStre Francais 
 in 1787, in the rdle of "Seide" in "Mahomet." In 1789 
 he performed Chenier's "Charles IX.," with great ap- 
 plause. He soon became the most popular tragic actor 
 in France, and received from Bonaparte some tokens of 
 special favour. He excelled in the expression of intense 
 passion. A noble countenance and a powerful voice 
 contributed to his success. Among the rSles which he 
 performed were those of "Sulla," "Orestes," "Leoni- 
 das," "Hamlet," and "Othello." Died in Paris in 1826. 
 
 See Tissot, "Souvenirs historiques sur Talma," 1826; Moreau, 
 "Memoires sur Talma." 1826; N. Lemekcier, "Notice sur Tal- 
 ma," 1827; Regnaui.t-Warin, " Memoires hisioriques sur Talma," 
 1827; Alexandre Dumas, "Memoires de F. J. Talma," 4 vols., 
 1840-50; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale ;" "Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine" for September, 1825. 
 
 Tal'mash, (Thomas,) an English general, who was 
 second to Marlborough in command of the English troops 
 in Flanders in 1689. He served under Ginkell in Ire- 
 land in 1691. " Since the disgrace of Marlborough," says 
 Macattlay, "he [Talmash] was universally allowed to be 
 the best officer in the army." (" History of England," 
 vol. iv.) He commanded a force sent in 1694 to surprise 
 Brest, and was killed in the attack on that place. 
 
 Talmont, taTmoN', (A. P. de la Trimoille— deh 
 IS tRe'mwal' or tRe'mwj'y?,) a French royalist of the 
 Revolution, distinguished himself in the principal battles 
 of the Vendean war, and attained the rank of general of 
 cavalry. Being made prisoner, he was condemned to 
 death by the Convention, and executed in 1793. 
 
 Talochon, t$'lo'sh6N', (Marie Vincent,) a French 
 surgeon, called Pere Ei.ysee, born near Lagny in 1753. 
 He served Louis XVIII. as surgeon, before and after 
 his accession to the throne. Died in 1817. 
 
 See " Biographie Medicale." 
 
 Talon, ti'lo.N', (Antoine Omf.r,) a French lawyer, 
 born in Paris in 1760, was a royalist member of the 
 National Assembly in 1790. Died in 181 1. 
 
 Talon, (Dknis,) a French judge, born in Paris in 
 1628, was a son of Omer, noticed below. He became 
 president £ mortier in 1693. Died in 1698. 
 
 Talon, (Nicolas,) a French Jesuit, born at Moulins 
 in 1605. Among his works is a " Histoire sainte," (4 
 vols., 1640.) Died in 1691. 
 
 Talon, (Omer,) a French humanist, born at Amiens 
 about 15 10, published a treatise on rhetoric, (in Latin, 
 1544.) Died in 1562. 
 
 Talon, (Omer,) an eminent French advocate and 
 judge, born about 1595. He became advocate-general to 
 the Parliament of Parisin 1631, and distinguished himself 
 by his brave and eloquent assertion of the rights of the 
 Parliament and the interests of the people. He died in 
 1652, leaving " Memoires," which Voltaire said were the 
 productions of "a good magistrate and good citizen." 
 
 See Tallemant des Reaux, " Historiettes;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 M. i. 6, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
TALPINO 
 
 2095 
 
 TANEY 
 
 Talpino, II. See Sai.meggia. 
 
 TAniAsp. See ThamAsp. 
 
 Tamaup Kouli Khan. See NAdir Shah. 
 
 Tamberlick, tam-b£R-lek', (Enrico,) a noted tenor 
 singer, born in Rome in 1820. 
 
 Tambroni, tam-bRo'nee, (Clotilda,) sister of the 
 following, was born at Bologna in 1758. She was dis- 
 tinguished for her attainments in the classics, and was 
 appointed in 1794 professor of Greek in the University 
 of Bologna. She also published a number of poems in 
 Italian. Died in 1817. 
 
 Tambroni, (Giuseppe,) an Italian litterateur, born at 
 Bologna in 1773. He filled several offices under the 
 government, and was a member of the Academy of Fine 
 Arts at Vienna, and foreign associate of the French 
 Institute. He published a " Compendium of Polish 
 History," (1807,) and a number of poems and prose 
 treatises. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " liiografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Tamburini, tam-boo-ree'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 singer, born at Faenza in 1800. He retired from the 
 stage in 1855. 
 
 Tamburini, (Pietro,) an Italian theologian and phi- 
 losopher, born at Brescia in 1737. He was appointed 
 professor of divinity at Pavia, (1778,) and afterwards 
 rilled the chair of moral philosophy and 'the law of na- 
 ture and of nations, in the same university. He was 
 made a chevalier of the iron crown by the Emperor of 
 Austria, and received other distinctions. He published, 
 among other works, an " Introduction to the Study of 
 Moral Philosophy," (1797,) " Elements of the Law of 
 Nature," (in Latin, 1815,) and an "Idea of the Holy 
 See," (" Idea della Santa Sede.") Died in 1827. 
 
 See Zuradelli, " Elogio del Professore P. Tambuvini," 1827. 
 
 Tam'er-lane', [Fr. Tamerlan, tt'meR'IS.N', J, (a cor- 
 ruption of Taimoor-leng, i.e. "Taimoor the Lame,") 
 called also Taimoor or Taimur, (ti'moor',) and Timur 
 or Timour, (tee'moor',) Timoor (Timour or Timur) 
 Beg or Bee, (i.e. "Lord Timoor,") a celebrated Asiatic 
 conqueror, bom at Kesh, in Independent Tartary, in 
 1336, was of Mongol extraction, and a descendant of 
 Jengis Khan. About 1361 he supported the cause of 
 Husein, Khan of Northern Khorassan, against several 
 neighbouring tribes, and in this war received a wound 
 in the thigh, from which he accpiired the surname of 
 Leng, (or the "Lame.") He afterwards quarrelled with 
 Husein, took Balkh, his capital, by storm, (1369,) and 
 caused himself to be proclaimed Khan of Jagatai. He 
 then successively brought into subjection Khorassan, 
 the principal part of Persia, and Armenia, and in 1387 
 turned his arms against Toktamish-Khan, in Western 
 Tartary, whom he defeated at Bashkiria, destroying his 
 whole army. Tamerlane's capital was Samarcand. 
 Having taken Bagdad and Damascus, subdued Georgia, 
 and advanced as far as Moscow, he next invaded India, 
 where, in 1398, he gained a signal victory over the forces 
 of Mahmood, then Emperor of Delhi, near Delhi. In 
 1402 he met the famous Bayazeed, (Bajazet,) Sultan of 
 Turkey, in Angora, and, after one of the most sanguinary 
 battles on record, totally routed his army, and took the 
 Sultan prisoner. He was preparing for the invasion of 
 China, when he died on his march, in 1405. A great 
 part of his acquisition was lost by his successors soon 
 after his death. 
 
 " Timour," says Sir J. Malcolm, "although one of the 
 greatest warriors, was one of the worst monarchs. He 
 "was able, brave, and generous, but ambitious, cruel, and 
 oppressive. He considered the happiness of every human 
 being as a feather in the scale when weighed against the 
 advancement of what he deemed his personal glory ; and 
 that appears to have been measured by the number of 
 kingdoms he laid waste and the people he destroyed." 
 (" History of Persia," vol. ii. chap, xi.) " The fame 
 of Timour," observes Gibbon, " has pervaded the East 
 and the West, and the admiration of his subjects, who 
 revered him almost as a deity, may be justified in some 
 degree by the praise or confessions of his bitterest ene- 
 mies. He might boast that, at his accession to the throne, 
 Asia was the prey of anarchy and rapine, whilst, under 
 his prosperous monarchy, a child, fearless and unhurt, 
 
 might carry a purse of gold from the east to the west. 
 Bjl their rapine, cruelty, and discord, the petty tyrants 
 of Persia might afflict their subjects, but whole nations 
 were crushed under the footsteps of the reformer. The 
 ground which had been occupied by flourishing cities was 
 often marked by his abominable trophies, by columns 
 or pyramids of human heads." 
 
 See Langlbs, "Instituts politiques et militaires de Tamerlan;" 
 Hammer-Purgstall, " Gescliichte des Osmanischen Reichs," 
 vol. i. ; " Histoire de Tirour-Bcc, connu sous le Nom du grand 
 Tamerlan," translated from the Persian of Shereef-kd-deen Alee 
 by Petis de la Croix; Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire," cliap. lxv. ; Argote ue Molina, " Historia del gran Ta- 
 merlan," 15S2 ; Samuel Clarke, " Life of Tamerlane the Great," 
 1676; Al-Hacem, "History of the Life of Tamerlane," translated 
 from the Arabic by L. Vane, 1753. 
 
 Tan'a-quil, the wife of Tarquinius Priscus, King of 
 Rome, is described as a woman of high spirit and energy. 
 The Latin poets used her name to indicate an imperious 
 consort. 
 
 Tanaquillus Faber. See Lefevre, (Tannegul) 
 
 Tancred, tang'kred, [Fr. Tancrede, tSN'kR&d'j 
 Ger. Tancred, tang-kRat'; It. Tancredi, tan-kiia'dee; 
 Lat. Tancre'dus,] a celebrated hero of the first crusade, 
 was born in Normandy in 1078, and was a nephew ot 
 Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia. In 1096- he joined 
 the crusading army in company with his cousin Bohe- 
 mond, Prince of Tarentum. He was conspicuous for his 
 valour at the battle of Dorylaeum and the siege of An- 
 tioch, and was one of the first to mount the walls at the 
 capture of Jerusalem. He subsequently had a promi- 
 nent part in the battle of Ascalon, took Tiberias, on the 
 Sea of Galilee, and received the title of Prince of Tiberias 
 or Galilee. He died in 11 12, having previously defeated 
 the Saracens and driven them beyond the Euphrates. 
 Tancred's achievements are highly extolled by Tasso in 
 his " Gerusalemme Liberata," and they are also cele- 
 brated by Raoul de Caen in " Les Gestes de Tancrede." 
 
 See Michaud, "History of the Crusades;" Delbare, " Histoire 
 de Tancrede," 1822; Schmerbauch. "Tancved Fiirst von Galilaa," 
 830: " Nouvelle Biographie Generaie." 
 
 Tancred, King of Sicily, and the last of the Norman 
 tilers in that country, was a grandson of Roger II. He 
 died in 1194, and Henry VI. of Germany took posses- 
 sion of Sicily. 
 
 Tancrede. See Tancred. 
 
 Tancrede de Hauteville, tSN'kR^d' deh hot'vel', a 
 Norman baron of the early part of the eleventh century, 
 was the father of twelve sons, one of whom, Robert 
 Guiscard, became Duke of Apulia and Calabria. 
 
 Tancredi, or Tancredus. See Tancred. 
 
 Tandy. See Nappkr Tandy. 
 
 Taney, taw'ne, (Roger Brooke,) a distinguished 
 American jurist, born in Calvert county, Maryland, in 
 March, 1777. He graduated at Dickinson College, Penn- 
 sylvania, in 1795, studied law, and was admitted to the 
 bar in 1799. He was elected a Senator of Maryland in 
 1816, and became a resident of Baltimore about 1822. 
 He was originally a Federalist ; but he became a partisan 
 of General Jackson, who appointed him attorney-general 
 of the United States in 1831. About September, 1833, 
 he was nominated secretary of the treasury, in place of 
 William J. Duane, (who was dismissed from the cabinet 
 because he refused to remove the public deposits from 
 the Bank of the United States,) but he was rejected 
 by the Senate. He was nominated associate justice of 
 the supreme court by President Jackson in 1835 ; but this 
 nomination was not confirmed by the Senate. In March, 
 1836, he was appointed chief justice of the supreme court, 
 in the place of John Marshall, deceased. In 1857, Judge 
 Taney, yielding to the ever-encroaching and aggressive 
 spirit of slavery, pronounced an important decision in 
 the case of Dred Scott, a slave, who had been carried 
 by his master from Missouri into Illinois, thence to the 
 territory of Wisconsin, and back to Missouri. Dred 
 Scott brought a suit for his freedom. Judge Taney 
 affirmed that for more than a century before the Decla- 
 ration of Independence the negroes "had been regarded 
 as beings of an inferior order, and altogether unfit to 
 associate with the white race, either in social or political 
 relations, and so far inferior that they had no rights 
 which the white man was bound to respect, and that the 
 negro might justly and lawfully be reduced to slavery for 
 
 e as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ($g*"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TANNAHILL 
 
 2096 
 
 TARDIEU 
 
 his benefit." This strange, this monstrous decision was 
 pronounced by one whose opinions on any question not 
 connected with slavery would have commanded the re- 
 spect of all, as those of an able lawyer and upright judge. 
 He further affirmed that the Missouri Compromise was 
 unconstitutional, and that the suit must be dismissed 
 for want of jurisdiction. "The reader will be puzzled to 
 decide," says Mr. Greeley, " whether law, humanity, or 
 history is most flagrantly defied in Chief-Justice Taney's 
 opinion." He died in October, 1864. 
 
 "Judge Taney," says Horace Greeley, " had long been 
 a main bulwark of slavery, not only in Maryland, but 
 throughout the Union. The Dred Scott decision is in- 
 separably linked with his name." ("American Conflict," 
 vol. ii. p. 671.) 
 
 See " Atlantic Monthly" for February, 1865. 
 
 Tan'na-hill, (Robert,) a Scottish poet, born at 
 Paisley in 1774 His songs and ballads are remarkable 
 for their grace, simplicity, and pathos, among the most 
 admired may be named his " Song of the Battle of 
 Vittoria," and "Jessie the Flower of Dumblane." He 
 committed suicide, in a paroxysm of insanity, by drown- 
 ing, in 1810. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Tanneguy. See DuchAtel, (Charles Marie,) and 
 ChXi'el, du. 
 
 Tanner, tSn'ner, (Matthias,) a German Jesuit and 
 biographer, born at Pilsen about 1625. He wrote notices 
 of many eminent Jesuits. Died about 1705. 
 
 Tan'ner, (Thomas,) an English prelate and antiquary, 
 Dorn in Wiltshire in 1674. He was the author of "No- 
 titia Monastica, or an Account of the Religious Houses 
 in England and Wales," and "Bibliotheca Britannico- 
 Hibernica," (1748,) a biographical and bibliographical 
 work of great value. He was made Bishop of Saint 
 Asaph in 1732. Died in 1735. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Tannevot, tin'vo', (Alexandre,) a French drama- 
 tist, born at Versailles in 1692. He wrote several me- 
 diocre tragedies, and other poems. Died in 1773. 
 
 Tansillo, tan-sel'lo, (Luigi,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Venosa, in the kingdom of Naples, about 1510. His 
 principal work is entitled "The Tears of Saint Peter," 
 ("Le Lagrime di San Pietro," 1585.) He also wrote a 
 number of lyrics, sonnets, etc., which had a high repu- 
 tation in his time. Died in 1568. 
 
 See Longfeu.ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe;" Tiraboschi, 
 "Storia della Letteratura Italiana;" Nicbron, "Memoires." 
 
 Tanska. See Hoffmann, (Clementina.) 
 
 Tantale. See Tantalus. 
 
 Tantalo. See Tantalus. 
 
 Tan'ta-lus, [Gr. TuvraXoc; Fr. Tantale, toN'taT; 
 Xt Tantalo, tan'ta-lo,l a fabulous king of Lydia or 
 Phrygia, said to have been a son of Jupiter, and the 
 father of Pelops and Niobe. He was the subject of 
 various legends, according to one of which, having been 
 admitted to the table of the gods, he divulged some 
 secrets which he heard there. For this offence he was 
 condemned to suffer perpetual thirst, standing in water 
 which receded whenever he attempted to drink it ; he 
 was, moreover, "tantalized" by the sight of fruit which 
 hung close to his lips, but which he could never taste. 
 According to some writers, this penalty was inflicted on 
 him because he killed his son Pelops and offered his 
 flesh as food to the gods whom he once entertained at 
 his house. 
 
 Tanucci, di, de ta-noot'chee, (Bernardo,) Marquis, 
 an Italian minister of state, born in Tuscany in 1698. 
 He became prime minister at Naples about 1740, and 
 continued in power until 1776. During this period he 
 banished the Jesuits and resisted some papal encroach- 
 ments. He patronized learning liberally. Died in 1783. 
 
 See Coppi, "Annali d'ltalia dal 1760;" " Nouvelle Bioeraphie 
 Generale. " 
 
 Taparelli. See Azeglio, d\ (Massimo.) 
 Tapia, de, di ta'pe-a, (Don Euoenio,) a Spanish 
 litterateur and jurist, born at Avila, in Old Castile, about 
 1785, published "Poems, Lyrical, Satirical, and Dra- 
 matic," (1821,) "History of Spanish Civilization," (4 
 »ols., 1840,) which is highly commended, "Elements of 
 
 Commercial Law," (15 vols.,) and other works. He is 
 regarded as a Liberal in politics. 
 
 Tap'lin, (William,) an English veterinary surgeon, 
 who made improvements in his art, and wrote several 
 works on farriery and the treatment of lame horses. 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Tap'pan, (Arthur,) an American merchant, dis- 
 tinguished as an opponent of slavery, was bom at North- 
 ampton, Massachusetts, in 1786. fie became a merchant 
 of New York City, gave money liberally to the Anti- 
 Slavery Society, and was one of the founders of Oberlin 
 College, Ohio. Died in 1865. 
 
 See " Life of Arthur Tappau," by Lewis Tappan, 1870. 
 
 Tappan, (Benjamin,) a lawyer, a brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, in 
 1773. He became a judge in Ohio, and was a Senator 
 of the United States from 1839 to 1845. Died at Steu- 
 benville in 1857. 
 
 Tappan, (David,) D.D., an American divine, born at 
 Manchester, Massachusetts, in 1753. He became pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Harvard College in 1792. Died in 
 1803. 
 
 Tappan, (Henry Philip,) D.D., LL.D., an American 
 divine and theological writer, bom at Rhinebeck, New 
 York, about 1806. He was appointed in 1832 pro- 
 fessor of moral and intellectual philosophy in the 
 University of the City of New York, and subsequently 
 became chancellor of the University of Michigan. 
 He published "The Doctrine of the Will applied to 
 Moral Agency and Responsibility," (1841,) and several 
 other works. 
 
 Tappan, (William Bingham,) an American poet, 
 born at Beverly, Massachusetts, in 1794, became gen- 
 eral agent of the American Sunday^School Union. He 
 published several volumes of poems. Died in 1849. 
 
 Taraise. See Tarasius. 
 
 Tarakanof. See Tarrakanof. 
 
 Tarasius, ta-ra'shejjs, [Fr. Taraise, tf'rjz',] Saint, 
 born about 745 A.D., became Patriarch of Constantinople 
 in 784. Died in 806. 
 
 Taraval, ti'rS'vfl', (Hugues,) a French painter of 
 history and portraits, was born in Paris in 1728; died 
 in 1785. 
 
 Tarayre, ta'raV, (Jean Joseph,) a French general, 
 distinguished as an agriculturist, was born at Solsac 
 (Aveyron) in 1770. He commanded the Dutch troops 
 that opposed the English at Walcheren in July, 1809. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Tarbe, ttR'ba', (Charles,) a French royalist, born 
 at Sens in 1756. He was a prominent member of the 
 Legislative Assembly in 1 791. Died in 1804. 
 
 Tarbe, (Louis Hardouin,) a French financier, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Sens in 1753. 
 He was minister of contributions from May, 1791, to 
 March, 1792. Died in 1806. 
 
 Tarbe, (Prosper,) a French antiquary, born about 
 1814. He wrote on the antiquities of Rheims. 
 
 Tarcagnota. See Makui.i.o. 
 
 Tarcagnota, taR-kan-yo'ta, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 historian, born at Gaeta. He published a " History 
 of the World," of little merit, (4 vols., 1562.) Died 
 in 1566. 
 
 Tarchi, taR'kee, (Angelo,) an Italian composer, born 
 at Naples in 1759, produced several operas. Died in 
 Paris in 1814. 
 
 Tar'«hon, a hero of the Etruscan mythology, was, 
 according to some authors, aPelasgian chief who founded 
 a colony in the north of Italy. Virgil relates that Tar- 
 chon offered the crown of the Etruscans (Tyrrheni) to 
 Evander. 
 
 See "^neid," book viii., 506. 
 
 Tardieu, taVde-uh', (Amrroise,) a French en- 
 graver, was born in Paris in 1788. He published an 
 " Atlas of Ancient Geography," and other similar works, 
 and engraved a number of portraits and architectural 
 pieces. Died in 1841. 
 
 Tardieu, (Antoine Francois,) a French map- 
 engraver, born in Paris in 1757, was the father of the 
 preceding. Among his works may be mentioned the 
 maps of Choiseul-Gouffier's " Voyage pittoresque de la 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, l, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
TJRDIEU 
 
 2097 
 
 TJRQU1N 
 
 Grece," and the great Chart of European Russia. Died 
 in 1822. 
 
 Tardieu, (Auguste Amuroise,) a French medical 
 writer, born in Paris in 1818. 
 
 Tardieu, (Jacques Nicolas,) a son of Nicolas 
 Henri, noticed below, was born in Paris in 1716, and 
 attained distinction as an engraver. He executed 
 numerous portraits and landscapes. Died about 1792. 
 
 Tardieu, (Jean Haptiste Pierre,) an engraver, a 
 nephew of Nicolas Henri, was born in Paris in 1746. 
 He acquired a high reputation as a geographical en- 
 graver. Among his best works are his "Charts of the 
 Netherlands," engraved for the empress Maria Theresa. 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 Tardieu, (Jean Charles,) an artist, a son of Jacques 
 Nicolas, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1765. He 
 studied painting under Regnault, and executed a number 
 of historical pictures. Died.in 1837. 
 
 Tardieu, (Nicolas Henri,) a skilful French en- 
 graver, born in Paris in 1674, was a pupil of Gerard 
 Audran. He became a member of the Academy of 
 Painting in 1720. Died in 1749. 
 
 Tardieu, (Pierre Alexandre,) a nephew of the 
 preceding, was born in Paris in 1756, and studied en- 
 graving under J. G. Wille. Among his master-pieces 
 are "The Communion of Saint Jerome," after Domeni- 
 chino, and "The Archangel Michael," after Raphael. 
 Died in 1843 or 1844. 
 
 Tardieu, (Pierre Francois,) a nephew and pupil 
 of Nicolas Henri, noticed above, was distinguished as 
 an engraver, and executed, among other works, "The 
 Judgment of Paris," after Rubens. Died about 1774. 
 
 Tardif, taVdeP, (Alexandre,) a French poet, bom 
 in 1801. Among his works are "Dramatic Essays," 
 (1835,) and "Varietes poetiques," (1841.) 
 
 Tardif, (Guii.laume,) a French liltera/eur,hmn about 
 1440, wrote, besides other works, "Rhetorics Artis 
 Compendium," (about 1475.) 
 
 Tareef or Tarlf, ta-reel', (Aboo- (or Abu-) Zarah, 
 5'boo zir'ah,) a freednian of Moosa-Ibn-Noseyr, is said 
 to have been the first Mohammedan officer who effected 
 a conquest in Spain. About the beginning of Septem- 
 ber, 710 A.D., he took possession of a small island fifteen 
 miles west-southwest of Gibraltar, since called Tarifa, 
 from his name, and made incursions into the adjacent 
 country, carrying off much booty. 
 
 Tarello, ta-rel'lo, (Camili.o,) an Italian writer on 
 agriculture, published in 1567 a work entitled "Agri- 
 cultural Instruction," ("Ricordo d'Agricoltura,") which 
 is commended. 
 
 Tarente, Due de. See Macdonald. 
 
 Targe, iSrzIi, (Jean Baptiste,) a French historian, 
 born at Orleans about 1716. He published a "History 
 of Italy," (4 vols., 1774,) and other works. Died in 1788. 
 
 Target, taVzhJ', (Gui Jean Haptiste,) an eloquent 
 French advocate, born in Paris in 1 733. He was a 
 member of the Constituent Assembly of 1790, and 
 favoured the popular cause. In December, 1792, Louis 
 XVI. selected Target as one of his defenders in his trial, 
 but the latter declined to serve. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Murairb, " Cloge de G. J. B. Target," 1807; " Nouvelle 
 Biograpliie Generale." 
 
 Targioni-Tozzetti.taR-jo'nee tot -set'tee, (Giovanni,) 
 an Italian naturalist and physician, born at Florence in 
 1712. He wrote, besides other works, "Travels in Tus- 
 cany for the Exploration of its Natural Productions," (6 
 vols., 1751-54,) and an "Account of the Advancement 
 of Physical Science in Tuscany during Sixty Years," (3 
 vols., 1780.) Died in 1783. 
 
 See M. Lastri. " Elogio storico di G. Targioni-Tozzetti," 1783 ; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tarif. See Tareef. 
 
 Tarik-Ibn-Zeyad, ta'rik Tb'n zi'yld', written also 
 Tarik-Ben-Zeiad, a famous Arab chief, was the leader 
 of the Moors who invaded Spain, crossing the Straits 
 and landing at Gibraltar, in 711 A.D. He defeated King 
 Roderick, and conquered the southern part of Spain. 
 The name Gibraltar is a corruption of GiM-T&rik, 
 ("mountain of Tank.") 
 
 See Mariana. " Historia de Espana :" Ai.-Makkari, " Moham- 
 medan Dynasties in Spain." (translated by Gayani,<>s.) 
 
 Tarin, tt'raN', (Pierre,) a French medical writer, 
 born near Montargis about 1700. He wrote articles on 
 anatomy and physiology for the " Encyclopedic" of 
 Diderot, and other works. Died in 1761. 
 
 Tarleton, tari'con, (Colonel Bannastre,) an Eng- 
 lish officer, born at Liverpool in 1754, served under 
 Lord Cornwallis in the war of the American Revolution. 
 He was distinguished for his skill and bravery, and 
 gained several important advantages over the American 
 troops ; but he was defeated by General Morgan at the 
 battle of Cowpens, (1781.) After his return to England, 
 he was elected to Parliament for Liverpool and made a 
 baronet and K.C.B. He wrote a " History of the Cam- 
 paigns of 1780-81 in the Southern Provinces of North 
 America," (1787.) Died about 1833. 
 
 Tarleton, (Richard,) a celebrated English actor and 
 dramatist, was a native of Shropshire. He was noted 
 for his extempore wit, and was unrivalled in comic parts. 
 He was treated with distinguished favour by Queen 
 Elizabeth, who appointed him a groom of the chamber 
 at Barn Elms. He was the author of a play entitled 
 "The Seven Deadly Sins," which is not extant. Died 
 in 1588. 
 
 Tarnow, taR'no, (Fanny,) a German novelist and 
 miscellaneous writer, born in Mecklenburg-Schwerin in 
 ^783. Among her principal works are " Natalie," a 
 romance, (1804,) "Two Years in Saint Petersburg," 
 (1833,) and a collection of tales, (4 vols., 1840-42.) Died 
 in 1862. 
 
 Tarnowski, taR-nov'skee, (John,) a famous Polish 
 military commander, born in 1488, was appointed by 
 Emanuel, King of Portugal, leader of his army against 
 the Moors. He afterwards commanded in the Polish 
 wars with the Russians and the Turks, and was charged 
 by the emperor Charles V. with the chief command of 
 his forces against the Turks. He was the author of a 
 military treatise entitled "Concilium Rationis Bellicae." 
 Died in 1561. 
 
 See Orzkchowski, "Life of Tarnowski," (in Polish,) 1830; 
 "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tar-pela or Tarpeja, was a daughter of Spurius 
 Tarpeius, governor of one of the citadels of Rome during 
 the war with the Sabines. Allured by the gold orna- 
 ments worn by the enemy, she opened to them the gate 
 of the fortress ; but they, in passing, threw upon her 
 their shields, by which she was crushed to death. The 
 hill where she was buried was called the Tarpeian rock. 
 
 Tar'quin, [Fr. pron. tjR'kaN'; Lat. Tarquin'ius; It. 
 Tarquinio, taR-kwee'ne-o,] or, more fully, Lu'cius 
 Tarquin'ius Pris'cus, fifth King of Rome, was a 
 son of Demaratus, a merchant of Corinth. His original 
 name was Lucumo. Having removed to Rome, he 
 was patronized by Ancus Martins, who appointed him 
 guardian of his sons. After the death of Ancus Martins 
 he caused himself to be elected king, to the exclusion of 
 the rightful heirs. He carried on successful wars against 
 the Sabines and Latins, built the Circus Maximus, the 
 immense Cloacae, or sewers, at Rome, and promoted 
 various important public works. He was assassinated, 
 by order of the sons of Ancus, in 578 B.C. 
 
 See Nirhumr, " History of Rome ;" Purrucker, " Programma 
 de Vita Tarquinii Prisci," 1760; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tarquin the Proud, [Lat. Lu'cius Tarquin'ius 
 Sii'er'bus; Fr. Tarquin le Superhe, laVkaN' leh 
 sii'paiRb',] son of Tarquinius Priscus, and seventh King 
 of Rome. In 534 B.C. he succeeded Servius Tullius, 
 whom he had caused to be assassinated, and whose 
 daughter Tullia he had married. He put to death the 
 senators who had favoured the reforms of Servius, and, 
 while displaying great ability, governed with despotic 
 power. He conquered several neighbouring cities, built 
 the Capitol and other public edifices, and established 
 colonies at Signia and Circeii. 
 
 The outrage committed by his son Sextus upon Lu- 
 cretia roused the people, already exasperated by his 
 tyranny, to throw off the yoke, and Tarquin was deposed 
 by an armed force led by Junius Brutus. Alter several 
 ineffectual attempts to regain his power, he formed an 
 alliance with Lars Porsena of Clusium, in conjunction 
 with whom he fought, the battle of Lake Regillus, (496 
 B.C.) They were totally defeated by the Romans, and 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; gas./; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled ; § as z; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 >3* 
 
TARQUINIO 
 
 2098 
 
 TJSSO 
 
 Tarquin escaped to Cumse, where he died in 495 B.C. 
 He was the last of the Roman kings. 
 
 See Livv, " Histoid of Rome," books i. and ii. ; Niebuhr, " His- 
 tory of Rome;" V. Malvezzi, "Tarquinio Superbo," 1635; K. O. 
 Muli.rr, "Etrnsker;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale;" Pur- 
 ruckrr, " Programmata II. de Taiquinii Superbi Rebus gestis," 
 1764-66. 
 
 Tarquinio. See Tarquin. 
 
 Tarquinius. See Tarquin. 
 
 Tarquinius Collatinua. See Collatinus. 
 
 Tarrakanof, Tarakanof, or Tarrakanow, ti-ra- 
 ka'nof, (Anna Petrowna,) a Russian princess, born in 
 1755, was supposed to be the daughter of the empress 
 Elizabeth. Having been imprisoned by Catherine II. at 
 Saint Petersburg, she was drowned in prison by an inun- 
 dation in 1777. 
 
 Tar-ren-te'nus, (Paternus,) a Roman jurist under 
 the reign of Commodus, was the author of a work en- 
 titled " De Re militari," a part of which is extant. 
 
 Tarsia, di, de taR-see'a, (Galeazzo,) an Italian poet, 
 of noble family, born in 1476. His works are principally 
 sonnets in the style of Petrarch. Died about 1530. 
 
 See Longpellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Tartaglia, taR-tal'yi, [Lat. Tarta'lea,] (Niccol&,) 
 an Italian mathematician, born at Brescia about 1500. 
 His family name is not known. He was surnamed Tar- 
 taglia, (from tartagliare, to "stammer,") because he 
 had an impediment in his speech, caused by a wound 
 received in 1512. He taught mathematics at Verona, 
 Brescia, and Venice, edited the works of Archimedes, 
 (1543,) and wrote several treatises on mathematics, etc. 
 He discovered a method of resolving cubic equations. 
 Cardan, by a promise of secrecy, obtained this method 
 from him, but published it in his " Ars Magna." Died 
 in 1559. 
 
 See Cossai.i, " Progressi delPAlgebra," 1790; Fantuzzi, " Scrit- 
 tori Bolognesi ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Gene>ale." 
 
 Tartagni, taR-tan'yee, [Lat. Tartag'nus,] (Ai.essan- 
 dro,) called Imolen'sis, from Imola, his native place, 
 was an eminent Italian jurist, born about 1424. He 
 wrote on the Digest, and was professor of law at Padua 
 and Bologna. Died in 1477. 
 
 Tartagnus. See Tartagni. 
 
 Tartalea. See Tartaglia. 
 
 Tartare. See Tartarus. 
 
 Tartaro. See Tartarus. 
 
 Tartarotti, taR-t5-rot'tee, (Girolamo,) a learned 
 Italian litterateur and antiquary, born at Roveredo in 
 1706. He published, besides other works, an " Idea of 
 the Logic of the Scholastics and Moderns," (1731,) and 
 "Del Congresso notturno delle Lammie," ("On the 
 Nocturnal Meeting of the Witches," 1749,) which is 
 highly commended. Died in 1761. 
 
 See C. Lorenzi, " De Vila H. Tartarotti Libri III.," 1805; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ie'rale." 
 
 Tar'ta-rus, [Gr. Tuprapoc ; Fr. Le Tartare, leh taV- 
 tiit' ; It. Tartaro, taR't5-ro,] in classic mythology, was 
 a son of /Ether and Ge, and the father of the Gig'antes, 
 or Giants. The name was also applied to that part of 
 the infernal regions in which the wicked were confined. 
 (See Pluto.) 
 
 Tartas, ttR'ti', (Emile,) a French general, born at 
 Mezin in 1796. He served in Algeria from 1840 till 
 1846. 
 
 Tartini, taR-tee'nee, (Giuseppe,) a celebrated Italian 
 musician and composer, born at Pisano in 1692. He 
 was one of the first violinists of his time, and presided 
 over a school in Padua, where he numbered among his 
 pupils Pugnani and Viotti. He was the author of a 
 " Treatise on Music according to the True Science of 
 Harmony," (1754,) and was the discoverer of the so- 
 called grave harmonics, or third sounds. Died in 1770. 
 
 See Favoi.le, "Notices sur Corelli, Tartini," etc., 1810; Fan- 
 zago, "Orazione delle Lodi di G. Tartini," 1762; "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G^nerale. '' 
 
 Taruffi, tj-roof'fee, (Emilio,) an Italian painter of 
 history and landscapes, was born at Bologna in 1632 ; 
 died in 1694. 
 
 Taruffi, (Giuseppe Antonio,) an Italian poet, born 
 at Bologna in 1722 ; died in 1786. 
 
 Ta-ru'tius or Tarru'tius (tar-roo'she-us) Fir-ml- 
 a'nus, (Lucius,) a Roman astrologer, was"a friend of 
 
 Cicero. He wrote, in Greek, a work on astronomy, and, 
 at the request of Varro, took the horoscope of Romulus. 
 
 Tar'v^r, (John Charles,) a distinguished writer, of 
 English extraction, born at Dieppe, in Normandy, in 
 1790. He published a "Phraseological French-and- 
 English Dictionary," (1849,) a very valuable work, also 
 a translation of Dante's " Inferno" into French prose. 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 Tascher de la Pagerie, tt'sha' deh IS pSzh're', 
 (Louis Robert Pierre Claude,) Comte, a French 
 officer, born in Martinique in 1787, was a cousingerman 
 to the empress Josephine. He served as aide-de-camp 
 to Eugene de Beauharnais in many campaigns. In 1852 
 he became a senator. Died in 1861. His son, Robert 
 Charles Emile, born in 1822, received the title of duke 
 in 1859, and was chosen a senator in 1861. 
 
 Tascher de la Pagerie, Mademoiselle. See Jose- 
 phine. 
 
 Taschereau, tSsh'ro', (Jules Antoine,) a French 
 writer of biography, etc., was born at Tours in 1801. 
 He published, besides other works, a " History of the 
 Life and Works of Moliere," (1825,) a " History of the 
 Life and Works of Corneille," (1829,) and "Revue 
 Retrospective," (20 vols., 1833-37.) He was elected to 
 the Chamber of Deputies in 1837, and to the Con- 
 stituent Assembly in 1848. About 1858 he was appointed 
 director of the Imperial Library. 
 
 See Querard, "La France LitteYaire." 
 
 Tasckifellone. See Caffaro. 
 
 Tas'ker, (William,) an English clergyman and poet, 
 born in Devonshire. He produced translations of some 
 of the odes of Pindar and Horace. Died in 1800. 
 
 Tasman, tas'man, (Abel Janssen,) a Dutch navi- 
 gator of the seventeenth century, was employed by 
 Van Diemen, Governor-General of Batavia, in making 
 discoveries in the South Sea. In 1642 he discovered 
 the island which he named in honour of his patron, 
 Van Diemen's Land, also Prince William's Islands, and 
 others in the vicinity. Van Diemen's Land has been 
 named, in his honour, Tasmania. 
 
 See Lauts, "A. J. Tasman," 1843. 
 
 Tassaert, tfstit', (Nicolas Francois Octave,) a 
 French painter, born in Paris in 1800. He painted 
 history and portraits, and gained a medal of the first 
 class in 1849. 
 
 Tasse, Le, the French for Tasso, which see. 
 
 Tassel, tt'sel', (Richard,) a French painter, born at 
 Langres about 1580; died in 1660. 
 
 Tas'sie, (James,) a Scottish artist, born near Glasgow 
 about 1735. He acquired a high reputation for his skil- 
 ful imitation of engraved gems by means of pastes, or 
 coloured glass. Died in 1799. 
 
 Tassin, tS'saN', (Rene Prosper,) a French Bene- 
 dictine monk and historian, born near Domfront in 1697, 
 published "New Treatise on Diplomacy," (" Nouveau 
 Traite de Diplomatique," 6 vols., 1765.) Died in 1777. 
 
 Tasso, tas'so, (Bernardo,) an Italian poet, born at 
 Bergamo in 1493. He was patronized by Sanseverino, 
 Prince of Salerno, whom he accompanied in 1531 on the 
 expedition of Charles V. to Tunis. In 1537 he was sent 
 on a diplomatic mission to Spain. He was the author of 
 a heroic poem, entitled "L'Amadigi," founded on the 
 romance of Amadis de Gaul ; also numerous sonnets, 
 hymns, eclogues, lyrics, etc. He died in 1569, leaving 
 one son, the celebrated Torquato Tasso. 
 
 See Longfeu.ow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie UeWrale ;" "Lives of the Italian Poets," by the Rev. 
 Hhnky Stebbing. 
 
 Tas'so, [It. pron. tas'so; Fr. Le Tasse, leh tiss,] 
 (Torquato,) [Lat. Torqua'tus Tas'sus,] a celebrated 
 Italian epic poet, a son of the preceding, was botn at 
 Sorrento on the nth of March, 1544. He was educated 
 at Rome, Bergamo, Venice, and Padua. To the last 
 city he was sent by his father to study law, which he 
 disjiked and soon renounced. He produced in 1562 an 
 epic or romantic poem, entitled "Rinaldo," which he 
 dedicated to Cardinal Luigi d'Este. He was patronized 
 by the cardinal and his brother Alfonso II., Duke of 
 Ferrara, at whose court he passed many vears, beginning 
 with 1565. The court of the Dukes of Este was one of 
 the most magnificent in Italy, and vied with that of the 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; A, t, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, % short; a, e, j, ^'obscure; flr, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon: 
 
TASSO 
 
 2=99 
 
 TJTISHCHEF 
 
 Medici in the patronage of literature and art. There 
 Tasso wrote a number of sonnets and amatory verses, 
 and commenced his great poem "Jerusalem Delivered," 
 ('• Gerusalemme Liberata.") In 1571 he accompanied 
 Cardinal d'Este on a mission to Charles IX. of France. 
 He returned to Ferrara in 1572, and entered the service 
 of Alfonso, who gave him a pension of sixteen gold 
 crowns per month and admitted him to his own table. 
 In 1573 he produced his " Aminta," a pastoral drama, 
 which was received with great favour. He completed 
 in 1575 his epic poem, entitled "Gerusalemme Libe- 
 rata," which is his chief title to celebrity. About this 
 time his prosperity and peace were ruined by causes 
 which are partly involved in mystery. He cherished a 
 romantic passion for Leonora, a sister of the Duke of 
 Fste, and addressed to her a number of sonnets ex- 
 pressive of his admiration. It is not known whether 
 she had any feeling for him beyond that of simple 
 friendship ; but the difference in their rank was such 
 that he could not hope to marry a princess of the proud 
 and sovereign house of Este. Some writers ascribe his 
 misfortunes and imprisonment to this love for Leonora ; 
 and others suppose that he offended Alfonso by his irri- 
 table temper, or that he was actually insane. He was 
 confined in a convent in 1577 by order of Alfonso, who 
 directed that he should be treated as a madman. He 
 soon escaped, and fled to Sorrento, where his sister 
 Cornelia lived, and remained with her a short time. 
 Tasso solicited permission to return to Ferrara by a 
 letter to Alfonso, who consented to receive him on con- 
 dition that he should submit to such treatment as the 
 physicians might prescribe. He accordingly returned in 
 1578, but was not restored to the favour of the duke nor 
 permitted to associate with Leonora. Before the end of 
 the year he absconded, and began to wander about from 
 city to city. By some strange infatuation, he was again 
 attracted to Ferrara in February, 1579. and was treated 
 with a coldness or neglect which provoked him to utter 
 offensive language against the duke. He was then con- 
 fined in a hospital for lunatics, where he remained seven 
 years, during which he wrote several dialogues and philo- 
 sophical treatises. In 1580 an incomplete or incorrect 
 edition of his "Jerusalem Delivered" was published at 
 Venice, without the consent of the author. The first 
 complete edition appeared in 1581. It was censured by 
 many critics, in answer to whom he wrote a " Defence 
 of the Gerusalemme Liberata," (1585.) After his release 
 from the hospital (1586) he passed some months at 
 Mantua, as the guest of Vincenzo Gonzaga, and wrote 
 the tragedy of " Torrismondo," (1587.) About 1588 he 
 removed to Naples, where he was befriended by Gio- 
 vanni Battista Manso. He published in 1593 a poem 
 called "Jerusalem Conquered," ("Gerusalemme Con- 
 quistata.") 
 
 Influenced by Cardinal Aldobrandini, the pope invited 
 Tasso to Rome, to be crowned with laurel, as Petrarch 
 had been. He accordingly went to Rome, and was 
 lodged in the pope's palace, but before the day of coro- 
 nation arrived he died, in April, 1595. "Many more 
 Italian poets," says Hallam, "ought, possibly, to be com- 
 memorated ; but we must hasten forward to the greatest 
 of them all. . . . The Jerusalem is the great epic poem, 
 in the strict sense, of modern times. It was justly 
 observed by Voltaire that, in the choice of his subject, 
 Tasso is superior to Homer. Whatever interest tra- 
 dition might have attached among the Greeks to the 
 wrath of Achilles and the death of Hector, was slight 
 to those genuine recollections which were associated 
 with the first crusade. It was not the theme of a single 
 people, but of Europe. ... In the delineation of char- 
 acter, at once natural, distinct, and original, Tasso must 
 give way to Homer, perhaps to some other epic and 
 romantic poets. . . . Yet here, also, the sweetness and 
 nobleness of his mind and his fine sense of moral beauty 
 are displayed. . . . The diction of Tasso excites per- 
 petual admiration ; it is rarely turgid or harsh, and, 
 though more figurative than that of Ariosto, it is so 
 much less than that of most of our own or the anc ; ent 
 poets, that it appears simple in our eyes. Virgil, to 
 wt 
 energy 
 
 om we most readily compare him, is far superior m 
 :rgy, but not in grace." (" Introduction to the Litera- 
 
 ture of Europe.") The "Gerusalemme Liberata" has 
 been translated into English by Carew, Fairfax, Hoole, 
 and Wiffen. 
 
 See G. Battista Manso. "Vita di T. Tasso," 1619: Charnes, 
 "VieduTasse," 1690; Serassi, " Vita del T. Tasso," 2 vols., 17S5 ; 
 Fabroni, " Eloeio del Tasso," 1800; John Black, " Life of Tasso," 
 1S10 ; Khhrt, "T. Tasso's Leben," 1S19 ; ZuccAt.A, "Delia Vita di 
 Tasso," 1819; R. Wn.DK, "Love and Madness of Tasso," New 
 York, 1842; R. Mil. man, "Life of Tasso," 2 vols., 1850: Ace 
 Desplacks, "VieduTasse :" Leigh Hi'm, " Italian Poets;" Long- 
 fellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe; "Lives of the Italian 
 Poets," by Rkv. Henry Stkubing: Villemain. -" Cours de Lit- 
 erature ;" N. Morelli, " Delia Vita di T. Tasso," 1834 ; L. Cibka- 
 rio, " Degli Amori e della Prigione di Tasso," 1862; " Nouvelle 
 Biograpbie Generale;" "Italian Narrative Poetry," in tbe "North 
 American Review" for October, 1824, (by Pkescott;) "Retro- 
 spective Review," vol. it., (1825:) "Horace and Tasso," in t'ta 
 Edinburgh Review" for October, 1850; "London Quarter 'y 
 Review" for July, 1821, and June, 1826. 
 
 Tassoni, tas-so'nee, [Lat. Tasso'nus,] (Ai.essandro,) 
 an Italian critic and satirist, born at Modena in 1565, 
 became secretary to Cardinal Ascanio Colonna at Rome. 
 He published in 1609 " Considerations on Petrarch," 
 a rather severe 1 criticism upon that poet, which gave rise 
 to a bitter controversy with several of the admirers ot 
 the bard of Vaucluse. Tassoni's principal work is a 
 satirical poem entitled "The Rape of the Bucket," ("La 
 Secchia rapita,") which is greatly admired for its humour. 
 It is founded on an incident occurring in a war between 
 Modena and Bologna, — the carrying off of a wooden 
 bucket from the latter city by the Modenese. Amongj 
 his other productions may be named his " Pensien 
 Diversi," (1612,) or observations on various subjects, 
 literary and scientific. Died in 1635. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe :" " Lives of the 
 Italian Poets," by the Rev. Henrv Steering; "Italian Narrative 
 Poetry," in the "North American Review" for October, 1824, (by 
 Prescott;) Muratori, "Vita di A. Tassoni," 1739: J. C. Walker, 
 "Memoirs of A. Tassoni." 1815; Tirahosciii, " Storia della Let- 
 teratura Italiana;" Dubois- Fontanelle. "Viede Pierre Aretin et 
 d'A. Tassoni," 1768; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tassoni, (Alf.ssandro Maria,) an Italian theologian, 
 born at Collalto in 1749. He wrote an eloquent work 
 entitled "La Religione dimostrata e difeso," (" Religion 
 Explained and Defended," 3 vols., 1800-05.) I' 1 l %° 2 
 the pope appointed him auditor di rota. Died in 1818. 
 
 See LutGt Biondi, "Vita di A. M. Tassoni," 1822. 
 
 Tassonus. See Tassoni, (Ai.kssandro.) 
 
 Tassus, (Torquatus.) See Tasso. 
 
 Tastu, tSs'tii', (Sabine Casimirk Amarus Voiart,) 
 a French authoress, born at Metz about 1798, was mar- 
 ried in 1816 to M. Tastu. She wrote a number of 
 poems and educational works, which were received with 
 great favour. " Her style," says Longfellow, " frequently 
 suggests the impassioned manner and stately diction of 
 Mrs. Hemans." 
 
 See Longfellow. " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for January, 1832. 
 
 Tate, (Francis,) an English lawyer and antiquary, 
 born in Northamptonshire in 1560. He wrote sever il 
 works on British antiquities. Died in 1616. 
 
 Tate, (Nahum,) a poet and dramatist, born at Dublin 
 in 1652. He succeeded Shadwell as poet-laureate in 
 1690. He was the author of " Miscellanea Sacra, or 
 Poems on Divine and Moral Subjects," (1698,) "Pana- 
 cea, a Poem on Tea," (1700,) a number of original dramas, 
 and an alteration of Shakspeare's "Lear." He made 
 a metrical version of the Psalms, in conjunction with 
 Nicholas Brady, which, superseded that of Stemhold and 
 Hopkins. Tate also assisted Dryden in the composition 
 of his "Absalom and Achitophel." Died in 1715. 
 
 Tatian, ta'she-an, (or ta'she^un,) |Lat. Tatia'nus; 
 Fr. Tatikn, tS'se^N',] an ancient writer, bom about 
 120 A.D., was a native of Syria, and was converted to 
 Christianity by Justin Martyr. He afterwards adopted 
 the heresy of the Marcionites, and founded a sect called 
 Tatianists. He was the author of a " Discourse to the 
 Heathen," and a " Harmony of the Four Gospels." The 
 former only is extant. 
 
 See EusF.mrs, " Histona Ecclesiastica ;" Ritter. "History of 
 Christian Philosophy:" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Tatien. See Tatian. 
 
 Tatishchef or Tatichtchef, tatesh-chef, written 
 also Tatischtschew and Tatischev, (DMITRI I'av- 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as r; th as in this. ( jjy*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TAT1SHCHEF 
 
 2IOO 
 
 TAFERNIER 
 
 LOVITCH,) a Russian statesman and diplomatist, born in 
 1769, was successively ambassador to Naples, Madrid, 
 and Vienna. He was a member of the imperial council 
 of Russia. Died in 1845. 
 
 Tatishchef, Tatischtchef, or Tatischtschew, 
 (Vasii.h Nikititch,) a Russian statesman, and Gov- 
 ernor of Orenburg, born in 1686, was the author of the 
 first History of Russia, published in 1769. Died in 1750. 
 
 Tatius. See Achim.es Tatius. 
 
 Tatius, ta'she-us, (Titus,) a king of the Sabines, who 
 was provoked by"the rape of the Sabine women to lead 
 a large army against the Romans. After a great but 
 indecisive battle, peace was restored through the me- 
 diation of the Sabine women, and Romulus and Tatius 
 reigned jointly over the united Romans and Sabines 
 until the death of Tatius, which occurred soon after the 
 union. 
 
 Tat'nall, (Josiah,) an American naval officer, bom 
 in Georgia, entered the navy about 1812. He became 
 a captain in 1850, and commanded a squadron in the 
 East Indies from 1856 to 1859. He tool* arms against 
 the Union in 1861, and commanded the famous iron-clad 
 Merrimac, (alias Virginia,) which he destroyed by fire 
 on the nth of May, 1862, near Norfolk, to prevent the 
 Unionists from taking the vessel. Died in 1871. 
 
 Tat'tam, (Henry,) F.R.S., an English archaeologist, 
 born in '1788, became Archdeacon of Bedford in 1845. 
 He published, besides other works, " Lexicon Egyptiaco- 
 Latinum," (1835,) and " Prophetae Majores in Dialecto 
 Linguae jEgyptiacae," (1852.) 
 
 Tatti. See Sansovino, (Jacopo.) 
 
 Taube, tow'beh, (Frikdkich Wii.hei.m,) a German 
 historical and statistical writer, born in London about 
 1726. He practised law in Vienna. Died in 1778. 
 
 Taubert, tow'bJRt, (Wii.hei.m,) a German composer 
 and pianist, born in Berlin about 1812. Among his 
 works is an opera called " Blue-Beard," (" Blaubart.") 
 
 Taubmann.towp'man, [Lat.TAUi)MAN'NUs,| (Fried- 
 rich,) a German scholar and poet, born near Baireuth, 
 in Franconia, in 1565. He became professor of poetry 
 at Wittenberg in 1595, wrote elegant Latin poems, and 
 was distinguished for his wit. Died in 1613. A col- 
 lection of his bon-mots, entitled "Taubmanniana," was 
 published in 1702. He published editions of Virgil 
 and Plautus. 
 
 See Ebert, " Leben und Verdienste Taubmann's," 1814 ; Nice- 
 ron, "Memoires." 
 
 Taubmannus. See Taurmann. 
 
 Tauchnitz, towK'nits, (Karl Christoph Trau- 
 GOTT,) a celebrated German printer and bookseller, born 
 near Grimma in 1761. About 1796 he founded at Leip- 
 sic a printing-establishment, which has since become one 
 of the most important in Germany. Among the mul- 
 titudinous works issued from his press are splendid 
 editions of Homer and other Greek classics, the Hebrew 
 Bible, and the Koran in the original tongue. Died in 
 18,6. 
 
 Tauler or Thauler, tow'ler, [Lat. Taui.f/rus,] (Jo- 
 Hann,) an eminent German theologian, and founder 
 of the mystic theology in Germany, was born at Stras- 
 burg in 1290. He entered at an early age the order 
 of Dominicans, and subsequently studied theology in 
 Paris. He gained a high reputation as a preacher, and 
 distinguished himself as an earnest reformer of the 
 Church. His principal work is entitled " Imitation 
 of the Humble Life of Christ," ("Nachfolge des armen 
 Lebens Christi.") As a prose writer, he effected a great 
 improvement in the German language. Many of his 
 writings have been translated into Latin and other lan- 
 guages. Died in 1361. 
 
 See Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs." Philadelphia, 1867: 
 Hrupel, " MemoriaTauleri," 1688; Arnh, " Die HistorieTauIeri." 
 ifiS); C. Schmidt, "J. Tauter von Strassburg," etc., 1841 : F. W. 
 Ei>kl, "J. Tauler. Prediger zu Strasburg," etc., 1853: Madame 
 V/r\KWORTH, "Life of J. Tauler," London, 1857; H. Sivrrud, 
 "Taulers Omvendelses Historie," 1772. 
 
 Taulerus. See Tauler. 
 
 Taulier, to'le-4', (Marc Joseph Frederic,) a French 
 jurist, was borrTat Grenoble in 1806. He published 
 "Theorie raisonnee du Code civil," (6 vols., 1840-44.) 
 
 Taunay, to'nj', (Auguste,) a French statuary, born 
 •n Paris in 1769. He gained the grand prize of Rome 
 
 in 1792, and accompanied his brother Nicolas Antoine 
 to Brazil in 1816. Died in 1824. 
 
 Taunay, (Nicolas Antoine,) a skilful French his- 
 torical painter, brother of the preceding, was born in 
 Paris in 1755. He became a member of the Institute in 
 1795, visited Brazil in 1816, and returned to Paris in 
 1819. Died in 1830. 
 
 Taunton, Lord. See Labouchere, (Henry.) 
 
 Taun'tpn, (Sir W. E.,) an English jurist, born at 
 Oxford, was appointed in 1830 a judge of the court of 
 king's bench. Died in 1835. 
 
 Taurellius. See Toreli.i. 
 
 Taur'I-on, [Gr. Tavp!wv,\ a Macedonian general, who 
 had the chief command of the army in the Pelopon- 
 nesus during the minority of Philip V., about 220 B.C. 
 He was an enemy of Aratus. 
 
 Tau-ris'cua of Tralles, a Greek sculptor, who, with 
 his brother Apollonius, executed a celebrated marble 
 group, called " Toro Famese," which was found at 
 Rome in the sixteenth century, and is now in Naples. 
 (See Apollonius.) 
 
 Tau'rus, (Statilius,) a Roman general, who com- 
 manded Mark Antony's fleet in the war against Sextus 
 Pompey. He received the honour of a triumph in 34 
 B.C. for his success in Africa, and commanded the land- 
 army of Augustus at the battle of Actium, 31 B.C. In 
 the year 26 he was elected consul. Died after 16 B.C. 
 
 Tausan. See Taussen. 
 
 Taussen, tow'sen, written also Tausan and Tagesen, 
 (Johan,) a Danish theologian and Reformer, born in the 
 island of Fiinen in 1494. He studied at Wittenberg 
 tinder Luther, and subsequently devoted himself to pro- 
 mulgating the Reformed religion in Denmark. He was 
 appointed by Frederick I. preacher to the church of 
 Saint Nicholas at Copenhagen in 1529, and in 1541 
 made Bishop of Ripen. He published several theo- 
 logical and controversial works. Died in 1561. 
 
 Tauvry, to'vRe', (Daniel,) a French anatomist and 
 writer, born at Laval in 1669 ; died in 1 701. 
 
 Tavannes, de, deh tS'vSn', (Gaspard de Saulx — 
 deh so,) a French general, bom at Dijon in 1509. He 
 was taken prisoner at Pavia in 1525, and contributed to 
 the victory of Cerisoles, in 1544. He rendered important 
 services in the war against Charles V., and in the civil 
 war he fought against the Huguenots at Jamac and 
 Moncontour. About 1570 he obtained the rank of mar- 
 shal of France. Died in 1573. 
 
 Tavannes.de, (Guii.laume de Saulx,) Seigneur, 
 a son of the preceding, was born in 1553. He was con- 
 stantly loyal to Henry III. and Henry IV., and fought, 
 with the rank of general, against the League. He died 
 in 1633, leaving "Memoirs of Events from 1560 to 
 1596." 
 
 Tavannes, de, (Jean de Saulx,) Vicomte, a French 
 general, born in 1555, was a son of Gaspard, noticed 
 above. As a partisan of the League, he fought against 
 Henry III. and Henry IV. Died about 1630. 
 
 Tavarone, ta-va-ro'na, (Lazaro,) an Italian painter 
 of frescos and portraits, was bom at Genoa in 1556. He 
 was a pupil of Luca Cambiaso, with whom he went to 
 Madrid. He painted some works in the Escurial for 
 the king. Died in 1641. 
 
 Tav'er-ner, (Richard,) an English religious writer, 
 born in Norfolk in 1505, was a lawyer and preacher. 
 He wrote several works to promote the Reformation, 
 and published a revised edition of the Bible, (1539,) 
 also "Postils on the Epistles and Gospels." Died in 
 
 1575- 
 
 Tavernier, tS'veVne-a', (Jean Baptistf.,) Baron 
 d'Aubonne, a celebrated~French traveller and merchant, 
 born in Paris in 1605. At an early age he visited the 
 principal parts of Europe, and, having entered the Aus- 
 trian army, was present at the battle of Prague, in 1620. 
 He set out about 1630 for Palestine and Persia, where 
 he applied himself to merchandise in jewels, etc. After 
 having made six journeys to the East, he returned to 
 France with a large fortune, and was ennobled by Louis 
 XIV. His "Six Voyages en Turquie, en Perse et 
 aux Indes" came out in 1677, (3 vols. 4m.) This work 
 obtained a wide popularity, and was translated into 
 several languages. Tavemier died at Moscow about 
 
 i, e, ?, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, it, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
TAVERN I ER 
 
 2101 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 1688, while on liis seventh journey to the East Indies 
 by way of Russia. 
 
 See Knikdlaknder, "J. B. Tavernier Kammerherr," etc., 1S40; 
 Bavlb, " Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Tavernier, ti'veVne-i', (Melchior,) a Flemish en- 
 graver of maps, was born at Antwerp in 1544. He 
 worked in Paris, where he died in 1641. 
 
 Tavernier, (Melchior,) an engraver, a nephew of 
 the preceding, was born in Paris in 1594; died in 1665. 
 
 Tax'I-les, [Gr. Taji///C,] sometimes called Taxl-lus, 
 an Indian king, who reigned over the tract between the 
 Indus and llvdaspes when Alexander the Great invaded 
 India, 327 B.C. He was an ally of that conqueror in the 
 war against Porus. 
 
 Taxilus. See Taxm.ks. 
 
 Ta-yg'e-te, [Gr. Taijyeui ; Fr. Taygete, tt'e-zli^t', ] 
 one of the Pleiades, was said to be a daughter of Atlas, 
 and the mother of Lacedasmon, who was supposed to 
 be a son of Jupiter. 
 
 Tay'ler, (Frederick,) an English painter in water- 
 colours, born in Hertfordshire in 1804. Among his 
 master-pieces may be named "The Vicar of Wakefield's 
 Family going to Church," "Festival of the Popinjay," 
 and "Weighing the Stag." His pictures include nu- 
 merous hunting-scenes and views in the Highlands, and 
 are ranked among the best of their kind. 
 
 Tayler or Taylor, (John William,) an English 
 mineralogist, born about 1822. He explored the mines 
 of Greenland about 1850-56. 
 
 Tay'bjr, (Alfred Swai.ne,) an English physician 
 and chemist, born in Kent in 1806. He became pro- 
 fessor of medical jurisprudence and chemistry in Guy's 
 Hospital about 1832. He acquired a high reputation as 
 a lecturer and writer on medical jurisprudence and 
 toxicology. Among his works is a " Manual of Medical 
 Jurisprudence," (1844.) 
 
 Taylor, (Ann,) an English authoress, was the wife 
 of Isaac Taylor, noticed below. She wrote, besides 
 other works, "Maternal Solicitude." Died in 1830. 
 
 See " Memorials, Biographical and Literary, of the Taylor Family." 
 
 Tay'lpr, (Bayard, Ward,) a distinguished American 
 traveller, writer, and poet, born in Chester county, Penn- 
 sylvania, in 1825. Having made a pedestrian tour in 
 Europe, he published, after his return, "Views Afoot; 
 or, Europe seen with Knapsack and Staff," (1846.) 
 In 1849 he became one of the editors of the New York 
 " Tribune," to which he soon after contributed a series of 
 letters descriptive of his European travels. He brought 
 out in 1850 "El Dorado; or, Adventures in the Path of 
 Empire," lieing an account of a journey to California. 
 He spent the three ensuing years in visiting various 
 parts of Europe, Africa, Syria, China, and Japan, and 
 published in 1853 his "Journey to Centra] Africa," 
 "Lands of the Saracen," "Visit to India, China, Loo 
 Choo," etc. These were followed by " Summer and 
 Winter Pictures of Sweden, Denmark, and Lapland," 
 (1857,) and "Travels in Greece and Russia, with an 
 Excursion to Crete." Among his other works we may 
 name "Book of Romances, Lyrics, and Songs," (1851,) 
 "Poems of the Orient," (1854,) "Poems of Home and 
 Travel," (1855,) "At Home and Abroad, a Sketch-Book 
 of Life, Scenery, and Men," (1859.) and " Hannah Thurs- 
 ton," (1864,) a novel. Mr. Taylor has been a frequent 
 contributor to the " Atlantic Monthly" and other literary 
 journals. 
 
 See the "North American Review" for April, 1847. 
 
 Taylor, (BROOK,) F.K.S., an eminent English mathe- 
 matician, born at Edmonton in 1685. He was educated 
 at Cambridge, and inherited a competent fortune from 
 his father. He wrote, besides other works, a "Treatise on 
 Perspective," (I7l5,jand "Method of Increments," etc., 
 ("Methodus Incrementorum directa et inversa," 1715.) 
 In the latter work he announced the important discovery 
 of a theorem in the differential calculus, which is called 
 Tavlor's theorem. Died in 1731. 
 
 Taylor, (Charles.) a biblical writer, was a brother 
 of Isaac Taylor of Ongar. He edited Calmet's "Dic- 
 tionary of the Bible." Died in 1821. 
 
 Taylor, (Chevalier JOHN,) an English oculist, who 
 removed to the continent in 1733. He travelled exten- 
 
 sively, and published an account of his travels. Died 
 after 1767. 
 
 Taylor, (George,) one of the signers of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence, was born in Ireland in 1716. He 
 was elected to the Continental Congress in 1776. Died 
 in 1781. 
 
 Taylor, (George W.,) an American general, born at 
 Clinton, Hunterdon county, New Jersey, in 1808. He 
 commanded a brigade at the battle of Gaines's Mill, 
 June 27, 1862, and was mortally wounded at the battle 
 of Bull Run, and died September 1 of that year. 
 
 Taylor, (Henry,) an English clergyman, born about 
 1710, is said to have been an Arian. He wrote an 
 "Essay on the Beauty of the Divine Economy." Died 
 in 1785. 
 
 Taylor, (Henry,) an English poet and dramatist, born 
 about 1800, published "Philip Van Artevelde," (1834,) 
 "Edwin the Fair, an Historical Drama," (1842,) "The 
 Eve of the Conquest, and other Poems," (1847,) also 
 several prose works, among which may be named "The 
 Statesman," (1836,) and "Notes from Life, iii Six Essays," 
 (1848.) His "Philip Van Artevelde," a drama, in blank 
 verse, has won for him a very high reputation, and has 
 been translated into German. 
 
 See R. H. HORNR, " Spirit of the Age," 1844: " Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for April, 1X40; " Blackwood's Maga/.ine" lor November, 1851 ; 
 "North British Review" for November, 1S62, and December, 1S65. 
 
 Taylor, (Sir HERBERT,) an English general, born in 
 1775. He was private secretary to the Duke of York, 
 and to George III. Died in 1839. 
 
 Taylor, (Isaac,) Senior, uE Ongar, an English artist 
 and writer, was originally an engraver. In 1796 he became 
 minister of a dissenting congregation at Colchester. He 
 published a number of religious and educational works; 
 among the latter we may name "Beginnings of Biogra- 
 phy," and " Scenes for Tarry-at-Home Travellers." He 
 preached at Ongar from 1810 to 1829. Died in 1829. 
 
 Taylor, (Isaac,) Junior, an eminent English writer, a 
 son of the preceding, was born in Suffolk in 1787. He 
 published a number of moral, philosophical, and theo- 
 logical works of a high character. Among the most 
 important of these are a " History of the Transmission 
 of Ancient Books to Modern Timed," (1827,) "The 
 Natural History of Enthusiasm," (1829,) "The Natural 
 History of Fanaticism," "Spiritual Despotism," "The 
 Physical Theory of Another Life," (1836,) "Ancient 
 Christianity," (2 vols., 1839-43,) and " Loyola and Jesu- 
 itism," (1849.) Died in 1865. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1840; Allibone, " Dic- 
 tionary of Authors." 
 
 Taylor, tt'lor, ? (Isidore S£verin Justin,) a Belgian 
 traveller and amateur artist, born at Brussels in 1789. 
 He visited Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, etc., and made a 
 valuable collection of works of art for the galleries and 
 museums of Paris. He published " Picturesque and 
 Romantic Journeys in Old France," (" Voyages pitto- 
 resques et romantiques de 1'ancienne France," 24 vols., 
 1820-63.) 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Taylor, (James,) a Scottish mechanician, born about 
 1757. He gained distinction as one of the inventors of 
 steam navigation. Died in 1825. 
 
 SeeCtlAMBKKs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmea." 
 
 Taylor, (Jane,) a meritorious English writer, born in 
 London in 1783, was a sister of Isaac Taylor, Jr., noticed 
 above. In conjunction with her sister Ann, she composed 
 " Original Poems," which were very popular, and " Hymns 
 for Infant Minds," which passed through many editions. 
 She also published "Display," a tale, (1814,) a series 
 of able essays entitled " Contributions of Q. Q.," and 
 "Essays in Rhyme." Died in 1824. 
 
 See " Memorials. Biographical and Literary, of the Taylor Family," 
 by the Ruv. I. Taylor, London, 1867; Mrs. Ei.wood, " Memoirs 
 of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commencement of the 
 Last Century, vol. ii., 1843. 
 
 Taylor, (Jeremy,) an English bishop and author of 
 great eminence, was burn at Cambridge in 1613, and was 
 baptized on the 15th of August. He was a son of a 
 barber, and was educated at Cains College, Cambridge, 
 where he graduated as M.A. about 1633. Having taken 
 holy orders, he obtained the patronage of Archbishop 
 
 « as *; 9 as s, g hard; g asy; G, H, m, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as s; th as in this. ( i£jT~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 210-2 
 
 TAYLOR 
 
 Laud, through whose influence he was chosen a Fellow 
 of All Souls' College, Oxford, in 1636. He became rec- 
 tor of Uppingham, in Rutlandshire, in 1638, and married 
 Phebe Landisdale (or Langsdale) in 1639. In the civil 
 war he was a decided adherent of Charles I., whom he 
 served as chaplain. He published in 1642 " Episcopacy 
 Asserted against the Acephali and Aerians, New and 
 Old." His rectory of Uppingham was sequestrated by 
 Parliament in 1642, after which he supported himself by 
 teaching school in Carmarthenshire. In 1647 he pro- 
 duced one of his greatest works, " The Liberty of Pro- 
 phesying," which, says Hallam, " was the first famous 
 plea, in this country, for tolerance in religion on a com- 
 prehensive basis and on deep-seated foundations. Taylor, 
 therefore, may be said to have been the first who sapped 
 and shook the foundations of dogmatism and pretended 
 orthodoxy; the first who taught men to seek peace in 
 unity of spirit rather than of belief, and, instead of ex- 
 tinguishing dissent, to take away its sting by charity and 
 by a sei*e of human fallibility." (" Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe.") He afterwards published his 
 " Holy Living and Dying," (1651,) "The Great Exem- 
 plar, or the Life of Christ," (3 vols., 1653,) and "The 
 Golden Grove," (1654,) in which he displayed a rich 
 imagination and poetical genius. He was imprisoned 
 several times by the partisans of the Parliament during 
 the civil war. In 1658, at the invitation of Lord Con- 
 way, he removed to Lisburn, Ireland, where he officiated 
 as a clergyman. He was appointed Bishop of Down and 
 Connor in 1660. Before this date he had married a 
 second wife, who was a natural daughter of Charles I. 
 Among his principal works is a very learned treatise on 
 casuistry, entitled " Ductor Dubitantium," (" Rule of 
 Conscience," 1660.) He was intrusted with the adminis- 
 tration of the small see of Dromore in 166 1. He died 
 at Lisburn in August, 1667, leaving three daughters. 
 
 "His Sermons," says Hallam, "are far above any 
 that had preceded them in the English Church. An 
 imagination essentially poetical, and sparing none of 
 the decorations which by critical rules are deemed almost 
 peculiar to verse ; a warm tone of piety, sweetness, and 
 charity ; an accumulation of circumstantial accessories 
 whenever he reasons, or persuades, or describes, . . . 
 distinguish Taylor from his contemporaries by their 
 degree, as they do from most of his successors by their 
 kind. . . . The eloquence of Taylor is great, but it is 
 not eloquence of the highest class ; it is far too Asiatic, 
 too much in the style of Chrysostom and other declaimers 
 of the fourth century, by the study of whom he had 
 probably vitiated his taste ; his learning is misplaced, 
 and his arguments often as much so ; not to mention 
 that he has the common defect of alleging nugatory 
 proofs; his vehemence loses its effect by the circuity of 
 his pleonastic language." ("Introduction to the Lite- 
 rature of Europe.") 
 
 See H. K. Bonny, "Life of Jeremy Taylor." 1815; Reginald 
 Hebek, "Life of Jeremy Taylor," 1824; R. Willmott, "Bishop 
 J. Taylor, his Predecessors," etc., 1846; Allibone, "Dictionary of 
 Authors." 
 
 Taylor, (John,) surnamed the Water Poet, born 
 at Gloucester, in England, in 1580, was originally a 
 waterman in London. His verses possess but little 
 intrinsic merit, but they are valuable as illustrations 
 of society and manners at that time. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Almbone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Taylor, (John,) an English dissenting divine, born 
 in Lancashire about 1680. He was the author of a 
 "Sketch of Moral Philosophy," "The Scripture Doc- 
 trine of Original Sin," a " Hebrew Concordance," and 
 other works. Died in 1761. 
 
 Taylor, (John,) LL.D., an eminent English jurist and 
 scholar, born at Shrewsbury about 1703. He became a 
 Fellow of Saint John's College, Cambridge, and subse- 
 quently was made registrar of the university. He was 
 profoundly versed in Greek and Roman law, and pub- 
 lished an edition of the " Orations" of Lysias. He also 
 edited some of the works of Demosthenes, and other 
 Greek classics. He also wrote " Elements of Civil Law," 
 (1755.) Having entered into holy orders, Dr. Taylor 
 was created in 1757 canon-residentiary of Saint Paul's. 
 Died in 1766. 
 
 Taylor, (John,) an American Senator, born in Orange 
 county, Virginia. He was elected a Senator of the 
 United States by the legislature of Virginia in 1792, in 
 1803, and in 1822. He was distinguished as an agricul- 
 turist. Died in Caroline county, Virginia, in 1824. 
 
 Taylor, (John,) an English writer, was a son of 
 Henry, noticed above. He wrote songs, epigrams, 
 humorous tales, etc. Died in 1832. 
 
 Taylor, (John,) an English political economist, born 
 in 1781. He wrote "The Identity of Junius with a 
 Distinguished Living Character Established," (1818,) 
 also " Essays on Currency," etc. Died in 1864. 
 
 Taylor, (John W.,) an American statesman, born in 
 Saratoga county, New York, in 1784. He studied law, 
 and represented a district of New York in Congress 
 from 1813 to 1833. He made an eloquent speech against 
 the establishment of slavery in Missouri, February, 1819. 
 He was Speaker of the House of Representatives in the 
 second session of the Sixteenth Congress, (1820-21,) 
 during the passage of the Missouri Compromise. He 
 removed about 1843 to Cleveland, Ohio, where he died 
 in 1854. 
 
 Taylor, (Nathaniel William,) D.D., an eminent 
 American divine and pulpit orator, born at New Milford, 
 Connecticut, in 1786. In 1812 he succeeded Moses 
 Stuart as pastor of the First Congregational Church at 
 New Haven, and in 1822 became Dwight professor of 
 didactic theology at Yale College. He wrote a number 
 of theological essays, which favour the views of Jonathan 
 Edwards. Died in 1858. 
 
 Taylor, (Richard,) an English printer and journalist, 
 born at Norwich in 1781, became associate editor of the 
 " Philosophical Magazine," and in 1838 founded the 
 "Annals of Natural History." He published editions 
 of Warton's " History of English Poetry," and of other 
 standard works. Died in 1858. 
 
 Taylor, (Richard,) an American general, was a son 
 of President Zachary Taylor. He commanded a Con- 
 federate army in Louisiana in 1863. His army resisted 
 General Banks with success near Mansfield and Pleasant 
 Hill, Louisiana, in April, 1864. He surrendered to 
 General Canby on the 4th of May, 1865, near Mobile. 
 
 Taylor, (Richard Cowling,) an English geologist, 
 born in Suffolk in 1789. Having emigrated to America 
 in 1830, he was employed in geological explorations in 
 Pennsylvania and other parts of the United States. He 
 published in 1848 a valuable work entitled " Statistics 
 of Coal." Died in 1851. 
 
 Taylor, (Sir Robert,) an English sculptor and archi- 
 tect, born in 1714. He studied at Rome, and after his 
 return to London devoted himself principally to archi- 
 tectural works. Among his most admired structures 
 we may name Lord Grimstone's mansion at Gorhani- 
 bury. He died in 1788, leaving a fortune of ^180,000, 
 a portion of which he bequeathed to the University of 
 Oxford towards founding an institute for the study of 
 modern languages. 
 
 Taylor, (Rowland,) an English clergyman, chaplain 
 to Archbishop Cranmer, was condemned, under the 
 reign of Queen Mary, to be burnt at the stake. The 
 sentence was executed in February, 1555- 
 
 Taylor, (Silas,) sometimes called D'Omville, an 
 English scholar and antiquary, born in Shropshire in 
 1624. He was the author of "The History of Gavel- 
 kind," etc., and prepared a " History of Harwich," pub- 
 lished after his death, which occurred in 1678. 
 
 Taylor, (Stephen William,) LL.D., an American 
 teacher, bom in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, in 
 1791. He became in 1838 professor of mathematics and 
 natural philosophy in Madison University, New York, 
 of which he was subsequently president. Died in 1856. 
 
 Taylor, (Thomas,) an English Puritan minister, born 
 in Yorkshire in 1576. He preached in London, and 
 published several volumes of sermons. Died in 1632. 
 
 Taylor, (Thomas,) an eminent English scholar, sur- 
 named the Platonist, bom in London in 1758. From 
 early youth he applied himself with ardour to the study 
 of the Greek philosophers, and about 1780 began the 
 publication of a series of translations from the classics, 
 including the writings of Plato and Aristotle. Besides 
 the above, Mr. Taylor translated " The Hymns of Or- 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; mjt; not; gooi; moor.; 
 
TAYLOR 
 
 2103 
 
 TCHING-TCHING KONG 
 
 plieus," (1787,) "Prochis on Euclid," (1702.) Pausa- 
 nias's " Description of Greece," (1794,) " Five Bonks of 
 Plntimi.," (1794,) "The Six Books of Prochis on the 
 Theology of Plato," (1816,) " Iamblichus on the Mvs- 
 teries of the Egyptians, Chaldeans," etc., (1821,) "The 
 Metamorphoses and Philosophical Works of Apuleius," 
 (1822,) "Select Works of Porphyry," (1823,) "Argu- 
 ments of Celsus relative to the Christians, taken from 
 Origen," etc., "Prochis on Providence and Evil," (1833,) 
 and other classics. He also published, among other 
 original treatises, a "Dissertation on the Eleusinian and 
 P>acchic Mysteries." Died in 1835. Mr. Taylor was 
 distinguished for his great conversational powers and 
 attractive social qualities, which gained for him the 
 friendship of many persons of wealth and influence, by 
 whose assistance he was enabled to publish his volumi- 
 nous works. Among his patrons the Duke of Norfolk 
 and Mr. Meredith deserve especial mention for their mu- 
 nificence. As a translator from the Greek, Mr. Taylor 
 does not hold a high rank, but he merits the gratitude 
 of the admirers of Plato for having done so much to 
 attract attention to the works of that philosopher. 
 
 See I. Wki.su, "Notice of Thomas Taylor," 1831 : " Notivelle 
 Biographie Generate :" " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1S09; Alu- 
 bonk, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Taylor, (Tom,) an English lilthtttenr. born in Dur- 
 ham in 1817. He was elected a Fellow of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, and subsequently became professor of the 
 English language and literature at University College, 
 London. He has published a "Biography of Benjamin 
 Robert Havdon," "The Unequal Match," and other 
 dramas, and has been a frequent contributor to " Punch." 
 He was appointed secretary to the board of health in 
 1854, and secretary to a department of the home office 
 about 1866. 
 
 Taylor, (Wii.i.i am,) an accomplished English writer 
 and translator, born at Norwich in 1765. He acquired 
 a knowledge of the French, German, and Italian lan- 
 guages during a residence on the continent, and pub- 
 lished, after his return, an excellent translation of 
 Burger's " Lennre," and other German poems. His 
 version of Lessing's " Nathan der Weise" came out in 
 1806, and a collection of his translations, entitled a 
 " Survey of German Poetry," was published in 1830. 
 He also wrote a work on English synonyms, and essays 
 on the German poets. Died in 1836. 
 
 See a "Memoir of the Life and Writings of the Late William 
 Taylor." etc., by T. W. Robbrrds; "London Quarterly Review" 
 for December, 1843. 
 
 Taylor, (William Cooke,) an Trish writer, born at 
 Youghal in 1800, published a number of biographical 
 and historical works. Among the principal we may 
 name a " History of France and Normandy," (1830,) 
 " History of Popery," (1837,) and " Life and Times of 
 Sir Robert Peel," ('3 vols., 1846-51.) Died in 1S49. 
 
 Taylor, (Zachary,) a distinguished American gene- 
 ral, and the twelfth President of the United States, was 
 born in Orange county, Virginia, in 1784. He was a son of 
 Colonel Richard Taylor. He was educated in Kentucky, 
 his father having removed to Louisville, in that State, 
 about 1785. He entered the army in 1808, and married 
 Margaret Smith in 1810. In the war which began in 
 1812 he served as captain against the Indians. He ob- 
 tained the rank of colonel in 1832, and was employed in 
 the war against Black Hawk the same year. He de- 
 feated the Seminoles at Okechobee in December, 1837, 
 and was appointed commander-in-chief of the army in 
 Florida in April, 1838. About 1840 he purchased an 
 estate near Baton Rouge, on which he settled. He com- 
 manded an army which was sent in the summer of 1845 
 to Corpus Christi, near the mouth of the Nueces River. 
 "Mr. Polk and his cabinet desired General Taylor to 
 debark at, occupy, and hold the east bank of the Rio 
 Grande, though they shrank from the responsibility 
 •>( giving an order to that effect, hoping that General 
 Taylor would take a hint. . . . Official hints and innuen- 
 does, that he was expected to advance to the Rio Grande, 
 continued to reach him ; but he disregarded them ; 
 and at length, about the 1st of March, 1846, he received 
 positive orders from the President to advance." (Greeley, 
 "American Conflict," vol. i. p. 186.) On the 8th of 
 
 May he was attacked at Palo Alto bv the Mexican army, 
 which he signally defeated. He gamed another victory 
 at Resaca de la Palma on the 9th of May, soon after 
 which he was promoted to the rank of major-general. 
 On the 22d of February, 1847, he defeated Santa Anna in 
 a hard-fought battle at Buena Vista. He received from 
 his soldiers the familiar name of "Rough and Ready." 
 In June, 1848, .he was nominated as candidate for the 
 Presidency by the Whig National Convention. His com- 
 petitors were Lewis Cass, Democrat, and Martin Van 
 Buren, Free-Soil. Genera] Taylor received one hundred 
 and sixty-three electoral votes, (cast by fifteen States, in- 
 cluding New York and Pennsylvania,) and was elected. 
 In the next Congress, which met in December, 1849, the 
 Democrats had the majority. An exciting contest en- 
 sued about the organization of the spacious territories 
 recently ceded by Mexico to the United States, and the 
 admission of California, which had formed a constitution 
 excluding slavery. In his message of December, 1849, 
 the President recommended the admission of California, 
 which was violently opposed by the Southern members 
 of Congress, who threatened to dissolve the Union. This 
 difficulty was obviated or postponed by Mr. Clay's Com- 
 promise bill, which gave the pro-slavery party some 
 compensation for the admission of California, by more 
 effectual enactments for the rendition of fugitive slaves 
 to their masters. According to this bill, New Mexico 
 and Utah were to be organized without the Wilmot 
 proviso ; that is, the people of those territories were per- 
 mitted to decide whether slavery should be admitted or 
 prohibited. Before the passage of this compromise bill, 
 President Taylor died, on the 9th of July, 1850, and the 
 executive power devolved on the Vice-President, Millard 
 Fillmore. The administration of President Taylor was 
 generally popular, especially in the Free States, but it 
 gave great dissatisfaction to the extreme pro-slavery 
 party of the South. 
 
 See C. F. Powell, " Life of General Taylor," 1846: "North 
 American Review" for January, 1851; "New American Cyclo- 
 paedia." #" 
 
 Tazewell, taz'wel, (Littleton W.,) an American 
 lawyer and Senator, born at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 
 1774. He was a Senator of the United States from 
 1824 to 1832, and was elected Governor of Virginia in 
 1834. Died at Norfolk in i860. 
 
 Tcheou-Kong. See Tchew-Kong. 
 
 Tchernyshef, cheu'ne-shef, written also Tscher- 
 nyschewandTschernytschew, (Alexander I vano- 
 vitch.) a Russian general and diplomatist, born in 1779, 
 served with distinction in several campaigns against the 
 French, and was ambassador to Paris in 181 1. He was 
 present at the Congress of Vienna, and soon after the 
 accession of Nicholas was appointed minister of war 
 and chief of the imperial staff of generals. In 1848 he 
 l>ecame president of the imperial council, having been 
 previously made a prince of the empire. 
 
 Tchernyshef or Tschemyschew, [GREGORY,) a 
 Russian general in the service of Peter the Great, was 
 born in 1672. He was appointed Governor of Livonia 
 in 1726, and ennobled by the empress Elizabeth in 1742. 
 Died in 1745. 
 
 His sons Zakhar (Sachar) and Ivan rose to the 
 rank of field-marshal ; and a third son, Count Peter, 
 became minister-plenipotentiary to the courts of Berlin 
 and Paris. 
 
 Tchew-Kong, choo kong, or Tcheou-Kong, a Chi- 
 nese legislator, is supposed to have lived eleven cen- 
 turies before the Christian era. He filled several high 
 offices under the government, and also enjoyed a high 
 reputation as an astronomer, poet, and warrior. 
 
 Tchihatchef, von, fori che'hachef', (Peter,) a Rus- 
 sian geologist, born near Saint Petersburg in 1812. He 
 spent about six years in the exploration of Asia Minor. 
 He published in 1846 an account of his exploration of 
 the Altai Mountains, entitled " Voyage scientifique dans 
 I'Altai et dans les Contrees adjacentes," and a valuable 
 work entitled "Asia Minor, a Physical, Statistical, and 
 Archaeological Description of that Country," (in French, 
 2 vols., 185V56.) 
 
 Tching-Tohing Kong, ching ching kong, a Chinese 
 admiral, sometimes called Koxinga, fought against the 
 
 e as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; tt, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as *; th as in this. (J3f~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TCHITCHAGOF 
 
 2104 
 
 TEKELI 
 
 Mantchoo Tartars, whom he besieged in the city of 
 Nanking about 1656. He subsequently drove the Dutch 
 from the island of Formosa, and concluded a treaty with 
 the English for the" purpose of obtaining their aid against 
 the Mantchoos. Died about 1670. 
 
 Tchitchagof, Tchitchagov, or Tschitschagow, 
 chitch'a-gof, (Paul VaSILievitch,) a Russian admiral 
 and general, was born in 1766. He was minister of the 
 marine in the first years of the reign of Alexander I., 
 and became an admiral in 1807. In 1812 he received 
 command of an army destined to intercept the retreat 
 of Napoleon from Moscow, but he failed in that design. 
 He resigned soon after, and passed the rest of his life in 
 foreign countries. Died in Paris in 1849. 
 
 Tchitchagof or Tschitschagow, (Vasii.ii Yakov- 
 LKVITCH,) a Russian admiral, born in 1726, served in the 
 Seven Years' war, and in 1790 gained a victory over 
 the Swedes near Viborg. He was the father of the 
 preceding. Died in 1809. 
 
 Tchoung-Ni. See Confucius. 
 
 Tebaldeo, ta-bal'da-o, or Tibaldeo, te-bai'di-o, 
 (Antonio,) an Italian poet, born at Ferrara in 1456, 
 published numerous lyrics and pastorals, in Italian, also 
 Latin epigrams and other poems, which were esteemed 
 by his contemporaries. Died in 1537. 
 
 Tebaldus. See Theoraldus. 
 
 Te-cfirh'seh, a celebrated Indian chief of the Shawnee 
 tribe, was born near the Scioto River, Ohio, about 1770. 
 Having effected an alliance of the Western Indians 
 against the whites, a battle was fought at Tippecanoe 
 in 181 1, in which the former were defeated by General 
 Harrison. Tecumseh joined the English in the war of 
 181 2, obtained the rank of brigadier-general, and was 
 killed at the battle of the Thames, in 1813, where he 
 commanded the right wing. 
 
 Tedaldi-Fores, ti-dal'dee fo'rSs, (Carlo,) an Italian 
 poet, born at Cremona in 1793. Among his works are 
 tragedies entitled " Bondelmonte" and " Beatrice Ten- 
 da," which are praised by Sismoudi in the " Biographie 
 Universelle." Died in 1829. 
 
 Tedeschi, ti-des'kee, (Niccoi.6,) surnamed Panor- 
 mitano, pa-noR-me-ta'no, [Lat. Panormita'nus ; Fr. 
 Le Panormitain, leh pi'noR'me'taN', i.e. "the Paler- 
 mian,"] an Italian canonist, born at Catania in 1386. 
 He distinguished himself at the Council of Hale, sup- 
 ported the anti-pope Felix V., and became a cardinal in 
 1440. Died in 1445. 
 
 Tefft, teft, (Benjamin Franklin,) D.D., LL.D., an 
 American Methodist divine, born in Oneida county. 
 New York, in 1813. He was appointed professor, of 
 Greek and Hebrew in the Asbury University, Indiana, 
 and subsequently became president of Genesee Col- 
 lege, New York. He has published several theological 
 works. 
 
 Tegel, tii'gel, (Eric,) a Swedish historian, was ap- 
 pointed historiographer by Gustavus Adolphus in 1614. 
 He wrote a " History of Gustavus I.," (1622,) and other 
 works. Died in 1638. 
 
 Tegethoff, von, fon ta'get-hof*, (Wilhelm.) an Aus- 
 trian vice-admiral, bom in Styria in 1827. He became 
 a captain in 1857, and defeated the Danish fleet near 
 Heligoland in May, 1864. Having obtained the chief 
 command of the Austrian fleet, with the rank of rear- 
 admiral, he gained a decisive victory over the Italians 
 at Lissa, in the Adriatic, July 19, 1866. Died in 1871. 
 
 Tegner, teng-naiR' or teng-nnV, (Esaias,) the most 
 celebrated poet of Sweden, was born in Wermland in 
 1782. He studied at the University of Lund, and in 
 1812 became professor of Greek in that institution. He 
 had previously published a number of lvrics, and several 
 larger poems, entitled " Svea," (1811,) which obtained 
 the prize from the Swedish Academy, "Children of the 
 Lord's Supper," (1820,) and "Axel," (1821.) Having 
 ^tadualed in theology, he was appointed in 1824 Bishop 
 of Wexio. His " Frithiofssaga," published in 1825, is 
 esteemed his best production. It has obtained a world- 
 wide reputation, and been translated into the principal 
 modern languages, four different versions of it having 
 appeared in German. Among his other works may 
 be named " Schulreden" and "Orations," which were 
 greatly admired, and were translated into German by 
 
 Mohnike. Tegner died in November, 1846, and a 
 colossal statue, admirably executed by Svarnstrom, was 
 raised to his memory at Lund in 1853. Several of his 
 poems have been translated by Longfellow. He had 
 married Anna Myrhman in 1806, and left six children. 
 
 "E. Tegner, the greatest poet of Sweden, was a 
 native of Wermland. His ' Frithiof Saga,' though not 
 a regular epic, — for it is rather a bundle of lyrical 
 poems woven into one epic cycle, — is yet a complete 
 and great poem. . . . We have had five or six transla- 
 tions of 'Frithiof,' none of which give any conception 
 of the exquisite beauty and splendour of the original." 
 (See article on " Scandinavian Literature" in the " En- 
 cyclopaedia Britannica.") 
 
 See Franzkn, "Aminnelse-Tal bfver E. TegneY," 1846; E. G. 
 Geijer, "Aminnelse-Tal bfver E. Tegmir," 1S46; Boettiger, " E. 
 Tegner's Levnet," 1847 ; Acharo Kahi., "Tegner och bans Somtida 
 i Lund," rS^i : Hagrkrg, " Minnetal bfver E. Tegner," 1847; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale;" Hdwitt, "Literature and Ro- 
 mance of Northern Europe;" Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of 
 Europe;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for February. 182S; "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for September, 1828 ; " North American Review" 
 for July, 1837. 
 
 Tegoborski, ti-go-boR'skee, (Lewis,) a Polish econ- 
 omist and diplomatist, born at Warsaw in 1793. He 
 published, besides other works, " Studies on the Pro- 
 ductive Forces of Russia," (4 vols., 1852-54.) He was 
 a privy councillor of Russia. Died in 1857. 
 
 Teia, tee'ya, the last king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, 
 began to reign in 552 A.D., as the successor of Totila. 
 He was killed near Vesuvius, in a battle against Narses, 
 
 in S53- 
 
 Teichmeyer, tlK'ml'er, (Hermann Friedricii.) an 
 eminent German physician, born at Minden in 1685. 
 He became professor of anatomy, etc. at Jena in 1727, 
 and published several works. Died in 1746. 
 
 Teignmouth, tin'miith, (John Shore,) Lord, an 
 English statesman and writer, born in Devonshire in 
 1751. He was appointed in 1773 Persian translator and 
 secretary to the provincial council of Moorshedabad, 
 in India, and subsequently became a member of the 
 supreme council under Lord Cornwallis. He was made 
 a baronet in 1792, and in 1793 succeeded Cornwallis as 
 Governor-General of India. He resigned this office in 
 1797, and was soon after made a peer of Ireland, with 
 the title of Baron Teignmouth. He had been elected in 
 1794 president of the Asiatic Society, and in 1804 be- 
 came first president of the British and Foreign Bible 
 Society. He published " Memoirs of the Life, Writings, 
 and Correspondence of Sir William Jones," (1804,) 
 afterwards prefixed to an edition of Jones's works which 
 he brought out in 1807 in 13 vols. 8vo. Lord Teignmouth 
 also wrote "Considerations on Communicating to the 
 Inhabitants of India the Knowledge of Christianity," 
 (181 1.) He died in 1834, having been previously ap- 
 pointed a member of the privy council of India. 
 
 See "Life of Lord Teignmouth," by Richard Temple, 1S50. 
 
 Teil, du, dii til or t|'ye, (Jean Pierre,) Baron, a 
 French general, born in Dauphine in 1722. He was 
 commandant of the school of artillery at Attxonne, and 
 rendered some services to Bonaparte, who was a lieuten- 
 ant under him. Bonaparte left a legacy of one hundred 
 thousand francs to the heirs of Du Teil. Died in 1794. 
 
 Teiresias. See Tiresias. 
 
 Teisserenc, tis'r&N', (Pierre Lomond,) a French 
 writer on railroads, was born at Chateauroiix in 1814. 
 
 Teissier, ti'se-4', (Antoine,) a French jurist and 
 writer, born at Montpellier in 1632. He was patronized 
 by the Elector of Brandenburg, afterwards Frederick I. 
 of Prussia, who made him a councillor of state and his 
 historiographer, and also appointed him preceptor to his 
 son. He made translations from Saint Chrysostom, Saint 
 Clement, and Calvin, and wrote " Eulogies of Learned 
 Men, taken from the History of M. de Thou," (1683,) 
 and other works. Died in 1 715. 
 
 See NictanN, " MeWires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Teissier, (Guili.aume Ferdinand,) a French anti- 
 quary, bom at Marly-la- Ville in 1779. He wrote, besides 
 other works, a "History of Thionville," (1828.) Died 
 in 1S34. 
 
 Teissier, (Jean Antoine.) See Marguerittes. 
 
 Tekeli. See Tokely. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
TELAMON 
 
 2105 
 
 TELLEZ 
 
 Tel'a-mon, [Gr. TcKapujn ; Fr. Telamon, ta'lS'mdN',] 
 a hero of classic mythology, was a king of Salamis, a 
 brother of Peleus, and the father of Ajax and Teucer, 
 whose mother was Hesione, a daughter of Laomedon. 
 He "ook part in the Argonautic expedition, and fought 
 for Hercules against Laomedon and against the Amazons. 
 
 Tel-e-cli'des or Tel-e-clei'des, [TrftetiASiK,} an 
 Athenian comic poet of the old comedy, flourished about 
 444 K.c. His works are lost. 
 
 Te-leg'o-nus, [Gr. Tr/'Ae youo^ : Fr. Telegone, ta'la'- 
 gon',] a son of Ulysses and Circe, was, according to 
 the fable, thrown by shipwreck on the island of Ithaca. 
 Being urged by hunger, he began to pillage from the 
 natives, and was attacked by Ulysses, whom he killed, 
 not knowing who he was. 
 
 Teleki or Teleky, ta'leh-ke, (Ladisi.aus,) a Hun- 
 garian patriot, orator, and writer, born at Pesth in 181 1. 
 He was elected to the House of Representatives by the 
 Liberal party in 1848, and took an active part in the 
 movement for the independence of Hungary. During 
 his absence on a mission to France, he was condemned 
 to death by the Austrians. He was elected in i860 a 
 member of the Diet, in which he acted with the radical 
 party. He died, probably by suicide, in May, 1861. 
 
 Te-lem'a-ehus, \Gr.Tyfefiaxos; Fr. Tei.Emaque, ti'- 
 la'mik',| son of Ulysses (King of Ithaca) and Penelope, 
 was induced by Minerva, under the form of Mentes, 
 (called also Mentor,) King of the Taphians, to undertake 
 a voyage in search of his father, who had engaged with 
 the other Grecian princes in the Trojan war. After 
 his return home, he discovered Ulysses disguised as a 
 beggar, and, with his assistance, put to death the suitors 
 of Penelope. The fortunes of Telemachus form the 
 subject of the admirable moral romance of Fenelon. 
 After the death of his father he is said to have married 
 Nausicaa, or, as some say, Circe. (See the "Odyssey.") 
 
 Telemann, ta'leh-man', (Geokg Philipi',) a German 
 composer, bom at Hildesheim in 1681, was appointed 
 director of music at Hamburg. His works were prin- 
 cipally operas. Died in 1767. 
 
 Telemaque. See Telemachus. 
 
 Tel-e-phas'sa, [Gr. Ti/le<j>aaaa; Fr. Telephasse, ta'- 
 la'lfe',] the wife of Agenor, and the mother of Cadmus, 
 Europa, and Phoenix, 
 
 T61ephe. See Telephus. 
 
 Tel'e-phus, [Gr. T^Xecwc; Fr. Tei.Ephe, ta'l&f.l an 
 ancient hero, the son of Hercules and Auge, was King 
 of Mysia, in Asia Minor. He passed many years in 
 poverty and exile. He fought against the Greeks in 
 the beginning of the Trojan war, and was wounded by 
 Achilles. An oracle which he consulted informed him 
 that his wound could only be cured by him who inflicted 
 it. Having persuaded Achilles to heal his wound, he 
 became an ally of the Greeks. Euripides and Sopho- 
 cles each wrote a tragedy entitled "Telephus." 
 
 Tel-e-sil'la, [Gr. TeAeaikhi ; Fr. TELES1LLK, ta'li'- 
 scl',| a Greek lyric poetess, born at Argos, lived about 
 510 H.c. She is said to have served in the army against 
 Sparta, and to have been equally celebrated for her 
 courage and poetical genius. 
 
 Telesio, ta-la'se-o, (Antonio,) an Italian poet and 
 scholar, born at Cosenza in 1482. He was professor of 
 Latin, etc. at Rome and Venice. Died in 1534. 
 
 Telesio, [Lat. Tele'sius,) (Bernardino,) an Italian 
 philosopher, born at Cosenza in 1508 or 1509, was a 
 nephew of the preceding. He distinguished himself as 
 an opponent of the philosophy of Aristotle and an 
 asserter of mental independence. He published some 
 new ideas in his book " On the Nature of Things ac- 
 cording to Proper Principles," (" De Natura Rerum 
 juxta propria Principia.") He was persecuted by the 
 clergy for his opinions. Died in 1588. 
 
 See I.OTTHR, "DeVita et Philosophia H. Telesii," 1733 : Room* 
 and Sikkr, *' Hernardin. Telesius." 1X20: Nic^kon. "M-iiu.ir.-s;" 
 C. Barthoi.omrss, "Dissertatio de B. Telesio," 1849: GlNGUBXB, 
 " Histoire LitieVaire d'ttalie ;" " Nouvelle Biographic G<*r«ira!e." 
 
 Telesius. See Tei.esio. 
 
 Te-lSs'pho-rus, Bishop of Rome, is supposed to have 
 been elected in 127. Died in 138 A.n. 
 
 Te-leVtas or Te-lSs'teS, [TtAforac or Tt/>ioT??r,] an 
 Athenian dithyrambic poet, flourished about 400 H.C. 
 
 Tel'ford, (Thomas,) an eminent Scottish engineer, 
 born in Dumfriesshire in 1757. He was the son of a 
 shepherd, and vras apprenticed at an early age to a 
 stone-mason. Having subsequently removed to London, 
 he was employed in vay'ous architectural works, and 
 in 1796 completed an iron bridge over the Severn. In 
 1801 he finished the Ellesmere Canal, which was fol- 
 lowed by the aqueduct bridge over the valley of the 
 Dee, and the Caledonian Ship-Canal, esteemed one of 
 his greatest works. His improvement of the harbours 
 of Aberdeen and Dundee, the construction of the Saint 
 Catherine docks, London, and the Menai suspension 
 bridge, are also monuments of engineering skill. Mr. 
 Telford was a Fellow of the Royal Societies of London 
 and Edinburgh, and was for many years president of the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers, to which he bequeathed 
 ^2000 for a premium-fund. He contributed a number 
 of articles on architecture, inland navigation, etc. to the 
 " Edinburgh Encyclopaedia." Died in 1834. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" 
 " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1839 ; " Quarterly Review" for 
 April, 1839. 
 
 Teligny, de, deh teh-len'ye', (Charles,) a French 
 Protestant officer and able negotiator. He served with 
 distinction in the civil wars, and was employed in sev- 
 eral treaties between his party and the court. He mar- 
 ried in 1571 Louise de Coligny, a daughter of Admiral 
 de Coligny, and perished in the massacre of August, 
 1572, at Paris. His widow afterwards was married to 
 William the Silent, Prince of Orange. 
 
 See Haag, "La France protestante." 
 
 Tell, tSI, (Wll.HELM,) a celebrated Swiss hero and 
 patriot, born in the canton of Uri in the latter part of 
 the thirteenth century. In 1307 he entered into a league 
 with his father-in-law, Walter Fiirst, Stauffacher von 
 Schwyz, and Arnold von Melchthal to resist the tyranny 
 of the Austrian governor, Hermann Gessler. This officer 
 having insolently required the Swiss to make obeisance 
 to his hat, which was hung up in public, Tell refused to 
 comply, upon which Gessler commanded him to shoot 
 an apple from the head of his son, and, if he failed to 
 hit the mark, his life should be the penalty. Tell struck 
 the apple, but, on being asked what he intended to do 
 with a second arrow which he carried, replied that in case 
 he had killed his son it was destined for Gessler. For 
 this he was taken prisoner on the governor's vessel ; but, 
 a violent storm arising, he was required tosteer the boat, 
 and, watching his chance, sprang on shore. Gessler, 
 having landed soon after, was shot, by Tell, while on his 
 way to Kiissnacht. These incidents form the subject 
 of Schiller's most popular drama. In the opinion of 
 some of the best modern critics, there is a considerable 
 infusion of the mythic element in the history of Tell as 
 it has come down to us. According to tradition, William 
 Tell was drowned about 1350, while attempting to save 
 a child, — an event which Uhland has celebrated in one 
 of his lyrics. 
 
 See Idrlrr, " Die Sage vom Schusse des Tell," 1S36; G. E. von 
 Hai.i.rr, "Rede iiber W. Tell," 1772; " Les Origines de la Con- 
 federation Suisse," by A. Rll.UET, Geneva. 1868: J. von Mum.br, 
 " Histoire de la Suisse ;" Hknnino, " W. Tell," 1836: J, J. Hiski.y, 
 " G. Tell, Mythe et Histoire," etc., 1843 ; Baring-Gould. " Curious 
 Myths of the Middle Ages;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" 
 "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1869. 
 
 Teller, tel'ler, ' (Wilhei.m Ahraham,) a German 
 theologian, and professor of theology at Helmstedt, was 
 born at Leipsic in 1734. He was the author of a " Manual 
 of Christian Faith," " Dictionary of the New Testament," 
 and other religious works. Died in 1804. 
 
 Tellez. See Eleanor of Portugal. 
 
 Tellez, tel-leV, (Balthazar,) a learned Portuguese 
 Jesuit, born at Lisbon in 1595. He became professor 
 of theology in his native city, having previously taught 
 belles-lettres, philosophy, etc. in the principal colleges 
 of Portugal. He was the author of a valuable " History 
 of Ethiopia," including an account of the Jesuit missions 
 in that country, " History of the Society of Jesus in Por- 
 tugal," and "Compendium of Universal Philosophy," 
 (" Summa universal Philosophic.") lie was appointed 
 provincial of the order of Jesuits in Portugal. Died in 
 1675. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, " Bibhotheca Lusitano." 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (2^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TELLEZ 
 
 2106 
 
 TEMPLE 
 
 Tellez, tel-yetli', (Gabriel,) a celebrated Spanish 
 dramatist, known l>y his pseudonym of TfRso dk Molina, 
 (teu'so da mo-lee'na,) was born at Madrid about 1585. 
 Having taken holy orders, he became prior of the con- 
 vent of Soria in 1645. His comedies are said to have 
 amounted to three hundred, only sixty-eight of which 
 have been preserved. Among these may be named " El 
 Condenado por Desconfiado," "The Woman who Com- 
 mands at Home," ("La Muger que manda en Casa,") 
 ".Prudence in Woman," ("Prudencia en la Muger,") 
 " The Country-Girl of La Sagra," (" La Villana de La 
 Sagra,") "The Scoffer of Seville," ("El Burlador de 
 Sevilla,") which was imitated by Moliere in his " Festin 
 de Tierre," and "The Bashful Man In the Palace," ("El 
 Vergonzoso en Palacio.") These dramas are ranked 
 among the master-pieces of the Spanish theatre, being 
 esteemed second only to those of Lope de Vega, whom 
 Tellez made his model. Died in 1648. 
 
 See Ticknor, "History of Spanish Literature;" article Tirso 
 DK Mui-ina, in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tellez da Sylva, tel-l§z' da sel'va, (Manoel,) Mar- 
 quis d'Alegrete and Count de Villamayor, a Portuguese 
 litterateur, born in Lisbon in 1682; died in 1736. 
 
 Tellier, Le. See Le Tellier and Louvois. 
 
 Tellucciiii, tel-loot-chee'nee, (Mario,) called Ber- 
 NINO, an Italian poet, lived about 1560-90. Among his 
 works is " Arteinidoro," a poem, (1566.) 
 
 Tel'lus or Ter'ra, [Gr. Tr/ or Tea,] the goddess of 
 the earth, in Roman mythology, was called the wife of 
 Uranus or Coelus. 
 
 Temanza, ti-man'za, (Tomm aso,) a Venetian architect 
 and writer, born in 1705. He built the church of Santa 
 Maria Maddalena at Venice, the bridge of Dolo over 
 the Brenta, and the facade of Santa Margarita at Padua. 
 His " Lives of the Most Eminent Venetian Architects 
 and Sculptors of the Sixteenth Century" (1777) is 
 esteemed a standard work. He also published several 
 treatises on architecture and antiquities. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Nhgki, " Notizie intorno alia Persona ed alle Opere di T. 
 Temanza," 1830. 
 
 Temme, tem'meh, (Jodocus, yo-do'kus,) a German 
 jurist and liberal politician, born at Lette, Westphalia, 
 in 1799. He was elected to the Prussian National 
 Assembly in 1848. He wrote treatises on the Civil Law 
 and Penal Law of Prussia, (1846-53,) and other works. 
 
 Temminck, tem'mink, (C. J.,) an eminent Dutch 
 naturalist, born about 1770. He published, besides other 
 works, in French, " The Natural History of Pigeons and 
 Gallinaceous Birds," (3 vols., 1813-15,) a "Manual of 
 Ornithology," (4 vols., 1820-39,) and a "Monography 
 of Mammalogy, or Descriptions of Some Genera of 
 Mammifera of which Species have been observed in the 
 Museums of Europe," (2 vols., 1825-41.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Tempelhoff, von, fon tem'pel-hof, (Gf.org Frikd- 
 RICH,) a Prussian general and military writer, born at 
 Trampe in 1737. He served with distinction in the 
 Seven Years' war, and subsequently under the Duke of 
 Brunswick in 1792. He was the author of the "Bom- 
 bardier Prussien," a " History of the Seven Years' War," 
 and other works. He was appointed teacher of military 
 science to the sons of Frederick William II. Died in 
 1807. 
 
 Tempesta, tem-pes'ta, or Tempesti, tem-pSs'tee, 
 (Anton o,) an eminent Italian painter and engraver, 
 born at Florence in 1555. He studied under Strada, 
 and afterwards resided at Rome, where he executed a 
 number of admired works for Pope Gregory XIII., Car- 
 dinal Farnese, and other persons of rank. He painted 
 landscapes, animals, hunting-scenes, and battles with 
 great spirit and fidelity, and produced more than fif- 
 teen hundred etchings. Among the best of these we 
 may name "The Life of Saint Anthony," (in 24 plates,) 
 "The Victory of the Jews over the Amalekites," and 
 "Christ, the Virgin, and the Apostles." Died in 1630. 
 
 Tempesta, Cavaliere, a celebrated painter, some- 
 times called Piktro Mulier, was born at Haarlem in 
 1637. I lis original name was Peter Molyn, but, owing 
 to his skill in delineating storms at sea, it was changed 
 to Tempesta. After residing for some time at Rome, 
 where he married and obtained extensive patronage, he 
 visited Venice and Genoa. He soon after contrived the 
 
 murder of his wife, in order to marry a Genoese lady 
 and, being convicted of the crime, was sentenced to 
 perpetual imprisonment. He was liberated at the end 
 of five years, according to one statement, while other 
 writers assert that he was confined much longer. On 
 his release he settled at Milan, where he acquired great 
 wealth by the sale of his pictures. Died in 1701. 
 See Dkscamps, "Vies des Peintres Hollandais." 
 
 Tem'ple, (Frederick,) an English bishop, born in 
 1821, graduated at Oxford in 1842. He became chaplain 
 to the queen, head-master of Rugby School in 1858, and 
 Bishop of Exeter in 1869. He was author of one of the 
 well-known "Essays and Reviews," (i860.) 
 
 Temple, (Henry.) See Palmerston, Lord. 
 
 Temple, (Sir John,) an English lawyer and states- 
 man, born in London, became a privy councillor in Ire- 
 land under the reign of Charles II. He was the author 
 of a " History of the Irish Rebellion in 1641." Died 
 in 1677. 
 
 Temple, (John,) a son of Sir William, (1628-99,) 
 became secretary of war in 1689. About a week after 
 his appointment he Committed suicide. He left a note 
 expressing regret for undertaking a task for which he 
 was incompetent. 
 
 Temple, (Richard Grenville,) Earl, an English 
 politician, born about 1710, was a brother-in-law of 
 Lord Chatham. He was first lord of the admiralty in 
 1756, and became keeper of the privy seal about 1758. 
 " His talents for administration and debate," says Mac- 
 aulay, "were of no high order. But his great posses- 
 sions, his turbulent and unscrupulous character, and his 
 skill in the most ignoble tactics of faction made him 
 one of the most formidable enemies that a ministry could 
 have." (Essay on "Lord Chatham.") Died in 1777. 
 
 Temple, (Sir William,) an English jurist, was sec- 
 retary to Sir Philip Sidney, and subsequently became a 
 master of chancery. Died in 1626. He was grandfather 
 of the famous Sir William Temple. 
 
 Temple, (Sir William,) a celebrated English states- 
 man, diplomatist, and writer, born in London in 1628, 
 was the eldest son - of Sir John Temple, who wrote a 
 history of the Irish rebellion of 1641. His mother was 
 a sister of Henry Hammond the eminent divine. His 
 early education was directed by the uncle just named. 
 He also studied at Cambridge, where Cudworth was his 
 tutor, but he left college without a degree about 1647, 
 and then set out upon his travels on the continent. He 
 professed to be a royalist in the civil war. After a long 
 courtship, in which a variety of obstacles were encoun- 
 tered, he married, about 1654, Dorothy Osborne, who 
 preferred him to Henry Cromwell, a son of the Pro- 
 tector. He was a member of the Irish Convention of 
 1660, and of the first Irish Parliament that met in the 
 reign of Charles II. In 1665 he was sent on a mission 
 to the Bishop of Minister, and acquitted himself so well 
 that he was created a baronet in 1666, and appointed resi- 
 dent at the vice-regal court of Brussels. "From this ex- 
 cellent school," says Macaulay, " he soon came forth the 
 most accomplished negotiator of his age." He formed 
 a friendship with De Witt, then chief minister of Hol- 
 land. Temple acquired a high reputation by negotiating 
 with the Dutch and Swedes the triple alliance against 
 the aggressions of Louis XIV. in 1668. "This memo- 
 rable negotiation occupied only five days." (Macaulay.) 
 He was appointed ambassador at the Hague in 1668. 
 In October, 1670, he was recalled by the "Cabal," and 
 the foreign policy of the English court was reversed. 
 During the retirement which followed he wrote an " Ac- 
 count of the United Provinces," (1672,) and other works. 
 The members of the Cabal raised against themselves 
 such a storm of popular indignation by subservience to 
 the French king, that the services of Temple were re- 
 quired by Charles II. in 1674 to negotiate a peace with 
 Holland. " The highest honours of the state were now 
 within Temple's reach." (Macaulay.) He declined the 
 office of secretary of state, and accepted the embassy to 
 the Hague, (1674.) In 1677 he was earnestly pressed 
 by the king to accept the office of secretary ; but he was 
 unwilling to take the responsibility, for he perceived 
 that the signs of the times were very portentous of evil. 
 By the advice of Temple, Charles appointed, in April, 
 
 I, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Q, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
TEMPLE 
 
 2107 
 
 TEKNENT 
 
 1679, a new privy council of thirty members, fifteen of 
 whom were great officers of state. Sir William was a 
 member of this council. "The perfidious levity of the 
 king, and the ambition of the chiefs of parties, produced 
 the instant, entire, and irremediable failure of this plan." 
 (Macaulay.) He took no part in the violent contests 
 which preceded the revolution of 1688, and after that 
 event refused to become secretary of state, in spite of the 
 pressing solicitations of William III. He passed his 
 latter years at Moor Park, Surrey, where Swift, the great 
 humorist, acted as his secretary. He wrote in this re- 
 treat his " Memoirs of Events from 1672 to 1679," and 
 several miscellaneous treatises. " Next to Dryden," 
 says Hallam, " the second place among the polite writers 
 of the period from the restoration to the end of the cen- 
 tury has commonly been given to Sir William Temple. 
 ... If his thoughts are not very striking, they are com- 
 monly just. He has the merit of a comprehensive and 
 candid mind." ("Introduction to the Literature of Eu- 
 rope.") He died in January, 1699. Macaulay censures 
 his neutrality in politics, and his habit of shrinking from 
 responsibility, but admits " that he won the esteem of a 
 profligate court and of a turbulent people without being 
 guilty of any great subserviency to either." 
 
 See Macaui-ay, " Essay on Sir William Temple :" Thomas P. 
 Couetenav, " Memoirs of the Life and Works of Sir William Tem- 
 ple," 2 vols., 1836; Abel Bover, "Memoir of Sir W. Temple," 
 1714; " Leven von der Ridder Temple," Leyden, 1736; "Life 
 of Sir W. Temple," by his sister, Ladv Gifeard, 1731 ; H. 
 Luden, " Sir W. Temples Biographie," 1808 ; Burnet, " History 
 of his Own Times ;" " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Temple, (Sir William,) a diplomatist, born in Lon- 
 don in 1788, was a brother of Lord Palmerston. He 
 was for many years ambassador at the court of Naples. 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 Tem'ple-man, (Petkr,) an English physician, born 
 at Dorchester in 1 7 II, translated Norden's "Travels in 
 Egypt and Nubia" from the Danish, and wrote several 
 medical treatises. Died in 1769. 
 
 Tencin, de, deh tdN'saN', (Claudine Alexandrine 
 Guerin,) a French courtesan, born at Grenoble in 1681. 
 She became successively the mistress of the Duke 
 of Orleans, Chancellor d'Argenson, Lord Bolingbroke, 
 and other distinguished men of the time. She was 
 the mother of the celebrated D'Alembert, whom she 
 abandoned and exposed. She subsequently attained 
 distinction for her literary tastes and acquirements, and 
 was the author of several novels. She numbered among 
 her friends Fontenelle and Montesquieu. Died in 1749. 
 
 See L. Barthei.emy, " Me'moirep secrets de Madame de Ten- 
 cin," 1790: Saint-Simon, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 G^nerale." 
 
 Tencin, de, (Pierre Guerin,) a French cardinal and 
 politician, born at Grenoble in 1680, was a brother of 
 the preceding. He was a creature or trusted agent 
 of Dubois, and an adversary of the Jansenists. In 1739 
 he became a cardinal, and in 1742 received the title of 
 minister of state. Died in 1758. 
 
 See "Memoires pour servir a l'Histoire du Cardinal de Tencin," 
 1758- 
 
 Tenerani, ti-na-ra'nee, (PlETRO,) an Italian sculp- 
 tor, born near Carrara about 1800. He studied under 
 Canova and Thorwaldsen, and subsequently produced 
 a number of admirable works illustrating Greek and 
 Roman mythology. Among the principal of these we 
 may name his "Cupid extracting a Thorn from the Foot 
 of Venus," a "Faun playing on a Flute," and a group 
 of " Psyche and Venus." He has also executed, among 
 other religious works, a "Christ on the Cross," and the 
 "Martyrdom of Eudorus." I lis monumental statues 
 and portrait-busts are likewise highly esteemed. He 
 was elected a member of the French Institute and of 
 other learned societies, and became professor of sculpture 
 in the Academy of Saint Luke at Rome. 
 
 Te'neS or Ten'neS, [Gr. 1'rp>vqq; Fr. Tenes, ta'nJss',] 
 a fabulous personage, said to have been a son of Cycnus. 
 His step-mother, by a calumnious charge, induced Cycnus 
 to throw him into the sea, and he was cast upon an 
 island which derived from him the name of Tenedos. 
 lie was killed by Achilles. 
 
 Teniers, t?i/e-erz, [Fr. pron. ti'ne-aiR',] (David,) 
 the Elder, a celebrated Flemish painter, surnamed 
 
 11. 1'assano, from his admirable imitations of that artist, 
 was born at Antwerp in 1582. He studied under Rubens, 
 and afterwards resided many years in Rome. His 
 favourite subjects were tavern-scenes, and boors drink- 
 ing and smoking. Died in 1649. 
 
 Teniers, (David,) the Younger, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Antwerp in 1610. He was instructed 
 by his father, whom he surpassed in genius, and was 
 also a pupil of Rubens. He was appointed director of 
 the Academy at Antwerp. He is esteemed, in his de- 
 partment, one of the greatest artists of the Flemish 
 school. He produced several historical pieces of supe- 
 rior merit; but his master-pieces are delineations of low 
 life. He also excelled in marine views and as a painter 
 of animals. Died in 1690. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands;" Lecarpen- 
 tier. " David Teniers," 1804; Nagler, "Allgemeines Kunsller- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Ten'I-son, (Thomas,) an eminent English prelate, 
 born at Cottenham, in Cambridgeshire, in 1636. He 
 studied at Cambridge, and afterwards rose successively 
 to be Archdeacon of London, (1689,) Bishop of Lincoln, 
 (169!,) and Archbishop of Canterbury, (1694.) He was 
 highly esteemed for his learning and piety, and made 
 numerous bequests for charitable and educational pur- 
 poses. He published several religious and controversial 
 works. Died in 1 715- 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Life of Archbishop Tenison," 1716. 
 
 Tenivelli, ta-ne-vel'lee, (Carlo,) an Italian biogra- 
 pher, born at Turin in 1756. He published " Pied- 
 montese Biography," (" Biografia Piemontese," 5 vols., 
 1784-92.) He was condemned as a revolutionist by a 
 court-martial and shot in 1797. 
 
 Ten Kate. See Kate, Ten. 
 
 Ten'nant, (Smithson,) F.R.S., an English chemist, 
 born in 1761, became professor of chemistry at Cam- 
 bridge in 1813. He contributed a number of valuable 
 essays to the "Transactions" of the Philosophical So- 
 ciety. Died in 1815. 
 
 Ten'nant, (William,) a Scottish poet and Oriental 
 scholar, born in F'ifeshire in 1785. He was appointed in 
 1835 professor of the Oriental languages in Saint Mary's 
 College, Saint Andrew's. He was the author of several 
 dramas, a humorous poem entitled " Anster Fair," and 
 other poetical pieces. He also made translations from 
 the Greek, Persian, etc., and compiled grammars of the 
 Chaldee and Syriac languages. Died in 1848. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men," (Supplement ;) " Edinburgh Review" for November, 1814. 
 
 Tennecker, von, fon ten'nek-er, (CHRISTIAN Sei- 
 fert,) a German veterinary writer, born near Freiberg 
 in 1770, published several works on the diseases and 
 cure of horses. Died in 1839. 
 
 Tennemann, ten'neh-man', (Wilhelm Gottlieb,) 
 an eminent German philosopher, born near Erfurt in 
 December, 1761, was an adherent of the doctrines of 
 Kant. He became professor of philosophy at Jena in 
 1798, and at Marburg in 1804. He translated into Ger- 
 man Locke's "Essay on the Human Understanding." 
 His chief work is a valuable " History of Philosophy," 
 ("Geschichte der Philosophie," 11 vols., 1798-1811,) 
 of which he also published an abridgment, entitled 
 "Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie," (1812.) 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 See G. F. Creuzrr, "Rede am Grabe Tennemann's," 1819; 
 Wagner, " Memoria G. T. Tennemanni," 1819; Cousin, " Cours 
 de Philosophie." 
 
 Ten'nent, (Gilbert,) an eloquent Presbyterian di- 
 vine, born in the county of Armagh, Ireland, in 1703, 
 emigrated at an early age to America, and became in 
 1743 pastor of a church in Philadelphia. Died in 1764. 
 
 His brother William, born in 1705, settled as pastor 
 of a church at Freehold, New Jersey. During an attack 
 of fever, he lay for three days in a trance, and on his 
 recovery gave a description of what he saw in the celes- 
 tial world. A full account of this extraordinary event 
 was published by Elias Boudinot. Died in 1777. 
 
 See Rev. Robert Strri., " Burning and Shining Lights," 1864. 
 
 Ten'nent, (Sir James Emerson,) a distinguished 
 traveller and statesman, born at Belfast, Ireland in 
 1804. He published, under the name of Emerson, (his 
 
 € as k; 9 as /; g hard; g uj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JJp - See Explanations, p 23.) 
 
TENNTSON 
 
 2108 
 
 TERENCE 
 
 original name,) "Travels in Greece," (1825,) "Letters 
 from the /Egean," (1829,) and "A History of Modem 
 Greece," (1830.) He was elected to Parliament for Bel- 
 fast in 1832, and was several times re-elected. He was 
 appointed civil secretary to the colonial government of 
 Ceylon in 1845, having previously been made a knight. 
 Among his other works may be named " Christianity in 
 Ceylon," etc., (1850,) "Wine: its Use and Taxation," 
 etc., (1855,) and "Sketches of the Natural History of 
 Ceylon," etc., (1861.) Died in March, 1869. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1859. 
 
 Ten'njf-son, (Alfred,) D.C.L., a popular English 
 poet, the third son of George Clayton Tennyson, rector 
 of that parish, was born at Somerby, in Lincolnshire, in 
 1809. His mother's maiden-name was Elizabeth Fytche. 
 He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where 
 he obtained a prize for an English poem in blank verse 
 on " Timbuctoo," (1829.) He was still an under-gradu- 
 ate of Trinity College when he published a volume 
 entitled "Poems, chiefly Lyrical," (1830.) In this col- 
 lection were several short poems which were omitted 
 from the subsequent editions. In 1833 there appeared 
 another volume of "Poems, by Alfred Tennyson," in- 
 cluding, besides a number of pieces reprinted, " Mariana 
 in the South," " The May Queen," " The Palace of Art," 
 a " Dream of Fair Women," and other new poems, which, 
 compared with his earliest efforts, indicated great im- 
 provement in richness of thought and beauty of imagery. 
 He extended his reputation by his " Morte d'Arthur," 
 " Locksley Hall," " Godiva," " Dora," " Lady Clara Vere 
 De Vere," and other poems, in 2 vols., (1842.) 
 
 He afterwards produced an admirable poem called 
 "The Princess, a Medley," (1847 ;) a beautiful tribute 
 to the memory of his friend Arthur H. Hallam, entitled 
 "In Memoriani," (1850;) and "Maud," (1854.) He suc- 
 ceeded Wordsworth as poet-laureate in 1851. Among 
 his later works are "The Idylls of the King," (1859,) and 
 a volume entitled " Enoch Arden, and other Poems," 
 (1864.) This volume includes " Aylmer's Field" and 
 "Tithonus," which is greatly admired. 
 
 "If Mr. Tennyson's poetry," says the " Quarterly Re- 
 view" for January, 1866, "comes short of the highest J 
 standard, it is because the conditions under which he 
 works are those which we have just indicated. . . . He 
 gives us symmetry rather than grandeur of workman- 
 ship, and his exploring temper is more often exercised 
 in completing the web of delicate sensibilities within the 
 range of experience, than in pressing beyond the veil. 
 . . . After the descriptive beauty of the Laureate's verse, 
 perhaps no quality of it is more highly praised than its 
 measure ; and truly the purity and delicacy of its move- 
 ment is almost beyond praise. When we judge it by 
 the highest standard, however, it still seems to lack that 
 lofty and ringing flight and those unforeseen vivacities 
 of cadence which we find in the greatest masters. . . . 
 Though certain common excellences may make a 
 plausible resemblance, yet, in truth, no contrast is 
 greater than that between the jewelled beauty of Mr. 
 Tennyson's style and the crystalline effulgence — the 
 'non imitabile fulgur' — of the great ancients." Tennyson 
 has resided for some years in the Isle of Wight. He 
 published in 1870 a poem called "The Holy Grail." 
 
 See the " London Quarterly" for September, 1842, March, 184S, 
 and October, 1859 : " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1849, 
 September, 1855, and November, 1859; "Edinburgh Review" for 
 July. 1859; "Eraser's Magazine" for September, 1855. and Sep- 
 tember, [859; "Westminster Review" for October. 1850, and Oc- 
 tober, 1859; "North British Review" for August, 1859. 
 
 Tenon, teh-nds', (Jacques Ren£,) a celebrated French 
 surgeon, born near joigny in 1724. He studied anatomy 
 in Paris under Winslow, and was appointed in 1744 
 army surgeon of the first class. He was elected to 
 the Academy of Sciences in 1759. Among his most 
 important works are his "Memoirs on the Exfoliation 
 of Hones" and " Researches on Capsulary Cataracts." 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 See Cuvikr, " Kloge de Tenon ;" " Biographie Me'dicale." 
 Tenore, ta-no'ii, (Michelf,) an Italian botanist, born 
 at Naples in 1781. He founded the botanic garden of 
 Naples, of which he was director for many years. He 
 published, besides other works, a "Flora Neapolitana," 
 (5 vols.) Died in 1861. 
 
 Tenot, ta 'no', (EucfeNE,) a French journalist of the 
 present age. He became editor of the " Steele," a popu- 
 lar and liberal daily journal of Paris. He published an 
 able and impartial work, entitled "Paris in December, 
 1851, or the Coup-d'Etat of Napoleon III.," which has 
 been translated into English. 
 
 Ten Rhyne. See Rhyne. 
 
 Tenterden, Lord. See Abbott, (Charles.) 
 
 Tentori, ten-to'ree, (Cristoforo,) a distinguished 
 historian, of Venetian extraction, born in Spain in 1745. 
 He was the author of a " Civil and Political History of 
 the Republic of Venice," etc., (12 vols., 1785,) which 
 was followed in 1799 by an account of the destruction 
 of the republic in 1797. Died in 1810. 
 
 Tentzel or Tenzel, tent'sel, (Wilhei.m Ernst,) a 
 German antiquary and journalist, born in Thuringia 
 in 1659. He published a treatise entitled " Saxonia 
 Numismatica," a " History of the Reformation," and 
 other works on the history and antiquities of Germany. 
 In 1688 he established a monthly literary review, which 
 was the first journal of the kind that had appeared in 
 Germany. Died in 1707. 
 
 Tenzel. See Tentzel. 
 
 Teobaldo, the Italian for Theobald, which see. 
 
 Teocrito. See Theocritus. 
 
 Teodoro. See Tiieodorus. 
 
 Teodosio. See Theodosius. 
 
 Teofilo. See Theophilus. 
 
 Teofrasto. See Theophrastus. 
 
 Teplof or Teplow, tep'lof, written also Teplov, 
 (Gregory Nikoi.aievi tch,) a Russian savant ami sena- 
 tor, born about 1720. He was a member of the Imperial 
 Academy of Sciences, and wrote various works. Died 
 in 1779. 
 
 Teramo, da, da ta'ra-mo or ter'a-mo, (Jacopo Pal- 
 LADINo.) an Italian prelate and writer, born at Teramo 
 in 1349. He wrote "Trial of Lucifer against Jesus," 
 (•' Processus Luciferi contra Jesum,") and the " Consola- 
 tion of Sinners," (" Consolatio Peccatorum," 1472.) Died 
 in 1417. 
 
 Terburg, ter'biirg or teVbuRH, (Geraart,) a cele- 
 brated painter of the Dutch school, born near Overyssel 
 in 1608. He studied at Rome, and subsequently visited 
 Madrid, London, and Paris, his works being everywhere 
 received with distinguished favour. His most admired 
 productions are conversation-pieces, which department 
 of the art he is said to have originated. His pictures 
 are to be seen in the galleries of Dresden, Amsterdam, 
 Paris, Munich, and Vienna, also a number in England ; 
 and many of them have been engraved and lithographed. 
 Among his master-pieces are his picture of the pleni- 
 potentiaries at the Congress of Minister, and portraits 
 of the royal family of Spain. Died in 1681. 
 
 Sje Descamps, "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Terceira, tSR-sa'era, Duke of, and Count of-Villaflor, 
 a Portuguese statesman and military commander, born 
 about 1790. He was a partisan of the queen Maria da 
 Gloria, and gained several advantages over Don Miguel. 
 Having been made a marshal, he was appointed in 1829 
 to the chief command of the constitutional army. He 
 became minister of war in 1842. Died in i860. 
 
 Tercier, ten'se-4', (Jean Pierre,) a diplomatist and 
 linguist, born in Talis in 1704. He was employed by 
 Louis XV. to direct his secret correspondence. Died 
 in 1767. 
 
 See Sougnac, " Fjloge de Tercier," 1767. 
 
 Terence, ter'Snss, or Terentius, te-ren'she-us, [Fr. 
 Terence, ta'r&Nss'; It. Terenzio, ta-reVze-o,| or, more 
 fully, Pub'liua Teren'tius A'fer, a celebrated Roman 
 comic poet, born at Carthage about 195 B.C. At an early 
 age he became the slave of a Roman senator, named 
 Terentius Lucanus, who gave him a good education, to 
 which he added the gift of liberty. Terence was on in- 
 timate terms with Scipio Africanus Minor and Laelius, 
 who are said to have aided him in the composition of his 
 plays. His first work, entitled " Andria," was performed 
 at Rome in 166 B.C. He produced " Hecyra" in 165, 
 and "The Self-Tormentor" (" Heauton-timorumenos") 
 in 163. Three other of his plays have come down to us, 
 viz., " Adelphi," " Phormio," and "Eunuchus." 
 
 After he had written these, he travelled in Greece, and 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure- fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
TERENTIA 
 
 2109 
 
 TERTVLLUN 
 
 translated, it is said, one hundred and eight of Menan- 
 der's comedies. He never returned to Rome, but died 
 in 159 or 158 B.C. His works are models of elegant 
 diction and pure Latinity. They were praised by Caesar 
 and Cicero, and are said to have escaped the censures 
 of the Church. He is deficient in vis comica, ("comic 
 power," or "broad humour,") but, according to Horace, 
 excels in art. (Epistle II. 1. 59.) The kindly human 
 sympathy manifested by Terence contributed not a little 
 to the popularity of his dramas. When the words 
 
 " Homo sum : humani nihil a me alienum puto,"* 
 were spoken on the Roman stage, they were received 
 by all classes with tumultuous and reiterated applause. 
 His plays have been translated into English by George 
 Colman. 
 
 See L. Scmopen, "Dissertatio de Terentio et Donato," 1821 ; J. 
 B. Lomsn, " Sjiecimen critico-literarium in Plauttim et Terentium," 
 1845: X. Fritbch, " Suetonii Vita Terentii emendata et illustrata," 
 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Terentia, te-ren'she-a, a Roman lady, who became 
 the wife of Cicero the orator about 80 B.C. She bore 
 him a daughter Tullia and a son Marcus. In the year 
 46 she was repudiated by her husband, for reasons that 
 have not been satisfactorily explained ; but this act is 
 generally considered to have left a stain on the reputation 
 of Cicero. Terentia appears to have been a woman of 
 £ood sense and great firmness of character. She is said 
 to have attained the extraordinary age of one hundred 
 and three years. 
 
 Terentianus. See Maurus Terentianus. 
 
 Terentius. See Terence. 
 
 Terentius (te-rjn'she-ijs) Cle'mens, a Roman jurist, 
 the date of whose birth is unknown, was the author of a 
 work entitled "Ad Legem Juliam et Papiam," in twenty 
 books. Only fragments of it are extant. 
 
 Terentius Varro. See Varro. 
 
 Terenzio. See Terence. 
 
 Teresa. See Theresa. 
 
 Terme. See Terminus. 
 
 Ter'mi-nus, [Fr. Terme, thm,| a Roman divinity, 
 who was supposed to preside over the boundaries of 
 nations and of private landed property. The worship 
 of Terminus is said to have been instituted by Numa. 
 
 Teruaux, teVno', (Guillaume Louis,) Baron, a 
 French statesman and manufacturer, born at Sedan in 
 1763. He represented the department of Seine in the 
 Chamber of Deputies from 1818 to 1823. He was an 
 earnest supporter of the cause of the Bourbons, but took 
 an active part against Charles X. in the revolution of 
 1830. He published several treatises on finance and 
 manufactures, was one of the first to introduce spinning- 
 machines for cotton and woollen fabrics, and contributed 
 greatly to the improvement of the national industry. 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Ternaux, (Henri.) a nephew of the preceding, pub- 
 lished " Voyages, Relations, and Memoirs relating to 
 the Discovery and Conquest of America," the " liiblio- 
 thique Americaine," and other works. 
 
 Ter-pan'der, |Gr. Tepmu'dw ; Fr. Terpandre, teV- 
 postlR',] a celebrated Greek poet and musician, born 
 on the island of Lesbos about 680 B.C. He was the 
 inventor of the heptachord, or seven-stringed lyre, and is 
 said to have founded the first school of music in Greece. 
 He was the author of hymns and lyrics, none of which 
 are extant. 
 
 See K. O. MOi.ler, " History of the Literature of Ancient 
 Greece;" Bods, " Poet* lyrici Gncci." 
 
 Terpandre. See Terp\ndf.r. 
 
 Terp-sieh'o-re, [Gr. Tepij}ixopri or Tfpi/jq-opa, i.e. 
 "delighting in the dance," from re/«ru, to "delight," and 
 X"piin, a "dance,"] one of the nine Muses, presided over 
 dancing and choral song. She was represented with 
 a crown of laurel, and with a lyre in her hand. 
 
 Terquem, t? R'koN', (Oi.ry,) a French mathematician, 
 bom at Metz in 1782, was a Jew. He published several 
 mathematical works. Died in Paris in 1862. 
 
 TSr'ra, | Fr. Terrr, taiR,] a name given by the Ro- 
 mans to the goddess of the earth, and identified with 
 
 • " I am a man : and I have an interest in eve-ydiing that concerns 
 humanity." Sec H eauton-timorumenos. Act I., Scene I. 
 
 the Ge [Gr. Via or Vrj\ of the Greek mythology. She 
 was the mother of the Titans, Gigantes, and Oceanus. 
 (See Teli.us.) 
 
 Terrail, du. See Bayard, (PtERRE.) 
 
 Terrasson, tJ'ri'soN', (Antoine,) a French lawyer 
 and scholar, born in Paris in 1705 He wrote a " liis- 
 tory of Roman Jurisprudence," (1750.) Died in 1782. 
 
 Terrasson, (Gaspard,) a French Jansenist and pulpit 
 orator, born at Lyons in 1680. His sermons were pub- 
 lished in 4 vols., 1749. Died in 1752. 
 
 Terrasson, (Jean,) a distinguished French scholar 
 and writer, born at Lyons in 1670, was a brother of the 
 preceding. He was the author of a "Critical Disserta- 
 tion on Homer's Iliad," (171 5,) "Three Letters on the 
 New System of Finance," (1720,) in defence of John 
 Law's projects, a philosophical romance entitled " Se- 
 thos," on the model of Fenelon's "Telemaque," and 
 other works. In 1732 he succeeded Morville in the 
 French Academy. Died in 1750. 
 
 See D'Alhmbrrt, " Hisloire des Membres de PAcade'mie Fran- 
 caise ;" Grandjran de Fouchv, '* Fjogede Terrasson :" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Geuerale :" "Retrospective Review," vol. Hi., (1821.) 
 
 Terrasson, (Matiiieu,) an eloquent French lawyer 
 and jurist, born at Lyons in 1669, was the father of 
 Antoine, noticed above. Died in 1734. 
 
 Terray, ti'ii', (Joseph Marie,) a French financier, 
 born in Forez in 1715. He became controller-general 
 of the finances in 1769, and was removed in 1774. Died 
 in 1778. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Terreros y Pando, t?r-ra'ids e pin'do, (Ester an,) 
 a Spanish Jesuit and grammarian, born in Biscay in 
 1707. Among his works is a " Dictionary of the Spanish 
 Language, with Definitions in Latin, French, and Italian," 
 ("Diccionario Castellano," etc., 4 vols., 1785-93.) Died 
 at Forll, in Italv, in 1782. 
 
 Ter'rill, (William R.,) an American general, born 
 in Virginia about 1832, graduated at West Point in 1853. 
 He distinguished himself at the battle of Shiloh, (fighting 
 for the Union,) April, 1862, and was killed at the battle 
 of Perrvville, October 8 of that year. 
 
 Ter'fy, (Alfred H.,) an American general, born at 
 Hartford, Connecticut, in 1827, was a lawyer before the 
 civil war. He served as colonel in the expedition against 
 Port Roval in November, i86t, became a brigadier- 
 general in March, 1862, and took a prominent part in 
 the capture of Fort Wagner, in September, 1863. He 
 commanded a division of the army of the James River 
 in Virginia in the summer of 1864. He was selected by 
 General Grant to 'command an expedition against Fort 
 Fisher. North Carolina, with the co-operation of Admiral 
 D. D. Porter. On the 15th of January, 1865, he assaulted 
 that fort, which, after a very obstinate defence, was cap- 
 tured, with its entire garrison and armament. "Thus 
 was secured," says General Grant, "by the combined 
 efforts of the navy and army, one of the most important 
 successes of the war." 
 
 Ter'ry\ (Daniel,) an English comedian, born at Bath 
 about 1780. He performed with success at Liverpool 
 and Edinburgh, where he acquired the friendship and 
 patronage of Sir Walter Scott. He was subsequently 
 for a time one of the proprietors of the Adelphi Theatre, 
 London. Died in 1828. 
 
 Terry, (Edward.) an English writer, born about 
 1590, accompanied the embassy to the Great Mogul in 
 1615, and published, after his return, his "Travels in 
 the East Indies," etc., (1655.) 
 
 Tersan, de, deh teVsos', (Charles Philippe CAM- 
 PION,) a French antiquary, born at Marseilles in 1736; 
 died in 1819. 
 
 Tertre, du. See Dutertrf.. 
 
 Ter-tul'li-an, [Lat. Tertullia'nus j Fr. Tf.rtul- 
 l.IEN, teVtu'le'-aN'; It. Tertui.LIANO, teR-tool-le-a'no,| 
 (Qi;ini'UsSepiimiusFi.orens,) an eminent Latin Father 
 of the Church, born at Carthage about 160 A.D., was 
 originally a heathen. He adopted the profession of 
 advocate or lawyer. The date of his conversion to 
 Christianity is not preserved. Soon after this event he 
 was ordained a presbyter in the Church of Carthage. 
 About the end of the second century he left the Catholic 
 Church and joined the Montanists. He acquired great 
 
 « as *,• 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (JjySee Exp'anations, p. 23.) 
 
TERTULLIANO 
 
 21 IO 
 
 TEUCER 
 
 influence among the Christians of his time. He was a 
 man of powerful intellect, ardent temper, austere char- 
 acter, and great erudition. The date of his death is 
 unknown, but he is said to have attained a great age. 
 
 Tertullian wrote numerous works, partly devotional 
 and partly controversial, which are still extant. The 
 following are supposed to have been written before he 
 became a Montanist: "Letter to the Martyrs." ("Ad 
 Martyres,") "On Prayer," (" De Oratione,")'" On Bap- 
 tism," (" I)e Baptismo,") " Advice to his Wife," (" Ad 
 Uxorem,") "On Public Games or Shows," (" I)e Spec- 
 taculis," about 198,) and "De Prsescriptipne Hatreti- 
 corum," a treatise against heretics. After he joined the 
 Montanists, he wrote (probably) "Against Marcion," 
 ("Adversus Marcionem,") "On the Body of Christ," 
 f" De Came Christi,") "On the Resurrection of the 
 Body," (" De Resurrectione Camis,") " On the Soldier's 
 Crown," (" De Corona Militis,") and several others. 
 Among his most important works is his " Apology to 
 the Nations for the Christians," (" Apologeticus adversus 
 Gentes pro Christianis," dated 198 A.D.) This is an elo- 
 quent and powerful vindication of the Christian Church 
 agaiitet false accusations. 
 
 See Eusebius, " Historia Ecclesiastics ;" Al.l.ix, "Dissertatio 
 de Tertulliani Vita et Scriptis;" 16S0; Neander, " Antignosticus 
 Geist desTertullianus," etc , 1825: A. de Margerie, "DeTertiil- 
 liano," 1853; P. Ekrrman, " Dissertatio deTertulliano," 1761 ; Pho- 
 Ttns, " Bibiiotheca;" Hesselbrrg, "Tertullian's Lehre aus seinem 
 Schriften entwickelt," 1848; Baronius, " Annates;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate." 
 
 Tertulliano. See Tertullian. 
 
 TertullianuB. See Tertullian. 
 
 Tertullien. See Tkrtullian. 
 
 Terwesten, ter-wes'ten, or Terwestyn, (Augus- 
 TYN,) a Dutch painter, born at the Hague in 1649. He 
 studied in Italy, and became about 1090 court painter 
 to the Elector of Brandenburg, afterwards Frederick 
 William of Prussia. He was appointed director of the 
 Academy of Fine Arts at Berlin, of which he was one 
 of the principal founders. Died in 1711. 
 
 Terwesten, (Elias,) a painter of flowers and fruits, 
 born at the Hague in 1651, was a brother of the pre- 
 ceding. Died at Rome in 1724. 
 
 Terwesten, (Matthew,) a Dutch historical painter, 
 born at the Hague in 1670, was a brother of the pre- 
 ceding. Died in 1735. 
 
 Terzi. See Lana Terzi. 
 
 Tesi, ta'see, (Mauro Antonio,) an Italian painter, 
 also called II MAURINO, born at Montalbano in 1730. 
 He was patronized by Algarotti, who commends his 
 genius in very high terms. He excelled particularly in 
 architectural pictures. Died in 1766. 
 
 Tess6, de, deh t|'sa', (Mans Jean Baptiste Rene 
 de Froulay — deh fitoo'lj',) Comte, a French general, 
 born in 1651. He became a marshal of France in 1703, 
 and obtained command of the army in Spain in 1704. 
 Died in 1725. 
 
 Tessier, tjt'se-i', (Alexandre Henri,) a French 
 writer on agriculture, born near Etampes in 1741 ; died 
 in 1837. 
 
 Tessin, tes-seen', (Karl Gustaf,) Count, a Swedish 
 diplomatist and statesman, son of Nicodemus Tessin, 
 noticed below, was born at Stockholm in 1695. He was 
 employed in embassies to Vienna, Versailles, and Berlin, 
 and was subsequently appointed governor of the crown- 
 prince, afterwards Gustavus III. He wrote for his 
 pupil a work entitled " Letters from an Old Man to a 
 Young Prince." Died in 1770. 
 
 See Hoepken, " Amiunelse-Tal oTver C. G. Graf Tessin," 1771 ; 
 Ehkenheim, "Tessin och Tessiniana," 1819; Montgomery, " C. 
 G. Tessin's Dagbok med historik Inledning," 1824. 
 
 Tessin, (Nicodemus Valentinson.) born at Stral- 
 sund in 1619, was appointed royal architect by Queen 
 Christina of Sweden. Died about 1688. 
 
 His son, Count Nicodemus, born in 1654, studied 
 under Bernini at Rome. Being appointed court archi- 
 tect, he began in 1697 the erection of the royal palace 
 at Stockholm, which ranks among his best works. He 
 also constructed the cathedral at Calmar, and Count 
 Oxenstiem's monument. Died in 1728. 
 
 TSs'ta, (Caius Trebatius,) a Roman jurist, was a 
 correspondent of Cicero, and a master of Labeo. He 
 
 wrote on civil law. He was a partisan of Caesar in the 
 civil war. 
 
 Testa, tes'tl, (Pietro,) called II Lucchesino, (el 
 look-ki-see'no,) an Italian painter and engraver, born at 
 Lucca in 1617, was a pupil of Domenichino. He worked 
 in Rome. Among his best pictures are "The Death of 
 Beato Angelo," and "The Massacre of the Innocents." 
 His etchings are highly prized. Died in 1650. 
 
 Teste, test, (Alphonse,) a French physician, born 
 about 1808. He has written in defence of the homoeo- 
 pathic system. 
 
 Teste, (Francois Antoine,) a French general, bom 
 at Baguolsin 1775. He commanded a brigade at Bnr 1- 
 dino in 1812, and became a general of division in 1S13. 
 Died in 1862. 
 
 Teste, (Jean Baptiste,) a French jurist, a brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Bagnols in 1780. After the 
 revolution of July, 1830, he was elected to the Chamber 
 of Deputies, became minister of justice in 1839, and 
 president of the court of cassation in 1843. Being 
 convicted of corruption in 1847, he was sentenced to 
 fine and imprisonment, and deprived of his office. Died 
 in 1852. 
 
 Testelin or Tettelin, tet'liN', (Louis,) an eminent 
 French painter, born in Paris in 1615. He studied under 
 Vc%et, and was elected in 1648 one of the first members 
 of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. He 
 became professor in the Academy in 1650. Among his 
 master-pieces we may name "The Resurrection of Ta- 
 bjtha^by Saint Paul," and "The Flagellation of Saint 
 Paul and Silas," both in the church of Notre-Dame, 
 at Paris. Died in 1655. 
 
 His brother Henri, born in 1616, also became pro- 
 fessor of painting in the Academy of Fine Arts, and was 
 the author of a work entitled " Opinions of the Most 
 Skilful Painters on the Practice of Painting and Sculp- 
 ture," etc., (1699.) Died in 1695. 
 
 See Fontenav, " Dictionnaire des Artistes." 
 
 Testi, tes'tee, (Fulvio.) Count, an eminent Italian 
 lyric poet, born at Ferrara in 1593. He published a 
 volume of poems ("Rime") in 1613. He became secre- 
 tary of state under Francis I., Duke of Modena, who 
 employed him in important missions to Pope Urban 
 VIII. and to Venice. In 1646 he offended the Duke of 
 Modena by overtures to obtain office under Cardinal 
 Mazarin. Died in 1646. 
 
 See Tiraroschi, " Vita del Conte F. Testi," 17S0; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generate." 
 
 Testu, tjs'tii', (Jacques,) Abbe, a mediocre French 
 writer, born in Paris about 1626. He became a member 
 of the French Academy in 166;. Died in 1706. 
 
 Te'thys, [Gr. Ti/Suf ; Fr. Tethys, ta'tess',] in classic 
 mythology, was a daughter of Uranus, the wife of Oceanus, 
 an'd the mother of the Oceanides. 
 
 Tet'ri-cus, (Caius Pesuvius,) a Roman officer, some- 
 times called one of the Thirty Tyrants. He assumed 
 imperial power at Burdig'ala (Bordeaux) in 267 A.D. He 
 was defeated and taken prisoner at Chalons in 274 by 
 Aurelian, who treated him kindly. 
 
 Tettenborn, tet'ten-boRn', (Friedrich Karl,) Ba- 
 ron, a German general, born in the county of Hohn- 
 stein in 1778, served in the Austrian campaigns of 1805 
 and 1809, and subsequently entered the Russian army. 
 In 1819 he was appointed ambassador from Baden to 
 Vienna, where he died in 1845. 
 
 Tetzel or Tezel, tet'sel, [Lat. Tetze'i.ius,] origi- 
 nally Diez, deets, or Diezel, deet'sel, (Johann,) a 
 famous Dominican monk, born at Leipsic, was appointed 
 by the pope, about 1502, vendor of indulgences. His 
 scandalous deception of the people, together with his 
 loose life, attracted the attention of Luther, and was 
 one of the exciting causes of the Reformation. (See 
 Luther.) Died in 1519. 
 
 See P. Ekerman, " Dissertatio de J. Tet7.elio," 1761 ; V. Grorne, 
 "Tet7.el und Luther," 1853; Robertson, " History of Charles V., 
 vol. ii. book ii. 
 
 Teu'cer, [Gr. Tevicpof,] a fabulous king of Troy, from 
 whom the Trojans derived the name of Teucri, was 
 supposed to be a son of the river Scamander and the 
 nymph Idaea. His daughter Batea or Arisbe was mar- 
 ried to Dardanus. 
 
 i, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, C, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
TEVCER 
 
 21 1 I 
 
 THALES 
 
 Teucer, a Greek hero, a son of Telamon and He- 
 sione, was a half-brother of Ajax the Great, and was 
 renowned for his skill as an archer. Having been one 
 of the suitors of Helen, he joined the expedition against 
 Troy, and signalized his valour in the siege of that city. 
 After the capture of Troy, he was banished or excluded 
 from his native country by Telamon, and emigrated to 
 Cyprus, in which he reigned, and founded Salamis. 
 
 See Horace's "Odes," book i. ode vii. 
 
 Texeira, tishaVra, or Texera, ta-sha'ra, (JozE,) a 
 learned Portuguese' ecclesiastic, born in 1543, became 
 prior of the convent of Santarem. He was subsequently 
 appointed chaplain to Henry III. of France, and was 
 retained in the same office by Henry IV. He was the 
 author of a "Genealogy of Henry, Prince of Conde," 
 "On the Origin of Portugal," etc., and other historical 
 and genealogical works, in Latin. Died in 1604. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" . Niceron, 
 M Memoires." 
 
 Texeira, (Pedro,) a Portuguese traveller and Ori- 
 ental scholar, born about 1570. Having spent several 
 years in Persia, where he became thoroughly versed in 
 the language of that country, he visited Italy, France, 
 and Holland. His principal work, written in Spanish, 
 is entitled "An Account of the Kings of Persia and 
 Ormuz," etc., (1610.) The date of his death is unknown. 
 
 Texera. See Texeira. 
 
 Texier, tes'se-i', (Charles Felix Marie,) a French 
 archaeologist, born at Versailles in 1802. Having re- 
 ceived from the government in 1833 a mission to explore 
 the antiquities of Asia Minor, he made four visits to 
 that region in ten years. He published a " Description 
 of Asia Minor: Fine Arts, Monuments," etc., (3 vols., 
 1839-48,) and a "Description of Armenia, Persia," etc., 
 (2 vols., 1842-45.) 
 
 Texier, (Edmund,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Rambouillet in 1816. He was one of the editors of the 
 "Siecle"of Paris, and published several political and 
 critical works. 
 
 Textor. See Ravisius Textor. 
 
 Teyler van der Hulst, tl'ler vin der hulst, (Pietf.r,) 
 a Dutch Anabaptist, born at Haarlem in 1702, left the 
 greater part of a large fortune to found in his native 
 town a learned institution called by his name. Died 
 in 1778. 
 
 TezeL See Tetzel. 
 
 Thaarup, taw'nlp, (Thomas,) a Danish poet, born 
 at Copenhagen in 1749. He was the author of dramatic 
 poems entitled "The Harvest-Home" and "Peter's 
 Wedding," and of numerous lyrics, which enjoy great 
 popularity among his countrymen. Died in 1821. 
 
 See Ekslkw, " Forfatter- Lexicon ;" Longfellow, "Poets and 
 Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Thabaud. See Latouche. 
 
 Thabet, tha'bet, (Ben Kor'rah or Ibn (Ib'n) Kor'- 
 rah,) a celebrated Oriental physician and mathematician, 
 born at Harran, in Mesopotamia, in 835 A.D. He was 
 patronized by the caliph Motadhed Billah, who made 
 him one of his astrologers. He was the author of nu- 
 merous works on medicine, mathematics, and natural 
 history. Died in 901. 
 
 Thabet, (Ben Senan,) grandson of the preceding, ob- 
 tained a high reputation as a physician and philosopher, 
 and became superintendent of the hospital at Bagdld in 
 946 A.D. He wrote a " History of his Own Times." 
 
 Thach'er, (George,) an American judge, born at 
 
 Yarmouth, Massachusetts, in 1754. He was a member 
 
 ngress from 1 789 to i8ot,and was a judge of the 
 
 supreme court of Massachusetts from 1800 to 1824. 
 
 lit- was noted for his wit. Died in 1824. 
 
 Thacher, (James,) M.D., an American physician and 
 writer, born at Barnstable, Massachusetts, in 1754. He 
 was appointed in 1778 chief surgeon of the first Virginia 
 regiment, and subsequently of a New England regiment. 
 He published the " American New Dispensatory," (1810,) 
 " A Military Journal during the Revolutionary War," 
 (1823,) "American Medical Biography," (1828,) and 
 several other works. Died in 1844. 
 
 Thacher, (Peter,) D.D., an American Calvinistic 
 divine and celebrated pulpit orator, born at Milton, 
 Massachusetts, in 1752. He became in 1785 pastor of 
 
 the Brattle Street Church, Boston. He was the author 
 of an "Oration against Standing Armies," "Observa- 
 tions on the State of the Clergy in New England," and 
 other works. Died in 1802. 
 
 His son, Samuel C. Thacher, born at Boston in 
 1785, published a "Memoir of the Rev. Joseph S. 
 Buckminster." He was ordained a minister in 181 1, and 
 died at Moulins, Frafice, in 1818. A memoir of his life 
 was published in 1824. 
 
 Thackeray, thak'er-e, (William Makepeace,) a 
 popular English novelist and humorist, was born in 
 Calcutta in 1 81 1. He was educated at t(ie University of 
 Cambridge, which he left without taking a degree. He 
 inherited from his father a considerable fortune. In 
 the choice of a profession or pursuit, he first inclined to 
 be an artist, but after he had devoted a few years to art 
 he adopted a literary career. He contributed to the 
 "Times" and other journals of London. He displayed 
 superior talent for humour and irony, in a series of 
 tales, essays, and criticisms which appeared in " Eraser's 
 Magazine" under the assumed name of Michael Angelo 
 Titmarsh. The progress of his reputation was not rapid. 
 He published about 1840 "The Paris Sketch-Book," 
 and "The Great Hoggarty Diamond," a genial satire, 
 which was much admired. As a contributor to " Punch" 
 he gained popularity. 
 
 In 1846 he began to publish, under his proper name, 
 "Vanity Fair, a Novel without a Hero," which is one of 
 his best and most popular works. He afterwards pro- 
 duced works of fiction entitled "Pendennis," (1849-50,) 
 and "The History of Henry Esmond, Esq.," (3 vols., 
 1852.) In 1851 he deliverecl, in London, a course of 
 " Lectures on the English Humorists of the Eighteenth 
 Century," which was published in 1853. He visited the 
 United States in 1852, and repeated the lectures just 
 named in several great cities of the Union. Among his 
 other works are " The Snob Papers," " The Newcomes," 
 (3 vols., 1854,) "Miscellanies," (2 vols., 1855-56,) and 
 "The Virginians." 
 
 About 1856 he revisited the United States, where he 
 gave " Lectures on the Four Georges," (i.e. Kings of 
 England,) which he repeated in London, Edinburgh, 
 etc. In 1857 he offered himself as Liberal candidate for 
 Parliament for the city of Oxford, but was debated by 
 Mr. Cardwell. He began to edit the "Comhill Maga- 
 zine" in i860. He had married a Miss Shaw about 1837. 
 He died in December, 1863, leaving several daughters. 
 
 See Theodore Taylor, "Thackerav, the Humorist and Man 
 of Letters," 186.4: article on "Thackeray," in the "Westminster Re- 
 view" for April, 1853, (reprinted in the " Living Aye" for May 14, 
 1853;) "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1854, (reprinted in tho 
 "Living Age" for March 11, 1854 ;) " London Quarterly Review" for 
 December, 1848, and January, 1S54 " Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 October, 1853, and January, 1855 , "Eraser's Magazine" for Sep- 
 tember, 184S, January, 1851, December, iSji. and April, 1864: 
 " North British Review" for August, 1850, and February, 1864. 
 
 Thaer. See Thar. 
 
 Tha'ia, |6<uc,| an Athenian courtesan, mistress of 
 Alexander the Great, whom she accompanied to Asia. 
 She is said to have instigated him to burn the royal 
 palace at Petsepolis. She was married after his death to 
 Ptolemy, King of Egypt. > 
 
 Thalberg,tal'hei«;, (Sir.iSMUNn,) a celebrated pianist, 
 born at Geneva in 1812, was a pupil of Seditei ami Hum- 
 mel at Vienna. He visited London, Paris, and different 
 parts of Germany, his performances being everywhere 
 received with applause. Among his compositions are 
 Studies for the Piano, and the opera of "Florinda." 
 Died in 1871. 
 
 Thalebee or Thalebi, A1, il that'e-bee, an Arabian 
 author, born at Nishapoor, in Persia, in 961 A.D., wrote 
 .1 "History of Illustrious Poets." Died about 1038. 
 
 Tha'les, [Gr. OaTJ/c,] a celebrated Ionian philosophei, 
 and one of the seven sages of Greece, was born at Mile- 
 tus about 640 n.c. He is styled the originator of philos- 
 ophy. He travelled in Egypt and other foreign countries. 
 According to Herodotus, he predicted the eclipse of the 
 sun which occurred during a battle between Cyaxares the 
 Mede, and Alyattes, King of Lydia, about 609 B.C. He 
 was distinguished for political sagacity and sententious 
 wisdom, and was employed in public affairs. He con- 
 sidered water to be the origin or principle of all things, 
 fixed the length of the year at three hundred and sixty- 
 
 « as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (]jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
THALES 
 
 21 I 2 
 
 THEMIS 
 
 five days, and attributed the attractive power of the 
 magnet to a soul or life by which it is animated. He is 
 said to have invented several propositions or demon- 
 strations of geometry. He died about 550 B.C., aged 
 about ninety. 
 
 See Ritter, " History of Philosophy l" Buddeus, "Dissertatio 
 de Ethica Thaletis," 1600; Ploucquet, " Dissertatio de Dogmatibns 
 Thaletis," 1763; Tiedemann, "Griechenlands erste Pbnosophen, 
 oder Leben Und Svsteme des Orpheus, Thales," etc., 1780 : Harles, 
 " Programmata III. de Thaletis Doctrina," 1780-84. 
 
 Thales or Tha-le'tas, [Gr. Ga'^Tac,] a Greek musi- 
 cian and lyric pp'et, born in Crete. He probably lived 
 about 650 B.C., or earlier. It is said that he instructed 
 the Spartans in some new principles of music, and paci- 
 fied the factions of Sparta by his art, or by the sacred 
 character of his musical productions. According to 
 some writers, he was invited to Sparta by Lycurgus. 
 
 Thaletas. See Thai.es. 
 
 Tha-li'a or Tha-lei'a, [Gr. QaXia or GaAeia; Fr. 
 Thal'ie, tS'le',] one of the nine Muses, presided over 
 comedy, pastoral poetry, and banquets. Also, one of 
 the Graces. 
 
 Tlialie See Thalia. 
 
 Thamasp (ti'misp') or Tamasp I, King of Persia, 
 born in 15 13, succeeded his father, Ismail, in 1523. 
 Died in 1576. 
 
 See Malcolm, "History of Persia." 
 
 Thamer, ta'mer, (Theobald,) a German theologian, 
 born in Alsace, became professor of theology at Marburg 
 in 1545. He controverted some doctrines of Luther, 
 and joined the Catholic Church. Died in 1569. 
 
 Tham'muz, [Fr. Thammouz, tt'mooz',] .1 divinity of 
 the Syrians or Assyrians, identified with Adonis. He 
 was said to have been put to death by a wicked king. 
 The festival of Thammuz was celebrated by the idolatrous 
 Jews. (See Ezekiel viii.) 
 
 Tham'jf-ris or Tham'jf-ras, [Oaftvpic,] a Greek mu- 
 sician or poet, who lived before Homer, was a son of 
 Philammon, and a native of Thrace. According to 
 tradition, he pretended to surpass the Muses, and was 
 punished for his presumption by blindness. 
 
 Than'a-tos, [Gr. Ouvaroc ; Lat. Mors,] a personifica- 
 tion of Death, in classic mythology, was represented by 
 Homer as the brother of Sleep. 
 
 ThSr or Thaer, tiR, (Albrecht,) a German agricul- 
 turist, born at Celle in 1752, was the author of an " In- 
 troduction to the Knowledge of English Husbandry," 
 (1816,) and "Principles of Rational Agriculture." The 
 latter was translated into several languages. In 1807 
 he founded an Academy of Agriculture at MSglin. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 See VV. Korte, " A. Thaer, sein Leben und Wirken," 1839. 
 
 Thatch'er, (Benjamin Bussey,) an American writer, 
 born at Warren, Maine, in 1809. He published a " Biog- 
 raphy, of North American Indians who have been Dis- 
 tinguished as Orators, Statesmen," etc., (1832,) "Tales 
 of the American Revolution," and several other works. 
 Died in 1848. 
 
 Thatcher, (Henry Knox,) an American rear-admiral, 
 born in Maine. He entered the navy in 1823. He 
 obtained the rank of commodore in July, 1862, and com- 
 manded the Colorado in the attacks on Fort Fisher in 
 December, 1864, and January, 1865. "His ship," says 
 Admiral Porter, "was handled with admirable skill." 
 He commanded the fleet which co-operated with the 
 army in the capture of Mobile, Apr.il 12, 1865. 
 
 See Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867. 
 
 Thauler. See Tauler. 
 
 Thaumas de la Thaumassiere; to'm3' deh IS to'- 
 mt'sejajR', (Gaspard,) a French jurist and historian, 
 was born about 1620; died in 1702. 
 
 Thay'er, (Sylvanus,) an American officer and mili- 
 tary engineer, born at Braintree, Massachusetts, in 1785. 
 Having graduated at West Point, he served in the war of 
 l8l2,and attained the rank of major. He was appointed 
 in 1817 superintendent of the West Point Military Acad- 
 emy, and was made lieutenant-colonel in 1838. 
 
 The3etetus,Me-e-tee'tus,[9£am/Toc,] an Athenian phi- 
 losopher, and a disciple of Socrates, lived about 420 B.C. 
 
 The-ag'e-ne9, [Gr. Qeayivrjc ; Fr. Theagene, ta'i'- 
 zh&n',] a famous Greek athlete. of Thasos, gained many 
 
 victories at the Olympian, Nemean, and Isthmian games. 
 He lived about 480 B.C. 
 
 The-a'no, [Gr. Beavu,] a native of Crete, was the wife 
 of Pythagoras, and is supposed to have been the author 
 of a number of " Letters" and " Maxims," which have 
 been published in Wolfe's "Mulierum Grrecarum Frag- 
 menta." She was distinguished as a philosopher. 
 
 Theaulon, ta'o'16N', (Etiennf.,) a French painter, 
 born at Aigues-Mortes in 1739; died in 1780. 
 
 Theaulon de Lambert, ta'o'ldN' deh IfiN'baiR', 
 (Marie Emmanuel Guillaume,) a French dramatic 
 poet, born at Aigues-Mortes in 1787. He produced 
 many successful comedies, operas, and vaudevilles. 
 Died in 1841. 
 
 See Quekakd, "La France LitteVaire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeneVale." 
 
 Theden, ta'den, (Johann Christian Anton,) an 
 eminent German surgeon, born in the duchy of Meck- 
 lenburg in 1 714. Owing to the circumstances of his 
 family, he encountered many difficulties in obtaining 
 an education ; but he was at length enabled to study at 
 Berlin, where he acquired the patronage of Frederick the 
 Great, who made him his chief military surgeon. He 
 was the author of several surgical works. Died in 1797. 
 
 Theil, til or t^'ye, (Jean Francois Napoleon,) 
 a French philologist, bonv at I.angon (Gironde) in 
 1808. He published a "Dictionary of Homer and the 
 Homerides," (1842,) and a "Dictionary of the Latin 
 Language," (3 vols., 1855-65.) 
 
 Theiher, tl'ner, (Augustin,) a German Catholic 
 theologian, and priest of the Oratory at Rome, was 
 born at Breslau in 1804. He published a "History of 
 the Pontificate of Clement XIV.," (1833,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Theiner, (Johann Anton,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was bom at Breslau in 1799. He published 
 "The Reformatory Labours of the Catholic Church," 
 (1845.) and other treatises in favour of the Reform 
 party in Germany. Died in i860. 
 
 Theis, ta'ess', (Alexandre Etiennf. Guillaume,) 
 a French novelist, born at Nantes in 1765. He wrote 
 "Memoirs of a Spaniard," ( 1 8 1 S, ) "Journey of Poly- 
 cletes," (" Voyage de Polyclete," 1821,) and other works. 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 ThSk'la, Saint, a saint in the Catholic Church, was 
 a native of Isauria, and was converted, it is supposed, 
 to Christianity by the Apostle Paul about 45 A.D. The 
 cathedral of Milan bears her name and possesses her 
 relics. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, " History of Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 Thellusson, tSI'lus-son or cJ'Iu'sc-n', (Peter Isaac,) 
 a wealthy Swiss merchant, born at Geneva, became a 
 resident of London, where he died in 1798. He left 
 more than half a million pounds to accumulate during 
 the lives of his sons and grandsons, and to be invested 
 in land for Ihe benefit of his eldest lineal male descend- 
 ant. This led to a famous lawsuit; but the will was 
 finally established by the decision of the House of Lords. 
 
 Th'Sl'wall, (John,) an English littlralenr and teacher 
 of elocution, born in London' in 1764. He published in 
 1787 a collection of poems. Having afterwards become 
 engaged in the political agitation of that period, he was 
 tried with Home Tooke and Hardy in 1794 for high 
 treason, and acquitted. In 1801 he began a series of 
 lectures on elocution, which were highly successful. His 
 other principal works are " Political Miscellanies," a 
 "Letter to Mr. Cline on Stammering." "The Peripa- 
 tetic," and "The Daughter of Adoption," a novel. Died 
 in 1834. 
 
 Themines, de, deh ti'men', (Pons de Lauzieres, 
 p6N deh 15'ze-aiR ',) Marquis, a French general, born 
 about 1553, became a marshal of France in 1616. He 
 afterwards commanded against the Protestant insur- 
 gents. Died in 1627. 
 
 The'mis, [Gr. e«; Fr. Themis, ta'mess',] in classic 
 mythology, the goddess of justice and law, was called a 
 daughter of Uranus and Ge, a wife of Jupiter, and the 
 mother of Astraea, Eirene, (Peace,) the'Parrae, and the 
 Horse. She was a personification of justice and the 
 order of things sanctioned by custom or law. According 
 to Homer, she appeared among the inhabitants of Olyin- 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y", short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mJt; not; good; moon; 
 
THEM1SEUL 
 
 21 13 
 
 THEOCRITUS 
 
 pus, and it was her office to convene the assembly of 
 the gods. She was also represented as a prophetic 
 divinity who presided over the oracle of Delphi before 
 Apollo. 
 
 Themiseul or Themiseuil. See Saint- Hyacinthe. 
 
 Them'I-son, \Be/uouv,] an eminent Greek physician, 
 the founder of the sect of Methodici, was bom at Lao- 
 dicea, in Syria. He was a pupil of Asclepiades, and 
 probably lived about 80-40 B.C. His works are not 
 extant. Some critics think that he is the person men- 
 tioned by Juvenal in the following line : 
 
 "Quot Themison a?gros autumno occiderit uno. "* — Sat. x. 221. 
 
 The-mis'tl-us, [Gr. Be/Monos,] a celebrated orator and 
 philosopher, surnamed Eu'rHRADES, {i.e. "eloquent,") 
 bom in Paphlagonia about 315 A.D. He enjoyed the 
 favour of the emperors Constantius, Julian, and Theo- 
 dosius the Great, who appointed him tutor to his son 
 Arcadius. In religion he was a pagan. Among his 
 extant works are commentaries on portions of Aristotle,, 
 and thirty-three orations in Greek, which were published 
 by Dindorf in 1832. Died about 390 A.D. 
 
 Sec SocRATHS, " Historia Ecclesiastica ;" Fabricius, " Biblio- 
 theca Grsca ;" E. Baret, " De Themistio Sophista," 1853 ; " Nou- 
 velle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Themistocle. See Themistoci.es. 
 
 The-mia'to-clei, [Gr. BefiiaroKtyc ; Fr. Th6misto- 
 CLE, ta'mes'tokl',] an Athenian statesman, orator, and 
 commander of great celebrity, born about 514 B.C., was 
 a son of Neocles, a citizen of Athens. His mother was 
 a foreigner. According to Nepos, in early life he was 
 addicted to pleasure, but, having lost his patrimonial 
 estate, he changed his entire course of life. Ambition 
 became his ruling passion. He is said to have spent his 
 hours of leisure and vacation in composing declamations. 
 Just after the battle of Marathon, his friends observed 
 that he was silent, abstracted, and passed the night in 
 watching. Having been questioned as to the cause of 
 this change in his habits, he said the "trophies of Mil- 
 tiades would not suffer him to sleep." Others imagined 
 that the victory at Marathon had ended the war ; but 
 he regarded it as the beginning of a great conflict, and 
 advised the Athenians to increase their navy. His 
 principal rival, Aristides, was ostracized in 483 B.C., after 
 which Themistocles became the foremost statesman of 
 Athens. He was elected archon eponymus in 481, and 
 when Greece was invaded by Xerxes he was chosen 
 commander-in-chief. The oracle of Delphi advised the 
 Athenians to defend themselves by wooden walls, which 
 Themistocles interpreted to signify ships. He induced 
 the people of Athens to abandon that city and embark 
 in the fleet. The Greeks, reduced to a desperate 
 extremity, gained a decisive victory at the great naval 
 battle of Salamis, 480 B.C. "This success," says Plu- 
 tarch, " was owing chiefly to the sagacity and conduct 
 of Themistocles." He overreached the Spartans when 
 they attempted to prevent the rebuilding of the walls of 
 Athens, about 476, and he fortified the Piraeus on a grand 
 scale. In 471 B.C. he was banished by ostracism, and 
 retired to Argos. Having been accused of treason as an 
 accomplice of Pausanias, he sought refuge 'at the court 
 of Persia in 465, and was kindly treated by Artaxerxes, 
 over whom he acquired much influence. He died, or 
 killed himself, in Persia about 449 B.C. According to 
 Thucydides, Themistocles was the strongest example of 
 the power of natural talent, made the best conjectures 
 as to future events, and had an excellent foresight. 
 Plutarch relates that of two men who courted his (laugh- 
 ter he preferred the less wealthy, saying, " I would 
 rather she should have a man without money than 
 money without a man." When Simonides offered to 
 teach him the art of memory, he said he would rather 
 learn the art of forgetting. According to Mr. Grote, he 
 was "alike vast in his abilities and unscrupulous in his 
 morality." 
 
 See Plutarch, "Life of Themistocles;" Cornelius Nkfos, 
 "Themistocles ;" Kiroimaiek, " Dissertatio deTliemistocie," 166J : 
 Throijor Finck, " Commentatio historico-philologica de Themis- 
 toclis ^Etate. Vita, Ingenio Kebusque Gestis," 1S40: Grote, " His- 
 tory of Greece;" Tiiiki.wai.i., " History of Greece." 
 
 • Literally, " As many patients as Themison has killed (or shall 
 have killed) m a single autumn." 
 
 ThtWrd, ta'naV, (Louis Jacques,) Baron, an emi- 
 nent French chemist, born at Nogent-sur-Seine in 1777 
 He studied under Vauquelin, in Paris, and became suc- 
 cessively demonstrator of chemistry in the Polytechnic 
 School, professor of chemistry in the College of France 
 (1804) and in the University of Paris, and a member of 
 the Academy of Sciences in 1810. He was also made a 
 peer of France, (1833,) grand officer of the legion of 
 honour, and chancellor of the university. His " Ele- 
 mentary Treatise on Theoretical and Practical Chemis- 
 try" (4 vols., 1813) is esteemed a standard work, and 
 has been translated into several languages. He con- 
 tributed a great number of valuable treatises to the 
 " Annales de Chimie" and other scientific journals, and 
 published, conjointly with Gay-Lussac, " Physico-Chemi- 
 cal Researches," made with the voltaic pile, (2 vols., 
 i8lt.) Died in 1857. Thenard and his friend Gay- 
 Lussac, whose names are inseparably associated m 
 science, discovered boron, and proved that oxymuriatic 
 acid is a simple substance. Thenard discovered the 
 peroxide of hydrogen. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale :" a translation of Flou- 
 rens's " E"loge on Thenard" in the " Smithsonian Report" for 1862, 
 P- 373: " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Thenot, ta'no', (Jean Pierre,) a French painter 
 and writer on art, was born in Paris in 1803. He painted 
 hunting-scenes, landscapes, etc., and wrote several works 
 on perspective and lithography. Died in 1857. 
 
 The'o-baid, [It. Teohai.do, ta-o-Ml'do,] sometimes 
 written Thiebaut, was a brother of Ladislaus II. of 
 Bohemia. He served with distinction as a general under 
 Frederick Barbarossa in Italy, about 1158-63. 
 
 The'o-baid, (Lewis,) an English critic and commen. 
 tator on Shakspeare, was a native of Kent. He wrote 
 a number of dramas, which are now forgotten. Having 
 offended Pope by exposing the errors of his edition 
 of Shakspeare, he was severely satirized by that poet 
 in the "Dunciad." In 1733 Theobald brought out an 
 edition of Shakspeare, (7 vols. 8vo,) which was received 
 with great favour, and is still highly esteemed for the 
 judgment and accuracy it displays. He also wrote a 
 " Life of Sir Walter Raleigh." Died in 1744. 
 
 Theobald of Canterbury. See Thibaud. 
 
 The-o-bal'dus, written also Tibaldus and Tebal- 
 dus, a French ecclesiastic, supposed to have flourished 
 in the twelfth century. He was the author of a poem en- 
 titled "Physiologus de Naturis duodecim Animalium," 
 being a description of the habits of twelve animals, with 
 moral reflections drawn from each. 
 
 Th^ocrene and Theocrenus. See TagliaCARNE. 
 
 Theocrite. See Theocritus. 
 
 The-oo'rI-tus, [Gr. Oco/cpiroc; Fr. Th^ocritf, ti'o'- 
 kRet',] one of the most celebrated pastoral poets of 
 antiquity, was a native of Syracuse, and flourished about 
 270 B.C. He resided for a time at Alexandria, where 
 he enjoyed the favour and patronage of Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus. Among the extant works attributed to Theoc- 
 ritus are thirty idyls and more than twenty epigrams. 
 His bucolics are written in the Doric dialect, and are 
 universally regarded as master-pieces of their kind. He 
 is called the creator of bucolic poetry. His idyls, unlike 
 most modern pastorals, are natural and free from affected 
 sentimentality. The Eclogues of Virgil are imitations 
 of the Bucolics of Theocritus, and are generally re- 
 garded as inferior to the original works, which are 
 essentially dramatic and mimetic and are truthful pic- 
 tures of the real life of the common people. It appears 
 from his sixteenth idyl that he returned to Syracuse 
 and lived there in the reign of Hieron II., who be- 
 came king in 270 B.C. He was intimate with the poet 
 Aratus. Few events of the life of Theocritus have been 
 preserved. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Naeke, " Dissertatio de 
 Theocrito." 1828; E. Rouz, "Dissertatio de Theocriti Idylliis," 
 184ft; SulrMt, "Theocritus;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale :" 
 "Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1842; " Fraser's Maga- 
 line" for August and October, 1835 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 December, 1836, article " Epigrams of Theocritus." 
 
 The-oc'rl-tus of €hi'os, a Greek orator and Sophist, 
 famous for his sarcastic wit, lived in the time of Alexan- 
 der the Great. He wrote an epigram against Aristotle. 
 He was put to death by Antigonus Gonatas. 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/- o, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled: S as »: th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 • 13 
 
THEODAT 
 
 21 14 
 
 THEODORUS 
 
 Theodat See Theodatus. 
 
 The-od'a-tus, [Kr. Theodat, ta'o'di',] King of the 
 Goths in Italy, was a nephew of Theodoric. He began 
 to reign about 534 A.D., was defeated by Belisarius, and 
 was killed by his own soldiers in 536. 
 
 The-od'e'-bert [Fr. pron. ti'o'deh-baiR'; Lat. Theo- 
 Deber'tus] I., King of Austrasia, born about 504 A.D., 
 was a grandson of Clovis. He is said to have been a 
 good and able prince. Died in 547 A.D. 
 
 Theodecte. See Theodectes. 
 
 The-o-dec'tei, [Gr. QeudiaTijc ; Fr. Theodecte, 
 ta'o'dekt',] an eminent Greek rhetorician and tragic 
 poet, born at Phaselis, in Pamphylia, lived about 350 
 B.C., and was a pupil of Isocrates. He is said to have 
 been a friend of Aristotle, who expresses a high opinion 
 of him in some of his writings. His works are lost, 
 except small fragments. 
 
 See MXrcker, "Commentatio de Theodectse Vita et Scriptis," 
 1835- 
 
 The-od-e-liii'da, [Fr. Theodelinde, ti'o'deh-laNd' ; 
 It. Teodelinda, ta-o-da-len'da,] a Bavarian princess, 
 was married in 589 A.D. to Autharic, King of the Lom- 
 bards, who died in 590. She afterwards exercised royal 
 power. Died in 625 A.D. 
 
 See Lisini, " Memorie di Teodelinda," 1646. 
 
 The-od'e-mir, the father of Theodoric the Great, 
 was chief ruler of the Ostrogoths. Died in 475 A.D. 
 
 Theodemir, a chief of the Visigoths, and a native 
 of Spain. He served under Roderick against the Moors 
 in 711. Died after 713 A.D. 
 
 Theoderic or Theoderich. See Theodoric. 
 
 Theodericus. See Theodoric. 
 
 The-o-do'ra, Empress of the East, was in her youth 
 an actress and courtesan of Constantinople. She retired 
 from the stage, reformed her conduct, and gained the 
 affection of Justinian, who married her in 525 A.D. In 
 527 he proclaimed her as empress and his equal col- 
 league in the empire. Died in 548 a.d. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" J. P. 
 Lumvic, "Vita Justinian] et Theodoras," 1731. 
 
 Theodora, Empress of the East, born about 810 
 A.D., was married to the emperor Theophilus in 830. 
 She became regent at his death, 842, and governed the 
 empire with wisdom for fifteen years. Died in 867 a.d. 
 
 Theodore. See Theodorus. 
 
 Theodore, (King of Corsica.) See Neuhof. 
 
 The'o-dbre [Lat. Theodo'rus] I. succeeded John 
 IV. as Pope of Rome in 641 A.D. In a council at Rome 
 he excommunicated Paulus, Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 who supported the heresy of the Monothelites. Died 
 in 649 a.d. 
 
 Theodore (Theodorus) II. was elected pope as suc- 
 cessor to Romanus in 897 A.D., and died the same year. 
 
 Theodore or Theodorus, a native of Tarsus, was 
 made Archbishop of Canterbury in 669 A.D., which 
 office he filled with great zeal and fidelity. He founded 
 numerous schools, and converted Saint Augustine's 
 monastery into a college, where Latin and Greek were 
 taught with great purity. He was the author of a work 
 entitled "The Penitential." Died in 690 A.D. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, "Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. i. chap. iv. 
 
 Theodore or Theodorus, late King of Abyssinia, 
 was born about 1820. His original name was Kassai. 
 Having raised himself from a humble condition by his 
 talents and success as a soldier, he began to reign about 
 1855. He maltreated some subjects of Great Britain, 
 the government of which sent an army to Abyssinia in 
 1867. Theodore was defeated and killed in battle by 
 the British under General Napier in April, 1868. 
 
 The'o-dore An'ge-lus, [Lat. Theodo'rus An'ge- 
 lus ; Fr. Theodore l'Ange, ta'o'doR' I8nz1i,J became 
 Greek Emperor of Thessalonica in 1222. He waged 
 War against the Latins and the Bulgarians, who defeated 
 him and took him prisoner in 1230. 
 
 Theodore l'Ange. See Theodore Angelus. 
 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia. See Theodorus Mop- 
 suestenus. 
 
 The-od'o-ret or The-od-o-re'tus, [Gr. QeoduoriToe; 
 Fr. Theodoret, ti'o'do'r&'.j an eminent Christian 
 writer and ecclesiastic, born at Antioch about 390 a.d., 
 
 was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia. He was a per- 
 sonal friend of Nestoriiis. About 422 he was appointed 
 Bishop of Cyrus, in Syria. He was moderate and liberal, 
 and equally eminent for piety and learning. He em- 
 ployed his influence against the intolerant Cyril of 
 Alexandria and Dioscurus. In 449 he was deposed by 
 the Synod of Ephesus, over which Dioscurus presided. 
 He'condemned the doctrines of Nestoriiis at the Council 
 of Chalcedon, in 451. He wrote, besides other works, a 
 valuable " History of the Church" from 325 10429 A.D., 
 and commentaries on the Old Testament and Epistles 
 of Paul. Died in 457. 
 
 See Richter, "Commentatio de Theodoreto," 1822; Schulze, 
 " Dissertatio de Vita B. Theodoreti," 1769: Neander, "History 
 of the Church ;" Cave, " Historia Literaria." 
 
 Theodoretus. See Theodoret. 
 
 The-od'o-ric or The-od'e-ric [Lat. Theodori'cus] 
 I., King of the Visigoths, and a son of the famous 
 Alaric, was elected king in 418 or 419 A.D. He defeated 
 the Romans at Toulouse in 439, and, having conquered 
 a large part of Gaul, concluded a treaty of peace with 
 Avitus. Theodoric and the Roman general Aetius united 
 their forces against Attila the Hun, who invaded Gaul 
 in 450. The opposing armies met at Chalons, where 
 Attila was defeated and Theodoric was killed, in 451 A.D. 
 He left two sons, Thorismond and Theodoric. 
 
 See Jornandes, " De Rebus Geticis." 
 
 Theodoric II., King of the Visigoths, was a son of 
 the preceding. He began to reign at Tolosa (Toulouse) 
 in 452 A.D., and became an ally of Avitus, Emperor of 
 Rome. He invaded Spain, defeated the Suevi, and 
 made extensive conquests in the peninsula. He was 
 assassinated by his brother Euric in 466 A.D. 
 
 The-od'p-ric or The-od'e-ric [Lat. Theodori'cus 
 or Theoderi'cus ; Ger. Theodorich, ta-o'do-riK, or 
 Theoderich, ta-o'der-iK, which was afterwards cor- 
 rupted into Dietrich, dee'tRiK] the Great, King 
 of the Ostrogoths, born in 455 A.D., was the son of 
 King Theodemir. He was educated at Constantinople, 
 whither he had been sent as a hostage at an early age. 
 Soon after his accession to the throne. (475) he was 
 involved in a war with Zeno, Emperor of Constantinople, 
 and subsequently turned his arms against Odoacer, 
 who had tisurpea the chief power in Italy. The latter, 
 after having been defeated in three battles, was be- 
 sieged in Kavenna, which he surrendered at the end of 
 three years. Being acknowledged King of Italy by the 
 emperor Anastasius, Theodoric assumed the name of 
 Flavius, celebrated a triumph at Rome, and distinguished 
 himself by the wisdom and liberality of his rule. He 
 defeated the Gepidae, assisted the Visigoths against the 
 French king Clovis, and possessed himself of Provence. 
 He died in 526 a.d., his death being hastened, it is said, 
 by remorse for having unjustly condemned to death 
 Symmachus and Boethius. Gibbon observes of Theodo- 
 ric, " His reputation may repose on the visible peace and 
 prosperity of a reign of thirty-three years, the unanimous 
 esteem of his own times, and the memory of his wisdom 
 and courage, his justice and humanity, which was deeply 
 impressed on' the minds of the Goths and the Italians." 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," chap, 
 xxxix. ; Ennodius, " PanegyricusTheodoricndicuis;" J. Cochl^bus, 
 " Vita Theodorici," 1544 ; Hurter, " Geschichte des Kbnigs Theo- 
 dorich," 1807: Du Rourb. "Histoire de Thfodoric le Grand," 1 
 vols., 1846: Tillemont, "Histoire des Empereurs;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Theodoric, [It. Teodorico, ta-o-do-ree'ko,] an Ital- 
 ian surgeon and ecclesiastic, rose to be Bishop of Cenia. 
 He enjoyed a high reputation for his skill in surgery, 
 and wrote, in Latin, a treatise " On Surgery according t> 
 the System of Hugo de Lucca." Died in 1298. 
 
 Theodorich. See Theodoric. 
 
 Theodoricus. See Theodoric. 
 
 The-o-do'rus (or The'o-dore) [Gr. eeodupoc; Fi. 
 Theodore, ta'o'doR'J of Cvre'ne, a Greek philoso- 
 pher, belonged to the Cyrenaic school. His doctrines, 
 which resembled those of Epicurus, gave so much offence 
 that he was banished from his native city of Cyrene. 
 He resided at Athens about3i2 B.C. Cicero and Seneca 
 admired his answer to Lvsimachus, who threatened to 
 crucify him. He professed that he did not care whether 
 he should rot on the ground or in the air. 
 
 a e 1,0, f 
 
 •: a, e. o, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon, 
 
I'HEODORUS 
 
 2 1 1 5 
 
 THEOPHANES 
 
 Theodo'rus of Heraci.e'a, a learned bishop and 
 leader of the Arian party. He was Bishop of Heraclea 
 on the Propontis, and was one of the delegates who 
 presented the Confession of Antioch to Constant in 
 342 a.d. Died about 356 A.D. 
 
 Theodo'rus (or The'odore) of Sa'mos, an eminent 
 Greek statuary and architect, who probably flourished 
 about 600 B.C. He was one of the first artists that cast 
 statues in bronze. The Tlieodorus who made a cele- 
 brated ring for Polycrates is supposed to have been a 
 nephew of the artist above noticed. 
 
 Theodo'rus of Tak'sus, sometimes called Diodo- 
 rus, a prelate and theologian, is supposed to have been 
 a native of Antioch. He was appointed Bishop of Tar- 
 sus in 378 a.d. He was a zealous opponent of the Arian 
 heresy, and wrote a number of theological works, which 
 are not extant. 
 
 The-o-do'rus An-ag-nos'tei, (or Lec'tor,) (i.e. 
 "Theodore the Reader,") [Kr. Theodore Leci'eur, 
 ta'o'doR' lek'tUR',] a historian, supposed to have lived 
 in the sixth century of our era. He was reader in the 
 church of Constantinople, and wrote a " History of the 
 Church to the Time of Justinian I." 
 
 The-o-do'rus As'cl-das, a Cappadocian monk, who 
 gained the favour of Justinian I., and was appointed 
 Archbishop of Caesarea about 536 A.D. He favoured 
 the Origenists. Died about 558 a.d. 
 
 Theodoras Lascaris. See LasCaris. 
 
 The-o-do'rus Mop-sues-te'nus or Theodore of 
 Mopsuestia, [Kr. Theodore de Mopsueste, ta'o'doR' 
 deh mop'su'Sst',] Bishop of Mopsuestia, born at An- 
 tioch about 350 A.D., was a pupil of Libanius and a 
 friend of Chrysostom. His controversial and theological 
 writings were highly esteemed by his contemporaries, 
 but very few of them are extant. Died in 429 A.D. 
 
 See Neander, " History of the Christian Church ;" Fritzsche, 
 "De Theodori Mopsuesleni Vita," 1837; Sieffekt, "Theodorus 
 Mopsvestenus," 1827. 
 
 The-o-do'rus Pris-ci-a'nus, a physician and medical 
 writer of thi fourth century, is supposed to have lived 
 at Constantinople. 
 
 The-o-do'rus Prod'ro-mus, [Fr. Theodore Pro- 
 drome, ta'o'doR' pRo'dRom',] a learned monk and By- 
 zantine writer of the twelfth century, was also called 
 Hilarion. 
 
 The-o-do'rus Stu-di'ta, [Fr. Theodore Studite, 
 ta'o'doR'. stii'det',] a Greek monk and writer, born at 
 Constantinople in 759 A.D., was an adversary of the 
 Iconoclasts. He incited the people to sedition and 
 violent resistance to the decrees against the worship of 
 images. Died in 826 A.D. 
 
 Theodose. See Theodosius. 
 
 Theodosius, an able Roman general under the reign 
 of Valentinian I., served with distinction against the 
 barbarians of Britain and Germany, and subsequently 
 quelled an insurrection in Africa in 373 a.d. He was 
 beheaded at Carthage, 376 A.D. The cause of his execu- 
 tion is not known. His son became Emperor of Rome. 
 
 Theodosius (the-o-do'she-us) [Fr. Theodose, ti'o'- 
 doz'; It. Teodosio, ta-o-do'se-oj I., Flavius, a Ro- 
 man emperor, sumamed the Great, was the son of 
 the preceding, and was born in Spain in 346 A.D. He 
 accompanied his father in his various campaigns, and 
 acquired at an early age great proficiency in the art of 
 war. In 379 A.D. the emperor Gratian conferred upon 
 him the title of Augustus, with the command over the 
 Eastern provinces. Having been received into the 
 Christian Church, he distinguished himself by his zeal 
 against the Arians, and in 380 appointed Gregory Nazi- 
 anzen Archbishop of Constantinople. He carried on a 
 successful war with the Goths, whom he induced to 
 become the allies of the Romans. After the death of 
 Gratian, Maximus, who had usurped his empire and 
 invaded Italy, was defeated by Theodosius, with the 
 assistance of the Huns and Goths, in 388. Theodosius 
 reigned at Constantinople, and Valentinian II. was em- 
 peror at Rome until his death, in 392. After this event 
 Theodosius became sole emperor of the Roman world. 
 Before his death he divided his dominions between his 
 two sons Arcadius and Honorius, to the former of 
 whom he gave the Eastern empire, and to the latter the 
 
 Western. Died in 395 a.d. Although he was guilty of 
 several acts of cruelty, his character is generally eulo- 
 gized by historians. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall ;" Tii.i.emont, 
 " Histoire des Empereurs ;" Fi.schier, " Histoire de Theodose le 
 Grand," 167Q ; Socrates, " Historia ecclesiaslica ;" Le Beau 
 " Histoire du Bas- Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biograplue Ge'nerale." 
 
 Theodosius IX, called the Younger, born in 401 
 A.D., was the grandson of the preceding, and the son of 
 Arcadius. Being but seven years of age at the death of 
 his father, the government was conducted by his sister 
 Pulcheria. Among the most important events of his 
 reign was the collection of the code of laws known as 
 the "Codex Theodosianus." Died in 450 A.D. 
 
 See Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire;" Gerlach, " De Theodosio Juniore," 1751. 
 
 Theodosius m., sumamed Adramytte'nus, st ;- 
 ceeded Anastasius II. as Emperor of Constantinople \r\ 
 715 A.D. After a reign of about a year, he withdrew to 
 a monastery, and was succeeded by Leo III. 
 
 Theodosius of Tripoli, a Greek geometer, born in 
 Bithynia, lived probably between 100 B.C. and 100 A.D. 
 He wrote a work entitled "Spherics," (20<upocu,) which 
 is extant. 
 
 Theodotion, the-o-do'she-on, [Gr. Beodoriuv,] an 
 early Christian writer under the Roman emperor Corn- 
 modus, made a Greek translation of the Old Testament. 
 He belonged to the sect of Ebionites. 
 
 The-od'o-tus, [Gr. Gcodoroc / Fr. Theodote, ta'o'- 
 dot',| an able Greek general, commanded in Ccele-Syria 
 for Ptolemy Philopator in 222 B.C. About three years 
 later he entered the service of Antiochus the Great. 
 
 Theodotus of Samos, a rhetorician, was preceptor 
 to Ptolemy XII. of Egypt. He was responsible for the 
 murder of Pompey the Great, for which he was put to 
 death, by order of Brutus, in 43 B.C. 
 
 Theodulfe, ta'o'diilf', [Lat. Theodui.'fus,] a learned 
 ecclesiastic, born in Spain, was the author of several 
 works. He became Bishop of Orleans about 788. Died 
 about 820 A.D. 
 
 The-og'nis, [Geottcc,] a Greek poet and philosopher, 
 supposed to have lived about 540-500 B.C., was a native 
 of Megara. His works were principally elegies and 
 didactic poems, of which fragments only are extant. He 
 was a noble or aristocrat, and was driven into exile by 
 the democratic party. 
 
 See Frere, "Theognis Restitutus: The Personal History of 
 the Poet TheoR-nis," etc., 1842; K. O. Mth.l.ER, "History of the 
 Literature of Ancient Greece ;" ** Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 The'on, [6fwr,] a celebrated Greek painter, born in 
 Samos, lived under the reign of Alexander the Great. 
 His works are highly commended by Pliny. 
 
 Theon, (Aii.ivs,) a rhetorician of Alexandria, sup- 
 posed to have lived about 315 A.D. His principal extant 
 work is entitled " Progymnasmata," or rules on rhetoric. 
 
 Theon of Alexandria, called the Younger, a 
 Platonic philosopher and mathematician, lived about 
 350-400 A.D. He wrote commentaries on the Almagest 
 of Ptolemy, and edited the works of Euclid. He was the 
 father of the celebrated Hypatia. 
 
 Theon of Smyrna, sometimes called the Elder, a 
 Neo-Platonic philosopher, flourished about 125 A.D. He 
 was the author of a treatise on astronomy, mathematics, 
 music, etc., the principal part of which is extant. He is 
 called a Pythagorean. 
 
 The-oph'a-ne, [Gr. Beofuvri ; Fr. Theophane, ta'o'- 
 fin',] a beautiful woman, who, according to the fable, was 
 Moved by Neptune, was changed by him into a sheep, 
 and was the mother of the golden-fleeced ram of Colchis. 
 
 Tli6ophane. See Theophanes. 
 
 The-oph'a-neS, [Gr. 9ro0ovi?c; Fr. Theophane, 
 ta'o'ftn',] a Greek historian, born at Mitylene, was 
 patronized by Pompey the Great, whom he accompanied 
 in his military expeditions. His principal work was a 
 history of the achievements of Pompey, of which only 
 fragments are extant. 
 
 Theophanes, (George or Isaurus,) a Greek histo- 
 rian, born in 758 A.D., was a native of Constantinople. 
 He wrote a chronicle of the period from 277 to 811 A.D. 
 Died in 818. 
 
 Theophanes, (Prokopovitch.) See Prokopovitch. 
 
 < as i; c as s; g hard; £ as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
THEOPHILE 
 
 2116. 
 
 THERAMEKES 
 
 Theophile, the French of Theophilus, which see. 
 
 Theophile de Viaud, ta'o'tel' deh ve'6', a French 
 satiric poet, born in 1590. He wrote elegies, tragedies, 
 etc., was accused of atheism and condemned to death 
 in 1623, but escaped. The sentence was afterwards 
 annulled. Died in 1626. 
 
 The-ophl-lus, [Gr. Qeo^tiXoc ; Fr. Theophile, ti'o'- 
 fel'; It. Teofilo, ta-ofe-lo,] an Athenian comic poet 
 of unknown period. His works are lost. 
 
 Theophilus, Emperor of Constantinople, was a son 
 of Michael II., whom he succeeded in 829 a.d. He 
 waged a long war against the Saracens with ill success. 
 He was a zealous Iconoclast. Died in 842 A.D. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Theophilus, a theologian, and Bishop of Antioch, 
 wrote an "Apology for the Christian Faith," which 
 is extant and is a work of considerable merit. Died 
 about 182 a.d. 
 
 See Grabener, *De Theophilo Episcopo Antiocheno," 1744. 
 
 Theophilus, a turbulent ecclesiastic, who became 
 Bishop of Alexandria in 385 A.D. He condemned the 
 writings of Origen and persecuted the Origenists. He 
 was the chief agent in the banishment of Chrysostom, 
 (403.) Died in 412 A.D. 
 
 Theophilus, a distinguished jurist of the sixth cen- 
 tury, was employed by the emperor Justinian to assist 
 in compiling the Digest and the Institutes. 
 
 The-ophl-lus Prot-o-spa-tha'rl-us, [Fr. Theo- 
 phile Protospathaire, ta'o'fel' pRo'to'spt' taV,] a 
 Greek medical writer, the place and date of whose birth 
 are unknown. The most important of his extant works 
 is an anatomical treatise, which has been translated into 
 Latin under the title of " De Corporis Humani Fabrica," 
 ("On the Structure of the Human Body.") 
 
 Theophraste. See Theophrastus. 
 
 The-o-phras'tus,[Gr. Oeo^aoroc,- Fr. Theophraste, 
 ti'o'fRist'; It. TeoFRASTO, ti-o-fRas'to,] an eminent 
 Greek philosopher, born at Eresus, in Lesbos, about 
 374 B.C. His original name was Tyr'tamus. He studied 
 at Athens, where he first attached himself to Plato, and 
 afterwards became a favourite pupil of Aristotle. In 
 accordance with the last will of that master, Theophras- 
 tus succeeded him as president of the Lyceum in 322 
 B.C. He acquired a high reputation by his eloquence, 
 and attracted from all parts of Greece a multitude of 
 disciples, among whom was Menander the poet. With 
 a design to explain the system of Aristotle and sup- 
 plement his works, he wrote numerous treatises on 
 philosophy and natural history, the most of which are 
 not extant. Several of his works have come down to 
 us, (though perhaps in an imperfect state,) viz. : " Moral 
 Characters," (})ducol x a P aKT VP e ^t) which, was translated 
 into French and imitated by La Bruyere, a " History of 
 Plants," (in ten books,) and a work " On the Causes of 
 Plants," (ntpl ifnrruv alruiv.) Died about 286 B.C. His 
 " Moral Characters" are admired for subtlety of thought, 
 Attic wit, (set,) and elegance of style. 
 
 See Max Schmidt, "De Theophrasto Rhetore," 1839: Spe- 
 ranza, "Teofrasto primo Botanico," 1841 : Haller, " Bibliotheca 
 Bntanica;" " Nouveile Biographie Generale." 
 
 The-oph'jp-lact, [Gr. QeofoXtucToc ; Lat. Theophy- 
 j.ac'tus; Fr. Theophylacte, ta'o'fe'Jtkt',] a Greek 
 ecclesiastic, became Archbishop of Achris, in Bulgaria, 
 about 1070. He was the author of a treatise " On the 
 Education of Princes," also commentaries on the twelve 
 minor prophets, and numerous epistles. Died after 11 12. 
 
 Theophyl actus. See Theophylact. 
 
 The-o-phy-lac'tus Sim o-cat'ta, [Gr. Beo$v7.unTos 
 6 ZiftoKurnie or Si/ioKarror,] a Greek historian, born in 
 Locris. He wrote a " History of the Reign of the Em- 
 peror Maurice from 582 to 602 A.D.," also numerous 
 letters. Died about 630 A.D. 
 
 See Vofsius, " De Historicis Grcecis." 
 
 Theopompe. See Theopompus. 
 
 The-o-pom'pus, [Gr. Becmo/moc; Fr. Theopompe, 
 ta'o'pdMp',] a king of Sparta, who reigned about 750 
 B.C. The power of the Ephori was established of in- 
 creased in his reign. 
 
 Theopompus, an Athenian comic poet of the old 
 and of the middle comedy, flourished probably about 
 400 B.C. He was a contemporary of Aristophanes. 
 
 Theopompus, an eminent Greek historian and orator, 
 born in Chios (Scio) about 378 B.C., was a brother of 
 Caucalus the rhetorician, and was a pupil of Isocrates. 
 He was one of the aristocrats who were banished by the 
 popular party, when he was a young man. In his exile 
 he composed a number of orations and eulogiums, which 
 were received with applause in many cities of Greece. 
 In 352 B.C. he contended with success against Isocrates 
 and others for a prize offered by Artemisia for an oration 
 in honour of Mausolus. He was restored to his native 
 state at the age of forty-five, (333 B.C.) His principal 
 works were a " History of Greece from 41 1 to 394 B.C.," 
 ('EZhijviKal ioTopiai, in twelve books,) which is lost except 
 a few fragments, and a " History of Philip of Macedon," 
 (<p</U:nrocu, in fifty-eight books,) of which many fragments 
 are extant. The ancient critics say that he was apt to 
 err by the extravagance of his censure and his praise ; 
 but they commend his accuracy. He died after 305 B.C. 
 
 See Aschbach, " DissertatiodeTheopompo," 1823 ; J. E. Pfi.u'JK". 
 " De Theopompi Vita el Scriptis," 1827 : G. F. Koch, " DisserUtio 
 deTheopompn," 1790; Plutarch, " Vita* decern Oratorum ;" A :he- 
 N.4UN. passim. 
 
 Theorell, tfi'o-rel, (Johan Peter,) a Swedish journal- 
 ist, born at Halljunga in 1791. He edited a democratic 
 journal, called "Aftonposten," and published several 
 historical essays. 
 
 Theorell, (Sven Lorens,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Halljunga in 1784. He published a work 
 " On the Influence of Manufactures on the Wages of 
 Labourers," (1845.) 
 
 Theotocopuli, ta-o-to-ko-poo'lee, (Dominico,) an 
 eminent painter and sculptor, sumamed el Greco, was a 
 pupil of Titian. He resided at Toledo, in Spain, where 
 he produced a number of his finest pictures. Among 
 these may be named "The Parting of Christ's Raiment 
 before the Crucifixion," an altar-piece in the cathedral of 
 Toledo, and " The Entombment of Count Orga-z," in the 
 church of Santo Tome. His monuments and sculptures 
 are highly esteemed. He also designed the church of the 
 Augustines at Madrid, and other architectural works. 
 Died in 1625. 
 
 Theotocopuli, (George Manuei,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, attained a high reputation as a sculptor and 
 architect, and built a considerable part of the cathedral 
 of Toledo. Died in 1631. 
 
 Theramene. See Theramenes. 
 
 The-ram'e-nes, [Gr. Brjpafiivrir; Fr. Theramene, ti'- 
 ri'mjn',] an Athenian politician, and one of the famous 
 Thirty Tyrants. As a leader of the oligarchic party, he 
 took an active part in the revolution of 411 B.C., and was 
 one of the principal members of the new government 
 then formed. He served as a subordinate officer at 
 the battle of Arginusa2, (406.) Although the Athenians 
 gained the victory there, the six commanding generals 
 were put to death, because many of their men were 
 drowned and they were unable even to recover their 
 bodies for burial. Theramenes was one of the principal 
 accusers, and he appears to have been chiefly respon- 
 sible for that great injustice. He negotiated the treaty 
 which opened Athens to the Spartan general Lysander 
 in 405 B.C., and was one of the Thirty Tyrants who 
 subverted the old constitution and usurped power in 404. 
 Having, it is said, from motives of policy rather than 
 humanity, remonstrated against the excessive cruelty of 
 his colleagues, he was proscribed by Critias and con- 
 demned to death. When he drank the cicuta, he 
 exclaimed, "This to the health of the lovely Critias!" 
 He died in 404 B.C. 
 
 The character of Theramenes was throughout that of 
 an intriguing, unscrupulous politician ; but the equa- 
 nimity, or rather indifference, which he displayed at his 
 death, commanded the admiration of Xenophon and 
 Cicero. It might truly be said of him, in the words of 
 the great dramatist, 
 
 " Nothing in his life 
 Became him like the leaving it ; he Hied 
 As one that had been studied in his death 
 To throw away the dearest thing he owed [owned] 
 As 'twas a careless trifle." 
 
 Macbeth, Act I. Scene IV. 
 
 See Grote, "History of Greece;" Suidas, "Theramenes;" 
 Schneithrr, "Dissertatio de Theramene," 1821 ; Smith, "Dic- 
 tionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. ; Thirlwall, "His- 
 tory of Greece." 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; A, i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; mocm; 
 
THERASSE 
 
 2117 
 
 THE VE NOT 
 
 Therasse, ta'ris', (Victor,) a French sculptor, born 
 in Paris about 1808. 
 
 Theremin, ta'rehmeen', (Ludwig Frif.drich 
 Franz,) a German Protestant theologian, born in 1783, 
 became in 181 5 court preacher at Berlin. He published 
 several religious and miscellaneous works, and made 
 translations from Cervantes and Bvron. Died in 1846. 
 
 Theresa, three's?, or ti-ra'sa, [Fr. Th^rese, ti'r&z' ; 
 It. and Sp. Teresa, ti-ra'sa,] commonly called Saint 
 Theresa, a Spanish nun, celebrated for her talents and 
 piety, was born at Avila in 1515. She entered the order 
 of Carmelites at an early age, and about 1562 founded, 
 in her native town, a reformed society of Barefooted 
 Carmelites. She died in 1582, leaving a number of 
 religious works, which are highly esteemed and have 
 been translated into the principal languages of Europe. 
 Among these we may name " Thoughts on the Love of« 
 God," " The Road to Perfection," " The Castle of the 
 Soul," " Life of Saint Theresa, written by Herself," and 
 '• Letters of Saint Theresa." She was canonized by Pope 
 Gregory XV. in 1621. 
 
 See Ribkra, "Vida de la Madre Teresa," 1601: Collombet, 
 " Vie de Sainte-Therese," 1836 ; Ticknor. " History of Spanish 
 Literature :" Alban Butler, " Leben der heiligen Theresia," 1825: 
 " Nouvelle Biographic GeneYale." 
 
 Thermes, de, d?h tSRm, (Paul de la Barthe— deh 
 li bSiu,) Seigneur, a French general, born at Couse- 
 rans in 1482. He became a marshal of Fiance in 1557. 
 Died in 1562. 
 
 Theroigne de Mericourt, ti'Rwan' deh meh-re'- 
 kooR', (or Marcourt, maVkooR',) (Anne Joseph e,) a 
 Frenchwoman, noted for her courage and beauty, was 
 born in Luxemburg in 1762. She became a Girondist, 
 and harangued the people of Paris during the Revolution. 
 Alxuit 1793 she was maltreated by some viragos of the 
 Jacobin party, and lost her reason. Died in 1817. 
 
 SeeTH. Fuss, "Tliernijne de Mericourt dite la belle Liegoise," 
 1854: *' Nouvelle BiographieGene>ale." 
 
 The'ron, [Qfipuv,] a Greek, who became Tyrant of 
 Agrigentum, in Sicily, about 488 B.C. As an ally of 
 Gelon of Syracuse, he fought against the Carthaginians 
 in 480. His reign was prosperous. He obtained at 
 the Olympic games victories which were celebrated by 
 Pindar. Died in 472 B.C. 
 
 Ther-san'der, [Gr. eepaavdpoc ; Fr. Thersandre, 
 teVs&NdR',] a mythical king of Thebes, and a son of 
 Polynices. He joined the expedition against Troy, and 
 is said to have been killed by Telephus. He was one 
 of the Epigoni, (which see.) According to Virgil. Ther- 
 sander was one of the Greeks who were concealed in the 
 wooden horse. 
 
 See " jEneid," book ii. 261. 
 
 Thersite. See Thersitf.s. 
 
 Ther-sl'tes, [Gr. QepairrK ; Fr. Thersite, teVset',1 
 a Greek, noted for his personal ugliness, impudence, and 
 ill nature, was publicly chastised bv Ulysses for having 
 slandered Agamemnon. According to tradition, he was 
 slain by Achilles. 
 
 See " Iliad," book ii. 
 
 Thery, ti're', (Augustin Francois,) a French littera- 
 teur, born in Paris in 1796. He was professor of rhetoric 
 in the College of Versailles, and afterwards proviseur. 
 He wrote, besides other works, * La Renaissance," a 
 poem, (1822,) and a " History of Literary Opinions," (2 
 vols., 1844.) 
 
 Thesee^ See Theseus. 
 
 The'seus or Mee'se-us, [Gr. Orioevc ; Fr. Th£see, ta'- 
 za' ; It. Teseo, ta-sa'o,] the great national hero of Attica, 
 regarded by some critics as a mythical personage. Ac- 
 cording to tradition, he was a son of ^Egeus, King of 
 Athens, and a cousin of Hercules, whose exploits he 
 emulated by the destruction of monsters and robbers. 
 The Athenians were bound to pay tribute to Minos of 
 Crete, in the form of seven young men and seven maidens, 
 who were destined to be devoured by the Minotaur in the 
 Labyrinth. Theseus volunteered to go as one of these 
 victims. He gained the affection of Ariadne, a daughter 
 of Minos, killed the Minotaur, and readily found his way 
 out of the Labyrinth by means of a clue (ball of thread) 
 which Ariadne gave him, one end of which he made fast 
 at the entrance and let it trail after him. He afterwards 
 
 became King of Athens, defeated the Amazons, who in- 
 vaded Attica, took part in the Argonautic expedition, 
 and abducted the famous Helen from Sparta while she 
 was a girl. He married Antiope, the Queen of the 
 Amazons, who bore him a son named Hippolytus, and 
 after her death he married Phaedra, a daughter of Minos. 
 He was regarded by the Athenians as the author of an 
 important political reform in Attica, which before his 
 time was divided into many petty states or demi, claim- 
 ing to be independent. These he reduced to a state of 
 unity and subjection to a central authority. He was an 
 intimate friend of Pirithous, whom he aided, the legend 
 says, in an audacious attempt to abduct Proserpine from 
 the palace of Pluto. They failed, and Theseus was con- 
 fined in Tartarus, but was finally released by Hercules. 
 Tradition adds that he was treacherously killed by 
 Lycomedes, King of Scyros. 
 
 See Virgil, "^Eneid," book vi. 393 and 618 ; Plutarch, L fe 
 of Theseus." 
 
 Thesiger. See Chelmsford. 
 
 TheVpis, [Ocotuc,] a Greek dramatist, born at Icaria, 
 in Attica, flourished about 540 B.C. He is called the 
 inventor of tragedy. His works have perished, the titles 
 only of four dramas being preserved. 
 
 See J. C. Cramer, " Commentatio de Thespide," 1754; K. O. 
 Muller, " Literature 0/ Ancient Greece." 
 
 Thes'pl-us, [Gr. Geo-moc,] a son of Erechtheus, and 
 a king. of Thespiaa. The poets feigned that he had 
 fifty daughters, who were the wives or concubines of 
 Hercules, to whom Thespius gave them as a reward 
 for killing a lion. 
 
 TheVsa-lus, [Gr. Qeooalos ; Fr. Thessale, ti'saT,] 
 a son of Jason and Medea, was supposed to be the 
 ancestor of the Thessalian people. 
 
 Thessalus, a son of the celebrated physician Hip- 
 pocrates, lived about 360 B.C. He belonged to the sect 
 of the Dogmatici. 
 
 Thessalus, a physician who lived under the reign of 
 Nero, was a native of Lydia, and one of the founders of 
 the Methodici. 
 
 TheVtI-us, [Gr. Ot'cmoc,] a fabulous king of /Etolia, 
 said to have been a son of Mars or of Agenor, and 
 the father of Althaea, Leda, Iphiclus, Plexippus, and 
 Eurypylus. 
 
 The'tis, [Gr. 60-10 ; Fr. Thetis, ta'tess',] a beautiful 
 sea-nymph, and one of the Nereids, was said to be a 
 granddaughter of Neptune, and a daughter of Nereus and 
 Doris. The poets feigned that she was courted by Ju- 
 piter and Apollo, who desisted from the pursuit because 
 Themis predicted that her son should lie greater than 
 his father ; that she was married to Peleus, and became 
 the mother of Achilles ; and that their wedding was at- 
 tended by all the gods except Eris, (or Discord,) who 
 threw among the guests the golden apple, on which was 
 written, " For the most beautiful," and which Paris 
 awarded to Venus as the prize of beauty. (See Achilles.) 
 Theu'dis, King of the Visigoths in Spain, succeeded 
 Amalaric in 531 or 532 A.D. He waged a successful war 
 against the Franks, who invaded Spain in 542. He was 
 an uncle of Totila. Died in 548 a.d. 
 
 Theux de Meylandt, de, d<jh tub deh mi'lant, (or 
 m&'l&Nt',) (Baktiielkmy Theodore,) Comte, a Belgian 
 minister of state, born at the chateau de Schabroek in 
 1794. He became one of the leaders of the Catholic 
 party. He was minister of the interior in 1831-32, 
 minister of foreign affairs between 1835 and 1840, and 
 minister of the interior from 1846 to 1848. 
 
 Thevenard, t$v'naV, (Antoine Jean Marie,) 
 COMTB, a French naval officer, born at Saint-Malo in 
 1733. He became a vice-admiral in 1792. Died in 1815. 
 Theveneau, tav'n5', (Charles Simon,) a French poet 
 and mathematician, born in Paris in 1759; died in 1821. 
 Thevenin, tiv'niN', (Charles,) a French painter of 
 history and portraits, bom in Paris in 1764, became a 
 member of the Institute in 1825. His master-piece is 
 the "Passage of Mont Saint Bernard." Died in 1838. 
 
 Thevenin, (Claude Noel,) a French historical 
 painter, bom in Isere in 1800 ; died in 1849. 
 Thevenot. See Coulon he Thevenot. 
 Thevenot, tiv'no', (Melchisedech,) a French com- 
 piler and Oriental scholar, born in Paris about 1621?. 
 
 € as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as »; th as in this. (ftySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
THEVENOT 
 
 2118 
 
 THIEBAUT 
 
 He was sent in 1652 on an important mission to Rome, 
 and in 1684 appointed librarian of the Royal Library. 
 He was one of the founders of the Academy of Sciences. 
 His principal work is a compilation of travels and 
 voyages, entitled an " Account of Many Curious Voyages 
 hitherto unpublished," etc., (2 vols, fol., 1672.) He was 
 distinguished for his scientific attainments, as well as his 
 profound knowledge of the Oriental tongues, and was 
 the inventor of an air-level. He also collected many 
 valuable books and manuscripts for the Royal Library, 
 of which he published a catalogue, entitled " Bibliotheca 
 Thevenotiana." Died in 1692. 
 
 Thevenot, de, deh tav'no', (Jkan,) a traveller, a 
 nephew of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1633. 
 He studied at the College of Navarre, and, having pre- 
 viously visited England, Germany, and Italy, set out in 
 1655 for the East. He spent seven years in Egypt and 
 different parts of Asia, and in 1664 started on a second 
 journey, during which he visited Persia and India. He 
 died of a fever in 1667, while 011 his way to Tabreez, 
 (Tabriz.) His principal works, which have a high repu- 
 tation, are "Travels in the Levant," (1664,) to which 
 were added a description of Persia, and " An Account of 
 Hindostan, the Modern Mongols, and other Peoples and 
 Countries of India," ("Voyage contenant la Relation de 
 l'Hindoustan, des nouveaux Mogols," etc., 1684.) He 
 was well versed in the Arabic and Persian languages. 
 
 See "Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Thevet, teh-vj', (Andre,) a French traveller, born 
 at Angouleme in 1502. He visited the Levant, and 
 published a "Universal Cosmography," (1 571,) and other 
 works. Died in 1590. 
 
 Thew, thu, (Robert,) an English artist, born in York- 
 shire in 1758, was appointed engraver to the Prince of 
 Wales. His principal works are nineteen plates in Boy- 
 dell's "Shakspeare Gallery." Died in 1802. 
 
 Thialfi. See Thor. 
 
 Thiard or Tyard, de, deh te'aV, (Pontus,) a French 
 poet, born in 1521. He was patronized by Henry III., 
 who appointed him Bishop of Chalons-sur-Saone in 1578. 
 Died in 1605. 
 
 See Martin, " Notice sur Pontus de Thiard," 1786. 
 
 Thiard de Bissy, de, deh te'SR' deh be'se', (Au- 
 Xonne ThSodosf. Marie,) Comte, a French general, 
 born in Paris in 1772. He was a Liberal member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies from 1820 to 1848. Died in 1852. 
 
 Thiassi or Thjassi, te-as'se, [said to signify " im- 
 petuous," " violent,"] a famous giant, the father of Skadi, 
 mentioned in the Eddaic legends. It is related that, 
 having taken the form of an eagle, Thiassi succeeded in 
 catching the subtle Loki, and refused to release him 
 unless he would swear to bring Iduna, with her apples 
 of immortality, from the habitation of the /Esir. There- 
 upon Loki told Iduna that he had found some beautiful 
 apples in a wood just without the walls of Asgard, 
 urging her to take her own out with her for the pur- 
 pose of comparing them. Iduna fell into the snare. 
 No sooner had she left the fortress of the gods than 
 Thiassi came, with his eagle's plumage, caught her up, 
 and carried her to Thrymheim, his abode among the 
 mountains. But the gods fared ill in her absence ; they 
 gfew rapidly old and gray. At length, Loki, terrified 
 by their menaces, was prevailed on to attempt her 
 restoration. Having himself assumed the form of a 
 falcon, he flew to Thrymheim in the giant's absence, 
 transformed Iduna into a nut, and carried her in his 
 talons to Asgard. But Thiassi pursued and had nearly 
 overtaken Loki, when the ^Esir came out to his assist- 
 ance, and Thiassi was caught and slain. It is said that 
 the gods, in order to appease Skadi for the death of her 
 father, cast his eyes up to heaven, where they became 
 two stars. 
 
 See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 43-45. 
 
 Thibaud. See THIBAUT. 
 
 Thibaud te'bo', or The'o-bald an ecclesiastic, 
 became Archbishop of Canterbury (England) in 1 139. 
 He quarrelled with King Stephen. Died in 1161. 
 
 Thibaud (te'bo') or Thibaut IT, called the Great, 
 Count of Champagne and Blois, was born about 1000. 
 His mother was Alice, a daughter of William the 
 
 Conqueror. He was a brother of Stephen, King ol 
 England. Died in 1152. 
 
 Thibaud or Thibaut, sometimes called The'o-bald, 
 [Lat. Theobal'dus,] Count of Champagne and King 
 of Navarre, was born in 1201. He was a son of Thi- 
 baut, Count of Champagne, and was the most powerful 
 feudatory of the French king. On the death of his 
 uncle, Sancho, King of Navarre, in 1234, he succeeded 
 to the throne of that country. In 1239 he conducted an 
 army of crusaders to the Holy Land ; but he proved 
 himself an incompetent general, and was defeated with 
 great loss at Ascalon or Gaza. Died in 1253. He was 
 celebrated as a troubadour, and left many songs, which 
 are extant. 
 
 SeeDELBARRB, "Essai sur la Vie de Thibaut, Comte de Cham- 
 pagne," 1S50: " Nouvelle Biographie G^n^rale;" Longfhllow, 
 "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Thibaudeau, te'bo'do', (Adolphe Narcisse,) a 
 French journalist and liberal politician, born at Poitiers 
 in 1795 ; died in 1856. 
 
 Thibaudeau, (Antoine Claire,) Count, a French 
 revolutionist and historical writer, the father of the 
 preceding, was born at Poitiers in 1765. He was elected 
 to the National Convention in 1792, and voted for the 
 death of the king without the appeal to the people. In 
 1796 he became president of the Council of Five Hun- 
 dred, and a count of the empire in 1808. He was 
 appointed a senator by Louis Napoleon in 1852. He 
 was the author of "Memoirs of the Convention and the 
 Directory," (1824,) "General History of Napoleon," 
 (1827,) 'I Memoirs of the Consulate and the Empire," 
 (1835,) and other works. Died in 1S54. 
 
 See Tisseron, " Le Senat de l'Empire Francais;" " NouvelU 
 Biographto Gen^rale." 
 
 Thibaut, te'bo', (Anton Friedrich Justus,) an 
 eminent German jurist, born at Hameln, in Hanover, in 
 1774. He studied at Gbttingen, Kbnigsberg, and Kiel, 
 became professor of law at Jena in 1802, and obtained 
 in 1805 the same chair at Heidelberg, where he taught 
 with distinguished success during the remainder of his 
 life. His legal works are very numerous, and are 
 ranked among the most valuable that have appeared. 
 Among these may be named his "Juristic Encyclopaedia 
 and Methodology," (1797.) "Theory of the Logical 
 Interpretation of Roman Law," " On Possession and 
 Prescription," (1802,) "System des Pandektenrechts," 
 (1803,) and "On the Necessity of a Common Code of 
 Laws for Germany," (1814.) Died in 1840. 
 
 Thibaut, (Jean Thomas,) a French architect, born 
 in Haute-Mame in 1757; died in 1826. 
 
 Thibouville, de, deh te'boo'vel', (Henri Lambert 
 d'Herbionv,) Marquis, a French litterateur, born in 
 Paris in 1 710, was an intimate friend of Voltaire. He 
 wrote dramas, novels, etc. Died in 1784. 
 
 Thick'nesse, (Mrs. Anne,) an English lady, dis- 
 tinguished for her talents ami beauty, was born in 1737. 
 She was the wife of Philip Thicknesse, noticed below. 
 She wrote " biographical sketches of Literary Females 
 of the French Nation," "The School of Fashion," a 
 novel, and other works. Died in 1824. 
 
 Thicknesse, (Philip,) an English traveller, born 
 about 1720. Among his works are "Memoirs and 
 Anecdotes of Philip Thicknesse," (3 vols., 1788-91.) 
 Died in 1792. 
 
 See the "Monthly Review" for September, 1777. 
 
 Thiebault or Thiebaut, te'a'bo', (Dieudonne,) a 
 French litterateur, born near Remiremont in 1733. He 
 became professor of grammar in Berlin in 1765, and was 
 intimate with Frederick the Great. He published, be- 
 sides several works on grammar, " Souvenirs of Twenty 
 Years' Residence in Berlin," etc., (5 vols., 1804.) Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Thieibault, (Paul Charles Francois,) a French 
 general, born in Berlin in 1769. was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. He commanded a brigade at Austerlitz, and 
 became a general of division in 1808. He wrote several 
 military works. Died in 1846. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Thiebaut See Theobald. 
 
 », e, i, o, a, y, long; 4, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; p., e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
TH1EBAUT 
 
 21 19 
 
 THIERS 
 
 Thiebaut de Berneaud, te'i'bo' deh Mr'iio', 
 (Arsene,) a French writer on rural economy and biog- 
 raphy, born at Sedan in 1777, was a republican. He 
 contributed to the " Biographie Universelle." Died in 
 Paris in 1S50. 
 
 Thiele, tee'leh, (Just Mati-hias,) a Danish writer, 
 born at Copenhagen in 1795. He published, besides 
 othei works, a "History of Thorwaklsen's Youth," and 
 "Thorwaldsen and his Works," (4 vols., 1831-50.) 
 
 Thielen, van, vtn tee'len, (Jan Phii.ii>,) a Flemish 
 flower-painter, born at Mechlin in 1618. His works are 
 esteemed master-pieces of the kind. Died in 1667. 
 
 Thielmann, von, fon teel'man, (Johann Adolf,) 
 Freihekk, a German general, born at Dresden in 1765. 
 He served in the campaigns of 1806 and 1809, was made 
 lieutenant-general in 1810, and fought for Napoleon in 
 Russia in 1812. He afterwards entered the Prussian 
 service, and obtained command of a corps or division 
 of the army of Bliicher. On June 18 he held in check 
 the corps of Grouchy at Wavre, and by his obstinate 
 resistance contributed to the victory of the allies at 
 Waterloo. Died in 1824. 
 
 See Obrrreit, " BeitrSge zur Biographie des_ Generals von Thiel- 
 mann," 1829; Holzkndorff, " Beitrage zur Biographie des Gene- 
 rals von Thielmann," 1830. 
 
 Thieme, tee'meh, (Karl August,) a German philol- 
 ogist, was professor at Leipsic. He published an edition 
 of Xenophon, (4 vols., 1763-66.) Died in 1795. 
 
 Thiemo, tee'mo, [Fr. Thiemon, te'a'moN',] some- 
 times called Diethmar, a German prelate, distinguished 
 as a sculptor and painter, was born in Bavaria about 
 1045. He became Archbishop of Salzburg about 10S8. 
 Died in Palestine about 1 100. 
 
 Thienemann, tee'neh-min', (Frif.drich August 
 Ludwig,) a German ornithologist, born near Freiburg 
 in 1793. Having graduated at Leipsic, he visited North- 
 ern Europe and Iceland, of which he published an 
 account after his return. His chief work is a " History 
 of the Reproduction of Divers Species of Birds," with 
 one hundred coloured plates, (1845-53.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Thierri. See Thierry. 
 
 Thierry or Thierri, te-Sr're, fFr. pron. te'&'re',] or 
 Theodorio II., King of Austrasia, born about 486 A.n., 
 was the eldest son of Clovis. He began to reign in 
 511. Died in 534. 
 
 Thierry or Thierri II., King of Austrasia and Bur- 
 gundy, born in 587 A.n., was a son of Childebert II., 
 whom he succeeded in 596. Died in 613 A.n. 
 
 Thierry or Thierri L or III., King of Neustria and 
 Burgundy, (or France,) a son of Clovis II., was born 
 about 654 A.n. He received the title of king, but the 
 royal power was exercised by Pepin, mayor of the palace. 
 Died in 691 A.n. 
 
 Thierry or Thierri IT or IV., born in 713 A.n., was 
 a son of Dagobert HI., King of the Franks. He was 
 one of the rot's faineants, or nominal kings. The king- 
 dom was governed by Charles Martel, under the name 
 of Thierri. Died in 737 A.n. 
 
 Thierry, te'&'re', (Alexandre,) a French physician 
 and surgeon, born in 1803, practised in Paris, and gained 
 distinction as an operator. He wrote for the " National," 
 and actively promoted the revolution of 1848. 
 
 Thierry, (Am^hee Simon Dominique,) a French 
 historian, born at Blois in 1797. He was appointed 
 master of requests in the council of state under I/mis 
 Philippe, and continued in the same office by Louis 
 Napoleon. He published a " History of Gaul under 
 the Roman Rule," (1826,) " History of Attila and of his 
 Sons and Successors in Europe," etc., (1856,) and a 
 "History of the Gauls from the Earliest Period to the 
 Subjection of Gaul," etc., (1857.) He was elected to the 
 Academy of Moral and Political Sciences in 1841, and 
 was raised to the dignity of senator in i860. 
 
 See the " Foreign Quarterly Review" for August, 1S32. 
 
 Thierry, (Cihiuard,) a French littlrateur, born in 
 Paris in 1813. He contributed critiques on the drama 
 to several journals of Paris. 
 
 Thierry, I Jacques Nicolas Augiistin,) an eminent 
 French historian, a brother of the preceding, was born 
 at Biois in 1 795, I laving studied in the College of Hlois, 
 he repaired to Paris, where he became in 18 17 assoc ; ate 
 
 editor of the "Censeur Europeen." He brought out in 
 1825 his "History of the Conquest of England by the 
 Normans," which met with brilliant success and was 
 translated into German and English. Soon after this, 
 his sight, which had been gradually failing, was entirely 
 lost. He still, however, pursued his historical researches, 
 with the assistance of a secretary, Armand Carrel, and 
 published, successively, "Ten Years of Historical Stu- 
 dies," (1834,) "Narratives of the Merovingian Times, 
 preceded'by Considerations on the History of France," 
 (1840,) and an "Essay on the History of the Formation 
 and Progress of the Third Estate," (1853.) He was 
 recognized as the master of the modern French school 
 of historians. Died in May, 1856. 
 
 See Guigniaot, "Notice historique sur la Vie d'Aug. Thierry,'' 
 1863; L. DR LomRnie, "M. A. Thierry, par un Homme de Rien,_ 
 1 841 ; Robin, "Galerie des Gens de Lettres ;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 GeneVale:" "Biographie Universelle;" "Westminster Review" for 
 October, 1841. 
 
 Thierry, (Jean,) a French sculptor, born at Lyons 
 in 1669, worked in Spain for Philip V. Died in Paris 
 in 1739. 
 
 Thierry, (Joseph Francois Desire,) a French 
 painter of landscapes and decorations, a brother of 
 Edouard, noticed above, was born in I§t2. 
 
 Thierry, (Julie de Querangal — deli keh'rdN'gSI',) 
 a literary French lady, became in 183 1 the wife of 
 Augustin Thierry the historian. She aided him in his 
 literary labours, and wrote two works, entitled " Scenes 
 of Manners and Characters," (1835,) and "Adelaide: 
 Memoirs of a Young Woman," (1839.) Died in 1844. 
 
 Thierry (or Theodoric) of Niem, a native of West- 
 phalia, became papal secretary at Rome. He wrote 
 a " History of the Schism," (" De Schismate.") Died 
 in 1417. 
 
 Thiers, te'aiR', (Jean Baptiste,) a French theo. 
 logian of great erudition, was born at Chartres in 1636. 
 He published numerous religious and controversial 
 works, which were highly esteemed. Among these is a 
 "Treatise on Superstitions according to Holy Scripture," 
 ("Traite des Superstitions selon l'Ecriture Sainte," 
 1679.) Died in 1703. 
 
 Thiers, (Louis Adolphe,) an eminent French his- 
 torian and minister of state, was born at Marseilles on 
 the 16th of April, 1797. He studied law at Aix, where 
 M. Mignet was his fellow-student and his friend. In 
 1818 he was received as advocate at the bar of Aix, from 
 which he removed to Paris in 1821 and became an assist- 
 ant editor of the " Constitutionnel," a liberal journal. He 
 distinguished himself by his finesse, by his political in- 
 sight, and by the vivacity of his style. In 1823 he pub- 
 lished the first volume of his " History of the French 
 Revolution, " (to vols., 1823-27,) which enjoyed much 
 popularity, especially with the Liberal party. Thiers, 
 Mignet, and Armand Carrel founded in January, 1830, the 
 " National," with an agreement that each should be alter- 
 nately editor-in-chief for one year. Thiers was the editor 
 for the first year, and contributed to the revolution of 
 Jnlv. 1830. He is said to be the author of the phrase, 
 "The king reigns, and does not govern." He employed 
 his influence to raise Louis Philippe to the throne, and 
 was rewarded by the office of councillor of state in 1830. 
 In the same year he was elected a member of the Chamber 
 of Deputies. He was under-secretary of state for the 
 finances during the short ministry of Lafitte, 1830-31, 
 and became minister of the interior in October, 1832. 
 He acquired eminence as a parliamentary debater. His 
 speeches are characterized as familiar, amusing, con- 
 versational, and incisive. He was admitted into the 
 French Academy in 1834. About this time Thiers and 
 Guizot became rivals and competitors for the place of 
 chief minister, the former being the leader of the centre 
 gouekt, (" left centre.") He was president of the council 
 and minister of foreign affairs from February to August, 
 1836, when he resigned, and was succeeded by Count 
 Mole. In March, 1840, he was again appointed chief 
 minister, with the portfolio of foreign affairs. His policy 
 on the Eastern question was counteracted by Palmerston, 
 who, by a concerted action with Russia and Austria, 
 isolated France. Thiers resolved to support Mehemet 
 Ali, at the risk of a war against England ; but, as the king 
 
 « as *; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as «; th as in this. (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
THIERSCH 
 
 2 120 
 
 TH1STLEW00D 
 
 would not assent to this course, he resigned in October, 
 1840, and was succeeded by Guizot. 
 
 Among his chief works is a " History of the Consulate 
 and the Empire," (20 vols., 1845-63.) This, as well as his 
 " History of the Revolution," stands in the very highest 
 rank among historical works in the French language. 
 He was one of the orators of the opposition in the last 
 years of the reign of Louis Philippe, but did not give a 
 hearty support to the republic of 1848. In the Con- 
 stituent Assembly he acted with the droite. He voted 
 for Louis Napoleon as president in December, 1848, but 
 after that president became emperor he ceased to oe 
 his partisan. In 1863 Thiers was elected to the legis- 
 lative body, in which he acted with the opposition, and 
 to which he was re-elected in 1869. He made in April, 
 1867, a speech against Napoleon's foreign policy, which 
 excited much sensation. He avowed his enmity to Ital- 
 ian nationality. "The whole drift of this speech," says 
 the London "Spectator," "is that selfishness is the first 
 of national duties." In July, 1870, he boldly opposed 
 the war against Prussia, in a speech to the legislative 
 body, and declared that Napoleon had committed an- 
 other blunder. The republicans of Paris offered to 
 appoint him a member of the provisional government 
 formed in September, 1870, but he declined to serve in 
 ' that capacity. 
 
 See Louis ue Lombnie, " M. Thiers, par tin Homme de Rien," 
 1841 ; A. Lava, " £tudes historiques sur la Vie priv^e, politique et 
 litt^raire de M. A. Thiers," 2 vols., 1846; "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Ge^ie'rale;" Cormenin, "Livre des Orateurs ;" L. Blanc, " His- 
 toire de dix Ans ;" " London Quarterly Review 1 ' lor September, 
 1845: " Blackwood's Magazine" tor March, 1838; "Foreign Quar- 
 terly Review" for April, 1845; "Edinburgh Review" for April and 
 July, 1858, and October, 1S61 : " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1S45; 
 "Westminster Review" for July, 1S4S; "North British Review" 
 for August, i860 ; " British Quarterly Review" for January, 1863. 
 
 Thiersch, teeRsh, (Bernard,) a German philologist, 
 became director of the College of Dortmund. He wrote, 
 oesides several works on philology, "The Epoch and 
 Native Land of Homer," ("Das Zeitalter and Vaterland 
 des Homer.") He was a brother of Friedrich Wilhelm, 
 noticed below. Died in 1855. 
 
 Thiersch, (Friedrich Wilhei.m,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born near Freiburg in 1784. He studied at 
 Leipsic and Gdttingen, and was appointed in 1809 pro- 
 fessor of ancient literature in the gymnasium at Munich. 
 He soon after founded a philological institute, which was 
 subsequently united to the university. He visited Greece 
 in 1831, and published, after his return, a treatise "On 
 the Actual Condition of Greece, and the Means of Ac- 
 complishing her Restoration," (in French, 1833.) Among 
 his other works we may name his " Greek Grammar, 
 especially for the Homeric Dialects," (1826,) and a 
 treatise " On the Epochs of the Plastic Art among the 
 Greeks," (1829.) He also edited Pindar's "Odes," ac- 
 companied with notes and with a German translation 
 in verse, and published several treatises on the higher 
 schools of Bavaria, and in favour of classical studies. 
 Died in i860. 
 
 See Brockhaus, '* Conversations-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G£ue>ale." 
 
 Thiersch, (Heinrich Wilhei.m Josias,) a nephew 
 or son of the preceding, has published, among other 
 works, a " Grammatical Manual for the First instruc- 
 tion in the Hebrew Language," (1842.) 
 
 Thiesse, te'4'sa', (Leon,) a French writer, born at 
 Rouen in 1793. He wrote political pamphlets, several 
 poems, and "Manuel des Braves," (7 vols., 1817 et seq.) 
 
 Thile, von, fon tee'leh, (Ludwig Gustav,) a Prussian 
 general and statesman, born in 1787, served against the 
 French in the campaigns of 1806, 1813, and 1815, and 
 was appointed minister of state under Frederick William 
 IV. in 1840. Died in 1852. 
 
 Thilo, tee'lo, (Johann Karl,) a German Protestant 
 theologian, born at Langensalza in 1794. He published 
 a "Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti," and other 
 learned works. Died in 1853. 
 
 Thiollet, te'o'li', (Francois,) a French architect, 
 born at Poitiers in 1782. He published several treatises 
 on Architecture. 
 
 Tbion de la Chaume, te'oN' deh If shorn, (Claude 
 Esprit,) a French physician and surgeon, born in Paris 
 in 1750. He was appointed in 1778 physician to the 
 
 military hospital at Ajaccio, in Corsica, and soon after 
 to the army destined to attack Gibraltar. While in this 
 post he was eminently successful in his treatment of an 
 epidemic fever which had made great ravages among 
 the troops. After his return to France he was appointed 
 one of the physicians of the Count d'Artois, afterwards 
 Charles X. Died in 1786. 
 
 Thirion, te're'oN', (Didier,) a French Jacobin, be- 
 came a member of the Convention in 1792. He opposed 
 Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor. Died in 1814. 
 
 Thiriot, te're'o', a Frenchman, born about 1696, was 
 a friend of Voltaire, some of whose works he edited. 
 Died in 1772. 
 
 Thjrl'bjr, (Styan,) an English scholar and critic, born 
 at Leicester in 1692, published an edition of Justin 
 Martyr, with notes. Died in 1753. 
 
 Thjrl'wall, (Connop,) an eminent English historian, 
 born in Middlesex in 1797. He studied at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, where he tjok the degree of M.A. in 
 real. He was made Bishop of Saint David's in 1840. 
 He has published, conjointly with Julius Charles Hare, 
 a translation from the German of two volumes of Nie- 
 buhr's "History of Rome." He brought out in 1852 
 his " History of Greece," (8 vols. 8vo,) which is esteemed 
 a standard work. "Having," says Mr. Grote, "studied, 
 of course, the same evidence as Dr. Thirlwall, I am 
 better enabled than others to bear testimony to the 
 learning, the sagacity, and the candour which pervade 
 his excellent work." (Preface to Grote's " History of 
 Greece.") 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1835. 
 
 Thiroux d'Arconville. See Arconville, d'. 
 
 Thiroux de Crosne, te'roo' deh kr6n, (Louis,) a 
 French magistrate, born in Paris in 1736, became lieu- 
 tenant-general of the police in 1785. He was guillotined 
 in 1794. 
 
 Thirty Tyrants, The, [commonly called in Greek 
 simply 0/ TfHaKovTa, or "The Thirty,"] the name of a 
 tyrannical oligarchy which was established in Athens, 
 under the protectorate of Sparta, continuing about a year, 
 at the close of the Peloponnesian war. All the Athenian 
 citizens supposed to be favourable to liberty were espe- 
 cially obnoxious to the Thirty Tyrants, and many of them 
 were put to death without regard to justice or even the 
 forms of law ; and great wealth, particularly if it belonged 
 to those who were not citizens of Athens, was almost sure 
 to bring destruction upon its possessor. Among the 
 Thirty the most conspicuous were Critias, Theramenes, 
 and Eratosthenes. See Thhasybui.us. 
 
 See Grote, "History of Greece;" Thiki.wali., "History of 
 Greece;" Xf.nophon, "Helienica;" Lysias, "Oration against 
 Er.itcstlienes." 
 
 Uj^* The name of the Thirty Tyrants fin Latin, 
 Tkigin'ta Tykan'ni] was also sometimes incorrectly 
 applied to a number of pretenders or usurpers who 
 arose in different parts of the Roman empire during the 
 reigns of Valerian and Gallienus. Among their number 
 were Odenathus and the famous Zenobia. 
 
 See Gibbon, "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire;" Trsbbllwh Pollio, " Triginta Tyranni." 
 
 Thig'be, [Gr. BlaSri ; Fr. Thishe, tes'ba',] a beautiful 
 maiden of Babylon, beloved by Pyramus. They lived 
 in adjoining houses, and conversed privately through a 
 chink of the wall. They agreed to meet at the tomb of 
 Ninus, under a mulberry-tree. Thisbe, who first came 
 to that place, was driven away by the sight of a lioness, 
 and dropped her veil, which the lioness stained with 
 blood. This veil was found by Pyramus, who, hastily 
 concluding that Thisbe had been killed, destroyed him- 
 self. She soon returned, saw the dead body of Pyramus, 
 and followed his example. The poets feigned that the 
 mulberries, in sympathy with their fate, changed colour 
 from white to red. 
 
 See Ovid, "Metamorphoses." 
 
 Thisted, tis'ted, (Wai.demar Adolf,) a Danish 
 poet and romance-writer, known under the pseudonym 
 of Saint Hermidad, born at Aarhuus in 1815, has 
 published, among other works, a poem entitled "The 
 Heart of the Wilderness," (1850.) 
 
 Thistlewood, this'sl-wdod, (Arthur,) an English 
 adventurer, born near Lincoln in 1772, was the principal 
 
 i, e, i, 6, u, y, long ; 4, e, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, JF, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
THJASSI 
 
 2 I 2 I 
 
 THOMAS 
 
 leader in the so-called Cato Street Conspiracy, designed 
 to excite an insurrection in London. Being arrested, 
 with several of his accomplices, he was condemned to 
 death, and executed in 1820. 
 
 See "The Closing Scene; or, Christianity and Infidelity Con- 
 trasted," by the Rev. Erskinb Nkalb. 
 
 Thjassi. See TmASSt. 
 
 Thoghrul Beg. See Togrul Beg. 
 
 Thograi. See Tograi. 
 
 Tboiras. See Rapin, de, (Paul.) 
 
 Tholuck, to'luk, [Ger. pron. to'look,] (Frif.drich 
 Al'GUST Goitreu,) an eminent German theologian and 
 pulpit orator, born at Breslau, March 30, 1799. He was 
 educated at the University of Berlin, where he acquired 
 much proficiency in the Oriental languages, and was 
 induced by Neander to devote himself to theology. In 
 1823 he produced a popular work, called " Wahre Weihe 
 des Zweiflers," which was reprinted under the title of 
 " The Doctrine of the Sinner and of the Mediator," 
 (1851.) He became extraordinary professor of theology 
 at Berlin in 1824, visited England and Holland in 1825, 
 and obtained in 1826 the chair of theology in the Uni- 
 versity of Halle. Having passed about two years as 
 chaplain to the Prussian embassy at Rome, where he 
 formed a friendship with Bunsen, he returned to Halle 
 in 1829, and resumed the duties of his professorship. 
 He opposed the rationalism which was prevalent among 
 his colleagues at Halle, and became one of the most 
 influential teachers of the evangelical doctrines. Among 
 his numerous works, which are highly esteemed, are a 
 "Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans," (4th 
 edition, 1842,) " Commentary on the Gospel of John," 
 (1826; 7th edition, 1857, of which an excellent English 
 translation has been made by Dr. Krauth, of Philadelphia, 
 1859,) "Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews," 
 (1836,) "The Authenticity of the Gospel History," 
 (1837,) " Hours of Devotion," ("Stunden der Andacht," 
 1840,) and several volumes of sermons. He has been for 
 several years engaged on a " History of Rationalism." 
 Most of his works have been translated into English. 
 
 Thorn, torn, (James,) a Scottish sculptor, born in 
 Ayrshire in 1799, was a stone-mason in his youth. 
 Having taught himself sculpture, he produced sandstone 
 statues of "Tain O'Shanter" and " Souter Johnnie," 
 which obtained great popularity, and were reproduced 
 by several copies. Among his other works is a group 
 of " Old Mortality," in sandstone, which stands at the 
 entrance of Laurel Hill Cemetery, near Philadelphia. 
 He came to America in 1836. Died at New York in 1850. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) * 
 
 Thorn, (William,) a Scottish poet, born at Aber- 
 deen in 1799. His means of instruction were very 
 scanty, and at an early age he was apprenticed to a 
 weaver. He published in 1841 " Rhymes and Recollec- 
 tions of a Hand-Loom Weaver." He died, in great 
 destitution, in 1850. 
 
 See the "Westminster Review" for December, 1843. 
 
 Thomander, to-man'der, (Johan Henrik,) a Swed- 
 ish theologian- and distinguished pulpit orator, born in 
 the province of Scania in 1798, was appointed in 1833 
 professor of pastoral theology in the Theological Semi- 
 nary at Lund. He has published sermons and other 
 religious works, and translated into Swedish several of 
 Shakspeare's works, the " Clouds" of Aristophanes, 
 and Byron's " Manfred." 
 
 Thom'as, (tom'as,) [Fr. pron. to'ma'; Gr. Gwuuc; 
 It. Tommaso, tom-ma'so ; Sp. Tomas, tomas',| or 
 Didymus, [Gr. Ai&vuof,] one of the twelve aimstles, is 
 supposed to have been born in Galilee. He is first 
 mentioned in John xi. 16. According to tradition, he 
 preached the gospel in India and suffered martyrdom 
 in that region. 
 
 St-e fohn xx. 24-20. 
 
 Thomas, to'ma', (Alexandre Gerard,) a French 
 litterateur, born in Paris in 1818. He contributed many 
 able articles to the "Revue des Deux Monties." He 
 removed to England in 1852, and wrote f.:r the " Edin- 
 burgh Review." Died at Brussels In 1857. 
 
 Thomas, (Antoi.ne Leonard,) a celebrated French 
 writer, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1732. He studied 
 
 in Paris, and about 1754 obtained a professorship in the 
 College of Beauvais. He published in 1756 "Philoso- 
 phical and Literary Reflections on the Poem of Natural 
 Religion." His "Eulogy on Marshal Saxe" obtained 
 the prize from the French Academy in 1759. It was 
 followed by eulogies on Chancellor d'Aguesseatl and 
 Duguay-Trouin, which were also crowned by the Acad- 
 emy. Among his other works we may name his " Epis- 
 tle to the People," a poem, eulogies on Sully, Descartes, 
 and Marcus Aurelius, " Essay on the Character, Man- 
 ners, and Intellect of Women in all Ages," (1772,) and 
 an "Essay on Eulogies, or the History of Literature 
 and Eloquence applied to this Kind of Writing," (1773.) 
 In 1767 he succeeded Hardion as a member of the 
 French Academy. Died in 1785. 
 
 See A. Dei.evre, " Essai snr la Vie de Thomas," 1792; Saint- 
 Surin, "Notice snr Thomas," 1825; VlLt.EMAlN. "Tableau de la 
 Litterature au dix-huitieme Siecle ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeVi- 
 rale." 
 
 Thomas, (Charles Louis Ambroise,) a French mu- 
 sical composer, born at Metz in 181 1. He gained the 
 grand prize for musical composition in 1832, produced 
 successful comic operas, etc., and was admitted into the 
 Institute in 185 1. Among his works are operas entitled 
 "LeCaid" and " Le Songs d'une Nuit d'Ete," (1850.) 
 
 Thomas, (Christian.) See Thomasius. 
 
 Thomas, (Clement,) a French officer, born at Li- 
 bourne in 1812. He was chosen general-in-chief of the 
 national guard of Paris in May, 1848, but was removed 
 in the next month. He commanded the national guards 
 during the siege of Paris in the autumn of 1870. 
 
 Thom'as, (tom'as,) (David,) an American pomologist, 
 florist, and writer on agriculture, was born in Montgomery 
 county, Pennsylvania, in 1776. He was educated by 
 his parents in the religious principles of the Society of 
 Friends. In 1805 he removed to near Aurora, in Cayuga 
 county, New York. In 1817 he published "Travels in 
 the West," a work which attracted the notice of De Witt 
 Clinton and led to Mr. Thomas being appointed chief 
 engineer on the Erie Canal, west of Rochester, which 
 position he held until the canal was completed. Subse- 
 quently, on the recommendation of Governor Clinton, 
 he was employed as one of the principal engineers on 
 the Wetland Canal in Canada. As a florist and pomolo- 
 gist Mr. Thomas had few, if any, superiors in the United 
 States. By his contributions to "The Genesee Farmer" 
 he rendered an important service to the cause of agri- 
 culture, particularly in refuting an error, once widely 
 prevalent, that wheat under certain circumstances was 
 liable to be changed into "chess," (Bromus secalinus,) 
 a plant of quite a different genus. Mr. Thomas showed 
 that when the seed-wheat was perfectly clean, and 
 when the soil had been thoroughly burnt, so as to 
 destroy the seeds of different kinds of weeds, including 
 chess, the alleged transmutation never took place, even 
 under the circumstances supposed to be most favour- 
 able to such a change. His writings, supported as they 
 were by carefully-conducted experiments, led not merely 
 to the diffusion of more enlightened views, but to a great 
 practical improvement in this department of agriculture. 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 Thom'as, (tom'as,) (ELIZABETH,) an English writer, 
 born in 1675, was the author of letters and poems which 
 were admired by Dryden, who gave her the name of 
 Corinna. Pope, however, has introduced her into his 
 " Dunciad." Died in 1730. 
 
 Thomas, (Felix,) a French architect, bom at Nantes 
 in 1815. He gained the grand prize in 1845 for a design 
 for a cathedral. He performed an artistic mission to 
 Babylonia about 1851. 
 
 Thomas, (Frederic,) a French advocate and littera- 
 teur, born at Toulouse in 1814. He became a resident 
 of Paris in 1835, wrote for the " Presse," and published 
 several novels. 
 
 Thomas, (Frederick William,) an American novel- 
 ist and miscellaneous writer, born at Providence, Rhode 
 Island, in 1808. He published "Clinton Bradshaw," 
 (1835,) "East and West," (1836,) and " Howard Pinck- 
 ney," also " The Beechen Tree, and other Poems," (1844,) 
 "John Randolph of Roanoke, and other Sketches of 
 Character," and "The Emigrant," a poem. 
 
 « as/v fas s; g hard; gasy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 ass; *h as in //«>. (Jjy"" See F^xplanations, p. 23.) 
 
THOMAS 
 
 2122 
 
 THOMJSIUS 
 
 Thomas, (George H.,) a distinguished American 
 general, born in Southampton county, Virginia, on the 
 31st of July, 1816. He entered the Academy at West 
 Point in 1836, and graduated twelfth in a class of forty- 
 five, in 1840. Having become first lieutenant in 1843, 
 he served with distinction in the Mexican war at Mon- 
 terey and liuena Vista, (1847,) and gained the rank of 
 captain in 1853. He was employed in Texas from 1856 
 to November, i860, and maintained his loyalty to the 
 Union amidst the general defection of Southern-born 
 officers. In May, 1861, he was appointed colonel of the 
 fifth United States cavalry, and in August became a 
 brigadier-general of volunteers. He was ordered to 
 Kentucky in September, obtained command of a di- 
 vision of the army of Buell, and defeated General Zolli- 
 koffer near Mill Spring about the 18th of January, 1862. 
 In April of that year he was raised to the rank of major- 
 general, and in the next month he obtained command 
 of five divisions, forming the right wing of Halleck's 
 army operating against Corinth. He became in Sep- 
 tember, 1862, second in command of the army of the 
 Ohio, which was opposed to General Bragg in Kentucky. 
 He rendered important services at the battle of Stone 
 River, December 31, 1862, to January 2, 1863, and took 
 part in the movements by which the Union army gained 
 possession of Chattanooga, September 9. His reputa- 
 tion was increased by his conduct at the battle of Chick- 
 amauga, September 19 and 20. There his corps stood 
 firm after the rest of the army had been routed, and 
 repulsed the attacks of the enemy until darkness put an 
 end to the battle. He succeeded Rosecrans as com- 
 mander in-chief of the army of the Cumberland on the 
 19th of October, 1863, and was appointed a brigadier- 
 general of the regular army in the same month. 
 
 General Thomas contributed to the victory which 
 General Grant gained near Chattanooga, November 25, 
 1863. He served under Sherman in the campaign 
 against Atlanta, which began in May, 1864, and took 
 part in the battles at Dallas and Kenesaw Mountain, and 
 in several actions fought near Atlanta in July. When 
 Sherman was about to abandon Atlanta and march 
 through Georgia to the sea, he sent General Thomas 
 with an army to Middle Tennessee to operate against 
 Hood, who invaded Tennessee about the end of Octo- 
 ber. As Hood moved north, General Thomas fell back 
 slowly towards Nashville, and summoned reinforcements 
 to join him at that city. On the 30th of November the 
 Union army was attacked at Franklin by the army of 
 Hood, which was repulsed with severe loss, but after- 
 wards advanced to Nashville. General Thomas attacked 
 Hood in position at Nashville on the 15th of Decem- 
 ber, 1864, and, in a battle lasting two days, defeated and 
 drove him from the field in the utmost confusion. In 
 this battle Hood lost about 6000 prisoners and sixty 
 pieces of cannon. Soon after this victory General 
 Thomas was appointed a major-general in tiie regular 
 army. After the end of the war he commanded the 
 department of the Cumberland, comprising the States 
 of Tennessee and Kentucky. He was remarkable for his 
 modesty, simplicity of character, stability, discretion, and 
 other virtues. President Johnson having offered him the 
 brevet of lieutenant-general and of general in February, 
 1868, he declined the compliment, saying he had done 
 nothing since the war to merit such promotion. Died 
 in 1870. 
 
 Thomas, (Isaiah,) LL.D., a distinguished American 
 printer and journalist, born at Boston in 1749. In 1770 
 he published at Boston the " Massachusetts Spy," in 
 which he denounced the measures of the British gov- 
 ernment. He subsequently carried on an extensive 
 business as a bookseller in that city. He was the 
 author of a "History of Printing in America," (1810.) 
 Died in 1831. 
 
 Thomas, to'mls, (Jakob Ernst,) a German land- 
 scape-painter, born at Hagelstein in 1588. He worked 
 in Rome and other cities of Italy. Died in 1653. 
 
 Thomas, (John,) an American general, born in Mas- 
 sachusetts. He served against the French and Indians 
 in 1756. He was appointed a major-general in March, 
 1776, and succeeded to the command of the army in 
 Canada on the death of General Montgomery. He 
 
 raised the siege of Quebec, and began to retreat, but 
 died at Chambly in May, 1776. 
 
 Thomas, (John,) an able English sculptor, born in 
 Gloucestershire in 1813. He executed or designed the 
 statues and carvings which adorn the new Houses of 
 Parliament. He was also an architect. Died in 1862. 
 
 Thomas, (John,) an English prelate, born at Carlisle 
 in 1712. He rose through several preferments to be 
 Bishop of Rochester in 1774. Died in 1793. 
 
 Thomas, (John J.,) an American nomologist and 
 writer on agriculture, a son of David Thomas, noticed 
 above, was born in Cayuga county, New York, in 1810. 
 Among his publications may be named the \' American 
 Fruit-Culturist," (1st edition in 1846; last edition, 
 greatly enlarged and improved, 1867,) " Farm Ma- 
 chinery," (last edition, 1868,) and a serial entitled " Rural 
 Affairs," (6 vols., 1858-70.) Mr. Thomas has been one 
 of the editors of " The Country Gentleman" (issued 
 at Albany) from the date of its first publication, in 
 1852. 
 
 Thomas, (Lorenzo,) an American general, born in 
 Delaware about 1804, graduated at West Point in 1823. 
 He became adjutant-general in March, 1861, and ob- 
 tained the rank of brigadier-general in August of that 
 year. He had a prominent part in President Johnson's 
 coup d'etat of February 21, 1868, when he was appointed 
 secretary of war ad interim in place of E. M. Stanton, 
 who, however, refused to give up the office. 
 
 Thomas, (Philip F.,) an American politician, born 
 in Talbot county, Maryland, in 1810. He was elected 
 Governor of Maryland in 1847, and appointed secretary 
 of the treasury about December 12, i860. He resigned 
 January 11, 1861. 
 
 Thomas, (Pierre Emile,) a French publicist and 
 civil engineer, born in Paris in 1822. He published a 
 " History of the National Workshops," (Ateliers,) (1848.) 
 
 Thomas, (Robert,) an able English physician, born 
 in 1743, published a popular work entitled " The Modern 
 Practice of Physic," and other medical treatises. Died 
 in 1835. 
 
 • Thomas, (William,) a historical writer, born in 
 Wales, was patronized by King Edward VI. Under 
 the reign of Mary he was executed on a charge of 
 treason, (1553.) He published a "History of Italy," 
 and other works. 
 
 Thomas, (William,) born at Bristol, in England, in 
 1613, was chaplain to the Duke of York and preceptor 
 to the princess (afterwards queen) Anne. He was created 
 Bishop of Worcester. Died in 1689. 
 
 Thomas, (William,) a learned English divine, grand- 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1670. He became 
 rector of Saint Nicholas, in Worcester, in 1723. He 
 published a " Survey of Worcester Cathedral," and 
 other antiquarian works. Died in 1738. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas. See Aquinas. 
 
 Thomas d'Aquin. See Aquinas. 
 
 Thom'as Can-tl-pra-ten'sis, I Fr. Thomas de CAn- 
 timpre, to'ma' deh k6N'taN'pRa',| a Flemish monk and 
 biographer, born near Brussels in 1201 ; died in 1263. 
 
 Thomas Dufosse, (Pierre.) See Fosse, du. 
 
 Thomas a Kempis. See Kempis. 
 
 Thomas the Rhymer. See Rhymer. 
 
 Thomas de Villeneuve, Saint, or Thomas Gar- 
 cias, (gaR-rtee'as,) a Spanish prelate, born in Leon in 
 1488. He became Archbishop of Valencia in 1545. 
 Died in 1555. 
 
 See Dabekt, " Histolre de Saint Thomas de Villeneuve," 1853. 
 
 Thomasen. See Thomasiiis. 
 
 Thomasin, tom'a-sin or to-ma-zeen', written also To- 
 masin, Zerkler, or TirkelSre, a poet of the thirteenth 
 century, born at Friuli, in Italy, was the author of a 
 didactic poem in German, entitled " The Italian Guest," 
 (" Der Welsche Gast") Of this work, which is esteemed 
 one of the most remarkable productions of the age, only 
 small portions have been printed. 
 
 Thomasius, to-ma'ze-ils, or Thomasen, to'ma-zen, 
 (Christian,) an eminent German philosopher and re- 
 former, born at Leipsic in 1655. Having studied law 
 and graduated at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, he founded in 
 1688 a monthly review, which soon became noted for its 
 bold censures of prevailing abuses. In 1694 he was 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
THOMASIUS 
 
 2123 
 
 THOMSEN 
 
 appointed professor of jurisprudence at the University 
 of Halle, where he became rector in 1710. He was the 
 first to introduce the practice of lecturing and writing in 
 German, and, by his denunciation of the superstitions of 
 the time, was chiefly instrumental in abolishing trials for 
 witchcraft. Among his principal works are an " Intro- 
 duction to the Doctrine of Reason or Logic," (1691,) 
 "Introduction to Moral Philosophy," (1692,) and " His- 
 tory of Wisdom and Folly," (1693.) Thomasius was 
 eulogized by Frederick the Great as one of the most 
 illustrious philosophers of Germany. Hied in 1728. 
 
 See Luden, " C. Thomasius nach seinen Schicksalen," etc., 1S05 ; 
 F. Hoffmann, *' Prograinma in Obitum C. Thomasii," 1729; Zbd- 
 lkr, *' Universal- Lexikon ;" Saxe, "Onomasucon ;" '* Nouvelle 
 Btographie Generale." 
 
 Thomasius or Thomasen, (Jakob,) a German phi- 
 lologist, born at Leipsic in 1622, was the father of the 
 f receding. He was professor of belles-lettres and phi- 
 osophy at Leipsic, and one of the teachers of Leibnitz. 
 He wrote, besides other works, "Origins of History, 
 Philosophical and Ecclesiastical," (" Origines Historian 
 Philosophies et Ecclesiastical," 1665.) Died in 1684. 
 See Saxe, " Onomasticon ;" Zedi.er, " Universal -Lexikon." 
 Thomassln, to'mt'saN', (Louis,) a French ecclesi- 
 astic, born at Aix in 1619, became professor of theology 
 in the seminary of Sainte-Magloire, at Paris. He was the 
 author of a treatise "On Ancient and Modern Ecclesi- 
 astical Discipline," "Theological Dogmas," and other 
 learned works. Died in 1695. 
 
 Thomassin, (Philippe,) an eminent French engraver, 
 born at Troyes about 1550. He worked mostly at Rome, 
 and engraved many antique statues, also numerous por- 
 traits of eminent men. He died at an advanced age. 
 
 Thomassin, (Simon,) a French engraver, born at 
 Troyes about 1652, is said to have been a nephew of the 
 preceding. Died in 1732. 
 
 His son Henri Simon, born in Paris in 1688, was an 
 able engraver. He engraved some works of Rubens 
 and Paul Veronese. Died in 1741. 
 
 Thomassy, to'mi'se', (MARIE Joseph Raymond,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Montpellier in 1810. He 
 wrote, besides other works, " Morocco and its Caravans," 
 (1845.) 
 Thomines. See Bosc, du, (Pierre.) 
 Thomond, to'mdN', (Thomas,) a French architect, 
 born at Nancy in 1759. He removed to Saint Peters- 
 burg, where he was employed by the Russian govern- 
 ment to remodel the Great Theatre and build several 
 splendid public edifices. The Imperial Exchange, com- 
 pleted In 1810, is esteemed one of his finest works. Died 
 in 1813. 
 
 Thompson, tom'son, (Augustus Charles,) D.D., 
 an American Congregational divine, born at Goshen, 
 Connecticut, in 1812. He has published "The Young 
 Martyrs," " Last Hours, or Words and Acts of the 
 Dying," (1851,) and other religious works. 
 Thompson, (Benjamin.) See Rumford, Count. 
 Thompson, (Daniel Pierce,) an American lawyer 
 and popular novelist, born at Charlestown, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1795. His principal works are entitled 
 "May Martin, or the Money-Diggers," (1835.) "The 
 Green Mountain Hoys," (1840,) " Locke Amsden,"(t847,) 
 an admirable tale, descriptive of the experience of a 
 New England school-master, "The Rangers, or the 
 Tory's Daughter," (185 1,) and "Gant Gurley, or the 
 Trappers of Lake Umbagog," (1857.) Died in May or 
 June, 1868. 
 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. 
 Thompson, tom'son, (Edward,) an English poet, 
 born at Hull about 1737. He served in the royal navy 
 in his youth, and wrote several licentious poems, among 
 which is "The Demirep," (1766.) He also published a 
 " Sailor's Letters," (autobiographic, 2 vols., 1767.) Died 
 in 1786. 
 
 Thompson, (Henry,) an English clergyman and 
 writer, born about 1797. He became vicar of Chard, in 
 Somersetshire. Among his works is a " Life of I lannah 
 More." He contributed to several periodicals. 
 
 Thompson, (Jacob,) an American politician, born 
 in Caswell county, North Carolina, in 1810. He was 
 elected to Congress from Mississippi in 1839, and in 1857 
 
 was appointed secretary of the interior under President 
 Buchanan. He subsequently joined the secessionists, 
 and in 1861 was elected Governor of Mississippi. 
 
 Thompson, (John R.,) an American litterateur, born 
 at Richmond, Virginia, in 1823, was for many years 
 editor of the " Southern Literary Messenger." 
 
 Thompson, (Joseph Parrish,) D.D., an American 
 Congregational divine, born at Philadelphia in 1819. 
 He became pastor of the Broadway Tabernacle Church, 
 New York, in 1845. He was one of the founders of 
 the " Independent" at Brooklyn, and also of the " New 
 Englander," to which he made many contributions. He 
 has published " Lectures to Young Men," " Egypt, Past 
 and Present," "The Christian Graces," and various 
 other works. He has also contributed many valuable 
 articles to the " Bibliotheca Sacra," Smith's " Dictionary 
 of Biblical Geography and Antiquities," and the " North 
 American Review." 
 
 Thompson, (Robert Anchor,) an English divine, 
 born in Durham in 1821, has published, among other 
 works, "Christian Theism," (1855,) and "Principles of 
 Natural Theology," (1857.) 
 
 Thompson, (Smith,) an American judge, born prob- 
 ably in New York State about 1767. He became chief 
 justice of New York in 1814, was secretary of the navy 
 from November, 1818, to December, 1823, and was then 
 appointed an associate justice of the supreme court of 
 the United States. Died at Poughkeepsie in 1843. 
 
 Thompson, (Thomas Perro.net,) an English officer 
 and miscellaneous writer, born at Hull in 1783. He 
 studied at Queen's College, Cambridge, and, having 
 entered the army, served with distinction in South 
 America, Spain, and India, and attained the rank of 
 major in 1825. About 1830 he became associate pro- 
 prietor (if the " Westminster Review," in which he advo- 
 cated the abolition of slavery, free trade, and various 
 other reforms. He was elected to Parliament from Hull 
 in 1835, and twice re-elected for Bradford, in Yorkshire. 
 He was made a major-general in 1854. He published the 
 "Corn-Law Catechism," (1827,) "True Theory of Rent," 
 " Enharmonic Theory of Music," etc., (1829,) " Geometry 
 without Axioms," and other works. Died in 1869. 
 
 Thompson, (Waddy,) an American lawyer and 
 politician, born at Pickensville, South Carolina, in 1798. 
 He was elected to Congress by the Whig party in 1835, 
 and distinguished himself by his opposition to Calhoun 
 and the State-Rights party. He was appointed in 1842 
 minister to Mexico, and published, after his return, " Re- 
 miniscences of Mexico." 
 
 Thompson, (William,) an eminent Irish naturalist, 
 born at Belfast m 1805. Having previously made him- 
 self acquainted with the natural history of Ireland, he 
 made a voyage in 1841 to the Grecian Archipelago, 
 Among his principal works are a "Catalogue of Birds 
 new to the Irish Fauna," " On some Vertebrata new to 
 the Irish Fauna," and "On the Natural History of Ire- 
 land," etc., (4 vols., 1856.) He also contributed to the 
 " Annals of Natural History." He was a member of 
 the Royal Irish Academy and other learned societies. 
 Died in 1852. 
 
 Thompson, (William,) an English divine, born in 
 Westmoreland, became Dean of Raphoe, in Ireland. 
 He published a collection of poems. Died in 1766. 
 
 Thompson, (Zadoc,) an American naturalist, born 
 at Bridgewater, Vermont, in 1796. He became about 
 1842 professor of natural historv and chemistry in the 
 University of Vermont, and in 1853 was appointed State 
 naturalist. He was the author of the " Natural, Civil, 
 and Political History of Vermont," etc., a "Gazetteer 
 of Vermont," and other works. Died in 1856. 
 
 Thorns, tomz, (William John,) an English writer 
 and antiquary, born in Westminster in 1803. He pub- 
 lished a "Collection of Early Prose Romances," (1828,) 
 "Lays and Legends of Various Nations," (1834,) and 
 editions of Stow's "Survey of London" and Caxton's 
 " Reynard the Fox." He has also been the principal 
 editor of "Notes and Queries," a work first published 
 at his suggestion. 
 
 Thomsen, tom'sen, (CHRISTIAN Jurgensen, ) a 
 Danish antiquary, born at Copenhagen in 1788. He 
 became director of the royal cabinet of medals in 1842. 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this. (By~See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
THOMSON 
 
 2124 
 
 THOR 
 
 He wrote a "Treatise on Northern Antiquities," (1831,) 
 and other works. 
 
 Thom'son, (tom'son,) (Alexander,) a Scottish poet, 
 was the author of a poem entitled "The British Par- 
 nassus at the Close of the Eighteenth Century," and 
 other works. Died in 1803. 
 
 Thomson, (Andrew,) a Scottish divine and pulpit 
 orator, born in Dumfriesshire in 1779. He became in 
 1814 pastor of Saint George's Church, Edinburgh, where 
 he acquired a high reputation for his zeal and eloquence. 
 Died in 1831. 
 
 See Chambbrs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Thomson, (Anthony Todd,) an eminent Scottish 
 physician, born at Edinburgh in 1778. He studied in 
 his native city, attending the lectures of Munro, Black, 
 and other distinguished men, and about 1800 began the 
 practice of medicine in London. He published the 
 "London Dispensatory," (181 1,) which met with great 
 success and was translated into several languages, a 
 "Conspectus of the Pharmacopoeias of London, Edin- 
 burgh, and Dublin," etc., (1816,) " Lectures on Botany," 
 " Elements of Materia Medica," (1832,) and other works 
 on various subjects. He was a member of the Royal 
 College of Physicians, and in 1828 became professor 
 of materia medica in the London University. He was 
 appointed to the chair of medical jurisprudence in 
 1832. Died in 1849. 
 
 Mrs. A. T. Thomson, wife of the preceding, pub- 
 lished "Memoirs of Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough," 
 etc., "Memoirs of the Court of Henry VIII.," "Recol- 
 lections of Literary Characters and Celebrated Places," 
 and other works. Died in 1862. 
 
 Thom'son, (tom'spn,) (Charles,) a patriot, born in 
 Ireland in 1729 or 1730. He emigrated to America in 
 1741, and settled in Philadelphia. He was a friend of Dr. 
 Franklin, served as secretary of Congress from 1774 
 to 1789, and was highly respected for his virtues and 
 learning. He produced a translation of the Septuagint, 
 which was published in 4 vols., (1808.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Thom'son, (Edward,) D.D., a Methodist divine, 
 born at Portsea, England, in 1810, emigrated to America, 
 and was elected in 1843 professor of mental and moral 
 philosophy in the University of Michigan. He subse- 
 quently became president of the Ohio Wesleyan Univer- 
 sity. In 1864 he was elected a bishop of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church. Died in 1870. 
 
 Thomson, (James,) a celebrated poet, born in Rox- 
 burghshire, Scotland, in 1700. He studied theology at 
 the University of Edinburgh ; but he soon renounced 
 it for literary pursuits, and published in 1726 his poem 
 entitled "Winter." Its success at first was moderate, 
 but it subsequently acquired great popularity, and was 
 followed in a few years by his "Spring," "Summer," 
 and " Autumn," all of which appeared in 1730, under the 
 title of " The Seasons." His tragedies of " Sophonisba," 
 " Agamemnon," and " Edward and Eleonora," as well 
 as his poem on " Liberty," were received with little fa- 
 vour. Through the influence of his friend Sir George — 
 afterwards Lord — Lyttleton, he was appointed about 1 745 
 surveyor-general of the Leeward Islands. He published 
 in 1748 his "Castle of Indolence," an allegorical poem 
 in the Spenserian measure, which is generally esteemed 
 his finest production. He died in 1748. Translations of 
 his "Seasons" have been made into German, and both a 
 prose and poetical version of it have appeared in French, 
 while among all classes in Great Britain it is still one 
 of the most popular poems in the language. Campbell 
 observes, "The unvaried pomp of Thomson's diction 
 suggests a most unfavourable comparison with the manly 
 and idiomatic simplicity of Cowper ; at the same time, 
 the pervading spirit and feeling of his poetry is in gen- 
 eral more bland and delightful than that of his great 
 rival in rural description." 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the Poets:" David, Eari. of Buchan, 
 " Essays on the Lives and Writings of Fletcher of Saltoun and the 
 Poet Thomson," 1792; Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of 
 Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Thomson, (Rev. John,) a Scottish landscape-painter, 
 born in Ayrshire in 1778. He painted stormy seas with 
 success. Died in 1840. 
 
 Thomson, (Richard,) an English antiquary, born 
 in 1794, lived many years in London. He published, 
 
 besides other works, "Chronicles of London Bridge," 
 (1827.) Died in 1865. 
 
 Thomson, (Robert Dundas,) F.R.S., a British phy- 
 sician and writer, born about 1805. He resided in 
 London, and published a " Cyclopaedia of Chemistry, 
 Mineralogy, and Physiology." Died in 1864. 
 
 Thomson, (Thomas,) an eminent Scottish chemist 
 and physician, born in Perthshire in 1773. He studied 
 at the University of Saint Andrew's and at Edinburgh, 
 where about 1800 he began a course of lectures on 
 chemistry. In 1796 he became associate editor of the 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica," to which he contributed 
 the articles on chemistry and mineralogy. He was one 
 of the first to suggest the use of chemical symbols. In 
 1813 he edited the "Annals of Philosophy" in London, 
 and in 1818 was appointed professor of chemistry in the 
 University of Glasgow. He published a "System of 
 Chemistry," (4 vols., 1802,) "Elements of Chemistry," 
 (1810,) " Outline of the Sciences of Heat and Electricity," 
 "Travels in Sweden," (1813,) "The History of Chemis- 
 try," (1830,) "Outlines of Mineralogy, Geology," etc., (2 
 vols., 1835,) and other similar works, which enjoy a high 
 reputation. Died in 1852. His son, of the same name, 
 has been appointed superintendent of the botanic gar- 
 dens at Calcutta, and has published an account of his 
 travels in Thibet. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Thomson, (William,) a Scottish writer, born in 
 Perthshire in 1746, was editor successively of the "Eng- 
 lish Review," " Political Magazine," and other journals, 
 and published " Memoirs of the War in Asia," and a 
 number of compilations. Died in 1817. 
 
 Thomson, (William,) an English bishop, born in 
 Cumberland in 1819. He became preacher of Lincoln's 
 Inn in 1858, Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol in 1861, 
 and Archbishop of York in 1862. He wrote a work on 
 logic, called " An Outline of the Laws of Thought." 
 
 Thonissen, to'ne's&N', (Georges Francois,) a Bel- 
 gian economist, born at Hasselt in 1817. He wrote 
 several works on socialism and political economy. 
 
 Thor,thor, (or toR,) orThonr, (i.e. "thunder,") [Norse, 
 Thonar, of which Thor is, in all probability, a con- 
 traction ; in Anglo-Saxon he was variously called Thur, 
 Thor, Thunder, and Thuner, — both the last-named 
 terms signifying " thunder." Some writers, with less prob- 
 ability, have supposed the name to be allied to the Greek 
 Sovpoc, "impetuous," "resistless,"] in the mythology of 
 the North, the god of thunder, and also the god of 
 strength, was the eldest son of Odin. His mother was 
 Fjorgyn, (or the Earth.) He is sometimes called Oeku- 
 Thor, ("car Thor," or "driving Thor,") and Hlorridi, 
 "fire rider,") and sometimes Ving-Thor, ("winged 
 Thor.") As the god of thunder, he is sometimes styled 
 the Northern Jupiter ; and hence Thursday (Thor's day*) 
 is called, in the Latin of the middle ages, yovis dies, 
 ("Jupiter's day,") which the French have corrupted into 
 yeudi. As the god of strength, and the' great conqueror 
 of the giants, he resembles the Hercules of classic my- 
 thology. His only daughter was named Thrud, (i.e. 
 "strength,") and his dwelling-place is Thrudheim, (or 
 Thrudheimr,) the "home or habitation of strength," or 
 Thrudvangr, the "field" or "realm" of strength. His 
 vast hall, called Bilskirnir, has five hundred and forty 
 floors. 
 
 Thor appears to have been regarded in Iceland and 
 in some portions of Norway as the greatest of all the 
 gods, Odin not excepted. He had three possessions of 
 inestimable value, — the hammer Mjolnir, (myol'nir,) the 
 terror of the giants and of all powers hostile to the 
 ^Esir, his Megin-gjortS, (meg'in-gyorth.t) or "strength- 
 girdle," and his gloves of iron, with which he grasped 
 the handle of Mjolnir. In the legends of the North, 
 Thor is represented as hot-tempered, but at the same 
 time very frank and good-natured. He is said to be ac- 
 companied by the light-footed boy Thialfi (te-al'fe, i.e. 
 "diligent") and the girl Rbskva, ("quick,") expressive 
 of the rapidity with which a thunder-storm flies over the 
 
 • In Anglo-Saxon, Tkunres daeg or Thitudres daeg, i.e. " Thun- 
 der's day." 
 
 t Also written Megingjardar. 
 
 3,6, i, 6, ii, y, long; i, i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, f, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; nftt; good; moon; 
 
THORBECKE 
 
 212; 
 
 THORNDIKE 
 
 earth. His chariot is said to be drawn by goats, — proba- 
 bly because these animals inhabit the highest mountain- 
 tops. Thor's wife, Sit', (seef,) with golden hair, is said 
 to denote the autumnal earth, with its fields of ripening 
 corn. The ripening of the grain was supposed to be 
 promoted by the lightning. Thor is called in the Edda 
 " Midgard's defender," or the defender of the habitation 
 of men. Although the most valiant of the gods, he is, 
 in fact, the personification of defensive war,* whose office 
 it is to protect the works of industry and the arts of 
 peace. Hence he is, with great propriety, represented 
 as the husband and protector of Sif or Siva, (the "in- 
 violate,") the goddess of harvests. (See Sif.) Kor 
 some curious and interesting legends respecting Thor, 
 the reader is referred to Mallet's " Northern Antiquities," 
 vol. ii. Fable XI., also Fables XXIH.-XXVII. At 
 Ragr.arbck (the " twilight or evening of the gods") Thor 
 will slay the World-Serpent, (see Midgard's Serpent,) 
 but will himself perish from the effects of its venom. 
 
 See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Petersen, " Nor- 
 disk Mythologi;" "Religion of the Northmen," by Rudolph 
 Kevshr, translated by Barclay Pennock, New York. 1854; also, 
 Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe," p. 31 et uq. 
 
 Thorbecke, toR'Wk'keh, (Jan Rudolph,) a Dutch 
 statesman, born at Zwolle in 1796. He became professor 
 of law at the University of Leyden about 1830. He was 
 one of seven persons charged in 1844 to propose a new 
 constitution, which the king rejected as too liberal. In 
 1848 he was placed at the head of a commission to revise 
 the constitution, and procured the adoption of reforms 
 similar to those which were rejected in 1844. He was 
 prime minister from October, 1849, to April, 1853, and 
 was restored to that position in February, 1S62. He 
 resigned in 1866. 
 
 Thor'burn, (Grant,) a Scottish writer, born near 
 Dalkeith in 1773. He emigrated to New York in 1794, 
 and became a dealer in garden-seeds. He wrote for the 
 newspapers under the signature of Laurie Todd. Died 
 at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1863. 
 
 See his Autobiography, 1834; "Fraser's Magazine" for June, 1833. 
 
 Thorburn, (Robert,) a Scottish portrait-painter, 
 born at Dumfries in 1818. He settled about 1836 in 
 London, where he has obtained extensive patronage 
 and produced numerous miniatures of great merit. 
 Among his master-pieces are miniature portraits of the 
 queen and several members of the royal family. In 1848 
 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy. 
 
 Thordo, toR'do, or Thord Dege'n, ton da'g'en, a 
 Danish lawyer of the fourteenth century, was chief judge 
 of the province of Jutland. He made a collection of 
 Danish laws, including the earliest. They have been 
 translated into Latin by Ludewig. 
 
 Thordson, toRd'son, (Sturla,) a Danish historian, 
 
 'born about 1218, was a nephew of Snorri Sturluson. 
 
 He filled several high offices under the government, and 
 
 was the author of a continuation of the history of Snorri 
 
 Sturluson. Died in t288. 
 
 Thore, to'rk', (Theophile,) a French republican, 
 journalist, and critic, born about i8to. He founded in 
 Paris, in 1848, a journal called " The True Republic," 
 and became an exile in 1851. He wrote critiques on art, 
 inserted in the " Artiste" and the " Siecle," and edited 
 " L'Art moderne." 
 
 Thoreau, rto-ro' or tho'xa, (Henry David,) an 
 American author and naturalist, born in Concord, Mas- 
 lachusetts, in 181 7, was descended from an ancestor 
 who came from the island of Guernsey. His father was a 
 manufacturer of lead-pencils. The son was educated at 
 Harvard College, where he graduated in 1837. Besides 
 being a classical scholar, he was well versed in Oriental 
 literature. It is asserted that he had the best Oriental 
 library to be found in the United States. In his man- 
 ners, dress, and way of life he was eccentric. He was 
 bred to no profession ; and it is said that he never went 
 to church, never voted, and never paid a tax to the 
 State. He lived in the simplest manner; he sometimes 
 practised the business of land-surveyor. In 1845 ne 
 
 • He is nowhere represented as stirring up strife among men; 
 on the contrary, all his hostility and all his prowess are exerted 
 against the Jfltuns, who are the aggressive, irreconcilable enemies of 
 mankind and of all thrift and improvement. 
 
 built a small frame house on the shore of Walden Pond, 
 near Concord, where he lived two years as a hermit, in 
 studious retirement. He published an account of this 
 portion of his life, in a small book entitled " Walden." 
 He was intimate with Ralph Waldo Emerson and Na- 
 J thaniel Hawthorne. The former has written a brief 
 ; memoir of Thoreau, from which we extract the follow- 
 \ ing : " Mr. Thoreau dedicated his genius with such entire 
 love to the fields, hills, and waters of his native town, 
 that he made them known and interesting to all reading 
 Americans and to people over the sea. . . . He grew to 
 be revered and admired by his townsmen, who had at 
 fust known him only as an oddity. ... 1 have repeat- 
 • edly known young men of sensibility converted in a 
 ; moment to the belief that this was the man they were 
 in search of, — the man of men, who could tell them all 
 they should do. . . . Whilst he used. in his writings a 
 certain petulance of remark in reference to churches 
 and churchmen, he was a person of rare, tender, and 
 absolute religion, — a person incapable of any profana- 
 tion." Thoreau was never married. He died in 1862. 
 He was the author of a work on '.' The Concord and 
 Merrimac Rivers," and "The Excursions," (1863.) A 
 volume of his letters was published in 1865. 
 
 See Duvckinck, "Cyclopsedia of American Literature," vol. ii, : 
 "North American Review" for October, 1865 ; " Fraser's Magazine" 
 for April, 1S66. 
 
 Thorer, (Albin.) See Torinus. 
 
 Thoresby, thorz'be, ? (Ralph,) an English antiquary 
 and Fellow of the Royal Society, born at Leeds in 1658. 
 His principal works are " The Topography of the Town 
 ■ and Parish of Leeds," (" Ducatus Leodiensis,") and a 
 " History of the Church of Leeds," (" Vicaria Leodien- 
 sis.") He possessed a very valuable collection of coins, 
 manuscripts, etc. Died in 1725. 
 
 Thorigny. See Beaufort de Thorigny. 
 
 Thorild, to'rild, (Thomas,) a Swedish scholar and 
 miscellaneous writer, born in Bohuslan in 1759. He 
 published, besides poems and prose essays in Swedish, 
 " Cromwell," an epic poem, and other works, in English. 
 Died in 18 19. 
 
 Thorinus. See Torinus. 
 
 Thorls-mond, King of the Visigoths, was the eldest 
 son of Theodoric I. He fought bravely against Attila 
 at Ch&lons in 451 A.D., and succeeded his father in 
 that year. He was killed by his brother Theodoric in 
 452 a.d. 
 
 Tho'rI-ua [Fr. pron. to're'iis'] or Tho'ris, (Raphael,) 
 a French physician, who practised in England. Died 
 in 162;. 
 
 Thorkelln, toR'keh-leen', (Grim Johnsen,) a distin- 
 guished scholar and antiquary, born in Iceland in 1752. 
 In 1786 he visited Great Britain and Ireland, and pub 
 lished in 1788 " Fragments of English and Irish Histor) 
 in the Ninth and Tenth Century." He also wrote 
 several works in illustration of Danish and Norwegian 
 history. Died in 1829. 
 
 ■ See Erslew, " Forfatter-Lexicon." 
 
 Thorlacius.tor-li'se-us, (SKULETHORDSEN,)born in 
 Iceland in 1741, was the author of a number of treatises 
 on Northern antiquities. Died in 1815. 
 
 His son Borge, born in 1775, became professor of 
 eloquence at Copenhagen, and published several classical 
 and antiquarian works. Died in 1829. 
 
 Thorlakaeu, toR'lik'sen, or Thorlakson, (Gud- 
 rrand,) an Icelandic writer, born in 1542, became a 
 bishop. Died in 1629. According to one authority, he 
 was born in 1642, and died in 1729. 
 
 Thorlaksson, toR'ISks-son , (John,) an Icelandic 
 poet, born in 1744, was a clergyman. He made a 
 translation of " Paradise Lost" into Icelandic, which is 
 highly commended. Died in 1819. 
 
 Thorn'bfir-y, (George Walter,) an English writer, 
 born about 1828. He published a " History of the 
 Buccaneers," (1855,) "British Artists from Hogarth to 
 Turner," (2 vols., 1861,) a " Life of Joseph M. W. 
 Turner," (1862,) a novel called "True as Steel," and 
 other works. 
 
 Thorn'dike, (Herbert,) an English divine and able 
 controversial writer. He became rector of Bailey, in 
 Hertfordshire, in 1642, and obtained a prebend at West- 
 minster after the restoration. He was a learned Orien- 
 
 C an x; c as 1 ; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; 3 as t; th as in this. ( Jry- See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
TH0RNH1LL 
 
 2126 
 
 THOU 
 
 talist, and a zealous advocate of the Anglican Church. 
 Among his works are a " Discourse of Religious Assem- 
 blies and the Public Service of God," a " Discourse of 
 the Rights of the Church in a Christian State," and an 
 " Epilogue to the Tragedy of the Church of England." 
 Died in 1672. 
 
 Thorn'hill, (Sir James,) a distinguished English 
 painter, born at Weymouth in 1676, was a nephew of 
 the celebrated physician Sydenham. Having travelled 
 in France, Holland, and other parts of the continent, he 
 was employed, after his return, in the decoration of the 
 cupola of Saint Paul's, London, the ceiling of the hall at 
 Greenwich Hospital, the palace at Kensington, and other 
 edifices. He was appointed historical painter to Queen 
 Anne, and was made a knight by George I. He opened 
 an academy for drawing in his house, where he num- 
 bered among his pupils the celebrated Hogarth, who 
 subsequently married his daughter. Died in 1734. 
 
 Thom'tpil, (Bonnell,) an English litterateur and 
 humorous writer, born in London in 1724. He was 
 associated with George Colman in the proprietorship 
 of the " Saint James Chronicle," and wrote, conjointly 
 with Colman, the periodical essays entitled "The Con- 
 noisseur." He also translated the comedies of Plautus 
 into English blank verse, in conjunction with Colman 
 and Warner, and was the author of burlesque poems, 
 entitled " An Ode on Saint Cecilia's Day, adapted to 
 the Antient British Music," etc., and "The Battle of 
 the Wigs." Died in 1768. 
 
 Thornton, (John Robert.) an English physician 
 «nd botanist, born about 1758, was a son of Thomas 
 Thornton, noticed below. He was the author of " The 
 Philosophy of Medicine," etc., (5 vols.,) and " Temple 
 of Flora, or Garden of the Botanist, Poet, Painter, and 
 Philosopher." Died in 1837. 
 
 Thornton, (Matthew,) a patriot of the American 
 Revolution, born in Ireland in 1714. He was elected to 
 the General Congress by the people of New Hampshire 
 in 1776, and signed the Declaration of Independence. 
 Died in 1803. 
 
 Thornton, (Samuel,) of Clapham Park, Surrey, born 
 in 1775, was a director of the Bank of England for fifty 
 years. He was a member of Parliament for nearly forty 
 years. Died in 1838. 
 
 Thornton, (Thomas,) an English writer on field- 
 sports, published " A Sporting Tour through France," 
 and " A Sporting Tour through the North of England 
 and the Highlands of Scotland." Died in 1823. 
 
 Thornton, (Sir William,) a British general, served 
 in the United States in 1814-15. Died in 1840. 
 
 Thornton, (William,) an English political econo- 
 mist, born at Burnham, Bucks, in 1813. He published 
 "Over-Population and its Remedy," (1846.) 
 
 Thorn'well, (James Henry,) D.D., an American 
 Presbvterian divine, born in Marlborough district, South 
 Carolina, in 181 1. He has published several theological 
 works, and written in defence of the secession movement 
 of i860. 
 
 Thorn'Jf-oroft or Thorn'ey-croft, (Mary Fran- 
 ces,) an English sculptor, born at Thornham, Norfolk, 
 in 1814. She was married in 1840 to Mr. Thornycroft, a 
 sculptor. She was patronized by Queen Victoria, for 
 whom she executed statues of the Prince of Wales, 
 Prince Alfred, and Princess Alice. 
 
 Thorpe, thorp, (Benjamin,) an English philologist, 
 distinguished for his attainments in the Anglo-Saxon 
 tongue, was born about 1808. Among his publications 
 may be named "The Anglo-Saxon Version of the Story 
 of Apollonius," (1834,) the collection entitled "Ancient 
 Laws and Institutes of England," etc., "Codex Exoni- 
 ensis," (1842,1 land "Northern Mythology," or legends 
 of Scandinavia, Northern Germany, and Holland, (3 
 vols., 1852.) Died in July, 1870. 
 
 Thorpe, (John,) M.D., an English antiquary, born in 
 Kent in 1682, practised at Rochester. Died in 1750. 
 
 Thorpe, (John,) an English antiquary, a son of the 
 preceding, born in 1713, wrote an account of the city of 
 Rochester, entitled " Registrum Roffense." Died in 1792. 
 
 Thorpe, thorp, (Thomas Bangs,) an American artist 
 and litterateur, born at Westfield, Massachusetts, in 1815. 
 Among his paintings are a full-length portrait of General 
 
 Zachary Taylor, and the "Bold Dragoon," an illustration 
 of Irving's story of that name. He has published " Tom 
 Owen the Bee- Hunter," being sketches of Western and 
 Southern life, and contributed numerous articles to 
 •' Harper's New Monthly Magazine." 
 • Thortsen, toRt'sen, (Carl Adolph,) a Danish critic 
 and poet, born in Copenhagen in 1798. He wrote a 
 " Historical Notice of Danish Literature," (3d edition, 
 1851,) and other works. 
 
 Thorwaldsen, tor'wald-seji or toR'wal-sen, (Albert 
 Bertel,) one of the most eminent of modern sculptors, 
 was born in November, 1770, on the sea between Ice- 
 land and Copenhagen, and was the son of a Danish 
 carver in wood. He studied in the Academy of Arts 
 at Copenhagen, where he obtained two gold medals, 
 and soon after set out for Rome. He there employed 
 himself on a statue of Jason of natural size; but. as 
 it attracted no particular regard, he, in a fit of despond- 
 ency, destroyed it. He next attempted a colossal statue 
 of the same subject, which obtained the admiration of 
 Canova, and being seen by Mr. Thomas Hope, a wealthy 
 English amateur, he ordered a copy of it in marble for 
 eight hundred zechins. From this time Thorwaldsen 
 produced rapidly works which raised his reputation to 
 the highest point. Among these may be named his 
 " Triumphal March of Alexander," executed for the 
 emperor Napoleon, and the bas-reliefs of " Night" and 
 " Day" and of " Priam and Achilles." In 1819 he visited 
 Denmark, where he was received with enthusiasm, and 
 subsequently made a tour through Germany, and while 
 at Warsaw executed a portrait-bust of Alexander of 
 Russia, also the monuments of Copernicus and Prince 
 Poniatowski. One of his most remarkable productions 
 is the image of a wounded and dying lion, of colossal 
 size, near Lucerne, in Switzerland, designed to com- 
 memorate the heroic fidelity of the Swiss guards who 
 fell August 10, 1792. About 1838 he returned, after 
 many years' residence at Rome, to Denmark, where he 
 continued to reside till his death, in March, 1844. He 
 was never married. Among his other works are " Christ 
 and the Twelve Apostles," a statue of Schiller, and a 
 colossal statue of Hercules. 
 
 See Hans Christian Andersen, "B. Thorwaldsen," 1844; J. 
 M. Thiele, "Den Danske Billedhugser B. Thorwaldsen," etc., 
 2 vols., 1S31-32; L. UE Lomenie, " M. Thorwaldsen, par on Homme 
 de Rien," 1841 ; Alfred Reumont, "Thorwaldsen: Gedachtniss- 
 rede." 1844 ; Hii.lerup, Thorwaldsen og hans Vaerker," 2 vols., 
 1841-42: J. M. Thiei.e, "Thorwaldsen's Arbeiten nnd Lebensver- 
 haltnisse im Zeitraume 1828-1844," etc., 2 vols., 1854: "Nonvelle 
 Biographie Ge^neVale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for August, 1S32. 
 
 Thoth or Toth, an Egyptian divinity, supposed to cor- 
 respond to the Greek Hermes and the Roman Mercury. 
 
 Thott, von, fon tot, (Otto,) Count, a Danish finan- 
 cier, born in 1703, became minister of state in 1772. He 
 owned a library of 121,945 volumes, of which a cata- 
 logue was published, in 12 vols., (1789-95.) Died in 1785. 
 
 Thou, de, deh too, (Christophe,) an eminent French 
 judge, born in Paris in 1508. He became first president 
 of the Parliament of Paris about 1562. He pursued a 
 neutral or moderate course in relation to the civil wars 
 and the League. Died in 1582. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique ;" DeThou, " M^moires." 
 
 Thou, de, (Francois Augusts,) eldest son of the 
 celebrated historian, noticed below, was born in Paris 
 about 1607. He succeeded his father as master of the 
 Royal Library, and was afterwards appointed master of 
 requests and councillor of state. Having been accused 
 of being privy to the conspiracy of Cinq-Mars, he was 
 executed in 1642. (See Cinq-Mars.) 
 
 Thou, de, [Lat. Thua'nus,] (Jacques Auguste,) an 
 eminent French historian and statesman, born in Paris 
 in October, 1553, was a son of Christophe de Thou, first 
 president of the Parliament. He studied in Paris, and 
 subsequently under Cuias (Cujacius) at Valence, in Dau- 
 phine, where he formed a lasting friendship with Joseph 
 Scaliger. Returning to Paris in 1572, he was present 
 at the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew, and entered the 
 church as canon of Notre-Dame. The following year 
 he accompanied Paul de Foix on an important mission 
 to Italy, and after the accession of Henry III. he was 
 appointed master of requests, (1584,) and councillor of 
 state, (1588.) He was chiefly instrumental in promoting 
 
 i. e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, p, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
THOUARS 
 
 j 1 27 
 
 THROCMORTON 
 
 an alliance between Henry III. and Henry of Navarre, 
 and, on the latter being crowned, under the title of Henry 
 IV., became one of his most faithful adherents. In 1593 
 he was appointed by Henry grand master of the Royal 
 Library, and soon after president & mortier in the Parlia- 
 ment of Paris. He had a prominent part in framing the. 
 edict of Nantes, (1598,) assisted at the Conference of Fon- 
 tainebleau, in 1600, and was employed in other important 
 transactions. He published in 1604 the first eighteen 
 books of his " History of his Own Time," (" Historia sui 
 Temporis,") of which a complete edition first appeared 
 in 1620, in one hundred and thirty-eight books. This 
 work, which was received with great favour by the public, 
 gave offence to the zealots of the Catholic Church, and 
 was formally condemned by being placed in the " Index 
 Expurgatorius." It is distinguished for the purity of its 
 stvle, as well as its accuracy and impartiality, and has 
 obtained the commendations of the most eminent critics. 
 De Thou also wrote an account of his life, entitled 
 "Tlmani Commentarius de Vita sua," and several Latin 
 poems. The edition of his " History" published in Lon- 
 don in 1733 (7 vols, fol.) is esteemed the best, and a 
 French translation of it, by Le Mascrier, Desfontaines, 
 and others, appeared in 1734, (16 vols. 4to.) He died 
 in May, 1617. " De Thou," says Duplessis, "showed 
 himself a great statesman, with a profound knowledge 
 of men and things, equally removed from the fanaticism 
 of the different factions which divided France. A faithful 
 subject of the prince, but devoted also to the interests 
 of his country, he defended at the same time the rights 
 of the crown and the liberties of the kingdom, alternately 
 menaced by enemies from within and without." 
 
 See DeThou. " Me'moires." (autobiographic,) 1711; John Col- 
 l.lNSON, "Life of Thuamis," 1S07: P. Chasi.es, "Discours sur la 
 Vie et les Ouvrages de J. A. de Thou," 1824; Henri Patin, " Dis- 
 cours sur la Vie de J. A. de Thou," 1824 : Guerard, " Discours sur 
 la Vie, etc de J. A. de Thou," 1824; DOntzer, "J. A. de Thotl'l 
 Leben," etc., 1837; Bavi.e, "Historical and Critical Dictionary ;" 
 NictfRoN, "Me'moires;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^ndrale." 
 
 Thouars. See Dupetit-Thouars. 
 
 Thouin. See Lk.clerc, (Oscar.) 
 
 Thouin, too'&N', (Andre,) a French botanist, born in 
 Paris in 1747. He was appointed chief gardener of the 
 Jardin des Plantes about 1765. He wrote, besides other 
 works, " Lectures on the Culture and Naturalization 
 of Plants," (3 vols., 1827.) " Few men," says Cuvier, 
 "exercised a more useful influence." Died in 1824. 
 
 See De Stt.vE^TRE, " Notice sur A. Thouin," 1825 : Cuvier, 
 "filoge de M. A. Thotiin," 1825 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Thouret, too'r&', (Antoine,) a French republican 
 writer, born at Tarragona (Spain) in 1807. He was 
 imprisoned nearly five years for his political writings, 
 (1831-35,) wrote, while in prison, several political novels, 
 and was elected to the Constituent Assembly of 1848. 
 Having opposed the policy of Napoleon, he was banished 
 in January. 1852. Died in 1857. 
 
 Thouret, (Jacques Guillaumf.,) an able French 
 legislator and political writer, born at Pont-1'Eveque in 
 1746. He was an active member of the States-General 
 in 1789, and was a member of the committee which 
 formed the new constitution in 1790. In his principles 
 he was moderate and liberal. He was guillotined in 1 794. 
 
 See Deisraux, " Notice sur Thouret," 1845 ; " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie GeWrale." 
 
 Thouret, (Micht.l Augustin,) a French phvsician, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Pont -l'fiveque in 
 1748. He studied medicine at Caen and in Paris, and 
 in 1776 became one of the first members of the Roval 
 Society of Medicine. He published several valuable 
 medical treatises, among which we may name his " Re- 
 port on the Exhumations of the Cemetery of the Inno- 
 cent*." Died in 1810. 
 
 Thouvenel, toov'nel', (Edouard Antoine,) a French 
 diplomatist, born at Verdun in Noveml>er, 1818. He 
 was minister at Athens in 1849 and 1850, and was 
 charged with the political direction of the ministry of 
 foreign affairs from December, 185 1, to 1855. He was 
 gent as ambassador to Constantinople in 1855, and ap- 
 pointed minister of foreign affairs in January, i860. He 
 resgned office in October, 1862. He published in 1840 
 " Hungary and Wallachia: Souvenirs of Travel," etc. 
 Died about November, 1866. 
 
 Thouvenel, (Pierre,) a French physician, born in 
 Lorraine in 1 745, practised in Paris, and wrote several 
 professional works. Died in 1815. 
 
 Thoynard. See Toinard. 
 
 Thoyras. See Rapin, de, (Paul.) 
 
 Thrale, Mrs. See Piozzi. 
 
 Thra'se-a, (P^eius,) a Roman senator and Stoic 
 philosopher, eminent for his virtue and integrity, was a 
 native of Padua. Having incurred the enmity of Nero 
 by his condemnation of that emperor's crimes, he was 
 sentenced to death, together with several of his friends, 
 in 66 a.d. 
 
 Thrasybule. See Thrasybulus. 
 
 Thras'y-bu'lus,* [Gr. Qpaov6ov\os; Fr. Thrasybule, 
 tRJt'ze'biil',] an eminent Grecian patriot and military 
 commander, was a native of Attica, and flourished about 
 400 H.C. Being appointed general by the democratic 
 party at Athens, conjointly with his friejid Thrasyllus, 
 he procured, by a decree, the recall of Alcibiades from 
 exile. He rendered an important service at the battle 
 of Cyzicus, (410,) and was a subordinate officer at the 
 naval victory of Arginusae, (406.) Soon after the Thirty 
 Tyrants obtained power (404 B.C.) he was banished, and 
 retired to Thebes. Having raised a small band of sol- 
 diers and exiles, he seized Phyle, which he used as a 
 base of operations against the Thirty Tyrants. He 
 gained some advantages, and occupied the Piraeus. Here 
 he was besieged by the Spartan Lysander, but was re- 
 lieved from his perilous position by the intrigues of 
 Pausanias. The Thirty having been deposed by their 
 own subjects, a treaty of peace was concluded, and the 
 exiles were restored to citizenship. He commanded a 
 fleet sent to aid the democrats of Rhodes in 390. He 
 was killed near Aspendus in 389 B.C. 
 
 See Grote, "History of Greece;" Cornelius Nepos, "Thra- 
 sybulus;" Thirlwall, "History of Greece;" Xenophon, " Hel- 
 lenica ;" Hinrichs, "Commentatio de Theramenis, Critia; et 
 Thrasybuli Rebus," etc., 1820; "Nouvelle Biographie GdneVale." 
 
 Thrasybulus, sometimes called the Collytian, 
 from his birthplace, Collytus, in Attica, was contempo- 
 rary with the preceding, whom he accompanied in his 
 exile to Phyle. 
 
 Thras'jf-bu'lua, [Gr. QpaavSouh^,] Tyrant of Syracuse, 
 succeeded his brother, Hierp I., in 466 B.C. Having ex- 
 asperated his subjects by his cruelty and oppression, he 
 collected a great number of mercenaries, at the head of 
 whom he attacked the Syracusans, who had solicited aid 
 from the Greeks in Sicily. Unable to maintain himself 
 against these forces, he was compelled to go into exile, 
 having reigned less than a year. 
 
 Thrasylle. See Thrasyllus. 
 
 Thra-syTlus, [Gr. QpuavTAxK ; Fr. Thrasylle, tRa"- 
 zel',] an Athenian general and democrat, co-operated 
 with Thrasybulus against the oligarchy in 411 B.C. He 
 commanded a fleet which, in 409, was defeated at Ephe- 
 sus, and gained a victory over a Syracusan squadron. 
 He was one of the six generals who commanded at 
 Arginusae in 406 B.C. and was unjustly put to death. 
 (See Thf.ramknes.) 
 
 Threl'keld, (Caleb,) a British botanist, born in 
 Cumberland in 1676. He practised medicine in Dublin, 
 and published "Synopsis of Irish Plants," (" Synopsis 
 Stirpnim Hibernicarum.") Died in 1728. 
 
 Thriverus, the Latin of Drivers, which see. 
 
 Throc'mor-ton or Throg'mor-ton, (Sir Nicho- 
 las,) an English diplomatist, born about 1513. He 
 accompanied Henry VIII. to France in 1544, was present 
 at the siege of Boulogne, and subsequently served in the 
 Scottish campaign of 1547. Having been charged in 
 1554 with being implicated in Wyatt's rebellion, he 
 defended himself on his trial with so much eloquence 
 and ability that he was acquitted. Under Queen Eliza- 
 beth he oecame chamberlain of the exchequer, and 
 ambassador to France, where he resided four years. 
 He was afterwards sent on important missions to Scot- 
 
 • This name isnot unfrequently mispronounced with trie accent 
 on the antepenultima. The following couplet from Byron exhibit! 
 the true accentuation t 
 
 " Spirit of Freedom ! when on Phyle's brow 
 Thou sat'st with Thrasybulus and his train." 
 
 Child* Harold, canto ii. stanza Ixxiv. 
 
 « as -t; c as>; g kard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, natal; R, trilled: s as s; th as in this, (J^~See Explanations, p. 2.3.) 
 
THROSBT 
 
 2128 
 
 THUNBERG 
 
 land. He was father-in-law of the celebrated Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. Died in 1571. 
 
 Thros'bjf, (John,) an English writer, born in 1746, 
 published "The History and Topography of Leicester," 
 and other similar works. Died in 1803. 
 
 Thrud, a daughter of Thor, which see. 
 
 Tbrudheim and Tin udvangr. See Thor. 
 
 Thrymheim. See Skadi. 
 
 Thuanus. See Thou, de. 
 
 Thucydide. See Thucydides. 
 
 Thu-cjfd'I-deS, [Gr. eovwdidn; Fr. Thucydide, 
 tu'se'ded',] an Athenian politician and general, who 
 became the leader of the aristocratic party in 449 B.C. 
 " He was a man of great prudence," says Plutarch, "and 
 brother-in-law to Cimon. He had not, indeed, Cimon's 
 talents for war, but was superior to him in forensic and 
 political abilities." (Plutarch, " Pericles.") He was 
 the chief adversary of Pericles, and maintained a con- 
 test against him until 444 B.C., when Thucydides was 
 ostracized. 
 
 Thucydides, [Gr. QovKoSMqc; Fr. Thucydide,] an 
 illustrious Greek historian and general, born of a noble 
 family in the demus Halimus, in Attica, in 471 B.C., was 
 a son of Olorus. He was related to Miltiades and to 
 Cimon, and inherited an ample fortune. He informs his 
 readers that he owned gold-mines in Thrace, near the 
 island of Thasos. According to a current tradition, he 
 heard Herodotus read his history at Olympia, when he 
 was a boy, and was so deeply affected that he shed tears. 
 He is said to have been a pupil of Antiphon in oratory, 
 and of Anaxagoras in philosophy. He was one of the 
 sufferers attacked by the plague at Athens in 430 B.C., 
 (of which he afterwards wrote a masterly description,) 
 which was the second year of the Peloponnesian war. 
 In 424 he commanded a squadron of seven ships near 
 Thasos, when the Spartan general Brasidas attacked 
 Amphipolis.. He hastened to the defence of that town, 
 but he arrived too late, and found that it had just 
 surrendered to the Spartans. For this failure he was 
 banished, or, as some suppose, went into exile to avoid 
 the penalty of death-to which unfortunate generals were 
 liable. He informs us that he passed twenty years in 
 exile after this event. He availed himself of the leisure 
 and opportunities which he enjoyed in consequence of 
 his exile, to collect materials for a history of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, which lasted about twenty-seven years, (431 
 -404.) He used the greatest diligence and care in ascer- 
 taining the facts by visits to the localities of the war 
 and by interviews with the prominent actors of that 
 period. It is supposed that he returned to Athens in 
 403, when a general amnesty was granted to exiles. He 
 was a contemporary of Socrates and Euripides. 
 
 His celebrity is founded on his "History of the 
 Peloponnesian War," in eight books, which, however, he 
 did not live to finish. It ends in 411 B.C., seven years 
 before the termination of the war. The first book of 
 this work consists of introductory observations on the 
 early history of Greece. Ancient and modern critics are 
 unanimous in commending the accuracy, veracity, and 
 impartiality of Thucydides. His history combines the 
 merits of the orator, historian, philosopher, and states- 
 man, and is one of the most admirable monuments of 
 political wisdom. 
 
 His style is concise, noble, and intensely energetic. 
 It is stated that Demosthenes transcribed the history 
 of Thucydides eight times, in order to improve his own 
 •tyle. Cicero described Thucydides as " a faithful and 
 dignified narrator of facts," (" rerum gestarum pro- 
 nunciator sincerus et grandis.") (" Brutus," cap. 83.) 
 The same critic also expresses the opinion that this 
 historian easily surpasses all others in the art of com- 
 position : "Thucydides omnesdicendi artificio, mea sen- 
 tentia, facile vicit." (" De Oratore," ii.) 
 
 "In spite of this great fault," says Macaulay, (refer- 
 ring to his fictitious speeches,) "it must be allowed that 
 Thucydides has surpassed ill his rivals in the art of his- 
 torical itarration, in the art of producing an effect on the 
 imagination by skilful selection and disposition without 
 indulging in the license of invention. . . . His book is 
 evidently the book of a man and a statesman, and in this 
 respect presents a remarkable contrast to the delightful 
 
 childishness of Herodotus. Throughout it there is an 
 air of matured power, of grave and melancholv reflection, 
 of impartiality and habitual self-command." (Macaulay's 
 Essay on " History," 1828.) He died about 401 B.C., 
 leaving one son, Timotheus. Several ancient writers 
 state that he was assassinated, but they disagree in 
 respect to the place of his death. His " History" has 
 been translated into English by Hobbes, by William 
 Smith, (1753,) and by S. T. Bloomfield, (1829.) 
 
 See Dodwell, " Annales Thucydidei," 1702; KrOger, "Unter- 
 suchungen iiber das Leben des Thucydides," 1832 ; Roscher, " Le- 
 ben des Thucydides," 1842; Girard, "Thucydide," i860; Grote, 
 " History of Greece ;" Thiklwall, " History of Greece ;" F. Roth, 
 " Vergleicliende Betrachtungen iiber Thucydides und Tacitus," 
 1812 ; Bonnbi.l, " De Thucydide et Herodoto Qusestiomuu histnri- 
 carum Specimen," 1851 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" Ulrich, 
 " Beitriige zur ErklSrung des Thucydides," 1846. 
 
 Thuemmel. See Thummel. 
 
 Tliuermer. See Thurmer. 
 
 Thugut, too'goot, (Franz Maria,) Baron, an Aus- 
 trian diplomatist, born at Linz in 1734. He was early 
 distinguished by the favour of Maria Theresa, and 
 employed on missions to Paris, Naples, and other Euro- 
 pean courts. In 1794 he succeeded Prince Kaunitz as 
 prime minister. He was removed in 1797, restored 
 in 1799, and finally driven from power in 1801. Died 
 in 1818. 
 
 See " Biographie Universale." 
 
 Thuillier, tii'e'ye-i', (Pierre,) a French landscape- 
 painter, was bom at Amiens in 1799. He gained a 
 medal of the first class in 1839 at Paris. Died in 1856. 
 
 Thuillier, (Vincent,) a French scholar, born in the 
 diocese of Laon in 1685, was a monk of Saint-Maur. 
 He published a version of the " History" of Polybius, 
 (6 vols., 1727-30.) Died in 1736. 
 
 Thulden, van, vin tul'den, (Theodor,) a celebrated 
 Flemish painter and engraver, born at Bois-le-Duc in 
 1607. He was a pupil of Rubens, whose style his own 
 greatly resembles, and whom he assisted in the series 
 of paintings which adorn the gallery of the Luxembourg. 
 Among his master-pieces are "The Martyrdom of Saint 
 Andrew," in the church of Saint Michael at Ghent, and 
 "The Assumption of the Virgin," in the church of the 
 Jesuits at Bruges. He also excelled in delineating mar- 
 kets, fairs, etc., and produced a number of admirable 
 etchings, among which we may name "The Life of Saint 
 John de Matha," (in 24 plates,) and "The History of 
 Ulysses," (58 plates.) Died in 1676. 
 
 See " 1 iographie Universale." 
 
 Thulen, van, vin tii'len, (John Philip,) a Flemish 
 painter, born at Malines in 1618, was a pupil of Seghers. 
 He painted flowers, insects, etc. Died in 1667. 
 
 Thummel or Thuemmel, von, fon tttm'mel, (Mo- 
 ritz August,) a German litterateur, born near Leipsic 
 in 1738. His principal work is a romance, entitled "A 
 Journey in the Southern Provinces of France," (9 vols., 
 1791-1805,) which is commended by Schiller and enjoys 
 great popularity in Germany. His " Wilhelmine," a 
 comic prose poem, is also highly esteemed, and has been 
 translated into several languages. He was privy coun- 
 cillor and minister under the Duke of Saxe-Coburg from 
 1768 to 1783. Died in 181 7. 
 
 See J. E. von Grunrr, "Leben M. A. von Thummel's," 1819; 
 " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Thummig, toorn'mio, (Ludwig Pftn.ipp,) a German 
 philosopher, born at Culmbach in 1697, published seve- 
 ral works. He was a disciple of Wolf. Died at Cassel 
 in 1728. 
 
 Thunberg, toon'beRG, (Karl Peter,) a celebrated 
 Swedish botanist and physician, born in the province of 
 Smlland in 1743. He studied natural history at the 
 University of Upsal, under Linnaeus. In 1772 he visited 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1775 accompanied, as 
 physician, the embassy of the East India Company to 
 Japan. He succeeded the younger Linnaeus as professor 
 of botany at Upsal in 1784. He was instrumental in 
 founding a botanic garden in that city, and bestowed 
 upon the university his valuable collection of objects 
 in natural history.' Among his principal works are his 
 "Flora Japonica," "Flora Capensis," " Icones Planta- 
 rum Japonicarum," and "Travels," (4 vols., 1788,) which 
 were translated into English and German. A genus of 
 
 I, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; i, e, d, same, less prolonged; 5, e, 1, 6, ii, y\ short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon ; 
 
THVNMANN 
 
 2129 
 
 TURKS 
 
 beautiful climbing plants has been named in his honour, 
 also several species in different genera of insects. Died 
 in 1828. 
 
 See Billberg, "Aminnelse-Tal ofver C. P. Thunberg," 1813 ■ 
 Schroeukr, " Vita C P Thunberg," 1832 : Gkzei.ius, " Bin C rafiski- 
 Lexicon ; Cuvifr, " Histoire des Sciences naturelles ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 Thunmann, toon'man, (John,) a Swedish writer, 
 born In Sudermania in 1746. He wrote " Researches on 
 the History of the People of Eastern Europe," (1774.) 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 Thura, too'rl, (Lawrence,) a poet, born in Laaland 
 in 1656. He became Bishop of Ribe in 1714. Died 
 
 Thunot, tii re-o', (Jacques Alexandre,) a French 
 Jacobin, was an active member of the Convention, in 
 which he voted for the death of the king. As president 
 of that body, he promoted the fall of Robespierre on the 
 9th Thermidor, 1794; Died in 1829. 
 
 Thur'loe, (John,) an English minister of state, born 
 at Abbot's Roding, in Essex, in 1616. He studied law, 
 was called to the bar in 1647, and obtained several 
 offices by the favour of his patron, Oliver Saint John. In 
 1652 he was appointed secretary to the council of state. 
 He was secretary of state from December, 1653, until 
 the restoration, 1660. During a part of this period he 
 was also postmaster-general, and a member of Parlia- 
 ment. He rendered important services to Cromwell by 
 the detection of plots against the Commonwealth. He 
 was distinguished for his talents for business, and his 
 moderation. After the restoration, Charles II. invited 
 him to take office, which he declined. Died in 1668. 
 His "State Papers," published by Dr. Birch, (7 vols., 
 1742,) are considered very valuable. 
 
 See Dr. Bjrch, " Life of J. Thurloe," i 74 t ; Burnet, " History 
 of his Own limes." 
 
 Thfir'low, (Edward,) Lord, an eminent English 
 lawyer and politician, born in Norfolk or near Stow- 
 market, in Suffolk, in 1732, was a son of Rev. Thomas 
 Thurlow. He was sent to Caius College, Cambridge, 
 which he was compelled to leave without a degree, on 
 account of his turbulent and refractory conduct. He 
 studied law in the Inner Temple, was called to the bar 
 in 1754 or 1756, (Lord Campbell says 1754,) and joined 
 the Western circuit. In early life he was a friend of 
 the poet Cowper. He rose rapidly in his profession, 
 and obtained the rank of king's counsel in 1761. He 
 distinguished himself as junior counsel in the great 
 Douglas cause, tried in the House of Lords, (1769.) In 
 1768 he was elected a member of Parliament, in which 
 he supported Lord North's administration. He became 
 solicitor-general in 1770, and attornev-general in 1771. 
 Having commended himself to the 'favour of George 
 III. by his zealous support of Lord North's American 
 policy, he was appointed lord chancellor in June, 1778, 
 and was raised to the peerage, as Baron Thurlow. In 
 1782 the ministry was changed, but Thurlow was re- 
 tained as chancellor, although he was opposed to the 
 measures of the new prime minister, Rockingham. 
 When a new cabinet was formed by the coalition of 
 Lord North and Fox, in 1783, Thurlow lost his office, 
 but he was again appointed lord chancellor by Mr. Pitt 
 in December, 1783. He soon became an enemy to Pitt, 
 and, relying on the personal favour of the king, thought 
 he could displace or circumvent that minister. " He 
 espoused the cause of Warren Hastings with indecorous 
 violence." (Macaulay.) He opposed the abolition of 
 the slave-trade. In consequence of his open hostility 
 to Pitt and some of his measures, he was removed from 
 office in 1792, after which he became a " flaming patriot." 
 He ceased to be influential or prominent in political 
 affairs many years before his death, which occurred in 
 September, 1806. 
 
 "He contrived," says Lord Campbell, "to persuade 
 mankind that he was a great judge, a great orator, and 
 a great statesman,— although I am afraid that in all 
 these capacities he was considerably overrated, and that 
 he owed his temporary reputation very much to his high 
 pretensions and his awe-inspiring manners." 
 
 See LoRn C*MrBELU " Lives of the Lord Chancellors." vol. v ■ 
 Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George III. :" Fcws "The 
 Judges of England ;" "Edinburgh Review" for September, 1814 
 
 « as *.• c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled ; s as t: th as in this. 
 
 Thurmann, ttSoR'man, (Jules,) a Swiss or German 
 geologist and botanist, born at Neufbrisach in 1804. 
 He published an " Essay on the Jurassic Upheavals," 
 and other works. Died in 1855. 
 
 Thurmer or Thuermer, tuR'mer, (JosEPH,)-a Ger- 
 man architect, bom at Munich in 1789. He spent several 
 years at Rome and Athens, and became in 1832 pro- 
 fessor in the Academy of Architecture at Dresden. He 
 published " Views of Athens and its Monuments," (1823 ) 
 and other works. Died in 1833. 
 
 Thurneysser or Thurneisser zum Thurn, tooR'- 
 ni-ser ts65m tooRn, (Leonard,) a Swiss alchemist and 
 physician, born at Bale in 1531. He was patronized 
 by the archduke Ferdinand, brother of Maximilian II., 
 who charged him with the administration of the mines 
 of Tyrol. In 1571 he was appointed physician to the 
 Elector of Brandenburg. lie amassed a large fortune by 
 his pretended skill in astrology and alchemy, but, his 
 deceptions being at length discovered, he was obliged to 
 leave Berlin, and died at Cologne in 1596. He was the 
 author of a number of works, which are now forgotten. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1853. 
 
 Thurot, tu'ro', (Francois,) a French seaman, born 
 in Burgundy in 1727. Having previously distinguished 
 himself as captain of a privateer, he entered the royal 
 marine, and gained several important victories over the 
 English, but he was mortally wounded in an engagement 
 near the Isle of Man, (1760.) 
 
 Thurot, (Jean Francois,) a French philosopher and 
 Hellenist, born at Issoudun in 1768. He obtained a 
 chair of Greek language and philosophy in the College 
 de France in 1814. Among his works is a "Treatise on 
 the Understanding and the Reason," (" De l'Entende. 
 ment et de la Raison," 1830.) Died in 1832. 
 
 See Sm.vestre uk Sacv, " Notice sur la Vie de M. Thurot '' 
 1833: "Nouvelle Biographic Generate. " 
 
 Thury. See Cassini de Thury and Heiucart. 
 
 Thwaitea, thwats, (Edward,) an English scholar, 
 bom in 1667, was professor of Greek at Oxford. He 
 published several Anglo-Saxon works. Died in 1711. 
 
 Thy-Ss'te8, [Gr. evloTvc; Fr. Thyeste, te'&st',] in 
 classic mythology, was a son of Pelops and Hippodami'a, 
 a brother of Atreus, and father of jEgisthus. The enmity 
 between Thyestes and Atreus was the subject of several 
 discordant legends, which ascribe to each a number of 
 vindictive crimes and atrocities. (See Atreus.) This 
 story was dramatized by Sophocles and Euripides in 
 tragedies which are not extant. 
 
 Thymbrseus, thim-bree'us, [Gr. Qv/jSpdlo^ ; Fr. 
 ThymbrEe, ta.N'bRa',] a surname of Apollo, derived 
 from the temple of Thymbra, in Troas. 
 
 Thynne, thin, (Francis,) an English antiquary and 
 writer on heraldry. He was the author of a " History 
 of Dover Castle and the Cinque Ports," (in manuscript,) 
 and a " Discourse of the Duty and Office of an Herald 
 of Arms." Died in 161 1. 
 
 Thyoneie. See Thyoneus. 
 
 Thy-o'ueus, [Gr. Qvuvebs ; Fr. ThyonEe, teV- 
 na': supposed to be derived from diiu, to "rush," to 
 "be excited,"] a surname of Bacchus, whose mother 
 was called Thyone (BvCvri) after she was translated to 
 Olympus. 
 
 Thys, tlss, JLat. Thy'sius,] a Dutch philologist, born 
 at Harderwyck in 1603. He was professor of eloquence 
 and law at Leyden, edited several Latin authors, and 
 wrote a few works, in prose and verse. Died in 166?. 
 
 Thysius. See Thys. 
 
 Tiarini, te-5-ree'nee, (Alessandro,) an eminent Ital'r- 
 tan painter, born at Bologna in 1577, was a pupil oi 
 Fontana and Passignano. Among his master-pieces are 
 "Saint Peter denying Christ," a "Miracle of Saint 
 Dominic," and the " Deposition from the Cross." His 
 works are principally oil-paintings, and his style resem- 
 bles that of the Caracci. Died in 1668. 
 
 TiarkB, tee'aRks, (John Lewis,) a German aMron- 
 omer.bom at Jever in 1789, removed to London,, whao- 
 he became assistant librarian to Sir Joseph Banks. 
 About 1821 he was sent on an expedition to various 
 parts of Europe in order to determine the longitude by 
 means of chronometers. He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society. Died in 1837. ' 
 
 (KfSee Explanations, p. »r) 
 
TIBALDEO 
 
 2130 
 
 TICOZZI 
 
 Tibaldeo. See Tebaldeo. 
 
 Tibaldeo, te-bal'di-o, (Antonio,) an Italian poet 
 and scholar, supposed to have !>een born about 1460. 
 He wrote Latin and Italian poems. Died in 1537. 
 
 See toNGFELl.ow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Tibaldi, (Domenico.) See Pellegrini. 
 
 Tibell, tee'bel, (Gustavus Wilhklm,) a Swedish 
 general, born in Sudermania in 1772. He served under 
 Bonaparte in Italy, (1795-1802.) Died in 1824. 
 
 Tibere. See Tiberius. 
 
 Tib-e-rl'nus, a mythical king of Alba, was said to 
 have been drowned in the river which was afterwards 
 called from him the Tiber, (Tiberis.) 
 
 Tiberio. See Tiberius. 
 
 Ti-be'ri-us, [Fr. Tibere, te'baiR' ; It. Tiberio, te- 
 ba're-o,] or, more fully, Ti-be'rI-us Clau'dl-us Ne'ro, 
 a celebrated emperor of Rome, born in 42 B.C. He was 
 a son of Livia Drusilla, the wife of Augustus, by her 
 first marriage, and belonged to the patrician peps Clau- 
 dia, His father was T. Claudius Nero. At an early 
 age he acquired a high reputation in military affairs, and 
 served with distinction in Spain, Asia Minor, and Ger- 
 many. His talents were respectable, if not superior. He 
 was well versed in Greek and Latin literature. His first 
 wife was Vipsania Agrippina, a daughter of Agrippa. 
 About 12 B.C. he was compelled to divorce her, and to 
 marry Julia, a daughter of the emperor Augustus. He 
 passed seven years at Rhodes in retirement, and returned 
 to Rome in 2 A.D. After the death of Caius Caesar, in 4 
 A.D., Augustus adopted Tiberius as his son and suc- 
 cessor. He became emperor in the year 14, and at first 
 used his power with moderation. He had a suspicious 
 temper, and was a most artful dissembler. He chose 
 for his favourite minister and adviser the infamous 
 Sejanus, to whom he soon abandoned the direction of 
 the government. Tiberius was suspected of being acces- 
 sory to the death of Germanicus, (19 A.D.) His only 
 son, Drusus, was poisoned by Sejanusin 23. In the year 
 26 he left Rome, to which he never returned, and retired 
 to the island of Capri, (Capreae.) Avoiding publicity 
 and neglecting affairs of state, he abandoned himself to 
 debauchery. In 31 A.D. Sejamis was put to death by the 
 order or permission of Tiberius, and Macro became the 
 powerful favourite. Tiberius died in 37 A.D., without 
 appointing his successor. It is stated that he was suf- 
 focated by Macro, by whose aid Caligula then became 
 emperor. "The historian," says Macaulay, (referring to 
 Tacitus,) " undertook to make us intimately acquainted 
 with a man singularly dark and inscrutable, — with a 
 man whose real disposition long remained swathed up 
 in intricate folds of factitious virtues, and over whose 
 actions the hypocrisy of his youth and the seclusion of 
 his old age threw a singular mystery. . . . He was to 
 exhibit the old sovereign of the world sinking into a 
 dotage which, though it rendered his appetites eccentric 
 and his temper savage, never impaired the powers of 
 his stern and penetrating mind, conscious of failing 
 strength, raging with capricious sensuality, yet to the 
 last the keenest of observers, the most artful of dis- 
 semblers, and the most terrible of masters. The task 
 was one of extreme difficulty. The execution is almost 
 perfect." (Essay on " History.") 
 
 See Suetonius, " Tiberius ;" Tacitus, " Annales ;" Sievers, 
 "Tacitus und Tiberius," 1850: V. Duruy, " De Tiberio Impera- 
 tore," 1853 ; Merivai.e, " History of the Romans under the Em- 
 pire ;" Hose, " De Tiberio Cajsare," 1661 ; "Nouvelle Biosraphie 
 Generale." 
 
 Tiberius (Anic/ius Fla'vius Constanti'nus) II., 
 surnamed Thrax, (or the "Thracian,") Emperor of the 
 East, a native of Thrace, was born in the early part of 
 the sixth century. He was treated with great distinction 
 by Justin II., who bestowed upon him the dignity of 
 C.-csar in 574, and subsequently abdicated in his favour. 
 He carried on a successful war against the Persians 
 under Chosroes, whom he signally defeated at Melitene, 
 (576 a.d.) He died in 582 A.D., and was succeeded 
 by his son-in-law Mauritius, whom he had previously 
 created Caesar. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 Tiberius, a Greek philosopher and grammarian, sup- 
 posed to have lived in the fourth century. One of his 
 rhetorical works is extant, and a number of fragments. 
 
 Ti-be'rI-us Ab-sim'a-rus, a Greek general of the 
 seventh century, caused himself to be proclaimed Em- 
 peror of Constantinople in opposition to Leontius, (698 
 a.d.) He was deposed and put to death by Justinian 
 II., (705 A.D.) 
 
 Tibe'rius Alexan'der, a native of Alexandria, was 
 appointed by the emperor Nero governor of Judea, and 
 subsequently prefect of Egypt. He was distinguished 
 by the favour of Vespasian and Titus, and assisted the 
 latter in the siege of Jerusalem. 
 
 Tibull, the German for Tibullus, which see. 
 
 Tibulle. See Tibullus. 
 
 Tibullo. See Tibullus. 
 
 Ti-bul'lus, [Fr. Tibulle, te'bul'; Ger. Tibull, 
 te-bdol'; It. Tibullo, te-bool'lo,] (Albius,) a distin- 
 guished Roman elegiac poet of the Augustan age, was 
 bom in Italy about 55 B.C. He was a son of a knight, 
 (eques,) from whom he inherited an estate between Tibur 
 and Praeneste. This estate was confiscated in the civil 
 war, but he recovered a part of it, and passed much 
 of his life there, enjoying the peaceful pleasures of the 
 country, of which he was a warm admirer. He was 
 patronized by Valerius Messala, whom he accompanied 
 in a campaign in Gaul in 31 B.C. He was an intimate 
 friend of Horace, who addressed to him an epistle and 
 an ode, (" Carmina," i. 33.) His character is said to have 
 been amiable. He wrote amatory elegies addressed to 
 Delia and Nemesis. His poems are models of graceful 
 simplicity and genuine tenderness. The best editions 
 of Tibullus are those published by Lachmann (1829) and 
 by Dissenus, (or Dissen,) (1 835.) Died about 18 B.C. 
 
 See Ayrmann, "Vita Tibulli," 1710 : Degkn, "A. Tibull," 
 1780: Grui*pk, " Die Rbmische Elegie," 1838; Hednkk, "Tibul- 
 lus. Propertius et Ovidius," 1841 ; De Golbery, " Dissertatio de 
 Tibulli Vita," etc., 1825; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tiok'ell, (Richard,) an English writer and politician 
 of the eighteenth century, published a pamphlet, entitled 
 "Anticipation," and other works. Died in 1793. 
 
 Tickell, (Thomas,) an English poet and translator, 
 born in Cumberland in 1686. He studied at Queen's 
 College, Oxford, of which he became a Fellow in 1710. 
 He was an intimate friend of Addison, who made him 
 under-secretary of state in 1717. He subsequently be- 
 came secretary to the lords justices of Ireland. He was 
 the author of poems entitled "The Prospect of Peace" 
 and "The Royal Progress." The latter is character- 
 ized by Dr. Johnson as " neither high nor low." His 
 translation of the first book of the "Iliad" is highly 
 commended by Addison, but it is regarded by other 
 critics as greatly inferior to Pope's. Tickell also wrote a 
 number of prose essays, and an admired " Elegy on 
 the Death of Addison." Died in 1740. 
 
 Tick'nor, (Caleb,) a skilful American physician, 
 bom in Salisbury, Connecticut, about 1804. He prac- 
 tised in New York, and wrote much for medical journals. 
 Died about 1840. 
 
 See Williams, " Medical Biography." 
 
 Ticknor, (Elisha,) an American teacher, born about 
 1760, was the father of George Ticknor. He taught in 
 Boston, where he died in 1821. 
 
 Ticknor, (George,) a distinguished American scholar 
 and writer, born at Boston in 1791. He graduated at 
 Dartmouth College, and subsequently spent five years 
 in visiting various parts of Europe. He was appointed 
 after his return professor of the French and Spanish 
 languages and literature at Harvard College. He brought 
 out in 1849 his " History of Spanish Literature," (3 vols. 
 8vo.) It immediately established the reputation of the 
 author, and has obtained the highest eulogy from emi- 
 nent critics of all countries, having been translated into 
 Spanish and German. In 1863 Mr. Ticknor published 
 his "Life of William H. Prescott," one of the most in- 
 teresting biographies in the language. Died in 1871. 
 
 See "London Quarterly Review" for October, 1850; "North 
 American Review" for January, 1850. 
 
 Ticozzi, te-kot'see, (Stefano,) an Italian littirateiir, 
 born in the province of Como in 1762. Among his 
 principal works are his " Dictionary of Architects, Sculp- 
 tors, Painters, etc. of every Age and Nation," (4 vols. 
 8vo, 1830,) " Historical Memoirs," and translations of 
 Sismondi's "History of the Italian Republics" and Llo- 
 
 1, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 0, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; flr, fall, St; met; not; good : moon ; 
 
TIDEMAXD 
 
 2131 
 
 TIER NEK 
 
 rente's " History of the Inquisition." He was prefect 
 of the department of the Piave under the French empire. 
 Died in 1836. 
 
 See Tipaldo, "Biografia degli Italiani itlustri ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Generale." 
 
 Tidemand, tee'deh-mand', (Adoi.ph,) a Norwegian 
 painter of high reputation, born at Mandal in 1815. He 
 was appointed painter to the king, and distinguished 
 himself as a painter of national manners. His favourite 
 subjects are scenes of Norwegian domestic life. 
 
 Tidemann, tee'deh-man , (Philipp,) a German 
 painter, born at Nuremberg in 1657, was a pupil of 
 Lairesse at Amsterdam. He painted mythological sub- 
 jects with success. Died in 1 71 5. 
 
 Tieck teek, (Christian Friedrich,) a German 
 sculptor, brother of the celebrated Ludwig Tieck, was 
 born at Berlin in 1776. In 1805 he visited Rome, and 
 subsequently repaired to Munich, where he executed 
 portrait-busts of Schelling, Jacobi, and the crown-prince 
 I.udwig. Among his other works we may name a life- 
 size statue of Necker, and busts of Lessing, Grotius, 
 Wallenstein, and William of Orange. Died in 1851. 
 
 See Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Tieck, (Ludwig,) a distinguished German poet and 
 novelist, born in Berlin in May, 1773, was a brother of 
 the preceding. He was educated at Halle, Gbttingen, and 
 Erlangen. His favourite studies were history and liter- 
 ature, ancient and modern. He produced " Abdallah," 
 a novel, (1795,) " William Lovell," (1795,) and " Travels 
 of Stembald," (" Sternbald's Wanderungen," 1798.) He 
 associated at Jena with the Schlegels, Novalis, and 
 Schelling. About 1800 he married a young woman 
 named Alberti. In literature he belonged to the ro- 
 mantic school. His reputation was increased by dramas 
 entitled "Genoveva, or Genevieve of Brabant," (1800,) 
 and the "Emperor Octavian," ("Kaiser Octavianus," 
 1804.) He resided a few years at Dresden, (1800-04,) 
 and travelled in Italy in 1805. Among his principal 
 works are "Phantasus," (3 vols., 1812-15,) "The Revolt 
 of the Cevennes," a novel, (1826,) and "Poet-Life," 
 (" Dichterleben," 1828.) He displayed great talent for 
 irony and humour in his comedies or satires entitled 
 "Puss in Boots," "The World turned Upside Down," 
 and " Prince Zerbino, or Travels in Search of Good 
 Taste," (2 vols., 1 799-1800.) After a visit to France 
 and England, (1817,) he settled at Dresden in 1819. 
 He produced a good translation of " Don Quixote," 
 (4 vols., 1799-1801,) and assisted Schlegel in the trans- 
 lation of Shakspeare. In 1840 the King of Prussia 
 invited Tieck to Berlin, appointed him a privy councillor, 
 and granted him a pension. After that date he resided 
 at Berlin and Potsdam. Tieck was a very prolific writer. 
 I lis versions of Shakspeare's plays are among the best 
 ever made. He died in Berlin in April, 1853. 
 
 See ""L. Tieck," Cassel, 1854; L. DE LomeniE, " M. Tieck, par 
 un Homme de Rien," 1S41 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale ;" 
 " Foreign Quarterly Review" for October, 1838. and July, 1839 ; 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for November, 1831, and November, 1847. 
 
 Tiedemann, tee'deh-maV, (Dietrich,) a German 
 philosopher, born near Bremen in 1748. He was pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Marburg, and was an adversary 
 of Kant. He wrote, besides other works, which are 
 highlv commended, "The Spirit of Speculative Philoso- 
 phy, from Thales to Berkeley," (6 vols., 1790-97.) Died 
 in 1803. 
 
 See G. F. Creuzer, "Memoria Tiedemanni," 1803. 
 
 Tiedemann, (Friedrich,) a distinguished German 
 anatomist and physiologist, a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Cassel in 1781. He graduated at Marburg in 
 1804, and in 1805 became professor of anatomy and 
 zoology at Landshut. In 1812 he obtained the prize 
 offered by the French Institute for the best work on the 
 structure of the Radiata, and at the same time was 
 elected a corresponding member of that body. He was 
 called in 1816 to fill the chair of anatomy, physiology, 
 etc. at Heidelberg. Among his numerous works we 
 may name the "Anatomy and Natural History of Am- 
 phibious Animals," (1817,) "Arteries of the Human 
 Body," " Nerves of the Uterus," and " Physiology of 
 Man," (3 vols., 1830-36.) Died in i86t. 
 
 See Flourens, " Elogeshistoriques :" Callisen, " Medicinisches 
 Schriftsteller-Lexikon ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Tiedge, teed'ceh, (almost teed'yeh,) (Christoph Au- 
 gust,) a German poet of high reputation, was born at 
 Gardelegen in 1752. While filling the office of private 
 tutor at Ilohenstein, he acquired the friendship of Gleim 
 and the Baroness von der Recke, and in 1804 visited 
 Italy in company with the latter. His principal poem, 
 entitled " Urania," was received with great favour, and 
 was followed by his " Mirror for Women," (" Frauen- 
 spiegel,") "Wanderings through the Market of Life," 
 " Elegies," etc. During the latter part of his life Tiedge 
 resided with his friend Madame von der Recke, whom 
 he survived about eight years, dying in 1841. His poetry 
 is characterized by great moral beauty and devotional 
 feeling, and has many points of resemblance to that of 
 Cowper. 
 
 See Falkenstein, " C. A. Tiedge's Leben und NachlaM," 4 
 vols., 1841 ; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Km: r- 
 hard, " Blicke in Tiedge's und in Elisa's Leben," 1844. 
 
 Tieftrunk, teef'tRoonk, (Johann Heinrich,) a Ger- 
 man philosopher and disciple of Kant, born near Ros- 
 tock in 1759, became professor of philosophy at Halle. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Tielemans, tee'leh-mans', (Jean Francois,) a Bel- 
 gian jurist and liberal politician, born at Brussels in 
 1799. He was minister of the interior about one month, 
 March, 1831, was afterwards governor of Antwerp, and 
 professor of law in Brussels. 
 
 Tien-Te, te-en' ti, or Tien-Tih, te-en' tlh, called 
 also Tai-Ping-Wang, a Chinese leader of insurgents, 
 born in 1813. His original name was Phuh, and his 
 literary name Hung-Siu-Tshuen. He was educated 
 for the class of literati, but at the final examination in 
 Canton he failed to obtain a degree. About 1833 he 
 received from an agent of the London Bible Society 
 some tracts or a version of the Holy Scriptures, which 
 he read with great interest. He professed to have 
 received a divine mission, and began to preach against 
 the worship of idols. He was successful in converting 
 many to the " foreign righteousness," wrote religious 
 essays and poems, and became the founder of a new 
 religion, similar to Christianity in some respects. Ac- 
 cording to some authorities, he joined several secret 
 political societies formed to liberate China from the 
 domination of the Mantchoos. In 1850 he raised the 
 standard of revolt. His followers cut off their pig-tails, 
 which is accounted an act of high treason in China. 
 Tien-Te marched victoriously through several provinces, 
 and captured Nanking in 1853, after he had defeated the 
 imperialist armies in a number of battles. His govern- 
 ment, of which Nanking was the capital, was a military 
 theocracy. In July, 1864, Nanking was taken by the 
 imperialists, the rebellion was suppressed, and Tien-Te 
 killed himself. 
 
 See "Life of Tai-Ping-Wang," by J. Milton Mackie, 1857; 
 "The Taeping Rebellion," in the " Merchants' Magazine" for Jan- 
 uary. 1865. 
 
 Tiepolo, te-ep'o-lo, (Giovanni Battista,) a Vene- 
 tian painter, born in 1693, was patronized by Charles 
 HI. of Spain, where he executed several works of great 
 merit. His pictures are chiefly frescos, painted in the 
 style of Paul Veronese. It is stated that his oil-paint- 
 ings are to be found in all the galleries of Europe. Died 
 at Madrid about 1770. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy ;" Ticozzt, " Dizic- 
 nario. " 
 
 Tiepolo, (Jacopo,) a Venetian jurist, became Dog« 
 of Venice in 1229. Died in 1249. 
 
 His son Lorenzo became Doge in 1268. Died in 1275. 
 
 Tiepolo, (Niccoi.6,) a Venetian poet and senator 
 eminent for his talents and learning. He was employed 
 in several diplomatic missions. Died in 1551. 
 
 Tierney, teer'ne, (George,) an English statesman, 
 born at Gibraltar in 1 761. He was elected to Parliament 
 for Southwark in 1796 by the Whig party, and distin- 
 guished himself as one of the most zealous opponents 
 of Mr. Pitt, with whom he fought a duel. He was ap- 
 pointed treasurer of the navy in 1802, and became mas- 
 ter of the mint under the Canning ministry, (1827.) He 
 was a great master of sarcasm and irony. Died in 1830. 
 
 Tierney, (Mark,) an English antiquary and Roman 
 Catholic priest, born in 1785. He published the "HilH 
 tory and Antiquities of Arundel." Died in 1862. 
 
 e as i; c as /; i» hard; g as/,- G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as t; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
Tl FERN 'AS 
 
 2132 
 
 T1LL0T 
 
 Tifernaa.te-feVnas, (Grkgorio,) an Italian Hellenist, 
 born at Citta di Castello about 14 1 5. He taught Greek 
 \n Venice, where he died about 1465. 
 
 Tigellin. See Tigellinus. 
 
 Tig-el-li'nus, [Fr. Tigellin, te'zhi'laN',] (Sopho- 
 nius,) a Roman courtier, notorious for his crimes, was 
 born at Agrigentum. In 63 a.d. he became the favourite 
 minister of Nero, with the title of praetorian prefect. He 
 abused by cruelty and rapacity the power which he had 
 obtained by subservience to the worst passions of Nero. 
 He committed suicide in 70 A.D. 
 
 Tighe, tl, (Mrs. Mary,) a distinguished poetess, born 
 in Wicklow county, Ireland, in 1773, was a daughter of 
 the Rev. William Blachford. She was the author of a 
 poem entitled " Psyche," which is greatly admired, also 
 a number of miscellaneous and devotional pieces. Died 
 in 1810. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for October, 1811. 
 
 Tigny, de, deh ten'ye', (Marin GrAstete,) a French 
 entomologist, born at Orleans in 1736. His wife wrote 
 a " History of Insects," a work of merit, which was pub- 
 lished in his name, (10 vols., 1802.) He died in 1799. 
 
 Tigrane. See Tigranes. 
 
 Ti-gra'nes, [Gr. Ttypavric ; Fr. Tigrane, te'gRtn'; 
 Armenian, Dikran, de-krin',] an Armenian prince or 
 hero, flourished about 550 B.C. He was a friend of 
 Cyrus the Great, and, according to some authorities, 
 aided Cyrus in his war against Astyages the Mede. 
 
 Tigranes I., King of Armenia, began to reign about 
 96 B.C., and married a daughter of Mithridates the 
 Great. Having extended his dominions by conquest, lie 
 assumed the title of "King of kings." In the year 83 
 he invaded and conquered Syria. He afterwards founded 
 the city of Tigranocerta, which became his capital. As 
 an ally of his son-in-law, Mithridates, he declared war 
 against the Romans, whose army, under Lucullus, in- 
 vaded Armenia in 69 B.C. and defeated Tigranes ; but 
 the mutiny of the Roman soldiers prevented Lucullus 
 from terminating the war. After Poinpey had gained a 
 decisive victory over Mithridates, (66 B.C.,) Tigranes 
 made an abject submission to the Roman general, who 
 permitted him to keep the kingdom of Armenia proper. 
 Died in 55 B.C. He was noted for his pride and tyranny. 
 It is said that he kept tributary kings in his palace as 
 servants. 
 
 See Plutarch, 1 ' Lucullus:" Dion Carsiiis, " History of Rome;" 
 Smith, " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. 
 
 Til, van, vin til, (Solomon,) a Dutch theologian, 
 born near Amsterdam in 1644. He was professor of 
 theology at Leyden, and published a number of works 
 on that subject. He was a disciple of Coccejus. Died 
 in 1713. 
 
 See Moreri, " Dictionnaire Historique," 1750: "Nouvelie Bio- 
 graphie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Tilborg. See Tilburgh. 
 
 Tilburgh, van, vin til'bur'H, written also Tilborg, 
 (Giles,) a Flemish painter, born at Brussels about 1625. 
 He painted fairs, rustic dances, interiors of taverns, etc. 
 Died in 1678. 
 
 Tilbury, (Gervase of.) See Gervase. 
 
 Tilenus, te-la'nus, or Tilenius, te-la'ne-us, (Daniel,) 
 a Protestant theologian, born in Silesia in 1563. He 
 was appointed professor of theology at Sedan, France, 
 in 1602, and became preceptor of the famous Turenne. 
 Having adopted Arminian tenets, he was deprived of 
 his chair at Sedan in 1619. He wrote numerous works 
 on theology. Died in Paris in 1633. 
 
 See Boum.i.ot, " Notice sur D Tilenus," 1806 ; " Nouvelie Bio- 
 graphie Gene'rale." 
 
 Tilesius. See Telesio. 
 
 Tilesius von Tilenau, von, fon te-la'ze-us fon tee'- 
 leh-now', (Wilhelm Gottlieb,) a German naturalist, 
 born in Thuringia in 1769. He accompanied the Russian 
 navigator Krusenstern in his voyage around the world 
 in 1803, and published, in 1813, "Results in Natural 
 History of the First Russian Voyage around the World, 
 under Captain Krusenstern." Died in 1857. 
 
 Tilghman, til'man, (Edward,) an eminent American 
 jurist, a relative of Chief-Justice Tilghman, noticed 
 oelow, was bom at Wye, in Maryland, December II, 1750. 
 
 He studied in Philadelphia, and at the Middle Temple, 
 in London. He established himself in Philadelphia, and 
 rose to the first place at the bar of that citv, which was 
 then noted for its eminent lawyers. " Mr. Tilghman was 
 an advocate of great power," says Mr. Binney, "a fault- 
 less logician, — a man of the purest integrity and brightest 
 honour, — fluent, without the least volubility, — concise 
 to a degree that left every one's patience and attention 
 unimpaired." Died in 1815. 
 
 See a notice of Edward Tilghman, by Horace Binney, in the 
 " Encyclopaedia Americana," (Supplement.) 
 
 Tilghman, (Lloyd,) an American general, born in 
 Maryland about 1816, graduated at West Point in 1836. 
 He commanded at Fort Henry, in Tennessee, which he 
 surrendered to the Union navy or army in February 
 1862. He was killed at the battle of Champion Hill, 
 May 16, 1863. 
 
 Tilghman, (William,) an American jurist and schol- 
 ar, was born in Talbot county, Maryland, August 12, 
 1756. He studied law in Philadelphia, and was admitted 
 to the bar in 1783. He was repeatedly elected to the 
 legislature of his native State. In 1793 he removed to 
 Philadelphia. In 1801 he was appointed chief judge of 
 the United States court for Pennsylvania. In 1805 he 
 was made president of the court of common pleas, and 
 in 1806 chief justice of the supreme court of the State, a 
 position which he filled with eminent ability until his 
 death, in 1827. It has been justly observed that Penn- 
 sylvania owes him a debt of gratitude for "the incorpo 
 ration of the principles of scientific equity with the laws 
 of the State." 
 
 See " Encyclopaedia Americana." 
 
 Til'le-mans, (Peter,) a Flemish painter, born at Ant- 
 werp, resided in England, where he produced a number 
 of admired works. Died in 1 734. 
 
 Tillemont, de, d<jh tel'mis' or te'ye-mON', (Skuas- 
 tien Lenain — leh-naN',) a French ecclesiastical histo- 
 rian, born in Paris in 1637. He studied at Port-Royal, 
 under Nicole and other distinguished Jansenists, and 
 was ordained a priest in 1676. He published in 1693 
 the first volume of his " Memoirs towards the Eccle- 
 siastical History of the First Six Centuries," (" Memoires 
 pour servir a l'Histoire ecclesiastique," etc.,) which 
 first appeared complete in 1712, (16 vols. 4to.) His 
 other principal work is entitled a " History of the Em- 
 perors and other Princes who reigned during the First 
 Six Centuries," etc., (4 vols., 1690-97.) Two other 
 volumes were published in 1701-38. These works are 
 highly esteemed. Tillemont was eminently modest and 
 humble. Died in Paris in 1698. 
 
 SeeTRONCHAY, "ViedeM. Lenain de Tillemont," 171 1 ; Sainte- 
 Beove, "Histoirede Port-Royal;" Perrault, " Me'moires des 
 Homines illustres;" Niceron, "Memoires;" "Nouvelie Bio- 
 graphie Generale." 
 
 Tillet, te'yi', (Mathietj,) a French writer on agri- 
 culture, born at Bordeaux about 1720. He co-operated 
 with Duhamel du Monceau. Died in 1791. 
 
 Tillet, du, du te'yj', (Jean,) a learned French com- 
 piler of historical documents, born in Paris. He was 
 secretary (greffier) of the Parliament. Among his works 
 is "Collection of the Kings of France," etc., (" Recueil 
 des Rois de France, leur Couronne et Maison," 1580.) 
 Died in 1570. 
 
 Tilli, teel'lee, (Michelangelo,) an Italian botanist, 
 born at Castel-Fiorentino in 1655. He became a pro- 
 fessor at Pisa, and published a "Catalogue of the Plants 
 in the Botanic Garden of Pisa," (1723.) Died in 1740. 
 
 Tillier, te'ye-i', (Johann Anton,) a Swiss historian, 
 born at Berne""fn 1792, published a " History of the 
 Confederation ( Eidgenossenschaft) at the Epoch of the 
 Restoration," (1848/) and other works. Died in 1854. 
 
 Til'lo«h, (Alexander,) LL.D., a Scottish journalist 
 and miscellaneous writer, born at Glasgow in 1759. 
 Having settled in London, he became editor of " The 
 Star" in 1789, and subsequently of the "Philosophical 
 Magazine." He published several theological essays. 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 Tillot, du, dii te'yo', (Guillaume Leon,) Marquis 
 de Felino, was born at Bayonne in 171 1. He became 
 about 1755 minister of finance to the Duke of Parma. 
 Died in 1774. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, b, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, S, 5?, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m4t; not; good; moon- 
 
T1LL0TS0N 
 
 2'33 
 
 TIMOLEON 
 
 Til'lot-son, (John,) D.D., a celebrated English prel- 
 ate, born in Yorkshire in 1630. He studied at Clare 
 Hall, Cambridge, where he became a Fellow in 1651. 
 Though educated a Calvinist, he subsequently conformed 
 to the Church of England, and, having taken holy orders, 
 he was appointed in 1664 preacher at Lincoln's Inn and 
 Saint Lawrence's Church in the Jewry, where he ac- 
 quired a very high reputation as a pulpit orator. Under 
 the reign of Charles II. he became successively Dean of 
 Canterbury, (1672,) prebendary of St. Paul's, (1675,) anc ' 
 canon-residentiary of that cathedral, (1677.) lie was 
 created Archbishop of Canterbury by William III. in 
 1691. He had married Elizabeth French, a niece of 
 Oliver Cromwell. In theology he was called a latitudi- 
 narian. The nonjurors lampooned him outrageously, 
 denouncing him as atheist, Deist, Arian, thief, etc. Died 
 in 1694. Addison considered his writings as models of 
 language. 
 
 "Of all the members of the Low-Church party," says 
 Macanlay, "Tillotson stood highest in the general esti- 
 mation. As a preacher he was thought by his contem- 
 poraries to have surpassed all rivals, living or dead. 
 Posterity has reversed this judgment. Yet Tillotson 
 still keeps his place as a legitimate English classic . . . 
 His reasoning was just sufficiently profound and suffi- 
 ciently refined to be followed by a popular audience with 
 that slight degree of intellectual exertion which is a 
 pleasure. . . . The greatest charm of his compositions, 
 however, is derived from the benignity and candour 
 which appear in every line, and which shone forth not 
 less conspicuously in his life than in his writings." 
 (" History of England," vol. iii.) 
 
 See Birch, "Life of Tillotson," prefixed to his works: Le 
 Nevh, " Lives of the Protestant Archbishops of England ;" Burnet. 
 " History of his Own Times." 
 
 Tilly, de, deh te'ye', (Alexandre,) Comte, a French 
 royalist and political writer, born at Mans in 1764. He 
 wrote "Memoirs towards a History of Manners of the 
 Eighteenth Century," (3 vols., 1828,) and other works. 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 Tilly, de, (Pierre Alexandre,) Count, a French 
 general of the Revolution, born in Normandy in 1754, 
 gained several victories over the Vendeans, and became 
 governor of Brussels in 1796. Died in 1822. 
 
 Tilly or Tilli, von, fon til'lee, (Johann Tzf.rki.as,) 
 Count, a celebrated military commander, born near 
 Gembloux, in Brabant, in 1559. Having served for a 
 time in the Netherlands under Alva, Don John of 
 Austria, and Alexander Famese, he entered the army of 
 Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, in 1609. Soon after the 
 breaking out of the Thirty Years' war, he was appointed 
 to the chief command of the army of the League, and in 
 1620 gained a signal victory over the Protestants, and 
 subsequently defeated Christian IV. of Denmark near 
 Lutter. Having been made a field-marshal, in 1630 he 
 succeeded Wallenstein as commander-in-chief of the 
 Imperial troops, and in May, 1631, took Magdeburg by 
 storm. This victory, which was followed by the most 
 atrocious cruelty perpetrated on the inhabitants, was 
 celebrated by Marshal Tilly by Te Dennis sung in the 
 cathedral. He was soon after defeated by Gustaviis 
 Adolphus near Leipsic, and a second time at the battle 
 of the Lech, in 1632, where he was mortally wounded. 
 
 See VllJ.KR.MONT, "Tilly, on la Guerre de Trente Ans," 2 vols., 
 1859 : Schiller, " History of the Thirty Years' War." 
 
 Til'ton, (James,) an American physician, born in 
 Delaware in 1745. He served as surgeon of the armv 
 from 1776 to 1783, and was appointed physician- and 
 surgeon-general of the army of the United States in 
 1812 or 1813. Died in 1822. 
 
 Timaeus, tl-mee'us, |Gr. Ti/tatoc ; Fr. Timek, te'mi',1 
 a Pythagorean philosopher, born at Locri, in Italy, is s;ii<l 
 10 have been a teacher of Plato. He flourished probably 
 about 420-380 B.C. A work "On the Soul of the Uni- 
 verse," which is extant, has been ascribed to him ; but 
 many critics doubt that he was the author of it, and 
 regard it as an abridgment of Plato's dialogue of 
 "Timaeus." 
 
 TimaetiB, an eminent Greek historian, born at Tau- 
 romenium, in Sicily, about 352 B.C. Having been 
 banished from his native island by Agathocles, he re- 
 
 tired to Athens, where he resided about fifty years. 
 Died about 256 B.C. His principal work was a " His- 
 tory of Sicily from the Earliest Times to 264 B.C.," of 
 which fragments are extant. He is severely criticised 
 by Polybius, but is praised by Cicero, who says, in his 
 treatise " De Oratore," " Timaeus, quantum judicare 
 possim, longe eruditissimus, et rerum copia et senten- 
 tiarum varietate abundantissimus . . . magnam elo- 
 quentiam ad scribendum attulit."* 
 
 See Vosstus, " De Historicis Graecis." 
 
 Timaeus, [Fr. Timee le Sophiste, te 'mi' leh so'- 
 fest',] a Greek Sophist and grammarian, supposed to 
 have lived in the third century after Christ. His only 
 extant work is a vocabulary or glossary of the phrases 
 of Plato, (" Lexicon Vocum Platonicai urn,") edited, 
 with a commentary, by Ruhnken, (1754.) 
 
 Timagene. See Timagenes. 
 
 Tl-mag'e-nes, [Gr. Ti/iayevr/c: Fr. Timagene, te'mf- 
 zh^n',] a rhetorician of Alexandria, became a resident 
 of Rome about 55 B.C. He wrote several works on his- 
 tory, etc., and gained the friendship of Augustus. Some 
 critics identify him with the Timagenes who wrote a 
 "Periplus" of the whole sea. 
 
 See Schwab, " De Livio et Timagene Historiarum Scriptoribus 
 
 .vmulis," 1834. 
 
 Tl-man'theS, [Gr. TifiavBrK; Fr. Timanthe, te'- 
 m&Nt',] a celebrated Greek painter, born at Sicyon, 
 flourished about 400 B.C. He was a rival of Parrhasius, 
 over whom he gained the prize at Samos for his "Con- 
 test of Ajax and Ulysses for the Arms of Achilles." 
 Among his other master-pieces were "The Sacrifice 
 of Iphigeni'a" and "The Stoning of Palamedes." He 
 excelled in the power of expression and suggestion. 
 
 TI-mar'€huB, [T<//aproc,] a Greek grammarian of 
 uncertain date. 
 
 Timbal, taN'bil', (Charles,) a French painter, born 
 in Paris about 1822. He painted many scriptural sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Timba, t!mz, (John,) an English writer and journalist, 
 born in London in 1801. He became editor of " The Mir- 
 ror" in 1S27, and subsequently associate editor of " The 
 Illustrated London News." He has published, among 
 other popular works, " Laconics," (3 vols., 1825-26,) 
 "The Year-Book of Facts," "Things not generally 
 Known familiarly Explained," (1856,) "Curiosities of 
 History," (1859.) and "A Century of Anecdote, 1760 
 to i860," (2 vols., 1864.) 
 
 Timee. See Timaujs. 
 
 Tim'o-cles, [Ti/joa/.r/c] an Athenian comic poet of 
 the middle comedy, lived. about 350-320 B.C. His style 
 is commended for its purity. His works are not extant. 
 
 Tl-mo'cre-on \Tt/ioKpeuv] of Rhodes, a Greek lyric 
 poet, lived about 500-450 B.C. He wrote bitter satirical 
 verses against Themistocles and Simonides. Some of 
 his verses are quoted by Plutarch in his " Life of The- 
 mistocles." 
 
 Tl-mo'le-on, [T(/tovlewi>,J an illustrious Greek states- 
 man and general, born of a noble family at Corinth 
 about 400 B.C. He was so zealous for liberty that he 
 conspired against his elder brother Timophanes, who 
 had usurped supreme power and was killed. Accord- 
 ing to Plutarch, Timoleon became a prey to sorrow on 
 account of the death of his brother, and withdrew 
 from public affairs for many years. In, 344 B.C. the 
 people of Syracuse sent ambassadors to Corinth to 
 implore assistance against Dionysius and other tyrants. 
 The Corinthians granted a small army, and appointed 
 Timoleon to command it. Three parties were then con- 
 tending for mastery in the Syracusan state, — Dionysius, 
 llicetas, and the popular party. Before the end of 344 
 Timoleon defeated Hicetas and occupied part of Syra- 
 cuse. In the next year Dionysius surrendered the citadel 
 to Timoleon and retired from the contest. Hicetas, who 
 still held two quarters of the capital, obtained aid from 
 the Carthaginians ; but Timoleon soon expelled him from 
 Syracuse, and restored democratic institi tions in that city. 
 
 • The following is a nearly literal translation: " Timaeus. as well 
 at 1 am able to judge, was by far the most learned of all, and the most 
 rich in the abundance of his facts and variety of his opinions; he dis- 
 played, also, great eloquence in composition." 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, h, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (JQ^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TIMOMACHUS 
 
 2IU 
 
 TINNE 
 
 In 339 he defeated the Carthaginian generals Hasdrubal 
 and Hamilcar, who invaded the Syracusan state with 
 an army five times larger than that of Timoleon. He 
 ascribed all his successes to fortune, or to the will of the 
 gods. He restored peace and prosperity to the people 
 of Sicily, who honoured him as a great benefactor. Died 
 at Syracuse in 337 B.C. Plutarch says that " he performed 
 greater things than anv Grecian of his time, and was the 
 only man that realized those glorious achievements to 
 which the orators of Greece were constantly exhorting 
 their countrymen." 
 
 Sre Plutarch, "Life of Timoleon :" C. Nepos, " Life of Timo- 
 leon :" Gkotb, " History of Greece ;" Thirlwall, History of 
 ( 'reece ;" Arnoldt, " Timoleon : biographische Darstellung, 1850 '• 
 "Nonvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tl-mom'a-chua, an eminent painter, born in Byzan- 
 tium, is supposed to have lived about 300 B.C. His 
 • pictures of " Medea about to destroy her Children" and 
 " Ajax brooding over his Misfortunes" were esteemed 
 master-pieces by the ancients, and were purchased by 
 Julius Caesar for an immense sum. 
 
 Ti'mon [Ti/iuv] the Misanthrope, a native of At- 
 tica, and contemporary of Socrates, was notorious for his 
 hatred of mankind, from whom he lived secluded. He 
 has been introduced into the works of Aristophanes, 
 Lucian, and other eminent ancient writers, and forms 
 the subject of one of Shakspeare's dramas. 
 
 See Coopman, " Dissertatio historica de Timone Misanthropo," 
 1841. 
 
 Timon, a Greek poet and skeptical philosopher of 
 the third century B.C., was a disciple of Pyrrho. He 
 was the author of a number of dramas, and satiric poems 
 entitled " Silli." Fragments of the latter are extant. 
 
 Timon, tee'mon, (Samuel,) a Hungarian historian, 
 born in 1675, wrote on the history of Hungary. Died 
 
 fa '736- . , 
 
 Timoneda, de, da te-mo-na'Da, (Juan,) a Spanish 
 poet, born at Valencia about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century, was the author of a work entitled " Patranuelo," 
 <(" The' Story-Teller,") and several comedies. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Timoteo, the Italian for Timothy, which see. 
 
 Timoteo da TJrbino, te-mo-ta'o da ooR-bee'no, 
 called also Delia Vite, an Italian painter, born at TJr- 
 bino about 1475. He was a cousin of Raphael, whom 
 he assisted in some of his works at Rome. Among his 
 master-pieces may be named an " Annunciation of the 
 Virgin," and a "Noli-me-Tangere." Died about 1530. 
 
 Timothee. See Timothy and Timotheus. 
 
 Ti-mo'the-ua, [Gr. Ti/mdeoc; Fr. Timothee, te'mo'- 
 ti'; It. Timoteo, te-mo-ta'o,] a celebrated Greek poet 
 and musician of Miletus, was a contemporary of Eurip- 
 ides, and flourished about 390 B.C. His innovation of 
 the lvre with eleven strings was publicly condemned by 
 the Spartans. His lyrics were highly esteemed by his 
 countrymen, but a few fragments only are extant. He 
 is said to have died in 357 B.C., aged about ninety. 
 
 See K. O. MUller," History of the Literature of Ancient Greece." 
 
 Timotheus, a Greek statuary of high reputation, 
 flourished about 350 B.C. He was one of the artists who 
 adorned the frieze of the Mausoleum with bas-reliefs. 
 Among his works was a statue of Artemis, (Diana.) 
 
 Timotheus, an eminent Athenian commander, was 
 the son of the famous Conon, and a pupil of Isocrates. 
 He assisted the Thebans to repel an invasion of the 
 Spartans, whose fleet he defeated near Leucas in 376 or 
 375 B.C. He entered the service of Artaxerxes, King 
 of Persia, in 372, and was appointed commander of the 
 Athenian army in Macedonia in 364 B.C. He captured 
 several cities from the Olynthians, and all the Chalcidian 
 towns. Timotheus, Iphicrates, and Chares commanded 
 the fleet in the Social war which began in 357 B.C., and 
 were unsuccessful. Timotheus was condemned to pay 
 a large fine. Died in 354. 
 
 See Cornelius Nepos, " Timotheus ;" Grote, " History of 
 Greece;" Thirlwall. " History of Greece." 
 
 Timotheus, (of Scripture.) See Timothy. 
 
 Timotheus, a Greek dramatic poet, the date of whose 
 birth is unknown, was a resident of Athens. None of 
 his works are extant. He was a poet of the middle 
 comedy. 
 
 Tim'o-th^, [Gr. Tifwdeoc ; Lat. Timo'theus; Fr. 
 Timothee, te'mo'ta'; It. Timoteo, te-mo-ta'o,] the 
 friend and coadjutor of the Apostle Paul, was a native 
 of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, and was carefully educated 
 in the Christian faith by his mother Eunice, a converted 
 Jewess. He was ordained at an early age by Saint Paul, 
 whom he accompanied on his missions to Greece and 
 Macedonia. He is believed to have been the first bishop 
 of the Church at Ephesus, and, according to tradition, 
 suffered martyrdom under Domitian. 
 
 See Acts xvi. ; also Saint Paul's Epistles to Timothy. 
 
 Timour. See Tamerlane. 
 
 Timour-Beg, (or -Bee.) See Tamerlane. 
 
 Timur. See Tamerlane. 
 
 Tinctor, tink'tor, or Tinctoris, tink-to'ris, (Jan,) a 
 Flemish musician, born at Nivelle about 1434, or, as some 
 say, 1450. He went to Naples, and was patronized by 
 King Ferdinand I. He produced a musical dictionary,— 
 "Terminorum Musicae Definitorium," (without date.) 
 Died about 1520. 
 
 Tin'dal, (Matthew,) LED., an English jurist and 
 deistical writer, born in Devonshire about 1657. Soon 
 after the accession of James II. he embraced Roman 
 Catholicism, but he subsequently returned to the Church 
 of England. He published in 1706 a work entitled 
 "The Rights of the Christian Church Asserted," etc., 
 I being an attack upon hierarchical power, which involved 
 him in a bitter and protracted controversy with several 
 clergymen of the Church of England. He was the 
 author of a number of political essays; but he is princi- 
 pally known by his "Christianity as old as the Creation, 
 or the Gospel a Republication of the Religion of Nature," 
 (1730.) Died in 1733. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica :" Small, " Memoirs of the Life ol 
 M. Tindal," 1733; " Nonvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tindal, (Rev. Nicholas,) a nephew of the preceding, 
 was born in 1687, and rose through several preferments to 
 be rector of Alverstoke, in Hampshire. He translated 
 from the French Rapin's " History of England," of which 
 he wrote a continuation brought down to the reign of 
 George II. Died in 1774. 
 
 Tindal; (Sir Nicholas Conyngham,) an English 
 jurist and statesman, born in 1777. He studied at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1827 represented 
 that university in Parliament. He was afterwards ap- 
 pointed lord chief justice of the court of common pleas. 
 Died in 1846. 
 
 Tin' dale or T^n'dale, (WILLIAM,) an eminent Eng- 
 lish Reformer and martyr, was born in Gloucestershire 
 about 1480. He studied at Oxford, and subsequently at 
 Cambridge, where he took his degree. Having been 
 converted to the .doctrines of Luther, by which he 
 was exposed to persecution in England, he repaired to 
 Germany, and afterwards settled at Antwerp, where he 
 devoted himself to the translation of the New Testament 
 into English. The first edition came out about 1525, 
 and met with a rapid sale both in England and on the 
 continent. He published in 1534 a new and improved 
 edition. His translation of the Pentateuch, in which he 
 was assisted by Miles Coverdale, had appeared in 1530. 
 In 1534 Tindale, whose writings had been previously 
 denounced by the English government, was seized at 
 Antwerp through the interference of the King of Eng- 
 land, brought to trial for heresy, and, after an imprison- 
 ment of nearly two years, strangled and burnt at the 
 stake, (1536.) 
 
 See Fox, " Acts and Monuments :'* Wood. " Athenae Oxoni- 
 enses ;" Wordsworth, "Ecclesiastical Biography." 
 
 Tin'dall, (Rev. William,) an English writer, born 
 in 1754. He wrote a "History of Evesham," "Plain 
 Truth in a Plain Dress," and other works. Died in 
 1804. 
 
 Tinelli, te-nel'Iee, (Tiberio,) an Italian painter of 
 history and portraits, bom at Venice in 1586, was a 
 pupil of L. Bassano. His works are highly praised. 
 Died in 1638. 
 
 Tinne, tin'neh, (Alexandrine.) a rich heiress and 
 traveller, born in Holland about 1844. In 1863-64 she 
 explored the sources of the Gazelle River, the west- 
 ern branch of the White Nile. She was murdered by 
 the Tuariks in 1869, between Moorzook and Ghat. 
 
 2, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
TINTORET 
 
 a«35 
 
 TISCHENDORF 
 
 Tintoret, Le. See Tintoretto. 
 
 Tintoretto, tin-to-ret'to or ten-to-ret'to, [Fr. Le 
 Tintokkt, leh taN'to'rJ',] (Giacomo,) one of the most 
 eminent painters of the Venetian school, was born at 
 Venice in 1512. His original name was Robusti, but 
 he assumed that of Tintoretto from the occupation of 
 his father, who was a dyer, (Tintore.) He made Titian 
 his model in colouring and Michael Angelo in design. 
 He painted with great rapidity, and his works, both in 
 oil and fresco, are very numerous. Among his master- 
 pieces may be named "The Last Judgment" and "The 
 Worship of the Golden Calf," in the church of Santa 
 Maria dell' Orto, "The Miracle of the Slave," (some- 
 times called " The Miracle of Saint Mark,") in the Acad- 
 emy of Venice, "The Marriage at Cana," the "Cruci- 
 fixion," in the Scuola di San Rocco, and a " Paradise," a 
 colossal picture containing more than a hundred figures. 
 Died in 1594. His son Domenico and daughter Mari- 
 etta were distinguished as painters ; the latter excelled 
 in portraits. "All landscape grandeur," says Ruskin, 
 " vanishes before that of Titian and Tintoret ; and this 
 is true of whatever these two giants touched." ("Mod- 
 ern Painters.") 
 
 See Carlo Ridolfi, "Vitadi G. Robusti detto II Tintoretto," 
 1642; Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Vasari, "Lives of 
 the Painters ;" Mrs. Jameson, " Memoirs of Early Italian Painters ;" 
 Xtcozzi, " Dizionario." 
 
 Tipaldo, te-pal'do, (Emilio Amedeo,) an Italian 
 scholar and writer, born at Corfu in 1798. He became 
 in 1829 professor of history, etc. in the Marine College 
 of Venice. He published many important works, among 
 which we may notice a " History of Profane Greek Lite- 
 rature," (9 vols., 1824-30,) and " Biography of Illustrious 
 Italians of the Eighteenth Century and of the Present 
 Age," ("Biografia degli Italiani illustri del Secolo 
 XVIII. e de' Contemporanei," 10 vols., 1834-46.) 
 
 Tippoo Sahib, tip'poo'slh'Hib, written also Tippoo 
 Saib, Sultan of Mysore', born in 1749, was the son of 
 Hyder Alee, (or Aly,) whom he succeeded on the throne 
 in 1782. He prosecuted the war which he had pre- 
 viously waged against the English until, in 1784, a treaty 
 of peace was concluded at Mangalore. In 1790 he in- 
 vaded the territory of .the Rajah of Travancore, an ally 
 of the British, who soon after formed an alliance with 
 the Mahrattas and took the fort of Bangalore, (1791.) 
 The forces of General Abercromby, having joined those 
 of Lord Comwallis in 1792, advanced against Seringa- 
 patam, when Tippoo consented to renounce one-half of 
 his dominions to the allies, give up two of his sons as 
 hostages, and pay a sum of more than ^3,000,000. He 
 nevertheless endeavoured in secret to incite the native 
 princes against the English government, and solicited 
 aid from France. In 1799 he was besieged in Seringa- 
 patam by the British forces under General Harris, and 
 was killed in the assault. 
 
 See Micmaud, " Histoire de l'F.mpire de Mysore," 2 vols., 1S01 : 
 R. Mackenzie, "Sketch of the War with Tippoo Sultaun," 1703; 
 " Nouvdle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tip'toft, (John,) Earl of Worcester, became lord 
 deputy of Ireland, and filled other high offices. He 
 was noted for his patronage of literature and of learned 
 men, particularly Caxton. He was executed in 1470, 
 on a charge of maladministration. 
 
 Tiraboschi, te-ra-bos'kee, (Girolamo,) a learned 
 Italian Jesuit and bibliographer, born at Bergamo in 
 1731. He became professor of rhetoric at Milan in 
 1766, and in 1770 was appointed librarian to the Duke 
 of Modena. His principal work, entitled " History of 
 Italian Literature," ("Storia della Letteratura Italiana," 
 13 vols., 1772-83,) enjoys the highest reputation for ac- 
 curacy and impartiality. Among his other productions 
 may be named " Historical Memoirs of Modena," and 
 "Life of Count Fulvio Testi." Died in 1794. An im- 
 
 ?>roved edition of his great work was published at Milan, 
 n 16 vols., (1822-26.) 
 
 See A. G. Lombardi, " Elogio storico di G. Tiraboschi," 1706: 
 Fabeoni, " Vitse Italornm doclriua excellentium ;" Kei.tramku.i, 
 ■ ■ str.rico del Cavaliere Tiraboschi," 1812: Uconi, "Della 
 Letteratura Italiana;" "Nouvelle Biographie G^ne>ale." 
 
 Tiraqueau, te'ri'ko', (Andrf.,) a French jurist, born 
 at Fontenoy-le-Comte about 1480. While he held the 
 
 office of judge he released Rabelais, whom the monks 
 had put in prison. Died in 155S. 
 
 Ti-re'sx-as (ti-ree'she-as) or Tei-re'sl-as, [Gr. Te</>e- 
 m'ac; Fr. TiRltsiAS, te'ra'ze'ls',] a famous soothsayer 
 of classic mythology, lived at Thebes, and belonged 
 to the race of Udasus. The poets and mythographers 
 relate that he was deprived of sight by the gods, be- 
 cause he divulged some of their secrets, or because he 
 had seen Minerva bathing, that Jupiter gave him the 
 gift of prophecy and extended his life to seven genera- 
 tions, and that he was connected with many important 
 events in the fabulous history of Greece. He was the 
 father of Manto. 
 
 Tlr-i-ba'zus or T6r-I-ba'zus, [Gr. Ti/w'Safof or Tnpi- 
 6a£oc,] a Persian satrap under Artaxerxes Mnemon, gov- 
 erned Western Armenia in 401 B.C. He commanded the 
 Persian fleet which defeated Evagoras of Cyprus in 386 
 H.C., soon after which he conspired with Darius against 
 the king. He was killed in a fight with officers who came 
 to arrest him. 
 
 TIr-I-da'tes" [Gr.Tj?f>«5«r)?c ; Fr. Tiridatf., te're'dft'] 
 I., King of Armenia, carried on a war against the Romans, 
 who defeated him at Artaxata, and took his capital, 
 Tigranocerta. He finally became tributary to Nero, 
 (63 A.n.) 
 
 Tiridates III. of Armenia was a son of Chosroes, 
 whom the King of Persia conquered and dethroned. Tiri- 
 dates was educated at Rome, and restored to the throne 
 by Diocletian in 286 A.D. Died about 314 A.D. 
 
 Ti'ro, [Fr. Tiron, te'r6N',] (Marcos Tullius,) a 
 Roman author and scholar, was a favourite freedman and 
 amanuensis of Cicero. He wrote a life of his famous 
 patron, and other works. It is supposed that he invented 
 or improved the art of short-hand writing, and that we 
 are indebted to him for the collection of Cicero's " Let- 
 ters" and other works. 
 
 Tiron. See Tiro. 
 
 Tirso de Molina. See Tellez, (Gabriel.) 
 
 Tischbein, tish'bin, (Heinrich Wii.hki.m,) sur- 
 named the Neapolitan, born at Haina, in Hesse-Cas- 
 sel, in 1 751. After a residence of six years at Rome, 
 he settled at Naples, where he was appointed in 1790 
 director of the Academy of Painting. He excelled in 
 classical subjects and in delineations of animals. Died 
 in 1829. 
 
 Tischbein, (Johann Friedrich August,) a relative 
 of the preceding, born at Maestricht in 1750, rose to 
 distinction as a portrait-painter. Died in 1812. 
 
 Tischbein, (Johann Heinrich,) the Elder, a Ger- 
 man historical painter, born in Hesse in 1722, became 
 professor in the Academy of Arts at Cassel. Among 
 his master-pieces are "The Dying Alcestis," " Electra," 
 "Christ on the Mount of Olives," "The Transfigura- 
 tion," " Resurrection of Christ," and sixteen illustrations 
 of the life of Telemachus. Died in 1789. 
 
 See Engelschali., "J. H. Tischbein, als Mensch und Kiinstler," 
 ■797- 
 
 Tischbein, (Johann Heinrich,) the Younoer, a 
 nephew of the preceding, was born at Haina in 175 1. 
 He visited Rome in 1781, and afterwards resided several 
 years at Naples, where he was appointed director of the 
 Academy of Painting. Among his principal works are 
 " Conradin of Suabia," " Ajax and Cassandra," " Christ 
 blessing Little Children," and the " Parting of Hector 
 and Andromache." He published in 1804 "Illustra- 
 tions of Homer," with explanations by Heyne. Tisch- 
 bein excelled as a painter of animals, and was also a 
 skilful engraver. Died in 1829. 
 
 Tischendorf, tish'en-doRf', (Lobegott Friei>rich 
 Konstantin,) an eminent German philologist and bibli- 
 cal critic, born at Lengenfeld in January, 1815. He 
 studied at Leipsic, and subsequently visited England, 
 various parts of the continent, Egypt, and Asia Minor. 
 Having obtained some very valuable manuscripts, he 
 was appointed, after his return, professor of theology at 
 Leipsic, (1850.) He has published editions of the 
 "Codex Friderico-Augustanus," (1846,) "Evangelium 
 Palatinum," (1847,) "Codex Amiatiamis," (1850,) "Frag- 
 menta Sacra Palimpsesta," "Anecdota Sacra et Pro- 
 fana," " Monuments Sacra inedita," (4 vols., 1846-60,) 
 j "Travels in the East," (2 vols., 1846,) and "Bibliorum 
 
 cui; Sis s;% hard; gas j;G,H,K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 27 th as in this. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TISICRATES 
 
 2136 
 
 TITIAN 
 
 Codex Sinaiticus," (4 vols, folio, 1862,) which he dis- 
 covered at Mount Sinai in 1859. He obtained in 1859 
 a chair of biblical palaeography at Leipsic. 
 
 Ti-sic'ra-tes, [TeujocpuT^c,] a distinguished Greek 
 statuary, flourished about 300 B.C. He is supposed to 
 have been a pupil of Lysippus. His works are praised 
 by Pliny. 
 
 Tisio or Tisi, (Benvenuto.) See Garofalo. 
 
 Ti-siph'o-ne, the "Avenger of Murder," [TicKpovn, 
 from ti'u, to "estimate," to "judge," and, hence, to 
 "punish" or "avenge," and <j>ovog, "murder,"] in Greek 
 mythology, the name of one of the three Furies, or 
 Erinnyes. 
 
 Tissapherne. See Tissaphernes. 
 
 Tis-sa-pher'nes, [Gr. Tiooafepvrjc ; Fr. Tissapherne, 
 te'si'f&Rn',] a famous Persian general and crafty nego- 
 tiator, formed an alliance with the Spartans against the 
 Athenians in 412 B.C. He was an enemy of Cyrus the 
 Persian prince, 'and was one of the four generals who 
 commanded the army of Artaxerxes against Cyrus at 
 Cunaxa, in 401 B.C. He afterwards married a daughter 
 of Artaxerxes, and was appointed satrap or viceroy of 
 the maritime part of Asia Minor, where he was defeated 
 by Agesilaus. He was put to death by the King of Per- 
 sia in 394 B.C. 
 
 See Xenophon, "Anabasis;" Rollin, "Ancient History;" 
 Gkote, " History of Greece." 
 
 Tissard, te'saV, (FRANgois,) a French scholar, born 
 at Amboise about 1460, became professor of Greek at 
 the University of Paris. He published a Hebrew gram- 
 mar, (1508.) Died in 1508. 
 
 Tissier, te'se-i', (Jean Baptiste Ange,) a French 
 painter of history and portraits, born in Paris in 1814. 
 
 Tissot, te'so', (Alexandre Pascal,) a French jurist, 
 born in 1782, published several works on public law. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 Tissot, (Claude Joseph,) a French litterateur, born 
 about 1800. He practised law in Paris in early life, and 
 about 1837 became professor of philosophy at Dijon. He 
 wrote, besides other works, " Ethics, or the Science of 
 Morals," (1840,) and a "History of Philosophy," (1840.) 
 
 Tissot, (Pierre FRANgois,) a French journalist, 
 litterateur, and politician, born at Versailles in 1768. He 
 was elected to the Council of Five Hundred a short time 
 before the 18th Brumaire, and was afterwards appointed 
 imperial censor by Napoleon. In 1814 he succeeded 
 Delille as professor of Latin poetry in the College of 
 Fiance, and in 1833 became a member of the French 
 Academy. He translated Virgil's "Bucolics" into 
 French, and published, among other works, " Historical 
 Memoirs of Carnot," (1824,) "Studies on Virgil com- 
 pared with all the Epic and Dramatic Poets," (4 vols., 
 1825-30,) which is highly commended, "Complete 
 History of the French Revolution," (6 vols., 1833,) and 
 " Lessons and Models of Ancient and Modern French 
 Literature," (1835.) Died in '854. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Tissot, (Simon AndrS,) a celebrated Swiss physi- 
 cian, born at Grancy, in the canton de Vaud, in 1728. 
 He studied at Geneva and Montpellier, and subsequently 
 resided at Lausanne, where he soon acquired a very high 
 reputation. Having filled the chair of medicine in that 
 place for many years, he became in 1780 professor of 
 clinical medicine at Pavia. He published a number of 
 w-orks, which are highly esteemed and have been widely 
 circulated. Among these may be named his " Advice 
 to People respecting Health," (" Avis au Peuple sur sa 
 Sante," 1 761,) which was translated into seven languages, 
 " On Diseases caused by Masturbation," ("Tentamen de 
 Morbis ex Manustupratione Ortis,") and " On the Health 
 of Literary Men," (" De Valetudine Literatorum," 1766.) 
 Died in 1797. His son Clement Joseph, born in 1750, 
 was the author of several medicaf treatises. 
 
 See Eynakd, "Vie de S. A Tissot," 1839; Halle, "Notice sur 
 Tissot," prefixed lo Tissot's works, n vols., 1809-13; " Biographie 
 Medicale:" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "Monthly Review" 
 for July, 1765. 
 
 TTtan, [Gr. Tirav,] plural Titans, [Gr. TVuvec; Lat. 
 Tita'nes,] the name of mythical beings said to be the 
 offspring of Uranus andGe, (or Ccelus and Terra.) There 
 
 were six sons, Oceanus, Cceus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, 
 and Cronus, and six daughters, Theia, Rheia, Themis, 
 Mnemosyne, Phcebe, and Tethys. According to the 
 fable, the Titans rebelled against their father, who was 
 deposed and was succeeded by Cronus, (Saturn.) After 
 the accession of Jupiter to the sovereignty, occurred the 
 celebrated war of the Titans against the Olympian gods, 
 (called the "Titanomachia,") which lasted ten years. 
 The Titans were finally defeated and hurled down to 
 Tartarus by the thunderbolts of Jove. 
 
 See Virgil, ".rEneid," book vi. 580. 
 
 Tite-Live, the French for Livy, (which see.) 
 
 Tite, (William,) an English architect, born in Lon- 
 don about 1802. His principal work is the Royal Ex- 
 change of London, completed in 1844. He was elected 
 to Parliament for Bath in 1854, and re-elected in 1857. 
 He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was president 
 of the Institute of British Architects. 
 
 Tithon. See Tithonus. 
 
 Tl-tho'nus, [Gr. Ttfui>6jy Fr. Tithon, te't6N',] a 
 mythical personage, a son of Laomedon, was beloved by 
 Aurora, (Eos.) The poets feigned that she obtained for 
 him the privilege of immortality, but not eternal youth, 
 and that he became a decrepit old man. He was the 
 reputed father of Memnon. 
 
 Titi, di, de tee'tee, (Santi,) an Italian artist, born in 
 Tuscany in 1538, was distinguished both as a painter 
 and architect. Died in 1603. 
 
 Titi, di, (Tiberio,) a painter, born at Florence in 
 1578, was a son of the preceding. Died in 1637. 
 
 Titian, "tish'e^n, [It. Tiziano, tet-se-a'no ; Fr. Le 
 Titikn, l?h te'se'aN'; Ger. Tizian, tit-se-an',] or, more 
 fully, Tiziano Vecellio, (va-chel'le-o,) the greatest 
 painter of the Venetian school, was born at Capo del 
 Cadore, in Venetia, in 1477. He studied for a short 
 time with Sebastiano Zuccati, and afterwards became 
 a pupil of Giovanni Bellini. He was intimate with 
 Giorgione, his fellow-pupil, to whose example or influ- 
 ence some critics ascribe the fact that Titian acquired 
 a bolder and more vigorous style than that of Bellini 
 and other Venetian painters. In 1512 he was em- 
 ployed by the Venetian government to paint the hall 
 of the grand council, in which he represented the 
 " Homage of Frederick Barbarossa to the Pope." 
 About 1514 he was invited to Ferrara by Alphonso I., 
 for whom he painted a beautiful oil-picture of" Bacchus 
 and Ariadne," and another of a " Pharisee showing 
 Tribute-Money to Christ," (now at Dresden.) At Fer- 
 rara he formed a friendship with the poet Ariosto, whose 
 portrait he painted. Having returned to Venice,' he 
 painted in 1516 a celebrated picture of the " Assumption 
 of the Virgin," which is one of his best works, and is 
 now in the Academy of Venice. He married about 
 1524, and had several children. He produced about 
 1528 an admirable picture of "The Death of Saint 
 Peter." "Titian's power," says Ruskin, "culminates 
 in the ' Assumption,' the ' Peter Martyr,' and the ' Pre- 
 sentation of the Virgin.' " About 1530 he was invited 
 to Bologna by Charles V., and painted a portrait of that 
 emperor, whom (according to some accounts) he accom- 
 panied to Spain in 1533. He visited Rome in 1545, 
 painted an excellent portrait of Paul III., and returned 
 to Venice in 1546. Titian received the title of Count- 
 Palatine from Charles V. He painted for Philip II. of 
 Spain a number of works, among which are "The Last 
 Supper" and a "Sleeping Venus." His subjects were 
 mostly religious. As a portrait-painter he has never 
 been surpassed. In the opinion of many critics, he was 
 the greatest colorist that ever lived. He also excelled 
 in landscape. " All landscape grandeur," says Ruskin, 
 "vanishes before that of Titian and Tintoret ; and this 
 is true of whatever these two giants touched. . . . The 
 religion of Titian is like that of Shakspeare, — occult 
 behind his magnificent equity. . . . The Venetian mind, 
 and Titian's especially, as the central type of it, was 
 wholly realist, universal, and manly." ("Modern Paint- 
 ers.") He refused the invitations of several sovereigns 
 who wished to attract him to their courts, and preferred 
 to reside at Venice. Among his intimate friends were 
 Pietro Aretino, and Sansovino the architect. He con- 
 tinued to paint until he was ninety-eight years old ; but 
 
 , f , T, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, I, o, fi, j, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, All, fat; m«t; nSt; g36d; moon; 
 
TITIEN 
 
 2137 
 
 TOCQUEVILLE 
 
 his last woiks are not equal to those of his prime. He 
 died at Venice in August, 1576. 
 
 See Vasari, ** Lives of the Painters:" Ridoi.fi, "Pittnri Ve- 
 neti ;" L.ANZI, " History of Painting in Italy ;" TlCOEfi, "Vite dei 
 Piltori Vecelli," 1817: Northcotk, "Life of Titian," 2 vols., 1S30; 
 a notice of Titian, by Cadorin, in Italian, 1833; Mrs. Jamkson, 
 "Memoirs of Early Italian Painters;" Zondadklla, " Elogio di 
 Tiziano Vecellio," 1S02. 
 
 Titien, Le. See Titian. 
 
 Titius, tit'se-us, (Gottlieb Gerhard,) a German 
 jurist, born at Nordhausen in 1661, wrote on the public 
 law of Germany. Died in 17 14. 
 
 Titmarsh. See Thackeray. 
 
 Titon du Tillet, te'toN' dii te'v5', (Evf.rard,) a 
 French litterateur, born in Paris in 1677. He served in 
 the army, and became commissary of war. He projected 
 or designed a monument to Louis XIV. and the great 
 men of his reign. This monument, which he called the 
 French Parnassus, represented a mountain, on the sum- 
 mit of which Louis XIV. sat in the form of Apollo. He 
 could not raise the funds requisite to execute it on a 
 grand scale, but he published a "Description of the 
 French Parnassus," (" Description du Paruasse Fran- 
 cais." 1727.) Died in 1762. 
 
 Titsingh, tit'sino, (Isaac,) a Dutch diplomatist and 
 writer, born at Amsterdam in 1740. Having entered 
 the East Indian service, he was sent as supercargo to 
 Japan in 1778. He was appointed in 1794, by the Ba- 
 tavian government, ambassador to Peking. He died in 
 1812, leaving several valuable works in manuscript; 
 among these we may name "Memoirs and Anecdotes 
 of the Reigning Dynasty of the Djogouns, Sovereigns 
 of Japan," etc., published in French by Abel Remusat. 
 
 Tittmann, tit'min, (Friedrich Wilhelm,) a Ger- 
 man historical writer, born at Wittenberg in 1784. He 
 published, besides other works, a treatise "On Know- 
 ledge and Art in History," (1817,) "Exposition of the 
 Greek Constitutions," (1822,) "History of Henry the 
 Illustrious," (2 vols., 1845,) and "Life and Matter,'' 
 ("Leben und Stoff," 1855.) 
 
 Tittmann, (Johann August Heinrich,) an eminent 
 Protestant theologian, born at Langensalza, in Germany, 
 in 1773. He studied at Leipsic, where he became first 
 professor of theology in 1818. He published a "Manual 
 of Homiletics,"" Encyclopaedia of Theological Science," 
 (1798,) "Theocles, a Conversation on Belief in God," 
 (1799,) "Pragmatic History of Theology and Religion 
 in the Protestant Church during the Second Half of the 
 Eighteenth Century," (1805, unfinished,) "On Super- 
 naturalism, Rationalism, and Atheism," (1816,) and 
 other standard works of the kind. He also prepared 
 editions of the Greek New Testament and the " Libri 
 Symbolic!," and a Latin treatise "On the Synonyms 
 of the New Testament." Died in 1831. 
 
 Tittmann, (Karl August,) brother of the preceding, 
 was bom at Wittenberg in 1775. He studied at Leipsic 
 and Gottingen, and rose to distinction as a jurist. He 
 published a "Manual of the Science of Criminal Law," 
 etc.. (1807,) and other similar works. Died in 1834. 
 
 Ti'tus, [Gr. Ti'roc; Fr. Tite, tit,] a disciple of Saint 
 Paul, who was converted by him to Christianity, and 
 subsequently accompanied him to Corinth, Ephesus, and 
 other cities. 
 
 See Saint Paul, " Epistle to Titus." 
 
 TTtuu, (Kr. Tite, tet -. It. Tiro, tec'to.l or, more 
 fully, Ti'tus Fla'vl-us Ves-pa-Bl-a'nus, Emperor of 
 Rome, born in 40 A.D., was {he son of Vespasian, and 
 was educated at the court of Nero. He early distin- 
 guished himself by his military talents in Britain and 
 Germany, and assisted his father in quelling an insurrec- 
 tion of the Jews, (67 A.D.) After the death of Vitellius, 
 Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, in 69 A.r)., and Titus, 
 having been appointed commander of the army of Judea, 
 laid siege to Jerusalem, which was taken by storm in 70 
 A.D. On the death of Vespasian, in 79 A.D., Titus be- 
 came emperor, and, by the wisdom and benignity of 
 his rule, acquired the affection and reverence of his sub 
 jects, who gave him the name of "The love and delight 
 of the human race." Under his reign a great part of 
 Koine was destroyed by a conflagration, which was fol- 
 lowed bv the plague, of which' many thousands perished 
 daily. He completed the Flavian Amphitheatre, (Co- 
 
 losseum,) which had been commenced by his father. It 
 is stated that at the end of a day in which he had per- 
 formed no act of beneficence, he exclaimed, " My friends, 
 
 1 have lost a day !" Died in 81 A.D. 
 
 See Suetonius, "Titus;" Tacitus, "History;" Merivale, 
 " History of the Romans under the Empire;" Tiu.kmont, " His- 
 toire des Empereurs ;" J. H. Jung, " Dissertatio de Tito Impera- 
 tnre." 1761; Rollanij, " Histoire des Empereurs Vespasien et 
 Titus," 1830; " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Tit'jr-us, [Gr. Ttnwc; Fr. TlTYE, te'te',] a giant of 
 classic mythology, was called a son of Terra, or of 
 Jupiter and Elara. Having offered violence to Latona, 
 he was killed by Apollo and Diana, and cast down to 
 Tartarus. According to Virgil, his body extended over 
 nine acres of ground. (See " Mneid," book vi. 595.) 
 
 Tixier, (John.) See Ravisius Textor. 
 
 Tizian or Tiziano. See Titian. 
 
 Toaldo, to-al'do, (Giuseppe,) an Italian geographei, 
 born near Vicenza in 1719, became professor of physical 
 geography and astronomy at Padua in 1762. Among 
 his principal works are a "Treatise on Gnomonics," 
 "Meteorological Essay on the True Influence of the 
 Stars," (1770,) and "Compendium of Spherics and 
 Geography," (1773.) Died in 1798. 
 
 See Tipaldo, " Biografia degli Italian! illustri." 
 
 Tobar, de, di to-baR', (Alfonso Miguel,) a Span-, 
 ish painter, born near Aracena in 1678, produced good 
 copies of some works of Murillo. Died in 1758. 
 
 Tobiesen. See Duby. 
 
 To'bin, (George,) an English admiral, born at Salis- 
 bury in 1768, served against the French in the campaigns 
 of 1782 and 1804. Died in 1838. 
 
 Tobin, (John,) an English dramatist, born at Salis- 
 bury in 1770, was the author of several comedies, one 
 of which, entitled "The Honeymoon," obtained great 
 popularity. Died in 1804. 
 
 See "Memoirs of John Tobin," by Miss Bengbr, i8ao; 
 " Monthly Review" for May, 1820. 
 
 Tobler, to'bler, (Titus,) a Swiss traveller and lit- 
 terateur, born at Stein in 1806, visited Palestine, and 
 published, after his return, " Topography of Jerusalem 
 and its Environs," (1853.) 
 
 Tochon d'Annecy, to'shdN' din'se', (Joseph Fran- 
 cois,) a French numismatist, born near Annecy in 1772. 
 Among his works is "Researches on the Medals of the 
 Nomes or Prefectures of Egypt," (1822.) Died in 1820. 
 
 Tocque\ to'ka', (Louis,) a French portrait-painter, 
 born in Paris in 1696; died in 1772. 
 
 Tocqueville, de, deh tok'vil or tok'vel', (Alexis 
 Charles Henri Clerel,) an eminent French states- 
 man and political philosopher, born in Paris on the 29th 
 of July, 1805. He studied law, (1823-26,) and became 
 judge-auditor at the tribunal of Versailles in 1827. In 
 1831 he visited the United States in company with his 
 friend Gustave de Beaumont, having received a mission 
 to examine the penitentiary systems of that republic. 
 He passed a year in the United States, returned home, 
 resigned his office in 1832, and published in 1835 the first 
 volume of his work " On Democracy in America," (" De 
 la Democratic en Amerique," 4 vols., 1835-40,) the suc- 
 cess of which was prodigious. Royer-Collard affirmed 
 that since Montesquieu nothing comparable to it had 
 appeared. De Tocqueville predicted the progress and 
 predominance of democracy in the world, although his 
 own predilections were in the opposite direction. He 
 married an English lady, named Mary Mottley, about 
 1835, became a member of the Academy of Moral and 
 Political Sciences in 1838, and was elected to the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies in 1839. In 1841 he was admitted into 
 the French Academy. He was elected in 1848 to the 
 Constituent Assembly, in which he supported the cause 
 of order, and he voted for Cavaignac in the election of 
 president. He was minister of foreign affairs from June 
 
 2 to October 31, 1849, and was driven from the public 
 service by the coup d Mat of December 2, 1851. In 1856 
 he published "The Old Regime and the Revolution," 
 (" L'ancien Regime et la Revolution,") a work of much 
 merit. Died at Cannes in April, 1859. Commenting on 
 his " Democracy in America," the " Edinburgh Review" 
 of April, 1861, says, "Far from having suffered from 
 the lapse of a quarter of a century, it has gained in 
 authority and interest, from the inexhaustible depth, the 
 
 «: is e; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as*; th as in this. (JtySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
T0CQVEV1LLE 
 
 2138 
 
 TOLEDO 
 
 unflinching truth, and the extraordinary foresight which 
 are its characteristics." 
 
 See G. ue Beaumont, notice prefixed to an edition of his Works 
 and Letters, i860: Lacordaire, "Discours de Reception a 1'Aca- 
 demie Francaise," 1861 ; Sainte-Beuve, "Nouvelles Causeries du 
 Lundi ;" Remusat's article in the " Revue des Deux Mondes" for 
 August 1, 1856; "Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale ;" " Edinburgh 
 Review" for September, 1836, and July, 1849 ; " London Quarterly 
 Review" for October, 1861 ; " North British Review" tor May, 1861 ; 
 "Atlantic Monthly" for November, 1861. 
 
 Tocqueville, de, (Herv£ Louis Frances Joseph 
 Clekel,) Comte, a French peer and historical writer, 
 born in 1772, was the father of the preceding. He was 
 prefect of the departments of Moselle, Somme, and 
 Seine-et-Oise between 1816 and 1827. He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, a " Philosophic History of the Reign 
 of Louis XV.," (2 vols., 1846.) Died in 1856. 
 
 Tod, (Eu,j M.D., an American physician, born at 
 New Haven, Connecticut, about 1768, was one of the 
 founders of the Insane Retreat at Hartford, of which he 
 became president. Died in 1833. 
 
 Tod, (Lieutenant-Colonel James,) an English officer, 
 born in 1782, entered the East India service, and was 
 appointed in 1817 political agent. He was the author 
 of " Travels in Western India," etc., and " Annals of 
 Rajasthan;" the latter contains an excellent map of 
 Rajpootana. Died in 1835. 
 
 Todd, (Rev. Henry John,) an English clergyman 
 and writer, born in 1763, studied at Hertford College, 
 Oxford, and rose through several preferments to be 
 Archdeacon of Cleveland in 1832. He published a 
 "Life of Archbishop Cranmer," (1831,) "Memoirs of 
 the Life and Writings of the Right Reverend Brian 
 Walton," and other works ; he also edited Milton's 
 "Poems" and "The Works of Edmund Spenser." Died 
 in 1845. 
 
 Todd, (Rev. Hugh,) an English writer, born in Cum- 
 berland in 1658, lived at Carlisle. Died in 1728. 
 
 Todd, (James Henthorne,) a clergyman and an- 
 tiquary, born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1805. He became 
 professor of Hebrew in the University of Dublin, and 
 published several works on theology, etc. Died in 1869. 
 
 Todd, (John,) D.D., an American Congregational 
 divine, born at Rutland, Vermont, in 1800, settled in 
 1842 as pastor at Pittsfield, Massachusetts. He was 
 one of the founders of the Mount Holyoke Female Semi- 
 nary. Among his works we may name " Lectures to 
 Children," (1834,) also translated into several languages, 
 "The Student's Manual," (1835,) which had a very 
 extensive sale both in America and Europe, and was 
 translated into French, "The Bible Companion," "The 
 Sabbath-School Teacher," (1836,) and "The Lost Sister 
 of Wyoming," (1841.) 
 
 Todd, (Robert Bentley,) a physician and writer on 
 physiology, a brother of James H. Todd, noticed above, 
 was born about 1810. He graduated at Oxford, and 
 subsequently settled in London. He became associate 
 editor of the "Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology" 
 in 1836, and published, among other works, a treatise 
 "On the Anatomy of the Brain, Spinal Cord, and Gan- 
 glions," (1845,) and "Physiological Anatomy and Phy- 
 siology of Man," (2 vols., 1845-56.) He was appointed 
 physician to King's College Hospital. Died in i860. 
 
 Toderini, to-di-ree'nee, (Giamkattista,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Venice in 1728, published a work "On 
 Turkish Literature," (3 vols., 1787.) Died in 1799. 
 
 Todlebea, tot'la'ben, (Francis Edward,) a Russian 
 general and engineer, of German extraction, born at 
 Mitau in 1818. He served with distinction in the Crimean 
 war of 1854, and by his skilful defence of Sebastopol 
 was chiefly instrumental in prolonging the siege of that 
 place. He was afterwards created general of engineers. 
 
 See the "North British Review" for August, 1864. 
 
 Todt, tot, (Karl Gottlob,) a German jurist, born 
 at Atterbach in 1803. He has published several legal 
 works. 
 
 Toepfer. See Topfer. 
 
 Toepffer. See Topffer. 
 
 Tofino de San Miguel, to-fee'no da san me-g51', a 
 Spanish savant and naval officer, born at Cartagena in 
 1740, published, among other works, "Astronomical 
 Observations made at Cadiz." Died in 1806. 
 
 Tograi, to-gri', or Toghrai, a celebrated Persian 
 poet, born at Ispahan about 1060. He became vizier tc 
 Masood, Sultan of Mosul, and, after the defeat of that 
 prince by his brother Mahmood in 1 120 A.D., was taken 
 prisoner and put to death. His principal work is an 
 elegiac poem, entitled " Lamiato l'Ajam," which has 
 passed through several editions and been translated into 
 Latin, English, French, and German. 
 
 See Zenker, " Bibliotheca Orientalis," 1840; "Specimens of 
 Persian Poetry," in " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1839. 
 
 Togrul or Thogrul-fieg,* (or -Bek,) to'grool beg, 
 written also Tugrol, the founder of the Seljookide 
 dynasty in Persia, was a grandson of Seljook, (Seljuk.) 
 He became king or chief of his tribe about 1038, and 
 conquered Persia by victories over the Sultan Mahmood 
 and his son Masood. Died about 1065. 
 
 Togrul II., the last Sultan of the Seljookide dynasty, 
 began to reign in 1 1 76 ; died in 1 194. 
 
 Togrul-Beg, (or -Bee.) See Togrul. 
 
 ToiuardorTnoynard,twa'nSn', (Nicolas,) a French 
 numismatist, born at Orleans in 1629; died in 1706. 
 
 Toiras, de, deh twa'ra', (Jean de Saint-Bonnet — 
 deh siN'bo'ni/,) Seigneur, a French general, born in 
 Languedoc in 1585. He fought against the Huguenots, 
 and in 1625 took the Isle of Rhe, which he defended 
 against the English Duke of Buckingham in 1627. For 
 his defence of Casal he was rewarded with the rank of 
 marshal of France in 1630. He was killed at a siege in 
 the Milanese in 1636. 
 
 See Baudier, " Histoire du Marechal de Toiras," 1644 ; Tai.i.e- 
 mantdesReaux, " Historiettes;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Tokely, to'kal, (Emmeric,) a Hungarian patriot, 
 born in 1656. Having taken up arms against the Aus- 
 trian government, he solicited aid from the Sultan Ma- 
 homet IV., who in 1682 declared him King of Hungary. 
 After waging war many years, with varying success, he 
 was compelled to take refuge in Turkey, where he died 
 in 1705. 
 
 Toktamish-Aglen, tok'ta-mish ag'len, a warlike 
 Khan of Kaptchak, inTartary, was a descendant of Jengis 
 Khan. He began to reign in 1376, invaded Russia in 
 1382, and took Moscow. Soon after this event he was 
 involved in a war with Tamerlane, who defeated and 
 deposed him about 1395. Died in 1406. 
 
 To'land, (John,) a deistical and controversial writer, 
 born near Londonderry, in Ireland, in 1669. He studied 
 at the Universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and sub- 
 sequently at Leyden, where he became acquainted with 
 Leibnitz. His first publication, entitled " Christianity 
 not Mysterious," (1696,) caused a great sensation and 
 gave rise to a protracted controversy. He afterwards 
 produced "A Life of Milton," (1698,) "Amyntor, or a 
 Defeifce of Milton's Life," (1699,) "Anglia Libera, or 
 the Limitation and Succession of the Crown of England 
 Explained and Asserted," (1701,) " Socinianism Truly 
 Stated," etc., (1705,) and other works. He was patronized 
 by Harley, secretary of state, who in 1707 sent him to 
 the continent as a political agent or spy. Toland was a 
 pedantic and mediocre writer. Died in 1722. 
 
 See Des Maizbaux, "Life of John Toland," 1726; Mosheim, 
 "De Vita, Falis et Scriptis J. Tolandi," 1722; Lelanu, "Deistical 
 Writers:" Niceron, " Memoires. " 
 
 Toldy, tol'de, (almost tolj,) (F. S.,) a Hungarian 
 critic and writer, born at Buda in 1805. He published, 
 besides other works, a "History of the Hungarian Lan- 
 guage and Literature," (3 vols., 1851-55.) He was pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Pesth, 1838-44. 
 
 Toledo, de, di to-la'Do, [Lat. Tole'tus ; Fr. Tolet, 
 to'lA',] (Francisco,) a learned Spanish cardinal, born 
 at Cordova in 1532. He was professor of philosophy 
 and theology at Rome, and gained distinction as a 
 pulpit orator. He wrote a work on Casuistry, (1602.) 
 Died at Rome in 1596. 
 
 Toledo, de, (Pedro,) a Spanish statesman, born near 
 Salamanca in 1484, was a son of Frederick of Toledo, 
 Duke of Alba. He obtained the title of Marquis of 
 Villafranca from his marriage with a lady of that house. 
 He was patronized by the emperor Charles V., who 
 appointed him in 1532 Viceroy of Naples. He died in 
 '553' after a prosperous rule of more than twenty years, 
 
 * See Introduction, p. 9, § 10. 
 
 1 e. '1 6, u, y, long; 4, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ti, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
TOLEDO 
 
 2'39 
 
 TO MM AS I 
 
 during which he greatly enlarged and improved the city 
 of Naples and adorned it with splendid edifices. 
 
 See Giannone, " Storia cifile del Regno di Napoli ;" Botta, 
 "Storia d' Italia." 
 
 Toledo, de, (Rodrigo,) [Lat. Roderi'cus Toleta'- 
 NUS,) a distinguished prelate and historian, born in 
 Navarre about 1170, was originally named Rodrigo 
 Ximenes. He became Bishop of Siguenza In 1192, 
 and subsequently Archbishop of Toledo. He was the 
 author of a History of Spain, (" Rerum in Hispania 
 GestarumChronicon," 1545,) and History of the Western 
 Arabs, ("Historia Arabum," 1603,) both of which are 
 highly esteemed. 
 
 To'ler, (John,) Earl of Norbury, born in the county 
 of Tipperary, Ireland, in 1745. He was successively 
 appointed solicitor-general, (1789,) attorney-general, 
 (1798,) and chief justice of the common pleas, (1800.) 
 He afterwards received the title of Earl of Norbury and 
 Viscount Glandine. He enjoyed a high reputation as a 
 jurist, but he was still more celebrated for his brilliant 
 wit and repartee. He presided at the trial of Robert 
 Emmet. Died in 1831. 
 
 See " Eccentric Personages," by Wm. Russell, 1866. 
 
 Tolet or Toletus. See Toledo, de, (Francisco.) 
 Toletanus. See Toledo, de, (Rodrigo.) 
 Tolken or Toelken, tol'ken, (Ernst Heinrich,) a 
 German archaeologist, bom at Bremen in 1785, pub- 
 lished a number of treatises on ancient art. He be- 
 came professor in the University of Berlin in 1823, and 
 director of the cabinet of antiques in 1832. 
 
 Toll, tol, (Karl,) Count, a Russian general, born 
 near Hapsal, Esthonia, in 1778, served against the 
 French in the campaign of 1812, and subsequently in 
 the Turkish war of 1829. Died in 1842. 
 
 Tollena, tol'Iens, (Hendrik Cornei.iszoon,) a dis- 
 tinguished Dutch poet, born at Rotterdam in 1780. His 
 poem "On the Death of Egmont and Hoom" (1806) 
 obtained a prize from the Society for the Promotion of 
 National Poetry, and was followed by a collection of 
 lyrics which became widely popular and are esteemed 
 master-pieces of their kind by his countrymen. Among 
 the principal we may name the " Patriotic War-Songs," 
 (" Vaderlandisch Krijgslied," 1815,) "The Call to 
 Arms," (" Wapenkreet,") and "The Wintering of the 
 Hollanders in Nova Zembla." In 1850 the King of 
 Holland bestowed upon him the order of the Dutch 
 Lion. Died in 1856. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Van Eich- 
 storpp, " H. Tollens, biographische Schets en Proeve en Kriliken 
 Tan zijne Dichtungen ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for December, 1S54. 
 
 Toilet, (Elizabeth,) an English scholar and poetess, 
 born in 1694, was a friend of Sir Isaac Newton. Died 
 in 1754. 
 
 Her nephew, George Tollet, wrote notes on Shak- 
 speare. Died in 1779. 
 
 Tollius, tol'le-iis, (Cornelis,) a Dutch philologist, 
 bom at Utrecht about 1620, was a pupil of Vossius, and 
 afterwards his private secretary. He published editions 
 of several of the classics. Died about 1652. 
 
 Tollius, (Hermann,) a Dutch philologist, born at 
 Breda in 1742. He became professor of Greek at Ley- 
 den, where he died in 1822. 
 
 Tollius, (Jacob,) brother of Cornelis, noticed above, 
 was born at Utrecht about 1630. He studied under 
 Vossius, and became professor of history and eloquence 
 at Duisburg in 1679. He was the author of several phi- 
 lological and scientific treatises. Died in 1696. 
 
 Tolmach. See Tai.masii, (THOM \s.) 
 
 Tolomei, to-lo-ma'ee, or Tolommei, (Claudio,) an 
 Italian scholar and diplomatist, born at Sienna in 1492. 
 He was sent in 1552 on a mission to the French court, 
 on which occasion he delivered an eloquent oration in 
 the presence of Henry II. He was the author of several 
 poems and orations, and a- collection of letters which 
 rank among the best compositions of the kind in the 
 language. Died in 1 554. 
 
 See TlKABOsCHl. *' Storia della Letteratura Ilaliana :" LoNGPEL- 
 Low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Tolomei, (Giovanni Battista,) a learned Italian 
 cardinal, bom at Florence in 1653. He was employed 
 by Clement XI. in important affairs. Died in 1726. 
 
 Tolomeo, the Italian of Ptolemy, which see. 
 Tolommei. See Tolomei. 
 Tolstoi. See Ostermann-Tolstoi. 
 Tolstoi, tol'stoi, (Feodor PetrovitCh,) a Russian 
 sculptor, bom at Saint Petersburg in 1783, became 
 professor of sculpture in the Academy of that city. 
 
 Tolstoi or Tolstoy, (Peter,) Count, a Russian 
 diplomatist, born about 1650. He was employed by 
 Peter the Great on missions to several European courts. 
 Died in 1728. 
 
 Tolstoi, (Peter Alexandrovitch,) a Russian diplo- 
 matist and soldier, born in 1769, served under Suwarow 
 against the Turks and Poles, and after the battle of 
 Friedland was ambassador-extraordinary to Paris. In 
 1831 the emperor Nicholas appointed him commander- 
 in-chief of the army of reserve. Died in 1844. 
 Tolstoy. See Tolstoi. 
 
 To-lum'nl-us, (Lar,) was King of the Veientes in 
 438 H.c, and persuaded the people of Fidelias to kill four 
 Roman ambassadors. He was filled in single combat 
 by Cornelius Cossus. 
 Tomacelli. See Boniface IX. 
 Tomaschek, to'ma-skek', (Wenzel Josef,) a Ger- 
 man musician and composer, born in Bohemia in 1774; 
 died in 1850. 
 
 Tomaselli, to-ma-sel'!ee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian natu- 
 ralist, born near Verona in 1733 ; died in 1818. 
 
 Tomasini, to-ma-see'nee, or Tommasini, tom-ma- 
 see'nee, (jacopo FlLIPPO,) an Italian antiquary and 
 priest, born at Padua in 1597. He published, besides 
 other works, a "Life of Livy," (1630,) a " Life of Pe- 
 trarch," (" Petrarcha Redivivus," 1635,) and " Eulogies 
 of Illustrious Men," (2 vols., 1630-44.) Died in 1654. 
 See Ntceron, "M&noires." 
 
 Tombes, toomz, (John,) an English nonconformist 
 minister, born in'Worcestershire in 1603. He became 
 a Baptist, and wrote several works. Died in 1676. 
 
 Tomitano, to-me-ta'no, (Bernardino,) an Italian 
 physician, born at Padua in 1506 ; died in 1576. 
 
 Tom'ko or Tom'kus, (John,) a learned Hungarian 
 prelate, born at Sebenico about 1580; died at Rome 
 in 1639. 
 
 Tom'Hne, (Gf.orgf.,) an English prelate, bom in 
 Suffolk in 1750, was originally named Prf.tyman, but 
 assumed that of Tomline in compliance with the wishes 
 of a gentleman who left him a large fortune. He studied 
 at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, was elected Fellow of 
 the college in 1773, and subsequently became tutor to 
 Mr. Pitt. When that statesman obtained the office of 
 first lord of the treasury, Tomline was appointed his 
 secretary. He was made Bishop of Lincoln and Dean 
 of Saint Paul's in 1787, and in 1820 Bishop of Win- 
 chester. He was the author of " The Elements of Chris- 
 tian Theology," (1799,) a " Life of the Right Honourable 
 William Pitt," (1821,) a "Refutation of Calvinism," and 
 a number of sermons. Died in 1827. 
 
 Tom'lins, (Elizabeth Sophia,) an English writer, 
 born in London in 1768; published a number of poems, 
 " The Victim of Fancy," and other novels, and made 
 several translations from the French. Died in 1828. 
 
 Tomlins, (Frederick Guest,) an English journalist, 
 born about 1804. He edited several periodicals, and 
 originated the Shakspeare Society, (1840.) Died in 1867. 
 Tommaseo, tom-ma-sa'o, (Niccoi.6,) a distinguished 
 statesman and scholar, born in Dalmatia al>oitt 1S04. 
 He was educated in Italy, and resided subsequently 
 for a considerable time at Venice. After the revolution 
 of 1848 he was appointed minister of instruction and 
 religious affairs. After Venice had surrendered to the 
 Austrians in 1849, he took refuge in Corfu. He pub- 
 lished a treatise "On Education," (1834,) "New Dic- 
 tionary of Synonyms," (1835,) "Critical Studies," (1843,) 
 and other works of a high character; also a "History 
 of France in the Sixteenth Century," and a historian 
 romance, entitled "The Duke of Athens," (1837.) 
 
 Tommasi, tom-ma'sce, (Giuseppe Maria,) a learned 
 Italian cardinal, born in Sicily in 1640, was the author 
 of a numl>er of valuable works illustrating ecclesiastical 
 history and antiquities and the ceremonies of the Roman 
 Church. Died in 1713. 
 
 See Bkknini, " Vita del Cardinale Tommasi," 1719; Ughelli, 
 " Italia Sacra." 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this, <2ry~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TOMMASINI 
 
 2140 
 
 TOORGENEF 
 
 Tommasini. See Tomasini. 
 
 Tommaso, the Italian of Thomas, which see. 
 
 Tommaso d' Aquino. See Aquinas, (Thomas.) 
 
 Tomori, to'mo-re, [Fr. Tomor£e, to'mo'r^',] (Paul,) 
 a Hungarian prelate and general. He commanded the 
 army of Lewis II. against the Turks, and was killed at 
 the battle of Mohacs, in 1526. 
 
 Tomp'kins, (Daniel D.,) an American statesman, 
 born in Westchester county, New York, in 1774. He 
 represented the city of New York in Congress in 1804, 
 was elected Governor of the State in 1807, continuing 
 in that office till 1817, when he was chosen Vice-Presi- 
 dent of the United States. He was re-elected Vice- 
 President in 1820. While Governor of New York, he 
 was instrumental in having slavery abolished in that 
 State, and gave an efficient support to the war waged 
 against England. Died in New York in June, 1825. 
 
 Tom'jf-ris [Gr. Touvptc] was Queen of the Massa- 
 getae (Scythians) when Cyrus the Great invaded Scythia. 
 According to Herodotus, she defeated him in battle in 
 529 B.C. 
 
 Tondi, ton'dee, (Matteo,) an Italian mineralogist 
 and geologist, born at San Severo in 1762, published 
 several works. Died about 1837. 
 
 Tondu. See Lebrun, (Pierre Henri Marie.) 
 
 Tone, (Theobald Wolfe,) an Irish politician and 
 revolutionist, born at Dublin in 1763, was the founder 
 of the Society of United Irishmen. In 1796 he applied 
 to the French Directory to send an expedition against 
 England, which soon after set sail, commanded by Gene- 
 ral Hoche. This fleet having been scattered by a hurri- 
 cane, Tone made another attempt with a small armament, 
 but he was taken prisoner in an engagement with the 
 English, tried, and condemned to death. He committed 
 suicide in prison, (1798.) 
 
 See " Memoirs of Theobald Wolfe Tone," by his son. 1826 ; 
 " North American Review" for April, 1827. 
 
 Ton'na, (Charlotte E. Brown,) an English author- 
 ess, known under the nam de plume of Charlotte 
 Elizabeth, was born in Norwich in 1792. She was 
 married about 1840 to a Mr. Tonna, who was her second 
 husband. She wrote numerous works, among which 
 are "Judah's Lion," "Judasa Capta," "Personal Recol- 
 lections," (1841,) "Chapters on Flowers," and "Princi- 
 palities and Powers." Died in London in 1846. 
 
 Tonnele, tonli', (Louis Nicolas Alfred,) a French 
 litterateur and poet, born at Tours in 183 1 ; died in 1858. 
 
 Ton'son, (Jacob,) an English publisher, born in 
 London about 1656. He published the works of Dryden 
 and other eminent authors. In several letters to Tonson, 
 Dryden complains that he (Tonson) sent him brass shil- 
 lings and clipped coins. Died in 1736. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. iv. 
 
 Tonstall, pronounced and sometimes written Tun'- 
 stall, (Cuthbert,) a learned English prelate and states- 
 man, born in Yorkshire about 1475. He finished his 
 studies at Padua, and in 1516 was sent on a mission to 
 the King of Spain, afterwards the emperor Charles V. 
 He became Bishop of London in 1522, in the following 
 year was made lord privy seal, and in 1530 Bishop of 
 Durham. Under the reign of Edward VI. he was 
 deprived of his office and imprisoned in the Tower on a 
 charge of favouring an insurrection. On the accession of 
 Mary he was restored to his bishopric, (1553,) but, having 
 refused to take the oath of supremacy after Elizabeth 
 was proclaimed queen, he was again deprived. He died 
 in 1559, leaving several theological and scientific works, 
 which were highly esteemed in his time. He was con- 
 spicuous for his humanity and moderation in that age of 
 intolerance, and permitted no burning of heretics in h'is 
 diocese. 
 
 See Wood, "Atbenae Oxonienses;' 
 Humk, " History of England." 
 
 " Biographia Itrltannica :' 
 
 Tonti, ton'tee, (Lorenzo,) an Italian banker, who 
 settled in France, and originated Tontines, or loans 
 raised on life-annuities, about 1653. 
 
 His son served under La Salle, who, in 1680, ordered 
 him to build a fort on the Illinois River. He afterwards 
 descended the Mississippi in search of La Salle. Died 
 after 1700. 
 
 Tooke, took, (Andrew,) an English writer and 
 teacher, born in London in 1673. He was master of 
 the Charter- House School, and published a "Synopsis 
 of the Greek Language," ("Synopsis Graacse Linguae.") 
 Died in 1731. 
 
 Tooke, (John Horne,) a celebrated English philolo- 
 gist and politician, born in London in June, 1736, was a 
 son of John Horne. He studied at Cambridge, where 
 he took his degree as B.A. in 1758, and, to please his 
 father, was ordained a priest ; but he preferred the pro- 
 fession of .the law. He became an active politician, an 
 opponent of the ministry, and a friend of John Wilke3. 
 Having been adopted by William Tooke, of Purley, as 
 his heir, he assumed the name of Tooke. He studied 
 law, and applied about 1779 for admission to the bar, 
 but was rejected because he had been a priest. Before 
 this event he had been fined ^200 and imprisoned one 
 year for libel. His offence consisted in saying that cer- 
 tain Americans were "murdered" by the king's tioops 
 at Lexington. His reputation is founded chiefly on his 
 "'Ema ir-epoevra ; or, Diversions of Purley," (1786,) 
 which treats of language, and displays much acuteness 
 and originality of thought and presents many good 
 ideas. He was tried in 1794 on a charge of treason, 
 made an able speech in his own defence, and was 
 acquitted. In 1801 he was returned to Parliament for 
 Old Sarum. Died in 1812. He was distinguished for 
 his conversational powers. 
 
 See W. Hamilton, " Life of J. Horne Tooke ;" " Memoirs of 
 Tohn Horne Tooke," by J. A. Graham, 1S2S; "Life of I. Home 
 Tooke," by Alexander Sthphen, 1813 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" 
 for August. 1833, and April, 1840; " Monthly Review" for January, 
 17S7, and December, 1S06. 
 
 Tooke, (Thomas,) a son of Rev. William, noticed 
 below, published in 1838 a " History of Prices and of 
 the State of the Circulation from 1793 to I &37<" etc -. m 
 2 vols., to which were subsequently added four more 
 volumes. Died in 1858. 
 
 Tooke, (Rev. William,) an English divine, born at 
 Islington in 1744, became minister of the English church 
 at Cronstadt. He was appointed in 1774 chaplain to 
 the factory of the Russia Company at Saint Petersburg. 
 He published a "Life of Catherine II.," (3 vols., 1797,) 
 " History of Russia from the Foundation of the Empire 
 to the Accession of Catherine II.," "Varieties of Lite- 
 rature," and other works, and translated Zollikofer's 
 " Sermons" from the German. Died in 1820. 
 
 Tooke, (William,) F.R.S., younger son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Saint Petersburg in 1777. He was 
 one of the founders of the Society for the Diffusion of 
 Useful Knowledge. He edited the poetical works of 
 Churchill, and published "The Monarchy of France: 
 its Rise, Progress, and Fall," (1855.) Died in 1863. 
 
 TooloonorTuliiu, too'loon', or, more fully, Ahmed 
 Ibn Tooloon, an'med Ib'n too'loon', the founder of 
 the dynasty of Tooloonites, was born in 835! He had 
 been made Governor of Egypt in 873, and ruled the 
 country with great ability, when an attempt was made 
 to dispossess him ; on which he raised an army, defeated 
 the troops sent against him by the Caliph of Bagdad, 
 and declared himself independent, lie died about 883. 
 The dynasty which he founded lasted till 905, when the 
 caliph Al-Mooktafee reduced Egypt and put to death 
 the last of the Tooloonite princes. 
 
 Toombs, (Robert,) an American politician, born in 
 Wilkes county, Georgia, in 1810. He was elected to 
 the United States Senate in 1853, and was re-elected 
 in 1859. He was a leader of the secession party in 
 Georgia, and resigned his seat in the Senate when that 
 State withdrew from the Union. He was secretary of 
 state for the Southern Confederacy from February to 
 July, 1861, was elected a Senator about February, 1862, 
 and became a brigadier-general in the same year. 
 
 Toorgenef, toor'geh-nef or toor'Heh-nef, Turgenef, 
 or Turgenev, written also Turgenew, (Alexander 
 Ivanovitch,) a Russian historian, born in 1784. Having 
 visited England and various parts of Europe in search 
 of documents, he published in 1841 his " Historical 
 Monuments of Russia," (in Latin.) Died in 1845. 
 
 Toorgenef or Turgenew, (Ivan,) a Russian poet 
 and litterateur of high reputation, was born at Orel in 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, vi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; ftr, fill, fit; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
TOORGENEF 
 
 2 ! 4 I 
 
 TOR IB 10 
 
 1818. Among his principal works are a poem entitled 
 "Parascha" or "Panascha," (1843,) and "Papers of a 
 Sportsman," (1852.) The latter enjoys great popularity, 
 and has been translated into the principal European 
 languages. 
 
 See the " British Quarterly Review" for October, 1869; " North 
 British Review" for March, 1869. 
 
 Toorgenef, Turgenef, or Turgenew, (Nikolai 
 Ivanovitch,) a brother of Alexander, noticed above, 
 was born in 1790. He distinguished himself as an 
 earnest advocate of the abolition of serfdom in Russia. 
 Having been connected with the secret societies which 
 favoured that reform, he was, after the accession of 
 Nicholas, condemned to death during his absence on his 
 travels. He took up his residence in Paris, where he 
 published in 1847 his work entitled "Russia and the 
 Russians," (in French.) 
 
 Topal-Osman, to'pil os-mln', an able Turkish 
 general and minister of state. He became grand vizier 
 in 1 731, and defeated Nadir Shah in battle on the Tigris 
 in July, 1733. He was killed in battle by the Persians 
 in the same year. 
 
 Topete, to-pa'ta, (Juan,) a Spanish admiral of the 
 present age. As commander of the naval force at 
 Cadiz, he gave an impulse to the insurrection against 
 Isabella in September, 1868. He was minister of the 
 marine from June to November, 1869. 
 
 Tbpfer or Toepfer, top'fer, (Karl,) a German drama- 
 tist, bom at Berlin in 1792, has published several popu- 
 lar comedies, among which we may name "The King's 
 Command" and " Hermann and Dorothea." 
 
 Topffer or Toepffer, top'fer, (Rudolph,) a Gene- 
 vese artist and writer of rare genius, was born in 1799. 
 Among his first publications was his "Voyages en 
 Zigzag," a series of humorous sketches, which attracted 
 general admiration. These were followed by the " Pres- 
 bytere," (1839,) "Genevese Tales," ("Nouvelles Gene- 
 voises," 1841,) and "Rosa et Gertrude," (1845,) all of 
 which were received with great favour. His other prin- 
 cipal works are the comic sketches entitled " M. Vieux- 
 Bois" and " Reflections on Art." The former appeared 
 in the United States in 1842, under the title of " Adven- 
 tures of Mr. Obadiah Oldbuck," etc. Died in 1846. 
 
 See Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits contemporains ;" Clement de 
 Ris, "Portraits a la Phime ;" " Notivelle Biographie Generale ;" 
 the "Living Age" for September, 1847; "Atlantic Monthly" for 
 November, 1865. 
 
 Topino-Lebrun, to'pe'no' leh-bruV, (FRANgois 
 Jean Baptiste,) a French painter, born at Marseilles 
 in 1769, was a republican and a friend of Ceracchi the 
 sculptor. He was accused of conspiring with Ceracchi 
 against the life of Bonaparte, and was executed in 1801, 
 although his guilt was not proved. 
 
 Top'la-djf, (Augustus Montague,) an English Cal- 
 vinistic divine, born in Surrey in 1740. He studied at 
 Trinity College, Dublin, and became vicar of Broad 
 Henbury, Devonshire. He was the author of several 
 controversial works, and of a number of beautiful and 
 popular hymns. Died in 1778. 
 
 Toppi, top'pee, (Niccol&,) an Italian compiler, born 
 at Chieta about 1603, published a work on the history 
 of Neapolitan literature, (1678.) Died in 1681. 
 
 Toranus or Toranius. See Rufinus. 
 
 Torbido, toR'be-do, or Turbido, tooR'be-do, (Fran- 
 cesco,) called II Moro, a skilful Italian painter, born 
 at Verona about 1500. He painted frescos and portraits. 
 Died about 1581. 
 
 Tor'bert, (Alfred T.,) an American general, born 
 in Delaware, graduated at West Point in 1855. lie 
 served as an officer at the battle of Antietam, Sep- 
 tember 17, 1862, and at Gettysburg, July 2-3, 1863, and 
 commanded a division of the army of General Sheridan 
 at Opequan Creek, September 19, and Cedar Creek, 
 October 19, 1864- At the end of 1864 he was chief of 
 cavalry in the Middle military division. He resigned in 
 October, 1866. 
 
 Toroy. See Colbert and Jean Baptiste. 
 
 Tordenskjold or Tordenskiold, tou'den-ske-old', 
 (Peter,) a celebrated admiral in the Danish service, 
 born at Drontheim, in Norway, in 1691, was originally 
 named Wkssel. As commander of a privateer in the 
 war with Sweden, he captured numerous merchant- 
 
 vessels, and was made lieutenant in 1712. He obtained 
 the rank of commodore in 1715 for his services in de- 
 stroying a number of Swedish ships on the coast of 
 Norway. In 1716 he won a signal victory over the 
 Swedes, under Admiral Wachtmeister, for which the 
 king bestowed upon him a gold medal. He was soon 
 after ennobled by Frederick IV., with the name of Tor- 
 denskiold, ("Shield against Thunder,") and in 171 7 
 captured the fortified town of Marstrand. After the 
 peace of Fredericksberg he visited Germany, and was 
 killed in a duel at Hanover, (1720 or 1721.) 
 
 See Rothb, " Tordenskjold's Liv 02 Itevnet," 3 vols., 1747-50; 
 Tharup, "P. Tordenskjold's Liv og Levnet," 1838; Bohr, "P. 
 Tordenskjold," etc., 1838; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Tordesillas. See Hf.rrera. 
 
 Torelli, to-rel'lee, (Giuseppe,) an eminent Italian 
 scholar and mathematician, born at Verona in 1721. He 
 studied at Padua, where he became thoroughly versed 
 in the ancient languages. He subsequently prepared 
 an edition of all the works of Archimedes, (both in 
 Greek and Latin,) which was published in 1792. He also 
 translated /Esop's "Fables" into Latin. Died in 1781. 
 
 See SmiLlATO, "De Vita J. Torelli Commentarius," 178a. 
 
 Torelli, [Lat. Taure'lius,] (Lf.i.io,) an Italian jurist 
 and statesman, born at Fano in 1489, settled at Florence 
 about 1528, and became podesta of that city. He was 
 appointed chancellor and chief secretary to Cosimo de' 
 Medici about 1546. He published an excellent edition 
 of the important Florentine manuscripts of the Pandects, 
 (3 vols, fol., 1553.) Died in 1576. 
 
 See Manni, "Vita di L. Torelli," 1770. 
 
 Torelli, (Pomponio,) Count of Monte-Chiarugola, 
 an Italian poet, born at Parma in 1539. He wrote 
 tragedies, etc. Died in 1608. 
 
 Torefio, to-rin'yo, (Don Jose Maria Quf.ypo de 
 Llano Ruiz de Saravia,) a Spanish statesman and 
 historian, born at Oviedo in 1786. He took an active 
 part in the insurrection against the French in 1808, and 
 in 1810 was chosen a member of the Cortes. After the 
 return of Ferdinand VII., in 1814, he left Spain, and 
 resided many years in France, England, and Germany. 
 On the death of Ferdinand he returned to Madrid, and 
 was appointed ministe* of finance in 1834, and in 1835 
 succeeded Martinez de la Rosa as minister of foreign 
 affairs and president of the council. He was compelled, 
 on account of his moderate policy, to resign the same 
 year ; and he lived subsequently in Paris and London. 
 He was the author of a " History of the Insurrection, 
 War, and Revolution of Spain," (5 vols., 1835.) Died 
 in 1843. 
 
 See L. de Lomenie, "M. Toreno, par un Homme de Rien," 
 1844; "Nouvelle Biographie G6ne"rale." 
 
 Torenvhit, to'ren-vit', (Jacob,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at Leyden in 1631. His works are chiefly his- 
 torical pieces and portraits. Died in 1719. 
 
 Torfceus. See Torfaus. 
 
 Torfaus, Torfaeus, tor-fa'us, or Tor'fes-en, [Fr. 
 Torfee, toR'fa',] (Thormodr,) an Icelandic scholar and 
 antiquary, born in 1740. He studied at Copenhagen, 
 and in 1682 became royal historiographer. He was 
 the author of a " History of Norway," (in Latin, 4 vols., 
 1711,) "History of the Orkney Islands," (" Historia 
 Rerum Orcadensium," 1715,) " Series Dynastarum et 
 Regum Dania," etc., and other works on Scandinavian 
 history. His Latin style is remarkable for its elegance, 
 and his writings exhibit great learning and research. 
 Died in 1719. 
 
 See J. Erichsen, "T. Torfesens Levnetsbeskrivelse," 1788. 
 
 Torfee. See Torfaus. 
 
 Torfesen. See Torfaus. 
 
 Toribio, to-ree'Be-o, (Alfonso Mongrovejo — mon- 
 gRo-va'Ho,) a Spanish prelate, born near Valladolid in 
 1538. He became Archbishop of Lima in 1580. Died 
 in 1606. 
 
 See Pinelo, " Vida de Don Toribio," 1653. 
 
 Toribio de Benavente, to-re'se-o da Ba-na-veVta, 
 a Spanish missionary of the sixteenth century, resided 
 many years in Mexico, and was guardian of a convent at 
 Tezcuco. He wrote a history of New Spain, which is 
 still in manuscript. 
 
 See Pebscott, "History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. ii. 
 book iii. 
 
 « as t; 9 as s: g hard; g as>; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, triltid; % as t; th as in thii. (jy See Explanations, p, 23.; 
 
TOR IN US 
 
 2142 
 
 TORRIGIANO 
 
 Torinua, to-ree'nus, (Ai.banus,) a Swiss physician, 
 originally named Alban Thorer, born in the canton of 
 Zurich in 1489, became professor of practical medicine 
 at Bale. He translated a number of Greek medical 
 works into Latin, and published editions of several Latin 
 treatises on medicine. Died in 1550. 
 
 Torlonia, toR-lo'ne-i, (Alessandro,) Duke of Cesi 
 and Marquis of Roma-Vecchia, an opulent Italian banker, 
 was born in 1800. He expended his fortune liberally 
 in collecting works of art and erecting fine buildings at 
 Rome. 
 
 Torlonia, (Giovanni,) a distinguished Italian banker, 
 born in 1754, in indigent circumstances, was the father 
 of the preceding. He acquired a large fortune by his 
 enterprise and financial talent, and was ennobled, with 
 the title of Duke of Bracciano. Died in 1829. 
 
 Tornberg, toRn'bSRg, (Carl Johan,) a Swedish Ori- 
 entalist, born at Linkoping in 1807, became professor of 
 Oriental languages at Lund about 1844. He has written 
 much on Arabic literature and antiquities. 
 
 Tornielli, toR-ne-el'lee, (Agostino,) an Italian histo- 
 rian, born near Novara in 1543. He published " Annals, 
 Sacred and Profane, from the Creation to the Time of 
 Christ," (" Annates sacri et profani," etc., 2 vols., i6to.) 
 Died in 1622. 
 
 Tor'por-ley, (Nathaniel,) an English mathema- 
 tician and divine, born about 1570, was amanuensis to 
 Francis Vieta. He published a treatise on spherical 
 trigonometry, and other works. Died in 1632. 
 
 Torquatu.8. See Manlius. 
 
 Torquemada, toR-ka-ma'na, a Spanish monk of the 
 sixteenth century, was the author of a history of Mexico, 
 entitled " Monarchia Indiana," published at Seville in 
 1615 and at Madrid in 1723. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. j. 
 book i. 
 
 Torquemada, [Lat. Turrecrema'ta,] (Juan,) a 
 Spanish theologian, born at Valladolid in 1388. He 
 became a cardinal in 1439, and wrote several works. 
 Died in 1468. 
 
 Torquemada, de, da toR-ki-ma'oa, (Tomas,) a Span- 
 ish Dominican monk, infamous for his cruelty, was bom 
 in 1420. He was made first Inquisitor-General in 1483, 
 and he is said in sixteen years to have condemned 
 ninety thousand persons to perpetual imprisonment, 
 and more than eight thousand to be burned. Died in 
 1498. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of Ferdinand and Isabella." vol. i. part 
 i. : Llorente, " Histoire de requisition d'Espagne;" Mariana, 
 " Historia de Espana ;" " Nouvelle Biographie GineVale." 
 
 Torre, tor'ra, (Flaminio,) an Italian painter and en- 
 graver, born at Bologna in 1621, was a pupil of Guido 
 Reni. Died in 1661. 
 
 Torre, del, del tor'ra, (Filippo,) a learned Italian 
 antiquary, born in Friuli in 1657, was made Bishop of 
 Adria by Pope Clement XI. He was the author of 
 several antiquarian works, the most important of which 
 is entitled "Monuments of Ancient Antium," ("Monu- 
 menta veteris Antii.") Died in 1717. 
 
 See Facciolati, "Vita di P. Turri," 1719; Niceron, "Mi- 
 moires." 
 
 Torre, della, del'li tor'ra, (FrLOMARiNO,) Duke, an 
 Italian nobleman, noted for his scientific attainments, 
 was born in Naples. Having been unjustly charge'd 
 with favouring the designs of the French, he fell a 
 victim to the fury of the Neapolitan mob, which, after 
 destroying his property, killed him, together with his 
 brother, (1799.) 
 
 Torre, della, (Giovanni Maria,) an Italian savant, 
 born at Rome about 1712, became professor of philoso- 
 phy and mathematics at Venice and other Italian cities. 
 He published a " Course of Physics," (Latin and Italian,) 
 "The History and Phenomena of Vesuvius Explained," 
 (1755,) and other scientific works. He also made great 
 improvements in the microscope. He was a correspond- 
 ing member of the Royal Society of London and of 
 other learned institutions. Died in 1782. 
 
 Torre, della, (Jacopo,) or Jaoopo da Forli, an 
 Italian medical writer, born at Forll ; died in 1414. 
 
 Torremuzza, de, da toR-ri-moot'sa, (Gabriel Lan- 
 oillotto Castello— lin-chel-lot'to kls-tel'lo,) Prince, 
 
 an Italian numismatist, born at Palermo in 1727. He 
 published several antiquarian treatises. Died in 1792. 
 
 Tor'rens, (Sir Henry,) a distinguished Irish officer, 
 born at Londonderry in 1779. Having previously served 
 in the West Indies and Holland, he accompanied Sir 
 Arthur Wellesley to Portugal as his secretary. He was 
 made adjutant-general in 1820. Died in 1828. 
 
 Torrens, (Robert,) F.R.S., M.P., an economist 
 and writer, born in Ireland in 1780. He supported the 
 Reform bill of 1831, and wrote several works on trade 
 and political economy. Died in 1864. 
 
 Torrentinus, tor-ren-tee'nas, a German grammarian, 
 whose proper name was Hermann von Beek, was born 
 at Zwolle about 1450. He wrote " Elucidarius Carminum 
 et Historiarum," (1510.) Died about 1520. 
 
 Tor-ren'tl-UB, (jAN,fa Dutch painter, born at Am- 
 sterdam in 1589; died in 1640. 
 
 Tor-ren'tl-UB, (L.«vinus,) a Flemish scholar and 
 prelate, originally named Van der Beken, was born at 
 Ghent in 1525. He became Bishop of Antwerp, and sub- 
 sequently was appointed Archbishop of Mechlin, (1595.) 
 He died the same year. He was the author of Latin 
 poems of great elegance, and commentaries on several 
 Latin classics, and was distinguished for his knowledge 
 of Roman antiquities. 
 
 Torres, torres, (Domingos Maximiano,) a Portu- 
 guese poet, born about 1750. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Torres, (Luis da Motta,) a Portuguese admiral, 
 born at Lisbon in 1769. He was appointed Captain- 
 General of Angola about 1815. Died in 1822. 
 
 Torres, de, di tor'rSs, (Clemente,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Seville in 1665. He is said to have 
 been one of the best painters of his time. Died in 1730. 
 
 Torres Naharro. See Naharro. 
 
 Tor'rey, (John,) M.D., LL.D., an eminent American 
 botanist, born in New York in 1798. He published 
 in 1819 a catalogue of the plants in the neighbourhood 
 of New York, which was succeeded in 1824 by the first 
 volume of his "Flora of the Northern United States." 
 In conjunction with Professor Gray, he produced a 
 "Flora of North America," (1838.) He was appointed 
 in 1827 professor of chemistry and botany in the College 
 of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. He has also 
 prepared the botanical reports of the natural history 
 survey of the State of New York, (2 vols. 410, 1844.) 
 
 Torrlcelli, tor-re-sel'lee or tor-re-chel'lee, (Evange- 
 Lrsi'A,) an eminent Italian natural philosopher, born at 
 Piancaldoli, in the Romagna, in 1608. He studied mathe- 
 matics at Rome under Benedetto Castelli, discovered 
 the law which regulates the flowing of water out of an 
 orifice of a vessel, and wrote a treatise on Motion. This 
 commended him to the favour of Galileo, who invited 
 him to Florence. Torricelli went thither in 1641, and 
 remained with Galileo until the death of the latter. He 
 was appointed professor of mathematics at Florence by 
 th.; grand duke Ferdinand. He discovered a method of 
 ascertaining the area of a cycloid. His chief title to 
 celebrity is the discovery of the Torricellian vacuum and 
 the invention of the barometer, which occurred in 1643. 
 He filled with mercury a glass tube about three feet long, 
 closed at one end, and inserted the open end in a quan- 
 tity of mercury. He thus found that a vacuum was 
 formed at the upper end of the tube, and that the column 
 of mercury supported by the pressure of the atmosphere 
 remained about twenty-nine or thirty inches high. He 
 published "Opera Geometrica," (1644) Died at Flor- 
 ence in October, 1647. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita; Italorum doctrina excellentium :" Tira- 
 boschi, " Storia della Letteratura Italiana ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate." 
 
 Torrigiano, tor-re-ja'no, (Pietro,) a celebrated Ital- 
 ian sculptor, born at Florence about 1472. He was a 
 fellow-student of Michael Angelo, of whom he was so 
 jealous that he once assaulted him violently, disfiguring 
 his face for life. He afterwards resided for a time in 
 England, where he was patronized by Henry VIII., and 
 executed the tomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey, 
 and other works. Having returned to Spain in 1519, 
 he was condemned to death by the Inquisition for having 
 broken in pieces a statue of the Virgin which he had 
 
 5, e, T, 5, u, p, long; 1, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fi, f, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
TOR R I JOS 
 
 z'43 
 
 TOULONGEON 
 
 made for a nobleman, who refused to pay the price 
 demanded, (1522.) 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters," etc.; Ticozzi, "Dizio- 
 «ario." 
 
 Torrijos, tor-ree'H6s, (Jose Maria,) a Spanish gene- 
 ial, born at Madrid in 1791, was educated among the 
 pages of Charles IV. He served in the campaigns of 
 1808 and 181 1, and, having been made Captain-General 
 of Valencia, distinguished himself by his real in the 
 cause of the constitution. After the capture of Cadiz 
 by the French, he left Spain, but returned in 1830, soon 
 after which he was. betrayed, with fifty of his companions, 
 into the hands of his enemies, and they were all shot, 
 by order of King Ferdinand VII., in 1831. 
 
 Tor'ring-ton, (Arthur Herbert,) Earl of, an 
 English admiral, was a brother of Chief-Justice Herbert. 
 He was dismissed from all his places by James II. in 
 1687, because he would not vote for the repeal of the 
 Test Act. He commanded the Dutch fleet of the Prince 
 of Orange during his voyage from Holland to Torbay, 
 (1688,) and was appointed first lord of the admiralty by 
 William III. "He was utterly inefficient," says Mac- 
 aulay. In 1690 he was removed from that office, and 
 obtained command of the fleet. He was defeated by the 
 French at Beachy Head, in June, 1690. His conduct in 
 that battle was so disgraceful that he was dismissed from 
 the service. 
 
 See Macaulav, " History of England," vol. iii. 
 
 Torrington, Viscount. See Byng, (George.) 
 
 Toraellino. See Tursellinus. 
 
 Torstenson, toR'sten-son, or Torstensson, (Len- 
 nart,) Count of Ortala, a Swedish commander, born at 
 Torstena in 1603. He accompanied Gustavus Adolphus 
 to Germany in 1630, and after his death served under 
 Baner in various campaigns of the Thirty Years' war. 
 He was appointed to the chief command of the army in 
 Germany in 1641, and in May, 1642, gained a victory 
 over the Imperial troops at Schweidnitz, which was fol- 
 lowed by other successes. He defeated the Imperialists 
 at Jankowitz in February, 1645. Having resigned his 
 command in 1646, he was created a count by Queen 
 Christina, and obtained other distinctions. Died in 1651. 
 
 See Geijer, " Histoirede Suede ;" Casstrorm, "Areminne tifver 
 L. Torstensson," 1786; " Nouvelle Biographie G^ndrale." 
 
 TortellLtoR-teKlee, [Lac. Tortei.'lius,] (Giovanni,) 
 an Italian grammarian, oom at Arezzo about 1400. He 
 wrote " On the Power of Letters," (" De Potestate Lite- 
 rarum.") Died about 1466. 
 
 Tortellius. See Tortellt. 
 
 Torti, toR'tee, (Francesco,) an Italian physician, born 
 at M6dena in 1658, became professor of medicine at 
 M6dena about 1680. He composed several orp.torios in 
 his youth. His chief work is a Treatise on Pernicious 
 Fevers, entitled " Therapeutice specialis ad Febres quas- 
 dam perniciosas," etc., ( 1 709,) which was highly esteemed. 
 He died in 1741. 
 
 See Muratori, "Life of Torti." 
 
 Tory, to're', (Geoffroi,) a French engraver and 
 printer, born at Bourges about 1480. He learned Greek 
 and Latin, established himself as a printer in Paris, and 
 translated several classical works. He also illustrated 
 numerous books with engravings. Died in 1533. 
 
 Toscanella, di, de tos-ka-nel'li, (Orazio,) an Italian 
 writer, born in the Papal States about 1510; died about 
 1580. 
 
 Toscanelli, tos-kl-nel'Iee, (Paolo del Pozzo,) an 
 Italian astronomer, born at Florence in 1397. He formed 
 a project to shorten the route to China by navigating 
 westward, and wrote a letter to Columbus on this subject 
 about 1474. He constructed a gnomon on the cathedral 
 of Florence. Died in 1482. 
 
 Toschi, tos'kee, (Domenico,) an Italian jurist and 
 cardinal, born near Reggio in 1535; died in 1620. 
 
 Toschi, (Paolo,) a celebrated Italian engraver, born 
 at Parma in 1788, became director of the Academy of 
 Fine Arts in his native city. Among his best works 
 may be named his prints after Correggio's " Madonna 
 de'.la Scodella," and the " Venus and Adonis" of Albano. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 Tosetti, to-set'tee, (Urbano,) an Italian philosopher, 
 born at Florence ; died in 1768. 
 
 Tostado or Tostatus. See Alphonsus Abulensis. 
 
 Tos'H or Tos'tig, F.arl of Northumberland, was a 
 brother of King Harold II. In 1066 Tosti and the 
 King of Norway invaded England, and were defeated 
 by Harold. Tosti was killed in this battle, September, 
 1066. 
 
 Tofl-la, King of the Ostrogoths, began to reign in 
 541 A.D. He invaded Italy and captured Rome in 546, 
 after Belisarius had made an effort to raise the siege of 
 that capital. He was defeated in Tuscany by the army 
 of Justinian, under Narses, and was killed in the retreat, 
 in JJ52 A.D. 
 
 Totleben or Todleben, tot'la'ben, (Gottlob Hein- 
 rich,) a profligate German adventurer, born in Saxony 
 about 171a Having been banished for his crimes, he 
 went to Russia about 1755, entered the army, and be- 
 came a general. He took Berlin in 1 760, and committed 
 great cruelties on the Prussians. Died in 1773. 
 
 Tott, de, deh tot, (Francois,) Baron, a French 
 officer, of Hungarian extraction, born in 1733, held an 
 office in the French embassy at Constantinople. He 
 was appointed, after his return, consul to the Crimea, 
 (1767.) He subsequently resided many years in Turkey, 
 where he effected great improvements in the artillery 
 and military fortifications. He was the author of 
 "Memoirs of the Turks and Tartars," (1784,) which 
 obtained great popularity and was translated into 
 several languages. Died in 1793. 
 
 See the "Monthly Review" for September and October, 1785; 
 " Westminster Review" for October, 1837. 
 
 Tot't^n, (George Muirson,) an American civil en- 
 gineer, born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1809. He 
 was appointed engineer-in-chief of the Panama Railroad 
 in 1849. 
 
 Totten, (Joseph Gilbert,) an American officer, born 
 at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1788, served in the war 
 of 1812, and rose to be lieutenant-colonel. He was 
 made colonel and chief engineer in 1838, and in the 
 latter capacity accompanied the army to Mexico in 1847, 
 where he was soon after appointed a brigadier-general. 
 He wrote a " Report on the Subject of National De- 
 fence." Died in 1864. 
 
 Tottenham, tot'ten-am, (Edward,) an English 
 divine and controversialist, born in 1810 ; died in 1853. 
 
 Touoey, tow'se, (Isaac,) an American Democratic 
 politician, born in Connecticut in 1798. He was chosen 
 Governor of Connecticut in 1846, became attorney 
 general of the United States in June, 1848, and was a 
 Senator of the United States from 1852 to 1857. In 
 March, 1857, he was appointed secretary of the navy. 
 He has been accused of dispersing the navy to remote 
 parts of the globe in i860, with a design to favour the 
 movements of the disunionists. Died in 1869. 
 
 Touchard-Lafosse, too'shtR' li'foss', (G.,) a me- 
 diocre French writer, born in 1780, published many 
 historical works and novels. Died in 1847. 
 
 Touche-Trdville. See La Touche. 
 
 Tougard, too'gaV, (JerOme Franqgis,) a French 
 lawyer and horticulturist, born at Havre in 1781. He 
 published several treatises on law and on horticulture. 
 
 Toullier, too'le^i', (Charles Bonaventi re Marie,) 
 a distinguished French jurist, born about i;6o. He be- 
 came professor of law at Rennes, and published an im- 
 portant work entitled "The French Civil Law according 
 to the Order of the Code Napoleon," (14 vols., 1811-31 ) 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 See "Biographie Universelle," (new edition;) C. Paulmier, 
 "Elogede Toullier," 1836. 
 
 Toulmin, (Camilla.) See Crossland. 
 
 Toulmin, tool'min, (Joshua,) an English Unitarian 
 divine, born in London in 1740, became one of the pas- 
 tors of the congregation at Birmingham. He was the 
 author of "Memoirs of Socinus," (1777,) "Review of 
 the Life, Character, and Writings of John Biddle," 
 (1789,) and other works. Died in 1815. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for December, 1816. 
 
 Toulongeon, de, deh too'lo.N'zhdn', (Francoh 
 Emanuel,) Viscount, a French historian, born in 
 Franclie-Comti in 1748. Having joined the popular 
 party on the breaking out of the Revolution, he was a 
 deputy to the States-General in 1789. He published, 
 
 « a» *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this, (^^■Sec Explanations, t ,. 23.) 
 
TOULOUSE 
 
 2144 
 
 TOUSSAIN 
 
 among other works, a " History of France from the | pope apostolic vicar in India 
 Revolution of 1789," (4 vols., 1801-to,) and "Revolu- 
 tionary Manual," etc. ; also a translation of Cxsar's 
 "Commentaries." Died in 1812. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire ;" Dupont de Nemours, 
 "Notice sur M. de Toulongeon," 1818; " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Toulouse, de, deh too'looz', (Louis Alexandre de 
 Bourbon — deh booR'bdN',) Count, a French admiral, 
 born in 1678, was a son of Louis XIV. and Madame 
 de Montespan. He received command of a fleet, and 
 opposed with success the English and Dutch fleets near 
 Malaga in 1704. Died in 1737. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, "Memoires." 
 
 Toup, toop,(JoNATHAN,) an English divine and scholar, 
 born in Cornwall in 1713. He studied at Exeter College, 
 Oxford, and subsequently became a prebendary of Exe- 
 ter Cathedral. He published several critical works of 
 great merit, the most important of which is entitled 
 " Emendations of Suidas," (" Emendationes in Suidam," 
 4 vols., 1760-75.) Died in 1785. 
 
 Tour d'Auvergne, La. See Turenne, Latour, 
 and Bouillon. 
 
 Tour, de la, (Baillet,) Count. See La Tour, von. 
 
 Tour, La. See La Tour. 
 
 Tourette, La. See Tourrette, La. 
 
 Tournefort, de, deh tooR'neh'foR' or tooRn'foR', 
 (Joseph Pitton,) an eminent French botanist, born at 
 Aix, in Provence, in 1656. He studied medicine at 
 Montpellier, and subsequently made scientific excursions 
 in Spain and the Pyrenees. He was appointed in 1683 
 assistant professor at the Jardin du Roi, in Paris, where 
 his lectures won for him a high reputation. He set out 
 in 1700 on a journey to Asia Minor, Greece, and the 
 adjacent countries, accompanied by Gundelsheimer. On 
 his return to Paris he obtained the chair of medicine 
 in the College of France. He died in 1708. His prin- 
 cipal works are his " History of Plants in the Environs 
 of Paris," (" Histoire des Plantes qui naissent aux Envi- 
 rons de Paris," etc., 1698,) " Elements of Botany," (" In- 
 stitutions Rei Herbaria;," 3 vols. 4to, with 476 plates, 
 1700,) and "Travels in the Levant," (2 vols., 1717.) 
 
 See Fontenelle, " Fjoges ;" Biographie Mddicale ;" Maury, 
 "Histoire de PAcade'mie des Sciences;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge'nerale." 
 
 Tournely, tooR'ni'le', (Honor*,) a French priest and 
 writer on theology, born at Antibes in 1658 ; died in 1 729. 
 
 Tournemine, tooR'neh'men' or tooRn'men', (Ren* 
 Joseph,) a learned French Jesuit, born at Rennes in 
 1661. Having previously filled various professorships, 
 he became in 1701 editor of the "Journal de TreVoux." 
 Among his works we may name " Reflections on Athe- 
 ism," and an edition of Pndeaux's " History of the Jews." 
 Died in 1739. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires ;" Feller, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Tournemine, de, d?h tooR'neh'men', (Charles,) a 
 French painter, born at Toulon in 1825. 
 
 Tourneur, (Charles Louis Francois.) See Le- 
 tourneur. 
 
 Tourneur, Le, leh tooR'nUR', (Pierre,) a French 
 translator, born at Valognes in 1736. He produced in 
 1770 a translation of Young's "Night Thoughts," which 
 was praised by Diderot, and commenced a prose version 
 of Shakspeare's plays, the first volume of which appeared 
 In 1776. The admiration of Shakspeare which he ex- 
 pressed provoked the hostility of Voltaire. I,e Tour- 
 neur's version of Shakspeare (20 vols., 1776-82) is 
 considered the best in the French language. It was 
 revised and republished by M. Guizot in 1824. He also 
 translated "Clarissa Harlowe," "Ossian's Poems," and 
 other English books. Died in 1788. 
 
 See La Harpe, " Cours de Literature ;" Desessarts, " Siecles 
 Litte>aires." 
 
 Tourneux, Le, leh tooR'nuh', (Nicolas,) an eloquent 
 French preacher, born at Rouen in 1640. He preached 
 in Paris, was praised by Boileau, and received a pension 
 from Louis XIV. He wrote several devotional works. 
 Died in 1689. 
 
 Tournon, de, deh tooR'noN', (Charles Thomas 
 Maii.lard,) born at Turin in 1668, studied at the College 
 of the Propaganda at Rome, and was appointed by the 
 
 In 1 701 he went on a 
 mission to China, where his indiscreet zeal caused him 
 to be imprisoned by the emperor in 1707. Died in 
 prison in 1710. 
 
 See Cardinal Passionei, " Memorie storiche della Legazione e 
 Morte del Cardinale di Tournon." 
 
 Tournon, de, (Francois,) a French cardinal and 
 statesman, born at Tournon in 1489, was distinguished 
 by the favour of Francis I. In 1526 he assisted in ne- 
 gotiating for the deliverance of the king, who had been 
 made prisoner by Charles V., and in 1529 concluded the 
 peace of Cambray. He was soon after made a cardinal 
 and Archbishop of Bourges. He was instrumental in 
 effecting the marriage of the son of Francis, afterwards 
 Henry II., with Catherine de' Medici, and in 1538 nego- 
 tiated with Charles V. the ten years' truce of Nice. He 
 was made prime minister of state about 1542, in which 
 post he was conspicuous for his cruel persecution of the 
 Protestants. Died in 1562. 
 
 See Fleury-Ternal, " Histoire du Cardinal de Tournon," 1728; 
 Dk Thou, " Historia sui Teniporis ;" Saintf.-Makthe, "Gallia 
 Christiana Nova;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Tournon, de, (Philippe Camili.e Casimir Marce- 
 lin,) Count, a French statesman, born at Apt in 1778. 
 He was appointed prefect of Rome by Napoleon, and 
 after the second restoration became prefect of the 
 department of the Gironde. He wrote " Statistical 
 Studies of Rome," etc., (1831.) Died in 1833. 
 
 Touro, too'ro, (Judah,) a wealthy and benevolent 
 American Jew, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1776. 
 He settled at New Orleans, and at his death left $80,000 
 to found an almshouse in that city, as well as numerous 
 munificent bequests for various charities in other cities 
 of the United States, and for the relief of the Jews in 
 Palestine. Died in 1854. 
 
 Touron, too'r6N', (Antoine,) a French biographer 
 and monk, born near Castres in 1686. He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, in French, a "Life of Thomas Aqui- 
 nas," (1737,) and a " Life of Charles Borromeo," (1761.) 
 Died in 1775. 
 
 Tourreil, de, deh too'r&I' or too'r&'ye, (Jacques,) a 
 French litterateur, born at Toulouse in 1656. He trans- 
 lated some orations of Demosthenes, and was admitted 
 into the French Academy in 1692. Died in 1715. 
 
 Tourret, too'rj', (Chari.es Gilbert,) a French min- 
 ister of state, born at Montmarault in 1795. He was 
 minister of agriculture from June to December, 1848, 
 and founded agricultural schools, (fermes holes.) Died 
 in 1857. 
 
 Tourrette.de la, deh IS too'reV, (Marc Antoine 
 Louis Claret,) a French naturalist, born at Lyons 
 in 1729, was a friend of J. J. Rousseau. He published, 
 besides other works, " Elements of Botany," (2 vols., 
 1766,) and "Chloris Lugdunensis," (1785.) Died in 1793. 
 
 Tourtelle, tooR'tSI', (Etienne,) a French medical 
 writer, born at Besancon in 1756. Among his works is 
 a " Philosophic History of Medicine," (2 vols., 1804.) 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 Tourville, de, deh tooR'vel', (Anne Hilarion de 
 Cotentin — deh ko'toN'taN',) Count, a celebrated 
 French admiral, born at Tourville in 1642. He became 
 a captain in 1667, and served with distinction against 
 the Dutch and Spaniards. In 1682 he obtained the rank 
 of lieutenant-general, and in 1689 was made a vice- 
 admiral. "Tourville," says Macaulay, " was the ablest 
 maritime commander that his country then possessed." 
 (" History of England," vol. iii.) He defeated the Eng- 
 lish admiral Torrington at Beachy Head in June, 1690. 
 In 1692 he was ordered, with forty-four ships, to protect 
 the descent of an army on England. The English and 
 Dutch fleets gained a decisive victory over him at La 
 Hogue the same year. He was created a marshal of 
 France in 1693. Died in 1701. 
 
 See "Memoires de Tourville," 3 vols , 1742; Richer, "Viede 
 Tourville," 1783; Sismondi, "Histoire des Francais;" Saint- 
 Simon, " Me'molres;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Toussain, too'saN', (Daniel,) a French Protestant 
 minister, born at Montbelliard in 1541. He taught 
 Hebrew at Orleans, and afterwards preached at Heidel- 
 berg, where he also was professor of theology. He 
 wrote several works. Died in 1602. 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mit; ndt: good; moon: 
 
TOUSSAIN 
 
 214$ 
 
 TOWNSHEND 
 
 Toussain, [Lat. Tussa'nvs,] (Jacoi'i-s,) a French 
 Hellenist, born at Troyes. . He was appointed prol 
 of Greek at the College Royal by Francis I. about 1532. 
 Among his pupils were Turnebe (Tumebus) and Henri 
 Estienne. Died in 1547. 
 
 Toussaint, too'saV, (Anna Luise Gertrude,) a 
 Dutch novelist, born at Alkniaar in 1812. She pub- 
 lished, besides other works, "Almagro," (1837,) "The 
 English in Rome," (1840,) and " Lauernesse House," 
 (" Het Huis Lauernesse," 1841,) which had a great 
 success ; also a popular historical novel, entitled " Ley- 
 cester in Nederland," (about 185 1.) She was married 
 to the painter Bosboom in 185 1. 
 
 See the "Westminster Review" for August, 1843. 
 
 Toussaint, too's&N', (Francois Chkistophe Ar- 
 MAND,) a French sculptor, born in Paris in 1806, was a 
 pupil of David of Angers. Among his works is "Two 
 Indian Slaves bearing a Torch." Died in 1862. 
 
 Toussaint, (Francois Vincent,) a French writer, 
 born in Paris about 1715. He published a treatise on 
 ethics, entitled " Les Mceurs par Panage," (1748.) Died 
 in Berlin in 1772. 
 
 Toussaint L'Ouverture, too'sa.N' loo'veVtuR', a 
 celebrated negro general and liberator, born near Cap 
 Francois, in Hayti, in 1743, was descended from an 
 African prince. His parents were both slaves and of 
 pure negro blood. He learned to read and to write, 
 and by his good conduct and intelligence gained the 
 confidence of his master, who appointed him steward 
 of the implements employed in making sugar. In 
 August, 1 791, began a general insurrection of the slaves 
 of Hayti, who massacred many of the whites. Tous- 
 saint, however, was innocent of these acts of cruelty, 
 and saved the lives of his master's family. After they 
 had escaped from the island, Toussaint joined the army 
 which was fighting for liberty. The insurgents espoused 
 the cause of Louis XVI., while their former masters 
 received aid from the English. 
 
 The horrible confusion which prevailed in the island 
 was increased by dissensions among the whites and by 
 the interference of the Spaniards. Toussaint obtained 
 the chief command of the negroes, and after the French 
 Convention had decreed the liberation of the slaves 
 (February, 1794) he fought against the English and 
 Spaniards, and aided the French general Laveaux to 
 expel those invaders. He gained a number of victories. 
 "His energy and his prowess," says Beard, "made him 
 the idol of his troops. ... In his deeds and warlike 
 achievements he had equalled the great captains of 
 ancient and modem times." He was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief by the French commissioner in 1796, 
 and confirmed as such by Bonaparte about December, 
 1799. He was regarded as a general benefactor by all 
 classes and colours. He restored order and prosperity, 
 and governed with moderation and humanity. Under 
 his auspices a liberal constitution was formed, and he 
 was elected president for life. Toussaint sent this con- 
 stitution to Bonaparte for his approbation in July, 1800, 
 but the French Consul exclaimed, " He is a revolted 
 slave, whom we must punish ; the honour of France is 
 outraged." Having resolved to reduce the negroes 
 again to slavery, Bonaparte sent an army of about 
 35,000 men, under Leclerc, to subdue Toussaint. This 
 army arrived at Hayti about the end of 1801, and, though 
 courageously resisted by Toussaint, occupied the sea- 
 ports. Retiring to the mountains, Toussaint maintained 
 the contest, and killed thousands of the French. Le- 
 clerc resorted to negotiation, and offered the negrqes 
 their liberty. These conditions were accepted by Tous- 
 saint, who concluded a peace and retired to his estate. 
 He was taken by treachery in June, 1802, and carried to 
 France, and confined in the dungeon in the castle of 
 Joux, near Besancon, where he died in April, 1803. 
 According to some authors, he was starved to death. 
 
 See Saint Rkmy, "Vie de'foussaint L'Ouverture," 1X50; John- 
 R. Beard, " Lift of Toussaint L'Ouverture," 1S53; J. Redpatii, 
 '■Tnn-^iit.t I.Onverture ; a Biographv." 1*63; Durroca, "Vie de 
 TrrniMrnt L"nvertiire," 1S02; James Stephen-, " History of Tous- 
 saint l.ouvrrture," 1814: " Lecture on Toussaint L'Ouverture," by 
 Wendki.i. Phillips, Boston, 1863. 
 
 Touasenel, toos'nel', ( Alphonse,) a French naturalist 
 and journalist, born at Montreuil-Bellay in 1803. He 
 
 published, besides other works, " Le Monde des Oiseaux ; 
 Ornithologie passionnelle," (1852.) 
 
 TSw'er, (Zealous B.,) an American general, born in 
 Massachusetts about 1822, graduated at West Point in 
 1841. He became a captain about 1855, a brigadier- 
 general of volunteers in 1861, and commanded a brigade 
 at the second battle of Bull Run, August 29 and 30, 
 1862. 
 
 T5w'er§, (Joseph,) an English Unitarian divine and 
 writer, born in Southwark in 1737. He was a con- 
 tributor to the " Biographia Britannica," and wrote a 
 " Life of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia," (2 
 vols., 1788,) " Observations on the Rights and Duties 
 of Juries," and other works. Died in 1799. 
 
 Tow'good, (Micajah,) an English dissenter, born 
 in Devonshire in 1700, wrote, besides other works, 
 a book entitled " High-Flown Episcopal and Priestly 
 Claims freely Examined." He preached at Exeter. Died 
 in 1792. 
 
 Towianski, to-ve-an'skee, a Polish mystic, who pre- 
 tended to have divine revelations, was born in Lithuania 
 about 1800. He successively visited the principal cities 
 of Europe, and while in Paris made a convert of the 
 Polish poet Mickiewicz, who wrote a treatise in favour 
 of his doctrines, entitled " The Official Church and Mes- 
 sianism." Being soon after banished from France, he 
 retired to Switzerland. 
 
 TBwn'ley, (Charles,) an English amateur, born in 
 Lancashire in 1737, resided at Rome, where he made a 
 large and choice collection of statuary, medals, and other 
 remains of ancient art, which are now in the British 
 Museum and are called the "Townley marbles." His 
 collection was purchased for twenty-eight thousand two 
 hundred pounds. Died in 1805. 
 
 Townley, (James.) an English divine and dramatic 
 writer, born in London in 1 715. He was a friend of 
 Hogarth, whom he assisted in his " Analysis of Beauty." 
 He was the author of the popular farce of " High Life 
 Below-Stairs," (1759,) and he is said to have assisted 
 Garrick in the composition of his dramas. Died in 
 1778. 
 
 Townley, (John,) an uncle of Charles, noticed above, 
 was born in 1697. He served with distinction in the 
 French army, and made a good French translation of 
 "Hudibras." Died in 1782. 
 
 TSwn'send, (Eliza,) an American writer, born in 
 Boston about 1788, was the author of an admired poem, 
 entitled "The Incomprehensibility of God," and other 
 works. Died in 1854. 
 
 See Griswold, " Female Poets of America." 
 
 TSwn'send, (John,) an English divine and philan- 
 thropist, born in London in 1757. He was one of the 
 founders of the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb at 
 Bermondsey, (1792.) He wrote "Hints on Sunday- 
 Schools," etc., and other works. 
 
 Townsend, (Joseph,) an English divine and physi- 
 cian, born about 1740, was chaplain to Lady Huntingdon. 
 He published "The Physician's Vade-Mecum," (1794,) 
 "The Character of Moses established for Veracity as an 
 Historian," etc., (2 vols. 4to, 1813-15,) which is highly 
 commended, and other works. Died in 1816. 
 
 Townshend. town'zend, (Charles,) Viscount Town- 
 shend, an English statesman, born in 1676, was the 
 son of Horatio Townshend, the first viscount of that 
 name. He succeeded to the peerage at the death of his 
 father, about 1686. In 1709 he was sent as ambassador 
 to the Dutch United Provinces, and negotiated the Bar- 
 rier treaty. He married a sister of Sir Robert Walpole. 
 On the accession of George I. (1714) he became secre- 
 tary of state and prime minister. He and the other 
 ministers were all Whigs. By the intrigues or agency of 
 Sunderland, he was removed in 1716, and was offered 
 the place of lord lieutenant of Ireland, which he indig- 
 nantly refused. Sir Robert Walpole, who was his friend, 
 resigned office, and went with Townshend into the op- 
 position. In 1 72 1 Townshend was appointed secretary 
 of state in a new ministry, of which Walpole was the 
 premier, or first lord of the treasury. He resigned 
 in 1730, in consequence of a quarrel with Walpole. 
 "Townshend retired," sajs Macaulay, "and, with rare 
 moderation and public spirit, refused to take any part in 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; % hard; g as^'; G, H, «.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as 17 th is in this. (2y~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TOWNSHEND 
 
 2146 
 
 TRAJAN 
 
 politics." (Review of the "Life of Lord Chatham.") 
 He died in 173S, leaving the reputation of an honest 
 statesman. 
 
 Townshend, (Charles,) a grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1725, and was a younger son of the 
 third Viscount Townshend. He entered the House of 
 Commons in 1747, and acquired a high reputation as an 
 orator. He was appointed treasurer of the chamber in 
 1756. In politics he was a Whig. He became secretary 
 at war under Pitt in 1761, and first lord of trade and 
 plantations in 1763. He supported the Stamp Act, so 
 obnoxious to the American colonies, (1765.) In the new 
 ministry formed by Lord Chatham in 1766, he was 
 chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of 
 Commons. He procured the passage of the bill which 
 imposed a tax on tea and other articles imported into 
 the American colonies, and which provoked them to 
 revolt. " Charles Townshend," says Macaulay, " a man 
 of splendid talents, of lax principles, and of boundless 
 vanity and presumption, would submit to no control. . . . 
 He had always quailed before the genius and the lofty 
 character of 'Pitt ; but, now that Pitt [Lord Chatham] 
 had quitted the House of Commons and seemed to have 
 abdicated the part of chief minister, Townshend broke 
 loose from all restraint." (Essay on the " Earl of Chat- 
 ham," in the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1844.) 
 He died in September, 1767. He had married a daughter 
 of fohn, Duke of Argyle. 
 
 Townshend, (George,) Marquis Townshend, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born in 1724 He became 
 a general, was sent to Canada, and succeeded Wolfe as 
 commander-in-chief when the latter was killed, (1759.) 
 He was afterwards employed in Germany and Portugal. 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 TSwn'son, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born 
 in Essex in 171 5. He studied at Christ Church College, 
 Oxford, and rose through various preferments to be 
 Archdeacon of Richmond in 1780. He published several 
 theological works, one of which, entitled " Discourses 
 on the Four Gospels," (1778,) was very favourably re- 
 ceived, and was praised by Bishop Lowth. The degree 
 of D.D. was bestowed on the author by the University 
 of Oxford. Died in 1792. 
 
 Tbw'spn, (Nathan,) an American general, born 
 near Baltimore in 1784. As captain of the second regi- 
 ment of artillery, under the command of Lieutenant- 
 Colonel (afterwards General) Scott, he assisted in the 
 capture of the brig Caledonia from the British, (October, 
 1S12.) In the campaigns of 1813 and 1814 he won a 
 high reputation for skill and bravery, and distinguished 
 himself in the actions of Chippewa, Niagara, and Fort 
 Erie. He became successively lieutenant-colonel, (1816,) 
 paymaster-general, (1819,) brigadier-general, (1834,) and 
 major-general, (1849.) Died in 1854. 
 
 To'zer, (Henry,) an English Puritan minister, born 
 in Devonshire in 1602. He preached at Oxford, and 
 afterwards at Rotterdam, where he died in 1650. He 
 had published several sermons. 
 TozzettL See Targionl 
 
 Tozzi, tot'see, (I.uca,) an Italian physician, born near 
 Aversa in 1638, succeeded Malpighi as professor at Rome 
 and physician to the pope in 1695. Died in 1 71 7. 
 
 Tra'be-a, (Quintus,) a Roman comic poet, who lived 
 about 130 B.C. His works are lost, except small' frag- 
 ments. 
 
 Tra'cjf, (Albert H.,) an American lawyer, born at 
 Norwich, Connecticut, in 1793, removed to the State of 
 New York about 1812. He was a member of Congress 
 from 1819 to 1825. Died at Buffalo in 1859. 
 
 Tracy, (Uriah,) an American statesman, born in 
 Franklin, Connecticut, in 1755. He represented a dis- 
 trict of Connecticut in Congress from 1793 to 1796, 
 and was elected a Senator of the United States by the 
 legislature of that State in the latter year. He was 
 an able speaker, and was distinguished for his wit and 
 humour. He remained in the Senate until his death, 
 which occurred in 1807. 
 
 Tracy, de, deh tRi'se', (Alexandre Cesar Victor 
 Charles Destutt — dj'tii',) Marquis, a French poli- 
 tician, born in Paris in 1781. He was a Liberal member 
 of the Chamber of Deputies from 1827 to 1848, and was 
 
 minister of the marine from December, 1848, to October, 
 1849. Died in 1864. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biograpliie GeneVale." 
 
 Tracy, de, (Antoine Louis Charles Destutt,) 
 Comte, a French philosopher, born in the Bourbonnais 
 in 1754, was the father of the preceding. He attained 
 the rank of mare'chal-de-camp in the army in 1792, and 
 was imprisoned for ten months in the reign of terror. 
 About 1800 he was appointed a member of the senate. 
 Having acquired distinction by several works on logic, 
 grammar, etc., he was admitted into the French Acad- 
 emy in 1808. His chief work is " Elements of Ideology," 
 ("Elements d'Ideologie," 4 vols., 1817-18.) His phi- 
 losophy is the sensualism or sensationalism of Condillac 
 carried to the extreme issues. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Damiron, "Essai de la Philosophic en France;" Mignkt, 
 " Notices et Portraits ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Tra'cjf, de, (Sarah Newton,) Marquise, born at 
 Stockport, in England, in 1789, was married in 1816 to 
 the Mart|nia de Tracy, noticed above. She died in 1S50, 
 leaving " Essais divers, Lettres et Pensees," (3 vols., 
 1S52-55.) 
 
 See SainteBeuvb. "Causenes du Lundi " 
 
 Trad'es-cant, (John,) a distinguished traveller and 
 naturalist, supposed to have been a native of Holland, 
 settled in England, and became in 1629 gardener to 
 Charles I. He had previously visited Asia and the 
 shores of the Mediterranean, where he made a collection 
 of plants. Died about 1640. His son, of the same 
 name, born in 1608, went on a scientific expedition to 
 Virginia. He published a descriptive catalogue of his 
 father's Museum, entitled "Museum Tradescantium," 
 etc., (1656.) He died in 1662, and the collection, which 
 he greatly increased, now forms the principal part of the 
 Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. The genus Tradescantia 
 was named in honour of these botanists. 
 
 Traetta, tRa-et'tl, (Tommaso,) an Italian composer, 
 born at Bitonto in 1727. He composed a number of 
 operas. Died in 1779. 
 
 Tragus. See Bock, (Hieronymus.) 
 
 Traheron, trlh'er-on, ? (Bartholomew,) an English 
 Protestant minister, born after 1500. He became keeper 
 of the Royal Library in the reign of Edward VI., at whose 
 death (1553) he went into exile. He wrote several the- 
 ological works. 
 
 Traill, tral, (Robert,) a Scottish Calvinistic divine, 
 born in Fifeshire in 1642, was imprisoned under the 
 Conventicle Act in the reign of Charles II. He was 
 the author of several religious works. His grandson, 
 James Traill, went over to the Church of England, and 
 was made Bishop of Down and Connor. Died in 1783. 
 
 Traill, (Thomas Stewart,) M.D., a Scottish natural- 
 ist and physician, born in Orkney in 1781. He became 
 professor of medical jurisprudence at Edinburgh about 
 1832, and edited the eighth edition of the "Encyclo- 
 paedia Britannica." Died in 1862. 
 
 Tra'jan, (Lat. Traja'nus; It. Trajano, tRa-ya'no ; 
 Fr. Trajan, tRi'zhoN'; Ger. Trajan, tRa-yan',1 or, 
 more fully, Mar'cua Ul'pl-us Ner'va Tra-ja'nus, 
 Emperor of Rome, born near Seville, in Spain, about 
 52 A.n., was the son of Trajan, an Iberian officer, whom 
 he accompanied in his campaigns in Asia' Minor. He 
 was chosen consul in 91 A.n., and was afterwards ap- 
 pointed to command the legions on the Lower Rhine. 
 His eminent virtues and ability obtained for him the 
 favour and confidence of the emperor Nerva, who 
 adopted him and made him his successor. On the 
 death of Nerva, in 98 A.D., Trajan was proclaimed em- 
 peror, and soon after marched against Decebalus, King 
 of the Dacians, whom he repeatedly defeated. In 106 
 A.D. Dacia became a Roman province, and a column 
 (which is still extant) was erected on the Forum Trajani, 
 in commemoration of these victories, by Apollodorusof 
 Damascus. In the year 115 he commanded in person an 
 army which invaded Parthia, and defeated the Parthians 
 in several battles. He took Ctesiphon, the capital of 
 Parthia, and deposed the king of that country. In 
 116 he descended the Tigris to the Persian Gulf. He 
 was returning to Rome, when he died, without issue, at 
 Selinus, in Cilicia, in 117 a.d., and was succeeded by 
 
 i, e, I, 5, ft, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, i, T, 6, it, J, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
TRAJANO 
 
 2147 
 
 TRELAT 
 
 Hadrian. Trajan was one of the greatest and best em- 
 perors of Rome. He is commended for his moderation, 
 sound judgment, and the simplicity of his mode of living. 
 Yet he persecuted the Christians, and presided as judge 
 at the tribunal when the martyr Ignatius was sentenced 
 to death. Among his friends was Pliny the Younger, 
 who wrote a " Panegyric on Trajan." 
 
 SeeTn.i.KMONT, " Histoiredes Emperettrs;" Rittkr, "Trajanus 
 in Lucent reproduces," 1768 ; H. Franckk, " Zur Geschichte Tra- 
 jan's," etc., 1840: Gknf.rsich, "Trajan ; biographisches GemiiMe," 
 1811 ; Msrivale, "History of the Romans tinder the Empfre ;" 
 Mokalss, " Hechos y Diclios de Trajano," 1654; "Nottvelle Bio- 
 jrapliie Generate. " 
 
 Trajano and TrajanuB. See Trajan. 
 
 Trajanus, a Roman general under the emperor 
 Vnlens. In 373 a.d. he commanded an army which 
 defeated Sapor, King of Persia, tie was killed at the 
 battle of Adrianople, in 378 A.D. 
 
 Trail, (Russell Thacher,) M.D., an eminent Ameri- 
 can physician of the hydropathic school, born in Tolland 
 county, Connecticut, in 1812. Having removed to New 
 York, he founded in 1843 a water-cure establishment, 
 to which he afterwards joined a medical school, called 
 the " New York Hygeio-Therapeutic College," designed 
 for both sexes. He has edited successively the " Hydro- 
 pathic Review," the " Water-Cure Journal," and " Life 
 Illustrated." Among his principal works we may name 
 the " Hydropathic Encyclopaedia," (1852,) " Hydropathic 
 Cook-Rook," (1854,) "Prize Essay on Tobacco," "The 
 Scientific Basis of Vegetarianism," and " Diseases of 
 the Throat and Lungs." 
 
 Trallea, tRal'les, (Balthasar Lunwir,,) a German 
 physician, born at Breslau in 1708. He practised in that 
 city, and wrote a number of medical works, which were 
 esteemed. Died in 1797. 
 
 Trallianus. See Alexander of Traixks. 
 
 TraiiBtamare, de, (Henry.) See Henry II. of 
 Castile. 
 
 Trapp, (John,) an English clergyman, born in 1601. 
 He was vicar of Weston-on-Avon, and wrote a com- 
 mentary on the Bible. Died in 1669. 
 
 Trapp, (Joseph,) D.D., an English divine and 
 scholar, born in Gloucestershire in 1679. He became 
 professor of poetry at Oxford in 1708, and was subse- 
 quently chaplain to Lord Bolingbroke, who bestowed 
 upon him the living of Harlington, in Middlesex. He 
 published " Praelectiones Poetical," (3 vols., 1711-19,) 
 "Notes upon the Gospels," (2 vols., 1748,) and several 
 political treatises ; also a translation of the " /Eneid" 
 into blank verse, and a Latin version of " Paradise 
 Lost." Died in 1747. 
 
 Traun, von, fon tKSwn, (Orro Ferdinand,) Count, 
 an Austrian general, born in 1677. He obtained the rank 
 of field-marshal in 1740, and commanded the army 
 which under Charles of Lorraine opposed Frederick 
 the Great in 1745. He forced the Prussians to evacuate 
 Bohemia. Died in 1748. Frederick compared him to 
 Sertorius, and ascribed to him the success of the Aus- 
 trians in the campaign of 1745. 
 
 Trautson, von, fon tR8wt'son, (Johann Joseph,) 
 COUNT, a liberal German prelate, born in 1704. He 
 promoted reform in religion and morals. In 1756 he 
 became a cardinal. Died at Vienna in 1757. 
 
 Trauttmansdorf, tRowt'mans-doRf, (Maximilian,) 
 Count, an Austrian diplomatist and statesman, born at 
 Gr'atz in 1584. He concluded a treaty of peace in 1619 
 between Ferdinand II. and Maximilian of Bavaria, and 
 subsequently negotiated the Peace of Westphalia. He 
 enjoyed the esteem and confidence of the emperor Fer- 
 dinand II., and was the first to communicate to him the 
 treasonable designs of Wallenstein. Died in 1650. 
 
 See Schiller, "Thirty Years' War." 
 
 Travasa, tRa-vi'sa, (Gaetano Maria,) an Italian 
 historian, born at Bassano in 1698. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of the Heresiarchs of the First Four Centuries," 
 (6 vols., 1752-62,) and other woiks. Died in 1774. 
 
 Travers, tRi'vaiR', (Giu.es Ji urn,) a French scholar 
 and poet, born at Valognes (Mat che) in 1802. He was 
 professor of Latin at Caen from ii-'44 to 1856. He pro- 
 duced poems called " Les Algetiennea," (1827,) and 
 " Mourning," (" Deuil," 1837.) 
 
 Trav'ers, (John,) an English composer, was a pupil 
 of Dr. Greene, and was appointed organist to the cha- 
 pels royal in 1737. Died in 1758. 
 
 Travers, (Nicolas,) a French Jansenist priest and 
 writer, born at Nantes in 1674. He wrote, besides other 
 works, a " History of Nantes," (3 vols., 1836-41.) Died 
 in 1750. 
 
 Traversari. See Ambrosius of Camaldoli. 
 
 Travies de Villiers, tRS've-Ss' deh ve'ya', (Chari es 
 Joseph,) a Swiss painter of genre, born in the canton 
 of Zurich in 1S04. He painted grotesque scenes with 
 success, and was one of the founders of the "Charivari" 
 of Paris. Died in 1859. His brother Edouard is a 
 skilful painter of animals and still life. 
 
 Trav'is, (George,) an English clergyman, born in 
 Lancashire, became Archdeacon of Chester. He wrote 
 several letters to Gibbon on the authenticity of the text 
 I. John v. 7. Died in 1797. 
 
 Travot, tRi'vo', (Jean Pierre,) a French general, 
 born at Poligny in 1767 ; died in 1836. 
 
 Trayer, tRS'ya', (Jean Baptiste Jui.es,) a French 
 landscape-painter, born in Paris about 1806. 
 
 Trgad'well, (Daniel,) an American mechanician, 
 born at Ipswich, Massachusetts, in 1791. He became 
 associate editor of the " Boston Journal of Philosophy 
 and the Arts" in 1822, and in 1834 Rumford professor 
 of technology in Harvard College. He has invented a 
 machine for spinning hemp for cordage, and a cannon 
 called by his name. 
 
 Trebatius. See Testa. 
 
 Trebatti. See Ponzio. 
 
 Tre-bel'11-us Max'i-mus, a Roman magistrate under 
 the reign of Nero, was chosen consul with Lucius An- 
 naeus Seneca in 62 a.d. 
 
 Trebellius Pollio. See Pollio, (Trf.beli.ius.) 
 
 Tre-bo'nl-us, (Caius,) a Roman politician, became 
 tribune of the people in 55 B.C., and one of Caesar's legates 
 in Gaul. He was a partisan of Caesar in the civil war, 
 was elected city praetor in 48, and consul in 45 B.C. He 
 performed a prominent part in the conspiracy against 
 the life of Caesar. In 43 B.C. he was killed at Smyrna 
 by Dolabella. 
 
 'Trebutien, tRa'bu'sej-A.N', (Guillaume Stanislas,) 
 a French antiquary and Orientalist, born in Calvados 
 in 1800. He published a work on the " History and 
 Antiquities of Caen," (1847.) 
 
 Treb'jf, (Sir George,) an English jurist, born in 
 Devonshire in 1644, was elected to Parliament for Plymp- 
 ton in 1678, and subsequently rose to be attorney-gen- 
 eral and chief justice of the common pleas in the reign 
 of William III. Died in 1702. 
 
 TrSd'gold, (Thomas,) an English civil engineer, born 
 at Brandon, in Durham, in 17S8. He became a resident 
 of London, and published in 1820 "Elementary Prin- 
 ciples of Carpentrv," which is a valuable work. He 
 wrote a number of treatises on joinery, railroads, the 
 steam-engine, etc. Died in London in 1829. 
 
 Trediakovsky, tra-de-a-kov'ske, (Vasilii Kirii.o- 
 vitch,) a Russian litterateur, born in 1703, studied in 
 Paris, and after his return became secretary to the Saint 
 Petersburg Academy of Sciences, (1733.) He translated 
 Rollin's " Ancient History," and published numerous 
 original poems. Died in 1769. 
 
 Treilhard, tRa'ltR', or Trelliard, tR&'le-tR', (Jean 
 Baptiste,) Count, a French statesman of the Revo- 
 lution, born at Brives in 1742. He was a republican 
 member of the Convention of 1 792-95, observed a cautious 
 silence during the reign of terror, and was elected to the 
 Council of Five Hundred in 1795. He was one of the 
 directors of the republic from May, 1798, to June, 1799. 
 In 1802 he was appointed a councillor of state. He re 
 ceived the title of minister of state in 1809, and that ot 
 count in 1810, and died the same year. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution ;" " Nouvell* 
 Biographic G^neVale." 
 
 Treitschke, trttsh'keh, (Karl Georg,) a German 
 jurist, born at Dresden in 1783. He published severa. 
 legal works. 
 
 Trelat, tRa'li', (Ui.yssf.,) a French physician and re- 
 publican, born at Montargis in 1 795. He was ministei 
 of public works in May-June, 1848. 
 
 « as k; 9 ay s; %hard; gasy; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sag i; th as in this. (jrySee Explanations, p. 2$ ) 
 
TREE AW NET 
 
 2148 
 
 T RES CHOW 
 
 Tre-law'ney, (Sir John,) Bishop of Bristol, was one 
 of the seven bishops prosecuted in 1688 for refusing to 
 publish King James's declaration of indulgence. He was 
 acquitted. 
 
 See Miss Strickland, "Lives of the Seven Bishops,' London, 
 1866. 
 
 Trelliard. See Trf.ii.hard. 
 
 Trellund, trel'lund, (Johan or Hans,) a Danish 
 bishop, born at Copenhagen in 1669. He was appointed 
 Bishop of Viborg about 1726, and published several 
 geological works. Died in 1735. 
 
 See Tvchonius, " Ligpraediken over Biskop H. Trellund," 1735- 
 
 Trernbecki, trem-bets'skee, (Stanislas,) a Polish 
 poet, born in the district of Cracow about 1724, was 
 patronized by the king Stanislas Augustus. He was 
 the author of a descriptive poem, entitled "Zofijowka, 
 which is highly esteemed by his countrymen. He died 
 in 1812, leaving a "History of Poland," in manuscript. 
 Tremblay. See Joseph, (FRANgois Leci.erc:) 
 Trembley, tRoN'bl^', (Abraham,) a Swiss naturalist, 
 born at Geneva in 1700, published "Memoirs on Fresh- 
 Water Polypes," (1744,) " Instructions on Natural and 
 Revealed Religion," (1775.) a ,ld other works. He was 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died 111 1784. 
 See "Memoire sur la Vie de Trembley," 1787. 
 Tremellius, tRa-mel'le-oos, (Emmanuel,) an Italian 
 Orientalist, born at Ferrara about 1510. He was con- 
 verted to the Protestant faith by Peter Martyr, ( Vermigh,) 
 with whom he retired for safety to Germany. In the 
 reign of Edward VI. he taught Hebrew at Cambridge. 
 He was afterwards professor of Hebrew at Heidelberg, 
 where he translated the New Testament from Syriac 
 into Latin, (1569.) Aided by Francis Junius, he pro- 
 duced a Latin translation of the Bible, (1575-79.) whlch 
 was highly esteemed. Died at Sedan in 1580. 
 
 See M. Adam, " Vitae Tbeologorum exterorum ;" Teissier, 
 " filoges." 
 
 Tremoille, de la, deh IS tRa'mwal' or tRa'mwa'ye, 
 or Trimouille, tRe'mool', (Louis,) Prince de Talmont, 
 a French general, born in 1460. He rendered an im- 
 portant service at the battle of Fornovo, in 1495, and 
 commanded the army which Louis XII. sent into Italy 
 about 1500. He conquered Lombardy, was defeated at 
 Novara in 1513, and was killed at the battle of Pavia, 
 in 1525. 
 
 See J. Bouchet, " Panegyrique du Chevalier sans reproche," 
 etc., 1527. 
 
 Tremolliere, tRa'mo'le-aiR', (Pierre Charles,) a 
 French painter of history, was born in Anjou in 1703 ; died 
 in Paris in 1739. He was an artist of fine promise. 
 Tremouille. See Tremoille, de la. 
 Trench, (Francis,) an English writer, a brother of 
 Archbishop Trench, was born in 1806. He became 
 rector of Islip. He published "Travels in France and 
 Spain," and several religious works. 
 
 Trench, (Rev. Richard Chenevix,) an eminent 
 English ecclesiastic and philologist, born in 1807. He 
 studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became 
 Hulsean lecturer in 1845. He was appointed theological 
 professor and examiner at King's College, London, in 
 1847, and in 1856 created Dean of Westminster. He 
 has published " The Sermon on the Mount Illustrated 
 from Saint Augustine," (1844,) " Notes on the Miracles," 
 (1846,) a treatise "On the Study of Words," (1851,) 
 often reprinted, "Synonyms of the New Testament," 
 (1854,) also a number of poems, among which we may 
 name "The Story of Justin Martyr," (1835,) "Poems 
 from Eastern Sources," and "Genoveva," (1842.) He 
 was appointed Archbishop of Dublin in 1863. 
 See Almbone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 Trgnch'ard, (Sir John,) an English statesman, born 
 in Dorsetshire in 1650. He represented Taunton in 
 Parliament in 1679, and distinguished himself as an 
 active member of the opposition. He was an advocate 
 for the Exclusion Bill, and was imprisoned for a time in 
 1683, on a charge of being implicated in the Rye-House 
 Plot. After the accession of James II. he took refuge 
 in France, but he returned to England after the Revolu- 
 tion of 1688, and was appointed secretary of state by 
 William III., (1693.) Died in 1695. 
 
 Trenchard, (Tohn,) an English journalist and po- 
 litical writer, born about 1662. He was the author of 
 "The Natural History of Superstition," (1709,) "A 
 Comparison of the Proposals of the Bank and South 
 Sea Company," " Thoughts on the Peerage Bill," and 
 "Cato's Letters," the last-named in conjunction with 
 Mr. T. Gordon, — and was associated with that gentleman 
 as editor of the " Independent Whig." Died in 1723. 
 
 Trenck, von der, fon deR tRenk, (Franz,) Baron, a 
 celebrated military commander, born at Reggio, in Cala- 
 bria, in 1714, was the son of a Prussian officer. At an 
 early age he entered the Russian service, where he dis- 
 tinguished himself equally by his reckless courage and 
 his ferocity. On the breaking out of the Austrian war 
 of succession, he offered his services to Maria Theresa, 
 and at the head of his pandours made himself every- 
 where formidable by his barbarities and rapacity. He 
 was at length imprisoned at Spielberg, in Moravia, where 
 he died in 1749. His autobiography, called " Remarkable 
 Life and Deeds of Baron Trenck," appeared in 1807. 
 
 See, also, Hubner, " Franz von der Trenck," 3 vols., 1788-89. 
 
 Trenck, von der, (Friedrich,) Baron, a cousin 
 of the preceding, was born at Konigsberg in 1726. He 
 entered the Prussian army at an early age, and for a 
 time enjoyed the favour of Frederick the Great ; but, 
 having, as is supposed, offended the king by an impru- 
 dent attachment to his sister the princess Amelia, he 
 was imprisoned in the fortress of Glatz. Haying escaped 
 from his prison in 1747, he went to Russia, where he 
 was patronized by the empress and made a captain of 
 hussars. While on a visit to his family, in 1754, he was 
 arrested by order of Frederick, confined in a narrow cell 
 at Magdeburg, and, after several attempts at escape, 
 loaded with heavy irons. He was released in 1763, but 
 he was obliged to leave the kingdom. After the death 
 of Frederick, Baron Trenck published his autobiographic 
 "Memoirs," (3 vols., 1787,) which acquired great popu- 
 larity and were translated into the principal European 
 languages. After residing for a time at Aix-la-Chapelle 
 and other cities on the continent, he went in 1792 to 
 Paris, where he joined the Jacobin faction, by whom he 
 was sentenced to the guillotine in 1794. 
 
 See Wahrmann, " F. von der Trenck. Leben," etc., 1837: 
 Erich, " Leben und Scbicksale des Abenteurers F. von der Trenck," 
 1846 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Trendlenburg, tReVdl?n-b5oRG', written also Tren- 
 delenburg, (Friedrich Adolf,) a German scholar and 
 philosophical writer, born at Eutin in 1802, published 
 " Logical Researches," (" Logische Untersuchungen," 
 1840,) and other works. He became professor of phi- 
 losophy at Berlin in 1833. 
 
 Treneuil, tReh-nul' or tReh-nuh'ye, (Joseph,) a 
 French poet, born at Cahors in 1763. Among his works 
 is "The Tombs of Saint-Denis," (" Les Tombeaux de 
 Saint-Denis," 1806.) Died in Paris in 1818. 
 
 Tren'holm, (George A.,) of South Carolina, an 
 American financier, was appointed secretary of the 
 treasury by Jefferson Davis in June, 1864. 
 
 Trenta, tReVta, (Filippo,) an Italian tragic poet, born 
 at Ascoli in 1731 ; died in 1795. 
 
 Trento, da, da tRen'to, (Antonio,) an Italian wood- 
 engraver, originally named Fantijzzi, (fan-toot'see,) 
 born at Trent. He was a pupil of Parmigiano, several 
 of whose works he engraved. Died about 1545. 
 
 Trentowski, tRen-tov'skee, (Ferdinand B.,) an 
 eminent Polish philosopher, born near Warsaw in 1808. 
 Being compelled to leave his country during the rebellion 
 of 1830, he repaired to Germany, where he devoted him- 
 self to teaching philosophy. He published, in German, 
 his "Basis of Universal Philosophy," (1837,) "Prelimi- 
 nary Studies to the Science of Nature," (1840,) and a 
 Latin treatise "On the Eternal Life of Man." Among 
 his other works, which are written in Polish, we may 
 name "The Relation of Philosophy to the Science of 
 Government," "Education on a System of Pedagogics," 
 and "Logic." 
 
 Treschow, tRksh'ov, (Neils,) a Norwegian scholar 
 and writer, born at Drammen in 1751. He studied at 
 Copenhagen, and was appointed in 1803 professor of 
 philosophy in the university of that city. _ Among his 
 principal works are "Principles of Legislation," "Spirit 
 
 i, e, T, S, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, fl, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
TRESHAM 
 
 2149 
 
 TR1GAVLT 
 
 of Christianity," " Morality for the State and People," 
 and "Philosophical Testament," etc. Died in 1833. 
 
 Tresham, tresl/am, (HENRY,) an Irish artist and 
 poet, studied at Rome, and was chosen, after his return, 
 a Royal Academician. He was the author of " The Sea- 
 Sick Minstrel," and other poems. Died in 1814. 
 
 Tressan, de, deli tRj'so.s', (Louis Elisabeth de la 
 Vergne— deh li vjRfi,) Count, a French officer and 
 litterateur, born at Moiis in 1705. He was the author of 
 a "Treatise on Electricity," (1749,) and other original 
 works, and made translations of the "Orlando Furioso," 
 "Amadis de Gaul," and other works of the kind. He 
 was elected to the French Academy in 1781, and was a 
 friend of Voltaire. He served as aided •camp to the 
 king at Fontenov in 1745, and became lieutenant-general 
 in 1747. Died in 1783. 
 
 CoNDORCKT, "Closes:" Voltairb, " Correspondence ;" 
 "NoQveJIe Hiographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 Trevigi. See Trkvisi. 
 
 Treville. See La Touche-Trevii.i.e. 
 
 Treviranus, tRa-ve-ra'nus, (Gottfried Reinhoi.d,) 
 a German physiologist, born at Bremen in 1776, practised 
 medicine in that city. He published, besides other 
 works, "Biology, or the Philosophy of Living Nature," 
 etc., (6 vols., 1802-22,) which is highly commended. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Treviranus, (Ludolph Christian,) a botanist, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Bremen in 1779. 
 He became professor of botany at Bonn, and published 
 " Physiology of Plants," (1835-39.) 
 
 Tr'evisani, tRa-ve-sa'nee, (Angelo,) a Venetian 
 painter of the eighteenth century, was distinguished for 
 the excellence of his portraits. 
 
 Trevisani, (Francesco,) an Italian painter, some- 
 times called Roman Tkkvisani, was bom near Trieste 
 in 1656. He studied under Zanchi at Venice, and after- 
 wards visited Rome, where he executed several of his 
 best works. Among these may be named a "Cruci- 
 fixion," and "The Slaughter of the Innocents." Died 
 in 1746. 
 
 Trevise, de, Due. See Mortier. 
 
 Trevisi, da, da tRl-vee'see, or Trevigi, tra-vee'jee, 
 (GiRoLAMo,) an Italian painter and architect, born at 
 Trevigi about 1500, resided for a time in England, 
 where he was patronized by Henry VIII. Among his 
 masterpieces may be named a " Madonna accompanied 
 by Saints." His portraits also are highly esteemed. 
 Died in 1544. 
 
 Treviso, (tRa-vee'so,) Duke of. See Mortier. 
 
 Trev'i-thick, (Richard.) an English engineer, born 
 in Cornwall in 1771, was one of the inventors of high- 
 pressure steam-engines. He obtained in 1802 a patent 
 for a steam-carriage to run on common roads. In 1804 
 he constructed a locomotive for railways. Died in 1833. 
 
 See William Walker, " Memoirs of the Distinguished Men 
 of Science of Great Britain," etc., London, 1864; "All the Year 
 Round" for August, i860. 
 
 Tre'vor, (Sir John,) an able English statesman, born 
 in 1626, was a son-in-law of the illustrious Hamp- 
 den. Early in 1668 he was sent as an envoy to France, 
 and negotiated the provisional treaty of April 15, 1668. 
 He was appointed secretary of state in September of 
 that year. Having opposed without success the foreign 
 policy which Charles II. and the Duke of York adopted, 
 he was turned out of the cabinet in 1670 ; but he con- 
 tinued to be secretary until his death, in 1672. 
 
 Trevor, (Sir John,) an English lawyer, born in 1633, 
 was a cousin and parasite of the infamous Judge Jef- 
 freys. In the reign of Charles II. he was solicitor- 
 general. He became master of the rolls, and Speaker of 
 the House of Commons, in 1685. He was made a privy 
 councillor in 1688, and was subsequently appointed first 
 commissioner of the great seal. Having lieen convicted 
 of briliery, he was expelled from the Speakership in 1695, 
 but was allowed to retain the mastership of the rolls. 
 Died in 1 7 1 7. 
 
 Trevor, (Thomas.) Lord, an eminent English lawyer, 
 w;is ■ son of Sir John Trevor, (1626-72,) and a grandson 
 • •: John Hampden. He was appointed chief justice of 
 the common pleas in 1701, was raised to the peerage, as 
 Lord Trevor, in 171 1, and became lord privy seal in 
 
 1726. He was appointed president of the council in 
 1730, and died the same year, leaving a son, who about 
 1766 received the title of Viscount Hampden. 
 
 Trew, tRa, (Christopii Jakob,) a celebrated German 
 botanist and anatomist, born near Nuremberg in 1695. 
 He studied medicine, and became physician-in-ordinary 
 to the Margrave of Anspach. In 1746 he was made 
 president of the " Academie des Curieux de la Nature," 
 with the titles of Count-Palatine and physician to the 
 emperor. He published " Plants: Selects," etc., (1570- 
 73,) a magnificent publication, illustrated by Ehret, and 
 "History and Botanical Character of the Cedars of 
 Lebanon," (" Cedrorum Libani Historia et Character 
 Hotanicus," etc., 2 vols., 1757-67;) also " Osteological 
 Plates of the Human Body," ("Tabulae Osteologies 
 Corporis Ilumani," 1767, with coloured plates,) and 
 other anatomical works. Died in 1769. 
 
 1709; "Bt> 
 
 See Rumpel, " Monumentum Trewio positum," 
 graphie MeMicale." 
 
 Trezel, tRa'zel', (Camii.le Alphonse,) a French 
 general, born in Paris in 1780; died in i860. 
 
 Trezel, (Pierre Felix,) a French painter of history 
 and allegory, born in Paris in 1782; died in 1855. 
 
 Trianon, tRe'fnoN', (Henri,) a French litterateur 
 and critic, born about 1810. He wrote critiques for the 
 "Artiste" and other periodicals, and published editions 
 of Homer's Poemc. 
 
 Tribolo, di, de tRee'bo-lo, (Niccol6,) an eminent 
 Italian sculptor, whose family name was PERicoi.i,.was 
 born at Florence in 1500, or, as some say, 1485. He 
 was a pupil of Sansovino, and was patronized by Pope 
 Clement VII., who employed him to assist Michael 
 Angelo in sculptures for the chapel of San Lorenzo at 
 Florence. Among his works are a statue of Nature, at 
 Fontainebleau, and bas-reliefs, representing the mar- 
 riage of the Virgin, at Loretto. In the latter part of his 
 life he was employed by Cosimo de' Medici to adorn 
 with statues and fountains the gardens of the Pitti palace. 
 Died in 1550. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters and Sculptors ;" Cicognara, 
 "Storia delta Scultura." 
 
 TrI-bo'nI-an or Trl-bo-nl-a'nus, [Fr. Trihonien, 
 tRe'bo'ne_^.N',j a celebrated Roman jurist, born in Pam- 
 phylia about 475 a.d., was distinguished by the favour 
 of the emperor Justinian, by whom he was successively 
 appointed quaestor, master of the imperial household, 
 praetorian prefect, and consul. He was charged by 
 the emperor, conjointly with nine other commissioners, 
 to prepare the first Justinian Code. Died in 545 a.d. 
 
 • See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Lude- 
 wig, " Vita Justiniani et Triboniani," 1731. 
 
 Tribonianus. See Tribonian. 
 
 Tribonien. See Tribonian. 
 
 Tribuno, tRe-boo'no, (Pietro,) was elected Doge of 
 Venice in 888 a.d., and defeated the Hungarians in 906. 
 Died in 912. 
 
 TrI-bu'nus, [Gr. TpiSowoc,] an eminent physician, 
 born in Palestine, lived about 530 a.d., and was noted 
 for his benevolence. He attended Chosroes, King of 
 Persia, whom he cured. 
 
 Tricaud, tRe'ko', (Anthelme,) a French writer and 
 priest, born at Belley in 1671. He wrote several his- 
 torical works. Died in Paris in 1739. 
 
 Tricoupi. See Trikupis. 
 
 Triest, tReest, (Antoine,) a Flemish prelate, born 
 near Audenarde in 1576, was noted for his charity. He 
 became Bishop of Bruges in 1616. Died in 1657. 
 
 Triewald, tRee'wald, or Trivald, (Martin,) a Swed- 
 ish engineer and mechanician, born at Stockholm in 
 1691. He visited England at an early age, and made 
 the acquaintance of Sir Isaac Newton. Having applied 
 himself for many years to the study of mechanics and 
 natural philosophy, he returned to Sweden, where he 
 constructed a steam-engine and made a number of 
 improvements in machinery. He was one of the founders 
 of the Academy of Stockholm, and was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society of London. Died in 1741. 
 
 See Laukrl, " Aminnelse-Tal bfver M. Trievald," 1748. 
 
 Trigault, tRe'go', (Nicolas,) a French Jesuit and 
 missionary, born at Douay in 1577. He was employed 
 in China. Died at Nanking in 1628. 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. ( Jr^=See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TRIG INT A 
 
 21 50 
 
 TRITO 
 
 Triginta Tyranni. See Thirty Tyrants. 
 
 Trigueros, tRe-ga'rAs, (Don Candide Maria,) a 
 Spanish poet and littlrateur, born at Orgaz, in Castile, 
 in 1736. Among his works is a comedy called "Los 
 Mer.ostrales," (1784.) Died about 1800. 
 
 Trikupis, tRe-koo'pis, or Tricoupi, tRe-koo'pee, 
 (Spiridion,) a modern Greek historian and diplomatist, 
 born at Missolonghi in 17911 He took an active part 
 in the Greek revolution which began in 1821. He 
 was sent as ambassador to England in 1838, in 1842, 
 and in 1850. He published, in Greek, a " History of 
 the Greek Revolution," (4 vols., 1853-57,) a work of 
 high reputation. He returned to Athens in 1862. 
 
 Triller, titil'ler, (Daniel WlLHELM,) a German phy- 
 sician, poet, and medical writer, born at Erfurt in 1695. 
 He studied at Leipsic, and became in 1749 professor of 
 medicine at Wittenberg. He published a great number 
 jf medical treatises, in Latin, also Latin poems on medi- 
 cine. Died in 17S2. 
 
 Trlldchana, tri-lo'cha-na, (i.e. " three-eyed" or 
 "having three eyes,") [from the Sanscrit trt, "three," 
 and ISc/ithui, an "eye,"] an epithet of Siva, which see. 
 
 Triin'ble, (DaVID,) an American legislator, born in 
 Frederick county, Virginia, about 1782, removed to 
 Kentucky about 1804. He represented a district of 
 Kentucky in Congress from 1817 to 1827, and was highly 
 esteemed. Died in 1842. 
 
 Trimble, (Isaac R.,) an American general, born in 
 Virginia about 1800, graduated at West Point in 1822. 
 He was a railroad-engineer before the war. He took 
 arms against the Union in 1861, and was killed at Cedar 
 Mountain, Virginia, in August, 1862. 
 
 Trimble, (William A.,) an American Senator, born 
 in 1786. He served as an officer in the war of 1812, 
 and was elected a Senator of the United States by the 
 legislature of Ohio in 1819. Died in December, 1821. 
 
 Trim'mer, (Sarah,) an English writer, whose original 
 name was Kirhy, born at Ipswich in 1741, was the au- 
 thor of numerous juvenile and educational works of 
 great merit, which have acquired extensive popularity. 
 Among these we may name an " Easy Introduction to 
 the Knowledge of Nature," (1780,) "Sacred History 
 selected from the Scriptures," etc., (6 vols., 1782-85,) 
 "The Economy of Charity," (1786,) and tlie "Guardian 
 of Education," (5 vols., 1806.) Died in 1810. 
 
 See Mrs. Elwood, " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England 
 from the Commencement of the Last Century," vol. i., 1843; "Life 
 and Writings of Mis. Trimmer," London, 1816. 
 
 Trimouille. See Tremouille, de la, and Tal- 
 
 MONT. 
 
 Trlmflrtl, trt-moor'ti, (/.a "triform.") [from the San- 
 scrit trt, "three," and miirtt, "form,"] in the Hindoo 
 mythology, the name given to the united form of Brahma, 
 Vishnu, and Siva, constituting what is termed the 
 " Hindoo triad." (See note t under Vishnu.) 
 
 See M<k>r, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Trincavella, tuen-ka-vel'15, written also Trincavela 
 or Trincavelli, [I.at. Trincavki/i.ius,] (Victor,) 
 an eminent Italian physician, born at Venice in 1496, 
 succeeded Montanus as professor of medicine at Padua, 
 (1551.) He published a number of medical works, in 
 Latin. He was an excellent Greek scholar, and edited 
 the works of several Greek authors which had never 
 been printed in the original. He greatly promoted the 
 introduction of Greek writings into the medical schools 
 <f Italy. Died at Venice in 1568. 
 
 See Ai.berici, "Scrittori Veneti ;" Ghili.ini, "Teatro." 
 
 Trincavelli or Trincavellius. See Trincavella. 
 
 Trionfetti, tRe-on-fet'tee, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian botanist, bom at Bologna in 1656, published 
 several works on botany. Died at Rome in 1 70S. His 
 brother Lelio, born in 1647, was also a botanist. Died 
 at Bologna in 1722. 
 
 Trip, trip, (Hendrik Rudolph,) a Dutch general, 
 born at Bois-le-Duc in 1779. He was appointed director- 
 general of war in 1834, and became a lieutenant-general 
 in 1840. 
 
 Tripier, tRe'peJ.', (Nicolas Jean Baptists,) an emi- 
 nent French advocate and judge, born at Autun in 1765. 
 He became a peer of France about 1832. Died in 1840. 
 
 See Josseau, "Eioge de Tripier," 1841; '• Biographic Univer- 
 
 wlle 
 
 Trippel, tRip'pel, (Alexander,) a Swiss sculptor, 
 born at Schaffhausen in 1744. In 1776 he visited Rome, 
 where he executed the monuments of Count Tchernichef 
 and of Gessnef, busts of Goethe and Herder, and other 
 works, which gained for him a very high reputation. His 
 bust of Goethe is esteemed a master-piece. Died in 1793. 
 
 Triptoleme. See Triptolemus. 
 
 Trip-tol'e-mus, [Gr. Tptarote.uoc ; Fr. Triptoleme, 
 trep'to'ljm',] a mythical person, said to have been a son 
 of King Eleusis or of Celeus, King of Eleusis. The 
 Greeks regarded him as a favourite of Ceres, and as the 
 inventor of the plough and of agriculture. It was fabled 
 that Ceres gave him a chariot, (drawn by dragons,) in 
 which he rode all over the earth, distributing corn, and 
 that he founded the Eleusinian Mysteries. 
 
 Triqueti, de, deh tRe'keh-te', (Henri,) Baron, a 
 French sculptor, born at Conflans (Loiret) in 1802, was 
 also a painter in his youth. He gained a medal of the 
 first class in 1839. Among his works (in sculpture) are 
 I' The Death of Charles the Bold," and "Petrarch Read- 
 ing to Lauca." 
 
 Trissin, lie. See Trissino. 
 
 Trissiuo, tues-see'no, [Fr. Le Trissin, leh tRe'saN',] 
 (Giovanni Giorgio,) an Italian litterateur and diplo- 
 matist, born at Vicenza in 1478. He was patronized by 
 Leo X. and Clement VII., and employed by them in 
 various embassies. He was the author of a critical work 
 entitled " La Poetica," and a number of poems in Italian, 
 also several Latin compositions. Died in 1550. His 
 tragedy of " Sofonisba" (1524) was much admired. He 
 is said to have been the first Italian who wrote in versi 
 sciolti. 
 
 See Castelli, "VitadiG. G. Trissino," 1753; Ginguenk\ "His- 
 totre Litteraire d'ltalie;" Nic^ron, "Memoires;" Tikaboschi, 
 "Stnria della Letteratura Italiaua;" "Lives of the Italian Poets," 
 by Rev. Henry Stebbing. 
 
 Tristam (or Tristao) da Cunha. See Cunha, da. 
 
 Tris'tan or Tris'tram, the hero of one of the earliest 
 traditions of Britain. His history has been more or less 
 blended with that of King Arthur and the Round Table. 
 His adventures have formed the subject of numerous 
 poems in the principal European languages, and were 
 dramatized by Hans Sachs. 
 
 See " Sir Tristram," published by Sir Waltrr Scott in 1806. 
 
 Tristan, tRes-tan', (Luis,) a Spanish painter, born 
 near Toledo in 1594, or, as some say, in 1586. Among 
 his master-pieces is "Moses Striking the Rock." Died 
 about 1645. 
 
 Tristan L'Hermite, tRes'to.N' leVmet', (Francois,) 
 a French dramatic poet, born in La Marche in i6oi,was 
 a member of the French Academy. His tragedy of 
 "Mariamne" was very successful. Died in 1655. 
 
 Tristram. See Tristan. 
 
 Trisula, trl-soo'la, or TrI-shu'la, [from the Sanscrit 
 trt, "three," and shil/cl or sti/ti, a "dart" or "spear- 
 point,") the name of Siva's trident. (See Siva.) 
 
 Tritheim, tRit'hlm, [Lat. Trithe'mius; Fr. Tri- 
 theme, tRe'tim',] (Johannes,) a German writer and 
 Benedictine monk, originally named Heidenherg, was 
 born near Treves in 1462. He wrote, besides several his- 
 torical and religious works, in Latin, " On the Illustrious 
 Men of Germany," (" De Luminaribus Germanise," 
 1495.) Died in 1516. 
 
 See Horn, "J. Trithemius; biograpliische Skizze," 1843; Nici- 
 RON, "Memoires;" " Biographic Universelle." 
 
 Tritheme or Trithemius. See Tritheim. 
 
 Trithen, tRee'ten, (Frederick Henry,) a distin- 
 guished Swiss linguist, born in 1820, removed at an 
 early age to Odessa, in Russia, where he became versed 
 in the modern European languages, and afterwards 
 studied Sanscrit at Herlin. Having visited England in 
 l841.be was appointed to an office in the British Museum, 
 and in 1848 was chosen professor of modern European 
 languages in the Taylor Institution at Oxford. He made 
 a number of valuable contributions to the " Biographical 
 Dictionary" of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge. Died in 1854. 
 
 Tri'to, Trf-to'nis, Trit-o-ge-nel'a, or Trl-to'm-a, 
 [Gr. T/tiru, Tpircvlc, or Tpiroyevem ; Fr. Tritogenie, 
 tRe'to'zha'ne',] surnames of Athena or 
 Minerva.) 
 
 or Minerva. (See 
 
 a, e, 7, 6, 5, y, Umgi a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, tat; met; ,.6t; good; moo 
 
 moon; 
 
TRITON 
 
 2 1 5 1 
 
 TROMMEN 
 
 Tri'ton, [Gr. Tpirw,] the name of a marine deity, 
 supposed to be a son of Neptune, and described as 
 (laving .1 body of which the upper part was human and 
 the lower part like a fish. Sometimes the term occurs 
 a^ a common noun and in the plural number, (Tritons.) 
 They are represented as blowing a trumpet consisting 
 of a sea-shell, (concha.) 
 
 Tritonia and Tritonis. See Trito. 
 
 Triv'et or Trjrv'et, written also Trev'eth, [T.at. 
 Tkivk'tus or Treve'tus,] (Nicholas,) an English 
 Dominican monk, born in Norfolk about 1258, was 
 esteemed one of the most learned men of his time. 
 His principal work is a chronicle of England, entitled 
 " Annales sex Regum Anglise," which has passed through 
 several editions. Died in 1328. 
 
 Trivetus. See Tkivet. 
 
 Trl-vlk'i a-ma, {i.e. the "three-step-taker," or "he 
 who takes three steps,") [from the Sanscrit trt, "three," 
 and vfkramtl, "going" or "stepping,"] a celebrated sur- 
 name of Vishnu. (See VAmana.) 
 
 Trivulce. See Trivulzi and Trivui.zio. 
 
 Trivulzi, de', da tKt-vool'zee, [Fr. Trivui.ce, tRe'- 
 viilss',] (Agustino,) an Italian cardinal and diplomatist. 
 Died in 1548. 
 
 Trivulzi, de', or Trivulce, (Teodoro,) an Italian 
 general, born about 1456, was a cousin-german of the 
 great Trivulzio. He entered the French service in 1495, 
 and became a marshal of France in 1526. Died in 1532. 
 
 Trivulzio, tRe-vool'ze-o, sur named the Great, [Fr. 
 Trivulce i.e Grand, tite'vulss' leh gRflN,] (Gian Gia- 
 COMO,) an Italian military commander, born in 1441. 
 He served in the army of Ferdinand, King of Naples, 
 and in 1495 entered the service of Charles VIII. of 
 Fiance, lie was made a marshal of France in 1499. 
 After the accession of Louis XII. he was appointed to 
 the command of the Italian army, and soon after de- 
 feated the Milanese under Ludovico Sforza, (1499,) and 
 again at Novara, (1500.) In 1513 he was compelled to 
 evacuate Milan by Maximilian Sforza, and, having lost 
 the battle of Novara, in 1514, the French were again 
 driven from Italy. He contributed greatly to the vic- 
 tory of the French at Marignano in 1 5 1 5. Died in 1518. 
 
 See Rosmini, " Istoria intorno alle militari Imprest ed alia Vila 
 di G. G. Trivulzio," 2 vols., 1815; Bkant6me, " ViesdesCapitaines 
 F'rancaises." 
 
 Trochu, tRo'shii', (Louis Jules,) an able French 
 general, born about 1820. He became a captain in 1843, 
 served as chief of the general staff in the Crimean war, 
 and obtained the rank of general of brigade in 1854. 
 He displayed a superior genius for strategy. In 1864 
 he was raised to the rank of general of division, and 
 about 1866 was directed to form a plan to reorganize 
 the army. On this subject he wrote a very popular 
 work, entitled " L'Armee Francaise," (1867.) In August. 
 1S70, he was appointed major-general of the army and 
 commander-in-chief of the forces in Paris. "He is un- 
 deniably," says the "Army and Navy Journal" for July, 
 1S70, "the best soldier of France." On the formation 
 of the republic, September 4, he became president of 
 the executive committee, the highest office in the pro- 
 visional government. He commanded the forces which 
 defended Paris against the Germans during the siege of 
 that capital in the autumn of 1870. General Trochu is 
 stated to Ix? an adherent of the party of Orleans. 
 
 Trogue Pompee. See Trogijs Pompeius. 
 
 Tro'gus Pom-pe'ius, [Fr. Trocue I'ompee, tftog 
 nON'pl ,) a Roman historian under the reign of Augustus. 
 was the author of a " Universal History from the Time 
 of Ninus, King of Assyria, down to 5 A.n.," which is 
 lost. An abridgment of it, by Justin, is extant. 
 
 Troil, Moll, [Lat. Troi'i.ius,] (Uno,) a Swedish 
 savant and bishop, born at Stockholm in 1746. He 
 travelled in Germany, France, and England. In 1784 he 
 became Bishop of Linkoping, and in 1787 Archbishop 
 of Upsal. He published a work on the "History of 
 the Church and the Reformation in Sweden," (5 vols., 
 1790.) Died in 1803. 
 
 Sec Aih.khukth, " Aminnelse-Tal (Jfver U. von Troil," 1804; 
 GhzvSJUV, " Bio^r.iphiskt- Lexicon." 
 
 TroQe. See Troihis. 
 
 Troili, tRo-ec'lee, (Placido,) an Italian historian and 
 monk, born at Montalbano in 1687; died in 1757. 
 
 Troilius. See Troii- 
 
 Tro'I-lus, [Gr. TpuiAos ; Fr. Troilf, tRo'el',1 a son 
 of Priam and Hecuba, was distinguished for his beauty. 
 He was slain in battle by Achilles. 
 
 Trolde. See Troll. 
 
 Troll, [Icelandic and Swedish, Troll; Danish, 
 Trolde, trol'deh,] in Northern mythology, a being who 
 was supposed to possess magical or supernatural 
 powers, and to dwell in the interior of hills and moun- 
 tains. The term appears to be used with some loose- 
 ness of application ; it is often applied to the Dwarfs, 
 (Dwergar,) who were generally believed to possess rare 
 skill or cunning in working in metals, stone, etc., and to 
 be endowed with magic powers. (See Elves.) One 
 class of Trolls, dwelling in Norway, were called Thusser 
 or Thurser, (doubtless of the same etymology as the 
 Norse Thursar, signifying "giants.") They are de- 
 scribed not as dwarfs, but as large as men, well formed, 
 and of a pale-blue colour. It is a popular belief in the 
 North that when the rebellious angels were cast out of 
 heaven, some fell into hell, while others, who had not 
 sinned so deeply, were scattered through the air, under 
 the earth, and in the waters, and that these became 
 elves, dwarfs, or trolls. 
 
 See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. ii. pp. 1 and 2, also 56 
 and 57. 
 
 Trolle, tRol'leh, (GustaVUS,) a Swedish prelate, was 
 a partisan of Christian II. of Denmark, on whose head 
 he placed the crown of Sweden in 1510 or 1520. He was 
 Archbishop of Upsal. He was killed in battle in 1535. 
 
 See Geijer, " Histoire de Suede." 
 
 Trolle, tRol'leh, (Herluk,) a Danish admiral, born 
 in 1 5 16. He gained a victory over the Swedes in 1564, 
 but was afterwards mortally wounded in an engagement 
 with the Swedish admiral Horn, (1565.) 
 
 See Boesen, " H. Trolle's Levnet," 1780. 
 
 Trolley, tRo'li', (Francois Alfred,) a French jurist 
 born at Nederzwallen in 1808. He published a " Treat- 
 ise on the Administrative Hierarchy," (5 vols., 1844-54.) 
 
 Trol'lope, (Anthony,) an English novelist, a son of 
 Frances Trollope, noticed below, was born about 1815. 
 He has published a number of popular novels, among 
 which are "The Warden," (1855,) "Doctor Thorne," (3 
 vols., 1858,) "Framley Parsonage," (1861,) "The Belton 
 Estate," (3 vols., 1864,) and "Phineas Finn, the Irish 
 Member," (1869;) also a descriptive work, entitled 
 "North America," (1862.) 
 
 See "Blackwood's Magazine" for September. 1862; "North 
 British Review" for May, 1864; A1.1.IBONE, "Dictionary of Au- 
 thors." 
 
 Trollope, (Edward,) an English writer, born about 
 1817, became rector of Leasingham in 1843, ant ' Arch- 
 deacon of Stow in 1867. He published, besides other 
 works, " Labyrinths, Ancient and Modern." 
 
 Trollope, (Frances,) a popular English novelist, 
 born in 1790. Having spent three years in the United 
 States, she published, in 1832, "Domestic Life of the 
 Americans." This was followed in rapid succession by 
 a great number of tales, sketches, and novels, among 
 which may be named " Belgium and Western Germany," 
 (1833,) " Paris and the Parisians in 1835," (1836,) "The 
 Life and Adventures of Jonathan Jefferson Whitlaw," 
 etc., (1836,) "Vienna and the Austrians," etc., (1838,) 
 "The Vicar of Wrexhill," and "The Widow Bamaby," 
 (1839.) She was married in 1809 to Anthony Trollope, 
 a barrister. Died in 1863. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for April, 1832 ; " London Quarterly 
 Review" for December, i8vj; "Blackwood's Magazine 1 ' for May, 
 
 1832, and April, 1S38; "North American Review" for January, 
 
 1833, (by F.dwahi> Kvkrett ;) Al.UDONE, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Trollope, (Thomas Adolphus,) an English writer, 
 a son of the preceding, was born in 1810. He resided 
 many years at Florence. He published, besides other 
 works, a "Summer in Brittany," (1840,) a "Decade of 
 Italian Women," and a " Life of Filippo Strozzi." 
 
 Trombelll, tRom-bel'lee, (Gian Crisostomo,) an 
 Italian ecclesiastical writer, born in the duchy of Modena 
 in 1697 ; died at Bologna in 1784. 
 
 Trommen, vander, vSn der titom'men, [Lat. Trom'- 
 Mius,] a Dutch theologian, bom at Groningen in 1633. 
 He preached at Groningen about forty-eight years. He 
 
 c as k; c as s ; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (ft^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TROMMIUS 
 
 2152 
 
 TROUP 
 
 published a " Concordance of the Bible" in the Flemish 
 language, (1685-92.) Died in 1719. 
 
 Trommius. See Tkommen. 
 
 Trommsdoiff, tRoms'douf, (Johann Bartholo- 
 maus,) a German chemist, born at Erfurt in 1770, be- 
 came professor of chemistry and physics in the univer- 
 sity of his native city. He published several scientific 
 works. Died in 1837. 
 
 Tromp, tRonip, (Marten Harpertzoon — haR'p§Rt- 
 zon',) a celebrated naval commander, born at Briel, in 
 Holland, in 1597. At an early age he accompanied Ad- 
 miral Peter Heijn in his engagements with the Spaniards 
 off Flanders, and in 1639 was made Admiral of Holland. 
 In October of the same year he gained a brilliant victory 
 over the Spanish and Portuguese fleet under Ocquendo. 
 For this action he was ennobled by the King of Fiance. 
 In 1652 Admiral Tromp, having been defeated by the 
 English under Blake, was for a time superseded by De 
 Ruyter. He was soon after reinstated, and in November, 
 1652, again encountered Blake, taking two of his ships 
 and sinking several others. In August, 1653, the last 
 engagement took place between the English and Dutch 
 admirals, in which the latter was mortally wounded. 
 Tromp was one of the ablest seamen of his time, and is 
 said to have been the victor in more than thirty battles. 
 
 See Richer, "Vie de l'Amiral Tromp," 1784; Oostkamp, 
 * Het Leven en de Daden van M. H. Tromp," 1825. 
 
 Tromp, van, vSn tKomp, (Cornki.is,) son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Rotterdam in 1629. He distin- 
 guished himself in several engagements with the pirates 
 of the Mediterranean, but in 1665 he was defeated by 
 the English at Solebay under the Duke of York. In 
 1666, in conjunction with De Ruyter, he gained a victory 
 over the English, after a contest of four successive days. 
 The King of Denmark subsequently bestowed on him 
 the title of count, and other distinctions, as a reward 
 for services rendered him in his war with Sweden. 
 After the death of De Ruyter, Van Tromp succeeded 
 him as lieutenant-admiral-general of the United Prov- 
 inces. Died in 1691. 
 
 See " Vie de C. Tromp Amiral de Hollande," the Hague, 1694. 
 
 Tronchet, tuiN'shi', (Francois Denis,) a French 
 jurist, born in Paris in 1726. He was elected to the 
 States-General in 1789, and was a member of the consti- 
 tutional party. In December, 1792, he was employed 
 by Louis XVI. to defend him in his trial. He was a 
 member of the Council of Elders from 1795 to 1799, 
 became president of the court of cassation about 1800, 
 and had a prominent part in the redaction of the Code 
 Napoleon. Died in 1806. 
 
 See Lavali.be, "Notice historique sur F. D. Tronchet," 1806; 
 Andre Dupik, "Tronchet, Ferey, Poirier," 1810; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G6ieVale." 
 
 Tronchin, tRON'shaN', (Jean Robert,) a Swiss jurist 
 of high reputation, was born at Geneva in 1710. He 
 became procureur-general. Lord Mansfield once said, 
 " In our country he [Tronchin] would be chancellor." 
 He defended the action of the Swiss government in re- 
 lation to Rousseau's "Emile," by "Letters written from 
 the Country," ("Lettres ecrites de la Campagne," 1763.) 
 Died in 1793. 
 
 See Senebier, " Histoire litte'raire de Geneve;" Haag, "La 
 France protestante." 
 
 Tronchin, (Theodore,) a Genevese theologian, bom 
 in 1582, was professor and rector in the Academy of his 
 native city. He was an earnest opponent of the doc- 
 trines of Arminius. Died in 1657. 
 
 Tronchin, (Theodore,) an eminent Swiss physician, 
 born at Geneva in 1709. He studied at Cambridge, in 
 England, and subsequently under Boerhaave at Leyden. 
 He practised at Amsterdam nearly twenty years, became 
 honorary professor of medicine at Geneva in 1750, and 
 soon acquired a high reputation, particularly for his 
 efforts to promote the practice of inoculation. He was 
 appointed in 1765 physician to the Duke of Orleans. 
 Died in Paris in 1781. He was a friend of Voltaire and 
 Rousseau. 
 
 See Voltaire, " Correspondance ge'neVale ;" Condorcet, 
 Eloges," "Biographie Medicale;" Haag, "La France protes- 
 tante." 
 
 Tronson, tRoN's6N', (Louis,) a French ecclesiastic 
 and writer, born in Paris in 1622. He published, besides 
 
 other works, " Forma Cleri," (3 vols., 1669.) Died in 
 1700. 
 
 Tronson duCoudray,tR6N's6N'dukoo'dR&',(GuiL- 
 laume Alexandre,) a French advocate and royalist, 
 born at Rheims in 1750. He volunteered his services 
 as counsel of Louis XVI. in December, 1792; but he 
 was not permitted to speak in that case. He made a 
 speech in defence of the queen Marie Antoinette in 
 1793. As a member of the Council of Elders, he op- 
 posed the Directory in 1797, and was transported to 
 Guiana, where he died in 1798. 
 
 See Blondeau, " Notice sur Tronson du Coudray," 1825 ; " Edin- 
 burgh Review" for April, 1852. 
 
 Troost, tRost, (Cornelis,) an able Dutch painter, born 
 at Amsterdam in 1697. He painted portraits, familiar 
 scenes, conversations, etc His drawings in colours are 
 highly commended. Died in 1750. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Troost, (Gerard,) a distinguished chemist and geol- 
 ogist, born at Bois-le-Duc, Holland, in 1776, emigrated 
 to the United States, and was appointed in 1828 pro- 
 fessor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology at Nash- 
 ville, Tennessee. He became State geologist in 1831. 
 Died in 1850. 
 
 Tro-pho'ni-us, [Gr. TpoQuvio;,] a celebrated archi- 
 tect, called a son of Erginus, King of Orchomenos, (or, 
 according to some, of Apollo.) He and his brother 
 Agamedes built the temple of Apollo at Delphi, and the 
 treasury of King Hyrieus. His name was connected 
 with a cave and oracle at Lebadea, in Boeotia, which is 
 described by Pausanias. A visit to this cave was sup- 
 posed to render people serious or melancholy. 
 
 See Addison's paper, entitled "The Cave of Trophonius," in 
 the "Spectator," No. 599. 
 
 . Troplong, tRo'lds', (Raymond Theodore,) a French 
 jurist and statesman, born at Saint-Gaudens in 1795. 
 He became in 1835 a counsellor in the court of cassa- 
 tion in Paris, first president of the court of appeal in 
 1848, first president of the court of cassation in 1852, 
 and first president of the senate in 1854. He was chosen 
 a -member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sci- 
 ences in 1840. His chief work is "The Civil Law Ex- 
 pounded," (" Le Droit civil explique," 27 vols. 8vo, 
 1834-56.) Died in February, 1869. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G&ie'rale." 
 
 Tros, [Gr, T/jdf,] a fabulous king of Phrygia, was a 
 grandson of Dardanus, and a son of Erichthonius. He 
 was the father of litis, Asaracus, and Ganymedes, (Gany- 
 mede.) The Trojans derived their name from him. 
 
 Troschel, tuosh'e!, (Johann,) a skilful German en- 
 graver, born at Nuremberg about 1592. He worked at 
 Rome. Died in 1633. 
 
 Trot'ter, (Thomas,) a Scottish physician and medical 
 writer, born in Roxburghshire, studied at Edinburgh, 
 and became in 1793 physician to the Royal Hospital 
 at Portsmouth. He published, among other works, a 
 " Review of the Medical Department of the British 
 Navy," (1790,) "Medical and Chemical Essays," (1795,) 
 and an " Essay on the Diseases of Seamen," (3 vols., 
 1707-1803.) Died in 1832. 
 
 Trotti, titot'tee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 painter, surnamed 11. Mai.osso, was born at Cremona 
 in 1555, and was a pupil of B. Campi. The graceful- 
 ness of his heads is praised by several critics. Died 
 after 1607. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Troughton, trow'ton, ? (Edward,) F.R.S., an ex- 
 cellent English mechanician and maker of astronomical 
 instruments, was born in Cumberland in 1753. He 
 became a resident of London, made telescopes for seve- 
 ral observatories, and invented improvements in astro- 
 nomical instruments, in the fabrication of which he is 
 said to have surpassed all of his contemporaries. Died 
 in 1835. 
 
 Troup, troop, (George M.,) an American politician, 
 born on the Tombigbee River in 1780. He was a mem- 
 ber of Congress for Georgia from 1807 to 1815, was a 
 Senator of the United States from 1816 to 1S18, and 
 Governor of Georgia from 1823 to 1827 He also repre- 
 sented Georgia in the Federal Senate from 1829 to 1834. 
 He was a champion of State sovereignty. Died in 1856. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
TROUSSEAU 
 
 2 '53 
 
 TRUMBULL 
 
 Trousseau, tRoo'so', (Armanh,) an eminent French 
 physician, bom at Tours in 1801. He published a 
 valuable work entitled "Treatise on Therapeutics and 
 Materia Medica," ("Traite de Therapeutique et de Ma- 
 tiere medicale," 3 vols., 1836-39.) He became professor 
 of therapeutics at Paris in 1839. He had a high repu- 
 tation as a professor and a writer. Died in June, 1867. 
 
 See Sachailk, "Medecius de Paris;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Gtfne'rale." 
 
 Trouvain, tRoo'vaN', (Antoine.) a French engraver, 
 born at Montdidier in 1656, was a pupil of G. Edelinck. 
 Died in 1 70S. 
 
 Trouve - Chauvel, tRoo'vi' sho'vel', (Aristk,) a 
 French republican minister of state, born at Suze (Sat the) 
 in 1805. He was elected to the Constituent Assembly 
 in 1S48, and was minister of finance from October to 
 December of that year. 
 
 Trow'bridge, (Edmund,) an eminent American 
 jurist, born at Newton, Massachusetts, in 1709, became 
 attorney-general of the State in 1749, and was afterwards 
 justice of the supreme court. Hied in 1793. 
 
 Trowbridge, (John Townsend,) an American novel- 
 ist, born in Monroe county, New York, in 1827. He 
 contributed to the "Atlantic Monthly." Among his 
 works are "Neighbour Jackwood," (1857,) "The Old 
 Battle -Ground," (1859,) "The Vagabonds," (1863,) 
 "Cudjo's Cave," (1864,) "Lucy Arlyn," (1866,) and 
 "Coupon Bonds," (1866.) 
 
 Trow'bridge or Troubridge, (Sir Thomas,) an 
 English admiral, born in London, served with great 
 distinction under Lord Howe, and, as commander of 
 the Culloden, was sent to the assistance of Nelson in 
 the Mediterranean in 1798. He served at the battle 
 of the Nile. He was made a baronet in 1799, and an 
 admiral in 1804. As commander of the Blenheim, he 
 sailed for the Cape of Good Hope in 1807, and is sup- 
 posed to have perished by shipwreck off the coast of 
 Madagascar. 
 
 Trowbridge, (Sir Thomas Saint Vincent Hope 
 Cochrane,) an English officer, a grandson of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 181 7. He served as colonel in the 
 Crimean war, and lost a leg at Inkerman, (1854.) Died 
 in 1867. 
 
 Troxler, tRoks'ler, (Ignaz Paul Vital,) a Swiss 
 writer, born in the canton of Lucerne in 1780, became 
 professor of philosophy at Bale in 1830. He was the 
 author of several philosophical works. 
 
 Troy, de, deh tiuva, (Francois,) a French painter, 
 born at Toulouse about 1645, became professor in the 
 Academy of Fine Arts in Paris. He painted portraits 
 with success, and some historical pieces. Died in 1730. 
 
 Troy, de, (Jean Francois,) son of the preceding, 
 was born in Paris in 1676. He was appointed by Louis 
 XIV. director of the French Academy at Rome about 
 1738. Died in 1752. 
 
 Troya, tRo'ya, (Carlo,) an Italian historian, born at 
 Naples in 1785. He was exiled in 1823 for his liberal- 
 ism. He published an " Introduction to the History of 
 the Middle Ages," (" Apparato preliminale alia Storia 
 dal medio Evo," 1839 etseq.) Died in 1858. 
 
 Troyen, van, vln tkoi'en, (Rombout,) a Flemish 
 painter, born at Antwerp about 1600. He painted ruins 
 and other objects in the vicinity of Rome. Died in 1650. 
 
 Troyon, tkwa'voN', (CONSTANT,) an eminent French 
 painter of animals and landscapes, was born at Sevres 
 in 1813. He gained medals of the first class in 1846 
 and 1S4S. His works arc admired for variety of effects, 
 fidelity to nature, and brilliant colouring. He painted 
 numerous pictures of French scenery. Died in 1865. 
 
 Trublet, tuti'Mi', (Nicolas Chari.es Joskbh,) 
 Ai:i:B, a French essayist, born at Saint-Malo in 1697. 
 He published, besides other works, " Literary and 
 Moral Essays,' 1 (2 vols., 1735.) D'Alembert said this 
 might be made an excellent book by erasing some parts 
 of it. Trublet was admitted to the French Academy in 
 1761. Died in 1770. 
 
 See D'Alkmbkrt, " Histoite de I'AcAddniie Francaise." 
 
 Truchet, tuii'shi', (Jean,) a French Carmelite monk, 
 sometimes called Father Sebastian, born at Lyons 
 in 1657, was distinguished for his knowledge of mathe- 
 
 matics and mechanics. He invented several useful 
 machines. Died in 1729. 
 
 Truchseas, (Gehhard.) See Gebhard. 
 
 Trudaine de Montigny, tRii'd4n' deh mdN'ten'ye', 
 (Jean Charles Philibert,) a French financier, born 
 at Clermont-Ferrand in 1733 '< died in 1777. 
 
 Trueba y Cosio, de, da tRoo-a'na e ko'se-o, (Teles- 
 foro,) a distinguished writer, born at Santander, in 
 Spaing in 1805, was educated in England, where he pub- 
 lished a number of romances, dramas, and historical 
 works, in English. Among these may be named "The 
 Castilian," "Salvador the Guerrilla," and a farce entitled 
 " Mr. and Mrs. Pi ingle." Died in 1835. 
 
 Truguet, tRii'gi^ (Laurent Jsan Francois.) a 
 French admiral, born at Toulon in 1752. He was min- 
 ister of marine from November, 1795, to July, 1797. In 
 1802 he took command of the combined fleets of Fran >} 
 and Spain. He was disgraced in 1804, on suspicion of 
 his being averse to Napoleon's elevation to the imperial 
 power. Died in 1839. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Tru'man, (Rev. Joseph,) an English divine, born in 
 163 1, was the author of several theological works, one 
 of which, entitled " A Discourse of Natural and Moral 
 Impotency," obtained great popularity. He became a 
 nonconformist, and was deprived of his living in 1662. 
 Died in 1671. 
 
 Trumball. See Trumbull, (Sir William.) 
 
 Trfim'bull, (Benjamin,) D.D., an American Congre- 
 gational divine and historical writer, born at Hebron, 
 Connecticut, in 1735. He was the author of a " History 
 of Connecticut," (2 vols., 1797-1818,) " History of the 
 United States," (1810,) and other works. Died in 1820. 
 
 Trumbull, (John,) an American satirical poet and 
 lawyer, born at Waterbury, Connecticut, on the 24th of 
 April, 1750. He graduated at Yale College in 1767, 
 after which he was a tutor in that institution for several 
 years. He was an intimate friend of Dr. Dwight. In 
 1772 he produced "The Progress of Dulness," a poem. 
 Flaving studied law under John Adams, at Boston, he 
 began to practise at New Haven. He became a dis- 
 tinguished and popular lawyer, and in 1781 settled at 
 Hartford. In 1782 he published " McFingal," a satirical 
 poem, which passed through thirty editions and was 
 serviceable to the cause of liberty. " It is much the 
 best imitation of the great satire of Butler," says R. W. 
 Griswold, "that has been written." He was a judge 
 of the supreme court of errors (or superior court) from 
 1808 to 1819. Died at Detroit in May, 1831. 
 
 See R. W. Griswouj, " Poeis and Poetry of America," p. 41 ; 
 Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Trumbull, (John,) an eminent painter, born at Leba- 
 non, Connecticut, in 1756. On the breaking out of the 
 Revolution, he entered the army, and was appointed in 
 1775 aide-de-camp to. Washington. In 1780 he visited 
 London, where he became a pupil of West. Returning 
 to America, he produced, in 1796, his " Battle of Bunker 
 Hill," a master-piece of its kind, which was followed by 
 the "Death of Montgomery," and " Sortie of the Garri- 
 son from Gibraltar.!) His most important works are the 
 pictures in the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington. 
 Among these we may name "The Surrender of Corn- 
 wallis," the " Resignation of General Washington at 
 Annapolis," "Declaration of Independence," and the 
 "Surrender of Burgoyne." He presented fifty-five of 
 his works to Vale College. Died in 1843. 
 
 See liift " Autobiography." 
 
 Trumbull, (Jonathan,) an American statesman, born 
 at Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1710, was the father of the 
 preceding. He was elected Governor of the State in 1769, 
 continuing in that office fourteen years. He was highly 
 esteemed by Washington for his talents and integrity. 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 Trumbull, (Jonathan.) a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1740. On the break- 
 ing out of the war of the Revolution, he was appointed 
 paymaster to the Northern department of the armv, and 
 was afterwards secretary and first aide-de-camp to Wash- 
 ington. He was elected to Congress in 1 789, was Speaker 
 of the House of Representatives from 1791 to 1793, a "d 
 became a Senator of the United States in 1795. He 
 
 « as k; c as /; g hard; g as/. G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; s as *; th as in this. ((jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TRUMBULL 
 
 2 1 ;4 
 
 TUCKER 
 
 enjoyed the friendship and confidence of General Wash- 
 ington. In 1798 he was chosen Governor of Connecticut. 
 He held the office of Governor eleven years. Died in 
 1809. 
 
 See the " National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished Americans." 
 
 Trumbull, (Lyman,) an American judge and Senator, 
 born at Colchester, Connecticut, in 1813. He removed 
 to Illinois in his youth, and became a judge of the supreme 
 court of that State in 184S. Having joined the Repub- 
 lican party, he was elected a Senator of the United States 
 by the legislature of Illinois in 1854, and was re-elected 
 in i860 and in 1866. He served as chairman of the 
 committee on the judiciary for manv years. 
 
 Trum'bull or Trum'ball, (Sir William,) an Eng- 
 lish statesman, born in Berkshire in 1636. He studied 
 at Oxford, and was successively appointed to several 
 important offices under the government. He was envoy- 
 extraordinary to France in 1685, and after the accession 
 of James II. was ambassador to Constantinople. Having 
 returned to England in 1691, he was appointed in 1695 
 secretary of state. He died in 1716. He was distin- 
 guished for his learning and his literary tastes, and was 
 an intimate friend of Pope and Dryden. 
 
 See Burnet, " History of tiis Own Times." 
 
 Tru'ro, (Thomas Wilde,) Lord, an English Whig 
 statesman and jurist, born in 1782. He was elected to 
 Parliament for Newark in i83i,and in 1841 represented 
 Worcester, being made attorney-general the same year. 
 He was appointed chief justice of the court of common 
 pleas in 1846, and lord high chancellor in 1850. He re- 
 signed in February, 1852. Died in 1855. 
 
 Trus'ler, (John,) an English bookseller and compiler, 
 born in London in 1735; died in 1820. 
 
 Trutzschler, von, foil tuoots'shler, (Fkikdrich 
 Karl Adolf,) a German jurist and legal writer, born 
 near Weida in 1751 ; died in 1831. 
 
 Triix'tcm or Trux'tun, (Thomas,) an American 
 naval officer, born on Long Island in 1755. As captain of 
 a privateer, he took several valuable prizes during the 
 Revolution. He obtained tiie rank of captain in the navy 
 in 1795, with the command of the frigate Constellation, 
 thirty-eight guns, and captured in February, 1799, the 
 French frigate L'lnsurgente. He received from Congress 
 a gold medal for his victory over the French frigate La 
 Vengeance, fifty-four guns, February, 1800. Died in 1822. 
 
 Truxtun. See Tkuxton. 
 
 Tryphiodore. See Tryphiodorus. 
 
 Tryph-I-o-do'rus, |Gr. TotK^-xSupoc ,■ Fr. Tryphio- 
 dore, tRe'fe'o'doR',] a Greek poet and grammarian, born 
 in Egypt in the latter part of the fifth or early part of 
 the sixth century, was the author of an epic poem on 
 the'destruclion of Troy, several editions of which have 
 been published. 
 
 Try'phon, [Gr. Tpifyuv,] an eminent engraver of 
 gems, is supposed to have lived about 300 11. c. Among 
 his extant works is a gem representing the reconciliation 
 of Eros and Psyche. 
 
 Try'phon, (I)iod'otus,) King of Syria, usurped 
 the throne in 142 11. c, after he had murdered Antioclius, 
 the infant son of Alexander Balas. He was defeated 
 and put to death by Antioclius Sidetes in 139 B.C. 
 
 Trjrph-o-ni'nus, (Claudius,) a Roman jurist, who 
 flourished under the reign of Septimius Severus, was the 
 author of a number of legal works, fragments of which 
 are extant. 
 
 Tschamer, tshaii'ner, (Johann Baptist,) a Swiss 
 statesman, born in 1751 ; died in 1835. 
 
 Tacherning, tshe R'ning, (Andreas,) a German lyric 
 poet, born at Bunzlauin 161 1, became professor of poetry 
 at Rostock. Died in 1659. 
 
 Tacherning, (Anton Friedrich,) a Danish states- 
 man, born at Frederiksvark in 1795. He was appointed 
 minister of war in 1848, and in 1854 a member of the 
 imperial council. 
 
 Tschirner, (Heinrich Gottlieb.) See Tzschirner. 
 
 Tschirnhausen, von, fon tshe"e'Kii'how / z$n, (Ehren- 
 hried Walter,) an eminent German mathematician 
 and philosopher, born near Gorlitz, in Upper Lusatia, 
 in 165 1. He travelled in various countries of Europe, 
 and after his return established in Saxony several man- 
 ufactories of glass. He made burning lenses and 
 
 mirrors of enormous size. One of these was three feet 
 in diameter, with a focal distance of twelve feet. About 
 1867 he published a philosophical work called "Medicine 
 of the Mind," ("Medicina Mentis.") Died in 170S. 
 
 See " Leben Tschirnhausens," 1709; Fonteneli.e, "Fjoges;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Tschudi, tshoo'dee, [Lat. Tschu'dius.j (vEgidius,) 
 one of the earliest Swiss historians, was born at Glarus 
 in 1505. He filled several important offices under the 
 government, and in 1559 was ambassador at the court 
 of Vienna. His voluminous works are chiefly in manu- 
 script. The most important of those published is 
 his "Chronicle of Switzerland from 1000 a.d. to 1470," 
 (in German,) which is esteemed a standard authority in 
 Swiss history. Died in 1572. 
 
 See Fuchs, " JE. Tschudi's Leben und Schriften," 2 vols., 1805; 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Tschudi, von, von tshoo'dee, (Johann Jakob,) a 
 Swiss naturalist, of the same family as the preceding, was 
 born at Glarus in 1818. He visited Peru in 1838, and 
 published, after his return, " Sketches of Travel in Peru," 
 " Antiquities of Peru," prepared in conjunction with Don 
 Mariano de Rivera, and other works. 
 
 Tachudius. See Tschudi, (/Egidius.) 
 
 Tu'bal-Cain, a son of Lamech, is regarded as the 
 inventor of the art of working in metals. 
 
 See Genesis iv. 22. 
 
 Tu'be-ro, (Quintus,) a Roman orator and jurist, and 
 friend of Cicero. He was a partisan of the senate and 
 of Ponipey in the civil war. 
 
 Tubi, too'bee, (Giovanni Baitista,) [Fr. Tuby i.e 
 RoMAIN, tu'be' leh ro'maN',] a sculptor, born at Rome 
 in 1635. He worked at Versailles and Paris. Died in 
 Paris in 1700. 
 
 Tuby. See Turn. 
 
 Tuch, tooK, (Johann Christian Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man Orientalist and theologian, born at Quedlinburg in 
 1806. He studied at Halle, and became professor of 
 theology at Leipsic about 1842. He published a " Com- 
 mentary on Genesis," (1838,) which is commended, 
 
 Tuck'er, (Abraham,) an English metaphysician, born 
 in London in 1705, was a son of a merchant, who left 
 him a large fortune. He was educated at Oxford, pur- 
 chased Betchworth Castle, near Dorking, in 1727, and 
 married a.Miss Barker in 1736. His principal work is 
 entitled "The Light of Nature Pursued," by Edward 
 Search, (4 vols., 1765.) "He was naturally endowed," 
 says Sir J. Mackintosh, "not, indeed, with more than 
 ordinary acuteness or sensibility, nor with a high degree 
 of reach and range of mind, but with a singular capacity 
 for careful observation and original reflection, and with 
 a fancy perhaps unmatched in producing various and 
 happy illustration. It is in mixed, not in pure, philoso- 
 phy, that his superiority consists. In the part of his 
 work which relates to the intellect, he has adopted much 
 from Hartley." (See " View of the Progress of Ethical 
 Philosophy.") " I have found in this writer," says Paley, 
 " more original thinking and observation upon the seve- 
 ral subjects that he has taken in hand than in any other, 
 not to say than in all others put together." (Preface to 
 " Moral and Political Philosophy.") Died in 1774. 
 
 See Sir Henry Mildmay, notice prefixed to an edition of the 
 " Light of Nature Pursued," 7 vols., 1852. 
 
 Tuck'er, (Beverly,) son of Saint George Tucker, 
 noticed below, was born at Matoax, Virginia, in 17S4. 
 He became in 1834 professor of law in William and 
 Mary College. He published legal works and several 
 novels, one of which, entitled "The Partisan Leader," 
 dated in 1S37, foretold the secession of the Southern 
 States, which took place in 1861. Died in 1851. 
 
 Tucker, (George,) an American jurist, born in Vir- 
 ginia in 1775. He was elected to Congress in 1819, 
 1821, and 1823, and became professor of law in the 
 University of Virginia in 1825. He published a "Life 
 of Thomas Jefferson" and a " Political History of the 
 United States." Died in 1861. 
 
 Tucker, (Henry Saint George,) an American jurist, 
 bom in Virginia in 1779, was professor of law in the 
 University of Virginia. He published " Lectures on 
 Natural Law and Government, and other legal works, 
 which were highly esteemed. Died in 1848. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, Q, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moor.; 
 
TUCKER 
 
 *"55 
 
 TULLUS 
 
 Tucker, (Josiah,) an English political writer and 
 clergyman, born in Carmarthenshire in 171 1, was edu- 
 cated at Oxford. He became curate of Saint Stephen's, 
 Bristol, and obtained the friendship and patronage of 
 Bishop Butler, who appointed him rector of Saint Ste- 
 phen's in 1749. In 1758 he lwcame Dean of Gloucester. 
 He wrote several treatises on commerce, taxes, monop- 
 olies, etc., among which we notice " Reflections on the 
 Present Matters in Dispute between Great Britain and 
 Ireland," (1785.) In this work he advocated greater free- 
 dom of trade. He also published a " Treatise concerning 
 Civil Government," (1781.) Died in 1799. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Bioj*raphie GeneVale ;" " Monthly Review" for 
 October and November, 17S1. 
 
 Tucker, (LUTHER,) an American journalist, born at 
 Brandon, Vermont, in 1802. He became a printer, and 
 in 1826 established at Rochester, in New York, "The 
 Rochester Daily Advertiser," the first daily paper west 
 of Albany. In January, 1831, he began to issue, at Roch- 
 ester, " The Genesee Farmer," which was afterwards con- 
 solidated with "The Albany Cultivator." In 1852 he com- 
 menced the publication of" The Country Gentleman," an 
 agricultural paper of high character. To Mr. Tucker 
 belongs the credit of having been the pioneer in the suc- 
 cessful introduction of agricultural periodical literature 
 Among the masses of the people in the United States. 
 
 Tucker, (SAINT George.) an American jurist and 
 miscellaneous writer, born on the island of Bermuda in 
 1752. Having settled in Virginia, he married in 1778 
 Mrs. Randolph, mother of the celebrated John Ran- 
 dolph. He rose through several offices to be judge of 
 the district court of the United States. He published 
 numerous works, in prose and verse. Died in 1827. 
 
 Tucker, (Samuel,) an American commodore, born 
 in Massachusetts in 1 747. He was appointed captain 
 in the navy by General Washington, and commanded 
 with success in several actions. Died in 1833. 
 
 Tuck'er-man, (Hknry THEODORE,) an American 
 critic and miscellaneous writer, born at Boston in 1813. 
 Having visited Italy, he published in 1835 "The Italian 
 Sketch-Hook," which was followed by " Sicily, a Pilgrim- 
 Ige," (1839,) "Thoughts on the Poets," (1846, translated 
 into German,) " Artist Life, or Sketches of American 
 Painters," (1847.) "Characteristics of Literature," (1849,) 
 "Memorial of Horatio Greenough," (1853,) " Biographi- 
 cal Essays," (1857,) "Rook of the Artists," (1867,) and 
 a number of poems. Mr. Tuckerman occupied a high 
 rank among the art critics of America. Died in 1871. 
 
 See DuYCKINCK, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. : 
 Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Tuckerman, (JOSEPH,) D.D., an American Unitarian 
 divine, an uncle of the preceding, was born at Boston in 
 1778. He was one of the founders of the American 
 Seamen's Friend Society, and other similar institutions. 
 He afterwards assisted in organizing the Benevolent 
 Fraternity of Churches, for the support of a city mission 
 called the Ministry at Large, of which he became a min- 
 ister. Died in 1840. 
 
 See "Discourse on the Life, etc. of Rev. Joseph Tuckerman," 
 by W. E. Ciianning. 
 
 Tuck'ey, (James Hingston,) an Irish writer and 
 naval officer, born in the county of Cork in 1778, was 
 employed in the survey of the coast of New South 
 Wales, and published a work entitled "Maritime Geog- 
 raphy." Died in 1816. 
 
 Tuck'ney, (Anthony,) a learned English Puritan 
 minister, born in Lincolnshire in 1599. He preached 
 at Boston and in London. Died in 1670. His Sermons 
 were published about 1676. 
 
 Tudela. See Benjamin of Tudei.a. 
 
 Tu-dl-ta'nus, (P. Sempronius,) a Roman general, 
 who served as tribune at Cannae in 216 B.C., became 
 praetor in 213, and censor in 209. Having been elected 
 consul for the year 204, he obtained Bruttii as his prov- 
 ince, with the conduct of the war against Hannibal, 
 whom he defeated. 
 
 Tu'dor, (OWEN,) a Welsh gentleman, who married 
 Catherine of France after the death of her first husband, 
 Henry V. of England. He supported the Lancastrian 
 party in the war of the Roses. Died in 1461. He had 
 a son, Edmond Tudor, who was created Earl of Rich- 
 
 mond about 1452 and died in 1456. Henry, the son of 
 Edmond, became King of England. 
 
 Tu'dctr, (WILLIAM,) an American litterateur, born at 
 Boston in 1779, was one of the founders of the Athe- 
 naeum in that city. He became in 1815 the first editor 
 of the "North American Review." Besides his numerous 
 contributions to this journal, he published "Letters on 
 the Eastern States," (1819,) a "Life of James Otis," 
 (1823,) and a work entitled "Gebel-Teir." He was 
 appointed in 1823 United States consul at Lima. Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 Tudor Family, the name of a royal family of Eng- 
 land, which exercised power during a period of one 
 hundred and twenty years, (1485-1605.) Henry VII. 
 was the first and Queen Elizabeth the last monarch of 
 this house. The father of Henry VII. was Edmond 
 Tudor, and his mother was the heiress of the Duke of 
 Lancaster. 
 
 Tud'way, (Thomas,) an English musician and com- 
 poser, lived about 1670-1700, and was a pupil of Dr. 
 Blow. He was appointed professor of music at Cam- 
 bridge, and organist to Queen Anne. He was a friend 
 of Lord Oxford, whom he assisted in forming his valu- 
 able collection of books. 
 
 Tuerlinckx, tu'er-links, (Joseph,) a Belgian statuary, 
 born at Malines in 1820. 
 
 Tuet, tii'i', (Jean Chari.es Francois,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Ham in 1742 ; died in 1797. 
 
 Tugrol. See Togrul. 
 
 Tulasue, tii'lan', (Louis Ren£,) a French botanist, 
 born at Azay-le-Rideau in 1815. He published, besides 
 other works, " Studies on Vegetable Embryogeny," 
 (1849,) and "Fungi hypogaei," (1851.) He was admitted 
 into the Institute in 1854. 
 
 Tuldeu. See Thui.den. 
 
 Tull, (Jethro,) an English agriculturist, born in Ox- 
 fordshire about 1680, was the originator of what is called 
 the "horse-hoeing system" of husbandry. He published 
 in 1731 a number of essays on this subject, which were 
 subsequently edited by Mr. Cobbett, with an introduc- 
 tion. Died in 1740. 
 
 Tul'H-a, a daughter of Servius Tullius, and the wife 
 of Tarquin the Proud. She was accessory to the murder 
 of her father. 
 
 TulTI-a, |Fr. Tullie, tii'le',] a Roman lady, the 
 daughter of Cicero the orator, was born in 78 B.C. 
 She was married to Calpurnius Piso Frugi in the year 
 63, and to Furius Crassipes about 56. Having been 
 divorced from him, she became the wife of Dolabella in 
 50 n.c. Died in 45 B.C. 
 
 See Sagittarius. " Historia Vitas et Mortis TulliaV' 1679; Ma- 
 dame ns Lassay, " Histoire de Tullie," 1726. 
 
 Tullie. See Tvi.UA. 
 
 Tulliu, tool'lin, (Christian Braunman or Brau- 
 MAN,) a Danish poet, born at Christiania, in Norway, in 
 1728, was also a judge. He wrote, besides other works, 
 a poem on navigation, and another on the creation. He 
 is called the first classic Danish poet. Died in 1765. 
 
 See Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Tul'11-us, (Attius,) was King of the Volscians when 
 Coriolanus was banished from Rome. He induced the 
 VolsCians to send an army against Rome, and gave the 
 command of it to Coriolanus. 
 
 Tullius, (Servius.) See Servius Tui.lius. 
 
 Tul'lpeh, (John,) a Scottish theologian and minister 
 of the Established Church of Scotland, was born in Perth- 
 shire in 1823. He became principal of Saint Mary's 
 College, Saint Andrew's, in 1854. He has contributed 
 to the " North British Review." Among his works are 
 " The Being and Attributes of God," (1855,) and "The 
 Leaders of the Reformation," (1859.) For the former 
 he received a prize of £(xx>. 
 
 Tul'lus Hos-til'I-us, third King of Rome, succeeded 
 Numa Pompilius in 673 B.C. He carried on a war against 
 the Albans, in which occurred the celebrated combat 
 between the Horatii and Curiatii, and which ended in 
 the conquest of Alba. He was a very warlike king. 
 According to tradition, he was killed by lightning about 
 640 B.C. 
 
 See Gkbauhr, "Tullus Hostilius," 1720 ; Schoemann, " Di»- 
 ftertatio critica de Tullo Hostilio," 1847. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (Jj^*"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TULLT 
 
 2156 
 
 TVRGOT 
 
 Tully, (the Roman orator.) See Cicero. 
 
 Tul'iy, (George,) an English divine, was the author 
 of a " Discourse on the Government of the Thoughts," 
 and other religious works. Died in 1697. 
 
 Tully, (Thomas,) an English divine, born at Carlisle 
 In 1620, published several controversial works. Died 
 in 1676. 
 
 Tul'ljr, (William,) M.D., a distinguished American 
 physician, born at Saybrook, Connecticut, in 1785. Me 
 graduated at Yale College, and became, in 1830, profes- 
 sor of materia medica in the medical department of that 
 institution. He published, conjointly with Dr. Thomas 
 Miner, essays, entitled "Miner and Tully on Fever." 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 Tulp, tulp, (Nikola as,) a Dutch physician and ma- 
 gistrate, born at Amsterdam in 1593. He was elected 
 burgomaster of his native city four times, and gave proof 
 of courage and energy when Holland was invaded by the 
 French in 1672. He published a medical treatise, called 
 "Observationes Medicae," (1641.) Died in 1674. 
 
 See Wittwer, " N. Tulp," 1785 ; Van Bochove, " Dissertatio 
 de N. Tulpio," 1845. 
 
 Tunstall, (Cuthbert.) See Tonstall. 
 
 Tun'stall, (James,) D.D., an English divine and 
 writer, born about 17:0. He studied at Cambridge, and 
 rose through several preferments to be vicar of Roch- 
 dale, in Lancashire. Among his principal works are 
 "Discourses upon Natural and Revealed Religion," "A 
 Vindication of the Power of the State to Prohibit Clan- 
 destine Marriages," and " Observations on the Present 
 Collection of Epistles between Cicero and Brutus." 
 Died in 1772. 
 
 Tup'per, (Martin Farquhar,) a popular English 
 poet and novelist, born in London in 1810. He pub- 
 lished in 1839 his " Proverbial Philosophy," which was 
 received with great favour both in England and America 
 and passed rapidly through numerous editions. Among 
 his other works we may name the "Dirge on Welling- 
 ton," " Ballads for the Times on White Slavery," (1852,) 
 and novels entitled "The Twins," and "The Crock of 
 Gold." He has also translated the poems of Alfred the 
 Great from the Anglo-Saxon into English verse. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for December, 1838. 
 
 Tura, too'ra, or Turra, toor'ra, (Cosimo,) sometimes 
 called Cosimo DA Ferrara, (da fer-ra'ra,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Ferrara in 1406. He painted in the 
 dry, Gothic style. Died in 1469, or after that date. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Turamini, too-ra-mee'nee, (Alessandro,) an Italian 
 jurist, born at Sienna about 1558. He lectured at Sienna 
 and Ferrara, and published several legal works. 
 
 Tur'ber-ville, (George,) an English poet, born 
 about 1530, went to Russia as secretary to Randolph, the 
 ambassador of Queen Elizabeth. He was the author 
 of "Songs and Sonnets," and translated Ovid's ' He- 
 loical Epistles." Died after 1594. 
 
 Turbido. See Torbido. 
 
 Turchi, toou'kee,( Alessandro,) surnamed Orbetto, 
 (■ R-bet'to,) an Italian painter, born at Verona in 1582. 
 He worked at Verona and Rome, and attempted to 
 combine the Roman style of design with the Venetian 
 colouring. Among his best works is "The Death of 
 . Forty Martyrs." Died at Rome in 1648. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ticozzr, " Dizio 
 nario." 
 
 Turchiu, toor'chin, (John Basil,) a general, born in 
 the valley of the Don, in Russia, about 1822. He served 
 as a Russian officer in the Crimean war, (1855,) soon 
 alter which he emigrated to the United States. He 
 fought for the Union in the civil war. 
 
 Turck, tiiRk, (Louis,) a French physician, born at 
 Nancy in 1798. He was a republican member of the 
 National Assembly in 1848. 
 
 Turenna. See Turenne. 
 
 Tu-iSnne', de, [Fr. pron. deh tu'ren'; Lat. Tu- 
 ken'nius; It. Turenna, too-ren'na,] (Henri de la 
 Tour d'Auvergne— deh IS tooR do'viRn',) Vicomte, 
 a famous French general, born at Sedan, September 11, 
 161 1, was the second son of Henri, Due de Bouillon. 
 His mother was Elizabeth, a daughter of William the 
 Silent, Prince of Orange. His father was an able gene- 
 
 ral, and a leader of the French Protestants. Young 
 Turenne was educated in the Protestant religion by 
 Daniel Tilenus, a tolerant Calvinist. He served, in his 
 early youth, under his uncles Maurice of Nassau and 
 Henry Frederick, (1625-30.) During this period of five 
 or six years he fought against the Spaniards, and acquired 
 much practical knowledge of the art of war. In 1630 
 he returned to France, and received command of a regi- 
 ment. He obtained the high rank of marechal-de-camp 
 in 1635, and was sent in the same year, under La Vallette, 
 to defend Mentz against the Imperialists. In 1637 he 
 took Landrecies, and gained some successes in Flanders. 
 As second in command under Harcourt, he had the 
 principal part in the capture of Turin in 1640. His 
 promotion was retarded by the political course of his 
 brother, the Due de Bouillon. He was raised to the 
 rank of marshal of France in 1643, and ordered to Ger- 
 many, where he was second in command under the 
 Prince of Cond^. The success of the French at Nord- 
 lingen in 1645 was attributed to Turenne by Conde 
 himself. In 1646, by judicious plans and skilful man- 
 oeuvres, he gained important advantages without much 
 loss of life. He effected a junction with the Swedish 
 army, invaded Bavaria, and compelled the Duke of 
 Bavaria to sue for peace. The long war was terminated 
 by the peace of Westphalia, (1648,) and the civil war of 
 the Fronde began in 1649. Turenne, probably, felt little 
 zeal for either party in this contest. He declined to 
 fight for Mazarin, and retired to Holland after he had 
 been superseded in the command of the army. The 
 Prince of Conde having been imprisoned by Mazarin, in 
 January, 1650, Turenne declared himself in favour of the 
 captive prince, and took arms at Stenay against the 
 court. He was defeated near Rethel by the royal army 
 in December, 1650, soon after which Conde was liberated 
 from prison. 
 
 In 1651 he went to Paris, and married Charlotte de 
 Caumont, a daughter of Armand, Due de La Force. 
 He accepted in March, 1652, the chief command of the 
 royal army, and was opposed to the Prince of Conde, 
 who, in alliance with the Spaniards, had renewed the 
 war. Turenne defeated his adversary at Paris in 1652, 
 and at Arras in 1654, after which the seat of war was 
 transferred to Flanders. He gained a decisive victory 
 over Conde and the Spaniards at the battle of the 
 Dunes, near Dunkirk, in 1658. Peace was concluded in 
 1659. After the death of Mazarin, Turenne had much 
 influence in the direction of the foreign policy of France. 
 He was persuaded to become a Roman Catholic in 1668. 
 He commanded a large army which invaded Holland in 
 1672, and conquered several provinces of that country. 
 Unable to resist this army in battle, the Dutch opened 
 the dykes, flooded the country, and thus checked the in- 
 vaders. In 1674 he defeated the Imperialists in several 
 actions near the Rhine, and ravaged the Palatinate -with 
 excessive cruelty, — which is perhaps the only stain on 
 his memory. He was opposed in the next campaign to 
 Montecuculi, an Austrian general of great skill, and was 
 killed at Salzbach in July, 1675. Turenne was distin- 
 guished for his modesty, sobriety, sound judgment, and 
 impassible composure in action. 
 
 See Bossuet, "Oraison funebre du Vicomte de Titrenne," 1676; 
 Paui.ktti, "Vita di Turenna," 1677; G. uh Courtilz, "Vie de 
 Turenne." 16S5 : Ramsay, " Histoire de Turenne," 2 vols., 1735; 
 Raguenkt, " Histoire de Turenne," 1738; Flechier, "Oraison 
 funebre de Turenne," 1675: SlSMONDI, "Histoire de France'" 
 Michklht, "Histoire de France;" Voltaire, "Siec'ede Lena 
 XIV;" Dk Rktz, " Memoires ;" " Leven van den Marschalk van 
 Tuix-nne," Amsterdam, 1676; " Lettres et Memoires du Marei li.il 
 de Turenne," edited by CdMTE DE Grimoard, 2 vols., 1782 ; Zan- 
 TttlKR, " Feldziige des Vicomte de Turenne," 1779: "Lives of the 
 Warriors of the Civil Wars of France and England." by Sir Ed- 
 ward Cust, London, 1867 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Turennius. See Turenne. 
 
 Turgenef, Turgenev, or Turgenew. See Toor- 
 genek. 
 
 Tur'got, an Anglo-Saxon historian. He became 
 Bishop of Saint Andrew's and Primate of Scotland in 
 1107, and wrote a " History of the Church of Durham 
 from 635 to 1096." Died in 1 1 15. 
 
 Turgbt, tiiR'go', (Anne Robert Jacques,) Baron de 
 L'Aulne, (deh Ion,) an eminent French economist and 
 financier, born in Paris in May, 1727. He studied law, 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 0, ti, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure, far, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
TURGOT 
 
 2157 
 
 TUR NER 
 
 became a counsellor to the Parliament in 1752, and mas- 
 ter of requests in 1753. I" l 7^ 1 he was appointed in- 
 tendant of Limoges. Before the last date he had pro- 
 duced treatises on various subjects. He was versed in the 
 ancient languages and many sciences. In the perform- 
 ance of his administrative duties as intendant, he made 
 several reforms and experiments in political economy. 
 He suppressed the corvies, opened new roads, introduced 
 the use of potatoes, and distributed the burden of taxation 
 more equitably. Having formed friendly relations with 
 the philosophic party, of which Voltaire and D'Alem- 
 bert were leaders, he contributed to the " Encyclopedic" 
 articles on "Existence," "Expansibility," "Fairs and 
 Markets," (" Foires et Marches,") etc. 
 
 He was appointed in August, 1774, to the office of 
 controller-general of finance, then the most important 
 office of the government. Among his first acts was the 
 restoration of free trade in grain between the provinces. 
 He abolished several oppressive laws and feudal privi- 
 leges, reformed abuses, and began to improve, by econ- 
 omy, the public finances. His policy was expressed by 
 the phrase, "No bankruptcy, no increase of taxes, no 
 loans." The courtiers, nobles, politicians, and privileged 
 classes combined against him. He was removed in May, 
 1776. His friend Malesherbes said that Turgot had 
 "the heart of L'Hopital with the head of Bacon." 
 Voltaire was a warm admirer of Turgot, whom he char- 
 acterized as the best minister that France ever had. 
 Turgot corresponded with Benjamin Franklin, and wrote 
 a Memoir on the American war. Died in March, 1 781. 
 
 "There are crises," says the "Fortnightly Review" 
 for August, 1870, "when a character tells far more than 
 an idea, and is at once a saving opportunity and a de- 
 cisive force. Such a character was Turgot. The further 
 we recede from the French Revolution, the more pre- 
 eminent does this firm and exalted figure shine forth, — 
 the one legislator who might have saved France." 
 
 See Dupont de Nemours, " M4moires stir la Vie de Turgot," 2 
 vols., 1782; Condorcrt, " Vie de Turgot," 1 7.86 ; Droz, "Histoire 
 du Regne de Louis XVI;" M. J. Tissot, "Turgot, sa Vie, sou 
 Administration," etc., 1862; Marmontel, "Metnoires;" Dupuy, 
 " Cloge historique de Turgot," 1781 ; Blanqui, "Histoire de 
 l'Economie politique;" "Nouvelle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Turgot, (Etienne Franqois,) Marquis, a rural 
 economist, born in Paris in 1721, was a brother of the 
 preceding. Died in 1789. 
 
 Turgot, de, deh tuVgo', (Louis F&ux £tienne,) 
 Marquis, a French diplomatist and senator, born in 
 1796. He was minister of foreign affairs from Decem- 
 ber, 1851, to July, 1852, and was sent as ambassador to 
 Spain in 1853. 
 
 Turk, tooRk, (Daniel Gottlob,) a German musician, 
 bum near Chemnitz in 1 751, was organist at Halle. He 
 wrote several treatises on music. Died in 1813. 
 
 Turk, von, fon tdoRk, (Karl Christian Wilhelm,) 
 a German philanthropist, born at Meiningen in 1774, 
 was active in promoting common-school education, 
 and was the first to introduce the silk-manufacture into 
 Germany. Died in 1846. 
 
 Tihkheim, von, fon fttRk'him', (JOHANNES,) a po- 
 litical and historical writer, born at Strasburg in 1746; 
 died in 1824. 
 
 Turlupin. See Belleville. 
 
 Tfirn'bull, (Robert,) D.D., a Baptist divine, born in 
 Linlithgowshire, Scotland, in 1809, emigrated to America, 
 and settled in 1845 as pastor of a church at Hartford, 
 Cor necticut. He has published "Christ in History, or 
 the Central Power," (1856,) and several other works, 
 and translated from the French Vinet's " Vital Chris- 
 tianity." 
 
 Turn'bull, (Robert James,) an American politician, 
 born in Florida in 1775. He wrote a number of treatises 
 in defence of the State-Rights party in South Carolina. 
 Died in 1833. 
 
 Turnebe. See Turnebus. 
 
 Tur'ne-bus, [Fr. Turnebe, tiiR'nib',1 (Adrien,) an 
 eminent French scholar, originally named Tournebceuf, 
 born in Normandy in 1 5 12. He studied in Paris, and 
 became professor of Greek in that city in 1547. He 
 acquired a European reputation as a classical scholar, 
 translated into Latin a number of Greek authors, among 
 whom were Plutarch and Theophrastus, and wrote com- 
 
 mentaries on Cicero's works. According to a French 
 biographer, he was unrivalled as a professor in clearness, 
 accuracy, and profundity. Among his works is "Ad- 
 versaria," (3 parts, 1564-73,) in which he corrects and 
 explains many passages in the Greek and Latin authors. 
 Died in Paris in 1565. He was eulogized by L'H6pital, 
 Scaliger, and Montaigne, the last of whom called him 
 "l'4me la plus polie du monde,"("the most polished 
 (or polite) soul in the world.") He had a son Adrien, 
 who wrote Latin verses. Died in 1594. 
 
 See Passerat, " In Turnebi Obitum N;enia," 1651 ; De Thou et 
 Teissier, " Eloges ;" Nicbron, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Tur'ner, (Dawson,) an English botanist and writer, 
 born at Great Yarmouth in 1775. He published, among 
 other works, " Fuci, or Coloured Figures and Descrip- 
 tions of the Plants of the Genus Fucus," (3 vols, fol., 
 1808,) "A Tour in Normandy," (1820,) and "Tbe 
 Botanist's Guide through England and Wales," (2 vols., 
 1805,) the last-named conjointly with Mr. L. \V. Dill- 
 wyn. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of 
 other learned institutions. Died in 1858. 
 
 Tur'ner, (Edward,) a distinguished chemist and 
 physician, born in Jamaica in 1797. He studied at 
 Edinburgh and Gottingen, and in 1828 was appointed 
 professor of chemistry in the London University, where 
 his lectures gained for him a high reputation. His 
 "Elements of Chemistry," (1827,) often reprinted, is 
 esteemed a standard work. Died in 1839. 
 
 Turner, (Francis,) Bishop of Ely, was one of the 
 seven English prelates who were prosecuted for resisting 
 the authority of James II. in ecclesiastical affairs. He 
 was the author of a " Vindication of Archbishop San- 
 croft," etc., and " Animadversions on Naked Truth." 
 Died in 1700. 
 
 See Miss Strickland, "Lives of the Seven Bishops," London, 
 1866. 
 
 Turner, (Sir James,) an English officer, who lived in 
 the reign of Charles II. and was notorious for his cruel 
 treatment of the Scottish Covenanters. He left an auto- 
 biography. 
 
 Turner, (Joseph Mallord William,) an eminent 
 English landscape-painter, born in London in April, 
 1775, was a son of a hair-dresser. He received only an 
 ordinary education, and passed his boyhood mostly in 
 London. "At last," says Ruskin, "fortune wills that 
 the lad's true life shall begin ; and one summer evening 
 he finds himself sitting alone among the Yorkshire hills. 
 For the first time the silence of Nature around him, her 
 freedom sealed to him, her glory opened to him." He 
 was admitted as a student in the Royal Academy in 
 1789. "So taught and prepared for his life's labour, 
 sat the boy at last alone among his fair English hills, 
 and began to paint, with cautious toil, the rocks and 
 fields, and trickling brooks, and soft white clouds of 
 heaven." (" Modern Painters," vol. v.) For many 
 years he used water-colours almost exclusively. He 
 exhibited a "View of Lambeth Palace" in 1790. His 
 early pictures represented mostly English or Welsh 
 scenery. In 1799 he was elected an associate of the 
 Royal Academy, and exhibited an oil-painting of "The 
 Battle of the Nile." He became a Royal Academician 
 in 1802, after which he travelled in France, Switzerland, 
 and the valley of the Rhine. Among his master-pieces 
 are "The Fall of Schaffhausen," (1805,) "The Sun 
 Rising through Vapour," (1806,) "Narcissus and Echo," 
 (1S14,) "Apollo and Python," and "Childe Harold's 
 Pilgrimage," (1832.) In 1807 or 1808 he commenced 
 the publication of his famous "Liber Studiorum," a 
 series of prints or drawings. He visited Italy in 1819, 
 1829, and 1840. According to Ruskin, he surpassed 
 all former artists in "the expression of the infinite re- 
 dundance of natural landscape. . . . This work, done by 
 Turner among the hills, joining the most intense appre- 
 ciation of all tenderness with delight in all magnitude 
 and memory for all detail, is never to be rivalled or 
 looked upon in similitude again." ("Modern Painters," 
 vol. iv. chap, xvii.) Turner was never married. His 
 disposition was reserved and unsociable, and he is repre- 
 sented as having been extremely parsimonious. He 
 died in London in December, 1851, having bequeathed 
 
 e as k; 5 as s; g Aard;gisj; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as %; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
TURNER 
 
 2158 
 
 TURRET1N1 
 
 to the nation a large number of oil-paintings, which are 
 exhibited in the National Gallery. 
 
 See Burnett, "Turner and his Works," 1852; W. Thorn- 
 bury, "Life of YV. Turner," 2 vols., 1862: Ruskin, "Modern 
 Painters," passim ; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^rale ;" "London 
 Quarterly Review" for April, 1862 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 January, 1862. 
 
 Turner, (Robert,) an English Roman Catholic 
 priest, born at Barnstable, lived at Rome, Ingolstadt, 
 and Gratz. He wrote commentaries on the Bible. Died 
 
 i» 1599- 
 
 Turner, (Samuel,) an English diplomatist, born in 
 Gloucestershire about 1759, entered the service of the 
 East India Company, and was sent on a mission to 
 Thibet in 1783, and afterwards to the Sultan of Mysore. 
 He published an "Account of an Embassy to the Court 
 of the Teshoo Lama in Tibet," (1800.) He' was a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society. Died in 1802. 
 
 Tur'ner, (Samuel Hulheart,) D.D., an American 
 Episcopalian divine, born at Philadelphia in 1790. He 
 became in 1821 professor of biblical learning in the 
 General Theological Seminary, New York, and in 1831 
 professor of Hebrew in Columbia College. He pub- 
 lished "Thoughts on Scriptural Prophecy," and other 
 works. Died in 1861. 
 
 See Alubone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Turner, (Sharon,) an English historian, born in Lon- 
 don in 1768, followed the profession of attorney. His 
 reputation is founded chiefly on his " History of the 
 Anglo-Saxons," (4 vols., 1 799-1 805,) which is highly 
 esteemed. He also published a " History of England 
 from the Norman Conquest to the Death of Elizabeth," 
 (5 vols., 1814-29,) a "Sacred History of the World as 
 displayed in the Creation and Subsequent Events to the 
 Deluge," (3 vols., 1832-39,) and several poems. Died 
 in 1847. 
 
 See Wn.t.iAM Jerdan, " Men I have known," London, 1866 ; 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for May, 1835 ; " Monthly Review" for March, 
 1803, February, 1807, and November, 1824. 
 
 Turner, (Rev. Sydney,) a son of the preceding, and 
 chaplain of the Reformatory School at Red Hill, has 
 prepared a new edition of his father's "Sacred History 
 of the World," and published a treatise on " Refor- 
 matory Schools." 
 
 Turner, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born at 
 Reading in 1591. He became Dean of Canterbury. 
 Died in 1672. 
 
 Turner, (Thomas Hudson,) an English antiquary, 
 born in London in 1815. He published in 1851 "Some 
 Account of Domestic Architecture in England from 
 the Conquest to the End of the Thirteenth Century," 
 (illustrated,) a work which displays great learning and 
 research. Died in 1852. 
 
 Turner, (William,) an English divine and physician, 
 born in Northumberland about 1520. He studied at 
 Cambridge, and subsequently became Dean of Wells. 
 He was the author of treatises on medicine, theology, 
 zoology, and botany ; among the last-named we may cite 
 his " Herball, or History of Plants," said to have been 
 the first work of the kind published in England. Died 
 in 1568. 
 
 Turner, (William Wadden,) born in London in 
 1810, emigrated at an early age to America, where he 
 distinguished himself as an Oriental scholar. He be- 
 came in 1842 professor of the Oriental languages at 
 Union Theological Seminary, New York. Died in 1S59. 
 
 Tur'nus, [Gr. Tipfoc,] King of the Rutulians, was a 
 suitor for the hand of Lavinia, and an adversary of 
 .(Eneas, against whom he waged war. He was killed by 
 M.nt3s in single combat. 
 
 See Virgil, "iEneid," books vii., ix., x., xi., xii. 
 
 Tur'nus, a Roman satiric poet, who probablv flour- 
 ished in the second half of the first century. His works, 
 which are praised by Martial, are not extant. 
 
 Tur'pin orTU'pin, [Lat. Turpi'nus,] a French Bene- 
 dictine monk, was made Archbishop of Rheims by 
 Charlemagne. He is supposed to have been the author 
 of a poem celebrating the deeds of Charlemagne. Died 
 about 812. 
 
 Turpin, tuVpaN', (Francois Henri,) a French litte- 
 rateur, born at Caen in 1709, wrote a "History of Ma- 
 
 homet," (2 vols., 1773,) "France Illustrated, or the 
 French Plutarch," (5 vols., 1777-^0,) and other historical 
 and biographical works. Died in 1799. 
 
 SeeQuERARD, "La France LitteVaire." 
 
 Turpin, (Pierre Jean Francois,) a French botanist 
 and designer, born at Vire in 1775. He visited the 
 West Indies in his youth, returned to France in 1802, 
 and was employed to illustrate with his designs the 
 works of Humboldt. He published, besides other 
 works, " Vegetable Iconography," (1841.) Died in 1840. 
 
 See AcHtM.E Richard, " Notice sur M. Turpin," 1840. 
 
 Turpin de Crisse, tuVpaN' deh kRe'si', (Lancelot,) 
 Count, a French officer and military writer, born in I a 
 Beauce about 1715, served with distinction in Italy and 
 Germany, and rose to the rank of brigadier-general. 
 His principal work, entitled " Essay on the Art of 
 War," (3 vols., 1754,) obtained extensive popularity and 
 was translated into English, German, and Russian. He 
 also published " Commentaries on Caesar," and other 
 similar treatises. He was created a commander of the 
 order of Saint Louis in 1 771, and' lieutenant-general in 
 1780. Died about 1795. 
 
 See De Courcei.les, " Dictionnaire des G»5ne>aux Francais." 
 
 Turpin de Crisse, (Lancelot Theodore,) Count, 
 a French artist, born in Paris in 1782. He painted 
 landscapes, published a " Voyage to Naples," and was 
 admitted into the Institute. Died in 1859. 
 
 Turquet. See Mayerne. 
 
 Turquety, tuVkeh-te', (Edouard,) a French poet, 
 born at Rennes in 1801, wrote " Poetical Sketches," 
 (" Esquisses poetiques," 1829,) "Love and Faith," 
 (1833,) " Primavera," (1840,) and other poems. 
 
 Ttirr, tiiR, (Stephen,) a Hungarian patriot and gene- 
 ral, born at Baja about 1820. He joined the Italian 
 army in 1849, and fought against Austria. In the Cri- 
 mean war he served in the allied army against Russia. 
 He enlisted, with the rank of colonel, in the army 
 of Garibaldi in 1859, and distinguished himself in the 
 liberation of Sicily in i860. He became a general of 
 division in the Italian service, and married a grand- 
 daughter of Lucien Bonaparte. 
 
 Turranius. See Rufinus. 
 
 Turreau, tii'ro', (Louis,) a French Jacobin, born at 
 Orbec about 1760. He was a violent member of the 
 Convention, 1792-95. Died in 1 796. 
 
 Turreau de Linieres, ttt'rc/deh le'ne-aiR', (Louis 
 Marie,) Baron, a French general, born at Evreux in 
 1756. He commanded an army which defeated the Ven- 
 dean insurgents in' 1793, and was ambassador to the 
 United States from 1804 to 181 1. Died in 1816. 
 
 Turrecremata, the Latin of Torquemada, which 
 see. 
 
 Turrell or Turrel, tii'r<51',[Lat. Turel'lus,] (Pierre,) 
 a French astrologer, and rector of the College of Dijon, 
 wrote "The Period of the World," ("La Periode du 
 Monde," 1 53 1.) Died about 1547. 
 
 Turretin. See Turretini. 
 
 Turretini, toor-ra-tee'nee, [Fr. Turretin, tii'njh- 
 ta\'' or tilR'taN,] (Benedict,) a Swiss theologian, born 
 at Zurich in 1588, was eminent for his learning and 
 talents. He became professor of theology at Geneva in 
 1612, and published several works on theology. Died 
 in 1631. 
 
 Turretini or Turretin, [Lat. Turreti'nus,] (I ran- ■ 
 901s,) an eminent Swiss theologian, a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Geneva in 1623. He studied undei 
 Spanheim and Diodati, became an eloquent preacher, 
 and was appointed professor of theology at Geneva in 
 1653. He had great influence in the Church. His prin- 
 cipal work is "Theological and Controversial Institutes," 
 (" Institutiones Theologian Elencticae," 3 vols., 1679-85,) 
 which was highly esteemed. Died at Geneva in 1687. 
 
 See Pictet, " Memoria F. Turretini celebrata," 1688. 
 
 Turretini or Turretin, [Lat. Turreti'nus,] (Jean 
 Alpiionse,) a son of the preceding, and the most cele- 
 brated member of the family, was born at Geneva in 
 1671. He studied at Leyden and in England, gained 
 distinction as a preacher, and became professor of the- 
 ology at Geneva in 1705. He was a liberal theologian, 
 who endeavoured to promote union among the different 
 
 i, e, !, 6, fl, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; tar, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
TURRETINUS 
 
 2159 
 
 TYCHSEN 
 
 Protestant sects. He opposed with success the regula- 
 tion that candidates for the ministry should be required 
 to sign the Consensus. His chief works are " Cloud of 
 Witnesses in favour of Moderate and Pacific Judgment 
 concerning Theological Affairs," (" Nubes Testium pro 
 moderato et pacifico de Rebus Theologicis Judicio," 
 1 7 1 9, ) and "Theological Cogitations and Dissertations," 
 (" Cogitationes et Dissertationes theological," 2 vols., 
 1737.) Died in 1737. 
 
 Sec Senebier, " Histoire Htteraire de Geneve ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic Geuerale." 
 
 Turretinus. See Turretini. 
 
 Turrian, toor-ro-an', [Fr. Turrien, Ki're-aN' ; Lat. 
 Turria'nus,] or Torres, tor'res, (Francisco,) a Span- 
 ish Jesuit and writer, bom at Herrera about 1504. He 
 wrote many works of little merit. In 1562 he was sent 
 by the pope to the Council of Trent. Died in 1 584. 
 
 Turrianus. See Turrian. 
 
 Turrien. See Turrian. 
 
 Tur-sel-li'nus, (Horatius,) an Italian Jesuit, ori- 
 ginally named Torsellino, (toR-sel-lee'no,) born at Rome 
 in 1545, became rector of the Jesuits' Seminary in his 
 native city. He was the author of a treatise on the use 
 of the Latin particles, " De Usu Particularum I.atini 
 Sermonis," (1598,) which ranks among the most valuable 
 works of the kind ; also an " Epitome of Universal His- 
 tory," (in Italian,) and " Life of Saint Francis Xavier," 
 (in Latin, 1594.) Died in 1599. 
 
 See Morbki, " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Tur'ton, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born 
 about 1780. He became Dean of Peterborough in 1830, 
 and Iiishop of Ely in 1845. Died in 1864. 
 
 Turton, (William,) an English physician and natu- 
 ralist, born before 1800. Among his principal works 
 we may name a conchological dictionary of the British 
 Islands, (1819,) "Conchylia Insularum Britannicarum," 
 or " Shells of the British Islands," systematically ar- 
 ranged, (1822, illustrated,) and "Manual of the Land 
 and" Fresh- Water Shells of the British Islands," (1831.) 
 
 Tussanus. See Toi'ssain. 
 
 Tus'ser, (Thomas,) an English poet and writer on 
 agriculture, was born in Essex about 1520. His principal 
 work is entitled " Five Hundred Points of Good Hus- 
 bandry united to as many of Good Housewifery," (1573,) 
 and was dedicated to his patron, Lord Paget. It is 
 written in verse, and accompanied by an interesting 
 memoir of the author. Died about 1580. 
 
 See Fuller, "Worthies of Essex." 
 
 Tfitch'in, (John,) an English political writer under 
 the reign of James II., was a partisan of the Duke of 
 Monmouth. Died in 1707. 
 
 Tuthill, tfit'il, (Louisa Caroline Huggins,) an 
 American writer, born at New Haven, Connecticut, was 
 married in 1817. She has published "James Somers, 
 the Pilgrim's Son," (1827,) "My Wife," a novel, "The 
 History of Architecture," (1848,) "The Nursery Book," 
 (1849,) and other original works; also, a compilation 
 entitled "The Young Ladies' Reader." 
 
 Tutilo, too'te-lo, or Tuotilo, too-o'te-lo, a learned 
 Swiss monk, was distinguished for his proficiency in 
 mush, eloquence, and the arts of painting and sculpture. 
 Died about 896. 
 
 Tut'tle, (James M.,) an American general, born in 
 Monroe county, Ohio, about 1823. He served as colonel 
 at Sliiloh, April, 1862, and commanded a Federal brigade 
 at the siege of Vicksburg in May and June, 1863. 
 
 Twed'dell, (JOHN.) an English scholar, born In 
 Northumberland^ 1769. Having studied at Cambridge, 
 he was chosen a Fellow of Trinity College in 1792, and 
 in 1795 set out on a tour to the continent. While en- 
 d in examining the remains of art at Athens, he 
 died, after a few days' illness, (1799,) leaving a collection 
 of manuscripts and drawings, which were unfortunately 
 lost on the voyage to England. A selection from his 
 letters was published in 1815 by his brother Robert, 
 with a memoir of the author. 
 
 See the "Edinburgh Review" for October, 1815; " London Quar- 
 terly Review" for October, 1815. 
 
 Tweed'dale, (George Hay.) Marquis of, a British 
 general, bom in 1787. He served in the Peninsular war, 
 
 (1808-14,) and was raised to the rank of general in 1854. 
 lie was a representative peer of Scotland. 
 
 Twells, (Leonard,) an English clergyman, graduated 
 at Cambridge in 1704. He preached in London, and 
 wrote on theology. Died in 1742. 
 
 Tw6s't$n, (August Detlev Christian,) professor 
 of theology at Kiel in 1819, was born at Gliickstadt in 
 1789. He succeeded Schleiermacher in 1835 in the 
 chair of theology at Berlin. He published several philo- 
 sophical and religious works. 
 
 Twiggs, twigz, (David Emanuel,) an American gene- 
 ral, born in Georgia in 1790. He served in the Mexican 
 war, and obtained the rank of major-general in 1847. 
 He joined the secession party in 1861. He was deprived 
 of his rank in the United States army. Died at Augusta, 
 Georgia, in September, 1862. 
 
 Twiggs, (Levi,) a brother of the preceding, was born 
 at Richmond City, Georgia, in 1793. He served under 
 General Scott in the Mexican war, and was mortally 
 wounded in the assault upon Chaptiltepec, 1847. 
 
 Twinger, (James.) See Konigshovi.n. 
 
 Twi'ning, (Thomas,) an English divine, born in 1734, 
 studied at Cambridge, and became rector of White Not- 
 ley, in Essex, in 1768. He published an excellent 
 translation of Aristotle's "Poetics," accompanied with 
 notes and with two dissertations on poetical and musical 
 imitation, (1789.) Died in 1804. 
 
 Twining, (William,) a distinguished physician and 
 surgeon, born in Nova Scotia, studied in London, where 
 he afterwards became a member of the College of Sur- 
 geons. He was appointed in 1S30 one of the surgeons 
 to the Civil Hospital at Calcutta. He published " Clin- 
 ical Illustrations 6( the More Important Diseases of 
 Bengal," etc., (2 vols., 1832.) Died in 1835. 
 
 Twiss, (Horace,) an English politician and writer, 
 born in 1786 or 1787. He became a member of Par- 
 liament, and published a "Life of Lord Eldon." Died 
 in 1849. 
 
 Twiss, (Richard,) an English traveller, born in 1747, 
 published "Travels through Portugal and Spain in 1772 
 and 1773-4," " A Tour in Ireland in 1775-8," "Miscel- 
 lanies," and other works. Died in 1821. 
 
 Twiss, (Travers,) an English lawyer and writer, 
 born in Westminster about 1810. He became professor 
 of political economy at Oxford about 1842, and obtained 
 a chair of civil law there in 1855. He wrote several 
 works on the law of nations, etc. 
 
 Twiss, (William,) a learned English nonconformist 
 minister, born in Berkshire about 1 575, was a Calvinist. 
 He was prolocutor to the Westminster Assembly of 
 Divines, in 1643, and wrote several controversial works, 
 among which is "Defence of Grace," (" Vindicix 
 Gratia:," 1632,) against Arminianisin. He was curate 
 of Newbury for many years. Died in 1646. 
 
 Twyne, (Brian,) an English antiquary, born in 1579, 
 became keeper of the archives at Oxford, and wrote on 
 the antiquities of that place. Died in 1644. 
 
 Twyne, (John,) an antiquary, born in Hampshire, 
 was a grandfather of the preceding. He wrote on British 
 antiquities. Died in 1581. 
 
 Twys'den, (Sir Roger,) an English antiquary, born 
 in Kent In 1597, was the author of "The Historical 
 Defence of the Church of England," and other works. 
 Died in 1672. 
 
 Ty. See Tyr. 
 
 Ty'ohe, [Gr. Tixn,] m Greek mythology, the personi- 
 fication of chance or luck, corresponded with the Roman 
 Fortuna. She was represented sometimes with a ball, 
 and sometimes with the horn of Amalthea. 
 
 Tycho Brahe. See Brake. 
 
 Tychsen, tUk'sen or tlK'sen, (Oi.aus Gerhard,) an 
 eminent Orientalist, bom at Tondern, in Sleswick, in 
 1734. He studied at Halle, and in 1763 became profes- 
 sor of the Oriental languages at Biitzow, where he soon 
 acquired the highest reputation as a teacher. He died 
 in 1815, leaving a very valuable library, which was pur- 
 chased by the University of Rostock. He was author 
 of treatises on the Phoenician and Arabic languages, 
 and a work entitled " Leisure Hours of Biitzow," (1769.) 
 
 See Hartmann, "O. Tychsen," etc., 5 vols., 1818-10; "Nou- 
 velle Biographic Ge^ieVale." 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jg^See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
TTCHSEN 
 
 2160 
 
 TTNDALL 
 
 Tychsen, (Thomas Christian,) a philologist, born 
 in Sleswick in 1758. Having studied at Gottingen, he 
 visited Germany and other parts of Europe, and after 
 his return became professor of philosophy at Gottingen. 
 He published a "History of the Jews,'' (1789,) an 
 " Arabic Grammar," an edition of Smyrnasus, and other 
 works. Died in 1834. 
 
 Tydee. See Tydeus. 
 
 Tydeman, tl'deh-man', (Minard,) a Dutch scholar 
 and writer, born at Zwolle in 1741. He was professor 
 of law at Utrecht, and removed to Leyden about 1801. 
 Died in 1825. 
 
 Ty'deus, [Gr. TixSrif ; Fr. Tydee, te'da',] a mythical 
 hero, was a son of CEueus, King of Calydon, and a 
 brother of Meleager. He married Dei'pyle, (sometimes 
 written Deiphyle,) a daughter of Adrastus, and was the 
 father of Diomede. He was one of the seven chiefs that 
 led the famous expedition against Thebes, in order to 
 restore Polynices. In this war he was mortally wounded 
 .y Melanippus. 
 
 Tydide. See Tydides. 
 
 Ty-dl'des, [Gr. Twiddle ; Fr. Tydide, te'ded',] a 
 patronymic of Diomede, the son of Tydeus. 
 
 Tye, ti, (Christopher,) an eminent English musi- 
 cian, born in Westminster, was patronized by Henry 
 VIII., who appointed him musical teacher to Prince 
 Edward. He became organist to the chapel royal under 
 the reign of Queen Elizabeth. His compositions are 
 chiefly anthems and church music. 
 
 Ty'ers, (Thomas,) an English miscellaneous writer, 
 born in 1726, was one of the proprietors of Vauxhall, 
 London. Among his works is " Biographical Sketches 
 of Dr. Johnson," (1784.) Died in 1787. 
 
 Ty'ler, (Bennet,) D.D., an American Congregational 
 divine, born at Middlebury, Connecticut, in 1783, was 
 elected in 1822 president of Dartmouth College. He 
 wrote a" History of the New Haven Theology," (1837,) 
 and a number of religious and controversial works. 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 Tyler, (Daniel,) an American general, born in Con- 
 necticut in 1799, graduated at West Point in 1819. He 
 was a civil engineer before the rebellion. He com- 
 manded a division at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 
 1861. 
 
 Tyler, (Erastus B.,) an American general, born 
 in Ontario county, New York, about 1822, became a 
 resident of Ohio in his youth. He commanded a 
 brigade of the Union army at the battles of Port Re- 
 public (June, 1862) and of Fredericksburg, December 
 13, 1862. 
 
 Tyler, (John,) the tenth President of the United 
 States, born in Charles-City county, Virginia, in March, 
 1790, was a son of John Tyler, Governor of Virginia. 
 He studied law, was elected a member of Congress in 
 1816, and served in that body about five years, during 
 which he opposed a protective tariff and the Bank of the 
 United States. He was originally a republican of the 
 Virginia school, and supported W. H. Crawford for the 
 Presidency in 1824. In 1825 he became Governor of 
 Virginia, and in March, 1827, was elected a Senator of 
 the United States in place of John Randolph of Roan- 
 oke. He voted against the tariff bill of 1828, and 
 against all measures of internal improvement, and was a 
 partisan of General Jackson in the election of that year. 
 He sympathized with the nullifiers of South Carolina in 
 1832, became an opponent of Jackson's administration, 
 and voted alone in the Senate against the "Force Bill" 
 which was passed against the nullifiers in February, 1833. 
 He was re-elected for a term of six years, commencing 
 December, 1833, soon after which date he opposed the 
 removal of the public deposits from the Bank of the 
 United States, and supported Mr. Clay's resolution 
 which censured the President for the removal of the 
 same. The legislature of Virginia, about February, 
 1836, instructed the Virginia Senators to vote for ex- 
 punging the resolution of censure just mentioned, but 
 Mr. Tyler preferred to resign his seat, and refused to 
 obey their instructions. He became identified with the 
 Whig party, and in the National Convention which met 
 in December, 1839, he zealously supported Mr. Clay 
 for the Presidency. He was then nominated for Vice- 
 
 President, General Harrison being the Presidential 
 candidate, and was elected in November, 1840. 
 
 In consequence of the death of President Harrison, 
 (April 4, 1841,) Mr. Tyler became President of the 
 United States. He retained in office the cabinet min- 
 isters appointed by General Harrison. He soon after 
 began to quarrel with Mr. Clay and the majority of those 
 who had elected himself to the Vice-Presidency. He 
 vetoed a national bank bill which was passed by Con- 
 gress about the 6th of August, 1841, although the prin- 
 cipal provisions of that bill had been suggested by Mr. 
 Ewing, secretary of the treasury. "Congress having 
 passed another bank bill," says Mr. Greeley, "based 
 entirely on his own suggestions, and conforming in all 
 points to his requirements, he vetoed that also," (about 
 September 10, 1841.) This veto provoked the indig- 
 nation of the Whigs, who denounced the President for 
 betraying their confidence. It caused the resignation 
 of all the members of the cabinet except Daniel Webster, 
 who was secretary of state, and who remained in office 
 in order to complete important negotiations with the 
 British government. Having concluded a treaty with 
 Lord Ashburton on the subject of the northeastern 
 boundary, Webster resigned in May, 1843. In July, 
 1843, the President reorganized his cabinet, to which he 
 appointed several Democrats. The department of state 
 was then given to Abel P. Upshur, who was accidentally 
 killed in February, 1844, and was succeeded by John C. 
 Calhoun. He concluded in April, 1844, a treaty of 
 annexation with the republic of Texas, which was rejected 
 by the Senate. Mr. Tyler continued to promote the 
 annexation of Texas, which, by the aid of the Democrats, 
 he effected March I, 1845. His intrigues to obtain a 
 nomination for the Presidency were not successful, and 
 he retired to private life on the 4th of March, 1845. 
 
 He was president of the Peace Conference or Conven- 
 tion which met in Washington in February, 1861. Having 
 joined the disunion movement, he became a member 
 of the Confederate Congress about March, 1861. Died 
 in Richmond in January, 1862. 
 
 See Greeley, " American Conflict," vol. i. pp. 154-156; "Demo- 
 cratic Review" for November, 1S42, (with a portrait.) 
 
 Tyler, (Royai.i.,) an American jurist and humorous 
 writer, born at Boston in 1756. His comedy entitled 
 "The Contrast" was performed in New York in 1786 
 with brilliant success. His other principal works are 
 " The Algerine Captive," a novel, and the comedies of 
 "May-Day, or New York in an Uproar," and "The 
 Georgia Spec, or Land in the Moon." Died in 1826. 
 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature." 
 
 Tyler, (Samuel,) an American lawyer and philo- 
 sophical writer, born in Prince George's county, Mary- 
 land, in 1809. He has published a "Discourse of the 
 Baconian Philosophy," (1844,) "The Progress of Phi- 
 losophy in the Past and in the Future," (1859,) and other 
 similar works. 
 
 Ty'ler, (Wat,) an English rebel, was a leader of a 
 large number of men who revolted in the southeastern 
 part of England in 1381 in consequence of a capitation 
 tax. They massacred several persons of the higher 
 classes, committed much devastation, and marched 
 towards London. Tyler was killed by the mayor of 
 London in 1381. 
 
 Tyler, (William Seymour,) D.D., an American 
 Presbyterian divine and scholar, born in Susquehanna 
 county, Pennsylvania, in 1810. He became professor 
 of the Latin and Greek languages at Amherst College 
 about 1836. He also published editions of the " Ger- 
 mania" and "Agricola" of Tacitus, the "Histories" of 
 Tacitus, and Plato's "Apology" and "Crito," and a 
 number of theological- treatises. 
 
 Tyndale. See Tindale. 
 
 Tyu'dall, (John,) LL.D., F.R.S., a distinguished 
 physicist, born in Ireland about 1820, was appointed 
 professor of natural philosophy in the Royal Institution, 
 London, in 1853. Among his works are " Peaks, Passes, 
 and Glaciers," (i860,) and a treatise entitled " Heat Con- 
 sidered as a Mode of Motion," (1862,) which enjoys a 
 high reputation. Professor Tyndall has probably done 
 more than any other English writer to make known and 
 popularize the great scientific truth of the mutual con- 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; m?t; nftt; good; moon 
 
 
TYNDARE 
 
 2161 
 
 TTRWH1TT 
 
 rertibilitv of heat and motion. "There is a moral force 
 and vividness of intellect about all he writes which fasci- 
 nates the attention at once, and makes vou feel that you 
 are in contact with a mind of far more than the ordinary 
 intensity." (London " Spectator," June 8, 1867.) He 
 contributed to the " Philosophical Transactions" several 
 memoirs on radiant heat, and published " Lectures on 
 Sound," (1867.) 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for October, iS6g. 
 Tyndare or Tyndartte. See Tyndarus. 
 Tyn'da-rus or Tyn-da're-us, [Gr. Tw<5upeoc or 
 TwSupeac, rarely, if ever, TtVtinpoc ;* Fr. Tyndakek, 
 tax'dS'ra', or Tyndare, taN'dSR',] a fabulous king of 
 Sparta, married Leda, and had a number of children, 
 among whom were Castor, Pollux, and Helen. The 
 poets relate that he exacted from the numerous suitors 
 of Helen an oath that they would defend her and the 
 husband whom she should choose against all their ene- 
 mies. (See Helen.) 
 
 Tyng, (Stephen Higginson,) D.D., an American 
 Episcopalian divine, born at Newburvport, Massachu- 
 setts, in 1800. He graduated at Harvard College, became 
 rector of the Church of the Epiphanv, Philadelphia, in 
 1833, and in 1845 of Saint George's Church, New York. 
 He has published " Lectures on the Law and the Gos- 
 pel," (1848,) " Family Commentary on the Four Gospels," 
 (1849,) "The Child of Prayer," (a memoir of his son, the 
 Rev. Dudley A. Tyng.) and other religious works. 
 Typhaon. See Typhon. 
 Typhee or Typhotte. See Typhon. 
 Ty'phon, Tjr-pha'on, or Tjr-pho'eus, [Gr. TuoJawv, 
 Tueiwrf'c, Tv<4uf ; Fr. Typhon, te'fox', TvPHOte, or Ty- 
 phee, te'fa',] in classic mythology, was a giant and fire- 
 breathing monster, the father of Chimaera, Cerberus, and 
 the Sphinx. According to the fable, he rebelled against 
 the gods, some of whom fled to Egypt and concealed 
 themselves under the forms of different animals. He 
 was finally vanquished by Jupiter and buried under 
 Mount Etna. 
 
 Typot, te'po', written also Typoest, [Lat. Typo'- 
 Tius,| (James,) a Flemish jurist and writer, born at 
 Bruges about 1550. At the invitation of King John III. 
 he went to Sweden, where he was imprisoned from 1582 
 to 1594. Soon after the latter date he went to the court 
 of the emperor Rudolph, who gave him the title of 
 historiographer. He wrote "On Fame," ("De Fama,") 
 "On Fortune," ("He Fortuna,") and a "History of 
 Sweden," (1605.) Died at Prague in 1601 or 1602. 
 Typotius. See Typot. 
 
 Tyr, teer. (or tSgR,) or Ty, tee, [supposed to be allied to 
 the Anglo-Saxon h'r, signifying "glorious" "mighty,"t] 
 the most fearless of all the gods of the Northmen, was a 
 son of Odin, but his mother was of the race of giants, 
 (Jotuns.) He is called "the one-handed," an epithet 
 which is explained by the following legend. The most 
 terrible of all the enemies of the gods was the wolf 
 Fenrir, destined by the appointment of the Nomas to be 
 the destroyer of Odin. When young, he was brought up 
 among the ,Esir, but Tyr alone had the courage to give 
 him food. As he increased in strength, the gods, anx- 
 iously calling to mind the predictions that he was fated 
 to be their destruction, resolved, if possible, to bind him. 
 After various unsuccessful attempts, thev at last caused 
 to be constructed a magic chain, which, though soft and 
 slender as a silken cord, was of inconceivable strength. 
 But the difficulty was to fasten it on him. He had readily 
 allowed the Mm to bind him with other chains, which 
 he had broken without much difficulty; but now his sus- 
 picions were excited by the seeming frailly of the new- 
 made band. The gods assured him that he could easily 
 break it, but even if he did not they promised they would 
 instantly release him after he had once tried his strength 
 upon it. The wolf replied, " If I cannot free myself, I 
 am well convinced I shall wait long to be released by 
 y>u ; but, rather than you shall charge me with a want 
 
 of courage, let one of you place his hand in my mouth 
 as a pledge of your sincerity, and I will consent to be 
 bound." The gods now looked at one another, but no 
 one had the hardihood to offer his hand. At length 
 Tyr stretched forth his right hand and placed it within 
 the jaws of the wolf. The monster now began to strug- 
 gle, but the more he strove the more tightly he was 
 bound by the magic chain. Hereupon all the gods be- 
 gan to laugh, except Tyr, who had good reason to be 
 serious, since he had through his rashness lost his right 
 hand. It is a proverbial saying of a man of surpassing 
 courage that he is as brave as Tyr. Being the bravest 
 of the gods, he was the deity especially worshipped by 
 brave men. On account of his courage, Tyr mav be 
 styled " the Northern Mars ;" Tuesday (that is, " Tyr's- 
 day" or " Ty'sday") is called in modern Latin dies Martis, 
 (" Mars-day,") whence the French Mardi. At the de- 
 struction of the world Tyr will be slain by the dog 
 Garm. 
 
 vol. ii. Fable XIV. : 
 
 • See LiDUKi.t. and Scott, " Greek- English Lexicon." 
 tit would seem to be a probable conjecture tbat it might be de- 
 rtved direcily Iroin tyr. a " bull," ol which the inconsiderate reckless 
 daring not a little resembles that of the god Tyr, although some of 
 the Norse writers say, sir.ingeiy enough, tli.it Tyr was remarkable 
 for the union of prudence (or discretion) Willi courage. 
 
 See Mallet, "Northern Antiquities,' 
 Thokpk, "Northern Mythology." 
 
 Tjf--ran'nI-o or Tjf--ran'nI-on, [Gr. Tvpawiuv,] a 
 Greek grammarian, born in Ponttis, was made prisoner 
 by the Romans, and taken in 72 n.c. to Rome, where he 
 resided as a teacher. His learning and abilities are highly 
 commended by Cicero, who employed him to arrange his 
 library and to instruct his nephew Quintus, 56 B.C. 
 Tyrannion. See Tyrannio. 
 Tyrannius. See Rufinus. 
 Tyrants, Thirty. See Thirty Tyrants, The. 
 Tyr-con'nel, (Richard Talbot,) Earl of, an Irish 
 royalist, of Norman descent. " In his youth he had 
 been one of the most noted sharpers and bullies of 
 London. He had been introduced to Charles and James 
 when they were exiles in Flanders, as a man fit and 
 ready for the infamous service of assassinating the Pro- 
 tector." (Macaulay, " History of England.") In 1687 
 he was appointed lord deputy of Ireland, the Protestant 
 population of which he resolved to exterminate. He 
 commanded at the battle of the Boyne against William 
 III., and was defeated, (1690.) In the campaign of 1691 
 he assumed authority over the army, and interfered 
 with Saint Ruth, who had a commission as commander- 
 in-chief. Died in 1691. 
 
 " Under an outward show of levity, profusion, and 
 eccentric impudence," says Macaulay, "he was in truth 
 one of the most mercenary and crafty of mankind." 
 (" History of England.") 
 
 Tyr'rell, James,) an English political writer, born in 
 London in 1642, was a grandson, on the mother's side, 
 of Archbishop Usher. After the revolution of 1688 he 
 pub'ished a collection of political dialogues, entitled 
 " Bibliotheca Politica, or an Enquiry into the Antient 
 Constitution of the English Government," etc., (1718.) 
 His most important work is his "General History of 
 England, both Ecclesiastical and Civil," (3 vols, fol., 
 1700.) Died in 1718. 
 
 Tyrtaeus, tjr-tee'us, [Gr. Tvprcuoc; Fr. Tyrtee, 
 teR'ta'; Ger. Tyrtaus, te"gR-ta'fis,] a celebrated Greek 
 elegiac poet and musician, supposed to have been a 
 native of Miletus, flourished about 685 B.C. According 
 to tradition, the Spartans, instructed by the Delphic 
 oracle, requested the Athenians to send them a leader. 
 The Athenians, in derision, sent Tyrtaeus, a lame school- 
 master. He composed martial songs by which th-e 
 Spartans were animated to victory in their war against 
 the MeFsenians. His war-songs had a great and lasting 
 influence over the Spartans, who continued to sing them 
 for several centuries. To remove dissensions among 
 the Spartans, he wrote a political elegy, called "Euno- 
 mia," some fragments of which are extant. 
 
 See A Mattiii* " De Tyrtaji Carminibus." 1820: N. Bach, 
 "U-lirr Tjn-taeus." 1830; " Fraser's Magazine" for June, 1835; K. 
 O Mfri.i'K. " History of the Literature of Ancient Greece;" Fa- 
 bricuis. " Bibliotheca Graca." 
 
 TyrtSus. See Tyrt^f.lis. 
 
 Tyrtee. See Tyrt/eus. 
 
 Tyrwhitt, ter'it, (Thomas,) an eminent English phi- 
 lologist and antiquary, born in London in 1730. He 
 studied at Queen's College, Oxford, and in 1762 was ap- 
 pointed clerk of the House of Commons. He was also 
 curator of the British Museum, and a Fellow of the 
 
 « as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as a; th as in this. (By.See Explanations p 23 ) 
 
TTSON 
 
 2162 
 
 UDJL 
 
 Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries. Among 
 his numerous and valuable works we may name his 
 "Dissertation on Babrius," (1776,) "Conjectures upon 
 Strabo," (1783,) — both in Latin, — an excellent edition 
 of Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," "Poems supposed 
 to have been written at Bristol in the Tenth Century 
 by Rowley," etc., in which he exposes the fraud of 
 Chatterton, and an edition of the " Poetics" of Aristotle. 
 He died in 1786. His "Conjectures upon yEschylus, 
 Euripides, and Aristophanes" came out in 1822. 
 
 Ty'son, (Edward,) an English physician and anato- 
 mist, born in Somersetshire in 1649. He took his degree 
 at Cambridge, and subsequently became physician to the 
 Bridewell and Bethlem Hospitals. He was also a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society and of the College of Physicians. 
 He published several excellent treatises on comparative 
 anatomy, among which we may name " Orang-Outang, 
 sive Homo Sylvestris; or, The Anatomy of a Pygmie, 
 compared with that of a Monkey," etc. ; and " Phoccena ; 
 or, The Anatomy of a Porpesse," etc., (1680.) He 
 also contributed several valuable essays to the "Philo- 
 sophical Transactions." Died in 1708. 
 
 Tyson, (Michael,) an English clergyman and en- 
 graver, born about 1740. He etched several portraits. 
 Died in 1780. 
 
 Tysseus, ti'sens, (Augustin,) a Flemish painter of 
 landscapes and animals, born about 1662, was a son of 
 Peter, noticed below. He worked at Antwerp. Died 
 about 1722. 
 
 Tysseus, (Nikolaas,) an able Flemish painter of 
 birds, flowers, etc., born at Antwerp in 1660, was a 
 brother of the preceding. Died in 1719. 
 
 Tyssens, (Peter,) a distinguished Flemish painter, 
 was born at Antwerp in 1625. He excelled both in 
 portraits and historical painting. Among his works in 
 the latter department we may name "The Assumption 
 of the Virgin," in the church of Saint James, at Antwerp. 
 Died in 1692. His sons Nicholas and Augustine were 
 also celebrated artists. The former painted chiefly birds 
 and flowers, and the latter landscapes of great merit. 
 
 See Descamps, " Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. 
 
 Tjft'ler, (Alexander Fraser,) Lord Woodhouselee, 
 a distinguished Scottish historian and jurist, son of 
 William, noticed below, was born at Edinburgh in 1747. 
 He studied law in his native city, and was admitted an 
 advocate in 1770. He became professor of universal 
 history and Roman antiquities at Edinburgh in 1786, 
 and in 1802 was made judge of the court of session, 
 with the title of Lord Woodhouselee. He was the 
 author of an "Essay on the Principles of Translation," 
 ( 1 79 1 , ) "Elements of General History," (2 vols. 8vo, 
 1801,) "Treatise upon Martial Law," and "Memoirs of 
 
 the Life and Writings of Henry Home, Lord Karnes," 
 (2 vols., 1807-10.) lie died in 1813, having been pre- 
 viously appointed a lord of justiciary. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Tytler, (James,) a Scottish writer, born at Brechin 
 in 1747. He was the author of a "Geographical, His- 
 torical, and Commercial Grammar," and other works. 
 He was also a contributor to the " Encyclopaedia Britan- 
 nica," second edition. He died at Salem, Massachusetts, 
 about 1804. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Tytler, (Patrick Fraser,) a historian, a son of 
 Alexander F., noticed above, was born at Edinburgh in 
 1 791. He was educated at the High School and Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh. He published a " Life of Admi- 
 rable Crichton," (1819,) a "Life of Sir Walter Raleigh," 
 (1833,) a "Life of Henry VIII.," (1837,) and other 
 biographies. His principal work is a " History of Scot- 
 land," (9 vols., 1828-43,) which has a high reputation. 
 He was an Episcopalian, and not disposed to estimate 
 the Scottish Reformers so favourably as some other 
 historians. He died at Edinburgh in December, 1849, 
 leaving several children. 
 
 See Burgon, " Life of P. F. Tytler ;" Chambers. " Biographical 
 Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen ;" "London Quarterly Review" for 
 March, 1841, and July, 1S59; " North British Review" for August, 
 ■ 859- 
 
 Tytler, (William,) a Scottish lawyer and writer, 
 born at Edinburgh in 171 1. He published an " Inquiry, 
 Historical and Critical, into the Evidence against Mary 
 Queen of Scots," (1759,) "The Poetical Remains of 
 Tames I. of Scotland," (1783,) "A Dissertation on 
 "Scottish Music," and other works. Died in 1792. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Tzetzes, tset'zez, (Joannes,) a Greek poet and 
 grammarian of the latter part of the twelfth century, 
 was a native of Constantinople. He was the author of a 
 work entitled " Iliaca," comprising three poems, "Ante- 
 Homerica," " Homerica," and " Post-Homerica," the 
 greater part of which is extant, and was published in 
 1793 by F. W. Jacobs. He also wrote commentaries 
 on several Greek classics. 
 
 His brother Isaac was also distinguished for his 
 learning. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Grasca." 
 
 Tzschirner, tshgSR'ner, (Heinrich Gottlieb,) a 
 German Protestant theologian and pulpit orator, born 
 in Saxony in 1778. He studied at Leipsic, where he 
 became professor of theology in 1809. Among his 
 numerous works we may name " Protestantism and 
 Catholicism regarded from the Stand-Point of Politics," 
 and " The System of Reaction." Died in 1828. 
 
 u. 
 
 Ubaldi, (Guido.) See Guido Uraldo. 
 
 TJbaldini, oo-bal-dee'nee, (Petruccio,) an Italian 
 artist and writer, was born at Florence about 1524. He 
 became a resident of London in early life, and an illu- 
 minator on vellum. He wrote, besides other works, a 
 " Life of Charlemagne," ("Vita di Carlo Magno," 1581,) 
 "Mural and Political Precepts," (1592,) and "Poems," 
 (" Rime," 1596.) Died about 1600. 
 
 TJberti, degli, dal'yee 00-beVtee, (Farinata,) a 
 Florentine leader of the Ghibeline faction, was expelled 
 from Florence in 1250. Having defeated his opponents 
 in battle in 1260, he recovered possession of Florence. 
 His magnanimity is praised by Sismondi, who says he 
 saved Florence from being razed to the ground by his 
 own party. 
 
 TJberti, degli, (Fazio or Bonifacio,) a poet, born 
 at Florence, was a grandson of the preceding. He was 
 driven into exile by the Guelphs. He wrote an unfinished 
 descriptive poem called " The News of the World," (" II 
 Dittamondo,") which is said to be interesting. Died 
 about 1367. 
 
 Ubicini, ii'be'se'ne', (Jean Henri Abdolonyme,) a 
 French writer, born at Issoudun in 1818. He published 
 
 "Letters on Turkey," (2 vols., 1849-51,) and other 
 works. 
 
 TJccello, oot-chel'lo, (Paolo,) an eminent Florentine 
 painter, born about 1395. His proper name was Paolo 
 di Dono. He was noted for his skill in perspective, and 
 for his admirable delineations of birds, from which he 
 received the name of TJccello, (" bird.") Died about 1472. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Ticozzt, " Dizionario." 
 
 TJchanski, oo-Kan'skee, (James,) a Polish prelate, 
 born in 1505, became Archbishop of Gnesen and Primate 
 of Poland in 1562. He favoured or tolerated the Prot- 
 estant doctrines. Died in 1581. 
 
 TJchtritz or TJechtritz, von, fon fhx'tRlts, (Fried- 
 rich,) a German poet and dramatist, born at Gdrlitz in 
 1800, has published, among other works, a tragedy en- 
 titled "Alexander and Darius," and "The Babylonians 
 in Jerusalem," a dramatic poem. 
 
 U'dal, (Ephraim,) an English Puritan minister, who 
 preached in London, became an Episcopalian, and wrote 
 a "Treatise on Sacrilege." Died in 1647. 
 
 Udal, (John,) an English scholar, the father of the 
 preceding, was imprisoned on account of his Puritan 
 principles, and died in 1592. His "Key to the Holy 
 
 1 
 
 i,e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, vi, y, short; a, e, j, 0, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n5t; good; moon; 
 
VDAL 
 
 2163 
 
 ULISSE 
 
 Tongue" is said to have been the first Hebrew grammar 
 published in England. 
 
 Udal or Udall, (Nicholas,) an English scholar and 
 dramatist, born in Hampshire in 1506. Having studied 
 at Oxford, he became master of Eton School, and sub- 
 sequently of Westminster School. He published a 
 selection from Terence's comedies, with an English 
 translation, entitled " Flovres for Latyne Spekynge," and 
 wrote several original comedies, which have been lost, 
 with the exception of one, called " Ralph Royster Doys- 
 ter." It is said to have been the first English play of 
 the kind divided into acts and scenes. Died in 1564. 
 
 Uden, van, vtn u'den, (Lucas,) a Flemish landscape- 
 painter and engraver, born at Antwerp in 1596. He 
 executed the backgrounds for several of Rubens's pic- 
 tures, who in return painted the figures in his. Among 
 his master-pieces may be named a " Landscape by 
 Moonlight," in the Lichtenstein gallery at Vienna. His 
 engravings are numerous and highly prized. Died 
 about 1662. 
 
 Udine, da, daoo'de-nk, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, 
 born in 1489, was distinguished for his skill in grotesque 
 subjects. He was a pupil of Raphael, whom he assisted 
 in painting the Loggie in the Vatican. He excelled as a 
 painter of animals, birds, etc. Died about 1562. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Uffenbacji, von, fon dof'fen-baK', (Johann Frif.d- 
 RICH.) a German poet and musician, born at Frankfort 
 in 16S7, was a brother of the following. Died in 1769. 
 
 Uffenbach, von, (Zacharias Conrad,) a distin- 
 guished German scholar, born at Frankfort-on-the-Main 
 in 1683. He studied at Halle, and afterwards visited 
 England. He was made a senator of his native city in 
 1721, and subsequently became chief justice. He col- 
 lected a very large and valuable library, of which he 
 published a catalogue, entitled " Bibliotheca Uftenbach- 
 iana," etc. He was the author of " German Glossary of 
 the Middle Ages," (" Glossarium Germanicum Medii 
 iEvi,") an autobiography, entitled " Commentarius de 
 Vita propria," and several bibliographical works, (un- 
 finished.) Died in 1734. 
 
 See Hermann, " Uffenbach's Leben," 1753. 
 
 Uggione or Uglone. See Oggione. 
 
 Ughelli, oo-gel'lee, (Fkrdinando,) an Italian eccle- 
 siastic, born at Florence about 1595, was the author of a 
 valuable work entitled " Italia Sacra," (9 vols., 1642,) 
 being a history ot the Italian sees, etc., also an account 
 of the Colonna family, called " Imagines Columnensis 
 Familiae Cardinalium," (1650.) Died in 1670. 
 
 Ugolino. See Gherardesca. 
 
 Ugoni, oo-go'nee, (Camillo,) an Italian writer, born 
 at Brescia in 1 784. He translated some works of Horace, 
 and Caesar's" Commentaries." His reputation is founded 
 on his " History of Italian Literature in the Second Half 
 of the Eighteenth Century," (3 vols., 1820-22.) He was 
 exiled for liberalism from 1821 to 1838. Died in 1856. 
 
 Ugoni, [Lat. Ugo'nius,] (Matthias,) an Italian prel- 
 ate and writer on councils, flourished about 15 10. He 
 became Bishop of Famagosta, in Cyprus. He asserted 
 the supremacy of councils over the pope. 
 
 Ugonius. See Ugoni. 
 
 Uhland, oo'llnt, (Johann Ludwig,) a celebrated 
 German lyric poet, born at Tubingen in 1 787. He studied 
 law in his native town, and took the degree of LL.D. 
 in 1810. He was a member for Tubingen in the repre- 
 sentative assembly of WUrtemberg in 1819, and in 1830 
 was appointed professor-extraordinary of the German 
 language and literature at Tubingen. Having been 
 chosen a deputy to the Diet in 1833, he was conspicuous 
 as an able ana earnest advocate of the constitutional 
 opposition. He had published in 1815 a collection of 
 patriotic songs, which became widely popular. This was 
 followed by an essay " On Walther von der Vogelweide," 
 (1822,) "On the Myth of the Northern Legend of Thor," 
 (" Ueber den Mythus der Nordische Sagenlehre vom 
 Thor," 1836,) and" Ancient High and Low Dutch Popu- 
 lar Songs," (" Alter hoch- Und niederdeutscher Volks- 
 lieder," 1844-45.) He a ' so composed two tragedies, 
 "Duke Ernest of Suabia," (1817,) and "Louis the Bava- 
 rian," (1819.) Died at Tubingen in November, 1862. As 
 
 a poet, Uhland is characterized by simplicity and ten- 
 derness joined with deep religious feeling. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for February, 1827; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 July, 1837 : " London Quarterly Review" tor July. 1864 ; L. OR Lo- 
 men-ie, " M. Uhland, par un Homme de Rien." 1841 : F. Notthr, 
 " Uhland, sein Leben und seine Dichtungen," 1863; Pfizer, " Uhland 
 und Riickert,"iS37 ; " Notivelle Hiographie Ge'neYale;" " Jahrbuch 
 zum Conversations-Lexicon," 1863. 
 
 Uhlefeld or Ulefeld, oo'leh-feld', written also Ul- 
 feld or Ulfeldt, (Cornifex, Corfito, or Corfitz,) 
 Count, a Danish courtier, became the chief favourite of 
 Christian IV., who appointed him Viceroy of Norway, 
 and sent him as ambassador to France in 1647. After 
 the death of that king he fell into disgrace, and entered 
 the service of Christina of Sweden. He is censured 
 for his hostility to his native country. Having been 
 accused of a conspiracy against the King of Denmark, 
 he was condemned to death in 1663, but he was out of 
 the reach of the law. Died in 1664. 
 
 See Rousseau dk la Valette, "Histoire du Comte d'Uhle- 
 feld," 1678 ; Hans Paus, "C. Ulfeldt's Levnet," 1747. 
 
 Uhlich, 00'liK, (Leberecht,) a German theologian 
 of the rationalistic school, was born at Kothen in 1 799. 
 He preached at Magdeburg, and published, besides 
 other works, "Ten Years at Magdeburg, 1845-55," 
 (1856.) 
 
 Uhrich, 00'riK or ii'rek', (Jean Jacques Alexis,) a 
 French general, born at Phalsbourg in 1802, became 
 brigadier-general in 1852, and general of division in 
 1856. He served in the Crimean war, and in the Italian 
 campaign of 1859. In 1862 he received the grand cross 
 of the legion of honour. About 1867 he retired from 
 the service, but on the outbreak of the war with Prussia 
 he asked and obtained command of Strasbourg, which 
 post he held until its surrender, September 28, 1870. 
 
 Uilkens, oil'ke,ns, (Jacou Albert,) a Dutch natu- 
 ralist and minister, born near Groningen in 1732. He 
 published, besides other works, a " Manual of Rural 
 Economv," (1819,) and was professor of rural econ- 
 omy at Groningen. Died in 1825. 
 
 Uitenbogaard, oi'ten-bo'g8nt, (Jan,) a Dutch Re- 
 monstrant minister, born at Utrecht in 1557, was a 
 chaplain of Maurice the Stadtholder. He became a 
 friend of Arminiiis, was persecuted by the Calvinistic 
 party, and banished in 1618. Died in 1650. 
 . See' his " Autobiography," 1639, and his " Life," by G. Brandt, 
 (in Latin.) 1720. 
 
 Ukert, 00'kfRt, (Friedrich August,) a German 
 writer, born at Eutin in 1 780, published a valuable work 
 on " The Geography of the Greeks and Romans," (1816 j) 
 also a " Picture of Greece," and " On the Geography of 
 Homer." He likewise assisted Heeren in his " History 
 of the European States." Died in 1851. 
 
 TJladislaus of Poland. See Vladislaus. 
 
 TJlbach, UTbSk', (Louis,) a French poet and political 
 writer, born at Troyes (Aube) in 1822, became editor of 
 the " Revue de Paris" in 1853. He published a volume 
 of poems entitled "Gloriana," (1844,) several tales, and 
 political letters remarkable for verve and causticity. 
 
 Ulfeld or Ulfeldt See Uhlefeld. 
 
 Ulfila. See Ulfilas. 
 
 Ul'ft-las, written also Ulfila, Ulphilas, and Vulfila 
 or Wulfila, a celebrated Gothic scholar and writer, 
 born about 318 A. D., became bishop of the Arian Goths 
 living between Mount Hsemus and the Danube. He 
 made a Gothic translation of the Scriptures, which, hav- 
 ing been lost for a time, was partially discovered in the 
 sixteenth century in a monastery near Cologne. Died 
 about 388 A.D. A fragment of his version was discovered 
 by Angelo Mai at Milan about 1820. The version of 
 Ulfilas is regarded as a great treasure by philologists. 
 
 See Georg Waits or Waiz, "Ueber das Leben und die Lehre 
 des Ulfilas," 1840; Ihrr et Sotberg, "Ulphilas illustrates, " 1752; 
 Hkssel, "Ueber das Leben des Ulfilas,' 1 i860; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G^ruirale." 
 
 Ulft, van der, vtn der iilft, (Jacob,) an eminent 
 Dutch painter, born at Gorcum in 1627. He painted 
 views of architecture, ruins, and temples, in which he 
 introduced groups of figures. He was a good colorist. 
 Died after 1688. 
 
 Ulisse, the French and Italian of Ulysses, which see. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this. (J^r~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ULLMANN 
 
 2164 
 
 UL TSSES 
 
 Ullmann, ool'man, (Karl,) a German theologian, 
 born at Epfenbach, in the Palatinate, in 1796. He 
 studied at Heidelberg and Tubingen, and became in 1821 
 professor-extraordinary of theology in the former uni- 
 versity. In 1828 he associated with Umbreit as editor 
 of the journal entitled "Theologischen Studien und 
 Kritiken," and in 1829 was appointed professor at Halle. 
 Having returned to Heidelberg in 1836, he was made a 
 member of the Upper Church Council, and an evan- 
 gelical prelate in 1853. Among his principal works are 
 "Reformers before the Reformation, particularly in Ger- 
 mai.y and the Netherlands," (2 vols., 1841,) "On the 
 Future of the Evangelical Church in Germany," (1846,) 
 "On the Value of a Majority in the Church," (1850,) 
 and "On the Nature of Christianity," (1855.) His 
 writings enjoy a very high reputation, and have been 
 translated into several languages. 
 
 Ulloa, ool-lo'a, [Sp. pron. ool-yo'a,] (Alphonso,) a 
 Spanish historian and translator, settled at Venice, and 
 wrote, in Italian, a " Life of the Emperor Charles V.," 
 (1560,) and other works. He also translated into elegant 
 Italian several Spanish histories. Died about 1580. 
 
 Ulloa, ool-lo'a or ool-yo'a, (Don Antonio,) a cele- 
 brated mathematician and naval officer, born at Seville, 
 in Spain, in 1716. In 1735 he accompanied La Conda- 
 mine, Godin, and other French savants to South America, 
 to measure a degree of the meridian at the equator. On 
 his voyage home, in 1744, he was made prisoner by the 
 English, and, after a detention of two years, returned to 
 Spain, where he was created a commander of the order 
 of Santiago. He published in 1748 a " Historical Ac- 
 count of the Voyage to South America," ("Relacion 
 historica del Viage a la America Meridional,") in which 
 he was assisted by his friend and fellow-traveller, Jorge 
 Juan, "American Notes on Southern and Northeastern 
 America," ("Noticias Americanas sobre la America 
 Meridional y la Septentrional-oriental," 1772,) and a 
 treatise " On the Marine or the Naval Forces of Europe 
 and Africa," (1778.) Soon after the cession of Louisiana 
 to Spain, he was made governor of that province; but 
 he was subsequently superseded by O'Reilly, and on 
 his return was appointed minister of the marine. Ulloa 
 was one of the founders of the Observatory at Cadiz, and 
 contributed greatly to the advancement of learning and 
 the arts and the improvement of domestic manufactures 
 in Spain. Died in 1795. 
 
 See'FRANCisco Hovos, " Vida de D. A. de Ulloa," 1847 ; Madoz, 
 " Diccionario geogranco-historico ;" " Nonvelle Biographie G«Sn^- 
 rale ;" " Retrospective Review," vol. ii., second series, 1828. 
 
 Ulloa, ool-lo'a, (Giroi.amo,) an Italian general, born 
 at Naples in 1810, distinguished himself in the defence of 
 Venice against the Austrians in 1849. After that year he 
 resided in Paris. He published several military works. 
 
 Ulloa, de, da ool-yo'a, (Martin,) a Spanish critic, 
 born at Seville in 1730, was a nephew of Antonio Ulloa. 
 He published several works. Died in 1800. 
 
 Ulloa y Pereira, de, da ool-yo'a e pa-raVra, (Luis,) 
 a Spanish poet, born at Toro about 1590. He wrote 
 elegant lyric poems, sonnets, and a poem entitled " Ra- 
 quel," (" Rachel.") Died in 1660. 
 
 Ullur, dol'lur, (Ullr,) or Ull, do!, [signifying " wool- 
 like" or " white," (Sw. till, " wool,") so called because he 
 is the god of winter or snow,] the god who, according to 
 the Noise mythology, presides over winter and winter- 
 sports, is represented as the son of Sif and step-son of 
 Thor. In running on snow-shoes he has no equal ; he 
 js also an excellent archer. His dwelling is Ydalir, 
 (e-da'lir,) i.e. the " place (or dale) of dampness and cold." 
 
 Ulphilas. See Ui.iti.as. 
 
 Ul'pl-au, [Lat. Ulpia'nus; Fr. Ulpien, ul'peaN',] 
 (Domitius,) an eminent Roman jurist, supposed to have 
 been a native of Tyre, was born about 170 a.d. He was 
 distinguished by the favour of Alexander Severus, who 
 made him his secretary, and praetorian prefect. He was 
 killed in a mutiny of the praetorian soldiers in 228 a.d. 
 He was the author of a work entitled " Ad Edictum," 
 and other legal treatises, which were highly esteemed ; 
 but most of them are now lost. Several editions of the 
 fragments have been published. 
 
 See A. Steger, " Dissertatio de D. Ulpiano," 1725; Grotius, 
 "Vita Jurisconsulloruni;" Clodius, "Apologia Ulpiaui," 1811. 
 
 Ulpianus. See Ui.pian. 
 
 Ul-pl-a'nus of A.ntioch, a rhetorician in the time of 
 Constantine the Great, is supposed to have been the 
 author of "Commentaries on the Orations of Demos- 
 thenes called Symbuleutici," also " Prolegomena," and 
 other works. Ulpian of Emesa was the author of an 
 " Art of Rhetoric." 
 
 Ulpien. See Ulpian. 
 
 Ulric or Ulrick, til'rik, [Ger. Ulrich, Sol'riK,] 
 (Anion,) Duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, a German 
 poet, born in 1633. He wrote several very successful 
 poems, a number of melodramas, and novels entitled 
 " Aramena, the Illustrious Syrian Lady," (1678,) and 
 "Octavia, a Roman Story," (in German, 6 vols., 1685- 
 1707.) Died in 1714. 
 
 Ulrica (ool-ree'ka) El-e-o-no'ra, [Fr. Ulrique 
 Eleonore, uTrek' a'la'o'nou',] Queen of Sweden, born 
 in 1656, became the wife of Charles XI. and the mother 
 of Charles XII. She was a daughter of Frederick III. 
 of Denmark. Died in 1693. 
 
 See Boecler, "Vita Ulrica? Eleonoras," 1697. 
 
 Ulrica Eleonora, Queen of Sweden, a daughter of 
 the preceding, was born in 1688. She married Prince 
 Frederick of Hesse-Cassel about 1 71 5. She was a 
 sister of Charles XII. In 1719 she was elected as his 
 successor ; but she transferred the royal power to her 
 husband. Died in 1744. 
 
 Ulrich, ofjl'riK, (Johann K.ASPAR,)a Swiss theologian 
 and Orientalist, born in 1705 ; died at Zurich in 1768. 
 
 Ulrich, (Johann Rudolph,) a Swiss preacher and 
 writer, born at Zurich in 1728. He became first pastor 
 of Zurich in 1769. Died in 1795. 
 
 Ulrich, ool'riK, (Philipp Adam,) a German philan- 
 thropist, born in 1692. He was eminent for various 
 forms of practical charity. 
 
 See Oberthuk, "Life of P. A. Ulrich," (in German,) 1783. 
 
 Ulrich, (Tnus,) a German poet, born in the county 
 of Glatz, Prussia, in 1813. He produced in 1845 "The 
 Canticle of Canticles," ("Das Hohe Lied,") which is 
 highly praised, and in 184S a poem called "Victor," 
 which was very popular. 
 
 Ulrich von Lichtenstein. See Lichtenstein. 
 
 Ulrici, ool-reet'see, (Hermann,) a German scholar 
 and critic, bom in Lower Lusatia in 1806. He studied 
 law at Halle and Berlin, but subsequently devoted him- 
 self to literature, and published in 1833 his "Character- 
 istics of Antique Historiography." This was followed 
 by his " History of the Poetic Art in Greece," (2 vols., 
 1835,) and a treatise "On Shakspeare's Dramatic Art," 
 ([839,) which was received with great favour. He has 
 also written several philosophical works, among whir 1- . 
 are " On the Principle and Method of the Philosophy of 
 Hegel," (1841,) and "Gott und die Natur," (1862.) 
 
 Ulrike. See Luisf. Ulrikk. 
 
 Ulugh or Ulug Beg. See Olug Beg. 
 
 U-lj?s'se6, |Gr. 'OiWo-ftJc, (Odysseus;) Fr. Ulisse, 
 ii'less'; It. Ulisse, oo-les'sa,] called also Ulyx'es and 
 Ith'acus, King of Ithaca, a Grecian chief, renowned 
 for his eloquence, subtlety, sagacity, and wisdom, was the 
 son of Laertes, (or, as some say, of Sisyphus,) and hus- 
 band of Penelope. He was one of the suitors of Helen. 
 He was the most politic of all the commanders who 
 conducted the siege of Troy, to the capture of which he 
 greatly contributed by his stratagems and exploits. The 
 invention of the wooden horse is ascribed to him by some 
 writers. After the death of Achilles he contended for 
 his armour with success against Ajax. His wanderings, 
 navigations, and adventures after the destruction of Troy 
 form the subject of the " Odyssey" of Homer, who relates 
 that he sailed from Troy with twelve ships, and was 
 driven by the wind to the coast of Africa ; that he visited 
 the island of /Eolus, who gave him a number of winds 
 confined in a bag ; that he passed a year in the island of 
 Circe the magician; that, after many of his companions 
 had been devoured by the Cyclops and Scylla, he was 
 driven to the island of Calypso, who gave him a warm 
 reception, detained him for eight years, and tempted liim 
 to marry her, with the promise of immortality, which he 
 declined, "vetulam suam prsetulit immortalitati ;" that 
 after an absence of twenty years he returned to Ithaca 
 alone and disguised as a beggar, and found his palace 
 
 5, e, 1, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, Ell, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
V MB REIT 
 
 2l6j 
 
 URBAN 
 
 )a Polish gen- 
 French cam- 
 1831 defeated 
 
 occupied by numerous suitors, whom, with the aid of his 
 son Telemachus, he killed. Horace says, 
 
 " Kursus quid Virtus et quid Sapientia possit 
 Utile pioposuil nobis exemplar Ulixen." 1 
 
 Epistles, book i., 2. 
 
 Umbreit, dom'bRit, (Frikdrich Wilhum Karl,) a 
 German Protestant theologian, born in Saxe-Gotha in 
 1795. He studied the Oriental languages at Gottingen, 
 and became successively professor of philosophy and 
 of theology at Heidelberg. He published several valu- 
 able exegetical works, among which are a "Philological, 
 Critical, and Philosophical Commentary on Solomon's 
 Proverbs," (1826,) "Christian Edification from the Psal- 
 ter," etc., and " Practical Commentary on the Prophets 
 of the Old Testament," (4 vols., 1841.) He also wrote 
 a "Translation and Interpretation of the Book of Job," 
 and "New Poetry from the Old Testament," (1847.) 
 Died in i860. 
 
 Umeau, u'rno', (Jean,) a French jurist, born at Poi- 
 tiers in 1598 ; died in 1682. 
 XJmeyade. See Omkyyade. 
 Umeyyah. See Omeyyah. 
 TJminski,oo-men'skee, (Jan Nepomuk, 
 eral, born in Posen in 1780, served in the 
 paigns in Poland in 1807 and 1809, and in 
 General Diebitsch in the battle of Grochow. Died in 1851. 
 Uncas, ting'kass, an Indian chief of the Mohegans in 
 Connecticut, lived in the seventeenth century. In 1637 
 he joined the English in their war against the Pequots. 
 Died about 1680. 
 
 Un'der-wood, (Toseph R.,) an American Senator 
 and lawyer, born in Goochland county, Virginia, in 1791. 
 He removed to Bowling Green, Kentucky, about 1823, 
 and represented a district of that State in Congress from 
 1835 to 1845. He was elected a Senator of the United 
 States by the legislature of Kentucky in 1847. 
 
 Un'der-wood, (T. R.,) an English artist and writer, 
 published a " Narrative of Memorable Events in Paris 
 during the Capitulation in 1814." Died in 1835. 
 
 Uiiger, dtmg'er, (Johann Frikdrich,) an eminent 
 German printer and wood-engraver, born at Berlin in 
 1750, was a son of Johann Georg, noticed below, lie 
 became professor of wood-engraving in the Academy ot 
 Plastic Arts at Berlin, and was the inventor of a kind of 
 types called " Ungerian Types," (" Ungerische Schrift.") 
 He died in 1804. His wile. Frkdkkikk Hi.i.knk, born 
 at Berlin in 1751, was distinguished for her talents and 
 accomplishments, and published several popular novels, 
 one ol which, entitled "Julia C.runthal, the History of 
 a Boarding-School Girl," (" Julchen Grunthal, eine Pen- 
 sionsgeschichte," 17N4,) is particularly admired. Her 
 "Confessions of a Beautiful Soul" (" Bekentnisse einer 
 schonen Stele," 1806) also deserves especial mention. 
 Died in 181 \ 
 
 Unger, ("|oii\nn Georg,) a German engraver, born 
 near Pima in 1715, was celebrated for his improvements 
 in wood-cutting and typography. Several of his land- 
 scapes engraved on wood are esteemed master-pieces 
 of the kind. Died in 1788. 
 
 Union, de la, da la oo-ne-on', (Don Luis Firmin de 
 Carvajaly Vargas— da kan-va-nal'evaR'gas.) Count, 
 a Spanish general, born at Lima in 1 75 2 - He K ain ed 
 the rank of general by his services agaii st the French 
 invaders in 1793, and bee nine commander of an army in 
 Catalonia in 1794. He was defeated and killed near 
 Figueras the same year. 
 
 Unterberger, dtm'ier-beR'ger, (Ignaz,) a Tyrolese 
 painter, born at Karales in 1744, worked at Vienna. 
 Among his works are pictures of Bacchus, Minerva, and 
 Hel>e, which are highly praised. Died in 1797. 
 
 Uiiterholzner,<56n'ter-holts'ner, (Karl August Do- 
 minicus.) a German jurist, bom at Freising in 1787, 
 wrote several treatises on Roman law. Died in 1838. 
 
 Unzelmann. oont'sel-man', (Frikdrich LuDWic.,)a 
 German wood-engraver, born al>out 1798, was a pupil 
 of Gubitz, and obtained the title of royal professor at 
 the Academy of Berlin. Among his master-pica a are 
 portraits of Louis XIV. and Napoleon, and a large print 
 of the " Death of Franz von Sickingen." Died in 1854. 
 
 * '.' Apain to show what courage and what wisdom can accomplish, 
 he [Homer) has set before us Ulysses as a useful example." 
 
 Unzelmann, (Kari. Wilhelm Ferdinand,) a Ger- 
 man comic actor, born at Brunswick in 1753 ; died in 
 1832. His son Karl was also a popular actor in the 
 same department. 
 
 Unzer, dont'ser, (Johann August,) a German phy- 
 sician, born at Halle in 1727, was editor of a medical 
 journal entitled " Der Arzt." lie was the author of 
 "" First Principles of the Physiology, etc. of Animated 
 Bodies," (1771,) and other similar works. Died in 1799. 
 His wife, Joanna Charlotte, published a number of 
 popular poems. 
 
 See "Kiographie M<Sdicale;" Hirsching, " Historisch-litera- 
 risches Handbuch." 
 
 Upaulshad, written also Upenished, [modern Hin- 
 doo pron. 6t).pun'i-shud,] a Sanscrit term, aenoting 
 what is most essential in the religious writings of the 
 Hindoos, consisting chiefly of the theological and argu- 
 mentative portions of the Vkdas, (which see.) 
 
 See Wilson, "Sanscrit Dictionary;" Colbbrooke, article in 
 "Asiatic Researches," pp. 472-3. 
 
 Up'cott, (WilliaM,) an English bibliographer and 
 collector of autographs, born in London in 1779; died 
 in 1845. . 
 
 Upham, up'am, (Charles Wim worth,) a Unita- 
 rian divine and writer, born at Saint John, New Bruns- 
 wick, in 1802, was elected to Congress in 1854. He 
 has published "Lectures on Witchcraft," etc., (1831,) 
 "Life of Sir Henry Vane," in Sparks's "American 
 Biography," and made numerous contributions to the 
 "North American Review," "Christian Examiner," and 
 other periodicals. He began to preach at Salem, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1S24, and quitted the ministry in 1844. 
 
 Upham, (Thomas Cogswell,) D.D., an American 
 Congregational divine and able writer, was born at 
 Deerfield, New Hampshire, in 1799. He graduated at 
 Dartmouth College, and became in 1825 professor of 
 mental and moral philosophy in Bowdoin College. 
 Among his works are a " Philosophical and Practical 
 Treatise on the Will," (1834,) " Life, Religious Opinions, 
 etc. of Madame Guyon," (1847,) "Principles ot the In- 
 terior or Hidden Life," (1848,) "Life of Madame 
 Catharine Adorna," (1856,) and "Letters, /Esthetic, 
 Social, and Moral, written from Europe, Egypt, and 
 Palestine," (1857.) He has likewise published a trans- 
 lation of Jahn's "Biblical Archaeology," (5th edition, 
 
 1849-) 
 
 Up'shur, (Ahki. Parker,) an American statesman 
 and jurist, born in Northampton county, Virginia. He 
 was appointed secretary of the navy by President Tyler 
 in September, 1841, and succeeded Webster as secretary 
 of state in May, 1843. He was killed by the explo- 
 sion of a cannon on board the steamer Princeton, in 
 February, 1844, aged about fifty-three. He belonged to 
 the extreme State-Rights and pro-slavery school of the 
 South. 
 
 Up'ton, (Tames,) an English scholar and divine, 
 born in Cheshire in 1670. He published an edition of 
 Aristotle's "Poetics," and other works. Died in 1749. 
 His son, of the same name, edited Spenser's " Faerie 
 Queene," and was the author of " Observations on Shak- 
 speare." Died in 1760. 
 
 U-ra'nI-a, [Gr. Oipai'la, (from oupaioc, "heaven;") 
 Fr. Uranie, u'rS'ne',1 one of the nine Muses of the 
 Greek mythology, the Muse of Astronomy, was supposed 
 to be a daughter of Zeus. 
 
 U'ra-nus, [Gr. Ofyxwdc, i.e. the "sky" or "heaven,"] 
 a divinity of classic mythology, identified with the Roman 
 Coelus, was considered the most ancient of all the geds. 
 He was represented as the husband of Terra, and the 
 father of Oceanus. Cronus, (Saturn,) Themis, Hyperion, 
 and the other Titans, whom he confined in Tartarus. 
 According to the legend, he was dethroned by Cronus. 
 
 Urbain. See Uruan. .- 
 
 Ur'ban [Lat. Urua'nus; Fr. Urbain, uRbaV|I. 
 succeeded Calixtus I. as Bishop of Rome in 224 a.d. 
 He is supposed to have suffered martyrdom under Alex- 
 ander Severus, (230 a.d.) 
 
 Urban II., born in France, succeeded Victor HI. 
 as Pope of Rome in 1088. He excommunicated Henry 
 IV., Emperor of Germany, who supported Clement III. 
 as anti-pope, having previously incited Conrad, son of 
 
 e as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as t; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
JRBAN 
 
 2166 
 
 VRSINS 
 
 the emperor, to revolt against him. In a council at 
 Piacenza in 1095 he proclaimed the first crusade. His 
 successor was Paschal II. Died in 1099. 
 
 Urban III. succeeded Lucius II. in 1185. He died 
 in 1187. 
 
 Urban IV., born at Troyes, in France, succeeded 
 Alexander IV. in 1261. He carried on a war against 
 Manfred, Prince of Sicily, and made an alliance with 
 Charles of Anjou, on whom he bestowed the crown of 
 Sicily and Apulia in fief of the Roman see, (1263.) From 
 this treaty arose the subsequent wars between France 
 and Italy during several centuries. He died in 1264, 
 and was succeeded by Clement IV. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 
 Urban V., originally named Guillaume de Gri- 
 moard, (gRe'mo-tR/,) was a native of France, and suc- 
 ceeded Innocent VI. as pope in 1362. He was the last 
 of the pontiffs who resided at Avignon, and in 1367 he 
 removed his court to Home. He died in 1370, and was 
 succeeded by Gregory XI. 
 
 Urban [Lat. Urba'nus; It. Urbano, oor-M'iio] VI., 
 originally named Bartoi.ommeo Prignano, (pRen-ya'- 
 no,) succeeded Gregory XI. in 1378. Ilegavegreat offence 
 by his severity to the cardinals, who elected an anti-pope 
 in opposition to him, under the title of Clement VI. 
 In 1385 he had six cardinals put to death on a charge of 
 conspiring against him. He died in 1389, as some writers 
 assert, by poison, and was succeeded by Boniface IX. 
 
 See Artaud de Montor, "Histoire des souverains Pontifes." 
 
 Urban VII., a native of Rome, originally named 
 Giamhattista Castagna, (kas-tin'ya,) was chosen suc- 
 cessor to Sixtus V. in 1590. He survived his election thir- 
 teen days, and Gregory XIV. was elected to succeed him. 
 
 Urban VIII., originally named Maffeo Barberini, 
 (baK-ba-ree'nee,) born at Florence in 1568, succeeded 
 Gregory XV. in 1623. He was distinguished for his 
 learning and his liberal patronage of science and art. 
 He founded the College de Propaganda Fide, finished 
 the aqueduct of Acqua Felice, increased the Vatican 
 Library, and improved the "Breviariuni Romanum." 
 Under his rule Italy was disturbed by contests between 
 the French and Spaniards for supremacy in that country. 
 The duchy of Urbino was made a fief of the Roman see 
 in 1626. Urban died in 1644, and was succeeded by 
 Innocent X. 
 
 See Simonini, "Sylvae Urbanianae, seu Gesta Urbani VIII.," 
 1657 : Artaud de Montor, " Histoire des souverains Pontiles." 
 
 Urban. See Fortia d' Urban. 
 
 Urban, de Saint, deh siNt uR'bdN'', (Ferdinand,) 
 a French architect, born at Nancy in 1654. He was 
 patronized by Pope Innocent XI., who appointed him 
 his first architect and director of medals. Died in 1738. 
 
 Urbanus. See Urban. 
 
 Urbino. See Timoteo da Urbino. 
 
 Urceo, ooR'chi-o, [Lat. Ur'ceus,] (Antonio,) sur- 
 named Codrus, an Italian scholar and writer, born at 
 Rubiera in 1446. He taught Greek and Latin for many 
 years at Bologna, whither he removed in 1482. He 
 wrote orations, letters, and poems. Died in 1500. 
 
 See Bianchini, "Vita A. Codri Urcei;" Nicbron, "Memoires." 
 
 Urceus. See Urcko. 
 
 Ure, (Andrew,) an eminent Scottish chemist and 
 physician, born at Glasgow in 1778. He took his medi- 
 cal degree at the University of Glasgow, and became in 
 1802 professor of chemistry and natural philosophy in 
 the Andersonian Institution in that city. Among' his 
 principal publications are his "New Experimental Re- 
 searches on some of the Leading Doctrines of Caloric," 
 etc., "Dictionary of Chemistry," (1821,) "On the Ulti- 
 mate Analysis of Animal and Vegetable Substances," 
 (1822.) "System of Geology," (1829,) "Philosophy of 
 Manufactures," (1835,) and "Dictionary of Arts, Manu- 
 factures, and Mines," (1839,)— one of the most valuable 
 woiks of the kind. Dr. Ure was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society and other learned institutions, and was one of the 
 founders of the Observatory at Glasgow. Died in 1857. 
 
 Urfe), d', diiR'fa', (Annk,) a French poet, born in 
 Forez in 1555. He became a privy councillor, and after- 
 wards a priest. He married a rich heiress, named Diane 
 de Chateau-Morand. Died in 1621. 
 
 See Bernard, "Les Urfe\ Souvenirs historiques," etc., 1839. 
 
 Urfe, d', (HonokF.,) a French writer of romance, 
 born at Marseilles in 1567 or 1568, was a brother of the 
 preceding. He was a soldier by profession, and fought 
 in the civil war for the League. He wrote, besides other 
 works, a romance called " Astree," (1610-19,) which was 
 once very celebrated. Died in 1625. 
 
 See N. Bonafous, " Ctudes sur I'Astrte et sur Honore d'Urfe," 
 1847; A. Bernard, " Les Urfe," 1839; Nicbron, "Memoires;" 
 Dunlop, "History of Fiction ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Urkhan. See Oorkhan. 
 
 Urquhart, urk'hart, (David,) an able British writer 
 and politician, born at Cromarty in 1805. He went to 
 Greece with Lord Cochrane in 1827, and published, 
 besides other works, " Turkey and its Resources," 
 (1833,) and "Travels in Spain nd Morocco," (1849.) 
 He maintained the opinion that the Ottoman empire 
 has elements of vitality and pn.p,ress. He became 
 an uncompromising adversary of Palmerston's foreign 
 policy, and was elected to Parliament \sa Conservative 
 in 1847. 
 
 Urquhart, (Sir Thomas,) a Scottish mathematician 
 under the reign of Charles II. He wrote a work entitled 
 " Logopandecteision, or an Introduction to the Universal 
 Language," and a treatise "On Trigonometry." 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Urquhart, (William Pollard,) a political econ- 
 omist, born in the county of Westmeath, Ireland, in 
 18.4. He published "Essays on Political Economy." 
 
 Urquijo, de, da ooR-kee'Ho, (Mariano Luis,) a 
 Spanish statesman, born at Bilbao in 1768. He was 
 secretary for foreign affairs about two years, (1798-1800,) 
 after which he was imprisoned through the influence of 
 the Inquisition, which he had opposed. He was ap- 
 pointed minister of state by King Joseph about 1809. 
 Died in Paris in 181 7. 
 
 See A. de Beraza, " Elogio de M. L. de Urquijo," 1820; "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Urquiza, de, da ooR-kee'sa or ooR-kee'tha, (Don 
 Juste Jos£,) a South American statesman and military 
 commander, born in the province of Entre-Rios in 1800. 
 He fought in his early life for Rosas, but in 1851 he took 
 arms against him and formed an alliance with the gov- 
 ernments of Brazil and Uruguay. In February, 1S52, 
 he gained at Santos Lngares a decisive victory over 
 Rosas, who then ceased to reign. Urquiza became 
 general-in-chief and foreign secretary of the Argentine 
 Republic. Died in 1870. 
 
 Urraca, oor-ra'ka, Queen of Leon and Castile, born 
 about 10S0, was the only legitimate child of Alfonso VI. 
 She was married to Alfonso I. of Aragon, with whom 
 she quarrelled, and against whom she waged a long civil 
 war. Died in 1126. 
 
 Urrea, de, da oor-ra'5, (Geronimo,) a Spanish writer 
 and commander, born in Aragon about 151 5. He served 
 with distinction in the army of Charles V. He trans- 
 lated Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso" into Spanish, (1556,) 
 and wrote a " Dialogue on True Military Honour," (1566.) 
 
 Ursatus. See Orsato. 
 
 Urseolo. See Or.sf.ulo. 
 
 Ursins, des, di zuVsaN', or Orsini, (Anne Marie 
 de la Tremouille — deh 13 tRa'mooI' or tita'moo've.l 
 Princess, a French lady and courtier, famous for her 
 political influence and insinuating qualities, was born 
 about 1642. She was married in 1659 to Adrien de Tal- 
 leyrand, Prince de Chalais, and in 1675 to Flavio Orsini, 
 Duke of Bracciano. She resided many years at Rome. 
 In 1701 she was selected by the French court for the 
 place of first lady of the bedchamber to the Queen of 
 Spain, of whom she became the chief favourite. "She 
 aspired," says Macanlay, "to play in Spain the part 
 which Madame de Maintenon had played in France. 
 . . . She became so powerful that neither minister of 
 Spain nor ambassador from France could stand against 
 her." (Review of Lord Mahon's " War of the Succes- 
 sion.") Her influence ceased on the death of the queen, 
 in 1714, and the marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth 
 Farnese, who dismissed the Princess des Ursins from 
 court. She died at Rome in 1722. 
 
 See her " Correspondence with Madame de Maintenon," 4 vols., 
 1S26; F. Comhes, "La Princesse des Ursins, Kssai," 1858: Saint- 
 Sriwr/t, "Memoires;" Sainte-Ueuve, "Causeries du Lundi ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'nerale." 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; tar, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
URSIXS 
 
 2167 
 
 uz 
 
 Ursius, des, (Jean, Jouvenet., (zhoov'nel',) or Ju- 
 venal,) a French prelate, born in Paris in 13SS. He 
 wrote a "Chronicle of Charles VI.," and became Arch- 
 bishop of Rheims about 1450. Died in 1473. 
 
 Ur-si'nus, [Ger. pron. doR-see'nus,) (Benjamin,) a 
 German mathematician, born in Silesia in 1587. His 
 German name was Behr, (baiR.) He taught at Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Oder. Died in 1633. 
 
 Ursinus, (Benjamin,) a German Lutheran divine, 
 was a relative of Zacharias, noticed below. He was 
 made a bishop and ennobled by Frederick I. of Prussia. 
 Died about 1 717. 
 
 Ur-si'nus, [It. Orsini, oR-see'nee,] (Fulvius,) a 
 celebrated Italian scholar and antiquary, born at Rome 
 in 1529, held the post of librarian to Cardinal Alexander 
 Famese. He published commentaries on the principal 
 Roman historians, editions of several Greek classics, 
 and a number of original works which display profound 
 learning. Among these may be named " Portraits 
 and Eulogies of Illustrious Men exhibited by Marbles, 
 Medals, and Gems," (" Imagines et Elogia Virorum illus- 
 trium e Marmoribus, Nummis et Gemmis expressae.") 
 Died in 1600. 
 
 See Castiguone, "G. Orsini Vita," 1657; Niceron, " Me- 
 moires ;" " Life of Ursinus," by Castalio. 
 
 Ursinus, (Gkcjrg Heinrich,) a German philologist, 
 bom at Spire in 1647 ; died at Ratisbon in 1707. 
 
 Ursinus, (Joiiann Heinrich,) a German divine, 
 father of the preceding, was born in 1608. He wrote 
 a work entitled " Rise and Progress of the Churches 
 of Germany," (1668,) and other works. Died in 1667. 
 
 See " J. H. Ursinus Lebenslauf," 1666. 
 
 Ursinus, (Zacharias,) a learned German divine, 
 born at Breslau in 1534, was a friend and disciple of 
 Melanchthon. He studied in Paris, and became pro- 
 fessor of theology at Heidelberg. He was engaged 
 in controversies with the Lutheran theologians of the 
 time, and was the author of several theological and po- 
 lemical works, (1563.) He also prepared the Calvinis- 
 'tic creed, entitled the " Heidelberg Catechism." Died 
 in 1583. 
 
 Ur'su-la, [Fr. Ursui.e, iiR'siil',] Saint, a legendary 
 personage, of whom scarcely anything is positively 
 known. She is said to have been a daughter of a British 
 prince, and to have suffered martyrdom at Cologne in 
 the fourth or fifth century. 
 
 See Mrs. Jameson, " History of Sacred and Legendary Art." 
 
 Ursule. See Ursula. 
 
 Ursus, ook'sus, (Nikoi.aus Raymarus,) a Danish 
 mathematician of the sixteenth century; died in 1600. 
 
 Urville. See DlTMONT d'Urville. 
 
 Ush'er or Ussh'er, (Henry,) a prelate, born in 
 Dublin, was an uncle of James, noticed below. He 
 became Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of Ireland 
 in 1595. Died in 161 3. 
 
 Usher or Ussher, f Lat Usse'rius,] (James,) an emi- 
 nent prelate and scholar, born in Dublin on the 4th of 
 January, 1580. His mother was a sister of Richard Stany- 
 nurst the poet. He was educated at Trinity College, 
 Dublin, and took his degree of M.A. in 1600. He was 
 ordained a priest in 1601, began to preach in Dublin, 
 and became professor of divinity in Trinity College in 
 1607. In 1613 he ■ tarried Phelte Challoner. He pub- 
 lished in 1614 a Latin work "On the Succession and 
 State of the Christian Churches," in which he opposed 
 the pretensions of the Church of Rome. He made fre- 
 quent visits to England, where he formed an acquaint- 
 ance with Selden and other eminent men. In doctrine 
 he was a Calvinist, and a zealous opponent of popery. 
 In 1620 he was appointed Bishop of Meath by James I. 
 He became Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of Ire- 
 land in 1624. In 1638 he published his " Emanuel, or a 
 Treatise on the Incarnation of the Son of God," which 
 is accounted one of his greatest works. In 1640 he 
 quitted Ireland, to which he never returned, and came 
 to England. The Irish rebels attacked his house at 
 Armagh in 1641, and seized or destroyed his property. 
 He was a royalist in the civil war between Charles I. 
 and the Parliament. The king gave him the bishopric 
 of Carlisle, to be held in commendam, (about 1641,) but 
 
 he derived little revenue from it. He officiated as 
 preacher to the Society of Lincoln's Inn from 1647 to 
 1655. Among his principal works are "Antiquities of 
 the British Churches," (in Latin, 1639,) "Annals of 
 the Old and New Testament," (" Annales Veteris et Novi 
 Testamenti," 2 vols., 1650-54,) in which he displays 
 great learning, and " Sacred Chronology," (" Chronologia 
 Sacra," 1660,) a work of high reputation. He died at 
 Reigate in March, 1656, leaving one child, named 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 See Ei.rington, "Life of Archbishop James Usher," 1848 ; R. 
 Parr, " Life of James Usher," prefixed to a collection of his Letters, 
 1686: T. Bernard, "Life and Death of James Usher," 1656; 
 AiKtN, "Lives of J. Selden and J. Usher," 1811; Nicbkon, " Me- 
 moires ;" " Hiographica Hritannica." 
 
 UsBerius. See Usher. 
 
 Ussher. See Usher. 
 
 Ussieux, d', du'se-yh', (Louis,) a French romance- 
 writer and rural economist, born at Angouleme in 1747 ; 
 died in 1805. 
 
 Ussing, dos'sing, (Johan Ludwig,) a Danish philolo- 
 gist, born at Copenhagen in 1820. He became professor 
 of philology in that city in 1849, and published several 
 works. 
 
 Ussing, (Tage Algreen,) a Danish statesman and 
 jurist, born in Seeland in 1797. He became procurer- 
 general in 1841, councillor of state in 1846, and a deputy 
 to the Diet in 1848. He opposed the separation of 
 Sleswick and Holstein from the Danish monarchy. He 
 published a " Manual of Danish Penal Law." 
 
 Ustariz, oos-ta-reth', (Jerome,) a Spanish political 
 economist, born in Navarre about 1695. H e published 
 in 1724 "The Theory and Practice of Commerce and 
 of the Marine," which was translated into English and 
 French. Died about 1750. 
 
 Usteri, oos'ta-ree, (Joiiann Martin,) a Swiss poet, 
 bom at Zurich in 1763 ; died in 1827. 
 
 Usteri, (Leonard,) a Swiss educational writer, born 
 at Zurich in 1 741 ; died in 1789. 
 
 Usteri, (Paulus,) sou of the preceding, was born at 
 Zurich in 1768. He studied medicine at Gottingen, and 
 afterwards filled several important offices under the 
 government. He published a number of medical and 
 political treatises. Died in 1S31. 
 
 Usuard, u'zu'aR', or U-su-ar'dus, a French monk, 
 who, under the patronage of Charles the Bald, composed 
 a " Martyrology." Died about 877 A.D. 
 
 U-ten-ho'vI-us,[Fr.UrE.NHoVE,i't'ta'nov'j(CHARi.Es,) 
 a Flemish scholar and Latin poet, born at Ghent about 
 1536. He lived in Paris, and died at Cologne in 1600. 
 lie was a Protestant minister. 
 
 Utgard. See Jotun. 
 
 Utrecht. See Van Utrecht. 
 
 Uvedale, yoov'dal, (Robert,) an English scholar 
 and botanist, born in London in 1642, assisted Dryden 
 in the translation of Plutarch's "Lives." 
 
 U'wins, (David,) an English physician, born in Lon- 
 don in 1780. He studied at Edinburgh, and in 1815 
 became physician to the City Dispensary, London. He 
 was subsequently editor of the " Medical Repository,' 
 and published, among other works, an " Essay on in- 
 sanity and Madhouses," which was very well received. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Uwins, (Thomas,) an English painter, a brother of 
 the preceding, was born in London in 1783. Having 
 studied at the Royal Academy, he visited Italy in 1826, 
 and produced a number of pictures illustrating peasant- 
 life. Among these may be named " Neapolitan Peasantry 
 Returning from a Festa," and "Children Asleep in a 
 Vineyard." He became a Royal Academician in 1836, 
 and in 1847 keeper of the National Gallery. Died in 
 1S57. 
 
 Uxelles, d\ duk'sel', (Nicolas de Ble— deh bla,) 
 Marquis, a French general, born at Chalons in 1652. He 
 defended Mentz with ability against the Imperialists in 
 1689, but was forced by want of powder to surrender. 
 He became a marshal of France in 1703, and president 
 of the council of foreign affairs at the death of Louis 
 XIV. Died in 1730. 
 
 Uz, 6ots, (Joiiann Peter,) a German lyric poet, born 
 at Anspach in 1720. He published in 1729 a collection 
 entitled " Lyrische Gedichte," which was followed by 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trillid; s as 1; th as in this. (J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VZZANO 
 
 168 
 
 VAILLANT 
 
 " Theodicea," and " The Art of being always cheerful," 
 ("Die Kunst stets frohlich zu sein," 1760,) a didactic 
 poem in Alexandrines, which is greatly esteemed. He 
 was made a counsellor of justice in 1796, and died the 
 same year. 
 
 ITzzano, oot-sa'no, (Niccol6,) a Florentine states- 
 man of the Guelph party. He became chief magistrate 
 of the republic in 1417, and waged a war against Vis- 
 
 conti, Duke of Milan, from 1423 to 1428. His prudence 
 and moderation are praised by Sismondi. Died in 1432. 
 TJz-zi'ah, [Heb. iTT>',] King of Judah, a son of 
 Amaziah, began to reign about 808 B.C. He defeated 
 the Philistines and Arabians. Having usurped the 
 priest's office, he was smitten with leprosy. He reigned 
 fifty-two years, and was succeeded by his son Jotham. 
 (See II. Chronicles xxvi.) 
 
 V. 
 
 Vaart, van der, vSn der vaRt, (Jan,) a Dutch painter 
 of landscapes and still life, was born at Haarlem in 1647. 
 He removed to England in 1674. Died in London in 
 1721. 
 
 Vaca, de. See Nunez, (Alvar CABEgA.) 
 
 Va-ca'rI-us, a jurist of the twelfth century, born in 
 Lombardy, was teacher of Roman law at Oxford. He 
 compiled an abstract of the Code and Digests, which 
 is still extant in manuscript. He was the first teacher 
 of Roman law in England. 
 
 Vacca. See Berlingiiieri. 
 
 Vacca, vak'ka, (Flaminio,) an Italian sculptor of 
 the sixteenth century, was patronized by Sixtus V. 
 
 Vaccaro, vak'ka-ro, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Naples in 1598. Among his works is a "Holy 
 Family." Died in 1670. 
 
 Vaccaro, (Francesco,) an Italian engraver and 
 painter, born at Bologna about 1636 ; died about 1687. 
 
 Vacher. See Le Vacher. 
 
 Vacherot, vfsh'ro', (Etienne,) a French philoso- 
 pher, born at Langres in 1809. He was appointed 
 director of studies at the Normal School about 1838, 
 and acted as substitute of M. Cousin in the Sorbonne 
 in 1839. He published, besides other works, a "Criti- 
 cal History of the Alexandrian School," (3 vols., 1846- 
 50,) and " The Democracy," (1859.) He was imprisoned 
 three months for the latter work. 
 
 Vachet, du, du vi'sh^', (Pierre Joseph,) a French 
 priest and Latin poet, bom at Beaune ; died about 1655. 
 
 Vachet, Le, leh vi'shV, (Jean Antoine,) a benevo- 
 lent French priest and writer, born in Dauphine in 1603 ; 
 died in 1681. 
 
 Vacquerie, vi'ka're', (Auguste,) a French litterateur, 
 born in Paris about 1818. He was associated with Vic- 
 tor Hugo in the editorship of the " Evenement," a journal 
 founded in 1848. He also produced poems entitled 
 "Demi-Tints," (1845,) and other works. 
 
 Va-cu'na, a goddess worshipped by the Sabine;., and 
 afterwards by the Romans, was variously regarded as 
 identical with Victoria, Minerva, Ceres, or Diana. 
 
 Vadder, de, deh vad'der, (Louis,) a Flemish land- 
 scape-painter, born at Brussels in 1560. His pictures 
 were highly prized. Died in 1623. 
 
 VadI, vi'da', (Jean Joseph,) a French dramatist, born 
 in Picardy in 1719, was the author of comic operas, 
 farces, and songs, which obtained great popularity. Died 
 in 1757. 
 
 Vadian, va'de-an, [Lat. Vadia'nus,] (Joachim,) an 
 eminent Swiss scholar, born at Saint Gall in 1484. His 
 family name was Von Watt. He became professor of 
 belles-lettres at Vienna. About 1520 he returned to 
 Saint Gall, where he practised medicine and became a 
 disciple of Zwingle. He was ranked by Joseph Scaliger 
 among the most learned men of Germany. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a "Commentary on Pomponins 
 Mela," (1518,) and "Scholia on Pliny's Natural History," 
 (1531.) Died in 1551. 
 
 Vadianus. See" Vadian. 
 
 Vadier, vii'de-i', (Marc Guillaume Alexis,) a 
 French Jacobin, born in 1736, was a violent member of 
 the Convention, (1792-95.) He joined the enemies of 
 Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor, 1794. In 1795 he 
 was denounced as a terrorist, and condemned to de- 
 portation, but he avoided that penalty by concealment. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 Vaenius. See Van Veen. 
 
 Vaga. See Perino del Vaga. 
 
 Vahan,* va'han, [from vfih, (written also v/k,) to 
 "carry," cognate with the Latin ve"k-o,\ a Sanscrit word, 
 signifying almost the same as the German Wagen, (i.e. 
 " vehicle," "carriage,") with which it nearly corresponds 
 in sound. In the Hindoo mythology it is applied to 
 those fabulous creatures which were supposed to bear 
 the gods in their journeys. Thus, the white bull Nandi 
 is said to be the vahan of Siva ; Garuda, the vahan of 
 Vishnu ; and so on. 
 
 Vahl, vll, (Martin,) a Norwegian naturalist, born at 
 Bergen in 1749, studied at Copenhagen, and subse- 
 quently at Upsal under Linnseus. Having visited Eng- 
 land and various parts of the continent, where he made 
 valuable collections of plants, he was appointed in 1785 
 professor of natural history in the University of Copen- 
 hagen. He published " Symbols Botanicae," " Eclogae 
 Americana;," and a continuation of CEder's "Flora 
 Danica," (1810:) he also contributed to the "Zoologia 
 Danica." He died in 1804. leaving a valuable herbarium, 
 library, and manuscripts, which were bought by the King 
 of Denmark. A genus of plants has been named Vahlia 
 in his honour. 
 
 See Kraft og Nverup, "Litteraturlexicon." 
 
 Vaillant, vi'yfiN', (Jean Baptistk Philibert,) a 
 French marshal, born at Dijon in 1790, served in the 
 Russian campaign of 1812, accompanied the expedition ' 
 to Algiers in 1830, and attained the rank of colonel in 
 1833. Having become a lieutenant-general in 1845, ' ie 
 directed the operations of the siege of Rome in 1849, 
 and obtained the baton of marshal in 185 1. He was 
 minister of war from March, 1854, to May, 1859. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Vaillant, (Jean Foy,) a French antiquary, celebrated 
 for his knowledge of numismatics, was born at Beauvais 
 in 1632. Having been charged by Colbert to make a 
 collection of ancient medals for the royal cabinet, he 
 visited Italy, Greece, and part of Asia, and returned in 
 1680 with a great number of rare and beautiful coins. 
 Among his chief works are a treatise on the coins of the 
 Roman emperors, entitled " Numismata Imperatorum 
 Romanorum prsestantiora," etc., (1674,) and "Seleuci- 
 darum Imperium, seu Historia Regum Syrise," etc., or 
 " History of the Syrian Kings derived from Coins." 
 Vaillant was made a member of the Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions in 1702. Died in 1706. 
 
 See C. dk Laff.uii.i.h, "D. J. F. Vaillant Docloris Medici Vita," 
 1745; Nicbkon, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Vaillant, (Jean Francois Foy,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Rome in 1665. He was a member 
 of the Academy of Inscriptions, and contributed to 
 the " Memoirs" of that institution several treatises on 
 numismatics. Died in 1708. 
 
 Vaillant, [Lat. Vaillan'tius,] (Sebastien,) an emi- 
 nent French botanist, born near Pontoise in 1669. He 
 distinguished himself at an early age by his proficiency 
 in music, but subsequently studied medicine, and was 
 appointed surgeon to the royal fusileers. Having visited 
 Paris in 1691, he acquired the friendship of Tournefort, 
 and devoted himself henceforth to botanical studies. 
 In 1708 he succeeded Fagon as professor of botany and 
 sub-demonstrator of plants in the Jardin du Roi, and he 
 became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1716. 
 He was the author of several valuable works, the most 
 important of which is his " Botanicon Parisiense," or 
 
 * The more correct but less common form is Vahana. 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, 5, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, (all, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
VAILLANT 
 
 2169 
 
 V AIDES 
 
 history of plants in the vicinity of Paris, (1727.) It was 
 illustrated by Aubriet, and published by Boerhaave after 
 the death of Vaillant, which occurred in 1722. The genus 
 Vaillantia was named by De Candolle in his honour. 
 
 See Borrhaavk, " Vita Vaillnntii," prefixed to his " Botanicon 
 Parisiense," 1727 ; " Biographie Medicale ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Vaillant, (Wai.lf.rant,) a Flemish portrait-painter, 
 bom at Lille in 1623. He was also a mezzotint engraver, 
 and is said to have been the first artist who executed 
 works in that department. His engraved portrait of 
 Prince Rupert is one of his best productions. Died 
 in 1677. 
 
 Vaillant de Gueslis, vt'yoN' deh gS'less', or Quelle, 
 gel, (GERMAIN,) a French bishop and poet, born at Or- 
 leans. He was patronized by Francis I., and became 
 Bishop of Orleans in 1586. He wrote an able com- 
 mentary on Virgil, (1575,) and a Latin poem at the age 
 of seventy. Died in 1587. 
 
 Vaillant, Le, leh vS'von', (Francois,) a celebrated 
 traveller and naturalist, bom at Paramaribo, in Dutch 
 Guiana, in 1753. He was taken to Europe about 1764, 
 and passed many years in France and Germany, where 
 he studied the habits of birds, In 1780 he sailed 
 to the Cape of Good Hope, and undertook to explore 
 Southern Africa. He made excursions among the Caf- 
 fres and other tribes, extended his researches northward 
 beyond the Orange River, and remained in Africa until 
 July, 1784. He returned to France with a large collec- 
 tion of birds, and published an interesting and graphic 
 narrative of his travels, "Journey in the Interior of 
 Africa," ("Voyage dans l'Interieur de 1'Afrique," 2 
 vols., 1790-96,) which has a high reputation for veracity. 
 He was a diligent observer and an enthusiastic votary 
 of natural history. He was imprisoned in 1793, and 
 only saved from death by the fall of Robespierre. He 
 published a "Natural History of the Birds of Africa," 
 (6 vols., 1796-1812,) and several minor works on birds. 
 Died near Sezanne in November, 1824. " His works 
 on birds," says Eyries, "are placed in the first rank." 
 (" Biographie Universelle.") 
 
 Vair, du. See Du Vair. 
 
 Vaishnava, vish'na-va, (English plural, Vaish- 
 navas,) the name given by the Hindoos to the worship- 
 pers of Vishnu, (which see.) 
 
 Vaissette or Vaissete, v&'set', (Dom Joskph,) a 
 French Benedictine and historian, born at Gaillac in 
 1685. He wrote, besides other works, a " History of 
 Languedoc," (5 vols., 1730-45,) whicfi is said to be very 
 exact, judicious, and well written. Died in 1756. 
 
 Vaj'ra, (pronounced by the modern Hindoos viij'ra 
 or buj'ra,) a Sanscrit word, signifying "adamant," but 
 used in the Hindoo mythology to designate the " ada- 
 mantine thunderbolt" of India. (See INDRA.) 
 
 Vakh'tang I., King of Georgia in the fifth century, 
 was descended from the Persian king Sapor (Shapoor) I. 
 He was engaged in numerous wars, and greatly enlarged 
 his dominions. 
 
 Vakhtang VI. became ruler over the province of 
 Kartli, in Georgia, in 1703. Having refused to embrace 
 Mohammedanism, he was deposed by the Shah of Persia, 
 but lie was afterwards restored to power! While out- 
 wardly conforming to the religion of Mohammed, he was 
 active in promoting Christianity, and, having established 
 a printing-press, printed a Georgian version of a portion 
 of the Bible. Being compelled at length to resign in 
 favour of his brother, he took refuge in Russia. He 
 was the author of a history of his country, entitled the 
 "Chronicle of Vakhtang the Sixth," (in manuscript.) 
 He died in 1734. His sons Bakar and Vakhusta com- 
 pleted the Georgian Bible in 1743. 
 
 Val, du, dii vSl, [Lat. Vai/i.a,] (Nicolas,) a French 
 jurist of the sixteenth century. He became secretary to 
 the king about 1542, and wrote a valuable work "On 
 Doubtful Causes and Questions Disputed in Law," (" De 
 Rebus dubiis et Quxstionibus in Jure controversis," 4th 
 edition, 1583.) 
 
 Valadares Gamboa, de, da va-la-da'res gam-bo'a, 
 (JOAQUIM Fortunato,) a Portuguese poet, born in the 
 latter part of the eighteenth century. 
 
 See I^ONGFRLLOW, " Poets and Poetry of Europe 
 
 Valadon, va"li'd6N', (Zachaiue,) a French mis- 
 sionary, born at Auxonne about 1680. He laboured in 
 Palestine, Svria, etc. I lied at Dijon in 1746. 
 
 Valal't, vrlftV, (Joseph,) a French scholar and critic, 
 born near Hesdin, in Artois, in 1698. He became a 
 priest, and was employed as a school-teacher at various 
 places. He wrote several works on grammar, and pub- 
 lished editions of Horace, Ovid, and other Latin authors. 
 His character is represented as bizarre. Died in 1781. 
 
 Valaze, de, deh vS'li'za', (Charlks Eleonore du 
 Friche — dii fltesh,) a French Girondist, born at Alencon 
 in 1751, became an advocate. He published an able 
 work "On Penal Laws," (1784,) and was elected to the 
 Convention in 1792. He voted for the death of the king 
 and the appeal to the people. Having been condemned 
 to death in October, 1793, lie killed himself. 
 
 See Louis Dubois, "Notice sur Valaze," 1S02; Lamartin* 
 " History ot" the Girondists." 
 
 Valbonnaia. See Bourchenu, de. 
 
 Valcarcel, vil-kaR-thel', (Jose Antonio,) a Spanish 
 agriculturist, born at Valencia about 1720. He rendered 
 an important service to his countrymen by the publica- 
 tion of his "General Agriculture and Rural Economy," 
 (7 vols. 4to, 1765-86.) Died after 1790. 
 
 Valcarcel, (Don Pro Antonio,) Count de Lunares, 
 a Spanish antiquary, born in 1740, published several 
 treatises on the inscriptions of Saguntum and other cities 
 of Spain. Died in 1800. 
 
 Valckenaer, val'keh-naR, (Jan,) a Dutch diploma- 
 tist and lawyer, born at Franeker or Leyden in 1759. 
 He became professor of law at Utrecht in 1787, and 
 joined the party of patriots, i.e. those who sympathized 
 with the French republicans. He was Dutch ambassa- 
 dor at Madrid from 1796 till 1801, and was sent by King 
 Louis to Paris in 1810 to prevent the annexation of 
 Holland to France. Died in 1821. 
 
 Valckenaer, (Lodewijck Caspar,) an eminent 
 Dutch philologist, born at Leeuwarden in 1715. vvas 'he 
 father of the preceding. He became professor of Greek 
 at Franeker in 1741, and was professor of Greek and 
 archaeology at Leyden from 1766 until his death. He 
 edited, besides other classic works, the " Phcenissse" 
 and the " Hippolytus" of Euripides, and the " Idyls" of 
 Theocritus, (1773,) on which he wrote excellent com- 
 mentaries. Among his works is "Observationes Aca- 
 demics:," (1790,) which is highly prized. Died in 1785. 
 
 See Saxk, " Onomasticon." 
 
 Valdegamas. See Donoso-Cortes. 
 
 Valdemar. See Wai.demar. 
 
 Valdes, valdes', (Don Antonio,) a Spanish minister 
 of state, born in the Asturias about 1735. ^ e became 
 minister of the marine in 1781, and greatly increased the 
 naval force of Spain. His ability and success were so 
 conspicuous that the king in 1787 placed him at the head 
 of the departments of finance, commerce, and war. In 
 1792 he was raised to the rank of chief admiral or cap- 
 tain-general of the navy. By the agency of Godoy, he 
 was removed in 1795. Died about 181 1. 
 
 Valdes, (Caietano,) a Spanish naval officer, was a 
 nephew of the preceding. He commanded a ship at 
 Trafalgar in 1805, after which he became a lieutenant- 
 general. Having revolted against Ferdinand VII., he 
 was imprisoned from 1815 to 1820. Died after 1826. 
 
 Valdes, (Dieoo or Jago,) a Spanish author and 
 professor of law, born in the Asturias in the sixteenth 
 century. He published a work " On the Dignity of 
 Spanish Kings," (in Latin, 1602.) 
 
 Vald6s, lit. Valdesso, val-des'so,] (Juan,) a Spanish 
 jurist and reformer, born probably in Leon. He be- 
 came a chamberlain of Pope Adrian VI. in 1522, and 
 returned to Spain soon after the death of that pope. 
 He removed to Naples about 1530, and, it is said, was 
 employed there as secretary to the Spanish viceroy. 
 He wrote several religious works, in some of which he 
 attacked the corruptions of the Roman Church. He 
 died at Naples, about middle age, in 154c. He adopted 
 the chief doctrines of the Protestant creed, but never 
 formally separated from the Church of Rome. Among 
 Ins works of a religious character is one entitled "One 
 Hundred and Ten Considerations," etc., (1550.) 
 
 Valdes as a reformer," says Wiffen, " entered less 
 
 e as *; c as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. (jy Sec Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VALDES 
 
 VALENTIN J AN 
 
 than almost any thoughtful man of his time into the 
 battle of hierarchies. He was less a destroyer of error 
 and evil than a builder-up of truth and goodness." 
 
 See B. B. Wifhen, "Life of Juan Valdes," 1865; Hodgson, 
 " Reformers and Martyrs." Philadelphia, 1867 ; Ticknor, " History 
 of Spanish Literature ;" N. Antonio, " Bibhotheca Hispana Nova." 
 
 Valdes Leal, de, da val-des' la-ill', (Juan,) an emi- 
 nent Spanish painter, born at Cordova in 1630. He 
 worked at Seville, and was intimate with Murillo, after 
 whose death he was considered as the head of his pro- 
 fession. Among his works are several pictures of the 
 history of the prophet Elijah. He died in 1691. His 
 son Lucas, born in 1661, was a painter and engraver. 
 Died in 1724. 
 
 Valdesso. See Valdes, (Juan.) 
 
 Valdez. See Melendez Valdez. 
 
 Valdivia, de, da val-dee've-a, (Don Pedro,) a Span- 
 ish officer, who distinguished himself by the conquest 
 of Chili, was born about 15 10. He accompanied Pizarro 
 in his expedition against Peru in 1532. About 1540, 
 under the orders of Pizarro, he invaded Chili with a 
 small force, founded Santiago, and gained victories 
 over the natives. He returned to Peru in 1547 or 1548, 
 and fought under La Gasca against Gonzalo Pizarro. 
 He was captured by the Araucanians, and put to death, 
 in 1559. 
 
 See Claudio Gay, " Historia de Chile ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gene 1 rale." 
 
 Val'do or Wal'do, [Fr. pron. vtl'do',] (Peter or 
 Pierre,) a French Reformer of the twelfth century, 
 born at Vaux, in Dauphine, became a chief of the sect 
 of Waldenses, (or Vaudois.) He maintained the equal 
 right of the laity with the clergy to conduct the offices 
 of religion, and denounced the vices and ignorance of the 
 priests. His doctrine was condemned by the Roman 
 Church in 1 1 79, and his followers cruelly persecuted. 
 He is said to have translated the Scriptures into Vaudois. 
 Many suppose that the name Waldenses was derived 
 from Valdo or Waldo ; but it seems more probable 
 that he took his name Valdo as a surname because his 
 views corresponded with those of the Waldenses, who, 
 it appears, were in existence before his time, and among 
 whom he afterwards became a leader. 
 
 See Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867: 
 Leger, " Histoire generale des Vaudois ;" A. Muston, " Histoire 
 des Vaudois," 4 vols., 1851. 
 
 Valee, vS'll', (Sylvain Chari.es,) Count, a French 
 marshal, born at Brienne-le-Chateau in 1773. He served 
 with distinction in Austria and Spain, and was made gen- 
 eral of division in 1811. He was appointed inspector-gen- 
 eral of artillery by Louis XVI II., and made improvements 
 in the artillery. He succeeded to the chief command in 
 Algeria on the death of Danremont, and took Constan- 
 tina in October, 1837. He became a marshal of France 
 the same year. Died in 1846. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Valence, de, deh vS'Ionss', (Cyrus Marie Alex- 
 andre de Timbrune — deh taN'bRun',) Count, a 
 French general, born at Agen in 1757. He was ap- 
 pointed general-in-chief of the army of Ardennes in Oc- 
 tober, 1792, and gained some advantages over the allies 
 in Flanders. He followed Dumouriez in his defection 
 and flight, (1793.) Having returned to Fiance about 
 1800, he served as general in Spain, (1808,) and in 
 Russia, (1812.) Died in 1822. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Valencia, Duke of. See Narvaez. 
 
 Valenciennes, vS'loN'se-en', (Achii.le,) a French 
 naturalist, bom in Paris in 1794. He became professor 
 of anatomy at the Normal School in 1830, and after- 
 wards professor in the Museum of Natural History. He 
 published, besides other works, a "Natural History of 
 Fishes," (11 vols., 1829-49.) 
 
 Valenciennes, (Pierre Henri,) a French landscape- 
 painter, born at Toulouse in 1750. He was the chief 
 of a school to which many eminent painters belonged. 
 According to the " Biographie Universelle," he was 
 the ablest landscape-painter of his time. Died in 1819. 
 
 Va'lens, (Aburnus,) a Roman jurist of the time of 
 Antoninus Pius. There are only fragments of his 
 writings extant. 
 
 Valens, (Fabius,) a Roman general, notorious for 
 cruelty and other crimes. He revolted against Galba, 
 became a partisan of Vitellius, and defeated Otho at 
 Bedriacum in 69 a.d. Having been captured by the troops 
 of Vespasian, he was put to death the same year. 
 
 Valens, (Flavius,) Emperor of the East, born about 
 328 A.D., was a brother of Valentinian I., to whom he 
 was indebted for the imperial power. He began to reign, 
 in 364, over Thrace, Asia, and Egypt. In 366 he sup- 
 pressed a rebellion of Procopius. He was an Arian, and 
 persecuted the orthodox. He defeated the Goths in 369, 
 after which he waged war against Sapor, (Shapoor,) King 
 of Persia. His dominions were invaded by the Goths, 
 by whom he was defeated and killed in a great battle 
 near Adrianople in 378 A.D. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Til- 
 lemont, " Histoire des Empereurs ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale." 
 
 Valentia, de, di va-len'te-a, (Gregorio,) a Spanish 
 Jesuit and theologian, born at Medina del Campo about 
 155°- He was professor of theology at Ingolstadt and 
 at Rome. He wrote several controversial works. Died 
 in 1603. 
 
 Valentia, de, (Pedro,) an eminent Spanish jurist, 
 born in 1554. He had a high reputation for learning. 
 He wrote an excellent commentary on the "Academics" 
 of Cicero, (1596.) Died in 1620. 
 
 Valenti-Gonzaga, va-lfn'tee gon-za'ga, (Silvio,) an 
 Italian cardinal, born at Mantua in 1690, was a patron 
 of learning. He became chief minister of Benedict XIV. 
 soon after his election to the papacy. Died in 1756. 
 Valentin. See Valentine and Valentinus. 
 Valentin, va-leu-teen' or fa-len-teen', (Gabriel Gus- 
 tav,) a German physician, of Jewish extraction, born at 
 Breslau in 1810. He became professor of physiology 
 at Berne in 1846. He has published a "Manual of the 
 History of Development," (1835,) and other physio- 
 logical works. 
 
 Valentin or Valentini, va-len-tee'nee, (Michael 
 Bernard,) a German medical writer and naturalist, 
 born at Giessen in 1657. He was professor in the Uni- 
 versity of Giessen, and wrote numerous works. Died 
 in 1726. 
 
 Valentin, vfloN'taN', (MoYse,) called also Valentin 
 de Boulongne, (v$'16N'taN' deh boolANn',) and Le 
 Valentin, (leh vi'loN'tiN',) a distinguished French 
 painter, born at Coulommiers in 1600. He studied in 
 Italy, and made Caravaggio his model. Among his 
 master-pieces we may name "The Death of John the 
 Baptist," and " The Denial by Peter." His delineations 
 of common life are also greatly admired. Died in 1632. 
 Valentin de Boulongne. See Valentin, (Moise.) 
 Valentin-Smith, vi'loVtaN' smet, (Joannes Ek- 
 hard,) a French lawyer and writer on political economy, 
 born at Trevoux in 1796. Among his works are " Men- 
 dicity and Labour," (1848,) and "The Philosophy of 
 Statistics," (1854.) 
 
 Val'en-tine or Val-en-ti'nus, [Fr. Valentin, vi'- 
 l&.N'ta.N',] a native of Rome, was elected pope in Sep- 
 tember, 827. He died in October of the same year. 
 Valentine, (Basil.) See Basil- Valentine. 
 Val'en-tine, Saint, an ecclesiastic of the third cen- 
 tury, supposed to have suffered martyrdom under the 
 emperor Claudius, (270 a.d.) 
 
 Valentine de Milan, vt'loN'ten' deh' me'18N', [It. 
 Valentina da Mii.ano, vl-len-tee'na da me-Ia'no,] a 
 daughter of Galeazzo Visconti, was married in 1389 to 
 Louis, Duke of Orleans, a brother of Charles VI. of 
 France. She is represented as amiable and accom- 
 plished. She had several sons. Louis XII. and Francis 
 I. were her grandsons. Died in 1408. 
 
 See Froissart, "Chronicles;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 Valentini, va-len-tee'nee, (Georg Wilhelm,) 
 Baron, a German general, born at Berlin in 1775, 
 served against the French in the principal campaigns 
 between 181 1 and 1815, and was appointed in 1828 in- 
 spector-general of military instruction in the Prussian 
 armv. He wrote several military works. Died in 1834. 
 Val-en-tin'I-an [Lat. Valenttnia'nus ; Fr. Vai.en- 
 tinien, vi'loN'te'ne-aN'] I., (Flavius,) born in Panno- 
 nia in 321 A.D., succeeded Jovian as Emperor of Rome 
 
 4, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
VALENTINIAN 
 
 2171 
 
 VALESIUS 
 
 in 364, and, having made his brother Valens his colleague, 
 reserved for himself the western part of the empire. He 
 carried on wars with the Franks, Allemanni, and other 
 German tribes, over whom he gained several important 
 victories. The Picts and Scots were also defeated, and 
 a rebellion in Africa was suppressed by his general 
 Theodosius. While marching against the Quadi and 
 SvBiaUe, who had invaded Pannonia, Valentinian died 
 suddenly, (375 a.d.) He was a Catholic, but tolerated 
 the Arians. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Tn.- 
 LBHONT, "' Histoire des Empereurs;" Bakonius, "Annales;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Valentinian (Valentinianus) II., (Fi.avius,) called 
 THE Younger, was a son of the preceding, and was 
 made by his brother Gratian, who succeeded to the 
 throne in 375 A.D., his colleague, and ruler over the 
 western part of the empire. After the murder of Gra- 
 tian by Maximus, in 383, he sought the protection of 
 Theodosius, who defeated Maximus and restored the 
 throne to Valentinian. He was assassinated in 392, by 
 order of Arbogastes, one of his generals, who aimed at 
 the supreme power. 
 
 See Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." 
 
 Valentinian (Valentinianus) III., (Placidius,) 
 son of Constantius, born in 419, was made ruler over the 
 Western empire by his uncle, Theodosius II., (425 A.D.,) 
 but the government was conducted by his mother, Pla- 
 cidia. During this period Africa was conquered from 
 the Romans by Genseric, in consequence of the discord 
 between the Roman generals Aetius and Honifacius. 
 Aetius, having previously defeated the Huns under 
 Attila, was murdered by Valentinian, who was jealous 
 of his superior ability, (454.) The emperor perished 
 himself, in 455, by the hand of Petronius Maximus, 
 whose wife he had dishonoured. 
 
 See Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Tille- 
 MONT, " Histoire des Empereurs." 
 
 ValentinianuB. See Valentinian. 
 
 Valentiuien. See Valentinian. 
 
 Val-en-ti'nus, [Kr. Valentin, vi'loN'taN',] a cele- 
 brated Gnostic, was a native of Egypt, and the founder 
 of a sect called Valentinians. He went to Rome about 
 140 A. D., and was excommunicated soon after that date. 
 He invented an obscure and fanciful system of theology, 
 in which Platonic ideas were mingled with the mystic 
 doctrines of the Gospel of John. Died about 160. 
 
 Valentyn, va'len-tin', (Francis,) a Dutch preacher 
 and traveller, born at Dort about 1660. He preached 
 several years at Amboyna, and published a descriptive 
 work entitled " Ancient and Modern East Indies," (8 
 vols., 1724-26.) Died about 1725. 
 
 Valera, de, da vala'ra, (Diego,) a Spanish historian, 
 bom at Cuenca about 1412. He was major-domo to 
 Isabella of Castile, and received the title of histo- 
 riographer from Ferdinand the Catholic. He wrote an 
 "Abridged History of Spain," ("Cronica de Espafia 
 abreviada," 1482.) Died after 1481. 
 
 See TlCKNOR, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 Valere. See Valerius, (Lucas.) 
 
 Va-le'rl-a Ga-le'rl-a, a Roman lady, was a daughter 
 of Diocletian and Prisca. She was married in 292 A.D. 
 to the emperor Galerius, after whose death she was 
 persecuted by Maximinus because she refused to be his 
 wife. She was put to death by Licinius in 315 A.D. 
 
 Valeria Gens, an ancient patrician tribe or family 
 of Rome, supposed to be descended from Volesus, or 
 Volusus, a Sabine. This gens was represented by a 
 succession of eminent men for many centuries, and 
 enjoyed peculiar honours and privileges. Among the 
 names of the families into which it was divided were 
 Flaccus, Maximus, Messala, Publicola, and Volusus. 
 
 Va-le'rI-an [ Lat. Vai.eria'nus, (Puhlius Licinius;) 
 Fr. Valerien, vS'la're^N'] succeeded vEmilianus as 
 Emperor of Rome in 253 A.D., and appointed his son 
 Gallienus his colleague. The empire was soon after 
 invaded by the Goths and other barbarous tribes, and 
 by Sapor, (Shapoor,) King of Persia, who defeated the 
 Romans near Kdessa in 260 and took Valerian prisoner. 
 He was treated in the most insulting manner by his 
 captor, who is said to have placed his foot upon him 
 
 when he mounted his horse. He died in Persia about 
 268 A. I)., and was succeeded by his son Gallienus. 
 
 See Aurklius Victor, "De Csesaribus;" Tillbmont, "His- 
 toire des Empereurs." 
 
 Valeriani Molinari, va-li-re-a'nee mo-le-na'ree, 
 (Luigi,) an Italian jurist, born in 1758; died in 1828. 
 
 See Montanari, " Biogratia del Professore L. Valeriani Moli- 
 nari," 1835. 
 
 Valerianos Apostolos. See Fuca, de, (Juan.) 
 
 Valerianus. See Valerian. 
 
 Va-le-rl-a'nus, (Joannes Pierius,) or Valeriano, 
 va-la-re-a'no, (Giovanni Pierio,) an Italian author, 
 born at Belluno in 1477. His family name was Bol- 
 zani. He became apostolic prothonotary and professor 
 of eloquence at Rome. Among his works are Latin 
 poems, and a "Treatise on Ancient Symbols," ("Hie- 
 roglyphica, sive de Sacris yEgyptiorum, aliarumque 
 Gentium Literis," 1556.) Died at Padua in 1558. 
 
 See DsTiiouandTsissiER, "filoges;" Niceron, "Memoires;' 
 " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Valerien. See Valerian. 
 
 Valeno, va-la're-o or vi'la'reV, (Theodore,) a 
 French painter and engraver, born near Longwy (Mo- 
 selle) in 1819. He accompanied the Turkish army about 
 1853, and took sketches of various scenes and peoples 
 in Hungary, Bosnia, and the Damibian principalities. 
 
 Va-le'rl-us, (Anitas Quintus,) a Roman historian, 
 wrote Annals of the city from its foundation to the time 
 of Sulla. 
 
 Valerius, (Julius,) a translator, who is supposed to 
 have lived in the fifth century. He produced a Latin 
 version of a "History of Alexander the Great," by 
 /T?sopus. 
 
 Valerius, [Fr. Valere, vi'laiV,] (Lucas,) an Italian 
 mathematician, was professor of geometry in the College 
 of Rome. He published a work "On the Centre of 
 Gravity of Solids." Galileo called him the Archimedes 
 of his time. Died about 1618. 
 
 (Valerius, (Prohus Marcus,) a noted grammarian 
 under the reign of Nero, was a native of Syria. 
 
 Valerius, (Pui:lius,) surnamed Asiat'icus, a Roman, 
 who was consul in 46 A.D. He was very rich. Messa- 
 lina, who coveted his garden, induced Claudius to put 
 him to death in 47 A.D. 
 
 Valerius Corvus, (Marcus.) See Corvus. 
 
 Valerius Flaccus. See Flaccus, (Cams.) 
 
 Va-le'rl-us Max'I-mus, [Fr. Valere Maxime, vf- 
 laiR' mtk'sem',] a Roman historical writer under the 
 reign of Tiberius. His principal work is entitled " Fac- 
 torum Dictorumque Memorabilium Libri IX.," consist- 
 ing chiefly of historical anecdotes. Numerous editions 
 of it have been published, and it has been translated into 
 the principal modern languages. This work is very 
 defective in style and other qualities. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis ;" Fabricius, " Biblioiheca 
 Latina." 
 
 Valerius Publicola. See Publicola. 
 
 Valesio, (Francisco.) See Valles. 
 
 Valesio, v51a'se-o, (Giovanni Luigi,) an Italian 
 painter and engraver, born at Bologna in 1561. He 
 worked in Rome. 
 
 Valesius, the Latin of Vai.ois and Valles, which see. 
 
 Va-le'sl-us, (Adrianus,) [Fr. Adrien de Vai.ois, 
 a"di;e-A,N' deh vS'lwa',] brother of Henri, noticed below, 
 born in Paris in 1607, was the author of a history of 
 France, entitled "Gesta veterum Francorum," etc., (3 
 vols., 1658,) and "Notitia Galliarum Online alphabetico 
 digesta," being an account of ancient Gaul. In 1660 
 he received a pension from the king, and the title of 
 royal historiographer. He also wrote a " Life of Henry 
 de Valois," (in Latin,) and other works. Died in 1692. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 Valesius or De Valois, (Henri,) an eminent French 
 scholar, born in Paris in 1603. He studied in his native 
 city, and subsequently at Bourges. Among his principal 
 works are his editions of Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, 
 and other Greek ecclesiastical historians, also an edition 
 of Ammianus Marcellintis, and "Excerpta Polybii, Dio- 
 dori, Nicolai Damasceni," etc. He was appointed royal 
 historiographer in 1660. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires." 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as^; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( jySee Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
VALETTE 
 
 2172 
 
 FALLANCE 
 
 Valette, vt'lSt', (Auguste,) a French jurist, born at 
 Salins (Jura) in 1804. He became professor of civil 
 law in the ficole de Droit, Paris, in 1837, and occupied 
 that chair more than twenty years. He published several 
 legal works. 
 
 Valette, de la, deh IS vt'let', (Jean Parisot— pi'- 
 re'zo',) sometimes called Valette-Parisot, the founder 
 of Valetta, and grand master of Malta, was born of 
 French parents til 1494. He was elected grand master 
 in 1557, having previously acquired a high reputation 
 as a general. In 1565 the Sultan Solyman attacked 
 Malta with a powerful armament, (one hundred and 
 fifty-nine ships of war,) against which La Valette made 
 a successful defence. After a siege of four months, the 
 Turks retired. Died in 1568. 
 
 See Mermet, " filoge de J. de la Valette-Parisot,'* 1803 ; Pfaff, 
 "* Philippe Villiers de ITsle-Adam und J. de la Valette," 1851; 
 Prescott, "History of Philip II.," vol. ii. ; Watson, "Life of 
 Philip II.;" De Thou, " Historia sui Teniporis ;" Vektot, 
 " Histoire des Chevaliers de Malte;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GfniSrale." 
 
 Valette, de la, (Louis de Nogaret — deh no'gf'rj',) 
 Cardinal, a French prelate, born in 1593, was a son of 
 the Due d'Epernon. He was an adherent of Richelieu, 
 who in 1635 gave him command of an army sent to aid 
 the German Protestants and fight against the Spaniards. 
 Turenne was second in command under him. In 1638 
 he commanded the army of Italy. Died at Rivoli in 
 1639- 
 
 See J. Talon, "Me'moiredeL. de Nogaret, Cardinal de la Valette," 
 etc., 2 vols., 177a. 
 
 Valette, de la, (Louis de Thomas,) a French eccle- 
 siastic, born at Toulon in 1678. He became general of 
 the congregation of the Oratory. Died in 1772. 
 
 Valette, La. See La Valette. 
 
 Val'gl-us Ru'fus, a Roman poet and critic of the 
 Augustan age, favourably mentioned by Horace in his 
 Tenth Satire, book i. Little is known respecting him 
 or his works. 
 
 Valhalla, (the "hall of the fallen or slain.") See 
 Odin and Valkyria. 
 
 Valhubert, vS'lu'baiR', (Jean Marie Melon Ro- 
 ger,) a Krench general, born at Avranches in 1764, 
 distinguished himself at Marengo, and was killed at 
 Austerlitz in 1805. 
 
 Vali, va'le, [etymology uncertain ; possibly related to 
 the Sanscrit bdlcl, "strength," (which is cognate with the 
 Latin v&l-eo, to "be strong,") or the Sanscrit bald, an 
 "infant," because as an infant he performed his greatest 
 achievement,] one of the principal gods in the Norse 
 mythology, was the son of Odin and Rinda. When 
 only one day old, he avenged Balder's death by slaying 
 Hbder. He is said to be an excellent archer. He and 
 Vidar are the only ones among the principal gods who 
 will survive the destruction of the world at Ragnarock. 
 
 See Thorpe, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Keyser, "Religion 
 of the Northmen ;" Petersen, " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Valieri, va-Ie-a'ree, or Valiero, va-le-a'ro, (Silves- 
 Tro,) became Doge of Venice in 1694. He waged war 
 with success against the Turks, and compelled them to 
 cede the Morea to Venice in 1699. Died in 1700. 
 
 Valiero, va-le-a'ro, or Valerio, va-la're-o, [Lat. Va- 
 lf/rius,] (Agosttno,) a learned Italian writer, born at 
 Venice in 1531. He became Bishop of Verona in 1565, 
 and a cardinal in 1583. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "Ecclesiastical Rhetoric," (" Khetorica Ecclesiastica," 
 1574,) and a "Life of Carlo Borromeo," (1586.) Died 
 in 1606. 
 
 See Ughri.li, "Italia Sacra;" Nicrron, "Memoires;" G. 
 Ventura, "Vita Cardinalis A. Valerii," 1741. 
 
 Valignani, vi-len-ya'nee, (Alessandro,) an Italian 
 Jesuit and missionary, born at Chieti in 1537. Having 
 been sent to the East Indies in 1573, he preached in 
 Japan and China. Died at Macao in 1606. 
 
 Valin, vt'las', (Rkne Josue,) a French jurist, born 
 at La Rochelle in 1695, acquired a high reputation by 
 his works on law. Died in 1765. 
 
 See Lepei.letier, " filoge de R. J. Valin," 1844. 
 
 Valincourt or Valincour, de, deh vS'laVkooR', 
 (Jean Baptiste Henri du Trousset— du tRoo'sV,) 
 Sieur, a French writer and critic, born in Paris in 1653. 
 
 He wrote a "Life of Francois, Due de Guise," (1681,) 
 and other works. He succeeded his friend Racine as a 
 member of the French Academy, in 1699, an d as his- 
 toriographer to the king. Died in 1730. 
 
 See Fontknei.lb, " Jjloges;" Niceron, " Memoires ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge^ierale." 
 
 Valkenburgh, val'ken-btirg or val'ken-buRH, (Theo- 
 dore or Dirck,) a Dutch painter of portraits and still 
 life, born at Amsterdam in 1675. He worked for some 
 time at Vienna, from which he returned to his native 
 city. Died in 1721. 
 
 Valkyria, (or Valkyrja,) val-klr'e-a or val-ldr'ya; 
 the common English plural is Valkyries,* val-klr'ez, 
 [Norse plural, Valkyrjur or Valkyrivtr, val-l<?r'yiu. 
 derived from valr, " fallen" or " slain in battle," and iji-a, 
 cognate with the old German kiiren and Anglo-Sax "in 
 ccosan, to " choose," signifying the " choosers of the slain, j 
 the name applied in the Edda to certain mythical beings, 
 attendants of Odin, by whom they are sent to every 
 battle-field to select such as are doomed to fall, and to 
 bring them to Valhalla. They are described as white 
 maidens who ride through the air, from the manes of 
 whose horses dew falls in the valleys and hail on the 
 high mountains. Skuld, the youngest of the Noms, 
 is numbered among the Valkyries. They are some- 
 times called Valmeyar, ("battle-maids,") Skialdmcyar or 
 Skjaldmcyar, ("shield-maids,") and Oskmeyar, ("the 
 maids of Odin,") Oski being one of the names of the 
 war-god. It is the duty of the Valkyries, in addition 
 to their other offices, to wait upon the chosen heroes 
 ( Eiiiheriar) who are admitted to Valhalla, to fill their 
 cups with mead, and to have charge of everything be- 
 longing to the table. 
 
 See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Kkyser, "Re- 
 ligion of the Northmen ;" Petki.skn, " Nordisk Mylhulogi." 
 
 Valkyries. See Valkyria. 
 
 Valla. See Val, du, (Nicolas.) 
 
 Valla, val'la, (Giorgio,) an Italian scholar and phy- 
 sician, born at Piacenza about 1430, was a cousin of 
 Lorenzo, noticed below. He became professor of elo- 
 quence at Venice. He wrote several medical treatises, 
 and a work entitled "On Things to be Sought and to 
 be Avoided," (" De Expetendis et Fugiendis Rebus," 
 2 vols., 1501.) Died at Venice in 1499. 
 
 See Bayle, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Tiraboschi, 
 " Storia della Letteratnra Italiaua." 
 
 Valla, (Lorenzo,) an eminent classical scholar, born 
 at Rome about 141 5. He was successively professor 
 of rhetoric at Pavia, Milan, and Naples, where he ac- 
 quired the friendship and patronage of King Alfonso 
 I. He was, it is said, persecuted by the Archbishop 
 of Naples, but he effected his escape to Rome, where 
 he was kindly received by Pope Nicholas V., who 
 made him his secretary and conferred on him other 
 distinctions. His principal works are entitled "Notes 
 on the New Testament," (" Annotationes in Novum 
 Testamentum," 1505,) " Elegantiae Sermonis Latin?," 
 commentaries on Livy and Sallust, and translations of 
 Herodotus and Thucydides. Valla was one of the first 
 critics and scholars of his time; but his controversial 
 writings are disfigured by bitter invective and person- 
 alities. Died about 1460. 
 
 See Vossius, " De Historicis Latinis;" Bayi.e. " Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary ;" Poggiau, "Memorie intonfo alia Vita di L. 
 Valla;" Wii.dschut. "Dissertatio de Vita et Scriptis L. Valla?," 
 1S30; P. Ciiovio, "Elogia;" " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Valladier, vf'lS'de-4', (Andre,) a French eccle- 
 siastic and writer, was born about 1565. He became 
 preacher or chaplain to Henry IV. in 1608, and abbe of 
 Saint-Arnoul in 161 1. Among his works is "The Royal 
 Labyrinth of the Gallic Hercules," (" Le Labyrinthe 
 royal de l'Hercule Gaulois," 1600.) Died in 1638. 
 
 See Mokkki, " Dictionnaire Historiqne ;" Niceron, " Me- 
 moires." 
 
 Vallance, vS'Ionss', or Valiancy, vS'lflN'se', 
 (Charles,) an antiquarian writer, born in 1721, pub- 
 lished a work entitled "Collectanea de Rebus Hiber- 
 tiicis," etc., and a "Grammar" and "Dictionary" of the 
 Irish language. Died in 1812. 
 
 * The English singular Valkyry or VaJkyrU is rarely used. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
fALLANDIGHAM 
 
 2173 
 
 FALMORE 
 
 Vallandigham, va-lan'de-gam, (Clemen i- L.,) an 
 American politician, born at New Lisbon, Ohio, about 
 1822. He was elected to Congress as a Democrat, in 
 1856, by the voters of the third district of Ohio, which 
 he continued to represent until 1S63. While in Con- 
 gress he opposed the efforts of the government to sup- 
 press the rebellion, and manifested his sympathy with 
 the insurgents in many a virulent harangue. In May, 
 1863, he was arrested on a charge of having " declared 
 disloyal sentiments and opinions," etc., and was sen- 
 tenced by a military court to close confinement till the 
 end of the war; but the President modified this sen- 
 tence and directed that he should be banished or sent 
 southward beyond our military lines. Mr. Vallan- 
 digham tmbarked at a Southern port and afterwards 
 went to Canada. The Democratic Convention which 
 met in Ohio in June, 1863, denounced his banishment 
 as a violation of the Constitution, and nominated him 
 as their candidate for Governor. He was, however, 
 defeated in the ensuing election, (October, 1863,) his 
 opponent, Mr. B rough, having received the unprece- 
 dented majority of 101,099 votes. Died in 1871. 
 
 Vallarsi, vSI-lak'see, (Domenico,) an Italian anti- 
 quary, born at Verona in 1702, was versed in Hebrew 
 and Greek. He edited the works of Saint Jerome, (12 
 vols., 1734.) Died in 1 771. 
 
 Vallart. See Valart. 
 
 Vallauri, val-low'ree, (Tommaso,) an Italian scholar 
 and literary historian, born at Chiusa di Cuneo in 1805. 
 He became professor of Latin eloquence at Turin in 
 1843. He published " History of Poetry in Piedmont," 
 (1841,) " History of the Royal House and Monarchy of 
 Savoy," (1845,) "Critical History of Latin Literature," 
 (in Latin, 1849,) a "Latin-Italian Dictionary," (1852,) 
 and editions of several Latin classics. 
 
 Vaile, della, del'la val'la, (Gugliei.mo,) an Italian 
 monk and writer, born at Sienna about 1740. He wrote 
 "Letters on the Fine Arts," (3 vols., 1782-86.) Died 
 in 1794. 
 
 Valle, della, (Pietro,) a celebrated Italian traveller, 
 born at Rome in 1586, was surnamed IL PEt.LEORrNO, 
 ("the Pilgrim.") Having assumed the dress of a pilgrim, 
 he set out in 1614 for Palestine and the adjacent coun- 
 tries. He returned in 1626, having spent six years in 
 Persia. He died in 1652. His Travels in India and 
 Persia were published in 1662, (4 vols.) They have 
 been translated into several languages. 
 
 Vallee, vS'la', (Geoffroi,) a French Deist, born at 
 Orleans, published "The Heatitude of Christians," ("La 
 Beatitude des Chretiens,") for which he was executed 
 in 1574. 
 
 Vallee, (Louis Leger,) a French civil engineer, bom 
 in 1794, was appointed inspector-general in 1848. He 
 published several professional works. 
 
 Vallee, La. See La Vallee. 
 
 Valleix, vt'lj', (Francois Louts,) a French med- 
 ical writer, born in Paris about 1820. He published a 
 "Treatise on Neuralgia," (1841,) and other works. 
 Died in 1855. 
 
 Vallemont, de, deh vtl'mdN', (Pierre Le Lorrain 
 — leh lo'raN',) Ahbe, a French priest, naturalist, and 
 writer, born at Pont-Audemer in 1649. He compiled 
 several mediocre works, among which is "The Elements 
 of History," (« vols., 1696.) Died in 1721. 
 
 Valleriole, vSl're'ol', (Francois,) a French medical 
 writer, born at Montpellier about 1504 ; died in 1580. 
 
 Vallee, vil'yes, or Valesio, va-la'se-o, [I.at. Vai.le'- 
 sius.l (Francisco.) a Spanish medical writer, born in 
 Old Castile, lived in the sixteenth century. He was 
 physician to Philip II., and author of several esteemed 
 works. 
 
 Vallet or Valet, va"l&', (Gtnu.AUMF.,) a French en- 
 graver, bom about 1634. He engraved some works of 
 Raphael, Titian, and Poussin. Died about 1704. 
 
 Vallet de Viriville, vS'lJ' deh ve're'vel', (Augusts,) 
 a French antiquary and writer, born in Paris in 1815. 
 He contributed to several periodicals, and published, be- 
 sides other works, " Historical Iconography of France," 
 (18,3,) and " Researches on Jeanne Dare," (1855.) 
 
 Valletta, val-Iet'ta, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian jurist, bom 
 at Arienza (Campania) in 1738, (or, as some say, 1750.) 
 
 He became professor of law in the University of Naples, 
 and published numerous legal works. Diedin 1814. 
 
 See Rosa, " Elogio storico di N. Valletta," 1815. 
 
 Valli, val'lee, (Eusebio,) an Italian physician, born at 
 Pistoia in 1 762, was the author of treatises on the yellow 
 fever, of which disease he died in 1816. 
 
 Val'H-a or Wal'H-a, King of the Visigoths, began 
 to reign in 415 A.D., and formed an alliance with Hono- 
 rius, Kmperor of Rome, in 416, after which he gained 
 victories over the Vandals in Spain. Toulouse was his 
 capital. Died about 420 a.d. 
 
 Valliere, de, deh vt'le-aiR', (Jean Fi.orent,) a 
 French general of artillery, was bom in Paris in 1667. 
 He reorganized the artillery, and rendered important 
 services m several campaigns. Died in 1 759. 
 
 Valliere, de, (Joseph Florent,) Marqui;, an able 
 French general, a son of the preceding, was born in 
 Paris in 1 71 7. He became director-general of the artil- 
 lery and engineers in 1755, and distinguished himself at 
 Hasrenbeck. Died in 1776. 
 
 Valliere, de la, deh IS vi'lg^iR', (Louis Cesar La 
 Baume Le Blanc,) Duke, a French bibliophile, born 
 in Paris in 1708, was a grand-nephew of the following. 
 His library is stated to have been the richest that any 
 private person ever had in France. Died in 1780. 
 
 Valliere, de la, (Louise Franchise tit. la Baume 
 Le Blanc,) a beautiful and fascinating Frenchwoman, 
 born in Touraine in 1644. She became a maid of 
 honour to the Duchess of Orleans, and about 166 1 the 
 mistress of Louis XIV., who gave her the title of duchess. 
 She had by him four children, one of whom, the Count 
 of Vermandois, was legitimated. In 1674 she retired to 
 a convent. Her virtues and piety are highly extolled. 
 Died in 1710. 
 
 See Quatrrmere de Roissv, " Histnire de Madame de la Val- 
 liere," 1S23 : W. H. D. Adams, "Famous Beauties and Historic 
 Women," vol.'ii., 1865. 
 
 Vallisneri, val-les-na'ree, or Vallisnieri, v51-les-ne. 
 a'ree, (Antonio,) an eminent Italian naturalist, born in 
 the duchy of M6dena in May, 1661, was a pupil of Mai- 
 pighi at Bologna. He began to practise medicine at 
 Reggio about 1688, and married in 1692. Having ac- 
 quired distinction by his researches in entomology and 
 the generation of insects, he became professor of practi- 
 cal medicine at Padua in 1700. He opposed the doctrine 
 of spontaneous generation. About 1710 he obtained the 
 first chair of the theory of medicine at Padua. Among 
 his principal works is a "Treatise on the Generation of 
 Men and Animals," ("Istoria della Generazione dell' 
 Uomoe degli Animali," etc., 1721.) Buffon regarded him 
 as an exact and profound investigator. Died at Padua 
 in 1730. Vallisneria, a genus of plants, was named in his 
 honour by Micheli. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vitas Ttalorum doctrina excellentium," vol. vii. ; 
 NicRRnM, " Mtfmoires :" TtPAt.rto, "Biografia degli Italian) illus- 
 tri ;" "Nouvelle Bioyraphie Generale." 
 
 Vallongue. See Pascal-Vali.ongue. 
 
 Vallot, vit'lo', (Antoine,) a French physician, born 
 at Rheims or at Montpellier in 1594. He became first 
 physician to Louis XIV. in 1652, and cured him of a 
 serious illness in 1658. Died in 1671. 
 
 Vallotti, val-lot'tee, (Francesco Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian composer of sacred music, born at Vercelli in 1697 ; 
 died at Padua in 1780. 
 
 Valmlkl, vSl'mlkl, or Valmiki, vil-mee'ki, a Hindoo 
 poet, of unknown date, to whom is ascribed the author- 
 ship of the " RamSyana," one of the two great Hindoo 
 epics. (See RamAvan a.) 
 
 See Wilson, " Sanscrit-and-English Dictionary ;" " New Ameri- 
 can Cyclopaedia." 
 
 Valmont de Bomare, vtl'miN' deh bo'mf r', (J. C.,) 
 a French naturalist, born at Rouen in 1731. He visited 
 various parts of Europe, including Lapland, and returned 
 with a large collection of objects in natural history. He 
 published in 1758 his "Catalogue of a Cabinet of Natural 
 History," which was followed by a " New Exposition of 
 the Mineral Kingdom," (2 vols., 1762,) and " Universal 
 Raisonne" Dictionary of Natural History," a work of 
 great merit, which has obtained extensive popularity. 
 Died in 1807. 
 
 Valmore, (Marceli.ine.) See Deshordes. 
 
 « as i; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (Uy~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VALMY 
 
 2174 
 
 VAN BUREN 
 
 Valmy, Duke of. See Kellermann. 
 Valois, va-'lwi', (Yves,) a French Jesuit and writer 
 cm religion, bom at Bordeaux in 1694; died after 1760. 
 Valois, de, (Adiukn.) See Valesius. 
 Valois, de, (Chari.es.) See Angouleme. 
 Valois, de, deh vi'iwa', [Lat. Vale'sius,1 (Charles,) 
 a French antiquary, born in Paris in 1671, was a son of 
 Adrien de Valois or Valesius. He published a curious 
 work, entitled " Valesiana," (1694,) which is composed 
 partly of his father's writings and sayings. Died in 1747. 
 Valori, va-lo'ree, (Francesco,) an eminent Italian 
 statesman, born at Florence in 1439. He filled the 
 highest offices in the Florentine republic, and was a 
 friend of Savonarola and Macchiavelli. He was killed 
 by the populace during the excitement caused by the 
 reforms of Savonarola, in 1498. 
 
 Valori, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian writer, who was prior 
 of the republic of Florence. He wrote, in Latin, a " Life 
 of Lorenzo de' Medici," (1492.) 
 
 Valperga di Caluso, val-peVga de ka-loo'so, or 
 simply Valperga-Caluso, (Tommaso,) an Italian lit- 
 terateur and mathematician, born in Turin in 1737, was 
 an intimate friend of- Alfieri. He became professor of 
 Oriental literature in Turin, and director of an observa- 
 tory in that city. He wrote poems, and numerous treat- 
 ises on mathematics, astronomy, etc. Among his works 
 is a " Gallery of Italian Poets," (1814.) Died in 1815. 
 
 SeeL. deBreme, "Vita diT. Valperga-Caluso," 1S15; P. Bai.bo, 
 " Vita dell' Abate Valperga," 1S16 ; Boucheron, " Vita T. Valperga:; 
 Calusii," 1S36; Ersch und Gruber, "Allgemeine Encyklopaedie," 
 Uticle "Caluso;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Val'py\ (Edward,) an English scholar and divine, 
 brother of Richard, noticed below, studied at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, and subsequently became vicar of 
 Saint Mary, at Walsham, Norfolk. He was the author 
 of " Elegantias Latins," (translated,) and other works. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 Valpy, (Richard,) D.D., an eminent English scholar 
 and divine, born in the island of Jersey in 1754. Having 
 previously studied at the College of Valognes, in Nor- 
 mandy, he entered the University of Oxford, where he 
 took the degree of B.A., and in 1 78 1 was chosen head- 
 master of the grammar-school at Reading, Berkshire. 
 He became rector of Stradishall, in Suffolk, in 1787. He 
 published "Elements of the Latin Language," (1784,) 
 and a "Greek Grammar," (1805,) which are highly 
 esteemed. Died in 1836. His son Abraham John, 
 born in 1786, published excellent editions of several of 
 the Latin classics. Died in 1854. 
 
 Valsalva, val-sal'va, (Antonio Maria,) a celebrated 
 Italian physician and anatomist, born at Imola in 1666. 
 He studied under Malpighi at Bologna, and in 1697 
 became professor of anatomy in the university of that 
 city. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London 
 and of other similar institutions. He made improve- 
 ments in practical surgery, and acquired a -high reputa- 
 tion as an anatomist by his discoveries in the structure 
 of the ear, on which he wrote a work, "De Aure Hu- 
 mana," (1704.) He was a skilful physician, and invented 
 a method of treating aneurisms. Died in 1723. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vita; [talorum doctrina excellentium ;" Tipaldo, 
 " Biografia degli Italiani illustri." 
 
 Valsecchi, val-sek'kee, (Virginio,) an Italian anti- 
 quary, born at Brescia in 1681 ; died in 1739. 
 
 Valstain. See Wai.lenstein. 
 
 Valturio, val-too're-o, (Roherto,) an Italian writer 
 on the military art, born at Rimini, was author of a 
 work "De Re militari,"(i472.) He lived about 1450-80. 
 
 Valvasone, di, de vil-vi so'na, (Erasmo,) an Italian 
 poet, born in Friuli in 1523, was proprietor of an estate 
 and a castle. He wrote the "Angeleida," a poem on 
 the war among the angels, (1590,) and "The Chase," 
 ("Caccia,") an admired didactic poem on hunting, 
 (1591.) Died in 1593. 
 
 See Tiraboschi, " Storia della Letteratura Iuliana." 
 
 Vaman. See Vamana. 
 
 Vamana, va'ma-na, called also Vaman, va'man, 
 [i.e. a "dwarf,"] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of 
 the fifth avatar of Vishnu, when this god, to humble the 
 arrogance of Bali, (see Bali,) took the form of a pitiful 
 dwarf, and, when the tyrant promised him as much land 
 
 or space as he could pass over in three steps, revealed 
 himself in his real character, and with the first step 
 deprived Bali of earth, with the second, of heaven, but 
 (in consideration of Bali's good qualities) he generously 
 forbore to take the third step, (which would have left 
 that ruler no foothold in the universe,) and allowed him 
 the dominion of Patala, or the lower world. From 
 Vishnu's exploit on that occasion he has received one 
 of his proudest titles, — that of Trlvik'rama, or the 
 "Three-Step-Taker." (See Vishnu.) 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Vamuna. Sec Vamana. 
 
 Van or Vana. See Vanir. 
 
 Van Achen. See Achen. 
 
 Van'a-dis, [Norse pron. va'n J-dess', i.e. the " Vana 
 goddess," so called on account of her descent from the 
 Vanir,] one of the many names of Freyia, which see. 
 
 Van Aelst. See Aelst. 
 
 Van Amburgh, van am'burg, (Isaac,) called "the 
 Lion-Tamer," was born at Fishkill, New York, about 
 1815. He was a partner of a company that exhibited a 
 travelling menagerie, and was very successful in the 
 taming of lions. Died in Philadelphia in 1865. 
 
 Van Beek. See Torrentinus. 
 
 Vanbrugh, van-broo', (Sir John,) a celebrated Eng- 
 lish dramatist and architect, of Flemish extraction, born 
 in 1666, is supposed to have been a native of London. 
 He was educated in France, and, after his return, pub- 
 lished, in 1697, his comedy of " The Relapse," which was 
 followed by " The Confederacy" and " The Provoked 
 Wife." These plays were highly popular at the time; 
 but, owing to their profanity and licentiousness, they have 
 been long banished from the stage. Among his principal 
 architectural works we mav name Castle Howard, the 
 seat of Charles, Earl of Carlisle, Duncombe Hall, Grims- 
 thorpe, in Yorkshire, and Blenheim, the magnificent 
 residence of the Duke of Marlborough. He was ap- 
 pointed in 1703 Clarencieux king-at-arms. Died in 1726. 
 
 See Cibber, "Lives of the Poets;" Baker, " Biographia Dra- 
 matica;" "Lives of the British Dramatists," by Campbell, Lkigk 
 Hunt, etc. 
 
 Van Bu'ren, (John,) an American politician, born at 
 Hudson, New York, in 1810, was a son of Martin, noticed 
 below. He was elected attorney-general of New York 
 early in 1845, joined the Free-Soil party, and gained dis- 
 tinction as a political orator in 1848. After that time 
 he practised law in the city of New York, and acted 
 with the Democratic party. He died at sea during his 
 homeward passage from Europe, in October, 1866. 
 
 Van Buren, (Martin,) an American statesman, the 
 eighth President of the United States, was born at Kilt- 
 derhook, Columbia county, New York, on the 5th of 
 December, 1 782. He was educated at the academy of 
 his native village, studied law, and was admitted to the 
 bar in 1803. He began at an early age to take an active 
 part in politics, as a member of the Democratic party, 
 and was elected to the Senate of New York in 1812. 
 He advocated the war against England in 1812, became 
 attorney-general of New York in 1815, and was again 
 elected to the Senate in 1816. About this time he became 
 the master-spirit of the Albany Regency, an organization 
 which was formed to oppose De Witt Clinton, and which 
 controlled the politics of New York for many years. He 
 was elected a Senator of the United States in 1821, sup- 
 ported William H. Crawford for the Presidency of the 
 United States in 1824, and was again elected a Senatoi 
 in 1827. He voted for the protective tariff of 1828. The 
 same year he was chosen Governor of New York for two 
 years, but before the expiration of his term he resigned 
 and entered the cabinet of President Jackson as secre- 
 tary of state. He resigned that office in April, 1831, 
 probably because General Jackson had expressed his 
 opinion that cabinet ministers should not be aspirants 
 for the Presidency, or should not obtain that office through 
 his influence. He was nominated as minister to Eng- 
 land, whither he went abput September, 1831, but his 
 nomination was rejected by the Senate, in which the 
 Whigs had then a majority. To compensate him for 
 this repulse, the friends of General Jackson elected Mr. 
 Van Buren Vice-President of the United States in No- 
 vember, 1832. He was General Jackson's favourite candi- 
 
 i, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, <?, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
VAN CEULEN 
 
 2175 
 
 VANDER HELST 
 
 date for the Presidency, and was nominated as such by 
 the Democratic Convention at Baltimore in May, 1835. 
 His Whig competitor was General W. H. Harrison. 
 Mr. Van Buren was elected President in November, 1836, 
 receiving one hundred and seventy electoral votes out 
 of two hundred and ninety-four, which was the whole 
 number. His election was soon followed by a great 
 financial panic and a general prostration of business. 
 About May, 1837, all the banks suspended specie pay- 
 ments. In his message to Congress he recommended 
 the establishment of an independent treasury, which 
 measure was rejected by the House of Representatives 
 in the session of 1837-38, but afterwards passed both 
 houses of Congress and became a law about June, 1840. 
 In the session of 1838-39 an attempt was made to sup- 
 press the agitation against slavery, by a resolution that 
 Congress would not receive or read any petitions for 
 the abolition of slavery- All the political friends of the 
 President voted for this resolution, which was adopted. 
 
 He was again nominated for the Presidency by the 
 Democratic Convention in May, 1840, but, after a very 
 exciting canvass, in which the enthusiasm of the Whigs 
 was stimulated by mass-meetings, processions, songs, 
 etc., he was defeated by General Harrison, who received 
 two hundred and thirty-four electoral votes against sixty 
 for Mr. Van Buren. On the 4th of March, 1841, he re- 
 tired from the public service to his estate called Linden - 
 wald, near Kinderhook, New York. In the Democratic 
 National Convention which met in May, 1844, a majority 
 of the delegates were pledged or instructed to vote for 
 Mr. Van Buren ; but the Southern politicians opposed 
 his nomination, because he had written a letter against 
 the annexation of Texas. They therefore insisted that 
 the Convention should adopt a rule under which two- 
 thirds of the votes were necessary to a choice. Mr. 
 Van Buren had only one hundred and forty-six votes 
 out of two hundred and sixty-two, and therefore failed 
 to obtain the nomination. 
 
 According to Mr. Greeley, his renomination was 
 defeated by the "slave traders, and the closely affiliated 
 class of gamblers and blacklegs." (" American Conflict," 
 vol. i. p. 69.) He afterwards separated himself from the 
 Democratic party because it was committed to the ex- 
 tension of slavery. A convention of the Free-Soil party 
 which met at Buffalo in August, 1848, nominated Martin 
 Van Buren and Charles Francis Adams as candidates 
 for the offices of President and Vice-President. They 
 received a popular vote of 291,342, but not any electoral 
 vote. It is stated that he voted for Mr. Pierce and Mr. 
 Buchanan in the Presidential elections of 1852 and 1856. 
 He had married a lady named Hoes about 1804, and had 
 several sons. Died at or near Kinderhook in July, 1862. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iii. 
 
 Van Ceulen. See Kf.ui.en, van. 
 
 Van Cleemputte, vSn kla/6.N'put',(LuciEN Tyrte>.,) 
 a French architect, born in Paris in 1795. He obtained 
 the grand prize in 1S16. 
 
 Van Cleve, vin kl£v, (Corneiixe or Joseph,) a 
 French sculptor, born in 1644, worked in Paris. Died 
 
 in 1733. 
 
 Van Cleve, (Horatio P.,) an American genera], 
 born at Princeton, New Jersey, about 1810, graduated 
 at West Point in 1831. He was appointed a brigadier- 
 general about March, 1862, and commanded a division 
 at the battle of Chickamauga, September 19 and 20, 
 1863. 
 
 Vancouver, van-koo'v?r, (George,) a English navi- 
 gator, born about 1755, entered the navy at an early age, 
 and accompanied Captain Cook, as midshipman, on his 
 second and third voyages. In 1791 he sailed as com- 
 mander of the Discovery to the northwest coast of 
 America, to receive the surrender of Nootka from the 
 Spaniards, who were instructed by their government to 
 give up that island to the British. He was also charged 
 to make a survey of the coast northwards from latitude 
 30° north. He returned in 1795, and applied himself 
 to the preparation of his narrative, which was not quite 
 completed at his death, in 1798. It was published soon 
 after by his brother, under the title of "Voyage of Dis- 
 covery to the North Pacific Ocean and round the 
 
 World," (3 vols. 4to.) Vancouver gave his name to an 
 island off the coast of America between 48 20' and 51° 
 north latitude. 
 
 See the " Monthly Review" for January, 1790. 
 
 Van Dale, vin da'Ieh, (Antoon,) a Dutch physician 
 and Mennonite preacher, born in 1638, was the author 
 of several learned works on theology and Greek and 
 Roman antiquities. Among these we may name his 
 treatise " On the Origin and Progress of Idolatry and 
 Superstition," (in Latin,) and "On the Oracles of the 
 Heathen," (" Dissertationes duae de Oraculis," etc., 
 1700.) Died in 1708. 
 
 Van Dalen. See Dalen, van. 
 
 Vandamme, voN'dtm', (Dominique Rene,) Count 
 d'Unebourg, a French general, born at Cassel in 1770. 
 He became a general of division in 1799, after he had 
 rendered important services in Flanders and Germany, 
 For his conduct at Austerlitz he received from Napoleon 
 a gift of twenty thousand francs. He took part in several 
 actions against the Prussians in 1806, and commanded 
 a corps in the Austrian campaign of 1809. In the spring 
 of 1813 he captured Hamburg. He commanded a sepa- 
 rate army which was compelled to surrender to a superior 
 force near Kulm, in August, 1813. Having joined the 
 army of Napoleon in 181 5, he had a high command at 
 the battle of Ligny. Died in 1830. 
 
 See Thiers, " History of the French Revolution ;" Jomini, "Vie 
 politique et militaire de Napoleon;" " Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'- 
 rale." 
 
 Vandelli, van-del'lee, (Domenico,) an Italian phy- 
 sician and naturalist, born in the early part of the eigh- 
 teenth century, became superintendent of the botanic 
 garden at Lisbon. He published a treatise on marine 
 zoophytes, etc., and, several botanical works. He was a 
 correspondent of Linnaeus, who named the genus of 
 plants Vandellia in his honour. Died in 1815. 
 
 Van den Eckhout. See Eeckhout. 
 
 Van'den-hoff, (John,) an English tragic actor, born 
 at Salisbury in 1790. He performed "King Lear" and 
 "Coriolanus" with success. Died in 1861. 
 
 Vanderanus. See Aa, van der. 
 
 Van'der-bilt, (Cornelius,) Commodore, an enter- 
 prising American navigator, born on Staten Island, New 
 York, in Mav, 1794. He was originally a poor boy, and 
 commenced business as master of a small sail-boat. He 
 became captain of a steamboat in 1817, after which he 
 made improvements in the construction of steamers. 
 He built many steamboats and steamships, and in 185,1 
 established a line from New York to California by way 
 of Nicaragua. In 1855 he built several steamships to ply 
 between New York and Havre. In 1862 he presented 
 as a gift to the Federal government his new steamer 
 called the Vanderbilt, which cost SSoo.ooo, and for which 
 Congress passed a resolution of thanks. "His enter- 
 prise, genius, and success," says the " Merchants' Maga- 
 zine," "are known and felt the world over." He now 
 has the chief control of the New York Central Railroad 
 and the Haarlem Railroad. 
 
 See a " Memoir of C. Vanderbilt," in the " Merchants' Magazine" 
 for January, 1865. 
 
 Vanderbourg, de, deh voN'deVbooR', (Martin 
 Marie Charles de Boudens — deh boo'doN',) Vi- 
 comtk, a French litterateur, born at Saintes in 1765, 
 was also a philologist. He was the first editor of the 
 poems of Clotilde de Surville, (1803,) of which some 
 critics suspect him to have been the author. Died in 1827. 
 
 Vanderburch, vdN'deVbiiRk', (Emile Louis,) a 
 French dramatist, born in Paris in 1794, wrote many 
 successful comedies and vaudevilles. Died in 1862. 
 
 Vanderburch, de, deh vSn'der-buRK, (Francis,) a 
 Flemish prelate, bom at Ghent in 1567. He became 
 Archbishop of Cambray. Died in 1644. 
 
 Van der Cabel. See Cabel, van der. 
 
 Van der Does. See Does, van dkr. 
 
 Vander Heist, vitn'der-hSlst', (Bartholomew,) an 
 eminent Dutch portrait-painter, born at Haarlem about 
 1610. Among his master-pieces is a picture in the town- 
 house of Amsterdam, containing twenty-four full-length 
 portraits. It is esteemed one of the finest productions 
 of the kind, and was highly commended by Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds. Died about 1670. 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal ; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (Jg^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VAN DER HE r DEN 
 
 2176 
 
 FANE 
 
 Van der Hey den, (or Heyde.) See Heyden, van 
 der. 
 
 Van der Linden. See Linden, van der. 
 
 Van'der-ljfn, (John,) a noted American painter, born 
 at Kingston, Ulster county, New York, in 1776. Having 
 studied law for a time under Gilbert Stuart, he visited 
 Europe, where he spent several years, and produced his 
 " Ariadne" and " Marius sitting among the Ruins of Car- 
 thage," which are esteemed his master-pieces. Among 
 his portraits we may name those of Washington, Mon- 
 roe, and Calhoun. Died in 1852. 
 
 See Dunlap, " Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in Amer- 
 ica," voi. iii. ; "Recollections 01 John Vanderlyn," in the "Atlantic 
 Monthly" for February, 1867 ; Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists." 
 
 Van der Maelen, vSn der ma'len, (Philippe Makie 
 Guillaume,) a Belgian geographer, born in Brussels 
 in 1795. He published a " Universal Atlas," (6 vols., 
 1825-27,) and other works. 
 
 Vander Meer or Van der Meer, vfn der maiR, 
 (Jan,) THE Elder, a celebrated Dutch painter of marine 
 views and landscapes, was born at Rotterdam in 1627. 
 He was patronized by the Prince of Orange, who made 
 him a councillor in 1674. Died about 1690. 
 
 Vander Meer, (Jan,) the Younger, son of the 
 preceding, was born in 1656. His landscapes with sheep 
 are greatly admired; he also produced a number of 
 admirable etchings. His works are rare and highly 
 prized. Died in 1706. 
 
 Van der Mersch. See Mersch, van der. 
 
 Van der Monde, vSn d§R moNd or vftN'deVmdNd', 
 (Charles Augusitn,) a French physician, born St 
 Macao, China, in 1727. He published a "Dictionary 
 of Health," (Paris, 1759.) Died in 1762. 
 
 Vander Monde or Vandermonde, vdN'dS R'm6Nd', 
 (N.,) a French mathematician, born in Paris in 1735. He 
 became professor of political economy in the Ecole Nor- 
 male in 1795. He published several scientific treatises, 
 and two "Memoires," in which he advanced the theory 
 that music might be composed by mathematical pro- 
 cesses. The musicians, it is said, found in his method 
 too much mathematics, and the mathematicians too 
 much music. Died in 1796. 
 
 Van der Neer, (Arnold.) See Neer, van der. 
 
 Van der TJlft. See Ulft, van der. . 
 
 Vandervelde, vtn'der-vel'cleh, (Adriaan,) a Dutch 
 painter of high reputation, born at Amsterdam in 1639, 
 was a pupil of Wynants, and a son of Willem the Elder. 
 His favourite subjects were landscapes with cattle, in 
 which he excelled ; he also frequently painted the figures 
 in the pictures of Ruysdael, Van der Heyden, and others. 
 Died in 1672. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Vhn der Velde, (Isaiah.) See Vei.de, van der. 
 
 Van der Velde or Vandervelde, (Willem,) some- 
 times written also Vandevelde, called the Elder, a 
 celebrated marine painter, born at Leyden in 1610. He 
 entered the naval service at an early age, and in 1666 
 accompanied Admiral De Ruyter for the purpose of 
 making drawings of the engagements between the Dutch 
 and English fleets. Having acquired a very high repu- 
 tation by his designs, he was invited to England by 
 Charles II., who gave him the title of painter of sea- 
 fights to the king, and bestowed on him a pension. His 
 designs were, for the most part, executed with a pen 
 upon paper or prepared canvas, and some of them were 
 painted in oil by his son. Died in 1693. 
 
 See H. Walpole, " Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Van der Velde or Vandervelde, (Willem,) the 
 Younger, son of the preceding, was born at Amsterdam 
 in 1633. He was instructed by his father, whom he ex- 
 celled in sea-views. Among his masterpieces we may 
 name his " View of the Texel," "A Fresh Breeze," "The 
 Rising of the Gale," and "A Calm." He is regarded 
 by many connoisseurs as superior to any other artist in 
 his department. Died in 1 707. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Van der Werf or Vanderwerff, vin'der-weRf, 
 (Adriaan,) a celebrated Dutch painter of portraits and 
 historical works, born near Rotterdam in 1659. He was 
 patronized by the Elector-Palatine John William, who 
 conferred on him the honour of knighthood and pur- 
 
 chased his pictures at very high prices. Among his 
 master-pieces are a " Judgment of Paris," a " Magdalene 
 in the Wilderness," and an " Ecce Homo." Died in 1722. 
 
 Van der Werf or Vanderwerff, (Pieter,) a painter, 
 born near Rotterdam in 1665, was a brother of Adriaan, 
 whom he imitated. Died in 1718. 
 
 Van der Weyde, vin'der-wi'deh, (Roger,) a Flem- 
 ish painter of the fifteenth century, introduced great 
 improvements into the style of the Flemish school, both 
 in respect to design and expression. Among his best 
 works is a "Descent from the Cross." Died in 1529. 
 
 See " Lives of the Early Flemish Painters." 
 
 Van de Weyer, vin deh wi'er, (Sylvanus or Syl- 
 vain,) a Belgian diplomatist and lawyer, born at Low- 
 vain about 1802. He was a member of the provisional 
 government formed in the revolution of 1830, and 
 represented Belgium at the Conference of London, 
 (1831.) On his return he became minister of foreign 
 affairs. He was prime minister for a short time in 
 i84t;-46. 
 Van Diemen. See Diemen, van. 
 Van Dorn, (Earl,) an American general, born in Mis- 
 sissippi about 1823, graduated at West Point in 1842. 
 He became a captain in 1855, and resigned his commis- 
 sion early in 1861. He commanded the insurgents at 
 the battle of Pea Ridge, March 7 and 8, 1862. He at- 
 tacked General Rosecrans at Corinth, October 3 and 4, 
 1862, and was defeated with great loss. General Rose- 
 crans reported that his army killed and buried 1423, and 
 took 2268 prisoners. General Van Dorn was killed in 
 a private quarrel by Dr. Peters in Maury county, Ten- 
 nessee, in May, 1863. 
 Vandyck. See Vandyke. 
 Van Dyck, (Philippe.) See Dyck. 
 Van Dyk, v&n dlk, (Harry Stoe,) an English writer 
 of prose and verse, born in London in 1798. He pub- 
 lished "The Gondola," and other works. Died in 1828. 
 Vandyke, Van Dyck, or Vandyck, vSn-dlk', (Sii 
 Anthony,) a celebrated Flemish painter of portraits, 
 born at Antwerp, March 22, 1599, was a son of a rich 
 merchant. He began to study painting under Van Balen 
 in 1610, and afterwards became a pupil of Rubens about 
 1615. According to a doubtful report, Rubens, incited 
 by jealousy, advised Vandyke to confine himself to 
 portraits. At the age of nineteen he was admitted into 
 the Academy of Antwerp. He visited Italy about 1622, 
 passed several years at Venice, Genoa, Rome, and Flor- 
 ence, and painted a number of portraits in those cities. 
 Having returned to Antwerp about 1627, he painted a 
 picture of " Saint Augustine in Ecstasy," a picture of the 
 "Crucifixion," and other historical works. Comment- 
 ing on his " Crucifixion," Sir Joshua Reynolds said, 
 "This picture, upon the whole, maybe considered as 
 one of the finest (or first) pictures in the world, and gives 
 the highest idea of Vandyke's powers." Having been 
 invited by Charles I., he went to England about 1632, 
 and painted portraits of that king, who gave him an an- 
 nual pension of two hundred pounds in 1633, and the 
 title of painter to his majesty. Vandyke passed the rest 
 of his life in England, and married Mary, a daughter of 
 Lord Ruthven, Earl of Gowrie. His habits were luxu- 
 rious, and his style of living was magnificent. He painted 
 with such rapidity and facility that his works are very 
 numerous, although his life was short. He is generally 
 considered the greatest portrait-painter of modern time's 
 except Titian ; and some critics prefer him even to that 
 artist. Among his master-pieces are "The Erection of 
 the Cro3S," a portrait of the Earl of Strafford and his 
 secretary, (at Wentworth House,) and a series of por- 
 traits of eminent artists of his time, which he painted 
 before he left Antwerp. Engravings of these, about one 
 hundred in number, have been published. He died in 
 London in December, 1641, leaving one child, Justiniana. 
 See Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting in England;" Descamps, 
 "Vies des Peintres Flamands," etc. ; Carpenter, " Memoir of Sir 
 Anthony Van Dyck;" " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1847: G. 
 Vallakoi, " Cenni stnrico-artistici sul A. Van Dyck," 1844 ; " Notl- 
 velle Biographie G^neYale." 
 
 Vane, (Sir Henry,) an English statesman, born in 
 Kent in 1589. He was elected a member of Parliament 
 about 1615, and was appointed cofferer to the Prince 
 
 S, e, 1, 0, fl, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
FANE 
 
 2177 
 
 FAN LOO 
 
 of Wales by James I. At the accession of Charles I. he 
 became a member of the privy council. In 163 1 he was 
 sent as ambassador to Denmark and Sweden. He was 
 appointed principal secretary of state in 1640 or 1639. 
 In consequence of his hostility to the Earl of Strafford, 
 he was removed, and became an adherent of the Parlia- 
 ment. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Clarendon, "History of the Great Rebellion." 
 
 Vane, (Sir Henry,) the Younger, often called Sir 
 Harry Vane, a republican statesman, born in 1612, was 
 the eldest son of the preceding. He studied for a short 
 time at Oxford, from which he went to Geneva, and 
 returned home a zealous adversary of the liturgy and 
 government of the Church of England. By the pro- 
 fession of such opinions he incurred the displeasure 
 of his father. For the sake of religious liberty, he 
 emigrated in 1635 to Massachusetts. He was elected 
 Governor of the colony in 1636, and " manifested," says 
 Forster, "a firmness, energy, and wisdom truly remark- 
 able in one of his early age and previous history." He 
 offended the majority of the colony by his advocacy 
 of universal toleration, and returned to England in 
 1637, soon after which he married Frances Wray. In 
 November, 1640, he became a member of the Long 
 Parliament, in which he efficiently promoted the con- 
 demnation of the Earl of Strafford by evidence which 
 he furnished. He found in his father's cabinet a memo- 
 randum of a council at which Strafford had proposed to 
 employ the Irish army to reduce England to obedience. 
 
 Vane was a leader of the Independents, and a friend 
 of Milton. On the death of Pym (1643) the chief direc- 
 tion of civil affairs devolved on Vane. He disapproved 
 the policy of the execution of the king, but expressed 
 no opinion of its abstract justice. In February, 1649, 
 he was appointed a member of the council of state, 
 and in the next month was placed at the head of the 
 naval department. The efficiency and victories of the 
 navy are ascribed partly to his administrative talents. 
 He opposed 'the usurpation of Cromwell, who, as his 
 soldiers were dissolving the Parliament, in April, 1653, 
 exclaimed, " The Lord deliver me from Sir Harry Vane !" 
 Vane afterwards passed several years in retirement, and 
 wrote works entitled "The Retired Man's Meditation," 
 (1655,) and a "Healing Question Propounded and Re- 
 solved," (1656.) At the restoration he was excepted 
 from the indemnity or act of amnesty. Having been 
 confined in prison about two years, he was tried for 
 treason in June, 1662, and convicted, after an able speech 
 in his own defence. Charles II. wrote to Clarendon 
 that Vane "was too dangerous a man to let live." He 
 met death with the most intrepid courage and firmness. 
 "He was," says Clarendon, "a man of extraordinary 
 parts, a pleasant wit, a great understanding, which 
 pierced into and discerned the purposes of other men 
 with wonderful sagacity. ... If he were not superior 
 to Mr. Hampden, he was inferior to no other man in all 
 mysterious artifices." 
 
 See Clarendon, "History of the Rebellion:" John Forster, 
 "Life of Sir Henry Vane the Younger:" Whitelockk, "Trial of 
 Sir H. Vane;" Hume, " Histoty of England;" "The Life and 
 Death of Sir H. Vane," 1662. 
 
 Van Effen. See Effen, van. 
 
 Van Erpen. See Erpenius. 
 
 Vanetti. See Vannetti. 
 
 Van Eyck. See Eyck, (Hubert and John.) 
 
 Van Galen. See Galen, van. 
 
 Vangerow, von, fon fang'eh-ro', (Karl Adolf,) a 
 German jurist, born near Marburg in 1808. He suc- 
 ceeded Tliibaut as professor of Roman law at Heidel- 
 berg in 1840, and in 1849 was made a privy councillor. 
 He published a "Manual of the Pandects," and other 
 legal works. Died in November, 1870. 
 
 Van Goyen. See Goyen, Van. 
 
 Van Helmont See Helmont, van. 
 
 Van Helt-Stoccade. See Stoccadf, 
 
 Van Hoek. See Hoek, van. 
 
 Van Huevel, vin hii'vel, (Jean Baptiste,) a Belgian 
 physician, born at Brussels in 1802. "He invented a 
 pelvimeter and a forceps saw. 
 
 Van Huysum. See Huysum, van. 
 
 Vaniere, vi'tie-ajR', [Lat. Vanie'rus,] (Jacques,) a 
 French Jesuit and Latin poet, born near Beziers, in 
 
 Languedoc, in 1664. He gained a high reputation by 
 his Latin poems, the most important of which is his 
 "Rural Estate," (" Prsedium Rusticum," 1707.) In this 
 poem he imitated Virgil with considerable success. He 
 was professor of humanities in several colleges. Died 
 at Toulouse in 1739. 
 
 See Phre Lombard, "Vie du Pere Vaniere," 1739: MorAri, 
 " Dictionnaire Historique." 
 
 Vanierus. See Vaniere. 
 
 Vanini, vj-nee'nee, [Lat. Vani'nus,] (Lucilto,) an 
 Italian philosopher and skeptic, born at Taurisano in 
 1585. According to some authorities, he was a priest 
 in his youth. He travelled in Germany, France, and 
 England, and taught philosophy for a short time at 
 Genoa. His enemies admit that he was eloquent and 
 learned. In 1616 he published at Paris a pantheistic 
 work, entitled "On the Admirable Secrets of Nature, 
 the Queen and Goddess of Mortals," etc., (" De admi- 
 randis Naturae Keginx Dexque Mortalium Arcanis,") 
 which the Sorbonne condemned to be burned. He 
 removed to Toulouse in 1617, was accused of atheism, 
 and put to death in 1619. 
 
 See J. G. OLBAKtUS, " De Vita Vanini," 1708; P. F. Arpe. 
 " Apologia pro Vanino," 1712 : Dukand, " La Vie et les Sentiments 
 de Vanini," 1717; " Life of Vanini." London. 1730; Fuhrmann, 
 " Leben des Vanini," 1800: Nic^ron, " M^moires ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic Ge"ntSrale." 
 
 Vaninus. See Vanini. 
 
 Vanir, va'nir, the plural of Van or Vana, [from 
 vanr, "empty," cognate with the Latin vanus, the pri- 
 mary meaning of which is the same,] in the Norse 
 mythology, a peculiar class of beings, whose habitation 
 and empire is "the empty, vast, and wandering air." 
 They rule over the atmosphere, the weather, and the 
 sea. Their dwelling-place or kingdom is termed Vana- 
 heim, (i.e. the "home of the Vanir.") The principal per- 
 sonage among them is Njord, the god of the winds, who, 
 though born and bred in Vanaheim, was given by the 
 Vanir as a hostage to the /Esir, among whom he is now 
 numbered. The Vanir are said to have l>een originally 
 hostile to the gods of Asgard, but were subsequently 
 reconciled to them. This statement may be thus ex- 
 plained. The capricious and uncertain movements of 
 the atmosphere seem naturally hostile to the regularity 
 and order which are the especial attributes of the gods 
 or Ms\r. But when, inspired by the gods, men, by 
 superior skill in navigation, were enabled to take advan- 
 tage of the winds, notwithstanding their irregularity, the 
 Vanir, the types of uncertainty, were said to be recon- 
 ciled with the jEsir, the representatives of order and 
 skill. (See ^Esir and Jotuns.) That Freyia (the goddess 
 of love) was the daughter of a Vana prince, would seem 
 to allude to the aerial character of those charms which 
 inspire the passion of love, as well as to the well-known 
 caprice and inconstancy of lovers. 
 
 See Thorpe, "Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Kevser, "Re- 
 ligion of the Northmen ;" Petersen, " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Vanloo, vin-16', (Abraham Louis,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at Amsterdam about 1641, was the father of Charles 
 and Jean Baptiste, noticed below. Died at Aix in 1 713. 
 
 Vanloo, von'Io', (Charles Andr6, or Carle,) a 
 French painter, born at Nice in 1705, was a brother of 
 Jean Baptiste, noticed below. He studied at Rome, 
 where he painted his "Apotheosis of Saint Isidore." 
 After his return he became director of the Academy of 
 Fine Arts, (1751,) and first painter to the king, (1762.) 
 Died in 1765. 
 
 See Dandre-Bardon, "Viede Carle Vanloo," 176s; Fontaink- 
 Mai.herbe, "filoge de C. Vanloo," 1767; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 GenOale." 
 
 Vanloo, (Francois,) a French painter, born at Aix 
 in 171 1, was a son of Jean Baptiste, noticed below. He 
 was a promising artist, when he was killed by accident 
 near Turin in 1733. 
 
 Vanloo, (Jacob,) a Dutch painter, born at ficluse in 
 1614, was the father of Abraham Louis, noticed above. 
 Died in Paris in 1670. 
 
 Vanloo, (Jean BAFriSTE,) a celebrated French 
 painter, of Flemish extraction, was born at Aix, in 
 Provence, in 1684. He resided many years in Paris, 
 where he was patronized by the Duke of Orleans. He 
 acquired the highest reputation by his portraits, and was 
 
 e as *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. 
 
 \X1 
 
 (By See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FAN LOO 
 
 2178 
 
 FAN FEEN 
 
 appointed in 1735 professor in the Academy of Arts. In 
 1738 he visited London, where, according to Horace 
 Walpole, "he soon bore away the chief business of 
 London from every other painter." He also executed 
 several historical pictures of great merit. Died in 1746. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres ;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G6ne>ale." 
 
 Vanloo, (Jules Cesar Denis,) a landscape-painter, 
 born ID Paris in 1743, was a son of Charles Andre, 
 noticed above. Died in 1821. 
 
 Vanloo, (Louis Michel,) a French portrait-painter, 
 born at Toulon in 1707, was a son of Jean Baptiste, 
 noticed above. Invited by the king, Philip V., he went 
 to Madrid in 1736, and was appointed court painter. 
 He returned to Paris about 1748. Died in 1771. 
 
 Van Loon, vin Ion, (Gerard,) a Dutch historian 
 and antiquary, born at Leyden in 1683. He published, 
 besides other works, a " History of the Netherlands from 
 1555 to 1716," (4 vols., 1723,) which is commended. 
 
 Van Loon, (Theodore.) See Loon. 
 
 Van Mander. See Mander, van. 
 
 Van Mil'dert, (William,) an English prelate, born 
 in London in 1765. He studied at Oxford, where he 
 afterwards became regius professor of theology. He 
 was made Bishop of Llandaff in 1819, and of Durham 
 in 1826. He was the author of a "Life of Waterland," 
 and several other works. Died in 1836. 
 
 Van Moer, (Jean Baptiste,) a Belgian painter, born 
 at Brussels about 1815. 
 
 Van Mons. See Mons. 
 
 Van Ness, (Cornelius P.,) LL.D., born in Vermont 
 in 1781, was elected Governor of that State in 1822, 
 and was twice re-elected. He was minister to Spain 
 under President Jackson from 1829 to 1838. Died in 
 Philadelphia in 1852. 
 
 Van Ness, (William W.,) an American jurist, born 
 at Claverack, New York, in 1775. He was a judge of 
 the supreme court of New York from 1807 to 1822. 
 Died in 1823. 
 
 Vannetti, vin-net'tee, or Vanetti, vi-net'tee, (Cle- 
 menttno,) an Italian author, born at Roveredo in 1754, 
 was a son of a poet named Giuseppe Valeriano Van- 
 netti. He wrote numerous works in prose and verse, 
 among which are poetical epistles and biographies. His 
 poetry was admired by some critics. Died in 1795. 
 
 Van Neve, vtn na'veh, (Francis,) a Flemish painter 
 and engraver, born at Antwerp in 1627, studied at Rome. 
 He painted history and landscapes, and produced good 
 etchings of his own designs. 
 
 Vanni, vin'nee, (Andrea,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Sienna, flourished about 1370-1410. 
 
 Vanni, (Francesco,) an Italian painter and engraver, 
 born at Sienna in 1565. He studied at Rome, and imi- 
 tated the style of Baroccio so successfully that his works 
 are often mistaken for those of that artist. Among his 
 master-pieces we may name the " Death of Saint Ce- 
 cilia," " Simon Magus rebuked by Peter," and ■" Saint 
 Raimond walking on the Sea." Died in 1609. 
 
 See Lanzl "History of Painting in Italy;" "Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie G&ierale." 
 
 Vanni, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian painter, 
 born in 1599, is supposed to have been a native of Flor- 
 ence. He made admirable copies of the works of 
 Titian, Correggio, and others, and was also skilled in 
 engraving. Died in 1660. 
 
 Vanni, (Michael Angelo,) an Italian painter, born 
 at Sienna in 1583, was a son of Francesco, noticed 
 above. He was not equal to his father. Died in 167 1. 
 
 Vanni, (Raphael,) an able Italian painter, born at 
 Sienna in 1596, was a son of Francesco, and a pupil of 
 Annibal Caracci. He worked at Rome and Sienna. 
 Died in 1673. 
 
 Vannucci. Sec Perugino. 
 
 Van Obstal, vtn op'stll, or Van Opstal, (Gerard,) 
 a Flemish sculptor, born at Antwerp in 1597; died in 
 Paris in 1663. 
 
 Van Oort. See Noort. 
 
 Van Oost, (Jacob.) See Oosr, van. 
 
 Van Os, (Jan.) See Os, van. 
 
 Van Ostade. See Ostade, van. 
 
 Van Praet. See Praet, van. 
 
 Van Rensselaer, van reVsel-ler, (Cort'i.and,) D.D., 
 an American Presbyterian divine, born at Albany in 1808, 
 was a son of General Stephen Van Rensselaer, noticed 
 below. He died in i860, leaving a collection of" Essays 
 and Discourses," etc., (1861.) 
 
 Van Rensselaer, (Henry K.,) an American patriot, 
 born probably in New York State about 1 744. He served 
 as colonel in the Revolutionary war, and became general 
 of militia. Died at Albany in 1816. 
 
 Van Rensselaer, (Philip S.,) an American magis 
 trate, distinguished for his benevolence, was born about 
 1766. He was mayor of Albany for twenty-three years, 
 and the principal founder of the Academy of Albany. 
 Died in 1824. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans.* 
 
 Van Rensselaer, (Solomon,) an American officer, 
 son of Henry K., noticed above, was born at Albany in 
 1764 or 1774. He served in the war of 1812. He was 
 elected to Congress in 1819. Died at Albany in 1852. 
 
 Van Rensselaer, (Stephen,) LL.D., called "the 
 Patroon," a distinguished American statesman and 
 soldier, born in New York in 1764. Having for six 
 years filled the office of Lieutenant-Governor of the State, 
 he was appointed to command the New York militia in 
 the war of 1812. He co-operated with De Witt Clinton 
 in the work of the Erie Canal, being president of the 
 board of commissioners for fifteen years. He founded 
 in 1824 the Rensselaer Institute (now the Polytechnic 
 School) at Troy, and was distinguished for his zeal in 
 the cause of science. He was also chancellor of the 
 State University. Died in 1839. 
 
 See "Discourse on the Life, etc. of Stephen Van Rensselaer," by 
 D. D. Beknakd. 
 
 Van Santen. See Santen, van. 
 
 Van Sant'voord (George,) an American lawyer 
 and litterateur, born at Belleville, New Jersey, in 1819, 
 has published a "Life of Algernon Sidney," (1851,) 
 "Lives of the Chief Justices of the United States," 
 (1854,) and several legal works. 
 
 Van Schendel, van sKeVdel, (Petrus,) a dis- 
 tinguished Belgian painter, born at Breda in 1806. His 
 market-scenes, and interiors illuminated with fire, moon- 
 light, or lamps, are esteemed master-pieces of the kind. 
 
 Van-sit'tart, (Nicholas,) Lord Bexley, an English 
 politician, born in London in 1766, was distinguished as 
 a financier. He was chancellor of the exchequer from 
 181 2 to 1823, and was made a baron in the latter year. 
 Died in 1851. 
 
 Vansomer, vin'so'mer, (Paul,) a skilful Flemish 
 portrait-painter, born at Antwerp about 1575, settled * 
 in England, where he was liberally patronized by the 
 nobility. Among his principal works are portraits of 
 James I., Lord Bacon, and William, Earl of Pembroke. 
 Died in 1621. 
 
 Vanstabel, voN'sti'liel', (Pierre Jean,) a French 
 admiral, born at Dunkirk in 1746. He rendered im- 
 portant services in 1793 by convoying one hundred 
 and seventy merchant-vessels from the United States to 
 Brest. Died in 1797. 
 
 Van Stork. See Stork, van. 
 
 Van Swanevelt See Swanevei.t, van. 
 
 Van Swieten. See Swieten, van. 
 
 Van Thuldeu. See Thui.den, van. 
 
 Van Tromp. See Tromp, van. 
 
 Vanucchi. See Sarto, del. 
 
 Vanucci. See Perugino. 
 
 Vanuden, vi-nii'den, (Lucas,) a Flemish landscape- 
 painter, born at Antwerp in 1595, was sometimes em- 
 ployed by Rubens to paint the backgrounds to his 
 pictures. He also produced a number of admirable 
 etchings. Died about 1672. 
 
 Van Utrecht, vtn U'tReKt, (Adriaan,) a Flemish 
 painter of still life, was born at Antwerp in 1599. His 
 delineations of flowers, fruit, game, etc. were unsur- 
 passed, and command very high prices. Died in 1651. 
 
 Van Veen, (Martin.) See Heemskerk. 
 
 Van Veen, vtn van, [Lat. VAE'Niusor Ottove'nius,] 
 (Otho,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden about 1550, 
 studied at Rome under Zucchero. He afterwards founded 
 
 
 an Academy at Antwerp, and numbered Rubens among 
 his pupils. He painted several historical pieces, and a 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, ti, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
VANVITELLI 
 
 2179 
 
 FAR ILL AS 
 
 full-length portrait of Alexander Farnese, Duke of 
 Parma, esteemed one of his best works. He also wrote 
 a " History of the War of the Batavians," from Tacitus, 
 illustrated with his own designs. Died about 1630. 
 
 Vanvitelli, van-ve-tel'lee, (Gaspako,) the Italianized 
 name of Gaspar van Witf.l, (wee'tel,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at Utrecht about 1650. He went to Italy in early 
 youth, worked many years at Rome and Naples, and 
 gained distinction as a painter of landscapes and archi- 
 tecture. Died in 1736. 
 
 See NTaglhr, "Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Vanvitelli, (Luigi,) a celebrated architect, born at 
 Naples in 1700, was a son of the preceding, and a pupil 
 of Kara. He was appointed architect of Saint Peter's, 
 at Rome, in 1725, and encircled the dome of that edifice 
 with iron bands. He designed the large convent of Sant' 
 Agostino at Rome. His capital work is the magnificent 
 royal palace at Caserta, which he built for Charles, King 
 of Naples, and commenced in 1752. It is about seven 
 hundred and thirty feet long. This palace is highly 
 praised by Quatremere de Quincy, who says it exhibits 
 unity in every part, is simple, with variety, and complete 
 in all respects. Died at Caserta in 1773. 
 
 See L. Vanvitelt.i, "Vita di Luigi Vanvitelli," 1823: Mn.iztA, 
 " Memorie degli Architetti ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." ■ 
 
 Van Wart, (Isaac,) an American officer, born in 
 Westchester county, New York, in 1748, was one of the 
 three captors of Major Andre. Died in 1828. 
 
 Vapereau, vi'peh-ro' or vip'ro', (Louis Gustave,) 
 a French biographer, born at Orleans in 1819. He 
 published in 1844 a work "On the Liberal, Moral, and 
 Religious Character of Modern Philosophy." Having 
 studied law, he was admitted as an advocate in 1854. 
 He was the chief editor of a "General Dictionary of 
 Contemporary Biography," (" Dictionnaire universel des 
 Contemporains," 1858,) which has a high reputation for 
 accuracy and other merits. 
 
 Varaha, va-ra'ha, [i.e. in Sanscrit, a "hog" or 
 "boar,"] in the Hindoo mythology, the name of the 
 third avatar of Vishnu. A mighty monster or giant 
 named HiranySksha (he-ran-ylk'sha*) is said to have 
 seized the earth and carried it into the depths of the 
 ocean. Vishnu, assuming the form of a boar, (the sym- 
 bol of strength,) dived into the ocean, and, after a ter- 
 rible contest of one thousand years, slew the monster 
 and restored the earth, bearing it above the waters on 
 the point of his tusks. This fable not improbably has 
 reference to some geological change in the earth's surface. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Varanda, vi'roN'di", (Jean,) a. French medical 
 writer, born at Nimes, graduated at Montpellier in 1587. 
 He became professor of medicine at Montpellier, where 
 he died in 1617. 
 
 Va-ra'neS [Gr. Ovapfivric] or Bahrain I., King of 
 Persia, was a son of Hormisdas I. He reigned from 
 274 to 277 A.D., and waged war against Queen Zenobia. 
 
 Varanes II., a son of the preceding, began to reign 
 in 277 a.d. He was involved in war with the Roman 
 emperor Carus, who took Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Died 
 in 294. 
 
 His son, Varanes III., reigned only eight months, 
 and died in 294. 
 
 Varanes IV, a brother of Sapor III., began to reign 
 in 390 ad. Died about 404 a.d. 
 
 Varanes or Bahrain (or Baharam) V. was a son 
 of Yezdegerd I. He became King of Persia in 420 or 
 421. He persecuted the Christians, and. waged war 
 against Theodosius II. Died in 448 a.d. 
 
 Vaiano, di, de va-rl'no, (Alfonso,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Ferrara in 1705. He contributed to the refor- 
 mation of Italian poetry, to which " he restored," says 
 Ugoni, "that manly accent and elevation which Dante 
 had given it." Among his works are " Sacred and Moral 
 Visions," ("Visioni sacre e morali.") Died in 1788. 
 
 See Pannei.li, " Elogio storico di Alfonso Varano," 1826. 
 
 Varchi, vaR'kee, (Benedetto,) an Italian scholar, 
 poet, and historian, born at Florence in 1502. He was 
 patronized by the grand duke Cosimo I., who made him 
 
 • Given in a strangely corrupted form {Ertnaccaseti)\r\ Southry's 
 "Curse of Kehama, vol. i., x. 
 
 one of the directors of his New Florentine Academy. 
 His principal work is his " History of Florence from 
 1527 to 1538," ("Storia Fiorentina," etc., 1721.) He 
 also made translations from Seneca and Boethius, wrote 
 a dialogue or treatise on the Tuscan language, entitled 
 " L'Ercolano," (1570,) and composed " Sonetti," (2 vols., 
 1557.) Died in 1565. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" Tiraboschi, 
 " Storia della Letteratura Italiana :" Ginguenb, " Histoire litteraire 
 d'ltalie;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Vardan. See Vartan. 
 
 Vardes, de, deh vSRd, (Francois Rene du Bec- 
 Crespin — du' beVkRes'piN',) Marquis, a French cour- 
 tier, famous for his intrigues, was born about 1620. He 
 gained the favour of Louis XIV., but afterwards offended 
 him, and was exiled from court in 1664. Died in 16S8. 
 
 Varela y Ulloa, va-ra'la e ool-yo'i, (Don Jose,) a 
 learned Spanish naval officer, born in Galicia in 1748; 
 died in 1794. 
 
 Varen, va'ren, or Varenius, vl-ra'ne-us, (Bern- 
 hard,) an eminent Dutch geographer and physician, 
 born at Amsterdam about 1610. He is called the 
 founder of scientific geography. In 1642 he produced 
 a thesis entitled "First-Fruits of the Philosophic Muses," 
 ("Musarum Philosophicarum Primitiae,") and in 1649 a 
 " Description of Japan." His chief work is a systematic 
 treatise on geography, "Geographia generalis," (1650,) 
 which effected a revolution in the science. An improved 
 edition of it was published by Sir Isaac Newton in 1672, 
 and another in 1681. This work of Varen was the first 
 or best that had appeared on physical geography. His 
 death is variously dated from 1660 to 1680. 
 
 Varenius. See Varen. 
 
 Varenius, fa-ra'ne-us, (August,) a German Lutheran 
 theologian, born in the duchy of Luneburg in 1620. He 
 was a good Hebrew scholar, and wrote a commentary on 
 Isaiah, (1708.) Died in 1684. 
 
 Varenne de Fenille, vt'ren' deh feh-nel', (Phili- 
 bert Charles,) a French writer on agriculture, was 
 born at Dijon. He published several useful works. He 
 was executed at Lyons by the terrorists in 1794. 
 
 Vargas or Vargas-Mexia, vaR'gas ma-Hee'a, (Fran- 
 cisco,) a Spanish jurist and diplomatist of high reputa- 
 tion. He was sent to the Council of Trent by Charles 
 V. in 1550 to congratulate the Council on its return to 
 that place. After his return to Spain he was a coun- 
 cillor of state. Died about 1560. 
 
 Vargas, de, da vaR'gas, (Luis,) an eminent Spanish 
 painter, born at Seville in 1502. In 1527 he visited 
 Rome, where he studied under Perino del Vaga. His 
 works are principally religious pieces, and are painted 
 both in oil and fresco. He ranks among the best Span- 
 ish artists of the time, and was equally admirable in 
 portrait and historical painting. Died in 1568. 
 
 See Nagi.hr, "Allgemeines Kunstler-Lexikon;" Quilliet 
 " Dictionnaire des Peintres Espagnoles. " 
 
 Vargas-Macciucca, vaR'gas mik-chook'ka, (Fran- 
 cesco,) Marquis of Vatolla, an Italian linguist and judge, 
 born at Teramo, in Abruzzo, in 1699. He was a patron 
 of literary men, and wrote several essays. Died in 1785. 
 
 Vargas y Ponce, vaR'gas e p&n'tha, (Jose,) a Span- 
 ish geographer and naval officer, born at Cadiz about 
 1755, wrote a "Description of the Balearic Isles," (1787.) 
 
 Varignon, vi'ren'y6.N', (Pierre,) an eminent French 
 mathematician, born at Caen in 1654. He became a 
 resident of Paris in 1686, and published in 1687 an able 
 work on statics, called " Plan of a New System of Me- 
 chanics," (" Projet d'une nouvelle M^canique,") in which 
 for the first time all the science of statics was deduced 
 from the elementary principle of the composition of 
 forces. He was appointed professor of mathematics in 
 the College Mazarin in 1688, and obtained the chair of 
 philosophy in the College of France in 1704. Among 
 his works is "New Mechanics or Statics," ("Nouvelle 
 Mecanique ou Statique," 2 vols., 1725.) Died in 1722. 
 
 See Fontenblle, " filoge de Varignon ;" Niceron, " Me"- 
 moires ;" Montucla, "Histoire des Malhematiques ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^ne'rale." 
 
 Varillas, vt're'yis', (Antoine,) a French historian, 
 born at Gneret in 1624, was a prolific writer. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, a " History of France from 
 
 € ts *; 9 as s: I hard; g as/; G, H, y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (JjySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FAR IN 
 
 2180 
 
 VARRO 
 
 the Reign of Louis XI. to that of Henry III., inclusive," 
 (14 vols. 4to, 1683-94,) and " History of the Revolutions 
 which have occurred in Europe on Account of Religion," 
 (6 vols., 1686-89.) His reputation for accuracy and 
 veracity is not good. Died in Paris in 1696. 
 
 See Nickron, "Memoires;" Moreri, "Dictionnaire Histo- 
 rique ;" Boscheron, " Varillasiana," 1734; "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gene'rale." 
 
 Varin, vi'raN', (Jacques,) a French botanist, born 
 near Rouen in 1740 ; died in 1808. 
 
 Varin, vi'raN', or Warin, (Jean,) a Flemish en- 
 graver and sculptor, born at Liege in 1604. He was 
 a skilful engraver of medals, and worked mostly in 
 Paris. Among his works was the seal of the French 
 Academy, (1635,) and a marble statue of Louis XIV. 
 Died in 1672. 
 
 See F^libien, "Entretiens sur les Peintres." 
 
 Varin, (Joseph,) a French engraver, born at Chalons- 
 sur-Marne in 1740, worked in Paris. He had a high 
 reputation as an engraver of topography and architec- 
 ture. He engraved illustrations for several books. Died 
 in 1800. Charles Nicolas Varin, born in 1745, was 
 a brother and assistant of Joseph. Died in 1805. 
 
 Va'rl-us, (Lucius Rufus,) an eminent Roman epic 
 and dramatic poet of the Augustan age, of whose life 
 little is known. He enjoyed the favour of Maecenas, 
 and was an intimate friend of Horace and Virgil, the 
 latter of whom appointed him one of his literary ex- 
 ecutors. He was, consequently, living in 19 B.C., the 
 date of Virgil's death. He wrote an epic poem, " De 
 Morte," (probably on the death of Caesar,) and a cele- 
 brated tragedy of " Thyestes," which, according to Quin- 
 tilian, would bear a comparison with any Greek tragedv. 
 None of his works are extant. 
 
 See Weichert, " De Vario Poeta," 1829, and "De L. Varii e 
 Cassii Parmensis Vita et Scriptis," 1836. 
 
 Varlet, viR'l^', (Dominique Marie,) a French Jan- 
 senist, born in Paris in 1678. He was appointed Bishop 
 of Babylon about 1719, but on his arrival at the Caspian 
 Sea he learned that he was deposed or suspended by 
 the pope for Jansenism. He died in Holland in 1742. 
 
 Var'ley, (John,) an English painter in water-colours, 
 born in London about 1777. His works are chiefly 
 landscapes, which are ranked among the finest produc- 
 tions in that department of the art. He was a believer 
 in astrology, to which he devoted a great deal of his 
 time. Died in 1842. 
 
 Varnhagen von Ease, faRn'ha'gen fon Sn'seh, 
 (Karl August Ludwig Phii.ipp,) an eminent German 
 author, born at Dusseldorf in February, 1785. He began 
 to study medicine in Berlin in 1800, but soon renounced 
 that science, and applied himself to philosophy, etc. at 
 Halle, Berlin, and Tubingen. He entered the Austrian 
 army in 1809, was wounded at the battle of Wagram, 
 and became aide-de-camp of Prince Bentheim. In 1813 
 he enlisted as captain in the Russian army. He passed 
 into the Prussian diplomatic service in 1814, attended 
 the Congress of Vienna with Prince Hardenberg, and 
 married Rahel Levin the same year. He became in 
 1819 a resident of Berlin, where he passed nearly all of 
 his subsequent life. He acquired a high reputatiomas 
 a writer of biography and history, and excelled in the 
 art of revivifying the great figures of the past. Among 
 his works are " Biographic Memorials," (" Biographische 
 Denkmale," 5 vols., 1824-30,) "Memoirs and Miscel- 
 lanies," (" Denkwiirdigkeiten und vermischte Schrif- 
 ten," 7 vols., 1837-46,) a " Life of Field-Marshal Keith," 
 (1844,) and a "Life of Karl Miiller," (1847.) He was 
 an intimate friend of Alexander von Humboldt. Died 
 in Berlin in October, 1858. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'rale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Re- 
 view" for January, 1841. 
 
 Varnhagen von Ense, (Rahel Antonie Frie- 
 df.rike Levin — la-veen',) wife of the preceding, was 
 born of Jewish parents, in Berlin, in 1771. She was 
 a woman of superior intellect, and celebrated for her 
 conversational powers. Her salon was frequented by 
 the Schlegels, the Humboldts, Tieck, and other eminent 
 authors. She became a professor of Christianity a short 
 time before her marriage, which occurred in 1814. Died 
 in 1833. Her husband published a work called " Rahel, 
 
 a Book of Remembrance for her Friends," (3 vols., 
 ■834>) which contains some of her writings. 
 
 See De Custine, "Madame Varnhagen d'Ense," 183S ; Kunz, 
 " Rahel : Geistes- und Charakter-GemaMde dieser grossen Frau," 1835 '• 
 " Foreign Quarterly Review" for April, 1841. 
 
 Vamier, viR'ne^A', a French writer on medicine and 
 chemistry, was born at Vitry-on-the-Marne in 1709. He 
 died at an advanced age. 
 
 Var'num, (James Mitchell,) an American general, 
 born at Dracut, Massachusetts, in 1749. He was twice 
 elected to Congress, and in 1787 was appointed one of 
 the judges of the Northwest territory. Died in 1789. 
 
 Varnum, (Joseph Bradley,) an American Senator, 
 bom in Massachusetts about 1755, was a brother of the 
 preceding. He was a member of Congress from 1795 
 to 181 1, and was Speaker of the House of Representa- 
 tives from 1807 to 181 1. He was a political friend of 
 Jefferson, and was a Senator of the United States from 
 181 1 to 1817. Died in 1821. 
 
 Varoli, vS-ro'lee, [Lat. Varo'lius,] (Constant or 
 Costanzo,) an Italian anatomist and surgeon, born at 
 Bologna in 1542 or 1543. He was distinguished as a 
 lithotomist, and discovered a part of the brain called 
 Pons Varolii. About 1572 he became physician to Pope 
 Gregory XIII. He wrote a work on "The Optic 
 Nerves,"etc.,("DeNervisOpticis,"i573.) Died in 1575. 
 
 Varoliua. See Varoli. 
 
 Varotari, va-ro-ta'ree, ( Alessandro, ) an Italian 
 painter, surnamed Padovanino, born at Padua in 1590, 
 was a son of Dario, noticed below. He studied at 
 Venice, and adopted the style of Titian. He is regarded 
 as one of the most successful imitators of that master. 
 His "Marriage at Cana" is esteemed one of his master- 
 pieces. He excelled in painting women and children. 
 Died in 1650. 
 
 See Lanzi, "History of Painting in Italy;" Ridolfi, " Pittori 
 Veneti." 
 
 Varotari, (Chiara,) an Italian portrait-painter, born 
 in 1582, was a sister of the preceding. Died in 1639. 
 
 Varotari, (Dario,) surnamed Padovanino or Pa- 
 duanino, an Italian painter, born at Verona in 1539. 
 He worked at Padua, where he became the chief of a 
 school. Died in 1596. 
 
 See Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Var'ro, [Fr. Varron, vfr6N',] (Caius Terentius,) 
 a Roman general, noted for his temerity. He was a 
 leader of the plebeians or popular party, and was elected 
 consul for 216 B.C. Against the advice of the other 
 consul, i45milius Paulus, Varro offered battle to Hanni- 
 bal, and was defeated with great loss at Cannae, (216 B.C.) 
 He was one of the few Romans that escaped from that 
 disastrous battle, and he made such resolute and vigorous 
 efforts for the defence of the capital that he received the 
 thanks of the senate. Died after 200 B.C. 
 
 See Ltvv, " History of Rome;" Mommsen, " History of Rome." 
 
 Varro, [Fr. Varron,] (Marcus Terentius,) a cele- 
 brated Latin author, styled " the most learned of the 
 Romans," was born in 116 B.C., probably in Rome. He 
 was a pupil of L. MYnm Stilo and of Antiochus of Asca- 
 lon, an Academic philosopher. He became an intimate 
 friend of Cicero. About the year 67 B.C. he had a high 
 command under Pompey in the war against the pirates. 
 He fought for the senate against Caesar in the civil war 
 which began in 49 B.C. Soon after the battle of Phar- 
 salia, he retired from public life and devoted himself to 
 literary pursuits. He was profoundly versed in nearly 
 every department of literature, and. wrote a great num- 
 ber of works on various subjects. (lis capital work was 
 " Antiquitatum Libri," consisting of twenty-five books 
 on Human Antiquities and sixteen books on Divine 
 Antiquities, which is not extant. Saint Augustine de- 
 rived from this book materials for his work " De Civi- 
 tate Dei." Nearly all of Varro's works are lost, except 
 a part of his treatise on the Latin language, (" De Lingua 
 Latina,") and his excellent work on agriculture, " De Re 
 Rustica Libri tres,") which is preserved entire. In 43 
 B.C. he was proscribed by Mark Antony ; but he escaped 
 death by concealment, and survived till 28 or 27 B.C. 
 
 See E. Berwick, " Life of Pollio, Varro, and C. Gallus," 1815; 
 Pafr, " De Varrone," 183s ; G. Boissiek, " Essai sur la Vie et lei 
 Ouvrages de Varron," 1861; Orbu.i, " Ononiasticon Tullianum ;'* 
 F'AnRicms, "Bibliotheca Latina;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generate." 
 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; m<5on; 
 
VARRO 
 
 2181 
 
 V AS 111 
 
 Varro, (Publius Terentius,) a Roman poet, stir 
 named Ataci'NUS, from Atax, in Gallia Narbonensis, 
 where he was born about 82 B.C. He was the author 
 of elegies, epigrams, and epic poems, which have been 
 lost, with the exception of fragments. Died in 37 B.C. 
 
 Varron. See Varro. 
 
 Varst or Vaerst, von, fon veRst, (Frikdrich Chris 
 tian Eugen,) Baron, a German litterateur, born at 
 Wesel in 1792, published works entitled "Cavalier 
 Perspective," (1836,) "The Pyrenees," (4 vols., 1847,) 
 and "Gastrosophie," (1852,) which were received with 
 favour. He lived at Breslau. Died in 1855. 
 
 Vartan, var'tin', an Armenian prince, who became 
 a professor of Christianity. He defended the liberty of 
 his country against the King of Persia, who attempted 
 to impose the religion of Zoroaster by force on the Ar- 
 menians. Vartan was killed in battle by the Persians, 
 in 451 a.d. 
 
 Vartan or Vardan, a learned Armenian doctor and 
 author, lived in the thirteenth century. He wrote, be- 
 sides other works, a " History of Armenia to the Year 
 1267," and numerous Fables. 
 
 Var-to-ma'nus, the Latin name of I.uigi Barthema 
 (baR-ta'mi) or Varthema, (vaR-ta'm3,) an Italian trav- 
 eller, born at Bologna about 1480. He travelled through 
 Arabia and Persia to the East Indies, where he passed 
 several years. He published in 1508 a Narrative of his 
 travels. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic Ge"nerale." 
 
 Varuna, [modern Hindoo pron. vur'56-na ; from the 
 Sanscrit verb vrf, to "enclose" or "surround," and 
 etymologically related to the Greek ovpavus, "heaven,") 
 a name in the Hindoo mythology originally applied to 
 the sky or heaven, as enclosing or surrounding the earth, 
 but used by later writers to designate both the ocean 
 (which also encompasses the earth) and the regent of 
 the sea, or the deity who presides over the waters of 
 the ocean. 
 
 See Moon. " Hindu Pintheon." 
 
 Va'rus, a Roman of the Augustan age, of whom little 
 is known except that he was a friend and patron of Vir- 
 gil, who, in his sixth eclogue, offers a graceful homage to 
 his merit. He is supposed to be the same as Q. Varus, 
 who fought with the rank of general for Caesar in the 
 civil war. 
 
 Varus, (Publius Anus,) a Roman general and par- 
 tisan of Pompey in the civil war. He commanded in 
 Africa in 49 B.C., and, aided by King Juba, gained a vic- 
 tory over Curio. He was killed at the battle of Munda. 
 
 Varus, (Publius Quin tilius,) a Roman general, who 
 became consul in 13 B.C. and Governor of Germany abont 
 6 A.D. He had not the energy or talents requisite to man- 
 age the warlike German tribes, who were provoked to 
 revolt by taxation and innovations which Varus initiated. 
 His army was attacked and defeated in 9 a.d. by a large 
 army of insurgents, led by the famous chief Arminius. 
 Varus, with nearly all his men, perished in this action, 
 which was fought near the Weser. 
 
 See Tacitus, " Annales;" Suktonius, " Aiunistus'' and "Tibe- 
 rius:" Dion Cassh'S, " History of Rome ;" Merivai.k, " History 
 of the Romans under the Empire;*' Esski.i kn. " Nacbtrag zu der 
 Abhandlung, iiber den Ort der Niederlage der Romer unter Varus," 
 1853- 
 
 Varus, (Quintilius,) of Cremona, a Roman poet, 
 was a friend of Horace and Virgil. He died in 24 B.C. 
 His death was lamented by Horace in an ode, book i. 24. 
 
 Varus Alfenus. See Alfenus. 
 
 Vasa. See Gustavus I. 
 
 Vasanta, (modern Hindoo pron. viis-un'ta; often 
 called bus'unt in the common dialect,] the Sanscrit word 
 for "spring," applied in the Hindoo mythology to a per- 
 sonification of spring, said to be an intimate friend of 
 the god of love. (See KXmadeva.) 
 
 Vasari, vS-si'ree, (Giorgio,) an Italian painter, ar- 
 chitect, and writer upon art, was born at Arezzo in 1512. 
 He was a pupil of Michael Angelo and Andrea del 
 Sarto, and was patronized by Pope Clement VII., the 
 grand duke Cosimo I., and other eminent men. His 
 reputation rests on his " Lives of the Most Excellent 
 Painters, Sculptors, and Architects," (2 vols. 8vo, 1550,) 
 esteemed one of the most valuable works of the kind 
 
 that has appeared in any language. It has been trans 
 lated into English and German. He was a very success- 
 ful artist, was skilful in design, and painted many frescos 
 at Rome and Florence. As architect, he restored the 
 Palazzo Vecchio at Florence, and built other fine edifices 
 for the grand duke Cosimo. Died in 1574. 
 
 See Lanzi, " Historyof Painting in Italy;" Bottari, "Giunte 
 al Vasari ;" TicoZZI, " Dizionario;" Milizia, " Memorie degli Ar- 
 cbitetti ;" Naglbr, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon ;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G^uerale." 
 
 Vasco da Oania, (or de Gama.) See Gama, da. 
 
 Vasconcellos, vaVkon-sel'l6s, (Antonio,) a Portu- 
 guese Jesuit and writer, born at Lisbon about 1555. 
 
 VasconcelloB, (Simon,) a Portuguese Jesuit, born in 
 1599, lived many years in Brazil. He wrote a " History 
 of the Jesuit Mission in Hrazil, (1663.) Died in 1670. 
 
 Vasconcellos, de, da, vis-kon-sel'lds, (Agostinho 
 Manoel,) a Portuguese historian, born at Evora in 1583. 
 He wrote a " Life of Juan II. of Portugal," in Spanish, 
 (1639,) and other works. Having been implicated in a 
 conspiracy against John IV., he was put todeath in 1641. 
 
 See Niceron, "Memoires." 
 
 Vasconcellos, de, (Antonio Augusto Texeira — 
 ta.-sha'e-ra\) a Portuguese journalist and litterateur, born 
 at Oporto in 1816, has published several political and 
 historical works. 
 
 Vasconcellos, de, (Miguel,) a Portuguese states- 
 man, was a son of the jurist Pedro Barbosa. He became, 
 about 1635, secretary of state and the most powerful 
 minister in Portugal, which was then subject to the King 
 of Spain. His tyranny and cruelty excited much odium 
 against him. In December, 1640, he was assassinated 
 by the conspirators who raised the Duke of Braganza to 
 the throne. 
 
 See Barbosa Machado, " Bibliotheca Lusitana ;" La Clede, 
 " Hisinh'e de Portugal." 
 
 Vasconcellos-Coutinho, de, da vas-kon-sel'16s ko- 
 teen'yo, ( Francisco,) a Portuguese poet, born at Funchal, 
 in Madeira, in the latter part of the seventeenth century. 
 
 Vascosan, de, deh v1s'I<o'z8n', (Michel,) an emi- 
 nent and learned French printer, born at Amiens about 
 1500, became a citizen of Paris. He was connected by 
 marriage with Robert Estienne. He published correct 
 and elegant editions of ancient Greek and Latin authors. 
 Died in 1576. 
 
 Vaseef or Vasif, vj-seef, written also Vassif,* 
 (Ahmed, in'med,) a Turkish diplomatist, born at 
 Bagdad about 1740. He collected the works of several 
 Turkish historians, and published them under the title 
 of "Annals of the Ottoman Empire," (1804.) He also 
 wrote a History of the Reign of Selim III. Died in 1806. 
 
 Vasi, vi'see, (Giuseppe,) an Italian designer and en- 
 graver, born in Sicily in 1710, worked in Rome. He 
 published a collection of engravings of the monuments, 
 churches, etc. of that city. Died in 1782. 
 
 Vasian, vi'se-5n', written also Vassian and Was- 
 sian, Archbishop of Rostow, a Russian prelate, noted 
 for his courage and patriotism. Died in 1481. 
 
 Vasif. See Vasekf. 
 
 Vasili, visee'lee, or Vasilli, vi-seel'yee, written also 
 VassiliandWasilei, (or Basil,) I., Grand Prince of Rus- 
 sia, born in 1236, began to reign in 1272. Died in 1276. 
 
 Vasili (or Basil) II., a son of Dmitri Donskoi, was 
 born in 1372, and became grand prince in 1389. He was a 
 tributary of the grand horde of Tartars. Died in 1425. 
 
 Vasili (or Basil) III., born in 1415, was a son of 
 the preceding. In his reign Russia was afflicted with 
 civil war and other calamities. Died in 1462. 
 
 See Karamzin, " Histoire de Russie." 
 
 Vasili (or Basil) IV., a son of Ivan III., was born in 
 1479, and became grand prince in 1505. He obtained 
 Smolensk by conquest from the Lithuanians in 1514, 
 and increased the power of Russia. He died in 1533, 
 leaving the throne to his son, Ivan IV. 
 
 See Karamzin. " Histoire de Russie." 
 
 Vasili (or Basil) V., (Ivanovitch Shooiskoi or 
 Schuiskoi,) born in 1553, began to reign in 1606. He 
 was deposed by the boyards, who confined him in a 
 convent in 1610. Died in 1612. 
 
 * See Introduction, Section I., 14, (p. 9.) 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^'See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VASQKY 
 
 2182 
 
 VAUBAN 
 
 Vasoky. See Sesha. 
 
 Vasquez, vas-k£th', or Vasques, vas'kSs, ( A lfonso,) 
 a painter, born of Spanish parents at Rome about 1575, 
 removed to Seville in his childhood, and worked there 
 with success. Died about 1645. 
 
 Vasquez or Vasques, (Gabriel,) a Spanish casuist 
 and Jesuit, born in New Castile in 1551 ; died in 1604. 
 
 Vasquez de Coronado, vas-k£th' da ko-ro-na'Do, 
 (Francisco,) a Spanish explorer, born at Salamanca 
 about 1510. He emigrated to Mexico, and in 1540 re- 
 ceived the command of a party which the viceroy sent 
 to explore the interior, from which expedition he safely 
 i»:urned. The date of his death is not known. 
 
 Vassal, de, deh vi'sSl', (Foktanier,) a French car- 
 dinal and negotiator, born at Vailhac; died in 1361. 
 
 Vassal, de, (Jacques,) Marquis de Montviel, a 
 French general, born in 1659; died in 1744. 
 
 Vassali-Eandi, vls-sa'lee i-an'dee, (Antonio Ma- 
 ria,) an Italian savant, born at Turin in 1761. He pub- 
 lished, besides other works, " Memoirs of the Academy of 
 Sciences of Turin from 1792 to 1809." Died in 1825. 
 
 Vas'sar, (Matthew,) born in the county of Norfolk, 
 England, in 1792, emigrated to America, and settled at 
 Poughkeepsie, New York, where he amassed a large 
 fortune. In 1861 he gave the sum of $408,000 to found 
 the Vassar Female College, near Poughkeepsie. He 
 died June 23, 1868, while reading an address to the 
 trustees of the college. Besides the gift above men- 
 tioned, he left the college a large sum in his will, in- 
 cluding the following bequests: $50,000 as a Lecture 
 Fund, $50,000 as a Library, Art, and Cabinet Fund, and 
 $50,000 as an Auxiliary Fund for aiding students unable 
 to pay the full college expenses. 
 
 Vasselier, vis'le^', (Joseph,) a French poet, born 
 at Rocroy in 1735, was a correspondent of Voltaire. He 
 wrote tales, songs, etc. Died at Lyons in 1798. 
 
 Vasselin, vSs'laN', (Georges Victor,) a French 
 publicist and jurist, born in Paris in 1767; died in 1S01. 
 
 Vasseur, (Jacques.) See Le Vasseuk. 
 
 Vassif. See Vaseef. 
 
 Vassor, Le. See Le Vassor. 
 
 Vasto, del. See Avalos, (Alfonso II.) 
 
 Vasudfiva, [modern Hindoo pron. vus-06-da'va,] in 
 the Hindoo mythology, the name of the father of Krishna, 
 and sometimes used as an appellation of that god. 
 
 Vasuki See Sesha. 
 
 Vatable, vS'ttbl', originally written Watebled or 
 Oastelbled, [Lat. Vata'bi.us,| (Francois,) a French 
 priest, born in Picardy. He became professor of Hebrew 
 in the College Royal at Paris. He translated Aristotle's 
 "Parva Naturalia" into Latin. Died in 1547. 
 
 SeeM. Adam, " Vitae Eruditorum ;" Sainte-Marthe, " Elogia." 
 
 Vatablus. See Vatable. 
 
 Vatace. See Vataces. 
 
 Vataces, (accentuation doubtful,) [Fr. Vatace, vt'- 
 tSss',] (John Ducas,) Emperor of Nicsea, born in Thrace 
 in 1 193, was a son-in-law of Theodore Lascaris, whom 
 he succeeded in 1222. He waged war against the Latin 
 prince Robert de Courtenay, and several other princes. 
 Died in 1255. 
 
 See Lh Beau, " Histoire du Bas-Empire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ginerale." 
 
 Vater, fa'ter, (Abraham,) a German medical writer, 
 born at Wittenberg in 1684. He was professor of botany 
 and anatomy at Wittenberg. Died in 1751. 
 
 Vater, (Johann Severin,) a German theologian and 
 philologist, born at Altenburg in 1771. He studied at 
 Jena and Halle, and in 1800 became professor of theology 
 and Oriental literature at the latter university. He was 
 professor of history at Kbnigsberg from 1810 to 1820, 
 and returned to Halle in the latter year. He published 
 (1809-17) two volumes to complete the " Mithridates" of 
 Adelung, who had left his work unfinished. Among his 
 works are a "Commentary on the Pentateuch," (3 vols., 
 1802,) and a " Universal History of the Christian Church 
 since the Reformation," (3 vols., 1818-23.) Died in 1826. 
 
 See Niembyer, " Uebersicht des Lebens Vater's," in the fifth 
 edition of Vater's " Synchronische Tafeln der Kirchengeschichte." 
 
 Vathek. See Wathek. 
 
 Vatia, va'she-a, ( Pubi.i us Servilius,) sumamed Isau- 
 Ricus, a Roman commander, whose name first appears 
 
 in 100 B.C. He became consul in 79, and commanded a 
 fleet and army sent in 78 B.C. against the pirates, whom 
 he defeated, and also the Isauri. Ded i 1 44 i.e. 
 
 Vatimesnil, de, deh vS'te'm&'nel', (Antoine Fran- 
 cois Henri Lefebvre,) a French advocate and politician, 
 born at Rouen in 1789, was a moderate royalist. He be- 
 came advocate-general to the court of cassation at Paris 
 in 1824, and was minister of public instruction from Feb- 
 ruary, 1828, to August, 1829. He was a member of the 
 Chamber of Deputies from 1830 to 1834, and was elected 
 to the Legislative Assembly in 1849. Died in i860. 
 
 See Lamartine, " History of the Restoration ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Va-tinl-us, (Publius,) a Roman demagogue, noto- 
 rious for his vices, became tribune of the people in 59 B.C., 
 by the aid of Caesar, of whom he was a violent partisan. 
 He was denounced by Cicero in a public speech about 
 56 B.C. In the year 54 or 55 he competed with Cato for 
 the office of praetor, and was elected by bribery. During 
 the civil war he commanded one of Caesar's armies, and 
 gained a victory in Illyricum in 46 B.C. Died after 43 B.C. 
 
 Vatke, fat'keh, (Johann Karl Wilhelm,) a German 
 theologian, born near Magdeburg in 1806. He became 
 professor of theology in the University of Berlin in 1837, 
 and published several works. 
 
 Vatout, vS'too', (Jean,) a French litterateur, born at 
 Villefranche (Rhone) in 1792. He became first libra- 
 rian to Louis Philippe in 1832, and was elected to the 
 French Academy in 1848. He published, besides several 
 novels, "Historical Souvenirs of the Royal Residences 
 of France," (7 vols., 1837-46.) Died in England in 1848. 
 
 See Querard, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gen4ra)e." 
 
 Vattel, von, fon vSt'tSl' or vat'tek (Emrich,) a cele- 
 brated Swiss jurist and writer, born in the principality 
 of Neufchatel in 1714. He studied at the Universities 
 of Bale and Geneva, and in 1741 visited Berlin, where 
 he published his " Defence of the System of Leibnitz," 
 (in French, 1742,) dedicated to Frederick the Great. In 
 1 746 he was sent as Polish minister to Berne by Augustus, 
 Elector of Saxony and King of Poland. He published 
 in 1758 his principal work, entitled "The Right of Na- 
 tions, or the Principles of Natural Law applied to the 
 Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns," which 
 has passed through numerous editions and been trans- 
 lated into the principal European languages. He was 
 the author of other works on various subjects, the most 
 important of which is entitled "Questions of Natural 
 Law, and Observations on Wolffs Treatise on the Law 
 of Nature," (1762.) Died in 1767. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" " Monthly Review" for 
 August, 1760. 
 
 Vatteville, de, deh vit'vel', (Jean,) a Roman 
 Catholic priest, notorious for his adventures and criminal 
 intrigues, was born at Besancon about 1613. He entered 
 the Turkish service, after he had committed several 
 homicides, and obtained the command of an army, which 
 he betrayed to the Austrians. For this service he was 
 rewarded with the rich abbey of Baume, in Franche- 
 Comte, in 1659. He was the chief agent in the intrigues 
 bv which Franche-Comte was annexed to France about" 
 1666. Died in 1702. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Mlinoires :" " NouveKe Biographie G<£ne"- 
 rale." 
 
 Vattier, vj'te-a', (Pierre,) a learned French physi- 
 cian, was born near Lisieux, in Normandy, in 1623. He 
 translated several works from the Arabic, including 
 Avicenna's "Treatise on Mental Diseases." Vattier was 
 physician to Gaston, Duke of Orleans. Died in 1667. 
 
 Vauban, de, deh vo'bft.N', (Antoine le Prestre — 
 leh pKe"tR,) Count, a French general, born in 1659, was 
 a cousin of the famous Vauban. He was an engineer, 
 and distinguished himself at several sieges. Died in 
 1731. 
 
 Vauban, de, (Sebastif.n le Prestre,) Seigneur, a 
 famous French military engineer, born at Saint-Leger de 
 Fougeret (Nievre) in May, 1633. Having acquired some 
 skill in mathematics, he entered in 1651 the army of the 
 Prince of Conde, then waging a civil war against the 
 French court. He was taken prisoner by the French 
 in 1653, and persuaded by Cardinal Mazarin to join the 
 
 , 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, ti, 3?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mcH; n6t; good; moon; 
 
 a,e, 
 
VAUBLAKC 
 
 2183 
 
 V AUG HAN 
 
 royal army. He gained early distinction by his courage 
 and his skill in conducting sieges, and received the 
 brevet of royal engineer in 1655. Under the orders of 
 Turenne, he directed the sieges of Landrecies, Conde, 
 and Saint-Ghis!aii>, (1655,) and rendered important ser- 
 vices at Gravelines, Audenarde, and Ypres in 1658. He 
 married Jeanne d'Aulnay in 1660. After several years 
 of peace, the war was renewed in 1667. Under Louis 
 XIV'., commanding in person, Vauban took Tournay, 
 Douai, and Lille. He was afterwards employed in con- 
 structing fortifications at Lille, Anas, and other places 
 in Flanders, and made important improvements in the 
 art of fortification. He was raised to the rank of mare- 
 chal de-camp in 1676, after which he improved and 
 fortified the ports of Dunkirk, Toulon, etc. Among his 
 greatest achievements was the capture of the strong 
 fortress of Namur, where, says Macaulay, "the two great 
 masters of the art of fortification were opposed to each 
 other. Vauban had, during many years, been regarded 
 as the first of engineers ; but a formidable rival had lately 
 arisen, Menno, Baron of Cohorn." (" History of Eng- 
 land," vol. iv.) Namur was taken in June, 1692. Vauban 
 became a marshal of France in 1703. He wrote, besides 
 other works, a "Treatise on the Attack of Places," and 
 a "Treatise on the Defence of Places," (1737.) He had 
 the courage to advise the king to re-establish the edict 
 of Nantes in favour of religious liberty. He died in 1 707, 
 leaving a fair reputation for probity and other virtues. 
 
 See Fontenelle, " filoge de Vauban;" Carnot, " FJoge de 
 Vauban," 1784; Amanton, " Notice sur Vauban," 1S29 ; De Cham- 
 Bray, "Notice historique sur Vauban," 1845; Saint Simon, "M^- 
 moires;" Noel, " Filoge de Vauban,'* 1790: D'Antii.i.v, " Eloge 
 de Vauban," 1788; Dk Sauviac, " E*loge de Vauban,'' 1790; Vol- 
 taire, '* Siecle de Louis XIV;" De Coukckli.ks, " Dictionnaire 
 des Generaux Francais ;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Vaublanc; de, deh vo'bldN', (VINCENT Marie 
 Vienot — ve'a'no',) Count, a French politician, born 
 in Saint Domingo in 1756, was a royalist in the Revo- 
 lution. He was detected in several plots against the 
 republic, was proscribed in 1797, but saved himself by 
 flight, and held several high offices under Napoleon. 
 He was minister of the interior from September, 1815, 
 to May, 1816. He died in 1845, leaving autobiographic 
 "Menioires et Souvenirs," (2 vols., 1839.) 
 
 See Lamartine, "History of the Restoration;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographic Generale." 
 
 Vaucanson, de, deh vo'k8N's6N', (Jacques,) a cele- 
 brated French mechanician, born at Grenoble in 1709. 
 His inventive genius and his love for mechanical arts 
 were displayed at an early age, and in 1738 he exhibited 
 in Paris his Automaton Flute-Player, which caused a 
 great sensation. Among several works of this kind, the 
 most wonderful and ingenious, perhaps, is his Automaton 
 Duck, which swam, quacked, dressed its feathers with 
 its bill, and swallowed barley. He was appointed in- 
 spector of the silk-manufactories, and invented some 
 machines which were very useful in the fabrication of silk 
 stuffs. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences. 
 Died in 1782. 
 
 See Condorcet, "Fringes;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Vauchelet, vosh'l&', (Auguste Theophii.e,) a 
 French painter of history and portraits, born at Passy, 
 near Paris, in 1802. 
 
 Vaucher, vo'shaiR.', (Jean Pierre,) a French bota- 
 nist and theologian, born at Geneva about 1763. He was 
 professor of theology or ecclesiastical history at Geneva. 
 In 1803 he published a "History of Fresh-Water Con- 
 ferva?," which was highly esteemed. Among his prin- 
 cipal works is a treatise on the Physiology of European 
 Plants, " Histoire physiologique des Plantes d'Eu- 
 rope," (4 vols., 1841,) on which he expended the labour 
 of many years. A genus of Algae was named Vaucheria 
 in honour of him by De Candolle. Died in 1841. 
 
 Vaudemont, de, deh vod'm6N', Prince, a Dutch 
 general, who commanded an army in Flanders, and was 
 opposed to Villeroy, in 1695. According to Macaulav, 
 he was "one of the ablest commanders in the Dutch 
 service." (" History of England," vol. iv.) 
 
 Vaudemont, de, deh vod'm6N', (Antoine de Lor- 
 raine — del) lo'rjn',) Count, was a nephew of Charles, 
 Duke of Lorraine, who died in 1431. The succession to 
 this duchy was disputed by Rene of Anjoii and the 
 
 Count de Vaudemont. The latter defeated Rene in 
 battle, and the contest was settled by a marriage of a 
 son of the Count de Vaudemont with a daughter of 
 Rene, (1444) Died in 1447. 
 
 See D. Cai.met, " Histoire de Lorraine." 
 
 Vaudoncourt, de, deh vo'diN'kooR', (Frederic 
 Francois Guillaume,) Baron, a French general and 
 writer, born at Vienna, Austria, in 1772. He obtained 
 command of the artillery of the right wing of the army 
 in Italy in 1800, was employed to organize the Italian 
 artillery in 1803, and became a general of brigade in 
 1809. In 1815 he was condemned to death by the 
 Bourbons, and became an exile. He wrote, besides 
 other military works, a " History of the Campaigns of 
 1814 and 1815 in France," (5 vols., 1826,) and "Fifteen 
 Years of an Exile," ("Quinze Annees d'un Proscrit," 
 4 vols., 1835.) Died in 1845. 
 
 See F. Thierry, " Le General Baron F. F. G. de Vaudoncourt," 
 etc., 1846 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Vaudoyer, vo'dwi'yi', (Leon,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1803. He gained the grand prize in 
 1826. His plan for the new cathedral of Marseilles was 
 adopted in 1854. 
 
 Vaudreuil, de, deh vo'dRuI' or vo'druh'ye,, (Louis 
 Philippe de Rigaud — deh re'go',) Comte, a brave 
 French naval officer, born at Quebec in 1691 ; died in 
 1763. His son, of the same name, born at Rochefort in 
 1 724, served with distinction in the navy, and became a 
 lieutenant-general. Died in 1802. 
 
 Vaudrey, vo'dR^', (Claude Nicolas,) a French 
 general, born at Dijon in 1784. He was a colonel in the 
 army at Strasburg when Louis Napoleon attempted to 
 initiate an insurrection there. He aided and abetted 
 that attempt, and was rewarded with the rank of general 
 of brigade in 1852. Died in 1857. 
 
 Vaugelas, de, deh vozh'la'', (Claude Favre,) an 
 eminent F'rench grammarian, bom nearTrevoux in 1585, 
 was one of the first members of the French Academy. 
 He took a prominent part in the compilation of the Dic- 
 tionary of that Academy, and published "Remarks on 
 the French Language," (1647.) He was very fastidious 
 in respect to purity of language, and was regarded as an 
 oracle in questions of grammar and style. He spent 
 many years on a translation of Quintus Curtius, (1653.) 
 Died in 1650. 
 
 See Pbllisson, " Histoire de l'Academie ;" Niceron, "Me- 
 moires;" "Nouvelle Hiographie Generale. " 
 
 Vaughan, vau'an, (almost vawn,) (Alfred,) an Eng- 
 lish poet and reviewer, born in 1823, was a son of 
 Robert, noticed below. He became a dissenting min- 
 ister at Birmingham, contributed to the " British Quar- 
 terly Review," and published " Hours with the Mystics." 
 Died in 1857. 
 
 Vaughan, (Henry,) a British poet, born in Breck- 
 nockshire, Wales, in 1621, is sometimes called the 
 Sii.urist. He was the author of devotional poems, 
 entitled " Silex Scintillans," (1650,) "Thalia Rediviva, 
 the Pastimes and Diversions of a Country Muse," (1678,) 
 "The Mount of Olives," (in prose,) and other works. 
 Died in 1695. His brother Thomas wrote several treat- 
 ises on alchemy. 
 
 See Campbell, "Specimens of the British Poets;" "Retro- 
 spective Review," vol. iii., 1821. 
 
 Vaughan, (Sir John,) a distinguished jurist, born in 
 Cardiganshire in 1608. He studied at Oxford, and rose 
 to be chief justice of the common pleas in 1668. Died 
 in 1674. 
 
 Vaughan, (Sir John,) an English judge, born in 
 1772. He became a judge of the common pleas in 1834. 
 Died in 1839. 
 
 Vaughan, (Robert,) D.D., an English Congrega- 
 tional divine, born in 1795, became professor of history 
 in London University, (University College,) and subse- 
 quently president of the Independent College at Man- 
 chester. In 1844 he began to edit the " British Quarterly 
 Review," of which he was the founder. He published 
 "Memorials of the Stuart Dynasty," etc., "Causes of 
 the Corruption of Christianity," (1834,) "The Protector- 
 ate of Oliver Cromwell," (1838,) "History of England 
 under the House of Stuart," (1840,) "John de Wycliffe, 
 D.D., a Monograph, with some Account of the Wycliffe 
 
 c as «; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (JJ^ - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FAUGH AN 
 
 2184 
 
 VEDA 
 
 Manuscripts," (1853,) and various other works. Died in 
 1 868. 
 
 See Allibons, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Vaughan, (William,) a poet, born in Caermarthen- 
 shire, in Wales, in 1577, was the author of " The Golden 
 Fleece," and other poems. Died in 1640. 
 
 Vaugiraud, de, d?h vo'zhe'ro', (Pierre Rene 
 Marie,) a French vice-admiral, born at Sables d'Olonne 
 in 1 741. He emigrated as a royalist about 1790, and 
 became Governor of Martinique in 1814. Died in 1819. 
 
 Vaugondy. See Robert df. Vaugondy. 
 
 Vauguyon, de la, deli IS vo'ge'6N', (Antoine Paul 
 Jacques de Quelen — deh ka'l6.\',) Due, a French 
 general, born at Tonneins in 1706. He contributed to 
 the victory of Fontenoy, (1745.) He was afterwards 
 governor of the sons of the dauphin, who became Louis 
 XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X. Died in 1772. 
 
 Vaulabelle, de, deli vo'lf bel', (AcHiLLETenaille — 
 teh-nSI' or teh-ni'ye,) a French journalist and statesman, 
 born in the department of Yonne in 1799. He became 
 in 1838 associate editor of " Le National," a repub- 
 lican or advanced liberal daily paper. He published 
 a " History of the Two Restorations to the Fall of 
 Charles X.," (6 vols., 1844 et seq.,) which is commended 
 for accuracy and various research. He was minister of 
 public instruction from July to October, 1848. 
 
 Vaulabelle, de, (Mathieu Tenaille,) called Ei.e- 
 onore, a French dramatist, born in 1801, was a brother 
 of the preceding. He wrote many vaudevilles. Died 
 in 1859. 
 
 Vauquelin, vok'IaN', (Jean,) Sieur de La Fresnaye, 
 a French poet, born near Falaise in 1535. He became 
 president of a court, called presidial, at Caen, in the 
 reign of Henry IV. He wrote agreeable idyls, and 
 other short poems. Died in 1607. 
 
 His son Nicolas was a poet. (See Des Yveteaux.) 
 
 See V. Choisy, "Jean Vauquelin de La Fresnaye," 1S41. 
 
 Vauquelin, (Louis Nicolas,) an eminent French 
 chemist, born near Pont-l'Eveque (Calvados) in May, 
 1763. He was a pupil of Fourcroy, of whom he became 
 an intimate friend and coadjutor. He was appointed 
 assistant professor of chemistry in the Polytechnic School 
 about 1793, and a member of the Institute. In 1S01 he 
 succeeded Darcet as professor at the College de France, 
 and in 1804 obtained the chair of chemistry applied to 
 the arts, in the Jardin des Plantes. He improved 
 the methods of chemical analysis, and discovered two 
 elementary substances, — chromium and glucina. He 
 wrote many " Memoires," inserted in the " Annates de 
 Chimie" and other periodicals. Died in November, 
 1829. 
 
 See Cuvihr, " Cloge de Vauquelin ;" Chevau.ier. " Inaugura- 
 tion d'un Monument a la Mt^moire de L. N. Vauquelin : Notice 
 biographique de ce Chimiste," 1K50: Dr. Hoefer, " Histoire de 
 la Chimie;" "NouTelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Vauthier-Galle, vo'te-i' gfl, (Andre,) a French 
 sculptor and medal-engraver, was born in Paris in 1818. 
 
 Vauvenargues, de, deli vov'ntug', (Luc de Cla- 
 piers — deh kll'pe-i',) Marquis, a French moral philos- 
 opher, born at Aix, in Provence, in 1 7 1 5, was a friend of 
 Voltaire. He entered the army about 1733, and left the 
 service with ruined health at the age of twenty-seven. 
 He published in 1746 an " Introduction to the Know- 
 ledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and 
 Maxims," which was praised by Voltaire. Died in Paris 
 in 1747. His reputation increased after his death. 
 
 See Simrd, "Notice sur Vauvenargues ;" Gilbert, " Eloge de 
 Vauvenargues :" Sainte-Bruve, "Causeries du Lundi," vols. :ii. 
 and xiv. ; Voltaire, " Correspondance ;" Marmontel, " Me* J 
 moires;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Vauvilliers, vo'v6'ye-i', (Jean Francois,) a French 
 scholar, was born at Noyers in 1737. He became pro- 
 fessor of Greek at the College of France in 1 766, and pub- 
 lished, besides other works, " Essays on Pindar," (1772.) 
 In 1790 he was chosen a member of the municipality 
 of Paris, and lieutenant to the mayor of that city. He 
 entered the Council of Five Hundred in 1797. Having 
 been proscribed in the same year, he took refuge at 
 Saint Petersburg, where he died in 1801. He had pub- 
 lished an edition of Sophocles, with notes, (2 vols., 1781.) 
 
 See Queraed, "La France Litteraire ;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge'nerale." 
 
 Vaux, vawx, (Nicholas,) Lord, an English officer, 
 was distinguished by the favour of Henry VIII., whom 
 he. accompanied in his French campaign. Died in 1530. 
 Vaux, (Thomas,) an English poet, born in 1510, was 
 a son of the preceding. He was one of the attendants 
 of Henry VIII. in his expedition to France in 1532. 
 Among his works is "The Assault of Cupid." Died 
 about 1557. 
 
 Vaux, de, deh vo, (Noel de Jourda, no'Sl' deh 
 zhooR'dS',) Count, a French general, born near Puy- 
 en-Velayin 1705. He distinguished himself at the battles 
 of Prague (1743) and Fontenoy, obtained the rank of 
 lieutenant-general in 1759, and displayed much ability 
 by the conquest of Corsica in 1769. He was raised to 
 the rank of marshal of France in 1783. Died in 1788. 
 Vauxcelles. See Bourlet. 
 
 Vauzelles, de, deh vo'/.fl', (Jean,) a French priest 
 and writer on religion, was born at Lyons ; died in 1557. 
 Vavasseur, vi'vf'sUR', (Francois,) a French Jesuit 
 and Latin poet, born at Paray in 1605. He produced, 
 besides several prose works, Latin odes, elegies, etc., 
 which are said to be elegant. Died in Paris in 1681. 
 See Nickron. "Memoires." 
 
 Vayu, vi'66, or Vayus, vl'oos, [from the Sanscrit 
 vdy, to " go," or " move,"] one of the names of the wind, 
 in the Hindoo mythology. (See Marut and Pavana.) 
 
 Ve, va or vjh, [i.e. "holiness ;" allied to the German 
 weihen, to "consecrate,"] in the Norse mythology, a god 
 who was associated with his brothers Odin and Vili in 
 creating the world. (See Odin.) It appears to have been 
 his office to banish from the new creation whatever was 
 impure or evil. By some he is identified with Lodur, 
 which see. 
 
 Vecchi, de, da vek'kee, (Giovanni,) an Italian 
 painter, bom at Borgo San Sepolcro in 1536; died in 
 1614. 
 
 Vecchia, vek'ke-i, (Pietro,) a Venetian painter, 
 originally named Mattoni, bom in 1605, was a pupil 
 of Varotari. He imitated with great skill the works of 
 Titian and Giorgione. Died in 1678. 
 
 Vecchietta, vJk-ke-et'ta, (Lorenzo di Piero,) an 
 Italian sculptor, born at Sienna in 1482. He worked in 
 bronze. Died in 1540. 
 
 Vecchio di San Bernardo, H, el vek'ke-o de sin 
 bSR-naR'do, (Francesco Menzocchi — mfn-zok'kee,) 
 an Italian painter, bom at Forll about 1510 ; died in 1547. 
 Vecellio. See Titian. 
 
 Vecellio, va-chel'le-o, (Cesare,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Cadore about 1530, was a pupil and cousin of 
 Titian. He published a collection entitled "On Ancient 
 and Modern Costumes," (" Degli Abiti antichi e mo- 
 demi," 1590.) Died in 1606. 
 
 Vecellio, (Francesco,) a brother of Titian, bom at 
 Cadore in 1483, was a painter of superior genius, but 
 renounced the profession for that of merchant or soldier. 
 Died in 1590. 
 
 Vecellio, (Marco,) or Marco di Tiziano — de t£t- 
 se-a'no, an able painter, born in Venice in 1545, was a 
 nephew and pupil of Titian. He accompanied Titian 
 in his journeys, and imitated his style with great success. 
 Among his works are a "Descent of the Holy Spirit" 
 and the "Marriage of the Virgin Mary." Died in 1611. 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Ridolfi, " Pittori Veneti ;'• 
 Lanzi, " History of Painting in Italy." 
 
 Vecellio, (Orazio,) a skilful portrait-painter, born at 
 Venice in 1 5 1 5, was a son and pupil of Titian. He 
 assisted his father in many of his works. Died in 1576. 
 
 See Vasari, "Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Vechte or Wechte, v£kt, (Antoine,) a French 
 sculptor and goldsmith, born in the department of Cote- 
 d'Or about 1820. He had a high reputation as a de- 
 signer of ornamental works in gold and silver. Among 
 his works is an allegorical vase in silver repousse". Died 
 in October, 1868. 
 
 Veda, va'da, (English plural Vedas,) i.e. "know- 
 ledge," (from the Sanscrit vid, to "know," cognate with 
 the old English wit, having the same signification, and 
 the Latin vid-eo, to "see" or "perceive,"| the name of 
 the sacred books or scriptures of the Brahmans, sup- 
 posed to contain the fountain and sum of all essential 
 knowledge. They consist of four parts, the Rig- Veda, 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, ong; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
VEDANTA 
 
 21 85 
 
 FELDE 
 
 Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. Of these 
 the Rig- Veda is the most important. It is composed of 
 religious lyrics or hymns, and is confessedly the oldest 
 extant portion of Sanscrit literature, dating perhaps 
 from 1400 to 1800 years before the Christian era. 
 
 See Professor Wilson's translations of the " Rig- Veda," and 
 the different Introductions to those translations ; OUKMMMOI on 
 the "Vedas," in vol. viii. of the "Asiatic Researches;" article 
 "Veda" in the "New American Cyclopaedia," (by Professor W. 
 
 D. WltllNKV.) 
 
 Vddanta, (Philosophy.) See VyAsa. 
 
 V&davyasa. See VyAsa. 
 
 Vedriani, vi-dRe-a'nee, (Lodovico,) a mediocre Ital- 
 ian historian, born at Modena in 1601, wrote a " History 
 of M6dena," (1664,) and other works. Died in 1670. 
 
 Veen. See Van Vekn and Heemskerk. 
 
 Veenix. See Weenix. 
 
 Vega. See Garcilasso de la Vega. 
 
 Vega, de. See Lope de Vega. 
 
 Vega, von, fon va'ga, (Georg,) Baron, a German 
 officer and mathematician, bom in Carniola in 1754, was 
 originally named Veha. He served with distinction in 
 several campaigns against the French and Turks, at- 
 tained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and was appointed 
 professor of mathematics in the Imperial artillery. He 
 was the author of "Tables of Logarithms," (Logarith- 
 mentafeln, 1783,) "Lectures on Mathematics," (4 vols., 
 1786-90,) "Complete Treasury of Logarithms," (1794,) 
 and other valuable works. Vega was murdered in 1802 
 by a miller, who despoiled him of his money and watch. 
 
 Vegece. See Ykgetius. 
 
 Vegetiua, ve-jee'she-us, [Fr.VEcicK, va'zhjs',] (Fi.a- 
 Vius Renatus.) a Roman military writer of the fourth 
 century, is believed to have been a Christian. His 
 principal work is entitled "Epitome Institutionum Rei 
 niilitaris," (in five books,) and is dedicated to Valentinian 
 II. It treats of the organization of armies, training 
 of soldiers, etc., and is written in a clear and graceful 
 style. Translations of it have been published in English, 
 French, and German. 
 
 See Fabricius, " Bibliotheca Latina." 
 
 Vehrli or Wehrli, vaVlee, (Jakob,) a Swiss teacher, 
 born in 1790, was for many years an assistant of Fellen- 
 berg at Hofwyl. He became in 1833 superintendent of 
 the Normal School at Kruitzlingen, on Lake Constance. 
 
 Vehse, fa'zeh, (Karl Eduard,) a German historran, 
 born at Freiberg in 1802, studied at Leipsic and Gottin- 
 gen, and afterwards visited the United States, London, 
 and Paris. He published several works, the most im- 
 portant of which is his " History of the German Courts 
 since the Reformation," (" Ge'schichte der Deutsche!) 
 Hofe seit der Reformation," 34 vols., 1854.) It is still 
 unfinished. Died in 1870. 
 
 Veil, vjl, or Viel, (Chari.es Marie,) a commentator 
 on Scripture, born at Metz, was originally a Jew. He be- 
 came a Protestant, and preached in England about 1680. 
 
 Veil, de, deh v&l, (Lotus de Compiegne — deh Y6s'- 
 pe-an',) a converted Jew, a brother of the preceding, 
 born at Metz, went to England about 1680, and pub- 
 lished Latin versions of some works of Maimonides. 
 
 Veimars. See Loeve. 
 
 Veit, vlt or fit, (Philipp,) a celebrated German 
 painter, born at Berlin in 1793, was a grandson, on his 
 mother's side, of Moses Mendelssohn. He studied at 
 Rome in company with Cornelius, Overbeck, and other 
 young artists, who aimed at reviving the mystical style 
 of the middle ages. Among his master-pieces we may 
 name his "Triumph of Religion," in the Vatican gallery, 
 "Scenes from Dante's Paradiso," in the Villa M;issimi, 
 "Christianity bringing the Fine Arts into Germany," a 
 large fresco in the Stadel Art Institute at Frankfor*t-on- 
 the-Main, and the "Seven Years of Plenty,"— one of 
 the frescos of the history of Joseph, at the Villa Hartholdy, 
 Rome. Veit was a step-son of Frederick Schlegel, his 
 mother having married that artist. Diedat Rome in 1854. 
 
 Veitch, veetch, (John,) a Scottish professor, born at 
 Peebles about 1830. He translated several works of 
 Descartes, (1850-53.) About i860 he was appointed 
 professor of logic and metaphysics in the University of 
 Saint Andrew's. He wrote a " Life of Sir William 
 Hamilton," (1869.) 
 
 Vela, va'la, (Bi.asco Nunez,) a Spaniard, was sent 
 by Charles V. to Peru in 1543 as viceroy. His authority 
 was resisted by the rebels under Gonzalo Pizario, by 
 whom Vela was defeated and killed in 1546. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographie G6ie>ale." 
 
 Vela, va'la, (Vincent,) an Italian sculptor, of Swiss 
 origin, bom in the canton of Tessin (Ticino) in 1822. 
 Among his works is a statue of Spartacus. 
 
 Velasco. See Palomino y Velasco. 
 
 Velasoo, de, da vi-las'ko, (Francisco,) a Spanish 
 writer of sacred poems, born in the latter part of the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Velasco, de, (Gregorio Hernandez,) a Spanish 
 poet, born at Toledo about 1550. He produced a good 
 version of Virgil's " TEiieid," and other translations. 
 
 Velasquez, vi-las'keth, (Ai.exandro Gonzalez,) a 
 Spanish painter and architect, born at Madrid in 1719. 
 He designed the palace of Aranjuez. Died in 1772. 
 
 His brother Antonio, born in 1729, was an able 
 painter. He became court painter to Charles III. in 
 1757. He excelled in frescos. Died in 1793. 
 
 Velasquez, (Diego,) a Spanish commander, born in 
 Old Castile about 1460. He was sent by Diego Colum- 
 bus to Cuba, which he conquered in 151 1. He was 
 afterwards Governor of Cuba, and despatched an ex- 
 ploring party which discovered Mexico. About 1520 
 he sent a small army to Mexico under Narvaez to 
 operate against Cortez, who defeated Narvaez and took 
 him prisoner. Died in 1523. 
 
 See Prescott, " History of the Conquest of Mexico ;" Orbi- 
 lana, " Varones del nuevo Mundo." 
 
 Velasquez (or Velazquez) de Silva, va-las'-kSth 
 da sel'va, (Don Diego Rodriguez,) a celebrated Span- 
 ish portrait-painter, born at Seville in 1599. He was a 
 pupil of Herrera el Viejo, and afterwards of Francisco 
 Pacheco, whose daughter Juana he married. He did 
 not adopt the style of either of these masters, but 
 formed for himself an original style by the study of 
 nature. Having removed to Madrid in 1622 and painted 
 a portrait of the Duke of Olivares in 1623, he was ap- 
 pointed cottrt painter to Philip IV., and rose rapidly to 
 fame and prosperity. He was a friend of Rubens, whom 
 he met at Madrid in 1628. He visited Italy in 1629, 
 admired the works of Titian at Venice, and passed 
 about a year at Rome, where he painted a picture of 
 "Jacob and the Bloody Garment of Joseph," and 
 "Apollo at the Forge of Vulcan." He returned to 
 Madrid in 163 1, after which he produced an admirable 
 equestrian portrait of Philip IV. In 1648 he was sent 
 to Italy by the king to purchase pictures and models of 
 antique statues. He painted at Rome an excellent por- 
 trait of Pope Innocent X., and returned home in 1615. 
 In 1656 he obtained the cross of Santiago, which is 
 rarely given to any except men of high rank. He was 
 also appointed to the office of aposentador mayor, whose 
 duty it is to provide lodgings for the 'king in his journeys. 
 Died in August, 1660. Velasquez is regarded by many 
 critics as the greatest painter that Spain has produced. 
 He is considered to have surpassed other Spanish artists 
 not only in portraits but in history and landscapes. He 
 neglected the ideal and poetical, and seems to have been 
 deficient in invention ; but he reproduced the real with 
 marvellous fidelity. His best works are mostly at 
 Madrid. Among his best historical pieces is a "Cruci- 
 fixion," (1639.) Commenting on his picture of "The 
 Spinners," (" Las Hilanderas,") Mr. Stanley says, " For 
 truth of character, perspective arrangement, and delusion 
 of light and shadow, it is considered marvellous." 
 (Bryan and Stanley's " Dictionary.") 
 
 See William Stirling, "Velasquez and his Works," 185s: 
 CSAM-BUMUDBE. " Diccionario de las bellas Aries;" Nagi.kk, 
 " Alleemeines Kiinsller-Lexikon ;" Kurd, " Hand- Hook for Travel- 
 lers in Spain :" " Fraser's Macazine" for July, iSwi Qutl.LIST, or 
 Quillet, " Dictimmaire des Pemtres EspaRnols ;" Charles Blanc, 
 " Hi-aoire des Peintres:" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Velasquez de Velasco, vi-las'kJth da vi-las'ko, 
 (Luis Jose,) Marquis de Valderlores, a Spanish anti- 
 quary, born at Malaga in 1722. He published several 
 works on Spanish antiquities. Died in 1772. 
 
 Vtdde, van den, vtn den vel'deh, or Vandervelde, 
 (Isaiah,) a Dutch painter, born at Leyden about 1595, 
 
 € as*; car <;%hard;%*e,j; G, H,K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sasz; thasinMw. (J53f~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VELDE 
 
 2186 
 
 VENEZIANO 
 
 was also an etcher. He painted landscapes, rustic scenes, 
 and battles. Died about 1650. 
 
 Velde, van den, (Jan,) a painter and skilful engraver, 
 born at Leyden about 1598, was a brother of the pre- 
 ceding. He painted landscapes and rustic scenes, and 
 engraved portraits, etc. Died after 1677. 
 
 Velde, van der, (Adriaan and Willem.) See Van 
 der Vei.de. 
 
 Velde, van der, vtn der fel'deh or vel'deh, (Franz 
 Karl,) a German writer, born at Breslau in 1779, was the 
 author of a number of novels, tales, and dramatic works, 
 which were very popular at the time. Died in 1824. 
 
 Veldeke, von, fon vel'deh-keh, (Heinrich,) a Ger- 
 man minnesinger of the twelfth century, was the author 
 of an epic poem entitled "Eneit." 
 
 Vel'e-da or Vel'le-da, a German prophetess, who 
 lived near the river Luppia (Lippe) in the reign of Ves- 
 pasian, and was regarded with great veneration. Having 
 prophesied in favour of Civilis, who revolted against the 
 Romans, she was carried captive to Rome about 85 A.D. 
 
 Velez de Guevara. See Guevara. 
 
 Vella, vel'15, (Giuseppe,) a literary impostor, born at 
 Malta in the latter part of the eighteenth century, pre- 
 tended to have discovered an Arabic manuscript of 
 several of the lost books of Livy, and other important 
 documents in the Arabic language. His frauds were 
 exposed by Tychsen and Hager. 
 
 Velleius Patei cuius. See Paterculus. 
 
 Vellejus, vSl-la'yus, (Andreas Severinus or Soe- 
 rensen,) a learned Danish historian and theologian, 
 born at Veile, in Jutland, in 1542. He became court 
 preacher at Copenhagen about 1568. He published 
 "The Lives of the Popes, in verse," (157 1,) a "History 
 of Canute," several biographies, and other works. Died 
 in 1616. 
 
 Velleron. See Cambis-Vellero'n. 
 
 Velluti, vSl-loo'tee, (Donato,) an Italian chronicler, 
 born at Florence in 1313 ; died in 1370. 
 
 Velly, v&'le', (Paul Francois,) a French historian, 
 born near Rheims in 1709. He published a " History of 
 France," (8 vols., 1759,) which was favourably received 
 at the time. He also translated Swift's " History of John 
 Bull." Died in 1759. 
 
 Velpeau, veTpo', (Alfred Armand Louis Marie,) 
 a celebrated French surgeon and anatomist, born near 
 Tours (Indre-et-Loire) in 1795. He graduated in Paris 
 in 1823, became professor of clinical surgery to the 
 Faculte de Medecine in 1834 or 1835, and chief surgeon 
 of the hospital La Charite in 1841. He succeeded Dr. 
 Laney in the Institute about 1842. As professor of 
 clinic, he acquired a European reputation. Among his 
 numerous works we notice a "Treatise on Surgical 
 Anatomy," (2 vols., 1825-26,) which is said to be very 
 complete, an excellent treatise on Obstetrics, entitled 
 "Traitede l'Art des Accouchements," (1829,) which was 
 translated by Dr. Charles Meigs, of Philadelphia, (1831,) 
 and "Traite des Maladies du Sein," (1838.) An en- 
 larged edition of the latter was issued in 1854. Died 
 in August, 1867. 
 
 See Sachaile, " Les Medecins de Paris ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale. "- 
 
 Velser, fll'ser, or Velserus, fSl-sa'rus, (Marcus,) a 
 German civilian, born at Augsburg in 1558. He becalne 
 a senator about 1592. Among his works is " Rerum 
 Boicarum Libri V.," (1602.) Died in 1614. 
 
 Veltheim, fBlt'hlm, (August Ferdinand,) Count, 
 a German antiquary and scientific writer, born near 
 Helmstedt in 1741. He published a treatise "On the 
 Formation of Basalt," (1786,) "On the Statue of Mem- 
 non," and other works. Died in 1801. 
 
 Veltheim or Velthem, written also Velten, a Ger- 
 man actor of the seventeenth century, who was the first 
 to introduce the plays of Moliere on the German stage. 
 
 Velthusius. See Velthuysen. 
 
 Velthuysen, velt'hoi'zen, [Lat. Velthu'sius,] (Lam- 
 bert,) a Dutch theologian and philosopher, born at 
 Utrecht in 1622. He wrote several works on moral 
 philosophy and religion, which were highly esteemed. 
 He was a strenuous advocate of toleration. Died in 1685. 
 
 Venance. See Dougados. 
 
 Venantius. See Fortunatus. 
 
 Vence, de, deh v8nss, (Henri Francois,) a French 
 ecclesiastic and Hebrew scholar, born in Barrois about 
 1675. He wrote dissertations or commentaries on the 
 Bible, which were inserted in the Bible of Calmet, (1748- 
 50.) Died at Nancy in 1749. 
 
 Vendome, de, deh vdN'dom', (Alexandre,) Due, 
 a brother of Cesar, noticed below, born in 1598, was 
 legitimated the following year, and created Duke of 
 VendSme. He was made grand prior of the knights of 
 Malta in France. Suspected of conspiring against Riche- 
 lieu, he was arrested, (1626,) and died in prison in 1629. 
 
 Vend6me, de, (Cesar,) Due, a natural son of Henry 
 IV. of France and Gabrielle d'Estrees, was born in 1594^ 
 He was soon after legitimated and made Duke of Ven- 
 dome. Having been charged with taking part in the 
 conspiracy against Richelieu in 1626, he was imprisoned 
 four years. He was appointed Governor of Burgundy 
 in 1650. Died in 1665. 
 
 See Cardinal Retz, '* M^moires ;" Bazin, " Histoire de Louis 
 XIII." 
 
 Vend6me, de, (Louis,) son of the preceding, was 
 born in 1612, served in the campaigns of Louis XIII., 
 and rose to be viceroy and commander of the French 
 troops in Catalonia in 1649. He married in 1651 Laura 
 Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin, and after her death, 
 having been ordained a priest, was made a cardinal in 
 1669. Died in 1669. 
 
 Vend6me, de, (Louis Joseph,) Due, an able gene- 
 ral, a son of the preceding, was born in Paris in 1654. 
 He served under Turenne, and in the campaign of 
 Flanders under Marshal de Crequi, and was appointed 
 in 1681 Governor of Provence. He was made lieutenant- 
 general in 1688, and took an active part in the siege of 
 Namur and the battles of Steenkerke and Marsaglia. 
 Having succeeded Noailles as commander of the army 
 of Catalonia in 1695, he besieged Barcelona, which he 
 compelled to surrender, (1697.) On the breaking out 
 of the war of the Spanish succession, he became com- 
 mander of the forces in Italy, and in 1702 fought the 
 battle of Luzzara with the army of Prince Eugene. He 
 was defeated by the Duke of Marlborough and Eugene 
 at Oudenarde in 1708. Being sent in 1710 by Louis 
 XIV. to the assistance of Philip V. in Spain, he restored 
 that sovereign to his capital, and soon after gained a 
 signal victory over the Austrian forces under Starhein- 
 berg at Villa Viciosa. Died in 1 712. 
 
 See Villeneuvk, " FJoge du Due de Vendome," 1783 ; Voltaire, 
 "Siecle de Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, " Memoires ;" De Cour- 
 cki.i.ks, " Diciionnaire des GeneVaux Francais;" "Nouvelle Bio* 
 graphie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Venddme, de, (Philippe,) Due, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1655. He served under his uncle, 
 the Duke of Beaufort, in 1669, and took part in the 
 principal campaigns of his brother. He was grand prior 
 of the knights of the order of Malta. Died in 1727. 
 
 Vendramini, vin-dua-mee'nee, (Giovanni,) an able 
 Italian engraver, born near Bassano in 1769, worked 
 in England, and engraved the works of several Italian 
 masters. Died in London in 1839. 
 
 Venedey, fa'neh-di, (Jakob,) a German jurist and 
 politician, born at Cologne in 1805. He was arrested 
 in 1832 on a charge of being connected with secret so- 
 cieties, but effected his escape to France. Returning in 
 1848, he was soon after elected to the National Assem- 
 bly. He subsequently became professor of history at 
 Zurich. He has published several works on various 
 subjects, among which is a " History of the German 
 People," (4 vols., 1854-58.) 
 
 Venel, veh-nSI', (Gabriel Francois,) a French 
 chemist and physician, born at Combes in 1723. He 
 became professor of medicine at Montpellier, where he 
 died in 1775. 
 
 Venerio. See Veniero. 
 
 Veneroni, va-na-ro'nee, a French scholar of the 
 eighteenth century, originally named Jean Vigneron, 
 (ven'yeh-roN',) published an Italian Grammar and Dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 Venette, veh-neV, (Nicolas,) a French medical 
 writer, born at La Rochelle in 1633 ; died in 1698. 
 
 Veneziano. See Domenico Veneziano. 
 
 Veneziano, va-nSt-se-a'no, (Agostino,) a celebrated 
 Italian engraver, born at Venice, is sometimes called 
 
 a e,1, 6 
 
 u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, ?, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n5t; good; moon: 
 
VENEZIANO 
 
 2187 
 
 VENUS 
 
 Augustinus DE Musis. He studied under Marcantonio 
 Kaimondi, and executed a number of prints after Ra- 
 phael and Giulio Romano. Among his master-pieces 
 are portraits of the emperor Charles V. and Francis I. 
 of France, and "The Skeletons, or Burying- Place," after 
 Baccio Bandinelli. Veneziano is said to have been the 
 first to practise stipple engraving. He lived about 
 1510-40. 
 
 See Stkutt, " Dictionary of Engravers." 
 
 Veneziano, (Antonio,) an eminent Venetian painter, 
 bom about 1309, was a pupil of Angelo Gaddi. His 
 frescos in the Campo Santo at Pisa are ranked among 
 his master-pieces. He afterwards studied medicine, and 
 died of the plague at Florence, in 1384, while attending 
 the sick. 
 
 Veniero, va-ne-a'ro, or Venier, va-ne-aiR', (Anto- 
 nio,) a Venetian statesman, was elected doge in 1382. 
 He extended the domain of Venice by the acquisition 
 of Corfu, Argos, and Treviso. Died in 1400. 
 
 Veniero, (Domenico,) a Venetian poet and trans- 
 lator, born in 151 7, was one of the founders of the 
 Venetian Academy. He was intimate with Cardinal 
 Bembo and other distinguished men of the time. His 
 brothers, Lorenzo and Makfeo, were also poets. Died 
 in 1582. 
 
 Veniero or Venier, (Francesco,) a Venetian phi- 
 losopher and statesman, a brother of the preceding, was 
 born about 1505 ; died in 1 581. 
 
 Veniero, (Lorenzo,) a poet, born at Venice about 
 1510, was a brother of the preceding. He wrote sa- 
 tirical and immoral poems. Died in 1550. 
 
 Veniero or Venerio, va-na're-o, (Seiiastiano,) a 
 Venetian admiral, commanded the fleet of the republic 
 at the battle of Lepanto, in 1572. He was elected doge 
 in 1576. Died in 1578. 
 
 See Prescott, *' History of Philip II.," vol. iii. book v. 
 
 Ve-nil'I-a, [Fr. Venilie, v&'ne'le',] a Roman divinity 
 or nymph, was called a sister of Amata, the wife of Fau- 
 nus, and the mother of Turnus and Juturna. 
 
 Venilie. See Venilia. 
 
 Venino, va-nee'no, (Ignazio,) an Italian Jesuit, born 
 at Como in 171 1, is said to have been the greatest 
 preacher of Italy in the eighteenth century. Died at 
 Milan in 1778. 
 
 Venius. See Van Veen. 
 
 Venn, (Henry,) an eminent English theologian, born 
 at Barnes, Surrey, in 1725, was a son of Rev. Richard 
 Venn. He graduated as A.M. at Cambridge in 1749, 
 became vicar of Huddersfield about 1760, and rector of 
 Yelling, in Huntingdonshire, in 1770. He published, 
 besides Sermons, "The Complete Duty of Man, or a 
 System of Doctrinal and Practical Christianity," and 
 "Mistakes in Religion Exposed." Died in 1797. 
 
 See Henry Venn, "Life and Letters of Rev. Henry Venn," 
 1849- 
 
 Venn, (John,) a clergyman, a son of the preceding, 
 was born at Clapham in 1759. He became rector of 
 Clapham in 1792, and died there in 1813. Two volumes 
 of his sermons have been published. 
 
 Venn, (Richard,) an English writer on theology, 
 was the father of Henry, noticed above. He was rector 
 of Saint Antholin's, London. Died in 1740. 
 
 Ven'ner, (Tobias,) an Eng'ish physician, born in 
 Somersetshire in 1577. He practised at Bath with suc- 
 cess, and published a treatise on diet and regimen, en- 
 titled "The Right Way to Long Life," ("Via recta ad 
 Vitam longam," about 1622,) which was very popular. 
 Died in 1660. 
 
 Veii'ning, (Ralph,) an English nonconformist min- 
 ister, born about 1620, was noted both for his eloquence 
 and his piety. He became lecturer or preacher at Saint 
 Olave, Southwark, from which he was ejected for non- 
 conformity in 1662. He wrote, besides other religious 
 works, " Things Worth Thinking on, or Helps to Piety." 
 Died in 1673. 
 
 Ventenat, vSNt'nf, (Etienne Pierre,) a French 
 botanist, born at Limoges in 1757. He published a 
 "Tableau of the Vegetable Kingdom," (4 vols., 1799,) 
 "The Garden of Malmaison," (2 vols., 1803, with plates 
 by Redoute,) and other works. Died in 1808. 
 
 See CnvtER, " E*loges historiques." 
 
 Ven-tid'I-us Bas'sus, (Publius,) a Roman genera), 
 born in Picenum, was brought to Rome in 89 B.C., being 
 then a child. He became a favourite officer of Caesar, 
 whom he supported in the civil war which began in 49 
 B.C., and was chosen consul in 43. As the legate of 
 Mark Antony, he commanded in Syria in the year 39, 
 and defeated Labienus and the Parthian prince Pacorus. 
 
 See Dion Cassius, " History of Rome." 
 
 Ventignano, ven-ten-ya'no, (Cesare della Valle — 
 del'laval'la,) Dukeof, an Italian poetand miscellaneous 
 writer, born at Naples in 1777. Among his principal 
 works are the tragedies of " The Siege of Corinth" and 
 " Medea," an " Essay on the Education of the Aris- 
 tocracy and the Labouring Classes," (1848,) and " Phi- 
 losophic View of the History of the Human Race," 
 
 (I853-) 
 
 Ventimiglia, ven-te-mel'ya, (Giuseppe,) Prince of 
 Belmont, a liberal Sicilian statesman, born in 1761, was 
 distinguished for munificence and taste. Died in 1814. 
 
 Ventura, ven-too'ra, (Gioacchino or Joachim,) an 
 eloquent Italian preacher and theologian, born at Pa- 
 lermo in 1792. He gained such distinction as a preacher 
 of funeral orations that he was called "the Italian Bos- 
 suet." About 1824 he became a resident of Rome, and 
 acquired much influence with the pope. He published 
 "On the Method of Philosophizing," ("De Methodo 
 Philosophandi," 1828,) and "The Beauties of the Faith," 
 (1839.) He was liberal in politics, and, after the election 
 of Pius IX., (1847,) had great popularity as a leader of 
 the moderate party of reformers at Rome. He advised 
 the pope to give his subjects a constitution. His efforts 
 having been defeated, he quitted Rome in 1849, and set- 
 tled in Paris in 1851. He preached at the church of the 
 Madeleine and at the Tuileries, (1857,) and published, 
 in French, several works, among which is "The Philo- 
 sophic Reason and the Catholic Reason," (" La Raisoil 
 philosophique et la Raison catholique," 1852.) Died 
 at Versailles in August, 1861. 
 
 See E. Vavasseur, " Ventura," Paris, 1851 ; " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphic G^neYale." 
 
 Venturi, ven-too'ree, (Giovanni Battista,) an Ital- 
 ian natural philosopher, born at Bibiano in 1746. He 
 became professor of physics at Pavia about 1800. He 
 published, besides other works, an " Essay on the Phy- 
 sico-Mathematical Worksof Leonardo da Vinci," (1797,) 
 and a "Treatise on Optics," (1814.) Died in 1822. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1805. 
 
 Venturi, (Pompeo,) an Italian Jesuit, born at Sienna 
 in 1693. He wrote a commentary on Dante, (3 vols., 
 1732.) Died in 1752. 
 
 Ve'uus, [Gr. 'ktypxKrri, (Aphrodite;) Fr. Venus, vi'- 
 nits'; It. Venere, va'na-ra,] the goddess of love and 
 beauty, in classic mythology, was said to lie a daughter 
 of Jupiter (or Uranus) and Dione, the wife of Vulcan, 
 and the mother of Cupid, Harmonia, Hymen, the Graces, 
 Priapus, and tineas. None of these, however, were the 
 offspring of Vulcan. The poets feigned that she origi- 
 nated in the foam of the sea, (hence her surname Ana- 
 DYOMENE,) and landed first on the island of Cythera, 
 from which she passed to Cvprus, where flowers sprang 
 up under her feet ; that Love and Desire attended her to 
 the assembly of the celestial gods ; that Juno, Minerva, 
 and Venus were competitors for the prize of beauty, (the 
 apple of discord,) and that Paris decided in favour of 
 Venus. She thus became the object of Juno's jealousy 
 and lasting enmity. In the war between the Greeks and 
 the Trojans she was an ardent and active partisan of the 
 latter, and was wounded by Diomede. According to 
 popular legends, she possessed a magical girdle, which 
 had the property to inspire love and desire for the per- 
 son who wore it. Among her favoured paramours were 
 Mars, Bacchus, Apollo, Adonis, Mercury, and Anchises. 
 The principal places of her worship were Cythera, Cy- 
 prus, Paphos, and Idalium. Her favourite plants were 
 the rose and myrtle. The dove, sparrow, and swan 
 were •opposed to be sacred to her. She was variously 
 styled Cypria, (from Cyprus,) Cythera and Cythersea, 
 (from the island of Cythera, where she first appeared, 
 and of which she became the principal deity,) Venus Gen- 
 etrix, Venus 1 lortensis, Venus Victtix, Venus Verticordja, 
 Venus Alma, Venus Erycina, (from Eryx, in Sicily, 
 
 « as it; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (ft^r™ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FENUSTI 
 
 2188 
 
 FERGENNES 
 
 where she had a temple,) Aphrodite Pandemns, and 
 Aphrodite Urania. Venus was regarded by some ancient 
 authors as a personification of the generative power of 
 nature. She does not appear to have been an original 
 deity of Rome, nor to have been worshipped by the 
 Romans while they were ruled by kings. Her worship 
 was probably of Oriental origin. 
 
 Venusti, va-noos'tee, (Marcello,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Mantua, was a pupil of Perino del Vaga. He 
 was employed by Michael Angelo to copy a number of 
 his works. Among these we may name his " Last Judg- 
 ment," (painted in oil,) in the Royal Museum at Naples. 
 Died about 1580. 
 
 See Vasari," Lives of the Painters;" Lanzi, " History of Painting 
 in Italy." 
 
 Venuti, vi-noo'tee, (Filippo,) an Italian antiquary, 
 born at Cortona in 1709, was a brother of the following. 
 Died at Rome in 1769. 
 
 Venuti, (Niccol6 Marcello,) an Italian antiquary, 
 born at Cortona in 1700. He discovered the temple of 
 Jupiter and the theatre of Hercutaneum, and wrote a 
 "Description of the First Discoveries at Herculaneum," 
 (1749.) Died in 1755. 
 
 See Coi.teluni, " Elogium N. M. Venuti," 1755. 
 
 Venuti, (Ridolfino,) an eminent antiquary, born at 
 Cortona in 1705, was a brother of the preceding. He 
 became director of the Museum Albani at Rome. He 
 published a "Topographical Description of the Antiqui- 
 ties of Rome," (2 vols., 1763,) and other works on Roman 
 medals, inscriptions, etc., which are highly commended. 
 Died at Rome in 1 763. 
 
 See Pozzktti, " Elogio di Ridolfino Venuti," 1789. 
 
 Veranzio,va-rant'se-o, (Anton,) a Dalmatian prelate 
 and diplomatist, born at Sebenico in 1504. His name 
 in Dalmatian was Wranczy, (vRant'se.) He was em- 
 ployed in missions by Ferdinand I. of Austria. Died 
 
 in 1573- 
 
 Verard, vi'rf r', (Antoinf.,) one of the earliest French 
 printers, founded in 1480 an establishment in Paris, where 
 he published "The Prophecies of Merlin," "The Chroni- 
 cles of France," and "The Sea of Histories." 
 
 Verbiest, ver-beest',(FERniNAND,)a Flemish astron- 
 omer and missionary, born at Pitthem in 1623. He went 
 to China about 1658, and was employed as astronomer 
 by the emperor of that country. He wrote several works 
 on astronomy. Died at Peking in 1688. 
 
 See Carton. "Notice sur le Pere Verbiest," 1839; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Verboeckhoven, ver-book'ho'ven, (Eugene Jo- 
 seph,) a Belgian painter of animals, born in West Flan- 
 ders in 1798. Among his master-pieces may be named 
 his " Horses Fighting with Wolves," and a " View in the 
 Campagna of Rome with a Herd of Cattle." His bro- 
 ther Louis has acquired distinction as a marine painter. 
 
 Veroi, veVchee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 historian, born at Bassano in 1739. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of the March of Treviso," (20 vols., 1786-90,) and 
 other works. Died in 1795. 
 
 Ver-cin-get'o-rix, an able Gaulish commander and 
 chief of the Arverni. He was general-in-chief of the 
 tribes of Celtic Gaul which waged war against Julius 
 Caesar in 52 n.c. He defended Gergovia with success, 
 and compelled Cassar to raise the siege. The Gauls 
 having been defeated at Alesia, Vercingetorix, to spare 
 the effusion of blood, gave himself up to the victor. He 
 was taken to Rome, and put to death about 45 n.c. 
 
 See C*sar, "Commentaries," book vii. : Dion Cassius, " His- 
 tory of Rome:" H. Martin, "Vercingetorix," 1864; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Verdi, veVdee, (Giuseppe,) a celebrated Italian com- 
 poser, born in the duchy of Parma in 1814. He studied 
 under Lavigna at La Scala, at Milan, and in 1842 brought 
 out his opera of "Nabucodonosor," which was very suc- 
 cessful. It was followed by " I Lombardi," " Ernani," 
 " I due Foscari," " Giovanna d'Arco," " Macbeth," " Ri- 
 goletto," and other works, which enjoy great popularity. 
 
 See Bkrmani, " Scliizzi sulla Vita di G. Verdi," 1840 ; A. Basevi, 
 " Studio sulle Opere di G. Verdi :" Fetis, " Biographie Universelle 
 des Musiciens;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge*ne>ale." 
 
 Verdier, vjR'devi', ( Aymar,) a French architect, born 
 about 181S, at Tours. He gained a first medal in 1848. 
 
 Verdier, (Cesar,) a French anatomist, born near 
 Avignon in 1685. He lectured in Paris for many years, 
 and wrote on anatomy. Died in 1759. 
 
 Verdier, (Henri,) Count de Lacoste, a French poli- 
 tician, born at Nimes in 1770, was outlawed as a Girond- 
 ist in 1793. He held several offices under the Directory 
 and the empire, and wrote a work entitled "Alfred le 
 Grand," (2 vols., 1817.) Died in 1821. 
 
 Verdier, (Marcel,) a French historical painter, born 
 in Paris in 1817; died in 1856. 
 
 Verdier, du, (Antoine.) See Di'verdif.r. 
 
 Verdugo, ve'R-doo'go, (Franco,) a Spanish general, 
 who served in the Netherlands under Don John of 
 Austria and Alexander Farnese, and became Governor 
 of Friesland and Groningen. Died in 1595. 
 
 See Mutley, " United Netherlands," chap. xxxi. 
 
 Vere, veer, (Sir Francis,) an English general, born in 
 1554. He served with great distinction against the Span- 
 iards in Holland in the principal campaigns from 1585 to 
 1602, his last achievement being the defence of Ostend 
 against Albert, Archduke of Austria. He died in 1608, 
 leaving, in manuscript, an account of his life, entitled 
 "The Commentaries of Sir Francis Vere," etc. 
 
 Vere, (Horace,) brother of the preceding, was born 
 in Essex in 1565. He distinguished himself in the wars 
 of Holland under Prince Maurice, and, after the death 
 of Sir Francis, was appointed general of the English 
 army in the Netherlands. In 1620 he was sent by James 
 I. to assist the Elector-Palatine Frederick V. in securing 
 Bohemia. He was made a peer by Charles I. in 1625, 
 with the title of Baron Vere of Tilbury. Died in 1635. 
 
 Vere, de, the name of an ancient and noble family of 
 England, descended from a Norman knight who had a 
 high command at the battle of Hastings. His son be- 
 came Earl of Oxford, and a minister of King Henry I. 
 The third earl was one of the barons who extorted the 
 Magna Charta from King John. John de Vere, seventh 
 Earl of Oxford, was a famous commander, and fought 
 at Cressy and Poitiers, (1356.) The thirteenth earl was 
 a leader of the Lancastrian party in the war of the 
 Roses, and commanded the van of the army of Henry 
 VII. at Bosworth, (1485.) Edward de Vere, the seven- 
 teenth earl, was an eminent poet. (See separate article.) 
 The twentieth earl was Aubrey de Verk, whom Mac- 
 aulav describes as " the noblest subject in England." 
 He fought for Charles I. in the civil war, and after the 
 restoration became lord lieutenant of Essex. In 1687 
 he was dismissed from office because he refused to aid 
 James II. in packing a Parliament. He was the last 
 earl of that family. 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England," vol. ii. 
 
 Vere, de, (Edward,) seventeenth Earl of Oxford, an 
 English poet and courtier, born about 1540, was one of 
 the ornaments of the court of Queen Elizabeth. He 
 was lord high chamberlain in 1588, and had a command 
 in the fleet which opposed the Spanish Armada. Died 
 in 1604. 
 
 Ve-re'11-us, [Sw. pron. va-rii'le-ds,] (Olaus,) an 
 eminent Swedish antiquary, whose original name was 
 Oi.aF Werl, (wSrI,) was born in the diocese of Lin- 
 koping in 1618. He studied at Dorpat and Upsal, and 
 became successively professor of Swedish antiquities at 
 Upsal, (1662,) antiquary to King Charles XI., (1666,) 
 and chief librarian in the library of Upsal, (1679.) He 
 published several valuable works on Scandinavian his- 
 tory and antiquities. Died in 1682. 
 
 Verelst, va'relst, (Simon,) a Flemish flower- and 
 fruit-painter; died in 1 710. 
 
 Vergara, vf RgS'ra, (Jose,) a Spanish painter, born 
 at Valencia in 1726 ; died in 1799. 
 
 Vergara, de, da vjR-gJ'ril, (Nicolas,) a Spanish 
 painter and sculptor, born at Toledo about 1510; died 
 in 1574- 
 
 Vergara, de, (Nicolas,) a painter and sculptor, born 
 at Toledo about 1540, was a son of the preceding ; died 
 in 1606. 
 
 Vergelmer or Vergelmir. See NidhcV.g. 
 
 Vergennes, de, deh veit'zhen', (sometimes Anglicized 
 as ver-jenz',) (Charles Gravier — gRa"ve-i',) Count, 
 a French statesman and diplomatist, born at Dijon in 
 1717. He was appointed minister to the electoral court 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short ; a, e, 1, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
FERGERIO 
 
 21 89 
 
 PER ME 
 
 of Treves in 1750, and in 1755 was ambassador to Con- 
 stantinople. After his return he was sent, in 1771, on a 
 mission to Stockholm, where he assisted Gustavus III. 
 in his revolution against the nobles, lie became min- 
 ister for foreign affairs under Louis XVI. in 1774, and 
 concluded a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, 
 with the United States, in February, 1778, which involved 
 France in a war against England. This war was ended 
 by the treaty of Paris, which he signed in September, 
 1783. He remained in office until his death, in 1787. He 
 had a fair reputation for integrity as well as diplomatic 
 (kill. 
 
 See Mayer, "Vie du Comte deVergennes," 17S9 ; Vini n'AzYR, 
 " FJoge de M.Je Comte de Vergennes," 17XS ; l>Rnz, " Histoire du 
 Regne de Louis XVI ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Vergerio, v^R-ja're-o, (Pietro Paolo,) the Elder* 
 an Italian reviver of learning, born at Capo d'Istria about 
 1349. He was professor of dialectics at Padua from 1393 
 to 1400. He published a work "On Noble Manners," 
 (" De ingenuis Moribus,") and a Life of Petrarch. Died 
 about 1420. 
 
 See Baylk, "Historical and Critical Dictionary;" Paolo Giovto, 
 " Elogia. " 
 
 Vergerio, (Pietro Paolo,) the Younger, a relative 
 of the preceding, was born at Capo d'Istria about 1495. 
 He became papal nuncio to Germany in 1530, Bishop 
 of Capo d'Istria in 1536, and a convert to the Protestant 
 religion about 1 544. He took refuge in the Orisons, 
 from which he removed in 1553 to Tubingen, where he 
 was employed as a minister. He wrote several works 
 against popery. Died in 1565. 
 
 See Carli, "Vita di P. P. Vergerio:" Bayle, "Historical and 
 Critical Dictionary ;" Niceron, "Memoires ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Vergers, des. See Noel des Vergers. 
 
 Vergers, des, di veVzhj/, (Marin Noel,) a French 
 judge, born at Ervy in 1759. He was elected to the 
 Chamber of Deputies in 1831. Died in 1836. 
 
 Vergier, veVzhe-A', (Jacques,) a French poet, born 
 at Lyons in 1655, wrote tales and songs which were once 
 admired. He was killed by robbers at Paris in 1720. 
 
 Vergier de Hauraane. See Duvergier de Hau-' 
 
 RANNE. 
 
 Ver'gil Pol'jf-dore, [Lat. Virgii/ius (or Vergil' - 
 IUs) Poi.ydo'rus ; It. Vergilio Polidoro, vjR-jee'le-o 
 po-le-do'ro,| a celebrated writer and ecclesiastic, born 
 at Urbino, in Italy, about 1470. He was sent about 
 1502 to England by Pope Alexander VI. to collect the 
 tax called " Peter's pence," and continued to reside in 
 that country for the greater part of his life. He was 
 successively created Archdeacon of Wells, and preb- 
 endary in the cathedrals of Hereford, Lincoln, and 
 Saint Paul's. His principal works are his " History of 
 Inventions," ("De Rerum Inventoribus,") " Historia 
 Anglica," a history of England brought down to the end 
 of the reign of Henry VII., and a treatise against divina- 
 tion, entitled " De Prodigiis." Died about 1550. 
 
 Vergilio Polidoro. See Vergil Polydore. 
 
 Vergilius Polydorus. See Vergil Polydore. 
 
 Vergne, La. See La Vergne and Tressan. 
 
 Vergniaud, vSRn'ye-o', (Pierre Victurnien,) a 
 celebrated French orator and Girondist, was born at 
 Limoges, May 31, 1759. He was educated at the Col- 
 lege du Plessis at Paris, studied law under Dupaty, and 
 began to practise as an advocate at Bordeaux in '178L 
 His habits were rather indolent, meditative, and non- 
 chalant. " His language," says Lamartine, " had the 
 images and harmony of the most beautiful verses." He 
 was elected a member of the Legislative Assembly in 
 September, 1791. In July, 1792, he declaimed against 
 the conduct of the king, in a speech which made a pro- 
 found impression, and demanded that the Assembly 
 should declare that the country was in danger. He was 
 a member of the National Convention which met in 
 September, 1792. In the trial of the king he voted for 
 the appeal to the people, but after the defeat of that 
 measure he voted for his death, and, as president of the 
 Convention, pronounced the sentence, January, 1793. 
 He was one of the most moderate of the Girondists. 
 In April, 1793, he defended himself against Rol>espierre, 
 who had attacked him in a speech. He was one of the 
 
 twenty-two Girondists who were arrested by the order 
 of the Convention, June 2, 1793. According to Lamar- 
 tine, he was the most impassible of his companions in 
 prison, because he was the greatest. Arraigned before 
 the tribunal in October, he spoke thus in his defence : 
 " What ought to have been done to assure the triumph 
 of the republic? I have done it. What is now requi- 
 site to confirm the republic by the example of its devoted 
 friends? To die? I will do that." He was executed 
 in October, 1793. He was of middle stature, and was 
 physically well developed. In repose, his face was not 
 very expressive, but in the act of speaking it became 
 illumined and transfigured with genius. " Such," says 
 Lamartine, " was the man whom nature had given to 
 the Girondists for their chief. He did not condescend 
 to be that ; too indifferent (insouciant) for a leader of a 
 party, too great for a secondary position. He was Ver- 
 gniaud. Rather glorious than useful to his friends, he 
 was not willing to lead them, but he immortalized them." 
 
 "In parliamentary eloquence," says Macaulay, "no 
 Frenchman of that time can be considered equal to 
 Vergniaud. In a foreign country, and after the lapse of 
 half a century, some parts of his speeches are still read 
 with mournful admiration. No man, we are inclined to 
 believe, ever rose so rapidly to such a height of ora- 
 torical excellence. His whole public life lasted barely 
 two years." (Review of Barere's " Memoirs," 1S44.) 
 
 See Lamartine, "History of the Girondists;" Gknty dk 
 la Borderie, " FJoge de Vergniaud," i?oo; Thiers, " History of 
 tlie Revolution;" Touchard-Lafosse, "Histoire parlementaire et 
 Vie intime de Vergniaud," 1S4S; Madame Roland, "Memoires;" 
 Bi'chez et Roux, "Histoire parlementaire;" Michelkt, "His- 
 toire de la Revolution Francaise;" "Nouvelle Biographie GtintJ- 
 rale." 
 
 Verhaegen, ver-ha'gen or ver-ha'nen, (Pierre The- 
 odore,) a Belgian politician, born in Brussels about 
 1800. He was for many years a member of the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies, which he entered in 1837, and acted 
 with the Liberal party. 
 
 Verheyden, ver-hi'den, (Frans Pieter,) a Dutch 
 painter and sculptor, born at the Hague in 1657 ; died 
 in 171 1. 
 
 Verheyen, ver-hi'en, (Philippe,) an eminent Flemish 
 anatomist, born in East Flanders in 1648. He studied 
 medicine, etc. at Louvain, where he obtained a chair of 
 anatomy in 1689, and became highly distinguished as a 
 teacher. He wrote, in Latin, besides other professional 
 works, "The Anatomy of the Human Body," (1693,) 
 which was highly esteemed. Died in 17 10. 
 
 See V. J. Francois. " FJoge de Verheyen," 1S47 ; V. J. Francois. 
 " Notice sur la Vie de P. Verheyen," 1842 ; Niceron, " Memoires. 
 
 Verhnell, ver-hu'el, or Verhuel, (Carel Hkndrik,) 
 Count de Sevenaar, a Dutch admiral, born in Gelder- 
 land in 1760, or, as some say, in 1 764. As rear-admiral, 
 he fought against the English, near Flushing, in 1804. 
 He received the chief command of the army destined to 
 operate against the coasts of England, (1805,) and was 
 raised to the rank of marshal by King Louis in 1806. 
 He entered the French service in 1810, and was made a 
 peer of France in 1819. Died in 1845. 
 
 See Grandpierre, " Notice sur le Vice-Amiral C. H. Verhuel," 
 1845 ; Q M. R. Verhurll, " Het Leven en Karakter van C. H. Ver- 
 huel]," 2 vols., 1847; " Nouvelle Biographie G<Sne>a!e." 
 
 Verjus, veVzhiis', (Louis,) Count deCrecy, a French 
 diplomatist, born in Paris in 1629. He was a member 
 of the French Academy. Died in 1709. 
 
 His brother Antoine, born in 1632, was a Jesuit, and 
 author of several works of biography, etc. Died in 1706. 
 
 Verkolie, ver-ko'lee, (Jan,) a Dutch painter and 
 engraver, born at Amsterdam in 1650 ; died in 1693. 
 
 His son Nicholas, born in 1673, was a painter of 
 history and nocturnal scenes. Died in 1746. 
 
 Verlat, veVIa'', (Charles,) a Belgian painter of his- 
 tory and genre, born at Antwerp in 1824. He removed 
 to Paris in 1847. 
 
 Vermandois, de, deh veVmaN'dwl', (Louis de 
 Bourbon — deh booR'boN',) Count, born in Paris in 
 1667, was a son of Louis XIV. and Madame de La 
 Valliere. He was legitimated, and appointed admiral 
 of Fiance. Died in 1683. 
 
 Verme, del, del veVmi, (Jacopo,) an able Italian 
 general or condottitre, commanded the armies of Gian 
 
 c as k; 9 as s: g hard; g as_/; G, H, K.,guttwal; N, nasal; R, trilltd; s as z; *h as in this. (,jy~See Explanations, p. 23 
 
VERMEULEN 
 
 2190 
 
 VERNY 
 
 Galeazzo Visconti. He passed into the service of 
 Venice in 1404. 
 
 Vermeulen, ver-muh'len, (Cornelis,) a Flemish 
 engraver and designer, born at Antwerp in 1644. He 
 engraved portraits with skill. Died in 1702. 
 
 Vermeulen, [Lat. Moi.a'nus,] (Jan,) a Flemish 
 writer on theology and antiquities, was born at Lille in 
 1533. He published, besides other works, one "On 
 Sacred Pictures and Images," (" De Pichnis et Imagi- 
 nibus sacris," 1570,) and" De Canonicis," (1587.) Died 
 at Louvain in 1 585. 
 
 Vermeyen, von, fon ver-mi'en, or Vermeyn, ver- 
 min', (Johann,) a Dutch historical painter, surnamed 
 Hans mit dem Barte, (" Hans with the Beard,") was 
 born near Haarlem in 1500. He was a favourite of 
 Charles V., Emperor of Germany, whom he accom- 
 panied on his expeditions. Among his master-pieces 
 are ten large cartoons at Vienna, representing the march 
 of the emperor to Tunis. Died in 1559. 
 
 Vermigli. See Peter Martyr. 
 
 Vermond, de, deh vfeVmbN', (Matthieu Jacques,) 
 L'Abbe, a French ecclesiastic, was French teacher of 
 Marie Antoinette at Vienna before her marriage. After 
 she became Queen of France, he remained in her ser- 
 vice as reader, enjoyed her confidence, and exercised 
 great influence at court He is censured for his political 
 intrigues. Died after 1789. 
 
 Verniuyden, ver-moi'den, (Sir Cornelius,) a Dutch 
 engineer, born in Zeeland. He removed to England 
 about 1622, was employed by Charles I., and rendered 
 valuable services by draining part of the Bedford Level. 
 Died about 1665. 
 
 Vernage, veVntzh', (Michel Louis,) a French phy- 
 sician, born in Paris in 1697; died in 1773. 
 
 Vernazza, v§R-nit'sa, (Giuseppe,) Baron de Freney, 
 an Italian antiquary and writer, born at Alba, in Pied- 
 mont, in 1745. He resided at Turin, and held several 
 high offices. He wrote biographies, treatises on Italian 
 antiquities, etc. Died in 1822. 
 
 Vernes, v?Rn, (Jacoh,) a Protestant divine, born at 
 Geneva in 1728, wrote "Letters on the Christianity of 
 J. J. Rousseau," and other works. Died in 1791. 
 
 Vernet, veR'nJ', (Antoine Charles Horace,) some- 
 times called Carle Vernet, a son of Claude Joseph, 
 noticed below, was born at Bordeaux in 1758. He was 
 instructed by his father, and afterwards studied at the 
 French Academy of Arts, and in 1782 gained the grand 
 prize offered by that institution. His favourite subjects 
 were battle-scenes and animals, particularly horses. 
 Among his master-pieces are "The Bombardment of 
 Madrid," "The Battle of Wagram," and "The Entrance 
 of Napoleon into Milan." Died in 1836. 
 
 See Durande, "Joseph, Carle et Horace Vernet," 1865; L. 
 Lagrange, "Les Vernet, (Carle et Horace,") 1864; C. Blanc, 
 " Histoire des Peintres ;" " Nouvelle Biographic Generale. " 
 
 Vernet, (Claude Joseph,) an eminent French 
 painter, born at Avignon in 17 14. He studied at Rome, 
 devoting himself principally to marine landscapes, in 
 which department he soon attained rare excellence. He 
 resided nearly twenty years in Italy, during the early 
 part of which time he was so reduced as to be obliged 
 to paint coach-panels, which were afterwards taken out 
 and framed. He was invited to France in 1752 by Louis 
 XV., who commissioned him to paint the principal sea- 
 ports of France. These views — fifteen in number — are 
 in the Louvre, where many of his best works are to be 
 seen. Among his other master-pieces we may name the 
 pictures in the Borghese and Rondanini palaces at Rome, 
 and a " Seaport at Sunset," in the Louvre. He had been 
 elected in 1753 a member of the Academy of Arts. Died 
 in 1789. 
 
 See Durande, "Joseph, Carle et Horace Vernet," 1865: L. 
 Lagrange, "J. Vernet et la Peinture au dix-huitieme Siecle," 
 1864; C. Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres;" "Nouvelle Biographic 
 Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Vernet, (Horace,) a celebrated French painter of 
 battles, son of Antoine Charles, noticed above, was born 
 in Paris in 1789. He studied under his father, and in 1809 
 exhibited his "Capture of a Redoubt." This was soon 
 followed by "The Trumpeters," "The Barriere de 
 Clichy," "Battle of Tolosa," "Soldier of Waterloo," 
 and other military pictures, which won for him the j 
 
 highest reputation in that department of the art. He 
 was created a chevalier of the legion of honour by 
 Napoleon in 1814, an officer of the legion of honour 
 by Charles X., (1825,) a member of the Institute, (1826,) 
 and director of the Academy at Rome, (1828.) He was 
 also patronized by Louis Philippe, for whom he painted 
 a series of battles in the Constantine gallery at Versailles. 
 His pictures are of large dimensions. He worked at 
 Rome about eight years, — 1828-35, — alu ' painted there a 
 picture of a "Meeting of Raphael with Michael Angelo." 
 Among his chief works are the " Siege of Constantine" 
 and the "Battle of Isly." At the Exposition of 1855 a 
 jury of painters from various nations awarded him the 
 grand medal of honour. Died in 1863. 
 
 See A. Durande, "Joseph, Carle et Horace Vernet," i86j; 
 L. dr Lombnie, "M. H. Vernet, par un Homme de Rien,"i84i, 
 L. Lagrange, "Les Vernet, (Carle et Horace,") 1864; C. Blanc; 
 "Histoire des Peintres;" T. Svlvestre, "Histoire des Artiste* 
 vivants,"i857: De Mirecourt, " H. Vernet," 1855; "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge^ieVale ;" "Jahrbuch zum Conversations-Lexikon," 
 ■ 863. 
 
 Vernet, veVnl', (Jacob,) a Swiss theologian, born at 
 Geneva in 1698. He became pastor at Geneva in 1734, 
 rector of the Academy in 1737, and professor of the- 
 ology there in 1756. He wrote, besides many other 
 works, " Socratrc Dialogues on Moral Subjects," (1746,) 
 and "Christian Instruction," (4 vols., 1752.) Died in 
 1789. 
 
 Verneuil, de, deh veVnuI' or veR'nuh'ye, (Philippe 
 Edouard Poulletier,) a French naturalist, distin- 
 guished as a geologist and palaeontologist, was born in 
 Paris in 1805. He became a member of the Institute in 
 1854. Among his works is a "Memoir on the Geology 
 of the Crimea," (1837.) 
 
 Verney, du, (Joseph.) See Duverney. 
 
 Vernier, veR / ne-i', (Pierre,) a French mathema- 
 tician, born at Ornans, in Franche-Comte, about 1580, 
 invented a graduated scale or quadrant. Died in 1637. 
 
 Vernier, (Theodore,) a French advocate and mor- 
 alist, born at Lons-le-Saulnier in 1731. He was a member 
 of the Convention, in which he voted against the death 
 of the king, (1793.) He wrote several works on the 
 passions, etc. Died in 1818. 
 
 Verniquet, veVne'kJ', (Edme,) a French architect, 
 born at Chatillon-sur-Seine in 1727. He built many 
 chateaus and bridges in the provinces. His chief work 
 was the plan of Paris and its faubourgs, at which he 
 worked twenty-eight years. Died in 1804. 
 
 Ver'non, (Edward,) a celebrated English admiral, 
 born at Westminster in 1684. He served in the early 
 campaigns of the war of the Spanish succession, and in 
 1727 was elected to Parliament for Penryn, being re- 
 turned for Portsmouth in 1734. In 1739 he was sent, 
 with the rank of vice-admiral of the blue, to the West 
 Indies, to take Porto Bello from the Spaniards, which 
 exploit he accomplished with only six ships. After his 
 return he was several times re-elected to Parliament. 
 Died in 1757. 
 
 See a "Life of Admiral Vernon," London, 1758: Charnock, 
 " BiographiaNavalis;" Campbell, "Lives of the British Admirals. " 
 
 Vernon, (Robert,) an English amateur, born in 
 1774, devoted a large fortune to the purchase of pictures 
 by British artists. In 1847 he presented this collection, 
 containing one hundred and fifty-seven paintings, to the 
 British National Gallery. The Vernon pictures are, 
 with two exceptions, the work of native artists. They 
 have been placed in Marlborough House. Died in 1849. 
 
 Vernon, de. See Gay de Vernon. 
 
 Ver'non-Har'cSurt, (William George,) an Eng- 
 lish lawyer, born in 1827. He graduated at Cambridge 
 in 1851. He wrote, under the signature " Historicus," 
 several letters on international law, which appeared in 
 the London "Times." 
 
 Vernon-Smith, (Robert.) See Lyveden. 
 
 Vernulaeus. See Vernulz, de. 
 
 Vernulz, de, deh ver-nulz', [ Lat. Vernul.t/us, ] 
 (Nicolas,) a P*lemish poet and orator, born at Robel- 
 mont in 1 583, became professor of eloquence and Latin 
 at Louvain. He published numerous Latin orations and 
 poems. Died in 1649. 
 
 Veiny, v<5ii'ne', (Charles,) a French poet, born at 
 Besancon in 1753; died in 181 1. 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9. obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
VEROCCHIO 
 
 2191 
 
 VERTUMNE 
 
 Verocchlo, del, del vi-rok'ke-o, or Verrocchio, 
 (Andrka,) an eminent Italian statuary and painter, born 
 at Florence in 1432. Among his works are a bronze 
 bust of David the Psalmist, and paintings of "The 
 Holy Family" and "The Incredulity of Saint Thomas." 
 Leonardo da Vinci was his pupil. Died in 1488. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters ;" Lanzi, " Histcry 0* 
 Painting in Italy." 
 
 Veron. See Forbonnais, de. 
 
 Veron, vi'roN', (Francois,) a French Jesuit and 
 controversial writer, born in Paris about 1575. He had 
 a public dispute with Samuel Bochart, at Caen, in 1628. 
 Died in 1649. 
 
 Veron, (Louis Desire,) a French journalist and 
 physician, born in Paris in 1798. He founded in 1829 
 the " Revue de Paris," which was very successful, and 
 became director of the Opera in 1831. He resigned 
 this position in 1836, became proprietor of the "Consti- 
 tutionnel" in 1844, and supported Louis Napoleon as 
 president and as emperor. He published "Memoirs 
 of a Citizen of Paris," ("Memoires d'un Bourgeois de 
 Paris," (autobiographic,) (6 vols., 1854.) Died in 1867. 
 
 Veronese, (Paul.) See Cagliari. 
 
 Ver-planck', (Gulian Crommki.in,) a distinguished 
 American scholar and writer, born in New York in 1786. 
 He published in 1819, anonymously, a brilliant satirical 
 work, entitled "The State Triumvirate, a Political Tale." 
 He was soon after appointed professor of the evidences 
 of Christianity in the Protestant Episcopal Seminary, 
 New York, and in 1825 was elected to Congress. In 1827 
 he published conjointly with W. C. Bryant and Robert C. 
 Sands a miscellany entitled "The Talisman," to which he 
 contributed nearly one-half of the articles. Among his 
 other works we may name his address before the New 
 York Historical Society, entitled "The Early European 
 Friends of America," (1818,) "Essays on the Nature and 
 Uses of the Various Evidences of Revealed Religion," 
 (1824,) and "Discourses and Addresses on Subjects of 
 American History, Art, and Literature," (1833.) He 
 brought out in 1846 his superb edition of Shakspeare, 
 with notes, esteemed one of the best that had ever ap- 
 peared. Died in March, 1870. 
 
 VeVres, (Caius,) a Roman governor, notorious for 
 his rapacity and cruelty, was born about 112 B.C. He 
 was quaestor in 82, and city praetor at Rome in 74 B.C. 
 When his term of office as praetor had ended, in 73, he 
 became governor of the rich and important province of 
 Sicily, which he almost ruined by his extortions, out- 
 rages, and vexatious measures. He was accused by the 
 people of Sicily, who engaged Cicero to conduct the 
 prosecution before the senate. Hortensius was the 
 counsel for the defence in this trial, which was one of 
 the most celebrated in the history of Rome, and was 
 one of the great eras in the life of Cicero, who gained 
 his cause ; but Verres had absconded before the end of 
 the trial, and retired to Marseilles. He passed twenty- 
 seven years in exile, and died about 42 ».C 
 
 See Cicero's Verrine Orations, including ,te oration " In Q. 
 Oecilium ;" Drumann, "Geschichte Roms." 
 
 Verri, ver'ree, (Ai.essandro,) Count, an Italian 
 lawyer and eloquent writer, was born at Milan in 1741. 
 He contributed many able essays to a literary journal 
 called "The Coffee- House," ("II Caffe.") About 1767 
 he became a resident of Rome. He published a suc- 
 cessful novel, "The Adventures of Sappho," (1780,) and 
 a series of dialogues of the dead, entitled "The Roman 
 Nights," (" Le Notti Romane," 1792,) which were much 
 admired. Died at Rome in 1816. 
 
 See A. Levati, " Elogio storico di A. Verri," 1808 : G. Maggi, 
 "Vita di A. Verri," i8m; " Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Verri, (Carlo,) an agriculturist, bom at Milan in 1743, 
 was a brother of the preceding. He became a member 
 of the council of state in 1805, and a senator at Milan in 
 1809. He wrote on the cultivation of the vine and other 
 subjects. Died in 1823. 
 
 See Roskati, " Cenni storici di C. Verri," 184a. 
 
 Verri, (Gabriels,) Count, an Italian jurist, born at 
 Milan in 1696, was the father of Alessandro, noticed 
 above. He published several legal works. Died in 1782. 
 
 Verri, (Pietro,) an Italian author and political econ- 
 omist, born at Milan in 1728, was a son of the preceding. 
 
 He served in the Austrian army in his youth, became a 
 member of the council of economy at Milan in 1765, and 
 president of the chamber of accounts in 1780. lie pub- 
 lished a work on political economy, (" Meditazioni sull' 
 Economia politica," 1771,) which has a high reputation, 
 a "History of Milan," (2 vols., 1783-98,) and other 
 works. Died at Milan in 1797. 
 
 See Isidorg Bianchi, " Elofiio storico di P. Verri," 1803; A. 
 Rossi, "Orazio in Lode di P. Verri," 1818; CusTont, " Notizie 
 sulla Vita di P. Verri." 1843; Nessi, "Elogio di P. Verri," 1844 J 
 " Foreign Quarterly Review" for June, 183S. 
 
 Verrio, ver're-o, (Antonio,) an Italian painter, born 
 about 1639, was invited to England by Charles II., who 
 employed him to paint a series of frescos in Windsor 
 Castle. He was also patronized by James |I. His 
 works, executed for Lord Exeter at Burleigh House, are 
 esteemed his best performances ; he is said by Dr. 
 Waagen to have received more money for these alone 
 than Michael Angelo or Raphael ever obtained for all 
 their paintings. His works are chiefly remarkable for 
 bad taste and absurdity. Died in England in 1707, 
 
 See Walpolk, " Anecdotes of Painting." 
 
 Ver'rI-us Flac'cus, (Marcus,) a distinguished Ro- 
 man grammarian, who was appointed by Augustus in- 
 structor to his grandsons Caius and Lucius. He was 
 the author of several valuable works, one of which was 
 a Roman calendar, entitled " Fasti Praenestini," frag- 
 ments of which were published by Foggini in 1779. 
 
 Verrocchio, del, (Andrea.) See Verocchio, del. 
 
 Verschaffelt, de, deh ver-sKaf'feH, (Pierre,) a Flem- 
 ish sculptor, called by the Italians Pietro Fiammingo, 
 was born at Ghent in 1710. He worked in Rome and 
 Mannheim, where he died in 1793. 
 
 Verschuring, - ver-sKu'ring, (Hendrik,) a Dutch 
 painter, whose works are principally battle-pieces, was 
 born at Gorcum in 1627 ; died in 1690. 
 
 Ver-ste'gan, (Richard,) an English antiquary, of 
 Dutch extraction, was born in London. He removed 
 to Antwerp, where he published his principal work, 
 entitled "A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence con- 
 cerning the Most Noble and Renowned English Nation," 
 (1605.) Died about 1635. 
 
 Verstolk van Soelen, ver-stolk' vin soo'len, (Jan 
 Gijsbert — gis'b§Rt,) Baron, a Dutch statesman, born 
 at Rotterdam in 1777. He was ambassador to Saint 
 Petersburg in 1815, and in 1825 was appointed minister 
 of foreign affairs. Died in 1845. 
 
 Vert, de, deh vaiR, (Claude,) a French Benedictine 
 and liturgist, born in Paris in 1645. He wrote several 
 works on religious ceremonies. Died in 1708. 
 
 Verteillac See La Brousse. 
 
 Vertot, de, deh veVto', (Rene Aubert,) an eminent 
 French ecclesiastic and historian, born in Normandy in 
 1655. He studied in the Jesuits' College at Rouen, and 
 subsequently entered the order of the Premonstrants at 
 Valsery. He was the author of a " History of the Revo- 
 lutions of Portugal," (1689,) " History of the Revolutions 
 of Sweden," (1696,) "Complete History of the Estab 
 lishment of the Britons in Gaul," (1710,) " History of 
 the Revolutions of the Roman Republic," (3 vols., 1 7 1 9, ) 
 and " History of the Knights of Malta," (4 vols., 1726.) 
 His works were very popular, owing partly to the style, 
 which is very agreeable. Died in Paris in 1735. 
 
 See "Notice sur la Vie de l'Abbe' Vertot," 1795; Moreri, "tc- 
 tionnaire Historique;" "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Ver'tue, (George,) an eminent English engraver, 
 born in London in 1684. He acquired the friendship 
 and patronage of Sir Godfrey Kneller, and, on the es- 
 tablishment of the Academy of Painting in London, in 
 171 1, became one of its members. In 1717 he was ap- 
 pointed engraver to the Society of Antiquaries by the 
 Earl of Winchelsea, president of that body. He en- 
 graved the portraits of many eminent men of his own 
 time, and illustrated several works for the booksellers 
 He collected materials for a history of painting and en- 
 graving in England, which he left in manuscript. These 
 were purchased by Horace Walpole, and published in 
 his "Anecdotes of Painting." Died in 1756. 
 
 See Strutt, " Dictionary of Engravers ;" " Monthly Review" 
 for February and March, 1781. 
 
 Vertumne. See Vertumnus. 
 
 < as *; c as s; g hard; g as ;'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *,• th as in this. (jySec Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FERTUMNUS 
 
 219Z 
 
 VEST A 
 
 Ver-tum'nus or Vor-tum'nus, [Fr. Vertumne, 
 veVtomn',] an Etruscan and Roman divinity, supposed 
 to preside over the changes of the seasons and the trans- 
 formation of plants. He was regarded by some writers 
 as the god of gardens, of orchards, and of autumn. The 
 poets relate that he loved Pomona, who was so coy that 
 he did not succeed until he had metamorphosed himself 
 into many forms. 
 
 Veiulam, Lord. See Bacon, (Francis.) 
 
 Ve'rus, (Lucius ./Elius), son of vElius Verus, who 
 had been adopted and made Caesar by the emperor 
 Hadrian. In 161 A.D. he became the colleague of Mar- 
 cus Aurelius as Emperor of Rome. He was a weak and 
 profligate prince. Died in 169 A.D. His original name 
 was L. Commodus. 
 
 Verville, de. See Beroalde de Verville. 
 
 VeVjf, (Jones,) an American poet, born at Salem, 
 Massachusetts, in 1813. He published "Essays and 
 Poems," (1839,) and was a contributor to the "Christian 
 Register," " Monthly Religious Magazine," and other 
 Journals. 
 
 See Griswold, " Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Vesale. See Vesalius. 
 
 Vesalio. See Vesalius. 
 
 Ve-sa'H-us, [Fr. Vesale, veh-zil'; It. Vesalio, vl- 
 il'le-o,] (Andreas,) the most eminent anatomist of the 
 sixteenth century, was born at Brussels in December, 
 1514. His father, Andrew, was apothecary to the Em- 
 peror of Germany. He studied languages at Louvain, 
 and medicine at Montpellier and Paris. About 1535 he 
 served in the Imperial army, probably as surgeon. He 
 became professor of anatomy at Padua or Pavia about 
 1538, and published a Latin work in 1539 in which he 
 taught that blood should be drawn from the right arm. 
 In 1543 he produced his great work on anatomy, " Seven 
 Books on the Structure of the Human Body," (" De Cor- 
 poris humani Fabrica Libri septem,") which operated 
 immense improvements in the science. Senac compared 
 it to the discovery of a new world. Having in this work 
 'jontroverted some doctrines of Galen, he was rewarded 
 for his services by violent hostility and reproaches from 
 several eminent anatomists of his time. About 1544 
 he quitted Italy, and became physician to the emperor 
 Charles V., at whose court he remained until the abdi- 
 cation of the emperor, in 1555. Soon after this event 
 he went to Madrid to attend Philip II. He had a high 
 reputation as a physician. According to a doubtful re- 
 port, he incurred the censure of the Inquisition. For 
 some reason not well explained, he left Madrid in 1563 
 or 1564, and performed a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. While 
 he was at Jerusalem, he was invited by the senate of 
 Venice to occupy the chair of anatomy at Padua. He 
 resolved to accept this offer ; but, in his voyage to Italy, 
 he was wrecked on the island of Zante, where he died 
 :f exposure in October, 1564. His collected works, with 
 .lis " Life," were published by Boerhaave and Albinus, (2 
 vols., 1725.) 
 
 See Burggrahve, " £tudes snr Vesale," 1841, and " E"loge de 
 Vesale," 1848; Meksse.man, " E*loge de Vesale," 1845; Hai.ler, 
 " Bibliotheca Anatomica;" L. 'Schoonen, "Hommage a Vesale," 
 ' : n verse,) 1847 ; Portal, " Histoire del'Anatomie," tomei. ; " Nou- 
 .•elle Biographie Ge'neVale." 
 
 Vesling, fes'ling, (Johann,) a German physician and 
 naturalist, born at Minden in 1598, became professor of 
 anatomy at Padua. He visited Egypt and Palestine, and 
 published several botanical works. Died in 1649. 
 
 Vespasian, vis-pa'zhe-an, [Lat. Vespasia'nus; Fr. 
 Vespasien, vJs'pi'zg-^N' ; It. Vespasiano, ves-pa-se- 
 a'no,] or, more fully, Ti'tus Fla'vius Vespasia'nus, 
 Emperor of Rome, was born near Reate in 9 a.d. He 
 served as military tribune in Thrace, and held the offices 
 of quaestor of Crete and Cyrene, under Caligula. He 
 was afterwards made praetor ; and, having distinguished 
 himself by several important victories in Britain, he was 
 appointed proconsul of Africa about 60 A.D. As com- 
 mander of the forces against the revolted Jews in 66 
 A.D., he subjected nearly the whole of Judea in less than 
 two years. In 69 A.D. Vespasian was proclaimed em- 
 peror by Tiberius Alexander, prefect of Egypt, in oppo- 
 sition to Vitellius, who was soon after put to death by 
 the Roman soldiers. The principal events of the reign 
 of Vespasian were the conquest of Jerusalem by Titus, 
 
 in 70 A.D., the victories of Agricola in Britain, and of 
 I'etilius Cerealisover the Batavi, commanded by Civilis. 
 Under his wise and beneficent rule Rome enjoyed a high 
 degree of prosperity ; he patronized learning and the 
 arts, introduced important reforms into the army and 
 courts of justice, and repaired the ravages caused by 
 civil war. He also restored the Capitol, built the mag- 
 nificent Temple of Peace, and began the erection of the 
 amphitheatre, afterwards called the Colosseum, and also 
 the Flavian Amphitheatre, from his name Flavius. He 
 died in 79 A.D. 
 
 See Suetonius, " Vespasianus ;" A. W. Cramer, " Flavins Ves- 
 pasianus," 1785 ; Tacitus, " History of Rome :" Berneggbr, "Vita 
 Imperatoris Vespasiani," 1625; Hhimbrod, " Flavii Vespasiani Ini- 
 peratoris Vita," 1S33; Tillemont, "Histoire des Empereurs :" 
 Mkrivalk, " History of the Romans under the Empire;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie G&ierale." 
 
 Vespasiano. See Vespasian. 
 
 Vespasianus. See Vespasian. 
 
 Vespasien. See Vespasian. 
 
 Vespucci, vespoot'chee, (Amerigo, a-ma-ree'go,) 
 [Latin, Amer'icus (or Ameri'cus) Vespu'cius ; Fr. 
 Ameiuc Vespuce, t'ma'rek' veVpus',) a famous Italian 
 navigator, who gave his name to the New World, was 
 born at Florence on the 9th of March, 145 1. He 
 was educated by his uncle, Giorgio Antonio Vespucci, 
 an eminent scholar, and applied himself especially to 
 astronomy and cosmography. In his early life he was 
 engaged in mercantile pursuits. About 1490 he removed 
 to Spain, where, it is said, he became acquainted with 
 Columbus in 1492. In a letter dated February, 1505, 
 Columbus mentions Vespucci as a person whom he 
 knew and esteemed. Vespucci was employed as a mer- 
 chant at Seville for several years. He accompanied an 
 expedition which Ojeda conducted to America in 1499. 
 It is probable that he served as astronomer in this 
 and several subsequent voyages. According to a letter 
 written by Vespucci, he took part in an expedition 
 which was sent by the King of Spain in 1497, and dis- 
 covered new islands and lands. Humboldt and others 
 argue that 1499 is the true date of his first voyage. It 
 is admitted that he made four voyages to the New 
 World, but he had not the chief command of any one 
 of the expeditions. The part of the continent discov- 
 ered by him was near the equator. In his letter dated 
 July 18, 1500, he says, "We discovered a very large 
 country of Asia." Having entered the service of the 
 King of Portugal, he sailed in 1501 on an exploring ex- 
 pedition to Brazil, on his return from which, September, 
 1502, he was received at Lisbon with great honour and 
 rejoicing. He acquired a high reputation by his astro- 
 nomical discoveries. About 1 505 he returned to Spain. 
 He died poor at Seville in 1512. 
 
 See A. M. Bandini, "Vitae Letlere di Amerigo Vespucci," 1745; 
 Canovai, "Elogiodi A. Vespucci," 178S; Santarem, " Recherches 
 historiques snr AmeYic Vespuce," 1842, (translated into English 
 by E. V. Childe, 1850 ;) C. Edwards Lester, " Life of Americus 
 Vespucius," 1846; Ad. Varnhagen, "Vespuce et son premier Vo- 
 yage," 1858 ; A. Varnhagen, " A. Vespucci, son Caractere, ses EcritSj 
 sa Vie," etc.. 1865 ; Napione, " Esame critico del primo Viaggio di 
 A. Vespucci," 181 1 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Generale ;" "North 
 American Review" for April, 1821. 
 
 Vespuce and Vespucius. See Vespucci. 
 
 VSs'ta, one of the principal Roman divinities, was 
 identical'with the Greek Hestia, {'Earia,) and was re- 
 garded as the goddess of chastity, virginity, fire, the 
 domestic hearth, and domestic happiness. She was, 
 according to Hesiod, a daughter ef Saturn (Cronus) and 
 Rhea, and was bound by a vow of perpetual virginity. 
 Her symbol was the eternal fire burning on the hearth 
 or altar, and vigilantly kept alive by her priestesses, the 
 vestal virgins. If this fire ever became extinguished, it 
 was renewed by friction or by the rays of the sun col- 
 lected by a burning-glass. Every repast in which a 
 family joined was considered as a sacrifice to Vesta and 
 the Penates. Each city had its sacred hearth or sanc- 
 tuary of Vesta, usually located in a public edifice called 
 the Prytaneum. She was supposed to preside at all 
 sacrifices, and had a share of the sacrifices offered in all 
 the temples. The Romans celebrated in her honour an 
 annual festival, called Vestalia, which occurred in the 
 month of June. Vesta appears to have been one of the 
 chief Penates of Troy, and the vestal fire is said to have 
 
 i, 5, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, fl, y, short; a, e, j, g, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mJt; not; good : moon ; 
 
I'ESTRIS 
 
 2193 
 
 VICO 
 
 been brought to Italy by ./Eneas. The vestal virgins, 
 whose office is supposed to have been instituted by 
 Noma, were six in number, and were required to de- 
 vote thirty years to the service of the goddess. If any 
 one of them violated her vow of chastity, she was buried 
 alive. 
 
 Vestria, veVtRess, or Veatri, veVtRee, (Angiolo 
 Maria Gasparo,) an Italian dancer, born at Florence 
 in 1730, was a brother of Gaetano Apolline, noticed 
 below. Died in 1809. 
 
 Vestria or Veatri, (Gaetano Apolline Baldas- 
 sare.) a famous Italian dancer, born at Florence in 
 1729. He made his debut in Paris in 1748, and was 
 received with enthusiastic applause. He was afterwards 
 appointed ballet-master at the Grand Opera. His per- 
 formances were unrivalled in their kind, and he was 
 popularly styled "the God of Dancing." His vanity 
 was excessive and amusing; and he once observed that 
 Frederick, King of Prussia, M. Voltaire, and himself, 
 were the only great men of the century. Died in 1S08. 
 
 Veatris or Vestria- Allard, veVtRess' t'ltR', (Marie 
 Auguste,) a dancer, born in Paris in 1760, was a son of 
 the preceding. Died in 1842. 
 
 Veatris,(MARiF. Rose Gourgaud-Dugason — gooR'- 
 go' du'gt'zoN',) a French actress, especially celebrated 
 For her skill in tragic parts, a sister-in-law of Gaetano 
 Apolline, noticed above, was born in Paris in 1746; 
 died in 1804. 
 
 Vestritius Spurinna. See Spurinna. 
 
 Ve-tra'nI-o, a Roman general, who was persuaded 
 by his troops to assume the title of emperor in 350 a.d. 
 About the end of that year he abdicated in favour of 
 Constantius. Died in 356. 
 
 Vettori, vSt-to'ree, or Vittori, vet-to'ree, (Bene- 
 detto,) an Italian medical writer, born at Faenza in 
 1481 ; died in 1561. 
 
 Vettori, [Lat. Victo'rius,] (Francesco,) an Italian 
 antiquary, bom at Rome about 1710. He wrote numer- 
 ous dissertations. Died in 1778. 
 
 Vettori, (Pietro,) an accomplished Italian scholar, 
 born at Florence in 1499, was appointed professor of 
 Latin and Greek literature in that city. He was the 
 author of Latin commentaries on the works of Aristotle, 
 and he published editions of Sallust, Cicero, and other 
 Latin classics; also the " Electra" of Euripides, and 
 various Greek works. He likewise wrote a number of 
 letters, poems, and orations in Italian. Died in 1585. 
 
 See A. M. Bandini, "Vita di P. Vettori," 1756; Benivieni, 
 "Vila di P. Vetlori," 1585. 
 
 Ve-tu'rI-a, [Fr.VETURlF, va'tii're',] a Roman matron, 
 the mother of Coriolanus, (which see.) When Rome 
 was attacked by an army of Volscians commanded by 
 her son, she headed a procession of women who went to 
 his camp and entreated him to spare the city. He finally 
 relented, and exclaimed, "O mother, thou hast saved 
 Rome, but destroyed thy son !" 
 
 Veturie. See'VETURiA. 
 
 Veuillot, vuh'yo', (Louis,) a French writer and 
 journalist, born in the department of I.oiret in 1815. 
 He became successively editor of the "Chartede 1830," 
 " La Paix," and the " tjnivers Religieux," in Paris, and 
 distinguished himself by his zealous support of the ultra- 
 montane party and violent abuse of his opponents. His 
 " Univers" was suppressed in i860. He has published 
 several novels. 
 
 See "Nnuvelle Biographic GeneVale." 
 
 Veyssiere de La Croze. See La Croze. 
 
 Veytia, de, da va-e-tee'3, ? (Mariano,) a Mexican 
 historian, of Spanish extraction, born at Puebla in 1718, 
 wrote an account of the early history of Mexico, en- 
 titled " Historia Antigua," (Mexico, 1836.) 
 
 See Prkscutt, "History of the Conquest of Mexico," vol. i. 
 b*ok i. 
 
 Viani, ve-a'nee, (Giorgio,) an Italian numismatist, 
 born in 1762 ; died in 1816. 
 
 Viani, (Giovanni,) an Italian painter, bom at Bo- 
 logna in 1636, is said to have been a skilful artist. Died 
 in 1700. His son Domenico, born in 1668, was also a 
 painter. Died in 171 1. 
 
 Viardot, ve'iR'do', (Leon,) a French portrait-painter, 
 born at Dijon in 1804. 
 
 Viardot, (Louis,) a French littlrateur, a brother oi 
 the preceding, was born at Dijon in 1800. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "The Museums of Italy," (1842,) 
 and a " History of the Arabs and Moors of Spain," (2 
 vols., 1851.) He married Pauline Garcia, the vocalist, in 
 1840. He translated "Don Quixote" and other Spanish 
 works into French. . 
 
 Viardot, (Pauline Garcia,) a popular French ac- 
 tress and singer, a daughter of Manuel Garcia, was born 
 in Paris in 1821. She made her dibut in London in 
 1839, and was married to L Viardot in 1840. She 
 excels in the rbles of " Desdemona," " Valentine," (in 
 "The Huguenots,") and "Fides," (in "The Prophet" of 
 Meverbeer.) 
 
 Vias, de, deh ve'Ss', (Balthasar) a Latin poet, born 
 at Marseilles in 1587, was a friend of Peiresc. He was 
 appointed a councillor of state by Louis XIII. He 
 wrote numerous poems. Died in 1667. 
 Viasaolo. See Federici, (Camili.o.) 
 Viaud or Viau, de, deh ve'6', (Theophile,) a French 
 poet. (See Theophile.) 
 
 Viborg, vee'boRG, (Erich Nissen,) an eminent Dan 
 ish naturalist and veterinary surgeon, born in Sleswick 
 in 1759. He wrote numerous works. Died in 1822. 
 Vibulanua. See Fahius Vihulanus. 
 Vic, de, d?h vek, (Dominique,) a French commander 
 and constant adherent of Henry IV. He rendered 
 important services at the battle of Ivry. In 1602 
 he became governor of Calais and vice-admiral. Died 
 in 1610. 
 
 Vicari, von, fon vee'ka-ree, (Hermann,) a German 
 Catholic prelate, born at Aulendorf, in Upper Suabia, 
 1,1 '773. rose t0 be Archbishop of Freiburg in 1842. 
 
 Vic'ara, (John,) an English Puritan writer in the 
 time of Cromwell, was born in London in 1582. He 
 published, among other works, "The Burning Bush not 
 Consumed," and "God's Ark Overtopping the World's 
 Waves." Died in 1652. 
 
 Vic'a-rjf, (Thomas,) an English anatomist, born in 
 London, was surgeon to Henry VIII. and Edward VI. 
 He published a treatise on anatomy, (about 1548.) 
 
 Vicat, ve'kt', (Louis Joseph,) a French civil engineer, 
 born at Grenoble in 1786. He distinguished himself by 
 the discovery of hvdraulic cement, and made an improve- 
 ment in the foundation of bridges. Died in 1861. 
 Vicenoe, Due de. See Caulaincourt. 
 Vicente, (Gil.) See Gil Vicente. 
 Vicenza, Duke of. See Caulaincourt. 
 Vichard. See Saint-RSal. 
 
 Vichmann, viK'man, (Burkhard,) a Russian his- 
 torian, of German extraction, born at Riga in 1786. He 
 wrote (in German) several works on Russian history. 
 Died in 1822. 
 Vichnou. See Vishnu. 
 
 Vici, vee'ehee, (Andrea,) an Italian architect, born 
 at Arcevia in 1744, was appointed in 1787 hydraulic 
 architect and engineer for the work of draining the Pon- 
 tine marshes. Among the principal structures he has 
 built may be named the cathedral of Camarino, and the 
 church of San Francesco at Foligno. Died in 1817. 
 
 Vico, vee'ko, (Enea,) an Italian engraver and numis- 
 matist, born at Parma about 1520. He worked at Flor- 
 ence and Ferrara, and engraved some pictures of Michael 
 Angelo and Raphael. He published several works on 
 numismatics, among which is a "Treatise on the Medals 
 of the Ancients," ("Discorsi sopre le Medaglie degli 
 Antichi," 1555.) Died about 1570. 
 
 Vico, (Giovanni Battista,) an eminent Italian phi- 
 losopher, called the creator of the philosophy of history, 
 was born at Naples in 1668. He studied languages, 
 philosophy, and law, and, after he left college, passed 
 nine years as preceptor in the family of the Bishop of 
 Ischia. In 1697 he was appointed professor of rhetoric 
 in the University of Naples, with a salary of one hun- 
 dred scudi (or ducats) per annum. He published in 
 1720 a work on law, entitled "On the One Principle and 
 End of all Law," ("De universi Juris una Principio et 
 Fine uno.") His principal work is entitled " Principles 
 of a New Science of the Common Nature of Nations," 
 (" Principj di una Scienza nuova intorno alia communr 
 Natura della Nazione," 1725,) in which he attempts to 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as 1; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, 
 
 i*8 
 
 p- n-) 
 
VICO 
 
 2194 
 
 VICTOR 
 
 prove that the events of history are determined by cer- 
 tain and immutable laws. It presents original thoughts, 
 but in some parts is rather obscure. In 1735 he became 
 historiographer to the King of Naples. He was author 
 of otherworks. Died at Naples in January, 1743 ori744. 
 See liis Autobiography, prefixed to his " Scienza miova," 1821 ; 
 M. Parma, "Sludj IV. sopra Vico," 183S : J. Ferrari, " Vico et 
 J'ltalie," 1839; Rocco, " Etogio storico di Vico." 1844; A. Mana- 
 vit, "itloge du Pere deVico," 184S : " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale;" "Foreign Quarterly Review" for January, 1845. 
 
 Vioo, di, de vee'ko, (Francesco,) an Italian Jesuit 
 and astronomer, born at Macerata in 1805, became di- 
 rector of the Observatory at Rome. Died in 1848. 
 
 Vicq-d'Azyr or Vicq-d'Azir, vek'dS'zeR', (Felix,) 
 a distinguished French anatomist, born at Valogne, in 
 Normandy, in 1748. He studied medicine in Paris, and 
 was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 
 1774. He became in 1776 one of the founders of the 
 Royal Society of Medicine, of which he was appointed 
 perpetual secretary, and in 1788 succeeded Buffon in 
 the French Academy. He was made first physician to 
 the queen in 1789. His wife was a niece of Daubenton. 
 He died in 1794. Among his numerous and valuable 
 works we may name "Observations on the Means of 
 Preserving Animals from Contagion," (1774,) " Medicine 
 for Horned Cattle," (1781,) "Treatise on Anatomy and 
 Physiology," (with coloured plates, 1786,) and "Eulogies 
 on Members of the Royal Society," (1778-88.) 
 
 See Cuvier, " E"loge de Vicq-d'Azyr :" Moreau de la Sarthe, 
 "E"loge de F. Vicq-d'Azir," 1797: P. E. Lemontey, "filoge liis- 
 torique de Vicq-d'Azir," 1825 ; " Nouvelle Biographie Gdneiale." 
 
 Vicramaditya. See VikramAditya. 
 
 Victoire de France, vek'twaR' deh fRoNss, (Louise 
 Marie Therese,) a daughter of Louis XV., was born 
 at Versailles in 1733. She emigrated in 1791, after which 
 she lived at Rome and Naples. Died in 1799. 
 
 Victor, (Aurelius.) See Aurelius Victor. 
 
 Vic'tor I., a native of Africa, became Bishop of Rome 
 about 185 a.d. He died about 198 A.n., and was suc- 
 ceeded by Zephyrinus. 
 
 Victor II., originally Gebhard, Bishop of Eichstadt, 
 succeeded Leo IX. as Pope of Rome in 1055. He died 
 in 1057, and was succeeded by Stephen IX. 
 
 Victor III., (Desiderius,) Abbot of Monte Casino, 
 succeeded Gregory VII. in 1086. After a contest with 
 the adherents of the emperor Henry IV., he retired to 
 Beneventum, where he anathematized the anti-pope 
 Guibert. He died in 1087, and was succeeded by 
 Urban II. 
 
 Victor IV. was supported as anti-pope by Frederick 
 L of Germany, in opposition to Alexander III., in 1 1 59. 
 Died in 1164. 
 
 Victor, vek'toR', (Claude Perrin,) Duke of Belluno, 
 a celebrated French marshal, born in the department 
 of the Vosges in 1764 He served in Spain in 1794, and 
 in the principal engagements of the Italian campaigns 
 from 1795 to 1799, having been made general of division 
 in 1797. He commanded part of the vanguard at the 
 battle of Marengo, (1800,) and had a prominent share in 
 the victory of that day. He was ambassador to Copen- 
 hagen in 1805. He distinguished himself in the Prussian 
 campaign of 1806, and was created marshal of France 
 after the battle of Friedland, (1807,) for his signal ser- 
 vices on that occasion. Appointed in 1808 commander 
 of the first corps of the army of Spain, he gained several 
 important victories over the Spaniards, but he was de- 
 feated by the Duke of Wellington at Talavera, (1809.) 
 In the Russian campaign of 1812 he was conspicuous 
 for his skill and bravery, as well as for his humanity to 
 the wounded soldiers during the disastrous retreat. He 
 rendered important services at Dresden and Leipsic, 
 (1813.) Having entered the service of Louis XVIII. 
 in 1814, he adhered to him in the Hundred Days, and 
 denounced Napoleon as "the man who has tyrannized 
 and betrayed France." He was minister of war from 
 December, 1821, to October, 1823. Died in 1841. 
 
 See De Courcem.es, " Dictionnaire des Generaux Francais ;" 
 Thiers, " History of the Consulate and the Empire ;" " Nouvelle 
 Biographic Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Victor, Saint, of Marseilles, served in the Roman 
 army. During the persecution of the Christians under 
 Diocletian, he suffered martyrdom, in 303 a.d. 
 
 Vic'tor Am-a-de'us [Fr. Victor Am6d6e, vek'- 
 toR' i'ma'di'; It.'VrrroRio Amedeo, vet-to're-o a-ml- 
 da'o] I., Duke of Savoy, born at Turin in 1587. In 
 1635 he was the ally of France in the war with Spain. 
 He married Christine de France, a sister of Louis XIII. 
 Died in 1637, and was succeeded by his son, Charles 
 Emmanuel II. 
 
 Victor Amadeus II, first King of Sardinia, born in 
 1666, succeeded his father, Charles Emmanuel, in 1675, 
 the government being conducted by his mother as regent. 
 Soon after his accession to the sovereignty, he was urged 
 by Louis XIV. to the persecution of the Waldenses; 
 but in 1690, having formed an alliance with Spain and 
 Austria, he restored them to their homes, and declared 
 war against France. He joined the Austrians in the war 
 of the Spanish succession, and in 1706 assisted his rela- 
 tive Prince Eugene in defeating the French, who had 
 besieged Turin. After the peace of Utrecht he obtained 
 Lomellina and other territories, and the island of Sicily, 
 with the title of king. He subsequently gave up Sicily 
 to the Austrian emperor, receiving in exchange the island 
 of Sardinia. He abdicated in 1730, died in 1732, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Charles Emmanuel III. 
 
 See Cahutti; " Storiadi Vittorio Amedeo II ," 1S56: Lambert^ 
 " Histoire de I'Abdication de Victor Amedee," 1734 ; Botta, 
 " Histoire d'ltalie ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 Victor Amadeus IDC., son of Charles Emmanuel 
 III., was born in 1726, and ascended the throne in 1773. 
 He was deprived of Savoy and Nice by the French 
 during the Revolution. He died in 1796, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Charles Emmanuel IV. 
 
 See J. de Maistre, " filoge de Victor Ame'dee III," 1775. 
 
 Vic'tor Em-man'u-el [It. Vittorio Emanuele, 
 vet-to're-o a-ma-nooa'Ia] L, King of Sardinia, second son 
 of Victor Amadeus HI., was born in 1759, and ascended 
 the throne on the abdication of his brother, Charles Em- 
 manuel IV., in 1802. His subjects having demanded a 
 more liberal constitution, to which he refused to accede, 
 he resigned in 1821 in favour of his brother, Charles 
 Felix. Died in 1824. 
 
 Victor Emmanuel EC., (of Sardinia,) and the first 
 King of Italy, the eldest son of Charles Albert and Maria 
 Theresa of Austria, was born at Turin in 1820. Hemarried 
 his cousin-german, Maria Adelaide of Austria, in 1842, 
 and succeeded his father, who abdicated, in March, 1849. 
 His kingdom, which then included only Piedmont, Savoy, 
 and Sardinia, was not in a prosperous condition ; but he 
 was fortunate in obtaining the services of an able states- 
 man, Count Cavour, who became prime minister in 1852. 
 The wise and liberal policy of Cavour increased the 
 power of the Sardinian states and induced the friends 
 of Italian unity to regard Victor Emmanuel with favour. 
 By joining the French and English in the Crimean war, 
 (1854,) he gained admission into the conventions of 
 European powers. In April, 1859, his dominions were 
 invaded by the Emperor of Austria, who was offended 
 by the growing spirit of liberty and nationality in the 
 peninsula. By an alliance with France, Cavour was 
 prepared for the contest. The Austrians were defeated 
 at the battles of Magenta and Solferinoin June, 1859, soon 
 after which peace was concluded, and Lombardy was 
 added to the dominions of Victor Emmanuel. In the 
 mean time the people of Tuscany, Parma, and M6dena 
 had deposed their petty sovereigns, and had taken steps 
 to unite themselves with the other Italian states. The 
 people of the Romagna were also nearly unanimous in 
 favour of annexation to the kingdom of Sardinia. The 
 cause was rapidly advanced, in i860, by the brilliant 
 operations of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples, the libera- 
 tion of which was completed by the capture of Gaeta 
 in March, 1861. The result of these transactions was 
 the union of all Italy, except Venetia and a small part 
 of the papal states adjacent to Rome. Victor Emmanuel 
 was proclaimed King of Italy in March, 1861, and was 
 recognized as such by the French government in June 
 of that year. He compensated Napoleon HI. for his 
 aid by the cession of Savoy and Nice. The King of 
 Italy and his subjects ardently desired the possession 
 of Rome, the position and celebrity of which rendered 
 it the most eligible place for the capital of the kingdom, 
 but it was under the domination of the pope, supported 
 
 a. e, T, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
VICTORIA 
 
 219,- 
 
 V1DA 
 
 jy a Frencl army, which had occupied the city since 
 1S49. 
 
 In 1865 the seat of government was transferred from 
 Turin to Florence. Victor Emmanuel was the ally of 
 Prussia in the short but momentous war of 1866. The 
 Italian army, having, entered Venetia, was repulsed at 
 Custozza ; but the victory of the Prussians at Sadowa, 
 July 3, compelled the Emperor of Austria to sue for 
 peace and to give up Venetia. This province, in ac- 
 cordance with a nearly unanimous vote of its people, 
 was annexed to the kingdom of Italy about the end of 
 1866, — an event which was a source of great exultation 
 to the Italian patriots. In fulfilment of a treaty nego- 
 tiated in 1864, Napoleon withdrew his army from Koine 
 in December, 1866, in spite of the efforts of the pope to 
 retain that last bulwark of his temporal power. Italy 
 was then free from the presence of foreign soldiers for 
 the first time probably in a thousand years. The recent 
 changes have been most favourable to religious liberty 
 in Italy, the government of which has adopted the 
 motto of "a free church in a free state." 
 
 To secure the neutrality or friendship of Italy, Napo- 
 leon III., in August, 1870, withdrew his army from 
 Rome. In September of that year Victor Emmanuel 
 sent an army to occupy Rome, and wrote to the pope 
 that republicanism was so rampant in Italy that if he 
 had not taken that course a republic would have been 
 proclaimed in every Italian city. His army obtained 
 possession of Rome, without serious resistance, Septem- 
 ber 20, 1870, and the temporal power of the pope then 
 came to an end. 
 
 See C. de La Varenne, "Le Roi Victor Emmanuel," 1865; 
 Arrivahknh, " [/Italic sous Victor Emmanuel," 1865; La Fa- 
 rina, " Storia d'italia ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge'ne'rale." 
 
 Vic-to'rI-a, [Gr. Ntmj, (Nike or Nice;) It. Vitto- 
 ria, vet-to're'-i ; Fr. Victoire, vek'twaR',] in classic 
 mythology, the goddess or personification of victory. 
 
 Victoria. See Victorina. 
 
 Victoria, Dt'KE of. See EsrARTERO. 
 
 Victoria, vek-to're-a, or Vitoria, (Francisco,) an 
 eminent Spanish theologian, born in Navarre. He be- 
 came a professor in the University of Salamanca, and 
 produced " Theological Relections," (" Relectiones The- 
 ologicse XIII.," 1557.) The most important parts of 
 this scarce work are those which treat of the Indians 
 and of the laws of war, (" De Indis," and " De Jure 
 lielli.") Nicolas Antonio and other Spanish writers 
 bestow the highest eulogy on Victoria. Commenting on 
 his " De Jure Belli," Hallam observes, " The whole 
 relection, as well as that on the Indians, displays an 
 intrepid spirit of justice and humanity." (" Introduction 
 to the Literature of Europe.") Died about 1550. 
 
 Victoria, (Don Vincente,) a Spanish painter, born 
 at Valencia in 1658. He worked with success at Rome, 
 where he died in 1712. 
 
 Vic-to'rI-a Al-ex-an-dri'na, Queen of the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, was born at 
 Kensington Palace in May, 1819. She is the only child 
 of Edward, Duke of Kent, (a son of George III.,) and 
 Maria Louisa Victoria of Saxe-Coburg, who was a sister 
 of Leopold I. of Belgium. Her education was directed 
 by the Duchess of Northumberland. She received in- 
 struction in political affairs and principles from Lord 
 Melbourne. On the death of her uncle, William IV., 
 she succeeded to the throne on the 20th of June, 1837, 
 and was crowned in June, 1838. Lord Melbourne, who 
 was prime minister when she became queen, resigned 
 in Mav, 1839, and Victoria then requested Sir Robert 
 Peel to form a new ministry. He consented to take 
 office, but insisted that she should dismiss the ladies of 
 her bed-chamber, (who were Whigs,) which she refused 
 to do. The result of this affair was that Lord Melbourne 
 returned to power. In February, 1840, she was married 
 to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, with whom she 
 lived happily and in whom she found a prudent coun- 
 sellor. (See Albert.) The Whig ministry, having been 
 defeated in Parliament, resigned in August, 1841, and 
 Sir Robert Peel became prime minister. Among the 
 events of 1841 was the birth of her son Albert Edward, 
 Prince of Wales. Between 1840 and 1843 three several 
 attempts were made to assassinate her, by persons 
 
 named Oxford, Francis, and Bean. Victoria visited 
 Louis Philippe in France in 1843, and travelled with 
 Prince Albert in Germany in 1845. 
 
 The year 1846 was rendered memorable by the repeal 
 of the corn laws after a long and exciting contest. (See 
 Cobden, Richard, and Peel, Sir Robert.) Lord John 
 Russell was prime minister from July, 1846, to February, 
 1852, and was succeeded by Lord Derby, a conservative. 
 Lord Derby having resigned, a coalition ministry was 
 formed by the Earl of Aberdeen in December, 1852. To 
 maintain the integrity of Turkey against the encroach- 
 ments of Russia, the British ministry formed an alliance 
 with France, and waged war in the Crimea and Baltic 
 against the Czar in 1854 and 1855. Lord Palmerston 
 became prime minister in February, 1855, the queen 
 visited Napoleon III. at Paris in August, and the allies 
 took Sebastopol in September of that year. The Crimean 
 war was ended by a treaty in the spring of 1856. A 
 great mutiny of the Sepoys broke out in India in 1857. 
 Lord Palmerston resigned office in February, 1858, to 
 the Earl of Derby, who remained in power until June, 
 1859, and was succeeded by Lord Palmerston. In De- 
 cember, 1861, occurred the death of Prince Albert, by 
 which she was so deeply affected that for several years 
 she absented herself from public ceremonies and lived 
 in seclusion. She has been much censured for neglect 
 of the duties of sovereignty, but, with this exception, 
 her conduct has been such as to render her popular 
 with nearly all classes and all parties. 
 
 The British government has pursued the policy of 
 non-intervention in the great wars which have occurred 
 in Europe and America since 1856. Among the notable 
 recent events of her reign are the revolutionary move- 
 ments of the Fenians in Ireland and North America, 
 (1865-66,) and the agitation of the question of reform in 
 England. The House of Commons rejected the Reform 
 bill of Russell and Gladstone, who consequently resigned 
 in June, 1866, and a Tory ministry was formed by Derby 
 and Disraeli. In 1867 Disraeli procured the passage of 
 a Reform bill which greatly .increased the number of 
 voters and will probably reduce the power of the aris- 
 tocracy. Queen Victoria is the author of " Leaves from 
 the Journal of our Life in the Highlands from 1848 to 
 1861," (1868,) edited by Arthur Helps. In December, 
 1868, Mr. Gladstone became prime minister. 
 
 See " Queen Victoria from her Birth to her Bridal," London, 3 
 vols., 1840 ; " Queen Victoria in Scotland," London, 1S42 ; " Men 
 of the Time" for 1868. 
 
 Viotorin de Feltre. See Vittorino. 
 
 Vic-to-ri'na or Vic-to'rI-a, [Fr. Victorine, vek'- 
 to'ren',| a warlike Roman princess, waged war against 
 Gallienus in Gaul, and took the title of Augusta. She 
 was the mother of Victorinus, one of the Thirty Tyrants. 
 Died in 268 A.D. 
 
 Vic-to-ri'nus, a religious writer, and Bishop of Peta- 
 bium, in Styria. He suffered martyrdom about 303 A.D. 
 
 See Launov, "De Victorino Eptscopo," Paris, 1664. 
 
 Victorinus, (Caius or Fabius Marius,) an African 
 grammarian and theologian, taught rhetoric at Rome, 
 was converted to Christianity, and wrote several works 
 on grammar and theology. Died about 380 A.D. 
 
 Victorinus, [Fr. Victorin, vek'to'raN',1 (Marcus 
 Piauvonius,) a Roman general, called one of the Thirty 
 Tyrants. He assumed the title of emperor in Gaul in 
 267 a.d., and was assassinated by one of his officers 
 in 268. 
 
 Victorius. See Vettorl 
 
 Vida, vee'da, (Marco Girolamo or Marcus Hiero- 
 nymus,) one of the most eminent Latin poets of modern 
 times, was born at Cremona, in Italy, about 1485. He 
 studied the classics and theology at Mantua, Padua, and 
 Bologna, and afterwards visited Rome, where he was 
 patronized by Leo X., who made him prior of San Sil- 
 vestro, at Frascati. Under Clement VII. he became 
 apostolic prothonotary and Bishop of Alba, (1532.) He 
 was the author of " Christias," (1535,) a poem on the 
 life of Christ and written in the style of Virgil, " De 
 Arte Poetica," a didactic treatise, (in verse,) and " Game 
 of Chess," (" Scacchiae Ludus,") which has been trans- 
 lated into English by Goldsmith, and into German by 
 Hoffmann. He also wrote several Latin orations, and the 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (JjySee Explanations, p. 2O 
 
VWAL 
 
 2196 
 
 VI EN NET 
 
 dialogues entitled " De Dignitate Reipublicae," (1556.) 
 Died in 1566.* 
 
 See Tadisi, "Vita di Vida," 1788; Lancetti, "Delia Vita e 
 degli Scritti di Vida," 1840; TrRABOSCHt, " Storia della Letteratura 
 Italian*;" F. Mansoeti, " Orazione in Lodedi M. G. Vida," 1846: 
 Nicbron. " Me'moires :" Ughei.u, " Italia Sacra ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for August, 1835. 
 
 Vidal, ve'dtl', (Francois,) a French writer on social- 
 ism and political economy, born in the department 
 of Gironde in 1814, has published a treatise "On the 
 Division of Wealth, or Distributive Justice in Social 
 Economy," (1846,) and other works. He was elected a 
 member of the Legislative Assembly by the voters of 
 Paris in 1850. 
 
 Vidal, ve-dal', (Jago,) a Spanish painter, born at 
 Valmaseda in 1602, worked at Seville. Died in 1648. 
 
 Vidal, (PrKRRF.,) a French troubadour, born "in the 
 latter part of the twelfth century, accompanied Richard 
 Cceur de Lion in the crusade to the Holy Land. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Vidal de Cassis, ve'daM' deh ki'sess', (Auguste 
 Theodore,) a French physician, born at Cassis in 1803. 
 He became surgeon of the hospital du Midi, and acquired 
 a high reputation by his "Treatise on External Pathol- 
 ogy and Operative Medicine," ("Traite de Pathologie 
 externe et de Medecine operatoire," 5 vols., 1838-44.) 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 Vidar, vee'dar, or ViSarr, vee'thar, [etymology ex- 
 tremely doubtful ; Keyser supposes it may be changed 
 from vinnar, the " conqueror," (from vinna, to " over- 
 come,")] in the Norse mythology, the god of silence, 
 the son of Odin and the Jbtun woman Grida. Next to 
 Thor he is the strongest of all the ^lisir. * Among his 
 possessions is an iron shoe of prodigious strength and 
 size, which at Ragnarock he will place on the nether 
 jaw of Fenrir ; then with his hand he will seize the upper 
 jaw and tear him asunder. He, as well as Vali, will 
 survive the destruction of the world. Vidar is supposed 
 to be a type of the imperishability of the powers of 
 nature. 
 
 See Thorpe. " Northern Mythology," vol. i. ; Khvser, " Religion 
 of the Northmen ;" Petersen, " Nordisk Mythologi." 
 
 Vidaurri, ve-dSwr'ree, (Santiago,) a Mexican sol- 
 dier and politician, born about 1810. He aided to drive 
 Santa Anna from power in 1855, and proclaimed himself 
 Governor of Coahuila and New Leon in February, 1856. 
 He was one of the chief ministers of Maximilian during 
 the empire, and was shot as a traitor in 1867. 
 
 Vidl-us, [It. Gumo, gwee'do,[ (Goidi,) an Italian 
 physician, born at Florence about 1500. He became a 
 professor in the College Royal of Paris in 1542, and 
 removed to Pisa about 1 547. He wrote several pro- 
 fessional works. Died at Pisa in 1569. 
 
 Vidocq, ve'dok', (Eugene Francois,) a French 
 adventurer and famous chief of the detective police, was 
 born in 1775. He was successively a thief, soldier, 
 deserter, and gambler before he entered the public 
 service, and was often imprisoned for his offences. 
 About 1810 he enlisted in the police at Paris. His 
 success as a detective has scarcely been paralleled in 
 history. Died in 1850. 
 
 See his interesting "Autobiographic Memoirs," and the " Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for January, 1829. 
 
 Vieilh de Boisjolin. See Boisjolin, de. 
 Vieille, ve'£I' or ve-i'ye, (Jules,) a French mathe- 
 matician, entered the Normal School about 1833. He 
 
 * Vida's fame appears to have been much higher a century or two 
 ago (when the language in which he wrote was far more generally 
 cultivated) than it is at present. Pope speaks of him as the crown- 
 ing glory of Leo's reign : 
 
 " But see ! each muse, in Leo's golden days, 
 Starts from her trance, and trims her wither'd bays, 
 Rome's ancient genius o'er its ruins spread 
 Shakes off the dust, and rears his reverend head. 
 Then Sculpture and her sister arts revive ; 
 Stones leap'd to form and rocks began to live ; 
 With sweeter notes each rising temple rung ; 
 A Raphael painted, and a Vida sung. 
 Immortal Vida 1 on whose honoured brow 
 The poet's bays and critic's ivy grow: 
 Cremona now shall ever boast thy name, 
 As next in place to Mantua, next in fame !" 
 
 See " Essay on Criticism," Part III. 
 
 published a ".General Theory of Numerical Approxi- 
 mations," (2d edition, 1854,) and other works. 
 
 Vieilleville, de, deh ve'&I'vel' or ve'&'ye-vel', (Fran- 
 cois de Scepaux — deh sa'po',) Sire, Count de Dure- 
 tal, a French general, born in 1510. He was employed 
 in foreign missions by Henry II. and Charles IX., and 
 was a moderate opponent of the Huguenots in the civil 
 wars. In 1562 he became marshal of France. Died in 
 I57I- 
 
 Vieira or Vieyra, ve-a^e-ra, (Antonio,) an emi- 
 nent Portuguese missionary and writer, born at Lisbon 
 in 1608. He performed diplomatic missions to Paris, 
 (1646,) to London, and to Rome, (1650.) He afterwards 
 preached to the Indians in Brazil, and advocated the 
 cause of the slaves in that country. He published Ser- 
 mons, (16 vols., 1683-1754,) "History of the Future," 
 (" Historia do Futuro," 1718,) and " Letters," ("Cartas," 
 3 vols., 1735-46.) Died at Bahia in 1697. 
 
 -See F. de Fonseca, "Vida de Vieira," 1734; A. de Barros, 
 "Vida du P. A. Vieira," 1746; Niceron, "Memoires;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie GeneYale." 
 
 Viel. See Veil. 
 
 Viel, ve'el', (Charles Francois,) a French architect, 
 born in Paris in 1745. Hg designed several hospitals in 
 Paris, and wrote books on architecture. Died in 1819. 
 
 Viel, (Jean Marie Victor,) a French architect, born 
 in Paris in 1796. He was the architect of the Palais de 
 I'lndustrie, built for the Universal Exposition of 1855. 
 
 Viel-Castel, de, deh ve'el' kts'tel', (Horace,) 
 Comi'E, a French litterateur, born about 1797. He pub- 
 lished several tales and poems. 
 
 VieW, vee'la, (Egbert L.,) an American engineer and 
 general, born in Saratoga county, New York, about 
 1825, graduated at West Point in 1847. He was ap- 
 pointed engineer-in-chief of the Central Park, New York, 
 about 1856. He served as a brigadier-general in 1861 
 and 1862, and resigned in October, 1863. 
 
 Vien, ve'aN', (Joseph Marie,) an eminent French 
 historical painter, born at Moritpellier in 1716. He 
 studied under Natoire in Paris, and in 1743 obtained the 
 grand prize of the Academy of Arts by his picture of 
 "The Plague of the Israelites in the Time of David." 
 He afterwards spent several years at Rome, where he 
 executed a number of admirable works. He was elected 
 to the Academy of Arts in 1754, appointed director of 
 the French Academy at Rome in 1775, and principal 
 painter to Louis XVI. in 1789. Under Napoleon he 
 became successively a senator, count of the empire, and 
 commander of the legion of honour. Among his mas- 
 ter-pieces may be named " Saint Denis preaching to the 
 Gauls," " Saint Louis intrusting the Regency to Blanche 
 of Castile," " The Parting of Hector and Andromache," 
 "Julius Caesar contemplating the Statue of Alexander 
 at Cadiz," and the "Virgin attended by Angels." He 
 excelled as a teacher of art, and was the master of David 
 and other famous painters. Died in 1809. 
 
 See }. Lerreton, " Notice historique sitr la Vie de T. M. Vien," 
 »8oo; Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres ;" "Nouvelle Mio- 
 graphie G^nerale." 
 
 Vien, (Joseph Marie,) the Younger, a portrait- 
 painter, born in Paris in 1 761, was a son of the pre- 
 ceding. He died in 1809. 
 
 Vien, (Marte Reboul,) a French painter of flowers, 
 birds, and still life, born in Paris in 1728, was the wife 
 of Joseph Marie the Elder, noticed above. Died in 1805. 
 
 Vienne, de, deh ve'en', (Jean,) an eminent French 
 warrior, born about 1342. He defended Calais against 
 Edward III. in a long and memorable siege, (1347.) He 
 afterwards became Admiral of France, and displayed 
 courage and skill in war against the English. He was 
 killed at the battle of Nicopolis, where he fought against 
 the Turhe, in 1396. 
 
 Viennet, ve'i'ni', (Jean Pons (p6n) Guillaumf.,) 
 a French litterateur and politician, born at Beziers in 
 1777. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies 
 from the department of Herault in 1827, voted with the 
 gauche or liberal party, and was active in promoting 
 the revolution of 1830. He was made a peer by Louis 
 Philippe in 1839. He published a number of poems, 
 dramas, fables, and satires, in prose and verse ; also an 
 " Epistle to the Muses on the Romanticists," an attack 
 on the romantic school in literature. He had been 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, j», short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; flr, All, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
FIERA 
 
 2197 
 
 F1GNT 
 
 elected to the French Academy in 1830 or 1831. After 
 1848 he took no part in politics. Died in July, 1868. 
 
 See E. DE MlRKCOURT, "Viennet," 1856; " Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phic G^ne'rale." 
 
 Viera y Clavijo, de, da ve-a'ri e kla-vee'Ho, (Jose,) 
 a Spanish historian, born in the Canaries about 1738. 
 He published a " History of the Canary Islands," (4 
 vols., 1772-83,) and other works. Died in 1799. 
 
 Vieta, ve-a'ti, (Francis,) [in French, Francois 
 ViEte, ve'it', or Viettk, ve'it', or Viet, ve'&',] a cele- 
 brated French mathematician, born at Fontenay, Poitou, 
 in 1540, was educated in the Protestant religion. He 
 obtained the office of master of requests about 1580, and 
 passed the most of his mature life in the public service. 
 He was a friend of De Thou. During the war between 
 Henry IV. and the Spaniards, Vieta rendered an impor- 
 tant service to the former by explaining intercepted 
 despatches of the enemy, which were written in a cipher 
 of five hundred characters. He published several works 
 on mathematics, etc., and greatly contributed to the per- 
 fection of algebra. He rendered algebra a purely sym- 
 bolical science ; and he is said to have been the first who 
 represented the known quantities by symbols. He also 
 made improvements or discoveries in trigonometry. 
 Died in Paris in 1603. His works were published by 
 F. van Schooten in 1646. 
 
 See De Thou, " Historia sui Temporis f Montucla, " Histoire 
 des Mathematiques;" Haag, "La France protestaiue ;" " Nouvelle 
 Bio^raphie Gene>ale." 
 
 Viete. See Vieta. 
 
 Vieussens, de, deh ve-yh'sON', (Raimond,) a French 
 anatomist, born in Rouergue in 1641. He practised 
 medicine at Montpellier, and published, besides other 
 works, "Neurologia Universalis," (1685,) a treatise on 
 the nerves and brain. Died in 1715. 
 
 Vieusseux, ve-uh'suh', (Jean Pierre,) a learned 
 bookseller, of a Genevese family, was born at Oneglia, in 
 Italy, in 1779. He settled at Florence, where he pub- 
 lished a celebrated critical journal, entitled "Antologia 
 Italiana," (1821-32,) and other periodicals. 
 
 Vieuville, de la, deh IS ve-uh'vel', (Chari.es,) 
 Marquis, a French financier, horn in Paris about 1582. 
 He became minister of finance in 1623, and was removed 
 in 1624. Died in 1653. 
 
 Vieuxtemps, vtMjh'tft.s', (Henri,) a Belgian mu- 
 sician, born at Verviers' about 1820, has attained a very 
 high reputation as a violinist. 
 
 Vieweg, fee'wac, (Hans Friedrich,) a German 
 bookseller and publisher, born at Halle in 1761, founded 
 in 17S6 an establishment at Berlin, from which he issued 
 superior editions of the German classics. He numbered 
 among his friends Herder, Goethe, and Wieland. Died 
 in 1S35. 
 
 Vieyra. See Vieira. 
 
 Vigand. See Wig and. 
 
 Vigee, ve'zhi', (Louts Jean Baptiste £tienne,) a 
 mediocre French litterateur, born in Paris in 1758, was a 
 brother of the artiste Madame Le Bruit. He wrote 
 numerous poems and dramas. Died in 1820. 
 
 Vigee, MADAME. See I.E Brun. 
 
 Viger, ve'zhi', [ I.at. Vige'rius,] (Francois,) a French 
 Jesuit, born at Kouen. He published an able work 
 "On the Principal Idioms of the Greek Language," 
 (" De Idiotismis prxcipuis Linguae Graecae," 1632.) 
 " It contains many valuable criticisms," says Hallam. 
 (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") Died 
 in 1647. 
 
 Viger van Zuichm. See Ayta. 
 
 Vigerius. See Viger. 
 
 Vigilance. See Vigilantius. 
 ' Vigilantius, vije-lan'she-us, [Fr. Vigilance, ve'- 
 she'loNss',) a liberal Christian writer of Spain or Gaul, 
 flourished about 400 A.r>. He opposed the worship of 
 relics, the celibacy of priests, and several ascetic prac- 
 tices of the Catholics. Saint Jerome wrote a book against 
 his doctrines. 
 
 Vigilantius, vij-e-lan'she-tjs, [Fr. Vigilance, ve'zhe'- 
 Ionss ,| (Pum.ius,) a scholaTand poet, was born at Stras- 
 burg. He became professor of poetry at Frankfort- 
 on-the-Oder, where he also taught Greek. He visited 
 Italy and other countries in search of ancient manu- 
 
 scripts, and on his return was murdered in Suabia in 
 1512. 
 
 Vl-gill-us, [Fr. Vigile, ve'zhel',] an orthodox African 
 bishop of Thapsus, was deprived of his see in 484 A.D. 
 by Huneric, the Vandal king. He afterwards lived in 
 Europe, and wrote several works which he endeavoured 
 to make pass for the productions of Athanasius, Augus- 
 tine, and other eminent Fathers. 
 
 Vigilius, [Fr. Vigile,] a native of Rome, became 
 pope in 537 A.D., in opposition to Sylverius, whom Beli- 
 sarius had banished. He died in 554 A.D., and was 
 succeeded by Pelagius I. 
 
 Vigiu, da. See Lunghi, (Silla.) 
 
 Viglius. See Ayta. 
 
 Vigne, de, deh ven, (Felix,) a Belgian painter, born 
 in Ghent in 1806. 
 
 Vigne, de, (Pierre,) a Belgian sculptor, a brother of 
 the preceding, was born at Ghent in 1812. He studied 
 in Rome, (1837-41.) 
 
 Vigne, de la, deh liven, (Andre,) a French historian 
 and mediocre poet, born about 1450. He wrote an ac- 
 count of the expedition of Charles VIII. to Naples, in 
 a work called " Le Vergier d'Houneur." Died about 
 1527. 
 
 Vigne, delle, (Pietro.) See Vineis. 
 
 Vigne, La. See La Vigne. 
 
 Vignenere, de, deh ven'yeh-naiR', (Blaise,) a French 
 writer and translator, born in Bourbonnais in 1523, be- 
 came private secretary to Henry III. His works have 
 fallen into oblivion which is said to be merited. Died 
 in 1596. 
 
 Vigneron. See Veneronl 
 
 Vigneul-Marville. See Argonne, d'. 
 
 Vignier, ven'ye-i', (Jerome,) a French numismatist 
 and scholar, was born at Blois in 1606 ; died in 1661. 
 
 Vignier, (Nicolas,) a French historian and physician, 
 born at Bar-sur-Seine in 1530. He published, besides 
 other works, "Historical Library," ("La Bibliotheque 
 hisloriale," 3 vols., 1588.) Died in 1596. 
 
 His son Nicolas, born about 1575, was a Protestant 
 minister, and wrote against popery. Died at Blois about 
 1645. 
 
 Vignola, da, da ven'yo-la, [Fr. Vignole, ven'yol',] 
 (Giacomo Barozzio, ba-rot'se-o, or Baroccio,) an 
 eminent Italian architect, born at Vignola in 1507. After 
 having studied at Rome, he visited France in company 
 with Primaticcio, and was employed after his return in 
 various public works at Bologna, Piacenza, and other 
 towns. He was subsequently patronized by Pope Julius 
 II., who made him his architect and employed him to 
 construct the Villa Giulia. The palace at Caprarola, 
 near Rome, built for the cardinal Alexander Famese, 
 is regarded as his master-piece. In 1564 Vignola suc- 
 ceeded Michael Angelo as architect of Saint Peter's. 
 He was the author of a treatise on the five orders of 
 architecture, entitled " Regole delle cinque Ordini 
 d'Architettura," (1563,) which is esteemed a standard 
 work, and "Rules of Practical Perspective," (1583.) 
 Died in 1573. 
 
 See Vakari, "Lives of the Painters," etc. : MtuztA, "Vitedegli 
 Architetti ;" Quatkembke de Quincv, " Histoire des plus celebres 
 Arcliitectes." 
 
 Vignole. See Vignola. 
 
 Vignoles. See Lahire, (Etienne.) 
 
 Vignoles, des, dj ven'yol', (Ai.I'Honse,) a French 
 Protestant divine, born in Languedoc in 1649, became 
 minister of the church at Copenick, near Berlin, about 
 1702. His most important work is a "Chronology of 
 Sacred History, and other Histories, from the Departure 
 out of Egypt to the Captivity of Babylon," (in French, 
 1738.) He was one of the first members of the Royal 
 Society of Berlin. Died in 1744. 
 
 Vignoli, ven'yo-lee, (Giovanni,) an Italian antiquary 
 and numismatist, born in Tuscany about 16S0. He 
 became librarian of the Vatican in 1720. Died in 1753. 
 
 Vignolle, de, deh 'ven'yol', (Martin,) a French gen- 
 eral, bom in Languedoc in 1763. He became a general 
 of division in 1803, and chief of the staff of the army of 
 Italy in 1809. Died in 1824. 
 
 Vigny, de, deh ven'ye', (Alfred Victor,) Comte, 
 a French writer of high reputation, was born at Loches, 
 in the department of Indre-et- Loire, in March, 1799. 
 
 «as>6; 9 as/; %hard; gas/; G,w,K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; last; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VIGO 
 
 2198 
 
 VILLARET 
 
 He published in 1828 his "Ancient and Modern Poems," 
 (" Poemes antiques et model nes,") a collection of pieces 
 which had previously appeared in Parisian periodicals. 
 His other principal works are a historical romance en- 
 titled "Cinq-Mars, or a Conspiracy under Louis XIII.," 
 (1826,) "which was received with great favour and has 
 been translated into several languages, " Stella, or the 
 Blue Devils," a prose narrative, and the tragedy of 
 " Chatterton," (1835,) which met with brilliant success. 
 He was admitted into the French Academy in 1845. 
 In early life he married a rich English lady, Lydia Bun- 
 bury. Died in 1863. 
 
 See G Planche, "Portraits litteraires ;" L. de Lomenie, " M. 
 A. de Vigny, par un Homme He Rien," 1841 ; Sainte-Beuve, 
 "Portraits contemporains;" "Nouvelle Btographie SeneVale;" 
 " Westminster Review" for April, 1838. 
 
 Vigo, di, dee vee'go, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian 
 surgeon, bom at Genoa, lived about 1510, practised at 
 Rome, and wrote on surgery. 
 
 Vigor, ve'gok', (Simon,) a French prelate, born at 
 Evreux about 1 5 15. He was court preacher to Charles 
 IX., and Archbishop of Narbonne. Died in 1575. 
 
 Vig'ors, (Nicholas Ayi/ward,) a naturalist, born 
 in the county of Carlow, Ireland, in 1787, was the first 
 secretary of the Zoological Society, to the "Transac- 
 tions" of which he contributed a number of treatises. 
 Died in 1840. 
 
 Viguier, ve'ge-a', (Adrien,) a French novelist and 
 dramatist, born in Paris in 1793. 
 
 Viguier, (Pikrre Francois,) a French Orientalist, 
 born at Besancon in 1745 ; died in Paris in 1821. 
 
 Viguier, de, deh ve'ge-4', (Paule,) a French lady, 
 celebrated for her beauty and virtue, was born at Tou- 
 louse in 1518. She was married to the Baron de Fonte- 
 nille. Died in 1610. 
 
 Vlkramaditya (vik-ra-ma'dlt-ya) 1, a celebrated 
 Hindoo sovereign, who, about the year 56 B.C., as is 
 supposed, defeated the Tartar hordes who had taken 
 possession of Northern Hindostan and drove them 
 beyond the Indus. There is good ground to believe 
 that the reign of this prince was equal in splendour to 
 that of any other monarch that ever lived. His dominion 
 extended over the whole of Northern Hindostan. The 
 capital of his vast empire was Ujjayini, (now Oojein.) 
 He was a liberal patron of literature and science. Nine 
 illustrious men of genius, called in Oriental phrase the 
 "nine gems," adorned his court and were supported by 
 his bounty. Among these was the immortal Kilidasa, 
 who has been styled " the Shakspeare of India." (See 
 Kalidasa.) The reign of Vikramaditya is commonly 
 considered to mark an important era in the history of 
 India ; but there is much uncertainty as to the actual 
 time in which he lived. 
 
 See the Introduction to Professor Williams's translation of 
 " Sakoontala," Hertford, 1856. 
 
 Vilain (ve'laN') XIIII, (Charles Ghislain Guil- 
 LAUMK,) Vicomte, a Belgian politician, born at Brus- 
 sels in 1803. He was minister of foreign affairs from 
 March, 1855, to 1857, having previously been ambassador 
 to different courts of Italy. 
 
 Vilain XIIII., (Jean Jacques Philippe,) Vi- 
 comte, a Belgian financier, born at Alost in 1712. He 
 originated the penitentiary system of Belgium. Died 
 in 1777. 
 
 Vilate, ve'Ut', (Joachim,) a French Jacobin, born in 
 1768, was imprisoned in 1794, and executed in 1795. 
 
 Vili, vil'e, [i.e. "will,"] in the Norse mythology, a 
 brother of Odin, whom he assisted in the creation of the 
 world. By some he is identified with Hoenir, (which 
 see.) 
 
 Villa, vel'la, (Angelo Teodoro,) an Italian Hel- 
 .enist, born near Pavia about 1720. He was professor 
 of Greek at Pavia, and translated several Greek works. 
 Died in 1794. 
 
 Villa, di, de vil'la, or Ville, vel, (G. Francesco,) 
 Marquis, an Italian general, commanded the Venetian 
 army at the siege of Candia, (1666.) Died about 1668. 
 
 Villalobos, de, da vel-ya-lo'uds, (Francisco,) a 
 Spanish physician and poet, bom at Toledo about 1480. 
 He wrote a medical treatise in verse, called " Summary 
 of Medicine," (" Sumario de la Medicina," 1498,) and 
 
 other works. He was employed as physician to Charles 
 V. while that monarch resided in Spain. It is stated 
 that he retired from court a poor man about 1540. Died 
 about 1560. 
 
 Villalpandi, vel-yil-pln'dee, or Villalpando, vel- 
 yal-pan'do, or, more fully, de Torreblanca (da toR-ra- 
 blin'ka) y Villalpandi, (Francisco,) a Spanish jurist, 
 born at Cordova; died about 1645. 
 
 Villalpandi, (Juan Bautista,) a Spanish Jesuit and 
 mathematician, an uncle of the preceding, was born at 
 Cordova in 1552. He wrote a commentary on Ezekiel. 
 Died in 1608. 
 
 Villamediana, de, da vel-ya-ma-De-i'na, Count, a 
 Spanish courtier and poet, distinguished for his ac- 
 complishments and wit. He was assassinated in the 
 street of Madrid in 1621 by an unknown hand. His 
 death was ascribed by some to the jealousy of the king. 
 Villamediana had expressed admiration of the queen, 
 Elizabeth of France. 
 
 Villamene, vel-la-ma'na, (Francesco,) an Italian 
 engraver, born at Assisi about 1588. He died at Rome 
 at the age of sixty. 
 
 Villandon. See L'Hieritier. 
 
 Villani, vel-la'nee, (Filippo,) an Italian historian and 
 biographer, son of Matteo, noticed below, was the author 
 of lives of Dante, Petrarch, and other eminent Floren- 
 tines, (in Latin,) also a work on the origin of the French 
 kings, (" De Origine Regum Francorutn.") Died about 
 1404. 
 
 Villani, (Giovanni,) an eminent Italian historian, 
 born at Florence about 1280. He was the author of a 
 " History of Florence from its Origin down to his Own 
 Time," (12 books, 1554, in Italian.) It is highly es- 
 teemed for the simplicity and elegance of its style. He 
 was elected to the high office of prior in 1316 and in 
 1321. Died in 1348. 
 
 See the "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1813. 
 
 Villani, (Matteo,) brother of the preceding, con- 
 tinued the " History of Florence" down to 1363, in which 
 year he died. His work is commended for accuracy and 
 truthfulness. 
 
 Villa Nova or Villanovanus. See Arnaldus. 
 
 Villanueva, de, da vel-ya-nwa'va, (Joaquin Lo- 
 renzo,) a Spanish statesman and patriot, born in the 
 province of Valencia in 1757. Having been ordained a 
 priest, he was appointed court preacher at Madrid and 
 confessor at the royal chapel. He was elected to the 
 Cortes in 1810, and published, soon after, a defence of 
 constitutionalism from the philosophy of Aquinas, en- 
 titled " Angelicas Fuentes, o el Tomista en las Cortes." 
 After the return of Ferdinand VII., he was confined 
 several years in a monastery. The constitutional gov- 
 ernment having been overthrown in 1823, he removed 
 to Ireland, where he died in 1837. He was the author 
 of the "Spanish Christian Year," (19 vols.,) being an 
 account of the Spanish church festivals, etc., a treatise 
 in favour of reading the Scriptures in the common lan- 
 guages, entitled " De la Leccion de la sagrada Escritura 
 en Lenguas vulgares," and a Latin dissertation on the 
 Phoenician colonization of Ireland, etc. He also trans- 
 lated Paley's "Natural Theology," and other English 
 works, into Spanish. His brother Jaime, bom in 1765, 
 was the author of a "Literary Tour to the Churches of 
 Spain," (unfinished.) Jaime died in London in 1824. 
 
 See Joaquin Lorenzo's Autobiography, entitled "Vida litcraria 
 de J. L. Villanueva," 2 vols., 1825. 
 
 Villar, vel'ytn', (NoEl Gabriel Luce,) a French 
 bishop, born at Toulouse in 1748. As a member of the 
 Convention, (1792-95,) he promoted education and liter- 
 ary interests. He was a member of the French Academy. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Villareal. See Fernandez Vili.areal. 
 
 Villaret, ve'yi'rj', (Claude,) a French litterateur, 
 bom in Paris about 1720, was the author of several 
 dramas and fictitious works, and wrote a continuation of 
 Velly's " History of France." He treated of the period 
 from 1329 to 1469. Died in 1766. 
 
 Villaret, de, deh ve'yfri/, (Foulques,) a French 
 commander, was chosen grand master of the order of 
 Malta in 1307. He captured Rhodes in 1310, and re- 
 signed his office in 1319. Died in 1327. 
 
 5, e, T, o, u, y, long; 4, e, i, same, less prolonged; a, e, I. o, fi, y, short; a, ?, j, 9, obscurt; fir, fill, fit, m it; not; good; moon; 
 
V1LLARET 
 
 '99 
 
 VILLEGAS 
 
 Villaret de Joyeuse, ve'yi'rj' deh zhw&'yuz', 
 (Louis Thomas,) Count, a French vice-admiral, born 
 at Audi in 1750. He entered the navy in 1766, and be- 
 came rear-admiral in 1793. He gave proof of skill and 
 courage in a battle against the British admiral Howe, 
 which began May 29 and ended June I, 1794. Villaret, 
 who commanded in this action, lost about seven ships. 
 In June, 1795, he was defeated by Lord Bridport, who 
 had a superior force. He commanded the naval forces 
 sent to conquer Saint Domingo in 1801, and was captain- 
 general of Martinique from 1802 to 1809, when it was 
 taken by the English. Died in 1812. 
 
 See Thiers, "History of the French Revolution;" Lacroix, 
 " Eloge de l'Amiral Villaret de Joyeuse," 1824 ; Kerguri.kn, " His- 
 toire des Guerres maritimes eutrela France et rAngleterre;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Villars, ve'ylR' or vel'yfu', (Dominique,) a French 
 botanist, born in Dauphinc in 1745, studied medicine, 
 and took his degree in 1778. He was appointed in 1805 
 professor of medicine and botany at Strasbourg. He 
 published a "Natural History of the Plants of Dau- 
 phine," (with 65 plates, 4 vols., 1786,) and other botanical 
 works, also " Principles of Medicine and Surgery." 
 The genus Villarsia was named in his honour. Died 
 in 1814. 
 
 See Ladoucrtte, " Notice de M. Villars." 1818. 
 
 Villars, de, deh ve'ySR' or vel'ytR', (Ci.audf. Louis 
 Hector,) Due, a famous French general, born at Mou- 
 lins in 1653, was a son of General Pierre de Villars, 
 noticed below. He had a handsome form, and personal 
 advantages which, with his courage and high spirit, early 
 attracted the notice of Louis XIV. For his conduct at 
 Senef, in 1674, he obtained the rank of colonel. He 
 served in Flanders and Alsace from that year until the 
 peace of 1678, alter which he was employed in diplo- 
 matic missions to Vienna and Munich. Having returned 
 to Paris about 1688, he obtained the favour of Madame 
 de Maintenon and Louvois, who appointed him com- 
 missary-general of cavalry in 1689. He became a 
 lieutenant-general in 1693, and served several campaigns 
 near the Rhine in the war which was ended by the peace 
 of Ryswick, in 1697. In 1698 he was sent as ambassa- 
 dor to Vienna, where he displayed much finesse, and 
 adroitly counteracted the intrigues of the Austrian 
 court in relation to the Spanish succession. The war 
 of the Spanish succession began in 1701, and Villars re- 
 turned to Paris. He married Mademoiselle de Varange- 
 ville in 1702. Having been appointed commander of 
 an army sent to aid the Elector of Bavaria, he gained a 
 victory on the Rhine in October, 1702, and was raised 
 to the rank of marshal of France in the same year. In 
 1704 he subdued the Camisards, Protestants of Cevennes, 
 who had revolted. For this service he received the 
 title of duke in 1705. He is praised by several English 
 writers for his humanity to the Camisards. He obtained 
 in April, 1705, command of the army of the Moselle, 
 with which he took Lauterburg and Haguenau in 1706, 
 and invaded Wiirtemberg in 1707. In January, 1709, 
 he took command of the army in Flanders, where he 
 was opposed to the Duke of Marlborough and Prince 
 Eugene. He was defeated by them at the great battle 
 of Malplaquet, (1709,) having in the early part of the 
 action received a wound which disabled him for some 
 months. This victory was dearly bought to the allies, 
 who lost about 20,000 men. Villars was compelled, by 
 want of men and money, to remain on the defensive 
 in 1 71 1. He commanded with success against Prince 
 Eugene, who invaded France in 1712. The French 
 gained a victory at Denain, took Douai and Bouchain, 
 and compelled the enemy to retreat to Brussels. After 
 the treaty of Utrecht (1713) ensued a long peace. Villars 
 had great influence at court in the latter part of his life, 
 and was a member of the council of state in the reign 
 of Louis XV. He was one of the most fortunate, as 
 well as most able, French generals of his time. Died at 
 Turin in 1734. 
 
 See "Menioires de Villars," (partly written by himself.) 3 
 vols., 1734; PeVSSONNBL, " f.loge de Villars." 1734: Anouktil, 
 " Vi.f dn Marechal de Villars," 4 vols., 1784: Voltairr, " Siicle de 
 Louis XIV;" Saint-Simon, " Memoires 1" Dangeau, "Journal;" 
 Sainte-Beuve, "Causerie* du Lundi;" "Nouvelle Biogl.tphit 
 OtMrale." 
 
 Villars, de, (Honors Armand,) Prince de Martigues, 
 born in 1702, was a son of Marshal Villars. He became 
 governor of Provence, and a member of the French 
 Academy in 1734. His talents were only ordinary. 
 He was a friend of Voltaire. Died in 1770. 
 
 Villars, de, (Montfaucon, mdN'f6'k6N',) Abbe, a 
 French ecclesiastic, born near Toulouse in 1635, settled 
 in Paris, where he became celebrated as a pulpit orator. 
 He published in 1670 a satirical work, entitled "Con- 
 versations of the Count de Gabalis," (" Entretiens du 
 Comte de Gabalis,") for which he was forbidden the 
 pulpit. He was killed by robbers in 1673. 
 
 Villars, de, (Pierre,) a French general and diplo- 
 matist, born in 1623, was the father of Marshal Villars. 
 He served in Italy under the Prince of Conti. On ac- 
 count of the enmity of Louvois, he left the army and 
 became a diplomatist. He was sent as ambassador to 
 Spain in 1672, and to Denmark in 1683. Died in 1698. 
 His wife, Marie Gigault de Bk.llkfonds, (ge'go' deh 
 bSl'i'dN',) born in 1624, was distinguished for intelligence 
 and wit. She wrote Letters, which were published in 
 1759. Died in 1706. 
 
 Villars-Brancas. See Brancas, (Andre.) 
 
 Villaviciosa, de, dl vel-ya-ve-r^e-o'sa, (Jose,) a 
 Spanish poet and ecclesiastic, born at Siguenza in 1589, 
 was appointed in 1628 Inquisitor of the kingdom of 
 Murcia. His principal work is the " Battle of the Flies," 
 (" La Mosquea,") a mock-heroic poem. Died in 1658. 
 
 Ville, de, deh vel, (Antoine,) a French military en- 
 gineer and writer on fortification, born at Toulouse in 
 1596 ; died in 1656. 
 
 Villebrune. See Lefervre, (Jean Baptiste.) 
 
 Villedieu, de, deh vel'de-uh', (Marie Catherine 
 Hortknsf. Desjardins — di'zhaVdaN',) Madame, a 
 French authoress, born near Fougeres in 1631. She 
 wrote verses and novels which were once popular. Died 
 in 1683. 
 
 Villefore, de, deh vel'foR', (Joseph Francois Bour- 
 goin,) a French biographer, born in Paris in 1652. He 
 wrote a " Life of Saint Bernard," (1704,) and lives of 
 other saints. Died in 1737. 
 
 Villefosse. See Heron de Vili.f.fosse. 
 
 Villefroy, de.deh vel'fRwi', (Guillaume,) a French 
 Orientalist, born in Paris in 1690. He founded in 1744 
 a society of linguists, called Capucins hebraisants, who 
 sought to explain the prophecies of Scripture by a double 
 literal sense. He became professor of Hebrew at Paris 
 in 1752. Died in 1777. 
 
 Vi'llegagnon, de, deh vel'gin'yoN', (Nicolas Du- 
 rand,) Chevalier, a French admiral, bom at or near 
 Provins in 1 5 10, was a nephew of Villiers de l'lsle Adam, 
 grand master of the order of Malta. He commanded 
 the vessel which conveyed Mary Queen of Scots to 
 France in 1548. He proposed to found in Brazil a 
 French colony where the Protestants could enjoy re- 
 ligious liberty, and obtained the patronage of Admiral 
 Coligny for that enterprise. In 1555 he conducted a 
 party of emigrants in two vessels to Brazil. He did 
 not succeed in forming a permanent colony, and he 
 returned to France, where he was censured for his 
 mismanagement. Died in 1571. 
 
 See " Navigation de VilleRagnon en 1555." 1557 ; Nicbron," M£- 
 moires;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Villegas, de, da vel-ya'gas, (Alonso,) a Spanish 
 writer of romance, born at Toledo, flourished about 
 1550. He wrote " Selvaggia," which is an imitation of 
 the " Celestina." 
 
 Villegas, de, (Antonio,) a Spanish poet, lived about 
 1550. A volume of his poems was published in 1565. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Villegas.de, (Estevan Manuel,) a celebrated lyric 
 poet of Spain, born in Old Castile in 1596, published a 
 collection of poems entitled "Amatorias," (1620.) He 
 also translated Horace and Anacreon into Spanish verse, 
 and made a prose translation of Boethius. Died in 1669. 
 
 "The graceful luxuriance of the poetry of Villegas," 
 says Boutei wek, " has no parallel in modern literature ; 
 and, generally speaking, no modern writer has so well 
 succeeded in blending the spirit of ancient poetry with 
 the modern." 
 
 See Ticknor, " History of Spanish Literature." 
 
 « as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as./'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. ( J^~See Explanations p. 23.) 
 
VILLEGAS 
 
 2200 
 
 VILLENEUVE 
 
 Villegaa, de, (Fernando Ruiz,) a Spanish writer of 
 Latin verse, born at Burgos, lived about 1500-1530. He 
 became governor of Burgos, and was a friend of Erasmus. 
 He left many elegant Latin poems, which remained in 
 manuscript until 1743. 
 
 See Vicente de los Rios, " Memorias de la Vida de F. Ruiz de 
 Villegas," 1774. 
 
 Villegas, de, (Francisco.) See Quevedo. 
 
 Villegas, de, (Pero Fernandez,) a Spanish poet, 
 born in 1453, became Archdeacon of Burgos. He trans- 
 lated Dante's "Inferno" into Spanish verse, (1515.) 
 Died in 1525. 
 
 Villehardouin, de, deh vel'tR'doo-aN', (Geoffroy,) 
 a French diplomatist and historian, born at Arcis-sur- 
 Aube about 1 165. He was sent in 1201, by Thibault, 
 Count of Champagne, to solicit aid from the Venetians 
 in fitting out a crusade, in which mission he was suc- 
 cessful. In 1204 he assisted in the siege of Constanti- 
 nople, and afterwards wrote an interesting account of it, 
 entitled "The History of the Capture of Constantinople 
 by the French and Venetians." It is supposed to be 
 the oldest prose history in the French language, and is 
 esteemed one of the most valuable records of the time. 
 Died about 1213. 
 
 See Michaud, " History of the Crusades." 
 
 Villele, de, deh ve'lil', (Joseph,) Count, a French 
 statesman, born at Toulouse in 1773. In 1815 he repre- 
 sented the department of Haute-Garonne in the Cham- 
 ber of Deputies, where he was a prominent advocate of 
 the ultra-royalist party. After the fall of the Decazes 
 ministry, he became minister of state in 1820, and of 
 finance in 1821. He was appointed president of the 
 council (prime minister) in September, 1822. His talents 
 for administration were respectable, but he was not 
 capable of grand views and genuine statesmanship. He 
 rendered himself unpopular by illiberal and reactionary 
 measures, and was removed from office in January, 1828. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 See De Neuvh.t.e, "Notice stir M. de Villele," 1855; L. de 
 Lomenie, "M. de Villele, par un Homme de Rien," 1841; La- 
 maktine, "History of the Restoration;" "Nouvelle Biographie 
 Gene>ale." 
 
 Villemain, vel'mas', (Abel Francois,) a celebrated 
 French critic, orator, and minister of state, born in Paris 
 on the 9th of June, 1790. He was educated at the Im- 
 perial Lyceum, (College Louis-le-Grand,) and was a 
 pupil in rhetoric of Luce de Lancival. About 1810 
 he was appointed professor of rhetoric in the Lycee 
 Charlemagne by M. de Fontanes. He gained a prize 
 offered by the Institute, in 1812, for his " Eloge de Mon- 
 taigne," in which he displayed a great power of general- 
 ization and an excellent gift of harmonious language. 
 He produced, in 1814, a "Discourse on the Advantages 
 and Inconveniences of Criticism," which was crowned 
 by the French Academy. In 1816 he became professor 
 of French eloquence at the University of Paris, and 
 wrote an " Eloge de Montesquieu." He acquired a high 
 reputation as a professor and critic. Blending in his 
 lectures literary analysis, biography, spicy anecdotes, 
 ingenious judgments in detail, and profound generalities, 
 he gave to them the form of eloquent conversation. As 
 a critic, he was liberal, impartial, and disposed to appre- 
 ciate merit, in whatever nation or school it appeared. 
 He was appointed master of requests to the council of 
 state in 1818, published a "History of Cromwell," (2 
 vols., 1819,) and was admitted into the French Academy 
 in 1821. Having avowed liberal political opinions, he 
 was deprived of the office of master of requests in 1827. 
 Under the new regime he became a peer of France in 
 1832, president of the royal council of public instruction 
 in 1834, and perpetual secretary of the French Academv 
 in the same year. He published his " Lectures on French 
 Literature." ("Cours de Literature Franchise," 5 vols., 
 1828-38,) which is considered his principal work. He 
 was minister of public instruction from May, 1839, to 
 March, 1840, and held the same office in the cabinet of 
 iuizot from October, 1840, to December, 1844. After 
 he revolution of 1848 he took no part in politics. He 
 ;ontributed many admirable articles to the " Biographie 
 Universelle" and: the "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 Among his numerous works we notice "Discours et 
 
 Melanges litteraires," (1823,) and "Studies of Ancien' 
 and Foreign Literature," (1846.) Died in May, 1870. 
 
 M. Villemain is generally recognized as one of the 
 most accomplished writers of his time. His style is 
 admirable, and his works present a happy union of mod- 
 eration with independence, while they preserve a due 
 equilibrium between reason and imagination. 
 
 See L. de Lomenie, " M. Viilemain, par un Homme de Rien," 
 1S41 ; Sainte-Beuve, "Portraits contemporains," and "Causeries 
 du Lundi ;" F. Z. Collombet, " M. Villemain, de ses Opinions 
 religieuses," etc., 1844; "Nouvelle Biographie GcSneVale ;" " Fra- 
 ser's Magazine" for March, 1854. 
 
 Villemessant, vel'mi'sSN', (Jean Hippolyte Car- 
 tier,) a French journalist, born at Rouen in 1812. He 
 supported the Legitimist party, and began to publish 
 the " Figaro" in Paris in 1854. 
 
 Villemot, vel'mo', (Philippe,) a French astronomer 
 and priest, born at Chalons-sur-Saone in 165 1. He 
 published in 1707 a "New System or Explanation of 
 the Movements of the Planets." Died in 1713. 
 
 Villena, de, da vel-ya'na, (Don Enrique,) Marquis, 
 a celebrated Spanish scholar and writer, born in 1384, 
 was related to the royal families of Castile and Aragon. 
 His extraordinary attainments in science procured for 
 him among his contemporaries the reputation of a necro- 
 mancer. He translated Virgil's "yEneid" and Dante's 
 poems into Spanish, and wrote several original works, 
 among which is "Gaya Sciencia." Died in 1434. 
 
 See Pkescott, "History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. i. 
 part i. 
 
 Villena, de, (JuANPacheco — pa-cha'ko,) Marquis, 
 a Spanish courtier, became the favourite and chief 
 minister of Henry IV. of Castile about 1454. He was 
 a man of great abilities and ambition, and acquired an 
 entire ascendency over the imbecile king. After the 
 malcontent nobles formed a league against Henry IV., 
 (1460,) Villena was supplanted in the royal favour by 
 Bertrand de la Cueva ; but he retained his power by 
 joining the nobles who had revolted, and who deposed 
 Henry in 1464. Died in 1474. 
 
 Viilenave, vel'iiSv', (Mathieu Guillaume Th4- 
 rese,) a French litterateur and journalist, born in Lan- 
 guedoc in 1762. He practised as an advocate during 
 the Revolution, and was imprisoned in 1793-94 on sus- 
 picion of moderantisjne. He edited several journals of 
 Paris under the republic and restoration, wrote many 
 articles for the " Biographie Universelle," and produced 
 a translation of Ovid's " Metamorphoses," (4 vols., 1807 
 -22,) which was received with favour, and various other 
 works. Died in Paris in 1846. 
 
 See Querard, " La France Litteraire ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale." 
 
 Viilenave, (Theodore,) a French litterateur, a son 
 of the preceding, was born at Nantes in 1798. He pro- 
 duced, besides other works, a drama, called " Walstein," 
 (1828,) and "Constantine," a poem, (1837.) 
 
 Villeneuve, de, (Arnaud.) See Arnaldus Villa- 
 nova n us. 
 
 Villeneuve, de, deh vel'nuv', (Christophe,) a 
 French soldier, born in 154.1, served with distinction 
 under Henry III., Henry IV., and Louis XIII. Died 
 in 1615. 
 
 Villeneuve, de, (Gabrielle Susanne Barbot — 
 btk'bo',) a French novelist, born about 1695. She died 
 in 1755. 
 
 Villeneuve, de, (Guillaume,) a French soldier and 
 writer of the fifteenth century, accompanied Charles 
 VIII. in his Italian campaign, and was the author of 
 "Memoirs of the Conquest of Naples," (1497.) 
 
 Villeneuve, de, (Helion or Ei.ion, a'le'oN',) was 
 born in 1270. Having entered the order of Saint John 
 of Jerusalem, he was elected grand master of Rhodes 
 in 1319. Died in 1346. 
 
 Villeneuve, de, (Huon, ^u'6n',) a French poet 
 under the reign of Philip Augustus, was the author of 
 " Les quatre Fils d'Aymon," and other works. 
 
 Villeneuve, de, (Louis,) a French general, born 
 about 1450, was appointed by Charles VIII. commander 
 of the army sent against Naples. He was subsequently 
 employed on important missions to Rome, and in 1505 
 was created a marquis by Louis XII., being the first who 
 received that title in France. Died in 15 16. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, 5, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
flLLENEUFE 
 
 2201 
 
 VILL0IS0N 
 
 Villeneuve, de, (Pierre Charles Jean Baptiste 
 Silvesit.e,) a French admiral, born at Valensoles 
 (Basses-Alpes) in 1763. He served with distinction in 
 the American war, became a rear-admiral in 1796, and 
 commanded the right wing of the fleet which was 
 defeated by Nelson at the battle of the Nile, in 1798. 
 With the rank of vice-admiral, he fought an indecisive 
 battle against Sir Robert Calder, near Cape Finisterre, 
 in July, 1805. He commanded about thirty-three ships 
 of the line at the battle of Trafalgar, where the French 
 were defeated with great loss and Villeneuve was taken 
 prisoner, (October, 1805.) He was blamed by Napoleon 
 ibr this defeat, and committed suicide at Rennes in 
 April, 1806. 
 
 See J. J. Magkndie, " Memoire necrologue snr le Vice-Amiral 
 de Villeneuve," 1814; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Villeneuve, de, (RomEe,) an eminent French states- 
 man and general, born about 1 1 70. He was employed 
 in the service of Berenger, Count of Provence, and was 
 regent of Provence after the death of Berenger, in 1245. 
 Died after 1250. 
 
 Villeneuve, de, (Rosaline,) a French nun, noted 
 for her ascetic piety, born about 1263, was canonized. 
 Died in 1329. 
 
 Villeneuve-Bargemon, de, deh vel'nuv' biRzh'- 
 m6N', (Jean Paul Alban — SI'Ijon',) Vicomte, a French 
 economist, born near Grasse (Provence) in 1784. He 
 received the Montyon prize for his "Christian Political 
 Economy, or Researches into the Causes of Pauperism," 
 etc., (3 vols., 1S34.) Died in 1850. 
 
 Villeneuve-Trans, de, deh vel'nuv' tR5N, (Louis 
 Francois,) Marquis, a historical writer, born in 1784, 
 was a twin-brother of the preceding, Among his works 
 is a " History of Saint Louis, King of France," (3 vols., 
 1836.) Died in 1850. 
 
 Villerme, ve'yeVma', (Louis,) a son of the following, 
 was born in Paris in 1819. He wrote on agriculture 
 and economy. 
 
 Villerme, (Louis Rene,) a French economist and 
 medical writer, born in Paris in 1782. He advocated 
 reform in the treatment of prisoners, founded the " An- 
 nates d' Hygiene," (1829,) and was the first, it is Said, 
 to apply statistics to questions of hygiene. His chief 
 work is a "Tableau of the Moral and Physical State 
 of Operatives employed in the Manufacture of Cotton, 
 Wool, and Silk," (2 vols., 1840.) Died in 1863. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographic G^nerale." 
 
 Villeroi or Villeroy, de, deli vel'Rwa', (Charles 
 de Neufville — deh nuh'vel',) Marquis, a French gen- 
 eral, born about 1560, was called Marquis d'AIincourt 
 in his youth. He fought for the League, and was a 
 rival of Sully. Died in 1642. 
 
 Villeroi, de, (Francois de Neufville:,) Due, a 
 marshal of France, born in Paris in 1644, was a son 
 of Nicolas, noticed below. He was better qualified to 
 be a courtier than a general. He became marechal- 
 de-camp in 1674, lieutenant-general in 1677, and mar- 
 shal of France in 1693. Through royal favouritism 
 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army in 
 Flanders in 1695. He failed to relieve Namur, which 
 was besieged and taken by William III. of England. 
 He commanded at the battle of Ramillies, (1706,) where 
 he was defeated by Marlborough ; but he retained the 
 favour of Louis XIV. even after this disaster. lie 
 was noted for his presumption and self-esteem. Died 
 in 1730. 
 
 See Saint-Simon, " Memoires :" Voltaire, "Siecle de Louis 
 XIV;" Ds CouftCKLLSS, " Dictionnaire des Ge'ne'raux Francais ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographic G^neVale." 
 
 Villeroi, de, (Nicolas de Neufville,) Due, a 
 courtier and general, born in 1598, was a son of Charles, 
 noticed above. He became a marshal of France, and 
 governor of the young king Louis XIV., about 1646. 
 Died in 1685. 
 
 Villeroi or Villeroy, de, (Nicolas de Neufville,) 
 SEIGNEUR, a French minister of state, born in 1542, 
 was the father of Charles, noticed above. He was ap- 
 pointed secretary of state in 1567, after which he was a 
 trusted counsellor of Charles IX. and Henry HI. He 
 became a partisan of the Catholic League, and was the 
 agent of the negotiations opened in 1589 between the 
 
 Duke de Mayenne and Henry IV. In 1594 he entered 
 the service of Henry IV. as secretary of state. He was 
 a rival or enemy of Sully. Died in 161 7. 
 
 See P. Mathieu, " Remarques surla ViedeM. de Villeroy," 1618. 
 
 Villeroy. See Villeroi. 
 
 Villers, ve'ya',( Francois Toussaint,) a French revo- 
 lutionist, born at Rennes in 1749. He was a member 
 of the Convention of 1792-95, and of the Council of 
 Five Hundred. Died in 1807. 
 
 Villers, de, deh ve'ya', (Charles Francois Domi- 
 nique,) a French philosopher and miscellaneous writer, 
 born in Lorraine in 1764. Soon after the breaking out 
 of the Revolution, he published a treatise " On Liberty," 
 by which he exposed himself to the persecution of the 
 Jacobins, and was obliged to take refuge in Germany. 
 He there made the acquaintance of Heeren, Jacobi, and 
 other eminent writers, and became thoroughly versed 
 in German literature, which he greatly contributed to 
 render popular in France. He was appointed in 181 1 
 professor of philosophy at Gottingen. He was the 
 author of an "Essay on the Spirit and Influence of 
 Luther's Reformation," which was crowned by the 
 French Institute and was translated into English, Ger- 
 man, Dutch, and Swedish, " Report on the State of 
 Ancient Literature and History in Germany," and 
 " Philosophy of Kant," etc. He also translated a num- 
 ber of standard German works into French. Died in 1815. 
 
 See Michel Bekr, "Notice sur M. C. Villers," 1815 ; Kmii.k 
 A. Begin, "Villers, Madame de Rodde et Madame de Stae'l," 1840. 
 
 Villeterque.de, deh vel't&Rk', (Alexandre Louis,) 
 a French writer, born at Ligny in 1759. He was an 
 editor of the "Journal de Paris," and published "Dra- 
 matic Essays," (1793,) and " Essays on Morals and Physi- 
 cal Science," (2 vols., 1795.) Died in 181 1. 
 
 Villette, de, deh ve'lSt', (Charles,) Marquis, a 
 French writer, born in Paris in 1736, was a friend of 
 Voltaire. He wrote verses, eloges, etc. In 1792 he 
 became a member of the Convention. Died in 1793. 
 
 Villiaurne, ve'le-o'ma', (Nicolas,) a French historian, 
 advocate, and political economist, born at Pont-a-Mous- 
 son in 1814. He published, besides other works, a " His- 
 tory of the French Revolution," (4 vols., 1850,) and a 
 "Treatise on Political Economy," (2 vols., 1857.) 
 
 Villiers. See Buckingham, Duke of. 
 
 Villiers. See Clarendon. 
 
 Villiers, vil'yerz, (Charles Pelham,) an English 
 politician, a brother of Lord Clarendon, was born in 
 London in 1802. He became a Liberal member of 
 Parliament in 1835, and made annually a motion to re- 
 duce or repeal the duty on grain. Pie was appointed 
 judge-advocate-general in 1853, and president of the 
 poor-law board in 1859 ; resigned in 1866. 
 
 Villiers, (Henry Montague,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1813. He became Bishop of Durham 
 in 1856. Died in 1861. 
 
 Villiers, de, deh ve'ye-i', (Jean,) a French general, 
 born about 1384. He was an enemy of the Armagnac 
 faction, and fought for the English against the King of 
 France. Died in 1437. 
 
 Villiers, de, (Pierre,) a French writer and preacher, 
 born at Cognac in 1648. He published a poem on the 
 " Art of Preaching," (" L'Art de prScher," 1682,) often 
 reprinted, and several religious and moral essays. Died 
 in Paris in 1728. 
 
 Villiers de L'Isle Adam, de, deh ve'ye-4' deh 141 
 f'doN', (Philippe,) a French commander, born at Beau- 
 vais in 1464. He was elected grand master of the order 
 of Saint John at Rhodes in 1521. The Turks having 
 taken Rhodes in 1522, he removed the order to Malta 
 in 1530. Died in 1534. 
 
 See Vertot, " Histoire des Chevaliers de Malte." 
 
 Villipigue, vil'le-peg', ? or Villepigue, (John B.,) 
 an American general, born in South Carolina about 
 1834, graduated at West Point in 1854. He fought 
 against the Union at Corinth, October, 1862. Died at 
 Port Hudson, Louisiana, in November, 1862. 
 
 Villoison, de, deh ve'lwa'zdN', (Jean Baptists Gas- 
 PARD d'Ansse — doNss,) an eminent French Hellenist, 
 born at Corbeil-sur-Seine about 1750. He studied at 
 the College of Beauvais, and at the age of fifteen had 
 read the greater part of the Greek classics. He pub- 
 
 « as k; c as 1; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
riLLON 
 
 2202 
 
 FINCHON 
 
 lished in 1773 the first edition of Apollonius's "Lexicon 
 of the Iliad and Odyssey," with valuable scholia, from 
 a manuscript at Saint-Germain. He was soon after 
 elected to the Academy of Inscriptions, although by the 
 rules of the society too young to receive that honour. 
 Having been sent by the government in 1778 to examine 
 the Library of Saint Mark, Venice, he discovered nu- 
 merous fragments of Greek works hitherto unpublished, 
 which appeared in 1781 under the title of " Anecdota 
 Graeca," etc. He also brought to light a manuscript 
 "Iliad" of the tenth century, with ancient scholia, (since 
 called " Scholia Veneta,") published, with learned pro- 
 legomena, in 1788. This was considered an important 
 discovery. Among his other works we may name his 
 " Epistolae Vimarienses," (1783,) being the result of his 
 researches in the Library of Weimar, and an edition of 
 the " Pastoralia" of Longus. He travelled in Greece 
 about three years, (1785-88.) He died in April, 1805, 
 just after he was appointed professor of Greek in the 
 College de France. 
 
 See Bon Joseph Dacibr, " filoge de J. 8. d'Ansse de Villoison," 
 1806 ; article " Dansse" in the " Nouveile Biographie Generale. " 
 
 Villon, ve'ydN', (Francois,) an early French poet, 
 whose original name was Corbueil, (koR'buF or koR'- 
 buh'ye,) born in Paris in 1431. He was author of a 
 humorous poem called "The Great Testament," (" Le 
 grand Testament,") and is reckoned one of the national 
 poets. Died about 1485. 
 
 See Profilet, "De la Vie et des Ouvrages de Villon," 1856; 
 Campaux, "Villon, sa Vie et ses CEuvres," 1859; Longfellow, 
 " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Villotte, ve'yot', (Jacques,) a French Jesuit and 
 missionary, born at Bar-le-Duc in 1656. He was em- 
 ployed in Armenia and at Ispahan. He published 
 "Travels in Turkey, Persia, Armenia," etc., (1730.) 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 Vilmar, fil'maR, (Auoust Friedrich Christian,) 
 a German politician and writer, born at Solz, in Hesse, 
 in 1800. He became intendant-general of the affairs of 
 the Church at Cassel in 1851. He wrote "Lectures on 
 the History of the National Literature of Germany," 
 (1845,) and other works. 
 
 Vimont, ve'm6N', (Joseph,) a French physician, born 
 at Caen in 1795. He published a "Treatise on Human 
 and Comparative Phrenology," (2 vols., 1833-36.) 
 
 Vinateya, one of the names of Garuda, (which 
 see.) 
 
 Vince, (Samuel,) F.R.S., an English mathematician 
 and astronomer, born in Suffolk. He became professor 
 of astronomy and experimental philosophy in the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge in 1796, and contributed several 
 treatises to the "Philosophical Transactions." Among 
 his works is a "Complete System of Astronomy," (3 
 vols., 1797-1808.) He was also Archdeacon of Bedford. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for April, 1809. 
 
 Vincent, vaN'sdN', (Alexandre Joseph Hidulphe 
 — /(e'diilf,) a French mathematician, born at Hesdin in 
 1797, published a "Course of Elementary Geometry," 
 "Treatise on the Solving of Numerical Equations," and 
 other works on various subjects. He became in 183 1 
 professor of mathematics in the College of Louis le 
 Grand. 
 
 Vincent, (Francois Andre,) an able French his- 
 torical painter, born in Paris in 1747, was a pupil of Vien. 
 He gained the grand prize of Rome in 1768, and became 
 a member of the Royal Academy in 1782. A picture 
 of" President Mole seized by Factious Persons" is called 
 his master-piece. Died in 1816. 
 
 See Quatremeke DE Quincv, " Notice sur Vincent," 1817. 
 
 Vincent, (Francois Nicolas,) a violent French 
 Jacobin, born in Paris in 1767, belonged to the faction 
 called Hebertistes. He was executed with Hebert in 
 March, 1794. 
 
 Vin'cent, (Nathaniei.,) an English nonconformist 
 minister, born at Hertford, was a brother of Thomas, 
 noticed below. He was ejected in 1662, after which he 
 preached in London. He wrote several religious works. 
 Died in 1697. 
 
 Vincent, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist divine, 
 who was conspicuous for his humanity to the sufferers 
 
 from the plague in London in 1665. He published, 
 among other works, "God's Terrible Voice in the City 
 by Plague and Fire." Died in 1671. 
 
 Vincent, (William,) D.D., an English scholar and 
 divine, born in London in 1739. He studied at Trinity 
 College, Cambridge, was appointed head-master of 
 Westminster School in 1788, and, after several other pre- 
 ferments in the Church, became Dean of Westminster in 
 1 802. He published "The History of the Commerce 
 and Navigation of the Antients in the Indian Ocean," 
 (2 vols., 1807,) a " Defence of Public Education, in a 
 Letter to the Lord Bishop of Meath," " The Origination 
 of the Greek Verb, an Hypothesis," and a number of 
 sermons. The first named is esteemed a standard work. 
 He was also a contributor to the " British Critic" and 
 "The Classical Journal." Died in 1815. 
 
 See the "Monthly Review" for July, 1798. 
 
 Vincent of Lerins. See Vincentius Lirinensis. 
 
 Vincent de Beauvais, vJn's&n' deh bo'v£', [Lat, 
 Vincen'tius Bellovacen'sis,] a learned French Do- 
 minican monk, was tutor to the sons of Louis IX. He 
 was the author of an encyclopaedia, entitled "Speculum 
 Quadruplex" or "Speculum Majus." Died about 1260. 
 
 Vincent dePaul, (or Depaul,) vln'sent (or vaN'sfi.N') 
 deh pol, [Ger. Vincenz von Paula, vin-sents' fon pow'- 
 la,] Saint, a benefactor and reformer, born near Dax, in 
 the southwest of France, in 1576. He was ordained a 
 priest in 1600, and was captured in 1605 by corsairs, who 
 took him to Tunis and sold him as a slave. Having 
 escaped in 1607, he went to Paris, and became curate 
 of Clichy in 161 1. About 1613 he was employed as pre- 
 ceptor of the sons of Philippe Emmanuel de Gondi, 
 Count de Joigny. One of these pupils was the famous 
 Cardinal de Retz. Vincent distinguished himself by his 
 zeal to improve the moral and physical condition of the 
 poor and the sick. About 1617 he founded a charitable 
 institution, called Confrerie de Charite, in which he 
 made a successful innovation by employing the laic ele- 
 ment. He afterwards spent some time in reforming and 
 relieving the prisoners in the galleys at Marseilles. In 
 1624 he began to organize the Congregation of the Mis- 
 sions, designed to train teachers and preachers for the 
 provinces of France. The priests of this society were 
 called Lazaristes. He established a foundling-hospital 
 in Paris about 1638. Among the most useful and widely- 
 extended institutions of Vincent de Paul was the Sisters 
 of Charity, devoted to the service of the sick. During 
 the civil war of the Fronde his inexhaustible charity 
 was employed in relieving the miseries of famine. His 
 services on this occasion procured for him the title of 
 Pere de la Patrie, (" Father of the Country.") He died 
 in Paris in 1660. He was canonized by Pope Clement 
 XII. in 1737. 
 
 See Abeli.y. "Vie de Saint Vincent de Paul," 1664: P. Collet, 
 "Vie de Saint Vincent de Paul," 2 vols., 1748; Gaujra, "Vincenz 
 von Paula." 1807 : Leopold de Stolbhrg. " Leben des Vincenz von 
 Paula," 1S18; Lkmaire, "Vie de Saint Vincent de Paul," 1825; 
 Abbe Maury. "Panegyrique de Saint Vincent de Paul." 1827; 
 Capkfigue, " Vie de Saint Vincent de Paul," 1827; Tm. Nisard, 
 "Vie de Saint Vincent de Paul," 1844; A. Challamel, "Saint 
 Vincent de Paul," 1841 : "Nouveile Biographie Generale." 
 
 Vincent Ferrier or Vicente Ferrer, ve-thSn'ti 
 f?r-raiR', a Spanish Dominican monk, born at Valencia 
 about 1350. He preached in Spain, France, Italy, and 
 Germany, the languages of which he spoke with facility. 
 He was renowned as a preacher, and was venerated as a 
 saint. Died at Vannes in 1419. 
 
 See Coelho, " Vida de V. Ferrer," 1713 ; Fuesi, "Life of V. 
 Ferrier," (in Hungarian,) 1749: Heller, "Vincent Ferrer nach 
 seinen Leben und Wirken," 1830. 
 
 Vin-cen'tl-us (vin-seVshe-us) Llr-I-nen'sis, [Fr. 
 Vincent de Lerins, vaN / s5N T 'deh leh-raN',] a monk 
 and writer, born in Gaul. He wrote a short treatise 
 entitled "Commonitorium" against heretics, which is a 
 work of some merit. Died about 450 A.D. 
 Vincenz von Paula. See Vincent de Paul, 
 Vinchon, v&N'shoN', (Augusts Jean Baptists,) a 
 French painter, born in Paris in 1789. He obtained the 
 grand prize from the Academy of Arts in 1814, and sub- 
 sequently studied at Rome. Among his works may be 
 named "Joan of Arc under the Walls of Orleans," and 
 the " Death of Coriolanus." Died in 1855. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
F1NCI 
 
 2203 
 
 V1NET 
 
 Vinci, da, di ven'chee, (or vin'chee,) (Leonardo,) a 
 celebrated Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, born 
 at Vinci, near Florence, in 1452, was a natural son of 
 Pietro da Vinci, a notary. He became in early youth a 
 pupil of Andrea Verocchio, a painter of Florence, whom 
 he soon surpassed. He was well versed in anatomy, 
 astronomy, botany, mathematics, engineering, and music. 
 In his youth, before he left Florence, he produced a 
 cartoon of Adam and Eve, a Madonna, a picture of the 
 " Adoration of the Magi," and other works. About 1481 
 he removed to Milan, and entered the service of Ludovico 
 il Moro, Duke of Milan. He was director of an Academy 
 of sciences and arts founded by the duke about 1485. In 
 1493 he made a model for a bronze equestrian statue of 
 Francesco Sforza. The statue was never cast, because 
 he could not procure a sufficient quantity of bronze. 
 About 1499 he completed at Milan his master-piece, — 
 the picture of the "Last Supper," (" Cenacolo,") which 
 was painted on a wall of the convent of Santa Maria 
 delle Grazie. This celebrated work exists now only ill 
 copies made by Marco Oggioni and other painters, and 
 in the engraving of Raphael Morghen. In consequence 
 of the expulsion of Ludovico il Moro from Milan by 
 Louis XII. of France, Leonardo returned to Florence 
 in 1500. He painted at Florence a portrait of Madonna 
 Lisa del Giocondo and " The Virgin on the Knees of 
 Saint Anne." Having been commissioned to paint 
 one end of the council-hall of the Palazzo Vecchio, he 
 commenced there a picture of the battle of Anghiari, 
 which he left unfinished. He worked at Milan in 1507 
 and 1512. He visited Rome in 1514, but soon came 
 away in disgust, which is ascribed to Pope Leo's want 
 of courtesy, or to the disagreement of Da Vinci with 
 Michael Angelo, who was then at Rome. Da Vinci en- 
 tered the service of Francis I. of Fiance, whom he met 
 in Italy, and whom he accompanied to France in 15 16. 
 He received from Francis an annua] salary of seven 
 hundred crowns. His health was so infirm that he exe- 
 cuted no great work after he left Italy. He was the 
 author of an excellent treatise on painting, "Trattato 
 della Pittura," which has been translated into English, 
 and various other treatises, -which have not been pub- 
 lished. The genuine paintings of Da Vinci which are 
 now extant are not very numerous. Among them is a 
 portrait of himself in the Uffizi gallery at Florence. He 
 surpassed all his predecessors in the art of chiaroscuro. 
 He was never married. He died near Amboise, or at 
 Fontainebleau, in May, 1519, leaving his manuscripts, 
 library, and other personal property to his pupil Fran- 
 cesco Melzi. Among his eminent pupils were Bernar- 
 dino Luini and Marco Oggioni. 
 
 " The discoveries," says Hallam, " which made Galileo 
 and Kepler and Maestlin and Maurolicus and Castelli 
 and other names illustrious, the system of Copernicus, 
 the very theories of recent geologers, are anticipated 
 by Da Vinci within the compass of a few pages, — not 
 perhaps in the most precise language or on the most con- 
 clusive reasoning, but so as to strike us with some- 
 thing like the awe of preternatural knowledge. ... If 
 any doubt could be harboured, not as to the right of Leo- 
 nardo da Vinci to stand as the first name of the fifteenth 
 century, which is beyond all doubt, but as to his origi- 
 nality in so many discoveries, which probably no one 
 man, especially in such circumstances, has ever made, it 
 must be on an hypothesis, not very untenable, that some 
 parts of physical science had already attained a height 
 which mere books do not record." (" Introduction to the 
 Literature of Europe.") 
 
 See Amorktti, " Memorie storiche sulla Vila Hi L da Vinci," 
 1784; Vasari, "Lives of the Painters;" Gaui.t dk Saint Gru- 
 main, " Vie de Leonard de Vinci," iSo? : G. liossi, "Vila di L. da 
 Vinci," 1814; Braun, " L. da Vinci's Leben," iSiq: J. W. BKOWN, 
 " Life of L. da Vinci," 182S; A. Dumksnii.. " Leonard de Vinci," 
 Paris. 1850: Gallenberg. " Leon, da Vinci," 1834 : CM. CLEMENT, 
 '■ Michel Ange, L. de Vinci. Raphael," i8Ar ; Mrs Jameson, "Me 
 moirs of Early Italian Painters:" J. S. Hawkins. " Lite of L. da 
 Vinci," i8oa; E. J. DEI.fcl.uzK, " K.ssai sur L. da Vinci." 1S44; 
 I.ANZl, "History of Painting in Italy;" F. Rl", " L. da Vinci et 
 son Ecole," 1855 : Ticozzi, " Duionario ;" Baldinucci, " Notizie ;" 
 " Westminster Review" for July, 1850. 
 
 Vinci, da, (Leonardo,) an Italian musical composer, 
 born at Naples in 1690; died about 1732. 
 
 Vinciguerra, ven-che-gwer'ra, (Marco Antonio,) 
 an Italian poet, who flourished about 1470-1490. He 
 
 was for a long time secretary of the republic of Venice. 
 He is called the creator of satire in Italy. His works 
 are said to be remarkable for energy, originality, and 
 pathos. 
 
 Vincke, flnk'keh, (Friedrich Ludwig Wilhklm 
 PlIH.llT,) a Prussian statesman and writer, born at Min- 
 den in 1774, filled several important offices under the 
 government, and published a treatise " On the Admin- 
 istration of Great Britain." Died in 1844. 
 
 Vincke, von, fon flnk'keh, (Ernst Friedrich 
 Georg,) Baron, a distinguished Prussian orator and 
 statesman, son of Friedrich, noticed above, was born 
 near Hagen, in the county of Mark, in 181 1. He was 
 elected to the Diet in 1847, and in 1849 became a 
 member of the second Prussian Chamber, being several 
 times re-elected. He is one of the principal leaders of 
 the constitutional party, and is conspicuous as an able 
 and brilliant debater. 
 
 Vinckelbooms, vlnk'el-boms', or Vinkenbooms, 
 vink'en-boms', (David,) a Dutch painter, born at Mech- 
 lin in 1578. His favourite subjects were landscapes, 
 festivals, hunting-scenes, etc., which he delineated with 
 great skill and fidelity. Died in 1629. 
 
 Vin'dex, (Caius Julius,) a Roman general, born in 
 Aquitania. He was governor or pro-praetor of Gallia 
 Celtica in the reign of Nero. In 68 a.d. he revolted 
 against Nero, and proclaimed Galba emperor. He was 
 killed, or killed himself, at Vesontio (Besancon) in the 
 same year. 
 
 Vindicianus, vin-dish-e-a'nus, an eminent physician 
 and Christian, lived about 370 a.d. He was physician 
 to the emperor Valentinian. His skill and wisdom are 
 highly commended by Saint Augustine. 
 
 Vinding, vin'ding, (Erasmus,) a Danish scholar and 
 jurist, born at Vinding, in Zealand, in 1615. He became 
 professor of Greek and assessor of the supreme court 
 of justice. He had the principal part in the reformation 
 or revision of the laws of Denmark. Died in 1684. 
 
 Vinding, (Paul,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 about 1658. He was professor of Greek, and author of 
 several works on classical subjects. Died in 1712. 
 
 Vineis, vin'e-is, (Petrus,) originally Pietro deile 
 Vigne, (del'la ven'ya,) an Italian jurist, rose to be chan- 
 cellor to Frederick 1 1., Emperor of Germany, whose 
 cause he defended against the popes. Died in 1249. 
 
 Vi'ner, (Charles,) an English lawyer and compiler, 
 born about 1680, published in 1751 "A General and 
 Complete Abridgment of Law and Equity," (24 vols, 
 fol.,) a work on which he is said to have employed half 
 a century. He died in 1756, bequeathing twelve thou- 
 sand pounds to establish a professorship of common law 
 at Oxford, which was first filled by Blackstone. 
 
 Vines, vinz, (Richard,) an English Presbyterian 
 divine, born in Leicestershire. He was a member of the 
 Assembly of Divines in 1644, minister of Saint Clement 
 Dane's, and vicar of Saint Lawrence Jewry, London. 
 Died in 1655. 
 
 Vinet, ve'n&', (Alexandre Rodolphe,) an eminent 
 Swiss author and theologian, born at or near Lausanne 
 in June, 1797. He became professor of the French lan- 
 guage and literature at Bale in 1817, and retained that 
 chair twenty years. He acquired a high reputation as 
 an eloquent preacher, advocated liberty of conscience, 
 and opposed the union of church and state. In 1837 he 
 was appointed professor of practical theology at Lau- 
 sanne. He published, besides other works, "An Argu- 
 ment for Liberty of Worship," (1826,) "Chrestomathie 
 Francaise," (3 vols., 1829-30,) " Discours sur quelques 
 Sujets religieux," (1835,) an English version of which 
 was entitled" Vital Christianity," "Studies on French 
 Literature of the Nineteenth Century," (3 vols., 1849,) 
 and " Pastoral Theology," (1850.) His works are highly 
 esteemed, and are remarkable for elegance of style. 
 He seceded from the national Church in 184a Died 
 in 1847. 
 
 See E. Schkrkr. " A. Vinet. sa Vie et ses ficrits," 1853 ; Sainte- 
 Beuvk, " Portraits contemporains ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Gene'- 
 rale ;" " North British Review" for August, 1854. 
 
 Vinet or Vinette, ve'neV, (Ei.if,) a French scholar 
 and critic of great learning, was born near Barbezieux 
 (Saintonge) in 1509. He was for some years professor 
 
 •ill 1L.II1.1U [JUCl, YOIU IIUUI lailtu .." 'i'. af/v ■ *t V w ' ""~ \ ■..«...»"■ ■£,- , ■•■ - j — y --- •■— ~ j , 
 
 < as k; c as /; g hard; g as>; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J[^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
FINETTE 
 
 2204 
 
 V1REY 
 
 at the College of Guienne, Bordeaux, of which he was 
 rector or president from 1558 till 1583. He published 
 good editions, with notes, of Eutropius, (1553,) Sueto- 
 nius " De Rhetoribus," (1556,) Florus, (1563,) Ausonius, 
 (1575,) and other classics. He also wrote several original 
 works. Died in 1587. 
 
 See Joannet, "filoge d'filie Vinet," 1816; Niceron, "Mi- 
 moires." 
 
 Vinette. See VrNET, (Elie.) 
 
 Vingtrinier, viN'tRe'ne-i', (Artus Barthelemy,) 
 a French physician and economist, born in 1796. He 
 practised in Rouen, and treated the subject of prison- 
 reform in an able work, entitled " Des Prisons et des 
 Prisonniers," (1840.) He wrote other works. 
 
 Vinnen. See Vinnius. 
 
 Vin'nl-us or VIn'nen, (Arnold,) an eminent Dutch 
 jurist, born near the Hague in 1588. He became pro- 
 fessor of law at the University of Leyden in 1633. He 
 published " Select Questions of Law," " Commentaries 
 on Four Books of the Imperial Institutes," ("Com- 
 mentarius in Libros IV. Institutionum Imperialium," 
 1642,) and other works. Died at Leyden in 1657. 
 
 Vintimille, de, deh vaN'te'mel' or vaN'te'me'ye, 
 (Jacques,) Comte, a scholar and translator, born about 
 1512. He lived mostly in France, and became a coun- 
 sellor to the parliament of Burgundy in 1549. He wrote 
 several Latin poems, and translated into French the 
 "Cyropaedia" of Xenbphon and the works of Herodian. 
 Died in 1582. 
 
 See Ludovic de Vauzelles, "Jacques de Vintimille," 1865. 
 
 Vintimille du Luc, de, deh viN'te'mel' du luk, 
 (Charles Gaspard Guill'aume,) a French prelate, 
 bom near Frejus in 1655. He became Archbishop of 
 Paris in 1729, and opposed Jansenism. Died in 1746. 
 
 Vin'ton, (Alexander Hamilton,) D.D., an Epis- 
 copalian divine, born at Prevalence, Rhode Island, in 
 1807. He became successively rector of Saint Paul's 
 Church in Boston, the Church of the Holy Trinity in 
 Philadelphia, and Saint Mark's Church in New York, 
 (1861.) 
 
 Vinton,_(FRANCis,) D.D., a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1809. He 
 graduated at the Military Academy of West Point, served 
 in the Creek war in 1836, and, having afterwards studied 
 theology, was ordained in 1839. He became rector of 
 Grace Church, Brooklyn, in 1847, and assistant minister 
 of Trinity Church, New York, in 1855. 
 
 Vinton, (Francis Laurens,) an American general, 
 a nephew of the Rev. Francis Vinton, was born at Port- 
 land, Maine, in 1835. He graduated at West Point in 
 1856, and became a brigadier-general about September, 
 1862. 
 
 Vinton, (Justus Hatch,) an American missionary, 
 born at Wilbngton, Connecticut, in 1806, sailed in 1834 
 for Burmah, where he devoted himself to the instruction 
 of the Karens. Died in 1858. 
 
 Vinton, (Samuel F.,) an American legislator, born at 
 South Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1792. He removed to 
 Ohio about 1816, practised law with distinction, and as a 
 Whig represented a district of Ohio in Congress about 
 twenty-two years, (1823-37 and 1843-51.) Died in 1862. 
 
 Vio, de. See Cajetan. 
 
 Violante do Ceo. See Ceo, do. 
 
 Viollet-Leduc, (or Le Due,) ve'o'lj' leh diik, (Eu- 
 gene Emmanuel,) an eminent French architect, born 
 in Paris in 1814, was a pupil of A. Leclerc. He devoted 
 himself to Gothic and mediaeval architecture, and was 
 employed by the government in the restoration of 
 several ancient churches, among which were that of 
 Notre-Dame, in Paris, and the cathedral of Amiens. 
 He began to publish in 1853 a large and valuable work 
 on French architecture, "Dictionnaire raisonne de 1'Ar- 
 chitecture Francaise du Xle au XVIe Siecle," (6 or 
 more vols.) 
 
 Viomenil, de, deh ve'o'ma'nel', (Antoine Charles 
 du Houx — dii hoo,) Baron, a French general, born 
 in Vosges in 1728. He was second in command of the 
 army of Rochambeau in the United States, to which he 
 was sent in 1780. While defending the king against the 
 populace of Paris, in August, 1792, he received a severe 
 wound. Died in November, 1792. 
 
 Viomenil, de, (Charles Joseph Hyacinthe do 
 Houx,) Marquis, a general, bom in 1734, was a brother 
 of the preceding. He served in the United States, 
 (1780-82,) emigrated as a royalist in 1791, and fought 
 against France, under Conde, until 1797. He returned 
 in 1814, and became a marshal of France in 1816. Died 
 in 1827. 
 
 Viotti, ve-ot'te'e, (Giovanni Battista,) a celebrated 
 Italian violinist, born in Piedmont in 1 755. He studied 
 under Pugnani, and was appointed, at the age of twenty, 
 first violinist at the court of Turin. On the breaking 
 out of the French Revolution, he repaired to London, 
 where he was for a time leader of the band at the King's 
 Theatre. One of his principal works is entitled "Vingt- 
 neuf Concertos de Violons." Died in 1824. 
 
 See Bam.lot, "Notice sur J. B. Viotti," 1825; Miel, "Notice 
 sur Viotti," 1827. 
 
 Viperano, ve-pa-ra'no, (Giovanni Antonio,) an. 
 Italian writer and ecclesiastic, born at Messina in 1535. 
 He was appointed Bishop of Giovenazzo by Pope Sixtus 
 V. He wrote various works, among which are "On 
 Writing History," (" De Scribenda Historia," 1569,) and 
 "On the Chief Good," ("De Summo Bono," 1575.) 
 Died in 1610. 
 
 Vipsanius. See Agrippa. 
 
 Virabhadra, [modern Hindoo pron. vee'ra-b'hud'ra,] 
 [from the Sanscrit vird, a "strong or valiant person," 
 a " hero," (perhaps cognate with the Latin vir, a " man," 
 also a " hero,") and bhadni, " prosperous," "excellent,"] 
 in the Hindoo mythology, the name of a son, or, accord- 
 ing to some, of an avatar, of Siva. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon," p. 177. 
 
 Vhaj, vi-raj', in the Hindoo mythology, the name of 
 a mysterious being, who was said to be the son of 
 Brahma and the father of the first Manu. By dividing 
 himself into male and female, he became the parent of 
 many creatures. The fable of Viraj seems to have sug- 
 gested the idea of Ardha-nari, (ar'dha na'ree, from 
 drdhd, " half," and ndrl, " woman," a being combining 
 the two sexes,) one of the forms of Siva, and perhaps 
 also of the Hermaphrodite of the Greeks. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon," pp. 83-85. 
 
 Virchow, fe"gR'Ko, (Rudolf,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man pathologist, born at Koslin, in Pomerania, in 1821. 
 He became in 1846 prosector at Berlin, and in 1856 
 professor of pathological anatomy in that city. Perhaps 
 the most important of his professional works — all of 
 which enjoy a high reputation — is his "Cellular Pa- 
 thology as based upon Physiological and Pathological 
 Histology," (1858; 2d edition, 1859,) which has been 
 translated into English, and is regarded as the highest 
 authority on the subjects of which it treats. He has also 
 given especial attention to investigating the diseases 
 caused by trichina. In regard to political and social 
 questions Dr. Virchow is progressive and liberal. 
 
 See Pierer, " Univeisal-Lexikon." 
 
 Viret, ve'i.i', [Lat. Vire'tus,] (Pierre,) an eminent 
 Swiss Reformer, born at Orbe in 1511, was a friend of 
 Fare). He began about 1531 to preach the Reformed 
 doctrines at Orbe and Payeme. In 1536 he preached 
 at Lausanne, where he made many converts, and where 
 he was employed as pastor several years. His health is 
 said to have been ruined by poison given to him by 
 some priests at Geneva. For the benefit of his health, 
 he removed about 1561 to the south of France. He 
 afterwards preached at Lyons, from which he was driven 
 by persecution in 1565, and took refuge in Navarre. He 
 wrote many works, among which are an " Exposition of 
 the Doctrines of the Christian Religion," (1543,) and 
 "Papal Physics," ("La Physique papale," 1552.) Died 
 at Orthez in 1571. 
 
 See Chenevteke, " Farel, Froment, Viret, ReYormateurs," 1S35; 
 Jaqukmot, "Viret. Reformateur de Lausanne," 1836. 
 
 Viretus. See Viret. 
 
 Virey, ve'ri', (Julien Joseph,) a French physician, 
 born in the department of Haute-Marne in 1775. He 
 was appointed in 181 2 chief pharmaceutist at the hos- 
 pital of Val de Grace in Paris. He published a "Theo- 
 retical and Practical Treatise on Pharmacy," (181 1,) 
 " Ephemerides of Human Life," (1814,) "On Vital 
 
 , e, i, 6, 11, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
VIRGIL 
 
 220$ 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 Power," (1822,) "Philosophical Hygiene," (2 vols., 
 1828.) and other valuable works. He was also one of 
 the principal contributors to the " Dictionnaire des Sci- 
 ences naturelles" and the "Dictionnaire des Sciences 
 medicales." Died in 1846. 
 
 Vir'gil, [Ital. Virgilio, veR-iee'le-o ; Fr. Virgile, 
 veR'zhel',] or, more fully, Pub 11-us Vir-gill-us (or 
 Ver-gil'I-us) Ma'ro, the most illustrious of Latin poets, 
 was born of humble parents at Andes, a small village 
 near Mantua, on the 15th of October, 70 B.C., during the 
 consulship of Pompeyand Crassus. His mother's name 
 was Maia. He studied at Cremona, Milan, and Neapo- 
 lis, (Naples.) It is evident from his writings that he re- 
 ceived a liberal education, and was well versed in Greek 
 literature, philosophy, medicine, and mathematics. He 
 inherited from his father, Maro, a small farm near Man- 
 tua, which was included in the tract assigned by Octavian 
 (Augustus) to his soldiers as a reward for their services 
 at Philippi in 42 B.C. Virgil was thus deprived of his 
 patrimony; but he recovered it by a personal appeal to 
 Augustus. He expressed his gratitude for this favour 
 in his first eclogue, which is supposed to be one of his 
 earliest productions. He became an intimate friend of 
 Pollioand Horace, and found a liberal patron in Maecenas, 
 to whom he was introduced about 40 B.C. He displayed 
 a remarkable mastery over the Latin language in his 
 ten eclogues, " Bucolica," or pastoral poems, which are 
 mostly imitations of Theocritus. In these poems, de- 
 scriptions of nature are admirably blended with human 
 feelings and sympathies. 
 
 About the age of thirty-three, Virgil became a resident 
 of Rome, and a recipient of the bounty of Augustus to 
 such an extent that he could devote himself entirely to 
 literary pursuits. He owned a house on the Ksquiline 
 Hill. It appears that after he had remained a few years 
 at Rome he removed to Naples, at that time a favourite 
 abode of literary men. He expended seven years in the 
 composition of a didactic poem on rural economy, 
 entitled " Georgica," in four books, which is considered 
 his most original and finished production. It presents a 
 marvellous union of didactic precept with graphic de- 
 scription and ingenious illustration, expressed with great 
 variety and magnificence of diction. " In sustained 
 majesty, in melody that ever satisfies but never cloys 
 the ear, in variety of modulation, in stateliness but free- 
 dom of march, it stands unapproached by any other 
 Roman poet." (" Encyclopaedia Britannica.' ) 
 
 About 30 B.C. he began to compose a great national 
 epic poem, which he had long meditated, and which was 
 designed to celebrate the origin of the Roman empire. 
 He had written or sketched the last book of this poem, 
 the " /Eneid," ("/Eneis,") which constitutes a perennial 
 monument of his genius, when he departed on a visit to 
 Athens in 19 B.C. He intended to pass several years in 
 Greece, in polishing and revising the " /Eneid," but his 
 health failed. During the homeward voyage he died 
 at Brundusium, in September, 19 B.C. According to his 
 own request, he was buried near Naples. There is a 
 current tradition that shortly before his death he re- 
 quested his friends to burn the " /Eneid," which he 
 regarded as imperfect ; but, as they refused to comply, 
 he committed the publication of it to Tucca and Varius. 
 
 Virgil is represented as a person of tall stature, 
 swarthy complexion, and delicate constitution. He was 
 generally beloved as well as admired by his contempo- 
 raries. Among his virtues modesty was conspicuous. 
 Of his more private life nothing is known. It does not 
 appear that he was ever married. He had two brothers, 
 who died before him, and a half-brother, Valerius Pro- 
 culus. The "jEneid" has ever been ranked among the 
 poems which are destined to immortality. Nearly nine- 
 teen hundred years 0/ uninterrupted popularity attest 
 the broad and elevated and diversified character of his 
 poetical merit. In comparison with Homer, it is usual 
 to represent Virgil as deficient in originality and sub- 
 limity. Some critics also depreciate the " .Eneid" as an 
 imitation of Homer's " Iliad" and " Odyssey." On this 
 subject we cannot, perhaps, do better than to quote some 
 remarks of Addison. "One great genius often catches 
 the flame from another, and writes in his spirit without 
 copying servilely after him. There are a thousand 
 
 shining passages in Virgil which have been lighted up 
 by Homer. Virgil falls infinitely short of Homer in the 
 characters of his poem, both as to their variety and 
 novelty. /Eneas is indeed a perfect character, . . . and 
 that of Dido cannot be sufficiently admired. . . . Virgil 
 has excelled all others in the propriety of his sentiments. 
 Everything is just and natural. His sentiments show 
 that he had a perfect insight into human nature, and 
 that he knew everything that was most proper to affect 
 it." (Critique on Milton's "Paradise Lost," in the 
 " Spectator.") He is considered by good judges supe- 
 rior to all ancient poets in beauty and harmony of 
 versification. Dante admired Virgil, and adopted him 
 as his model. 
 
 Wordsworth pronounced Virgil the greatest master 
 of language that ever existed, and extolled his lofty moral 
 tone and frequent strokes of tenderness and imagina- 
 tion. (" Quarterly Review" for January, 1853.) 
 
 Voltaire expressed the opinion that the "iEneid" "is 
 the most beautiful monument which remains to us of all 
 antiquity." 
 
 Commenting on J. C. Scaliger's preference of Virgil 
 to Homer, Hallam observes, " It would be a sort of 
 prejudice almost as tasteless as that of Scaliger, to refuso 
 the praise of real superiority to many passages of Virgil, 
 even as compared with the ' Iliad,' and far more with 
 the 'Odyssey.' If the similes of the older poet are 
 more picturesque and animated, those of his imitator 
 are more appropriate and parallel to the subject." 
 
 The best or most popular English translation of Vir- 
 gil is that of Dryden, which has a high reputation. 
 Sotheby's version of the "Georgics" and Pitt's version 
 of the "/Eneid"are highly commended. The "Eclogues" 
 and "Georgics" were also translated into verse by Jo- 
 seph Wartpn. " We may congratulate ourselves," says 
 the "London Quarterly Review" for July, 1861, "on the 
 possession of a splendid English epic, in which most 
 of the thoughts are Virgil's and most of the language 
 Dryden's. He was constantly adding to the original, 
 and that in the most wilful and reckless manner. There 
 were elements in his nature peculiarly repugnant to the 
 Virgilian ideal. ... It is idle to discuss who has come 
 nearest to the style and language of Virgil, when no one 
 has come within any appreciable distance." His works 
 became school-books before the end of the Augustan 
 age. Virgil composed, says Donatus, his own epitaph, 
 in these terms : 
 
 " Mantua me genuit. Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc 
 Parthenope. Cecini pascua, rura, duces."* 
 
 See Donatus. "P. Virgilii Maronis Vita;" Lauter, " De Vir- 
 gilio Imitatore Homeri." 1796 ; TlSSOT, " Etudes sur Virgile," 4 
 vols., 1815-30; Saintf.Beuvk, "Virgile," 2 vols., 1857: Servius, 
 '•Commentarius ad Virgilium ;" I. W. Berger, " De Virgilio Ora- 
 tore," 1701; O. Arkhknius, " Tal om P. Virgilius Maro," 1841 ; 
 Fabricius, "Bibliotheca Latina ;" Carl G. Francke, " Disser- 
 tatio de P. Virgilio Marone," etc., 1776; BXhr. "Geschichte der 
 Romisclien I.iteratnr ;" Michael Barth, " Vita P. Virgilii Maronis 
 Carmine descripta," 1676. 
 
 Virgil, (Poi.ydorf..) See Vergil, (Polydore.) 
 
 Virgile. See Virgil. 
 
 Virgilio. See Virgil. 
 
 Virgilius. See Virgil. 
 
 Virgilius, (Poi.ydorus.) See Vergil, (Polydore.) 
 
 Vir-gill-us, Saint, a native of Ireland, became 
 Bishop of Saltzburg, (Juvavum,) in Austria. He is said 
 to have converted many Slavonians and Huns to Chris- 
 tianity. Died about 782. 
 
 Virgin, vlr-geen', ? (Christian A-dolph,) a Swedish 
 navigator, born at Gothenburg in 1797. He performed 
 a voyage round the globe in 1851-53, after which he 
 obtained the rank of rear-admiral. 
 
 Vir-ginl-a, [Fr. Virginie, veR'zhe'ne',1 a Roman 
 maiden, celebrated for her beauty and tragical fate, was a 
 daughter of Lucius Virginius, an officer of the army. She 
 was betrothed to L. Icilius, a tribune of the people, 
 from whom the decemvir Appius Claudius wished to 
 ravish her. She was seized by M. Claudius, one of his 
 agents, who pretended that she was his slave, and who, 
 in order to prove his claim, took her before the tribunal 
 
 • " Mantua bore me, Calabria [next! received me, Naples now 
 holds me. I have sung of pastures, [or shepherds,] of farms, and 
 of leaders in war." 
 
 eas>e; 9 as s; %hard;k*&j; g, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; Sas*;thasin this, (2iy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VIRGIN IE 
 
 2206 
 
 FISCONTI 
 
 of Appius Claudius. Virginius arrived at the forum 
 just after the decemvir had decided that she was the 
 slave of Claudius. He immediately killed her, to deliver 
 her from slavery and dishonour, (449 B.C.) The people 
 revolted against the decemvirs, and dragged Appius 
 Claudius to prison, where he killed himself 
 
 See Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. : 
 Macaulay, " Lays of Ancient Rome." 
 
 Virginie. See Virginia. 
 
 Virginius, (Lucius.) See Virginia. 
 
 Vjr-ginl-ua Ro-ma'nus, a Latin comic poet of the 
 Augustan age, had a high reputation. He is said to 
 have contributed to improve the public taste, and to 
 have merited a place beside Plautus and Terence. His 
 style was noble and elegant. His works are lost. 
 
 Vjr-gin'I-u3 (or Vergin'ius) Ru'fus, (Lucius,) a 
 Roman general, born at Como in 14 A.D., was consul in 
 the vear 63. After he had defeated Vindex, his army 
 proclaimed him as emperor, (69 a.d.,) but he refused 
 the crown. He became a third time consul in 97 A.D., 
 as an associate of the emperor Nerva. He was eulogized 
 by Tacitus and Pliny the Younger. 
 
 Viriathe or Viriath. See Viriathus. 
 
 Vl-ri'a-thus, [Gr. Ouipi'aSoc ,• Fr. Viriathe, ve're'ft'; 
 Ger. Viriath, ve-re-it',] a brave Lusitanian chief, who 
 carried on for many years a successful war against the 
 Romans; but he was at length betrayed into the hands 
 of the consul, L. Servilius Caepio, by whom he was put 
 to death, (140 B.C.) 
 
 See Becker, "Viriath und die Lusitanier," 1826. 
 
 Virieu, de, deh ve're-uh', (Francois Henri,) Comte, 
 a French officer, born at Grenoble in 1754. He was 
 elected to the States-General in 1789, and was one of 
 the members of the noblesse that joined the Tiers-Etat. 
 He was a royalist, and a leader of the insurgents of 
 Lyons who revolted against the Convention in. May, 
 1793. He was killed at the capture of Lyons, in Oc- 
 tober, 1793. 
 
 See " Notice sur le Comte de Virieu," 1863. 
 
 Virotte. See La Virotte. 
 
 Virues, de, di ve-roo-eV, ? (Cristoval,) a Spanish 
 poet and dramatist, born at Valencia about 1550, was 
 the author of five tragedies, an epic poem, and a number 
 of lyrics. Died in 1610. 
 
 Viscaino, ves-kl-ee'no, (Sebastian,) a Spanish 
 navigator, born in the second half of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He commanded an expedition sent from Aca- 
 pulco in 1602, and explored the coast of California, of 
 which he made an accurate chart. 
 
 Vis-cel-li'nus, (Spurius Cassius,) a Roman general, 
 distinguished as the author of the first agrarian law, 
 was consul in 502 B.C. He defeated the Sabines, was 
 chosen consul again in 493, and formed an important 
 league with the Latins. Having become consul in 486, 
 he proposed an agrarian law. He was charged with 
 aspiring to royal power, and was put to death in 485 B.C. 
 
 Visoh, de, deh visK, (Charles,) a Flemish monk 
 and biographer, born near Furnes about 1596; died in 
 1 666. 
 
 Vischer, (Cornelis.) See Visscher. 
 
 Visoher, fish'?r, (Friedrich Theodor,) a German 
 writer, born at Ludwigsburg in 1807, became professor 
 of philosophy at Tubingen in 1844. His principal work 
 is entitled "/Esthetics, or the Science of the Beautiful." 
 
 Vischer, (Peter,) an eminent German sculptor and 
 founder, born at Nuremberg about 1460. Among his 
 best works may be named the monument of the Arch- 
 bishop Ernst at Magdeburg and the tomb of Saint Se- 
 bald at Nuremberg, both in bronze. The latter is of 
 rare excellence. Died in 1530. Vischer had five sons 
 who were sculptors, and Hermann, the eldest, was 
 esteemed nearly equal to him in genius. Died in 1540.- 
 
 Vischnou or Vischnu. See Vishnu. 
 
 Visoonti, ves-kon'tee, the name of a celebrated 
 family of Lombardy, which acquired sovereign power 
 at Milan in the thirteenth century. The founder of their 
 grandeur was Oitone Visconti, who became Arch- 
 bishop of Milan in 1262. He was violently opposed by 
 a party of the Milanese, the Torriani, whom he defeated 
 in battle in 1277. He died in 1295. His nephew, 
 
 Matteo Visconti the Great, born in 1250, was 
 chosen in 1288 "captain of the people" for five years. 
 He obtained sovereign power, and waged war against 
 the Torriani, who drove him out of Milan in 1302 ; but 
 he was restored in 13 11. He was the leader of the 
 Ghibelines, and was involved in a quarrel with Pope 
 John XXII., who excommunicated him in 1322. He 
 died in the same year. According to Sismondi, " he 
 raised himself above all the princes of his time by his 
 political talents," etc. His son, Galeazzo I., born in 
 1277, became in 1322 lord of Milan, which was then 
 under the papal interdict. His capital was attacked in 
 1323 by an army of crusaders, who were incited by the 
 pope. He was aided by Louis of Bavaria, and defeated 
 the crusaders in 1324. Died in 1328. Azzo Visconti, 
 born in 1302, was a son of Galeazzo, and became sove- 
 reign of Milan and Lombardy in 1329. He is said to 
 have been an able, liberal, and just prince. He was the 
 first lord of Milan who coined money in his own name. 
 Died in 1339, without issue. Lucchino (or Luchino) 
 Visconti, an uncle of Azzo and son of Matteo, was born 
 in 1287. He became lord of Milan in 1339, and enlarged 
 his dominions by the annexation of Parma, Pavfa, and 
 other towns. He died in 1349, and was succeeded by his 
 brother Giovanni, who was born in 1290. He had 
 been appointed Archbishop of Milan about 13 1 7. He 
 acquired Bologna by purchase in 1350, and died in 1354. 
 His power was inherited by three nephews, Matteo, 
 Galeazzo, and Bamab6, the first of whom died in 1355. 
 Barnab6, born in 13 19, became master of Bergamo, 
 Brescia, Crema, and Cremona. He also ruled Milan 
 jointly with Galeazzo. He was notorious for his cruelty 
 and audacity, and defied the power of the pope, who 
 excommunicated him. Urban V. preached a crusade 
 against him, and united the emperor Charles IV. with 
 other monarchs in a league against him about 1363. 
 Bamab6 resisted them with success. Died in 1385. 
 Galeazzo II., born about 1320, became lord of Como, 
 Pavia, Novara, Vercelli, Asti, and Tortona, in 1354. He 
 was cruel and tyrannical. He died in 1378, leaving a 
 son, Gian Galeazzo, the first Duke of Milan, who was 
 born in 1347. He was ambitious and perfidious. Hav- 
 ing deposed his uncle Barnab6 in 1385, he obtained his 
 dominions. By force or fraud he made himself master 
 of Verona, Vicenza, Bologna, and Padua. In 1395 he 
 purchased the title of Duke of Milan from the empe- 
 ror. He aspired to be King of Italy, when he died in 
 the midst of his victorious career, in 1402. Giovanni 
 Maria, the eldest son of the preceding, born in 1389, 
 became duke in 1402. He was feeble and depraved. 
 During his reign the limits of the duchy were greatly 
 reduced. He was assassinated in 1412. Filippo Maria 
 Visconti, born in 1391, was a brother of Giovanni 
 Maria, whom he succeeded. His army, commanded 
 by the famous General Carmagnola, reconquered 
 Lombardy. He was cruel, cowardly, and suspicious. 
 He put to death his own wife. About 1426 Venice, 
 Florence, and Alfonzo of Aragon formed a league 
 against him. He waged war for many years against 
 these powers and the pope Eugene IV. He died in 
 1447, and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Francesco 
 Sforza. 
 
 See Botta, " Storia d'ltalia;" Cant£t, " Storia universale: 
 Verri, " Storia di Milano ;" Voi.pt, " Dell'Istoria de' Visconti," 9 
 vols, 1737-48; Sicker "Die Visconti von &4ilan," 1859. 
 
 Visconti, (Ennio Quirino,) an eminent Italian 
 scholar and archaeologist, was born at Rome on the 1st of 
 November, 1751. He was instructed by his father, who 
 was prefect of antiquities at Rome. He displayed such 
 precocity of intellect, that he translated the " Hecuba" 
 of Euripides into Italian verse at the age of fourteen. 
 After the death of his father, whom he assisted in 
 editing the first, he edited the six remaining volumes 
 of the " Museo Pio-Clementino," (1807.) He had been 
 appointed in 1787 conservator of the Capitoline Mu- 
 seum. On the occupation of Rome by the French, in 
 1798, Visconti was chosen a member of the provisional 
 government, and soon after became one of the five con- 
 suls of the republic. Having removed to France, he 
 was appointed professor of archaeology and overseer of 
 the Museum of the Louvre, and published, at the re- 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, ?, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; mfJonj 
 
VISCONTI 
 
 2207 
 
 V1SINET 
 
 quest of Napoleon, a series of portraits of the eminent 
 men of Greece and Rome, entitled " Iconographie 
 Grecque" (3 vols. 410, 1808) and " Iconographie Ro- 
 maine," (3 vols., 1818.) Resides this magnificent work, 
 he wrote a description of the monuments found in the 
 ruins of Gabii, and various other treatises on ancient 
 art. Died in 1818. 
 
 See Quatrrmkrk dk Quincy, " Notice surlaVieetlesOuvrages 
 de Visconti," 181S: Giovanni Labus, " Notizie biografiche intornu 
 la Viu di E. Q. Visconti," 1S1S ; Tipm.do, " Biograna degli Italiani 
 illustri :" Dacirr, "filoge d'E. Q. Visconti;" "Nouvelle Biogra- 
 phie G^neVale." 
 
 Visconti, (Filippo Aureuo,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, became superintendent of the antiquities of 
 Rome after the death of his father. He published several 
 antiquarian treatises, and edited the " Museo Cliiara- 
 monti," a sequel to the " Museo Pio-Clementino." Died 
 in 1830. 
 
 Visconti, (Gasparo,) an Italian poet, born at Milan 
 in 1461, became a senator. He published "Rhymes," 
 (" Rithmi," 1493,) and a " Poem on the Lovers Paul and 
 Daria," (" Poema di Paolo e Daria Amanti," 1495.) 
 Died in 1499. 
 
 Visconti, (Giovanni Battista Antonio,) an Ital- 
 ian antiquary, the father of Ennio Quirino, noticed 
 above, was born at Vernazza in 1722. He became pre- 
 fect of antiquities at Rome in 1768, and was employed 
 by Pope Clement XIV. to form a collection of ancient 
 marbles, which is called "Museo Pio-Clementino." 
 Died in 1784. 
 
 See " Biografia di G. B. Visconti," Rome. 
 
 Visconti, (Louis Tullius Joachim,) an architect, 
 a son of Ennio Quirino, was born at Rome in 1797, 
 and studied architecture in Paris under Percier. He was 
 appointed in 1825 architect of the Bibliotheque Royale. 
 Among his principal works are the tomb of Napoleon I., 
 the monuments of Marshals Soult and Suchet, and the 
 completion of the Louvre and its junction with the 
 Tuileries. The last, which was finished in 1857, is a 
 grand and admirable structure. Died in 1853. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Visconti, (Marco,) an able Italian commander, was 
 a son of Matteo the Great, (mentioned in the foregoing 
 notice of the Visconti family,) and a leader of the Ghibe- 
 lines. He commanded the forces of his brother Gale- 
 azzo I. when Milan was attacked by an army of crusaders, 
 whom he defeated in 1322. He was assassinated, by 
 order of his nephew Azzo, in 1329. 
 
 ViBdelou, de, d?h ve'deh-loo' or ved'loo', (Claude,) 
 a learned French missionary, born in Brittany in 1656. 
 He was one of the Jesuits sent to China by Louis XIV. 
 in 1685. He laboured about twenty years in China, 
 received the title of Bishop of Claudiopolis .in 1708, 
 and wrote several works on Chinese history, etc. Died 
 at I'ondicherry in 1737. 
 
 Vis6 or Vize\ See Donneau. 
 
 Vishnu, vlsh'noo, written in French Vichnou or 
 Vischnou, and in German Wischnu or Vischnu, 
 sometimes improperly spelled in English Veeshnoo,* 
 i.e. the " Pervader," [from the Sanscrit vis/i, to "enter" 
 or "pervade,"] the name of the preserving deity, one 
 of the great gods of the Hindoo Triad, t The Vaishna- 
 vas, (pronounced vlsh'na-vaz,) or especial worshippers 
 of Vishnu, claim that Brahma (or the Self-Existent) 
 sprung from Vishnu in his character of Nartyana, (or 
 the primeval spirit which moved upon the waters, — see 
 NAkAyana :) thus they exalt Vishnu above the Creator 
 (Brahma) and the Destroyer, (Siva.) The Saivas, or 
 worshippers of Siva, on the other hand, place their 
 favourite deity far above Vishnu or Brahma, (see SlVA,) 
 calling him MaliSdeva, or the "Great God." 
 
 The most striking peculiarity of the preserving deity 
 
 • Improperly, because the ee in the first syllable docs not represent 
 correctly the pronunciation. (See Preface, p. vi ) 
 
 t It may be proper to observe that the Hindoo Triad (unlike the 
 Trinity of the Western nations) is not considered to constitute the 
 godhead of the infinite eternal Being ; for none of the Rods of the 
 Triad is supposed to be eternal in the strictest sense. They are, in 
 fact, personifications of the powers of nature. They had a beginning, 
 and they will come to an end. Brahm, of whom they are but tem- 
 porary emanations, is the only eternal Being in the Brahtnanical 
 system of theology. 
 
 are his numerous avatars, alluding to which Southey 
 says, — 
 
 "When . . . tyrants in theii might 
 Usurped dominion o'er the earth, 
 [Then) Veeshnoo took a human birth, 
 Deliverer of the sons of men." 
 
 Curse of Kctuima, vol. i., x. 
 On these occasions his parents were usually Kasyapa 
 and Did.} 
 
 The following are the names of the avatars of, Vishnu: 
 I. Matsya, or the Fish ; 2. Kurma, the Tortoise ; 3. 
 •Varaha, the Boar; 4. Narasingha, the Man - Lion ; 5. 
 Vamana, the Dwarf; 6. Parasu-Rama; 7. Rama-Chan- 
 dra; 8. Krishna; 9. Buddha, (Booddha ;) 10. Kalki, or 
 the Horse. For an explanation of these, the reader is 
 referred to their respective heads. Vishnu, as his name 
 implies, represents Spirit, while in the same general 
 relation Brahma represents Matter, and Siva, Time. 
 Again, as the Earth is the type or symbol of Brahma, 
 and Fire of Siva, so Water is the symbol of Vishnu. 
 The reason is sufficiently obvious : in a country like 
 India, where everything is exposed for the greater part 
 of the year to a burning sun, — one of the many forms 
 of Siva, — it is the water, coming in the periodical rains, 
 which alone saves the plants and animals (whose life is 
 dependent upon that of plants) from utter destruction. 
 As a personification of water, (or the sea,) Vishnu is in 
 pictures usually represented of a dark-blue colour. The 
 air, as the symbol of spirit, and perhaps, also, as the 
 vehicle of the preserving rains, is considered to belong 
 peculiarly to Vishnu. The sun likewise, though com- 
 monly regarded as a type of Siva, is one of the many 
 representations of Vishnu. For if cold is one of the 
 numerous forms of Siva, (the Destroyer,) the warmth 
 of the sun may very naturally, in a temperate climate, 
 or in winter, be considered as a manifestation of the 
 preserving Power. 
 
 Among the possessions peculiar to Vishnu are the 
 Chakra, (called by the modern Hindoos chfik'ra or 
 chtik'ur,) a sort of wheel or discus, with a hole in the 
 centre, which the god hurled at his foes, and the Shankh 
 or Chank, (modern pron. shunkh,§) a kind of shell, having 
 allusion, doubtless, to the sea as personified in Vishnu. 
 
 Vishnu, like Siva, is said to have had a thousand 
 different names, among which we may mention that of 
 Trivikrama, or "three-step-taker," (see Vamana,) and 
 Hari, (or Heri,) i.e. "Green," in allusion, in all prob- 
 ability, to the colour of the sea, (the type of Vishnu ;) 
 so Krishna, the name of that one of the avatars which 
 is regarded as Vishnu himself, signifies "dark blue," 
 and it was doubtless applied to him for the same reason, 
 the colour of the sea varying with varying circumstances 
 from green to a deep blue. 
 
 The preserving deity is usually represented with four 
 arms. He is pictured in various positions, some- 
 times as Narayana reclining on Sesha, — a thousand- 
 headed serpent, — meditating on the universe to which 
 he is about to give being ; from his navel proceeds a 
 lotus, in the opening flower of which Brahma, known by 
 his four heads, is seen sitting; while Lakshmi (Nara- 
 yani) sits reverently at the feet of her lord. At other 
 times he is represented as standing with the Shankh and 
 Chakra in his hands. Sometimes he is pictured sitting 
 with Lakshmi by his side, and holding a bow and mace, 
 as he rides on his Vahan Garuda, (which see.) The 
 Shankh and Chakra are his usual insignia, whether 
 he is represented in his own proper person or in the 
 characters of his various avatars. 
 
 See MOOR, "Hindu Pantheon:" Guigniaut, "Religions de 
 l'Antiquite," vol. i., book i. chap. iii. : " Biographie Universale," 
 (Partie mythologique ;) Colkman, " Mythology of the Hindus." 
 
 Visin. See Vizin. 
 
 Visinet, ve'ze'n&', (Augusts Theodore,) a French 
 journalist, born in Paris in 1797. He edited the "Jour- 
 nal de Rouen" from 1828 to 1848. 
 
 t In the celebrated drama of " Sakoontala" (translated by Pro- 
 fessor Williams, of Oxford) the following passage occurs: 
 " That immortal pair 
 Whom Vishnu, greater than the Self- Existent, 
 Chose for his parents, when, to save mankind, 
 He took upon himself the shape of mortals." — Act vii. 
 } Etymological]* related to the Greek «6yxi> (Latin, concha,) 
 having the same signification. 
 
 < m i; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal ; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
PISS CHER 
 
 2208 
 
 VITRY 
 
 Visacher or Viacher, vis'Ker, (Anne Roemei — 
 roo'mer,) a Dutch poetess and artist, born in 1587, was 
 a daughter of Roemer, noticed below. Died in 1651. 
 
 Her sister, Maria Tesselschadk, (tes'sel-sKa'deh,) 
 bom in 1597, was also a poetess. Her talents and beauty 
 were highly extolled by the historian Hooft. Died in 
 1649. 
 
 See Scheltema, " Anna en Maria Tesselschade Visscher," 1809; 
 Longfellow. " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for March, 1S54. 
 
 Visacher or Vischer, (Cornelis,) an eminent Dutch 
 engraver, born at Haarlem in 1610, was a pupil of Sout- 
 man. He executed a number of prints after his own 
 designs, as well as from other artists. His works are 
 ranked among the finest specimens of the art, and com- 
 mand enormous prices. He engraved many admirable 
 portraits, among which is that of A. D. Winius. His 
 death is variously dated from 1660 to 1670. 
 
 Visacher, (Jan,) a skilful Dutch engraver, born in 
 1636, was a brother of the preceding. He engraved 
 after Berghem and Ostade. Died after 1692. 
 
 Visscher, (Roemer or Romkrus,) a poet, styled " the 
 Dutch Martial," born in Amsterdam in 1547, published 
 a book of emblems, entitled "Zinnepoppen," (1614,) and 
 a collection of Epigrams. Died in 1620. 
 
 Viswacarma or Viswacarman. See Viswa- 
 
 KARMA. 
 
 VIswakarma or VIshwakarma, [modern Hindoo 
 pron. vis'wa-kiii'tna j from the Sanscrit vtshwd, " all," 
 and kdrmd, " work,"] in the Hindoo mythology, the name 
 of the Artificer of the Universe, corresponding in some 
 respects to the Vulcan of classic mythology. He was 
 married to Prithu, the goddess of the earth, which he is 
 supposed to have moulded into its present shape. 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 VIswamltra, vls-wa'mi-tra, or Vfahwamltra, [from 
 the Sanscrit vlshwd, "all," and mltrd, a " friend," called 
 " the friend of all," perhaps on account of his being the 
 counsellor and friend of Rama, who was the general 
 friend of mankind,] a celebrated Hindoo sage, who, 
 though originally a Kshatriya, became, by long and 
 painful austerities, a Brahman, or rather a Brehmarshi, 
 (i.e. " B rahman-rishi" or " Brahman saint,''') one of a 
 particular class of rishis, in which character he was the 
 preceptor and counsellor of Rama. 
 
 See Moor, "Hindu Pantheon;" Wilson, " Sanscrit-and-Eng- 
 lish Dictionary." 
 
 Vital, (Ordf.ric.) See Ordericus Vitalis. 
 
 Vital de Blois, ve'til' deh bhva, [Lat. Vita'lis 
 Ble'sius,] a Latin poet of the twelfth century, com- 
 posed in 1 186 a poem, " De Querulo," which was printed 
 in 1830. 
 
 Vi-ta-le-a'nus, [Fr. Vitalien, ve'tS'le-aN',] Pope of 
 Rome, succeeded Eugenius I. in 657 a.d. He died in 672 
 a.d., and was succeeded by Deodatus II. 
 
 Vitalis. See Sjoberg. 
 
 Vitalis Ordericus. See Ordericus Vitalis. 
 
 Vite, della, del'la vee'tl, (Timotko,) an Italian 
 painter, born at Urbino about 1470. He worked with 
 Raphael at Rome. Died about 1524. 
 
 Vitelli, ve-tjl'lee, (Ciapino, cha-pee'no,) an Italian 
 general, born at Citta di Castello in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. He entered the service of Philip II. of Spain, 
 and was employed under the Duke of Alva in the Low 
 Countries. Died in 1576. 
 
 See Motley, " History of the Dutch Republic," vol. ii. 
 
 Vitelli or VI-tel'11-us, (Cornelio,) an Italian teacher 
 of Greek, came to Oxford about 1488, in order, as Hal- 
 lam says, " to give that most barbarous university some 
 notion of what was going forward on the other side of 
 the Alps." (" Introduction to the Literature of Europe.") 
 He returned to Paris in 1489. 
 
 Vi-tel'li-uB, (Aulus.) Emperor of Rome, born about 
 15 A.D. He was distinguished by the favour of Caligula, 
 Claudius, and Nero, and was appointed by Galba to 
 command the German legions. He was soon after pro- 
 claimed emperor by his army, and, Galba having been 
 put to death by the partisans of Otho, the empire was 
 now disputed between the latter and Vitellius. Otho 
 was defeated, and Vitellius recognized as emperor ; but, 
 Vespasian having been meanwhile proclaimed at Alex- 
 
 andria, his general Antonius Primus marched against 
 Rome, subdued the adherents of Vitellius, and put him 
 to death, (69 A.D.) 
 
 See Suetonius, " Vitellius ;" Tacitus, " History;" Tili.emont, 
 " Histoire des Empereurs :" Franz Horn, "Historische Gemaide* 
 Galba. Otho, Vitellius," 181a. 
 
 Vitellius, (Cornei.io.) See Vitelli. 
 
 Vitello, ve-tel'lo, or Vitellio, ve-tel'le-o, a Polish 
 mathematician and philosopher of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury, was the author of several works, the principal of 
 which is a treatise on optics and geometry, entitled 
 "Vitellionis Perspective Libri decern." 
 
 Vitet, ve'tj', (Ludovic,) a French littlrateur and 
 statesman, born in Paris in 1802. He was appointed 
 in 1830 inspector-general of French antiquities, and in 
 1834 represented the department of Seine-Inferieure in 
 the Chamber of Deputies. He published historical and 
 dramatical sketches, entitled " Les Barricades," (1826,) 
 "Les Etats de Blois," (1827,) and "La Mort de Henri 
 III," (1829,) also an essay on painting in France, entitled 
 "Eustache Le Sueur, sa Vie et ses Ouvrages," (1S43.) 
 He was admitted into the French Academy in 1845. 
 
 Vit'l-gea became King of the Ostrogoths in 536 a.d 
 He fought in Italy against Belisarius, who took him 
 prisoner in 539 and carried him to Constantinople. He 
 died about three years later. 
 
 Vitikind. See Witikind. 
 
 Vitiza. See Wittza. 
 
 VitreVve'tRa', (Antoine,) a French printer, born in 
 Paris about 1595. He was appointed director of the 
 royal printing-office by Colbert. Among the works which 
 he printed was the Polyglot Bible of Le Jay, (10 vols., 
 1628-45,) celebrated for the beauty of the characters. 
 Died in 1674. 
 
 See Aug. Bernard, "A. Vitri et les Caracteres Orientaux," 
 
 etc., 1850. 
 
 Vitringa, ve-tRi'ng'ga or ve-tRing'Ha, (Campegius,) 
 a learned Dutch theologian, born at Leeuwarden in 
 1659, became successively professor of Oriental litera- 
 ture, theology, and sacred history at Franeker. He 
 was the author of Latin commentaries on various books 
 of the Scriptures, which are highly esteemed. The 
 Commentary on Isaiah ranks among the best works of 
 the kind. Died in 1722. 
 
 See Nicekon, "Me"moires." 
 
 Vitringa, (Campegius,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Franeker in 1693. He became professor of 
 theology at Franeker in 1716, and had a high reputation. 
 He wrote several theological treatises. Died in 1723. 
 
 Vitrolles, de, deh ve'tRol', (Eugene Francois 
 Auguste d'Arnaud — tlin'no',) Baron, a French poli- 
 tician, born near Aix in 1774. He was a royalist, and 
 took an active part in the intrigues which preceded the 
 restoration of the Bourbons in 1 8 14. He was raised to 
 the peerage in January, 1830. Died in 1854. 
 
 Vitruve. See Vitruvius. 
 
 Vitruvio. See Vitruvius. 
 
 Vl-tru'vl-us, [Fr. Vitruve, ve'tRuV; It. Vitruvio, 
 ve-tRoo've-o,] or, more fully, Mar'cua Vi-tru'vI-us 
 Pol'll-o, a celebrated Roman architect and writer, of 
 whom little is known. He served as a military engineer 
 in his youth, and was employed under Julius Caesar in 
 Africa in 46 B.C. He designed a basilica or temple at 
 Fanum. In the reign of Augustus he was inspector of 
 military engines. He wrote in old age a work on archi- 
 tecture, in ten books, ("De Architecture,") which is 
 highly esteemed as a text-book, and is the only ancient 
 treatise on the subject that has come down to us. His 
 work has been translated into English by R. Castell, 
 (1730,) and by W. Newton, (1771-91.) 
 
 See B. Balde, " Vita Vitruvii," 1612; Poi.rni, " Exercitationes 
 Vitruviana;," 1739-41; Quatrrmere de Q*hncy, "Dictionnaire 
 des Archilectes ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Vitry. See James de Vitry. 
 
 Vitry, de, deh ve'tRe', (Edouard,) a French philolo- 
 gist and numismatist, born about 1670. He wrote a 
 number of dissertations. He visited Rome in 1724. 
 
 Vitry, de, (Louis de l'Hospital — deh lo'pe'tfl',) 
 Marquis, a French general, was a partisan of the League 
 after the death of Henry III. Died in 161 1. 
 
 Vitry, de, (Nicolas de l'Hospital,) Marquis, a 
 son of the preceding, was born in 1581. He was one of 
 
 a, e, i, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; nfit; good; moon; 
 
V1TT0RELLI 
 
 j 209 
 
 VLADIMIR 
 
 those who assassinated Concini in 1617, and was re- 
 warded for that act with the rank of marshal of France. 
 Died in 1644. 
 
 Vittorelli, vet-to-rel'lee, or Vettorelli, vet-to-rel'lee, 
 (Andrea,) an Italian author and priest, born at Kassano 
 in the latter part of the sixteenth century, tie had a 
 high reputation as a writer. Died after 1632. 
 
 Vittoria Colouna. See Colonna. 
 
 Vittorino da Feltre, vet-toree'no da fel'tRa, [Fr. 
 Victorin de Feltre, vek'to'raN' deh felu,] a cele- 
 brated Italian teacher, born at Feltre in 1379, became 
 professor of rhetoric and philosophy at l'adua. He 
 afterwards presided over a school at Mantua, where he 
 numbered among his pupils George of Trebi/.ond, Theo- 
 dore Gaza, and other eminent men. His system of 
 education, which included gymnastics, is highly com- 
 mended by contemporary writers. Died in 1447. 
 
 See Rachei.i, '* Intorno a Vittorino da Feltre," 1832 : BenoTt, 
 " Victorin de Feltre," 1853 : Carlo we Rosmini, " Idea dell'ottimo 
 Piecettore nella Vita di Vittorino da Feltre," 1N01. 
 
 Vittorio Amedeo. See Victor Amadeus. 
 
 Vivaldi, ve-vil'dee, (Antonio,) an Italian composer 
 and eminent violinist, born at Venice in the seventeenth 
 century ; died in 1743. 
 
 Vivant, ve'v6>/, (Francois,) a French priest, born 
 in Paris in 1663, became canon of Notre-Dame at Paris, 
 grand vicar, and grand chorister or precentor, in 1730. 
 He wrote several works on theology. Died in 1739. 
 
 Vivares, ve'viV, (Francois,) a French engraver, 
 born near Montpellier in 1712. He studied landscape- 
 engraving in England, and executed a number of prints, 
 after Claude Lorrain, which are esteemed master-pieces 
 of the kind. Died in 1782. 
 
 Vivarini, ve-va-ree'nee,(ANTONlo,)an Italian painter, 
 of Murano, near Venice. He was a brother of Barto- 
 lommeo, and worked about 1450. His works are richly 
 coloured. 
 
 Vivarini, (Bartolommeo,) a Venetian painter of the 
 fifteenth century, was one of the first artists in Venice 
 who employed oil-colours. 
 
 Vivarini, (LuiG!,) lived in the fifteenth century, and 
 attained a high reputation as a painter. There are several 
 of his works in the Venetian Academy. He worked as 
 late as 1490. 
 
 Vivens, de, deh ve'voN', (FRANgois,) a French sa- 
 vant and writer, born near Clairac in 1697. He wrote 
 on agriculture, physics, etc. Died in 1780. 
 
 Vives, vee'ves, (John Louis,) [called in Latin Ludo- 
 vi'cus Vl'vos,] a Spanish scholar, born at Valencia in 
 1492. He studied at the University of Louvain, where 
 he afterwards became professor of the Latin language. 
 He was subsequently invited to England by Henry VIII., 
 who appointed him tutor to the princess Mary. Having 
 opposed the divorce of Catherine of Aragon, he was 
 imprisoned several months, and on his release settled at 
 Bruges, in the Netherlands. He was an intimate friend 
 of Erasmus and Budaeus, and the three have been called 
 a triumvirate in the republic of letters, equally eminent 
 for talents and learning. Among the principal works of 
 Vives are Latin treatises "On the Truth of the Christian 
 Faith," "On the Soul and Life," and "On the Causes 
 of the Arts being Corrupted," (" De Causis Corrupta- 
 rum Artium.') Died in 1540. 
 
 See Boscn- Kemper. "J. L. Vives geschetst als christelijk Phi- 
 lantroop," 1851 ; Nameche, "M^moire stir la Vie et left Ecrits de 
 J. I.. Vives ;" N Antonio, "Bibliotheca Hispann Nova :" Ntc^RON, 
 " M^moire* ;" Dupin, " Auteurs ecclisiasliques ;" " Nonvelle Bio- 
 graphic Gen^rale." 
 
 Viv'I-an, (Richard Hussey Vivian,) Lord, an 
 English general, born in 1775. He served under Moore 
 at Corunna in 180S, became a Colonel in 1812, and dis- 
 tinguished himself in the Peninsular war in 1813. With 
 the rank of major-general, he commanded a brigade of 
 cavalry at Waterloo. He was raised to the peerage in 
 1841. ' Died in 1842. 
 
 Viviani, ve-ve-i'nee, (ViNCF.NZo.)a celebrated Italian 
 mathematician and engineer, born at Florence in April, 
 1622. He was a pupil of Galileo, after whose death 
 (1642) he studied under Torricelli. About 1662 he was 
 appointed chief engineer by the Grand Duke of Tus- 
 cany. He acquired a wide reputation by his attempt to 
 restore trie fifth book of Apollonius on Conic Sections, in 
 
 his " Geometrical Conjectures concerning Maximums 
 and Mininmms," ("De Maximis et Minimis geometrica 
 Divinatio," 1659.) In 1674 he published "The Fifth 
 Basil of the Elements of Euclid, or the Universal Sci- 
 ence of Proportion explained according to the Doctrine 
 of Galileo." Died at Florence in 1703. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita: Italorum doctrina excellentium," vol. t. ; 
 Fontknelle, " FJoge de Viviani ;" Niceeon, " Memohes;" TlRA- 
 boscui, " Storia della Lelteratura Italiana;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 GeneVale." 
 
 Vivien, ve've^.N', (Alexandre Francois Auguste,) 
 an able French lawyer and writer, born in Paris in 1799. 
 He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies from 
 1833 to 1848, and was minister of justice from March to 
 October, 1840. In 1845 ne published " Administrative 
 Studies," which procured his admission into the Acad- 
 emy of Moral and Political Sciences. Died in 1854. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Vivien, (Joseph,) a French portrait-painter, born at 
 Lyons in 1657. He painted mostly in pastel, (crayon,) 
 and gained a high reputation. He received the title of 
 first painter to the Elector of Bavaria, at whose court 
 he worked many years. Died at Bonn in 1735. 
 
 Vivien de Saint-Martin, ve've^N' deh saN maV- 
 tas', (Louis,) a F'rench geographer and historian, born 
 about 1800. He published, besides several works of 
 geography, a " History of the French Revolution," (4 
 vols., 1841,) and a "History of the Geographical Dis- 
 coveries of European Nations," (2 or 3 vols., 1845-46.) 
 
 Vivomie, ve'von', (Louis Victor de Rochechou- 
 art — deh rosh'shoo'tR',) Due de Montemart et de Vi- 
 vonne, a French general and courtier, born in 1636, 
 was a brother of Madame de Montespan. He was ap. 
 pointed in 1675 Viceroy of Sicily, which was then the 
 seat of war between the French and Spaniards. He 
 gained a decisive naval victory near Palermo in 1676. 
 Died in 1688. 
 
 See Comtb DE Rochechouart. " Histoire de la M.nson de Roche 
 chnuart," 1850. ; Saint-Simon, " Memoires;" Dangkau, "Journal ;" 
 " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ieYale." 
 
 Vizin, von, fon or von vee'zin, written also Visin 
 and Wisin, (and sometimes Von-Vezin,) (Denis 
 Ivanovitch,) a celebrated Russian dramatist, born at 
 Moscow in 1745, was the author of comedies entitled 
 "The Brigadier" and "The Spoiled Youth," which 
 obtained great popularity. He also translated Voltaire's 
 " Alzire," and made other versions from the French and 
 German. Died in 1792. 
 
 Vizzani, vet-sa'nee, (Pompeo,) an Italian historian, 
 born at Bologna in 1540. He wrote a "History of 
 Bologna," (1596.) Dieti in 1607. 
 
 Vlaccus. See Vi.acq. 
 
 Vlacq, vlak, [Lat. Vi.ac'cus,] (Adriaan,) a Dutch 
 mathematician and printer, flourished about 1620-40. 
 He distinguished himself in the computation of loga- 
 rithms, and published "Tables of Sines, Tangents, 
 Logarithms," etc. 
 
 Vladimir or Wladimir, vlad'e-meer, [Polish and 
 Russian pron. vla-dee'mir,| surnamed theGreat, Grand 
 Duke of Russia, was an illegitimate son of Svatoslaf, 
 who, on dividing his dominions, gave him Novgorod 
 for his share, about 972. He afterwards made war on 
 his brother Yaropolk, whom he defeated and put to 
 death, thus becoming sole monarch of the empire. He 
 was a warlike and powerful prince, and the first Chris- 
 tian sovereign of Russia. In 988 he demanded in mar- 
 riage the Greek princess Anna, (a sister of the emperors 
 Basil and Constantine,) and sent an army to the Crimea 
 to support his demand. He obtained the princess, and, 
 at the same time, adopted the religion of the Greek 
 Church, which he established in Russia. He zealously 
 opposed idolatry, and built churches and schools. Died 
 in 1015. 
 
 See Karamzin, " History of Russia." 
 
 Vlad'imir or Wladimir, (Andreiovvitch,) a brave 
 Russian prince, was a nephew of Ivan II. At the death 
 of Ivan, in 1364. he might have succeeded, but he yielded 
 the throne to Dmitri. He gained a great victory over 
 the Tartars at Koolikof (Kulikow) in 1380. Died in 1410. 
 
 Vladimir Mo-nom'a-«hos, [Fr. Vladimir Mono- 
 Maque, flt'de'meR' mo'no'mik',] a celebrated monarch 
 
 € as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/, G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3a 
 
 '39 
 
 . *; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VLADISLAS 
 
 22IO 
 
 VOGT 
 
 of Russia, born about 1052, was a great-grandson of 
 Vladimir the Great. He began to reign at Kief about 
 1 1 12. His wife was a daughter of Harold, King of 
 England. He was renowned for his martial exploits and 
 his wisdom and goodness. His reign was very pros- 
 perous. Died in 11 26. 
 
 See Karamzin, " History of Russia." 
 
 Vladislas of Hungary. See Ladislaus. 
 
 Vlad'is-laus, written also Vladislas and Ladislas 
 or Ladislaus, [Polish, Wladislaw, vla'de-slaf,] I., King 
 of Poland, born about 1044, succeeded his brother Bo- 
 leslaus in 1082. Died in 1102 or 1103. 
 
 Vladislaus or Ladislaus IL was a son of Boleslaw 
 or Boleslaus III. He began to reign in 1139, and was 
 deposed by the Diet in 1146. Died about 1162. 
 
 Vladislaus or Ladislaus III or IV., King of Po- 
 land, began to reign in 1296, was deposed in 1300, and 
 restored in 1305. He defeated the Teutonic knights. He 
 died in 1333, and was succeeded by his son, Casimir the 
 Great. 
 
 Vladislaus or Ladislaus IV. or V, King of Po- 
 land, was Jagellon, Grand Duke of Lithuania. He 
 obtained the crown of Poland in 1386 by marriage with 
 Hedwig, the heiress of the former king. At the same 
 time he renounced paganism and joined the Catholic 
 Church. He waged war against the Teutonic knights. 
 Died in 1434. 
 
 Vladislaus or Ladislaus V. or VI., a son of the 
 preceding, was born about 1423, or, as some say, 1400. 
 He was a famous warrior, and became King of Hungary. 
 (See Ladislas IV. or V.) 
 
 Vladislav. See Vladislaus. 
 
 Vlaruing, vla'ining, (Peter,) a Dutch poet, born at 
 Amsterdam in 1686. He produced a poetical version 
 of Sannazaro's "Arcadia," and some original poems. 
 Died in 1733. . 
 
 Vlerick, vla'rik, (Peter,) a Flemish painter, born at 
 Courtrai in 1539. He studied under Tintoretto in 
 Venice, and worked at Rome. In 1569 he settled at 
 Tournay. Died in 1581. 
 
 Vliet, van, vin vleet, (Hendrik,) a Dutch painter of 
 history, landscapes, and portraits, lived about 1650-1700. 
 
 Vlitius, vlee'se-us, or Van Vliet, (John,) a Dutch 
 philologist and poet, lived at the Hague and at Breda. 
 He was appointed recorder or registrar of Breda in 
 1651. He wrote Latin poems, and other works, among 
 which is "Old and New Hunting of J. Vlitius," (" Jani 
 Vlitii Venatio novantiqua," 1645.) Died in 1666. 
 
 Vocht, (Karl.) See Vogt. 
 
 Voeroesmarty. See Vorosmarty. 
 
 Voet, voot, (Daniel,) a son of Gisbert, noticed 
 below, was born at Heusden in 1629. He lrecame pro- 
 fessor of philosophy at Utrecht, and wrote " Meletemata 
 Philosophica et Physiologica," (1661.) Died in 1660. 
 
 Voet, [Lat. Voe'tius,] (Gisrert,) an eminent Dutch 
 scholar and theologian, born at Heusden in 1589 or 
 1588. Having studied at Leyden, he became professor 
 of theology and Oriental languages at Utrecht in 1634. 
 He was engaged in frequent and violent controversies 
 with the Arminians, the Catholics, and the Cartesian 
 philosophers, and advocated the doctrines set forth by 
 the Synod of Dort. Died in 1676. 
 
 See Bayi.e, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Voet, (John,) son of Paul, noticed below, was born 
 at Utrecht in 1647. He became professor of law at 
 Leyden, and was the author of a commentary on the 
 Pandects, and other legal works, in Latin. Died in 1714. 
 
 Voet, (John Eusebius.) a Dutch poet and physician, 
 resided at the Hague. Died ip 1778. 
 
 Voet, (Paul,) son of Gisbert, noticed above, was 
 born at Heusden in 1619. He became professor of 
 logic, Greek, and civil law at Utrecht. He was the 
 author of several valuable legal works, among. which 
 we may name " On Laws and their Harmony," (" De 
 Statutis eorumque Concursu.") Died in 1677. 
 
 Voetius. See Voet. 
 
 Vogel, vo'zhel' or fo'gel, (Adolphe,) a French mu- 
 sical composer, a grandson of Christoph Vogel, was 
 born at Lille in 1806. He produced an opera entitled 
 " The Siege of Leyden," which was performed with 
 applause in 1847. 
 
 Vogel, fo'gel, (Christian Lederecht,) a German 
 historical painter, born at Dresden in 1759, became pro- 
 fessor in the Academy of his native city. Died in 1816. 
 
 Vogel, (Christoph,) a German composer of operatic 
 music, born at Nuremberg in 1756. Among his works 
 is " Demophon." Died in 1788. 
 
 Vogel, (Eduard,) son of Johann Karl, noticed below, 
 was born at Crefeld in 1829. Being sent in 1853 by the 
 English government to assist Barth, Richardson, and 
 Overweg in their researches in Central Africa, he was 
 put to death, by order of the Sultan of Wadai, in 1856. 
 
 Vogel, (Johann Karl Christoph,) a distinguished 
 German teacher and educational writer, born in 1795. 
 He became director of the Biirgerschule at Leipsic in 
 1832. He published a " School Dictionary of the Ger- 
 man Language," a " German Reader for the Higher 
 Classes," and other works. His daughter Elise, born 
 in 1823, has published "Musikalischen Mahrchen," 
 (1852,) and other popular tales. 
 
 Vogel, (Johann Wilhei.m,) a German mineralogist, 
 born in the duchy of Coburg in 1657. He published 
 "Travels in the East Indies," (1690,) and other works. 
 Died in 1723. 
 
 Vogel, (Theodor,) a German botanist, who in 1841 
 accompanied the expedition sent out to Africa by the 
 English government. He died at Fernando Po about 
 six months after. 
 
 Vogel von Vogelstein, fo'gel fon fo'gel-stin', (Karl 
 Christian,) a German painter, son of Christian Lebe- 
 recht Vogel, noticed above, was born at Wildenfels- in 
 1788. He studied at Dresden, and afterwards visited 
 Rome and Florence. He became professor of painting 
 at the Academy of Dresden in 1820, and in 1824 court 
 painter. Among his principal works are portraits of 
 Thorwaldsen and Pope Pius VII., and illustrations of 
 Goethe's " Faust." 
 
 VogeUn, fb'geh-leen', (Ernst,) a Swiss painter, born 
 at Constance in 1528, was a son-in-law of Valentine 
 Papa, a noted publisher of Leipsic. Among the publi- 
 cations of Vogelin were excellent editions of Isocrates 
 and other classics. Died in 1 59°- 
 
 Voght, von, fon for,t, (Kaspar,) Baron, a German 
 philanthropist, born at Hamburg in 1752, was the founder 
 of several benevolent and educational institutions for the 
 poor in his native city. He was the author of treatises 
 on agriculture and rural economy. Died in 1839. 
 
 Vogl, fool, (Johann Nepomuk,) an Austrian lyric 
 poet, bom at Vienna in 1802, has published "Ballads 
 and Romances," "Soldier Songs," "Lyric Poems," and* 
 other works. 
 
 Vogler, foo'ler, (Georg Joseph,) a German musician 
 and composer, born at Wurzburg in 1749. He was 
 appointed chapel-master at Stockholm in 1786. He 
 published several musical treatises, and numbered 
 among his pupils Meyerbeer and Weber. His com- 
 positions include masses, symphonies, and operas. Died 
 in 1814. 
 
 Vogler, (Valentin Heinrich,) a German medical 
 writer, born at Helmstedt in 1622 ; died in 1677. 
 
 Vogli, v61'yee, (Giovanni Giacinto,) an Italian 
 physician, born near Bologna in 1697. He published 
 a work "On the Generation of Man," ("De Anthropo- 
 gonia," 1718.) Died in 1762. 
 
 Vogt, foot, sometimes written Vocht, (Karl,) a 
 German naturalist and physiologist, born at Giessen in 
 181 7. He studied anatomy and medicine, and subse- 
 quently accompanied Agassiz in his expedition to the 
 glaciers. He was appointed professor of geology at 
 Geneva in 1852. Among his works we may name 
 "Physiological Letters," (1845,) " Pictures from Animal 
 Life," (1852,) "Outlines of Geology," (i860,) and "Lec- 
 tures on Man, his Position in the Creation and in the 
 History of the Earth," (1863.) He also contributed to 
 Agassiz's "Natural History of Fresh-water Fish." He 
 favours the Darwinian theory. " All the German writers 
 we have quoted," says the " North American Review" 
 for April, 1870, — "Vogt, Buchner, Haeckel, and others, 
 — dwell with more or less concealed elation on one great 
 service, as they suppose, of the Darwinian theory,— 
 that it has removed the necessity of an intelligent Creator 
 from the theory of the universe." 
 
 a, e, 1, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
V01 ART 
 
 221 I 
 
 VOLNEY 
 
 Voiart, vwatii', (Anne Ei.isap.eth Petltpain — 
 peh-fe'pa.N 1 ',) a French authoress, born at Nancy in 1786. 
 She was married to M. Voiart. She wrote novels and 
 educational works, among which is " Woman, or the 
 Six Loves," ("La Femme, ou Ies Six Amours," 6 vols., 
 1828.) This gained the Montyon prize. Died in 1866. 
 
 Voigt, foiKt, (Gottfried,) a learned German writer, 
 born in Misnia in 1644. He became rector of an academy 
 at Hamburg about 1680. He published, besides other 
 works, "Physical Curiosities," ("Curiositates Physi- 
 cal," 1668,) and a treatise on the altars of the early 
 Christians, called "Thysiasteriologia, sive de Altaribus 
 veterum," etc., (1709.) Died in 1682. 
 
 Voigt, (Johann,) a German Protestant minister, born 
 in Hanover in 1695. He published a "Critical Cata- 
 logue of Rare Hooks," (1732.) Died in 1765. 
 
 Voigt, (Johannes,) a German historian, born in Saxe- 
 Meiningen in 1786. He became professor of historical 
 sciences at Konigsberg in 1817, and afterwards filled the 
 chair of mediaeval and modern history in the same uni- 
 versity. He published a " History of the Lombard Con- 
 federacy," ("Geschichte des Lombardenbundes," 1818,) 
 a " History of Prussia from the Earliest Times down to 
 the Destruction of the Power of the German Order," (9 
 vols., 1827-39,) and other works. Died in 1863. 
 
 Voigt, von, fon foiKt, (Christian Gottlob,) a Ger- 
 man jurist, born at Allstadt in 1743, rose to be minister 
 of state for Saxe-Weimar. He was an intimate friend 
 of Schiller, Herder, Goethe, and Wieland. Died in 1819. 
 
 His son, of the same name, bom in 1774, filled several 
 offices under the government, and was sent on a mission 
 to Saint Petersburg in 1801. Died in 1813. 
 
 Voisenon, de, deh vwaz'n6N', (Claude Henri 
 Fusee,) Aung, a French wit and dramatic writer, born 
 near Melun in 1708. Having taken orders, he was ap- 
 pointed grand vicar of Boulogne, and subsequently 
 obtained the abbey of Jard. He was elected to the 
 French Academy in 1762. He wrote a number of pop- 
 ular comedies ; also poems, tales, literary anecdotes, 
 and historical sketches. He was an intimate friend of 
 Voltaire. Died in 1775. 
 
 See G. Desnoirestekres, " Les Originaux ;" " Nouvelle Bio- 
 graphie Generale ;" " Fraser's Magazine" for January, 1851. 
 
 Voisin, (Daniel) See Voysin. 
 
 Voisin, vwa'za.s', (Felix,) born at Mans in 1794, 
 studied medicine in Paris, and was appointed, in 183 1, 
 physician to the Bicetre Asylum. He published a 
 treatise "On the Moral and Physical Causes of Mental 
 Maladies," (1826,) "On Idiocy in Children," (1843,) and 
 other similar works. 
 
 Voisin, de, deh vwI'zIn', (Joseph,) a French theolo- 
 gian and Hebrew scholar, born at Bordeaux about 1610. 
 He was chaplain to the Prince of Conti. He published 
 the "Theology of the Jews," ("Theologia Judaeorum," 
 1647,) a "Treatise on the Jubilee," (1655,) and other 
 works. Died in 16S5. 
 
 Voiture, vwa'tiiR , (Vincent,) a famous French poet 
 and wit, born at Amiens in 1598, was a son of a rich wine- 
 merchant. He was admitted about 1625 into the Hotel 
 Rambouillet, where he acquired great favour and admira- 
 tion by his wit, his talent for raillery, and his agreeable 
 manners. In his early life he was in the service of Gas- 
 ton, Duke of Orleans, who, having revolted against the 
 king, sent Voiture to Spain about 1632 to solicit the aid 
 of the Count of Olivares. He described his travels in 
 Spain in letters, which are among his best works. He 
 was one of the first members of the French Academy, 
 into which he was admitted in 1634. In 1639 he became 
 vi aitre (ThStel (steward) to the king. He obtained in 
 1642 the office of chief clerk to the controller-general of 
 finances, a lucrative sinecure. Died in 1648. He wrote 
 many letters and poems, which the critics of his own 
 time extolled as models of grace, but which are marred 
 by affectation. His style was greatly admired by Boileau. 
 "If the bad taste of others," says Hallam, "had not 
 perverted his own, Voiture would have been a good 
 writer. His letters, especially those written from Spain, 
 are sometimes truly witty, and always vivacious. . . . 
 Pope, in addressing ladies, was nearly the ape of Voi- 
 ture." ("Introduction to the Literature of Europe." 
 Two English translations of Voitute's letters were made, 
 
 one bv J. Davies, (1657,) and one by Dryden and others, 
 (3d edition, 1736.) 
 
 See Ai.phen, " Etude sur Voiture," etc., 1853 ; Tailemant des 
 RAaux, " Historiettes:" A. Dauphin, "Discours sur Voiture," 
 1847; Pei.i.isson, "Histoire de l'Academie Francaise;" "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale." 
 
 Volanus, vo-la'nus, (Andreas,) a Polish writer and 
 Protestant theologian, born in the province of Posen in 
 1530, published numerous controversial works against 
 the Jesuits and Socinians; also a Latin treatise "On 
 Political Liberty," (1582.) Died in 1610. 
 
 Volfius, vol'fe'us', (Jean Baptists,) a French prelate, 
 born at Dijon in 1734. He became constitutional Bishop 
 of C6te-d'Or in 1791. Died in 1822. 
 
 See Amanton, " Notice sur J. B. Volfius," 1823. 
 
 Volger, fol'ger, (Wilhelm Friedrich,) a German 
 teacher, born near Luneburg in 1794, published several 
 geographical and historical works for the use of schools. 
 
 Volk, folk, (Wilhelm,) a Prussian writer, born at 
 Berlin in 1804. He published "The Ecstatic Virgins 
 of the Tyrol," and other works on mysticism ; also a 
 "Manual of Italian Literature," and "Sweden, Ancient 
 and*Modern." 
 
 Vol-ke'11-us, [Ger. pron. fol-ka'le-us,] (Johann,) a 
 German Socinian minister, born in Misnia, flourished in 
 the seventeenth century. He wrote a work "On True 
 Religion," ("De vera Religione," 1630.) 
 
 Volkhardt, folk'haut, (Wilhelm,) a German his- 
 torical painter, born at Herdecke, on the Ruhr, in 1815. 
 He worked at Dusseldorf. 
 
 Volkmann, folk'man, (Alfred Wilhelm,) a distin- 
 guished German physiologist, born at Leipsic in 1801. 
 He studied medicine and natural history at the univer- 
 sity of his native city, and in 1837 became professor of 
 physiology at Dorpat. He was afterwards appointed to 
 the chair of physiology and anatomy at Halle. Among 
 his principal works are the "Anatomy of Animals," 
 (" Anatomia Animalium," 1831-33,) "New Contributions 
 to the Physiology of Vision," ( Gesichtsinn,) (1836,) and 
 "The Doctrine of the Corporeal Life of Man," (1837.) 
 
 Volkmann, (Julius,) a jurist, born at Leipsic in 
 1804, is a brother of the preceding. He practised law 
 at Chemnitz, and published several legal works. 
 
 Volkof, Volkov, or Wolkow, vol-kof, (Feodor 
 Grigorievitch,) born at Kostroma, in Russia, in 1729, 
 was the founder of the first theatre in his native country. 
 It was erected at Yaroslaf about 1750. He officiated as 
 architect, scene-painter, manager, actor, and poet, and 
 distinguished himself in various departments. About 
 1756 he was ordered by the empress to establish a 
 theatre at Moscow. Died in 1763. 
 
 Vollenhove, vol'len-ho'veh, (Jan,) a Dutch poet and 
 Protestant minister of the seventeenth century, preached 
 at the Hague. His chief work is " The Triumph of 
 the Cross." 
 
 Volney, vol'ne, de, [Fr. pron. deh vol'ni',] (Con- 
 STANTIN FRANCOIS,) Count, a distinguished French 
 philosopher, author, and traveller, was born at Craon 
 (Mayenne) in February, 1757. His family name was 
 Chassebceuf, (shtss'buf,) for which his father substi- 
 tuted Boisgirais. The name Volney was adopted by the 
 subject of this article, who inherited an independent 
 fortune. Having travelled in Egypt and Syria (1783- 
 85) and learned the Arabic language, he published in 
 1787 his "Travels in Egypt and Syria," (" Voyage en 
 figypte et en Syrie," 2 vols.,) which is a work of high 
 reputation. It was esteemed the best description of 
 those countries that had yet appeared. In 1789 he wan 
 elected a deputy to the States-General. He favoured 
 rational liberty and reform, but opposed the excesses of 
 the Revolution, and was identified with the Girondists, 
 The weakness of his voice hindered his success as an 
 orator". In 1791 he produced a popular and eloquent 
 work, entitled " Ruins, or Meditations on the Revolu- 
 tions of Empires." He was imprisoned by the dominant 
 party in 1793, and saved from death by the fall of 
 Robespierre, (Julv, 1794.) He crossed the Atlantic in 
 1795, and passed two years or more in the United 
 States. He complained that he was ill treated by the 
 government or by President Adams. In his absence he 
 was chosen a member of the Institute. He supported 
 
 e as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; K, trilltd; 5 as z; th as in this. (J&" See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VOLOGESES 
 
 2212 
 
 VOLTAIRE 
 
 Bonaparte on the 18th Brumaire, 1799, but declined the 
 place of minister of the interior, which the First Consul 
 offered him, and soon became alienated from his service. 
 In 1803 he published a " Description of the Climate and 
 Soil of the United States of America," ("Tableau du 
 Climat et du Sol des Etat-Unis d'Amerique," 2 vols. 
 8vo,) which was received with favour. He married his 
 cousin, Mademoiselle de Chassebceuf, in 1810. Among 
 his works are "The Natural Law, or Physical Principles 
 of Morality," (1793,) and "Researches on Ancient His- 
 tory," (3 vols., 1814.) Died in April, 1820. 
 
 See A. Bossange, " Notice sur la Vie de Volney," 1821 : Eugene 
 Bekgss, "Eludes sur Voluey," 1852; Saintb-Beuve, "Caiiseries 
 du Lundi," vol. vii. ; " Nouvelie Biographie Generale." 
 
 Vo-log'e-sea [Fr. Voi.OGEse, vo'lo'zh&z'] I., King of 
 Parthia, ascended the throne in 50 a.d. He waged war 
 against the Romans, who in the reign of Nero invaded 
 Armenia. Died about 8t A.D. 
 
 Vologeses II. was a son of Chosroes, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in 122 A.D. His reign was pacific. He died 
 about 148, and left the throne to his son, Vologeses III. 
 He attempted about 162 to conquer Armenia from the 
 Romans, but was defeated. 
 
 Volpato, vol-p&'to, (Giovanni,) an Italian engraver, 
 born at Bassano about 1735. He studied at Venice under 
 Bartolozzi, and afterwards executed a number of prints, 
 after the works of Raphael in the Vatican, and other 
 eminent artists. His engravings are numerous, and are 
 ranked among the master-pieces of the time. Raphael 
 Morghen was the pupil and son-in-law of Volpato. Died 
 in 1803. 
 
 Volpi, vol'pee, (Gian Antonio,) an Italian printer 
 and classical scholar, born at Padua in 1686. In con- 
 junction with the printer Comino, he established a press, 
 called "Libreria Volpi-Cominiana," from which were 
 issued excellent editions of the classics, including Ca- 
 tullus. Volpi was for many years professor of rhetoric 
 and philosophy at Padua, and was the author of Latin 
 poems and other works. Died in 1766. 
 
 See Fabkoni, " Vilas Italorum doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Volpi, (Giuseppe,) an Italian historian, born near 
 Bari in 1680. He wrote a history of the Visconti, (2 vols., 
 1737-48.) Died in 1756. 
 
 Volta, vol'tS, (Alkssandro,) a celebrated Italian 
 electrician and natural philosopher, born at Como, 
 February 19, 1745. He wrote a treatise "On the At- 
 tractive Force of Electric Fire," (" De Vi attractiva Ignis 
 electrici," 1769,) and invented an electrophorus in 1775. 
 About 1776 he became professor of natural philosophy 
 in the University of Pavfa. He travelled in Germany, 
 France, and England in 1782. He invented an electrical 
 condenser and a eudiometer. His celebrity is derived 
 chiefly from the discovery of the Voltaic pile, an appa- 
 ratus which excites a continuous current of electricity by 
 the contact of different substances. He published this 
 discovery about 1792, and received the Copley medal of 
 the Royal Society of London in 1794. He generalized 
 the phenomena which Galvani had observed, and recti- 
 fied an error in the theory by which that philosopher 
 had explained them. " It was thus," says Sir J. F. W. 
 Herschel, " that he arrived at the knowledge of a gene- 
 ral fact, that of the disturbance of electrical equilibrium 
 by the mere contact of different bodies, and the circula- 
 tion of a current of electricity in one constant direction 
 through a circuit composed of three different conductors. 
 To increase the intensity of the very minute and delicate 
 effect thus observed, became his next aim ; nor did his 
 inquiry terminate till it had placed him in possession of 
 that most wonderful of all human inventions, the pile 
 which bears his name, through the medium of a series 
 of well-conducted and logically-combined experiments, 
 which has rarely, if ever, been surpassed in the annals 
 of physical research." (" Preliminary Discourse on the 
 Study of Natural Philosophy.") Volta married Teresa 
 de' Peregrini in 1794, and had three sons. Invited by 
 Bonaparte, he went to Paris in 1801, and performed ex- 
 periments with his pile before the Institute, of which he 
 was chosen one of the eight foreign associates in 1802. 
 He retained his professorship at Pavfa about thirty 
 years. In 1810 he received the title of count from Na- 
 poleon, who also appointed him a senator of the king- 
 
 dom pf Italy. He wrote a number of treatises on elec- 
 tricity, etc., which were collected and published in 5 vols., 
 (1816,) under the title of "Opere di Volta." He died at 
 Como in April, 1827. 
 
 See Arago, " FJoge de Volta," 1S34 ; Zuccala, " Elogio storico 
 di A. Volta," 1827; Mocchetti. " Vita del Conte Volta." 1S33; A. 
 Seebeck, "GedSchtnissrede anf A. Volta," 1846; TtPAi.no, " Bio- 
 grafia degli Italiani illustri ;" " Nouvelie Biographie Generale." 
 
 Voltaire, de, deh vol'iaV, (Francois Marie 
 Arouet — J'roo'i',) the most remarkable name in the 
 history of French literature, was born at Chitenay, near 
 Sceaux, the 20th of February, 1694. His father was 
 Francois Arouet, formerly a notary, then a treasurer in 
 the chamber of accounts ; his mother, who belonged to 
 a noble family of Poitou, was Marie Marguerite Dau- 
 mart. The name Voltaire, according to some authorities, 
 was derived from an estate which belonged to his mother, 
 though others have maintained that it was an anagram 
 of Arouet I. >'., (i.e. Arouet le ieune, (jeune,) or " Arouet 
 the Younger.") Madame Arouet is said to have been an 
 intelligent, witty, and attractive woman. She died before 
 her distinguished son had reached his twentieth year. 
 The godfather and first teacher of young Arouet was the 
 Abbe de Chateauneuf, whose morals, like his religious 
 principles, were anything but strict : so that it was whis- 
 pered and believed by many that Voltaire might justly 
 have claimed with him a more direct relationship than 
 that of godson. So much, at least, may be considered 
 certain, that the abbe early indoctrinated his pupil in 
 the skeptical literature which was then becoming all the 
 fashion in France. At the age of eleven years Voltaire 
 wrote a poetical petition for an invalid soldier, which 
 excited the admiration of the celebrated beauty Ninon 
 de Lenclos, then far advanced in years ; and, at her re- 
 quest, he was presented to her by the Abbe Chateauneuf, 
 who had the reputation of being her latest lover. Her 
 death occurred shortly after this interview, and by her 
 will she left Voltaire two thousand livres for the purpose 
 of purchasing books. He had been placed when he was 
 ten years old at the Jesuit college Louis-le-Grand, where 
 one of his instructors, Pere Le Jay, is said to have pre-^ 
 dieted that he would some day be the Coryphaeus of 
 deism in France. Even at that early age the wit and 
 genius of the young Arouet appear to have excited 
 general admiration. In 1710 the poet Jean Baptiste 
 Rousseau, then in the acme of his fame, assisted in the 
 distribution of the honours at the college. As one 
 prize after another was awarded to Voltaire, the atten- 
 tion of Rousseau was arrested ; he desired to have the 
 boy presented to him, and predicted for him, we are 
 told, a brilliant literary destiny. 
 
 On leaving the college of the Jesuits, he was sent by 
 his father to a law-school, where he says he was dis- 
 gusted with the unphilosophical method of pursuing the 
 study of jurisprudence, and he therefore resolved to 
 abandon the law ; but it is probable that his taste for light 
 literature contributed quite as much towards leading 
 him to that resolution as the philosophical considera- 
 tions to which he refers. The Abbe Chateauneuf had 
 already introduced him into a circle at once brilliant 
 and licentious. To withdraw him from this corrupt but 
 fascinating influence, his father sent him as secretary to 
 the Marquis Chateauneuf, who was setting out as am- 
 bassador to the United Provinces. While there, he se- 
 duced the daughter of Madame du Noyer, an intriguing 
 woman, who passed for being a Protestant. She was 
 even suspected by some of conniving at, if not directly 
 encouraging, the fault of the youthful lovers, in the 
 hope of obtaining money from Voltaire's relations. She 
 complained loudly to the Marquis of Chateauneuf, from 
 whom, soon after, Voltaire received an order to quit the 
 Hague and return to France. Mademoiselle du Noyer's 
 father was in Paris, and Voltaire did not hesitate to ad- 
 vise his inamorata to feign a conversion to the Catholic 
 faith, in which case she might hope to have the powerful 
 assistance of the Church in rescuing her from the tyranny 
 of her mother. But this ingenious plot was not success- 
 ful, and the correspondence between the lovers soon after 
 ceased, at least for a time. 
 
 At the house of M. de Caumartin, (a friend of the 
 family,) with whom Voltaire sought refuge from the 
 
 2, e, 1, 6, C, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fjr, fill, fit j mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
VOLTAIRE 
 
 2213 
 
 VOLTAIRE 
 
 frowns and reproaches of his father,* he had an oppor- 
 tunity of hearing the father of that gentleman talk of 
 the glorious days of Henry IV., with some of whotie 
 contemporaries the old man had conversed in his youth. 
 Young Arouet's enthusiasm was strongly excited. It 
 was then that he formed the design of his great epic, the 
 " Henriade," and of his history of the age of Louis XIV. 
 About this time Louis XIV. died ; a witty and satirical 
 pamphlet, in which the decease of the king was treated 
 as a national deliverance, and in which the new govern- 
 ment was not spared, was suspected to have been written, 
 in whole or in part, by Voltaire. He was accordingly 
 arrested, and confined in the Bastille. This, however, 
 proved a blessing to him, rather than a calamity. Freed 
 during his imprisonment from the seductions of pleasure 
 and the dissipations of society, he composed a consider- 
 able part of the "Henriade," and completed his tragedy 
 of " CEdipe," which attracted the favourable notice of the 
 regent, and procured his liberation. He was presented 
 soon after by M. Noce to the regent, who gave him one 
 thousand crowns. Voltaire is reported to have said on that 
 occasion, " I thank your royal highness that you are thus 
 careful for my board ; but no more of your lodgings, I be- 
 seech you." He was twenty-four years of age when he 
 was released from the Bastille, after an imprisonment of 
 almost a year. It was soon after this event that he changed 
 his name from Arouet to Voltaire. "I have been," he wrote 
 to Mademoiselle du Noyer, " very unfortunate under my 
 first name. I wish to try if this new one will serve me 
 any better." The brilliant success of his " CEdipe" (which 
 was represented with great applause for thirty successive 
 nights) appears, however, to have completely reconciled 
 him to the ways of the blind goddess. Rank and l>eauty 
 were now eager to pay him homage. He became the 
 favoured guest and companion of the great. The I'rince 
 of Conti addressed to him, as a brother poet, some pretty, 
 complimentary verses, and he was very graciously re- 
 ceived by the beautiful Marechale de Villars, with whom, 
 it is said, he fell desperately in love, (cperdnmait atnoii- 
 renx:) but she does not appear to have given him the 
 slightest encouragement. (" Biographie Universelle.") 
 
 But the cup of prosperity presented to his lips was 
 not unmixed with bitter ingredients. The Abbe Desfon- 
 taines had obtained fraudulently an imperfect copy of the 
 "Henriade," and had it published, under the name of 
 "The League," ("La Ligue," etc.) The poem, even in 
 this imperfect form, was very favourably received. Vol- 
 taire hastened to prepare for the public a more perfect 
 edition ; but certain passages in the work which gave 
 offence to the priesthood prevented him from obtaining 
 permission to publish it. 
 
 His vanity and self-esteem were destined to receive 
 some severe rebuffs from that haughty aristocracy which 
 could never wholly divest itself of the idea that rank 
 was something essentially superior even to genius of the 
 highest order, which it might indeed condescend to 
 patronize and perhaps applaud, but with which it could 
 never associate on equal terms. In December, 1725, 
 Voltaire, while at the table of his friend the Duke of 
 Sully, happened to express himself on some subject with 
 great animation and self-confidence. One of the guests, 
 the Chevalier de Rohan, son of the Duke de Kohan- 
 Chabot, asked, "Who is this young man that speaks so 
 loud?" "He is," replied Voltaire, "one who does not 
 carry a great name, but can do credit to the one he has." 
 A few days after, the chevalier sent word to Voltaire that 
 the Duke of Sully expected him to dinner. He went 
 accordingly. While he was dining, one of the servants 
 announced that some one wished particularly to see 
 him. He descended, and was met by three men, who 
 immediately fell on him and beat him unmercifully 
 with their canes. It was noticed as an act of great gen- 
 erosity on the part of the Chevalier de Rohan that he 
 directed his men not to beat their victim on his head. 
 When Voltaire complained of the outrage to the Duke 
 of Sully, the latter admitted that it was a rude and "un- 
 
 • Hit father appears to have been quite as much displeased with 
 Voltaire's writing |w>etiy as with his more culpable irregularities. He 
 was not less disgusted with the conduct of his eldest son, because he 
 h,ut bflCDOM a Jansenist. He said, bitterly, "1 have for sons two 
 fools, — the one in prose, the other in verse." 
 
 civil" act on the part of Rohan, but declined to aid him 
 in any way to obtain satisfaction. Thereupon Voltaire 
 practised fencing diligently for some weeks, and at the 
 end of that time challenged Rohan to a duel. The 
 challenge was accepted, but, before the parties met, Vol- 
 taire was arrested and sent to prison. We are not told 
 whether or not the chevalier gave notice to the police ; 
 but a chivalrous knight who could employ three men to 
 attack another who was unarmed might reasonably be 
 supposed capable of such an act. This proceeding had, 
 in all probability, an important influence on the destinies 
 of Europe. It seems for a time to have completely 
 disgusted Voltaire with the society and government of 
 France, and it determined him to accept an invitation, 
 received from Lord Bolingbroke, that he should visit 
 England. This visit, which may be regarded as the 
 most important event of his life, dates from August, 
 1726. While in that country, he was particularly struck 
 with the absolute freedom of thought enjoyed by all the 
 people ; his own views, in the society of Bolingbroke and 
 his deistical friends, appear to have been developed and 
 matured. In England, also, he acquired some acquaint- 
 ance with the Newtonian philosophy, the knowledge of 
 which he was afterwards among the first to introduce 
 among his countrymen in France. After nearly three 
 years' absence, he returned to Paris in 1729. At first he 
 lived retired, and finished his tragedy of " Brutus," which 
 he had begun in England. According to some critics, 
 the influence of Shakspeare is clearly visible in this 
 piece, and perhaps still more in his next tragedy, " Zaire," 
 (1730,) although Voltaire afterwards affected to despise 
 the great English dramatist, perhaps the better to con- 
 ceal how much he was indebted to him. About this 
 time, also, he finished his "History of Charles XII.," 
 for which he had procured some very valuable materials 
 during his sojourn in London. 
 
 His "Brutus" was by some considered a complete 
 failure, and Fontenelle indeed advised him to aban- 
 don tragedy, as unsuited to his genius ; but his next 
 drama, " Zaire," proved a brilliant success. It is re- 
 garded by many as the finest of all Voltaire's tragedies, 
 and as rally equal to the best in the language. His 
 " l.ettres Philosophiques," otherwise called " Lettres sur 
 les Anglais," (" Letters on the English,") appeared about 
 1732. The freedom of some of his ideas gave offence to 
 the clergy. The " Lettres" were condemned to be pub- 
 licly burned, the publisher was imprisoned, and an order 
 was issued to arrest the author, so that to escape the 
 officers of the law he was fain to make a speedy retreat 
 to Cirey, (on the borders of Lorraine,) an estate belong- 
 ing to the celebrated Madame Chatelet, (or Chastelet,) 
 with whom he formed a liaison which continued until 
 the death of that lady. (See Chastfi.et, Gakrikm.e.) 
 While in this retreat he wrote his " Elemens de la Phi- 
 losophic de Newton," (published at Amsterdam in 173S,) 
 designed to set forth and elucidate the theories and dis- 
 coveries of the great English philosopher. He also 
 composed his "Alzire," a tragedy, which was acted at 
 Paris with great applause in 1736. His "Mahomet," 
 which he dedicated to the pope, was first acted in 1741. 
 His holiness accepted the dedication very graciously, 
 unable, or perhaps unwilling, to perceive that the shafts 
 which the author seemed to aim at the false pretences 
 of the prophet were in reality directed against those of 
 the Catholic Church. His " Merope," brought out in 
 1743, was received with an enthusiastic and tumultuous 
 applause such as had never before been exhibited in 
 any theatre in Europe. 
 
 Several years before the last-named date, Frederick, 
 the Prince-Royal of Prussia, had written to Voltaire and 
 expressed his admiration of the genius which was then 
 dazzling Europe: this led to an intimacy between the 
 prince and the poet, which was kept up by a constant 
 exchange of letters and flattering compliments from both 
 the parties. When, in 1740, Frederick succeeded to the 
 throne, he invited his friend to visit him at Berlin. But 
 Voltaire was unwilling to separate himself from Madame 
 Chjttelet. He accepted, however, in 1743, a mission 
 from the government to visit Frederick for the purpose 
 of securing Prussia's alliance with France, in which 
 undertaking he was successful. Through the influence 
 
 c as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VOLTAIRE 
 
 2214 
 
 VOLTAIRE 
 
 of Madame Pompadour, with whom Voltaire was ac- 
 quainted, as he tells us, before she became the favourite 
 mistress of Louis XV., he was chosen (May 9, 1746) a 
 member of the French Academy to succeed Bouhier, 
 and appointed historiographer of France. He had de- 
 clined the flattering offers of Frederick, that he might 
 not be deprived of the society of Madame Chatelet. 
 But the mistress to whom he was so fondly attached no 
 longer fait for him the affection of former years, but had 
 (about 1748) given her heart to another and younger 
 lover, Saint- Lambert. 
 
 Madame Chatelet died in childbed, in August, 1749.* 
 After her death, although he knew she had been un- 
 faithful to him, Voltaire said of her, " I have not lost a 
 mistress ; I have lost the half of myself. ... I love to 
 find everywhere something that can recall the thought 
 of her." A short time afterwards, as her husband, M. 
 du Chatelet, was on the point of opening a locket which 
 had been carried by Madame du Chatelet, Voltaire con- 
 fidently expected to see his own portrait : it proved to be 
 that of Saint-Lambert ; he said to M. du Chatelet, " Be- 
 lieve me, monsieur, neither of us has here any cause to 
 boast." On a previous occasion he spoke to Saint- 
 Lambert (with whom, it appears, he had at first been 
 offended) with a kindness and magnanimity which would 
 have been sublime, could they have had existence in a 
 pure and elevated mind. " It is I," said he, "who have 
 been to blame ; you are at the age when one loves and 
 inspires love ; ... an old man, infirm as I am, is not 
 made for pleasure." 
 
 Having nothing now to detain him in France, he ac- 
 cepted the invitation, recently renewed, of the King of 
 Prussia, and arrived in Berlin in July, 1750. He was 
 received by Frederick with the most flattering demon- 
 strations of regard. No lovers in a romance could have 
 met, after a long absence, with greater transports of joy. 
 Voltaire had at last found an earthly paradise. A thou- 
 sand louis-d'or had been sent him for the expenses of 
 the journey. In addition to the splendid apartments 
 assigned him under the royal roof, he was to receive a 
 pension of twenty thousand francs. He and Frederick 
 studied together two hours every day, and in the evening 
 he was entertained at the king's own table. But this 
 charming life was destined to be of short duration. 
 " Never," says Macaulay, " had there met two persons 
 so exquisitely fitted to plague each other. Each of them 
 had exactly the fault of which the other was most impa- 
 tient, and they were, in different ways, the most impatient 
 of mankind." (See Essay on " Frederick the Great," 
 originally published in the " Edinburgh Review" for 
 April, 1842.) 
 
 The king wrote verses, which Voltaire was to criticise 
 and correct, — a delicate and perilous position for any 
 man, but peculiarly so for one who was so fastidious, so 
 irritable, and so prone to ridicule as Voltaire. It was 
 quite impossible for him to correct his majesty's verses 
 — which might well have provoked the ridicule of a more 
 indulgent critic — without laughing at them. "Behold," 
 said he, "what a quantity of dirty linen the king has 
 sent me to wash !" And, as usual in such cases, there 
 was always some well-intentioned person ready to carry 
 such remarks to the ear of the king. It would be long 
 to tell of the irritation, the increasing disgust, the quar- 
 rels, the ingenious schemes devised by each to annoy or 
 torment the other. Suffice it to say that, after a stay of 
 about three years, the poet parted from the king, with a 
 promise to return, but with a firm determination, as he 
 
 * " Every one knows," says Carlyle, " the earthly termination of 
 Madame la Marquise, and now, by a strange and almost satirical 
 Nemesis, she was taken in her own nets, and her worst sin became 
 her final punishment. " A few days after her death, Voltaire com- 
 posed the following quatrain : 
 
 " L'univers a perdu la sublime Emilie. 
 Elle aima les plaisirs, les arts, la verite" : 
 Les dieux, en lili donnant leur ame et leur ge^iie, 
 N'avaient garde pour eux que l'immortalite. " 
 
 ("The universe has lost the sublime Emilia. 
 
 She loved pleasure, the arts, and truth: Tknowledge?] 
 The gods, in givinii her their soul and their genius, 
 Had reserved foi themselves immortality only.") 
 
 "After which," says Carlyle, "he, like the bereaved universe, 
 Consoled himself, and went on his way." 
 
 tells us, never to see him again. At Frankfort he was 
 arrested by an order from Berlin, and required to give 
 up some of the king's poetry, copies of which had been 
 printed for private circulation and presented to Voltaire 
 and other of the royal favourites. But Frederick, now 
 fearing that the arch wit and scoffer might perhaps use 
 the poetry to turn its author into ridicule, resolved to 
 get possession of it again. It so happened that he had 
 left the poetry behind at Leipsic, and some days elapsed 
 before he could send for and receive it. Meanwhile he 
 was kept in strict custody; and even after the precious 
 packet had arrived he was still detained. " The Prus- 
 sian agents," says Macauiay, "had, no doubt, been in- 
 structed not to let Voltaire off without some gross indig- 
 nity. He was confined twelve days in a wretched hovel. 
 Sentinels with fixed bayonets kept guard over him. His 
 niece was dragged through the mire by the soldiers. 
 Sixteen hundred dollars were extorted from him by his 
 insolent jailers. It is absurd to say that this outrage 
 was not to be attributed to the king." (Essay on " Frede- 
 rick the Great.") 
 
 Voltaire returned to France thoroughly divested of 
 all his illusions respecting that great prince whom he 
 had once delighted to call the Solomon and Alexander 
 of the North, the Marcus Aurelius of Potsdam, the 
 Trajan and Pliny combined, etc. 
 
 In 1755 he established himself at Femey, near Ge- 
 neva, in Switzerland. Here he spent perhaps the must 
 tranquil, as well as the most creditable and useful, 
 portion of his life. He is admitted to have been a 
 benefactor to the inhabitants of Femey and the vicinity. 
 The village or town was greatly improved and enlarged 
 under his auspices ; new houses were built, and a small 
 theatre established. He even erected a church, in which 
 he had the hardihood to preach. To silence the com- 
 plaints of those who were scandalized at his irregular 
 proceedings, he went through, in due form, the ceremony 
 of taking the communion. 
 
 The one aspect of Voltaire's character which can be 
 viewed with unmingled approbation was the deep, 
 heartfelt pity and indignation with which he regarded 
 every flagrant act of cruelty or oppression, whether it 
 was enacted in his own country or in the remotest part 
 of Europe. He signalized his philanthropy in the 
 earnest zeal with which he took up the cause of Jean 
 Galas, who had been condemned at Toulouse and 
 broken on the wheel for a crime of which he was inno- 
 cent, and his family had been driven from the country. 
 Through Voltaire's generous exertions and untiring zeal, 
 the sentence was annulled and the family partially indem- 
 nified. His sympathy in the case of Admiral Byng was no 
 less real or less earnest; but he exerted himself in vain 
 to prevent the consummation of that judicial murder, 
 which has left an indelible stain upon the character of 
 the ministry under whose auspices it was committed. 1 
 Another act of his, though of a different kind, reflects 
 no less credit on his character. Having learned that a 
 young girl, a near relative of the great Corneille, (she 
 was then believed to be the grand-daughter of that 
 poet,) was living in extreme poverty, he sent for her 
 and had her brought to Ferney, where he gave her an 
 education, and settled on her, out of his own means, a 
 life-annuity of fourteen hundred francs. 
 
 During his residence at Ferney he composed or 
 finished some of his greatest works, among which the 
 most valuable and perhaps the most original of all was 
 his " Essay on the Manners of Nations," etc., (" Essai 
 sur les Moeurs et l'Esprit des Nations," 1756,) which 
 might, says Brougham, be justly designated the " Phi- 
 losophy of History." It has unquestionably exerted 
 throughout Europe a great and beneficent influence 
 upon the mode of writing history. No inconsiderable 
 portion of this work had been composed during his 
 residence at Cirey. His "Candide," the most remark- 
 able of his prose fictions, appeared in 175S. " Dr. 
 Johnson," says Brougham, " never spoke of it without 
 
 t However deeply his feelings might be touched, he never failed to 
 give free scope to his wit. He remarked, after the execution of 
 Kyng, that it was the policy of the English now and then to put to 
 death an admiral, in order to encourage the rest, (" pour eucourager 
 les autres.") 
 
 i, e, I, 6, 5, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
VOLTAIRE 
 
 2215 
 
 VOLTAIRE 
 
 unstinted admiration, professing that had he seen it he 
 should not have written ' Kasseias.' " Among his other 
 romance* may be named " Zadig," (about 1758,) and 
 "L'lngenu," (1767.) Of his tragedies, besides those 
 already named, the most deserving of notice are per- 
 haps the following : " Artemise," (about 1721,) " Mari- 
 amne," (1724,) " Eriphile," (1732,) "La Mort de Cesar," 
 ('735.) "Semiramis," (1748,) "Oreste," (1750,) "Rome 
 Sauvee," otherwise called "Catiline," (1752,) which Vol- 
 taire is said to have preferred to all his tragedies, but 
 the critics and the public decided differently, and 
 " Tancrede," (1760,) which had a brilliant success. His 
 powers had confessedly begun to fail when, in 1778, on 
 his visit to Paris, his "Irene," the last of his dramatic 
 productions, was acted with great applause, which, how- 
 ever, was bestowed rather on its illustrious author than 
 upon the piece itself. He also attempted comedy, and 
 composed " L'Indiscret," which had but an indifferent 
 MCCess. The " Enfant Prodigue," another comedy, 
 brought out anonymously, was much more popular, but 
 it was not known to be Voltaire's until he claimed it 
 several years afterwards. 
 
 He wrote a satirical poem, " Le Temple du Gout," 
 (1733,) and a mock-heroic poem, entitled " La Pucelle," 
 (1755,) of which the history of Joan of Arc forms the 
 subject. This, according to Brougham, (than whom 
 Voltaire has probably no more indulgent critic,) is "the 
 great master-piece of Voltaire's poetic genius." He 
 adds, however, "The 'Pucelle' is one continued sneer 
 at all that men do hold and all that they ought to hold 
 sacred. . . . Religion, virtue, ... all are made the 
 constant subjects of sneering contempt and ribald 
 laughter ;"* and he might have added that many parts 
 are disfigured by gross obscenities. We must not omit 
 to notice Voltaire's connection with the famous " Encyclo- 
 pedic" founded by Diderot and Alembert. The success 
 of this publication was due in no small measure to 
 the name and influence of Voltaire, who contributed to 
 it many articles on various subjects, among which will 
 be found some of his most reckless and violent attacks 
 upon Christianity. 
 
 Of his histories, "Charles XII" (1731) is admitted 
 to be the best. It is, indeed, a chef-d'aicvre of clear, 
 elegant, animated, and rapid narration. liis "Siecle 
 de Louis XIV" (1752) holds the second place. The 
 " llistoire de Russie sous Pierre I" (1759) is considered 
 to be the least successful of his productions in this 
 department. 
 
 In 1778, being then in his eighty-fifth year, Voltaire 
 visited Paris, where his sojourn was one continued ova- 
 tion. "The homage of every class," says Brougham, 
 " and of every rank was tendered to him ; and it seemed 
 as if one universal feeling prevailed, — the desire of 
 having it hereafter to say, ' I saw Voltaire.' His car- 
 riage was drawn by the populace, who were inspired 
 with the wildest enthusiasm. At the theatre his bust 
 was crowned with laurels and garlands of roses, amid 
 the shouts and tears of the audience. He exclaimed, 
 ' You will make me die with pleasure ; you will stifle me 
 with roses.'" 
 
 The exhaustion produced by this great excitement 
 appears to have been the cause of his death, which took 
 place on the 30th of May, 1778. Some time before his 
 death, while he was supposed to be very near his end, 
 he was induced, from his desire of obtaining a Christian 
 burial, to subscribe to a confession and undergo absolu- 
 tion, which, says Condorcet, gave less edification to the 
 devout than scandal to the free-thinkers.t 
 
 •See Brougham's "Lives of Men of Letters and Science," 
 London, 1845. 
 
 t Very contradictory accounts are Riven of his last hours. It has 
 been well observed that it is of far more consequence how one spends 
 his life than bow he passes the few fleeting moments at its close. Cir- 
 cumstances which have nothing to do with one's taith or one's con- 
 science may sometimes give the appearance of great tranquillity, or 
 the contrary, to the deathbed scene. Hut, as much has been said 
 about the death of Voltaire, it may not Ik without interest to cite 
 briefly the testimony of Tronchin, who was his friend, attd who was 
 Constantly with him' (much of the time alone) during his last hours, 
 " If the bond of my principles," says he, "had needed to be strength- 
 ened, the man whom I have seen agonize and die under my eyes 
 would have made of them a Gordian knot : and in comparing tin- 
 death of a good man, which is only the close of a beautiful day.with 
 
 Voltaire is confessedly the foremost name, the acknow- 
 ledged head, of European literature in his time ;{ whence 
 he was often styled " King Voltaire," (" le Roi Voltaire.") 
 His writings contributed powerfully to give a fresh 
 impulse to almost every department of human thought. 
 There was, indeed, no branch of literature which he him- 
 self did not cultivate with distinguished success. His his- 
 torical works mark an era in this department of writing. 
 If his histories are inferior to those of some other emi- 
 nent writers in depth of thought or in a philosophic 
 treatment of the subject, they are remarkable for the 
 clearness, simplicity, animation, and rapidity of the 
 narrative. If they are not calculated in an especial 
 manner to make philosophic historians, they are pre- 
 eminently fitted to interest and instruct the generality 
 of leaders ; and they have perhaps done more to make 
 history popular among all classes than the works of any 
 other writer of modern times. Though not the first 
 French author who wrote on the wonderful discoveries 
 of Newton, he may be said to have been the first to 
 make them extensively known on the continent. As a 
 wit, he probably never had an equal either in ancient or 
 modern times.§ As a poet, Voltaire is by some critics 
 ranked at the very head of the great masters of the art 
 in France. His "Zaire" is called the clief-d'amvre of 
 French tragedy, and his " Henriade" may be said to be 
 the only successful epic in the French language. 
 
 But several eminent critics, while admitting that Vol- 
 taire was a genius of the rarest order, deny that he was 
 a great poet in the truest sense of the word. " It is 
 certain," says Brougham, " that the tragedies of Voltaire 
 are the works of an extraordinary genius, and that only 
 a great poet could have produced them ; but it is equally 
 certain that they are deficient for the most part in that 
 which makes the drama powerful over the feelings, — 
 real pathos, real passion, whether of tenderness, of 
 terror, or of horror. The plots of some are admirably 
 contrived ; the diction of all is pure and animated ; in 
 most cases it is pointed, and in many it is striking, 
 grand, impressive ; the characters are frequently well 
 imagined and portrayed, though without sufficient dis- 
 crimination, and thus often running one into another 
 from the uniformity of the language, terse, epigrammatic, 
 powerful, which all alike speak. Nor are there wanting 
 situations of great effect and single passages of thrilling 
 force ; but, after all, the heart is not there ; the deep feel- 
 ing which is the parent of all true eloquence, as well as 
 all true poetry, ... is rarely perceived." (See " Lives of 
 Men of Letters," etc., where also (pp. 36-42) will be 
 found an elaborate critique on the " Henriade.") 
 
 As a critic his claims, though unquestionably of a high 
 order, are open to great exceptions. He appears, indeed, 
 to have been wanting in no natural gift necessary to rank 
 him with the very greatest critics that ever lived. He 
 possessed, in a degree that has probably never been sur- 
 passed, a clear, incisive intellect,|| a vivid sense of pro- 
 priety, a quick perception of the true relations of things, 
 combined with an intense susceptibility to all those feel- 
 ings or sentiments which go to make the orator and the 
 poet. But he was wholly wanting in that earnest love 
 of truth without which no critical verdict can command 
 our respect, much less be accepted as authority. He 
 often pronounced judgment on books that he had not 
 read, or had read so imperfectly that he failed to com- 
 prehend their real scope and character. In the desire 
 
 that of Voltaire, I could see clearly the difference there is between a 
 beautiful day and a tempest. . . . You remember the Furies of 
 Orestes. — FnriU agitatus obiit." (See the " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generale, " vol. xlvt. p. 442, where Tronchin's letter i3 given in full.) 
 
 X Goethe goes still further, and calls him "the greatest literary 
 man of all time, the most astonishing creation of the Author of 
 Nature." (See "Nouvelle Biographie Gt£ne>ale," vol. xlvi. p. 445.) 
 
 § Mackintosh speaks of Voltaire as one who embodied in his own 
 person all the wit and quickness and versatile ingenuity of a people 
 which surpasses other nations in these brilliant qualities. (See 
 " Progress of Ethical Philosophy.") It is related that Voltaire once 
 expressed to an Englishman a very high opinion of Haller. His com- 
 panion, with more frankness than good breeding, informed him that 
 his high regard for the Swiss philosopher was not reciprocated. 
 " Ah !" said he. after scarcely a moment's pause, " no duubt both of 
 us are very much mistaken in each other." 
 
 R " He has," says Carlyle, "the eye of a lynx : sees deeper at the 
 first Rlatice than any other man; but no second glance is given." 
 (" Essays, vol. ii.'*) 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Mis. ( 1£&~ See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
VOLTAIRE 
 
 2216 
 
 VOLTAIRE 
 
 to display his wit, he constantly lost sight of truth.* 
 This last fault was most conspicuously exhibited when- 
 ever he had occasion to assail Christianity. His ribald 
 jests on all sacred subjects are but too well known ; but 
 it is not so generally known that he was guilty of the 
 most reckless, unblushing falsehoods, which he uttered 
 with a confident assurance that often led inexperienced 
 readers to suppose that from his sentence there could be 
 no appeal. t 
 
 Yet although his talents were confessedly of the most 
 diversified and rarest order, and though, in the words 
 of Macaulay, "of all the intellectual weapons ever used 
 by man, the most terrible was the mockery of Voltaire," 
 we cannot regard him as a very formidable enemy of 
 Christianity. In discussing such questions his state- 
 ments were so rash, and the spirit with which he was 
 animated so manifest, that he could deceive only the 
 ignorant, or those who were willing or anxious to be j 
 deceived. Men much inferior to him in genius (as Hume, 
 Gibbon, and Strauss) have proved themselves far more 
 dangerous adversaries to revealed religion, because their 
 positions have been more cautiously taken, and their 
 attacks, if less violent, have been made with far greater 
 skill, so that the fallacy of their arguments, unlike those 
 of Voltaire, can sometimes be detected by those only 
 who are accustomed to think closely, and who are, at 
 the same time, capable of earnest, impartial, and labo- 
 rious research. 
 
 It is proper to observe that the charge of atheism 
 which has often been brought against Voltaire, is wholly 
 without foundation. On the one point of belief in a 
 God he was consistent and unwavering, though so fickle 
 in almost everything else. In fact, there are to be found 
 in his works some of the most beautiful and admirable 
 arguments in favour of the existence of a God that have 
 ever been written. The young wits of France, whom he 
 had taught to ridicule almost everything sacred, turned 
 against him, in his later years, the same ridicule, because 
 he still adhered to that delusion of his early education. 
 
 In inquiring into the causes of Voltaire's extraordinary 
 influence upon the mind of Europe, we ought not to be 
 guilty of the mistake of supposing that his intellectual 
 gifts constituted the whole or even the principal part of 
 his marvellous power. However much we may attribute 
 to his versatile and transcendent intellect, we ought, 
 perhaps, to ascribe still more to the intensity as well as 
 extreme susceptibility of his emotional nature. It has 
 been justly remarked that the same general law holds 
 good in the moral or the social, as in the material, world, 
 — that every body is attracted in the same proportion that 
 it attracts others. If Voltaire exercised a greater attract- 
 ive influence on the mind of Europe than any other man 
 of his age, it was because he felt more than any other 
 the influence of the age upon himself. This explains 
 why he not merely instructed or dazzled the minds of 
 his contemporaries, but won their sympathy and affec- 
 tion as no literary man or poet had ever done before. 
 The influence of his intellect and heart was all the 
 more powerful, because in his sentiments and ideas he 
 was so little elevated above the mass of his readers, that 
 he could exert to the fullest extent all that attractive 
 power which, as every one knows, is greatest when near- 
 
 * Of this his reckless observations and slurs upon Shakspeare 
 furnish a striking illustration. In one place he says that Shakspeare 
 "was but an ugly ape, " (" «7fo/r qu'un vilain singe.") On another 
 occasion he calls the English dramatist " the Corneille of London, 
 but a great fool anywhere else," (" un grand /oh d'tuV/eurs.") But 
 perhaps the most extraordinary of all his absurdities is his comnlaint 
 against the indecencies of Shakspeare, (see his letter to I.a Harjie. 
 August is, 1776,) — and this, too, from the author of " La Pucelle" ! 
 
 t " Many of bis statements," says the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," 
 "astonish us for their temerity, whether we attribute them to igno- 
 rance or effrontery. Thus, he says, for example, ' It is a decided 
 truth, whatever Abbadie may say to the contrary, that none of the 
 first Fathers of the Church down to Irenasus inclusive have quoted 
 any passage from the four Gospels, with which we are acquainted." 
 Again he says (in the " Encyclopaedia," under the head of " Christi- 
 anity") that among the early Christians "fifty-four societies bad fifty- 
 four different gosp-ls. all secret, like their mysteries." (!) He appears, 
 indeed, to have ttirown out his falsehoods with utter recklessness 
 whenever he thought they could serve his turn, trusting that his great 
 name in literature, and the confident assurance with which they were 
 uttered, would induce the vast majority of readers to accept them 
 without examination, in which method of proceeding he has been 
 followed by other assailants of Christianity. 
 
 est the object to be attracted. That marvellous suscep- 
 tibility of heart, of which we have spoken, not only 
 prompted him to those generous acts of benevolence 
 which constitute his one claim to true glory, but also 
 caused him to adopt with facility, or rather to embrace 
 with eagerness, the prevailing foibles and vices of his 
 age, which he may be said to have represented in all its 
 strength and in all its weakness. While the influence of 
 his writings doubtless contributed powerfully to accel- 
 erate the denouement of that mighty tragedy in France, 
 the first acts of which may be said to date from the 
 commencement of the century, if not earlier, it did not, 
 we believe, very materially modify the direction or 
 character of the great movement of which he appeared 
 to be the leader, but of which he was in reality scarcely 
 more than its most striking manifestation. He was, it 
 may be said, but the foremost wave in a mighty deluge, 
 urged on by, as well as leading, those behind. Had he 
 been as great morally as he was intellectually, he might 
 probably have impressed a very different character upon 
 the French Revolution. He might have fostered and 
 developed the spirit of liberty, without at the same time 
 letting loose upon society the demons of licentiousness, 
 of persiflage, and of blasphemy.^ But, with his vain and 
 fickle character,! it would have been as impossible for 
 him to direct such a movement steadily, wisely, and 
 beneficently, as it would have been to support the earth 
 upon his shoulders. His was no Atlantean strength, 
 capable of sustaining any great cause steadily and firmly ; 
 it was rather the fitful and uncertain strength of the 
 wind, which, moved by forces not residing in itself, may 
 at one moment refresh and revive the fainting traveller, 
 and the next, heap the burning sands of the desert upon 
 a perishing caravan, — may at one time carry prosper- 
 ously across the main a vessel laden with precious 
 treasure, and at another, overwhelm this same vessel in 
 the depths of the ocean. 
 
 See, besides the work-s already referred to in the foregoing article, 
 Frederick '[-he Grhat, " Filoge de Voltaire," 1778; Condorcet, 
 "Vie de Voltaire, suivie des Memoires de Voltaire, ecrits par 1 tit- 
 meme," 17S7 : Jean Francois dk La Harpk, " Ivoge de Voltaire," 
 1780: C. Pai.issot, "Fjoge de Voltaire," 177S: Louts Simon Au- 
 ger, " Notice sur la Vie de Voltaire," 1827 ; J. F. Gili.et, "Voltaire 
 der Reformator," 1772; Durdrnt, " Histoire litteraire et philoso- 
 phique de Voltaire," 1818; Standish, "Life of Voltaire." 1819; 
 La Roche du Maine tin Luchet, " Histoire litteraire de Voltaire," 
 etc., 6 vols , 1782: Mazure, "Vie de Voltaire," 1821 ; Smnt-Ai.hin 
 Bervili.e. "Notice historique sur Voltaire," 1827; Paii.let dh 
 Warcv. " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de Voltaire," 2 vols., 
 1823; Bungener, "Voltaire et son Temps. " 2 vols., 1850; Von 
 Zaruessnig, " Historische und kritische Nachrichten von dem 
 I.ehen und den Schriften des Herrn Voltaire," etc., 2 vols., 1777: 
 Pastoret, " Eloge de Voltaire," 1779; " Leven van F. M. Arouet 
 van Voltaire," Utrecht, 1779: Maria Julia Young, " Vo't.tiriana," 
 4 vols., 1805; Ellissen, "Voltaire als politischer Dichter," etc., 
 18^2 ; Longchamp et Wagnirrr. " Memoires sur Vokaire," 2 vols., 
 1825: J. Veneoev, " Friedrich der Grosse und Voltaire," 1859; A. 
 Houssave, " Le Roi Voltaire," 1S61 : P. Dupeat, "Voltaire et 
 l'Encyclope'die," 1865; F. A. Harel, "Discours sur Voltaire," 
 1844 : Cuari.es Nisard, " Les Ennemis de Voltaire," 1852. : Gabe- 
 rku " Voltaire et les Genevois," i860; Sainte Beuve, "Causeries 
 du Lundi," tomes ii. and xiii. ; Lepan, " Vie politique, litleraire et 
 morale de Voltaire," 18 17: Queraru, " Bibliographic Voltairienne," 
 1844: O. Honors, "Voltaire a Lausanne," 1S53 ; Vm.i.kmain, 
 "Tableau de la Literature du dix-huilieme Siecle:" Cousin d'Av.m.- 
 lon, " Voltairiaua," 1S01 ; " Biographie Universelle ;" and the elabo- 
 rate article on " Voltaire," in the " Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 t Lord Brougham defends Voltaire against thechargeofblaspbemy, 
 on the ground that one cannot be guilty of blasphemy against any 
 being in whom the offender has no belief. One might utter all hor- 
 rible slanders against the character of Christ, and yet, according to 
 this view, it would not be blasphemy if the speaker or writer did not 
 believe in the divinity of Christ. In reply to this argument, it may 
 suffice to say that it has no support in the original signification of 
 the verb to "blaspheme," which is simply to "slander" or " vilify;" 
 and it appears to have no sanction in the usage of any European 
 language. 
 
 § Byron has most aptly portrayed the character of Voltaire when, 
 contrasting him with Gibbon, he says, — 
 
 " Tlie one was fire and fickleness, a child. 
 Most mutable in wishes, but in mind 
 A wit as various. — gay, grave, sage, or wild, — 
 Historian, bard, philosopher combined ; 
 He multiplied himself among mankind, 
 The Proteus of their talents; but his own 
 Breathed mostjn ridicule, — which, as the wind, 
 Blew where it listed, laying all things prone, — 
 Now to o'erthrow a fool, and now to shake a throne " 
 
 Childe Harold, canto iii. stanza cvi. 
 For some very curious and interesting notices of the fickleness, 
 as well as intensity, of Voltaire's feelings, the reader is referred to 
 Marmontel's "Memoires." 
 
 a , e, i, 0, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u,y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; mjt; n8c; good; moon; 
 
VOLTERRA 
 
 2217 
 
 FORSTIUS 
 
 Volterra or Volterre. See Ricciarelll 
 
 Volterrano. See Makfei, (Raffaello and Fran- 
 ceschini.) 
 
 Voltolina, vo]-to-lee'na, (Giuseppe Mii.io,) a writer 
 of Latin poetry, born at Salo, on the Lake of Garda, 
 flourished about 1570. He wrote a fine poem on Horti- 
 culture, (1574.) 
 
 Vo-lum'nI-a, a Roman matron, was the wife of Cori- 
 olanus. She, and her mother-in-law, persuaded that 
 general to desist from his purpose of attacking Rome. 
 (See Veturia.) 
 
 Vonck, vonk, (Francis,) a Flemish jurist, born near 
 Brussels in 1735. He was one of the leaders of the 
 party which attempted to throw off the yoke of Austria 
 about 1789. Died in 1792. 
 
 Vondel, van den, \tn den von'del, [Lat Vonde'- 
 i.ius,] (JoOST,) an eminent Dutch poet, bom at Cologne 
 in 1587, was a son of Protestant parents, who fled from 
 Antwerp to escape persecution. He resided mostly at 
 Amsterdam, where he engaged in mercantile pursuits, 
 and married about 1610. He produced in 1620a tragedy 
 of the "Sack of Jerusalem," and in 1625 a more famous 
 drama, called " Palamedes," in which he alluded to the 
 execution of Barneveldt in such indignant terms that he 
 was fined. His drama of " Gisbert van Amstel" (1637) 
 was received with great applause. It is stated that he 
 joined the Catholic Church about 1640. Among his 
 remarkable works is the tragedy of "Lucifer," (1654,) 
 which is said to resemble Milton's " Paradise Lost." He 
 was also a great lyric poet. The choruses of his trage- 
 dies are sublime lyrical compositions. He was the 
 author of satires and many other poems, and is regarded 
 as the great national poet of Holland. Died in 1679. 
 
 See L. V. Oi.i.kfes, " Leven vnn J. van den Vondel," 17S3; 
 Stjrrandi, " Vondel and Shakspeare." (in Dutch,) 1841 ; Pirthr 
 Campkk, " Disscrtatio de J. Voncleiio, Poeta tragico," 1S17 ; Hkn- 
 drik Zbkman, " I.even van J. van den Vondel," 1 S31 ; C. Loots, 
 "Hu!de aan de Nagedachtenis van J. van den Vondel," 1S17: 
 Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Fraser's Magazine" 
 for May, 1854. 
 
 Vondelius. See Vondel. 
 
 Von der Hardt See Hardt, von dkr. 
 
 Vo-no'nes, King of Parthia, was a son of Phraates 
 IV. He passed some of his early years at Rome as a 
 hostage, and began to reign in 14 a.d. Having been 
 deposed by his subjects, he was killed in 19 A.D. 
 
 >Von-Visin. See Vizin, von. 
 
 Voorst, van, vin voRst, (Adoi.ph,) a Dutch physi- 
 cian and botanist, born at Delft in 1597. He succeeded 
 his father as professor of botany at Leyden. Died in 
 1663. 
 
 Voorst, van, [Lat. Vor'stius,] (Everard,) a Dutcb 
 physician, born at Ruremonde in 1565, was the father 
 of the preceding. He became professor at Leyden 
 in 1598. He wrote several medical works. Died in 
 1624. 
 
 Vo-pis'cus, (Flavius,) a Latin historian, born at 
 Syracuse, in Sicily, lived about 300-320 a.d. He was 
 one of the writers of the " Historia Augusta," to which 
 he contributed the lives of Aurelian, Tacitus, Florianus, 
 Probus, etc. He is regarded by some critics as the ablest 
 of the writers of the " rtfatoria Augusta." 
 
 See D. W. Mou.hr, " Disputatin de F. Vopisco," 1687. 
 
 Vor, vor, or Vo'ra, written also Vara, [probably 
 from vor or for, (Ger. vor,) " before" or " beforehand," 
 so named on account of her prudence and foresight,] a 
 goddess in the Norse mythology, distinguished for her 
 wisdom and sagacity. It is her office to search out and 
 punish broken oaths and promises, particularly those 
 of lovers. Nothing can escape her penetration, and no 
 vows, however secret, can be hidden from her. 
 
 See Tikirpk, " Northern Mythology," vol. i. pp. 35 and 36. 
 
 Voragine, (Giacomo.) See James (or Giacomo) de 
 Vor u'.ine. 
 
 Vorherr, foVhlR, (Johann Michael Christian 
 GUSTAV,) a German architect, born at Freudenbach in 
 1778, studied at Berlin and Paris, and was subsequently 
 employed to construct a numlter of public buildings in 
 the vicinity of Munich. Died in 1847. 
 
 Voronikhin or Woronichin, vo-ro-ne-Ken', (An- 
 drei NiKtFOROVITCH,) a Russian architect, born in 1760, 
 
 was the son of a peasant, and was patronized by Count 
 Alexander Stroganol. He studied at Moscow, and 
 subsequently in Paris, and was appointed, after his re- 
 turn, professor in the Academy of Arts. In 1811 he 
 completed the superb cathedral of " Our Lady of 
 Kazan," in the Nevskii Prospect, at Saint Petersburg, 
 which is regarded as one of the finest structures in the ' 
 citv. Died in 1814. 
 
 Vorontsof, v6r-6nt-sof, Vorontzov, or Woron- 
 zow, (Alexander,) Count, a Russian statesman under 
 the reign of Catherine II., was a brother of the Princess 
 Dashkof, the intimate friend of that empress. He was 
 appointed by the emperor Alexander chancellor of the 
 empire in 1802. Died in 1806. 
 
 Vorontsof, Vorontzov, or Woronzow, (Mikhail 
 Ilarionovitch,) Count, a Russian diplomatist and 
 statesman, born in 1710, was distinguished by the favour 
 of the empress Elizabeth, and rose to be chancellor of 
 the empire. He negotiated the treaty of alliance be- 
 tween Russia and Sweden in 1745. Died in 1767. 
 
 Vorontsof, Vorontzov, or Woronzow, (Mikhail 
 Semenovitch,) Prince, a Russian general and states- 
 man, born at Moscow in 1782. He was educated in 
 England, where his father, Semen Woronzow, resided 
 as Russian ambassador. Having entered the Russian 
 army, he served against the Turks, and in the principal 
 campaigns against Napoleon from 1812 to 181 5. He 
 was afterwards appointed governor of New Russia and 
 Bessarabia, and in 1844 °f the Caucasian provinces. 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 Vorontzov or Vorontzoft See Vorontsof. 
 
 Vorosmarty or Voeroesmarty, vo'roshmorty, 
 (almost -moRtch,) (MihAi.y,) a celebrated Hungarian 
 writer and patriot, born in the county of Fejervar in 
 1800. He published, while a student at Pesth, his drama 
 of "King Solomon," (1821,) which was followed by a 
 poem entitled "The Triumph of Fidelity," (1822,) " King 
 Sigismund," (1824,) a drama, "The Flight of Zalan," an 
 epic poem, and the tragedy of "Kont," (1825.) His 
 narrative poems entitled "Cserhalom" and "The En- 
 chanted Valley" ("Tundervolgy," 1827) established his 
 reputation as the first Hungarian poet of his time. He 
 was a contributor to Kisfaludy's "Aurora," and was for 
 several years editor of a journal called "The Repository 
 of Science." In 1830 he published a patriotic lyric entitled 
 " The Appeal," (" Szozat,") which at once l>ecame widely 
 popular, and the author received from the Hungarian 
 Academy a ducat for every line. He took part in the 
 revolution of 1848, and was a deputy to the National 
 Assembly for the county of Bacska, and after the defeat 
 of the Hungarians was imprisoned a short time. He 
 died in 1856, while engaged on a translation of Shak- 
 speare. 
 
 Vorst, foRst, or Vorstins, foR'ste-us, (Johann,) a 
 German philologist, born at Wessellmrg in 1623. He 
 settled in Berlin in 1660, and became rector or president 
 of the college of that city. He published, besides other 
 works, " Sacred Philology," etc., (" Philologia Sacra, seu 
 de Hebraisniis Novi Testamenti Liber," 1658.) Died 
 in Berlin in 1676. 
 
 Vorsterman, voR'ster-min', (Lucas,) a skilful Flem- 
 ish engraver and painter, born at Antwerp about 1580, 
 was a pupil of Rubens. He engraved some works of 
 Rubens, among which are the "Adoration of the Magi," 
 and the " Descent from the Cros6." He worked in 
 Iy>ndon about nine years, (1624-32,) during which he 
 engraved a number of portraits after Van Dvck. Died 
 about 1645. His son Lucas was an engraver, but not 
 equal to the father. 
 
 See Naglrr, " Allgemeines Kiinstler-Lexikon." 
 
 Vorstius. See Vorst and Voorst. 
 
 Vorstitis, foR'ste-us, or Vorst, foRst, (Conrad,) a 
 German Protestant divine, born at Cologne in 1569. 
 Having taken the degree of D.D. at Heidelberg, he be- 
 came professor of theology at Geneva, and afterwards 
 filled the same chair in the school of divinity at Stein- 
 furt. In 1610 he succeeded Arminius in the chair of 
 theology at Leyden. His appointment to this post was 
 strongly opposed by theCalvinistsin Holland, on account 
 of the heresies contained in his " Disputations on the 
 Nature and Attributes of God," ("De Deo, seu Dis- 
 
 ■e as i; c as s; g hard; g as/; o, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled; 3 as 1; th as in this. ( jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
rORTIGERN 
 
 2Zl8 
 
 rossius 
 
 putationes decern de Natura et Attributes Dei," etc. 
 The book was condemned to be publicly burned by James 
 I. of England, who also wrote a tract against the author. 
 In 1619 he was denounced by the Synod of Dort as un- 
 worthy of his office, and exiled from the county. He 
 died at Tonningen in 1622. He was the author of sev- 
 eral religious and controversial works, and was distin- 
 guished for his learning and piety. 
 
 Vor'tl-gern, a British chief, who was elected king 
 about 445 a.d. To defend Britain against the Picts and 
 Scots, he invited the aid of the Saxons. Hengist and 
 Horsa led an army of Saxons into Britain, and soon 
 turned their arms against Vortigern, who was defeated 
 and killed in 485 A.D. 
 
 Vos, de, deh vos, (Cornelis,) a Flemish painter, 
 born at Hulst about 1585. He excelled in portraits, and 
 painted several historical pieces. Died at Antwerp in 
 1651. 
 Vos, de, (Martin.) See Devos. 
 Vos, de, (Paul,) a painter of animals and hunting- 
 scenes, born at Hulst (or Aelst) about 1590, was a bro- 
 ther of Cornells, noticed above. Died in 1654. 
 
 Vos, de, (Simon,) a Flemish painter, born at Antwerp 
 in 1603 ; died about 1675. 
 
 Vos, van, viii vos, (Willem,) a Dutch writer on 
 theology and moral philosophy, born about 1740. He 
 was employed as pastor at Amsterdam. Died in 1823. 
 Voss, (Gerard.) See Vossius. 
 Voss, fos, (Heinrich,) a German scholar, was a son 
 of the following. He became a professor in the Univer- 
 sity of Heidelberg. He translated /Eschylus into Ger- 
 man, and aided his father in a translation of Shakspeare. 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 Voss, (Johann Heinrich,) an eminent German poet 
 and critic, born at Sommersdorf, (Mecklenburg,) Febru- 
 ary 20, 1751, was the son of poor parents. After he left 
 the public school of New Brandenburg, he became a 
 tutor in a family (1769) near Penzlin. Some verses which 
 he contributed to the " Musenalmanach" of Gottingen 
 attracted the notice of Boie, the editor, who invited him 
 to Gottingen. He went thither in 1772, and devoted 
 himself to the study of philology under Heyne, with 
 whom he soon quarrelled. He became one of the prin- 
 cipal members of the literary society called Hainbund, 
 formed an acquaintance with Klopstock, and married 
 about 1777 a sister of Boie, above mentioned. He quitted 
 Gottingen in 1775 with a profound knowledge of classical 
 literature and philology, and was appointed rector of the 
 public school at Ottendorf in 1778. In 1781 he produced 
 an excellent translation of Homer's "Odyssey," in hex- 
 ameter verse, which was received with great favour by the 
 best judges. In his version the ideas and details of the 
 original are reproduced with great fidelity. He removed 
 in 1782 to Eutin, in the duchy of Oldenburg, where he 
 was employed about twenty years as rector of the gym- 
 nasium. In 1789 he published a translation of Virgil's 
 "Georgics," with a commentary. His admirable trans- 
 lation of the "Iliad" appeared in 1793. As a translator 
 of the classics, he is generally considered to be un- 
 rivalled. He contributed much to the improvement of 
 the German language and metre. Between 1774 and 
 1800 he composed eighteen beautiful idyls, which were 
 published collectively in 4 vols., 1802. His pastoral or 
 idyllic poem "Luise" (1795) is considered the most 
 charming poem of that kind in the language. 
 
 Voss and Heyne were involved in several literary con- 
 troversies, and indulged in violent personalities. In 1799 
 he published a translation of the complete works of Vir- 
 gil. He removed from Eutin to Jena in 1802, and was 
 called in 1805 to Heidelberg by the Elector of Baden, 
 who offered him a pension of about one thousand florins. 
 He afterwards published translations of Horace, (1806,) 
 Hesiod, (1808,) Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, (1808,) 
 and Aristophanes, (1821.) Voss manifested his devo- 
 tion to the Protestant religion and liberal principles in 
 a work entitled " How F. Stolberg became illiberal," 
 (" Wie ward Fritz Stolberg ein Unfreier," 1819,) and 
 published in 1823 his " Antisymbolik," in answer to 
 Creuzer's " Symbolik," in which the opinions of Heyne 
 had been maintained. He had two sons, Henry and 
 Abraham, who were his coadjutors in a translation of 
 
 He died at Heidel- 
 
 Shakspeare, published in 1818-26. 
 berg in March, 1826. 
 
 See Paulus, " Lebens- und Todeskunden uber J. H. Voss," 1826 ; 
 Th. Scmmid, " Leben des Dichters J. H. Voss," 1835 ; J. H. Voss, 
 " Abriss meines Lebens," 1818; Longfellow, "Poets and Poetry 
 of Europe;" Heinrich DBking, "J. H. Voss nach seinem Leben 
 und Wirken dargestellt," 1834; J. J. Goekrks. "J. H. Voss und 
 seine Todtenfeier in Heidelberg," 1826 : " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generate ;"and the article on "German Poetry" in " Fraser's Maga- 
 zine" for April, 1832. 
 
 Voss, von, fon fos, (Julius,) a German litterateur, 
 born in Brandenburg in 1768, was the author of a num- 
 ber of dramas and romances. Died in 1832. 
 
 Vossius, vosh'e-us, (Dionysius,) a Dutch Oriental- 
 ist, born at Dort about 1609, was a son of the following. 
 He was well versed in Greek and Hebrew, and learned 
 several modern languages. He translated into Latin 
 Maimonides " On Idolatry," and other works. Died at 
 Amsterdam in 1633. 
 
 Vossius, vosh'e-us, or Voss, vos, (Gerard,) a Ger- 
 man or Flemish theologian and priest, born near Liege, 
 lived at Rome. He edited some works of Chrysostom, 
 Gregory Tliaumaturgus, and other Greek Fathers, (1575- 
 1604.) Died at Liege in 1609. 
 
 Vossius, (Gerard,) a classical scholar, a son of the 
 following, was born at Leyden in 1620. He edited Vel- 
 leius Paterculus, (1639.) His death is variously dated 
 from 1640 to 1650. 
 
 Vossius, vosh'e-us or fos'se-ils, or Voss, fos, (Ge- 
 rard Jan,) a celebrated German scholar, born near 
 Heidelberg in 1577. He removed to Dort, in Holland, 
 studied theology, history, and antiquities at Leyden, and 
 became master of the public school at Dort in 1600. 
 He was appointed, in 1614, rector of the theological 
 school at Leyden, in which he soon after filled the chair 
 of eloquence. He visited England in 1629, and was 
 installed as a prebendary of Canterbury, through the 
 influence of Archbishop Laud. About 1632 he became 
 professor of history in a new college at Amsterdam. He 
 died at Amsterdam in 1649. Among his principal works 
 may be named " Aristarchus, or Seven Books on the 
 Dramatic Art," ("Aristarchus, sive de Arte Dramatica 
 Libri VII.,") " Historia Pelagiana," (1618,) "The Rhe- 
 torical Art," ("Ars Rhetorica," 1623,) "On the Greek 
 Historians," ("De Historicis Graecis Libri ties," 1624,) 
 " On the Latin Historians," (" De Historicis Latinis 
 Libri tres," 1627,) and " Commentariorum Rhetori- 
 corum (sive Oratoriarum Institutionum) Libri VI." 
 
 He was a friend of Grotius, and was a man of 
 commendable piety and modesty. "Gerard Vossius," 
 says Hallam, — "a far greater name in general literature 
 than Scioppius, — contributed more essentially to these 
 grammatical rules ; and to him perhaps, rather than 
 to any other one man, we may refer the establishment 
 of as much correctness of writing as is attainable in a 
 dead language." ("Introduction to the Literature of 
 Europe.") 
 
 See C. Toi.lius, " Oratio in Obittim G. J. Vossii." 164a; Meur- 
 rius, "Athense Hatavs;" Niceron, "Memnires :" Valere Andre, 
 "Bibhotheca Belgica ;" "Nouvelle Biographie GeWrale." 
 
 Vossius, (Isaac,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 at Leyden in 1618. He was instructed by his father, 
 and subsequently travelled in France and Italy. In 
 1648 he was invited by Queen Christina to Sweden, 
 where he resided nearly ten years. He visited England 
 in 1670, and was made a canon of Windsor by Charles 
 II. He published editions of Scylax, Pomponitts Mela, 
 and other classics, "Dissertations on the Seventy Inter- 
 preters, and their Translation and Chronology," ("De 
 Septuaginta Interpretibus, eorumque Translatione et 
 Chronologia Dissertationes," 1663,) "On the Chanting 
 of Poems and the Power of Rhythm," (" De Poematum 
 Cantu et Viribus Rhythmi," 1673,) and "A Book of 
 Various Observations," ("Variarum Observationum 
 Liber.") He died in 
 
 . leaving a large and very 
 valuable library, which was purchased by the University 
 of Leyden. His learning was profound, but he was dis- 
 solute in character and skeptical in religion, though so 
 credulous "in other things that Charles II. said of him 
 "This learned divine will believe anything except the 
 Bible." 
 
 See Foppens, "Bibliotbeca Belgica;" Niceron, "Memoires:" 
 'Nouvelle Biographie Generate. " 
 
 i. 5, 1, o, Q, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 8, Q, % short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; 
 
 moon; 
 
rossius 
 
 2219 
 
 VYASA 
 
 Vossius, (Mattheus,) a historical writer, born at 
 Dort, was a brother of Isaac Vossius. He became li- 
 brarian of the city of Amsterdam, and published, in 
 Latin, "Annals of Holland and Zealand," (1645-46.) 
 Died in 1646. 
 
 Vosterman, vos'ter-mln', (John,) a Dutch landscape- 
 
 f>ainter, bom at Bommel in 1643. He worked in Eng- 
 and, and was patronized by Charles II. He is said to 
 have. excelled in delicacy of finish. Died in 1699. 
 
 Vouet, voo'J', (Simon,) a celebrated French painter, 
 born in Paris in 1582, (or 1590, according to the "Nou- 
 velle Biographie Generate.") He studied at Venice 
 and Rome, and, after his return, was appointed, in 1627, 
 painter to Louis XIII. He is called the founder of the 
 French school of painting, and numbered among his 
 pupils Mignard, Le Brun, Le Sueur, and other distin- 
 guished artists. He adorned many churches of Paris 
 with his works, which are defective in colour and design. 
 Died in 1649, (or, as some say, 1641.) 
 
 See Fblibien, "Les Artistes Francais ;" Charles Blanc," His- 
 toire des Peinlres;" " Nouvelle Biographie G^nerale." 
 
 Voulland, voo'15n', (Hknki,) a violent French Jaco- 
 bin, born at Uzes in 1750, was a member of the Con- 
 vention of 1792-95. Died in 1802. 
 
 Voyer. See Argenson, d'. 
 
 Voys, vois, (Ary or Adriaan,) a Dutch painter, 
 born at Leyden in 1641. He painted history and land- 
 scapes. 
 
 Voysin or Voisin, vw.VzIn', (Daniel Francois,) 
 a French lawyer and politician, born in Paris about 1654. 
 He was patronized by Madame de Mainlenon, through 
 whose influence he became secretary of war in 1709, and 
 chancellor of France in 1 7 14. He wrote the last will of 
 Louis XIV., and a few days after the king's death pro- 
 nounced it null. Died in 1717. 
 
 Vre'tos or Vre'to, (Andrew Papadopoulos,) a 
 modern Greek writer, born at Theaki (Ithaca) in 1800. 
 He published many works, among which is a " Life of 
 President Capo d'Istria," (in French, 2 vols., 1837-38,) 
 and "The Literature of Modern Greece," (2 vols., 
 
 1854-57-) 
 
 Vriemoet, vRee'moot, (Emo Lucius,) a Dutch phi- 
 lologist and minister, born at Emden in 1699. He be- 
 came professor of Oriental languages at Franeker in 
 1730. Died in 1760. 
 
 vrieud. See Floris, (Frans.) 
 
 Vries, vRees, (Martin Gerritzoon — geR'rit-zon,) a 
 Dutch navigator, was sent in 1643, by Van Diemen, 
 governor of the Dutch possessions in India, on a voyage 
 to explore the countries north of Japan. An account 
 of the expedition appeared in 1646. 
 
 Vries, de, deli VRees, (Hans Fredeman — fua'deh- 
 man',) an eminent Dutch painter of perspective and 
 architectural pieces, was born at Leeuwarden in 1527. 
 He was the author of a "Treatise on Perspective," and 
 produced a great number of architectural designs. His 
 sons Paul and Solomon distinguished themselves in 
 the same department. Hans Fredeman died after 1604. 
 
 Vuez, de. See Devuez. 
 
 Vukassovich, von, fon voo-kas'so-vik, (Philip,) 
 Baron, a general, born in Slavonia in 1755. He served 
 as a general of the Austrian army in Italy against the 
 French. Died in 1809. 
 
 Vulcain. See Vulcan. 
 
 Vttl'can, [Gr. 'H(paiaToc, ( Hephaistos ; ) Lat. Vulca'- 
 nus; Fr. Vulcain, vul'ka.N'; It. Volcano, vol-ka'no,] the 
 Roman god of fire, celebrated as a worker in metals and 
 
 a fabricator of armour, corresponds to the Hephaestus 
 (or Hephaistos) of the Greek mythology. According to 
 Homer, he was a son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Hera, (Juno,) 
 and was weak and deformed from his birth. Other 
 writers reported that he was a son of Juno, and had no 
 father ; that, in a quarrel between Jupiter and Juno, he 
 took the part of his mother, and was hurled down from 
 Olympus by Jupiter; that, after falling a whole day, he 
 lighted on the island of Lemnos ; that his fall rendered 
 him lame ; that he forged the thunderbolts of Jupiter, 
 and fabricated the shield of Hercules, the armour of 
 Achilles and other heroes, and other famous pieces of 
 excpiisite workmanship. The island of Lemnos was his 
 favourite residence on the earth, and he had also a palace 
 in Olympus, to which he returned after his fall. He 
 married Venus, whom he once detected in the embrace 
 of Mars. The story of this affair may be found in the 
 " Odyssey," book viii. According to popular tradition, 
 Mount Etna was a forge of Vulcan, who had also work- 
 shops in several volcanic islands, and the Cyclopes 
 worked in his service. (See Virgil's "JBmeid, book 
 viii. 370-448.) The ancients ascribed to Minerva and 
 Vulcan jointly the invention or the introduction of the 
 arts which embellish life and distinguish civilized society 
 from the savage state. He was represented with ham- 
 mer and tongs at the anvil, and with his right arm bare. 
 He was also called Mulciber, which is perhaps a cor- 
 ruption of mulcifer, (from mulceo, to "soften" or "render 
 tractable," and ferritin, "iron.") 
 
 Vulcanius, vul-ka'ne-iis, (Bonaventura,) a Flemish 
 classical scholar, born at Bruges in 1538. He became sec- 
 retary to Cardinal Francisco de Mendoza in Spain about 
 1560, and obtained the chair of Greek at Leyden in 1578. 
 He edited several ancient authors, and translated some 
 Greek works into Latin. Died at Leyden in 1614. 
 
 Vul'pl-us, (Ger. pron. fo"61'pe-us,| (Christian Au- 
 gust,) a German writer, born at Weimar in 1762. He 
 studied at Jena and Erlangen, and afterwards became 
 secretary of the court theatre at Weimar, under the 
 direction of Goethe, who was his brother-in-law. He 
 published 1 " Rinaldo Kinaldini," (1799,) a robber romance, 
 which was received with great favour ; also " Romantic 
 Histories of Former Times," and a number of dramatic 
 works. He was subsequently appointed first librarian 
 and overseer of the cabinet of coins at Weimar. Died 
 in 1827. 
 
 Vulson, de, deh vuTs6n', (Marc,) a French writer on 
 heraldry. He fought for Henry IV. in his youth, and 
 became a gentleman of the chamber of the king. He 
 published several works. Died in 1658. 
 
 VyasS, ve-a'sa or vya'sa, [etymology doubtful ; sup- 
 posed by some to signify " compiler" or " arranger,"] 
 called also VddavyasS, va'da-vyl'sa, the name of a 
 celebrated Hindoo sage or saint, who is supposed to 
 have been the original compiler of the Vedas and Pura- 
 nas, and the founder of the Vedanta philosophy.* 
 Nothing is known of the events of his life, and by some 
 he is regarded as a myth. 
 
 * The Vedanta philosophy, called also simply the Vedanta, (i.e. 
 the "end or scope of fall] knowledge,'' from veiiH, "knowledge," 
 and AntA, "end" or "scope.") is a sort of ideal system, which 
 has been derived or developed from portions of the Vedas, called the 
 Upanishads, (which see.) It teaches, among other things, that 
 Brahm, the in6nite eternal Spirit, is the only being really existing in 
 the universe. All creatures are merely emanations (or we might say 
 exhalations) from Him, having an apparent rather than a real exist- 
 ence, and will at last be absorbed or extinguished in his essence. 
 (See Brahm and Brahmanism.) 
 
 e as *; 5 as s; g hard; g zsj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. ( J^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WAAGEN 
 
 2220 
 
 WADE 
 
 w. 
 
 Waagen, via'gen, (Gustav FRlEDRrcH,) an eminent 
 German amateur and art-critic, born at Hamburg in 
 1794. He studied at Breslau, Dresden, and Munich, 
 and in 1823 was appointed director of the Royal Gallery 
 of Paintings at Berlin. He published " Works of Art 
 and Artists in England and France," (" Kunstwerke und 
 Kiinstler in England und Frankreich," 3 vols., 1837,) 
 " Works of Art and Artists in Germany," (" Kunstwerke 
 und Kiinstler in Deutschland," 2 vols., 1843,) "The 
 Treasures of Art in Great Britain," etc., (3 vols., 1854, 
 in English,) a " Life of Rubens," and other works, which 
 enjoy the highest reputation. He was appointed in 1844 
 professor in the Royal University for the department of 
 art history. Died at Copenhagen in August, 1868. 
 
 See the "Edinburgh Review" for July, 1838. 
 
 Waal. See Wael. 
 
 Waast. See Wast. 
 
 Waoe, vlts or vas, (Robert,) an Anglo-Norman poet, 
 a native of the island of Jersey, resided at the court of 
 Henry II. at Caen, to whom he dedicated his " Roman 
 du Rou," (1160.) He was afterwards made a canon in 
 the cathedral of Bayeux. His "Roman du Rou [Rollo] 
 et des Dues de Normandie" is a history (in verse) of the 
 Dukes of Normandy from the invasion of Rollo to the 
 time of Henry I., and is highly valued as a historical 
 record. He was the author of other poems, the prin- 
 cipal of which is entitled "The English Brutus," ("Le 
 Brut d'Angleterre.") Died about 11 84. 
 
 See Pluquet, " Notice sur la Vie et les Merits de Robert Wace." 
 1824 ; Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe ;" " Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for April, 1828; " iiritish Quarterly Review" for 
 February, 1847, article "Anglo-Norman Poets of the Twelfth Cen- 
 tury;" " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ie'rale." 
 
 Wach, <vaK, (Wilhelm,) a German painter, born at 
 Berlin in 1787, studied in Paris and Rome,- and was 
 elected, after his return, to the Royal Academy of Arts. 
 He was one of the founders of the new school of paint- 
 ing at Berlin. Among his best works is the altar-piece 
 in the church of Peter and Paul at Moscow. Died in 
 1845. 
 
 Wachler, waK'ler, (Johann Friedricu Ludwig,) a 
 German writer, born at Gotha in 1767. Having studied 
 at Jena, he became professor of philosophy at Marburg 
 in 1801, and of history at Breslau in 1815, and was after- 
 wards appointed chief librarian of the University at 
 Breslau. He was the author of a "Manual of the Uni- 
 versal History of Literary Culture," (1804,) "Manual of 
 History," (" Lehrbuch der Geschichte,") " Lectures on 
 the History of German National Literature," (1818,) and 
 other works, which have a high reputation. Died in 1838. 
 
 Wachsmuth, waks'moot, (Ernst Wii.hei.m Gott- 
 lieb,) a German historical writer, born at Hildesheim 
 in 1784, studied at Halle, and became professor of his- 
 tory at Leipsic in 1825. He has published, among other 
 works, a " History of European Manners," (Sittenge- 
 tchickte,) (5 vols., 1831,) and "Universal History of 
 Culture," (1850.) 
 
 Wachsmuth, viks'miit', (Ferdinand,) a French 
 painter of history and battles, born at Mulhouse, near 
 the Rhine, in 1802. Among his subjects are several 
 French victories in Algiers. 
 
 Wachter, wiK'ter, (Ferdinand,) a German writer, 
 born in 1794, has published several treatises on Scandi- 
 navian legends and antiquities ; also a number of dramatic 
 works. 
 
 Wachter or Waechter, wSK'ter, (Gf.org Philipp 
 Ludwig Leonhard,) a German litterateur, born in 1762, 
 was the author of "Legends of Ancient Times," and 
 other works. Died in 1837. 
 
 Wachter, (Johann Gkorg,) an eminent German 
 linguist and archaeologist, born at Memmingen in 1673. 
 He was a member of the Academy of Sciences at Ber- 
 lin, and became first librarian and director of the Museum 
 of Antiquities at Leipsic. He was the author of " Glos- 
 sarium Germariicum," etc., one of the most valuable 
 works of the kind, " Archaeologia Nummaria," (1740,) 
 
 and other treatises on numismatics and etymology. Died 
 in 1757. 
 
 Wachter or Waechter, von, fon w?K'ter, (Karl 
 Georg,) a German jurist, born at Marbach, otv the 
 Neckar, in 1797. He studied at Tubingen and Heidel- 
 berg, and became in 1822 professor of law in the former 
 university, of which he was made chancellor in 1836. He 
 was appointed professor of civil law at Leipsic in 1852, 
 and published several works on German law. 
 
 Wachtleror Waechtler, weKt'ler, (Christfried,) 
 a German jurist, born at Grimme in 1652. He published 
 numerous legal works. Died in 1731. 
 
 Wachtler or Waechtler, (Jakob,) a German Prot- 
 estant minister and writer on theology, born at Grimme 
 in 1638; died at Beltzig in 1702. 
 
 Wackenroder, wak'ken-ro'der, (Wilhelm Hein- 
 RICH,) a German writer, born at Berlin in 1772. He 
 was a friend of Ludwig Tieck, in conjunction with whom 
 he published " Herzensergiessungen eines Kiinstlieben- 
 den Klosterbruders." Died in 1798. 
 
 See J. G. Klein, " Erinnerungen an Wackenroder," 1809. 
 
 Wackerbarth, wak'ker-baRt', (August Chris 
 tofh,) Count, a German military commander, born in 
 the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg in 1662. He served in 
 several campaigns against the French and Turks, and 
 was made a field-marshal in 1712. Died in 1734. 
 
 See Frigandkr, " Leben des A. C. Grafen von Wackerbarth," 
 2 vols., 1739. 
 
 Wackernagel, wak'ker-na'gel, (Karl Heinrich 
 Wilhelm,) a German writer, born at Berlin in 1806, 
 became professor of the German language and literature 
 at Bile in 1835. He published a "German Reader," 
 (1835,) a treatise "On Dramatic Poetry," (1838,) " His- 
 tory of German Literature," (1848,) and other works, of 
 great merit, on similar subjects. 
 
 Wad-dell', (James,) D.D., a Presbyterian divine, 
 celebrated for his eloquence, born in Ireland in 1739, 
 came at an early age to America, and settled as a pastor 
 in Louisa county, Virginia. He was the original of 
 William Wirt's beautiful sketch of the "Blind Preacher." 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 Wadding, w&d'ding, or Wading, (Luke,) an Irish 
 scholar and Catholic priest, born at Waterford in 1588. 
 He studied at the Jesuits' Seminary in Lisbon, and in 
 1618 accompanied Anthony ;'i Trejo on a mission to 
 Rome, where he continued to reside, and founded in 
 1625 the College of Saint Isidore. His principal work 
 is entitled " Annates Ordinis Minorum," etc., (8 vols., 
 1628-54,) being a history of the order of Franciscans. 
 Dieil in 1657. 
 
 Waddihgton, w5d'ding-ton, (George,) an English 
 writer, born about 1793. He published a "History of 
 the Church from the Earliest Ages to the Reformation," 
 (3 vols., 1835,) and a " History of the Reformation on 
 the Continent," (3 vols., 1841.) He became Dean of 
 Durham in 1840. 
 
 Waddingtou - Kastus, va"daN't6N' kts'tiis', 
 (Charles,) a French Protestant philosopher, born 
 about 1819. He published a "Life of Ramus," (1855,) 
 and "Essays on Logic," (1858.) He became a professor 
 at Strasburg in 1856. 
 
 Wade, (Benjamin Franklin,) an American Sena- 
 tor, distinguished as a zealous opponent of slavery, born 
 at Springfield, Massachusetts, October 27, 1800, was a 
 son of poor parents. He removed to Ohio about 1821, 
 was employed as a school-teacher for several years, and 
 studied law. He was admitted to the bar in 1828, since 
 which time he has resided in Ashtabula county, Ohio. 
 In 1837 he was elected a member of the Senate of Ohio, 
 and in 1847 he was chosen presiding judge of the third 
 judicial district of that State. He was elected a Sena- 
 tor of the United States by the Whigs of Ohio in 1851, 
 He advocated the Homestead bill, voted for the repeat 
 of the Fugitive Slave Law, and opposed the Nebraska 
 Kansas bill of 1854. He was re-elected a Senator for 
 six years in 1857, and was appointed chairman of the 
 
 , e, (, 6, 5, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
WADHAM 
 
 2221 
 
 WAGNER 
 
 Committee on territories. In December, i860, he made 
 a speech in which he opposed any new concessions to 
 the slave-power, and declared to the Southern Senators, 
 '• We hold to no doctrine that can possibly work you 
 any inconvenience, any wrong, any disaster." In the 
 session of 1861-62 he was appointed chairman of the 
 joint committee on the conduct of the war. On the 
 question of the reconstruction of the Southern States 
 after the end of the civil war he was a decided radical. 
 He was elected President of the Senate about March, 
 1867, having been selected for that office on account of 
 his resolute character and inflexible fidelity to the cause 
 of liberty. At the Chicago National Convention, May 
 21, 1 868, he received on the first four ballots more votes 
 than any other candidate for the Vice-Presidency, but 
 failed to obtain the nomination. 
 
 Wadham, wSd'am, (Nicholas,) born in Somerset- 
 shire in 1536, was the founder of the college at Oxford 
 called bv his name. Died in 1610. 
 
 Wading, w&d'ing, ? (Peter,) an Irish Jesuit, born at 
 Waterford, was the author of a number of Latin works in 
 prose and verse, and became chancellor of the University 
 of Gratz, in Styria. Died in 1644. 
 
 Wadstrom or Wadstroem, wld'stRom, (Carl 
 Bekns,) a Swedish philanthropist, born at Stockholm 
 in 1746. He visited Africa in 1787, and published, after 
 his return, "Observations on the Slave-Trade, and a 
 Description of Some Part of the Coast of Guinea," etc., 
 (1789, in English.) This work first suggested to the 
 British government the establishment of the colonies of 
 Sierra Leone and Bulema. Died in 1799. 
 
 Wadsworth, wftd/Avorth, (Benjamin,) an American 
 clergyman, born at Milton, Massachusetts, about 1670. 
 He preached in Boston for many years, and became 
 president of Harvard College in 1725. Died in 1737. 
 
 Wadsworth, (James,) a wealthy. American land- 
 holder, born at Durham, Connecticut, in 1768. lie re- 
 moved at an earlv age to Western New York, where he 
 purchased a large tract near the Genesee River. He 
 was instrumental in founding the State Normal School, 
 and was a generous patron of the cause of education. 
 Died in 1844. 
 
 Wadsworth, (James Samuel,) an American general, 
 born at Geneseo, Livingston, county, New York, in Oc- 
 tober, 1807, was a son of the preceding. He was edu- 
 cated at Harvard and Yale Colleges, studied law under 
 Daniel Webster, and was admitted to the bar in 1833. 
 He inherited an immense landed estate situated in 
 Western New York, and, like his father, was a liberal 
 patron of the cause of education. He enlisted as a 
 volunteer early in 1861, was appointed a brigadier-gene- 
 ral in August, and became military governor of the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia in March, 1862. In November, 1862, 
 he was the Republican candidate for Governor of New 
 York, but was not elected. He commanded a division 
 at the battle of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862, and 
 at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. He was killed at the 
 battle of the Wilderness, May 6, 1864. 
 
 "The country's salvation," says H. Greeley, "claimed 
 no nobler sacrifice than that of James S. Wadsworth, 
 of New York. . . . No one surrendered more for his 
 country's sake, or gave his life more joyfully for her 
 deliverance." 
 
 See Grkki.ev, " American Conflict," vol. ii. pp. 568, 569: Tennev, 
 
 Military History of the Rebellion," p. 777. 
 
 Wadsworth, (Peleg,) an American general, born 
 at Duxbury, Massachusetts, in 1748. He served with 
 distinction in the Revolutionary war, and represented a 
 district of Massachusetts in Congress from 1792 to 1806. 
 Died in Oxford county, Maine, in 1829. 
 
 Waechter, (Joiia'nn Geokg.) See Wachter. 
 
 Waechtler. ' See Wachi i.kk. 
 
 Wael or Waal, de, deh wll or vll, (Cornelius,) a 
 Flemish battle-painter, born at Antwerp in 1594, was a 
 son of John de Wael, noticed below. He resided many 
 years at Genoa, where he executed a number of excel- 
 ler.'. pictures, consisting chiefly of sea-fights and other 
 battles. Died in 1662. 
 
 Wael, de, (John,) a Flemish painter, born at Ant- 
 werp in 1558, attained distinction in the departments of 
 portrait and historical painting. Died in 1633 
 
 Wael, de, (Lucas,) born at Antwerp in 1591, was a 
 brother of Cornelius, noticed above, whom he accom- 
 panied to Genoa., He painted landscapes both in oil- 
 colours and fresco, which were highly esteemed. Died 
 in 1676. 
 
 Wa'fer, (Lionel,) an English surgeon, who accom- 
 panied Dampier on one of his voyages, and, having 
 quarrelled with him, was left on the Isthmus of Darien. 
 He published after his return an account of his adven- 
 tures among the Indians, (1690.) 
 
 WafHard, vi'fliR', (Alexis Jacques Marie,) a 
 French dramatist, born at Versailles in 1787. Among 
 his works are "A Moment of Imprudence," (1819,) and 
 a "Voyage to Dieppe," (1821.) Died in 1S24. 
 
 Waga, vi'gl, (Theodore,) a Polish historian, born 
 in Mazovia in 1739. He wrote a " History of Poland," 
 (1770.) Died in i8ot. 
 
 Wagenaar, wa'geh-nir' or wa'Heh-nlr', (Jan,) an 
 eminent Dutch historian, born at Amsterdam in 1709. 
 He was the author of a history of the Netherlands, 
 entitled "De Vaderlandsche Historie vervattende de 
 Geschiedenissen der vereenigde Nederlanden," etc., 
 (21 vols., 1749-59,) and other historical works. Died 
 in 1773. 
 
 See P. HutstNCA Bakkek, " Het Leven van J. Wajenaar," 1776. 
 
 Wagenseil, wa'gen-zll', [Lat. Wagenseil'ius,] (Jo- 
 Hann Christoph,) a German scholar, born at Nurem- 
 berg in 1633. He became professor of history at Altdorf 
 in 1667, and was afterwards appointed tutor to the 
 counts-palatine. He published a number of critical, 
 antiquarian, and controversial treatises, in Latin, among 
 which we may name his " Tela Ignea Satanae," in refu- 
 tation of the Jewish writers against Christianity. Died 
 in 1705. 
 
 See F. Roth-Scholtz, "Vita J. C. Wagenseilii," 1819; Nice- 
 ron, " Memoires." 
 
 Wagenseilius. See Wagenseil. 
 
 Wa'ger, (Sir Charles,) an English admiral, born in 
 1666, served in the war of the Spanish succession. In 
 1708, with four ships, he defeated seventeen Spanish 
 galleons near Carthagena, South America. For this 
 exploit he was made a rear-admiral. He afterwards 
 commanded a fleet in the Mediterranean till the peace 
 of 1 713. He was first lord of the admiralty in the min- 
 istry of Sir Robert Walpole from 1732 to 1742. About 
 1751 he was raised to the rank of admiral. Died in 1743.. 
 
 Wag'horn, (Lieutenant Thomas,) R.N., an English 
 naval officer, born in Kent in 1800. He served in India 
 in the Arracan war, and in 1827 applied to the govern- 
 ment for assistance in carrying out a project he had 
 conceived of opening communication by steam between 
 Great Britain and the East Indies. He expended much 
 time and energy in this useful enterprise, and was at 
 length successful. The result of his labours is the Over- 
 land mail-route through Suez and the Red Sea. Died 
 in 1850. 
 
 Wagner, wic'ner, (Christian,) a German scholar 
 and preacher, born at Leipsic in 1663. He wrote a 
 "Thesis on the Number of Worlds," ("Thesis de Nu- 
 mero Mundorum.") Died in 1693. 
 
 Wagner, (ERNST,) a German novelist and poet, born 
 in 1769, published " Wilibald's Views of Life," (2 vols., 
 1S05,) "The Travelling Painter," (2 vols., 1806,) " Isi- 
 dora," (3 vols., 1812,) and other works. Died in 1812. 
 
 See F. Mosrngkm., " Briefe iiber E. Wagner," etc., 2 vols., 1826. 
 
 Wagner, (Georg Phii.ipp Eherhard,) a German 
 philologist, born at Schbnbrunn, in Saxony, in 1794. 
 published, among other works, a treatise on "The 
 Greek Tragedy and the Theatre at Athens," (1844.) 
 
 Wagner, (Gotti.ob HEINRICH Adolf,) a German 
 writer and translator, born at Leipsic in 1774. He pub- 
 lished "Two Epochs of Modern Poetry," etc., (1806,) 
 and other original works, and translated into German 
 Byron's " Manfred," and Coxe's " History of the I louse 
 of Austria," the latter in conjunction with Dippold. 
 Died in 1835. 
 
 Wagner, wlG'ner, (Joiiann Jakob,) a Swiss natural- 
 ist, born near Zurich in 1641. He wrote (in Latin) a 
 "Natural History of Switzerland," (1680.) Died in 1695. 
 
 Wagner, (Johann Jakob,) a German philosopher, 
 born at Ulm in 1775, became professor of philosophy at 
 
 « as *, c as s; g hard; g as>; u, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; 3 as t; th as in this. (By-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WAGNER 
 
 WAKEFIELD 
 
 WUrzburg. He published, besides other works, "On 
 the Nature of Things," (1803,) a "System of Ideal Phi- 
 losophy," (1804,) "Theodicee," (1809,) and " Organon 
 der menschlichen Erkenntniss," (1830.) Died in 1841. 
 
 See P. L. Adam and A. Koki.le, "J. J. Wagner, Lebensnach- 
 ricbten und Briefe," 1848. 
 
 Wagner, (Ludwig Friedrich,) a German antiquary 
 and jurist, bom at Tubingen in 1700; died in 1789. 
 
 Wagner, (Moritz,) a German traveller, born at 
 Baireuth in 1813, published "Travels in the Kingdom 
 of Algiers," etc., (1841,) "The Caucasus and the 
 Land of the Cossacks," (1848,) "Journey to Persia and 
 Kurdistan," (1852,) and other works. 
 
 Wagner, (Richard,) a distinguished German com- 
 poser, born at Leipsic in 1813. Ele was appointed chapel- 
 master at Dresden in 1843. Among his principal works 
 are the operas of " Rienzi," (1842,) "Tanhauser," (1845,) 
 "Lohengrin," (1851,) and "Rheingold," (1869.) He has 
 written several essays on music and the dramatic art, 
 which have been the subject of much controversy. 
 Among these is one called "Oper und Drama," (1S51.) 
 See F. Hinrichs, " R. Wagner und die neuere Musik," 1854. 
 Wagner, (Rudolf,) a German physician and anato- 
 mist, brother of Moritz, noticed above, was born at 
 Baireuth in 1805. He succeeded Blumenbach as pro- 
 fessor of physiology at Gottingen in 1840. He published, 
 among other works, a treatise "On the Comparative 
 Physiology of the Blood," (1833,) a "Manual of Com- 
 parative Anatomv," (1834,) and " Icones Physiologicae," 
 (1839.) Died in '1864. 
 
 Wagner, (TOBIAS,) a German theologian and writer, 
 born in WUrtemberg in 1598. He was professor of 
 theology at Tubingen. Died in 1680. 
 
 Wagner, von, fon wac/ner, (Johann Martin,) a 
 German sculptor, born at WUrzburg in 1777. 
 
 Wagniere, vaVye-aiR', (Jean Louis,) a Swiss litte- 
 rateur, born in 1739. He became secretary to Voltaire 
 about 1756, and gained his confidence. In conjunction 
 with Longchamp, he wrote "Memoirs on Voltaire and 
 his Works," (2 vols., 1825.) Died after 1787. 
 Wagram, Prince of. See Berthier. 
 Wag'stafl", (William,) F.R.S., an English physician 
 and humorous writer^born in Buckinghamshire in 16S5 ; 
 died in 1725. 
 
 Wagstaffe, wag'st&f, (Thomas,) an English divine, 
 bom in Warwickshire in 1645. He published a " Vin- 
 dication of King Charles I.," etc., and a number of ser- 
 mons. Died in 1712. 
 
 Wahhab or Wahab, (Abdul.) See Abd-el-Wa- 
 hAb. 
 
 Wahl, wil, (Christian Albrecht,) a German 
 theologian, born at Dresden in 1773. He published a 
 " Historical and Practical Introduction to the Biblical 
 Writings," (1820,) and othersimilarworks. Diedin 1855. 
 Wahl, von, fon wil, (Joachim Christian,) Count, 
 a German general, distinguished in the Thirty Years' 
 war, in which he fought for the Catholics or Imperialists. 
 He commanded with success in the Upper Palatinate in 
 1634, after which he took Baireuth, Augsburg, and other 
 places. Died in 1644. 
 
 Wahlberg, wll'beRG, (Peter Frederik.) a Swedish 
 naturalist, born at Gothenburg in 1800. He wrote on 
 botany, and succeeded Berzelius as perpetual secretary 
 of the Swedish Academy of Sciences. 
 
 Wahlbom, wll'bom, (Johann Wilhelm Carl,) a 
 Swedish painter, born at Calmar in 1810; died in 1858. 
 Wahlenberg, wa'len-beRo', (Georg,) a Swedish 
 botanist, born in the province of Wermland in 1780. He 
 visited Lapland and other northern regions of Europe, 
 and subsequently became professor of botany and medi- 
 cine at Upsal. Among his principal works are his 
 " Flora Lapponica," " Flora Carpatorum," and " Flora 
 Suecica." Died in 1851. 
 
 Waiblinger, wl'bling-er, (Wilhelm Friedrich,) a 
 German littlrateur, born at Reutlingen in 1804: died 
 in 1830. 
 
 Waifer, wl'fer, fFr. pron. v&'faiV,] Duke of Aqui- 
 tame, born about 725 a.d., began to reign in 745. His 
 dominions were invaded in 760 by Pepin le Bref, against 
 whom he fought without success. He was assassinated 
 by order of Pepin le Bref in 768 A.D. 
 
 Wailly, de, deh vt'ye', (Armand Francois Leon,) 
 a French littirateur and critic, born in Paris in 1804, was 
 a grandson of Charles, noticed below. He wrote a 
 novel, entitled "Stella and Vanessa," (1846,) and trans- 
 lated the works of Sir Walter Scott and other English 
 authors. Died in 1863. 
 
 Wailly, de, (Charles,) a distinguished French ar- 
 chitect, born in Paris in 1729. He gained the grand 
 prize of Rome in 1752, was admitted into the Academy 
 of Painting as a designer in 1771, and was the chief 
 founder of the Society of " Amis des Arts." Died in 
 1798. 
 
 See Lavall^h, " Notice sur Charles de Wailly," 1799. 
 
 Wailly, de, (Etienne Augustin,) a French littira- 
 teur, born in Paris in 1770, was a son of Noel Francois, 
 noticed below. He hezaxne proviseur of the Lycee Napo- 
 leon. Died in 1821. 
 
 His son, Alfred Barthelemi, born in Paris in 1800, 
 published a Latin-French Dictionary, (1829,) and a 
 French-Latin Dictionary, (1832.) 
 
 Wailly, de, (Joseph Noel,) a French scholar, a 
 brother of Armand Francois Leon, was born at Mezieres 
 in 1805. He published, besides other works, "Elements 
 of Palaeography," (2 vols., 1838.) 
 
 Wailly, de, (Noel Francois,) a French scholar and 
 writer, the father of Etienne Augustin, noticed above, 
 was born at Amiens in 1724. He was the author of a 
 work entitled " General and Particular Principles of the 
 French Language," " Abridgment of the Dictionary of 
 the Academy," "Principles of the Latin Language," 
 " Dictionary of Rhymes," and " Select Histories from 
 the New Testament." Diedin 1801. 
 
 Wainwright, wan'rit, (Jonathan Mayhew,) D.D., 
 born at Liverpool, England, in 1792, emigrated to 
 America, and graduated in 1812 at Harvard College. 
 He became rector of Trinity Church, Boston, in 1834, 
 assistant minister of Trinity Church, New York, in 1837, 
 and in 1852 provisional Bishop of the diocese of New 
 York. Died in 1854. 
 
 Waith'man, an English magistrate, born near Wrex- 
 ham in 1765, was elected lord mayor of London, and 
 several times represented that city in Parliament. Died 
 in 1833. 
 
 Waitz, wits, (Georg,) a. German writer, born in 1813, 
 published several historical works, among which is a 
 " History of the German Constitution," (2 vols., 1843-47.) 
 
 Waitz, (TheoDOR,) a German philosophical writer, 
 born at Gotha in 1821. He published a "Manual of 
 Psychology as a Natural Science," (1849,) and other 
 works. 
 
 Wake, (Sir Isaac,) an English writer and diplo- 
 matist, born in Northamptonshire in 1575, wrote a work 
 entitled " Rex Platonicus." Died in 1632. 
 
 Wake, (William,) an English prelate and theolo- 
 gian, born in Dorsetshire in 1657. He was successively 
 created Dean of Exeter, Bishop of Lincoln, and Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury, (1716.) He was the author of an 
 " Exposition of the Doctrine of the Church of England," 
 "An English Version of the Genuine Epistles of the 
 Apostolic Fathers," and a number of sermons and con- 
 troversial works. Died in 1737. 
 Wakedi, Al, (Mohammed.) See Wakidee. 
 Wakefield, wak'feld, (Edward Gibbon,) an Eng- 
 lish writer on colonization and political economy, pub- 
 lished, among other works, "England and America: a 
 Comparison of the Social and Political State of Both 
 Nations," (1833,) and "View of the Art of Colonization." 
 He became in 1837 the founder of the New Zealand 
 Association. Died in 1862. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for .March, 1849. 
 Wakefield, (Gilbert,) an English scholar and theo- 
 logian, born at Nottingham in 1 756. He studied at 
 Jesus College, Cambridge, and took the degree of B. A. 
 in 1776. He became master of the Dissenting Academy 
 at Warrington in 1779, and published soon after "A 
 Plain and Short Account of the Nature of Baptism," ana 
 a "New Translation of the Gospel of Saint Matthew," 
 (1782.) These works were followed by "Remarks on 
 the Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion," (1789,) 
 and "Philological Commentary on the Sacred and Profane 
 Authors," (" Silva Critica, sive in Auctores sacros pro- 
 
 i, e. 1, 5, a, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon ; 
 
WAKEFIELD 
 
 2223 
 
 WALDEMAR 
 
 fanosque Commentarins Pliilologus,") a fifth part of 
 which appeared in 1795. He published in 1791 his 
 "Translation of the New Testament, with Notes," and 
 "An Inquiry into the Expediency and Propriety of 
 Public or Social Worship." The latter caused consid- 
 erable sensation, and elicited several replies. His " Re- 
 ply to Some Parts of the Bishop of Llandaff s Address" 
 caused him to be imprisoned two years, during which 
 time he wrote his critical essays entitled "Noctes Car- 
 cerarite," ("Prison Nights.") He died in 1801, leaving 
 among his numerous works an edition of Lucretius, 
 which is still esteemed. 
 
 Sec his " Autobiographic Memoirs of the First Thirty-Six Years 
 of the Lire of G. Wakefield," 1792; " Monthly Review" tor October, 
 1805. 
 
 Wakefield, (Mrs. Priscilla,) an English educational 
 writer, born in 1750. She was the author of an " Intro- 
 duction to Botany," (1796,) "Reflections on the Present 
 Condition of the Female Sex, with Hints for its Im- 
 provement," (1798,) "Juvenile Traveller," (1801,) " Do- 
 mestic Recreation," (1805,) "The Traveller in Africa," 
 and various other works. Died in 1832. 
 
 Wakefield, (ROBERT,) an English linguist and priest, 
 was professor of Hebrew at Oxford. He wrote a para- 
 phrase of Ecclesiastes, and other works. Died in 1537. 
 
 Wakidee or Wakidi, wa'ki-dee', written also Wa- 
 qidy, an Arabian writer, born at Medina in 748 A.D. ; 
 died at Bagdad in 823. He made a collection of the 
 traditions concerning Mohammed and those of his fol- 
 lowers who fought at Bedr, called "Tabakat-Kebeer," (or 
 "-Kebir,") the "great series" or "order of events." It 
 consists of biographies arranged in chronological order. 
 His life of the prophet has been pronounced by compe- 
 tent critics to be the best by far that has been written. 
 
 See Sprenghr, "Lite of Mohammad," p. 70 et seq. 
 
 Wakidi. See Wakidke. 
 
 Wak'ley, (Thomas,) M.P., an English surgeon, born 
 in 1795, was the founder and editor of the "Lancet." 
 He represented Finsbury in Parliament from 1835 to 
 1852. Died In 1862. 
 
 Walseus, wl-la'as, or Wale, wa'leh, (Antoon,) a 
 Dutch Protestant minister, born at Ghent in 1573. He 
 was a prominent member of the Synod of Dort, and 
 became professor of theology at Leyden. Died in 1639. 
 
 Walaeus, (Jan,) a physician, a son of the preceding, 
 was born about 1604. He is said to have made some 
 discoveries on the circulation of the blood. Died at 
 Levclen in 1649. 
 
 Walafridua, w61-a-free'dus or waTafree'dus, or 
 Walafried, <\a'la-fReet', written also Walhafredus, 
 a learned German monk, sumamed Stra'bus, or 
 " Squint-eyed," was the author of a theological essay, 
 entitled " De Officiis Divinis," etc., " Hortulus," a treat- 
 ise on botany, (in Latin verse,) and other works. Died 
 in 849. 
 
 Walbaum, wll'bowm, (Johann Julius,) a German 
 physician and writer, born at Wolfeiibitttel in 1724; 
 died in 1799. 
 
 Walch, walK, [Lat. Wal'chtos,] (Christian Wil- 
 H1.1 M Franz,) second son of Johann Georg, noticed 
 below, was born at Jena in 1726. He was the author of 
 several valuable works on ecclesiastical history, theology, 
 and ancient literature ; among the most important of 
 these are his " History of the Jewish Patriarchs men- 
 tioned in Books of Roman Law," "Compendium of the 
 most Modern Ecclesiastical History," (both in Latin,) 
 and a " History of Heresies, Schisms, and Religious 
 Controversies down to the Reformation," (in German, 
 u vols., 1762.) Died in 1784. 
 
 See C. G. Hzvnb, " Elogium C. G. F. Walchii," 1784. 
 
 Walch, (JoHANN Ernst Immanuel,) son of Johann 
 Georg, noticed below, was born at Jena in 1725. He be- 
 came professor of theology in his native city, and pub- 
 lished a number of critical and theological works, also 
 several valuable treatises on mineralogy. Died in 1778. 
 
 See Hennings, " Leben de§ Professors J. E. I. Walch," 1780. 
 
 Walch, [Lat. Wal'chius,! (Johann Gkorg,) a Ger- 
 man scholar and theologian, bom at Meiningen in 1693, 
 became successively professor of philosophy, eloquence, 
 and theology at Jena. He published a " Philosophical 
 Lexicon," (1726,) "Introduction to the Theological Sci- 
 
 ences," (t747,) " Theologia Patristica," (1770,) and other 
 works. Died in 1775. 
 
 His son Karl Friedrich became professor of law at 
 Jena, and was the author of several legal treatises. 
 
 See " Leben und Charakter des J. G. Walch," Jena, 1777. 
 
 Walcher, walK'er, (Joseph,) an Austrian Jesuit, 
 noted for his skill in hydraulics and mechanics, was 
 born at Linz in 17 18. He was professor of mechanics 
 in a college of Vienna, and wrote several works. Died 
 in 1803. 
 
 Walchius. See Walch. 
 
 Walckenaer, vaTkeh-naR', (Charles Athanase — 
 f'tS'nSz',) Baron, an eminent French writer and savant, 
 born in Paris in 1 771. He was admitted into the Insti- 
 tute in 1813, and appointed perpetual secretary of the 
 Academy of Inscriptions in 1840. Among his principal 
 works are his " Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de 
 J. de La Fontaine," (1820,) " Histoire generale des Vo- 
 yages," (21 vols., 1826-31, unfinished,) " Natural History 
 of Insects," (3 vols., 1836-44,) " Ancient Geography, 
 Historical and Comparative, of the Gauls," (3 vols., 
 1839,) which is highly esteemed, " History of the Life 
 and Poems of Horace," (2 vols., 1840,) and " Memoires 
 touchant la Vie et les ficrits de Madame de Sevigne," 
 (5 vols., 1842-52.) He contributed many able articles 
 to the " Biographie Universelle." In his youth he had 
 inherited an ample fortune. He was appointed prefect 
 of Nievre in 1826, and held other high offices. Died 
 in 1852. 
 
 See Qi'RRard, " La France Litteraire ;" Naudet, " Notice his- 
 torique sur Walckenaer," 1852: Sainte-Beuvk, " Causeries du 
 Luudi ;" " Nouvelle Biographie G£ne>ale." 
 
 Walckendorf, walk'en-doRf, (Christoph,) a Dan- 
 ish statesman, born at Copenhagen about 1525. He 
 rendered important services as minister of finance in 
 the reign of Frederick II., (1558-88.) Died in 1601. 
 
 Waldarfer, wal'daR'fer, sometimes written Valdar- 
 fer or Baldorfer, (Christoph,) a German printer, who 
 established a press in Venice about 1470, and at Milan in 
 1474. His edition of Boccaccio was greatly admired for 
 its correctness and elegance. 
 
 Waldau, (Max.) See Hauenschild, von. 
 
 Waldburg, walt'bdoRG, (Friedrich Ludwig,) a 
 Prussian general and diplomatist, born at Tangermunde 
 in 1776; died in 1844. 
 
 Waldeck, wil'dek, (Christian August,) Prince 
 OF, a German general, born in 1 744. He entered the 
 service of Austria, and fought against the French in 
 1792. He distinguished himself by directing the army 
 in its passage of the Rhine, and afterwards had a high 
 command in Flanders. Died in 1798. 
 
 Waldeck, (Georg Friedrich,) Prince of, a Ger- 
 man general, bom in 1620. He entered the Austrian 
 army, and contributed to the victory over the Turks at 
 Vienna in 1683. He was defeated by the French at 
 Fleurus in 1690. Died in 1692. 
 
 Waldegrave, wold'grav, (James,) second Earl, an 
 English statesman, born in 1715. He filled several im- 
 portant offices under George II. He was the author 
 of "Memoirs from 1754 to 1758," (published in 1821.) 
 Died in 1763. 
 
 Waldemar (wol'de-mar) or Val'de-mar I., the 
 Great, King of Denmark, born in 1 131, ascended the 
 throne in 1157. He subjugated the southern part of 
 Norway, and the territory of the Wends in Northern 
 Germany. He died in 1 181, and was succeeded by hit 
 son, Canute VI. 
 
 Waldemar (or Valdemar) H., second son of Wrl- 
 demar I., was sumamed Seier, (the "Victorious.") On 
 the death of his brother, Canute VI., he became king, in 
 1203. He conquered Livonia, Cotirland, Esthonia, and 
 other provinces, and was distinguished for his ability as 
 a ruler. He died in 1241, and was succeeded by his son, 
 Eric VI. 
 
 Waldemar (or Valdemar) III. or IV., called At- 
 terdag, was the last king of the first Danish dynasty, 
 and ascended the throne in 1340. He sold Livonia, and 
 other conquests of Waldemar II., to the grand master 
 of the Teutonic order in Prussia. He died in 1373 cr 
 1375, anjl was succeeded by his daughter Margaret as 
 regent during the minority of her son Olaus. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Biographie Ginrfrale." 
 
 « as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; s as $; *h as in thit. (Jjy-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WALDEMAR 
 
 2224 
 
 WALKER 
 
 Waldemar, <val'deh-maR', (Friedrich Wilhelm,) 
 a German prince, nephew of Frederick William III., 
 King of Prussia, was born in 1817; died in 1849. 
 
 Wal-den'sis or Wol-den'sis, ( Thomas,) an English 
 Carmelite monk, originally named Netter, was born at 
 Wolden, in Essex, about 1365. He was patronized by 
 Henry V., whom he accompanied to France. Died in 1430. 
 
 Waldhauser, walt'how'zer, (Conrad,) a German 
 reformer and Augustinian monk, who began to preach 
 in Vienna about 1345. He exposed the vices and im- 
 postures of the monks, and acquired much influence as 
 a preacher. Died about 136S. 
 
 See Hodgson, " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867. 
 
 Waldis, wal'dls, (Burckhard,) a German fabulist, 
 born at Allendorf about 1500. He was a chaplain of 
 Margaret, wife of the Landgrave of Hesse. He imitated 
 jEsop with success. Died in 1554. 
 
 Waldkirch, de, deh walt'kegRK, (Jean Rodoi.ph,) 
 a Swiss jurist, born at Hale in 1678. He wrote, besides 
 several legal works, a " History of Switzerland," (2 vols., 
 1721.) Died in 1757. 
 
 His daughter Esther Elizabeth, though blind, was 
 well versed in mathematics. 
 
 Waldniann, walt'man, (JoHANN,) a Swiss magistrate, 
 born in the canton of Zug about 1426. He was one of 
 the chiefs of the Swiss army that fought at Morat, and 
 he gained a victory at Nancy for the Duke of Lorraine. 
 In 1483 he became burgomaster of Zurich, where he made 
 several reforms. The peasants and populace having 
 revolted against him, he was put to death about 1490. 
 
 See J. H. Fuessm, "Vie de Waldmann," 1780; Coremans, 
 "Waldniann, le Vainqueur du TdmeVaire," 1843. 
 
 Waldo. See V Al.no. 
 
 Waldo, wol'do, (Daniel,) an American Congrega- 
 tional divine, born at Windham, Connecticut, in 1762. 
 He graduated at Yale College, and subsequently became 
 pastor at Exeter, Connecticut. At the age of ninety-six 
 he was appointed chaplain to Congress, serving in that 
 capacity two years. Died in 1864. 
 
 Waldor, vil'doR', (Melanie Villenave,) Madame, 
 a French authoress, born at Nantes about 1796, was a 
 sister of Theodore Villenave. She published numerous 
 novels, among which are "The Chateau de Ramsberg," 
 (1844,) and "Charles Mandel," (1846.) 
 
 Waldrada. See Waldrade. 
 
 Waldrade, vaM'dRid', [Lat. Waldra'da,] an am- 
 bitious Frenchwoman, who became about 860 a.d. the 
 concubine of Lothaire II. She was excommunicated by 
 the pope. 
 
 See Ernouf, " Histoire de Waldrade," 185S. 
 
 Waldschmidt, walt'shmit, (Johann Jakob,) a Ger- 
 man medical writer, born in 1644. He died at Marburg 
 in 1689. 
 
 Waldseemuller, <valt'zi-muTler, [Lat. Hylacomi'- 
 lus,] (Martin,) a German compiler, born at Friburg 
 about 1470. He published an " Introduction to Cos- 
 mography, with the Four Voyages of Americus Vespu- 
 cius," (1507,) in which he advocated the application of 
 the name America to the New World. Died after 1522. 
 
 Waldsteinius or Waldstein. See Wallenstein. 
 
 Wale. See Walrus. 
 
 Wale, (Samuel,) an English painter and designer, 
 lived in London, and made designs for the booksellers. 
 Died in 1786. 
 
 Waleed or Walld. See Al Waleed. 
 
 Waleed or Walld II., born in 703 A.D., was a son 
 (if Yezeed (Yezid) II., and became caliph in 743. He 
 was very licentious. He was assassinated in 744. 
 
 See Wkil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. xv. 
 
 Walef or Waleff, de, deh vflef, (Blaise Henri 
 de Corte — deh koRt,) Baron, a Belgian poet, born at 
 Liege in 1652. He served as an officer in the armies of 
 France, England, and Spain. He wrote several French 
 poems. Died in 1734. 
 
 See M. L. Polain, " Notice sur le Baron de Walef," 1848. 
 
 Wales, Prince of. See Albert Edward. 
 
 WaleS, (William,) an English astronomer and 
 mathematician, born about 1734. He was sent in 1768 
 to Hudson Bay, to observe the transit of Venus, and 
 subsequently accompanied Captain Cook on his second 
 
 and third voyages. He was chosen a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society in 1776, and was afterwards made secre- 
 tary to the Board of Longitude. He published "General 
 Observations made at Hudson's Bay," etc., (1772,) "The 
 Method of Finding the Longitude by Time-Keepers," 
 (1794,) " Observations on a Voyage with Captain Cook," 
 and other works. Died in 1798. 
 
 Walewski, wa-leVskee, [Fr. pron. vi'leVske',] 
 (Florian Alexandre Joseph Coi.unna,) Count, an 
 able statesman and writer, a natural son of Napoleon 
 I. and the Countess Walewska, a Polish lady, was born 
 in Walewice in 1810. Under Louis Napoleon he was 
 sent as minister-plenipotentiary to Florence (1849) and 
 Naples, and was ambassador to London about 1852. In 
 1855 he succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as minister of 
 foreign affairs. He was removed in January, i860, be- 
 came minister of state at that date, and president of the 
 corps l^gislatif in August, 1865. Died in 1868. 
 
 Walferdin, vtl'feVdaN', (Henri,) a French natural 
 philosopher, born at Langres in 1795. lie was as- 
 sociated with Arago in some scientific labours. He 
 invented a hydro-barometer and several kinds of ther- 
 mometers. 
 
 Walld. See Waleed and Al Waleed. 
 
 Walker, waw'ker, (Adam,) an English writer and 
 mechanician, born in Westmoreland in 1 731, was the 
 author of a " System of Familiar Philosophy, in Lec- 
 tures," "Treatise on Geography," and other works. He 
 was also the inventor of several ingenious instruments. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 Walker, (Sir Baldwin Wake,) an English naval 
 officer, born in 1803. He was surveyor-general of the 
 navy from 1847 to i860. 
 
 Walker, (Clement,) an English Presbyterian and 
 political writer, born in Dorsetshire. He represented 
 the city of Wells in Parliament in 1640, and wrote " The 
 History of Independence," (1648,) afterwards enlarged 
 and published under the title of "The High Court o f 
 Justice, or Cromwell's New Slaughter-House," (1651.) 
 For this offence he was imprisoned in the Tower, where 
 he died in 1651. 
 
 Walker, (Sir Edward,) an English writer, and Garter 
 king-at-arms, bom in Somersetshire. He was appointed 
 by Charles I. his secretary at war, and clerk-extraor- 
 dinary of the privy council. He wrote " Historical 
 Discourses," (1705,) "Military Discoveries," and " Iter 
 Carolinum," an account of the marches, etc. of Charles 
 I. from 1641 to the time of his death. Died in 1677. 
 
 Walker, (Rev. George,) a Protestant divine, of 
 English extraction, was born in the county of Tyrone, 
 Ireland. He is celebrated for his brave defence of Lon- 
 donderry against the forces of James II., (1689.) He 
 was killed at the battle of the Boyne, in 1690, having 
 been previously created Bishop of Derry by William 
 III. He published "A True Account of the Siege of 
 Londonderry." 
 
 Walker, (George,) an English mathematician and 
 dissenting minister, born at Newcastle about 1 734. He 
 lived at Durham, Nottingham, and Manchester, and wrote 
 several able works on geometry, etc. Died in 1807. 
 
 Walker, (James,) an English civil engineer, born 
 about 1780. He obtained a high reputation as an en- 
 gineer of docks, harbours, etc. He was president of the 
 Institution of Civil Engineers. Died about 1862. 
 
 Walker, waw'ker, (James,) D.D., a distinguished 
 Unitarian divine and scholar, born at Burlington, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1794. He became editor of the "Chris- 
 tian Examiner" in 1831, and in 1839 Alford professor of 
 moral and intellectual philosophy at Harvard. He was 
 elected president of Harvard in 1853, a position which he 
 filled with eminent ability for seven years. He resigned 
 in i860, on account of his feeble health. He has delivered 
 a course of "Lowell Lectures on the Philosophy of 
 Religion;" also "Lectures on Natural Religion." Dr. 
 Walker is a clear and profound thinker and a finished 
 writer. 
 
 See Ai.i.ibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Walker, (James Barr,) an American Presbyterian 
 divine, born in Philadelphia in 1805. Having previously 
 edited several religious journals in the West, he became 
 pastor of a church at Sandusky, Ohio. He published 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
WALKER 
 
 2225 
 
 WALLACE 
 
 " Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation," (1855,) which 
 has had a wide popularity and been translated into 
 several languages, and other religious works. 
 
 Walker, (John,) an English clergyman, born in 
 Devonshire, became rector of a parish at Exeter. lie 
 published in 1714 an "Account of the Numbers and 
 Sufferings of the Clergy who were Sequestered in the 
 Grand Rebellion." Died about 1 730. 
 
 Walker, (John,) an English lexicographer and elo- 
 cutionist, born in Middlesex in 1732. He published 
 "A Rhyming Dictionary," "Elements of Elocution," 
 (1781,) "Rhetorical Grammar," (1785,) and "Critical 
 Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English 
 Language," (1791,) which was received with great favour 
 and has passed through more than thirty editions. Died 
 in 1807. 
 
 See Au.IBONK, " Dictionary of Authors ;" " Monthly Review" 
 for August and September, 1781. 
 
 Walker, ([oiin,) an English physician and writer, 
 bvn in Cumberland in 1759. He was the author of a 
 " Universal Gazetteer," "Elements of Geography," and 
 several medical treatises. Died in 1830. 
 
 Walker, (Joseph Cooper,) an Irish writer, born in 
 Dublin about 1766. He wrote, besides other works, 
 " Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards," (1786.) Died 
 in 1810. 
 
 Walker, (Leroy Pope,) of Alabama, was secretary 
 of war in the provisional government formed by the 
 secessionists in February, 1861. In a speech at Mont- 
 gomery, April 12, he predicted that the Confederate 
 flag would float over Washington City before the 1st of 
 May. He resigned in September, 1861. 
 
 Walker, (Obadiah,) an English writer, born in York- 
 shire about 1616. He studied at University College, 
 Oxford, of which he was elected master in 1676. Having 
 openly professed Catholicism, he was deprived of his 
 office, and imprisoned for a time after the revolution of 
 1688. He wrote "A Brief Account of Ancient Church 
 Government," (1662,) "The Greek and Roman History 
 Illustrated by Coins and Medals," (1692,) and other 
 works. Died in 1692. 
 
 Walker, (Rohert, ) an English portrait-painter. 
 Among his principal works are several portraits of 
 Cromwell, one of Admiral Blake, and one of General 
 Monk. Died about 1660. 
 
 Walker, (Rohert J.,) a distinguished American 
 writer on political economy, born at Northumberland, 
 Pennsylvania, in 1801, graduated in the University of 
 Pennsylvania in 1819. He studied law, and removed in 
 1826 to Natchez, Mississippi, where he practised with 
 success. He was elected a Senator of the United States 
 by the legislature of Mississippi in 1835 or 1836, and 
 acted with the Democratic party. He was a zealous 
 and efficient supporter of the project for the annexation 
 of Texas to the United States. In March, 1845, he was 
 appointed secretary of the treasury by President Polk. 
 He produced a report iif favour of free trade which 
 attracted much attention. He retired to private life in 
 March, 1849, and was appointed'by President Buchanan 
 Governor of Kansas about April, 1857. He resigned 
 that office in February, 1858, on account of dissatisfaction 
 with the course or policy of the national government. 
 Died in November, 1869. 
 
 Walker, (Samuel,) an English clergyman, born at 
 Exeter in 1714, became curate of Truro, and published 
 several volumes of sermons. Died in 1761. 
 
 Walker, (Sears Cook,) an American astronomer, 
 born at Wilmington, Middlesex county, Massachusetts, 
 m 1805, graduated at Harvard College about 1824. 
 Soon after that date he removed to Philadelphia, where 
 he taught school. He contributed many observations 
 to the " American Journal of Science" and the "Trans- 
 actions of the American Philosophical Society." He 
 was attached to the Washington Observatory in 1845, 
 and discovered in 1847 the identity of the planet Nep- 
 tune with a star observed by I.alande in 1795. He ren- 
 dered a service to science by his computations of the 
 orbit of Neptune. Died in Cincinnati in 1853. 
 
 Walker, (Thomas,) an English lawyer and humor- 
 ous writer, born in 1784. He published a periodical 
 called "The Original." Died in 1836. 
 
 Walker, (Thomas,) an English actor, born in Lon- 
 don in 1698; died in 1743. 
 
 ■Walker, (William,) an English divine, born in Lin- 
 colnshire in 1623. He published, among other works, a 
 "Treatise on English Particles," and " Idiomatologia 
 Anglo-Latina." Died in 1684. 
 
 Walker, (William,) an American filibuster, born at 
 Nashville, Tennessee, in 1824. He emigrated to Cali- 
 fornia about 1850, and became editor of a paper. In 
 1855 he conducted a party of about sixty adventurers 
 to Nicaragua, which he entered ostensibly as an ally of 
 one of the factions then engaged in civil war. He cap- 
 tured the city of Granada, assumed the title of President 
 of Nicaragua, and re-established slavery, which had been 
 abolished. He was driven from power in May, 1857, and 
 escaped to New Orleans. In June, i860, he led an ex- 
 pedition against Honduras. He was captured and shot 
 at Truxillo in September, i860. 
 
 Walker, (William H. T.,) of Georgia, an American 
 general, whograduated at West Point in 1837. He com- 
 manded a division of the army of General Lee in the 
 early part of 1863, served at Chickamauga in September 
 of that year, and was killed near Atlanta in July, 1864. 
 
 Wall, (John,) M.D., an English physician, born in 
 Worcestershire in 1708, was the first who drew public 
 attention to the virtues of the Malvern waters. Died 
 in 1776. 
 
 Wall, (Martin,) son of the preceding, born in 1744, 
 acquired a high reputation as a physician, and in 1785 
 became clinical professor at Oxford. Died in 1824. 
 
 Wall, (William,) an English divine, born in 1646, 
 published a "History of Infant Baptism," and "Critical 
 Notes on the Old Testament." Died in 1728. 
 
 ■Wallace, w8l'lis, (Horace Kinney,) an American 
 lawyer and writer of rare talents, a nephew of Horace 
 Binney, was born at Philadelphia, February 26, 1817. 
 He graduated at Princeton College, and subsequently 
 visited Europe. He committed suicide in Paris, (1852,) 
 — as is supposed, in a fit of temporary insanity. He 
 wrote "Literary Criticisms, and other Papers," "Art 
 and Scenery in Europe," (1855,) and edited several legal 
 works conjointly with Judge Hare. While in Paris he 
 became acquainted with Auguste Comte, who said of 
 him, " I do not exaggerate his merits in ranking him as 
 the equal of the greatest American statesmen." 
 
 See Ai.i.ibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Wallace, wol'lis, (Sir John Alexander Dunlop 
 Agnew,) an English general, born in 1775. He served 
 in the Penins liar war, (1808-14.) Died in 1857. 
 
 Wallace, (Lewis,) an American general, a son ol 
 David Wallace, formerly Governor of Indiana, was bon 
 in Fountain county, Indiana, about 1828. He was 
 a lawyer before the civil war. He commanded a di- 
 vision at the battle of Fort Donelson, February, 1862, 
 and distinguished himself at the battle of Shiloh, April 
 6 and 7. He was appointed a major-general about 
 March, 1862. 
 
 Wallace, wol'lis, (Sir William,) a celebrated Scot- 
 tish hero and patriot, supposed to have been born about 
 1270. He was a son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Ellerslie, 
 in Renfrewshire. While attending school at Dundee, he 
 killed the son of the English governor of Dundee Castle 
 in revenge for an insult received, and was compelled to 
 take refuge among the mountains. Having gathered 
 around him a band of devoted followers, he carried on 
 for several years a successful partisan warfare against 
 the English forces. After the capture of the garrisons 
 of Aberdeen, Forfar, and other towns, he was engaged 
 in the siege of Dundee, when news came of the advance 
 of a large English army towards Stirling. He immedi- 
 ately marched to meet the enemy, gained a signal victory 
 over them at Stirling Bridge, (1297,) and, entering Eng- 
 land, ravaged the northern part of the country. He was 
 soon after defeated with great loss near Falkirk by the 
 English, led by Edward I. in person, (1298.) The office 
 of gnardian of the kingdom, which he had held for a 
 short time, was now taken from him, and, after several 
 years spent in border warfare, he was betrayed into the 
 hands of the English, condemned as a traitor, and exe- 
 cuted, (1305.) His achievements have been a favourite 
 theme with Scottish poets and writers of romance, and 
 
 « as i; c as s; g hard; g as_/'; G, H, m,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 140 
 
WALLACE 
 
 2226 
 
 WALLER 
 
 have been especially celebrated by Harry the Minstrel, 
 _ sometimes called Blind Harry. 
 
 See Burton, " History of Scotland," vol. ii. chaps, xx., xxi., and 
 xxii. ; J. S. Watson, "The Story of William Wallace," 1862; 
 Scott, "Tales of a Grandfather ;" Hume, " History of England:" 
 J. D. Carkick, "Life of Sir William Wallace," 2 vols., 1S30; 
 Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Wallace, (William,) LL.D., a Scottish mathemati- 
 cian, born in Fifeshire in 1768. He was appointed in 
 1803 one of the teachers of mathematics in the Royal 
 Military College, Buckinghamshire, and in 1819 became 
 professor of that science at Edinburgh. Among his 
 principal works we may name his "New Series for the 
 Quadrature of the Conic Sections and the Computation 
 of Logarithms," (1808,) "Account of the Invention of 
 the Pantograph, and Description of the Eidograph," 
 (1831,) and the article on "Porism,"in the "Encyclo- 
 paedia Britannica." He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh, and a member of other learned 
 institutions. Died in 1843. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Wallace, (William H. L.,) an American general, 
 bom at Urbana, Ohio, in 1821. He practised law in 
 Illinois before the civil war. He commanded a brigade 
 at the capture of Fort Dbnelson, February, 1862, and a 
 division at the battle of Shiloh, where he was mortally 
 wounded, April 6 of that year. " This day's work, 
 says Horace Greeley, "had won for him the admiration 
 of all beholders." ("American Conflict," vol. ii.) 
 
 Wallace, (William Ross,) an American poet, born 
 at Lexington, Kentucky, about 1819. Among his works 
 may be named " Alban the Pirate," (184S,) and "Medita- 
 tions in America, and other Poems," (1851.) 
 
 Wallace, (William Vincknt,) a musician and com- 
 poser, born at Waterford, in Ireland, about 181 5. He 
 composed several successful operas, among which are 
 "Maritana" and "Lurline." Died in 1865. 
 
 Wallack, w8l'lak. (James William,) an English 
 actor, born in London in 1795, acquired a high reputa- 
 tion in his art. both in England and America. Having 
 settled in New York City in 185 1, he founded the theatre 
 on Broadway called by his name. Died in 1864. 
 
 His son, John Lester, is also an actor, and has 
 published several comedies. 
 
 Wallenbourg. See Wai.lenburg. 
 
 Wallenburch, van, vtn wal'len-biiRk', (Adriaan 
 and Pieter,) Roman Catholic theologians, born at 
 Rotterdam, were brothers. They lived at Cologne, and 
 wrote several works against the Protestants. Adriaan 
 died in 1669, and Pieter in 1675. 
 
 Walleuburg, von, fon wai'len-boORc/, written also' 
 Wallenbourg, (Jacob,) an Austrian Orientalist, born 
 in Vienna in 1763. He passed twenty years in Turkey. 
 He translated the Persian poem "Mesnevi" into French. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Wallenstein, wSl'len-stln', [Ger. pron. wal'len-stin',] 
 or Waldstein, walt'stin, [Lat. Wai.i.enstei'nius or 
 Waldstei'nius; It. Valstain, val'stin,] (Alhrecht 
 Wenzel Euseuius,) Count of, and Duke of Meck- 
 lenburg, Friedland, and Sagau, a celebrated German 
 general, born at the castle of Hermanic, in Bohemia, 
 in September, 1583, was a son of Wilhelm, Baron von 
 Waldstein. After the death of his parents, who were 
 Protestants, he was sent to the Jesuit College at Olmiitz, 
 and was converted into a Roman Catholic. He also 
 studied se\*ral sciences and languages at Padua and 
 Bologna. About 1606 he fought against the Turks at 
 the siege of Gran. He married a rich widow in 1610, 
 and at her death, in 16 14, inherited a large estate. 
 Having raised a troop of horse in 1617, he fought with 
 distinction for the Austrian archduke P'erdinand against 
 the Venetians. In 16 19, at the beginning of the Thirty 
 Years' war, he joined the Imperial or Roman Catholic 
 army, and was appointed quartermaster-general. He 
 defeated Bethlen Gabor, in Hungary, in 1621, and was 
 created Duke of Friedland and a prince of the Holy 
 Empire in 1624. In 1625 he raised, at his own expense, 
 a large army, which he resolved to support by pillage 
 and exactions from the enemy. His high reputation 
 attracted mercenaries from various parts of Europe. He 
 defeated Count Mansfeld in 1626, and invaded Denmark, 
 
 in which he encountered no effectual resistance. To re- 
 ward him for his services, the emperor gave Wallenstein 
 the duchy of Mecklenburg in 1628, and added the title 
 of admiral. His pride, rapacity, and cruelty rendered 
 him so odious that Ferdinand dismissed him from com- 
 mand in 1630, at the same time that Gustavus Aclolphus 
 entered Germany to fight for the Protestant cause. The 
 victories of Gustavus, and the death of General Tilly, 
 reduced Ferdinand to such a critical situation that he 
 implored the aid of Wallenstein as the only man who 
 was able to save the empire. He consented to serve 
 him again, on condition that he should have exclusive 
 control of the army, and should govern or reign over 
 the countries which he might conquer. He displayed 
 great skill in defence of the lines near Nuremberg, which 
 were attacked by the Swedes in September, 1632. In 
 November of that year he was defeated by Gustavus 
 Adolphus at the great battle of Lutzen. He afterwards 
 gained victories in Silesia, but refused to march to the 
 relief of Bavaria, which was overrun by the Swedes. 
 According to some authorities, he aspired to be sovereign 
 of Bohemia. The Duke of Bavaria, and other enemies 
 of Wallenstein, persuaded the emperor to distrust his 
 loyalty. In January, 1634, he was deprived of his com- 
 mand, and secret orders were given to Gallasand Picco- 
 lomini to arrest or assassinate him. He attempted to 
 secure himself by negotiations with the Swedes, but his 
 overtures were rejected, and he retired to the castle of 
 Eger or Egra, where he was assassinated in February, 
 1634. The story of Wallenstein forms the subject of 
 Schiller's greatest though not his most popular tragedy. 
 See Schiller, "History of the Thiny Years' War;" Mukr, 
 "Die Ermoiduni- Heizogsvon Friedland," 1K06; Heller, " Leben 
 des Grafen von Wallenstein," 1S14; F. F5RSTER, "Wallenstein, 
 Herzog zu Mecklenb.trg," etc., 1S34; J. Mitchkll, "Life of Wal- 
 lenstein," 1837 ; Mki!oi.i>, " Gustav Adolf und Wallenstein," 2 vols., 
 1835-40; Hki.big, "Wallenstein nnd Arniin," 1850; Gualuo-Pki- 
 Oratp, " Istoria della Vita d'A. Valstain," 1643; Carl Maria von 
 Aretin. "Wallenstein," 1S46; Sir Edward Cost, "The Thirty 
 Years' War," 2 vols., 1S65 ; Mai.mstroem, " De Wallenstcinio Com- 
 mentarins," 1815; "Nouvelle Biographie Generate ;" "Blackwood's 
 Magazine" for January, 1838. 
 
 Wallensteinius. See Wallenstein. 
 
 Waller, wol'ler, (Edmund,) an eminent English poet, 
 born at Coleshill, in Hertfordshire, in 1605, was a cousin- 
 german of the celebrated John Hampden. He studied 
 at King's College, Cambridge, and represented Amers- 
 ham in the Long Parliament in 1640, having been pre- 
 viously several times elected for that borough. He was 
 for a time a moderate partisan of the popular cause ; but 
 he subsequently went over to the royalists. He was 
 arrested in 1643 on a charge by the Parliament of having 
 formed a " popish plot for the subversion of the Prot- 
 estant religion," etc. Several of his accomplices were 
 punished with fines and imprisonment, and two were exe- 
 cuted, while Waller, the leader of the conspiracy, saved 
 his life by a most abject and pusillanimous speech. He 
 was released, after a year's confinement, on condition of 
 his leaving the country, and, (after a residence of about 
 ten years in France, was permitted to return to England 
 in 1653. He died in 1687. Waller was twice married, 
 and had by his second wife five sons and eight daughters. 
 Among his earliest productions are the verses addressed 
 to the Lady Dorothea Sidney, under the name of Saccha- 
 rissa. His other principal poems are a " Panegyric on 
 Cromwell," "On a War with Spain," "On the Death 
 of the Lord Protector," and an ode to Charles H., en- 
 titled "To the King upon his Majesty's Most Happy 
 Return." It is said that when Charles remarked to 
 Waller the greater poetical merit of his panegyric on 
 Cromwell, he replied, " Poets, sire, succeed better in fic- 
 tion than in truth." After the restoration he was several 
 times returned to Parliament, where, according to Bur- 
 net, " he was the delight of the House, and, though old, 
 said the liveliest things of any among them." Johnson 
 observes, "The general character of his poetry is ele- 
 gance and gaiety. He is never pathetic, and very rarely 
 sublime ; but it cannot be denied that he added some- 
 thing to our elegance of diction and something to our 
 propriety of thought." 
 
 See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets," vol. i. ; Woon, 
 "Athena; Oxonienses ;" Hai.lam, "Introduction to the Literature 
 of Europe ;" Campbell, " Specimens of the British Poets;" Alli- 
 bone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 a, e, T, 6, ii, y. frWf," 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, ii, y, short; a, ?, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; nfit; good; moon; 
 
WALLER 
 
 2227 
 
 WALPOLE 
 
 Waller, wol'l?r, (John Lightfoot,) IX. D., an 
 American Baptist divine and journalist, horn in Wood- 
 ford county, Kentucky, in 1809. He became editor in 
 1845 of the " Western Baptist Review," and published 
 several controversial works. Died at Louisville in 1854. 
 
 Waller, (Sir William,) an English statesman and 
 general of the Parliamentary army, born in Kent in 
 1597, was a distant relative of the poet, Edmund Wal- 
 ler. Having served for a time in the Protestant army 
 in Germany, he was elected to the Long Parliament 
 for Andover in 1640, and was soon after appointed 
 second in command of the forces under the Earl of 
 Essex. He was removed from the service by the self- 
 denying ordinance of 1645, and in 1647 he was one of 
 the eleven members of the House of Commons im- 
 peached by the army. He afterwards resumed' his seat 
 in Parliament, and was appointed one of the council of 
 state in 1660. He died in 166.S, leaving a "Vindication 
 of Sir William Waller," etc., and " Divine Meditations 
 upon Several Occasions," (1680.) 
 
 See Clarendon, "History of the Great Rebellion;" Hume, 
 " History of England." ' 
 
 Wal-le'rI-us, [Swedish pron. val-MT're-us,] (Johann 
 GoTTSCHALK,) a Swedish savant, was the author of 
 several valuable works on chemistry and mineralogy. 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 Wallerius, (Nicholas,) a Swedish philosopher, born 
 at Nerika in 1706. He became professor of theology at 
 Upsal, and wrote, besides other works, " Rational Psy- 
 chology," (" Psychologia Rationalis.") Died in 1764. 
 
 Wallia. See Vallia, King of the Visigoths. 
 
 Wallich, vSl'liK, (Nathaniel,) a Danish botanist, 
 born at Copenhagen in 1787. Having entered the ser- 
 vice of the East India Company, he was appointed in 
 181 5 superintendent of the botanic garden at Calcutta. 
 He visited Nepaul and other parts of India, and made a 
 large and valuable collection of plants, lie published 
 " A Description of the Tree which produces the Ripal 
 Camphor- Wood," etc., (1823,) " Tentamen Florae Nepa- 
 lensis," (1824,) " Plantae Asiaticae Rariores," (3 vols, fob, 
 1829, with 300 plates,) and other works. Died in 1854. 
 
 Wallin, val-leen', (George,) a Swedish prelate, born 
 in Xordland in 1686. He published several works, and 
 was appointed Bishop of Gothenburg. Died in 1760. 
 
 Wallin, (Johan Olof,) an eminent Swedish prelate 
 and pulpit orator, born in Dalecarlia in 1779. He 
 studied at Upsal, and became in 1810 a member of 
 the Swedish Academy. lie was afterwards appointed 
 theological tutor to Prince Oscar, and rose through 
 various preferments to be Archbishop of Upsal in 1833. 
 His hymns are ranked among the finest productions 
 of the kind in the language, and have been adopted 
 into the authorized Swedish Hymn-Book. He also pub- 
 lished a number of sermons of great excellence. Died 
 in 1839. 
 
 See E. G. Geijer, "Minnes-Tal Sfver Dr. J. O. Wallin," 1840; 
 J. H. Schroeder, "J. O. Wallin, Svea Rikes Erkebiskop," 1846; 
 J. E. Rvdquist, "J. O. Wallin; MinnesteckninR," 1830; Hovv- 
 itt, "Literature and Romance of Northern Europe," vol. ii. 
 
 Wallingford, wftl'ling-fprd, (Richard,) an English 
 mechanic and astronomer of the fourteenth century, 
 made a clock which is supposed to have been the first 
 that was regulated by a fly-wheel. 
 
 Wallis, wdl'lis, (John,) an eminent English mathe- 
 matician and theologian, born at Ashford, Kent, on the 
 23d of November, 1616. He entered Emanuel College, 
 Cambridge, in 1632, took the degree of M.A. in 1640, 
 and was ordained a priest the same year. He favoured 
 the party of the Parliament in the civil war, and ren- 
 dered valuable services by deciphering intercepted 
 despatches written in cipher. In 1644 he was one of 
 the secretaries of the Assembly of Divines at Westmin- 
 ster. He was one of the first members of the Royal 
 Society, and became Savilian professor of geometry at 
 Oxford in 1649. In 1655 he published an important 
 work, entitled "Arithmetic of Infinites," (" Arithmetica 
 Infinitorum,") preceded by a treatise on conic sections. 
 He treated of the fundamental points of arithmetic, 
 algebra, and geometry in his "Universal Science or 
 Learning," (" Mathesis Universalis," 1657.) He made 
 important discoveries in mathematical theories, and 
 
 distinguished himself by his sagacity and talent for gen- 
 eralization. Having promoted the restoration of Charles 
 II., he retained his professorship. Besides the above- 
 named works, he wrote several books on theologv, and 
 a treatise on logic, which had a high reputation! Ho 
 edited Ptolemy's " Harmonics," (1680,) and Aristarchus 
 of Samos. Died in October, 1703. 
 
 See Thomson, " History of the Royal Society;" Niceron, " Me"- 
 moires; : ' " Nouvelle liiographie Generale. " 
 
 Wallis, (Samuel,) an English navigator, who, as 
 commander of the Dolphin, made a voyage in the Pacific 
 and discovered Easter Island in 1767, and Tahiti, to 
 which he gave the name of King George's Island. The 
 latter is supposed to have been previously discovered by 
 Quiros. Died in 1795. 
 
 Wallis, von, fon wal'liss, (Georg Oliver,) Count, 
 an Austrian general, born in 1671. He obtained the 
 rank of field-marshal and the chief command of an army 
 in Hungary. He was defeated by the Turks in 1739. 
 Died in 1743. 
 
 Wallis, von, (Joseph,) Count, an Austrian financier, 
 born in 1768. He was minister of finance from 1810 
 to 1816. Died in 1818. 
 
 Walliser, wal'le-zer, (Christoph Thomas,) a Ger- 
 man composer and writer upon music, born at Stias- 
 burg in the latter part of the sixteenth century. Died 
 in 164S. 
 
 Wallius, wSl'le-iis, or Van de Walle, vtn deh wil'- 
 leh, (Jacob,) a Flemish Jesuit and Latin poet, born at 
 Courtrai in 1599. He wrote numerous poems, printed 
 in 1656. Died about 1680. 
 
 Wallon, vfloN', (Henri Alexandre,) a French 
 historian, born at Valenciennes in 1812. He published 
 a " History of Slavery in Antiquity," (3 vols., 1848,) and 
 succeeded Quatremere de Quincy as a member of the 
 Institute in 1850. 
 
 Wallot, wal'lot or vi'lo', (Jean Guii.laume,) a Ger- 
 man astronomer, born at Pauers, in the Palatinate, in 
 1743. He became professor of astronomy at Paris. He 
 was executed by the Jacobins in July, 1794. 
 
 Wallraf, wal'raf, (Ferdinand Franz,) a German 
 physician and naturalist, born at Cologne in 1748. He 
 made a large and valuable collection of objects in natu- 
 ral history and art, which he presented to his native city. 
 Died in 1824. 
 
 Walmesley, wSmz'le, (Charles,) an English mathe- 
 matician and Benedictine monk, born in 1721, became 
 apostolical vicar of the western district in England. He 
 was the author of an "Analysis of the Measures of Pro- 
 portions and of Angles," etc., and other works, in French 
 and Latin. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 Died in 1797. 
 
 Wain, wawl, (Nicholas,) an American lawyer, born 
 about 1740, practised with distinction in Philadelphia; 
 He afterwards became a minister of the Society of 
 Friends. He was noted for his wit and humour. 
 Died in 1813. 
 
 Wain, (Robert,) Jr., an American poet, born in 
 Philadelphia in 1794. He wrote " The Hermit in Phila- 
 delphia," a satire, (1819,) "The American Bards," and 
 other poems, also a " Life of La Fayette," (1824.) Died 
 in 1825. 
 
 Walpole, w&l'pol, (Horace,) fourth Earl of ( bford, 
 a famous literary gossip, amateur, and wit, born in Lonr 
 don in October, 1 717, was the youngest son of Sir Robert 
 Walpole and Catherine Shorter. He was educated at 
 Eton and King's College, Cambridge. In 1739 he began 
 a tour on the continent, in company with his friend 
 Thomas Gray the poet, from whom, in consequence of 
 a disagreement, he parted in 1741. He returned home, 
 and entered the House of Commons in the same year. 
 In March, 1742, he made a speech in defence of his 
 father, which was commended by William Pitt. He 
 continued to sit in the House of Commons for many 
 years, but seldom spoke there. He called himself a 
 Whig, but cared little for any political principle. 
 
 In 1747 he purchased the villa of Strawberry Hill, at 
 Twickenham, on the improvement and decoration of 
 which he expended much time and money. He collected 
 there many prints, pictures, books, curiosities, and 
 objects of virtu. He published in 1758 a "Catalogue 
 
 t as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as *; th as in this. (Jl^-See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WALPOLE 
 
 2228 
 
 WALSH 
 
 of Royal and Noble Authors," and commenced in 1 761 
 his "Anecdotes of Painting in England," the last volume 
 of which appeared in 1771. The materials for this work 
 were furnis'ied by Vertue the engraver. In 1764 he 
 produced 1 novel entitled "The Castle of Otranto," 
 which was very successful. Among his other works are 
 "The Mysa-rious Mother," a tragedy, (1768,) " Historic 
 Doubts on the Life and Reign of Richard til.," (1768,) 
 " Reminiscences of the Courts of George I. and George 
 II.," "Memoirs of the Reign of George III. from 1771 
 to 1783," and his "Letters," (9 vols., 1857-59,) Which 
 are greatly admired. He affected a great dislike to 
 be consideied a literary man. Macaulay expresses the 
 opinion that "he was the most eccentric, the most arti- 
 ficial, the mcst fastidious, the most capricious of men. 
 . . . Serious business was a trifle to him, and trifles 
 were his serous business. . . . What, then," asks the 
 same critic, "is the irresistible charm of Walpole's 
 writings? It consists, we think, ill the art of amusing 
 without exciting. . . . His style is one of those peculiar 
 styles by which everybody is attracted, and which nobody 
 can safely venture to imitate." (Review of Walpole's 
 "Letters to Sir Horace Mann," in Macaulay's Essay 
 published in the "Edinburgh Review" in 1833.) His 
 Letters are considered his best productions. In 1791 
 he succeeded his nephew George as Earl of Orford, 
 but he never took his seat in the House of Lords, and 
 seldom used his title. Died in March, 1797. 
 
 See " Walpjliana," by J. Pinkkrton, 1792; Losd Dover, 
 "Sketch of the Life of Horace Walpole," prefixed to-" Letters to 
 Horace Mann,'' 18,13; Eliot Wakhurton, "Memoirs of Horace 
 Walpole and his Contemporaries." 2 vols.. 1S51 ; " London Quar- 
 terly Review" loi April, 1823; "Monthly Review" for September, 
 October, and No\ ember, 179S; " Eraser's Magazine" for July, 1843, 
 article " Walpo'e and his Friends." 
 
 Walpole, (Horatio,) Lord, an English diplomatist 
 and writer, bun in 1678, was a brother of Sir Robert, 
 the premier. He was ambassador at Paris from 1723 to 
 1727, became treasurer of the king's household in 1730, 
 and ministei plenipotentiary to Holland about 1733. 
 His talents and character are praised by the historian 
 Coxe. He wrote political treatises. Died in 1757. 
 
 Walpole, (Sir ROBERT,) Earl of Orford, a celebrated 
 English statesman, born at Houghton on the 26th of 
 August, 1676. was a son of Robert Walpole, Esq., M.P. 
 He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cam- 
 bridge. In 1700 he married Catherine Shorter, and 
 entered Parliament as member for Castle Rising and a 
 supporter of the Whig party. 1-1$ became an able 
 debater, a skilful parliamentary tactician, and an 
 excellent man of business. In 1708 he was appointed 
 secretary at Ml, and the management of the House of 
 Commons was committed to him by his party. He 
 resigned with Ihe other Whig ministers in 1710, and 
 declined the place which Harley offered him in the new 
 cabinet. The Tory majority expelled him from the 
 House in 1712, ind imprisoned him in the Tower on a 
 charge of corruption. He was released at the end of 
 the session. 
 
 On the accession of George I., (1714,) Walpole ac- 
 quired great influence at court, and was appointed pay- 
 master-general of the forces. He took a prominent part 
 in the impeachment of the Earl of Oxford and Lord 
 Bolingbroke. tn October, 1715, he became first lord of 
 the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. His 
 brother-in-law, I ord Townshend, was the chief minister 
 of this administration. Townshend having been re- 
 moved by the inlrigues of Lord Sutherland, Sir Robert 
 resigned in April, 1717, although the king urged him to 
 remain in office. He opposed the South Sea act, and 
 was preserved bj his good sense from the general in- 
 fatuation during the inflation of the South Sea Bubble. 
 "When the crish came, — when ten thousand families 
 were reduced h> beggary in a day, — . . . Walpole was 
 the man on whom all parties turned their eyes." (Mac- 
 auiuy.) He became first lord of the treasury (prime 
 minister) in April, 1721, and restored the public credit. 
 Supported by 4 large majority of Parliament, he en- 
 countered at first no serious opposition, until he created 
 an opposition by proscribing the eminent men of his 
 own party and indulging his propensity to engross the 
 power. Pultency, who had strong claims to a place in 
 
 the cabinet, was neglected and turned into a formidable 
 adversary. The highly-gifted Loid Carteret, who was 
 secretary of state, was removed in 1724, and a few years- 
 later a violent quarrel occurred between Walpole and 
 Lord Townshend, who had long been personal friends. 
 
 At the death of George I., (1727,) Queen Caroline 
 exerted her influence in favour of Sir Robert, who was 
 reappointed prime minister and gained the confidence 
 of George II. According to Macaulay, Walpole first 
 gave to the English government that character of lenity 
 which it has since generally preserved. The same 
 author remarks, that "though he was at the head of 
 affairs during more than twenty years, not one great 
 measure, not one important change for the better or the 
 worse in any part of our institutions, marks the period 
 of his supremacy. . . . The praise to which he is fairly 
 entitled is this, that he understood the true interest 
 of his country better than any of his contemporaries, 
 and that he pursued that interest whenever it was not 
 incompatible with the interests of his own intense and 
 grasping ambition." (Review of " Walpole's Letteis to 
 Sir Horace Mann.") 
 
 Among the errors of his administration was the war 
 against Spain, (1739,) into which he was driven by the 
 popular clamour, while his own judgment condemned it 
 as impolitic and unjust. When he heard the bells ring- 
 ing on account of the declaration of war, he muttered, 
 "Before long they will be wringing their hands." It is 
 admitted that he practised corruption or bribery on a 
 large scale, for which some writers apologize by the plea 
 that it was impossible to govern without corruption. In 
 the latter part of his official career he was attacked by 
 a powerful combination of Tories, disaffected Whigs 
 called patriots, and wits, including Pulteney, Carteret, 
 Chesterfield, Swift, Pope, and Pitt. The Prince of 
 Wales also, having become estranged from the king, 
 put himself at the head of the opposition. After a long 
 and spirited contest, he resigned office, and passed into 
 the House of Lords, with the title of Earl of Orford, 
 in February, 1742. He died in March, 1745, leaving 
 three sons. 
 
 "Without being a genius of the first class," says 
 Burke, "he was an intelligent, prudent, and safe minis- 
 ter. . . . The prudence, steadiness, and vigilance of 
 that man, joined to the greatest possible lenity in his 
 character and his politics, preserved the crown to this 
 royal family, and with it their laws and liberties to this 
 country." (" Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs.") 
 
 See W. Mpsorave, " Brief and True History of Sir R. Walpole 
 and his Kami v," 1738; " Histoire du Ministere du Chevalier Wal- 
 pole," Amsterdam, 1755; " Walpoliana," London, 1783; Coxk, 
 "Memoirs of the Life and Administration of Sir R. Walpole," 3 
 vols., 179S; Lord Mahon. (St anhoim!.) "History of England;" 
 Macaui.av. Essay on the " Earl of Chatham," reprinted from the 
 " Edinburgh Review" for 1834 : " Historical Sketches of tile Reign 
 of George II.," in " Blackwood's Magazine" for April, 1868. 
 
 Walpole, (Spencer Horatio,) an English conser- 
 vative statesman, born in 1806. He was elected to 
 Parliament for Midhurst in 1846, and in March, 1852, 
 became secretary of state for the home department. 
 He resigned about December, 1852. In 1856 he repre- 
 sented the University of Cambridge in Parliament. He 
 was secretary for the home department about a year, 
 (1858-59,) and obtained the same office in July, 1866. 
 lie resigned in May, 1867. 
 
 Walsh, w&lsh, (Benjamin D.,) an eminent entomol- 
 ogist, born in Great Britain in 1808, removed to America 
 when very young. He enjoyed a national reputation 
 among scientific men for excellence in his special study. 
 Died at Rock Island, Illinois, in 1869. 
 
 Walsh, wolsh, (Edward,) M.D., an Irish physician, 
 born at Waterford, served as army surgeon in Holland 
 and America. He published a " Narrative of the Expe- 
 dition to Holland." Died in 1832. 
 
 Walsh, vilsh, (Joseph Alexis,) Vicomte, a French 
 litterateur, born in Anjou in 1782, was a legitimist in 
 politics. He wrote several novels, a book entitled 
 "Memorable Days of the French Revolution," (5 vols., 
 1840,) and other works. 
 
 Walsh, (Peter,) a Roman Catholic priest, born in the 
 county of Kildare, Ireland, in 1610. He wrote against 
 the temporal power of the pope, (1674.) Died in 16S8. 
 
 a, e, T, 5, u, y, lon^; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e. 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
WALSH 
 
 2229 
 
 WALTHER 
 
 Walsh, wSlsh, (ROBERT,) an American author, bom 
 in Baltimore in 1784, was the son of an Irishman. He 
 studied law, travelled in Europe, returned home about 
 1808, and became a resident of Philadelphia. He 
 wrote (December, 1809) a "Letter on the Genius and 
 Disposition of the French Government," etc., which 
 was highly commended by the " Edinburgh Review." 
 " Perhaps nothing from the American press," says R. 
 W. Gr'swold, "had ever produced a greater sensation." 
 In January, 181 1, he began to publish "The American 
 Review of History and Politics," which was the first 
 American quarterly, and was discontinued about the 
 end of 1812 for want of patronage. In 1813 he produced 
 an "Essay on the Future State of Europe." He edited 
 the "American Register" for a short time, (1817-18,) 
 and published in 1819 an "Appeal from the Judgments 
 of Great Britain respecting the United States," etc. He 
 founded, in 1821, the "National Gazette," an able and 
 influential daily paper of Philadelphia, which he edited 
 for fifteen years. He published " Didactics, Social, 
 Literary, and Political," (2 vols., 1836.) In 1S45 he was 
 appointed American consul at Paris, where he passed 
 the subsequent part of his life. Died in Paris in 1858. 
 
 See R. VV. Gkiswoi.I). "Prose Writers of America," p. 197: 
 "Edinburgh Review" for May, 1820; "North American Review" 
 for April, 1820. 
 
 Walsh, (William,) an English poet, born in Wor- 
 cestershire in 1663, is chiefly celebrated as the friend of 
 Dryden and the patron of Pope. He was several times 
 elected to Parliament for his native county. His poems 
 are principally amatory. He also published a prose 
 essay entitled " Eugenia, a Defence of Women," for 
 which Dryden wrote a preface. Died in 1709. 
 
 See Johnson, " Lives of the English Poets." vol. i. 
 
 Walsiugham or Walsyngham, woi'sing-am, (Sir 
 FRANCIS,) an English statesman and diplomatist, born 
 in Kent in 1536. He studied at King's College, Cam- 
 bridge, and at an early age acquired the favour and 
 patronage of Queen Elizabeth, who appointed him her 
 representative at the French court in 1570. After his 
 return, in 1573, he became a member of the privy. coun- 
 cil, and one of the secretaries of state. He was after- 
 wards sent on important missions to the Netherlands, 
 Fiance, and Scotland. He had a prominent part in the 
 detection of Babington's conspiracy, and was one of the 
 commissioners in the trial of Mary, Queen of Scots. 
 As minister of foreign affairs, he rendered the greatest 
 services to England and the Protestant cause by his 
 vigilance and skilful diplomacy ; he is said to have over- 
 reached the Jesuits in their own' game of equivocation 
 and mental reservation, and to have maintained fifty- 
 three agents and eighteen spies in foreign courts. In 
 private life he was highly esteemed for his integrity. He 
 died in 1590, leaving one daughter, who was successively 
 married to Sir Philip Sidney, the Earl of Essex, and the 
 Earl of Clanricarde. An account of Walsingham's 
 French embassy appeared in Sir Dudley Digges's 
 " Complete Ambassador," (1655.) 
 
 See Humb, " History of England ;" Fronde, " History of Eng- 
 land :" " Biographia Bntaunica;" Lodge, ''Portraits of Illustrious 
 Personages." 
 
 Walsiugham, [Lat. Wai.singha'.vius,] (Thomas,) 
 an English historian and Benedictine monk, a native of 
 Norfolk, lived about 1430. He was the author of a 
 " History of England from the Time of Edward I. to 
 Henry V.," (in Latin.) 
 
 Walsyngham. See Wai.singham. 
 
 Walter, Wal'ter, (FERDINAND,) a German jurist, born 
 at Wetzlar in 1794, published a "Manual of Ecclesi- 
 astical Law," (1822,) which has been translated into 
 several languages, also other legal works. 
 
 Walter, (Kkikdrich August,) son of Johann Gott- 
 lieb, noticed below, was born in 1764. He was appointed 
 first medical councillor at Berlin. Died in 1826. 
 
 ■Walter, (HUBERT,) an English prelate, was a nephew 
 of Kanulph de Glanville. As Bishop of Salisbury, he 
 accompanied the crusaders to the Holy Land. He was 
 made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1 193, and afterwa'rds 
 became justiciary of England. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, '• Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. ii. ch. xi. 
 
 Walter, (Johann Gottlieb,) a celebrated German 
 physician and anatomist, born at Konigsbcrg about 
 1735. He finished his studies at Berlin under Meckel, 
 whom in 1774 he succeeded as first professor ol anatomy 
 and midwifery. His valuable anatomical museum was 
 purchased by the King of Prussia for ioo,r»' dollars. 
 Among his works may be named "A Treatise on the 
 Bones of the Human Body" and a "Manual of Myology." 
 Died in 1818. 
 
 Wal'ter, (John,) an English journalist, an. 1 founder 
 of the London "Times," was born in 1739. The first 
 number of "The Times" appeared in 1788. He was 
 the inventor of logography, or the art of printing with 
 entire words or syllables. He died in 1812. (lis son, 
 of the same name, born in London in 1784, became in 
 1803 exclusive manager of " The Times," which, under 
 his direction, soon became the most able and influential 
 journal of Europe. In i8i4"The Times" was printed 
 for the first time by Konig's steam-power machines. 
 (See Konig.) Mr. Walter was elected to Parliament 
 for Berkshire in 1832, and in 1841 was returned for the 
 borough of Nottingham. Died in 1847. His son John, 
 born in 1818, succeeded to the proprietorship of "The 
 Times," and represented Nottingham in Pa'liament 
 from 1847 to '859. 
 
 See " Eraser's Magazine" for February, 1848. 
 
 Wal'ter, (Thomas U.,) LI..D., an eminent American 
 architect, born in Philadelphia, September 4, iS'4. He 
 received a good, though not a collegiate, education. He 
 studied architecture under Mr. William Strickland, and 
 afterwards mathematics under David McClur ■, (then 
 distinguished as a teacher of that science.) He applied 
 himself assiduously to study for many years In fore he 
 commenced the practice of his profession. He designed 
 in 1S31, and superintended the erection of, the Philadel- 
 phia County Prison. His designs for the Giraid College 
 for Orphans were adopted by the City Councils in 1833, 
 and that magnificent building, perhaps the finest speci- 
 men of classic architecture on the American continent, 
 was constructed throughout from his designs and under 
 his immediate supervision. This work occupied him 
 fourteen years. In 185 1 his plans for the extension of 
 the Capitol at Washington were adopted, and he was 
 appointed architect of the work by President Fillmore, 
 a position which he held for fourteen years. In addition 
 to the works of the Capitol extension, he planned and 
 executed the new iron dome of the Capitol, the east 
 and west wings of the Patent Office, and the extension 
 of the General Post-Otfice. He also designed the new 
 Treasury Building, and the Government Hospilal for 
 the Insane. In 1853 he received the title of doctor 
 of philosophy from the University of Lewisbuig, and 
 in 1857 that of doctor of laws from Harvard University. 
 He held for many years a professorship of archiiecture 
 in the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia. Ho is a 
 member of the American Philosophical Society, and 
 of many other literary and scientific institutions, and 
 was one of the founders of the American Institute of 
 Architects. 
 
 Walther, wal'ter, (August Frikdrich,) a German 
 anatomist, bom at Wittenberg in 1688, was a son of 
 Michael, noticed below, (1638-92.) He became pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Leipsic in 1723, and wrole many 
 treatises on anatomy. Died in 1746. 
 
 ■Walther, [tat, Gualte'rus or Wai.the'rus. | (Bal- 
 thasar,) a German scholar and Protestant theolo- 
 gian, was born in Thuringia before 1600. He became 
 professor of Greek and Hebrew at Jena. He wrote 
 several learned works in Latin and German. Died in 
 1640. 
 
 Walther, (Bernard,) a German astronomer, b >rn in 
 1430, was a pupil of Regiomontanus. He is s tid to 
 have first discovered the effect of atmospheric i enac- 
 tion. Died in 1504. 
 
 Walther, (Christian,) a German Protestant divine. 
 He was one of the editors of the Wittenberg edition of 
 Luther's works, and published a number of conliover- 
 sial treatises. Died about 1572. 
 
 Walther, (Christian,) a German divine, botn near 
 Konigsberg in 1655. He became professor of theology 
 at that city in 1703, and was afterwards appointed lector 
 
 : as *; c as s; g hard; g asj; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; S as «; th as in this. (JJ^~See Explanations, | •. 23.) 
 
WALT HER 
 
 2230 
 
 WAN -LEE 
 
 of tlie university. He wrote several theological and an- 
 tiquarian treatises. Died in 1 7 1 7. 
 
 Walther, (Chkistoph Theodosius,) a German dU 
 vine, born in Brandenburg in 1699. He was one of the 
 missionaries sent by the Danish government in 1705 to 
 the coast of Coromandel and the other Danish posses- 
 sions in India. He founded the missionary establishment 
 of Majubaram, and published "An Abridgment of Ec- 
 clesiastical History," and other works, in the Tamul 
 language. He died at Dresden in 1741. 
 
 Walther, (Gkorg Chkistoph,) a German jurist, born 
 at Rothenburg in 1601, became president of the chancery 
 of justice in his native town. He published several legal 
 works in Latin. Died in 1656. 
 
 Walther, (Heinrich Andreas,) a German Prot- 
 estant divine, born at Konigsberg, in Hesse, in 1696, 
 wrote several religious and theological works, in Latin 
 and German. Died fn 1748. 
 
 Walther, (Johann Gottfried,) a German writer, 
 born about 1684, published a "Musical Dictionary, His- 
 torical and Biographical." Died in 1748. 
 
 ■Walther, (Johann Ludolph,) a German, who lived 
 about 1740, and published "Lexicon Diplomaticum," 
 (1745,) in which he explained the modes of writing and 
 the abbreviations used in the middle ages. 
 
 ■Walther, (Michael,) a German divine and theo- 
 logical writer, born at Nuremberg in 1593. He became 
 professor of divinity at Helmstedt in 1622, and in 1642 
 was appointed general superintendent of the Lutheran 
 Church in the duchy of Brunswick-Luneberg. He wrote 
 a "Treatise on Manna," ("Tractatus de Manna," 1633.) 
 a learned treatise, entitled "Officina Biblica," (1636,) 
 " Exercitationes Biblicae," (1638,) and other works, in 
 Latin; also "The Golden Key of the Ancients," etc., 
 in German. Died in 1662. 
 
 Walther, (Michael,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in 1638. He was professor at Wittenberg, and 
 published several valuable works on theology and 
 mathematics. Died in 1692. 
 
 Walther, [Lat. Guai.te'rus,] (Rudolph,) a Swiss 
 Protestant divine, born at Zurich in 1 5 19, was a friend 
 of Melanchthon, Zuinglius, and other eminent Reformers 
 of the time. He published an " Apology for Zuinglius," 
 Homilies on the twelve minor prophets and on the New 
 Testament, and other prose works, in Latin ; also sev- 
 eral Latin poems. Died in 1586. 
 
 Walther, von, fon <val'ter, (Philipp Franz,) an 
 eminent German surgeon and oculist, born at Buxweiler, 
 in Bavaria, in 1781, became professor of surgery at Bonn 
 in 1819. He published several medical and surgical 
 works, among which are " Human Physiology," (" Phy- 
 siologie des Mensehen," 2 vols., 1807-08,) and a "Sys- 
 tem of Surgery," (4 vols., 1833-40.) Died in 1849. 
 
 See J. N. von Ringseis, " Rede zum Andenken an den Dr. von 
 Walther." 1851. 
 
 Walther von der Vogelweide, <val'ter fon dSR 
 for/el -wi'deh, (" Walter of the Bird-Meadow,") the most 
 celebrated of the German minnesingers, is supposed to 
 have been born in Franconia about 11 70. He was of a 
 noble family, and was patronized by the duke Frederick 
 of Vienna and his brother Leopold VII. His works are 
 amatory and patriotic songs, and display genius of a high 
 order. Two editions of them have been published by 
 Lachmann, and an account of Walther's life and poetry, 
 by Uhland, appeared in 1822. Died about 1230. 
 See Longfbi.low, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 Wal'ton, (Brian,) a learned English divine, born 
 in Yorkshire in 1600. He studied at Cambridge, and 
 was appointed about 1638 chaplain to the king, and 
 prebendary of Saint Paul's. When the party of the 
 Parliament came into power, he was deprived of his 
 office, and retired to Oxford, where he began to collect 
 the materials for his Polyglot Bible. This great work 
 was completed in 1657 (in 6 vols, fol.) Walton died in 
 1661, having a short time previously been created Bishop 
 of Chester. 
 
 See Todd, " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of the Right Rev. 
 Brian Walton, D.D.," etc. 
 
 Wal'ton, (Gkokoe,) an American patriot and signer 
 of the Declaration of Independence, born in Frederick 
 county, Virginia, about 1740. He was elected to Con- 
 
 gress from Georgia in 1776. being four times re-elected, 
 and was twice chosen Governor of Georgia. He became 
 chief justice of that State in 1783. Died in 1804. 
 
 Walton, (Izaak,) a celebrated English writer, born 
 at Stafford in 1593. His first publication was an elegy 
 on his friend Dr. Donne, which was followed by a Life 
 of Sir Henry Wotton, prefixed to a collection of his let- 
 ters, etc., and entitled "Reliquiae Wottonianae," (1651.) 
 In early life he was a hosier or linen-draper in London. 
 His principal work, "The Complete Angler, or Con- 
 templative Man's Recreation," came out in 1653. It 
 was received with great favour, and has passed through 
 numerous editions. Among his other productions are 
 good biographies of Richard Hooker, George Herbert, 
 (1670,) and Bishop Sanderson, (1678.) Walton was 
 twice married, his first wife being Rachael Floud, a 
 descendant of Archbishop Cranmer, and the second a 
 half-sister of Bishop Ken. He died in 1683, leaving one 
 son and one daughter. Hazlitt expressed the opinion 
 that his "Complete Angler" is perhaps the best pastoral 
 in the English language. 
 
 See Sir J. Hawkins, "Life of Izaak Walton," 1760; T. Zouch, 
 "Life of I. Walton," 1823; "Life of Izaak Walton," by Sir N. 
 Harris Nicolas, 1836. 
 
 Walworth, wol'worth, (Rf.up.en Hyde,) LL.D., an 
 eminent American jurist, born at Bozrah, in Connecticut, 
 in 1789. He removed at an early age to Hoosick, New 
 York, where he studied law, and was appointed in 181 1 
 one of the county judges. He served in the war of 
 1812, and was present in 1814 at the siege of Platts- 
 burg, as adjutant-general of the United States forces. In 
 1821 he was elected to Congress, and in 182S appointed 
 chancellor, being the last who held that office in this 
 country. He was a prominent member of the religious 
 and benevolent associations of the day, and was presi- 
 dent for a time of the American Temperance Union. 
 Died in 1867. 
 
 See Livingston, " Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Walworth, wftl'wgrth, (Sir William,) was lord 
 mayor of London when an army of insurgents under 
 Wat Tyler marched to that city in 1381. He killed 
 Tyler while he was speaking to the king. Died about 
 1385. 
 
 Waman or Wamana. See Vamana. 
 
 Wamba, wSm'ha or wam'ba, King of the Visigoths 
 of Spain, began to reign in 672 A.D. Died in 683. 
 
 Wamese, wa'ma-zeh, or Wamesius, wa-ma'ze-us, 
 (John,) a Flemish jurist, born near Liege in 1524; died 
 in 1590. 
 
 Wandelaincourt,,voNd'laN'kooR', (Antoine Hu- 
 bert,) a French ecclesiastic and writer, born in the 
 diocese of Verdun in 1 73 1. He was a member of the 
 Convention of 1792, and voted against the death of the 
 king. Died in 1819. 
 
 Wand'el-bert or Wand'al-bert, a learned monk 
 and poet, bom about 813 A.D., lived at Prum, in Flan- 
 ders. He wrote a Martyrology, in verse. Died after 870. 
 
 Wandesforde, w6n'des-ford or wSnz'ford, (CHRIS- 
 TOPHER,) Viscount Castlecomer, an English statesman, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1592. He entered Parliament, 
 and was one of the chief managers in the impeachment 
 of Buckingham. He succeeded Strafford as lord deputy 
 of Ireland in 1640. Died in December of that year. 
 
 Wangenheim, <vang'en - him', (Karl August,) 
 Baron, a German statesman, born at Gotha in 1 773- 
 About 1806 he was called to Stuttgart, where he became 
 president of the department of finance. He was after- 
 wards appointed president of the superior court at Tu- 
 bingen, and curator of the university. He wrote several 
 works in relation to government. Died in 1850. 
 
 Wang-Mang, a Chinese usurper, who, having put 
 to death the infant heir to the throne, took the title of 
 emperor about 9 A.D. He was assassinated in 23 a.d. 
 
 Wan-Koolee, (or -Kouli,) (Mohammed Ibn Mus- 
 tafa, mo-hani'med lb'n mdos'ta-fa,) a Turkish lexicog- 
 rapher of the sixteenth century. He translated into 
 Turkish the Arabic Dictionary of Jevhery. 
 
 Wan-Lee or Wan-Ly, wan-lee, called also Y-Kiun, 
 an emperor of China, of the Ming dynasty, began to 
 reign in 1572. He waged war against the Mantchoos 
 who invaded China. Died in 1619 or 1620. 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, t, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mjt; n8t; good; moon; 
 
WAN LET 
 
 2231 
 
 WARD 
 
 Wanley, won'le, (Humphrey,) an Knglish antiquary, 
 was bom at Coventry in 1672. He employed himself 
 in collecting Anglo-Saxon manuscripts for Dr. Hickes's 
 "Thesaurus," and prepared a descriptive catalogue of 
 those contained in the libraries of the kingdom. He 
 afterwards became librarian to the Earl of Oxford. Died 
 in 1726. 
 
 Wanley, (Rev. Nathaniel,) an English writer and 
 divine, the lather of the preceding, was born at Leicester 
 in 1633. He published a treatise entitled "Vox Dei, or 
 the Great Duty of Self-Reflection upon a Man's Own 
 Ways," and a popular compilation called " Wonders of 
 the Little World." Died in 16S0. 
 
 Wanslebeu, wans'la'ben, (Johann Michael,) a Ger- 
 man scholar and antiquary, born at Erfurt in 1635. He 
 was sent in 1670 by the French government to Egypt, 
 where he made a collection of manuscripts. He pub- 
 lished, in Italian, "An Account of the Present State of 
 Egypt," and several antiquarian works in Latin. Died 
 in 1679. 
 
 See Vockerodt, " Programma de J. M. Wansleben," 171S; NlCB- 
 RON, " Memoires." 
 
 Wappers, wap'pers, (Gustave,) Baron, a Belgian 
 painter of high reputation, born at Antwerp in 1S03. 
 He studied in his native city and in Paris, painted his- 
 torical and religious pictures, and obtained the title of 
 first painter to the King of Belgium. In 1846 he became 
 director of the Academy of Antwerp. 
 
 War'beck, (Perki.n,) an adventurer, who in the 
 reign of Henry VII. pretended to be the younger son 
 of Edward IV., supposed to have been murdered by 
 order of his uncle, Richard III. At the head of several 
 thousand insurgents, he besieged Exeter ; but he re- 
 treated on the approach of the royal army, and, being 
 made prisoner, was executed in 1499. 
 
 War'bur-ton, (Eliot Bartholomew George,) a 
 distinguished writer, born in county Galway, Ireland, in 
 1810. He took his degree at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge, and published in 1845 his work entitled "The 
 Crescent and the Cross," which met with great favour 
 and passed through numerous editions. It was suc- 
 ceeded by his history of "Prince Rupert and the Cava- 
 liers," (1849,) and "Memoirs of Horace Walpole and 
 his Contemporaries." He perished in the ship Amazon, 
 lost off Laud's End in 1852. His tale entitled " Darien, 
 or the Merchant Prince," came out after his death. 
 
 See Allihone, " Dictionary of Authors;" "London Quarterly 
 Review" tor March, 1845. 
 
 War'bur-ton, (John,) an English antiquary, born in 
 1682, published a work entitled " Vallum Romanum." 
 Died in 1759. 
 
 Warburton, (William,) an eminent English writer 
 and prelate, bum at Newark on the 24th of December, 
 1698, was a son of George Warburton, an attorney. He 
 was educated for the profession of law, and passed five 
 years in the office of an attorney, (1 715—19.) Having 
 resolved to enter the Church, he studied theology pri- 
 vately, was ordained a deacon in 1723, and published 
 "Miscellaneous Translations, in Prose and Verse, from 
 Roman Authors," (1 723.) He obtained the vicarage of 
 Gryesley in 1726, through 'he patronage of Sir Robert 
 Sutton, by whom he was pi-sented to the rectory Of 
 Brant-Broughton, near Newark, in 1728. He resided at 
 this place about eighteen years. In 1727 he published 
 a "Critical and Philosophical Inquiry into the Causes 
 of Prodigies and Miracles as related by Historians." 
 His reputation was increased by an able work entitled 
 "The Alliance between Church and State, or the Ne- 
 cessity and Equity of an Established Religion and a 
 Test Law," etc., (1736,) which was commended by Bishop 
 Horsley as an excellent "specimen of scientific reason- 
 ing applied to a political subject." 
 
 His principal work is "The Divine I-egation of Moses 
 demonstrated, on the Principles of a Religious Deist, 
 from the Omission of the Doctrine of a Future State of 
 Rewards and Punishments in the Jewish Dispensation," 
 (2 vols., 1738-41,) in which he displayed immense erudi- 
 tion in the support of novel and paradoxical opinions. 
 This work excited much controversy. About 1740 he 
 became intimate with Pope, after he had written several 
 letters in defence of that poet's " Essay on Man." When 
 
 Pope died, (1744,) he left half of his library, and other 
 valuable property, to Warburton, who married, in 1745, 
 Gertrude Tucker, a niece of Mr. Ralph Allen, of Prior 
 Park, near Bath. Warburton resided mostly at Prior 
 Park after his marriage. He was elected preacher to 
 the society of Lincoln's Inn in 1746, edited Shakspeare's 
 works in 1747, and published a complete edition of 
 Pope's works, with notes, (9 vols.,) in 1750. 
 
 In 1754 he was appointed one of the king's chaplains- 
 in-ordinary, and in 1755 he obtained a prebend of Dur- 
 ham. He became Dean of Bristol in 1757, and Bishop 
 of Gloucester in 1759. Among his other works we 
 notice " A View of Lord Bolingbroke's Philosophy, in 
 Four Letters to a Friend," (1754-55,) and two volumes 
 of Sermons preached at Lincoln's 11111,(1754.) His dis- 
 position was rather haughty. " Warburton," says Dr. 
 Johnson, "was a man of vigorous faculties, a mind fer- 
 vid and vehement, supplied by incessant and unlimited 
 inquiry, with a wonderful extent and variety of know- 
 ledge, which yet had not oppressed his imagination or 
 clouded his perspicacity. To every work he brought a 
 memory full fraught, together with a fancy fertile of 
 original combinations, and at once exerted the powers 
 of the scholar, the reasoner, and the wit. . . . His 
 abilities gave him a haughty confidence, which he dis- 
 dained to conceal or mollify." ("Life of Alexander 
 Pope," in the " Lives of the English Poets.") He died 
 at Gloucester In June, 1779. He had only one child, a 
 son, who died young. 
 
 See Bishop Hukd, " Notice of Warburton," prefixed to an edition 
 of his works, 1794; J. S. Watson, " Life of Warburton," 1863; 
 Chai.mf.8s, "Biographical Dictionary;" " Nouvelle Biographic 
 Generale ;" Ai.i.idonk, "Dictionary of Authors;" " Edinburgh 
 Review" for January, 1809 ; Blackwood's Magazine" for Decem- 
 ber, 1S20. 
 
 Ward, (Artkmas,) an American general of the Revo- 
 lution, born at Shrewsbury, Massachusetts, in 1727. He 
 served under Abercrombie against the French and 
 Indians, and at the commencement of the war of the 
 Revolution was appointed second in command to 
 Washington. He resigned his commission in April, 
 1776. He was afterwards elected to Congress, in which 
 he served from 1791 to 1795. Died in 1800. 
 
 Ward, (Artemas,) LL.D., an American jurist, born 
 in Massachusetts in 1763. He was elected a member of 
 Congress in 1813, and became chief justice of the court 
 of common pleas, in Massachusetts, in 1821. Died in 
 
 1847. 
 
 Ward, (Edward,^ an English humorous writer, born 
 about 1667. He made a version of "Don Quixote" 
 into Hudibrastic rhymes, and was the author of "The 
 London Spy," a poem. Died in 1731. 
 
 Ward, (Edward Matthew,) an English painter, 
 born in London in 1816. He studied at the Royal 
 Academy, and afterwards at Rome and Munich. He 
 was chosen a Royal Academician in 1855. Among his 
 most admired works may be named "The Last Sleep, 
 of Argvle," "The South -Sea Bubble, a Scene in Change 
 Alley," " Daniel Defoe and the Manuscript of Robinson 
 Crusoe," and " Izaak Walton Angling." , 
 
 Ward, (Sir Henry George,) an English statesman, 
 a son of Robert Plunier, noticed below, was born about 
 1798. He was several times elected to Parliament for 
 Saint Alban's and Sheffield, and in 1846 became secre- 
 tary to the admiralty. In 1849 he was appointed Gov- 
 ernor of the Ionian Islands, and in 1856 of the island 
 of Ceylon. Died in i860. 
 
 Ward, (James,) an English painter, born in London 
 in 1770, executed a number of admirable works in the 
 style of Morland. Among the best of these may be 
 named his "Horse and Serpent," "Bulls Fighting 
 across a Tree," and a " Landscape with Cattle." He 
 was appointed painter and engraver to the Prince of 
 Wales in 1794, and in l8ll was elected Royal Acade- 
 mician. Died in 1859. 
 
 Ward, (Captain James Hakman,) an American naval 
 officer, born at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1806. He 
 published several professional works, and "Steam for 
 the Million," (new edition, i860.) He was appointed 
 commander of the Potomac flotilla in May, 1861, and 
 was killed in a fight against a battery at Matthias Point, 
 Virginia, in June of that year. 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in Ms. (3y See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WARD 
 
 2232 
 
 WARING 
 
 Ward, (John,) LL.D., an English scholar and writer, 
 born in London in 1679. He became professor of 
 rhetoric at Gresham College in 1720. He published an 
 edition of Maximus Tyrius, " Lives of the Professors 
 of Gresham College," (1740,) "Four Essays upon the 
 English Language," (1758,) and other works. He was 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Society of 
 Antiquaries. Died in 1758. 
 
 See Thomas Bikch, "Life of John Ward,'* 1766. 
 
 Ward, (John William.) See Dudley, Earl of. 
 
 Ward, (Nathaniel,) an English Puritan divine, was 
 bom at Haverhill about 1570. In 1634 he visited New 
 England, where he assisted in forming a settlement at 
 Haverhill. After his return to England he published 
 a satirical work entitled " Mercunus Antimecharius, 
 or the Simple Cobbler's Boy," etc. Died in 1653. 
 
 Ward, (ROBERT PLUMER,)an English statesman and 
 writer, born in 1765. He studied at Christ Church, 
 Oxford, was appointed one of the lords of the admiralty 
 in 1807, and was subsequently a member of Parliament. 
 He was the author of a " History of the Law of Nations 
 in Europe from the Time of the Greeks and Romans to 
 the Age of Grotius," (1795,) " An Inquiry into the Con- 
 duct of European Wars," (1803,) three novels, entitled 
 "Tremaine," " De Vere," and " He Clifford," and other 
 works on various subjects. Died in 1846. 
 
 See " Memoirs of the Political and Literary Life of Robert Plutner 
 Ward," by Hon. Edmund Phipps, 2 vols., 1850. 
 
 Ward, (Samuel,) an English theologian, born in 
 Durham. He became Archdeacon of Taunton in 1615, 
 and afterwards Margaret professor of divinity at Oxford. 
 Died in 1643. 
 
 Ward, (Seth,) an English bishop and distinguished 
 astronomer, born in Hertfordshire in 1617. He studied 
 at Cambridge, and afterwards became professor of 
 astronomy at Oxford. He was also chosen president of 
 Trinity College ; but he was compelled to resign this 
 office at the restoration. Under Charles II. he was 
 created Bishop of Salisbury in 1662. He was one of 
 the founders and first members of the Royal Society. 
 Among his principal works are " An Essay on the Being 
 and Attributes of God," etc., (1652,) a treatise on the 
 nature of comets, entitled " Prselectio de Cometis," etc., 
 (1653,) and " Astronomia Geometria," (1656.) Died 
 in 1689. 
 
 See Walter Pora, " Life of Seth Ward," 169S. 
 
 Ward, (Thomas,) a Roman Catholic controversialist 
 and poet, born in Yorkshire, England, in 1652 ; died in 
 1708. 
 
 Ward, (William,) an English missionary, born at 
 Derby in 1769. He sailed for India in 1799, and, having 
 settled at Seranipore, printed the Bengalee New Testa- 
 ment and other translations. He also published "An 
 Account of the Writings, Religion, and Manners of the 
 Hindoos," (181 1,) and other works. Died in 1823. 
 
 Ward'law, (Henry,) a Scottish ecclesiastic, who 
 became Bishop of Saint Andrew's, and founded the 
 university in that place. Died in 1440. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Wardlaw, (Ralph,) D.D., a distinguished Scottish 
 divine and theological writer, born at Dalkeith in 1779. 
 He studied at the University of Glasgow, and in 1803 
 became pastor of a church of the Scottish Independents 
 in that city. He was chosen professor of systematic 
 theology in the Academy of the Independents at Glas- 
 gow in 181 1. Among his principal works are an essay 
 "On the Assurance of Faith," (1830,) "Christian Ethics, 
 or Moral Philosophy on the Principles of Divine Reve- 
 lation," (1833,) "The Divine Dissuasive to the Young 
 against the Enticements of Sinners," and a "Treatise 
 on Miracles," (1852.) Died in 1853. 
 
 See W. I.. Alexander, "Memoirs of the Life and Writings of 
 Ralph Wardlaw, D.O. ;" Aluhone, "Dictionary of Authors;" 
 Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen, " (Sup- 
 plement.) 
 
 Ware, (Henry,) D.D., an American Unitarian divine, 
 born at Sherburne, Massachusetts, in 1764. He grad- 
 uated at Harvard, where he became in 1805 Hollis 
 professor of divinity. He published "Letters to Trini- 
 tarians and Calvinists," and other controversial works. 
 
 His second wife was a daughter of James Otis. Died 
 in 1845. 
 
 Ware, (Henry,) Jr., D.D., a son of the preceding, was 
 born at Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1794. He became 
 minister of the Second Unitarian Church, Boston, in 
 1817, and was appointed in 1829 professor of pulpit elo- 
 quence and the pastoral care in the theological school, 
 Cambridge. He was for a time editor of the " Christian 
 Disciple," since become the "Christian Examiner," and 
 published a number of religious essays and poems, one 
 of which, entitled " To the Ursa Major," has been greatly 
 admired. Died in 1843. 
 
 See a " Memoir of Henry Ware, Jr.," by his brother John, 1846. 
 
 Ware, (Sir James,) an Irish antiquary, born at Dublin 
 in 1594. He succeeded his father as auditor-general of 
 the kingdom in 1632, and afterwards became a member 
 of the Irish House of Commons and of the privy council. 
 He was the author of a work on the antiquities of Ire- 
 land, entitled " De Praesulibus Hiberniae Commentarius," 
 and of other treatises on history and antiquities. Died 
 in 1666. 
 
 Ware, (James,) an English surgeon and oculist, born 
 at Portsmouth about 1756, became demonstrator of 
 anatomy at Cambridge. He wrote " Remarks on Fistula 
 Lachrymalis," (1798,) and "Chirurgical Observations." 
 Died in 1815. 
 
 Ware, (John,) M.D., brother of Henry Ware, ( 1 794- 
 1843,) was born at Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1795. 
 He was appointed in 1832 professor of the theory and 
 practice of medicine in the medical department of Har- 
 vard College. He has published treatises " On Croup," 
 "On Haemoptysis," and other medical works. 
 
 Ware, (William,) a distinguished American author, 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Hingham, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1797. He was successively pastor of 
 a church in New York, at Waltham, Massachusetts, 
 and at West Cambridge. His "Letters from Palmyra," 
 originally published in the "Knickerbocker Magazine," 
 appeared afterwards under the title of "Zenobia," (1836,) 
 and was succeeded in 1838 by "Aurelian," otherwise 
 called " Probus," a continuation of the same subject. 
 These classical romances have won for their author a 
 high reputation both in America and Europe, and have 
 been translated into German. Mr. Ware was for a time 
 editor of the "Christian Examiner." He also published 
 " Lectures on the Works and Genius of Washington 
 Allston," and "Sketches of European Capitals," (1851.) 
 He died at Cambridge in February, 1852. 
 
 See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America ;" Duvckinck, 
 " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Sprague, "Annals of 
 the American Pulpit," vol. viii. ; " Westminster Review" for January, 
 1S3S: " North American Review" for October, 1S37. 
 
 Wargentin, vSn'gen-teen', (Peter Wilhelm,) an 
 eminent Swedish astronomer, born at Stockholm in 1717. 
 He was appointed perpetual secretary of the Academy 
 of Stockholm in 1749; and he subsequently became a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a chevalier 
 of the Polar Star. Died in 1783. 
 
 See Franzen, "Miune af P. W. Wargentin," 1847. 
 
 War'ham, (William,) an English prelate and states- 
 man, born in Hampshire. He studied at Oxford, and 
 was successively created by Henry VIII. keeper of the 
 great seal, (1J02,) lord chancellor, (1503,) Bishop of 
 London the same year, and Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 (1504.) He was obliged to resign the chancellorship in 
 1516 in favour of Wolsey, who had become the favourite 
 of the king. He died in 1532, and was succeeded by 
 Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury. Warham was 
 a patron of learning, and a warm friend of Erasmus, who 
 mentions him in his letters with high commendation. 
 
 See W. F. Hook, " Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury," 
 vol. i., new series, chap. ii. 
 
 Warin. See Varin, (Jean.) 
 
 Wa'ring, (Edward,) an eminent English mathema- 
 tician, born near Shrewsbury in 1736. He studied at 
 Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he became Lu- 
 casian professor of mathematics in 1760. He was elected 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1763. He published 
 " Analytical Miscellanies on Algebraic Equations," 
 (" Miscellanea analytica de ^quationibus algebraicis," 
 etc., 1762,) " Properties of Algebraic Curves," (" Propri- 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; A, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; met; not; gotid; 1 
 
WARMHOLTZ 
 
 "33 
 
 WARREN 
 
 etates Algebraicarum Ciirvarum," etc., 1772,) and other 
 valuable works. Died in 1798. 
 
 Warmholtz, waRin'holts, (Carl Gus taf,) a Swedish 
 bibliographer, born in 1710, He published a " Swedish- 
 Gothic Historical Library," (" Hibliotheca historica 
 Sueco-Gothica," 3 vols., 1782.) Died in 1784. 
 
 Warnachaire, vik'nS'shaR', ( l.at. Warnai ha'rius,] 
 became mayor of the palace under Thierry II. of Bur- 
 gundy about 612 A.D. He aided Clotaire II. to defeat 
 Queen Biunehaut, and acquired great power. Died 
 in 626. 
 
 Warneford, warn'ford, (Rev. Samuel Wilson,) an 
 English clergyman and philanthropist, born in Wiltshire 
 in 1758. He studied at University College, Oxford, and 
 in 1 8 10 became rector of Bourton-on-the-IIill, in Glou- 
 cestershire. He founded a hospital at Leamington, and 
 a lunatic-asylum near Oxford, both called by his name, 
 and made munificent donations to various colleges ami 
 charitable institutions in the kingdom. Died in 1855. 
 
 War'ner, (Anna B.,) sister of Susan Warner, noticed 
 below, has published " Dollars and Cents, by Amy 
 Lothrop," (1853,) "My Brother's Keeper," (1855.) ,n »i 
 in conjunction with her sister, " Say and Seal," (i860,) 
 and other works. 
 
 War'ner, (Ferdinando,) an English divine and 
 miscellaneous writer, born in 1703, became rector of 
 Barnes, in Surrey. Among his numerous publications 
 we may name "The Ecclesiastical History of the 
 Eighteenth Century," (1756,) a "Life of Sir Thomas 
 More," (1758,) and "History of the Rebellion and Civil 
 War in Ireland," (1767.) Died about 1768. 
 
 Warner, (John,) an English clergyman, born at 
 Westminster in 1585, rose to be Bishop of Rochester. 
 Died in 1666. 
 
 Warner, (John,) D.D., son of Ferdinando, noticed 
 above, was born in 1736. He became rector of Stourton, 
 in Wiltshire, and wrote a political work, entitled " Me- 
 tronariston." Died in 1800. 
 
 Warner, (JoSEPHJ F. R.S., a distinguished surgeon, 
 born in the island of Antigua in 1717, was a pupil of 
 Samuel Sharpe. He was surgeon to Guy's Hospital, 
 London, about forty-four years, and published several 
 professional works. Died in 1801. 
 
 Warner, (Richard,) an English botanist, born in 
 1711, published a work entitled " Plantae Woodford- 
 ienses." The genus Wameria was named in his honour, 
 He died in 1775, leaving his library to Wadham College, 
 Oxford. 
 
 Warner, (Susan,) a popular American writer, born 
 in New York in the early part of the nineteenth century. 
 She published in 1850, under the assumed name of 
 EmzaRRTII Wetherell, her novelof'The Wide, Wide 
 World," which had an extraordinary success. It was 
 followed in 1852 by " Queechy," which likewise enjoyed 
 a great popularity. Both have been translated into 
 French. She has also written "The Hills of Shate- 
 muck," (1856,) "The Duties of American Women," and 
 other works. 
 
 See the " North American Review" for January, 1853. 
 
 Wwner, (William,) an English poet, bom in Ox- 
 fordshire about 1558. He was the author of a collection 
 of ballads, entitled "Albion's England," which acquired 
 great popularity; also "Syrinx, a Seavenfold Historie," 
 consisting of prose narratives. ■ Died in (609. 
 
 Warnkonig or Warnkoenig, wSni/kd'nic, (Leo- 
 pold August,) a German jurist, born at Bruchsal in 
 1794, became successively professor of law at Louvain, 
 Ghent, Freiburg, and Tubingen. He was the author of 
 a " History of the Jurisprudence and State of Flanders," 
 (1834,) and other similar works. 
 
 Warren, w&r'ren, (Charles.) an English engraver 
 nn steel, born in London about 1 762, had a high reputa- 
 tion. Died in 1823. 
 
 Warren, wftr'ren, (GotiVERNF.UR K.,) an American 
 rreneral, born in N'ew York about 1825, graduated at 
 West Point in 1850. He commanded a brigade of the 
 Union army at Gaines's Mill, June 27, and at Malvern 
 Hill, July t, 1862. He served at Antietam, September 
 17, 1862, at Chancellorsville, May 3, 1863, and at Gettys- 
 burg, July 2 and 3. He commanded the fifth corps of 
 the army of the Potomac at the battle of the Wilder- 
 
 ness, May 5 and 6, 1864, at Spottsvlvania Court-IIouse, 
 May 8-12, and at Cold Harbour, June 3. On the 31st 
 of March, 1865, his corps, advancing to seize the White 
 Oak Road, was attacked by the enemy, whom he re- 
 pulsed. He then reinforced General Sheridan, under 
 whom he served at the battle of Five Forks, April I. 
 He was deprived of his command by General Sheridan 
 about the close of this battle. 
 
 Warren, (James,) an American patriot and revo- 
 lutionist, born at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1726, 
 was Speaker of the House of Representatives in that 
 State, and a zealous defender of the colonists. Died 
 in 1808. 
 
 Warren, (John,) M.D., brother of General Joseph 
 Warren, was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1753. 
 He was physician to the military hospitals of Boston in 
 the Revolutionary war, and was afterwards appointed 
 professor of anatomy in the medical department of Har- 
 vard College. He published a number of medical works. 
 Died in 1815. 
 
 Warren, (Sir John Borlase,) G.C.B., an English 
 naval commander, born in Nottinghamshire in 1754. He 
 was elected to Parliament for Marlow in 1774, and again 
 in 1780. He distinguished himself in the war with France 
 in 1793, and, as commander of the Canada, in 1798, cap- 
 tured the French squadron, consisting of a ship of the 
 line and three frigates, sent for the invasion of Ireland. 
 Soon after this service he was made a rear-admiral of 
 the blue. He was returned to Parliament for Nutting- 
 ham in 1793, being re-elected in 1802, and was subse- 
 quently ambassador-extraordinary to Saint Petersburg, 
 He is supposed to have been the author of " A View of 
 the Naval Force of Great Britain," (1791.) Died in 1822. 
 
 Warren, (John Collins,) M.D., a son of John, 
 noticed above, was born at Boston in 1778. He studied 
 medicine in London, Edinburgh, and Paris, and, after his 
 return, succeeded his father as professor of anatomy at 
 Harvard, (1815.) He became associate editor of the 
 " Boston Medical and Surgical Journal," and was a fre- 
 quent contributor to the leading scientific and medical 
 journals. He published " Surgical Operations on Tu- 
 mours," a treatise on "Diseases of the Heart," (1809,) 
 and other works. Died in 1856. 
 
 See a " Memoir of John C. Warren," by his brother Edward, 
 2 vols., 1859. 
 
 Warren, (Joseph,) a distinguished American general 
 and patriot, born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1741, 
 graduated at Harvard College in 1759. He studied 
 medicine, which he began to practise in Boston at the 
 age of twenty-three, and he became in a few years one 
 I of the most eminent physicians of that city. He took 
 an active part in political affairs, was a decided asserter 
 of liberal principles, and was eminently qualified by 
 his superior talents and ardent temperament to be a 
 popular leader in critical times. He possessed in high 
 perfection the gift of eloquence. In March, 1772, he 
 delivered an oration on the anniversary of the Boston 
 Massacre. According to Alexander H. Everett, "the 
 commanding genius of Warren carried him at once to 
 the helm, and rendered him, for the brief period of his 
 subsequent life, both in civil and military affairs, the 
 most prominent man in New England." 
 
 In 1774 he was elected president of the Provincial 
 Congress, and chairman of the committee of public 
 safety, which exercised the chief executive power in 
 Massachusetts. Having obtained information of the 
 British expedition against Concord, he despatched a 
 messenger on the night of April 18, 1775, to warn his 
 friends, and thus contributed to the success gained at 
 Lexington on the ensuing day. He was elected a major- 
 general by Congress on the 14th of June, 1775. He 
 opposed the plan of fortifying the heights of Charles- 
 town ; but the majority of the council of war decided to 
 fortify those heights, and thus brought on the battle of 
 Bunker's Hill before the Americans were fully prepared 
 for it. While both the armies were awaiting the signal 
 for action, on the 17th of June, General Warren joined 
 the ranks as a volunteer, and declined to take the com- 
 mand of the army, which was offered to him by General 
 Putnam. He was about to retire from the redoubt after 
 the ammunition of the Americans had been exhausted, 
 
 t as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; 0, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (J^~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WARREN 
 
 "34 
 
 WARWICK 
 
 when he was shot in the forehead, and instantly killed. 
 He left two sons, who both died young, and two daughters. 
 His loss was deeply and universally lamented. "The 
 name of Joseph Warren," says A. H. Everett, "is one of 
 the most conspicuous in the annals of the Revolution. 
 His memory is cherished with even warmer regard than 
 that of some others, who, from the greater length of their 
 career, and the wider sphere in which they acted, may 
 be supposed to have rendered more important services 
 to the country. This distinction in his favour is owing, 
 in part, to the chivalrous beauty of his character, which 
 naturally excites a sympathetic glow in every feeling 
 mind, and in part to that untimely but glorious fate 
 which consecrated him as the first distinguished martyr 
 in the cause of independence and liberty." 
 
 See "The Life of Joseph Warren," by Alexander H. Everett, 
 in Sparks's " American Biography," vol._ x. ; " National Portrait- 
 Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. ii. 
 
 Warren, (Mercy,) the wife of James Warren, and 
 sister of James Otis, was born at Barnstable, Massachu- 
 setts, in 1728. She was the author of a " History of the 
 American Revolution," (3 vols., 1805,) which was highly 
 esteemed at the time, tragedies entitled "The Sack of 
 Rome" and "The Ladies of Castile," and a number of 
 poems. Died in 1814. 
 
 See Griswouj, " Female Poets of America." 
 
 "Warren, (Sir Peter,) an Irish admiral, born in 1703. 
 As commander of a squadron, he captured Louisbourg 
 from the French in 1745, and in 1747 assisted Anson 
 in defeating a French squadron. He was subsequently 
 created vice-admiral of the red, and elected to Parlia- 
 ment for Westminster. He died in 1 752. A monument 
 to him, by Roubiliac, was placed in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Warren, (Samuel,) a popular English novelist and 
 legal writer, born in Denbighshire in 1807. He studied 
 medicine at Edinburgh, but subsequently devoted him- 
 self to the law, and was admitted to the bar in 1837. 
 His " Passages from the Diary of a Late Physician" 
 (New York, 1831) came out in "Blackwood's Magazine," 
 and obtained an extensive popularity; and his novel of 
 "Ten Thousand a Year" (1841) appeared soon after in 
 the same journal. Both works were afterwards published 
 separately, and the latter has been translated into the 
 principal languages of Europe. Mr. Warren has also 
 written "A Popular and Practical Introduction to Law 
 Studies," etc., (1845.) " Now and Then," (1847,) " Moral, 
 Social, and Professional Duties of Attorneys and So- 
 licitors," (1848,) and other valuable legal treatises. He 
 was chosen to represent Midhurst in Parliament in 1856 
 and 1857. 
 
 See Ai.libonk, " Dictionary of Authors:" "Blackwood's Mar- 
 line" for February, 184$; "British Quarterly Review" for May, 
 J 848. 
 
 Warrington, wSr'ring-tpn, (Lewis,) an American 
 naval officer, born at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1782. 
 He fought with distinction in the war of 1812, and com- 
 manded the Peacock, which captured the British brig 
 Epervier in April, 1814. He was appointed chief of the 
 bureau of ordnance and hydrography in 1842. He had 
 been raised to the rank of captain in 1814. Died in 1851. 
 
 Wartenberg, von, fon waR'ten-beRC,', (Franz Wil- 
 HEI.M,) Count, a German ecclesiastic, bom in 1593. 
 He became Bishop of Ratisbon and Osnabriick, and 
 cardinal in 1661. Me died the same year. 
 
 Wartensleben, wau'tens-la'ben, (Alexander Her- 
 mann,) a German general, born in Westphalia in 1650. 
 He served in the armies of Hesse, Austria, and Prussia, 
 with the rank of field-marshal. Died in 1734. 
 
 Wartensleben, von, fon waR'tens-li'b^n, (Wil- 
 helm Ludwig Gaston,) an Austrian general, born 
 in 1728. He obtained command in 1796 of a corps 
 d'armee under the archduke Charles, and was defeated 
 by Jourdan at Friedberg, from which he retreated to 
 Wiirzbuig. Having effected a junction with the arch- 
 duke, he contributed to the victory over the French near 
 Wiirzburg, in September, 1796. Died soon-after 1797. 
 
 War'tpu, (Joseph,) D.D., an English critic and 
 scholar, born in Surrey in 1722. He studied at Oriel 
 College, Oxford, and, having taken his degree of B.A., 
 was ordained curate of Basingstoke. He published in 
 1746 a collection of poems, entitled "Odes on Various 
 
 Subjects," and in 1753 an edition of Virgil, with a new 
 poetical version of the " Eclogues" and " Georgics." His 
 " Essay on the Writings and Genius of Pope" appeared 
 in 1782, and, although not favourably received at the 
 time, is now generally regarded as one of his best works. 
 Warton became head-master of Winchester School in 
 1766, and he was afterwards successively created preb- 
 endary of Saint Paul's and of Winchester Cathedral, and 
 rector of Clapham. In 1797 he published an edition of 
 Pope's works, with notes, (9 vols. 8vo.) Died in 1800. 
 
 See " Biographical Memoirs of the Late Rev. Joseph Warton, 
 D.D.," by the Rkv. John Wooi.l ; " Lives of the English Poets, 
 from Joh.ison to Kirke White." by Carv. 
 
 Warton, (Thomas,) an eminent English critic and 
 poet, born at Basingstoke in 1728, was a brother of the 
 preceding. He studied at Trinity College, Oxford, of 
 which he became a Fellow in 1751. He was elected 
 professor of poetry in 1757, and subsequently Camden 
 professor of history, at Oxford. His " History of Eng- 
 lish Poetry," esteemed one of the most valuable works 
 of the kind, came out in 1781, in 3 vols. Among his 
 other productions we may name "The Triumph of 
 Isis," a poem, written in reply to Mason's " Isis," "The 
 Progress of Discontent," and " The Oxford Sausage, 
 or Select Pieces written by the Most Celebrated Wits of 
 the University of Oxford," all of which display great 
 powers of humour and satire. His " Observations on 
 the Faerie Queene of Spenser" (1754) was also received 
 with great favour. Warton made several contributions 
 to Dr. Johnson's "Idler," and published an edition of 
 Milton's minor poems, and an excellent edition of The- 
 ocritus, to which was prefixed a Latin dissertation or. 
 the bucolic poetry of the Greeks. In 1785 he succeeded 
 Whitehead as poet-laureate. Died in 1790. 
 
 See R. Mant, " Life of Warton," 1802 ; Campeieu., " Specimens 
 of the British Pnets;" Carv, "Lives of the English Poets, tium 
 Johnson to Kirke White ;" " Blackwood's Magazine" for Octobef, 
 1838 ; " Monthly Review" for September and November, 1778, et stq. 
 
 Warton, (Thomas,) Rev., an English scholar, born 
 in 1687, was the father of Joseph Warton, noticed above. 
 He was professor of poetry at Oxford. Died in 1745. ' 
 
 Warwick, wdr'rik, Earls of. This title was given 
 to one of the family of Newburgh by William the Con- 
 queror, and was inherited by William de Beauchamp in 
 the second half of the thirteenth century. The earldom 
 remained in the family of Beauchamp until 1449, when 
 Richard Nevil became Earl of Warwick. (See separate 
 article, given below.) The title became extinct about 
 1500, and was revived in favour of John Dudley in 1547. 
 In 1618 it was obtained by Robert Rich. 
 
 Warwick, Earl of. See Dudley, (John.) 
 
 Warwick, (Edward,) Earl of. See Edward 
 Plantagenet. 
 
 Warwick, (Guy,) Earl of, an English hero, whose 
 history is involved in great obscurity. He is supposed 
 to have lived in the tenth century. The " Romance of 
 Sir Guy" was probably written in the early part of the 
 fourteenth century, and was printed by William Cop- 
 land in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Warwick, (Henry de Beauchamp,) Earl and 
 Duke of, was created by Henry VI. Premier Earl of 
 England, Duke of Warwick, and King of the Islands 
 of Wight, Jersey, and Guernsey. He was the son of 
 Richard de Beauchamp, noticed below. Died in 1445. 
 
 Warwick, (Sir Pmi.ti',) an English writer, born at 
 Westminster in 1608. He was a member of the Long 
 Parliament of 1640, and a partisan of the king in the 
 civil war. He officiated as clerk to the signet or as 
 secretary to Charles I., and wrote " Memoirs of his Own 
 Time," (1701,) a work of some interest. Died in 1683. 
 
 See " Monk's Contemporaries," by Guizot, London, 1864. 
 
 ■Warwick, (Richard de Beauchamp,) Earl of, an 
 English statesman and military commander, who served 
 in France -tinder the Duke of Bedford, during whose 
 absence he acted as regent of that kingdom. On his 
 return to England he was appointed governor to the 
 young prince, afterwards Henry VI. In 1437 he be- 
 came again Regent of France, where he died in 1439. 
 
 See Shaksprare, "Henry VI.," Parts II. and III. 
 
 Warwick (Richard Nevil,) Earl of, (called 
 "Warwick the King-Maker,") son of the Earl of Salis- 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, 5, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
 A 
 
WARWICK 
 
 "35 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 bury, and son-in-law of Richard, Earl of Warwick, no- 
 ticed above, was born about 1420. By his marriage with 
 Anne, daughter of the Earl of Warwick, he acquired 
 the immense estates of that family, and assumed the title 
 of Earl of Warwick. He was also nephew of Richard, 
 Duke of York, and was first-cousin to Edward IV., be- 
 sides being allied to other noble families of the kingdom. 
 Having joined the party of the Duke of York in the civil 
 war of the Roses, in 1455, he was chiefly instrumental in 
 gaining the victory of Saint Alban's, and was soon after 
 made governor of Calais. After the defeat of the York- 
 ists at Ludiford, Warwick collected a large army, and 
 gained a signal victory over the enemy at Northampton, 
 (1460,) and took King Henry prisoner. He defeated the 
 Lancastrians, in 1461, at the battle of Tovvton, which 
 secured the throne to Edward IV. He was liberally re- 
 warded for his services, and became the most powerful 
 subject of England. Having quarrelled with the king, 
 Warwick passed over to France, (1470,) formed an 
 alliance with Queen Margaret, and returned with an 
 army to England, where he proclaimed Henry VI. as 
 king. Edward IV. was driven out of the kingdom, and 
 retired to Holland, but returned in March, 1471, with a 
 body of troops, and defeated the enemy at Barnet in 
 April, 1471. The Earl of Warwick, who commanded 
 the Lancastrians, was killed in this action. He had two 
 daughters, — Isabella, who was married to the Duke of 
 Clarence, and Anne, who was married first to Edward, 
 Prince of Wales, (a son of Henry VI.,) and again to 
 Richard III. 
 
 See Hume. "History of England:" Comines, " Me'moires ;" 
 HaBINOTON, "History of Edward IV.;" Lingard, " History of 
 England ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Warwick, (Roiiekt Rich,) Earl of, was a de- 
 scendant of Lord-Chancellor Rich. He became Earl of 
 Warwick in 1618. In the civil war he adhered to the 
 Parliament, by which he was appointed admiral of the 
 fleet in J642. He acquired great authority and credit 
 with the popular party, and supported Cromwell after 
 he became Protector. According to Clarendon, " he 
 lived in entire confidence and friendship with Cromwell." 
 (" History of the Rebellion.") Died in 1658. 
 
 Waser, wa'zer, (Anna,) a Swiss miniature-painter, 
 born at Zurich in 1679; died in 1713. 
 
 Waser, (Caspar,) a Swiss Orientalist, born at Zurich 
 in 1565. He became professor of Hebrew at Zurich in 
 1596. Died in 1625. 
 
 Washburn, w&sh'burn, (Cadwalader C.,) an Ameri- 
 can general and lawyer, born at Livermore, Maine, in 
 1818. He removed to Wisconsin, and represented a 
 district of that State in Congress from 1855 to 1861. 
 He became a brigadier-general about July, 1862. In 
 May or June, 1863, he moved a division from Memphis 
 to reinforce General Grant at Vicksburg. 
 
 Washburn, (ELIHU B.,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was bom in Oxford county, Maine, in 1816. He studied 
 law, and settled at Galena, Illinois. He was elected a 
 member of Congress in 1852, and successively re-elected 
 seven times, — voted with the Republican party, and be- 
 came a personal friend of General Grant. He served as 
 chairman of the committee on commerce for many years, 
 and distinguished himself as an advocate of economy 
 and retrenchment. On the 4th of March, 1869, he was 
 appointed secretary of state in the cabinet of General 
 Grant ; but he resigned, on account of his health, about a 
 week later, and was nominated minister to France. He 
 remained in Paris during the siege which began about 
 September, 1870. 
 
 Washburn, (Israel,) an American Governor, a 
 brother of the preceding, was born at Livermore, Maine, 
 in 1813. He was a member of Congress from 1851 to 
 i860, and was chosen Governor of Maine in the latter 
 year. 
 
 Washington, w5sh'ing-t<jn, (Bushrod,) a judge, 
 bom in Westmoreland county, Virginia, in 1759, was a 
 nephew of General George Washington, and a son of 
 John Augustine Washington. He was a member of 
 the Virginia Convention which ratified the Constitution 
 of the United States in 1788, and was appointed a judge 
 of the supreme court of the United States in September, 
 1798. By the will of his illustrious uncle he became 
 
 the possessor of the estate of Mount Vernon, (1799.) 
 He died in Philadelphia in November, 1829, leaving a 
 good reputation. 
 
 ^Washington, (George,) an illustrious American 
 general, statesman, and patriot, the first President of 
 the United States, was born on the Potomac River, in 
 Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the 22d of February, 
 1732?) He was a son of Augustine Washington, a planter, 
 andnTis second wife, Mary Ball. His great-grandfather, 
 John Washington, emigrated with his brother Lawrence 
 from England to Virginia about 1657. Augustine dying 
 in 1743 left a large estate in land to his widow and his 
 five surviving children. The subject of this article in- 
 herited a large farm on the Rappahannock River, (near 
 Fredericksburg,) on which farm was the house occupied 
 by Augustine Washington at the time of his death. 
 George attended several schools in the vicinity of his 
 home, but was never sent to college, and never studied 
 the ancient languages. His manuscript school-books 
 are still extant, and are models of neatness and accuracy. 
 In his early youth he was distinguished for his probity 
 and veracity. Favoured with superior physical strength, 
 he excelled in athletic exercises and in horsemanship, 
 jlis moral character was moulded by the influence of 
 his high-spirited and intelligent mother/^ 
 
 After he left school (1747) he passedmuch time with 
 his elder brother Lawrence, who resided at Mount 
 Vernon, on the Potomac River. He was also a frequent 
 guest at Greenway Court, the seat of Thomas, Lord 
 Fairfax, an eccentric nobleman, who owned an immense 
 tract of land in that part of Virginia. Young Washing- 
 ton gained the favour of Lord Fairfax and of his cousin 
 Sir William Fairfax, who lived at Belvoir. In the spring 
 of 1748 he was employed by Lord Fairfax to survey a 
 portion of his land which was situated beyond the Blue 
 Ridge and had not yet been settled by white people. 
 In the hardships and privations of this enterprise he 
 passed nearly three years, during which he was accus- 
 tomed to sleep in the open air. He kept a journal of 
 these surveying expeditions, as well as of the subsequent 
 events of his life. At the age of nineteen he was ap- 
 pointed adjutant-general (with the rank of major) of one 
 of the districts into which Virginia was divided when 
 hostilities between the English and French became im- 
 minent. In November, 1753, he was sent by Governor 
 Dinwiddie on a mission to the French commander, and 
 performed a perilous journey of five hundred miles or 
 tnore through the wilderness. The prudence, sagacity, 
 resolution, and fortitude which he manifested in this 
 mission pointed him out as one fitted for more impor- 
 tant public services. " It is an expedition," says Irving, 
 " that may be considered the foundation of his fortunes. 
 From that moment he was the rising hope of Virginia." 
 
 Hostilities between the Virginians and the French 
 l>egan in the spring of 1 754, when, as lieutenant-colonel, 
 Washington led a small force to the frontier. He de- 
 feated the enemy in May of that year, at the Great 
 Meadows. In a letter relating to this action, (which 
 was the first of the Seven Years' war,) he wrote, " I 
 heard the bullets whistle ; and, believe me, there is some- 
 thing charming in the sound." About this time he was 
 raised to the rank of colonel. He served as aide-de- 
 camp to General Braddock in his disastrous expedition 
 against Fort Duquesne. This imprudent general, de- 
 spising both the Indians and the Virginia militia, and 
 obstinately adhering to the tactics of regular war, 
 rejected the advice of Washington, and was defeated 
 with great loss, and mortally wounded, by the French 
 and their savage allies, who attacked him in the forest 
 about seven miles from Fort Duquesne, July 9, 1755. 
 In this battle four bullets passed through the coat of 
 Colonel Washington, who distinguished himself by his 
 courage and presence of mind amidst the general panic 
 and total rout of the English army. 
 
 In a letter written soon after this battle, Colonel Wash- 
 ington said, "We have been most scandalously beaten 
 by a trifling body of men. . . . The dastardly behaviour 
 of those they called regulars exposed all others to almost 
 certain death, and at last they ran as sheep pursued by 
 dons." In the summer of 1755 he was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of the forces (about two thousand men) 
 
 « as *; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (J^="See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WASHINGTON 
 
 2236 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 which the Assembly of Virginia ordered to be raised 
 for the defence of the province. He commanded a part 
 of the army which, under Genera! Forbes, took Fort 
 Dnquesne m November, 1758. In January, 1759, he 
 married Mrs. Martha Custis, whose maiden name was 
 Dandridge, and whose first husband was John Parke 
 Custis. He now resigned his commission, retired from 
 the service, and settled at Mount Vernon as a planter. 
 In 1758 he had been elected to the House of Burgesses, 
 the Speaker of which, on the first appearance of Wash- 
 ington in that body, tendered to him a compliment for 
 his military services. " Washington rose to reply," 
 says Irving, "blushed, stammered, trembled, and could 
 not utter a word." "Sit down, Mr. Washington," said 
 the Speaker: "your modesty equals your valour, and 
 that surpasses the power of any language I possess." 
 
 By his marriage he added about one hundred thousand 
 dollars to his fortune, which was before considerable. 
 He was partial to the pursuits of agriculture, and carried 
 into his rural affairs the same methodical habits and dili- 
 gent attention which distinguished him in military opera- 
 tions. He kept his own accounts, posted his books and 
 balanced them with mercantile exactness. By the pur- 
 chase of adjacent plantations he enlarged the Mount 
 Vernon estate until it amounted finally to eight thousand 
 acres. He continued for many years a member of the 
 House of Burgesses, but never took a prominent part 
 in the debates of that or any other public assembly. He 
 was a delegate to the convention which met at Wil- 
 liamsburg on the 1st of August, 1773, and, asserting the 
 right of the colonies to self-government, resolved that 
 taxatior. and representation were inseparable. This 
 convention chose Washington, Patrick Henry, and five 
 others, to represent Virginia in the General Congress 
 which met at Philadelphia in September, 1774. Patrick 
 Henry being asked, after the end of the first session, 
 whom he considered the greatest man in Congress, 
 replied, " If you speak of solid information and sound 
 judgment, Colonel Washington is unquestionably the 
 greatest man on that floor." 
 
 Hitherto, Washington and the other leading patriots 
 had not aimed at independence or separation from the 
 mother-country ; but the battle or massacre of Lexington, 
 April 19, 1775, became the signal of a general deter- 
 mination to resist by arms the tyranny of the British 
 government. 
 
 /[On the 15th of June, 1775, he was unanimously elected 
 by the Continental Congress commander-in-chief of all 
 the forces. Before he could take command of the army, 
 occurred the important battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 
 1775, the result of which was that the British remained 
 masters of the field, but lost about 1050 met), while the 
 Americans lost only 449 killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
 On the 2d of July, General Washington assumed com- 
 mand of the army at Cambridge, Massachusetts, amount- 
 ing to about 15,000 men, and engaged in the siege of 
 Boston, which was occupied by 11,000 British veterans, 
 General Washington applied himself to the organization 
 of his troops, whom he found undisciplined and nearly 
 destitute of powder and other materials of wa£_? The 
 difficulty of his situation was increased by the fact that 
 the Continental Congress was very deficient in all the 
 attributes of an efficient government, and was almost 
 destitute of money and credit. While the main army 
 was besieging Boston, Generals Montgomery and Arnold, 
 about the end of 1775, invaded Canada, and attacked 
 Quebec, but were not successful. On the 17th or 18th 
 of March, 1776, the British army evacuated Boston, and 
 escaped on their fleet, which sailed thence to Halifax. 
 Congress passed a vote of thanks to the commander-in- 
 chief for his services and success in this siege. General 
 Washington moved his army from Boston to New York, 
 where he arrived in April, and awaited the approach of 
 the enemy, who were moving by the sea towards that 
 objective point. In the mean time the Declaration of 
 Independence was signed by Congress, July 4, 1776. 
 
 The opposing forces next met at the battle of Long 
 Island, where the Americans were defeated by General 
 Howe, August 27, and lost nearly 2003 men. In conse- 
 quence of this victory, the British took the city of New 
 Vork, and General Washington was compelled to retreat 
 
 through New Jersey to the west side of the Delaware 
 River. During this retreat his army was reduced to 
 4000 men or less, and the cause for which he fought 
 seemed almost desperate ; but General Howe was too 
 indolent or incapable to follow up his successes with 
 vigour. General Washington, having been reinforced, 
 crossed the Delaware in open boats on the night of 
 December 25, 1776, attacked a British force at Trenton, 
 and captured nearly 1000 prisoners, (Hessian merce- 
 naries.) On the 3d of January, 1777, he gained another 
 victory at Princeton, where he took about 300 prisoners. 
 Soon after these successes, which greatly revived the 
 spirits of the Americans, General Washington was in- 
 vested with almost dictatorial powers bv Congress. In 
 the summer of 1777 a British army, under General Br.i- 
 goyne, moved from Canada towards Albany, and anothrr 
 army, of about 16.000 men, under General Howe, sai'etl 
 up the Chesapeake Bay to take Philadelphia. To defend 
 this city, the)) the seat of government, General Wash- 
 ington interposed his army of about 11,000 men, and 
 encountered the enemy on the Brandywine on the nth 
 of September. Overpowered by superior numbers, the 
 Americans retreated, having lost about 900 killed and 
 wounded. Among the wounded of this day was the 
 Marquis de La Fayette. A few days after this battle 
 the British army occupied Philadelphia. On the 4th of 
 October the Americans attacked the British army at 
 Germantown, about six miles from Philadelphia ; but 
 they were repulsed, with a loss of about 800 killed and 
 wounded. In the mean time General Burgoyne and 
 General Gates had fought an indecisive battle at Still- 
 water, New York, September 19, and General Stark had 
 gained a victory at Bennington. On the 7th of October, 
 1777, General Gates, at the second battle of Stillwater, 
 defeated General Burgoyne, who, on the 17th of that 
 month, surrendered his army of about 6000 men, at 
 Saratoga. This victory was one of the most important 
 events of the war, as it not only inspired the people 
 with confidence, but induced the French government to 
 become the ally of the United States in the war against 
 Great Britain. 
 
 In December, 1777, General Washington went into 
 winter quarters at Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill River, 
 where his men suffered great hardships and distress 
 for want of clothing, etc. General Henry Clinton, who 
 had been appointed commander-in-chief in the place 
 of General Howe, evacuated Philadelphia in June, and 
 moved his army through New Jersey towards New York. 
 General Washington pursued and attacked him on the 
 28th of Tune, 1778. at Monmouth Court-f louse. After an 
 indecisive battle, in which the Americans lost 69 killed 
 and about 160 wounded. General Clinton continued his 
 march to New York. Congress expressed their satisfac- 
 tion with General Washington's conduct in this action 
 by a unanimous vote of thanks. Hitherto the opera- 
 tions of the British armies had been directed against 
 the Northern and Middle States; but in 1779 no great 
 battle was fought in this portion of the republic. About 
 the end of 1778, General Sir Henry Clinton sent to 
 Georgia a body of troops, who captured Savannah in 
 December and made themselves masters of the prov- 
 ince. The chief command of the Southern American 
 army was given to General Lincoln, who, aided by the 
 French fleet, attacked Savannah in Septembei 1779, 
 but was repulsed. 
 
 The army of General Washington passed the winter 
 of 1779-80 near Morristown, New Jersey. Early in 
 1780 Sir Henry Clinton transferred his main army, by 
 sea, from New York to South Carolina, and besieged 
 Charleston, which General Lincoln defended for several 
 weeks, but was compelled to surrender in May. Sir 
 Henry Clinton, leaving I,ord Cornwallis in command 
 in the Carolinas, returned to New York in June, 178a 
 In the same month Congress appointed General Gates 
 commander of the Southern department. This general 
 was signally defeated by Lord Cornwallis at Camden, 
 August 16, and was compelled to retreat to North Caro- 
 lina. During the year 1780 the commander-in-chief was 
 obliged to remain on the defensive, in consequence of 
 the weakness and destitution of his army. The exhaus- 
 tion of the public treasury, and the depreciation of the 
 
 i, e, ), o, u, y long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fat; mit; not; good; moon; 
 
WASHINGTON 
 
 2237 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 currency, were such that he found great difficulty in 
 obtaining food or clothing for his soldiers. In July, 17S0, 
 a French fleet arrived at Newport, Rhode Island, with 
 an armv of 6000 men, which the French government 
 had sent to aid the Americans. While the people were 
 anticipating great advantages from the combined efforts 
 of the French and American armies, treason was in the 
 camp and plotting the ruin of the cause of freedom. 
 Benedict Arnold, who commanded the important fortress 
 of West Point, made arrangements to betray that place 
 into the power of Sir Henry Clinton. In consequence 
 of the capture of Major Andre, in September, the plot 
 was detected and frustrated. (See AmikS, John.) 
 
 In a letter addressed by General Washington to Con- 
 gress in August, 1780, he urged the necessity of forming 
 an army by drafting men for three years or dining the 
 war, and added, " Had we formed a permanent army in 
 the be g i nni ng, which, bv the continuance of the same 
 men in service, had been capable of discipline, we never 
 should have had to retreat with a handful of men across 
 the Delaware in 1776, trembling for the fate of America, 
 which nothing but the infatuation of the enemy could 
 have saved ; ... we should not have been under the 
 necessity of fighting at Brandywine with an unequal 
 number of raw troops, and afterwards of seeing Phila- 
 delphia fall a prey to a victorious army; we should not 
 have been at Valley Forge with less than half the force 
 of the enemy,— destitute of everything. — in a situation 
 neither to resist nor to retire." In November, 1780, 
 General Gates was removed from the command of the 
 Southern army by Congress, which requested Wash- 
 ington to appoint a general in his place. He selected 
 General Greene, whom he commended to Congress 
 as "an officer in whose abilities, fortitude, and integ- 
 rity he had the most entire confidence." The army 
 of which Greene took command at Charlotte, North 
 Carolina, did not much exceed 2200 men, more than 
 half of whom were militia. In December, 1780, the 
 army which General Washington commanded in person 
 retired into winter quarters, the Pennsylvania troops 
 being stationed at Morristown, and another part of the 
 army on the Hudson River, near West Point. In Jan- 
 narv, 1781, a thousand or more of the Pennsylvanians 
 mutinied, and marched towards Philadelphia to demand 
 a redress of their grievances from Congress. This 
 mutiny was suppressed by mild measures, and by satis- 
 fying the claims — which were not unreasonable — of the 
 mutineers. The Articles of Confederation between the 
 States were ratified in February, 1781. 
 
 The principal military operations of 1781 were con- 
 fined to the Southern States. On the 17th of January 
 General Morgan gained at Cowpens, South Carolina, a 
 complete victory over Colonel Tarleton, who lost a1*>ut 
 900 ki'led, wounded, and prisoners. The whole loss 
 of the victors was not more than 80. Compelled to 
 retire before superior numl>ers, General Greene made 
 a rapid retreat from the Catawba to the Dan River, and 
 was closely pursued by Lord Comwallis. His force 
 having been increased to about 4500 men, General 
 Greene resolved to risk a battle, and met the enemy 
 on the 15th of March at Guilford Court-House, North 
 Carolina. In this battle the British gained some ad- 
 vantage, but their loss was severe, and the retiring 
 Americans were not pursued. In April, 1781, Lord 
 Comwallis began to march to Virginia, and General 
 Greene moved his force into South Carolina. On the 
 8th of September General Greene defeated the enemy at 
 Eutaw Springs, and took 500 prisoners. In the spring 
 of 1 781 a force of about 3000 men, under General I>a 
 Fayette, was sent to defend Virginia. He conducted a 
 campaign against Lord Comwallis, bat neither of these 
 commanders gained any decisive advantage. Lord 
 Comwallis collected his troops at Yorktown, Virginia, 
 where he constructed fortifications. Early in September 
 a French fleet of twenty-eight ships, commanded by 
 Count De Grasse, arrived in Chesapeake Bay, and about 
 the same time General Washington moved the combined 
 American and French armies from New York to Vir- 
 
 finia. He began the siege of Yorktown on the 28th of 
 eptember, with an army estimated at 15,000 men, and 
 Lord Comwallis, on the 19th of October, surrendered 
 
 his whole army of 7000 men. This victory was one o. 
 the most important events of the war, and was the sub- 
 ject of enthusiastic rejoicing among the Americans. 
 
 In consequence of a general persuasion that peace 
 was at hand, there was no vigorous prosecution of the 
 war in 1782. On the 3d of September, 1783, a definitive 
 treaty of peace was signed in Paris, by which the British 
 government recognized the independence of the United 
 States. General Washington resigned his commission 
 to Congress, December 23, 1783, and retired to private 
 life, followed by the enthusiastic love and admiration of 
 his countrymen. He passed the ensuing years at Mount 
 Vernon, and resumed his former pursuits of agriculture, 
 etc Meanwhile, the form of confederation which had 
 been adopted by the States in 1 781 was found to be 
 more and more inefficient and impotent. In a letter to 
 James Warren, of Massachusetts, General Washington 
 wrote, "The Confederation appears to me to be little 
 more than a shadow without the substance, and Con- 
 gress a nugatory body. . . . From the high ground on 
 which we stood, we are descending into the vale of con- 
 fusion and darkness." To rescue the nation from this 
 state of anarchy and degradation, a National Convention 
 met at Philadelphia in May, 1787. General Washington 
 was unanimously elected president of this Convention, 
 which, after a session of several months, adopted a new 
 Constitution, that greatly increased the power of the 
 Federal government. He was elected, without opposi- 
 tion, President of the United States for four years from 
 the 4th of March, 1789. Before the election he wrote 
 to Alexander Hamilton, "If I should be prevailed upon 
 to accept it, [the Presidency,] the acceptance would be 
 attended with more diffidence and reluctance than ever 
 I experienced before in my life." He was inaugurated 
 on the 30th of April, in New York, and delivered in the 
 Senate-chamber an inaugural address to both Houses 
 of Congress. In this address he affirmed that " the 
 preservation of the sacred fire of liberty and the destiny 
 of the republican model of government are justly con- 
 sidered as deeply, perhaps as finally, staked on the 
 experiment intrusted to the hands of the American 
 people." He appointed Thomas Jefferson secretary of 
 state, Alexander Hamilton secretary of -the treasury, 
 General Henry Knox secretary of war, and Edmund 
 Randolph attorney-general. Among the difficulties 
 encountered by the President were the deplorable con- 
 dition of the finances and the opposition of a powerful 
 party which disapproved the Federal Constitution and 
 asserted the sovereignty of the States. In January, 1790, 
 Hamilton presented to Congress an able report on the 
 public credit and a plan for the support of the same. 
 The results of this financial policy were the speedy 
 •restoration of the public credit and the revival of trade 
 and other departments of industry. The people became 
 divided into two great parties, called Federalists and 
 Republicans, (or Democrats,) the latter of which insisted' 
 on State rights and wished to reduce the power of the 
 Federal government. Although Washington was not 
 formally committed to either party, his principles and 
 measures were such as necessarily connected him with 
 the Federalists. A great excitement was caused by the 
 French Revolution, in relation to which the Federalists 
 and Democrats differed widely. The latter party, of 
 which lefferson was the leader, desired that the United 
 States should aid the French in the war against Great 
 Britain, while the Federalists advocated the policy of 
 strict neutrality. 
 
 In 1792 Washington was again unanimously elected 
 President, and John Adams, a Federalist, was reelected 
 Vice-President, receiving seventy-seven electoral votes, 
 while his opponent, George Clinton, a Democrat, re- 
 ceived fifty votes. During his second term of office 
 the President resided at Philadelphia, which was then 
 the seat of government. In April, 1793, he issued a 
 proclamation of neutrality, (between the British and the 
 French,) which gave great offence to the Republicans. 
 "The proclamation," says Irving, "was stigmatized as a 
 royal edict and a daring assumption of power." 
 
 M. Genet, the ambassador of the French republic, 
 arrived at Charleston, South Carolina, in April, and 
 issued commissions for privateers, which captured seve- 
 
 «as*;cas.r;g/S<W; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled '; s as *; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WASHINGTON 
 
 2238 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 ral British vessels. The official communications of 
 Genet became so offensive and insulting to the Presi- 
 dent that the American minister to France was in- 
 structed to desire his recall. Jefferson, having failed in 
 his efforts to eject his rival Hamilton from the cabinet, 
 resigned the office of secretary of state in December, 
 1793, and was succeeded by Edmund Randolph, the 
 former attorney-general. When the new Congress met, 
 in December, 1793, it was fdund that the opponents 
 of the administration had a majority in the House of 
 Representatives. The perplexity of the President was 
 increased by the fact that American vessels had been 
 captured by British cruisers, which inflamed the popular 
 heart and reinforced the party which opposed neutrality. 
 Resolving to prevent a war, if possible, by negotia- 
 tions, the President sent John Jay as a special envoy to 
 England, (April, 1794.) "Scarcely has any public act 
 of the President," says Marshall, "drawn upon his ad- 
 ministration a greater degree of censure than this." In 
 January, 1794, the office of secretary of the treasury was 
 resigned by Mr. Hamilton, " who had wasted in the public 
 service a great part of the property acquired by his 
 previous labours." (Marshall.) General Knox having 
 also resigned his place in the cabinet, Timothy Picker- 
 ing was appointed secretary of war, and Oliver Wolcott 
 secretary of the treasury. Mr. Jay negotiated a treaty, 
 which was signed November 19, 1794, and presented to 
 the United States Senate for ratification in June, 1795. 
 This treaty was vehemently opposed and denounced by 
 the Democrats and those who were most partial to the 
 French revolutionists; but it was finally approved by 
 the Senate, and signed by the President, August 18, 
 1795. After the question had been decided, the voice 
 of faction continued to assail the President. " His 
 military and political character," says Marshall, " was 
 attacked with equal violence, and it was averred that 
 he was totally destitute of merit either as a soldier or 
 a statesman. 
 
 In 1795, Timothy Pickering was appointed secretary 
 of state, in the place of Edmund Randolph, who had 
 resigned. In March, 1796, the House of Representatives 
 passed a resolution requesting the President to lay 
 before that House a copy of the instructions given to 
 Mr. Jay, together with the documents relative to the 
 treaty with Great Britain. He declined to comply with 
 their request, affirming that it would establish a dan- 
 gerous precedent to admit the right of the House to 
 demand the papers respecting a foreign negotiation. 
 When La Fayette was confined in the dungeon of 
 Olmiitz, General Washington wrote a private letter to 
 the Emperor of Germany, and entreated him to release 
 that captive. 
 
 Although the people generally wished to elect Gene< 
 ral Washington for a third term, he announced his 
 determination to retire from public life at the end of his 
 second term. He also issued a " Farewell Address to 
 the People of the United States," which, having been 
 revised by Alexander Hamilton, appeared in Septem- 
 ber, 1796, and produced a deep impression. In this 
 address he insisted on the vast importance of union as 
 "a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence ; 
 the support of your tranquillity at home ; your peace 
 abroad ; of your safety ; of your prosperity ; of that 
 very liberty which you so highly prize. But, as it is 
 easy to foresee that much pains will be taken, many 
 artifices employed, to weaken in your minds the convic- 
 tion of this truth ; as this is the point in your political 
 fortress against which the batteries of internal and ex- 
 ternal enemies will be most constantly and actively 
 (though often covertly and insidiously) directed, it is of 
 infinite moment that you should properly estimate the 
 immense value of your national union to your collect- 
 ive and individual happiness." He also advised the 
 people to have as little political connection as possible 
 with foreign nations, and to " steer clear of permanent 
 alliances with any portion of the foreign world." 
 
 On the 7th of December, 1796, the President met for 
 the last time the Houses of Congress, to which he made 
 a dignified address. His official career terminated March 
 4, 1797, and he then retired to Mount Vernon, leaving 
 the nation in a state of great prosperity. The capture 
 
 of American vessels by French cruisers led to hostilities 
 between the United States and France, although there 
 was no formal declaration of war. In this emergency, 
 the government of the United States raised an army of 
 about 10,000 men, of which General Washington was 
 appointed commander-in-chief, July, 1798. He accepted 
 this appointment on the condition that Colonel Hamil- 
 ton should be the second in command. The selection 
 of Hamilton as second in command was also desired by 
 the public, but was not in accordance with the will of 
 President Adams, who, however, finally assented. Be- 
 fore the question of war or peace had been decided, 
 Washington died, without issue, at Mount Vernon, after 
 a short illness, on the 14th of December, 1799. A few 
 hours before his death, he said, " I look to the event with 
 p&rfect resignation." His disease was acute laryngitis. 
 \T' On learning the death of Washington, the House of 
 (^Representatives resolved, "That a committee be ap- 
 'pointed to consider the most suitable manner of paying 
 honour to the memory of the Man first in war, first in 
 peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen."* 
 
 General Washington had inherited a number of slaves, 
 whom he emancipated by his last will. In a letter to 
 Mr. Morris, in 1786, he said, " There is not a man living 
 who wishes more sincerely than I do, to see a plan 
 adopted for the abolition of slavery." 
 
 In stature General Washington was six feet and two 
 inches high, with a frame well proportioned and firmly 
 knit. His hair was brown, his eyes blue and far apart. 
 He was remarkable from boyhood for his great physical 
 strength. It is related that in his youth he threw a 
 stone across the Rappahannock opposite his father's 
 house, — a feat which has never, it is said, been performed 
 by any one since that time. When young, he was ever 
 foremost among his companions in all athletic sports, 
 and was especially distinguished as a skilful and fearless 
 horseman. t He was scrupulously attentive to his dress 
 and personal appearance. His manner, though gentle 
 and gracious, was in public characterized by a certain 
 military dignity and reserve. He was proverbial for 
 punctuality as well as for truthfulness. 
 
 In the whole history of mankind, few, if any, great 
 men will be found more worthy of our heartfelt esteem 
 and admiration than Washington^/ Without any of the 
 dazzling gifts of genius, without perhaps possessing 
 talents of the very highest order, yet his various powers 
 were so admirably proportioned and adjusted to each 
 other, so under the control of lofty moral principle and 
 a high heroic will, which neither the extremity of peril 
 or disaster, the fiercest blasts of obloquy, nor the seduc- 
 tions of ambition had power to shake, that, though he 
 may have been surpassed by many in some single point, 
 if we consider his character as a whole, we shall scarcely 
 find his equal, and shall search in vain for his superior. 
 One result of the admirable equipoise and harmony of 
 his powers was a wisdom of the rarest order. It is well 
 known that wisdom is not the product of one or two 
 faculties, but the combined result of many, including 
 the moral as well as intellectual. Napoleon, with all 
 his transcendent genius, was in wisdom far inferior to 
 Washington.. No man of his day more clearly foresaw 
 the future dangers to which our country would be ex- 
 posed, or showed more distinctly and forcibly how they 
 were to be avoided, than Washington. And of all men 
 that ever lived, he may be said to have most truly and 
 fully merited the glorious title of " Pater Patriae," the 
 " Father of his Country." 
 
 His great rival Jefferson, who differed from him widely 
 on questions of state policy and other points, bears the 
 following testimony to his character : " His integrity 
 was the most pure, his justice the most inflexible, I have 
 ever known, — no motives of interest or consanguinity, 
 
 * The original form of this celebrated expression was, " first in 
 war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his fellow-citizens." In 
 the funeral oration pronounced hy General Lee, thewoid " country- 
 men" was substituted for " fellow-citizens," as being: both shorter 
 and more euphonious ; and with this change the passage is commonly 
 quoted. 
 
 t "His person," says Jefferson, "was fine, his stature exactly 
 what one would wish, his deportment easy, erect, and noble : the 
 best horseman of his age, and the most graceful figure that could be 
 seen, on horseback." (Tucker's " Life of Jefferson.") 
 
 i, e, I, o, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short: a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
WASHINGTON 
 
 2239 
 
 WATH1EZ 
 
 of friendship or hatred, being able to bins his decision. 
 He was indeed, in every sense of the word, a wise, 
 a good, and a great man. His temper was naturally 
 irritable and high-toned ; but reflection and resolution 
 had obtained a firm and habitual ascendency over it." 
 (Tucker's " Life of Jefferson.") 
 
 "In him," says Marshall, " that innate and unassuming 
 modesty which adulation would have offended, which the 
 voluntary plaudits of millions could not betray into in- 
 discretion, was happily blended with a high and correct 
 sense of personal dignity, and with a just consciousness 
 of that respect which is due to station." 
 
 "How grateful," says Lord Brougham, "the relief 
 which the friend of mankind, the lover of virtue, experi- 
 ences, when, turning from the contemplation of such a 
 character, [Napoleon I.,] his eye rests upon the greatest 
 man of our own or of any age ! ... It will be the duty 
 of the historian and the sage, in all ages, to omit no 
 occasion pf commemorating this illustrious man ; and 
 until time shall be no more will a test of the progress 
 which our race has made in wisdom and virtue be de- 
 rived from the veneration paid to the immortal name of 
 Washington." ("Edinburgh Review" for October, 183S.) 
 
 See John Marshall, "Life of George Washington." 5 vols., 
 1804-07; Washington Irving, "Life of George Wellington," 5 
 vols., 1855-59: Jared Sparks, "The Life and Writings of George 
 Washington: being his Correspondence, Messages." etc., 12 vols. 
 8vo, 1833-40; J. K. Paulding, "Life of G. Washington," 2 vols., 
 1835 ; F. Guizot, " Essai stir la Vie dn General Washington," 1839 : 
 Louts uk Fontanes, " E*lnge de Washington," 1S00 ; A. Banurokt, 
 "Essay on the Life of G. Washington." iS'07; James Madison, 
 "Discourse on the Death of General Washington," isoo; Fisher 
 Ames, "Oration on the Sublime Virtues of Washington." 1800; 
 Wkems, "Life of G. Washington." 1S05: D. Ramsay, "Life of G. 
 Washington," 1807: EdiTaru Gkhh, " Lehen Washington's," '838: 
 F. Guizot, "Washington: Fondation de la R->miblio,ue dcs E*tats- 
 Unis," etc., 2 vols.. 1850; J. T. Hemh.kv. "Washington and his 
 Generals," 2 vols., 1847; Peter Parley. " Life of Washington." 
 1837 ; Bancroft. " Histoty of the United States ;" Gosch, " Wash- 
 ington nnd die Befreinng der Nordainerikanischen Freistaaten," 3 
 vols., 1815. See, also, the interesting article on Washington in the 
 "New American Cyclopaedia," (by Edward Everett.) 
 
 ■Washington, wosh'ing-ton, (Captain John,) R.N., 
 an English officer and hydrographer. He served in 
 the American war of 1812, and rose through several 
 promotions to the rank of commander in 1833. Being 
 appointed in 1841 to continue the survey of the North 
 Sea, he examined that part of it lying between lati- 
 tude 52° 10' and the coast of the Netherlands. He was 
 made post-captain in 1842, and hydrographer to the 
 admiralty in 1855. l ^ e ' las a ' so been elected a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a "Geo- 
 graphical Notice of the Empire of Marocco," and other 
 treatises, in the "Journal of the Royal Geographical 
 Society." 
 
 Washington, (John A.,) proprietor of Mount Ver- 
 non, Virginia. He was taken prisoner by Captain John 
 , Brown near Harper's Ferry, October 16, 1859. He 
 took arms against the Union, became a colonel, and 
 was killed on Cheat Mountain in September, 1861. 
 
 Washington, (William Augustine,) an American 
 officer of the Revolution, born in Stafford county, Vir- 
 ginia, in 1752, was a relative of General Washington. 
 He was present at the battles of Trenton and Princeton, 
 commanded the cavalry at Cowpens, and was made a 
 brigadier-general in 1798. Died in 1810. 
 
 Wasmuth, vvas'moot, (Matthias,) a German Orien- 
 talist, born at Kiel in 1025. He became professor of 
 Oriental languages at Kiel, and published, besides other 
 works, an Arabic Grammar, (1654.) Died in 1688. 
 
 Wasse, w6ss, (JOSEPH,! an English scholar, born in 
 Yorkshire in 1672, became rector of Aynhoe. He pub- 
 lished an edition of Sallust, (1710,) and wrote several 
 essays on various subjects. Bentley is reported to have 
 said, " When I am dead, Wasse will be the most learned 
 man in England." Died in 1738. 
 
 Wassenaer, van, vSn was'seh-niR', (Gerard,) a 
 Dutch jurist, born at Utrecht in 1585 ; died in 1664. 
 
 Wassenaer, van, (Jacob,) a Dutch admiral, born 
 about 1610. He succeeded Van Tromp as commander 
 of the fleet in 1653, and was killed in a battle against 
 the English in 1665. 
 
 Wassenberg or Wasaenbergh, von, fon vVis'sen- 
 Mrg, (Everard,) a German historian, born at Emme- 
 
 rich in 1610. He published " Florus Germanicus," 
 (1640,) which treats of the wars waged by Ferdinand II. 
 and Ferdinand HI. from 1627 to 1640. Died after 1672. 
 See Crank, " Vita E. van Wassenbergh," 182S. 
 
 Wassian. See Vasian. 
 
 Wast or Waast, wost or vast, [Lat. Vedas'tus,] 
 Saint, a French ecclesiastic, who became Bishop of 
 Arras about 500 A.D. Died in 540. 
 
 See Alcuin, " Vita Vedasti ;" Gazet, " Vie de Saint-Wast," 
 1622. 
 
 Wastelain, vts'teh-las', ? (Charles,) a Belgian his- 
 torian and Jesuit, born in Hainault in 1695. He pub- 
 lished a "Description of Belgian Gaul in Three Ages of 
 History," (1 761.) Died in 1782. 
 
 Wateau. See Wattkau. 
 
 Watelet, vttli', (Claude Henri,) a French ama- 
 teur artist and writer upon art, was born in Paris in 
 1718. He was the author of a didactic poem, entitled 
 "The Art of Painting,'" ("L'Art de Peindre," 1760,) 
 "Essay on Gardens," (1774,) and "Dictionary of the 
 Arts of Painting, Sculpture, and Engraving," (5 vols., 
 1792.) The last-named work was completed by M. 
 Levesque. Watelet etched a number of portraits and 
 other pieces of great excellence. In 1760 he was ad- 
 mitted into the French Academy. He was identified 
 with the philosophic party, and contributed to the "En- 
 cyclopedic'' of Diderot. Died in 1786. 
 
 See Marmontel, " Memoires;" Morbllet, "Mdmoires." 
 
 Watelet, (Lotus Etienne,) a French landscape- 
 painter, born in Paris in 1780. He painted French, 
 Italian, and Belgian scenery. He gained a first medal 
 in 1819. 
 
 Wa'ttjr-house, (Benjamin,) M.D., an American 
 physician, born at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1754, 
 studied at London and Edinburgh, and graduated at 
 Leyden. After his return he became professor of the 
 theory and practice of physic in the medical school of 
 Harvard College, continuing to fill this post for thirty 
 years. Died at Cambridge in 1S46. 
 
 Wa'ter-house, (Edward,) an English writer, born 
 in 1619. He published "An Apologv for Learning and 
 Learned Men," and other works. Died in 1670. 
 
 Wa't?r-land, (Daniel,) D.D., an English theolo- 
 gian, born in Lincolnshire in 1683. He studied at Mag 
 dalene College, Cambridge, and subsequently became 
 one of the chaplains-in-ordinary to George I. He was 
 engaged in a controversy with Dr. Clarke and other 
 champions of the Arian party, and published " A Vin- 
 dication of Christ's Divinity," " Critical History of the 
 Athanasian Creed," "Scripture Vindicated," etc., and 
 other works. He became Archdeacon of Middlesex in 
 1730. Died in 1740. 
 
 See Bishop Van Mildert, "Life of Waterland," prefixed to his 
 works. 
 
 Waterloo, waw'ter-loo', [Dutch pron. wa'ter-16',1 
 (Antoni,) an eminent Dutch landscape-painter and 
 engraver, born near Utrecht about 1618. His etchings 
 are numerous, and are ranked among the best works 
 of the kind. Died in 1662. 
 
 See Charles Blanc, "Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Wa'te,r-ton, (Charles,) an English naturalist and 
 traveller, born about 1782. He visited South America 
 in the early part of his life, and published in 1825 
 " Wanderings in South America, the Northwest of the 
 United States, and the Antilles." He also wrote 
 " Essays on Natural History." Died in 1865. 
 
 See " Charles Waterton, his Home, Habits." etc., London, 1866: 
 "Edinburgh Review" for February, 1826, (by Svdnry Smith;) 
 "London Magazine" for March, 1826; " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 December, 1857. 
 
 Wathek-Billah, Al, al wa'thek bil'lah, written also 
 Vathek and Wathik, i Aboo Jaafar Haroon, (or 
 Harfln,) a'b<5o jl'afar hl'ioon',) an Abbasside Caliph 
 of Bagdad, was born in 81 1 A.D. He succeeded his 
 father, Motassem, in 842, and endeavoured to maintain 
 the literary splendour which had distinguished the reigns 
 of his predecessors; but he is censured for cruelty and 
 intolerance. Died in 847 A.D. 
 
 See Whil, "Geschichte der Chalifen." 
 
 Wathiez, vt'te-4', (Francois Isidore,) Vicomte, a 
 French general, born at Versailles in 1777. He served 
 
 « as *.• 9 as /,- g hard; g as/; G, H, K.,gvtturai; N, n tsal; r, trilled; ! as «,• »h as in this. ( $&~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WATKINS 
 
 2240 
 
 WATT 
 
 as captain at Austerlitz (1805) and Jena, (1806.) and 
 became a general of brigade in 1813. Died in 1855- 
 
 Watkins, wot'kinz, (Charles Frederick,) an Eng- 
 lish clergyman, born in Wiltshire about 1 795. He pub- 
 lished several poems, an " Introduction to Geology," 
 and other works. 
 
 Watkinson, wSt'kin-stjn, (David,) born in Suffolk, 
 England, in 1778, emigrated to America, and acquired a 
 large fortune by merchandise at Hartford, Connecticut. 
 He died in 1857, leaving $40,000 to found a juvenile 
 asylum and farm school for neglected children, $100,000 
 for a library in connection with the Historical Society 
 of Connecticut, and other munificent bequests. 
 
 Wats, w6ts, (Gilbert,) an English translator, born 
 in Yorkshire about 1600, became a Fellow of Lincoln 
 College, Oxford. He translated Davila's " History of 
 the Civil Wars of France" and Lord Bacon's " De 
 Augmentis Scientiarum." Died in 1657. 
 
 Watson, wot'son, (Caroline,) a skilful English en- 
 graver, born in London about 1760. She engraved 
 many portraits. Died about 1812. 
 
 Watson, (Charles,) an English admiral, born in 
 1714. He served with distinction against the Spaniards 
 in the campaigns of 1744 and 1 747, and was made rear- 
 admiral of the blue in 1748. He accompanied Colonel 
 Clive to India in 1754, and had a prominent part in the 
 capture of Chandernagore, in 1757. Died the same year. 
 
 Watson, wftt'son, (David,) a Scottish classical 
 scholar, born in 1710. He produced a prose transla- 
 tion of Horace. Died in 1756. 
 
 Watson, wot'son, (Ei.kanah,) a merchant, born at 
 Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1758. He resided many 
 years at Albany, and distinguished himself by promoting 
 various public works, and by his efforts in the cause of 
 education. He was the founder of the first agricultural 
 society in the State of New York. He wrote memoirs 
 entitled "Men and Times of the Revolution," (1856.) 
 Died in 1842. 
 
 Watson, (Henry,) Colonel, a British military 
 engineer and mathematician, born in Lincolnshire in 
 1737. He accompanied Lord Clive to India, and gained 
 distinction as chief engineer in Bengal and Orissa. He 
 died in England in 1786, or, as some say, in 1780. 
 
 Watson, (HevVEI'T C.,) an English botanist, born in 
 Yorkshire about 1804. He gained distinction as a 
 writer on botany, etc. Among his works is an able 
 treatise on the geographical distribution of plants, en- 
 titled "Cylrele Britannica," (3 vols. 8vo, 1847-55.) 
 
 Watson, (James,) a Scottish printer, born at Aber- 
 deen about 1675. He published a newspaper in Edin- 
 burgh, a " History of the Art of Printing," and a Bible, 
 (1715,) remarkable for the beauty of the typography. 
 Died in 1722. 
 
 Watson, (John,) Rev., an English historian, born in 
 Cheshire in 1724, became rector of Stockport. His chief 
 work is a " History of Halifax," (1775.) Died in 1783. 
 
 Watson, (John,) M.D., a distinguished physician, 
 born at Londonderry, Ireland, in 1807. Having emigrated 
 to America, he became in 1833 one of the physicians of 
 the New York Dispensary. He was one of the founders 
 of the American Medical Association and of the New 
 York Academy of Medicine, and has published a num- 
 ber of medical works. 
 
 Watson, (John Fanning,) an American antiquary 
 and historical writer, born in Burlington county, New 
 Jersey, in 1780. lie published "Annals of Philadelphia," 
 (1830,) "Historic Tales of the Olden Times in New 
 York," (1832,) and other similar works. He resided for 
 many years in Philadelphia. Died in i860. 
 
 ■Watson, (Richard,) D.D., an English divine and 
 miscellaneous writer, born in Westmoreland in 1737. 
 He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, as a sizar in 
 1754, and in 1767 was appointed one of the head tutors. 
 Having taken his degree of M. A., he was chosen in 1764 
 to succeed Dr. Hadley as professor of chemistry, and 
 m 1 77 1 became regins professor of theology. He rose 
 through various minor preferments to be Bishop of 
 Llandaff in 1782. He had already published several 
 works of a political nature, one of which was entitled 
 "The Principles of the Revolution Vindicated." His 
 "Letter to Archbishop Cornwallis on the Church Reve- 
 
 nues" came out in 1783. Among his other writings 
 may be named his "Apology for Christianity, in a Series 
 of Letters addressed to Edward Gibbon, Esq.," (1776,) 
 " An Apology for the Bible," (1796,) in answer to Thomas 
 Paine, "Chemical Essays," and "Miscellaneous Tracts 
 on Religious, Political, and Agricultural Subjects," (1815.) 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 See " Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson, Bishop of 
 Llandaff," by himself: Ai.libone, " Dictionary of Authors ;" " Kdin- 
 btirgh Review" for June, 1S1S; "London Quarterly Review" for 
 October, 1817 ; " Monthly Review" for February and March, 181S. 
 
 ■Watson, (Richard,) an English Methodist divine, 
 born at Barton-upon-Humber in 1781, was appointed in 
 1817 one of the secretaries of the Missionary Society. 
 He published " A Defence of the Wesleyan Methodist 
 Missions in the West Indies," "Theological Institutes," 
 etc., " Biblical and Theological Dictionary," and other 
 works. Died in 1833. 
 
 See " Life of Richard Watson," by T. Jackson. 
 
 Watson, (Robert,) a Scottish historian, born at 
 Saint Andrew's in 1 730. He studied at Glasgow and 
 Edinburgh, and became in 1777 principal of the united 
 colleges of Saint I^onard and Saint Salvador at Saint 
 Andrew's. He published the same year a good " His- 
 tory of Philip II. of Spain," which enjoyed considerable 
 popularity for a time; but it has been eclipsed by the 
 more elaborate works of Motley and Prescott. He died 
 in 1780, leaving an unfinished "History of Philip III." 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen :" 
 Ai.libone, " Dictionary* of Authors;" " Monthly Review" for April, 
 >777- 
 
 ■Watson, (Thomas,) an English nonconformist min- 
 ister, became rector of Saint Stephen's, Walbrook, Lon- 
 don, in 1646. He was ejected about 1662, after which 
 he preached occasionally. He wrote, besides other 
 works, a " Body of Divinity," (1692.) Died about 1690. 
 
 Watson, (Thomas,) an English bishop and Roman 
 Catholic. He was appointed Bishop of Lincoln in 1557, 
 but on the accession of Elizabeth he was imprisoned. 
 He died in prison in 1582. 
 
 Watson, (Sir William,) F.R.S., an English phy- 
 sician and botanist, born in London in 1 71 5. He ob- 
 tained the Copley medal in 1745 for his discoveries in 
 electricity. He contributed to the " Philosophical Trans- 
 actions." Died in 1787. 
 
 ■Watson, (William,) an English Catholic priest, 
 who formed a conspiracy against James I. in the early 
 part of his reign. He was convicted of high treason 
 and executed in 1603. 
 
 See Gardiner, " History of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. i 
 chap. ii. 
 
 Watson, (William R.,) an American political writer, 
 born in Rhode Island in 1799. He was an active Whig 
 politician. Died at Providence in 1864. 
 
 Watt, w6t, (GREGORY,) a British geologist, born in 
 1777, was a son of the celebrated James Watt. He be- 
 came a partner in the firm of Boulton & Watt in 1794, 
 after which he studied in the University of Glasgow. 
 Having been advised by a physician to pass the winter 
 in the west of England for the benefit of his health, 
 he repaired in 1797 to Penzance, where he formed an 
 intimacy with Humphry Davy. He wrote, in 1804, 
 " Observations on Basalt, and on the Transition from 
 the Vitreous to the Stony Texture which occurs in 
 the Gradual Refrigeration of Melted Basalt." Died in 
 October, 1804. 
 
 Watt, (James,) a Scottish engineer, philosopher, and 
 inventor of great merit and celebrity, was born at Green- 
 ock, on the Clyde, on the 19th of January, 1736. He 
 was a son of James Watt, merchant, builder, and ship- 
 chandler. His mother's name was Agnes' Muirhead or 
 Muirheid. Being a child of delicate constitution, he was 
 educated mostly at home. His favourite studies and 
 pursuits were the experimental sciences and practical 
 mechanics. Having adopted the trade of maker of 
 mathematical instruments, he went to London in 1755 
 and served an apprenticeship of one year with John 
 Morgan. In 1756 he returned to Scotland, with the 
 intention to settle at Glasgow ; but, as he was not a bur- 
 gess, the corporation of arts and trades would not permit 
 him to open a workshop in that city. The professors of 
 the University of Glasgow then offered him a place of 
 
 i, i, 1, 5, ii, y, long: 4, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, 6, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure: far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
WATT 
 
 2241 
 
 WATT 
 
 business within their precincts, and gave him the title 
 of mathematical instrument maker to the University. 
 He employed his evenings in the profound study of 
 various sciences, learned most of the modern languages 
 of Europe, and formed intimate friendships with Robi- 
 son, Black, and other professors at Glasgow. In 1764 
 he married his cousin, Miss Miller, and, as his wife was 
 the daughter of a burgess, he was then permitted to open 
 a shop in Glasgow. 
 
 About 1764 he was employed to repair a model of 
 Newcomen's steam-engine which was used in the class- 
 room of the university, and perceived defects in it which 
 induced him to make experiments on the application of 
 steam-power. He discovered that water, when converted 
 into steam, is expanded to eighteen hundred times its 
 bulk. He ascertained that in the " atmospheric" engine 
 of Newcomen there was a great waste of the steam which 
 was condensed by the injection of cold water into the 
 cylinder, and that to prevent this waste the cylinder 
 must be continually kept as hot as the steam which enters 
 it. In 1765 the fortunate idea occurred to him of con- 
 densing the steam in a separate vessel, which should be 
 exhausted of air and always kept cool. "This capital 
 improvement," savs Dr. Black, " flashed on his mind at 
 once, and filled him with rapture." (" History of Mr. 
 Watt's Improvement of the Steam-Engine.") Another 
 improvement which he invented about this time was the 
 use of the expansive force of steam to depress the piston, 
 instead of the pressure of the atmosphere. 
 
 He ceased to make mathematical instruments in 1768, 
 after which he pursued the business of land-surveyor and 
 civil engineer. He obtained a patent for his invention in 
 January, 1769, and was supplied with some capital requi- 
 site to reduce his improvements to practice, by Dr. John 
 Roebuck, who had a share in the patent, liefore Watt 
 could realize any profit from his new engine, Dr. Roe- 
 buck became insolvent, or so embarrassed that he could 
 not advance any more funds. In a letter dated August, 
 1772, Watt writes, "I pursued my experiments till I 
 found that the expense and loss of time lying wholly 
 upon me, through the distress of Dr. Roebuck's situa- 
 tion, turned out to be a greater burthen than I could 
 support, and I was obliged for a time to abandon my 
 project. Notwithstanding my natural despondence, I am 
 convinced that the machine mav be made to answer in a 
 very considerable degree, and in more forms than one, 
 but that I am by no means the proper person to carry it 
 into execution." 
 
 Watt was employed as surveyor or engineer in the 
 construction of several canals, bridges, and other works 
 in Scotland during the period from 1769 to 1773. Roe- 
 buck, who had advanced jfiooo to the inventor, trans- 
 ferred in 1774 his share in the patent {i.e. two-thirds) to 
 Matthew Boulton, of Soho, an enterprising man of busi- 
 ness, who entered into partnership with Watt for the 
 manufacture of steam-engines at Soho, near Birmingham. 
 Boulton and Watt applied to Parliament for an ex- 
 tension of the term of their patent, and obtained the 
 exclusive right to make and vend the new engine for a 
 term of twenty-five years, (1775-1800.) A great saving 
 of fuel was effected by the improvements of Watt, whose 
 engines were soon extensively used to pump water out 
 of the mines of Cornwall. In 1782 he took out a patent 
 for the invention of the double-acting engine, in which 
 the reciprocating rectilinear motion was converted into 
 rotatory motion. 
 
 He afterwards invented several improvements, among 
 which are the governor or "regulator by centrifugal 
 force," the mechanism of parallel motion, the throttle- 
 valve, and the steam barometer or float. The manufac- 
 tory of engines at Soho was successful, and enriched 
 both of the partners. 
 
 In 1783 Watt made an important chemical discovery, 
 — the composition of water; but the honour of this dis- 
 covery is claimed for Cavendish by some writers. To 
 the substances which unite to form water, Watt applied 
 the terms "phlogiston" and "dephlogisticated air." Dr. 
 Dalton, in his "New System of Chemical Philosophy," 
 (1810,) says, "The composition and decomposition of 
 water were ascertained, the former by Watt and Caven- 
 dish, and the latter by Lavoisier and Meusnier." An- 
 
 other eminent chemist, Dr. Henry, wrote to James 
 Watt, Junior, "There is no room for doubt as to your 
 father's priority." The honour of this discovery was 
 also ascribed to Watt by Sir D. Brewster, Lord Jeffrey, 
 and M. Dumas. (See a review of this controversy in 
 an article entitled " Watt or Cavendish," by Lord Jeffrey, 
 in the " Edinburgh Review" for January, 184S.) Watt 
 was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 
 1785. He remained in partnership with Boulton until 
 1800, and then resigned his business to his two sons. In 
 1814 he was elected one of the eight foreign associates 
 of the French Institute. Having lost his first wife in 
 1773, he married a Miss MacGregor a few years later. 
 He died at Heathfield, near Birmingham, in August, 
 1819. In the same year Lord Jeffrey composed a eulogy 
 on Watt, from which we quote as follows : " By hts 
 admirable contrivances, it [the steam-engine] has become 
 a thing stupendous alike for its force and its flexibility, 
 for the prodigious power which it can exert, and the 
 ease and precision and ductility with which 'it can be 
 varied, distributed, and applied. The trunk of an 
 elephant, that can pick up a pin or rend an oak, is as 
 nothing to it. It can draw out, without breaking, a 
 thread as fine as gossamer, and lift a ship of war like a 
 bauble in the air. . . . He had infinite quickness of 
 apprehension, a prodigious memory, and a certain recti- 
 fying and methodizing power of understanding, which 
 extracted something precious out of all that was pre- 
 sented to it. His stores of miscellaneous knowledge 
 were immense, and yet less astonishing than the com-. 
 mand he had at all times over them. " I look upon 
 him," says the poet Wordsworth, "considering both the 
 magnitude and the universality of his genius, as per- 
 haps the most extraordinary man that this country ever 
 produced."* 
 
 See J. P. Muirhead, " Life of James Watt," 1858, and " The 
 Origin and Progress of the Mechanical Inventions of J. Watt, illus- 
 trated by his Correspondence," 3 vols., 1854^ F. Arago, "Vie do 
 Watt," 1818; Chamrrrs, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent 
 Scotsmen :" Samuhl Smiles " Brief Biographies ;" Lord Jkfprey, 
 article on Watt in the " Edinburgh Review" fori8io; Dr. Hoefer, 
 article in the " N'ouvelle Biographie Generale ;" J. Forres, "Dis- 
 sertation" in the 8th edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica ;" 
 " London Quarterly Review" for October, 1858 ; " North British 
 Review" for February, 1847, and May, 1855. 
 
 Watt, (Tames.) the eldest son of the preceding, was 
 born in February, 1769. He studied natural philosophy, 
 chemistrv, and mineralogy, and learned to speak the 
 French language fluently. About 1790 he went to 
 Paris, became inflamed with enthusiasm for liberty and 
 equality, and took an active part in the Revolution. " He 
 was for some time," says Muirhead, "in company with 
 Thomas Cooper and Wordsworth the poet, in the habit 
 of associating with many of those men who afterwards 
 attained a dreadful celebrity, and, as Southey has men- 
 tioned, was at that time the means of preventing a duel 
 between Danton and Robespierre." ("Life of James 
 Watt.") Robespierre having in 1792 insinuated that 
 Watt was an emissary of Pitt, Watt sprang on the 
 tribune of the Jacobin Club and defended himself in a 
 brief and impassioned speech, after which he instantly 
 quitted Paris. In 1S00 he became a partner of Boulton 
 the younger in the manufacture of engines at Soho. He 
 rendered some services to the cause of steam-navigation 
 by experiments on marine engines. In 181 7 he made a 
 voyage to Holland in the steamboat Caledonia, which 
 he owned, and which was the first that crossed the 
 Channel. He died, unmarried, at Aston Hall, in 1848. 
 
 Watt, (James Henry,) an eminent English engraver, 
 born in London in 1799, was a pupil of Charles Heath. 
 Among his master-pieces we may name "The High- 
 land Drover's Departure" and " Horses at the Fountain," 
 after Landseer, and "Christ Blessing Little Children," 
 after F.astlake. Died in 1867. 
 
 Watt, (Robert,) a Scottish physician and medical 
 writer, born in Ayrshire in 1774. He was president of 
 the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons at Glasgow, 
 and published, among other works, a " Treatise on the 
 History, Nature, and Treatment of Chin-Cough." He 
 also compiled the "Bibliotheca Britannica, or a General 
 
 * Quoted in Muirhead's " Life of Watt." 
 
 < as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as »; th as in this. 
 
 I 4 t 
 
 (S^f—See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WATTEAU 
 
 2242 
 
 WEALE 
 
 Index to British and Foreign Literature," (4 vols., 1820.) 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 Watteau or Wateau, vt'to', (Antoine,) a French 
 painter, born at Valenciennes in 1684. He studied under 
 Gillot and Audran, and acquired great celebrity in his 
 peculiar department of the art. His favourite subjects 
 were rural festivals, balls, masquerades, and military 
 encampments, and in these he was perhaps unsurpassed. 
 Horace Walpole observes, " Watteau's shepherdesses 
 — nay, his very sheep — are coquet ; yet, though he fell 
 short of the dignified grace of the Italians, there is an 
 easy air in his figures, and that more familiar species of 
 the graceful which we call genteel." His works are very 
 numerous, and the greater part have been engraved. 
 They were greatly admired by Frederick the Great of 
 Prussia, and many of the best are to be seen at Berlin. 
 Died in 1721. 
 
 See Walpole, " Anecdotes of Painting;" Leon Dumont, "An- 
 toine Watteau," 1866 : A. Uinaux. " Notice sur A. Watteau," 183.} ; 
 Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres ;" " Nouvelle Biographie 
 Generate." 
 
 Watteville, de, deh vit'vel', ( Adolphe du Grabe — 
 dii grtb,) Baron, a French economist, born in Paris in 
 1799. He wrote several works on charitable institu- 
 tions, etc. 
 
 Wattier, vS'te^', (Charles Emile, ) a French 
 painter of history and genre, was born in Paris in 1800. 
 
 Watts, wots, (Alaric Alexander,) an English 
 journalist and litterateur, born in London in 1799. He 
 edited successively the "Leeds Intelligencer," "Man- 
 chester Courier," "The Literary Souvenir," and "The 
 United Service Gazette." He also published "Lyrics 
 of the Heart, and other Poems," (1851.) His wife, the 
 sister of J. H. Widen, has published "The Juvenile 
 Poetical Library," and contributed the letter-press to 
 " Hogarth's Tableaux," and other similar works. Died 
 in 1864. 
 
 See " Fraser's Magazine" for June, 1835. 
 
 Watts, (George Frederick,) an English painter, 
 born in London in 1820. Among his principal works 
 we may name his "Orlando pursuing the Fata Mor- 
 gana," "Alfred inciting the Saxons to Maritime Enter- 
 prise," and "The School of Legislation," a fresco, in 
 Lincoln's Inn. 
 
 Watts, (Isaac,) an eminent English divine and sacred 
 poet, bom at Southampton in 1674. He was educated 
 at an Independent academy in London, where he distin- 
 guished himself by his attainments in theology, Hebrew, 
 logic, and Latin poetry. In 1696 he became tutor to the 
 son of Sir John Hartopp, at Stoke Newington, and in 
 1702 succeeded Dr. Chauncy as pastor of the Inde- 
 pendent Church in Mark Lane, London. Having been 
 attacked with a severe illness in 1712, he was compelled 
 to retire for a time from his office, and, on the invitation 
 of Sir Thomas Abney, went to reside in his family at 
 Theobalds, where he remained till his death, a period 
 of nearly forty years. He died in 1748, and a monument 
 was erected over his grave by his devoted friends Sir 
 John Hartopp and Lady Abney. Among his principal 
 works we may name " Divine Songs attempted in Easy 
 Language for the Use of Children," (1720,) "Logic, or 
 the Right Use of Reason in the Inquiry after Truth," 
 etc.," (1725,) "The Improvement of the Mind," (1741,) 
 "Three Dissertations relating to the Christian Doctrine 
 of the Trinity," "The Art of Reading and Writing 
 English," and " Horae Lyricae." 
 
 See Robert Southev, "Memoir of Isaac Watts;" Thomas 
 Gibbons, " Memoirs of Isaac Watts ;" Johnson, " Lives of the Eng- 
 lish Poets," vol. i. ; - Drake, "Essays;" "North British Review" 
 for August, 1851. 
 
 Watts, (Thomas,) an Englishman, born in London, 
 was employed many years in the British Museum, and 
 caused one hundred thousand volumes of American 
 books to be added to the library. He was appointed 
 keeper of the printed books of that museum in 1866. 
 Died in 1869. 
 
 Wat Tyler. See Tyler. 
 
 Waugh, waw, (Alexander,) a Scottish minister of 
 the United Secession Church, bom in Berwickshire in 
 1754. He settled in London in 1782, became an elo- 
 
 quent and popular minister, and preached in that city 
 forty-four years. Died in 1827. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Wauters, wow'ters, ? (Charles Auoustin,) a Bel- 
 gian painter of high reputation, was born at Boom in 
 181 1. Among his works are "The Passage of the Red 
 Sea," and " Peter the Hermit preaching a Crusade." He 
 became a resident of Brussels. 
 
 Wawrzecki, vav-zhets'kee, (Thomas,) Count, a 
 Polish general, succeeded Kosciusko as commander of 
 the army in 1794. On the capture of Warsaw by Su- 
 warow, November, 1794, he retired to Sandomir, where 
 he was taken prisoner. He was liberated in 1797. Died 
 in 1816. 
 
 Way'land, (Francis,) D.D., an eminent Baptist 
 divine, born in New York in March, 1796. He gradu- 
 ated at Union College in 1813, and subsequently studied 
 at the Andover Theological Seminary. In 1826 he was 
 chdsen president of Brown University at Providence, 
 Rhode Island. Among his principal works are " Ele- 
 ments of Moral Science," (1835,) "Elements of Political 
 Economy," (1837,) "Limitations of Human Responsi- 
 bility," (1840,) a correspondence with Dr. Fuller on the 
 subject of slavery, entitled "Christianity and Slavery," 
 (1845,) and "Intellectual Philosophy," (1854.) Died in 
 1865. "I think," says R. YV. Griswold, "that his 
 'Treatise on Human Responsibility' will be looked 
 upon as one of the great guiding monuments of human 
 thought in the department to which it refers." 
 
 See Griswold, " Prose Writers of America," p. 364 : Allibone, 
 "Dictionary of Authors;" "Memoirs of Francis Wayland," by his 
 sons, 1867. 
 
 Wayne, (Anthony,) an able American general, born 
 in Chester county Pennsylvania, in January, 1745. He 
 followed the business of a surveyor in his youth, formed 
 a friendship with Dr. Franklin, and married about 1767 
 a Miss Penrose, of Philadelphia. He afterwards lived 
 on a farm in his native county, was elected a member 
 of the General Assembly in 1774, and was a member of 
 the committee of safety in 1775. In this year he raised 
 and disciplined a regiment, and entered the army as a 
 colonel. He served at the battle of Three Rivers, Canada, 
 in June, 1776, soon after which he took command of Fort 
 Ticonderoga, and was appointed a brigadier-general. 
 About May, 1777, ne joined the army of Washington in 
 New Jersey. He commanded a division at the battle 
 of Brandywine, where he distinguished himself, Sep- 
 tember, 1777, and led the right wing at the battle of 
 Germantown, in October of that year. His conduct at 
 the battle of Monmouth (June, 1778) was commended 
 by General Washington. His most brilliant achieve- 
 ment was the capture of the strong fortification of Stony 
 Point, on the Hudson River, which he surprised and took 
 by assault on the night of July 15, 1779, for which exploit 
 Congress gave him a vote of thanks. He was wounded 
 in the head in this action. He served at the battle of 
 Green Springs, Virginia, in July, 17S0, and took part in 
 the capture of the British army at Yorktown, October 
 19, 1781. After tliis event he commanded in Georgia, 
 and defeated the Indians. He was a member of the 
 convention which ratified the Constitution of the United 
 States, in December, 1787. He was raised to Hie rank 
 of major-general, and was appointed in 1792 commander 
 of the army sent against the Indians. In August, 1794, 
 he gained a complete victory over the Miamis in West- 
 ern Ohio. Although he was sometimes called " Mad 
 Anthony," on account of his daring and impetuous 
 valour, he was not deficient in prudence and judgment. 
 He 'died at Presque Isle, on Lake Erie, in December, 
 1796, leaving a son Isaac, who became a colonel and 
 Senator. 
 
 See John Armstrong, "Life of General Anthony Wayne," in 
 Sparks's "American Biography," vol. iv. ; "National Portrait- 
 Gallery of Distinguished Americans," vol. i. 
 
 Wayn'flete, (William,) was created Bishop of 
 Winchester in 1447, and lord chancellor in 1456. He 
 founded Magdalene College, Oxford. Died in i486. 
 
 See "The Three Chancellors, or Lives of William of Wykeham, 
 William of Wayuflete, and Thomas More." 
 
 Weale, weel, (John,) an English publisher, born 
 about 1792, lived in London. He edited several usefui 
 scientific works. Died in December, 1862. 
 
 • — — — r- 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
WEAVER 
 
 2243 
 
 WEBSTER 
 
 Wea'ver or Wee'ver, (John,) an English anti- 
 quary, was born in 1576, probably in Lancashire. He 
 published a work entitled "Ancient Funeral Monuments 
 m Great Britain." Died in 1632. 
 
 Weaver, (Thomas,) an English geologist, born in 
 the eighteenth century, studied under the celebrated 
 Werner at Freiberg. He published " Memoirs on the 
 Geology of the East and South of Ireland," and other 
 works of the kind. He was a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society and a member of the Geological Society. Died 
 in 1855. 
 
 Webb, (Alexander S.,) an American general, a son 
 of James Watson Webb, was born about 1834. He 
 graduated at West Point in 1855, was wounded at Get- 
 tysburg, July 1-3, 1863, served at the battle of the Wil- 
 derness, May 5 and 6, 1864, and was disabled by a 
 wound at the battle of Spottsylvania, May 8-12. 
 
 Webb, (Daniel,) an Irish writer, born in the county 
 of Limerick. He published " Remarks on the Beauties 
 of Poetry," (1762,) and other works, which are com- 
 mended. Died ill 1798. 
 
 ■Webb, (James Watson,) an American journalist, 
 born at Claverack, New York, in 1802. He became in 
 1S29 editor of the "Morning Courier and New York 
 Enquirer," a leading journal of the Whig party. He 
 was appointed in 1861 minister to Brazil by President 
 Lincoln. 
 
 Webb, (Philip Barker,) an English botanist and 
 scholar, was born in Surrey about 1793. He inherited 
 an ample fortune, and travelled extensively in Europe 
 and Asia. With M. Berthelot, he published a " Natural 
 History of the Canaries," with plates, (3 vols.) Among 
 his works is " Iter Hispaniense, or a Synopsis of Span- 
 ish Plants." Died'in Paris in 1854. 
 
 Webb, (Philip Carteret,) an English antiquary 
 and legal writer, born in 1700; died in 1770. 
 
 Webbe, web, (George,) a learned English theolo- 
 gian, born in Wiltshire in 1581. He became Bishop of 
 Limerick in 1634. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "The Practice of Quietness." Died in 1641. 
 
 Webbe, (Samuel,) an English composer, born in 
 1740. His works include anthems, masses, songs, and 
 glees. The last-named compositions are esteemed mas- 
 ter-pieces of the kind. Died in 181 7. 
 
 Web'ber, (Charles Wilkins,) an American writer, 
 born at Russellville, Kentucky, in 1819. He published 
 "The Hunter Naturalist," (1851,)" Tales of the Southern 
 Border," (1853,) and "Gold-Mines of the Gila." He 
 was also a contributor to the " American Review" and 
 the " Democratic Review." He was killed in Nicaragua 
 in 1856, while serving under the filibuster Walker. 
 See Duyckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. 
 Web'ber, (John,) an English artist, born in London 
 in 1 75 1, accompanied Captain Cook's last expedition as 
 draughtsman. Died in 1793. 
 
 Webber, (Samuel,) an American mathematician, 
 born at Byfield, Massachusetts, in 1759. He became 
 professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at 
 Harvard College in 1789, and in 1804 succeeded Wil- 
 laid as president of that institution. He published a 
 "System of Mathematics," (1801.) 
 
 Weber, wa'ber, (Beda,) a Tyrolese writer, born in 
 1798, has published "Songs from the Tyrol," (1842,) 
 "Andrew Hofer and the Year 1809," and other works. 
 
 Weber, wa'ber, (Bernhard Anselm,) a German 
 composer, born at Mannheim in 1766, became chapel- 
 master at Berlin. Died in 1821. 
 
 Weber, (Ernst Heinrich,) a German anatomist 
 and physioiogist, son of Michael Wel)er, noticed below, 
 was born at Wittenberg in 1795. He became professor 
 of human anatomy and of physiology at Leipsic in 
 1840. Among his principal works are his "Comparative 
 Anatomy of the Sympathetic Nerve," (1817,) and "Ana- 
 tomical and Physiological Annotations," (in Latin.) His 
 brother Eduard Friedrich has published several 
 physiological treatises. 
 
 Weber, wa'ber or va'baiR', (Frederic,) a Swiss en- 
 graver, born at Bale in 1813. He became a resident 
 of Paris, and engraved numerous portraits. 
 
 Weber, (Gottfried,) a German composer and writer 
 upon music, born at Freinsheim in 1779; died in 1839. 
 
 ■Weber, (Henry William,) an antiquarian writer, of 
 German extraction, was born at Saint Petersburg in 1783. 
 He settled in Scotland, where he published a poem 
 entitled " The Battle of Flodden Field," and " Metrical 
 Romances of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth 
 Centuries." Died in 1818. 
 
 Weber, (Karl Julius,) a German writer, born at 
 Langenburg in 1767. His chief work is entitled " Letters 
 of Germans Travelling in Germany." Died in 1832. 
 
 Weber, (Michael,) a German Protestant theologian, 
 born near Weissenfels in 1754, became professor of 
 divinity at Wittenberg. He wrote several exegetical and 
 theological works. Died in 1833. 
 
 Web'er, [Ger. pron. wa'ber, j (Paul,) a distinguished 
 landscape-painter, born in Germany about 1820. In 
 early life he came to the United States, and practised 
 his art for many years in Philadelphia. Mr. Weber's 
 landscapes are remarkable for a certain aerial softness 
 which imparts to them an indescribable charm. Several 
 years since he returned to Germany and established 
 himself at Darmstadt. 
 
 ■Weber, (Veit,) a German poet of the latter part 
 of the fifteenth century. He was the author of several 
 battle-songs, one of which is entitled "The Battle of 
 Murten." 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Weber, (Wilhelm Eduard,) a German physiologist 
 and scientific writer, brother of Ernst Heinrich, noticed 
 above, was born at Wittenberg in 1S04. He studied at 
 Halle, and was appointed, in 1831, professor of physics 
 at Gottingen. He published, conjointly with his brother 
 Ernst, a treatise entitled "The Wave Theory grounded 
 on Experiments," etc., (1825,) "On the Magnetism of 
 the Earth," in conjunction with Gauss, and several other 
 works. 
 
 Weber, (Wilhelm Ernst,) a German scholar and 
 teacher, born at Weimar in 1790. He published editions 
 of Herodian and other classics, and several original 
 works. Died in 1850. 
 
 Weber, von, fon wa'ber, (Emmanuel,) Count, a 
 German jurist, born near Leipsic in 1659. He became 
 professor of history at Giessen in 1698, and published 
 many legal works. Died in 1726. 
 
 Weber, von, (Karl Maria Friedrich Ernst,) 
 Baron, an eminent German composer and musician, born 
 at Eutin, in Holstein, in 1786. He was successively in- 
 structed in music by Michael Haydn, Valesi, and Kalcher, 
 and, after the composition of several works of minor im- 
 portance, he brought out, in 1800, his opera of "The 
 Forest Girl," (" Das Waldmadchen.") He soon after 
 visited Vienna, where he made the acquaintance of 
 Joseph Haydn and the Abbe Vogler. In 1807 he made 
 a professional tour through Germany, taking up his 
 residence for a time with Duke Lewis of Wurtembeig, 
 where he remodelled his opera of " Das Waldmadchen," 
 under the title of "Sylvana;" it was performed with 
 brilliant success in 1810. He was appointed, in 1813, 
 director of the Opera at Prague, and in 1817 became 
 chapel-master and manager of the German Opera at 
 Dresden. He married the same year the celebrated 
 actress Lina Brandt. His opera of " Der Freischiitz," 
 which is esteemed his master-piece, came out in 1822, 
 and was received with the greatest applause at Berlin 
 and London. His " Euryanthe," performed at Vienna 
 in 1823, was less generally admired. Having been com- 
 missioned to compose an opera for the Covent Garden 
 Theatre, London, he brought out, in 1826, his " Oberon," 
 which was eminently successful, being represented 
 twenty-seven times. He died the same year, of pulmo- 
 nary disease. His remains were removed in 1844 
 from the Catholic chapel at Moorfields to the family 
 vault at Dresden. 
 
 See Victor Magnikn. " £tude bioRraphique »ur C. M. Baron 
 de Weber," 18.48: BARiiKnKTTK, "Weber. Fssai de Critique^ niusi- 
 cale," 1862; Fbtis, " Biographie Universale des Musiciens;" 
 " Nonvelle Biographie Ginerale ;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for 
 January, 1831. 
 
 Web'ster, (Alexander,) a popular and eloquent 
 Scottish minister, born in Edinburgh about 1707. He 
 preached at the Tolbooth Church of that city, and be- 
 came an influential citizen. He founded a useful insti- 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as 1; th as in this. (2y See Explanations, p. 2%.) 
 
WEBSTER 
 
 2244 
 
 WEBSTER 
 
 tution to grant annuities to the widows of the Scottish 
 clergy. Died in 1784. 
 
 See Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Web'st^r, (Benjamin,) an English comedian, born 
 at Bath in 1800, became manager of the Hayniarket 
 Theatre in 1837, and subsequently of the Adelpni. 
 
 Web'stfr, (Daniel,) a celebrated American states- 
 man, jurist, and orator, was born at Salisbury, New 
 Hampshire, January 18, 1782. He was a younger son 
 of Ebenezer Webster, a farmer, and Abigail Eastman, 
 both persons of vigorous intellect and high-toned mo- 
 rality. On account of the delicacy of his constitution, 
 he was permitted to pass a large part of his childhood 
 in play, which he dearly loved. He also loved books, 
 among which Addison's " Spectator" was an especial 
 favourite with him. Having learned the rudiments of 
 education at home, and in the common schools of the 
 vicinity, he was sent, in May, 1796, to Phillips Exeter 
 Academy, of which Benjamin Abbot was the principal. 
 Young Webster was at that time so diffident, as he him- 
 self tells us, that he could not be induced to declaim 
 before the school. "The kind and excellent Buck- 
 minster," says he, in his autobiography, " sought to 
 persuade me to perform the exercise of declamation like 
 other boys, but I could not do it." In February, 1797, 
 he quitted the academy of Exeter, and pursued his 
 studies under the tuition of the Rev. Samuel Wood, 
 of Boscawen. His father, although burdened with a 
 large family and hardly able to defray the expense, had 
 resolved to send Daniel to college. Having read six 
 books of Virgil's " ^Lneid" and some of Cicero's ora- 
 tions, and obtained a little knowledge of Greek grammar, 
 he entered Dartmouth College as a freshman in August, 
 1797. According to his own statement, he was "misera- 
 bly prepared both in Latin and Greek," and he had little 
 taste or genius for mathematics. His habits at college 
 were studious and regular. " By the close of his first 
 year," says Edward Everett, " young Webster had shown 
 himself decidedly the forempst man of his class ; and that 
 position he held through his whole college course." He 
 was also the best writer and public speaker in the college. 
 By teaching school during vacations he earned money, 
 which he gave to aid his elder brother Ezekiel, whom 
 the family sent to college, not without great sacrifices 
 and privations. This brother, who was called by some 
 the handsomest man in the United States, became a 
 prominent lawyer, and died in 1829. Daniel graduated 
 in August, 1801, and began to study law in the office of 
 Thomas W. Thompson, of Salisbury, who was elected to 
 the Senate of the United States in 1814. In order to 
 earn a supply of money for his brother who was at 
 college, he took charge of an academy at Fryeburg, in 
 Maine, with a salary of three hundred and fifty dollars 
 per annum. Here he remained about eight months, and 
 returned to Mr. Thompson's office in the autumn of 
 1802. Upon coming of age he joined the Congrega- 
 tional (Orthodox) Church. In politics he was a zealous 
 Federalist. He was passionately fond of hunting and 
 fishing, both in his youth and his mature life. 
 
 To perfect his legal education, he went to Boston in 
 July, 1804, and had the good fortune to be received as a 
 clerk in the office of Christopher Gore, an eminent law- 
 yer and statesman. Here he read Vattel and Puffendorf, 
 but devoted himself chiefly to the study of the common 
 law, and was admitted to the bar in March, 1805. He 
 practised nearly two years at Boscawen, and in 1807 
 removed to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Before this 
 date he had delivered several Fourth-of-July orations. 
 In June, 1808, he married Grace Fletcher, of Hopkinton, 
 New Hampshire. He rose rapidly in his profession, 
 and was soon regarded as a fit antagonist for Jeremiah 
 Mason, who was the greatest lawyer in the State, and 
 was many years older than Webster. In November, 
 1812, he was elected as a Federalist to the National 
 House of Representatives, in which he took his seat in 
 May, 1813. He opposed the war against Great Britain, 
 took an active part in the debates which that war oc- 
 casioned, and advocated an increase of the navy. His 
 speeches on these subjects placed him in the first rank 
 as a debater. He was re-elected to the fourteenth Con- 
 gress, which met in December, 181 5, when the violence 
 
 of party spirit had greatly abated, and the return of 
 peace had directed the attention of the national legis- 
 lature to new and important questions. Among these 
 was a charter of the Bank of the United States, to which 
 he moved an amendment requiring the bank to pay de- 
 posits in specie. He also rendered an important service 
 by a resolution presented April 26, 1816, requiring that 
 all payments to the public treasury must be made in 
 specie or its equivalents, — which resolution was adopted, 
 and greatly improved the currency of the country. 
 
 Having resolved to retire from public life and devote 
 himself to his profession, he removed, in 1816, from 
 Portsmouth to Boston. On this wider arena his profes- 
 sional reputation was greatly increased, and he became 
 in a few years the foremost lawyer in New England. 
 His argument before the supreme court of the United 
 States in the Dartmouth College case, in 1818, raised 
 him to the highest rank as a constitutional lawyer. The 
 case was decided in favour of his clients, and by this 
 decision the law of the land in reference to collegiate 
 ci.orters was firmly established. Thenceforth he was 
 retained in nearly all important cases that were argued 
 before the supreme court at Washington. He also 
 exhibited great skill as a criminal lawyer, in cross-exam- 
 ining witnesses, and in baffling the deepest plans of per- 
 jury and fraud. The effect of his arguments was enhanced 
 by a deep-toned^ musical, and powerful voice, and by 
 the magnetism of his imposing presence and personal 
 qualities. " His influence over juries," says " Fraser's 
 Magazine" for August, 1870, "was due chiefly to the 
 combination of a power of lucid statement with his 
 extraordinary oratorical force. . . . His power of setting 
 forth truth was magnificent." 
 
 Mr. Webster was a member of the Convention which 
 met in 1820 to revise the Constitution of Massachusetts. 
 Of his services in this Convention, Judge Story expressed 
 a high opinion in a letter to a friend, saying, "The whole 
 force of his great mind was brought out, and in several 
 speeches he commanded universal admiration." In De- 
 cember, 1820, he pronounced at Plymouth a celebrated 
 oration on the anniversary of the landing of the Pilgrim 
 fathers. " This," says Everett, " was the first of a series 
 of performances, aside from the efforts of the senate and 
 the bar, by which Mr. Webster placed himself at the 
 head of American orators." In 1822 he was elected by 
 the voters of Boston a member of the Congress which 
 met in December, 1823. On the subject of the Greek 
 Revolution he made (January, 1824) a famous speech, in 
 which he denounced the principles of the Holy Alliance 
 with powerful effect. 
 
 As chairman of the judiciary committee, he reported 
 a complete revision of the criminal law of the United 
 States, which was approved by the House. He was re- 
 elected, in the autumn of 1824, by a nearly unanimous 
 vote, and supported John Q. Adams in the ensuing elec- 
 tion of President. In June, 1825, he delivered an oration 
 on laying the corner-stone of the Bunker Hill Monu- 
 ment. To the same class of orations belongs his admi- 
 rable eulogy on Adams and Jefferson, pronounced in 
 Faneuil Hall, Boston, in August, 1826. " His consum- 
 mate skill of composition and delivery," says Mr. G. T. 
 Curtis, "gave to a supposititious speech of John Adams 
 all the effect of a real utterance of that patriot." George 
 Ticknor, who heard this eulogy, says, " His bearing, as 
 he stood before the vast multitude, was that of absolute 
 dignity and power." He continued to serve in the House 
 of Representatives until 1828, when he was transferred 
 to the Senate of the United States. As a Senator he 
 voted for the Tariff bill of 1828. Though not deeply 
 interested in the Presidential election of 1828, he sup- 
 ported John Q. Adams in preference to General Jackson. 
 Having lost his first wife, (who died in January, 1828,', 
 he married Caroline Le Roy, of New York City, in De 
 cember, 1829. 
 
 His most memorable parliamentary effort was his tri- 
 umphant reply to Hayne, of South Carolina, who had 
 affirmed the right of a State to nullify the acts of Con- 
 gress, had assailed New England, and had provoked 
 Mr. Webster by caustic personalities. It was on the 
 26th of January, 1830, that Webster began this great 
 argument in defence of the Union and the Constitution, 
 
 , e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
;Cj* 
 
 oar 
 
 WEBSTER 
 
 2245 
 
 WEBSTER 
 
 £zi?ov.'&' 
 
 which was probably the most remarkable speech ever 
 Made in the American Congress. His peroration ends 
 with the following magnificent passage : " When my 
 eyes shall be turned to behold for the last time the sun 
 in heaven, mav I not see him shining on the broken and 
 dishonoured fragments of a once glorious Union ; on 
 States dissevered, discordant, belligerent ; on a land 
 rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal 
 blood ! Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather 
 behold the gorgeous ensign of the republic, now known 
 and honoured throughout the earth, still full high ad- 
 vanced, its arms and trophies streaming in their original 
 lustre, not a stripe erased or polluted, nor a single star 
 obscured — bearing for its motto no such miserable in- 
 terrogatory as What is all this worth ? nor those other 
 words of delusion and folly, Liberty first, and Union after- 
 wards — but everywhere, spread all over in characters of 
 living light, blazing on all its ample folds, as they float 
 over the sea and over the land, that other sentiment, 
 dear to every true American heart — Liberty and Union, 
 now and forever, one and inseparable !" " Webster 
 had," says Mr. Curtis, "but a-single night in which to 
 make preparation to answer the really important parts 
 of the preceding speech of his opponent." 
 
 In May, 1832, he made an important speech for the 
 renewal of the charter of the Bank of the United States. 
 This bill passed both houses of Congress, but was 
 vetoed by President Jackson. About this date lie pur- 
 chased an estate at Marshfield, on the sea-shore, which 
 was his usual summer residence, lie supported Mr. 
 Clay for President in the election of 1832, but in the 
 great crisis of the Nullification question, in 1833, he op- 
 posed Clay's Compromise Tariff bill, and voted for the 
 " Force Bill" of the Administration. On these subjects 
 Webster and Calhoun were adversaries in debate. Mr. 
 Webster became one of the most popular leaders of 
 the Whig party, which was organized about 1834, and 
 be was nominated for the Presidency by the Whigs of 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 In September, 1837, as a member of the Senate, he 
 opposed the Sub-Treasury bill in an elaborate speech, 
 said to have been the most effective of all his arguments 
 on the subjects of currency and finance. He visited 
 England, Scotland, and France in 1839, attracting the 
 admiration of Carlyle, who met him at table, and thus 
 estimated him : " He is a magnificent specimen. As a 
 logic-fencer, advocate, or parliamentary Hercules, one 
 would incline to back him, at first sight, against all the 
 extant world." He was re-elected to the Senate in 
 January, 1839, and actively promoted the election of 
 General Harrison to the Presidency in 1840, by public 
 R|>eeches at Saratoga, Richmond, Virginia, etc. In 
 March, 1841, he was appointed secretary of state by 
 President Harrison, after whose death he was retained 
 in that office by Tyler. He negotiated with the English 
 ambassador, Lord Ashburton, a treaty which settled 
 the long and serious dispute about the Northeastern 
 boundary of the United States. This important treaty 
 was signed August 9, 1842. In compliance with the 
 general desire of the Whigs, (whose interests President 
 Tyler had betrayed,) he resigned office in May, 1843. 
 He was urged to return to the national Senate ; but his 
 private interest and duties dissuaded him. In a letter 
 dated February 5, 1844, he says, " I am now earning 
 and receiving fifteen thousand dollars a year from my 
 profession, which must be almost entirely sacrificed by 
 a return to the Senate." 
 
 In the campaign of 1844 he earnestly advocated the 
 election of Mr. Clay, who was his chief rival in the favour 
 and leadership of the Whig party. lie opposed the 
 innexation of Texas, for the reason that it would involve 
 the extension of slavery. 
 
 He was again elected a Senator of the United States 
 n the winter of 1844-45, as tne successor of Mr. Choate. 
 In December, 1845, he made a speech in the Senate 
 (gainst the admission of Texas as a slave State, and in 
 February, 1847, he declared that he opposed the prose- 
 cution of the Mexican war for the conquest of territory 
 .0 form new States of our Union. Although Mr. Web- 
 ster and his friends were disappointed by the nomination 
 of General Taylor in 1848, he voted for him in prefer- 
 
 ence to General Cass. In consequence of the acquisition 
 of Mexican territory by conquest, the sectionaf conflict 
 relative to slavery became more and more violent and 
 irrepressible, with an alarming proclivity towards dis- 
 union. The houses of Congress became in 1850 the 
 scene of intense excitement about the admission of 
 California and the organization of the new territories. 
 The imminent danger of this crisis was averted or post- 
 poned by Mr. Clay's " Compromise Measures," which 
 Mr. Webster supported in an elaborate speech on the 
 7th of March, 1850. This compromise consisted of a 
 number of resolutions, one of which declared that the 
 new territories should be organized without the adoption 
 of any restriction or condition on the subject of slavery ; 
 and another, that more effectual provision ought to be 
 made by law for the restitution of fugitive slaves. On 
 the first of these points he argued that he would not re- 
 enact by human law what was already settled by a law 
 of God ; that slavery could not be introduced into those 
 territories, by reason of their natural unfitness for slave 
 labour. His support of these measures gave great 
 offence to many of his admirers, and to the opponents 
 of slavery, who accused him of sacrificing an important 
 principle to a supposed political expediency.* 
 
 In July, 1850, before trie final vote on the Compromise 
 bill, President Taylor died, and was succeeded tjy Vice- 
 President Fillmore, who appointed Mr. Webster secre- 
 tary of state. On the 17th of July he addressed the 
 Senate on the subjects connected with the Compromise 
 bill and Wilmot proviso. This was his last speech in 
 the Senate. He delivered an eloquent address on the 
 4th of July, 1851, at the laying of the corner-stone of 
 the extension of the Capitol at Washington. His last 
 important forensic argument was on the Indian Rubber 
 Patent cause, at Trenton, in January, 1852. Among his 
 later official acts was a celebrated despatch to Hiilse- 
 mann, the Austrian charg^-d'affaires, occasioned by the 
 revolt of the Hungarian patriots. This document was 
 dated in December, 1851. In May, 1852, he was thrown 
 from his carriage, and seriously injured, near Plymouth, 
 Massachusetts ; but he was afterwards able to revisit 
 Washington. After all his sacrifices and concessions to 
 the pro-slavery party, he received in the National Whig 
 Convention of 1852 only thirty-two votes, and those 
 from Northern men, although it was known that he 
 wished to be nominated for the Presidency. He died 
 at Marshfield, October 24, 1852, leaving one son, 
 Fletcher, noticed below. -His other sons and daughters 
 died before their father. 
 
 In stature he was tall, his head and brain of great 
 size, his eyes large, black, and lustrous. He was 
 greatly distinguished for his conversational powers and 
 genial temper in society. "To those," says Curtis, 
 "who have known Mr. Webster o«Iy in public, it is 
 difficult to give an idea of the genial affections which 
 at every period of his life flowed out from him in the 
 domestic circle, and still more difficult to paint the 
 abounding gayety and humour and fascination of his 
 early days." " He was," says " Fraser's Magazine" for 
 August, 1870, "the greatest orator that has ever lived 
 in the Western hemisphere. Less vehement than Cal- 
 houn, less persuasive than Clay, he was yet more grand 
 and powerful than either." 
 
 "Mr. Webster," says Hallam, the great historian, 
 "approaches as nearly to the beau-ideal of a republican 
 senator as any man that I have ever seen in the course 
 of my life ; worthy of Rome or Venice, rather than of 
 our noisy and wrangling generation." (Letter to Mrs, 
 Ticknor, dated January 21, 1840.) 
 
 See Georgk T. Curtis, " Life of Daniel Webster," 2 vols., 1870 ; 
 Chari.es Lanman, "Private Lite of Dante] Webster," 185-); S. L 
 Knapp, "Life of D. Webster," 1851 ; MXkcker, "D Webster, tier 
 Amerikanische Staatsmann," Berlin, 1853; Eoward Kvhvktt, 
 " Memoir of D. Webster," prefixed to an edition of Webster's 
 Collective Works, 6 vols. 8vo, 1851 ; and his article on Daniel 
 Webster in the " New American Cyclopaedia." 
 
 * It was not the ultra abolitionists only that condemned his course. 
 Mr. Seward in 1858 spoke of Webster as "a great statesman, who 
 for a large portion of his life led the vanguard of the army of freedom, 
 . . . and who, on the great day when the contest came to a decisive 
 issue, surrendered that great cause then in his place, and derided th 
 proviso of freedom, the principle of the ordinance of 178; " 
 
 < as x; 9 as s ; g hard; g as^'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. ( Jry~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WEBSTER 
 
 2246 
 
 WEDDERBURN 
 
 Webster, (Ebenezer,) an American patriot of the 
 Revolution, bom at Kingston, New Hampshire, in 1739, 
 was the father of Daniel Webster. He served in the 
 war against the French, and in the subsequent cam- 
 paigns of the Revolutionary war. Died in 1806. 
 
 Webster, (Ezkkiel,) a son of the preceding, born in 
 1780, graduated at Dartmouth College, and acquired a 
 high reputation as a lawyer. Died in 1829. 
 
 Webster, (Fletcher,) an American officer, born at 
 Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1812, was a son of the 
 celebrated Daniel Webster. He served as assistant 
 secretary of state in 1841 and 1842. He enlisted as 
 colonel in the Union army in 1S61, and was killed at the 
 battle of Gainesville, or Bull Run, in August, 1862. 
 
 Webster, (John,) an English dramatist of the six- 
 teenth century. His principal works are "The White 
 Devil," "The Duchess of Malfi," (1623,) and "Appius 
 and Virginia," (1624.) He occupies a high rank among 
 the immediate successors of Shakspeare. 
 
 See " Retrospective Review," vol. vii., (1823 ;) Campbell, " Speci- 
 mens of the British Poets." 
 
 Webster, (Joseph D.,) an American, general, born 
 in New Hampshire about 181 1, became a civil engineer. 
 He served as colonel at the capture of Fort Donelson, 
 February, 1862, and was chief of staff to General Grant 
 at the battle of Shiloh, April 6 and 7. He directed the 
 artillery with skill in this action, and was promoted to 
 be a brigadier-general. 
 
 Webster, (Noah,) a distinguished American phi- 
 lologist and lexicographer, bom at West Hartford, 
 Connecticut, in October, 1758. He graduated at Yale 
 College in 1778, studied law, and was admitted to the 
 bar in 1781, soon after which he became a school- 
 teacher. He published "Sketches of American Policy," 
 (1785,) and "Dissertations on the English Language," 
 (1789.) In 1793 he began to issue, in New York, a 
 daily paper called "The Minerva," the name of which 
 was soon changed to "Commercial Advertiser." In this 
 journal he defended the policy of the Federal adminis- 
 tration. About 1798 he removed to New Haven. He 
 expended the labour of many years on a " Dictionary 
 of the English Language," which was published in 1828 
 and was highly esteemed. An enlarged edition of this 
 dictionary was published in 1840, and a quarto edition, 
 revised by C. A. Goodrich, appeared in 1859. Another 
 and greatly improved edition of Webster's Dictionary, 
 with numerous pictorial illustrations incorporated in the 
 body of the work, appeared y.i 1864. He died at New 
 Haven in May, 1843. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans." 
 vol. ii. : Duyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. ; 
 " North American Review" for April, 1829. 
 
 Webster, (Thomas,) a British geologist, born in the 
 Orkney Islands atoout 1773. He wrote a treatise on 
 "Fresh-Water Beds in the Isle of Wight," and became 
 professor of geology in the London University. Died 
 in 1844. 
 
 Webster, (Thomas,) an English painter, born in 
 London in 1800, studied at the Royal Academy, of which 
 he was elected an associate in 1841. His favourite sub- 
 jects are children, and his best works represent school- 
 boys and their sports. Among these we may name "The 
 Slide," "A Farm-House Kitchen," "A See-Saw," "A 
 School Play-Ground," "The Internal Economy of Do- 
 theboys Hall," "Peasant Children," and "Hide and 
 Seek." He was chosen a Royal Academician in 1846. 
 
 Webster, (William,) an English clergyman and 
 polemical writer, born in 1689. He became curate of 
 Saint Dunstan, in West London, in 171 5, and rector of 
 Depden in 1733. Died in 1758. 
 
 Webster, (William,) an English mathematician, 
 born about 1684, published a "Treatise on Arithmetic." 
 Died in 1744. 
 
 Wechel, va'shel' or weK'el, (Andrew,) an eminent 
 printer, born in Paris about 1510, was a son of Christian, 
 and was a Protestant. He succeeded his father in 1554, 
 and purchased the stock of Henri Estienne in 1560. He 
 carried on business in Paris until the massacre of 1572, 
 and then removed his presses to Frankfort. Died in 1581. 
 
 Wechel, v>?K'el, (Christian.) a celebrated German 
 printer, established a printing-office in Paris about 1527, 
 
 from which he issued many excellent editions of the 
 classics. He afterwards settled at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Main, where his business was carried on with equsi 
 reputation and success by his son Andrew. Died in 
 1554 
 
 Weckerlin, von, fon <vek'ker-leen', (August,) a 
 German agriculturist, born at Stuttgart in 1794, has 
 published a treatise "On English Agriculture," and 
 other similar works. 
 
 Weckherlin,wek'ker-leen', (Georg Rudolf,) a Ger- 
 man poet, born at Stuttgart in 15S4. Having travelled 
 in various parts of Europe, he settled eventually in 
 London, and was employed by James I. and Charles I. 
 in several important missions. He was one of the 
 earliest reformers of German poetry, and he is said to 
 have first introduced into the language the ode, sonnet, 
 and epigram. Among his principal works we may name 
 his heroic poem on the death of Gustavus Adolphus. 
 Died about 1651. 
 
 See Cari. P. Conz, " Nachrichten von dem Leben G. R. Weck- 
 herlin's," 1S03. 
 
 Weckherlin, (Wilhelm Ludwig,) a German writer, 
 born near Wurtemberg in 1739, was the author of seve- 
 ral satirical and political works. Died in 1792. 
 
 Wed'der-burn, (Alexander,) Lord Loughborough 
 and Earl of Rosslyn, an eminent British jurist and poli- 
 tician, bom in East Lothian in 1733. He was in early 
 life an advocate of Edinburgh, where he distinguished 
 himself by his eloquence and the fierceness of his in- 
 vective. Having quarrelled with the court, he removed 
 to London in 1753, and was called to the bar a few years 
 later. He took great pains to eradicate his Northern 
 accent. He became king's counsel in 1763, was elected 
 a member of Parliament about the same time, and joined 
 the Northern circuit. " He was far from being a pro- 
 found lawyer," says Lord Brougham. " His strength 
 lay in dealing with facts ; and here all his contemporaries 
 represent his powers to have been unrivalled. It was 
 probably this genius for narrative, for arguing upon 
 probabilities, for marshalling and sifting evidence that 
 shone so brilliantly in his great speech at the bar of the 
 House of Lords upon the celebrated Douglas cause, and 
 which no less a judge than Mr. Fox pronounced to be 
 the very finest he ever heard on any subject." ("His- 
 torical Sketches of the Statesmen of the Time of George 
 III.") He was appointed solicitor-general by Lord 
 North in i77i,soon after which he andThurlow became 
 the two main supporters of the prime minister in the 
 House of Commons. In a famous speech agairst the 
 Americans before the privy council, he indulged in offen- 
 sive personalities against Franklin, calling him a man 
 of three letters, — the old Roman joke for a thief, (fur.) 
 In 1778 he was appointed attorney-general, and in 17S0 
 obtained the office of chief justice of the court of common 
 pleas, with the title of Lord Loughborough. On the 
 bench he continued to be an unscrupulous partisan, and 
 during, the short ministry formed by a coalition of Fox 
 and Lord North (1783) he was chief commissioner of 
 the great seal. In the first years of Pitt's administration 
 Wedderburn was the leader of the opposition in the 
 House of Lords. When the king became deranged, 
 (1789,) he advised the Prince of Wales to proclaim 
 himself regent; but his desperate counsels were not 
 followed. He was oneof the members that seceded from 
 the Whig or opposition party on questions connected 
 with the French Revolution, and was appointed lord 
 chancellor in 1793. He retained this office until the for- 
 mation of a new ministry, April, 1801, and was then 
 created Earl of Rosslyn. He died, withou' issue, in 
 1805. According to Lord Brougham, "his ) rosperous 
 career, supported by no fixed principles, illustrated by 
 no sacrifices to public virtue, ... at length closed in 
 the disappointment of mean, unworthy desires, and ended 
 amidst universal neglect." 
 
 See " Historical Sketches of the Statesmen of the Ti*ne of George 
 III.," vol. i. ; Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors;" 
 Chambhks, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Wedderburn, (David,) a Scottish scholar and Latin 
 poet, born about 1570. He taught school at Aberdeen, 
 and wrote numerous poems. Died about 1650. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 a, i, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; go"d; "noon; 
 
WEDDERKOPF 
 
 2247 
 
 WE1CKARD 
 
 Wedderkopf, von, fon wed'der-kopf, (Magnus,) a 
 statesman and jurist, born at Hnsum, in Holstein, in 
 1638. He became professor of law at Kiel, and prime 
 minister of the Duke of Holstein in 1705. He published 
 several legal works. Died in 1721. His brother Ga- 
 briel, born in 1644, was a writer on theology, pastor at 
 Kiel, and court preacher. Died in 1696. 
 
 Wedekind, wa'deh-klnt', (Anton Christian,) a 
 German historical writer, born in the duchy of Verden 
 in 1763. He published a "Chronological Manual of 
 Modern History," (1816,) and other works. Died in 1845. 
 
 Wedekind,' (Gkorg Christian Gottlikh,) Baron, 
 a German physician, born at Gottingen in 1761, became 
 professor of medicine at Mentz. He published a num- 
 ber of medical and miscellaneous works. Died in 1831. 
 
 ■Wedekind, (Gkorg Wii.hklm,) Baron, a son of 
 the preceding, was born at Strasburg in 1796. He 
 published an " Encyclopaedia of Forest Science," (1847,) 
 and other similar works. 
 
 Wedel, wa'del, (Ernst Hf.inrich,) a German phy- 
 sician, bom at Gotha in 1671, was a son of Georg Wolf- 
 gang, noticed below. He was the author of a work 
 entitled "On the Diseases of Public Speakers," ("De 
 Morbis Concionatorum.") His brother Johann Adolf 
 published several medical treatises. Died in 1709. 
 
 Wedel, (Gkorg Wolfgang,) a learned German 
 physician, born at Golzen, in Lusatia, in 1645. He 
 studied at Jena, where he became professor of medicine 
 in 1673. He was also first physician to the Duke of 
 Saxe-Weimar, and was created in 1694 a count-palatine 
 and imperial councillor. He was distinguished as a 
 mathematician and Orientalist, as well as for his know- 
 ledge of medical science, and was one of the most vo- 
 luminous writers of his time. Among his principal works 
 we may name " Opiologia," etc., (1674,) " Exercitationes 
 Pathologicae," (1675,) and "Pharmacy reduced to the 
 Form of an Art," (in Latin.) Died in 1721. 
 
 Wedel, (Johann Adolf,) a medical wri/er, a son of 
 the preceding, born at Jena in 1675, became professor 
 in the University of Jena in 1709. Died after 1746. 
 
 Wedel, (Iohann Wolfgang,) a German botanist, 
 Dom in 1708, practised medicine at Jena. He wrote 
 "Botanical Essay," ("Tentamen Botanicum," 1747.) 
 Died in 1757. 
 
 Wedel, von, fon wa'del, (Karl Hf.inrich,) a Prus- 
 sian general, born in the Uckermark in 1712. He distin- 
 guished himself in the Seven Years' war. The victory 
 of the Prussians at Leuthen (1757) was attributed to 
 Wedel by Frederick the Great. Died in 1782. 
 
 Wedel-Jarlsberg, wa'del yaRls'beRG, (Johann Kas- 
 Par Hkrm \nn.) a Danish statesman, was born at Mont- 
 pellier, in France, in 1779. He studied at Copenhagen, 
 and rose through several offices to be minister of finance 
 in 1822. Died in 1840. 
 
 Wgdg'wood, (JosiAH,) a celebrated English artisan, 
 Dnrn in Burslem, in Staffordshire, in 1730. His oppor- 
 tunities for education were very limited, and in his early 
 youth he worked in the pottery of an elder brother at 
 Burslem. In 1759 he established in that place a manu- 
 factory of ornamental pottery, where he soon after pro- 
 duced the beautiful cream-coloured ware since called by 
 his name. A table-service of this kind was ordered by 
 Queen Charlotte, who appointed Wedgwood her potter. 
 He subsequently opened a warehouse in London, where 
 he executed copies of antique vases, cameos, and sculp- 
 ture, remarkable for their accuracy and exquisite work- 
 manship. Among his works in this department were 
 fifty copies of the celebrated Portland vase, which were 
 sold for fifty guineas each. Some of his compositions 
 were of such hardness and indestructibility as to render 
 them invaluable for chemical vessels. His works were 
 not only of the greatest benefit to the manufactures and 
 commercial prosperity of his country, but exerted a 
 powerful influence in refining the national taste. Wedg- 
 wood wasa Fellow of the Royal Society, and contributed 
 several treatises to the "Transactions" of that body. 
 Died in 1795. 
 
 See Eliza Mrtrvard, "Life of J. Wedgwood, from his Private 
 Correspondence," i86< : L Jewktt. "The Wedgwoods." 1865: J. 
 Marryatt, " Collection towards a History of Potlery," etc., 1X50: 
 "Nouvelle Biaxraphia Generate ;" "Edinburgh Review" for July 
 and October, 1867. 
 
 Weed, (Stephen H.,) an American brigadier-general, 
 born in New York, graduated at West Point in 1S54. He 
 was a skilful officer of artillery. He was killed at Gettys- 
 burg, July 2, 1863, aged about thirty. 
 
 Weed, (T1IURL0W,) an American journalist and poli- 
 tician, born in Greene county, New York, in 1797. He 
 learned the trade of printer, and edited several news- 
 papers. He was an active member of the Anti-Masonic 
 party, and in 1830 became the editor of the "Albany 
 Evening Journal," which opposed the Albany Regency 
 and was an able organ of the Whig party. He acquired 
 distinction and great influence as a party manager for 
 the Whigs and the Republicans. He was an intimate 
 associate and adherent of William H. Seward. In the 
 latter part of the civil war he ceased to be in unity 
 with the Republican party. He favoured the policy of 
 President Johnson in relation to reconstruction in 1866- 
 67, but supported General Grant for the Presidency 
 in 1868. 
 
 Weekes, weeks, (Henry,) an English sculptor, born 
 at Canterbury in 1807, was a pupil of Chantrey, whom 
 he assisted for several years. Among his works are 
 statues of the Duke of Wellington and Lord Bacon, at 
 Cambridge, and a monument to Shelley, in Hampshire. 
 
 Weems, (Mason L.,) an American biographical 
 writer, was rector of Mount Vernon parish, Virginia. 
 He was the author of " A History of the Life and Death, 
 Virtues and Exploits, of General George Washington," 
 etc., (1800,) "Life of General Francis Marion," (4th 
 edition, 1816,) and biographies of Franklin (1817) and of 
 William Penn, (1829.) They are written in a lively, 
 entertaining style, but are not to be relied upon as 
 biographies or histories. Died in 1825. 
 
 See Dcyckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. 
 
 Weeninx, wa'ninks, or Weeuix, wa'niks, (Jan Bap- 
 tist,) the Old, an eminent Dutch painter, born at Am- 
 sterdam in 1621. He studied under Abraham lSloemaert, 
 and afterwards spent several years at Rome, where he 
 was extensively patronized. His works include portraits, 
 historical pictures, animals, and marine views, in all of 
 which he acquired a very high reputation. Died in 1660. 
 
 His son Jan, sumamed the Young, was born at 
 Amsterdam in 1644. He was instructed in painting 
 by his father, whose style and favourite subjects he 
 adopted. As a colorist, he was esteemed superior to his 
 father, and his hunting-scenes and birds are regarded 
 as master-pieces. Died in 1719. 
 
 See Descamps, "Vies des Peiiitres Flamands, Hollandais," etc. ; 
 Ch \ki.ks Blanc, " Histoire des Peintres." 
 
 Weerdt, de, deh waiRt, (Adrian,) a Flemish land- 
 scape-painter, born at Brussels, lived about 1550. 
 
 Weert. See Werth. 
 
 Weever. See'WF.AVER, (John.) 
 
 Wegelin, wa'geh-leen', (Jacques,) a Swiss historian, 
 born at Saint Gall in 1721. He became professor of 
 history at Berlin in 1765, and wrote, besides other 
 works, "Memoirs on the Philosophy of History," (4 
 vols., 1772-79,) and "Universal History," (6 vols., 1776 
 -80.) Died in Berlin in 1791. 
 
 See Fkls, "Biographic Wegelins," 179a. 
 
 Wegener, Oa'geh-ner, (Caspar Fredf.rik,) a Danish 
 historian and publicist, born in Fiinen in 1802. He 
 acquired a high reputation by several works on Danish 
 history. He became director of the national archives 
 in 1848. 
 
 Wegner, wee/ner, (Gottfried,) a German theolo- 
 gian, born in Silesia in 1644. He became professor 
 of theology at Konigsberg, and court preacher. Died 
 in 1709. 
 
 Wegscheider, ftac'shi'der, (Julius August Lud- 
 WIG,) a German theologian of the rationalistic school, 
 was born at Kubbelingen, in Brunswick, in 177 1. He 
 became professor of theology at Halle in 1810. His 
 principal work is entitled "Institutes of Dogmatic Chris- 
 tian Theology," (in Latin, 1818.) Died in 1849. 
 
 Wehrli. See Vehrli. 
 
 Weichert, wi'Kert, (Jonathan August,) a German 
 scholar, born in Saxony in 1788, published editions of 
 Pomponius Mela and other classics. Died in 1844. 
 
 Weickard, <vi'kaRt,»(MEi.CHtoR Adam.) a German 
 physician, was a warm advocate of the Brtinonian 
 
 « as *; 9 as s;%hard;%v&j; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled ; s as z; th as in this. (jySee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WE1DEN 
 
 2248 
 
 WEISS 
 
 system, and published, among other works, "The Philo- 
 sophical Physician." Died in 1803. 
 
 Weiden, von, fon wi'den, Weda, wa'dS, or Wied, 
 weet, (Hermann,) Count, a German prelate, born 
 in Nassau in 1472. He was elected Archbishop and 
 Elector of Cologne in 1515, and persecuted the Prot- 
 estants for a number of years. About 1540 he changed 
 his course, and patronized Bucer and other Reformers. 
 Having been excommunicated by the pope in 1546, he 
 resigned in 1547, and died in 1552. 
 
 Weidler, wl'dler, (Johann Friedrich,) a German 
 astronomer and mathematician, born in Thuringia in 
 1691. He became in 1721 professor of mathematics at 
 Wittenberg. He published a number of valuable works, 
 in Latin, among which we may name his " Mathematical 
 Institutes," "History of Astronomy," "Astronomical 
 Bibliography," and "Treatise on Hydraulic Machines." 
 He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. Died 
 
 in '755- 
 
 Weigel, wic'el or wi'gel, (Erhard,) a German mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, born at Weida in 1625, became 
 professor of mathematics at Jena. He was the inventor 
 of several astronomical Instruments, and published, 
 among other works, one entitled "The Mirror of the 
 Heavens," ("Himmels-spiegel.") Died in 1699. 
 
 Weigel, (Johann August Gottlor,) a German 
 bookseller, born at Leipsic in 1773; <'' ec ' m 1846. 
 
 Weigel, (Karl Christian Leberecht — la'beh- 
 reKt,) a German physician and scholar, brother of the 
 preceding, was born at Leipsic in 1 769. He published a 
 "Modern Greek-German-Italian Dictionary," ancl other 
 works. Died in 1845. 
 
 Weigel, (Valentin,) a German theologian, founder 
 of a sect of mystics called by his name, was born at 
 Grossenhain, in Saxony, in 1533. His leading doctrines 
 are said to resemble those of Tauler; and Jacob Boh me 
 was one of his most noted disciples. His works were 
 published after his death, which occurred in 1588. 
 
 See Hilliger, "Vita V. Weigelii," 1721. 
 
 Weigel, von, fon wiG'el or wT'gel, (Christian 
 Ehreufried — a'ren-fReet,) a German physician and 
 naturalist, born at Stralsund in 1748, wrote " Observa- 
 tiones Botanicae," and other works. Died in 1831. 
 
 Weigl, wicl, (Joseph,) a musical composer, born at 
 Eisenstadt, in Hungary, in 1766, became chapel-master 
 of the Italian Opera at Vienna. His opera of "The 
 Swiss Family" is esteemed one of his best works. Died 
 in 1846. 
 
 Weil, wil, (Gustav,) a distinguished German Orien- 
 talist, of Jewish extraction, was born at Sulzburg in 1808. 
 He studied at Heidelberg, visited Egypt about 1830, and 
 devoted himself to the study of the Arabic, Persic, and 
 Turkish languages. He was appointed, after his return, 
 assistant librarian, and professor of Oriental languages, 
 in the University of Heidelberg, in 1845. Among his 
 principal works are "The Poetical Literature of the 
 Arabs," (1837.) "Mohammed the Propfiet," (1843,) and 
 " History of the Caliphs," ("Geschichte der Chalifen," 
 5 vols., 1846.) 
 
 Weill, wil, [Fr. pron. v&J,] (Alexandre,) a litterateur 
 and journalist, of Jewish extraction, was born in Alsace 
 in 1813. He was editor for a time of the "Gazette de 
 France," and published a work entitled " Republic and 
 Monarchy," an " Essay on Schiller," and several political 
 treatises. 
 
 Weiller, von, fon wil'ler, (Kajetan,) a German 
 teacher and educational writer, born at Munich in 1762. 
 He became secretary general of the Academy of Sciences 
 in 1823. Died in 1826. 
 Weimar, Duchess of. See Amelia. 
 Weimar, (Bernard,) Duke of. See Bernhard 
 of Saxe Weimar. 
 
 Weinbrenner, wIn'bi<eVner, (Friedrich,) a cele- 
 brated German architect, born at Carlsruhe in 1766. He 
 visited Rome in 1791, and spent several years in study- 
 ing the remains of ancient art. On his return, in 1798, 
 he was appointed inspector of buildings at Carlsruhe. 
 Among his principal works are the theatre at Leipsic, 
 and the Standeshaus theatre, tlje Lutheran and Roman 
 Catholic churches, and Hochberg palace, at Carlsruhe. 
 He also founded in the latter place an institution for the 
 
 study of architecture and the kindred arts. He was the 
 author of a "Manual of Architecture," (1810,) a treatise 
 "On Form and Beauty," (1819,) and other similar 
 works. Died in 1826. 
 
 See his Autobiography, emitted " Denkwiirdigkeiten aus Wein- 
 brenner's Leben," .829; A. W. Schreiber, " F. Weinbrenner. 
 Denkmal," etc., 1826. 
 
 Weinlig, win'lio, (Christian Theodor,) a German 
 musician and composer, born at Dresden in 1780; died 
 in 1842. 
 
 His son, Christian Albrecht, born in 1812, became, 
 professor of national economy at Erlangen, and pub- 
 lished a "Manual of Theoretical Chemistry," (1840,) 
 and other works. 
 
 Weinreich, win'rlK, or Weinrich, win'rlK, (Valen- 
 tin,) a German philologist and poet, born near Hartz 
 in 1553, became rector at Eisenach. Died in 1622. 
 
 Weinrich, -ftin'rlK, (Georg,) a learned theolo- 
 gian, born in Silesia in 1554. He preached at Leipsic, 
 and published a number of works on theology. Died 
 in 1617. 
 
 Weinrich, (Johann Michael,) a German writer 
 and Lutheran minister, born in 1683, lived at Mei- 
 nungen. Died in 1727. 
 
 Weir, weer, (Robert W.,) an American painter, born 
 at New Rochelle, in New York, in 1803. Among his 
 best works are " The Landing of Henry Hudson," " The 
 Embarkation of the Pilgrims," and "The Antiquary 
 introducing Lovell to his Womankind." 
 
 See Duni.ap, "Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in 
 America;" Tuckerman. "Book of the Artists." 
 
 Weir, weer, (William,) a Scottish journalist, bom 
 in Edinburgh about 1802. He edited successively the 
 Edinburgh "Literary Journal," the Glasgow "Argus," 
 and the " Daily News," a Liberal paper of London. 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 Weisbach, wis'biK, (Julius,) a German savant, 
 born near Annaberg in 1806, published a "Manual for 
 the Engineer and Machinist," and several treatises 
 on hydraulics. 
 
 Weise, wi'zeli, [Lat. Wei'sius,] (Christian,) a Ger- 
 man writer, born at Zittau in 1642, became rector of the 
 gymnasium In his native town. He was the author of a 
 satirical romance, entitled "Die drei Hauptverderber," 
 and a number of dramas, also several educational work's. 
 Died in 1708. 
 
 See Hermann Palm, " C. Weise. eine literar-bistorische Ab- 
 handlung," 1854 ; S. Grosser, "Vita C. Weisii," 1710. 
 
 Weisflog, wiss'floG, (Karl,) a German litterateur, 
 born at Sagan in 1 770, published a number of humorous 
 tales. Died in 1828. 
 
 Weishaupt, wiss'howpt, (Adam,) a German jurist 
 and philosopher, born at Ingolstadt in 1748, is chiefly 
 celebrated as the founder of the order of the Illuininati. 
 He became professor of canon and natural law in his 
 native city in 1775. He wrote, besides other works, an 
 "Apology for the Illuminati," (1786,) and " Pythagoras ; 
 or. The Secret Art of Governing the World," (1790.) 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 See Gottschi.ing, " Weishaupt's Scbicksale," 1789 ; " Nouvelle 
 Biographie Ge^ieVale." 
 
 Weisius. See Weise. 
 
 Weiss. See Ai.binus, (Bernard,) Alrinus, (Pe- 
 trus.) and Ai.binus, (Johannes Georgius.) 
 
 Weiss, wiss, [Fr. pron. v£ss,| (Charles,) a French 
 litterateur, born at Besancon in 1779. He contributed a 
 great number of articles to the " Biographie Universale," 
 of which he was one of the editors. 
 
 Weiss, (Charles,) a French historian, born at Stras- 
 burg in 1812, became professor of history at the Lycee 
 Bonaparte. He published "Spain from Philip II. to 
 the Accession of the Bourbons,:' (2 vols., 1844,) and a 
 " History of the French Protestant Refugees since the 
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes," (2 vols., 1853.) 
 
 See "Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1853. 
 
 Weiss, wiss, (Christian Samuel,) a German min- 
 eralogist, bom at Leipsic in 1780. He studied under 
 Werner at Freiberg, and in 1810 became professor of 
 mineralogy at Berlin. His principal work is a treatise 
 "On the Natural Divisions of the System of Crystalliza- 
 tion," (1813.) Died in 1856. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; A, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, Q, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; flr, fill, fat; met; not; good; moci 
 
 moon; 
 
WEISS 
 
 "49 
 
 SELLER 
 
 Weiss, (SIEGFRIED,) a German publicist, born at 
 Dantzic in 1822. He wrote, besides other works, " Code 
 of Maritime Internationa! Law," (2 vols., 1858.) 
 
 Weisse, wi'seh, (Christian Ernst,) a German 
 jurist, son of Christian Felix, noticed below, was born 
 at Leipsic in 1766. He became in 1813 professor of 
 criminal law in that city, and was the author of a 
 "Manual of Saxon Civil Law," which is esteemed a 
 standard work. Died in 1832. 
 
 ■Weisse, (Christian Felix,) a popular German 
 writer, born at Annaberg in 1726. He studied at Leip- 
 sic, where he acquired the friendship of Lessing, and 
 soon after produced several tragedies, which, however, 
 met with little favour. His " Merry Songs," ("Scherz- 
 haften Lieder,") which appeared in 1758, were very 
 successful, and were followed by a number of comedies, 
 which were also well received. In 1775 he became 
 editor of a juvenile periodical called "The Children's 
 Friend," ("Der Kinderfreund,") which obtained almost 
 unprecedented popularity, and was afterwards imitated 
 by Berquin in his "Ami des Enfans." His "Songs for 
 Children," "ABC Book," and "Dramas for Chil- 
 dren" were received with equal favour, and they have 
 been translated into the principal European languages. 
 Besides these juvenile productions, on which his reputa- 
 tion mainly rests, Weisse published " Lyric Poems" and 
 "Comic Operas." He was for several years editor of 
 a literary journal of high character, entitled "Bibliothek 
 der Schonen-Wissenschaften und Freien-Kunste." He 
 died in 1804. 
 
 See C. G. Bauer, " Ueber C. F. Weisse," 1S05 ; Weisse, " Auto- 
 biography." 1S06: H. C. Iphofkn. " Lebensgeschichte C. F. 
 Weisse's," etc., 1806; Gkrvinus, "Geschichte der Deutschen 
 Dichtung. " 
 
 Weisse, (Christian Hermann,) a son of Christian 
 Ernst, noticed above, was born at Leipsic in 1801, and 
 became professor of philosophy in his native city. He 
 published a treatise "On the Present Stand-Point of 
 Philosophical Science," (1829,) "System of /Esthetics, 
 or Science of the Idea of Beauty," (1830,) and essays, 
 which have a high reputation. 
 
 Weissenthurn, von, ton wi'sen-tooRn'. (Johanna 
 Franul Veronica,) a German actress and dramatic 
 writer, originally named Grunberg, was born atCoblentz 
 in 1773. Her works are numerous, and once enjoyed 
 considerable popularity. Died in 1847. 
 
 Weitenaver, wi'ten -a'ver, (Ignatius,) a German 
 linguist and Jesuit, born at Ingolstadt in 1705. He 
 published several works on language. Died in 17S3. 
 
 Weitling, witling, (Wii.hei.m,) a German commun- 
 ist, born at Magdeburg in 1808, published "Guarantees 
 of Harmony and Freedom," " Humanity as it is and as 
 it should be," (1845,) and other similar works. 
 
 WeitzeL wit'sel, (Godfrey,) an American major- 
 general and engineer, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, about 
 1835, graduated at West Point, second in his class, in 
 1855. He served on the staff of General Butler in the 
 expedition to New Orleans, April, 1862, and rendered 
 important services as chief engineer of Butler's army. 
 He commanded a brigade under General Banks in 
 Louisiana in 1863, and a division in the operations 
 against Petersburg. Virginia, in the summer of 1864. 
 He was designated by General Grant to command the 
 land-forces of an expedition against Wilmington in 
 December, 1864, but he actually served as second in 
 command under General Butler, and decided that it 
 would be a rash sacrifice of life to assault the fort with 
 6000 men. His command was foremost in the occupa- 
 tion of Richmond, April 3, 1865. He is a major of 
 engineers in the regular army. 
 
 8m Reid, " Ohio in llie War," 1868, p. 789. 
 
 Weitzel, wit'sel, (Johannes,) a German writer and 
 journalist, born at Johannisberg in 1771. He published 
 a "History of Political Science," "Letters from the 
 Rhine," and other works, on various subjects. Died in 
 
 1837- 
 
 Wgl'bjf, (Amelia B.,) an American poetess, born at 
 Saint Michael's, Maryland, in 1821. She subsequently 
 removed to Louisville, Kentucky, where she contributed 
 numerous poems to the " Louisville Journal," under the 
 signature of "Amelia." Died in 1852. 
 
 See Griswolu, "Female Poets of America." 
 
 Welch, (John,) a Scottish minister, born about 1570, 
 married a daughter of John Knox. He preached at 
 Ayr, was banished in 1606 or 1616, and went to France. 
 Died about 1622. 
 
 Welch'man, (Edward,) an English clergyman, born 
 at Banbury about 1665. He became Archdeacon of 
 Cardigan, and published "The Thirty-Nine Articles 
 illustrated with Notes." Died in 1739. 
 
 Welcker, wel'ker, (Friedrich Gottlieb,) an emi- 
 nent philologist and antiquary, born at Grunberg in 1784, 
 Having studied at Giessen, he resided two years at 
 Rome, and, after his return, became successively pro- 
 fessor of archaeology and Greek literature at Giessen 
 and Gottingen, and professor of philology at Bonn, 
 being also appointed chief librarian in the last-named 
 university. Among his numerous and valuable works 
 we may name " Die Aeschyleische Trilogie Prometheus," 
 etc., "On a Cretan Colony in Thebes, the Goddess 
 Europa and Cadmus," (1824,) "The Epic Cyclus ; or, 
 The Homeric Poets," (1835,) a "d "Short Essays on 
 Grecian Literary History," (1844.) He also wrote "The 
 Life of Zoega, with a Collection of his Letters," etc. 
 Died in 1S68. 
 
 See Brockhaus. " Conversations- Lexikon." 
 
 Welcker, (Karl Theodor,) a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in Upper Hesse in 1790. He studied 
 at Giessen and Heidelberg, and subsequently became 
 professor of law at Kiel. He was elected to the Upper 
 Chamber of Baden in 1831, and soon after assisted in 
 founding the Liberal journal entitled "Der Freisinnige." 
 For the political opinions expressed in this gazette he 
 was arrested, but released after a short imprisonment. 
 He was a deputy to the German National Assembly in 
 1848. He wrote several able political treatises, and 
 assisted Rotteck in the "Staatslexikon." Died in 1869. 
 
 Weld, (Charles Richard,) an English writer, born 
 at Windsor in 1818. He wrote a " History of the Royal 
 Society," (1847,) and other works. 
 
 Weld, (Rev. Lewis,) an American clergyman, born 
 in Hampton, Connecticut, about 1796. He was principal 
 of the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Hartford. 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 His brother, Theodore D., was distinguished as an 
 opponent of slavery. 
 
 Weld, (Thomas,) an English cardinal, born in Dor- 
 setshire In 1773 ; died in 1837. 
 
 Welden, vou, fon vVel'den, (Ludwig,) Baron, a 
 German officer, bom in Wurtemberg in 1782. He 
 served against the French in the campaigns of 1813-15, 
 and was made lieutenant-field-marshal in 1836. He died 
 in 1852, having been previously appointed master of 
 the ordnance. 
 
 Wel'don, (John,) an eminent English composer of 
 church music, was born at Chichester about 1670. He 
 was a pupil of Henry Purcell, and in 1708 became 
 organist of the chapel royal. His anthems are regarded 
 as master-pieces ; he also produced several songs, and 
 other works of great merit. Died in 1736. 
 
 Welee-ed-Deen or Weli-Bddln, wel'ee ed-deen', 
 (Ahmed, ali'med,) a famous Turkish poet, born about 
 1438. He obtained the office of vizier under Mahomet 
 II. Died in 1495. 
 
 Welhaven, wel'hj'ven, (Johann Sebastian,) a 
 Norwegian poet, born at Bergen in 1807, has published 
 "Half a Hundred Poems," (" Halvhundret Digte," 
 1848,) "Pictures of Travel and Poems," (" Reisebilleder 
 Og 1 >igte," 1851,) and a criticism on the poet Wergeland, 
 entitled "Henrik Wergeland's Poetry and Polemics." 
 He became professor of philosophy at Christiania in 
 1846. 
 
 Wellekens, wel'leh-kens, (John Baptist,) a Dutch 
 pastoral poet, born at Alost in 1658, passed eleven years 
 in Italy, whither he went about 1676. His idyls are 
 praised as natural and true. Died at Amsterdam in 1726. 
 
 Wellens, wel'lens, (Jacques Thomas Joseph,) a 
 learned and benevolent Flemish ecclesiastic, born at 
 Antwerp in 1726, became bishop of his native city. 
 Died in 1784. 
 
 Weller, wel'ler, [Lat. Welle'rus.J (Jakob.) a Ger- 
 man scholar and theologian, born in 1602, became 
 professor of Oriental languages at Wittenberg, and in 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 2; th as in this. (JfJfSee Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WELLER 
 
 2250 
 
 WELLINGTON 
 
 1646 first court preacher at Dresden. His " New Greek 
 Grammar" ("Grammatica Graeca Nova") was highly 
 esteemed by his contemporaries. Died in 1664. 
 See Reichmann, "Memoria J. Welleri," 1664. 
 
 Weller, wel'ler, [Lat. Welle'rus,] (Jerome or 
 Hiekonymus,) a German theologian, born at Freyberg, 
 in Misnia, in 1499. He was in early youth a favourite 
 disciple of Luther, in whose house he lived eight years. 
 He became professor of theology at Freyberg, and 
 propagated the doctrines of Luther by his sermons and 
 writings, which had a high reputation. Died in 1572. 
 
 See Lemmel," Wellerus redivivus ;" Hempel, " Life of Weller," 
 in Latin verse. 
 
 Wellerus. See Weller. 
 
 Welles, wSlz, (Gideon,) an American politician, born 
 in Hartford county, Connecticut, in 1802. He studied 
 law, and became about 1826 editor of the "Hartford 
 Times," a Democratic journal. He was elected to the 
 legislature of Connecticut in 1827, and was appointed 
 chief of one of the bureaus of the navy department in 
 1846. About 1854 he separated from the Democratic 
 party in regard to the extension of slavery, and joined 
 the Republicans. He was appointed secretary of the 
 navy in March, 1861, and, after the death of President 
 Lincoln, was retained in office by Johnson until the close 
 of his administration in March, 1869. 
 
 Wellesley, (Sir Arthur.) See Wellington. 
 
 Wellesley, welz'le, (Lord Chakles,) the second son 
 of the first Duke of Wellington, was born in Dublin in 
 1808. He entered the army, and became a colonel about 
 1851. He was elected in 1842 a member of the House 
 of Commons, in which he voted with the Conservatives. 
 Died in 1858. 
 
 Wellesley, (Richard Colley,) Marquis Wellesley, 
 an able statesman, born in Dublin in 1760, was the eldest 
 son of Garret, first Earl of Mornington, and was a 
 brother of the famous Duke of Wellington. He studied 
 at Eton, and distinguished himself as a classical scholar. 
 At the death of his father, in 1781, he became Earl of 
 Mornington, and entered the Irish House of Lords. He 
 gained the favour of George III. by his course on the 
 subject of the regency in 1789, and at the next general 
 election was returned to the English House of Commons 
 for Windsor. In 1793 ne was sworn in a member of the 
 British privy council. ,He was appointed Governor- 
 General of India in October, 1797, and raised to the 
 British peerage, as Baron Mornington. In 1798 he 
 declared war against Tippoo Sahib, Sultan of Mysore, 
 who had given offence by intrigues or negotiations with 
 the Flench. The British army gained victories at Mal- 
 lavelly and Serjngapatam, and Tippoo was killed in 
 battle in 1799. Lord Mornington was created Marquis 
 Wellesley in December, 1799. About 1803 he waged 
 war against the Mahrattas, from whom he conquered 
 the region between the Ganges and Jumna. He resigned 
 in 1805, became secretary of state for foreign affairs in 
 December, 1809, and retired from that office in January, 
 1812. On the death of Mr. Perceval, (1812,) the Marquis 
 Wellesley, at the request of the prince-regent, made an 
 unsuccessful effort to form a coalition ministry. He was 
 appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland in December, 1821. 
 Being a zealous friend of Catholic emancipation, he 
 resigned when his brother, the Duke of Wellington, 
 became prime minister, in 1828, because the duke 
 opposed the Catholic claims. He served as lord lieu- 
 tenant of Ireland for a short time in 1833-34. He died 
 in September, 1842, leaving no children, although he 
 was twice married. 
 
 See R. R. Pkarce, "Memoirs and Correspondence of Marquis 
 Wellesley," 3 vols., 1846. 
 
 WelTmg-ton, (Arthur Wellesley,) first Duke 
 OF, a celebrated British general and statesman, born in 
 Dublin or at Dangan Castle, in the county of Meath, 
 Ireland, on the 1st of May, 1769. He was the third son 
 of Garret Wesley, first Earl of Mornington, and Anne 
 Hill Trevor, a daughter of Viscount Dungannon. The 
 original name of the family was exchanged for Wellesley 
 about 1797 by the subject of this article or by his eldest 
 brother. He was educated at Eton and at a military 
 academy of Angers, in France. He received in March, 
 1787, a commission as ensign in the seventy-third regi- 
 
 ment of foot, became a lieutenant in December of that 
 year, and obtained the rank of captain in June, 1791. 
 Having been raised to the rank of major in April, 1793, 
 he acquired by purchase that of lieutenant-colonel of 
 the thirty-third regiment of foot in September of the 
 same year. In 1794 he served in the Low Countries 
 under the Duke of York, whom the French general 
 Pichegru compelled to retreat to Bremen. During this 
 disastrous retreat Colonel Wesley commanded a brigade, 
 and distinguished himself by his skill and intrepidity. 
 
 Having been promoted to the rank of colonel in 1796, 
 he was ordered to India, where he arrived in February, 
 1797. In 1798 his eldest brother, Lord Mornington, 
 became Governor-General of India, and declared war 
 against Tippoo Sahib. Colonel Wellesley contributed 
 to the victory of Mallavelly and the capture of Seringa- 
 patam, of which he was appointed governor in July, 
 1799. "During several years that he held the command 
 in Mysore," says C. MacFarland, " he was fully occupied 
 in organizing the civil and military administration of 
 the country ; and in the execution of this task he im- 
 proved his natural talents for business, and displayed 
 that quickness of perception and that sagacity and self- 
 command which have characterized him throughout the 
 whole course of his military career." 
 
 He obtained the rank of major-general in April, 1802, 
 was appointed to the chief command of all the British 
 and allied troops serving in the territories of the Peishwa 
 and the Nzam in 1803, and gained a decisive victory 
 over the Mahrattas at Assaye in September of that year. 
 In this battle he had two horses killed under him. 
 Having obtained in February, 1805, leave to return to 
 England, he arrived there in the ensuing September. 
 In the next November he was sent to Holland with 
 an army which was commanded by Lord Cathcart, and 
 which returned to England in February, 1806, without 
 having encountered the enemy. 
 
 In April, 1806, Sir Arthur Wellesley married Lady 
 Catherine Pakenham, a daughter of the Earl of Long- 
 ford. He was returned to the House of Commons for 
 the borough of Rye in 1806, and was appointed chief 
 secretary for Ireland in April, 1807. In August of that 
 year he commanded a division of the army which in- 
 vaded Denmark, and defeated the Danes at Kioge. He 
 was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general in April, 
 1808, and in the ensuing June was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief of an army of about 10,000 men which 
 was sent to Spain to fight against the French. He 
 reached Corunna in July; but, as the Spanish Junta 
 declined the assistance of a British auxiliary force, he 
 landed at Mondego Bay, in Portugal, which country was 
 then occupied by a French army under Junot. The 
 British forces, marching towards Lisbon, defeated a divi- 
 sion of the French army at Rolica in August, 1808. A 
 few days after this affair his army was largely reinforced, 
 but he was superseded in the command. The ministers 
 appointed Sir Hew Dalrymple commander-in-chief, Sir 
 Harry Burrard second in command, and Sir John Moore 
 third. Sir Arthur was thus reduced from first to fourth 
 in command. He repulsed the French who attacked 
 him it Vimeira, August 21. The French having evacu- 
 ated Portugal, in accordance with the Convention of 
 Cintra, in September, 1808, Sir Arthur Wellesley re- 
 turned to England, and resumed the place of chief 
 secretary for Ireland. In January, 1809, he received 
 the thanks of Parliament for his services in Portugal. 
 
 The victorious march of Napoleon to Madrid and the 
 defeat of Sir John Moore at Corunna induced the British 
 government to increase their forces in the Peninsula 
 and to aid both the Portuguese and Spaniards. General 
 Wellesley, having been appointed commander-in-chief, 
 arrived at Lisbon in April, 1809, and found himself at 
 the head of an army of about 25,000 men. On the 12th 
 of May he defeated Soult at Oporto. The passage of 
 the river Douro at this time, in the presence of 10.000 
 Frenchmen, is considered one of his most brilliant 
 achievements. About the end of June, 1809, he marched 
 into Spain, which was occupied by several French 
 armies, widely separated, and commanded by Soult, 
 Victor, Suchet, and others. A Spanish army under 
 General Cuesta took the field against the French and 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 1, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, J, short; a., ?, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon; 
 
WELLINGTON 
 
 32,-1 
 
 WELLINGTON 
 
 joined the army of General Wellesley, who encountered 
 Marshal Victor on the 22d of July at Talavera. In the 
 battle which ensued at this place, the British claimed 
 the victory, but they did not pursue the retiring enemy. 
 Sir Arthur wrote, on the 24th of July, "I am not able 
 to follow the enemy as I could wish, . . . owing to my 
 having found it impossible to procure even one mule or 
 cart in Spain. My troops have been in actual want of 
 provisions for the last two days." Victor, having been 
 reinforced, attacked the British at Talavera on the 27th 
 of July, renewed the fight on the 28th, and was repulsed 
 with heavy loss. The approach of several French armies, 
 superior in number to his own, induced Sir Arthur to 
 retreat by way of Badajoz towards Portugal. He after- 
 wards pursued a cautious Fabian policy. In September, 
 1809, he was raised to the peerage, with the titles of 
 Baron Douro of Wellesley and Viscount Wellington of 
 Talavera. 
 
 The battle of Talavera was the last action of the 
 British army in the campaign of 1809. A large Spanish 
 army was routed, with great loss, at Ocana in Novem- 
 ber, and about the same time the French defeated 
 another army of 20,000 Spaniards. On learning these 
 events, Lord Wellington wrote, " I lament that a cause 
 which promised so well a few weeks ago should have 
 been so completely lost by the ignorance, presumption, 
 and mismanagement of those to whose direction it was 
 intrusted." He prepared for the campaign of 1810 
 by the construction of the celebrated lines of Torres 
 Vedras, near Lisbon, and fixed his head-quarters at 
 Viseu in January. His army, including the Portuguese, 
 amounted to about 54,000 men. A large French army, 
 commanded by Massena, approached Portugal from the 
 northeast in the summer of 1810. The French having 
 taken Almeida in August, after a short siege, Lord Wel- 
 lington fell back to the valley of the Mondego, and took 
 a strong position near Coimbra, along the ridge of 
 Busaco. Here he was attacked on. the 27th of Septem- 
 ber by the French, who were repulsed, with a loss which 
 the English writers estimate at 4000 killed and wounded. 
 A few days after this battle, Lord Wellington was com- 
 pelled to retreat towards Lisbon. 1 lis army entered 
 the strong defences of Torres Vedras about the 8th of 
 October. Massena made several unsuccessful attacks 
 on these lines, lost many men by disease, and retired in 
 November to Santarem, where he passed the winter. 
 Thus ended the campaign of 1810. Lord Wellington 
 complained that he was not efficiently supported by the 
 Portuguese regency, some members of which perversely 
 endeavoured to thwart his plans. In a letter dated 
 October 6, addressed to Mr. Stuart, he says, " As for 
 Principal Souza, I beg you to tell him, from me, that I 
 have had no satisfaction in transacting the business of 
 his country since he has been a member of the govern- 
 ment. . . . Either he must quit the country, or I will." 
 
 During the months of January and February the 
 hostile armies in Portugal remained stationary. Mar- 
 shal Soult, who commanded in Andalusia, was ordered 
 to act in concert with Massena by attacking Portugal 
 south of the Tagus. Massena, whose position was ren- 
 dered untenable by want of provisions, began about the 
 4th of March to move his army northward, and was 
 followed by the British. On the nth of March the 
 strong fortress of Badajoz was taken by Marshal Soult. 
 The British army defeated that of Massena on the 3d 
 of April, at the battle of Sabugal, which Lord Welling- 
 ton described as " one of the most glorious actions that 
 British troops were ever engaged in." On the 6th the 
 French crossed the Agueda into Spain, and thus ter- 
 minated their invasion of Portugal. They left a garrison 
 in Almeida, which was blockaded by the British. In 
 order to relieve this garrison, Massena marched back 
 from Ciudad Rodrigo and attacked the enemy at Fuentes 
 de Onoro. After a pitched battle, which ended on the 
 5th of May, the French were repulsed, and abandoned 
 Almeida. 
 
 In the mean time an allied army under General 
 Beresford invested Badajoz about the 4th of May, and 
 Marshal Soult moved, with inferior numbers, to relieve 
 that place. The armies met at Albuera on the 16th of 
 May, and a severe battle ensued, in which the allies 
 
 claimed the victory, but admitted that they lost about 
 7000 men killed and wounded. Soult retired to Seville 
 and Lord Wellington, who arrived at Albuera about the 
 20th of May, ordered the siege of Badajoz to be re- 
 sumed. Having failed in several attempts to take that 
 place by assault in June, he retired towards the north 
 of Portugal, and remained on the defensive, in a position 
 on the Coa, during the autumn of 181 1. "Wellington 
 was aware," says Jules Maurel, "that Fortune could not 
 change sides at a leap, and that it was only after repeated 
 trials that you could win her favours ; . . . and that 
 before acquiring the art of gaining great victories it was 
 necessary to begin by learning to avoid defeats, and for a 
 time to decline all engagements." Having gained the 
 confidence of his troops by his extraordinary success 
 while acting on the defensive, he at length assumed 
 the offensive, and showed, when those qualities were 
 demanded, that his enterprise and promptitude were 
 not inferior to his prudence. 
 
 In January, 1812, he made a rapid march to Ciudad 
 Rodrigo, which he took by storm on the 19th of that 
 month. He also took Badajoz in April, before the 
 French army could come to relieve that place. In the 
 assault of Badajoz the allies lost 1000 killed and 3786 
 wounded. On the 22d of July Lord Wellington gained 
 an important victory over Marshal Marmont at Sala- 
 manca. He entered Madrid in triumph on the 12th of 
 August, soon after which Soult raised the blockade of 
 Cadiz and concentrated his forces at Granada. Leaving 
 two divisions at Madrid, Wellington moved his army 
 northward, entered Valladolid on the 7th of September, 
 and marched thence to Burgos, the castle of which was 
 defended by a garrison of 2000 Frenchmen. He spent 
 nearly five weeks in the siege of this place, which he 
 could not take, and about the 21st of October he began 
 to retreat towards Portugal through Salamanca, closely 
 pursued by General Souham. The campaign of 1812 
 closed without any other battles. The British general 
 was rewarded for his victory at Salamanca by the title of 
 Marquis of Wellington. About the end of 1812 he was 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the Spanish armies by 
 the regency of Spain. 
 
 The campaign of 1813 opened in May, by the march 
 of the allies across the Douro to Valladolid. The 
 French army, abandoning Burgos on the 12th of June, 
 retired across the Ebro, and were overtaken at Vitoria, 
 where Wellington gained a decisive victory over Mar- 
 shal Jourdan on the 21st of June. The allies took here 
 an immense quantity of booty. 
 
 When Napoleon received tidings of the disaster at 
 Vitoria, he sent Soult to Spain as commander-in-chief. 
 Soult attacked the allies near Pampeluna on the 28th 
 and 30th of July, but was- repulsed. These actions are 
 sometimes called "The Battles of the Pyrenees." Thus 
 was terminated the French occupation of Spain. 
 
 Wellington's success in the wars of the peninsula 
 must be ascribed in no small measure to the character 
 which he established for probity and truthfulness. With 
 true moral heroism, he refused to indulge in the slightest 
 misrepresentation, even to save his own fame. In this 
 respect his character presents a striking contrast to that 
 of his great antagonist, Napoleon. In one of his de- 
 spatches he says, " I see a disposition exists to blame 
 the government for the failure of the siege of Burgos. 
 The government had nothing to say to the siege ; it 
 was entirely my own act." When his allies in Portugal 
 and Spain became at length acquainted with his charac- 
 ter, they believed with implicit confidence whatever he 
 told them, and he thus acquired a moral power equal to 
 the force of mighty armies. Afterwards, in carrying out 
 a policy as wise as it was humane, he refused even in an 
 enemy's country (in France) to allow his own troops, or 
 those of his Spanish allies, to support themselves by 
 plunder, for his object was not merely to maintain his 
 army, but to conciliate the people. He had been among 
 the first to perceive how an opposite policy towards the 
 nations he had conquered was gradually, but surely, un- 
 dermining the colossal power of Napoleon ; the plainest 
 dictates of common sense, as well as motives of a higher 
 character, preserved Wellington from the commission of 
 a similar error. 
 
 e as i; 5 as s; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; K, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (%g~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WELLINGTON 
 
 WELLS 
 
 About the 10th of November Lord Wellington marched 
 across the frontier into France. He fought with success 
 several battles near Bayonne between the 9th and 13th 
 of December, 1813. On the 27th of February, 1814, he 
 defeated Soult at Orthez, from which the French retreated 
 to Toulouse. The allies gained another victory at Tou- 
 louse on the 10th of April, but they lost in this battle 
 about 4600 men. The report of the abdication of Na- 
 poleon arrived at Toulouse on the 12th, and hostilities 
 were suspended on the 18th of April. Wellington was 
 rewarded with the title of duke on the 3d of May, and, 
 after visits to Paris and Madrid, took leave of his army 
 on the 14th of June. Having returned to England, he 
 took his seat in the House of Lords on the 28th of June. 
 The House of Commons voted ^400,000 for the support 
 of his dignity. In August, 1814, he was sent as ambas- 
 sador-extraordinary to the court of France. With sev- 
 eral colleagues, he represented England at the Congress 
 of Vienna, which assembled in January, 1815. He was 
 at Vienna when he received intelligence that Napoleon 
 had returned to France. 
 
 In April Wellington was appointed commander-in- 
 chief of the army in Flanders, consisting of about 76,000 
 men, mostly British and Dutch. A Prussian army under 
 General Bliicher, who had about 80,000 men, was ready to 
 act in conceit with Wellington. To oppose these armies 
 Napoleon raised about 115,000 men. On the nth of 
 June the French emperor quitted Paris to open the cam- 
 paign, and exclaimed, " I go to measure myself with this 
 Wellington," ("Je vais me mesurer avec ce Villainton.") 
 Wellington attended a ball at Brussels on the evening of 
 the 15th of June, and his army began to inarch on the 
 morning of the 16th. The Prussians were defeated with 
 severe loss at Ligny on the afternoon of the 16th, and 
 about the same time an indecisive battle was fought 
 between Marshal Ney and the allies at Quatre-Bras. Blii- 
 cherissaid to have lost about 12,000 kiiled and wounded 
 at Ligny. On the morning of the 17th, Wellington made 
 a retrograde movement on Waterloo, where he was at- 
 tacked by the French about ten A.M. on the 18th of June. 
 According to J. Maurel, Wellington had then 70,000 
 men, of whom 37,890 were British ; and Napoleon had 
 75,600, excluding the detachment of Grouchy. It was 
 the object of Napoleon to drive the enemy from his 
 position before the arrival of the Prussian army. He 
 had made several obstinate attacks, without success, when 
 General Billow reached the field with 16,000 Prussians, 
 at four P.M., and decided the victory. Bliicher arrived 
 about seven o'clock, and pursued the retreating French. 
 The loss of the victors on this day was immense. The 
 British and Hanoverians alone lost 2432 killed and 
 9528 wounded. 
 
 Wellington and the allied armies entered Paris with- 
 out resistance about the 7th of July. He restrained the 
 excesses of Bliicher, who was about to blowup the bridge 
 of Jena and to commit other acts of vengeance. His 
 first thought after the victory of June 18 was to favour 
 the restoration of Louis XVIII. and to oppose the dis- 
 memberment of France. The allied powers resolved to 
 maintain an army of occupation in France for five years, 
 and gave the command of that army to tire Duke of 
 Wellington. By his advice, the period was shortened, 
 and the allied army evacuated France about the end of 
 1818. He became master-general of the ordnance and 
 a member of the cabinet in January, 1819, represented 
 England at the Congress of Verona in 1822, and was 
 sent on a mission to Russia in 1826. He succeeded the 
 Duke of York as commander-in-chief of the forces in 
 January, 1827. 
 
 In politics Wellington was a staunch Tory. It is not 
 improbable that the long contest which he maintained in 
 order to preserve Europe from the revolutionary or in- 
 novating spirit of the French mav have contributed to 
 strengthen those principles of rigid conservatism by 
 which his political career was distinguished. When 
 Canning became premier, in April, 1S27, Wellington 
 resigned his place in the cabinet, and succeeded Lord 
 Goderich as prime minister in January, 1828. The new 
 ministry opposed the motion of Lord John Russell to 
 repeal the test and corporation acts, but were defeated 
 by a majority of forty-four in the House of Commons. 
 
 Wellington then yielded, and procured its passage in the 
 House of Lords. He was an opponent of free trade 
 and electoral reform, both of which were demanded by 
 an ever-growing majority of the nation. He at first 
 resisted the effort to emancipate the Roman Catholics 
 from civil and political disabilities, but at length deemed 
 it expedient to yield to the popular will. The bill for 
 the relief of Roman Catholics was passed by large 
 majorities in both houses in March and April, 1829. 
 
 The strength of the Tory party was impaired by the 
 death of George IV., June, 1830, and the French revo- 
 lution of the ensuing month gave an impetus to the cause 
 of reform in England. In the new Parliament, which 
 met in October, 1830, the friends of reform had a 
 majority, but the duke assumed an attitude of obstinate 
 resistance to the movement. He declared that "the 
 country already possessed a legislature which answered 
 all the good purposes of legislation ; that the system of 
 representation possessed the full and entire confidence 
 of the country." Having provoked a violent excitement 
 by such language, and rendered himself extremely 
 unpopular, he resigned in November, 1830. He was 
 hooted by the populace of London on the 18th of June, 
 1832. In December, 1834, Sir Robert Peel became 
 prime minister, and the Duke of Wellington secretary 
 for foreign affairs. They resigned in April, 1835. He 
 had a seat in the cabinet formed by Peel in 1841, but 
 was not charged with official functions. Although he 
 had opposed the repeal of the corn-laws, his influence 
 decided the House of Lords to consent to the repeal 
 after it had passed the House of Commons in May, 1846. 
 lie died at Walmer Castle on the 14th of September, 
 1852, leaving his title to his eldest son, Arthur, who is 
 the present Duke of Wellington. He also had a son 
 Charles. 
 
 Comparing the Duke of Wellington with Napoleon, 
 General William F. P. Napier says, " Firm, tranquil, 
 and stubborn in resistance, vehement and obstinate in 
 attack ; bold, when there was a call for daring ; more 
 inclined to operate by a flank than by a front attack — in 
 all these things they resembled and matched each other ; 
 but in the art of following up his point and of making 
 the most of victory, the English general was far behind 
 Napoleon. The battle of Wellington was like the heavy 
 blow of the battering-ram, that strikes straight and hard 
 and makes a great hole in the wall. The battle of Na- 
 poleon was like the rush and irruption of a gigantic sea, 
 which, descending from a mighty height, bursts through 
 all obstacles and inundates the whole country to a great 
 distance." 
 
 See Jules Maurei., " Wellington : his Character, his Actions, 
 and his Writings," 1853: W. H. Maxwell, "Life of the Duke of 
 Wellington," 3 vols., 1S39; Chaklks MacFarlane. " Life of the 
 Duke of Wellington," 1S51 ; Southev, " Life of Wellington," 1821 ; 
 Sherer. " Mililaiy Memoirs of the Duke of Wellington," 2 vols., 
 1S32: Wilson, " Life of the Duke of Wellington," 2 vols., 1853-55; 
 Db Bkialmunt, "Viedu Due de Wellington," 3 vols., 1858; Gleig, 
 " Life of Wellington," 1S62; Charles D. Yonge, " Life of Welling- 
 ton," i860: L. de Lomen'ik, " Lord Wellington, par tin Homine de 
 Rien," 1842; George EtxroT, "Life of the Duke of Wellington," 
 1814: George Soane. "Lite of the Duke of Wellington." 2 vols., 
 1839-40; A. Cooper, " Life of Arthur. Duke of Wellington," 1850; 
 W. F. P. Napier, " History of the War in the Peninsula;" "De- 
 spatches and Correspondence of the Duke of Wellington," published 
 by Colonel Garwood, 12 vols.. 1852 ; " London Quarterly Review'* 
 for April and July, 1815, and July, 1866. 
 
 Wells, (Chari.ks William,) a distinguished physi- 
 cian, of Scottish extraction, born at Charleston, South 
 Carolina, in 1757. Having studied at Edinburgh, he 
 settled in London, and was appointed in 1800 physician 
 to Saint Thomas's Hospital. He was a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society, and contributed to their "Transactions" 
 " Experiments on the Colour of the Blood," and other 
 treatises. His principal work is an " Essay upon Dew," 
 (1814,) which is highly esteemed. Died in 1817. 
 
 See his Autobiography, 182J. 
 
 Wells, (Ei>\VARl>,) an English divine, born in Wilt- 
 shire about 1665, published "The Geography of the Old 
 and New Testament," and other works. Died in 1727. 
 
 ■Wells, (Horace,) M.D., born at Hartford, Vermont, 
 January 21, 1815, studied and practised dentistry in 
 Boston. He appears to have been the first to employ 
 anaesthetics successfully, by means of inhalation, for the 
 purpose of destroying pain in dental operations. On 
 
 A, e, T, 6, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, j?, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
WELLS 
 
 "53 
 
 WEKTZEL 
 
 the nth of December, 1S44, Dr. Wells, then residing ai 
 Hartford, Connecticut, was placed, at his own request, 
 under the influence of nitrous oxide gas, and a large 
 molar tooth was extracted by Mr. Riggs, causing scarcely 
 any perceptible pain. After that date, Dr. Wells, and 
 other dentists of Hartford, continued with great success 
 to employ the nitrous oxide gas as an anesthetic for 
 nearly two years, when, attention having been directed — 
 chiefly through the influence of Dr. William T. G. 
 Morton, of Boston — t.i the stMMthetlc properties of sul- 
 pt.uiic ether, this agent, as being more easily procured 
 or applied, was generally substituted for the nitrous 
 oxide gas. Dr. Wells, while investigating with his 
 usual ardour the relative value of these different anaes- 
 thetics, seriously injured himseif, as it would appear, by 
 the inhalation of chloroform, so that, his reason being 
 unhinged, he committed suicide in New York in January, 
 1848. In weighing the respective claims of Dr. Wells 
 and Dr. Morton, we feel bound, after a careful examina- 
 tion, to award to the former the credit of having been 
 the first to conceive of, and to carry to a successful issue, 
 the use of anaesthetic inhalation in surgical operations, 
 while to the latter belongs the distinguished merit of 
 having done more than any other, or all others, to make 
 this invaluable discovery known to people of all classes 
 and in both hemispheres. 
 
 See "Testimonial of the Members of the Medical Profession of 
 Philadelphia, New York, and Boston in behalf of W. T. G. Morton, 
 M.I'.." 1S60; and an "Inquiry into the Origin of Modern Anaes- 
 thesia," by the Hon. Truman Smith, 1867, including a "Life of 
 Horac- Wells, M.D.," by Dr. P. W. Ellsworth. 
 
 Wells, (John Doane,) an American physician, emi- 
 nent as a lecturer on anatomy, was born in Boston in 
 1799. He was professor of anatomy in the medical 
 school of Maine. Died in Boston in 1830. 
 
 Wellwood, (Sir Henry Moncriefk.) See Mon- 
 crikff, (Henry.) 
 
 Well'wood, (James or Thomas,) a Scottish phy- 
 sician and writer, born near Edinburgh in 1652, pub- 
 lished "Memoirs of English Affairs from 1588 to the 
 Revolution of 1688." Died in 1716. 
 
 Welschow, vel'sho, (Johann Matthias,) a Danish 
 historian, born in Copenhagen in 1796. He has written 
 on Danish history. 
 
 Welser, wgl'ser, or Velser, (Bartholomaus,) a 
 German nobleman of great wealth, was a native of 
 Augsburg. He was patronized by the emperor Charles 
 V., who made him a privy councillor. 
 
 Welser, [Lat. Velse'rus,] (Marcus,) a German 
 scholar, born at Augsburg in 1558. He wrote several 
 historical and philological treatises, in Latin, and was an 
 intimate friend of Galileo, who dedicated to him one of 
 his works. Died in 1614. 
 
 See C. Arnold, "Vita M. Velseri," 1682. 
 
 Welser, (Philippine,) a niece of Bartholomaus, no- 
 ticed above, was celebrated for her beauty and talents, 
 and was privately married in 1550 to the archduke 
 Ferdinand, son of the emperor Ferdinand I. After her 
 father-in-law became reconciled to the marriage, he 
 created her Margravine of Burgau. Died in 1580. 
 
 Wgl'sted, (Leonard,) an English poet, born in 
 Northamptonshire in 1689. His principal poem is en- 
 titled "The Triumvirate," (1718,) and is supposed to 
 have been intended for a satire on Pope, who retaliated 
 by his allusions to Welsted in the second and third 
 books of the " Dunciad." Died in 1749. 
 
 Wencealaus, wen'ses-laus or went'ses-lowss', [Fr. 
 WfNCESLAS, voN'ses'las',] or Wenzel, went'sel, son of 
 the emperor Charles IV. of Germany, was born in 1361. 
 He was proclaimed King of the Romans in 1376, and 
 succeeded his father in 1378. He displayed the weakness 
 and cruelty of his character by cancelling the debts owed 
 by the nobles to the Jews, and confiscating the property 
 of three thousand of that sect who had been murdered 
 by a mob at Prague. He also caused John Neponnik 
 to be drowned in the Moldau. Having made many 
 powerful enemies by forsaking the cause of Pope Boni- 
 face IX., whom he had formerly supported against the 
 anti-pope Benedict XIII., he was deposed in a Diet at 
 Frankfort, (1400,) and the Elector-Palatine Rupert was 
 chosen in his stead. He died in 1419, having previously 
 
 abdicated in favour of his brother Sigismtind, who had 
 been chosen emperor on the death of Rupert. 
 
 See F. M. Pki.zhl, " Lebensgeschichte dee Romischen und 
 Bohmischen Kouigs Wencealaus," 1788-90, 
 
 Wen'ces-lans or Wen'ces-las I., King of Bohemia, 
 born in 1205, began to reign in 1230. He was a patron 
 of arts and learning, and exerted much influence in the 
 affairs of Germany. Died in 1253. 
 
 Wenceslaus or Wenceslas II., King of Bohemia 
 and Poland, a grandson of the preceding, was born in 
 1271. lie succeeded his father in 1278, and was chosen 
 King of Poland in 1300. Died in 1305. 
 
 Wenceslaus or Wenceslas III., a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1289. He died, without issue, in 
 1306. 
 
 Wenceslaus or Wenceslas IV. of Bohemia. See 
 Wenceslaus, Emperor of Germany. 
 
 ■Wenceslaus, went'ses-lowss', [Fr. Wenceslas, v6n'- 
 ses'las',] or Wenzel, went'sel, Saint, Duke of Bohemia, 
 born about 908, was converted to Christianity by his 
 paternal grandmother Ludmila. He was distinguished 
 for the sanctity of his life, and refused the crown of 
 Bohemia, which was offered him by the emperor Otho I. 
 He was assassinated in 936, at the instigation of his 
 mother Drahomira and his brother Boleslaw. 
 
 See F. X. Scholdes, " Der heilige Wenzel dargestellt," etc 
 1S48. 
 
 Wendelin, wen'de-leen', [Fr. Vendelin, vSN'deh- 
 IAn',] (Godefroi,) a Flemish astronomer and scholar, 
 born at La Lampine in 1580. He became canon of 
 Toumay, and published various works, among which is 
 "Lunar Eclipses observed from 1573 to 1640." It is 
 stated that he determined the parallax of the sun. Died 
 in 1660. 
 
 Wendover. See Roger de Wendover. 
 
 Wendt, went, (Johann Amadeus,) a German writer,, 
 born at Leipsic in 1783, became professor of philosophy 
 at Gottingen. He published " Rossini's Life and 
 Works," (1824,) and was a contributor to various lit- 
 erary periodicals of the time. Died in 1836. 
 
 Wengierski, weng-ge-eR'skee, (Andrew,) a So- 
 cinian minister, born in Silesia in 1600. He wrote a 
 " History of the Slavonian Churches," (1652.) Died 
 in 1649. 
 
 WSus'ley-dale, (James Parke,) Baron, an English 
 jurist, born near Liverpool in 1 782. He studied at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, and was appointed a baron 
 of the court of exchequer in 1834. On retiring from the 
 bench, in 1856, he was raised to the peerage, as Baron 
 Wensleydale. 
 
 Went'worth, (Benning,) son of John Wentworth, 
 was born at Portsmouth in 1696. He was Governor of 
 New Hampshire for more than twenty years. The town 
 of Bennington, in Vermont, was named in his honour. 
 Died in 1 770. 
 
 Wentworth, (Charles W.) See Rockingham. 
 
 Wentworth, (Sir John,) a nephew of Benning Went- 
 worth, noticed above, was born at Portsmouth in 1736. 
 He became Governor of New Hampshire in 1768, and 
 gave its charter to Dartmouth College. Died in 1820. 
 
 Wentworth, (Colonel John,) born at Dover, New 
 Hampshire, in 1719, was appointed in 1776 one of the 
 superior judges of New Hampshire. Died in 1781. His 
 son, of the same name, born in 1 745, was elected to the 
 Continental Congress in 1778, and twice re-elected. 
 Died in 1787. 
 
 Wentworth, (John,) an American journalist, born 
 at Sandwich, New Hampshire, in 1815, removed to Illi- 
 nois, and became editor of the "Chicago Democrat." 
 He was several times elected to Congress, and in 1S57 
 became mayor of Chicago, and again in i860. 
 
 Wentworth, (Thomas.) See Strafford, Earl of. 
 
 Wentworth, (William,) born in England about 
 l6to, was one of the early settlers of New Hampshire. 
 Died in 1697. H' 3 grandson John, born in 1671, be- 
 came Lieutenant-Governor of New Hampshire in 1717. 
 Died in 1730. 
 
 Wentzel or Wenzel, went'sel, (Johann Chris- 
 TOPH,) a German poet and physician, born in Eisenach 
 in 1659. He became principal of the Academy of Zittau 
 in 1713, and published several poems. Died in 1723. 
 
 1 k; 9 as /; g hard; g as,/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; % as 1; th as in this. -(JiySee Explanations, p. 23..I 
 
WEN-WANG 
 
 2254 
 
 WERNER 
 
 Wen-Wang, the founder of the Chinese dynasty of 
 Chow or Cheou, was born about 1230 B.C. He gained 
 great distinction as a general and as a writer, and was 
 governor of Chow (Cheou) for many years. He died 
 aged ninety-seven. His son Woo- (of Wou-) Wang 
 became' Emperor of China. 
 
 Wenzel, (Emperor of Germany.) See Wenceslaus. 
 
 Wenzel, Saint. See Wenceslaus. 
 
 Wepfer, w5p'i?r, (John James,) ■» Swiss physician 
 and anatomist, born at Schaffhausen in 1620, was the 
 author of several medical works. Died in 1695. 
 
 Weppen, wep'pen, (Johann August,) a German 
 poet, bom at Nordheim in 1742. He published between 
 1778 and 1796 a number of poems, which are com- 
 mended. 
 
 Werdenhagen, weVden-ha'gen, (Johann Ange,) a 
 learned German jurist and diplomatist, born at Helm- 
 stedt in 1581, published several works. Died in 1652. 
 
 Werder, wSR'der, (Karl,) a German philosophical 
 writer, of the school of Hegel, was born at Berlin in 
 1806. He became assistant professor of philosophy in 
 the University of Berlin in 1838. 
 
 Werder, von, fon wfeVder, (Dietrich,) a German 
 
 Eoet, born at Werdershausen, in Hesse, in 1584. He 
 ecame a privy councillor at the court of Cassel. In 
 1626 he produced a German version of Tasso's "Je- 
 rusalem Delivered." He also translated Ariosto's 
 "Orlando Furioso," (1632.) These translations are 
 praised by several writers. Died in 1657. 
 
 Werdin or Weredln. See Paulinus, (Johann 
 Philipp.) 
 
 Werdmuller, w§Rt'm361'ler, (Johann Rudolph,) a 
 Swiss painter, born at Zurich in 1639. He painted 
 mostly landscapes and portraits. Having commenced 
 a journey to Paris, he was drowned in the Silh in 1668. 
 
 Werdum, van, vSn weVdiim, (Ulrich,) a Dutch 
 historian, born at Werdum, in Friesland, in 1632. He 
 was privy councillor of East Friesland. He wrote sev- 
 ral useful works on the history of Friesland. Died 
 In 1681. 
 
 WSr'em-bert or Werimbert, fl.at. Werember'- 
 TUS,J a learned German monk, born at Curia, (Coire,) 
 was a brother of Adalbert, a famous general of Charle- 
 magne. He wrote commentaries on the books of Scrip- 
 ture, and other works, and taught at Saint Gall. Died 
 in 884 a.d. 
 
 Werenfels, wa'ren-fels', (Peter,) a Swiss Protestant 
 minister, born in 1627, became professor of theology at 
 Bile about 1675. He wrote several theological works. 
 Died in 1703. 
 
 Werenfels, [Lat. Werenfei/sius,] (Samuel,) a 
 Swiss scholar and theologian, born at Bile in 1657, 
 was a son of the preceding. He obtained the chair 
 of eloquence in 1687 at Bale, where he afterwards 
 became professor of theology. He published, besides 
 other able works, " On the Controversies of Learned 
 Men," (" De Logomachiis Eruditorum," 1692.) Died 
 in 1740. 
 
 See P. Ryhiner, "Vita S. Werenfelsii," 1741. 
 
 Werenfelsius. See Werenfels. 
 
 Werf or Werff, van der, vtn der weRf, (Peter,) a 
 Dutch patriot, born at Leyden in 1529. He was em- 
 ployed by William the Silent in confidential missions. 
 As burgomaster of Leyden, he displayed great firmness 
 and constancy when that city was besieged by the 
 Spaniards in 1573-74. 
 
 Werff or Werf, (Adriaan.) See Van der Werf. 
 
 Wergeland, weVgeh-lanf, (Henrik Arnold,) a 
 celebrated Norwegian poet, born at Christiansand in 
 1808. He studied at the University of Christiania, where 
 he was appointed, in 1836, keeper of the library, and, in 
 1840, archivist of the kingdom. His first publication 
 was a satirical farce, entitled " Ah 1" which appeared 
 under the pseudonym of Siful Sifadda. It was fol- 
 lowed by a number of similar works, distinguished by 
 their intensely sectional spirit and political personalities. 
 Among his most admired productions are the opera 
 of "The Campbells," (1838,) tragedies entitled "The 
 Venetians" (1840) and "The Child-Murderess," and 
 poems entitled "Jan van Huysum's Flower-Piece," and 
 " The Spaniards." Died in 1845. 
 
 Werkmeister, vVfRk'mls'ter, (Andreas,) a German 
 composer and writer, bom in 1645, was author of " Har- 
 monologia Musica," and other works. Died in 1706. 
 
 Werl, (Oi.af.) See Vekelius. 
 
 Werlauff, weVlowf, (Erik Christian,) a Danish 
 antiquary and historian, born at Copenhagen in 1781, 
 was appointed first librarian in the Royal Library of 
 that city about 1828. He made numerous contributions 
 to the " Antiquariske Annaler" and other literary peri- 
 odicals, assisted Thorlacius in editing the history of 
 the kings of Norway, and published various learned 
 works on Scandinavian antiquities. 
 
 Werlhof, w^Rl'hof, (Johann,) a German jurist, born 
 at Helmstedt in 1660. He became aulic councillor to 
 the Duke of Brunswick, and wrote several legal works. 
 Died in 171 1. 
 
 Werlhof, (Paul Gottlieb,) a skilful German phy- 
 sician, born at Helmstedt in 1699. He settled at Han- 
 over in 1725, and became first physician to George II. 
 of England. He wrote a "Treatise on Fevers," (1745,) 
 and other medical works, (3 vols., 1775.) Died in 1767. 
 
 Werloschnid, von, fon weVlo-shnit', (Johann Bap- 
 tist,) a German physician, lived about 17 10. He pub- 
 lished an " Account of the Plague which prevailed in 
 Austria, Hungary, etc. in 1708-1710." 
 
 Wemeck, von, fon weVnJk, (Franz,) Baron, an 
 eminent Austrian general, born at Ludwigsberg, in Wiir- 
 temberg, in 1748. He entered the Austrian service 
 about 1765, became general-major in 1789, and com- 
 manded a corps d'armee in the campaign of 1793 against 
 the French. He contributed to the victory at Wurz- 
 burg in September, 1796, and commanded the army of 
 the Lower Rhine in 1797, but was soon removed for his 
 ill success. He was captured, with a division, in 1805. 
 Died in 1806. 
 
 Wer'ner, [Ger. pron.weVnfr,] (Abraham Gottlob,) 
 an eminent German geologist and mineralogist, was born 
 at Wehrau, on the Queiss, in Upper Lusatia, September 
 25, 1750. He was educated in the school of mines at Frey- 
 berg, in Saxony, and studied law for three years at Leipsic. 
 In 1774 he published a short "Treatise on the Charac- 
 ters of Minerals," in which he proposed a methodical 
 and precise language, the varied terms of which suffice 
 to express all the sensible qualities of minerals. "This 
 little essay," says Cuvier, " has made a revolution in 
 mineralogy, to which the author rendered a service analo- 
 gous to that which Linnaeus had rendered to botanical 
 science by the terminology explained in his ' Philosophia 
 Botanica.'" ("Biographie Universelle.") He Was ap- 
 pointed in 1775 professor of mineralogy at Freyberg, and 
 inspector of the cabinet of minerals belonging to that 
 school. In 1 780 he produced a translation of Cronstedt's 
 " Mineralogy." His doctrines iivere propagated by sev- 
 eral of his pupils, among whom were Karsten, Wiede- 
 mann, Jameson, and Napione. He applied the term 
 Geognosy to the science which treats of the respective 
 positions of minerals in the crust of the globe, and of 
 the epochs of their origin. He presented the bases of 
 this science in his "Classification and Description of 
 Mountains," (1787.) "He was the first," says Cuvier, 
 " that raised the theory of the earth to the rank of a 
 positive science by divesting it of the fantastic systems 
 of which it was for a long time composed." He cl ossi- 
 fied rocks, according to their relative antiquity, into fjur 
 classes or formations : 1, the primitive, which contain no 
 organic remains ; 2, the transition ; 3, the stratified; and 
 4, the alluvia] beds formed recently. He divined the order 
 of superposition which has been found almost general 
 all over the earth, although his sphere of observation 
 was quite limited. In 1791 he published a "New Theory 
 of the Formation of Veins." Werner was the author 
 of the theory known as the Neptunian or Wernerian, 
 that the primitive and other rocks were formed by 
 precipitation from water or some liquid. This theory 
 was controverted by Hutton and others, who attributed 
 to the primitive rocks an igneous origin, and were called 
 Vulcanians. He passed nearly all of his mature life at 
 Freyberg. In 1802 he visited Paris, and was chosen 
 one of the eight foreign associates of the Academy of 
 Sciences. He was a very accomplished and popular 
 lecturer ; but he was not a voluminous writer, having a 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, p, lung; A, 4, 6, same,"less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y\ short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, (all, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
WERNER 
 
 2255 
 
 WESLEY 
 
 peculiar aversion to the act of writing. He was never 
 married. Died at Dresden in June, 1817. 
 
 See Cuvier, " filoge de Werner ;" Frisch, " Lebensbeschreibung 
 A. G. Werners," 1825; Hasse, " Denkschrift zur Erinnerumr.au A. 
 G. Werner," 1848; Configliachi, " Memorie intomo alia Vita dei 
 due Naturalist! Werner e Haiiy," 1827. 
 
 Werner, (Friedrich Ludwig Zacharias,) an emi- 
 nent German poet and dramatist, born at Konigsberg in 
 1768. He studied law and finance in the university of 
 his native town, where he also attended the lectures of 
 Kant. His first drama, entitled "The Sons of the Valley," 
 came out in 1800, and was succeeded by his "Twenty- 
 fourth of February," (" Der Vierundzwanzigster Fe- 
 bruar,") a tragedy of great power, and esteemed one of 
 his best works. His other principal productions are the 
 dramas entitled "The Cross on the Baltic," "Martin 
 Luther, or the Consecration of Strength," " Kunegunde," 
 " The Mother of the Maccabees," and " Attila, King of 
 the Huns." In 1811 Werner became a Catholic, and, 
 having been ordained a priest in 1 814, settled as a preacher 
 at Vienna, where he died in January, 1823. 
 
 See J. E. Hitzig, " F. L. Z. Werner's Lebensabriss," 1823; 
 ScmOtz. "Z. Werner's Hiopraphie und Charakteristik," 2 vols., 
 1841 : Madams de Stabi, "Germany." vol. ii. : Gervinus, " Ge- 
 schichte der Deutschen Dichtung;" "Blackwood's Magazine" for 
 April, 1827: "Nouvelle Biographie Gthierale." 
 
 ■Werner or Wer-ne'rus, (Joannes,) a German as- 
 tronomer, born at Nuremberg in 1468. He wrote a 
 treatise on "The Movement of the Eighth Sphere," and 
 "Annotations on the First Book of Ptolemy's Geog- 
 raphy," also several mathematical works. Died in 1528. 
 
 Werner, weVner, (Joseph,) a Swiss painter, of great 
 merit, born at Berne in 1637. He studied at Rome, 
 and was subsequently patronized at the court of Louis 
 XIV. He excelled in miniatures and in historical pieces 
 of small size. Among the latter may be named " The 
 Muses on Parnassus" and "The Death of Dido." Died 
 in 1 7 10. 
 
 Werner, von, fon weVner, (Paul,) a celebrated 
 general, born at Raab, in Hungary, in 1707, served with 
 distinction in Austria, and subsequently in the Prussian 
 army during the principal campaigns of the Seven Years' 
 war. In 1 760 he delivered Coburg, which was besieged 
 by the Russians, for which he was made lieutenant- 
 general by Frederick II., who also caused a medal to be 
 struck in his honour. Died in 1785. 
 
 Wernher, w^Rn'her, (Johann Balthasar,) a Ger- 
 man publicist and jurist, born at Rothenburg ; died at 
 Vienna in 1742. 
 
 Wernike,weVne-keh, or Wernigk.weR'nik, written 
 also Wemack or Warneck, (Christian,) a German 
 epigrammatic poet, born in Prussia about 1670. He was 
 appointed by the King of Denmark his resident minister 
 at the French court, and died in Paris about 1720. His 
 works were highly esteemed in his time, and he is 
 ranked among the reformers of German poetry. 
 
 Wernsdorf, weRns'doRf, [Lat. Wernsdor'fius,] 
 (GOTTLIEB,) a German theologian and philologist, born 
 in Saxony in 1668. He became professor of theology 
 at Wittenberg in 1698, and superintendent or Bishop of 
 the Lutheran Church in 1719. Died in 1729. 
 
 See Coi.er, " De Wernsdorfii Vita." 
 
 Wernsdorf, (Gottlieb,) a philologist, born at Wit- 
 tenberg in 1710, was a son of the preceding. He was 
 professor of eloquence and history at Dantzic, and 
 published several learned works. Died in 1774. 
 
 His brother, Ernst Friedrich, born at Wittenberg 
 In 1718, was a learned writer. He became a preacher and 
 professor of theology at Wittenberg. Among his works 
 isa " History of Queen Zenobia," (1742.) Died ia 1782. 
 
 Wernsdorf, (Johann Christian,) a brother of the 
 preceding, was born in 1723. He obtained the chair of 
 eloquence at Helmstedt in 1752, and published a good 
 edition of " Poetae Latini minores," (6 vols., 1780-99.) 
 Died in 1793. 
 
 Wernsdorfius. See Wernsdorf. 
 
 Werp, w?Rp, (Charles,) a benevolent Flemish priest 
 and Latin poet, born near Huy in 1592 ; died in 1666. 
 
 Werth, von, fon waiRt, Wert, or Werdt, (Johann,) 
 sometimes called Jean de Weert, a celebrated general, 
 born at Weert, in Brabant, in 1594. He served under 
 Maximilian of Bavaria in the Thirty Years' war, and 
 
 distinguished himself at the battle of Nordlingen ; but 
 he was defeated in 1638 and made prisoner by Bernard, 
 Duke of Saxe-Weimar, near Rheinfelden. After his 
 release he entered the Austrian service. Died in 1652. 
 
 See Barthold, "Johann von Werth in Zusamnienhange mit 
 seiner Zeit ;" Bavle, " Historical and Critical Dictionary." 
 
 Wesenbeck, wa'zen-beV, (Matthew,) a Flemish 
 jurist, born at Antwerp in 1 531. He became professor 
 of law at Jena, and removed thence to Wittenberg in 
 1569. He wrote several legal works, which were highly 
 esteemed. Died in 1586. 
 
 See A. Rauchbar, " Wesenbeck's Leben." 
 
 Wesenbeck, (Peter,) a jurist, born at Antwerp in 
 1546, was a brother of the preceding. He lectured on 
 law at Jena and Wittenberg, and died at Coburg in 1603. 
 
 WeS'ley, (Charles,) an English preacher and writer 
 of hymns, born at Epworth in December, 170S, was a 
 son of Samuel, and a brother of the celebrated John 
 Wesley. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, 
 where his strictness in religion procured for him '.he 
 name of Methodist and other names given in derision. 
 Having taken orders, he sailed for Georgia with his 
 brother John in 1735, and served as secretary to General 
 Oglethorpe. They returned to England about the end 
 of 1736. Charles became an able preacher, and co- 
 operated with John in many of his religious enterprises. 
 He married Sarah Gwynne in 1749, after which he 
 preached in London, Bristol, and other places, and 
 propagated the Methodist doctrines. He also gained 
 great distinction as a writer of hymns, and composed 
 many of those used in the Methodist Church. Died 
 in 1788. 
 
 See Jackson, " Life of the Rev. Charles Wesley ;" " Journal of 
 the Rev. Charles Wesley," 2 vols., 1849. 
 
 Wesley, (Charles,) a distinguished musician, born 
 in 1757, was a son of the preceding. He was a skilful 
 performer on the organ and harpsichord. Died in 1815. 
 
 Wesley, (Rev. John,) an English nonconformist 
 minister, bom about 1636, was the father of Samuel 
 Wesley, noticed below. He was ejected in 1662, after 
 which he preached at Preston and other places, and 
 was persecuted by imprisonment. Died about 1670. 
 
 Wesley, (John,) a distinguished religious reformer, 
 the founder of the Society of Methodists, was born at 
 Epworth, in Lincolnshire, England, on the 17th of June, 
 1703. He was the second son of Samuel Wesley, noticed 
 below, and Susannah Annesley. At an early age he 
 was sent to the Charter-House, from which he passed 
 in 1720 to Christ Church, Oxford. He was distinguished 
 at college for his attainments, and especially for his skill 
 in logic. His mother, who was a very intelligent woman, 
 and understood Greek and Latin, advised him to make 
 religion the business of his life. He applied himself to 
 the study of religion, began to change the form of his 
 conversation, and was deeply impressed by the perusal 
 of Jeremy Taylor's "Holy Living and Dying." He was 
 ordained a deacon in 1725, graduated as M.A. in 1726, 
 and was elected a Fellow of Lincoln College about that 
 date. He began about 1726 to record his actions, 
 thoughts, and experience in a diary, which he continued 
 to the end of his life. Eight months after his election 
 to a fellowship he was appointed Greek lecturer and 
 moderator of the classes. He was employed as curate 
 of his father at Wroote about two years, at the end of 
 which he was summoned to return to Lincoln College. 
 While he held the curacy at Wroote, he was ordained 4 
 priest of the established Church, (1728.) On his return 
 to Oxford he found that his brother Charles and several 
 other students had associated together for religious 
 improvement, and by their strict and methodical habits 
 had obtained the name of Methodists. They were also 
 called, in derision, Bible Moths, the Godly Club, and 
 Bible Bigots. James Hervey, author of the "Medi- 
 tations," and George Whitefield were members of this 
 society, which recognized John Wesley as its directing 
 head. "The good intentions of Wesley and his asso 
 dates," says Southey, "could not be questioned; but 
 they were iiow running fast into fanaticism." By hard 
 study, fasting, and habits of austerity, he had reduced 
 himself to an alarming physical condition ; but, having 
 put himself under the direction of medical men, he soon 
 recovered his health. 
 
 < is <: c as s; % hard; g as j; G, H, K.,gtitturai; N, nasal; R, trilled; s is z; th as in Ms. ( J^~ Sse Explanations, p, 1 3. ) 
 
WESLEY 
 
 1256 
 
 WESSELENTI 
 
 In October, 1735, John and Charles Wesley accepted 
 an invitation to go to Georgia, to preach to the Indians 
 and the settlers of a colony which General Oglethorpe 
 had planted there. Among their fellow-passengers in 
 the voyage to Georgia were twenty-six Moravians, whose 
 simplicity and piety made a favourable impression on 
 Wesley. They arrived at Savannah in February, 1736. 
 As a preacher, John Wesley was not very popular 
 at Savannah. "He drenched his parishioners," says 
 Southey, "with the physic of an intolerant discipline." 
 He became intimate at Savannah with Sophia Causton, 
 the daughter of a magistrate at that place, and was in- 
 clined to marry her, but he was dissuaded by the elders 
 of the Moravian Church, with whom he was on intimate 
 terms. She afterwards married a Mr. Williamson, and 
 Wesley excluded her from the communion. For this act 
 her husband prosecuted him, and numerous persons 
 conspired to drive him from the colony. He departed 
 from Savannah in December, 1737, and arrived in Eng- 
 land in February, 1738. About this date he recorded 
 his conviction that " I, who went to America to convert 
 others, was never myself converted to God." 
 
 Soon after his return he met with Peter Boehler, a 
 Moravian, who, according to Southey, "became Wes- 
 ley's teacher." "By him," says Wesley, "in the hands 
 of the great God, I was clearly convinced of unbelief, — 
 of the want of that faith whereby alone we are saved." 
 He dated his conversion on the 24th of May, 1738. In 
 the summer of that year he visited the Moravian brethren 
 at Herrnhut, and became acquainted with Count Zinzen- 
 dorf. Having returned to England, he followed the ex- 
 ample of Whitefield (who was then his fellow-labourer) 
 by preaching in the open air at Bristol, where the foun- 
 dations of the society of Methodists, as an independent 
 sect, were laid. He continued to profess the doctrines 
 of the Church of England after he ceased to conform to 
 its discipline. A difference between Wesley and the 
 Moravians resulted in a formal separation in 1740. 
 About 1741 he ceased to have fellowship with White- 
 field, in consequence of a disagreement on the doctrine 
 of predestination, which Wesley rejected with great 
 earnestness. They exchanged a number of letters on 
 this fertile topic of dispute. The respective followers 
 of Wesley and Whitefield then formed themselves into 
 sepafate organizations. " No founder of a sect or order, 
 no legislator, ever understood the art of preserving his 
 authority more perfectly than Wesley." (Southey, "Life 
 of Wesley.") " His restless spirit," says Southey, "had 
 now found its proper sphere, where it might move un- 
 controlled and enjoy a prospect boundless as his desire 
 of doing good, the ambition which possessed him." He 
 became an itinerant preacher, and adopted the system 
 of itinerancy. By this practice, combined with that of 
 field-preaching, he and his fellow-workers obtained free 
 access to the lower classes. Another innovation of 
 Wesley was the employment of laymen as preachers. 
 Applicants for membership were not required to sub- 
 scribe any creed or formula. 
 
 Wesley performed his mission with the greatest zeal, 
 and with entire devotion to the cause which formed the 
 great object of his life. He usually travelled on horse- 
 back, and very often preached several sermons in a day. 
 His biographers, Coke and Moore, express the belief 
 that " there could not be an instance found, during the 
 space of fifty years, wherein the severest weather hin- 
 dered him even for one day." Field-preaching was at 
 that time a dangerous service, and, in certain districts, 
 was frequently interrupted by mobs, which some of 
 the clergy encouraged and the magistrates did not 
 restrain. In a few instances Wesley himself barely 
 escaped being killed. But these persecutions, far from 
 daunting his courage or abating his zeal, seemed only 
 to confirm him in the great work to which he had con- 
 secrated his life. 
 
 About 1750 he married a widow named Vizelle, who 
 possessed an independent fortune, but he took care that 
 it should be settled on herself. But the marriage was 
 not happy. She annoyed him by her jealousy, opened 
 his letters, revealed his secrets, and ran away from him 
 several times. A final separation between him and his 
 wife took place in 1771. 
 
 Wesley published, besides many religious tracts, a 
 work called " Primitive Physic, or an Easy and Natural 
 Method of Curing most Diseases," and a " History of 
 England." His collected works were published, in 32 
 vols. 8vo, in 1774. He was favoured with a vigorous 
 constitution and a rare activity of spirit, which was not 
 impaired by old age. "Ten thousand cares," he said, 
 "were no more burden to his mind than ten thousand 
 hairs were to his head." He had no children. He died 
 in London in March, 1791. 
 
 Since the days of the apostles to the present time, 
 probably few, if any, religious teachers have been instru- 
 mental in effecting more good than John Wesley. A3 
 no hardships or dangers were too great for him to under- 
 take in the cause of Christ, so no portion of humanity, 
 from the highest to the lowest, was beyond the scope of 
 his all-embracing Christian zeal and sympathy. He not 
 only sought with particular care to gather into the fold 
 of Christ the lowest classes of the poor, but he was 
 among the first to see and feel the iniquity of African 
 slavery and to labour for its overthrow. The society 
 which he founded, and which owes in a great measure 
 its efficiency and its influence to the system which he 
 organized, embraces at present, in Europe and America, 
 nearly three millions of souls. 
 
 See Dr. Coke and Mr. Moore, " Life of John Wesley," 1792 , 
 J. Hampson, " Memoirs of J. Wesley," 1791 ; John Whitehead, 
 "Life of John Wesley," 2 vols., 1805; Robert Southev, "Life 
 of Wesley, and the Rise and Progress of Methodism," 1820; Adam 
 Clarke, "Memoirs of the Wesley Family:" Schmidt, " Des J. 
 Wesley Leben," 1849. For an interesting noiice of Wesley as a 
 "Reformer," see " Blackwood's Magazine" for October, 1868. 
 
 Wesley, (Rev. Samuel,) an English clergyman and 
 poet, born at Preston about 1664, was the father of John 
 Wesley, the founder of Methodism. He was educated at 
 Exeter College, Oxford, and became a curate in London. 
 In 1688 he preached a sermon against King James's 
 Declaration of Indulgence. According to some writers, 
 he wrote a book in defence of the revolution of 1688, and 
 was rewarded with the living of Epworth, in Lincoln- 
 shire. He published, besides other poems, " Elegies on 
 Queen Mary and Archbishop Tilltitson," (1695,) and 
 "The History of the Old Testament, in Verse," (1704.) 
 He also wrote a "Commentary on Job," (1735.) Died 
 
 ■n '735- 
 
 See Clarke, " Memoirs of the Wesley Family," 1823. 
 
 Wesley, (Samuel,) a teacher and poet, born about 
 1692, was a son of the preceding. He was educated at 
 Oxford, took holy orders, and was usher of Westminster 
 School for many years. His preferment in the Church 
 was probably hindered by his zealous support of the 
 Tory party, or his intimacy with Atterbury and other 
 Jacobites. He became head-master of Tiverton School 
 in 1732. He wrote a number of poems, which have 
 some merit. Died in 1739. 
 
 See Clarke, "Memoirs of the Wesley Family," 1823. 
 
 Wesley, (Samuel,) a composer of music, born in 
 1766, was a son of the Rev. Charles Wesley, noticed 
 above. He began to compose when he was about eight 
 years old, and was considered a great prodigy. He 
 acquired celebrity as an extemporaneous performer on 
 the organ, and composed sacred music, oratorios, etc. 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 Wessel, wSs'sel, or Wesselus, wes-sa'lus, (John.) 
 sometimes called Gansk.fort or Goesevort, a Dutch 
 theologian and Reformer, born at Groningen about 1420. 
 He studied at Louvain, Heidelberg, and Paris, where 
 he acquired a high reputation for his knowledge of 
 philosophy and divinity. He was also surnamed Ma- 
 gister Contradictionum, ("Master of Contradic- 
 tion,") from his skill in dialectics. He attacked with 
 great boldness the prevailing abuses in the Catholic 
 Church, and was one of the principal Reformers before 
 the time of Luther. He died in 1489, leaving a number 
 of treatises in Latin, some of which were burnt as 
 heretical. 
 
 See Carl Ullmann, " Johann Wessel, ein Vorganger Luthers,' 
 1834; Hodgson, "Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867; 
 Muurling, "Commentatio de J. Wesseli Gansfortii Vita," 1831; 
 B. BXhring, "J. Wessel," 1850. 
 
 Wessetenyi, wesh'shJ-lan'yee, (Miklos,) a Hunga- 
 rian patriot and statesman, born about 1795; died in 185a 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon. 
 
U'ESSELING 
 
 2257 
 
 H'ESTERMANN 
 
 Wesseling.ftes'seh-ling', (Pf.ter,) a German scholar, 
 born at Steinfurt in 1692. He became professor of elo- 
 quence at Franeker, (1723,) and of ancient literature at 
 Utrecht, (1735.) He published several critical treatises 
 on the classics, and valuable editions of Herodotus, Dio- 
 dorus Siculus, and "Vetera Romanorum Itineraria." 
 He was esteemed one of the most learned men of his 
 time. Died in 1764. 
 
 See Hirsching, " Historisch-literarisches Handbuch ;" Saxe, 
 " Onomasticon." 
 
 Wea'sells, (Henry W.,) an American general, born 
 in Litchfield, Connecticut, about 1809, graduated at West 
 Point in 1833. He became a brigadier-general about 
 April, 1862. He commanded at Plymouth, North Caro- 
 lina, which was taken by the Confederates, after a brave 
 defence, April 20, 1864. 
 
 Wesselus. See Wessel. 
 
 Wessely, <veVseh-le, (Naphtali Hartwig,) a Jewish 
 writer and Hebrew scholar, born at Copenhagen in 1723. 
 His most important work is a poem, the subject of which 
 is the vocation or mission of Moses. Died in 1805. 
 
 See Meisei., '■ Leben und Wirken N. H. Wessely's," 1841; E. 
 Carmolv, " Wessely et ses E*crits," 1829. 
 
 Wessenberg, vveVsen-MRG', (Ignaz Heinrich 
 Karl,) Baron, a German Catholic theologian, born at 
 Dresden in 1774. He was appointed in 1802 vicar- 
 general of the diocese of Constance, and was active in 
 promoting the use of the German language at mass, 
 and various other reforms in the Church. Having been 
 nominated in 1814 by Archbishop Dalberg his coad- 
 jutor in the see of Constance, he was rejected by the 
 pope, who also wished him to resign his office of vicar- 
 general. This, however, he declined, being supported 
 by his sovereign, the Grand Duke of Baden. He was 
 the author of a treatise " On the Elementary Education 
 of the People," and other prose works ; also a number 
 of poems. Died in i860. 
 
 See "I. H. von Wessenburg, sein Leben und Wirken," by Dr. J. 
 Beck ; " London Quarterly Review" for December, 1848. 
 
 ■Wessenberg- Ampringen, weVsen -be rg' am'pRi ng- 
 en, (Johann Philipp,) a German statesman, brother of 
 the preceding, was born in 1773. He was employed on 
 missions to Munich, Paris, and the Hague. 
 
 Wgst, (Benjamin,) an eminent American painter, 
 born at Springfield, Delaware county, Pennsylvania, on 
 the 10th of October, 1738, was a member of the Society 
 of Friends. His talent and predilection for the art were 
 manifested at an early age, and, when seventeen, he began 
 portrait-painting at Philadelphia. He visited Rome in 
 1760, where he acquired the friendship of Raphael Mengs. 
 He soon after took up his residence in London, and, some 
 of his works having attracted the notice of George III., 
 he was thenceforth liberally patronized by that monarch. 
 His " Death of Wolfe," in which he had the courage and 
 good taste to depart from the custom of clothing the 
 figures in classical costume, was greatly admired. His 
 next important work was "Christ Healing the Sick," 
 now in the British National Gallery : a copy of it was 
 presented by the artist to the Pennsylvania Hospital, 
 Philadelphia. He succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds as 
 president of the Royal Academy in 1792. Among his 
 other pictures may be named the " Departure of Regu- 
 lus," the " Battle of La Hogue," and " Death on the 
 Pale Horse," now in the Academy of Fine Arts, Phila- 
 delphia. Died in London in 1820. 
 
 See Tuckerman, " Book of the Artists :" Dunlap, " History of 
 the Arts of Design in America;" Cunningham, "Lives of Painters 
 and Sculptors." 
 
 W6st, (Gilbert,) an English writer, born about 
 1705. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford, and subse- 
 quently held several offices under the government. He 
 was the author of " Observations on the Resurrection," 
 which won for him a high reputation, also a poetical 
 version of the Odes of Pindar, and several other 
 translations from the Greek. He was a relative of Pitt, 
 Earl of Chatham, and of Lord George Lyttleton, who 
 dedicated to him his " Dissertation on the Conversion 
 of Saint Paul." Died in 1756. 
 
 West, (James,) an English antiquary, born probably 
 in Warwickshire. He took his degree at Oxford in 
 1726. He was elected president of the Royal Society 
 
 in 1738. He made a rich collection of manuscripts, 
 prints, medals, etc. Died in 1772. 
 
 ■West, (Richard,) an English jurist, born in the 
 seventeenth century, became chancellor of Ireland in 
 1715. He published several legal and miscellaneous 
 works. Died in 1726. 
 
 West, (Samuel,) an American theologian, born in 
 Yarmouth, Massachusetts, in 1730. He preached at 
 New Bedford, was an active Whig politician, and wrote 
 on theology and politics. Died in 1807. 
 
 West, (Stephen,) D.D., an American Congregational 
 divine, born at Tolland, Connecticut, in 1735, became 
 pastor of a church at Stockbridge in 1759. He was the 
 author of an " Essay on Moral Agency," " An Essay on 
 the Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement," (1785,) "Life 
 of the Rev. Samuel Hopkins," and other theological 
 works. Died at Stockbridge in 1819. 
 
 West, (Thomas,) an English writer, born in Lan- 
 cashire, published "A Guide to the Lakes," and other 
 topographical works. Died in 1779. 
 
 West, (W. E.,) an American painter, distinguished 
 for the excellence of his portraits. He was a friend of 
 Washington Irving, and made illustrations of his " Pride 
 of the Village" and "Annette Delarbre." Died in 1857. 
 
 See Tuckerman, "Book of the Artists;" Dunlap, "Rise and 
 Progress of the Arts of Design in America." 
 
 W6st'all, (Richard,) a celebrated English painter 
 in water-colours, was born at Hertford in 1765. He 
 was elected a Royal Academician in 1794. Among his 
 works, which are esteemed master-pieces of the kind, 
 may be named "The Storm in Harvest," "Sappho in 
 the Lesbian Shades," and "Jubal, the First Voice of 
 the Lyre." He also illustrated Moore's "Loves of the 
 Angels," and furnished designs for Boydell's " Shak- 
 speare Gallery." He was appointed, in the latter part of 
 his life, teacher of drawing and painting to the Princess 
 Victoria. Died in 1836. 
 
 Westall, (William,) a landscape-painter, a brother 
 of the preceding, was born at Hertford in 1 781. He 
 studied at the Royal Academy, and subsequently visited 
 India, China, and Australia. He was elected an Asso. 
 ciate of the Royal Academy in 1812. Among his most 
 admired works are a "View of Seaforth's Isle, in the 
 Gulf of Carpentaria," and a series of engraved designs 
 representing the lakes of Cumberland and Westmore- 
 land. He was an intimate friend of Wordsworth and 
 Southey. Died in 1850. 
 
 See " Gentleman's Magazine" for April, 1850. 
 
 Westbury, Lord. See Bethell, (Richard.) 
 
 Westenrieder, von, fon wes'ten-ree'der, (Lorenz,) 
 a German educational writer, born at Munich in 1748, 
 became professor of rhetoric in his native city. He 
 published a " History of Bavaria for Youth and the 
 People," and other historical and geographical works. 
 Died in 1829. 
 
 Westerbaen, wls'ter-bln', (Jacob,) a Dutch poet, 
 of a noble family, was born in 1599. He was the author 
 of songs and other poems, and made translations from 
 Virgil and other Latin'classics. Died in 1670. 
 
 See Longpelixw, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Westergaard, ves'ter-goRd', (Niels Ludwig,) a 
 distinguished Danish Orientalist, born at Copenhagen 
 in 1815. Having studied at Bonn and visited London 
 and Paris, he made a tour to India and Persia. After 
 his return he was appointed, in 1845, professor of Ori- 
 ental philology at Copenhagen. His principal works 
 are his "Radices Sanscritae," (1841,) and a critical edition 
 of the " Zendavesta," (1852.) 
 
 Westerhof, wes'ter-hof, (Arnold Heinrich,) a 
 German scholar, who gained distinction by a good edi- 
 tion of Terence, (2 vols., 1 729.) 
 
 Westermaun, wes'ter-man', (Anton,) a German 
 scholar, born at Leipsic in 1806, became professo* of 
 antiquities in his native city in 1834. He published a 
 " History of Eloquence in Greece and Rome," (2. vols., 
 1833-35,) also editions of the Orations of Lysias, the 
 works of Philostratus, and other classics. Died in 1870. 
 
 Wes'ter-mann, [Fr. pron. ves'teVmSn',] (Francois 
 Joseph,) a French Jacobin and general, born in Alsace 
 about 1760. He became a violent revolutionist, and a 
 
 « as *; 9 as 1; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as *; th as in this. { $&- See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 114 
 
 142 
 
JVESTFIELD 
 
 2258 
 
 WETTE 
 
 friend of Danton. He took a prominent part in the riot 
 in Paris of the 10th of August, 1792. In September of 
 that year he was appointed adjutant-general, and sent to 
 the army of Dumouriez. He became a general of brigade 
 in May, 1793, obtained command of the vanguard of the 
 army in Vendee, and defeated the royalists near Chatil- 
 lon. He attacked and routed the Vendeans at Mans and 
 Savenay in December, 1793. He was executed with 
 Danton in April, 1794. 
 
 See " Nouvelle Hiographie Ge'ne'rale ;" Thiers, " History of the 
 French Revolution." 
 
 West'field, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born 
 at Ely. He became Bishop of Bristol in the reign of 
 James I., and was noted as a pathetic preacher. Died 
 in 1644. Two volumes of his sermons were published. 
 
 West'ma-cott, (Sir Richard,) an eminent English 
 sculptor, born in London in 1775. He studied at Rome 
 under Canova, and was elected a member of the 
 Academy of Florence in 1795. After his return he 
 executed a number of works which established his 
 reputation as one of the first English sculptors of the 
 time. Among his master-pieces we may name his " Eu- 
 phrosyne," "Psyche," "Nymph Unclasping her Zone," 
 a "Peasant Maiden," and "The Distressed Mother;" 
 statues of Pitt and Addison, monuments of Sir Ralph 
 Abercromby in Saint Paul's Cathedral, and of the Duke 
 of York on the column at Waterloo Place, and the bronze 
 statue of George HI. at Windsor. In 1816 he was 
 elected a Royal Academician, and in 1827 succeeded 
 Flaxman as professor of sculpture at the Royal 
 Academy. Died in 1856. 
 
 See "Gentleman's Magazine" for October, 1856. 
 
 Westmacott, (Richard,) son of the preceding, 
 was born in London in 1799. He was instructed by his 
 father, and afterwards spent six years in Italy. He was 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1837, a Royal 
 Academician in 1849, and in 1857 became professor of 
 sculpture in the Royal Academy. His works are prin- 
 cipally of a devotional and classical character. Among 
 these are " Prayer and Resignation," " David as the 
 Slayer of Goliath," the " Angel Watching," the statue 
 of "The Cymbal -Player," "Venus Instructing Cupid," 
 and " Paolo and Francesca." He also executed a number 
 of portrait-busts of great merit. He acquired distinction 
 as a writer of works on art, among which is a " Hand- 
 Book on the Schools of Sculpture." 
 
 West'more-land, (John Fane,) eleventh Earl of, 
 an English general and diplomatist, born in 1784. He 
 served in Egypt and Sicily, and was aide-de-camp to 
 the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsular war. He 
 was sent as ambassador in 1841 to the court of Berlin, 
 where he remained till 1851, and was then sent on an 
 important mission to Vienna. He was a member of 
 the privy council, knight grand cross of the Bath, and 
 obtained the order of Maria Theresa. He was noted 
 as a musician and composer, and published several 
 military treatises. Died in 1859. 
 
 Westmoreland, (Mildmay Fane,) second Earl 
 OF, an English statesman and poet, born about 1600. 
 He was the author of a collection of poems, entitled 
 "Otia Sacra." Died in 1665. 
 
 Wes'tpn, (Elizabeth Jane,) a learned English lady, 
 born about 1586, removed in early life to Prague. She 
 wrote several elegant Latin poems. She was married to 
 John Leon. Died after 1605. 
 
 Weston, (Richard,) Earl of Portland, an English 
 politician, who became grand treasurer of the kingdom 
 about 1625, and was created Earl of Portland in 1633. 
 Died in 1635. 
 
 ■Weston, (Stephen,) an English divine and scholar, 
 born at Exeter in 1747. He published a number of 
 translations from the Persian and Chinese, and several 
 philological and antiquarian essays. Died in 1830. 
 
 Weston, (Thomas,) a popular English comedian. 
 Died in 1776. 
 
 Weston, (William,) an English divine, and resident 
 of Gloucestershire, was the author of " Dissertations on 
 some of the Most Remarkable Wonders of Antiquity." 
 Died in 1760. 
 
 Westphal, wJst'fal, (Ernst Christian,) a German 
 jurist, born at Quedlinburg in 1737, became professor 
 
 of law at Halle. He published several works on Roman 
 law; and a treatise " On the Law of the German Em- 
 pire," (1784.) Died in 1792. 
 
 Westreenen van Tiellandt, wes'tna'nfn vSn teel'- 
 lant, (Wili.em Hendkik Jacob,) Baron, a Dutch his- 
 torical and antiquarian writer, born at the Hague in 1783. 
 He published " Researches concerning the Ancient 
 Forum of Hadrian and its Vestiges near the Hague," 
 and other works. Died in 1848. 
 
 Wgst'wood, (John Ouadiah,) an English entomolo- 
 gist, born at Sheffield about 1805. He was appointed 
 professor of zoology at Oxford in 1861. 
 
 Wetherell. See Warner, (Susan.) 
 
 Weth'er-ell, (Sir Charles,) an English lawyer, born 
 in 1770, was a son of the Dean of Hereford. He was 
 called to the bar in 1794, and acquired extensive prac- 
 tice in the court of chancery. Though he was an ultra 
 Tory and was king's counsel, he defended the Spafield 
 rioters, who were tried for treason in 1817. In 1820 
 he was returned to Parliament for Oxford. He became 
 solicitor-general in 1824, and attorney-general in 1826. 
 Having resigned in 1827, he was reappointed in 1828, 
 but retired from office in 1829, because he was opposed 
 to the Roman Catholic emancipation. By his hostility 
 to the Reform bill he rendered himself so unpopular 
 that he was attacked by a mob at Bristol in 1S31, and 
 narrowly escaped death. Died in 1846. 
 
 Wetstein, wet'stin or wet'stin, (John Henry,) a 
 distinguished printer, born at Bale in 1649, founded at 
 Amsterdam a publishing-house, which became celebrated 
 for the excellent editions of the classics issued from it. 
 Died in 1726. 
 
 Wetstein, (John James,) an eminent Swiss scholar 
 and theologian, born at Bale in 1693, was a son of John 
 Rudolph, (1647-1711,) noticed below. He studied He- 
 brew and theology in the university of his native town, 
 and, having visited England and various parts of the 
 continent for the purpose of examining manuscripts, he 
 published in 1730 his "Prolegomena ad Novi Testa- 
 menti Graeci Editionem accuratissimam." His liberal 
 doctrines having excited great opposition among the 
 clergy, he was deposed from his office, and about 1733 
 removed to Amsterdam, where he was appointed by 
 the Arminians professor of philosophy and ecclesiastical 
 history. He brought out in 1752 his edition of the 
 Greek New Testament, (2 vols, fol.) Died in 1754. 
 
 Wetstein or Wettstein, wet'stin, (John Rudolph,) 
 a Swiss diplomatist, born at Bale in 1594. He rendered 
 important services to his country at the congress which 
 negotiated the peace of Westphalia, (1647,) and received 
 the surname of the Pacificator. Died in 1666. 
 
 Wetstein, (John Rudolph,) son of John James, 
 noticed above, was born at Bile in 1614. He became pro- 
 fessor of theology in his native town, and assisted Suicer 
 in his "Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus." Died in 16S3. 
 
 Wetstein, (John Rudolph,) son of the preceding, 
 was born at Bale in 1647. He was professor of theology 
 in that town, and edited some of the works of Origen. 
 Died in 171 1. 
 
 Wetstein, wet'stin, (Karel Anton,) a Dutch scholar 
 and Latin poet, born at Amsterdam in 1743, was a lawyer 
 in his early life. He translated Hesiod and Theocritus 
 into Latin verse, and wrote several original Latin poems, 
 which we're admired. Died in 1797. 
 
 Wette, de, deh wet'teh or wet'teh, (Wilhei.m Mar- 
 tin Lebrecht,) an eminent German scholar, theologian, 
 and biblical critic, born near Weimar in 1780. He be- 
 came professor of divinity at the University of Berlin in 
 1810, and acquired a high reputation both as a preacher 
 and writer. Among his most important works are the 
 following: "Contributions to an Introduction to the 
 Old Testament," (2 vols., 1806-7,) "A Commentary on 
 the Psalms," (181 1,) "Manual of Jewish Archaeology," 
 (1814,) "Christian Dogmatics," (2 vols., 1813-16,) "On 
 Religion and Theology," (1815,) and "Critical and His- 
 torical Introduction to the Old and New Testaments," 
 (1817-26.) The Introduction to the Old Testament was 
 translaled and enlarged by Theodore Parker, (1843,) 
 and that to the New by Frederick Frothingham, (1S58.) 
 He produced, in conjunction with Augusti, a new trans- 
 lation of the Bible. In 1819 he was dismissed from his 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
WETZE\ 
 
 2259 
 
 WHARTON 
 
 professorship because he wrote a letter of consolation 
 to the mother of Sand, who killed Kotzebue. He ob- 
 tained a chair of divinity at Bale in 1821. Among his 
 works are " Lessons on Morality," (3 vols., 1824.) Died 
 at Bale in 1849. 
 
 See Schenkkl, " De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie 
 fur unsere Zeit," 1849; LUcKE. "Dr. W. M. L de Wette." i8v>: 
 Hagsnbach, "W. M. L. de Wette," 1849; "North British Re- 
 view" for August, 1847. 
 
 Wetzel, wet'sel, (Friedrich GorrLOB.) a German 
 litterateur, born at Bautzen in 1780, was the author of 
 dramas, war-lyrics, and other poems and prose essays. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Wetzel or Wezel, (Johann Caspar,) a German 
 writer and preacher, born at Meiningen in 1691. .He 
 published, besides other works, "Sacred Hymnology," 
 (" llvmnologia Sacra," 1728.) Died in 1755. 
 
 Wetzel or Wezel, (Johann Christian Friedrich,) 
 a German philologist, born in 1762 ; died in 1810. 
 
 Wewitzer, wa'wit-ser, ? (Ralph,) an English come- 
 dian, born in London before 1800; died in 1824. 
 
 Wey, v£, (FRANgois Alphonse,) a French litte- 
 rateur, born at Besancon in 1812. He was appointed 
 inspector-general of the national archives in 1852. He 
 wrote several novels. His reputation is founded chiefly 
 on two works, entitled " Remarks on the French Lan- 
 guage of the Nineteenth Century," (1845,) and a " His- 
 tory of the Revolutions of Language in France," (1848.) 
 
 Weyde, van der. See Van der Weyde. 
 
 Weyden, van der, vin der wi'den, (Roger,) a cele- 
 brated Flemish painter, called Roger of Bruges, was 
 born at Brussels about 1390, and was a pupil of John 
 van Eyck. He went to Italy about 1450, and worked 
 several years at Rome. He painted in oil. Having 
 returned to Brussels, he died there in 1464. 
 
 See A. Wauters, " Notice sur R. van der Weyden," 1846, and 
 " Roger van der Weyden, ses CEuvres," etc., 1855. 
 
 Weyer. See Van de Weyf.r. 
 
 Weyerman, wl'er-man', (Jacob Kampo,) a Dutch 
 painter of fruit- and flower-pieces, was born at Breda 
 in 1679. He was the author of " Lives of the Dutch 
 Painters," a work characterized by Descamps and others 
 as full of calumnies. He was condemned to perpetual 
 imprisonment for a libel on the Dutch East India Com- 
 pany, and died in prison in 1747. 
 
 Weyse, wi'zeh, (Christian Ernst Friedrich,) a 
 Danish musician and composer, born at Altona in 1774; 
 died in 1842. 
 
 ■Wezel. See Wktzei. 
 
 Wezel, wet'sel, (Johann Karl,) a German littera- 
 teur, born at Sondershausen in 1747, wfote a number 
 of romances, comedies, and prose essays. Died in 
 1819. 
 
 Whalley, hwfil'le, (Peter,) an English writer and 
 divine, born in Warwickshire in 1722, was the author 
 of an " Inquiry into the Learning of Shakspeare." Died 
 in 1 791. 
 
 Whalley, (Thomas Sedgwick,) D.D., an English 
 divine and writer, born at Cambridge in 1746. He was 
 an intimate friend and correspondent of Mrs. Siddons 
 and Miss Seward, and published a poetic tale entitled 
 "Edwy and Eldild." Died about 1826. 
 
 See "Journal and Correspondence of T. S. Whalley," London, 
 (863. 
 
 Wharton, hwar'ton, (Francis,) an American jurist, 
 born at Philadelphia in 1820. He became in 1856 pro- 
 fessor of logic and rhetoric at Kenyon College, Ohio. 
 He has published a "Treatise on the Criminal Law of 
 the United States," a "Treatise on Medical Jurispru- 
 dence," and other works. 
 
 Wharton, hwar'tQn, (Sir George,) an English as- 
 tronomer and astrologer, born at Kirby-Kendal in 161 7. 
 He fought for the king in the civil war, and afterwards 
 compiled almanacs, in which he inserted predictions 
 against the dominant party. Died in 1681. 
 
 Wharton, (Henry,) an eminent English antiquary 
 and divine, bom in Norfolk in 1664. He studied at 
 Cains College, Cambridge, and took his degree of M.A. 
 in 1687, being ordained a priest in 1688. Among his 
 numerous works the most important is his " Anglia 
 Sacra," (2 vols, fob, 1691,) being a collection of biogra 
 
 phies of English bishops and archbishops from the in- 
 troduction of Christianity to 1540. He also published 
 " A Treatise of the Celibacy of the Clergy," etc., and 
 " The History of the Troubles and Trials of Archbishop 
 Laud," and assisted Dr. William Cave in his " Scriptorum 
 Ecclesiasticorum Historia Literaria." Died in 1695. 
 
 Wharton, (Philip,) Lord, an English peer, who 
 took a prominent part in the civil war which began in 
 1642, and commanded a regiment for Parliament at the 
 battle of Edgehill. He was a zealous Presbyterian. He 
 died in 1696. He was the father of Thomas, Marquis 
 of Wharton. 
 
 Wharton, (Philip,) Duke of Wharton, an eloquent 
 and profligate English peer, born in 1698, was the son 
 of Thomas, Marquis of Wharton, noticed below. About 
 the age of sixteen he married privately a daughter of 
 General Holmes. On the death of his father, in 1715, he 
 became heir to an estate of £16,000 a year, and entered 
 upon a course of reckless dissipation and vice. In 1716 
 he began a tour on the continent. Having arrived at 
 Lyons, he wrote a letter to the Pretender, who then 
 resided at Avignon, and who received Wharton in a 
 flattering manner when he came to that city. He took 
 his seat in the Irish House of Lords about 1717, sup- 
 ported the ministry with zeal, and was raised to the 
 English peerage, as Duke of Wharton, in 1718. He 
 entered the English House of Peers in 1719 or 1720, and 
 denounced the South Sea bill in a speech remarkable 
 for bitter invective. On other questions also he opposed 
 the ministers with great eloquence. 
 
 He involved himself in debt by his boundless prodi- 
 gality, retired to the continent in 1724, avowed himself 
 an adherent of the Pretender, and joined the Roman, 
 Catholic Church. In 1726 he married a Miss O'Byrne, 
 a daughter of an Irish colonel. He served as a volun- 
 teer in the Spanish army at the siege of Gibraltar, in 
 1727. For this offence he was indicted for treason, and 
 convicted. He lost his peerage and his estate, and was 
 reduced to poverty. He died at Tarragona, Spain, in 
 1731. His character is portrayed by Pope in his "Moral 
 Essays." 
 
 See "The Life and Writings of Philip, Duke of Wharton," a 
 vols., 1732; " Biographia Britannica." 
 
 Wharton, (Thomas,) Marquis of, an English Whig 
 politician, born about 1645, was the eldest son of Philip, 
 Lord Wharton. He entered Parliament in the reign 
 of Charles II., constantly opposed the court, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by his dexterity and turbulence as 
 a politician. In November, 1688, he joined William, 
 Prince of Orange, who appointed him comptroller of 
 the household in 1689. He received the title of Earl 
 of Wharton in 1706, and was lord lieutenant of Ireland 
 from 1708 to 1710. He was the author of "Lillibullero," 
 a famous satirical ballad. In September, 1714, he was 
 appointed lord privy seal by George I., and in 1715 he 
 was created Marquis of Wharton. He died in 1715, 
 leaving a son, Philip. He was characterized by Swift as 
 "the most universal villain that I ever knew." " Those 
 who hated him most heartily," says Macaulay, "admitted 
 that his natural parts were excellent, and that he was 
 equally qualified for debate and for action. . . . He early 
 acquired, and retained to the last, the reputation of being 
 the greatest rake in England. . . . His mendacity and 
 his effrontery passed into proverbs. . . . As a canvasser 
 he was irresistible. . . . Had he not been a man of im- 
 perturbable temper, dauntless courage, and consummate 
 skill in fence, his life would have been a short one. But 
 neither anger nor danger ever deprived him of his 
 presence of mind ; and he had a peculiar way of dis- 
 arming his opponents that moved the envy of all the 
 duellists of his time." (Macaulay's " History of England," 
 vol. iv. pp. 136-37.) 
 
 See, also, Swift's satire on Wharton in his "Four Last Years 
 of Queen Anne ;" and (anonymous) " Memoirs of the Life ot Thomas, 
 Marquis of Wharton," 1715. 
 
 Wharton, (Thomas,) an eminent English physician 
 and anatomist, born at Winston, in Durham, about 
 1610. He took his degree as M.D. at Oxford in 1647, 
 after which he removed to London, and became a Fellow 
 of the College of Physicians in 1650. He published a 
 valuable work on glands, entitled "Adenography, or 
 
 « as*; 9 as s; % hard; g asy; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in Ms. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WHATELY 
 
 2260 
 
 WHEELER 
 
 i 
 
 Description of the Glands," (" Adenographia, sive Glan- 
 dularuni Descriptio," 1656.) He first discovered the 
 excretory duct in the submaxillary gland, which bears 
 his name. Died in 1673. 
 
 Whately, hwat'le, (Richard,) Archbishop of Dub- 
 lin, an eminent English thinker and writer, born in 
 London in 1787, was a son of Dr. Whately, prebendary 
 of Bristol. As a child, he was nervous and shy, and, like 
 De Quincey, appears to have preferred the society of his 
 sisters to that of his brothers. He delighted in arith- 
 metical calculations, which he carried on in his mind. 
 In childhood, as well as in after-life, whatever occupied 
 his thoughts appears to have completely absorbed him 
 for the time. The passion for arithmetic soon left him ; 
 he then devoted himself to "castle-building," which, 
 however, took a philosophical or metaphysical, rather 
 than a romantic, direction. In 1805 he entered Oriel 
 College, Oxford, of which he became a Fellow in 181 1, 
 and in which he took the degree of M.A. in 1812. 
 While at Oxford, he formed an intimate friendship with 
 Dr. Arnold, which continued unchanged till the death 
 of the latter. In 1810 he gained the prize for the English 
 Essay, the subject being "The Comparative Excellence 
 of the Ancients and Moderns." In 1819 he published 
 " Historic Doubts relative to Napoleon Bonaparte," an 
 ingenious attempt to show the absurdity of skeptical 
 criticism. He married a lady named Pope in 182 1. 
 He was appointed Bampton lecturer at Oxford in 1S22, 
 and the same year obtained the rectory of Halesworth, 
 in Sussex. His Bampton lectures " On the Use and 
 Abuse of Party Feeling in Religion" were published in 
 1822. In 1825 he was chosen principal of Saint A 1 ban's 
 Hall, Oxford. He extended his reputation by his 
 " Essays on some of the Peculiarities of the Christian 
 Religion," (1825,) his "Elements of Logic," (1826.) 
 often reprinted, and highly esteemed, his " Essays on 
 some of the Difficulties in the Writings of the Apostle 
 Paul," and his " Errors of Romanism traced to their 
 Origin in Human Nature," (1830.) He was elected 
 professor of political economy at Oxford in 1830, and 
 was appointed Archbishop of Dublin in 1831. He took 
 a prominent part in organizing the national system of 
 education in Ireland. Among his numerous works are 
 " Elements of Rhetoric," (1828,) " Introduction to Politi- 
 cal Economy," (1831,) " Sermons on Various Subjects," 
 (1835,) "Essays on some of the Dangers to Christian 
 Faith which may arise from the Teaching or the Conduct 
 of its Professors," (1839,) and "The Kingdom of Christ 
 Delineated, in Two Essays on our Lord's Own Account 
 of His Person," etc., (1841.) He also wrote several 
 valuable articles for the leading reviews. His style is 
 luminous and aphoristic. As a theologian, he was char- 
 acterized by the liberality of his views and by the free- 
 dom and independence of his thoughts. He is justly 
 considered to have been one of the most profound and 
 original thinkers of his time. As a man, he was distin- 
 guished for moral courage, and was singularly sincere, 
 generous, and disinterested. Died in October, 1863. 
 
 See " Life and Correspondence of Richard Whately, DD., Lale 
 Archbishop of Dublin," by his daughter, E. Jane Whately, 2 
 vols., London, 1S66; "London Quarterly Review" for October, 
 1822 : " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1864 ; " British Quarterly 
 Review" for January, 1867. For some strictures on Whately's 
 "Logic," see Sir William Hamilton's "Logic." 
 
 Whately, (William,) an English Puritan divine, 
 born at Banbury, in Oxfordshire, in 1583. He became 
 vicar of Banbury about 1610, and published, besides 
 other works, " Prototypes, or the Primary Precedent 
 out of the Book of Genesis." Died in 1639. 
 
 Wheare, hwair, ? (Degory,) an English historian, 
 born in Cornwall in 1573. He was the first reader of 
 the lecture which Camden founded at Oxford, and wrote 
 several works. Died in 1647. 
 
 Wheat'ley, (Charles,) an English divine, born in 
 1686, published a " Rational Illustration of the Com- 
 m on P rayer." Died in 1742. 
 
 Wheatley, (Francis,) an English landscape-painter 
 in oil- and water-colours, born in London in 1747. He 
 became a Royal Academician in 1791. Died in 1801. 
 
 Wheatley, (Philus,) a negro poetess, born in Africa 
 about 1753, was brought to America in 1761. She was 
 instructed by her mistress, Mrs. Wheatley, a resident 
 
 of Boston, and published, at an early age, " Poems on 
 Various Subjects, Religious and Moral." She was 
 afterwards married to a man named Peters, and died in 
 Boston in 1794. 
 
 See Di/yckinck, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. i. : 
 Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Wheat'cm, (Henry,) an American jurist, civilian, 
 and diplomatist, born in Providence, Rhode Island, in 
 November, 1785. He graduated at Brown University 
 in 1802, after which he pursued the study of law at 
 Poitiers, France, and in London. On his return he 
 became a resident of the city of New York, and in 1812 
 began to edit the " National Advocate," a daily jour- 
 nal. He published in 1815 a " Digest of the Law of 
 Maritime Captures and Prizes," which was received 
 with favour. In 1816 he became a reporter of the 
 decisions of the supreme court of the United States. 
 He contributed many articles to the " North American 
 Review." He was appointed charge-d'affaires to the 
 court of Denmark in 1826 or 1827, and minister resident 
 at Berlin in 1835. He published in 1836 his most im- 
 portant work, " Elements of International Law," which 
 is highly esteemed as a standard authqrity. In 1837 he 
 was promoted to the rank of minister-plenipotentiary 
 at Berlin, where he remained until 1846. He wrote an 
 able work entitled a " History of the Law of Nations 
 in Europe and America, from the Earliest Times to the 
 Treaty of Washington," which originally appeared in 
 French at Leipsic in 1841. It was enlarged and pub- 
 lished in English in 1845. "Of its great merit," says 
 R. W. Griswold, "all competent critics have given the 
 same testimony." Among his other works is a " History 
 of the Northmen, or Danes and Normans," (1831.) He 
 published "Reports of Cases argued and determined in 
 the Supreme Court of the United States," (12 vols., 
 1827.) He was elected a corresponding member of the 
 French Institute about 1843. Died near Boston, Mas- 
 sachusetts, in March, 1848. 
 
 See Griswold, "Prose Writers of America," p. 16a; Allibone, 
 " Dictionary of Authors ;" " North American Review" for October, 
 1832, and January, 1837; "Westminster Review" for July, 1847. 
 
 Wheaton, (Robert,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in New York in 1826. He wrote historical and 
 literary articles for several reviews, and acquired dis- 
 tinction as a writer. Died in October, 1851. 
 
 See a " Memoir of Robert Wheaton," 1854. 
 
 Wheat'stpne, (Charles,) F.R.S., professor of ex- 
 perimental philosophy in King's College, London, was 
 bom at Gloucester in 1802. In early life he was a manu- 
 facturer of musical instruments, and made researches 
 on the science of acoustics. He displayed much me- 
 chanical ingenuity in the construction of instruments 
 and apparatus. He published in 1834 an "Account of 
 Experiments to Measure the Velocity of Electricity and 
 the Duration of Electric Light." In the same year he 
 became professor of philosophy in King's College, Lon- 
 don. He invented the stereoscope, which he described 
 in his "Contributions to the Physiology of Vision, "(1838.) 
 He was one of several persons who, in 1837, claimed 
 the honour of the invention of the electric telegraph. 
 Wheatstone and his partner Cooke obtained in 1837 a 
 patent for apparatus which they invented for conveying 
 signals by means of electric currents. They were suc- 
 cessful in the practical application of their invention) 
 which soon came into extensive use. Professor Wheat- 
 stone afterwards invented several improvements, among 
 which is the magneto-alphabetical telegraph. 
 
 Whe'dcm, (Daniel Df.nison,) D.D., an American 
 Methodist divine, born in Onondaga county, New York, 
 in 1808. He became in 1856 editor of the "Methodist 
 Quarterly Review." He has published a " Commentary 
 on the Gospels," and other works. 
 
 Whee'l?r, (Daniel,) an able minister of the Society 
 of Friends, was born in London in 1 771. He enlisted 
 in the British army about 1791, and served in Holland 
 in 1794. "Before this time his moral character had be- 
 come, it is said, very depraved. Having passed through 
 much suffering and danger, and repented of his sins, he 
 quitted the army in 1796, and was approved as a minis- 
 ter by the Friends in 1816. He was employed by the 
 Russian government to superintend agricultural improve- 
 
 a, e, 7, o, u, y, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, fl, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; n&t; good; moon ; 
 
W HEELER 
 
 2261 
 
 WHISTON 
 
 ments near Saint Petersburg, for many years, (1817-32.) 
 About the end of 1833 he sailed on a religious mission 
 to the islands of the Pacific Ocean, in which he spent 
 nearly four years. He visited the United States in 1839 
 as a minister of the gospel, and died in the city of New 
 York in 1840. 
 
 Sec " Memoirs of Daniel Wheeler," (partly autobiographic,) 1842. 
 
 Wheeler or Wheler, (Sir George,) an English 
 divine, born in Kent or Holland in 1650, became rector 
 of Houghton-le-Spring. He published a "Journey into 
 Greece," and " An Account of the Churches of the 
 Primitive Christians." Died about 1723. 
 
 Whee'ler, (William A.,) an American editor and 
 author, born at Leicester, Massachusetts, November 14, 
 1833, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1853. In 1856 
 he went to Cambridge to assist Dr. Worcester in the 
 preparation of his quarto Dictionary, on which he was 
 engaged several years. In 1861 he was employed by 
 Messrs. G. & C. Mertiam as one of the editors of the 
 new edition of Webster's quarto Dictionary, which passed 
 through the press under his supervision. Among his 
 various publications we may name a " Dictionary of 
 the Noted Names of Fiction," (I vol. 121110, 1865,) a 
 work original in its conception, as well as of great 
 practical value as a book of reference. In 1867 he was 
 appointed assistant superintendent, and head of the 
 cataloguing department, in the Boston Public Library. 
 
 Whee'lpck, (Eleazar,) D.D., an American Congre- 
 gational divine, born at Windham, Connecticut, in 171 1. 
 He was the founder and first president of Dartmouth 
 College, which grew originally out of an Indian mission- 
 ary school. Died in 1779. 
 
 Wheelock, (John,) LL.D., son of the preceding, 
 was born at Lebanon, Connecticut, in 1754. He served 
 for a time in the Continental army, and was made a lieu- 
 tenant-colonel. On the death of his father he became 
 president of Dartmouth College. Died in 181 7. 
 
 Wheel'wright, (John,) a Puritan divine, born in 
 Lincolnshire, England, in 1594, was a classmate and 
 friend of Oliver Cromwell. He emigrated in 1636 to 
 New England, where he soon after founded the town of 
 Exeter, in Massachusetts. He was a brother-in-law of 
 Mrs. Ann Hutchinson, whose religious views he shared. 
 Died in 1679. 
 
 Wheth'am-stede, (John,) an English monk and 
 chronicler, was Abbot of Saint Alban's, and was ordained 
 a priest in 1382. He wrote a chronicle of the period 
 from 1441 to 1461. Died in 1464. 
 
 Whet'stone, (GEORGE,) an English miscellaneous 
 writer, who lived about 1575. His principal work is a 
 co med y, entitled " Promos and Cassandra," (1578.) 
 
 Whewell, hu'el, (William.) F.R.S., a distinguished 
 English philosopher and scholar, born at Lancaster in 
 1795. He was educated at Cambridge, where he gradu- 
 ated in 1816, was elected a Fellow of Trinity College, 
 and became an eminent tutor in the same. He was 
 appointed professor of mineralogy in 1828, obtained the 
 chair of moral philosophy or moral theology in 1838, 
 and became master of Trinity College in 1841. Before 
 the last date he had gained distinction as a writer by the 
 production of his " Astronomy and Physics considered 
 with Reference to Natural Theology," (1833,) which is 
 one of the Bridgewater Treatises, " The History of the 
 Inductive Sciences," (3 vols., 1S37,) and "The Phi- 
 losophy of the Inductive Sciences founded upon their 
 History," (2 vols., 1840.) Referring to these two works, 
 Professor James D. Forbes says, "One attempt — a bold 
 and successful one — has been made, in our own day, to 
 unite two of the three departments: I mean the His 
 tory and Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. An 
 English philosopher, of wonderful versatility, industry, 
 and power, has erected a permanent monument to his 
 reputation, in a voluminous work bearing the preceding 
 title." (" Preliminary Dissertation" in the eighth edition 
 of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica.") An anonymous 
 work called "The Plurality of Worlds" (1853) is gen- 
 erally understood to be the production of Dr. Whewell. 
 The author of this work doubts or denies the existence 
 of a plurality of worlds. He became vice-chancellor 
 of the University of Cambridge in 1855. Among his 
 numerous works are " Elements of Morality," (1855,) 
 
 and several valuable treatises on tides, published in the 
 " Philosophical Transactions." Died in 1866. 
 
 See Au.ibone, "Dictionary of Authors;" " Edinburgh Review" 
 for January, 183*. and October, 1837 ; " London Quarterly Review" 
 for June, 1841 ; "Westminster Review" for October, 1852. 
 
 Which'cote, (Benjamin,) an English divine, born in 
 Shropshire in 1610, studied at Emanuel College, Cam- 
 bridge, was appointed one of the university preachers 
 about 1636, took the degree of D. D. in 1649, and after- 
 wards became rector of Milton, in Cambridgeshire. 
 After the restoration he was appointed vicar of Saint 
 Lawrence, Jewry. He was the author of " Observations 
 and Apophthegms," " Moral and Religious Aphorisms," 
 and numerous sermons. He has been called one of the 
 principal founders of the latitudinarian school of divines 
 in England. Died in 1683. 
 
 Whip'ple, (hwip'p'l,) (Abraham,) an American com- 
 modore of the Revolution, born at Providence, Rhode 
 Island, in 1733. He captured many rich prizes and per- 
 formed several daring exploits between 1775 and 1781. 
 Died at Marietta, Ohio, in 1819. 
 
 See Hildheth, " Life of A. Whipple," 
 
 ■Whipple, (Amiei. W.,) an American general, born in 
 'Massachusetts, graduated at West Point in 1841. He 
 became a captain of topographical engineers in 1855, 
 and chief engineer on the staff of General McDowell in 
 the spring of 1861. He was killed at the battle of Chan- 
 cellorsville. May, 1863, aged about forty-six. 
 
 Whipple, (Edwin Percy,) a distinguished American 
 critic and essayist, born at Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 
 1819. He published in 1843 in the " Boston Miscellany" 
 an " Essay on the Genius and Writings of Macaulay," 
 which attracted much attention. He has been a contrib- 
 utor to the "American Review," " Christian Examiner," 
 " Methodist Quarterly Review," " North American 
 Review," and the "Atlantic Monthly." A collection 
 of his writings, entitled " Essays and Reviews," was 
 published in 2 vols, in 1849. He is also the author 
 of " Lectures on Subjects connected with Literature and 
 Life," (1849,) and "Character and Characteristic Men," 
 (1867.) Mr. Whipple has acquired a high reputation 
 as a lecturer. In 1859 he delivered before the Lowell 
 Institute, Boston, a course of lectures on the " Literature 
 of the Age of Elizabeth," which were published in a 
 small volume in 1869. 
 
 See Gkiswold, " Prose Writers of America ;" " Noah American 
 Review" for January, 1850. 
 
 Whipple, (William,) an American general of the 
 Revolution, born at Kittery, Maine, in 1730, was one 
 of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He 
 was elected to Congress in 1776, was appointed briga- 
 dier-general in 1777, and took part in the battles of 
 Stillwater and Saratoga and in the siege of Newport. 
 Died in 1785. 
 
 See Sanderson, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration 
 of Independence." 
 
 WhistTer, (hwiss'ler,) (George Washington,) an 
 American engineer, born at Fort Wayne, Indiana, in 
 1800, graduated at the West Point Military Academy 
 in 1819. Having been previously employed in the 
 construction of several railroads in the United States, he 
 was invited to Russia in 1842 by the emperor Nicholas 
 to superintend the internal improvements in that country. 
 Died in 1849. 
 
 Whia'ton, (William,) an eminent English philoso- 
 pher and theologian, born at Norton, in Leicestershire, 
 on the 9th of December, 1667. He was educated at 
 Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he gave special attention 
 to mathematics and the Cartesian philosophy, and took 
 his degree in 1690. He was elected a Fellow of his 
 college in the same year, and was ordained a priest in 
 1693. About this time he became acquainted with Sir 
 Isaac Newton. In 1696 he published a "New Theory 
 of the Earth, from its Original to the Consummation of 
 all Things," in which he attributed the great Deluge to 
 the collision of a comet with the earth. This work ran 
 through six editions. He obtained the living of Lowes- 
 toft, in Suffolk, in 1698, soon after which he married a 
 Miss Antrobus. In 1701 Newton nominated him as 
 his deputy in the Lucasian professorship at Cambridge. 
 Through the influence of Newton, Whiston obtained 
 the chair of mathematics, which the former resigned in 
 
 « as *; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, v.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sas z; th as in this. (jy*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WH1TAKER 
 
 1262 
 
 WHITE 
 
 1703. He then gave up his living at Lowestoft, and 
 removed to Cambridge, where he also officiated as a 
 clergyman, having been appointed lecturer of Saint Clem- 
 ent's. In 1707 he was appointed preacher of the Boyle 
 lecture, and published " Prxlectiones Astronomical." 
 He was gradually converted to Arian doctrines, which 
 he advocated in a volume of sermons and essays pub- 
 lished in 1709, and in other writings. In 1710 he. was 
 deprived of his professorship and expelled from the 
 university. He then settled in London, and published 
 a " Historical Preface to Primitive Christianity," (1710,) 
 which was followed by " Primitive Christianity Revived," 
 (4 vols., 1711.) The clergy prosecuted him for heresy in 
 the spiritual courts ; but, after many evasive delays, the 
 prosecution was ended in 171 5, by an act of grace by 
 which all heretics were pardoned. Whiston was an 
 unflinching and courageous asserter of religious liberty, 
 and was distinguished for his shrewd and pithy retorts 
 in conversation. He was once in company with Addison, 
 Pope, Walpole, and Secretary Craggs, who raised the 
 question whether a secretary of state could be an honest 
 man. Whiston having expressed his opinion in the af- 
 firmative, Craggs said, "It might answer for a fortnight, 
 but no longer." Whiston then asked, " Mr. Secretary, 
 did you ever try it for a fortnight?" to which Craggs 
 made no answer. He published in 1737 a translation 
 of Josephus, often reprinted, and in 1749-50 his enter- 
 taining "Memoirs of his own Life," (3 vols.) Died in 
 1752. 
 
 See "Biographia Britannica ;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generate." 
 
 Whit'a-ker, (Edward,) an English divine and writer, 
 born in 1750, published "An Abridgment of Universal 
 History," and other works. Died in 1818. 
 
 Whitaker, (John,) an English divine, born at Man- 
 chester about 1735. He studied at Oxford, and became 
 rector of Ruan-Langhorne, in Cornwall, in 1778. He 
 published, among other works, a " History of Man- 
 chester," (1771-75,) "Genuine History of the Britons 
 Asserted," "Mary Queen of Scots Vindicated," (1788,) 
 "The Origin of Arianism Disclosed," and "Sermons 
 upon Death, Judgment, Heaven, and Hell." Died in 
 1808. 
 
 See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors:" "Monthly Review" 
 for April, 178.1, and October, 1795. 
 
 Whitaker, (Thomas Dunham,) LL.D., an English 
 divine and writer, born in Norfolk in 1759. He studied 
 law at Cambridge, but subsequently entered holy orders, 
 and became vicar of Blackburn in 1818. He published 
 "The Life and Original Correspondence of Sir George 
 Radcliffe," " History of the Deanery of Craven," and 
 other antiquarian works. Died in 1821. 
 
 Whitaker, (William,) a learned English theologian, 
 born at Holme, in Lancashire, in 1547. He became pro- 
 fessor of divinity at Cambridge in 1579, and master of 
 Saint John's College, Cambridge. He translated the 
 Liturgy of the Church and Nowell's Catechisms into 
 Greek, and wrote numerous controversial works against 
 popery. Died in 1595. 
 
 Whit'brSad, (Samuf.i,) an English statesman, born 
 in London in 1758, was the son of an opulent brewer of 
 that city. He studied at Saint John's College, Cam- 
 bridge, was elected to Parliament for the borough of 
 Steyning in 1790, and was afterwards returned for the 
 town of Bedford. He was a zealous supporter of the 
 Whig party, and a warm personal friend of Mr. Fox. 
 He conducted the impeachment of Lord Melville, and 
 was one of the most influential members of the oppo- 
 sition after the death of Fox. His wife was a daughter 
 of the first Earl Grey. He committed suicide in 1 81 5, 
 dining an attack of temporary insanity. 
 
 Whit'bj?, (DANIEL,) an English theologian, bom in 
 Northamptonshire in 1638. He studied at Trinity Col- 
 lege, Oxford, and rose through several preferments to 
 be rector of Sain' Edmund's, Salisbury, having been 
 previously created D.I). His controversial works are 
 numerous, and enjoyed a high reputation in his time; 
 among the most important of these may be named "A 
 Discourse concerning the Idolatry of the Church of 
 Rome," (1674,) "The Absurdity and Idolatry of Host- 
 Worship Proven," (1679,) and "The Fallibility of the 
 Roman Church Demonstrated," (1687.) In 1683 he 
 
 published a plea for the toleration of dissenters, entitled 
 " The Protestant Reconciler," etc., which encountered 
 violent opposition and" was condemned to be burned. His 
 " Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament," 
 (1703,) a defence of Arminianism, is regarded as his 
 best production, and was followed by several other 
 works of a similar nature. Dr. Whitby subsequently 
 professed Arianism, in defence of which he wrote a 
 number of tracts, and also defended Bishop Hoadly in 
 the Bangorian controversy. Died in 1726. 
 
 See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 White, (Charles,) an English officer and writer, 
 born in Shropshire in 1793, served under Wellington 
 in the Peninsular war, and afterwards in Hanover as 
 adjutant of the Duke of Cambridge. He published 
 "Almacks Revisited," "The King's Page," "Arthur 
 Beverly," and other popular romances ; also, " The 
 Belgic Revolution in 1830," (1835,) and "Three Years 
 in Constantinople," (1846.) 
 
 White, (Daniel Appleton,) a distinguished jurist 
 and scholar, was born in Massachusetts, in what is now 
 the city of Lawrence, June 7, 1776. He graduated at 
 Harvard in 1797, sharing the highest honours of the 
 class with Horace Binney, of Philadelphia. In 1799 he 
 accepted the position of Latin tutor at Harvard, where 
 he remained nearly four years. He began the study of 
 law at Cambridge, and was there admitted to the bar in 
 1804. His success in his profession was remarkable. 
 From 1810 to 1815 he was a member of the State Senate. 
 In November, 1814, he was elected to Congress from the 
 Essex district by an almost unanimous vote ; but before 
 taking his seat in the national legislature he resigned 
 his position as representative and accepted that of judge 
 of probate for the county of Essex, which in the mean 
 time had been tendered to him. He filled this office, 
 with the highest credit to himself and advantage to the 
 Commonwealth, for thirty-eight years. 
 
 Judge White was distinguished for his generosity and 
 public spirit, and gave liberally of his time and means 
 to promote the cause of education and other important 
 public interests. He was an active member of many 
 philanthropic and literary associations, and took a deep 
 interest in the cause of temperance. Besides frequent 
 smaller gifts, he gave in all to the Essex Institute at 
 Salem more than 8000 volumes, including the 3000 left 
 in his will. He closed his long and useful life on the 
 30th of March, 1861. 
 
 See the interesting " Memoir of Daniel Appleton White." by G. 
 W. Briggs, Salem, 1S64; and the "Memoir of Judge White," by 
 Dr. Walkrk, published in the Proceedings of the Massachusetts 
 Historical Society. 
 
 White, (Georoe,) an English mezzotint engraver, 
 son of Robert, noticed below, executed a number of 
 excellent portraits, among which we may name those 
 of Lord Clarendon and Sir Richard Blackmore. Died 
 about 1735. 
 
 White, (Gilbert,) an eminent English naturalist and 
 divine, born at Selborne, in Hampshire, in 1720. He 
 studied at Oriel College, Oxford, and took the degree 
 of MA. in 1746. His principal work, entitled " Natural 
 History of Selborne," appeared in 1 789. Its graceful 
 and attractive style, as well as its other merits, have 
 given it a high rank among English classics. After his 
 death, which occurred in 1793, a selection from his jour- 
 nal was published by Dr. Aikin, under the title of " A 
 Naturalist's Calendar," etc. His " Antiquities of Sel- 
 borne" was published in 1813, in the same volume with 
 the two above-named works. 
 
 See Allibone, " Dictionary p( Authors." 
 
 White, (Henry,) an English clergyman, of consider- 
 able literary attainments, was a resident of Lichfield, 
 and a friend of Dr. Johnson and other celebrated writers 
 of the time. Died in 1836. 
 
 ■White, (Henry Kirke,) often called Kirkf. White, 
 an English poet, born at Nottingham in 1785. As a 
 child, he was remarkable for precocity of intellect, and 
 distinguished himself by his attainments in the ancient 
 and modern languages, music, and natural science. 
 Having previously made several contributions to the 
 "Monthly Minor" and other literary journals, he pub- 
 lished about 1803 a collection of poems, which were 
 
 a. e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; mSt; not; good; moon; 
 
WHITE 
 
 2263 
 
 WHITEF1ELD 
 
 severdy criticised by the reviewers. The volume, how- 
 ever, attracted the notice of Suuthey, who subsequently 
 becam; his warm friend and generous patron. Having 
 about this time experienced deep religious impressions, 
 it became his earnest desire to educate himself for the 
 ministry. Through the assistance of several friends, he 
 was enabled to enter Saint John's College, Cambridge, 
 in 1804. His severe application to study and the excite- 
 ment of preparing for examination were too much for 
 his originally frail constitution, and he fell into a rapid 
 decline, dying in October, 1806. His works, in prose 
 and verse, were published in 1807 by Southey, with a 
 very interesting biography. 
 
 See, also. Sommkkmkykr, " Essay on the Life and Writings of 
 H Kirke White," 1X47; Carv, "Lives of the English Poets, from 
 fohnaon to Kirke White:" Allibonk, "Dictionary of Authors ;" 
 "Monthly Review" for January, 1810. 
 
 White, (Hur.H Lawson,) an American statesman, 
 born in Iredell county, North Carolina, in October, 
 1773. He removed to Knox county, Tennessee, in 1786, 
 and was appointed a judge of the supreme court of that 
 State in 1801. In 1825 he was elected a Senator of the 
 United States for Tennessee. He received twenty-six 
 electoral votes as a candidate for the Presidency in 1836, 
 and was re-elected a Senator in the same year, but he 
 resigned his seat in 1839. Died at Knoxvil'le in 1840. 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. iv. 
 
 "White, (JAMES,) an Irish novelist and poet, wrote 
 romances entitled "Adventures of John of Gaunt," 
 "Richard Cceur de Lion," and "Conway Castle, and 
 other Poems." Died in 1799. 
 
 White, (Rev. Tames,) an English dramatist and his- 
 torian, born in 1785. He published, besides other works, 
 "The Eighteen Christian Centuries," (1858,) "Land- 
 marks of the History of Greece," and a " History of 
 England," (1861.) Hied in 1862. 
 
 White, (JEREMY,) an English nonconformist divine, 
 wrote a work entitled "Restoration of All Things," in 
 support' of the doctrine of universal salvation. Died 
 in 1707. 
 
 White or Whyte, (John,) an English ecclesiastic, 
 born in Surrey in 151 1, was made Bishop of Winchester 
 under the reign of Queen Mary. Died in 1560. 
 
 White, (John,) an English divine and popular 
 preacher, sometimes called "the Patriarch of Dorches- 
 ter," was bom in 1574 ; died in 1648. 
 
 White, (John,) called Century White, an English 
 lawyer and nonconformist, born in Pembrokeshire in 
 1590. He was elected a member of Parliament in 1640, 
 and sat as a lay assessor in the Assembly of Divines 
 at Westminster. He published "The First Century of 
 Scandalous Malignant Priests made and admitted into 
 B enefi ces by the Prelates," etc. Died in 1645. 
 
 White, (John,) an American lawyer, born in 1805. 
 He represented a district of Kentucky in Congress 
 from 1835 to 1845, and was Speaker of the House of 
 Representatives from December, 1841, to March, 1843. 
 Died in 1845. 
 
 White, (JOSEPH,) D.D., an English divine and Orien- 
 talist, bom in Gloucestershire about 1746. He studied 
 at Wadham College, Oxford, and in 1775 became Laudian 
 professor of Arabic in the university. In 1783 he de- 
 livered the Hamilton lectures, whicti were afterwards 
 published under the title of " A View of Christianity and 
 Mahonietanisni, in their History, their Evidence, and 
 their Effects." They won for him a high reputation and 
 the office of prebendary in the cathedral of Gloucester. 
 It was soon after discovered, however, that they were in 
 great part the composition of the Rev. Samuel Badcock 
 and Dr. Samuel Parr, who had been employed by Dr. 
 White to assist him. He published, in 1800, his " Dia- 
 tessaron," which was followed by his " /Egyptiaca, or 
 Observations on Certain Antiquities of Egypt," and 
 a critical edition of the Greek New Testament. Died 
 in 1814. 
 
 See Allibonk, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 White, (Joseph Blanco,) often called Blanco 
 Win ie, a distinguished writer, born at Seville, in Spain, 
 in 1775, was descended from an Irish Catholic family 
 settled in that country. In Spain he was called BLANCO, 
 
 which he afterwards exchanged for its English equiva- 
 lent. He was educated for the Church, but he soon 
 abandoned that profession, and, having settled in Eng- 
 land, devoted himself to literature. He had been for 
 several years editor of a Spanish journal, entitled " El 
 Espafiol," and, in 1822, edited "Las Variedades," an- 
 other Spanish periodical. He was also a contributor 
 to the "Quarterly" and "Westminster" Reviews, the 
 " Dublin University Review," and other literary journals. 
 Among his principal works may be named " The Poor 
 Man's Preservative against Popery," (1825,) "Second 
 Travels of an Irish Gentleman in Search of a Religion," 
 (1833,) and a sonnet entitled " Night," which is highly 
 commended by Coleridge. Died in 1S41. 
 
 See "The Life of the Rev. Joseph Blanco White, written by Him- 
 self," London, 1845; J. H. Thom, "Life of J. I!. White," 3 vols., 
 1845 ; " Blackwood's Magazine" for July, 1S25 ; " London Quarterly 
 Review" for June, 184s; "Westminster Review" for December, 
 1845 ; " British Quarterly Review" for August, 1846. 
 
 White, (Julius,) an American general, born in Madi- 
 son county, New York, about 1816. He served at the 
 battle of Pea Ridge, March, 1862, and was second in 
 command at Harper's Ferry when Stonewall Jackson 
 captured that place, September 15 of the same year. 
 
 White or Vi'tus, (Richard,) an English historian 
 and Roman Catholic priest, born in Hampshire, became 
 a Fellow of New College, Oxford, in 1557. He taught 
 law at Douai. Died in 1612. 
 
 White, (Richard Grant,) an American litterateur, 
 born in New York in 1S22, was for a time associate 
 editor of the "Courier and Enquirer." He has been a 
 contributor to the leading literary periodicals, and has 
 published a volume of critical essays, entitled " Shake- 
 speare's Scholar," (1854,) an " Essay on the Authorship 
 of Henry VI.," and a "Life of William Shakespeare," 
 prefixed to his edition of Shakespeare's collected works 
 in 12 vols., (1865 et seq.) 
 
 White, (Robert,) an English engraver, born in 
 London in 1645. His portraits in mezzotint and line- 
 engraving are very numerous. Died in 1704. 
 
 White, (Sir Thomas,) a wealthy citizen of London, 
 born in 1492, became lord mayor of that city in 1553. 
 He was the founder of Saint John's College, Oxford. 
 Died in 1566. 
 
 White, (Thomas,) an English clergyman, born at 
 Bristol. He became vicar of Saint Dunstan's, Fleet 
 Street, London, in 1575. He founded Sion College, in 
 London, and a hospital. Died in 1623. 
 
 White, (Thomas,) [in Latin, Thomas Al'bi's or 
 AnV.i.us,] an English philosopher and Roman Catholic 
 priest, born in 1582. He lived mostly on the continent, 
 and published several works on philosophy, etc. Died 
 in 1676. 
 
 White, (Thomas,) an English philosopher, was a 
 friend and correspondent of Descartes. Died in 1696. 
 
 White, (Thomas,) an English divine, born in Kent 
 in 1630, was made Bishop of Peterborough in 1685. He 
 w;ts one of the seven bishops imprisoned in the Tower 
 in 1688. Died in 1698. 
 
 See Miss Strickland, "Lives of the Seven Bishops," London, 
 1866. 
 
 White, (William,) D.D., a distinguished American 
 bishop, bom at Philadelphia in 1748. He was ordained 
 priest in 1772, and subsequently became rector of Christ 
 Church and Saint Peter's Church, Philadelphia. He 
 was elected Bishop of Pennsylvania in 1786. He pub- 
 lished "Comparative Views of the Controversy between 
 the Calvinists and Arminians," and other theological 
 works. Died in 1836. 
 
 See Bird Wilson, "Life of P.ishop White," 1839; Duvckinck, 
 "Cyclopedia of American Literature, ' vol. i. 
 
 Whlte'fleld, (hwit'feld,) (George,) an eminent and 
 eloquent English preacher, and the founder of the sect 
 of Calvinistic Methodists, was born at Gloucester in 
 December, 1714. He was a son of an inn-keeper, from 
 whom he inherited little or nothing. His mother, who 
 became a widow about 1716, sent him to a grammar- 
 school. In 1733 he entered Pembroke College, Oxford, 
 as a servitor. He had received from nature a good voice 
 and remarkable rhetorical talents. At college he became 
 an intimate friend of John and Charles Wesley, with 
 
 c as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in this. (S^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WHITEHEAD 
 
 2264 
 
 WHITGIFT 
 
 whom he entered into religious fellowship. He was or- 
 dained a deacon in 1 736, and began soon after to preach 
 with great eloquence and power. In 1737 he preached 
 in London, and other places, to crowded congregations, 
 who listened to him with enthusiastic admiration. He 
 performed a voyage to Georgia in the early part of 1738, 
 instituted an orphan-house at Savannah, and returned 
 to England in September of that year. In 1739 he 
 was ordained a priest by Bishop Benson. Having been 
 excluded from the churches of Bristol, he adopted the 
 practice of preaching in the open air, for which his 
 powerful voice was well adapted. He propagated the 
 Methodist religion at various places with great success. 
 In the autumn of 1739 he again crossed the Atlantic to 
 America, where he spent more than a year in zealous 
 ministerial labours. Having traversed the provinces 
 from New York to Georgia, he returned to England 
 in 1741. Soon after this date Whitefield and Wesley 
 ceased to co-operate, in consequence of their disagree- 
 ment in doctrines. They differed especially in the doc- 
 trine of predestination, which Whitefield accepted, as a 
 disciple of Calvin. (See Wesley, John.) About 1742 
 he married a Welsh widow named Mrs. James. They 
 had one child, who died in infancy. He revisited the 
 American colonies in 1744, and laboured among them 
 several years. In 1748 he became acquainted with 
 Selina, Countess of Huntingdon, who appointed him 
 her chaplain. Among the persons who are said to have 
 heard and admired his sermons were Hume, Lord 
 Chesterfield, and Benjamin Franklin. He published a 
 journal of his life, (2d edition, 1756.) He sailed from 
 England in 1769 on his seventh visit to America, and 
 died at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in September, 1770. 
 A collection of his letters, sermons, etc. was published 
 in six volumes, (1771.) 
 
 " Hume pronounced him," says Robert Southey, " the 
 most ingenious preacher he had ever heard, and said it 
 was worth while to go twenty miles to hear him. But 
 perhaps the greatest proof of his persuasive powers was 
 when he drew from Benjamin Franklin's pocket the 
 money which that clear, cool reasoner had determined 
 not to give."* ("Life of John Wesley.") 
 
 See J. Gillies, "Life of George Whitefield, " 1772: "Genuine 
 and Secret Memoirs relating to that Arch-Methodist, G. Whitefield," 
 Oxford, 1742; Schaffshausen, " Historia Methodistarum et Vita 
 Whitefield," 1743; Robhrt Philip. "The Life and Times of the 
 Rev. George Whitefield," 1S3S: R. Southev, "Life of John Wes- 
 ley :" " Kraser's Magazine" for February, 1838. 
 
 White'hSad, (David,) an English clergyman, bom 
 in Hampshire, became chaplain to Queen Anne Boleyn. 
 He was appointed Archbishop of Armagh in 1552, went 
 into exile on the accession of Queen Mary, and preached 
 at Frankfort. In 1558 he returned to England. Died 
 in 1 571. 
 
 Whitehead, (George,) an English Quaker preacher, 
 born in Westmoreland in 1636, procured for the society 
 of which he was a member the allowance of an affirm- 
 ation in the courts of law, instead of the customary oath. 
 He was a personal friend of George Fox. Died in 1725. 
 
 Whitehead, (John,) a Methodist divine and phy- 
 sician, who preached John Wesley's funeral sermon, 
 and afterwards published Memoirs of his life. Died 
 in 1804. 
 
 Whitehead, (Paul,) an English satiric poet, bom 
 in- London in 1710. His political satire entitled "The 
 State Dunces" was dedicated to Pope, and was followed 
 by "Manners," (1739,) "The Gymnasiad," (1744,) and 
 " Honour," all of which were conspicuous for their 
 virulence and daring personalities. He was an associate 
 of Wilkes, Sir Francis Dashwood, and other profligate 
 wits of the time. Died in 1774. 
 
 Whitehead, (William,) an English poet and drama- 
 tist, born at Cambridge in 1715. He studied at Cam- 
 bridge, and in 1757 succeeded Colley Cibber as poet- 
 laureate. He published tragedies entitled " The Roman 
 Father" and "Creusa, Queen of Athens," "The School 
 for Lovers," a comedy, and numerous odes, epistles, 
 etc. Died in 1788. 
 
 White'hurst, (John,) an English mechanician of dis- 
 tinguished talents, bom in Cheshire in 1713 ; died in 1788. 
 
 * See Franklin's own account of this, in his " Autobiography." 
 
 WMte'locke, (hwlt'lok,) (Bulstrode,) an eminent 
 English statesman and lawyer, born in London in 1605, 
 was a son of Sir James, noticed below. His mother 
 was Elizabeth Bulstrode. About 1620 he entered Saint 
 John's College, Oxford, which he quitted, without a 
 degree, to study law in the Middle Temple. He was 
 elected a member of the Long Parliament for Great 
 Marlow in November, 1640, and opposed the arbitrary 
 measures of Charles I. He was chairman of the com- 
 mittee which managed the impeachment of the Earl of 
 Strafford, but was more moderate and conservative than 
 most of the leaders of the popular party. During the 
 civil war he preferred the part of mediator to that of a 
 zealous partisan. He was one of the commissioners 
 appointed to treat with the king at Oxford in January, 
 1642-43. About 1648 he was nominated one of the 
 commissioners of the great seal. He declined to take 
 any part in the trial of Charles I., which he character- 
 ized as a "bad business;" but he accepted office under 
 Cromwell, who had much confidence in his integrity 
 and judgment. In 1653 he was sent as ambassador to 
 Swe/len, negotiated a treaty with that power, and re- 
 turned in 1654. He was a member of Cromwell's 
 second Parliament, and was chosen Speaker of the 
 House of Commons in 1656, soon after which he urged 
 Cromwell to assume the title of king, and obtained a 
 seat in the new House of Peers created by the Pro- 
 tector. He was created a viscount in August, 1658, but 
 he would not accept the title. After the death of Oliver 
 he became president of the council of state, in 1659, 
 and keeper of the great seal, which he resigned about 
 December, 1659. At the restoration of 1660 his name 
 was included in the Act of Oblivion. He died in 1676, 
 leaving a valuable contribution to history, entitled " Me- 
 morials of English' Affairs from the Beginning of the 
 Reign of Charles I. to the Restoration of Charles II.," 
 (1682,) also "Memorials of English Affairs from the 
 Supposed Expedition of Brute to this Island to the End 
 of the Reign of James I.," which was published in 1709 
 by William Penn, who prefixed a notice of the author's 
 life. An Account of his Swedish Embassy was pub- 
 lished in 1772. 
 
 See Gt/IZOT, " Histoire de la Revolution d'Angleterre ;" Hume, 
 " History of Eng'Und :" Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors ;" " Nou- 
 velle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Whitelocke, (Sir James,) an English judge, bom in 
 London in 1570, was the father of the preceding. He 
 was elected to Parliament in 1620, and afterwards be- 
 came a judge of the common pleas. He had a good 
 reputation for fidelity to the duties of his office. Died 
 in 1632. 
 
 White'side, (James,) LLD., an Irish jurist and 
 conservative statesman, bom in the county of Wicklow 
 about 1806. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and 
 subsequently obtained a high reputation as a lawyer 
 and orator. He was one of the leading counsel in the 
 defence of O'Connell in 1843, and also defended Meagher 
 and Smith O'Brien in the trials of 1848. He was elected 
 to Parliament for Enniskillen in 1851, and in 1859 was 
 returned for the University of Dublin. He became 
 about 1866 lord chief justice of the court of queen's 
 bench in Ireland. He has published a work entitled 
 " Italy in the Nineteenth Century," (1849.) 
 
 Whit'gift, (John,) an Archbishop of Canterbury, and 
 learned Protestant theologian, born at Great Grimsby, 
 Lincolnshire, in 1530. He entered Queen's College, 
 Cambridge, about 1548, and afterwards removed to 
 Pembroke Hall. In 1554 he took, the degree of 
 bachelor of arts. He adopted the Protestant doctrines 
 at an early age, and, after the accession of Queen 
 Mary, he was protected from persecution by his friend 
 Andrew Peine. Having entered into holy orders in 
 1560, he gained distinction as a preacher at Cambridge, 
 where he resided many years after the date just named. 
 He became Lady Margaret professor of divinity in 1563, 
 master of Pembroke Hall in 1567, and chaplain of 
 Queen Elizabeth in the same year. About 1568 he was 
 appointed master of Trinity College and regius pro- 
 fessor of divinity. He appeared as a champion of the 
 Established Church and its liturgy in a controversy 
 against Cartwright, who was a Puritan. In 1571 he was 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 0, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, y, short ; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
WHITING 
 
 2265 
 
 WHITTEMORE 
 
 appointed Dean of Lincoln. The constitution and lit- 
 urgy of the Church of England having been attacked 
 in a Puritan work called "An Admonition to Parlia- 
 ment," Whitgift defended the Churcli with much ability 
 in his " Answer to the Admonition to Parliament," 
 (1572.) He was appointed Bishop of Worcester in 
 1576, and gained the favour of the queen by his zeal and 
 severity against the Roman Catholics and Puritans. He 
 succeeded Grindal as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1583, 
 and initiated vigorous measures to enforce conformity to 
 all the doctrines, forms, and discipline of the Church. 
 He required all clergymen to subscribe to the Thirty- 
 Nine Articles, and to recognize the queen as the 
 supreme head of the Church. His intolerance and per- 
 secuting spirit are said to have driven many persons 
 into dissent. " Honest and well-intentioned," says Gar- 
 diner, " but narrow-minded .to an almost incredible 
 degree, the one thought which filled his mind was the 
 hope of bringing the ministers of the Church of Eng- 
 land at least to an outward conformity." Lord liurghley 
 remonstrated against his intolerant conduct, without 
 effect. Whitgift declined the office of lord chancellor 
 in 1587. He founded a hospital at Croydon. On the 
 death of Elizabeth (1602) he sent Dr. Nevil to Scotland 
 to court the favour of James I. He took part in the 
 conference at Hampton Court in January, 1604. Died 
 in February, 1604. 
 
 See Strvpe, "Life and Acts of John Whitgift," 1718: Sir 
 George Paule, "Lite of Whitgift," 1699: Gardiner, "History 
 of England from 1603 to 1616," vol. i. ch. jii. ; " Retrospective Re- 
 view," vol. xiii., (1S26.) 
 
 Whi'ting, (Henry,) an American general of the 
 United States army, was born at Lancaster, in Massa- 
 chusetts. He wrote various articles for the " North 
 American Review." Died at an advanced age in Saint 
 Louis, Missouri, in 1851. 
 
 Whiting, (William H. C.,) an American general, 
 born in Massachusetts about 1825, graduated at West 
 Point in 1845. He took arms against the Union in 1861, 
 and became a major-general in 1863. He commanded 
 at Fort Fisher in December, 1864, and was taken pris- 
 oner at the capture of that fort, in January, 1865. He 
 died in prison, March, 1865. 
 
 Whit'lock, (ELIZABETH,) an English actress, born 
 in 1 761, was a sister of the celebrated Mrs. Siddons. 
 She was married in 1785 to Mr. Whitlock, manager of 
 the Newcastle Theatre. Died in 1836. 
 
 Whit'man, (Sarah Helen Power,) an American 
 poetess, born at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1813, pub- 
 lished " Hours of Life, and other Poems," (1853,) and 
 a work entitled "Edgar Poe and his Critics," (i860.) 
 
 See Duyckinlk, "Cyclopaedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; 
 Griswoid, " Female Poets of America." 
 
 Whit'ney, (ADELINE 1). Train,) a popular American 
 writer, born in Boston in 1S24. Among her works are 
 "Mother Goose for Grown Folks," (i860,) "Faith Gart- 
 ney's Girlhood," (1863,) "The Gayworthys," (1865,) 
 " Patience Strong's Outings," (1868,) and "Hitherto: a 
 Story of Yesterday," (1869.) 
 
 W'hitney, (Eli,) the inventor of the cotton-gin, was 
 born at Westborough, Worcester county, Massachusetts, 
 December 8, 1765. He displayed great mechanical in- 
 genuity in his early youth, graduated at Yale College in 
 1792, and went to Georgia to teach school. He became 
 an inmate in the household of General Greene's widow, 
 near Savannah, where, about the end of 1792, he invented 
 the cotton-gin for separating the cotton from the seed. 
 In May, 1793, he formed with Phineas Miller a partner- 
 ship for the manufacture of the gins. Before he had 
 obtained a patent for his invention, some persons broke 
 open his premises by night and carried off his model 
 machine. He was thus defrauded of his just reward, 
 and was involved in much trouble by the infringements 
 of his patent. "The South," says Horace Greeley, 
 "fairly swarmed with pirates on the invention, of all 
 kinds and degrees." When he prosecuted those who 
 infringed his patent, the juries of Georgia decided for 
 the defendants. The legislature of South Carolina paid 
 him fifty thousand dollars for his patent-right about 
 1804. Despairing of gaining a competence by this in- 
 vention, he engaged in the manufacture of fire-arms near 
 New Haven in 1798. He made great improvements in 
 
 the construction of fire-arms, and acquired an inde- 
 pendent fortune in that business. He married in 1817 
 a daughter of Judge Pierpont Edwards. " We cannot 
 express," says Judge Johnson, (in 1807,) " the weight of 
 the obligation which the country owes to this invention," 
 (the cotton-gin.) Robert Fulton expressed the opinion 
 that " Arkwright, Watt, and Whitney were the three 
 men that did most for mankind of any of their contem- 
 poraries." He died at New Haven in January, 1825. 
 
 See a "Memoir of Eli Whitney," in "Silliman's Journal," Jan- 
 uary, 1832, by Professor Olmsted; Hhnrv Howe, "Lives of 
 Eminent American Mechanics," 1847; Greeley, "American Con- 
 flict," vol. ii. pp. 58-66. 
 
 Whitney, (Josiah Dwight,) an American scientist, 
 was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, November 
 23, 1819. He graduated at Yale College in 1839. In 
 1842-3, and 1846, he studied in Europe under Elie de 
 Beaumont, Kammelsberg, Heinrich Rose, Liebig, and 
 others. He was employed, as assistant, on the geo- 
 logical survey of New Hampshire in 1840 ; in 1847-50, 
 on that of the Lake Superior region, as assistant and 
 principal ; in 1855-60, partly on that of Iowa and Wis- 
 consin; and in i860 he was appointed State geologist 
 of California, which office he still holds : being at the 
 same time (since 1S65) professor of practical geology in 
 Harvard College and head of its mining school. Apart 
 from the reports of the surveys in which he has been 
 engaged, he has published a translation of " Berzelius 
 on the Blowpipe," (Boston, 1845,) a work "On the 
 Metallic Wealth of the United States, described and 
 compared with that of other Countries," (Philadelphia, 
 1854,) and many scientific papers in "Silliman's Jour- 
 nal," the " North American Review," etc. He is one 
 of the original members of the National Academy of 
 Sciences, established by Congress in 1863. He re- 
 ceived the degree of LL.D. from Yale College in 1870. 
 
 Whitney, (William Dwigui,) a distinguished phi- 
 lologist and Oriental scholar, brother of the preceding, 
 was born February 9, 1827. He graduated at Williams 
 College in 1S45. He studied at Berlin, and Tubingen 
 in 1850-53, ami published, (Berlin, 1856,) in conjunction 
 with Professor R. Roth, the Sanscrit text of the Atharva- 
 Veda, from a collation of all the known manuscripts in 
 Europe. In 1854 he was appointed professor of San- 
 scrit and comparative philology at Yale College. Since 
 1857 he has been correspondiug secretary of the Ameri- 
 can Oriental Society, and a principal editor of its Journal, 
 to which his most important contributions have been a 
 translation, with notes, of the "Surya-Siddhanta," fully 
 illustrated editions of two of the " Praticakhyas," criti- 
 cisms on the Standard Alphabet of Lepsius, and on 
 the views of Biot, Weber, and Miiller on the Hindoo 
 and Chinese Asterisms, etc. He has also furnished 
 many articles to other periodicals, as the " North Amer- 
 ican Review," " New Englander," " Nation," and to the 
 "New American Cyclopaedia." He has contributed 
 valuable material to the great Sanckrit Dictionary of 
 Bohtlingk and Roth, now in course of publication at 
 Saint Petersburg. His other published works have 
 been a volume of " Lectures on Language and the Study 
 of Language," (1867,) a "Compendious German Gram- 
 mar," (1869,) and a "German Reader," (1870.) He re- 
 ceived the honorary degree of Ph.D. from the Univer- 
 sity of Breslau in 1861, and that of LL.D. from Williams 
 College in 186J, and from William and Mary College, 
 Virginia, in 1863. In 1869 he was chosen first president 
 of the American Philological Association. In 1870 his 
 "Taittirjya-Prati akhya" received the Bopp prize from 
 the Berlin Academy. As a critic and writer on subjects 
 connected with philology, Professor Whitne'y is no less 
 distinguished for his clear insight and sound judgment 
 than I >r his accurate, profound, and varied learning. 
 
 Whittemore, hwlt'mor, (Amos,) a mechanician, 
 born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1759, was the in- 
 ventor of a machine for sticking cards. Died in 1828. 
 
 Whittemore, (Thomas,) D.D., an American Uni- 
 versalist divine, born at Boston in 1800, was for many 
 years editor of " The Trumpet," a religious journal. 
 He published a "History of Universalism," "Songs of 
 Zion," and a "Life of Hosea Ballou," (3 vols., 1854-55.) 
 Died in 1861. 
 
 < as i; c as /; g hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WH1TTIER 
 
 2266 
 
 WICQUEFORT 
 
 Whittier, Invit'te-er, (John Greenleae,) a clistin- 
 guished Ameiican poet and philanthropist, born at 
 Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1808. He was educated by 
 his parents in the principles of the Friends or Quakers, 
 with which denomination he has always remained in 
 connection. He had not the advantage of a classical 
 education. In 1830 he became editor of the "New Eng- 
 land WeeUly Review," and in 1831 published his "Le- 
 gends of New England," a collection of Indian traditions. 
 Having early identified himself with the anti-slavery 
 party, he assumed about 1838 the editorship of the 
 " Pennsylvania Freeman," one of the organs of the 
 American Anti-Slavery Society, and in which many of 
 his finest lyrics first appeared. He was for a time cor- 
 responding editor of the " National Era," published at 
 Washington. In addition to the above-named works, he 
 has published " Songs of Labour, and other Poems," 
 (1851,) "The Chapel of the Hermits," etc., (1853,) 
 "Home Ballads and Poems," (1859,) "In War-Time, 
 and other Poems," (1863,) "National Lyrics," (1865,) 
 "Snow-Bound; a Winter Idyl," (1866,) "The Teuton 
 the Beach," (1867,) "Among the Hills, and other 
 Poems," (1868,) and "Ballads of New England," (1869.) 
 Nearly all the productions of Whittier in his happier 
 hours are characterized by intense feeling, and, we may 
 add, by all the spirit of the true lyric poet. (For some 
 excellent remarks on the characteristics of Whittier as 
 a poet, see the " Fable for Critics," (pp. 42-44,) by Pro- 
 fessor Lowell, whose sketch, though "drawn from a 
 Mephistophelian stand-point," is none the less just nor 
 the less complimentary on that account.) 
 
 See, also, Duvckinck, " Cyclopaedia of American Literature," 
 vol. ii ; ; Griswolu, "Poets and Poetry of America;" Ai.libonk, 
 " Dictionary of Authors :" " North British Review" for 1S67 ; 
 "North American Review" for April, 1S37, and July, 1S54; '"Demo- 
 cratic Review" for August, 1S45. 
 
 Whittingham, hwit'ing-am, (Sir Samuel Ford,) a 
 British general, who served in the Peninsular war, 
 (1S09-13.) He became in 1839 commander-in-chief at 
 Madras, where he died in 1840 or 1841. 
 
 WhittinghSm, (William,) an English Puritan min- 
 ister, born at Chester in 1524. He visited France in 
 1550, married a sister of Calvin at Orleans, and returned 
 home in the reign of Edward VI. After the accession 
 of Mary he went into exile, and succeeded John Knox 
 as pastor at Geneva, where he assisted in an English 
 translation of the Bible. • He became Dean of Durham 
 in 1563. Dr. Sandys, Archbishop of York, in 1577 
 brought against him a charge of thirty-five articles, one 
 of which was that he was ordained at Geneva only. 
 Whittingham appealed to the queen, who appointed a 
 commission to try the case. Before the case was decided, 
 he died, in" 1589. 
 
 Whittingham, hwit'ing-am, (William Rollinson,) 
 D.D., an American divine, born in New York in 1805, 
 was elected in 1840 Bishop of Maryland. He has pub- 
 lished a number of sermons, and other works. 
 
 Whit'ting-ton, (Sir Richard,) a famous citizen of 
 London, was thrice elected lord mayor of the city. He 
 was distinguished as a benefactor to the public. Died 
 after 1419. 
 
 See " Life of Sir R. Whittington," London, iSti. 
 
 Whittington, (Robert,) an English grammarian 
 an.. Latin poet, born at Lichfield about 1480. He was 
 the author of "Epigrammata," and other Latin verses 
 of great elegance, and of several grammatical works. 
 
 W Mt'tle-sey, ( Frederick, ) an American jurist, 
 born in Washington, Connecticut, in 1799. He settled 
 at Rochester, New York, in 1822, was elected a member 
 of Congress in i83i,and became a judge of the supreme 
 court of New York. Died at Rochester in 1851. 
 
 Whit'ty, (Kdward Michael,) an English journalist, 
 born at Liverpool in 1827, has been associate editor of 
 ''The Times," the "Daily News," and other prominent 
 journals. , 
 
 Whit'worth, (Charles,) an English diplomatist, 
 born in Staffordshire in 1670. He was ambassador to 
 Russia in 1710, and was afterwards employed in im- 
 portant missions to Prussia and the Hague. He was 
 minister-plenipotentiary to the Congress of Cambray in 
 1722. He died in 1725, having been created Baron 
 Whitworth of Galway in 1721. His " Account of Russia 
 
 as it was in the Year i7io"was published after his 
 death, by Horace Walpole. 
 
 Whitworth, (Charles,) a relative of the preceding, 
 was born in Kent in 1754. He was sent in 1788 as envoy- 
 extraordinary and minister-plenipotentiary to Russia, 
 remaining in that country until 1800, when he was sent 
 on amission to Copenhagen. He was ambassador-extra- 
 ordinary to the French court in 1802, appointed Viceroy 
 of Ireland in 1813, and in 1815 created Baron Aldbaston 
 and Earl Whitworth. Died in 1825. 
 
 Whitworth, (Joseph,) an English engineer and 
 mechanician, born at Manchester about 1805, invented 
 the rifle called by his name. He also made great 
 improvements in cannon and other ordnance. 
 
 Whytt, (Robert,) an eminent Scottish physician, 
 born in Edinburgh in 1714. He became professor of 
 medicine in the University of Edinburgh in 1746, first 
 physician to the king in Scotland in 1761, and president 
 of the Royal College of Physicians in 1764. He pub- 
 lished several medical works and Physiological Essays. 
 Died in 1766. 
 
 Wiarda, we-aR'da, (Tilemann Dothias,) a Dutch 
 histo'rical writer, born at Emden in 1746, was the author 
 of a " History of East Friesland," and other similar 
 works. Died in 1826. 
 
 Wibald, wee'balt, or Wibold, wee'bolt, written also 
 G-uibald, [in Latin, Wibol'dus, Wibal'dus, or Gui- 
 hal'dus,] a celebrated monk, born at or near Liege 
 about 1097. He was employed in important affairs by 
 the emperor Lothaire and his successor Conrad. He 
 was elected Abbot of Corvey or Corbie, in Westphalia, 
 in 1 147. Died in 1 158. 
 
 Wibaldus. See Wibald. 
 
 Wiberg,vee'l)eRg,( Andreas,) D.D., a Swedish divine, 
 born in Helsingland in 1816, was originally a Lutheran, 
 but joined the Baptists in 1852. Having resided three 
 years in the United States of America, he became, after 
 his return, pastor of the Baptist church in Stockholm, 
 and editor of "The Evangelist." 
 
 Wibold or Wiboldus. See Wibald. 
 
 Wicar, ve'kaV, (Jean BAPTISTS Joseph,) a French 
 historical painter, born at Lille in 1762, was a pupil of 
 David. He passed the greater part of his mature life 
 in Italy, and made a valuable collection of the designs 
 of Italian masters. These are now in the Museum of 
 Lille. He died at Rome in 1834. 
 
 See Dufay, " Notice de Wicar," 1844. 
 
 Wicherly. See Wycherly. 
 Wichern, wlit'eRn, (Johann Heinrich,) D.D., an 
 eminent German philanthropist and divine, born at 
 Hamburg in 1808. He founded near that city, in 1833, 
 a Rauhes-Haus, or reformatory school for destitute and 
 vagrant children, and soon after established the Insti- 
 tute of Brothers, for the gratuitous training of teachers 
 for such schools. He was also chiefly instrumental in 
 organizing the association known as the Inner Mission 
 of the German Evangelical Church, of which he published 
 an account in 1849. 
 
 Wichmann, wlK'man, (Johann Ernst,) a German 
 physician, born at Hanover in 1740. He studied atGot- 
 tingen, and, after having visited London and Paris, was 
 appointed court physician at Hanover. He wrote a 
 valuable work, entitled " Ideas on Diagnosis," and other 
 medical treatises. Died in 1804. 
 
 Wichmann, (Karl Friedrich.) a German sculptor, 
 born at Potsdam in 1775, was a pupil of Schadow, and 
 afterwards studied in Italy. He executed a number of 
 portrait-busts and statues; among the latter, that of the 
 Russian empress Alexandra is especially admired. Died 
 in 1S36. 
 
 Wichmann, (Ludvvio Wilhelm,) a brother of the 
 preceding, was born about 1785. He acquired a high 
 reputation in the same department of sculpture. Among 
 his master-pieces are busts of Korner, Schleiermacher, 
 Hegel, and Henrietta Sontag. Wichmann became pro- 
 fessor in the Academy of Arts at Berlin. Died in 1859. 
 
 Wickham. See Wykeham. 
 
 Wickliffe. See Wyclikke. 
 
 Wiclef. See Wyclikke. 
 
 Wicquefort, de, deh wik'fort, (or vek'foR',) (Abra- 
 ham,) a Dutch diplomatist, born at Amsterdam in 1598. 
 
 3, e, I, 6, 5, y, long; a, i, A, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f, short; ?, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; n5t; good; moon; 
 
WICQUEFORT 
 
 2267 
 
 WIELAND 
 
 He was appointed by the Elector -of Brandenburg his 
 resident at the French court, which post he occupied 
 for upwards of thirty years. He was arrested in 1658 
 by order of Cardinal Mazarin, and imprisoned in the 
 Bastille on a charge of conveying secret intelligence 
 to the States-General. Being released after a year's 
 confinement, he was obliged to leave the country, and 
 on his return to Holland was made historiographer to 
 the States, and appointed minister to the Hague by 
 the Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg. In 1676 he was 
 sentenced to perpetual imprisonment on a charge of 
 unlawful correspondence with the enemies of his country. 
 He effected his escape in 1679, and died about 1682. 
 He wrote a work entitled " The Ambassador and his 
 Functions," ( 1 6S 1 , ) and a " History of the United Prov- 
 inces," etc., (both in French.) 
 
 See Nic^ron, " Memoires ;" Paquot, "Memoires." 
 
 Wicquefort, de, (Joachim,) a Dutch diplomatist, 
 born at Amsterdam, was a brother of the preceding. 
 He was employed in divers negotiations during the 
 Thirty Years' war by Bernard, Duke of Saxe- Weimar. 
 Died in 1670. 
 
 Wida. See Weiden. 
 
 Widmanstadt, wit'man-stat', (Johann Ai.isrf.cht,) 
 a German Orientalist, born at Nellingen, near Ulm, in 
 the fifteenth century. He studied languages in Italy 
 and Spain, and returned to Germany in 1541. He was 
 appointed a member of the council of the Emperor of 
 Germany in 1552. He produced a New Testament in 
 Syriac, ( 1 555.) Died before 1559. 
 
 See Waldau. "J. A. Widmanstadt," 1796. 
 
 Widmer, wit'mer, (Samuel,) a Swiss inventor and 
 manufacturer, born in the canton of Aargau in 1767, 
 was a nephew of Oberkanipf. He had a manufactory of 
 calico or painted muslins at Jouy, and invented the art 
 of printing muslins with engraved cylinders of copper. 
 He also invented a machine to engrave the cylinders. 
 Died in 1821. 
 
 Widnmann, vvldn'man, (Max,) a Bavarian sculptor, 
 born at Eichstadt in 1812, studied at Munich under 
 Schwanthaler. He afterwards visited Rome, where he 
 executed his "Shield of Hercules," which is ranked 
 among his master-pieces. Among his other works may 
 be named statues of Rauch and of Orlando di Lasso, 
 and the group of " A Hunter Defending his Family from 
 a Panther." In 1848 he succeeded Schwanthaler as 
 professor of sculpture in the Academy of Art at Munich. 
 
 Widukind. See W11 tkkind. 
 
 Wiebeking, wee'beh-king', (Karl Friedrich,) a 
 celebrated German engineer and scientific writer, born 
 at Wollin, in Pomerania, in 1762. He rose through 
 several offices to be general inspector of roads and 
 canals in Bavaria in 1805. He published several works 
 of great merit, among which we may name his " Theo- 
 retical and Practical Naval Architecture," ( Wasser- 
 baukunst,) (5 vols., 1805,) "Theoretical and Practical 
 Civil Architecture," (4 vols., 1821, with 109 plates,) and 
 " Historical Analysis of the Monuments of Antiquity," 
 etc., (1840,) the last-named in French. Died in 1842. 
 
 Wiedemann, wee'deh-man', (Lunwic.,) a German 
 statuary and founder, born at Nordlingen in 1690 ; died 
 in 1754. 
 
 Wieden or Wida. See Weiden. 
 
 Wiegleb, weeo'lip, (Johann Christian,) a Ger- 
 man chemist, born at Langensalza in 1732. He wrote, 
 besides other works, a " History of the Progress and 
 Discoveries in Chemistry among the Ancients," ( 1 79 1 . ) 
 Died in 1800. 
 
 Wiegmann, weeo'man, (Arend Friedrich Au- 
 gust,) a German naturalist, bom at Brunswick in 1802, 
 published, conjointly with Ruthe, a "Manual of Zoology," 
 (1832,) and founded in 1835 a journal entitled "Archives 
 for Natural History." Died in 1841. 
 
 Wieland, wee'land, [Ger. pron. wee'lant; Lat. Wie- 
 i.as'dii:s,| (Christoph Martin,) a celebrated German 
 poet, born at Oberholzheim, near Biberach, in Wur- 
 temberg, September 5, 1733, was a son of a Protestant 
 clergyman. About the age of twelve he began to 
 write verses in German and in Latin. He was sent to 
 the Academy of Klosterliergen, near Magdeburg, in his 
 fourteenth year, and became a good classical scholar. 
 
 Having returned to his father's house at Biberach in 
 1750, he fell in love with his cousin, Sophia von Guter- 
 mann, who was afterwards known as an authoress under 
 the name of Madame de Laroche. Inspired by this 
 passion, he wrote a didactic poem " On the Nature 
 of Things, or the Most Perfect World," (1751.) He 
 entered the University of Tubingen as a student of law 
 about the end of 1750; but he gave his attention more 
 to classical literature and philosophy. He produced in 
 1752 "Ten Moral Epistles" in verse, which present the 
 first indication of that Socratic and Horatian irony in 
 Which he afterwards excelled. His poem " Arminius" 
 or " Hermann" (1752) procured for him the friendship 
 of Bodmer, who invited him to Zurich. He accepted 
 the invitation, and passed several years in the house of 
 Bodmer, who exercised a temporary influence over his 
 literary character. Under this influence Wieland wrote 
 " The Trial of Abraham," (" Der geprufte Abraham," 
 1753.) al 'd "Letters from the Dead to their Living 
 Friends," (1753.) 
 
 The religious enthusiasm of his youth was followed 
 by a reaction, and his imagination became more sober 
 as his reason was more developed. In 1754 he ceased 
 to reside in the house of Bodmer ; but he remained at 
 Zurich about four years longer, as tutor in private 
 families. In 1757 he produced five cantos of "Cyrus," 
 an epic poem, which he never finished. Pie afterwards 
 wrote a beautiful poem entitled " Araspesand Panthea," 
 (1758.) He resided a short time at Berne, from which 
 he removed in 1760 to Biberach, where he became inti- 
 mate with Count Stadion, and renewed his intimacy with 
 his cousin Sophie, who had been married to M. de La- 
 roche. Wieland was appointed a member of the council 
 of Biberach, or director of the chancery. He produced 
 a translation of Shakspeare's dramas, (8 vols., 1762-66.) 
 This was the first version of Shakspeare that had 
 appealed in the German language. Wieland was not 
 specially qualified for this task, his genius being by no 
 means Shakspearian. 
 
 In 1765 he married a lady of Augsburg, with whom 
 he lived happily for many years. His works written 
 after 1760 are, unhappily, tainted with sensuality and 
 epicureanism. He published in 1766 his best novel, 
 "Agathon," which, said Lessing, "is one of the most 
 remarkable books of our age." His poem entitled 
 "Musarion" (1768) was admired for its graceful style 
 and ingenious irony. In 1769 he became professor of 
 philosophy at Erfurt. He produced numerous works in 
 rapid succession, and was much censured by the critics 
 because the tone of his later works was not so religious 
 as that of his first. He defended himself with the 
 weapons of satire and humorous invective, in "Love 
 Accused," ("Der verklagte Amor,") and "The Manu- 
 script of Diogenes of Sinope," (1770.) On account 
 of his wit, combined with a certain levity, Wieland has 
 often been called "the German Voltaire." 
 
 Having been invited by the Duchess Amelia of Saxe- 
 Weimar to direct the education of her sons, he removed 
 to Weimar in 1772. He produced, in 1773, "Alceste," 
 an opera, which had great success. About the same 
 date he founded the "Deutscher Mercur," a monthly 
 literary periodical, of which he was the chief or sole 
 editor until 1790, after which it was edited by Wieland 
 and Bijttigcr about fifteen years. He formed a friend- 
 ship with Goethe about 1775. In 1773 he published a 
 humorous work called "The People 91 Alxlera," (" Die 
 Abderiten,") and in 1780 the romantic poem of " Obe- 
 ron," which is his most celebrated poetical production, 
 and which was praised by Goethe as a master-piece. It 
 combines a variety of merits, — originality of personages, 
 purity of language, refinement of irony, and profound- 
 ness of sentiment. 
 
 He afterwards produced a free translation of the 
 Epistles and Satires of Horace, (1782-86,) to which he 
 added valuable commentaries. He also translated Lu- 
 cian, (1788-91.) Among his later works is " Peregrinus 
 Proteus," (1791.) He published an edition of his com- 
 plete works, (36 vols. 410, 1794-1802.) Wieland was 
 the father of fourteen children. In 1798 he purchased a 
 farm or country-seat at Osmanstadt, near Weimar. He 
 enjoyed in his later years a competent fortune, and the 
 
 e as k; 5 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as 2; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
W1EL1NG 
 
 2268 
 
 WILBERFORCE 
 
 society of Goethe, Schiller, and Herder. Died near 
 Weimar in January, 1813. 
 
 See Grubkr, " C. M. Wieland," 4V0U., 1818: H. Doring, "C. 
 M. Wieland ; biographisches Denkinal," 1840 ; Canto, " Wieland 
 ed i suoi Contemporanei," 1844 : H. Doring, " C. M. Wieland's 
 Biographic" 1853 ; Carl P. Conz, " Laudatio Wielandii," 1820 ; 
 Gekvinus, " Geschichte der Deutschen Dichtung ;" Ladoucktte, 
 " Notice sur la Vie de Wieland," 1820; " Nouvelle Biographie Gene- 
 rale;" " Foreign Quarterly Review" for June, 1828. 
 
 Wieling, wee'ling, (Abraham,) a German jurist, 
 born in Westphalia in 1693. He became professor of 
 law at Utrecht in 1739. Died in 1746. 
 
 Wienbarg, ween'baRG, (Ludolf,) a German litte- 
 rateur and journalist, born in 1803, was successively 
 associate editor of the "Deutschen Revue," at Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main, the "Hamburger Neue Zeitung," and 
 other periodicals. He has also published " Holland in 
 the Year 1831 and 1832," and other works, on various 
 subjects. 
 
 Wier, van, vin weeR, written also Weier, (John,) 
 a distinguished physician, born in North Brabant in 1 5 15, 
 is said to have been the first to oppose the belief in 
 witchcraft, in condemnation of which he published a 
 work entitled " De Prsestigiis Daemonum et Incanta- 
 tionibus ac Veneficiis," (1563.) Died in 1558. 
 
 See Foppens, " Bibliotheca Belgica." 
 
 Wiertz, weerts or veeRts, (Antoine,) an eminent 
 Belgian painter, born at Dinant in 1806, was a pupil of 
 Van Bree. He painted large historical and religious 
 pictures, among which are "The Revolt of the Angels" 
 and " The Triumph of Christ." The government built 
 for him a large atelier, always open to the public. He 
 invented a new and secret method of painting, which, it 
 is said, unites the advantages of fresco- and oil-painting. 
 Died in 1865. 
 
 Wieselgren, vee'sel-gReV, (Peter,) a distinguished 
 Swedish writer and philanthropist, born near Wexio in 
 1800. He studied at the University of Lund, and in 
 1834 settled as pastor at Westerstad, in Scania. He 
 became a zealous advocate of the temperance reform 
 and of the Intter Mission, and published, besides several 
 religious works, a history of Swedish literature, entitled 
 "Sveriges Skbna Litteratur," (3 vols., 1833.) '^ e nas 
 also been a principal contributor to Palmblad's " Bio- 
 graphical Lexicon of Celebrated Swedes." 
 
 "Wietersheim, von, fon wee'teRs-him', (Edward,) a 
 German statesman, born in 1789, filled several offices 
 under the Saxon government, and was appointed in 1840 
 minister of public instruction. 
 
 "Wif'fen, (Jeremiah Holme,) an English writer and 
 translator, born near Woburn in 1792. Among his 
 original works are poems entitled " Aonian Hours," 
 "The Luck of Eden Hall," a ballad, "Julia Alpinula, 
 the Captive of Stamboul," and other poems, and " His- 
 torical Memoirs of the House of Russell," etc. His 
 translation in the Spenserian stanza of Tasso's "Jeru- 
 salem Delivered" came out in 1830. He also translated 
 the poems of Garcilasso de la Vega from the Spanish. 
 He held for many years the office of private secretary 
 and librarian to the Duke of Bedford. Died in 1856. 
 
 See Allibonr, "Dictionary of Authors;" "Westminster Re- 
 view" for 1827 ; " Monthly Review" for June, 1821. 
 
 Wig'an, (Alfred,) a popular English actor, born in 
 Kent in 1818. 
 
 Wigand, wee'gant, written also Vigand, (Johann,) 
 * German Lutheran minister, born at Mansfeld in 1523. 
 ?'*■ wrote several religious works. Died in 1587. 
 
 vVigaud, (Justus Heinrich,) a German physician, 
 out more particularly distinguished as an accoucheur 
 and writer on obstetrics, was born in 1769; died at 
 Mannheim in 1817. 
 
 "Wigand, (Otto Friedrich,) a German publisher, 
 born at Gottingen in 1795. Among his publications 
 was a "Conversations-Lexikon" for the people, begun 
 in 1845. 
 
 Wigand, (Paul,) a German jurist and historian, born 
 at Cassel in 1786. lie published a treatise "On the 
 Secret Tribunal of Westphalia," and various other works 
 on German history, law, and antiquities. 
 
 Wigard, wee'gam, (Franz,) born at Mannheim, in 
 Germany, in 1807, studied law and forest-science, and 
 various other branches, at Munich, and afterwards 
 
 became principal of the Stenographic Institute at Dres- 
 den. In 1848 he was a member of the National As- 
 sembly at Frankfort, where he sat on the left. He 
 published a "Manual of Stenography," (1852,) and 
 other works. 
 
 Wigbode, wiG'bo-deh, a German poet of the eighth 
 century, enjoyed great consideration at the court of 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 Wight, wit, (Orlando Williams,) an American lit- 
 terateur, born in Alleghany county, New York, in 1824. 
 He translated from the French Cousin's " History of 
 Modem Philosophy," (2 vols., 1852,) and Pascal's 
 "Thoughts," (1859,) and has written several original 
 works, among which is a " Life of Abelard and Heloise," 
 
 Wight, wit, (Robert,) M.D., a Scottish botanist, born 
 about 1796. He went to India about 1820 as a surgeon 
 in the service of the East India Company. He pub- 
 lished " Illustrations of Indian Botany," (2 vols., 1838- 
 50,) and "Figures of East Indian Plants," ("Icones 
 Plantarum Indis Orientalis," 6 vols., 1838-56.) 
 
 Wightman, wit'man, (Sir William,) a British judge, 
 born in Scotland about 1784. He practised law with 
 some distinction, and was appointed a judge of the court 
 of queen's bench in 1841. Died in 1863. 
 
 "Wignerod or Vignerod, de, deh ven'yeh-rod', 
 (Francois,) a French general, a nephew of Cardinal 
 Richelieu, defeated a Spanish fleet near Genoa in 1638. 
 He died in 1646, aged thirty-seven. He was grand- 
 father of Marshal Richelieu. 
 
 Wikstrom or Wikstroena, vik'stRom, (Johan 
 Emanuel,) a Swedish botanist, born at Wenersborg in 
 1789. He became professor of botany at Stockholm in 
 1822, and wrote several botanical works. Died in 1856. 
 
 Wil'ber-force, (Edward,) a writer, a son of the 
 following, was born about 1836. He published "Brazil 
 viewed through a Naval Telescope," and contributed to 
 several periodicals. 
 
 Wilberforce, (Robert Isaac,) an English divine 
 and writer, son of the celebrated William Wilberforce, 
 was born at Clapham Common in 1802. He studied at 
 Oriel College, Oxford, and was made Archdeacon of the 
 East Riding of Yorkshire in 1840. Among his principal 
 works are a historical compendium, entitled "The Five 
 Empires," (1840,) " Doctrine of the Incarnation," (1848,) 
 and a "History of Erastianism," (1851.) In 1854 he 
 resigned his office, and became a member of the Roman 
 Catholic Church. Died in Italy in 1857. 
 
 Wilberforce, (Samuel,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born in 1805, studied at Oriel College, Oxford, and 
 subsequently rose through various preferments to be 
 Bishop of Oxford, (1845,) lord high almoner of the queen, 
 (1847,) and Bishop of Winchester, (1869.) He published 
 "Sermons at Oxford," (1839,) " Eucharistica," (1S39,) 
 "Rocky Island, and other Parables," (1840,) "History 
 of the Episcopal Church in America," (1844,) and, in 
 conjunction with his brother, the " Life and Correspond- 
 ence of William Wilberforce," (1838.) 
 
 "Wilberforce, (William,) an illustrious English phi- 
 lanthropist and statesman, born at Hull on the 24th of 
 August, 1759, was a son of Robert Wilberforce, a mer- 
 chant, who died in 1768. When he was about twelve 
 years old, he felt deep religious impressions, which, 
 according to his own account, his friends spared no pains 
 to stifle. He entered Saint John's College, Cambridge, 
 in October, 1776, and became a general favourite among 
 the students. "There was no one," says T. Gisbome, 
 "at all like him for powers of entertainment." Wil- 
 berforce informs us that he was a good classic, but he 
 neglected mathematics almost entirely. Before he was 
 twenty years old he inherited an ample fortune. He 
 formed at Cambridge a slight acquaintance with William 
 Pitt, of whom he became an intimate friend soon after 
 he left college. Having resolved to enter public life, he 
 offered himself as a candidate and was elected a mem- 
 ber of Parliament for Hull in 1780. This election cost 
 him over £8000. He entered Parliament as an opponent 
 of the American war and of Lord North's administra- 
 tion ; but he was rather an independent member than a 
 partisan. After Pitt became a cabinet minister, in 1782, 
 he often lodged in Wilberforce's villa at Wimbledon. 
 
 5, e, 1, 5, fi, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fl, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, at; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
WILBERFORCE 
 
 2269 
 
 WILCOX 
 
 " With talents of the highest order, and eloquence sur- 
 passed by few, he entered upon public life possessed of 
 the best personal connections in his intimate friendship 
 with Mr. Pitt." ("Life of Wilberforce," by his sons.) 
 In 1783 he visited France, in company with Mr. Pitt. 
 He made a famous speech against the coalition of Lord 
 North and Mr. Fox, at York, in March, 1784, and, as a 
 supporter of Pitt, was elected a member for Yorkshire. 
 He passed part of the years 1784 and 1785 in a conti- 
 nental tour with Isaac Milner, during which he became 
 deeply interested in vital religion. On his return he 
 commenced, in November, 1785, a private journal, in 
 which he kept a record of his spiritual conflicts and 
 devotional exercises. " He now began," say his sons, 
 "to open to his friends the change which had passed 
 upon him." In a letter to Mr. Pitt, he wrote, "I can no 
 more be so much of a party man as I have been before." 
 "Pitt's answer was full of kindness," but "he tried to 
 reason me out of my convictions." 
 
 Among the results of his conversion was the devotion 
 of his life to the arduous enterprise of the abolition of 
 the slave-trade. In 1787 Thomas Clarkson, Granville 
 Sharp, and ten others formed a committee to promote 
 the suppression of the trade, in co-operation with Wil- 
 berforce, who also received from Mr. Pitt a promise 
 of assistance. In May, 1788, Pitt moved a resolution 
 binding the House to consider the subject of the slave- 
 trade early in the ensuing session. Wilberforce made a 
 long and able speech on the subject in May, 1789. " He 
 was supported in the noblest manner by Mr. Pitt, Mr. 
 Burke, and Mr. Fox." The movement, however, en- 
 countered long and bitter opposition. He opened the 
 campaign in 1790 by a motion, which was carried on the 
 27th of January, for referring to a special committee the 
 examination of witnesses. After the end of the session 
 he made himself master of the vast mass of evidence 
 which had been collected on the subject. In April, 
 1791, the motion for the abolition of the slave-trade was 
 rejected, eighty-eight members voting for it, and one 
 hundred and sixty-three against it. 
 
 The war against France, which he opposed, in 1792, 
 caused the first decided political separation between him 
 and Pitt. He had the courage to withstand the popular 
 current, and offended many of his friends by moving 
 an amendment to the address on the war about the end 
 of 1794. In February, 1796, he» again brought in an 
 abolition bill, which was defeated by a small majority, 
 seventy-four to seventy. 
 
 He was re-elected a member for the county of York 
 in 1796. In 1797 he married Barbara Ann Spooner, 
 and published a work entitled a "Practical View of the 
 Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians 
 contrasted with Real Christianity," which was received 
 with great favour. It ran through five editions before 
 the end of the year. In 1826 fifteen editions had been 
 issued in England, besides twenty-five editions in the 
 United States. In April, 1798, he renewed his motion 
 for the abolition of the slave-trade, and was defeated by 
 a majority of four votes. In March, 1799, he made a 
 speech in favour of immediate abolition, which was 
 rejected by a vote of eighty-four against fifty-four. He 
 was a liberal contributor to various charitable institu- 
 tions, and gave privately much money to the poor. He 
 took a prominent part in the foundation of the Bible 
 Society in 1803. In 1804 he procured the assent of the 
 House of Commons to the first reading of his abolition 
 bill. Pitt pressed earnestly for a postponement of the 
 abolition question, but Wilberforce said he would never 
 "make that holy cause subservient to the interests of 
 party." On the second reading he was defeated by 
 seventy-seven to seventy. The royal family opposed 
 abolition, but the ministers Fox and Grenville. who came 
 into power in 1806, cordially supported the measure, 
 which triumphed at last in, February, 1807. On the 
 final passage of the bill in the House of Commons, 
 two hundred and eighty-three voted for it, and sixteen 
 against it. "The whole House, surprised into a for- 
 getfulness of its ordinary habits, burst forth into 
 acclamations of applause." 
 
 He continued to represent Yorkshire until 1812, 
 having been elected five times without a contest, and 
 
 he was chosen a member for Bramber in that year. He 
 supported the motion for the emancipation of Roman 
 Catholics in 1813, though "all the religious people were 
 on the other side." In 1814 he dined in London with 
 Madame de Stael, who afterwards said, "Mr. Wilber- 
 force is the best converser I have met with in this 
 country. I have always heard that he was the most 
 religious, but I now find that he is the wittiest, man in 
 England." About 1818 he began to agitate the eman- 
 cipation of the West Indian slaves, on which he wrote 
 an Appeal to the Nation in 1823. On account of his 
 declining health, he intrusted the management of the 
 cause in the House of Commons to T. Fowell Buxton. 
 He retired from Parliament in 1825, and survived until 
 the bill for the abolition of slavery was read a second 
 time. Three days after this event, he died, in London, 
 in July, 1833. 
 
 Wilberforce was, according to Sir James Mackintosh, 
 "the very model of a reformer. Ardent without turbu- 
 lence, mild without timidity or coldness ; neither yielding 
 to difficulties, nor disturbed or exasperated by them : 
 . . . just and charitable even to his most malignant 
 enemies, unwearied in every experiment to disarm the 
 prejudices of his more rational and disinterested oppo- 
 nents, and supporting the zeal without dangerously ex- 
 citing the passions of his adherents." Again he says, 
 alluding to Wilberforce's universal sympathies, " I never 
 saw one who touched life at so many points." "The 
 basis of Mr. Wilberforce's natural character," says Sir 
 James Stephen, " was an intense fellow-feeling with other 
 men. No one more readily adopted the interests, sym- 
 pathized with the affections, or caught even the transient 
 emotions of those with whom he associated. . . . The 
 most somnolent company was aroused and gladdened 
 by his presence." "Contemporary with Lord Grenville 
 and Mr. Pitt," says Lord Brougham, "appeared a man 
 in some respects more illustrious than either, — one who, 
 among the greatest benefactors of the human race, holds 
 an exalted station, — one whose genius was elevated by 
 his virtues and exalted by his piety. . . . His eloquence 
 was of a very high order. It was persuasive and pathetic 
 in an eminent degree ; but it was occasionally bold and 
 impassioned, animated with the inspiration which deep 
 feeling alone can breathe into spoken thought." ("States- 
 men of the Time of George III.") 
 
 See "The Life of William Wilberforce," by his sons, Robert I. 
 and Samuel W.M.HER force, 183S; "Correspondence of William 
 Wilberforce," a vols., 1840; J. Colquhoun, "W. Wilberforce," 1866; 
 Brougham, "Statesmen of the Time of George III.," vol. ii. ; J. S. 
 Harford, "Recollections of William Wilberforce," 1865; "Edin- 
 burgh Review" for April, 1807, and April, 1838; " Fraser's Maga- 
 line" for September, 1838 ; ALLtnoNE, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Wilbord. See Willkbrod. 
 
 Wil'bur, (Hervky Backus,) M.D., an American 
 physician and philanthropist, born at Wendell, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1820, was the founder of schools for idiots 
 in the United States. On the establishment in 1854 of 
 the New York State Asylum for Idiots at Syracuse, he 
 was appointed its superintendent. 
 
 ■Wilbur, (John,) a minister of the society of Friends, 
 or Quakeis, bom in Hopkinton, Rhode Island, in 1774. 
 He distinguished himself by his opposition to Joseph 
 John Gurney, a celebrated minister of the same society, 
 who visited New England in 1838, and whom he charged 
 with unsound doctrines. He attached a party to him- 
 self, but, being in a small minority, he was disowned or 
 excommunicated by the New England Yearly Meeting 
 in 1843. H' s adherents in New England, and in other 
 parts of the United States, are popularly designated as 
 " Wilburites." Died in 1846. 
 
 See "Journal, etc. of John Wilbur," Providence, 1859. 
 
 Wilbye, wil'be, ? (John,) an eminent English com- 
 poser, lived about 1570. His works are principally 
 madrigals, which are ranked among the most exquisite 
 compositions of the kind. 
 
 Wil'cocka, (Joseph,) an English writer, born in 
 1723, was a son of the Bishop of Rochester. He was 
 the author of a work entitled " Roman Conversations." 
 Died in 1791. 
 
 Wil'cox, (Carlos,) an American poet, born at New- 
 port, New Hampshire, in October, 1794. He studied 
 theology at Andover, began to preach in 1819, and pub- 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as ;; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (Jjy See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
WILCOX 
 
 2270 
 
 WILKES 
 
 lished in 1822 the first book of a poem called "The 
 Age of Benevolence." He was ordained minister at 
 Hartford, Connecticut, in 1824, and soon obtained a 
 high reputation for eloquence. He produced in 1824 
 "The Religion of Taste," a poem. Died in 1827. 
 
 See "Remains of Carlos Wilcox," 1828; R. W. Griswold, 
 *' Poets and Poetry of America." 
 
 Wilcox or Willoox, (Orlando B.,) an American 
 general, born at Detroit about 1824, graduated at West 
 Point in 1847. He commanded a brigade at Bull Run, 
 July 21, 1861, was taken prisoner in that battle, and 
 detained a year or more. He afterwards served at 
 South Mountain, September, 1862. 
 
 Wild, wilt, (Franz,) a German opera-singer of high 
 reputation, born at Hollabrunn, in Lower Austria, in 
 1792; died January I, i860. 
 
 Wild, (Henry,) sometimes called "the Learned 
 Tailor,'' was born in Norwich, England, about 1684. 
 He studied Latin and Greek at the grammar-school of 
 his native town, and afterwards, while working at his 
 trade, mastered the Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, and other 
 Oriental tongues. He subsequently obtained an office 
 in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. He translated from 
 the Arabic the legend entitled "Mohammed's Journey 
 to Heaven." Died about 1730. 
 
 See " Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties," vol. i., 1839. 
 
 Wild, [Lat. Fe'rus,] (Johann,) a German monk and 
 writer, born near Mentz about 1485. He published 
 " Commentaries on Scripture," and other works. Died 
 
 in IAS* 
 
 Wild, (Robert,) an English poet and dissenting min- 
 ister, born in 1609. He became rector of Aynhoe about 
 1648, and was ejected in 1662. Among his works is a 
 " Northern Tour," (" Iter Boreale.") Died in 1679. 
 
 Wilda, wil'da, (Wilhei.m Eduard,) a distinguished 
 German jurist, born at Altona in 1800, became in 1854 
 professor of German law at Kiel. He published sev- 
 eral legal works. Died in 1856. 
 
 Wild'bore, (Chari.es,) an ingenious English mathe- 
 matician, born in Nottinghamshire, became curate of 
 Sulnev. He died at an advanced age in 1802 or 1803. 
 
 Wilde, vil'deh, (Jakob,) a Swedish historian, born in 
 Courland in 1679. He published, besides other useful 
 works, " Pragmatic History of Sweden," (" Sueciae His- 
 toria pragmatica," 1731.) Died in 1755. 
 
 Wilde, wild, (Richard Henry.) an author and law- 
 yer, born in Dublin in 1789, was a child when his parents 
 emigrated to the United States. He studied law, was 
 admitted to the Georgia bar in 1809, and elected to Con- 
 gress in 1815. He also represented a district of Georgia 
 m Congress from 1828 to 1835, and acquired distinction 
 as an orator. In 1835 he visited Europe, where he 
 passed about five years. He published in 1842 "Con- 
 jectures and Researches concerning the Love, Madness, 
 and Imprisonment of Torquato Tasso," which, says R. 
 \V. Griswold, " is a work of extraordinary merit and of 
 great interest to all lovers of literary history." He also 
 wrote a number of popular lyrics. He became professor 
 of common law in the University of Louisiana in 1844. 
 Died in New Orleans in 1847. 
 
 See CjRtswof.n's "Prose Writers of America" and "Poets and 
 Poetry of America." 
 
 Wilde, (Thomas.) See Truro, Lord. 
 
 Wildenow. See Willdenow. 
 
 Wildens, wll'dens, (Jan,) a Flemish landscape- 
 painter, born at Antwerp. He was employed by Rubens 
 to paint backgrounds for his pictures. Died in 1644. 
 
 Wild'er, (Marshall Pinckney,) an American mer- 
 chant and eminent horticulturist, born at Rindge, New 
 Hampshire, in 1798, became in 1825 a resident of Bos- 
 ton. He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts 
 Horticultural Society, of which he was for many years 
 president. He was the first president of the United 
 States Agricultural Society, and also for many years 
 president of the American Pomoiogical Society. 
 
 See Livingston, " Portraits of Eminent Americans." 
 
 Wil'ford, (Francis,) a distinguished officer and 
 Oriental scholar, born in Hanover, was sent in 1781 as 
 lieutenant of reinforcements to the British troops in 
 India, where he acquired the language of the country, 
 
 and became one of the first members of the Asiatic So- 
 ciety. He was the author of numerous contributions to 
 the " Asiatic Researches." Died in 1822. 
 
 Wil'fred, [Lat. Wilfre'dus,] Saint, a celebrated 
 Saxon prelate, of noble birth, was born in Bernicia in 
 634 A.D. He visited Rome at an early age for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining information on disputed theological 
 points, and, after his return, received from the King of 
 Northumbria a grant of land and a monastery at Ripon. 
 Having been ordained a priest in 664, he attended the 
 conference at Whitby the same year, when the con- 
 troversy between the Scottish clergy and the rest of 
 Christendom on the observance of Easter was decided 
 against the former. He was soon after appointed Bishop 
 of York by Alchfred, King of Northumbria, whose suc- 
 cessor, Egfred, fearing the ambition of Wilfred, divided 
 the bishopric into three. He was involved in a pro- 
 tracted contest for the see of York, but eventually 
 retired to a monastery, where he died in 709 A.D. 
 
 See Mabillon, "Acta Sanctorum," gtc. 
 
 Wilfredus. See Wilfred. 
 
 Wilhelm, the German of William, (which see.) 
 
 Wilhelm, wll'hclm, (Janus,) a German philologist, 
 born at Lubeck in 1554. He published a work "On 
 the Magistrates of the Roman Republic," (1577,) " Veri- 
 similium Libri tres," (1582,) and other works, which 
 evince much critical sagacity. Died at Bourges in 1584. 
 
 Wilhem, ve'lem', (Guillaume Louis Bocquillon 
 — bo'ke'y6N',) a French composer, born in Paris in 
 1781. He became professor of harmony at the Lycee 
 Napoleon in 1810, and applied Lancaster's method of 
 mutual instruction to teach singing in schools. He com- 
 posed music for some songs of Beranger. Died in 1842. 
 
 See Jomard, " DUcours sur la Vie de G. L. B. Wilhein," 1842 ; 
 A. dh Lafagk, "Notice sur Wilhem," 1844. 
 
 Wilken, wll'ken, (Friedrich,) a German historian 
 and Oriental scholar, born at Natzeburg in 1777. He 
 studied at Gbttingen, became professor of history at 
 Heidelberg in 1805, and was appointed chief librarian 
 and professor in the University of Berlin in 1817. He 
 published a "History of the Crusades according to 
 Oriental and Western Accounts," (7 vols., 1807-32,) and 
 several other works. Died in 1840. 
 
 Wilkes, wilks, (Charles,) an American naval officer, 
 born in the city of New York in 1801, entered the navy 
 in 1816, and became « lieutenant in 1826. He com- 
 manded an exploring expedition which was sent out by 
 the United States government to the Antarctic regions 
 in 1838. He discovered the Antarctic Continent, ex- 
 plored many islands and coasts, completed a voyage 
 round the world, and returned in June, 1842. He pub- 
 lished a narrative of this expedition, in 5 vols., (1845.) 
 He obtained the rank of captain in 1855. In November, 
 1861, he captured ]. M. Mason and J. Slidell from the 
 British steam-packet Trent. For this act he received 
 the thanks of Congress ; but his conduct was not ap- 
 proved by the President. He was promoted to be a 
 commodore in 1862, after which he commanded a squad- 
 ron in the West Indies. In July, 1866, he was made a 
 rear-admiral. 
 
 Wilkes, wilks, (John,) a celebrated English politician, 
 born in London iti 1727, was educated at Leyden, and 
 became a good classical scholar. His manners were 
 fascinating, and his habits dissolute. In 1749 he married 
 a Miss Mead, a rich heiress, ten years older than himself. 
 He was elected a member of Parliament for Aylesbury in 
 1757, and re-elected in 1761. In 1762 he founded the 
 "North Briton," a journal which assailed Lord Bute's 
 administration with great animosity and rendered Bute 
 so unpopular that he resigned office. "Wilkes had," 
 says Macaulay, "the requisites for the character of 
 demagogue. He was clever, courageous, unscrupulous. 
 He was a good scholar, expert in resource, humorous, 
 witty, and a readv master, of the arts of conversation. 
 He could 'abate and dissolve a pompous gentleman' 
 with singular felicity." (Review of the" Works of Charles 
 Churchill," 1845.) In No. xlv. of the "North Briton," 
 published in April, 1763, he accused the king of an 
 "infamous fallacy" which appeared in the speech from 
 the throne. For this offence he was committed to the 
 Tower on a general warrant issued by Lord Halifax, 
 
 i, e, 1,5, u, ^,long;k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,T, 6, u, y, short; a.,$,\,(),obscure; fir, fill, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
If'lLKIE 
 
 2271 
 
 WILKINSON 
 
 secretary of state. Having been brought into the court 
 of common pleas by the writ of habeas corpus, he was 
 discharged in May, 1763. lie was convicted of libel by 
 the House of Commons, expelled in January, 1764, and, 
 having absented himself from the island, was outlawed. 
 He returned in 1768, and was elected member for Mid- 
 dlesex, but was arrested, and punished by fines and 
 imprisonment. This persecution rendered him a great 
 favourite with the people. He was reelected by the 
 s of Middlesex in February, 1769; but the House 
 of Commons declared that he was incapable of sitting 
 in that Parliament. In 1769 he obtained a verdict of four 
 thousand pounds against Lord Halifax for false imprison- 
 ment. Great excitement was produced by the repeated 
 expulsion or exclusion of the popular champion from 
 the House of Commons. He was chosen lord mayor 
 of London in 1774, and a member for Middlesex in the 
 same year. The ministry then ceased to defy the people, 
 and permitted him to take his seat. He was afterwards 
 a member of Parliament for many years, and was a 
 strenuous opponent of the American war. Hied in 1797. 
 
 " His name," says Dr. Johnson, " has been sounded 
 from pole to pole as the phoenix of convivial felicity." 
 Among the anecdotes related of him is the following: 
 George HI. once inquired of him, " How is your friend 
 Serjeant Glynn ?" and received this answer : " He is not 
 my friend; he is a Wilkesite, which I never was." 
 
 See Cradock, "Life of John Wilkes," 1773; J. Almon, "Life of 
 John Wilkes," 1S05 ; " Wilkes's Correspondence with his Friends," 
 2 vols., 1805 ; " Monthly Review" for November, 1777 ; " Edinburgh 
 Review" for January, 1805. 
 
 Wilkie, wil'ke, (Sir David,) a celebrated Scottish 
 painter, born in Fifeshire in 1805. He studied for a time 
 in the Trustees' Academy at Edinburgh, and in 1805 
 entered the Royal Academy, London, having previously 
 executed several works of great merit. His "Village 
 Politicians," exhibited in 1806, met with enthusiastic ad- 
 miration, and at once established the reputation of the 
 artist. This picture, which was sold to the Earl of Mans- 
 field, was succeeded by "The Blind Fiddler," "The 
 Rent-Day," "The Card-Plaver," "The Cut Finger," 
 "The Jews-Harp," "The Village Festival," (which 
 brought eight hundred guineas, and is now in the Na- 
 tional Gallery,) "The Wardrobe Ransacked," and other 
 works of a similar character. He was elected a Royal 
 Academician in tSu.and in 1813 exhibited his "Blind- 
 man's Buff," painted for the prince-regent. In 1 814 he 
 visited Paris, and after his return produced his " Dis- 
 training for Rent," " The Sheep-Washing," "The Penny 
 Wedding," " The Reading of the Will," (for the King of 
 Bavaria,) "Sir Walter Scott and his Family," and "Chel- 
 sea Pensioners listening to the News of Waterloo," 
 which ranks among his master-pieces. In 1825 he visited 
 the continent, and spent three years in studying the 
 works of the Italian, Spanish, and German artists. He 
 succeeded Sir Thomas Lawrence as painter-in-ordinary 
 to the king, in 1830, and in 1832 produced his "John 
 Knox preaching the Reformation in Saint Andrew's," 
 " Benvenuto Cellini presenting a Silver Vase of his Own 
 Workmanship to Pope Paul III.," and various other 
 pictures, showing the results of his foreign studies, but 
 which are esteemed much inferior to his earlier works. 
 In 1840 he set out on a tour to Egypt and Palestine ; 
 but his health, which had been long declining, grew 
 worse, and he died on the voyage home, off Gibraltar, in 
 June, 1841. 
 
 See Allan Cunningham, "Life of Sir David Wilkie," 3 vols., 
 
 is.!}: ChamBBSA " biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen," 
 
 rnent ;) William Jbsdan, " Men I have known," London, 
 
 1866 J " L-indon Quarterly Review" for September, 1843; " Fraser's 
 
 tine" for October, 1S41, and September, 1842. 
 
 ■Wilkie, (WILLIAM.) D.D., a Scottish poet and 
 divine, born in Linlithgowshire in 1721, became pro- 
 fessor of natural philosophy at Saint Andrew's. He 
 was the author of a poem entitled " The Epigoniad," 
 (on the sacking of Thebes by the Epigoni,) which en- 
 joyed for a time great popularity among some of the 
 Scottish literati, who, somewhat absurdly, styled Wilkie 
 " the Scottish Homer." It has since fallen into utter 
 neglect. Died in 1772. 
 
 Wil'kinS, (Sir Chari.ks,) a distinguished English 
 
 ■Orientalist, born at Frome, in Somersetshire, in 1749. 
 
 He went to India in 1770 as a writer on the Bengal 
 
 establishment, and learned Arabic, Persian, and other 
 languages used in the East Indies. He applied himself 
 to the study of Sanscrit with great success. In 1784, 
 in conjunction with Sir William Jones, he founded the 
 Literary Society of Calcutta. He appears to have been 
 the first European who made translations from the 
 original Sanscrit.* He published in 1785 an English 
 translation of the " Bhagavat Gita," perhaps the most 
 interesting part of the great Hindoo epic entitled 
 "MahibhSrata," and two years afterwards gave to th» 
 world a translation of the "Hitopadesa." He returned 
 to England about 1786, became librarian to the East 
 India Company in 1801, and published a "Sanscrit 
 Grammar," (1808.) Died in 1836. 
 
 Wilkins, (David,) an English divine, born in 1685, 
 became Archdeacon of Suffolk. He published " Leges 
 Saxonicae," and other works. Died in 1745. 
 
 Wilkins, (John,) a learned English bishop, born in 
 Northamptonshire in 1614. He studied at Magdalene 
 Hall, Oxford, and, having taken orders, was chosen in 
 1648 warden of Wadham College. He married about 
 1656 Robina, a sister of Oliver Cromwell, and was ap- 
 pointed in 1659 master of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 He lost this office at the restoration, but he was made 
 rector of Saint Lawrence, Jewry, by Charles II. in 1662. 
 He soon after became one of the council of the Royal 
 Society, then lately formed, and of which he had been 
 one of the originators. He was created Bishop of 
 Chester in 1668. He published, among other works, a 
 "Discourse concerning a New Planet," etc., (1640,) 
 " Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger," "Mathe- 
 matical Magic," etc., (1648,) and "Discourse concerning 
 the Beauty of Providence in All the Rugged Passages 
 of it," (1649.) He died in 1672. A collection of his 
 sermons was published in 1682 by Archbishop Tillotson, 
 who had married his step-daughter. 
 
 See " Biographia Britannica;" Niceron, "M&noires." 
 
 Wilkius, (William,) a distinguished English archi- 
 tect, born at Norwich in 1778. He visited Italy and 
 Greece in 1801, and published, after his return, his 
 " Antiquities of Magna Graecia." Among his best works 
 are the facade of London University, now called Uni- 
 versity College, Saint George's Hospital, Hyde Park 
 Corner, and the alterations of Corpus Christi, Trinity, 
 and King's Colleges, Cambridge. He also published 
 " Atheniensia, or Remarks on the Buildings and An- 
 tiquities of Athens." Died in 1839. 
 
 Wil'kins, (William,) an American Senator, born 
 in Pennsylvania in 1779. He was elected a Senator of 
 the United States in 183 1, was sent as minister to 
 Russia in 1834, and was secretary of war from February, 
 1844, to March, 1845. He resided in or near Pittsburg, 
 where he died, June, 1865. 
 
 Wil'kin-scm, (James,) an American general of the 
 Revolution, was born in Maryland in 1 757f He enlisted 
 in the army as captain in 1775, ai, d served under Gates 
 in 1777. In 1792 he obtained the rank of brigadier- 
 general, and in 1796 he became general-in-chief. He 
 afterwards commanded at New Orleans, and opposed 
 the designs of Aaron Burr. In the summer of 1813 he 
 commanded on the Northern frontier with ill success. 
 He was removed from the command about February, 
 1814. Died in Mexico in 1825. He published "Me- 
 moirs of My Own Time," (3 vols., 1816.) 
 
 Wil'kin-son, (James John Garth,) an English 
 writer on law, medicine, etc., was born in London about 
 1812. He edited several works of Swedenborg, and 
 wrote, besides treatises on law," Emanuel Swedenborg: 
 a Biography," (1849,) which was long regarded as the 
 best memoir of Swedenborg that had appeared, and 
 "The Human Body and its Connection with Man," 
 (1851.) 
 
 Wilkinson, (Jemima,) an American fanatic and ie- 
 ligious impostor, born at Cumberland, Rhode Island, in 
 1753, removed to Western New York early in the present 
 century. She professed to be endowed with the power 
 of Christ, and attempted to work miracles. She died in 
 1819, and her sect was soon dispersed. 
 
 • Sir William Jones, in a letter to him, said, "You are the first 
 European whoever understood Sanscrit" (See Knight's " Cyclo- 
 paedia of Biography.") 
 
 « a* k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. ( jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WILKINSON 
 
 2272 
 
 WllLERAM 
 
 Wilkinson, (Sir John Gardner,) a learned Eng- 
 lish archaeologist, born in 1798. He studied at Exeter 
 College, Oxford, and subsequently spent twelve years in 
 Egypt in acquiring a knowledge of the language, cus- 
 toms, and antiquities of that country. He published, 
 besides other works, " Materia Hieroglyphica," (1828,) 
 the "Topography of Thebes," etc., (1835,) "The Man- 
 ners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, including 
 their Private Life, Government, Laws," etc., (5 vols. 8vo, 
 1^40,) which is esteemed a standard work, " Modern 
 Egypt and Thebes," (1843,) intended as a hand-book 
 for travellers, "The Architecture of Ancient Egypt," 
 etc., (1850,) and "The Egyptians in the Time of the 
 Pharaohs," (1857,) which rank among the most valu- 
 able and interesting compositions of the kind. He was 
 made a knight in 1840, and soon after elected a Fellow 
 of the Royal Society, and member of other learned 
 institutions. 
 
 See the " London Quarterly Review" for January, 1839 ; " North 
 British Review" for February, i860. 
 
 Willaert, wil'l$Rt, (Adriano,) a Flemish composer, 
 born about 1490, was a native of Bruges. He became 
 chapel-master of Saint Mark's, at Venice, and numbered 
 among his pupils Zarlino and Costanza Porta. Died in 
 
 '5 6 3- 
 
 Willamov, wil'la-mof, (Johann Gottlieb,) a Prus- 
 sian poet, born at Morungen in 1736, was the author 
 of a collection of poems entitled "Dithyrambics," and 
 " Fables in Dialogues." Died in 1777. 
 
 Wil'lan, (Robert,) a distinguished English physician, 
 born in Yorkshire in 1757. He studied at Edinburgh, 
 where he took his medical degree in 1780, and in 1783 
 became physician to the Public Dispensary in Carey 
 Street, London. He published in 1801 his " Description 
 and Treatment of Cutaneous Diseases," (unfinished,) 
 esteemed the most valuable work that had appeared on 
 the subject at that time. Dr. Willan was a Fellow of 
 the Royal and Antiquarian Societies. Died in 1812. 
 
 See " Memoir of Dr. Willan," by Dr. Bateman, in the " Edin- 
 burgh Medical and Surgical Journal," No. xxxii. 
 
 Wil'lard, (Emma Hart,) an American teacher and 
 educational writer, born at Berlin, Connecticut, in 1787, 
 became in 1821 principal of a female seminary at Troy, 
 New York. She published a " History of the United 
 States," (1828,) "Universal History in Perspective," 
 (1837,) "Chronographer of English History," (1845,) 
 " Astronography, or Astronomical Geography," and 
 other works. Died in 1870. 
 
 Willard, (Joseph,) D.D., LL.D., an American di- 
 vine, born at Biddeford, Maine, in 1738, was chosen 
 president of Harvard College in 1781. Died in 1804. 
 His son Sidney, born in 1780, was for more than twenty 
 years professor of Oriental languages at Harvard. Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 ■Willard, (Josiah,) born in Massachusetts about 1680, 
 was a son of Samuel Willard, noticed below. He was 
 secretary of that colony thirty-nine years. Died in 1756. 
 
 Willard, (Samuel,) an American clergyman, born at 
 Concord in 1640. He preached in Boston, and published 
 several works on theology. Died in 1707. 
 
 Willard, (Samuel,) D.D., an American divine, born 
 at Petersham, Massachusetts, in 1775. He preached at 
 Deerfield, Massachusetts. Died in 1859. 
 
 Willaumez, ve'yo'ma', (Jean Baptiste Philibert,) 
 Count, a French naval officer, born at Belle-Ile-eri- 
 Mer in 1763. He served with distinction against the 
 English, became rear-admiral in 1804, and vice-admiral 
 in 1819. He published a "Dictionary of the Marine," 
 (1820.) Died in 1845. 
 
 Will'de-now, [Ger. pron. wll'deh-no',] (Karl Lud- 
 wir.,) a celebrated German naturalist, born at Berlin in 
 1765. He studied medicine at Halle, and settled as a 
 physician in his native city, where he became in 1798 
 professor of natural history and superintendent of the 
 Botanic Garden. His most important publication is his 
 new edition of the " Species Plantarum" of Linnaeus, 
 with descriptions of all the species discovered since the 
 original work appeared, and arranged according to the 
 Linnaean system. This work, owing to his failing health, 
 he left unfinished ; but it was completed by Link and 
 Schwagricher after his death, which occurred in 181 2. 
 
 He also published "Elements of Botany," ("Grundriss 
 der Krauter-Kunde," 1792,) "Prodromus Flora Beroli- 
 nensis," "Catalogue of butterflies in the Mark of Bran- 
 denburg," and other treatises. 
 
 See Schlechtendahl, " Leben Willdenow's ;" " Edinburgh Re- 
 view" for October and July, 1807. 
 
 Wille, wil'leh, (Johann Georg,) a distinguished Ger- 
 man engraver, born near Giessen in 1715. He studied 
 in Paris, where he acquired the highest reputation for 
 his prints after the Dutch and Flemish painters. He 
 was made a chevalier of the legion of honour by Napo- 
 leon, and was elected to the Academy of Fine Arts in 
 Paris, where he died in August, 1806. Among his mas- 
 ter-pieces may be named Schalken's " Family Concert," 
 "The Satin Gown," after Terburg, and portraits of trie 
 Marquis de Marigny and Marshal Saxe. He numbered 
 among his pupils Bervic and J. G. von Miiller. His son 
 Peter Alexander rose to be a general in the Parisian 
 national guard. 
 
 See " Me"moires et Journal de J. G. Wille," Paris, 2 vols., 1857, 
 
 Wil'le-brod or Wil'le-brord, sometimes written 
 Willibrod and Wilbrord, [Lat. Willebror'dus,] 
 Saint, the apostle of the Frisians, was born in the Saxon 
 kingdom of Northumbria about 657. Having spent 
 many years in Ireland in preaching the gospel, he visited 
 Friesland, where he was successful in making many con- 
 verts to Christianity. He was made a bishop by Pope 
 Sergius I., under the name of Clemens, and founded a 
 number of churches in that country, and a monastery at 
 Echternach, near Treves, where he was buried, having 
 died in 738 A.D. 
 
 See Lux, " Levensschets van den H. Willebrordus, Apostel der 
 Nederlanden," 1839. 
 
 Willebrord. See Bosschaert. 
 
 Wil'le-had, an Anglo-Saxon missionary, who con- 
 verted many Frieslanders and Saxons, was appointed 
 Bishop of Bremen in 787 A.D. Died in 789. 
 
 Willemet, vel'm 4 .', (Pierre Remi,) a French natu- 
 ralist, born at Norroy-sur-Moselle in 1735. He resided 
 at Nancy, and published, besides other works, a " Flora 
 of Lorraine," (3 vols., 1805.) Died in 1807. 
 
 See J. Lamoureux, " Notice sur Willemet," 1808. 
 
 Willemet, (Pierre Remi Francois de Paule — 
 deh pol,) a French physician, born at Nancy in 1762; 
 died at Seringapatam in 1790. 
 
 See Millin, " Notice sur Willemet fils," 1790. 
 
 Willemin, vel'maN', (Nicolas Xavier,) a French 
 antiquary and engraver, born at Nancy in 1763. He 
 rendered a useful service to the arts by a large illus- 
 trated work called " Unpublished French Monuments 
 illustrating the History of Arts, Costumes," etc., 
 (" Monuments Francais inedits pour servir a PHistoire 
 des Arts, des Costumes," etc., 1806-39.) Died in Paris 
 in 1833. 
 
 Willems, wil'lems or ve'lSms', (Florent,) a Belgian 
 painter, born at Liege about 1812. He settled in Paris 
 about 1839, and gained a medal of the first class in 1855. 
 He excels as a painter of costume, especially of silk 
 gowns. Among his works are a " Musical Party," and 
 "The Coquette." 
 
 "Willems, (Jan Frans,) a distinguished Belgian 
 writer and philologist, born near Antwerp in 1793. In 
 181 1 he won the prize offered for the best poem on the 
 battle of Friedland and the peace of Tilsit, and in 1818 
 published a poetic address to the Belgians, entitled 
 " Aen de Belgen," calling on his countrymen to main- 
 tain the Flemish language and nationality. Among his 
 other works we may name a " Dissertation on the Dutch 
 Language and Literature in Connection with the South- 
 ern Provinces of the Netherlands," (2 vols., 1819-24,) 
 and a Flemish version of the poem entitled " Reynard 
 the Fox." He was also editor of the " Belgisch Mu- 
 seum," the organ of the Society for the Promotion of 
 Flemish Literature. Died in 1846. 
 
 See P. nE Decker, "Notice sur J. F. Willems," 1847; Snel- 
 laert, " Korte Levensschets van J. F. Willems," 1847. 
 
 Willeram, wil'lehram, or Walram, wal'ram, a 
 German monk, born in Franconia, became Abbot of 
 Ebersberg. He wrote a paraphrase of Solomon's Song, 
 in Latin verse. 
 
 a, e, T, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, j?, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mSt; ndt; good; moon; 
 
W1LLET 
 
 "75 
 
 WILLIAM 
 
 Wil'let, (Andrew,) a learned English divine, born 
 at Ely in 1562. He obtained a prebend at Ely about 
 1598. He wrote, besides other works, "Synopsis of 
 Popery," [" Synopsis Papismi,") which was reputed the 
 most able remtation of popery which had then appeared. 
 Died in 162 r. 
 
 William (wll'yam) I., surnamed the Conqueror, 
 [Lat. Gulif.l'mus Conques'tor ; Fr. Guii.laume LI 
 Conquerant, ge'yom' leh kiN'ka'i 6n',] King of Eng- 
 land, born at Falaise in 1025, was an illegitimate son of 
 Robert, Duke of Normandy. He succeeded his father 
 in 1035, as William II. of Normandy, and during his 
 minority gave proof of his energy and courage by re- 
 ducing to submission the rebellious Norman barons. He 
 Rained the favour of his kinsman Edward the Confessor, 
 King of England, who, having no issue, formed a secret 
 intention to adopt William as his heir. His chief com- 
 petitor was Harold, a Saxon prince, whom a majority 
 of the people of England preferred to the Duke of 
 Normandy. On the death of Edward (January, 1066) 
 Harold ascended the throne, without opposition. (See 
 Harold.) 
 
 "William," says Hume, "by his power, his courage, 
 and his abilities, had long maintained a pre-eminence 
 among the haughty chieftains" of Western Europe. 
 Having resolved to invade England, he soon assembled 
 a fleet of 3000 vessels and an army of 60,000 men. 
 Several powerful barons of adjoining countries, with 
 their retainers, were attracted to his standard by the 
 grandeur and audacity of the enterprise. The Norman 
 army landed at Pevensey, in Sussex, about the 28th of 
 September, and defeated the English, commanded by 
 Harold, at Senlac, near Hastings, on the 14th of October, 
 1066. Harold was killed in this battle, which was one 
 of the most decisive and important that occurred in the 
 Middle Ages. According to Hume, William lost nearly 
 15,000 men. He followed op his victory with celerity 
 and vigour, encountered little opposition in his march 
 to London, and was crowned in Westminster Abbey on 
 the 25th of December. Edgar Atheling, who had been 
 proclaimed king at the death of Harold, renounced 
 his claim and submitted to William. 
 
 The Conqueror appeared at first willing to conciliate 
 his new subjects by mildness ; but he confiscated the 
 estates of those partisans of Harold who had been killed 
 at Hastings, and took care to place all real power in the 
 hands of the Normans. While he was absent on a 
 visit to Normandy, in 1067, conspiracies were formed 
 against him, and hostilities began in many places, Hume 
 expresses a suspicion that he left England in order that 
 the revolts provoked by his licentious soldiery might 
 furnish him with a pretext for severe and tyrannical 
 measures. According to the same writer, "this measure 
 was the immediate cause of all the calamities which 
 England endured during this and the subsequent reigns." 
 William returned about the end of 1067, and maintained 
 his power by acts of excessive cruelty. He ordered his 
 army to lay waste by fire the extensive tract between the 
 Humber and the Tees. The majority of the proprietors 
 of land were deprived of their estates by confiscation, 
 and all the natives were reduced to a state not much 
 better than slavery. During a visit of William to the 
 continent, in 1074, several Norman barons revolted 
 against him, and were defeated. 
 
 He had become the most powerful sovereign of Europe, 
 when Pope Gregory VII. wrote him a letter, requiring 
 him to do homage for the kingdom of England to the 
 see of Rome, and to send the tribute which his prede- 
 cessors had !>een accustomed to pay to the pope. By 
 the tribute he meant Peter's pence. William replied 
 that the money should be remitted as usual, but he 
 refused to pay homage. About 1078 his son Robert 
 levied war against William in Normandy. During this 
 wai Robert happened to encounter the king, whom he 
 wounded and unhorsed. Struck with remorse on dis- 
 covering that he had wounded his father, Robert asked 
 his pardon, and made peace with him. In the latter 
 part of his reign he ordered a general survey of all the 
 lands in the kingdom, their extent in each district, their 
 proprietors, tenure, and value. "This monument, called 
 'Domesday Book,'" says Hume, "is the most valuable 
 
 piece of antiquity possessed by any nation." He had 
 married Matilda, a daughter of Baldwin, Earl of Flan- 
 ders. On the approach of death, he discovered the 
 vanity of all human grandeur, and was filled with re- 
 morse for his cruelties. He died at Rouen in 1087, 
 leaving three sons, Robert, William, and Henry. 
 
 See Hume, "History of England," vol. i. chaps, iii. and iv. ; 
 Aug. Thierry, " Histoire de la ConquSte de 1'Angleterre :" John 
 Havward, " Lives of the Three Norman Kings of England, William 
 I.." etc., 1613 ; Freeman, "History of the Norman Conquest," 
 vol. iii. chaps, xii.-xvi. ; Samuel Clarke, " Life and Death of 
 William the Conqueror," 1660; Thomas Roscoe. " Life of William 
 the Conqueror," 1S4S: Andrew Henderson. "Life of William the 
 Conqueror," 1764; P. M. Saunier, "Vie de Guillaume, Due de 
 Normandie," 1N04. 
 
 William II., King of England, surnamed Ru'fus, 
 [Fr. Guillaume le Roux, ge'yom' leh roo,] from the 
 colour of his hair, was born in Normandy in 1056. He 
 was the second of the surviving sons of William the 
 Conqueror. His education was directed by the famous 
 Eanfranc. According to some historians, William I., 
 just before his death, wrote a letter to Lanfranc, desiring 
 him to crown his son William as King of England, and 
 at the same time he left Normandy and Maine to Robert. 
 William was crowned in September, 1087. The Anglo- 
 Norman barons, who owned estates both in England 
 and Normandy and would be required to pay allegiance 
 to two masters, favoured the claim of Robert to both 
 thrones. They took arms against William, but were 
 soon reduced to submission. In 1091 he invaded Nor- 
 mandy with an army to wage war against Robert, who 
 prevented hostilities by a treaty, according to which 
 William obtained the towns of Aumale, Fescamp, etc. 
 He afterwards instigated the Norman barons to rebel 
 against Robert, and passed over to Normandy in 1094 
 to support his partisans. He was prevented from push- 
 ing his advantages by an incursion of the Welsh, which 
 obliged him to return to England. Robert, having 
 enlisted in the first crusade, sold or mortgaged his 
 dominions to William for the small sum of 10,000 marks, 
 (1096.) William did not partake of the general enthu- 
 siasm for the crusade. " It is likely," says Hume, " that 
 he made the romantic chivalry of the crusaders the object 
 of his perpetual raillery." He was found dead in the 
 New Forest in August, 1 100. Hume adopts the popular 
 account that Walter Tyrrel, while hunting with the 
 king, discharged an arrow which glanced from a tree 
 and killed William. He had never married, and was 
 succeeded by his brother Henry. " He seems," says 
 Hume, "to nave been a violent and tyrannical prince ; 
 a perfidious, encroaching, and dangerous neighbor ; an 
 unkind and ungenerous relation." 
 
 See Hume, " History of England," vol. i. chap. v. ; Miss Strick- 
 land, " Lives of the Bachelor Kings of England," 1861 ; John 
 Havward, " Life of William II.," 1613. 
 
 William III., or William Henry, King of England 
 and Stadtholder of Holland, was born at the Hague on 
 the 14th of November, 1650. He was the eldest or 
 only son of William II., Prince of Orange, and Mary 
 Stuart, a daughter of Charles I. of England, and was 
 styled Prince of Orange before his accession to the 
 throne of Great Britain. At the death of his father 
 (1650) the party opposed to the house of Orange deter- 
 mined that there should never be another Stadtholder. 
 On the death of De Witt, in 1672, the young prince 
 became the chief of the government, and took strenuous 
 measures to defend the state against the French armies 
 which had invaded it. He opened the dikes and inun- 
 dated the seat of war, exclaiming that he would die in the 
 last ditch rather than witness the ruin of the republic. 
 The invaders were forced to save themselves by a hasty 
 retreat. In 1674 he was defeated at Senef by the Prince 
 of Conde. The war was ended by the peace of Nymwe- 
 gen, in 1678. He married in 1677 Mary, a daughter of 
 James, Duke of York, afterwards James II. of England. 
 Resides his native Dutch, he spoke and wrote the 
 French, English, and German languages fluently, though 
 not elegantly nor exactly. "The tenet of predestina- 
 tion," says Macaulay, " was the keystone of his religion." 
 From a child he had been weak and sickly, and in man- 
 hood he was subject to painful and depressing maladies. 
 
 Before he had reached the age of twenty-five, he was 
 renowned throughout Europe as a soldier and diplo- 
 
 e as*; 9 as 1; %hard; g as>; G, H, v., guttural; N. nasal: R 
 
 trilled: 5 as ».• th as in this. (JJ^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 4.5 
 
WILLIAM 
 
 2-274 
 
 WILLIAM 
 
 matist, and was the master-spirit of a powerful coalition 
 against Louis XIV. of France. He became about 1686 
 the head of the English opposition which the perverse 
 and infatuated course of James II. had provoked. In the 
 summer of 1688 he was invited by Russell, Sidney, and 
 other conspirators to come with an army for the defence 
 of liberty and the Protestant religion in England. 
 William issued a declaration, in which he abjured all 
 thought of conquest, and pledged himself to leave all 
 questions to the decision of a free Parliament. In 
 November, 1688, he landed at Torbay with an army of 
 about 14,000 men. He was joined by numerous peers, 
 and was favoured by a general defection in the army 
 of King James, who threw the great seal into the 
 Thames and absconded on the nth of December, 1688. 
 The revolution was thus accomplished without much 
 bloodshed. He called a convention, composed of peers 
 and the surviving members of the former House of 
 Commons, which in February, 1689, voted that James 
 had abdicated, and that William and Mary should be 
 declared King and Queen of England. Amidst the gen- 
 eral joy, the ill humour of the clergy and the army was 
 very conspicuous. The position ol William was beset 
 with great difficulties. The deposed king had many 
 adherents in Ireland and Scotland, who supported his 
 cause by arms, and he was assisted by Louis XIV. 
 William selected for his ministers members of both the 
 great parties, the Whigs and Tories, and reserved to 
 himself the direction of foreign affairs. He was not 
 popular with his new subjects. His cold manners, 
 which presented a great contrast to the strength of his 
 emotions, gave almost universal offence. 
 
 In May, 1689, he declared war against the King of 
 France, by whose aid James II. was enabled to take 
 the field in Ireland with a considerable army. William 
 passed over to Ireland in June, 1690, and took command 
 of his land-forces. About this time his fleet was defeated 
 by the French near Beachy Head. On the 1st of July, 
 1690, he gained a decisive victory over the French and 
 Irish at the famous battle of the Boyne, after which 
 James gave up the contest and fled to Fiance. The 
 allied English and Dutch fleets defeated the French at 
 La Hogue in May, 1692. The war between the allies 
 and the French continued in Flanders, where William 
 commanded in person. He was defeated at Steenkerke, 
 by Marshal Luxemburg, in August, 1692. Hostilities 
 were suspended by the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697. 
 
 The reign of William III. was much disturbed by fac- 
 tious intrigues and Jacobite conspiracies. He removed 
 from command the Duke of Marlborough, who was sus- 
 pected of being in a plot to restore one of the Stuarts 
 to the throne, in 1692. Soon after the peace of Rys- 
 wick, William III. and Louis XIV. became parties to a 
 treaty to partition the Spanish dominions, and stipulated 
 that the Elector of Bavaria should succeed to Spain and 
 the Indies, while the French dauphin should reign over 
 the two Sicilies. In November, 1700, Charles II. of Spain 
 died, and bequeathed the throne to Philip of Anjou. Re- 
 gardless of the obligations of the partition treaty, Louis 
 XIV. accepted for his grandson the splendid legacy. 
 William then formed with the Emperor of Germany 
 and other powers a coalition against the Bourbons, and 
 took the first steps towards the great war of the Spanish 
 succession. Before hostilities commenced, he died, with- 
 out issue, in London, in March, 1702, in consequence of 
 a fall from his horse. He was succeeded by Queen 
 Anne. 
 
 "His name," says Macaulay, "at once calls up before 
 us a slender and feeble frame, a lofty and ample fore- 
 head, a nose curved like the beak of an eagle, an eye 
 rivalling that of an eagle in brightness and keenness. . . . 
 Nature had largely endowed William with the qualities 
 of a great ruler, and education had developed those 
 qualities in no common degree. ... If his battles were 
 not those of a great tactician, they entitled him to be 
 called a great man. . . . His defeats were repaired with 
 such marvellous celerity that before his enemies had 
 sung the'Te Deum' he was again ready for conflict. 
 . . . He was born with violent passions and quick 
 sensibilities, but the strength of his emotions was not 
 suspected by the world. From the multitude his joy 
 
 and his grief, his affection and his resentment, were 
 hidden by a phlegmatic serenity which made him pass 
 for the most cold-blooded of mankind." 
 
 See Macaulay, " History of England;" Burnet, "History of 
 his Own Times;" A, Montanus, " Leven van Willem III.," 1703; 
 W. Harris, " History of the Life and Reign of William Henry," 
 etc., 1749; Trevor, " Life and Times of William III.," 1839; Abel 
 Boyer, " Histoire de Guillaume III," 3 vols., 1702; Sir James 
 Mackintosh, "History of the Revolution in England in 1688;" 
 I'\ de Bkuine, " Leven en Dood van Willem III.," 1702; James 
 Vernon, "Court and Times of William III.," 3 vols., 1841 ; Vol- 
 taire, "Siecle de Louis XIV." 
 
 William IV., King of England, the third son of 
 George HI., was born in London on the 21st of Au- 
 gust, 1765. He entered the royal navy as midshipman 
 in 1779, and obtained the rank of captain in 1786. 
 Having in several cases disobeyed the orders of his 
 superiors or violated the rules of discipline, he was not 
 permitted to command in active service ; but he was 
 promoted by successive steps until he received the title of 
 admiral of the fleet, in 1801. He had been created Duke 
 of Clarence and Saint Andrew's and Earl of Minister in 
 1789. In the House of Lords he generally acted with 
 the Whig party; but he supported Pitt after 1793. He 
 married in July, 1818, Adelaide, a daughter of the Duke 
 of Saxe-Meiningen. They had two children, who died 
 in infancy. On the death of his brother, the Duke of 
 York, in 1827, William became heir-presumptive to the 
 throne. He succeeded George IV. on the 26th of June, 
 1830, which was a critical time in the politics of Europe. 
 The French revolution of July, 1830, had great influence 
 in England. The friends of electoral reform had a ma- 
 jority in the new Parliament which met in October, but 
 the Duke of Wellington, who was prime minister, op- 
 posed reform, in terms which produced a violent excite- 
 ment. The ministry, having been outvoted in the House 
 of Commons, resigned in November, 1830, and were 
 succeeded by a Liberal ministry, of which Earl Grey 
 and Lord John Russell were the chiefs. The Reform 
 bill passed the House of Commons by a large majority 
 in September, but was rejected by the Lords on the 
 3d of October, 1831. A long and violent crisis fol- 
 lowed. In May, 1832, Earl Grey and his colleagues 
 resigned, and the king requested Wellington and Lynd- 
 hurst to form a ministry; but they failed, or quailed 
 before the storm, for the people were determined to 
 have reform, if they had to fight for it. Earl Grey 
 resumed the office of premier about the 18th of May, 
 and, the king having induced many of the Tory peers to 
 absent themselves and refrain from voting, the Reform 
 bill finally became a law in June, 1832. The king him- 
 self was no friend to reform, and was partial to the Con- 
 servatives, or Tories. After Earl Grey and several other 
 ministers had resigned, William IV., in November, 1834, 
 sent for the Duke of Wellington, who constructed a 
 new ministry, in which Sir Robert Peel was premier. 
 Peel and Wellington, however, could not command a 
 majority in the new Parliament which met in February, 
 1835. They resigned in April, and gave place to the 
 Whig ministry of Lord Melbourne. William died on 
 the 20th of June, 1837, leaving no lawful issue, and was 
 succeeded by his niece, Victoria. 
 
 Wil'liam, [Dutch, Wii.i.em, wil'lem ; Ger. Wii.helm, 
 wil'heJm,]' (Frederick,) I., King of the Netherlands, 
 Grand Duke of Luxemburg, and Prince of Orange 
 Nassau, was born at the Hague in August, 1772. He 
 was a son of William V., Prince of Orange Nassau 
 and hereditary Stadtholder. He married, in 1 791, Fre- 
 derica Louisa, a daughter of Frederick William, King 
 of Prussia. He commanded the Dutch army which 
 resisted the French invaders in 1793 and 1794. Hol- 
 land was conquered in 1795, and William Frederick 
 retired to Germany. He served with the rank of gene- 
 ral in the Prussian and Austrian armies between 1806 
 and 1813. A revolution restored him to royal power in 
 Holland about the end of 1813, after which the Congress 
 of Vienna decided that Belgium should be annexed to 
 the United Provinces, and that he should reign over the 
 whole. He was proclaimed King of the Netherlands in 
 March, 1815. The Belgians, who regarded the Dutch 
 with invincible antipathy, revolted in September, 1830, 
 and, after several battles, by the aid of France and Eng- 
 
 5, e, T, 6, it, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, 6, u, y, short; a, e, \,q,obtcure; fir, fall, fat; m£t; n&t; good; moon; 
 
WILLIAM 
 
 227J 
 
 WILLIAM 
 
 land, became a separate nation. In October, 1840, he 
 abdicated in favour of his son William, and died in 
 Berlin in 1843. 
 
 "William (or Willem) It, King of the Netherlands, 
 and Grand Duke of Luxemburg, a son of the preceding, 
 was born in December, 1792. As aide-de-camp of the 
 Duke of Wellington, he served with distinction in the 
 Peninsula. He commanded the Dutch troops at the 
 battle of Waterloo, where he was wounded. About 
 1816 he married Anna Paulowna, a sister of Alexander, 
 Czar of Russia. He gained some victories over the 
 Belgian insurgents in 1831 ; but the intervention of a 
 French army compelled him to retire from that contest. 
 He began to reign in October, 1840. He died in March, 
 1849, leaving two sons, William and Henry. 
 
 William (or Willem) III, King of Holland, a son 
 of the preceding, was born in February, 1817. He mar- 
 ried Sophia, a daughter of the King of Wiirtemberg, in 
 1S39, and succeeded his father in March, 1849. It ' s 
 stated that he has shown himself friendly to liberal 
 measures. 
 
 William (or Wilhelm, <vll'h?lm) L, King of Prus- 
 sia, born on the 22d of March, 1797, was a younger son 
 of Frederick William III. He married, in 1829, Maria 
 Louisa Augusta.a daughter of the Duke of Saxe- Weimar. 
 During the violent commotions of 1848 he retired for 
 safety to England, from which he soon returned. He 
 commanded the army which suppressed the insurrection 
 in Baden in 1849. " e ascended the throne on the death 
 of his brother, Frederick William IV., January, 1861, 
 and, soon after his accession, appointed Count von Bis- 
 mark minister of foreign affairs. To the superior states- 
 manship of this minister is chiefly attributed the great 
 and sudden increase of Prussia fri extent and power. 
 (See Bismark, von, Kari. Otto.) 
 
 In 1S64 he united with the Emperor of Austria in an 
 aggressive war against Denmark, who was compelled to 
 cede to the victors Sleswick and Holstein. 
 
 The fundamental idea of the Prussian policy seems to 
 be the union of all the German peoples into one nation 
 or federation, and the exclusion of the empire of 
 Austria from the same. Invoking the potent and in- 
 vincible spirit of nationality and devotion to the Father- 
 land, he declared war against Austria about the 18th of 
 June, 1866, having previously formed an alliance with 
 the King of Italy. The reigning princes of Bavaria, 
 Saxony, Hanover, Hesse, (Electoral,) and some other 
 states, took side with Austria, which had controlled a 
 majority of votes in the Diet. The Prussian armies, 
 whose movements were planned by General von Moltke, 
 advanced rapidly into Bohemia, and, after several minor 
 victories, defeated the Austrians at the great and de- 
 cisive battle of Sadowa, near Kdniggratz, on the 3d of 
 July, 1866. The victors are said to have taken at Sadowa 
 21,471 prisoners, (including about 7400 wounded.) This 
 campaign is called the Seven Weeks' war. Peace was 
 restored by a treaty signed at Prague in August, 1866, 
 in accordance with which the Emperor of Austria re- 
 nounced his claim to be the head, or even a member, of 
 the new German Bund, called the North German Con- 
 federation, which was composed of all the states situated 
 north of the river Main. The area and population of 
 Prussia were considerably increased by the annexation 
 of several conquered states, among which were Hanover. 
 Holstein, and Electoral Hesse. By the terms of the. 
 new Bund the King of Prussia directs the foreign policy 
 and controls the military power of the states which 
 compose it. A secret treaty of alliance, offensive and 
 defensive, was negotiated by Prussia with Bavaria and 
 Baden in August, 1866, and made public in April, 1867. 
 
 On a frivolous pretext, the emperor Napoleon III. de- 
 clared war against Prussia, July 16, 1870. The German 
 armies, commanded by King William in person, and by 
 his son, Frederick William, having crossed the frontier 
 early in August, defeated Marshal McMahon at Worth 
 (August 6) and Marshal Bazaine in a great battle near 
 Metz, (August 14-18.) Bazaine, having shut himself up in 
 Metz, was besieged by Prince Frederick Charles of Prus- 
 sia, while the king and his son, the crown-prince, pur- 
 sued Marshal McMahon, who had retreated to Chalons, 
 and, after he had collected there a large army, moved 
 
 northward to the valley of the Mouse. The German 
 army, amounting to about 240,000 men, attacked Mar- 
 shal McMahon near Sedan, and a great battle ensued, 
 which lasted several days, and resulted in one of the 
 most decisive and momentous victories in universal his- 
 tory. On the 2d of September the emperor Napoleon, 
 and his army of 100,000 men, or more, surrendered at 
 Sedan as prisoners of war. A few days later, King Wil- 
 liam and the crown-prince marched against Paris, which 
 by strenuous exertions had been prepared for a siege, 
 and was now controlled by the republicans under a new 
 regime. The siege or investment of Paris began about 
 September 15. Marshal Bazaine surrendered Metz and 
 his army, the number of which was stated at 150,000 
 men, or more, to Prince Frederick Charles, on the 27th 
 of October, 1870. In the great battles of this war the 
 French were outnumbered, as well as outgeneralled, by 
 the Germans, whose movements were directed by Gen- 
 eral von Moltke. Count von Bismark was present with 
 the army at Sedan and at Paris, and, soon after the sur- 
 render of Napoleon, had an interview with Jules Favre, 
 the French minister of foreign affairs, who made over- 
 tures of peace. Bismark demanded the cession of Alsace 
 and part of Lorraine, Which the French ministers refused 
 to give up. In October, 1870, the princes Frederick 
 William and Frederick Charles were promoted to the 
 rank of field-marshal. 
 
 The civilized world was kept in painful suspense by a 
 fear that the most beautiful and polished city on the 
 globe would be bombarded and destroyed ; but the 
 Germans delayed their assault, in the confident hope 
 that famine would soon reduce Paris to submission. 
 They also expected that the French forces within the city 
 would be paralyzed by riots and the violent contests be- 
 tween opposing factions. This hope proved to be delu- 
 sive. The citizens of Paris maintained good order, and 
 defended their cause with heroic constancy. On the 9th 
 of November the army of the Loire, commanded by Gen- 
 eral Palladines, defeated the Bavarian general Von der 
 Tann near Orleans, and took about 2000 prisoners. But 
 the army of the Loire was afterwards defeated in several 
 actions. After a long and obstinate resistance, Paris 
 was forced to capitulate, about February 1, 1871, and to 
 accept such terms as the victors chose to impose. As 
 one of the results of this war, Prussia now holds, instead 
 of France, the military primacy among the nations of 
 Europe. King William is a zealous asserter of the 
 divine right of kings. He took the title of Emperor 
 of Germany in December, 1870. 
 
 William (Willem or Wilhelm) of Holland, son 
 of Count Florent of Holland, was made Emperor of 
 Germany in 1247, through the influence of Pope Inno- 
 cent IV., in opposition to Frederick II. He was unable, 
 however, to assert his authority until after the death of 
 Conrad IV., the son of Frederick, in 1254. He was 
 killed in a war against the West Frisians in 1256. 
 
 William the Lion, King of Scotland, was a brother 
 of Malcolm IV., whom he succeeded in 1165. He in- 
 vaded England in 1174, was taken prisoner, and could 
 not obtain his liberty until he promised to be the vassal 
 or liegeman of Henry II. About 1190, Richard I., for a 
 pecuniary consideration, released Scotland from alle- 
 giance to himself and his successors. William died in 
 1214, and was succeeded by his son, Alexander II. 
 
 See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. ii. chap. xiii. 
 
 William (or Wilhelm) I., King of Wiirtemberg, 
 born in 1 781, was a son of Frederick I., whom he suc- 
 ceeded in October, 1816. He granted a new constitu- 
 tion in 1819. In 1848 he made further concessions to 
 the growing desire of reform. He opposed the attempts 
 of the King of Prussia to acquire supremacy in Ger- 
 many in 1850. Died in 1864. 
 
 William II, (Stadtholder.) See Orange, (William, 
 Prince of.) 
 
 William HI, (Stadtholder.) See William III., 
 (King of England.) 
 
 William, an Anglo-Norman prince, born in 1 102, was 
 the only legitimate son of Henry I. of England. He 
 was drowned, with his sister Adele, in the passage from 
 Normandy to England, in 1120. 
 
 William of Champeaux. See Champeaux, de. 
 
 « as h; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as »; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WILLIAM 
 
 2276 
 
 WILLIAMS 
 
 "William of Hesse-Cassel. See Hesse, Land- 
 grave of. 
 
 William of Malmesbury. See Malmesbury. 
 
 William de Nangis. See Nangis, de. 
 
 William of Nassau. See Orange, (William, 
 Prince of.) 
 
 William of Newburg or Newbury. See New- 
 burgh. 
 
 William the Silent See Orange, (William of.) 
 
 William of Tyre, a prelate and historian, born 
 about 1 130. He became Archbishop of Tyre in 1 174. 
 He wrote, in Latin, a "History of Palestine or the 
 Crusaders from 1095 to 1 184." Died before 1 193. 
 
 William of Wykeham. See Wykeham. 
 
 Wil'liams, (wll'yamz,) (Alpheus S.,) an American 
 general, born at Saybrook, Connecticut, about 1810, 
 was a lawyer before the civil war. He commanded a 
 division at Chancellorsville, May 3, 1863, and at Gettys- 
 burg, July 1-3 of that year. He served under General 
 Sherman in the campaign against Atlanta, May-August, 
 1864, and commanded a corps of the army that marched 
 from Atlanta to the sea. 
 
 Wil'liams, (Anna,) an English writer, who, having 
 become blind, was taken by Dr. Johnson into his house 
 and supported for the remainder of her life. She died 
 in 1783. 
 
 See Boswell, "Life of Johnson." 
 
 Williams, (Sir Charles Hanbury,) a distinguished 
 English writer and diplomatist, born in 1709, was the 
 son of John Hanbury, Esq., and assumed the name of 
 Williams in compliance with the wishes of his godfather, 
 Charles Williams. Having travelled on the continent, 
 he was elected, after his return, member of Parliament 
 for the county of Monmouth, (1733,) and in 1749 was 
 minister-plenipotentiary to Berlin, having been previ- 
 ously made a knight of the Bath. He was afterwards 
 employed on an important embassy to Russia. He was 
 the author of a collection of odes, also political ballads 
 and satires in verse, which enjoyed great popularity. 
 He was an intimate friend of Horace Walpole, and a 
 supporter of the measures of Sir Robert Walpole, to 
 whom he rendered effective service by his satirical verses. 
 Died in 1759. 
 
 See "George Selwyn and his Contemporaries," by J. H. Jesse; 
 " London Quarterly Review" for October. 1822. 
 
 Williams, (Charles Kilborn,) an American jurist, 
 born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1782, was a son 
 of Samuel Williams, noticed below. He was elected 
 Governor of Vermont in 1851. Died in 1853. 
 
 Williams, (Daniel,) D.D., an English Presbyterian 
 divine, born at Wrexham, in Denbighshire, in 1644. He 
 wrote "Gospel Truth Stated and Vindicated," and a 
 number of religious and controversial treatises. He 
 died in 1716, leaving numerous bequests for chari- 
 table and educational purposes. Among the most im- 
 portant of these was one for the establishment of a 
 public library in Red-Cross Street, London, opened 
 in 1729. 
 
 Williams, (David,) a British writer, born in Cardi- 
 ganshire, Wales, in 1738, was the founder of the Literary 
 Eund Society. He published " Lectures on Political 
 Principles," (1789,) a "History of Monmouthshire," 
 (1796,) and other works. Died in 1816. 
 
 Williams, (Edward,) a Welsh poet, also called I01.0 
 Morganwg, (mor-ga'noog,) born in Glamorganshire 
 about 1747, was a stone-mason by trade. He published 
 a collection of hymns in Welsh, and two volumes of 
 lyric and pastoral poems in English, (1794.) He was 
 one of the editors of the " Myvyrian Archaiology." 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Williams, (Eleazar,) born at Caughnawaga, New 
 York, about 1787, resided as a missionary among the 
 Indians in the vicinity of Green Bay, Wisconsin. He 
 pretended to be the dauphin, son of Louis XVI., and his 
 claims were supported by J. H. Hanson, of New York, 
 in a work entitled " The Lost Prince." A series of 
 articles also appeared in " Putnam's Magazine" for Feb- 
 ruary, April, and July, 1853, and February, 1854, main- 
 taining with much ability and zeal his title to be regarded 
 as the heir of the Bourbons. Died in 1858. 
 
 Williams, (Ephraim,) an American officer, born at 
 Newton, Massachusetts, in 1 7 1 5, was mortally wounded 
 in an engagement near Lake George with the French 
 and Indians in 1755. He had bequeathed the princi- 
 pal part of his property towards founding a free school 
 in Massachusetts, which afterwards became Williams 
 College. 
 
 Williams, (Frederick Sims,) an English barrister, 
 born in 1812. He published several legal works, and 
 "The Wonders of the Heavens," (1 86 1.) Died in 1863. 
 
 Williams, (Griffith,) born in Wales in 1589, rose 
 through several preferments to be Bishop of Ossory in 
 1641. He published, among other works, one entitled 
 " Seven Golden Candlesticks, holding the Seven Lights 
 of Christian Religion." Died in 1672. 
 
 Williams, (Helen Maria,) a writer and translator, 
 born in London in 1762. While residing in Paris, in 
 1790, she published her " Letters from France," favouring 
 the doctrines of the Girondists, in consequence of which 
 she was imprisoned for a time. Among her other works 
 are two poems, entitled "Peru" (1784) and "The Slave- 
 Trade," (1788,) "Julia, a Romance," (1790,) "Narrative 
 of Events in France," (1815,) and a translation of the 
 " Personal Narrative" of Humboldt and Bonpland. Died 
 in 1827. 
 
 Williams, (John,) a distinguished prelate and states- 
 man, born in Carnarvonshire, Wales, in 1582. He studied 
 at Saint John's College, Cambridge, and, having taken 
 orders, became in 161 1 chaplain to the lord chancellor 
 Egerton. He soon after acquired the favour of King 
 James I., who made him successively one of his chap- 
 lains-in-ordinary, Dean of Salisbury, Bishop of Lincoln, 
 and lord keeper of the great seal, (1621.) He was de- 
 prived of the last-named office on the accession of 
 Charles, and, having been charged by his enemy Laud 
 with betraying the king's secrets, was condemned to 
 several years' imprisonment and a fine of j£io,ooo. He 
 was released in 1640, and soon after created Archbishop 
 of York. Died in 1650. 
 
 See Phim.ips, " Life of John Williams," and " Memorial offered 
 to the Great Deservings of John Williams," by John Hackht. 
 
 Williams, (John,) an English clergyman, born in 
 1634, became successively chaplain to William and 
 Mary, prebendary of Canterbury, and Bishop of Chi- 
 chester, (1696.) Died in 1709. 
 
 Williams, (John,) an American divine, born at 
 Roxbury, Massachusetts, in 1644, was made prisoner, 
 together with his wife and six children, by a party of 
 French and Indians in 1704. He was afterwards re- 
 deemed, and published an account of his adventures, 
 entitled "The Redeemed Captive." Died in 1729. 
 
 Williams, (Rev. John,) a Welsh dissenter, born at 
 Lampeter about 1726. He published, besides other 
 works, a " Concordance to the Greek Testament." Died 
 in 1798. 
 
 Williams, (Rev. John,) a Welsh scholar and archae- 
 ologist, born in Denbighshire in 1 Si 1. He wrote on 
 Welsh antiquities, etc. Died in 1862. 
 
 Williams, (Rev. John,) a celebrated English mis- 
 sionary and dissenter, sometimes called "the Apostle of 
 Polynesia," was born at Tottenham in 1796. Being sent 
 in 1816 by the London Missionary Society to the Society 
 Islands, he devoted himself to the acquisition of the 
 Tahitian language, and to the instruction of the natives 
 in the arts of civilized life, as well as in the duties of 
 religion. In 1823 he visited the Hervey Islands, and 
 discovered Rarotonga, an island of that group, in which 
 he established a mission. To convey himself from 
 Rarotonga to Raiatea and Tahiti, he built a vessel about 
 1828, although he was destitute of proper tools. He 
 returned to England in 1834, and published a " Narra- 
 tive of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands," 
 (1837.) In 1838 he sailed on another voyage to the 
 South Sea, with many other missionaries. He was killed 
 by the natives of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides, 
 in November, 1839. 
 
 See Pkout, " Memoirs of John Williams," 1S43 ; J! Campbhli, 
 "The Martyr of Erromanga," 1842. 
 
 Williams, (Moniek,) an Oriental scholar, born at 
 Bombay, of English parentage, in 1819. He studied 
 in England, and, having taken his degree at University 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 
WILLIAMS 
 
 2277 
 
 WILLIS 
 
 College, Oxford, became in 1844 professor of Sanscrit 
 at Haileybury College, and in i860 Boden Sanscrit pro- 
 fessor at Oxford, as successor to H. H. Wilson. He 
 published, among other works, a " Practical Grammar 
 of the Sanscrit Language," etc., (1846,) an " English- 
 and Sanscrit Dictionary," (1851,) an English translation 
 of " Sakoontala," (1855,) and "Indian Epic Poetry," 
 (1862.) 
 
 See Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Williams, (Otho Holland,) an American general, 
 born in Prince George's county, Maryland, in 1748, was 
 adjutant-general to General Gates in 1780, and distin- 
 guished himself at the- battle of Camden. Died in 1794. 
 
 See the "National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. ii. 
 
 Williams, (Roger,) an English officer and writer, 
 born in Monmouthshire. He served with distinction in 
 Flanders, and wrote works entitled " Actions of the 
 Low Countries," and "Advice from France." Died 
 in 1595. 
 
 S-'e Motley, "United Netherlands," vol. i. 
 
 Williams, (Roger,) a Puritan reformer, the founder 
 of Rhode Island, was born in Wales in 1606. He was 
 educated at Oxford, became master of several ancient 
 languages, and was ordained a minister of the Church 
 of England. In 1631 he emigrated to Massachusetts in 
 search of religious liberty, and preached for a short time 
 at Salem ; but he was banished from the colony in 1635 
 on account of his doctrines. He was censured by the 
 court because he taught that magistrates should not 
 punish the breach of the Sabbath or dictate oil the sub- 
 ject of worship. He founded the city of Providence, 
 (1636,) and there opened an asylum in which men of all 
 creeds might enjoy full religious liberty. It is stated 
 that he became a Baptist in 1639, but that he soon 
 began to doubt the validity of baptism, and that he 
 continued to "neglect the ordinances of the gospel." 
 He made a voyage to England in 1643, obtained a 
 charter for the new colony, and returned in 1644. After 
 a second voyage to England, he was elected President 
 of Rhode Island in 1654. He lived in peace and amity 
 with the Indians, over whom he acquired much in- 
 fluence. In 1657 he ceased to be president of the 
 colony. He published, besides other works, a treatise 
 against persecution, (1644,) "The Hireling Ministry 
 none of Christ's," and "Experiments of Spiritual Life 
 and Health and their Preservatives," (1652.) Died at 
 Providence in 1683. 
 
 See Jambs D. Knowlhs. "Life of Roger Williams," 1833 ; Wil- 
 liam Gammeli., "Life of Roger Williams," 1846; Romeo Elton, 
 " Life of Roger Williams," London. 1.852. 
 
 Williams, (ROWLAND,) a Welsh clergyman, born in 
 Flintshire about 181 7. He published, besides other 
 works, " Christianity and Hinduism," and a " Review 
 of Bunsen." Died in 1870. 
 
 ■Williams, (Samuel,) LL.D., a New England divine, 
 bom at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1743, was professor 
 of mathematics at Harvard College, and the author of a 
 " Natural and Civil History of Vermont," (1794.) Died 
 in 1817. 
 
 Williams, (SAMUEL,) an English designer and wood- 
 engraver, born at Colchester in 1788. Among his best 
 works are his illustrations of Thomson's "Seasons" and 
 of Scrope's "Days of Salmon-Fishing." Died in 1853. 
 
 Williams, (Samuel Wilis.) LL.D., an American 
 philologist, born at Utica, New York, in 1812. Having 
 visited China in 1833, he applied himself to the study 
 of the Chinese language, and in 1841 published "Easy 
 Lessons in Chinese," followed by an " English-and- 
 Chinese Vocabulary," (1843.) In 1848 he became editor 
 of the "Chinese Repository," at Canton, and in 1856 
 brought out his "Tonic Dictionary of the Chinese Lan- 
 guage." 
 
 See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Williams, (Setii,) an American general, born at 
 Augusta, Maine, about 1822. He graduated at West 
 Point in 1842. He served as adjutant-general of the 
 army of the Potomac in 1862, and as acting inspector- 
 general of the same in 1864 and 1S65. He took part in 
 the battle of Gettysburg, July, 1863, and in many actions 
 in Virginia. Died in March, 1866. 
 
 ■Williams, (Thomas,) an American lawyer, born at 
 Greensburg, Pennsylvania, in 1806. He settled in Pitts- 
 burg, and was elected a member of Congress in 1862, 
 He also represented the twenty-third district of Penn- 
 sylvania in Congress for two subsequent terms, and was 
 one of the managers to conduct the impeachment of 
 President Johnson, March, 1868. 
 
 Williams, (Thomas,) an able American general, 
 born in the State of New York in 181 8, graduated at 
 West Point in 1837. He attacked Vicksburg in June, 
 1862, and commanded a small force which was attacked 
 by General Breckinridge at Baton Rouge, August 5 of 
 that year. He was killed in this action, but his army 
 gained the victory. 
 
 See Tenney, " Military History of the Rebellion," p. 732. 
 
 Williams, (Thomas Scott,) an American jurist, 
 born at Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1777, was noted 
 for his beneficence. He was a member of Congress 
 from 1817 to 1819, and was chief justice of Connecticut 
 from 1834 to 1847. He resided at Hartford, where he 
 died in December, 1861. 
 
 Williams, (William,) an American patriot and 
 signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born in 
 Windham county, Connecticut, in 1 731. He was elected 
 to the Continental Congress in 1775. Died in 181 1. 
 
 See Sanderson, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration of 
 Independence," 184S. 
 
 Williams of Kars, (Sir William Fenwick,) 
 K.C.B., a distinguished general, born at Halifax, Nova 
 Scotia, in 1800. He was educated at the Woolwich 
 Military Academy, in England, and afterwards served 
 in Ceylon and Turkey, attaining the rank of lieuten- 
 ant-colonel in 1847. He was appointed in 1854 British 
 commissioner with the Turkish army in the East, and 
 soon after was created a brigadier-general, having his 
 head-quarters at Kars. In September, 1855, he severely 
 repulsed the Russian general Mooravief, (MouraviefT,) 
 who had besieged that city, but, owing to the suffering 
 of his troops by famine, was obliged to capitulate in 
 November of that year. After his return to England 
 he was elected to Parliament for Calne, was made a 
 baronet, and obtained other distinctions. In i860 he 
 became commander-in-chief of the forces in British 
 America. 
 
 Williams, (William R.,) D.D., an American Baptist 
 divine, born in New York in 1804. He published "Mis- 
 cellaneous Addresses," (1850,) "Lectures on the Lord's 
 Prayer," (1S51,) and other religious works. 
 
 Wil'liam-son, (Hugh,) M.D., LLD., an American 
 physician, born at West Nottingham, Pennsylvania, in 
 1735, studied at Edinburgh and in Holland, and was 
 appointed after his return a surgeon in the Revolutionary 
 army. He was several times elected to Congress from 
 Edenton, North Carolina. He published "Observations 
 on the Climate of America," (1811,) and other works. 
 Died in 1819. 
 
 Wil'liam-son, (Sir Joseph,) an English statesman, 
 who held several important offices under the govern- 
 ment, and in 1674 succeeded Lord Arlington as secretary 
 of state. He died in 1701, leaving ^6000 and a large 
 collection of manuscripts to Queen's College, Oxford, 
 where he had been educated ; also a bequest for founding 
 a mathematical school at Rochester. He had been chosen 
 in 1678 president of the Royal Society. 
 
 Willibrod. See Wili.eiikod. 
 
 Willis, (Browne,) LL.D., an English archaeologist, 
 born in Dorsetshire in 1682, was a grandson of Dr. 
 Thomas Willis, noticed below. He was a Fellow of the 
 Society of Antiquaries, and the author of a "Survey of 
 the Cathedrals of England," (3 vols. 4to, with plates, 
 1731.) and other works. Died in 1760. 
 
 Willis, (Francis,) an eminent English physician, 
 born in Lincolnshire about 1720. He studied at Brazen- 
 nose College, Oxford, and in 1740 entered holy orders ; 
 but he subsequently devoted himself to the study of 
 medicine, — particularly mental diseases. He attended 
 King George III. during his attack of insanity, and 
 his successful treatment of his case procured for him a 
 high reputation. He founded an establishment for the 
 insane at Greatford, in Lincolnshire, where his labours 
 were attended with extraordinary success. His personal 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; gas;; G, H, K., guttural ; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (Uy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WILLIS 
 
 2278 
 
 WILSON 
 
 influence over his patients is said to have been wonder- 
 ful. Died in 1807. 
 
 Wil'lis, (Nathaniel Parker,) a distinguished 
 American poet and miscellaneous writer, born at Port- 
 land, Maine, in 1807. He graduated at Yale College in 
 1827, and was soon after employed by S. C. Goodrich, 
 since widely known as Peter Parley, to edit "The Le- 
 gendary" and "The Token." He founded in 1828 the 
 "American Monthly Magazine," subsequently merged 
 in the "New York Mirror." About 1831 he visited 
 various parts of Europe, as one of the attaches of Mr. 
 Rives, American minister at Paris. He published in 
 England " Pencillings by the Way," (1835,) and "Ink- 
 lings of Adventure," (1836,) both republished in Amer- 
 ica. These works were followed by " Loiterings of 
 Travel," (1839,) "Letters from under a Bridge," (1840,) 
 " Dashes at Life with a Free Pencil," (1845,) "People I 
 have met," (1850,) "A Health Trip to the Tropics," 
 (1853,) "Famous Persons and Places," (1854,) and "Out- 
 Doors at Idlewild," (1854.) Mr. Willis became in 1846 
 associated with G. P. Morris as editor of the "Home 
 Journal," a literary periodical, published in New York. 
 Died in January, 1867. 
 
 See Allibone, " Dictionary of Authors ;" Duyckinck, " Cyclo- 
 paedia of American Literature," vol. ii. ; Gbiswold, " Poets and 
 Poetry of America;" "Edinburgh Review" for January, 1836; 
 " Fraser's Magazine" for February, 1836; "North American Re- 
 view" for October, 1836, and July, 1840, (by C. C. Felton.) 
 
 Willis, (Robert,) F.R.S., an English experimental 
 philosopher and mechanician, born in London in 1800, 
 was educated at Caius College, Cambridge, where he 
 took the degree of B.A. in 1826. He became Jack- 
 sonian professor of natural and experimental philosophy 
 at Cambridge in 1837, and lectured on dynamics, statics, 
 applied mechanics, etc. He applied himself to acoustics, 
 the philosophy of mechanism, the history and philosophy 
 of architecture, etc. Among his numerous works are 
 " Remarks on the Architecture of the Middle Ages and 
 of Italy," (1835,) and "The Principles of Mechanism," 
 (1841.) 
 
 Willis, ( Thomas,) F.R.S.,an eminent English anato- 
 mist and physician, born at Great Bedwin, in Wiltshire, 
 in 1 62 1, was educated at Oxford. He began to prac- 
 tise medicine at Oxford about 1646, and was appointed 
 professor of natural philosophy there in 1660. He pub- 
 lished in 1664 an able work on the "Anatomy of the 
 Brain," (" Cerebri Anatome,") in which he suggested or 
 affirmed that the several portions of the brain are organs 
 of different faculties. In 1666 he removed to London, 
 and became physician to the king. Died in 1675. 
 
 See Wood, "Athena? Oxonienses;" " Biographic Medicale." 
 
 Willisen, von, fon wil'le-zen, (Wilhelm,) a Prus- 
 sian general and military writer, bom near Magdeburg 
 in 1790, served against the French in the campaigns of 
 1814 and 1815. He became a general in 1S35, and 
 commanded the army of Sleswick-Holstein against 
 Denmark in 1849. 
 
 Wil'lis-ton, (Samuel,) a wealthy American manu- 
 facturer, born at Easthampton, Massachusetts, in 1793. 
 He founded in his native town the Williston Seminary, 
 endowed two professorships at Amherst College, and 
 gave large sums for other educational and charitable 
 purposes. 
 
 Willmar, wil'mar or vel'miR', (Jean PiekreChris- 
 tine,) Baron, a Belgian general, born at Luxemburg 
 in 1790, was minister of war from 1836 to 1840, and 
 was sent as ambassador to the Hague in 1845. Died 
 in 1858. 
 
 Will'more, (James Tushi'I'S,) an English engraver, 
 born in London in 1800. He acquired a high reputation 
 for his admirable landscapes, particularly his prints, 
 after Turner. Among these we may name "The Golden 
 Bough," " Ancient Italy," and "Bellini's Picture con- 
 veyed to the Church of the Redentore." His " Harvest 
 in the Highlands," after Landseer, and " Wind against 
 Tide," after Stanfield, are also esteemed master-pieces. 
 He became, in 1843, associate engraver in the Royal 
 Academy. Died in 1863. 
 
 WilFmott, (Rev. Robert Aris,) of Bearwood, an 
 English writer and man of science, published, besides 
 other works, a "Life of Jeremy Taylor." Died in 1863. 
 
 Wil'lock, WilTox, or Wil'locks, (John,) a Scot- 
 tish Protestant reformer, was a native of Ayrshire. He 
 was in England in 1541. Died after 1568. 
 
 Willot, ve'yo', (Amed£e,) a French general, born at 
 Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1757. He became a general 
 of brigade in 1793, and gained some successes in the 
 north of Spain in 1795. Having joined the royalist 
 party, he was transported to Guiana in September, 1797, 
 as an accomplice of Pichegru in the Clichian conspiracy. 
 He returned to France about 1814. Died in 1823. 
 
 Willoughby, wil'lo-be, (Francis,) an English natu- 
 ralist, born in 1635. , He studied at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, where he acquired the friendship of John 
 Ray, in company with whom he afterwards made a sci- 
 entific tour on the continent. He died in 1672, leaving 
 his valuable works, entitled " Ornithologist Libi i tres" 
 and "Historian Piscium Libri quatuor," to be published 
 by Ray, who also translated the former into English. 
 His merits as a naturalist are highly commended by 
 Cuvier. 
 
 See J. F. Denham, " Memoir of F. Willoughby," 1846. 
 Willoughby, (Sir Hugh,) an English navigator, was 
 commander of an expedition fitted out by the merchants 
 of London in 1553 for the purpose of making dis- 
 coveries in the Arctic seas. He is supposed to have 
 perished, with nearly all his company, in 1554. 
 
 Wills, (William Henry,) an English litterateur, 
 born at Plymouth in 1810, became successively asso- 
 ciate editor of "Chambers's Journal," "Punch," the 
 " Daily News," " Household Words," and " All the 
 Year Round." 
 
 Will'sh t re, (Sir Thomas,) an English general, born 
 at Halifax, North America, about 1790. He served in 
 the Afghan war. Died in 1862. 
 
 Wil'mot, (David,) an American legislator, distin- 
 guished as an opponent of slavery, was born at Bethany, 
 Wayne county, Pennsylvania, in January, 1814. He 
 was admitted to the bar in 1834, and practised law at 
 Towanda. He began his political life as a Democrat, 
 and was elected a member of Congress in 1844. While 
 a bill was pending to appropriate $2,000,000 for the 
 purchase of a part of Mexico, in August, 1846, he moved 
 to add an amendment, " That, as an express and fun- 
 damental condition to the acquisition of any territory 
 from the republic of Mexico by the United States, . . . 
 neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever 
 exist in any part of said territory." This amendment, 
 known as the " Wilmot Proviso," produced a great ex- 
 citement, both in Congress and in the country at large. 
 It was adopted by the House of Representatives, but 
 failed in the Senate. Mr. Wilmot was re-elected in 1846 
 and 184S, and in the latter year supported Martin Van 
 Buren for the Presidency. In 1851 he was elected 
 president judge of the thirteenth judicial district of 
 Pennsylvania, Having joined the Republican party, 
 he advocated the election of John C. Fremont to the 
 Presidency, in 1856. He was temporary chairman of the 
 National Convention which nominated Mr. Lincoln in 
 i860, and was elected to the Senate of the United States 
 in March, 1861, to fill a vacancy for two years. Died at 
 Towanda in March, 1868. 
 Wilmot, (John.) See Rochester, Earl of. 
 Wil'mot, (John Eardley,) an English jurist, born 
 at Derby in 1709, rose to be chief justice of the common 
 pleas in 1776, and published a work entitled "Notes of 
 Opinions." Died in 1 792. 
 
 Wilmot, (John Eardley,) a lawyer, born at Derby 
 in 1748, was a son of the preceding. He wrote a 
 "Treatise on the Laws and Customs of England," and 
 "Memoirs of his Father." Died in 1815. 
 
 Wilmseii, wil'm'zen, (Fkiedrich Philii'p,) a Ger- 
 man writer, bom at Magdeburg in 1770. He published 
 the " Deutscher Kinderfreund," " Manual of Natural 
 History," and other educational works. Died in 1831. 
 
 Wil'son, (Alexander,) a distinguished ornithologist, 
 born at Paisley, Scotland, in 1766. He emigrated in 
 1794 to America, where he employed himself for a time 
 at his trade of weaving, and subsequently taught a school 
 at Kingsessing, Pennsylvania. Having acquired some 
 knowledge of birds from William Bartram the naturalist, 
 he resolved to make a collection of American birds, and 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ti, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
WILSON 
 
 2279 
 
 WILSON 
 
 in 1804 set out on a pedestrian tour through Western 
 New York, then a wilderness. He gave a lively and 
 graphic account of this excursion, in a poem entitled 
 "The Foresters." He brought out in 1808 the first 
 volume of his "Ornithology," and in 1813 had completed 
 seven volumes. For this admirable work he had himself 
 drawn with great care and exactness the pictures of the 
 birds from original specimens; and his publication may 
 be said to mark an era in ornithological science. It 
 was, in fact, the pioneer of the magnificent works of 
 Charles Bonaparte and Audubon, which have left nothing 
 to be desired in this department of ornithology. Wilson 
 died in 1813, worn out with his excessive labour in pre- 
 paring his work for publication. Two more volumes 
 weie edited after his death, and a continuation by C. L. 
 Bonaparte came out in 1833, (4 vols. 4to.) 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for June and August, 1826 : " North 
 American Review" for January, 1827; Duvckinck, "Cyclopaedia 
 of American Literature," vol. i. ; Allibunk, " Dictionary ot Au- 
 thors." 
 
 Wil'son, (Sir Archdale,) an English general, born 
 in 1803. He was chief in command at the siege of 
 Delhi, which he took from the mutineers in September, 
 1857. For this service he was made a baronet. 
 
 Wilson, (Arthur,) an English writer, was secre- 
 tary to Robert, Earl of Essex. He was the author of 
 the " Life and Reign of James I." Died in 1642. 
 
 Wilson, (Daniel,) an English theologian, born in 
 London in 1778. He studied at Saint Edmund's Hall, 
 Oxford, and rose through various preferments to be 
 Bishop of Calcutta and metropolitan of India in 1832. 
 He published "Sermons on Christian Doctrine," (1818,) 
 " Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity," (2 vols., 
 1828-30,) "The Christian's Struggle against Sin and 
 Death," and other works. Died in Calcutta in 1858. 
 
 See the " Life of Daniel Wilson," by the Kev. Josiah Bate- 
 man, i860. 
 
 Wil'son, (Daniel,) a Scottish writer and antiquary, 
 born in Edinburgh in 1816. He published, besides other 
 works, "The Archaeology and Prehistoric Annals of 
 Scotland," (1851,) and "Prehistoric Man: Researches 
 into the Origin of Civilization in the Old and the New 
 World," (2 vols., 1863.) He became professor of history 
 at Toronto, in Canada, about 1853. 
 
 Wilson, (Erasmus,) an English surgeon, born about 
 1808. He practised in London, and published a " Sys- 
 tem of Human Anatomy," (1842.) which has passed 
 through many editions, and other professional works. 
 
 Wilson, (Florence,) [Lat. Fi.oken'tius Voi.use'- 
 nus,] a Scottish philosopher and scholar, born in the 
 county of Moray, studied in Paris, and afterwards be- 
 came teacher of a grammar-school at Carpentras. His 
 principal work is entitled " Dialogue on Tranquillity of 
 Mind," (" De Antral Tranquillitate Dialogus.") Died 
 in 1547. 
 
 See Chambers. " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Wilson, (George,) a Scottish chemist and physician, 
 a brother of Daniel, noticed above, was born at F.din- 
 burgh in 1818. He was successively appointed chemical 
 lecturer in the School of Arts, director of the Industrial 
 Museum of Scotland, and regius professor of technology 
 in the university of his native city, (1855.) He pub- 
 lished, among other works, an " Elementary Treatise 
 on Chemistry," (1850,) "Researches on Colour-blind- 
 ness," (1855,) and "The Five Gateways of Knowledge," 
 (1856.) Died in 1859. 
 
 See " Memoir? of George Wilson," by his sisler, Jussik A. Wil- 
 son, i860; " North British Review" for February, i860. 
 
 Wilson, (Henry,) an F.nglish manner, was captain 
 of a vessel which was wrecked on one of the IVIew 
 Islands in 1 783. He was kindly treated by the chief 
 of the island, Abba Thulle, whose son Le Boo went to 
 England with Wilson. Died in 1810. 
 
 Wilson, (Henry,) a distinguished American Senator, 
 bom at Farmington, New Hampshire, February 16, 
 1812, was a son of poor parents. His education was 
 very defective. After he had worked on a tai in many 
 years, he removed to Natick, Massachusetts, about iS;2, 
 and learned the trade of shoemaker. In 1840 he was 
 elected to the House of Representatives ol Massachu- 
 setts by the Whigs. He afterwards served four years in 
 
 setts by the Whigs. He afterwards served tour years in 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, 
 
 the Massachusetts Senate, of which he was twice elected 
 president, and distinguished himself as a zealous and 
 resolute opponent of slavery. He took a prominent 
 part in the organization of the Free-Soil party in 1848, 
 and in that year began to edit the " Boston Republican." 
 He was president of the F'ree-Soil National Convention 
 at Pittsburg in 1852, was a member of the Constitutional 
 Convention of 1853, and was the unsuccessful candidate 
 for Governor of Massachusetts in 1853 and 1854. In 
 1855 he was elected a Senator of the United States to 
 succeed Edward Everett. He advocated the repeal of 
 the Fugitive Slave Law, and the abolition of slavery in 
 the District of Columbia, and became in 1855 one of 
 the leaders of the Republican party, then just organized. 
 In May, 1856, he was challenged by Preston S. Brooks 
 because he denounced his assault on Mr. Sumner as 
 "murderous, brutal, and cowardly." He declined to 
 accept the challenge, on the ground that duelling was 
 forbidden by the laws of his country ; at the same time 
 he notified his challenger that, if attacked, his conscien- 
 tious scruples would not prevent him from defending 
 himself. He was re-elected to the Senate of the United 
 States about January, 1859, and in March of that year 
 made a speech in defence of free labour, which attracted 
 much attention. He rendered great service to the 
 country during the civil war, as chairman of the com- 
 mittee on military affairs. General Scott declared that 
 he performed in one session more work than all the 
 chairmen of the military committees had done in twenty 
 years. In 1861 he raised a regiment, and received a 
 commission as colonel ; but his duties in the Senate 
 prevented him from remaining long in the field. He was 
 the author of the bill by which slavery was abolished in 
 the District of Columbia, April, 1862. During the civil 
 war he introduced many important measures to organize 
 and develop the military resources of the nation, and 
 delivered about one hundred speeches at various places 
 in support of the cause of liberty and union. "No 
 public man," says Headley, "ever brought to the high 
 duties of a great occasion more sympathy for the toiling 
 and the oppressed, or more faith in the people and the 
 democratic institutions of his country." He was again 
 elected to the Senate for six years, 1865-71. 
 
 See P. C. Headley, " Massachusetts in the Rebellion," pp. 
 45-5*. 
 
 Wilson, (Horace Hayman,) an eminent English 
 Orientalist, born in London in 1786. He studied medi- 
 cine, and went to Bengal as a surgeon in the service of 
 the East India Company about 1808. Having learned 
 Sanscrit, he published in 1819 a valuable " Sanscrit Dic- 
 tionary." He translated several ancient Sanscrit dramas 
 into English, (3 vols., 1826-27,) and acquired a high 
 reputation as an Orientalist. In 1833 he became pro- 
 fessor of Sanscrit at Oxford. Among his works are a 
 "History of Cashmere," printed in the "Asiatic Re- 
 searches," (1825,) "Ancient Ariana," (" Ariana Antiqua," 
 1841,) a " History of British India from 1805 to 1835," 
 (2 vols., 1846,) and a translation of the " Rigveda," (vol. 
 i., 1850.) Died in May, i860. 
 
 Sec Ai.i.moNK, "Dictionary of Authors ;" "Foreign Quarterly 
 Review" liir April, 1S45. 
 
 Wilson, (James,) one of the signers of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, was born near Saint Andrew's, 
 Scotland, in 1742. He emigrated to the United States, 
 and was elected in 1775 to the Continental Congress, 
 He was afterwards appointed by Washington one ot the 
 first judges of the United States supreme court. Died 
 in 1798. 
 
 See Sanderson, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration 
 of Independence," 1848. 
 
 Wilson, (James,) a Scottish naturalist and scientific 
 writer of great merit, born at Paisley in 1795, was a 
 brother of Professor John Wilson, noticed below. He 
 was the author of " A Voyage round the Coasts of 
 Scotland and the Isles," and contributed to the " I'.n- 
 qyclopasdla Britannic*" the articles on natural history. 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 See " Memoirs of James Wilson," by James Hamilton, 1859; 
 " Blackwood's Ma;;a/.ine" for June, 1828. 
 
 Wilson, (James,) a journalist and statesman, born in 
 Roxburghshire, Scotland, in 1805. He became in 1843 
 
 trilled; s as z; th as in this. (jy See Explanations, p. 23. 1 
 
WILSON 
 
 2280 
 
 WILSON 
 
 editor of "The Economist," an organ of free trade, was 
 chosen to represent Westbury in Parliament in 1847, 
 was re-elected in 1852, and was soon after appointed 
 financial secretar) to the treasury. He wrote a treat- 
 ise "On the Influences of the Corn-Laws as affecting 
 all Classes of the Community," etc., (1839,) and " Fluc- 
 tuations of Currency, Commerce, and Manufactures, 
 referable to the Corn-Laws," (1840.) Died in i860. 
 
 Wilson, (James F.,) an American lawyer, born at 
 Newark, Ohio, in 1828, removed to Iowa about 1853. 
 He was elected to the Senate of Iowa in 1859, and was 
 chosen a member of Congress in 1861. He represented 
 the first district of Iowa in three subsequent terms, 
 (1863-69,) and served as chairman of the committee 
 on the judiciary. He was elected one of the managers 
 to conduct the impeachment of President Johnson, in 
 March, 1868. 
 
 Wilson, (James H.,) an American general, born in 
 Illinois, graduated at West Point in i860. He com- 
 manded a corps of cavalry at the great battle of Nash- 
 ville, December 15 and 16, 1864, before which event he 
 had served under General Grant in Mississippi, and 
 under Sheridan in Virginia. In March, 1S65, he led an 
 army of about 15,000 men, mostly cavalry, on an expe- 
 dition against Alabama, which he entered from the north. 
 He defeated General Forrest, and captured Selma, 
 Montgomery, Columbus, and Macon, in April, 1865. 
 Jefferson Davis was taken prisoner by a detachment 
 of his men. He became a lieutenant-colonel of the 
 regular army in 1866. 
 
 Wilson, (John,) an English clergyman, born at 
 Windsor in 1588. He emigrated to Massachusetts in 
 1629, and was the first minister of Boston. Died in 1667. 
 
 Wilson, (John,) an English musician and composer, 
 born in Kent in 1594, was celebrated for his perform- 
 ance on the lute, and was a great favourite of Charles I. 
 He became professor of music at Oxford in 1656, and 
 after the restoration was patronized by Charles II. 
 Died in 1673. 
 
 Wilson, (Sir John,) an English' general, born in 
 1782. He served in the Peninsular war, (1808-14.) 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 Wilson, (John,) otherwise known as Christopher 
 North, a celebrated Scottish writer, critic, and poet, 
 was born at Paisley on the 19th of May, 1785. His 
 father was a manufacturer. He was educated at the 
 University of Glasgow, which he entered about the age 
 of thirteen, and at Magdalene College, Oxford, where he 
 gained distinction as a scholar and as an athlete. He 
 won the Newdigate prize for English poetry, and ex- 
 celled in the knowledge of Greek. He was remarkable 
 for physical strength, beauty, and agility. He graduated 
 as B.A. in 1807. Having inherited an easy fortune, (about 
 ^30,000,) he purchased a beautiful place, called Elleray, 
 which is situated on Lake Windermere. Here he enjoyed 
 the society of Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey. In 
 1810 or 1811 he married an English lady named Jane 
 Penny. He published in 1812 a poem entitled "The 
 Isle of Palms." About 1815 he lost part of his fortune, 
 which had been unsafely invested, and, having adopted 
 the profession of law, he removed to Edinburgh. He 
 produced in 1816 "The City of the Plague," a poem. 
 He was one of the first contributors to " Blackwood's 
 Magazine," which was founded in 1S17, and derived its 
 popularity chiefly from the brilliant articles which he 
 continued to furnish for many years under the name of 
 " Christopher North." 
 
 Commenting on "The City of the Plague," the "Edin- 
 burgh Review" for June, 1816, says, " We take our 
 leave of it with unfeigned regret and very sincere ad- 
 miration of the author's talents. He has, undoubtedly, 
 the heart and fancy of a poet, and, with these great 
 requisites, is almost sure of attaining the higher honours 
 of his art, if he continues to cultivate it with the docility 
 and diligence of which he has already given proof." 
 
 In 1820, Wilson and Sir William Hamilton were 
 competitors for the chair of moral philosophy in the 
 University of Edinburgh, which the former obtained. 
 His success is attributed partly to his political principles, 
 which were Tory. His lectures are said to have been 
 attractive as well as suggestive. He published a series 
 
 of tales in prose, entitled " Lights and Shadows of 
 Scottish Life," (1822,) and "The Foresters," which 
 were highly popular. Among his most celebrated pro- 
 ductions are the " Noctes AmbrosianK," contributed to 
 " Blackwood's Magazine" between 1S22 and 1835, and 
 consisting of familiar dialogues on men, books, and the 
 principal topics of the day. "They contain," says R. 
 Caruthers, "passages of 'admirable fooling,' shrewd 
 observation, description, and criticism. . . . There was 
 originality with fervour and boldness in all he wrote. It 
 was mixed with baser matter, in the shape of invitations 
 to coarse jollity, and fierce political and personal satire; 
 but the frank, genial, literary spirit predominated." 
 (" Encyclopaedia Britannica.") In 1842 he published a 
 selection of his contributions to " Blackwood's Maga- 
 zine," under the title of " Recreations of Christopher 
 North." He continued to occupy the chair of moral 
 philosophy for thirty years or more. He died in Edin- 
 burgh in April, 1854. 
 
 See a "Life of John Wilson," by Mrs. Gordon, his daughter, 
 1862; Lord Jeffrey, critique in the "Edinburgh Review" for 
 February, 1812, vol. xix. ; " Edinburgh Review" for February, 1843, 
 vol. Ixxvii. : Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scots- 
 men," (Supplement;) "London Quarterly Review" for January, 
 1863; "Blackwood's Magazine" for May, 1854, and December, 
 1862; " Fraser's Magazine" for October, 1855; "British Quarterly 
 Review" for April, 1863; "North British Review" for February, 
 ■ 863. 
 
 Wilson, (Richard,) an eminent English landscape- 
 painter, born in Montgomeryshire in 1713. He devoted 
 himself at first to portrait-painting ; but, having visited 
 Rome, where he made the acquaintance of Joseph 
 Vernet and other celebrated artists, he was induced to 
 relinquish that branch of the art for landscape-painting. 
 Having spent six years in Italy, where he executed 
 several admirable works, he returned in 1755 to London. 
 He exhibited in 1760 a celebrated picture of the "De- 
 struction of Niobe's Children." He was one of the 
 original members of the Royal Academy. Among his, 
 works are "The Villa of Maecenas at Tivoli," a "View 
 of Baise," " The Temple of Bacchus near Rome," " Car- 
 narvon Castle," and "Pembroke Castle." Died in 1782. 
 
 See Thomas Wright, "Account of the Life of R. Wilson," 
 1824 ; Charles Blanc, " Histoire des Peiutres." 
 
 Wilson, (Sir Robert Thomas,) an English general 
 and military writer, born in 1777. He served in Flanders 
 and Holland, and subsequently under Sir Arthur Wei- 
 lesley in Spain. In 1816 he aided Lavallette to escape 
 from Paris. He was elected to Parliament for South- 
 wark in 1818. In 1841 he was made a general, and in 
 1842 governor and commander-in-chief of Gibraltar. 
 He published an " Historical Account of the British 
 Expedition to Egypt," (1802,) a "Narrative of Events 
 which occurred in 1812 during the Invasion of Russia," 
 (i860,) and other works. Died in 1849. 
 
 Wilson, (Sir Thomas,) an English statesman and 
 writer, left his country on the accession of Queen Mary, 
 was arrested at Rome, and imprisoned for a time in 
 the Inquisition. After his return to England he became 
 private secretary to Queen Elizabeth, and was sent on a 
 mission to the Netherlands in 1576. He was appointed 
 in 1577 one of the secretaries of state. He wrote two 
 critical works of great merit, entitled "The Rule of 
 Reason, containing the Art of Logic," ( 1 551,) and "The 
 Art of Rhetoric," (1553.) Died in 1581. 
 
 Wilson, (Thomas,) an English Puritan minister, 
 born in Kent. He preached at Canterbury, and wrote, 
 besides other works, a " Complete Christian Dictionary." 
 Died in 1621. 
 
 Wilson, (Thomas,) a pious English theologian, born 
 at Burton, in Cheshire, in 1663. He became Bishop of 
 Sodor and Man in 1697, and many years later declined 
 the more lucrative place of Bishop of Exeter, which the 
 king offered him. He published" Religious Tracts" and 
 Sermons. Died in 1755. 
 
 See Crutwell, " Life of Thomas Wilson," 17S0; Hugh Stow- 
 ell, " Life of Bishop Wilson," 1819. 
 
 Wilson, (Thomas,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 in 1703. He wrote a work entitled "The Ornaments 
 of Churches Considered." Died in 1784. 
 
 Wilson, (William Dexter,) D.D., an American 
 Episcopalian divine, born at Stoddard, New Hampshire, 
 
 a, e, i, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,i, 5, ii, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
WILSON 
 
 2281 
 
 WINDHAM 
 
 in 18". He became in 1850 professor of history and 
 of r-oral and intellectual philosophy at Geneva Col- 
 leg-. New York. He has published a '• History of the 
 Information in England," and other works. 
 
 Wilson, (William Rae,) a British traveller, bom at 
 Paisley about 1773. He published, besides other works, 
 "Travels in the Holy Land," and " Travels in Russia." 
 Died in 1S49. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen, " 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Wil'ton, (Joseph,) an English sculptor, and one of 
 the founders of the Royal Academy, was born in London 
 in 1722. He studied in Paris and at Rome, where he 
 resided many years. Among his l)est works are the 
 monument to General Wolfe, in Westminster Abbey, 
 and busts of Newton, Bacon, Chatham, and Swift. Died 
 in 1 So j. 
 
 See Allan Cunningham, " Lives of the Most Eminent British 
 Painters, Sculptors, and Architects." 
 
 Wimpfeling, wlmp'feh-ling', or Wimpheling, [Lat. 
 Wimphki.in'gius,] (Jakob,) an eminent German scholar 
 and writer, born in Alsace in 1450. He became a priest, 
 preached for some time at Spire, and afterwards lived 
 at Strasburg, Bale, and other towns. It appears that he 
 never remained long at one place. He wrote many and 
 various works, among which are " Youth," (" Adoles- 
 centia," 1492,) and one "On Integrity," ("De Integri- 
 tate," 1505.) Died in 1528. 
 
 See Niceron, " Memoires ;" Schwalb, "Notice sur Wimphe- 
 ling," 1851. 
 
 Wimpffeii, von, fon wlmp'fen, (Franz Emil Lo- 
 renz Hermann,) a German military commander, born 
 at Prague in 1797, served against the French in #he 
 campaigns of 1813-14, and in the revolution of 1848. 
 He was made feldzeugmeister (master of ordnance) in 
 1849, and was appointed governor of Trieste. 
 
 Wimpffen-Berneburg, wlmp'fen beVneh-booRG', 
 (Felix,) Baron, a distinguished general, born at Zwei- 
 briicken, (Deux-1'onts,) in Germany, in 1745. Having 
 entered the French service, he fought in 1769 against 
 Paoli in Corsica, and in 1789 was a deputy from Nor- 
 mandy to the States-General. He defended Thionville 
 against the Prussians in 1792 ; but he was afterwards 
 defeated by the royalists near Vernon, and was forced 
 to take refuge in England. He was made a general of 
 division by Napoleon in 1799. Died in 1814. 
 
 Wimpffen-Berneburg, (Franz Ludwig,) Baron, 
 born at Zweibriicken (Deux-Ponts) in 1732, served with 
 distinction in the French army during the Seven Years' 
 war, and rose to be a general of division. He published 
 "Memoirs of his Life," (1788.) Died in 1800. 
 
 Wimpina, wim'pe-na, (Conrad,) was bom in Fran- 
 coni.i, in Germany, in 1460. He became professor of 
 theology at Frankfort-on-the-Oder about 1506. In 1530 
 he was one of three Catholic theologians appointed to 
 dispute with the Lutherans at Augsburg. Hied in 1531. 
 
 Winch'ell, (JAMES Manning,) an American Baptist 
 divine, born in Dutchess county, New York, in 1791, 
 became in 1814 pastor of the First Baptist Church in 
 Boston. He published a compilation of psalms and 
 hymns, and several original works. Died in 1820. 
 
 Wiu'ches-ter, (Ei.HANAN,)an American divine, born 
 at Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1 751, was originally a 
 Baptist, but was afterwards converted to the doctrines 
 of the Restorationists. He published "Four Dialogues 
 on Universal Restoration," and numerous other theo- 
 logical works. Died in 1797. 
 
 See Vint.KR, "Life of E. Winchester;" E. M. Stone, " Life of 
 E. Winchester," 1836. 
 
 Wiu'ches-ter, (Thomas,) an English writer on 
 theology, born in Berkshire. He became rector of Ap- 
 pleton in 1761. Died in 1780. 
 
 Winckell, wlnk'kel, (Georg Franz Dietrich,) a 
 German writer, born in 1762, published a "Manual for 
 Sportsmen and Amateurs," (1820.) Died in 1839. 
 
 Winckelmann, wink'el-man, |Ger. pron. wink'kel- 
 man',] (Johann Joachim,) an eminent German critic 
 and writer on art, was born at Stendal, in Prussia, in 
 1717. His father was a poor mechanic, unable to afford 
 him any opportunities of instruction ; but his eager de- 
 sire for knowledge procured for him the friendship and 
 
 patronage of several gentlemen of rank and fortune, 
 and in 1738 he entered the University of Halle. He 
 became in 1748 private librarian to Count Biinau, near 
 Dresden. Here he made the acquaintance of Archinto, 
 the pope's nuncio, who offered him a situation at Rome 
 on condition of his becoming a Catholic. He accepted 
 this offer, after some hesitation, and in 1755 set out for 
 Rome, having previously published his " Reflections 
 upon the Imitation of the Antique." He soon acquired 
 the friendship of the principal artists and literati of 
 Rome, particularly of Raphael Mengs, whose counsels 
 exercised great influence over him. He was appointed 
 m 1759, by Cardinal Albani, librarian and keeper of his 
 gallery of antiquities, and became in 1763 antiquary of 
 the apostolic chamber. His great work entitled " His- 
 tory of Ancient Art" ("Geschichte der Kunst des Alter- 
 thums") came out in 1764, and was soon followed by his 
 " Account of the Latest Discoveries at Herculaneum." 
 In June, 1 768, while returning from a visit to Vienna, 
 — where he had been received with great distinction,— 
 he was assassinated at Trieste by Arcangeli, an Italian, 
 who had gained his confidence, and whose cupidity was 
 excited by some gold coins which Winckelmann had 
 shown him. 
 
 See C. G. Hevnh, " Lobschrift auf Winckelmann," 1778; 
 Gobthb. ''Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert," 1805; Morgen- 
 stkrn, "'J. Winckelmann; Rede," 1805; D. DE Rossetti, "J. J. 
 Winckelmann's letzte Lebensepoche," 1818; Otto Jahn, "J. J. 
 Winckelmann; eine Rede," 1844; C Petersen, " Erinnerung an 
 J.J. Winckelmann's Einfluss," etc., 1S42; Madame de Stabl, 
 "Germany;" "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Winckelmann, (Johann Justus,) a German his- 
 torian, born at Giessen in 1620. He published several 
 works in Latin. Died in 1697. 
 
 Winckler, wlnk'ler, (Johann Heinri."H,) a German 
 philosopher, born in Upper Lusatia in 1703, became 
 professor of physics at Leipsic. He published "Thoughts 
 on the Properties and Effects of Electricity," and other 
 similar works. Franklin is supposed to ljave been bene- 
 fited by his suggestions. Died in 1770. 
 
 Win'der, (William H.,) an American lawyer and 
 officer, born in Somerset county, Maryland, in 1775, 
 served in the war of 1812, and was appointed inspector- 
 general in 1814. Died in 1824. 
 
 Windham, wlnd'am, (Charles Ash,) an English 
 general, born in the county of Norfolk in 1810, served 
 with distinction in the Crimean war, and in 1855 suc- 
 ceeded General Barnard as chief of the staff of the 
 Eastern army. He was made commander of* the Bath 
 the same year. In 1857 he fought against the mutineers 
 in India. He is said to have been a nephew of the 
 celebrated William Windham. Died in 1870. 
 
 Windham, (Joseph,) an English antiquary, born at 
 Twickenham in 1739. He was the author of " Observa- 
 tions on a Passage in Pliny's Natural History relative 
 to the Temple of Diana at Ephesus," and wrote the 
 principal part of the "Ionian Antiquities." Died in 1810. 
 
 Windham, (William,) an eminent English orator 
 and statesman, born in London in May, 1750, was the 
 only son of Colonel William Windham, of Norfolk, 
 He was educated at Eton, Glasgow, and University 
 College, Oxford, which he quitted in 1 77 1. In 1778 he 
 censured the policy of the government on the subject 
 of the American war, in a public speech. He was elected 
 a member of Parliament for Norwich in 1783, and was 
 appointed one of the managers of the impeachment of 
 Warren Hastings. He began public life as a Whig 
 and political friend and follower of Burke, to whom he 
 adhered after the Whig party had been divided by the 
 issues of the French Revolution. In 1790 he was again 
 elected a member for Norwich. He was secretary at 
 war in the cabinet of Pitt from 1794 until 1801, and he 
 then resigned with his colleagues. About 1798 he 
 married a daughter of Admiral Forrest. He made a 
 celebrated speech against the treaty of Amiens in 1802, 
 and moved an address to the king, which was rejected. 
 He opposed the administration of Addington and that 
 of Pitt, (1804-06.) On the death of Pitt, in 1806, Lord 
 Grcnville and Fox came into power at the head of the 
 "ministry of all the talents," in which Mr. Windham 
 wis secretary at war and for the colonies. He procured 
 the passage of acts to increase the pay and pensions of 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as z; th as in this. ($&~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WINDHEIM 
 
 WINS LOW 
 
 soldiers and to limit their term of service. He and his 
 colleagues ceased to hold office in March, 1807. He was 
 regarded as the model of an English gentleman. Died 
 in June, 1810. Respecting his style of speaking, Lord 
 Brougham says, " It was in the easy tone of familiar 
 conversation ; but it was full of nice observation and 
 profound remark ; it was instinct with classical allusion ; 
 it was even over-informed with philosophic and with 
 learned reflection ; it sparkled with the finest wit." 
 
 See Brougham, " Statesmen of the Time of Oeorge III." vol. 
 ii. ; Thomas Amyot, " Life of Windham ;" " Diary of William 
 Windham," 1866; E. Mai.one, "Biographical Memoir of William 
 Windham," 1810; "Edinburgh Review" for February, 1811. 
 
 Windheim, wlnt'him, (Christian Ernst,) a Ger- 
 man philosopher and writer, born at Wernigerode in 
 1722. He was professor of Oriental languages at Er- 
 langen. Died in 1766. 
 
 Windisch, win'dish, (Karl GOTTLIEB,) a Hungarian 
 historian, born at Presburg in 1725. He wrote on the 
 history and geography of Hungary. Died in 1793- 
 
 Windischgratz, win'dish -grits', ( Ai.fr f.d zti, ) 
 Prince, a distinguished field-marshal, born at Brussels 
 in 1787. Having entered the Austrian army, he served 
 in the campaign of 1814, and was made general of di- 
 vision in 1833. In the revolution of 1848 he defeated 
 the Hungarian insurgents, and took Vienna by storm, 
 (October 31.) He afterwards led a large army into 
 Hungary, where he remained inactive, and was censured 
 for hesitation or dilatory conduct. He was removed in 
 April, 1849. Died in 1862. 
 
 Windischmann, win' dish -min', (Karl Joseph 
 Hieronymds,) a German physician and philosopher, 
 born at Mentz in 1775. He became Catholic professor 
 of philosophy at Bonn in 1818, and published a number 
 cW treatises on medicine and animal magnetism, also 
 "Philosophy in the Progress of the History of the 
 World," (1827-34,) and other similar works. Died in 
 1839. His son Friedrich has published several works 
 on theology artf Oriental literature. 
 
 Wine'br8n-ner, (John,) founder of a sect called by 
 his name, became in 1821 pastor of a German Reformed 
 church at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. He afterwards 
 founded a religious society, to which he gave the name 
 of the "Church of God." Among its tenets are oppo- 
 sition to slavery and to the use of ardent spirits. 
 
 Winer, wee'ner, (Georg Benedict,) a German Prot- 
 estant theologian and Orientalist, born at Leipsic in 
 1789. H.e studied at the university of his native city, 
 and in 1823 became professor of theology at Erlangen. 
 In 1832 he filled the same chair at Leipsic. He 
 published a "Biblical Dictionary," (" Biblische Real- 
 worterbuch," 1820,) "Greek Testament Grammar," 
 ("Grammatik des Neutestamentlichen Sprachidioms," 
 1822,) which is regarded as a standard work, and 
 "Chaldean Reader," (1825,) also a " Manual of Theo- 
 logical Literature, principally that of Protestant Ger- 
 many," (1825,) and other critical and theological essays 
 of great merit. Died in 1858. 
 
 See the "Westminster Review" for December, 1S45. article 
 "German Theology;" "London Quarterly Review" for April. 1X70. 
 
 Wines, (Enoch Cork,) D.D., an American divine 
 and educational writer, born at Hanover, New Jersey, 
 in 1806, became professor of languages in the Central 
 High School of Philadelphia in 1838. He published 
 "Hints on a System of Popular Education," (1837,) 
 "Commentaries on the Laws of the Ancient Hebrews," 
 (1852,) and other works. 
 
 Wing, (Vincent,) an English astronomer, was the 
 author of " Harmonicon Celeste, or the Harmony of 
 the Visible World," (1651,) " Astronomia Britannica," 
 and other works. Died in 1668. 
 
 Win'gate, (Edmund,) an English mathematician and 
 statesman, born in Yorkshire in 1593. He studied law, 
 and subsequently resided for a time in France, where 
 he instructed the Princess Henrietta Maria in English. 
 After his return he was elected to Parliament for the 
 county of Bedford. He was the author of "Natural 
 and Artificial Arithmetic," "Ludus Mathematicus," and 
 other works. Died in 1656. 
 
 Winghen, van, vin wing'gen or wing'iien, (Joseph,) 
 a Flemish historical painter, born at Brussels in 1544; 
 died at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1603. 
 
 Winkelried, von. See Arnold von Winkei RIF . d . 
 
 Winkler, wlnk'ler, (Karl Gotpfried TheodGj,) 3 
 German litterateur, known under the pseudonym of 
 Theodor Hell, born in 1775. He was the author ot a 
 number of poems and dramatic works, and made trans- 
 lations from the French, English, and Portuguese. Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 Win'ram, (John,) a Scottish ecclesiastic, was sub- 
 prior of the monastery of Saint Andrew's. He afterwards 
 professed the Reformed religion. Died in 1582. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Winsem, win'sem, or Winsemius, win-sa'me-Bs, 
 (Menelaus,) a Dutch physician, born at Leeuwarden 
 about 1590. He was professor of medicine and botany 
 at Franeker. Died in 1639. 
 
 Winsem or Winsemius, (Pieter,) a historian and 
 poet, born at Leeuwarden about 1586, was a brother of 
 the preceding. He published, in Latin, a " History of 
 the Netherlands in the Reign of Philip II.," (2 vols., 
 1629-33,) which was esteemed by the Protestants; also 
 other works. Died in 1644. 
 
 Winsemius. See Winsem. 
 
 WIns'low, (Edward,) born in Worcestershire, Eng- 
 land, in 1595, came in the Mayflower to New England 
 in 1620. He was elected Governor of Plymouth colony 
 in 1633, 1636, and 1644. He was the author of " A Brief 
 Narrative of the True Grounds or Cause of the First 
 Planting of New England," " Hypocrisie Unmasked," 
 and other works. Died at sea in 1655. 
 
 Winslow, (Forhes,) an English physician, born in 
 London in 1810. He became a member (if the Rtryal 
 College of Surgeons in 1835, and president of the Lm- 
 dny Medical Society in 1853. In 1848 he became editor 
 of the " Quarterly Journal of Psychological Medicine and 
 Mental Pathology." He published, besides other works, 
 a " Manual of Osteology," " Anatomvof Suicide," (1840,) 
 and " On Obscure Diseases of the Brain and Disorders 
 of the Mind," (i860.) 
 
 WIns'low, (Huhbard,) D.D., an American Congre- 
 gational divine, born at Williston, Vermont, in 1800. 
 He published "Christianity applied to our Civil and 
 Social Relations," (1835,) and other religious works. 
 Died in 1864. 
 
 Winslow, vlns'lo, (Jakob Benio'nus,) an emi- 
 nent anatomist and physician, born at Odense, in the 
 island of Fiinen, in 1669. He studied in Holland, and 
 subsequently in Paris under Duverney. He soon after 
 entered the Catholic Church, having been converted 
 by the eloquence and the arguments of Bossuet. In 
 1743 he succeeded Hunault as professor of anatomy 
 and physiology in the Jardin du Roi, in Paris. His 
 " Anatomical Exposition of the Structure of the Human 
 Body" (in French, 1732) is esteemed a standard work, 
 and has been translated into several languages. Died 
 in 1760. 
 
 See Kraft og Nyerup, "Litteraturlexicou :" " Biographie 
 Medicale." 
 
 Winslow, (John A.,) an American naval officer, 
 descended from a brother of Governor Edward Wins- 
 low, of Massachusetts, was born at Wilmington, North 
 Carolina, in 181 1. He entered the n ivy about 1827, 
 became a lieutenant in 1839, and commander in 1855. 
 In 1862 he served under Captain Fo >te on the Mis- 
 sissippi River. He obtained command of the steamer 
 Kearsarge, of seven guns, and was ordered to the coast 
 of Europe, to watch rebel cruisers, in the early part of 
 1863. On the 19th of June, 1864, he met the Alabama, 
 Captain Semmes, near Cherbourg. When the vessels 
 were about one mile apart, the Alabama began to fire 
 rapidly and wildly, but the guns of the Kearsarge were 
 directed with coolness and precision. "The two ves- 
 sels," says Headley, " were now steaming at the rate of 
 seven or eight miles an hour, — and every few minutes 
 sheering, so as to bring their broadsides to bear, they 
 were forced to fight in circles, swinging steadily around 
 an ever-changing centre." After they had described 
 seven circles and had diminished their distance to about 
 a quarter of a mile, the Alabama began to sink, and 
 raised a white flag. Captain Winslow lost only three 
 killed and wounded out of one hundred and sixty-three 
 officers and men. He took sixty-five prisoners. He 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, o, 5, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; good; moon j 
 
WINSLOW 
 
 2283 
 
 WINTRINGHAM 
 
 Tknney. 
 
 was promoted to the rank of commodore in July, 1866, 
 
 and to that of rear-admiral in 1S70. 
 
 See J. T. Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 
 . 288-319 : Greeley, " American Conflict," vol. ii. pp. 647-648 ; 
 INNEY, " Military and Naval History of the Rebellion," p. 64S. 
 
 Winslow, (Josiah,) a son of Governor Winslow, 
 noticed above, was born in 1629. He was Governor of 
 Plymouth colony from 1673 until 1680. Died in 1680. 
 
 Winslow, (Miron,) D.D., a brother of the Rev. 
 Hubbard Winslow, noticed above, was born at Willis- 
 ten, Vermont, in 1789. He sailed in 1S19 as a missionary 
 to India, became president of the college connected with 
 the mission at Madras, and published in 1862 a "Com- 
 prehensive Tamil-and-English Dictionary," which enjoys 
 a high reputation. He died at the Cape of Good Hope 
 in October, 1864. 
 
 Win'sor, (Frederick Albert,) an English projector, 
 who first introduced gas-light into London. He began 
 his experiments on gas-light in 1S03. Pied it) 1830. 
 
 Wiu'stan-ley, (William,) an English biographical 
 writer, published "Lives of the Poets," "Historical 
 Rarities," and other works. Died about 1690. 
 
 Win'ston, (Thomas,) an English physician, born in 
 1575. He studied medicine in Switzerland, and at 
 Padua, where he took his degree. He became a Fellow 
 of the College of Physicians in 1613, and in 1615 pro- 
 fessor of anatomy at Gresham College. His " Lectures 
 on Anatomy" were highly esteemed in his time. Died 
 in 1655. 
 
 WTnt, de, (Peter,) an English painter m water- 
 colours, was born in Staffordshire in 1784. His works 
 are chiefly English landscapes, views in Cumberland, 
 Westmoreland, Wales, etc. Died in 1849. 
 
 Winter, win'ter, (Georg Ludwig,) a German jurist 
 and statesman, bom in Baden in 1778 ; died in 1S38. 
 
 Winter, van, vfn win'ter, (Jan Wili.em,) a Dutch 
 naval commander and diplomatist, born in Kampen in 
 1761. He served for a time in France under Diimouriez 
 and Pichegru, and rose to be general of brigade. He 
 was created vice-admiral after his return, with the com- 
 mand of the Texel fleet, and in 1797 was defeated by 
 the English fleet under Admiral Duncan. He was sent 
 as minister-plenipotentiary to France in 1798, and wag 
 afterwards made a marshal of the kingdom of Holland 
 by Louis Bonaparte. After the union of Holland with 
 France, he was created by Napoleon grand officer of the 
 legion of honour. Died in 1812. 
 
 Winter, von, fon win'ter, (Peter,) a German mu- 
 sician and composer, born at Mannheim in 1754. He 
 studied at Vienna under Salieri, and in 1782 brought 
 out at Munich his opera of " Helena and Paris." His 
 compositions are very numerous, including masses, 
 svmphonies, cantatas, and operas. Among the most 
 admired of the last-named are his "Calypso," " Zaira," 
 "Tamerlane," "The Interrupted Sacrifice," and "The 
 Rape of Proserpine." Died in 1825. 
 
 Winterburger, win'ter-booK'ger orwin'ter-booRc'er, 
 (JOHANN,) a German printer, born in the Palatinate 
 about 1450, settled at Vienna about 1492. Died in 1519. 
 Winterfeld, win'ter-telt', (KARL Geokg August 
 Virigk.ns,) a German writer on music, born at Berlin 
 in 1794 ; died in 1852. 
 
 Winterfeld, von, fon win'ter-fell', (Hans Karl,) 
 a celebrated Prussian general and favourite of Frederick 
 the Great, was born at Vanselow in 1709. He served 
 with distinction in the Seven Years' war, and was 
 mortally wounded in an engagement in Silesia in 1757. 
 A monument was erected to his memory in Berlin by 
 Frederick. 
 
 See Varnhaghn von Ense, " Leben des Winterfeld." 1S36 : M. 
 A. de Winterfeld, " Leben des Generals von Winterfeld, 1809. 
 
 Winterhalter, win'ter-hal'ter, (Franz Xaver,) a 
 German painter, born in Baden in 1803. He was pa- 
 tronized by the royal families of England and France, 
 and executed numerous portraits of Queen Victoria 
 and Prince Albert, also of the Duke of Wellington and 
 other English noblemen. Among his best works we 
 may name "The Empress Eugenie and the Ladies of 
 her Court," and a fancy piece entitled " II Decameron, .' 
 
 Wiu'ttjr-ton, (Ralph,) an English philologist, bom 
 in Leicestershire, was noted as a Hellenist. He: pub 
 
 lished " Minor Greek Poets," (" Poetae Grxci minores," 
 1635.) Died in 1636. 
 
 Winther, vin'ter, (Rasmus Villads Christian 
 Ferdinand,) a celebrated Danish poet, born in the 
 island of Seeland in 1796. He visited Italy in 1830, 
 and published, after his return, several volumes of 
 poems, which established his reputation as one of the first 
 lyric poets of his country. He also wrote a number of 
 popular novels, and " Five-and-Twenty Fables," (" Fein 
 og tvve Fabler," 1845,) ant I other juvenile works. 
 
 Win'throp, (JOHN,) born in Suffolk, England, in 
 1588, was elected in 1629 Governor of the colony of 
 Massachusetts, and set sail in 1630 for New England. 
 He was re-elected nine or ten times. His journal, 
 giving an account of the transactions in the colony, was 
 published in 1825. He is said to have been eminent for 
 wisdom, magnanimity, and other virtues. Died in 1649. 
 
 See " Life of John Winthrop," by Robbrt C. Winthrop. 
 
 Winthrop, (John,) son of the preceding, was born 
 in England in 1606, and sailed for America in 1631. 
 He was twice elected Governor of Connecticut, and was 
 sent to England in 1661 to procure a charter for that 
 colony. He was the author of several scientific treatises, 
 and was one of the founders of the Royal Society of 
 London. Died in Boston in 1676. 
 
 Win'throp, (John,) LL.D., was born in Massa- 
 chusetts in 1715. He was appointed in 1738 Hollis 
 professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in 
 Harvard College. He published several astronomical 
 works. Died in 1779. 
 
 Winthrop, (Robert C„) an American statesman 
 and orator, a descendant of Governor Winthrop, was 
 bom in Boston, Massachusetts, May 12, 1809. He 
 graduated at Harvard College in 1828, studied law iru. 
 the office of Daniel Webster, and was admitted to the 
 bar in 1831. He served in the House of Representa- 
 tives of Massachusetts from 1835 to 1840, and in the 
 latter year was elected a member of Congress, in which 
 he acted with the Whig party. Having been re-elected, 
 he continued in Congress for ten years, and was chosen 
 Speaker of the House of Representatives in December, 
 1847. He was the Whig candidate for Speaker in 1849 ; 
 but his opponent, Mr. Cobb, was elected by a plurality 
 of two or three votes, after a contest which lasted three 
 weeks. In 1850 he was appointed a Senator of the 
 United States for a part of the unexpired term of Mr. 
 Webster, who resigned his seat. He was the Whig 
 candidate for the office of Senator in 1851, but was 
 defeated by Charles Sumner. A volume of his "Ad- 
 dresses and Speeches" was published in 1852. 
 
 Winthrop, (Theodore,) an American writer and 
 soldier, born at New Haven in 1828. He graduated at 
 Yale College in 1848, and subsequently visited Europe. 
 Soon after the commencement of the war in 1861, he 
 joined the volunteers of the New York Seventh Regi- 
 ment, gained the rank of major, and, having accom- 
 panied General Butler's expedition to Great Bethel, was 
 killed in that engagement, (June, 1861.) He was the 
 author of novels entitled "Cecil Dreeme," (1861,) "John 
 Brent," (1861,) and "Edwin Brothertoft," (1862.) 
 See " Atlantic Monthly" for August, iS6t, and August, 1S63. 
 
 Wintoun or Wyntoun, win'ton, (Andrew,) a Scot- 
 tish chronicler, who lived about 1410-20, was prior of 
 the monastery of Saint Serfs Island, on Loch Lomond. 
 He was the author of " The Orygynale Cronykil of 
 Scotland," in verse, containing valuable historical in- 
 formation of those times. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Wintoun, (George Seton,) Earl of, a Scottish 
 Jacobite, born in 1690. He fought for the Pretender in 
 1715. Died in 1749. 
 
 Win'tring-ham, (Clifton,) the Elder, an English 
 surgeon and physiologist, born before 1695, wrote A 
 " Treatise on Endemic Diseases," (1718,) and other 
 medical works, in Latin and English, which have a 
 high reputation. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 Died in 1748. 
 
 Wintringham, (Clifton,) the Younger, born at 
 York in 1710, was a son of the preceding. He became 
 physician to George III. in 1762, and subsequently phy- 
 
 « as *; S as s; g hard; g as/; G. H, ^guttural; N, nasal; R, trilUd; I as z; th as in this. (J^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
W1NTZ1NGER0DE 
 
 2284 
 
 WIS HART 
 
 sician-general to the army. He published several 
 medical treatises. Died in 1794. 
 
 Wintzingerode, von, fon wlnt'sing-eh-ro'deh, (Fer- 
 dinand,) Baron, a German officer, burn at Bodenstein 
 in 1770. He entered the Russian army, served in the 
 campaigns of 1809 and 1812, and greatly distinguished 
 himself in the battles of Lutzen, Leipsic, and Saint- 
 Dizier. He was made general of cavalry by the emperor 
 Alexander in 1812. Died in 1818. 
 
 Wintzingerode, von, (Georg Ernst Levin,) 
 Count, a German statesman, born in 1752. He was 
 appointed in 1801 minister of foreign affairs in the king- 
 dom of Wiirtemberg. Died in 1834. 
 
 Wintzingerode, von, (Heinrich Kari. Friedrich 
 Levin,) Count, son of the preceding, was born.in 1778. 
 He was ambassador from Wiirtemberg to Paris, Saint 
 Petersburg, and Vienna. Died in 1856. 
 
 Win'wood, (Sir Ralph,) an English diplomatist 
 and statesman, born in Northamptonshire about 1564. 
 He was employed on several important missions to 
 Holland, and became secretary of state in 1614. He 
 died in 1617, leaving a valuable work, published in 
 1725 under the title of "Memorials of Affairs o c State 
 in the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James I.," 
 (3 vols.) 
 
 Win'zet or Winger, (Ninian,) a Scottish ecclesi- 
 astic, born in Renfrewshire in 1518. He was the author 
 of several controversial works in opposition to the Prot- 
 estant reformers. Died in 1592. 
 
 Wion, ve'6N', '(Arnould,) a learned French monk, 
 born at Douai in 1554; died about 1610. 
 
 Wirsung, (veeR'soong, (Ciiristoph,) a German phy- 
 sician, born at Augsburg in 1500. He wrote a "New 
 .Book of Medicine," (1568.) Died in 1571. 
 
 Wirsung or Wirsungus, wf&R-soong'us, (Johann 
 Georg,) a German anatomist, born at Augsburg, was 
 the discoverer of the pancreatic duct. Died in 1643. 
 
 W}rt, (William,) an eloquent American lawyer and 
 author, born at Bladensburg, Maryland, in November, 
 1772, was of Swiss extraction. He studied law, was 
 admitted to the bar in 179?, and married a Miss Gilmer, 
 of Virginia, about 1795. He practised law at Richmond 
 and Norfolk, and published in 1803 " Letters of a British 
 Spy," which obtained a great popularity. About 1S06 
 he settled at Richmond, Virginia. He distinguished 
 himself at the trial of Aaron Burr as one of the counsel 
 for the prosecution, (1807.) In 1817 he published a 
 "Life of Patrick Henry," which was highly esteemed. 
 He was attorney-general of the United States from 181 7 
 to March, 1829, having been appointed first by President 
 Monroe and retained by President Adams. He removed 
 to Baltimore in 1829 or 1830, and was nominated for 
 the Presidency in 1832 by the Anti-Masonic party. He 
 died in Washington in February, 1834. 
 
 " He was master," says Griswold, "of all the arts by 
 which attention is secured and retained. ... It is agreed 
 on all hands that he was a very ready, pleasing, and 
 effective speaker, inferior perhaps to no one among his 
 contemporaries at the bar in this country." 
 
 See J. P. Kennedy, "Life of William Wirt," 1849; R. W. Gris- 
 wold, " Prose Writers of America [" Duvckinck, " Cyclopaedia of 
 American Literature," vol. i. ; " National Portrait-Gallery of Distin- 
 guished Americans," vol. i. 
 
 Wirth, wetRt, (Johann Georg August,) a German 
 journalist and political writer, born in Bavaria in 1799; 
 died in 1848. 
 
 Wirth, (Johann Ulrich,) a German divine and 
 philosophical writer, born in Wiirtemberg in 1810. 
 He became in 1852 associate editor of the "Journal of 
 Philosophy and Philosophic Criticism," (" Zeitschrift 
 fur Philosophic und philosophische Kritik.") lie pub- 
 lished a "Theory of Somnambulism," (1836,) "System 
 of Speculative Ethics," (1841,) and other works. 
 
 Wirtz or Wirz, we^Rts, (Johann,) a Swiss painter 
 and engraver, born at Zurich in 1640; died in 1709. 
 
 Wischnu. See Vishnu. 
 
 Wise, (Daniel,) D.D., a Methodist divine, born at 
 Portsmouth, England, in 1813, emigrated to America, 
 where he edited successively several religious journals. 
 He has published "The Young Man's Counsellor," 
 "Life of Ulric Zwingli," and other works. 
 
 Wise, (Francis,) an English antiquary, born at 
 Oxford in 1695. He wrote several works on English 
 antiquities. Died in 1762. 
 
 Wise, (Henry A.,) a distinguished American poli- 
 tician, born in Accomac county, Virginia, in December 
 1806. He studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 
 1828. He represented a district of Virginia in Congress 
 from 1833 to 1843, having been elected as an adherent 
 of General Jackson, but he soon joined the opposition. 
 He became a partisan of President Tyler, who appointed 
 him minister to Brazil in 1844. In 1855 he was elected 
 by the Democrats Governor of Virginia for three years. 
 A convention of Southern Governors was held at 
 Raleigh, North Carolina, in October, 1856, at the invi- 
 tation of Governor Wise, who afterwards declared that 
 if Fremont had been elected President he would have 
 marched with 20,000 men and taken Washington. In 
 1 861 he joined the insurgent army as brigadier-general, 
 and commanded a force in the Kanawha Valley with ill 
 success. 
 
 Wise, (Henry Augustus,) an American naval officer, 
 a relative of the preceding, was born at Brooklyn, New 
 York, in 1819. He married a daughter of Edward 
 Everett, of Boston. In 1862 he was promoted to the 
 rank of commander, and appointed assistant chief of 
 the bureau of ordnance and hydrography. He published 
 "Los Gringos," (1849,) a series of sketches of Mexico, 
 California, Peru, etc., "Tales for the Marines," (1855,) 
 and other works. Died in 1869. 
 
 Wise, (Michael,) an eminent English composer of 
 church music, was born in Wiltshire. He was patron- 
 ized by Charles II., and became in 1686 almoner of 
 Saint Paul's Cathedral and master of the choristers. He 
 was killed in a quarrel with a watchman, in 1687. 
 
 Wiselius, we-sa'le-us, (Samuel Iperuszoon,) a 
 Dutch poet, born in Amsterdam in 1769, studied in his 
 native city and in Germany, and subsequently filled 
 several high offices in Holland. He published tragedies 
 entitled " Polydorus" and "Ion," also a collection of 
 odes and other poems. Died in 1845. 
 
 Wiseman, wiz'man, (Nicholas,) a distinguished 
 scholar, of English extraction, was born at Seville, in 
 Spain, in 1802. He finished his studies at the Eng- 
 lish College in Rome, where he subsequently became 
 professor of the Oriental languages, and in 1829 was 
 appointed rector. After his return to England he rose 
 through various promotions in the Catholic Church to 
 be Archbishop of Westminster, (1850,) and cardinal. 
 The assumption of the title of archbishop met with 
 great opposition from the Protestants in England, and 
 an act was passed making such titles penal. It appears, 
 however, that his learning, talents, and general popu- 
 larity did much to allay the hostility of his opponents. 
 Cardinal Wiseman was the author of "Lectures on the 
 Connection between Science and Revealed Religion," 
 (2 vols., 1836,) a "Treatise on the Holy Eucharist," 
 (1836,) "Letters on Catholic Unity," (1842,) and other 
 works. He was for many years associate editor of the 
 "Dublin (Catholic) Review." Died in February, 1865. 
 
 See "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'ne'rale:" Brockhaus, " Conversa- 
 tions Li-xikon ;" Ali.ibonh, "Dictionary of Authors ;" "Quarterly 
 Review" for October, 1858. 
 
 Wiseman, (Richard,) an English surgeon of the 
 seventeenth century, was patronized by King Charles 
 II. His treatises on surgery were highly esteemed in 
 his time. 
 
 Wish'art, written also Wysshart, Wischart, and 
 in other modes, (George,) the Martyr, a Scottish 
 Protestant reformer of the first half of the sixteenth 
 century. After preaching the Reformed doctrines in 
 several Scottish towns, he was arrested and tried before 
 Cardinal Beatoun, who condemned him to the stake 
 in 1546. 
 
 See Burton, "History of Scotland," vol. iii. chap, xxxvi. ; 
 Froudk, " History of England," vol. iv. chap. xxii. ; Cunningham, 
 " Church History of Scotland," vol. i. ; " Biographic Universeile ;" 
 Chambers, "Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen " 
 
 Wishart, written also Wiseheart, (George,) a Scot- 
 tish divine and historical writer, born in Haddington' 
 shire in 1609. He was chaplain to the Marquis of 
 Montrose, and subsequently to Elizabeth, daughter of 
 
 S, e, 1, 5, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
WIS HART 
 
 2285 
 
 W1TTEKIND 
 
 James I. He was made Bishop of Edinburgh in 1662. 
 He wrote a history of the wars of Montrose, in Latin. 
 It is highly esteemed for its elegance. Died in 1671. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Wishart or Wiachart, (William,) a Scottish divine, 
 born at Dalkeith about 1657, preached in Edinburgh, 
 and wrote a Calvinistic work entitled "Theology," 
 ("Theolngia.") Died in 1727. 
 
 Wislicenus, wislit-sa'nfis, (Gustav Adolf,) a Ger- 
 man rationalistic theologian, was born near Eilenbuig, 
 in Prussia, in 1803. He became minister at Halle in 
 1841, but was soon after deposed on account of his 
 opinions. 
 
 Wissenbach, wis'sen-baK', (Johann Jakoii,) an 
 eminent German jurist, born in Nassau in 1607. He 
 became professor of law at Franeker, and published 
 Eeveral legal works. Died in 1665. 
 
 Wissing, wis'sing, (William,) a Dutch portrait- 
 painter, born at Amsterdam in 1656. He worked in 
 England, and painted Charles II. and James II. Died 
 in 1687. 
 
 Wissowatzi, wis-so-w&t'see, [Lat. Wissowa'tuts,] 
 (Andrew,) a Socinian writer, born in Lithuania in 1608, 
 was a grandson of Faustus Socinus. He was persecuted, 
 and, after several removals, found refuge in Holland, 
 where he died in 1678. 
 
 Wis'tar, (Caspar,) a distinguished American phy- 
 sician, bom at Philadelphia in 1761. He graduated at 
 Edinburgh, and, after his return, was appointed professor 
 of chemistry and physiology in the College of Philadel- 
 phia, and subsequently succeeded Dr. Shippen in the 
 chair of anatomy and surgery. He was the author of a 
 "System of Anatomy," (1812.) Died in 1818. 
 
 Wiszniewski, vi'sh-ne-eVskee, (MICHAEL,) a Polish 
 writer, born in Galicia in 1794. lie became in 1830 
 professor of history at Cracow. He has published 
 several critical and philosophical works. 
 
 Wit, wit, (Ferdinand Johannes,) a German poli- 
 tician, born at Altona in 1800. Having joined a secret 
 society, he was banished in 1819. He afterwards joined 
 the ultramontane party, and published " Fragments of 
 my Life and my Epoch," (4 vols., 1827-30.) Died in 
 1863. 
 
 Witch'ell, (George,) an English astronomer and 
 mathematician, born in 1728; died in 1785. 
 
 ■Wither. See Withers. 
 
 With'er-ing, (William,) an English physician and 
 botanist, born in Shropshire in 1741. He published " A 
 Systematic Arrangement of British Plants," (1776 ;) also 
 a number of treatises on chemistry, mineralogy, and 
 medicine. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Died 
 in 1799. 
 
 With'er-ing-tpn, (William Frederick,) an Eng- 
 lish painter, born in London in 1786. He was elected 
 a Royal Academician in 1840. Among his works, which 
 are principally landscapes, we may name " The Hop 
 Garland," " The Stepping-Stones," " Making Hay," and 
 "Returning from the Village." Died in 1865. 
 
 Withers.with'erz, written also Wither and Wyther, 
 (George,) an English poet, satirist, and political writer, 
 born in Hampshire in 1588. He published in 1613 a 
 collection of satires in verse, entitled " Abuses Stript 
 and Whipt," for which he was sentenced to several 
 months' imprisonment. On the breaking out of the 
 civil war, he served in the royalist army, in 1639 ; but 
 he afterwards went over to the party of the Parliament, 
 and attained the rank of major-general. Soon after 
 the restoration he was imprisoned several years in the 
 Tower for having published a seditious libel, entitled 
 "Vox Vulgi." He died in 1667. His works are very 
 numerous, and consist chiefly of lyrics and devotional 
 pieces. His poems were little esteemed by his con- 
 temporaries, and he is mentioned with contempt by 
 Pope and Swift; but eminent critics of later times have 
 assigned him a high rank among English poets. 
 
 See Campbell, " Specimens of the British Pouts ;" Sir E^erton 
 Brvdghs " Centura Literaria;" Hazi.itt, "Lectures on Emtlish 
 Poetry;" Ellis, "Specimens of Early English Poetry;" "Retro- 
 spective Review," vol. vii., (1823.) 
 
 With'er-spoon, (John,) D.D., LL.D., a distin- 
 guished divine, and one of the signers of the Declaration 
 
 of Independence, was born in Haddingtonshire, Scot- 
 land, in 1722. In 1766 he was offered the presidency 
 of Princeton College, New Jersey, which in 1768 he 
 accepted, and also filled the chair of divinity in that 
 institution. He was elected in 1776 to the Continental 
 Congress, and was active in promoting the cause of 
 independence. He was the author of " Ecclesiastical 
 Characteristics, or the Arcana of Church Policy," (1753,) 
 a " Serious Inquiry into the Nature and Effects of the 
 Stage," (1757,) and other works. Died in 1794. 
 
 See Cleveland, " Compendium of American Literature." 
 
 Withof, wit'hof, (Johann Phii.ii'P Lorknz,) a Ger- 
 man phvsician and writer, born at Duisburg in 1725. 
 He studied at Utrecht and Leyden, and in 1770 became 
 professor of eloquence and Greek literature at Duisburg. 
 He published in 1782 a collection of didactic poems, 
 entitled "Academische Gedichte," which have a high 
 reputation. Died in 1789. 
 
 Witikind. See Wittekind. 
 
 Wit'I-klnd or Wit'e-klnd, a Saxon historian and 
 monk, lived at the abbey of Corvey, (Corbeia nova.) 
 He wrote " Annales de Gestis Othonum." Died after 
 
 973- 
 
 Witiza, we-tee'za, [Sp. pron. ve-tee'tha,] King of the 
 Visigoths in Spain, began to reign about 701 A.D. He 
 was deposed in 708, and was succeeded by Roderick, 
 who had revolted against him. Died about 709. 
 
 Wit'old or Wit'wald, (Alexander,) Grand Duke 
 of Lithuania, was a warlike and powerful prince. He 
 waged war against the Tartars. Died at an advanced 
 age in 1430. 
 
 Wits, wits, Witsen, wit'sen, or Witsius, wit'se-us, 
 (Herman,) a learned Dutch theologian, born in North 
 Holland in 1636. He was professor of theology at 
 Utrecht from 1680 to 1698, and succeeded F. Spanheim 
 at Leyden in the latter year. He published several works 
 on theology. Died in 1708. 
 
 Witsen, (Nicholas,) a patriotic Dutch magistrate, 
 born at Amsterdam in 1640, was noted for his liberal 
 public spirit. He wrote a work " On the Construction 
 of Ships," (1671.) He was employed to negotiate a 
 treaty with England in 1689. 
 
 See Bodel, " Notice of N. Witsen," 1855. 
 
 ■Witt, de. See De Witt. 
 
 Witte, wit'teh, or Witten, wit'ten, (Henning,) a 
 German divine and biographer, born at Riga in 1634. 
 He wrote, in Latin, biographies of eminent men of the 
 seventeenth century, in 5 vols. Died in 1696. 
 
 Witte, (Karl,) a German jurist, born near Halle in 
 1800. He studied at Gdttingen and Heidelberg, and be- 
 came professor of law at Halle in 1834. He published 
 a number of legal works, and made translations from the 
 Italian of Dante and Boccaccio. 
 
 Witte, de, (Emanuel.) See De Witte. 
 
 Witte, de, deh wit'teh, (Gaspard,) a Flemish land- 
 scape-painter, born at Antwerp in 1621. He worked in 
 Italy and France. 
 
 Witte, de, (Giles,) an eminent Jansenist theologian, 
 born at Ghent in 1648. He preached at Mechlin (Ma- 
 lines) from 1684 to 1691, wrote several controversial 
 works in defence of Jansenism, and produced a Flemish 
 version of the Bible. Died in 1721. 
 
 Witte, de, (Likvin,) a Flemish painter and archi- 
 tect, born at Ghent about 1 5 10. He excelled in painting 
 perspective and architecture. Died at Munich. 
 
 Witte, de, (Pieter.) See Candido, (Pietro.) 
 
 Wit'te-klnd or Wit'I-klnd, written also Witti- 
 chind, [Lat. Wiitekin'dus,] sumamed the Great, 
 a celebrated warrior, was the principal commander of 
 the Saxons against Charlemagne. The latter having in- 
 vaded the Saxon territory, Wittekind sought the alliance 
 of the King of Denmark, whose sister he had married. 
 After several battles, fought with varying success, the 
 Saxons were defeated near the Hase in 783, and the 
 leaders, Wittekind and Alboin, were reinstated in their 
 possessions, on condition of their embracing Christianity 
 and submitting to the authority of Charlemagne. Wit- 
 tekind died in 807. 
 
 See J. A. Ckusius, " Wittekindus Magnus," 1670; Drrux de 
 Radier, "Vie de Wittekind le Grand," 1757; Genssler, "Witte- 
 kind," etc., 1817; "Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 e," ■ — — — — , — o , ' ' ' ° ' 
 
 €as*S't as i;gAard;gaj;G,H,K,£utlural;u, nasal; v., trilled; I i&z; thasinM;>. (jgfSee Explanations, p. Zj ) 
 
WITTEKIND 
 
 2286 
 
 WOLF 
 
 Wittekind, wit'teh-ldnt, or Widukind, wid'oo-klnt, 
 a German chronicler and monk of the tenth century, 
 was a native of Saxony. He wrote a work entitled " Res 
 gestae Saxonicai," being a history of King Henry I. and 
 of the emperor Otho I. 
 Wittekindus. See WriTEKrND. 
 Wittgenstein, von, fon wit'gen-stln, (Ludwig 
 Adolf,) Count, a German military commander, some- 
 times called Sayn-Wittgenstein, was born in 1769. 
 Having entered the Russian army, he served in the 
 campaigns of 1807 and 1812, and was appointed in 1813 
 to the chief command of the Russian and Prussian forces, 
 which, however, he retained but a short time. He was 
 defeated by Napoleon near Paris in 1814. Having been 
 created a field-marshal in 1826, he fought against the 
 Turks in 1828. Died in 1843. 
 
 Wittichius, wit-tiK'e-us, (Christoph,) a German 
 
 Protestant theologian, born in Silesia in 1625. He was 
 
 • professor of theology at Nymwegen for sixteen years, 
 
 and removed to Leyden in 167 1. He wrote several 
 
 works. Died at Leyden in 1687. 
 
 Witzleben, von, fon wits'la'ben, (Jon Wti.HEi.M 
 Karl Ernst,) a Prussian general and statesman, born 
 at Halberstadt in 1783. He served in the principal 
 campaigns against the French from 1806 to 1813, and 
 Wfs made lieutenant-general in 183 1, and minister of war 
 in 1833. Died in 1837. 
 
 Witzleben, von, (Karl August Friedkich,) a 
 popular German novelist, known under the pseudonym 
 of Von Tromlitz, was born near Weimar in 1773. He 
 served against the French in the Prussian and subse- 
 quently in the Russian army, where he attained the 
 rank of colonel. He produced historical romances, 
 entitled " Franz von Sickingen," " Die Pappenheimer," 
 and other similar works. Died in 1839. 
 
 Wi'vell, (Abraham,) an English portrait-painter, 
 born in 1786. He invented the fire-escape. Died in 1849. 
 
 Wladimir. See Vladimir. 
 
 Wladislas. See Vladisi.aus and Ladislaus. 
 
 Wodehouse. See Kimberley. 
 
 Woden. See Odin. 
 
 Wodhull, wdod'ul, ? (Michael,) an English poet, 
 born in Northamptonshire in 1740. He translated 
 Euripides into English, and wrote some original poems. 
 Died in 1816. 
 
 Wod'row, (Robert,) a Scottish Presbyterian divine 
 and historical writer, born at Glasgow in 1679, became 
 minister of Eastwood, in Renfrewshire. His principal 
 work is a "History of the Sufferings of the Church of 
 Scotland from the Restoration to the Revolution," (2 
 vols., 1722.) He also wrote a diary and collection of 
 anecdotes, entitled " Wodrow's Analecta." Died in 1734. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen." 
 
 Woehler. See Wohler. 
 
 Woehner. See Wohner. 
 
 Woelffl. See WSlffl. 
 
 Woellner. See Wollner. 
 
 Woepcke. See Wopcke. 
 
 Woeriot, vo'a're-o', or Woeiriot, (Pierre,) an able 
 engraver, born in Lorraine about 1532. He settled at 
 Lyons about 1555. Died after 1576. 
 
 Wof fing-ton, (Margaret,) a celebrated Irish actress, 
 born at Dublin about 1718; died in 1760. 
 
 WShler or Woehler, wo'ler, (Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man chemist of high reputation, was born near Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main in 1800. He studied medicine and 
 chemistry at Marburg" and Heidelberg, and subsequently 
 became professor of technology and chemistry in the 
 Polytechnic School at Cassel. He also assisted in found- 
 ing a nickel-manufactory in that town. In 1836 he be- 
 came professor of medicine and director of the Chemical 
 Institute at Gottingen. He was associated in 1838 with 
 his friend Liebig as editor of the " Annalen der Chemie 
 und Pharmacie." Among his most important works are 
 his "Principles of Chemistry," (1840,) and "Practical 
 Exercises of Chemical Analysis," (1854.) He has been 
 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London and 
 of other similar institutions. 
 
 Wohlgemuth, wol'geh-m<5of, (Michael,) an eminent 
 German painter and engraver, born at Nuremberg in 
 1434. Among his master-pieces are a " Last Judgment," 
 
 in the Town-House of Nuremberg, and a " Votive Offer- 
 ing with Saint Jerome," in the Belvedere galiery at 
 Vienna. His engravings on copper and wood are very 
 rare, and are highly esteemed. He numbered among 
 his pupils Albert Diirer, who painted his portrait. Died 
 in 1 5 19. 
 
 See Marggraff, " Erinnerungen an Albrecht Diirer und seinen 
 Lehrer M. Wohlgemuth," 1840; Nagler, " Allgemeines Kiinstler- 
 Lexikon." 
 
 Wohner or Woehner, wo'ner, (Andreas Georg,) 
 a German Orientalist, born in Hoya (Hanover) in 1693. 
 He became professor of Oriental languages at Gottin- 
 gen in 1739. He published a Hebrew grammar, and 
 other works. Died in 1762. 
 
 Woide, woid, ? (Charles Godfrey,) an eminent 
 Orientalist and divine, born in 1725, is supposed to have 
 been a native of Poland. Having been invited to Eng- 
 land in 1770, he became preacher of the German Royal 
 Chapel, and assistant librarian in the British Museum. 
 He published La Croze's "Dictionary of the Coptic 
 Language," with additions and an index, and other 
 learned works. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 Died in 1790. 
 
 Woirol, vwa'rol', (Theophile,) a Swiss officer, born 
 at Tavanne, in the canton of Berne, in 1781. He served 
 in the French army, and especially distinguished him- 
 self during the Hundred Days. In 1819 he was made 
 marechal-de-camp, and in 1836 became a peer of France. 
 Died in 1853. 
 
 Wolcott, wdol'kot, (Erastus,) a son of Roger Wol- 
 cott, noticed below, was born about 1723. He joined 
 the army in 1776, became a brigadier-general in 1777, 
 and afterwards a member of Congress and a judge of 
 the superior court of Connecticut. Died in 1793. 
 
 Wolcott, wdol'kot, (John,) an English physician 
 and satiric poet, known under the pseudonym of Peter 
 Pindar, was born in Devonshire in 1738. Having 
 taken his medical degree at Aberdeen, he accompanied 
 Sir William Trelawney, Governor of Jamaica, to that 
 island in 1767, but, failing to obtain extensive practice, 
 returned to England, where he published in 1782 his 
 "Lyric Odes to the Royal Academicians for 1782, by 
 Peter Pindar, Esq.," etc. This satire was very suc- 
 cessful, and was soon followed by similar attacks on the 
 king, ministers, and prominent writers of the time. 
 Wolcott's satires are remarkable for coarseness and 
 vulgarity, as well as for wit ; and his character as a 
 man appears not to have been a whit more elevated than 
 his writings. Died in 1819. 
 
 See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors ;" "Autobiography of 
 William Jerdan," vol. ii. ch. xix. 
 
 Wolcott, (Oliver,) an American patriot and states- 
 man, son of Roger Wolcott, noticed below, was born 
 in Connecticut in 1726. He was elected to Congress 
 in 1776, signed the Declaration of Independence, and 
 became Governor of Connecticut in 1796. Died in 1797. 
 
 See Sanderson, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration 
 of Independence." 
 
 Wolcott, (Oliver,) a statesman, born at Litchfield, 
 Connecticut, in 1760, was a son of the preceding. He 
 was secretary of the treasury in the cabinets of Wash- 
 ington and Adams, from February, 1795, to December, 
 1800. After 1800 he was engaged for about fourteen 
 years in trade in the city of New York. He was Gov- 
 ernor of Connecticut from 1817 to 1827. Died in New 
 York in 1833. 
 
 Wolcott, (Roger,) an American statesman and 
 soldier, born at Windsor, Connecticut, in 1679, served 
 against the French in Canada, and attained the rank of 
 major-general. He was elected Governor of Connecticut 
 in 1751. He wrote an account of the Pequot war, in 
 verse. Died in 1767. 
 
 Wolf, (Christian.) See Lupus. 
 
 Wolf, wolf, (Ernst Wilhei.m,) a German musician 
 and composer, born at Gross Behringen in 1735. He 
 lived many years at Weimar. Died in 1792. 
 
 Wolf, (Ferdinand,) a German writer, bom at Vienna 
 in 1796. He was appointed librarian of the Imperial 
 Library, and secretary of the Academy of Sciences in 
 his native city. He published "Contributions to the 
 History of the National Literature of Castile," (1832,) 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
WOLF 
 
 2287 
 
 WOLFE 
 
 « work " On the Romantic Poetry of the Spaniards," 
 (1847,) and other similar works. 
 
 Wolf, wdolf, [Ger. pron. wolf; Lat. Wol'fius,] 
 (Friedrich August,) a celebrated German scholar 
 and critic, was born at Hainrode, near Nordhausen, in 
 Prussia, on the 15th of February, 1759. He studied at 
 Nordhausen, and had become a good classical scholar 
 when he entered the University of Gbttingen, in 1777. 
 He acquired in early life a habit of independent judg- 
 ment, and devoted himself at Gottingen to the study 
 of philology. He incurred the ill will of Heyne, who 
 refused to admit him to one of his lectures. In 1779 he 
 was employed as teacher at Ilfeld. He published an 
 edition of Plato's "Symposium" in 1782, enriched with 
 notes and an introduction, in which he gave proof of 
 critical sagacity. Having married about 1782, he was 
 appointed professor of philosophy at Halle in 1783, and 
 director of the Pedagogic Institute, which he trans- 
 formed into a philological seminary or normal school. 
 He had formed an exalted idea of the vocation of 
 teacher, which he pursued with much zeal and success. 
 During the twenty-three years in which he occupied 
 the chair at Halle, he gave more than fifty courses of 
 lectures on different authors and subjects, besides his 
 labours in the philological seminary. He published an 
 edition of Homer's poems in 1784 and 1785, and an 
 edition of Demosthenes' oration against Leptines, about 
 1790. The latter opened a new era in the study of 
 the Greek orators. His celebrity was increased by his 
 "Prolegomena ad Homerum," (1795,) in which he sup- 
 ported with much ingenuity the novel and paradoxical 
 theory that the " Iliad" and " Odyssey" were not written 
 by Homer or any single poet, but that they were 
 formed by the junction of several poems, composed by 
 different rhapsodists. This work produced a great 
 sensation among the learned throughout Europe ; but 
 his theory was accepted in full by a very few only. 
 Wolfs claim to priority in this discovery was disputed 
 by Heyne, and was defended by the former in " Letters 
 to Heyne," (1797,) which are regarded as models of 
 controversy and refined irony. He published an edition 
 of Suetonius, (1802,) and an edition of Homer, (" Ho- 
 meri et Homeridarum Opera," 4 vols., 1804-07.) 
 
 In consequence of the war, the University of Halle 
 was closed in 1806, soon after which Wolf removed to 
 Berlin, and took a prominent part in organizing the 
 university of that city. He received the title of privy 
 councillor at Berlin. Wolf and Buttmann published 
 the "Museum der Alterthumswissenschaft," (1807-10.) 
 In a remarkable treatise, entitled "Exhibition of Archae- 
 ology," (" Darstellung der Alterthumswissenschaft.") he 
 gave a programme of the studies of antiquity and phi- 
 lology which he wished to be pursued. He published 
 an excellent philological journal, called " Literarische 
 Analekten," (1817-20.) To improve his health, he visited 
 the south of France in the spring of 1824. He died at 
 Marseilles in August of that year. 
 
 See Hanhart, " Erinnerungen an F. A. Wolf," 1S25 ; W. 
 Koerte, "Leben und Studien Wolfs." 3 vols., |8«J "Nouvelle 
 Biographie Generale ;" "North British Review" for June, 1865. 
 
 Wolf, [Lat. Wol'fius,] (Hieronymus,) a German 
 scholar, born at Dettingen in 1516. He studied at Wit- 
 tenberg, and became in 1557 professor of Greek, and 
 rector of the gymnasium at Augsburg. He was one 
 of the best Greek scholars of his time, and published 
 editions of the works of Isocrates, of Nicephorus Grego- 
 ras, of .rEschines and Demosthenes, and other classics. 
 Died in 1580. 
 
 See Gerlach, " Dissertatio de Vila H. Wolfii," 1743 ; M. Adam, 
 " Vitae Germanorum Philosophorum." 
 
 Wolf, (JoHANN,) a German medical writer, born in 
 Zweibriicken (Deux-Ponts) in 1537, was professor at 
 Marburg. Died in 1616. 
 
 Wolf, (Johann,) a German jurist, said to have been 
 a twin brother of the preceding. He published "A 
 Key to History," ("Clavis Historiarum,") and other 
 works. Died in 1606. 
 
 Wolf, (Johann Christian,) a German philologist, 
 bom at Wernigerode in 1689. He became professor of 
 physics and poetry at Hamburg in 1725, and edited the 
 extant fragments of Sappho and other Greek poetesses. 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 ■Wolf, [Lat. Wol'fius,] (Johann Christoph,) a 
 German divine and scholar, a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Wernigerode in 1683. He became professor 
 of Oriental languages and rector at the gymnasium in 
 Hamburg. He published a " History of the Hebrew 
 Lexicons," (in Latin,) "Bibliotheca Hebraica,"and other 
 learned works, also editions of the Letters of Libanius, 
 and other classics. Died in 1 739. 
 
 See J. H. von Sp.ei.en, "Commentatio de Vita J. C. Wolfii," 
 1717: " Nouvelle Biographie GeneVale." 
 
 Wolf, (Kaspar,) a German medical writer, born at 
 Zurich about 1525, was a friend of C. Gesner. He was 
 professor of physics and Greek at Zurich. Died in 1601. 
 
 Wolf, (Kaspar Friedrich,) a German anatomist, 
 born in Berlin in 1735 ; died in 1794. 
 
 Wolf or Wold; von, fon wolf, |Lat. Wol'fius,] 
 (Johann Christian,) Freihkrr, a celebrated German 
 philosopher and mathematician, born at Breslau, January 
 24, 1679, (or, according to some authorities, 1674.) After 
 he had studied for some years in the College of Breslau, 
 he entered the University of Jena in 1699. He devoted 
 himself to the exact sciences, and began at an early age 
 to meditate the reform of practical philosophy by the 
 application of mathematical methods. About 1701 he 
 passed from Jena to Leipsic, where he took his degree 
 in philosophy, and delivered lectures. He became ac- 
 quainted with Leibnitz, who exercised considerable 
 influence over him. In 1707 he was appointed professor 
 of mathematics and philosophy at Halle. He published 
 "Thoughts on the Powers of the Human Mind," (1 712,) 
 and " Elements of Universal Science," (" Elementa 
 Matheseos universae," 1 713—15.) 
 
 His peace was disturbed by the intrigues of the 
 professors of theology, who censured his doctrines as 
 dangerous to religion and morality. Instigated by these 
 adversaries, among whom Joachim Lange was especially 
 violent, the King of Prussia removed Wolf from his chair 
 in 1723, and banished him from the kingdom. Before 
 that year he had published " Rational Thoughts on God, 
 the World, and the Human Soul," (1720,) "Thoughts 
 on the Search after Happiness," (1720,) and other works 
 He was professor of mathematics and philosophy at 
 Marburg for eighteen years, (1723-41.) During this 
 period he published a number of works, among which 
 are a celebrated " Treatise on Logic," (" Philosophia 
 Rationalis, sive Logica methodo Scientifica pertractata," 
 1728,) " Primitive Philosophy, or Ontology," (" Philoso- 
 phia prima, sive Ontologia," 1730,) "Moral Philosophy, 
 or Ethics," ("Philosophia moralis, sive Ethica," 1732,) 
 "Rational Psychology," ("Psychologia rationalis," 1734,) 
 and " Universal Practical Philosophy," (" Philosophia 
 practica universalis," 2 vols., 1738-39.) About 1733 
 he was invited by the king to return to Halle. He 
 declined to change his position until the accession of 
 Frederick the Great, (1740,) when he resumed his pro- 
 fessorship at Halle. He was appointed privy councillor 
 and professor of international law. Among his later 
 works were "The Law of Nature," ("Jus Natura;," 8 
 vols., 1740-49,) and "The Law of Nations," ("Jus 
 Gentium," 1 749.) He had married Catherine Marie 
 Brandisin in 1716, and had several children. As a phi- 
 losopher, he developed and popularized the doctrines 
 of Leibnitz, his mind being methodizing rather than 
 creative. Died in April, 1754. 
 
 See Stiebritz. " Nachrichtvon Wolfs T.ehen und Ende," 1754: 
 Gottschro, " Historische Lobschrift auf C Wolf," 1755 ; Wuttks, 
 "C. Wolfs eigene Lebensbeschreibung," 1841 : C. F. Baumkistkr. 
 "Vita, Fata ei Scripts C. Wolfii." 1739; Fontenei.le, "E'loges;" 
 "Nouvelle Biographic Ge'nerale." 
 
 Wolfart, wol'raut, (Peter,) a German medical writer, 
 born at Hanau in 1675 ; died in 1726. 
 
 Wolfe, wd"61f, (Charles,) an Irish clergyman and 
 poet, born at Dublin in 1791. He studied in the uni- 
 versity of his native city, took the degree of B.A. in 
 1814, and in 1817 was ordained. He died in 1823, of 
 consumption, at the early age of thirty-one. His works 
 were published in 1825, under the title of " Remains 
 of the Late Rev. Charles Wolfe," etc. : they consist of 
 sermons, prose sketches, and lyric poems of great 
 beauty. Among the last-named is his "Burial of Sir 
 John Moore," which is esteemed one of the finest 
 productions of the kind in the language. 
 
 1 .is *.' ■; as /. 8 hard; i. as /',• G, H, K, guttural; H, nasal ; R, trilled; s as 1; th as in this. (jy*See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WOLFE 
 
 2288 
 
 WOLMAR 
 
 Wolfe, (James,) a celebrated English officer, born in 
 Kent in 1726. He served with great distinction in Ger- 
 many in the early campaigns of the Seven Years' war, 
 and had a prominent part in the capture of Louisburg 
 from the French in 1758. He was appointed in 1759 to 
 command the land-forces in the expedition against the 
 French in Canada, having been previously made major- 
 general. After several ineffectual attempts to drive the 
 French army from their position near Quebec, he at 
 length succeeded in ascending the Heights of Abraham, 
 commanding that city, and, in the battle which ensued, 
 gained a decisive victory over the enemy. He was, 
 however, mortally wounded in the action, dying on the 
 field of battle immediately after he was informed of the 
 result. His opponent, General Montcalm, also fell in 
 this engagement, and the French lost their possessions 
 in Canada. 
 
 See "The Life of Major-General James Wolfe/' by Robert 
 Wright. 
 
 Wolff. See Wolf. 
 
 Wolff, wolf, (Emu.,) a German sculptor of high repu- 
 tation, born in Berlin in 1802, resided many years in 
 Rome. He executed a number of portrait-busts and 
 mythological subjects. Among the former, those of 
 Niebuhr and Prince Albert are especially admired. 
 
 Wolff, woolf, (Joseph,) a converted Jew and traveller, 
 born about 1795. He was ordained a priest of the 
 Anglican Church about 1838. He performed a journey 
 to Bokhara, of which he published a narrative. He 
 wrote other works. Died in 1862. 
 
 See " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1861. 
 
 Wolff, (OSKAR LUDVVIG BERNHARD,) a popular 
 German writer, born at Altona in 1799, was the author 
 of numerous tales, romances, and satirical sketches. 
 Among these we may name "The Natural History of 
 German Students," and "Poetical Home Treasure of 
 the German People." Died in 1851. 
 
 Wolff, (Pius Alexander,) a celebrated German actor 
 and dramatic writer, born at Augsburg in 1782. He 
 excelled particularly as a tragedian, and his representa- 
 tions of Hamlet, Orestes, Max Piccolomini, and Tasso 
 were unsurpassed. He was the author of "Caesareo," 
 and other comedies, and a drama entitled " Preciosa," 
 which forms the text of one of Von Weber's operas. 
 Died in 1828. 
 
 Wolffhart. See Lycosthenfs. 
 
 Wolffl or Woelffl, wblf'l, (Joseph,) an eminent 
 German composer and pianist, born at Salzburg in 1772, 
 was a pupil of Michael Haydn and Leopold Mozart. 
 In 1795 he visited Vienna, where he was received with 
 enthusiasm, and subsequently resided for a time in Paris 
 as music-teacher to the empress Josephine. He died 
 in London about 1812. His compositions are chiefly 
 operas, and pieces for the piano. As a pianist, he was 
 regarded as scarcely inferior to Beethoven. 
 
 Wolfgang, woolf 'gang, [Ger. pron. Wolfgang, | Prince 
 of Aqhalt, a German Reformer and adherent of Luther, 
 was born in 1492. Having taken up arms against the 
 Imperialists, he was outlawed by the emperor Charles V. 
 in 1547. Died in 1566. 
 
 Wolfius. See Wolf. 
 
 Wolfram von Esohenbach. See Eschenbach, 
 von. 
 
 Wolfter, wolf ter, (Peter,) a German historian, born 
 at Mannheim in 1758. He wrote on the history of the 
 German empire. Died in 1805. 
 
 Wolgemuth. See Wohlgemuth. 
 
 Wolke, wol'keh, (Christian Heinrich,) a German 
 teacher and educational writer, born af Jever in 1741 ; 
 died in 1825. 
 
 Wollaston, w6ol'las-ton, (William,) an English 
 writer on ethics and theologv, was born in Staffordshire 
 in 1659. He studied at Sidney College, Cambridge, 
 where he took the degree of A.M. in 1681. His principal 
 work, entitled "The Religion of Nature Delineated," 
 (1724,) obtained extensive popularity, and was translated 
 into French. He also wrote a number of critical, philo- 
 sophical, and theological treatises. Died in 1724. 
 
 See "Biographia Brilannica:' - Clarke. "Life of Wollaston." 
 prefixed 10 his edition of "The Religion of Nature." 
 
 WolldSton, (William Hyde,) an eminent English- 
 chemist and natural philosopher, born in London in 1766. 
 He was a son of Francis Wollaston, an astronomer, 
 who was a grandson of William, noticed above. Having 
 been educated at Cambridge, he studied medicine, and 
 took the degree of M.D. in 1793; but he soon re- 
 nounced the practice of medicine, and devoted himself 
 to scientific researches. He was chosen secretary of 
 Ihe Royal Society in 1806, and president of the same 
 in 1820. He invented the reflecting goniometer, by 
 which the angles of crystals are measured, and the 
 camera lucida, (1812.) About 1802 he verified the laws 
 of double refraction in Iceland spar, announced by 
 Huyghens, and wrote a treatise "On the Oblique Re- 
 fraction of Iceland Crystal." He acquired wealth by 
 the manufacture of platinum by an improved method, 
 having been the first who reduced that metal into ingots 
 in a state of purity. About 1805 he discovered the 
 metals palladium and rhodium. He contributed thirty- 
 eight memoirs to the "Philosophical Transactions." 
 The identity of galvanism with common electricity was 
 first demonstrated by Dr. Wollaston. He was a very 
 skilful experimenter and accurate observer. Among his 
 valuable inventions is a chemical sliding-rule, by which 
 the equivalents of substances are readily ascertained, 
 and an ingenious method of rendering platinum malle- 
 able. The latter was published just before his death. 
 Died in December, 1828. 
 
 See G. Moll, " De Dood van Dr. W. H. Wollaston ;" Thomson, 
 "History of Chemistry;" " Nojvelle Biographie Generate ;" 
 " British Quarterly Review" for August, 1846. 
 
 Wolle, wol'leh, (Christoph,) a German writer on 
 theology, born at Leipsic in 1700, was well versed in the 
 Oriental languages. Died in 1761. 
 
 Wolleb, wol'lep, [Lat. Wolle'bius,] (Johann,) a 
 Swiss divine, born at Bale in 1536. He was professor 
 in the University of Bale, and wrote a work entitled 
 "Summary of Theology," ("Compendium Theologix,") 
 which is highly commended. Died in 1626. 
 
 Wollebius. See Wolleb. 
 
 Wdllner or Woellner, von, fon wol'ner, (Johann 
 Christian,) a Prussian statesman, born at Ddvritz about 
 1730. He was ennobled by Frederick William II. in 
 1786, and was appointed minister of state and justice, 
 and director of ecclesiastic affairs, in 1788. He insisted 
 on rigid orthodoxy in the clergy. Died in 1800. 
 
 Wollatonecraft.wool'ston-kraft, (Mary,) afterwards 
 Mrs. Godwin, a celebrated English authoress, born in 
 1759. There is some doubt as to the place of her birth ; 
 but her parents removed to the vicinity of London when 
 she was about sixteen years old. Owing to the poverty 
 of her family, and the violent temper of her father, her 
 early training, both moral and intellectual, was very 
 defective. Having by her own exertions fitted herself to 
 be a teacher, she opened a school at Islington in 1783, 
 in which she was assisted by two sisters and an intimate 
 friend. In 1786 she published her first work, entitled 
 "Thoughts on the Education of Daughters." She next 
 translated into English Salzmann's "Elements of Mo- 
 rality," and Lavater's "Physiognomy." In 1791 she 
 wrote an answer to Burke's " Reflections on the French 
 Revolution," which was soon followed by her "Vindi- 
 cation of the Rights of Woman." In 1792 she visited 
 Paris, where she wrote " A Moral and Historical View of 
 the French Revolution." About this time she formed an 
 unfortunate attachment to an American named Imlay, 
 and, in consequence of his desertion, twice attempted to 
 destroy herself. In 1795, having business in Norway, 
 she travelled in that country and in Sweden, and, on 
 her return, published " Letters from Norway." This 
 work shows great shrewdness and powers of observation, 
 and contains many fine descriptive passages. Mary 
 Wollstonecraft was married to Godwin, the celebrated 
 novelist, in 1796, and died in 1797, after giving birth 
 to a daughter, who became the wife of the poet Shelley. 
 
 See William Godwin, "Life of Mnry Godwin;" Mrs. Elwood, 
 " Memoirs of the Literary Ladies of England from the Commence- 
 ment of the Last Century," vol. ii., (1843;) " Monthly Review" for 
 June, 1792, April, 1795, and July, 1796. 
 
 Wolmar, wol'maR, or Volkmar, vnlk'maR, (Mel- 
 chior,) a Swiss jurist and Hellenist, born at Rothweil 
 
 i, e, I, o, 0, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, S, j?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fat; mSt; nftt; good: moon; 
 
WOLOWSKI 
 
 2289 
 
 WOOD 
 
 about 1497. He was professor of law at Tubingen, and 
 taught Greek to Calvin. Died in 1561. 
 
 Wolowski, vo-lov'skee, (Lewis Francis Michael 
 Raymond,) a political economist, born at Warsaw in 
 1S10, is a memlier of the Institute of France. 
 
 Wolsey, wool'ze, (Thomas,) a celebrated English 
 courtier and cardinal, bom at Ipswich in 147 1. His 
 origin was rather obscure. According to a doubtful 
 tradition, he was the son of a butcher. He was educated 
 at Magdalene College, Oxford, where he obtained the 
 degree of B, A. at the early age of fifteen. He was elected 
 a Fellow of his college, was ordained a priest, and was 
 presented to the living of Lyniington in 1500. Soon 
 after that date he became chaplain to Henry VII., and 
 was sent on a delicate mission to the emperor Maxi- 
 milian, which he performed with great celerity and suc- 
 cess. He obtained in 1508 the lucrative place of Dean 
 of Lincoln. Soon after the accession of Henry VIII., 
 Wolsev's patron Bishop Fox procured his appointment 
 as royal almoner. Having excellent qualifications for a 
 courtier, he gained the special favour of the young king, 
 and was rapidly promoted. He became Canon of Wind- 
 sor in 151 1, Dean of York and Bishop of Tournay in 
 1513, Bishop of Lincoln in March, 1514, Archbishop of 
 York in September, 1514, and cardinal in 1515. About 
 the end of the last-named year he was appointed chan- 
 cellor. He was now the prime favourite and chief 
 minister of Henry VIII. In his style of living he dis- 
 played a princely magnificence. He had superior talents 
 for business, and understood the public interests, which 
 he seems to have promoted except when they interfered 
 with his ambition. His favour and influence were courted 
 by Charles V. and Francis I. when they became (15 19) 
 competitors for the imperial crown. Wolsey aspired to 
 the papacy, and was a candidate for it at the death of Leo 
 X., in 1522. When he was defeated, he showed his re- 
 sentment against Charles V. because that monarch failed 
 to support his pretensions. He built a grand palace at 
 Hampton Court, which he presented to Henrv VI II. 
 
 "The numerous enemies," says Hume, " whom Wol- 
 sey's sudden elevation, his aspiring character, and his 
 haughty deportment had raised him, served only to 
 rivet him faster in Henry's confidence. . . . That artful 
 prelate likewise, well acquainted with the king's impe- 
 rious temper, concealed from him the absolute ascendant 
 which he had acquired, and, while he secretly directed 
 all public councils, he ever pretended a blind submission 
 to the will and authority of his master." (" History of 
 England," vol. iii.) In 1523 he was appointed legate of 
 the pope for life. Wolsey fortified the king's scruples 
 in relation to his marriage with Queen Catherine, partly 
 with a view of promoting a breach with Charles V. ; but 
 he lost the favour of Henry, probably because he failed 
 to gain the pope's consent to the divorce of Catherine. 
 The enmity of Anne Boleyn also contributed to his fall. 
 In October, 1529, the great seal was taken from him. 
 An indictment was laid against him that he had pro- 
 cured bulls from Rome, contrary to a statute of Richard 
 II. The court pronounced against him a sentence by 
 which his lands and goods were forfeited ; but Henry 
 granted him a pardon for all offences. He was soon after 
 again arrested on a charge of treason ; but before his trial 
 began he died, at Leicester Abbey, in November, 1530. 
 
 See T. Storer, "Life of Thomas Wolsey," 1590; G. Cavhn- 
 dish, " Life of Cardinal Wolsey," 164: ; Fiddes, " Life of Cardinal 
 Wolsey," 1724 : J. Grove. " History of Cardinal Wolsey," 4 vols., 
 1742-44: J. Gait, "Life and Administration of Wolsey," tSt2 ; 
 Fkouoe, " History of England ;" Burton, " History of Scotland," 
 vol. iii., particularly pp. 279, 280; " Lives of Eminent British States- 
 men," in La r oner's Cyclopxdia ;" Shakspkakk, " Henry VIII." 
 
 Woltmann, von, fon wolt'man, (Karl Lumvio.) a 
 German historian, born at Oldenburg in 1770. He pub- 
 lished a "History of Great Britain," (1709,) a "History 
 of the Peace of Westphalia," (1809,) a continuation of 
 Schiller's "Thirty Years' War," and other works. Died 
 in 1817. 
 
 His wife, Caroline von Woltmann, originally 
 named Siosch, (stosh,) was the author of several his- 
 torical and fictitious compositions. Died in 1847. 
 
 Wolzogen, wolt-so'gen, (JoHANM LUDWIG,] a Ger- 
 man Socinian writer, born in Austria in 1596; died near 
 Breslau in 1658. 
 
 Wolzogen, van, vSn wol-zo'gen or wolzo'nen, 
 (Louis,) a Dutch theologian, born at Amersfort in 1632. 
 He preached at Amsterdam in the Walloon church, and 
 wrote several theological works. Died in 1690. 
 
 Wolzogen, von, fon wolt-so'gen, (Justus Ludwig,) 
 Baron, a Prussian general, born at Meiningen in 1773, 
 was a step-son of Karoline von Wolzogen, noticed 
 below. He served against the French in the principal 
 campaigns from 1807 to 1815, and obtained the rank of 
 general of infantry. Died in 1845. 
 
 Wolzogen, von, (Karoline,) a German writer, born 
 at Rudolstadt in 1763. Her original name was Lengs- 
 FF.ld, and she was a sister-in-law of the celebrated 
 Schiller. She published in 1798 a romance entitled 
 "Agnes von Lilien," which was received with great 
 favour. Her " Life of Schiller, drawn from the Recol- 
 lections of his Family," etc., came out in 1830, in 2 
 vols. It gives a highly interesting and truthful delinea- 
 tion of the life and character of that great poet. Died 
 in 1847. 
 
 Womook, woo'mok, or Wo'mack, (Lawrence,) 
 an English theologian, born in Norfolk in 1612. He 
 took an active part in the controversies of the time, 
 and wrote against the Puritans and the nonconformists. 
 He became Bishop of Saint David's in 1683. Died in 
 1685. 
 
 Wood, (Sir Andrew,) an able Scottish admiral, 
 born about 1455. He fought against the English. Died 
 about 1540. 
 
 See Chambers, " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen,' 
 (Supplement.) 
 
 Wood, (Anthony A,) an English antiquarian writer, 
 born at Oxford in 1632. He studied at Merton College, 
 and attained great proficiency in music and the science 
 of heraldry. He was the author of the " History and 
 Antiquities of Oxford," translated into Latin by Dr. 
 Fell, (1674,) and "Athenae Oxonienses, an Exact His- 
 tory of all the Writers and Bishops who have had their 
 Education in the University of Oxford from 1500 to 
 1695," etc. Died in 1695. 
 
 See R. Rawlinson, "Life of Anthony a Wood," 1711; Alli- 
 bone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Wood, (Sir Charles,) G.C.B., an English states- 
 man, born at Pontefract in 1800. He studied at OrieJ 
 College, Oxford, was elected to Parliament for Great 
 Grimsby in 1826, and returned for Wareham in 1831. 
 He was afterwards successively secretary to the treasury 
 and to the admiralty, and in 1846 became chancellor of 
 the exchequer. He resigned in 1852. He was appointed 
 secretary of state for India in 1859, which position he 
 resigned in 1866, or before that date. 
 
 Wood, (Fernando,) an American politician, born in 
 Philadelphia about 1812. He became a merchant of 
 New York City, was elected to Congress by the Demo- 
 crats in 1841, and was chosen mayor of New York in 
 1854. He was re-elected mayor, and in January, 1861, 
 recommended that New York should secede and become 
 a free city. He was re-elected to Congress in 1868 
 and 1870. 
 
 Wood, (George B.,) M.D., LL.D., an eminent 
 American physician and medical writer, was born in 
 Greenwich, Cumberland county, New Jersey, in 1 797. 
 His parents were Friends ; his great-grandfather, Richard 
 Wood, was a county judge in 1748. The education of 
 Dr. Wood was begun in the city of New York. In 
 1815 he graduated with the first honours in the aca- 
 demical department of the University of Pennsylvania. 
 He studied medicine in the office of Dr. Joseph Parrish, 
 and took the degree of M.D. in the University of Penn- 
 sylvania in 1818. He delivered in 1820 a course of lec- 
 tures on chemistry, and was appointed in 1822 to the- 
 chair of chemistry, and in 1831 to that of materia medica,. 
 in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. In 1835 he 
 was elected professor of materia medica and pharmacy 
 in the University of Pennsylvania, a position which he- 
 filled with great distinction for fifteen years. In 185© 
 he was transferred to the chair of the theory and prac- 
 tice of medicine in the same institution. He resigned 
 this position in i860. As a lecturer, Dr. Wood was 
 eminently successful. While filling the chair of materia 
 medica at the university, he procured and exhibited to 
 
 e as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, Ml, guttural; N, nasal: R. trilled: 3 as t: th as in this. 
 
 1 : 1 
 
 (Jt^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WOOD 
 
 2290 
 
 WOODDESON 
 
 the students, at great expense, many living specimens 
 of rare tropical and other exotic plants which he had 
 occasion to treat of in his lectures ; and he has doubt- 
 less done more than any other individual of his time to 
 advance the interests and reputation of the institution 
 with which he was connected. In 1865 he endowed an 
 auxiliary faculty of medicine in the University of Penn- 
 sylvania, composed of five chairs: namely, — 1. Zoology 
 and Comparative Anatomy; 2. Botany; 3. Mineralogy 
 and Geology; 4. Hygiene ; 5. Medical Jurisprudence and 
 Toxicology ; the incumbent of each chair being required 
 to deliver, during the months of April, May, and June, 
 not less than thirty-four lectures every year. 
 
 Among Dr. Wood's various publications we may name 
 a "History of the University of Pennsylvania," (1827,) 
 a " Treatise on the Practice of Medicine," (2 vols., r847,) 
 which has passed through numerous editions, and has 
 been adopted as a text-book in the medical department 
 of the University of Edinburgh, and a "Treatise on 
 Therapeutics and Pharmacology," etc., (2 vols., 1856.) 
 In addition to the above, he prepared, conjointly with 
 Dr. Franklin Bache, in 1830, a " Pharmacopoeia," which 
 was adopted, with slight alterations made under the 
 superintendence of its authors, by the national convention 
 of physicians assembled for that purpose, and which 
 became the basis of the present "United States Phar- 
 macopoeia ;" and the " United States Dispensatory," (first 
 published in 1833.) Of this admirable work the first 
 idea was suggested by Dr. Wood, who also wrote about 
 two-thirds of the original work, and he had the entire 
 superintendence of the preparation of the last edition, 
 (published since the death of Dr. Bache,) thoroughly 
 revised and brought down to near the present time. 
 More than 120,000 copies of this work have been (1870) 
 sold since its first publication. 
 
 In 1859 Dr. Wood was elected president of the 
 American Philosophical Society, which position he still 
 holds. 
 
 Wood, (Isaac,) an English painter and humorist, 
 born in 1689 ; died in 1 752. 
 
 Wood, (James,) an English millionaire and miser, 
 born at Gloucester in 1756, became proprietor of the 
 Old Gloucester Bank. He also at the same time kept 
 a small shop, which he attended diligently. He died in 
 1836, leaving his fortune to his four executors. 
 
 Wood, (Jethro,) distinguished as the inventor of a 
 greatly-improved form of the cast-iron plough, was born 
 in Washington county, New York, in 1774. He is said 
 to have commenced forming models of ploughs when 
 he was a boy. In 1819 he completed his great inven- 
 tion, which, by its simple, construction, its cheapness, and 
 its efficiency, soon superseded the old style of ploughs 
 throughout the United States. Mr. Wood resided in 
 Cayuga county, New York, where he died in 1854. 
 
 Wood, (John,) an English architect, commonly called 
 Wood of Bath. He published a work entitled " Origin 
 of Building," etc., and an " Essay towards a Description of 
 Bath," which city he greatly improved and embellished. 
 Died in 1754. 
 
 Wood, (Rev. John George,) an English naturalist, 
 born in London in 1827. He published, besides other 
 works, "Common Objects of the Sea-Shore," (1857,) 
 "The Illustrated Natural History," (3 vols., 1859-63,) 
 which is said to be a work of great value, and a " Pop- 
 ular Natural History," (1866.) 
 
 Wood, (Sir Matthew,) M.P., an English magistrate, 
 born at Tiverton in 1768. He became lord mayor of 
 London in 1815, and again in 1816. He saved the lives 
 of three men unjustly condemned on false evidence. 
 Died in 1843. 
 
 Wood, (Robert,) an eminent archaeologist, known 
 also as Palmyra Wood, was born in the county of 
 Meath, Ireland, in 1716. Having studied at Oxford, he 
 visited Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, and published, 
 after his return, the "Ruins of Palmyra," (1753, with 57 
 plates,) and "Ruins of Balbeck," (1757, with 47 plates.) 
 He also wrote " An Essay on the Original Genius and 
 Writings of Homer," etc., which was translated into 
 several languages. Died in 1771. 
 
 Wood, (Thomas Jefeekson,) an American general, 
 born in Kentucky about 1825, graduated at West Point 
 
 in 1845. He was appointed a brigadier-general of Union 
 volunteers about October, 1861. He commanded a di- 
 vision at the battle of Stone River, which ended January 
 2, 1863, and at Chickamauga, September 19 and 20 of 
 the same year. He served under GenerafSherman in the 
 campaign against Atlanta, May-August, and commanded 
 a corps at the great battle of Nashville, December l\ 
 and 16, 1864. 
 
 Wood, (Sir William Page,) Lord Hatherley, an 
 English lawyer, born probably in London in 1801. He 
 graduated with honour at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 and was called to the bar in 1827. About 1847 he was 
 returned to Parliament for the city of Oxford as a Lib- 
 eral. He was appointed solicitor-general in 185 1, and 
 a vice-chancellor in December, 1852. He had been for 
 some time lord justice of appeal when he was appointed 
 lord chancellor by Mr. Gladstone, in December, 1868, 
 and then received the title of Lord Hatherley. 
 
 Wood'all, (wdod'al,) (John,) an English surgeon, 
 born about 1556, wrote a treatise "On the Plague," 
 "The Surgeon's Mate," a description of the diseases of 
 sailors, and other works. He became surgeon to Saint 
 Bartholomew's Hospital. 
 
 Wood'bridge, (Benjamin,) an English theologian, 
 born in 1622, graduated at Harvard College in 1642. 
 He preached at Newbury, (England,) from which he 
 was ejected in r662. He wrote several works. Died 
 in 1684. 
 
 Wood'bridge, (Timothy,) a blind American 
 preacher, born at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in 1784, 
 was a grandson of Jonathan Edwards. He was minister 
 of the Presbyterian church of Spencertown, Columbia 
 county, New York, from 1818 to 185 1. Died in Decem- 
 ber, 1862. 
 
 Woodbridge, (William Channing,) an American 
 educational writer, born at Medford, Massachusetts, in 
 1794. He published, conjointly with Mrs. Willard, a 
 " Universal Geography," " Letters from Hofwyl," de- 
 scribing Pestalozzi's system of school instruction, and 
 other works. Died in 1845. 
 
 Woodbury, w<5od'ber-e, (Daniel P.,) an American 
 general and engineer, born in New Hampshire, gradu- 
 ated at West Point in 1836. He became a captain of 
 engineers in 1853, and commanded the engineer brigade 
 of the army of the Potomac in 1862. He died of fever, 
 at Key West, in August, 1864, aged fifty-one. 
 
 Woodbury, (Levi,) an American jurist and states- 
 man, born at Francestown, New Hampshire, in Decem- 
 ber, 1789. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1809, 
 studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1812. He 
 was appointed a judge of the superior court in 1817, 
 settled at Portsmouth in 1819, and was elected Governor 
 of New Hampshire in 1823. He was a Senator of the 
 United States from 1S25 to 1831, and was appointed 
 secretary of the navy about April of that year. In June 
 or July, 1834, he became secretary of the treasury in the 
 cabinet of President Jackson. He continued to fill that 
 office under Mr. Van Buren until March, 1841 ; he was 
 elected a Senator of the United States for New Hamp- 
 shire in that year. He voted against the repeal of the 
 Sub-Treasury act, and for the annexation of Texas to 
 the Union, (1844.) About the end of 1845 he was ap- 
 pointed a justice of the supreme court of the United 
 States, in place of Joseph Story. He died at Ports- 
 mouth in September, 1851. A collection of his "Po- 
 litical, Judicial, and Literary Writings" was published 
 in 3 vols., (1852.) 
 
 See the " National Portrait-Gallery of Distinguished Americans," 
 vol. ii. 
 
 Woodd, wood, (Basil,) an English clergyman, born 
 in Surrey in 1760, was rector of Saint Peter's, Cornhill. 
 He published "Advice to Youth," and other works. 
 Died in 1831. 
 
 Wood'de-son, (Richard,) an eminent English jurist 
 and legal writer, born in Surrey in 1745. He studied at 
 Oxford, where he succeeded Sir Robert Chambers as 
 Vinerian professor of law. He published "Elements of 
 Jurisprudence," etc., (1783,) "A Systematical View of 
 the Laws of England," etc., (1792,) and a "Brief Vin- 
 dication of the Rights of the British Legislature," (1799,) 
 which are esteemed standard works. Died in 1S22. 
 
 a, e. T, 6, C, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 5, e, T, 6, ii, J>, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; fir, fill, (it; mSt; not; good; in 00 
 
WOODTALl 
 
 ngt 
 
 WOOLSEY 
 
 Wood'fall, (Henry Sampson,) an English journalist, 
 was editor of the "Public Advertiser" at the time the 
 "Letters of Junius" appeared in its columns. He was 
 distinguished /or his retentive memory and his extra- 
 ordinary talents as a reporter, and he is said to have 
 written "sixteen columns after having sat in a crowded 
 
 fallery for as many hours without an interval of rest." 
 >ied in 1803. His brother William was editor suc- 
 cessively of "The London Packet," "The Morning 
 Chronicle," and "The Diary." 
 
 Wood'ford, (Samuel,) an English clergyman and 
 poet, born in London in 1636. He obtained a prebend 
 at Winchester in 16S0. Died in 1700. 
 
 Wood'hSad, (Abraham,) an English Catholic priest, 
 born in Yorkshire about 1608. He wrote several con- 
 troversial works against the Protestants. Died in 1678. 
 
 Wood'house, (Robert,) an English astronomer and 
 mathematician, born at Norwich in 1773. He became 
 Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge in 1820, 
 and Plumian professor of astronomy in 1822. He wrote, 
 besides other works, "The Principles of Analytical 
 Calculation," (1803,) a "Treatise on Isoperimetrical 
 Problems," (r8lo,) and a "Treatise on Physical As- 
 tronomy," (2 vols., 1812-18,) which is highly esteemed. 
 He was appointed superintendent of the Observatory 
 in 1824. Died in 1827. 
 
 Woodhouselee, Lord. See Tytler, (Alexan- 
 der F.) 
 
 Woods, (Leonard,) D.D., an American divine, born 
 at Princeton, Massachusetts, in 1774. He graduated at 
 Harvard College, and was appointed in 1S0S professor 
 of theology in Andover Theological Seminary, which 
 post he occupied for nearly forty years. He was an 
 active member of the American Tract Society, the 
 Temperance Society, and other similar institutions. 
 Died in 1854. 
 
 His son, of the same name, became in 1839 presi- 
 dent of Bowdoin College, and has translated from the 
 German Knapp's "Lectures on Christian Theology." 
 
 Woodville, (Anthony.) See Rivers, Earl of. 
 
 Woodville or Wydeville, (Elizabeth.) See 
 Elizabeth Woodvili.k. 
 
 Woodville, wood'vil, (William,) an English physi- 
 cian, born at Cockermouth in 1752. He took his degree 
 at Edinburgh, and afterwards settled in London, where 
 he was appointed physician to the Smallpox Hospital. 
 He published a valuable work entitled " Medical Botany," 
 (4 vols. 4to, 1790.) He also wrote a "History of the 
 Smallpox in Great Britain," (unfinished.) Died in 1805. 
 
 Wood'ward, (Bernard Boi.ingbroke,) an English 
 historian, born at Norwich in 1816. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of Wales," (1851,) a " History of America," and 
 other works. In 1816 he became librarian to the queen 
 at Windsor. 
 
 Wood'ward, (Henry,) an English comedian, born in 
 London in 1717. He published several dramatic pieces. 
 Died in 1777. 
 
 Woodward, (John,) an English geologist, phvsician, 
 and antiquary, born in Derbyshire in 1665. He pub- 
 lished in 1695 "A Natural History of the Earth,'' con- 
 taining the results of his observations during a scientific 
 tour in England. This work, which presented new and 
 important truths in relation to geology, was received 
 with great favour, though the errors it contains excited 
 considerable opposition. Dr. Woodward became pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Gresham College. He was also a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, and of the College of 
 Physicians. His other principal works are " An Account 
 of Roman Urns and other Antiquities lately dug up 
 near Bishopsgate," (1707,) and an "Attempt towards 
 a Natural History of the Fossils of England." The 
 latter came out after his death, which occurred in 1728. 
 
 Wood'ward, (Samuel Bayard.) M.D., an Ameri- 
 can physician', born at Torrington, Connecticut, in 1787, 
 became in 1832 superintendent of the State Lunatic 
 Asvlum at Worcester, Massachusetts. Died in 185a 
 
 Woodward, (Samuel P.,) an English geologist, a 
 brother of Bernard B. Woodward, noticed above, born 
 at Norwich in 1821, was a son of Samuel Woodward, 
 author. He was appointed professor of botany and 
 geology in the Royal Agricultural College in 1845. He 
 
 € as k; 9 as s: g hard; g as/,- G, H, Y.,guUural; N, nasal; R, 
 
 contributed to several scientific periodicals, and pub- 
 lished a "Manual of Recent and Fossil Shells," (1851- 
 56.) Died in 1865. 
 
 Wood'worth, (Samuel,) an American journalist 
 and poet, born at Scituate, Massachusetts, in 1785. In 
 1823 he founded, conjointly with George P. Morris, the 
 " New York Mirror." He was the author of a number 
 of lyrics, one of which, entitled "The Old Oaken 
 Bucket," has been very popular. Died in 1842. 
 
 Wool, (John E.,) an American general, born at New- 
 burg, New York, in 1789. He entered the army in 
 April, 1812, and served as captain at Queenstown in Oc- 
 tober of that year. He became inspector-general of the 
 army in 1821, and obtained the rank of brigadier-general 
 in 1841. He served with distinction at the battle of 
 Bucna Vista, February, 1847. In 1854 he was appointed 
 commander of the department of the Pacific. He took 
 command of Fortress Monroe and the department of 
 Virginia, August 16, 1861, and occupied Norfolk, M.iy 
 10, 1862. He was promoted to be a major-general of 
 the regular army, May 16, 1862. Died in 1869. 
 
 Wool'house, (John Thomas,) an English surgeon 
 and oculist. He resided for a time in Paris, where he 
 published, in French, several treatises on diseases of 
 theeye. Died in 1730. 
 
 Wool'lett, (William,) an eminent English engraver, 
 born in Kent in 1735. His landscapes, both etched and 
 engraved, are ranked among the most exquisite works 
 of the kind ; his engravings of the " Death of General 
 Wolfe" and the " Battle of the Hogue," after West, are 
 also esteemed master-pieces. Among his best land- 
 scapes we may name "Jacob and Laban" and " Roman 
 Ruins," after Claude Lorrain, and " Cicero at his Villa," 
 " Apollo and the Seasons," and " Phaeton," after Wilson. 
 He died in 1785, and a monument was erected to him in 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 See Strutt, " Dictionary of EnRravers." 
 
 Wool'man, (John,) an American Quaker preacher 
 and eminent philanthropist, born in Northampton, near 
 Burlington, New Jersey, in 1720. The cruelties insepa- 
 rable from negro slavery early made a deep impression 
 on his mind, and he laboured long and zealously to 
 convince the people of the colonies, and especially 
 those of his own religious persuasion, of the iniquity of 
 holding their fellow-beings in bondage ; and his influ- 
 ence doubtless contributed far more than that of any 
 other individual towards inducing the Society of Friends 
 to pass regulations forbidding their members either to 
 hold slaves themselves or in any way to encourage that 
 iniquitous practice in others. Woolman worked at the 
 trade of a tailor, and was a rare example of conscien- 
 tiousness, self-denial, humility, and benevolence. Among 
 his principal works are " Some Considerations on the 
 Keeping of Negroes," (1754,) "Considerations on the 
 True Harmony of Manjcind," (1770,) "The Journal of 
 the Life and Travels of John Woolman in the Service 
 of the Gospel," (1774-75,) ar, d "A Word of Remem- 
 brance and Caution- to the Rich," (Dublin, 1793.) Died 
 at York, in England, in 1773. The sensibility, the 
 loving spirit, and the beautiful simplicity of character 
 evinced in the writings of Woolman have often attracted 
 the admiration of those who were far from endorsing 
 the peculiar views of the Society of Friends. Charles 
 Lamb says, "Get the writings of John Woolman by 
 heart, and love the early Quakers." (" Essays of Elia.") 
 
 See, also, " H. C. Robinson's Diary," vol. ii. 
 
 Woolsey, wool'se, (Melancthon Taylor,) a naval 
 officer, born in the State of New York in 1782, became 
 commander of the Constellation in 1825. Died in 1838. 
 
 Woolsey, (Theodore Dwight,) D.D., LL.D., an 
 eminent American scholar, a nephew of President 
 Dwight, was born in the city of New York the 31st of 
 October, 1801. He graduated at Yale College in 1S20. 
 He afterwards studied theology at Princeton, and the 
 Greek language in Germany. He was appointed in 
 1831 professor of Greek in Yale College, of which 
 he was elected president in 1846, as successor to 
 Dr. Day, and filled this high position with distinguished 
 ability until his resignation in 1871. He prepared as 
 lext-books the following Greek classics, to which he 
 added valuable notes: "The Alcestis of Euripides," 
 
 trilled; s as z; th as in this. (3^~See Explanations, p. 2;. 
 
WOOLSTON 
 
 2292 
 
 WORDSWORTH 
 
 (first published in 1833,) "The Antigone of Sophocles," 
 (1835,) "The Electra of Sophocles," (1837,) "The Pro- 
 metheus of .lEschylus," (1837,) and "The Gorgias of 
 Plato," (1842.) He has also published an excellent "In- 
 troduction to the Study of International Law," and a 
 volume entitled "Essays on Divorce,'" etc., (1869,) and 
 has made important contributions to the " New Eng- 
 lander" and other literary journals. 
 
 See Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Wool'ston, (Thomas,) an English theologian, born 
 at Northampton in 1669. He studied at Cambridge, and 
 subsequently entered into holy orders. He published in 
 1705 "The Old Apology for the Truth of the Christian 
 Religion against the Jews and Gentiles Revived," which 
 was followed by several other works in favour of an alle- 
 gorical interpretation of the Scriptures. For his " Six 
 Discourses on the Miracles of Christ," he was sentenced 
 to a year's imprisonment. Died in 1733. 
 
 Woos'ter, (wdos'ter,) (David,) an American general 
 of the Revolution, born at Stratford, Connecticut, in 
 1710. He served against the French, and subsequently 
 rose to be major-general in the Continental army. He 
 was mortally wounded in battle near Ridgefield in 1777. 
 
 Woot'ton or Wooton, (John,) an English painter 
 of animals, landscapes, etc., born about 1720 or earlier. 
 He painted horses and sporting-scenes. Died in 1765. 
 
 Woo-Wang or Wou-Wang, woo'wang', the founder 
 of the Chinese dynasty of Chow, (or Tcheou,) was born 
 about 1 169 B.C. He obtained the throne about 1122 by 
 a victory over the army of the reigning emperor. He is 
 represented as a great reformer and lawgiver. Died in 
 IIl6 B.C. 
 
 See " Biographie Universelle." 
 
 Wopcke or Woepcke, wop'keh, (Franz,) a Ger- 
 man mathematician and Orientalist, born at Dessau in 
 1826. He devoted much attention to the subject of 
 mathematics among the Orientals, and wrote several 
 treatises on the same. He died in Paris in 1864. 
 
 See Nardiicci, "Intoruo alia Vita di Fr. Woepcke," Rome, 1864; 
 "Nouvelle Biographic Generale." 
 
 Worcester, woos'ter, (Edward Somfrsf.t,) Mar- 
 quis OF, an English peer, distinguished as one of the 
 inventors of the steam-engine, was born in 1601. He 
 was styled Lord Herbkrt during the life of his father. 
 He was an active partisan of Charles I. in the civil 
 war, raised troops at his own expense, and spent in the 
 cause a great sum of money, which was never repaid. He 
 had an inventive genius and superior mechanical talents. 
 He resided at Raglan Castle, in Monmouthshire. After 
 the restoration of 1660 he impoverished himself by the 
 expenditure of large sums in scientific experiments. In 
 1663 Parliament passed an act to enable the marquis to 
 receive the benefit and profit of "a water-commanding 
 engine" invented by him. Soon after this event he 
 published a curious work, entitled a "Century of the 
 Names and Scantlings of Inventions," and constructed 
 at Vauxhall a machine which he called a water-engine. 
 This appears to have been the first steam-engine ever 
 made. He was regarded as a visionary projector by his 
 contemporaries. Died in 1667. 
 
 See Henrv Dircks. " Life, Times, and Scientific Labours of the 
 Marquis of Worcester," 1865. 
 
 Worcester, wofis'ter, (Joseph Emerson,) a distin- 
 guished American lexicographer, born at Bedford, New 
 Hampshire, in 1784. He graduated at Yale College 
 in 181 1. He published a "Universal Gazetteer," (2 
 vols., 1817,) a "Gazetteer of the United States," (1818,) 
 "Elements of Geography, Ancient and Modern," (1819,) 
 and other works on geography. He removed to Cam- 
 bridge, Massachusetts, about 1820. In 1830 he pro- 
 duced a "Comprehensive Pronouncing and Explanatory 
 Dictionary," and in 1846 a "Universal and Critical 
 Dictionary of the English Language," (1 vol. 4to,) 
 which ranks with the very best works of the kind in 
 our language. Died in 1865. 
 
 See Ai.mrone, "Dictionary of Authors;" "North American 
 Review" for January, 1847. 
 
 Worcester, (Noah,) D.D., a learned American Con- 
 gregational divine, and one of the most prominent of 
 the earjy advocates of Unitarianism in New England, 
 was born at Hollis, New Hampshire, in 1758. One of I 
 
 his first publications, entitled " Bible News of the Father, 
 Son, and Holy Ghost," was strongly condemned by the 
 orthodox clergy. Among his other works we may name 
 " A Solemn Review of the Custom of War," which had 
 a great popularity and was translated into several lan- 
 guages, "The Causes and Evils of Contention among 
 Christians," (1831,) and "Last Thoughts on Important 
 Subjects," (1833.) He was for many years editor of the 
 "Friend of Peace." Died in 1837. 
 
 Worcester, (Samuel,) D.D., a brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Hollis, New Hampshire, in 1770. He 
 became pastor of the Tabernacle Church, Salem, Massa- 
 chusetts. Died in 1821. His son Samuel Melanc- 
 THon became professor of rhetoric at Amherst College. 
 Worde, de, deh waurd, ? (Wynkin,) an eminent 
 printer, who assisted Caxton in London, printed many 
 works after the death of Caxton. Died about 1534. 
 
 Wor'den, (John Lorimer,) an American naval 
 officer, was born in Westchester county, New York, 
 March 12, 1818. He entered the navy in 1834, and be- 
 came a lieutenant in 1840. In April, 1861, he was sent 
 as a bearer of despatches to Fort Pickens or Pensacola. 
 He was arrested as he was returning by land, and kept 
 in prison seven months. He commanded the floating 
 battery Monitor, which was armed with two 11 -inch 
 smooth-bore Dahlgren guns, carrying a shot of one 
 hundred and sixty-eight pounds, and which left New 
 York March 6, 1862. He arrived at Hampton Roads 
 on the-evening of the 8th, after the iron-clad Merrimac 
 had destroyed the wooden frigates Cumberland and 
 Congress. On the morning of the 9th a memorable 
 and indecisive battle was fought by the Merrimac and 
 Monitor, the former of which was partly disabled and 
 abandoned the fight, after several violent collisions with 
 the Monitor. He was raised to the rank of commander 
 in the summer of 1862, became a captain in February, 
 1S63, and commanded the iron-clad Mon'auk in the 
 operations against Fort Sumter in April of that year. 
 In June, 1868, he was appointed a commodore. 
 
 See Headley, " Farragut and our Naval Commanders," 1867. 
 Wordsworth, wiirdz'worth, (Chari.es,) an English 
 bishop, a nephew of the poet William Wordsworth, was 
 born in 1806. He published a " Greek Grammar," 
 (1839,) "Christian Boyhood at a Public School," and 
 other works, mostly religious. He was appointed Bishop 
 of Saint Andrew's, Dunkeld, and Dunblane, in 1852. 
 
 Wordsworth, (Christopher,) D.D., born at Cock- 
 ermouth, in Cumberland, in 1774, was father of the 
 preceding, and a brother of the celebrated poet, noticed 
 below. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 where he took the degree of M.A. in 1799. He was 
 successively appointed chaplain to the House of Com- 
 mons, master of Trinity College, and rector of Buxted 
 and Uckfield. He' was the author of "Ecclesiastical 
 Biography, or the Lives of Eminent Men connected with 
 the History of Religion in England," (6 vols. 8vo, 1809,) 
 "Christian Institutes," (4 vols. 8vo, 1837,) a collection 
 of sermons, and two works on the authorship of " Icon 
 Basilike." Died in 1846. 
 
 Wordsworth, (Christopher,) D.D., youngest son 
 of the preceding, was born about 1808. lie studied at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took the degree 
 of M. A., and soon after entered into holy orders. He 
 became head-master of Harrow, School in 1835, and in 
 1850 vicar of Stanford-in-the-Vale, and Bishop of Lincoln 
 in 1869. Among his principal works are "Athens and 
 Attica: Journal of a Residence there," (1836,) "Theo- 
 philus Anglicanus, or Instruction for the Young Student 
 concerning the Church," etc., (1843,) "On the Canon of 
 the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament, and on the 
 Apocrypha," (1848,) and "Memoirs of William Words- 
 worth, Poet-Laureate," (2 vols., 1851.) 
 
 Wordsworth, (William,) an illustrious English 
 poet, born at Cockermouth, in Cumberland, on the 7th 
 of April, 1770, was a son of John Wordsworth, attorneys 
 at-law, and Anne Cookson. About 1778 he was sent 
 with his elder brother to the school of Hawkshead, Lan- 
 cashire, where he remained until his eighteenth year. 
 Here, about the age of fifteen, he wrote, as a task or 
 school-exercise, "The Summer Vacation," in verse. In 
 October, 1787, he entered Saint John's College, Cam- 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m8t; not; good; moon; 
 
WORDSWORTH 
 
 "93 
 
 WORM 
 
 bridge. He was impatient of control, and, like Milton, 
 was averse to the studies and discipline of his college. 
 According to his own account, he "got into rather an 
 idle way, reading nothing but classic authors according 
 to my fancy, and Italian poetry." " He did not tread 
 in the beaten path prescribed by academic authority 
 and leading to academic distinctions." ("Memoirs of 
 Wordsworth," by his nephew.) In the summer and 
 autumn of 1790 he spent his vacation in a pedestrian tour 
 through France and among the Alps. "At the Lake of 
 Como," he writes, "my mind ran through a thousand 
 dreams of happiness which might be enjoyed upon its 
 banks, if heightened by conversation and the exercise 
 of the social affections." He took his degree of B.A. 
 in January, 1791. 
 
 Wordsworth hailed the French Revolution, at first, 
 with enthusiasm, and felt a strong impulse to take an 
 active part in it He went to Paris in the autumn of 
 1791, and afterwards passed several months at Orleans, 
 where he learned to speak French. In October, 1792, 
 he was again in Paris, and was intimately connected 
 with the Girondists. " He longed to remain at Paris," 
 says his nephew, "but, happily for him, circumstances 
 obliged him to return to England," where he arrived 
 about the end of 1792. Although he was disappointed 
 by the course of events in France, he still clung with 
 tenacity to his republican principles, which he avowed 
 in letters written after his return from France. Some 
 of his friends advised him to take holy orders; but he 
 had insuperable objections to the clerical profession. 
 "As for the law," said he, "I have neither strength of 
 mind, purse, nor constitution to engage in that pursuit." 
 
 lie opened his literary .career by the publication of 
 two poems, "The Evening Walk, addressed to a Young 
 Lady," (1793,) anc ' "Descriptive Sketches taken during 
 a Pedestrian Tour among the Alps," (1793.) His pecu- 
 niary circumstances at this period were distressing. In 
 November, 1794, he requested a friend to procure him 
 employment as a contributor to a London paper, and 
 insisted that it must be an organ of the opposition. 
 He was relieved from the pressure of poverty, in 1795, 
 by a legacy of ,£900 from his friend R. Calvert. In 
 1795 or 1796 he settled at Racedown, Dorsetshire, with 
 his sister Dorothy, who exercised a great and sal 11- 
 tary influence over him. She cheered his spirits, and 
 counteracted his morbid tendencies. He tells us in 
 his "Prelude" that she "maintained for me a saving 
 intercourse with my true self." His next production 
 was "Salisbury Plain; or, Guilt and Sorrow," (1796.) 
 In June, 1797, S. T. Coleridge visited Wordsworth at 
 Racedown. To enjoy the society of Coleridge, Words- 
 worth and his sister removed to Alfoxden in August, 
 1797. He wrote there a number of short poems, which 
 were published under the title of " Lyrical Ballads," 
 (1798,) and were but coldly received. He passed the 
 winter of 1798-99 in Germany, whither he went in 
 company with Coleridge. On his return he settled at 
 Grasmere, where he resided until 1808. He married 
 Mary Hutchinson in 1802, and about the same time 
 inherited nearly ,£1800 of his father's estate. 
 
 In 1805 he finished a long autobiographical poem, 
 called "The Prelude," containing an account of the 
 cultivation and development of his own mind, in four- 
 teen books, which remained in manuscript until his 
 death. " I began this work," says the author, " because 
 I was unprepared to treat any more arduous subjects." 
 Henceforth he resolved to devote his energies to a phi- 
 losophical poem, entitled "The Recluse." 
 
 He published in 1807 two volumes of poetry, contain- 
 ing numerous odes, sonnets, etc. His poetical reputa- 
 tion was not of rapid growth. He had some ardent 
 admirers, but he was severely criticised by Lord Jeffrey 
 and other critics, who designated Wordsworth, Cole- 
 ridge, and Southey as the Lake School of poets, because 
 they lived in the lake district of Cumlierland and West- 
 moreland and described the scenery of that beautiful 
 region. Wordsworth resided several years at Allan 
 Hank, near Grasmere. He wrote the letter-press of an 
 illustrated work, entitled " Select Views in Cumberland, 
 Westmoreland, and Lancashire," published in 1810 by 
 J. Wilkinson. 
 
 In 1813 he removed, with his wife, sister, and three 
 surviving children, to Rydal Mount, on Lake Winder- 
 mere, and about two miles distant from Grasmere. Here 
 he continued to reside until his death. He published in 
 1814 a didactic poem entitled "The Excursion," which 
 is a portion of "The Recluse," and contains episodes 
 of great beauty, pathos, and grandeur. It was con- 
 demned by the reviewers, and not appreciated by the 
 public, who purchased only five hundred copies in six 
 years. His literary efforts brought him no remunera- 
 tion ; but his appointment to the office of distributor of 
 stamps, in 1813, raised his income to an easy compe- 
 tence. It was worth about five hundred pounds a year. 
 In 1815 he produced "The White Doe of Rylstone." 
 Among his other works are " Peter Bell," (1819.) "Ec- 
 clesiastical Sonnets," and " Yarrow Revisited, and other 
 Poems," (1835.) 
 
 His poetry is remarkable as evincing an exquisite sen- 
 sibility to the beauties of nature under every form ; and 
 one result of this mental peculiarity was that nearly all 
 his poems were, as he tells us, composed in the open air. 
 
 He received a pension of ^300 per annum in 1842, and 
 was recognized as the greatest living poet of England 
 when he succeeded Southey as poet-laureate, in 1843. 
 In his mature age he was conservative in politics, and 
 a devout member of the Anglican Church. He died 
 at Rydal Mount on the 23d of April, 1850. 
 
 " Wordsworth," says Robert Caruthers, " was more 
 original and philosophical than any of his great con- 
 temporaries, and he has sent forth strains that recall the 
 divine genius of Milton. . . . His taste was not equal to 
 his genius ; # the power or will to discriminate, reject, 
 and condense was wanting. . . . Some of his odes and 
 minor poems have never been excelled." (See " Ency- 
 clopaedia Britannica," article " Wordsworth.") Robert 
 Southey, who was his intimate friend, wrote in a letter 
 to B. Barton, December 19, 1814, " His life does not 
 belie his writings ; for in every relation of life and every 
 point of view he is a truly exemplary and admirable 
 man. In conversation he is powerful beyond any of 
 his contemporaries, and as a poet ... I declare my 
 full conviction that posterity will rank him with Milton." 
 
 "The fame of Wordsworth," says Ralph W. Emer- 
 son, "is a leading fact in modern literature, when it is 
 considered how hostile his genius at first seemed to 
 the reigning taste, and with what feeble talent his great 
 and growing dominion has been established. . . . 'The 
 Excursion' awakened in every lover of Nature the right 
 feeling." (See " Fraser's Magazine" for July, 1868.) 
 
 " Whatever influence," says the " Quarterly Review," 
 " Wordsworth may have exercised on poetic style, be it 
 great or small, was by deviating in practice from the 
 principles of composition for which he contended. . . . 
 In spite of the cloudy and unsubstantial philosophy, and 
 its unsuitability to the condition of the principal speaker, 
 in spite, too, of long and frequent paragraphs of dreary 
 prosing, 'The Excursion' was yet a noble addition to 
 the English library. It owes its now universal recogni- 
 tion, as such, to the beauty of the pictures of rustic life 
 and rural scenes, with their exquisite accompaniment of 
 natural feeling. . . . He has some of the most magical 
 lines and stanzas which are to be met with in the whole 
 body of literature ; and ideas which seemed almost to 
 defy expression are not unfrequently conveyed in the 
 simplest, clearest, and happiest phrases." 
 
 See "Memoirs of William Wordsworth," by his nephew. CitRts- 
 topmrr Wordsworth, 2 vols., 1S51; article in the "Quarterly 
 Review" for January, 1*53, entitled " Memoirs of William Words- 
 worth :" January Seari.h, "Memoirs of William Wordsworth," 
 185a; Dk Qimnckv. "Literary Reminiscences," vols. i. and ii. ; 
 L0R1, Jhkfrhv, "Miscellanies;" "Quarterly Review" for October, 
 1S14, and October. 1S1 «; ; " British Quarterly Review" for January, 
 i860; "North British Review" for August, 1S64. 
 
 Worlidge, wurl'ij, (Thomas,) an English painter 
 and engraver, born in Northamptonshire in 1700. He 
 executed a great number of etchings in the style of 
 Rembrandt, which are particularly admired. His draw- 
 ings in Indian ink are also highly esteemed. Died in 1766. 
 
 ■Worm, voRm, [Lat. Wor'mius,] (Oi.ahs,) a Danish 
 physician, antiquary, and historian, born in Jutland 
 in 1588. He studied medicine at Padua and several 
 German universities, and became in 1613 professor of 
 
 « as i; 5 a* g hard; g as/; G, H, K.guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as 1; th as in this. ( J^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WORM 
 
 2294 
 
 WOVVERMAN 
 
 humanities at the University of Copenhagen, where he 
 also held the office of rector. He was likewise physician 
 to Christian IV. and his successor Frederick III. Among 
 his principal works are his "Fasti Danici," (1626,) 
 "The Most Ancient Danish Literature," ("Literatura 
 Danica antiquissima," etc, 1636,) " Runic Lexicon and 
 Appendix to the Danish Monuments," (" Lexicon Ru- 
 nicum et Appendix ad Monumenta Danica," 1650,) and 
 a "History of Norway," (in Latin.) He also wrote 
 valuable treatises on medicine and natural history. lie 
 was the first to describe minutely the bones of the skuJl 
 called Ossa Wormiana. Died in 1654. 
 
 See Nic^kon, "Meomires;" Kraft og Nyerup, "Lilteratur- 
 lexicon." 
 
 Worm or Wormius, (Wilhelm,) a Danish physi- 
 cian, a son of the preceding, was born at Copenhagen in 
 1633. He described the specimens of his father's cabinet 
 in a work called " Musseum Wormianum," (1655.) Died 
 in 1704. 
 
 ■Wormius. See Worm. 
 
 Wor'uum, (Ralph Nicholson,) an English painter 
 and art-critic, bom in North Durham in 1S12. Among 
 his numerous and valuable works may be named his 
 " History of Painting, Ancient and Modern," a " De- 
 scriptive and Historical Catalogue of the National 
 Pictures of the British School," (1857,) and a " Life of 
 Holbein," (1866.) He also contributed the article on 
 " Painting" to Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
 Antiquities." He was appointed keeper and secretary 
 to the National Gallery, London, in 1857. 
 
 Woronichiu. See Voronikhin. 
 
 Woronicz, vo-ro'nitch, (John PAUL,)»an eminent 
 Polish writer and pulpit orator, born in Volhynia in 
 1757. He studied in the Jesuits' Seminary at Ostrog, 
 and was created Bishop of Cracow by the emperor 
 Alexander in 1815. He subsequently became Arch- 
 bishop of Warsaw and Primate of Poland. He was the 
 author of a historical poem entitled "Sibylla," esteemed 
 the finest production of the kind in the language. His 
 sermons are also greatly admired: the one on the death 
 of the emperor Alexander is regarded as a master-piece 
 of pulpit eloquence. Died in 1829. 
 
 Worring, wor'ring, (Andreas,) a German mechani- 
 cian, born at Vienna about 1806, became manager of the 
 imperial printing-office in that city. He was the first 
 to apply the lately discovered art of nature-printing to 
 botanical uses, by the transfer of leaves and flowers. 
 
 Worsaae, voR'saw'eh, (Jens Jacob Asmussen,) a 
 Danish antiquary of great merit, born in Jutland in 
 1821. He visited England, Sweden, and various parts 
 of the continent, and was appointed in 1847 inspector 
 of antiquarian monuments in the Danish States. Among 
 his principal works may be named his " Denmark's Old 
 Time illustrated by Old Things," (" Danmark's Oldtid," 
 etc., 1843,) " Blekingske Mindesmarker fra Hedenold," 
 and "An Account of the Danes and Norwegians in 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland," (" Minder om de 
 Danske og Nordmande i England, Skotland og Irland," 
 1852.) 
 
 Wors'dale, (James,) an English painter and drama- 
 tist, was a pupil of Sir Godfrey Kneller, and married his 
 niece. Died in 1767. 
 
 Wors'ley, (Sir Richard,) an English statesman and 
 antiquary, born in the Isle of Wight in 1 75 1. He was 
 for many years a member of Parliament for the borough 
 of Newport, and was appointed Governor of the Isle of 
 Wight. He published "Musasum Worsleianum ; or, 
 A Collection of Antique Basso-Relievos," etc., (2 vols. 
 fob, 1794,) also a "History of the Isle of Wight." 
 Died in 1805. 
 
 Worth, (William Jenkins,) an American general, 
 born in Columbia county, New York, in 1794. He 
 served in the war of 1812, and subsequently in the 
 Florida campaigns of 1841 and 1842, and was made a 
 brigadier-general. For his services in the Mexican war 
 (1846-47) he obtained the rank or brevet of major- 
 general. Died in Texas in 1849. A monument was 
 erected to his memory in New York. 
 
 Wor'thing-ton, (John,) an English theologian, born 
 at Manchester in 1618, preached in London and at Hack- 
 ney, and wrote several religious works. Died in 1671. 
 
 Wor'thing-ton, (Thomas,) born in Jefferson county 
 Virginia, in 1773. He was elected to the United States 
 Senate from Ohio in 1803 and 1810, and became Gov- 
 ernor of that State in 1815. Died in 1827. 
 
 Worthington, (William,) a British divine, born in 
 Merionethshire in 1703, wrote an "Essay on the Scheme 
 of Redemption," and other works. Died in 1778. 
 
 Wot'ton, (Edward,) an English physician and 
 naturalist, born at Oxford in 1492. He studied at Ox- 
 ford, where he took his medical degree in 1525. He 
 wrote a work entitled "On the Differences among Ani- 
 mals," ("De Differentiis Animalium,") which was highly 
 esteemed at the time. He became physician to Henry 
 VIII., and a Fellow of the College of Physicians. Died 
 in 1555. 
 
 Wotton, [Lat. Wotto'nus,] (Sir Henry,) an Eng- 
 lish diplomatist and writer, born in Kent in 1568. lie 
 studied at Queen's College, Oxford, where he greatly 
 distinguished himself by his proficiency in law, mathe- 
 matics, languages, and the natural sciences. He subse- 
 quently travelled in France, Germany, and Italy, residing 
 abroad nearly nine years, during which time he made 
 the acquaintance of Isaac Casaubon 'and other learned 
 men of the time. After his return to England he be- 
 came secretary to the Earl of Essex, whom he accom- 
 panied on his expeditions to Spain and Ireland. When 
 Essex was arrested, in 1601, Wotton fled to the conti- 
 nent. Having learned at Florence that some persons 
 had conspired to assassinate James VI. of Scotland, he 
 carried information of the plot to that king, and thus 
 gained his favour. In 1604 Sir Henry was sent as Eng- 
 lish ambassador to Venice, where he remained several 
 years. He performed missions to other foreign courts, 
 and became provost of Eton about 1625. He wrote 
 several short and beautiful poems, and prose works, 
 among which are "The State of Christendom," "The 
 Elements of Architecture," and "Characters of some 
 of the English Kings." Died in 1639. 
 
 See Izaak Walton, " Life of Sir Henry Wotton," prefixed to 
 " Reliqui^ Wottonianje," 1651. 
 
 Wotton, (Nicholas,) an English statesman, born in 
 Kent about 1497, was an uncle of the preceding. He 
 was employed in several embassies, and was secretary 
 of state in the reign of Edward VI. Died in 1566. 
 
 Wotton, (William,) D.D., an English divine and 
 scholar, born in Suffolk in 1666. He possessed extra- 
 ordinary powers of memory, and, having entered Cathe- 
 rine I la'll, Cambridge, before the age of ten, distinguished 
 himself by his attainments in the Latin, Greek, and 
 Oriental languages. He took the degree of M.A. in 
 1683, and subsequently became rector of Middleton 
 Keynes, in Buckinghamshire. His principal works are 
 entitled " Reflections on Ancient and Modern Learning," 
 in reply to Sir William Temple's essay in defence of 
 modern literature, and "View of Hickes's Archaeo- 
 logical Treasure of the Ancient Northern Languages," 
 (1708.) The former treatise gave rise to the famous 
 controversy between Bentley and Sir William Temple 
 concerning the " Epistles of Phalaris." Died in 1726, 
 
 See " Biograplua Britannica." 
 
 Wottonus. See Wotton. 
 
 Woulfe, woolf, (Peter,) an English chemist, was a 
 resident of London and a Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 He contributed to the "Transactions" of that body 
 " Experiments on the Distillation of Acids," etc., and 
 other chemical treatises. Died in 1806. 
 
 Wouters, wow'ters, (Francis,) a Flemish painter 
 of history and landscapes, was born at Lierre in 1614, 
 and was a pupil of Rubens. He went to England in 
 1637, and afterwards worked at Antwerp. He was 
 killed by an unknown hand in 1659. 
 
 Wouverman, wow'ver-man', or Wouvermans, 
 wow'ver-mans', (Peter,) a Dutch painter, born at 
 Haarlem about 1625, was a pupil of his brother Philip, 
 whose style he imitated. lie painted horses, hunting- 
 scenes, etc. Died in 1683. 
 
 His younger brother John was a skilful landscape- 
 painter. Died in 1666. 
 
 Wouverman, Wouvermans, or Wowerman, 
 (Philip,) an eminent Dutch painter, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Haarlem in 1620, and was a pupil 
 
 i,e, T, 6, u, y,/o>ig-; k,h, o.same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 0, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, oAkwv; far, fall, fat; mit; not; good; moor.; 
 
WOU-WAKG 
 
 "95 
 
 WREN 
 
 of Wvnants. His works are chiefly landscapes, battle- 
 pieces, hunting-scenes, and horse-markets, all of which 
 he represented with admirable skill and fidelity, — his 
 horses, particularly, being unsurpassed. The galleries 
 of Dresden and Paris possess numerous masterpieces 
 by this artist. He is said to have lived in poverty, 
 though his pictures were sold for high prices by his 
 patrons. His designs and etchings are also highly 
 esteemed and very rare. Died ii 1668. 
 
 See Kammekek's treatise " fec-ei Hie Composition in Philipp 
 \\ ,'.-. jrman's Gemalden," etc. ; DescAMPs, "Vies des Peintres." 
 
 Wou-Wang. See Woo- Wang. 
 
 Woveren. See Wower. 
 
 Wower, wo'wer, sometimes called De Woweren, 
 deji wo'weh.ren, (John,) a learned German writer, born 
 at Hamburg in 1574. He wrote, besides other works, 
 " De Polymathia Tractatio integri Operis de Studiis 
 vetenim," (1603,) and other works. Died in 1612. 
 
 Wower, wow'er, or Wo'ver-en, (John,) a Flemish 
 jurist, born at Antwerp in 1576, was a friend of Justus 
 Lipsius. He edited Tacitus and Seneca, and wrote 
 several works. Died in 1635. 
 
 Wrangel, vRang'gel, (Hermann,) a Swedish gen- 
 eral, born in 1587, was the father of Karl Guslaf, 
 noticed below. He obtained from Gustavus Adolphus 
 the rank of field-marshal in 1621, and commanded 
 against the Poles. In 1636 he took several places in 
 Pomerania. Died in 1644. 
 
 Wrangel, von, fon vRang'gel, (Karl Gustaf,) 
 Count, an eminent Swedish admiral and general, born 
 at Skokloster in 1613. He served nnder Gustavus 
 Adolphus in Germany, and had a prominent part in 
 the victory of Lutzen, after the death of that illustrious 
 commander. Appointed subsequently to the command 
 of the Swedish forces in Germany, he carried on the 
 war with energy and success, until it was concluded by 
 the peace of Westphalia. He afterwards gained several 
 decisive victories over the Danes and their Dutch allies, 
 and in 1660 was made grand marshal of Sweden. Died 
 in 1675. 
 
 See Geijf.r, " Histoire de Suede." 
 
 Wrangel, von, fon wRang'gel, (Frikdrich Hi'.in- 
 RICH Ernst,) Baron, a Prussian general, born at 
 Stettin in 1784. He served against the French in the 
 campaigns from 181 1 to 1815, and had a high command 
 in the Danish war of 1848. He was made general of 
 cavalry in 1849. Died in 1869. 
 
 See "Leben F. von Wrangel's," Berlin, 1S49. 
 
 Wrangell or Wrangel, von, fon vRang'gel, (Fer- 
 dinand Petrovitch,) Baron, a Russian admiral and 
 celebrated navigator, of Swedish extraction, was born 
 in Esthonia in 1795. Appointed in 1820 commander of 
 an exploring expedition to the Arctic Sea, he travelled 
 on the ice in sledges as far north as 72 2'. After his 
 return he became in 1829 governor of the Russian pos- 
 sessions in the northwestern part of America. In 1847 
 he was created vice-admiral. His principal works are 
 a " Sketch of a Journey from Sitka to Saint Petersburg," 
 (1836,) "Statistical and Ethnographical Notices on the 
 Russian Possessions in America," (1839,) and "Journey 
 on the Northern Coasts of Siberia and the Icy Sea," 
 (1841,) which was translated into French and German. 
 
 See the "London Quarterly Review" for September, 1R40. 
 
 Wranitzki, wRa-nlts'kee, (Paul,) a German opera- 
 composer, bom in 1756, became director of the orchestra 
 at the Imperial Theatre at Vienna. Died in 1X08. 
 
 Wratislaus, vRa'tis-lowss', or Wratislaw, vua'tis- 
 laf, the first King of Bohemia, inherited the title of duke 
 in 1061. He afterwards assumed the title of king, and 
 was an ally of the emperor Henry IV. Died in 1092. 
 
 Wraxall,rAk'sal, (Fredi rick'Cii \ki.es I.weli.es,) 
 an English writer, born at Boulogne in 1828. He pub 
 lished, Ixrsidcs other works, "Wild Oats," (1857,) and 
 '' Armies of the Great Powers," (1859.) Died in London 
 in 1865. 
 
 Wraxall, (Sir Nathaniel William.) an English 
 statesman and historical writer, bom at Bristol in 1751 
 He travelled over the greater part of Europe, and 
 published in 1775 "Cursory Remarks made in a Tour 
 through some of the Northern Parts of Europe," etc., 
 
 which was very well received. He was elected to Par- 
 liament in 1780. Among his other works maybe named 
 " The History of France from the Accession of Henry 
 III. to the Death of Louis XIV.," etc., (3 vols., 1795,) 
 and "Historical Memoirs of My Own Time," (1S15.) 
 The latter publication contained a libel on the Russian 
 ambassador, Count Woronzow, for which Wraxall was 
 fined and imprisoned for a short time. Died in 1831. 
 
 See the " Edinburgh Review" for October, 1815 ; " London Quar- 
 terly Review" for April, 1815, and December, 1S36; Allihonk, 
 " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Wray, ra, (Daniel,) an English antiquary, born in 
 London in 1 701, was one of the authors of the "Athenian 
 Letters." (See Yorke, Charles^) Died in 1783. 
 
 Wray, (John.) See Ray. 
 
 Wray, (Robert Bateman,) an eminent English 
 gem-engraver, born in Wiltshire in 1715. Among his 
 best works are heads of Milton, Shakspeare, Pope, 
 Cicero, a Madonna, Dying Cleopatra, and Antinous. 
 Died in 1770. 
 
 Wrbna und Preudenthal, uRb'na oont froi'den- 
 til', (Rudolf,) Count, an Austrian statesman, born at 
 Vienna in 1 761 ; died in 1823. 
 
 Wrede, vRa'deh,(FABiAN Jakob Faiiianson,) Baron, 
 a Swedish general and writer on physical science, was 
 born in 1802. 
 
 Wrede, wRa'deh, (Karl Philipi\) Prince, a cele- 
 brated German field-marshal, born at Heidelberg in 1767. 
 He served in the Austrian army in the campaigns of 1 799 
 and 1800, was made lieutenant-general in 1804, and in 
 1805 succeeded General Deroy as commander-in-chief 
 of the Bavarian forces, then forming a part of Napoleon's 
 "grand army." He soon after obtained a series of bril- 
 liant successes over the Austrians, including the capture 
 of Tnnspruck, and in 1809 was created a field-marshal 
 and count of the French empire for his distinguished 
 bravery at the battle of Wagram. As commander of 
 the Bavarian cavalry in the Russian campaign of 1812, 
 he was defeated by Wittgenstein at Polotsk ; but he 
 skilfully covered the retreat of the scattered army on that 
 disastrous day. By the treaty of Reid, in 1813, Bavaria 
 joined the allies, and Wrede was appointed to the chief 
 command of the united forces of Austria and Bavaria. 
 On the 30th of October, 1813, he endeavoured to inter- 
 cept the army of Napoleon, then retreating after the 
 defeat of Leipsic ; but, after a fiercely-contested battle 
 at Hainau, the French troops forced a passage, and the 
 allies withdrew, Marshal Wrede having been severely 
 wounded. Died in December, 1838. 
 
 See W. RlEDKt., "C. P. von Wrede nach seinem Leben und 
 Wirken," 1839: " Nouvel'e Biographic G^ne"rale." 
 
 Wree, de, deh vRa, (Olivier,) a Belgian historian, 
 born at Bruges in 1596. He wrote "History of the 
 Counts of Flanders," (" Historia Comitum Flandrias," 
 1650.) and other works. Died in 1652. 
 
 Wren, ren, (Sir CHRISTOPHER,) a celebrated English 
 architect, born at East Knoyle, in Wiltshire, on the 
 20th of October, 1632, was a nephew of Bishop Mat- 
 thew Wren. His father was Dean of Windsor and 
 chaplain to Charles I. He invented several ingenious 
 instruments about the age of fourteen. In 1646 he 
 entered Wadham College, Oxford, as a. gentleman com- 
 moner. He was early distinguished for his proficiency 
 in mathematics and anatomy, and was regarded as a 
 prodigy at college. In 1653 he was elected Fellow of 
 All Souls' College, Oxford. He became professor of 
 astronomy at Gresham College, London, in 1657, and 
 was one of the first members of the Royal Society. In 
 1661 he was appointed assistant to Sir John Denham, 
 snrveyor-general, and began to turn his attention to 
 architecture. To extend his knowledge of that art, he 
 visited Paris in 1665. The great fire in London in 1666 
 afforded him a favourable opportunity and ample space 
 for tiie exercise of his talents. He proposed to rebuild 
 the city on a more regular and commodious plan, which, 
 however, was not adopted. About 1667 he succeeded 
 Denham as surveyor-general and chief architect, lit 
 erected in London a numlwrr of churches, the Royal 
 Exchange, the Monument, Temple Bar, the Observatory 
 at Greenwich, and other fine public edifices. His master- 
 piece is Saint Paul's Cathedral, which was commenced 
 
 e as i; ? as s; g hard; g asy; o, H, m, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as z; th as in this. ( J^'See Explanations, p. 23. ) 
 
WREN 
 
 2296 
 
 WRIGHT 
 
 in 1675 and finished in 1710. It is about four hundred 
 and seventy-five feet long, and is surmounted by a noble 
 cupola, which is greatly admired. Saint Paul's is prob- 
 ably the most beautiful cathedral ever built in England 
 for Protestant worship. The original and favourite plan 
 which Wren formed for this work, and which was re- 
 jected by the authorities, differed greatly from the plan 
 that was adopted. 
 
 He married a daughter of Sir John Coghill in 1674. 
 He was elected president of the Royal Society in t6So. 
 About 1690 he built an addition to Hampton Court for 
 William III. Among his other works were additions 
 to Windsor Castle, and two towers added to the west 
 end of Westminster Abbey. He is generally regarded 
 as the greatest of English architects. He Contributed 
 several treatises on astronomy and other sciences to the 
 " Philosophical Transactions." He died in London in 
 February, 1723, aged about ninety-one, and was buried 
 in Saint Paul's Cathedral. 
 
 "The austere beauty of the Athenian portico, the 
 gloomy sublimity of the Gothic arcade, he was, like 
 almost all his contemporaries, incapable of emulating ; 
 . . . but no man born on our side of the Alps has 
 imitated with so much success the magnificence of the 
 palace-like churches of Italy." (Macaulay, " History of 
 England," vol. i.) 
 
 See "Parentalia, or Memoirs of the Family of the Wrens," by 
 his son Christokhkr and his grandson Stephen, 1750; Jambs 
 Elmes, " Memoirs of the Life of Sir C. Wren." 1823, and " Sir C. 
 Wren and his Times," 1852; Quatrembre de QuiNcy, " Histoire 
 des Architectes celebres." 
 
 Wren, (Christopher,) a son of the preceding, was 
 born in 1675. He was distinguished as an antiquary, 
 and wrote memoirs of his family, entitled " Parentalia," 
 (1750.) Died in 1747. 
 
 Wren, (Matthew,) an English prelate, born in Lon 
 
 the Northern United States, and attacked slavery and 
 other social institutions. About 1838 she was married 
 to M. Darusmont, a Frenchman. Died in Cincinnati 
 in 1853. 
 
 Wright, (Horatio Gates,) an American general, 
 born In Connecticut about 1822, graduated at West 
 Point in 1841. He became a brigadier-general of vol- 
 unteers about September, 1861, and took command of 
 the department of Ohio in August, 1862. He com- 
 manded a division at the battle of the Wilderness, May 
 5 and 6, 1864, and a corps at Spottsylvania Court-House, 
 May 9-12, and Cold Harbour, June 3. He served as 
 major-general at the battle of Opequan Creek, Septem- 
 ber 19, 1864, and contributed to the decisive victory at 
 Cedar Creek, October 19 of that year. He received 
 the brevet of major-general in the United States army 
 for his services at the capture of Petersburg, April, 1865, 
 
 Wright, rlt, (John Wesley,) an Irish naval officer, 
 born at Cork in 1769. He became a captain in the 
 navy, was taken prisoner on the French coast in 1804, 
 and was confined in the Temple at Paris. In 1805 he 
 was found dead in prison, and it was suspected that he 
 had been murdered. 
 
 Wright, (Joseph,) a celebrated English painter, com- 
 monly known as Wright of Derby, was born in that 
 town in 1734. He studied portrait-painting in London, 
 under Hudson, and subsequently visited Rome. His 
 works are chiefly landscapes and historical pictures ; 
 among the most admired we may name " The Lady in 
 Comus," " Belshazzar's Feast," "View of Ullswater, in 
 Westmoreland," " Eruption of Mount Vesuvius," and 
 "Cicero's Villa." Died in 1 797. 
 
 Wright, (Sir Nathan,) an English judge, born in 
 1653, was lord keeper of the great seal from 1700 to 
 705. In politics he was a Tory. " To his obscurity," 
 
 don in 1585. He became chaplain to the prince, after- ? a y s Lor d Campbell, "he owed his promotion." Died 
 
 wards Charles I., whom he accompanied to Spain in 
 1623, and was successively created Bishop of Hereford, 
 Norwich, and Ely. He was one of the judges of the 
 Star Chamber, and assisted in drawing up the Scottish 
 Liturgy, which gave rise to the riots in Edinburgh in 
 1637. He was impeached by the Commons in 1640, 
 and imprisoned in the Tower nearly twenty years. Sir 
 Christopher Wren was his nephew. Died in 1667. 
 
 Wren, (MATTHEW,) a son of the preceding, was born 
 at Cambridge in 1629. He was a member of Parliament, 
 and became successively secretary to the Earl of Clar- 
 endon and the Duke of York. He published a treatise 
 "On the Origin and Progress of the Revolutions in Eng- 
 land," and other works. Died in 1672. 
 
 Wright, rlt, (Abraham,) an English clergyman, born 
 in London in 161 1. He became vicar of Okeham, in 
 Rutlandshire. He published, besides other works, 
 " Parnassus with Two Tops," (" Parnassus biceps," 
 1656.) Died in 1690. 
 
 Wright, (Edward,) an English mathematician, born 
 at Garveston, in Norfolk. He became a Fellow of 
 Caius College, Cambridge. He constructed for Prince 
 Henry a large sphere which represented the motions of 
 the planets, moon, etc., and predicted the eclipses for 
 17,100 years. About 1590 he accompanied the Earl of 
 Cumberland in 'a sea-voyage. He published in 1599 a 
 valuable "Treatise on Navigation." He is said to have 
 discovered the mode of constructing the chart which is 
 known by the name of Mercator's Projection. Died in 
 161 5, or, as some say, 1618. 
 
 Wright, rlt, (Elizur,) an American journalist and 
 philanthropist, born in Litchfield county, Connecticut, 
 in 1804. He graduated at Yale College, and in 1829 
 became professor of mathematics and natural phi- 
 losophy in Western Reserve College, Ohio. He was 
 successively editor of the "Quarterly Anti-Slavery 
 Magazine," the "Massachusetts Abolitionist," and the 
 "Chronotype." He has also translated La Fontaine's 
 " Fables" into verse. 
 
 Wright, rit, afterwards Darusmont, di'rU'mo.N', 
 (Fanny,) a social reformer or innovator, born at Dun- 
 dee, Scotland, about 1796. She visited the United States 
 about 1818, and wrote " Views on Society and Manners 
 in,America." Her opinions were similar to those of 
 the atheistical French philosophers. She lectured in 
 
 in 1721. 
 
 See Lord Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. iv. 
 
 Wright, (Sir Robert,) an English judge, was chief 
 justice of the king's bench in 1687. " He was ignorant 
 to a proverb," says Macaulay : " yet ignorance was not 
 his worst fault. His vices had ruined him." (" History 
 of England.") He and two others were appointed to 
 exercise visitorial jurisdiction over Magdalene College, 
 from which they removed President Hough, (if>?>T.) 
 
 Wright, (Samuel,) an English dissenting minister, 
 born at Retford in 1683. He preached in London, and 
 published a "Treatise on the New Birth." Died in 1746. 
 
 Wright, (Silas,) an American statesman, born at 
 Amherst, Massachusetts, May 24, 1795. He graduated 
 at Middlebury College in 181 5, studied law, was admitted 
 to the bar in 1819, and settled at Canton, Saint Lawrence 
 county, New York. He was elected to the Senate of 
 New York in 1823, became a political opponent of De 
 Witt Clinton, and served in the Senate until 1827. fn 
 1826 he was elected a member of Congress, in which 
 he acted with the Democrats. He was comptroller 
 of New York for about four years, (1829-32,) and was 
 elected to the Senate of the United States in January, 
 1833. He opposed the United States Bank, and sup- 
 ported Mr. Clay's Compromise bill of 1833. In 1837 he 
 was re-elected a Senator for six years. He voted for 
 the tariff of 1842, and opposed the annexation of Texas 
 to the Union, (1844.) He was nominated as candidate 
 for the Vice-Presidency by the National Democratic 
 Convention in May, 1844; but he declined the honour. 
 He had been again elected a Senator of the United 
 States in February, 1843, and was chosen Governor of 
 New York in November, 1844. He declined to serve 
 under President Polk as secretary of the treasury in 
 1845, and is said to have refused the offer of a foreign 
 mission. In 1846 he was a candidate for Governor, but 
 was not elected. He died at Canton in August, 1847, 
 leaving a fair reputation for ability and integrity. 
 
 See J. D. Hammond. " Life and Times of Silas Wright," 1848 
 Wright, (Thomas,) an eminent English antiquary, 
 born in 1810, took his degree at Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. He published numerous works on early English 
 history and literature, among which we may name his 
 " Biographia Britannica Literaria," (1846,) "Essays on 
 the Literature, Superstitions, and- History of England in 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, fi, j?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
WRIGHT 
 
 2297 
 
 WURTZ 
 
 the Middle Ages," (2 vols., 1846,) " Narratives of Sorcery 
 and Magic," (1851,) "The Celt, tlie Roman, and the 
 Saxon," (1852,) "Wanderings of an Antiquary," etc., 
 (1854,) and "History of Ireland," (3 vols., 1857.) He 
 also edited Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," (1855,) " Po- 
 litical Songs of England from the Reign oi John to 
 that of Edward II.," "The Chester Miracle Plays," and 
 other productions of the middle ages. He was one of 
 the founders of the Camden Society and of the British 
 Archaeological Association, and has been elected a cor- 
 responding member of the French Academy of Inscrip- 
 tions, and other learned societies in Europe. 
 
 See Ali.ihonh, " Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Wright, (Thomas,) "the Prison Philanthropist," an 
 English reformer, born in 1788, devoted himself to visit- 
 ing prisons and to the reformation of criminals. 
 
 Wright, (Walter Rodwei.l,) an English lawyer, 
 who wrote a description of the isles of Greece, entitled 
 " Morse Ionics." He died at Malta in 1826. 
 
 Wriothesley, (Henry.) See Southampton. 
 
 Wriothesley, rots'le or rot'es-le, (Thomas,) fourth 
 Earl of Southampton, an English statesman, became a 
 member of the privy council under Charles II., and 
 subsequently lord high treasurer. He had superior 
 abilities, and was conspicuous for his integrity and virtue 
 in a time of general corruption. Died in 1667. 
 
 Wrisberg, wRis'beRG, (Heinrich August,) a Ger- 
 man anatomist, born in the Harz in 1739. He became 
 professor of anatomy at Gottingen, and wrote numerous 
 professional works. Died in 1808. 
 
 Wroniecki, vRo-ne-ets'kee, (Antony,) a Polish 
 officer and military writer, born at Posen in 1790. He 
 served against the Russians in 1830, and rose to be 
 general of brigade. Died in 1838. 
 
 Wrottesley, rots'le, (John,) Lord, an English 
 astronomer, born in 1798. He received in 1839 a gold 
 medal from the Astronomical Society for his catalogue 
 of stars. He entered the House of Lords at the death 
 of his father, in 1841, and was elected president of the 
 Royal Society in 1855. About 1842 he erected an obser- 
 vatory near his residence, Wrottesley Hall. Died in 1867. 
 
 Wuk. See Karatitch. 
 
 Wulfen, wool'fen, (Franz Xaver,). a German natu- 
 ralist and mathematician, born at Belgrade in 1728. He 
 wrote on botany, zoology, etc. Died at Klagenfurth in 
 1805. 
 
 Wulffer, woolffer, (Johann,) a German Orientalist, 
 born at Nuremberg in 1651. He was employed as min- 
 ister of the gospel in his native city. Died in 1724. 
 
 Wulfhelm, wdolf helm, an Anglo-Saxon prelate, be- 
 came Archbishop of Canterbury in 923 A.D. Died in 942. 
 
 Wulfstan. See Wulstan. 
 
 Wullenweber, wool'len-wa'lier, written also Wul- 
 lenwever, (Georo or Jurgen,) a German statesman 
 of the sixteenth century, was a native of Lubeck, where 
 he was elected burgomaster about 1 534. He was con- 
 demned to death on a charge of Anabaptism and politi- 
 cal offences, and executed in 1537. 
 
 Wiillerstorf or Wuellerstorf, von, fon wtJl'lers- 
 torf, (BERNHARD,) BARON, an Austrian admiral and 
 minister of state, born at Trieste in 1816. Me conducted 
 an exploring expedition sent out by the Austrian govern- 
 ment in 1857, and returned in 1859. An account of this 
 expedition appeared in 3 vols., in 1861. About 1865 he 
 became minister of commerce. He published several 
 scientific works. 
 
 Wulstan, an English monk, born about 1008, be- 
 came in 1062 Bishop of Worcester. He was patronized 
 fay William the Conqueror and his successor William 
 Rufus. Died in 1095. 
 
 See the " Life of Wulstan," in Wharton's " Anfflia Sacra/* 
 
 Wulstan, written also Wolstan and Wulfstan, an 
 English monk of the tenth century, was the author of a 
 Latin poem on the miracles of Saint Swithin, and a 
 "Life of Bishop Ethelwold," (in Latin.) 
 
 Wunder, wdon'der, (Eduard,) a German critic and 
 scholar, born at Wittenberg in 1800. He became 
 director of the College of Grimma in 1842. Mis chief 
 publication is a good edition of Sophocles, (7 vols., 1831.) 
 
 Wunderlich, woon'der-liK', (Johann,) a German 
 jurist, born at Hamburg in 1708. He became professor 
 
 of philosophy in that city in 1761, and published several 
 legal works. Died in 1778. 
 
 Wunderlich, (Karl August,) a German physician, 
 born, at Sulz, on the Neckar, iu 1815, became professor 
 of clinics at Leipsic in 1850. He published a " Manual 
 of Pathology and Therapeutics," (1846,) and other works. 
 
 Wundt, woont, (Daniel Ludwig,) a German his- 
 torian, born at Kreutznach in 1741, became professor of 
 theology at Heidelberg. He wrote on the history of the 
 Palatinate. Died in 1805. 
 
 His brother, Friedrich Peter, born in 1748, pub- 
 lished several works oh the history and topography of 
 the Palatinate. Died in 1808. 
 
 Wunsch, woonsh, (Christian ErnstJ a German 
 scientific writer, born at Hohenstein about 1730. He 
 died after 1800. 
 
 Wunsch, von, fon wdtmsh, (Johann Jakob,) a 
 Prussian general, born in 1 717. He served with distinc- 
 tion in the Seven Years' war, and gained a victory over 
 General Brentano in October, 1759. Died in 1788. 
 
 Wuotan. See Odin. 
 
 Wurdtwein or Wuerdtwein, wuRt'win, (Stephan 
 Alexander,) a German ecclesiastic, born at Amerbach 
 in 1 719, became Bishop of Worms. He was the author 
 of several treatises on diplomacy and ecclesiastical law, 
 (in Latin.) Died in 1796. 
 
 Wurm, wdoRm, (Johann Friedrich,) a German 
 divine and astronomer, born at Nurtingen in 1760, 
 published a " History of the New Planet Uranus," and 
 other works. Died in 1833. 
 
 His son Julius Friedrich wrote several treatises on 
 theology, mathematics, and philology. Died in 1839. 
 
 Another son, Christian Friedrich, born in 1803, 
 published a number of commercial and political works. 
 He became professor in a college at Hamburg in 1833. 
 Died in 1859. 
 
 Wurm'ser, von, [Ger. pron. fon wooRm'zer,] (Dago- 
 r.KKT Sigismond,) Count, an eminent Austrian general, 
 born in Alsace in 1724. He entered the Austrian service 
 in 1750, and fought against the Prussians in the Seven 
 Years' war, (1755-62.) Having obtained the rank of 
 lieutenant-general in 1778, he defeated the Prussians 
 at Kubelschwerd in 1779. In 1793 he commanded an 
 army which operated against the French, and drove 
 them across the frontier into Alsace ; but he was defeated 
 in December, at Frischweiler. He gained a victory on 
 the banks of the Neckar in October, 1794, and occupied 
 Mannheim. In the summer of 1796 he was sent as 
 commander-in-chief to Italy, where the Austrian general 
 Beaulieu had been defeated by Bonaparte. Advancing 
 towards Mantua, Wurmser was attacked and defeated 
 by Bonaparte, at Lonato, on the 3d of August. The 
 Corsican general also gained victories over Wurmser 
 at Castiglione on the 5th of August, and at Roveredo. 
 Wurmser retreated to Mantua, which he defended with 
 vigour, but he was forced to surrender in February, 1797. 
 He died at Vienna in June the same year. 
 
 See Schiller, "Galleiie interessanter Personen." 
 
 Wursteisen, wdoR'sti'zen, [Lat. Wurstic'ius or 
 Urstic'ius,] a mathematician, born at Bale in 1544, 
 was also a historian. He became professor of mathe- 
 matics at Bale, and wrote, besides other works, a history 
 called "Chronicon Mains," (1580.) Died in 1588. 
 
 Wursticius. See Wursteisen. 
 
 Wurtemberg, wiir'teni-berg, [Ger. pron. wuVtem- 
 beRo',1 (Eherhard,) Duke of, a son of Louis II., was 
 born in 1445, and began to reign in 1459. He was 
 a just and beneficent ruler, patronized learning, and 
 founded the University of Tubingen. Died in 1496. 
 
 Wurtemberg, von, fon wur'tem-berg, (or wnVtetn- 
 beiu;',) (Christian Friedrich Alexander,) Count, 
 son of Duke William of Wurtemberg, was born at 
 Copenhagen in 1801. He published a collection of lyric 
 poems, (1837,) and was a contributor to the " Musen- 
 almanach" of Chamisso and Schwab. Died in 1844. 
 
 Wurtemberg, von, (Ul.RlC,) an able commander, 
 born in 1617, was a younger son of Frederick I. of 
 Wurtemberg. He commanded the Imperial army which 
 opposed Turenne in Hesse in 1648. Died in 167 1. 
 
 Wurtz, wrToRts, (Felix,) a skilful Swiss surgeon, 
 born at Zurich, lived in the sixteenth century. 
 
 « as £; <; as .»; ghard; g as yV a,H,K,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; last; this in Mm. (By See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WURTZ 
 
 2298 
 
 WrdlFFE 
 
 Wurtz, von, fon voorts or wooRts, (Paul,) Baron, 
 a Danish or German general, born in llusttm. lie 
 served under Gustavus Adolphus until his death, (1632,) 
 and afterwards had a high command in the army of the 
 United Provinces. Died in 1676. 
 
 Wurtzburg or Wurzburg. See Conrad of 
 
 WlTRTZBURG. 
 
 Wurzbach, woc-Rts'baK, (Constant,) a German 
 poet and savant, born at Laybach in 1818. Among 
 his writings is a humorous work entitled " Parallels," 
 (" Parallelen," 1849.) 
 
 Wurzelbau, von, fon wdoRt'sel-bow', (Johann 
 Piiilipp,) a German astronomer, born at Nuremberg in 
 165 1. He invented or improved several astronomical 
 instruments, and made a series of observations in his 
 observatory at Spitzenberg. He corresponded with 
 Leibnitz and other astronomers. Died in 1725. 
 
 Wutgenau, von, fon woot'geh-now', (Gottfried 
 Ernst,) Baron, an Austrian geueral, born in Silesia in 
 1673 ; died in 1736. 
 
 Wy'att, (James,) an English architect, of high repu- 
 tation, was born in Staffordshire about 1745. He 
 studied several years at Rome and Venice, and after 
 his return built the Pantheon, in Oxford Street, London, 
 (1772.) He was appointed surveyor-general to the board 
 of works in 1796. Among his other structures we may 
 name Fonthill Abbey, the Military Academy at Wool- 
 wich, and the Library at Oriel College, Oxford. Died 
 in 18.13. 
 
 Wyatt, (Matthew Cotes,) an English sculptor, 
 born in 1778. He was patronized by George III., and 
 adorned Windsor Castle with his works, among which 
 was an equestrian statue of the Duke of Wellington. 
 Died in London in January, 1862. 
 
 Wyatt, (Matthew Digby,) an English architect 
 and writer on art, born in Wilts in 1820. He studied at 
 the Royal Academy, and subsequently visited Germany, 
 France, and Italy. He published, besides other works, 
 "The Industrial Arts of the Nineteenth Century," 
 (1852.) 
 
 Wyatt, (Richard J.,) an English sculptor, born in 
 London in 1795. He studied in Paris, and subsequently 
 under Canova at Rome, where he resided till his death, 
 in 1850. His works are principally classical subjects, 
 and are remarkable for their elegance and exquisite 
 finish. Among his master-pieces are his " Penelope," 
 " Nymph entering the Bath," " Shepherd Boy," " Nymph 
 Eucharis and Cupid," and " Bacchus." 
 
 Wyatt, (Sir Thomas,) the Elder, an eminent Eng- 
 lish statesman and poet, born in Kent in 1503. He 
 studied at Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he 
 took the degree of M.A. in 1520. He was a favourite 
 at the court of Henry VIIL, who made him a gentleman 
 of the bed-chamber and conferred on him the honour 
 of knighthood, (1536.) He was afterwards employed on 
 important missions to Spain and the Netherlands. He 
 died in 1542, with the reputation of an able diplomatist 
 and one of the most accomplished gentlemen of his time. 
 His poems are chiefly amatory and satirical ; he also 
 published letters and other prose works of superior 
 merit. 
 
 t See Johnson, "Lives of the English Poets;" Campbell, "Spe- 
 cimens of the British Poets." 
 
 "Wyatt, (Sir Thomas,) the Younger, a son of the 
 preceding, was born in 1520 or 1521. He inherited his 
 father's estate in 1542, and served with distinction in 
 the war against the French between 1544 and 1550. 
 Wyatt and the Duke of Suffolk became in 1554 the 
 leaders of an insurrection, the design of which was to 
 dethrone Queen Mary or to prevent her marriage with 
 Philip II. Wyatt gained some successes over the 
 royalist forces, and entered Southwark. He was cap- 
 tured in London and executed in April, 1554. 
 
 See Hume, " History of England;' ' J. Proctor, "History of 
 Wyatt's Rebellion," 1555. 
 
 Wy'at-ville, (Sir Jeffry.) an English architect, 
 originally named Wyatt, was a nephew of James 
 Wyatt, noticed above. He was born in Staffordshire in 
 1766, and was instructed by his uncle in architecture. 
 In 1824 he was employed by George IV. to remodel 
 Windsor Castle, in which work he was occupied for the 
 
 greater part of his life. He died in 1840. His designs 
 for Windsor Castle were published in 1841, in 2 folio vols. 
 
 Wybicki, vi-bets'kee or ve-bit'skee, (Joseph,) a 
 Polish patriot and political writer, born in 1747; died 
 in 1822. 
 
 WJrch'er-ly" or Wych'^r-ley, (William,) a pop- 
 ular English dramatist, was born in Shropshire about 
 1640. He was sent at an early age to France, where he 
 spent considerable time at the court of the Duke of 
 Montausier, Governor of Angouleme. After his return 
 he studied for a time at Oxford, and again made pro- 
 fession of the Protestant faith, which he had abjured in 
 France. He subsequently acquired great favour with 
 Charles II., and lived on intimate terms with the Duke 
 of Buckingham and other profligate wits of the time. 
 He produced in 1669 his comedy entitled " Love in a 
 Wood, or Saint James's Park," which was followed by 
 "The Gentleman Dancing-Master," (1671,) "The Plain 
 Dealer," (1674,) and "The Country Wife," (1675.) He 
 married the Countess of Drogheda about 1680. Died 
 in 1715. 
 
 See Major Pack, "Memoirs of William Wycherly;" Mac- 
 aulay, Essay on the " Comic Dramatists of the Restoration ;" 
 Leigh Hunt, "The Dramatic Works of Wycherley, Congreve, etc., 
 with Biographical Notices," 1810; Baker, " Biographia Dramatica ;" 
 "Lives of British Dramatists," by Campbell, Leigh Hunt, etc.; 
 Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Wyck, wik, (John,) a Dutch painter, born at Utrecht 
 about 1645, worked in London. He painted hunting- 
 scenes, landscapes, and horses. Died in London in 1702. 
 
 Wyck, (Thomas,) a skilful Dutch painter and en- 
 graver, the father of the preceding, was born at Haarlem 
 in 1616. He painted sea-ports, public places, interiors, 
 etc. His etchings were highly prized. Died in 16S6. 
 
 Wyc'liffe, Wic'lif, or Wick'liff, written also Wic- 
 lef, de, (John,) an eminent English Reformer, born in 
 Yorkshire, near Richmond, about 1324. He was educated 
 at Oxford, where he was distinguished for his proficiency 
 in divinity and scholastic philosophy. According to 
 several biographers, he began to write against the men- 
 dicant monks in 1360. He became master or warder 
 of Balliol College, Oxford, in 1361, and rector of Fyling- 
 ham, in Lincolnshire, in the same year. In 1365 he 
 (or, according to some writers, another of the same 
 name) was appointed master of Canterbury Hall, from 
 which he was ejected in 1366. He exchanged the rec- 
 tory of Fylingham for that of Ludgershall in 1368. It is 
 commonly stated that he took his degree of D.D. in 
 1372, and then began to read lectures on divinity at 
 Oxford with great applause. This date is questioned 
 by some writers. About this time he began to censure 
 openly the doctrines and corruptions of the Romish 
 Church and to advocate religious liberty. 
 
 Wycliffe was a member of a legation sent by Edward 
 III. to Pope Gregory XL in 1374, to treat with him 
 about the practice of papal provision or reservation of 
 benefices, and other abuses. Soon after his return to 
 England he denounced the pope as "Antichrist, the 
 proud worldly priest of Rome." In 1375 the king gave 
 him the prebend of Aust in the church of Westbury. 
 He was prosecuted for heresy before the Bishop of 
 London in 1377, but was protected by his friend, John of 
 Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, whose favour he had gained, 
 probably by defending the royal- authority against papal 
 encroachments. In May, 1377, Pope Gregory addressed 
 a bull to the Archbishop of Canterbury, directing 
 him to summon Wycliffe before him. The Reformer 
 appeared before a synod assembled at Lambeth in 137S, 
 but, before the case was decided, the Londoners, who 
 sympathized with him, broke into the court and fright- 
 ened the bishops, who were also checked by a message 
 from the queen, or the mother of Richard II. The 
 schism caused by the election of two popes in 1378 
 tended to weaken the papal domination, and promoted 
 the safety of Wycliffe, who wrote a tract " On the Pope 
 of Rome, or the Papal Schism," (" De Papa Romano," 
 or " Schisma Papas.") 
 
 He attacked the doctrine of transubstantiation in a 
 series of lectures read at Oxford in 1381. The Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury summoned a council or synod, 
 which met in 1382, declared his opinions to be heretical, 
 and ordered vigorous measures to be employed for their 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, v, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon: 
 
WTDEnLLE 
 
 2299 
 
 WYTHE 
 
 suppression. Before this period the principles of Wyc- 
 liffe had been adopted by numerous disciples, some of 
 whom propagated them by preaching. His disciples 
 were called Lollards. He was summoned to appear at 
 a convocation of clergy at Oxford, and, according to 
 some authorities, made a confession or concession to 
 his adversaries, and admitted the doctrine of the real 
 presence. It appears that the only penalty inflicted Ml 
 him was expulsion from the University of Oxford. In 
 the latter part of his life he produced an English version 
 of the Bible from the Latin Vulgate. This is supposed 
 to have been the first complete English translation that 
 was ever made. It became an engine of wonderful 
 power against Romanism. To translate the Bible was 
 regarded as an act of heresy ; and his version continued 
 to be a proscribed book until the Reformation of the 
 sixteenth century. Wycliffe, who may be considered the 
 father of English prose, wrote a number of religious 
 works, some of which remain in manuscript 
 
 "He clearly anticipated," says David Irving, "the 
 most distinguishing doctrines of the Protestants, and 
 his opinions on certain points present an obvious co- 
 incidence with those of Calvin. Of the simplicity of 
 primitive times he was too devoted an admirer to 
 secure the approbation of modem churchmen." (" En- 
 cyclopaedia Britannica.") He opposed episcopacy, or at 
 least did not consider the episcopal order essential to 
 the legitimate constitution of the Church. He died at 
 Lutterworth in December, 1384. 
 
 See Rkv. John Lewis, "Life of John Wycliffe," 1 719 ; Dr. 
 Robert Vaughan, " Life of John Wycliffe, " 1S28, (revised edition, 
 i*5^:) Webb Le Bas, "Life of John Wycliffe," 1832; Hodgson, 
 " Reformers and Martyrs," Philadelphia, 1867; William Gilpin, 
 " Lives of J. Wicief and of the Most Eminent of his Disciples." etc., 
 17^3; Fischer, "J. Wiclefs Leben," 1S00: F. Vinckns, "Wicief: 
 These historique," 1848; Majmboiirg, " Histoiredu Wiclefianisme," 
 \*~^\\ Worusworth, " Biographia Ecclesiastica :" " Fonr Ecclesi- 
 astical Biographies," by J. H. (Jiknev; " London Quarterly Re- 
 view" for Juiy, 185S; Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Wydeville, (Anthony.) See Rivers, Earl of. 
 
 Wyerman. See Wkverma.v. 
 
 Wykeham, de, de wik'am, (William,) an eminent 
 English ecclesiastic and statesman, born in Hampshire 
 in 1324. His talents early gained for him the notice 
 and patronage of Edward III., who appointed him in 
 1356 surveyor of the works at Windsor. He afterwards 
 became successively keeper of the privy seal, secretary 
 to the king, Bishop of Winchester, and lord high chan- 
 cellor of England, (1367.) Among his numerous and 
 munificent works were the erection of the New College, 
 Oxford, finished in 1386, and the college at Winchester. 
 He also rebuilt a great part of the cathedral of Win- 
 chester. Died in 1404. 
 
 See Bishop Lowth, "Life of William de Wykeham," 1758 ; Lord 
 Campbell, " Lives of the Lord Chancellors." 
 
 Wy'lie, (Andrew,) D.D., an American divine of the 
 Episcopal Church, born in Washington county, Pennsyl- 
 vania, in 1789. He became president of the University 
 of Indiana in 1829. He published an English Grammar, 
 and other works. Died in 185 1. 
 
 Wy'man, (Jeffries,) an American anatomist, bom 
 at Chelmsford, Massachusetts, in 1814. He was ap- 
 pointed in 1847 Hersey professor of anatomy at Har- 
 vard, and professor of comparative anatomy in the 
 Lawrence Scientific School. lie has published "Twelve 
 Lectures on Comparative Physiology," and been a con- 
 tributor to the " American Journal of Science" and other 
 p eriod icals. 
 
 Wy'nants or Wy'nantz, (Jan,) a celebrated Dutch 
 landscape-painter, born at Haarlem in 1600. His pic- 
 tures are generally of small size and great excellence. 
 He numbered among his pupils Wouwerman and 
 Adriaan van der Velde, who frequently painted, it is 
 said, the figures in his landscapes. Died about 1678. 
 
 Wyndham, wind'am, (Sir Chaju.es,) Earl of Egre- 
 mont, an English politician, was the eldest son of Sir 
 William Wyndham. His mother was a daughter of the 
 Duke of Somerset He died in 1763, and left his title 
 to his son George. (See Egkkmon t.) 
 
 "Wyndham, (George O'Brien.) See Egremont, 
 Earl of. 
 
 Wyndham, (Sir William.) an able English states- 
 man, born in 1687, belonged to an ancient family of 
 
 Somersetshire. He married a daughter of the Duke of 
 Somerset, joined the Tory party, and became a powerful 
 debater in Parliament. He was appointed secretary at 
 war in 1710 or 1711, and chancellor of the exchequer in 
 1713. He was an intimate friend of Lord Bolingbroke, 
 to whose interest he adhered after the quarrel between 
 that leader and the Earl of Oxford. On the death of 
 Queen Anne he was removed from office, ( 1 7 1 4. ) He 
 was committed to the Tower in 1 71 5, on suspicion of 
 complicity in a Jacobite conspiracy; but he was soon 
 liberated, without a trial. He was one of the leaders of 
 the opposition to the administration of Sir Robert Wal- 
 pole, and had great influence in the House of Commons. 
 In 1734 he made a celebrated speech for the repeal of 
 the Septennial act. "His eloquence," says Speaker 
 Onslow, " improved by use, was strong, full, and with- 
 out affectation, arising chiefly from his clearness, pro- 
 priety, and argumentation ; in the method of which last, 
 by a sort of induction almost peculiar to himself, he 
 had a force beyond any man I ever heard in public 
 debates." Died in 1740. 
 
 Wyan, (Charles Watkins William,) M.P., an 
 English politician, born in 1775. He was secretary 
 at war from November, 1830, to April, 1831. Died in 
 1850. 
 
 Wynne, win, (Edward,) an English lawyer, born 
 in 1734. He published several legal works, which are 
 commended. Died in 1784. 
 
 Wynne, (John Huddlestone,) a British writer, 
 born in Wales in 1743, published "Fables for the 
 Female Sex," " A General History of Ireland," and 
 other works. Died in 1788. 
 
 Wyntoun. See Wintoun. 
 
 Wy'on, (William,) an English engraver of coins 
 and medals, born at Birmingham in 1795. He became 
 second engraver at the Mint in London, and in 1838 a 
 Royal Academician, being the first artist in his depart- 
 ment who had won that distinction. His works com- 
 prise a great variety of subjects, scientific, artistic, and 
 war medals, and are ranked among the most admirable 
 productions of the kind. Died in 1851. 
 
 Wyrsch, wegRsh, (Johann Melchior,) a Swiss 
 painter of history and portraits, born in Unterwalden in 
 1732. He worked for many years at Besancon. Died 
 in 1798. 
 
 ■See F. Wev, "Wyrsch et les Peiiltres bisontins," 1861. 
 
 Wyse, (Sir Thomas,) an English writer and diplo- 
 matist, born about 1800. In 1821 he married Letitia 
 Bonaparte, a niece of Napoleon L He was minister 
 at Athens from 1849 to 1862. He wrote, besides other 
 works, "Walks in Rome," and an "Excursion in the 
 Peloponnesus in 1858," (2 vols., 1865,) which is praised 
 by the "Edinburgh Review" in an article entitled " Sir 
 Thomas Wyse's Peloponnesus," (October, 1865.) Died 
 in 1862. 
 
 Wyshart See Wishart. 
 
 Wysocki, vl-sots'kee, (Joseph,) a Polish patriot and 
 soldier, born in Podolia in 1809. He fought in the 
 revolution of 1830, and in 1848 entered the Hungarian 
 service. After the defeat at Temesvar he took refuge in 
 France. He was the author of a treatise on " The Art 
 of War." 
 
 Wysocki, (Peter,) a Polish patriot, and prominent 
 leader in the revolution of 1830, was born at Warsaw in 
 1799. He was taken prisoner by the Russians in 1831, 
 and exiled to Siberia, where he died in 1837. 
 
 Wysa, wlss, (Johann Rudolf,) a Swiss writer, born 
 at Berne in 1781, became professor of philosophy in his 
 native town. He published, among other works, " Idyls, 
 Traditions, Legends, and Tales of Switzerland," (1815.) 
 Died in 1830. 
 
 Wysshart. See Wishart. 
 
 Wythe, v/V/i, (George,) an American jurist and 
 patriot, was bom in Elizabeth City county, Virginia, in 
 1726. He was an ardent promoter of the independence 
 of the colonies, was elected to the Continental Congress 
 in 1775, and signed the Declaration of Independence in 
 July, 1776. In this year Wythe, Jefferson, and Pendleton 
 were appointed a committee to revise the laws of Vir- 
 ginia, lie became in 1777 a judge of the high court 
 of chancery, and served as chancellor of Virginia for 
 
 eas*; casj;g.4ar<j';gas/;G, h,k, guttural; n, nasal; v., trilled; 5 as 2; th as in this. (^^"See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
WTTHER 
 
 2300 
 
 XENOCRATES 
 
 twenty years. He emancipated his slaves. Died at 
 Richmond in 1806. 
 
 See Sanderson, " Biography of the Signers to the Declaration 
 of Independence." 
 
 Wyther. See Withers. 
 
 Wyttenbach,wit'ten-baK', [Lat. Wyttenba'chius,] 
 (Daniel,) an eminent Swiss critic and scholar, born at 
 Berne in 1746. He studied at Gottingen, and subse- 
 quently at Leyden under Professor Ruhnken, and be- 
 came in 1 771 professor of Greek and philosophy in the 
 Athenaeum at Amsterdam. He was appointed in 1779 
 professor of eloquence at Leyden. He was one of the 
 
 greatest scholars of his time, and his compositions, 
 which are all written in Latin, are esteemed standard 
 works. Among these his "Life of Ruhnken" (1799) is 
 particularly admired for the elegance of its style. He 
 was editor for a time of the " Bibliotheca Critica," and 
 published editions of the "Opera Moralia" of Plutarch, 
 the "Phaedon" of Plato, (i8io,)and other classics. Died 
 in 1820. His wife, Johanna Gali.ien, was distinguished 
 for her learning, and was made doctor of philosophy by 
 the University of Marburg. 
 
 See W. L. Mahne, "Vita D. Wyttenbachii," 1823. 
 
 Wyttenbachius. See Wyttenbach. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xaintrailles, de. See Saintraiu.es, de. 
 
 Xanthippe. See Xantippe and Xan thippus. 
 
 Xanthippus, zan-thip'pus, [Gr. Mtofommc ; Fr. Xan- 
 thippe, gz6.\'tep',] an Athenian general, was the father 
 of Pericles. He succeeded Themistocles as commander 
 of the fleet in 479 B.C., and acted a prominent part in 
 the naval victory over the Persians at Mycale, (479.) He 
 captured Sestos in 478. 
 
 Xanthippus, a Spartan general, an ally of the Car- 
 thaginians in the first Punic war, defeated the Romans 
 under Kegulus, whom he took prisoner, (B.C. 255.) 
 
 Xanthus, zan'thus, [Huk0oo,] a Greek lyric poet, who 
 flourished probably about 650 B.C. No fragments of his 
 poetry are extant. 
 
 Xanthus, a Greek historian and native of I.ydia, 
 is supposed to have been contemporary with Herod- 
 otus. He was the author of a description of Lydia, 
 entitled " Lydiaca," which is highly commended by 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus. There are only fragments 
 of it extant. 
 
 Xantippe, zan-tip'pe, or, more correctly, Xan- 
 thip'pe, [Gr. aavQimrri ; Fr. Xantippe or XANTHIPPE, 
 gzoN'tep',] the wife of Socrates, was notorious for her 
 ill temper. Being asked by Alcibiades how he could 
 live with such a woman, he is said to have replied, "She 
 exercises my patience, and enables me to bear with all 
 the injustice I experience from others." It is, however, 
 probable that Xantippe 's faults have been much exag- 
 gerated. Socrates evidently entertained a sincere regard 
 for her, and gave her credit for many domestic virtues. 
 (See Socrates.) 
 
 Xaupi, gzo'pe', (Joseph,) a French antiquary and 
 priest, born at Perpignan in 1688; died in 1778. 
 
 Xaverius. See Xavier. 
 
 Xav'I-er, [Ger. Xaver, ksa-vaiR',] (Francis.) second 
 son of the Elector of Saxony, (who was afterwards 
 Augustus HI., King of Poland,) was born in 1730. He 
 was appointed in 1763 administrator of Saxony during 
 the minority of his nephew. Died in 1806. 
 
 Xavier, zav'e-er, [Sp. pron. na-ve-aiR'; Fr. pron. 
 gzt've-A'; Lat. Xave'rius; Ger. Xaver, ksa-vaiR'; It. 
 Saverio, si-va're-o,] (Francis,) Saint, a celebrated 
 Jesuit missionary, called "the Apostle of the Indies," 
 was born in the kingdom of Navarre, near the foot of 
 the Pyrenees, in April, 1506. He was educated in Paris, 
 and there formed a friendship with his fellow-student 
 Ignatius Loyola. He was one of those who associated 
 themselves with Loyola in the formation of the order 
 of Jesuits, about 1534. In 1538 he went to Rome, and 
 began to preach in the church of San Lorenzo in Da- 
 maso. Under the auspices of John, King of Portugal, 
 Xavier visited the East Indies as a missionary in 1541, 
 arriving at Goa in May, 1542. Ringing a bell through 
 the streets of Goa, he summoned parents to send their 
 children and slaves to him in order to be instructed in 
 the catechism. He endeavoured to reform the vicious 
 professors of religion as well as to convert the heathen, 
 whose temples he caused to be destroyed and replaced 
 by churches. Having laboured among the ignorant 
 population employed in the pearl-fishery on the coast, 
 he afterwards passed to Travancore, where, it is said, he 
 baptized ten thousand idolaters in nine months. In 1545 
 he visited Malacca, and converted numerous idolaters, 
 Jews, and Mohammedans. With several other mission- 
 
 aries, whom Loyola sent to aid him, he pursued his 
 course to the Banda Isles in 1546. He baptized many 
 in Amboyna, founded a mission at Ternate, and returned 
 to Malacca in 1547. Having converted a Japanese exile, 
 named Auger, he resolved to extend his labours to 
 Japan. He took Auger with him, and in 1549 reached 
 Canguxima, where he studied the Japanese language, 
 and was kindly received by the King of Saxuma. He 
 went thence to Firanda, in which he was permitted to 
 preach, and made many converts. Encouraged by this 
 success, he proceeded to Meaco, the capital of the em- 
 pire, where he arrived in 155 1. He obtained from the 
 king permission to preach, and converted about three 
 thousand there. His success was hindered by his im- 
 perfect knowledge of the language. He ardently desired 
 to carry the gospel to China, and was not deterred by 
 the severe penalty under which foreigners were forbid- 
 den to enter that country. Before he could reach this 
 new scene of labour, he died, on the isle of Sancian, 
 near the Chinese coast, in December, 1552. He was 
 canonized in 1622. 
 
 See Turselunus, " Vita F. Xaverii," 1594 ; B-artoi.i, " Vita F. 
 Xaverii." 1666; Sandoval, "Vida de S. Francisco Xavier," 1619; 
 I. Toscano, " Vita di F. Saverio," 1658; H. Venn, "Missionary 
 Life of Francis Xavier:" BoUHOURS, "Vie de S. Francois Xavier," 
 16^2, (Dkvden's English translation of the same, 1688;) Rayuois, 
 "Vie de S. F. Xavier," 1838; Reithmeier, "Leben des heiligen 
 Fran/. Xaver," 1846. 
 
 Xavier, (Jerome, or Geronimo,) a Jesuit missionary, 
 born in Navarre, was a relative of the preceding. He 
 went to Goa in 1571, after which he preached at the court 
 of the Mogul emperor, where he is said to have made 
 many converts. He wrote several religious treatises, in 
 Latin and in Persian. Died at Goa in 161 7. 
 
 Xenarchus, ze-nar'kus, [Hfi'aproc,] an Athenian 
 comic poet of the middle comedy, flourished about 35c— 
 330 B.C. Fragments of his works are extant. 
 
 Xenocles, zeVo-klez, [Heiw/cA^c,] an Athenian tragic 
 poet, was a son of Carcinus the Elder, and flourished 
 about 420 B.C. He gained a victory over Euripides in 
 415 B.C. He had a son Carcinus, and a grandson 
 Xknoci.es, who were likewise tragic poets. 
 
 Xenocles, an Athenian architect, lived in the age 
 of Pericles. 
 
 Xeaocrate. See Xenocrmf.s. 
 
 Xenocrates, ze-nok'ra-tez, [Gr. BevoKparTig ; Fr. Xt- 
 nocrate, gz&'no'kRaV,] an eminent Greek philosopher, 
 born at Chalcedon in 396 B.C. He was a pupil of Plato 
 and a fellow-student of Aristotle. He accompanied 
 Plato to Syracuse, and after the death of his master was 
 sent on embassies to Philip of Macedon. About 339 
 B.C. he became the head of the Platonic Academy at 
 Athens, over which he presided twenty-five years. He 
 had a high reputation for probity, modesty, and moral 
 purity. He wrote numerous works on philosophy, which 
 are not extant, taught that the soul is a self-moving 
 number, and regarded unity and duality as two deities, 
 the former of which rules in heaven and the latter in the 
 mutable world. In his philosophy the doctrines of Plato 
 are modified by the Pythagorean doctrines of number. 
 His eloquence converted the dissolute Polemon intc 
 a temperate man and an eminent philosopher. Died in 
 314 B.C. 
 
 See Diogenes Larrtius; Van dr Wijnpersse, "Diatribe do 
 Xenocrate Chalcedonio," 1822. 
 
 a, e, T, 5, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, y\ short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; n&t; good; moon; 
 
XE NO CRATES 
 
 2301 
 
 XERXES 
 
 Xenocrates, a Greek statuary of the school of Ly- 
 sippus, flourished about 260 B.C. 
 
 Xenocrates, a Greek physician, who resided at 
 Aphrodisias, is supposed to have lived about 37 A.n. 
 He was the author of a work "On the Nutriment de- 
 rived from Animals," part of which is extant. 
 
 Xenomedes, zen-o-mee'dez, [Sevofif/ih/c] of Chios, 
 a Greek historian, lived before the Peloponnesian war, 
 (which began 431 B.C.) 
 
 Xenon, zee'non, or Xe'no, [Hevwv,] a Greek painter 
 of Sicyon, was a pupil of Neocles. 
 
 Xenophane. See Xenophanes. 
 
 Xenophanes, ze-nofa-nez, [Gr. 3f i'oQuvtjc ; Fr. Xe- 
 nophane, gza'no'fitn',] a celebrated Greek philosopher 
 and poet, born at Colophon, in Ionia, about 600 B.C. 
 Diogenes states that he flourished in the 60th Olympiad, 
 (about 538 B.C.) He was the founder of the Eleatic 
 school, and probably lived for some time at Elea, in 
 Italy. He wrote a poem on the foundation of Elea, and 
 a number of elegiac poems of much merit. "The work 
 which contained his philosophic system," says Victor 
 Cousin, "and which has immortalized his name, was a 
 poem on Nature, in hexameter verse." Several frag- 
 ments of this poem have been preserved. He was con- 
 sidered by the ancients as the originator of the doctrine 
 of the oneness of the universe. He censured Hesiod 
 and Homer because they attributed to the gods human 
 vices and defects, and is said to have maintained the 
 doctrine of the unity of the Deity. According to Aris- 
 totle, Xenophanes, directing his view over the universe, 
 declared, "God is the One." Saint Clement also affirms 
 that he taught pure monotheism. Victor Cousin de- 
 fends him from the charge of pantheism which some 
 writers had brought against him. ("Biographic Uni- 
 verselle.") Xenophanes also insisted on the antagonism 
 between sensuous appearances and the pure truth or 
 reality. He was about one hundred years old when he 
 died. 
 
 Sec Rittkr, "History of Philosophy:" G. H. Lewes. "Bio- 
 graphical History of Philosophy;" Aristotle, " De Xenophane, 
 Georgia et Melisso:" Simon Karstkn. " Xenophanis Carminum 
 Reliquix; He Vita ejus," etc., 1S30; Dioceses Laehtiijs, "Xeno- 
 phanes ;" Fiil.i.EBoRN, " Beitrage zur Geschichle der Philosophic" 
 
 XenophUe. See Xe.nophii.us. 
 
 Xenophilus, ze-nof'e-lus, [Gr. Sevotjiifof ; Fr. Xeno- 
 PHILE, gza'no'fel',] a Greek sculptor, who, aided by 
 Straton, made a statue of Aesculapius at Argos. 
 
 Xenophon, zen'o-fon, [Gr. ZevoQCiv; Fr. Xenophon, 
 gza'no'foN'; It. Zenofonte, dza-no-fon't4,] a celebrated 
 Athenian historian and general, was a son of Gryllus, 
 and a native of the demus Ercheia. He is supposed to 
 have been born about 445 B.C. According to Diogenes 
 Laertius, from whose writings we derive nearly all that 
 is known of his life, Xenophon fell from his horse at the 
 battle of Delium, in 424 B.C., and would probably have 
 been killed, if he had not been rescued by Socrates. 
 He became a pupil of Socrates at an early age, and, 
 according to Photius, was also a pupil of Isocrates. 
 Little is known of the events of his life which occurred 
 between the battle of Delium and the year 401 B.C. 
 Diogenes Laertius states that "Xenophon edited or 
 made known the History of Thucydides, although it 
 was in his power to pass it off as his own work ;" but 
 the truth of this statement is doubted by some critics. 
 In 401 B.C. he went to Sardis, and entered the service 
 of the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger, whom he ac- 
 companied in an expedition against Artaxerxes Mnemon, 
 King of Persia. Xenophon and the other Greeks who 
 engaged in this expedition were deceived a* to its real 
 object. Cyrus was defeated and killed at Ctinaxa, near 
 Babylon, and the Greek general Clearchus was treach- 
 erously slain. Xenophon was one of the generals who 
 conducted the Greek army of 10,000 in its memorable 
 retreat from the Tigris to the Black Sea. He displayed 
 great firmness, courage, and military skill in this opera- 
 tion. This expedition and retreat form the subject of 
 his most celebrated work, the "Anabasis, or History 
 of the Expedition of Cyrus the Younger," which is a 
 very interesting narrative and is written in a natural, 
 agreeable style. 
 
 According to some authorities, he was banished from 
 Athens about 399 B.C., perhaps because he was a friend 
 
 of Socrates. Diogenes Laertius says he was banished 
 for Laconism. He took part in an expedition which 
 the Spartan king Agesilaus conducted against the Per- 
 sians in 396, and he fought in the Spartan army against 
 the Athenians at the battle of Coroneia, (394 B.C.) Soon 
 after this date he settled, with his wife Philesia and his 
 children, at Scillus, near Olympia, where he resided 
 many years and employed his time in hunting and 
 writing. During his residence at Scillus he wrote a 
 "Treatise on Hunting," his "Anabasis," and perhaps 
 other works. The decree by which he was banished 
 from Athens was repealed a few years before his death, 
 which occurred about 355 B.C. He had two sons, named 
 Gryllus and Diodorus. It is supposed that all of his 
 writings have come down to us. Under the title of 
 " Hellenica," he wrote a history of Greece from 411 to 
 362 B.C. His "Cyropsedia" (Kupo7nu<5«'«) is commonly 
 regarded as a political romance founded on the exploits 
 of Cyrus the Great, and has no authority as a history. 
 Among his other works are a " Life of Agesilaus," " The 
 Symposium,, or Bancpjet," in which he explains the 
 ideas of Socrates in relation to love and friendship, 
 and delineates the character of Socrates, a Dialogue 
 between Socrates and Critobulus, entitled OIkovo/ukoc, 
 which treats of domestic and moral economy, and is 
 highly esteemed, and a philosophic work called " The 
 Memorabilia of Socrates," ('Annfa'TJiiovci'/mTa 2onf)aTov<;,) 
 which purports to be an exposition 0/ the doctrines and 
 character of his illustrious master. It is highly prized 
 as a memorial of the practical part of the Socratic phi- 
 losophy. "Xenophon," says Macaulay, "is commonly 
 placed, but, we think, without much reason, in the same 
 rank with Herodotus and Thucydides. He resembles 
 them, indeed, in the purity and sweetness of his style ; 
 but in spirit he rather resembles that later school of 
 historians, whose works seem to be fables composed 
 for a moral, and who in their eagerness to give us warn- 
 ings and example forget to give us men and women." 
 (Essay on "History," 1828.) Xenophon's "Memora- 
 bilia" has been translated into English by Sarah Fielding, 
 his "Symposium" by J. Wellwood, his " Cyropaedia" 
 by M. A. Cowper, and his " CEconomicus" by Robert 
 Bradley. 
 
 See Fortia d'Urban, "Vie de Xenophon," 1795: Creuzer, 
 " De Xenophonte historico," i?oy: Hackkn, "Xenophon," 1805; 
 Kruger, " De Xenophontis Vila," 1823 ; Nobbe, " Vita Xeno- 
 phomis," 1S25; Kabricius, " Bibliotheca Graeca ;" Hoffmann, 
 " Lexicon Bibliographicum ;" Grote, " History of Greece ;" Thirl- 
 wall, " History of Greece ; " Nouvelle Biographie G^neVale." 
 
 Xenophon, an Athenian sculptor, who lived about 
 300 B.C. In conjunction with Cephisodotus, he made a 
 statue of Jupiter. 
 
 Xenophon, a Greek physician, a native of Cos, lived 
 at Rome, and gained the favour of the emperor Claudius. 
 At the instigation of Agrippina, he poisoned Claudius, 
 by introducing a poisoned feather into his mouth under 
 pretence of making him vomit. 
 
 Xenophon of Ephesus, a Greek writer of unknown 
 period, was the author of a romance called " Ephesiaca, 
 or the Loves of Anthia and Abrocomas," the style of 
 which is simple and elegant. He probably lived in 
 the second or third century after Christ. His romance 
 has been translated into German by BUrger, and into 
 English by Rooke. 
 
 Xerces. See Xerxes. 
 
 Xeres, de, da Ha'rSs, (Francisco,) a Spanish histo- 
 rian, was secretary to Pizarro, whom he accompanied to 
 Peru about 1530. He published in 1547 a history of the 
 expedition, entitled " A True Account of the Conquest 
 of Peru," etc. 
 
 Xerxes, zerk'sez, [Gr. Zh&K; Fr. XERCES,gzeVs?s',] 
 I., sometimes called Xerxes the Great, a famous king 
 of Persia, and the most powerful monarch of his time, 
 was a son of Darius Hystaspis. His mother was Atossa, 
 a daughter of Cyrus the Great. He succeeded Darius 
 in 485 B.C., and began to raise an immense army for the 
 invasion of Greece. Several years were expended in 
 cutting a canal through the isthmus of Mount Athos, 
 and in building a bridge of boats or ships across the 
 Hellespont, over which Xerxes and his army passed in 
 the spring of 480 B.C. His army was composed of many 
 nations tributary to the Persian empire, and, according 
 
 < as i; c as s; g Hard; g as/'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 5 as t; th as in this. (Ul^ See Explanations, p. 2 ;, ) 
 
XERXES 
 
 2302 
 
 XIMENES 
 
 to Herodotus; amounted to 2,317,610 men, besides slaves 
 and non-combatants. Niebuhr and Grote consider 
 this number incredible and impossible. The number 
 of slaves and other camp-followers was equal to that 
 of the soldiers. He is said to have shed tears when 
 he reflected that in a century, or less, none of these 
 myriads of men would survive. Having reviewed his 
 army at Doriscus, he marched through Thrace and 
 Thessaly. The Greeks attempted to defend the pass 
 of Thermopylae, but the Persians turned that position, 
 (see Leonidas,) and captured Athens, from which the 
 whole population had been removed. The Athenians, 
 who were directed by Themistocles, relied chiefly on 
 their naval power for defence against the invaders. An 
 indecisive naval action was fought by the two fleets at 
 Artemisium, where the Persian fleet was much damaged 
 by a storm. Xerxes was still able after this loss to 
 muster a fleet of twelve hundred vessels, which in the 
 autumn of 480 B.C. was defeated at the decisive battle 
 of Salamis. (See Themistoci.es.) Xerxes, placed on a 
 lofty position on the adjacent shore, witnessed this dis- 
 astrous defeat of his vainglorious project. He recreated 
 hastily by land to the Hellespont, and crossed over to 
 Asia, leaving an army under Mardonius, who was de- 
 feated at Plataea in 479 B.C. Xerxes was murdered in 
 465 by Artabanus, an officer of his court. He appears 
 to have been by nature not without amiable and noble 
 qualities ; but his heart was corrupted by the posses- 
 sion of unlimited power, and by the abject adulation 
 commonly bestowed on Eastern sovereigns. He was 
 succeeded by his son Artaxerxes Longimanus. 
 
 See Herodotus, "History of Greece;" Grotb, "History of 
 Greece ;"Roi.un, "Ancient History;" Rosenberg, "De Cam- 
 byse, Dario Hystaspe et Xerxe," 1600; Husshl, '* Xerxes des Gros- 
 Ben Leben, Thaten und Ende." 1816. 
 
 Xerxes II., King of Persia, was a son of Artaxerxes 
 I., (Longimanus,) whom he succeeded \n 425 B.C. After 
 a reign of a few months, he was assassinated by Sog- 
 dianus, his half-brother. 
 
 Ximenes or Jimenes, He-ma'n?s, (Francisco,) a 
 Spanish friar, who was employed as a missionary in 
 Mexico. He translated into Spanish a Latin work on 
 the plants of Mexico, by Hernandez. Died about 1620. 
 
 Ximenes or Jimenes, (Francisco,) a Spanish 
 painter, born at Saragossa in 1598. He studied in 
 Rome, adopted an Italian style, and returned to Sara- 
 gossa. His works are highly praised. Died in 1666. 
 
 Ximenes, He-ma'nes, (Leonardo,) a Sicilian astron- 
 omer and geometer, born at Trapani in I7r6, became 
 a Jesuit. He was appointed professor of geography at 
 Florence, and by his skill in hydraulics rendered im- 
 portant services in averting the damages caused by 
 overflowing rivers. He wrote a number of able works 
 on astronomy and hydraulics, among which is " Collec- 
 tion of Hydraulic Pamphlets," etc., (" Raccolta di Peri- 
 rie ed Opuscoli idraulici,"2 vols., 1781-86.) He founded 
 an observatory at Florence, where he died in 17S6. 
 
 Ximenes, she-ma'nes, (Peter,) a theologian, born 
 of Portuguese parents at Middelburg, in Holland, in 
 1514. He wrote, in Latin, a work called " Demonstration 
 of the Catholic Truth." Died in 1595. 
 
 Ximenes, (Rodrigo,) a Spanish prelate and his- 
 torian, became Archbishop of Toledo, and cardinal. 
 He rendered important military services in the war 
 against the Moors, and wrote a " History of Spain." 
 Died in 1247. 
 
 Ximenes, de, deh ze'ma'nes', (Augustin Louis,) 
 Marquis, a French poet, of Spanish extraction, born in 
 Paris in 1726, was an intimate friend of Voltaire. He 
 was the author of" Don Carlos," and other tragedies, a 
 poem entitled " Caesar in the Senate," and several criti- 
 cal essays, which were highly esteemed. Died in 1815. 
 
 Ximenes (or Jimenes) de Carmona, He-ma'nJs 
 dl kaR-mo'na, (Francisco,) a Spanish medical writer, 
 born at C6rdova near the end of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Ximenes, [English pron. ze-mee'nez,] or, more fully, 
 Jimenes (or Ximenes) de Cisneros, He-ma'nes di 
 Mes-na'rds, (Francisco,) called Cardinal Ximenes, a 
 celebrated Spanish statesman and patron of literature, 
 was born at Torrelaguna, in New Castile, in 1436. He 
 was educated at Salamanca and at Rome, where he 
 
 studied theology, philosophy, and Oriental languages. 
 He became grand vicar of Cardinal Mendoza at Siguenza. 
 About 1482 he entered the Franciscan order at Toledo, 
 where he acquired distinction as a preacher. He was 
 appointed confessor to Queen Isabella in 1492, and 
 Archbishop of Toledo in 1495. His modesty prompted 
 him to decline this honour ; but lie submitted to the 
 positive command of the pope. He was distinguished 
 by his simplicity of life, his charity to the poor, and his 
 aversion to luxury and pomp. About 1498 he founded 
 the University of Alcala de Henares. He exerted his 
 influence to reform the Franciscan order of monks. 
 Under his auspices a number of eminent scholars began 
 in 1502 to prepare a Polyglot Bible, called the Complu- 
 tensian, which became the model of all the subsequent 
 versions of the Bible in divers languages, and was the 
 greatest literary enterprise of that age. On the death 
 of Queen Isabella (1504) he acted as mediator between 
 Ferdinand the Catholic and the archduke Philip, each 
 of whom claimed the regency of Castile. After the 
 death of Philip (1506) Ximenes was appointed regent 
 or guardian of Queen Joanna, who was disqualified by 
 mental imbecility. He authorized the citizens of the 
 towns to form themselves into a militia, and by this 
 bold and politic measure promoted the power of the 
 crown, while he reduced the importance of the unruly 
 nobles. 
 
 In 1507 he received the title of cardinal. He fitted 
 out at his own expense a fleet and an army, which he 
 conducted in person to Africa in 1509, and captured the 
 city of Oran by storm. " His talents, energy, and re- 
 puted sanctity of character," says Prescott, " combined 
 with the authority of his station, gave him unbounded 
 influence with all classes of the Castilians." During his 
 expedition against Oran, King Ferdinand wrote a letter 
 to Count Navarro and requested him to find some 
 pretence for detaining Ximenes in Africa. The car- 
 dinal was acquainted with the contents of this letter, and 
 naturally put the worst construction on the same. On 
 one occasion the king, who wished the archbishopric of 
 Toledo for his natural son Alfonso, importuned Ximenes 
 to resign his see and take another in exchange; but he 
 replied, with indignation, " that he would never consent 
 to barter away the dignities of the Church." In 1517 
 his " Polyglot Bible" was completed. According to 
 Prescott, this was "a noble monument of piety, learn- 
 ing, and munificence, which entitles its author to the 
 gratitude of the whole Christian world." (" History of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella,") 
 
 By the testament of Ferdinand, who died in January, 
 r5 10, Cardinal Ximenes was appointed sole regent of 
 Castile during the absence of the young king Charles. 
 His right to this office was disputed by Adrian, Dean 
 of Louvain, who produced powers of similar purport 
 from Charles. Ximenes and Adrian administered the 
 government jointly for some time, but the former soon 
 assumed sole power. In September, 1517, Charles V. 
 arrived in Spain, and wrote a letter to Ximenes, which 
 
 is unmatched, even in court annals, for cool and base 
 ingratitude." (Prescott.) It announced his dismissal 
 from office. He died on the 8th of November, 15 17. 
 
 "Such," says Prescott, " was the end of this remark- 
 able man, — the most remarkable, in many respects, of 
 his time. His character was of that stern and lofty 
 cast which seems to rise above the ordinary wants and 
 weaknesses of humanity. His genius, of the severest 
 order, like Dante's or Michael Angelo's in the regions 
 of fancy, impresses us with ideas of power that excite 
 admiration akin to terror. . . . His regency was con- 
 ducted on the principles of a military despotism. His 
 whole policy, indeed, was to exalt the royal prerogative 
 at the expense of the inferior orders of the state. . . * 
 He had a full measure of the religious bigotry which 
 belonged to the age." (" History of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella," vol. iii.) 
 
 See Robi.es, " Vida del Cardinal Ximenes," 1604; Fi.hchier, 
 "Histoire du Cardinal Ximenes," 1693: Castro, "De Vita F. 
 Ximenii." 1581; Mkndoza, "Vida de Ximenes," 1653; Maksol- 
 i.ier, "Histoire du Ministere de Ximenes," 1694: " Don F. Xime- 
 nes," Leipsic. 1796; Barret, "Life of Cardinal Ximenes," 1813; 
 Hhfelr, " Der Cardinal Ximenes," 1844: Havbhann, " F. Xime- 
 nes." 1S48; Robertson, "History of Charles V.;" Prescott, 
 " History of Ferdinand and Isabella," vol. iii. part ii. 
 
 5, e, 1, 6, u, y, Ions;; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, f , shnrt; a, ?, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, Qt; met; not; good; moon; 
 
XIMENES 
 
 *3°3 
 
 YAO 
 
 Ximenes de Quesada, (da ka-si'nS,) (Gonzu.o,) a 
 Spanish explorer and captain, born at Granada about 
 1495. He commanded a party which about 1532 began 
 to explore the region since called New Granada, and 
 founded in 1538 Santa Fe de Bogota. Died in 1546. 
 
 Ximeno or Jimeno, ne-ma'no, (Vincknte,) a 
 Spanish biographer, born at Valencia about 1700. ITe 
 published a iiterary history of the kingdom of Valencia, 
 "Escritores del Regno de Valencia," (2 vols., 1747-49.) 
 
 Xiphilin. See Xiphilinus. 
 
 Xiphilinus, zif-e-ll'nus, [Gr. 3t$iXivo<; ; Fr. Xipiiilin, 
 gze'fe'laN',] (Joannes,) became Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople in 1066. He was the author of several religious 
 and ecclesiastical works. Died in 1075. 
 
 Xiphilinus, (Joannes,) nephew of the preceding, 
 wrote an epitome of the " History" of Dion Cassius, 
 which was first published in 1551. 
 
 Xuares or Juares, Hoo-i'res, (Gaspar,) a Jesuit and 
 botanist, born in Paraguay in 1731 ; died at Rome in 1804. 
 
 Xuares or Juares, Hoo-i'res, written also Suares. 
 (Roderick,) a. Spanish jurist, born at Salamanca, lived 
 in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 Xuthus, zu'thus, [Gr. Hotltoc,] a mythical king of 
 Peloponnesus, was called a son of Helen, a brother of 
 Poms and /Eolus, and the father of Achseus and Ion. 
 
 Xylander, kse-lin'der, (Gui.if.lmus, or WnxiAM,) 
 a German scholar, originally named Holzmann, (i.e. 
 " wood-man," of which Xylander is the Greek equivalent,) 
 was born at Augsburg in 1532. He studied in his native 
 town and at Tubingen, and in 1558 became professor 
 of Greek at Heidelberg. He made numerous transla- 
 tions from the Greek and Latin, among which we may 
 name the works of Strabo and Plutarch, the "History" 
 of Pion Cassius, and the mathematical works of Dio- 
 phantus. He also edited some of the works of Marcus 
 Antoninus, Phlegon Trallianus, and Antigonus Carys- 
 tins. His learning was profound, and his translations 
 are highly esteemed. Died in 1576. 
 
 Xylander, von, fon kse-lin'der, (Joseph Karl 
 August,) a German officer and military writer, born at 
 Munich in 1794, was the author of a treatise entitled 
 "Strategy and its Application," (1818,) a "Manual of 
 Tactics," and numerous other works, on various sub* 
 jects. Died in 1854. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yahya,* (or Yahia,) yi'He-i, a Moorish captain, 
 called by the Spaniards Ben-Gama or Ben-Gamia. I le 
 was commander of the armies of the Almoravides in 
 Spain, whose power was opposed by the Almohades. 
 He was killed in 1 148. 
 
 Tanya- (or Yahia-) al-Barmekee, (or -Barmakl,) 
 yi'He-i 31 bar'ma-kee', (Aboo-Alee or Abu-Alt, 
 a'boo i'lee,) a Persian minister of state, belonged to the 
 family of Barmecides, (or Barmekides.) He became 
 vizier of Haroun-al-Raschid in 786 A.D. He was a 
 man of superior talents, and had great influence for 
 many years. He was disgraced about 803, and died 
 in 807 a.d. 
 
 Yakoobt-al-Mansoor-Billah, Yakoub-al-Man- 
 sour-Billah, or Yakub- (or Jakub-) al-Mansur- 
 Billah, yi'koob' 31 min'srJor' bil'lah, a king of Morocco, 
 born about 1210, was an able and powerful monarch. 
 He began to reign in 1258. L-i 1275 he invaded Spain, 
 and waged war against the Christians with some suc- 
 cess. Pied in 1286. 
 
 Yakoob- (Yakoub- or Yakub-) Ibn-Lais or 
 -Laith,t ya'koob' Ib'n lis, sumamed Ai.-Soffar or Al- 
 Suffar, was the founder of the dynasty of Soffarides 
 In Persia. By conquest he made himself master of Sei's- 
 tan about 862 A.D., and of Farsistan a few yeais later. 
 Pied about 878 A.D. 
 
 Yal'd?n, (ThcTmas,) an English poet and divine, 
 born at Exeter in 1671. He studied at Magdalene 
 College, Oxford, where he acquired the friendship of 
 Addison and Sacheverell. He succeeded Atterbury as 
 lecturer at Bridewell Hospital in 1698, and became 
 professor or reader of moral philosophy at Oxford about 
 1702. He was also rector of Chalton and Cleanville, in 
 Hertfordshire. He wrote, besides other poems, "The 
 Temple of Fame," (1700,) "/Esop at Court," (1702,) a 
 " Hymn to Light," and a " Hymn to Parkness," which 
 was praised by Pr. Johnson. Pied in 1736. 
 
 Sec Johnson, " Lives of the Poets." 
 
 Yale, (Elihu,) born at New Haven, Connecticut, in 
 1648, was the principal patron of the college called by 
 his name. He became in 1687 governor of Fort Saint 
 George at Madras. He was a Fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety. Pied in 1721. 
 
 YSrn'5 or Yam'S-nS, [modern Hindoo pron. ytim'a 
 or yum'a-na,J called also Yam'an or Yam'en, in the 
 Hindoo mythology, the god 0/ Patala, (or Naraka,§) or 
 
 • It may be remarked that Yahya is the Arabic form of John. 
 There have been many princes, leaders, and writers of this name, 
 both in Asia and Africa, but none of any great note. 
 
 t Yakoob (in German, Jakub) is the Arabic of Jacob and Jam&s. 
 
 X See " Introduction, p. viii. section i., 4. 
 
 § The words Naraka and Patala appear to be sometimes used as 
 nearly synonymous; but Patala is more correctly applied to the 
 whole extent of the lower world, while Naraka proporly denotes a 
 place of torment. 
 
 the lower world, and the god of death and the judge of 
 departed spirits. His residence or capital is called Yama- 
 pura, or "city of Yama." After having inquired into and 
 pronounced upon the merits of those who are brought 
 before his judgment-seat, he sends the good to Swarga, 
 (Indra's paradise,) and the wicked to appropriate places 
 of punishment, corresponding to the Tartarus of classic 
 mythology. Yama is known by a great multitude of 
 names, as Pharma-Raja, ("King of Justice,") Mrityu, 
 (i.e. "Peath,") etc. He is said to have a servant, 
 named Karmala, (or Cannala,) who brings before him 
 the righteous on celestial self-moving cars. He has two 
 faces, — the one full of mildness and benevolence, seen 
 only by the virtuous ; the other is Hideous, exhibiting 
 great and terrible teeth : this only is visible to the 
 wicked. Yama is supposed by some to be the same 
 as Bali, (or Baly,) to whom, as we are informed in the 
 legend of VAmana, (which see,) Vishnu conceded the 
 kingdom of Pitala ; bat Southey makes them two dis- 
 tinct personages,!| Yamen being the king, and " Baly" 
 (Bali) the judge, of " Padalon," (a corruption of Pattala.) 
 See "The Curse of Kehama," vol. ii., v., also ijc.-xii. ; Moor, 
 " Hindu Pantheon." 
 
 Yamana. See Yama, 
 
 Yamen. See Yama. 
 
 Yanaka. See Nanek. 
 
 Yan'cey, (William L.,) an American politician, 
 born at Columbia, South Carolina, about 181 5. He 
 studied law, and settled in Alabama about rS37. He 
 represented a district of that State in Congress from 
 1844 to 1847 inclusive. He became a leader of the most 
 extreme partisans of State sovereignty and disunion, 
 (called fire-eaters,) and was the reputed author of the 
 phrase "fire the Southern heart." In the Convention 
 of Alabama he reported the ordinance of secession, 
 which was passed in January, 1861. He was sent early 
 in 1861 to Europe as a commissioner to obtain the 
 recognition of the new confederacy. Having returned 
 in February, 1862, he entered the Congress at Richmond 
 as Senator' for Alabama. Pied in August, 1863. 
 
 Yang-Tee or Yang-Ti, ying'tee', Emperor of China, 
 began to reign in 605 a.d. He caused several great 
 canals to be made for navigation. Pied in 617. 
 
 Yao, y3'o, or Yaou, yl'oo, almost y8w, an ancient 
 Chinese sage and ruler, is supposed to have lived about 
 two thousand years before the Christian era. According 
 to Pauthier, he ascended the imperial throne 2357 li.c, 
 and reigned seventy-two years, after which Shun was 
 associated with him in the government. His reign is 
 
 R " He [Yamen] sat upon a marble sepulchre, 
 Massive and hutte, where at the monarch's feet 
 The righteous Baly had his judgment-seat." 
 
 Curtc ef Kehamtt. vol. ii., xi. 
 
 ». as k; 9 as s; g Hard; g as/,- G, H, K, guttural; n, nasal; R, trilled; a as t; th as in Mi. (jySee Explanations, \\ 23.) 
 
YAROSLAF 
 
 «3°4 
 
 TEN-HOEI 
 
 Considered by some to mark the commencement of au- 
 thentic history among; the Chinese. The most ancient 
 historical books of China, if we may trust the statements 
 of the Chinese critics, date frorrt the time of Yao; in 
 other words, the events of his reign were chronicled by 
 contemporary historians, and not written afterwards 
 from tradition, as is the case with the early history of 
 nearly all other nations. Be this as it may, there is 
 reason to believe the early history of China to be more 
 trustworthy than that of most other countries. Yao is 
 represented as having been one of the most enlightened, 
 virtuous, and prosperous of rulers. He introduced 
 into the state many important regulations. He gave 
 especial encouragement to the study of astronomy and to 
 works of public improvement. " Great indeed," says 
 Confucius, "was Yaou as a sovereign. How majestic 
 was he ! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yaou 
 corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue ! The 
 people could find no name for it. How majestic was he 
 in the works which he accomplished ! how glorious in 
 the admirable regulations which he instituted !" (See the 
 "Confucian Analects," book viii. chap, xix.) Yao was 
 succeeded by Shun, who was scarcely, if at all, inferior 
 to him in wisdom and virtue. 
 
 See Pauthier, "Chine," pp. 31-37. 
 
 Yaroslaf or Yaroslav, Jaroslaw or Jaroslav, 
 ya'ro-slaf, Grand Duke of Russia, a son of Vladimir I., 
 was born towards the close of the tenth century. In 
 1016 he gained a decisive victory over his brother, 
 Sviatopok, and was crowned sovereign of all the Russias. 
 His reign is distinguished by the wise laws which he 
 enacted for the benefit of his subjects, the liberal encou- 
 ragement which he gave to learning, and the introduction 
 of painting from Greece. His sister Mary was married 
 to Casimir, King of Poland, and one of his daughters 
 became the queen of Henry I. of France. Died in 1054. 
 
 Yaroslaf (or Jaroslaw) IX became Grand Duke of 
 Russia in 1238. During his reign the Mongol Tartars 
 overran his dominions and reduced him to vassalage. 
 Died in 1246. 
 
 Yar'ran-ton, (Andrew,) an English soldier and 
 mechanician, born in Worcestershire in 1616, served for 
 a time in the Parliamentary army. He devoted himself 
 to the improvement of inland navigation and agricul- 
 ture, and wrote a valuable work, entitled " England's 
 Improvement by Sea and Land," (1677.) 
 
 See Samuel Smiles, " Industrial Biography." 
 
 Yar'rell, (William,) an eminent English naturalist, 
 born at Westminster in 1784. He was a Fellow of the 
 Linnaean and Zoological Societies, and contributed a 
 number of valuable treatises to the Journal and Trans- 
 actions of those institutions. He published in 1836 his 
 " History of British Fishes," (2 vols. 8vo,) which was 
 followed in 1843 by his "History of British Birds," (2 
 vols.) They are beautifully illustrated with woodcuts, 
 and are ranked among the most admirable works of 
 their kind. Yarrell was the first to prove that the white 
 bait is a distinct species of fish, and not the young of other 
 species, as was previously supposed. Died in 1856. 
 
 See the " Quarterly Review" for March, 1837. 
 
 Yart, ytR or £-Jr, (Antoine,) a French /ittjrateur, 
 born at Rouen in 1710, became a priest and curate of 
 Saussay, in Vexin. He published, under the title of 
 " Ide'e de la Poesie Anglaise," (8 vols., 1749-56,) prose 
 translations of several English poems. Died in 1791. 
 
 Yates, (Anna Maria,) a celebrated English actress, 
 excelled particularly in tragic parts. She w?s the wife 
 of Richard Vates. Died in 1787. 
 
 Yates, (Edmund Hodgson,) an English novelist, a 
 son of the following, was born in 1831. He was editor 
 of the " Temple Bar Magazine" for some years ending 
 in 1867. Among his works are " Broken to Harness," 
 (3 vols., 1864,) "The Business of Pleasure," (2 vols., 
 1865,) "Land at Last: a Novel," (3 vols., 1866,) and 
 "The Rock Ahead," (3 vols., 1868.) 
 
 Yates, (Frederick Henry,) a popular English actor, 
 born about 1795, became manager of the Adelphi The- 
 atre. Died in 1842. 
 
 Yates, (James,) an English antiquary and economist, 
 born at Highgate, near London, in 1789, became a dis- 
 
 senting minister. He published, besides other works, 
 "Textrinum Opus, or an Inquiry into the Art of Weav- 
 ing among the Ancients," (1845.) 
 
 Yates, (Robert,) an American jurist and statesman, 
 born at Schenectady, New York, in 1738, became chief 
 justice of the State of New York in 1790. Died in 1801. 
 
 Yates, (William,) an English Baptist divine and 
 Orientalist, born in 1792. In 1815 he went as a mission- 
 ary to Calcutta, where he translated the Bible into 
 Bengalee, and the New Testament, Pentateuch, Psalms, 
 Proverbs, Isaiah, and Daniel into Sanscrit. He also pub- 
 lished a Sanscrit grammar, and a Sanscrit-and-English 
 dictionary. He died on the voyage to England, in 1845. 
 
 Yazeed or Yazid. See Ykzeed. 
 
 Yazikof or Jasikow, ya'ze-kol', a Russian lyric 
 poet, distinguished for the exquisite sweetness and melody 
 of his verse, was born at Simbirsk in 1805. From the 
 character of his early songs, he was called "the Russian 
 Anacreon," but his later productions were of a more 
 serious character. Died in 1846. 
 
 Yberville. See Iberville. 
 
 Yeames, yeemz, (William Frederick,) an English 
 painter, born at Taganrog, in Russia, in 1835. Among 
 his works is " Sir Thomas More taken to the Tower," 
 (1863.) He was elected an associate of the Royal Acad- 
 emy of London in 1866. 
 
 Yearsley, yeerz'le, (Mrs. Anne,) an English writer, 
 born at Bristol about 1756, was originally a milkwoman. 
 She was patronized by Hannah More, under whose aus- 
 pices she published " The Royal Captives," a romance, 
 and a collection of poems. 
 
 Yeates, vats, ? (Thomas,) an English Orientalist, 
 born in 1768. He produced, besides other works, a 
 Hebrew Grammar and a Syriac Grammar, both of which 
 are commended. Died in 1839. 
 
 Yeats, (Thomas Pattinson,) F.R.S., an English 
 naturalist of the eighteenth century, was the author of 
 an elementary work on entomology. Died in 1782. 
 
 Yefremof or Jefremow, yeh-fra'mof, a Russian 
 traveller, born about 1744, published "Travels in Persia 
 and India," (1786.) Died after 1809. 
 
 Yelin, von, fon yeh-Ieen', (Julius Conrad,) a Ger- 
 man mathematician, born in Bavaria in 1771, wrote 
 several scientific works. Died in 1826. 
 
 Yeliu-Thsoo-Thsai, yeYle-oo' tsoo tsl, a celebrated 
 Chinese or Tartar minister, born in 1 190. He was a 
 councillor of Jengis Khan and of his son Ogodai. He 
 was noted for his wisdom and virtue. Died in 1244. 
 According to Abel Remusat, " Millions of men owed 
 their lives and liberty to this great minister, who spent 
 his life in pleading the cause of law, order, and hu- 
 manitv." 
 
 YSl'ver-ton, (Sir Henry,) an English statesman 
 and jurist, born in 1566, was the author of "Reports of 
 Special Cases." Died in 1630. 
 
 Yendis or Yendys. See Dobei.l. 
 
 Yen-Hoei, ySn-ho-a' or -ho-!', or Yen-Hwuy, called 
 also Yen- Yuen, (yoo'en',) the favourite and most gifted 
 disciple of Confucius, was born towards the latter part 
 of the sixth century B.C. Not only his master but his 
 fellow-pupils admitted his decided superiority over all 
 the rest. Confucius asked one of them, (Tsze-Kung,) 
 " Which do you consider superior, yourself or Hwtty ?" 
 He replied, "How dare I compare myself with Hwuy? 
 Hwuy /liars one point and knows all about a subject, I 
 hear one point and know a second [onlyj." (See "Ana- 
 lects of Confucius," book v.) Confucius said of him, 
 "There was Yen-Hwuy; he loved to learn; ... he 
 did not repeat a fault. Unfortunately, his appointed 
 time was short : he died, and now there is not such 
 another." (" Analects," book vi.) Even Mencius was 
 considered to be inferior to Yen-Hwuy, who was "all 
 round and complete." (See Legge's "Chinese Classics," 
 vol. ii. p. 43.) When Yen-Hwuy died, Confucius was 
 inconsolable, both for his own loss and the loss of man- 
 kind. (See Confucius.) His disciples said to the sage, 
 " Your grief is excessive !" " Is it excessive ?" said he. 
 "If I am not to mourn bitterly for this man. for whom 
 should I mourn?" ("Analects," book xi.) On another 
 occasion he said, " Admirable indeed is the virtue of 
 Hwuy." And again, " He has nearly attained to perfect 
 
 i, e, I, 6, 11, y, long; i, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e,I, 6, u, y, short; a, e, j, q,obscure; fir, fill, fit: mSt: not; good: moon. 
 
rEN-ruEN 
 
 «3° 5 
 
 roosuF 
 
 virtue." The following may serve to show Yen-Hoei's 
 devotion to his master. Once, while travelling, they 
 were in danger from the hostility of the people of the 
 place through which they were passing. Yen-Hoei 
 happened to fall behind the rest. When he came up, 
 Confucius said, "I thought you had died." Yen-Hoei 
 replied, " While you were alive, how should I presume 
 to die ?" 
 
 See Legge. "Analects of Confucius," passim; also the notice of 
 Confucius in Pauthier's "Chine," pp. 145, 146, and 176. 
 
 Yen-Yuen. See Yen-Hoei. 
 
 Yepez, de. di yi peth', (Antonio,) a Spanish Bene- 
 dictine monk, born in the sixteenth century, lived at 
 Valladolid. He wrote "Chronicles of the Benedictine 
 Order," (7 vols., 1609-15.) Died in 1621. 
 
 Yepez, de, (Diego,) a Spanish monk and historical 
 writer, born near Toledo in 1559. He became prior of- 
 the monastery of the Escurial. Philip II. is said to have 
 intrusted to him the direction of his conscience. Yepez 
 wrote a " History of the Persecution in England since 
 1570." Died in 16 1 3. 
 
 Yeregui, de, da yi'ra-gee, (Jose,) a pious and liberal 
 Spanish ecclesiastic, born at Vergara in 1734. He 
 founded several schools, and became preceptor of the 
 children of Charles III. Died in 1805. 
 
 Yermak or Iermak, yer'mak, a Cossack chief, who 
 conquered Siberia, was born near the banks of the Don. 
 He invaded Siberia with 5000 men, and, after several 
 victories over the native tribes, took Siber, the capital, 
 in 1580, and laid the foundation of the Russian dominion 
 in that region. Died in 1583. 
 
 See Mn.t.Ejt, "Opisanie Sibirskago tzarstra," 1750. 
 
 Yezdejerd or Iezdedjerd (yez'de-jerd') I., King of 
 Persia, of the dynasty of Sassanidae, succeeded his brother 
 Varanes (Hahram) IV. in 399 a.d. He maintained peace 
 and friendship with the Roman empire, and gave tolera- 
 tion to the Christians, who became numerous in Persia. 
 In the latter part of his reign, however, a persecution 
 was provoked by the rash zeal of Abdas, Bishop of Susa, 
 who destroyed a temple of the fire-worshippers. Died 
 in 419. 
 
 Yezdejerd or Iezdedjerd II., surnamed the 
 GENTLE, was the son of Varanes (Bahram) V., whom 
 he succeeded on the throne of Persia in 439 A.D. He 
 was attached to the doctrine of Zoroaster, and wished 
 his subjects to conform. His chief minister urged him 
 to use severe measures against the Christians, who were 
 numerous, especially in Armenia, and in 442 an army 
 was sent to enforce the worship of fire in that province. 
 An Armenian prince named Vartan raised a large army 
 and defeated that of Persia ; but finally, through the 
 treachery of several Armenian leaders, Vartan was de- 
 feated and killed, and the province was subdued in 
 451. He died in 457, and was succeeded by his son 
 Hormisdas. 
 
 Yezdejerd or Iezdedjerd III., King of Persia, was 
 the son of Sheheriar, and the last of the race of Sas- 
 sanidoe. He began to reign on the death of his uncle 
 Ferrookh-zad, in 632 a.d., and found the empire weak- 
 ened by intestine dissensions and verging to dissolution. 
 He reformed the calendar, changed the old names of 
 months and days for others representing physical objects 
 or properties, and ordained that time should be com- 
 puted from a new era, (June 16, 632,) which is still ob- 
 served by the followers of Zoroaster. In 634 Irak was 
 invaded by a Moslem army, against which he sent a 
 general named Roostam, who addressed the invaders 
 in terms like these : " Retire from the Persian soil, if 
 you would avoid the wrath of the king of kings. Who 
 is your sovereign ? what are his antecedents, his titles, 
 and his dominions? Why do you quit your deserts, 
 and what do you seek in Persia?" To this the un- 
 terrified zealots replied, " We covet nothing that Persia 
 contains. The vicegerent of God has charged us to 
 announce his law to the nations of the earth. If the 
 Persians and their king will receive these sublime truths, 
 they shall be our brothers ; if not, our swords shall sub- 
 vert the throne of Yezdejerd." In the battle that en- 
 sued, the Arabs fought with all the courage of fanaticism, 
 and appeared invincible until they were broken and 
 routed by the charge of the Persian elephants. The 
 
 caliph Omar raised another army, and in 636 gained a 
 decisive victory over Roostam, who was killed in the 
 retreat. This was the first of a series of victories which 
 about 645 had effected the conquest of all Persia, except 
 a part of Khorassan, in which the Persian king took 
 refuge. He was killed in 652 A.D. 
 
 Yezeed, Yezid, or Jesid (ylh-zeed') I, written 
 also Yazid and Yazeed, the second of the Omeyyade 
 caliphs, was a son of Mo&weeyah, (whence his Arab 
 surname, Ibn-MoAwkeyah,) and began to reign at 
 Damascus in 680 a.d. He was recognized in Persia, 
 Syria, and Egypt. Mecca and Medina, having revolted 
 against him, were pillaged and almost destroyed by 
 his armies. Died in 683 A.D., aged thirty-nine. 
 
 See Weil, " Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. vi. 
 
 Yezeed, Yezid, or Jesid II., a grandson of the 
 preceding, and a son of Abd-el-Malek, became caliph in 
 720 a.d. He persecuted the Christians. Died in 724. 
 
 See Weil, "Geschichte der Chalifen," vol. i. chap. xiii. 
 
 Yezeed or Yazid, (Ibn-Mahleb, Ib'n mah'leb,) an 
 able Persian warrior, who gained several victories for 
 the caliph Soliman. Having revolted against Yezeed 
 II., he was killed in battle about 720 A.D. 
 
 Yggdrasil. See Odin. 
 
 Y Kiun. See Wan-Lee. 
 
 Ymir, ee'mir, or Ymer, [supposed to be derived 
 from the Norse ymia, to "rush," to "roar," expressive 
 of confusion,] in the Norse mythology, the first of the 
 giants produced from Ginnunga-gap (the " abyss of 
 abysses") by the union of heat and frost, and the pro- 
 genitor of the Frost-Giants. He was also called Aur- 
 gelmir, (the " primeval mass," or chaos.) He was slain 
 by Odin and his brothers, who made the earth of his 
 flesh and bones, the sea of his blood, and the heavens 
 of his skull. He was a personification of Chaos. 
 
 Yonge, rung, (Chari.es Duke,) an English writer, 
 born about 1812. He published, besides other works, 
 a "History of England," (1857,) a " Life of the Duke 
 of Wellington," (i860,) a " History of the British Navy," 
 (2 vols., 1S63,) and "The History of France under the 
 Bourbons," (4 vols., 1867.) 
 
 Yonge, (Charlotte Mary,) an English novelist, 
 born in Hampshire about 1823, published a number 
 of tales, among the most popular of which are " The 
 Heir of RedclyfTe," (1853,) and "The Daisy Chain," (2 
 vols., 1856.) She has also written "Landmarks of His- 
 tory," (1852-57,) and other educational works, and a 
 " History of Christian Names," (2 vols., 1863.) 
 
 See Ai-libone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Y611I, yo'ni, in the Hindoo mythology, the symbol 
 of Parvati and of femineity in general, and, as such, 
 associated with the worship of Siva. (See Siva, and 
 also Juno.) 
 
 See Moor, " Hindu Pantheon," pp. 382-398. 
 
 Yoong-Shing or Young-Ching, yoong-shing, an 
 emperor of China, began to reign in 1723. He died in 
 1735, aged fiftv-eight. 
 
 Yoosuf, Yousouf, Yusuf, or Jusuf (yoo'sdof) I., a 
 Moorish king of Granada, began to reign in 1333 ; died 
 in 1154. 
 
 Yoosuf- (or Yusuf-) Aboo-Amroo-Ibn-Abdi-1 
 Barr, (a'boo 5m'r<5o ib'n abd-il baR,) written also You- 
 souf-Amrou-Ben-Abd-Alberr, a learned Moorish 
 writer, born at C6rdova, Spain, in 979 ; died in 1070. 
 Among his works may be mentioned a treatise on Mo- 
 hammedan history ano traditions, and a " History of the 
 Opinions of the Mussulman Doctors," etc. A history 
 entitled the " Pearls of Sacred Wars" is also attributed 
 to him. 
 
 Yoosuf- (orYusuf-) Ibn-Abdi-r-Rahman-al-Feh- 
 ree, (or-Fehrf,) (ib'n abd-Ir raH'man al feh'r'ee,) a Sara- 
 cen or Moor, who was chosen Emir or Governor of 
 Spain in 746 A.D. He was defeated by Abd-er-Rahman, 
 near C6rdova, in 756, and was killed in 759 A.D. 
 
 Yoosuf-Ibn-Tashefeen, (or -Tashefiu.) (ib'n ti'- 
 sh£h-feen',) written also Ben-Taschefyn, an Almo- 
 ravide prince of Northern Africa, distinguished for his 
 bravery and skill in war. He made extensive conquests, 
 and in 1072 founded the city of Morocco as the capital 
 of his dominions. Invited in 1086 by tiie Moslem 
 
 « as k; c as s; g Aard; gas/; G, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal: R, trilled ; I as 1; th as in this. (ity See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 •45 
 
TORCK 
 
 2306 
 
 TOUNG 
 
 princes of Spain to assist them against the Christians, 
 he equipped a powerful armament, landed in Spain, and 
 gained a decisive victory, near Badajoz, over Alfonso, 
 King of Castile. He afterwards reduced nearly all of 
 the Moorish princes of that country to vassalage. Died 
 in 1 106. 
 
 Yorck (or York) von Wartenburg, yoRk fon 
 waR'ten-boonG', (Hans David Ludwig,) Count, a 
 Prussian general, born at Konigsberg in 1759. Having 
 served for a time against the French, under the Duke 
 of Saxe-Weimar, he entered Napoleon's army, and com- 
 manded the Prussian corps in the campaign of 1812. 
 After the reorganization of the Prussian army, and their 
 withdrawal from the French cause, he successively de- 
 feated Eugene, Viceroy of Italy, at Dannekow, Sebastiani 
 at Weissig, and General Bertrand at Wartenburg, (1813.) 
 He gained a victory over Marmont, at Mockern, in 
 October the same year, and in 18:4 was made general 
 of infantry. After the surrender of Paris, he was created 
 a count, commander of the forces in Silesia and Posen, 
 and in 1821 a field-marshal. He died in 1830. 
 York, Cardinal. See Stuart, (Henry Benedict.) 
 York Duke of. This title is appropriated exclu- 
 sively to members of the royal family of England, and 
 has often been given to a younger son of the king. The 
 first Duke of York was Edmund of Langley, the fifth 
 son of Edward III. He was born in 1341, and obtained 
 the title about 1385. He had superior abilities, and took 
 a prominent part in the reign of Richard II. Died in 
 1402. His son Edward, second Duke of York, was 
 distinguished as a warrior. He was killed at the battle 
 of Agincourt, in 141 5, and left no issue. The dukedom 
 then passed to his nephew, Richard Plantagenet, a 
 son of Richard, Earl of Cambridge, who was a younger 
 son of the first Duke of York. Richard, the third duke, 
 became a claimant of the throne, the right to which 
 descended through his mother, Anne Mortimer, who 
 was a great-granddaughter of Lionel, the third son of 
 Edward III. He was appointed Regent of France in 
 1435, ar >d recalled in 1447. In 1454 he received the 
 title of Protector of the Kingdom during the illness of 
 Henry VI. In 1455 he took arms to enforce his claim 
 to the throne. This was the beginning of the long civil 
 war of the Roses. His party gained a victory at Saint 
 Alban's in 1455, and another at Northampton in 1459 or 
 1460. The Duke of York was defeated and killed at 
 Wakefield in December, 1460. His son became King 
 Edward IV. Richard, the second son of Edward IV., 
 became Duke of York in 1474. He was murdered in 
 the Tower by Richard III. in 1483. Henry Tudor, 
 the second son of Henry VII., was created Duke of 
 York in 1491. He ascended the throne, as Henry VIII., 
 in 1509. The title was also borne by Charles I. and 
 James II. before their accession to the throne. Ernest 
 Augustus, a brother of George I., was created Duke of 
 York and Albany in 1716. He died, without issue, in 
 1728. Edward Augustus, a brother of George HI., 
 was created Duke of York and Albany in 1760, and died, 
 without issue, in 1767. 
 
 See Miss Roberts, "Memoirs of the Rival Houses of York 
 and Lancaster," 1827. 
 
 York, (Frederick,) Duke of, born in 1763, was the 
 second son of George HI. He served for a time in the 
 Prussian army, and was created in 1784 Duke of York 
 and Albany. He married in 1791 Frederica, daughter 
 of Frederick William II. of Prussia. He commanded 
 a British corps in the French campaigns of 1793-94, was 
 made a field-marshal in 1795, and commander-in-chief 
 of the army in 1798. He was defeated near Bergen, in 
 Holland, in 1799, and compelled to sign the disadvan- 
 tageous convention of Alkmaar. Died in 1827. 
 
 Yorke, (Charles,) Lord Morden, an English jurist 
 and statesman, born in London in December, 1722, was 
 a younger son of the first Lord Hardwicke. He was 
 educated at Bene't College, Cambridge. He and his 
 brother Philip were, while at college, the principal 
 authors of the "Athenian Letters ; or/The Correspond- 
 ence of an Agent of the King of Persia residing at 
 Athens," (1 741,) a work of considerable merit. He pub- 
 lished an ingenious "Treatise on Forfeiture for Treason," 
 (1744.) In 1747 he was returned to Parliament for Rye- 
 
 gate. He became solicitor -general in 1756, and attorney- 
 general in 1762. He was attached to the Whig party. 
 Having resigned in December, 1763, he wis reappointed 
 in August, 1765, on the formation of the ministry of 
 Rockingham. He refused the offer of the great seal 
 several times, but, at the earnest request of the king, he 
 accepted the same in January, 1770, and succeeded Lord 
 Camden. By this act he deserted his Whig friends and 
 destroyed his own peace. He died a few days after he 
 became chancellor, probably by suicide. He left several 
 children, one of whom was Sir Joseph Yorke, a naval 
 officer. Charles Yorke was a friend and correspondent 
 of Montesquieu. 
 
 "He was possessed," says Lord Campbell, "of the 
 finest talents, of the most varied accomplishments, of 
 every virtue in public and private life ; but when he 
 seemed to have reached the summit of his lofty am- 
 bition, he committed a fatal error. . . . His acceptance 
 of the great seal was wrong, but did not proceed from 
 sordid motives. He was overpowered by royal blandish- 
 ments, and a momentary mistake as to the duty of a good 
 subject." 
 
 See Lord Campbhll, "Lives of the Lord Chancellors," vol. v. 
 
 Yorke, (Charles Philip.) See Hardwicke. 
 
 Yorke, (Sir Joseph Sidney,) K.C.H., an English 
 admiral, entered the navy in 1780. He served under 
 Lord Rodney in 1782, and rose through various promo- 
 tions to be admiral of the blue in 1830. He perished 
 by shipwreck in Stokes Bay in 1831. 
 
 Yorke, (Philip.) See Hardwicke, Earl of. 
 
 Youatt, yoo'at, (William,) an English veterinary 
 surgeon, born in 1777, was the author of a "Treatise 
 on Cattle," a "Treatise on the Horse," "The Com- 
 plete Grazier," and other similar works. He was also 
 editor of a journal entitled "The Veterinarian." Died 
 in 1847. 
 
 Youmans, yoo'manz, (Edward Livingston,) an 
 American chemist and scientific writer, born in Albany 
 county, New York, in 1821. He has published, besides 
 other works, a "Class-Book of Chemistry," (1852,) 
 and " Hand-Book of Household Science," (1857.) He 
 edited "The Correlation and Conservation of Forces : 
 a Series of Expositions by Grove, Helmholtz," etc., 
 (1864.) 
 
 Young, yiing, (Alexander,) D.D., an American 
 Congregational divine, born at Boston in 1800, was the 
 author of "Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers of the 
 Colony of Plymouth," (1841,) " Library of Old English 
 Prose Writers," and other works. Died in 1854. 
 
 Young, yung, (Sir Aretas William,) an English 
 officer, served successively against the French in Egypt, 
 Sicily, and Spain, and was made lieutenant-colonel in 
 1 8 13. He became lieutenant-governor of Prince Ed- 
 ward's Island in 1831, and was knighted in 1834. Died 
 in 1835. 
 
 Young, (Arthur.) an eminent English agriculturist 
 and writer on economy, was born in Suffolk in 1 741. 
 He was a merchant's clerk in his youth at Lynn. Having 
 an aversion to mercantile business, he began to make 
 experiments in agriculture, which at first were not suc- 
 cessful. He leased a farm of three hundred acres at 
 Samford Hall, Essex, about 1765, and cultivated it for 
 five years. He published a "Tour through the Southern 
 Counties of England and Wales," (1768,) which was 
 successful, and a " Course of Experimental Agriculture," 
 (1770.) He performed several exploring tours in different 
 parts of England, and published the results of his inves- 
 tigations in works which contributed much to improve 
 the methods of cultivation. His " Farmer's Calendar" 
 (1771) was a very popular work. In 1774 he published 
 his " Political Arithmetic." He acquired a European 
 reputation by his writings on agriculture. In 1784 he 
 began to publish the " Annals of Agriculture," (45 vols.,) 
 which was highly esteemed. He travelled in France in 
 1787 and 1789, to explore the agricultural resources of 
 that country, on which subject he published, about 1791, 
 an interesting work. In 1793 he was appointed secre- 
 tary to the board of agriculture, with a salary of four 
 hundred pounds or more. He had married in early life, 
 and had several children. Died in 1820. By his experi- 
 ments and writings he rendered an important service to 
 
 S, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, % short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
rOUNG 
 
 Z307 
 
 rOUNG 
 
 British agriculture ; and even the French acknowledge 
 that France rests under obligations to him. His works 
 on agriculture were translated into French by order of 
 the Directory, and published under the title of " Cultiva- 
 tes Anglais," (18 vols., 1801.) 
 
 See the "Gentleman's Magazine" for May, 1820; "Monthly 
 Review" for Julv, August, and September, 17S0, tt seej. ; Ai.i.ibone, 
 " Dictionary of Authors ;" " Nouvelle Biographie Generale." 
 
 Young, (Augustus,) an American naturalist and 
 geologist, born at Arlington, Vermont, in 1785. He 
 studied law, was elected a member of Congress in 1841, 
 and after the end of his term (1843) devoted himself to 
 scientific pursuits. He wrote several scientific treatises, 
 and was appointed State naturalist (for Vermont) in 
 1S56. Died in 1857. 
 
 Young, (Brigham,) high-priest of the Mormons, 
 was born at VVhitingham, Vermont, in June, 1801. He 
 joined the Mormons in 1832 at Kirtland, Ohio, and 
 soon acquired much influence by his shrewdness and 
 energy. He was one of the twelve apostles sent out 
 in 1835 to make proselytes. On the death of Joseph 
 Smith, June, 1844, he was chosen president and prophet. 
 As the people of Illinois seemed determined to expel 
 the Mormons from the State, Young resolved to remove 
 to some region in the far West, and, accompanied by 
 a large majority of the Mormons, abandoned Nauvoo 
 early in 1846. He persuaded his followers that the valley 
 of Great Salt Lake was the Promised Land, and, having 
 arrived at that lake about July, 1847, he founded Salt 
 Lake City. The Mormons increased rapidly by emi- 
 gration. In the spring of 1849 they held a convention 
 at Salt Lake City, and organized a State, which they 
 called Deseret ; but Congress refused to admit it into 
 the Union, and organized the Territory of Utah, of 
 whidh Brigham Young was appointed Governor, (1850.) 
 The Mormons afterwards defied the laws and officers of 
 the federal government, and Brigham Young ruled over 
 Utah with absolute. authority. In 1857 President Buch- 
 anan appointed Alfred Cumming Governor of Utah, and 
 sent an army of about 2500 men to enforce his authority. 
 Governor Cumming proclaimed, about November, 1857, 
 that the Mormons were in a state of rebellion ; but in 
 1858 hostilities were suspended by a compromise. Ac- 
 cording to Mr. Dixon, there were 20,000 " saints" in 
 Salt Lake City in 1866, and 150,000 in Utah, which is 
 probably a great exaggeration, as the population of Salt 
 Lake City, according to the recent census, does not ex- 
 ceed 14,000. Brigham Young keeps about twelve actual 
 wives, besides many women who have been "sealed to 
 him" as his spiritual wives. 
 
 See " Mormonism," in the " New American Cyclopedia ;" " New 
 America," bv Hhpworth Dixon, 1S67; "Mormonism: its Leaders 
 and Designs," by John Hydb, Jr., 1857; "The Mormons, or 
 Latter-Day Saints," by Lieutenant J. W. Gunnison, 1853; B. 
 G. Ferris, " Utah and the Mormons," 1856. 
 
 Young, (Edward,) an eminent English poet, born at 
 Upham, in Hampshire, in 1684, was a son of Edward 
 Young, rector of that parish, and subsequently Dean 
 of Salisbury. He studied at Winchester, entered New 
 College, Oxford, in 1703, and a few months later removed 
 to Corpus Christi College. In 1708 he was elected a 
 Fellow of All Souls' College. He published in 1713 
 poems entitled "The Last Day," and "The Force of 
 Religion, or Vanquished Love." In 1719 he took the 
 degree of D.C.L, and produced the same year the 
 tragedy of "Busiris." He was patronized by the Duke 
 of Wharton, who granted him an annuity. His next work 
 was "The Revenge," a tragedy, (1721,) which, like most 
 of his writings, is marred by false taste and bombastic 
 style. About 1725 he began to publish, tinder the title 
 of "The Love of Fame, the Universal Passion," a col- 
 lection of satires, which was very successful. It is stated 
 that he received .£3000 for this work. His several 
 works were dedicated to various patrons, in terms of 
 fulsome adulation. Having taken holy orders in 1727, 
 he was appointed one of the royal chaplains, and ob- 
 tained in 1730 the rectory of Welwyn, in Hertfordshire 
 where he resided many years. In 1731 he married 
 Lady Elizabeth Lee, widow of Colonel Lee, and a 
 daughter of the Earl of Lichfield. They had a son 
 Frederick. Colonel Lee and Lady Lee had a daughter, 
 who was married to a Mr. Temple, and who died at 
 
 Lyons in 1736. This Mr. Temple and his wife are the 
 "Philander" and " Narcissa" of the "Night Thoughts," 
 (1742-46,) the poem on which the reputation of Young 
 is chiefly founded. It enjoyed great popularity, and 
 found admirers and imitators in Germany and France. 
 The form and conception of this poem are somewhat 
 original and bold ; it is profusely adorned with brilliant 
 imagery, pompous hyperbole, and striking antithesis ; 
 but he seldom attains the true sublimity. " In his 
 'Night Thoughts,'" says Dr. Johnson, " he has ex- 
 hibited a very wide display of original poetry, varie- 
 gated with deep reflections and striking allusions, — a 
 wilderness of thought, in which the fertility of fancy 
 scatters flowers of every hue and every odour. " (" Lives 
 of the English Poets.") " Young," says Villemain, " is 
 not a good model ; he has too much artifice. . . . He 
 fatigues the imagination more than he touches the 
 heart ; he fills the reader with a sort of satiety of sym- 
 pathy for his sorrow." (" Biographie Universelle.") 
 Among his later works is " Resignation," a poem, 
 (1762.) In 1761 he was appointed clerk of the closet 
 to the Princess-Dowager of Wales. After he was 
 seventy years old he continued to solicit preferment, but 
 without success. He died at Welwyn in April, 1765. 
 
 See H. Croft, " Life of Edward Young," in Johnson's " Lives 
 of the English Poets;" " Biographica Britannica ;" J. Mitfohd, 
 " Life of Young;" Campbell, "Specimens of the English Poets;" 
 Drake, "EssSys;" "Westminster Review" for January, 1857; 
 Allibone, "Dictionary of Authors." 
 
 Young, (Sir John,) an English civil officer, born in 
 1807. He was secretary of the treasury from 1844 to 
 1846, chief secretary for Ireland from 1852 to 1855, and 
 Governor of New South Wales from i860 to 1868. 
 
 Young, (John Clark,) D.D., an American Presby- 
 terian divine, born at Greencastle, Pennsylvania, in 1803, 
 became president of Centre College, Danville, Kentucky, 
 in 1830. Died in 1857. 
 
 Young, (John Radford,) an English mathema- 
 tician, born in London about 1800. Among his works 
 are "The General Theory and Solution of Algebraic 
 Equations," (1842,) and a "Treatise on Navigation and 
 Nautical Astronomy," (1856.) 
 
 Young, (Matthew,) an eminent Irish mathematician 
 and writer, born in the county of Roscommon in 1750. 
 He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, of which he be- 
 came a Fellow in 1775, and in 1786 was appointed to the 
 chair of natural philosophy. He was one of the found- 
 ers and first members of the Royal Irish Academy, to 
 the "Transactions" of which he contributed several 
 valuable articles. Among his principal works are " An 
 Essay on the Phenomena of Sounds and Musical Strings," 
 (1784,) "Method of Prime and Ultimate Ratios," and 
 "Principles of Natural Philosophy," (1800.) He died 
 in 1800, having been previously created Bishop of Clon- 
 fert and Kilmacduach. 
 
 Young, (Patrick,) [Lat. Patric'ius Ju'nius,] a 
 distinguished classical scholar, born in East Lothian, 
 Scotland, in 1584, was appointed keeper of the royal 
 library in London. He translated into Latin some of 
 the works of King James I., and edited the epistles of 
 Clemens Romanus. Died in 1652. 
 
 Young, (Sir Peter,) [Lat. Pe'trus Ju'nius,] a Scot- 
 tish diplomatist, born in 1544. He was associated with 
 Buchanan as tutor of the young prince, afterwards James 
 I. of England, and subsequently became a member of the 
 privy council, and was employed in various missions. 
 He was the author of a vindication of Mary Queen of 
 Scots. Died in 1628. 
 
 Young, (Samuel,) an American politician, born in 
 Lenox, Massachusetts, about 1780, removed to the State 
 of New York in his youth. He became a member of 
 the board of canal commissioners in 1817, was for many 
 years a Senator of New York, and held other high 
 offices in that State. He acted with the Democratic 
 party, and was the leader of the delegation of Free- 
 Soilers, alias " Barnburners," which went from New York 
 to the Baltimore Convention in 1848. He died at Ball- 
 ston, New York, in 1850. 
 
 Young, (Thomas,) an English Puritan divine, born 
 about 1587. He became master of Jesus College, 
 Cambridge, and was a tutor of the poet Milton. Died 
 in 1655. 
 
 « as k; cas s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; r, trilled '; s as t; th as in this. (J^"See Explanations, p. 23 
 
TOUNG 
 
 2308 
 
 ru 
 
 Young, (Thomas,) an English philosopher and scholar 
 of great eminence, was born at Milverton, in Somer- 
 setshire, on the 13th of June, 1773. His parents were 
 members of the Society of Friends. He studied for 
 several years at Compton School, Dorsetshire, and after- 
 wards at home. He was well versed in the Greek, Latin, 
 French, and Italian languages, and in mathematics. He 
 also studied Hebrew, Arabic, etc. From 1787 to 1792 
 he was employed as tutor to Hudson Gurney, in the 
 family of David Barclay of Youngsbury, in Hertford- 
 shire. During this period he studied natural philosophy, 
 and the "Principia" of Newton. He became a student 
 of medicine in London in 1792, attended the lectures of 
 John Hunter, and continued his studies in Edinburgh, 
 whither he went in 1794. About this date he was chosen 
 a Fellow of the Royal Society. In the autumn of 1795 
 he went to Gottingen, where he studied several months 
 and took the degree of M.I). He visited various cities 
 of Germany in 1796, and entered Emanuel College, 
 Cambridge, in 1797. His uncle, Dr. Brocklesby, who 
 died in 1797, left him a legacy of about j£io,ooo. 
 
 He began to practise medicine in London in iSoo, and 
 was professor of natural philosophy in the Royal Insti- 
 tution from 1801 to 1804. Between 1800 and 1804 he 
 contributed to the " Philosophical Transactions" several 
 memoirs "On the Theory of Light and Colours," in 
 which he advocated the undulatory theory «|f light. He 
 married Miss Eliza Maxwell in 1804. In 1807 he pub- 
 lished an excellent work entitled a " Course of Lectures 
 on Natural Philosophy and Mechanical Arts," (2 vols. 
 4to,) which presents a complete system of elementary 
 physics and mechanical philosophy. Among his chief 
 discoveries was the interference of the ravs of light, on 
 which subject we quote the comments of Sir John F. \V. 
 Herschel : "The first year of the present century, our 
 illustrious countryman, the late Dr. Thomas Young, had 
 established a principle in optics which, regarded as a 
 physical law, has hardly its equal, for beauty, simplicity, 
 and extent of application, in the whole circle of science. 
 . . . Nothing was now wanting to a rational theory of 
 double refraction, but to frame an hypothesis of some 
 mode in which light might be conceived to be propagated, 
 through the elastic medium supposed to convey it, in 
 such a way as not to be contradictory to any of the facts 
 nor to the general laws of dynamics. This essential 
 idea, without which everything that had been done be- 
 fore would have been incomplete, was also furnished by 
 Dr. Young, who, with a sagacity which would have done 
 honour to Newton himself, had declared that to accom- 
 modate the doctrine of Huygens to the phenomena of 
 polarized light it is necessary to conceive the mode of 
 propagation of a luminous impulse through the ether, 
 differently from that of a sonorous one through the air. 
 In the latter, the particles of the air advance and recede ; 
 in the former, those of the ether must be supposed to 
 tremble laterally." ("Preliminary Discourse on the 
 Study of Natural Philosophy.") 
 
 In 181 1 he was appointed one of the physicians of 
 Saint George's Hospital. He contributed to the " Quar- 
 terly Review" numerous articles, mostly scientific. He 
 published in 1813 "An Introduction to Medical Litera- 
 ture, including a System of Practical Nosology." In 
 1818 he became secretary to the board of longitude. He 
 was afterwards the editor or conductor of the " Nautical 
 Almanac." He devoted much attention to the subject 
 of Egyptian hieroglyphics, in which he made some dis- 
 coveries, that he published in 1819. He was more suc- 
 cessful in explaining the symbols of ancient Egypt than 
 any person except Champollion. He wrote about sixty 
 articles for the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," including 
 the article "Egypt" and more than forty biographical 
 notices. In 1827 he was chosen one of the eight foreign 
 associates of the French Institute. He died, without 
 issue, in London, in May, 1829. 
 
 See Grorgk Peacock, D.D.. "Life of Dr. Thomas Young," 
 i8cs;; Gurney, "Memoir of Thomas Young," 1831 : Arago, 
 " Eloge de Thomas Young:" Ai.libone, "Dictionary of Authors;" 
 "North British Review" for August, 1855. 
 
 Young, (Thomas John.) an American Episcopalian 
 divine, born at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1803, gradu- 
 ated at Yale College, and in 1847 became assistant rector 
 of Saint Michael's Church, Charleston. Died in 1852. 
 
 Young, (Sir William,) an English writer, born near 
 Canterbury in 1750. He was elected to Parliament foi 
 Saint Mawes in 1783, and wis afterwards Governor of 
 Tobago. He published "The West India Common- 
 place Book," " The History of Athens," and other works. 
 Died in 1815. 
 
 Young-Ching. See Yoong-Shing. 
 
 Yousouf-Ben-Taschefin. See Yoosuf-Ibn-TAshe- 
 feen. 
 
 Ypey, I'pT, ? (Ann^eus,) a Dutch theologian, born 
 in Friesland in 1760, became professor of ecclesiastical 
 history at Groningen in 1813. He published, besides 
 other works, a " History of the Christian Church in 
 the Eighteenth Century," and a "Compendious History 
 of the Reformation," (" Beknopte Geschiedenis de Her- 
 vorming," 1817.) Died about 1834. 
 
 Ypres, d', depR v (Charlks,) a Flemish painter and 
 designer, born at Ypres about 15 10, studied in Italy, 
 Among his works is "The Last Judgment." He died 
 in 1563 or 1564. 
 
 Ypsilanti, ip-selan'tee, or Ypsilan'tia, (Alexan- 
 der,) a Greek statesman and soldier, was appointed 
 Hospodar of Wallachia in 1774. He was condemned to 
 death by the Turks on a charge of treason, and executed 
 in 1792. His son Constantine became interpreter to 
 the Porte, and was afterwards successively Hospodar 
 of Moldavia and Wallachia. He died in 1816, having 
 made several ineffectual attempts to achieve the inde- 
 pendence of his country. 
 
 Ypsilanti, (Alexander,) a celebrated Greek patriot, 
 a son of Constantine, and grandson of Alexander, noticed 
 above, was born at Constantinople in 1792. He entered 
 the Russian service at an early age, fought with dis- 
 tinction in the campaigns of 1812-13, and was made 
 a major-general in 1817. He became leader in 1820 of 
 the Hetaeria, (Hetairia,) an association for the promotion 
 of Grecian independence ; but after the defeat of the 
 Greeks at Dragashan, in 1821, he gave himself up to the 
 Austrians, by whom he was imprisoned six years. He 
 was released in 1827, on the intercession of the Czat 
 Nicholas, but he died the following year. 
 
 Ypsilanti, (Dimitrius,) a brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Constantinople in 1793. Soon after tha 
 breaking out of the insurrection in 1821, he took Tripo- 
 litza by storm, and subsequently distinguished himself 
 by his bold defence of the citadel of Argos, in conse- 
 quence of which the Turkish army was destroyed in its 
 passage between Argos and Corinth. He was made 
 commander of the forces in Eastern Greece by the presi- 
 dent, Capodistria, in 1828, and after the assassination of 
 that magistrate, in 1832, became one of the members of 
 the executive commission. He died the same year. 
 
 Ypsilantis. See Ypsilanti. 
 
 Yrala or Irala, de, da e-ra'la, (Domingo Martinez 
 — maR-tee'neth,) a Spanish captain and explorer, born 
 at Vergara about i486. He explored the region near 
 the Paraguay River, and was chosen governor of the 
 colony at Assumption about 1538. Died in 1557- 
 
 Yriarte. See Iriarte. 
 
 Ysabeau, e'zS'bo', (Clement Alexandre,) a 
 French Jacobin, born at Gien in 1754. He was a mem- 
 ber of the Convention, (1792-95,) voted for the death of 
 the king, and acted with the enemies of Robespierre on 
 the 9th Thermidor. He was elected to the Council 
 of Elders in 1795. Died in 1823, (or, according to some 
 authorities, in 1831.) 
 
 Ysabeau, (Victor Frederic Alexandre,) a French 
 writer on rural economy, born at Rouen in 1793, was 
 a son of the preceding. He published a number of 
 works. 
 
 Yu, yoo, the last of the three ancient Chinese em- 
 perors* who stand pre-eminent for their wisdom and 
 virtue among all the rulers of the Celestial empire, 
 began to reign, according to Pauthier, in 2205 B.C. He 
 constructed extensive dikes along the banks of such of 
 the great rivers as were subject to inundations, and 
 executed other important public works. He is said 
 to have introduced great improvements in agriculture. 
 Some writers date the commencement of authentic his- 
 
 Yao, Shun, Yu. 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; m Jt; not; good; moon< 
 
WAN 
 
 2309 
 
 ZACH ARIAS 
 
 tory in China (see Y.\o) from the reign of Yu, who was 
 the founder of the first dynasty — commonly called the 
 Ilia (hee'a) dynasty — of Chinese emperors. 
 
 See Pauthier, "Chine," pp. 39-54. 
 
 Yusuf. See Yoosuf. 
 
 Yvan, e'viN', (Mklchior,) Baron, a French phy- 
 sician and writer, born in Basses-Alpes in 1803. He 
 went to China in 1843 as physician to a mission or 
 embassy conducted by M. Lagrenee, and he published, 
 besides other works, " Travels in China and the Malay 
 Peninsula," (1850.) 
 
 Yver, 4'vaJR , (JACQUES,) a French author, born at Ni- 
 ort in 1520, wrote" Le Printemps d'Yver." Died in 1572. 
 
 Yvemois. See IVERNOIS. 
 
 Yves, Saint. See Ives. 
 
 Yves, Saint. See Saint-Ives. 
 
 Yves, Saint, or Yves de Ker-Martin. ev deh ke r'- 
 miK'ta.N'', a learned French monk and jurist, born in 
 
 Bretagne in 1253, was sometimes called Yves-H6lori 
 (ev a'lo're'.) Died in 1303. 
 
 See I. Fave, " Histoire de Saint Yves," 1851. 
 
 Yves de Ker-Martin. See Yves, Saint. 
 
 Yveteaux, Des. See Des Yveteaux. 
 
 Yvon, e'vi.N', A hue, a mediocre French writer, born 
 in Normandy about 1720. He aided Diderot in the 
 redaction of the " Encyclopedic" and published oth.er 
 works. Died about 1790. 
 
 Yvon, (Adoli'HK,) a French historical painter, born 
 in the department of Moselle in 1817, was a pupil of 
 Paul Delaroche. Among his principal works may be 
 named " Marshal Ney supporting the Rear-Guard in 
 Russia," "The Seven Deadly Sins," and "The Capture 
 of the Malakoff." 
 
 Yvon, (Pierre Christophe,) born near Mans in 
 1719, was for many years physician of the Abbey Royal 
 ofPoissi, near Paris. Died in 1814. 
 
 z. 
 
 Zabaglia, dza-bal'yJ, (Niccoi.6,) an Italian, archi- 
 tect and mechanician, born at Rome in 1674, was the 
 inventor of several ingenious machines, among which 
 was one for transferring frescos from the plaster. He 
 was appointed architect of the basilicon of Saint Peter's. 
 Died in 1750. 
 
 Zabarella, dza-ba-rel'la, (Francesco,) a celebrated 
 Italian ecclesiastic, sometimes called the Cardinal of 
 Florence, was born at Padua in 1339. He was pro- 
 foundly versed in canon law, and rose through several 
 preferments to be Archbishop of Florence in 1410, and 
 a cardinal in 141 1. He took an active part in the pro- 
 ceedings of the Council of Trent, and was the author 
 of numerous treatises relating to theology and ecclesias- 
 tical matters. Died in 141 7. 
 
 See Veoova, " Memorie intorno alia Vita di Francesco Zaba- 
 rella," 1829. 
 
 Zabarella, (Giacomo,) an Italian philosopher, bom 
 at Padua in 1533, pub'ished "Commentaries on the 
 Physics of Aristotle," and several treatises on logic and 
 philosophy. Died in 1589. 
 
 Zaborowa, za-ba-ru'va, (James,) a Polish publicist, 
 flourished about 1500. He published a collection of the 
 laws and constitutions of Poland, (1506.) 
 
 Zaborowski, zd-bi-rov'skee, (Stanislas,) a Polish 
 jurist, became secretary of the treasury in 1506. He 
 wrote on law and grammar. Died in 1549. 
 
 Zabulon, the French for Zeuulun, which see. 
 
 Zacagni, dza-kin'yee, or Zaccagni, (Lorenzo Ales- 
 s a.miko,) an Italian scholar and antiquary, became keeper 
 of the library of the Vatican. He published an impor- 
 tant work entitled "A Collection of Ancient Memorials 
 of the Church," (" Collectanea Monumentoruin veterum 
 Ecclesiae," etc., 1698.) Died at Rome in 1712. 
 
 Zaccaria, dza-ka-ree'a, (Francesco Antonio,) an 
 Italian Jesuit and scholar, born at Venice in 1 7 14, be- 
 came professor of ecclesiastical history at the College 
 of Wisdom, Rome. Among his principal works are 
 his "Literary History of Italy," (14 vols. 8vo, 1751,) 
 •' Literary Annals of Italy," (3 vols., 1762,) and "Numis- 
 matic Institutes." Died in 1795. 
 
 Zac'-ehe-us, [Fr. ZachEe, zi'sha',1 a rich publican 
 of Jericho, who became a disciple of Christ. 
 
 See Luke xix. 
 
 Zacchias, dzakkee'is, (Paolo,) an Italian physician 
 and medical writer, born at Rome in 1584, became 
 physician to Pope Innocent X. He published a number 
 of works on medical jurisprudence, which were highly 
 esteemed at the time. Died in 1659. 
 
 Zaccone, zS'kon', (Pierkf.,) a French litterateur, born 
 at Douai in 1817. He published several novels, and a 
 " History of Secret Societies," (1847.) 
 
 Zach, von, fon zak, [Ger. pron. tsaK,] (Anton,) 
 BaROK, an Austrian general, born at Pesth in 1747. He 
 became a colonel in 1795, and distinguished himself at 
 Marengo, where he was made prisoner, (1800.) He 
 obtained the rank of field-marshal-lieutenant. He wrote 
 
 several works on the military art and on mathematics. 
 Died in 1826. 
 
 Zach, von, fon zak or tsaK, (Franz Xaver,) Baron, 
 an eminent astronomer, born at Presburg in June, 1754, 
 was a brother of the preceding. He passed severai 
 of his early years in England after he had left college. 
 About 1786 he entered the service of Ernest, Duke 
 of Saxe-Gotha, and was appointed director of an obser- 
 vatory which that prince had erected at Seeberg. He 
 gained a high reputation as an observer and a writer on 
 astronomy. He published a valuable periodical, entitled 
 " Monatliche Correspondenz," (28 vols., 1800-13,) a 
 "Catalogue of Fixed Stars," (1804,) "Tables of Aberra- 
 tion and Nutation for 1404 Stars," (1812,) and a work 
 called "The Attraction of Mountains and its Effects on 
 a Plumb-Line," (2 vols., 1814.) He passed several of his 
 latter years in Italy, whither he went as an attendant or 
 grand marshal of the Duchess of Saxe-Gotha. He died 
 of cholera in Paris in 1832. 
 
 Zacharia or Zachariae, tsSK-a-ree'a, (Gotthilf 
 Traugott.) a German theologian, born in Thuringia in 
 1729; died at Kiel in 1777. 
 
 Zacharia, (Just Friedrich Wilhelm,) a German 
 poet and satirist, born at Frankenhausen in 1726. He 
 studied at Leipsic, and became in 1761 professor of 
 belles-lettres in the Carolinum at Brunswick. His 
 burlesque heroic poem entitled "The Brawler" ("Der 
 Renommist," 1744) was the first work of the kind that 
 had appeared in German, and was received with great 
 favour. It was followed by other similar poems, en- 
 titled " Phaeton," "The Handkerchief," (" Das Schnupf- 
 tuch,") and " Murner in Hell," ("Mumer in der Holle,") 
 which were also very successful. He likewise published 
 " Fables and Tales," which are highly esteemed, and 
 translated Milton's " Paradise Lost" into German hex- 
 ameter verse. Died in 1777. 
 
 SeeEscHENHURG, " Leben F. W. Zachariae's," 1781 ; Gervinus, 
 " Geschicbte der Deutschen Dichtunc,." 
 
 Zacharia von Lingenthal, ts&K-i-ree'a fon ling'- 
 en-thil, (Karl Salomo,) an eminent German jurist and 
 writer, born at Meissen in 1769. Having studied at 
 Leipsic, he became in 1802 professor of law at Witten- 
 berg, and in 1807 filled the same chair at Heidelberg. 
 He was ennobled in 1842, with the title of Baron von 
 Lingenthal. He published a number of valuable legal 
 and philosophical works, among which may be named a 
 "Manual of French Civil Law," and "The Unity of 
 State and Church." Died in 1843. 
 
 See C. E. Zacmaktak, " Karl S. Zachariae's Itiographie," 1843. 
 
 Za«h-a-ri'ah, [Fr. Zacharie, za'kS'rc'; Heb. n'"OT,] 
 King of Israel, was the son of Jeroboam II., whom he 
 succeeded in 793 n.c. Died about 770 B.C. 
 
 See. 1 1 Kings xv. 
 
 Zach-a-ri'as, [Fr. Zacharie, zi'ki'rc',1 a Jewish 
 priest, who was the father of John the Baptist, and to 
 whom the angel Gabriel predicted the birth of that son. 
 
 See Luke i. 
 
 e as *; 9 as /; g hard; gasy; G, H, K,guttural; N, nasal; v., trilled; § as t; th as in this. (jgf~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
Z A CHAR 1 AS 
 
 2310 
 
 ZAMAGNA 
 
 Zacharias, [Gr. Zaxapia; ; Fr. Zacharie,] sumamed 
 SciloLAs'ricus, a Christian writer, who was Bishop of 
 Mitylene and lived about 530 a.d. He wrote, in Greek, 
 a work entitled " Aminonius," designed to refute the 
 doctrine of the eternity of the universe. 
 
 Zacharias, [Fr. Zacharie,] a Greek ecclesiastic, 
 succeeded Gregory III. as Pope of Rome in 741 A.D. 
 He compelled Luitprand, King of the Longobards, to 
 restore the territories which he had taken from the 
 exa/chate of Ravenna, and supported Pepin in his claim 
 to the tin one of France in opposition to Childeric, (750.) 
 He wrote a "Life of Saint Benedict," and other works, 
 and founded numerous churches. Died in 752. 
 
 Zacharie. See Zachariah and Zacharias. 
 
 Zacharie de Lisieux, zi'ki'ie' deh le'ze-uh', a 
 French monk, born at Lisieux in 1582. He produced, 
 besides other books, a fanciful work called " Gyges the 
 Gaul," ("Gyges Gallus," 1659.) He wrote under the 
 assumed name of Petrus Firmianus, .or Firmian. 
 Died in 1660. 
 
 Zachau, tsaK'ow, written also Zachaw, (Fried- 
 rich Wilhelm,) a German musician and composer, 
 born at Leipsic in 1663. He was a skilful performer on 
 the organ, lived at Halle, and was one of the masters of 
 Handel. Died in 1721. 
 
 Zachee. See Zaccheus. 
 
 Zachtleven or Zachtleevin. See Sachtleven. 
 
 Zacuth, (Abraham.) See Abraham Zacuth. 
 
 Zacuto Lusitano, za-koo'to loo-se-ta'no, [Lat. Za- 
 cu'tus Lusita'nus,] a Portuguese physician and phi- 
 losopher, of Jewish extraction, born at Lisbon in 1575. 
 He spent the latter part of his life in Amsterdam, where 
 he published several medical works. Died in 1642. 
 
 Zacutus. See Zacuto. 
 
 Za'dok or Za'doc, [Heb. PVTX,] a Jewish chief 
 priest, who lived in the reign of David. Zadokand the 
 prophet Nathan anointed Solomon as king. 
 
 See I. Kings i. 45, ii. 35 ; II. Samuel xv. 29, 35. 
 
 Zahn, tsan, (Johann,) a German philosopher, born 
 in Fianconia in 1641, published "Physico-Mathematico- 
 Historical Mirrors of Remarkable and Wonderful 
 Things to be Known," ("Specula Physico-Mathematico 
 Historica Notabilium ac Mirabilium sciendorum," 1696.) 
 Died in 1707. 
 
 Zahn, (Johann Karl Wilhelm,) a German artist, 
 born at Kodenberg in 1800, spent many years in Italy, 
 and published in 1828 a work entitled "The Finest 
 Ornaments and Most Remarkable Pictures from Pom- 
 peii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae." He was appointed 
 professor in the Academy of Arts at Berlin in 1829. 
 
 Zahrtmarm, tsaRt'man, (Christian Christopher,) 
 a Danish officer and hydrographer, born before 1800. 
 He served with distinction in the campaign of 1815, 
 and subseqftently examined the coasts of Denmark, of 
 which he published valuable charts. One of these, 
 entitled "The Danish Pilot," has been translated into 
 English and French. He was appointed hydrographer 
 to the Danish admiralty, created knight grand cross of 
 the order of Dannebrog, and obtained various other 
 distinctions. Died in 1853. 
 
 Zaidoon, Zaidoun, or Zaidun, Ibn, Tb'n zT'doon', 
 (Abool-Waleed- (or Walid-) Ahmed, a'bool wa-leed 
 an'med,) an Arabian poet, born at Cordova in 1003. 
 He lived at Seville, and was vizier to King Motadhed. 
 Died in 1070. 
 
 Zainer or Zeiner, tsi'ner, written also Tzainer, 
 (Guni her,) a celebrated German printer, born at Reut- 
 lingen about 1430, was the first to establish a press 
 at Augsburg. He also introduced the Roman type 
 into Germany. Died in 1478. His brother Johann 
 founded a printing-establishment at Ulm. 
 
 Zajonczek, za-yon'chek, (Joseph,) a Polish general, 
 bom at Kamieniec in 1752. He served under Kos- 
 ciusko against the Russians, and afterwards entered the 
 French army, fought in Italy and Egypt, and became 
 a general of division in 1802. He lost a leg in the 
 Russian campaign of 1812, and was soon after made 
 prisoner. In 1815 he was appointed Viceroy of Poland 
 by the emperor Alexander, who made him a prince in 
 1818. He published, in French, a " History of the Polish 
 Revolution in 1794," (1797.) Died in 1826. 
 
 Zakrzewski, zakR-zhev'skee, a Polish patriot, born 
 about 1744, became president of the National Council 
 at Warsaw in 1794. Aftef the capture of that city by 
 Suwarow, he was arrested, by order of the Russian 
 government, with Potocki and others, and imprisoned 
 at Saint Petersburg till the accession of the emperor 
 Paul. Died in 1802. 
 
 Zal, zal, or Zalzer, zil'zar, [i.e. "golden-haired,"] the 
 name of an ancient Persian warrior, who was distin- 
 guished for his heroic achievements, and still more as 
 the father of the famous Roostam, (which see.) He is 
 said to have greatly aided Kai-Kobjtd (the first of the 
 Kaianian kings) in repelling the invasion of the Tartars 
 and in establishing that king securely on the throne of 
 Persia. 
 
 See "A Short History of Persia," in vol. v. of Sir William 
 Jones's Works; Atkinson's "Abridgment of the Shah Nameh of 
 Firdausi." 
 
 Zaleski, za-lSs'skee, (Bohdan,) a Polish poet, born 
 in the Ukraine in 1802. His principal works are entitled 
 "The Spirit of the Steppes," and "The Holy Family." 
 
 Za-leu'cus, [ZuAtmoc,] an eminent Greek legislator, 
 supposed to have been born about 700 B.C. According 
 to tradition, he was the first of the Greeks who pre- 
 pared a code of written laws. This code — which, he 
 declared, was revealed to him by Minerva — was made 
 for the Epizephyrian Locrians, in Southern Italy. He 
 is said by some writers to have been killed in battle ; 
 while others assert that he committed suicide for having 
 thoughtlessly violated one of his own laws. 
 
 See Rittkrshusius, " Oratio de Zaleuco et Charond.i," etc., 
 15Q1 : B. Portoghese, " Framnieuti della Legislazione de Zaleuco," 
 etc., 1X42. 
 
 Zallinger, tsal'ling-er, (Franz Seraphin,) aTyrolese 
 natural philosopher, born at Botzen in 1743, published 
 several works. Died after 1800. 
 
 Zallinger, (Jakob Anton,) a learned Jesuit, born at 
 Botzen, in the Tyrol, in 1735. He published, besides 
 other works, in Latin, "The Interpretation of Nature, 
 or the Newtonian Philosophy Expounded," (3 vols., 
 1773—75.) Died about 1 802. 
 
 Zallwein, tsal'win, (Gkorg,) a German canonist, 
 born in the Upper Palatinate in 1712. He was professor 
 of canon law at Salzburg, and wrote on that subject 
 Died in 1766. 
 
 Zalmoxis. See Zamolxis. 
 
 Zaluski, za-loos'skee, (Andrew Chrysostom,) a 
 Polish statesman and pulpit orator, born about 1650, 
 rose to be Bishop of Ermeland and grand chancellor of 
 Poland under Augustus II. He was the author of a 
 valuable and interesting work entitled " Historical Epis- 
 tles," (" Epistolae historico-familiares.") Died in 171 1. 
 
 Zaluski, (Andrew Stanislas,) nephew of the pre- 
 ceding, was created Bishop of Plock by Augustus II., 
 and appointed grand chancellor of the kingdom, (1735) 
 lie became Bishop of Cracow in 1746. He was distin- 
 guished for his learning and his patronage of literature. 
 Died in 1758. 
 
 Zaluski, (Joseph Andrew,) a bibliophile, a brother 
 of the preceding, was born in 1701. Having visited 
 Fiance, Italy, and Germany, he became after his return 
 Bishop of Kief. In conjunction with his brother the 
 Bishop of Cracow, he devoted himself to the task of 
 forming a library, which in 1748 amounted to 230,000 
 volumes and was opened to the public at Warsaw the 
 same year. In 1766 he was imprisoned, by order of 
 the Russian government, for having denounced the Dis- 
 sidents protected by that country, and was not released till 
 
 1773. While in prison he wrote an account, in verse, of 
 the Polish histories contained in his library. He died in 
 
 1774, and his magnificent collection was, on t:.e partition 
 of Poland, in 1795, seized by the Russian government 
 and carried to Saint Petersburg, where it formed the 
 nucleus of the Imperial Library. Many books were 
 lost on the way, but the number which arrived safely 
 amounted to 262,640 volumes, of which the greater part 
 were French, German, and English. It also contained 
 about 25,000 engravings. 
 
 Zamagna, dza-mau ya, (Bernardo,) an Italian Jesuit 
 and Latin poet, born at Ragusa in 1735. He translated 
 the poems of Hesiod and Theocritus, and the "Odyssey" 
 of Homer, into Latin verse. Died in 1820. 
 
 a, e, T, 6, ii, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, i, 6, u, y, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fat; met; nSt; gdod; mOQn; 
 
ZAMBECCARI 
 
 231 1 
 
 ZANE 
 
 Zambeccaj i, dzam-b£k-ka'ree,(FRANCESCo,) Count, 
 a distinguished Italian aeronaut, born at Bologna in 
 1756. He maintained the theory that a balloon could 
 be managed by the use of oars and by increasing or 
 diminishing the gas, and, while making the experiment, 
 perished by his balloon being caught in a tree and 
 taking fire, (1812.) 
 
 Zambeccari, (Giuseppe,) an Italian physician and 
 medical writer of the seventeenth century, was a native 
 of Florence, and became professor of anatomy at I'isa. 
 
 Zam-be'11-os, (John,) a Greek poet, born in one 
 of the Ionian Isles in 1787. He wrote lyric poems, 
 and several tragedies, which were successful. Died 
 in 1856. 
 
 Zambelli, dzam-bel'lee, (Andrea,) an Italian his- 
 torian, born at Lonato in 1 794. He became professor 
 of history at Pavia in 1825, and president of the Institute 
 of Milan in 1845. Among his works is a "Treatise on 
 War." 
 
 Zaruboni, dzam-lx/nee, (Baidassarf,) an Italian 
 writer, born at Brescia about 1730; died in 1797. 
 
 Zamet. zi'inj', (Jean,) a distinguished military officer, 
 born in France, was a son of the following. He fought 
 for the King of France against the Huguenots, and 
 obtained the rank of marechal-de-camp. He is -said to 
 have been a model Christian soldier. He was killed at 
 the siege of Montpellier, about 1621. 
 
 Zamet, clza-met' or zS'mi', (Sebastian,) an Italian 
 financier and courtier, born at Lucca about 1549, came 
 to Paris in his youth. He became a confidential agent 
 of Henry IV., who borrowed money of him and em- 
 ployed him in negotiations and intrigues. Died in 1614. 
 
 Zamet, (S£bastien,) a French ecclesiastic, was a 
 son of the preceding. He became Bishop of Langres 
 in 1615. About 1630 he founded an order of nuns for 
 the adoration of the Holy Sacrament, which was gov- 
 erned by Angelique Amauld. Died in 1655. 
 
 Za-niol'xis |Gr. Zuuoa£<c] or Zal-mox'is [Gr. ZuA- 
 ziofic] was regarded as a deity by the ancient Gets or 
 Thracians. According to a Greek tradition, he was a 
 slave and pupil of Pythagoras, and he taught the doc- 
 trine of the immortality of the soul to the Getas. 
 
 See Rhoitsofoulos, " Dissertatio de Zamolxide," 1852. 
 
 Zamora, tha-mo'ra, (Antonio,) a Spanish physician, 
 born at Salamanca about 1570; died about 1640. 
 
 Zamora, (Lorenzo,) a Spanish theologian and poet, 
 born at Ocafia about 1550. He wrote a poem ("La 
 Saguntina") on the siege of Saguntum. Died in 1614. 
 
 Zamora, de, da tha-mo'ra, (Antonio,) a Spanish 
 dramatist, who lived about 1710-50, was patronized by 
 Philip V. His tragedy entitled " Mazariegos y Mon- 
 salves" is esteemed one of his best works. 
 
 Zamora, de, (Bernardo,) a learned Spanish monk, 
 born in Leon about 1720. He was professor of Greek 
 at Salamanca, and wrote several works. Died in 1785. 
 
 Zamori, dza-mo'ree, or Zamoreo, dza-mo'ri-o, (Ga- 
 brio,) an Italian jurist and Latin poet, born at Parma 
 about 1320. He was highly praised by Petrarch, who 
 was his friend. Died about 1400. 
 
 Zamosc. See Zamoyski. 
 
 Zamoscius. See Zamovski. 
 
 Zamoyski, za-moi'skee, written also Zamojski and 
 Zamosc, (Andrew,) a Polish statesman and philan- 
 thropist, born in 1716. He served with distinction in 
 the Saxon army, attained the rank of major-general, and 
 in 1764 became grand chancellor under Stanislas Au- 
 gustus. He published in 1778 a code of laws, prepared 
 at the request of the Diet, which, on account of its pro- 
 vision for the emancipation of the serfs, encountered 
 general opposition, and was not even permitted to be 
 read. It was, however, adopted by the Diet of 1 791. 
 He died in 1792. His wife, originally a princess Czar- 
 toryska, was also distinguished for the benevolence of 
 her character and her numerous charities. 
 
 Zamoyski, (John,) grandson of the following, was 
 born in 1626. He fought against the Cossacks in 1651, 
 and was afterwards appointed Palatine of Sandomir by 
 John Casimir. He also distinguished himself in the 
 subsequent wars with Sweden and Russia. Died in 
 1665. His widow was afterwards married to the cele- 
 brated Sobieski. 
 
 Zamoyski or Zamosc, [Lat. Zamos'cius,] (John 
 Sarius,) an eminent Polish statesman, general, and 
 scholar, born in 1541. He was educated at Paris and 
 at Padua, where he studied law. In 1563 he published 
 at Padua or Venice an able treatise "On the Roman 
 Senate," (" De Senatu Romano,") which Graevius praistd 
 and inserted in his "Thesaurus Antiquitatum Roma- 
 naruin." He returned to Poland about 1565, and found 
 a bountiful patron in King Sigismund Augustus, who 
 died in 1572. In the election of a new king, Zamoyski, 
 who was recognized as chief of the equestrian order, 
 supported Henry of Anjou, who was elected, and ap- 
 pointed Zamoyski grand chamberlain. After the flight 
 or abdication of Henry, (1574,) Zamoyski favoured the 
 election of Stephen Bathori, and was rewarded with the 
 office of grand chancellor. He was the most influential 
 Polish statesman in the reign of Bathori. During the war 
 against the Muscovites he was appointed commander-in- 
 chief in 1580, and he negotiated a treaty of peace in 1582, 
 by which Livonia and Novogorod were ceded to Poland. 
 He married a niece of the king about 1582. The Swedish 
 prince Sigismund, who succeeded Bathori in 1586, owed 
 his election to Zamoyski. Maximilian of Austria, who 
 was a candidate for the Polish throne, having invaded 
 Poland with an army, Zamoyski defeated him and took 
 him prisoner about the end of 1586. He Commanded 
 the army in a successful campaign against the Turks in 
 1595, and gained some victories over Charles, Duke of 
 Sudermania, in Courland, about 1597. Among his works 
 is " Logica Stoica, seu Dialectica Chrysippea." Died 
 in 1605. 
 
 See Bursius, "Vita J. Zamoscii," 1619; T. Mostowski, "Life 
 rf J. Zamoyski," (in Polish, 1805;) Bentkowski, "Defense de J. 
 Zamoyski," iSu. 
 
 Zamoyski, (Stanislas Kostka Francis Rein- 
 hold,) a Polish politician, born at Warsaw in 1775, was 
 a son of Andrew, noticed above. He became a privy 
 councillor at Vienna in 1795, a senator-palatine about 
 1809, and president of the' senate of Poland in l8»2. 
 Died in 1856. 
 
 Zamoyski, (Thomas,) a son of John Sarins Zamoy- 
 ski, was born in 1595. He inherited in some degree 
 the qualities of his father, and was appointed grand 
 chancellor in 1635. Died in 1638. 
 
 Zampi, dzam'pee, (Felice Maria,) a famous Italian 
 preacher and poet, born at Ascoli about 1700. His 
 sermons were sometimes rather facetious, or deficient 
 in gravity. Died in 1774. 
 
 Zampieri. See Domenichino. 
 
 Zampieri, dzam-pe-a'ree, (Camillo,) an Italian poet, 
 born at Imola in 1701, was a good classical scholar. He 
 became a senator at Bologna, where he lived many years. 
 He produced several Latin and Italian poems, which are 
 commended. Died in 1784. 
 
 See Fabroni, " Vita; Italoruin doctrina excellentium." 
 
 Zanchi, dzan'kee, [Lat. Zan'chius,] (Basii.io,) an 
 Italian scholar and ecclesiastic, born at Bergamo about 
 1 501, was the author of a number of elegant Latin poems, 
 one of which was entitled " On the Garden of Wisdom," 
 (" De Horto Sophias.") He was imprisoned in 1558 
 for some act of disobedience to the pope, and died the 
 same year. 
 
 Zanchi, (Francesco,) an Italian writer of the fifteenth 
 century, was the author of a history, in Latin, of one of 
 the wars of the Venetians against Maximilian, King of 
 the Romans. 
 
 Zanchi, (Gian Crisostomo,) brother of Basilio, 
 noticed above, published a historical work, entitled 
 " ( )n the Origin of the Orobii or Cenomani," ? (" De Oro- 
 biorum, sive Cenomanorum Origine.") Died in 1566. 
 
 Zanchi, (Giroi.amo,) a son of Francesco, noticed 
 above, was born in 1516. He studied divinity, and at an 
 early age became one of the canons of the Lateran. While 
 at Rome, he acquired the friendship of the Protestant 
 reformer Peter Martyr, and, having been converted to 
 his doctrines, repaired to Heidelberg, in Germany, where 
 he was appointed professor of theology. He was the 
 author of a number of controversial and theological 
 works. Died in 1590. 
 
 Zane, dzi'na, (Giacomo,) an Italian lyric poet of high 
 reputation, born at Venice in 1529; died in 1560. 
 
 c as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K,guttural; N, natal; R, trilled; s as i; th as in thit. (jy See Explanations, p. 2], ) 
 
ZANETTI 
 
 2312 
 
 ZARATE 
 
 Zanetti, dzl-net'tee, (Antonio Maria,) Count, a 
 Venetian engraver and amateur, born about 1680, made 
 a choice collection of antique gems and other works 
 of art. He also published several treatises on art and 
 antiquities. Died in 1766. 
 
 Zauetti, (Antonio Maria,) a relative of the pre- 
 ceding, was born at Venice in 1716. He became libra- 
 rian of Saint Mark, and was the author of a valuable 
 work on Venetian painting, (" Delia Pittura Veneziana.") 
 Died in 1778. 
 
 Zanetti, (Bernardino,) an Italian historian, born 
 near Treviso in 1690. He published a " History of the 
 Lombards," (" Del Regno de' Longobardi in Italia," 2 
 vols., 1753.) Died in 1762. 
 
 Zanetti, (Girolamo Francesco,) brother of Antonio 
 Maria, (the second of the name,) was born at Venice in 
 1713. He became professor of law at Padua, and wrote 
 several antiquarian works. Died in 1782. 
 
 Zanetti, (Guido,) an eminent Italian numismatist, 
 born in the province of Bologna in 1741. He published 
 a work on Italian coins, entitled "Nuova Raccolta delle 
 Monete e Zecche d'ltalia," (5 vols., 1775-89.) Died in 
 1791. 
 
 Zangiacomi, zftN'zhi'ko'me', (Joseph,) Baron, a 
 French judge, born at Nancy in 1766. He was a mod- 
 erate member of the Convention, (1792-95,1 and became 
 a judge in 1800. In 1831 he was appointed president of 
 the chamber of requests. Died in 1846. 
 
 See Paillart, " E*loge de Zangiacomi," 1854. 
 
 Zanichelli, dza-ne-kel'lee, or Zannichelli, (GlAN 
 Girolamo,) an Italian physician and naturalist, born at 
 Modena in 1662, was the author of several scientific 
 treatises. A genus of plants has been named Zanni- 
 thellia in his honour. Died in 1729. 
 
 Zannichelli. See Zanichelli. 
 
 Zannini, dza-nee'nee, (Paolo,) an Italian physician, 
 born in 1781, lived at Venice. Died in 1843. 
 
 Zaimom, dza-no'nee, (Giovanni Battista,) an 
 Italian antiquary, born at Florence in 1774, was a pupil 
 of Lanzi, and became in 1817 secretary of the Academy 
 della Crusca. He published a history of that academy, 
 and several treatises on numismatics and ancient art. 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 See C. Cavedoni, " Biografia del Cavaliere G. R. Zannoni," 
 1835; F. Becchi, " Elogio del Cavaliere G. B. Zannoni," 1838. 
 
 Zanobi da Strata, dza-no'bee da stRa'ta, an Italian 
 poet, born at Strata, near Florence, in 1312. He was 
 crowned with laurel by the emperor Charles IV. in 1355. 
 Died in 1361. 
 
 Zanolini, dza-no-lee'nee, (Antonio,) an eminent 
 Italian Orientalist, born at Padua in 1693. He became 
 professor of Hebrew and Syriac at Padua, and published 
 lexicons and grammars of the Hebrew and Syriac lan- 
 guages. Died in 1762. 
 
 Zanoni, dza-no'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian agricul- 
 turist, born at Udine in 1696. He made experiments in 
 rural economy, and published several works on that 
 subject. Died in 1770. 
 
 Zanoni, (Giacomo,) an Italian botanist, born in 
 Lombardy in 1615. He was keeper of the botanic gar- 
 den of Bologna, and published a botanical work entitled 
 " Botanical History of Rare Plants," etc., (" Storia bo- 
 tanica delle Piante piii rare," etc., 1675.) Died in 1682. 
 
 Zanotti, dza-not'tee, (Eustachio.) an Italian mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, son of Giampietro, noticed 
 below, was born at Bologna in 1709. He became pro- 
 fessor of astronomy in his native citv, and published 
 several scientific works in Latin and Italian. Died in 
 1782. 
 
 See Vannetti, " Conimentarins de Vita E. Zanotti," 1786. 
 
 Zanotti, (Francesco Maria,) an Italian scholar and 
 philosopher, born at Bologna in 1692. He became suc- 
 cessively professor of philosophy, librarian, and president 
 of the university in his native city. He was the author 
 of poems in Latin and Italian, and several treatises on 
 physics, mathematics, and art. Died in 1777. 
 
 Zanotti, (Giampietro Cavazzoni,) an Italian painter 
 and art-critic, born in 1674, was a pupil of Lorenzo 
 Pasinelli at Bologna. He published " Hints to a Young 
 Painter," a " Life of Pasinelli," " History of the Clemen- 
 
 tine Academy of Bologna," and other works. Died in 
 1765. 
 
 Zanten, van, vSn zan'ten, (Jacob,) a Dutch physician 
 and translator, born about 1650. He became minister 
 of the Mennonite church at Haarlem in 1707. He 
 translated into Dutch Milton's " Paradise Lost." Died 
 after 1729. 
 
 Zanzalus. See Barad^us. 
 
 Zapata, tha-pa'ta, (Antonio,) a Spanish cardinal, 
 born at Madrid about 1550. He was appointed Viceroy 
 of Naples in 1620, but was soon removed. Died in 1635. 
 
 Zapata, (Antonio or Lupian,) a Spanish historian, 
 born at Segorbe in the seventeenth century. 
 
 Zapata, dza-pa'ta, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 physician, born probably at Rome about 1520. He 
 published a work called "Wonderful Secrets of Medi- 
 cine," (•' Maravigliosi Secreti di Medicina," 2d edition, 
 1586.) Died after 1586. 
 
 Zapf, tsapf, (Geokg Wilhelm,) a learned German 
 antiquary, born at Nordlingen in 1747. He published 
 numerous works, among which are a " Bibliography 
 of Ancient and Modern History," (1 781,) "History of 
 Printing at Augsburg," (2 vols., 1788-91,) and "Lives 
 of Celebrated Savants and Artists of All Time," (1806.) 
 Died in 1810. 
 
 Zapf, (Nikolaus,) a German Lutheran writer on 
 theology, born at Milwitz in 1600, became professor 
 of theology at Erfurt in 1633, and court preacher to 
 the Duke of Saxe-Weimar in 1642. He was eminent 
 for learning and other merits. Died in 1672. 
 
 Zapolya, za-pol'yl, or Zapoly, za'pol, (John,) son 
 of Stephen, noticed below, was born in 1487, and was 
 proclaimed King of Hungary in 1526, in opposition 
 to Ferdinand of Austria. After a protracted contest, 
 Zapolya was forced to give up his claim to all except 
 Transylvania and a few other territories. Died in 1540. 
 
 Zapolya or Zapoly, (John II.,) a son of the pre- 
 ceding, was born in 1540. He inherited the principality 
 of Transylvania. Died in 1570 or 157 1. 
 
 Zapolya, (Stephen,) a distinguished military com- 
 mander under Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, 
 was appointed by that sovereign Governor of Austria. 
 His daughter Barbara was married to Sigismund I., 
 King of Poland. Died in 1499. 
 
 Zappi, dzap'pee, (Giovanni Battista,) an Italian 
 moralist, born at Imola about 1540. He published a 
 work entitled "The Field of Spiritual Philosophy," 
 (" Prato della Filosofia spirituale," 1577.) Died after 
 I585- 
 
 Zappi, (Giovanni Battista Felice,) an Italian 
 poet and jurist, born at Imola in 1667. He was the 
 author of sonnets, eclogues, and other poems, which 
 are greatly admired for the grace and purity of their 
 style. Died in 1719. His wife Faustina, daughter of 
 Carlo Maratta, was also distinguished for her accom- 
 plishments and poetic talents. 
 
 Zara, dza'ra, (Antonio,) Bishop of Pedena, was 
 born at Aquileia in 1574. He wrote a work entitled 
 "Anatomy of Inventions and Sciences," ("Anatomia 
 Ingeniorum et Scientiarum," 1615.) 
 Zarate, (Antonio.) See Gil y Zarate. 
 Zarate or C/aiate, de, di tha-ra'ti, (Augustin,) a 
 Spanish historian, who in 1543 accompanied Blasco 
 Nunez de Vela, Viceroy of Peru, to South America. He 
 held the office of master-general of accounts in Peru 
 and Terra Firma, and, after the deposition of Vela, 
 was sent on an important embassy to Gonzalo Pizarro. 
 He published in 1555 his " History of the Discovery 
 and Conquest of Peru," which has been translated 
 into French and Italian. It is esteemed a judicious and 
 reliable work. Died about iq6o. 
 
 See Prescott, "History of the Conquest of Peru," vol. ii. 
 book v. 
 
 Zarate, de, (Fernando,) a Spanish dramatist of the 
 seventeenth century, was the author of " El Maestro de 
 Alejandro," and several other comedies, also a collection 
 of poems. 
 
 Zarate, de, (Francisco Lopez,) a Spanish poet, born 
 at Logrofio about 1580. He was the author of lyric 
 poems entitled "Silvas" and "Eclogues," which have a 
 high reputation. Died in 1658. 
 
 a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, ii, y, short; a, e, j, q,obscure; far, fall, fat; met; n&t; good; moon: 
 
ZARATHVSTRA 
 
 *3'3 
 
 ZEIS B ERG ER 
 
 Zarathustra. See Zoroaster. 
 
 Zar'co, (Joao Gonzalez,) a Portuguese navigator, 
 discovered in I4l7the island of Porto Santo, near the 
 coast of Africa, and in 1419 the island of Madeira, to 
 which he gave this name on account of the dense forests 
 with which it was covered. Zarco founded the town of 
 Funchal, and was made governor of the island con- 
 jointly with his companion, TristSo Vaz. 
 
 Zaremba, tsa-rJm'ba, (Michael Constantine,) a 
 Prussian general, born in Lithuania in 1711 ; died in 
 1786. 
 
 Zarlino, dzaR-Iee'no, (Giuseppe,) an eminent Italian 
 musician and composer, born at Chioggia about 1520, 
 was chapel-master at Saint Mark's, Venice. He com- 
 posed music for churches, and published " Instituzione 
 armoniche," (1558.) Died in 1590. 
 
 SeeR-WAGNAN, " Elogtodi G. Zarlino," 1819 ; F. Caffi, " Nar- 
 razione riella Vita di G. Zarlino," 1836. 
 
 Za'sl-us, [Ger. pron. tsa'ze-us,] written also Zazius, 
 [Fr. Zase, zJz,] (Ulric,) an eminent Swiss or German 
 jurist, born at Constance in 1461, was a friend of Eras- 
 mus. He became professor of law at Friburg, and was 
 regarded as an oracle in that science. He published a 
 number of legal works, among which is "Method of 
 Law," ("Methodus Juris.") Died in 1535. 
 
 See Riegger, " Life of Zasius," Ulnl, 1774. 
 
 Zaimer, tsow'ner, (Franz,) a German sculptor, born 
 in 1746, was patronized by the empress Maria Theresa. 
 Among his best works may be named the monument of 
 Leopold II., and the bronze equestrian statue of Joseph 
 II. He was director of the Academy of Arts at Vienna, 
 Died in 1822. 
 
 Zavarroni, dza-var-ro'nee, (Angelo,) an Italian 
 antiquary and biographer, born at Montalto in 1710. 
 He wrote, besides other works, "Calabrian Library," 
 (" Bibliotheca Calabra," 1753.) which consists of the 
 lives of Calabrian authors. Died in 1767. 
 
 Zawadowski, zava-dov'skee, (Peter,) Count, a 
 Russian minister of state, bom in 1738. He rendered 
 important services by promoting order and education in 
 Russia, and became minister of public instruction in 
 1802. Died in 1812. 
 
 Zawisza, za-vee'sha, sumamed THE Black, a Polish 
 soldier, served under the emperor Sigismund, and was 
 killed in the Turkish campaign of 1420. 
 
 Zayas y Sotomayor, de, di tha'yas e so-to-ma- 
 y6R', (Dona Maria,) a Spanish poetess, born of a noble 
 family at Madrid. She published "Moral and Amorous 
 Tales," (" Novelas exemplares y amorosas," 1634,) which 
 are commended. 
 
 Zbarawski. See Zborowski. 
 
 Zborowski, zbo-rov'skee, written also Zbarawski, 
 (John,) Prince of, a Polish general, who distinguished 
 himself in war against the Muscovites and Tartars in 
 the reigns of Stephen Bathori and Sigismund III. 
 Died in 1608. 
 
 Zea, sa'a or tha'a, (Don Francisco Antonio,) a 
 distinguished South American statesman and naturalist, 
 born at Medellin, in New Granada, in 1770. Having 
 incurred the displeasure of the Spanish government by 
 his liberal sentiments, he was imprisoned two years in 
 Spain. He was appointed in 1805 professor of natural 
 sciences and director of the Royal botanical Garden at 
 Madrid. Under Joseph Bonaparte he became minister 
 of the interior and Governor of Malaga. He sailed in 
 1814 for South America, where he joined Bolivar against 
 the Spaniards, was made intendant-general of the armies 
 of the republic of Colombia, and elected Vice-President 
 in 1819. He was sent as minister to England in 1820, 
 and died at Bath in 1822. 
 
 See " Biographie Universelle," (new edition ) 
 
 Zea-Beimudez, tha'a bcR-moo'i>8th, (Don Fran- 
 cisco,) a Spanish diplomatist, born at Malaga in 1772, 
 was employed on embassies to Saint Petersburg, Con- 
 stantinople, and London, and in 1824 succeeded Count 
 de Ofalia as minister of foreign affairs. Died in Paris 
 in 185A . 
 
 Zeb'u-lun, [Heb. JH3T or pi3t ; Fr. Zahui.on, zi'bii'- 
 I6n',| a son of the Hebrew patriarch Jacob, was the head 
 of one of the twelve tribes of Israel. 
 
 See Genesis xxx. 20. xlix. 1.1. 
 
 Zeccbi, dzeVkee, [Lat. Zec'chius,] (Giovanni,) an 
 Italian physician, born at Bologna in 1533. He prac- 
 tised in Rome, and was employed by several popes. 
 He published a number of professional works. Died 
 in 1601. 
 
 Zecchini, dz£k-kee'nee, (Petronio,) an Italian medi- 
 cal writer, born at Bologna in 1739; died in 1793. 
 
 Zecchius. See Zecchi. 
 
 Zecb, IsSk, (Franz Xaver,) a German Jesuit, dis- 
 tinguished as a canonist, was born in Franconia in 1692. 
 He published four works which form a complete course 
 of canon law. Died at Munich in 1772. 
 
 Ze-eh-a-ri'ah, [ Heb. rvor ; Fr. Zacharie, za"ka-'re',j 
 one of the twelve minor Hebrew prophets, was the son 
 of Berechiah, and began to prophesy about 520 B.C. 
 
 Zed-e-ki'ah, [Heb. iTplJf or irr.TlX,] son of Josiah, 
 King of Judah, began to reign about 600 B.C. Having 
 joined Pharaoh-Hophra, King of Egypt, in a rebellion 
 against Nebuchadnezzar, the latter laid siege to Jeru- 
 salem, which he took after nineteen months, (586 B.C.) 
 Zedekiah's sons were slain before his eyes, by order of 
 the king, and he himself imprisoned for life at Babylon, 
 having previously been made blind. 
 
 See II. Chronicles xxxvi. 10; Jeremiah xxxii. 
 
 Zedler, tsJd'ler, (Johann Heinrich,) a German 
 bookseller, born at Breslau in 1706, was the publisher 
 of the " Universal Lexicon of Science and Arts," (6^ 
 vols., 1731-50.) Died in 1760. 
 
 Zedlitz, tsed'llts, (Joseph Christian,) Baron, a 
 German poet, born at Johannesberg in 1790, published 
 a number of lyrics and tragedies, and translated Byron's 
 "Childe Harold" into German. Died in 1862. 
 
 See Longfellow, " Poets and Poetry of Europe." 
 
 Zedlitz, von, fon tsed'lits, (Karl Abraham,) Baron, 
 a Prussian statesman, born near Landshut, in Silesia, in 
 1731. He was appointed minister of justice in 1770, 
 and the next year the king confided to him the de- 
 partment of ecclesiastic affairs and public instruction. 
 He promoted the liberty of the press, and reform in the 
 prisons. He resigned office in 1789. Died in 1793. 
 
 Zeeman, za'man,(REMIGlus,) a Dutch marine painter, 
 whose original name was Nooms, born at Amsterdam in 
 1612. 
 
 Zegabene. See Zegabenus. 
 
 Zeg-a-be'nus, [Fr. Zegabene, za'gS'b&n',] (Geor- 
 c.ius,) a Byzantine writer of unknown period. He wrote, 
 in verse, a work on the letters of the alphabet. 
 
 Zeg'e'din', (STEPHEN ok,) a Hungarian Protestant 
 theologian, born at Zegedin in 1505, was a pupil of 
 Luther at Wittenberg. He was often persecuted and 
 driven from place to place. Died in 1572. 
 
 Zegers or Segers, za'gers or za'ners, (IIercui.es,) a 
 Dutch landscape-painter and engraver i of great merit, 
 was born about 1625. Notwithstanding the excellence 
 of his works, he was very unsuccessful in disposing of 
 them, and, discouraged by his bad fortune, gave himself 
 up to intemperance. He died in consequence of a fall 
 when intoxicated. His prints, after his death, were sold 
 for very high prices. 
 
 Zegers, za'gers or za'zhaiR', (Tacite Nicolas,) a 
 Flemish theologian, born at Brussels in the fifteenth 
 century. He published, besides other works, an edition 
 of the New Testament in Latin, (1559.) According to 
 the " Biographie Universelle," he was one of the best 
 critics of his time. Died in 1559. 
 
 Zeiad. See Zeyad. 
 
 Zeibich, tsi'biK, (Karl Heinrich,) a German writer 
 on theology, born at Edemburg in 171 7, was professor 
 at Wittenberg. Died in 1763. 
 
 Zeid. See Zeyd. 
 
 Zeidoun or Zeidun. See Zaidoon. 
 
 Zeiler, tsT'ler, or Zeiller, (Martin,) a German geog- 
 rapher and writer on various subjects, was born in 
 Styria in 1589. He published some useful works on the 
 geography and topography of Germany. Died in 1661. 
 
 Zeiaberger, Ul»'M&Q-er, (David,) a German mission- 
 ary among the American Indians, was born in Moravia 
 in 1721. Having been educated by the Society of Mo- 
 ravians, he emigrated to Pennsylvania, where be assisted 
 in founding the town of Bethlehem. He afterwards 
 established missions in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, 
 
 « as *; 9 as s; g hard; g as /, G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this, (jy See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ZELADA 
 
 Z3'4 
 
 ZENO 
 
 and Canada. He published several religious and educa- 
 tional works in the Delaware language. Died in 1808. 
 
 See Edmund de Schweinitz, "The Life and Times of David 
 Zeisberger;" "Weekly New York Tribune" for November 23, 1870. 
 
 Zelada, dzi-la'da, (Francesco Saverio,) an Italian 
 cardinal, and liberal patron of learning, was born about 
 1717. He became keeper of the library of the Vatican. 
 Died in 1801. 
 
 Zelich, za'lik or dza'lik, (G.,) a Dalmatian scholar 
 and ecclesiastic, born in 1752, visited Germany and 
 Russia, and wrote an account of his travels, entitled 
 "Life, Adventures, etc. of G. Zelich," (Buda, 1823,) said 
 to have been the first prose work in the Servian language. 
 Died about 1822. 
 
 See L. Brightwell, " By- Paths of Biography." 
 
 Zell, tsSI, (Karl,) a German scholar and critic, born 
 at Mannheim in 1793, studied at Heidelberg under 
 Creuzer. He published, besides other works, an edition 
 of Aristotle's "Ethica Nicomachea," "Ferienschriften," 
 (3 vols., 1826-33,) a series of treatises highly commended 
 by Goethe, and a "Manual of Roman Epigraphy," 
 (1850.) He became professor at Heidelberg in 1847: 
 
 Zell, tsJl or zel, (Ulrich,) the first printer of Cologne, 
 established a press in that city about 1462, and pub- 
 lished, among other works, " Augustinus de Vita Chris- 
 tiana," and " Biblia Latina." 
 
 Zeller, tsel'ler, (Eduard,) a German theologian, born 
 in Wiirtemberg in 1814, published, among other works, 
 " Platonic Studies," (1 839,) and " The Theological Sys- 
 tem of Zwingle," (1853.) 
 
 Zeller, (JoHANN Gottfrted,) a learned German phy- 
 sician, born in Wiirtemberg in 1656. He was professor 
 of medicine at Tubingen, where he died in 1734. 
 
 Zelotti, dza-lot'tee, (Battista,) an Italian painter, 
 born at Verona in 1532, was contemporary with Paul 
 Veronese, to whom in some respects he is esteemed 
 superior. Among his master-pieces are a series of 
 frescos at Cataio, representing the achievements of the 
 Obizzi family. Died in 1592. 
 
 Zelter, tsel'ter, (Karl Friedrich,) a distinguished 
 German composer, born at Berlin in 1758. He was 
 instructed in music by Fasch, whom he succeeded in 
 1800 as teacher of the Academy of Singing, called by 
 his name. In 1809 he was appointed, by the King of 
 Prussia, professor of music in the Academy of Arts and 
 Sciences at Berlin. He numbered among his pupils the 
 celebrated Mendelssohn, and was an intimate friend of 
 Goethe. He died in 1832, leaving his "Correspondence 
 witli Goethe," which appeared in 1833. 
 
 Zeltner, tselt'ner, (Gustav Georg,) a learned Ger- 
 man philologist and writer, burn near Nuremberg in 1672. 
 He was professor of theology and Oriental languages 
 at Altdorf for twenty- four years. Died in 1738. 
 
 Zenale, dzi-nl'la, (Bernardino,) an Italian painter 
 and architect, born about 1450. He worked at Milan, 
 where he was often consulted by Leonardo da Vinci. 
 Zend Ave3ta. See Zoroaster. 
 Zendrini, dzSn-dree'nee, (Bernardo,) an Italian 
 natural philosopher, born in 1679, resided at Venice, 
 where he was appointed chief engineer to the republic. 
 He was also employed in various important works by 
 the Austrian government, and published several valuable 
 treatises on hydraulics, astronomv, etc. Died in 1747. 
 
 Zenner, tsen'ner, (Gottfried^) a German philologist 
 and jurist, born at Altenburg. He was for twenty years 
 secretary to the Prince of Anhalt. According to the 
 "Biographie Universale," he was born in 1596 and 
 died in 1721. 
 
 Ze'no or Ze'non, [Gr. Zyvwv ; Fr. Z6non, zi 'hon'; 
 It. Zenone, dza-no'na,] a celebrated Greek philosopher, 
 the founder of the school of Stoics, was born at Citium, 
 in the island of Cyprus, about 355 B.C. He was a pupil 
 of Crates the Cynic, and afterwards received instruction 
 from Stilpo and Polemon at Athens. He settled at 
 Athens at an early age, and, having formed a new sys- 
 tem by selections from different philosophers, he opened 
 a school in the Athenian porch, called orou -Koia'CKr), ( Stoa 
 Poicilc,) "painted Porch, (or Portico.") His disciples 
 were at first called Zenonians, but afterwards they were 
 Btyled the philosophers of the Porch, (or Portico,) or, 
 more briefly, " those of the Porch," ol kit t% aroar, or ol 
 
 OTuUni, (in Latin, Sto'ici, English " Stoics.") He is said to 
 have taught philosophy at Athens for fifty-eight years. 
 His discipline was severe. He was distinguished by 
 his gravity, modesty, austere morality, and firmness of 
 character. In the use of words he aimed at sententious 
 brevity. He wrote a number of works, which are not ex- 
 tant. Our information about the principles of his system 
 is very scanty. He is said to have taught, among other 
 things, that virtue is the summum bonum, and that the 
 accordance of individual reason with the universal Reason 
 (i.e. the Divine Law) is virtue ; and to have originated 
 the fourfold division of the affections, desire and fear, 
 pleasure and pain. The doctrine of the Stoics that pain 
 is not an evil has excited much wonder and some ridi- 
 cule, both in ancient and modern times ; but essentially 
 the same doctrine has been held by great and heroic 
 men in all ages. Zeno meant nothing more than that 
 pain, (including sickness, toil, grief for the loss of one's 
 property, etc.,) causing a mere temporary inconvenience 
 to the body,* was not to be classed in the same category 
 with such evils as crime, cowardice, or dishonour, — evils 
 which stamp themselves indelibly upon the soul. In 
 comparing the doctrines of the Stoics with those of 
 Epicurus, it is a triumphant recommendation of the 
 former that, after the introduction of Grecian letters and 
 philosophy among the Romans, those who were the most 
 eminent of all for public and private virtue — such as 
 Cato the Younger, Marcus Aurelius, and many others — 
 were among the disciples of the Porch, while scarcely 
 one man of distinguished virtue can be pointed to in the 
 ranks of the Epicureans.t It was a glorious testimony 
 to the character of Zeho both as a man and as a teacher 
 of virtue that, though a stranger, the Athenians reposed 
 in him the most unbounded confidence while he was 
 alive, and after his death they decreed him a golden 
 crown and a public burial, because, during his long 
 residence at Athens, he had, both by precept and by a 
 consistent example, led the young men who attended his 
 school to the practice of wisdom and virtue. Zeno died 
 about the age of ninety-eight, and was succeeded by Cle- 
 anthes as the head of the school. The Stoic philosophy 
 appears to have been somewhat modified by several of 
 the disciples and successors of Zeno. Some of the Stoics 
 maintained that the wise man is perfect ; that he only is 
 rich, free, noble, and beautiful : " Solos sapientes esse, 
 si distortissimi sint, formosos ; si mendicissimi, divites ; 
 si servitutem serviant, reges." (Cicero, "Pro Murena.") 
 According to Cicero, they taught that all sins were 
 equal, that a wise man is never mistaken, never changes 
 his mind, and is never moved by compassion. 
 
 See Diogenbs Laertius, "Life of Zeno:" Rittrr, " History 
 of Philosophy;" G. H. Lewes. "Biographical History of Philoso- 
 phy;" Cicero, " De Finibus" and" Academics:" Fokelius, "Zeno 
 Philosophtis," 1700; Jenichen, " De Zenone Cittico," 1724; Tikdk- 
 mann, "System der Stoischen Philosophic" 3 vols., 1776; Smith, 
 " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography," etc. 
 
 Ze'no or Ze'non [Gr. Zr/vuv] of Ei.ea, [Lat. Ze'no 
 Elka'tks ; Fr. Zenon d'Elee, za'n6.\'da'la', | an eminent 
 Greek philosopher, born at Ele 1, in Southern Italy, about 
 495 B.C. He was the favourite disciple of Parmenides, 
 in company with whom he visited Athens when Socrates 
 was very young. Plato, in his dialogue entitled " Par- 
 menides," states that Zeno was about forty years old 
 when he came to Athens. According to Plutarch, Zeno 
 was one of the masters of Pericles. It is probable that 
 he remained at Athens for several years ; but the events 
 of his life are mostly involved in obscurity. According 
 to a tradition current among the ancients, Zeno took an 
 active part in the public affairs of Elea, and lost his life 
 in an attempt to liberate that city from a tyrant. His 
 doctrines were the same as those of Parmenide6. Their 
 
 * The same general idea was carried still farther by the early 
 Christians. Thus, Saint Paul says, " We glory in tribulations," 
 (Romans Y. 3,) and James " My brethren, count it AM. jov when ye 
 fall into various trials." (neipaanots rroiwiAois,} (Epistle of James, i, 
 2.) Nor is this view limited to the early Christians. " I am fully con- 
 vinced," says Zschokke, "that there is no evii. in the world 
 but sin." In another place he savs, "Though some may shake 
 their heads incredulously, it is a fact that worldly suffering has 
 often not been disagreeable to me." (See Zschokke's "Auto- 
 biography.") 
 
 t The only exception that we can call to mind is Pomponius At- 
 ticus, an amiable and most estimable man in private life, but without 
 any just claims to public virtue. 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; Or, fill, fat; met; ndt; good; moon; 
 
ZENO 
 
 2315 
 
 ZENOBU 
 
 doctrine of absolute unity produced a great effect at 
 Athens. Zeno was distinguished by his subtle and bold 
 dialectic. "What is," says Victor Cousin, "the most 
 original and prominent trait of Zeno as a philosopher? 
 It is evidently the invention of dialectic, considered as 
 a system and an art." Diogenes Laertius reports, on the 
 authority of Aristotle, "that Zeno was the inventor of dia- 
 lectic." He was the first Eleatic philosopher that wrote 
 in prose. His works, which were mostly polemical and 
 refutations of attacks on the system of Parmenides, have 
 not come down to us. He attempted to disprove the 
 possibility or reality of absolute motion by several argu- 
 ments founded on the infinite divisibility of space and 
 time. He also showed the absurd consequences which 
 result from the hypothesis of those who deny the prin- 
 ciple of absolute unity and maintain the plurality of the 
 existent. 
 
 See Dixjenes Laertius " Life of Zeno of Elea ;" Lundhi.ao, 
 ' Dissertalio de Zemme Eleate," 1*05; RlTTRR, '"History of Phi- 
 losophy;" G. H. Lewes, "Biographical History of Philosophy;" 
 Tibdbmann, " Geist der speculative Philosophic ;" Victor Cousin, 
 article "Z^non" in the " Biographic Universelle:" Creli., " De 
 Zenone," 1724; V. Cousin, " Nonveaux Frogmens philosophiqties. " 
 
 Zeno of Sidon, a Greek philosopher, mentioned by 
 Suidas as a disciple of Diodorus Cronus and a teacher 
 of Zeno the celebrated Stoic. He wrote a defence of 
 Socrates. 
 
 Zeno of Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, was a son 
 of Dioscorides, and a pupil of Chrysippus, whom he 
 succeeded as the head of the school of the Portico. 
 
 Zeno, a Greek physician, mentioned by Galen, was 
 an eminent disciple of Herophilus. He lived probably 
 about 200 B.C. 
 
 Zeno, a Greek historian, born at Rhodes, was a con- 
 temporary of Polybius. He wrote on the history of 
 Rhodes. 
 
 Zeno, an eminent Greek Epicurean philosopher, born 
 at Sidon, flourished about 60 B.C. Cicero, who heard 
 him at Athens, speaks favourably of his abilities. 
 
 Zeno, a Greek sculptor, born at Aphrodisias, in 
 Caria, is supposed to have flourished in some part of 
 the period between 50 and 150 A.D. Several of his works 
 are extant. 
 
 Zeno, [Fr. Zenon, zi'nd.N',] Emperor of the East, was 
 a native of Isauria, and a son-in-law of Leo I., upon 
 whose death, in 474 A.D., he usurped the throne. Leo 
 I. had appointed as his successor his infant grandson 
 Leo, who was a son of Zeno, and who died a few months 
 after the death of Leo I. Zeno is represented as de- 
 praved, cruel, and incapable. His reign was disturbed 
 by revolts and foreign wars. He was driven out of his 
 capital by Basiliscus in 47;, but was restored in 477 
 a.d. Theodoric the Great invaded the dominions of 
 Zeno, and was about to take his capital, when Zeno per- 
 suaded him to conquer Italy, and thus saved himself. 
 Died, without issue, in 491 a.d. 
 
 See Tili.emont, " Histoire des Empereurs;" Lb Beau, "His- 
 toire du Bas- Empire." 
 
 Zeno, dza'no, (Antonio,) a Venetian navigator, born 
 between 1330 and 1340, belonged to the noble family of 
 Zeni or Zena, and was a brother of Nicco!6, noticed 
 below. About 1391 he performed a voyage to Frisland, 
 and joined Niccold. (See Zeno, Niccoi.6.) Died about 
 1405. 
 
 Zeno, (Antonio,) a Venetian scholar, a relative of 
 the preceding, lived about 1570-90. 
 
 Zeno, (Al'osroi.o,) an Italian litterateur and drama- 
 list, born at Venice in December, 1668. He became 
 editor in 1710 of the "Giomale de' Letterati d'ltalia," a 
 literary periodical of a high character, and about 1717 
 repaired to Vienna on the invitation of the emperor 
 Charles VI., by whom he was appointed court poet and 
 historiographer. He published numerous operas or 
 melodramas of superior merit, and contributed greatly 
 to the improvement of that species of composition. 
 Among his other principal works are his " Historical, 
 Critical, and Literary Dissertations on the Italian His- 
 torians," biographies of Davila and Guarini, and a 
 collection of Letters. In 1729 he quitted Vienna, and 
 returned to Venice, where he passed the rest of his life. 
 He published twenty volumes of the " Giomale de' Let- 
 terati," (1710-18.) He was eminent as a critic, and was 
 
 well versed in antiquities. "Zeno was regarded," says 
 the" Biographie Universelle," "as the greatest lyric poet 
 that Italy had produced when Metastasio appeared on 
 the scene. . . . He delights us by his : nvention, by his 
 fecundity, by the truth of his pictures, and by his knowl- 
 edge of the dramatic art." His treatises on antiquities, 
 entitled " Dissertazioni Vossiani," (2 vols., 1752,) are 
 highly esteemed. Died in November, 1750. 
 
 See Fabroni, "Vita? Italorum doctrina excellentium," vol. ix. : 
 Francesco Negri, "Vita di Apostolo Zeno," 1816; Tipaldo, 
 " Biogcafia degli Italian] illnstri." 
 
 Zeno, (Carlo,) an able Venetian admiral, born about 
 1334, was a brother of Niccol6, noticed below. He 
 conducted at Constantinople the negotiations by which 
 Venice acquired Tenedos in 1376. About that date the 
 Venetians were involved in the war of Chiozza against 
 the Genoese and their allies. Zeno served on land until 
 1379, when he obtained command of a fleet, captured 
 several vessels, and sailed to Beyroot to convoy some 
 rich cargoes from the Levant to Venice. When he 
 returned, in January, 1380, he found the republic in a 
 critical position, the Genoese having taken Chiozza and 
 entered the lagoons. He was received as the liberator 
 of his country, was appointed commander of the land- 
 army, and retook Chiozza. On the death of Pisani, 
 August, 1380, he became grand admiral. Several years 
 later he was procurator of Saint Mark. In 1403 he 
 defeated the Genoese admiral Boucicaut near Modon. 
 He is represented by Sistnondi as " the most virtuous 
 citizen and greatest man of Venice" of that age. (" Bio- 
 graphie Universelle.") Died in 1418. 
 
 See " Life of Carlo Zeno," (in Latin.) by his grandson. Tacofo 
 Zeno, 1544: Diviaco, "Comnendio della Vita di C. Zeno." 1591 ; 
 Daru, " Histoire deVenise ;" Sismondi, " Histoire des Republiqoej 
 Italiennes." 
 
 Zeno, (Caterino,) grandson of Antonio, (the first of 
 the name,) was Venetian ambassador to the Persian 
 court in 1472. He published after his return an account 
 of his travels, which is no longer extant. 
 
 Zeno, (Jacopo,) grandson of Carlo, noticed above, was 
 born in 1417. He rose through various preferments to 
 be Bishop of Padua in 1459. He wrote a life of his 
 grandfather, Carlo Zeno, in Latin, and " Lives of the 
 Pontiffs," ("Vitae Summorum Pontificum.") He enjoyed 
 a high reputation as a pulpit orator. Died in 1481. 
 
 Zeno, (Niccoi.6,) a Venetian navigator, born about 
 1330, was a brother of the great admiral Carlo Zeno. 
 He commanded a galley in the war against the Genoese 
 in 1379, and was reputed to be one of the richest pa- 
 tricians of Venice in 1381. About 138S he fitted out a 
 ship at his own expense and sailed towards England on 
 a voyage of exploration. Before he had reached Eng- 
 land he was driven by a storm and wrecked on an island 
 which he calls Frisland. He then entered the service 
 of a prince named Zichmini, who employed him in mari- 
 time and warlike enterprises, in the course of which he 
 discovered the islands of Estland, Grisland, and Engrone- 
 land. After he had lived four years in Frisland, he 
 invited his brother Antonio to join him. Antonio went 
 there and passed many years in the service of Zichmini. 
 Niccol6 died about 1396. Geographers disagree about 
 the position or identity of the islands which he dis- 
 covered. Walckenaer thinks that one of them was 
 Iceland. The narrative of the voyages of the Zeni (the 
 plural of Zeno) was printed at Venice in 155S. 
 
 Zeno, (Niccoi.6,) a Venetian writer, born in 1515. 
 He published in 1558 an account of the travels of 
 Caterino Zeno in Persia and the East, compiled from 
 his letters to his friends. Died in 1565. 
 
 Zeno, (Pietro Caterino,) a brother of Apostolo, 
 noticed above, was born at Venice in 1666. He became 
 professor of philosophy in his native city, and was asso- 
 ciated with his brother as editor of the "Giomale de' 
 Letterati," which he continued to edit alone from 1718 
 to 1728. Died in 1732. 
 
 Ze'no, j Fr. Zenon, z.Vii6n',] Saint, a native of Africa, 
 became Bishop of Verona about 362 A.D. He is com- 
 mended for his charity to the poor. He died in 380, 
 leaving many sermons, which were printed in 1508. 
 
 Ze-no'bl-a, [Gr. Zevotia or ZipraSm; Fr. Zenoihk, 
 zi'no'be',] (Septimia,) a famous and ambitious queen 
 of Palmyra, was a daughter of Amroo, an Arab chief. 
 
 e as i; 9 as s; g hard; g as J; c, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; th as in this. (Jry See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ZENOBIA 
 
 2316 
 
 ZESCHJU 
 
 She was renowned for her beauty, learning, and martial 
 and political abilities. She was mistress of the Greek, 
 Latin, Syriac, and Egyptian languages. Her husband, 
 Odenathus, King of Palmyra, died about 266 A.D., 
 leaving two minor sons, Herennius and Timolaus. 
 She assumed the royal diadem, with the title of Queen 
 of the East, performed the active duties of sovereign, 
 and continued the conquests which Odenathus had 
 begun. Palmyra was then a magnificent city, adorned 
 with Grecian porticos of marble and porphyry and 
 enriched by an extensive commerce. Her dominion 
 extended from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean, and 
 over a large part of Asia Minor, and was acknowledged 
 by subjects of various races. The eminent Greek critic 
 and writer Longinus served her as secretary and coun- 
 sellor. She is said to have been a prudent and liberal 
 ruler. She sometimes marched on foot at the head of 
 her army, the toils of which she shared. Soon after the 
 accession of the emperor Aurelian, in 270 A.D., she 
 wrote a letter to him, asserting her independence and 
 refusing allegiance to the Roman empire. 
 
 Aurelian conducted in person an army against the 
 Queen of Palmyra, and defeated her forces in two battles, 
 near Antioch and near Emesa. He then besieged Pal- 
 myra, which she defended for along time with heroic 
 courage, but it was taken in 272 or 273, and she was 
 carried to Rome fettered with golden chains. She was 
 paraded as a captive before the imperial chariot in the 
 triumphal procession of Aurelian, who in other respects 
 treated her with clemency, and gave her a villa at Tibur, 
 where she passed the rest of her life with her children. 
 
 See Trebei.lius Poli.io, " Triginta Tyranni ;" Zosimus, " His- 
 tory of the Roman Empire:" Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire;" E. F. Wernsdorf, " De Septimia Zenobia," 
 1742 : Jouvk DB Hauteville, " Histoire de Zenobie," 175S : Cap- 
 peli.e, ' - De Zenobia," 1817. See, also, "Letters from Palmyra," 
 by William Ware, 1836-38. 
 
 Zenobia, the wife of Rhadamistus, King of Ar- 
 menia, lived about 50 A.D. Her husband, pursued by 
 his victorious enemies, threw her into a river, intending 
 to save her from capture by death, but she was found by 
 Borne shepherds, and restored to life. 
 
 Zenobie. See Zenobia. 
 
 Ze-no'M-us, [ZijvoSiog,] a Greek writer, who lived at 
 Rome about 100-130 A.D. He compiled a collection of 
 proverbs, which was printed at Florence in 1487 or 1497. 
 
 Ze-no'bi-us, [Fr. Zenobe, za'nob',] Saint, an Italian 
 prelate, born at Florence about 334 A.D.,'was a zealous 
 opponent of Arianism. He became Bishop of Florence. 
 Died about 405. 
 
 Zenodore. See Zenodorus. 
 
 Zen-o-do'rus, [Gr. Zrivodupoc ; Fr. Zenodore, za'no'- 
 doR',J an eminent Greek statuary, flourished about 50 
 A.D. After he had worked ten years in Gaul on a statue 
 of Mercury, he went to Rome, whither he was invited 
 by the emperor Nero. He made a colossal bronze statue 
 of Nero, one hundred and ten feet in height. He was 
 also a skilful silver-chaser. 
 
 Zenodorus, a tyrant, who reigned over Trachonitis 
 and some adjoining territory. He annoyed neighbouring 
 people by predatory practices, or connivance at robbery. 
 For this reason Augustus deprived him of nearly all his 
 possessions, in 24 B.C. Died in 20 B.C. 
 
 Zenodote. See Zenodotus. 
 
 Ze-nod'o-tus of Alexandria, a grammarian, lived 
 after the time of Aristarchus, whom he criticised for 
 his recension of the Homeric poems. 
 
 Zenodotus [ZifwxSoroc] of Ephesus, [Fr. Zeno- 
 dote d'Ephese, za'no'dot' da'f&z',] a celebrated Greek 
 grammarian, flourished about 280 B.C. He was a dis- 
 ciple of Philetas, and was the first librarian of the great 
 library of Alexandria. He and two other critics were 
 employed by Ptolemy Philadelphus to revise or edit 
 all the Greek poets. Zenodotus devoted his attention 
 chiefly to the works of Homer, in which he made con- 
 siderable changes and inserted various readings. His 
 edition or recension of Homer was highly esteemed by 
 ancient critics. He was the author of a Glossary, and a 
 " Dictionary of Foreign Phrases." 
 
 See Hekfter, " Programma de Zenodoto," etc., 1839. 
 
 Zenofonte. See Xenophon. 
 
 Zenon. See Zeno. 
 
 Zenone. See Zeno. 
 
 Zeutner, tsent'ner, (Georg Friedrich,) 15aron, a 
 German statesman and jurist, born at Strassenheim in 
 1752, became professor of civil law at Heidelberg in 1779, 
 and in 1823 minister of justice in Bavaria. Died in 1835. 
 
 Zepemic. See Copernicus. 
 
 Zepernick, tsa'peR-nik', (Karl Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man jurist, born at Halle in 175 1, published several 
 legal works. Died in 1801. 
 
 Zeph-a-ni'ah [Heb. rn3¥ ; Fr. Sophonie, so'fo'ne', 
 called Sophoni'as in the Septuagint] was one of the 
 twelve minor prophets, and flourished, under the reign 
 of Josiah, King of Judah. He foretold the fall of Nin- 
 eveh, the destruction of Jerusalem, and the subsequent 
 captivity of the Jews. 
 
 Zephirin. See Zephyrinus. 
 
 Zeph'yr, [Gr. Zetpvpot; ; Lat. Zeph'yrus ; Fr. Ze- 
 phyre, za'feV; Sp. Zefiro or Cefiro, tha'fe-ro or 
 thefe-ro; It. Zeffiro, dzSffe-ro,] in classic mythology, 
 was a personification of the west wind, and was called a 
 son of Astraeus and Aurora. The poets feigned that 
 he married Chloris or Flora, and had a son named 
 Carpus, (fruit.) 
 
 Zephyre and Zephyrus. See Zephyr. 
 
 Zeph-jf-ri'nus, [Fr. Zephirin, za'fe'rjN',] Saint, a 
 native of Rome, was elected pope about 202 A.D. During 
 his pontificate the fifth persecution of the Christians 
 took place, under Septimius Severus. He died about 
 217 A.D., and was succeeded by Calixtus 1. 
 
 Zeplichal, tsep'liK-al, (Anton Michael,) a German 
 Jesuit and writer, born in Moravia in 1737. He pub- 
 lished many scientific works, which were extensively 
 used in schools. Died at an advanced age. 
 
 Zerbi, dzeit'bee, [Lat. DE Zer'bis,] (Gabriel,) an 
 eminent Italian anatomist, born at Verona. He had 
 lectured several years at Rome, when he became pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Padua about 1495. His chief work 
 is " Anatomy of the Human Body," (" Liber Anatomi* 
 Corporis humani," about 1490,) which contains the 
 germ of several discoveries in anatomy. Died in 1505. 
 
 Zerbis, de. See Zerbi. 
 
 Zerboni di Sposetti, tseu-bo'nee de spo-zet'tee, 
 (Joseph,) a German, of Italian extraction, born at 
 lircslau in 1 766. Having written, in 1796, a letter to 
 the Governor of Silesia, showing the unreasonableness 
 of attaching an unlimited importance to the right of 
 birth in the nobility, he was, on a charge of high treason, 
 imprisoned three years by order of Frederick William 
 III. His case having at last been brought to trial, he 
 was liberated, and subsequently employed in several 
 public offices. Died in 1831. 
 
 See Pierer, " Universal-Lexikon." 
 
 Zerdusht See Zoroaster. 
 
 Zernitz, tseit'nits, (Christian Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man didactic poet, born at Tangermunde in 1 71 7. His 
 " Didactic Essays" are highly commended. All of his 
 works are posthumous. Died in 1744. 
 
 Zerola, dza-ro'la, (Tommaso,) an Italian canonist, 
 born at Benevento in 1548, became Bishop of Minori in 
 1597. He published " Episcopal Duties or Business," 
 ("Praxis Episcopalis," 1597.) Died in 1603. 
 
 Zerrenner, tser-ren'ner, (Heinrich Gottlieb,) a 
 German educational writer, born at Wernigerode in 
 17SO, published, among other works, the " Deutscl.er 
 Schulfreund," (46 vols., 1791,) and "Manual of the 
 Christian Religion,'' (1799.) Died in 181 1. 
 
 His son, Karl Christoph Gottlieb, was the author 
 of several works for the use of children and of schools. 
 
 Ze-rub'ba-bel or Zo-rob'a-bel, [Heb. S^DTi.l * 
 Jewish chief or prince, was a son of Salathiel. He 
 conducted from Babylon to Judea the Jewish captives 
 who were liberated by Cyrus, King of Persia, about 536 
 B.C. To him, also, was confided the mission to rebuild 
 the Temple at Jerusalem. 
 
 See Ezra ii. 2, iv. 2, and v. 2 : Zechariah iv. 6 ; Matthew i. 12. 
 
 Zescbau, von, fon tsesh'ow, (Heinrich Anton,) a 
 Saxon statesman, born in 1789, rose through various 
 offices to be minister of foreign affairs in 1835. He was 
 removed in 1848. 
 
 9, e, T, 6, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, it, y, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fat; mit; not; good; moon; 
 
ZESCHAU 
 
 *3'7 
 
 ZHOOKOFSKT 
 
 Zeschau, von, (Hf.inrich Wii.hei.m,) a Saxon 
 officer, born in 1760, served against the French in the 
 principal campaigns from 170^ to 1813, and attained the 
 rank of lieutenant-general. He was appointed governor 
 of Dresden in 1823. Died in 1832. 
 
 Zese. See Zesen, von. 
 
 Zesen, von, km tsa'zen, or Zese, tsa'zeh, [Lat. Cx'- 
 si is, I (I'mi.iri'Ja German writer, was limn near Dessau 
 in 1619. He was the author of a number of poems and 
 prose works having for their object the improvement of 
 the German language. Died in 1689. 
 
 Ze'tes or Ze'theS, [Gr. Z//n?f ; Kr. Zethes, za'tes',] 
 in the Greek mythology, a son of lioreas, King of Thrace, 
 and a twin brother of Calais. He is mentioned among 
 the Argonauts. The poets feigned that Zetes and Calais 
 had wings, r.nd that they delivered Phineus from the 
 Harpies that plagued him. 
 
 Ze'thus [Gr. Z;/0of] was a reputed son of Jupiter 
 and Antiope, and a twin brother of Amphion, King of 
 Thebes. These brothers, sometimes called Dioscuri, 
 (" sons of Jove,") were exposed together in infancy, and 
 eventually reigned together at Thebes. 
 
 Zetterstedt, zet'ter-steV, (Johan Wii.hki.m,) a 
 Swedish naturalist, born in the province of East Goth- 
 land in 1785. He studied at Lund, and subsequently 
 made a scientific tour in Sweden, Norway, and Southern 
 Lapland. He became in 1839 professor of botany and 
 agricidture at Lund, and in 1846 rector of that university. 
 Among his principal works may be named his " Orthop- 
 tera Sueciae," (1821,) " Fauna Insectorum Lapponica," 
 (1828,) and "Diptera Scandinavian," (40 vols., 1842-52.) 
 The last work obtained the great Linnaean medal from 
 the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm. 
 
 Zeune, tsoi'neh, (August,) a German teacher and 
 writer, born at Wittenberg in 1778, published several 
 geographical works and treatises on the education of the 
 blind. Died in 1853. 
 
 Zeune, [Lat. Zeu'nius,] (Johann Kari.,) a German 
 philologist, born in Saxony in 1736. He edited several 
 works of Xenophon, and was professor at Wittenberg. 
 Died in 1788. 
 
 Zeus, [Gr. Zft'f, genitive Zip'oc, and A«c] the chief 
 divinity of the Greek mythology, corresponding to the 
 Jupiter of the Romans. He was represented as the son 
 of Cronos and Rhea, and the father of Mars, Minerva, 
 Mercury, Venus, Apollo, and other gods. According 
 to Homer, he held his court on Mount Olympus, was 
 styled the father of gods and men, and was the most 
 powerful among the immortals, so that even Fate was 
 subordinate to his will. He married his sister Hera, 
 (Juno.) His attributes and symbols were the sceptre, 
 the eagle, and the thunderbolt. (See Jupiter.) The 
 poets feigned that he and the other gods occupied a 
 palace or city built by Vulcan on the summit of Mount 
 Olympus, (in Thessaly,) which rises above the clouds. 
 The actual height of Olympus is about six thousand 
 feet. The Greeks erected to Zeus a magnificent temple 
 at Olympia, near El is, where the Olympic games were 
 celebrated. This place was profusely adorned with the 
 most splendid monuments of architecture and sculpture, 
 among which was a colossal statue of Zeus, executed by 
 Phidias, and generally regarded as the most admirable 
 as well as greatest of all his works. 
 
 Zeuss, tsoiss, (JoHANN Kaspar,) a German philolo- 
 gist and historical writer, born in Upper Franconia in 
 1806, became professor of history at Bamberg in 1847. 
 Among his works is " Grammatica Celtica," (2 vols., 1853.) 
 
 Zeux-i'a-des, [ZfuftaoV,] a Greek statuary of the 
 school of Lysippus, flourished about 350 B.C. 
 
 Zeux'is, [Z™£^,] a Greek painter of great celebrity 
 and almost unrivalled skill, was born at Heraclea about 
 450 B.C. It is not known which of the cities named 
 Heraclea was his birthplace. According to several 
 ancient authorities, he lived about 425-400 B.C. Plutarch 
 states that he flourished when Pericles erected the great 
 monuments of Athens, and Pliny tells us that "the doors 
 of the art, which were opened by Apollodorus, were 
 entered by Zeuxis in the 95th Olympiad," (about 400 B.C.) 
 The name of his master is not certainly known. Accord- 
 ing to Pliny, he was a pupil of Hemophilus of Himera 
 or of Neseas of Thasos. He Iwlonged to the Asiatic 
 
 or Ionian school of art, which excelled in the reproduc- 
 tion of sensual charms. He appears to have studied or 
 worked at Athens during the life of Apollodorus, who 
 was older than Zeuxis, and who complained that Zeuxis 
 had robbed him of his art. This is understood to signify 
 that Zeuxis surpassed him in light and shade or in 
 colouring, the parts of the art in which Apollodorus 
 especially excelled. Zeuxis was renowned for his accu- 
 rate imitation of the human form, and for the noble style 
 of his design, in which he combined energy with gran- 
 deur. He succeeded better in the imitation of form than 
 in the expression of character. He executed an exten- 
 sive work in the palace of Archelaus, King of Macedonia, 
 who reigned from 413 to 399 B.C. He also worked in 
 Southern Italy, and probably at Ephesus. After he had 
 amassed a fortune by his art, he often gave his pictures 
 as presents. Pliny relates a story of a trial of skill be- 
 tween Zeuxis and Parrhasius, the former of whom painted 
 a bunch of grapes so naturally that a bird flew at the 
 picture to eat the fruit. (See Parrhasius.) Among his 
 master-pieces were a "Female Centaur," "The Infant 
 Hercules strangling the Serpent," "Penelope lamenting 
 the Absence of Ulysses," and "Jupiter in the Assembly 
 of Gods." His most celebrated work was a picture of 
 Helen, which he painted for the city of Croton, on which 
 he inscribed several lines of Homer's "Iliad," (iii. 156:) 
 
 "No wonder such celestial charms 
 For nine long years have set the world in arms." — Pope. 
 
 Cicero informs us that Zeuxis selected five of the most 
 beautiful virgins of Croton as models for this picture. 
 "He deserves," says Emeric-David, "by the choice of 
 his models and the grandeur of his style, to be compared 
 to the prince of sculptors, (Phidias ;) and if he was 
 defective in some quality, Greece pardoned him for the 
 sake of the merit which constitutes the basis of the art,— 
 that is, precision of design and nobleness of form." 
 ("Biographie Universelle.") 
 
 See Pliny, " Natural History," xxxv. ; Cickro, "De Inventis;" 
 Lucian, "Zeuxis;" Carlo Dati, " Vite de' Pittori antichi," 1667; 
 Qiuntilian, xii. 10. 
 
 Zeuxis, a Greek physician, often quoted by Galen, 
 lived probably about 250 B.C. He belonged to the school 
 of Empirici, and wrote commentaries on Hippocrates. 
 
 Zevallos or Cevallos, tha-val'y6s, ( Pedro Or- 
 dones,) a Spanish voyager, born in Andalusia between 
 1550 and 1590. He wrote an "Account of his Travels 
 in America, East India," etc., (1614.) 
 
 Zevecot, za'veh-kot', (James,) a Latin poet, born 
 at Ghent in 1604. He became professor of history at 
 Harderwyck. He wrote elegies, epigrams, tragedies, 
 etc., which were admired. Died in 1646. 
 
 Zeyad or Zeiad, za'yid', a famous Arabian warrior, 
 born about 625 a.d., was a brother of the caliph 
 Moaweeyah I. He was highly distinguished by his 
 eloquence. He became governor of Bassorah and of 
 the eastern provinces of the empire. Died in 673 A.D. 
 
 Zeyd or Zeid, /.ad or zid, a servant of Mohammed, 
 distinguished' for his fidelity and devotion to the prophet. 
 (See Mohammed.) 
 
 Zhookofsky, Zhukofsky, or Joukovski, zhoo- 
 kofskee or zhoo-kov'skee, written also Shukowski, 
 (Vasilii Andreevitch,) a celebrated Russian poet, 
 born near Bielev, in the government of Penza, in 1783, 
 began his literary career at an early age by several 
 contributions of great merit to a journal of Moscow. In 
 1802 he published a translation of Gray's "Elegy in a 
 Country Church-Yard," which established his reputation 
 and ranks among the best of the numerous versions of 
 that popular poem. He succeeded Karamzin in 1808 
 as editor of the literary periodical entitled " Viestnik 
 Evropui." In the campaign of 1812 he joined the Mos- 
 cow volunteers, and rendered most effective service to 
 his country's cause by his spirited ballads entitled " The 
 Minstrel in the Russian Camp." These songs, which 
 obtained the greatest popularity with all classes and 
 won for him the especial favour of the emperor and 
 empress, were followed by his "Ziudmilla," an imitation 
 of Burger's " Lenore," and " Svietlana," a poem, which 
 is esteemed his finest production. On the marriage of 
 the grand duke Nicholas, Zhookofsky was appointed 
 teacher of the Russian language to his wife, and after- 
 
 € as *.• 9 as s; g hard; g as// G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; I as z; th as in this. (33F~ See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ZIJNI 
 
 2318 
 
 ZIMMERMANN 
 
 wards became preceptor of the young prince, since 
 Alexander II. Besides the above-named works, he pub- 
 lished a number of prose essays and tales, one of which, 
 entitled " Mary's Grove," is especially admired. He also 
 made numerous excellent translations from the English, 
 German, and other languages. He died in 1852, and a 
 monument was erected to his memory by the emperor 
 Nicholas. 
 
 Ziani, dze-a'nee, (Sebastiano,) was elected Doge of 
 Venice in 1172. He instituted the annual ceremony of 
 the marriage of Venice with the sea. In his reign the 
 church of Saint Mark was built. Died in 1179. 
 
 His son Pietro succeeded the famous Dandolo as doge 
 in 1205. During his reign the Venetians completed the 
 conquest of the Greek empire. Died in 1229. 
 
 Ziebland, tseep'lint, (Georg Friedrich,) an emi- 
 nent German architect, born at Ratisbon in 1800, was a 
 pupil of Quaglio. He was patronized by King Louis of 
 Bavaria, at whose expense he visited Italy. He de- 
 signed several public edifices of Munich. His capital 
 work is the large and splendid basilica or church of 
 Saint Boniface, at Munich, completed about 1848. 
 
 Ziegelbauer, tsee'gel-bow'er, (M.,) a learned German 
 Benedictine monk, born at Elwaugen, in Suabia, in 1696. 
 He wrote a " Literary History of the Benedictine Order," 
 (4 vols., 1754,) and other works. Died in 1750. 
 
 Ziegenbalg, tsee'gen-balo', (Bartholomew,) a Ger- 
 man theologian and missionary, born in Lusaria in 1683, 
 was sent out by the King of Denmark to India In 1706, 
 remaining in that country till 1714. He sailed a second 
 time in 1716, and died at Tranquebar in 1719. He pub- 
 lished a"Tamul Grammar," (" Grammatica Damulica,") 
 a translation of the Bible into the Tamul language, 
 (" Biblia Damulica,") and other works. 
 
 Ziegler, tseec'ler, (Bernard,) a German Protestant 
 theologian, born in Misnia in 1496. He became pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew at Leipsic, and published several 
 sermons. He was acquainted with Luther, who highly 
 esteemed him. Died in 1566. 
 
 Ziegler, [Lat. Ziegi.e'rus,] (Caspar,) an able Ger- 
 man jurist and Protestant canonist, born at Leipsic in 
 1621. He became professor of law at Wittenberg in 
 1654. Besides several treatises on civil law, he pub- 
 lished a work "On Bishops and their Laws or Rights," 
 (" De Episcopis eorumque Juribus," 1685.) Died in 
 1690. 
 
 Ziegler, ze'i'glaiR', (Claude Louts,) a skilful French 
 painter of history and portraits, was born at Langres in 
 1804, and was a pupil of Ingres. He was employed by 
 Louis Philippe to decorate the cupola of the church 
 of Madeleine, in which he painted religious allegorical 
 scenes. Among his works are " The Death of Foscari," 
 " Jacob's Dream," and " Daniel in the Den of Lions." 
 Died in December, 1856. 
 
 Ziegler, (Friedrich Wii.helm,) a celebrated Ger- 
 man actor and dramatist, born at Brunswick in 1760. 
 He was patronized by the emperor Joseph II., and 
 performed at the court theatre for nearly forty years 
 with great reputation and success. His tragedies and 
 comedies were also highly popular : one of the latter, 
 entitled "The Four Temperaments," (" Die vier Tem- 
 peramente,") still keeps its place on the stage. He 
 iikewise wrote several critical treatises on the drama. 
 Died in 1827. 
 
 Ziegler, (Hieronymus,) a German poet and biog- 
 rapher, born at Rotenburg about 1520. Among his 
 works is " Cyrus Major," (" Cyrus the Great,") a drama, 
 (1547.) Died after 1562. 
 
 Ziegler, [Lat. Ziegi.e'rus,] (Jakob,) an eminent 
 German theologian and mathematician, bom in Bavaria 
 about 1480. In pursuit of knowledge he visited Italy, 
 became secretary of General George Frondsberg, and 
 witnessed the sack of Rome in 1526. He afterwards 
 passed many years at Passau, the bishop of which 
 furnished him with means to pursue literature. He 
 published, besides other books, a work (in Latin) on 
 the geography of Palestine, Arabia, etc., (1532.) Died 
 in 1549. 
 
 Ziegler, (Werner KarlLudwig,) a German writer 
 on theology, etc., was born near Luneburg in 1763. He 
 was professor of theology at Rostock. Died in 1809. 
 
 Ziegler, von, fon tseec'ler, (Franz,) a Swiss medical 
 writer, born at Schaffhausen before 1700. He was pro- 
 fessor of medicine at Rinteln, and published several 
 treatises. Died in 1761. 
 
 Ziegler und Klipphausen, von, fon tseeG'ler oont 
 klip'how'zen, (Heinrich Anselm,) a German writer,, 
 born in Upper Lusatia in 1653, produced, conjointly with 
 J. G. Hamann, a romance entitled "The Asiatic Banise," 
 (1688,) which enjoyed great popularity. Died in 1697. 
 
 Zieglerus. See Ziegler. 
 
 Ziem, ze'e'm', (F£lix,) an eminent French landscape- 
 painter, born at Beaune about 1822. He visited Italy 
 and the East in 1845-48, and obtained a medal of the 
 first class in 1852. Among his works are "The Grand 
 Canal of Venice," a "View of Antwerp," "Constanti- 
 nople," and " Evening at Venice." 
 
 Ziethen, von, fon tsee'ten, (Hans Ernst Karl,) 
 Count, a Prussian general, born in 1770, served in 
 the campaigns of 1813 and 1815, and had a prominent 
 part in the victory of Waterloo. He was afterwards 
 appointed commander of the army of occupation in 
 France, and in 1835 was made a field-marshal. Died 
 in 1848. 
 
 Ziethen, von, (Hans Joachim,) a Prussian general 
 and distinguished favourite of Frederick the Great, was 
 born in 1699. He served in the Silesian campaigns of 
 1742 and 1745, and subsequently in the Seven Years' 
 war, being conspicuous for his skill and bravery at 
 Reichenberg, Prague, Kolin, and Torgau. He was 
 soon after made a general of cavalry by the king, who 
 also loaded him with other distinctions. He died in 
 1786, and a statue, by Schadow, was erected to his 
 memory, by order of Frederick William II., in the 
 Wilhelmsplatz, Berlin, (1794.) 
 
 See Lursa J. L. von Bi.umenthal, " Leben des Generals vnn 
 Ziethen," 1797, (and English translation of the same, London, 1S02;) 
 Werner Hahn, "H. J. von Ziethen, Prenssischer General," etc., 
 1850. 
 
 Zilioli, dze-le-o'lee, (Alessandro,) an Italian his- 
 torian and lawyer, born at Venice before 1600. He 
 published in 1642 a history of the period from 1600 to 
 1640, entitled " Storie memorabili de' nostri Tempi." 
 Died in 1650. 
 
 Zille, tsil'leh, (Moritz Alexander,) a German theo- 
 logian, born near Zittau in 1814. He wrote, besides 
 other works, " The Kingdom of God," (" Das Reich 
 Gottes," 1850.) 
 
 Zimara, dze-ma'ra, (Marcantonio,) an Italian physi- 
 cian, born at Galatina about 1460 ; died at Padua in 1532. 
 
 Zimiscea. See John I., Emperor of the East. 
 
 Zimmerl, von, fon tsim'meRl, (Johann Michael,) 
 an Austrian, born at Ernstbrunn in 1757, became a 
 member of the imperial commission for commerce, and 
 published several works relating to the laws of trade 
 and exchange. 
 
 Zimmermann, tsim'mer-man', (Ernst,) a German 
 theologian and pulpit orator, born at Darmstadt in 1786. 
 He studied at Giessen, and was appointed in 1816 court 
 preacher in his native city. He was the founder of the 
 " Allgemeine Kirchenzeitung," and other religious and 
 literary journals, and published, among other works, a 
 " Homiletic Hand-Book for Thinking Preachers," (1812.) 
 Died in 1832. 
 
 Zimmermann, (Franz Joseph,) a German writer on 
 logic and philosophy, born near Freiburg in 1795 ; died 
 in 1833. 
 
 Zimmermann, (Heinrich,) a German voyager, born 
 in the Palatinate. He served as a sailor in the third 
 voyage of Captain Cook, (1776,) and published "A 
 Voyage around the World with Captain Cook," (1782.) 
 
 Zimmermann, (Johann Jakob,) a German enthu- 
 siast, called by some a fanatic, was born in Wurtemberg 
 in 1644. He is said to have been a man of superior 
 talents, and to have adopted the opinions of Jacob 
 liohme. He preached at various places in Germany. 
 Died in 1693. 
 
 Zimmermann, tsim'm?R-man', (Johann Jakob,) a 
 Swiss writer, born at Zurich in 1685. He became pro- 
 fessor of natural law at Zurich in 1731, and professor of 
 theology in 1737. He wrote a "Life of J. B. Cramer," 
 and several works on theology. Died in 1756. 
 
 a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; k, i, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short ; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n6t; good; moon; 
 
ZIMMERMANN 
 
 *3>9 
 
 ZINZENDORF 
 
 Zimmermann, (Johann Karl,) distinguished as a 
 writer on surgery, mm bora in Silesia in 1803. He 
 practised surgery in Leipsic 
 
 Zimmermann, (Karl.) a German divine and pulpit 
 orator, brother of Ernst, noticed above, was born in 
 1803. He became court preacher at Darmstadt, and 
 published a number of sermons and religious works, 
 and a life of his brother Ernst. 
 
 Zimmermann, (Karl Ferdinand,) a German 
 painter of history, portraits, and genre, was born in 
 Berlin in 1796. 
 
 Zimmermann, (Matthias,) a Protestant theologian, 
 born at Kperies, in Hungary, in 1625. He preached at 
 Eperiesfrom 1652 to 1660, after which he became minister 
 and superintendent at Meissen. He was skilful in the 
 exposition of Scripture, and was author of several works. 
 Died in 1689. 
 
 Zimmermann, von, (on tsim'mer-man', (Clemens,) 
 a German painter, Ixirn at Dusseldorf in 1789. He studied 
 at Munich, and, having visited Italy, was appointed, after 
 his return, professor of painting in the Academy of that 
 city, (1825.) Among his best works may be named a 
 series of illustrations of Anacreon in the dining-hall of 
 the royal palace at Munich, and a colossal "Ascension 
 of the Virgin," in a church in Australia. 
 
 Zimmermann, von, (Eberhard August Wil- 
 Helm,) a German writer, born at Uelzen, in Hanover, 
 in 1743, became professor of physics in the Caroline 
 College at Brunswick in 1766. He published a number 
 of geographical, political, and scientific works, among 
 which we may name a treatise "On the Compressi- 
 bility and Elasticity of Water," (1779,) "Fiance and 
 the Republics of North America," (1795,) and "The 
 Geographical Pocket-Book. " An abridgment of the 
 last work, entitled "The Earth and its Inhabitants," 
 came out in 1810, in 5 vols. Died in 1815. 
 
 Zim'mer-mann, von, [Ger. pron. ton tsim'mer- 
 mln'.J (Joiiann Georg,) an eminent Swiss philosopher 
 and physician, born at Brugg, near Berne, December 8, 
 1728. He was liberally educated, and studied medicine 
 under Haller at Gottingen, where he graduated as M.D. 
 in 1751. On this occasion he wrote an able thesis on 
 Irritability. He began to practise medicine at Berne 
 about 1752, and married a relative of the celebrated Hal- 
 ler, who was his friend. About 1754 he became public 
 physician ( Stadtphysicus ) at Brugg, where he acquired 
 a wide reputation as a practitioner and as a writer, but 
 he suffered from ill health, hypochondria, and the want 
 of congenial society. He published a "Life of Haller," 
 (1755,) and a work " On National Pride," ("Vom Na- 
 tionaistolze," 1758,) which had great popularity and was 
 translated into various languages. His next important 
 work was "On Experience in Medicine," ("Von der 
 Erfahrung in der Arzneikunst," 2 vols., 1763,) which was 
 highly esteemed, and, in the opinion of some critics, is 
 his chief title to celebrity. 
 
 In 1768 he obtained the place of physician to his 
 Britannic majesty at Hanover, with the title of aulic 
 councillor. He had a very extensive practice at Hano- 
 ver, but he continued to be a victim of melancholy, and 
 regretted his separation from the Swiss mountains. He 
 also lost his wife in 1770, and his son became insane. 
 His spirits were somewhat revived by a second marriage 
 in 1782. He published in 1784 and 1785 his celebrated 
 work "On Solitude," ("Von der Einsamkeit," 4 vols.,) 
 which was translated into r.ll the languages of Europe. 
 Catherine II. of Russia expressed her approbation of 
 this work by the present of a diamond ring, and an 
 invitation to come to Saint Petersburg and serve her as 
 physician, but he declined that honour. He went to 
 Potsdam to attend Frederick the Great in his last illness 
 in 1786, and published a book entitled "Fragments on 
 Frederick the Great," (3 vols., 1790,) which, by intem- 
 perate attacks on several eminent German savants, gave 
 much offence and impaired the author's popularity. He 
 was a zealous adversary of the French Revolution, and 
 became involved in political controversy to an extent 
 that was fatal to his peace of mind. A victim to painful 
 hallucinations, he imagined that the French army was 
 marching to Hanover on purpose to kill or persecute 
 him. He died at Hanover in October, 1795. 
 
 "His conversation," says Goethe, "was varied and 
 highly instructive, and, for one who could pardon his 
 active sense of his own personality and merits, no more 
 desirable companion could be found. . . . Every one 
 who reads his writings, especially his excellent work 
 on Experience, will perceive more definitely what was 
 discussed between him and me. His influence was the 
 more powerful over me from the twenty years that he 
 was my senior. . . . His severity towards his children 
 was a hypochondria, a partial insanity, a continuous 
 moral homicide, which, after having sacrificed his chil- 
 dren, he at last directed against himself." ("Truth and 
 Poetry from my Own Life," book xv.) 
 
 See Tissot, "Vie de Zimmermann," 1797; Wichmann, "Zim- 
 mermann," (in German,) 1796; Marcard, " Biographie des J. C 
 von Zimmermann," 1796; " Zimmermanns eigene Lebensbeschrei- 
 bung," { autobiographic, ) 1791 ; Sainte-Bhuve, "Causeries du 
 Lnndi ;" " Nouvelle Biograpbie Gene'rale." 
 
 Zim'rx, [Heb. '131,] King of Israel, assassinated King 
 Elah, and usurped the throne, in 929 is.c. He was at- 
 tacked by Omri, and, unable to resist him, committed 
 suicide in the same year. 
 
 See I. Kings xvl 16. 
 
 Zincgreff. See Zinkgref. 
 
 Zincke, tslnk'keh, (Christian Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man painter in enamel, born at Dresden about 1684. 
 He resided many years in England, where he obtained 
 the patronage of the royal family. Died in 1767. 
 
 Zingarelli, dzen-ga-rel'lee, (Niccoi.6,) an eminent 
 Italian composer, born at Naples in 1752. He studied 
 at the Conservatory of Loretto, and in i3o6 succeeded 
 Guglielmi as chapel-master of the Vatican at Rome. 
 He was successively appointed by Napoleon director 
 of the Conservatory at Rome, chapel-master of Saint 
 Peter's, and director of the new Conservatory at Naples. 
 He produced a number of operas, which enjoyed a tem- 
 porary popularity; but his reputation rests principally 
 on his sacred music, including the grand oratorios of 
 " LaGerusalemme liberata" and "Il'T'iionfo di Davide." 
 Died in 1837. 
 
 See R. Guarini, "Cenni storici di N. Zingarelli," 1S37; Mar- 
 chess di Villakosa, " Elogio storico di N. Zingarelli," 1837. 
 
 Zingaro, II. See Sulario, da. 
 
 Zingg, tsing or tsink, (Adrian,) a Swiss engraver 
 and designer, bom at Saint Gall in 1734, studied under 
 Aberli and Wille. He was appointed in 1766 professor 
 of engraving in the Academy of Arts, Dresden. Among 
 his master-pieces are prints after Ruysdael, Dietrich, 
 and Van der Neer. Died in 1816. 
 
 Zingis. See Jengis Khan. 
 
 Zini, dzee'nee, (Pietko Francesco,) an Italian Hel- 
 lenist, born at Verona about 1520, translated into Latin 
 the works of several Greek Fathers. Died after 1575. 
 
 Zink, von, fon ts!nk, (Friedrich,) Baron, a German 
 poet, born in Thuringia in 1753. He .wrote a number 
 of short poems, which are highly commended. He lived 
 at Emmendingen. Died in 1802. 
 
 Zinkeisen, tsink'I'zen, (Johann Wii.hklm,) a Ger- 
 man historian, born at Altenburg in 1803. He edited 
 at Berlin the "Official Gazette" (" Staats-Zeitung") 
 from 1840 to 1851. He published, besides other works, 
 a " History of the Ottoman Empire in Europe," (7 vols., 
 1840-62,) and a " History of the Greek Revolution," (2 
 vols., 1840.) Died in 1863. 
 
 Zinken, tslnk'en, (Georg Heinrich,) a German 
 financier and writer, born near Naumburg in 1692. He 
 published, besides other works on political economy 
 and finance, " Cameralistenbibliothek," (1751.) Died 
 in 1769. 
 
 Zinkgref or Zincgreff, tsink'greT, (Julius Wil- 
 helm,) a German lyric poet, born at Heidelberg in 1591. 
 His principal work is "Deutschen Apophthegmata," 
 (2 vols., 1626-31,) a collection of epigrams, anecdotes, 
 etc. Died in 1635. 
 
 Ziiin, tsin, (Johann Gottfried,) a German physician 
 and anatomist, born near Anspach in 1727. He became 
 professor of medicine at Gottingen in 1753, and wrote 
 several able treatises on anatomy. Died in 1759. 
 
 Zin'zen-dorf, von, [Ger. pron. fon tsint'sen-doRP,] 
 (Nicolaus Ludwig,) Count, a German theologian, dis- 
 tinguished as the founder or restorer of the sect of Mora- 
 vians or Herrnhuters, was born at Dresden on the 26th 
 
 « as h; c as s; g hard; g as/'; G, h> v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. (J^r - See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ZINZENDORF 
 
 2320 
 
 ZOBEL 
 
 of May, 1700. He was a son of Georg Ludwig, cham- 
 berlain and minister of Augustus, Elector of Saxony, 
 who died while this son was an infant. He was educated 
 under the care of his grandmother, the Haroness von 
 Gersdorf, a friend of Jakob Spener. In 1710 he was 
 sent to the Seminary of Halle, where he became a pupil 
 of Francke and a convert to pietism. He devoted him- 
 self to religious studies and duties, and formed at Halle 
 a mystical society called the " Order of the Grain of 
 Mustard." About 1716 he removed from Halle to the 
 University of Wittenberg, where he studied law and 
 remained three years. He had received from nature a 
 lively imagination, the faculty of eloquence, and great 
 personal beauty and dignity. His religious tenets were 
 similar to those of the Lutherans. 
 
 In 1719 he travelled in Holland and France, to obtain 
 reformation about the state of the churches, and perhaps 
 to exchange ideas with persons eminent for piety. During 
 this tour he preached at various places, and was in the 
 habit of advocating the truths of the gospel in private 
 houses and in worldly society. He would have entered 
 into holy orders if his relatives had not interposed. In 
 1722 he married the countess Erdmuth Dorothea Reuss, 
 and went to reside at Bertholdsdorf, in Lusatia. A few 
 members of the Moravian Church, driven by persecution 
 from their native country, sought refuge with him in 1 722, 
 and were permitted to form a settlement on his estate. 
 This settlement received the name of Herrnhut, the 
 " Lord's guard," or the " Watch of the Lord," and was 
 joined by many other emigrants. Zinzendorf entered 
 into fellowship with them, became their patron, and 
 acquired great influence over them. They professed a 
 conformity to the doctrines of the Lutheran Church. 
 To propagate his principles, he published a religious 
 periodical, called the " German Socrates," and numerous 
 other works. Missionaries were sent out from Herrnhut 
 to America in 1732, and colonies were planted in various 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 "Although his own conduct," says Southey, "was 
 more uniformly discreet than that of any other founder 
 of a Christian community, (it would be wronging the 
 Moravian Brethren to designate them as a sect,) he was 
 involved in difficulties by the indiscretion of others and 
 the jealousy of the government under which he lived. 
 He was therefore ordered to sell his estates, and after- 
 wards banished." (" Life of John Wesley," vol. i.) About 
 1734 he became a tutor in a family at Stralsund, that 
 he might pass through the regular examination as a 
 candidate in divinity, and was ordained at Tubingen as 
 a minister of the Lutheran Church. He was banished 
 from Saxony in 1736, after which he travelled exten- 
 sively. He gained the favour of Frederick William I. 
 of Prussia, who caused him to be ordained a bishop in 
 '737 l'y his owtv chaplain. In 1738 he met John Wesley 
 in Germany. "They parted," says Southey, "with a 
 less favourable opinion of each other than each had 
 entertained before the meeting." 
 
 Zinzendorf visited Pennsylvania in 1742, preached for 
 some time at Germantown, and established congrega- 
 tions of his disciples at Bethlehem and Nazareth. He 
 returned to Europe in 1743, and was permitted in 1747 
 to become a resident of Herrnhut. In 1749 he visited 
 England, and obtained an act of Parliament authorizing 
 the establishment of Moravian missions in North Amer- 
 ica. He wrote numerous hymns, which are used in the 
 Moravian churches. In his early writings he gave offence 
 by expressions which seemed to border on indecency, 
 and which he afterwards condemned. On this subject 
 Southey remarks, " Seeing the offensiveness, if not the 
 danger, of the loathsome and impious extravagances 
 into which they had been betrayed, they corrected their 
 books and their language ; and from that time they have 
 continued to live without reproach." 
 
 "The Moravian doctrine," says Goethe, "had some- 
 thing magical, in that it appeared to continue, or rather 
 to perpetuate, the condition of those first times, [i.e. the 
 apostolic times. 1 It connected its origin with them, and 
 had never perished, but had only wound its way through 
 the world by unnoticed shoots and tendrils, until a single 
 germ took root under the protection of a pious and 
 eminent man, once more to expand wide over the world." 
 
 (" Autobiography," book xv.) Zinzendorf died at Herrn- 
 hut in May, 1760. Among his works is an account of his 
 early travels, entitled " The Journey of Atticus through 
 the World." He had several children. 
 
 See Varnhagen von Ense, " Leben des Grafen von Zinzendorf," 
 in his " Denkmale," vol. v. : Spangenrerg, " Leben des Grafen von 
 Zinzendorf," 1775 ; (S.Jackson's English version of the same," 183S ;) 
 J. G. MOl.LER, Leben des N. von Zinzendorf ;" Verbbck, " Leben 
 des Grafen von Zinzendorf," 1845 ; F. Bovet, " Le Comte de Zinzen- 
 dorf," 1865. 
 
 Zinzendorf, von, (Philipp Ludwig,) Count, an 
 Austrian diplomatist and minister of state, born in 1671. 
 He obtained the title of first chancellor of the court 
 in 1705, and represented Austria at the conference of 
 Utrecht, (1712.) A few years later he succeeded Prince 
 Eugene as chief minister. He is said to have been re- 
 sponsible for the war against France and the quadruple 
 alliance. He resigned in 1740, and died in 1742. 
 
 His son, of the same name, born in Paris in 1699, be- 
 came a cardinal in 1727, and Bishop of Breslau in 1732. 
 Died in 1747. 
 
 Zinzerling, tsInt'seR-ling', (Johann,) [called in Latin 
 Jodo'cus Since'rus,] a German philologist, born in 
 Thuringia about 1590. He settled at Lyons, and pub- 
 lished, besides other works, " A Guide to Travellers 
 in Fiance," ("Itinerarium Galliae," 1612.) Died about 
 1618. 
 
 Zirardini, dze-raR-dee'nee, (Antonio,) an Italian 
 jurist, born at Ravenna in 1725 ; died in 1784. 
 
 Ziska, zls'ki, or Zizka of Trocznow, (tRotch'nov,) 
 (John,) a famous Bohemian general and leader of the 
 Hussites, was born near Trocznow about 1360, (or, as 
 some say, about 1380.) He fought in the Polish army 
 against the Teutonic knights, and against the Turks 
 in Hungary. Having entered the English service, he 
 greatly distinguished "himself at the battle of Agincourt, 
 in 141 5. Soon after this event he was appointed cham- 
 berlain to Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia. Ziska was a 
 disciple of John Huss, who was burned at the stake at 
 Constance in 141 5. He urged the king to revenge " the 
 bloody affront that the Bohemians had suffered at Con- 
 stance," and is said to have received permission from 
 Wenceslaus to vindicate the rights of the Hussites by 
 arms. Ziska raised an army in 1419, and took the chief 
 command. Just after the war began, Wenceslaus died, 
 and the throne was claimed by Sigismund, Emperor 
 of Germany; but the Hussites refused to recognize him. 
 In August, 1420, Ziska defeated the Imperial army near 
 Prague. In 1421 he lost his only remaining eye at a 
 siege ; but he continued to command the army in person. 
 Sigismund raised a new army, and invaded Bohemia, 
 but was routed by the Hussites in Jannary, 1422. Ziska 
 also defeated in the same year an army of Saxons, who 
 were allies of Sigismund. He is said to have been vic- 
 torious in thirteen pitched battles. The Hussites having 
 been divided into two parties, Ziska became the leader 
 of that party which was called Taborites. Sigismund 
 at last made overtures for peace, but, before the treaty 
 was concluded, Ziska died, in October, 1424, after which 
 the war was continued for many years. He left a high 
 reputation as a patriot and champion of liberty and 
 equality. 
 
 See G. Gilpin, "Life of J. Ziska," in "The Lives of John 
 Wickliffe and the Most Eminent of his Disciples," etc., 1764; 
 Lenpant, " Histoire de )a Guerre des Hussites:" Palacky, 
 " History of Bohemia ;" Arnold, " History of the Hussites." (in 
 Bohemian,) 1S4S; M \ ;or General J. Mitchell, "Biographies of 
 Eminent Soldiers of the Last Four Centuries," 1865. 
 
 Zizim. See Jem. 
 
 Zizka. See Ziska. 
 
 Zobaidah or Zobaydah. See Zobeidah 
 
 Zobeidah, zo-ba'dah or zo-bi'dah, written also Zo- 
 beydah, Zobaidah, and Zobaydah, [Fr. Zopeidf,, 
 zo'ba'ed',1 a celebrated Persian princess, distinguished 
 by her wisdom, virtue, and beneficence, born about 765 
 A.rx, was the cousin-german and wife of Haroun-al- 
 Raschid. She had a son Ameen, (Amin,) who became 
 caliph. After the death of Haroun-al-Raschid she resided 
 at Bagdad. Died in 831 A.D. 
 
 Zobeide. See Zoheidah. 
 
 Zobel, tso'bel, (Benjamin,) a German artist, born at 
 Memmingen, in Bavaria, in 1762, resided many vears in 
 England, where he was patronized by George III. He 
 
 a, e, T, 6, u, v, long; a, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; nftt; go6d; moon, 
 
ZOBEYDAH 
 
 252! 
 
 ZOO IS K I 
 
 was distinguished for his skill in painting on gold and 
 silver grounds, and was the inventor of a method of 
 painting called marmotinto. Died in 1831. 
 
 Zobeydah. See Zobeidah. 
 
 Zoboli, dzo'bo-Iee, (Alfonso,) an Italian astronomer, 
 born at Reggio in the sixteenth century ; died about 
 1640. 
 
 Zoccoli, dzok'ko-lee, (Carlo,) an Italian architect, 
 born at Naples in 1718 ; died in 1 77 1. 
 
 Zo'e [Gr. Zuy] I., called Carronopstna, Empress of 
 the East, was the wife of Leo VI., whom she survived. 
 She hadason, Constantine VII., (Porphyrogenitus.) She 
 died about 919 A.D. 
 
 Zoe IX, Empress of the East, a daughter of Constan- 
 tine IX., was married to Romanus Argyrus, who became 
 emperor in 1028. She caused him to be murdered in 
 1034, and took in his place Michael IV. After his 
 death, in 1041, she was married twice,— to Michael V. 
 and Constantine X. Died in 1050. 
 
 Zoega, tso-a'gl, (Gkorg,) an eminent Danish archae- 
 ologist, of Italian extraction, was born in the county 
 of Schackenburg, Jutland, in 1755. He studied at G6t- 
 tingen, and in 1776 made the tour of Switzerland and 
 Italy. In 1782 he made his third visit to Rome, where 
 he continued to reside for the greater part of his life. 
 He was patronized by Pope Pius VI. and Cardinal 
 Borgia, and was appointed, through the mfluence 
 of the latter, interpreter of modern languages to the 
 Propaganda College. He published in 1787 his "Numi 
 /Egyptii Iniperatorii prostatites in Museo Borgiano 
 Velitris," etc., being a catalogue of the Egyptian coins 
 struck by the Roman emperors, contained in the Borgian 
 Museum. This work was received with great favour, 
 and was followed by his treatise on obelisks, entitled 
 " De Origine et Usu Obeliscorum," (1797,) which is 
 esteemed one of the most valuable productions of the 
 kind. Besides the above works, he published a cata- 
 logue of the Coptic manuscripts in the library of Car- 
 dinal Borgia, ("Catalogus Codicum Copticorum," etc.,) 
 and an account of the antique bas-reliefs at Rome, 
 entitled "Bassi-Rilievi antichi di Roma," (2 vols., 1808.) 
 The latter, written conjointly with Piranesi, was left 
 unfinished. Zoega was appointed in 1802 professor in 
 the University of Kiel ; but he was exempted from the 
 duties of the office, and permitted to remain at Rome, 
 where he died in 1809. 
 
 See Wktxkkk. "Zoetra's Leben, Sammlimg seiner Briefe," etc., 
 3 vols., 1819; " Nouvelle Biographie Ge^ierale." 
 
 Zoellner. See Zoli.nfr. 
 
 Zoes, zoos, [Lat. Zoe'sius,] (Henry,) a Flemish jurist, 
 born at Amersfort in 1571. He became professor of law 
 at Louvain about 1607, and wrote several works on law. 
 Died in 1627. 
 
 Zoest. See Sost. 
 
 Zoffani or Zoffany, zof'fa-ne or tsof fa-nee, (Johann,) 
 a German painter, born in 1735, settled in England; where 
 he acquired the friendship of Sir Joshua Reynolds and 
 was patronized by the royal family. He became one of the 
 first members of the Royal Academy in 1768. Among 
 his principal works are an "Indian Tiger-Hunt" and 
 " The Embassy of Hyder Alee to Calcutta." Died in 
 1810. 
 
 See Pilkington, *' Dictionary of Painters." 
 
 Zogoskin or Zagoskin, zl-gos'ken or zo-gos'kin, 
 (Mikhail Nikolaivitch,) written also Zogoskine, 
 a Russian novelist and dramatic writer, of Tartar ex- 
 traction, was born in the government of Penza in 1789. 
 Having published several popular comedies, he brought 
 out in 1829 his romance entitled "George Miloslavsky, 
 or the Russians in 1612," which met with enthusiastic 
 favour from all classes in Russia, as a faithful picture 
 of the national character and manners. Besides the 
 above, he wrote several other novels, and a number of 
 prose essays. Died in 1852. 
 
 See " ForeiRn Quarterly Review" for April, 1833. 
 
 Zo'gra-phos, (Const an i inf..) a Greek orator and 
 politician, born in the Morea about 1798. He became the 
 head of the ministry in 1837, and ambassador to Saint 
 Petersburg in 1850. Died in 1856. 
 
 Zoheir, zo'hSr', an Arabian poet, contemporary with 
 Mohammed. He was the author of one of the seven poems 
 
 of the " Moallakat," which Sir W. Jones published, with 
 an English version, in 1782. He was the father of the 
 poet Kaab. 
 
 Zoile. See Zon.us. 
 
 Zol-Ius, [Gr. ZuZaoc; Fr. Zoile, zo'el',] a Greek 
 critic and grammarian of uncertain period. According 
 to Vitruvius, he was a contemporary of Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphia, (285-247 B.C. ;) others think that he flourished 
 about 360-330 B.C. He was notorious for the malignity 
 of his criticism of Homer, whom he censured for intro- 
 ducing fabulous and incredible stories into his poems. 
 
 Zoilua, a Greek physician and oculist, mentioned by 
 Galen. 
 
 Zola, dzo'll, (Giuseppe,) an Italian theologian, born 
 near Brescia in 1739. He was professor of history at 
 Pavla, and favoured the reforms of the emperor Joseph 
 II. Died in 1806. 
 
 Zolkiewski, zol-ke-ev'skee, (Stanislas,) a Polish 
 general, born in 1547. He became general-in-chief of 
 the army of Sigismund HI. about 1609. He invaded 
 Russia and captured Moscow in 1610. In 1620 he 
 conducted an army against the Turks. Having been 
 deserted by some mutinous officers and men, he was 
 overpowered by the Turks and killed the same year. 
 
 Zoll, tsol, (Hermann,) a German jurist, born in 1643. 
 He became professor of law at Marburg in 1674, and 
 published a number of able legal works. Died in 1725. 
 
 Zol'll-coffer or Zollikoffer, (Felix,) an American 
 general, born in Maury county, Tennessee, in 1812. He 
 became editor of the " Nashville Banner," a Whig paper, 
 and was elected to Congress in 1852. Having taken 
 arms against the Union, he commanded the force which 
 was defeated at Mill Spring, where he was killed on the 
 19th of January, 1862. 
 
 Zollikofer, tsol'le-ko'fer, (Georg Joachim,) an emi- 
 nent Swiss theologian and pulpit orator, born at Saint 
 Gall in 1730. He finished his studies at Utrecht, and 
 in 1758 became pastor of the Calvinistic congregation at 
 Leipsic, where he exercised a most beneficial influence 
 by his eloquence and the excellence of his character. 
 He was the author of several religious treatises and 
 hvmns of great merit, and numerous sermons, a com- 
 plete collection of which appeared, in 15 vols., in 1789. 
 Died in 1788. 
 
 See Garvb, " Ueber den Charakter Zollikofer's," 17S8: Schrit- 
 LIN, " Ueber G. J. Zollikofer," 1832. 
 
 Zollner or Zoellner, tsol'ner, (Johann Friedrich,) 
 a German writer, born at Neudamm in 1753. He was 
 minister of the church of Saint Nicholas, in Berlin. 
 Died in 1804. 
 
 Zollogoob or Zollogub, zol'Io-goob, written also 
 Sollogub and Zollohub, (Vladimir Alkxandro- 
 vitch,) a popular Russian writer, born at Saint Peters- 
 burg about 1815, published a novel entitled "Tarantas," 
 which has been translated into English and German, 
 also poems, essays, and dramas. 
 
 Zon'a-ras, [Gr. Zuvapuc,] (Joannes,) a Byzantine 
 theologian and historian of the twelfth century, lived 
 under the reign of Alexius Comnenus, by whom he was 
 appointed to several high offices. He was the author 
 of a "Chronicon," or annals from the creation down to 
 1 1 18, which was continued by Nicetas Acominatus, also 
 "Commentaries on the Sacred Canons," etc. 
 
 Zonca, dzon'ka, (Victor,) an Italian mathematician 
 of the seventeenth century, was the author of a work 
 entitled " New Theatre of Machines," giving an account 
 of various mechanical inventions. 
 
 Zoobof or Zoubof, zoo'bof, written also Zoubov 
 and Subow, (Platon,) a Russian courtier, born in 
 1767. He became in 1791 the favourite of the empress 
 Catherine II., who appointed him grand master of the 
 artillery. He was the most powerful Russian subject 
 until the death of Catherine, (1796,) after which he was 
 disgraced. He was one of the conspirators that killed 
 Paul I., in 1801. Died in 1822. 
 
 See " Me*moires secrets sut la Russie," 1800. 
 
 Zooiski, Zuiski, or Zouiski, (pronounced almost 
 zwi-'kee,) (Vasii.II,) a Russian prince and general, was- 
 a descendant of Vladimir the Great. He w.is the head 
 of the government during the minority of Ivan IV., by 
 whose order he was executed in 1544. 
 
 « as i; c as s ; g hard; g asy'; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J3^"See Explanations, p. 2}.) 
 
 I46 
 
ZOO IS XI 
 
 2322 
 
 ZRINYI 
 
 Zooiski, Zuiski, or Zouiski, (Vasilii,) a son of the 
 preceding, distinguished himself by his successful de- 
 fence of Pleskow against the Polish general Zamoyski 
 in 1582. He was murdered by Boris Godoonof in 1587. 
 
 Zopelli, dzo-pel'lee, (Giacomo,) a mediocre Italian 
 poet, born at Venice in 1639; died in 1718. 
 
 Zopf, tsopf, (JoHANN Heinrich,) a German historian, 
 born at Gera in 1691. He published in 1729 a " Uni- 
 versal History." Died in 1774. 
 
 Zopfl, tsopfl, (Heinrich Matthaus,) a German 
 jurist, and professor of civil law at Heidelberg, was born 
 at Bamberg in 1807. He published a number of legal 
 and political works. 
 
 Zoppio, dzop'pe-o, (Giroi.amo,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Bologna in the sixteenth century. He translated 
 the first four books of Virgil's "/Eneid" into verse, and 
 wrote original poems, "Rime," (1567.) Died in 1591. 
 
 His son Mei.chior, born at Bologna about 1544, was 
 professor of philosophy at that city about fifty years. 
 He wrote four tragedies and two comedies. Died in 
 1634. 
 
 Zoppo, dzop'po, (Marco,) an Italian painter, born at 
 Bologna in 1451, was a pupil of Andrea Mantegna. 
 Died in 1517. 
 
 Zoppo, (Paolo,) an Italian painter, noted for the 
 fineness of his touch, was born at Brescia; died in 15 15. 
 
 Zoppo di Lugano. See Discepoli. 
 
 Zopyre. See Zoi'VRUS. 
 
 Zop'y-rus, [Gr. Zuirvpoc ; Fr. Zopyre, zo'peR',] a 
 Persian officer of Darius Hystaspis. When that king was 
 besieging the revolted city of Babylon, Zopyrus gained 
 admission into the city by the following stratagem. He 
 cut off his nose and ears, and presented himself to the 
 enemy as a deserter who wished to revenge the cruel 
 treatment he had received from Darius. His story was 
 credited, and he was appointed commander of the troops 
 in Babylon, which he delivered to Darius. 
 
 Zopyrus, a Greek physician or' surgeon of Alexan- 
 dria, flourished about 100 B.C. or 80 B.C. He invented 
 an antidote for Ptolemy Anletes, and also one for Mith- 
 ridates. Galen mentions a letter from Zopyrus to Mith- 
 ridates on the subject of his antidote. 
 
 Zorgh, zoro, written also Sorgh, (Hendrik,) a 
 Dutch painter of fairs, markets, etc., born at Rotterdam 
 in 1621, was a pupil of Teniers. Died in 1684. 
 
 Zorn, tsoRn, (Peter,) a learned German theologian 
 and philologist, born at Hamburg in 1682. He was well 
 versed in the Greek language and antiquities, on which 
 he wrote several treatises. He often changed his place 
 of residence. From 1715 to 1720 he was rector at PI611. 
 He became professor of history and eloquence at Stettin 
 in 1725. Died at Thorn in 1746. 
 
 Zor-o-as'ter, [Gr. ZupoaarpTjc; Lat. Zoroas'tres ; 
 Persian, Zekdoosht or Zerdusht, zer'doosht ; Fr. 
 Zoroastre, zo'ro'istR',] a Bactrian or Persian philos- 
 opher, celebrated as the founder or reformer of the 
 Magian religion. The time in which he lived is not 
 ascertained. According to the "Zendavesta," (in which 
 his name is written Zarathustra,) he lived in the reign 
 of Vitacpa, whom the Persians call Gushtasp, and 
 whom some writers identify with Hystaspes, the father 
 of Darius I. Firdousee, (Firdausi,) in his great poem 
 the " Shah NSmah," likewise makes him contemporary 
 with Gushtasp. Some authors conjecture that he lived 
 more than 1500 years before the Christian era. The 
 first Greek writer that mentions him is Plato. Ac- 
 cording to Aristotle, Eudoxus, Hermippus, and other 
 ancients, Zoroaster lived 5000 years or more before 
 the time of Plato. Niebuhr regards him as a mythical 
 personage. Tradition presents him in the characters 
 of legislator, prophet, pontiff, and philosopher. The 
 doctrines usually ascribed to him are contained in the 
 "Zend A vesta, which may be termed the Zoroastrian 
 Scriptures. These are written in the language of ancient 
 Persia, and profess to give the revelations made by Or- 
 muzd to his servant and prophet Zarathustra. (Zoroaster.) 
 
 The Zoroastrian system of religion teaches that the 
 world or universe is the scene of a conflict between two 
 principles, — the good, called Ormuzd, and the evil, called 
 Ahriman ; that each of these possesses creative power, 
 but that the good principle is eternal, and will finally 
 
 prevail over Ahriman, who will sink with his followers 
 into darkness, which is their native element. According 
 to some authorities, he also believed in an infinite Deity 
 or Being, called "Time without bounds." His religion 
 gradually degenerated into an idolatrous worship of fire 
 and the sun. (See Ormuzd.) 
 
 See Anquetil-Duperron, "Zendavesta," 3 vols., 1771 ; Hyde, 
 " Veterum Persaruni et Magorum Religionis Historia," 1760; 
 Rhode, " Derheilige Sage der alten Baktren, Meden und Persen ;" 
 De Pastoret, "Zoroastre, Confucius et Mahomet," 1787 ; H. G. 
 Schneider, "De Nomine et Vita Zoroastris," 1708; De Bock, 
 " Me'moires sur Zoroastre et Confucius," 1787 ; H61.TY, "Zoroaster 
 und sein Zeitalter," 1836: Menant, "Zoroastre, Essai sur la Phi- 
 losophic religieuse de la Perse," 1848; Mn.MAN, " History of Chris- 
 tianity;" Rev. J. Wilson, "Religion of the Parsees." See, also, 
 the article on " Zend Avesta," in the " New American Cyclopaedia," 
 by Professor Whitney. 
 
 Zoroaatre or Zoroastres. See Zoroaster. 
 
 Zorobabel. See Zerubbabel. 
 
 Zorrilla y Moral, thor-rel'ya e mo-ral', (Don Jose,) 
 an eminent Spanish poet and dramatist, born at Valla- 
 dolid in 1817. Being destined by his father for the legal 
 profession, he was sent to the Seminario de los Nobles 
 at Madrid in 1827, but, instead of the study of law, he 
 devoted himself to poetry and literary pursuits, and 
 became a contributor to the journal " El Artista." His 
 elegy on the death of the poet Larra(i837) was received 
 with enthusiastic admiration, and raised the highest 
 hopes of his future excellence. In 1841 he published 
 his " Songs of the Troubadour," ("Cantos del Trova- 
 dor,") which were equally successful. His other prin- 
 cipal works are the comedies of "The Shoemaker and 
 the King" (" El Zapatero y el Rev," 1840) and " Don 
 Juan Tenario," a "Collection of Historical Legends and 
 Traditions," (1840,) and " Granada, an Oriental Poem, 
 with the Legend of Al-Hamar," (1853.) 
 
 Zor'tan, (Petratsch,) a Hungarian peasant, born 
 near Temesvar in 1537 ; died in 1724, at the age of one 
 hundred and eighty-five years. 
 
 See Sir John Sinclair, " Code of Health and Longevity," vol 
 ii., Edinburgh, 1807. 
 
 Zorzi, dzoRt'see, [Lat. Geor'gius,] (Alessandro,) an 
 Italian Jesuit and metaphysician, born at Venice in 1747. 
 He published a " Prospectus of a New Italian Ency- 
 clopaedia," (1775,) but only lived long enough to give 
 a small specimen of it. Died in 1779. 
 
 See Vanetti, " Vita Alex. Georgii," 1779. 
 
 Zosime. See Zosimus. 
 
 Zos'I-mus, [Gr. Zwot/zoc; Fr. Zosime, zo'zem',] a 
 Greek historian of the fifth century, lived under Theo- 
 dosius II. He was the author of a "History of the 
 Roman Empire down to 410 A.D.," in six books, all of 
 which is extant. He was a pagan, and is accused of 
 partiality by some orthodox writers. His style is neat 
 and pure. 
 
 Zosimus, a Greek ecclesiastic, succeeded Innocent 
 I. as Bishop of Rome in 417 a.d. He confirmed the 
 sentence of heresy pronounced against the Pelagians, 
 and was the author of letters and controversial treatises. 
 Died in December, 418. 
 
 Zoubof or Zoobov. See Zoobof. 
 
 Zouch, zootch, (Richard,) an English jurist, born in 
 Wiltshire about 1590, became regius professor of law at 
 Oxford in 1620. He afterwards rose through several 
 offices to be judge of the high court of admiralty. He 
 was the author of a number of legal works, in Latin. 
 Died about 1660. 
 
 Zouch, (Thomas,) an English divine and writer, born 
 in Yorkshire in 1737, became rector of Scrayingham 
 in 1793, and subsequently a prebendary of Durham. 
 He published "An Attempt to illustrate some of the 
 Prophecies of the Old and New Testament," (1800,) 
 " Memoir of the Life and Writings of Sir Philip Sid- 
 ney," (1808,) and other works. Died in 1815. 
 
 Zouiski. See Zooiski. 
 
 Zoust. See SSst. 
 
 Zrinyi, zRen'yee, written also Zriny, (Nicholas,) a 
 celebrated Hungarian general, born in 1518, was Ban 
 of Croatia, which he defended twelve years against the 
 Turks. In 1566 he was besieged in the town of Szigeth 
 by Solyman the Magnificent, at the head of 65,000 men, 
 while his own forces were but 3000. After a resistance 
 of a month, the city was taken, and Zrinyi, with his few 
 
 a, e, I, o, ii, y, long; 4, 4, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, ii, J?, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fall, fit; met; not; good; moon; 
 
ZRINTI 
 
 *3*3 
 
 ZUMBO 
 
 remaining followers, defended themselves for a time in 
 the citadel, and, in the final assault, rushed forth and 
 fell fighting. His heroic achievements have been immor- 
 talized in one of Korner's dramas. 
 
 Zrinyi, (Nicholas,) a Hungarian warrior and poet, 
 a great-grandson of the preceding, bom in 1616, became 
 Ban of Croatia, and greatly distinguished himself in war 
 against the Turks. Died in 1664. 
 
 Zachackwitz, tshik'wits, (Jon ANN,) a German jurist, 
 born near Naumburg in 1669, lectured on law at Halle, 
 and wrote on history and public law. Died in 1744. - 
 Zschokke, tshok'keh, (Johann Heinrich Daniel,) 
 a popular German writer, born at Magdeburg on the 22d 
 of March, 1771. He was educated at the University of 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He produced in 1793 a drama 
 called " Aballino the Bandit," which was successful. His 
 next work was "Julius von Sassen," a drama, (1796.) 
 About 1796 he left Frankfort, and travelled through 
 Germany and France. He settled in Switzerland, and 
 took an active part in the political affairs of that country 
 (between 1798 and 1803) as a civil officer of the republic. 
 lie wrote several works on Swiss history, among which 
 is a " History of the Combats and Fall of the Swiss 
 Mountain and Forest-Cantons," (1801.) In 1803 or 
 1804 he was appointed a member of the council of mines 
 and forests. He resided many years at Aarau, whither 
 he removed about 1808. From 1807 to 1813 he edited 
 a popular periodical called " Miscellany of the Most Re- 
 cent Events," ("Miscellen fur die neueste Weltkunde.") 
 He was a prolific writer of novels, tales, poems, and 
 histories. His novels are commended for their good 
 moral tone, and are remarkable for humour. He wrote 
 a "History of Bavaria," (4 vols., 1813-18,) and a "His- 
 tory of Switzerland for the Swiss People," (1822,) which 
 is highly esteemed. Among his most popular works are 
 "Hours of Devotion," ("Stunden der Andacht,") an 
 eloquent exposition of modern rationalism, and "The 
 Goldmaker's Village," a tale. He died in January, 1848. 
 See his autobiography, entitled " Selbstschau," 1841 : E. Frens- 
 dorf, "Notice sur la Vie de Zschokke," 1844; Baer, "Zschokke, 
 sein Leben und sein Werken," 1849: Muench. "Zschokke geschil- 
 dert nach seinen vorziiglichsten Lebensmomenten," 1830; "Foreign 
 Quarterly Review" for April, 1844. 
 
 Zuallart, zii'i'If r', (Jean,) a Belgian traveller, visited 
 the Holy Land in 1586, and published a "Journey to 
 Jerusalem," (1587.) Died after 1632. 
 
 Zuazo, thoo-i'tho, almost th<xVtho, (Alfonso,) a 
 Spanish jurist, born at Olmedo about 1466. He was 
 sent by Cardinal Ximenes to America in 1 5 16 to protect 
 the natives from the cruelty of the Spaniards. He re- 
 ceived from Ximenes full power to govern the colonies, 
 and he used his power in favour of justice and humanity. 
 In 1522 he became Governor of Cuba, where he reformed 
 the courts of justice. Died in Saint Domingo in 1527. 
 Zuber, tsoo'ber, (Matthaus,) a German writer of 
 Latin poetry, born at Neuburg, on the Danube, in 1570. 
 He published " Various Poems," (" Poemata varia," 
 1598,) and " Epigrammata," (1605.) Died in 1623. 
 
 Zuccardi, dzook-kaR'dee, (Ubertino,) an Italian 
 jurist, born at Correggio about 1480; died in 1541. 
 
 Zuccarelli, dzook-ka-rel'lee, or Zuccherelli, dzook- 
 ki-rel'lee, (Francesco,) an Italian landscape-painter, 
 born near Florence in 1702.. He visited England in 
 1752, and became one of the first members of the Royal 
 Academy. After a residence of more than twenty years 
 in England, where he was extensively patronized, he 
 returned to Florence, and died in 1788. 
 
 Zuccarini, tsdok-ki-ree'nee, (Joseph Gerard,) an 
 eminent German botanist, born at Munich in 1798. He 
 was professor of botany at that city, and described the 
 plants collected by Siebold, in the " Flora Japonica," 
 (1835.) Among his works is "Instruction in Botany," 
 (1834.) Died in 1848. 
 
 Zuccaro, dzook'kl-ro, or Zucchero, dzook'ki-ro, 
 (Federigo,) an Italian painter, born at Sant' Angelo, in 
 the duchy of Urbino, in 1543. He was instructed by his 
 elder brother Taddeo, several of whose unfinished pic- 
 tures he completed. Having executed some important 
 works at Florence and Rome, he visited the Netherlands 
 and England, where he painted portraits of Queen Eliza- 
 beth, \fary Queen of Scots, Sir Francis Walsingham, 
 and other eminent persons. After his return to Rome 
 
 he completed the frescos of the Pauline Chapel, in the 
 Vatican, which he had previously begun at the request 
 of Gregory XIII. On the invitation of Philip II., he 
 repaired to Spain about 1585, and was employed to paint 
 the Escurial. In 1595 he became the founder and the 
 first president of the Academy of Saint Luke, at Rome. 
 He was also skilled in sculpture and architecture, and 
 published a work entitled " L'Idea de' Pittori, Scultori 
 ed Architetti." Zuccaro was one of the most admired 
 artists of his time ; but later critics have not assigned 
 him so high a rank. Died in 1609. 
 
 See Walfole, " Anecdotes of Painting ;" Vasari, " Lives of the 
 Painters." 
 
 Zuccaro, (Mario,) an Italian medical writer, born 
 in the sixteenth century at Naples, where he became 
 professor of medicine.- Died in 1634. 
 
 Zuccaro, (Taddeo,) a brother of Federigo, noticed 
 above, was born in 1529. At an early age he visited 
 Rome, where he lived for a time in great destitution and 
 was employed as a colour-grinder. He was afterwards 
 patronized by the popes Julius III. and Paul IV., and 
 Cardinal Alexander Farnese, for whom he painted a 
 series of frescos in the palace at Caprarola, illustrating 
 the glories of the Farnese family, since engraved by 
 Prenner. Died in 1566. 
 
 See Vasari, " Lives of the Painters." 
 
 Zucchelli, dzook-kel'lee, (Antonio,) of Gradisca, a 
 Capuchin monk, who went as a missionary to Congo in 
 1697. In 1712 he published an interesting "Account of 
 his Travels, with a Description of Angola and Congo." 
 Zuccherelli. See Zuccarelli. 
 Zucchero. See Zuccaro, (Federigo.) 
 Zucchi, dzook'kee, (Antonio,) a Venetian painter, 
 born in 1726, resided several years in England, where 
 he executed a number of frescos, and became an asso- 
 ciate of the Royal Academy. Died at Rome in 1795. 
 
 Zucchi, (Bartolommeo,) an Italian writer, born at 
 Monza about 1560, became a priest. He wrote several 
 biographies and historical works. Died in 163 1. 
 
 Zucchi, (Giacomo,) an Italian painter, born at Flor- 
 ence, was a pupil of Vasari. He went to Rome about 
 1572, and worked there with success. Died about 1590. 
 Zucchi, (Marco Antonio,) a famous Italian im- 
 provisatore, born at Verona. He ' composed verses 
 extempore in public. Died in 1764. 
 
 Zuccolo, dzook'ko-lo, (Luigi,) an Italian writer, 
 born at Faenza about 1570. He published several works 
 on moral philosophy and other subjects. 
 
 Zuccolo, (Luigi,) an Italian jurist, born in 1599. 
 He wrote " De Ratione Status," (1663.) Died in 1668. 
 
 Zucconi, dzook-ko'nee, (Giuseppe,) an Italian poet 
 and bibliographer, born at Venice in 1721, was appointed 
 censor of books. He died prematurely in 1754. 
 
 Zuckert, tsook'keRt, (Johann Friedrich,) a Ger- 
 man medical writer, born at Berlin in 1737. He wrote 
 several works on diet and regimen, which are com- 
 mended. Died in 1778. 
 Zuiohem or Zuichemus, (Viglius.) See Ayta. 
 Zuingli. See Zwingle. 
 Zuinglius. See Zwingle. 
 
 Zumala-Carreguy, thoo-ma'li kir-ra'gee, (Don To- 
 mas,) a celebrated Spanish commander in the service 
 of Don Carlos, was born near Villareal in 1788. He 
 served under General Mina in 1813, and attained the 
 rank of colonel in 1825, being appointed at the same 
 time governor of Ferrol. After the death of Ferdinand 
 VII. he became leader of a band of insurgents in the 
 Basque provinces, with whom he defeated General Rodil 
 in the valley of Amescoas in 1834, which was followed 
 by several other signal victories over the forces of Queen 
 Christina. He was mortally wounded while preparing 
 to besiege Bilbao, in 1835. 
 
 See Henningsen, "Twelve Months of Campaign with Zumala- 
 Carreguy." 2 vols., 1836; Madrazo, " Historia mililar y politica de 
 Zunialacarreguy," 1844; "Foreign Quarterly Review" for July, 
 1837 : " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1845, and July, 1846. 
 
 Zumbo, dzoom'bo, or Zummo, dzoom'mo, (Gae- 
 tano Giulio,) a Sicilian artist, born at Syracuse in 
 1656, was celebrated as a modeller of figures in coloured 
 wax. He was a skilful anatomist, and his anatomical 
 preparations in wax were greatly admired. Died in 1701. 
 
 < a* *; 9 as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural '; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as z; th as in this. (J^~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
ZUMPT 
 
 2324 
 
 ZWINGLE 
 
 Zumpt, tsoompt, (August Wilhei.m,) nephew of Karl 
 Gottlob, noticed below, was born at Konigsberg in 1815. 
 He published, among other works, " Commentationes 
 epigraphies ad Antiquitates Romanas pertinentes," (2 
 vols., 1850-54.) 
 
 Zumpt, (Kari. Gottlob,) a German scholar, born at 
 Berlin in 1792. He studied at Heidelberg under Creu* 
 zer, and in 1828 became professor of Roman literature 
 in the University of Berlin. His "Latin Grammar," 
 published in 1S18, enjoys a very high reputation, and 
 has been translated into English. He was also the 
 author of several valuable essays on Roman customs 
 and antiquities, among which we may name "On the 
 Architecture of the Roman Dwelling-House," (1844,) 
 and "On the Religion of the Romans," (1845) He 
 likewise prepared editions of Quijitilian's " Institutiones 
 Oratorias," and other Latin classics. Died in 1849. 
 
 Zumsteeg, tsoom'stao, (Johann Rudolf,) a German 
 composer, born in 1760. His songs and ballads are 
 particularly admired. He was an intimate friend of 
 Schiller, several of whose lyrics he set to music. Died 
 in 1802. 
 
 Ztiiiiga, de, di thoon-ye'ga, (Don Diego Ortiz,) a 
 Spanish historian, born at Seville. He wrote a " His- 
 tory of Seville," (1677.) Died in 1680. 
 
 Zunz, tsoonts, (Leopold,) a learned German Jew, 
 born at Detmold in 1794, became principal of the Jewish 
 Seminary at Berlin. He published "The Synagogal 
 Poetry of the Middle Ages," and other works. 
 
 Zurbano, thooR-ba'no, (Martin,) a Spanish general, 
 born about 1780, served in the army of Queen Christina, 
 and, when she was compelled to leave Spain, attached 
 himself to Espartero. He was betrayed into the hands 
 of the enemy in 1845, and shot. 
 
 Zurbaran, thooR-ba-ran', (Francisco,) an eminent 
 Spanish painter, born in Estremadura in 1598. He 
 studied under Juan de Roelas at Seville, where he 
 produced a great number of his best works. Among 
 these may be named his "Saint Thomas Aquinas," an 
 altar-piece in the church of the College of Saint Thomas 
 Aquinas, esteemed one of the most admirable pictures 
 ever executed in Spain, and the altar-pieces in the 
 churches of San Lorenzo and Sant' Antonio Abad. A 
 few of his works are to be seen in the galleries of Paris, 
 Berlin, and Dresden ; and at Munich, a "Virgin and 
 Saint John returning from the Sepulchre of Christ." 
 Zurbaran received the title of painter to King Philip HI., 
 and was patronized by his successor, Philip IV. He is 
 sometimes called "the Spanish Caravaggio," from the 
 resemblance of his style to that of the Italian master ; 
 but he is thought in some respects to have surpassed 
 him. He was remarkable for his fidelity to nature, 
 richness of colouring, chiaroscuro, and exquisite repre- 
 sentation of velvets, brocades, and white draperies. 
 The Spanish friar was a favourite subject, in the treat- 
 ment of which he was eminently successful. Died in 1662. 
 
 Zurita, thoo-ree'ta, (GeroNIMO,) a Spanish historian, 
 born at Saragossa in 1512. He studied at Alcala, and 
 rose through several important offices to be a member 
 of the supreme council of Castile, in 1543. He was 
 afterwards sent on an embassy to Germany, and in 1549 
 appointed historiographer of the kingdom. His prin- 
 cipal work, entitled " Annals of the Crown of Aragon," 
 (" Anales de la Corona de Aragon," 4 vols., 1580,) 
 enjoys a high reputation. His candour and impartiality 
 are praised by Prescott in his " History of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella," (vol. ii. part ii.) Died in 1581. 
 
 Zurla, dzooR'li, (Placido,) a learned Italian cardinal, 
 born in the Venetian States in 1769, became vicar-general 
 to Pope Leo XII. He published a treatise "On Marco 
 Polo and other Venetian Travellers," and " On the 
 Voyages and Discoveries of Cadamosto." Died in 1834. 
 
 Zurlauben, ziiu'lo'boN' or tsooR'low'ben, (Beat 
 Jacques,) a Swiss general in the service of France, com- 
 manded a brigade at Steenkerke, (1692,) and at Neerwin- 
 den. He died of wounds received at Blenheim, in 1704. 
 
 Zurlauben, de, deli zuK'lo'b&N', (Beat Fidele An- 
 toine Jean Dominique,) Baron de la Tour-Chitillon, 
 a Swiss general and writer, born at Zug in 1720, served 
 in the French army many years. He wrote, besides 
 many historical and antiquarian treatises, "A Military 
 
 History of the Swiss in the French Service," (8 
 vols., 1751-53,) and a "Description of Switzerland," 
 ("Tableaux topographiques, pittoresques, physiques," 
 etc., 4 vols., 1780-86.) Died in 1795. 
 
 Zurlo, dzooR'lo, (Giuseppe,) Count, an able Italian 
 minister of state, born at Naples in 1759. He became 
 minister of finance in 1798. He followed the court tp 
 Palermo in 1806, when the French regime was es- 
 tablished at Naples; but he returned in 1S09, and was 
 appointed minister of justice and of the interior by 
 Murat. He reformed the administration, and protected 
 learning, commerce, and agriculture. In 1815 he retired 
 from office. Died in 1828. 
 
 Zuruer, tsdoR'ner, (Adam Friedrich,) a German 
 geographer, born near Oelsnitz about 16S0, produced 
 several maps of Saxony and other parts of Germany, 
 Died in 1742. 
 
 Zuylichem. See Huygens. 
 
 Zuzzeri, dzoot-sa'ree, (Giovanni Luca,) an Italian 
 antiquary and numismatist, born at Ragusa in 1716 ; 
 died at Rome in 1746. 
 
 Zwanziger, tswan'siG-er, (Joseph Christian,) a 
 German writer, born in Hungary in 1732. He was 
 professor of philosophy at Leipsic, and wrote against 
 the philosophy of Kant. Died in 1808. 
 
 Zweers," zwairs, (Philip,) a Dutch poet, lived at 
 Amsterdam. He wrote " Semiramis," a tragedy, and 
 other poems, which were admired. Died in 1774 
 
 Zwelfer, tsw£l'fer, (Johann,) a German chemist and 
 physician, born in the Palatinate in 1618. He practised 
 in Vienna, and wrote several works. Died in 1668. 
 
 Zwicker, tswlk'ker, (Daniel,) a German religionist, 
 born at Dantzic in 161 2. He was once a Socinian, and 
 afterwards an Arminian. He wrote, besides other works, 
 "Irenicon Irenicorum," (1658,) the aim of which was to 
 promote union among Christian sects. Died in 1678. 
 
 Zwinger, tswlnc'er, (Jakob,) a Swiss physician and 
 philologist, born at Bile in 1569, was a son of Theodore, 
 He became professor of Greek at Bale, and wrote a 
 "Life of Lucian," (1602,) and "Examination of Chemi- 
 cal Principles," (" Principiorum Chymicorum Examen," 
 1606.) Died in 1610. 
 
 Zwinger, [Lat. Zwinge'rus,] (Johann Rudolph,) 
 a Swiss physician, born at Bale in 1692, was a son of 
 Theodore the Younger. He was professor of medicine 
 at Bale for fifty-two years. Among his pupils was the 
 famous Haller. Died in 1777. 
 
 See Buxtorf, " Vita J. R. Zwingeri," 1778. 
 
 Zwinger, [Lat. Zwinge'rus,] (Theodore,) the 
 Elder, an eminent Swiss physician and scholar, born 
 at K.ile in 1533, was the father of Jakob. He studied 
 at Paris and Padua. In 1565 he obtained the chair of 
 Greek at Bile. He published, besides other works, 
 a collection of anecdotes, etc., entitled "Theatre of 
 Human Life," ("Theatrum Vita? humanae," 1565,) and 
 "On the Rural or Agricultural Method of Cato and 
 Varro," (" Methodus Rustica Catonis et Varronis," 
 1576.) Died at Bale in 1588. 
 
 See a " Life of Zwinger" in " Athenae Rauricae." 
 
 Zwinger, (Theodore,) a grandson of the preceding, 
 born at Bile in 1597, was a son of Jakob., He became 
 first pastor and superintendent of the churches of Bile 
 in 1630. He was also professor of divinity in that city 
 for twenty-four years. Died in 1654. 
 
 Zwinger, (Theodore,) a Swiss physician and bot- 
 anist, born at Bile in 1658, was a grandson of the pre- 
 ceding. He was a son of Johann Zwinger, (1634-96,) 
 professor of Greek and theology at Bile. He became 
 in 1687 professor of physics in his native city, where he 
 also gained a high reputation as a practitioner of medi- 
 cine. In 1703 he exchanged the chair of physics for 
 that of anatomy. He wrote several works on medicine 
 and botany. Died in 1724. 
 
 See "Athens Raurica:." 
 
 Zwingerus. See Zwinger. 
 
 Zwingle, zwlng'g'l, Zwingli, or Zuingli, zwlng'- 
 glee, I Lat. Zwin'gi.ius or Zuin'glius; Fr. Zwingle, 
 zvaNg'l ;Ger. Ui.RiCHor Hui.dreich Zwingli, hoolt'nK 
 tswing'lee,] a Swiss Reformer of great eminence, was 
 born at Wildhaus, in the canton or valley of Toggen- 
 
 a, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, Q, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; met; n5t; gr"od; moon; 
 
ZW INGLE 
 
 2325 
 
 zype 
 
 burg, on the 1st of January, 1484. He was liberally 
 educated at BSle and Vienna, at the former of which 
 places he studied theology under Thomas Wyttenbach. 
 He was a diligent reader of Plato, Aristotle, Horace, 
 and Seneca. In 1506 he took the degree of M.A. at 
 Bale, and was appointed priest of Glarus. About this 
 time he acquired a profound knowledge of the original 
 text of the New Testament, and began to test the sound- 
 ness of the doctrines of the Roman Church by the 
 standard of the gospel. "The Holy Scriptures," says 
 Hottinger, "had been his daily and nightly study, and 
 he knew the greater part of them literally by heart." 
 He performed a journey to Bile to become personally 
 acquainted with Erasmus, whose writings he admired. 
 He served as chaplain to a body of Swiss troops em- 
 ployed in Lombardy in 1515, and witnessed the great 
 battle of Marignano. He afterwards raised his voice to 
 dissuade the Swiss from the practice of enlisting as 
 mercenaries in foreign armies. 
 
 In 1 5 16 he removed from Glarus to Einsiedeln, the 
 monastery of which was in high repute as a sanctuary 
 and was visited by numerous pilgrims and devotees, who 
 came to buy indulgences for their sins. Zwingle was 
 employed there as preacher to the monastery. He had 
 previously been convinced that several doctrines and 
 practices of the Roman Church were not consistent with 
 the pure religion of the gospel ; but he had hitherto 
 refrained from the public avowal of his convictions. 
 Zwingle and Luther began about the same time to con- 
 demn the sale of indulgences, and other corruptions of 
 the Church of Rome. He was supported by Theobald 
 of Geroldseck, administrator of the abbey, and found at 
 Einsiedeln another coadjutor, Leo Juda. In his sermons 
 he insisted on the necessity of practical virtue and new- 
 ness of life, instead of exterior observances, ceremonies, 
 and superstitious practices. He also urged the bishops 
 and other high functionaries to undertake the refor- 
 mation of the Church by removing the impostures 
 and ignorance and depravity of the priests. He corre- 
 sponded with Erasmus, Capito, and Beatus Rhenanus. 
 In December, 15 18, he was appointed preacher to the 
 collegiate church or great Munster of Zurich, where he 
 found the priests and the people in a benighted spiritual 
 condition. He insisted that the people should read and 
 understand the Holy Scriptures. His bold and novel 
 mode of preaching produced, of course, much agitation. 
 
 In 1523 the Great Council of Zurich, at the request 
 of Zwingle, summoned the clergy of that diocese to 
 attend a conference for the discussion of the new doc- 
 trines, and proposed that the Holy Scripture should be 
 recognized as the standard by which doctrines must be 
 judged. To this conference the Bishop of Constance 
 sent John Faber, his vicar-general. Zwingle defended 
 his course, having previously published a list of articles 
 to be discussed, among which were the following : the 
 power arrogated to themselves by the pope and bishops 
 is not sanctioned by Scripture ; the marriage of priests 
 ought not to be forbidden ; and no one ought to be mo- 
 lested for his opinions. The result of the conference was 
 a decision of the council that Zwingle should continue 
 to preach the gospel as he had done heretofore. " His 
 simplicity, firmness, and gentleness," says Hess, "in- 
 spired his audience with great veneration ; his eloquence 
 and knowledge carried away those who were hesitating 
 between the two parties." ("Life of Zwingle.") In 1524 
 he married Anna Reinhart. He published in 1525 a 
 work entitled " A Discourse on True and False Religion." 
 The mass was abolished at Zurich in 1525. About the 
 
 same time the monasteries were suppressed, and their 
 property was appropriated to the purposes of education 
 and charity. 
 
 Zwingle took part in a conference (between the Re- 
 formers and the Roman Catholics) which met at Berne 
 in 1528, soon after which the Reformed religion was 
 established in the canton of Berne. In 1529 he met 
 Luther and Melanchthon in conference at Marburg. He 
 agreed with them in relation to fourteen articles of faith, 
 to which they all subscribed, but he differed from them 
 on the subject of the Eucharist, and rejected the doctrine 
 of the real presence. For this reason Luther refused 
 to give him the right hand of fellowship. The Swiss 
 Reformer was the less dogmatical of the two, and was 
 disposed to tolerate a difference of opinion on thr.t point. 
 The Roman Catholic party continued to predominate in 
 most of the Swiss cantons, except Zurich, Glarus, and 
 Berne, and they persecuted those Protestants who lived 
 in Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, etc. Zwingle had acquired a 
 high reputation for wisdom, and was often consulted by 
 the council of Zurich in relation to public' affairs. His 
 adversaries having accused him of being the chief cause 
 of the dissensions which destroyed the peace of the 
 country, he offered to resign ; but the senate refused to 
 accept his resignation. In 1531 the five cantons of Lu- 
 cerne, Zug, Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden declared war 
 against Berne and Zurich, which were not well prepared 
 for the conflict. Zwingle was one of a small band that 
 marched out to meet the enemy, and was killed at the 
 battle of Cappel, in October, 1531. He left, besides 
 other works, an "Exposition of the Christian Faith," in 
 Latin, (1536.) His followers were called "Evangelicals." 
 
 See Myconius, " De Vita et Obitu Zwinglii," 1536; Ziegi.br, 
 "Zwiugli's Leben," 1719; Tischkr, "Zwiugli's Leben," 1800; J. Cx. 
 Hess, "Vie de Zwingle," 1810, which was translated into English 
 by Lucy Aikin, 1812; Pestalozzi, " Bilder aus dem Leben Zwin- 
 gli's," 1819; M. Richard, "Zwingli biograpbisch geschildert," 
 1819; Rotermundt, "Leben des Reformator U. Zwingli," 1819; 
 Mui.i.KR, " Ulrich Zwingli," 1819; Roeder, "Erzahlungen aus 
 Zwiugli's Leben," 1834; J. J. Hottinger, "Zwingli und seine 
 Zeit," 1842 ; an English version of Hottinger's work, by Professor 
 T. C. Porter, 1856; N. Chhistofpel, "Zwiugli's Leben," 1847; 
 " Blackwood's Magazine" for August, 1828. 
 
 Zwingli or Zwinglius. See Zwingle. 
 
 Zwirner, tsfteeVner, (Ernst Friedrich,) an emi- 
 nent German architect, born at Jacobswald, in Silesia, 
 in February, 1802. He completed his studies at the 
 Royal Academy of Architecture and the University of 
 Berlin. In 1833 he was appointed architect of the ancient 
 Cologne Cathedral, and undertook the completion and 
 restoration of that grand Gothic or mediasval edifice, 
 which had never been finished. He expended many 
 years on this work, which is considered one of the 
 most successful and admirable specimens of restoration 
 which have ever appeared. Zwimer designed the castle 
 of Count von Furstenberg at Herdringen, and several 
 castles on the Rhine. Died in 1861. 
 
 Zylius. See Zyll. 
 
 Zyll, van, vSn zil, [Lat. Zy'lius,] (Otho,) a Dutch 
 Jesuit, born at Utrecht in 1588. He gained some dis- 
 tinction as a Latin poet. Died in 1656. 
 
 Zypaeus, zi-pa'us, or Van den Zype, vin den zi'peh, 
 (Francis,) a Flemish jurist and canonist, born at Ma- 
 lines in 1578. He published several legal works. Died 
 in 1650. 
 
 His brother Henry, born in 1577, was abbot of Saint- 
 Andre, and wrote several works. Died in 1659. 
 
 See Hendrik Feyb, " Discours sur la Vie de F. Zypieus," 1853; 
 P. van den Broeck, " De F. Zypaji Vita," etc., 1852. 
 
 Zype, van den. See Zyiveus. 
 
 c as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as «; th as in this. { jjy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 It is perhaps scarcely necessary to say that the following Vocabulary of Christian (or first) Names is not intended 
 to be exhaustive, having been prepared simply to meet the most obvious demands of a work like the present, in 
 the body of which the pronunciation of names of the class referred to has rarely been given. In numerous 
 instances names which are properly surnames (such, for example, as Fisher Ames, Washington Irving, etc.) 
 are used as Christian names. These are not included in the present Vocabulary, as they can readily be found in 
 their alphabetical place in the body of the work. 
 
 £3^™ The order of arrangement in the Vocabulary is as follows : first the English, then the other names ac cording 
 to the alphabetical order of the languages to which they belong, as, Arabic, Danish, Dutch, French, etc. To 
 avoid multiplying the references, (which must in any case be pretty numerous,) we have generally given them 
 only when the name would be separated by some other name or names from the alphabetical place of the English 
 name under which it is noticed. The only exception to this rule occurs when the name referred from is so 
 different from the one referred to, that ordinary readers would not be likely to suspect the identity, as in the case of 
 Alonzo and Alphonso, etc 
 
 Aaron, a'ron ; Arabic, Haroon or HarOn, ha-roon'; 
 Fr. Aaron, i'roN'; Ger. Aaron or Aron, i'ron ; Heb. 
 piriX; It. Aronne, i-ron'nl; Lat. Aa'ron, (genitive, 
 Aaro'nis;) Port. AarAo, a-rowN'; Sp. Aron, i-r6n'. 
 
 Abel, a'bel ; Arabic, Habeel or HAbIl, hi'beel'; 
 Fr. Abel, a"bel'; Heb. *1XI; Lat. A'bel, (genitive, 
 Abe' lis.) 
 
 Abraham, a'bra-ham ; Arabic, IbrAheem or IbrA- 
 hIm, ib-riheem' ; Danish, Abraham, Sb'Ra-him ; 
 Butch, Abraham, i'bRi-him; Fr. Abraham, i'bRa"- 
 him'; Ger. Abraham, i'bRi-him; Heb. 0m3X ; It. 
 Ahramo, a-bRl'mo ; Lat. Abraha'mus, (genitive in -I ;•) 
 Russ. Avraam, i-vRa-lm', or Abramii, i-vRi'mee ; 
 Sp. Abrahan, i-bRi-in' ; Sw. Abraham, a'bRa-ham. 
 
 Absalom, ab'sa-lom ; Fr. Absalon, ib'si'loN'; Heb. 
 
 Achilles, a-kil'lez ; Fr. Achille, JFshel'; Gr. 'k\di- 
 Xtv^,(Achilleus;) It. Achille, i-kel'la; Lat. Achil'les, 
 (genitive, Achil'lis;) Sp. Aquiles, i-kee'les. 
 
 Adalbert. See Ethelbert. 
 
 Adam, ad'am ; Arabic, Adam, id'im ; Danish, Adam, 
 a'dim ; Dutch, Adam, a'dim ; Fr. Adam, S'doN'; Ger. 
 Adam, i'dim ; Heb. D1X ; It. Adamo, i-dl'mo ; Lat. 
 Ada'mus, (genitive in -I;*) Port. AdAo, i-dowN'; Sp. 
 Adan, i-din'. 
 
 Adeline, ad'e-Tine ; Danish, Adeline, i-deh-lee'neh ; 
 Dutch, Adelina, i-deh-lee'ni ; Fr. Adeline, td'len'; 
 Ger. Adeline, i-deh-lee'neh ; It. Adelina, i-da-lee'ni; 
 Lat. Adeli'na, (genitive in -K.*) 
 
 A-dol'phus, ("noble wolf:" see note under Ralph;) 
 Danish, Adolf, i'dolf; Dutch, Adolf, i'dolf; Fr. 
 Adolphe, i'dolf; Ger. Adolf or Adolph, i'dolf; It. 
 Adolfo, i-dol'fo; Lat. Adol'phus; Sp. Adolfo, 
 i-doVfo; Sw. Adolf, i'dolf. 
 
 • Latin names ending in us usually have the genitive in i; those 
 ending in a or as take the genitive in a: of those names in this table 
 not included under the foregoing rules, the genitive will always be 
 added. 
 
 Adrian, a'dre-an, or Hadrian, ha'dre-an; Danish, 
 Adrian, i'dRe-in ; Dutch, Adriaan, i'dRe-in ; Fr. 
 Adrien, S'dRe-iN'; It. Adriano, 1-dRe-i'no ; Lat. 
 Adria'nus or Hadria'nus; Port. Adriano, i-dRe- 
 i'no, or AdriAo, i-dRe-owN'; Sp. Adrian, i-dRe-in'. 
 
 jEgidius. See Giles. 
 
 ^Elian, ee'le-an ; Fr. Elien, 4'le'iN'; Lat. .iElia'nus, 
 (genitive in -I.) 
 
 Affonso. See Alphonso. 
 
 Agatha, ag'a-tha, ("good ;") Danish, Agathe, i-gi'- 
 teh ; Dutch, Agatha, i-gi'ti ; Fr. Agathe, i'git'; Ger. 
 Agathe, i-ga't?h; Gr. 'kyaOn, (Agathe;) It. Agata, 
 i'gi-ti; Lat. Ag'atha; Sp. Agata, i'gi-ti; Sw. Agata, 
 i-gi'ti. 
 
 Agnes, ag'nez, ("chaste ;") Danish, Agnes, ig'nes, or 
 Agnetf, Sg-na'teh; Dutch, Agnes, ig'nSs; Fr. AGNfes, 
 in'yds'; Ger. Agnes, ig'nes; It. Agnese, in-ya'si; 
 Lat. Ag'nes, (genitive, Agne'tis.) 
 
 Agostinho. See Augustine. 
 
 Aimee. See Amy. 
 
 Alaric, al'a-rik, ("noble ruler;") Danish, Alarick, 
 i'li-rik ; Fr. Alaric, S'li'rek'; Ger. Alarich, i'li-riK ; 
 It. Alarico, i-li-ree'ko ; Lat. Alari'cus ; Sp. Alarico, 
 i-li-ree'ko. 
 
 Ai.ban, awl'ban, (" white ;") Danish, Albanus, tl-bi'- 
 nfls; Dutch, Albanus, il-bi'nus; It. Albano, il-bi'no; 
 Lat. Alba'nus. 
 
 Alberic, al'ber-ic, ("elf-king"?) Danish, Alberik, 
 Sl'beh-rik; Fr. Alberic, aVbi'rek'; Ger. Ai.berich, il'- 
 beh-riK'; It. Alberico, il-bi-ree'ko; Lat. Alberi'cus. 
 
 Al'hert, ("all bright ;") Danish, Albrecht, 31'bR?kt; 
 Dutch, Albf.rtus, il-beVtus, or Albert, il'beRt; Fr. 
 Albert, il'baiR'; Ger. Albrecht, il'bRiKt ; It. Al- 
 berto, il-beVto ; I.at. Alber'tus; Sp. Alberto, il- 
 beVto; Sw. Albert, il'bjRt. 
 
 Alcibiades, dl-se-bl'a-dez, ("strong compeller ;") Fr. 
 Alcibiades, iTse'be'Id'; Gr. 'A?Jtt6u'ufris, (AlHoicufes.) 
 
 « as k; 9 as s; g hard; g as_/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 3 as z; th as in this. (Jl^^See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 2327 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 Alexander, al-ex-an'der,(a " helper of men ;") Dutch, 
 Alexander, a-lek-san'der ; Fr. Alexandre, t'ieV- 
 sSncIr'; Ger. Alexander, a-leVsan'der ; Gr. 'Pitesav- 
 <5pof, ( Alexandras ; ) It. Alessandro, 5-les-saVdRo ; 
 Lat. Alexan'der, (gen. Alexan'dri;) Sp. Alejandro 
 or Alexahdro, a-)a-HaVdRo. 
 
 Alewijn. See Alvin. 
 
 A-lex'is, ("help," "defence;") Fr. Alexis, t'lek'se'; 
 Gr. 'Alefc, (Alexis;) Russian, Alexei, S-lek-sa^e. 
 
 Alfonso. See Alphonso. 
 
 Al'fred, ("all peace;") Danish, Alfred, Jl'fRSd; 
 Ditch, Alfred, al'fRJt; Fr. Alfred, 31'fRed'; Ger. 
 Alfred, al'fRSt; It. Alfredo, al-fRa'do; Lat. Alfre'- 
 uos; Sp. Alfredo, al-fRa'Do. 
 
 Alice, il'iss, ("noble ;") Danish, Else, el'seh ; Dutch, 
 Elsje, els'yeh; Fr. Alice, i'less'; Lat. Aliq'ia, (a-lish'- 
 e-a;) Sw. Elsa, 61'sa. 
 
 Alonzo or Alonso. See Alphonso. 
 
 Al-phon'so or A-lon'zo; Danish, Ai.fons, tl'fons; 
 Fr. Alphonse, tl'foNs'; It. Alfonso, al-fon'so; Lat. 
 Alphon'sus; Port. Affonso, af-fon'so; Sp. Alfonso, 
 51-fon'so, or Alonso, ilon'so. 
 
 Alvin, al'vin, or Al'win, ("winning all;") Dutch, 
 Alewijn, a'leh-win'; Fr. Aluin, S'lii-aN'; Ger. Alwin, 
 Sl'win; It. Alvino, 41-vee'no; Lat. Alwi'nus; Sp. 
 Aluino, a-loo-ee'no. 
 
 Amadeus, am-a-de'us, (a "lover of God;") Fr. Ame- 
 dee, 8'ma'da'; Ger. Amadeus, 5-ma-da'us ; It. Amedeo, 
 a-ma-da'o, or Amajjeo, a-m4-da'o; Lat. Amade'us; 
 Sp. Amadeo, a-ma-Da'o. 
 
 Amalie. See Amelia. 
 
 Amata. See Amy. 
 
 Am'brose, ("immortal ;") Danish, Amisrosius, Sm- 
 bRo'se-us ; Dutch, Ambrosius, am-bRo'se-fis ; Fr. 
 Ambroise, SN'bRwJz'; Ger. Ambrosius, am-bRo'ze-us, 
 or Ambros, am'bRos ; It. Ambrogio, am-bKo'jo ; Lat. 
 Ambro'siuj; Sp. Ambrosio, am-bRo'se-o. 
 
 Amedee or Amedeo. See Amadeus. 
 
 Amelia, a-mee'le-a; Danish, Amalie, a-mi'le-eh ; 
 Fr. Amelie, t'ma'le'; Ger. Amalie, a-ma'le-eh ; Sp. 
 Amelia, S-ma'le-a. 
 
 Amos, a'mos, (a " burden ;") Fr. Amos, f'm5s'; Heb. 
 
 dioj?. 
 
 Amy, a'me, (a "beloved;") Danish, Amalie, a-ma'- 
 le-eh ; Fr. Aimek, &'ma'; It. Amata, a-ma'ta. 
 ; Anastasius, an-a-sta'she-us, ("rising up;") Fr. Ana- 
 STASE, t'nt'sttz'; Gr. ' Avaoruoios, ( Anastasios ; ) It. Ana- 
 stasio, a-n5-sta'se-o ; Lat. Anasta'sius. 
 
 An'drew, ("manly," "courageous;") Danish, An- 
 dreas, itn-dnas'; Dutch, Andries, aN-dRees'; Fr. An- 
 dre, dN'dRa'; Ger. Andreas, an-dRg'as ; Gr. 'AiMpt'ac, 
 (Andreas:) It. Andrea, Sn-dRa'5; Lat. An'dreas; 
 Port. Andre, an-dRa'; Sp. Andres, an-dReV. 
 
 ANDRONICUS, an-dro-ni'ku.s,*(a "conqueror of men ;") 
 Fr. Andronic or Andrqnique, &N'dRo'nek'; Gr. 'Ai>- 
 df>ovua>c, ( Andronikos ; ) It. Andronico, an-dRo-nee'ko; 
 Lat. Androni'cus. 
 
 Angelica, an-jSl'e-ka, ("angelic;") Fr. Angelique, 
 oN'zha'lek'; Ger. Angelica, in-ga'le-ka ; It. Angelica, 
 an-ja'le-kl. 
 
 * Pronounced A ndroriicus in Shakspeare. 
 
 Angeluccio, (It.) an-ji-loot'cho, (a derivative from 
 Angelo.) 
 
 Anna, an'na, or Anne, an, ("grace" or "gracious," 
 the same as the Hebrew Hannah, which see ;) Danish, 
 Anna, in'na; Dutch, Anna, an'na ; Fr. Anne, in ; Ger. 
 Anne, an'neh ; It. Anna, an'na; Lat. An'na. 
 
 Annibale. See Hannibal. 
 
 Anselm, in'selm, (a "defender;") Dutch, Anselmus, 
 an-sel'mus; Fr. Anselme, ON'selm'; Ger. Anselm, 
 an'selm; It. Ansf.lmo, an-seTmo; Lat Ansel'mus; 
 Sp. Anselmo, an-sSl'mo. 
 
 Antony or Anthony, pronounced alike an'to-ne; 
 Danish^ Anton, tn'ton ; Dutch, Anton, an'ton, or An- 
 toon, an'ton, or Antonius, an-to'ne-us; Fr. Antoine, 
 oN'twan'; Ger. Anton, an'ton ; It. Antonio, an-to'ne-o ; 
 Lat. Anto'nius ; Port. Antonio, an-to'ne-o ; Sp. An- 
 tonio, an-to'ne-o ; Sw. Anton, an'ton. 
 
 Aquiles. See Achilles. 
 
 Arabel'la, (a "fair altar"?) Dutch, Arabella, ara- 
 bel'la ; Fr. Arabelle, S'li'Ml'; Ger. Arabelle, J-r4- 
 bel'leh; It. Arabella, a-ra-bel'la; Lat. Arabel'la. 
 
 Archibald, ar'che-bauld ; Fr. Archambaud, Sr'- 
 sh6.N'bo'; Lat. Archibal'dus. 
 
 Aristarchus, ar-is-tar'kus, (" best prince ;") Fr. 
 Aristarque, S'rcs'tSRk'; Ger. Aristarchus, J-ris-taR'- 
 Kus ; Gr. 'kpiorapx<K, ( Aristarchos ; ) Lat. Aristar'ohus. 
 
 Aris-to-bu'lus, ("excellent counsellor;") Fr. Aris- 
 TOBULE, t'res'to'biil'; Gr. 'Kptorotiovkx, ( Aristoboulos :) 
 It. Aristobui.o, a-res-to-boo'lo ; Lat. Aristobu'lus. 
 
 Armand or Armant. See Hermann. 
 
 Arnold, ar'nold ; Fr. Arnaud.Sk'iio'; Ger. Arnold, 
 aR'nolt ; It. Arnaldo, aR-nal'do; Lat. Arnol'dus or 
 Arnal'dus. 
 
 Ar'thur; Fr. Arthur, iR'tuR', or Artus, fR'tiis'; 
 It. Arturo, aR-too'ro; Lat. Arthu'rus. 
 
 Athanasius, Ath-a-na'shejjs, ("immortal;") Fr. 
 Athanase, t'ti'nSz'; Gr. 'AOavuoioe, ( Athanasios;) It. 
 Atanasio, a-ta-na'se-o ; Lat. Athana'shjs. 
 
 Au-gus'ta, ("venerable;") Danish, Auguste, 6w- 
 goos'teh ; Dutch, Augustf, ow-Giis'teh; Fr. Auguste, 
 6'giist'; Ger. Auguste, ow-goos'teh, or Augusta, ow- 
 gdos'ta; It. Augusta, ow-goos'ta ; Lat. Augus'ta. 
 
 Augustine, aw'gus-ttn, or aw-gus'tin,t ("venerable;") 
 Dutch, Augusitnus, ow-cus-tee'iius, or Augustijn, 
 ow'custln'; Fr. Augustin, o'giis'laN'; It. Augustino, 
 6w-goos-tee'no ; Lat. Augusti'nus ; Port. AgostinHo, 
 a-gos-ten'yo ; Sp. Augustin, ow-goos-ten'. 
 
 Au-gus'tus; Danish. August, ow'gust ; Dutch, Au- 
 gustus, ow-Gus'tus; Fr. Auguste, o'gust'; Ger. Au- 
 gust, ow'gftst; It. Augusto, 8w-goos'to; Lat. Augus'- 
 tus; Sw. August, ow'gust. 
 
 Aurelius, aw-ree'le-us ; Fr. Aurele, 5'rAl'; Ger. Au. 
 relius, 6w-ra'le-fls; It. Aurelio, ow-ra'le-o. 
 
 Avraam. See Abraham. 
 
 Baldassare. See Balthasar. 
 
 Baldwin, (a " bold winner ;") Danish, Balduin, bjld'- 
 oo-een'or bald'ween ; Dutch, Boudewijn, bow'deh-wln'; 
 Fr. Baudouin, bo'doo-aw'; Ger. Balduin, bal'doo-een'; 
 It. Bai.dovino, bal-do-vee'no; Lat. Baldui'nus. 
 
 * See Disputed or Doubtful Pronunciations, p. 2344. 
 
 S, e, I, o, u, y, long; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, 1, 6, u, J, short; a, e, i, o, obscure; fir, fall, fit; mit; n6t; good; moon; 
 2328 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 Balthasar, bal'taz-ar, ("without treasure"?) Dutch, 
 Balthasar, bil'ta'sar ; Fr. Balthazar or Balthasar, 
 iAYlizAv.'; It. Baldassare, bal-das-sl'ra; Lat. Bal- 
 tha'sar, (genitive, Balthas'aris ;) Sp. Baltasar, bal- 
 ti-saR'. 
 
 Bap'tist, (a "baptizer;") Fr. Baptiste, btp'test'; 
 Ger. Baptist, bap'tist; It. Battista, bittes'ta; Lat. 
 Bap its' pa; Port. Baptist a, bap-tes'ta; Sp. Bautista, 
 bow-tfes'ta. 
 
 Barbara, bar'ba-ra, ("foreign," "stranger;") Dutch, 
 Barbara, baR'bi-rl; Fr. Barbe, biRb ; Ger. Barbara, 
 baR'ba-ri ; It. Barbara, baR'bl-ra ; Lat Bar'bara. 
 
 Bar'dulph, (a "famous helper"?) Fr. Bardolphe, 
 biR'dolf; It. Bardolfo, baR-dol'fo ; Lat. Bardul'phus. 
 Barknd. See Bernard. 
 
 Barnabas, bar'na-bas, or Barnaby, bar'na-be, (a 
 " son of consolation ;") Danish, Barnabas, baR'na-bis ; 
 Dutch, Barnabas, baR'nabas ; Fr. Barnabe, bt»'- 
 ni'ba'; Ger. Barnabas, baR'na-bas ; It. Barnaba, bait'- 
 na-ba; Lat. Bar'nabas, (genitive, Bar'nab^E;) Sp. Ber- 
 nabe. beR-na-ba'. 
 
 Bar-thol'o-mew, (" warlike son" ?) Danish, Bar- 
 tiioi.om^EUS, baR-to-lo-ma'is ; Dutch, Bartholomews, 
 baR-tol-o-nia'us; Fr. BarthElemi, btR'tal'me'; Ger. 
 Bartholomaus, baR-to-lo-ma'us ; It. Bartolommeo, 
 baR-to-lomma'o ; Lat. Bartholom.«'us ; Port. Bar- 
 tholomew baR-to-lo-me'oo ; Russ. Varfolomei, vaR- 
 fol-o-ma'e ; Sp. Bartolome, baR-to-lo-ma'; Sw. Bar- 
 tholomaus, baR-to-lo-ma'us. 
 
 Basil, ba'zil, ("kingly;") Danish, Basii.ius, bisee'- 
 le-us ; Dutch, Basilius, ba-see'le-iis ; Fr. Basile, bi'- 
 zel'; Ger. Basilius, ba-zee'le-us ; Gr. BaoiAdoc, (Basi- 
 leios,) or Baoi'Aiof, (Basilios;) It. Basilio, ba-see'le-o ; 
 Lat. Basil'ius ; Russ. Vasilii, va-see'lee or va-sel'ye ; 
 Sw. Basilius, bi-sIT'le-us. 
 
 Baudouin. See Baldwin. 
 
 Beatrice, bee'a-triss, ("making happy;") Danish, 
 Beatrix, bi-a'tRiks; Dutch, Beatrix, ba-a'tRiks ; Fr. 
 BEATRICE, ba'S'tRess'; Ger. Beatrix, ba-a'tRiks, or 
 BEATRICE, ba-a-tReet'seh; It. Beatrice, bi-a-tree'cha ; 
 Lat. Bea'trix, (genitive, Bf.atri'cis ;> Sp. Beatriz, 
 ba-i-treM'; Sw. Beatrix, ba-a'tRiks. 
 • Benedetta. See Benedicta. 
 
 Bkn'e dict or Ben'net, ("blessed ;") Danish, Bene- 
 dict, ba'neh-dlkt'; Dutch, Benedictus, ha-neh-dik' tits ; 
 Fr. BENufr, beh-nwa'; Ger. Benedicp, ba'neh-dlkt'; 
 It. BENEDETTO, ba-ni-det'to ; Lat. Benedic'tus; Sp. 
 Benito, bi-nee'to, or Benedicto, ba-ni-dek'to ; Sw. 
 Bengt, bengt. 
 
 Benedicta, ben-cdik'ta, ("blessed," feminine;) Fr. 
 BenoIte, beh-nwat'; It. Benedetta, bi-na-det'ta; Lat. 
 Benedic'ta; Sp. Benita, ba-nee'ta. 
 
 Bengt. See Benedict. 
 
 Benjamin, (the "son of a right hand ;") Danish, Ben- 
 jamin, Wn'yameen'; Fr. Benjamin, boN'zht'maN'; 
 Ger. Benjamin, ben'ya-meen'; It. Beniamino, ben-yi- 
 mee'no; Lat. Benjami'nus. 
 
 Bennet. See Benedicp. 
 
 BenoIt. See Benedict. 
 
 BenoIte. See Benedicta. 
 
 BERENlCR,ber.e-ni'se,or Bkknice, lier'nlss, ("bringing 
 victory;") Fr. Berenice, ba'ra'ness';Gr. Brpevim), ( Btre- 
 
 nlke;) It. Berenice, ba-ranee'chi ; Lat. Bereni'cE, 
 (genitive, Berenices.) 
 
 BernabA. See Barnabas. 
 
 Bernard, ber'nard, (" strong or hardy bear ;"*) Da- 
 nish, Bernhard, beRn'haR^; Dutch, Bbrn-har'dus or 
 Barend, ba'rent; Fr. Bernard, beR'naV; Ger. Bern- 
 hard, beRn'haRt; It. Bernardo, beR-naR'do; Lat. 
 Bernar'dus; Sw. Bernhard, bSRn'haRd. 
 
 Bernice. See Berenice. 
 
 Bertha, ber'tha, ("bright" or "famous;") Dutch, 
 Bertha, beR'ta; Fr. Berthe, beRt; Ger. Bertha, 
 beR'ta; It. Berta, beR'ta; Lat. Ber'tha ; Sw. Bertha, 
 beR'ta. 
 
 Bertram, ber'tram, (" fair," " illustrious ;") Fr. Ber- 
 trand, beR'tRoN'; Ger. Bertram, beR'tRam. 
 
 Biagio. See Blase. 
 
 Bianca. See Blanch. 
 
 BiRGiTTE. See Bridget. 
 
 Blanch, blantch, (" white ;") Danish, Blanca, bltng'- 
 ka; Dutch, Blanca, bling'ka; Fr. Blanche, blo.Nsh ; 
 Ger. Blanca or Blanka, bling'ka; It. Bianca, be-in', 
 ka; Lat. Blan'cha; Sp. Blanca, bling'ka; Sw. 
 Blanka, bling'ki. 
 
 Blase, biaz, ("sprouting forth;") Danish, Blasius, 
 bli'se-as; Dutch, Blasius, bli'se-tis; Fr. Blaise, bl&z; 
 Ger. Blasius, bla'ze-us ; It. Biagio, be-a'jo ; Lat. Bla'- 
 sius, (bla'she-us ;) Sp. Blas, bias; Sw. Blasius, bli'- 
 se-tls. 
 
 Bona, bo'na, ("good;") Fr. Bonne, bon ; Lat. Bo'na. 
 
 Bonaventure, bon'a-ven'tur, ("good fortune;") Fr. 
 
 BONAVF.NTURE, bo'nS'vON'tUR'; It. BoNAVENTURA, bo- 
 
 na-ven-too'ra ; Lat. Bonaventu'ra. 
 
 Boniface, bon'e-fass, (a " well-doer ;") Danish, Boni- 
 facius, bo-ne-fa'se-Cis ; Dutch, Bonifacius, bo-ne-fa'- 
 se-us; Fr. Boniface, bo'ne'fiss'; Ger. Bonifaz, bo-ne- 
 fats', or Bonifacius, bo-ne-fat'se-fis ; It. Bonifacio, 
 bo-ne-fi'cho ; Lat. Bonifa'cius, (bon-e-fa'she-us ;) Sw. 
 Bonifacius, bo-ne-fi'se-fts. 
 
 Bonne. See Bona. 
 
 BouDewijn. See Baldwin. 
 
 Bridget or Brigit, brlj'it, ("shining bright;") Da- 
 nish, Birgitte, betR-git'teh ; Dutch, Brigitta, bRe-ult'- 
 ti; Fr. Brigitte, bKe'zhet'; Ger. Brigiite, bRe-git'teh ; 
 It. BrigIDA, bRee'je-di, or Brigita, bRee'je-ti ; Lat 
 Brig'ida; Sp. Brigida, bRee'ne-Di 
 
 C/ECIlia. See Cecilia. 
 
 C.«cilius. See Cecil. 
 
 C«sar, see'zar, ("adorned with hair;") Danish, 
 C/liSAR, sa'sar; Fr. Cesar, sa'zaV; Ger. Casar or 
 Caesar, tsa'zaR ; It. Cesake, cha'»a-ra; Lat. C^i'sAR, 
 (genitive, C/Es'aris ;) Sp. Cesar, tha'sait. 
 
 Camilla, ka-mil'la; Fr. Camille, kt'mel' or kf- 
 me'ye; It. Camilla, ki-mel'li; Lat. Camil'la. 
 
 • A name naturally applied, in rude times, to a hero in a country 
 where the bear was the most remarkable type of strength, courage, 
 and endurance. In the case of Aip-Arslan (;>. "strong lion") we 
 have a similar epithet appropriate to an Oriental country where liom 
 abound, but applied to a single individual, and not, like Bernard, em- 
 ployed as a common name. Some writers give " bear's heart" as the 
 true signification of Bernard, (Bernhart.) an expression similar to 
 the surname (Coeur de Lion) by which Richard I. of Kngand nl 
 so widely known. 
 
 *e as *; C as /; g hard; g as>; o, H, k, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as i; th as in this. (By See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 2329 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 Ca-mil'lus ; Fr. Camille, kl'mel' or kt'me'ye. 
 
 Carl. See Charles. 
 
 Carlo. See Charles. 
 
 Carlotta or Carlota. See Charlotte. 
 
 Caroline, kir'o-lin ; Danish, Caroline, ki-ro-lee'- 
 neh; Dutch, Carolina, ka-ro-lee'ni ; Fr. Caroline, 
 kt'ro'len'; Ger. Caroline or Karoline, ka-ro-lee'neh; 
 It Carolina, ka-ro-lee'ni ; Lat. Caroli'na ; Sw. 
 Karolina, ki-ro-lee'ni. 
 
 Caspar. See Jasper. 
 
 Cassandra, kas-san'dra ; Fr. Cassandre, kt's&NdR'; 
 It. Cassandra, kas-san'dRa ; Lat. Cassan'dra. 
 
 Catalina. See Catherine. 
 
 Catherine or Catharine, kith'a-rin, ("pure;") 
 Danish, Catharine, ki-ti-ree'n$h ; Dutch, Catha- 
 Rina, ka-ti-ree'ni ; Fi\ Catherine, ktt'ren'; Ger. 
 Katharine, ka-ta-ree'neh ; Gr. Kadapivij, (Katharine ;) 
 It. Caterina, ka-ti-ree'ni; Lat. Cathari'na; Russ. 
 Ekaterina, i-ki-ti-ree'ni, or Yekaterina, yi-ki-ti- 
 ree'na; Sp. Catalina, ki-ti-lee'ni; Sw. Katarina, 
 kiti-ree'ni. 
 
 CEf/lL, ("dim-sighted;") Dutch, Cecilius, si-see'- 
 le-us; Fr. C£cile, si'sel', (rare ;) Lat. Cecil'ius. 
 
 Cecilia, se-sil'e-a; Dutch, Cecilia, si-see'le-i; Fr. 
 Cecile, si'sel'; It. Cecilia, chi-chee'le-i; Lat. Cm- 
 cil'ia. 
 
 Cesar. See Caesar. 
 
 Cesare. See Caesar. 
 
 Charles, charlz, (" manly" or " noble-spirited ;") Da- 
 nish, Carl, kaRl ; Dutch, Karel, ka'rel ; Fr. Charles, 
 shiRl; Ger. Karl, kaRl; It. Carlo, kaR'lo; Lat. 
 Car'olus; Sp. Carlos, kaR'los; Sw. Karl, kaRl. 
 
 Charlotte, shar'lot, ("noble-spirited j") Danish, 
 Charlotte, shaR-lot'teh ; Dutch, Charlotta, shaR- 
 lot'ta; Fr. Charlotte, shiR'lot'; Ger. Charlotte, 
 shaR-lot'te> ; It. CARLOTrA, kaR-lot'tl; Lat. Carolet'- 
 Ta; Sp. Carlota, kaR-lo'ti; Sw. Charlotta, shaR- 
 lot'ti. 
 
 Chloe, klo'e, (a "young shoot," a "green herb;") 
 Fr. Chloe, klo'i' ; Gr. Jttoiy, (Chloe;) Lat. Chlo'e, 
 (genitive, Chlo'es.) 
 
 Christina, krls-ti'na or kris-tee'na; Dutch, Chris- 
 Tina, kRls-tee'ni; Fr. Christine, kRes'ten'; Ger. 
 Christiana, kids-te-a'na; It Cristina, kRes-tee'ni. 
 
 Christopher, kris'to-fer, ("bearing Christ;"*) Da- 
 nish, Christoffer, kRis'tof-fer; Dutch, Christopho- 
 rus, kRis-to'fo-rus ; Fr. Christophf., kRes'toP; Ger. 
 Christoph, kRis'tof ; Gr. X/jioro^opoc, f Chrislophoros ;* ) 
 It. Cristoforo, kRes-tof'o-ro ; Lat. Christoph'orus; 
 Port. ChristovXo, kRes-to-vowN'; Sp. Cristoval, 
 kRes-to'val ; Sw. Kristofer, kRls'to-fer. 
 
 Chrvsostom, krls'os-tom, ( " golden - mouthed ;" ) 
 Dutch, Chrysostomus, kRe-sos'to-miis ; Fr. Chryso- 
 STOME, kRe'zo'stom'; Gr. XpvoooTO/ioc, ( Chrysostomos ;) 
 It. Crisostomo, kRe-sos'to-mo ; Lat. Chrysos'tomus. 
 
 Cipriano. See Cyprian. 
 
 Cirillo. See Cyril. 
 
 * According lo an old legend, he was called Christophoros (from 
 XptffTo*, "Christ," and <t>epu, to "bear") because he bore the infant 
 Saviour across a raging stream. (See Mrs. Jameson's " Sacred and 
 Legendary Art.") 
 
 Ciro. See Cyrus. 
 
 Clara, klar'a, or Claire, klir, ("clear," "bright," 
 "illustrious;") Danish, Clara, kla'ra; Dutch, Clara, 
 kli'ri; Fr. Clara, kli'rl'; Ger. Klara, kla'ra; It 
 Clara, kla'ra; Lat. Cla'ra; Sw. Klara, kla'ra. 
 
 Claudia, klaw'de-a; Dutch, Claudia, klow'de-i ; 
 Fr. Claudie, klo'de'; It. Claudia, klow'de-a; Lat 
 Clau'dia; Sw. Klaudia, klow'de-a. 
 
 Claudius, klaw'de-us ; Danish, Claudius, klow'de- 
 u.s; Dutch, Claudius, klow'de-us; Fr. Claude, klod; 
 It. Claudio, klow'de-o ; Lat. Clau'dius ; Sw. Klau- 
 dius, klow'de-us. 
 
 Clem'ent, ("mild-tempered;") Danish, Clemens, 
 kla'mens; Fr. Clement, kla'm6N'; Ger. Clemens, 
 klem'ens; It. Clemente, kli-men'ti; Lat. Cle'mens, 
 (genitive, Clemen'tis ;) Sp. Clemente, kla-men'ta. 
 
 Con'rad, ("able counsel;") Danish, Conrad, kon'- 
 r&d; Dutch, Koenraad, koon'rSt ; Fr. Conrad, koN'- 
 rid'; Ger. Conrad, kon'rit ; It. Corrado, kor-ra'do, 
 or Curado, koo-ra'do; Lat. Conra'dus; Sw. Konrad, 
 kon'rad. 
 
 Constance, kon'stanss, (" constant ;") Dutch, Con- 
 stants, kon-stan'se-S, (almost kon-stan'she-a ;) Fr. 
 Constance, koN'st&Nss'; It Costanza, ko-stin'zi; 
 Lat. Constan'tia, (kon-stan'she-a ;) Sp. Constancia, 
 kon-stin'//5e-i. 
 
 Constantine, kon'stan-tin, ("resolute;") Danish, 
 Consiantin, kon'stSn-teen'; Dutch, Konsiantijn, 
 kon'stan-tin'; Fr. Consiantin, k6N'stON'tiN' ; Gr. 
 Kuvotuvtwoc, ( Konstantinos ; ) It. Constantino, kon- 
 stan-tee'no; Lat. Constanti'nus. 
 
 Cordelia, kor-dee'le-a ; Fr. Cordelie, koR'di'le'. 
 
 Cornelius, kor-nee'le-us; Danish, Cornelius, koR- 
 na'le-us; Dutch, Kornelis or Cornelis, koR-na'lis; 
 Fr. Corneii.le, koR'n&I' or koR'nJ'y? ; It. Cornelio, 
 koR-na'le-o; Lat. Corne'lius; Sp. Cornelio, koR-na'- 
 le-o. 
 
 Corrado. See Conrad. 
 
 Costanza. See Constance. 
 
 Crisostomo. See Chrysostom. 
 
 Cris'pin ; Dutch, Krispijn, kRls'pin; Fr. Ckepin, 
 kRi'paN'; It. Crispino, kRes-pee'no; Sw. Krispin, 
 kRis-peen'. 
 
 Cristina. See Christina. 
 
 Cristoforo. See Christopher. 
 
 Cristoval. See Christopher. 
 
 Curado. See Conrad. 
 
 Cyprian, sip're-an ; Dutch, Cypriaan, see'pRe In; 
 Fr. Cyprien, se'pRe'iN'; Ger. Cyprian, tsee'pRe-an ; 
 It. Cipriano, che-pRe-i'no; Lat. Cypria'nus; Port 
 Cypriano, se-pRe-i'no; Sp. Cipriano, Me-pRe-i'no. 
 
 Cyril, sir'il, ("little Cyrus;") Danish, Cyrillus, 
 se-ril'lus; Dutch, Cyrillus, se-ril'lus; Fr. Cyrille, 
 se'rel'; It. Cirillo, che-rel'lo; Lat. Cyril'lus. 
 
 Cyrus, si'rus ; Fr. Cyrus, se'riis'; Ger. Cyrus, 
 tsee'rus; Gr. Kipor, (Kuros;) It. Ciro, chee'ro ; Lat 
 Cy'rus ; Sp. Ciro, Mee'ro. 
 
 Daniel, din'yej, (" God is judge ;") Danish, Daniel, 
 di'ne-el ; Dutch, Daniel, da'ne-el ; Fr. Daniel, df 
 
 a, e, i, 6, 5, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, $, i, 9, obscure; far, fill, fit; mit; nftt; good; moon; 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 ne'41'; Ger. Daniel, di'ne-81 ; Heb. Sx'JI; It. Daniele, 
 dd-ne-a'li; Lat. Dan'iel, (genitive, Danie'lis;) Sp. 
 Daniel, di-ne-Sl'. 
 
 David, da'vid, ("beloved ;") Danish, David, da'vW; 
 Dutch, David, dl'vit ; Fr. David, di'ved'; Ger. David, 
 di'vit; Heb. in or TIT; It. Davide, dS've-da, or 
 Davidde, dl-ved'di ; Lat. Da'vid, (genitive, Dav'idis.) 
 
 Deborah, dSb'o-ra, (a "bee;") Dutch, Debora, d4- 
 bo'ra ; Fr. Dbbora, dl'bo'rS'; Heb. 7TOT ; It. Debora, 
 da'bo-ra; Lat. Deb'ora. 
 
 Demetrius, de-mee'tre-us, (" sprung from the earth" 
 or "from Ceres;") Fr. Demetrius, cii'ma'tRe'us'; Gr. 
 Atl/airpioc, ( Demetrios ; ) It. Demetrio, da-ma'tRe-o; 
 Lat. Deme'trius ; Russ. Dmitri, dmee'tree. 
 
 Den'is or Dionysius, dl-o-nish'e^us ; Danish, Dio- 
 nysius, de-o-nee'se-us ; Dutch, Dionysius, de-o-nee'- 
 se-us ; Fr. Denis or Denys, deh-ne'; Ger. Dionys, 
 de-o-nees'; Gr. AtovfJmoc, ( Dionusios ; ) It. Dionigio, 
 de-o-nee'jo ; Lat. Dionys'ius, (di-o-nish'e-us ;) Sp. Dio- 
 nisio, de-o-nee'se-o. 
 
 De'o-date, ("given by God;") Fr. Dieudonne, 
 de-uh'do'na'; It. Deodato, di-o-dl'to; Lat. Deod'- 
 atus. 
 
 DERRlKor Diederik. See Theoderick. 
 
 Diana, dl-an'a, or Dian, dl'an ; Danish, Diana, de- 
 1'ni; Fr. Diane, de'aV; Ger. Diana, de-a'na; Gr. 
 'Apre/MC, (Artemis;) It. Diana, de-S'na ; Lat. Dia'na. 
 
 Dido, di'do; Fr. Didon, de'd6N'; It. Didone, de- 
 do^; Lat Di'do, (genitive, Dido'nis.) 
 
 Didymus, did'e-mus, (a "twin;") Fr. Didyme, de'- 
 dem'; Gr. &idv/we, (Didumos ;) Lat. Did'ymus. 
 
 Diego. See James. 
 
 Dietrich. See Theoderick. 
 
 Dieudonne. See Deodate. 
 
 Diogo. See James. 
 
 Dionigio or Dionisio. See Denis. 
 
 Dirk or Dirck, (the same as Diederick.) See 
 Theoderick. 
 
 Dmitri. See Demetrius. 
 
 Dominic, dom'e-nik ; Danish, Dominicus, do-mee'- 
 ne-kus ; Dutch, Dominicus, do-mee'ne-kiis ; Fr. Do- 
 minique, do'me'nek'; It. Domenico, do-mi'ne-ko; 
 Lat. Domin'icus; Port. Domingos, do-meng'g6s; Sp. 
 Domingo, do-meng'go; Sw. Dominicus, do-mee'ne- 
 kus. 
 
 Dorothy, dor'o-Me, (the " gift of God ;") Danish, 
 Dorothea, do-ro-ta'i; Dutch, Dorothea, do-ro-ta'3; 
 Fr. Dorothee, do'ro'ta'; Ger. Dorothea, do-ro-ta'i ;i 
 Gr. bupoOea, (Dorothea ;) It. Dorotea, do-ro-ta'l ; Lat. 
 Dorothe'a ; Sp. Dorotea, do-ro-ta'a ; Sw. Dorothea, 
 do-ro-tn'l 
 
 Drusilla, dru-sil'la, ("dewy eyes;") Fr. Drusii.i.e, 
 dRli'zel'; Ger. Drusille, dRoo-zil'leh ; Gr. ApouoiAAij, 
 (Drousille;) It. Drusilla, dRoo-sel'li; Lat. Drusil'la. 
 
 Duarte, See Edward. 
 
 Eberhard. See Everard. 
 Ed'gar, (" happy honour" ?) Lat. Edga'rus. 
 Ed'mund, ("happy protection" or "happy peace;") 
 Danish, Edmund, Sd'mdoW; Fr. Edmund, WmdN'; 
 
 Ger. Edmund, eVmSont ; It. Edmondo, 2d-mon'do ; 
 Lat. Edmun'dus; Sp. Edmondo, Sd-mon'do, or Ed- 
 mundo, ed-moon'do. 
 
 Edward, Wward,("happy keeper;") Danish.EDUARD, 
 a'doo-aR</; Dutch, Eduard, a'doo-aRt ; Fr. Edouard, 
 4'doo'iV ; Ger. Eduard, a'doo-aRt ; It. Eduardo, 
 4-doo-aR'do, or Edoardo, 4-do-aR'do ; Lat. Edvar'dus 
 orEDOAR'Dus; Port. Duarte, doo-aR'ti; Sp. Eduar- 
 do, 4-Doo-aR'do ; Sw. Eduard, a'doo-aRd. 
 
 Ed'win, (a "happy conqueror;") Danish, Edwin, 
 Sd'vin; Lat. Edwi'nus. 
 
 Eg'bert, ("ever bright"?) Lat. Egber'tus. 
 
 Ehrenfried, (Ger.) a'ren-freet'. 
 
 Eirene. See Irene. 
 
 Ekaterina. See Catherine. 
 
 Eleanor, el'e-nor ; Danish, Eleonore, a-la-o-no're,h ; 
 Dutch, Leonora, 14-o-no'ri; Fr. Eleonore, 4'laV- 
 noR'; Ger. Eleonore, 4-14-o-no'reh ; It. Eleonora, 
 4-14-o-no'ra ; Lat. Eleano'ra ; Sp. Leanor, 14-a-noR'. 
 
 El'dred, (i.e. "all dread," hence "terrible;") Lat. 
 Eldre'dus. 
 
 El-e-a'zar, (the "help of God ;") Lat. Elea'zar, (gen- 
 itive, Eleaz'aris.) 
 
 Elena. See Helen. 
 
 Elias, e-ll'as, or Elijah, e-H'ja, (" God the Lord ;") 
 Danish, Elias, 4-lee'is; Fr. Elie, 4'le'; Ger. Elias, 
 4-lee'is; Heb. in ,l ?N or iT^N; It. Elia, 4-lee'i; Lat 
 Eli'as. 
 
 Elijah. See Elias. 
 
 Elisa or Elise. See Eliza. 
 
 Elisabeth. See Elizabeth. 
 
 Elisabetta. See Elizabeth. 
 
 Elisha, e-ll'sha, (the " salvation of God ;") Fr. Elisee, 
 4'le'z4'; Heb. JW'Sx ; It. Eliseo, 4-le-sa'o; Lat 
 Elis^'us; Port. Eliseu, 4-le-sa'oo? Sp. Eliseo, 4-le- 
 sa'o. 
 
 Eliza, e-II'za ; Danish, Elisa, 4-lee'si ; Dutch, Elisa, 
 i-lee'si; Fr. Elise, i'lez'; Ger. Elisa, a-lee'za; Lat 
 Ei.i'za or Eli'sa. 
 
 Elizabeth, e-liz'a-beth, (the " oath of God ;") Danish, 
 Elisabeth, a-lee'sa-bet ; Dutch, Elizabeth, 4-lee'zi- 
 bgt; Fr.ELlSABETH.i'le'zi'Mt'; Ger. Elisabeth, 4-lee'- 
 zi-Wt'; It. Elisabetta, i-le-si-bet'tl ; Lat Elizabe'- 
 tha ; Sp. Isabel, e-sl-bJI'. 
 
 Ellen. See Helen. 
 
 Else or Elsa. See Alice. 
 i Elsje. See Alice. 
 
 Emanuel. See Emmanuel. 
 
 EM'ER-lcor Emery, em'er-e, ("always rich;") Danish, 
 Almerik, Sl'meh-rlk'; Dutch, Almerik, al'!n?h-rlk ; 
 Fr. Emeric, im'rek', or Emeri, 4m're'; Lat Almeri'- 
 cus; Sw. Em'mer-ik. 
 
 Emilia, e-mil'e-a, or Emily, em'e-le ; Fr. Emilie 
 4'me'le'; Ger. Emilie, 4-mee'le-?h, or Emilia, 4-mee' 
 le-i; It Emilia, 4-mee'le-a. 
 
 Em'ma, (a "nurse;") Fr. Emma, 4'mi'; It. Emma 
 Jm'mi ; Lat Em'ma. 
 
 Em-man'u-el or E-man'u-el, ("God with us;") Fr 
 Emmanuel, 4'mf'nii'8l'; Ger. Emanuel, 4-m.Vnoo-eX 
 
 « as k; c as /; g hard; g as/; o, H, X,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as *; th as in this. 
 
 (J^^See Explanations, p. 23. )■ 
 233> 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 or Immanuel, im-ml'noo-Sl ; It. EmaNuele, 4-ma-noo- 
 5'I4; Lat. Emman'uel; Port. Manoel, ma-no-41'; Sp. 
 Manuel, manoo-eY. 
 
 Emmerik. See Emeric 
 
 Enoch, ee'nok, (" instructed ;") Fr. Enoch or He- 
 noch, 1'nok'; Heb. Tun ; Lat. Eno'chus or Heno'- 
 
 CHUS. 
 
 Enrichetta or Enriqueta. See Harriet. 
 Enrico. See Henry. 
 
 E'phra-im, ("fruitful;") Fr. Ephraim, 4'fRi'em'; 
 Heb. Dn3X; Lat. Ephrai'mus. 
 
 E-ras'mus, ("lovely ;") Danish, Erasmus, 4-rSs'mus ; 
 Fr. Erasme, 4'rism'; Ger. Erasmus, 4-ras'mus ; Gr. 
 'Epao/we,(Erasm<>s;) It. Erasmo, 4-ras'mo; Lat. Eras'- 
 Mus ; Sp. Erasmo, 4-ras'mo. 
 
 E-ras'tus, ("beloved;") Fr. Eraste, a'rtst'; Gr. 
 "Epaoroc, (Erastos;) Lat. Eras'tuS. 
 
 Ercole. See Hercules. 
 
 Er'nest, ("earnest;") Danish, Ernst, eRnst ; Dutch, 
 Ernestus, gR-neVtus; Fr. Ernest, eVnest'; Ger. 
 Ernst, SRnst; It. Ernesto, gR-nes'to; Lat. Ernes'- 
 tus ; Sw. Ernst, Srhsl 
 
 Errico. See Henry. 
 
 Esaias. See Isaiah. 
 
 E'sau, (" completed ;") Fr. Esau, 4'zi'ii'; Heb. VOy ; 
 Lat. Esa'vus. 
 
 Esdras. See Ezra. 
 
 Esther, es'ter, ("secret;") Dutch, Hester, hfe'ter ; 
 Fr. Esther, fe'taiR'; Ger. Esther, eVter ; Heb. "IPDK ; 
 It. Ester, 8s-taiR'; Lat. Esthe'ra; Sp. Ester, Ss-taiR'. 
 
 Esteban. See Stephen. 
 
 EstevXo. See Stephen. 
 
 Estienne. See Stephen. 
 
 Ei h'el-bAld, (" nobly bold ;") Lat. Ethei.ual'dus. 
 
 Ethelbert, eth'el-bert, (" nobly bright ;") Danish, 
 Adelbert, S'det-WRt'; Dutch, Adklbert, a'del-beRt'; 
 Fr. Adalbert, t'dtl'baiR', or Adelbert, S'deTbaiR'; 
 Ger. Adelbert, a'del-beRt'; Lat. Ethelber'tus or 
 Adalber'tus. 
 
 Etienne. See Stephen. 
 
 Ettore. See Hector. 
 
 Eugene, u-jeen', ("nobly descended ;") Dutch, Euge- 
 Nius, uh-Ha'ne-us ; Fr. Eugene, uh'zhin'; Ger. Eugen, 
 oi-gan'; Gr. Evyevtof, (Eugenios ;) It. Eugenio, ?-oo-ja'- 
 ne-o , Lat. Eugf/nius ; Sp. Eugenio, ?-oo-Ha'ne-o ; Sw. 
 Eugenius, S-oo-gn'ne-is. . 
 
 Euai nia, u-jee'ne-a ; Fr. Eugenie, uh'zha'ne'; Gr. 
 Eiyivia, (Eugenia. ) 
 
 Eugento or Eugenius. See Eugene. 
 Eunice, u'niss, ("fair victory;") Gr. ~Evvckti, ( Eu- 
 nike ;) Lat. Euni'ce. 
 
 Eusetsius, u-see'be-us, ("religious;") Fr. EusEBE,uh'- 
 zW; Gr. tfiacSuc, ( EuseUos :) \t. Eusebio, |-oo-sa'be-o ; 
 Lat. Euse'bius ; Sp. Eusebio, S-oo-sa'Re-oT' 
 
 Eustace, ii'stass, ("standing firm ;") Dutch, Eusta- 
 tius, uh-sta'se-iis, (almost uh-sta'she-us ;) Fr. Eu- 
 staciie, uh'stish'; It. Eustachio, 5-no-sta'ke-o ; Lat. 
 Eusta'chius ; Sp. Eustaquio, S-oo-sta^ke-o. 
 
 Eve, eev, ("life" or "causing life;") Arabic, Hawa, 
 Ha'wa or Ha'vt, or Heva, Hev'a ; Danish, Eva, a'va ; 
 Dutch, Eva, a'va; Fr. Eve, &v; Ger. Eva, a'va; Gr. 
 E{-o, (Eua or Eva;) Heb. Hill; It. Eva, a'va; Lat. 
 E'va ; Sp. Eva, a'va ; Sw. Eva, Ii'va. 
 
 Everard, ev'er-ard ; Danish, Eberhard, a'ber-harrf; 
 Dutch, Everard, a'veh-raRt'; Ger. Eberhard, a'ber- 
 haRt'. 
 
 Ezechias or Ezechias. See Hezekiah.- 
 
 Ezekiel, e-zee'ke-el, (the "strength of God ;") Dutch, 
 
 Ezechiel, 4-za'K.e-eY; Fr. Ezechiel, a'zi'she-el'. 
 Ezra, eVra, or Esdras, ez'dras, (a "helper;") Fr. 
 
 Esdras, es'dRas'; Lat.Ez'RA or Es'dras. 
 
 FABrAN, fe'be-an ; Danish, Fabian, fa'be-tn ; Dutch, 
 Fabiaan, fa'be-an'; Fr. Fabien, fa"be'iN'; It. Fabianq, 
 fa-be-a'no ; Lat. Fabia'nus. 
 
 Febe. See Phcebe. 
 
 Federigo. See Frederick. 
 
 Felice. See Felix. 
 
 Felipe.. See Philip. 
 
 Fe'lix, ("happy;") Danish, Felix, fa'liks; Dutch, 
 Felix, fa'liks; Fr. Felix, fa'leks'; Ger. Felix, fa'liks ; 
 It. Felice, fi-lee'cha; Lat. Fe'lix, (genitive, Feli'cis;) 
 Sp. Felix, fi-leks'. 
 
 Feodor. See Theodore. 
 
 Ferdinand, fer'de-nand, (" pure peace ;") Dutch, 
 Ferdinand, feVde-nant'; Fr. Ferdinand, feR'de'ndN'; 
 Ger. Ferdinand, feR'de-nant'; It. Ferdinando, feR- 
 de-nah'do ; Lat. Ferdinan'dus ; Port. Fernando, f?R- 
 nan'do, or Fernao, feR-n8wN'; Sp. Fernando, i2r- 
 nan'do. 
 
 Filiberto. See Philibert. 
 
 Filide. See Phyllis. 
 
 Filippa or Filippina. See Philippa. 
 
 Filippo. See Philip. 
 
 Fineo. See Phineas. 
 
 Fiorenza. See Florence. 
 
 Flora, flo'ra, (the "goddess of flowers;") Dutch, 
 Flora, flo'ra ; Fr. Flore, Aor ; It. Flora, flo'ra ; Lat 
 Flo'ra. 
 
 Flor'ence, ("flourishing;") Danish, Florenz, flo- 
 r?nts'; Dutch, Florentia, flo-ren'se-a; Fr. Florence, 
 flo'rONSs'; Ger. Fl.ORENZ, flo-rSnts'; It. Fiorenza, 
 fc-o-re'n'za; Lat. Floren'tia, (flo-reVshe-a ;) Sp. Flo- 
 rencia, flo-reu'r^e-a ; Sw. Florenz, flo-reW. 
 
 For-tu-nS'tus, ("happy," '•fortunate;") Fr. For- 
 tune", foR'tii'na'; Ger. Fortunatus, foR-too-na'tis; It. 
 For iunato, for-too-na'to ; Lat. Fortuna'tus. 
 
 Frances, fran'sSs, (the feminine of Francis ;) Danish, 
 Francisca, fRtn-sis'ka; Dutch, Francisca, fRan-sis'- 
 ka ; Fr. Franchise, frSN'swaz' ; Ger. Francisca, fRant- 
 sis'ka; It. Francesca, fRan-chSs'ka; Lat. Frances'ca 
 or Francis'ca ; Sw. Franciska, fRjn-sis'ka. 
 
 Fran'cis, (" free ;") Danish, Frants, frints, or Fran- 
 CISCUS, fRin-sis'ktis ; Dutch, Franciscus, fRSn-sis'kiis ; 
 Fr. Francois, fkflN'swa'; Ger. Franz, fRants ; It 
 Francesco, fRan-ches'ko ; Lat. FranCIs'cus ; Port. 
 Francisco, fRan-ses'ko; Sp. Francisco, fRan-rtes'ko; 
 Sw. Frans, franss. 
 
 5, e, I, o, u, y, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; a, e, i, 9, obscure; Br, fill, fit; m«t; not; gS6d; m<5on; 
 2332 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 Fred'er-ick, ("rich in peace ;") Danish, Frkderik, 
 fRa'der-ik ; Dutch, Fredkrik, fi;a'deh-rik ; Fr. Frede- 
 ric, fRa'di'rek'; Ger. Friedrich, tReed'riK ; It. Frede- 
 rick), fR&da-ree'ko, or Federigo, fi-di-ree'go ; Lat. 
 Frederi'cus ; Port. Frederico, fRit-dk-ree'ko ; Sp. 
 Frederico, fRa-Di-ree'ko ; Sw. Fredrick, fRSd'rik. 
 
 Gabriel, ga'bre-el, (the "strength of God," or, ac- 
 cording to some, the "hero of God ;") Arabic, Jahreel 
 or Jabrll, ja-breel';* Fr. Gabriel, gl'bRe'eV; Ger. 
 Gabriel, gi'bRe-el ; It. Gabriele, ga-bRe-a'l& ; Lat. 
 Ga'briel, (genitive, Gabrie'lis ;) Sw. Gabriel, ga'- 
 bReel. 
 
 Galfred and Galfridus. See Geoffrey. 
 
 Gaspard or Gaspar. See Jasper, 
 
 Gautier. See Walter. 
 
 Gedbon. See Gideon. 
 
 Geoffrey, jJPfre, or Gef'frey, ("joyful peace" ?+) 
 Danish, Galfred, gSl'fReV; Dutch, Godfried, got'- 
 fgeet or Hot'fReet ; Fr. Geoffroy, zho'fRwa'; It. Giof- 
 Freddo, jof-fRSd'do ; Lat. Galfri'dus. 
 
 George, jorj, (a "farmer ;") Danish, Georg, ga'oRG ; 
 Dutch, Georg, ga'oRH, (sometimes pronounced nearly 
 like the French xhorzh or shorsk;) Fr. George or 
 Georges, zhoRzh ; Ger. Georg, ga'oRG; Gr. Teupyios, 
 (Georgios ;) It. Giorgio, jor'jo; Lat. Geor'gius; Port. 
 Jorge, zhop/zhi ; Sp. Jorge, HoR'Ha ; Sw. Georg, 
 ga'org. 
 
 Gerard, je-rard', sometimes corrupted to Gar'ret 
 and Ger'rit, (i.e. "firm spear;"}) Danish, Gerhard, 
 geVhan/; Dutch, Gerard, Ha'rSRt ; Fr. Gerard, 
 tha'rf r'; Ger. Gerhard, geVhaRt ; It. Gerardo, ji- 
 raR'do; Lat. Gerar'dus; Sw. Gerhard, geVhiRd. 
 
 Geremia. See Jeremiah. 
 
 Geronimo. See Jerome. 
 
 Gertrude, g?r'trud or jer'lrud, (perhaps "true 
 spear ;"§) Dutch, Geertruida, HaR-tRoi'dJ ; Fr. Ger- 
 trude, zheR'tRud'; Ger. Gertraud, geVtRowt, or 
 Gertrud, geVtRoot'; It. Gertruda, jSR-tRoo'dl ; Lat. 
 Gertru'da ; Sw. Gertrud, geVtRood. 
 
 Gervase, jer'vas, or Jer'vis ; Dutch, GervaaS, heV- 
 vls; Fr. Gervais, zI>cr'v&' ; Lat. Gerva'sius, 
 
 Giacomina or Giacobba. See Jacqueline. 
 Giacomo. See James. 
 
 Gideon, gid'e-on, (a "breaker ;") Fr. Gedbon, zhi'- 
 di'oN'; It. Gedeone, ji-da-o'ni ; Lat. Gid'eon. 
 Gil. See Giles. 
 
 • Pronounced in some Arabic dialed* ga-breel'. 
 
 t Some suppose that Gkoffrry has the same origin as Goofrky, 
 signifying "God's peace ;" but, if this be so, it seems strange that in 
 the English, French, Italian, and Danish there should be two forms 
 so entirely different. In the Danish, Geoffrey is Gal/red, which can 
 scarcely by any possibility come from "God's peace," (Gudsfred.) 
 It would rather seem to be "joyful peace," from a root connate with 
 the Anglo-Saxon gal. "wanton," "merry," and allied to the Danish 
 gale and Swedish gala, to "crow" or "sing for joy," and also to 
 the prefix gala in our "gala-day." 
 
 X From a root cognate with the Anglo-Saxon gar. a "dart" or 
 "javelin," and hard. " firm." 
 
 § And hence " true," " faithful," because one who was true in 
 war was true in the most important sense. Miss C. M. Yongk, in 
 her "History of Christian Names," gives "spear-maid" as the 
 etymological signification of Gertrude. 
 
 Gilbert, gil'bert, ("bright as gold"?) Danish, Gil- 
 bert, gil'beRt ; Dutch, Gilbert, Hil'bSRt ; Fr. Gilbert 
 zhel'baiR'; Ger. Gilbert, gil'b?Rt; Lat. Gilber'tus, 
 Sw. Gilbertus, gil-beVMs. 
 
 Giles, jilz, (a "little goat"?) Fr. Gilles, zhel ; 
 Ger. Aegidius, a-gee'de->is ; It Egidio, a-jee'de-o; 
 Lat. jEgid'ius; Sp. Gil, Hel. 
 
 Giobbe. See Job. 
 
 Giorgio. See George. 
 
 Giosiade. See Josiah. 
 
 Giosue. See Joshua. 
 
 Giovanna. See Jane. 
 
 Giovanni. See John. 
 
 Girolamo. See Jerome. 
 
 Giuda. See Judah. 
 
 Giuditta. See Judith. 
 
 Giulia. See Julia. 
 
 Giuliana. See Juliana. 
 
 Giuliano. See Julian. 
 
 Giuseppa or Giuseppina. See Josephine. 
 
 Giuseppe. See Joseph. 
 
 Godard, god'ard, (" firm or true to God ;") Ger. Gott« 
 hard, got'haRt ; Lat. Godar'dus. 
 
 Godefroi. See Godfrey. 
 
 Godewijn. See Godwin. 
 
 God'frey, (" God's peace ;") Danish, Gottfried, 
 got'freerf; Dutch, Godfried, Hot'fReet ; Fr. Godefroi, 
 go'deh-fRwa' or god'fRwJ'; Ger. Gottfried, got'fReet; 
 It. Goffrkdo, gof-fna'do ; Lat. Godfri'dus. 
 
 God'win, ("victorious in God;") Dutch, Godewijn, 
 Ho'deh-wln'; Lat. Godwi'nus. 
 
 Goffredo. See Godfrey. 
 
 Gottfried. See Godfrey. 
 
 Gotthard. See Godard. 
 
 GorrLiEB. See Theophilus. 
 
 GrSce, ("favour;") Dutch, Gratia, gra'se-i; Fr. 
 Grace, gutss ; It. Grazia, gRat'se-i ; Lat. Gra'tia. 
 
 Gregory, grSg'o-re, (" watchful ;") Danish, Gregor, 
 gRa-goR'; Dutch, Gregorius, gRa-Go're-us ; Fr. Gre- 
 goire, gRa'gwaR' ; Ger. Gregor, gRa-goR'; Gr. Tpr/yo- 
 l>io£, ( G • i;orios ; ) It. Gregorio, gRi-go're-o; Lat. Gre- 
 go'rius ; Sp. Gregorio, gRl-go're-o ; Sw. Gregorius, 
 gRa-go're-tts. 
 
 Grif'fith; Danish, Griffith, gRif'fit ; Dutch, Ru- 
 FINUS, rti-fee'nus; Lat. Griffitu'ius; Sw. Rufin, 
 roo-feen'. 
 
 Gualterus. See Walter. 
 
 Gugliei.mo. See William. 
 
 Guido. See Guy. 
 
 Guillaume. See William. 
 
 Gulielmus. See William. 
 
 Gus-ta'vus; Dutch, GustaVUS, Htis-ta'vtis j Fr. Gus- 
 TAVE, giis'ttv'; Ger. Gustav, goos'tlf ; Lat. Gusta'vus; 
 Sw. Gustaf, goos'tif. 
 
 Guv, gT, (" wit," " sense" ?) Danish, GutDO, gwee'do ; 
 Dutch, Guido, gwee'do or Hwee'do j Fr. Guy, ge ; Ger 
 Vrit, fit ; It. Guido, gwee'do j Lat. Gui'do ; Sw. 
 Guido, gwee'do. 
 
 «a»/e; 9 as*; g hard;g as/; g, H, YL,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; s as t; th as in this. (JJ^See Explanations, p. 2j.) 
 
 2333 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 Hadrian. See Adrian. 
 
 Hagar, ha'gar, (a " stranger ;") Arabic, HAjAR, hl'- 
 Jjir, °r HAgar; Fr. Agar, i'gaR'; Heb. "Uil; Lat. 
 Ha'gar, (genitive, Ha'garis.) 
 
 Hannah, ("gracious;") Danish, Hanne, hin'neh, or 
 Hanna, hin'na; Dutch, Hanna, han'na; Fr. Anna, 
 i'ni'; Heb. run ; Lat. Han'na ; Sw. Hanna, han'na. 
 
 Hannibal, han'ne-bal, (a "gracious lord;") Fr. 
 Hannibal, i'ne'bil'; It. Annibale, an-ne-ba'll; Lat. 
 Han'nibal, (genitive, Han'nibalis.) 
 
 Hans. See John. 
 
 Harman. See Herman. 
 
 Harold, hlr'old, (a "champion;") Danish, Harald, 
 ha'rSLd ; Dutch, Herold, ha'rolt ; Fr. Harold, hi'rold'; 
 It. Araldo, 1-ral'do ; Lat. Harol'dus. 
 
 Harriet, har're-et ; Danish, Henriette, hSn-re-et'- 
 teh ; Dutch, Henrietta, hen-re-et'tl ; Fr. Henriette, 
 ^&N're-2t'; Ger. Henriette, hin-re-et'tfh ; It. Enri- 
 chetta, 2n-re-ket'ta ; Sp. Enriqueta, 4n-re-ka'ta ; Sw. 
 Henrietta, hSn-re-et'tl 
 
 Hector, (a " defender ;") Fr. Hector, eVtoR'; Gr. 
 'Ektup, (Hektor;) It. Ettore, Jt-to'ri; Lat. Hec'tor, 
 (genitive, Hec'toris.) 
 
 Heinrich. See Henry. 
 
 Hel'en or Helena, h41'e-na, ("brightness;") Da- 
 nish, Helena, heh-la'na; Dutch, Helena, heh-la'na; 
 Fr. Helene, i'lin'; Ger. Helene, heh-la'neh ; Gr. 
 'EtevTi, (Helene;) It. Elena, 4-la'na; Lat. Hel'ena; 
 Sp. Elena, i-la'nl 
 
 Hendrik. See Henry. 
 
 Henri. See Henry. 
 
 Henricus. See Henry. 
 
 Henrietta. See Harriet. 
 
 Hen'ry, (" rich lord ;") Danish, Hendrik, heVdRik ; 
 Dutch, Hendrik, hJn'dRik ; Fr. Henri, hSN're'; Ger. 
 Heinrich, hln'riK ; It. Enrico, en-ree'ko, or Errico, 
 8r-ree'ko ; Lat. Henri'cus ; Port. Henrique, In-ree'ka ; 
 Sp. Enrique, 8n-ree'kl; Sw. Hen'kik. 
 
 Herbfrt, her'bert, (" bright lord ;") Lat. Herber'- 
 Tus ; Sw. Herbert, heVbSRt 
 
 Hercules, her'ku-lez, (the "glory of Hera;") Fr. 
 Hercule, eVkiil'; Ger. Hercules, heR'koo-les; Gr. 
 1lpaK?Jjc,(HeraMes;) It. Ercole, eR'ko-la ; Lat. Her'- 
 CULES, (genitive, Her'culis.) 
 
 Herman, her'man, (the "leader of an army;") Da- 
 nish, Hermann, heR'mtn ; Dutch, Herman, heVman ; 
 Fr. Armand or Armant, iVnioN'; Ger. Hermann, 
 heVman ; Lat. Herman'nus or Harman'nus; Sw. 
 Herman, hSR'mln. 
 
 Hermogenes, her-moj'e-nez, (" descended from Her- 
 mes ;") Fr. Hermogene, eVmo'zhJn'; Gr. 'Ep/uoyhn);, 
 (Hermogenes ;) Lat. Hermog'enes, (genitive, Hermog'- 
 
 ENIS.) 
 
 Herold. See Harold. 
 
 Hester. See Esther. 
 
 Hezekiah, hez-e-ki'a, ("cleaving to the Lord;") 
 Dutch, Hiskia, his-kee'a ; Fr. Ezechias, a'za'she'ts'; 
 Heb. liTpm or rrpm ; Lat. Hezeki'as. 
 
 Hierom. See Jerome. 
 
 Hieronymus. See Jerome. 
 
 Hilary, «hil'a-re, (" merry," " cheerful ;") Dknish, 
 Hilarius, he-la're-fts ; Dutch, Hilarius, he-la're-fis; 
 Fr. Hii.aire, e'laV; It. Ilario, e-la're-o ; Lat Hila'- 
 rius; Sw. Hilarius, he-la're-us. 
 
 Hiob. See Job. 
 
 Hiskia. See Hezekiah. 
 
 Homfroi. See Humphrey. 
 
 Hor'ace or Horatio, ho-ra'she-o, (" worthy to be 
 beheld"?) Danish, Horats, ho-rits' ; Dutch, Horatius, 
 ho-ra'se-us ; Fr. Horace, o'riss'; Ger. Horaz, ho-rats'; 
 It. Orazio, o-rit'se-o; Lat. Hora'tius ; Port. Horacio, 
 o-ra'se-o ; Sp. Horacio, o-ra'Me-o. 
 
 Horatio. See Horace. 
 
 Horatius. See Horace. 
 
 Horats or Horaz. See Horace. 
 
 Hu'bert, ("bright in mind"?) Danish, Hubertus, 
 hoo-beVtus; Dutch, Hubertus, Mi-beVtus; Fr. Hu- 
 bert, //ii'baiR'; Lat. Huber'tus; Sw. Hubertus, 
 hoo-beVtus. 
 
 Hugh ; Danish, Hugo, hoo'go ; Dutch, Hugo, hii'go ; 
 Fr. Hugues, hug; It. Ugo, oo'go ; Lat. Hu'go, (geni- 
 tive, Hugo'nis;) Sw. Hugo, hoo'go. 
 
 Hum'phrey, ("support of peace"?) Dutch, Hum. 
 fried, hum'fReet; Fr. Homfroi, ^N'fRwa'; It Om- 
 fredo, om-fRa'do ; Lat. Humphre'dus or Onu'phrius ; 
 Sw. Humfrid, hdom'fRid. 
 
 IbrAheem. See Abraham. 
 
 Igna'tius, (ig-na'she-us ;) Dutch, Ignatius, ig-ni'- 
 se-us ; Fr. Ignace, en'yiss'; Ger. Ignaz, ig-nats', or 
 Ignatius, ig-nat'se-us ; Gr. 'V/vinvos, (Ignatios;) It 
 Ignacio, en-ya'cho ; Lat. Igna'tius ; Sp. Ignacio, eg- 
 naV/ie-o, or Inigo, en-yee'go. 
 
 Ilario. See Hilary. 
 
 IRigo. See Ignatius. 
 
 In'no-cent ; Dutch, Innocentius, in-no-s8n'se-iis ; 
 Fr. Innocent, e'no'so.N'; Ger. Innocenz, in-not-sSnts', 
 or Innocentius, in-not-sfnt'se-ns ; It. Innocente, 
 en-no-cheVta ; Lat. Innocen'tius, (in-no-sen'shg-us ;) 
 Sp. Inocencio, e-no-thhn'tht-o. 
 
 I-re'ne, (" peace ;") Fr. Irene, e'rin'; Ger. Irene, 
 e-ra'neh ; Gr. Elpr/VT), (Eirene;) If. Irenea, e-ra-na'a. 
 
 Isaac, I'zak, ("laughter;") Arabic, IshAk, is-hlk'; 
 Danish, Isak, ee'slk ; Dutch, Izaak, ee'zik ; Fr. Isaac, 
 e'zS'tk'; Ger. Isaak, ee'zak; Heb. pnr or pntT; 
 Hungarian, Izsak, ee'slk; It. Isacco, e-sak'ko; Lat 
 Isa'acus ; Polish, Izaak, ee'zik ; Sw. Isak, ee'slk. 
 
 Isabel, iz'a-bel, or Isabella, iz-a-bel'la, (originally 
 the same as Elizabeth, which see ;) Dutch, Isabei.le, 
 e-sa-bel'leh ; Fr. Isabelle, e'zi'MK; Ger. Isabei.le, 
 e-za-bel'leh ; It. Isabella, e-si-bel'la ; Lat. Isabel'la; 
 Sp. Isabel, e-si-bSK; Sw. Isabella, e-sa-bel'll 
 
 Isacco. See Isaac. 
 
 Isaiah, I-za'ya or I-za'e-ya ; Danish, Esaias, a-sl'is ; 
 Dutch, Jezajas, yk-zl'yls ; Fr. Isaie, e'zS'e'; Ger. 
 Esaias, a-za'e-as, or a-zi'as ; Heb. \7V$W ; It. Isaia, 
 e-si'a ; Lat. Esai'as ; Port. Isaias, e-sa-ee'as ; Sp. 
 Isaias, e-sa-ee'as. 
 
 Isak. See Isaac. 
 
 IshAk. See Isaac. 
 
 Ish'ma-el, (" God hath heard ;") Arabic, Ismaeel 
 
 i, e, 1, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, T, o, u, y, short; a, e, j, o, obscure; far, fall, fat; met; not; good; moon; 
 2334 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 or IsmaSl, is'ma-eel'; Fr. Ismael, es'mt'el'; Heb. 
 Skj'W ; It. Ismaele, es-ma-a'la ; Lat. Ish'mael. 
 
 Isidore, iz'e-dor; Dutch, Isidorus, e-se-do'rfis; 
 Fr. Isidore, e'ze'doR'; Gr. 'laioupoc, (Isodoros;) It. Isi- 
 DORO, e-se-do'ro; Lat. Isido'rus. 
 
 Ismael, Ismaele, or Ismail. See Ishmael. 
 
 Israel, iz'ra-el, (" prevailing with God ;") Fr. Israel, 
 es'rt-el'; Ger. Israel, is'ri-al'; Heb. SkiBT ; Lat Is'- 
 rael, (genitive, Israe'lis.) 
 
 IstvAn. See Stephen. 
 
 Ivan. See John. 
 
 Izaak, Izak, or IzsAk. See Isaac. 
 
 Jabreel. See Gabriel. 
 
 Jacob, ji'kob, (a " supplanter ;") Arabic, Yakoob or 
 YakOh, ya'koob'; Danish, Jakob, ya'kob ; Dutch, Jacob 
 or Jakob, ya'kob ; Fr. Jacob, zhf 'kob'; Ger. Jakob, 
 ya'kop ; Heb. 3^' ; Hungarian, JAkoh, ya'kob ; It. 
 Jacob, ya'kob, or Jacopo, yi'ko-po ; Lat. Jaco'iius or 
 Ja'cob ; Polish, Jakob, ya'kob ; Sw. Jakob, ya'kob. 
 
 Jacqueline, jak'keh-leen', (the feminine of James ;) 
 Fr. Jacqueline, zhik'keh-len'; Ger. Jakobine, ya-ko- 
 bee'neh ; It. Giacomina, ja-ko-mee'na, or Giacobba, 
 ja-kob'ba. 
 
 James, jamz, (in its origin the same as Jacob ;) Da- 
 nish, Jakob, ya'kob ; Dutch, Jacobus, ya-ko'bus ; Fr. 
 Jacques, zhf k ; Ger. Jakob, ya'kop; Hungarian, Ja- 
 Kab, y5k'8b; It. Giacomo, ja'ko-mo; Lat. Jaco'bus ; 
 Polish, Jakub, ya'koob; Port. Diogo, de-o'go, or 
 Jacobo, zhl-ko'bo ; Russ. Yakof, ya'kof; Sp. Jaime, 
 Hl'mi, (Saint James is called Santiago, san-te-i'go ;) 
 Sw. Jakob, ya'kob. 
 
 Jan. See John. 
 
 JXne and Joan, or Joanna, jo-an'na, (the feminine of 
 John ;) Danish, Johanne, yo-htn'neh ; Dutch, Hanna, 
 han'nl ; Fr. Jeanne, zhin ; Ger. Johanna, yo-han'na; 
 It. Giovanna, jo-van'na ; Lat. Ja'na or Jo-han'na ; 
 Sp. JuaSa, Hoo-an'ya; Sw. Johanna, yo-han'na. 
 
 JAnos. See John. 
 
 Jas'per, ("treasure-master"?) Danish, Jesper, yeV- 
 per ; Dutch, Jasper, yas'per, or Kasper, kas'per ; Fr. 
 Gaspard, gts'pSR'; Ger. Caspar or Kaspar, kas'paR ; 
 It. Gasparo, gas'pa-ro ; Lat. Gas'par, (genitive, Gas'- 
 Paris ;) Port. Gaspar, gas-paR' ; Sp. Gaspar, gas-pak'; 
 Sw. Kasper, kas'per. 
 
 Jean. See John. 
 
 Jeanne. See Jane. 
 
 Jeannette. See Jenet. 
 
 Jeffrey or Jeffery. See Geoffrey. 
 
 Jen'et, (the diminutive of Jane ;) Fr. Jeannette, 
 zhi'nSt'; It. Giovannetta, jo-van-net' ta; Lat. Joa- 
 net'ta. 
 
 Jeph'thah, (a "discoverer;") Fr. JephtS, zhif'ta'; 
 Heb. tins' ; Lat. Jeph'tha. 
 
 Jeremiah, j4r-e-mi'a, or Jeremy, jer'e-me ; Danish, 
 Jkrkmias, yi-reh-mee'Ss ; Dutch, Jkrkmias, ya-reh- 
 mee'is; Fr. Jer^mie, zhi'ri'me'; Ger. Jf.remias, ya- 
 reh-mee'ds; Heb. rVOT ; It. Geremia, ja-ri-mee'a; 
 Lat. Jeremi'as ; Sw. Jeremias, ya-reh-mee'is. 
 
 Jerome, j?r'pm or je-r5m', or Hierom, hee'er-om, 
 ("sacred name;") Danish, Jeronymus, ya-ro'ne-m<is ; 
 
 Dutch, Hieronymus, he-eh-ro'ne-mus ; Fr. Jer5hk, 
 zha'rom'; Ger. Hieronymus, he-eh-ro'ne-mus; It. Ge- 
 ronimo, jaron'e-mo, or Girolamo, je-rol'a-mo; Lat. 
 Hieron'ymus; Port. Hieronimo, e-a-ro'ne-mo ; Sp. 
 Geronimo, Ha-ro'ne-mo ; Sw. Hieronymus, he-eh-ro'- 
 ne-mus. 
 
 Jesper. See Jasper. 
 
 Jezajas. See Isaiah. 
 
 Joan, (the same in its origin as Jane, which see.) 
 
 Joanetta. See Jenet. 
 
 Joanna. See Jane. 
 
 Joannes. See John. 
 
 JoXo. See John. 
 
 Job, job, ("sorrowing;") Arabic, Aiyoob or AyyOb, 
 I'yoob'; Fr. Job, zhob; Ger. Hiob, hee'op; Gr. 'liS, 
 (lob;) Heb. 3VX; It. Giobbe, job'ba or j6b'ba; Lat 
 Jon (genitive, Jo'bis) or Jo'bus ; Sw. Job, yob. 
 
 Jo'el, (" acquiescing ;") Fr. JofiL, zho'el'; Heb. Sxr i 
 Lat. Jo'el, (genitive, Joe'lis.) 
 
 Johanna. See Jane. 
 
 John, (the "grace of the Lord;") Danish, Johann, 
 yo'hin, or Hans, htns ; Dutch, Jan, yan ; Fr. Jean, 
 zhoN ; Ger. Johann, yo'han, (familiarly Hans, hanss, a 
 contraction of Johannes;) Gr. 'luavvric, (Idannes;) 
 Heb. n:nv ; Hungarian, JAnos, ya'nosh ; It. Giovan- 
 ni, jo-vin'nee ; Lat. Joan'nes or Johan'nes ; Polish, 
 Jan, yan ; Port. JoAo, zho-5wN'; Russ. Ivan, e-van'; 
 Sp. Juan, Hoo-an'; Sw. Johan, yo'han, or Hans, hans. 
 
 Jo'nah or Jo'nas, (a " dove ;") Fr. Jonas, zho'nas'; 
 Ger. Jonas, yo'iiis ; Heb. HJl' ; Lat. Jo'nas. 
 
 Jonathan, jon'a-than, (the "gift of the Lord ;") Fr. 
 Jonathan, zho'iif'tdN'; Heb. \T\y\7V ; Lat. Jon'athan, 
 (genitive in -is.) 
 
 Joost. See Joscelin. 
 
 Jorge. See George. 
 
 Jos'ce-lin or Joc/e-lin, ("just;") Dutch, Joost, 
 yost ; Lat. Joscf.li'nus. 
 
 Joseph, jo'zef, ("addition;") Fr. Joseph, zho'zSf ; 
 Ger. Joseph, yo'zSf ; Heb. *|DV ; Hungarian, Jozsef, 
 yo'sSf ; It. Giuseppe, joo-sep'pa ; Lat. Jose'phus or 
 Jo'seph; Polish, Jozef, yo'zef; Port. Jozfi, zho-za'; 
 Sp. Jost, Ho-sa'. 
 
 Josephine,* jo'zeh-feen', (the feminine of Joseph ;) 
 Fr. Josephe, zho'zSf, or Josephine, zho'za'fen'; Ger. 
 Josephe, yo'zjf-eh, or Josephine, yo-zeh-fee'neh ; It 
 Giusf.ppa, joo-sep'pa, or Giuseppina, joo-sSp-pee'na; 
 Lat. Jose'pha. 
 
 Joshua, josh'u-a, (a "saviour;") Dutch, Jjsua, yo'- 
 sii-a; Fr. JosuE, zho'zti'a'; Ger. Josua, yo'zoo-1 ; Heb. 
 i'BMTT ; It. Giosufe, jo-soo-a'; Lat. Jos'ua ; Sw. Josua, 
 yo'soo-1 
 
 Jo-si'aH (jo-sl'a,) or Jo-si'as ; Danish, Josias, yo- 
 see'is ; Dutch, Jozias, yo-zee'as ; Fr. Josias, zho'. 
 ze'is'; Heb. irTIPN' ; It Giosiade, jo-see'a-da; Lat 
 Josi'as. 
 
 Josua. See Joshuai 
 
 Joz£. See Joseph. 
 
 Jozsef. See Joseph. 
 
 
 
 * Josephine (or Josephine) and Giuseppina are, strictly speak- 
 ing, diminutives from Josephe (or Joskpha) and Giuseppa. 
 
 e as k; 9 as /; g hard; g as/; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; 8 as i; th as in thii, (2&~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
COCJBULJRr OF CHRISTIAN NJMES. 
 
 Juan. See John. 
 
 Juana. See Jane. 
 
 Ju'dah, Ju'das, Jude, jiid, ("confession;") Fr. Juda, 
 thii'dt' or Jude, zhiid ; Ger. Judas, yooMas ; Heb. 
 mirr ; Hungarian, Juda, yoo'da; It. Giuda, joo'da; 
 Lat. Ju'das; Polish, Judas, yoo'das; Sw. Judas, yoo'- 
 das. 
 
 Ju'dith, ("praising;") Heb. rmrr ; It. Giuditta, 
 joo-det'ta ; Lat. Judi'tha. 
 
 Julia, ju'le-a, (the feminine of Julius;) Dutch, Julia, 
 yii'le-a; Fr. Julie, zhii'le'; Ger. Julie, yoo'le-eh ; It. 
 Giulia, joo'le-i; Lat. Ju'lia ; Sp. Julia, Hoo'le-3.; Sw. 
 Julia, yoo'le-i 
 
 Julian, ju'le-an, ("related to Julius;") Dutch, Ju- 
 lianus, yii-le-a'nus ; Fr. Julien, zhii'le-aN' ; Ger. 
 Julian, yoo'lean ; It. Giuliano, joo-le-i'no ; Lat. 
 Julia'nus; Port. JuliXo, zhoo-le-owN'; Sp. Julian, 
 Hoo-le-an', or Juliano, Hoo-le-a'no ; Sw. Julian, yoo'- 
 le-an. 
 
 Juliana, ju-le-in'a, (the feminine of Julian ;) Dutch, 
 Juliana, yu-le-a'na ; Fr. Julienne, zhu'le-eV; Ger. 
 Juliane, yoo-le-i'neh ; It. Giuliana, joo-le-a'na ; Lat. 
 Julia'na ; Port. Juliana, zhoo-le-3'na ; Sp. Juliana, 
 Hoo-le-a'nl; Sw. Juliana, yoo-le-i'na. 
 
 Juliano. See Julian. 
 
 Julie. See Julia. 
 
 Julien. See Julian. 
 
 Julienne. See Julia. 
 
 Julius, ju'le-us, (" sprung from lulus ;") Dutch, Ju- 
 lius, yu'le-us ; Fr. Jules, zhiil ; Ger. Julius, yoo'le-us ; 
 It. Giui.io, joo'le-o; Lat. Ju'lius; Port. Julio, zhoo'- 
 le-o ; Sp. Julio, Hoo'le-o. 
 
 Karl or Karel. See Charles. 
 
 Kaspar. See Jasper. 
 
 Katharine or Katarina. See Catherine. 
 
 Klaas. See Nicholas. 
 
 Klara. See Clara. 
 
 Ki.audia. See Claudia. 
 
 Klaudius. See Claudius. 
 
 Koenraad. See Conrad. 
 
 Konrad. See Conrad. 
 
 KONSTANTIJN. See CONSTANTINE. 
 
 Kornelis. See Cornelius. 
 Krispin or Krispijn. See Crispin. 
 Kristofer. See Christopher. 
 
 L^etitia. See Lettice. 
 
 Lam'bert, ("brightness or glory of the country"?) 
 Dutch, Lambert, lam'bSRt, or Lambertus, lam-beV- 
 tus ; Fr. Lambert, loN'baiR'; Ger. Lambert, lam'bjRt ; 
 Lat. Lamber'tus. 
 
 Lan'ce-lot, (a "little lance ;") Fr. Lancelot, Ionss'- 
 lo'; Lat. Lancelot'tus. 
 
 Laura, law'ra, ("laurel;") Fr. Laure, 16r ; Ger. 
 Laura, low'ra ; It. Laura, low'ra. 
 
 Lau'rence, ("crowned with laurel;") Danish, Lo- 
 renz, lo'rJnts ; Dutch, Laurens, 1ow'r?ns ; Fr. Lau- 
 rent, lo'roN'; Ger. Laurenz, low'rJnts, Lorenz, lo'- 
 rints, and Laurentius, lSw-rSnt'se-us ; It. Lorenzo, 
 
 lo-rJn'zo; Lat. Lauren'tius ; Sp. Lorenzo, lo-reV- 
 tho ; Sw. Lars, laRs. 
 
 Lazarus, laz'a-n>S) (" destitute of help ;") Fr. Lazare, 
 U'zSr'; Gr. Aufapof, (Lazaros ;) It. Lazzaro, lat'si-ro; 
 Lat. Laz'arus. 
 
 Le'o or Le'on, (a " lion ;") Fr. Leon, la'dN'; It. 
 Leone, la-o'ni ; Lat. Le'o, (genitive, Leo'nis.) 
 
 Leolinus. See Lewellin. 
 
 Leonard, ISn'ard, (" strong as a lion ;") Dutch, Le- 
 onard, la'o-naRt'; Fr. Leonard, Ik'o'niR'; Ger. Leon- 
 hard, la'on-haRt'; It. Leonardo, la-o-naR'do, or Lio- 
 nArdo, le-o-naR'do ; Lat. Leonar'dus. 
 
 Leonellus. See Lionel, 
 
 Leonora. See Eleanor. 
 
 Le'o-pold, ("bold for the people," and, hence, "de- 
 fending the people ;") Fr. Leopold, li'o'pold'; Ger. 
 Leopold, la'o-polt' ; It. Leopoldo, li-o-pol'do ; Lat. 
 Leopol'dus. 
 
 Lettice, let'tiss, or Letitia, le-tish'e-a, ("joy;") 
 Danish, L^etitia, li-tee'te-a; Dutch, Laetitia, ll-tee'- 
 se-5, (almost li-tee'she-a ;) Old Fr. Letice, li'tess'; Lat. 
 L^etit'ia, (le-tish'e-a.) 
 
 Le-wel'lin, (" like a lion ;") Lat. Leoli'nus. 
 
 Lewis, lu'iss, or Louis, loo'is, (the " fortress or de- 
 fence of the people ;") Dutch, Lodewijk, lo'deh-wik' ; 
 Fr. Louis, loo'e'; Ger. Ludwig, lood'wiG; It. Luigi, 
 loo-ee'jee, or Lodovico, lo-do-vee'ko, or Ludovico, 
 loo-do-vee'ko ; Lat. Ludovi'cus ; Sp. Luis, loo-ess'; 
 Sw. Ludwig, lood'vig. 
 
 Lidia. See Lydia. 
 
 Lionardo. See Leonard. 
 
 Lionel, (a " little lion ;") Lat. Leonel'lus. 
 
 Livia, liv'e-a ; Fr. Livie, le've'; It. Livia, lee've-a ; 
 Lat. Liv'ia. 
 
 Lodewijk. See Lewis. 
 
 Lodovico or Lodovic. See Lewis. 
 
 Lorenz or Lorenzo. See Laurence. 
 
 Louis. See Lewis. 
 
 Louisa, loo-ee'za, (the feminine of Lewis or Louis ;) 
 Fr. Louise, loo'ez'; Ger. Luise, loo-ee'zeh ; It. Lui- 
 gia, loo-ee'ja ; Lat. Lui'sa; Sp. Luisa, loo-ee'sa ; Sw. 
 Ludovika, loo-do-vee'ki. 
 
 Luc or Luca. See Luke. 
 
 Lu'can ; Fr. Lucain, lii'kaN'; Lat. Luca'nus. 
 
 Lucas. See Luke. 
 
 Luce. See Lucius. 
 
 Lucian, lu'she-an ; Fr. Lucien, lii'se-iN'; It. Lu- 
 ciano, loo-cha'no; Lat. Lucia'nus. 
 
 Lucie. See Lucy. 
 
 Lucius, lu'she^us, ("shining;") Fr. Luce, liiss, or 
 Lucius, lu'se-us'; Ger. Lucius, loot'se-us ; It. Lucio, 
 loo'cho ; Lat. Lu'cius. 
 
 Lucretia, lu-kree'she-a, or Lu'crece; Fr. Lucrece, 
 lii'kRis'; Ger. Lucretia, loo-krat'se-a ; It. Lucrezia, 
 )oo-kr?t'se-i ; Lat. Lucre'tia ; Sp. Lucrecia, Ioo-kRa'. 
 rte-1 
 
 Lucy or LuctE, lu'se, (the feminine of Lucius;) 
 Dutch, Lucie, lu'se-eh ; Fr. Lucie, lu'se'; Ger. Lucie, 
 loot'se-eh ; It. Lucia, loo-chee'i ; Lat. Lu'cia; Sp. 
 Lucia, loo-rtee'i. 
 
 i, e,T,6, u, y, long;\,k, i>, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, J, short; $., e, j, o, obscure ;Rr, fill, fit; met; nftt; good; moon! 
 2336 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 Ludovika. See Louisa. 
 
 Lodovico or Ludovicus. See Lewis. 
 
 Ludwig. See Lewis. 
 
 Luigi. See Lewis. 
 
 Luigia. See Louisa. 
 
 Luisa. See Louisa. 
 
 Luise. See Louisa. 
 
 Luke, (a "light"?) Danish, Lucas, loo'kts ; Dutch, 
 Lucas, lu'kas ; Fr. Luc, Kik ; Ger. Lucas, loo'kas ; 
 Hungarian, LucAts, loo'kitch ; It. LuCA, looTta ; Lat. 
 Lu'cas ; Sw. Lu'cas. 
 
 Lydia, lid'e-a ; Danish, Lydia, lee'de-S ; Dutch, 
 Lydia, lee'de-i; Fr. Lydie, le'de'; Gr. AvSia, (Ludia;) 
 It. Lidia, lee'de-i; Lat. Lyi/ia. 
 
 MX'bel, (a corruption of the French aimable, (origi- 
 nally amabel,) "lovely;") Lat. Mahil'ia or Amab'ilis. 
 
 Magdalen, mag'da-len, or Magdalehe, ("of Mag- 
 dala," a place in Palestine;) Dutch, Magdalena, mic- 
 dl-la'nl ; Fr. Madeleine or Madelenk, mSd'lin'; Ger. 
 Magdalena, mag-di-la'ni ; It. Maddalena, mid-di- 
 15'na, or Madalena, ml-dl la'ni ; Lat. Magdale'na ; 
 Sp. Magdalena, mag-di-lH'nl. 
 
 Marc. See Mark. 
 
 Mar-cel'lus ; Fr. MaRCEllus, maR'sJ'liis'; It. Mar- 
 cello, maR-chel'lo ; Lat. Marcel'lus. 
 
 Marcus. See Mark. 
 
 Margaret, mar'ga-ret, (a "pearl;") Dutch, Mar- 
 garetha, maR-gi-ra'ti, or maR-Hi-ra'tl ; Fr. Mar- 
 guerite, mtK'gRet'; Ger. Margarethe, maR-gl-ra'- 
 teh ; Gr. t/LapyapiTw, ( Margarites ;) It. Margarita, 
 maR-ga-ree'ta ; Lat. Margari'ta or Margare'ta. 
 
 Maria. See Mary. 
 
 Marie. See Mary. 
 
 Mark, (a "hammer"?) Danish, Marcus, maR'kus; 
 Dutch, Marcus, maR'kus; Fr. Marc, mtRk ; Ger. Mar- 
 cus, maR'kus ; Gr. Mupicoc, (Marios ;) Hungarian, MArK, 
 maRk ; It. Marco, maR'ko ; Lat. Mar'cus; Sp. Mar- 
 cos, maR'k&s ; Sw. Markus, maR'kus. 
 
 Martha, mar'tha, (" bitterness" ?) Dutch, Martha, 
 maR'tl; Fr. Marthe, miRt ; Ger. Martha, maR'ta; 
 Gr. Mufida, (Martha;) It. Marta, maR'tl; Lat. Mar'- 
 tha; Sp. Marta, maR'ta; Sw. Martha, maR'ti. 
 
 Mar'tin, ("martial;") Dutch, Maritnus, maR-tee'- 
 n"'s ; Fr. Martin, mf R'tis'; Ger. Martin, maR'tin ; 
 It. Martino, maR-tee'no; Lat. Marti'nus; Sp. Mar- 
 tin, maR-ten'; Sw. Martin, maR-teen'. 
 
 Martinez, (Sp.,) maR-tee'nSth, (the "son of Martin.") 
 
 Mary, nia're, (" bitter ;") Danish, Marie, mi-ree'eh ; 
 Dutch, Maria, ma-ree'a; Fr. Marie, nii're'; Ger. 
 Maria, ma-ree'i, or Marie, mi-ree'eh; Gr. Mapia, 
 (Maria;) Hungarian, Maria, mi're-1 ; It. Maria, ml- 
 ree'l; Lat. Mari'a; Polish, Makya, mlR'yi; Port. 
 Maria, ml-ree'i; Sp. Maria, ml-ree'i; Sw. Maria, 
 ml-ree'i. 
 
 Massimii.ia.no. See Maximilian. 
 
 Massimino. See Maximin. 
 
 Massimo. See Maximus. 
 
 Mateo. See Matthew. 
 
 Mathieu. See Matthew. 
 
 Mathusalem. See Methuselah. 
 
 Matias. See Mathias. 
 
 Matilda, ma-til'da, or Maud; Danish, Mathii.de, 
 mi-til'deh ; Dutch, Mathilda, ma-til'da ; Fr. Ma- 
 thilde, mi'teld'j It. Matilda, ml-tel'di; Lat. Ma- 
 thil'da; Sp. Matilde, ma-tel'da; Sw. Matilda, 
 ml-til'di. 
 
 Matthew, marf'u, (a "gift" or "present"?) Danish, 
 Matth^eus, mlt-ta'iis-; Dutch, Matthews, mlt-ta'us ; 
 Fr. Mathieu, mt'te-uh'; Gr. Marflaioc, (Matthaios;) 
 Hungarian, M Ate, ma'ia; It. Matteo, mat-ta'o; Lat. 
 Matth/e'us; Polish, Mateusz, ma'te^osh; Sp. Mateo, 
 mi-ta'o ; Sw. Matthaus, mlt-ta'us. 
 
 Matthias, ma-thl'as, (originally the same as M vtrn- 
 ew;) Dutch, Matthijs, mat-tis'; Fr. Matthias, mf- 
 '.e'is'; Ger. Mathias, mi-tee'ls ; It. Mattia, mit-tee'i ; 
 Lat. Matthi'as; Sp. Matias, mi-tee'ls. 
 
 Maud. See Matilda. 
 
 Maurice, maw'riss ; Danish, Moritz, mo'rits ; 
 Dutch, Maurits, mow'rits, or Mauritius, mow : ree'- 
 se-us, (almost mow-ree'she-iis ;) Fr. Maurice, mo'ress'; 
 Ger. Moritz, mo'rits ; It. Maurizio, mow-ret'se-o, or 
 Maurisio, mow-ree'se-o ; Lat. Maurit'ius or Mau- 
 ritius, (maw-rish'e^us ;) Sp. Mauricio, mow-ree'Me-o; 
 Sw. Moritz, mo'rits. 
 
 Maximilian, mak-se-mll'e-an ; Dutch, Maximili- 
 anus, mik-se-me-le-i'nus ; Fr. Maximilien, mSk'se'- 
 me'le'aN'; Ger. Maximilian, mak-se-mee'le-an ;* It. 
 Massimii.iano, mls-se-me-le-1'no ; Lat. Maximilia'- 
 nus ; Sp. Maximiliano, mlk-se-me-le-1'no ; Sw. Max- 
 imilian, mlk-se-mll'e-ln. 
 
 Maximin, mak'se-min ; Fr. Maximin, mik'se'riiaN'; 
 It. Massimino, mis-se-mee'no ; Lat. Maximi'nus. 
 
 Maximus, mak'se-mus, ("greatest;") Fr. Maxime, 
 mik'sem'; It. Massimo, mls'se-mo; Lat. Max'imus ; 
 Sp. Maximo, mak'se-mo. 
 
 Me-thu'se-lah, (" driving away death" ?) Fr. Ma- 
 thusalem, mt-tii'zt'lJm'; Lat. Methu'sela; Heb. 
 
 nStytnn. 
 
 Michael, mi'ka-?l, (" who is like God ;") Fr. Michel, 
 me'shJl'; Ger. Michael, mfK'l-fl, (almost nrlH'a-fil ;) 
 Heb. 7X3'0; Hungarian, MihAly, mee'hll; It. Ml- 
 ciif.le, me-ka'lk ; Lat. Mi'cHAEi,(genitive, Michae'lis;) 
 Polish, Michal, mee'Kll ; Port. Miguel, me-gjl'; Russ, 
 Mikhail, me-Ki-el', (almost me-Hi-el',) or me-Ki'el ; 
 Sp. Miguel, me-geY. 
 
 Miklos. See Nicholas. 
 
 Mil'dred, ("speaking mildly;") Lat. Mildre'da. 
 
 Moi'sE. See Moses. 
 
 Moosa. See Moses. 
 
 Moritz. See Maurice. 
 
 Moses, mo'ztz or mo'zfz, ("drawn out;") Arabic, 
 Moosa or MOsa, moo's! ; Dutch, Mozes, mo'zSs ; Fr. 
 MoiSE, mo'ez'; Heb. TVOTi ; Gr. Muov/c, (Moses;) Hun- 
 garian, M67.ES, mo'zesh ; It. Moise, mo-esa'; Lat 
 Mo'ses, (genitive, Mo'sis ;) Polish, Moyzksz, moi'zhesh ; 
 Sp. Moyses, mo-e-ses'; Sw. Moses, mo'ses. 
 
 Nar-(;is'sus, (a "daffodil ;") Fr. Narcisse, niR'sess'; 
 It. Narcisso, niU-ches'so; Lat. Narcis'sus. 
 
 • Generally abbreviated, except in formal discourse, as Max, 
 (maks.) 
 
 V">"N 
 
 e as k; c as s; g hard; g as/; G, H, v., guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; sag «; th as in this. (JJ^See Ex])lanations, p. 23.) 
 
 «*7 2337 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 Natalis. See Noel. 
 
 Natanael. See Nathanael. 
 
 IMathan, na'rtan, (a "gift;") Fr. Nathan, ni'toN'; 
 Ger. Nathan, na'tan ; Heb. JAJ ; Lat. Na'than ; Sp. 
 NataN, na-tan'. 
 
 Nathanael or Nathaniel, na-Man'ye-1, (the "gift of 
 God;") Dutch, Nathaniel, na-ta'ne-81 ; Fr. Nathaniel, 
 ni'ti'ne-81'; Ger. Nathan iei, na-ta'ne-51 ; Lat. Na- 
 THAn'ael, (genitive, Nathanae'lis ;) Sp. Natanael, 
 na-ta-na-eV. 
 
 NehfmiaH, ne-he-ml'a, (the "rest of the Lord;") 
 Danish, Nehemias, na-heh-mee'as ; Dutch, Nehemia, 
 na-heh-mee'a; Fr. Nehemie, ni'a'me'; Ger. Nehk- 
 mias, na-heh-mee'as; He!). JVarU ; It. Nekmia, na 4- 
 mee'a; Lat. Nehemi'as; Sp. Nehemias, na-i-mee'as. 
 
 Nicholas, n?k'o-las, (the " people's victory ;") Dutch, 
 Nicoi.aas, nee'ko-lis', (more frequently Klaas, klls ;) 
 Fr. Nicolas, ne'ko'la'; Ger. Nicolaus, nee'ko-lowss'; 
 Gr. NocoAaof, (Nikolaos ;) Hungarian, Miklos, mee'- 
 klosh ; It. NicCOL6'or Nicol6, nek-ko-lo'; Lat. Nico- 
 i.a'us ; Port. Nicolao, ne-ko-la'o ; Russ. Nikolai, 
 ne-ko-la'e, or Nikolas, ne-ko-las'; Sp. Nicolas, ne- 
 ko-lis'; Sw. Nils, nils. 
 
 Nic-o-de'mus, ("victory of the people" or the "con- 
 queror of the people ;") Fr. NlCODEME, ne'ko'dim'; Gr. 
 Huiiiitiiws, ( ' Aikodimos ; ) Lat. Nicode'mus. 
 
 Nicolas. See Nicholas. 
 
 Nils. See Nicholas. 
 
 No'ah, (no'a ;) Arabic, Noon or NO H, noon ; Dutch, 
 Noach, no'aH or no'aK ; Fr. Noe, no'a'; Ger. Noah, 
 nu'a ; Gr. Nue, (Noe;) Heb. HJ; Sw. Noa, no'a. 
 
 No'el, ("Christmas;"*) tr, Noel, no'el'; Lat. Na- 
 ta'lis or Noe'lius. 
 
 Nooh. See Noah. 
 
 Norman, nor'man, ("born in Normandy" or "of 
 Norman extraction ;") Lat. Norman'nus. 
 Nouh or NOh. See Noah. 
 
 Oisadiah, ob-a-di'a, (the "servant of the Lord;") 
 Heb. T\"\2'J; Lat. Ohadi'as. 
 
 Octave. See Octavius. 
 
 Octavia, ok-ta've-a ; Fr. Octavie, ok'ti've'; It. Ot- 
 tavia, ot-ti've-a ; Lat. Octa'via. 
 
 Octavius, ok-ta've-us; Fr. Octave, ok'tfv'; It. Ot- 
 Tavio, ot-ta've-o ; Lat. Ocia'vius ; Sp. Octavio, ok- 
 ta've-o. 
 
 Odusseus or Odysseus. See Ulysses. 
 
 Oliver, o!'e-ver, (" an olive," or " bearing the olive;") 
 Dutch, Olivier, o-le-veeR';t Fr. Olivier, o'le've-4'; 
 It. Oi.iviere, o-le-ve-a'ri, or Uliviere, oo-le-ve-a'ra; 
 Lat. Oliva'rus orOLiVA'Kius; Sp. Oliverio, o-le-va'- 
 re-o; Sw. Olivier, o-le-veeR'. 
 
 Olivia, o-liv'e a, (the feminine of Oliver ;) Danish, 
 
 * Given as a name to children born pn Christmas-day. 
 t Olivier (pronounced ol-e-veer') appears also to have been an 
 old English form. Scott says, 
 
 "When Roland brave, and Olivier, 
 And every paladin and peer, 
 On Roncesvalles died." — 
 
 Marmion, canto vi. stanza 33. 
 
 Olivia, o-lee've-a ; Dutch, Olivia, o-lee've-a ; Fr. Oli- 
 vie, o'le've'; Ger. Olivia, o-lee've-a; Sw. Olivia, 
 o-llv'e-a. 
 
 Olivier. See Oliver. 
 
 Olympia, o-Hm'pea, or Oi.ympias, o-lim'pe-as, ("be- 
 longing to Olympus," "divine;") Fr. Olympe, o'ld.\ip'; 
 Gr. 'Oav/otwc, (Ohimpias;) Lat. Olym'pias or Oly.m'- 
 pia. 
 
 Omfredo. See Humphrey. 
 
 Onesimus, o-nes'e-mus, (" profitable ;") Fr. Onesime, 
 o'ni'zem'; Gr. , 0^ot / uoc, (Onisimos;) It. Onesimo, o-na'- 
 se-mo; Lat. Ones'imos. 
 
 Onuphrius. See Humphrey. 
 
 Ophelia, o-fee'le-a, ("help," "usefulness;") Fr. 
 Ophelie, o'fi'le'; Gr. 'CfeAm, (Ophelia;) Lat. Opiie'- 
 LIA. 
 
 Orazio. See Horace. 
 
 Origen, or'j-jen, ("descended from Horus,"an Egyp- 
 tian deity ;%) Fr. Origene, o're'zh^n'; Gr. 'apiyhr/c, 
 (Origenis;) Lat. Orig'enes, (genitive, Orig'enis.) 
 
 Orlando, (a form of Roland, which see;) It. Or- 
 lando, oR-ian'do ; Lat. Orlan'dus. 
 
 O'tho, ("spirited" ?§) Dutch, Ot'to ; Fr. Othon, 
 o't6.N' ; Ger. Ot'to ; It. Ottone, ot-to'iii; Lat. O'tho ; 
 Sp. Otonio, o-to'ne-o ; Sw. Ot'to. 
 
 Oitavia. See Octavia. 
 
 Ottavio. See Octavius. 
 
 Otto. See Otho. 
 
 OrroNE. See Otho. 
 
 Ov'id ; Dutch, Ovidius, o-vee'de-fts ; Fr. Ovide, 
 o'ved'; Ger. Ovidius, o-vee'de-fis ; It. Ovidio, o-vee'- 
 de-o ; Lat. Ovid'ius. 
 
 Pablo. See Paul. 
 
 PAl. See Paul. 
 
 Paolina. See Paulina. 
 
 Paolo. See Paul. 
 
 Paschal, pis'kal, (" belonging to Easter," or "born 
 at Easter ;"||) Fr. Pascal, pas'kSl'; It. Pasquale, pas- 
 kwa'li ; Lat. Pascha'lis ; Sp. Pascual, pas-kwai'. 
 
 Pat'rick, ("patrician," "noble;") Dutch, Patri- 
 cius, pa-tRee'se-iis ; Fr. Patrice, pS'tRess'; It. Patri- 
 zio, pa-tRet'se-o; Lat. Patric/ius; Sp. Patricio, p3- 
 tRee'//ie-o. 
 
 Paul, ("little;") Danish, Paul, powl, or Paulus, 
 pow'lds; Dutch, Paulus, pow'lus; Fr. Paul, pol; Ger. 
 Paul, powl ; Gr. IlaOAoc, (Paulos;) Hurgarian, Pal, 
 pSl ; It. Paolo, pa'o-lo or pow'lo ; Lat. Pau'lus ; Polish, 
 Pawel, pi'vfil ; Port. Paulo, pow'lo; Russ. Pavei, 
 pa'vSl ; Sp. Pablo, pa'Blo ; Sw. Paul, powl. 
 
 Paulina, paw-B'na, (the feminine of Paul;) Fr. Pau- 
 line, po'len'; Ger. Pauline, pow-lee'neh ; It. Paolina, 
 pi-o-lee'na or pow-lee'na ; Lat. PaUli'na. 
 
 Pavel. See Paul. 
 
 Paweu See Paul. 
 
 Peder. See Peter. 
 
 Pedro. See Peter. 
 
 t Called Orus fOpos) by the Greeks. 
 § See Odin in the body of this work. 
 II From Pasc/ta, the "passover," or " Easter." 
 
 i, e, T, 6, u, yjong; i, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, Q, y, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; met; not; gdod; moon 
 2338 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 Pe-nel'o-pe, (a "weaver"?) Fr. Penelope, pa'na'- 
 lop'; Gr. Tlrivetomi, (Penelope;) Lat. Penel'ope, (geni- 
 tive, Penel'opes.) 
 
 Peregrine, pir'e-grin, ("foreign," "pilgrim;") Da- 
 nish, Peregrinus, pa-reh-gRee'nus ; Dutch, Peregri- 
 nus, pa-rch-gree'ntts ; It. Peregrino, pa-ra-gRee'no ; 
 Lat. Peregri'nus; Sw. Peregrinus, peVeh-gRee'nfis. 
 
 Pe'ter, (a "rock" or "stone ;") Danish, Peder, pa'- 
 Der j Dutch, Pieter, pee'ter ; Fr. Pierre, pe^iR'; Ger. 
 Peter, pa'ter ; Gr. lierpoc, (Petros ;) Hungarian, Pe ter, 
 pa'ter; It. Pietro, pe-a'tno ; Lat. Pe'trus; Polish, 
 Piotr, pyot'r ; Port. Pedro, pa'dRo ; Russ. Piotr, pyot'r 
 or pe-ot'i •'; Sp. Pedro, pa'DRo ; Sw. Peter, pfi'ter. 
 
 Phebe. See Piicehe. 
 
 Philemon, phi-le'mon, ("saluting;") Fr. Philemon, 
 fe'la'mdN'; Gr. WJ /f iuv, (Philemon;) It. Filemone, 
 fe-la-mo'na ; Lat. Phile'mon, (genitive, Philemo'nis.) 
 
 PhT-le'tus, ("beloved;") Gr. *iAip-oc, (Philetos;) 
 It. Fileto, fe-la'to; Lat. Phile'tus. 
 
 Philihert, Hl'e-beit, or Philebert, ("famously 
 bright"?) Danish, Philihert, fil'e-beRt'; Fr. Philibert, 
 fe'le'baiR'; It. Filiberto, fe-le-beVto ; Lat. Phileber'- 
 tus. 
 
 Phii/ip, ("loving horses;") Dutch, PlllLlPPUS, fe- 
 lip'piis; Fr. Philippe, fe'lep'; Ger. Philipp, fil'ip; 
 Gr. *i?^T7rof, (Philippos;) Hungarian, FlLEP, fee'lep ; It. 
 FlLiPro, fe-lep'io-. Lat. Philip'pus; Polish, Filip, 
 fee'lip; Port. Felippe, fa-lep'pa ; Russ. Philipp or 
 Filip, fe-lep'; Sp. Felipe, fa-lee'pa ; Sw. Filip, fil'ip. 
 
 Philippa, fe-lip'pa, (the feminine of Philip;) Dutch, 
 Philippa, fe-lip'pa; Ger. Philippine, fe-Hp-pee'neh ; 
 Gr. +iA«nra, (Philippa;) It. Filippa, fe-lep'pa ; Lat. 
 Philip'pa ; Sp. Felipa, fa-lee'pa ; Sw. Filippina, ril- 
 ip-pee'ni. 
 
 Phin'e-AS ; Fr. Phineas, fe'na'is'; It. Fineo, fe-na'o ; 
 Lat. Phin'eas ; Sp. Phinees, fe-ni-es'. 
 
 Phcebe, fee'be, ("bright," "shining;") Fr. Phebe, 
 ft'bi'; Gr. *oi«)?, (Phoibi;) It. Febe, fa'bi; Lat. 
 Phce'be, (genitive, Phce'bes.) 
 
 PHYL'usor Phil'lis, (a "green bough ;") Gr. $vMx>£, 
 (Phullos;) It. Filide, fee'le-da ; Lat. Phyl'lis, (geni- 
 tive, Phyl'lidis.) 
 
 Pie. See Purs. 
 
 Pierre. See Peter. 
 
 Pieter. See Peter. 
 
 Pietro. See Peter. 
 
 Pio. See Pius. 
 
 Piotr. See Peter. 
 
 Pi'us, (" pious ;") Fr. Pie, pee ; Ger. Pius, pee'us ; 
 It. Pio, pee'o ; Lat. Pi'us. 
 
 Pliny, plln'e; Fr. Pi.ine, plin ; Ger. Plinius, plee'- 
 ne-Os; It. Plinio, plee'ne-o ; Lat. Plin'ius. 
 
 Polycarp, pol'e-karp, ("abounding in fruit;") Fr. 
 Polycarpe, po'le'kiRp'; Gr. TloXi/capnoc, ( Polukarpos ; ) 
 It. Policarpo, po-le-kaR'po ; Lat. Polycar'pus. 
 
 Pom'pey ; Danish, PompeJUS, pom-pa'yus ; Dutch, 
 Pompejus, pom-pa'yus; Fr. Pompee, pd.s'pi'; It. Pom- 
 peo, pom-pa'o ; Lat. Pompe'ius. 
 
 Priscili.a, pris-sil'la, ("ancient ;") Dutch, Priscii.la, 
 
 c as h; 9 as /; ? hard; g as/; G, H, Y.,guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; § as *; thas in this. ([jy~See Explanations, p. 23.) 
 
 »330 
 
 pRis-sil'la; Fr. Priscili.e, pRe'sel'; It. Priscilla, pRe- 
 shel'la; Lat. Priscil'la. 
 
 Ptolemy, fol'e-me, (" warlike" or " mighty in war ;" 
 Dutch, Ptolemeus, pto-leh-ma'us ; Fr. Ptolemee, 
 pto'li'mi'; Ger. PiolemXus, pto-leh-ma'us ; Gr. IlraAe. 
 paloc, ( Ptoletnaios ; ) It. Tolomeo, to-lo-ma'o; Lat 
 Ptolem^'us. 
 
 RX'chel, (a " sheep" or " lamb ;") Fr. Rachel, ri'. 
 shel'; Ger. Rahel, ra'hel, or Rachel, raic'Sl ; Heb. 
 StTi ; It. Rachele, ra-ka'la ; Lat. Ra'chel, (genitive, 
 Rache'lis;) Sp. Raquel, ra-kel'; Sw. Rachel, ra'kJl. 
 
 Radulphus. See Ralph. 
 
 Rafael. See Raphael. 
 
 Rafaele or Raffaelle. See Raphael. 
 
 Rahel. See Rachel. 
 
 Raimond. See Raymond. 
 
 Raimundo. See Raymund. 
 
 Ralph, ralf, ("warrior-wolf"?*) Dutch, Rudolf, rii'- 
 dolf; Fr. Raoul, rt'ool'; It. Raolfo, ra-ol'fo ; Lat. 
 Radul'phus; Sp. Rodolfo, ro-dol'fo; Sw. Rudolf, 
 roo'dolf. 
 
 Ramon. See Raymond. 
 
 Randal, ran'dal, or Ran'ulph, (perhaps the same 
 as Ralph ;) Fr. Randolphe, roN'dolf ; Lat. Ranul'- 
 phus ; Sp. Randolfo, ran-dol'fo. 
 
 Raolfo. See Ralph. 
 
 Raoul. See Ralph. 
 
 Raphael, ra'fa-el or ra'fa-el, (the " healing or medi- 
 cine of God ;") Fr. Raphael, rrfi'el'; Ger. Raphael, 
 ra'fa-el ; It. Rafaelk, ta-fa-a'la, or Raffaelle, raf-fa- 
 el'll; Lat. Ra'phael, (genitive, Raphae'lis;) Sp. 
 Rafael, ra-fa-el'. 
 
 Raquel. See Rachel. 
 
 Ray'mond, ("wise protection"?) Fr. Raymond, r&'- 
 m6N'; It. Raimondo, rl-mon'do ; Lat. Raymun'dus ; 
 Sp. Raymundo, rl-moon'do, or Ramon, ra-m6n'. 
 
 Rebecca or Rebekah. re-bek'ka ; Fr. Rebecca, r?h'. 
 bj'kf'; It. Rebecca, ra-bek'kl; Lat. Rebec'ca; Sp. 
 Rebeca, ra-Ba'ka. 
 
 Reginai.dus. See Reynold. 
 
 Reichard. See Richard. 
 
 Rein hold. See Reynold. 
 
 Reinold. See Reynold. 
 
 Renaud. See Reynold. 
 
 Rene, (not used in English,) ("born again," "regen- 
 erate ;") Fr. Rene, r?h-na' ; It. Renato, ra-ni'to ; Lat, 
 Rena'tus. 
 
 * If, as seems to be generally assumed, Ralph in its origin is the 
 same as Rudolph or Rudolf, it probably signifies "red wolf," (com- 
 pare the Saxon rud and our ruddy with the Danish and Swedish 
 rdd, Dutch rood, and the German roth, all signifying "red,") having 
 been applied in the first place, perhaps, to some red-haired warrior, 
 for it is common among all rude nations to compare a warrior to some 
 animal distinguished for strength, courage, or fierceness. But Ralph 
 may not improbably — as its English spelling and still more that ol 
 its Latin equivalent (Radulphus) might seem to indicate — be derived 
 from Radulf or Radulph, meaning "warrior-wolf:" the prefix m 
 (cognate with the English ride or rode) being applied to the bettet 
 class of warriors, who were usually on horseback: thus, rad-cniht, ir. 
 Anglo-Saxon, — literally, a "riding youth," — signifies a "soldier" 01 
 " warrior-knight." 
 
VOCABULARY OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 Ren£e, sometimes Anglicized in pronunciation as 
 reVne, (the feminine of Rene ;) Er. Renee, reh-ni'; 
 It Renata, ri-na'ta ; Lat. Rena'ta. 
 
 Reuben, rfi'ben, ("behold a son;") Fr. Ruben, rii'- 
 Mn'; Heb. [31K1 ; Lat. Reube'nus. 
 
 Reynold, ren'old ; Danish, Reinhold, rln'hoW; 
 Dutch, Reinold, ri'nolt : Fr. Renaud, reh-no'; Ger. 
 
 REINHO!.D,rIn'holt ; Lat. REYNAL'DUSOrREGINAl/DUS; 
 
 Sp. Reynaldo, ra-nal'do ; Sw. Reinhold, rin'hold. 
 
 Rhoda, ro'da, or Rho'de, (a " rose ;") Gr. 'Vbdrj, 
 (Rhode;) Lat. Rho'da. 
 
 Rich'ard, ("firm or strong king ;") Dutch, Richard > 
 ree'shaRt ; Fr. Richard, re'shaV; Ger. Richard, rlK'- 
 aRt, or Reichard, rl'KaRt ; It. RiCARDO, re-kaR'do ; 
 Lat. Richar'dus; Port. Ricardo, re-kaR'do; Sp. Ri- 
 cardo, re-kaR'do. 
 
 Ridolfo. See Rudolph. 
 
 Rob'ert, (" bright fame" ?) Danish, Robert, ro'bSRt ; 
 Dutch, Robert, rob'SRt; Fr. Robert, ro'baiR'; Ger. 
 Robert, ro'bSRt ; It. Roberto, ro-beVto ; Lat. Ro- 
 ber'tus ; Sp. Roberto, ro-beVto ; Sw. Robert, rob'- 
 eRt. 
 
 Rod'er-ick, ("rich in fame"?) Fr. Rodrigue, ro'- 
 dReg'; Ger. Roderich, ro'd$h-riK'; It. Rodrigo, ro- 
 dRee'go ; Lat. Roderi'cus ; Russ. Ru'rik ; Sp. Ro- 
 drigo, ro-DRee'go, Roderigo, ro-Da-ree'go, or Ruy, 
 roo-ee' or Rwee. 
 
 Rodolfo. See Rudolph. 
 
 Rodolphe. See Rudolph. 
 
 Rodrigo. See Roderick. 
 
 Rodrigue. See Roderick. 
 
 Rodriguez, (Sp.,) ro-DRee'gSth, (the "son of Rode- 
 rick.") 
 
 Roeland. See Roland. 
 
 Roger, roj'er, (" famous spear" ?) Dutch, Rutger, 
 rut'ger or rut'ner; Fr. Roger, ro'zha' ; It. Rugiero, 
 roo-ja'ro; Lat. Roge'rus; Sp. Rogerio, ro-Ha're-o. 
 
 Roland or Rowland, ro'land, (the " fame or giory 
 of the land" ?) Danish, Roland, ro'liW; Dutch, Roe- 
 Land, roo'lant; Fr. Roland, ro'l&N'; Ger. Roland, 
 ro'lant ; It. Orlan'do, oR-lln'do, or Rolando, ro-lan'- 
 do; Lat. Rolan'dus ; Port. Rolando, ro-lan'do; Sp. 
 Rolando, ro-lan'do. 
 
 Rosa. See Rose. 
 
 Rosamond, roz'a-mpnd, ("rose of peace;") Dutch, 
 Rozamond, ro'za-mont'; Fr. Rosemonde, ro'zeh-m6Nd' 
 or roz'miNd'; It. Rosmonda, ros-mon'da ; Lat. Rosa- 
 mun'da. 
 
 RoSE,roz; Danish, Rosa, ro'zl ; Dutch, Rosa, ro'- 
 sa ; Fr. Rose, roz ; Ger. Rose, ro'zeh ; It. Rosa, ro'sa ; 
 -at. Ro'sa ; Sp. Rosa, ro'sa; Sw. Rosa, roo'sa, or 
 RosiNA, roo-see'na. 
 
 Rowland. See Roland. 
 
 Rozamond. See Rosamond. 
 
 Ruben. See Reuben. 
 
 Ru'dolph, (see note under Ralph ;) Dutch, Rudolf, 
 rtt'dolf; Fr. Rodolphe, ro'dolf; Ger. Rudolf, roo'- 
 dolf ; It. Ro-dol'fo or Ridolfo, re-dol'fo ; Lat. Ru- 
 dol'phus. 
 
 Rufin or Rufinus. See Griffith. 
 
 Ru'fus, (" reddish," " having red hair ;") Lat. Ru'fus 
 Rugiero. See Roger. 
 
 Ru'pert, (" bright fame" ?) Ger. Ruprecht, roo". 
 pReKt ; Lat. Ruper'tus. 
 Rurik. See Roderick. 
 Rutger. See Roger. 
 Ruth, rooth ; Fr. Ruth, rUt ; Lat. Ruth. 
 Ruy. See Roderick. 
 
 Sabina, sa-bl'ua; Dutch, Sabine, sa-bee'neh ; Fr. 
 Sabine, si'ben'; It. Sabina, sa-bee'na; Lat. Sabi'na ; 
 Sp. Sabina, sa-Bee'nl ; Sw. Sabina, sa-bee'na. 
 
 Salamon. See Solomon. 
 
 SalomXo. See Solomon. 
 
 Salomon. See Solomon. 
 
 Samson, sam'son ; Danish, Samson, sf m'son ; Dutch, 
 Samson, sam'son ; Fr. Samson, s8n's6n'; Heb. [lEOi? ; 
 Lat. Sam'son, (genitive, Samso'nis;) Port. SansXo, 
 san-sowN'; Sp. Sanson, sln-s6n'; Sw. Sim'son. 
 
 Sam'u-el, ("heard by God;") Danish, Samuel, sa'- 
 moo-?l ; Dutch, Samuel, sa'niu-SI, (almost sa'moo-81 ;) 
 Fr. Samuel, si'mu'41'; Heb. SxiDC ; Hungarian, SAM- 
 UEL, sha'moo-Jl ; It. Samuei.e, sa-moo-a'14 ; Lat. Sam'- 
 uel, (genitive, Samue'lis;) Sp. Samuel, sa-moo-Sl'. 
 
 Sanson or SansXo. See Samson. 
 
 Sarah or Sara, sa'ra, (a "princess;") Dutch, Sara, 
 sa'ra; Fr. Sara, sf'rt'; Ger. Sara, sa'ra; Heb. mi?; 
 It. Sara, sa'ra ; Lat. Sa'ra ; Port. Sara, si'ri ; Sp. 
 Sara, sa'ra ; Sw. Sarah, sa'ra. 
 
 Saul, ("desired;") Fr. SaOl, st'uT; Heb. SlXIP; 
 Lat. Sau'lus. 
 
 Sczepan. See Stephen. 
 
 Sebastian, se-bist'yan, (perhaps " inclined to 
 reverence ; ") Dutch, Sebastiaan, sa-bas'te-3n ; Fr. 
 S^bastien, sa'bts'te^.N'; It. Sebastiano, sa-bas-te- 
 a'no ; Lat. Sebastia'nus ; Port. SebastiXo, sa-bas-te- 
 5wn'; Russ. Sevastian, sa-vls-tc-an'; Sp. Sebastian, 
 sa-Bas-te-ln'; Sw. Sebastian, si-bas'te-Jn. 
 
 Sibyl, slb'il ; Dutch, Sibylla, se-bil'la; Fr. Sibylle, 
 se'bel'; Gr. ZlSvXka, (Sibulla;) Lat. Sibyl'la. 
 
 Sigismund, sij'is-mund, ("victorious protection," or 
 "he who affords protection by victory;") Dutch, SlGlS- 
 MUNDUS, se-gis-muii'diis or se-His-mun'dus ; Fr. SlGIs- 
 mond, se'zhess'mdN'; Ger. Sigismund, see'gis-moont', 
 or Sigmund, seec/moont; Lat. Sigismun'dus; Sp. 
 Sigismundo, se-Hes-moon'do ; Sw. Sigismund, sig'ig- 
 moond. 
 
 Sil-va'nus, ("belonging to the woods," or "inhabit- 
 ing the woods;") Dutch, SlLVANUS, sil-va'niis; Fr. 
 Sylvain or Silvain, sel'vaN'; It. Silvano, sel-va'no; 
 Lat. Silva'nus; Sp. Silvano, sel-va'no. 
 
 Silvester or Sylvester, sil-ves'ter, ("belonging to 
 the woods;") Fr. Silvestre, sel'vestR'; It. Silvestro, 
 sel-vSs'tRo; Lat. Silves'ter, (genitive, Silves'tris;) 
 Sp. Silvestre, sel-ves'tRa. 
 
 Silvia. See Sylvia. 
 
 Sim'e-on, ("hearing with acceptance ;") Fr. Simeon, 
 se'mi.'6N'; Ger. Simeon, see'mi-on ; Heb. \\yo\2> ; It. 
 Simeone, se-ma-o'na; Lat. Sim'eon, (genitive, Simeo'- 
 nis;) Port. SimeXo, se-maowN'; Sp. Simeon, se-ma-6n'. 
 
 i, i, i, 5, u, v, long; i, e, o, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, 6, fi, y, short; a, e, ;, o, obscure; far, fill, fat; m4t; ndt; good; moon ; 
 234° 
 
VOCABULARY OF C H* STIAN M M**- 
 
 Simon, si'mon, (originally the same as Simeon ;) l/ LD ' <a'o-bil<// Dutch, Tiehout, lee'bowt; Fr. Tm- 
 Dutch, Simon, see'mon; Fr. Simon, se'mo.N' ; Ger. * UT ' te ' l)0 '; Ger. 'I 'heobald, ta'o-ba t'; It. Teobai.do, 
 Sim.in, see'mon; Hungarian, Simon, shee'mon ; ltA-°-bal'do ; Lat. Theobai/dus ; Sp. Teobaldo, ti-o- 
 Simone, se-mo'ni; Lat. Si'mon, (genitive, SiMo'Nls/ Bal ' do ; Sw - Theobald, tn'o-bald'. 
 
 Sp. Simon, se-m6n'; Sw. Simon, see'mon. 
 
 Simson. See Samson. 
 
 Sofia. See Sophia. 
 
 Sol'o-mon, ("peaceable;") Arabic, Soliman, * ,e- 
 mln', or Sulkymax, soo'la-man'; Dutch, Salov sa '" 
 lo-mo; Fr. Salomon, srio'm6.\'; Ger. Salomo 1 * 3 ' 10 " 
 mon ; Gr. Zo'Aopuv, (Solomon ;) Heb. iTohw ; H*> arian > 
 SAi.AMoN,shol'6-mon; It. Salomons, sa-lo-rm' a; Lat - 
 Sai.'omon, (genitive, Salomo'nis;) Polish, 1, -° ,|UN . 
 sa-lo'mon; Port. Salomao, sa-lo-mowN'; P- Salo- 
 mon, sa-lo-mdn'. 
 
 Sophia, so-fi'a, ("wisdom;") Danish/' OPH,E > so- 
 fee'eh ; Dutch, Sophie, so-fee'eh ; Fr. hfart, so'fe'; 
 Ger. Sophie, so-fee'eh ; Gr. Sofia, (Sop" >') Jt - Sofia, 
 so-fee'a; Lat. So'phia; Russ. SoFlA io-fee ' a or so ' - 
 fe-a; Sp. Sofia, so-fee'a; Sw. SoFiA' ofee,a - 
 
 Sophronia, so-fro'ne-a, ("of a ? und mind;") Fr. 
 Sophronie, so'fRo'ne'; Lat. Soph/ nia - 
 
 Sosthenes, sosV/ie-nez, ("of s^nd strength;") Fr. 
 Sosthe.ne, sos't&n'; Gr. luadcu, (Sosthenes;) Lat. 
 Sos'thenes. 
 
 Stephen, stee'ven, (a " crov>" or " garland ;") Da- 
 nish, Stephan, stefln ; Du' n > Steven, sta'ven, or 
 Stkphanus, sta'fa-nus ; Fr.£l'lENNE, a'te'eV; Ger. 
 Stephan, steT'an ; Gr. 2re<j>aiC,( 'Stephanos <; ) Hungarian, 
 IstvXn, esht'vln; Lat. St^h'anus; Polish, Sczepan, 
 s'cha'pan; Port. EsTEvX<.£ sta - v ° w N'; Russ. Stkpan, 
 sti-pan', or Stefan, sta*"'; Sp. Estebax, es-ta'Bau, 
 (almost es-ta'van ;) Sw. 'I'EFAX, stef'an. 
 Suleyman. See Sp-omon. 
 
 Susan, soo'zan, opSusanna, soo-zan'na, (a "lily;") 
 Danish, Susanna, oo-san'ni; Dutch, Susanna, sii- 
 san'na ; Fr. Susan,*, sii'zin'; Ger. Susannk, soo-zin'- 
 neh; It. SuSANNt soo-sln'na; Lat. Susan'na; Sp. 
 Susana, soo-sa'4 ; Sw. Susanna, soo-sin'na. 
 Sylvain. S<« Silvanus. 
 Sylvanus. See Silvanus. 
 Sylvester See Silvester. 
 
 Sylvia o* Silvia, sil've-a," ("of the woods," or 
 " delighting in the woods;") Fr. Silvie, sel've'; It. 
 Silvia, sA've-a; Sp. Silvia, sil've-a. 
 
 Tabuha, tab'e-tha, (often incorrectly pronounced 
 ta-bi't*a,) (a "roe;") Lat. Tab'itha. 
 
 Taddeo or Tadeo. . See Thaddeus. 
 
 Tamas. See Thomas. 
 
 Teobaldo. See Theobald. 
 
 Teodorico. See Theodoric. 
 
 Teodoro. See Theodore. 
 
 Teodosio. See Theodosius. 
 
 Teofilo. See Theophilus. 
 
 Teresa. See Theresa. 
 
 Thaddeus, thad'de-us or thad-dee'us, ("praise"?) 
 It. Taddeo, tid-da'o; Lat. Thadde'us; Sp. Tadeo, 
 ti-Da'o. 
 
 The'o-bAld, ("bold for the people"?) Danish, Thf.o- 
 
 The-od'kr-ick or The-od'o-ric; Dutch, Dieder- 
 ICK, dee'der-ik, commonly contracted to Dirk or Dirck, 
 deeitk ; Fr. Theodoric, ta'o'do'rek'; Ger. Thkodorich, 
 ti-od'o-riK', or Dietrich,. dee'tRiK ; It. Teodorico, ta- 
 o-do-ree'ko ; Lat. Theodori'cus ; Sp. Teodorico, ta- 
 o-Do're-ko. 
 
 Theodore, tf/ee'o-dor, (the "gift of God;") Danish, 
 Theodor, ta'o-doR ; Dutch, Theodorus, ta-o-do'ius; 
 Fr. Theodore, ta'o'doR'j Gr. OoiAjpoc, (Theodoros;) 
 It. Teodoro, ti-o-do'ro ; Lat. Theodo'rus ; Port. Theo- 
 doro, ti-o-do'ro ; Russ. Feodor, ft-o-doR'; Sp. Teo- 
 DORIO, ti-o-Do're-o ; Sw. Theodor, tn'odon. 
 
 Theodosia, the-o do'she-a, (the feminine of Thf.o- 
 dosius ;) Fr. Theodosie, ti'o'do'ze'; It. Teodosia, ti- 
 o-do'se-a; Lat. Theodo'sia. 
 
 Theodosius, ///e-o-do'shg-tjs, ("given by God ;") Fr. 
 Theodosk, ta'o'doz'; It. Teodosio, ti-o-do'se-o ; Lat. 
 Theodo'sius; Sp. Teodosio, ta-o-Do'se-o. 
 
 Theophilus, Me-of'e-Ius, (a "lover of God;") Da- 
 nish, Gottlieb, got'leep; Dutch, Theophilus, ti-o'- 
 fe-lus; Fr. Theophii.e, ti'o'fel'; Ger. Gottlieb, got'- 
 leep ; Gr, OeoipOioc, ( Theophilos :) It. Teofilo, ta-of'e-lo ; 
 Lat. Theoph'ilus; Port. Theophilo, ti-o'fe-lo; Sp. 
 Teofilo, ti-o'fe-lo. 
 
 Theresa, te-ree'sa; Dutch, Theresia, ti-ra'se-i ; 
 Fr. Therese, ta'rjz'; Ger. Tl in Mil, ti-ia'zeh ; It. 
 Teresa, ta-ia'sa ; Lat. There'sa ; Sp. Teresa, ti-ra'sa ; 
 Sw. Theresa, ta-ril'si 
 
 Thibabt. See Theobald. 
 
 Thomas, tom'ass or tom'us, (a " twin ;") Danish, 
 Thomas, tom'Ss ; Dutch, Thomas, to'mas ; Fr. Tho- 
 mas, to'ma' ; Ger. Thomas, to'mas ; Gr. 0u^uc ( Tho- 
 mas;) Hungarian, TamAs, tom'ish ; It. Tommaso, 
 tom-ma'so; Lat. Tho'mas; Polish, Tomasz, to'mash ; 
 Port. Thomas, to-mas', or Thomar, to-maR'; Sp. 
 Tomas, to-mas'; Sw. Thomas, tom'as. 
 
 Tiberius, tl-bee're-us ; Fr. Tibere, te'baiR'; It. Tl- 
 BERto, te-ba're-o; Lat. Tibe'rius. 
 
 Tikbout. See Theobald. 
 
 Timothy, tim'o-Me, ("fearing God;") Danish, 
 Timoiheus, te-mo'ta-us; Dutch, Timotheus, te- 
 mo'ta-iis; Fr. Timothek, te'ino'ti'; Ger. Timotheus, 
 te-mo'tads; Gr. TtfioOeoc, ( Timotheos ; ) It. Timotf.o, 
 te-mo-ta'o; Lat. Timo'theus; Port. Timotheo, te- 
 mo-ta'o; Sp. Timoteo, te-mo-ta'o; Sw. Timotheus, 
 te-mo'te-4s. " 
 
 Titus, ti'tus ; Fr. The, tet ; Ger. Trrus, tee'tiis ; It. 
 Tito, tee'to; Lat. Ti'tus; Sp. Tito, tee'to. 
 
 Tobias, to-bl'ass, or Toby, to'be, (the "goodness of 
 the Lord ;") Danish, Tobias, to-bee'ts ; Dutch, Tobias, 
 to-bee'as; Fr. Tobie, to'be'; Ger. Tonr.i?, to-bee'is ; 
 It. Tobia, to-bee'i; Lat. Tobi'as; Sp. Tobias, 
 bee'as. • J 
 
 Tolomeo. 9te Ptolemy. 
 Tomas. See Thomas, 
 Tomasz. See Thomas. 
 Tommaso. See Thomas. 
 
 MilAS, 
 
 se'is ; 
 s, to 
 
 « as k; c as s; g hard; g as>; G, H, K, guttural; N, nasal; R, trilled; \ as i; th as in this. 
 
 (7y~See Explanations, p. aj.) 
 
VOCABULARY ? CHRISTIAN NAMES. 
 
 • 
 
 Tristram, tris'tram, ("sorrowful ;") Lat. Tkistk 
 mus; Port. Tristao, tKes-towN'. 
 
 Ugo. See Hugh. 
 
 Uliviere. See Oliver. 
 
 Ulysses, yoo-lis'sez ; Fr. Ulysse, ti'less'; Gr. '0<5u<7- 
 ocvc, (Odtisscus;) It. Ulisse, oo-les'si; Lat. Ulys'ses 
 or Ui.yx'ks, (genitive, Ulys'sis.) 
 
 Urban, ur'ban, ("courteous ;") Danish, Urban, oor'- 
 ntn ; Dutch, Urbanus, uR-bi'niis, or Urbaan, uk'IiIii ; 
 Fr. Urbain, iiR'baN'; Ger. Urban, ooR'ban ; It. Ur- 
 BANO, ooR-ba'no ; Lat. Urba'nus; Sp. Urbano, oor- 
 b&'no; Sw. Urban, ooR'ban. 
 
 Uriah, yoo li'a, (the "fire of the Lord ;") Fr. Urie, 
 lire'; Ger. Urias, oo-ree'ls ; It. Uria, oo-ree'i; Lat. 
 Uri'as. 
 
 Ursula, ur'sii-la, (a " female bear ;") Dutch, Ursula, 
 uR'sii-la; Fr. Ursula Ur'sUI'; Ger. Ursula, ook'- 
 soo-la ; It. Ursula, oor'soo-14 ; Lat. Ur'sula; Sp. 
 Ursula, oor'soo-14; Sw. Ursula, oor'soo-14. 
 
 Uzziah, uz-zT'a, (the " strength of the Lord ;") Heb. 
 n'I>* ; Lat. Uzzi'as. 
 
 VALENtlNE, val'en-t7n, ("strong" or "healthy;") 
 Danish, Valentin, fa'len-teen'; Dutch, Vai.entijn, 
 va'len-tin'; Fr. Valentin, vt'lfiN'taN'; Ger. Valentin. 
 fa'len-teen' or va'len-teen'; It. Valentino, va-l£n-tee'- 
 no; Lat. Valenti'nusj Port. Valenttm, vi-len-teN'; 
 Sp. Valentin, vi-lSn-ten'; Sw. Valentin, va'len-teen'. 
 
 Valere. See Valerius. 
 
 Valeria, va-lee're-a, (the feminine of Valerius;) 
 Fr. Valerie, vi'li're'; It. Valeria, va-la're-a; Lat. 
 Vale'ria. 
 
 Valerian, va-lee're-an ; Dutch, Valerianus, vi-14- 
 re-a'nus ; Fr. Vai.erien, vi'la're^N'; It. Valeriano, 
 vi-la-re-a'no; Lat. Vai.eria'nus. 
 
 Valerie. See Valeria. 
 
 Valerius, va-lee're-us ; Fr. Valere, vi'laiR'; It. 
 Valerio, va-I5'ie-o ; Lat. Vale'rius. 
 
 Varfolomei. See Bartholomew. 
 
 Vasili or Vasilii. See Basil. 
 
 Veit. See Guy. 
 
 Veronica, ver-o-m'ka ; Fr. Veronique, vl'ro'nek'; 
 It. Veronica, va-ro-nee'ka. 
 
 Vicente. See Vincent. 
 
 Victoria, vik-to're-a, ("victory;") Fr. Victoire, 
 vek'twaR'; It. Vittoria, vet-to're-i ; Lat. Victo'ria ; 
 Sp. Vitoria, ve-to're-a. 
 
 Vin'cent, (an» " overconier ;") Dutch, Vincentius, 
 vln-sen'se-Os ; Fr. Vincent, v4n's6n'; It. Vincente, 
 ven-chen'ta ; Lat. Vincen'tius ; Port. Vicente, ve- 
 b? n'ta ; Sp. Vicente, ve-rj4en't4, or Vincente, ven- 
 tfer.'ti. 
 
 Virginia, vir-jin'e-a; Dutch, Virginie, vlRiiee'- 
 ne-eh; Fr. Virginie, veR'zhe'ne'; Ger. Virginia, fet-R- 
 gee'ne-a; It. Virginia, ver-jee'ne-i; Lat. Virgin'ia. 
 
 Vittoria or Vitoria. See Victoria. 
 
 Vivian, viv'e-an, ("living;") Fr. Vivien, ve've^N'; 
 
 \ Vivia'nus. 
 
 \lter, waul'ter, (a " wood-master ;") Dutch, Wou- 
 TKR >v6w'ter; Fr. Gautier, go'te-4'; Ger. Walter, 
 **•'*'; It.' Gualterio, gwal-ta're-o; Lat. Gualte'- 
 RUS ; rt. Gualter, gwal-taiR'; Sp. Gualterio, 
 gwal-ta.. . Sw Walter, val'ter. 
 
 w,lh m. See William. 
 
 w "" e iinf, wfl'hel-meen', (the feminine of Wil- 
 liam ;) Gt Wii.helmine, ftll-hgl-mee'neh ; It. Gu- 
 gi.ielma, go.y^i'mJ. 
 
 William, n'yam ; Danish, Wilhelm, vll'helm ; 
 Dutch, Wili.v, wll'lem; Fr. GuiLLAUME, ge'yoni'; 
 Ger. Wilhklm, -Ji'hglm ; It. Guglielmo, gool-yel'mo ; 
 Lat. Guliei/mu;\v iliikl / MUSi or Wii.liel'mus; Sp. 
 Guillermo, ge-yt' mo; Sw. Wilhelm, vll'helm. 
 
 Winifred, winded, or Win'ifrid, ("winning 
 peace;") Dutch, Wi FRIKD> wln'fReet; Fr. Winifred, 
 ve'ne'fued'; Lat. Wn, K1 ,/ DA; Sw. Winfrid, vln'tRid. 
 
 Wouter. See Wai er _ 
 
 Yakof. See James. 
 Yekaterina. See Cai^^ne. 
 
 Zabulon. SeeZEBULON. 
 
 Zacarias. See Zachariai 
 
 Zaccaria. See Zachariah. 
 
 Zaccheus, zak-kee'us, ("pure, "just;") Fr. Zachee, 
 tfsha'j It. Zacheo, dza-ka'o; La Zacche'us. 
 
 Zachariah, zak-a-ri'a, (" remem, e ring the Lord;") 
 Danish, .JJcilARlAS, zJ-ka-ree'Ss ; I„tch, Zacharias, 
 za-Ka-ree'as ; Fr. Zacharie, zf'kt're'.Ger. Zacharias, 
 tsaK-a-ree'as ; Igfc. rt'-OT ; It. Zaccark., dzak-k4-ree'4 ; 
 Lat. Zachari^B Sp. Zacarias, A5a><a-ree'as ; Sw. 
 Zacharias, zakT-ree'as. 
 
 Zadok, za'dijk, ("righteous;") Fr. Za^oc, zt'dok', 
 Heb. P'lif ;. Lat. Zado'cus. 
 
 Zeb'u-lon or Zeb'u-lun; Fr. Zabui.on, -t'bu'lAN'; 
 Heb. ^12t orj 1 ?!^?; Lat. Zab'ulon, (genitive, Zabu- 
 lo'nis.) 
 
 Zedkkiah, zed-e-ki'a, (the "justice of the Lord;") 
 Heb. irptX or HTpT». 
 
 Ze'no; Fr. Zenon, z4'ii6n'; Gr. Zt)vuv,( Zenon ;)\i. 
 Zenone, dz4-no'n4. 
 
 Zenobia, ze-no'bea; Fr. Zenorie, za'no'be'; Gr. 
 Z7]io6ia, (Zenobia;) It. Zenobia, dzi-no'be-a ; Lat. Ze- 
 no'bia. 
 
 i, S, 1, 6, fl, £, long; 4, e, 6, same, less prolonged; a, e, I, o, u, f, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; fir, fill, fit; mSt; nit; good; moon 
 
 234» 
 
 ll<l 
 
 M, B. Levy, 
 u&l Minion St. 
 
 | frn o i mx) , (Mi. 
 
 \? 
 
 
DISPUTED OR DOUBTFUL PRONUNCIATIONS. 
 
 Preliminary Remarks. 
 
 LANGUAGE may l>e said to be a mixed product of cer- 
 tain accidental elements and the generalizing faculty of 
 the human mind. Each nation, from some peculiarity, 
 as it would seem, in its original or acquired character, 
 ■velop its language in a particular manner, 
 ami while this tendency operates without the interfer- 
 ence of foreign influence, a language will generally be 
 found to grow more and more regular so long as the 
 nation speaking it exists. But if foreign words, or new 
 habits of thought, be introduced by the prevalence of 
 some new philosophical or religious system, irregularity 
 in language, to a greater or less extent, is the inevitable 
 result Accordingly, we occasionally see even among 
 the Germans (who, of all the nations of Europe, appear 
 to have been most successful in preserving their lan- 
 guage pure from the admixture of foreign elements) 
 such irregularities as the following, " Das Leiden Ckfisti" 
 (," the suffering of Christ,") with a Latin genitive, instead 
 of the more regular form, "Das Leiden des C/tristus." 
 
 But the most common, as well as most powerful, 
 cause of irregularity in language, is military conquest 
 and occupation, as in this case the conquerors invariably 
 introduce new words and phrases, which often form a 
 most incongruous mixture with the native dialects. If 
 the conquest be religions as well as military, the effect is 
 still more striking. This was remarkably exemplified in 
 the conquest of Persia* and Hindostan by the followers 
 of Mohammed. The ail-but unparalleled irregularity of 
 the English language is to be attributed to the succes- 
 sive conquests of Britain (originally inhabited by Celtst) 
 by the Romans, the Saxons, the Danes, and the Nor- 
 mans, the conquest in each instance being not a mere 
 overrunning of the country, but followed by a permanent 
 military occupation. 
 
 To the same cause, though operating in a less degree, 
 must likewise be ascribed the irregularity of the French 
 tongue; though other influences have also contributed 
 to the same result. The central situation of France, and 
 the various attractions which the country and people 
 present to strangers, have induced multitudes of almost 
 every nation to make it their residence ; so that proba- 
 blv no European country in recent times has had so 
 mixed and multifarious a population. To this cause, 
 more than to any other, must be attributed the exceeding 
 irregularity which prevails in the pronunciation of French 
 proper names. 
 
 • See, in connection with this subject, our remarks on the Persian 
 language, with Accompanying note, in the Introduction, p. 19. 
 
 * At least, the Celts were the first inhabitants of the island known 
 to history. 
 
 The comparative regularity of the Italian language is 
 to be accounted for by the fact that though Italy has 
 often been overrun by foreign armies it has seldom 
 been subjected to permanent military occupation. J And 
 in the comparatively few instances in which this has 
 occurred, the great and acknowledged superiority of the 
 Italians in literature and the arts has led the conquerors 
 rather to adopt the customs and language of the con- 
 quered than attempt to introduce their own. In the 
 sound of the Italian letters, whether simple or in com- 
 bination, there is scarcely any difficulty, when the rules 
 of pronunciation are once known. The only irregu- 
 larities that occur in the language may be said to be 
 limited to diversity of spelling and variation of accent ; 
 so that, if the orthography of the word or name and 
 the proper accentuation are ascertained, one cannot 
 easily err in the pronunciation. 
 
 In Spain we find a language of the most heterogeneous 
 elements, because in early times it was often overrun 
 and some portions permanently occupied by nations of 
 the most diverse and even opposite characters, — Car- 
 thaginians, Romans, Goths, Arabs, etc. ; but, having 
 been for nearly six hundred years unsubjected, except 
 for a short time only, to any foreign power, it has so 
 assimilated its originally heterogeneous and incongruous 
 elements, and been so successful (if we may use the 
 expression) in bringing light and order out of the chaos 
 of its rude and multifarious dialects, that it may now 
 justly boast of being, on the whole, one of the most 
 regular as well as one of the finest among all the lan- 
 guages of Europe. As regards pronunciation, the most 
 striking irregularities in the Spanish tongue will be 
 found in words or names of Moorish origin, such as 
 Alcacer, (Arabic, al-Kasr, "the castle" or "palace,") 
 Alcala, (al-jilA, "the fort,) Almod6var, (al-A/odhafer, 
 " the victorious,") and so on. 
 
 Below will be given some of the most remarkable 
 discrepancies in the pronunciation and spelling of the 
 principal European languages. 
 
 English, 
 
 Notwithstanding the extreme irregularity of our Ian. 
 guage, we find comparatively few instances of discrep- 
 ancy in the pronunciation of celebrated names, whether 
 these be of English origin or the Anglicized forms of 
 foreign names. 
 
 t It should be borne distinctly in mind that when thii phrase is 
 used it always has reference to military occupation by the troops of 
 a nation essentially differing in language from the conquered people. 
 
 iKt-i; *ss;lhard;g*sj;G, H, K,guttural;n, nasal; ft., trilled; I tat; thasinMw. {%&- See Explanations, p. 23 ) 
 
 2343 
 
DC Jt\!UN€i 
 
 | The following are among the most important : 
 
 Augustine, aw'gus-tin or aw-gus'tin.* 
 Bellarmin, bel'lar-min or bel-lar'niin.t 
 Cowper, kow'per or koo'per.} 
 Derby, der'be or dar'be.§ 
 Gifford, gifford or jifford.ll 
 Raphael, ra'fa-el or ra'fa-el. 
 
 Variations in spelling are still more rare. 
 
 II. 
 
 Noted French Names of Dourtful Spelling.^ 
 
 Angeli, Angeli. 
 
 Cecille, Cecille, 
 
 Chateaubriand, Chateaubriand. 
 
 Fenelon, Fenelon. 
 
 Niceron, Niceron. 
 
 Petion, Petion. 
 
 Remusat, Remusat. 
 
 It might be supposed that diversities in spelling like 
 the above would necessarily be followed by diversity of 
 pronunciation. But this is not always the case. For 
 example, Vice-Admiral Cecille informs us that although 
 he never writes the first syllable of his name with an 
 accent, it is always pronounced as if it had an accent. 
 Petion, the famous mayor of Paris in the early part of 
 the French Revolution, always omitted the accent on the 
 f in his name, which was nevertheless always pronounced 
 jPetion. But though the unaccented letter may In many 
 cases still be pronounced as if it had the accent, the 
 omission can scarcely fail, sooner or later, to produce a 
 permanent change in the pronunciation itself. 
 
 Noted French Names of Doubtful or Disputed 
 Pronunciation. 
 
 Barras, bS'rfs' or bt'ra'. 
 Bibt, be'o' or be'ot'.** 
 
 I • In favour of the first we have not only the analogy of other 
 languages, cognate with ours, e.g. the German Augustin' or 
 Au'gustin, and the Dutch Au'gustijn, but also the authority of some 
 
 tof our best poets, including Scott and Longfellow. On the other 
 land, it must be admitted that the best modern usage, at least in 
 his country, is in favour of Augus'tine. 
 t The first pronunciation of this name appears to have been for- 
 merly very general among the best speakers ; but modern usage seems 
 to have decided for the second. 
 
 X The first pronunciation is pure Saxon ; the other (a more aris- 
 tocratic pronunciation) is intended to give the Norman sound of <m, 
 ■(or <rw,) u and v> being formerly often interchanged. (See note to 
 ■Gifford.) 
 
 § The chief reason for adopting the second pronunciation of this 
 ■name, so contrary to the general usage of our language, would seem 
 J to be the consideration that an antiquated pronunciation is appro- 
 priate to the name of a very ancient family. 
 * I Propei 'y speaking, these may be regarded as two different 
 j names: the one aristocratic, taking the soft sound of g from the 
 ' Norman French; the other plebeian, adopting the common Saxon 
 ^pronunciation of that letter. 
 
 I 1 The French language at the present time would appear to be 
 | in a transition state in regard to placing the accent, which is now 
 j omitted from many names on which it was formerly invariably 
 1 placed. The omission was probably due in the first place to haste or 
 J carelessness; but what was originally an error resulting from sheer 
 J negligence, if committed by some eminent author in regard to his 
 , own name, gradually came to be regarded as the preferable mode of 
 j wiring such name. 
 
 •* We have been assured, on respectable authority, that in the 
 | name of the celebrated Bossuet the final t was pronounced in the 
 j ear'y part of the last century. 
 
 Chateaubriand or Chateaubriand, sha'to'bRe'ftN' 
 or sht'to'bRe'oN'. 
 
 Dumas, dii'ma' or du'mis'. 
 
 Genlis, 7-hoN'less' or zh&.N'le'. 
 
 Gnise, gwez (gii-ez') or fez. 
 
 Guizot.tt gwe'zo' (gii-e'zo') or ge'zo'. 
 
 Laennec, la"neV}{ or l&'neV. 
 
 Sieyes, se'&'yess' or se'ess'. 
 This list might be much extended, including a multi- 
 tude of names in which the pronunciation of the final 
 consonant is undetermined, as Audoul.o'dooK or 6'doo', 
 Bastoul, bfs'tool' or bSs'too', Destutt, variously pro- 
 nounced d&'tut', dj'tii', and des'ttit', etc. etc., and many 
 others, such as Remilly, Silly, Villers, Villette, Wailly, 
 Willot, etc., in which it is somewhat uncertain whether 
 the //should or should not be made liquid. To which 
 maybe added almost every name of recent introduction 
 from foreign countries, as Bianchi, Brown-Sequard, 
 Weiss, Wilhem, Zurlauben, etc. In regard to such 
 names many French speakers will seek to approximate 
 the foreign pronunciation, while others will try to make 
 them conform as nearly as possible to the orthoepical 
 principles of their own language. The best usage ap- 
 pears to make a marked difference in the pronunciation 
 of names of foreign and those of French origin. (See 
 Section V., 30, Obs. 2, in the Introduction.) 
 
 III. 
 
 German. 
 There are among the educated classes of Germany 
 no diversities in German pronunciation of any great 
 importance. It may, however, be observed that the 
 names of families of French extraction are usually pro- 
 nounced according to the principles of the French lan- 
 guage. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Italian Names of Doumtful or Disputed 
 
 Pronunciation. 
 In tne pronunciation of Italian names, almost the 
 only discrepancy of any importance, as already inti- 
 mated, relates to the accentuation. But doubtful names 
 of the last-named class are pretty numerous. 
 
 Alcamo, al'kl-mo or al-ka/mo. 
 
 Argoli, aR-go'lee or aR'go-lee. 
 
 Bagnolo, ban'yo-lo or bln-yo'lo. 
 
 Baila, bl'la or ba-ee'la. 
 
 Benoli, ba-no'lee or ba'no-lee. 
 
 Bei tola, beVto-la or b?R-to'la. 
 
 Caffaro, kaf'fa-ro or kaf-ft'ro. 
 
 Calici, ka'le-chee or ka-lee'chee. 
 
 Campolo, kam'po-lo or kam-po'lo. 
 
 Caracciolo, ka-rat-cho'lo or ka-rat'cho la 
 
 Cerasola, cha-ra-so'la or cha-ra'so-la. 
 
 Clarici. kla-ree'chee or kla're-chee. 
 
 Gtiiccioli, gwet-cho'lee or gwet'cho-lee.§§ 
 
 tt-See the pronunciation of this name in the body of the work. 
 
 XX This pronunciation, which has been given in the body of the 
 work, has the sanction of M. Hescherelle himself, than whom there 
 is no higher authority. 
 
 §§ We gave in the first edition of this work, on what ve consid- 
 ered good authority, the antepenultimate accentuation of this name 
 under the article Guicciou ; but we have since met with an educated 
 and highly intelligent Italian gentleman, Signor Ponti, who assures 
 us that he was personally acquainted with several Italians named 
 <5uiccioli, and that the name was invariably accentuated on the penul- 
 tima. We have now no doubt that this is the correct pronunciation. 
 
 5, e, T, o, 5, y\ long: k, e, 6, same, less prolonged; 8, e, 1, 6, fi, J, short; a, e, j, 9, obscure; far. ail, fat; met; not; gdod; moor. • 
 2344 
 
' Ci/7 I l\J i 
 
 Vaccaro, vik'ki-io or vik-ki'ro. 
 It may be proper to state that in the attempt to ascer- 
 tain the correct pronunciation of the foregoing names 
 we have had the assistance of several of the most dis- 
 tinguished professors of the Italian language in ' 
 loubt the same name is often pronounced diffei 
 in different sections: we have therefore gene-ally pre- 
 ferred to adopt the opinion of that professor who lived 
 nearest to the birthplace of the person whose name was 
 l>ject of dispute. 
 The diversity in the spelling of Italian names appears 
 to be for the most part limited to such comparatively 
 iriations as the doubling of a consonant, 
 or the interchange of the vowels a and <. in an unaccented 
 ble. The following are among the most important 
 itions tj the foregoing remark : 
 Caliari or ' ironounced alike kal'yi-ree.) 
 
 • Leonardo (or Llonardo) da Vinci. 
 
 Mil (Michael A 
 
 lagnolo,* nie-kei-an'yo-lo. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 The rules for writing and printing Spanish are so 
 ad mi rablet that among the educated classes there is 
 scarcely any considerable diversity either in spelling or 
 nronunciation. The chief exceptions to this remark 
 occur in proper names, some writers adopting the i 
 em spelling of/ for x, (in XlMENES, for exan 
 others prefer the old form. 
 
 * Thi ems like a strange anomaly when we coi 
 
 that the name is derived from the Latin MlCMAEL AngkUJS ; but the 
 name of the preat artist is so spelled on the ba=e of his statu. 
 Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, and the name of the street in v 
 lived is spelled in the same manner: so, likewise, Roscoe alwayt 
 izives the name in his "Pontificate of Leo X." 
 
 t See Section XIX., i-o. Obs. I, in the Introdi:. 
 
 e as i; c as s; g hard; g as ;'; G, it. K, pittural: n, nasal; R. trilled: s as z; th as in this. (JjySee Explanations 
 
 234 
 
 [tjkivirsitt; 
 
 THE END 
 
 
J 
 
 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 NOV 30 1946 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LD 21-100m-12,'43 (8796s) 
 
GZ6!y 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY